,,georgius ,,agricola  ,,de ,,re        
,,metallica  ,,translated ,,from ,,the  
,,first ,,latin ,,edition ,,of #aeef    
with  ,biographical ,introduction1      
,annotations and ,appendices upon the   
,development of ,mining ,methods1       
,metallurgical ,processes1 ,geology1    
,mineralogy  ,mining ,law from the      
earliest times to the #afth ,century    
,,by  ,,herbert ,,clark ,,hoover  ,a4   
,b4 ,stanford ,university1 ,member      
,american ,institute of ,mining         
,engineers1 ,mining and ,metallurgical  
,society of ,america1 ,societe des      
,ingenieurs ,civils de ,france1         
,american ,institute of ,civil          
,engineers1 ,fellow ,royal ,geographical
 ,society1 etc41 etc4  ,,and  ,,lou     
,,henry ,,hoover  ,a4 ,b4 ,stanford     
,university1 ,member ,american          
,association for the ,advancement of    
,science1 ,the ,national ,geographical  
,society1 ,royal ,scottish ,geographical
 ,society1 etc41 etc4  #aiej  ,dover    
,publications1 ,inc4  ,,new ,,york      

,,to  ,,john ,,caspar ,,branner ,ph4,d41
  ,the inspiration of whose teaching is 
no less great than his contribution to  
science4  ,this ,new #aiej ,edition of  
,,de ,,re ,,metallica is a complete and 
unchanged reprint of the translation    
published by ,the ,mining ,magazine1    
,london1 in #aiab4 ,it has been made    
available through the kind permission of
 ,honorable ,herbert ,c4 ,hoover and    
,mr4 ,edgar ,rickard1 ,author and       
,publisher1 respectively1 of the        
original volume4  ,,printed ,,in ,,the  
,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america        
,,translators' ,,preface4   ,there are  
three objectives in translation of works
 of this character3 to give a faithful1 
literal translation of the author's     
statements2 to give these in a manner   
which will interest the reader2 and to  
preserve1 so far as is possible1 the    
style of the original text4 ,the task   
has been doubly difficult in this work  
because1 in using ,latin1 the author    
availed himself of a medium which had   

ceased to expand a thousand years before
 his subject had in many particulars    
come into being2 in consequence he was  
in difficulties with a large number of  
ideas for which there were no           
corresponding words in the vocabulary at
 his command1 and instead of adopting   
into the text his native ,german terms1 
he coined several hundred ,latin        
expressions to answer his needs4 ,it is 
upon this rock that most former attempts
 at translation have been wrecked4      
,except for a very small number1 we     
believe we have been able to discover   
the intended meaning of such expressions
 from a study of the context1 assisted  
by a very incomplete glossary prepared  
by the author himself1 and by an        
exhaustive investigation into the       
literature of these subjects during the 
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4    
,that discovery in this particular has  
been only gradual and obtained after    
much labour1 may be indicated by the    
fact that the entire text has been      

re-typewritten three times since the    
original1 and some parts more often2 and
 further1 that the printer's proof has  
been thrice revised4 ,we have found some
 ,english equivalent1 more or less      
satisfactory1 for practically all such  
terms1 except those of weights1 the     
varieties of veins1 and a few minerals4 
,in the matter of weights we have       
introduced the original ,latin1 because 
it is impossible to give true           
equivalents and avoid the fractions of  
reduction2 and further1 as explained in 
the ,appendix on ,weights it is         
impossible to say in many cases what    
scale the ,author had in mind4 ,the     
,english nomenclature to be adopted has 
given great difficulty1 for various     
reasons2 among them1 that many methods  
and processes described have never been 
practised in ,english-speaking mining   
communities1 and so had no              
representatives in our vocabulary1 and  
we considered the introduction of       
,german terms undesirable2 other methods

 and processes have become obsolete and 
their descriptive terms with them1 yet  
we wished to avoid the introduction of  
obsolete or unusual ,english2 but of the
 greatest importance of all has been the
 necessity to avoid rigorously such     
modern technical terms as would imply a 
greater scientific understanding than   
the period possessed4  ,agricola's      
,latin1 while mostly free from mediaeval
 corruption1 is somewhat tainted with   
,german construction4 ,moreover some    
portions have not the continuous flow of
 sustained thought which others display1
 but the fact that the writing of the   
work extended over a period of twenty   
years1 sufficiently explains the        
considerable variation in style4 ,the   
technical descriptions in the later     
books often take the form of            
,house-that-,jack-built sentences which 
have had to be at least partially broken
 up and the subject occasionally        
re-introduced4 ,ambiguities were also   
sometimes found which it was necessary  

to carry on into the translation4       
,despite these criticisms we must1      
however1 emphasize that ,agricola was   
infinitely clearer in his style than his
 contemporaries upon such subjects1 or  
for that matter than his successors in  
almost any language for a couple of     
centuries4 ,all of the illustrations and
 display letters of the original have   
been reproduced and the type as closely 
approximates to the original as the     
printers have been able to find in a    
modern font4  ,there are no footnotes in
 the original text1 and ,mr4 ,hoover is 
responsible for them all4 ,he has       
attempted in them to give not only such 
comment as would tend to clarify the    
text1 but also such information as we   
have been able to discover with regard  
to the previous history of the subjects 
mentioned4 ,we have confined the        
historical notes to the time prior to   
,agricola1 because to have carried them 
down to date in the briefest manner     
would have demanded very much more space

 than could be allowed4 ,in the         
examination of such technical and       
historical material one is appalled at  
the flood of mis-information with regard
 to ancient arts and sciences which has 
been let loose upon the world by the    
hands of non-technical translators and  
commentators4 ,at an early stage we     
considered that we must justify any     
divergence of view from such            
authorities1 but to limit the already   
alarming volume of this work1 we later  
felt compelled to eliminate most of such
 discussion4 ,when the half-dozen most  
important of the ancient works bearing  
upon science have been translated by    
those of some scientific experience1    
such questions will1 no doubt1 be       
properly settled4  ,we need make no     
apologies for ,de ,re ,metallica4       
,during #ahj years it was not superseded
 as the text-book and guide to miners   
and metallurgists1 for until            
,schlueter's great work on metallurgy in
 #agch it had no equal4 ,that it passed 

through some ten editions in three      
languages at a period when the printing 
of such a volume was no ordinary        
undertaking1 is in itself sufficient    
evidence of the importance in which it  
was held1 and is a record that no other 
volume upon the same subjects has       
equalled since4 ,a large proportion of  
the technical data given by ,agricola   
was either entirely new1 or had not been
 given previously with sufficient detail
 and explanation to have enabled a      
worker in these arts himself to perform 
the operations without further guidance4
 ,practically the whole of it must have 
been given from personal experience and 
observation1 for the scant library at   
his service can be appreciated from his 
own ,preface4 ,considering the part     
which the metallic arts have played in  
human history1 the paucity of their     
literature down to ,agricola's time is  
amazing4 ,no doubt the arts were        
jealously guarded by their practitioners
 as a sort of stock-in-trade1 and it is 

also probable that those who had        
knowledge were not usually of a literary
 turn of mind2 and1 on the other hand1  
the small army of writers prior to his  
time were not much interested in the    
description of industrial pursuits4     
,moreover1 in those thousands of years  
prior to printing1 the tedious and      
expensive transcription of manuscripts  
by hand was mostly applied to matters of
 more general interest1 and therefore   
many writings may have been lost in     
consequence4 ,in fact1 such was the fate
 of the works of ,theophrastus and      
,strato on these subjects4  ,we have    
prepared a short sketch of ,agricola's  
life and times1 not only to give some   
indication of his learning and          
character1 but also of his considerable 
position in the community in which he   
lived4 ,as no appreciation of           
,agricola's stature among the founders  
of science can be gained without        
consideration of the advance which his  
works display over those of his         

predecessors1 we therefore devote some  
attention to the state of knowledge of  
these subjects at the time by giving in 
the ,appendix a short review of the     
literature then extant and a summary of 
,agricola's other writings4 ,to serve   
the bibliophile we present such data as 
we have been able to collect it with    
regard to the various editions of his   
works4 ,the full titles of the works    
quoted in the footnotes under simply    
authors' names will be found in this    
,appendix4  ,we feel that it is scarcely
 doing ,agricola justice to publish ,de 
,re ,metallica only4 ,while it is of the
 most general interest of all of his    
works1 yet1 from the point of view of   
pure science1 ,de ,natura ,fossilium and
 ,de ,ortu et ,causis are works which   
deserve an equally important place4 ,it 
is unfortunate that ,agricola's own     
countrymen have not given to the world  
competent translations into ,german1 as 
his work has too often been judged by   
the ,german translations1 the infidelity

 of which appears in nearly every       
paragraph4  ,we do not present ,de ,re  
,metallica as a work of practical value4
 ,the methods and processes have long   
since been superseded2 yet surely such a
 milestone on the road of development of
 one of the two most basic of human     
industrial activities is more worthy of 
preservation than the thousands of      
volumes devoted to records of human     
destruction4 ,to those interested in the
 history of their own profession we need
 make no apologies1 except for the long 
delay in publication4 ,for this we put  
forward the necessity of active         
endeavour in many directions2 as this   
book could be but a labour of love1 it  
has had to find the moments for its     
execution in night hours1 weekends1 and 
holidays1 in all extending over a period
 of about five years4 ,if the work      
serves to strengthen the traditions of  
one of the most important and least     
recognized of the world's professions we
 shall be amply repaid4  ,it is our     

pleasure to acknowledge our obligations 
to ,professor ,h4 ,r4 ,fairclough1 of   
,stanford ,university1 for perusal of   
and suggestions upon the first chapter2 
and to those whom we have engaged from  
time to time for one service or another1
 chiefly bibliographical work and       
collateral translation4 ,we are also    
sensibly obligated to the printers1     
,messrs4 ,frost  ,sons1 for their       
patience and interest1 and for their    
willingness to bend some of the canons  
of modern printing1 to meet the demands 
of the #afth ,century4                  
,july #a1 #aiab4      ,the ,red ,house1 
,hornton ,street1 ,london4              
,,introduction4   ,,biography4#a        
,georgius ,agricola was born at         
,glauchau1 in ,saxony1 on ,march #bdth1 
#adid1 and therefore entered the world  
when it was still upon the threshold of 
the ,renaissance2 ,gutenberg's first    
book had been printed but forty years   
before2 the ,humanists had but begun    
that stimulating criticism which awoke  

the ,reformation2 ,erasmus1 of          
,rotterdam1 who was subsequently to     
become ,agricola's friend and patron1   
was just completing his student days4   
,the ,reformation itself was yet to     
come1 but it was not long delayed1 for  
,luther was born the year before        
,agricola1 and through him ,agricola's  
homeland became the cradle of the great 
movement2 nor did ,agricola escape being
 drawn into the conflict4 ,italy1       
already awake with the new classical    
revival1 was still a busy workshop of   
antiquarian research1 translation1      
study1 and publication1 and through her 
the ,greek and ,latin ,classics were    
only now available for wide             
distribution4 ,students from the rest of
 ,europe1 among them at a later time    
,agricola himself1 flocked to the       
,italian ,universities1 and on their    
return infected their native cities with
 the newly-awakened learning4 ,at       
,agricola's birth ,columbus had just    
returned from his great discovery1 and  

it was only three years later that      
,vasco ,da ,gama rounded ,cape ,good    
,hope4 ,thus these two foremost         
explorers had only initiated that       
greatest period of geographical         
expansion in the world's history4 ,a few
 dates will recall how far this         
exploration extended during ,agricola's 
lifetime4 ,balboa first saw the ,pacific
 in #aeac2 ,cortes entered the ,city of 
,mexico in #aebj2 ,magellan entered the 
,pacific in the same year2 ,pizarro     
penetrated into ,peru in #aebh2 ,de     
,soto landed in ,florida in #aeci1 and  
,potosi was discovered in #aedf4        
,omitting the sporadic settlement on the
 ,st4 ,lawrence by ,cartier in #aeda1   
the settlement of ,north ,america did   
not begin for a quarter of a century    
after ,agricola's death4 ,thus the      
revival of learning1 with its train of  
,humanism1 the ,reformation1 its        
stimulation of exploration and the      
re-awakening of the arts and sciences1  
was still in its infancy with ,agricola4

  ,we know practically nothing of       
,agricola's antecedents or his youth4   
,his real name was ,georg ,bauer        
7peasant71 and it was probably          
,latinized by his teachers1 as was the  
custom of the time4 ,his own brother1 in
 receipts preserved in the archives of  
the ,zwickau ,town ,council1 calls      
himself ,bauer1 and in them refers to   
his brother ,agricola4 ,he entered the  
,university of ,leipsic at the age of   
twenty1 and after about three and       
one-half years' attendance there gained 
the degree of ,baccalaureus ,artium4 ,in
 #aeah he became ,vice-,principal of the
 ,municipal ,school at ,zwickau1 where  
he taught ,greek and ,latin4 ,in #aebj  
he became ,principal1 and among his     
assistants was ,johannes ,foerster1     
better known as ,luther's collaborator  
in the translation of the ,bible4       
,during this time our author prepared   
and published a small ,latin ,grammar#b4
 ,in #aebb he removed to ,leipsic to    
become a lecturer in the ,university    

under his friend1 ,petrus ,mosellanus1  
at whose death in #aebd he went to      
,italy for the further study of         
,philosophy1 ,medicine1 and the ,natural
 ,sciences4 ,here he remained for nearly
 three years1 from #aebd to #aebf4 ,he  
visited the ,universities of ,bologna1  
,venice1 and probably ,padua1 and at    
these institutions received his first   
inspiration to work in the sciences1 for
 in a letter#c from ,leonardus          
,casibrotius to ,erasmus we learn that  
he was engaged upon a revision of       
,galen4 ,it was about this time that he 
made the acquaintance of ,erasmus1 who  
had settled at ,basel as ,editor for    
,froben's press4  ,in #aebf ,agricola   
returned to ,zwickau1 and in #aebg he   
was chosen town physician at            
,joachimsthal4 ,this little city in     
,bohemia is located on the eastern slope
 of the ,erzgebirge1 in the midst of the
 then most prolific metal-mining        
district of ,central ,europe4 ,thence to
 ,freiberg is but fifty miles1 and the  

same radius from that city would include
 most of the mining towns so frequently 
mentioned in ,de ,re                    
,metallica--,schneeberg1 ,geyer1        
,annaberg and ,altenberg--and not far   
away were ,marienberg1 ,gottesgab1 and  
,platten4 ,joachimsthal was a booming   
mining camp1 founded but eleven years   
before ,agricola's arrival1 and already 
having several thousand inhabitants4    
,according to ,agricola's own           
statement#d1 he spent all the time not  
required for his medical duties in      
visiting the mines and smelters1 in     
reading up in the ,greek and ,latin     
authors all references to mining1 and in
 association with the most learned among
 the mining folk4 ,among these was one  
,lorenz ,berman1 whom ,agricola         
afterward set up as the learned miner in
 his dialogue ,bermannus4 ,this book was
 first published by ,froben at ,basel in
 #aecj1 and was a sort of catechism on  
mineralogy1 mining terms1 and mining    
lore4 ,the book was apparently first    

submitted to the great ,erasmus1 and the
 publication arranged by him1 a warm    
letter of approval by him appearing at  
the beginning of the book#e4 ,in #aecc  
he published ,de ,mensuris et           
,ponderibus1 through ,froben1 this being
 a discussion of ,roman and ,greek      
weights and measures4 ,at about this    
time he began ,de ,re ,metallica--not to
 be published for twenty-five years4    
,agricola did not confine his interest  
entirely to medicine and mining1 for    
during this period he composed a        
pamphlet upon the ,turks1 urging their  
extermination by the ,european powers4  
,this work was no doubt inspired by the 
,turkish siege of ,vienna in #aebi4 ,it 
appeared first in ,german in #aeca1 and 
in ,latin--in which it was originally   
written--in #aech1 and passed through   
many subsequent editions4  ,at this     
time1 too1 he became interested in the  
,god's ,gift mine at ,abertham1 which   
was discovered in #aecj4 ,writing in    
#aede1 he says#f3 ,we1 as a shareholder1

 through the goodness of ,god1 have     
enjoyed the proceeds of this ,god's     
,gift since the very time when the mine 
began first to bestow such riches4      
,agricola seems to have resigned his    
position at ,joachimsthal in about      
#aecj1 and to have devoted the next two 
or three years to travel and study among
 the mines4 ,about #aecc he became city 
physician of ,chemnitz1 in ,saxony1 and 
here he resided until his death in      
#aeee4 ,there is but little record of   
his activities during the first eight or
 nine years of his residence in this    
city4 ,he must have been engaged upon   
the study of his subjects and the       
preparation of his books1 for they came 
on with great rapidity soon after4 ,he  
was frequently consulted on matters of  
mining engineering1 as1 for instance1 we
 learn1 from a letter written by a      
certain ,johannes ,hordeborch#g1 that   
,duke ,henry of ,brunswick applied to   
him with regard to the method for       
working mines in the ,upper ,harz4  ,in 

#aedc he married ,anna1 widow of        
,matthias ,meyner1 a petty tithe        
official2 there is some reason to       
believe from a letter published by      
,schmid1#h that ,anna was his second    
wife1 and that he was married the first 
time at ,joachimsthal4 ,he seems to have
 had several children1 for he commends  
his young children to the care of the   
,town ,council during his absence at the
 war in #aedg4 ,in addition to these1 we
 know that a son1 ,theodor1 was born in 
#aeej2 a daughter1 ,anna1 in #aeeb2     
another daughter1 ,irene1 was buried at 
,chemnitz in #aeee2 and in #aehj his    
widow and three children--,anna1        
,valerius1 and ,lucretia--were still    
living4  ,in #aedd began the publication
 of the series of books to which        
,agricola owes his position4 ,the first 
volume comprised five works and was     
finally issued in #aedf2 it was         
subsequently considerably revised1 and  
re-issued in #aeeh4 ,these works were3  
,de ,ortu et ,causis ,subterraneorum1 in

 five books1 the first work on physical 
geology2 ,de ,natura ,eorum quae        
,effluunt ex ,terra1 in four books1 on  
subterranean waters and gases2 ,de      
,natura ,fossilium1 in ten books1 the   
first systematic mineralogy2 ,de        
,veteribus et ,novis ,metallis1 in two  
books1 devoted largely to the history of
 metals and topographical mineralogy2 a 
new edition of ,bermannus was included2 
and finally ,rerum ,metallicarum        
,interpretatio1 a glossary of ,latin and
 ,german mineralogical and metallurgical
 terms4 ,another work1 ,de ,animantibus 
,subterraneis1 usually published with   
,de ,re ,metallica1 is dated #aedh in   
the preface4 ,it is devoted to animals  
which live underground1 at least part of
 the time1 but is not a very effective  
basis of either geologic or zoologic    
classification4 ,despite many public    
activities1 ,agricola apparently        
completed ,de ,re ,metallica in #aeej1  
but did not send it to the press until  
#aeec2 nor did it appear until a year   

after his death in #aeee4 ,but we give  
further details on the preparation of   
this work on p4 xv4 ,during this period 
he found time to prepare a small medical
 work1 ,de ,peste1 and certain          
historical studies1 details of which    
appear in the ,appendix4 ,there are     
other works by ,agricola referred to by 
sixteenth century writers1 but so far we
 have not been able to find them        
although they may exist4 ,such data as  
we have1 is given in the appendix4  ,as 
a young man1 ,agricola seems to have had
 some tendencies toward liberalism in   
religious matters1 for while at ,zwickau
 he composed some anti-,popish          
,epigrams2 but after his return to      
,leipsic he apparently never wavered1   
and steadily refused to accept the      
,lutheran ,reformation4 ,to many even   
liberal scholars of the day1 ,luther's  
doctrines appeared wild and demagogic4  
,luther was not a scholarly man2 his    
addresses were to the masses2 his ,latin
 was execrable4 ,nor did the bitter     

dissensions over hair-splitting theology
 in the ,lutheran ,church after         
,luther's death tend to increase respect
 for the movement among the learned4    
,agricola was a scholar of wide         
attainments1 a deep-thinking1 religious 
man1 and he remained to the end a       
staunch ,catholic1 despite the general  
change of sentiment among his           
countrymen4 ,his leanings were toward   
such men as his friend the humanist1    
,erasmus4 ,that he had the courage of   
his convictions is shown in the         
dedication of ,de ,natura ,eorum1 where 
he addresses to his friend1 ,duke       
,maurice1 the pious advice that the     
dissensions of the ,germans should be   
composed1 and that the ,duke should     
return to the bosom of the ,church those
 who had been torn from her1 and adds3  
,yet ,i do not wish to become confused  
by these turbulent waters1 and be led to
 offend anyone4 ,it is more advisable to
 check my utterances4 ,as he became     
older he may have become less tolerant  

in religious matters1 for he did not    
seem to show as much patience in the    
discussion of ecclesiastical topics as  
he must have possessed earlier1 yet he  
maintained to the end the respect and   
friendship of such great ,protestants as
 ,melanchthon1 ,camerarius1 ,fabricius1 
and many others4  ,in #aedf1 when he was
 at the age of #eb1 began ,agricola's   
activity in public life1 for in that    
year he was elected a ,burgher of       
,chemnitz2 and in the same year ,duke   
,maurice appointed him ,burgomaster--an 
office which he held for four terms4    
,before one can gain an insight into his
 political services1 and incidentally   
into the character of the man1 it is    
necessary to understand the politics of 
the time and his part therein1 and to   
bear in mind always that he was a       
staunch ,catholic under a ,protestant   
,sovereign in a ,state seething with    
militant ,protestantism4  ,saxony had   
been divided in #adhe between the       
,princes ,ernest and ,albert1 the former

 taking the ,electoral dignity and the  
major portion of the ,principality4     
,albert the ,brave1 the younger brother 
and ,duke of ,saxony1 obtained the      
subordinate portion1 embracing ,meissen1
 but subject to the ,elector4 ,the      
,elector ,ernest was succeeded in #adhf 
by ,frederick the ,wise1 and under his  
support ,luther made ,saxony the cradle 
of the ,reformation4 ,this ,elector was 
succeeded in #aebe by his brother ,john1
 who was in turn succeeded by his son   
,john ,frederick in #aecb4 ,of more     
immediate interest to this subject is   
the ,albertian line of ,saxon ,dukes who
 ruled ,meissen1 for in that            
,principality ,agricola was born and    
lived1 and his political fortunes were  
associated with this branch of the      
,saxon ,house4 ,albert was succeeded in 
#aeje by his son ,george1 ,the ,bearded1
 and he in turn by his brother ,henry1  
the last of the ,catholics1 in #aeci1   
who ruled until #aeda4 ,henry was       
succeeded in #aeda by his ,protestant   

son ,maurice1 who was the ,patron of    
,agricola4  ,at about this time ,saxony 
was drawn into the storms which rose    
from the long-standing rivalry between  
,francis ,i41 ,king of ,france1 and     
,charles ,v4 of ,spain4 ,these two      
potentates came to the throne in the    
same year 7#aeae71 and both were        
candidates for ,emperor of that loose   
,confederation known as the ,holy ,roman
 ,empire4 ,charles was elected1 and     
intermittent wars between these two     
,princes arose--first in one part of    
,europe1 and then in another4 ,francis  
finally formed an alliance with the     
,schmalkalden ,league of ,german        
,protestant ,princes1 and with the      
,sultan of ,turkey1 against ,charles4   
,in #aedf ,maurice of ,meissen1 although
 a ,protestant1 saw his best interest in
 a secret league with ,charles against  
the other ,protestant ,princes1 and     
proceeded 7the ,schmalkalden ,war7 to   
invade the domains of his superior and  
cousin1 the ,elector ,frederick4 ,the   

,emperor ,charles proved successful in  
this war1 and ,maurice was rewarded1 at 
the ,capitulation of ,wittenberg in     
#aedg1 by being made ,elector of ,saxony
 in the place of his cousin4 ,later on1 
the ,elector ,maurice found the         
association with ,catholic ,charles     
unpalatable1 and joined in leading the  
other ,protestant princes in war upon   
him1 and on the defeat of the ,catholic 
party and the peace of ,passau1 ,maurice
 became acknowledged as the champion of 
,german national and religious freedom4 
,he was succeeded by his brother        
,augustus in #aeec4  ,agricola was much 
favoured by the ,saxon ,electors1       
,maurice and ,augustus4 ,he dedicates   
most of his works to them1 and shows    
much gratitude for many favours         
conferred upon him4 ,duke ,maurice      
presented to him a house and plot in    
,chemnitz1 and in a letter dated ,june  
#adth1 #aedci in connection therewith1  
says3 444 that he may enjoy his         
life-long a freehold house unburdened by

 all burgher rights and other municipal 
service1 to be used by him and inhabited
 as a free dwelling1 and that he may    
also1 for the necessities of his        
household and of his wife and servants1 
brew his own beer free1 and that he may 
likewise purvey for himself and his     
household foreign beer and also wine for
 use1 and yet he shall not sell any such
 beer4444 ,we have taken the said       
,doctor under our especial protection   
and care for our life-long1 and he shall
 not be summoned before any ,court of   
,justice1 but only before us and our    
,councillor4444  ,agricola was made     
,burgomaster of ,chemnitz in #aedf4 ,a  
letter#aj from ,fabricius to ,meurer1   
dated ,may #aith1 #aedf1 says that      
,agricola had been made ,burgomaster by 
the command of the ,prince4 ,this would 
be ,maurice1 and it is all the more a   
tribute to the high respect with which  
,agricola was held1 for1 as said before1
 he was a consistent ,catholic1 and     
,maurice a ,protestant ,prince4 ,in this

 same year the ,schmalkalden ,war broke 
out1 and ,agricola was called to        
personal attendance upon the ,duke      
,maurice in a diplomatic and advisory   
capacity4 ,in #aedf also he was a member
 of the ,diet of ,freiberg1 and was     
summoned to ,council in ,dresden4 ,the  
next year he continued1 by the ,duke's  
command1 ,burgomaster at ,chemnitz1     
although he seems to have been away upon
 ,ducal matters most of the time4 ,the  
,duke addresses#aa the ,chemnitz        
,council in ,march1 #aedg3 ,we hereby   
make known to you that we are in urgent 
need of your ,burgomaster1 ,dr4         
,georgius ,agricola1 with us4 ,it is1   
therefore1 our will that you should     
yield him up and forward him that he    
should with the utmost haste set forth  
to us here near ,freiberg4 ,he was sent 
on various missions from the ,duke to   
the ,emperor ,charles1 to ,king         
,ferdinand of ,austria1 and to other    
,princes in matters connected with the  
war--the fact that he was a ,catholic   

probably entering into his appointment  
to such missions4 ,chemnitz was occupied
 by the troops of first one side1 then  
the other1 despite the great efforts of 
,agricola to have his own town specially
 defended4 ,in ,april1 #aedg1 the war   
came to an end in the ,battle of        
,muehlberg1 but ,agricola was apparently
 not relieved of his ,burgomastership   
until the succeeding year1 for he wrote 
his friend ,wolfgang ,meurer1 in ,april1
 #aedh1ab that he was now relieved4 ,his
 public duties did not end1 however1 for
 he attended the ,diet of ,leipzig in   
#aedg and in #aedi1 and was at the ,diet
 at ,torgau in #aeej4 ,in #aeea he was  
again installed as ,burgomaster2 and in 
#aeec1 for the fourth time1 he became   
head of the ,municipality1 and during   
this year had again to attend the ,diets
 at ,leipzig and ,dresden1 representing 
his city4 ,he apparently now had a short
 relief from public duties1 for it is   
not until #aeee1 shortly before his     
death1 that we find him again attending 

a ,diet at ,torgau4  ,agricola died on  
,november #bast1 #aeee4 ,a letter#ac    
from his life-long friend1 ,fabricius1  
to ,melanchthon1 announcing this event1 
states3 ,we lost1 on ,november #bast1   
that distinguished ornament of our      
,fatherland1 ,georgius ,agricola1 a man 
of eminent intellect1 of culture and of 
judgment4 ,he attained the age of #fb4  
,he who since the days of childhood had 
enjoyed robust health was carried off by
 a four-days' fever4 ,he had previously 
suffered from no disease except         
inflammation of the eyes1 which he      
brought upon himself by untiring study  
and insatiable reading4444 ,i know that 
you loved the soul of this man1 although
 in many of his opinions1 more          
especially in religious and spiritual   
welfare1 he differed in many points from
 our own4 ,for he despised our          
,churches1 and would not be with us in  
the ,communion of the ,blood of ,christ4
 ,therefore1 after his death1 at the    
command of the ,prince1 which was given 

to the ,church inspectors and carried   
out by ,tettelbach as a loyal servant1  
burial was refused him1 and not until   
the fourth day was he borne away to     
,zeitz and interred in the              
,cathedral4444 ,i have always admired   
the genius of this man1 so distinguished
 in our sciences and in the whole realm 
of ,philosophy--yet ,i wonder at his    
religious views1 which were compatible  
with reason1 it is true1 and were       
dazzling1 but were by no means          
compatible with truth4444 ,he would not 
tolerate with patience that anyone      
should discuss ecclesiastical matters   
with him4 ,this action of the           
authorities in denying burial to one of 
their most honoured citizens1 who had   
been ever assiduous in furthering the   
welfare of the community1 seems         
strangely out of joint4 ,further1 the   
,elector ,augustus1 although a          
,protestant ,prince1 was ,agricola's    
warm friend1 as evidenced by his letter 
of but a few months before 7see p4 xv74 

,however1 ,catholics were then few in   
number at ,chemnitz1 and the feeling ran
 high at the time1 so possibly the      
,prince was afraid of public            
disturbances4 ,hofmann#ad explains this 
occurrence in the following words3--,the
 feelings of ,chemnitz citizens1 who    
were almost exclusively ,protestant1    
must certainly be taken into account4   
,they may have raised objections to the 
solemn interment of a ,catholic in the  
,protestant ,cathedral ,church of ,st4  
,jacob1 which had1 perhaps1 been        
demanded by his relatives1 and to which1
 according to the custom of the time1 he
 would have been entitled as            
,burgomaster4 ,the refusal to sanction  
the interment aroused1 more especially  
in the ,catholic world1 a painful       
sensation4  ,a brass memorial plate hung
 in the ,cathedral at ,zeitz had already
 disappeared in #afhf1 nor have the     
cities of his birth or residence ever   
shown any appreciation of this man1     
whose work more deserves their gratitude

 than does that of the multitude of     
soldiers whose monuments decorate every 
village and city square4 ,it is true    
that in #ahbb a marble tablet was placed
 behind the altar in the ,church of ,st4
 ,jacob in ,chemnitz1 but even this was 
removed to the ,historical ,museum later
 on4  ,he left a modest estate1 which   
was the subject of considerable         
litigation by his descendants1 due to   
the mismanagement of the guardian4      
,hofmann has succeeded in tracing the   
descendants for two generations1 down to
 #afji1 but the line is finally lost    
among the multitude of other ,agricolas4
  ,to deduce ,georgius ,agricola's      
character we need not search beyond the 
discovery of his steadfast adherence to 
the religion of his fathers amid the    
bitter storm of ,protestantism around   
him1 and need but to remember at the    
same time that for twenty-five years he 
was entrusted with elective positions of
 an increasingly important character in 
this same community4 ,no man could have 

thus held the respect of his countrymen 
unless he were devoid of bigotry and    
possessed of the highest sense of       
integrity1 justice1 humanity1 and       
patriotism4   ,,agricola',s             
,,intellectual ,,attainments ,,and      
,,position ,,in ,,science4  ,agricola's 
education was the most thorough that his
 times afforded in the classics1        
philosophy1 medicine1 and sciences      
generally4 ,further1 his writings       
disclose a most exhaustive knowledge not
 only of an extraordinary range of      
classical literature1 but also of       
obscure manuscripts buried in the public
 libraries of ,europe4 ,that his general
 learning was held to be of a high order
 is amply evidenced from the            
correspondence of the other scholars of 
his time--,erasmus1 ,melanchthon1       
,meurer1 ,fabricius1 and others4  ,our  
more immediate concern1 however1 is with
 the advances which were due to him in  
the sciences of ,geology1 ,mineralogy1  
and ,mining ,engineering4 ,no           

appreciation of these attainments can be
 conveyed to the reader unless he has   
some understanding of the dearth of     
knowledge in these sciences prior to    
,agricola's time4 ,we have in ,appendix 
,b given a brief review of the          
literature extant at this period on     
these subjects4 ,furthermore1 no        
appreciation of ,agricola's contribution
 to science can be gained without a     
study of ,de ,ortu et ,causis and ,de   
,natura ,fossilium1 for while ,de ,re   
,metallica is of much more general      
interest1 it contains but incidental    
reference to ,geology and ,mineralogy4  
,apart from the book of ,genesis1 the   
only attempts at fundamental explanation
 of natural phenomena were those of the 
,greek ,philosophers and the            
,alchemists4 ,orthodox beliefs ,agricola
 scarcely mentions2 with the ,alchemists
 he had no patience4 ,there can be no   
doubt1 however1 that his views are      
greatly coloured by his deep classical  
learning4 ,he was in fine to a certain  

distance a follower of ,aristotle1      
,theophrastus1 ,strato1 and other       
leaders of the ,peripatetic school4 ,for
 that matter1 except for the muddy      
current which the alchemists had        
introduced into this already troubled   
stream1 the whole thought of the learned
 world still flowed from the ,greeks4   
,had he not1 however1 radically departed
 from the teachings of the ,peripatetic 
school1 his work would have been no     
contribution to the development of      
science4 ,certain of their teachings he 
repudiated with great vigour1 and his   
laboured and detailed arguments in their
 refutation form the first battle in    
science over the results of observation 
versus inductive speculation4 ,to use   
his own words3 ,those things which we   
see with our eyes and understand by     
means of our senses are more clearly to 
be demonstrated than if learned by means
 of reasoning4#ae ,the bigoted          
scholasticism of his times necessitated 
as much care and detail in refutation of

 such deep-rooted beliefs1 as would be  
demanded to-day by an attempt at a      
refutation of the theory of evolution1  
and in consequence his works are often  
but dry reading to any but those        
interested in the development of        
fundamental scientific theory4  ,in     
giving an appreciation of ,agricola's   
views here and throughout the footnotes1
 we do not wish to convey to the reader 
that he was in all things free from     
error and from the spirit of his times1 
or that his theories1 constructed long  
before the atomic theory1 are of the    
clear-cut order which that basic        
hypothesis has rendered possible to     
later scientific speculation in these   
branches4 ,his statements are sometimes 
much confused1 but we reiterate that    
their clarity is as crystal to mud in   
comparison with those of his            
predecessors--and of most of his        
successors for over two hundred years4  
,as an indication of his grasp of some  
of the wider aspects of geological      

phenomena we reproduce1 in ,appendix ,a1
 a passage from ,de ,ortu et ,causis1   
which we believe to be the first        
adequate declaration of the part played 
by erosion in mountain sculpture4 ,but  
of all of ,agricola's theoretical views 
those are of the greatest interest which
 relate to the origin of ore deposits1  
for in these matters he had the greatest
 opportunities of observation and the   
most experience4 ,we have on page #ajh  
reproduced and discussed his theory at  
considerable length1 but we may repeat  
here1 that in his propositions as to the
 circulation of ground waters1 that ore 
channels are a subsequent creation to   
the contained rocks1 and that they were 
filled by deposition from circulating   
solutions1 he enunciated the foundations
 of our modern theory1 and in so doing  
took a step in advance greater than that
 of any single subsequent authority4 ,in
 his contention that ore channels were  
created by erosion of subterranean      
waters he was wrong1 except for special 

cases1 and it was not until two         
centuries later that a further step in  
advance was taken by the recognition by 
,van ,oppel of the part played by       
fissuring in these phenomena4 ,nor was  
it until about the same time that the   
filling of ore channels in the main by  
deposition from solutions was generally 
accepted4 ,while ,werner1 two hundred   
and fifty years after ,agricola1 is     
generally revered as the inspirer of the
 modern theory by those whose reading   
has taken them no farther back1 we have 
no hesitation in asserting that of the  
propositions of each author1 ,agricola's
 were very much more nearly in accord   
with modern views4 ,moreover1 the main  
result of the new ideas brought forward 
by ,werner was to stop the march of     
progress for half a century1 instead of 
speeding it forward as did those of     
,agricola4  ,in mineralogy ,agricola    
made the first attempt at systematic    
treatment of the subject4 ,his system   
could not be otherwise than wrongly     

based1 as he could scarcely see forward 
two or three centuries to the atomic    
theory and our vast fund of chemical    
knowledge4 ,however1 based as it is upon
 such properties as solubility and      
homogeneity1 and upon external          
characteristics such as colour1         
hardness1 c41 it makes a most creditable
 advance upon ,theophrastus1            
,dioscorides1 and ,albertus ,magnus--his
 only predecessors4 ,he is the first to 
assert that bismuth and antimony are    
true primary metals2 and to some sixty  
actual mineral species described        
previous to his time he added some      
twenty more1 and laments that there are 
scores unnamed4  ,as to ,agricola's     
contribution to the sciences of mining  
and metallurgy1 ,de ,re ,metallica      
speaks for itself4 ,while he describes1 
for the first time1 scores of methods   
and processes1 no one would contend that
 they were discoveries or inventions of 
his own4 ,they represent the            
accumulation of generations of          

experience and knowledge2 but by him    
they were1 for the first time1 to       
receive detailed and intelligent        
exposition4 ,until ,schlueter's work    
nearly two centuries later1 it was not  
excelled4 ,there is no measure by which 
we may gauge the value of such a work to
 the men who followed in this profession
 during centuries1 nor the benefits     
enjoyed by humanity through them4  ,that
 ,agricola occupied a very considerable 
place in the great awakening of learning
 will be disputed by none except by     
those who place the development of      
science in rank far below religion1     
politics1 literature1 and art4 ,of wider
 importance than the details of his     
achievements in the mere confines of the
 particular science to which he applied 
himself1 is the fact that he was the    
first to found any of the natural       
sciences upon research and observation1 
as opposed to previous fruitless        
speculation4 ,the wider interest of the 
members of the medical profession in the

 development of their science than that 
of geologists in theirs1 has led to the 
aggrandizement of ,paracelsus1 a        
contemporary of ,agricola1 as the first 
in deductive science4 ,yet no           
comparative study of the unparalleled   
egotistical ravings of this half-genius1
 half-alchemist1 with the modest sober  
logic and real research and observation 
of ,agricola1 can leave a moment's doubt
 as to the incomparably greater position
 which should be attributed to the      
latter as the pioneer in building the   
foundation of science by deduction from 
observed phenomena4 ,science is the base
 upon which is reared the civilization  
of to-day1 and while we give daily      
credit to all those who toil in the     
superstructure1 let none forget those   
men who laid its first foundation       
stones4 ,one of the greatest of these   
was ,georgius ,agricola4   ,,de ,,re    
,,metallica  ,agricola seems to have    
been engaged in the preparation of ,de  
,re ,metallica for a period of over     

twenty years1 for we first hear of the  
book in a letter from ,petrus           
,plateanus1 a schoolmaster at           
,joachimsthal1 to the great humanist1   
,erasmus1#af in ,september1 #aebi4 ,he  
says3 ,the scientific world will be     
still more indebted to ,agricola when he
 brings to light the books ,de ,re      
,metallica and other matters which he   
has on hand4 ,in the dedication of ,de  
,mensuris et ,ponderibus 7in #aecc7     
,agricola states that he means to       
publish twelve books ,de ,re ,metallica1
 if he lives4 ,that the appearance of   
this work was eagerly anticipated is    
evidenced by a letter from ,george      
,fabricius to ,valentine ,hertel3#ag    
,with great excitement the books ,de ,re
 ,metallica are being awaited4 ,if he   
treats the material at hand with his    
usual zeal1 he will win for himself     
glory such as no one in any of the      
fields of literature has attained for   
the last thousand years4 ,according to  
the dedication of ,de ,veteribus et     

,novis ,metallis1 ,agricola in #aedf    
already looked forward to its early     
publication4 ,the work was apparently   
finished in #aeej1 for the dedication to
 the ,dukes ,maurice and ,august of     
,saxony is dated in ,december of that   
year4 ,the eulogistic poem by his       
friend1 ,george ,fabricius1 is dated in 
#aeea4  ,the publication was apparently 
long delayed by the preparation of the  
woodcuts2 and1 according to             
,mathesius1#ah many sketches for them   
were prepared by ,basilius ,wefring4 ,in
 the preface of ,de ,re ,metallica1     
,agricola does not mention who prepared 
the sketches1 but does say3 ,i have     
hired illustrators to delineate their   
forms1 lest descriptions which are      
conveyed by words should either not be  
understood by men of our own times1 or  
should cause difficulty to posterity4   
,in #aeec the completed book was sent to
 ,froben for publication1 for a         
letter#ai from ,fabricius to ,meurer in 
,march1 #aeec1 announces its dispatch to

 the printer4 ,an interesting letter#bj 
from the ,elector ,augustus to          
,agricola1 dated ,january #ah1 #aeee1   
reads3 ,most learned1 dear and faithful 
subject1 whereas you have sent to the   
,press a ,latin book of which the title 
is said to be ,de ,rebus ,metallicis1   
which has been praised to us and we     
should like to know the contents1 it is 
our gracious command that you should get
 the book translated when you have the  
opportunity into ,german1 and not let it
 be copied more than once or be printed1
 but keep it by you and send us a copy4 
,if you should need a writer for this   
purpose1 we will provide one4 ,thus you 
will fulfil our gracious behest4 ,the   
,german translation was prepared by     
,philip ,bechius1 a ,basel ,university  
,professor of ,medicine and ,philosophy4
 ,it is a wretched work1 by one who knew
 nothing of the science1 and who more   
especially had no appreciation of the   
peculiar ,latin terms coined by         
,agricola1 most of which he rendered    

literally4 ,it is a sad commentary on   
his countrymen that no correct ,german  
translation exists4 ,the ,italian       
translation is by ,michelangelo ,florio1
 and is by him dedicated to ,elizabeth1 
,queen of ,england4 ,the title page of  
the first edition is reproduced later   
on1 and the full titles of other        
editions are given in the ,appendix1    
together with the author's other works4 
,the following are the short titles of  
the various editions of ,de ,re         
,metallica1 together with the name and  
place of the publisher3--  ,latin       
,editions4    ,de ,re ,metallica1       
,froben        ,basel ,folio #aeef4     
#aefa4                   ,ludwig ,koenig
            #afba4                      
,emanuel ,koenig           #afeg4  ,in  
addition to these1 ,leupold1#ba         
,schmid1#bb and others mention an octavo
 edition1 without illustrations1        
,schweinfurt1 #afjg4 ,we have not been  
able to find a copy of this edition1 and
 are not certain of its existence4 ,the 

same catalogues also mention an octavo  
edition of ,de ,re ,metallica1          
,wittenberg1 #afab or #afad1 with notes 
by ,joanne ,sigfrido2 but we believe    
this to be a confusion with ,agricola's 
subsidiary works1 which were published  
at this time and place1 with such notes4
  ,german ,editions4    ,vom            
,bergkwerck1 ,froben1 ,folio1 #aeeg4    
,bergwerck ,buch1 ,sigmundi ,feyrabendt1
 ,frankfort-on-,main1 folio1 #aehj4     
,ludwig ,koenig1 ,basel1 folio1 #afba4  
,there are other editions than these1   
mentioned by bibliographers1 but we have
 been unable to confirm them in any     
library4 ,the most reliable of such     
bibliographies1 that of ,john           
,ferguson1#bc gives in addition to the  
above2 ,bergwerkbuch1 ,basel1 #afeg1    
folio1 and ,schweinfurt1 #afhg1 octavo4 
,italian ,edition4  ,l',arte de         
,metalli1 ,froben1 ,basel1 folio1 #aefc4
  ,other ,languages4  ,so far as we     
know1 ,de ,re ,metallica was never      
actually published in other than ,latin1

 ,german1 and ,italian4 ,however1 a     
portion of the accounts of the firm of  
,froben were published in #ahhabd1 and  
therein is an entry under ,march1 #aefj1
 of a sum to one ,leodigaris ,grymaldo  
for some other work1 and also for       
correction of ,agricola's ,de ,re       
,metallica in ,french4 ,this may of     
course1 be an error for the ,italian    
edition1 which appeared a little later4 
,there is also mention#be that a        
manuscript of ,de ,re ,metallica in     
,spanish was seen in the library of the 
town of ,bejar4 ,an interesting note    
appears in the glossary given by ,sir   
,john ,pettus in his translation of     
,lazarus ,erckern's work on assaying4   
,he says#bf but ,i cannot enlarge my    
observations upon any more words1       
because the printer calls for what ,i   
did write of a metallick dictionary1    
after ,i first proposed the printing of 
,erckern1 but intending within the      
compass of a year to publish ,georgius  
,agricola1 ,de ,re ,metallica 7being    

fully translated7 in ,english1 and also 
to add a dictionary to it1 ,i shall     
reserve my remaining essays 7if what ,i 
have done hitherto be approved7 till    
then1 and so ,i proceed in the          
dictionary4 ,the translation was never  
published and extensive inquiry in      
various libraries and among the family  
of ,pettus has failed to yield any trace
 of the manuscript4   ,,footnotes3  #a  
,for the biographical information here  
set out we have relied principally upon 
the following works3--,petrus ,albinus1 
,meissnische ,land ,und ,berg ,chronica1
 ,dresden1 #aeij2 ,adam ,daniel         
,richter1 ,umstaendliche 444 ,chronica  
der ,stadt ,chemnitz1 ,leipzig1 #aged2  
,johann ,gottfried ,weller1 ,altes ,aus 
,allen ,theilen ,der ,geschichte1       
,chemnitz1 #agff2 ,freidrich ,august    
,schmid1 ,georg ,agrikola's ,bermannus1 
,freiberg1 #ahjf2 ,georg ,heinrich      
,jacobi1 ,der ,mineralog ,georgius      
,agricola1 ,zwickau1 #ahha2 ,dr4        
,reinhold ,hofmann1 ,dr4 ,georg         

,agricola1 ,gotha1 #aije4 ,the last is  
an exhaustive biographical sketch1 to   
which we refer those who are interested4
  #b ,georgii ,agricolae ,glaucii       
,libellus de ,prima ac ,simplici        
,institutione ,grammatica1 printed by   
,melchior ,lotther1 ,leipzig1 #aebj4    
,petrus ,mosellanus refers to this work 
7without giving title7 in a letter to   
,agricola1 ,june1 #aebj4  #c ,briefe an 
,desiderius ,erasmus von ,rotterdam4    
,published by ,joseph ,foerstemann and  
,otto ,guenther4 ,,xxvii4 ,beiheft zum  
,zentralblatt fuer ,bibliothekswesen1   
,leipzig1 #aijd4 p4 #dd4  #d ,de        
,veteribus et ,novis ,metallis4         
,preface4  #e ,a summary of this and of 
,agricola's other works is given in the 
,appendix ,a4  #f ,de ,veteribus et     
,novis ,metallis1 ,book ,i4  #g ,printed
 in ,f4 ,a4 ,schmid's ,georg ,agrikola's
 ,bermannus1 p4 #ad1 ,freiberg1 #ahjf4  
#h ,op4 ,cit41 p4 #h4  #i ,archive #ch1 
,chemnitz ,municipal ,archives4  #aj    
,baumgarten-,crusius4 ,georgii ,fabricii

 ,chemnicensis ,epistolae ad ,w4        
,meurerum et ,alios ,aequales1 ,leipzig1
 #ahde1 p4 #bf4  #aa ,hofmann1 ,op4     
cit41 p4 #ii4  #ab ,weber1 ,virorum     
,clarorum ,saeculi ,,xvi4 et ,,xvii4    
,epistolae ,selectae1 ,leipzig1 #ahid1  
p4 #h4  #ac ,baumgarten-,crusius4 ,op4  
cit41 p4 #aci4  #ad ,hofmann1 ,op4 cit41
 p4 #abc4  #ae ,de ,ortu et ,causis1    
,book ,,iii4  #af ,briefe an ,desiderius
 ,erasmus von ,rotterdam4 ,published by 
,joseph ,foerstemann  ,otto ,guenther4  
,,xxvii4 ,beiheft zum ,zentralblatt fuer
 ,bibliothekswesen1 ,leipzig1 #aijd1 p4 
#abe4  #ag ,petrus ,albinus1            
,meissnische ,land und ,berg ,chronica1 
,dresden1 #aeij1 p4 #cec4  #ah ,this    
statement is contained under #aeef in a 
sort of chronicle bound up with         
,mathesius's ,sarepta1 ,nuremberg1      
#aefb4  #ai ,baumgarten-,crusius1 p4    
#he1 letter ,no4 #ic4  #bj ,principal   
,state ,archives1 ,dresden1 ,cop4 #bei1 
folio #ajb4  #ba ,jacob ,leupold1       
,prodromus ,bibliothecae ,metallicae1   

#agcb1 p4 #aa4  #bb ,f4 ,a4 ,schmid1    
,georg ,agrikola's ,bermannus1          
,freiberg1 #ahjf1 p4 #cd4  #bc          
,bibliotheca ,chemica1 ,glasgow1 #aijf1 
p4 #aj4  #bd ,rechnungsbuch der ,froben 
und ,episcopius ,buchdrucker und        
,buchhaendler zu ,basel1 #aeeg-aefd1    
published by ,r4 ,wackernagle1 ,basel1  
#ahha4 p4 #bj4  #be ,colecion del ,sr   
,monoz t4 #ic1 fol4 #bee ,en la ,acad4  
de la ,hist4 ,madrid4  #bf ,sir ,john   
,pettus1 ,fleta ,minor1 ,the ,laws of   
,art and ,nature1 c41 ,london1 #afcf1 p4
 #aba4     ,illustration xix 7,title    
page from first edition7                
,,georgius ,,fabricius ,,in ,,libros    
,metallicos ,,georgii ,,agricolae       
philosophi   praestantissimi4#a  ,,ad   
,,lectorem4      ,si iuuat ignita       
cognoscere fronte ,chimaeram1           
,semicanem nympham1 semibouemque uirum3 
,si centum capitum ,titanem1 totque     
ferentem       ,sublimem manibus tela   
cruenta ,gygen3     ,si iuuat ,a,etneum 
penetrare ,cyclopis in antrum1          

,atque alios1 ,vates quos peperere1     
metus3     ,nunc placeat mecum doctos   
euoluere libros1       ,ingenium        
,,agricolae quos dedit acre tibi4       
,non hic uana tenet suspensam fabula    
mentem3       ,sed precium1 utilitas    
multa1 legentis erit4     ,quidquid     
terra sinu1 gremioque recondidit imo1   
,omne tibi multis eruit ante libris3    
,siue fluens superas ultro nitatur in   
oras1       ,inueniat facilem seu magis 
arte uiam4     ,perpetui proprijs manant
 de fontibus amnes1       ,est grauis   
,albuneae sponte ,mephitis odor4        
,lethales sunt sponte scrobes           
,dicaearchidis orae1       ,et micat e  
media conditus ignis humo4     ,plana   
,nariscorum cum tellus arsit in agro1   
,ter curua nondum falce resecta ,ceres1 
,nec dedit hoc damnum pastor1 nec       
,iuppiter igne3       ,vulcani per se   
ruperat ira solum4     ,terrifico aura  
foras erumpens1 incita motu1            
,saepe facit montes1 ante ubi plana uia 
est4     ,haec abstrusa cauis1 imoque   

incognita fundo1       ,cognita natura  
saepe fuere duce4     ,arte hominum1 in 
lucem ueniunt quoque multa1 manuque     
,terrae multiplices effodiuntur opes4   
,lydia sic nitrum profert1 ,islandia    
sulfur1       ,ac modo ,tyrrhenus mittit
 alumen ager4     ,succina1 qua trifido 
subit aequor ,vistula cornu1            
,piscantur ,codano corpora serua sinu4  
,quid memorem regum preciosa insignia   
gemmas1       ,marmoraque excelsis      
structa sub astra iugis8     ,nil       
lapides1 nil saxa moror3 sunt pulchra   
metalla1       ,croese tuis opibus      
clara1 ,mydaque tuis1     ,quaeque acer 
,macedo terra ,creneide fodit1          
,nomine permutans nomina prisca suo4    
,at nunc non ullis cedit ,,germania     
terris1       ,terra ferax hominum1     
terraque diues opum4     ,hic auri in   
uenis locupletibus aura refulget1       
,non alio messis carior ulla loco4      
,auricomum extulerit felix ,campania    
ramum1       ,nec fructu nobis          
deficiente cadit4     ,eruit argenti    

solidas hoc tempore massas              
,fossor1 de proprijs armaque miles      
agris4     ,ignotum ,graijs est         
,hesperijsque metallum1       ,quod     
,bisemutum lingua paterna uocat4        
,candidius nigro1 sed plumbo nigrius    
albo1       ,nostra quoque hoc uena     
diuite fundit humus4     ,funditur in   
tormenta1 corus cum imitantia fulmen1   
,a,es1 inque hostiles ferrea massa      
domos4     ,scribuntur plumbo libri3    
quis credidit ante       ,quam mirandam 
artem ,teutonis ora dedit8     ,nec     
tamen hoc alijs1 aut illa petuntur ab   
oris1       ,eruta ,germano cuncta      
metalla solo4     ,sed quid ego haec    
repeto1 monumentis tradita claris       
,,agricolae1 quae nunc docta per ora    
uolant8     ,hic caussis ortus1  formas 
uiribus addit1       ,et quaerenda      
quibus sint meliora locis4     ,quae si 
mente prius legisti candidus aequa3     
,da reliquis quoque nunc tempora pauca  
libris4     ,vtilitas sequitur cultorem3
 crede1 uoluptas       ,non iucunda     

minor1 rara legentis1 erit4             
,iudicioque prius ne quis male damnet   
iniquo1       ,quae sunt auctoris munera
 mira ,dei3     ,eripit ipse suis primum
 tela hostibus1 inque       ,mittentis  
torquet spicula rapta caput4     ,fertur
 equo latro1 uehitur pirata triremi3    
,ergo necandus equus1 nec fabricanda    
ratis8     ,visceribus terrae lateant   
abstrusa metalla1       ,vti opibus     
nescit quod mala turba suis8            
,quisquis es1 aut doctis pareto         
monentibus1 aut te       ,inter habere  
bonos ne fateare locum4     ,se non in  
praerupta metallicus abijcit audax1     
,vt quondam immisso ,curtius acer equo3 
,sed prius ediscit1 quae sunt noscenda  
perito1       ,quodque facit1 multa     
doctus ab arte facit4     ,vtque        
gubernator seruat cum sidere uentos3    
,sic minime dubijs utitur ille notis4   
,iasides nauim1 currus regit arte       
,metiscus3       ,fossor opus peragit   
nec minus arte suum4     ,indagat uenae 
spacium1 numerumque1 modumque1          

,siue obliqua suum1 rectaue tendat iter4
     ,pastor ut explorat quae terra sit 
apta colenti1       ,quae bene          
lanigeras1 quae male pascat oues4       
,en terrae intentus1 quid uincula linea 
tendit8       ,fungitur officio iam     
,ptolemaee tuo4     ,vtque suae inuenit 
mensuram iuraque uenae1       ,in uarios
 operas diuidit inde uiros4     ,iamque 
aggressus opus1 uiden' ut mouet omne    
quod obstat1       ,assidua ut uersat   
strenuus arma manu8     ,ne tibi        
surdescant ferri tinnitibus aures1      
,ad grauiora ideo conspicienda ueni4    
,instruit ecce suis nunc artibus ille   
minores3       ,sedulitas nulli non     
operosa loco4     ,metiri docet hic     
uenae spaciumque modumque1       ,vtque 
regat positis finibus arua lapis1       
,ne quis transmisso uiolentus limite    
pergens1       ,non sibi concessas1 in  
sua uertat1 opes4     ,hic docet        
instrumenta1 quibus ,plutonia regna     
,tutus adit1 saxi permeat atque uias4   
,quanta 7uides7 solidas expugnet machina

 terras3       ,machina non ullo tempore
 uisa prius4     ,cede nouis1 nulla non 
inclyta laude uetustas1                 
,posteritas meritis est quoque grata    
tuis4     ,tum quia ,germano sunt haec  
inuenta sub axe1       ,si quis es1     
inuidiae contrahe uela tuae4            
,ausonis ora tumet bellis1 terra ,attica
 cultu1       ,germanum infractus tollit
 ad astra labor4     ,nec tamen ingenio 
solet infeliciter uti1       ,mite gerat
 ,phoebi1 seu graue ,martis opus1       
,tempus adest1 structis uenarum         
montibus1 igne       ,explorare1 usum   
quem sibi uena ferat1     ,non labor    
ingenio caret hic1 non copia fructu1    
,est adaperta bonae prima fenestra spei4
     ,ergo instat porro grauiores ferre 
labores1       ,intentas operi nec      
remouere manus4     ,vrere siue locus   
poscat1 seu tundere uerras1       ,siue 
lauare lacu praeter euntis aquae4       
,seu flammis iterum modicis torrere     
necesse est1       ,excoquere aut fastis
 ignibus omne malum1     ,cum fluit aes 

riuis1 auri argentique metallum1        
,spes animo fossor uix capit ipse suas4 
,argentum cupidus fuluo secernit ab     
auro1       ,et plumbi lentam demit     
utrique moram4     ,separat argentum1   
lucri studiosus1 ab aere1               
,seruatis1 linquens deteriora1 bonis4   
,quae si cuncta uelim tenui percurrere  
uersu1       ,ante alium reuehat        
,memnonis orta diem4     ,postremus     
labor est1 concretos discere succos1    
,quos fert innumeris ,teutona terra     
locis4     ,quo sal1 quo nitrum1 quo    
pacto fiat alumen1       ,vsibus        
artificis cum parat illa manus3     ,nec
 non chalcantum1 sulfur1 fluidumque     
bitumen1       ,massaque quo uitri lenta
 dolanda modo4     ,suscipit haec       
hominum mirandos cura labores1          
,pauperiem usque adeo ferre famemque    
graue est1     ,tantus amor uictum      
paruis extundere natis1       ,et       
patriae ciuem non dare uelle malum4     
,nec manet in terrae fossoris mersa     
latebris       ,mens1 sed fert domino   

uota precesque ,deo4     ,munificae     
expectat1 spe plenus1 munera dextrae1   
,extollens animum laetus ad astra suum4 
,diuitias ,,christus dat noticiamque    
fruendi1       ,cui memori grates       
pectore semper agit4     ,hoc quoque    
laudati quondam fecere ,philippi1       
,qui uirtutis habent cum pietate decus4 
,huc oculos1 huc flecte animum1         
suauissime ,lector1       ,auctoremque  
pia noscito mente ,deum4     ,,agricolae
 hinc optans operoso fausta labori1     
,laudibus eximij candidus esto uiri4    
,ille suum extollit patriae cum nomine  
nomen1       ,et uir in ore frequens    
posteritatis erit4     ,cuncta cadunt   
letho1 studij monumenta uigebunt1       
,purpurei donec lumina solis erunt4     
,misenae ,m4 ,d4 ,,li4                  
eludo illustri4   ,,footnotes3  #a ,for 
completeness' sake we reproduce in the  
original ,latin the laudation of        
,agricola by his friend1 ,georgius      
,fabricius1 a leading scholar of his    
time4 ,it has but little intrinsic value

 for it is not poetry of a very high    
order1 and to make it acceptable        
,english would require certain          
improvements1 for which only poets have 
licence4 ,a free translation of the last
 few lines indicates its complimentary  
character3--      ,he doth raise his    
country's fame with his own       ,and  
in the mouths of nations yet unborn     
,his praises shall be sung2 ,death comes
 to all       ,but great achievements   
raise a monument       ,which shall     
endure until the sun grows cold4        
,,to ,,the ,,most ,,illustrious    ,,and
 ,,most ,,mighty ,,dukes ,,of           
,saxony1 ,landgraves of ,thuringia1     
,margraves of ,meissen1      ,imperial  
,overlords of ,saxony1 ,burgraves of    
,altenberg       and ,magdeburg1 ,counts
 of ,brena1 ,lords of                   
,pleissnerland1 ,to ,,maurice ,grand    
,marshall         and ,elector of the   
,holy ,roman ,empire          and to his
 brother ,,augustus1#a                  
,,george ,,agricola  ,s4 ,d4     ,most  

illustrious ,princes1 often have ,i     
considered the metallic arts as a whole1
 as ,moderatus ,columella#b considered  
the agricultural arts1 just as if ,i had
 been considering the whole of the human
 body2 and when ,i had perceived the    
various parts of the subject1 like so   
many members of the body1 ,i became     
afraid that ,i might die before ,i      
should understand its full extent1 much 
less before ,i could immortalise it in  
writing4 ,this book itself indicates the
 length and breadth of the subject1 and 
the number and importance of the        
sciences of which at least some little  
knowledge is necessary to miners4       
,indeed1 the subject of mining is a very
 extensive one1 and one very difficult  
to explain2 no part of it is fully dealt
 with by the ,greek and ,latin authors  
whose works survive2 and since the art  
is one of the most ancient1 the most    
necessary and the most profitable to    
mankind1 ,i considered that ,i ought not
 to neglect it4 ,without doubt1 none of 

the arts is older than agriculture1 but 
that of the metals is not less ancient2 
in fact they are at least equal and     
coeval1 for no mortal man ever tilled a 
field without implements4 ,in truth1 in 
all the works of agriculture1 as in the 
other arts1 implements are used which   
are made from metals1 or which could not
 be made without the use of metals2 for 
this reason the metals are of the       
greatest necessity to man4 ,when an art 
is so poor that it lacks metals1 it is  
not of much importance1 for nothing is  
made without tools4 ,besides1 of all    
ways whereby great wealth is acquired by
 good and honest means1 none is more    
advantageous than mining2 for although  
from fields which are well tilled 7not  
to mention other things7 we derive rich 
yields1 yet we obtain richer products   
from mines2 in fact1 one mine is often  
much more beneficial to us than many    
fields4 ,for this reason we learn from  
the history of nearly all ages that very
 many men have been made rich by the    

mines1 and the fortunes of many kings   
have been much amplified thereby4 ,but  
,i will not now speak more of these     
matters1 because ,i have dealt with     
these subjects partly in the first book 
of this work1 and partly in the other   
work entitled ,de ,veteribus et ,novis  
,metallis1 where ,i have refuted the    
charges which have been made against    
metals and against miners4 ,now1 though 
the art of husbandry1 which ,i willingly
 rank with the art of mining1 appears to
 be divided into many branches1 yet it  
is not separated into so many as this   
art of ours1 nor can ,i teach the       
principles of this as easily as         
,columella did of that4 ,he had at hand 
many writers upon husbandry whom he     
could follow1--in fact1 there are more  
than fifty ,greek authors whom ,marcus  
,varro enumerates1 and more than ten    
,latin ones1 whom ,columella himself    
mentions4 ,i have only one whom ,i can  
follow2 that is ,c4 ,plinius            
,secundus1#c and he expounds only a very

 few methods of digging ores and of     
making metals4 ,far from the whole of   
the art having been treated by any one  
writer1 those who have written          
occasionally on any one or another of   
its branches have not even dealt        
completely with a single one of them4   
,moreover1 there is a great scarcity    
even of these1 since alone of all the   
,greeks1 ,strato of ,lampsacus1#d the   
successor of ,theophrastus1#e wrote a   
book on the subject1 ,de ,machinis      
,metallicis2 except1 perhaps a work by  
the poet ,philo1 a small part of which  
embraced to some degree the occupation  
of mining4#f ,pherecrates seems to have 
introduced into his comedy1 which was   
similar in title1 miners as slaves or as
 persons condemned to serve in the      
mines4 ,of the ,latin writers1 ,pliny1  
as ,i have already said1 has described a
 few methods of working4 ,also among the
 authors ,i must include the modern     
writers1 whosoever they are1 for no one 
should escape just condemnation who     

fails to award due recognition to       
persons whose writings he uses1 even    
very slightly4 ,two books have been     
written in our tongue2 the one on the   
assaying of mineral substances and      
metals1 somewhat confused1 whose author 
is unknown#g2 the other ,on ,veins1 of  
which ,pandulfus ,anglus#h is also said 
to have written1 although the ,german   
book was written by ,calbus of          
,freiberg1 a well-known doctor2 but     
neither of them accomplished the task he
 had begun4#i ,recently ,vannucci       
,biringuccio1 of ,sienna1 a wise man    
experienced in many matters1 wrote in   
vernacular ,italian on the subject of   
the melting1 separating1 and alloying of
 metals4#aj ,he touched briefly on the  
methods of smelting certain ores1 and   
explained more fully the methods of     
making certain juices2 by reading his   
directions1 ,i have refreshed my memory 
of those things which ,i myself saw in  
,italy2 as for many matters on which ,i 
write1 he did not touch upon them at    

all1 or touched but lightly4 ,this book 
was given me by ,franciscus ,badoarius1 
a ,patrician of ,venice1 and a man of   
wisdom and of repute2 this he had       
promised that he would do1 when in the  
previous year he was at ,marienberg1    
having been sent by the ,venetians as an
 ,ambassador to ,king ,ferdinand4       
,beyond these books ,i do not find any  
writings on the metallic arts4 ,for that
 reason1 even if the book of ,strato    
existed1 from all these sources not     
one-half of the whole body of the       
science of mining could be pieced       
together4  ,seeing that there have been 
so few who have written on the subject  
of the metals1 it appears to me all the 
more wonderful that so many alchemists  
have arisen who would compound metals   
artificially1 and who would change one  
into another4 ,hermolaus ,barbarus1#aa a
 man of high rank and station1 and      
distinguished in all kinds of learning1 
has mentioned the names of many in his  
writings2 and ,i will proffer more1 but 

only famous ones1 for ,i will limit     
myself to a few4 ,thus ,osthanes has    
written on ,greek3 chymeutika2 and there
 are ,hermes2 ,chanes2 ,zosimus1 the    
,alexandrian1 to his sister ,theosebia2 
,olympiodorus1 also an ,alexandrian2    
,agathodaemon2 ,democritus1 not the one 
of ,abdera1 but some other whom ,i know 
not2 ,orus ,chrysorichites1 ,pebichius1 
,comerius1 ,joannes1 ,apulejus1         
,petasius1 ,pelagius1 ,africanus1       
,theophilus1 ,synesius1 ,stephanus to   
,heracleus ,caesar1 ,heliodorus to      
,theodosius1 ,geber1 ,callides          
,rachaidibus1 ,veradianus1 ,rodianus1   
,canides1 ,merlin1 ,raymond ,lully1     
,arnold de ,villa ,nova1 and ,augustinus
 ,pantheus of ,venice2 and three women1 
,cleopatra1 the maiden ,taphnutia1 and  
,maria the ,jewess4#ab ,all these       
alchemists employ obscure language1 and 
,johanes ,aurelius ,augurellus of       
,rimini1 alone has used the language of 
poetry4 ,there are many other books on  
this subject1 but all are difficult to  

follow1 because the writers upon these  
things use strange names1 which do not  
properly belong to the metals1 and      
because some of them employ now one name
 and now another1 invented by           
themselves1 though the thing itself     
changes not4 ,these masters teach their 
disciples that the base metals1 when    
smelted1 are broken up2 also they teach 
the methods by which they reduce them to
 the primary parts and remove whatever  
is superfluous in them1 and by supplying
 what is wanted make out of them the    
precious metals--that is1 gold and      
silver1--all of which they carry out in 
a crucible4 ,whether they can do these  
things or not ,i cannot decide2 but1    
seeing that so many writers assure us   
with all earnestness that they have     
reached that goal for which they aimed1 
it would seem that faith might be placed
 in them2 yet also seeing that we do not
 read of any of them ever having become 
rich by this art1 nor do we now see them
 growing rich1 although so many nations 

everywhere have produced1 and are       
producing1 alchemists1 and all of them  
are straining every nerve night and day 
to the end that they may heap a great   
quantity of gold and silver1 ,i should  
say the matter is dubious4 ,but although
 it may be due to the carelessness of   
the writers that they have not          
transmitted to us the names of the      
masters who acquired great wealth       
through this occupation1 certainly it is
 clear that their disciples either do   
not understand their precepts or1 if    
they do understand them1 do not follow  
them2 for if they do comprehend them1   
seeing that these disciples have been   
and are so numerous1 they would have by 
to-day filled whole towns with gold and 
silver4 ,even their books proclaim their
 vanity1 for they inscribe in them the  
names of ,plato and ,aristotle and other
 philosophers1 in order that such       
high-sounding inscriptions may impose   
upon simple people and pass for         
learning4 ,there is another class of    

alchemists who do not change the        
substance of base metals1 but colour    
them to represent gold or silver1 so    
that they appear to be that which they  
are not1 and when this appearance is    
taken from them by the fire1 as if it   
were a garment foreign to them1 they    
return to their own character4 ,these   
alchemists1 since they deceive people1  
are not only held in the greatest odium1
 but their frauds are a capital offence4
 ,no less a fraud1 warranting capital   
punishment1 is committed by a third sort
 of alchemists2 these throw into a      
crucible a small piece of gold or silver
 hidden in a coal1 and after mixing     
therewith fluxes which have the power of
 extracting it1 pretend to be making    
gold from orpiment1 or silver from tin  
and like substances4 ,but concerning the
 art of alchemy1 if it be an art1 ,i    
will speak further elsewhere4 ,i will   
now return to the art of mining4  ,since
 no authors have written of this art in 
its entirety1 and since foreign nations 

and races do not understand our tongue1 
and1 if they did understand it1 would be
 able to learn only a small part of the 
art through the works of those authors  
whom we do possess1 ,i have written     
these twelve books ,de ,re ,metallica4  
,of these1 the first book contains the  
arguments which may be used against this
 art1 and against metals and the mines1 
and what can be said in their favour4   
,the second book describes the miner1   
and branches into a discourse on the    
finding of veins4 ,the third book deals 
with veins and stringers1 and seams in  
the rocks4 ,the fourth book explains the
 method of delimiting veins1 and also   
describes the functions of the mining   
officials4 ,the fifth book describes the
 digging of ore and the surveyor's art4 
,the sixth book describes the miners'   
tools and machines4 ,the seventh book is
 on the assaying of ore4 ,the eighth    
book lays down the rules for the work of
 roasting1 crushing1 and washing the    
ore4 ,the ninth book explains the       

methods of smelting ores4 ,the tenth    
book instructs those who are studious of
 the metallic arts in the work of       
separating silver from gold1 and lead   
from gold and silver4 ,the eleventh book
 shows the way of separating silver from
 copper4 ,the twelfth book gives us     
rules for manufacturing salt1 soda1     
alum1 vitriol1 sulphur1 bitumen1 and    
glass4  ,although ,i have not fulfilled 
the task which ,i have undertaken1 on   
account of the great magnitude of the   
subject1 ,i have1 at all events1        
endeavoured to fulfil it1 for ,i have   
devoted much labour and care1 and have  
even gone to some expense upon it2 for  
with regard to the veins1 tools1        
vessels1 sluices1 machines1 and         
furnaces1 ,i have not only described    
them1 but have also hired illustrators  
to delineate their forms1 lest          
descriptions which are conveyed by words
 should either not be understood by men 
of our own times1 or should cause       
difficulty to posterity1 in the same way

 as to us difficulty is often caused by 
many names which the ,ancients 7because 
such words were familiar to all of them7
 have handed down to us without any     
explanation4  ,i have omitted all those 
things which ,i have not myself seen1 or
 have not read or heard of from persons 
upon whom ,i can rely4 ,that which ,i   
have neither seen1 nor carefully        
considered after reading or hearing of1 
,i have not written about4 ,the same    
rule must be understood with regard to  
all my instruction1 whether ,i enjoin   
things which ought to be done1 or       
describe things which are usual1 or     
condemn things which are done4 ,since   
the art of mining does not lend itself  
to elegant language1 these books of mine
 are correspondingly lacking in         
refinement of style4 ,the things dealt  
with in this art of metals sometimes    
lack names1 either because they are new1
 or because1 even if they are old1 the  
record of the names by which they were  
formerly known has been lost4 ,for this 

reason ,i have been forced by a         
necessity1 for which ,i must be         
pardoned1 to describe some of them by a 
number of words combined1 and to        
distinguish others by new names1--to    
which latter class belong ,ingestor1    
,discretor1 ,lotor1 and ,excoctor4#ac   
,other things1 again1 ,i have alluded to
 by old names1 such as the ,cisium2 for 
when ,nonius ,marcellus wrote1#ad this  
was the name of a two-wheeled vehicle1  
but ,i have adopted it for a small      
vehicle which has only one wheel2 and if
 anyone does not approve of these names1
 let him either find more appropriate   
ones for these things1 or discover the  
words used in the writings of the       
,ancients4  ,these books1 most          
illustrious ,princes1 are dedicated to  
you for many reasons1 and1 above all    
others1 because metals have proved of   
the greatest value to you2 for though   
your ancestors drew rich profits from   
the revenues of their vast and wealthy  
territories1 and likewise from the taxes

 which were paid by the foreigners by   
way of toll and by the natives by way of
 tithes1 yet they drew far richer       
profits from the mines4 ,because of the 
mines not a few towns have risen into   
eminence1 such as ,freiberg1 ,annaberg1 
,marienberg1 ,schneeberg1 ,geyer1 and   
,altenberg1 not to mention others4 ,nay1
 if ,i understand anything1 greater     
wealth now lies hidden beneath the      
ground in the mountainous parts of your 
territory than is visible and apparent  
above ground4 ,farewell4      ,chemnitz1
 ,saxony1     ,december ,first1 #aeej4  
,,footnotes3  #a ,for ,agricola's       
relations with these princes see p4 ix4 
#b ,lucius ,junius ,moderatus ,columella
 was a ,roman1 a native of ,cadiz1 and  
lived during the #ast ,century4 ,he was 
the author of ,de ,re ,rustica in #ab   
books4 ,it was first printed in #adgb1  
and some fifteen or sixteen editions had
 been printed before ,agricola's death4 
#c ,we give a short review of ,pliny's  
,naturalis ,historia in the ,appendix   

,b4  #d ,this work is not extant1 as    
,agricola duly notes later on4 ,strato  
succeeded ,theophrastus as president of 
the ,lyceum1 #bhh ,b4,c4  #e ,for note  
on ,theophrastus see ,appendix ,b4  #f  
,it appears that the poet ,philo did    
write a work on mining which is not     
extant4 ,so far as we know the only     
reference to this work is in ,athenaeus'
 7#bjj ,a4,d47 ,deipnosophistae4 ,the   
passage as it appears in ,c4 ,d4        
,yonge's ,translation 7,bonn's ,library1
 ,london1 #ahed1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,book      
,,vii1 p4 #ejf7 is3 ,and there is a     
similar fish produced in the ,red ,sea  
which is called ,stromateus2 it has     
gold-coloured lines running along the   
whole of his body1 as ,philo tells us in
 his book on ,mines4 ,there is a        
fragment of a poem of ,pherecrates1     
entitled ,miners1 but it seems to have  
little to do with mining4  #g ,the title
 given by ,agricola ,de ,materiae       
,metallicae et ,metallorum ,experimento 
is difficult to identify4 ,it seems     

likely to be the little ,probier        
,buechlein1 numbers of which were       
published in ,german in the first half  
of the #afth ,century4 ,we discuss this 
work at some length in the ,appendix ,b 
on ,ancient ,authors4  #h ,pandulfus1   
the ,englishman1 is mentioned by various
 #aeth and #afth ,century writers1 and  
in the preface of ,mathias ,farinator's 
,liber ,moralitatum 444 ,rerum          
,naturalium1 etc41 printed in ,augsburg1
 #adgg1 there is a list of books among  
which appears a reference to a work by  
,pandulfus on veins and minerals4 ,we   
have not been able to find the book4  #i
 ,jacobi 7,der ,mineralog ,georgius     
,agricola1 ,zwickau1 #ahha1 p4 #dg7     
says3 ,calbus ,freibergius1 so called by
 ,agricola himself1 is certainly no     
other than the ,freiberg ,doctor        
,ruehlein von ,kalbe2 he was1 according 
to ,moeller1 a doctor and burgomaster at
 ,freiberg at the end of the #aeth and  
the beginning of the #afth              
,centuries4444 ,the chronicler describes

 him as a fine mathematician1 who helped
 to survey and design the mining towns  
of ,annaberg in #adig and ,marienberg in
 #aeba4 ,we would call attention to the 
statement of ,calbus' views1 quoted at  
the end of ,book ,,iii1 ,de ,re         
,metallica 7p4 #ge71 which are          
astonishingly similar to statements in  
the ,nuetzlich ,bergbuechlin1 and leave 
little doubt that this ,calbus was the  
author of that anonymous book on veins4 
,for further discussion see ,appendix   
,b4  #aj ,for discussion of ,biringuccio
 see ,appendix ,b4 ,the proper title is 
,de ,la ,pirotechnia 7,venice1 #aedj74  
#aa ,hermolaus ,barbarus1 according to  
,watt 7,bibliotheca ,britannica1        
,london1 #ahbd71 was a lecturer on      
,philosophy in ,padua4 ,he was born in  
#aded1 died in #adic1 and was the author
 of a number of works on medicine1      
natural history1 etc41 with commentaries
 on the older authors4  #ab ,the debt   
which humanity does owe to these        
self-styled philosophers must not be    

overlooked1 for the science of          
,chemistry comes from three             
sources--,alchemy1 ,medicine and        
,metallurgy4 ,however polluted the      
former of these may be1 still the vast  
advance which it made by the discovery  
of the principal acids1 alkalis1 and the
 more common of their salts1 should be  
constantly recognized4 ,it is obviously 
impossible1 within the space of a       
footnote1 to give anything but the most 
casual notes as to the personages here  
mentioned and their writings4 ,aside    
from the classics and religious works1  
the libraries of the ,middle ,ages      
teemed with more material on ,alchemy   
than on any other one subject1 and since
 that date a never-ending stream of     
historical1 critical1 and discursive    
volumes and tracts devoted to the old   
,alchemists and their writings has been 
poured upon the world4 ,a collection    
recently sold in ,london1 relating to   
,paracelsus alone1 embraced over seven  
hundred volumes4  ,of many of the       

,alchemists mentioned by ,agricola      
little is really known1 and no two      
critics agree as to the commonest       
details regarding many of them2 in fact1
 an endless confusion springs from the  
negligent habit of the lesser           
,alchemists of attributing the          
authorship of their writings to more    
esteemed members of their own ilk1 such 
as ,hermes1 ,osthanes1 etc41 not to     
mention the palpable spuriousness of    
works under the names of the real       
philosophers1 such as ,aristotle1       
,plato1 or ,moses1 and even of ,jesus   
,christ4 ,knowledge of many of the      
authors mentioned by ,agricola does not 
extend beyond the fact that the names   
mentioned are appended to various       
writings1 in some instances to ,,mss yet
 unpublished4 ,they may have been actual
 persons1 or they may not4 ,agricola    
undoubtedly had perused such manuscripts
 and books in some leading library1 as  
the quotation from ,boerhaave given     
later shows4 ,shaw 7,a ,new ,method of  

,chemistry1 etc41 ,london1 #agec4 ,vol4 
,i1 p4 #be7 considers that the large    
number of such manuscripts in the       
,european libraries at this time were   
composed or transcribed by monks and    
others living in ,constantinople1       
,alexandria1 and ,athens1 who fled      
westward before the ,turkish invasion1  
bringing their works with them4  ,for   
purposes of this summary we group the   
names mentioned by ,agricola1 the first 
class being of those who are known only 
as names appended to ,,mss or not       
identifiable at all4 ,possibly a more   
devoted student of the history of       
,alchemy would assign fewer names to    
this department of oblivion4 ,they are  
,maria the ,jewess1 ,orus               
,chrysorichites1 ,chanes1 ,petasius1    
,pebichius1 ,theophilus1 ,callides1     
,veradianus1 ,rodianus1 ,canides1 the   
maiden ,taphnutia1 ,johannes1           
,augustinus1 and ,africanus4 ,the last  
three are names so common as not to be  
possible of identification without more 

particulars1 though ,johannes may be the
 ,johannes ,rupeseissa 7#acge71 an      
alchemist of some note4 ,many of these  
names can be found among the ,bishops   
and ,prelates of the early ,christian   
,church1 but we doubt if their owners   
would ever be identified with such      
indiscretions as open1 avowed alchemy4  
,the ,theophilus mentioned might be the 
metal-working monk of the #abth         
,century1 who is further discussed in   
,appendix ,b on ,ancient ,authors4  ,in 
the next group fall certain names such  
as ,osthanes1 ,hermes1 ,zosimus1        
,agathodaemon1 and ,democritus1 which   
have been the watchwords of authority to
 ,alchemists of all ages4 ,these        
certainly possessed the great secrets1  
either the philosopher's stone or the   
elixir4 ,hermes ,trismegistos was a     
legendary ,egyptian personage supposed  
to have flourished before #a1ejj ,b4,c41
 and by some considered to be a         
corruption of the god ,thoth4 ,he is    
supposed to have written a number of    

works1 but those extant have been       
demonstrated to date not prior to the   
second ,century2 he is referred to by   
the later ,greek ,alchemists1 and was   
believed to have possessed the secret of
 transmutation4 ,osthanes was also a    
very shadowy personage1 and was         
considered by some ,alchemists to have  
been an ,egyptian prior to ,hermes1 by  
others to have been the teacher of      
,zoroaster4 ,pliny mentions a magician  
of this name who accompanied ,xerxes'   
army4 ,later there are many others of   
this name1 and the most probable        
explanation is that this was a favourite
 pseudonym for ancient magicians2 there 
is a very old work1 of no great         
interest1 in ,,mss in ,latin and ,greek1
 in the ,munich1 ,gotha1 ,vienna1 and   
other libraries1 by one of this name4   
,agathodaemon was still another shadowy 
character referred to by the older      
,alchemists4 ,there are ,,mss in the    
,florence1 ,paris1 ,escurial1 and       
,munich libraries bearing his name1 but 

nothing tangible is known as to whether 
he was an actual man or if these        
writings are not of a much later period 
than claimed4  ,to the next group belong
 the ,greek ,alchemists1 who flourished 
during the rise and decline of          
,alexandria1 from #bjj ,b4,c4 to #gjj   
,a4,d41 and we give them in order of    
their dates4 ,comerius was considered by
 his later fellow professionals to have 
been the teacher of the art to          
,cleopatra 7#ast ,century ,b4,c471 and a
 ,,mss with a title to that effect      
exists in the ,bibliotheque ,nationale  
at ,paris4 ,the celebrated ,cleopatra   
seems to have stood very high in the    
estimation of the ,alchemists2 perhaps  
her doubtful character found a response 
among them2 there are various works     
extant in ,,mss attributed to her1 but  
nothing can be known as to their        
authenticity4 ,lucius ,apulejus or      
,apuleius was born in ,numidia about the
 #bnd ,century2 he was a ,roman         
,platonic ,philosopher1 and was the     

author of a romance1 ,the               
,metamorphosis1 or the ,golden ,ass4    
,synesius was a ,greek1 but of unknown  
period2 there is a ,,mss treatise on the
 ,philosopher's ,stone in the library at
 ,leyden under his name1 and various    
printed works are attributed to him2 he 
mentions water of saltpetre1 and has1   
therefore1 been hazarded to be the      
earliest recorder of nitric acid4 ,the  
work here referred to as ,heliodorus to 
,theodosius was probably the ,,mss in   
the ,libraries at ,paris1 ,vienna1      
,munich1 etc41 under the title of       
,heliodorus the ,philosopher's ,poem to 
the ,emperor ,theodosius the ,great on  
the ,mystic ,art of the ,philosophers1  
etc4 ,his period would1 therefore1 be   
about the #dth ,century4 ,the           
,alexandrian ,zosimus is more generally 
known as ,zosimus the ,panopolite1 from 
,panopolis1 an ancient town on the      
,nile2 he flourished in the #eth        
,century1 and belonged to the           
,alexandrian ,school of ,alchemists2 he 

should not be confused with the ,roman  
historian of the same name and period4  
,the following statement is by          
,boerhaave 7,elementa ,chemiae1 ,paris1 
#agbd1 ,chap4 ,i473--,the name          
,chemistry written in ,greek1 or        
,chemia1 is so ancient as perhaps to    
have been used in the antediluvian age4 
,of this opinion was ,zosimus the       
,panopolite1 whose ,greek writings1     
though known as long as before the year 
#aeej to ,george ,agricola1 and         
afterwards perused 444 by ,jas4         
,scaliger and ,olaus ,borrichius1 still 
remain unpublished in the ,king of      
,france's library4 ,in one of these1    
entitled1 ',the ,instruction of ,zosimus
 the ,panopolite and ,philosopher1 out  
of those written to ,theosebia1 etc4444'
 ,olympiodorus was an ,alexandrian of   
the #eth ,century1 whose writings were  
largely commentaries on ,plato and      
,aristotle2 he is sometimes accredited  
with being the first to describe white  
arsenic 7arsenical oxide74 ,the full    

title of the work styled ,stephanus to  
,heracleus ,caesar1 as published in     
,latin at ,padua in #aegc1 was ,stephan 
of ,alexandria1 the ,universal          
,philosopher and ,master1 his nine      
processes on the great art of making    
gold and silver1 addressed to the       
,emperor ,heraclius4 ,he1 therefore1 if 
authentic1 dates in the #gth ,century4  
,to the next class belong those of the  
,middle ,ages1 which we give in order of
 date4 ,the works attributed to ,geber  
play such an important part in the      
history of ,chemistry and ,metallurgy   
that we discuss his book at length in   
,appendix ,b4 ,late criticism indicates 
that this work was not the production of
 an #hth ,century ,arab1 but a          
compilation of some ,latin scholar of   
the #abth or #acth ,centuries4 ,arnold  
de ,villa ,nova1 born about #abdj1 died 
in #acac1 was celebrated as a physician1
 philosopher1 and chemist2 his first    
works were published in ,lyons in #aejd2
 many of them have apparently never been

 printed1 for references may be found to
 some #ah different works4 ,raymond     
,lully1 a ,spaniard1 born in #abce1 who 
was a disciple of ,arnold de ,villa     
,nova1 was stoned to death in ,africa in
 #acae4 ,there are extant over #ajj     
works attributed to this author1        
although again the habit of disciples of
 writing under the master's name may be 
responsible for most of these4 ,john    
,aurelio ,augurello was an ,italian     
,classicist1 born in ,rimini about      
#adec4 ,the work referred to1           
,chrysopoeia et ,gerontica is a poem on 
the art of making gold1 etc41 published 
in ,venice1 #aeae1 and re-published     
frequently thereafter2 it is much quoted
 by ,alchemists4 ,with regard to        
,merlin1 as satisfactory an account as  
any of this truly ,english magician may 
be found in ,mark ,twain's ,yankee at   
the ,court of ,king ,arthur4 ,it is of  
some interest to note that ,agricola    
omits from his list ,avicenna 7#ihj-ajcg
 ,a4,d471 ,roger ,bacon 7#abad-abid71   

,albertus ,magnus 7#aaic-abhj71 ,basil  
,valentine 7end #aeth century871 and    
,paracelsus1 a contemporary of his own4 
,in ,de ,ortu et ,causis he expends much
 thought on refutation of theories      
advanced by ,avicenna and ,albertus1 but
 of the others we have found no mention1
 although their work is1 from a chemical
 point of view1 of considerable         
importance4  #ac ,ingestor1--,carrier2  
,discretor1--,sorter2 ,lotor1--,washer2 
,excoctor1--,smelter4  #ad ,nonius      
,marcellus was a ,roman grammarian of   
the #dth ,century ,b4,c4 ,his extant    
treatise is entitled1 ,de ,compendiosa  
,doctrina per ,litteras ad ,filium4     
,,book ,i4   ,many persons hold the     
opinion that the metal industries are   
fortuitous and that the occupation is   
one of sordid toil1 and altogether a    
kind of business requiring not so much  
skill as labour4 ,but as for myself1    
when ,i reflect carefully upon its      
special points one by one1 it appears to
 be far otherwise4 ,for a miner must    

have the greatest skill in his work1    
that he may know first of all what      
mountain or hill1 what valley or plain1 
can be prospected most profitably1 or   
what he should leave alone2 moreover1 he
 must understand the veins1 stringers#a 
and seams in the rocks#b4 ,then he must 
be thoroughly familiar with the many and
 varied species of earths1 juices#c1    
gems1 stones1 marbles1 rocks1 metals1   
and compounds#d4 ,he must also have a   
complete knowledge of the method of     
making all underground works4 ,lastly1  
there are the various systems of        
assaying#e substances and of preparing  
them for smelting2 and here again there 
are many altogether diverse methods4    
,for there is one method for gold and   
silver1 another for copper1 another for 
quicksilver1 another for iron1 another  
for lead1 and even tin and bismuth#f are
 treated differently from lead4         
,although the evaporation of juices is  
an art apparently quite distinct from   
metallurgy1 yet they ought not to be    

considered separately1 inasmuch as these
 juices are also often dug out of the   
ground solidified1 or they are produced 
from certain kinds of earth and stones  
which the miners dig up1 and some of the
 juices are not themselves devoid of    
metals4 ,again1 their treatment is not  
simple1 since there is one method for   
common salt1 another for soda#g1 another
 for alum1 another for vitriol#h1       
another for sulphur1 and another for    
bitumen4  ,furthermore1 there are many  
arts and sciences of which a miner      
should not be ignorant4 ,first there is 
,philosophy1 that he may discern the    
origin1 cause1 and nature of            
subterranean things2 for then he will be
 able to dig out the veins easily and   
advantageously1 and to obtain more      
abundant results from his mining4       
,secondly1 there is ,medicine1 that he  
may be able to look after his diggers   
and other workmen1 that they do not meet
 with those diseases to which they are  
more liable than workmen in other       

occupations1 or if they do meet with    
them1 that he himself may be able to    
heal them or may see that the doctors do
 so4 ,thirdly follows ,astronomy1 that  
he may know the divisions of the heavens
 and from them judge the direction of   
the veins4 ,fourthly1 there is the      
science of ,surveying that he may be    
able to estimate how deep a shaft should
 be sunk to reach the tunnel which is   
being driven to it1 and to determine the
 limits and boundaries in these         
workings1 especially in depth4 ,fifthly1
 his knowledge of ,arithmetical ,science
 should be such that he may calculate   
the cost to be incurred in the machinery
 and the working of the mine4 ,sixthly1 
his learning must comprise              
,architecture1 that he himself may      
construct the various machines and      
timber work required underground1 or    
that he may be able to explain the      
method of the construction to others4   
,next1 he must have knowledge of        
,drawing1 that he can draw plans of his 

machinery4 ,lastly1 there is the ,law1  
especially that dealing with metals1    
that he may claim his own rights1 that  
he may undertake the duty of giving     
others his opinion on legal matters1    
that he may not take another man's      
property and so make trouble for        
himself1 and that he may fulfil his     
obligations to others according to the  
law4  ,it is therefore necessary that   
those who take an interest in the       
methods and precepts of mining and      
metallurgy should read these and others 
of our books studiously and diligently2 
or on every point they should consult   
expert mining people1 though they will  
discover few who are skilled in the     
whole art4 ,as a rule one man           
understands only the methods of mining1 
another possesses the knowledge of      
washing#i1 another is experienced in the
 art of smelting1 another has a         
knowledge of measuring the hidden parts 
of the earth1 another is skilful in the 
art of making machines1 and finally1    

another is learned in mining law4 ,but  
as for us1 though we may not have       
perfected the whole art of the discovery
 and preparation of metals1 at least we 
can be of great assistance to persons   
studious in its acquisition4  ,but let  
us now approach the subject we have     
undertaken4 ,since there has always been
 the greatest disagreement amongst men  
concerning metals and mining1 some      
praising1 others utterly condemning     
them1 therefore ,i have decided that    
before imparting my instruction1 ,i     
should carefully weigh the facts with a 
view to discovering the truth in this   
matter4  ,so ,i may begin with the      
question of utility1 which is a two-fold
 one1 for either it may be asked whether
 the art of mining is really profitable 
or not to those who are engaged in it1  
or whether it is useful or not to the   
rest of mankind4 ,those who think mining
 of no advantage to the men who follow  
the occupation assert1 first1 that      
scarcely one in a hundred who dig metals

 or other such things derive profit     
therefrom2 and again1 that miners1      
because they entrust their certain and  
well-established wealth to dubious and  
slippery fortune1 generally deceive     
themselves1 and as a result1            
impoverished by expenses and losses1 in 
the end spend the most bitter and most  
miserable of lives4 ,but persons who    
hold these views do not perceive how    
much a learned and experienced miner    
differs from one ignorant and unskilled 
in the art4 ,the latter digs out the ore
 without any careful discrimination1    
while the former first assays and proves
 it1 and when he finds the veins either 
too narrow and hard1 or too wide and    
soft1 he infers therefrom that these    
cannot be mined profitably1 and so works
 only the approved ones4 ,what wonder   
then if we find the incompetent miner   
suffers loss1 while the competent one is
 rewarded by an abundant return from his
 mining8 ,the same thing applies to     
husbandmen4 ,for those who cultivate    

land which is alike arid1 heavy1 and    
barren1 and in which they sow seeds1 do 
not make so great a harvest as those who
 cultivate a fertile and mellow soil and
 sow their grain in that4 ,and since by 
far the greater number of miners are    
unskilled rather than skilled in the    
art1 it follows that mining is a        
profitable occupation to very few men1  
and a source of loss to many more4      
,therefore the mass of miners who are   
quite unskilled and ignorant in the     
knowledge of veins not infrequently lose
 both time and trouble#aj4 ,such men are
 accustomed for the most part to take to
 mining1 either when through being      
weighted with the fetters of large and  
heavy debts1 they have abandoned a      
business1 or desiring to change their   
occupation1 have left the reaping-hook  
and plough2 and so if at any time such a
 man discovers rich veins or other      
abounding mining produce1 this occurs   
more by good luck than through any      
knowledge on his part4 ,we learn from   

history that mining has brought wealth  
to many1 for from old writings it is    
well known that prosperous ,republics1  
not a few kings1 and many private       
persons1 have made fortunes through     
mines and their produce4 ,this subject1 
by the use of many clear and illustrious
 examples1 ,i have dilated upon and     
explained in the first ,book of my work 
entitled ,de ,veteribus et ,novis       
,metallis1 from which it is evident that
 mining is very profitable to those who 
give it care and attention4  ,again1    
those who condemn the mining industry   
say that it is not in the least stable1 
and they glorify agriculture beyond     
measure4 ,but ,i do not see how they can
 say this with truth1 for the silver    
mines at ,freiberg in ,meissen remain   
still unexhausted after #djj years1 and 
the lead mines of ,goslar after #fjj    
years4 ,the proof of this can be found  
in the monuments of history4 ,the gold  
and silver mines belonging to the       
communities of ,schemnitz and ,cremnitz 

have been worked for #hjj years1 and    
these latter are said to be the most    
ancient privileges of the inhabitants4  
,some then say the profit from an       
individual mine is unstable1 as if      
forsooth1 the miner is1 or ought to be  
dependent on only one mine1 and as if   
many men do not bear in common their    
expenses in mining1 or as if one        
experienced in his art does not dig     
another vein1 if fortune does not amply 
respond to his prayers in the first     
case4 ,the ,new ,schoenberg at ,freiberg
 has remained stable beyond the memory  
of man#aa4  ,it is not my intention to  
detract anything from the dignity of    
agriculture1 and that the profits of    
mining are less stable ,i will always   
and readily admit1 for the veins do in  
time cease to yield metals1 whereas the 
fields bring forth fruits every year4   
,but though the business of mining may  
be less reliable it is more productive1 
so that in reckoning up1 what is wanting
 in stability is found to be made up by 

productiveness4 ,indeed1 the yearly     
profit of a lead mine in comparison with
 the fruitfulness of the best fields1 is
 three times or at least twice as great4
 ,how much does the profit from gold or 
silver mines exceed that earned from    
agriculture8 ,wherefore truly and       
shrewdly does ,xenophon#ab write about  
the ,athenian silver mines3 ,there is   
land of such a nature that if you sow1  
it does not yield crops1 but if you dig1
 it nourishes many more than if it had  
borne fruit4 ,so let the farmers have   
for themselves the fruitful fields and  
cultivate the fertile hills for the sake
 of their produce2 but let them leave to
 miners the gloomy valleys and sterile  
mountains1 that they may draw forth from
 these1 gems and metals which can buy1  
not only the crops1 but all things that 
are sold4  ,the critics say further that
 mining is a perilous occupation to     
pursue1 because the miners are sometimes
 killed by the pestilential air which   
they breathe2 sometimes their lungs rot 

away2 sometimes the men perish by being 
crushed in masses of rock2 sometimes1   
falling from the ladders into the       
shafts1 they break their arms1 legs1 or 
necks2 and it is added there is no      
compensation which should be thought    
great enough to equalize the extreme    
dangers to safety and life4 ,these      
occurrences1 ,i confess1 are of         
exceeding gravity1 and moreover1 fraught
 with terror and peril1 so that ,i      
should consider that the metals should  
not be dug up at all1 if such things    
were to happen very frequently to the   
miners1 or if they could not safely     
guard against such risks by any means4  
,who would not prefer to live rather    
than to possess all things1 even the    
metals8 ,for he who thus perishes       
possesses nothing1 but relinquishes all 
to his heirs4 ,but since things like    
this rarely happen1 and only in so far  
as workmen are careless1 they do not    
deter miners from carrying on their     
trade any more than it would deter a    

carpenter from his1 because one of his  
mates has acted incautiously and lost   
his life by falling from a high         
building4 ,i have thus answered each    
argument which critics are wont to put  
before me when they assert that mining  
is an undesirable occupation1 because it
 involves expense with uncertainty of   
return1 because it is changeable1 and   
because it is dangerous to those engaged
 in it4  ,now ,i come to those critics  
who say that mining is not useful to the
 rest of mankind because forsooth1 gems1
 metals1 and other mineral products are 
worthless in themselves4 ,this admission
 they try to extort from us1 partly by  
arguments and examples1 partly by       
misrepresentations and abuse of us4     
,first1 they make use of this argument3 
,the earth does not conceal and remove  
from our eyes those things which are    
useful and necessary to mankind1 but on 
the contrary1 like a beneficent and     
kindly mother she yields in large       
abundance from her bounty and brings    

into the light of day the herbs1        
vegetables1 grains1 and fruits1 and the 
trees4 ,the minerals on the other hand  
she buries far beneath in the depth of  
the ground2 therefore1 they should not  
be sought4 ,but they are dug out by     
wicked men who1 as the poets say1 are   
the products of the ,iron ,age4 ,ovid   
censures their audacity in the following
 lines3--       ,and not only was the   
rich soil required to furnish corn and  
due sustenance1 but men even descended  
into the entrails of the      earth1 and
 they dug up riches1 those incentives to
 vice1 which      the earth had hidden  
and had removed to the ,stygian shades4 
,then destructive iron came forth1 and  
gold1 more destructive      than iron2  
then war came forth4#ac  ,another of    
their arguments is this3 ,metals offer  
to men no advantages1 therefore we ought
 not to search them out4 ,for whereas   
man is composed of soul and body1       
neither is in want of minerals4 ,the    
sweetest food of the soul is the        

contemplation of nature1 a knowledge of 
the finest arts and sciences1 an        
understanding of virtue2 and if he      
interests his mind in excellent things1 
if he exercise his body1 he will be     
satisfied with this feast of noble      
thoughts and knowledge1 and have no     
desire for other things4 ,now although  
the human body may be content with      
necessary food and clothing1 yet the    
fruits of the earth and the animals of  
different kinds supply him in wonderful 
abundance with food and drink1 from     
which the body may be suitably nourished
 and strengthened and life prolonged to 
old age4 ,flax1 wool1 and the skins of  
many animals provide plentiful clothing 
low in price2 while a luxurious kind1   
not hard to procure--that is the so     
called seric material1 is furnished by  
the down of trees and the webs of the   
silk worm4 ,so that the body has        
absolutely no need of the metals1 so    
hidden in the depths of the earth and   
for the greater part very expensive4    

,wherefore it is said that this maxim of
 ,euripides is approved in assemblies of
 learned men1 and with good reason was  
always on the lips of ,socrates3        
,works of silver and purple are of use1 
not for human life1 but      rather for 
,tragedians4#ad  ,these critics praise  
also this saying from ,timocreon of     
,rhodes3       ,o ,unseeing ,plutus1    
would that thou hadst never appeared in 
the      earth or in the sea or on the  
land1 but that thou didst have      thy 
habitation in ,tartarus and ,acheron1   
for out of thee arise      all evil     
things which overtake mankind#ae4  ,they
 greatly extol these lines from         
,phocylides3       ,gold and silver are 
injurious to mortals2 gold is the source
      of crime1 the plague of life1 and 
the ruin of all things4 ,would      that
 thou were not such an attractive       
scourge6 because of thee      arise     
robberies1 homicides1 warfare1 brothers 
are maddened      against brothers1 and 
children against parents4  ,this from   

,naumachius also pleases them3          
,gold and silver are but dust1 like the 
stones that lie      scattered on the   
pebbly beach1 or on the margins of the  
rivers4  ,on the other hand1 they       
censure these verses of ,euripides3     
,plutus is the god for wise men2 all    
else is mere folly and at      the same 
time a deception in words4  ,so in like 
manner these lines from ,theognis3      
,o ,plutus1 thou most beautiful and     
placid god6 whilst ,i have      thee1   
however bad ,i am1 ,i can be regarded as
 good4  ,they also blame ,aristodemus1  
the ,spartan1 for these words3          
,money makes the man2 no one who is poor
 is either good or      honoured4  ,and 
they rebuke these songs of ,timocles3   
,money is the life and soul of mortal   
men4 ,he who has not      heaped up     
riches for himself wanders like a dead  
man amongst      the living4  ,finally1 
they blame ,menander when he wrote3     
,epicharmus asserts that the gods are   
water1 wind1 fire1 earth1      sun1 and 

stars4 ,but ,i am of opinion that the   
gods of any use to      us are silver   
and gold2 for if thou wilt set these up 
in thy      house thou mayest seek      
whatever thou wilt4 ,all things will    
fall      to thy lot2 land1 houses1     
slaves1 silver-work2 moreover           
friends1 judges1 and witnesses4 ,only   
give freely1 for thus thou      hast the
 gods to serve thee4  ,but besides this1
 the strongest argument of the          
detractors is that the fields are       
devastated by mining operations1 for    
which reason formerly ,italians were    
warned by law that no one should dig the
 earth for metals and so injure their   
very fertile fields1 their vineyards1   
and their olive groves4 ,also they argue
 that the woods and groves are cut down1
 for there is need of an endless amount 
of wood for timbers1 machines1 and the  
smelting of metals4 ,and when the woods 
and groves are felled1 then are         
exterminated the beasts and birds1 very 
many of which furnish a pleasant and    

agreeable food for man4 ,further1 when  
the ores are washed1 the water which has
 been used poisons the brooks and       
streams1 and either destroys the fish or
 drives them away4 ,therefore the       
inhabitants of these regions1 on account
 of the devastation of their fields1    
woods1 groves1 brooks and rivers1 find  
great difficulty in procuring the       
necessaries of life1 and by reason of   
the destruction of the timber they are  
forced to greater expense in erecting   
buildings4 ,thus it is said1 it is clear
 to all that there is greater detriment 
from mining than the value of the metals
 which the mining produces4  ,so in     
fierce contention they clamour1 showing 
by such examples as follow that every   
great man has been content with virtue1 
and despised metals4 ,they praise ,bias 
because he esteemed the metals merely as
 fortune's playthings1 not as his real  
wealth4 ,when his enemies had captured  
his native ,priene1 and his             
fellow-citizens laden with precious     

things had betaken themselves to flight1
 he was asked by one1 why he carried    
away none of his goods with him1 and he 
replied1 ,i carry all my possessions    
with me4 ,and it is said that ,socrates1
 having received twenty minae sent to   
him by ,aristippus1 a grateful disciple1
 refused them and sent them back to him 
by the command of his conscience4       
,aristippus1 following his example in   
this matter1 despised gold and regarded 
it as of no value4 ,and once when he was
 making a journey with his slaves1 and  
they1 laden with the gold1 went too     
slowly1 he ordered them to keep only as 
much of it as they could carry without  
distress and to throw away the          
remainder#af4 ,moreover1 ,anacreon of   
,teos1 an ancient and noble poet1       
because he had been troubled about them 
for two nights1 returned five talents   
which had been given him by ,polycrates1
 saying that they were not worth the    
anxiety which he had gone through on    
their account4 ,in like manner          

celebrated and exceedingly powerful     
princes have imitated the philosophers  
in their scorn and contempt for gold and
 silver4 ,there was for example1        
,phocion1 the ,athenian1 who was        
appointed general of the army so many   
times1 and who1 when a large sum of gold
 was sent to him as a gift by           
,alexander1 ,king of ,macedon1 deemed it
 trifling and scorned it4 ,and ,marcus  
,curius ordered the gold to be carried  
back to the ,samnites1 as did also      
,fabricius ,luscinus with regard to the 
silver and copper4 ,and certain         
,republics have forbidden their citizens
 the use and employment of gold and     
silver by law and ordinance2 the        
,lacedaemonians1 by the decrees and     
ordinances of ,lycurgus1 used diligently
 to enquire among their citizens whether
 they possessed any of these things or  
not1 and the possessor1 when he was     
caught1 was punished according to law   
and justice4 ,the inhabitants of a town 
on the ,tigris1 called ,babytace1 buried

 their gold in the ground so that no one
 should use it4 ,the ,scythians         
condemned the use of gold and silver so 
that they might not become avaricious4  
,further are the metals reviled2 in the 
first place people wantonly abuse gold  
and silver and call them deadly and     
nefarious pests of the human race1      
because those who possess them are in   
the greatest peril1 for those who have  
none lay snares for the possessors of   
wealth1 and thus again and again the    
metals have been the cause of           
destruction and ruin4 ,for example1     
,polymnestor1 ,king of ,thrace1 to      
obtain possession of his gold1 killed   
,polydorus1 his noble guest and the son 
of ,priam1 his father-in-law1 and old   
friend4 ,pygmalion1 the ,king of ,tyre1 
in order that he might seize treasures  
of gold and silver1 killed his sister's 
husband1 a priest1 taking no account of 
either kinship or religion4 ,for love of
 gold ,eriphyle betrayed her husband    
,amphiaraus to his enemy4 ,likewise     

,lasthenes betrayed the city of         
,olynthus to ,philip of ,macedon4 ,the  
daughter of ,spurius ,tarpeius1 having  
been bribed with gold1 admitted the     
,sabines into the citadel of ,rome4     
,claudius ,curio sold his country for   
gold to ,caesar1 the ,dictator4 ,gold1  
too1 was the cause of the downfall of   
,aesculapius1 the great physician1 who  
it was believed was the son of ,apollo4 
,similarly ,marcus ,crassus1 through his
 eager desire for the gold of the       
,parthians1 was completely overcome     
together with his son and eleven        
legions1 and became the jest of his     
enemies2 for they poured liquid gold    
into the gaping mouth of the slain      
,crassus1 saying3 ,thou hast thirsted   
for gold1 therefore drink gold4  ,but   
why need ,i cite here these many        
examples from history8#ag ,it is almost 
our daily experience to learn that1 for 
the sake of obtaining gold and silver1  
doors are burst open1 walls are pierced1
 wretched travellers are struck down by 

rapacious and cruel men born to theft1  
sacrilege1 invasion1 and robbery4 ,we   
see thieves seized and strung up before 
us1 sacrilegious persons burnt alive1   
the limbs of robbers broken on the      
wheel1 wars waged for the same reason1  
which are not only destructive to those 
against whom they are waged1 but to     
those also who carry them on4 ,nay1 but 
they say that the precious metals foster
 all manner of vice1 such as the        
seduction of women1 adultery1 and       
unchastity1 in short1 crimes of violence
 against the person4 ,therefore the     
,poets1 when they represent ,jove       
transformed into a golden shower and    
falling into the lap of ,danae1 merely  
mean that he had found for himself a    
safe road by the use of gold1 by which  
he might enter the tower for the purpose
 of violating the maiden4 ,moreover1 the
 fidelity of many men is overthrown by  
the love of gold and silver1 judicial   
sentences are bought1 and innumerable   
crimes are perpetrated4 ,for truly1 as  

,propertius says3       ,this is indeed 
the ,golden ,age4 ,the greatest rewards 
come from      gold2 by gold love is    
won2 by gold is faith destroyed2 by gold
      is justice bought2 the law follows
 the track of gold1 while      modesty  
will soon follow it when law is gone4   
,diphilus says3       ,i consider that  
nothing is more powerful than gold4 ,by 
it all      things are torn asunder2 all
 things are accomplished4  ,therefore1  
all the noblest and best despise these  
riches1 deservedly and with justice1 and
 esteem them as nothing4 ,and this is   
said by the old man in ,plautus3        
,i hate gold4 ,it has often impelled    
many people to many wrong      acts4    
,in this country too1 the poets inveigh 
with stinging reproaches against money  
coined from gold and silver4 ,and       
especially did ,juvenal3       ,since   
the majesty of wealth is the most sacred
 thing among us2      although1 ,o      
pernicious money1 thou dost not yet     
inhabit a      temple1 nor have we      

erected altars to money4  ,and in       
another place3       ,demoralising money
 first introduced foreign customs1 and  
voluptuous wealth weakened our race with
 disgraceful      luxury4#ah  ,and very 
many vehemently praise the barter system
 which men used before money was        
devised1 and which even now obtains     
among certain simple peoples4  ,and next
 they raise a great outcry against other
 metals1 as iron1 than which they say   
nothing more pernicious could have been 
brought into the life of man4 ,for it is
 employed in making swords1 javelins1   
spears1 pikes1 arrows--weapons by which 
men are wounded1 and which cause        
slaughter1 robbery1 and wars4 ,these    
things so moved the wrath of ,pliny that
 he wrote3 ,iron is used not only in    
hand to hand fighting1 but also to form 
the winged missiles of war1 sometimes   
for hurling engines1 sometimes for      
lances1 sometimes even for arrows4 ,i   
look upon it as the most deadly fruit of
 human ingenuity4 ,for to bring ,death  

to men more quickly we have given wings 
to iron and taught it to fly4#ai ,the   
spear1 the arrow from the bow1 or the   
bolt from the catapult and other engines
 can be driven into the body of only one
 man1 while the iron cannon-ball fired  
through the air1 can go through the     
bodies of many men1 and there is no     
marble or stone object so hard that it  
cannot be shattered by the force and    
shock4 ,therefore it levels the highest 
towers to the ground1 shatters and      
destroys the strongest walls4 ,certainly
 the ballistas which throw stones1 the  
battering rams and other ancient war    
engines for making breaches in walls of 
fortresses and hurling down strongholds1
 seem to have little power in comparison
 with our present cannon4 ,these emit   
horrible sounds and noises1 not less    
than thunder1 flashes of fire burst from
 them like the lightning1 striking1     
crushing1 and shattering buildings1     
belching forth flames and kindling fires
 even as lightning flashes4 ,so that    

with more justice could it be said of   
the impious men of our age than of      
,salmoneus of ancient days1 that they   
had snatched lightning from ,jupiter and
 wrested it from his hands4 ,nay1 rather
 there has been sent from the infernal  
regions to the earth this force for the 
destruction of men1 so that ,death may  
snatch to himself as many as possible by
 one stroke4  ,but because muskets are  
nowadays rarely made of iron1 and the   
large ones never1 but of a certain      
mixture of copper and tin1 they confer  
more maledictions on copper and tin than
 on iron4 ,in this connection too1 they 
mention the brazen bull of ,phalaris1   
the brazen ox of the people of          
,pergamus1 racks in the shape of an iron
 dog or a horse1 manacles1 shackles1    
wedges1 hooks1 and red-hot plates4      
,cruelly racked by such instruments1    
people are driven to confess crimes and 
misdeeds which they have never          
committed1 and innocent men are         
miserably tortured to death by every    

conceivable kind of torment4  ,it is    
claimed too1 that lead is a pestilential
 and noxious metal1 for men are punished
 by means of molten lead1 as ,horace    
describes in the ode addressed to the   
,goddess ,fortune3 ,cruel ,necessity    
ever goes before thee bearing in her    
brazen hand the spikes and wedges1 while
 the awful hook and molten lead are also
 not lacking4#bj ,in their desire to    
excite greater odium for this metal1    
they are not silent about the leaden    
balls of muskets1 and they find in it   
the cause of wounds and death4  ,they   
contend that1 inasmuch as ,nature has   
concealed metals far within the depths  
of the earth1 and because they are not  
necessary to human life1 they are       
therefore despised and repudiated by the
 noblest1 and should not be mined1 and  
seeing that when brought to light they  
have always proved the cause of very    
great evils1 it follows that mining is  
not useful to mankind1 but on the       
contrary harmful and destructive4       

,several good men have been so perturbed
 by these tragedies that they conceive  
an intensely bitter hatred toward       
metals1 and they wish absolutely that   
metals had never been created1 or being 
created1 that no one had ever dug them  
out4 ,the more ,i commend the singular  
honesty1 innocence1 and goodness of such
 men1 the more anxious shall ,i be to   
remove utterly and eradicate all error  
from their minds and to reveal the sound
 view1 which is that the metals are most
 useful to mankind4  ,in the first place
 then1 those who speak ill of the metals
 and refuse to make use of them1 do not 
see that they accuse and condemn as     
wicked the ,creator ,himself1 when they 
assert that ,he fashioned some things   
vainly and without good cause1 and thus 
they regard ,him as the ,author of      
evils1 which opinion is certainly not   
worthy of pious and sensible men4  ,in  
the next place1 the earth does not      
conceal metals in her depths because she
 does not wish that men should dig them 

out1 but because provident and sagacious
 ,nature has appointed for each thing   
its place4 ,she generates them in the   
veins1 stringers1 and seams in the      
rocks1 as though in special vessels and 
receptacles for such material4 ,the     
metals cannot be produced in the other  
elements because the materials for their
 formation are wanting4 ,for if they    
were generated in the air1 a thing that 
rarely happens1 they could not find a   
firm resting-place1 but by their own    
force and weight would settle down on to
 the ground4 ,seeing then that metals   
have their proper abiding place in the  
bowels of the earth1 who does not see   
that these men do not reach their       
conclusions by good logic8  ,they say1  
,although metals are in the earth1 each 
located in its own proper place where it
 originated1 yet because they lie thus  
enclosed and hidden from sight1 they    
should not be taken out4 ,but1 in       
refutation of these attacks1 which are  
so annoying1 ,i will on behalf of the   

metals instance the fish1 which we      
catch1 hidden and concealed though they 
be in the water1 even in the sea4       
,indeed1 it is far stranger that man1 a 
terrestrial animal1 should search the   
interior of the sea than the bowels of  
the earth4 ,for as birds are born to fly
 freely through the air1 so are fishes  
born to swim through the waters1 while  
to other creatures ,nature has given the
 earth that they might live in it1 and  
particularly to man that he might       
cultivate it and draw out of its caverns
 metals and other mineral products4 ,on 
the other hand1 they say that we eat    
fish1 but neither hunger nor thirst is  
dispelled by minerals1 nor are they     
useful in clothing the body1 which is   
another argument by which these people  
strive to prove that metals should not  
be taken out4 ,but man without metals   
cannot provide those things which he    
needs for food and clothing4 ,for1      
though the produce of the land furnishes
 the greatest abundance of food for the 

nourishment of our bodies1 no labour can
 be carried on and completed without    
tools4 ,the ground itself is turned up  
with ploughshares and harrows1 tough    
stalks and the tops of the roots are    
broken off and dug up with a mattock1   
the sown seed is harrowed1 the corn     
field is hoed and weeded2 the ripe grain
 with part of the stalk is cut down by  
scythes and threshed on the floor1 or   
its ears are cut off and stored in the  
barn and later beaten with flails and   
winnowed with fans1 until finally the   
pure grain is stored in the granary1    
whence it is brought forth again when   
occasion demands or necessity arises4   
,again1 if we wish to procure better and
 more productive fruits from trees and  
bushes1 we must resort to cultivating1  
pruning1 and grafting1 which cannot be  
done without tools4 ,even as without    
vessels we cannot keep or hold liquids1 
such as milk1 honey1 wine1 or oil1      
neither could so many living things be  
cared for without buildings to protect  

them from long-continued rain and       
intolerable cold4 ,most of the rustic   
instruments are made of iron1 as        
ploughshares1 share-beams1 mattocks1 the
 prongs of harrows1 hoes1 planes1       
hay-forks1 straw cutters1 pruning       
shears1 pruning hooks1 spades1 lances1  
forks1 and weed cutters4 ,vessels are   
also made of copper or lead4 ,neither   
are wooden instruments or vessels made  
without iron4 ,wine cellars1 oil-mills1 
stables1 or any other part of a farm    
building could not be built without iron
 tools4 ,then if the bull1 the wether1  
the goat1 or any other domestic animal  
is led away from the pasture to the     
butcher1 or if the poulterer brings from
 the farm a chicken1 a hen1 or a capon  
for the cook1 could any of these animals
 be cut up and divided without axes and 
knives8 ,i need say nothing here about  
bronze and copper pots for cooking1     
because for these purposes one could    
make use of earthen vessels1 but even   
these in turn could not be made and     

fashioned by the potter without tools1  
for no instruments can be made out of   
wood alone1 without the use of iron4    
,furthermore1 hunting1 fowling1 and     
fishing supply man with food1 but when  
the stag has been ensnared does not the 
hunter transfix him with his spear8 ,as 
he stands or runs1 does he not pierce   
him with an arrow8 ,or pierce him with a
 bullet8 ,does not the fowler in the    
same way kill the moor-fowl or pheasant 
with an arrow8 ,or does he not discharge
 into its body the ball from the musket8
 ,i will not speak of the snares and    
other instruments with which the        
woodcock1 woodpecker1 and other wild    
birds are caught1 lest ,i pursue        
unseasonably and too minutely single    
instances4 ,lastly1 with his fish-hook  
and net does not the fisherman catch the
 fish in the sea1 in the lakes1 in      
fish-ponds1 or in rivers8 ,but the hook 
is of iron1 and sometimes we see lead or
 iron weights attached to the net4 ,and 
most fish that are caught are afterward 

cut up and disembowelled with knives and
 axes4 ,but1 more than enough has been  
said on the matter of food4  ,now ,i    
will speak of clothing1 which is made   
out of wool1 flax1 feathers1 hair1 fur1 
or leather4 ,first the sheep are        
sheared1 then the wool is combed4 ,next 
the threads are drawn out1 while later  
the warp is suspended in the shuttle    
under which passes the wool4 ,this being
 struck by the comb1 at length cloth is 
formed either from threads alone or from
 threads and hair4 ,flax1 when gathered1
 is first pulled by hooks4 ,then it is  
dipped in water and afterward dried1    
beaten into tow with a heavy mallet1 and
 carded1 then drawn out into threads1   
and finally woven into cloth4 ,but has  
the artisan or weaver of the cloth any  
instrument not made of iron8 ,can one be
 made of wood without the aid of iron8  
,the cloth or web must be cut into      
lengths for the tailor4 ,can this be    
done without knife or scissors8 ,can the
 tailor sew together any garments       

without a needle8 ,even peoples dwelling
 beyond the seas cannot make a covering 
for their bodies1 fashioned of feathers1
 without these same implements4 ,neither
 can the furriers do without them in    
sewing together the pelts of any kind of
 animals4 ,the shoemaker needs a knife  
to cut the leather1 another to scrape   
it1 and an awl to perforate it before he
 can make shoes4 ,these coverings for   
the body are either woven or stitched4  
,buildings too1 which protect the same  
body from rain1 wind1 cold1 and heat1   
are not constructed without axes1 saws1 
and augers4  ,but what need of more     
words8 ,if we remove metals from the    
service of man1 all methods of          
protecting and sustaining health and    
more carefully preserving the course of 
life are done away with4 ,if there were 
no metals1 men would pass a horrible and
 wretched existence in the midst of wild
 beasts2 they would return to the acorns
 and fruits and berries of the forest4  
,they would feed upon the herbs and     

roots which they plucked up with their  
nails4 ,they would dig out caves in     
which to lie down at night1 and by day  
they would rove in the woods and plains 
at random like beasts1 and inasmuch as  
this condition is utterly unworthy of   
humanity1 with its splendid and glorious
 natural endowment1 will anyone be so   
foolish or obstinate as not to allow    
that metals are necessary for food and  
clothing and that they tend to preserve 
life8  ,moreover1 as the miners dig     
almost exclusively in mountains         
otherwise unproductive1 and in valleys  
invested in gloom1 they do either slight
 damage to the fields or none at all4   
,lastly1 where woods and glades are cut 
down1 they may be sown with grain after 
they have been cleared from the roots of
 shrubs and trees4 ,these new fields    
soon produce rich crops1 so that they   
repair the losses which the inhabitants 
suffer from increased cost of timber4   
,moreover1 with the metals which are    
melted from the ore1 birds without      

number1 edible beasts and fish can be   
purchased elsewhere and brought to these
 mountainous regions4  ,i will pass to  
the illustrations ,i have mentioned4    
,bias of ,priene1 when his country was  
taken1 carried away out of the city none
 of his valuables4 ,so strong a man with
 such a reputation for wisdom had no    
need to fear personal danger from the   
enemy1 but this in truth cannot be said 
of him because he hastily took to       
flight2 the throwing away of his goods  
does not seem to me so great a matter1  
for he had lost his house1 his estates1 
and even his country1 than which nothing
 is more precious4 ,nay1 ,i should be   
convinced of ,bias's contempt and scorn 
for possessions of this kind1 if before 
his country was captured he had bestowed
 them freely on relations and friends1  
or had distributed them to the very     
poor1 for this he could have done freely
 and without question4 ,whereas his     
conduct1 which the ,greeks admire so    
greatly1 was due1 it would seem1 to his 

being driven out by the enemy and       
stricken with fear4 ,socrates in truth  
did not despise gold1 but would not     
accept money for his teaching4 ,as for  
,aristippus of ,cyrene1 if he had       
gathered and saved the gold which he    
ordered his slaves to throw away1 he    
might have bought the things which he   
needed for the necessaries of life1 and 
he would not1 by reason of his poverty1 
have then been obliged to flatter the   
tyrant ,dionysius1 nor would he ever    
have been called by him a ,king's dog4  
,for this reason ,horace1 speaking of   
,damasippus when reviling ,staberus for 
valuing riches very highly1 says3       
,what resemblance has the ,grecian      
,aristippus to this fellow8 ,he      who
 commanded his slaves to throw away the 
gold in the midst of      ,libya because
 they went too slowly1 impeded by the   
weight of      their burden--which of   
these two men is the more insane8#ba    
,insane indeed is he who makes more of  
riches than of virtue4 ,insane also is  

he who rejects them and considers them  
as worth nothing1 instead of using them 
with reason4 ,yet as to the gold which  
,aristippus on another occasion flung   
into the sea from a boat1 this he did   
with a wise and prudent mind4 ,for      
learning that it was a pirate boat in   
which he was sailing1 and fearing for   
his life1 he counted his gold and then  
throwing it of his own will into the    
sea1 he groaned as if he had done it    
unwillingly4 ,but afterward1 when he    
escaped the peril1 he said3 ,it is      
better that this gold itself should be  
lost than that ,i should have perished  
because of it4 ,let it be granted that  
some philosophers1 as well as ,anacreon 
of ,teos1 despised gold and silver4     
,anaxagoras of ,clazomenae also gave up 
his sheep-farms and became a shepherd4  
,crates the ,theban too1 being annoyed  
that his estate and other kinds of      
wealth caused him worry1 and that in his
 contemplations his mind was thereby    
distracted1 resigned a property valued  

at ten talents1 and taking a cloak and  
wallet1 in poverty devoted all his      
thought and efforts to philosophy4 ,is  
it true that because these philosophers 
despised money1 all others declined     
wealth in cattle8 ,did they refuse to   
cultivate lands or to dwell in houses8  
,there were certainly many1 on the other
 hand1 who1 though affluent1 became     
famous in the pursuit of learning and in
 the knowledge of divine and human laws1
 such as ,aristotle1 ,cicero1 and       
,seneca4 ,as for ,phocion1 he did not   
deem it honest to accept the gold sent  
to him by ,alexander4 ,for if he had    
consented to use it1 the king as much as
 himself would have incurred the hatred 
and aversion of the ,athenians1 and     
these very people were afterward so     
ungrateful toward this excellent man    
that they compelled him to drink        
hemlock4 ,for what would have been less 
becoming to ,marcus ,curius and         
,fabricius ,luscinus than to accept gold
 from their enemies1 who hoped that by  

these means those leaders could be      
corrupted or would become odious to     
their fellow citizens1 their purpose    
being to cause dissentions among the    
,romans and destroy the ,republic       
utterly4 ,lycurgus1 however1 ought to   
have given instructions to the ,spartans
 as to the use of gold and silver1      
instead of abolishing things good in    
themselves4 ,as to the ,babytacenses1   
who does not see that they were         
senseless and envious8 ,for with their  
gold they might have bought things of   
which they were in need1 or even given  
it to neighbouring peoples to bind them 
more closely to themselves with gifts   
and favours4 ,finally1 the ,scythians1  
by condemning the use of gold and silver
 alone1 did not free themselves utterly 
from avarice1 because although he is not
 enjoying them1 one who can possess     
other forms of property may also become 
avaricious4  ,now let us reply to the   
attacks hurled against the products of  
mines4 ,in the first place1 they call   

gold and silver the scourge of mankind  
because they are the cause of           
destruction and ruin to their           
possessors4 ,but in this manner1 might  
not anything that we possess be called a
 scourge to human kind1--whether it be a
 horse1 or a garment1 or anything else8 
,for1 whether one rides a splendid      
horse1 or journeys well clad1 he would  
give occasion to a robber to kill him4  
,are we then not to ride on horses1 but 
to journey on foot1 because a robber has
 once committed a murder in order that  
he may steal a horse8 ,or are we not to 
possess clothing1 because a vagabond    
with a sword has taken a traveller's    
life that he may rob him of his garment8
 ,the possession of gold and silver is  
similar4 ,seeing then that men cannot   
conveniently do all these things1 we    
should be on our guard against robbers1 
and because we cannot always protect    
ourselves from their hands1 it is the   
special duty of the magistrate to seize 
wicked and villainous men for torture1  

and1 if need be1 for execution4  ,again1
 the products of the mines are not      
themselves the cause of war4 ,thus1 for 
example1 when a tyrant1 inflamed with   
passion for a woman of great beauty1    
makes war on the inhabitants of her     
city1 the fault lies in the unbridled   
lust of the tyrant and not in the beauty
 of the woman4 ,likewise1 when another  
man1 blinded by a passion for gold and  
silver1 makes war upon a wealthy people1
 we ought not to blame the metals but   
transfer all blame to avarice4 ,for     
frenzied deeds and disgraceful actions1 
which are wont to weaken and dishonour  
natural and civil laws1 originate from  
our own vices4 ,wherefore ,tibullus is  
wrong in laying the blame for war on    
gold1 when he says3 ,this is the fault  
of a rich man's gold2 there were no wars
 when beech goblets were used at        
banquets4 ,but ,virgil1 speaking of     
,polymnestor1 says that the crime of the
 murderer rests on avarice3       ,he   
breaks all law2 he murders ,polydorus1  

and obtains gold by      violence4 ,to  
what wilt thou not drive mortal hearts1 
thou      accursed hunger for gold8     
,and again1 justly1 he says1 speaking of
 ,pygmalion1 who killed ,sichaeus3      
,and blinded with the love of gold1 he  
slew him unawares with      stealthy    
sword4#bb  ,for lust and eagerness after
 gold and other things make men blind1  
and this wicked greed for money1 all men
 in all times and places have considered
 dishonourable and criminal4 ,moreover1 
those who have been so addicted to      
avarice as to be its slaves have always 
been regarded as mean and sordid4       
,similarly1 too1 if by means of gold and
 silver and gems men can overcome the   
chastity of women1 corrupt the honour of
 many people1 bribe the course of       
justice and commit innumerable          
wickednesses1 it is not the metals which
 are to be blamed1 but the evil passions
 of men which become inflamed and       
ignited2 or it is due to the blind and  
impious desires of their minds4 ,but    

although these attacks against gold and 
silver may be directed especially       
against money1 yet inasmuch as the      
,poets one after another condemn it1    
their criticism must be met1 and this   
can be done by one argument alone4      
,money is good for those who use it     
well2 it brings loss and evil to those  
who use it ill4 ,hence1 very rightly1   
,horace says3       ,dost thou not know 
the value of money2 and what uses it    
serves8 ,it buys bread1 vegetables1 and 
a pint of wine4  ,and again in another  
place3       ,wealth hoarded up is the  
master or slave of each possessor2 it   
should follow rather than lead1 the     
'twisted rope4'#bc  ,when ingenious and 
clever men considered carefully the     
system of barter1 which ignorant men of 
old employed and which even to-day is   
used by certain uncivilised and         
barbarous races1 it appeared to them so 
troublesome and laborious that they     
invented money4 ,indeed1 nothing more   
useful could have been devised1 because 

a small amount of gold and silver is of 
as great value as things cumbrous and   
heavy2 and so peoples far distant from  
one another can1 by the use of money1   
trade very easily in those things which 
civilised life can scarcely do without4 
,the curses which are uttered against   
iron1 copper1 and lead have no weight   
with prudent and sensible men1 because  
if these metals were done away with1    
men1 as their anger swelled and their   
fury became unbridled1 would assuredly  
fight like wild beasts with fists1      
heels1 nails1 and teeth4 ,they would    
strike each other with sticks1 hit one  
another with stones1 or dash their foes 
to the ground4 ,moreover1 a man does not
 kill another with iron alone1 but slays
 by means of poison1 starvation1 or     
thirst4 ,he may seize him by the throat 
and strangle him2 he may bury him alive 
in the ground2 he may immerse him in    
water and suffocate him2 he may burn or 
hang him2 so that he can make every     
element a participant in the death of   

men4 ,or1 finally1 a man may be thrown  
to the wild beasts4 ,another may be sewn
 up wholly except his head in a sack1   
and thus be left to be devoured by      
worms2 or he may be immersed in water   
until he is torn to pieces by           
sea-serpents4 ,a man may be boiled in   
oil2 he may be greased1 tied with ropes1
 and left exposed to be stung by flies  
and hornets2 he may be put to death by  
scourging with rods or beating with     
cudgels1 or struck down by stoning1 or  
flung from a high place4 ,furthermore1 a
 man may be tortured in more ways than  
one without the use of metals2 as when  
the executioner burns the groins and    
armpits of his victim with hot wax2 or  
places a cloth in his mouth gradually1  
so that when in breathing he draws it   
slowly into his gullet1 the executioner 
draws it back suddenly and violently2 or
 the victim's hands are fastened behind 
his back1 and he is drawn up little by  
little with a rope and then let down    
suddenly4 ,or similarly1 he may be tied 

to a beam and a heavy stone fastened by 
a cord to his feet1 or finally his limbs
 may be torn asunder4 ,from these       
examples we see that it is not metals   
that are to be condemned1 but our vices1
 such as anger1 cruelty1 discord1       
passion for power1 avarice1 and lust4   
,the question next arises1 whether we   
ought to count metals amongst the number
 of good things or class them amongst   
the bad4 ,the ,peripatetics regarded all
 wealth as a good thing1 and merely     
spoke of externals as having to do with 
neither the mind nor the body4 ,well1   
let riches be an external thing4 ,and1  
as they said1 many other things may be  
classed as good if it is in one's power 
to use them either well or ill4 ,for    
good men employ them for good1 and to   
them they are useful4 ,the wicked use   
them badly1 and to them they are        
harmful4 ,there is a saying of          
,socrates1 that just as wine is         
influenced by the cask1 so the character
 of riches is like their possessors4    

,the ,stoics1 whose custom it is to     
argue subtly and acutely1 though they   
did not put wealth in the category of   
good things1 they did not count it      
amongst the evil ones1 but placed it in 
that class which they term neutral4 ,for
 to them virtue alone is good1 and vice 
alone evil4 ,the whole of what remains  
is indifferent4 ,thus1 in their         
conviction1 it matters not whether one  
be in good health or seriously ill2     
whether one be handsome or deformed4 ,in
 short3       ,whether1 sprung from     
,inachus of old1 and thus hast lived    
beneath the sun in wealth1 or hast been 
poor and despised among      men1 it    
matters not4  ,for my part1 ,i see no   
reason why anything that is in itself of
 use should not be placed in the class  
of good things4 ,at all events1 metals  
are a creation of ,nature1 and they     
supply many varied and necessary needs  
of the human race1 to say nothing about 
their uses in adornment1 which are so   
wonderfully blended with utility4       

,therefore1 it is not right to degrade  
them from the place they hold among the 
good things4 ,in truth1 if there is a   
bad use made of them1 should they on    
that account be rightly called evils8   
,for of what good things can we not make
 an equally bad or good use8 ,let me    
give examples from both classes of what 
we term good4 ,wine1 by far the best    
drink1 if drunk in moderation1 aids the 
digestion of food1 helps to produce     
blood1 and promotes the juices in all   
parts of the body4 ,it is of use in     
nourishing not only the body but the    
mind as well1 for it disperses our dark 
and gloomy thoughts1 frees us from cares
 and anxiety1 and restores our          
confidence4 ,if drunk in excess1        
however1 it injures and prostrates the  
body with serious disease4 ,an          
intoxicated man keeps nothing to        
himself2 he raves and rants1 and commits
 many wicked and infamous acts4 ,on this
 subject ,theognis wrote some very      
clever lines1 which we may render thus3 

,wine is harmful if taken with greedy   
lips1 but if drunk in      moderation it
 is wholesome4#be  ,but ,i linger too   
long over extraneous matters4 ,i must   
pass on to the gifts of body and mind1  
amongst which strength1 beauty1 and     
genius occur to me4 ,if then a man1     
relying on his strength1 toils hard to  
maintain himself and his family in an   
honest and respectable manner1 he uses  
the gift aright1 but if he makes a      
living out of murder and robbery1 he    
uses it wrongly4 ,likewise1 too1 if a   
lovely woman is anxious to please her   
husband alone she uses her beauty       
aright1 but if she lives wantonly and is
 a victim of passion1 she misuses her   
beauty4 ,in like manner1 a youth who    
devotes himself to learning and         
cultivates the liberal arts1 uses his   
genius rightly4 ,but he who dissembles1 
lies1 cheats1 and deceives by fraud and 
dishonesty1 misuses his abilities4 ,now1
 the man who1 because they are abused1  
denies that wine1 strength1 beauty1 or  

genius are good things1 is unjust and   
blasphemous towards the ,most ,high     
,god1 ,creator of the ,world2 so he who 
would remove metals from the class of   
blessings also acts unjustly and        
blasphemously against ,him4 ,very true1 
therefore1 are the words which certain  
,greek poets have written1 as ,pindar3  
,money glistens1 adorned with virtue2 it
 supplies the means by      which thou  
mayest act well in whatever             
circumstances fate may      have in     
store for thee4#bf  ,and ,sappho3       
,without the love of virtue gold is a   
dangerous and harmful      guest1 but   
when it is associated with virtue1 it   
becomes the      source and height of   
good4  ,and ,callimachus3       ,riches 
do not make men great without virtue2   
neither do      virtues themselves make 
men great without some wealth4  ,and    
,antiphanes3       ,now1 by the gods1   
why is it necessary for a man to grow   
rich8      ,why does he desire to       
possess much money unless that he may1  

as      much as possible1 help his      
friends1 and sow the seeds of a         
harvest of gratitude1 sweetest of the   
goddesses4#bg  ,having thus refuted the 
arguments and contentions of            
adversaries1 let us sum up the          
advantages of the metals4 ,in the first 
place1 they are useful to the physician1
 for they furnish liberally the         
ingredients for medicines1 by which     
wounds and ulcers are cured1 and even   
plagues2 so that certainly if there were
 no other reasons why we should explore 
the depths of the earth1 we should for  
the sake of medicine alone dig in the   
mines4 ,again1 the metals are of use to 
painters1 because they yield certain    
pigments which1 when united with the    
painter's slip1 are injured less than   
others by the moisture from without4    
,further1 mining is useful to the       
architects1 for thus is found marble1   
which is suitable not only for          
strengthening large buildings1 but also 
for decoration4 ,it is1 moreover1       

helpful to those whose ambition urges   
them toward immortal glory1 because it  
yields metals from which are made coins1
 statues1 and other monuments1 which1   
next to literary records1 give men in a 
sense immortality4 ,the metals are      
useful to merchants with very great     
cause1 for1 as ,i have stated elsewhere1
 the use of money which is made from    
metals is much more convenient to       
mankind than the old system of exchange 
of commodities4 ,in short1 to whom are  
the metals not of use8 ,in very truth1  
even the works of art1 elegant1         
embellished1 elaborate1 useful1 are     
fashioned in various shapes by the      
artist from the metals gold1 silver1    
brass1 lead1 and iron4 ,how few artists 
could make anything that is beautiful   
and perfect without using metals8 ,even 
if tools of iron or brass were not used1
 we could not make tools of wood and    
stone without the help of metal4 ,from  
all these examples are evident the      
benefits and advantages derived from    

metals4 ,we should not have had these at
 all unless the science of mining and   
metallurgy had been discovered and      
handed down to us4 ,who then does not   
understand how highly useful they are1  
nay rather1 how necessary to the human  
race8 ,in a word1 man could not do      
without the mining industry1 nor did    
,divine ,providence will that he should4
  ,further1 it has been asked whether to
 work in metals is honourable employment
 for respectable people or whether it is
 not degrading and dishonourable4 ,we   
ourselves count it amongst the          
honourable arts4 ,for that art1 the     
pursuit of which is unquestionably not  
impious1 nor offensive1 nor mean1 we may
 esteem honourable4 ,that this is the   
nature of the mining profession1        
inasmuch as it promotes wealth by good  
and honest methods1 we shall show       
presently4 ,with justice1 therefore1 we 
may class it amongst honourable         
employments4 ,in the first place1 the   
occupation of the miner1 which ,i must  

be allowed to compare with other methods
 of acquiring great wealth1 is just as  
noble as that of agriculture2 for1 as   
the farmer1 sowing his seed in his      
fields injures no one1 however          
profitable they may prove to him1 so the
 miner digging for his metals1 albeit he
 draws forth great heaps of gold or     
silver1 hurts thereby no mortal man4    
,certainly these two modes of increasing
 wealth are in the highest degree both  
noble and honourable4 ,the booty of the 
soldier1 however1 is frequently impious1
 because in the fury of the fighting he 
seizes all goods1 sacred as well as     
profane4 ,the most just king may have to
 declare war on cruel tyrants1 but in   
the course of it wicked men cannot lose 
their wealth and possessions without    
dragging into the same calamity innocent
 and poor people1 old men1 matrons1     
maidens1 and orphans4 ,but the miner is 
able to accumulate great riches in a    
short time1 without using any violence1 
fraud1 or malice4 ,that old saying is1  

therefore1 not always true that ,every  
rich man is either wicked himself1 or is
 the heir to wickedness4  ,some1        
however1 who contend against us1 censure
 and attack miners by saying that they  
and their children must needs fall into 
penury after a short time1 because they 
have heaped up riches by improper means4
 ,according to them nothing is truer    
than the saying of the poet ,naevius3   
,ill gotten gains in ill fashion slip   
away4  ,the following are some of the   
wicked and sinful methods by which they 
say men obtain riches from mining4 ,when
 a prospect of obtaining metals shows   
itself in a mine1 either the ruler or   
magistrate drives out the rightful      
owners of the mines from possession1 or 
a shrewd and cunning neighbour perhaps  
brings a law-suit against the old       
possessors in order to rob them of some 
part of their property4 ,or the mine    
superintendent imposes on the owners    
such a heavy contribution on shares1    
that if they cannot pay1 or will not1   

they lose their rights of possession2   
while the superintendent1 contrary to   
all that is right1 seizes upon all that 
they have lost4 ,or1 finally1 the mine  
foreman may conceal the vein by         
plastering over with clay that part     
where the metal abounds1 or by covering 
it with earth1 stones1 stakes1 or poles1
 in the hope that after several years   
the proprietors1 thinking the mine      
exhausted1 will abandon it1 and the     
foreman can then excavate that remainder
 of the ore and keep it for himself4    
,they even state that the scum of the   
miners exist wholly by fraud1 deceit1   
and lying4 ,for to speak of nothing     
else1 but only of those deceits which   
are practised in buying and selling1 it 
is said they either advertise the veins 
with false and imaginary praises1 so    
that they can sell the shares in the    
mines at one-half more than they are    
worth1 or on the contrary1 they         
sometimes detract from the estimate of  
them so that they can buy shares for a  

small price4 ,by exposing such frauds   
our critics suppose all good opinion of 
miners is lost4 ,now1 all wealth1       
whether it has been gained by good or   
evil means1 is liable by some adverse   
chance to vanish away4 ,it decays and is
 dissipated by the fault and            
carelessness of the owner1 since he     
loses it through laziness and neglect1  
or wastes and squanders it in luxuries1 
or he consumes and exhausts it in gifts1
 or he dissipates and throws it away in 
gambling3  ,just as though money        
sprouted up again1 renewed from an      
exhausted coffer1 and was always to be  
obtained from a full heap4  ,it is      
therefore not to be wondered at if      
miners do not keep in mind the counsel  
given by ,king ,agathocles3 ,unexpected 
fortune should be held in reverence1 for
 by not doing so they fall into penury2 
and particularly when the miners are not
 content with moderate riches1 they not 
rarely spend on new mines what they have
 accumulated from others4 ,but no just  

ruler or magistrate deprives owners of  
their possessions2 that1 however1 may be
 done by a tyrant1 who may cruelly rob  
his subjects not only of their goods    
honestly obtained1 but even of life     
itself4 ,and yet whenever ,i have       
inquired into the complaints which are  
in common vogue1 ,i always find that the
 owners who are abused have the best of 
reasons for driving the men from the    
mines2 while those who abuse the owners 
have no reason to complain about them4  
,take the case of those who1 not having 
paid their contributions1 have lost the 
right of possession1 or those who have  
been expelled by the magistrate out of  
another man's mine3 for some wicked men1
 mining the small veins branching from  
the veins rich in metal1 are wont to    
invade the property of another person4  
,so the magistrate expels these men     
accused of wrong1 and drives them from  
the mine4 ,they then very frequently    
spread unpleasant rumours concerning    
this amongst the populace4 ,or1 to take 

another case3 when1 as often happens1 a 
dispute arises between neighbours1      
arbitrators appointed by the magistrate 
settle it1 or the regular judges        
investigate and give judgment4          
,consequently1 when the judgment is     
given1 inasmuch as each party has       
consented to submit to it1 neither side 
should complain of injustice2 and when  
the controversy is adjudged1 inasmuch as
 the decision is in accordance with the 
laws concerning mining1 one of the      
parties cannot be injured by the law4 ,i
 do not vigorously contest the point1   
that at times a mine superintendent may 
exact a larger contribution from the    
owners than necessity demands4 ,nay1 ,i 
will admit that a foreman may plaster   
over1 or hide with a structure1 a vein  
where it is rich in metals4 ,is the     
wickedness of one or two to brand the   
many honest with fraud and trickery8    
,what body is supposed to be more pious 
and virtuous in the ,republic than the  
,senate8 ,yet some ,senators have been  

detected in peculations1 and have been  
punished4 ,is this any reason that so   
honourable a house should lose its good 
name and fame8 ,the superintendent      
cannot exact contributions from the     
owners without the knowledge and        
permission of the ,bergmeister or the   
deputies2 for this reason deception of  
this kind is impossible4 ,should the    
foremen be convicted of fraud1 they are 
beaten with rods2 or of theft1 they are 
hanged4 ,it is complained that some     
sellers and buyers of the shares in     
mines are fraudulent4 ,i concede it4    
,but can they deceive anyone except a   
stupid1 careless man1 unskilled in      
mining matters8 ,indeed1 a wise and     
prudent man1 skilled in this art1 if he 
doubts the trustworthiness of a seller  
or buyer1 goes at once to the mine that 
he may for himself examine the vein     
which has been so greatly praised or    
disparaged1 and may consider whether he 
will buy or sell the shares or not4 ,but
 people say1 though such an one can be  

on his guard against fraud1 yet a simple
 man and one who is easily credulous1 is
 deceived4 ,but we frequently see a man 
who is trying to mislead another in this
 way deceive himself1 and deservedly    
become a laughing-stock for everyone2 or
 very often the defrauder as well as the
 dupe is entirely ignorant of mining4   
,if1 for instance1 a vein has been found
 to be abundant in ore1 contrary to the 
idea of the would-be deceiver1 then he  
who was to have been cheated gets a     
profit1 and he who has been the deceiver
 loses4 ,nevertheless1 the miners       
themselves rarely buy or sell shares1   
but generally they have jurati          
venditores#bh who buy and sell at such  
prices as they have been instructed to  
give or accept4 ,seeing therefore1 that 
magistrates decide disputes on fair and 
just principles1 that honest men deceive
 nobody1 while a dishonest one cannot   
deceive easily1 or if he does he cannot 
do so with impunity1 the criticism of   
those who wish to disparage the honesty 

of miners has therefore no force or     
weight4  ,in the next place1 the        
occupation of the miner is objectionable
 to nobody4 ,for who1 unless he be      
naturally malevolent and envious1 will  
hate the man who gains wealth as it were
 from heaven8 ,or who will hate a man   
who to amplify his fortune1 adopts a    
method which is free from reproach8 ,a  
moneylender1 if he demands an excessive 
interest1 incurs the hatred of men4 ,if 
he demands a moderate and lawful rate1  
so that he is not injurious to the      
public generally and does not impoverish
 them1 he fails to become very rich from
 his business4 ,further1 the gain       
derived from mining is not sordid1 for  
how can it be such1 seeing that it is so
 great1 so plentiful1 and of so innocent
 a nature4 ,a merchant's profits are    
mean and base when he sells counterfeit 
and spurious merchandise1 or puts far   
too high a price on goods that he has   
purchased for little2 for this reason   
the merchant would be held in no less   

odium amongst good men than is the      
usurer1 did they not take account of the
 risk he runs to secure his merchandise4
 ,in truth1 those who on this point     
speak abusively of mining for the sake  
of detracting from its merits1 say that 
in former days men convicted of crimes  
and misdeeds were sentenced to the mines
 and were worked as slaves4 ,but to-day 
the miners receive pay1 and are engaged 
like other workmen in the common trades4
  ,certainly1 if mining is a shameful   
and discreditable employment for a      
gentleman because slaves once worked    
mines1 then agriculture also will not be
 a very creditable employment1 because  
slaves once cultivated the fields1 and  
even to-day do so among the ,turks2 nor 
will architecture be considered honest1 
because some slaves have been found     
skilful in that profession2 nor         
medicine1 because not a few doctors have
 been slaves2 nor will any other worthy 
craft1 because men captured by force of 
arms have practised it4 ,yet            

agriculture1 architecture1 and medicine 
are none the less counted amongst the   
number of honourable professions2       
therefore1 mining ought not for this    
reason to be excluded from them4 ,but   
suppose we grant that the hired miners  
have a sordid employment4 ,we do not    
mean by miners only the diggers and     
other workmen1 but also those skilled in
 the mining arts1 and those who invest  
money in mines4 ,amongst them can be    
counted kings1 princes1 republics1 and  
from these last the most esteemed       
citizens4 ,and finally1 we include      
amongst the overseers of mines the noble
 ,thucydides1 the historian1 whom the   
,athenians placed in charge of the mines
 of ,thasos4#bi ,and it would not be    
unseemly for the owners themselves to   
work with their own hands on the works  
or ore1 especially if they themselves   
have contributed to the cost of the     
mines4 ,just as it is not undignified   
for great men to cultivate their own    
land4 ,otherwise the ,roman ,senate     

would not have created ,dictator ,l4    
,quintius ,cincinnatus1 as he was at    
work in the fields1 nor would it have   
summoned to the ,senate ,house the chief
 men of the ,state from their country   
villas4 ,similarly1 in our day1         
,maximilian ,caesar would not have      
enrolled ,conrad in the ranks of the    
nobles known as ,counts2 ,conrad was    
really very poor when he served in the  
mines of ,schneeberg1 and for that      
reason he was nicknamed the poor man2   
but not many years after1 he attained   
wealth from the mines of ,fuerst1 which 
is a city in ,lorraine1 and took his    
name from ,luck4#cj ,nor would ,king    
,vladislaus have restored to the        
,assembly of ,barons1 ,tursius1 a       
citizen of ,cracow1 who became rich     
through the mines in that part of the   
kingdom of ,hungary which was formerly  
called ,dacia4#ca ,nay1 not even the    
common worker in the mines is vile and  
abject4 ,for1 trained to vigilance and  
work by night and day1 he has great     

powers of endurance when occasion       
demands1 and easily sustains the        
fatigues and duties of a soldier1 for he
 is accustomed to keep long vigils at   
night1 to wield iron tools1 to dig      
trenches1 to drive tunnels1 to make     
machines1 and to carry burdens4         
,therefore1 experts in military affairs 
prefer the miner1 not only to a commoner
 from the town1 but even to the rustic4 
,but to bring this discussion to an end1
 inasmuch as the chief callings are     
those of the moneylender1 the soldier1  
the merchant1 the farmer1 and the miner1
 ,i say1 inasmuch as usury is odious1   
while the spoil cruelly captured from   
the possessions of the people innocent  
of wrong is wicked in the sight of ,god 
and man1 and inasmuch as the calling of 
the miner excels in honour and dignity  
that of the merchant trading for lucre1 
while it is not less noble though far   
more profitable than agriculture1 who   
can fail to realize that mining is a    
calling of peculiar dignity8 ,certainly1

 though it is but one of ten important  
and excellent methods of acquiring      
wealth in an honourable way1 a careful  
and diligent man can attain this result 
in no easier way than by mining4        
,,end ,,of ,,book ,i4   ,,footnotes3  #a
 ,fibrae--fibres4 ,see ,note #f1 p4 #gj4
  #b ,commissurae saxorum--rock joints1 
seams1 or cracks4 ,agricola and all of  
the old authors laid a wholly           
unwarranted geologic value on these     
phenomena4 ,see description and         
footnotes1 ,book ,,iii41 pages #dc and  
#gb4  #c ,succi--juice1 or succi        
concreti--solidified juice4 ,ger4       
,trans41 saffte4 ,the old ,english      
translators and mineralogists often use 
the word juices in the same sense1 and  
we have adopted it4 ,the words solutions
 and salts convey a chemical            
significance not warranted by the state 
of knowledge in ,agricola's time4       
,instances of the former use of this    
word may be seen in ,barba's ,first     
,book of the ,art of ,metals1 7,trans4  

,earl ,sandwich1 ,london1 #afgd1 p4 #b1 
etc417 and in ,pryce's ,mineralogia     
,cornubiensis 7,london1 #aggh1 p4 #be1  
#cb74  #d ,in order that the reader     
should be able to grasp the author's    
point of view as to his divisions of the
 ,mineral ,kingdom1 we introduce here   
his own statement from ,de ,natura      
,fossilium1 7p4 #ahj74 ,it is also      
desirable to read the footnote on his   
theory of ore-deposits on pages #dc to  
#ec1 and the review of ,de ,natura      
,fossilium given in the ,appendix4  ,the
 subterranean inanimate bodies are      
divided into two classes1 one of which1 
because it is a fluid or an exhalation1 
is called by those names1 and the other 
class is called the minerals4 ,mineral  
bodies are solidified from particles of 
the same substance1 such as pure gold1  
each particle of which is gold1 or they 
are of different substances such as     
lumps which consist of earth1 stone1 and
 metal2 these latter may be separated   
into earth1 stone and metal1 and        

therefore the first is not a mixture    
while the last is called a mixture4 ,the
 first are again divided into simple and
 compound minerals4 ,the simple minerals
 are of four classes1 namely earths1    
solidified juices1 stones and metals1   
while the mineral compounds are of many 
sorts1 as ,i shall explain later4       
,earth is a simple mineral body which   
may be kneaded in the hands when        
moistened1 or from which lute is made   
when it has been wetted4 ,earth1        
properly so called1 is found enclosed in
 veins or veinlets1 or frequently on the
 surface in fields and meadows4 ,this   
definition is a general one4 ,the harder
 earth1 although moistened by water1    
does not at once become lute1 but does  
turn into lute if it remains in water   
for some time4 ,there are many species  
of earths1 some of which have names but 
others are unnamed4  ,solidified juices 
are dry and somewhat hard 7subdurus7    
mineral bodies which when moistened with
 water do not soften but liquefy        

instead2 or if they do soften1 they     
differ greatly from the earths by their 
unctuousness 7pingue7 or by the material
 of which they consist4 ,although       
occasionally they have the hardness of  
stone1 yet because they preserve the    
form and nature which they had when less
 hard1 they can easily be distinguished 
from the stones4 ,the juices are divided
 into 'meagre' and unctuous 7macer et   
pinguis74 ,the 'meagre' juices1 since   
they originate from three different     
substances1 are of three species4 ,they 
are formed from a liquid mixed with     
earth1 or with metal1 or with a mineral 
compound4 ,to the first species belong  
salt and ,nitrum 7soda72 to the second1 
chrysocolla1 verdigris1 iron-rust1 and  
azure2 to the third1 vitriol1 alum1 and 
an acrid juice which is unnamed4 ,the   
first two of these latter are obtained  
from pyrites1 which is numbered amongst 
the compound minerals4 ,the third of    
these comes from ,cadmia 7in this case  
the cobalt-zinc-arsenic minerals2 the   

acrid juice is probably zinc sulphate74 
,to the unctuous juices belong these    
species3 sulphur1 bitumen1 realgar and  
orpiment4 ,vitriol and alum1 although   
they are somewhat unctuous yet do not   
burn1 and they differ in their origin   
from the unctuous juices1 for the latter
 are forced out from the earth by heat1 
whereas the former are produced when    
pyrites is softened by moisture4  ,stone
 is a dry and hard mineral body which   
may either be softened by remaining for 
a long time in water and be reduced to  
powder by a fierce fire2 or else it does
 not soften with water but the heat of a
 great fire liquefies it4 ,to the first 
species belong those stones which have  
been solidified by heat1 to the second  
those solidified 7literally 'congealed'7
 by cold4 ,these two species of stones  
are constituted from their own material4
 ,however1 writers on natural subjects  
who take into consideration the quantity
 and quality of stones and their value1 
divide them into four classes4 ,the     

first of these has no name of its own   
but is called in common parlance        
'stone'3 to this class belong loadstone1
 jasper 7or bloodstone7 and ,aetites    
7geodes874 ,the second class comprises  
hard stones1 either pellucid or         
ornamental1 with very beautiful and     
varied colours which sparkle            
marvellously2 they are called gems4 ,the
 third comprises stones which are only  
brilliant after they have been polished1
 and are usually called marble4 ,the    
fourth are called rocks2 they are found 
in quarries1 from which they are hewn   
out for use in building1 and they are   
cut into various shapes4 ,none of the   
rocks show colour or take a polish4 ,few
 of the stones sparkle2 fewer still are 
transparent4 ,marble is sometimes only  
distinguishable from opaque gems by its 
volume2 rock is always distinguishable  
from stones properly so-called by its   
volume4 ,both the stones and the gems   
are usually to be found in veins and    
veinlets which traverse the rocks and   

marble4 ,these four classes1 as ,i have 
already stated1 are divided into many   
species1 which ,i will explain in their 
proper place4  ,metal is a mineral body1
 by nature either liquid or somewhat    
hard4 ,the latter may be melted by the  
heat of the fire1 but when it has cooled
 down again and lost all heat1 it       
becomes hard again and resumes its      
proper form4 ,in this respect it differs
 from the stone which melts in the fire1
 for although the latter regain its     
hardness1 yet it loses its pristine form
 and properties4 ,traditionally there   
are six different kinds of metals1      
namely gold1 silver1 copper1 iron1 tin  
and lead4 ,there are really others1 for 
quicksilver is a metal1 although the    
,alchemists disagree with us on this    
subject1 and bismuth is also4 ,the      
ancient ,greek writers seem to have been
 ignorant of bismuth1 wherefore         
,ammonius rightly states that there are 
many species of metals1 animals1 and    
plants which are unknown to us4 ,stibium

 when smelted in the crucible and       
refined has as much right to be regarded
 as a proper metal as is accorded to    
lead by writers4 ,if when smelted1 a    
certain portion be added to tin1 a      
bookseller's alloy is produced from     
which the type is made that is used by  
those who print books on paper4 ,each   
metal has its own form which it         
preserves when separated from those     
metals which were mixed with it4        
,therefore neither electrum nor ,stannum
 is of itself a real metal1 but rather  
an alloy of two metals4 ,electrum is an 
alloy of gold and silver1 ,stannum of   
lead and silver 7see note #cc1 p4 #dgc74
 ,and yet if silver be parted from the  
electrum1 then gold remains and not     
electrum2 if silver be taken away from  
,stannum1 then lead remains and not     
,stannum4 ,whether brass1 however1 is   
found as a native metal or not1 cannot  
be ascertained with any surety4 ,we only
 know of the artificial brass1 which    
consists of copper tinted with the      

colour of the mineral calamine4 ,and yet
 if any should be dug up1 it would be a 
proper metal4 ,black and white copper   
seem to be different from the red kind4 
,metal1 therefore1 is by nature either  
solid1 as ,i have stated1 or fluid1 as  
in the unique case of quicksilver4 ,but 
enough now concerning the simple kinds4 
,i will now speak of the compounds which
 are composed of the simple minerals    
cemented together by nature1 and under  
the word 'compound' ,i now discuss those
 mineral bodies which consist of two or 
three simple minerals4 ,they are        
likewise mineral substances1 but so     
thoroughly mixed and alloyed that even  
in the smallest part there is not       
wanting any substance that is contained 
in the whole4 ,only by the force of the 
fire is it possible to separate one of  
the simple mineral substances from      
another2 either the third from the other
 two1 or two from the third1 if there   
were three in the same compound4 ,these 
two1 three or more bodies are so        

completely mixed into one new species   
that the pristine form of none of these 
is recognisable4  ,the 'mixed' minerals1
 which are composed of those same simple
 minerals1 differ from the 'compounds1' 
in that the simple minerals each        
preserves its own form so that they can 
be separated one from the other not only
 by fire but sometimes by water and     
sometimes by hand4 ,as these two classes
 differ so greatly from one another ,i  
usually use two different words in order
 to distinguish one from the other4 ,i  
am well aware that ,galen calls the     
metallic earth a compound which is      
really a mixture1 but he who wishes to  
instruct others should bestow upon each 
separate thing a definite name4  ,for   
convenience of reference we may reduce  
the above to a diagram as follows3      
#a4 ,fluids and gases4                  
,earths                                 
7a7 ,simple    ,solidified juices       
minerals  ,stones                       
,metals               ,a4 ,homogenous   

bodies                                  
7b7 ,compound  ,being heterogeneous     
mixtures                                
minerals        of 7a7                  
#b4 ,mineral       bodies               
,b4 ,mixtures4 ,being homogenous        
mixtures of 7a7  #e ,experiendae--a     
trial4 ,that actual assaying in its     
technical sense is meant1 is            
sufficiently evident from ,book ,,vii4  
#f 444 plumbum 444 candidum ac cinereum 
vel nigrum4 ,lead 444 white1 or         
ash-coloured1 or black4 ,agricola       
himself coined the term plumbum cinereum
 for bismuth1 no doubt following the    
,roman term for tin--plumbum candidum4  
,the following passage from ,bermannus  
7p4 #dci7 is of interest1 for it appears
 to be the first description of bismuth1
 although mention of it occurs in the   
,nuetzlich ,bergbuechlin 7see ,appendix 
,b74 ,bermannus3 ,i will show you       
another kind of mineral which is        
numbered amongst metals1 but appears to 
me to have been unknown to the          

,ancients2 we call it bisemutum4        
,naevius3 ,then in your opinion there   
are more kinds of metals than the seven 
commonly believed8 ,bermannus3 ,more1 ,i
 consider2 for this which just now ,i   
said we called bisemutum1 cannot        
correctly be called plumbum candidum    
7tin71 nor nigrum 7lead71 but is        
different from both and is a third one4 
,plumbum candidum is whiter and plumbum 
nigrum is darker1 as you see4 ,naevius3 
,we see that this is of the colour of   
galena4 ,ancon3 ,how then can bisemutum1
 as you call it1 be distinguished from  
galena8 ,bermannus3 ,easily2 when you   
take it in your hands it stains them    
with black1 unless it is quite hard4    
,the hard kind is not friable like      
galena1 but can be cut4 ,it is blacker  
than the kind of rudis silver which we  
say is almost the colour of lead1 and   
thus is different from both4 ,indeed1 it
 not rarely contains some silver4 ,it   
generally indicates that there is silver
 beneath the place where it is found1   

and because of this our miners are      
accustomed to call it the 'roof of      
silver4' ,they are wont to roast this   
mineral1 and from the better part they  
make metal2 from the poorer part they   
make a pigment of a kind not to be      
despised4  #g ,nitrum4 ,the ,ancients   
comprised many salts under this head1   
but ,agricola in the main uses it for   
soda1 although sometimes he includes    
potash4 ,he usually1 however1 refers to 
potash as lixivium or salt therefrom1   
and by other distinctive terms4 ,for    
description of method of manufacture and
 discussion1 see ,book ,,xii41 p4 #eeh4 
#h ,atramentum sutorium--,shoemaker's   
blacking4 ,see p4 #egb for description  
of method of manufacture and historical 
footnote4 ,in the main ,agricola means  
green vitriol1 but he does describe     
three main varieties1 green1 blue1 and  
white 7,de ,natura ,fossilium1 p4 #bai74
 ,the blue was of course copper         
sulphate1 and it is fairly certain that 
the white was zinc vitriol4  #i         

,lavandi--,washing4 ,by this term the   
author includes all the operations of   
sluicing1 buddling1 and wet             
concentration generally4 ,there is no   
,english equivalent of such wide        
application1 and there is some          
difficulty in interpretation without    
going further than the author intends4  
,book ,,viii4 is devoted to the subject4
  #aj ,operam et oleum perdit--loss of  
labour and oil4  #aa ,in ,veteribus et  
,novis ,metallis1 and ,bermannus1       
,agricola states that the mines of      
,schemnitz were worked #hjj years before
 that time 7#aecj71 or about #gej       
,a4,d41 and1 further1 that the lead     
mines of ,goslar in the ,hartz were     
worked by ,otho the ,great 7#icf-igc71  
and that the silver mines at ,freiberg  
were discovered during the rule of      
,prince ,otho 7about #aagj74 ,to        
continue the argument to-day we could   
add about #cfj years more of life to the
 mines of ,goslar and ,freiberg4 ,see   
also ,note #af1 p4 #cf1 and note #ai1 p4

 #cg4  #ab ,xenophon4 ,essay on the     
,revenues of ,athens1 ,i41 #e4  #ac     
,ovid1 ,metamorphoses1 ,i41 #acg to     
#adc4  #ad ,diogenes ,laertius1 ,,ii41  
#e4 ,the lines are assigned1 however1 to
 ,philemon1 not ,euripides4 7,kock1     
,comicorum ,atticorum ,fragmenta ,,ii41 
#eab74  #ae ,we have not considered it  
of sufficient interest to cite the      
references to all of the minor poets and
 those whose preserved works are but    
fragmentary4 ,the translations from the 
,greek into ,latin are not literal and  
suffer again by rendering into ,english2
 we have however considered it our duty 
to translate ,agricola's view of the    
meaning4  #af ,diogenes ,laertius1 ,,ii4
  #ag ,an inspection of the historical  
incidents mentioned here and further on1
 indicates that ,agricola relied for    
such information on ,diogenes ,laertius1
 ,plutarch1 ,livy1 ,valerius ,maximus1  
,pliny1 and often enough on ,homer1     
,horace1 and ,virgil4  #ah ,juvenal4    
,satires ,i41 l4 #aab1 and ,,vi41 l4    

#bih4  #ai ,pliny1 ,,xxxiv41 #ci4  #bj  
,horace4 ,odes1 ,i41 #ce1 ll4 #ag-bj4   
#ba ,horace4 ,satires1 ,,ii41 #c1 ll4   
#ii-ajb4  #bb ,virgil4 ,a,eneid1 ,,iii41
 l4 #ee1 and ,i41 l4 #cdi4  #bc ,horace4
 ,satires1 ,i41 l4 #gc2 and ,epistle1   
,i41 #aj1 l4 #dg4  #be ,theognis4       
,maxims1 ,,ii41 l4 #baj4  #bf ,pindar4  
,olymp4 ,,ii41 #eh-fj4  #bg ,antiphanes1
 #d4  #bh ,jurati ,venditores--,sworn   
brokers4 787  #bi ,there is no doubt    
that ,thucydides had some connection    
with gold mines2 he himself is the      
authority for the statement that he     
worked mines in ,thrace4 ,agricola seems
 to have obtained his idea that         
,thucydides held an appointment from the
 ,athenians in charge of mines in       
,thasos1 from ,marcellinus 7,vita1      
,thucydides1 #cj71 who also says that   
,thucydides obtained possession of mines
 in ,thrace through his marriage with a 
,thracian woman1 and that it was while  
residing on the mines at ,scapte-,hyle  
that he wrote his history4 ,later       

scholars1 however1 find little warrant  
for these assertions4 ,the gold mines of
 ,thasos--an island off the mainland of 
,thrace--are frequently mentioned by the
 ancient authors4 ,herodotus1 ,,vi41    
#df-dg1 says3--,their 7the ,thasians'7  
revenue was derived partly from their   
possessions upon the mainland1 partly   
from the mines which they owned4 ,they  
were masters of the gold mines of       
,scapte-,hyle1 the yearly produce of    
which amounted to eighty talents4 ,their
 mines in ,thasos yielded less1 but     
still were so prolific that besides     
being entirely free from land-tax they  
had a surplus of income derived from the
 two sources of their territory on the  
mainland and their mines1 in common     
years two hundred and in best years     
three hundred talents4 ,i myself have   
seen the mines in question4 ,by far the 
most curious of them are those which the
 ,phoenicians discovered at the time    
when they went with ,thasos and         
colonized the island1 which took its    

name from him4 ,these ,phoenician       
workings are in ,thasos itself1 between 
,coenyra and a place called ,aenyra over
 against ,samothrace2 a high mountain   
has been turned upside down in the      
search for ores4 7,rawlinson's ,trans474
 ,the occasion of this statement of     
,herodotus was the relations of the     
,thasians with ,darius 7#eba-dhf        
,b4,c474 ,the date of the ,phoenician   
colonization of ,thasos is highly       
nebular--anywhere from #abjj to #ijj    
,b4,c4  #cj ,agricola1 ,de ,veteribus et
 ,novis ,metallis1 ,book ,i41 p4 #cib1  
says3--,conrad1 whose nickname in former
 years was 'pauper1' suddenly became    
rich from the silver mines of ,mount    
,jura1 known as the ,firstum4 ,he was   
ennobled with the title of ,graf ,cuntz 
von ,glueck by the ,emperor ,maximilian 
7who was ,emperor of the ,holy ,roman   
,empire1 #adic-aeai74 ,conrad was       
originally a working miner at           
,schneeberg where he was known as ,armer
 ,cuntz 7poor ,cuntz or ,conrad7 and    

grew wealthy from the mines of ,fuerst  
in ,leberthal4 ,this district is located
 in the ,vosges ,mountains on the       
borders of ,lorraine and ,upper ,alsace4
 ,the story of ,cuntz or ,conrad von    
,glueck is mentioned by ,albinus        
7,meissnische ,land und ,berg ,chronica1
 ,dresden1 #aehi1 p4 #aaf71 ,mathesius  
7,sarepta1 ,nuremberg1 #aegh1 fol4      
,,xvi471 and by others4  #ca ,vladislaus
 ,,iii4 was ,king of ,poland1 #adcd-dd1 
and also became ,king of ,hungary in    
#addj4 ,tursius seems to be a ,latinized
 name and cannot be identified4         
,,book ,,ii4   ,qualities which the     
perfect miner should possess and the    
arguments which are urged for and       
against the arts of mining and          
metallurgy1 as well as the people       
occupied in the industry1 ,i have       
sufficiently discussed in the first     
,book4 ,now ,i have determined to give  
more ample information concerning the   
miners4  ,in the first place1 it is     
indispensable that they should worship  

,god with reverence1 and that they      
understand the matters of which ,i am   
going to speak1 and that they take good 
care that each individual performs his  
duties efficiently and diligently4 ,it  
is decreed by ,divine ,providence that  
those who know what they ought to do and
 then take care to do it properly1 for  
the most part meet with good fortune in 
all they undertake2 on the other hand1  
misfortune overtakes the indolent and   
those who are careless in their work4   
,no person indeed can1 without great and
 sustained effort and labour1 store in  
his mind the knowledge of every portion 
of the metallic arts which are involved 
in operating mines4 ,if a man has the   
means of paying the necessary expense1  
he hires as many men as he needs1 and   
sends them to the various works4 ,thus  
formerly ,sosias1 the ,thracian1 sent   
into the silver mines a thousand slaves 
whom he had hired from the ,athenian    
,nicias1 the son of ,niceratus#a4 ,but  
if a man cannot afford the expenditure  

he chooses of the various kinds of      
mining that work which he himself can   
most easily and efficiently do4 ,of     
these kinds1 the two most important are 
the making prospect trenches and the    
washing of the sands of rivers1 for out 
of these sands are often collected gold 
dust1 or certain black stones from which
 tin is smelted1 or even gems are       
sometimes found in them2 the trenching  
occasionally lays bare at the           
grass-roots veins which are found rich  
in metals4 ,if therefore by skill or by 
luck1 such sands or veins shall fall    
into his hands1 he will be able to      
establish his fortune without           
expenditure1 and from poverty rise to   
wealth4 ,if on the contrary1 his hopes  
are not realized1 then he can desist    
from washing or digging4  ,when anyone1 
in an endeavour to increase his fortune1
 meets the expenditure of a mine alone1 
it is of great importance that he should
 attend to his works and personally     
superintend everything that he has      

ordered to be done4 ,for this reason1 he
 should either have his dwelling at the 
mine1 where he may always be in sight of
 the workmen and always take care that  
none neglect their duties1 or else he   
should live in the neighbourhood1 so    
that he may frequently inspect his      
mining works4 ,then he may send word by 
a messenger to the workmen that he is   
coming more frequently than he really   
intends to come1 and so either by his   
arrival or by the intimation of it1 he  
so frightens the workmen that none of   
them perform their duties otherwise than
 diligently4 ,when he inspects the mines
 he should praise the diligent workmen  
and occasionally give them rewards1 that
 they and the others may become more    
zealous in their duties2 on the other   
hand1 he should rebuke the idle and     
discharge some of them from the mines   
and substitute industrious men in their 
places4 ,indeed1 the owner should       
frequently remain for days and nights in
 the mine1 which1 in truth1 is no       

habitation for the idle and luxurious2  
it is important that the owner who is   
diligent in increasing his wealth1      
should frequently himself descend into  
the mine1 and devote some time to the   
study of the nature of the veins and    
stringers1 and should observe and       
consider all the methods of working1    
both inside and outside the mine4 ,nor  
is this all he ought to do1 for         
sometimes he should undertake actual    
labour1 not thereby demeaning himself1  
but in order to encourage his workmen by
 his own diligence1 and to teach them   
their art2 for that mine is well        
conducted in which not only the foreman1
 but also the owner himself1 gives      
instruction as to what ought to be done4
 ,a certain barbarian1 according to     
,xenophon1 rightly remarked to the ,king
 of ,persia that the eye of the master  
feeds the horse1#b for the master's     
watchfulness in all things is of the    
utmost importance4  ,when several share 
together the expenditure on a mine1 it  

is convenient and useful to elect from  
amongst their own number a mine captain1
 and also a foreman4 ,for1 since men    
often look after their own interests but
 neglect those of others1 they cannot in
 this case take care of their own       
without at the same time looking after  
the interests of the others1 neither can
 they neglect the interests of the      
others without neglecting their own4    
,but if no man amongst them be willing  
or able to undertake and sustain the    
burdens of these offices1 it will be to 
the common interest to place them in the
 hands of most diligent men4 ,formerly  
indeed1 these things were looked after  
by the mining prefect#c1 because the    
owners were kings1 as ,priam1 who owned 
the gold mines round ,abydos1 or as     
,midas1 who was the owner of those      
situated in ,mount ,bermius1 or as      
,gyges1 or as ,alyattes1 or as ,croesus1
 who was the owner of those mines near a
 deserted town between ,atarnea and     
,pergamum#d2 sometimes the mines        

belonged to a ,republic1 as1 for        
instance1 the prosperous silver mines in
 ,spain which belonged to ,carthage#e2  
sometimes they were the property of     
great and illustrious families1 as were 
the ,athenian mines in ,mount           
,laurion#f4  ,when a man owns mines but 
is ignorant of the art of mining1 then  
it is advisable that he should share in 
common with others the expenses1 not of 
one only1 but of several mines4 ,when   
one man alone meets the expense for a   
long time of a whole mine1 if good      
fortune bestows on him a vein abundant  
in metals1 or in other products1 he     
becomes very wealthy2 if1 on the        
contrary1 the mine is poor and barren1  
in time he will lose everything which he
 has expended on it4 ,but the man who1  
in common with others1 has laid out his 
money on several mines in a region      
renowned for its wealth of metals1      
rarely spends it in vain1 for fortune   
usually responds to his hopes in part4  
,for when out of twelve veins in which  

he has a joint interest one yields an   
abundance of metals1 it not only gives  
back to the owner the money he has      
spent1 but also gives a profit besides2 
certainly there will be for him rich and
 profitable mining1 if of the whole     
number1 three1 or four1 or more veins   
should yield metal4 ,very similar to    
this is the advice which ,xenophon gave 
to the ,athenians when they wished to   
prospect for new veins of silver without
 suffering loss4 ,there are1 he said1   
ten tribes of ,athenians2 if1 therefore1
 the ,state assigned an equal number of 
slaves to each tribe1 and the tribes    
participated equally in all the new     
veins1 undoubtedly by this method1 if a 
rich vein of silver were found by one   
tribe1 whatever profit were made from it
 would assuredly be shared by the whole 
number4 ,and if two1 three1 or four     
tribes1 or even half the whole number   
find veins1 their works would then      
become more profitable2 and it is not   
probable that the work of all the tribes

 will be disappointing4#g ,although this
 advice of ,xenophon is full of         
prudence1 there is no opportunity for it
 except in free and wealthy ,states2 for
 those people who are under the         
authority of kings and princes1 or are  
kept in subjection by tyranny1 do not   
dare1 without permission1 to incur such 
expenditure2 those who are endowed with 
little wealth and resources cannot do so
 on account of insufficient funds4      
,moreover1 amongst our race it is not   
customary for ,republics to have slaves 
whom they can hire out for the benefit  
of the people#h2 but1 instead1 nowadays 
those who are in authority administer   
the funds for mining in the name of the 
,state1 not unlike private individuals4 
,some owners prefer to buy shares#i in  
mines abounding in metals1 rather than  
to be troubled themselves to search for 
the veins2 these men employ an easier   
and less uncertain method of increasing 
their property4 ,although their hopes in
 the shares of one or another mine may  

be frustrated1 the buyers of shares     
should not abandon the rest of the      
mines1 for all the money expended will  
be recovered with interest from some    
other mine4 ,they should not buy only   
high priced shares in those mines       
producing metals1 nor should they buy   
too many in neighbouring mines where    
metal has not yet been found1 lest1     
should fortune not respond1 they may be 
exhausted by their losses and have      
nothing with which they may meet their  
expenses or buy other shares which may  
replace their losses4 ,this calamity    
overtakes those who wish to grow        
suddenly rich from mines1 and instead1  
they become very much poorer than       
before4 ,so then1 in the buying of      
shares1 as in other matters1 there      
should be a certain limit of expenditure
 which miners should set themselves1    
lest blinded by the desire for excessive
 wealth1 they throw all their money     
away4 ,moreover1 a prudent owner1 before
 he buys shares1 ought to go to the mine

 and carefully examine the nature of the
 vein1 for it is very important that he 
should be on his guard lest fraudulent  
sellers of shares should deceive him4   
,investors in shares may perhaps become 
less wealthy1 but they are more certain 
of some gain than those who mine for    
metals at their own expense1 as they are
 more cautious in trusting to fortune4  
,neither ought miners to be altogether  
distrustful of fortune1 as we see some  
are1 who as soon as the shares of any   
mine begin to go up in value1 sell them1
 on which account they seldom obtain    
even moderate wealth4 ,there are some   
people who wash over the dumps from     
exhausted and abandoned mines1 and those
 dumps which are derived from the drains
 of tunnels2 and others who smelt the   
old slags2 from all of which they make  
an ample return4  ,now a miner1 before  
he begins to mine the veins1 must       
consider seven things1 namely3--the     
situation1 the conditions1 the water1   
the roads1 the climate1 the right of    

ownership1 and the neighbours4 ,there   
are four kinds of situations--mountain1 
hill1 valley1 and plain4 ,of these four1
 the first two are the most easily      
mined1 because in them tunnels can be   
driven to drain off the water1 which    
often makes mining operations very      
laborious1 if it does not stop them     
altogether4 ,the last two kinds of      
ground are more troublesome1 especially 
because tunnels cannot be driven in such
 places4 ,nevertheless1 a prudent miner 
considers all these four sorts of       
localities in the region in which he    
happens to be1 and he searches for veins
 in those places where some torrent or  
other agency has removed and swept the  
soil away2 yet he need not prospect     
everywhere1 but since there is a great  
variety1 both in mountains and in the   
three other kinds of localities1 he     
always selects from them those which    
will give him the best chance of        
obtaining wealth4  ,in the first place1 
mountains differ greatly in position1   

some being situated in even and level   
plains1 while others are found in broken
 and elevated regions1 and others again 
seem to be piled up1 one mountain upon  
another4 ,the wise miner does not mine  
in mountains which are situated on open 
plains1 neither does he dig in those    
which are placed on the summits of      
mountainous regions1 unless by some     
chance the veins in those mountains have
 been denuded of their surface covering1
 and abounding in metals and other      
products1 are exposed plainly to his    
notice1--for with regard to what ,i have
 already said more than once1 and though
 ,i never repeat it again1 ,i wish to   
emphasize this exception as to the      
localities which should not be selected4
 ,all districts do not possess a great  
number of mountains crowded together2   
some have but one1 others two1 others   
three1 or perhaps a few more4 ,in some  
places there are plains lying between   
them2 in others the mountains are joined
 together or separated only by narrow   

valleys4 ,the miner should not dig in   
those solitary mountains1 dispersed     
through the plains and open regions1 but
 only in those which are connected and  
joined with others4 ,then again1 since  
mountains differ in size1 some being    
very large1 others of medium height1 and
 others more like hills than mountains1 
the miner rarely digs in the largest or 
the smallest of them1 but generally only
 in those of medium size4 ,moreover1    
mountains have a great variety of       
shapes2 for with some the slopes rise   
gradually1 while others1 on the         
contrary1 are all precipitous2 in some  
others the slopes are gradual on one    
side1 and on the other sides            
precipitous2 some are drawn out in      
length2 some are gently curved2 others  
assume different shapes4 ,but the miner 
may dig in all parts of them1 except    
where there are precipices1 and he      
should not neglect even these latter if 
metallic veins are exposed before his   
eyes4 ,there are just as great          

differences in hills as there are in    
mountains1 yet the miner does not dig   
except in those situated in mountainous 
districts1 and even very rarely in      
those4 ,it is however very little to be 
wondered at that the hill in the ,island
 of ,lemnos was excavated1 for the whole
 is of a reddish-yellow colour1 which   
furnishes for the inhabitants that      
valuable clay so especially beneficial  
to mankind#aj4 ,in like manner1 other   
hills are excavated if chalk or other   
varieties of earth are exposed1 but     
these are not prospected for4  ,there   
are likewise many varieties of valleys  
and plains4 ,one kind is enclosed on the
 sides with its outlet and entrance     
open2 another has either its entrance or
 its outlet open and the rest of it is  
closed in2 both of these are properly   
called valleys4 ,there is a third       
variety which is surrounded on all sides
 by mountains1 and these are called     
convalles4 ,some valleys again1 have    
recesses1 and others have none2 one is  

wide1 another narrow2 one is long1      
another short2 yet another kind is not  
higher than the neighbouring plain1 and 
others are lower than the surrounding   
flat country4 ,but the miner does not   
dig in those surrounded on all sides by 
mountains1 nor in those that are open1  
unless there be a low plain close at    
hand1 or unless a vein of metal         
descending from the mountains should    
extend into the valley4 ,plains differ  
from one another1 one being situated at 
low elevation1 and others higher1 one   
being level and another with a slight   
incline4 ,the miner should never        
excavate the low-lying plain1 nor one   
which is perfectly level1 unless it be  
in some mountain1 and rarely should he  
mine in the other kinds of plains4      
,with regard to the conditions of the   
locality the miner should not           
contemplate mining without considering  
whether the place be covered with trees 
or is bare4 ,if it be a wooded place1 he
 who digs there has this advantage1     

besides others1 that there will be an   
abundant supply of wood for his         
underground timbering1 his machinery1   
buildings1 smelting1 and other          
necessities4 ,if there is no forest he  
should not mine there unless there is a 
river near1 by which he can carry down  
the timber4 ,yet wherever there is a    
hope that pure gold or gems may be      
found1 the ground can be turned up1 even
 though there is no forest1 because the 
gems need only to be polished and the   
gold to be purified4 ,therefore the     
inhabitants of hot regions obtain these 
substances from rough and sandy places1 
where sometimes there are not even      
shrubs1 much less woods4  ,the miner    
should next consider the locality1 as to
 whether it has a perpetual supply of   
running water1 or whether it is always  
devoid of water except when a torrent   
supplied by rains flows down from the   
summits of the mountains4 ,the place    
that ,nature has provided with a river  
or stream can be made serviceable for   

many things2 for water will never be    
wanting and can be carried through      
wooden pipes to baths in                
dwelling-houses2 it may be carried to   
the works1 where the metals are smelted2
 and finally1 if the conditions of the  
place will allow it1 the water can be   
diverted into the tunnels1 so that it   
may turn the underground machinery4 ,yet
 on the other hand1 to convey a constant
 supply of water by artificial means to 
mines where ,nature has denied it       
access1 or to convey the ore to the     
stream1 increases the expense greatly1  
in proportion to the distance the mines 
are away from the river4  ,the miner    
also should consider whether the roads  
from the neighbouring regions to the    
mines are good or bad1 short or long4   
,for since a region which is abundant in
 mining products very often yields no   
agricultural produce1 and the           
necessaries of life for the workmen and 
others must all be imported1 a bad and  
long road occasions much loss and       

trouble with porters and carriers1 and  
this increases the cost of goods brought
 in1 which1 therefore1 must be sold at  
high prices4 ,this injures not so much  
the workmen as the masters2 since on    
account of the high price of goods1 the 
workmen are not content with the wages  
customary for their labour1 nor can they
 be1 and they ask higher pay from the   
owners4 ,and if the owners refuse1 the  
men will not work any longer in the     
mines but will go elsewhere4 ,although  
districts which yield metals and other  
mineral products are generally healthy1 
because1 being often situated on high   
and lofty ground1 they are fanned by    
every wind1 yet sometimes they are      
unhealthy1 as has been related in my    
other book1 which is called ,de ,natura 
,eorum ,quae ,effluunt ex ,terra4       
,therefore1 a wise miner does not mine  
in such places1 even if they are very   
productive1 when he perceives           
unmistakable signs of pestilence4 ,for  
if a man mines in an unhealthy region he

 may be alive one hour and dead the     
next4  ,then1 the miner should make     
careful and thorough investigation      
concerning the lord of the locality1    
whether he be a just and good man or a  
tyrant1 for the latter oppresses men by 
force of his authority1 and seizes their
 possessions for himself2 but the former
 governs justly and lawfully and serves 
the common good4 ,the miner should not  
start mining operations in a district   
which is oppressed by a tyrant1 but     
should carefully consider if in the     
vicinity there is any other locality    
suitable for mining and make up his mind
 if the overlord there be friendly or   
inimical4 ,if he be inimical the mine   
will be rendered unsafe through hostile 
attacks1 in one of which all of the gold
 or silver1 or other mineral products1  
laboriously collected with much cost1   
will be taken away from the owner and   
his workmen will be struck with terror2 
overcome by fear1 they will hastily fly1
 to free themselves from the danger to  

which they are exposed4 ,in this case1  
not only are the fortunes of the miner  
in the greatest peril but his very life 
is in jeopardy1 for which reason he     
should not mine in such places4  ,since 
several miners usually come to mine the 
veins in one locality1 a settlement     
generally springs up1 for the miner who 
began first cannot keep it exclusively  
for himself4 ,the ,bergmeister gives    
permits to some to mine the superior and
 some the inferior parts of the veins2  
to some he gives the cross veins1 to    
others the inclined veins4 ,if the man  
who first starts work finds the vein to 
be metal-bearing or yielding other      
mining products1 it will not be to his  
advantage to cease work because the     
neighbourhood may be evil1 but he will  
guard and defend his rights both by arms
 and by the law4 ,when the              
,bergmeister#aa delimits the boundaries 
of each owner1 it is the duty of a good 
miner to keep within his bounds1 and of 
a prudent one to repel encroachments of 

his neighbours by the help of the law4  
,but this is enough about the           
neighbourhood4  ,the miner should try to
 obtain a mine1 to which access is not  
difficult1 in a mountainous region1     
gently sloping1 wooded1 healthy1 safe1  
and not far distant from a river or     
stream by means of which he may convey  
his mining products to be washed and    
smelted4 ,this indeed1 is the best      
position4 ,as for the others1 the nearer
 they approximate to this position the  
better they are2 the further removed1   
the worse4  ,now ,i will discuss that   
kind of minerals for which it is not    
necessary to dig1 because the force of  
water carries them out of the veins4 ,of
 these there are two kinds1             
minerals--and their fragments#ab--;and  
juices4 ,when there are springs at the  
outcrop of the veins from which1 as ,i  
have already said1 the above-mentioned  
products are emitted1 the miner should  
consider these first1 to see whether    
there are metals or gems mixed with the 

sand1 or whether the waters discharged  
are filled with juices4 ,in case metals 
or gems have settled in the pool of the 
spring1 not only should the sand from it
 be washed1 but also that from the      
streams which flow from these springs1  
and even from the river itself into     
which they again discharge4 ,if the     
springs discharge water containing some 
juice1 this also should be collected2   
the further such a stream has flowed    
from the source1 the more it receives   
plain water and the more diluted does it
 become1 and so much the more deficient 
in strength4 ,if the stream receives no 
water of another kind1 or scarcely any1 
not only the rivers1 but likewise the   
lakes which receive these waters1 are of
 the same nature as the springs1 and    
serve the same uses2 of this kind is the
 lake which the ,hebrews call the ,dead 
,sea1 and which is quite full of        
bituminous fluids#ac4 ,but ,i must      
return to the subject of the sands4     
,springs may discharge their waters into

 a sea1 a lake1 a marsh1 a river1 or a  
stream2 but the sand of the sea-shore is
 rarely washed1 for although the water  
flowing down from the springs into the  
sea carries some metals or gems with it1
 yet these substances can scarcely ever 
be reclaimed1 because they are dispersed
 through the immense body of waters and 
mixed up with other sand1 and scattered 
far and wide in different directions1 or
 they sink down into the depths of the  
sea4 ,for the same reasons1 the sands of
 lakes can very rarely be washed        
successfully1 even though the streams   
rising from the mountains pour their    
whole volume of water into them4 ,the   
particles of metals and gems from the   
springs are very rarely carried into the
 marshes1 which are generally in level  
and open places4 ,therefore1 the miner1 
in the first place1 washes the sand of  
the spring1 then of the stream which    
flows from it1 then finally1 that of the
 river into which the stream discharges4
 ,it is not worth the trouble to wash   

the sands of a large river which is on a
 level plain at a distance from the     
mountains4 ,where several springs       
carrying metals discharge their waters  
into one river1 there is more hope of   
productive results from washing4 ,the   
miner does not neglect even the sands of
 the streams in which excavated ores    
have been washed4  ,the waters of       
springs taste according to the juice    
they contain1 and they differ greatly in
 this respect4 ,there are six kinds of  
these tastes which the worker#ad        
especially observes and examines2 there 
is the salty kind1 which shows that salt
 may be obtained by evaporation2 the    
nitrous1 which indicates soda2 the      
aluminous kind1 which indicates alum2   
the vitrioline1 which indicates vitriol2
 the sulphurous kind1 which indicates   
sulphur2 and as for the bituminous      
juice1 out of which bitumen is melted   
down1 the colour itself proclaims it to 
the worker who is evaporating it4 ,the  
sea-water however1 is similar to that of

 salt springs1 and may be drawn into    
low-lying pits1 and1 evaporated by the  
heat of the sun1 changes of itself into 
salt2 similarly the water of some       
salt-lakes turns to salt when dried by  
the heat of summer4 ,therefore an       
industrious and diligent man observes   
and makes use of these things and thus  
contributes something to the common     
welfare4  ,the strength of the sea      
condenses the liquid bitumen which flows
 into it from hidden springs1 into amber
 and jet1 as ,i have described already  
in my books ,de ,subterraneorum ,ortu et
 ,causis#ae4 ,the sea1 with certain     
directions of the wind1 throws both     
these substances on shore1 and for this 
reason the search for amber demands as  
much care as does that for coral4       
,moreover1 it is necessary that those   
who wash the sand or evaporate the water
 from the springs1 should be careful to 
learn the nature of the locality1 its   
roads1 its salubrity1 its overlord1 and 
the neighbours1 lest on account of      

difficulties in the conduct of their    
business they become either impoverished
 by exhaustive expenditure1 or their    
goods and lives are imperilled4 ,but    
enough about this4  ,the miner1 after he
 has selected out of many places one    
particular spot adapted by ,nature for  
mining1 bestows much labour and         
attention on the veins4 ,these have     
either been stripped bare of their      
covering by chance and thus lie exposed 
to our view1 or lying deeply hidden and 
concealed they are found after close    
search2 the latter is more usual1 the   
former more rarely happens1 and both of 
these occurrences must be explained4    
,there is more than one force which can 
lay bare the veins unaided by the       
industry or toil of man2 since either a 
torrent might strip off the surface1    
which happened in the case of the silver
 mines of ,freiberg 7concerning which ,i
 have written in ,book ,i4 of my work   
,de ,veteribus et ,novis ,metallis7#af2 
or they may be exposed through the force

 of the wind1 when it uproots and       
destroys the trees which have grown over
 the veins2 or by the breaking away of  
the rocks2 or by long-continued heavy   
rains tearing away the mountain2 or by  
an earthquake2 or by a lightning flash2 
or by a snowslide2 or by the violence of
 the winds3 ,of such a nature are the   
rocks hurled down from the mountains by 
the force of the winds aided by the     
ravages of time4 ,or the plough may     
uncover the veins1 for ,justin relates  
in his history that nuggets of gold had 
been turned up in ,galicia by the       
plough2 or this may occur through a fire
 in the forest1 as ,diodorus ,siculus   
tells us happened in the silver mines in
 ,spain2 and that saying of ,posidonius 
is appropriate enough3 ,the earth       
violently moved by the fires consuming  
the forest sends forth new products1    
namely1 gold and silver4#ag ,and indeed1
 ,lucretius has explained the same thing
 more fully in the following lines3     
,copper and gold and iron were          

discovered1 and at the same time weighty
 silver and the substance of lead1 when 
fire had burned up vast forests on the  
great hills1 either by a discharge of   
heaven's lightning1 or else because1    
when men were waging war with one       
another1 forest fires had carried fire  
among the enemy in order to strike      
terror to them1 or because1 attracted by
 the goodness of the soil1 they wished  
to clear rich fields and bring the      
country into pasture1 or else to destroy
 wild beasts and enrich themselves with 
the game2 for hunting with pitfalls and 
with fire came into use before the      
practice of enclosing the wood with     
toils and rousing the game with dogs4   
,whatever the fact is1 from whatever    
cause the heat of flame had swallowed up
 the forests with a frightful crackling 
from their very roots1 and had          
thoroughly baked the earth with fire1   
there would run from the boiling veins  
and collect into the hollows of the     
grounds a stream of silver and gold1 as 

well as of copper and lead4#ah ,but yet 
the poet considers that the veins are   
not laid bare in the first instance so  
much by this kind of fire1 but rather   
that all mining had its origin in this4 
,and lastly1 some other force may by    
chance disclose the veins1 for a horse1 
if this tale can be believed1 disclosed 
the lead veins at ,goslar by a blow from
 his hoof#ai4 ,by such methods as these 
does fortune disclose the veins to us4  
,but by skill we can also investigate   
hidden and concealed veins1 by observing
 in the first place the bubbling waters 
of springs1 which cannot be very far    
distant from the veins because the      
source of the water is from them2       
secondly1 by examining the fragments of 
the veins which the torrents break off  
from the earth1 for after a long time   
some of these fragments are again buried
 in the ground4 ,fragments of this kind 
lying about on the ground1 if they are  
rubbed smooth1 are a long distance from 
the veins1 because the torrent1 which   

broke them from the vein1 polished them 
while it rolled them a long distance2   
but if they are fixed in the ground1 or 
if they are rough1 they are nearer to   
the veins4 ,the soil also should be     
considered1 for this is often the cause 
of veins being buried more or less      
deeply under the earth2 in this case the
 fragments protrude more or less widely 
apart1 and miners are wont to call the  
veins discovered in this manner         
fragmenta4#bj  ,further1 we search for  
the veins by observing the hoar-frosts1 
which whiten all herbage except that    
growing over the veins1 because the     
veins emit a warm and dry exhalation    
which hinders the freezing of the       
moisture1 for which reason such plants  
appear rather wet than whitened by the  
frost4 ,this may be observed in all cold
 places before the grass has grown to   
its full size1 as in the months of      
,april and ,may2 or when the late crop  
of hay1 which is called the cordum1 is  
cut with scythes in the month of        

,september4 ,therefore in places where  
the grass has a dampness that is not    
congealed into frost1 there is a vein   
beneath2 also if the exhalation be      
excessively hot1 the soil will produce  
only small and pale-coloured plants4    
,lastly1 there are trees whose foliage  
in spring-time has a bluish or leaden   
tint1 the upper branches more especially
 being tinged with black or with any    
other unnatural colour1 the trunks cleft
 in two1 and the branches black or      
discoloured4 ,these phenomena are caused
 by the intensely hot and dry           
exhalations which do not spare even the 
roots1 but scorching them1 render the   
trees sickly2 wherefore the wind will   
more frequently uproot trees of this    
kind than any others4 ,verily the veins 
do emit this exhalation4 ,therefore1 in 
a place where there is a multitude of   
trees1 if a long row of them at an      
unusual time lose their verdure and     
become black or discoloured1 and        
frequently fall by the violence of the  

wind1 beneath this spot there is a vein4
 ,likewise along a course where a vein  
extends1 there grows a certain herb or  
fungus which is absent from the adjacent
 space1 or sometimes even from the      
neighbourhood of the veins4 ,by these   
signs of ,nature a vein can be          
discovered4  ,there are many great      
contentions between miners concerning   
the forked twig#ba1 for some say that it
 is of the greatest use in discovering  
veins1 and others deny it4 ,some of     
those who manipulate and use the twig1  
first cut a fork from a hazel bush with 
a knife1 for this bush they consider    
more efficacious than any other for     
revealing the veins1 especially if the  
hazel bush grows above a vein4 ,others  
use a different kind of twig for each   
metal1 when they are seeking to discover
 the veins1 for they employ hazel twigs 
for veins of silver2 ash twigs for      
copper2 pitch pine for lead and         
especially tin1 and rods made of iron   
and steel for gold4 ,all alike grasp the

 forks of the twig with their hands1    
clenching their fists1 it being         
necessary that the clenched fingers     
should be held toward the sky in order  
that the twig should be raised at that  
end where the two branches meet4 ,then  
they wander hither and thither at random
 through mountainous regions4 ,it is    
said that the moment they place their   
feet on a vein the twig immediately     
turns and twists1 and so by its action  
discloses the vein2 when they move their
 feet again and go away from that spot  
the twig becomes once more immobile4    
,the truth is1 they assert1 the movement
 of the twig is caused by the power of  
the veins1 and sometimes this is so     
great that the branches of trees growing
 near a vein are deflected toward it4   
,on the other hand1 those who say that  
the twig is of no use to good and       
serious men1 also deny that the motion  
is due to the power of the veins1       
because the twigs will not move for     
everybody1 but only for those who employ

 incantations and craft4 ,moreover1 they
 deny the power of a vein to draw to    
itself the branches of trees1 but they  
say that the warm and dry exhalations   
cause these contortions4 ,those who     
advocate the use of the twig make this  
reply to these objections3 when one of  
the miners or some other person holds   
the twig in his hands1 and it is not    
turned by the force of a vein1 this is  
due to some peculiarity of the          
individual1 which hinders and impedes   
the power of the vein1 for since the    
power of the vein in turning and        
twisting the twig may be not unlike that
 of a magnet attracting and drawing iron
 toward itself1 this hidden quality of a
 man weakens and breaks the force1 just 
the same as garlic weakens and overcomes
 the strength of a magnet4 ,for a magnet
 smeared with garlic juice cannot       
attract iron2 nor does it attract the   
latter when rusty4 ,further1 concerning 
the handling of the twig1 they warn us  
that we should not press the fingers    

together too lightly1 nor clench them   
too firmly1 for if the twig is held     
lightly they say that it will fall      
before the force of the vein can turn   
it2 if however1 it is grasped too firmly
 the force of the hands resists the     
force of the veins and counteracts it4  
,therefore1 they consider that five     
things are necessary to insure that the 
twig shall serve its purpose3 of these  
the first is the size of the twig1 for  
the force of the veins cannot turn too  
large a stick2 secondly1 there is the   
shape of the twig1 which must be forked 
or the vein cannot turn it2 thirdly1 the
 power of the vein which has the nature 
to turn it2 fourthly1 the manipulation  
of the twig2 fifthly1 the absence of    
impeding peculiarities4 ,these advocates
 of the twig sum up their conclusions as
 follows3 if the rod does not move for  
everybody1 it is due to unskilled       
manipulation or to the impeding         
peculiarities of the man which oppose   
and resist the force of the veins1 as we

 said above1 and those who search for   
veins by means of the twig need not     
necessarily make incantations1 but it is
 sufficient that they handle it suitably
 and are devoid of impeding power2      
therefore1 the twig may be of use to    
good and serious men in discovering     
veins4 ,with regard to deflection of    
branches of trees they say nothing and  
adhere to their opinion4  ,illustration 
#dj 7,divining ,rod73 ,a--,twig4        
,b--,trench4  ,since this matter remains
 in dispute and causes much dissention  
amongst miners1 ,i consider it ought to 
be examined on its own merits4 ,the     
wizards1 who also make use of rings1    
mirrors and crystals1 seek for veins    
with a divining rod shaped like a fork2 
but its shape makes no difference in the
 matter1--it might be straight or of    
some other form--for it is not the form 
of the twig that matters1 but the       
wizard's incantations which it would not
 become me to repeat1 neither do ,i wish
 to do so4 ,the ,ancients1 by means of  

the divining rod1 not only procured     
those things necessary for a livelihood 
or for luxury1 but they were also able  
to alter the forms of things by it2 as  
when the magicians changed the rods of  
the ,egyptians into serpents1 as the    
writings of the ,hebrews relate#bb2 and 
as in ,homer1 ,minerva with a divining  
rod turned the aged ,ulysses suddenly   
into a youth1 and then restored him back
 again to old age2 ,circe also changed  
,ulysses' companions into beasts1 but   
afterward gave them back again their    
human form#bc2 moreover by his rod1     
which was called ,caduceus1 ,mercury    
gave sleep to watchmen and awoke        
slumberers#bd4 ,therefore it seems that 
the divining rod passed to the mines    
from its impure origin with the         
magicians4 ,then when good men shrank   
with horror from the incantations and   
rejected them1 the twig was retained by 
the unsophisticated common miners1 and  
in searching for new veins some traces  
of these ancient usages remain4  ,but   

since truly the twigs of the miners do  
move1 albeit they do not generally use  
incantations1 some say this movement is 
caused by the power of the veins1 others
 say that it depends on the             
manipulation1 and still others think    
that the movement is due to both these  
causes4 ,but1 in truth1 all those       
objects which are endowed with the power
 of attraction do not twist things in   
circles1 but attract them directly to   
themselves2 for instance1 the magnet    
does not turn the iron1 but draws it    
directly to itself1 and amber rubbed    
until it is warm does not bend straws   
about1 but simply draws them to itself4 
,if the power of the veins were of a    
similar nature to that of the magnet and
 the amber1 the twig would not so much  
twist as move once only1 in a           
semi-circle1 and be drawn directly to   
the vein1 and unless the strength of the
 man who holds the twig were to resist  
and oppose the force of the vein1 the   
twig would be brought to the ground2    

wherefore1 since this is not the case1  
it must necessarily follow that the     
manipulation is the cause of the twig's 
twisting motion4 ,it is a conspicuous   
fact that these cunning manipulators do 
not use a straight twig1 but a forked   
one cut from a hazel bush1 or from some 
other wood equally flexible1 so that if 
it be held in the hands1 as they are    
accustomed to hold it1 it turns in a    
circle for any man wherever he stands4  
,nor is it strange that the twig does   
not turn when held by the inexperienced1
 because they either grasp the forks of 
the twig too tightly or hold them too   
loosely4 ,nevertheless1 these things    
give rise to the faith among common     
miners that veins are discovered by the 
use of twigs1 because whilst using these
 they do accidentally discover some2 but
 it more often happens that they lose   
their labour1 and although they might   
discover a vein1 they become none the   
less exhausted in digging useless       
trenches than do the miners who prospect

 in an unfortunate locality4 ,therefore 
a miner1 since we think he ought to be a
 good and serious man1 should not make  
use of an enchanted twig1 because if he 
is prudent and skilled in the natural   
signs1 he understands that a forked     
stick is of no use to him1 for as ,i    
have said before1 there are the natural 
indications of the veins which he can   
see for himself without the help of     
twigs4 ,so if ,nature or chance should  
indicate a locality suitable for mining1
 the miner should dig his trenches      
there2 if no vein appears he must dig   
numerous trenches until he discovers an 
outcrop of a vein4  ,a vena dilatata is 
rarely discovered by men's labour1 but  
usually some force or other reveals it1 
or sometimes it is discovered by a shaft
 or a tunnel on a vena profunda#be4     
,the veins after they have been         
discovered1 and likewise the shafts and 
tunnels1 have names given them1 either  
from their discoverers1 as in the case  
at ,annaberg of the vein called         

,koelergang1 because a charcoal burner  
discovered it2 or from their owners1 as 
the ,geyer1 in ,joachimsthal1 because   
part of the same belonged to ,geyer2 or 
from their products1 as the ,pleygang   
from lead1 or the ,bissmutisch at       
,schneeberg from bismuth#bf2 or from    
some other circumstances1 such as the   
rich alluvials from the torrent by which
 they were laid bare in the valley of   
,joachim4 ,more often the first         
discoverers give the names either of    
persons1 as those of ,german ,kaiser1   
,apollo1 ,janus2 or the name of an      
animal1 as that of lion1 bear1 ram1 or  
cow2 or of things inanimate1 as silver  
chest or ox stalls2 or of something     
ridiculous1 as glutton's nightshade2 or 
finally1 for the sake of a good omen1   
they call it after the ,deity4 ,in      
ancient times they followed the same    
custom and gave names to the veins1     
shafts and tunnels1 as we read in       
,pliny3 ,it is wonderful that the shafts
 begun by ,hannibal in ,spain are still 

worked1 their names being derived from  
their discoverers4 ,one of these at the 
present day1 called ,baebelo1 furnished 
,hannibal with three hundred pounds     
weight 7of silver7 per day4#bg          
,,end ,,of ,,book ,,ii4   ,,footnotes3  
#a ,xenophon4 ,essay on the ,revenues of
 ,athens1 ,,iv41 #ad4  ,but we cannot   
but feel surprised that the ,state1 when
 it sees many private individuals       
enriching themselves from its resources1
 does not imitate their proceedings2 for
 we heard long ago1 indeed1 at least    
such of us as attended to these matters1
 that ,nicias the son of ,niceratus kept
 a thousand men employed in the silver  
mines1 whom he let on hire to ,sosias of
 ,thrace on condition that he should    
give him for each an obolus a day1 free 
of all charges2 and this number he      
always supplied undiminished4 7,see also
 ,note #f74 ,an obolus a day each1 would
 be about #bc oz4 ,troy of silver per   
day for the whole number4 ,in modern    
value this would1 of course1 be but     

about #ejs4 per day1 but in purchasing  
power the value would probably be #ajj  
to #a 7see ,note on p4 #bh74 ,nicias was
 estimated to have a fortune of #ajj    
talents--about #hc1gjj ,troy ounces of  
silver1 and was one of the wealthiest of
 the ,athenians4 7,plutarch1 ,life of   
,nicias74  #b ,xenophon4 ,oeconomicus   
,,xii41 #bj4 ',i approve1' said         
,ischomachus1 'of the barbarian's answer
 to the ,king who found a good horse1   
and1 wishing to fatten it as soon as    
possible1 asked a man with a good       
reputation for horsemanship what would  
do it8' ,the man's reply was3 ',its     
master's eye4'  #c ,praefectus          
,metallorum4 ,in ,saxony this official  
was styled the ,berghauptmann4 ,for     
further information see page #id and    
note on page #gh4  #d ,this statement is
 either based upon ,apollodorus1 whom   
,agricola does not mention among his    
authorities1 or on ,strabo1 whom he does
 so include4 ,the former in his work on 
,mythology makes such a statement1 for  

which ,strabo 7,,xiv41 #e1 #bh7 takes   
him to task as follows3 ,with this vain 
intention they collected the stories    
related by the ,scepsian 7,demetrius71  
and taken from ,callisthenes and other  
writers1 who did not clear them from    
false notions respecting the ,halizones2
 for example1 that the wealth of        
,tantalus and of the ,pelopidae was     
derived1 it is said1 from the mines     
about ,phrygia and ,sipylus2 that of    
,cadmus from the mines of ,thrace and   
,mount ,pangaeum2 that of ,priam from   
the gold mines of ,astyra1 near ,abydos 
7of which at present there are small    
remains1 yet there is a large quantity  
of matter ejected1 and the excavations  
are proofs of former workings72 that of 
,midas from the mines about ,mount      
,bermium2 that of ,gyges1 ,alyattes1 and
 ,croesus1 from the mines in ,lydia and 
the small deserted city between         
,atarneus and ,pergamum1 where are the  
sites of exhausted mines4 7,hamilton's  
,trans41 ,vol4 ,,iii41 p4 #ff74  ,in    

adopting this view1 ,agricola apparently
 applied a wonderful realism to some    
,greek mythology--for instance1 in the  
legend of ,midas1 which tells of that   
king being rewarded by the god          
,dionysus1 who granted his request that 
all he touched might turn to gold2 but  
the inconvenience of the gift drove him 
to pray for relief1 which he obtained by
 bathing in the ,pactolus1 the sands of 
which thereupon became highly           
auriferous4 ,priam was1 of course1 ,king
 of ,troy1 but ,homer does not exhibit  
him as a mine-owner4 ,gyges1 ,alyattes1 
and ,croesus were successively ,kings of
 ,lydia1 from #fhg to #edf ,b4,c41 and  
were no doubt possessed of great        
treasure in gold4 ,some few years ago we
 had occasion to inquire into extensive 
old workings locally reputed to be      
,croesus' mines1 at a place some        
distance north of ,smyrna1 which would  
correspond very closely to the locality 
here mentioned4  #e ,there can be no    
doubt that the ,carthaginians worked the

 mines of ,spain on an extensive scale  
for a very long period anterior to their
 conquest by the ,romans1 but whether   
the mines were worked by the ,government
 or not we are unable to find any       
evidence4  #f ,the silver mines of ,mt4 
,laurion formed the economic mainstay of
 ,athens for the three centuries during 
which the ,state had the ascendency in  
,greece1 and there can be no doubt that 
the dominance of ,athens and its        
position as a sea-power were directly   
due to the revenues from the mines4 ,the
 first working of the mines is shrouded 
in mystery4 ,the scarcity of silver in  
the time of ,solon 7#fch-eih ,b4,c47    
would not indicate any very considerable
 output at that time4 ,according to     
,xenophon 7,essay on ,revenue of        
,athens1 ,,iv41 #b71 written about #cee 
,b4,c41 they were wrought in very       
ancient times4 ,the first definite      
discussion of the mines in ,greek record
 begins about #ejj ,b4,c41 for about    
that time the royalties began to figure 

in the ,athenian ,budget 7,aristotle1   
,constitution of ,athens1 #dg74 ,there  
can be no doubt that the mines reached  
great prosperity prior to the ,persian  
invasion4 ,in the year #dhd ,b4,c4 the  
mines returned #ajj ,talents 7about     
#hc1gjj oz4 ,troy7 to the ,treasury1 and
 this1 on the advice of ,themistocles1  
was devoted to the construction of the  
fleet which conquered the ,persians at  
,salamis 7#dhj ,b4,c474 ,the mines were 
much interfered with by the ,spartan    
invasions from #dca to #dbe ,b4,c41 and 
again by their occupation in #dac       
,b4,c42 and by #cee ,b4,c41 when        
,xenophon wrote the ,revenues1          
exploitation had fallen to a low ebb1   
for which he proposes the remedies noted
 by ,agricola on p4 #bh4 ,by the end of 
the #dth ,century1 ,b4,c41 the mines had
 again reached considerable prosperity1 
as is evidenced by ,demosthenes'        
orations against ,pantaenetus and       
against ,phaenippus1 and by ,lycurgus'  
prosecution of ,diphilos for robbing the

 supporting pillars4 ,the domination of 
the ,macedonians under ,philip and      
,alexander at the end of the #dth and   
beginning of the #crd ,centuries ,b4,c41
 however1 so flooded ,greece with money 
from the mines of ,thrace1 that this    
probably interfered with ,laurion1 at   
this time1 in any event1 began the      
decadence of these mines4 ,synchronous  
also was the decadence of ,athens1 and1 
but for fitful displays1 the ,state was 
not able to maintain even its own       
independence1 not to mention its        
position as a dominant ,state4 ,finally1
 ,strabo1 writing about #cj ,b4,c4 gives
 the epitaph of every mining            
district--reworking the dumps4 ,he says 
7,,ix41 #a1 #bc73 ,the silver mines in  
,attica were at first of importance1 but
 are now exhausted4 ,the workmen1 when  
the mines yielded a bad return to their 
labour1 committed to the furnace the old
 refuse and scoria1 and hence obtained  
very pure silver1 for the former workmen
 had carried on the process in the      

furnace unskilfully4  ,since #ahfj1 the 
mines have been worked with some success
 by a ,french ,company1 thus carrying   
the mining history of this district over
 a period of twenty-seven centuries4    
,the most excellent of many memoirs upon
 the mines at ,laurion1 not only for its
 critical1 historical1 and              
archaeological value1 but also because  
of its author's great insight into      
mining and metallurgy1 is that of       
,edouard ,ardaillon 7,les ,mines du     
,laurion dans l',antiquite1 ,paris1     
#ahig74 ,we have relied considerably    
upon this careful study for the         
following notes1 and would refer others 
to it for a short bibliography on the   
subject4 ,we would mention in passing   
that ,augustus ,boeckh's ,silver ,mines 
of ,laurion1 which is incorporated with 
his ,public ,economy of ,athens         
7,english ,translation by ,lewis1       
,london1 #ahdb7 has been too much relied
 upon by ,english students4 ,it is no   
doubt the product of one acquainted with

 written history1 but without any       
special knowledge of the industry and it
 is based on no antiquarian research4   
,the ,mt4 ,laurion mining district is   
located near the southern end of the    
,attic ,peninsula4 ,the deposits are    
silver-lead1 and they occur along the   
contact between approximately horizontal
 limestones and slates4 ,there are two  
principal beds of each1 thus forming    
three principal contacts4 ,the most     
metalliferous of these contacts are     
those at the base of the slates1 the    
lowest contact of the series being the  
richest4 ,the ore-bodies were most      
irregular1 varying greatly in size1 from
 a thin seam between schist planes1 to  
very large bodies containing as much as 
#bjj1jjj cubic metres4 ,the ores are    
argentiferous galena1 accompanied by    
considerable amounts of blende and      
pyrites1 all oxidized near the surface4 
,the ores worked by the ,ancients appear
 to have been fairly rich in lead1 for  
the discards worked in recent years by  

the ,french ,company1 and the pillars   
left behind1 ran #h to #aj lead4 ,the   
ratio of silver was from #dj to #ij     
ounces per ton of lead4 ,the upper      
contacts were exposed by erosion and    
could be entered by tunnels1 but the    
lowest and most prolific contact line   
was only to be reached by shafts4 ,the  
shafts were ordinarily from four to six 
feet square1 and were undoubtedly cut by
 hammer and chisel2 they were as much as
 #chj feet deep4 ,in some cases long    
inclines for travelling roads join the  
vertical shafts in depth4 ,the drives1  
whether tunnels or from shafts1 were not
 level1 but followed every caprice of   
the sinuous contact4 ,they were from two
 to two and a half feet wide1 often     
driven in parallels with cross-cuts     
between1 in order to exploit every      
corner of the contact4 ,the stoping of  
ore-bodies discovered was undertaken    
quite systematically1 the methods       
depending in the main on the shape of   
the ore-body4 ,if the body was large1   

its dimensions were first determined by 
drives1 crosscuts1 rises1 and winzes1 as
 the case might require4 ,if the ore was
 mainly overhead it was overhand-stoped1
 and the stopes filled as work          
progressed1 inclined winzes being       
occasionally driven from the stopes to  
the original entry drives4 ,if the ore  
was mainly below1 it was                
underhand-stoped1 pillars being left if 
necessary--such pillars in some cases   
being thirty feet high4 ,they also      
employed timber and artificial pillars4 
,the mines were practically dry4 ,there 
is little evidence of breaking by fire4 
,the ore was hand-sorted underground and
 carried out by the slaves1 and in some 
cases apparently the windlass was used4 
,it was treated by grinding in mills and
 concentrating upon a sort of buddle4   
,these concentrates--mostly galena--were
 smelted in low furnaces and the lead   
was subsequently cupelled4 ,further     
details of metallurgical methods will be
 found in ,notes on p4 #cia and p4 #dfe1

 on metallurgical subjects4  ,the mines 
were worked by slaves4 ,even the        
overseers were at times apparently      
slaves1 for we find 7,xenophon1         
,memorabilia1 ,,ii41 #e7 that ,nicias   
paid a whole talent for a good overseer4
 ,a talent would be about #hcg ,troy    
ounces of silver4 ,as wages of skilled  
labour were about two and one half      
pennyweights of silver per diem1 and a  
family income of #ajj ounces of silver  
per annum was affluence1 the ratio of   
purchasing power of ,attic coinage to   
modern would be about #ajj to #a4       
,therefore this mine manager was worth  
in modern value roughly ,l#h1jjj4 ,the  
mines were the property of the ,state4  
,the areas were defined by vertical     
boundaries1 and were let on lease for   
definite periods for a fixed annual     
rent4 ,more ample discussion of the law 
will be found on p4 #hc4  #g ,xenophon4 
7,essay on ,the ,revenues1 ,,iv41 #cj74 
,i think1 however1 that ,i am able to   
give some advice with regard to this    

difficulty also 7the risk of opening new
 mines71 and to show how new operations 
may be conducted with the greatest      
safety4 ,there are ten tribes at        
,athens1 and if to each of these the    
,state should assign an equal number of 
slaves1 and the tribes should all make  
new cuttings1 sharing their fortunes in 
common1 then if but one tribe should    
make any useful discovery it would point
 out something profitable to the whole2 
but if two1 three1 or four1 or half the 
number should make some discovery1 it is
 plain that the works would be more     
profitable in proportion1 and that they 
should all fail is contrary to all      
experience in past times4 7,watson's    
,trans4 p4 #beh74  #h ,agricola here    
refers to the proposal of ,xenophon for 
the ,state to collect slaves and hire   
them to work the mines of ,laurion4     
,there is no evidence that this         
recommendation was ever carried out4  #i
 ,partes4 ,agricola1 p4 #hi-ia1         
describes in detail the organization and

 management of these share companies4   
,see ,note #h1 p4 #ij4  #aj ,this island
 in the northern ,a,egean ,sea has      
produced this earth from before         
,theophrastus' time 7#cgb-bhg ,b4,c47   
down to the present day4 ,according to  
,dana 7,system of ,mineralogy #fhi71 it 
is cimolite1 a hydrous silicate of      
aluminium4 ,the ,ancients distinguished 
two kinds1--one sort used as a pigment1 
and the other for medicinal purposes4   
,this latter was dug with great ceremony
 at a certain time of the year1 moulded 
into cubes1 and stamped with a          
goat1--the symbol of ,diana4 ,it thus   
became known as terra sigillata1 and was
 an article of apothecary commerce down 
to the last century4 ,it is described by
 ,galen 7,,xii41 #ab71 ,dioscorides     
7,v41 #fc71 and ,pliny 7,,xxxv41 #ad71  
as a remedy for ulcers and snake bites4 
#aa ,magister ,metallorum4 ,see ,note   
#a1 p4 #gh1 for the reasons of the      
adoption of the term ,bergmeister and   
page #ie for details of his duties4  #ab

 ,ramenta4 ,particles4 ,the author uses 
this term indifferently for fragments1  
particles of mineral1 concentrates1 gold
 dust1 black tin1 etc41 in all cases the
 result of either natural or artificial 
concentration4 ,as in technical ,english
 we have no general term for both       
natural and artificial concentrates1 we 
have rendered it as the context seemed  
to demand4  #ac ,a certain amount of    
bitumen does float ashore in the ,dead  
,sea2 the origin of it is1 however1     
uncertain4 ,strabo 7,,xvi41 #b1 #db71   
,pliny 7,v41 #ae and #af71 and ,josephus
 7,,iv41 #h71 all mention this fact4    
,the lake for this reason is often      
referred to by the ancient writers by   
the name ,asphaltites4  #ad             
,excoctor1--literally1 ,smelter or      
,metallurgist4  #ae ,this reference     
should be to the ,de ,natura ,fossilium 
7p4 #bcj71 although there is a short    
reference to the matter in ,de ,ortu et 
,causis 7p4 #ei74 ,agricola maintained  
that not only were jet and amber        

varieties of bitumen1 but also coal and 
camphor and obsidian4 ,as jet 7gagates7 
is but a compact variety of coal1 the   
ancient knowledge of this substance has 
more interest than would otherwise      
attach to the gem1 especially as some   
materials described in this connection  
were no doubt coal4 ,the ,greeks often  
refer to a series of substances which   
burned1 contained earth1 and which no   
doubt comprised coal4 ,such substances  
are mentioned by ,aristotle 7,de        
,mirabilibus4 #cc1 #da1 #abe71 ,nicander
 7,theriaca4 #cg71 and others1 previous 
to the #bnd ,century ,b4,c41 but the    
most ample description is that of       
,theophrastus 7#bc-bh73 ,some of the    
more brittle stones there also are1     
which become as it were burning coals   
when put into a fire1 and continue so a 
long time2 of this kind are those about 
,bena1 found in mines and washed down by
 the torrents1 for they will take fire  
on burning coals being thrown on them1  
and will continue burning as long as    

anyone blows them2 afterward they will  
deaden1 and may after that be made to   
burn again4 ,they are therefore of long 
continuance1 but their smell is         
troublesome and disagreeable4 ,that also
 which is called the spinus1 is found in
 mines4 ,this stone1 cut in pieces and  
thrown together in a heap1 exposed to   
the sun1 burns2 and that the more1 if it
 be moistened or sprinkled with water 7a
 pyritiferous shale874 ,but the ,lipara 
stone empties itself1 as it were1 in    
burning1 and becomes like the pumice1   
changing at once both its colour and    
density2 for before burning it is black1
 smooth1 and compact4 ,this stone is    
found in the ,pumices1 separately in    
different places1 as it were1 in cells1 
nowhere continuous to the matter of     
them4 ,it is said that in ,melos the    
pumice is produced in this manner in    
some other stone1 as this is on the     
contrary in it2 but the stone which the 
pumice is found in is not at all like   
the ,lipara stone which is found in it4 

,certain stones there are about ,tetras1
 in ,sicily1 which is over against      
,lipara1 which empty themselves in the  
same manner in the fire4 ,and in the    
promontory called ,erineas1 there is a  
great quantity of stone like that found 
about ,bena1 which1 when burnt1 emits a 
bituminous smell1 and leaves a matter   
resembling calcined earth4 ,those fossil
 substances that are called coals1 and  
are broken for use1 are earthy2 they    
kindle1 however1 and burn like wood     
coals4 ,these are found in ,liguria1    
where there also is amber1 and in ,elis1
 on the way to ,olympia over the        
mountains4 ,these are used by smiths4   
7,based on ,hill's ,trans474            
,dioscorides and ,pliny add nothing of  
value to this description4  ,agricola   
7,de ,nat4 ,fos41 p4 #bbi-bcj7 not only 
gives various localities of jet1 but    
also records its relation to coal4 ,as  
to the latter1 he describes several     
occurrences1 and describes the deposits 
as vena dilatata4 ,coal had come into   

considerable use all over ,europe1      
particularly in ,england1 long before   
,agricola's time2 the oft-mentioned     
charter to mine sea-coal given to the   
,monks of ,newbottle ,abbey1 near       
,preston1 was dated #abaj4  ,amber was  
known to the ,greeks by the name        
electrum1 but whether the alloy of the  
same name took its name from the colour 
of amber or vice versa is uncertain4    
,the gum is supposed to be referred to  
by ,homer 7,od4 ,,xv4 #dfj71 and ,thales
 of ,miletus 7#fdj-edf ,b4,c47 is       
supposed to have first described its    
power of attraction4 ,it is mentioned by
 many other ,greek authors1 ,a,eschylus1
 ,euripides1 ,aristotle1 and others4    
,the latter 7,de ,mirabilibus1 #ha7     
records of the amber islands in the     
,adriatic1 that the inhabitants tell the
 story that on these islands amber falls
 from poplar trees4 ,this1 they say1    
resembles gum and hardens like stone1   
the story of the poets being that after 
,phaeton was struck by lightning his    

sisters turned to poplar trees and shed 
tears of amber4 ,theophrastus 7#ec7     
says3 ,amber is also a stone2 it is dug 
out of the earth in ,liguria and has1   
like the before-mentioned 7lodestone71 a
 power of attraction4 ,pliny 7,,xxxvii41
 #aa7 gives a long account of both the  
substance1 literature1 and mythology on 
the subject4 ,his view of its origin    
was3 ,certainly amber is obtained from  
the islands of the ,northern ,ocean1 and
 is called by the ,germans glaesum4 ,for
 this reason the ,romans1 when          
,germanicus ,caesar commanded in those  
parts1 called one of them ,glaesaria1   
which was known to the barbarians as    
,austeravia4 ,amber originates from gum 
discharged by a kind of pine tree1 like 
gum from cherry and resin from the      
ordinary pine4 ,it is liquid at first1  
and issues abundantly and hardens in    
time by cold1 or by the sea when the    
rising tides carry off the fragments    
from the shores of those islands4       
,certainly it is thrown on the coasts1  

and is so light that it appears to roll 
in the water4 ,our forefathers believed 
that it was the juice of a tree1 for    
they called it succinum4 ,and that it   
belongs to a kind of pine tree is proved
 by the odour of the pine tree which it 
gives when rubbed1 and that it burns    
when ignited like a pitch pine torch4   
,the term amber is of ,arabic           
origin--from ,ambar--and this term was  
adopted by the ,greeks after the        
,christian era4 ,agricola uses the      
,latin term succinum and 7,de ,nat4     
,fos41 p4 #bca-e7 disputes the origin   
from tree gum1 and contends for         
submarine bitumen springs4  #af ,the    
statement in ,de ,veteribus et ,novis   
,metallis 7p4 #cid7 is as follows3--    
,it came about by chance and accident   
that the silver mines were discovered at
 ,freiberg in ,meissen4 ,by the river   
,sala1 which is not unknown to ,strabo1 
is ,hala1 which was once country1 but is
 now a large town2 the site1 at any     
rate1 even from ,roman times was famous 

and renowned for its salt springs1 for  
the possession of which the ,hermunduri 
fought with the ,chatti4 ,when people   
carried the salt thence in wagons1 as   
they now do straight through ,meissen   
7,saxony7 into ,bohemia--which is       
lacking in that seasoning to-day no less
 than formerly--they saw galena in the  
wheel tracks1 which had been uncovered  
by the torrents4 ,this lead ore1 since  
it was similar to that of ,goslar1 they 
put into their carts and carried to     
,goslar1 for the same carriers were     
accustomed to carry lead from that city4
 ,and since much more silver was smelted
 from this galena than from that of     
,goslar1 certain miners betook          
themselves to that part of ,meissen in  
which is now situated ,freiberg1 a great
 and wealthy town2 and we are told by   
consistent stories and general report   
that they grew rich out of the mines4   
,agricola places the discovery of the   
mines at ,freiberg at about #aagj4 ,see 
,note #aa1 p4 #e4  #ag ,diodorus        

,siculus 7,v41 #ce74 ,these places being
 covered with woods1 it is said that in 
ancient times these mountains were set  
on fire by shepherds1 and continued     
burning for many days1 and parched the  
earth1 so that an abundance of silver   
ore was melted1 and the metal flowed in 
streams of pure silver like a river4    
,aristotle1 nearly three centuries      
before ,diodorus1 mentions this same    
story 7,de ,mirabilibus1 #hg73 ,they say
 that in ,ibernia the woods were set on 
fire by certain shepherds1 and the earth
 thus heated1 the country visibly flowed
 silver2 and when some time later there 
were earthquakes1 and the earth burst   
asunder at different places1 a large    
amount of silver was collected4 ,as the 
works of ,posidonius are lost1 it is    
probable that ,agricola was quoting from
 ,strabo 7,,iii41 #b1 #i71 who says1 in 
describing ,spain3 ,posidonius1 in      
praising the amount and excellence of   
the metals1 cannot refrain from his     
accustomed rhetoric1 and becomes quite  

enthusiastic in exaggeration4 ,he tells 
us we are not to disbelieve the fable   
that formerly the forests having been   
set on fire1 the earth1 which was loaded
 with silver and gold1 melted and threw 
up these metals to the surface1 for     
inasmuch as every mountain and wooded   
hill seemed to be heaped up with money  
by a lavish fortune4 7,hamilton's       
,trans4 ,i41 p4 #bbj74 ,or he may have  
been quoting from the ,deipnosophistae  
of ,athenaeus 7,,vi471 where ,posidonius
 is quoted3 ,and the mountains 444 when 
once the woods upon them had caught     
fire1 spontaneously ran with liquid     
silver4  #ah ,lucretius1 ,de ,rerum     
,natura ,v4 #abda4  #ai ,agricola's     
account of this event in ,de ,veteribus 
et ,novis ,metallis is as follows 7p4   
#cic73 ,now veins are not always first  
disclosed by the hand and labour of man1
 nor has art always demonstrated them2  
sometimes they have been disclosed      
rather by chance or by good fortune4 ,i 
will explain briefly what has been      

written upon this matter in history1    
what miners tell us1 and what has       
occurred in our times4 ,thus the mines  
at ,goslar are said to have been found  
in the following way4 ,a certain noble1 
whose name is not recorded1 tied his    
horse1 which was named ,ramelus1 to the 
branch of a tree which grew on the      
mountain4 ,this horse1 pawing the earth 
with its hoofs1 which were iron shod1   
and thus turning it over1 uncovered a   
hidden vein of lead1 not unlike the     
winged ,pegasus1 who in the legend of   
the poets opened a spring when he beat  
the rock with his hoof4 ,so just as that
 spring is named ,hippocrene after that 
horse1 so our ancestors named the       
mountain ,rammelsberg4 ,whereas the     
perennial water spring of the poets     
would long ago have dried up1 the vein  
even to-day exists1 and supplies an     
abundant amount of excellent lead4 ,that
 a horse can have opened a vein will    
seem credible to anyone who reflects in 
how many ways the signs of veins are    

shown by chance1 all of which are       
explained in my work ,de ,re ,metallica4
 ,therefore1 here we will believe the   
story1 both because it may happen that a
 horse may disclose a vein1 and because 
the name of the mountain agrees with the
 story4 ,agricola places the discovery  
of ,goslar in the ,hartz at prior to    
#icf4 ,see ,note #aa1 p4 #e4  #bj       
,fragmenta4 ,the glossary gives         
,geschube4 ,this term is defined in the 
,bergwerks' ,lexicon 7,chemnitz1 #agdc1 
p4 #bej7 as the pieces of stone1        
especially tin-stone1 broken from the   
vein and washed out by the water--the   
croppings4  #ba ,so far as we are able  
to discover1 this is the first published
 description of the divining rod as     
applied to minerals or water4 ,like     
,agricola1 many authors have sought to  
find its origin among the ,ancients4    
,the magic rods of ,moses and ,homer1   
especially the rod with which the former
 struck the rock at ,horeb1 the rod     
described by ,ctesias 7died #cih ,b4,c47

 which attracted gold and silver1 and   
the virgula divina of the ,romans have  
all been called up for proof4 ,it is    
true that the ,romans are responsible   
for the name virgula divina1 divining   
rod1 but this rod was used for taking   
auguries by casting bits of wood        
7,cicero1 ,de ,divinatione74 ,despite   
all this1 while the ancient naturalists 
all give detailed directions for finding
 water1 none mention anything akin to   
the divining rod of the ,middle ,ages4  
,it is also worth noting that the ,monk 
,theophilus in the #abth ,century also  
gives a detailed description of how to  
find water1 but makes no mention of the 
rod4 ,there are two authorities         
sometimes cited as prior to ,agricola1  
the first being ,basil ,valentine in his
 ,last ,will and ,testament             
7,,xxiv-,,viii471 and while there may be
 some reason 7see ,appendix7 for        
accepting the authenticity of the       
,triumphal ,chariot of ,antimony by this
 author1 as dating about #aejj1 there   

can be little doubt that the ,last ,will
 and ,testament was spurious and dated  
about #ej years after ,agricola4        
,paracelsus 7,de ,natura ,rerum ,,ix471 
says3 ,these 7divinations7 are vain and 
misleading1 and among the first of them 
are divining rods1 which have deceived  
many miners4 ,if they once point rightly
 they deceive ten or twenty times4 ,in  
his ,de ,origine ,morborum ,invisibilium
 7,book ,i47 he adds that the faith     
turns the rod4 ,these works were no     
doubt written prior to ,de ,re          
,metallica--,paracelsus died in         
#aeda--;but they were not published     
until some time afterward4 ,those       
interested in the strange persistence of
 this superstition down to the present  
day--and the files of the patent offices
 of the world are full of it--will find 
the subject exhaustively discussed in   
,m4 ,e4 ,chevreul's ,de la ,baguette    
,divinatoire1 ,paris1 #ahde2 ,l4        
,figuier1 ,histoire du ,merveilleux dans
 les temps moderne ,,ii41 ,paris1 #ahfj2

 ,w4 ,f4 ,barrett1 ,proceedings of the  
,society of ,psychical ,research1 part  
#cb1 #ahig1 and #ch1 #aijj2 ,r4 ,w4     
,raymond1 ,american ,inst4 of ,mining   
,engineers1 #ahhc1 p4 #daa4 ,of the     
descriptions by those who believed in it
 there is none better than that of      
,william ,pryce 7,mineralogia           
,cornubiensis1 ,london1 #aggh1 pp4      
#aac-abc71 who devotes much pains to a  
refutation of ,agricola4 ,when we       
consider that a century later than      
,agricola such an advanced mind as      
,robert ,boyle 7#afbf-afia71 the founder
 of the ,royal ,society1 was convinced  
of the genuineness of the divining rod1 
one is more impressed with the clarity  
of ,agricola's vision4 ,in fact1 there  
were few indeed1 down to the #aith      
,century1 who did not believe implicitly
 in the effectiveness of this           
instrument1 and while science has long  
since abandoned it1 not a year passes   
but some new manifestation of its hold  
on the popular mind breaks out4  #bb    

,exodus ,,vii41 #aj1 #aa1 #ab4  #bc     
,odyssey ,,xvi41 #agb1 and ,x41 #bch4   
#bd ,odyssey ,,xxiv41 #a1 etc4 ,the     
,caduceus of ,hermes had also the power 
of turning things to gold1 and it is    
interesting to note that in its oldest  
form1 as the insignia of heralds and of 
ambassadors1 it had two prongs4  #be ,in
 a general way venae profundae were     
fissure veins and venae dilatatae were  
sheeted deposits4 ,for description see  
,book ,,iii4  #bf ,these mines are in   
the ,erzgebirge4 ,we have adopted the   
names given in the ,german translation4 
#bg ,the quotation from ,pliny          
7,,xxxiii41 #ca7 as a whole reads as    
follows3--  ,silver is found in nearly  
all the provinces1 but the finest of all
 in ,spain2 where it is found in the    
barren lands1 and in the mountains4     
,wherever one vein of silver has been   
found1 another is sure to be found not  
far away4 ,this is the case of nearly   
all the metals1 whence it appears that  
the ,greeks derived metalla4 ,it is     

wonderful that the shafts begun by      
,hannibal in ,spain still remain1 their 
names being derived from their makers4  
,one of these at the present day called 
,baebelo1 furnished ,hannibal with three
 hundred pounds' weight 7of silver7 per 
day4 ,this mountain is excavated for a  
distance of fifteen hundred paces2 and  
for this distance there are waterbearers
 lighted by torches standing night and  
day baling out the water in turns1 thus 
making quite a river4 ,hannibal dates   
#bdg-ahc ,b4,c4 and was therefore dead  
#bjf years when ,pliny was born4        
,according to a footnote in ,bostock and
 ,riley's translation of ,pliny1 these  
workings were supposed to be in the     
neighbourhood of ,castulo1 now ,cazlona1
 near ,linares4 ,it was at ,castulo that
 ,hannibal married his rich wife        
,himilce2 and in the hills north of     
,linares there are ancient silver mines 
still known as ,los ,pozos de ,anibal4  
,,book ,,iii4   ,previously ,i have     
given much information concerning the   

miners1 also ,i have discussed the      
choice of localities for mining1 for    
washing sands1 and for evaporating      
waters2 further1 ,i described the method
 of searching for veins4 ,with such     
matters ,i was occupied in the second   
book2 now ,i come to the third book1    
which is about veins and stringers1 and 
the seams in the rocks#a4 ,the term vein
 is sometimes used to indicate canales  
in the earth1 but very often elsewhere  
by this name ,i have described that     
which may be put in vessels#b2 ,i now   
attach a second significance to these   
words1 for by them ,i mean to designate 
any mineral substances which the earth  
keeps hidden within her own deep        
receptacles4  ,illustration #de;a 7,vein
 in mountain73 ,a1 ,c--,the mountain4   
,b--,vena profunda4  ,first ,i will     
speak of the veins1 which1 in depth1    
width1 and length1 differ very much one 
from another4 ,those of one variety     
descend from the surface of the earth to
 its lowest depths1 which on account of 

this characteristic1 ,i am accustomed to
 call venae profundae4  ,illustration   
#de;b 7,vein in mountain73 ,a1 ,d--,the 
mountain4 ,b1 ,c--,vena dilatata4       
,another kind1 unlike the venae         
profundae1 neither ascend to the surface
 of the earth nor descend1 but lying    
under the ground1 expand over a large   
area2 and on that account ,i call them  
venae dilatatae4  ,illustration #di     
7,veins in mountain73 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1       
,d--,the mountain4 ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,h1 ,i1  
,k--,vena cumulata4  ,another occupies a
 large extent of space in length and    
width2 therefore ,i usually call it vena
 cumulata1 for it is nothing else than  
an accumulation of some certain kind of 
mineral1 as ,i have described in the    
book entitled ,de ,subterraneorum ,ortu 
et ,causis4 ,it occasionally happens1   
though it is unusual and rare1 that     
several accumulations of this kind are  
found in one place1 each one or more    
fathoms in depth and four or five in    
width1 and one is distant from another  

two1 three1 or more fathoms4 ,when the  
excavation of these accumulations       
begins1 they at first appear in the     
shape of a disc2 then they open out     
wider2 finally from each of such        
accumulations is usually formed a vena  
cumulata4  ,illustration #ej;a 7,veins  
in mountain73 ,a--,vena profunda4       
,b--,intervenium4 ,c--,another vena     
profunda4  ,illustration #ej;b 7,veins  
in mountain73 ,a  ,b--,vena dilatatae4  
,c--,intervenium4 ,d  ,e--,other venae  
dilatatae4  ,the space between two veins
 is called an intervenium2 this interval
 between the veins1 if it is between    
venae dilatatae is entirely hidden      
underground4 ,if1 however1 it lies      
between venae profundae then the top is 
plainly in sight1 and the remainder is  
hidden4  ,illustration #ec 7,veins in   
mountain73 ,a--,wide vena profunda4     
,b--,narrow vena profunda4  ,venae      
profundae differ greatly one from       
another in width1 for some of them are  
one fathom wide1 some are two cubits1   

others one cubit2 others again are a    
foot wide1 and some only half a foot2   
all of which our miners call wide veins4
 ,others on the contrary1 are only a    
palm wide1 others three digits1 or even 
two2 these they call narrow4 ,but in    
other places where there are very wide  
veins1 the widths of a cubit1 or a foot1
 or half a foot1 are said to be narrow2 
at ,cremnitz1 for instance1 there is a  
certain vein which measures in one place
 fifteen fathoms in width1 in another   
eighteen1 and in another twenty2 the    
truth of this statement is vouched for  
by the inhabitants4  ,illustration #ed;a
 7,veins in mountain73 ,a--,thin vena   
dilatata4 ,b--,thick vena dilatata4     
,venae dilatatae1 in truth1 differ also 
in thickness1 for some are one fathom   
thick1 others two1 or even more2 some   
are a cubit thick1 some a foot1 some    
only half a foot2 and all these are     
usually called thick veins4 ,some on the
 other hand1 are but a palm thick1 some 
three digits1 some two1 some one2 these 

are called thin veins4  ,illustration   
#ed;b 7,seams in the ,rocks73 ,a1 ,b1   
,c--,vein4 ,d1 ,e1 ,f--,seams in the    
,rock 7,commissurae ,saxorum74  ,venae  
profundae vary in direction2 for some   
run from east to west4  ,illustration   
#ee;a 7,seams in the ,rocks73 ,a1 ,b1   
,c--,vein4 ,d1 ,e1 ,f--,seams in the    
,rocks4  ,others1 on the other hand1 run
 from west to east4  ,illustration #ee;b
 7,seams in the ,rocks73 ,a1 ,b1        
,c--,vein4 ,d1 ,e1 ,f--,seams in the    
,rocks4  ,others run from south to      
north4  ,illustration #ef 7,seams in the
 ,rocks73 ,a1 ,b1 ,c--,vein4 ,d1 ,e1    
,f--,seams in the ,rocks4  ,others1 on  
the contrary1 run from north to south4  
,the seams in the rocks indicate to us  
whether a vein runs from the east or    
from the west4 ,for instance1 if the    
rock seams incline toward the westward  
as they descend into the earth1 the vein
 is said to run from east to west2 if   
they incline toward the east1 the vein  
is said to run from west to east2 in a  

similar manner1 we determine from the   
rock seams whether the veins run north  
or south4  ,illustration #eg 7,compass7 
,now miners divide each quarter of the  
earth into six divisions2 and by this   
method they apportion the earth into    
twenty-four directions1 which they      
divide into two parts of twelve each4   
,the instrument which indicates these   
directions is thus constructed4 ,first a
 circle is made2 then at equal intervals
 on one half portion of it right through
 to the other1 twelve straight lines    
called by the ,greeks ,greek3 diametroi1
 and in the ,latin dimetientes1 are     
drawn through a central point which the 
,greeks call ,greek3 kentron1 so that   
the circle is thus divided into         
twenty-four divisions1 all being of an  
equal size4 ,then1 within the circle are
 inscribed three other circles1 the     
outermost of which has cross-lines      
dividing it into twenty-four equal      
parts2 the space between it and the next
 circle contains two sets of twelve     

numbers1 inscribed on the lines called  
diameters2 while within the innermost   
circle it is hollowed out to contain a  
magnetic needle#c4 ,the needle lies     
directly over that one of the twelve    
lines called diameters on which the     
number ,,xii is inscribed at both ends4 
,when the needle which is governed by   
the magnet points directly from the     
north to the south1 the number ,,xii at 
its tail1 which is forked1 signifies the
 north1 that number ,,xii which is at   
its point indicates the south4 ,the sign
 ,,vi superior indicates the east1 and  
,,vi inferior the west4 ,further1       
between each two cardinal points there  
are always five others which are not so 
important4 ,the first two of these      
directions are called the prior         
directions2 the last two are called the 
posterior1 and the fifth direction lies 
immediately between the former and the  
latter2 it is halved1 and one half is   
attributed to one cardinal point and one
 half to the other4 ,for example1       

between the northern number ,,xii and   
the eastern number ,,vi1 are points     
numbered ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii1 ,,iv1 ,v1 of  
which ,i and ,,ii are northern          
directions lying toward the east1 ,,iv  
and ,v are eastern directions lying     
toward the north1 and ,,iii is assigned1
 half to the north and half to the east4
  ,one who wishes to know the direction 
of the veins underground1 places over   
the vein the instrument just described2 
and the needle1 as soon as it becomes   
quiet1 will indicate the course of the  
vein4 ,that is1 if the vein proceeds    
from ,,vi to ,,vi1 it either runs from  
east to west1 or from west to east2 but 
whether it be the former or the latter1 
is clearly shown by the seams in the    
rocks4 ,if the vein proceeds along the  
line which is between ,v and ,,vi toward
 the opposite direction1 it runs from   
between the fifth and sixth divisions of
 east to the west1 or from between the  
fifth and sixth divisions of west to the
 east2 and again1 whether it is the one 

or the other is clearly shown by the    
seams in the rocks4 ,in a similar manner
 we determine the other directions4     
,illustration #ei 7,compass with winds7 
,now miners reckon as many points as the
 sailors do in reckoning up the number  
of the winds4 ,not only is this done    
to-day in this country1 but it was also 
done by the ,romans who in olden times  
gave the winds partly ,latin names and  
partly names borrowed from the ,greeks4 
,any miner who pleases may therefore    
call the directions of the veins by the 
names of the winds4 ,there are four     
principal winds1 as there are four      
cardinal points3 the ,subsolanus1 which 
blows from the east2 and its opposite   
the ,favonius1 which blows from the     
west2 the latter is called by the       
,greeks ,greek3 ,zephyros1 and the      
former ,greek3 ,apeliotes4 ,there is the
 ,auster1 which blows from the south2   
and opposed to it is the ,septentrio1   
from the north2 the former the ,greeks  
called ,greek3 ,notos1 and the latter   

,greek3 ,aparktias4 ,there are also     
subordinate winds1 to the number of     
twenty1 as there are directions1 for    
between each two principal winds there  
are always five subordinate ones4       
,between the ,subsolanus 7east wind7 and
 the ,auster 7south wind7 there is the  
,ornithiae or the ,bird wind1 which has 
the first place next to the ,subsolanus2
 then comes ,caecias2 then ,eurus1 which
 lies in the midway of these five2 next 
comes ,vulturnus2 and lastly1           
,euronotus1 nearest the ,auster 7south  
wind74 ,the ,greeks have given these    
names to all of these1 with the         
exception of ,vulturnus1 but those who  
do not distinguish the winds in so      
precise a manner say this is the same as
 the ,greeks called ,greek3 ,euros4     
,between the ,auster 7south wind7 and   
the ,favonius 7west wind7 is first      
,altanus1 to the right of the ,auster   
7south wind72 then ,libonotus2 then     
,africus1 which is the middle one of    
these five2 after that comes            

,subvesperus2 next ,argestes1 to the    
left of ,favonius 7west wind74 ,all     
these1 with the exception of ,libonotus 
and ,argestes1 have ,latin names2 but   
,africus also is called by the ,greeks  
,greek3 ,lips4 ,in a similar manner1    
between ,favonius 7west wind7 and       
,septentrio 7north wind71 first to the  
right of ,favonius 7west wind71 is the  
,etesiae2 then ,circius2 then ,caurus1  
which is in the middle of these five2   
then ,corus2 and lastly ,thrascias to   
the left of ,septentrio 7north wind74   
,to all of these1 except that of        
,caurus1 the ,greeks gave the names1 and
 those who do not distinguish the winds 
by so exact a plan1 assert that the wind
 which the ,greeks called ,greek3 ,koros
 and the ,latins ,caurus is one and the 
same4 ,again1 between ,septentrio 7north
 wind7 and the ,subsolanus 7east wind71 
the first to the right of ,septentrio   
7north wind7 is ,gallicus2 then         
,supernas2 then ,aquilo1 which is the   
middle one of these five2 next comes    

,boreas2 and lastly ,carbas1 to the left
 of ,subsolanus 7east wind74 ,here      
again1 those who do not consider the    
winds to be in so great a multitude1 but
 say there are but twelve winds in all1 
or at the most fourteen1 assert that the
 wind called by the ,greeks ,greek3     
,boreas and the ,latins ,aquilo is one  
and the same4 ,for our purpose it is not
 only useful to adopt this large number 
of winds1 but even to double it1 as the 
,german sailors do4 ,they always reckon 
that between each two there is one in   
the centre taken from both4 ,by this    
method we also are able to signify the  
intermediate directions by means of the 
names of the winds4 ,for instance1 if a 
vein runs from ,,vi east to ,,vi west1  
it is said to proceed from ,subsolanus  
7east wind7 to ,favonius 7west wind72   
but one which proceeds from between ,v  
and ,,vi of the east to between ,v and  
,,vi west is said to proceed out of the 
middle of ,carbas and ,subsolanus to    
between ,argestes and ,favonius2 the    

remaining directions1 and their         
intermediates are similarly designated4 
,the miner1 on account of the natural   
properties of a magnet1 by which the    
needle points to the south1 must fix the
 instrument already described so that   
east is to the left and west to the     
right4  ,illustration #fj 7,veins in    
mountain73 ,a1 ,b--,venae dilatatae4    
,c--,seams in the ,rocks4  ,in a similar
 way to venae profundae1 the venae      
dilatatae vary in their lateral         
directions1 and we are able to          
understand from the seams in the rocks  
in which direction they extend into the 
ground4 ,for if these incline toward the
 west in depth1 the vein is said to     
extend from east to west2 if on the     
contrary1 they incline toward the east1 
the vein is said to go from west to     
east4 ,in the same way1 from the rock   
seams we can determine veins running    
south and north1 or the reverse1 and    
likewise to the subordinate directions  
and their intermediates4  ,illustration 

#fa;a 7,veins in mountain73             
,a--,straight vena profunda4 ,b--,curved
 vena profunda should be vena           
dilatata7874  ,further1 as regards the  
question of direction of a vena         
profunda1 one runs straight from one    
quarter of the earth to that quarter    
which is opposite1 while another one    
runs in a curve1 in which case it may   
happen that a vein proceeding from the  
east does not turn to the quarter       
opposite1 which is the west1 but twists 
itself and turns to the south or the    
north4  ,illustration #fa;b 7,veins in  
mountain73 ,a--,horizontal vena         
dilatata4 ,b--,inclined vena dilatata4  
,c--,curved vena dilatata4  ,similarly  
some venae dilatatae are horizontal1    
some are inclined1 and some are curved4 
,illustration #fb;a 7,veins in mountain7
  ,also the veins which we call         
profundae differ in the manner in which 
they descend into the depths of the     
earth2 for some are vertical 7,a71 some 
are inclined and sloping 7,b71 others   

crooked 7,c74  ,illustration #fb;b      
7,veins in mountain7  ,moreover1 venae  
profundae 7,b7 differ much among        
themselves regarding the kind of        
locality through which they pass1 for   
some extend along the slopes of         
mountains or hills 7,a-,c7 and do not   
descend down the sides4  ,illustration  
#fc;a 7,veins in mountain7  ,other      
,venae ,profundae 7,d1 ,e1 ,f7 from the 
very summit of the mountain or hill     
descend the slope 7,a7 to the hollow or 
valley 7,b71 and they again ascend the  
slope or the side of the mountain or    
hill opposite 7,c74  ,illustration #fc;b
 7,veins in mountain7  ,other ,venae    
,profundae 7,c1 ,d7 descend the mountain
 or hill 7,a7 and extend out into the   
plain 7,b74  ,illustration #fd;a 7,veins
 in mountain73 ,a--,mountainous ,plain4 
,b--,vena profunda4  ,some veins run    
straight along on the plateaux1 the     
hills1 or plains4  ,illustration #fd;b  
7,intersections of ,veins73             
,a--,principal vein4 ,b--,transverse    

vein4 ,c--,vein cutting principal one   
obliquely4  ,in the next place1 venae   
profundae differ not a little in the    
manner in which they intersect1 since   
one may cross through a second          
transversely1 or one may cross another  
one obliquely as if cutting it in two4  
,illustration #fe 7,intersections of    
,veins73 ,a--,principal vein4 ,b--,vein 
which cuts ,a obliquely4 ,c--,part      
carried away4 ,d--,that part which has  
been carried forward4  ,if a vein which 
cuts through another principal one      
obliquely be the harder of the two1 it  
penetrates right through it1 just as a  
wedge of beech or iron can be driven    
through soft wood by means of a tool4   
,if it be softer1 the principal vein    
either drags the soft one with it for a 
distance of three feet1 or perhaps one1 
two1 three1 or several fathoms1 or else 
throws it forward along the principal   
vein2 but this latter happens very      
rarely4 ,but that the vein which cuts   
the principal one is the same vein on   

both sides1 is shown by its having the  
same character in its footwalls and     
hangingwalls4  ,illustration #ff;a      
7,intersections of ,veins73 ,a1 ,b--,two
 veins descend inclined and dip toward  
each other4 ,c--,junction4 ,likewise two
 veins4 ,d--,indicates one descending   
vertically4 ,e--,marks the other        
descending inclined1 which dips toward  
,d4 ,f--,their junction4  ,sometimes    
venae profundae join one with another1  
and from two or more outcropping        
veins#d1 one is formed2 or from two     
which do not outcrop one is made1 if    
they are not far distant from each      
other1 and the one dips into the other1 
or if each dips toward the other1 and   
they thus join when they have descended 
in depth4 ,in exactly the same way1 out 
of three or more veins1 one may be      
formed in depth4  ,illustration #ff;b   
7,intersections of ,veins7  ,however1   
such a junction of veins sometimes      
disunites and in this way it happens    
that the vein which was the right-hand  

vein becomes the left2 and again1 the   
one which was on the left becomes the   
right4  ,furthermore1 one vein may be   
split and divided into parts by some    
hard rock resembling a beak1 or         
stringers in soft rock may sunder the   
vein and make two or more4 ,these       
sometimes join together again and       
sometimes remain divided4  ,illustration
 #fg 7,intersections of ,veins73 ,a1    
,b--,veins dividing4 ,c--,the same      
joining4  ,whether a vein is separating 
from or uniting with another can be     
determined only from the seams in the   
rocks4 ,for example1 if a principal vein
 runs from the east to the west1 the    
rock seams descend in depth likewise    
from the east toward the west1 and the  
associated vein which joins with the    
principal vein1 whether it runs from the
 south or the north1 has its rock seams 
extending in the same way as its own1   
and they do not conform with the seams  
in the rock of the principal vein--which
 remain the same after the              

junction--unless the associated vein    
proceeds in the same direction as the   
principal vein4 ,in that case we name   
the broader vein the principal one1 and 
the narrower the associated vein4 ,but  
if the principal vein splits1 the rock  
seams which belong respectively to the  
parts1 keep the same course when        
descending in depth as those of the     
principal vein4  ,illustration #fh      
7,intersections of ,veins73 ,a1         
,c--,vena dilatata crossing a vena      
profunda4 ,b--,vena profunda4 ,d1       
,e--,vena dilatata which junctions with 
a vena profunda4 ,f--,vena profunda4    
,g--,vena dilatata4 ,h1 ,i--,its divided
 parts4 ,k--,vena profunda which divides
 the vena dilatata4  ,but enough of     
venae profundae1 their junctions and    
divisions4 ,now we come to venae        
dilatatae4 ,a vena dilatata may either  
cross a vena profunda1 or join with it1 
or it may be cut by a vena profunda1 and
 be divided into parts4  ,illustration  
#fi;a 7,veins in mountain73 ,a--,the    

beginning 7origo74 ,b--,the end 7finis74
 ,c--,the head 7caput74 ,d--,the tail   
7cauda74  ,finally1 a vena profunda has 
a beginning 7origo71 an end 7finis71 a  
head 7caput71 and a tail 7cauda74 ,that 
part whence it takes its rise is said to
 be its beginning1 that in which it     
terminates the end4 ,its head#e is that 
part which emerges into daylight2 its   
tail that part which is hidden in the   
earth4 ,but miners have no need to seek 
the beginning of veins1 as formerly the 
kings of ,egypt sought for the source of
 the ,nile1 but it is enough for them to
 discover some other part of the vein   
and to recognise its direction1 for     
seldom can either the beginning or the  
end be found4 ,the direction in which   
the head of the vein comes into the     
light1 or the direction toward which the
 tail extends1 is indicated by its      
footwall and hangingwall4 ,the latter is
 said to hang1 and the former to lie4   
,the vein rests on the footwall1 and the
 hangingwall overhangs it2 thus1 when we

 descend a shaft1 the part to which we  
turn the face is the footwall and seat  
of the vein1 that to which we turn the  
back is the hangingwall4 ,also in       
another way1 the head accords with the  
footwall and the tail with the          
hangingwall1 for if the footwall is     
toward the south1 the vein extends its  
head into the light toward the south2   
and the hangingwall1 because it is      
always opposite to the footwall1 is then
 toward the north4 ,consequently the    
vein extends its tail toward the north  
if it is an inclined vena profunda4     
,similarly1 we can determine with regard
 to east and west and the subordinate   
and their intermediate directions4 ,a   
vena profunda which descends into the   
earth may be either vertical1 inclined1 
or crooked2 the footwall of an inclined 
vein is easily distinguished from the   
hangingwall1 but it is not so with a    
vertical vein2 and again1 the footwall  
of a crooked vein is inverted and       
changed into the hangingwall1 and       

contrariwise the hangingwall is twisted 
into the footwall1 but very many of     
these crooked veins may be turned back  
to vertical or inclined ones4           
,illustration #fi;b 7,veins in          
mountain73 ,a--,the beginning4 ,b--,the 
end4 ,c1 ,d--,the sides4  ,a vena       
dilatata has only a beginning and an    
end1 and in the place of the head and   
tail it has two sides4  ,illustration   
#gj 7,veins in mountain73 ,a--,the      
beginning4 ,b--,the end4 ,c--,the head4 
,d--,the tail4 ,e--,transverse vein4  ,a
 vena cumulata has a beginning1 an end1 
a head1 and a tail1 just as a vena      
profunda4 ,moreover1 a vena cumulata1   
and likewise a vena dilatata1 are often 
cut through by a transverse vena        
profunda4  ,illustration #ga;a 7,fibra  
dilatata73 ,a1 ,b--,veins4              
,c--,transverse stringer4 ,d--,oblique  
stringer4 ,e--,associated stringer4     
,f--,fibra dilatata4  ,stringers        
7fibrae7#f1 which are little veins1 are 
classified into fibrae transversae1     

fibrae obliquae which cut the vein      
obliquely1 fibrae sociae1 fibrae        
dilatatae1 and fibrae incumbentes4 ,the 
fibra transversa crosses the vein2 the  
fibra obliqua crosses the vein          
obliquely2 the fibra socia joins with   
the vein itself2 the fibra dilatata1    
like the vena dilatata1 penetrates      
through it2 but the fibra dilatata1 as  
well as the fibra profunda1 is usually  
found associated with a vein4           
,illustration #ga;b 7,fibra incumbens73 
,a--,vein4 ,b--,fibra incumbens from the
 surface of the hangingwall4 ,c--,same  
from the footwall4  ,the fibra incumbens
 does not descend as deeply into the    
earth as the other stringers1 but lies  
on the vein1 as it were1 from the       
surface to the hangingwall or footwall1 
from which it is named ,subdialis4#g    
,in truth1 as to direction1 junctions1  
and divisions1 the stringers are not    
different from the veins4  ,illustration
 #gb 7,seams in the ,rocks73 ,a--,seams 
which proceed from the east4 ,b--,the   

inverse4  ,lastly1 the seams1 which are 
the very finest stringers 7fibrae71     
divide the rock1 and occur sometimes    
frequently1 sometimes rarely4 ,from     
whatever direction the vein comes1 its  
seams always turn their heads toward the
 light in the same direction4 ,but1     
while the seams usually run from one    
point of the compass to another         
immediately opposite it1 as for         
instance1 from east to west1 if hard    
stringers divert them1 it may happen    
that these very seams1 which before were
 running from east to west1 then        
contrariwise proceed from west to east1 
and the direction of the rocks is thus  
inverted4 ,in such a case1 the direction
 of the veins is judged1 not by the     
direction of the seams which occur      
rarely1 but by those which constantly   
recur4  ,illustration #gc 7,veins in    
mountain73 ,a--,solid vein4 ,b--,solid  
stringer4 ,c--,cavernous vein4          
,d--,cavernous stringer4 ,e--,barren    
vein4 ,f--,barren stringer4  ,both veins

 or stringers may be solid or drusy1 or 
barren of minerals1 or pervious to      
water4 ,solid veins contain no water and
 very little air4 ,the drusy veins      
rarely contain water2 they often contain
 air4 ,those which are barren of        
minerals often carry water4 ,solid veins
 and stringers consist sometimes of hard
 materials1 sometimes of soft1 and      
sometimes of a kind of medium between   
the two4  ,but to return to veins4 ,a   
great number of miners consider#h that  
the best veins in depth are those which 
run from the ,,vi or ,,vii direction of 
the east to the ,,vi or ,,vii direction 
of the west1 through a mountain slope   
which inclines to the north2 and whose  
hangingwalls are in the south1 and whose
 footwalls are in the north1 and which  
have their heads rising to the north1 as
 explained before1 always like the      
footwall1 and finally1 whose rock seams 
turn their heads to the east4 ,and the  
veins which are the next best are those 
which1 on the contrary1 extend from the 

,,vi or ,,vii direction of the west to  
the ,,vi or ,,vii direction of the east1
 through the slope of a mountain which  
similarly inclines to the north1 whose  
hangingwalls are also in the south1     
whose footwalls are in the north1 and   
whose heads rise toward the north2 and  
lastly1 whose rock seams raise their    
heads toward the west4 ,in the third    
place1 they recommend those veins which 
extend from ,,xii north to ,,xii south1 
through the slope of a mountain which   
faces east2 whose hangingwalls are in   
the west1 whose footwalls are in the    
east2 whose heads rise toward the east2 
and whose rock seams raise their heads  
toward the north4 ,therefore they devote
 all their energies to those veins1 and 
give very little or nothing to those    
whose heads1 or the heads of whose rock 
seams rise toward the south or west4    
,for although they say these veins      
sometimes show bright specks of pure    
metal adhering to the stones1 or they   
come upon lumps of metal1 yet these are 

so few and far between that despite them
 it is not worth the trouble to excavate
 such veins2 and miners who persevere in
 digging in the hope of coming upon a   
quantity of metal1 always lose their    
time and trouble4 ,and they say that    
from veins of this kind1 since the sun's
 rays draw out the metallic material1   
very little metal is gained4 ,but in    
this matter the actual experience of the
 miners who thus judge of the veins does
 not always agree with their opinions1  
nor is their reasoning sound2 since     
indeed the veins which run from east to 
west through the slope of a mountain    
which inclines to the south1 whose heads
 rise likewise to the south1 are not    
less charged with metals1 than those to 
which miners are wont to accord the     
first place in productiveness2 as in    
recent years has been proved by the ,st4
 ,lorentz vein at ,abertham1 which our  
countrymen call ,gottsgaab1 for they    
have dug out of it a large quantity of  
pure silver2 and lately a vein in       

,annaberg1 called by the name of        
,himmelsch hoz#i1 has made it plain by  
the production of much silver that veins
 which extend from the north to the     
south1 with their heads rising toward   
the west1 are no less rich in metals    
than those whose heads rise toward the  
east4  ,it may be denied that the heat  
of the sun draws the metallic material  
out of these veins2 for though it draws 
up vapours from the surface of the      
ground1 the rays of the sun do not      
penetrate right down to the depths2     
because the air of a tunnel which is    
covered and enveloped by solid earth to 
the depth of only two fathoms is cold in
 summer1 for the intermediate earth     
holds in check the force of the sun4    
,having observed this fact1 the         
inhabitants and dwellers of very hot    
regions lie down by day in caves which  
protect them from the excessive ardour  
of the sun4 ,therefore it is unlikely   
that the sun draws out from within the  
earth the metallic bodies4 ,indeed1 it  

cannot even dry the moisture of many    
places abounding in veins1 because they 
are protected and shaded by the trees4  
,furthermore1 certain miners1 out of all
 the different kinds of metallic veins1 
choose those which ,i have described1   
and others1 on the contrary1 reject     
copper mines which are of this sort1 so 
that there seems to be no reason in     
this4 ,for what can be the reason if the
 sun draws no copper from copper veins1 
that it draws silver from silver veins1 
and gold from gold veins8  ,moreover1   
some miners1 of whose number was        
,calbus#aj1 distinguish between the     
gold-bearing rivers and streams4 ,a     
river1 they say1 or a stream1 is most   
productive of fine and coarse grains of 
gold when it comes from the east and    
flows to the west1 and when it washes   
against the foot of mountains which are 
situated in the north1 and when it has a
 level plain toward the south or west4  
,in the second place1 they esteem a     
river or a stream which flows in the    

opposite course from the west toward the
 east1 and which has the mountains to   
the north and the level plain to the    
south4 ,in the third place1 they esteem 
the river or the stream which flows from
 the north to the south and washes the  
base of the mountains which are situated
 in the east4 ,but they say that the    
river or stream is least productive of  
gold which flows in a contrary direction
 from the south to the north1 and washes
 the base of mountains which are        
situated in the west4 ,lastly1 of the   
streams or rivers which flow from the   
rising sun toward the setting sun1 or   
which flow from the northern parts to   
the southern parts1 they favour those   
which approach the nearest to the lauded
 ones1 and say they are more productive 
of gold1 and the further they depart    
from them the less productive they are4 
,such are the opinions held about rivers
 and streams4 ,now1 since gold is not   
generated in the rivers and streams1 as 
we have maintained against ,albertus#aa 

in the book entitled ,de ,subterraneorum
 ,ortu et ,causis1 ,book ,v1 but is torn
 away from the veins and stringers and  
settled in the sands of torrents and    
water-courses1 in whatever direction the
 rivers or streams flow1 therefore it is
 reasonable to expect to find gold      
therein2 which is not opposed by        
experience4 ,nevertheless1 we do not    
deny that gold is generated in veins and
 stringers which lie under the beds of  
rivers or streams1 as in other places4  
,,end ,,of ,,book ,,iii4   ,,footnotes3 
#a ,modern nomenclature in the          
description of ore-deposits is so       
impregnated with modern views of their  
origin1 that we have considered it      
desirable in many instances to adopt the
 ,latin terms used by the author1 for we
 believe this method will allow the     
reader greater freedom of judgment as to
 the author's views4 ,the ,latin names  
retained are usually expressive even to 
the non-,latin student4 ,in a general   
way1 a vena profunda is a fissure vein1 

a vena dilatata is a bedded deposit1 and
 a vena cumulata an impregnation1 or a  
replacement or a stockwerk4 ,the        
canales1 as will appear from the        
following footnote1 were ore channels4  
,the seams of the rocks 7commissurae    
saxorum7 are very puzzling4 ,the author 
states1 as appears in the following     
note1 that they are of two              
kinds1--contemporaneous with the        
formation of the rocks1 and also of the 
nature of veinlets4 ,however1 as to     
their supposed relation to the strike of
 veins1 we can offer no explanation4    
,there are passages in this chapter     
where if the word ore-shoot were        
introduced for seams in the rocks the   
text would be intelligible4 ,that is1 it
 is possible to conceive the view that  
the determination of whether an         
east-west vein ran east or ran west was 
dependent on the dip of the ore-shoot   
along the strike4 ,this view1 however1  
is utterly impossible to reconcile with 
the description and illustration of     

commissurae saxorum given on page #ed1  
where they are defined as the finest    
stringers4 ,the following passage from  
the ,nuetzliche ,bergbuechlin 7see      
,appendix71 reads very much as though   
the dip of ore-shoots was understood at 
this time in relation to the direction  
of veins4 ,every vein 7gang7 has two    
7outcrops7 ausgehen1 one of the ausgehen
 is toward daylight along the whole     
length of the vein1 which is called the 
ausgehen of the whole vein4 ,the other  
ausgehen is contrary to or toward the   
strike 7streichen7 of the vein1         
according to its rock 7gestein71 that is
 called the gesteins ausgehen2 for      
instance1 every vein that has its strike
 from east to west has its gesteins     
ausgehen to the east1 and vice-versa4   
,agricola's classification of           
ore-deposits1 after the general         
distinction between alluvial and in situ
 deposits1 is based entirely upon form1 
as will be seen in the quotation below  
relating to the origin of canales4 ,the 

,german equivalents in the ,glossary are
 as follows3--    ,fissure vein 7vena   
profunda7              ,gang4   ,bedded 
deposit 7vena dilatata7                 
,schwebender gang oder fletze4          
,stockwerk or impregnation 7vena        
cumulata7 ,geschute oder stock4         
,stringer 7fibra7                       
,klufft4   ,seams or joints 7commissurae
 saxorum7     ,absetzen des gesteins4   
,it is interesting to note that in ,de  
,natura ,fossilium he describes coal and
 salt1 and later in ,de ,re ,metallica  
he describes the ,mannsfeld copper      
schists1 as all being venae dilatatae4  
,this nomenclature and classification is
 not original with ,agricola4 ,pliny    
7,,xxxiii1 #ba7 uses the term vena with 
no explanations1 and while ,agricola    
coined the ,latin terms for various     
kinds of veins1 they are his            
transliteration of ,german terms already
 in use4 ,the ,nuetzliche ,bergbuechlin 
gives this same classification4         
,,historical ,,note ,,on ,,the ,,theory 

,,of ,,ore ,,deposits4 ,prior to        
,agricola there were three schools of   
explanation of the phenomena of ore     
deposits1 the orthodox followers of the 
,genesis1 the ,greek ,philosophers1 and 
the ,alchemists4 ,the geology of the    
,genesis--the contemporaneous formation 
of everything--needs no comment other   
than that for anyone to have proposed an
 alternative to the dogma of the        
orthodox during the ,middle ,ages1      
required much independence of mind4 ,of 
the ,greek views--which are meagre      
enough--that of the ,peripatetics       
greatly dominated thought on natural    
phenomena down to the #agth century4    
,aristotle's views may be summarized3   
,the elements are earth1 water1 air1 and
 fire2 they are transmutable and never  
found pure1 and are endowed with certain
 fundamental properties which acted as  
an efficient force upon the material    
cause--the elements4 ,these properties  
were dryness and dampness and heat and  
cold1 the latter being active1 the      

former passive4 ,further1 the elements  
were possessed of weight and lightness1 
for instance earth was absolutely heavy1
 fire absolutely light4 ,the active and 
passive properties existed in binary    
combinations1 one of which is           
characteristic1 i4e41 earth is cold and 
dry1 water damp and cold1 fire hot and  
dry1 air hot and wet2 transmutation took
 place1 for instance1 by removing the   
cold from water1 when air resulted      
7really steam71 and by removing the     
dampness from water1 when earth resulted
 7really any dissolved substance74 ,the 
transmutation of the elements in the    
earth 7meaning the globe7 produces two  
exhalations1 the one fiery 7probably    
meaning gases71 the other damp 7probably
 meaning steam74 ,the former produces   
stones1 the latter the metals4          
,theophrastus 7,on ,stones1 ,i to       
,,vii47 elaborates the views of         
,aristotle on the origin of stones1     
metals1 etc43 ,of things formed in the  
earth some have their origin from water1

 others from earth4 ,water is the basis 
of metals1 silver1 gold1 and the rest2  
'earth' of stones1 as well the more     
precious as the common4444 ,all these   
are formed by solidification of matter  
pure and equal in its constituent parts1
 which has been brought together in that
 state by mere afflux or by means of    
some kind of percolation1 or            
separated4444 ,the solidification is in 
some of these substances due to heat and
 in others to cold4 7,based on ,hill's  
,trans41 pp4 #c-aa74 ,that is1 the      
metals inasmuch as they become liquid   
when heated must be in a large part     
water1 and1 like water1 they solidify   
with cold4 ,therefore1 the metals are   
cold and damp4 ,stones1 on the other    
hand1 solidify with heat and do not     
liquefy1 therefore1 they are dry and hot
 and partake largely of earth4 ,this    
earth was something indefinite1 but     
purer and more pristine than common     
clay4 ,in discussing the ancient beliefs
 with regard to the origin of deposits1 

we must not overlook the import of the  
use of the word vein 7vena7 by various  
ancient authors including ,pliny        
7,,xxxiii1 #ba71 although he offers no  
explanation of the term4  ,during the   
,middle ,ages there arose the horde of  
,alchemists and ,astrologers1 a review  
of the development of whose muddled     
views is but barren reading4 ,in the    
main they held more or less to the      
,peripatetic view1 with additions of    
their own4 ,geber 7#acth 787 century1   
see ,appendix ,b7 propounded the        
conception that all metals were composed
 of varying proportions of spiritual    
sulphur and quicksilver1 and to these   
,albertus ,magnus added salt4 ,the      
,astrologers contributed the idea that  
the immediate cause of the metals were  
the various planets4 ,the only work     
devoted to description of ore-deposits  
prior to ,agricola was the ,bergbuechlin
 7about #aebj1 see ,appendix ,b71 and   
this little book exhibits the absolute  
apogee of muddled thought derived from  

the ,peripatetics1 the ,alchemists1 and 
the ,astrologers4 ,we believe it is of  
interest to reproduce the following     
statement1 if for no other reason than  
to indicate the great advance in thought
 shown by ,agricola4  ,the first chapter
 or first part2 on the common origin of 
ore1 whether silver1 gold1 tin1 copper1 
iron1 or lead ore1 in which they all    
appear together1 and are called by the  
common name of metallic ore4 ,it must be
 noticed that for the washing or        
smelting of metallic ore1 there must be 
the one who works and the thing that is 
worked upon1 or the material upon which 
the work is expended4 ,the general      
worker 7efficient force7 on the ore and 
on all things that are born1 is the     
heavens1 its movement1 its light and    
influences1 as the philosophers say4    
,the influence of the heavens is        
multiplied by the movement of the       
firmaments and the movements of the     
seven planets4 ,therefore1 every        
metallic ore receives a special         

influence from its own particular       
planet1 due to the properties of the    
planet and of the ore1 also due to      
properties of heat1 cold1 dampness1 and 
dryness4 ,thus gold is of the ,sun or   
its influence1 silver of the ,moon1 tin 
of ,jupiter1 copper of ,venus1 iron of  
,mars1 lead of ,saturn1 and quicksilver 
of ,mercury4 ,therefore1 metals are     
often called by these names by hermits  
and other philosophers4 ,thus gold is   
called the ,sun1 in ,latin ,sol1 silver 
is called the ,moon1 in ,latin ,luna1 as
 is clearly stated in the special       
chapters on each metal4 ,thus briefly   
have we spoken of the 'common worker' of
 metal and ore4 ,but the thing worked   
upon1 or the common material of all     
metals1 according to the opinion of the 
learned1 is sulphur and quicksilver1    
which through the movement and influence
 of the heavens must have become united 
and hardened into one metallic body or  
one ore4 ,certain others hold that      
through the movement and the influence  

of the heavens1 vapours or braden1      
called mineral exhalations1 are drawn up
 from the depths of the earth1 from     
sulphur and quicksilver1 and the rising 
fumes pass into the veins and stringers 
and are united through the effect of the
 planets and made into ore4 ,certain    
others hold that metal is not formed    
from quicksilver1 because in many places
 metallic ore is found and no           
quicksilver4 ,but instead of quicksilver
 they maintain a damp and cold and slimy
 material is set up on all sulphur which
 is drawn out from the earth1 like your 
perspiration1 and from that mixed with  
sulphur all metals are formed4 ,now each
 of these opinions is correct according 
to a good understanding and right       
interpretation2 the ore or metal is     
formed from the fattiness of the earth  
as the material of the first degree     
7primary element71 also the vapours or  
braden on the one part and the materials
 on the other part1 both of which are   
called quicksilver4 ,likewise in the    

mingling or union of the quicksilver and
 the sulphur in the ore1 the sulphur is 
counted the male and quicksilver the    
female1 as in the bearing or conception 
of a child4 ,also the sulphur is a      
special worker in ore or metal4  ,the   
second chapter or part deals with the   
general capacity of the mountain4       
,although the influence of the heavens  
and the fitness of the material are     
necessary to the formation of ore or    
metal1 yet these are not enough thereto4
 ,but there must be adaptability of the 
natural vessel in which the ore is      
formed1 such are the veins1 namely      
steinendegange1 flachgange1 schargange1 
creutzgange1 or as these may be termed  
in provincial names4 ,also the mineral  
force must have easy access to the      
natural vessel such as through the      
kluffte 7stringers71 namely hengkluft1  
querklufte1 flachekluffte1 creutzklufft1
 and other occasional flotzwerk1        
according to their various local names4 
,also there must be a suitable place in 

the mountain which the veins and        
stringers can traverse4  ,,agricola',s  
,,views ,,on ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,ore  
,,deposits4 ,agricola rejected          
absolutely the ,biblical view which1 he 
says1 was the opinion of the vulgar2    
further1 he repudiates the alchemistic  
and astrological view with great vigour4
 ,there can be no doubt1 however1 that  
he was greatly influenced by the        
,peripatetic philosophy4 ,he accepted   
absolutely the four elements--earth1    
fire1 water1 and air1 and their binary  
properties1 and the theory that every   
substance had a material cause operated 
upon by an efficient force4 ,beyond this
 he did not go1 and a large portion of  
,de ,ortu et ,causis is devoted to      
disproof of the origin of metals and    
stones from the ,peripatetic            
exhalations4  ,no one should conclude   
that ,agricola's theories are set out   
with the clarity of ,darwin or ,lyell4  
,however1 the matter is of such         
importance in the history of the theory 

of ore-deposits1 and has been either so 
ignored or so coloured by the           
preconceptions of narrators1 that we    
consider it justifiable to devote the   
space necessary to a reproduction of his
 own statements in ,de ,ortu et ,causis 
and other works4 ,before doing so we    
believe it will be of service to readers
 to summarize these views1 and in giving
 quotations from the ,author's other    
works1 to group them under special      
headings1 following the outline of his  
theory given below4 ,his theory was3--  
7#a7 ,openings in the earth 7canales7   
were formed by the erosion of           
subterranean waters4  7#b7 ,these ground
 waters were due 7a7 to the infiltration
 of the surface waters1 rain1 river1 and
 sea water2 7b7 to the condensation of  
steam 7halitus7 arising from the        
penetration of the surface waters to    
greater depths1--the production of this 
halitus being due to subterranean heat1 
which in his view was in turn due in the
 main to burning bitumen 7a             

comprehensive genera which embraced     
coal74  7#c7 ,the filling of these      
canales is composed of earth1 solidified
 juices1 stone1 metals1 and compounds1  
all deposited from water and juices     
circulating in the canales4 7,see also  
note #d1 page #a74  ,earth comprises    
clay1 mud1 ochre1 marl1 and peculiar    
earths generally4 ,the origin of these  
earths was from rocks1 due to erosion1  
transportation1 and deposition by water4
 ,solidified juices 7succi concreti7    
comprised salt1 soda1 vitriol1 bitumen1 
etc41 being generally those substances  
which he conceived were soluble in and  
deposited from water4 ,stones comprised 
precious1 semi-precious1 and unusual    
stones1 such as quartz1 fluor-spar1     
etc41 as distinguished from country     
rock2 the origin of these he attributed 
in minor proportion to transportation of
 fragments of rock1 but in the main to  
deposits from ordinary mineral juice and
 from stone juice 7succus lapidescens74 
,metals comprised the seven traditional 

metals2 the compounds comprised the     
metallic minerals2 and both were due to 
deposition from juices1 the compounds   
being due to a mixture of juices4 ,the  
juices play the most important part in  
,agricola's theory4 ,each substance had 
its own particular juice1 and in his    
theory every substance had a material   
and an efficient cause1 the first being 
the juice1 the second being heat or     
cold4 ,owing to the latter the juices   
fell into two categories--those         
solidified by heat 7i4e41 by            
evaporation1 such as salt71 and those   
solidified by cold1 7i4e41 because      
metals melt and flow by heat1 therefore 
their solidification was due to cold1   
and the juice underwent similar         
treatment74 ,as to the origin of these  
juices1 some were generated by the      
solution of their own particular        
substance1 but in the main their origin 
was due to the combination of dry       
things1 such as earth1 with water1 the  
mixture being heated1 and the resultant 

metals depended upon the proportions of 
earth and water4 ,in some cases we have 
been inclined to translate succus       
7juice7 as solution1 but in other cases 
it embraced substances to which this    
would not apply1 and we feared implying 
in the text a chemical understanding not
 warranted prior to the atomic theory4  
,in order to distinguish between earths1
 7clays1 etc417 the ,peripatetic earth  
7a pure element7 and the earth 7the     
globe7 we have given the two former in  
quotation marks4 ,there is no doubt some
 confusion between earth 7clays1 etc47  
and the ,peripatetic earth1 as the      
latter was a pure substance not found in
 its pristine form in nature2 it is1    
however1 difficult to distinguish       
between the two4  ,,origin ,,of         
,,canales 7,de ,ortu1 p4 #ce74 ,i now   
come to the canales in the earth4 ,these
 are veins1 veinlets1 and what are      
called 'seams in the rocks4' ,these     
serve as vessels or receptacles for the 
material from which minerals 7res       

fossiles7 are formed4 ,the term vena is 
most frequently given to what is        
contained in the canales1 but likewise  
the same name is applied to the canales 
themselves4 ,the term vein is borrowed  
from that used for animals1 for just as 
their veins are distributed through all 
parts of the body1 and just as by means 
of the veins blood is diffused from the 
liver throughout the whole body1 so also
 the veins traverse the whole globe1 and
 more particularly the mountainous      
districts2 and water runs and flows     
through them4 ,with regard to veinlets  
or stringers and 'seams in the rocks1'  
which are the thinnest stringers1 the   
following is the mode of their          
arrangement4 ,veins in the earth1 just  
like the veins of an animal1 have       
certain veinlets of their own1 but in a 
contrary way4 ,for the larger veins of  
animals pour blood into the veinlets1   
while in the earth the humours are      
usually poured from the veinlets into   
the larger veins1 and rarely flow from  

the larger into the smaller ones4 ,as   
for the seams in the rocks 7commissurae 
saxorum7 we consider that they are      
produced by two methods3 by the first1  
which is peculiar to themselves1 they   
are formed at the same time as the      
rocks1 for the heat bakes the refractory
 material into stone and the            
non-refractory material similarly heated
 exhales its humours and is made into   
'earth1' generally friable4 ,the other  
method is common also to veins and      
veinlets1 when water is collected into  
one place it softens the rock by its    
liquid nature1 and by its weight and    
pressure breaks and divides it4 ,now1 if
 the rock is hard1 it makes seams in the
 rocks and veinlets1 and if it is not   
too hard it makes veins4 ,however1 if   
the rocks are not hard1 seams and       
veinlets are created as well as veins4  
,if these do not carry a very large     
quantity of water1 or if they are       
pressed by a great volume of it1 they   
soon discharge themselves into the      

nearest veins4 ,the following appears to
 be the reason why some veinlets or     
stringers and veins are profundae and   
others dilatatae4 ,the force of the     
water crushes and splits the brittle    
rocks2 and when they are broken and     
split1 it forces its way through them   
and passes on1 at one time in a downward
 direction1 making small and large venae
 profundae1 at another time in a lateral
 direction1 in which way venae dilatatae
 are formed4 ,now since in each class   
there are found some which are straight1
 some inclined1 and some crooked1 it    
should be explained that the water makes
 the vena profunda straight when it runs
 straight downward1 inclined when it    
runs in an inclined direction2 and that 
it makes a vena dilatata straight when  
it runs horizontally to the right or    
left1 and in a similar way inclined when
 it runs in a sloping direction4        
,stringers and large veins of the       
profunda sort1 extending for            
considerable lengths1 become crooked    

from two causes4 ,in one case when      
narrow veins are intersected by wide    
ones1 then the latter bend or drag the  
former a little4 ,in the other case1    
when the water runs against very hard   
rock1 being unable to break through1 it 
goes around the nearest way1 and the    
stringers and veins are formed bent and 
crooked4 ,this last is also the reason  
we sometimes see crooked small and large
 venae dilatatae1 not unlike the gentle 
rise and fall of flowing water4 ,next1  
venae profundae are wide1 either because
 of abundant water or because the rock  
is fragile4 ,on the other hand1 they are
 narrow1 either because but little water
 flows and trickles through them1 or    
because the rock is very hard4 ,the     
venae dilatatae1 too1 for the same      
reasons1 are either thin or thick4      
,there are other differences1 too1 in   
stringers and veins1 which ,i will      
explain in my work ,de ,re              
,metallica4444 ,there is also a third   
kind of vein which1 as it cannot be     

described as a wide vena profunda1 nor  
as a thick vena dilatata1 we will call a
 vena cumulata4 ,these are nothing else 
than places where some species of       
mineral is accumulated2 sometimes       
exceeding in depth and also in length   
and breadth #fjj feet2 sometimes1 or    
rather generally1 not so deep nor so    
long1 nor so wide4 ,these are created   
when water has broken away the rock for 
such a length1 breadth1 and thickness1  
and has flung aside and ejected the     
stones and sand from the great cavern   
which is thus made2 and afterward when  
the mouth is obstructed and closed up1  
the whole cavern is filled with material
 from which there is in time produced   
some one or more minerals4 ,now ,i have 
stated when discoursing on the origin of
 subterranean humours1 that water erodes
 away substances inside the earth1 just 
as it does those on the surface1 and    
least of all does it shun minerals2 for 
which reason we may daily see veinlets  
and veins sometimes filled with air and 

water1 but void and empty of mining     
products1 and sometimes full of these   
same materials4 ,even those which are   
empty of minerals become finally        
obstructed1 and when the rock is broken 
through at some other point the water   
gushes out4 ,it is certain that old     
springs are closed up in some way and   
new ones opened in others4 ,in the same 
manner1 but much more easily and quickly
 than in the solid rock1 water produces 
stringers and veins in surface material1
 whether it be in plains1 hills1 or     
mountains4 ,of this kind are the        
stringers in the banks of rivers which  
produce gold1 and the veins which       
produce peculiar earth4 ,so in this     
manner in the earth are made canales    
which bear minerals4  ,,origin ,,of     
,,ground ,,waters4 7,de ,ortu p4 #e74   
444 ,besides rain there is another kind 
of water by which the interior of the   
earth is soaked1 so that being heated it
 can continually give off halitus1 from 
which arises a great and abundant force 

of waters4 ,in description of the modus 
operandi of halitum1 he says 7p4 #f73   
444 ,halitus rises to the upper parts of
 the canales1 where the congealing cold 
turns it into water1 which by its       
gravity and weight again runs down to   
the lowest parts and increases the flow 
of water if there is any4 ,if any finds 
its way through a canales dilatata the  
same thing happens1 but it is carried a 
long way from its place of origin4 ,the 
first phase of distillation teaches us  
how this water is produced1 for when    
that which is put into the ampulla is   
warmed it evaporates 7expirare71 and    
this halitus rising into the operculum  
is converted by cold into water1 which  
drips through the spout4 ,in this way   
water is being continually created      
underground4 7,de ,ortu1 p4 #g73 ,and so
 we know from all this that of the      
waters which are under the earth1 some  
are collected from rain1 some arise from
 halitus 7steam71 some from river-water1
 some from sea-water2 and we know that  

the halitum is produced within the earth
 partly from rain-water1 partly from    
river-water1 and partly from sea-water4 
,it would require too much space to set 
out ,agricola's views upon the origin of
 the subterranean heat which produced   
this steam4 ,it is an involved theory   
embracing clashing winds1 burning       
bitumen1 coal1 etc41 and is fully set   
out in the latter part of ,book ,,ii1   
,de ,ortu et ,causis4  ,,origin ,,of    
,,gangue ,,minerals4 ,it is necessary to
 bear in mind that ,agricola divided    
minerals 7res fossiles--,things dug up1 
see note #d1 p4 #a7 into earths1        
solidified juices1 stones1 metals1 and  
compounds2 and1 further1 to bear in mind
 that in his conception of the origin of
 things generally1 he was a disciple of 
the ,peripatetic logic of a material    
substance and an efficient force1 as    
mentioned above4  ,as to the origin of  
earths1 he says 7,de ,ortu1 p4 #ch73    
,pure and simple 'earth' originates in  
the canales in the following way3 rain  

water1 which is absorbed by the surface 
of the earth1 first of all penetrates   
and passes into the inner parts of the  
earth and mixes with it2 next1 it is    
collected from all sides into stringers 
and veins1 where it1 and sometimes water
 of other origin1 erodes the 'earth'    
away1--a great quantity of it if the    
stringers and veins are in 'earth1' a   
small quantity if they are in rock4 ,the
 softer the rock is1 the more the water 
wears away particles by its continual   
movement4 ,to this class of rock belongs
 limestone1 from which we see chalk1    
clay1 and marl1 and other unctuous      
'earths' made2 also sandstone1 from     
which are made those barren 'earths'    
which we may see in ravines and on bare 
rocks4 ,for the rain softens limestone  
or sandstone and carries particles away 
with it1 and the sediment collects      
together and forms mud1 which afterward 
solidifies into some kind of 'earth4'   
,in a similar way under the ground the  
power of water softens the rock and     

dissolves the coarser fragments of      
stone4 ,this is clearly shown by the    
following circumstance1 that frequently 
the powder of rock or marble is found in
 a soft state and as if partly          
dissolved4 ,now1 the water carries this 
mixture into the course of some         
underground canalis1 or dragging it into
 narrow places1 filters away4 ,and in   
each case the water flows away and a    
pure and uniform material is left from  
which 'earth' is made4444 ,particles of 
rock1 however1 are only by force of long
 time so softened by water as to become 
similar to particles of 'earth4' ,it is 
possible to see 'earth' being made in   
this way in underground canales in the  
earth1 when drifts or tunnels are driven
 into the mountains1 or when shafts are 
sunk1 for then the canales are laid     
bare2 also it can be seen above ground  
in ravines1 as ,i have said1 or         
otherwise disclosed4 ,for in both cases 
it is clear to the eye that they are    
made out of the 'earth' or rocks1 which 

are often of the same colour4 ,and in   
just the same way they are made in the  
springs which the veins discharge4      
,since all those things which we see    
with our eyes and which are perceived   
with our senses1 are more clearly       
understood than if they were learnt by  
means of reasoning1 we deem it          
sufficient to explain by this argument  
our view of the origin of 'earth4' ,in  
the manner which ,i have described1     
'earths' originate in veins and         
veinlets1 seams in the rocks1 springs1  
ravines1 and other openings1 therefore  
all 'earths' are made in this way4 ,as  
to those that are found in underground  
canales which do not appear to have been
 derived from the earth or rock         
adjoining1 these have undoubtedly been  
carried by the water for a greater      
distance from their place of origin2    
which may be made clear to anyone who   
seeks their source4  ,on the origin of  
solidified juices he states 7,de ,ortu1 
p4 #dc73 ,i will now speak of solidified

 juices 7succi concreti74 ,i give this  
name to those minerals which are without
 difficulty resolved into liquids       
7humore74 ,some stones and metals1 even 
though they are themselves composed of  
juices1 have been compressed so solidly 
by the cold that they can only be       
dissolved with difficulty or not at     
all4444 ,for juices1 as ,i said above1  
are either made when dry substances     
immersed in moisture are cooked by heat1
 or else they are made when water flows 
over 'earth1' or when the surrounding   
moisture corrodes metallic material2 or 
else they are forced out of the ground  
by the power of heat alone4 ,therefore1 
solidified juices originate from liquid 
juices1 which either heat or cold have  
condensed4 ,but that which heat has     
dried1 fire reduces to dust1 and        
moisture dissolves4 ,not only does warm 
or cold water dissolve certain          
solidified juices1 but also humid air2  
and a juice which the cold has condensed
 is liquefied by fire and warm water4 ,a

 salty juice is condensed into salt2 a  
bitter one into soda2 an astringent and 
sharp one into alum or into vitriol4    
,skilled workmen in a similar way to    
nature1 evaporate water which contains  
juices of this kind until it is         
condensed2 from salty ones they make    
salt1 from aluminous ones alum1 from one
 which contains vitriol they make       
vitriol4 ,these workmen imitate nature  
in condensing liquid juices with heat1  
but they cannot imitate nature in       
condensing them by cold4 ,from an       
astringent juice not only is alum made  
and vitriol1 but also sory1 chalcitis1  
and misy1 which appears to be the       
'flower' of vitriol1 just as melanteria 
is of sory4 7,see note on p4 #egc for   
these minerals47 ,when humour corrodes  
pyrites so that it is friable1 an       
astringent juice of this kind is        
obtained4  ,,on ,,the ,,origin ,,of     
,,stones 7,de ,ortu1 p4 #ej71 he states3
 ,it is now necessary to review in a few
 words what ,i have said as to all of   

the material from which stones are made2
 there is first of all mud2 next juice  
which is solidified by severe cold2 then
 fragments of rock2 afterward stone     
juice 7succus lapidescens71 which also  
turns to stone when it comes out into   
the air2 and lastly1 everything which   
has pores capable of receiving a stony  
juice4 ,as to an efficient force1 he    
states 7p4 #ed73 ,but it is now         
necessary that ,i should explain my own 
view1 omitting the first and antecedent 
causes4 ,thus the immediate causes are  
heat and cold2 next in some way a stony 
juice4 ,for we know that stones which   
water has dissolved1 are solidified when
 dried by heat2 and on the contrary1 we 
know that stones which melt by fire1    
such as quartz1 solidify by cold4 ,for  
solidification and the conditions which 
are opposite thereto1 namely1 dissolving
 and liquefying1 spring from causes     
which are the opposite to each other4   
,heat1 driving the water 7humorem7 out  
of a substance1 makes it hard2 and cold1

 by withdrawing the air1 solidifies the 
same stone firmly4 ,but if a stony      
juice1 either alone or mixed with water1
 finds its way into the pores either of 
plants or animals 444 it creates        
stones4444 ,if stony juice is obtained  
in certain stony places and flows       
through the veins1 for this reason      
certain springs1 brooks1 streams1 and   
lakes1 have the power of turning things 
to stone4  ,,on ,,the ,,origin ,,of     
,,metals1 he says 7,de ,ortu1 p4 #ga73  
,having now refuted the opinions of     
others1 ,i must explain what it really  
is from which metals are produced4 ,the 
best proof that there is water in their 
materials is the fact that they flow    
when melted1 whereas they are again     
solidified by the cold of air or water4 
,this1 however1 must be understood in   
the sense that there is more water in   
them and less 'earth'2 for it is not    
simply water that is their substance but
 water mixed with 'earth4' ,and such a  
proportion of 'earth' is in the mixture 

as may obscure the transparency of the  
water1 but not remove the brilliance    
which is frequently in unpolished       
things4 ,again1 the purer the mixture1  
the more precious the metal which is    
made from it1 and the greater its       
resistance to fire4 ,but what proportion
 of 'earth' is in each liquid from which
 a metal is made no mortal can ever     
ascertain1 or still less explain1 but   
the one ,god has known it1 ,who has     
given certain sure and fixed laws to    
nature for mixing and blending things   
together4 ,it is a juice 7succus7 then1 
from which metals are formed2 and this  
juice is created by various operations4 
,of these operations the first is a flow
 of water which softens the 'earth' or  
carries the 'earth' along with it1 thus 
there is a mixture of 'earth' and water1
 then the power of heat works upon the  
mixtures so as to produce that kind of a
 juice4 ,we have spoken of the substance
 of metals2 we must now speak of their  
efficient cause4444 7p4 #ge73 ,we do not

 deny the statement of ,albertus ,magnus
 that the mixture of 'earth' and water  
is baked by subterranean heat to a      
certain denseness1 but it is our opinion
 that the juice so obtained is afterward
 solidified by cold so as to become a   
metal4444 ,we grant1 indeed1 that heat  
is the efficient cause of a good mixture
 of elements1 and also cooks this same  
mixture into a juice1 but until this    
juice is solidified by cold it is not a 
metal4444 7p4 #gf73 ,this view of       
,aristotle is the true one4 ,for metals 
melt through the heat and somehow become
 softened2 but those which have become  
softened through heat are again         
solidified by the influence of cold1    
and1 on the contrary1 those which become
 softened by moisture are solidified by 
heat4  ,,on ,,the ,,origin ,,of         
,,compounds1 he states 7,de ,ortu1 p4   
#hj73 ,there now remain for our         
consideration the compound minerals     
7mistae71 that is to say1 minerals which
 contain either solidified juice 7succus

 concretus7 and 'stone1' or else metal  
or metals and 'stone1' or else          
metal-coloured 'earth1' of which two or 
more have so grown together by the      
action of cold that one body has been   
created4 ,by this sign they are         
distinguished from mixed minerals       
7composita71 for the latter have not one
 body4 ,for example1 pyrites1 galena1   
and ruby silver are reckoned in the     
category of compound minerals1 whereas  
we say that metallic 'earths' or stony  
'earths' or 'earths' mingled with       
juices1 are mixed minerals2 or          
similarly1 stones in which metal or     
solidified juices adhere1 or which      
contain 'earth4' ,but of both these     
classes ,i will treat more fully in my  
book ,de ,natura ,fossilium4 ,i will now
 discuss their origin in a few words4 ,a
 compound mineral is produced when      
either a juice from which some metal is 
obtained1 or a humour and some other    
juice from which stone is obtained1 are 
solidified by cold1 or when two or more 

juices of different metals mixed with   
the juice from which stone is made1 are 
condensed by the same cold1 or when a   
metallic juice is mixed with 'earth'    
whose whole mass is stained with its    
colour1 and in this way they form one   
body4 ,to the first class belongs       
galena1 composed of lead juice and of   
that material which forms the substance 
of opaque stone4 ,similarly1 transparent
 ruby silver is made out of silver juice
 and the juice which forms the substance
 of transparent stone2 when it is       
smelted into pure silver1 since from it 
is separated the transparent juice1 it  
is no longer transparent4 ,then too1    
there is pyrites1 or lapis fissilis1    
from which sulphur is melted4 ,to the   
second kind belongs that kind of pyrites
 which contains not only copper and     
stone1 but sometimes copper1 silver1 and
 stone2 sometimes copper1 silver1 gold1 
and stone2 sometimes silver1 lead1 tin1 
copper and silver glance4 ,that compound
 minerals consist of stone and metal is 

sufficiently proved by their hardness2  
that some are made of 'earth' and metal 
is proved from brass1 which is composed 
of copper and calamine2 and also proved 
from white brass1 which is coloured by  
artificial white arsenic4 ,sometimes the
 heat bakes some of them to such an     
extent that they appear to have flowed  
out of blazing furnaces1 which we may   
see in the case of cadmia and pyrites4  
,a metallic substance is produced out of
 'earth' when a metallic juice          
impregnating the 'earth' solidifies with
 cold1 the 'earth' not being changed4 ,a
 stony substance is produced when       
viscous and non-viscous 'earth' are     
accumulated in one place and baked by   
heat2 for then the viscous part turns   
into stone and the non-viscous is only  
dried up4  ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,juices4
 ,the portion of ,agricola's theory     
surrounding this subject is by no means 
easy to follow in detail1 especially as 
it is difficult to adjust one's point of
 view to the ,peripatetic elements1     

fire1 water1 earth1 and air1 instead of 
to those of the atomic theory which so  
dominates our every modern conception4  
,that ,agricola's 'juice' was in most   
cases a solution is indicated by the    
statement 7,de ,ortu1 p4 #dh73 ,nor is  
juice anything but water1 which on the  
other hand has absorbed 'earth' or has  
corroded or touched metal and somehow   
become heated4 ,that he realized the    
difference between mechanical suspension
 and solution is evident from 7,de      
,ortu1 p4 #ej73 ,a stony juice differs  
from water which has abraded something  
from rock1 either because it has more of
 that which deposits1 or because heat1  
by cooking water of that kind1 has      
thickened it1 or because there is       
something in it which has powerful      
astringent properties4 ,much of the     
author's notion of juices has already   
been given in the quotations regarding  
various minerals1 but his most general  
statement on the subject is as          
follows3--7,de ,ortu1 p4 #i73 ,juices1  

however1 are distinguished from water by
 their density 7crassitudo71 and are    
generated in various ways--either when  
dry things are soaked with moisture and 
the mixture is heated1 in which way by  
far the greatest part of juices arise1  
not only inside the earth1 but outside  
it2 or when water running over the earth
 is made rather dense1 in which way1 for
 the most part the juice becomes salty  
and bitter2 or when the moisture stands 
upon metal1 especially copper1 and      
corrodes it1 and in this way is produced
 the juice from which chrysocolla       
originates4 ,similarly1 when the        
moisture corrodes friable cupriferous   
pyrites an acrid juice is made from     
which is produced vitriol and sometimes 
alum2 or1 finally1 juices are pressed   
out by the very force of the heat from  
the earth4 ,if the force is great the   
juice flows like pitch from burning pine
 444 in this way we know a kind of      
bitumen is made in the earth4 ,in the   
same way different kinds of moisture are

 generated in living bodies1 so also the
 earth produces waters differing in     
quality1 and in the same way juices4    
,,conclusion4 ,if we strip his theory of
 the necessary influence of the state of
 knowledge of his time1 and of his own  
deep classical learning1 we find two    
propositions original with ,agricola1   
which still to-day are fundamentals3    
7#a7 ,that ore channels were of origin  
subsequent to their containing rocks2   
7#b7 ,that ores were deposited from     
solutions circulating in these openings4
 ,a scientist's work must be judged by  
the advancement he gave to his science1 
and with this gauge one can say         
unhesitatingly that the theory which we 
have set out above represents a much    
greater step from what had gone before  
than that of almost any single observer 
since4 ,moreover1 apart from any        
tangible proposition laid down1 the     
deduction of these views from actual    
observation instead of from fruitless   
speculation was a contribution to the   

very foundation of natural science4     
,agricola was wrong in attributing the  
creation of ore channels to erosion     
alone1 and it was not until ,von ,oppel 
7,anleitung zur ,markscheidekunst1      
,dresden1 #agdi and other essays71 two  
centuries after ,agricola1 that the     
positive proposition that ore channels  
were due to fissuring was brought       
forward4 ,von ,oppel1 however1 in       
neglecting channels due to erosion 7and 
in this term we include solution7 was   
not altogether sound4 ,nor was it until 
late in the #ahth century that the      
filling of ore channels by deposition   
from solutions was generally accepted4  
,in the meantime1 ,agricola's successors
 in the study of ore deposits exhibited 
positive retrogression from the true    
fundamentals advocated by him4 ,gesner1 
,utman1 ,meier1 ,lohneys1 ,barba1       
,roessler1 ,becher1 ,stahl1 ,henckel1   
and ,zimmerman1 all fail to grasp the   
double essentials4 ,other writers of    
this period often enough merely quote   

,agricola1 some not even acknowledging  
the source1 as1 for instance1 ,pryce    
7,mineralogia ,cornubiensis1 ,london1   
#aggh7 and ,williams 7,natural ,history 
of the ,mineral ,kingdom1 ,london1      
#aghi74 ,after ,von ,oppel1 the two     
fundamental principles mentioned were   
generally accepted1 but then arose the  
complicated and acrimonious discussion  
of the origin of solutions1 and nothing 
in ,agricola's view was so absurd as    
,werner's contention 7,neue ,theorie von
 der ,entstehung der ,gaenge1 ,freiberg1
 #agia7 of the universal chemical deluge
 which penetrated fissures open at the  
surface4 ,while it is not the purpose of
 these notes to pursue the history of   
these subjects subsequent to the        
author's time1 it is due to him and to  
the current beliefs as to the history of
 the theory of ore deposits1 to call the
 attention of students to the perverse  
representation of ,agricola's views by  
,werner 7op4 cit47 upon which most      
writers have apparently relied4 ,why    

this author should be 7as1 for instance1
 by ,posepny1 ,amer4 ,inst4 ,mining     
,engineers1 #aija7 so generally         
considered the father of our modern     
theory1 can only be explained by a      
general lack of knowledge of the work of
 previous writers on ore deposition4    
,not one of the propositions original   
with ,werner still holds good1 while his
 rejection of the origin of solutions   
within the earth itself halted the march
 of advance in thought on these subjects
 for half a century4 ,it is our hope to 
discuss exhaustively at some future time
 the development of the history of this1
 one of the most far-reaching of        
geologic hypotheses4  #b ,the ,latin    
vena1 vein1 is also used by the author  
for ore2 hence this descriptive warning 
as to its intended double use4  #c ,the 
endeavour to discover the origin of the 
compass with the ,chinese1 ,arabs1 or   
other ,orientals having now generally   
ceased1 together with the idea that the 
knowledge of the lodestone involved any 

acquaintance with the compass1 it is    
permissible to take a rational view of  
the subject4 ,the lodestone was well    
known even before ,plato and ,aristotle1
 and is described by ,theophrastus 7see 
,note #aj1 p4 #aae47 ,the first         
authentic and specific mention of the   
compass appears to be by ,alexander     
,neckam 7an ,englishman who died in     
#abag71 in his works ,de ,utensilibus   
and ,de ,naturis ,rerum4 ,the first     
tangible description of the instrument  
was in a letter to ,petrus ,peregrinus  
de ,maricourt1 written in #abfi1 a      
translation of which was published by   
,sir ,sylvanus ,thompson 7,london1      
#aijb74 ,his circle was divided into    
four quadrants and these quarters       
divided into #ij degrees each4 ,the     
first mention of a compass in connection
 with mines so far as we know is in the 
,nuetzlich ,bergbuechlin1 a review of   
which will be found in ,appendix ,b4    
,this book1 which dates from #aejj1     
gives a compass much like the one       

described above by ,agricola4 ,it is    
divided in like manner into two halves  
of #ab divisions each4 ,the four        
cardinal points being marked            
,mitternacht1 ,morgen1 ,mittag1 and     
,abend4 ,thus the directions read were  
referred to as ,,ii4 after midnight1    
etc4 ,according to ,joseph ,carne       
7,trans4 ,roy4 ,geol4 ,socy4 of         
,cornwall1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 #ahad71 the      
,cornish miners formerly referred to    
,north-,south veins as #ab o'clock      
veins2 ,south-,east ,north-,west veins  
as #i o'clock veins1 etc4  #d           
,crudariis4 ,pliny 7,,xxxiii41 #ca71    
says3--,argenti vena in summo reperta   
crudaria appellatur4 ,silver veins      
discovered at the surface are called    
crudaria4 ,the ,german translator of    
,agricola uses the term sylber          
gang--silver vein1 obviously            
misunderstanding the author's meaning4  
#e ,it might be considered that the term
 outcrop could be used for head1 but it 
will be noticed that a vena dilatata    

would thus be stated to have no outcrop4
  #f ,it is possible that veinlets would
 be preferred by purists1 but the word  
stringer has become fixed in the        
nomenclature of miners and we have      
adopted it4 ,the old ,english term was  
stringe1 and appears in ,edward         
,manlove's ,rhymed ,chronicle1 ,london1 
#afec2 ,pryce's1 ,mineralogia           
,cornubiensis1 ,london1 #aggh1 pp4 #ajc 
and #cbi2 ,mawe's ,mineralogy of        
,devonshire1 ,london1 #ahjb1 p4 #baj1   
etc41 etc4  #g ,subdialis4 ,in the open 
air4 ,the ,glossary gives the meaning as
 ,ein tag klufft oder tag gehenge--a    
surface stringer4  #h ,the following    
from ,chapter ,,iv of the ,nuetzlich    
,bergbuechlin 7see ,appendix ,b7 may    
indicate the source of the theory which 
,agricola here discards3--,as to those  
veins which are most profitable to work1
 it must be remarked that the most      
suitable location for the vein is on the
 slope of the mountain facing south1 so 
its strike is from ,,vii or ,,vi east to

 ,,vi or ,,vii west4 ,according to the  
above-mentioned directions1 the outcrop 
of the whole vein should face north1 its
 gesteins ausgang toward the east1 its  
hangingwall toward the south1 and its   
footwall toward the north1 for in such  
mountains and veins the influence of the
 planets is conveniently received to    
prepare the matter out of which the     
silver is to be made or formed4444 ,the 
other strikes of veins from between east
 and south to the region between west   
and north are esteemed more or less     
valuable1 according to whether they are 
nearer or further away from the         
above-mentioned strikes1 but with the   
same hangingwall1 footwall1 and         
outcrops4 ,but the veins having their   
strike from north to south1 their       
hangingwall toward the west1 their      
footwall and their outcrops toward the  
east1 are better to work than veins     
which extend from south to north1 whose 
hangingwalls are toward the east1 and   
footwalls and outcrops toward the west4 

,although the latter veins sometimes    
yield solid and good silver ore1 still  
it is not sure and certain1 because the 
whole mineral force is completely       
scattered and dispersed through the     
outcrop1 etc4  #i ,the names in the     
,latin are given as ,donum              
,divinum--,god's ,gift1 and ,coelestis  
,exercitus--,heavenly ,host4 ,the names 
given in the text are from the ,german  
,translation4 ,the former of these mines
 was located in the valley of ,joachim1 
where ,agricola spent many years as the 
town physician at ,joachimsthal4 ,it is 
of further interest1 as ,agricola       
obtained an income from it as a         
shareholder4 ,he gives the history of   
the mine 7,de ,veteribus et ,novis      
,metallis1 ,book ,i471 as follows3--,the
 mines at ,abertham were discovered1    
partly by chance1 partly by science4 ,in
 the eleventh year of ,charles ,v4      
7#aecj71 on the #ahth of ,february1 a   
poor miner1 but one skilled in the art  
of mining1 dwelt in the middle of the   

forest in a solitary hut1 and there     
tended the cattle of his employer4      
,while digging a little trench in which 
to store milk1 he opened a vein4 ,at    
once he washed some in a bowl and saw   
particles of the purest silver settled  
at the bottom4 ,overcome with joy he    
informed his employer1 and went to the  
,bergmeister and petitioned that        
official to give him a head mining      
lease1 which in the language of our     
people he called ,gottsgaab4 ,then he   
proceeded to dig the vein1 and found    
more fragments of silver1 and the miners
 were inspired with great hopes as to   
the richness of the vein4 ,although such
 hopes were not frustrated1 still a     
whole year was spent before they        
received any profits from the mine2     
whereby many became discouraged and did 
not persevere in paying expenses1 but   
sold their shares in the mine2 and for  
this reason1 when at last an abundance  
of silver was being drawn out1 a great  
change had taken place in the ownership 

of the mine2 nay1 even the first finder 
of the vein was not in possession of any
 share in it1 and had spent nearly all  
the money which he had obtained from the
 selling of his shares4 ,then this mine 
yielded such a quantity of pure silver  
as no other mine that has existed within
 our own or our fathers' memories1 with 
the exception of the ,st4 ,george at    
,schneeberg4 ,we1 as a shareholder1     
through the goodness of ,god1 have      
enjoyed the proceeds of this ',god's    
,gift' since the very time when the mine
 began first to bestow such riches4     
,later on in the same book he gives the 
following further information with      
regard to these mines3--,now if all the 
individual mines which have proved      
fruitful in our own times are weighed in
 the balance1 the one at ,annaberg1     
which is known as the ,himmelsch hoz1   
surpasses all others4 ,for the value of 
the silver which has been dug out has   
been estimated at #dbj1jjj ,rhenish     
gulden4 ,next to this comes the lead    

mine in ,joachimsthal1 whose name is the
 ,sternen1 from which as much silver has
 been dug as would be equivalent to     
#cej1jjj ,rhenish gulden2 from the      
,gottsgaab at ,abertham1 explained      
before1 the equivalent of #cjj1jjj4 ,but
 far before all others within our       
fathers' memory stands the ,st4 ,george 
of ,schneeberg1 whose silver has been   
estimated as being equal to two million 
,rhenish gulden4 ,a ,rhenish gulden was 
about #f4i shillings1 or1 say1 #a4ff4   
,however1 the ratio value of silver to  
gold at this period was about #aa4e to  
one1 or in other words an ounce of      
silver was worth about a gulden1 so     
that1 for purposes of rough calculation1
 one might say that the silver product  
mentioned in gulden is practically of   
the same number of ounces of silver4    
,moreover1 it must be remembered that   
the purchasing power of money was vastly
 greater then4  #aj ,the following      
passage occurs in the ,nuetzlich        
,bergbuechlin 7,chap4 ,v471 which is    

interesting on account of the great     
similarity to ,agricola's               
quotation3--,the best position of the   
stream is when it has a cliff beside it 
on the north and level ground on the    
south1 but its current should be from   
east to west--that is the most suitable4
 ,the next best after this is from west 
to east1 with the same position of the  
rocks as already stated4 ,the third in  
order is when the stream flows from     
north to south with rocks toward the    
east1 but the worst flow of water for   
the preparation of gold is from south to
 north if a rock or hill rises toward   
the west4 ,calbus was probably the      
author of this booklet4  #aa ,albertus  
,magnus4     ,,book ,,iv4   ,the third  
book has explained the various and      
manifold varieties of veins and         
stringers4 ,this fourth book will deal  
with mining areas and the method of     
delimiting them1 and will then pass on  
to the officials who are connected with 
mining affairs#a4  ,now the miner1 if   

the vein he has uncovered is to his     
liking1 first of all goes to the        
,bergmeister to request to be granted a 
right to mine1 this official's special  
function and office being to adjudicate 
in respect of the mines4 ,and so to the 
first man who has discovered the vein   
the ,bergmeister awards the head meer1  
and to others the remaining meers1 in   
the order in which each makes his       
application4 ,the size of a meer is     
measured by fathoms1 which for miners   
are reckoned at six feet each4 ,the     
length1 in fact1 is that of a man's     
extended arms and hands measured across 
his chest2 but different peoples assign 
to it different lengths1 for among the  
,greeks1 who called it an ,greek3       
orguia1 it was six feet1 among the      
,romans five feet4 ,so this measure     
which is used by miners seems to have   
come down to the ,germans in accordance 
with the ,greek mode of reckoning4 ,a   
miner's foot approaches very nearly to  
the length of a ,greek foot1 for it     

exceeds it by only three-quarters of a  
,greek digit1 but like that of the      
,romans it is divided into twelve       
unciae#b4  ,illustration #gi;a 7,square 
with lengths and area73 ,shape of a     
,square ,meer4  ,now square fathoms are 
reckoned in units of one1 two1 three1 or
 more measures1 and a measure is seven  
fathoms each way4 ,mining meers are for 
the most part either square or          
elongated2 in square meers all the sides
 are of equal length1 therefore the     
numbers of fathoms on the two sides     
multiplied together produce the total in
 square fathoms4 ,thus1 if the shape of 
a measure is seven fathoms on every     
side1 this number multiplied by itself  
makes forty-nine square fathoms4        
,illustration #gi;b 7,rectangle with    
lengths and area73 ,shape of a ,long    
,meer or ,double ,measure4  ,the sides  
of a long meer are of equal length1 and 
similarly its ends are equal2 therefore1
 if the number of fathoms in one of the 
long sides be multiplied by the number  

of fathoms in one of the ends1 the total
 produced by the multiplication is the  
total number of square fathoms in the   
long meer4 ,for example1 the double     
measure is fourteen fathoms long and    
seven broad1 which two numbers          
multiplied together make ninety-eight   
square fathoms4  ,illustration #gi;c    
7,rectangle with lengths and area73     
,shape of a ,head ,meer4  ,since meers  
vary in shape according to the different
 varieties of veins it is necessary for 
me to go more into detail concerning    
them and their measurements4 ,if the    
vein is a vena profunda1 the head meer  
is composed of three double measures1   
therefore it is forty-two fathoms in    
length and seven in width1 which numbers
 multiplied together give two hundred   
and ninety-four square fathoms1 and by  
these limits the ,bergmeister bounds the
 owner's rights in a head-meer4         
,illustration #hj;a 7,rectangle with    
lengths and area73 ,shape of a ,meer4   
,the area of every other meer consists  

of two double measures1 on whichever    
side of the head meer it lies1 or       
whatever its number in order may be1    
that is to say1 whether next to the head
 meer1 or second1 third1 or any later   
number4 ,therefore1 it is twenty-eight  
fathoms long and seven wide1 so         
multiplying the length by the width we  
get one hundred and ninety-six square   
fathoms1 which is the extent of the     
meer1 and by these boundaries the       
,bergmeister defines the right of the   
owner or company over each mine4  ,now  
we call that part of the vein which is  
first discovered and mined1 the         
head-meer1 because all the other meers  
run from it1 just as the nerves from the
 head4 ,the ,bergmeister begins his     
measurements from it1 and the reason why
 he apportions a larger area to the     
head-meer than to the others1 is that he
 may give a suitable reward to the one  
who first found the vein and may        
encourage others to search for veins4   
,since meers often reach to a torrent1  

or river1 or stream1 if the last meer   
cannot be completed it is called a      
fraction#c4 ,if it is the size of a     
double measure1 the ,bergmeister grants 
the right of mining it to him who makes 
the first application1 but if it is the 
size of a single measure or a little    
over1 he divides it between the nearest 
meers on either side of it4 ,it is the  
custom among miners that the first meer 
beyond a stream on that part of the vein
 on the opposite side is a new          
head-meer1 and they call it the         
opposite1#d while the other meers beyond
 are only ordinary meers4 ,formerly     
every head-meer was composed of three   
double measures and one single one1 that
 is1 it was forty-nine fathoms long and 
seven wide1 and so if we multiply these 
two together we have three hundred and  
forty-three square fathoms1 which total 
gives us the area of an ancient         
head-meer4  ,illustration #hj;b         
7,rectangle with lengths and area73     
,shape of an ancient ,head-,meer4       

,every ancient meer was formed of a     
single measure1 that is to say1 it was  
seven fathoms in length and width1 and  
was therefore square4 ,in memory of     
which miners even now call the width of 
every meer which is located on a vena   
profunda a square#e4 ,the following was 
formerly the usual method of delimiting 
a vein3 as soon as the miner found      
metal1 he gave information to the       
,bergmeister and the tithe-gatherer1 who
 either proceeded personally from the   
town to the mountains1 or sent thither  
men of good repute1 at least two in     
number1 to inspect the metal-bearing    
vein4 ,thereupon1 if they thought it of 
sufficient importance to survey1 the    
,bergmeister again having gone forth on 
an appointed day1 thus questioned him   
who first found the vein1 concerning the
 vein and the diggings3 ,which is your  
vein8 ,which digging carried metal8     
,then the discoverer1 pointing his      
finger to his vein and diggings1        
indicated them1 and next the            

,bergmeister ordered him to approach the
 windlass and place two fingers of his  
right hand upon his head1 and swear this
 oath in a clear voice3 ,i swear by ,god
 and all the ,saints1 and ,i call them  
all to witness1 that this is my vein2   
and moreover if it is not mine1 may     
neither this my head nor these my hands 
henceforth perform their functions4     
,then the ,bergmeister1 having started  
from the centre of the windlass1        
proceeded to measure the vein with a    
cord1 and to give the measured portion  
to the discoverer1--in the first        
instance a half and then three full     
measures2 afterward one to the ,king or 
,prince1 another to his ,consort1 a     
third to the ,master of the ,horse1 a   
fourth to the ,cup-bearer1 a fifth to   
the ,groom of the ,chamber1 a sixth to  
himself4 ,then1 starting from the other 
side of the windlass1 he proceeded to   
measure the vein in a similar manner4   
,thus the discoverer of the vein        
obtained the head-meer1 that is1 seven  

single measures2 but the ,king or       
,ruler1 his ,consort1 the leading       
dignitaries1 and lastly1 the            
,bergmeister1 obtained two measures     
each1 or two ancient meers4 ,this is the
 reason there are to be found at        
,freiberg in ,meissen so many shafts    
with so many intercommunications on a   
single vein--which are to a great extent
 destroyed by age4 ,if1 however1 the    
,bergmeister had already fixed the      
boundaries of the meers on one side of  
the shaft for the benefit of some other 
discoverer1 then for those dignitaries  
,i have just mentioned1 as many meers as
 he was unable to award on that side he 
duplicated on the other4 ,but if on both
 sides of the shaft he had already      
defined the boundaries of meers1 he     
proceeded to measure out only that part 
of the vein which remained free1 and    
thus it sometimes happened that some of 
those persons ,i have mentioned obtained
 no meer at all4 ,to-day1 though that   
old-established custom is observed1 the 

method of allotting the vein and        
granting title has been changed4 ,as ,i 
have explained above1 the head-meer     
consists of three double measures1 and  
each other meer of two measures1 and the
 ,bergmeister grants one each of the    
meers to him who makes the first        
application4 ,the ,king or ,prince1     
since all metal is taxed1 is himself    
content with that1 which is usually     
one-tenth4  ,of the width of every meer1
 whether old or new1 one-half lies on   
the footwall side of a vena profunda and
 one half on the hangingwall side4 ,if  
the vein descends vertically into the   
earth1 the boundaries similarly descend 
vertically2 but if the vein inclines1   
the boundaries likewise will be         
inclined4 ,the owner always holds the   
mining right for the width of the meer1 
however far the vein descends into the  
depth of the earth4#f ,further1 the     
,bergmeister1 on application being made 
to him1 grants to one owner or company a
 right over not only the head meer1 or  

another meer1 but also the head meer and
 the next meer or two adjoining meers4  
,so much for the shape of meers and     
their dimensions in the case of a vena  
profunda4  ,i now come to the case of   
venae dilatatae4 ,the boundaries of the 
areas on such veins are not all measured
 by one method4 ,for in some places the 
,bergmeister gives them shapes similar  
to the shapes of the meers on venae     
profundae1 in which case the head-meer  
is composed of three double measures1   
and the area of every other mine of two 
measures1 as ,i have explained more     
fully above4 ,in this case1 however1 he 
measures the meers with a cord1 not only
 forward and backward from the ends of  
the head-meer1 as he is wont to do in   
the case where the owner of a vena      
profunda has a meer granted him1 but    
also from the sides4 ,in this way meers 
are marked out when a torrent or some   
other force of ,nature has laid open a  
vena dilatata in a valley1 so that it   
appears either on the slope of a        

mountain or hill or on a plain4         
,elsewhere the ,bergmeister doubles the 
width of the head-meer and it is made   
fourteen fathoms wide1 while the width  
of each of the other meers remains      
single1 that is seven fathoms1 but the  
length is not defined by boundaries4 ,in
 some places the head-meer consists of  
three double measures1 but has a width  
of fourteen fathoms and a length of     
twenty-one4  ,illustration #hf;a        
7,rectangle with lengths73 ,shape of a  
,head-,meer4  ,illustration #hf;b       
7,square with lengths73 ,shape of every 
other ,meer4  ,in the same way1 every   
other meer is composed of two measures1 
doubled in the same fashion1 so that it 
is fourteen fathoms in width and of the 
same length4  ,elsewhere every meer1    
whether a head-meer or other meer1      
comprises forty-two fathoms in width and
 as many in length4  ,in other places   
the ,bergmeister gives the owner or     
company all of some locality defined by 
rivers or little valleys as boundaries4 

,but the boundaries of every such area  
of whatsoever shape it be1 descend      
vertically into the earth2 so the owner 
of that area has a right over that part 
of any vena dilatata which lies beneath 
the first one1 just as the owner of the 
meer on a vena profunda has a right over
 so great a part of all other venae     
profundae as lies within the boundaries 
of his meer2 for just as wherever one   
vena profunda is found1 another is found
 not far away1 so wherever one vena     
dilatata is found1 others are found     
beneath it4  ,finally1 the ,bergmeister 
divides vena cumulata areas in different
 ways1 for in some localities the       
head-meer is composed of three measures1
 doubled in such a way that it is       
fourteen fathoms wide and twenty-one    
long2 and every other meer consists of  
two measures doubled1 and is square1    
that is1 fourteen fathoms wide and as   
many long4 ,in some places the head-meer
 is composed of three single measures1  
and its width is seven fathoms and its  

length twenty-one1 which two numbers    
multiplied together make one hundred and
 forty-seven square fathoms4            
,illustration #hg 7,rectangle with      
lengths and area73 ,shape of a          
,head-,meer4  ,each other meer consists 
of one double measure4 ,in some places  
the head-meer is given the shape of a   
double measure1 and every other meer    
that of a single measure4 ,lastly1 in   
other places the owner or a company is  
given a right over some complete        
specified locality bounded by little    
streams1 valleys1 or other limits4      
,furthermore1 all meers on venae        
cumulatae1 as in the case of dilatatae1 
descend vertically into the depths of   
the earth1 and each meer has the        
boundaries so determined as to prevent  
disputes arising between the owners of  
neighbouring mines4  ,the boundary marks
 in use among miners formerly consisted 
only of stones1 and from this their name
 was derived1 for now the marks of a    
boundary are called boundary stones4    

,to-day a row of posts1 made either of  
oak or pine1 and strengthened at the top
 with iron rings to prevent them from   
being damaged1 is fixed beside the      
boundary stones to make them more       
conspicuous4 ,by this method in former  
times the boundaries of the fields were 
marked by stones or posts1 not only as  
written of in the book ,de ,limitibus   
,agrorum1#g but also as testified to by 
the songs of the poets4 ,such then is   
the shape of the meers1 varying in      
accordance with the different kinds of  
veins4  ,now tunnels are of two sorts1  
one kind having no right of property1   
the other kind having some limited      
right4 ,for when a miner in some        
particular locality is unable to open a 
vein on account of a great quantity of  
water1 he runs a wide ditch1 open at the
 top and three feet deep1 starting on   
the slope and running up to the place   
where the vein is found4 ,through it the
 water flows off1 so that the place is  
made dry and fit for digging4 ,but if it

 is not sufficiently dried by this open 
ditch1 or if a shaft which he has now   
for the first time begun to sink is     
suffering from overmuch water1 he goes  
to the ,bergmeister and asks that       
official to give him the right for a    
tunnel4 ,having obtained leave1 he      
drives the tunnel1 and into its drains  
all the water is diverted1 so that the  
place or shaft is made fit for digging4 
,if it is not seven fathoms from the    
surface of the earth to the bottom of   
this kind of tunnel1 the owner possesses
 no rights except this one3 namely1 that
 the owners of the mines1 from whose    
leases the owner of the tunnel extracts 
gold or silver1 themselves pay him the  
sum he expends within their meer in     
driving the tunnel through it4  ,to a   
depth or height of three and a half     
fathoms above and below the mouth of the
 tunnel1 no one is allowed to begin     
another tunnel4 ,the reason for this is 
that this kind of a tunnel is liable to 
be changed into the other kind which has

 a complete right of property1 when it  
drains the meers to a depth of seven    
fathoms1 or to ten1 according as the old
 custom in each place acquires the force
 of law4 ,in such case this second kind 
of tunnel has the following right2 in   
the first place1 whatever metal the     
owner1 or company owning it1 finds in   
any meer through which it is driven1 all
 belongs to the tunnel owner within a   
height or depth of one and a quarter    
fathoms4 ,in the years which are not    
long passed1 the owner of a tunnel      
possessed all the metal which a miner   
standing at the bottom of the tunnel    
touched with a bar1 whose handle did not
 exceed the customary length2 but       
nowadays a certain prescribed height and
 width is allowed to the owner of the   
tunnel1 lest the owners of the mines be 
damaged1 if the length of the bar be    
longer than usual4 ,further1 every      
metal-yielding mine which is drained and
 supplied with ventilation by a tunnel1 
is taxed in the proportion of one-ninth 

for the benefit of the owner of the     
tunnel4 ,but if several tunnels of this 
kind are driven through one mining area 
which is yielding metals1 and all drain 
it and supply it with ventilation1 then 
of the metal which is dug out from above
 the bottom of each tunnel1 one-ninth is
 given to the owner of that tunnel2 of  
that which is dug out below the bottom  
of each tunnel1 one-ninth is in each    
case given to the owner of the tunnel   
which follows next in order below4 ,but 
if the lower tunnel does not yet drain  
the shaft of that meer nor supply it    
with ventilation1 then of the metal     
which is dug out below the bottom of the
 higher tunnel1 one-ninth part is given 
to the owner of such upper tunnel4      
,moreover1 no one tunnel deprives       
another of its right to one-ninth part1 
unless it be a lower one1 from the      
bottom of which to the bottom of the one
 above must not be less than seven or   
ten fathoms1 according as the king or   
prince has decreed4 ,further1 of all the

 money which the owner of the tunnel has
 spent on his tunnel while driving it   
through a meer1 the owner of that meer  
pays one-fourth part4 ,if he does not do
 so he is not allowed to make use of the
 drains4  ,finally1 with regard to      
whatever veins are discovered by the    
owner at whose expense the tunnel is    
driven1 the right of which has not been 
already awarded to anyone1 on the       
application of such owner the           
,bergmeister grants him a right of a    
head-meer1 or of a head-meer together   
with the next meer4 ,ancient custom     
gives the right for a tunnel to be      
driven in any direction for an unlimited
 length4 ,further1 to-day he who        
commences a tunnel is given1 on his     
application1 not only the right over the
 tunnel1 but even the head and sometimes
 the next meer also4 ,in former days the
 owner of the tunnel obtained only so   
much ground as an arrow shot from the   
bow might cover1 and he was allowed to  
pasture cattle therein4 ,in a case where

 the shafts of several meers on some    
vein could not be worked on account of  
the great quantity of water1 ancient    
custom also allowed the ,bergmeister to 
grant the right of a large meer to      
anyone who would drive a tunnel4 ,when1 
however1 he had driven a tunnel as far  
as the old shafts and had found metal1  
he used to return to the ,bergmeister   
and request him to bound and mark off   
the extent of his right to a meer4      
,thereupon1 the ,bergmeister1 together  
with a certain number of citizens of the
 town--in whose place ,jurors have now  
succeeded--used to proceed to the       
mountain and mark off with boundary     
stones a large meer1 which consisted of 
seven double measures1 that is to say1  
it was ninety-eight fathoms long and    
seven wide1 which two numbers multiplied
 together make six hundred and          
eighty-six square fathoms4              
,illustration #hi 7,rectangle with      
lengths and area73 ,large ,area4  ,but  
each of these early customs has been    

changed1 and we now employ the new      
method4  ,i have spoken of tunnels2 ,i  
will now speak about the division of    
ownership in mines and tunnels4 ,one    
owner is allowed to possess and to work 
one1 two1 three1 or more whole meers1 or
 similarly one or more separate tunnels1
 provided he conforms to the decrees of 
the laws relating to metals1 and to the 
orders of the ,bergmeister4 ,and because
 he alone provides the expenditure of   
money on the mines1 if they yield metal 
he alone obtains the product from them4 
,but when large and frequent            
expenditures are necessary in mining1 he
 to whom the ,bergmeister first gave the
 right often admits others to share with
 him1 and they join with him in forming 
a company1 and they each lay out a part 
of the expense and share with him the   
profit or loss of the mine4 ,but the    
title of the mines or tunnels remains   
undivided1 although for the purpose of  
dividing the expense and profit it may  
be said each mine or tunnel is divided  

into parts#h4  ,this division is made in
 various ways4 ,a mine1 and the same    
thing must be understood with regard to 
a tunnel1 may be divided into two       
halves1 that is into two similar        
portions1 by which method two owners    
spend an equal amount on it and draw an 
equal profit from it1 for each possesses
 one half4 ,sometimes it is divided into
 four shares1 by which compact four     
persons can be owners1 so that each     
possesses one-fourth1 or also two       
persons1 so that one possesses          
three-fourths1 and the other only       
one-fourth2 or three owners1 so that the
 first has two-fourths1 and the second  
and third one-fourth each4 ,sometimes it
 is divided into eight shares1 by which 
plan there may be eight owners1 so that 
each is possessor of one-eighth2        
sometimes there are two owners1 so that 
one has five-sixths#i together with one 
twenty-fourth1 and the other one-eighth2
 or there may be three owners1 in which 
one has three-quarters and the second   

and third each one-eighth2 or it may be 
divided so that one owner has           
seven-twelfths1 together with one       
twenty-fourth1 a second owner has       
one-quarter1 and a third owner has      
one-eighth2 or so that the first has    
one-half1 the second one-third and one  
twenty-fourth1 and the third one-eighth2
 or so that the first has one-half1 as  
before1 and the second and third each   
one-quarter2 or so that the first and   
second each have one-third and one      
twenty-fourth1 and the third            
one-quarter2 and in the same way the    
divisions may be adjusted in all the    
other proportions4 ,the different ways  
of dividing the shares originate from   
the different proportions of ownership4 
,sometimes a mine is divided into       
sixteen parts1 each of which is a       
twenty-fourth and a forty-eighth2 or it 
may be divided into thirty-two parts1   
each of which is a forty-eighth and half
 a seventy-second and a two hundred and 
eighty-eighth2 or into sixty-four parts 

of which each share is one              
seventy-second and one five hundred and 
seventy-sixth2 or finally1 into one     
hundred and twenty-eight parts1 any one 
of which is half a seventy-second and   
half of one five hundred and            
seventy-sixth4  ,now an iron mine either
 remains undivided or is divided into   
two1 four1 or occasionally more shares1 
which depends on the excellence of the  
veins4 ,but a lead1 bismuth1 or tin     
mine1 and likewise one of copper or even
 quicksilver1 is also divided into eight
 shares1 or into sixteen or thirty-two1 
and less commonly into sixty-four4 ,the 
number of the divisions of the silver   
mines at ,freiberg in ,meissen did not  
formerly progress beyond this2 but      
within the memory of our fathers1 miners
 have divided a silver mine1 and        
similarly the tunnel at ,schneeberg1    
first of all into one hundred and       
twenty-eight shares1 of which one       
hundred and twenty-six are the property 
of private owners in the mines or       

tunnels1 one belongs to the ,state and  
one to the ,church2 while in            
,joachimsthal only one hundred and      
twenty-two shares of the mines or       
tunnels are the property of private     
owners1 four are proprietary shares1 and
 the ,state and ,church each have one in
 the same way4 ,to these there has      
lately been added in some places one    
share for the most needy of the         
population1 which makes one hundred and 
twenty-nine shares4 ,it is only the     
private owners of mines who pay         
contributions4 ,a proprietary holder1   
though he holds as many as four shares  
such as ,i have described1 does not pay 
contributions1 but gratuitiously        
supplies the owners of the mines with   
sufficient wood from his forests for    
timbering1 machinery1 buildings1 and    
smelting2 nor do those belonging to the 
,state1 ,church1 and the poor pay       
contributions1 but the proceeds are used
 to build or repair public works and    
sacred buildings1 and to support the    

most needy with the profits which they  
draw from the mines4 ,furthermore1 in   
our ,state1 the one hundred and         
twenty-eighth share has begun to be     
divided into two1 four1 or eight parts1 
or even into three1 six1 twelve1 or     
smaller parts4 ,this is done when one   
mine is created out of two1 for then the
 owner who formerly possessed one-half  
becomes owner of one-fourth2 he who     
possessed one-fourth1 of one-eighth2 he 
who possessed one-third1 of one-sixth2  
he who possessed one-sixth1 of          
one-twelfth4 ,since our countrymen call 
a mine a symposium1 that is1 a drinking 
bout1 we are accustomed to call the     
money which the owners subscribe a      
symbolum1 or a contribution#aj4 ,for1   
just as those who go to a banquet       
7symposium7 give contributions          
7symbola71 so those who purpose making  
large profits from mining are accustomed
 to contribute toward the expenditure4  
,however1 the manager of the mine       
assesses the contributions of the owners

 annually1 or for the most part         
quarterly1 and as often he renders an   
account of receipts and expenses4 ,at   
,freiberg in ,meissen the old practice  
was for the manager to exact a          
contribution from the owners every week1
 and every week to distribute among them
 the profits of the mines1 but this     
practice during almost the last fifteen 
years has been so far changed that      
contribution and distribution are made  
four#aa times each year4 ,large or small
 contributions are imposed according to 
the number of workmen which the mine or 
tunnel requires2 as a result1 those who 
possess many shares provide many        
contributions4 ,four times a year the   
owners contribute to the cost1 and four 
times during the year the profits of the
 mines are distributed among them2 these
 are sometimes large1 sometimes small1  
according as there is more or less gold 
or silver or other metal dug out4       
,indeed1 from the ,st4 ,george mine in  
,schneeberg the miners extracted so much

 silver in a quarter of a year that     
silver cakes1 which were worth #a1ajj   
,rhenish guldens1 were distributed to   
each one hundred and twenty-eighth      
share4 ,from the ,annaberg mine which is
 known as the ,himmelisch ,hoez1 they   
had a dole of eight hundred thaler2 from
 a mine in ,joachimsthal which is named 
the ,sternen1 three hundred thaler2 from
 the head mine at ,abertham1 which is   
called ,st4 ,lorentz1 two hundred and   
twenty-five thaler#ab4 ,the more shares 
of which any individual is owner the    
more profits he takes4  ,i will now     
explain how the owners may lose or      
obtain the right over a mine1 or a      
tunnel1 or a share4 ,formerly1 if anyone
 was able to prove by witnesses that the
 owners had failed to send miners for   
three continuous shifts#ac1 the         
,bergmeister deprived them of their     
right over the mine1 and gave the right 
over it to the informer1 if he desired  
it4 ,but although miners preserve this  
custom to-day1 still mining share owners

 who have paid their contributions do   
not lose their right over their mines   
against their will4 ,formerly1 if water 
which had not been drawn off from the   
higher shaft of some mine percolated    
through a vein or stringer into the     
shaft of another mine and impeded their 
work1 then the owners of the mine which 
suffered the damage went to the         
,bergmeister and complained of the loss1
 and he sent to the shafts two ,jurors4 
,if they found that matters were as     
claimed1 the right over the mine which  
caused the injury was given to the      
owners who suffered the injury4 ,but    
this custom in certain places has been  
changed1 for the ,bergmeister1 if he    
finds this condition of things proved in
 the case of two shafts1 orders the     
owners of the shaft which causes the    
injury to contribute part of the expense
 to the owners of the shaft which       
receives the injury2 if they fail to do 
so1 he then deprives them of their right
 over their mine2 on the other hand1 if 

the owners send men to the workings to  
dig and draw off the water from the     
shafts1 they keep their right over their
 mine4 ,formerly owners used to obtain a
 right over any tunnel1 firstly1 if in  
its bottom they made drains and cleansed
 them of mud and sand so that the water 
might flow out without any hindrance1   
and restored those drains which had been
 damaged2 secondly1 if they provided    
shafts or openings to supply the miners 
with air1 and restored those which had  
fallen in2 and finally1 if three miners 
were employed continuously in driving   
the tunnel4 ,but the principal reason   
for losing the title to a tunnel was    
that for a period of eight days no miner
 was employed upon it2 therefore1 when  
anyone was able to prove by witnesses   
that the owners of a tunnel had not done
 these things1 he brought his accusation
 before the ,bergmeister1 who1 after    
going out from the town to the tunnel   
and inspecting the drains and the       
ventilating machines and everything     

else1 and finding the charge to be true1
 placed the witness under oath1 and     
asked him3 ,whose tunnel is this at the 
present time8 ,the witness would reply3 
,the ,king's or ,the ,prince's4         
,thereupon the ,bergmeister gave the    
right over the tunnel to the first      
applicant4 ,this was the severe rule    
under which the owners at one time lost 
their rights over a tunnel2 but its     
severity is now considerably mitigated1 
for the owners do not now forthwith lose
 their right over a tunnel through not  
having cleaned out the drains and       
restored the shafts or ventilation holes
 which have suffered damage2 but the    
,bergmeister orders the tunnel manager  
to do it1 and if he does not obey1 the  
authorities fine the tunnel4 ,also it is
 sufficient for one miner to be engaged 
in driving the tunnel4 ,moreover1 if the
 owner of a tunnel sets boundaries at a 
fixed spot in the rocks and stops       
driving the tunnel1 he may obtain a     
right over it so far as he has gone1    

provided the drains are cleaned out and 
ventilation holes are kept in repair4   
,but any other owner is allowed to start
 from the established mark and drive the
 tunnel further1 if he pays the former  
owners of the tunnel as much money every
 three months as the ,bergmeister       
decides ought to be paid4  ,there remain
 for discussion1 the shares in the mines
 and tunnels4 ,formerly if anybody      
conveyed these shares to anyone else1   
and the latter had once paid his        
contribution1 the seller#ad was bound to
 stand by his bargain1 and this custom  
to-day has the force of law4 ,but if the
 seller denied that the contribution had
 been paid1 while the buyer of the      
shares declared that he could prove by  
witnesses that he had paid his          
contribution to the other proprietors1  
and a case arose for trial1 then the    
evidence of the other proprietors       
carried more weight than the oath of the
 seller4 ,to-day the buyer of the shares
 proves that he has paid his            

contribution by a document which the    
mine or tunnel manager always gives each
 one2 if the buyer has contributed no   
money there is no obligation on the     
seller to keep his bargain4 ,formerly1  
as ,i have said above1 the proprietors  
used to contribute money weekly1 but now
 contributions are paid four times each 
year4 ,to-day1 if for the space of a    
month anyone does not take proceedings  
against the seller of the shares for the
 contribution1 the right of taking      
proceedings is lost4 ,but when the      
,clerk has already entered on the       
register the shares which had been      
conveyed or bought1 none of the owners  
loses his right over the share unless   
the money is not contributed which the  
manager of the mine or tunnel has       
demanded from the owner or his agent4   
,formerly1 if on the application of the 
manager the owner or his agent did not  
pay1 the matter was referred to the     
,bergmeister1 who ordered the owner or  
his agent to make his contribution2 then

 if he failed to contribute for three   
successive weeks1 the ,bergmeister gave 
the right to his shares to the first    
applicant4 ,to-day this custom is       
unchanged1 for if owners fail for the   
space of a month to pay the             
contributions which the manager of the  
mine has imposed on them1 on a stated   
day their names are proclaimed aloud and
 struck off the list of owners1 in the  
presence of the ,bergmeister1 the       
,jurors1 the ,mining ,clerk1 and the    
,share ,clerk1 and each of such shares  
is entered on the proscribed list4 ,if1 
however1 on the third1 or at latest the 
fourth day1 they pay their contributions
 to the manager of the mine or tunnel1  
and pay the money which is due from them
 to the ,share ,clerk1 he removes their 
shares from the proscribed list4 ,they  
are not thereupon restored to their     
former position unless the other owners 
consent2 in which respect the custom now
 in use differs from the old practice1  
for to-day if the owners of shares      

constituting anything over half the mine
 consent to the restoration of those who
 have been proscribed1 the others are   
obliged to consent whether they wish to 
or not4 ,formerly1 unless such          
restoration had been sanctioned by the  
approval of the owners of one hundred   
shares1 those who had been proscribed   
were not restored to their former       
position4  ,the procedure in suits      
relating to shares was formerly as      
follows3 he who instituted a suit and   
took legal proceedings against another  
in respect of the shares1 used to make a
 formal charge against the accused      
possessor before the ,bergmeister4 ,this
 was done either at his house or in some
 public place or at the mines1 once each
 day for three days if the shares       
belonged to an old mine1 and three times
 in eight days if they belonged to a    
head-meer4 ,but if he could not find the
 possessor of the shares in these       
places1 it was valid and effectual to   
make the accusation against him at the  

house of the ,bergmeister4 ,when1       
however1 he made the charge for the     
third time1 he used to bring with him a 
notary1 whom the ,bergmeister would     
interrogate3 ,have ,i earned the fee8   
and who would respond3 ,you have earned 
it2 thereupon the ,bergmeister would    
give the right over the shares to him   
who made the accusation1 and the accuser
 in turn would pay down the customary   
fee to the ,bergmeister4 ,after these   
proceedings1 if the man whom the        
,bergmeister had deprived of his shares 
dwelt in the city1 one of the           
proprietors of the mine or of the       
head-mine was sent to him to acquaint   
him with the facts1 but if he dwelt     
elsewhere proclamation was made in some 
public place1 or at the mine1 openly and
 in a loud voice in the hearing of      
numbers of miners4 ,nowadays a date is  
defined for the one who is answerable   
for the debt of shares or money1 and    
information is given the accused by an  
official if he is near at hand1 or if he

 is absent1 a letter is sent him2 nor is
 the right over his shares taken from   
anyone for the space of one and a half  
months4 ,so much for these matters4     
,now1 before ,i deal with the methods   
which must be employed in working1 ,i   
will speak of the duties of the ,mining 
,prefect1 the ,bergmeister1 the ,jurors1
 the ,mining ,clerk1 the ,share ,clerk1 
the manager of the mine or tunnel1 the  
foreman of the mine or tunnel1 and the  
workmen4  ,to the ,mining ,prefect1 whom
 the ,king or ,prince appoints as his   
deputy1 all men of all races1 ages1 and 
rank1 give obedience and submission4 ,he
 governs and regulates everything at his
 discretion1 ordering those things which
 are useful and advantageous in mining  
operations1 and prohibiting those which 
are to the contrary4 ,he levies         
penalties and punishes offenders2 he    
arranges disputes which the ,bergmeister
 has been unable to settle1 and if even 
he cannot arrange them1 he allows the   
owners who are at variance over some    

point to proceed to litigation2 he even 
lays down the law1 gives orders as a    
magistrate1 or bids them leave their    
rights in abeyance1 and he determines   
the pay of persons who hold any post or 
office4 ,he is present in person when   
the mine managers present their         
quarterly accounts of profits and       
expenses1 and generally represents the  
,king or ,prince and upholds his        
dignity4 ,the ,athenians in this way set
 ,thucydides1 the famous historian1 over
 the mines of ,thasos#ae4  ,next in     
power to the ,mining ,prefect comes the 
,bergmeister1 since he has jurisdiction 
over all who are connected with mines1  
with a few exceptions1 which are the    
,tithe ,gatherer1 the ,cashier1 the     
,silver ,refiner1 the ,master of the    
,mint1 and the ,coiners themselves4     
,fraudulent1 negligent1 or dissolute men
 he either throws into prison1 or       
deprives of promotion1 or fines2 of     
these fines1 part is given as a tribute 
to those in power4 ,when the mine owners

 have a dispute over boundaries he      
arbitrates it2 or if he cannot settle   
the dispute1 he pronounces judgment     
jointly with the ,jurors2 from them1    
however1 an appeal lies to the ,mining  
,prefect4 ,he transcribes his decrees in
 a book and sets up the records in      
public4 ,it is also his duty to grant   
the right over the mines to those who   
apply1 and to confirm their rights2 he  
also must measure the mines1 and fix    
their boundaries1 and see that the mine 
workings are not allowed to become      
dangerous4 ,some of these duties he     
observes on fixed days2 for on          
,wednesday in the presence of the       
,jurors he confirms the rights over the 
mines which he has granted1 settles     
disputes about boundaries1 and          
pronounces judgments4 ,on ,mondays1     
,tuesdays1 ,thursdays1 and ,fridays1 he 
rides up to the mines1 and dismounting  
at some of them explains what is        
required to be done1 or considers the   
boundaries which are under controversy4 

,on ,saturday all the mine managers and 
mine foremen render an account of the   
money which they have spent on the mines
 during the preceding week1 and the     
,mining ,clerk transcribes this account 
into the register of expenses4          
,formerly1 for one ,principality there  
was one ,bergmeister1 who used to create
 all the judges and exercise            
jurisdiction and control over them2 for 
every mine had its own judge1 just as   
to-day each locality has a ,bergmeister 
in his place1 the name alone being      
changed4 ,to this ancient ,bergmeister1 
who used to dwell at ,freiberg in       
,meissen1 disputes were referred2 hence 
right up to the present time the one at 
,freiberg still has the power of        
pronouncing judgment when mine owners   
who are engaged in disputes among       
themselves appeal to him4 ,the old      
,bergmeister could try everything which 
was presented to him in any mine        
whatsoever2 whereas the judge could only
 try the things which were done in his  

own district1 in the same way that every
 modern ,bergmeister can4  ,to each     
,bergmeister is attached a clerk1 who   
writes out a schedule signifying to the 
applicant for a right over a mine1 the  
day and hour on which the right is      
granted1 the name of the applicant1 and 
the location of the mine4 ,he also      
affixes at the entrance to the mine1    
quarterly1 at the appointed time1 a     
sheet of paper on which is shown how    
much contribution must be paid to the   
manager of the mine4 ,these notices are 
prepared jointly with the ,mining       
,clerk1 and in common they receive the  
fee rendered by the foremen of the      
separate mines4  ,i now come to the     
,jurors1 who are men experienced in     
mining matters and of good repute4      
,their number is greater or less as     
there are few or more mines2 thus if    
there are ten mines there will be five  
pairs of ,jurors1 like a decemviral     
college#af4 ,into however many divisions
 the total number of mines has been     

divided1 so many divisions has the body 
of ,jurors2 each pair of ,jurors usually
 visits some of the mines whose         
administration is under their           
supervision on every day that workmen   
are employed2 it is usually so arranged 
that they visit all the mines in the    
space of fourteen days4 ,they inspect   
and consider all details1 and deliberate
 and consult with the mine foreman on   
matters relating to the underground     
workings1 machinery1 timbering1 and     
everything else4 ,they also jointly with
 the mine foreman from time to time make
 the price per fathom to the workmen for
 mining the ore1 fixing it at a high or 
low price1 according to whether the rock
 is hard or soft2 if1 however1 the      
contractors find that an unforeseen and 
unexpected hardness occurs1 and for that
 reason have difficulty and delay in    
carrying out their work1 the ,jurors    
allow them something in excess of the   
price fixed2 while if there is a        
softness by reason of water1 and the    

work is done more easily and quickly1   
they deduct something from the price4   
,further1 if the ,jurors discover       
manifest negligence or fraud on the part
 of any foreman or workman1 they first  
admonish or reprimand him as to his     
duties and obligations1 and if he does  
not become more diligent and improve1   
the matter is reported to the           
,bergmeister1 who by right of his       
authority deprives such persons of their
 functions and office1 or1 if they have 
committed a crime1 throws them into     
prison4 ,lastly1 because the ,jurors    
have been given to the ,bergmeister as  
councillors and advisors1 in their      
absence he does not confirm the right   
over any mine1 nor measure the mines1   
nor fix their boundaries1 nor settle    
disputes about boundaries1 nor pronounce
 judgment1 nor1 finally1 does he without
 them listen to any account of profits  
and expenditure4  ,now the ,mining      
,clerk enters each mine in his books1   
the new mines in one book1 the old mines

 which have been re-opened in another4  
,this is done in the following way3     
first is written the name of the man who
 has applied for the right over the     
mine1 then the day and hour on which he 
made his application1 then the vein and 
the locality in which it is situated1   
next the conditions on which the right  
has been given1 and lastly1 the day on  
which the ,bergmeister confirmed it4 ,a 
document containing all these           
particulars is also given to the person 
whose right over a mine has been        
confirmed4 ,the ,mining ,clerk also sets
 down in another book the names of the  
owners of each mine over which the right
 has been confirmed2 in another any     
intermission of work permitted to any   
person for certain reasons by the       
,bergmeister2 in another the money which
 one mine supplies to another for       
drawing off water or making machinery2  
and in another the decisions of the     
,bergmeister and the ,jurors1 and the   
disputes settled by them as honorary    

arbitrators4 ,all these matters he      
enters in the books on ,wednesday of    
every week2 if holidays fall on that day
 he does it on the following ,thursday4 
,every ,saturday he enters in another   
book the total expenses of the preceding
 week1 the account of which the mine    
manager has rendered2 but the total     
quarterly expenses of each mine manager1
 he enters in a special book at his own 
convenience4 ,he enters similarly in    
another book a list of owners who have  
been proscribed4 ,lastly1 that no one   
may be able to bring a charge of        
falsification against him1 all these    
books are enclosed in a chest with two  
locks1 the key of one of which is kept  
by the ,mining ,clerk1 and of the other 
by the ,bergmeister4  ,the ,share ,clerk
 enters in a book the owners of each    
mine whom the first finder of the vein  
names to him1 and from time to time     
replaces the names of the sellers with  
those of the buyers of the shares4 ,it  
sometimes happens that twenty or more   

owners come into the possession of some 
particular share4 ,unless1 however1 the 
seller is present1 or has sent a letter 
to the ,mining ,clerk with his seal1 or 
better still with the seal of the ,mayor
 of the town where he dwells1 his name  
is not replaced by that of anyone else2 
for if the ,share ,clerk is not         
sufficiently cautious1 the law requires 
him to restore the late owner wholly to 
his former position4 ,he writes out a   
fresh document1 and in this way gives   
proof of possession4 ,four times a year1
 when the accounts of the quarterly     
expenditure are rendered1 he names the  
new proprietors to the manager of each  
mine1 that the manager may know from    
whom he should demand contributions and 
among whom to distribute the profits of 
the mines4 ,for this work the mine      
manager pays the ,clerk a fixed fee4  ,i
 will now speak of the duties of the    
mine manager4 ,in the case of the owners
 of every mine which is not yielding    
metal1 the manager announces to the     

proprietors their contributions in a    
document which is affixed to the doors  
of the town hall1 such contributions    
being large or small1 according as the  
,bergmeister and two ,jurors determine4 
,if anyone fails to pay these           
contributions for the space of a month1 
the manager removes their names from the
 list of owners1 and makes their shares 
the common property of the other        
proprietors4 ,and so1 whomsoever the    
mine manager names as not having paid   
his contribution1 that same man the     
,mining ,clerk designates in writing1   
and so also does the ,share ,clerk4 ,of 
the contribution1 the mine manager      
applies part to the payment of the      
foreman and workmen1 and lays by a part 
to purchase at the lowest price the     
necessary things for the mine1 such as  
iron tools1 nails1 firewood1 planks1    
buckets1 drawing-ropes1 or grease4 ,but 
in the case of a mine which is yielding 
metal1 the ,tithe-gatherer pays the mine
 manager week by week as much money as  

suffices to discharge the workmen's     
wages and to provide the necessary      
implements for mining4 ,the mine manager
 of each mine also1 in the presence of  
its foreman1 on ,saturday in each week  
renders an account of his expenses to   
the ,bergmeister and the ,jurors1 he    
renders an account of his receipts1     
whether the money has been contributed  
by the owners or taken from the         
,tithe-gatherer2 and of his quarterly   
expenditure in the same way to them and 
to the ,mining ,prefect and to the      
,mining ,clerk1 four times a year at the
 appointed time2 for just as there are  
four seasons of the year1 namely1       
,spring1 ,summer1 ,autumn1 and ,winter1 
so there are fourfold accounts of       
profits and expenses4 ,in the beginning 
of the first month of each quarter an   
account is rendered of the money which  
the manager has spent on the mine during
 the previous quarter1 then of the      
profit which he has taken from it during
 the same period2 for example1 the      

account which is rendered at the        
beginning of spring is an account of all
 the profits and expenses of each       
separate week of winter1 which have been
 entered by the ,mining ,clerk in the   
book of accounts4 ,if the manager has   
spent the money of the proprietors      
advantageously in the mine and has      
faithfully looked after it1 everyone    
praises him as a diligent and honest    
man2 if through ignorance in these      
matters he has caused loss1 he is       
generally deprived of his office2 if by 
his carelessness and negligence the     
owners have suffered loss1 the          
,bergmeister compels him to make good   
the loss2 and finally1 if he has been   
guilty of fraud or theft1 he is punished
 with fine1 prison1 or death4 ,further1 
it is the business of the manager to see
 that the foreman of the mine is present
 at the beginning and end of the shifts1
 that he digs the ore in an advantageous
 manner1 and makes the required         
timbering1 machines1 and drains4 ,the   

manager also makes the deductions from  
the pay of the workmen whom the foreman 
has noted as negligent4 ,next1 if the   
mine is rich in metal1 the manager must 
see that its ore-house is closed on     
those days on which no work is          
performed2 and if it is a rich vein of  
gold or silver1 he sees that the miners 
promptly transfer the output from the   
shaft or tunnel into a chest or into the
 strong room next to the house where the
 foreman dwells1 that no opportunity for
 theft may be given to dishonest        
persons4 ,this duty he shares in common 
with the foreman1 but the one which     
follows is peculiarly his own4 ,when ore
 is smelted he is present in person1 and
 watches that the smelting is performed 
carefully and advantageously4 ,if from  
it gold or silver is melted out1 when it
 is melted in the cupellation furnace he
 enters the weight of it in his books   
and carries it to the ,tithe-gatherer1  
who similarly writes a note of its      
weight in his books2 it is then conveyed

 to the refiner4 ,when it has been      
brought back1 both the ,tithe-gatherer  
and manager again enter its weight in   
their books4 ,why again8 ,because he    
looks after the goods of the owners just
 as if they were his own4 ,now the laws 
which relate to mining permit a manager 
to have charge of more than one mine1   
but in the case of mines yielding gold  
or silver1 to have charge of only two4  
,if1 however1 several mines following   
the head-mine begin to produce metal1 he
 remains in charge of these others until
 he is freed from the duty of looking   
after them by the ,bergmeister4 ,last of
 all1 the manager1 the ,bergmeister1 and
 the two ,jurors1 in agreement with the 
owners1 settle the remuneration for the 
labourers4 ,enough of the duties and    
occupation of the manager4  ,i will now 
leave the manager1 and discuss him who  
controls the workmen of the mine1 who is
 therefore called the foreman1 although 
some call him the watchman4 ,it is he   
who distributes the work among the      

labourers1 and sees diligently that each
 faithfully and usefully performs his   
duties4 ,he also discharges workmen on  
account of incompetence1 or negligence1 
and supplies others in their places if  
the two ,jurors and manager give their  
consent4 ,he must be skilful in working 
wood1 that he may timber shafts1 place  
posts1 and make underground structures  
capable of supporting an undermined     
mountain1 lest the rocks from the       
hangingwall of the veins1 not being     
supported1 become detached from the mass
 of the mountain and overwhelm the      
workmen with destruction4 ,he must be   
able to make and lay out the drains in  
the tunnels1 into which the water from  
the veins1 stringers1 and seams in the  
rocks may collect1 that it may be       
properly guided and can flow away4      
,further1 he must be able to recognize  
veins and stringers1 so as to sink      
shafts to the best advantage1 and must  
be able to discern one kind of material 
which is mined from another1 or to train

 his subordinates that they may separate
 the materials correctly4 ,he must also 
be well acquainted with all methods of  
washing1 so as to teach the washers how 
the metalliferous earth or sand is      
washed4 ,he supplies the miners with    
iron tools when they are about to start 
to work in the mines1 and apportions a  
certain weight of oil for their lamps1  
and trains them to dig to the best      
advantage1 and sees that they work      
faithfully4 ,when their shift is        
finished1 he takes back the oil which   
has been left4 ,on account of his       
numerous and important duties and       
labours1 only one mine is entrusted to  
one foreman1 nay1 rather sometimes two  
or three foremen are set over one mine4 
,since ,i have mentioned the shifts1 ,i 
will briefly explain how these are      
carried on4 ,the twenty-four hours of a 
day and night are divided into three    
shifts1 and each shift consists of seven
 hours4 ,the three remaining hours are  
intermediate between the shifts1 and    

form an interval during which the       
workmen enter and leave the mines4 ,the 
first shift begins at the fourth hour in
 the morning and lasts till the eleventh
 hour2 the second begins at the twelfth 
and is finished at the seventh2 these   
two are day shifts in the morning and   
afternoon4 ,the third is the night      
shift1 and commences at the eighth hour 
in the evening and finishes at the third
 in the morning4 ,the ,bergmeister does 
not allow this third shift to be imposed
 upon the workmen unless necessity      
demands it4 ,in that case1 whether they 
draw water from the shafts or mine the  
ore1 they keep their vigil by the night 
lamps1 and to prevent themselves falling
 asleep from the late hours or from     
fatigue1 they lighten their long and    
arduous labours by singing1 which is    
neither wholly untrained nor unpleasing4
 ,in some places one miner is not       
allowed to undertake two shifts in      
succession1 because it often happens    
that he either falls asleep in the mine1

 overcome by exhaustion from too much   
labour1 or arrives too late for his     
shift1 or leaves sooner than he ought4  
,elsewhere he is allowed to do so1      
because he cannot subsist on the pay of 
one shift1 especially if provisions grow
 dearer4 ,the ,bergmeister does not1    
however1 forbid an extraordinary shift  
when he concedes only one ordinary      
shift4 ,when it is time to go to work   
the sound of a great bell1 which the    
foreigners call a campana1 gives the    
workmen warning1 and when this is heard 
they run hither and thither through the 
streets toward the mines4 ,similarly1   
the same sound of the bell warns the    
foreman that a shift has just been      
finished2 therefore as soon as he hears 
it1 he stamps on the woodwork of the    
shaft and signals the workmen to come   
out4 ,thereupon1 the nearest as soon as 
they hear the signal1 strike the rocks  
with their hammers1 and the sound       
reaches those who are furthest away4    
,moreover1 the lamps show that the shift

 has come to an end when the oil becomes
 almost consumed and fails them4 ,the   
labourers do not work on ,saturdays1 but
 buy those things which are necessary to
 life1 nor do they usually work on      
,sundays or annual festivals1 but on    
these occasions devote the shift to holy
 things4 ,however1 the workmen do not   
rest and do nothing if necessity demands
 their labour2 for sometimes a rush of  
water compels them to work1 sometimes an
 impending fall1 sometimes something    
else1 and at such times it is not       
considered irreligious to work on       
holidays4 ,moreover1 all workmen of this
 class are strong and used to toil from 
birth4  ,the chief kinds of workmen are 
miners1 shovellers1 windlass men1       
carriers1 sorters1 washers1 and         
smelters1 as to whose duties ,i will    
speak in the following books1 in their  
proper place4 ,at present it is enough  
to add this one fact1 that if the       
workmen have been reported by the       
foreman for negligence1 the             

,bergmeister1 or even the foreman       
himself1 jointly with the manager1      
dismisses them from their work on       
,saturday1 or deprives them of part of  
their pay2 or if for fraud1 throws them 
into prison4 ,however1 the owners of    
works in which the metals are smelted1  
and the master of the smelter1 look     
after their own men4 ,as to the         
government and duties of miners1 ,i have
 now said enough2 ,i will explain them  
more fully in another work entitled ,de 
,jure et ,legibus ,metallicis#ag4       
,,end ,,of ,,book ,,iv4   ,,footnotes3  
#a ,the nomenclature in this chapter has
 given unusual difficulty1 because the  
organisation of mines1 either past or   
present1 in ,english-speaking countries 
provides no exact equivalents for many  
of these offices and for many of the    
legal terms4 ,the ,latin terms in the   
text were1 of course1 coined by the     
author1 and have no historical basis to 
warrant their adoption1 while the       
introduction of the original ,german    

terms is open to much objection1 as they
 are not only largely obsolete1 but also
 in the main would convey no meaning to 
the majority of readers4 ,we have1      
therefore1 reached a series of          
compromises1 and in the main give the   
nearest ,english equivalent4 ,of much   
interest in this connection is a curious
 exotic survival in mining law to be    
found in the ,high ,peak of ,derbyshire4
 ,we believe 7see note on p4 #he7 that  
the law of this district was of ,saxon  
importation1 for in it are not only many
 terms of ,german origin1 but the       
character of the law is foreign to the  
older ,english districts and shows its  
near kinship to that of ,saxony4 ,it is 
therefore of interest in connection with
 the nomenclature to be adopted in this 
book1 as it furnishes about the only    
,english precedents in many cases4 ,the 
head of the administration in the ,peak 
was the ,steward1 who was the chief     
judicial officer1 with functions        
somewhat similar to the ,berghauptmann4 

,however1 the term ,steward has come to 
have so much less significance that we  
have adopted a literal rendering of the 
,latin4 ,under the ,steward was the     
,barmaster1 ,barghmaster1 or ,barmar1 as
 he was variously called1 and his duties
 were similar to those of the           
,bergmeister4 ,the ,english term would  
seem to be a corruption of the ,german1 
and as the latter has come to be so well
 understood by the ,english-speaking    
mining class1 we have in this case      
adopted the ,german4 ,the ,barmaster    
acted always by the consent and with the
 approval of a jury of from #ab to #bd  
members4 ,in this instance the ,english 
had functions much like a modern jury1  
while the ,geschwornen of ,saxony had   
much more widely extended powers4 ,the  
,german ,geschwornen were in the main   
,inspectors2 despite this1 however1 we  
have not felt justified in adopting any 
other than the literal ,english for the 
,latin and ,german terms4 ,we have      
vacillated a great deal over the term   

,praefectus ,fodinae1 the ,german       
,steiger having1 like the ,cornish      
,captain1 in these days degenerated into
 a foreman1 whereas the duties as       
described were not only those of the    
modern ,superintendent or ,manager1 but 
also those of ,treasurer of the         
,company1 for he made the calls on      
shares and paid the dividends4 ,the term
 ,purser has been used for centuries in 
,english mining for the ,accountant or  
,cashier1 but his functions were limited
 to paying dividends1 wages1 etc41      
therefore we have considered it better  
not to adopt the latter term1 and have  
compromised upon the term               
,superintendent or ,manager1 although it
 has a distinctly modern flavor4 ,the   
word for area has also caused much      
hesitation1 and the meer has finally    
been adopted with some doubt4 ,the title
 described by ,agricola has a very close
 equivalent in the meer of old          
,derbyshire4 ,as will be seen later1 the
 mines of ,saxony were ,regal property1 

and were held subject to two essential  
conditions1 i4e41 payment of a tithe1   
and continuous operation4 ,this form of 
title thus approximates more closely to 
the lease of ,australia than to the old 
,cornish sett1 or the ,american claim4  
,the fundgrube of ,saxony and           
,agricola's equivalent1 the area        
capitis--head lease--we have rendered   
literally as head meer1 although in some
 ways founders' meer might be better1   
for1 in ,derbyshire1 this was called the
 finder's or founder's meer1 and was    
awarded under similar circumstances4 ,it
 has also an analogy in ,australian law 
in the reward leases4 ,the term measure 
has the merit of being a literal        
rendering of the ,latin1 and also of    
being the identical term in the same use
 in the ,high ,peak4 ,the following     
table of the principal terms gives the  
originals of the ,latin text1 their     
,german equivalents according in the    
,glossary and other sources1 and those  
adopted in the translation3--           

,,agricola4                ,,german     
,,glossary4          ,,term ,,adopted4  
,praefectus ,metallorum    ,bergamptmann
             ,mining ,prefect4          
,magister ,metallicorum    ,bergmeister 
,bergmeister4   ,scriba ,magister       
,bergmeister's schreiber  ,bergmeister's
 clerk4      ,metallicorum   ,jurati    
,geschwornen              ,jurates or   
,jurors4   ,publicus ,signator          
,gemeiner sigler          ,notary4      
,decumanus                ,zehender     
,tithe gatherer4   ,distributor         
,aussteiler               ,cashier4     
,scriba partium                         
,gegenschreiber           ,share clerk4 
,scriba fodinarum         ,bergschreiber
            ,mining clerk4   ,praefectus
 fodinae      ,steiger                  
,manager of the ,mine4   ,praefectus    
cuniculi                                
,manager of the ,tunnel4   ,praeses     
fodinae         ,schichtmeister         
,foreman of the ,mine4   ,praeses       
cuniculi                                

,foreman of the ,tunnel4   ,fossores    
,berghauer                 ,miners or   
diggers4   ,ingestores                  
,berganschlagen            ,shovellers4 
,vectarii                ,hespeler      
,lever workers                          
7windlass men74   ,discretores          
,ertzpucher                ,sorters4    
,lotores                 ,wescher und   
seiffner      ,washers1 buddlers1       
sifters1 etc4   ,excoctores             
,schmeltzer                ,smelters4   
,purgator ,argenti        ,silber       
brenner            ,silver refiner4     
,magister ,monetariorum   ,muentzmeister
              ,master of the ,mint4     
,monetarius              ,muentzer      
,coiner4   ,area fodinarum              
,masse                     ,meer4       
,area ,capitis ,fodinarum  ,fundgrube   
,head meer4   ,demensum                 
,lehen                     ,measure4  #b
 ,the following are the equivalents of  
the measures mentioned in this book4 ,it
 is not always certain which foot or    

fathom ,agricola actually had in mind   
although they were probably the ,german4
    ,greek--           ,dactylos        
4#gf inches      #af  ,pous             
#ab4ac inches       #f  ,orguia         
#gb4ha inches4    ,roman--              
,uncia          4#ig         #ab  ,pes  
#aa4f           #e  ,passus       #eh4a 
,german--           ,zoll           4#ic
         #ab  ,werckschuh   #aa4bd      
#f  ,lachter      #fg4e                 
,english--           ,inch              
#a4j          #ab   ,foot               
#ab4jj          #f   ,fathom            
#gb4j      ,the discrepancies are due to
 variations in authorities and to       
decimals dropped4 ,the werckschuh taken 
is the ,chemnitz foot deduced from      
,agricola's statement in his ,de        
,mensuris et ,ponderibus1 ,basel1 #aecc1
 p4 #bi4 ,for further notes see         
,appendix ,c4  #c                       
,subcisivum--,remainder4 ,german        
,glossary1 ,ueberschar4 ,the term used  
in ,mendip and ,derbyshire was primgap  

or primegap4 ,it did not1 however1 in   
this case belong to adjacent mines1 but 
to the landlord4  #d ,adversum4         
,glossary1 gegendrumb4 ,the ,bergwerk   
,lexicon1 ,chemnitz1 #agdc1 gives       
gegendrom or gegentramm1 and defines it 
as the masse or lease next beyond a     
stream4  #e ,quadratum4 ,glossary1      
vierung4 ,the vierung in old ,saxon     
title meant a definite zone on either   
side of the vein1 #c-a_/b lachter       
7lachter  #e ft4 #g4e inches7 into the  
hangingwall and the same into the       
footwall1 the length of one vierung     
being #g lachter along the strike4 ,it  
must be borne in mind that the form of  
rights here referred to entitled the    
miner to follow his vein1 carrying the  
side line with him in depth the same    
distance from the vein1 in much the same
 way as with the ,apex ,law of the      
,united ,states4 ,from this definition  
as given in the ,bergwerk ,lexicon1 p4  
#ehe1 it would appear that the vein     
itself was not included in the          

measurements1 but that they started from
 the walls4  #f ,,historical ,,note ,,on
 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,mining      
,,law4--,there is no branch of the law  
of property1 of which the development is
 more interesting and illuminating from 
a social point of view than that        
relating to minerals4 ,unlike the land1 
the minerals have ever been regarded as 
a sort of fortuitous property1 for the  
title of which there have been four     
principal claimants--that is1 the       
,overlord1 as represented by the ,king1 
,prince1 ,bishop1 or what not2 the      
,community or the ,state1 as            
distinguished from the ,ruler2 the      
,landowner2 and the ,mine ,operator1 to 
which class belongs the ,discoverer4    
,the one of these that possessed the    
dominant right reflects vividly the     
social state and sentiment of the       
period4 ,the ,divine ,right of ,kings2  
the measure of freedom of their         
subjects2 the tyranny of the land-owning
 class2 the rights of the ,community as 

opposed to its individual members2 the  
rise of individualism2 and finally1 the 
modern return to more communal view1    
have all been reflected promptly in the 
mineral title4 ,of these parties the    
claims of the ,overlord have been       
limited only by the resistance of his   
subjects2 those of the ,state limited by
 the landlord2 those of the landlord by 
the ,sovereign or by the ,state2 while  
the miner1 ever in a minority in        
influence as well as in numbers1 has    
been buffeted from pillar to post1 his  
only protection being the fact that all 
other parties depended upon his exertion
 and skill4  ,the conception as to which
 of these classes had a right in the    
title have been by no means the same in 
different places at the same time1 and  
in all it varies with different periods2
 but the whole range of legislation     
indicates the encroachment of one factor
 in the community over another1 so that 
their relative rights have been the     
cause of never-ending contention1 ever  

since a record of civil and economic    
contentions began4 ,in modern times1    
practically over the whole world1 the   
,state has in effect taken the rights   
from the ,overlord1 but his claims did  
not cease until his claims over the     
bodies of his subjects also ceased4     
,however1 he still remains in many      
places with his picture on the coinage4 
,the ,landlord has passed through many  
vicissitudes2 his complete right to     
minerals was practically never admitted 
until the doctrine of laissez-faire had 
become a matter of faith1 and this just 
in time to vest him with most of the    
coal and iron deposits in the world2    
this1 no doubt1 being also partially due
 to the little regard in which such     
deposits were generally held at that    
time1 and therefore to the little       
opposition to his ever-ready            
pretentions4 ,their numbers1 however1   
and their prominence in the support of  
the political powers de jure have       
usually obtained them some recognition4 

,in the rise of individualism1 the      
apogee of the laissez-faire fetish came 
about the time of the foundation of the 
,united ,states1 and hence the          
relaxation in the claims of the ,state  
in that country and the corresponding   
position attained by the landlord and   
miner4 ,the discoverer and the          
operator--that is1 the miner            
himself--has1 however1 had to be        
reckoned with by all three of the other 
claimants1 because they have almost     
universally sought to escape the risks  
of mining1 to obtain the most skilful   
operation1 and to stimulate the         
productivity of the mines2 thereupon the
 miner has secured at least partial     
consideration4 ,this stands out in all  
times and all places1 and while the     
miner has had to take the risks of his  
fortuitous calling1 the ,overlord1      
,state1 or ,landlord have all made for  
complacent safety by demanding some kind
 of a tithe on his exertions4 ,moreover1
 there has often been a low cunning     

displayed by these powers in giving     
something extra to the first discoverer4
 ,in these relations of the powers to   
the mine operator1 from the very first  
we find definite records of the         
imposition of certain conditions with   
extraordinary persistence--so fixed a   
notion that even the ,united ,states did
 not quite escape it4 ,this condition   
was1 no doubt1 designed as a stimulus to
 productive activity1 and was the       
requirement that the miner should       
continuously employ himself digging in  
the piece of ground allotted to him4    
,the ,greeks1 ,romans1 ,mediaeval       
,germans1 old and modern ,englishmen1   
modern ,australians1 all require the    
miner to keep continuously labouring at 
his mines1 or lose his title4 ,the      
,american1 as his inauguration of       
government happened when things were    
easier for individuals1 allows him a    
vacation of #aa months in the year for a
 few years1 and finally a holiday       
altogether4 ,there are other points     

where the ,overlord1 the ,state1 or the 
,landlord have always considered that   
they had a right to interfere1          
principally as to the way the miner does
 his work1 lest he should miss1 or cause
 to be missed1 some of the mineral2 so  
he has usually been under pains and     
penalties as to his methods--these quite
 apart from the very proper protection  
to human life1 which is purely a modern 
invention1 largely of the miner himself4
 ,somebody has had to keep peace and    
settle disputes among the usually       
turbulent miners 7for what other sort of
 operators would undertake the hazards  
and handicaps871 and therefore special  
officials and codes1 or ,courts1 for his
 benefit are of the oldest and most     
persistent of institutions4  ,between   
the ,overlord and the ,landowner the    
fundamental conflict of view as to their
 respective rights has found its        
interpretation in the form of the       
mineral title4 ,the ,overlord claimed   
the metals as distinguished from the    

land1 while the landowner claimed all   
beneath his soil4 ,therefore1 we find   
two forms of title--that in which the   
miner could follow the ore regardless of
 the surface 7the apex conception71 and 
that in which the boundaries were       
vertical from the land surface4 ,lest   
the ,americans think that the ,apex ,law
 was a sin original to themselves1 we   
may mention that it was made use of in  
,europe a few centuries before          
,agricola1 who will be found to set it  
out with great precision4  ,from these  
points of view1 more philosophical than 
legal1 we present a few notes on various
 ancient laws of mines1 though space    
forbids a discussion of a tithe of the  
amount it deserves at some experienced  
hand4  ,of the ,ancient ,egyptian1      
,lydian1 ,assyrian1 ,persian1 ,indian1  
and ,chinese laws as to mines we have no
 record1 but they were of great         
simplicity1 for the bodies as well as   
the property of subjects were at the    
abject disposition of the ,overlord4 ,we

 are informed on countless occasions of 
,emperors1 ,kings1 and ,princes of      
various degree among these races1 owning
 and operating mines with convicts1     
soldiers1 or other slaves1 so we may    
take it for certain that continuous     
labour was enforced1 and that the       
boundaries1 inspection1 and landlords   
did not cause much anxiety4 ,however1   
herein lies the root of regalian right4 
,our first glimpse of a serious right of
 the subject to mines is among some of  
the ,greek ,states1 as could be expected
 from their form of government4 ,with   
republican ideals1 a rich mining        
district at ,mount ,laurion1 an         
enterprising and contentious people1 it 
would be surprising indeed if ,athenian 
,literature was void on the subject4    
,while we know that the active operation
 of these mines extended over some #ejj 
years1 from #gjj to #bjj ,b4,c41 the    
period of most literary reference was   
from #djj to #cjj ,b4,c4 ,our           
information on the subject is from two  

of ,demosthenes' orations--one against  
,pantaenetus1 the other against         
,phaenippus--the first mining lawsuit in
 which the address of counsel is extant4
 ,there is also available some          
information in ,xenophon's ,essay upon  
the ,revenues1 ,aristotle's             
,constitution of ,athens1 ,lycurgus'    
prosecution of ,diphilos1 the ,tablets  
of the ,poletae1 and many incidental    
references and inscriptions of minor    
order4 ,the minerals were the property  
of the ,state1 a conception apparently  
inherited from the older civilizations4 
,leases for exploitation were granted to
 individuals for terms of three to ten  
years1 depending upon whether the mines 
had been previously worked1 thus a      
special advantage was conferred upon the
 pioneer4 ,the leases did not carry     
surface rights1 but the boundaries at   
,mt4 ,laurion were vertical1 as         
necessarily must be the case everywhere 
in horizontal deposits4 ,what they were 
elsewhere we do not know4 ,the landlord 

apparently got nothing4 ,the miner must 
continuously operate his mine1 and was  
required to pay a large tribute to the  
,state1 either in the initial purchase  
of his lease or in annual rent4 ,there  
were elaborate regulations as to        
interference and encroachment1 and      
proper support of the workings4         
,diphilos was condemned to death and his
 fortune confiscated for robbing        
pillars4 ,the mines were worked with    
slaves4  ,the ,romans were most         
intensive miners and searchers after    
metallic wealth already mined4 ,the     
latter was obviously the objective of   
most ,roman conquest1 and those nations 
rich in these commodities1 at that time 
necessarily possessed their own mines4  
,thus a map showing the extensions of   
,empire coincides in an extraordinary   
manner with the metal distribution of   
,europe1 ,asia1 and ,north ,africa4     
,further1 the great indentations into   
the periphery of the ,imperial map1     
though many were rich from an           

agricultural point of view1 had no lure 
to the ,roman because they had no       
mineral wealth4 ,on the ,roman law of   
mines the student is faced with many    
perplexities4 ,with the conquest of the 
older ,states1 the plunderers took over 
the mines and worked them1 either by    
leases from the ,state to public        
companies or to individuals2 or even in 
some cases worked them directly by the  
,state4 ,there was thus maintained the  
concept of ,state ownership of the      
minerals which1 although apparently     
never very specifically defined1 yet    
formed a basis of support to the        
contention of regalian rights in ,europe
 later on4 ,parallel with this system1  
mines were discovered and worked by     
individuals under tithe to the ,state1  
and in ,pliny 7,,xxxiv1 #di7 there is   
reference to the miners in ,britain     
limiting their own output4 ,individual  
mining appears to have increased with   
any relaxation of central authority1 as 
for instance under ,augustus4 ,it       

appears1 as a rule1 that the mines were 
held on terminable leases1 and that the 
,state did at times resume them2 the    
labour was mostly slaves4 ,as to the    
detailed conditions under which the mine
 operator held his title1 we know less  
than of the ,greeks--in fact1           
practically nothing other than that he  
paid a tithe4 ,the ,romans maintained in
 each mining district an official--the  
,procurator ,metallorum--who not only   
had general charge of the leasing of the
 mines on behalf of the ,state1 but was 
usually the magistrate of the district4 
,a bronze tablet found near ,aljustrel1 
in ,portugal1 in #ahgf1 generally known 
as the ,aljustrel ,tablet1 appears to be
 the third of a series setting out the  
regulations of the mining district4 ,it 
refers mostly to the regulation of      
public auctions1 the baths1 barbers1 and
 tradesmen2 but one clause 7,,vii47 is  
devoted to the regulation of those who  
work dumps of scoria1 etc41 and provides
 for payment to the administrator of the

 mines of a capitation on the slaves    
employed4 ,it does not1 however1 so far 
as we can determine1 throw any light    
upon the actual regulations for working 
the mines4 7,those interested will find 
ample detail in ,jacques ,flach1 ,la    
,table de ,bronze d',aljustrel3         
,nouvelle ,revue ,historique de ,droit  
,francais et ,etranger1 #ahgh1 p4 #fee2 
,estacio da ,veiga1 ,memorias da ,acad4 
,real das ,ciencias de ,lisbon1 ,nova   
,scrie1 ,tome ,v1 ,part ,,ii1 ,lisbon1  
#ahhb47 ,despite the systematic law of  
property evolved by the ,romans1 the    
codes contain but small reference to    
mines1 and this in itself is indirect   
evidence of the concept that they were  
the property of the ,state4 ,any general
 freedom of the metals would have given 
rise to a more extensive body of law4   
,there are1 of course1 the well-known   
sections in the ,justinian and          
,theodosian ,codes1 but the former in   
the main bears on the collection of the 
tithe and the stimulation of mining by  

ordering migrant miners to return to    
their own hearths4 ,there is also some  
intangible prohibition of mining near   
edifices4 ,there is in the ,theodosian  
code evident extension of individual    
right to mine or quarry1 and this       
freeing of the mines was later          
considerably extended4 ,the ,empire was1
 however1 then on the decline2 and no   
doubt it was hoped to stimulate the     
taxable commodities4 ,there is nothing  
very tangible as to the position of the 
landlord with regard to minerals found  
on his property2 the metals were        
probably of insufficient frequency on   
the land of ,italian landlords to matter
 much1 and the attitude toward subject  
races was not usually such as to require
 an extensive body of law4  ,in the     
chaos of the ,middle ,ages1 ,europe was 
governed by hundreds of potentates1     
great and small1 who were unanimous on  
one point1 and this that the minerals   
were their property4 ,in the bickerings 
among themselves1 the stronger did not  

hesitate to interpret the ,roman law in 
affirming regalian rights as an excuse  
to dispossess the weaker4 ,the rights to
 the mines form no small part of the    
differences between these ,potentates   
and the more important of their         
subjects2 and with the gradual accretion
 of power into a few hands1 we find only
 the most powerful of vassals able to   
resist such encroachment4 ,however1 as  
to what position the landlord or miner  
held in these rights1 we have little    
indication until about the beginning of 
the #acth century1 after which there    
appear several well-known charters1     
which as time went on were elaborated   
into practical codes of mining law4 ,the
 earliest of these charters are those of
 the ,bishop of ,trent1 #aahe2 that of  
the ,harz ,miners1 #abai2 of the town of
 ,iglau in #abdi4 ,many such in         
connection with other districts appear  
throughout the #acth1 #adth1 and #aeth  
centuries4 7,references to the most     
important of such charters may be found 

in ,sternberg1 ,umrisse der ,geschichte 
des ,bergbaues1 ,prague1 #ahch2         
,eisenhart1 ,de ,regali ,metalli        
,fodinarium1 ,helmestadt1 #afha2        
,gmelin1 ,beytraege zur ,geschichte des 
,teutschen ,bergbaus1 ,halle1 #aghc2    
,inama-,sternegg1 ,deutsche             
,wirthschaftsgeschichte1 ,leipzig1      
#ahgi-aija2 ,transactions1 ,royal ,geol4
 ,soc4 ,cornwall ,,vi1 #aee2 ,lewis1    
,the ,stannaries1 ,new ,york1 #aijh47   
,by this time a number of mining        
communities had grown up1 and the       
charters in the main are a confirmation 
to them of certain privileges2 they     
contain1 nevertheless1 rigorous         
reservation of the regalian right4 ,the 
landlord1 where present1 was usually    
granted some interest in the mine1 but  
had to yield to the miner free entry4   
,the miner was simply a sort of tributer
 to the ,crown1 loaded with an          
obligation when upon private lands to   
pay a further portion of his profits to 
the landlord4 ,he held tenure only      

during strenuous operation4 ,however1 it
 being necessary to attract skilled men1
 they were granted many civil privileges
 not general to the people2 and from    
many of the principal mining towns free 
cities were created1 possessing a       
measure of self-government4 ,there      
appear in the ,iglau charter of #abdi   
the first symptoms of the apex form of  
title1 this being the logical           
development of the conception that the  
minerals were of quite distinct         
ownership from the land4 ,the law1 as   
outlined by ,agricola1 is much the same 
as set out in the ,iglavian ,charter of 
three centuries before1 and we must     
believe that such fully developed       
conceptions as that charter conveys were
 but the confirmation of customs        
developed over generations4  ,in ,france
 the landlord managed to maintain a     
stronger position vis-a-vis with the    
,crown1 despite much assertion of its   
rights2 and as a result1 while the      
landlord admitted the right to a tithe  

for the ,crown1 he maintained the actual
 possession1 and the boundaries were    
defined with the land4  ,in ,england the
 law varied with special mining         
communities1 such as ,cornwall1 ,devon1 
the ,forest of ,dean1 the ,forest of    
,mendip1 ,alston ,moor1 and the ,high   
,peak1 and they exhibit a curious       
complex of individual growth1 of        
profound interest to the student of the 
growth of institutions4 ,these          
communities were of very ancient origin1
 some of them at least pre-,roman2 but  
we are1 except for the reference in     
,pliny1 practically without any idea of 
their legal doings until after the      
,norman occupation 7#ajff ,a4,d474 ,the 
genius of these conquerors for          
systematic government soon led them to  
inquire into the doings of these        
communities1 and while gradually        
systematising their customs into law1   
they lost no occasion to assert the     
regalian right to the minerals4 ,in the 
two centuries subsequent to their advent

 there are on record numerous           
inquisitions1 with the recognition and  
confirmation of the customs and         
liberties which had existed from time   
immemorial1 always with the reservation 
to the ,crown of some sort of royalty4  
,except for the ,high ,peak in          
,derbyshire1 the period and origin of   
these customs and liberties are beyond  
finding out1 as there is practically no 
record of ,english ,history between the 
,roman withdrawal and the ,norman       
occupation4 ,there may have been        
liberties under the ,romans1 but there  
is not a shred of evidence on the       
subject1 and our own belief is that the 
forms of self-government which sprang up
 were the result of the ,roman          
evacuation4 ,the miner had little to    
complain of in the ,norman treatment in 
these matters2 but between the ,crown   
and the landlord as represented by the  
,barons1 ,lords of the ,manor1 etc41    
there were wide differences of opinion  
on the regalian rights1 for in the      

extreme interpretation of the ,crown it 
tended greatly to curtail the landlord's
 position in the matter1 and the success
 of the ,crown on this subject was by no
 means universal4 ,in fact1 a           
considerable portion of ,english legal  
history of mines is but the outcropping 
of this conflict1 and one of the        
concessions wrung from ,king ,john at   
,runnymede in #abae was his abandonment 
of a portion of such claims4  ,the      
mining communities of ,cornwall and     
,devon were early in the #acth century  
definitely chartered into               
corporations--,the                      
,stannaries--possessing definite        
legislative and executive functions1    
judicial powers1 and practical          
self-government2 but they were required 
to make payment of the tithe in the     
shape of coinage on the tin4 ,such      
recognition1 while but a ratification of
 prior custom1 was not obtained without 
struggle1 for the ,norman ,kings early  
asserted wide rights over the mines4    

,tangible record of mining in these     
parts1 from a legal point of view1      
practically begins with a report by     
,william de ,wrotham in #aaih upon his  
arrangements regarding the coinage4 ,a  
charter of ,king ,john in #abja1 while  
granting free right of entry to the     
miners1 thus usurped the rights of the  
landlords--a claim which he was         
compelled by the ,barons to moderate2   
the ,crown1 as above mentioned did      
maintain its right to a royalty1 but the
 landlord held the minerals4 ,it is not1
 however1 until the time of ,richard    
,carew's ,survey of ,cornwall 7,london1 
#afjb7 that we obtain much insight into 
details of miners' title1 and the       
customs there set out were maintained in
 broad principle down to the #aith      
century4 ,at ,carew's time the miner was
 allowed to prospect freely upon ,common
 or wastrel lands 7since mostly usurped 
by landlords71 and upon mineral         
discovery marked his boundaries1 within 
which he was entitled to the vertical   

contents4 ,even upon such lands1        
however1 he must acknowledge the right  
of the lord of the manor to a           
participation in the mine4 ,upon        
enclosed lands he had no right of entry 
without the consent of the landlord2 in 
fact1 the minerals belonged to the land 
as they do to-day except where          
voluntarily relinquished4 ,in either    
case he was compelled to renew his      
bounds once a year1 and to operate more 
or less continuously to maintain the    
right once obtained4 ,there thus existed
 a labour condition of variable         
character1 usually imposed more or less 
vigorously in the bargains with         
landlords4 ,the regulations in          
,devonshire differed in the important   
particular that the miner had right of  
entry to private lands1 although he was 
not relieved of the necessity to give a 
participation of some sort to the       
landlord4 ,the ,forests of ,dean1       
,mendip1 and other old mining           
communities possessed a measure of      

self-government1 which do not display   
any features in their law fundamentally 
different from those of ,cornwall and   
,devon4 ,the ,high ,peak lead mines of  
,derbyshire1 however1 exhibit one of the
 most profoundly interesting of these   
mining communities4 ,as well as having  
distinctively ,saxon names for some of  
the mines1 the customs there are of     
undoubted ,saxon origin1 and as such    
their ratification by the ,normans      
caused the survival of one of the few   
,saxon institutions in ,england--a fact 
which1 we believe1 has been hitherto    
overlooked by historians4 ,beginning    
with inquisitions by ,edward ,i4 in     
#abhh1 there is in the ,record ,office a
 wealth of information1 the bare titles 
of which form too extensive a list to   
set out here4 7,of published works1 the 
most important are ,edward ,manlove's   
,the ,liberties and ,customs of the     
,lead ,mines within the ,wapentake of   
,wirksworth1 ,london1 #afec1 generally  
referred to as the ,rhymed ,chronicle2  

,thomas ,houghton1 ,rara ,avis in       
,terra1 ,london1 #afhg2 ,william ,hardy1
 ,the ,miner's ,guide1 ,sheffield1      
#agdh2 ,thomas ,tapping1 ,high ,peak    
,mineral ,customs1 ,london1 #ahea47 ,the
 miners in this district were presided  
over by a ,barmaster1 ,barghmaster1 or  
,barmar1 as he was variously spelled1   
all being a corruption of the ,german   
,bergmeister1 with precisely the same   
functions as to the allotment of title1 
settlement of disputes1 etc41 as his    
,saxon progenitor had1 and1 like him1 he
 was advised by a jury4 ,the miners had 
entry to all lands except churchyards   
7this regulation waived upon death71 and
 a few similar exceptions1 and was      
subject to royalty to the ,crown and the
 landlord4 ,the discoverer was entitled 
to a finder's meer of extra size1 and   
his title was to the vein within the end
 lines1 i4e41 the apex law4 ,this title 
was held subject to rigorous labour     
conditions1 amounting to forfeiture for 
failure to operate the mine for a period

 of nine weeks4 ,space does not permit  
of the elaboration of the details of    
this subject1 which we hope to pursue   
elsewhere in its many historical        
bearings4 ,among these we may mention   
that if the ,american ,apex law is of   
,english descent1 it must be laid to the
 door of ,derbyshire1 and not of        
,cornwall1 as is generally done4 ,our   
own belief1 however1 is that the        
,american apex conception came straight 
from ,germany4  ,it is not our purpose  
to follow these inquiries into mining   
law beyond the #aeth century1 but we may
 point out that with the growth of the  
sentiment of individualism the miners   
and landlords obtained steadily wider   
and wider rights at the cost of the     
,state1 until well within the #aith     
century4 ,the growth of stronger        
communal sentiment since the middle of  
the last century has already found its  
manifestation in the legislation with   
regard to mines1 for the laws of ,south 
,africa1 ,australia1 and ,england1 and  

the agitation in the ,united ,states are
 all toward greater restrictions on the 
mineral ownership in favour of the      
,state4  #g 8,de ,limitibus et de ,re   
,agraria of ,sextus ,julius ,frontinus  
7about #ej-ij ,a4,d47  #h ,such a form  
of ownership is very old4 ,apparently   
upon the instigation of ,xenophon 7see  
,note #g1 p4 #bi7 the ,greeks formed    
companies to work the mines of ,laurion1
 further information as to which is     
given in note #f1 p4 #bg4 ,pliny 7,note 
#g1 p4 #bcb7 mentions the ,company      
working the quicksilver mines in ,spain4
 ,in fact1 company organization was very
 common among the ,romans1 who          
speculated largely in the shares1       
especially in those companies which     
farmed the taxes of the provinces1 or   
leased public lands1 or took military   
and civil contracts4  #i ,the ,latin    
text gives one-sixth1 obviously an      
error4  #aj ,a symposium is a banquet1  
and a symbola is a contribution of money
 to a banquet4 ,this sentence is        

probably a play on the old ,german      
,zeche1 mine1 this being also a term for
 a drinking bout4  #aa ,in the ,latin   
text this is three--obviously an error4 
#ab ,see ,note #i1 p4 #gd1 for further  
information with regard to these mines4 
,the ,rhenish gulden was about #f4i     
shillings1 or #a4ff4 ,silver was worth  
about this amount per ,troy ounce at    
this period1 so that roughly1 silver of 
a value of #a1ajj gulden would be about 
#a1ajj ,troy ounces4 ,the ,saxon thaler 
was worth about #d4fd shillings or about
 #a4aa4 ,the thaler1 therefore1         
represented about 4#fe ,troy ounces of  
silver1 so that #cjj thalers were about 
#aie ,troy ounces1 and #bbe thalers     
about #adf ,troy ounces4  #ac ,opera    
continens4 ,the ,glossary gives         
schicht1--the origin of the ,english    
shift4  #ad ,the terms in the ,latin    
text are donator1 a giver of a gift1 and
 donatus1 a receiver4 ,it appears to us1
 however1 that some consideration       
passed1 and we have1 therefore1 used    

seller and buyer4  #ae ,see ,note #bi1  
p4 #bc4  #af ,decemviri--,the ,ten ,men4
 ,the original ,decemviri were a body   
appointed by the ,romans in #deb ,b4,c41
 principally to codify the law4 ,such   
commissions were afterward instituted   
for other purposes1 but the analogy of  
the above paragraph is a little remote4 
#ag ,this work was apparently never     
published2 see ,appendix ,a4     ,,book 
,v4   ,in the last book ,i have         
explained the methods of delimiting the 
meers along each kind of vein1 and the  
duties of mine officials4 ,in this      
book#a ,i will in like manner explain   
the principles of underground mining and
 the art of surveying4 ,first then1 ,i  
will proceed to deal with those matters 
which pertain to the former heading1    
since both the subject and methodical   
arrangement require it4 ,and so ,i will 
describe first of all the digging of    
shafts1 tunnels1 and drifts on venae    
profundae2 next ,i will discuss the good
 indications shown by canales#b1 by the 

materials which are dug out1 and by the 
rocks2 then ,i will speak of the tools  
by which veins and rocks are broken down
 and excavated2 the method by which fire
 shatters the hard veins2 and further1  
of the machines with which water is     
drawn from the shafts and air is forced 
into deep shafts and long tunnels1 for  
digging is impeded by the inrush of the 
former or the failure of the latter2    
next ,i will deal with the two kinds of 
shafts1 and with the making of them and 
of tunnels2 and finally1 ,i will        
describe the method of mining venae     
dilatatae1 venae cumulatae1 and         
stringers4  ,now when a miner discovers 
a vena profunda he begins sinking a     
shaft and above it sets up a windlass1  
and builds a shed over the shaft to     
prevent the rain from falling in1 lest  
the men who turn the windlass be numbed 
by the cold or troubled by the rain4    
,the windlass men also place their      
barrows in it1 and the miners store     
their iron tools and other implements   

therein4 ,next to the shaft-house       
another house is built1 where the mine  
foreman and the other workmen dwell1 and
 in which are stored the ore and other  
things which are dug out4 ,although some
 persons build only one house1 yet      
because sometimes boys and other living 
things fall into the shafts1 most miners
 deliberately place one house apart from
 the other1 or at least separate them by
 a wall4  ,illustration #ajc 7,shafts73 
,three vertical shafts1 of which the    
first1 ,a1 does not reach the tunnel2   
the second1 ,b1 reaches the tunnel2 to  
the third1 ,c1 the tunnel has not yet   
been driven4 ,d--,tunnel4  ,illustration
 #ajd 7,shafts73 ,three inclined shafts1
 of which ,a does not yet reach the     
tunnel2 ,b reaches the tunnel2 to the   
third1 ,c1 the tunnel has not yet been  
driven4 ,d--,tunnel4  ,now a shaft is   
dug1 usually two fathoms long1          
two-thirds of a fathom wide1 and        
thirteen fathoms deep2 but for the      
purpose of connecting with a tunnel     

which has already been driven in a hill1
 a shaft may be sunk to a depth of only 
eight fathoms1 at other times to        
fourteen1 more or less#c4 ,a shaft may  
be made vertical or inclined1 according 
as the vein which the miners follow in  
the course of digging is vertical or    
inclined4 ,a tunnel is a subterranean   
ditch driven lengthwise1 and is nearly  
twice as high as it is broad1 and wide  
enough that workmen and others may be   
able to pass and carry their loads4 ,it 
is usually one and a quarter fathoms    
high1 while its width is about three and
 three-quarters feet4 ,usually two      
workmen are required to drive it1 one of
 whom digs out the upper and the other  
the lower part1 and the one goes        
forward1 while the other follows closely
 after4 ,each sits upon small boards    
fixed securely from the footwall to the 
hangingwall1 or if the vein is a soft   
one1 sometimes on a wedge-shaped plank  
fixed on to the vein itself4 ,miners    
sink more inclined shafts than vertical1

 and some of each kind do not reach to  
tunnels1 while some connect with them4  
,but as for some shafts1 though they    
have already been sunk to the required  
depth1 the tunnel which is to pierce the
 mountain may not yet have been driven  
far enough to connect with them4        
,illustration #aje 7,shafts73           
,a--,shaft4 ,b1 ,c--,drift4 ,d--,another
 shaft4 ,e--,tunnel4 ,f--,mouth of      
tunnel4  ,it is advantageous if a shaft 
connects with a tunnel1 for then the    
miners and other workmen carry on more  
easily the work they have undertaken2   
but if the shaft is not so deep1 it is  
usual to drift from one or both sides of
 it4 ,from these openings the owner or  
foreman becomes acquainted with the     
veins and stringers that unite with the 
principal vein1 or cut across it1 or    
divide it obliquely2 however1 my        
discourse is now concerned mainly with  
vena profunda1 but most of all with the 
metallic material which it contains4    
,excavations of this kind were called by

 the ,greeks ,greek3 kryptai for1       
extending along after the manner of a   
tunnel1 they are entirely hidden within 
the ground4 ,this kind of an opening1   
however1 differs from a tunnel in that  
it is dark throughout its length1       
whereas a tunnel has a mouth open to    
daylight4  ,i have spoken of shafts1    
tunnels1 and drifts4 ,i will now speak  
of the indications given by the canales1
 by the materials which are dug out1 and
 by the rocks4 ,these indications1 as   
also many others which ,i will explain1 
are to a great extent identical in venae
 dilatatae and venae cumulatae with     
venae profundae4  ,when a stringer      
junctions with a main vein and causes a 
swelling1 a shaft should be sunk at the 
junction4 ,but when we find the stringer
 intersecting the main vein crosswise or
 obliquely1 if it descends vertically   
down to the depths of the earth1 a      
second shaft should be sunk to the point
 where the stringer cuts the main vein2 
but if the stringer cuts it obliquely   

the shaft should be two or three fathoms
 back1 in order that the junction may be
 pierced lower down4 ,at such junctions 
lies the best hope of finding the ore   
for the sake of which we explore the    
ground1 and if ore has already been     
found1 it is usually found in much      
greater abundance at that spot4 ,again1 
if several stringers descend into the   
earth1 the miner1 in order to pierce    
through the point of contact1 should    
sink the shaft in the midst of these    
stringers1 or else calculate on the most
 prominent one4  ,since an inclined vein
 often lies near a vertical vein1 it is 
advisable to sink a shaft at the spot   
where a stringer or cross-vein cuts them
 both2 or where a vena dilatata or a    
stringer dilatata passes through1 for   
minerals are usually found there4 ,in   
the same way we have a good prospect of 
finding metal at the point where an     
inclined vein joins a vertical one2 this
 is why miners cross-cut the hangingwall
 or footwall of a main vein1 and in     

these openings seek for a vein which may
 junction with the principal vein a few 
fathoms below4 ,nay1 further1 these same
 miners1 if no stringer or cross-vein   
intersects the main vein so that they   
can follow it in their workings1 even   
cross-cut through the solid rock of the 
hangingwall or footwall4 ,these         
cross-cuts are likewise called ,greek3  
kryptai1 whether the beginning of the   
opening which has to be undertaken is   
made from a tunnel or from a drift4     
,miners have some hope when only a cross
 vein cuts a main vein4 ,further1 if a  
vein which cuts the main vein obliquely 
does not appear anywhere beyond it1 it  
is advisable to dig into that side of   
the main vein toward which the oblique  
vein inclines1 whether the right or left
 side1 that we may ascertain if the main
 vein has absorbed it2 if after         
cross-cutting six fathoms it is not     
found1 it is advisable to dig on the    
other side of the main vein1 that we may
 know for certain whether it has carried

 it forward4 ,the owners of a main vein 
can often dig no less profitably on that
 side where the vein which cuts the main
 vein again appears1 than where it first
 cuts it2 the owners of the intersecting
 vein1 when that is found again1 recover
 their title1 which had in a measure    
been lost4  ,the common miners look     
favourably upon the stringers which come
 from the north and join the main vein2 
on the other hand1 they look            
unfavourably upon those which come from 
the south1 and say that these do much   
harm to the main vein1 while the former 
improve it4 ,but ,i think that miners   
should not neglect either of them3 as ,i
 showed in ,book ,,iii1 experience does 
not confirm those who hold this opinion 
about veins1 so now again ,i could      
furnish examples of each kind of        
stringers rejected by the common miners 
which have proved good1 but ,i know this
 could be of little or no benefit to    
posterity4  ,if the miners find no      
stringers or veins in the hangingwall or

 footwall of the main vein1 and if they 
do not find much ore1 it is not worth   
while to undertake the labour of sinking
 another shaft4 ,nor ought a shaft to be
 sunk where a vein is divided into two  
or three parts1 unless the indications  
are satisfactory that those parts may be
 united and joined together a little    
later4 ,further1 it is a bad indication 
for a vein rich in mineral to bend and  
turn hither and thither1 for unless it  
goes down again into the ground         
vertically or inclined1 as it first     
began1 it produces no more metal2 and   
even though it does go down again1 it   
often continues barren4 ,stringers which
 in their outcrops bear metals1 often   
disappoint miners1 no metal being found 
in depth4 ,further1 inverted seams in   
the rocks are counted among the bad     
indications4  ,the miners hew out the   
whole of solid veins when they show     
clear evidence of being of good quality2
 similarly they hew out the drusy#d     
veins1 especially if the cavities are   

plainly seen to have formerly borne     
metal1 or if the cavities are few and   
small4 ,they do not dig barren veins    
through which water flows1 if there are 
no metallic particles showing2          
occasionally1 however1 they dig even    
barren veins which are free from water1 
because of the pyrites which is devoid  
of all metal1 or because of a fine black
 soft substance which is like wool4     
,they dig stringers which are rich in   
metal1 or sometimes1 for the purpose of 
searching for the vein1 those that are  
devoid of ore which lie near the        
hangingwall or footwall of the main     
vein4 ,this then1 generally speaking1 is
 the mode of dealing with stringers and 
veins4  ,let us now consider the        
metallic material which is found in the 
canales of venae profundae1 venae       
dilatatae1 and venae cumulatae1 being in
 all these either cohesive and          
continuous1 or scattered and dispersed  
among them1 or swelling out in bellying 
shapes1 or found in veins or stringers  

which originate from the main vein and  
ramify like branches2 but these latter  
veins and stringers are very short1 for 
after a little space they do not appear 
again4 ,if we come across a small       
quantity of metallic material it is an  
indication2 but if a large quantity1 it 
is not an indication1 but the very thing
 for which we explore the earth4 ,as    
soon as a miner who searches for veins  
discovers pure metal or minerals1 or    
rich metallic material1 or a great      
abundance of material which is poor in  
metal1 let him sink a shaft on the spot 
without any delay4 ,if the material     
appears more abundant or of better      
quality on the one side1 he will incline
 his digging in that direction4  ,gold1 
silver1 copper1 and quicksilver are     
often found native#e2 less often iron   
and bismuth2 almost never tin and lead4 
,nevertheless tin-stone is not far      
removed from the pure white tin which is
 melted out of them1 and galena1 from   
which lead is obtained1 differs little  

from that metal itself4  ,now we may    
classify gold ores4 ,next after native  
gold1 we come to the rudis#f1 of        
yellowish green1 yellow1 purple1 black1 
or outside red and inside gold colour4  
,these must be reckoned as the richest  
ores1 because the gold exceeds the stone
 or earth in weight4 ,next come all gold
 ores of which each one hundred librae  
contains more than three unciae of      
gold#g2 for although but a small        
proportion of gold is found in the earth
 or stone1 yet it equals in value other 
metals of greater weight4#h ,all other  
gold ores are considered poor1 because  
the earth or stone too far outweighs the
 gold4 ,a vein which contains a larger  
proportion of silver than of gold is    
rarely found to be a rich one4 ,earth1  
whether it be dry or wet1 rarely abounds
 in gold2 but in dry earth there is more
 often found a greater quantity of gold1
 especially if it has the appearance of 
having been melted in a furnace1 and if 
it is not lacking in scales resembling  

mica4 ,the solidified juices1 azure1    
chrysocolla1 orpiment1 and realgar1 also
 frequently contain gold4 ,likewise     
native or rudis gold is found sometimes 
in large1 and sometimes in small        
quantities in quartz1 schist1 marble1   
and also in stone which easily melts in 
fire of the second degree1 and which is 
sometimes so porous that it seems       
completely decomposed4 ,lastly1 gold is 
found in pyrites1 though rarely in large
 quantities4  ,when considering silver  
ores other than native silver1 those    
ores are classified as rich1 of which   
each one hundred librae contains more   
than three librae of silver4 ,this      
quality comprises rudis silver1 whether 
silver glance or ruby silver1 or whether
 white1 or black1 or grey1 or purple1 or
 yellow1 or liver-coloured1 or any      
other4 ,sometimes quartz1 schist1 or    
marble is of this quality also1 if much 
native or rudis silver adheres to it4   
,but that ore is considered of poor     
quality if three librae of silver at the

 utmost are found in each one hundred   
librae of it#i4 ,silver ore usually     
contains a greater quantity than this1  
because ,nature bestows quantity in     
place of quality2 such ore is mixed with
 all kinds of earth and stone compounds1
 except the various kinds of rudis      
silver2 especially with pyrites1 cadmia 
metallica fossilis1 galena1 stibium1 and
 others4  ,as regards other kinds of    
metal1 although some rich ores are      
found1 still1 unless the veins contain a
 large quantity of ore1 it is very      
rarely worth while to dig them4 ,the    
,indians and some other races do search 
for gems in veins hidden deep in the    
earth1 but more often they are noticed  
from their clearness1 or rather their   
brilliancy1 when metals are mined4 ,when
 they outcrop1 we follow veins of marble
 by mining in the same way as is done   
with rock or building-stones when we    
come upon them4 ,but gems1 properly so  
called1 though they sometimes have veins
 of their own1 are still for the most   

part found in mines and rock quarries1  
as the lodestone in iron mines1 the     
emery in silver mines1 the lapis        
judaicus1 trochites1 and the like in    
stone quarries where the diggers1 at the
 bidding of the owners1 usually collect 
them from the seams in the rocks4#aj    
,nor does the miner neglect the digging 
of extraordinary earths1#aa whether they
 are found in gold mines1 silver mines1 
or other mines2 nor do other miners     
neglect them if they are found in stone 
quarries1 or in their own veins2 their  
value is usually indicated by their     
taste4 ,nor1 lastly1 does the miner fail
 to give attention to the solidified    
juices which are found in metallic      
veins1 as well as in their own veins1   
from which he collects and gathers them4
 ,but ,i will say no more on these      
matters1 because ,i have explained more 
fully all the metals and mineral        
substances in the books ,de ,natura     
,fossilium4  ,but ,i will return to the 
indications4 ,if we come upon earth     

which is like lute1 in which there are  
particles of any sort of metal1 native  
or rudis1 the best possible indication  
of a vein is given to miners1 for the   
metallic material from which the        
particles have become detached is       
necessarily close by4 ,but if this kind 
of earth is found absolutely devoid of  
all metallic material1 but fatty1 and of
 white1 green1 blue1 and similar        
colours1 they must not abandon the work 
that has been started4 ,miners have     
other indications in the veins and      
stringers1 which ,i have described      
already1 and in the rocks1 about which  
,i will speak a little later4 ,if the   
miner comes across other dry earths     
which contain native or rudis metal1    
that is a good indication2 if he comes  
across yellow1 red1 black1 or some other
 extraordinary earth1 though it is      
devoid of mineral1 it is not a bad      
indication4 ,chrysocolla1 or azure1 or  
verdigris1 or orpiment1 or realgar1 when
 they are found1 are counted among the  

good indications4 ,further1 where       
underground springs throw up metal we   
ought to continue the digging we have   
begun1 for this points to the particles 
having been detached from the main mass 
like a fragment from a body4 ,in the    
same way the thin scales of any metal   
adhering to stone or rock are counted   
among the good indications4 ,next1 if   
the veins which are composed partly of  
quartz1 partly of clayey or dry earth1  
descend one and all into the depths of  
the earth together1 with their          
stringers1 there is good hope of metal  
being found2 but if the stringers       
afterward do not appear1 or little      
metallic material is met with1 the      
digging should not be given up until    
there is nothing remaining4 ,dark or    
black or horn or liver-coloured quartz  
is usually a good sign2 white is        
sometimes good1 sometimes no sign at    
all4 ,but calc-spar1 showing itself in a
 vena profunda1 if it disappears a      
little lower down is not a good         

indication2 for it did not belong to the
 vein proper1 but to some stringer4     
,those kinds of stone which easily melt 
in fire1 especially if they are         
translucent 7fluorspar871 must be       
counted among the medium indications1   
for if other good indications are       
present they are good1 but if no good   
indications are present1 they give no   
useful significance4 ,in the same way we
 ought to form our judgment with regard 
to gems4 ,veins which at the hangingwall
 and footwall have horn-coloured quartz 
or marble1 but in the middle clayey     
earth1 give some hope2 likewise those   
give hope in which the hangingwall or   
footwall shows iron-rust coloured earth1
 and in the middle greasy and sticky    
earth2 also there is hope for those     
which have at the hanging or footwall   
that kind of earth which we call        
soldiers' earth1 and in the middle black
 earth or earth which looks as if burnt4
 ,the special indication of gold is     
orpiment2 of silver is bismuth and      

stibium2 of copper is verdigris1        
melanteria1 sory1 chalcitis1 misy1 and  
vitriol2 of tin is the large pure black 
stones of which the tin itself is made1 
and a material they dig up resembling   
litharge2 of iron1 iron rust4 ,gold and 
copper are equally indicated by         
chrysocolla and azure2 silver and lead1 
by the lead4 ,but1 though miners rightly
 call bismuth the roof of silver1 and   
though copper pyrites is the common     
parent of vitriol and melanteria1 still 
these sometimes have their own peculiar 
minerals1 just as have orpiment and     
stibium4  ,now1 just as certain vein    
materials give miners a favourable      
indication1 so also do the rocks through
 which the canales of the veins wind    
their way1 for sand discovered in a mine
 is reckoned among the good indications1
 especially if it is very fine4 ,in the 
same way schist1 when it is of a bluish 
or blackish colour1 and also limestone1 
of whatever colour it may be1 is a good 
sign for a silver vein4 ,there is a rock

 of another kind that is a good sign2 in
 it are scattered tiny black stones from
 which tin is smelted2 especially when  
the whole space between the veins is    
composed of this kind of rock4 ,very    
often indeed1 this good kind of rock in 
conjunction with valuable stringers     
contains within its folds the canales of
 mineral bearing veins3 if it descends  
vertically into the earth1 the benefit  
belongs to that mine in which it is seen
 first of all2 if inclined1 it benefits 
the other neighbouring mines#ab4 ,as a  
result the miner who is not ignorant of 
geometry can calculate from the other   
mines the depth at which the canales of 
a vein bearing rich metal will wind its 
way through the rock into his mine4 ,so 
much for these matters4  ,i now come to 
the mode of working1 which is varied and
 complex1 for in some places they dig   
crumbling ore1 in others hard ore1 in   
others a harder ore1 and in others the  
hardest kind of ore4 ,in the same way1  
in some places the hangingwall rock is  

soft and fragile1 in others hard1 in    
others harder1 and in still others of   
the hardest sort4 ,i call that ore      
crumbling which is composed of earth1   
and of soft solidified juices2 that ore 
hard which is composed of metallic      
minerals and moderately hard stones1    
such as for the most part are those     
which easily melt in a fire of the first
 and second orders1 like lead and       
similar materials4 ,i call that ore     
harder when with those ,i have already  
mentioned are combined various sorts of 
quartz1 or stones which easily melt in  
fire of the third degree1 or pyrites1 or
 cadmia1 or very hard marble4 ,i call   
that ore hardest1 which is composed     
throughout the whole vein of these hard 
stones and compounds4 ,the hanging or   
footwalls of a vein are hard1 when      
composed of rock in which there are few 
stringers or seams2 harder1 in which    
they are fewer2 hardest1 in which they  
are fewest or none at all4 ,when these  
are absent1 the rock is quite devoid of 

water which softens it4 ,but the hardest
 rock of the hanging or footwall1       
however1 is seldom as hard as the harder
 class of ore4  ,miners dig out         
crumbling ore with the pick alone4 ,when
 the metal has not yet shown itself1    
they do not discriminate between the    
hangingwall and the veins2 when it has  
once been found1 they work with the     
utmost care4 ,for first of all they tear
 away the hangingwall rock separately   
from the vein1 afterward with a pick    
they dislodge the crumbling vein from   
the footwall into a dish placed         
underneath to prevent any of the metal  
from falling to the ground4 ,they break 
a hard vein loose from the footwall by  
blows with a hammer upon the first kind 
of iron tool#ac1 all of which are       
designated by appropriate names1 and    
with the same tools they hew away the   
hard hangingwall rock4 ,they hew out the
 hangingwall rock in advance more       
frequently1 the rock of the footwall    
more rarely2 and indeed1 when the rock  

of the footwall resists iron tools1 the 
rock of the hangingwall certainly cannot
 be broken unless it is allowable to    
shatter it by fire4 ,with regard to the 
harder veins which are tractable to iron
 tools1 and likewise with regard to the 
harder and hardest kind of hangingwall  
rock1 they generally attack them with   
more powerful iron tools1 in fact1 with 
the fourth kind of iron tool1 which are 
called by their appropriate names2 but  
if these are not ready to hand1 they use
 two or three iron tools of the first   
kind together4 ,as for the hardest kind 
of metal-bearing vein1 which in a       
measure resists iron tools1 if the      
owners of the neighbouring mines give   
them permission1 they break it with     
fires4 ,but if these owners refuse them 
permission1 then first of all they hew  
out the rock of the hangingwall1 or of  
the footwall if it be less hard2 then   
they place timbers set in hitches in the
 hanging or footwall1 a little above the
 vein1 and from the front and upper     

part1 where the vein is seen to be      
seamed with small cracks1 they drive    
into one of the little cracks one of the
 iron tools which ,i have mentioned2    
then in each fracture they place four   
thin iron blocks1 and in order to hold  
them more firmly1 if necessary1 they    
place as many thin iron plates back to  
back2 next they place thinner iron      
plates between each two iron blocks1 and
 strike and drive them by turns with    
hammers1 whereby the vein rings with a  
shrill sound2 and the moment when it    
begins to be detached from the          
hangingwall or footwall rock1 a tearing 
sound is heard4 ,as soon as this grows  
distinct the miners hastily flee away2  
then a great crash is heard as the vein 
is broken and torn1 and falls down4 ,by 
this method they throw down a portion of
 a vein weighing a hundred pounds more  
or less4 ,but if the miners by any other
 method hew the hardest kind of vein    
which is rich in metal1 there remain    
certain cone-shaped portions which can  

be cut out afterward only with          
difficulty4 ,as for this knob of hard   
ore1 if it is devoid of metal1 or if    
they are not allowed to apply fire to   
it1 they proceed round it by digging to 
the right or left1 because it cannot be 
broken into by iron wedges without great
 expense4 ,meantime1 while the workmen  
are carrying out the task they have     
undertaken1 the depths of the earth     
often resound with sweet singing1       
whereby they lighten a toil which is of 
the severest kind and full of the       
greatest dangers4  ,as ,i have just     
said1 fire shatters the hardest rocks1  
but the method of its application is not
 simple#ad4 ,for if a vein held in the  
rocks cannot be hewn out because of the 
hardness or other difficulty1 and the   
drift or tunnel is low1 a heap of dried 
logs is placed against the rock and     
fired2 if the drift or tunnel is high1  
two heaps are necessary1 of which one is
 placed above the other1 and both burn  
until the fire has consumed them4 ,this 

force does not generally soften a large 
portion of the vein1 but only some of   
the surface4 ,when the rock in the      
hanging or footwall can be worked by the
 iron tools and the vein is so hard that
 it is not tractable to the same tools1 
then the walls are hollowed out2 if this
 be in the end of the drift or tunnel or
 above or below1 the vein is then broken
 by fire1 but not by the same method2   
for if the hollow is wide1 as many logs 
are piled into it as possible1 but if   
narrow1 only a few4 ,by the one method  
the greater fire separates the vein more
 completely from the footwall or        
sometimes from the hangingwall1 and by  
the other1 the smaller fire breaks away 
less of the vein from the rock1 because 
in that case the fire is confined and   
kept in check by portions of the rock   
which surround the wood held in such a  
narrow excavation4 ,further1 if the     
excavation is low1 only one pile of logs
 is placed in it1 if high1 there are    
two1 one placed above the other1 by     

which plan the lower bundle being       
kindled sets alight the upper one2 and  
the fire being driven by the draught    
into the vein1 separates it from the    
rock which1 however hard it may be1     
often becomes so softened as to be the  
most easily breakable of all4 ,applying 
this principle1 ,hannibal1 the          
,carthaginian ,general1 imitating the   
,spanish miners1 overcame the hardness  
of the ,alps by the use of vinegar and  
fire4 ,even if a vein is a very wide    
one1 as tin veins usually are1 miners   
excavate into the small streaks1 and    
into those hollows they put dry wood and
 place amongst them at frequent         
intervals sticks1 all sides of which are
 shaved down fan-shaped1 which easily   
take light1 and when once they have     
taken fire communicate it to the other  
bundles of wood1 which easily ignite4   
,illustration #abj 7,fire-setting73     
,a--,kindled logs4 ,b--,sticks shaved   
down fan-shaped4 ,c--,tunnel4  ,while   
the heated veins and rock are giving    

forth a foetid vapour and the shafts or 
tunnels are emitting fumes1 the miners  
and other workmen do not go down in the 
mines lest the stench affect their      
health or actually kill them1 as ,i will
 explain in greater detail when ,i come 
to speak of the evils which affect      
miners4 ,the ,bergmeister1 in order to  
prevent workmen from being suffocated1  
gives no one permission to break veins  
or rock by fire in shafts or tunnels    
where it is possible for the poisonous  
vapour and smoke to permeate the veins  
or stringers and pass through into the  
neighbouring mines1 which have no hard  
veins or rock4 ,as for that part of a   
vein or the surface of the rock which   
the fire has separated from the         
remaining mass1 if it is overhead1 the  
miners dislodge it with a crowbar1 or if
 it still has some degree of hardness1  
they thrust a smaller crowbar into the  
cracks and so break it down1 but if it  
is on the sides they break it with      
hammers4 ,thus broken off1 the rock     

tumbles down2 or if it still remains1   
they break it off with picks4 ,rock and 
earth on the one hand1 and metal and ore
 on the other1 are filled into buckets  
separately and drawn up to the open air 
or to the nearest tunnel4 ,if the shaft 
is not deep1 the buckets are drawn up by
 a machine turned by men2 if it is deep1
 they are drawn by machines turned by   
horses4  ,it often happens that a rush  
of water or sometimes stagnant air      
hinders the mining2 for this reason     
miners pay the greatest attention to    
these matters1 just as much as to       
digging1 or they should do so4 ,the     
water of the veins and stringers and    
especially of vacant workings1 must be  
drained out through the shafts and      
tunnels4 ,air1 indeed1 becomes stagnant 
both in tunnels and in shafts2 in a deep
 shaft1 if it be by itself1 this occurs 
if it is neither reached by a tunnel nor
 connected by a drift with another      
shaft2 this occurs in a tunnel if it has
 been driven too far into a mountain and

 no shaft has yet been sunk deep enough 
to meet it2 in neither case can the air 
move or circulate4 ,for this reason the 
vapours become heavy and resemble mist1 
and they smell of mouldiness1 like a    
vault or some underground chamber which 
has been completely closed for many     
years4 ,this suffices to prevent miners 
from continuing their work for long in  
these places1 even if the mine is full  
of silver or gold1 or if they do        
continue1 they cannot breathe freely and
 they have headaches2 this more often   
happens if they work in these places in 
great numbers1 and bring many lamps1    
which then supply them with a feeble    
light1 because the foul air from both   
lamps and men make the vapours still    
more heavy4  ,a small quantity of water 
is drawn from the shafts by machines of 
different kinds which men turn or work4 
,if so great a quantity has flowed into 
one shaft as greatly to impede mining1  
another shaft is sunk some fathoms      
distant from the first1 and thus in one 

of them work and labour are carried on  
without hindrance1 and the water is     
drained into the other1 which is sunk   
lower than the level of the water in the
 first one2 then by these machines or by
 those worked by horses1 the water is   
drawn up into the drain and flows out of
 the shaft-house or the mouth of the    
nearest tunnel4 ,but when into the shaft
 of one mine1 which is sunk more deeply1
 there flows all the water of all the   
neighbouring mines1 not only from that  
vein in which the shaft is sunk1 but    
also from other veins1 then it becomes  
necessary for a large sump to be made to
 collect the water2 from this sump the  
water is drained by machines which draw 
it through pipes1 or by ox-hides1 about 
which ,i will say more in the next book4
 ,the water which pours into the tunnels
 from the veins and stringers and seams 
in the rocks is carried away in the     
drains4  ,air is driven into the        
extremities of deep shafts and long     
tunnels by powerful blowing machines1 as

 ,i will explain in the following book1 
which will deal with these machines     
also4 ,the outer air flows spontaneously
 into the caverns of the earth1 and when
 it can pass through them comes out     
again4 ,this1 however1 comes about in   
different ways1 for in spring and summer
 it flows into the deeper shafts1       
traverses the tunnels or drifts1 and    
finds its way out of the shallower      
shafts2 similarly at the same season it 
pours into the lowest tunnel and1       
meeting a shaft in its course1 turns    
aside to a higher tunnel and passes out 
therefrom2 but in autumn and winter1 on 
the other hand1 it enters the upper     
tunnel or shaft and comes out at the    
deeper ones4 ,this change in the flow of
 air currents occurs in temperate       
regions at the beginning of spring and  
the end of autumn1 but in cold regions  
at the end of spring and the beginning  
of autumn4 ,but at each period1 before  
the air regularly assumes its own       
accustomed course1 generally for a space

 of fourteen days it undergoes frequent 
variations1 now blowing into an upper   
shaft or tunnel1 now into a lower one4  
,but enough of this1 let us now proceed 
to what remains4  ,there are two kinds  
of shafts1 one of the depth already     
described1 of which kind there are      
usually several in one mine2 especially 
if the mine is entered by a tunnel and  
is metal-bearing4 ,for when the first   
tunnel is connected with the first      
shaft1 two new shafts are sunk2 or if   
the inrush of water hinders sinking1    
sometimes three are sunk2 so that one   
may take the place of a sump and the    
work of sinking which has been begun may
 be continued by means of the remaining 
two shafts2 the same is done in the case
 of the second tunnel and the third1 or 
even the fourth1 if so many are driven  
into a mountain4 ,the second kind of    
shaft is very deep1 sometimes as much as
 sixty1 eighty1 or one hundred fathoms4 
,these shafts continue vertically toward
 the depths of the earth1 and by means  

of a hauling-rope the broken rock and   
metalliferous ores are drawn out of the 
mine2 for which reason miners call them 
vertical shafts4 ,over these shafts are 
erected machines by which water is      
extracted2 when they are above ground   
the machines are usually worked by      
horses1 but when they are in tunnels1   
other kinds are used which are turned by
 water-power4 ,such are the shafts which
 are sunk when a vein is rich in metal4 
,now shafts1 of whatever kind they may  
be1 are supported in various ways4 ,if  
the vein is hard1 and also the hanging  
and footwall rock1 the shaft does not   
require much timbering1 but timbers are 
placed at intervals1 one end of each of 
which is fixed in a hitch cut into the  
rock of the hangingwall and the other   
fixed into a hitch cut in the footwall4 
,to these timbers are fixed small       
timbers along the footwall1 to which are
 fastened the lagging and ladders4 ,the 
lagging is also fixed to the timbers1   
both to those which screen off the shaft

 on the ends from the vein1 and to those
 which screen off the rest of the shaft 
from that part in which the ladders are 
placed4 ,the lagging on the sides of the
 shaft confine the vein1 so as to       
prevent fragments of it which have      
become loosened by water from dropping  
into the shaft and terrifying1 or       
injuring1 or knocking off the miners and
 other workmen who are going up or down 
the ladders from one part of the mine to
 another4 ,for the same reason1 the     
lagging between the ladders and the     
haulage-way on the other hand1 confine  
and shut off from the ladders the       
fragments of rock which fall from the   
buckets or baskets while they are being 
drawn up2 moreover1 they make the       
arduous and difficult descent and ascent
 to appear less terrible1 and in fact to
 be less dangerous4  ,illustration #abc 
7,timbering ,shafts73 ,a--,wall plates4 
,b--,dividers4 ,c--,long end posts4     
,d--,end plates4  ,if a vein is soft and
 the rock of the hanging and footwalls  

is weak1 a closer structure is          
necessary2 for this purpose timbers are 
joined together1 in rectangular shapes  
and placed one after the other without a
 break4 ,these are arranged on two      
different systems2 for either the square
 ends of the timbers1 which reach from  
the hangingwall to the footwall1 are    
fixed into corresponding square holes in
 the timbers which lie along the hanging
 or footwall1 or the upper part of the  
end of one and the lower part of the end
 of the other are cut out and one laid  
on the other4 ,the great weight of these
 joined timbers is sustained by stout   
beams placed at intervals1 which are    
deeply set into hitches in the footwall 
and hangingwall1 but are inclined4 ,in  
order that these joined timbers may     
remain stationary1 wooden wedges or     
poles cut from trees are driven in      
between the timbers and the vein and the
 hangingwall and the footwall2 and the  
space which remains empty is filled with
 loose dirt4 ,if the hanging and        

footwall rock is sometimes hard and     
sometimes soft1 and the vein likewise1  
solid joined timbers are not used1 but  
timbers are placed at intervals2 and    
where the rock is soft and the vein     
crumbling1 carpenters put in lagging    
between them and the wall rocks1 and    
behind these they fill with loose dirt2 
by this means they fill up the void4    
,when a very deep shaft1 whether        
vertical or inclined1 is supported by   
joined timbers1 then1 since they are    
sometimes of bad material and a fall is 
threatened1 for the sake of greater     
firmness three or four pairs of strong  
end posts are placed between these1 one 
pair on the hangingwall side1 the other 
on the footwall side4 ,to prevent them  
from falling out of position and to make
 them firm and substantial1 they are    
supported by frequent end plates1 and in
 order that these may be more securely  
fixed they are mortised into the posts4 
,further1 in whatever way the shaft may 
be timbered1 dividers are placed upon   

the wall plates1 and to these is fixed  
lagging1 and this marks off and         
separates the ladder-way from the       
remaining part of the shaft4 ,if a      
vertical shaft is a very deep one1      
planks are laid upon the timbers by the 
side of the ladders and fixed on to the 
timbers1 in order that the men who are  
going up or down may sit or stand upon  
them and rest when they are tired4 ,to  
prevent danger to the shovellers from   
rocks which1 after being drawn up from  
so deep a shaft fall down again1 a      
little above the bottom of the shaft    
small rough sticks are placed close     
together on the timbers1 in such a way  
as to cover the whole space of the shaft
 except the ladder-way4 ,a hole1        
however1 is left in this structure near 
the footwall1 which is kept open so that
 there may be one opening to the shaft  
from the bottom1 that the buckets full  
of the materials which have been dug out
 may be drawn from the shaft through it 
by machines1 and may be returned to the 

same place again empty2 and so the      
shovellers and other workmen1 as it were
 hiding beneath this structure1 remain  
perfectly safe in the shaft4            
,illustration #abe 7,timbering          
,tunnels73 ,a--,posts4 ,b--,caps4       
,c--,sills4 ,d--,doors4 ,e--,lagging4   
,f--,drains4  ,in mines on one vein     
there are driven one1 two1 or sometimes 
three or more tunnels1 always one above 
the other4 ,if the vein is solid and    
hard1 and likewise the hanging and      
footwall rock1 no part of the tunnel    
needs support1 beyond that which is     
required at the mouth1 because at that  
spot there is not yet solid rock2 if the
 vein is soft1 and the hanging and      
footwall rock are likewise soft1 the    
tunnel requires frequent strong         
timbering1 which is provided in the     
following way4 ,first1 two dressed posts
 are erected and set into the tunnel    
floor1 which is dug out a little2 these 
are of medium thickness1 and high enough
 that their ends1 which are cut square1 

almost touch the top of the tunnel2 then
 upon them is placed a smaller dressed  
cap1 which is mortised into the heads of
 the posts2 at the bottom1 other small  
timbers1 whose ends are similarly       
squared1 are mortised into the posts4   
,at each interval of one and a half     
fathoms1 one of these sets is erected2  
each one of these the miners call a     
little doorway1 because it opens a      
certain amount of passage way2 and      
indeed1 when necessity requires it1     
doors are fixed to the timbers of each  
little doorway so that it can be closed4
 ,then lagging of planks or of poles is 
placed upon the caps lengthwise1 so as  
to reach from one set of timbers to     
another1 and is laid along the sides1 in
 case some portion of the body of the   
mountain may fall1 and by its bulk      
impede passage or crush persons coming  
in or out4 ,moreover1 to make the       
timbers remain stationary1 wooden pegs  
are driven between them and the sides of
 the tunnel4 ,lastly1 if rock or earth  

are carried out in wheelbarrows1 planks 
joined together are laid upon the sills2
 if the rock is hauled out in trucks1   
then two timbers three-quarters of a    
foot thick and wide are laid on the     
sills1 and1 where they join1 these are  
usually hollowed out so that in the     
hollow1 as in a road1 the iron pin of   
the truck may be pushed along2 indeed1  
because of this pin in the groove1 the  
truck does not leave the worn track to  
the left or right4 ,beneath the sills   
are the drains through which the water  
flows away4  ,miners timber drifts in   
the same way as tunnels4 ,these do not1 
however1 require sill-pieces1 or drains2
 for the broken rock is not hauled very 
far1 nor does the water have far to     
flow4 ,if the vein above is             
metal-bearing1 as it sometimes is for a 
distance of several fathoms1 then from  
the upper part of tunnels or even drifts
 that have already been driven1 other   
drifts are driven again and again until 
that part of the vein is reached which  

does not yield metal4 ,the timbering of 
these openings is done as follows3      
stulls are set at intervals into hitches
 in the hanging and footwall1 and upon  
them smooth poles are laid continuously2
 and that they may be able to bear the  
weight1 the stulls are generally a foot 
and a half thick4 ,after the ore has    
been taken out and the mining of the    
vein is being done elsewhere1 the rock  
then broken1 especially if it cannot be 
taken away without great difficulty1 is 
thrown into these openings among the    
timber1 and the carriers of the ore are 
saved toil1 and the owners save half the
 expense4 ,this then1 generally         
speaking1 is the method by which        
everything relating to the timbering of 
shafts1 tunnels1 and drifts is carried  
out4  ,all that ,i have hitherto written
 is in part peculiar to venae profundae1
 and in part common to all kinds of     
veins2 of what follows1 part is         
specially applicable to venae dilatatae1
 part to venae cumulatae4 ,but first ,i 

will describe how venae dilatatae should
 be mined4 ,where torrents1 rivers1 or  
streams have by inundations washed away 
part of the slope of a mountain or a    
hill1 and have disclosed a vena         
dilatata1 a tunnel should be driven     
first straight and narrow1 and then     
wider1 for nearly all the vein should be
 hewn away2 and when this tunnel has    
been driven further1 a shaft which      
supplies air should be sunk in the      
mountain or hill1 and through it from   
time to time the ore1 earth1 and rock   
can be drawn up at less expense than if 
they be drawn out through the very great
 length of the tunnel2 and even in those
 places to which the tunnel does not yet
 reach1 miners dig shafts in order to   
open a vena dilatata which they         
conjecture must lie beneath the soil4   
,in this way1 when the upper layers are 
removed1 they dig through rock sometimes
 of one kind and colour1 sometimes of   
one kind but different colours1         
sometimes of different kinds but of one 

colour1 and1 lastly1 of different kinds 
and different colours4 ,the thickness of
 rock1 both of each single stratum and  
of all combined1 is uncertain1 for the  
whole of the strata are in some places  
twenty fathoms deep1 in others more than
 fifty2 individual strata are in some   
places half a foot thick2 in others1    
one1 two1 or more feet2 in others1 one1 
two1 three1 or more fathoms4 ,for       
example1 in those districts which lie at
 the foot of the ,harz mountains1 there 
are many different coloured strata1     
covering a copper vena dilatata4 ,when  
the soil has been stripped1 first of all
 is disclosed a stratum which is red1   
but of a dull shade and of a thickness  
of twenty1 thirty1 or five and thirty   
fathoms4 ,then there is another stratum1
 also red1 but of a light shade1 which  
has usually a thickness of about two    
fathoms4 ,beneath this is a stratum of  
ash-coloured clay nearly a fathom thick1
 which1 although it is not              
metalliferous1 is reckoned a vein4 ,then

 follows a third stratum1 which is ashy1
 and about three fathoms thick4 ,beneath
 this lies a vein of ashes to the       
thickness of five fathoms1 and these    
ashes are mixed with rock of the same   
colour4 ,joined to the last1 and        
underneath1 comes a stratum1 the fourth 
in number1 dark in colour and a foot    
thick4 ,under this comes the fifth      
stratum1 of a pale or yellowish colour1 
two feet thick2 underneath which is the 
sixth stratum1 likewise dark1 but rough 
and three feet thick4 ,afterward occurs 
the seventh stratum1 likewise of dark   
colour1 but still darker than the last1 
and two feet thick4 ,this is followed by
 an eighth stratum1 ashy1 rough1 and a  
foot thick4 ,this kind1 as also the     
others1 is sometimes distinguished by   
stringers of the stone which easily     
melts in fire of the second order4      
,beneath this is another ashy rock1     
light in weight1 and five feet thick4   
,next to this comes a lighter           
ash-coloured one1 a foot thick2 beneath 

this lies the eleventh stratum1 which is
 dark and very much like the seventh1   
and two feet thick4 ,below the last is a
 twelfth stratum of a whitish colour and
 soft1 also two feet thick2 the weight  
of this rests on a thirteenth stratum1  
ashy and one foot thick1 whose weight is
 in turn supported by a fourteenth      
stratum1 which is blackish and half a   
foot thick4 ,there follows this1 another
 stratum of black colour1 likewise half 
a foot thick1 which is again followed by
 a sixteenth stratum still blacker in   
colour1 whose thickness is also the     
same4 ,beneath this1 and last of all1   
lies the cupriferous stratum1 black     
coloured and schistose1 in which there  
sometimes glitter scales of             
gold-coloured pyrites in the very thin  
sheets1 which1 as ,i said elsewhere1    
often take the forms of various living  
things4#ae  ,the miners mine out a vena 
dilatata laterally and longitudinally by
 driving a low tunnel in it1 and if the 
nature of the work and place permit1    

they sink also a shaft in order to      
discover whether there is a second vein 
beneath the first one2 for sometimes    
beneath it there are two1 three1 or more
 similar metal-bearing veins1 and these 
are excavated in the same way laterally 
and longitudinally4 ,they generally mine
 venae dilatatae lying down2 and to     
avoid wearing away their clothes and    
injuring their left shoulders they      
usually bind on themselves small wooden 
cradles4 ,for this reason1 this         
particular class of miners1 in order to 
use their iron tools1 are obliged to    
bend their necks to the left1 not       
infrequently having them twisted4 ,now  
these veins also sometimes divide1 and  
where these parts re-unite1 ore of a    
richer and a better quality is generally
 found2 the same thing occurs where the 
stringers1 of which they are not        
altogether devoid1 join with them1 or   
cut them crosswise1 or divide them      
obliquely4 ,to prevent a mountain or    
hill1 which has in this way been        

undermined1 from subsiding by its       
weight1 either some natural pillars and 
arches are left1 on which the pressure  
rests as on a foundation1 or timbering  
is done for support4 ,moreover1 the     
materials which are dug out and which   
are devoid of metal are removed in      
bowls1 and are thrown back1 thus once   
more filling the caverns4  ,next1 as to 
venae cumulatae4 ,these are dug by a    
somewhat different method1 for when one 
of these shows some metal at the top of 
the ground1 first of all one shaft is   
sunk2 then1 if it is worth while1 around
 this one many shafts are sunk and      
tunnels are driven into the mountain4   
,if a torrent or spring has torn        
fragments of metal from such a vein1 a  
tunnel is first driven into the mountain
 or hill for the purpose of searching   
for the ore2 then when it is found1 a   
vertical shaft is sunk in it4 ,since the
 whole mountain1 or more especially the 
whole hill1 is undermined1 seeing that  
the whole of it is composed of ore1 it  

is necessary to leave the natural       
pillars and arches1 or the place is     
timbered4 ,but sometimes when a vein is 
very hard it is broken by fire1 whereby 
it happens that the soft pillars break  
up1 or the timbers are burnt away1 and  
the mountain by its great weight sinks  
into itself1 and then the shaft         
buildings are swallowed up in the great 
subsidence4 ,therefore1 about a vena    
cumulata it is advisable to sink some   
shafts which are not subject to this    
kind of ruin1 through which the         
materials that are excavated may be     
carried out1 not only while the pillars 
and underpinnings still remain whole and
 solid1 but also after the supports have
 been destroyed by fire and have fallen4
 ,since ore which has thus fallen must  
necessarily be broken by fire1 new      
shafts through which the smoke can      
escape must be sunk in the abyss4 ,at   
those places where stringers intersect1 
richer ore is generally obtained from   
the mine2 these stringers1 in the case  

of tin mines1 sometimes have in them    
black stones the size of a walnut4 ,if  
such a vein is found in a plain1 as not 
infrequently happens in the case of     
iron1 many shafts are sunk1 because they
 cannot be sunk very deep4 ,the work is 
carried on by this method because the   
miners cannot drive a tunnel into a     
level plain of this kind4  ,there remain
 the stringers in which gold alone is   
sometimes found1 in the vicinity of     
rivers and streams1 or in swamps4 ,if   
upon the soil being removed1 many of    
these are found1 composed of earth      
somewhat baked and burnt1 as may        
sometimes be seen in clay pits1 there is
 some hope that gold may be obtained    
from them1 especially if several join   
together4 ,but the very point of        
junction must be pierced1 and the length
 and width searched for ore1 and in     
these places very deep shafts cannot be 
sunk4  ,i have completed one part of    
this book1 and now come to the other1 in
 which ,i will deal with the art of     

surveying4 ,miners measure the solid    
mass of the mountains in order that the 
owners may lay out their plans1 and that
 their workmen may not encroach on other
 people's possessions4 ,the surveyor    
either measures the interval not yet    
wholly dug through1 which lies between  
the mouth of a tunnel and a shaft to be 
sunk to that depth1 or between the mouth
 of a shaft and the tunnel to be driven 
to that spot which lies under the shaft1
 or between both1 if the tunnel is      
neither so long as to reach to the      
shaft1 nor the shaft so deep as to reach
 to the tunnel2 and thus on both sides  
work is still to be done4 ,or in some   
cases1 within the tunnels and drifts1   
are to be fixed the boundaries of the   
meers1 just as the ,bergmeister has     
determined the boundaries of the same   
meers above ground4#af  ,each method of 
surveying depends on the measuring of   
triangles4 ,a small triangle should be  
laid out1 and from it calculations must 
be made regarding a larger one4 ,most   

particular care must be taken that we do
 not deviate at all from a correct      
measuring2 for if1 at the beginning1 we 
are drawn by carelessness into a slight 
error1 this at the end will produce     
great errors4 ,now these triangles are  
of many shapes1 since shafts differ     
among themselves and are not all sunk by
 one and the same method into the depths
 of the earth1 nor do the slopes of all 
mountains come down to the valley or    
plain in the same manner4 ,for if a     
shaft is vertical1 there is a triangle  
with a right angle1 which the ,greeks   
call ,greek3 orthogonion and this1      
according to the inequalities of the    
mountain slope1 has either two equal    
sides or three unequal sides4 ,the      
,greeks call the former ,greek3 trigonon
 isoskeles the latter ,greek3 skalenon  
for a right angle triangle cannot have  
three equal sides4 ,if a shaft is       
inclined and sunk in the same vein in   
which the tunnel is driven1 a triangle  
is likewise made with a right angle1 and

 this again1 according to the various   
inequalities of the mountain slope1 has 
either two equal or three unequal sides4
 ,but if a shaft is inclined and is sunk
 in one vein1 and a tunnel is driven in 
another vein1 then a triangle comes into
 existence which has either an obtuse   
angle or all acute angles4 ,the former  
the ,greeks call ,greek3 amblygonion1   
the latter ,greek3 oxygonion4 ,that     
triangle which has an obtuse angle      
cannot have three equal sides1 but in   
accordance with the different mountain  
slopes has either two equal sides or    
three unequal sides4 ,that triangle     
which has all acute angles in accordance
 with the different mountain slopes has 
either three equal sides1 which the     
,greeks call ,greek3 trigonon isopleuron
 or two equal sides or three unequal    
sides4  ,the surveyor1 as ,i said1      
employs his art when the owners of the  
mines desire to know how many fathoms of
 the intervening ground require to be   
dug2 when a tunnel is being driven      

toward a shaft and does not yet reach   
it2 or when the shaft has not yet been  
sunk to the depth of the bottom of the  
tunnel which is under it2 or when       
neither the tunnel reaches to that      
point1 nor has the shaft been sunk to   
it4 ,it is of importance that miners    
should know how many fathoms remain from
 the tunnel to the shaft1 or from the   
shaft to the tunnel1 in order to        
calculate the expenditure2 and in order 
that the owners of a metal-bearing mine 
may hasten the sinking of a shaft and   
the excavation of the metal1 before the 
tunnel reaches that point and the tunnel
 owners excavate part of the metal by   
any right of their own2 and on the other
 hand1 it is important that the owners  
of a tunnel may similarly hasten their  
driving before a shaft can be sunk to   
the depth of a tunnel1 so that they may 
excavate the metal to which they will   
have a right4  ,illustration #aca       
7,surveying73 ,a--,upright forked posts4
 ,b--,pole over the posts4 ,c--,shaft4  

,d--,first cord4 ,e--,weight of first   
cord4 ,f--,second cord4 ,g--,same fixed 
ground4 ,h--,head of first cord4        
,i--,mouth of tunnel4 ,k--,third cord4  
,l--,weight of third cord4 ,m--,first   
side minor triangle4 ,n--,second side   
minor triangle4 ,o--,third side minor   
triangle4 ,p--,the minor triangle4  ,the
 surveyor1 first of all1 if the beams of
 the shaft-house do not give him the    
opportunity1 sets a pair of forked posts
 by the sides of the shaft in such a    
manner that a pole may be laid across   
them4 ,next1 from the pole he lets down 
into the shaft a cord with a weight     
attached to it4 ,then he stretches a    
second cord1 attached to the upper end  
of the first cord1 right down along the 
slope of the mountain to the bottom of  
the mouth of the tunnel1 and fixes it to
 the ground4 ,next1 from the same pole  
not far from the first cord1 he lets    
down a third cord1 similarly weighted1  
so that it may intersect the second     
cord1 which descends obliquely4 ,then1  

starting from that point where the third
 cord cuts the second cord which        
descends obliquely to the mouth of the  
tunnel1 he measures the second cord     
upward to where it reaches the end of   
the first cord1 and makes a note of this
 first side of the minor triangle#ag4   
,afterward1 starting again from that    
point where the third cord intersects   
the second cord1 he measures the        
straight space which lies between that  
point and the opposite point on the     
first cord1 and in that way forms the   
minor triangle1 and he notes this second
 side of the minor triangle in the same 
way as before4 ,then1 if it is          
necessary1 from the angle formed by the 
first cord and the second side of the   
minor triangle1 he measures upward to   
the end of the first cord and also makes
 a note of this third side of the minor 
triangle4 ,the third side of the minor  
triangle1 if the shaft is vertical or   
inclined and is sunk on the same vein in
 which the tunnel is driven1 will       

necessarily be the same length as the   
third cord above the point where it     
intersects the second cord2 and so1 as  
often as the first side of the minor    
triangle is contained in the length of  
the whole cord which descends obliquely1
 so many times the length of the second 
side of the minor triangle indicates the
 distance between the mouth of the      
tunnel and the point to which the shaft 
must be sunk2 and similarly1 so many    
times the length of the third side of   
the minor triangle gives the distance   
between the mouth of the shaft and the  
bottom of the tunnel4  ,when there is a 
level bench on the mountain slope1 the  
surveyor first measures across this with
 a measuring-rod2 then at the edges of  
this bench he sets up forked posts1 and 
applies the principle of the triangle to
 the two sloping parts of the mountain2 
and to the fathoms which are the length 
of that part of the tunnel determined by
 the triangles1 he adds the number of   
fathoms which are the width of the      

bench4 ,but if sometimes the mountain   
side stands up1 so that a cord cannot   
run down from the shaft to the mouth of 
the tunnel1 or1 on the other hand1      
cannot run up from the mouth of the     
tunnel to the shaft1 and1 therefore1 one
 cannot connect them in a straight line1
 the surveyor1 in order to fix an       
accurate triangle1 measures the         
mountain2 and going downward he         
substitutes for the first part of the   
cord a pole one fathom long1 and for the
 second part a pole half a fathom long4 
,going upward1 on the contrary1 for the 
first part of the cord he substitutes a 
pole half a fathom long1 and for the    
next part1 one a whole fathom long2 then
 where he requires to fix his triangle  
he adds a straight line to these angles4
  ,illustration #acc 7,surveying        
,triangle73 ,a triangle having a right  
angle and two equal sides4  ,to make    
this system of measuring clear and more 
explicit1 ,i will proceed by describing 
each separate kind of triangle4 ,when a 

shaft is vertical or inclined1 and is   
sunk in the same vein on which the      
tunnel is driven1 there is created1 as  
,i said1 a triangle containing a right  
angle4 ,now if the minor triangle has   
the two sides equal1 which1 in          
accordance with the numbering used by   
surveyors1 are the second and third     
sides1 then the second and third sides  
of the major triangle will be equal2 and
 so also the intervening distances will 
be equal which lie between the mouth of 
the tunnel and the bottom of the shaft1 
and which lie between the mouth of the  
shaft and the bottom of the tunnel4 ,for
 example1 if the first side of the minor
 triangle is seven feet long and the    
second and likewise the third sides are 
five feet1 and the length shown by the  
cord for the side of the major triangle 
is #aja times seven feet1 that is #aag  
fathoms and five feet1 then the         
intervening space1 of course1 whether   
the whole of it has been already driven 
through or has yet to be driven1 will be

 one hundred times five feet1 which     
makes eighty-three fathoms and two feet4
 ,anyone with this example of           
proportions will be able to construct   
the major and minor triangles in the    
same way as ,i have done1 if there be   
the necessary upright posts and         
cross-beams4 ,when a shaft is vertical  
the triangle is absolutely upright2 when
 it is inclined and is sunk on the same 
vein in which the tunnel is driven1 it  
is inclined toward one side4 ,therefore1
 if a tunnel has been driven into the   
mountain for sixty fathoms1 there       
remains a space of ground to be         
penetrated twenty-three fathoms and two 
feet long2 for five feet of the second  
side of the major triangle1 which lies  
above the mouth of the shaft and        
corresponds with the first side of the  
minor triangle1 must not be added4      
,therefore1 if the shaft has been sunk  
in the middle of the head meer1 a tunnel
 sixty fathoms long will reach to the   
boundary of the meer only when the      

tunnel has been extended a further two  
fathoms and two feet2 but if the shaft  
is located in the middle of an ordinary 
meer1 then the boundary will be reached 
when the tunnel has been driven a       
further length of nine fathoms and two  
feet4 ,since a tunnel1 for every one    
hundred fathoms of length1 rises in     
grade one fathom1 or at all events1     
ought to rise as it proceeds toward the 
shaft1 one more fathom must always be   
taken from the depth allowed to the     
shaft1 and one added to the length      
allowed to the tunnel4 ,proportionately1
 because a tunnel fifty fathoms long is 
raised half a fathom1 this amount must  
be taken from the depth of the shaft and
 added to the length of the tunnel4 ,in 
the same way if a tunnel is one hundred 
or fifty fathoms shorter or longer1 the 
same proportion also must be taken from 
the depth of the one and added to the   
length of the other4 ,for this reason1  
in the case mentioned above1 half a     
fathom and a little more must be added  

to the distance to be driven through1 so
 that there remain twenty-three fathoms1
 five feet1 two palms1 one and a half   
digits and a fifth of a digit2 that is1 
if even the minutest proportions are    
carried out2 and surveyors do not       
neglect these without good cause4       
,similarly1 if the shaft is seventy     
fathoms deep1 in order that it may reach
 to the bottom of the tunnel1 it still  
must be sunk a further depth of thirteen
 fathoms and two feet1 or rather twelve 
fathoms and a half1 one foot1 two       
digits1 and four-fifths of half a digit4
 ,and in this instance five feet must be
 deducted from the reckoning1 because   
these five feet complete the third side 
of the minor triangle1 which is above   
the mouth of the shaft1 and from its    
depth there must be deducted half a     
fathom1 two palms1 one and a half digits
 and the fifth part of half a digit4    
,but if the tunnel has been driven to a 
point where it is under the shaft1 then 
to reach the roof of the tunnel the     

shaft must still be sunk a depth of     
eleven fathoms1 two and a half feet1 one
 palm1 two digits1 and four-fifths of   
half a digit4  ,illustration #acd       
7,surveying ,triangle73 ,a triangle     
having a right angle and three unequal  
sides4  ,if a minor triangle is produced
 of the kind having three unequal sides1
 then the sides of the greater triangle 
cannot be equal2 that is1 if the first  
side of the minor triangle is eight feet
 long1 the second six feet long1 and the
 third five feet long1 and the cord     
along the side of the greater triangle1 
not to go too far from the example just 
given1 is one hundred and one times     
eight feet1 that is1 one hundred and    
thirty-four fathoms and four feet1 the  
distance which lies between the mouth of
 the tunnel and the bottom of the shaft 
will occupy one hundred times six feet  
in length1 that is1 one hundred fathoms4
 ,the distance between the mouth of the 
shaft and the bottom of the tunnel is   
one hundred times five feet1 that is1   

eighty-three fathoms and two feet4 ,and 
so1 if the tunnel is eighty-five fathoms
 long1 the remainder to be driven into  
the mountain is fifteen fathoms long1   
and here1 too1 a correction in          
measurement must be taken from the depth
 of the shaft and added to the length of
 the tunnel2 what this is precisely1 ,i 
will pursue no further1 since everyone  
having a small knowledge of arithmetic  
can work it out4 ,if the shaft is       
sixty-seven fathoms deep1 in order that 
it may reach the bottom of the tunnel1  
the further distance required to be sunk
 amounts to sixteen fathoms and two     
feet4  ,illustration #ace;a 7,surveying 
,triangle73 ,triangle having an obtuse  
angle and two equal sides4  ,the        
surveyor employs this same method in    
measuring the mountain1 whether the     
shaft and tunnel are on one and the same
 vein1 whether the vein is vertical or  
inclined1 or whether the shaft is on the
 principal vein and the tunnel on a     
transverse vein descending vertically to

 the depths of the earth2 in the latter 
case the excavation is to be made where 
the transverse vein cuts the vertical   
vein4 ,if the principal vein descends on
 an incline and the cross-vein descends 
vertically1 then a minor triangle is    
created having one obtuse angle or all  
three angles acute4 ,if the minor       
triangle has one angle obtuse and the   
two sides which are the second and third
 are equal1 then the second and third   
sides of the major triangle will be     
equal1 so that if the first side of the 
minor triangle is nine feet1 the second1
 and likewise the third1 will be five   
feet4 ,then the first side of the major 
triangle will be one hundred and one    
times nine feet1 or one hundred and     
fifty-one and one-half fathoms1 and each
 of the other sides of the major        
triangle will be one hundred times five 
feet1 that is1 eighty-three fathoms and 
two feet4 ,but when the first shaft is  
inclined1 generally speaking1 it is not 
deep2 but there are usually several1 all

 inclined1 and one always following the 
other4 ,therefore1 if a tunnel is       
seventy-seven fathoms long1 it will     
reach to the middle of the bottom of a  
shaft when six fathoms and two feet     
further have been sunk4 ,but if all such
 inclined shafts are seventy-six fathoms
 deep1 in order that the last one may   
reach the bottom of the tunnel1 a depth 
of seven fathoms and two feet remains to
 be sunk4  ,illustration #ace;b         
7,surveying ,triangle73 ,triangle having
 an obtuse angle and three unequal      
sides4  ,if a minor triangle is made    
which has an obtuse angle and three     
unequal sides1 then again the sides of  
the large triangle cannot be equal4 ,for
 example1 if the first side of the minor
 triangle is six feet long1 the second  
three feet1 and the third four feet1 and
 the cord along the side of the greater 
triangle one hundred and one times six  
feet1 that is1 one hundred and one      
fathoms1 the distance between the mouth 
of the tunnel and the bottom of the last

 shaft will be a length one hundred     
times three feet1 or fifty fathoms2 but 
the depth that lies between the mouth of
 the first shaft and the bottom of the  
tunnel is one hundred times four feet1  
or sixty-six fathoms and four feet4     
,therefore1 if a tunnel is forty-four   
fathoms long1 the remaining distance to 
be driven is six fathoms4 ,if the shafts
 are fifty-eight fathoms deep1 the      
newest will touch the bottom of the     
tunnel when eight fathoms and four feet 
have been sunk4  ,illustration #acf;a   
7,surveying ,triangle73 ,a triangle     
having all its angles acute and its     
three sides equal4  ,if a minor triangle
 is produced which has all its angles   
acute and its three sides equal1 then   
necessarily the second and third sides  
of the minor triangle will be equal1 and
 likewise the sides of the major        
triangle frequently referred to will be 
equal4 ,thus if each side of the minor  
triangle is six feet long1 and the cord 
measurement for the side of the major   

triangle is one hundred and one times   
six feet1 that is1 one hundred and one  
fathoms1 then both the distances to be  
dug will be one hundred fathoms4 ,and   
thus if the tunnel is ninety fathoms    
long1 it will reach the middle of the   
bottom of the last shaft when ten       
fathoms further have been driven4 ,if   
the shafts are ninety-five fathoms deep1
 the last will reach the bottom of the  
tunnel when it is sunk a further depth  
of five fathoms4  ,illustration #acf;b  
7,surveying ,triangle73 ,triangle having
 all its angles acute and two sides     
equal1 ,a1 ,b1 unequal side ,c4  ,if a  
triangle is made which has all its      
angles acute1 but only two sides equal1 
namely1 the first and third1 then the   
second and third sides are not equal2   
therefore the distances to be dug cannot
 be equal4 ,for example1 if the first   
side of the minor triangle is six feet  
long1 and the second is four feet1 and  
the third is six feet1 and the cord     
measurement for the side of the major   

triangle is one hundred and one times   
six feet1 that is1 one hundred and one  
fathoms1 then the distance between the  
mouth of the tunnel and the bottom of   
the last shaft will be sixty-six fathoms
 and four feet4 ,but the distance from  
the mouth of the first shaft to the     
bottom of the tunnel is one hundred     
fathoms4 ,so if the tunnel is sixty     
fathoms long1 the remaining distance to 
be driven into the mountain is six      
fathoms and four feet4 ,if the shaft is 
ninety-seven fathoms deep1 the last one 
will reach the bottom of the tunnel when
 a further depth of three fathoms has   
been sunk4  ,illustration #acg          
7,surveying ,triangle73 ,a triangle     
having all its angles acute and its     
three sides unequal4  ,if a minor       
triangle is produced which has all its  
angles acute1 but its three sides       
unequal1 then again the distances to be 
dug cannot be equal4 ,for example1 if   
the first side of the minor triangle is 
seven feet long1 the second side is four

 feet1 and the third side is six feet1  
and the cord measurement for the side of
 the major triangle is one hundred and  
one times seven feet or one hundred and 
seventeen fathoms and four feet1 the    
distance between the mouth of the tunnel
 and the bottom of the last shaft will  
be four hundred feet or sixty-six       
fathoms1 and the depth between the mouth
 of the first shaft and the bottom of   
the tunnel will be one hundred fathoms4 
,therefore1 if a tunnel is fifty fathoms
 long1 it will reach the middle of the  
bottom of the newest shaft when it has  
been driven sixteen fathoms and four    
feet further4 ,but if the shafts are    
then ninety-two fathoms deep1 the last  
shaft will reach the bottom of the      
tunnel when it has been sunk a further  
eight fathoms4  ,this is the method of  
the surveyor in measuring the mountain1 
if the principal vein descends inclined 
into the depths of the earth or the     
transverse vein is vertical4 ,but if    
they are both inclined1 the surveyor    

uses the same method1 or he measures the
 slope of the mountain separately from  
the slope of the shaft4 ,next1 if a     
transverse vein in which a tunnel is    
driven does not cut the principal vein  
in that spot where the shaft is sunk1   
then it is necessary for the starting   
point of the survey to be in the other  
shaft in which the transverse vein cuts 
the principal vein4 ,but if there be no 
shaft on that spot where the outcrop of 
the transverse vein cuts the outcrop of 
the principal vein1 then the surface of 
the ground which lies between the shafts
 must be measured1 or that between the  
shaft and the place where the outcrop of
 the one vein intersects the outcrop of 
the other4  ,illustration #ach          
7,hemicycle73 ,a--,waxed semicircle of  
the hemicycle4 ,b--,semicircular lines4 
,c--,straight lines4 ,d--,line measuring
 the half4 ,e--,line measuring the      
whole4 ,f--,tongue4  ,illustration      
#ach;,a 7,surveying ,rods73 ,a--,lines  
of the rod which separate minor spaces4 

,b--,lines of the rod which separate    
major spaces4  ,some surveyors1 although
 they use three cords1 nevertheless     
ascertain only the length of a tunnel by
 that method of measuring1 and determine
 the depth of a shaft by another method2
 that is1 by the method by which cords  
are re-stretched on a level part of the 
mountain or in a valley1 or in flat     
fields1 and are measured again4 ,some1  
however1 do not employ this method in   
surveying the depth of a shaft and the  
length of a tunnel1 but use only two    
cords1 a graduated hemicycle#ah and a   
rod half a fathom long4 ,they suspend in
 the shaft one cord1 fastened from the  
upper pole and weighted1 just as the    
others do4 ,fastened to the upper end of
 this cord1 they stretch another right  
down the slope of the mountain to the   
bottom of the mouth of the tunnel and   
fix it to the ground4 ,then to the upper
 part of this second cord they apply on 
its lower side the broad part of a      
hemicycle4 ,this consists of half a     

circle1 the outer margin of which is    
covered with wax1 and within this are   
six semi-circular lines4 ,from the waxed
 margin through the first semi-circular 
line1 and reaching to the second1 there 
proceed straight lines converging toward
 the centre of the hemicycle2 these mark
 the middles of intervening spaces lying
 between other straight lines which     
extend to the fourth semi-circular line4
 ,but all lines whatsoever1 from the    
waxed margin up to the fourth line1     
whether they go beyond it or not1       
correspond with the graduated lines     
which mark the minor spaces of a rod4   
,those which go beyond the fourth line  
correspond with the lines marking the   
major spaces on the rod1 and those which
 proceed further1 mark the middle of the
 intervening space which lies between   
the others4 ,the straight lines1 which  
run from the fifth to the sixth         
semi-circular line1 show nothing        
further4 ,nor does the line which       
measures the half1 show anything when it

 has already passed from the sixth      
straight line to the base of the        
hemicycle4 ,when the hemicycle is       
applied to the cord1 if its tongue      
indicates the sixth straight line which 
lies between the second and third       
semi-circular lines1 the surveyor counts
 on the rod six lines which separate the
 minor spaces1 and if the length of this
 portion of the rod be taken from the   
second cord1 as many times as the cord  
itself is half-fathoms long1 the        
remaining length of cord shows the      
distance the tunnel must be driven to   
reach under the shaft4 ,but if he sees  
that the tongue has gone so far that it 
marks the sixth line between the fourth 
and fifth semi-circular lines1 he counts
 six lines which separate the major     
spaces on the rod2 and this entire space
 is deducted from the length of the     
second cord1 as many times as the number
 of whole fathoms which the cord        
contains2 and then1 in like manner1 the 
remaining length of cord shows us the   

distance the tunnel must be driven to   
reach under the shaft4#ai  ,illustration
 #aci 7,surveying ,triangle73 ,stretched
 cords3 ,a--,first cord4 ,b--,second    
cord4 ,c--,third cord4 ,d--,triangle4   
,both these surveyors1 as well as the   
others1 in the first place make use of  
the haulage rope4 ,these they measure by
 means of others made of linden bark1   
because the latter do not stretch at    
all1 while the former become very slack4
 ,these cords they stretch on the       
surveyor's field1 the first one to      
represent the parts of mountain slopes  
which descend obliquely4 ,then the      
second cord1 which represents the length
 of the tunnel to be driven to reach the
 shaft1 they place straight1 in such a  
direction that one end of it can touch  
the lower end of the first cord2 then   
they similarly lay the third cord       
straight1 and in such a direction that  
its upper end may touch the upper end of
 the first cord1 and its lower end the  
other extremity of the second cord1 and 

thus a triangle is formed4 ,this third  
cord is measured by the instrument with 
the index1 to determine its relation to 
the perpendicular2 and the length of    
this cord shows the depth of the shaft4 
,illustration #adj 7,surveying          
,triangles73 ,stretched cords3          
,a--,first4 ,b--,second4 ,b--,third4    
,c--,fourth4 ,c--,fifth4                
,d--,quadrangle4  ,some surveyors1 to   
make their system of measuring the depth
 of a shaft more certain1 use five      
stretched cords3 the first one          
descending obliquely2 two1 that is to   
say the second and third1 for           
ascertaining the length of the tunnel2  
two for the depth of the shaft2 in which
 way they form a quadrangle divided into
 two equal triangles1 and this tends to 
greater accuracy4  ,these systems of    
measuring the depth of a shaft and the  
length of a tunnel1 are accurate when   
the vein and also the shaft or shafts go
 down to the tunnel vertically or       
inclined1 in an uninterrupted course4   

,the same is true when a tunnel runs    
straight on to a shaft4 ,but when each  
of them bends now in this1 now in that  
direction1 if they have not been        
completely driven and sunk1 no living   
man is clever enough to judge how far   
they are deflected from a straight      
course4 ,but if the whole of either one 
of the two has been excavated its full  
distance1 then we can estimate more     
easily the length of one1 or the depth  
of the other2 and so the location of the
 tunnel1 which is below a newly-started 
shaft1 is determined by a method of     
surveying which ,i will describe4 ,first
 of all a tripod is fixed at the mouth  
of the tunnel1 and likewise at the mouth
 of the shaft which has been started1 or
 at the place where the shaft will be   
started4 ,the tripod is made of three   
stakes fixed to the ground1 a small     
rectangular board being placed upon the 
stakes and fixed to them1 and on this is
 set a compass4 ,then from the lower    
tripod a weighted cord is let down      

perpendicularly to the earth1 close to  
which cord a stake is fixed in the      
ground4 ,to this stake another cord is  
tied and drawn straight into the tunnel 
to a point as far as it can go without  
being bent by the hangingwall or the    
footwall of the vein4 ,next1 from the   
cord which hangs from the lower tripod1 
a third cord likewise fixed is brought  
straight up the sloping side of the     
mountain to the stake of the upper      
tripod1 and fastened to it4 ,in order   
that the measuring of the depth of the  
shaft may be more certain1 the third    
cord should touch one and the same side 
of the cord hanging from the lower      
tripod which is touched by the second   
cord--the one which is drawn into the   
tunnel4 ,all this having been correctly 
carried out1 the surveyor1 when at      
length the cord which has been drawn    
straight into the tunnel is about to be 
bent by the hangingwall or footwall1    
places a plank in the bottom of the     
tunnel and on it sets the orbis1 an     

instrument which has an indicator       
peculiar to itself4 ,this instrument1   
although it also has waxed circles1     
differs from the other1 which ,i have   
described in the third book4 ,but by    
both these instruments1 as well as by a 
rule and a square1 he determines whether
 the stretched cords reach straight to  
the extreme end of the tunnel1 or       
whether they sometimes reach straight1  
and are sometimes bent by the footwall  
or hangingwall4 ,each instrument is     
divided into parts1 but the compass into
 twenty-four parts1 the orbis into      
sixteen parts2 for first of all it is   
divided into four principal parts1 and  
then each of these is again divided into
 four4 ,both have waxed circles1 but the
 compass has seven circles1 and the     
orbis only five circles4 ,these waxed   
circles the surveyor marks1 whichever   
instrument he uses1 and by the          
succession of these same marks he notes 
any change in the direction in which the
 cord extends4 ,the orbis has an opening

 running from its outer edge as far as  
the centre1 into which opening he puts  
an iron screw1 to which he binds the    
second cord1 and by screwing it into the
 plank1 fixes it so that the orbis may  
be immovable4 ,he takes care to prevent 
the second cord1 and afterward the      
others which are put up1 from being     
pulled off the screw1 by employing a    
heavy iron1 into an opening of which he 
fixes the head of the screw4 ,in the    
case of the compass1 since it has no    
opening1 he merely places it by the side
 of the screw4 ,that the instrument does
 not incline forward or backward1 and in
 that way the measurement become a      
greater length than it should be1 he    
sets upon the instrument a standing     
plummet level1 the tongue of which1 if  
the instrument is level1 indicates no   
numbers1 but the point from which the   
numbers start4  ,illustration #adb      
7,compass73 ,compass4 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1   
,e1 ,f1 ,g are the seven waxed circles4 
,illustration #adb;,a 7,orbis73 ,a1 ,b1 

,c1 ,d1 ,e--,five waxed circles of the  
orbis4 ,f--,opening of same4 ,g--,screw4
 ,h--,perforated iron4  ,illustration   
#adc 7,miner using level73 ,a--,standing
 plummet level4 ,b--,tongue4 ,c--,level 
and tongue4  ,when the surveyor has     
carefully observed each separate angle  
of the tunnel and has measured such     
parts as he ought to measure1 then he   
lays them out in the same way on the    
surveyor's field#bj in the open air1 and
 again no less carefully observes each  
separate angle and measures them4 ,first
 of all1 to each angle1 according as the
 calculation of his triangle and his art
 require it1 he lays out a straight cord
 as a line4 ,then he stretches a cord at
 such an angle as represents the slope  
of the mountain1 so that its lower end  
may reach the end of the straight cord2 
then he stretches a third cord similarly
 straight and at such an angle1 that    
with its upper end it may reach the     
upper end of the second cord1 and with  
its lower end the last end of the first 

cord4 ,the length of the third cord     
shows the depth of the shaft1 as ,i said
 before1 and at the same time that point
 on the tunnel to which the shaft will  
reach when it has been sunk4  ,if one or
 more shafts reach the tunnel through   
intermediate drifts and shafts1 the     
surveyor1 starting from the nearest     
which is open to the air1 measures in a 
shorter time the depth of the shaft     
which requires to be sunk1 than if he   
starts from the mouth of the tunnel4    
,first of all he measures that space on 
the surface which lies between the shaft
 which has been sunk and the one which  
requires to be sunk4 ,then he measures  
the incline of all the shafts which it  
is necessary to measure1 and the length 
of all the drifts with which they are in
 any way connected to the tunnel4       
,lastly1 he measures part of the tunnel2
 and when all this is properly done1 he 
demonstrates the depth of the shaft and 
the point in the tunnel to which the    
shaft will reach4 ,but sometimes a very 

deep straight shaft requires to be sunk 
at the same place where there is a      
previous inclined shaft1 and to the same
 depth1 in order that loads may be      
raised and drawn straight up by         
machines4 ,those machines on the surface
 are turned by horses2 those inside the 
earth1 by the same means1 and also by   
water-power4 ,and so1 if it becomes     
necessary to sink such a shaft1 the     
surveyor first of all fixes an iron     
screw in the upper part of the old      
shaft1 and from the screw he lets down a
 cord as far as the first angle1 where  
again he fixes a screw1 and again lets  
down the cord as far as the second      
angle2 this he repeats again and again  
until the cord reaches to the bottom of 
the shaft4 ,then to each angle of the   
cord he applies a hemicycle1 and marks  
the waxed semi-circle according to the  
lines which the tongue indicates1 and   
designates it by a number1 in case it   
should be moved2 then he measures the   
separate parts of the cord with another 

cord made of linden bark4 ,afterward1   
when he has come back out of the shaft1 
he goes away and transfers the markings 
from the waxed semi-circle of the       
hemicycle to an orbis similarly waxed4  
,lastly1 the cords are stretched on the 
surveyor's field1 and he measures the   
angles1 as the system of measuring by   
triangles requires1 and ascertains which
 part of the footwall and which part of 
the hangingwall rock must be cut away in
 order that the shaft may descend       
straight4 ,but if the surveyor is       
required to show the owners of the mine1
 the spot in a drift or a tunnel in     
which a shaft needs to be raised from   
the bottom upward1 that it should cut   
through more quickly1 he begins         
measuring from the bottom of the drift  
or tunnel1 at a point beyond the spot at
 which the bottom of the shaft will     
arrive1 when it has been sunk4 ,when he 
has measured the part of the drift or   
tunnel up to the first shaft which      
connects with an upper drift1 he        

measures the incline of this shaft by   
applying a hemicycle or orbis to the    
cord4 ,then in a like manner he measures
 the upper drift and the incline shaft  
which is sunk therein toward which a    
raise is being dug1 then again all the  
cords are stretched in the surveyor's   
field1 the last cord in such a way that 
it reaches the first1 and then he       
measures them4 ,from this measurement is
 known in what part of the drift or     
tunnel the raise should be made1 and how
 many fathoms of vein remain to be      
broken through in order that the shaft  
may be connected4  ,i have described the
 first reason for surveying2 ,i will now
 describe another4 ,when one vein comes 
near another1 and their owners are      
different persons who have late come    
into possession1 whether they drive a   
tunnel or a drift1 or sink a shaft1 they
 may encroach1 or seem to encroach1     
without any lawful right1 upon the      
boundaries of the older owners1 for     
which reason the latter very often seek 

redress1 or take legal proceedings4 ,the
 surveyor either himself settles the    
dispute between the owners1 or by his   
art gives evidence to the judges for    
making their decision1 that one shall   
not encroach on the mine of the other4  
,thus1 first of all he measures the     
mines of each party with a basket rope  
and cords of linden bark2 and having    
applied to the cords an orbis or a      
compass1 he notes the directions in     
which they extend4 ,then he stretches   
the cords on the surveyor's field2 and  
starting from that point whose owners   
are in possession of the old meer toward
 the other1 whether it is in the hanging
 or footwall of the vein1 he stretches a
 cross-cord in a straight line1         
according to the sixth division of the  
compass1 that is1 at a right angle to   
the vein1 for a distance of three and a 
half fathoms1 and assigns to the older  
owners that which belongs to them4 ,but 
if both ends of one vein are being dug  
out in two tunnels1 or drifts from      

opposite directions1 the surveyor first 
of all considers the lower tunnel or    
drift and afterward the upper one1 and  
judges how much each of them has risen  
little by little4 ,on each side strong  
men take in their hands a stretched cord
 and hold it so that there is no point  
where it is not strained tight2 on each 
side the surveyor supports the cord with
 a rod half a fathom long1 and stays the
 rod at the end with a short stick as   
often as he thinks it necessary4 ,but   
some fasten cords to the rods to make   
them steadier4 ,the surveyor attaches a 
suspended plummet level to the middle of
 the cord to enable him to calculate    
more accurately on both sides1 and from 
this he ascertains whether one tunnel   
has risen more than another1 or in like 
manner one drift more than another4     
,afterward he measures the incline of   
the shafts on both sides1 so that he can
 estimate their position on each side4  
,then he easily sees how many fathoms   
remain in the space which must be broken

 through4 ,but the grade of each tunnel1
 as ,i said1 should rise one fathom in  
the distance of one hundred fathoms4    
,illustration #adf 7,plummet cord and   
weight73 ,indicator of a suspended      
plummet level4  ,illustration #adg      
7,compass73 ,a--,needle of the          
instrument4 ,b--,its tongue4 ,c1 ,d1    
,e--,holes in the tongue4  ,the ,swiss  
surveyors1 when they wish to measure    
tunnels driven into the highest         
mountains1 also use a rod half a fathom 
long1 but composed of three parts1 which
 screw together1 so that they may be    
shortened4 ,they use a cord made of     
linden bark to which are fastened slips 
of paper showing the number of fathoms4 
,they also employ an instrument peculiar
 to them1 which has a needle2 but in    
place of the waxed circles they carry in
 their hands a chart on which they      
inscribe the readings of the instrument4
 ,the instrument is placed on the back  
part of the rod so that the tongue1 and 
the extended cord which runs through the

 three holes in the tongue1 demonstrates
 the direction1 and they note the number
 of fathoms4 ,the tongue shows whether  
the cord inclines forward or backward4  
,the tongue does not hang1 as in the    
case of the suspended plummet level1 but
 is fixed to the instrument in a        
half-lying position4 ,they measure the  
tunnels for the purpose of knowing how  
many fathoms they have been increased in
 elevation2 how many fathoms the lower  
is distant from the upper one2 how many 
fathoms of interval is not yet pierced  
between the miners who on opposite sides
 are digging on the same vein1 or       
cross-stringers1 or two veins which are 
approaching one another4  ,but ,i return
 to our mines4 ,if the surveyor desires 
to fix the boundaries of the meer within
 the tunnels or drifts1 and mark to them
 with a sign cut in the rock1 in the    
same way that the ,bergmeister has      
marked these boundaries above ground1 he
 first of all ascertains1 by measuring  
in the manner which ,i have explained   

above1 which part of the tunnel or drift
 lies beneath the surface boundary mark1
 stretching the cords along the drifts  
to a point beyond that spot in the rock 
where he judges the mark should be cut4 
,then1 after the same cords have been   
laid out on the surveyor's field1 he    
starts from that upper cord at a point  
which shows the boundary mark1 and      
stretches another cross-cord straight   
downward according to the sixth division
 of the compass--that is at a right     
angle4 ,then that part of the lowest    
cord which lies beyond the part to which
 the cross-cord runs being removed1 it  
shows at what point the boundary mark   
should be cut into the rock of the      
tunnel or drift4 ,the cutting is made in
 the presence of the two ,jurors and the
 manager and the foreman of each mine4  
,for as the ,bergmeister in the presence
 of these same persons sets the boundary
 stones on the surface1 so the surveyor 
cuts in the rock a sign which for this  
reason is called the boundary rock4 ,if 

he fixes the boundary mark of a meer in 
which a shaft has recently begun to be  
sunk on a vein1 first of all he measures
 and notes the incline of that shaft by 
the compass or by another way with the  
applied cords2 then he measures all the 
drifts up to that one in whose rock the 
boundary mark has to be cut4 ,of these  
drifts he measures each angle2 then the 
cords1 being laid out on the surveyor's 
field1 in a similar way he stretches a  
cross-cord1 as ,i said1 and cuts the    
sign on the rock4 ,but if the           
underground boundary rock has to be cut 
in a drift which lies beneath the first 
drift1 the surveyor starts from the mark
 in the first drift1 notes the different
 angles1 one by one1 takes his          
measurements1 and in the lower drift    
stretches a cord beyond that place where
 he judges the mark ought to be cut2 and
 then1 as ,i said before1 lays out the  
cords on the surveyor's field4 ,even if 
a vein runs differently in the lower    
drift from the upper one1 in which the  

first boundary mark has been cut in the 
rock1 still1 in the lower drift the mark
 must be cut in the rock vertically     
beneath4 ,for if he cuts the lower mark 
obliquely from the upper one some part  
of the possession of one mine is taken  
away to its detriment1 and given to the 
other4 ,moreover1 if it happens that the
 underground boundary mark requires to  
be cut in an angle1 the surveyor1       
starting from that angle1 measures one  
fathom toward the front of the mine and 
another fathom toward the back1 and from
 these measurements forms a triangle1   
and dividing its middle by a cross-cord1
 makes his cutting for the boundary     
mark4  ,lastly1 the surveyor sometimes1 
in order to make more certain1 finds the
 boundary of the meers in those places  
where many old boundary marks are cut in
 the rock4 ,then1 starting from a stake 
fixed on the surface1 he first of all   
measures to the nearest mine2 then he   
measures one shaft after another2 then  
he fixes a stake on the surveyors'      

field1 and making a beginning from it   
stretches the same cords in the same way
 and measures them1 and again fixes in  
the ground a stake which for him will   
signify the end of his measuring4       
,afterward he again measures underground
 from that spot at which he left off1 as
 many shafts and drifts as he can       
remember4 ,then he returns to the       
surveyor's field1 and starting again    
from the second stake1 makes his        
measurements2 and he does this as far as
 the drift in which the boundary mark   
must be cut in the rock4 ,finally1      
commencing from the stake first fixed in
 the ground1 he stretches a cross-cord  
in a straight line to the last stake1   
and this shows the length of the lowest 
drift4 ,the point where they touch1 he  
judges to be the place where the        
underground boundary mark should be cut4
       ,,end ,,of ,,book ,v4            
,,footnotes3  #a ,it has been suggested 
that we should adopt throughout this    
volume the mechanical and mining terms  

used in ,english mines at ,agricola's   
time4 ,we believe1 however1 that but a  
little inquiry would illustrate the     
undesirability of this course as a      
whole4 ,where there is choice in modern 
miner's nomenclature between an old and 
a modern term1 we have leaned toward    
age1 if it be a term generally          
understood4 ,but except where the       
subject described has itself become     
obsolete1 we have revived no obsolete   
terms4 ,in substantiation of this view1 
we append a few examples of terms which 
served the ,english miner well for      
centuries1 some of which are still      
extant in some local communities1 yet we
 believe they would carry as little     
meaning to the average reader as would  
the reproduction of the ,latin terms    
coined by ,agricola4    ,rake      ,a   
perpendicular vein4   ,woughs    ,walls 
of the vein4   ,shakes    ,cracks in the
 walls4   ,flookan   ,gouge4   ,bryle   
,outcrop4   ,hade      ,incline or      
underlay of the vein4   ,dawling        

,impoverishment of the vein4   ,rither  
,a horse in a vein4   ,twitches         
,pinching of a vein4   ,slough          
,drainage tunnel4   ,sole      ,lowest  
drift4   ,stool     ,face of a drift or 
stope4   ,winds    ,turn     ,winze4    
,dippas   ,grove     ,shaft4   ,dutins  
,set of timber4   ,stemple   ,post or   
stull4   ,laths     ,lagging4  ,as      
examples of the author's coinage and    
adaptations of terms in this book we may
 cite3--    ,fossa latens               
,drift4   ,fossa latens transversa      
,crosscut4   ,tectum                    
,hangingwall4   ,fundamentum            
,footwall4   ,tigna per intervalla      
posita  ,wall plate4   ,arbores         
dissectae            ,lagging4   ,formae
                       ,hitches4  ,we   
have adopted the term tunnel for        
openings by way of outlet to the mine4  
,the word in this narrow sense is as old
 as adit1 a term less expressive and not
 so generally used in the               
,english-speaking mining world4 ,we have

 for the same reason adopted the word   
drift instead of the term level so      
generally used in ,america1 because that
 term always leads to confusion in      
discussion of mine surveys4 ,we may     
mention1 however1 that the term level is
 a heritage from the ,derbyshire mines1 
and is of an equally respectable age as 
drift4  #b ,see note on p4 #df-dg4 ,the 
canales1 as here used1 were the openings
 in the earth1 in which minerals were   
deposited4  #c ,this statement1 as will 
appear by the description later on1     
refers to the depth of winzes or to the 
distance between drifts1 that is the    
lift4 ,we have not1 however1 been       
justified in using the term winze1      
because some of these were openings to  
the surface4 ,as showing the            
considerable depth of shafts in         
,agricola's time1 we may quote the      
following from ,bermannus 7p4 #ddb73    
,the depths of our shafts forced us to  
invent hauling machines suitable for    
them4 ,there are some of them larger and

 more ingenious than this one1 for use  
in deep shafts1 as1 for instance1 those 
in my native town of ,geyer1 but more   
especially at ,schneeberg1 where the    
shaft of the mine from which so much    
treasure was taken in our memory has    
reached the depth of about #bjj fathoms 
7feet871 wherefore the necessity of this
 kind of machinery4 ,naevius3 ,what an  
enormous depth6 ,have you reached the   
,inferno8 ,bermannus3 ,oh1 at           
,kuttenberg there are shafts more than  
#ejj fathoms 7feet87 deep4 ,naevius3    
,and not yet reached the ,kingdom of    
,pluto8 ,it is impossible to accept     
these as fathoms1 as this would in the  
last case represent #c1jjj feet         
vertically4 ,the expression used1       
however1 for fathoms is passus1         
presumably the ,roman measure equal to  
#eh4a inches4  #d ,cavernos4 ,the       
,glossary gives drusen1 our word drusy  
having had this origin4  #e             
,purum1--pure4 ,interpretatio gives the 
,german as gedigen1--native4  #f        

,rudis1--,crude4 ,by this expression the
 author really means ores very rich in  
any designated metal4 ,in many cases it 
serves to indicate the minerals of a    
given metal1 as distinguished from the  
metal itself4 ,our system of mineralogy 
obviously does not afford an acceptable 
equivalent4 ,agricola 7,de ,nat4 ,foss41
 p4 #cfj7 says3 ,i find it necessary to 
call each genus 7of the metallic        
minerals7 by the name of its own metal1 
and to this ,i add a word which         
differentiates it from the pure 7puro7  
metal1 whether the latter has been mined
 or smelted2 so ,i speak of rudis gold1 
silver1 quicksilver1 copper1 tin1       
bismuth1 lead1 or iron4 ,this is not    
because ,i am unaware that ,varro called
 silver rudis which had not yet been    
refined and stamped1 but because a word 
which will distinguish the one from the 
other is not to be found4  #g ,the      
reasons for retaining the ,latin weights
 are given in the ,appendix on ,weights 
and ,measures4 ,a centumpondium weighs  

#gj4f lbs4 avoirdupois1 an uncia #dab4b 
,troy grains1 therefore1 this value is  
equal to #gb ounces #ah pennyweights per
 short ton4  #h ,agricola mentions many 
minerals in ,de ,re ,metallica1 but     
without such description as would make  
possible a hazard at their identity4    
,from his ,de ,natura ,fossilium1       
however1 and from other mineralogies of 
the #afth ,century1 some can be fully   
identified and others surmised4 ,while  
we consider it desirable to set out the 
probable composition of these minerals1 
on account of the space required1 the   
reasons upon which our opinion has been 
based cannot be given in detail1 as that
 would require extensive quotations4 ,in
 a general way1 we have throughout the  
text studiously evaded the use of modern
 mineralogical terms--unless the term   
used to-day is of ,agricola's age--and  
have adopted either old ,english terms  
of pre-chemistry times or more loose    
terms used by common miners4 ,obviously 
modern mineralogic terms imply a        

precision of knowledge not existing at  
that period4 ,it must not be assumed    
that the following is by any means a    
complete list of the minerals described 
by ,agricola1 but they include most of  
those referred to in this chapter4 ,his 
system of mineralogy we have set out in 
note #d1 p4 #a1 and it requires no      
further comment here4 ,the grouping     
given below is simply for convenience   
and does not follow ,agricola's method4 
,where possible1 we tabulate in columns 
the ,latin term used in ,de ,re         
,metallica2 the ,german equivalent given
 by the ,author in either the           
,interpretatio or the ,glossary2 our    
view of the probable modern equivalent  
based on investigation of his other     
works and other ancient mineralogies1   
and lastly the terms we have adopted in 
the text4 ,the ,german spelling is that 
given in the original4 ,as an indication
 of ,agricola's position as a           
mineralogist1 we mark with an asterisk  
the minerals which were first           

specifically described by him4 ,we also 
give some notes on matters of importance
 bearing on the nomenclature used in ,de
 ,re ,metallica4 ,historical notes on   
the chief metals will be found          
elsewhere1 generally with the discussion
 of smelting methods4 ,we should not    
omit to express our indebtedness to     
,dana's great ,system of ,mineralogy1 in
 the matter of correlation of many old  
and modern minerals4  ,,gold ,,minerals4
 ,agricola apparently believed that     
there were various gold minerals1 green1
 yellow1 purple1 black1 etc4 ,there is  
nothing1 however1 in his works that     
permits of any attempt to identify them1
 and his classification seems to rest on
 gangue colours4  ,,silver ,,minerals4  
,argentum purum in  ,gedigen silber     
--            99,native silver     venis
 reperitur    ,argentum rude            
,gedigen silber         --              
,rudis silver1 or                       
ertz                                    
pure silver                             

minerals    ,argentum rude      ,glas   
ertz        ,argentite                  
99,silver glance     plumbei coloris    
7,ag#b,s7    ,argentum rude      ,rot   
gold ertz    ,pyrargyrite        99,red 
silver     rubrum                       
7,ag#c,sb,s#c7    ,argentum rude        
,durchsichtig      ,proustite           
99,ruby silver     rubrum               
rod gulden        7,ag#c;,as,s#c7       
translucidum       ertz    ,argentum    
rude      ,weis rod gulden        --    
,white silver     album                 
ertz3 ,dan es                           
ist frisch wie                          
offtmals rod                            
gulden ertz                             
pfleget zusein    ,argentum rude        
,gedigen           ,part ,bromyrite     
,liver-coloured     jecoris             
leberfarbig        7,ag ,br7            
silver     colore             ertz      
,argentum rude      ,gedigen            
--             ,yellow silver     luteum
             geelertz    ,argentum rude 

,gedigen graw                           
99,grey silver     cineraceum           
ertz           ,part ,cerargurite       
7,ag ,cl7 7,horn       ,argentum rude   
,gedigen          ,silver7 ,part        
99,black silver     nigrum              
schwartz ertz   ,stephanite             
7,ag#e,sb,s#d7     ,argentum rude       
,gedigen braun                          
99,purple silver     purpureum          
ertz                              ,the  
last six may be in part also alteration 
products from all silver minerals4  ,the
 reasons for indefiniteness in          
determination usually lie in the failure
 of ancient authors to give sufficient  
or characteristic descriptions4 ,in many
 cases ,agricola is sufficiently        
definite as to assure certainty1 as the 
following description of what we        
consider to be silver glance1 from ,de  
,natura ,fossilium 7p4 #cfj71 will      
indicate3 ,lead-coloured rudis silver is
 called by the ,germans from the word   
glass 7glasertz71 not from lead4        

,indeed1 it has the colour of the latter
 or of galena 7plumbago71 but not of    
glass1 nor is it transparent like glass1
 which one might indeed expect had the  
name been correctly derived4 ,this      
mineral is occasionally so like galena  
in colour1 although it is darker1 that  
one who is not experienced in minerals  
is unable to distinguish between the two
 at sight1 but in substance they differ 
greatly from one another4 ,nature has   
made this kind of silver out of a little
 earth and much silver4 ,whereas galena 
consists of stone and lead containing   
some silver4 ,but the distinction       
between them can be easily determined1  
for galena may be ground to powder in a 
mortar with a pestle1 but this treatment
 flattens out this kind of rudis silver4
 ,also galena1 when struck by a mallet  
or bitten or hacked with a knife1 splits
 and breaks to pieces2 whereas this     
silver is malleable under the hammer1   
may be dented by the teeth1 and cut with
 a knife4  ,,copper ,,minerals4    ,aes 

purum          ,gedigen kupfer   ,native
 copper      ,native copper     fossile 
,aes rude           ,kupferglas ertz    
,chalcocite         99,copper glance    
plumbei                                 
7,cu#b,s7     coloris    ,chalcitis     
,rodt atrament    ,a decomposed         
,chalcitis 7see                         
copper or          notes on p4 #egc7    
iron sulphide    ,pyrites aurei         
,geelkis oder     ,part chalcopyrite    
,copper pyrites     colore              
kupferkis       7,cu ,fe ,s7 part       
bornite   ,pyrites aerosus              
7,cu#c;,fe,s#c7    ,caeruleum           
,berglasur        ,azurite              
,azure    ,chrysocolla       ,berggruen 
und     ,part chrysocolla   ,chrysocolla
 7see                                   
schifergruen    ,part ,malachite        
note #g1 p4 #efj7    ,molochites        
,molochit         ,malachite            
,malachite    ,lapis aerarius    ,kupfer
 ertz          --             ,copper   
ore    ,aes caldarium     ,lebeter      

kupfer   ,when used for     rubrum      
fuscum                        an ore1 is
      99,ruby copper ore          or    
probably   ,aes sui coloris  ,rotkupfer 
cuprite    ,aes nigrum        ,schwartz 
kupfer  ,probably ,cu,o from  99,black  
copper                                  
oxidation of                            
other minerals  ,in addition to the     
above the ,author uses the following1   
which were in the main artificial       
products3    ,aerugo                    
,gruenspan oder     ,verdigris          
,verdigris                              
,spanschgruen    ,aes luteum            
,gelfarkupfer    ,impure blister        
,unrefined copper                       
copper           7see note #af1         
p4 #eaa7   ,aes caldarium               
,lebeterkupfer                          
,aeris flos        ,kupferbraun         
,cupric oxide      ,copper flower       
scales                                  
,aeris squama      ,kupferhammer-       
,copper scale 7see                      

schlag                             note 
#i1 p4 #bcc7    ,atramentum             
,blaw kupfer       ,chalcanthite        
,native blue     sutorium               
wasser                                  
vitriol 7see     caeruleum or           
note on p4 #egb7     chalcanthum  ,blue 
and green copper minerals were          
distinguished by all the ancient        
mineralogists4 ,theophrastus1           
,dioscorides1 ,pliny1 etc41 all give    
sufficient detail to identify their     
cyanus and caeruleum partly with modern 
azurite1 and their chrysocolla partly   
with the modern mineral of the same     
name4 ,however1 these terms were also   
used for vegetable pigments1 as well as 
for the pigments made from the minerals4
 ,the ,greek origin of chrysocolla      
7chrysos1 gold and kolla1 solder7 may be
 blamed with another and distinct line  
of confusion1 in that this term has been
 applied to soldering materials1 from   
,greek down to modern times1 some of the
 ancient mineralogists even asserting   

that the copper mineral chrysocolla was 
used for this purpose4 ,agricola uses   
chrysocolla for borax1 but is careful to
 state in every case 7see note xx41 p4  
x73 ,chrysocolla made from nitrum1 or   
,chrysocolla which the ,moors call      
,borax4 ,dioscorides and ,pliny mention 
substances which were evidently copper  
sulphides1 but no description occurs    
prior to ,agricola that permits a hazard
 as to different species4  ,,lead       
,,minerals4    ,plumbarius lapis        
,glantz           ,galena               
,galena    ,galena            ,glantz   
und        ,galena             ,galena  
pleiertz    ,plumbum nigrum    ,pleiertz
 oder     ,cerussite          ,yellow   
lead ore     lutei coloris              
pleischweis       7,pb,c,o#c7           
,plumbago              metallica        
,cerussa           ,pleiweis            
,artificial         ,white-lead 7see    
,white-lead         note #d1 p4 #ddj7   
,ochra facticia    ,pleigeel            
,massicot 7,pb ,o7    99,lead-ochre 7see

     or ochra                           
note #h1 p4 #bcb7     plumbaria         
,molybdaena       ,herdplei             
,part litharge      ,hearth-lead 7see   
note #cg1 p4 #dgf7   ,plumbago          
fornacis           ,spuma argenti       
,glett            ,litharge             
,litharge 7see note                     
on p4 #dfe7   ,lithargyrum              
,minium             ,menning            
,minium             ,red-lead 7see note 
secundarium                             
7,pb#c,o#d7       #g1 p4 #bcb7  ,so far 
as we can determine1 all of these except
 the first three were believed by       
,agricola to be artificial products4 ,of
 the first three1 galena is certain     
enough1 but while he obviously was      
familiar with the alteration lead       
products1 his descriptions are          
inadequate and much confused with the   
artificial oxides4 ,great confusion     
arises in the ancient mineralogies over 
the terms molybdaena1 plumbago1 plumbum1
 galena1 and spuma argenti1 all of      

which1 from ,roman mineralogists down to
 a century after ,agricola1 were used   
for lead in some form4 ,further         
discussion of such confusion will be    
found in note #cg1 p4 #dgf4 ,agricola in
 ,bermannus and ,de ,natura ,fossilium1 
devotes pages to endeavouring to        
reconcile the ancient usages of these   
terms1 and all the confusion existing in
 ,agricola's time was thrice confounded 
when the names molybdaena and plumbago  
were assigned to non-lead minerals4     
,,tin4 ,agricola knew only one tin      
mineral3 ,lapilli nigri ex quibus       
conflatur plumbum candidum1 i4e41       
,little black stones from which tin is  
smelted1 and he gives the ,german       
equivalent as zwitter1 tin-stone4 ,he   
describes them as being of different    
colours1 but probably due to external   
causes4  ,,antimony4                    
7,interpretatio1--spiesglas47 ,the stibi
 or stibium of ,agricola was no doubt   
the sulphide1 and he follows            
,dioscorides in dividing it into male   

and female species4 ,this distinction1  
however1 is impossible to apply from the
 inadequate descriptions given4 ,the    
mineral and metal known to ,agricola and
 his predecessors was almost always the 
sulphide1 and we have not felt justified
 in using the term antimony alone1 as   
that implies the refined product1       
therefore1 we have adopted either the   
,latin term or the old ,english term    
grey antimony4 ,the smelted antimony of 
commerce sold under the latter term was 
the sulphide4 ,for further notes see p4 
#dbh4  ,,bismuth994 ,plumbum cinereum   
7,interpretatio1--bismut74 ,agricola    
states that this mineral occasionally   
occurs native1 but more often as a      
mineral of another colour 7,de ,nat4    
,fos41 p4 #ccg71 and he also describes  
its commonest form as black or grey4    
,this1 considering his localities1 would
 indicate the sulphide1 although he     
assigns no special name to it4 ,although
 bismuth is mentioned before ,agricola  
in the ,nuetzliche ,bergbuechlin1 he was

 the first to describe it 7see p4 #dcc74
  ,,quicksilver4 ,apart from native     
quicksilver1 ,agricola adequately       
describes cinnabar only4 ,the term used 
by him for the mineral is minium nativum
 7,interpretatio1--bergzinober or       
cinnabaris74 ,he makes the curious      
statement 7,de ,nat4 ,fos4 p4 #cce7 that
 rudis quicksilver also occurs          
liver-coloured and blackish1--probably  
gangue colours4 7,see p4 #dcb74         
,,arsenical ,,minerals4 ,metallic       
arsenic was unknown1 although it has    
been maintained that a substance        
mentioned by ,albertus ,magnus 7,de     
,rebus ,metallicis7 was the metallic    
form4 ,agricola1 who was familiar with  
all ,albertus's writings1 makes no      
mention of it1 and it appears to us that
 the statement of ,albertus referred    
only to the oxide from sublimation4 ,our
 word arsenic obviously takes root in   
the ,greek for orpiment1 which was also 
used by ,pliny 7,,xxxiv1 #ef7 as        
arrhenicum1 and later was modified to   

arsenicum by the ,alchemists1 who       
applied it to the oxide4 ,agricola gives
 the following in ,bermannus 7p4 #ddh71 
who has been previously discussing      
realgar and orpiment3--,ancon3 ,avicenna
 also has a white variety4 ,bermannus3  
,i cannot at all believe in a mineral of
 a white colour2 perhaps he was thinking
 of an artificial product2 there are two
 which the ,alchemists make1 one yellow 
and the other white1 and they are       
accounted the most powerful poisons     
to-day1 and are called only by the name 
arsenicum4 ,in ,de ,natura ,fossilium   
7p4 #bai7 is described the making of the
 white variety by sublimating orpiment1 
and also it is noted that realgar can be
 made from orpiment by heating the      
latter for five hours in a sealed       
crucible4 ,in ,de ,re ,metallica 7,book 
,x471 he refers to auripigmentum        
facticum1 and no doubt means the realgar
 made from orpiment4 ,the four minerals 
of arsenic base mentioned by ,agricola  
were3--    ,auripigmentum     ,operment 

,orpiment           ,orpiment           
7,as#b,s#c7    ,sandaraca               
,rosgeel          ,realgar 7,as ,s7     
,realgar    ,arsenicum         ,arsenik 
,artificial         ,white arsenic      
arsenical oxide    ,lapis subrutilus    
,mistpuckel       ,arsenopyrite         
99,mispickel      atque 444             
7,fe ,as ,s7      splendens  ,we are    
somewhat uncertain as to the            
identification of the last4 ,the yellow 
and red sulphides1 however1 were well   
known to the ,ancients1 and are         
described by ,aristotle1 ,theophrastus  
7#ga and #hi71 ,dioscorides 7,v1 #ha71  
,pliny 7,,xxxiii1 #bb1 etc472 and       
,strabo 7,,xii1 #c1 #dj7 mentions a mine
 of them near ,pompeiopolis1 where1     
because of its poisonous character none 
but slaves were employed4 ,the ,ancients
 believed that the yellow sulphide      
contained gold--hence the name          
auripigmentum1 and ,pliny describes the 
attempt of the ,emperor ,caligula to    
extract the gold from it1 and states    

that he did obtain a small amount1 but  
unprofitably4 ,so late a mineralogist as
 ,hill 7#agej7 held this view1 which    
seemed to be general4 ,both realgar and 
orpiment were important for pigments1   
medicinal purposes1 and poisons among   
the ,ancients4 ,in addition to the      
above1 some arsenic-cobalt minerals are 
included under cadmia4  ,,iron          
,,minerals4    ,ferrum purum            
,gedigen eisen    ,native iron          
99,native iron    ,terra ferria         
,eisen ertz      ,various soft and      
,ironstone                              
hard iron         ,ferri vena           
,eisen ertz        ores1 probably       
mostly hematite   ,galenae genus        
,eisen glantz                           
tertium omnis                           
metalli                                 
inanissimi                              
,schistos          ,glaskoepfe oder     
bluetstein                              
,ferri vena         ,leber ertz         
jecoris colore                          

,ferrugo           ,ruest               
,part limonite      ,iron rust          
,magnes            ,siegelstein         
,magnetite          ,lodestone          
oder magnet    ,ochra nativa      ,berg 
geel        ,limonite           ,yellow 
ochre or                                
ironstone    ,haematites        ,bluet  
stein     ,part hematite                
,bloodstone or                          
,part jasper           ironstone        
,schistos          ,glas koepfe         
,part limonite      ,ironstone          
,pyrites           ,kis                 
,pyrites            ,pyrites    ,pyrites
 argenti    wasser oder       ,marcasite
          99,white iron     coloris     
weisser kis                             
pyrites    ,misy              ,gel      
atrament     ,part copiapite     ,misy  
7see note                               
on p4 #egc7    ,sory              ,graw 
und          ,partly a           ,sory  
7see note                               
schwartz           decomposed iron    on

 p4 #egc7                               
atrament          pyrite    ,melanteria 
,schwartz und     ,melanterite          
,melanteria 7see                        
grau atrament    7native vitriol7       
note on p4 #egc7  ,the classification of
 iron ores on the basis of exterior     
characteristics1 chiefly hardness and   
brilliancy1 does not justify a more     
narrow rendering than ironstone4        
,agricola 7,de ,nat4 ,fos41 ,book ,v47  
gives elaborate descriptions of various 
iron ores1 but the descriptions under   
any special name would cover many actual
 minerals4 ,the subject of pyrites is a 
most confused one2 the term originates  
from the ,greek word for fire1 and      
referred in ,greek and ,roman times to  
almost any stone that would strike      
sparks4 ,by ,agricola it was a generic  
term in somewhat the same sense that it 
is still used in mineralogy1 as1 for    
instance1 iron pyrite1 copper pyrite1   
etc4 ,so much was this the case later   
on1 that ,henckel1 the leading          

mineralogist of the #ahth ,century1     
entitled his large volume ,pyritologia1 
and in it embraces practically all the  
sulphide minerals then known4 ,the term 
marcasite1 of mediaeval ,arabic origin1 
seems to have had some vogue prior and  
subsequent to ,agricola4 ,he1 however1  
puts it on one side as merely a synonym 
for pyrite1 nor can it be satisfactorily
 defined in much better terms4 ,agricola
 apparently did not recognise the iron  
base of pyrites1 for he says 7,de ,nat4 
,fos41 p4 #cff73 ,sometimes1 however1   
pyrites do not contain any gold1 silver1
 copper1 or lead1 and yet it is not a   
pure stone1 but a compound1 and consists
 of stone and a substance which is      
somewhat metallic1 which is a species of
 its own4 ,many varieties were known to 
him and described1 partly by their other
 metal association1 but chiefly by their
 colour4  ,,cadmia4 ,the minerals       
embraced under this term by the old     
mineralogists form one of the most      
difficult chapters in the history of    

mineralogy4 ,these complexities reached 
their height with ,agricola1 for at this
 time various new minerals classed under
 this heading had come under debate4    
,all these minerals were later found to 
be forms of zinc1 cobalt1 or arsenic1   
and some of these minerals were in use  
long prior to ,agricola4 ,from ,greek   
and ,roman times down to long after     
,agricola1 brass was made by cementing  
zinc ore with copper4 ,aristotle and    
,strabo mention an earth used to colour 
copper1 but give no details4 ,it is     
difficult to say what zinc mineral the  
cadmium of ,dioscorides 7,v1 #df7 and   
,pliny 7,,xxxiv1 #b71 really was4 ,it   
was possibly only furnace calamine1 or  
perhaps blende for it was associated    
with copper4 ,they amply describe cadmia
 produced in copper furnaces1 and       
pompholyx 7zinc oxide74 ,it was         
apparently not until ,theophilus 7#aaej7
 that the term calamina appears for that
 mineral4 ,precisely when the term zinc1
 and a knowledge of the metal1 first    

appeared in ,europe is a matter of some 
doubt2 it has been attributed to        
,paracelsus1 a contemporary of ,agricola
 7see note on p4 #dji71 but we do not   
believe that author's work in question  
was printed until long after4 ,the      
quotations from ,agricola given below1  
in which zincum is mentioned in an      
obscure way1 do not appear in the first 
editions of these works1 but only in the
 revised edition of #aeei4 ,in other    
words1 ,agricola himself only learned of
 a substance under this name a short    
period before his death in #aeee4 ,the  
metal was imported into ,europe from    
,china prior to this time4 ,he however  
does describe actual metallic zinc under
 the term conterfei1 and mentions its   
occurrence in the cracks of furnace     
walls4 7,see also notes on p4 #dji74    
,the word cobalt 7,german kobelt7 is    
from the ,greek word cobalos1 mime1 and 
its ,german form was the term for gnomes
 and goblins4 ,it appears that the      
,german miners1 finding a material      

7,agricola's corrosive material7 which  
injured their hands and feet1 connected 
it with the goblins1 or used the term as
 an epithet1 and finally it became      
established for certain minerals 7see   
note #ba1 p4 #bad1 on this subject74    
,the first written appearance of the    
term in connection with minerals1       
appears in ,agricola's ,bermannus       
7#aecj74 ,the first practical use of    
cobalt was in the form of zaffre or     
cobalt blue4 ,there seems to be no      
mention of the substance by the ,greek  
or ,roman writers1 although analyses of 
old colourings show some traces of      
cobalt1 but whether accidental or not is
 undetermined4 ,the first mention we    
know of1 was by ,biringuccio in #aedj   
7,de ,la ,pirotechnia1 ,book ,,ii1      
,chap4 ,,ix471 who did not connect it   
with the minerals then called cobalt or 
cadmia4 ,zaffera is another mineral     
substance1 like a metal of middle       
weight1 which will not melt alone1 but  
accompanied by vitreous substances it   

melts into an azure colour so that those
 who colour glass1 or paint vases or    
glazed earthenware1 make use of it4 ,not
 only does it serve for the             
above-mentioned operations1 but if one  
uses too great a quantity of it1 it will
 be black and all other colours1        
according to the quantity used4         
,agricola1 although he does not use the 
word zaffre1 does refer to a substance  
of this kind1 and in any event also     
missed the relation between zaffre and  
cobalt1 as he seems to think 7,de ,nat4 
,fos41 p4 #cdg7 that zaffre came from   
bismuth1 a belief that existed until    
long after his time4 ,the cobalt of the 
,erzgebirge was of course1 intimately   
associated with this mineral4 ,he says1 
the slag of bismuth1 mixed together with
 metalliferous substances1 which when   
melted make a kind of glass1 will tint  
glass and earthenware vessels blue4     
,zaffre is the roasted mineral ground   
with sand1 while smalt1 a term used more
 frequently1 is the fused mixture with  

sand4  ,the following are the substances
 mentioned by ,agricola1 which1 we      
believe1 relate to cobalt and zinc      
minerals1 some of them arsenical        
compounds4 ,other arsenical minerals we 
give above4    ,cadmia fossilis         
,calmei2 lapis   ,calamine              
,calamine                               
calaminaris    ,cadmia metallica        
,kobelt           ,part cobalt          
99,cadmia                               
metallica    ,cadmia fornacis   ,mitlere
 und       ,furnace            ,furnace 
accretions                         obere
              accretions or             
offenbrueche       furnace calamine     
,bituminosa         ,kobelt des         
7,mannsfeld copper  ,bituminosa cadmia  
cadmia             bergwacht            
schists7           7see note #d1        
p4 #bgc7    ,galena inanis     ,blende  
,sphalerite99        99,blende          
7,zn ,s7    ,cobaltum               --  
,smallite99         ,cadmia metallica   
cineraceum                              

7,co,as#b7                              
,cobaltum nigrum       --               
,abolite99                              
,cobaltum ferri         --              
,cobaltite             colore           
7,co,as,s7           ,zincum            
,zinck            ,zinc                 
,zinc    ,liquor ,candidus    ,conterfei
        ,zinc               ,see note   
#dh1 p4 #djh     ex fornace 444     etc4
    ,atramentum             --          
,goslarite          99,native white     
sutorium1                               
7,zn ,,so#d7        vitriol             
candidum1 potissimum     reperitur      
,goselariae    ,spodos                  
,geeler zechen    ,either natural       
,grey spodos     subterranea            
rauch            or artificial          
cinerea                                 
zinc oxides1                            
no doubt          ,spodos               
,schwartzer         containing          
,black spodos     subterranea           
zechen rauch1     arsenical             

nigra              auff dem             
oxides                                  
,altenberge                             
nennet man in                           
kis                                     
,spodos             ,grauer zechen      
,green spodos     subterranea           
rauch                                   
viridis                                 
,pompholyx         ,huettenrauch        
,pompholyx 7see                         
note #bf1 p4 #cid7  ,as seen from the   
following quotations from ,agricola1 on 
cadmia and cobalt1 there was infinite   
confusion as to the zinc1 cobalt1 and   
arsenic minerals2 nor do we think any   
good purpose is served by adding to the 
already lengthy discussion of these     
passages1 the obscurity of which is     
natural to the state of knowledge2 but  
we reproduce them as giving a fairly    
clear idea of the amount of confusion   
then existing4 ,it is1 however1         
desirable to bear in mind that the mines
 familiar to ,agricola abounded in      

complex mixtures of cobalt1 nickel1     
arsenic1 bismuth1 zinc1 and antimony4   
,agricola frequently mentions the garlic
 odour from cadmia metallica1 which1    
together with the corrosive qualities   
mentioned below1 would obviously be due 
to arsenic4 ,bermannus 7p4 #dei74 ,this 
kind of pyrites miners call cobaltum1 if
 it be allowed to me to use our ,german 
name4 ,the ,greeks call it cadmia4 ,the 
juices1 however1 out of which pyrites   
and silver are formed1 appear to        
solidify into one body1 and thus is     
produced what they call cobaltum4 ,there
 are some who consider this the same as 
pyrites1 because it is almost the same4 
,there are some who distinguish it as a 
species1 which pleases me1 for it has   
the distinctive property of being       
extremely corrosive1 so that it consumes
 the hands and feet of the workmen1     
unless they are well protected1 which ,i
 do not believe that pyrites can do4    
,three kinds are found1 and             
distinguished more by the colour than by

 other properties2 they are black       
7abolite871 grey 7smallite871 and iron  
colour 7cobalt glance874 ,moreover1 it  
contains more silver than does          
pyrites4444 ,bermannus 7p4 #dca74 ,it 7a
 sort of pyrites7 is so like the colour 
of galena that not without cause might  
anybody have doubt in deciding whether  
it be pyrites or galena4444 ,perhaps    
this kind is neither pyrites nor galena1
 but has a genus of its own4 ,for it has
 not the colour of pyrites1 nor the     
hardness4 ,it is almost the colour of   
galena1 but of entirely different       
components4 ,from it there is made gold 
and silver1 and a great quantity is dug 
out from ,reichenstein which is in      
,silesia1 as was lately reported to me4 
,much more is found at ,raurici1 which  
they call zincum2 which species differs 
from pyrites1 for the latter contains   
more silver than gold1 the former only  
gold1 or hardly any silver4  7,de       
,natura ,fossilium1 p4 #agj74 ,cadmia   
fossilis has an odour like garlic 444   

7p4 #cfg74 ,we now proceed with cadmia1 
not the cadmia fornacis 7furnace        
accretions7 of which ,i spoke in the    
last book1 nor the cadmia fossilis      
7calamine7 devoid of metal1 which is    
used to colour copper1 whose nature ,i  
explained in ,book ,v1 but the metallic 
mineral 7fossilis metallica71 which     
,pliny states to be an ore from which   
copper is made4 ,the ,ancients have left
 no record that another metal could be  
smelted from it4 ,yet it is a fact that 
not only copper but also silver may be  
smelted from it1 and indeed occasionally
 both copper and silver together4       
,sometimes1 as is the case with pyrites1
 it is entirely devoid of metal4 ,it is 
frequently found in copper mines1 but   
more frequently still in silver mines4  
,and there are likewise veins of cadmia 
itself4444 ,there are several species of
 the cadmia fossilis just as there were 
of cadmia fornacum4 ,for one kind has   
the form of grapes and another of broken
 tiles1 a third seems to consist of     

layers4 ,but the cadmia fossilis has    
much stronger properties than that which
 is produced in the furnaces4 ,indeed1  
it often possesses such highly corrosive
 power that it corrodes the hands and   
feet of the miners4 ,it1 therefore1     
differs from pyrites in colour and      
properties4 ,for pyrites1 if it does not
 contain vitriol1 is generally either of
 a gold or silver colour1 rarely of any 
other4 ,cadmia is either black or brown 
or grey1 or else reddish like copper    
when melted in the furnace4444 ,for this
 cadmia is put in a suitable vessel1 in 
the same way as quicksilver1 so that the
 heat of the fire will cause it to      
sublimate1 and from it is made a black  
or brown or grey body which the         
,alchemists call 'sublimated cadmia'    
7cadmiam sublimatam74 ,this possesses   
corrosive properties of the highest     
degree4 ,cognate with cadmia and pyrites
 is a compound which the ,noricians and 
,rhetians call zincum4 ,this contains   
gold and silver1 and is either red or   

white4 ,it is likewise found in the     
,sudetian mountains1 and is devoid of   
those metals4444 ,with this cadmia is   
naturally related mineral spodos1 known 
to the ,moor ,serapion1 but unknown to  
the ,greeks2 and also pompholyx--for    
both are produced by fire where the     
miners1 breaking the hard rocks in      
drifts1 tunnels1 and shafts1 burn the   
cadmia or pyrites or galena or other    
similar minerals4 ,from cadmia is made  
black1 brown1 and grey spodos2 from     
pyrites1 white pompholyx and spodos2    
from galena is made yellow or grey      
spodos4 ,but pompholyx produced from    
copper stone 7lapide aeroso7 after some 
time becomes green4 ,the black spodos1  
similar to soot1 is found at ,altenberg 
in ,meissen4 ,the white pompholyx1 like 
wool which floats in the air in summer1 
is found in ,hildesheim in the seams in 
the rocks of almost all quarries except 
in the sandstone4 ,but the grey and the 
brown and the yellow pompholyx are found
 in those silver mines where the miners 

break up the rocks by fire4 ,all consist
 of very fine particles which are very  
light1 but the lightest of all is white 
pompholyx4  ,,quartz ,,minerals4        
,quarzum 7which   ,quertz oder          
,quartz             ,quartz 7see note   
,latins call         kiselstein         
#ae1 p4 #chj7     silex7    ,silex      
,hornstein oder    ,flinty or jaspery   
,hornstone                              
feurstein         quartz    ,crystallum 
,crystal          ,clear crystals       
,crystal    ,achates           ,achat   
,agate              ,agate    ,sarda    
,carneol          ,carnelian            
,carnelian    ,jaspis            ,jaspis
           ,part coloured      ,jaspis  
quartz1 part                            
jade    ,murrhina          ,chalcedonius
     ,chalcedony         ,chalcedony    
,coticula          ,goldstein        ,a 
black silicious  ,touchstone 7see       
stone              note #cg1 p4 #beb7   
,amethystus        ,amethyst            
,amethyst           ,amethyst  ,,lime   

,,minerals4    ,lapis             ,gips 
,gypsum             ,gypsum             
specularis                              
,gypsum              ,marmor            
,marmelstein      ,marble               
,marble    ,marmor                      
,alabaster        ,alabaster            
,alabaster     alabastrites    ,marmor  
glarea         --             ,calcite  
787        ,calc spar787    ,saxum      
calcis      ,kalchstein       ,limestone
          ,limestone    ,marga          
,mergel           ,marl                 
,marl    ,tophus            ,toffstein  
oder    ,sintry             ,tophus 7see
 note                         topstein  
limestones1        #ac1 p4 #bcc7        
stalagmites1                            
etc4  ,,miscellaneous4    ,amiantus     
,federwis1 pliant  ,usually asbestos    
,asbestos                               
salamanderhar    ,magnetis              
,silberweis oder  ,mica                 
99,mica                                 
katzensilber                            

,bracteolae              --             
magnetidi simile                        
,mica              ,katzensilber        
oder glimmer      ,silex ex eo ictu     
--            ,feldspar                 
99,feldspar     ferri facile     ignis  
elicitur4444     excubus figuris        
,medulla saxorum   ,steinmarck          
,kaolinite          ,porcelain clay     
,fluores 7lapides   ,flusse             
,fluorspar          99,fluorspar        
gemmarum simili7                        
7see note #ae1                          
p4 #chj7    ,marmor in          ,spat   
,barite             99,heavy spar       
metallis     repertum  ,apart from the  
above1 many other minerals are mentioned
 in other chapters1 and some information
 is given with regard to them in the    
footnotes4  #i ,three librae of silver  
per centumpondium would be equal to #hge
 ounces per short ton4  #aj ,as stated  
in note on p4 #b1 ,agricola divided     
stones so called into four kinds2 the   
first1 common stones in which he        

included lodestone and jasper or        
bloodstone2 the second embraced gems2   
the third were decorative stones1 such  
as marble1 porphyry1 etc42 the fourth   
were rocks1 such as sandstone and       
limestone4  ,,lodestone4 7,magnes2      
,interpretatio gives ,siegelstein oder  
magnet74 ,the lodestone was well-known  
to the ,ancients under various          
names--magnes1 magnetis1 heraclion1 and 
sideritis4 ,a review of the ancient     
opinions as to its miraculous properties
 would require more space than can be   
afforded4 ,it is mentioned by many      
,greek writers1 including ,hippocrates  
7#dfj-cgb ,b4,c47 and ,aristotle2 while 
,theophrastus 7#ec71 ,dioscorides 7,v1  
#aje71 and ,pliny 7,,xxxiv1 #db1        
,,xxxvi1 #be7 describe it at length4    
,the ,ancients also maintained the      
existence of a stone1 theamedes1 having 
repellant properties1 and the two were  
supposed to exist at times in the same  
stone4  ,,emery4 7,smiris2              
,interpretatio gives smirgel74 ,agricola

 7,de ,natura ,fossilium1 p4 #bfe7 says3
 ,the ring-makers polish and clean their
 hard gems with smiris4 ,the glaziers   
use it to cut their glass into sheets4  
,it is found in the silver mines of     
,annaberg in ,meissen and elsewhere4    
,stones used for polishing gems are     
noted by the ancient authors1 and ,dana 
7,syst4 of ,mineralogy1 p4 #baa7        
considers the stone of ,armenia1 of     
,theophrastus 7#gg71 to be emery1       
although it could quite well be any hard
 stone1 such as ,novaculite--which is   
found in ,armenia4 ,dioscorides 7,v1    
#aff7 describes a stone with which the  
engravers polish gems4  ,,lapis         
,,judaicus4 7,interpretatio gives       
,jueden stein74 ,this was undoubtedly a 
fossil1 possibly a pentremites4         
,agricola 7,de ,natura ,fossilium1 p4   
#bef7 says3 ,it is shaped like an acorn1
 from the obtuse end to the point       
proceed raised lines1 all equidistant1  
etc4 ,many fossils were included among  
the semi-precious stones by the         

,ancients4 ,pliny 7,,xxxvii1 #ee1 #ff1  
#gc7 describes many such stones1 among  
them the balanites1 phoenicitis and the 
pyren1 which resemble the above4        
,,trochitis4 7,interpretatio gives      
spangen oder rederstein74 ,this was also
 a fossil1 probably crinoid stems4      
,agricola 7,de ,natura ,fossilium1 p4   
#bef7 describes it3 ,trochites is so    
called from a wheel1 and is related to  
lapis judaicus4 ,nature has indeed given
 it the shape of a drum 7tympanum74 ,the
 round part is smooth1 but on both ends 
as it were there is a module from which 
on all sides there extend radii to the  
outer edge1 which corresponds with the  
radii4 ,these radii are so much raised  
that it is fluted4 ,the size of these   
trochites varies greatly1 for the       
smallest is so little that the largest  
is ten times as big1 and the largest are
 a digit in length by a third of a digit
 in thickness 444 when immersed in      
vinegar they make bubbles4  #aa ,the    
extraordinary earths of ,agricola were  

such substances as ochres1 tripoli1     
fullers earth1 potters' clay1 clay used 
for medicinal purposes1 etc41 etc4  #ab 
,presumably the ore-body dips into a    
neighbouring property4  #ac ,the various
 kinds of iron tools are described in   
great detail in ,book ,,vi4  #ad        
,fire-setting as an aid to breaking rock
 is of very ancient origin1 and moreover
 it persisted in certain ,german and    
,norwegian mines down to the end of the 
#aith century--#bgj years after the     
first application of explosives to      
mining4 ,the first specific reference to
 fire-setting in mining is by           
,agatharchides 7#bnd century ,b4,c47    
whose works are not extant1 but who is  
quoted by both ,diodorus ,siculus and   
,photius1 for which statement see note  
#h1 p4 #bgi4 ,pliny 7,,xxxiii1 #ba7     
says3 ,occasionally a kind of silex is  
met with1 which must be broken with fire
 and vinegar1 or as the tunnels are     
filled with suffocating fumes and smoke1
 they frequently use bruising machines1 

carrying #aej librae of iron4 ,this     
combination of fire and vinegar he again
 refers to 7,,xxiii1 #bg71 where he     
dilates in the same sentence on the     
usefulness of vinegar for breaking rock 
and for salad dressing4 ,this myth about
 breaking rocks with fire and vinegar is
 of more than usual interest1 and its   
origin seems to be in the legend that   
,hannibal thus broke through the ,alps4 
,livy 7#ei ,b4,c41 #ag ,a4,d47 seems to 
be the first to produce this myth in    
writing2 and1 in any event1 by ,pliny's 
time 7#bc-gi ,a4,d47 it had become an   
established method--in literature4 ,livy
 7,,xxi1 #cg7 says1 in connection with  
,hannibal's crossing of the ,alps3 ,they
 set fire to it 7the timber7 when a wind
 had arisen suitable to excite the fire1
 then when the rock was hot it was      
crumbled by pouring on vinegar 7infuso  
aceto74 ,in this manner the cliff heated
 by the fire was broken by iron tools1  
and the declivities eased by turnings1  
so that not only the beasts of burden   

but also the elephants could be led     
down4 ,hannibal crossed the ,alps in    
#bah ,b4,c4 and ,livy's account was     
written #bjj years later1 by which time 
,hannibal's memory among the ,romans was
 generally surrounded by ,herculean     
fables4 ,be this as it may1 by ,pliny's 
time the vinegar was generally accepted1
 and has been ceaselessly debated ever  
since4 ,nor has the myth ceased to grow1
 despite the remarks of ,gibbon1        
,lavalette1 and others4 ,a recent       
historian 7,hennebert1 ,histoire d'     
,annibal ,,ii1 p4 #bec7 of that famous  
engineer and soldier1 soberly sets out  
to prove that inasmuch as literal       
acceptance of ordinary vinegar is       
impossible1 the ,phoenicians must have  
possessed some mysterious high          
explosive4 ,a still more recent         
biographer swallows this argument in    
toto4 7,morris1 ,hannibal1 ,london1     
#aijc1 p4 #ajc74 ,a study of the        
commentators of this passage1 although  
it would fill a volume with sterile     

words1 would disclose one               
generalization3 ,that the real scholars 
have passed over the passage with the   
comment that it is either a corruption  
or an old woman's tale1 but that hosts  
of soldiers who set about the biography 
of famous generals and campaigns1 almost
 to a man take the passage seriously1   
and seriously explain it by way of the  
rock being limestone1 or snow1 or by the
 use of explosives1 or other            
foolishness4 ,it has been proposed1     
although there are grammatical          
objections1 that the text is slightly   
corrupt and read infosso acuto1 instead 
of infuso aceto1 in which case all      
becomes easy from a mining point of     
view4 ,if so1 however1 it must be       
assumed that the corruption occurred    
during the #bj years between ,livy and  
,pliny4  ,by the use of fire-setting in 
recent times at ,koenigsberg 7,arthur   
,l4 ,collins1 ,fire-setting1 ,federated 
,inst4 of ,mining ,engineers1 ,vol4 ,v1 
p4 #hb7 an advance of from #e to #bj    

feet per month in headings was          
accomplished1 and on the score of       
economy survived the use of gunpowder1  
but has now been abandoned in favour of 
dynamite4 ,we may mention that the use  
of gunpowder for blasting was first     
introduced at ,schemnitz by ,caspar     
,weindle1 in #afbg1 but apparently was  
not introduced into ,english mines for  
nearly #ge years afterward1 as the late 
#agth century ,english writers continue 
to describe fire-setting4  #ae ,the     
strata here enumerated are given in the 
,glossary of ,de ,re ,metallica as      
follows3--    ,corium terrae            
,die erd oder leim4   ,saxum rubrum     
,rot gebirge4   ,alterum item rubrum    
,roterkle4   ,argilla cinerea           
,thone4   ,tertium saxum                
,gerhulle4   ,cineris vena              
,asche4   ,quartum saxum                
,gniest4   ,quintum saxum               
,schwehlen4   ,sextum saxum             
,oberrauchstein4   ,septimum saxum      
,zechstein4   ,octavum saxum            

,underrauchstein4   ,nonum saxum        
,blitterstein4   ,decimum saxum         
,oberschuelen4   ,undecimum saxum       
,mittelstein4   ,duodecimum saxum       
,underschuelen4   ,decimumtertium saxum 
,dach4   ,decimumquartum saxum          
,norweg4   ,decimumquintum saxum        
,lotwerg4   ,decimumsextum saxum        
,kamme4   ,lapis aerosus fissilis       
,schifer4  ,the description is no doubt 
that of the ,mannsfeld cupriferous      
slates4 ,it is of some additional       
interest as the first attempt at        
stratigraphic distinctions1 although    
this must not be taken too literally1   
for we have rendered the different      
numbered saxum in this connection as    
stratum4 ,the ,german terms given by    
,agricola above1 can many of them be    
identified in the miners' terms to-day  
for the various strata at ,mannsfeld4   
,over the kupferschiefer the names      
to-day are kammschale1 dach1 faule1     
zechstein1 rauchwacke1 rauchstein1      
asche4 ,the relative thickness of these 

beds is much the same as given by       
,agricola4 ,the stringers in the #hth   
stratum of stone1 which fuse in the fire
 of the second order1 were possibly     
calcite4 ,the rauchstein of the modern  
section is distinguished by stringers of
 calcite1 which give it at times a      
brecciated appearance4  #af ,the history
 of surveying and surveying instruments1
 and in a subsidiary way their          
application to mine work1 is a subject  
upon which there exists a most extensive
 literature4 ,however1 that portion of  
such history which relates to the period
 prior to ,agricola represents a much   
less proportion of the whole than do the
 citations to this chapter in ,de ,re   
,metallica1 which is the first          
comprehensive discussion of the mining  
application4 ,the history of such       
instruments is too extensive to be      
entered upon in a footnote1 but there   
are some fundamental considerations     
which1 if they had been present in the  
minds of historical students of this    

subject1 would have considerably        
abridged the literature on it4 ,first1  
there can be no doubt that measuring    
cords or rods and boundary stones       
existed almost from the first division  
of land4 ,there is1 therefore1 no need  
to try to discover their origins4       
,second1 the history of surveying and   
surveying instruments really begins with
 the invention of instruments for taking
 levels1 or for the determination of    
angles with a view to geometrical       
calculation4 ,the meagre facts bearing  
upon this subject do not warrant the    
endless expansion they have received by 
argument as to what was probable1 in    
order to accomplish assumed methods of  
construction among the ,ancients4 ,for  
instance1 the argument that in carrying 
the ,grand ,canal over watersheds with  
necessary reservoir supply1 the ,chinese
 must have had accurate levelling and   
surveying instruments before the        
,christian ,era1 and must have conceived
 in advance a completed work1 does not  

hold water when any investigation will  
demonstrate that the canal grew by slow 
accretion from the lateral river        
systems1 until it joined almost by      
accident4 ,much the same may be said    
about the preconception of engineering  
results in several other ancient works4 
,there can be no certainty as to who    
first invented instruments of the order 
mentioned above2 for instance1 the      
invention of the dioptra has been       
ascribed to ,hero1 vide his work on the 
,dioptra4 ,he has been assumed to have  
lived in the #ast or #bnd ,century      
,b4,c4 ,recent investigations1 however1 
have shown that he lived about #ajj     
,a4,d4 7,sir ,thomas ,heath1 ,encyc4    
,brit4 #aath ,ed41 ,,xiii1 #cgh74 ,as   
this instrument is mentioned by         
,vitruvius 7#ej -#j ,b4,c47 the myth    
that ,hero was the inventor must also   
disappear4 ,incidentally ,vitruvius     
7,,viii1 #e7 describes a levelling      
instrument called a chorobates1 which   
was a frame levelled either by a groove 

of water or by plumb strings4 ,be the   
inventor of the dioptra who he may1     
,hero's work on that subject contains   
the first suggestion of mine surveys in 
the problems 7,,xiii1 ,,xiv1 ,,xv1      
,,xvi71 where geometrical methods are   
elucidated for determining the depths   
required for the connection of shafts   
and tunnels4 ,on the compass we give    
further notes on p4 #ef4 ,it was        
probably an evolution of the #acth      
,century4 ,as to the application of     
angle- and level-determining instruments
 to underground surveys1 so far as we   
know there is no reference prior to     
,agricola1 except that of ,hero4 ,mr4   
,bennett ,brough 7,cantor ,lecture1     
,london1 #ahib7 points out that the     
,nuetzliche ,bergbuechlin 7see          
,appendix7 describes a mine compass1 but
 there is not the slightest reference to
 its use for anything but surface       
direction of veins4  ,although          
map-making of a primitive sort requires 
no instruments1 except legs1 the oldest 

map in the world possesses unusual      
interest because it happens to be a map 
of a mining region4 ,this well-known    
,turin papyrus dates from ,seti ,i4     
7about #acjj ,b4,c471 and it represents 
certain gold mines between the ,nile and
 the ,red ,sea4 ,the best discussion is 
by ,chabas 7,inscriptions des ,mines    
d',or1 ,chalons-sur-,saone1 ,paris1     
#ahfb1 p4 #cj-cf74 ,fragments of another
 papyrus1 in the ,turin ,museum1 are    
considered by ,lieblein 7,deux ,papyras 
,hieratiques1 ,christiania1 #ahfh7 also 
to represent a mine of the time of      
,rameses ,i4 ,if so1 this one dates from
 about #adjj ,b4,c4 ,as to an actual map
 of underground workings 7disregarding  
illustrations7 we know of none until    
after ,agricola's time4 ,at his time    
maps were not made1 as will be gathered 
from the text4  #ag ,for greater clarity
 we have in a few places interpolated   
the terms major and minor triangles4    
#ah ,the names of the instruments here  
described in the original text1 their   

,german equivalents in the ,glossary1   
and the terms adopted in translation are
 given below3--    ,,latin ,,text4      
,,glossary4             ,,terms         
,,adopted4    ,funiculus                
--               ,cord    ,pertica      
,stab                ,rod               
,hemicyclium          ,donlege bretlein 
,hemicycle    ,tripus                   
,stul                ,tripod            
,instrumentum cui      ,compass         
,compass     index    ,orbis            
,scheube             ,orbis    ,libra   
stativa        ,auffsafz                
,standing plummet                       
level    ,libra pensilis       ,wage    
,suspended plummet                      
level    ,instrumentum cui      ,der    
schiner          ,swiss compass         
index ,alpinum         compass   #ai ,it
 is interesting to note that the ratio  
of any length so obtained1 to the whole 
length of the staff1 is practically     
equal to the cosine of the angle        
represented by the corresponding        

gradation on the hemicycle2 the         
gradations on the rod forming a fairly  
accurate table of cosines4  #bj ,it must
 be understood that instead of plotting 
a survey on a reduced scale on paper1 as
 modern surveyors do1 the whole survey  
was reproduced in full scale on the     
surveyor's field4     ,,book ,,vi4      
,digging of veins ,i have written of1   
and the timbering of shafts1 tunnels1   
drifts1 and other excavations1 and the  
art of surveying4 ,i will now speak     
first of all1 of the iron tools with    
which veins and rocks are broken1 then  
of the buckets into which the lumps of  
earth1 rock1 metal1 and other excavated 
materials are thrown1 in order that they
 may be drawn1 conveyed1 or carried out4
 ,also1 ,i will speak of the water      
vessels and drains1 then of the machines
 of different kinds1#a and lastly of the
 maladies of miners4 ,and while all     
these matters are being described       
accurately1 many methods of work will be
 explained4  ,illustration #aej 7,iron  

tools73 ,a--,first iron tool4           
,b--,second4 ,c--,third4 ,d--,fourth4#b 
,e--,wedge4 ,f--,iron block4 ,g--,iron  
plate4 ,h--,wooden handle4 ,i--,handle  
inserted in first tool4  ,there are     
certain iron tools which the miners     
designate by names of their own1 and    
besides these1 there are wedges1 iron   
blocks1 iron plates1 hammers1 crowbars1 
pikes1 picks1 hoes1 and shovels4 ,of    
those which are especially referred to  
as iron tools there are four varieties1 
which are different from one another in 
length or thickness1 but not in shape1  
for the upper end of all of them is     
broad and square1 so that it can be     
struck by the hammer4 ,the lower end is 
pointed so as to split the hard rocks   
and veins with its point4 ,all of these 
have eyes except the fourth4 ,the first1
 which is in daily use among miners1 is 
three-quarters of a foot long1 a digit  
and a half wide1 and a digit thick4 ,the
 second is of the same width as the     
first1 and the same thickness1 but one  

and one half feet long1 and is used to  
shatter the hardest veins in such a way 
that they crack open4 ,the third is the 
same length as the second1 but is a     
little wider and thicker2 with this one 
they dig the bottoms of those shafts    
which slowly accumulate water4 ,the     
fourth is nearly three palms and one    
digit long1 two digits thick1 and in the
 upper end it is three digits wide1 in  
the middle it is one palm wide1 and at  
the lower end it is pointed like the    
others2 with this they cut out the      
harder veins4 ,the eye in the first tool
 is one palm distant from the upper end1
 in the second and third it is seven    
digits distant2 each swells out around  
the eye on both sides1 and into it they 
fit a wooden handle1 which they hold    
with one hand1 while they strike the    
iron tool with a hammer1 after placing  
it against the rock4 ,these tools are   
made larger or smaller as necessary4    
,the smiths1 as far as possible1 sharpen
 again all that become dull4  ,a wedge  

is usually three palms and two digits   
long and six digits wide2 at the upper  
end1 for a distance of a palm1 it is    
three digits thick1 and beyond that     
point it becomes thinner by degrees1    
until finally it is quite sharp4  ,the  
iron block is six digits in length and  
width2 at the upper end it is two digits
 thick1 and at the bottom a digit and a 
half4 ,the iron plate is the same length
 and width as the iron block1 but it is 
very thin4 ,all of these1 as ,i         
explained in the last book1 are used    
when the hardest kind of veins are hewn 
out4 ,wedges1 blocks1 and plates1 are   
likewise made larger or smaller4        
,illustration #aea 7,hammers73          
,a--,smallest of the smaller hammers4   
,b--,intermediate4 ,c--,largest4        
,d--,small kind of the larger hammer4   
,e--,large kind4 ,f--,wooden handle4    
,g--,handle fixed in the smallest       
hammer4  ,hammers are of two kinds1 the 
smaller ones the miners hold in one     
hand1 and the larger ones they hold with

 both hands4 ,the former1 because of    
their size and use1 are of three sorts4 
,with the smallest1 that is to say1 the 
lightest1 they strike the second iron   
tool2 with the intermediate one the     
first iron tool2 and with the largest   
the third iron tool2 this one is two    
digits wide and thick4 ,of the larger   
sort of hammers there are two kinds2    
with the smaller they strike the fourth 
iron tool2 with the larger they drive   
the wedges into the cracks2 the former  
are three1 and the latter five digits   
wide and thick1 and a foot long4 ,all   
swell out in their middle1 in which     
there is an eye for a handle1 but in    
most cases the handles are somewhat     
light1 in order that the workmen may be 
able to strike more powerful blows by   
the hammer's full weight being thus     
concentrated4  ,illustration #aeb;a     
7,crowbars73 ,a--,round crowbar4        
,b--,flat crowbar4 ,c--,pike4  ,the iron
 crowbars are likewise of two kinds1 and
 each kind is pointed at one end4 ,one  

is rounded1 and with this they pierce to
 a shaft full of water when a tunnel    
reaches to it2 the other is flat1 and   
with this they knock out of the stopes  
on to the floor1 the rocks which have   
been softened by the fire1 and which    
cannot be dislodged by the pike4 ,a     
miner's pike1 like a sailor's1 is a long
 rod having an iron head4  ,illustration
 #aeb;b 7,picks73 ,a--,pick4 ,b--,hoe4  
,c--,shovel4  ,the miner's pick differs 
from a peasant's pick in that the latter
 is wide at the bottom and sharp1 but   
the former is pointed4 ,it is used to   
dig out ore which is not hard1 such as  
earth4 ,likewise a hoe and shovel are in
 no way different from the common       
articles1 with the one they scrape up   
earth and sand1 with the other they     
throw it into vessels4  ,now earth1     
rock1 mineral substances and other      
things dug out with the pick or hewn out
 with the iron tools are hauled out of  
the shaft in buckets1 or baskets1 or    
hide buckets2 they are drawn out of     

tunnels in wheelbarrows or open trucks1 
and from both they are sometimes carried
 in trays4  ,illustration #aed;a        
7,buckets for hoisting ore7             
,illustration #aed;b 7,buckets for      
hoisting ore73 ,a--,small bucket4       
,b--,large bucket4 ,c--,staves4         
,d--,iron hoops4 ,e--,iron straps4      
,f--,iron straps on the bottom4         
,g--,hafts4 ,h--,iron bale4 ,i--,hook of
 drawing-rope4 ,k--,basket4 ,l--,hide   
bucket or sack4  ,buckets are of two    
kinds1 which differ in size1 but not in 
material or shape4 ,the smaller for the 
most part hold only about one metreta2  
the larger are generally capable of     
carrying one-sixth of a congius2 neither
 is of unchangeable capacity1 but they  
often vary4#c ,each is made of staves   
circled with hoops1 one of which binds  
the top and the other the bottom4 ,the  
hoops are sometimes made of hazel and   
oak1 but these are easily broken by     
dashing against the shaft1 while those  
made of iron are more durable4 ,in the  

larger buckets the staves are thicker   
and wider1 as also are both hoops1 and  
in order that the buckets may be more   
firm and strong1 they have eight iron   
straps1 somewhat broad1 four of which   
run from the upper hoop downwards1 and  
four from the lower hoop upwards1 as if 
to meet each other4 ,the bottom of each 
bucket1 both inside and outside1 is     
furnished with two or three straps of   
iron1 which run from one side of the    
lower hoop to the other1 but the straps 
which are on the outside are fixed      
crosswise4 ,each bucket has two iron    
hafts which project above the edge1 and 
it has an iron semi-circular bale whose 
lower ends are fixed directly into the  
hafts1 that the bucket may be handled   
more easily4 ,each kind of bucket is    
much deeper than it is wide1 and each is
 wider at the top1 in order that the    
material which is dug out may be the    
more easily poured in and poured out    
again4 ,into the smaller buckets strong 
boys1 and into larger ones men1 fill    

earth from the bottom of the shaft with 
hoes2 or the other material dug up is   
shovelled into them or filled in with   
their hands1 for which reason these men 
are called shovellers4#d ,afterward they
 fix the hook of the drawing-rope into  
the bale2 then the buckets are drawn up 
by machines--the smaller ones1 because  
of their lighter weight1 by machines    
turned by men1 and the larger ones1     
being heavier1 by the machines turned by
 horses4 ,some1 in place of these       
buckets1 substitute baskets which hold  
just as much1 or even more1 since they  
are lighter than the buckets2 some use  
sacks made of ox-hide instead of        
buckets1 and the drawing-rope hook is   
fastened to their iron bale1 usually    
three of these filled with excavated    
material are drawn up at the same time  
as three are being lowered and three are
 being filled by boys4 ,the latter are  
generally used at ,schneeberg and the   
former at ,freiberg4  ,illustration #aee
 7,wheelbarrows73 ,a--,small            

wheelbarrow4 ,b--,long planks thereof4  
,c--,end-boards4 ,d--,small wheel4      
,e--,larger barrow4 ,f--,front end-board
 thereof4  ,that which we call a        
cisium#e is a vehicle with one wheel1   
not with two1 such as horses draw4 ,when
 filled with excavated material it is   
pushed by a workman out of tunnels or   
sheds4 ,it is made as follows3 two      
planks are chosen about five feet long1 
one foot wide1 and two digits thick2 of 
each of these the lower side is cut away
 at the front for a length of one foot1 
and at the back for a length of two     
feet1 while the middle is left whole4   
,then in the front parts are bored      
circular holes1 in order that the ends  
of an axle may revolve in them4 ,the    
intermediate parts of the planks are    
perforated twice near the bottom1 so as 
to receive the heads of two little      
cleats on which the planks are fixed2   
and they are also perforated in the     
middle1 so as to receive the heads of   
two end-boards1 while keys fixed in     

these projecting heads strengthen the   
whole structure4 ,the handles are made  
out of the extreme ends of the long     
planks1 and they turn downward at the   
ends that they may be grasped more      
firmly in the hands4 ,the small wheel1  
of which there is only one1 neither has 
a nave nor does it revolve around the   
axle1 but turns around with it4 ,from   
the felloe1 which the ,greeks called    
,greek3 apsides1 two transverse spokes  
fixed into it pass through the middle of
 the axle toward the opposite felloe2   
the axle is square1 with the exception  
of the ends1 each of which is rounded so
 as to turn in the opening4 ,a workman  
draws out this barrow full of earth and 
rock and draws it back empty4 ,miners   
also have another wheelbarrow1 larger   
than this one1 which they use when they 
wash earth mixed with tin-stone on to   
which a stream has been turned4 ,the    
front end-board of this one is deeper1  
in order that the earth which has been  
thrown into it may not fall out4        

,illustration #aef 7,trucks73           
,a--,rectangular iron bands on truck4   
,b--,its iron straps4 ,c--,iron axle4   
,d--,wooden rollers4 ,e--,small iron    
keys4 ,f--,large blunt iron pin4        
,g--,same truck upside down4  ,the open 
truck has a capacity half as large again
 as a wheelbarrow2 it is about four feet
 long and about two and a half feet wide
 and deep2 and since its shape is       
rectangular1 it is bound together with  
three rectangular iron bands1 and       
besides these there are iron straps on  
all sides4 ,two small iron axles are    
fixed to the bottom1 around the ends of 
which wooden rollers revolve on either  
side2 in order that the rollers shall   
not fall off the immovable axles1 there 
are small iron keys4 ,a large blunt pin 
fixed to the bottom of the truck runs in
 a groove of a plank in such a way that 
the truck does not leave the beaten     
track4 ,holding the back part with his  
hands1 the carrier pushes out the truck 
laden with excavated material1 and      

pushes it back again empty4 ,some people
 call it a dog#f1 because when it moves 
it makes a noise which seems to them not
 unlike the bark of a dog4 ,this truck  
is used when they draw loads out of the 
longest tunnels1 both because it is     
moved more easily and because a heavier 
load can be placed in it4  ,illustration
 #aeg 7,batea73 ,a--,small batea4       
,b--,rope4 ,c--,large batea4  ,bateas#g 
are hollowed out of a single block of   
wood2 the smaller kind are generally two
 feet long and one foot wide4 ,when they
 have been filled with ore1 especially  
when but little is dug from the shafts  
and tunnels1 men either carry them out  
on their shoulders1 or bear them away   
hung from their necks4 ,pliny#h is our  
authority that among the ancients       
everything which was mined was carried  
out on men's shoulders1 but in truth    
this method of carrying forth burdens is
 onerous1 since it causes great fatigue 
to a great number of men1 and involves a
 large expenditure for labour2 for this 

reason it has been rejected and         
abandoned in our day4 ,the length of the
 larger batea is as much as three feet1 
the width up to a foot and a palm4 ,in  
these bateas the metallic earth is      
washed for the purpose of testing it4   
,illustration #aeh;a 7,buckets for      
hoisting water73 ,a--,smaller           
water-bucket4 ,b--,larger water-bucket4 
,c--,dipper4  ,water-vessels differ both
 in the use to which they are put and in
 the material of which they are made2   
some draw the water from the shafts and 
pour it into other things1 as dippers2  
while some of the vessels filled with   
water are drawn out by machines1 as     
buckets and bags2 some are made of wood1
 as the dippers and buckets1 and others 
of hides1 as the bags4 ,the             
water-buckets1 just like the buckets    
which are filled with dry material1 are 
of two kinds1 the smaller and the       
larger1 but these are unlike the other  
buckets at the top1 as in this case they
 are narrower1 in order that the water  

may not be spilled by being bumped      
against the timbers when they are being 
drawn out of the shafts1 especially     
those considerably inclined4 ,the water 
is poured into these buckets by dippers1
 which are small wooden buckets1 but    
unlike the water-buckets1 they are      
neither narrow at the top nor bound with
 iron hoops1 but with hazel1--because   
there is no necessity for either4 ,the  
smaller buckets are drawn up by machines
 turned by men1 the larger ones by those
 turned by horses4  ,illustration #aeh;b
 7,bags for hoisting water73            
,a--,water-bag which takes in water by  
itself4 ,b--,water-bag into which water 
pours when it is pushed with a shovel4  
,our people give the name of water-bags 
to those very large skins for carrying  
water which are made of two1 or two and 
a half1 ox-hides4 ,when these water-bags
 have undergone much wear and use1 first
 the hair comes off them and they become
 bald and shining2 after this they      
become torn4 ,if the tear is but a small

 one1 a piece of smooth notched stick is
 put into the broken part1 and the      
broken bag is bound into its notches on 
either side and sewn together2 but if it
 is a large one1 they mend it with a    
piece of ox-hide4 ,the water-bags are   
fixed to the hook of a drawing-chain and
 let down and dipped into the water1 and
 as soon as they are filled they are    
drawn up by the largest machine4 ,they  
are of two kinds2 the one kind take in  
the water by themselves2 the water pours
 into the other kind when it is pushed  
in a certain way by a wooden shovel4    
,illustration #aei 7,trough73           
,a--,trough4 ,b--,hopper4  ,when the    
water has been drawn out from the       
shafts1 it is run off in troughs1 or    
into a hopper1 through which it runs    
into the trough4 ,likewise the water    
which flows along the sides of the      
tunnels is carried off in drains4 ,these
 are composed of two hollowed beams     
joined firmly together1 so as to hold   
the water which flows through them1 and 

they are covered by planks all along    
their course1 from the mouth of the     
tunnel right up to the extreme end of   
it1 to prevent earth or rock falling    
into them and obstructing the flow of   
the water4 ,if much mud gradually       
settles in them the planks are raised   
and the drains are cleaned out1 for they
 would otherwise become stopped up and  
obstructed by this accident4 ,with      
regard to the trough lying above ground1
 which miners place under the hoppers   
which are close by the shaft houses1    
these are usually hollowed out of single
 trees4 ,hoppers are generally made of  
four planks1 so cut on the lower side   
and joined together that the top part of
 the hopper is broader and the bottom   
part narrower4  ,i have sufficiently    
indicated the nature of the miners' iron
 tools and their vessels4 ,i will now   
explain their machines1 which are of    
three kinds1 that is1 hauling machines1 
ventilating machines1 and ladders4 ,by  
means of the hauling machines loads are 

drawn out of the shafts2 the ventilating
 machines receive the air through their 
mouths and blow it into shafts or       
tunnels1 for if this is not done1       
diggers cannot carry on their labour    
without great difficulty in breathing2  
by the steps of the ladders the miners  
go down into the shafts and come up     
again4  ,illustration #afa 7,windlass73 
,a--,timber placed in front of the      
shaft4 ,b--,timber placed at the back of
 the shaft4 ,c--,pointed stakes4        
,d--,cross-timbers4 ,e--,posts or thick 
planks4 ,f--,iron sockets4 ,g--,barrel4 
,h--,ends of barrel4 ,i--,pieces of     
wood4 ,k--handle4 ,l--,drawing-rope4    
,m--,its hook4 ,n--,bucket4 ,o--,bale of
 the bucket4  ,hauling machines are of  
varied and diverse forms1 some of them  
being made with great skill1 and if ,i  
am not mistaken1 they were unknown to   
the ,ancients4 ,they have been invented 
in order that water may be drawn from   
the depths of the earth to which no     
tunnels reach1 and also the excavated   

material from shafts which are likewise 
not connected with a tunnel1 or if so1  
only with very long ones4 ,since shafts 
are not all of the same depth1 there is 
a great variety among these hauling     
machines4 ,of those by which dry loads  
are drawn out of the shafts1 five sorts 
are in the most common use1 of which ,i 
will now describe the first4 ,two       
timbers a little longer than the shaft  
are placed beside it1 the one in the    
front of the shaft1 the other at the    
back4 ,their extreme ends have holes    
through which stakes1 pointed at the    
bottom like wedges1 are driven deeply   
into the ground1 so that the timbers may
 remain stationary4 ,into these timbers 
are mortised the ends of two            
cross-timbers1 one laid on the right end
 of the shaft1 while the other is far   
enough from the left end that between it
 and that end there remains suitable    
space for placing the ladders4 ,in the  
middle of the cross-timbers1 posts are  
fixed and secured with iron keys4 ,in   

hollows at the top of these posts thick 
iron sockets hold the ends of the       
barrel1 of which each end projects      
beyond the hollow of the post1 and is   
mortised into the end of another piece  
of wood a foot and a half long1 a palm  
wide and three digits thick2 the other  
end of these pieces of wood is seven    
digits wide1 and into each of them is   
fixed a round handle1 likewise a foot   
and a half long4 ,a winding-rope is     
wound around the barrel and fastened to 
it at the middle part4 ,the loop at each
 end of the rope has an iron hook which 
is engaged in the bale of a bucket1 and 
so when the windlass revolves by being  
turned by the cranks1 a loaded bucket is
 always being drawn out of the shaft and
 an empty one is being sent down into   
it4 ,two robust men turn the windlass1  
each having a wheelbarrow near him1 into
 which he unloads the bucket which is   
drawn up nearest to him2 two buckets    
generally fill a wheelbarrow2 therefore 
when four buckets have been drawn up1   

each man runs his own wheelbarrow out of
 the shed and empties it4 ,thus it      
happens that if shafts are dug deep1 a  
hillock rises around the shed of the    
windlass4 ,if a vein is not             
metal-bearing1 they pour out the earth  
and rock without discriminating2 whereas
 if it is metal-bearing1 they preserve  
these materials1 which they unload      
separately and crush and wash4 ,when    
they draw up buckets of water they empty
 the water through the hopper into a    
trough1 through which it flows away4    
,illustration #afb 7,windlass73         
,a--,barrel4 ,b--,straight levers4      
,c--,usual crank4 ,d--,spokes of wheel4 
,e--,rim of the same wheel4  ,the next  
kind of machine1 which miners employ    
when the shaft is deeper1 differs from  
the first in that it possesses a wheel  
as well as cranks4 ,this windlass1 if   
the load is not being drawn up from a   
great depth1 is turned by one windlass  
man1 the wheel taking the place of the  
other man4 ,but if the depth is greater1

 then the windlass is turned by three   
men1 the wheel being substituted for a  
fourth1 because the barrel having been  
once set in motion1 the rapid           
revolutions of the wheel help1 and it   
can be turned more easily4 ,sometimes   
masses of lead are hung on to this      
wheel1 or are fastened to the spokes1 in
 order that when it is turned they      
depress the spokes by their weight and  
increase the motion2 some persons for   
the same reason fasten into the barrel  
two1 three1 or four iron rods1 and      
weight their ends with lumps of lead4   
,the windlass wheel differs from the    
wheel of a carriage and from the one    
which is turned by water power1 for it  
lacks the buckets of a water-wheel and  
it lacks the nave of a carriage wheel4  
,in the place of the nave it has a thick
 barrel1 in which are mortised the lower
 ends of the spokes1 just as their upper
 ends are mortised into the rim4 ,when  
three windlass men turn this machine1   
four straight levers are fixed to the   

one end of the barrel1 and to the other 
the crank which is usual in mines1 and  
which is composed of two limbs1 of which
 the rounded horizontal one is grasped  
by the hands2 the rectangular limb1     
which is at right angles to the         
horizontal one1 has mortised in its     
lower end the round handle1 and in the  
upper end the end of the barrel4 ,this  
crank is worked by one man1 the levers  
by two men1 of whom one pulls while the 
other pushes2 all windlass workers1     
whatsoever kind of a machine they may   
turn1 are necessarily robust that they  
can sustain such great toil4            
,illustration #afc 7,tread whim73       
,a--,upright axle4 ,b--,block4 ,c--,roof
 beam4 ,d--,wheel4 ,e--,toothed-drum4   
,f--,horizontal axle4 ,g--,drum composed
 of rundles4 ,h--,drawing rope4         
,i--,pole4 ,k--,upright posts4          
,l--,cleats on the wheel4  ,the third   
kind of machine is less fatiguing for   
the workman1 while it raises larger     
loads2 even though it is slower1 like   

all other machines which have drums1 yet
 it reaches greater depths1 even to a   
depth of #ahj feet4 ,it consists of an  
upright axle with iron journals at its  
extremities1 which turn in two iron     
sockets1 the lower of which is fixed in 
a block set in the ground and the upper 
one in the roof beam4 ,this axle has at 
its lower end a wheel made of thick     
planks joined firmly together1 and at   
its upper end a toothed drum2 this      
toothed drum turns another drum made of 
rundles1 which is on a horizontal axle4 
,a winding-rope is wound around this    
latter axle1 which turns in iron        
bearings set in the beams4 ,so that they
 may not fall1 the two workmen grasp    
with their hands a pole fixed to two    
upright posts1 and then pushing the     
cleats of the lower wheel backward with 
their feet1 they revolve the machine2 as
 often as they have drawn up and emptied
 one bucket full of excavated material1 
they turn the machine in the opposite   
direction and draw out another4         

,illustration #afe 7,horse whim73       
,a--,upright beams4 ,b--,sills laid flat
 upon the ground4 ,c--,posts4 ,d--,area4
 ,e--,sill set at the bottom of the     
hole4 ,f--,axle4 ,g--,double            
cross-beams4 ,h--,drum4                 
,i--,winding-ropes4 ,k--,bucket4        
,l--,small pieces of wood hanging from  
double cross-beams4 ,m--,short wooden   
block4 ,n--,chain4 ,o--,pole bar4       
,p--,grappling hook4 7,some members     
mentioned in the text are not shown74   
,the fourth machine raises burdens once 
and a half as large again as the two    
machines first explained4 ,when it is   
made1 sixteen beams are erected each    
forty feet long1 one foot thick and one 
foot wide1 joined at the top with clamps
 and widely separated at the bottom4    
,the lower ends of all of them are      
mortised into separate sills laid flat  
upon the ground2 these sills are five   
feet long1 a foot and a half wide1 and a
 foot thick4 ,each beam is also         
connected with its sill by a post1 whose

 upper end is mortised into the beam and
 its lower end mortised into the sill2  
these posts are four feet long1 one foot
 thick1 and one foot wide4 ,thus a      
circular area is made1 the diameter of  
which is fifty feet2 in the middle of   
this area a hole is sunk to a depth of  
ten feet1 and rammed down tight1 and in 
order to give it sufficient firmness1 it
 is strengthened with contiguous small  
timbers1 through which pins are driven1 
for by them the earth around the hole is
 held so that it cannot fall in4 ,in the
 bottom of the hole is planted a sill1  
three or four feet long and a foot and a
 half thick and wide2 in order that it  
may remain fixed1 it is set into the    
small timbers2 in the middle of it is a 
steel socket in which the pivot of the  
axle turns4 ,in like manner a timber is 
mortised into two of the large beams1 at
 the top beneath the clamps2 this has an
 iron bearing in which the other iron   
journal of the axle revolves4 ,every    
axle used in mining1 to speak of them   

once for all1 has two iron journals1    
rounded off on all sides1 one fixed with
 keys in the centre of each end4 ,that  
part of this journal which is fixed to  
the end of the axle is as broad as the  
end itself and a digit thick2 that which
 projects beyond the axle is round and a
 palm thick1 or thicker if necessity    
requires2 the ends of each miner's axle 
are encircled and bound by an iron band 
to hold the journal more securely4 ,the 
axle of this machine1 except at the     
ends1 is square1 and is forty feet long1
 a foot and a half thick and wide4      
,mortised and clamped into the axle     
above the lower end are the ends of four
 inclined beams2 their outer ends       
support two double cross-beams similarly
 mortised into them2 the inclined beams 
are eighteen feet long1 three palms     
thick1 and five wide4 ,the two          
cross-beams are fixed to the axle and   
held together by wooden keys so that    
they will not separate1 and they are    
twenty-four feet long4 ,next1 there is a

 drum which is made of three wheels1 of 
which the middle one is seven feet      
distant from the upper one and from the 
lower one2 the wheels have four spokes  
which are supported by the same number  
of inclined braces1 the lower ends of   
which are joined together round the axle
 by a clamp2 one end of each spoke is   
mortised into the axle and the other    
into the rim4 ,there are rundles all    
round the wheels1 reaching from the rim 
of the lowest one to the rim of the     
middle one1 and likewise from the rim of
 the middle wheel to the rim of the top 
one2 around these rundles are wound the 
drawing-ropes1 one between the lowest   
wheel and the middle one1 the other     
between the middle and top wheels4 ,the 
whole of this construction is shaped    
like a cone1 and is covered with a      
shingle roof1 with the exception of that
 square part which faces the shaft4     
,then cross-beams1 mortised at both     
ends1 connect a double row of upright   
posts2 all of these are eighteen feet   

long1 but the posts are one foot thick  
and one foot wide1 and the cross-beams  
are three palms thick and wide4 ,there  
are sixteen posts and eight cross-beams1
 and upon these cross-beams are laid two
 timbers a foot wide and three palms    
thick1 hollowed out to a width of half a
 foot and to a depth of five digits2 the
 one is laid upon the upper cross-beams 
and the other upon the lower2 each is   
long enough to reach nearly from the    
drum of the whim to the shaft4 ,near the
 same drum each timber has a small round
 wooden roller six digits thick1 whose  
ends are covered with iron bands and    
revolve in iron rings4 ,each timber also
 has a wooden pulley1 which together    
with its iron axle revolves in holes in 
the timber4 ,these pulleys are hollowed 
out all round1 in order that the        
drawing-rope may not slip out of them1  
and thus each rope is drawn tight and   
turns over its own roller and its own   
pulley4 ,the iron hook of each rope is  
engaged with the bale of the bucket4    

,further1 with regard to the double     
cross-beams which are mortised to the   
lower part of the main axle1 to each end
 of them there is mortised a small piece
 of wood four feet long4 ,these appear  
to hang from the double cross-beams1 and
 a short wooden block is fixed to the   
lower part of them1 on which a driver   
sits4 ,each of these blocks has an iron 
clavis which holds a chain1 and that in 
turn a pole-bar4 ,in this way it is     
possible for two horses to draw this    
whim1 now this way and now that2 turn by
 turn one bucket is drawn out of the    
shaft full and another is let down into 
it empty2 if1 indeed1 the shaft is very 
deep four horses turn the whim4 ,when a 
bucket has been drawn up1 whether filled
 with dry or wet materials1 it must be  
emptied1 and a workman inserts a        
grappling hook and overturns it2 this   
hook hangs on a chain made of three or  
four links1 fixed to a timber4          
,illustration #afg 7,horse whim73       
,a--,toothed drum which is on the       

upright axle4 ,b--,horizontal axle4     
,c--,drum which is made of rundles4     
,d--,wheel near it4 ,e--,drum made of   
hubs4 ,f--,brake4 ,g--,oscillating beam4
 ,h--,short beam4 ,i--,hook4  ,the fifth
 machine is partly like the whim1 and   
partly like the third rag and chain     
pump1 which draws water by balls when   
turned by horse power1 as ,i will       
explain a little later4 ,like this pump1
 it is turned by horse power and has two
 axles1 namely1 an upright one--about   
whose lower end1 which descends into an 
underground chamber1 there is a toothed 
drum--and a horizontal one1 around which
 there is a drum made of rundles4 ,it   
has indeed two drums around its         
horizontal axle1 similar to those of the
 big machine1 but smaller1 because it   
draws buckets from a shaft almost two   
hundred and forty feet deep4 ,one drum  
is made of hubs to which cleats are     
fixed1 and the other is made of rundles2
 and near the latter is a wheel two feet
 deep1 measured on all sides around the 

axle1 and one foot wide2 and against    
this impinges a brake1#aj which holds   
the whim when occasion demands that it  
be stopped4 ,this is necessary when the 
hide buckets are emptied after being    
drawn up full of rock fragments or      
earth1 or as often as water is poured   
out of buckets similarly drawn up2 for  
this machine not only raises dry loads1 
but also wet ones1 just like the other  
four machines which ,i have already     
described4 ,by this also1 timbers       
fastened on to its winding-chain are let
 down into a shaft4 ,the brake is made  
of a piece of wood one foot thick and   
half a foot long1 projecting from a     
timber that is suspended by a chain from
 one end of a beam which oscillates on  
an iron pin1 this in turn being         
supported in the claws of an upright    
post2 and from the other end of this    
oscillating beam a long timber is       
suspended by a chain1 and from this long
 timber again a short beam is suspended4
 ,a workman sits on the short beam when 

the machine needs to be stopped1 and    
lowers it2 he then inserts a plank or   
small stick so that the two timbers are 
held down and cannot be raised4 ,in this
 way the brake is raised1 and seizing   
the drum1 presses it so tightly that    
sparks often fly from it2 the suspended 
timber to which the short beam is       
attached1 has several holes in which the
 chain is fixed1 so that it may be      
raised as much as is convenient4 ,above 
this wheel there are boards to prevent  
the water from dripping down and wetting
 it1 for if it becomes wet the brake    
will not grip the machine so well4 ,near
 the other drum is a pin from which     
hangs a chain1 in the last link of which
 there is an iron hook three feet long2 
a ring is fixed to the bottom of the    
bucket1 and this hook1 being inserted   
into it1 holds the bucket back so that  
the water may be poured out or the      
fragments of rock emptied4              
,illustration #afh 7,sleigh for ,ore73  
,a--,sledge with box placed on it4      

,b--,sledge with sacks placed on it4    
,c--,stick4 ,d--,dogs with pack-saddles4
 ,e--,pigskin sacks tied to a rope4     
,the miners either carry1 draw1 or roll 
down the mountains the ore which is     
hauled out of the shafts by these five  
machines or taken out of the tunnels4   
,in the winter time our people place a  
box on a sledge and draw it down the low
 mountains with a horse2 and in this    
season they also fill sacks made of hide
 and load them on dogs1 or place two or 
three of them on a small sledge which is
 higher in the fore part and lower at   
the back4 ,sitting on these sacks1 not  
without risk of his life1 the bold      
driver guides the sledge as it rushes   
down the mountain into the valleys with 
a stick1 which he carries in his hand2  
when it is rushing down too quickly he  
arrests it with the stick1 or with the  
same stick brings it back to the track  
when it is turning aside from its proper
 course4 ,some of the ,noricians#aa     
collect ore during the winter into sacks

 made of bristly pigskins1 and drag them
 down from the highest mountains1 which 
neither horses1 mules nor asses can     
climb4 ,strong dogs1 that are trained to
 bear pack saddles1 carry these sacks   
when empty into the mountains4 ,when    
they are filled with ore1 bound with    
thongs1 and fastened to a rope1 a man1  
winding the rope round his arm or       
breast1 drags them down through the snow
 to a place where horses1 mules1 or     
asses bearing pack-saddles can climb4   
,there the ore is removed from the      
pigskin sacks and put into other sacks  
made of double or triple twilled linen  
thread1 and these placed on the         
pack-saddles of the beasts are borne    
down to the works where the ores are    
washed or smelted4 ,if1 indeed1 the     
horses1 mules1 or asses are able to     
climb the mountains1 linen sacks filled 
with ore are placed on their saddles1   
and they carry these down the narrow    
mountain paths1 which are passable      
neither by wagons nor sledges1 into the 

valleys lying below the steeper portions
 of the mountains4 ,but on the declivity
 of cliffs which beasts cannot climb1   
are placed long open boxes made of      
planks1 with transverse cleats to hold  
them together2 into these boxes is      
thrown the ore which has been brought in
 wheelbarrows1 and when it has run down 
to the level it is gathered into sacks1 
and the beasts either carry it away on  
their backs or drag it away after it has
 been thrown into sledges or wagons4    
,when the drivers bring ore down steep  
mountain slopes they use two-wheeled    
carts1 and they drag behind them on the 
ground the trunks of two trees1 for     
these by their weight hold back the     
heavily-laden carts1 which contain ore  
in their boxes1 and check their descent1
 and but for these the driver would     
often be obliged to bind chains to the  
wheels4 ,when these men bring down ore  
from mountains which do not have such   
declivities1 they use wagons whose beds 
are twice as long as those of the carts4

 ,the planks of these are so put        
together that1 when the ore is unloaded 
by the drivers1 they can be raised and  
taken apart1 for they are only held     
together by bars4 ,the drivers employed 
by the owners of the ore bring down     
thirty or sixty wagon-loads1 and the    
master of the works marks on a stick the
 number of loads for each driver4 ,but  
some ore1 especially tin1 after being   
taken from the mines1 is divided into   
eight parts1 or into nine1 if the owners
 of the mine give ninth parts to the    
owners of the tunnel4 ,this is          
occasionally done by measuring with a   
bucket1 but more frequently planks are  
put together on a spot where1 with the  
addition of the level ground as a base1 
it forms a hollow box4 ,each owner      
provides for removing1 washing1 and     
smelting that portion which has fallen  
to him4 7,illustration p4 #agj74        
,illustration #agj 7,wagons for ,hauling
 ,ore73 ,a--,horses with pack-saddles4  
,b--,long box placed on the slope of the

 cliff4 ,c--,cleats thereof4            
,d--,wheelbarrow4 ,e--,two-wheeled cart4
 ,f--,trunks of trees4 ,g--,wagon4      
,h--,ore being unloaded from the wagon4 
,i--,bars4 ,k--,master of the works     
marking the number of carts on a stick4 
,l--,boxes into which are thrown the ore
 which has to be divided4  ,into the    
buckets1 drawn by these five machines1  
the boys or men throw the earth and     
broken rock with shovels1 or they fill  
them with their hands2 hence they get   
their name of shovellers4 ,as ,i have   
said1 the same machines raise not only  
dry loads1 but also wet ones1 or water2 
but before ,i explain the varied and    
diverse kinds of machines by which      
miners are wont to draw water alone1 ,i 
will explain how heavy bodies1 such as  
axles1 iron chains1 pipes1 and heavy    
timbers1 should be lowered into deep    
vertical shafts4 ,a windlass is erected 
whose barrel has on each end four       
straight levers2 it is fixed into       
upright beams and around it is wound a  

rope1 one end of which is fastened to   
the barrel and the other to those heavy 
bodies which are slowly lowered down by 
workmen2 and if these halt at any part  
of the shaft they are drawn up a little 
way4 ,when these bodies are very heavy1 
then behind this windlass another is    
erected just like it1 that their        
combined strength may be equal to the   
load1 and that it may be lowered slowly4
 ,sometimes for the same reason1 a      
pulley is fastened with cords to the    
roof-beam1 and the rope descends and    
ascends over it4  ,illustration #aga    
7,windlass73 ,a--,windlass4             
,b--,straight levers4 ,c--,upright      
beams4 ,d--,rope4 ,e--,pulley4          
,f--,timbers to be lowered4  ,water is  
either hoisted or pumped out of shafts4 
,it is hoisted up after being poured    
into buckets or water-bags2 the         
water-bags are generally brought up by a
 machine whose water-wheels have double 
paddles1 while the buckets are brought  
up by the five machines already         

described1 although in certain          
localities the fourth machine also hauls
 up water-bags of moderate size4 ,water 
is drawn up also by chains of dippers1  
or by suction pumps1 or by rag and chain
 pumps4#ab ,when there is but a small   
quantity1 it is either brought up in    
buckets or drawn up by chains of dippers
 or suction pumps1 and when there is    
much water it is either drawn up in hide
 bags or by rag and chain pumps4        
,illustration #agc 7,chain ,pumps73     
,a--,iron frame4 ,b--,lowest axle4      
,c--,fly-wheel4 ,d--,smaller drum made  
of rundles4 ,e--,second axle4           
,f--,smaller toothed wheel4 ,g--,larger 
drum made of rundles4 ,h--,upper axle4  
,i--,larger toothed wheel4              
,k--,bearings4 ,l--,pillow4             
,m--,framework4 ,n--,oak timber4        
,o--,support of iron bearing4           
,p--,roller4 ,q--,upper drum4           
,r--,clamps4 ,s--,chain4 ,t--,links4    
,v--,dippers4 ,x--,crank4 ,y--,lower    
drum or balance weight4  ,first of all1 

,i will describe the machines which draw
 water by chains of dippers1 of which   
there are three kinds4 ,for the first1 a
 frame is made entirely of iron bars2 it
 is two and a half feet high1 likewise  
two and a half feet long1 and in        
addition one-sixth and one-quarter of a 
digit long1 one-fourth and              
one-twenty-fourth of a foot wide4 ,in it
 there are three little horizontal iron 
axles1 which revolve in bearings or wide
 pillows of steel1 and also four iron   
wheels1 of which two are made with      
rundles and the same number are toothed4
 ,outside the frame1 around the lowest  
axle1 is a wooden fly-wheel1 so that it 
can be more readily turned1 and inside  
the frame is a smaller drum which is    
made of eight rundles1 one-sixth and one
 twenty-fourth of a foot long4 ,around  
the second axle1 which does not project 
beyond the frame1 and is therefore only 
two and a half feet and one-twelfth and 
one-third part of a digit long1 there is
 on the one side1 a smaller toothed     

wheel1 which has forty-eight teeth1 and 
on the other side a larger drum1 which  
is surrounded by twelve rundles         
one-quarter of a foot long4 ,around the 
third axle1 which is one inch and       
one-third thick1 is a larger toothed    
wheel projecting one foot from the axle 
in all directions1 which has seventy-two
 teeth4 ,the teeth of each wheel are    
fixed in with screws1 whose threads are 
screwed into threads in the wheel1 so   
that those teeth which are broken can be
 replaced by others2 both the teeth and 
rundles are steel4 ,the upper axle      
projects beyond the frame1 and is so    
skilfully mortised into the body of     
another axle that it has the appearance 
of being one2 this axle proceeds through
 a frame made of beams which stands     
around the shaft1 into an iron fork set 
in a stout oak timber1 and turns on a   
roller made of pure steel4 ,around this 
axle is a drum of the kind possessed by 
those machines which draw water by rag  
and chain2 this drum has triple curved  

iron clamps1 to which the links of an   
iron chain hook themselves1 so that a   
great weight cannot tear them away4     
,these links are not whole like the     
links of other chains1 but each one     
being curved in the upper part on each  
side catches the one which comes next1  
whereby it presents the appearance of a 
double chain4 ,at the point where one   
catches the other1 dippers made of iron 
or brass plates and holding half a      
congius#ac are bound to them with       
thongs2 thus1 if there are one hundred  
links there will be the same number of  
dippers pouring out water4 ,when the    
shafts are inclined1 the mouths of the  
dippers project and are covered on the  
top that they may not spill out the     
water1 but when the shafts are vertical 
the dippers do not require a cover4 ,by 
fitting the end of the lowest small axle
 into the crank1 the man who works the  
crank turns the axle1 and at the same   
time the drum whose rundles turn the    
toothed wheel of the second axle2 by    

this wheel is driven the one that is    
made of rundles1 which again turns the  
toothed wheel of the upper small axle   
and thus the drum to which the clamps   
are fixed4 ,in this way the chain1      
together with the empty dippers1 is     
slowly let down1 close to the footwall  
side of the vein1 into the sump to the  
bottom of the balance drum1 which turns 
on a little iron axle1 both ends of     
which are set in a thick iron bearing4  
,the chain is rolled round the drum and 
the dippers fill with water2 the chain  
being drawn up close to the hangingwall 
side1 carries the dippers filled with   
water above the drum of the upper axle4 
,thus there are always three of the     
dippers inverted and pouring water into 
a lip1 from which it flows away into the
 drain of the tunnel4 ,this machine is  
less useful1 because it cannot be       
constructed without great expense1 and  
it carries off but little water and is  
somewhat slow1 as also are other        
machines which possess a great number of

 drums4  ,illustration #agd 7,chain     
,pumps73 ,a--,wheel which is turned by  
treading4 ,b--,axle4 ,c--,double chain4 
,d--,link of double chain4 ,e--,dippers4
 ,f--,simple clamps4 ,g--,clamp with    
triple curves4  ,the next machine of    
this kind1 described in a few words by  
,vitruvius1#ad more rapidly brings up   
dippers1 holding a congius2 for this    
reason1 it is more useful than the first
 one for drawing water out of shafts1   
into which much water is continually    
flowing4 ,this machine has no iron frame
 nor drums1 but has around its axle a   
wooden wheel which is turned by         
treading2 the axle1 since it has no     
drum1 does not last very long4 ,in other
 respects this pump resembles the first 
kind1 except that it differs from it by 
having a double chain4 ,clamps should be
 fixed to the axle of this machine1 just
 as to the drum of the other one2 some  
of these are made simple and others with
 triple curves1 but each kind has four  
barbs4  ,illustration #age 7,chain      

,pumps73 ,a--,wheel whose paddles are   
turned by the force of the stream4      
,b--,axle4 ,c--,drum of axle1 to which  
clamps are fixed4 ,d--,chain4 ,e--,link4
 ,f--,dippers4 ,g--,balance drum4  ,the 
third machine1 which far excels the two 
just described1 is made when a running  
stream can be diverted to a mine2 the   
impetus of the stream striking the      
paddles revolves a water-wheel in place 
of the wheel turned by treading4 ,with  
regard to the axle1 it is like the      
second machine1 but the drum which is   
round the axle1 the chain1 and the      
balance drum1 are like the first        
machine4 ,it has much more capacious    
dippers than even the second machine1   
but since the dippers are frequently    
broken1 miners rarely use these         
machines2 for they prefer to lift out   
small quantities of water by the first  
five machines or to draw it up by       
suction pumps1 or1 if there is much     
water1 to drain it by the rag and chain 
pump or to bring it up in water-bags4   

,illustration #agg 7,suction ,pumps73   
,a--,sump4 ,b--,pipes4 ,c--,flooring4   
,d--,trunk4 ,e--,perforations of trunk4 
,f--,valve4 ,g--,spout4 ,h--,piston-rod4
 ,i--,hand-bar of piston4 ,k--,shoe4    
,l--,disc with round openings4 ,m--,disc
 with oval openings4 ,n--,cover4        
,o--,this man is boring logs and making 
them into pipes4 ,p--,borer with auger4 
,q--,wider borer4  ,enough1 then1 of the
 first sort of pumps4 ,i will now       
explain the other1 that is the pump     
which draws1 by means of pistons1 water 
which has been raised by suction4 ,of   
these there are seven varieties1 which  
though they differ from one another in  
structure1 nevertheless confer the same 
benefits upon miners1 though some to a  
greater degree than others4 ,the first  
pump is made as follows4 ,over the sump 
is placed a flooring1 through which a   
pipe--or two lengths of pipe1 one of    
which is joined into the other--are let 
down to the bottom of the sump2 they are
 fastened with pointed iron clamps      

driven in straight on both sides1 so    
that the pipes may remain fixed4 ,the   
lower end of the lower pipe is enclosed 
in a trunk two feet deep2 this trunk1   
hollow like the pipe1 stands at the     
bottom of the sump1 but the lower       
opening of it is blocked with a round   
piece of wood2 the trunk has            
perforations round about1 through which 
water flows into it4 ,if there is one   
length of pipe1 then in the upper part  
of the trunk which has been hollowed out
 there is enclosed a box of iron1       
copper1 or brass1 one palm deep1 but    
without a bottom1 and a rounded valve so
 tightly closes it that the water1 which
 has been drawn up by suction1 cannot   
run back2 but if there are two lengths  
of pipe1 the box is enclosed in the     
lower pipe at the point of junction4 ,an
 opening or a spout in the upper pipe   
reaches to the drain of the tunnel4     
,thus the workman1 eager at his labour1 
standing on the flooring boards1 pushes 
the piston down into the pipe and draws 

it out again4 ,at the top of the        
piston-rod is a hand-bar and the bottom 
is fixed in a shoe2 this is the name    
given to the leather covering1 which is 
almost cone-shaped1 for it is so        
stitched that it is tight at the lower  
end1 where it is fixed to the piston-rod
 which it surrounds1 but in the upper   
end where it draws the water it is wide 
open4 ,or else an iron disc one digit   
thick is used1 or one of wood six digits
 thick1 each of which is far superior to
 the shoe4 ,the disc is fixed by an iron
 key which penetrates through the bottom
 of the piston-rod1 or it is screwed on 
to the rod2 it is round1 with its upper 
part protected by a cover1 and has five 
or six openings1 either round or oval1  
which taken together present a star-like
 appearance2 the disc has the same      
diameter as the inside of the pipe1 so  
that it can be just drawn up and down in
 it4 ,when the workman draws the piston 
up1 the water which has passed in at the
 openings of the disc1 whose cover is   

then closed1 is raised to the hole or   
little spout1 through which it flows    
away2 then the valve of the box opens1  
and the water which has passed into the 
trunk is drawn up by the suction and    
rises into the pipe2 but when the       
workman pushes down the piston1 the     
valve closes and allows the disc again  
to draw in the water4  ,illustration    
#agh 7,suction ,pumps73 ,a--,erect      
timber4 ,b--,axle4 ,c--,sweep which     
turns about the axle4 ,d--,piston rod4  
,e--,cross-bar4 ,f--,ring with which two
 pipes are generally joined4  ,the      
piston of the second pump is more easily
 moved up and down4 ,when this pump is  
made1 two beams are placed over the     
sump1 one near the right side of it1 and
 the other near the left4 ,to one beam a
 pipe is fixed with iron clamps2 to the 
other is fixed either the forked branch 
of a tree or a timber cut out at the top
 in the shape of a fork1 and through the
 prongs of the fork a round hole is     
bored4 ,through a wide round hole in the

 middle of a sweep passes an iron axle1 
so fastened in the holes in the fork    
that it remains fixed1 and the sweep    
turns on this axle4 ,in one end of the  
sweep the upper end of a piston-rod is  
fastened with an iron key2 at the other 
end a cross-bar is also fixed1 to the   
extreme ends of which are handles to    
enable it to be held more firmly in the 
hands4 ,and so when the workman pulls   
the cross-bar upward1 he forces the     
piston into the pipe2 when he pushes it 
down again he draws the piston out of   
the pipe2 and thus the piston carries up
 the water which has been drawn in at   
the openings of the disc1 and the water 
flows away through the spout into the   
drains4 ,this pump1 like the next one1  
is identical with the first in all that 
relates to the piston1 disc1 trunk1 box1
 and valve4  ,illustration #agi         
7,suction ,pumps73 ,a--,posts4          
,b--,axle4 ,c--,wooden bars4 ,d--,piston
 rod4 ,e--,short piece of wood4         
,f--,drain4 ,g--,this man is diverting  

the water which is flowing out of the   
drain1 to prevent it from flowing into  
the trenches which are being dug4  ,the 
third pump is not unlike the one just   
described1 but in place of one upright1 
posts are erected with holes at the top1
 and in these holes the ends of an axle 
revolve4 ,to the middle of this axle are
 fixed two wooden bars1 to the end of   
one of which is fixed the piston1 and to
 the end of the other a heavy piece of  
wood1 but short1 so that it can pass    
between the two posts and may move      
backward and forward4 ,when the workman 
pushes this piece of wood1 the piston is
 drawn out of the pipe2 when it returns 
by its own weight1 the piston is pushed 
in4 ,in this way1 the water which the   
pipe contains is drawn through the      
openings in the disc and emptied by the 
piston through the spout into the drain4
 ,there are some who place a hand-bar   
underneath in place of the short piece  
of wood4 ,this pump1 as also the last   
before described1 is less generally used

 among miners than the others4          
,illustration #ahj 7,duplex suction     
,pumps73 ,a--,box4 ,b--,lower part of   
box4 ,c--,upper part of same4           
,d--,clamps4 ,e--,pipes below the box4  
,f--,column pipe fixed above the box4   
,g--,iron axle4 ,h--,piston-rods4       
,i--,washers to protect the bearings4   
,k--,leathers4 ,l--,eyes in the axle4   
,m--,rods whose ends are weighted with  
lumps of lead4 ,n--,crank4 7,this plate 
is unlettered in the first edition but  
corrected in those later47  ,the fourth 
kind is not a simple pump but a duplex  
one4 ,it is made as follows4 ,a         
rectangular block of beechwood1 five    
feet long1 two and a half feet wide1 and
 one and a half feet thick1 is cut in   
two and hollowed out wide and deep      
enough so that an iron axle with cranks 
can revolve in it4 ,the axle is placed  
between the two halves of this box1 and 
the first part of the axle1 which is in 
contact with the wood1 is round and the 
straight end forms a journal4 ,then the 

axle is bent down the depth of a foot   
and again bent so as to continue        
straight1 and at this point a round     
piston-rod hangs from it2 next it is    
bent up as far as it was bent down2 then
 it continues a little way straight     
again1 and then it is bent up a foot and
 again continues straight1 at which     
point a second round piston-rod is hung 
from it2 afterward it is bent down the  
same distance as it was bent up the last
 time2 the other end of it1 which also  
acts as a journal1 is straight4 ,this   
part which protrudes through the wood is
 protected by two iron washers in the   
shape of discs1 to which are fastened   
two leather washers of the same shape   
and size1 in order to prevent the water 
which is drawn into the box from gushing
 out4 ,these discs are around the axle2 
one of them is inside the box and the   
other outside4 ,beyond this1 the end of 
the axle is square and has two eyes1 in 
which are fixed two iron rods1 and to   
their ends are weighted lumps of lead1  

so that the axle may have a greater     
propensity to revolve2 this axle can    
easily be turned when its end has been  
mortised in a crank4 ,the upper part of 
the box is the shallower one1 and the   
lower part the deeper2 the upper part is
 bored out once straight down through   
the middle1 the diameter of the opening 
being the same as the outside diameter  
of the column pipe2 the lower box has1  
side by side1 two apertures also bored  
straight down2 these are for two pipes1 
the space of whose openings therefore is
 twice as great as that of the upper    
part2 this lower part of the box is     
placed upon the two pipes1 which are    
fitted into it at their upper ends1 and 
the lower ends of these pipes penetrate 
into trunks which stand in the sump4    
,these trunks have perforations through 
which the water flows into them4 ,the   
iron axle is placed in the inside of the
 box1 then the two iron piston-rods     
which hang from it are let down through 
the two pipes to the depth of a foot4   

,each piston has a screw at its lower   
end which holds a thick iron plate1     
shaped like a disc and full of openings1
 covered with a leather1 and similarly  
to the other pump it has a round valve  
in a little box4 ,then the upper part of
 the box is placed upon the lower one   
and properly fitted to it on every side1
 and where they join they are bound by  
wide thick iron plates1 and held with   
small wide iron wedges1 which are driven
 in and are fastened with clamps4 ,the  
first length of column pipe is fixed    
into the upper part of the box1 and     
another length of pipe extends it1 and a
 third again extends this one1 and so   
on1 another extending on another1 until 
the uppermost one reaches the drain of  
the tunnel4 ,when the crank worker turns
 the axle1 the pistons in turn draw the 
water through their discs2 since this is
 done quickly1 and since the area of    
openings of the two pipes over which the
 box is set1 is twice as large as the   
opening of the column pipe which rises  

from the box1 and since the pistons do  
not lift the water far up1 the impetus  
of the water from the lower pipes forces
 it to rise and flow out of the column  
pipe into the drain of the tunnel4      
,since a wooden box frequently cracks   
open1 it is better to make it of lead or
 copper or brass4  ,illustration #ahb   
7,suction ,pumps73 ,a--,tappets of      
piston-rods4 ,b--,cams of the barrel4   
,c--,square upper parts of piston-rods4 
,d--,lower rounded parts of piston-rods4
 ,e--,cross-beams4 ,f--,pipes4          
,g--,apertures of pipes4 ,h--,trough4   
7,fifth kind of pump--see p4 #aha74     
,the fifth kind of pump is still less   
simple1 for it is composed of two or    
three pumps whose pistons are raised by 
a machine turned by men1 for each       
piston-rod has a tappet which is raised1
 each in succession1 by two cams on a   
barrel2 two or four strong men turn it4 
,when the pistons descend into the pipes
 their discs draw the water2 when they  
are raised these force the water out    

through the pipes4 ,the upper part of   
each of these piston-rods1 which is half
 a foot square1 is held in a slot in a  
cross-beam2 the lower part1 which drops 
down into the pipes1 is made of another 
piece of wood and is round4 ,each of    
these three pumps is composed of two    
lengths of pipe fixed to the shaft      
timbers4 ,this machine draws the water  
higher1 as much as twenty-four feet4 ,if
 the diameter of the pipes is large1    
only two pumps are made2 if smaller1    
three1 so that by either method the     
volume of water is the same4 ,this also 
must be understood regarding the other  
machines and their pipes4 ,since these  
pumps are composed of two lengths of    
pipe1 the little iron box having the    
iron valve which ,i described before1 is
 not enclosed in a trunk1 but is in the 
lower length of pipe1 at that point     
where it joins the upper one2 thus the  
rounded part of the piston-rod is only  
as long as the upper length of pipe2 but
 ,i will presently explain this more    

clearly4  ,illustration #ahc 7,suction  
,pumps73 ,a--,water-wheel4 ,b--,axle4   
,c--,trunk on which the lowest pipe     
stands4 ,d--,basket surrounding trunk4  
7,sixth kind of pump--see p4 #ahd47     
,the sixth kind of pump would be just   
the same as the fifth were it not that  
it has an axle instead of a barrel1     
turned not by men but by a water-wheel1 
which is revolved by the force of water 
striking its buckets4 ,since water-power
 far exceeds human strength1 this       
machine draws water through its pipes by
 discs out of a shaft more than one     
hundred feet deep4 ,the bottom of the   
lowest pipe1 set in the sump1 not only  
of this pump but also of the others1 is 
generally enclosed in a basket made of  
wicker-work1 to prevent wood shavings   
and other things being sucked in4 7,see 
p4 #ahc47  ,illustration #ahe 7,suction 
,pumps73 ,a--shaft4 ,b--,bottom pump4   
,c--,first tank4 ,d--,second pump4      
,e--,second tank4 ,f--,third pump4      
,g--,trough4 ,h--,the iron set in the   

axle4 ,i--,first pump rod4 ,k--,second  
pump rod4 ,l--,third pump rod4          
,m--,first piston rod4 ,n--,second      
piston rod4 ,o--,third piston rod4      
,p--,little axles4 ,q--,claws4  ,the    
seventh kind of pump1 invented ten years
 ago1 which is the most ingenious1      
durable1 and useful of all1 can be made 
without much expense4 ,it is composed of
 several pumps1 which do not1 like those
 last described1 go down into the shaft 
together1 but of which one is below the 
other1 for if there are three1 as is    
generally the case1 the lower one lifts 
the water of the sump and pours it out  
into the first tank2 the second pump    
lifts again from that tank into a second
 tank1 and the third pump lifts it into 
the drain of the tunnel4 ,a wheel       
fifteen feet high raises the piston-rods
 of all these pumps at the same time and
 causes them to drop together4 ,the     
wheel is made to revolve by paddles1    
turned by the force of a stream which   
has been diverted to the mountain4 ,the 

spokes of the water-wheel are mortised  
in an axle six feet long and one foot   
thick1 each end of which is surrounded  
by an iron band1 but in one end there is
 fixed an iron journal2 to the other end
 is attached an iron like this journal  
in its posterior part1 which is a digit 
thick and as wide as the end of the axle
 itself4 ,then the iron extends         
horizontally1 being rounded and about   
three digits in diameter1 for the length
 of a foot1 and serves as a journal2    
thence1 it bends to a height of a foot  
in a curve1 like the horn of the moon1  
after which it again extends straight   
out for one foot2 thus it comes about   
that this last straight portion1 as it  
revolves in an orbit becomes alternately
 a foot higher and a foot lower than the
 first straight part4 ,from this round  
iron crank there hangs the first flat   
pump-rod1 for the crank is fixed in a   
perforation in the upper end of this    
flat pump-rod just as the iron key of   
the first set of claws is fixed into the

 lower end4 ,in order to prevent the    
pump-rod from slipping off it1 as it    
could easily do1 and that it may be     
taken off when necessary1 its opening is
 wider than the corresponding part of   
the crank1 and it is fastened on both   
sides by iron keys4 ,to prevent         
friction1 the ends of the pump-rods are 
protected by iron plates or intervening 
leathers4 ,this first pump-rod is about 
twelve feet long1 the other two are     
twenty-six feet1 and each is a palm wide
 and three digits thick4 ,the sides of  
each pump-rod are covered and protected 
by iron plates1 which are held on by    
iron screws1 so that a part which has   
received damage can be repaired4 ,in the
 claws is set a small round axle1 a foot
 and a half long and two palms thick4   
,the ends are encircled by iron bands to
 prevent the iron journals which revolve
 in the iron bearings of the wood from  
slipping out of it4#ae ,from this little
 axle the wooden claws extend two feet1 
with a width and thickness of six       

digits2 they are three palms distant    
from each other1 and both the inner and 
outer sides are covered with iron       
plates4 ,two rounded iron keys two      
digits thick are immovably fixed into   
the claws4 ,the one of these keys       
perforates the lower end of the first   
pump-rod1 and the upper end of the      
second pump-rod which is held fast4 ,the
 other key1 which is likewise immovable1
 perforates the iron end of the first   
piston-rod1 which is bent in a curve and
 is immovable4 ,each such piston-rod is 
thirteen feet long and three digits     
thick1 and descends into the first pipe 
of each pump to such depth that its disc
 nearly reaches the valve-box4 ,when it 
descends into the pipe1 the water1      
penetrating through the openings of the 
disc1 raises the leather1 and when the  
piston-rod is raised the water presses  
down the leather1 and this supports its 
weight2 then the valve closes the box as
 a door closes an entrance4 ,the pipes  
are joined by two iron bands1 one palm  

wide1 one outside the other1 but the    
inner one is sharp all round that it may
 fit into each pipe and hold them       
together4 ,although at the present time 
pipes lack the inner band1 still they   
have nipples by which they are joined   
together1 for the lower end of the upper
 one holds the upper end of the lower   
one1 each being hewn away for a length  
of seven digits1 the former inside1 the 
latter outside1 so that the one can fit 
into the other4 ,when the piston-rod    
descends into the first pipe1 that valve
 which ,i have described is closed2 when
 the piston-rod is raised1 the valve is 
opened so that the water can run in     
through the perforations4 ,each one of  
such pumps is composed of two lengths of
 pipe1 each of which is twelve feet     
long1 and the inside diameter is seven  
digits4 ,the lower one is placed in the 
sump of the shaft1 or in a tank1 and its
 lower end is blocked by a round piece  
of wood1 above which there are six      
perforations around the pipe through    

which the water flows into it4 ,the     
upper part of the upper pipe has a notch
 one foot deep and a palm wide1 through 
which the water flows away into a tank  
or trough4 ,each tank is two feet long  
and one foot wide and deep4 ,there is   
the same number of axles1 claws1 and    
rods of each kind as there are pumps2 if
 there are three pumps1 there are only  
two tanks1 because the sump of the shaft
 and the drain of the tunnel take the   
place of two4 ,the following is the way 
this machine draws water from a shaft4  
,the wheel being turned raises the first
 pump-rod1 and the pump-rod raises the  
first claw1 and thus also the second    
pump-rod1 and the first piston-rod2 then
 the second pump-rod raises the second  
claw1 and thus the third pump-rod and   
the second piston-rod2 then the third   
pump-rod raises the third claw and the  
third piston-rod1 for there hangs no    
pump-rod from the iron key of these     
claws1 for it can be of no use in the   
last pump4 ,in turn1 when the first     

pump-rod descends1 each set of claws is 
lowered1 each pump-rod and each         
piston-rod4 ,and by this system1 at the 
same time the water is lifted into the  
tanks and drained out of them2 from the 
sump at the bottom of the shaft it is   
drained out1 and it is poured into the  
trough of the tunnel4 ,further1 around  
the main axle there may be placed two   
water wheels1 if the river supplies     
enough water to turn them1 and from the 
back part of each round iron crank1 one 
or two pump-rods can be hung1 each of   
which can move the piston-rods of three 
pumps4 ,lastly1 it is necessary that the
 shafts from which the water is pumped  
out in pipes should be vertical1 for as 
in the case of the hauling machines1 all
 pumps which have pipes do not draw the 
water so high if the pipes are inclined 
in inclined shafts1 as if they are      
placed vertically in vertical shafts4   
,illustration #ahg 7,suction ,pumps73   
,a--,water wheel of upper machine4      
,b--,its pump4 ,c--,its trough4         

,d--,wheel of lower machine4 ,e--,its   
pump4 ,f--,race4  ,if the river does not
 supply enough water-power to turn the  
last-described pump1 which happens      
because of the nature of the locality or
 occurs during the summer season when   
there are daily droughts1 a machine is  
built with a wheel so low and light that
 the water of ever so little a stream   
can turn it4 ,this water1 falling into a
 race1 runs therefrom on to a second    
high and heavy wheel of a lower machine1
 whose pump lifts the water out of a    
deep shaft4 ,since1 however1 the water  
of so small a stream cannot alone       
revolve the lower water-wheel1 the axle 
of the latter is turned at the start    
with a crank worked by two men1 but as  
soon as it has poured out into a pool   
the water which has been drawn up by the
 pumps1 the upper wheel draws up this   
water by its own pump1 and pours it into
 the race1 from which it flows on to the
 lower water-wheel and strikes its      
buckets4 ,so both this water from the   

mine1 as well as the water of the       
stream1 being turned down the races on  
to that subterranean wheel of the lower 
machine1 turns it1 and water is pumped  
out of the deeper part of the shaft by  
means of two or three pumps4#af         
,illustration #ahi 7,duplex suction     
,pumps73 ,a--,upper axle4 ,b--,wheel    
whose buckets the force of the stream   
strikes4 ,c--,toothed drum4 ,d--,second 
axle4 ,e--,drum composed of rundles4    
,f--,curved round irons4 ,g--,rows of   
pumps4  ,if the stream supplies enough  
water straightway to turn a higher and  
heavier water-wheel1 then a toothed drum
 is fixed to the other end of the axle1 
and this turns the drum made of rundles 
on another axle set below it4 ,to each  
end of this lower axle there is fitted a
 crank of round iron curved like the    
horns of the moon1 of the kind employed 
in machines of this description4 ,this  
machine1 since it has rows of pumps on  
each side1 draws great quantities of    
water4  ,illustration #aia 7,rag and    

,chain ,pumps73 ,a--,wheel4 ,b--,axle4  
,c--,journals4 ,d--,pillows4 ,e--,drum4 
,f--,clamps4 ,g--,drawing-chain4        
,h--,timbers4 ,i--,balls4 ,k--,pipe4    
,l--,race of stream4  ,of the rag and   
chain pumps there are six kinds known to
 us1 of which the first is made as      
follows3 ,a cave is dug under the       
surface of earth or in a tunnel1 and    
timbered on all sides by stout posts and
 planks1 to prevent either the men from 
being crushed or the machine from being 
broken by its collapse4 ,in this cave1  
thus timbered1 is placed a water-wheel  
fitted to an angular axle4 ,the iron    
journals of the axle revolve in iron    
pillows1 which are held in timbers of   
sufficient strength4 ,the wheel is      
generally twenty-four feet high1        
occasionally thirty1 and in no way      
different from those which are made for 
grinding corn1 except that it is a      
little narrower4 ,the axle has on one   
side a drum with a groove in the middle 
of its circumference1 to which are fixed

 many four-curved iron clamps4 ,in these
 clamps catch the links of the chain1   
which is drawn through the pipes out of 
the sump1 and which again falls1 through
 a timbered opening1 right down to the  
bottom into the sump to a balancing     
drum4 ,there is an iron band around the 
small axle of the balancing drum1 each  
journal of which revolves in an iron    
bearing fixed to a timber4 ,the chain   
turning about this drum brings up the   
water by the balls through the pipes4   
,each length of pipe is encircled and   
protected by five iron bands1 a palm    
wide and a digit thick1 placed at equal 
distances from each other2 the first    
band on the pipe is shared in common    
with the preceding length of pipe into  
which it is fitted1 the last band with  
the succeeding length of pipe which is  
fitted into it4 ,each length of pipe1   
except the first1 is bevelled on the    
outer circumference of the upper end to 
a distance of seven digits and for a    
depth of three digits1 in order that it 

may be inserted into the length of pipe 
which goes before it2 each1 except the  
last1 is reamed out on the inside of the
 lower end to a like distance1 but to   
the depth of a palm1 that it may be able
 to take the end of the pipe which      
follows4 ,and each length of pipe is    
fixed with iron clamps to the timbers of
 the shaft1 that it may remain          
stationary4 ,through this continuous    
series of pipes1 the water is drawn by  
the balls of the chain up out of the    
sump as far as the tunnel1 where it     
flows but into the drains through an    
aperture in the highest pipe4 ,the balls
 which lift the water are connected by  
the iron links of the chain1 and are six
 feet distant from one another2 they are
 made of the hair of a horse's tail sewn
 into a covering to prevent it from     
being pulled out by the iron clamps on  
the drum2 the balls are of such size    
that one can be held in each hand4 ,if  
this machine is set up on the surface of
 the earth1 the stream which turns the  

water-wheel is led away through open-air
 ditches2 if in a tunnel1 the water is  
led away through the subterranean       
drains4 ,the buckets of the water-wheel1
 when struck by the impact of the       
stream1 move forward and turn the wheel1
 together with the drum1 whereby the    
chain is wound up and the balls expel   
the water through the pipes4 ,if the    
wheel of this machine is twenty-four    
feet in diameter1 it draws water from a 
shaft two hundred and ten feet deep2 if 
thirty feet in diameter1 it will draw   
water from a shaft two hundred and forty
 feet deep4 ,but such work requires a   
stream with greater water-power4  ,the  
next pump has two drums1 two rows of    
pipes and two drawing-chains whose balls
 lift out the water2 otherwise they are 
like the last pump4 ,this pump is       
usually built when an excessive amount  
of water flows into the sump4 ,these two
 pumps are turned by water-power2       
indeed1 water draws water4  ,the        
following is the way of indicating the  

increase or decrease of the water in an 
underground sump1 whether it is pumped  
by this rag and chain pump or by the    
first pump1 or the third1 or some other4
 ,from a beam which is as high above the
 shaft as the sump is deep1 is hung a   
cord1 to one end of which there is      
fastened a stone1 the other end being   
attached to a plank4 ,the plank is      
lowered down by an iron wire fastened to
 the other end2 when the stone is at the
 mouth of the shaft the plank is right  
down the shaft in the sump1 in which    
water it floats4 ,this plank is so heavy
 that it can drag down the wire and its 
iron clasp and hook1 together with the  
cord1 and thus pull the stone upwards4  
,thus1 as the water decreases1 the plank
 descends and the stone is raised2 on   
the contrary1 when the water increases  
the plank rises and the stone is        
lowered4 ,when the stone nearly touches 
the beam1 since this indicates that the 
water has been exhausted from the sump  
by the pump1 the overseer in charge of  

the machine closes the water-race and   
stops the water-wheel2 when the stone   
nearly touches the ground at the side of
 the shaft1 this indicates that the sump
 is full of water which has again       
collected in it1 because the water      
raises the plank and thus the stone     
drags back both the rope and the iron   
wire2 then the overseer opens the       
water-race1 whereupon the water of the  
stream again strikes the buckets of the 
water-wheel and turns the pump4 ,as     
workmen generally cease from their      
labours on the yearly holidays1 and     
sometimes on working days1 and are thus 
not always near the pump1 and as the    
pump1 if necessary1 must continue to    
draw water all the time1 a bell rings   
aloud continuously1 indicating that this
 pump1 or any other kind1 is uninjured  
and nothing is preventing its turning4  
,the bell is hung by a cord from a small
 wooden axle held in the timbers which  
stand over the shaft1 and a second long 
cord whose upper end is fastened to the 

small axle is lowered into the shaft2 to
 the lower end of this cord is fastened 
a piece of wood2 and as often as a cam  
on the main axle strikes it1 so often   
does the bell ring and give forth a     
sound4  ,illustration #aic 7,rag and    
,chain ,pumps73 ,a--,upright axle4      
,b--,toothed wheel4 ,c--,teeth4         
,d--,horizontal axle4 ,e--,drum which is
 made of rundles4 ,f--,second drum4     
,g--,drawing-chain4 ,h--,the balls4     
,the third pump of this kind is employed
 by miners when no river capable of     
turning a water-wheel can be diverted1  
and it is made as follows4 ,they first  
dig a chamber and erect strong timbers  
and planks to prevent the sides from    
falling in1 which would overwhelm the   
pump and kill the men4 ,the roof of the 
chamber is protected with contiguous    
timbers1 so arranged that the horses    
which pull the machine can travel over  
it4 ,next they again set up sixteen     
beams forty feet long and one foot wide 
and thick1 joined by clamps at the top  

and spreading apart at the bottom1 and  
they fit the lower end of each beam into
 a separate sill laid flat on the       
ground1 and join these by a post2 thus  
there is created a circular area of     
which the diameter is fifty feet4       
,through an opening in the centre of    
this area there descends an upright     
square axle1 forty-five feet long and a 
foot and a half wide and thick2 its     
lower pivot revolves in a socket in a   
block laid flat on the ground in the    
chamber1 and the upper pivot revolves in
 a bearing in a beam which is mortised  
into two beams at the summit beneath the
 clamps2 the lower pivot is seventeen   
feet distant from either side of the    
chamber1 i4e41 from its front and rear4 
,at the height of a foot above its lower
 end1 the axle has a toothed wheel1 the 
diameter of which is twenty-two feet4   
,this wheel is composed of four spokes  
and eight rim pieces2 the spokes are    
fifteen feet long and three-quarters of 
a foot wide and thick#ag2 one end of    

them is mortised in the axle1 the other 
in the two rims where they are joined   
together4 ,these rims are three-quarters
 of a foot thick and one foot wide1 and 
from them there rise and project upright
 teeth three-quarters of a foot high1   
half a foot wide1 and six digits thick4 
,these teeth turn a second horizontal   
axle by means of a drum composed of     
twelve rundles1 each three feet long and
 six digits wide and thick4 ,this drum1 
being turned1 causes the axle to        
revolve1 and around this axle there is a
 drum having iron clamps with fourfold  
curves in which catch the links of a    
chain1 which draws water through pipes  
by means of balls4 ,the iron journals of
 this horizontal axle revolve on pillows
 which are set in the centre of timbers4
 ,above the roof of the chamber there   
are mortised into the upright axle the  
ends of two beams which rise obliquely2 
the upper ends of these beams support   
double cross-beams1 likewise mortised to
 the axle4 ,in the outer end of each    

cross-beam there is mortised a small    
wooden piece which appears to hang down2
 in this wooden piece there is similarly
 mortised at the lower end a short      
board2 this has an iron key which       
engages a chain1 and this chain again a 
pole-bar4 ,this machine1 which draws    
water from a shaft two hundred and forty
 feet deep1 is worked by thirty-two     
horses2 eight of them work for four     
hours1 and then these rest for twelve   
hours1 and the same number take their   
place4 ,this kind of machine is employed
 at the foot of the ,harz#ah mountains  
and in the neighbourhood4 ,further1 if  
necessity arises1 several pumps of this 
kind are often built for the purpose of 
mining one vein1 but arranged           
differently in different localities     
varying according to the depth4 ,at     
,schemnitz1 in the ,carpathian          
mountains1 there are three pumps1 of    
which the lowest lifts water from the   
lowest sump to the first drains1 through
 which it flows into the second sump2   

the intermediate one lifts from the     
second sump to the second drain1 from   
which it flows into the third sump2 and 
the upper one lifts it to the drains of 
the tunnel1 through which it flows away4
 ,this system of three machines of this 
kind is turned by ninety-six horses2    
these horses go down to the machines by 
an inclined shaft1 which slopes and     
twists like a screw and gradually       
descends4 ,the lowest of these machines 
is set in a deep place1 which is distant
 from the surface of the ground #ffj    
feet4  ,illustration #aid 7,rag and     
,chain ,pumps73 ,a--,axle4 ,b--,drum4   
,c--,drawing-chain4 ,d--,balls4         
,e--,clamps4  ,the fourth species of    
pump belongs to the same genera1 and is 
made as follows4 ,two timbers are       
erected1 and in openings in them1 the   
ends of a barrel revolve4 ,two or four  
strong men turn the barrel1 that is to  
say1 one or two pull the cranks1 and one
 or two push them1 and in this way help 
the others2 alternately another two or  

four men take their place4 ,the barrel  
of this machine1 just like the          
horizontal axle of the other machines1  
has a drum whose iron clamps catch the  
links of a drawing-chain4 ,thus water is
 drawn through the pipes by the balls   
from a depth of forty-eight feet4 ,human
 strength cannot draw water higher than 
this1 because such very heavy labour    
exhausts not only men1 but even horses2 
only water-power can drive continuously 
a drum of this kind4 ,several pumps of  
this kind1 as of the last1 are often    
built for the purpose of mining on a    
single vein1 but they are arranged      
differently for different positions and 
depths4  ,illustration #aie 7,rag and   
,chain ,pumps73 ,a--,axles4 ,b--,levers4
 ,c--,toothed drum4 ,d--,drum made of   
rundles4 ,e--,drum in which iron clamps 
are fixed4  ,the fifth pump of this kind
 is partly like the third and partly    
like the fourth1 because it is turned by
 strong men like the last1 and like the 
third it has two axles and three drums1 

though each axle is horizontal4 ,the    
journals of each axle are so fitted in  
the pillows of the beams that they      
cannot fly out2 the lower axle has a    
crank at one end and a toothed drum at  
the other end2 the upper axle has at one
 end a drum made of rundles1 and at the 
other end1 a drum to which are fixed    
iron clamps1 in which the links of a    
chain catch in the same way as before1  
and from the same depth1 draw water     
through pipes by means of balls4 ,this  
revolving machine is turned by two pairs
 of men alternately1 for one pair stands
 working while the other sits taking a  
rest2 while they are engaged upon the   
task of turning1 one pulls the crank and
 the other pushes1 and the drums help to
 make the pump turn more easily4        
,illustration #aig 7,rag and ,chain     
,pumps73 ,a--,axles4 ,b--,wheel which is
 turned by treading4 ,c--,toothed wheel4
 ,d--,drum made of rundles4 ,e--,drum to
 which are fixed iron clamps4           
,f--,second wheel4 ,g--,balls4  ,the    

sixth pump of this kind likewise has two
 axles4 ,at one end of the lower axle is
 a wheel which is turned by two men     
treading1 this is twenty-three feet high
 and four feet wide1 so that one man may
 stand alongside the other4 ,at the     
other end of this axle is a toothed     
wheel4 ,the upper#ai axle has two drums 
and one wheel2 the first drum is made of
 rundles1 and to the other there are    
fixed the iron clamps4 ,the wheel is    
like the one on the second machine which
 is chiefly used for drawing earth and  
broken rock out of shafts4 ,the         
treaders1 to prevent themselves from    
falling1 grasp in their hands poles     
which are fixed to the inner sides of   
the wheel4 ,when they turn this wheel1  
the toothed drum being made to revolve1 
sets in motion the other drum which is  
made of rundles1 by which means again   
the links of the chain catch to the     
cleats of the third drum and draw water 
through pipes by means of balls1--from a
 depth of sixty-six feet4  ,illustration

 #aii 7,baling ,water73 ,a--,reservoir4 
,b--,race4 ,c1 ,d--,levers4 ,e1         
,f--,troughs under the water gates4 ,g1 
,h--,double rows of buckets4 ,i--,axle4 
,k--,larger drum4 ,l--,drawing-chain4   
,m--,bag4 ,n--,hanging cage4 ,o--,man   
who directs the machine4 ,p1 ,q--,men   
emptying bags4  ,but the largest machine
 of all those which draw water is the   
one which follows4 ,first of all a      
reservoir is made in a timbered chamber2
 this reservoir is eighteen feet long   
and twelve feet wide and high4 ,into    
this reservoir a stream is diverted     
through a water-race or through the     
tunnel2 it has two entrances and the    
same number of gates4 ,levers are fixed 
to the upper part of these gates1 by    
which they can be raised and let down   
again1 so that by one way the gates are 
opened and in the other way closed4     
,beneath the openings are two plank     
troughs which carry the water flowing   
from the reservoir1 and pour it on to   
the buckets of the water-wheel1 the     

impact of which turns the wheel4 ,the   
shorter trough carries the water1 which 
strikes the buckets that turn the wheel 
toward the reservoir1 and the longer    
trough carries the water which strikes  
those buckets that turn the wheel in the
 opposite direction4 ,the casing or     
covering of the wheel is made of joined 
boards to which strips are affixed on   
the inner side4 ,the wheel itself is    
thirty-six feet in diameter1 and is     
mortised to an axle1 and it has1 as ,i  
have already said1 two rows of buckets1 
of which one is set the opposite way to 
the other1 so that the wheel may be     
turned toward the reservoir or in the   
opposite direction4 ,the axle is square 
and is thirty-five feet long and two    
feet thick and wide4 ,beyond the wheel1 
at a distance of six feet1 the axle has 
four hubs1 one foot wide and thick1 each
 one of which is four feet distant from 
the next2 to these hubs are fixed by    
iron nails as many pieces of wood as are
 necessary to cover the hubs1 and1 in   

order that the wood pieces may fit      
tight1 they are broader on the outside  
and narrower on the inside2 in this way 
a drum is made1 around which is wound a 
chain to whose ends are hooked leather  
bags4 ,the reason why a drum of this    
kind is made1 is that the axle may be   
kept in good condition1 because this    
drum when it becomes worn away by use   
can be repaired easily4 ,further along  
the axle1 not far from the end1 is      
another drum one foot broad1 projecting 
two feet on all sides around the axle4  
,and to this1 when occasion demands1 a  
brake is applied forcibly and holds back
 the machine2 this kind of brake ,i have
 explained before4 ,near the axle1 in   
place of a hopper1 there is a floor with
 a considerable slope1 having in front  
of the shaft a width of fifteen feet and
 the same at the back2 at each side of  
it there is a stout post carrying an    
iron chain which has a large hook4 ,five
 men operate this machine2 one lets down
 the doors which close the reservoir    

gates1 or by drawing down the levers1   
opens the water-races2 this man1 who is 
the director of this machine1 stands in 
a hanging cage beside the reservoir4    
,when one bag has been drawn out nearly 
as far as the sloping floor1 he closes  
the water gate in order that the wheel  
may be stopped2 when the bag has been   
emptied he opens the other water gate1  
in order that the other set of buckets  
may receive the water and drive the     
wheel in the opposite direction4 ,if he 
cannot close the water-gate quickly     
enough1 and the water continues to flow1
 he calls out to his comrade and bids   
him raise the brake upon the drum and   
stop the wheel4 ,two men alternately    
empty the bags1 one standing on that    
part of the floor which is in front of  
the shaft1 and the other on that part   
which is at the back4 ,when the bag has 
been nearly drawn up--of which fact a   
certain link of the chain gives         
warning--the man who stands on the one  
part of the floor1 catches a large iron 

hook in one link of the chain1 and pulls
 out all the subsequent part of the     
chain toward the floor1 where the bag is
 emptied by the other man4 ,the object  
of this hook is to prevent the chain1 by
 its own weight1 from pulling down the  
other empty bag1 and thus pulling the   
whole chain from its axle and dropping  
it down the shaft4 ,his comrade in the  
work1 seeing that the bag filled with   
water has been nearly drawn out1 calls  
to the director of the machine and bids 
him close the water of the tower so that
 there will be time to empty the bag2   
this being emptied1 the director of the 
machine first of all slightly opens the 
other water-gate of the tower to allow  
the end of the chain1 together with the 
empty bag1 to be started into the shaft 
again1 and then opens entirely the      
water-gates4 ,when that part of the     
chain which has been pulled on to the   
floor has been wound up again1 and has  
been let down over the shaft from the   
drum1 he takes out the large hook which 

was fastened into a link of the chain4  
,the fifth man stands in a sort of      
cross-cut beside the sump1 that he may  
not be hurt1 if it should happen that a 
link is broken and part of the chain or 
anything else should fall down2 he      
guides the bag with a wooden shovel1 and
 fills it with water if it fails to take
 in the water spontaneously4 ,in these  
days1 they sew an iron band into the top
 of each bag that it may constantly     
remain open1 and when lowered into the  
sump may fill itself with water1 and    
there is no need for a man to act as    
governor of the bags4 ,further1 in these
 days1 of those men who stand on the    
floor the one empties the bags1 and the 
other closes the gates of the reservoir 
and opens them again1 and the same man  
usually fixes the large hook in the link
 of the chain4 ,in this way1 three men  
only are employed in working this       
machine2 or even--since sometimes the   
one who empties the bag presses the     
brake which is raised against the other 

drum and thus stops the wheel--two men  
take upon themselves the whole labour4  
,but enough of haulage machines2 ,i will
 now speak of ventilating machines4 ,if 
a shaft is very deep and no tunnel      
reaches to it1 or no drift from another 
shaft connects with it1 or when a tunnel
 is of great length and no shaft reaches
 to it1 then the air does not replenish 
itself4 ,in such a case it weighs       
heavily on the miners1 causing them to  
breathe with difficulty1 and sometimes  
they are even suffocated1 and burning   
lamps are also extinguished4 ,there is1 
therefore1 a necessity for machines     
which the ,greeks call ,greek3          
pneumatikai and the ,latins             
spiritales--though they do not give     
forth any sound--which enable the miners
 to breathe easily and carry on their   
work4  ,illustration #bja 7,windsails   
for ,ventilation73 ,a--,sills4          
,b--,pointed stakes4 ,c--,cross-beams4  
,d--,upright planks4 ,e--,hollows4      
,f--,winds4 ,g--,covering disc4         

,h--,shafts4 ,i--,machine without a     
covering4  ,these devices are of three  
genera4 ,the first receives and diverts 
into the shaft the blowing of the wind1 
and this genus is divided into three    
species1 of which the first is as       
follows4 ,over the shaft--to which no   
tunnel connects--are placed three sills 
a little longer than the shaft1 the     
first over the front1 the second over   
the middle1 and the third over the back 
of the shaft4 ,their ends have openings1
 through which pegs1 sharpened at the   
bottom1 are driven deeply into the      
ground so as to hold them immovable1 in 
the same way that the sills of the      
windlass are fixed4 ,each of these sills
 is mortised into each of three         
cross-beams1 of which one is at the     
right side of the shaft1 the second at  
the left1 and the third in the middle4  
,to the second sill and the second      
cross-beam--each of which is placed over
 the middle of the shaft--planks are    
fixed which are joined in such a manner 

that the one which precedes always fits 
into the groove of the one which        
follows4 ,in this way four angles and   
the same number of intervening hollows  
are created1 which collect the winds    
that blow from all directions4 ,the     
planks are roofed above with a cover    
made in a circular shape1 and are open  
below1 in order that the wind may not be
 diverted upward and escape1 but may be 
carried downward2 and thereby the winds 
of necessity blow into the shafts       
through these four openings4 ,however1  
there is no need to roof this kind of   
machine in those localities in which it 
can be so placed that the wind can blow 
down through its topmost part4          
,illustration #bjb 7,windsails for      
,ventilation73 ,a--,projecting mouth of 
conduit4 ,b--,planks fixed to the mouth 
of the conduit which does not project4  
,the second machine of this genus turns 
the blowing wind into a shaft through a 
long box-shaped conduit1 which is made  
of as many lengths of planks1 joined    

together1 as the depth of the shaft     
requires2 the joints are smeared with   
fat1 glutinous clay moistened with      
water4 ,the mouth of this conduit either
 projects out of the shaft to a height  
of three or four feet1 or it does not   
project2 if it projects1 it is shaped   
like a rectangular funnel1 broader and  
wider at the top than the conduit       
itself1 that it may the more easily     
gather the wind2 if it does not project1
 it is not broader than the conduit1 but
 planks are fixed to it away from the   
direction in which the wind is blowing1 
which catch the wind and force it into  
the conduit4  ,illustration #bjc        
7,windsails for ,ventilation73          
,a--,wooden barrels4 ,b--,hoops4        
,c--,blow-holes4 ,d--,pipe4 ,e--,table4 
,f--,axle4 ,g--,opening in the bottom of
 the barrel4 ,h--,wing4  ,the third of  
this genus of machine is made of a pipe 
or pipes and a barrel4 ,above the       
uppermost pipe there is erected a wooden
 barrel1 four feet high and three feet  

in diameter1 bound with wooden hoops2 it
 has a square blow-hole always open1    
which catches the breezes and guides    
them down either by a pipe into a       
conduit or by many pipes into the shaft4
 ,to the top of the upper pipe is       
attached a circular table as thick as   
the bottom of the barrel1 but of a      
little less diameter1 so that the barrel
 may be turned around on it2 the pipe   
projects out of the table and is fixed  
in a round opening in the centre of the 
bottom of the barrel4 ,to the end of the
 pipe a perpendicular axle is fixed     
which runs through the centre of the    
barrel into a hole in the cover1 in     
which it is fastened1 in the same way as
 at the bottom4 ,around this fixed axle 
and the table on the pipe1 the movable  
barrel is easily turned by a zephyr1 or 
much more by a wind1 which govern the   
wing on it4 ,this wing is made of thin  
boards and fixed to the upper part of   
the barrel on the side furthest away    
from the blow-hole2 this1 as ,i have    

said1 is square and always open4 ,the   
wind1 from whatever quarter of the world
 it blows1 drives the wing straight     
toward the opposite direction1 in which 
way the barrel turns the blow-hole      
towards the wind itself2 the blow-hole  
receives the wind1 and it is guided down
 into the shaft by means of the conduit 
or pipes4  ,illustration #bjd           
7,ventilation ,fans73 ,a--,drum4        
,b--,box-shaped casing4 ,c--,blow-hole4 
,d--,second hole4 ,e--,conduit4         
,f--,axle4 ,g--,lever of axle4          
,h--,rods4  ,the second genus of blowing
 machine is made with fans1 and is      
likewise varied and of many forms1 for  
the fans are either fitted to a windlass
 barrel or to an axle4 ,if to an axle1  
they are either contained in a hollow   
drum1 which is made of two wheels and a 
number of boards joining them together1 
or else in a box-shaped casing4 ,the    
drum is stationary and closed on the    
sides1 except for round holes of such   
size that the axle may turn in them2 it 

has two square blow-holes1 of which the 
upper one receives the air1 while the   
lower one empties into the conduit      
through which the air is led down the   
shaft4 ,the ends of the axle1 which     
project on each side of the drum1 are   
supported by forked posts or hollowed   
beams plated with thick iron2 one end of
 the axle has a crank1 while in the     
other end are fixed four rods with thick
 heavy ends1 so that they weight the    
axle1 and when turned1 make it prone to 
motion as it revolves4 ,and so1 when the
 workman turns the axle by the crank1   
the fans1 the description of which ,i   
will give a little later1 draw in the   
air by the blow-hole1 and force it      
through the other blow-hole which leads 
to the conduit1 and through this conduit
 the air penetrates into the shaft4     
,illustration #bje 7,ventilation ,fans73
 ,a--,box-shaped casing placed on the   
ground4 ,b--,its blow-hole4 ,c--,its    
axle with fans4 ,d--,crank of the axle4 
,e--,rods of same4 ,f--,casing set on   

timbers4 ,g--,sails which the axle has  
outside the casing4  ,the one with the  
box-shaped casing is furnished with just
 the same things as the drum1 but the   
drum is far superior to the box2 for the
 fans so fill the drum that they almost 
touch it on every side1 and drive into  
the conduit all the air that has been   
accumulated2 but they cannot thus fill  
the box-shaped casing1 on account of its
 angles1 into which the air partly      
retreats2 therefore it cannot be as     
useful as the drum4 ,the kind with a    
box-shaped casing is not only placed on 
the ground1 but is also set up on       
timbers like a windmill1 and its axle1  
in place of a crank1 has four sails     
outside1 like the sails of a windmill4  
,when these are struck by the wind they 
turn the axle1 and in this way its      
fans--which are placed within the       
casing--drive the air through the       
blow-hole and the conduit into the      
shaft4 ,although this machine has no    
need of men whom it is necessary to pay 

to work the crank1 still when the sky is
 devoid of wind1 as it often is1 the    
machine does not turn1 and it is        
therefore less suitable than the others 
for ventilating a shaft4  ,illustration 
#bjf 7,ventilation ,fans73 ,a--,hollow  
drum4 ,b--,its blow-hole4 ,c--,axle with
 fans4 ,d--,drum which is made of       
rundles4 ,e--,lower axle4 ,f--,its      
toothed wheel4 ,g--,water wheel4  ,in   
the kind where the fans are fixed to an 
axle1 there is generally a hollow       
stationary drum at one end of the axle1 
and on the other end is fixed a drum    
made of rundles4 ,this rundle drum is   
turned by the toothed wheel of a lower  
axle1 which is itself turned by a wheel 
whose buckets receive the impetus of    
water4 ,if the locality supplies an     
abundance of water this machine is most 
useful1 because to turn the crank does  
not need men who require pay1 and       
because it forces air without cessation 
through the conduit into the shaft4     
,illustration #bjg 7,ventilation ,fans73

 ,a--,first kind of fan4 ,b--,second    
kind of fan4 ,c--,third kind of fan4    
,d--,quadrangular part of axle4         
,e--,round part of same4 ,f--,crank4    
,of the fans which are fixed on to an   
axle contained in a drum or box1 there  
are three sorts4 ,the first sort is made
 of thin boards of such length and width
 as the height and width of the drum or 
box require2 the second sort is made of 
boards of the same width1 but shorter1  
to which are bound long thin blades of  
poplar or some other flexible wood2 the 
third sort has boards like the last1 to 
which are bound double and triple rows  
of goose feathers4 ,this last is less   
used than the second1 which in turn is  
less used than the first4 ,the boards of
 the fan are mortised into the          
quadrangular parts of the barrel axle4  
,illustration #bjh 7,bellows for mine   
ventilation73 ,a--,smaller part of      
shaft4 ,b--,square conduit4             
,c--,bellows4 ,d--,larger part of shaft4
  ,blowing machines of the third genus1 

which are no less varied and of no fewer
 forms than those of the second genus1  
are made with bellows1 for by its blasts
 the shafts and tunnels are not only    
furnished with air through conduits or  
pipes1 but they can also be cleared by  
suction of their heavy and pestilential 
vapours4 ,in the latter case1 when the  
bellows is opened it draws the vapours  
from the conduits through its blow-hole 
and sucks these vapours into itself2 in 
the former case1 when it is compressed1 
it drives the air through its nozzle    
into the conduits or pipes4 ,they are   
compressed either by a man1 or by a     
horse or by water-power2 if by a man1   
the lower board of a large bellows is   
fixed to the timbers above the conduit  
which projects out of the shaft1 and so 
placed that when the blast is blown     
through the conduit1 its nozzle is set  
in the conduit4 ,when it is desired to  
suck out heavy or pestilential vapours1 
the blow-hole of the bellows is fitted  
all round the mouth of the conduit4     

,fixed to the upper bellows board is a  
lever which couples with another running
 downward from a little axle1 into which
 it is mortised so that it may remain   
immovable2 the iron journals of this    
little axle revolve in openings of      
upright posts2 and so when the workman  
pulls down the lever the upper board of 
the bellows is raised1 and at the same  
time the flap of the blow-hole is       
dragged open by the force of the wind4  
,if the nozzle of the bellows is        
enclosed in the conduit it draws pure   
air into itself1 but if its blow-hole is
 fitted all round the mouth of the      
conduit it exhausts the heavy and       
pestilential vapours out of the conduit 
and thus from the shaft1 even if it is  
one hundred and twenty feet deep4 ,a    
stone placed on the upper board of the  
bellows depresses it and then the flap  
of the blow-hole is closed4 ,the        
bellows1 by the first method1 blows     
fresh air into the conduit through its  
nozzle1 and by the second method blows  

out through the nozzle the heavy and    
pestilential vapours which have been    
collected4 ,in this latter case fresh   
air enters through the larger part of   
the shaft1 and the miners getting the   
benefit of it can sustain their toil4 ,a
 certain smaller part of the shaft which
 forms a kind of estuary1 requires to be
 partitioned off from the other larger  
part by uninterrupted lagging1 which    
reaches from the top of the shaft to the
 bottom2 through this part the long but 
narrow conduit reaches down nearly to   
the bottom of the shaft4  ,illustration 
#bji 7,bellows for mine ventilation73   
,a--,tunnel4 ,b--,pipe4 ,c--,nozzle of  
double bellows4  ,when no shaft has been
 sunk to such depth as to meet a tunnel 
driven far into a mountain1 these       
machines should be built in such a      
manner that the workman can move them   
about4 ,close by the drains of the      
tunnel through which the water flows    
away1 wooden pipes should be placed and 
joined tightly together in such a manner

 that they can hold the air2 these      
should reach from the mouth of the      
tunnel to its furthest end4 ,at the     
mouth of the tunnel the bellows should  
be so placed that through its nozzle it 
can blow its accumulated blasts into the
 pipes or the conduit2 since one blast  
always drives forward another1 they     
penetrate into the tunnel and change the
 air1 whereby the miners are enabled to 
continue their work4  ,illustration #baa
 7,bellows for mine ventilation73       
,a--,machine first described4 ,b--,this 
workman1 treading with his feet1 is     
compressing the bellows4 ,c--,bellows   
without nozzles4 ,d--,hole by which     
heavy vapours or blasts are blown out4  
,e--,conduits4 ,f--,tunnel4 ,g--,second 
machine described4 ,h--,wooden wheel4   
,i--,its steps4 ,k--,bars4 ,l--,hole in 
same wheel4 ,m--,pole4 ,n--,third       
machine described4 ,o--,upright axle4   
,p--,its toothed drum4 ,q--,horizontal  
axle4 ,r--,its drum which is made of    
rundles4  ,if heavy vapours need to be  

drawn off from the tunnels1 generally   
three double or triple bellows1 without 
nozzles and closed in the forepart1 are 
placed upon benches4 ,a workman         
compresses them by treading with his    
feet1 just as persons compress those    
bellows of the organs which give out    
varied and sweet sounds in churches4    
,these heavy vapours are thus drawn     
along the air-pipes and through the     
blow-hole of the lower bellows board1   
and are expelled through the blow-hole  
of the upper bellows board into the open
 air1 or into some shaft or drift4 ,this
 blow-hole has a flap-valve1 which the  
noxious blast opens1 as often as it     
passes out4 ,since one volume of air    
constantly rushes in to take the place  
of another which has been drawn out by  
the bellows1 not only is the heavy air  
drawn out of a tunnel as great as #a1bjj
 feet long1 or even longer1 but also the
 wholesome air is naturally drawn in    
through that part of the tunnel which is
 open outside the conduits4 ,in this way

 the air is changed1 and the miners are 
enabled to carry on the work they have  
begun4 ,if machines of this kind had not
 been invented1 it would be necessary   
for miners to drive two tunnels into a  
mountain1 and continually1 at every two 
hundred feet at most1 to sink a shaft   
from the upper tunnel to the lower one1 
that the air passing into the one1 and  
descending by the shafts into the other1
 would be kept fresh for the miners2    
this could not be done without great    
expense4  ,there are two different      
machines for operating1 by means of     
horses1 the above described bellows4    
,the first of these machines has on its 
axle a wooden wheel1 the rim of which is
 covered all the way round by steps2 a  
horse is kept continually within bars1  
like those within which horses are held 
to be shod with iron1 and by treading   
these steps with its feet it turns the  
wheel1 together with the axle2 the cams 
on the axle press down the sweeps which 
compress the bellows4 ,the way the      

instrument is made which raises the     
bellows again1 and also the benches on  
which the bellows rest1 ,i will explain 
more clearly in ,book ,,ix4 ,each       
bellows1 if it draws heavy vapours out  
of a tunnel1 blows them out of the hole 
in the upper board2 if they are drawn   
out of a shaft1 it blows them out       
through its nozzle4 ,the wheel has a    
round hole1 which is transfixed with a  
pole when the machine needs to be       
stopped4  ,the second machine has two   
axles2 the upright one is turned by a   
horse1 and its toothed drum turns a drum
 made of rundles on a horizontal axle2  
in other respects this machine is like  
the last4 ,here1 also1 the nozzles of   
the bellows placed in the conduits blow 
a blast into the shaft or tunnel4       
,illustration #bab 7,ventilating with   
,damp ,cloth73 ,a--,tunnel4 ,b--,linen  
cloth4  ,in the same way that this last 
machine can refresh the heavy air of a  
shaft or tunnel1 so also could the old  
system of ventilating by the constant   

shaking of linen cloths1 which ,pliny#bj
 has explained2 the air not only grows  
heavier with the depth of a shaft1 of   
which fact he has made mention1 but also
 with the length of a tunnel4           
,illustration #bac 7,descent into       
,mines73 ,a--,descending into the shaft 
by ladders4 ,b--,by sitting on a stick4 
,c--,by sitting on the dirt4            
,d--,descending by steps cut in the     
rock4  ,the climbing machines of miners 
are ladders1 fixed to one side of the   
shaft1 and these reach either to the    
tunnel or to the bottom of the shaft4 ,i
 need not describe how they are made1   
because they are used everywhere1 and   
need not so much skill in their         
construction as care in fixing them4    
,however1 miners go down into mines not 
only by the steps of ladders1 but they  
are also lowered into them while sitting
 on a stick or a wicker basket1 fastened
 to the rope of one of the three drawing
 machines which ,i described at first4  
,further1 when the shafts are much      

inclined1 miners and other workmen sit  
in the dirt which surrounds their loins 
and slide down in the same way that boys
 do in winter-time when the water on    
some hillside has congealed with the    
cold1 and to prevent themselves from    
falling1 one arm is wound about a rope1 
the upper end of which is fastened to a 
beam at the mouth of the shaft1 and the 
lower end to a stake fixed in the bottom
 of the shaft4 ,in these three ways     
miners descend into the shafts4 ,a      
fourth way may be mentioned which is    
employed when men and horses go down to 
the underground machines and come up    
again1 that is by inclined shafts which 
are twisted like a screw and have steps 
cut in the rock1 as ,i have already     
described4  ,it remains for me to speak 
of the ailments and accidents of miners1
 and of the methods by which they can   
guard against these1 for we should      
always devote more care to maintaining  
our health1 that we may freely perform  
our bodily functions1 than to making    

profits4 ,of the illnesses1 some affect 
the joints1 others attack the lungs1    
some the eyes1 and finally some are     
fatal to men4  ,where water in shafts is
 abundant and very cold1 it frequently  
injures the limbs1 for cold is harmful  
to the sinews4 ,to meet this1 miners    
should make themselves sufficiently high
 boots of rawhide1 which protect their  
legs from the cold water2 the man who   
does not follow this advice will suffer 
much ill-health1 especially when he     
reaches old age4 ,on the other hand1    
some mines are so dry that they are     
entirely devoid of water1 and this      
dryness causes the workmen even greater 
harm1 for the dust which is stirred and 
beaten up by digging penetrates into the
 windpipe and lungs1 and produces       
difficulty in breathing1 and the disease
 which the ,greeks call ,greek3 asthma4 
,if the dust has corrosive qualities1 it
 eats away the lungs1 and implants      
consumption in the body2 hence in the   
mines of the ,carpathian ,mountains     

women are found who have married seven  
husbands1 all of whom this terrible     
consumption has carried off to a        
premature death4 ,at ,altenberg in      
,meissen there is found in the mines    
black pompholyx1 which eats wounds and  
ulcers to the bone2 this also corrodes  
iron1 for which reason the keys of their
 sheds are made of wood4 ,further1 there
 is a certain kind of cadmia#ba which   
eats away the feet of the workmen when  
they have become wet1 and similarly     
their hands1 and injures their lungs and
 eyes4 ,therefore1 for their digging    
they should make for themselves not only
 boots of rawhide1 but gloves long      
enough to reach to the elbow1 and they  
should fasten loose veils over their    
faces2 the dust will then neither be    
drawn through these into their windpipes
 and lungs1 nor will it fly into their  
eyes4 ,not dissimilarly1 among the      
,romans#bb the makers of vermilion took 
precautions against breathing its fatal 
dust4  ,stagnant air1 both that which   

remains in a shaft and that which       
remains in a tunnel1 produces a         
difficulty in breathing2 the remedies   
for this evil are the ventilating       
machines which ,i have explained above4 
,there is another illness even more     
destructive1 which soon brings death to 
men who work in those shafts or levels  
or tunnels in which the hard rock is    
broken by fire4 ,here the air is        
infected with poison1 since large and   
small veins and seams in the rocks      
exhale some subtle poison from the      
minerals1 which is driven out by the    
fire1 and this poison itself is raised  
with the smoke not unlike pompholyx1#bc 
which clings to the upper part of the   
walls in the works in which ore is      
smelted4 ,if this poison cannot escape  
from the ground1 but falls down into the
 pools and floats on their surface1 it  
often causes danger1 for if at any time 
the water is disturbed through a stone  
or anything else1 these fumes rise again
 from the pools and thus overcome the   

men1 by being drawn in with their       
breath2 this is even much worse if the  
fumes of the fire have not yet all      
escaped4 ,the bodies of living creatures
 who are infected with this poison      
generally swell immediately and lose all
 movement and feeling1 and they die     
without pain2 men even in the act of    
climbing from the shafts by the steps of
 ladders fall back into the shafts when 
the poison overtakes them1 because their
 hands do not perform their office1 and 
seem to them to be round and spherical1 
and likewise their feet4 ,if by good    
fortune the injured ones escape these   
evils1 for a little while they are pale 
and look like dead men4 ,at such times1 
no one should descend into the mine or  
into the neighbouring mines1 or if he is
 in them he should come out quickly4    
,prudent and skilled miners burn the    
piles of wood on ,friday1 towards       
evening1 and they do not descend into   
the shafts nor enter the tunnels again  
before ,monday1 and in the meantime the 

poisonous fumes pass away4  ,there are  
also times when a reckoning has to be   
made with ,orcus1#bd for some           
metalliferous localities1 though such   
are rare1 spontaneously produce poison  
and exhale pestilential vapour1 as is   
also the case with some openings in the 
ore1 though these more often contain the
 noxious fumes4 ,in the towns of the    
plains of ,bohemia there are some       
caverns which1 at certain seasons of the
 year1 emit pungent vapours which put   
out lights and kill the miners if they  
linger too long in them4 ,pliny1 too1   
has left a record that when wells are   
sunk1 the sulphurous or aluminous       
vapours which arise kill the            
well-diggers1 and it is a test of this  
danger if a burning lamp which has been 
let down is extinguished4 ,in such cases
 a second well is dug to the right or   
left1 as an air-shaft1 which draws off  
these noxious vapours4 ,on the plains   
they construct bellows which draw up    
these noxious vapours and remedy this   

evil2 these ,i have described before4   
,further1 sometimes workmen slipping    
from the ladders into the shafts break  
their arms1 legs1 or necks1 or fall into
 the sumps and are drowned2 often1      
indeed1 the negligence of the foreman is
 to blame1 for it is his special work   
both to fix the ladders so firmly to the
 timbers that they cannot break away1   
and to cover so securely with planks the
 sumps at the bottom of the shafts1 that
 the planks cannot be moved nor the men 
fall into the water2 wherefore the      
foreman must carefully execute his own  
work4 ,moreover1 he must not set the    
entrance of the shaft-house toward the  
north wind1 lest in winter the ladders  
freeze with cold1 for when this happens 
the men's hands become stiff and        
slippery with cold1 and cannot perform  
their office of holding4 ,the men1 too1 
must be careful that1 even if none of   
these things happen1 they do not fall   
through their own carelessness4         
,mountains1 too1 slide down and men are 

crushed in their fall and perish4 ,in   
fact1 when in olden days ,rammelsberg1  
in ,goslar1 sank down1 so many men were 
crushed in the ruins that in one day1   
the records tell us1 about #djj women   
were robbed of their husbands4 ,and     
eleven years ago1 part of the mountain  
of ,altenberg1 which had been excavated1
 became loose and sank1 and suddenly    
crushed six miners2 it also swallowed up
 a hut and one mother and her little    
boy4 ,but this generally occurs in those
 mountains which contain venae          
cumulatae4 ,therefore1 miners should    
leave numerous arches under the         
mountains which need support1 or provide
 underpinning4 ,falling pieces of rock  
also injure their limbs1 and to prevent 
this from happening1 miners should      
protect the shafts1 tunnels1 and drifts4
  ,the venomous ant which exists in     
,sardinia is not found in our mines4    
,this animal is1 as ,solinus#be writes1 
very small and like a spider in shape2  
it is called solifuga1 because it shuns 

7fugit7 the light 7solem74 ,it is very  
common in silver mines2 it creeps       
unobserved and brings destruction upon  
those who imprudently sit on it4 ,but1  
as the same writer tells us1 springs of 
warm and salubrious waters gush out in  
certain places1 which neutralise the    
venom inserted by the ants4  ,in some of
 our mines1 however1 though in very few1
 there are other pernicious pests4      
,these are demons of ferocious aspect1  
about which ,i have spoken in my book   
,de ,animantibus ,subterraneis4 ,demons 
of this kind are expelled and put to    
flight by prayer and fasting4#bf  ,some 
of these evils1 as well as certain other
 things1 are the reason why pits are    
occasionally abandoned4 ,but the first  
and principal cause is that they do not 
yield metal1 or if1 for some fathoms1   
they do bear metal they become barren in
 depth4 ,the second cause is the        
quantity of water which flows in2       
sometimes the miners can neither divert 
this water into the tunnels1 since      

tunnels cannot be driven so far into the
 mountains1 or they cannot draw it out  
with machines because the shafts are too
 deep2 or if they could draw it out with
 machines1 they do not use them1 the    
reason undoubtedly being that the       
expenditure is greater than the profits 
of a moderately poor vein4 ,the third   
cause is the noxious air1 which the     
owners sometimes cannot overcome either 
by skill or expenditure1 for which      
reason the digging is sometimes         
abandoned1 not only of shafts1 but also 
of tunnels4 ,the fourth cause is the    
poison produced in particular places1 if
 it is not in our power either          
completely to remove it or to moderate  
its effects4 ,this is the reason why the
 caverns in the ,plain known as         
,laurentius#bg used not to be worked1   
though they were not deficient in       
silver4 ,the fifth cause are the fierce 
and murderous demons1 for if they cannot
 be expelled1 no one escapes from them4 
,the sixth cause is that the            

underpinnings become loosened and       
collapse1 and a fall of the mountain    
usually follows2 the underpinnings are  
then only restored when the vein is very
 rich in metal4 ,the seventh cause is   
military operations4 ,shafts and tunnels
 should not be re-opened unless we are  
quite certain of the reasons why the    
miners have deserted them1 because we   
ought not to believe that our ancestors 
were so indolent and spiritless as to   
desert mines which could have been      
carried on with profit4 ,indeed1 in our 
own days1 not a few miners1 persuaded by
 old women's tales1 have re-opened      
deserted shafts and lost their time and 
trouble4 ,therefore1 to prevent future  
generations from being led to act in    
such a way1 it is advisable to set down 
in writing the reason why the digging of
 each shaft or tunnel has been          
abandoned1 just as it is agreed was once
 done at ,freiberg1 when the shafts were
 deserted on account of the great inrush
 of water4       ,,end ,,of ,,book ,,vi4

   ,,footnotes3  #a ,this ,book is      
devoted in the main to winding1         
ventilating1 and pumping machinery4     
,their mechanical principles are very   
old4 ,the block and pulley1 the         
windlass1 the use of water-wheels1 the  
transmission of power through shafts and
 gear-wheels1 chain-pumps1 piston-pumps 
with valves1 were all known to the      
,greeks and ,romans1 and possibly       
earlier4 ,machines involving these      
principles were described by ,ctesibius1
 an ,alexandrian of #bej ,b4,c41 by     
,archimedes 7#bhg-bab ,b4,c471 and by   
,vitruvius 7#ast ,century ,b4,c47 ,as to
 how far these machines were applied to 
mining by the ,ancients we have but     
little evidence1 and this largely in    
connection with handling water4         
,diodorus ,siculus 7#ast ,century       
,b4,c47 referring to the ,spanish mines1
 says 7,book ,v473 ,sometimes at great  
depths they meet great rivers           
underground1 but by art give check to   
the violence of the streams1 for by     

cutting trenches they divert the        
current1 and being sure to gain what    
they aim at when they have begun1 they  
never leave off till they have finished 
it4 ,and they admirably pump out the    
water with those instruments called     
,egyptian pumps1 invented by            
,archimedes1 the ,syracusan1 when he was
 in ,egypt4 ,by these1 with constant    
pumping by turns they throw up the water
 to the mouth of the pit and thus drain 
the mine2 for this engine is so         
ingeniously contrived that a vast       
quantity of water is strangely and with 
little labour cast out4  ,strabo 7#fc   
,b4,c4-#bd ,a4,d41 ,,iii41 #b1 #i71 also
 referring to ,spanish mines1 quoting   
from ,posidonius 7about #ajj ,b4,c471   
says3 ,he compares with these 7the      
,athenians7 the activity and diligence  
of the ,turdetani1 who are in the habit 
of cutting tortuous and deep tunnels1   
and draining the streams which they     
frequently encounter by means of        
,egyptian screws4 7,hamilton's ,tran41  

,vol4 ,i41 p4 #bba74 ,the ,egyptian     
screw was ,archimedes' screw1 and was   
thus called because much used by the    
,egyptians for irrigation4 ,pliny       
7,,xxxiii41 #ca7 also says1 in speaking 
of the ,spanish silver-lead mines3 ,the 
mountain has been excavated for a       
distance of #a1ejj paces1 and along this
 distance there are water-carriers      
standing by torch-light night and day   
steadily baling the water 7thus7 making 
quite a river4 ,the re-opening of the   
mines at ,rio ,tinto in the middle of   
the #ahth ,century disclosed old ,roman 
stopes1 in which were found several     
water-wheels4 ,these were about #ae feet
 in diameter1 lifting the water by the  
reverse arrangement to an overshot      
water-wheel4 ,a wooden ,archimedian     
screw was also found in the             
neighbourhood4 7,nash1 ,the ,rio ,tinto 
,mine1 its ,history and ,romance1       
,london1 #aijd74  ,until early in the   
#ahth ,century1 water formed the        
limiting factor in the depth of mines4  

,to the great devotion to this water    
problem we owe the invention of the     
steam engine4 ,in #agje ,newcomen--no   
doubt inspired by ,savery's unsuccessful
 attempt--invented his engine1 and      
installed the first one on a colliery at
 ,wolverhampton1 in ,staffordshire4     
,with its success1 a new era was opened 
to the miner1 to be yet further extended
 by ,watt's improvements sixty years    
later4 ,it should be a matter of        
satisfaction to mining engineers that   
not only was the steam engine the       
handiwork of their profession1 but that 
another mining engineer1 ,stephenson1 in
 his effort to further the advance of   
his calling1 invented the locomotive4   
#b ,while these particular tools serve  
the same purpose as the gad and the     
moil1 the latter are not fitted with    
handles1 and we have1 therefore1 not    
felt justified in adopting these terms1 
but have given a literal rendering of   
the ,latin4  ,the ,latin and old ,german
 terms for these tools were3--    ,first

 ,iron tool  ,ferramentum primum        
,bergeisen4   ,second                   
secundum   ,rutzeisen4   ,third         
tertium    ,sumpffeisen4   ,fourth      
quartum    ,fimmel4   ,wedge            
,cuneus                 ,keil4   ,iron  
block       ,lamina                     
,plotz4   ,iron plate       ,bractea    
,feder4  ,the ,german words obviously   
had local value and do not bear         
translation literally4  #c ,one metreta1
 a ,greek measure1 equalled about nine  
,english gallons1 and a congius         
contained about six pints4  #d          
,ingestores4 ,this is a case of         
,agricola coining a name for workmen    
from the work1 the term being derived   
from ingero1 to pour or to throw in1    
used in the previous clause--hence the  
reason4 ,see p4 xxxi4  #e ,cisium4 ,a   
two-wheeled cart4 ,in the preface       
,agricola gives this as an example of   
his intended adaptations4 ,see p4 xxxi4 
#f ,canis4 ,the ,germans in ,agricola's 
time called a truck a hundt--a hound4   

#g ,alveus1--,tray4 ,the ,spanish term  
batea has been so generally adopted into
 the mining vocabulary for a wooden bowl
 for these purposes1 that we introduce  
it here4  #h ,pliny 7,,xxxiii41 #ba74   
,the fragments are carried on workmen's 
shoulders2 night and day each passes the
 material to his neighbour1 only the    
last of them seeing the daylight4  #aj  
,harpago1--,a grapple or hook4  #aa     
,ancient ,noricum covered the region of 
modern ,tyrol1 with parts of ,bavaria1  
,salzburg1 etc4  #ab ,machina quae pilis
 aquas haurit4 ,machine which draws     
water with balls4 ,this apparatus is    
identical with the ,cornish rag and     
chain pump of the same period1 and we   
have therefore adopted that term4  #ac  
,a congius contained about six pints4   
#ad ,vitruvius 7,x41 #i74 ,but if the   
water is to be supplied to still higher 
places1 a double chain of iron is made  
to revolve on the axis of the wheel1    
long enough to reach to the lower level4
 ,this is furnished with brazen buckets1

 each holding about a congius4 ,then by 
turning the wheel1 the chain also turns 
upon the axis and brings the buckets to 
the top thereof1 on passing which they  
are inverted and pour into the conduits 
the water they have raised4  #ae ,this  
description certainly does not          
correspond in every particular with the 
illustration4  #af ,there is a certain  
deficiency in the hydraulics of this    
machine4  #ag ,the dimensions given in  
this description for the various members
 do not tally4  #ah ,melibocian1--the   
,harz4  #ai ,in the original text this  
is given as lower1 and appears to be an 
error4  #bj ,pliny 7,,xxxi1 #bh74 ,in   
deep wells1 the occurrence of sulphurata
 or aluminosa vapor is fatal to the     
diggers4 ,the presence of this peril is 
shown if a lighted lamp let down into   
the well is extinguished4 ,if so1 other 
wells are sunk to the right and left1   
which carry off these noxious gases4    
,apart from these evils1 the air itself 
becomes noxious with depth1 which can be

 remedied by constantly shaking linen   
cloths1 thus setting the air in motion4 
#ba ,this is given in the ,german       
translation as kobelt4 ,the kobelt 7or  
cobaltum of ,agricola7 was probably     
arsenical-cobalt1 a mineral common in   
the ,saxon mines4 ,the origin of the    
application of the word cobalt to a     
mineral appears to lie in the ,german   
word for the gnomes and goblins         
7kobelts7 so universal to ,saxon miners'
 imaginations1--this word in turn       
probably being derived from the ,greek  
cobali 7mimes74 ,the suffering described
 above seems to have been associated    
with the malevolence of demons1 and     
later the word for these demons was     
attached to this disagreeable ore4 ,a   
quaint series of mining sermons1 by     
,johann ,mathesius1 entitled ,sarepta   
oder ,bergpostill1 ,nuernberg1 #aefb1   
contains the following passage 7p4 #aed7
 which bears out this view4 ,we retain  
the original and varied spelling of     
cobalt and also add another view of     

,mathesius1 involving an experience of  
,solomon and ,hiram of ,tyre with some  
mines containing cobalt4  ,sometimes1   
however1 from dry hard veins a certain  
black1 greenish1 grey or ash-coloured   
earth is dug out1 often containing good 
ore1 and this mineral being burnt gives 
strong fumes and is extracted like      
'tutty4' ,it is called cadmia fossilis4 
,you miners call it cobelt4 ,germans    
call the ,black ,devil and the old      
,devil's furies1 old and black cobel1   
who injure people and their cattle with 
their witchcrafts4 ,now the ,devil is a 
wicked1 malicious spirit1 who shoots his
 poisoned darts into the hearts of men1 
as sorcerers and witches shoot at the   
limbs of cattle and men1 and work much  
evil and mischief with cobalt or        
hipomane or horses' poison4 ,after      
quicksilver and rotgueltigen ore1 are   
cobalt and wismuth fumes2 these are the 
most poisonous of the metals1 and with  
them one can kill flies1 mice1 cattle1  
birds1 and men4 ,so1 fresh cobalt and   

kisswasser 7vitriol87 devour the hands  
and feet of miners1 and the dust and    
fumes of cobalt kill many mining people 
and workpeople who do much work among   
the fumes of the smelters4 ,whether or  
not the ,devil and his hellish crew gave
 their name to cobelt1 or kobelt1       
nevertheless1 cobelt is a poisonous and 
injurious metal even if it contains     
silver4 ,i find in ,i4 ,kings #i1 the   
word ,cabul4 ,when ,solomon presented   
twenty towns in ,galilee to the ,king of
 ,tyre1 ,hiram visited them first1 and  
would not have them1 and said the land  
was well named ,cabul as ,joshua had    
christened it4 ,it is certain from      
,joshua that these twenty towns lay in  
the ,kingdom of ,aser1 not far from our 
,sarepta1 and that there had been iron  
and copper mines there1 as ,moses says  
in another place4 ,inasmuch1 then1 as   
these twenty places were mining towns1  
and cobelt is a metal1 it appears quite 
likely that the mineral took its name   
from the land of ,cabul4 ,history and   

circumstances bear out the theory that  
,hiram was an excellent and experienced 
miner1 who obtained much gold from      
,ophir1 with which he honoured ,solomon4
 ,therefore1 the ,great ,king wished to 
show his gratitude to his good neighbour
 by honouring a miner with mining towns4
 ,but because the ,king of ,tyre was    
skilled in mines1 he first inspected the
 new mines1 and saw that they only      
produced poor metal and much wild cobelt
 ore1 therefore he preferred to find his
 gold by digging the gold and silver in 
,india rather than by getting it by the 
cobelt veins and ore4 ,for truly1 cobelt
 ores are injurious1 and are usually so 
embedded in other ore that they rob them
 in the fire and consume 7madtet und    
frist7 much lead before the silver is   
extracted1 and when this happens it is  
especially speysig4 ,therefore ,hiram   
made a good reckoning as to the mines   
and would not undertake all the expense 
of working and smelting1 and so returned
 ,solomon the twenty towns4  #bb ,pliny 

7,,xxxiii1 #dj74 ,those employed in the 
works preparing vermilion1 cover their  
faces with a bladder-skin1 that they may
 not inhale the pernicious powder1 yet  
they can see through the skin4  #bc     
,pompholyx was a furnace deposit1       
usually mostly zinc oxide1 but often    
containing arsenical oxide1 and to this 
latter quality this reference probably  
applies4 ,the symptoms mentioned later  
in the text amply indicate arsenical    
poisoning1 of which a sort of spherical 
effect on the hands is characteristic4  
,see also note on p4 #aab for discussion
 of corrosive cadmia2 further           
information on pompholyx is given in    
,note #bf1 p4 #cid4  #bd ,orcus1 the god
 of the infernal regions1--otherwise    
,pluto4  #be ,caius ,julius ,solinus was
 an unreliable ,roman ,grammarian of the
 #crd ,century4 ,there is much          
difference of opinion as to the precise 
animal meant by solifuga4 ,the word is  
variously spelled solipugus1 solpugus1  
solipuga1 solipunga1 etc41 and is       

mentioned by ,pliny 7,,viii41 #dc71 and 
other ancient authors all apparently    
meaning a venomous insect1 either an ant
 or a spider4 ,the term in later times  
indicated a scorpion4  #bf ,the presence
 of demons or gnomes in the mines was so
 general a belief that ,agricola fully  
accepted it4 ,this is more remarkable1  
in view of our author's very general    
scepticism regarding the supernatural4  
,he1 however1 does not classify them all
 as bad--some being distinctly helpful4 
,the description of gnomes of kindly    
intent1 which is contained in the last  
paragraph in ,de ,animantibus is of     
interest3--  ,then there are the gentle 
kind which the ,germans as well as the  
,greeks call cobalos1 because they mimic
 men4 ,they appear to laugh with glee   
and pretend to do much1 but really do   
nothing4 ,they are called little miners1
 because of their dwarfish stature1     
which is about two feet4 ,they are      
venerable looking and are clothed like  
miners in a filleted garment with a     

leather apron about their loins4 ,this  
kind does not often trouble the miners1 
but they idle about in the shafts and   
tunnels and really do nothing1 although 
they pretend to be busy in all kinds of 
labour1 sometimes digging ore1 and      
sometimes putting into buckets that     
which has been dug4 ,sometimes they     
throw pebbles at the workmen1 but they  
rarely injure them unless the workmen   
first ridicule or curse them4 ,they are 
not very dissimilar to ,goblins1 which  
occasionally appear to men when they go 
to or from their day's work1 or when    
they attend their cattle4 ,because they 
generally appear benign to men1 the     
,germans call them guteli4 ,those called
 trulli1 which take the form of women as
 well as men1 actually enter the service
 of some people1 especially the ,suions4
 ,the mining gnomes are especially      
active in the workings where metal has  
already been found1 or where there are  
hopes of discovering it1 because of     
which they do not discourage the miners1

 but on the contrary stimulate them and 
cause them to labour more vigorously4   
,the ,german miners were not alone in   
such beliefs1 for miners generally      
accepted them--even to-day the faith in 
knockers has not entirely disappeared   
from ,cornwall4 ,neither the sea nor the
 forest so lends itself to the          
substantiation of the supernatural as   
does the mine4 ,the dead darkness1 in   
which the miners' lamps serve only to   
distort every shape1 the uncanny noises 
of restless rocks whose support has been
 undermined1 the approach of danger and 
death without warning1 the sudden       
vanishing or discovery of good fortune1 
all yield a thousand corroborations to  
minds long steeped in ignorance and     
prepared for the miraculous through     
religious teaching4  #bg ,the ,plains of
 ,laurentius extend from the mouth of   
the ,tiber southward--say twenty miles  
south of ,rome4 ,what ,agricola's       
authority was for silver mines in this  
region we cannot discover4 ,this may1   

however1 refer to the lead-silver       
district of the ,attic ,peninsula1      
,laurion being sometimes ,latinized as  
,laurium or ,laurius4     ,,book ,,vii4 
,since the ,sixth ,book has described   
the iron tools1 the vessels and the     
machines used in mines1 this ,book will 
describe the methods of assaying#a ores2
 because it is desirable to first test  
them in order that the material mined   
may be advantageously smelted1 or that  
the dross may be purged away and the    
metal made pure4 ,although writers have 
mentioned such tests1 yet none of them  
have set down the directions for        
performing them1 wherefore it is no     
wonder that those who come later have   
written nothing on the subject4 ,by     
tests of this kind miners can determine 
with certainty whether ores contain any 
metal in them or not2 or if it has      
already been indicated that the ore     
contains one or more metals1 the tests  
show whether it is much or little2 the  
miners also ascertain by such tests the 

method by which the metal can be        
separated from that part of the ore     
devoid of it2 and further1 by these     
tests1 they determine that part in which
 there is much metal from that part in  
which there is little4 ,unless these    
tests have been carefully applied before
 the metals are melted out1 the ore     
cannot be smelted without great loss to 
the owners1 for the parts which do not  
easily melt in the fire carry the metals
 off with them or consume them4 ,in the 
last case1 they pass off with the fumes2
 in the other case they are mixed with  
the slag and furnace accretions1 and in 
such event the owners lose the labour   
which they have spent in preparing the  
furnaces and the crucibles1 and further1
 it is necessary for them to incur fresh
 expenditure for fluxes and other       
things4 ,metals1 when they have been    
melted out1 are usually assayed in order
 that we may ascertain what proportion  
of silver is in a centumpondium of      
copper or lead1 or what quantity of gold

 is in one libra of silver2 and1 on the 
other hand1 what proportion of copper or
 lead is contained in a centumpondium of
 silver1 or what quantity of silver is  
contained in one libra of gold4 ,and    
from this we can calculate whether it   
will be worth while to separate the     
precious metals from the base metals1 or
 not4 ,further1 a test of this kind     
shows whether coins are good or are     
debased2 and readily detects silver1 if 
the coiners have mixed more than is     
lawful with the gold2 or copper1 if the 
coiners have alloyed with the gold or   
silver more of it than is allowable4 ,i 
will explain all these methods with the 
utmost care that ,i can4  ,the method of
 assaying ore used by mining people1    
differs from smelting only by the small 
amount of material used4 ,inasmuch as1  
by smelting a small quantity1 they learn
 whether the smelting of a large        
quantity will compensate them for their 
expenditure2 hence1 if they are not     
particular to employ assays1 they may1  

as ,i have already said1 sometimes smelt
 the metal from the ore with a loss or  
sometimes without any profit2 for they  
can assay the ore at a very small       
expense1 and smelt it only at a great   
expense4 ,both processes1 however1 are  
carried out in the same way1 for just as
 we assay ore in a little furnace1 so do
 we smelt it in the large furnace4 ,also
 in both cases charcoal and not wood is 
burned4 ,moreover1 in the crucible when 
metals are tested1 be they gold1 silver1
 copper1 or lead1 they are mixed in     
precisely the same way as they are mixed
 in the blast furnace when they are     
smelted4 ,further1 those who assay ores 
with fire1 either pour out the metal in 
a liquid state1 or1 when it has cooled1 
break the crucible and clean the metal  
from slag2 and in the same way the      
smelter1 as soon as the metal flows from
 the furnace into the forehearth1 pours 
in cold water and takes the slag from   
the metal with a hooked bar4 ,finally1  
in the same way that gold and silver are

 separated from lead in a cupel1 so also
 are they separated in the cupellation  
furnace4  ,it is necessary that the     
assayer who is testing ore or metals    
should be prepared and instructed in all
 things necessary in assaying1 and that 
he should close the doors of the room in
 which the assay furnace stands1 lest   
anyone coming at an inopportune moment  
might disturb his thoughts when they are
 intent on the work4 ,it is also        
necessary for him to place his balances 
in a case1 so that when he weighs the   
little buttons of metal the scales may  
not be agitated by a draught of air1 for
 that is a hindrance to his work4       
,illustration #bbc;a 7,muffle ,furnace73
 ,round assay furnace4  ,illustration   
#bbc;b 7,muffle ,furnace73 ,rectangular 
assay furnace4  ,illustration #bbd      
7,muffle ,assay ,furnace73 ,a--,openings
 in the plate4 ,b--,part of plate which 
projects beyond the furnace4  ,now ,i   
will describe the different things which
 are necessary in assaying1 beginning   

with the assay furnace1 of which one    
differs from another in shape1 material1
 and the place in which it is set4 ,in  
shape1 they may be round or rectangular1
 the latter shape being more suited to  
assaying ores4 ,the materials of the    
assay furnaces differ1 in that one is   
made of bricks1 another of iron1 and    
certain ones of clay4 ,the one of bricks
 is built on a chimney-hearth which is  
three and a half feet high2 the iron one
 is placed in the same position1 and    
also the one of clay4 ,the brick one is 
a cubit high1 a foot wide on the inside1
 and one foot two digits long2 at a     
point five digits above the             
hearth--which is usually the thickness  
of an unbaked#b brick--an iron plate is 
laid1 and smeared over with lute on the 
upper side to prevent it from being     
injured by the fire2 in front of the    
furnace above the plate is a mouth a    
palm high1 five digits wide1 and rounded
 at the top4 ,the iron plate has three  
openings which are one digit wide and   

three digits long1 one is at each side  
and the third at the back2 through them 
sometimes the ash falls from the burning
 charcoal1 and sometimes the draught    
blows through the chamber which is below
 the iron plate1 and stimulates the     
fire4 ,for this reason this furnace when
 used by metallurgists is named from    
assaying1 but when used by the          
alchemists it is named from the wind#c4 
,the part of the iron plate which       
projects from the furnace is generally  
three-quarters of a palm long and a palm
 wide2 small pieces of charcoal1 after  
being laid thereon1 can be placed       
quickly in the furnace through its mouth
 with a pair of tongs1 or again1 if     
necessary1 can be taken out of the      
furnace and laid there4  ,the iron assay
 furnace is made of four iron bars a    
foot and a half high2 which at the      
bottom are bent outward and broadened a 
short distance to enable them to stand  
more firmly2 the front part of the      
furnace is made from two of these bars1 

and the back part from two of them2 to  
these bars on both sides are joined and 
welded three iron cross-bars1 the first 
at a height of a palm from the bottom1  
the second at a height of a foot1 and   
the third at the top4 ,the upright bars 
are perforated at that point where the  
side cross-bars are joined to them1 in  
order that three similar iron bars on   
the remaining sides can be engaged in   
them2 thus there are twelve cross-bars1 
which make three stages at unequal      
intervals4 ,at the lower stage1 the     
upright bars are distant from each other
 one foot and five digits2 and at the   
middle stage the front is distant from  
the back three palms and one digit1 and 
the sides are distant from each other   
three palms and as many digits2 at the  
highest stage from the front to the back
 there is a distance of two palms1 and  
between the sides three palms1 so that  
in this way the furnace becomes narrower
 at the top4 ,furthermore1 an iron rod1 
bent to the shape of the mouth1 is set  

into the lowest bar of the front2 this  
mouth1 just like that of the brick      
furnace1 is a palm high and five digits 
wide4 ,then the front cross-bar of the  
lower stage is perforated on each side  
of the mouth1 and likewise the back one2
 through these perforations there pass  
two iron rods1 thus making altogether   
four bars in the lower stage1 and these 
support an iron plate smeared with lute2
 part of this plate also projects       
outside the furnace4 ,the outside of the
 furnace from the lower stage to the    
upper1 is covered with iron plates1     
which are bound to the bars by iron     
wires1 and smeared with lute to enable  
them to bear the heat of the fire as    
long as possible4  ,as for the clay     
furnace1 it must be made of fat1 thick  
clay1 medium so far as relates to its   
softness or hardness4 ,this furnace has 
exactly the same height as the iron one1
 and its base is made of two earthenware
 tiles1 one foot and three palms long   
and one foot and one palm wide4 ,each   

side of the fore part of both tiles is  
gradually cut away for the length of a  
palm1 so that they are half a foot and a
 digit wide1 which part projects from   
the furnace2 the tiles are about a digit
 and a half thick4 ,the walls are       
similarly of clay1 and are set on the   
lower tiles at a distance of a digit    
from the edge1 and support the upper    
tiles2 the walls are three digits high  
and have four openings1 each of which is
 about three digits high2 those of the  
back part and of each side are five     
digits wide1 and of the front1 a palm   
and a half wide1 to enable the freshly  
made cupels to be conveniently placed on
 the hearth1 when it has been thoroughly
 warmed1 that they may be dried there4  
,both tiles are bound on the outer edge 
with iron wire1 pressed into them1 so   
that they will be less easily broken2   
and the tiles1 not unlike the iron      
bed-plate1 have three openings three    
digits long and a digit wide1 in order  
that when the upper one on account of   

the heat of the fire or for some other  
reason has become damaged1 the lower one
 may be exchanged and take its place4   
,through these holes1 the ashes from the
 burning charcoal1 as ,i have stated1   
fall down1 and air blows into the       
furnace after passing through the       
openings in the walls of the chamber4   
,the furnace is rectangular1 and inside 
at the lower part it is three palms and 
one digit wide and three palms and as   
many digits long4 ,at the upper part it 
is two palms and three digits wide1 so  
that it also grows narrower2 it is one  
foot high2 in the middle of the back it 
is cut out at the bottom in the shape of
 a semicircle1 of half a digit radius4  
,not unlike the furnace before          
described1 it has in its forepart a     
mouth which is rounded at the top1 one  
palm high and a palm and a digit wide4  
,its door is also made of clay1 and this
 has a window and a handle2 even the lid
 of the furnace which is made of clay   
has its own handle1 fastened on with    

iron wire4 ,the outer parts and sides of
 this furnace are bound with iron wires1
 which are usually pressed in1 in the   
shape of triangles4 ,the brick furnaces 
must remain stationary2 the clay and    
iron ones can be carried from one place 
to another4 ,those of brick can be      
prepared more quickly1 while those of   
iron are more lasting1 and those of clay
 are more suitable4 ,assayers also make 
temporary furnaces in another way2 they 
stand three bricks on a hearth1 one on  
each side and a third one at the back1  
the forepart lies open to the draught1  
and on these bricks is placed an iron   
plate1 upon which they again stand three
 bricks1 which hold and retain the      
charcoal4  ,the setting of one furnace  
differs from another1 in that some are  
placed higher and others lower2 that one
 is placed higher1 in which the man who 
is assaying the ore or metals introduces
 the scorifier through the mouth with   
the tongs2 that one is placed lower1    
into which he introduces the crucible   

through its open top4  ,illustration    
#bbg 7,crucible ,assay ,furnace73       
,a--,iron hoop4 ,b--,double bellows4    
,c--,its nozzle4 ,d--,lever4  ,in some  
cases the assayer uses an iron hoop#d in
 place of a furnace2 this is placed upon
 the hearth of a chimney1 the lower edge
 being daubed with lute to prevent the  
blast of the bellows from escaping under
 it4 ,if the blast is given slowly1 the 
ore will be smelted and the copper will 
melt in the triangular crucible1 which  
is placed in it and taken away again    
with the tongs4 ,the hoop is two palms  
high and half a digit thick2 its        
diameter is generally one foot and one  
palm1 and where the blast from the      
bellows enters into it1 it is notched   
out4 ,the bellows is a double one1 such 
as goldworkers use1 and sometimes       
smiths4 ,in the middle of the bellows   
there is a board in which there is an   
air-hole1 five digits wide and seven    
long1 covered by a little flap which is 
fastened over the air-hole on the lower 

side of the board2 this flap is of equal
 length and width4 ,the bellows1 without
 its head1 is three feet long1 and at   
the back is one foot and one palm wide  
and somewhat rounded1 and it is three   
palms wide at the head2 the head itself 
is three palms long and two palms and a 
digit wide at the part where it joins   
the boards1 then it gradually becomes   
narrower4 ,the nozzle1 of which there is
 only one1 is one foot and two digits   
long2 this nozzle1 and one-half of the  
head in which the nozzle is fixed1 are  
placed in an opening of the wall1 this  
being one foot and one palm thick2 it   
reaches only to the iron hoop on the    
hearth1 for it does not project beyond  
the wall4 ,the hide of the bellows is   
fixed to the bellows-boards with its own
 peculiar kind of iron nails4 ,it joins 
both bellows-boards to the head1 and    
over it there are cross strips of hide  
fixed to the bellows-boards with        
broad-headed nails1 and similarly fixed 
to the head4 ,the middle board of the   

bellows rests on an iron bar1 to which  
it is fastened with iron nails clinched 
on both ends1 so that it cannot move2   
the iron bar is fixed between two       
upright posts1 through which it         
penetrates4 ,higher up on these upright 
posts there is a wooden axle1 with iron 
journals which revolve in the holes in  
the posts4 ,in the middle of this axle  
there is mortised a lever1 fixed with   
iron nails to prevent it from flying    
out2 the lever is five and a half feet  
long1 and its posterior end is engaged  
in the iron ring of an iron rod which   
reaches to the tail of the lowest       
bellows-board1 and there engages another
 similar ring4 ,and so when the workman 
pulls down the lever1 the lower part of 
the bellows is raised and drives the    
wind into the nozzle2 then the wind1    
penetrating through the hole in the     
middle bellows-board1 which is called   
the air-hole1 lifts up the upper part of
 the bellows1 upon whose upper board is 
a piece of lead1 heavy enough to press  

down that part of the bellows again1 and
 this being pressed down blows a blast  
through the nozzle4 ,this is the        
principle of the double bellows1 which  
is peculiar to the iron hoop where are  
placed the triangular crucibles in which
 copper ore is smelted and copper is    
melted4  ,illustration #bbh 7,muffles73 
,a--,broad little windows of muffle4    
,b--,narrow ones4 ,c--,openings in the  
back thereof4  ,i have spoken of the    
furnaces and the iron hoop2 ,i will now 
speak of the muffles and the crucibles4 
,the muffle is made of clay1 in the     
shape of an inverted gutter tile2 it    
covers the scorifiers1 lest coal dust   
fall into them and interfere with the   
assay4 ,it is a palm and a half broad1  
and the height1 which corresponds with  
the mouth of the furnace1 is generally a
 palm1 and it is nearly as long as the  
furnace2 only at the front end does it  
touch the mouth of the furnace1         
everywhere else on the sides and at the 
back there is a space of three digits1  

to allow the charcoal to lie in the open
 space between it and the furnace4 ,the 
muffle is as thick as a fairly thick    
earthen jar2 its upper part is entire2  
the back has two little windows1 and    
each side has two or three or even four1
 through which the heat passes into the 
scorifiers and melts the ore4 ,in place 
of little windows1 some muffles have    
small holes1 ten in the back and more on
 each side4 ,moreover1 in the back below
 the little windows1 or small holes1    
there are cut away three semi-circular  
notches half a digit high1 and on each  
side there are four4 ,the back of the   
muffle is generally a little lower than 
the front4  ,illustration #bbi          
7,containers73 ,a--,scorifier4          
,b--,triangular crucible4 ,c--,cupel4   
,the crucibles differ in the materials  
from which they are made1 because they  
are made of either clay or ashes2 and   
those of clay1 which we also call       
earthen1 differ in shape and size4 ,some
 are made in the shape of a moderately  

thick salver 7scorifiers71 three digits 
wide1 and of a capacity of an uncia     
measure2 in these the ore mixed with    
fluxes is melted1 and they are used by  
those who assay gold or silver ore4     
,some are triangular and much thicker   
and more capacious1 holding five1 or    
six1 or even more unciae2 in these      
copper is melted1 so that it can be     
poured out1 expanded1 and tested with   
fire1 and in these copper ore is usually
 melted4  ,the cupels are made of ashes2
 like the preceding scorifiers they are 
tray-shaped1 and their lower part is    
very thick but their capacity is less4  
,in these lead is separated from silver1
 and by them assays are concluded4      
,inasmuch as the assayers themselves    
make the cupels1 something must be said 
about the material from which they are  
made1 and the method of making them4    
,some make them out of all kinds of     
ordinary ashes2 these are not good1     
because ashes of this kind contain a    
certain amount of fat1 whereby such     

cupels are easily broken when they are  
hot4 ,others make them likewise out of  
any kind of ashes which have been       
previously leached2 of this kind are the
 ashes into which warm water has been   
infused for the purpose of making lye4  
,these ashes1 after being dried in the  
sun or a furnace1 are sifted in a hair  
sieve2 and although warm water washes   
away the fat from the ashes1 still the  
cupels which are made from such ashes   
are not very good because they often    
contain charcoal dust1 sand1 and        
pebbles4 ,some make them in the same way
 out of any kind of ashes1 but first of 
all pour water into the ashes and remove
 the scum which floats thereon2 then1   
after it has become clear1 they pour    
away the water1 and dry the ashes2 they 
then sift them and make the cupels from 
them4 ,these1 indeed1 are good1 but not 
of the best quality1 because ashes of   
this kind are also not devoid of small  
pebbles and sand4 ,to enable cupels of  
the best quality to be made1 all the    

impurities must be removed from the     
ashes4 ,these impurities are of two     
kinds2 the one sort light1 to which     
class belong charcoal dust and fatty    
material and other things which float in
 water1 the other sort heavy1 such as   
small stones1 fine sand1 and any other  
materials which settle in the bottom of 
a vessel4 ,therefore1 first of all1     
water should be poured into the ashes   
and the light impurities removed2 then  
the ashes should be kneaded with the    
hands1 so that they will become properly
 mixed with the water4 ,when the water  
has become muddy and turbid1 it should  
be poured into a second vessel4 ,in this
 way the small stones and fine sand1 or 
any other heavy substance which may be  
there1 remain in the first vessel1 and  
should be thrown away4 ,when all the    
ashes have settled in this second       
vessel1 which will be shown if the water
 has become clear and does not taste of 
the flavour of lye1 the water should be 
thrown away1 and the ashes which have   

settled in the vessel should be dried in
 the sun or in a furnace4 ,this material
 is suitable for the cupels1 especially 
if it is the ash of beech wood or other 
wood which has a small annual growth2   
those ashes made from twigs and limbs of
 vines1 which have rapid annual growth1 
are not so good1 for the cupels made    
from them1 since they are not           
sufficiently dry1 frequently crack and  
break in the fire and absorb the metals4
 ,if ashes of beech or similar wood are 
not to be had1 the assayer makes little 
balls of such ashes as he can get1 after
 they have been cleared of impurities in
 the manner before described1 and puts  
them in a baker's or potter's oven to   
burn1 and from these the cupels are     
made1 because the fire consumes whatever
 fat or damp there may be4 ,as to all   
kinds of ashes1 the older they are the  
better1 for it is necessary that they   
should have the greatest possible       
dryness4 ,for this reason ashes obtained
 from burned bones1 especially from the 

bones of the heads of animals1 are the  
most suitable for cupels1 as are also   
those ashes obtained from the horns of  
deer and the spines of fishes4 ,lastly1 
some take the ashes which are obtained  
from burnt scrapings of leather1 when   
the tanners scrape the hides to clear   
them from hair4 ,some prefer to use     
compounds1 that one being recommended   
which has one and a half parts of ashes 
from the bones of animals or the spines 
of fishes1 and one part of beech ashes1 
and half a part of ashes of burnt hide  
scrapings4 ,from this mixture good      
cupels are made1 though far better ones 
are obtained from equal portions of     
ashes of burnt hide scrapings1 ashes of 
the bones of heads of sheep and calves1 
and ashes of deer horns4 ,but the best  
of all are produced from deer horns     
alone1 burnt to powder2 this kind1 by   
reason of its extreme dryness1 absorbs  
metals least of all4 ,assayers of our   
own day1 however1 generally make the    
cupels from beech ashes4 ,these ashes1  

after being prepared in the manner just 
described1 are first of all sprinkled   
with beer or water1 to make them stick  
together1 and are then ground in a small
 mortar4 ,they are ground again after   
being mixed with the ashes obtained from
 the skulls of beasts or from the spines
 of fishes2 the more the ashes are      
ground the better they are4 ,some rub   
bricks and sprinkle the dust so         
obtained1 after sifting it1 into the    
beech ashes1 for dust of this kind does 
not allow the hearth-lead to absorb the 
gold or silver by eating away the       
cupels4 ,others1 to guard against the   
same thing1 moisten the cupels with     
white of egg after they have been made1 
and when they have been dried in the    
sun1 again crush them2 especially if    
they want to assay in it an ore of      
copper which contains iron4 ,some       
moisten the ashes again and again with  
cow's milk1 and dry them1 and grind them
 in a small mortar1 and then mould the  
cupels4 ,in the works in which silver is

 separated from copper1 they make cupels
 from two parts of the ashes of the     
crucible of the cupellation furnace1 for
 these ashes are very dry1 and from one 
part of bone-ash4 ,cupels which have    
been made in these ways also need to be 
placed in the sun or in a furnace2      
afterward1 in whatever way they have    
been made1 they must be kept a long time
 in dry places1 for the older they are1 
the dryer and better they are4          
,illustration #bca 7,cupel ,moulds and  
,pestles73 ,a--,little mould4           
,b--,inverted mould4 ,c--,pestle4       
,d--,its knob4 ,e--,second pestle4  ,not
 only potters1 but also the assayers    
themselves1 make scorifiers and         
triangular crucibles4 ,they make them   
out of fatty clay1 which is dry#e1 and  
neither hard nor soft4 ,with this clay  
they mix the dust of old broken         
crucibles1 or of burnt and worn bricks2 
then they knead with a pestle the clay  
thus mixed with dust1 and then dry it4  
,as to these crucibles1 the older they  

are1 the dryer and better they are4 ,the
 moulds in which the cupels are moulded 
are of two kinds1 that is1 a smaller    
size and a larger size4 ,in the smaller 
ones are made the cupels in which silver
 or gold is purged from the lead which  
has absorbed it2 in the larger ones are 
made cupels in which silver is separated
 from copper and lead4 ,both moulds are 
made out of brass and have no bottom1 in
 order that the cupels can be taken out 
of them whole4 ,the pestles also are of 
two kinds1 smaller and larger1 each     
likewise of brass1 and from the lower   
end of them there projects a round knob1
 and this alone is pressed into the     
mould and makes the hollow part of the  
cupel4 ,the part which is next to the   
knob corresponds to the upper part of   
the mould4  ,so much for these matters4 
,i will now speak of the preparation of 
the ore for assaying4 ,it is prepared by
 roasting1 burning1 crushing1 and       
washing4 ,it is necessary to take a     
fixed weight of ore in order that one   

may determine how great a portion of it 
these preparations consume4 ,the hard   
stone containing the metal is burned in 
order that1 when its hardness has been  
overcome1 it can be crushed and washed2 
indeed1 the very hardest kind1 before it
 is burned1 is sprinkled with vinegar1  
in order that it may more rapidly soften
 in the fire4 ,the soft stone should be 
broken with a hammer1 crushed in a      
mortar and reduced to powder2 then it   
should be washed and then dried again4  
,if earth is mixed with the mineral1 it 
is washed in a basin1 and that which    
settles is assayed in the fire after it 
is dried4 ,all mining products which are
 washed must again be dried4 ,but ore   
which is rich in metal is neither burned
 nor crushed nor washed1 but is roasted1
 lest that method of preparation should 
lose some of the metal4 ,when the fires 
have been kindled1 this kind of ore is  
roasted in an enclosed pot1 which is    
stopped up with lute4 ,a less valuable  
ore is even burned on a hearth1 being   

placed upon the charcoal2 for we do not 
make a great expenditure upon metals1 if
 they are not worth it4 ,however1 ,i    
will go into fuller details as to all   
these methods of preparing ore1 both a  
little later1 and in the following      
,book4  ,for the present1 ,i have       
decided to explain those things which   
mining people usually call fluxes#f     
because they are added to ores1 not only
 for assaying1 but also for smelting4   
,great power is discovered in all these 
fluxes1 but we do not see the same      
effects produced in every case2 and some
 are of a very complicated nature4 ,for 
when they have been mixed with the ore  
and are melted in either the assay or   
the smelting furnace1 some of them1     
because they melt easily1 to some extent
 melt the ore2 others1 because they     
either make the ore very hot or         
penetrate into it1 greatly assist the   
fire in separating the impurities from  
the metals1 and they also mix the fused 
part with the lead1 or they partly      

protect from the fire the ore whose     
metal contents would be either consumed 
in the fire1 or carried up with the     
fumes and fly out of the furnace2 some  
fluxes absorb the metals4 ,to the first 
order belongs lead1 whether it be       
reduced to little granules or resolved  
into ash by fire1 or red-lead#g1 or     
ochre made from lead#h1 or litharge1 or 
hearth-lead1 or galena2 also copper1 the
 same either roasted or in leaves or    
filings#i2 also the slags of gold1      
silver1 copper1 and lead2 also soda#aj1 
its slags1 saltpetre1 burned alum1      
vitriol1 sal tostus1 and melted salt#aa2
 stones which easily melt in hot        
furnaces1 the sand which is made from   
them#ab2 soft tophus#ac1 and a certain  
white schist#ad4 ,but lead1 its ashes1  
red-lead1 ochre1 and litharge1 are more 
efficacious for ores which melt easily2 
hearth-lead for those which melt with   
difficulty2 and galena for those which  
melt with greater difficulty4 ,to the   
second order belong iron filings1 their 

slag1 sal artificiosus1 argol1 dried    
lees of vinegar#ae1 and the lees of the 
aqua which separates gold from          
silver#af2 these lees and sal           
artificiosus have the power of          
penetrating into ore1 the argol to a    
considerable degree1 the lees of vinegar
 to a greater degree1 but most of all   
those of the aqua which separates gold  
from silver2 filings and slags of iron1 
since they melt more slowly1 have the   
power of heating the ore4 ,to the third 
order belong pyrites1 the cakes which   
are melted from them1 soda1 its slags1  
salt1 iron1 iron scales1 iron filings1  
iron slags1 vitriol1 the sand which is  
resolved from stones which easily melt  
in the fire1 and tophus2 but first of   
all are pyrites and the cakes which are 
melted from it1 for they absorb the     
metals of the ore and guard them from   
the fire which consumes them4 ,to the   
fourth order belong lead and copper1 and
 their relations4 ,and so with regard to
 fluxes1 it is manifest that some are   

natural1 others fall in the category of 
slags1 and the rest are purged from     
slag4 ,when we assay ores1 we can       
without great expense add to them a     
small portion of any sort of flux1 but  
when we smelt them we cannot add a large
 portion without great expense4 ,we     
must1 therefore1 consider how great the 
cost is1 to avoid incurring a greater   
expense on smelting an ore than the     
profit we make out of the metals which  
it yields4  ,the colour of the fumes    
which the ore emits after being placed  
on a hot shovel or an iron plate1       
indicates what flux is needed in        
addition to the lead1 for the purpose of
 either assaying or smelting4 ,if the   
fumes have a purple tint1 it is best of 
all1 and the ore does not generally     
require any flux whatever4 ,if the fumes
 are blue1 there should be added cakes  
melted out of pyrites or other          
cupriferous rock2 if yellow1 litharge   
and sulphur should be added2 if red1    
glass-galls#ag and salt2 if green1 then 

cakes melted from cupriferous stones1   
litharge1 and glass-galls2 if the fumes 
are black1 melted salt or iron slag1    
litharge and white lime rock4 ,if they  
are white1 sulphur and iron which is    
eaten with rust2 if they are white with 
green patches1 iron slag and sand       
obtained from stones which easily melt2 
if the middle part of the fumes are     
yellow and thick1 but the outer parts   
green1 the same sand and iron slag4 ,the
 colour of the fumes not only gives us  
information as to the proper remedies   
which should be applied to each ore1 but
 also more or less indication as to the 
solidified juices which are mixed with  
it1 and which give forth such fumes4    
,generally1 blue fumes signify that the 
ore contains azure yellow1 orpiment2    
red1 realgar2 green1 chrysocolla2 black1
 black bitumen2 white1 tin#ah2 white    
with green patches1 the same mixed with 
chrysocolla2 the middle part yellow and 
other parts green show that it contains 
sulphur4 ,earth1 however1 and other     

things dug up which contain metals1     
sometimes emit similarly coloured fumes4
  ,if the ore contains any stibium1 then
 iron slag is added to it2 if pyrites1  
then are added cakes melted from a      
cupriferous stone and sand made from    
stones which easily melt4 ,if the ore   
contains iron1 then pyrites and sulphur 
are added2 for just as iron slag is the 
flux for an ore mixed with sulphur1 so  
on the contrary1 to a gold or silver ore
 containing iron1 from which they are   
not easily separated1 is added sulphur  
and sand made from stones which easily  
melt4  ,sal artificiosus#ai suitable for
 use in assaying ore is made in many    
ways4 ,by the first method1 equal       
portions of argol1 lees of vinegar1 and 
urine1 are all boiled down together till
 turned into salt4 ,the second method is
 from equal portions of the ashes which 
wool-dyers use1 of lime1 of argol       
purified1 and of melted salt2 one libra 
of each of these ingredients is thrown  
into twenty librae of urine2 then all   

are boiled down to one-third and        
strained1 and afterward there is added  
to what remains one libra and four      
unciae of unmelted salt1 eight pounds of
 lye being at the same time poured into 
the pots1 with litharge smeared around  
on the inside1 and the whole is boiled  
till the salt becomes thoroughly dry4   
,the third method follows4 ,unmelted    
salt1 and iron which is eaten with rust1
 are put into a vessel1 and after urine 
has been poured in1 it is covered with a
 lid and put in a warm place for thirty 
days2 then the iron is washed in the    
urine and taken out1 and the residue is 
boiled until it is turned into salt4 ,in
 the fourth method by which sal         
artificiosus is prepared1 the lye made  
from equal portions of lime and the     
ashes which wool-dyers use1 together    
with equal portions of salt1 soap1 white
 argol1 and saltpetre1 are boiled until 
in the end the mixture evaporates and   
becomes salt4 ,this salt is mixed with  
the concentrates from washing1 to melt  

them4  ,saltpetre is prepared in the    
following manner1 in order that it may  
be suitable for use in assaying ore4 ,it
 is placed in a pot which is smeared on 
the inside with litharge1 and lye made  
of quicklime is repeatedly poured over  
it1 and it is heated until the fire     
consumes it4 ,wherefore the saltpetre   
does not kindle with the fire1 since it 
has absorbed the lime which preserves   
it1 and thus it is prepared#bj4  ,the   
following compositions#ba are           
recommended to smelt all ores which the 
heat of fire breaks up or melts only    
with difficulty4 ,of these1 one is made 
from stones of the third order1 which   
easily melt when thrown into hot        
furnaces4 ,they are crushed into pure   
white powder1 and with half an uncia of 
this powder there are mixed two unciae  
of yellow litharge1 likewise crushed4   
,this mixture is put into a scorifier   
large enough to hold it1 and placed     
under the muffle of a hot furnace2 when 
the charge flows like water1 which      

occurs after half an hour1 it is taken  
out of the furnace and poured on to a   
stone1 and when it has hardened it has  
the appearance of glass1 and this is    
likewise crushed4 ,this powder is       
sprinkled over any metalliferous ore    
which does not easily melt when we are  
assaying it1 and it causes the slag to  
exude4  ,others1 in place of litharge1  
substitute lead ash1#bb which is made in
 the following way3 sulphur is thrown   
into lead which has been melted in a    
crucible1 and it soon becomes covered   
with a sort of scum2 when this is       
removed1 sulphur is again thrown in1 and
 the skin which forms is again taken    
off2 this is frequently repeated1 in    
fact until all the lead is turned into  
powder4 ,there is a powerful flux       
compound which is made from one uncia   
each of prepared saltpetre1 melted salt1
 glass-gall1 and argol1 and one-third of
 an uncia of litharge and a bes of glass
 ground to powder2 this flux1 being     
added to an equal weight of ore1        

liquefies it4 ,a more powerful flux is  
made by placing together in a pot1      
smeared on the inside with litharge1    
equal portions of white argol1 common   
salt1 and prepared saltpetre1 and these 
are heated until a white powder is      
obtained from them1 and this is mixed   
with as much litharge2 one part of this 
compound is mixed with two parts of the 
ore which is to be assayed4 ,a still    
more powerful flux than this is made out
 of ashes of black lead1 saltpetre1     
orpiment1 stibium1 and dried lees of the
 aqua with which gold workers separate  
gold from silver4 ,the ashes of lead#bc 
are made from one pound of lead and one 
pound of sulphur2 the lead is flattened 
out into sheets by pounding with a      
hammer1 and placed alternately with     
sulphur in a crucible or pot1 and they  
are heated together until the fire      
consumes the sulphur and the lead turns 
to ashes4 ,one libra of crushed         
saltpetre is mixed with one libra of    
orpiment similarly ground to powder1 and

 the two are cooked in an iron pan until
 they liquefy2 they are then poured out1
 and after cooling are again ground to  
powder4 ,a libra of stibium and a bes of
 the dried lees 7of what87 are placed   
alternately in a crucible and heated to 
the point at which they form a button1  
which is similarly reduced to powder4 ,a
 bes of this powder and one libra of the
 ashes of lead1 as well as a libra of   
powder made out of the saltpetre and    
orpiment1 are mixed together and a      
powder is made from them1 one part of   
which added to two parts of ore         
liquefies it and cleanses it of dross4  
,but the most powerful flux is one which
 has two drachmae of sulphur and as much
 glass-galls1 and half an uncia of each 
of the following1--stibium1 salt        
obtained from boiled urine1 melted      
common salt1 prepared saltpetre1        
litharge1 vitriol1 argol1 salt obtained 
from ashes of musk ivy1 dried lees of   
the aqua by which gold-workers separate 
gold from silver1 alum reduced by fire  

to powder1 and one uncia of camphor#bd  
combined with sulphur and ground into   
powder4 ,a half or whole portion of this
 mixture1 as the necessity of the case  
requires1 is mixed with one portion of  
the ore and two portions of lead1 and   
put in a scorifier2 it is sprinkled with
 powder of crushed ,venetian glass1 and 
when the mixture has been heated for an 
hour and a half or two hours1 a button  
will settle in the bottom of the        
scorifier1 and from it the lead is soon 
separated4  ,there is also a flux which 
separates sulphur1 orpiment and realgar 
from metalliferous ore4 ,this flux is   
composed of equal portions of iron slag1
 white tophus1 and salt4 ,after these   
juices have been secreted1 the ores     
themselves are melted1 with argol added 
to them4 ,there is one flux which       
preserves stibium from the fire1 that   
the fire may not consume it1 and which  
preserves the metals from the stibium2  
and this is composed of equal portions  
of sulphur1 prepared saltpetre1 melted  

salt1 and vitriol1 heated together in   
lye until no odour emanates from the    
sulphur1 which occurs after a space of  
three or four hours4#be  ,it is also    
worth while to substitute certain other 
mixtures4 ,take two portions of ore     
properly prepared1 one portion of iron  
filings1 and likewise one portion of    
salt1 and mix2 then put them into a     
scorifier and place them in a muffle    
furnace2 when they are reduced by the   
fire and run together1 a button will    
settle in the bottom of the scorifier4  
,or else take equal portions of ore and 
of lead ochre1 and mix with them a small
 quantity of iron filings1 and put them 
into a scorifier1 then scatter iron     
filings over the mixture4 ,or else take 
ore which has been ground to powder and 
sprinkle it in a crucible1 and then     
sprinkle over it an equal quantity of   
salt that has been three or four times  
moistened with urine and dried2 then1   
again and again alternately1 powdered   
ore and salt2 next1 after the crucible  

has been covered with a lid and sealed1 
it is placed upon burning charcoal4 ,or 
else take one portion of ore1 one       
portion of minute lead granules1 half a 
portion of ,venetian glass1 and the same
 quantity of glass-galls4 ,or else take 
one portion of ore1 one portion of lead 
granules1 half a portion of salt1       
one-fourth of a portion of argol1 and   
the same quantity of lees of the aqua   
which separates gold from silver4 ,or   
else take equal portions of prepared ore
 and a powder in which there are equal  
portions of very minute lead granules1  
melted salt1 stibium and iron slag4 ,or 
else take equal portions of gold ore1   
vitriol1 argol1 and of salt4 ,so much   
for the fluxes4  ,in the assay furnace1 
when it has been prepared in the way in 
which ,i have described1 is first placed
 a muffle4 ,then selected pieces of live
 charcoals are laid on it1 for1 from    
pieces of inferior quality1 a great     
quantity of ash collects around the     
muffle and hinders the action of the    

fire4 ,then the scorifiers are placed   
under the muffle with tongs1 and glowing
 coals are placed under the fore part of
 the muffle to warm the scorifiers more 
quickly2 and when the lead or ore is to 
be placed in the scorifiers1 they are   
taken out again with the tongs4 ,when   
the scorifiers glow in the heat1 first  
of all the ash or small charcoals1 if   
any have fallen into them1 should be    
blown away with an iron pipe two feet   
long and a digit in diameter2 this same 
thing must be done if ash or small coal 
has fallen into the cupels4 ,next1 put  
in a small ball of lead with the tongs1 
and when this lead has begun to be      
turned into fumes and consumed1 add to  
it the prepared ore wrapped in paper4   
,it is preferable that the assayer      
should wrap it in paper1 and in this way
 put it in the scorifier1 than that he  
should drop it in with a copper ladle2  
for when the scorifiers are small1 if he
 uses a ladle he frequently spills some 
part of the ore4 ,when the paper is     

burnt1 he stirs the ore with a small    
charcoal held in the tongs1 so that the 
lead may absorb the metal which is mixed
 in the ore2 when this mixture has taken
 place1 the slag partly adheres by its  
circumference to the scorifier and makes
 a kind of black ring1 and partly floats
 on the lead in which is mixed the gold 
or silver2 then the slag must be removed
 from it4  ,the lead used must be       
entirely free from every trace of       
silver1 as is that which is known as    
,villacense4#bf ,but if this kind is not
 obtainable1 the lead must be assayed   
separately1 to determine with certainty 
that proportion of silver it contains1  
so that it may be deducted from the     
calculation of the ore1 and the result  
be exact2 for unless such lead be used1 
the assay will be false and misleading4 
,the lead balls are made with a pair of 
iron tongs1 about one foot long2 its    
iron claws are so formed that when      
pressed together they are egg-shaped2   
each claw contains a hollow cup1 and    

when the claws are closed there extends 
upward from the cup a passage1 so there 
are two openings1 one of which leads to 
each hollow cup4 ,and so when the molten
 lead is poured in through the openings1
 it flows down into the hollow cup1 and 
two balls are formed by one pouring4    
,in this place ,i ought not to omit     
mention of another method of assaying   
employed by some assayers4 ,they first  
of all place prepared ore in the        
scorifiers and heat it1 and afterward   
they add the lead4 ,of this method ,i   
cannot approve1 for in this way the ore 
frequently becomes cemented1 and for    
this reason it does not stir easily     
afterward1 and is very slow in mixing   
with the lead4  ,illustration #bdj;a    
7,tongs73 ,a--,claws of the tongs4      
,b--,iron1 giving form of an egg4       
,c--,opening4  ,if the whole space of   
the furnace covered by the muffle is not
 filled with scorifiers1 cupels are put 
in the empty space1 in order that they  
may become warmed in the meantime4      

,sometimes1 however1 it is filled with  
scorifiers1 when we are assaying many   
different ores1 or many portions of one 
ore at the same time4 ,although the     
cupels are usually dried in one hour1   
yet smaller ones are done more quickly1 
and the larger ones more slowly4 ,unless
 the cupels are heated before the metal 
mixed with lead is placed in them1 they 
frequently break1 and the lead always   
sputters and sometimes leaps out of     
them2 if the cupel is broken or the lead
 leaps out of it1 it is necessary to    
assay another portion of ore2 but if the
 lead only sputters1 then the cupels    
should be covered with broad thin pieces
 of glowing charcoal1 and when the lead 
strikes these1 it falls back again1 and 
thus the mixture is slowly exhaled4     
,further1 if in the cupellation the lead
 which is in the mixture is not         
consumed1 but remains fixed and set1 and
 is covered by a kind of skin1 this is a
 sign that it has not been heated by a  
sufficiently hot fire2 put into the     

mixture1 therefore1 a dry pine stick1 or
 a twig of a similar tree1 and hold it  
in the hand in order that it can be     
drawn away when it has been heated4     
,then take care that the heat is        
sufficient and equal2 if the heat has   
not passed all round the charge1 as it  
should when everything is done rightly1 
but causes it to have a lengthened      
shape1 so that it appears to have a     
tail1 this is a sign that the heat is   
deficient where the tail lies4 ,then in 
order that the cupel may be equally     
heated by the fire1 turn it around with 
a small iron hook1 whose handle is      
likewise made of iron and is a foot and 
a half long4  ,illustration #bdj;b      
7,hook73 ,small iron hook4  ,next1 if   
the mixture has not enough lead1 add as 
much of it as is required with the iron 
tongs1 or with the brass ladle to which 
is fastened a very long handle4 ,in     
order that the charge may not be cooled1
 warm the lead beforehand4 ,but it is   
better at first to add as much lead as  

is required to the ore which needs      
melting1 rather than afterward when the 
melting has been half finished1 that the
 whole quantity may not vanish in fumes1
 but part of it remain fast4 ,when the  
heat of the fire has nearly consumed the
 lead1 then is the time when the gold   
and silver gleam in their varied        
colours1 and when all the lead has been 
consumed the gold or silver settles in  
the cupel4 ,then as soon as possible    
remove the cupel out of the furnace1 and
 take the button out of it while it is  
still warm1 in order that it does not   
adhere to the ashes4 ,this generally    
happens if the button is already cold   
when it is taken out4 ,if the ashes do  
adhere to it1 do not scrape it with a   
knife1 lest some of it be lost and the  
assay be erroneous1 but squeeze it with 
the iron tongs1 so that the ashes drop  
off through the pressure4 ,finally1 it  
is of advantage to make two or three    
assays of the same ore at the same time1
 in order that if by chance one is not  

successful1 the second1 or in any event 
the third1 may be certain4              
,illustration #bda 7,shield for ,muffle 
,furnace73 ,a--,handle of tablet4       
,b--,its crack4  ,while the assayer is  
assaying the ore1 in order to prevent   
the great heat of the fire from injuring
 his eyes1 it will be useful for him    
always to have ready a thin wooden      
tablet1 two palms wide1 with a handle by
 which it may be held1 and with a slit  
down the middle in order that he may    
look through it as through a crack1     
since it is necessary for him to look   
frequently within and carefully to      
consider everything4  ,now the lead     
which has absorbed the silver from a    
metallic ore is consumed in the cupel by
 the heat in the space of three quarters
 of an hour4 ,when the assays are       
completed the muffle is taken out of the
 furnace1 and the ashes removed with an 
iron shovel1 not only from the brick and
 iron furnaces1 but also from the       
earthen one1 so that the furnace need   

not be removed from its foundation4     
,from ore placed in the triangular      
crucible a button is melted out1 from   
which metal is afterward made4 ,first of
 all1 glowing charcoal is put into the  
iron hoop1 then is put in the triangular
 crucible1 which contains the ore       
together with those things which can    
liquefy it and purge it of its dross2   
then the fire is blown with the double  
bellows1 and the ore is heated until the
 button settles in the bottom of the    
crucible4 ,we have explained that there 
are two methods of assaying ore1--one1  
by which the lead is mixed with ore in  
the scorifier and afterward again       
separated from it in the cupel2 the     
other1 by which it is first melted in   
the triangular earthen crucible and     
afterward mixed with lead in the        
scorifier1 and later separated from it  
in the cupel4 ,now let us consider which
 is more suitable for each ore1 or1 if  
neither is suitable1 by what other      
method in one way or another we can     

assay it4  ,we justly begin with a gold 
ore1 which we assay by both methods1 for
 if it is rich and seems not to be      
strongly resistant to fire1 but to      
liquefy easily1 one centumpondium of it 
7known to us as the lesser weights71#bg 
together with one and a half1 or two    
unciae of lead of the larger weights1   
are mixed together and placed in the    
scorifier1 and the two are heated in the
 fire until they are well mixed4 ,but   
since such an ore sometimes resists     
melting1 add a little salt to it1 either
 sal torrefactus or sal artificiosus1   
for this will subdue it1 and prevent the
 alloy from collecting much dross2 stir 
it frequently with an iron rod1 in order
 that the lead may flow around the gold 
on every side1 and absorb it and cast   
out the waste4 ,when this has been done1
 take out the alloy and cleanse it of   
slag2 then place it in the cupel and    
heat it until it exhales all the lead1  
and a bead of gold settles in the       
bottom4  ,if the gold ore is seen not to

 be easily melted in the fire1 roast it 
and extinguish it with brine4 ,do this  
again and again1 for the more often you 
roast it and extinguish it1 the more    
easily the ore can be crushed fine1 and 
the more quickly does it melt in the    
fire and give up whatever dross it      
possesses4 ,mix one part of this ore1   
when it has been roasted1 crushed1 and  
washed1 with three parts of some powder 
compound which melts ore1 and six parts 
of lead4 ,put the charge into the       
triangular crucible1 place it in the    
iron hoop to which the double bellows   
reaches1 and heat first in a slow fire1 
and afterward gradually in a fiercer    
fire1 till it melts and flows like      
water4 ,if the ore does not melt1 add to
 it a little more of these fluxes1 mixed
 with an equal portion of yellow        
litharge1 and stir it with a hot iron   
rod until it all melts4 ,then take the  
crucible out of the hoop1 shake off the 
button when it has cooled1 and when it  
has been cleansed1 melt first in the    

scorifier and afterward in the cupel4   
,finally1 rub the gold which has settled
 in the bottom of the cupel1 after it   
has been taken out and cooled1 on the   
touchstone1 in order to find out what   
proportion of silver it contains4       
,another method is to put a             
centumpondium 7of the lesser weights7 of
 gold ore into the triangular crucible1 
and add to it a drachma 7of the larger  
weights7 of glass-galls4 ,if it resists 
melting1 add half a drachma of roasted  
argol1 and if even then it resists1 add 
the same quantity of roasted lees of    
vinegar1 or lees of the aqua which      
separates gold from silver1 and the     
button will settle in the bottom of the 
crucible4 ,melt this button again in the
 scorifier and a third time in the      
cupel4  ,we determine in the following  
way1 before it is melted in the muffle  
furnace1 whether pyrites contains gold  
in it or not3 if1 after being three     
times roasted and three times quenched  
in sharp vinegar1 it has not broken nor 

changed its colour1 there is gold in it4
 ,the vinegar by which it is quenched   
should be mixed with salt that is put in
 it1 and frequently stirred and         
dissolved for three days4 ,nor is       
pyrites devoid of gold1 when1 after     
being roasted and then rubbed on the    
touchstone1 it colours the touchstone in
 the same way that it coloured it when  
rubbed in its crude state4 ,nor is gold 
lacking in that1 whose concentrates from
 washing1 when heated in the fire1      
easily melt1 giving forth little smell  
and remaining bright2 such concentrates 
are heated in the fire in a hollowed    
piece of charcoal covered over with     
another charcoal4  ,we also assay gold  
ore without fire1 but more often its    
sand or the concentrates which have been
 made by washing1 or the dust gathered  
up by some other means4 ,a little of it 
is slightly moistened with water and    
heated until it begins to exhale an     
odour1 and then to one portion of ore   
are placed two portions of              

quicksilver#bh in a wooden dish as deep 
as a basin4 ,they are mixed together    
with a little brine1 and are then ground
 with a wooden pestle for the space of  
two hours1 until the mixture becomes of 
the thickness of dough1 and the         
quicksilver can no longer be            
distinguished from the concentrates made
 by the washing1 nor the concentrates   
from the quicksilver4 ,warm1 or at least
 tepid1 water is poured into the dish   
and the material is washed until the    
water runs out clear4 ,afterward cold   
water is poured into the same dish1 and 
soon the quicksilver1 which has absorbed
 all the gold1 runs together into a     
separate place away from the rest of the
 concentrates made by washing4 ,the     
quicksilver is afterward separated from 
the gold by means of a pot covered with 
soft leather1 or with canvas made of    
woven threads of cotton2 the amalgam is 
poured into the middle of the cloth or  
leather1 which sags about one hand's    
breadth2 next1 the leather is folded    

over and tied with a waxed string1 and  
the dish catches the quicksilver which  
is squeezed through it4 ,as for the gold
 which remains in the leather1 it is    
placed in a scorifier and purified by   
being placed near glowing coals4 ,others
 do not wash away the dirt with warm    
water1 but with strong lye and vinegar1 
for they pour these liquids into the    
pot1 and also throw into it the         
quicksilver mixed with the concentrates 
made by washing4 ,then they set the pot 
in a warm place1 and after twenty-four  
hours pour out the liquids with the     
dirt1 and separate the quicksilver from 
the gold in the manner which ,i have    
described4 ,then they pour urine into a 
jar set in the ground1 and in the jar   
place a pot with holes in the bottom1   
and in the pot they place the gold2 then
 the lid is put on and cemented1 and it 
is joined with the jar2 they afterward  
heat it till the pot glows red4 ,after  
it has cooled1 if there is copper in the
 gold they melt it with lead in a cupel1

 that the copper may be separated from  
it2 but if there is silver in the gold  
they separate them by means of the aqua 
which has the power of parting these two
 metals4 ,there are some who1 when they 
separate gold from quicksilver1 do not  
pour the amalgam into a leather1 but put
 it into a gourd-shaped earthen vessel1 
which they place in the furnace and heat
 gradually over burning charcoal2 next1 
with an iron plate1 they cover the      
opening of the operculum1 which exudes  
vapour1 and as soon as it has ceased to 
exude1 they smear it with lute and heat 
it for a short time2 then they remove   
the operculum from the pot1 and wipe off
 the quicksilver which adheres to it    
with a hare's foot1 and preserve it for 
future use4 ,by the latter method1 a    
greater quantity of quicksilver is lost1
 and by the former method1 a smaller    
quantity4  ,if an ore is rich in silver1
 as is rudis silver#bi1 frequently      
silver glance1 or rarely ruby silver1   
gray silver1 black silver1 brown silver1

 or yellow silver1 as soon as it is     
cleansed and heated1 a centumpondium 7of
 the lesser weights7 of it is placed in 
an uncia of molten lead in a cupel1 and 
is heated until the lead exhales4 ,but  
if the ore is of poor or moderate       
quality1 it must first be dried1 then   
crushed1 and then to a centumpondium 7of
 the lesser weights7 an uncia of lead is
 added1 and it is heated in the         
scorifier until it melts4 ,if it is not 
soon melted by the fire1 it should be   
sprinkled with a little powder of the   
first order of fluxes1 and if then it   
does not melt1 more is added little by  
little until it melts and exudes its    
slag2 that this result may be reached   
sooner1 the powder which has been       
sprinkled over it should be stirred in  
with an iron rod4 ,when the scorifier   
has been taken out of the assay furnace1
 the alloy should be poured into a hole 
in a baked brick2 and when it has cooled
 and been cleansed of the slag1 it      
should be placed in a cupel and heated  

until it exhales all its lead2 the      
weight of silver which remains in the   
cupel indicates what proportion of      
silver is contained in the ore4  ,we    
assay copper ore without lead1 for if it
 is melted with it1 the copper usually  
exhales and is lost4 ,therefore1 a      
certain weight of such an ore is first  
roasted in a hot fire for about six or  
eight hours2 next1 when it has cooled1  
it is crushed and washed2 then the      
concentrates made by washing are again  
roasted1 crushed1 washed1 dried1 and    
weighed4 ,the portion which it has lost 
whilst it is being roasted and washed is
 taken into account1 and these          
concentrates by washing represent the   
cake which will be melted out of the    
copper ore4 ,place three centumpondia   
7lesser weights7 of this1 mixed with    
three centumpondia 7lesser weights7 each
 of copper scales#cj1 saltpetre1 and    
,venetian glass1 mixed1 into the        
triangular crucible1 and place it in the
 iron hoop which is set on the hearth in

 front of the double bellows4 ,cover the
 crucible with charcoal in such a way   
that nothing may fall into the ore which
 is to be melted1 and so that it may    
melt more quickly4 ,at first blow a     
gentle blast with the bellows in order  
that the ore may be heated gradually in 
the fire2 then blow strongly till it    
melts1 and the fire consumes that which 
has been added to it1 and the ore itself
 exudes whatever slag it possesses4     
,next1 cool the crucible which has been 
taken out1 and when this is broken you  
will find the copper2 weigh this1 in    
order to ascertain how great a portion  
of the ore the fire has consumed4 ,some 
ore is only once roasted1 crushed1 and  
washed2 and of this kind of             
concentrates1 three centumpondia 7lesser
 weights7 are taken with one            
centumpondium each of common salt1 argol
 and glass-galls4 ,heat them in the     
triangular crucible1 and when the       
mixture has cooled a button of pure     
copper will be found1 if the ore is rich

 in this metal4 ,if1 however1 it is less
 rich1 a stony lump results1 with which 
the copper is intermixed2 this lump is  
again roasted1 crushed1 and1 after      
adding stones which easily melt and     
saltpetre1 it is again melted in another
 crucible1 and there settles in the     
bottom of the crucible a button of pure 
copper4 ,if you wish to know what       
proportion of silver is in this copper  
button1 melt it in a cupel after adding 
lead4 ,with regard to this test ,i will 
speak later4  ,those who wish to know   
quickly what portion of silver the      
copper ore contains1 roast the ore1     
crush and wash it1 then mix a little    
yellow litharge with one centumpondium  
7lesser weights7 of the concentrates1   
and put the mixture into a scorifier1   
which they place under the muffle in a  
hot furnace for the space of half an    
hour4 ,when the slag exudes1 by reason  
of the melting force which is in the    
litharge1 they take the scorifier out2  
when it has cooled1 they cleanse it of  

slag and again crush it1 and with one   
centumpondium of it they mix one and a  
half unciae of lead granules4 ,they then
 put it into another scorifier1 which   
they place under the muffle in a hot    
furnace1 adding to the mixture a little 
of the powder of some one of the fluxes 
which cause ore to melt2 when it has    
melted they take it out1 and after it   
has cooled1 cleanse it of slag2 lastly1 
they heat it in the cupel till it has   
exhaled all of the lead1 and only silver
 remains4  ,lead ore may be assayed by  
this method3 crush half an uncia of pure
 lead-stone and the same quantity of the
 chrysocolla which they call borax1 mix 
them together1 place them in a crucible1
 and put a glowing coal in the middle of
 it4 ,as soon as the borax crackles and 
the lead-stone melts1 which soon occurs1
 remove the coal from the crucible1 and 
the lead will settle to the bottom of   
it2 weigh it out1 and take account of   
that portion of it which the fire has   
consumed4 ,if you also wish to know what

 portion of silver is contained in the  
lead1 melt the lead in the cupel until  
all of it exhales4  ,another way is to  
roast the lead ore1 of whatsoever       
quality it be1 wash it1 and put into the
 crucible one centumpondium of the      
concentrates1 together with three       
centumpondia of the powdered compound   
which melts ore1 mixed together1 and    
place it in the iron hoop that it may   
melt2 when it has cooled1 cleanse it of 
its slag1 and complete the test as ,i   
have already said4 ,another way is to   
take two unciae of prepared ore1 five   
drachmae of roasted copper1 one uncia of
 glass1 or glass-galls reduced to       
powder1 a semi-uncia of salt1 and mix   
them4 ,put the mixture into the         
triangular crucible1 and heat it over a 
gentle fire to prevent it from breaking2
 when the mixture has melted1 blow the  
fire vigorously with the bellows2 then  
take the crucible off the live coals and
 let it cool in the open air2 do not    
pour water on it1 lest the lead button  

being acted upon by the excessive cold  
should become mixed with the slag1 and  
the assay in this way be erroneous4     
,when the crucible has cooled1 you will 
find in the bottom of it the lead       
button4 ,another way is to take two     
unciae of ore1 a semi-uncia of litharge1
 two drachmae of ,venetian glass and a  
semi-uncia of saltpetre4 ,if there is   
difficulty in melting the ore1 add to it
 iron filings1 which1 since they        
increase the heat1 easily separate the  
waste from lead and other metals4 ,by   
the last way1 lead ore properly prepared
 is placed in the crucible1 and there is
 added to it only the sand made from    
stones which easily melt1 or iron       
filings1 and then the assay is completed
 as formerly4  ,you can assay tin ore by
 the following method4 ,first roast it1 
then crush1 and afterward wash it2 the  
concentrates are again roasted1 crushed1
 and washed4 ,mix one and a half        
centumpondia of this with one           
centumpondium of the chrysocolla which  

they call borax2 from the mixture1 when 
it has been moistened with water1 make a
 lump4 ,afterwards1 perforate a large   
round piece of charcoal1 making this    
opening a palm deep1 three digits wide  
on the upper side and narrower on the   
lower side2 when the charcoal is put in 
its place the latter should be on the   
bottom and the former uppermost4 ,let it
 be placed in a crucible1 and let       
glowing coal be put round it on all     
sides2 when the perforated piece of coal
 begins to burn1 the lump is placed in  
the upper part of the opening1 and it is
 covered with a wide piece of glowing   
coal1 and after many pieces of coal have
 been put round it1 a hot fire is blown 
up with the bellows1 until all the tin  
has run out of the lower opening of the 
charcoal into the crucible4 ,another way
 is to take a large piece of charcoal1  
hollow it out1 and smear it with lute1  
that the ore may not leap out when white
 hot4 ,next1 make a small hole through  
the middle of it1 then fill up the large

 opening with small charcoal1 and put   
the ore upon this2 put fire in the small
 hole and blow the fire with the nozzle 
of a hand bellows2 place the piece of   
charcoal in a small crucible1 smeared   
with lute1 in which1 when the melting is
 finished1 you will find a button of    
tin4  ,in assaying bismuth ore1 place   
pieces of ore in the scorifier1 and put 
it under the muffle in a hot furnace2 as
 soon as they are heated1 they drip with
 bismuth1 which runs together into a    
button4  ,quicksilver ore is usually    
tested by mixing one part of broken ore 
with three-parts of charcoal dust and a 
handful of salt4 ,put the mixture into a
 crucible or a pot or a jar1 cover it   
with a lid1 seal it with lute1 place it 
on glowing charcoal1 and as soon as a   
burnt cinnabar colour shows in it1 take 
out the vessel2 for if you continue the 
heat too long the mixture exhales the   
quicksilver with the fumes4 ,the        
quicksilver itself1 when it has become  
cool1 is found in the bottom of the     

crucible or other vessel4 ,another way  
is to place broken ore in a gourd-shaped
 earthen vessel1 put it in the assay    
furnace1 and cover with an operculum    
which has a long spout2 under the spout1
 put an ampulla to receive the          
quicksilver which distills4 ,cold water 
should be poured into the ampulla1 so   
that the quicksilver which has been     
heated by the fire may be continuously  
cooled and gathered together1 for the   
quicksilver is borne over by the force  
of the fire1 and flows down through the 
spout of the operculum into the ampulla4
 ,we also assay quicksilver ore in the  
very same way in which we smelt it4     
,this ,i will explain in its proper     
place4  ,lastly1 we assay iron ore in   
the forge of a blacksmith4 ,such ore is 
burned1 crushed1 washed1 and dried2 a   
magnet is laid over the concentrates1   
and the particles of iron are attracted 
to it2 these are wiped off with a brush1
 and are caught in a crucible1 the      
magnet being continually passed over the

 concentrates and the particles wiped   
off1 so long as there remain any        
particles which the magnet can attract  
to it4 ,these particles are heated in   
the crucible with saltpetre until they  
melt1 and an iron button is melted out  
of them4 ,if the magnet easily and      
quickly attracts the particles to it1 we
 infer that the ore is rich in iron2 if 
slowly1 that it is poor2 if it appears  
actually to repel the ore1 then it      
contains little or no iron4 ,this is    
enough for the assaying of ores4  ,i    
will now speak of the assaying of the   
metal alloys4 ,this is done both by     
coiners and merchants who buy and sell  
metal1 and by miners1 but most of all by
 the owners and mine masters1 and by the
 owners and masters of the works in     
which the metals are smelted1 or in     
which one metal is parted from another4 
,first ,i will describe the way assays  
are usually made to ascertain what      
portion of precious metal is contained  
in base metal4 ,gold and silver are now 

reckoned as precious metals and all the 
others as base metals4 ,once upon a time
 the base metals were burned up1 in     
order that the precious metals should be
 left pure2 the ,ancients even          
discovered by such burning what portion 
of gold was contained in silver1 and in 
this way all the silver was consumed1   
which was no small loss4 ,however1 the  
famous mathematician1 ,archimedes#ca1 to
 gratify ,king ,hiero1 invented a method
 of testing the silver1 which was not   
very rapid1 and was more accurate for   
testing a large mass than a small one4  
,this ,i will explain in my             
commentaries4 ,the alchemists have shown
 us a way of separating silver from gold
 by which neither of them is lost#cb4   
,gold which contains silver1#cc or      
silver which contains gold1 is first    
rubbed on the touchstone4 ,then a needle
 in which there is a similar amount of  
gold or silver is rubbed on the same    
touchstone1 and from the lines which are
 produced in this way1 is perceived what

 portion of silver there is in the gold1
 or what portion of gold there is in the
 silver4 ,next there is added to the    
silver which is in the gold1 enough     
silver to make it three times as much as
 the gold4 ,then lead is placed in a    
cupel and melted2 a little later1 a     
small amount of copper is put in it1 in 
fact1 half an uncia of it1 or half an   
uncia and a sicilicus 7of the smaller   
weights7 if the gold or silver does not 
contain any copper4 ,the cupel1 when the
 lead and copper are wanting1 attracts  
the particles of gold and silver1 and   
absorbs them4 ,finally1 one-third of a  
libra of the gold1 and one libra#cd of  
the silver must be placed together in   
the same cupel and melted2 for if the   
gold and silver were first placed in the
 cupel and melted1 as ,i have already   
said1 it absorbs particles of them1 and 
the gold1 when separated from the       
silver1 will not be found pure4 ,these  
metals are heated until the lead and the
 copper are consumed1 and again1 the    

same weight of each is melted in the    
same manner in another cupel4 ,the      
buttons are pounded with a hammer and   
flattened out1 and each little leaf is  
shaped in the form of a tube1 and each  
is put into a small glass ampulla4 ,over
 these there is poured one uncia and one
 drachma 7of the large weight7 of the   
third quality aqua valens1 which ,i will
 describe in the ,tenth ,book4 ,this is 
heated over a slow fire1 and small      
bubbles1 resembling pearls in shape1    
will be seen to adhere to the tubes4    
,the redder the aqua appears1 the better
 it is judged to be2 when the redness   
has vanished1 small white bubbles are   
seen to be resting on the tubes1        
resembling pearls not only in shape1 but
 also in colour4 ,after a short time the
 aqua is poured off and other is poured 
on2 when this has again raised six or   
eight small white bubbles1 it is poured 
off and the tubes are taken out and     
washed four or five times with spring   
water2 or if they are heated with the   

same water1 when it is boiling1 they    
will shine more brilliantly4 ,then they 
are placed in a saucer1 which is held in
 the hand and gradually dried by the    
gentle heat of the fire2 afterward the  
saucer is placed over glowing charcoal  
and covered with a charcoal1 and a      
moderate blast is blown upon it with the
 mouth and then a blue flame will be    
emitted4 ,in the end the tubes are      
weighed1 and if their weights prove     
equal1 he who has undertaken this work  
has not laboured in vain4 ,lastly1 both 
are placed in another balance-pan and   
weighed2 of each tube four grains must  
not be counted1 on account of the silver
 which remains in the gold and cannot be
 separated from it4 ,from the weight of 
the tubes we learn the weight both of   
the gold and of the silver which is in  
the button4 ,if some assayer has omitted
 to add so much silver to the gold as to
 make it three times the quantity1 but  
only double1 or two and a half times as 
much1 he will require the stronger      

quality of aqua which separates gold    
from silver1 such as the fourth quality4
 ,whether the aqua which he employs for 
gold and silver is suitable for the     
purpose1 or whether it is more or less  
strong than is right1 is recognised by  
its effect4 ,that of medium strength    
raises the little bubbles on the tubes  
and is found to colour the ampulla and  
the operculum a strong red2 the weaker  
one is found to colour them a light red1
 and the stronger one to break the      
tubes4 ,to pure silver in which there is
 some portion of gold1 nothing should be
 added when they are being heated in the
 cupel prior to their being parted1     
except a bes of lead and one-fourth or  
one-third its amount of copper of the   
lesser weights4 ,if the silver contains 
in itself a certain amount of copper1   
let it be weighed1 both after it has    
been melted with the lead1 and after the
 gold has been parted from it2 by the   
former we learn how much copper is in   
it1 by the latter how much gold4 ,base  

metals are burnt up even to-day for the 
purpose of assay1 because to lose so    
little of the metal is small loss1 but  
from a large mass of base metal1 the    
precious metal is always extracted1 as  
,i will explain in ,books ,x4 and ,,xi4 
,we assay an alloy of copper and silver 
in the following way4 ,from a few cakes 
of copper the assayer cuts out portions1
 small samples from small cakes1 medium 
samples from medium cakes1 and large    
samples from large cakes2 the small ones
 are equal in size to half a hazel nut1 
the large ones do not exceed the size of
 half a chestnut1 and those of medium   
size come between the two4 ,he cuts out 
the samples from the middle of the      
bottom of each cake4 ,he places the     
samples in a new1 clean1 triangular     
crucible and fixes to them pieces of    
paper upon which are written the weight 
of the cakes of copper1 of whatever size
 they may be2 for example1 he writes1   
,these samples have been cut from copper
 which weighs twenty centumpondia4 ,when

 he wishes to know how much silver one  
centumpondium of copper of this kind has
 in it1 first of all he throws glowing  
coals into the iron hoop1 then adds     
charcoal to it4 ,when the fire has      
become hot1 the paper is taken out of   
the crucible and put aside1 he then sets
 that crucible on the fire and gradually
 heats it for a quarter of an hour until
 it becomes red hot4 ,then he stimulates
 the fire by blowing with a blast from  
the double bellows for half an hour1    
because copper which is devoid of lead  
requires this time to become hot and to 
melt2 copper not devoid of lead melts   
quicker4 ,when he has blown the bellows 
for about the space of time stated1 he  
removes the glowing charcoal with the   
tongs1 and stirs the copper with a      
splinter of wood1 which he grasps with  
the tongs4 ,if it does not stir easily1 
it is a sign that the copper is not     
wholly liquefied2 if he finds this is   
the case1 he again places a large piece 
of charcoal in the crucible1 and        

replaces the glowing charcoal which had 
been removed1 and again blows the       
bellows for a short time4 ,when all the 
copper has melted he stops using the    
bellows1 for if he were to continue to  
use them1 the fire would consume part of
 the copper1 and then that which        
remained would be richer than the cake  
from which it had been cut2 this is no  
small mistake4 ,therefore1 as soon as   
the copper has become sufficiently      
liquefied1 he pours it out into a little
 iron mould1 which may be large or      
small1 according as more or less copper 
is melted in the crucible for the       
purpose of the assay4 ,the mould has a  
handle1 likewise made of iron1 by which 
it is held when the copper is poured in1
 after which1 he plunges it into a tub  
of water placed near at hand1 that the  
copper may be cooled4 ,then he again    
dries the copper by the fire1 and cuts  
off its point with an iron wedge2 the   
portion nearest the point he hammers on 
an anvil and makes into a leaf1 which he

 cuts into pieces4  ,illustration #bej  
7,copper ,mould for ,assaying73         
,a--,iron mould4 ,b--,its handle4       
,others stir the molten copper with a   
stick of linden tree charcoal1 and then 
pour it over a bundle of new clean birch
 twigs1 beneath which is placed a wooden
 tub of sufficient size and full of     
water1 and in this manner the copper is 
broken up into little granules as small 
as hemp seeds4 ,others employ straw in  
place of twigs4 ,others place a broad   
stone in a tub and pour in enough water 
to cover the stone1 then they run out   
the molten copper from the crucible on  
to the stone1 from which the minute     
granules roll off2 others pour the      
molten copper into water and stir it    
until it is resolved into granules4 ,the
 fire does not easily melt the copper in
 the cupel unless it has been poured and
 a thin leaf made of it1 or unless it   
has been resolved into granules or made 
into filings2 and if it does not melt1  
all the labour has been undertaken in   

vain4 ,in order that they may be        
accurately weighed out1 silver and lead 
are resolved into granules in the same  
manner as copper4 ,but to return to the 
assay of copper4 ,when the copper has   
been prepared by these methods1 if it is
 free of lead and iron1 and rich in     
silver1 to each centumpondium 7lesser   
weights7 add one and a half unciae of   
lead 7larger weights74 ,if1 however1 the
 copper contains some lead1 add one     
uncia of lead2 if it contains iron1 add 
two unciae4 ,first put the lead into a  
cupel1 and after it begins to smoke1 add
 the copper2 the fire generally consumes
 the copper1 together with the lead1 in 
about one hour and a quarter4 ,when this
 is done1 the silver will be found in   
the bottom of the cupel4 ,the fire      
consumes both of those metals more      
quickly if they are heated in that      
furnace which draws in air4 ,it is      
better to cover the upper half of it    
with a lid1 and not only to put on the  
muffle door1 but also to close the      

window of the muffle door with a piece  
of charcoal1 or with a piece of brick4  
,if the copper be such that the silver  
can only be separated from it with      
difficulty1 then before it is tested    
with fire in the cupel1 lead should     
first be put into the scorifier1 and    
then the copper should be added with a  
moderate quantity of melted salt1 both  
that the lead may absorb the copper and 
that the copper may be cleansed of the  
dross which abounds in it4  ,tin which  
contains silver should not at the       
beginning of the assay be placed in a   
cupel1 lest the silver1 as often        
happens1 be consumed and converted into 
fumes1 together with the tin4 ,as soon  
as the lead#ce has begun to fume in the 
scorifier1 then add that#cf to it4 ,in  
this way the lead will take the silver  
and the tin will boil and turn into     
ashes1 which may be removed with a      
wooden splinter4 ,the same thing occurs 
if any alloy is melted in which there is
 tin4 ,when the lead has absorbed the   

silver which was in the tin1 then1 and  
not till then1 it is heated in the      
cupel4 ,first place the lead with which 
the silver is mixed1 in an iron pan1 and
 stand it on a hot furnace and let it   
melt2 afterward pour this lead into a   
small iron mould1 and then beat it out  
with a hammer on an anvil and make it   
into leaves in the same way as the      
copper4 ,lastly1 place it in the cupel1 
which assay can be carried out in the   
space of half an hour4 ,a great heat is 
harmful to it1 for which reason there is
 no necessity either to cover the half  
of the furnace with a lid or to close up
 its mouth4  ,the minted metal alloys1  
which are known as money1 are assayed in
 the following way4 ,the smaller silver 
coins which have been picked out from   
the bottom and top and sides of a heap  
are first carefully cleansed2 then1     
after they have been melted in the      
triangular crucible1 they are either    
resolved into granules1 or made into    
thin leaves4 ,as for the large coins    

which weigh a drachma1 a sicilicus1 half
 an uncia1 or an uncia1 beat them into  
leaves4 ,then take a bes of the         
granules1 or an equal weight of the     
leaves1 and likewise take another bes in
 the same way4 ,wrap each sample        
separately in paper1 and afterwards     
place two small pieces of lead in two   
cupels which have first been heated4    
,the more precious the money is1 the    
smaller portion of lead do we require   
for the assay1 the more base1 the larger
 is the portion required2 for if a bes  
of silver is said to contain only half  
an uncia or one uncia of copper1 we add 
to the bes of granules half an uncia of 
lead4 ,if it is composed of equal parts 
of silver and copper1 we add an uncia of
 lead1 but if in a bes of copper there  
is only half an uncia or one uncia of   
silver1 we add an uncia and a half of   
lead4 ,as soon as the lead has begun to 
fume1 put into each cupel one of the    
papers in which is wrapped the sample of
 silver alloyed with copper1 and close  

the mouth of the muffle with charcoal4  
,heat them with a gentle fire until all 
the lead and copper are consumed1 for a 
hot fire by its heat forces the silver1 
combined with a certain portion of lead1
 into the cupel1 in which way the assay 
is rendered erroneous4 ,then take the   
beads out of the cupel and clean them of
 dross4 ,if neither depresses the pan of
 the balance in which it is placed1 but 
their weight is equal1 the assay has    
been free from error2 but if one bead   
depresses its pan1 then there is an     
error1 for which reason the assay must  
be repeated4 ,if the bes of coin        
contains but seven unciae of pure silver
 it is because the ,king1 or ,prince1 or
 the ,state who coins the money1 has    
taken one uncia1 which he keeps partly  
for profit and partly for the expense of
 coining1 he having added copper to the 
silver4 ,of all these matters ,i have   
written extensively in my book ,de      
,precio ,metallorum et ,monetis4  ,we   
assay gold coins in various ways4 ,if   

there is copper mixed with the gold1 we 
melt them by fire in the same way as    
silver coins2 if there is silver mixed  
with the gold1 they are separated by the
 strongest aqua valens2 if there is     
copper and silver mixed with the gold1  
then in the first place1 after the      
addition of lead1 they are heated in the
 cupel until the fire consumes the      
copper and the lead1 and afterward the  
gold is parted from the silver4  ,it    
remains to speak of the touchstone#cg   
with which gold and silver are tested1  
and which was also used by the          
,ancients4 ,for although the assay made 
by fire is more certain1 still1 since we
 often have no furnace1 nor muffle1 nor 
crucibles1 or some delay must be        
occasioned in using them1 we can always 
rub gold or silver on the touchstone1   
which we can have in readiness4         
,further1 when gold coins are assayed in
 the fire1 of what use are they         
afterward8 ,a touchstone must be        
selected which is thoroughly black and  

free of sulphur1 for the blacker it is  
and the more devoid of sulphur1 the     
better it generally is2 ,i have written 
elsewhere of its nature#ch4 ,first the  
gold is rubbed on the touchstone1       
whether it contains silver or whether it
 is obtained from the mines or from the 
smelting2 silver also is rubbed in the  
same way4 ,then one of the needles1 that
 we judge by its colour to be of similar
 composition1 is rubbed on the          
touchstone2 if this proves too pale1    
another needle which has a stronger     
colour is rubbed on the touchstone2 and 
if this proves too deep in colour1 a    
third which has a little paler colour is
 used4 ,for this will show us how great 
a proportion of silver or copper1 or    
silver and copper together1 is in the   
gold1 or else how great a proportion of 
copper is in silver4  ,these needles are
 of four kinds4#ci ,the first kind are  
made of gold and silver1 the second of  
gold and copper1 the third of gold1     
silver1 and copper1 and the fourth of   

silver and copper4 ,the first three     
kinds of needles are used principally   
for testing gold1 and the fourth for    
silver4 ,needles of this kind are       
prepared in the following ways4 ,the    
lesser weights correspond               
proportionately to the larger weights1  
and both of them are used1 not only by  
mining people1 but by coiners also4 ,the
 needles are made in accordance with the
 lesser weights1 and each set           
corresponds to a bes1 which1 in our own 
vocabulary1 is called a mark4 ,the bes1 
which is employed by those who coin     
gold1 is divided into twenty-four double
 sextulae1 which are now called after   
the ,greek name ceratia2 and each double
 sextula is divided into four           
semi-sextulae1 which are called granas2 
and each semi-sextula is divided into   
three units of four siliquae each1 of   
which each unit is called a grenlin4 ,if
 we made the needles to be each four    
siliquae1 there would be two hundred and
 eighty-eight in a bes1 but if each were

 made to be a semi-sextula or a double  
scripula1 then there would be ninety-six
 in a bes4 ,by these two methods too    
many needles would be made1 and the     
majority of them1 by reason of the small
 difference in the proportion of the    
gold1 would indicate nothing1 therefore 
it is advisable to make them each of a  
double sextula2 in this way twenty-four 
needles are made1 of which the first is 
made of twenty-three duellae of silver  
and one of gold4 ,fannius is our        
authority that the ,ancients called the 
double sextula a duella4 ,when a bar of 
silver is rubbed on the touchstone and  
colours it just as this needle does1 it 
contains one duella of gold4 ,in this   
manner we determine by the other needles
 what proportion of gold there is1 or   
when the gold exceeds the silver in     
weight1 what proportion of silver4      
,illustration #bee 7,touch-needles7     
,the needles are made#dj3--    ,the #ast
 needle of #bc duellae of silver and #a 
duella of gold4      #bnd          #bb  

#b duellae of gold4      #crd           
#ba                       #c            
#dth          #bj                       
#d                    #eth          #ai 
#e                    #fth          #ah 
#f                    #gth          #ag 
#g                    #hth          #af 
#h                    #ith          #ae 
#i                    #ajth         #ad 
#aj                    #aath         #ac
                      #aa               
#abth         #ab                       
#ab                    #acth         #aa
                      #ac               
#adth         #aj                       
#ad                    #aeth          #i
                      #ae               
#afth          #h                       
#af                    #agth          #g
                      #ag               
#ahth          #f                       
#ah                    #aith          #e
                      #ai               
#bjth          #d                       
#bj                    #bast          #c

                      #ba               
#bbnd          #b                       
#bb                    #bcrd          #a
                      #bc               
#bdth          pure gold  ,by the first 
eleven needles1 when they are rubbed on 
the touchstone1 we test what proportion 
of gold a bar of silver contains1 and   
with the remaining thirteen we test what
 proportion of silver is in a bar of    
gold2 and also what proportion of either
 may be in money4  ,since some gold     
coins are composed of gold and copper1  
thirteen needles of another kind are    
made as follows3--    ,the #ast of #ab  
duellae of gold and #ab duellae of      
copper4      #bnd   #ac                 
#aa                     #crd   #ad      
#aj                     #dth   #ae      
#i                     #eth   #af       
#h                     #fth   #ag       
#g                     #gth   #ah       
#f                     #hth   #ai       
#e                     #ith   #bj       
#d                    #ajth   #ba       

#c                    #aath   #bb       
#b                    #abth   #bc       
#a                    #acth   pure gold4
  ,these needles are not much used1     
because gold coins of that kind are     
somewhat rare2 the ones chiefly used are
 those in which there is much copper4   
,needles of the third kind1 which are   
composed of gold1 silver1 and copper1   
are more largely used1 because such gold
 coins are common4 ,but since with the  
gold there are mixed equal or unequal   
portions of silver and copper1 two sorts
 of needles are made4 ,if the proportion
 of silver and copper is equal1 the     
needles are as follows3--               
,gold4               ,silver4           
,copper4   ,the #ast of #ab duellae   #f
 duellae #j sextula   #f duellae #j     
sextula      #bnd   #ac            #e   
#a            #e          #a            
#crd   #ad            #e                
#e          #dth   #ae            #d    
#a            #d          #a            
#eth   #af            #d                

#d          #fth   #ag            #c    
#a            #c          #a            
#gth   #ah            #c                
#c          #hth   #ai            #b    
#a            #b          #a            
#ith   #bj            #b                
#b         #ajth   #ba            #a    
#a            #a          #a            
#aath   #bb            #a               
#a         #abth   #bc            #a    
#acth   pure gold4  ,some make          
twenty-five needles1 in order to be able
 to detect the two scripula of silver or
 copper which are in a bes of gold4 ,of 
these needles1 the first is composed of 
twelve duellae of gold and six of       
silver1 and the same number of copper4  
,the second1 of twelve duellae and one  
sextula of gold and five duellae and one
 and a half sextulae of silver1 and the 
same number of duellae and one and a    
half sextulae of copper4 ,the remaining 
needles are made in the same proportion4
  ,pliny is our authority that the      
,romans could tell to within one        

scripulum how much gold was in any given
 alloy1 and how much silver or copper4  
,needles may be made in either of two   
ways1 namely1 in the ways of which ,i   
have spoken1 and in the ways of which ,i
 am now about to speak4 ,if unequal     
portions of silver and copper have been 
mixed with the gold1 thirty-seven       
needles are made in the following way3--
                ,gold4                  
,silver4                   ,copper4     
,duellae4    ,duellae                   
,duellae                                
,sextulae                ,sextulae      
,siliquae4               ,siliquae4     
,the #ast of   #ab           #i     #j  
#j         #c     #j         #j         
#bnd     #ab           #h     #j        
#j         #d     #j         #j         
#crd     #ab           #g               
#e       #dth     #ac           #h      
#a_/b                 #b     #a_/b      
#eth     #ac           #g     #a_/b     
#d         #c     #a         #h         
#fth     #ac           #f     #a_/b     

#h         #d     #a         #d         
#gth     #ad           #g     #a        
#b     #a      #hth     #ad           #f
     #a         #h         #c     #a_/b 
#d      #ith     #ad           #e       
#a-a_/b     #d         #d               
#h      #ajth     #ae           #f      
#a-a_/b               #b     #a_/b      
#aath     #ae           #f              
#c     #abth     #ae           #e       
#a_/b                 #c     #a-a_/b    
#acth     #af           #f              
#b     #adth     #af           #e       
#a_/b       #d         #b     #a        
#h     #aeth     #af           #d     #a
         #h         #c     #a_/b        
#d      #afth     #ag           #e      
#a_/b       #j         #a     #a-a_/b   
#agth     #ag           #d     #a       
#h         #b     #a_/b       #d        
#ahth     #ag           #d     #d       
#b     #a-a_/b     #h      #aith     #ah
           #d     #a                    
#a     #a     #bjth     #ah           #d
     #j                   #b     #bast  

#ah           #c     #a                 
#b     #a      #bbnd     #ai            
#b     #a-a_/b               #a         
#a_/b     #bcrd     #ai           #c    
#a_/b       #d         #a     #a        
#h     #bdth     #ai           #b       
#a-a_/b     #h         #b               
#d      #beth     #bj           #c      
#a     #bfth     #bj           #b     #a
         #h         #a      #a_/b       
#d     #bgth     #bj           #b       
#a_/b       #d         #a      #a       
#h      #bhth     #ba           #b      
#a_/b                 #a-a_/b     #bith 
#ba           #b                        
#a     #cjth     #ba           #a       
#a-a_/b               #a      #a_/b     
#cast     #bb           #a     #a       
#a     #cbnd     #bb           #a       
#a_/b       #d         #j      #a       
#h     #ccrd     #bb           #a       
#h                #a-a_/b    #d         
#cdth     #bc                 #a-a_/b   
#a_/b     #ceth     #bc                 
#a         #h                #a_/b      

#d     #cfth     #bc                 #a 
#d                #a_/b      #h         
#cgth     pure gold4  ,since it is      
rarely found that gold1 which has been  
coined1 does not amount to at least     
fifteen duellae gold in a bes1 some make
 only twenty-eight needles1 and some    
make them different from those already  
described1 inasmuch as the alloy of gold
 with silver and copper is sometimes    
differently proportioned4  ,these       
needles are made3--                     
,gold4              ,silver4            
,copper4             ,duellae4          
,duellae                 ,duellae       
,sextulae                ,sextulae      
,siliquae4               ,siliquae4     
,the #ast of   #ae           #f     #a  
#h         #b     #a_/b       #d        
#bnd     #ae           #f               
#d         #b     #a-a_/b     #h        
#crd     #ae           #e     #a_/b     
#c     #a-a_/b       #dth     #af       
#f     #a_/b                 #a         
#a-a_/b      #eth     #af           #e  

#a         #h         #b     #a_/b      
#d      #fth     #af           #d       
#a-a_/b     #h         #c               
#d       #gth     #ag           #e      
#a         #d         #a     #a_/b      
#h      #hth     #ag           #e       
#d         #a     #a-a_/b     #h        
#ith     #ag           #d     #a        
#d         #b     #a_/b       #h        
#ajth     #ah           #d     #a       
#a     #a     #aath     #ah           #d
                         #b     #abth   
#ah           #c     #a                 
#b     #a      #acth     #ai            
#c     #a-a_/b     #d         #a        
#h     #adth     #ai           #c       
#a_/b       #d         #a     #a        
#h     #aeth     #ai           #b       
#a-a_/b     #d         #b               
#h      #afth     #bj           #c      
#a     #agth     #bj           #b       
#a     #a     #ahth     #bj           #b
                         #b      #aith  
#ba           #b     #a_/b       #d     
#a         #h     #bjth     #ba         

#a     #a-a_/b     #d         #a        
#h     #bast     #ba           #a     #a
         #h         #a     #a_/b        
#d      #bbnd     #bb           #a      
#a         #h               #a_/b       
#d     #bcrd     #bb           #a     #a
                         #a     #bdth   
#bb           #a     #a_/b       #d     
#a         #h      #beth     #bc        
#a-a_/b     #d                          
#h     #bfth     #bc                    
#a-a_/b                     #a_/b       
#bgth     #bc                 #a        
#h               #a_/b       #d         
#bhth    pure gold  ,next follows the   
fourth kind of needles1 by which we test
 silver coins which contain copper1 or  
copper coins which contain silver4 ,the 
bes by which we weigh the silver is     
divided in two different ways4 ,it is   
either divided twelve times1 into units 
of five drachmae and one scripulum each1
 which the ordinary people call         
nummi#da2 each of these units we again  
divide into twenty-four units of four   

siliquae each1 which the same ordinary  
people call a grenlin2 or else the bes  
is divided into sixteen semunciae which 
are called loths1 each of which is again
 divided into eighteen units of four    
siliquae each1 which they call grenlin4 
,or else the bes is divided into sixteen
 semunciae1 of which each is divided    
into four drachmae1 and each drachma    
into four pfennige4 ,needles are made in
 accordance with each method of dividing
 the bes4 ,according to the first       
method1 to the number of twenty-four    
half nummi2 according to the second     
method1 to the number of thirty-one half
 semunciae1 that is to say a sicilicus2 
for if the needles were made to the     
number of the smaller weights1 the      
number of needles would again be too    
large1 and not a few of them1 by reason 
of the small difference in proportion of
 silver or copper1 would have no        
significance4 ,we test both bars and    
coined money composed of silver and     
copper by both scales4 ,the one is as   

follows3 the first needle is made of    
twenty-three parts of copper and one    
part silver2 whereby1 whatsoever bar or 
coin1 when rubbed on the touchstone1    
colours it just as this needle does1 in 
that bar or money there is one          
twenty-fourth part of silver1 and so    
also1 in accordance with the proportion 
of silver1 is known the remaining       
proportion of the copper4    ,the #ast  
needle is made of #bc parts of copper   
and #a of silver4     #bnd              
#bb                   #b           #crd 
#ba                   #c           #dth 
#bj                   #d           #eth 
#ai                   #e           #fth 
#ah                   #f           #gth 
#ag                   #g           #hth 
#af                   #h           #ith 
#ae                   #i           #ajth
                 #ad                    
#aj           #aath                 #ac 
#aa           #abth                 #ab 
#ab           #acth                 #aa 
#ac           #adth                 #aj 

#ad           #aeth                  #i 
#ae           #afth                  #h 
#af           #agth                  #g 
#ag           #ahth                  #f 
#ah           #aith                  #e 
#ai           #bjth                  #d 
#bj           #bast                  #c 
#ba           #bbnd                  #b 
#bb           #bcrd                  #a 
#bc           #bdth of pure silver4     
,the other method of making needles is  
as follows3--                           
,copper4                  ,silver4      
,semunciae ,sicilici4     ,semunciae    
,sicilici4    ,the #ast is of      #ae  
#a      #bnd          #ad           #a  
#a           #a      #crd          #ad  
#b       #dth          #ac           #a 
#b           #a      #eth          #ac  
#c      #fth          #ab           #a  
#c           #a       #gth          #ab 
#d      #hth          #aa           #a  
#d           #a      #ith          #aa  
#e      #ajth          #aj           #a 
#e           #a     #aath          #aj  

#f     #abth           #i           #a  
#f           #a      #acth           #i 
#g     #adth           #h           #a  
#g           #a     #aeth           #h  
#h      #afth           #g           #a 
#h           #a     #agth           #g  
#i     #ahth           #f           #a  
#i           #a      #aith           #f 
#aj     #bjth           #e           #a 
#aj           #a     #bast           #e 
#aa      #bbnd           #d           #a
              #aa           #a     #bcrd
           #d                           
#ab     #bdth           #c           #a 
#ab           #a      #beth           #c
                          #ac     #bfth 
#b           #a              #ac        
#a     #bgth           #b               
#ad      #bhth           #a           #a
              #ad           #a     #bith
           #a                           
#ae     #cjth                       #a  
#ae           #a     #cast of pure      
silver4  ,so much for this4 ,perhaps ,i 
have used more words than those most    

highly skilled in the art may require1  
but it is necessary for the             
understanding of these matters4  ,i will
 now speak of the weights1 of which ,i  
have frequently made mention4 ,among    
mining people these are of two kinds1   
that is1 the greater weights and the    
lesser weights4 ,the centumpondium is   
the first and largest weight1 and of    
course consists of one hundred librae1  
and for that reason is called a hundred 
weight4  ,the various weights are3--    
#ast  #ajj librae  centumpondium4   #bnd
   #ej        #crd   #be        #dth    
#af        #eth    #h        #fth    #d 
#gth    #b        #hth    #a libra4     
,this libra consists of sixteen unciae1 
and the half part of the libra is the   
selibra1 which our people call a mark1  
and consists of eight unciae1 or1 as    
they divide it1 of sixteen semunciae3-- 
#ith  #h unciae4   #ajth  #h semunciae4 
#aath  #d        #abth  #b        #acth 
#a semuncia4   #adth  #a sicilicus4     
#aeth  #a drachma4   #afth  #a          

dimidi-drachma4  ,illustration #bfb     
7,weights for ,assay ,balances7  ,the   
above is how the greater weights are    
divided4 ,the lesser weights are made of
 silver or brass or copper4 ,of these1  
the first and largest generally weighs  
one drachma1 for it is necessary for us 
to weigh1 not only ore1 but also metals 
to be assayed1 and smaller quantities of
 lead4 ,the first of these weights is   
called a centumpondium and the number of
 librae in it corresponds to the larger 
scale1 being likewise one hundred#db4   
,the  #ast is called  #a centumpondium4 
#bnd          #ej librae4       #crd    
#be            #dth          #af        
#eth           #h            #fth       
#d            #gth           #b         
#hth           #a            #ith       
#a selibra4      #ajth           #h     
semunciae4      #aath           #d      
#abth           #b           #acth      
#a           #adth           #a         
sicilicus4  ,the fourteenth is the last1
 for the proportionate weights which    

correspond with a drachma and half a    
drachma are not used4 ,on all these     
weights of the lesser scale1 are written
 the numbers of librae and of semunciae4
 ,some copper assayers divide both the  
lesser and greater scale weights into   
divisions of a different scale4 ,their  
largest weight of the greater scale     
weighs one hundred and twelve librae1   
which is the first unit of measurement4 
#ast   #aab librae4    #bnd    #fd      
#crd    #cb         #dth    #af         
#eth     #h         #fth     #d         
#gth     #b         #hth     #a         
#ith     #a selibra or sixteen          
semunciae4   #ajth     #h semunciae4    
#aath     #d        #abth     #b        
#acth     #a       ,as for the selibra  
of the lesser weights1 which our people1
 as ,i have often said1 call a mark1 and
 the ,romans call a bes1 coiners who    
coin gold1 divide it just like the      
greater weights scale1 into twenty-four 
units of two sextulae each1 and each    
unit of two sextulae is divided into    

four semi-sextulae and each semi-sextula
 into three units of four siliquae each4
 ,some also divide the separate units of
 four siliquae into four individual     
siliquae1 but most1 omitting the        
semi-sextulae1 then divide the double   
sextula into twelve units of four       
siliquae each1 and do not divide these  
into four individual siliquae4 ,thus the
 first and greatest unit of measurement1
 which is the bes1 weighs twenty-four   
double sextulae4    ,the #bnd  #ab      
double sextulae4      #crd   #f         
#dth   #c                   #eth   #b   
#fth   #a                   #gth   #b   
semi-sextulae or four semi-sextulae4    
#hth   #a semi-sextula or #c units of #d
 siliquae each4      #ith   #b units of 
four siliquae each4     #ajth   #a      
,coiners who mint silver also divide the
 bes of the lesser weights in the same  
way as the greater weights2 our people1 
indeed1 divide it into sixteen          
semunciae1 and the semuncia into        
eighteen units of four siliquae each4   

,there are ten weights which are placed 
in the other pan of the balance1 when   
they weigh the silver which remains from
 the copper that has been consumed1 when
 they assay the alloy with fire4    ,the
 #ast  #af semunciae  #a bes4      #bnd 
#h             #crd   #d                
#dth   #b             #eth   #a         
or #ah units of #d siliquae each4       
#fth   #i units of #d siliquae each4    
#gth   #f                    #hth   #c  
#ith   #b                   #ajth   #a  
,the coiners of ,nuremberg who mint     
silver1 divide the bes into sixteen     
semunciae1 but divide the semuncia into 
four drachmae1 and the drachma into four
 pfennige4 ,they employ nine weights4   
,the #ast  #af semunciae4      #bnd   #h
             #crd   #d             #dth 
#b             #eth   #a         ,for   
they divide the bes in the same way as  
our own people1 but since they divide   
the semuncia into four drachmae1    the 
#fth weight  #b drachmae4      #gth     
#a drachma or #d pfennige4      #hth    

#b pfennige4      #ith        #a        
pfennig4  ,the men of ,cologne and      
,antwerp#dc divide the bes into twelve  
units of five drachmae and one          
scripulum1 which weights they call      
nummi4 ,each of these they again divide 
into twenty-four units of four siliquae 
each1 which they call grenlins4 ,they   
have ten weights1 of which    the #ast  
#ab nummi  #a bes4      #bnd   #f       
#crd   #c         #dth   #b         #eth
   #a         #bd units of #d siliquae  
each4      #fth  #ab units of #d        
siliquae each4      #gth   #f           
#hth   #c                    #ith   #b  
#ajth   #a                ,and so with  
them1 just as with our own people1 the  
mark is divided into two hundred and    
eighty-eight grenlins1 and by the people
 of ,nuremberg it is divided into two   
hundred and fifty-six pfennige4 ,lastly1
 the ,venetians divide the bes into     
eight unciae4 ,the uncia into four      
sicilici1 the sicilicus into thirty-six 
siliquae4 ,they make twelve weights1    

which they use whenever they wish to    
assay alloys of silver and copper4 ,of  
these    the #ast   #h unciae  #a bes4  
#bnd   #d          #crd   #b            
#dth   #a      or #d sicilici4      #eth
   #b sicilici4      #fth   #a          
sicilicus4      #gth  #ah siliquae4     
#hth   #i          #ith   #f            
#ajth   #c         #aath   #b           
#abth   #a      ,since the ,venetians   
divide the bes into eleven hundred and  
fifty-two siliquae1 or two hundred and  
eighty-eight units of #d siliquae each1 
into which number our people also divide
 the bes1 they thus make the same number
 of siliquae1 and both agree1 even      
though the ,venetians divide the bes    
into smaller divisions4  ,this1 then1 is
 the system of weights1 both of the     
greater and the lesser kinds1 which     
metallurgists employ1 and likewise the  
system of the lesser weights which      
coiners and merchants employ1 when they 
are assaying metals and coined money4   
,the bes of the larger weight with which

 they provide themselves when they weigh
 large masses of these things1 ,i have  
explained in my work ,de ,mensuris et   
,ponderibus1 and in another book1 ,de   
,precio ,metallorum et ,monetis4        
,illustration #bfe 7,balances73         
,a--,first small balance4 ,b--,second4  
,c--,third1 placed in a case4  ,there   
are three small balances by which we    
weigh ore1 metals1 and fluxes4 ,the     
first1 by which we weigh lead and       
fluxes1 is the largest among these      
smaller balances1 and when eight unciae 
7of the greater weights7 are placed in  
one of its pans1 and the same number in 
the other1 it sustains no damage4 ,the  
second is more delicate1 and by this we 
weigh the ore or the metal1 which is to 
be assayed2 this is well able to carry  
one centumpondium of the lesser weights 
in one pan1 and in the other1 ore or    
metal as heavy as that weight4 ,the     
third is the most delicate1 and by this 
we weigh the beads of gold or silver1   
which1 when the assay is completed1     

settle in the bottom of the cupel4 ,but 
if anyone weighs lead in the second     
balance1 or an ore in the third1 he will
 do them much injury4  ,whatsoever small
 amount of metal is obtained from a     
centumpondium of the lesser weights of  
ore or metal alloy1 the same greater    
weight of metal is smelted from a       
centumpondium of the greater weight of  
ore or metal alloy4       ,,end ,,of    
,,book ,,vii4   ,,footnotes3  #a ,we    
have but little record of anything which
 could be called assaying among the     
,greeks and ,romans4 ,the fact1 however1
 that they made constant use of the     
touchstone 7see note #cg1 p4 #beb7 is   
sufficient proof that they were able to 
test the purity of gold and silver4 ,the
 description of the touchstone by       
,theophrastus contains several          
references to trial by fire 7see note   
#cg1 p4 #beb74 ,they were adepts at     
metal working1 and were therefore       
familiar with melting metals on a small 
scale1 with the smelting of silver1     

lead1 copper1 and tin ores 7see note #a1
 p4 #cec7 and with the parting of silver
 and lead by cupellation4 ,consequently1
 it would not require much of an        
imaginative flight to conclude that     
there existed some system of tests of   
ore and metal values by fire4 ,apart    
from the statement of ,theophrastus     
referred to1 the first references made  
to anything which might fill the role of
 assaying are from the ,alchemists1     
particularly ,geber 7prior to #acjj71   
for they describe methods of solution1  
precipitation1 distillation1 fusing in  
crucibles1 cupellation1 and of the      
parting of gold and silver by acid and  
by sulphur1 antimony1 or cementation4   
,however1 they were not bent on         
determining quantitative values1 which  
is the fundamental object of the        
assayer's art1 and all their discussion 
is shrouded in an obscure cloak of      
gibberish and attempted mysticism4      
,nevertheless1 therein lies the         
foundation of many cardinal assay       

methods1 and even of chemistry itself4  
,the first explicit records of assaying 
are the anonymous booklets published in 
,german early in the #afth ,century     
under the title ,probierbuechlein4      
,therein the art is disclosed well      
advanced toward maturity1 so far as     
concerns gold and silver1 with some     
notes on lead and copper4 ,we refer the 
reader to ,appendix ,b for fuller       
discussion of these books1 but we may   
repeat here that they are a collection  
of disconnected recipes lacking in      
arrangement1 the items often repeated1  
and all apparently the inheritance of   
wisdom passed from father to son over   
many generations4 ,it is obviously      
intended as a sort of reminder to those 
already skilled in the art1 and would be
 hopeless to a novice4 ,apart from some 
notes in ,biringuccio 7,book ,,iii1     
,chaps4 #a and #b7 on assaying gold and 
silver1 there is nothing else prior to  
,de ,re ,metallica4 ,agricola was       
familiar with these works and includes  

their material in this chapter4 ,the    
very great advance which his account    
represents can only be appreciated by   
comparison1 but the exhaustive          
publication of other works is foreign to
 the purpose of these notes4 ,agricola  
introduces system into the arrangement  
of his materials1 describes implements1 
and gives a hundred details which are   
wholly omitted from the previous works1 
all in a manner which would enable a    
beginner to learn the art4 ,furthermore1
 the assaying of lead1 copper1 tin1     
quicksilver1 iron1 and bismuth1 is      
almost wholly new1 together with the    
whole of the argument and explanations4 
,we would call the attention of students
 of the history of chemistry to the     
general oversight of these early #afth  
,century attempts at analytical         
chemistry1 for in them lie the          
foundations of that science4 ,the       
statement sometimes made that ,agricola 
was the first assayer1 is false if for  
no other reason than that science does  

not develop with such strides at any one
 human hand4 ,he can1 however1 fairly be
 accounted as the author of the first   
proper text-book upon assaying4 ,those  
familiar with the art will be astonished
 at the small progress made since his   
time1 for in his pages appear most of   
the reagents and most of the critical   
operations in the dry analyses of gold1 
silver1 lead1 copper1 tin1 bismuth1     
quicksilver1 and iron of to-day4        
,further1 there will be recognised many 
of the kinks of the art used even yet1  
such as the method of granulation1      
duplicate assays1 the assay ton method  
of weights1 the use of test lead1 the   
introduction of charges in leaf lead1   
and even the use of beer instead of     
water to damp bone-ash4  ,the following 
table is given of the substances        
mentioned requiring some comment1 and   
the terms adopted in this book1 with    
notes for convenience in reference4 ,the
 ,german terms are either from          
,agricola's ,glossary of ,de ,re        

,metallica1 his ,interpretatio1 or the  
,german ,translation4 ,we have retained 
the original ,german spelling4 ,the     
fifth column refers to the page where   
more ample notes are given3--    ,terms 
,latin4           ,german4              
,remarks4          ,further    adopted4 
,notes4    ,alum              ,alumen   
,alaun          ,either potassium    p4 
#efd                                    
or ammonia alum    ,ampulla             
,ampulla        ,kolb           ,a      
distillation jar    ,antimony           
,stibium        ,spiesglas              
,practically always  p4 #dbh            
antimony sulphide    ,aqua valens       
,aqua valens    ,scheidewasser  ,mostly 
nitric acid  p4 #dci    or aqua         
,argol             ,feces vini      ,die
             ,crude tartar        p4    
#bcd                      siccae        
weinheffen    ,ash of lead       ,nigrum
                           ,artificial  
lead     p4 #bcg                        
plumbum                                 

sulphide                      cinereum  
,ash of musk ivy   ,sal ex              
,salalkali      ,mostly potash       p4 
#efj    7,salt made        anthyllidis  
from7             cinere factus         
,ashes which       ,cineres quo         
,mostly potash       p4 #eei            
wool-dyers use     infectores           
lanarum                       utuntur   
,assay            ,venas experiri       
,probiren    ,assay furnace             
,fornacula       ,probir ofen    ,little
 furnace    ,azure            ,caeruleum
       ,lasur          ,partly copper   
p4 #aaj                                 
carbonate                               
7azurite7                               
partly silicate    ,bismuth             
,plumbum         ,wismut                
,bismuth           p4 #dcc              
,cinereum    ,bitumen           ,bitumen
        ,bergwachs                      
p4 #eha    ,blast furnace     ,prima    
fornax   ,schmeltzofen    ,borax        
,chrysocolla ex  ,borras2 ,tincar       

p4 #efj                      nitro      
confecta2                               
chrysocolla                      quam   
boracem                      nominant   
,burned alum       ,alumen coctum       
,gesottener      ,probably            p4
 #efe                                   
alaun           dehydrated alum         
,cadmia                                 
7#a7 ,furnace         p4 #aab    7see   
note                                    
accretions 7#b7     #h1 p4 #aab7        
,calamine 7#c7 ,zinc                    
blende 7#d7 ,cobalt                     
arsenical sulphides    ,camphor         
,camphora       ,campffer               
p4 #bch    ,chrysocolla    called borax 
7see borax7    ,chrysocolla             
,chrysocolla    ,berggruen und          
,partly              p4 #aaj    7copper 
,schifergruen     chrysocolla1          
mineral7                                
partly malachite    ,copper filings     
,aeris scobs     ,kupferfeilich         
,apparently finely   p4 #bcc            

elimata                          divided
 copper                                 
metal    ,copper flowers    ,aeris flos 
,kupferbraun    ,cupric oxide        p4 
#ech    ,copper scales     ,aeris       
squamae  ,kupfer          ,probably     
cupric                                  
hammerschlag     oxide                  
oder kessel                             
braun    ,copper    minerals 7see       
note #h1    p4 #aji7    ,crucible       
,catillus        ,dreieckicht-    ,see  
illustration    p4 #bbi    7triangular7 
triangularis    schirbe    ,cupel       
,catillus        ,capelle               
cinereus    ,cupellation       ,secunda 
,treibherd    furnace           fornax  
,flux              ,additamentum        
,zusetze                            p4  
#bcb    ,furnace           ,cadmia      
,mitlere und    accretions              
fornacum        obere                   
offenbrueche    ,galena                 
,lapis           ,glantz         ,lead  
sulphide       p4 #aaj                  

plumbarius    ,glass-gall               
,recrementum     ,glassgallen           
,skimmings from      p4 #bce            
vitri                            glass  
melting    ,grey antimony or  ,stibi or 
,spiesglas      ,antimony sulphide1  p4 
#dbh    stibium            stibium      
stibnite    ,hearth-lead                
,molybdaena     ,herdplei       ,the    
saturated       p4 #dgf                 
furnace bottoms                         
from cupellation    ,hoop 7iron7        
,circulus        ,ring           ,a     
forge for         p4 #bbf               
ferreus                                 
crucibles    ,iron filings     ,ferri   
scobs      ,eisen feilich  ,metallic    
iron                     elimata        
,iron scales       ,squamae ferri       
,eisen           ,partly iron oxide     
hammerschlag    ,iron slag              
,recrementum     ,sinder                
ferri    ,lead ash          ,cinis      
plumbi    ,pleiasche      ,artificial   
lead     p4 #bcg                        

nigri                                   
sulphide    ,lead granules     ,globuli 
,gekornt plei   ,granulated lead        
plumbei    ,lead ochre        ,ochra    
,pleigeel       ,modern massicot     p4 
#bcb                      plumbaria     
7,pb,o7    ,lees of aqua    ,feces      
aquarum   ,scheidewasser   ,uncertain   
p4 #bcd    which separates   quae aurum 
ab    heffe    gold from         argento
    silver            secernunt         
,dried lees of     ,siccae feces        
,heffe des       ,argol               p4
 #bcd    vinegar           aceti        
essigs    ,dried lees of     ,feces vini
       ,wein heffen   ,argol            
p4 #bcd    wine              siccae     
,limestone         ,saxum calcis        
,kalchstein    ,litharge          ,spuma
 argenti  ,glette    ,lye               
,lixivium       ,lauge durch     ,mostly
 potash       p4 #bcc                   
asschen                                 
gemacht    ,muffle            ,tegula   
,muffel         ,latin1 literally       

,roof-tile    ,operculum                
,operculum      ,helm oder       ,helmet
 or cover                               
alembick        for a distillation      
jar    ,orpiment          ,auripigmentum
  ,operment       ,yellow sulphide      
p4 #aaa                                 
of arsenic                              
7,as#b,s#c7    ,pyrites                 
,pyrites        ,kis            ,rather 
a genus      p4 #aab                    
of sulphides1                           
than iron                               
pyrite in                               
particular    ,pyrites 7,cakes    ,panes
 ex        ,stein          ,iron or     
,copper      p4 #cej     from7          
pyrite                            matte 
conflati    ,realgar                    
,sandaraca      ,rosgeel        ,red    
sulphide of     p4 #aaa                 
arsenic 7,as,s7    ,red lead            
,minium         ,menning                
,pb#c,o#d         p4 #bcb    ,roasted   
copper    ,aes ustum      ,gebrandt     

,artificial          p4 #bcc            
kupffer         copper                  
sulphide 787    ,salt              ,sal 
,saltz          ,na,cl                p4
 #bcc    ,salt 7,rock7       ,sal       
fossilis   ,berg saltz     ,na,cl       
p4 #bcc    ,sal              ,sal       
,a stock flux8       p4 #bcf            
artificiosus     artificiosus    ,sal   
ammoniac      ,sal                      
,salarmoniac    ,,nh#d;,cl            p4
 #efj                      ammoniacus   
,saltpetre         ,halinitrum          
,salpeter       ,,kno#c             p4  
#efa    ,salt 7refined7    ,sal         
facticius                    ,na,cl     
purgatus    ,sal tostus      ,sal tostus
     ,geroest saltz   ,apparently       
p4 #bcc                                 
simply heated or                        
melted common                           
salt    ,sal              ,sal          
,geroest saltz                       p4 
#bcc    torrefactus      torrefactus    
,salt 7melted7     ,sal                 

,geflossen       ,melted salt or      p4
 #bcc                      liquefactus  
saltz           salt glass    ,scorifier
         ,catillus        ,scherbe      
fictilis    ,schist            ,saxum   
fissile  ,schifer    ,silver minerals   
7see note #h1    p4 #ajh7    ,slag      
,recrementum    ,schlacken    ,soda     
,nitrum                          ,mostly
 soda from    p4 #eeh                   
,egypt1                                 
,na#b;,,co#c    ,stones which           
,lapides qui     ,flues                 
,quartz and          p4 #chj    easily  
melt       facile igni                  
fluorspar                               
liquescunt    ,sulphur           ,sulfur
         ,schwefel                      
p4 #egi    ,tophus          ,tophus     
,topstein       ,marl787             p4 
#bcc    ,touchstone        ,coticula    
,goldstein    ,venetian glass           
,venetianum                      vitrum 
,verdigris         ,aerugo              
,gruenspan       ,copper              p4

 #ddj                      oder         
sub-acetate                             
,spanschgruen    ,vitriol               
,atramentum      ,kupferwasser   ,mostly
 ,fe,s,o#d     p4 #egb                  
sutorium    ,white schist      ,saxum   
fissile   ,weisser                      
p4 #bcd                      album      
schifer    ,weights 7see     ,appendix74
   #b ,crudorum1--unbaked8  #c ,this    
reference is not very clear4 ,apparently
 the names refer to the ,german terms   
probier ofen and windt ofen4  #d        
,circulus4 ,this term does not offer a  
very satisfactory equivalent1 as such a 
furnace has no distinctive name in      
,english4 ,it is obviously a sort of    
forge for fusing in crucibles4  #e      
,spissa1--,dry4 ,this term is used in   
contra-distinction to pingue1 unctuous  
or fatty4  #f ,additamenta1--,additions4
 ,hence the play on words4  ,we have    
adopted flux because the old ,english   
equivalent for all these materials was  
flux1 although in modern nomenclature   

the term is generally restricted to     
those substances which1 by chemical     
combination in the furnace1 lower the   
melting point of some of the charge4    
,the additions of ,agricola1 therefore1 
include reducing1 oxidizing1            
sulphurizing1 desulphurizing1 and       
collecting agents as well as fluxes4 ,a 
critical examination of the fluxes      
mentioned in the next four pages gives  
point to the ,author's assertion that   
some are of a very complicated nature4  
,however1 anyone of experience with     
home-taught assayers has come in contact
 with equally extraordinary             
combinations4 ,the four orders of       
additions enumerated are quite          
impossible to reconcile from a modern   
metallurgical point of view4  #g ,minium
 secundarium4 7,interpretatio1--menning4
 ,pb#c,o#d74 ,agricola derived his      
,latin term from ,pliny4 ,there is great
 confusion in the ancient writers on the
 use of the word minium1 for prior to   
the ,middle ,ages it was usually applied

 to vermilion derived from cinnabar4    
,vermilion was much adulterated with    
red-lead1 even in ,roman times1 and     
finally in later centuries the name came
 to be appropriated to the lead product4
 ,theophrastus 7#ajc7 mentions a        
substitute for vermilion1 but1 in spite 
of commentators1 there is no evidence   
that it was red-lead4 ,the first to     
describe the manufacture of real        
red-lead was apparently ,vitruvius      
7,,vii1 #ab71 who calls it sandaraca    
7this name was usually applied to red   
arsenical sulphide71 and says3          
,white-lead is heated in a furnace and  
by the force of the fire becomes red    
lead4 ,this invention was the result of 
observation in the case of an accidental
 fire1 and by the process a much better 
material is obtained than from the      
mines4 ,he describes minium as the      
product from cinnabar4 ,dioscorides 7,v1
 #fc71 after discussing white-lead1 says
 it may be burned until it becomes the  
colour of sandaracha1 and is called     

sandyx4 ,he also states 7,v1 #fi7 that  
those are deceived who consider cinnabar
 to be the same as minium1 for minium is
 made in ,spain out of stone mixed with 
silver sands4 ,therefore he is not in   
agreement with ,vitruvius and ,pliny on 
the use of the term4 ,pliny 7,,xxxiii1  
#dj7 says3 ,these barren stones         
7apparently lead ores barren of silver7 
may be recognised by their colour2 it is
 only in the furnace that they turn red4
 ,after being roasted it is pulverized  
and is minium secundarium4 ,it is known 
to few and is very inferior to the      
natural kind made from those sands we   
have mentioned 7cinnabar74 ,it is with  
this that the genuine minium is         
adulterated in the works of the         
,company4 ,this proprietary company who 
held a monopoly of the ,spanish         
quicksilver mines1 had many methods of  
adulterating it 7minium7--a source of   
great plunder to the ,company4 ,pliny   
also describes the making of red lead   
from white4  #h ,ochra plumbaria4       

7,interpretatio1--pleigeel2 modern      
,german1--,bleigelb74 ,the ,german term 
indicates that this ,lead ,ochre1 a form
 of ,pb,o1 is what in the ,english trade
 is known as massicot1 or masticot4     
,this material can be a partial product 
from almost any cupellation where       
oxidation takes place below the melting 
point of the oxide4 ,it may have been   
known to the ,ancients among the various
 species into which they divided        
litharge1 but there is no valid reason  
for assigning to it any special one of  
their terms1 so far as we can see4  #i  
,there are four forms of copper named as
 re-agents by ,agricola3    ,copper     
filings    ,aeris scobs elimata4        
,copper scales     ,aeris squamae4      
,copper flowers    ,aeris flos4         
,roasted copper    ,aes ustum4  ,the    
first of these was no doubt finely      
divided copper metal2 the second1 third1
 and fourth were probably all cupric    
oxide4 ,according to ,agricola 7,de     
,nat4 ,fos41 p4 #ceb71 the scales were  

the result of hammering the metal2 the  
flowers came off the metal when hot bars
 were quenched in water1 and a third    
kind were obtained from calcining the   
metal4 ,both flowers 7flos7 and         
hammer-scales 7squama7 have the same    
properties as crematum copper4444 ,the  
particles of flower copper are finer    
than scales or crematum copper4 ,if we  
assume that the verb uro used in ,de ,re
 ,metallica is of the same import as    
cremo in the ,de ,natura ,fossilium1 we 
can accept this material as being merely
 cupric oxide1 but the aes ustum of     
,pliny--,agricola's usual source of     
technical nomenclature--is probably an  
artificial sulphide4 ,dioscorides 7,v1  
#dg71 who is apparently the source of   
,pliny's information1 says3--,of chalcos
 cecaumenos1 the best is red1 and       
pulverized resembles the colour of      
cinnabar2 if it turns black1 it is      
over-burnt4 ,it is made from broken ship
 nails put into a rough earthen pot1    
with alternate layers of equal parts of 

sulphur and salt4 ,the opening should be
 smeared with potter's clay and the pot 
put in the furnace until it is          
thoroughly heated1 etc4 ,pliny 7,,xxxiv1
 #bc7 states3 ,moreover ,cyprian copper 
is roasted in crude earthen pots with an
 equal amount of sulphur2 the apertures 
of the pots are well luted1 and they are
 kept in the furnace until the pot is   
thoroughly heated4 ,some add salt1      
others use alumen instead of sulphur1   
others add nothing1 but only sprinkle it
 with vinegar4  #aj ,the reader is      
referred to note #f1 p4 #eeh1 for more  
ample discussion of the alkalis4        
,agricola gives in this chapter four    
substances of that character3           
,soda 7nitrum74 ,lye4 ,ashes which      
wool-dyers use4 ,salt made      from the
 ashes of musk ivy4  ,the last three are
 certainly potash1 probably impure4     
,while the first might be either potash 
or soda1 the fact that the last three   
are mentioned separately1 together with 
other evidence1 convinces us that by the

 first is intended the nitrum so        
generally imported into ,europe from    
,egypt during the ,middle ,ages4 ,this  
imported salt was certainly the natural 
bicarbonate1 and we have1 therefore1    
used the term soda4  #aa ,in this       
chapter are mentioned seven kinds of    
common salt3    ,salt            ,sal4  
,rock salt       ,sal fossilis4   ,made 
salt     ,sal facticius4   ,refined salt
    ,sal purgatius4   ,melted salt      
,sal liquefactus4  ,and in addition sal 
tostus and sal torrefactus4 ,sal        
facticius is used in distinction from   
rock-salt4 ,the melted salt would       
apparently be salt-glass4 ,what form the
 sal tostus and sal torrefactus could   
have we cannot say1 however1 but they   
were possibly some form of heated salt2 
they may have been combinations after   
the order of sal artificiosus 7see p4   
#bcf74  #ab ,stones which easily melt in
 hot furnaces and sand which is made    
from them 7lapides qui in ardentibus    
fornacibus facile liquescunt arenae ab  

eis resolutae74 ,these were probably    
quartz in this instance1 although       
fluorspar is also included in this same 
genus4 ,for fuller discussion see note  
on p4 #chj4  #ac ,tophus4               
7,interpretatio1 ,toffstein oder        
topstein74 ,according to ,dana 7,syst4  
of ,min41 p4 #fgh71 the ,german         
topfstein was ,english potstone or      
soapstone1 a magnesian silicate4 ,it is 
scarcely possible1 however1 that this is
 what ,agricola meant by this term1 for 
such a substance would be highly        
infusible4 ,agricola has a good deal to 
say about this mineral in ,de ,natura   
,fossilium 7p4 #ahi and #cac71 and from 
these descriptions it would seem to be a
 tufaceous limestone of various sorts1  
embracing some marls1 stalagmites1      
calcareous sinter1 etc4 ,he states3     
,generally fire does not melt it1 but   
makes it harder and breaks it into      
powder4 ,tophus is said to be a stone   
found in caverns1 made from the dripping
 of stone juice solidified by cold 444  

sometimes it is found containing many   
shells1 and likewise the impressions of 
alder leaves2 our people make lime by   
burning it4 ,pliny1 upon whom ,agricola 
depends largely for his nomenclature1   
mentions such a substance 7,,xxxvi1     
#dh73 ,among the multitude of stones    
there is tophus4 ,it is unsuitable for  
buildings1 because it is perishable and 
soft4 ,still1 however1 there are some   
places which have no other1 as          
,carthage1 in ,africa4 ,it is eaten away
 by the emanations from the sea1        
crumbled to dust by the wind1 and washed
 away by the rain4 ,in fact1 tophus was 
a wide genus among the older            
mineralogists1 ,wallerius 7,meditationes
 ,physico-,chemicae ,de ,origine ,mundi1
 ,stockholm1 #aggf1 p4 #ahf71 for       
instance1 gives #bb varieties4 ,for the 
purposes for which it is used we believe
 it was always limestone of some form4  
#ad ,saxum fissile album4 7,the         
,interpretatio gives the ,german as     
schifer74 ,agricola mentions it in      

,bermannus 7#dei71 in ,de ,natura       
,fossilium 7p4 #cai71 but nothing       
definite can be derived from these      
references4 ,it appears to us from its  
use to have been either a quartzite or a
 fissile limestone4  #ae ,argol 7,feces 
vini siccae1--,dried lees of wine4      
,germ4 trans4 gives die wein heffen1    
although the usual ,german term of the  
period was weinstein74 ,the lees of wine
 were the crude tartar or argols of     
commerce and modern assayers4 ,the      
argols of white wine are white1 while   
they are red from red wine4 ,the white  
argol which ,agricola so often specifies
 would have no special excellence1      
unless it may be that it is less easily 
adulterated4 ,agricola 7,de ,nat4 ,fos41
 p4 #cdd7 uses the expression ,fex vini 
sicca called tartarum--one of the       
earliest appearances of the latter term 
in this connection4 ,the use of argol is
 very old1 for ,dioscorides 7#ast       
,century ,a4,d47 not only describes     
argol1 but also its reduction to impure 

potash4 ,he says 7,v1 #ij73 ,the lees   
7tryx7 are to be selected from old      
,italian wine2 if not1 from other       
similar wine4 ,lees of vinegar are much 
stronger4 ,they are carefully dried and 
then burnt4 ,there are some who burn    
them in a new earthen pot on a large    
fire until they are thoroughly          
incinerated4 ,others place a quantity of
 the lees on live coals and pursue the  
same method4 ,the test as to whether it 
is completely burned1 is that it becomes
 white or blue1 and seems to burn the   
tongue when touched4 ,the method of     
burning lees of vinegar is the same4444 
,it should be used fresh1 as it quickly 
grows stale2 it should be placed in a   
vessel in a secluded place4 ,pliny      
7,,xxiii1 #ca7 says3 ,following these1  
come the lees of these various liquids4 
,the lees of wine 7vini faecibus7 are so
 powerful as to be fatal to persons on  
descending into the vats4 ,the test for 
this is to let down a lamp1 which1 if   
extinguished1 indicates the peril4444   

,their virtues are greatly increased by 
the action of fire4 ,matthioli1         
commenting on this passage from         
,dioscorides in #aefe1 makes the        
following remark 7p4 #acge73 ,the       
precipitate of the wine which settles in
 the casks of the winery forms          
stone-like crusts1 and is called by the 
works-people by the name tartarum4 ,it  
will be seen above that these lees were 
rendered stronger by the action of fire1
 in which case the tartar was reduced to
 potassium carbonate4 ,the weinstein of 
the old ,german metallurgists was often 
the material lixiviated from the        
incinerated tartar4  ,dried lees of     
vinegar 7siccae feces aceti2            
,interpretatio1 die heffe des essigs74  
,this would also be crude tartar4 ,pliny
 7,,xxiii1 #cb7 says3 ,the lees of      
vinegar 7faex aceti72 owing to the more 
acrid material are more aggravating in  
their effects4444 ,when combined with   
melanthium it heals the bites of dogs   
and crocodiles4  #af ,dried lees of aqua

 which separates gold and silver4       
7,siccae feces aquarum quae aurum ab    
argento secernunt4 ,german translation1 
,der scheidwasser heffe74 ,there is no  
pointed description in ,agricola's      
works1 or in any other that we can find1
 as to what this material was4 ,the     
separating aqua was undoubtedly nitric  
acid 7see p4 #dci1 ,book ,x74 ,there are
 two precipitates possible1 both        
referred to as feces1--the first1 a     
precipitate of silver chloride from     
clarifying the aqua valens1 and the     
second1 the residues left in making the 
acid by distillation4 ,it is difficult  
to believe that silver chloride was the 
feces referred to in the text1 because  
such a precipitate would be obviously   
misleading when used as a flux through  
the addition of silver to the assays1   
too expensive1 and of no merit for this 
purpose4 ,therefore one is driven to the
 conclusion that the feces must have    
been the residues left in the retorts   
when nitric acid was prepared4 ,it would

 have been more in keeping with his     
usual mode of expression1 however1 to   
have referred to this material as a     
residuus4 ,the materials used for making
 acid varied greatly1 so there is no    
telling what such a feces contained4 ,a 
list of possibilities is given in note  
#h1 p4 #ddc4 ,in the main1 the residue  
would be undigested vitriol1 alum1      
saltpetre1 salt1 etc41 together with    
potassium1 iron1 and alum sulphates4    
,the ,probierbuechlin 7p4 #bg7 also     
gives this re-agent under the term      
,toden kopff das ist schlam oder feces  
auss dem scheydwasser4  #ag ,recrementum
 vitri4 7,interpretatio1 ,glassgallen74 
,formerly1 when more impure materials   
were employed than nowadays1 the surface
 of the mass in the first melting of    
glass materials was covered with salts1 
mostly potassium and sodium sulphates   
and chlorides which escaped perfect     
vitrification4 ,this slag or glassgallen
 of ,agricola was also termed sandiver4 
#ah ,the whole of this expression is    

candidus1 candido4 ,it is by no means   
certain that this is tin1 for usually   
tin is given as plumbum candidum4  #ai  
,sal artificiosus4 ,these are a sort of 
stock fluxes4 ,such mixtures are common 
in all old assay books1 from the        
,probierbuechlin to later than ,john    
,cramer in #agcg 7whose ,latin lectures 
on ,assaying were published in ,english 
under the title of ,elements of the ,art
 of ,assaying ,metals1 ,london1 #agda74 
,cramer observes 7p4 #ea7 that3         
,artificers compose a great many fluxes 
with the above-mentioned salts and with 
the reductive ones2 nay1 some use as    
many different fluxes as there are      
different ores and metals2 all which1   
however1 we think needless to describe4 
,it is better to have explained a few of
 the simpler ones1 which serve for all  
the others1 and are very easily         
prepared1 than to tire the reader with  
confused compositions3 and this chiefly 
because unskilled artificers sometimes  
attempt to obtain with many ingredients 

of the same nature heaped up beyond     
measure1 and with much labour1 though   
not more properly and more securely1    
what might have been easily effected1   
with one only and the same ingredient1  
thus increasing the number1 not at all  
the virtue of the things employed4      
,nevertheless1 if anyone loves variety1 
he may1 according to the proportions and
 cautions above prescribed1 at his will 
chuse among the simpler kinds such as   
will best suit his purpose1 and compose 
a variety of fluxes with them4  #bj     
,this operation apparently results in a 
coating to prevent the deflagration of  
the saltpetre--in fact1 it might be     
permitted to translate inflammatur      
deflagrate1 instead of kindle4  #ba ,the
 results which would follow from the use
 of these fluxes would obviously depend 
upon the ore treated4 ,they can all     
conceivably be successful4 ,of these1   
the first is the lead-glass of the      
,german assayers--a flux much emphasized
 by all old authorities1 including      

,lohneys1 ,ercker and ,cramner1 and used
 even yet4 ,the powerful flux would be a
 reducing1 desulphurizing1 and an acid  
flux4 ,the more powerful would be a     
basic flux in which the reducing action 
of the argols would be largely          
neutralised by the nitre4 ,the still    
more powerful would be a strongly       
sulphurizing basic flux1 while the most 
powerful would be a still more          
sulphurizing flux1 but it is badly mixed
 as to its oxidation and basic          
properties4 7,see also note #ai on sal  
artificiosus74  #bb ,lead ash 7,cinis   
,plumbi4 ,glossary1 ,pleyasch74--,this  
was obviously1 from the method of       
making1 an artificial lead sulphide4    
#bc ,ashes of lead 7,nigri plumbi       
cinis74 ,this1 as well as lead ash1 was 
also an artificial lead sulphide4 ,such 
substances were highly valued by the    
,ancients for medicinal purposes4       
,dioscorides 7,v1 #ef7 says3 ,burned    
lead 7,molybdos cecaumenos7 is made in  
this way3 ,sprinkle sulphur over some   

very thinnest lead plates and put them  
into a new earthen pot1 add other       
layers1 putting sulphur between each    
layer until the pot is full2 set it     
alight and stir the melted lead with an 
iron rod until it is entirely reduced to
 ashes and until none of the lead       
remains unburned4 ,then take it off1    
first stopping up your nose1 because the
 fumes of burnt lead are very injurious4
 ,or burn the lead filings in a pot with
 sulphur as aforesaid4 ,pliny 7,,xxxiv41
 #ej7 gives much the same directions4   
#bd ,camphor 7camphora74 ,this was no   
doubt the well-known gum4 ,agricola1    
however1 believed that camphor 7,de     
,nat4 ,fossilium1 p4 #bbd7 was a species
 of bitumen1 and he devotes considerable
 trouble to the refutation of the       
statements by the ,arabic authors that  
it was a gum4 ,in any event1 it would be
 a useful reducing agent4  #be ,inasmuch
 as orpiment and realgar are both       
arsenical sulphides1 the use of iron    
slag1 if it contains enough iron1 would 

certainly matte the sulphur and arsenic4
 ,sulphur and arsenic are the juices    
referred to 7see note #d1 p4 #a74 ,it is
 difficult to see the object of         
preserving the antimony with such a     
sulphurizing addition1 unless it was    
desired to secure a regulus of antimony 
alone from a given antimonial ore4  #bf 
,the lead free from silver1 called      
villacense1 was probably from ,bleyberg1
 not far from ,villach in ,upper        
,austria1 this locality having been for 
centuries celebrated for its pure lead4 
,these mines were worked prior to1 and  
long after1 ,agricola's time4  #bg ,this
 method of proportionate weights for    
assay charges is simpler than the modern
 ,english assay ton1 both because of the
 use of #ajj units in the standard of   
weight 7the centumpondium71 and because 
of the lack of complication between the 
,avoirdupois and ,troy scales4 ,for     
instance1 an ore containing a libra of  
silver to the centumpondium would       
contain #a_/ajjth part1 and the same    

ratio would obtain1 no matter what the  
actual weight of a centumpondium of the 
lesser weight might be4 ,to follow the  
matter still further1 an uncia being    
#a_/a1bjj of a centumpondium1 if the ore
 ran one uncia of the lesser weight to  
the centumpondium of the lesser weight1 
it would also run one actual uncia to   
the actual centumpondium2 it being a    
matter of indifference what might be the
 actual weight of the centumpondium upon
 which the scale of lesser weights is   
based4 ,in fact ,agricola's statement   
7p4 #bfa7 indicates that it weighed an  
actual drachma4 ,we have1 in some       
places1 interpolated the expressions    
lesser and greater weights for clarity4 
,this is not the first mention of this  
scheme of lesser weights1 as it appears 
in the ,probierbuechlein 7#aejj8 see    
,appendix ,b7 and ,biringuccio 7#aedj74 
,for a more complete discussion of      
weights and measures see ,appendix ,c4  
,for convenience1 we repeat here the    
,roman scale1 although1 as will be seen 

in the ,appendix1 ,agricola used the    
,latin terms in many places merely as   
nomenclature equivalents of the old     
,german scale4                          
,ozs4                                   
dwts4                                   
,troy                             gr4   
,grains4                per short ton4  
#a ,siliqua                             
#b4hg ,per ,centumpondium  #j   #c  #i  
#f ,siliquae    #a ,scripulum           
#ag4b                    #a   #j  #f    
#d ,scripula    #a ,sextula             
#fh4g                    #d   #a  #j    
#f ,sextulae    #a ,uncia               
#dab4b                   #bd   #f  #b   
#ab ,unciae      #a ,libra              
#didf4d                  #bia  #ac  #h  
#ajj ,librae      #a ,centumpondium     
#didfdj4j  ,however ,agricola may       
occasionally use     #af ,unciae      #a
 ,libra           #feib4j 787   #ajj    
,librae      #a ,centumpondium #feibjj4j
 787  ,also                             
,oz4                                    

dwts4                                   
gr4                                     
per short ton4   #a ,scripulum          
#ag4b ,per ,centumpondium  #a   #j   #f 
#c ,scripula      #a ,drachma           
#ea4e                    #c   #j  #ai   
#b ,drachmae      #a ,sicilicus         
#ajc4j                    #f   #a  #ae  
#d ,sicilici      #a ,uncia             
#dab4b                   #bd   #f  #ab  
#h ,unciae        #a ,bes               
#cbig4f                  #aid  #ab   #j 
#bh ,the amalgamation of gold ores is   
fully discussed in note #ab1 p4 #big4   
#bi ,for discussion of the silver ores1 
see note #h1 p4 #ajh4 ,rudis silver was 
a fairly pure silver mineral1 the       
various coloured silvers were partly    
horn-silver and partly alteration       
products4  #cj ,it is difficult to see  
why copper scales 7squamae aeris--copper
 oxide87 are added1 unless it be to     
collect a small ratio of copper in the  
ore4 ,this additional copper is not     
mentioned again1 however4 ,the whole of 

this statement is very confused4  #ca   
,this old story runs that ,hiero1 ,king 
of ,syracuse1 asked ,archimedes to tell 
him whether a crown made for him was    
pure gold or whether it contained some  
proportion of silver4 ,archimedes is    
said to have puzzled over it until he   
noticed the increase in water-level upon
 entering his bath4 ,whereupon he       
determined the matter by immersing bars 
of pure gold and pure silver1 and thus  
determining the relative specific       
weights4 ,the best ancient account of   
this affair is to be found in           
,vitruvius1 ,,ix1 ,preface4 ,the story  
does not seem very probable1 seeing that
 ,theophrastus1 who died the year       
,archimedes was born1 described the     
touchstone in detail1 and that it was of
 common knowledge among the ,greeks     
before 7see note #cg74 ,in any event1   
there is not sufficient evidence in this
 story on which to build the conclusion 
of ,meyer 7,hist4 of ,chemistry1 p4 #ad7
 and others1 that1 inasmuch as          

,archimedes was unable to solve the     
problem until his discovery of specific 
weights1 therefore the ,ancients could  
not part gold and silver4 ,the          
probability that he did not want to     
injure the ,king's jewellery would show 
sufficient reason for his not parting   
these metals4 ,it seems probable that   
the ,ancients did part gold and silver  
by cementation4 7,see note on p4 #deh74 
#cb ,the ,alchemists 7with whose works  
,agricola was familiar--vide preface7   
were the inventors of nitric acid       
separation4 7,see note on p4 #dfj74  #cc
 ,parting gold and silver by nitric acid
 is more exhaustively discussed in ,book
 ,x4 and note #aj1 p4 #ddc4  #cd ,the   
lesser weights1 probably4  #ce ,lead and
 ,tin seem badly mixed in this          
paragraph4  #cf ,it is not clear what is
 added4  #cg ,,historical ,,note ,,on   
,,touchstone4 7,coticula4               
,interpretatio1--,goldstein74           
,theophrastus is1 we believe1 the first 
to describe the touchstone1 although it 

was generally known to the ,greeks1 as  
is evidenced by the metaphors of many of
 the poets1--,pindar1 ,theognis1        
,euripides1 etc4 ,the general knowledge 
of the constituents of alloys which is  
implied1 raises the question as to      
whether the ,greeks did not know a great
 deal more about parting metals1 than   
has been attributed to them4            
,theophrastus says 7#gh-hj73 ,the nature
 of the stone which tries gold is also  
very wonderful1 as it seems to have the 
same power with fire2 which is also a   
test of that metal4 ,some people have   
for this reason questioned the truth of 
this power in the stone1 but their      
doubts are ill-founded1 for this trial  
is not of the same nature or made in the
 same manner as the other4 ,the trial by
 fire is by the colour and by the       
quantity lost by it2 but that by the    
stone is made only by rubbing the metal 
on it2 the stone seeming to have the    
power to receive separately the distinct
 particles of different metals4 ,it is  

said also that there is a much better   
kind of this stone now found out1 than  
that which was formerly used2 insomuch  
that it now serves not only for the     
trial of refined gold1 but also of      
copper or silver coloured with gold2 and
 shows how much of the adulterating     
matter by weight is mixed with gold2    
this has signs which it yields from the 
smallest weight of the adulterating     
matter1 which is a grain1 from thence a 
colybus1 and thence a quadrans or       
semi-obolus1 by which it is easy to     
distinguish if1 and in what degree1 that
 metal is adulterated4 ,all these stones
 are found in the ,river ,tmolus2 their 
texture is smooth and like that of      
pebbles2 their figure broad1 not round2 
and their bigness twice that of the     
common larger sort of pebbles4 ,in their
 use in the trial of metals there is a  
difference in power between their upper 
surface1 which has lain toward the sun1 
and their under1 which has been to the  
earth2 the upper performing its office  

the more nicely2 and this is consonant  
to reason1 as the upper part is dryer2  
for the humidity of the other surface   
hinders its receiving so well the       
particles of metals2 for the same reason
 also it does not perform its office as 
well in hot weather as in colder1 for in
 the hot it emits a kind of humidity out
 of its substance1 which runs all over  
it4 ,this hinders the metalline         
particles from adhering perfectly1 and  
makes mistakes in the trials4 ,this     
exudation of a humid matter is also     
common to many other stones1 among      
others1 to those of which statues are   
made2 and this has been looked on as    
peculiar to the statue4 7,based on      
,hill's trans47 ,this humid exudation of
 fine-grained stones in summer would not
 sound abnormal if it were called       
condensation4 ,pliny 7,,xxxiii1 #dc7    
says3 ,the mention of gold and silver   
should be accompanied by that of the    
stone called coticula4 ,formerly1       
according to ,theophrastus1 it was only 

to be found in the river ,tmolus but now
 found in many parts1 it was found in   
small pieces never over four inches long
 by two broad4 ,that side which lay     
toward the sun is better than that      
toward the ground4 ,those experienced   
with the coticula when they rub ore     
7vena7 with it1 can at once say how much
 gold it contains1 how much silver or   
copper4 ,this method is so accurate that
 they do not mistake it to a scruple4   
,this purported use for determining     
values of ore is of about ,pliny's      
average accuracy4 ,the first detailed   
account of touch-needles and their      
manner of making1 which we have been    
able to find1 is that of the            
,probierbuechlein 7#aebg8 see ,appendix7
 where many of the tables given by      
,agricola may be found4  #ch ,de ,natura
 ,fossilium 7p4 #bfg7 and ,de ,ortu et  
,causis ,subterraneorum 7p4 #ei74 ,the  
author does not add any material        
mineralogical information to the        
quotations from ,theophrastus and ,pliny

 given above4  #ci ,in these tables     
,agricola has simply adopted ,roman     
names as equivalents of the old ,german 
weights1 but as they did not always     
approximate in proportions1 he coined   
terms such as units of #d siliquae1 etc4
 ,it might seem more desirable to have  
introduced the ,german terms into this  
text1 but while it would apply in this  
instance1 as we have discussed on p4    
#bei1 the actual values of the ,roman   
weights are very different from the     
,german1 and as elsewhere in the book   
actual ,roman weights are applied1 we   
have considered it better to use the    
,latin terms consistently throughout4   
,further1 the obsolete ,german would be 
to most readers but little improvement  
upon the ,latin4 ,for convenience of    
readers we set out the various scales as
 used by ,agricola1 together with the   
,german3--              ,,roman ,,scale4
                   ,,old ,,german       
,,scale4    #f ,siliquae   #a ,scripulum
       #c ,grenlin  #a ,gran    #d      

,scripula   #a ,sextula         #d ,gran
     #a ,krat    #b ,sextulae   #a      
,duella         #bd ,kratt    #a ,mark  
#bd ,duellae    #a ,bes                 
or                                      
#bd ,grenlin  #a  ,nummus               
#ab ,nummi  #a ,mark  ,also the         
following scales are applied to fineness
 by ,agricola3--     #c ,scripula   #a  
,drachma       #d ,pfennige   #a        
,quintlein    #b ,drachmae   #a         
,sicilicus     #d ,quintlein  #a ,loth  
#b ,sicilici   #a ,semuncia     #af     
,loth       #a ,mark   #af ,semunciae   
#a ,bes  ,the term nummus1 a coin1 given
 above and in the text1 appears in the  
,german translation as pfennig as       
applied to both ,german scales1 but as  
they are of different values1 we have   
left ,agricola's adaptation in one scale
 to avoid confusion4 ,the ,latin terms  
adopted by ,agricola are given below1   
together with the ,german3--            
,number in one  ,value in   ,roman      
,term4               ,german ,term4     

,mark or ,bes4   ,siliquae4    ,siliqua 
#aaeb             #a    ,unit of #d     
,siliquae    ,grenlin                   
#bhh             #d                     
,pfennig                 #bef           
--    ,scripulum               ,scruple 
787             #aib             #f     
,semi-sextula            ,gran          
#if            #ab    ,drachma          
,quintlein                #fd           
#ah    ,sextula                 ,halb   
,krat                #dh            #bd 
,sicilicus               ,halb ,loth    
#cb            #cf    ,duella           
,krat                     #bd           
#dh    ,semuncia                ,loth   
#af            #gb    ,unit of #e       
,drachmae      ,nummus                  
#ab            #if      #a ,scripulum   
,uncia                   ,untzen        
#h           #add    ,bes               
,mark                      #a           
#aaeb  ,while the proportions in a bes  
or mark are the same in both scales1 the
 actual weight values are vastly        

different--for instance1 the mark       
contained about #cfji4f1 and the bes    
#cbig ,troy ,grains4 ,agricola also     
uses3    ,selibra          ,halb-pfundt 
,libra            ,pfundt               
,centumpondium    ,centner4  ,as the    
,roman libra contains #ab unciae and the
 ,german pfundt #af untzen1 the actual  
weights of these latter quantities are  
still further apart--the former #didf   
and the latter #gbai ,troy grains4  #dj 
,there are no tables in the ,latin text1
 the whole having been written out in   
extenso1 but they have now been arranged
 as above1 as being in a much more      
convenient and expressive form4  #da    
,see note #ci above4  #db ,see note #bg1
 p4 #bdb1 for discussion of this ,assay 
ton arrangement4  #dc ,agrippinenses and
 ,antuerpiani4     ,,book ,,viii4       
,questions of assaying were explained in
 the last ,book1 and ,i have now come to
 a greater task1 that is1 to the        
description of how we extract the       
metals4 ,first of all ,i will explain   

the method of preparing the ore#a2 for  
since ,nature usually creates metals in 
an impure state1 mixed with earth1      
stones1 and solidified juices1 it is    
necessary to separate most of these     
impurities from the ores as far as can  
be1 before they are smelted1 and        
therefore ,i will now describe the      
methods by which the ores are sorted1   
broken with hammers1 burnt1 crushed with
 stamps1 ground into powder1 sifted1    
washed1 roasted1 and calcined#b4  ,i    
will start at the beginning with the    
first sort of work4 ,experienced miners1
 when they dig the ore1 sort the        
metalliferous material from earth1      
stones1 and solidified juices before it 
is taken from the shafts and tunnels1   
and they put the valuable metal in trays
 and the waste into buckets4 ,but if    
some miner who is inexperienced in      
mining matters has omitted to do this1  
or even if some experienced miner1      
compelled by some unavoidable necessity1
 has been unable to do so1 as soon as   

the material which has been dug out has 
been removed from the mine1 all of it   
should be examined1 and that part of the
 ore which is rich in metal sorted from 
that part of it which is devoid of      
metal1 whether such part be earth1 or   
solidified juices1 or stones4 ,to smelt 
waste together with an ore involves a   
loss1 for some expenditure is thrown    
away1 seeing that out of earth and      
stones only empty and useless slags are 
melted out1 and further1 the solidified 
juices also impede the smelting of the  
metals and cause loss4 ,the rock which  
lies contiguous to rich ore should also 
be broken into small pieces1 crushed1   
and washed1 lest any of the mineral     
should be lost4 ,when1 either through   
ignorance or carelessness1 the miners   
while excavating have mixed the ore with
 earth or broken rock1 the work of      
sorting the crude metal or the best ore 
is done not only by men1 but also by    
boys and women4 ,they throw the mixed   
material upon a long table1 beside which

 they sit for almost the whole day1 and 
they sort out the ore2 when it has been 
sorted out1 they collect it in trays1   
and when collected they throw it into   
tubs1 which are carried to the works in 
which the ores are smelted4             
,illustration #bfh 7,sorting ,ore73     
,a--,long table4 ,b--,tray4 ,c--,tub4   
,illustration #bfi 7,cutting ,metal73   
,a--,masses of metal4 ,b--,hammer4      
,c--,chisel4 ,d--,tree stumps4 ,e--,iron
 tool similar to a pair of shears4  ,the
 metal which is dug out in a pure or    
crude state1 to which class belong      
native silver1 silver glance1 and gray  
silver1 is placed on a stone by the mine
 foreman and flattened out by pounding  
with heavy square hammers4 ,these       
masses1 when they have been thus        
flattened out like plates1 are placed   
either on the stump of a tree1 and cut  
into pieces by pounding an iron chisel  
into them with a hammer1 or else they   
are cut with an iron tool similar to a  
pair of shears4 ,one blade of these     

shears is three feet long1 and is firmly
 fixed in a stump1 and the other blade  
which cuts the metal is six feet long4  
,these pieces of metal are afterward    
heated in iron basins and smelted in the
 cupellation furnace by the smelters4   
,illustration #bgj 7,spalling ,ore73    
,a--,tables4 ,b--,upright planks4       
,c--,hammer4 ,d--,quadrangular hammer4  
,e--,deeper vessel4 ,f--,shallower      
vessel4 ,g--,iron rod4  ,although the   
miners1 in the shafts or tunnels1 have  
sorted over the material which they     
mine1 still the ore which has been      
broken down and carried out must be     
broken into pieces by a hammer or       
minutely crushed1 so that the more      
valuable and better parts can be        
distinguished from the inferior and     
worthless portions4 ,this is of the     
greatest importance in smelting ore1 for
 if the ore is smelted without this     
separation1 the valuable part frequently
 receives great damage before the       
worthless part melts in the fire1 or    

else the one consumes the other2 this   
latter difficulty can1 however1 be      
partly avoided by the exercise of care  
and partly by the use of fluxes4 ,now1  
if a vein is of poor quality1 the better
 portions which have been broken down   
and carried out should be thrown        
together in one place1 and the inferior 
portion and the rock thrown away4 ,the  
sorters place a hard broad stone on a   
table2 the tables are generally four    
feet square and made of joined planks1  
and to the edge of the sides and back   
are fixed upright planks1 which rise    
about a foot from the table2 the front1 
where the sorter sits1 is left open4    
,the lumps of ore1 rich in gold or      
silver1 are put by the sorters on the   
stone and broken up with a broad1 but   
not thick1 hammer2 they either break    
them into pieces and throw them into one
 vessel1 or they break and sort--whence 
they get their name--the more precious  
from the worthless1 throwing and        
collecting them separately into         

different vessels4 ,other men crush the 
lumps of ore less rich in gold or       
silver1 which have likewise been put on 
the stone1 with a broad thick hammer1   
and when it has been well crushed1 they 
collect it and throw it into one vessel4
 ,there are two kinds of vessels2 one is
 deeper1 and a little wider in the      
centre than at the top or bottom2 the   
other is not so deep though it is       
broader at the bottom1 and becomes      
gradually a little narrower toward the  
top4 ,the latter vessel is covered with 
a lid1 while the former is not covered2 
an iron rod through the handles1 bent   
over on either end1 is grasped in the   
hand when the vessel is carried4 ,but1  
above all1 it behooves the sorters to be
 assiduous in their labours4            
,illustration #bga 7,spalling ,ore73    
,a--,pyrites4 ,b--,leggings4            
,c--,gloves4 ,d--,hammer4  ,by another  
method of breaking ore with hammers1    
large hard fragments of ore are broken  
before they are burned4 ,the legs of the

 workmen--at all events of those who    
crush pyrites in this manner with large 
hammers in ,goslar--are protected with  
coverings resembling leggings1 and their
 hands are protected with long gloves1  
to prevent them from being injured by   
the chips which fly away from the       
fragments4  ,illustration #bgb          
7,spalling ,ore73 ,a--,area paved with  
stones4 ,b--,broken ore4 ,c--,area      
covered with broken ore4 ,d--,iron tool4
 ,e--,its handle4 ,f--,broom4 ,g--,short
 strake4 ,h--,wooden hoe4  ,in that     
district of ,greater ,germany which is  
called ,westphalia and in that district 
of ,lower ,germany which is named       
,eifel1 the broken ore which has been   
burned1 is thrown by the workmen into a 
round area paved with the hardest       
stones1 and the fragments are pounded up
 with iron tools1 which are very much   
like hammers in shape and are used like 
threshing sledges4 ,this tool is a foot 
long1 a palm wide1 and a digit thick1   
and has an opening in the middle just as

 hammers have1 in which is fixed a      
wooden handle of no great thickness1 but
 up to three and a half feet long1 in   
order that the workmen can pound the ore
 with greater force by reason of its    
weight falling from a greater height4   
,they strike and pound with the broad   
side of the tool1 in the same way as    
corn is pounded out on a threshing floor
 with the threshing sledges1 although   
the latter are made of wood and are     
smooth and fixed to poles4 ,when the ore
 has been broken into small pieces1 they
 sweep it together with brooms and      
remove it to the works1 where it is     
washed in a short strake1 at the head of
 which stands the washer1 who draws the 
water upward with a wooden hoe4 ,the    
water running down again1 carries all   
the light particles into a trough placed
 underneath4 ,i shall deal more fully   
with this method of washing a little    
later4  ,ore is burned for two reasons2 
either that from being hard1 it may     
become soft and more easily broken and  

more readily crushed with a hammer or   
stamps1 and then can be smelted2 or that
 the fatty things1 that is to say1      
sulphur1 bitumen1 orpiment1 or realgar#c
 may be consumed4 ,sulphur is frequently
 found in metallic ores1 and1 generally 
speaking1 is more harmful to the metals1
 except gold1 than are the other things4
 ,it is most harmful of all to iron1 and
 less to tin than to bismuth1 lead1     
silver1 or copper4 ,since very rarely   
gold is found in which there is not some
 silver1 even gold ores containing      
sulphur ought to be roasted before they 
are smelted1 because1 in a very vigorous
 furnace fire1 sulphur resolves metal   
into ashes and makes slag of it4        
,bitumen acts in the same way1 in fact  
sometimes it consumes silver1 which we  
may see in bituminous cadmia#d4         
,illustration #bgd 7,stall ,roasting    
,ore73 ,a--,area4 ,b--,wood4 ,c--,ore4  
,d--,cone-shaped piles4 ,e--,canal4  ,i 
now come to the methods of roasting1 and
 first of all to that one which is      

common to all ores4 ,the earth is dug   
out to the required extent1 and thus is 
made a quadrangular area of fair size1  
open at the front1 and above this1      
firewood is laid close together1 and on 
it other wood is laid transversely1     
likewise close together1 for which      
reason our countrymen call this pile of 
wood a crate2 this is repeated until the
 pile attains a height of one or two    
cubits4 ,then there is placed upon it a 
quantity of ore that has been broken    
into small pieces with a hammer2 first  
the largest of these pieces1 next those 
of medium size1 and lastly the smallest1
 and thus is built up a gently sloping  
cone4 ,to prevent it from becoming      
scattered1 fine sand of the same ore is 
soaked with water and smeared over it   
and beaten on with shovels2 some        
workers1 if they cannot obtain such fine
 sand1 cover the pile with              
charcoal-dust1 just as do               
charcoal-burners4 ,but at ,goslar1 the  
pile1 when it has been built up in the  

form of a cone1 is smeared with         
atramentum sutorium rubrum#e1 which is  
made by the leaching of roasted pyrites 
soaked with water4 ,in some districts   
the ore is roasted once1 in others      
twice1 in others three times1 as its    
hardness may require4 ,at ,goslar1 when 
pyrites is roasted for the third time1  
that which is placed on the top of the  
pyre exudes a certain greenish1 dry1    
rough1 thin substance1 as ,i have       
elsewhere written#f2 this is no more    
easily burned by the fire than is       
asbestos4 ,very often also1 water is put
 on to the ore which has been roasted1  
while it is still hot1 in order to make 
it softer and more easily broken2 for   
after fire has dried up the moisture in 
the ore1 it breaks up more easily while 
it is still hot1 of which fact burnt    
limestone affords the best example4     
,illustration #bge 7,heap ,roasting     
,ore73 ,a--,lighted pyre4 ,b--,pyre     
which is being constructed4 ,c--,ore4   
,d--,wood4 ,e--,pile of the same wood4  

,by digging out the earth they make the 
areas much larger1 and square2 walls    
should be built along the sides and back
 to hold the heat of the fire more      
effectively1 and the front should be    
left open4 ,in these compartments tin   
ore is roasted in the following manner4 
,first of all wood about twelve feet    
long should be laid in the area in four 
layers1 alternately straight and        
transverse4 ,then the larger pieces of  
ore should be laid upon them1 and on    
these again the smaller ones1 which     
should also be placed around the sides2 
the fine sand of the same ore should    
also be spread over the pile and pounded
 with shovels1 to prevent the pile from 
falling before it has been roasted2 the 
wood should then be fired4              
,illustration #bgf 7,stall ,roasting    
,ore73 ,a--,burning pyre which is       
composed of lead ore with wood placed   
above it4 ,b--,workman throwing ore into
 another area4 ,c--,oven-shaped furnace4
 ,d--,openings through which the smoke  

escapes4  ,lead ore1 if roasting is     
necessary1 should be piled in an area   
just like the last1 but sloping1 and the
 wood should be placed over it4 ,a tree 
trunk should be laid right across the   
front of the ore to prevent it from     
falling out4 ,the ore1 being roasted in 
this way1 becomes partly melted and     
resembles slag4 ,thuringian pyrites1 in 
which there is gold1 sulphur1 and       
vitriol1 after the last particle of     
vitriol has been obtained by heating it 
in water1 is thrown into a furnace1 in  
which logs are placed4 ,this furnace is 
very similar to an oven in shape1 in    
order that when the ore is roasted the  
valuable contents may not fly away with 
the smoke1 but may adhere to the roof of
 the furnace4 ,in this way sulphur very 
often hangs like icicles from the two   
openings of the roof through which the  
smoke escapes4  ,illustration #bgg      
7,hearths for roasting73 ,a--,iron      
plates full of holes4 ,b--,walls4       
,c--,plate on which ore is placed4      

,d--,burning charcoal placed on the ore4
 ,e--,pots4 ,f--,furnace4 ,g--,middle   
part of upper chamber4 ,h--,the other   
two compartments4 ,i--,divisions of the 
lower chamber4 ,k--,middle wall4        
,l--,pots which are filled with ore4    
,m--,lids of same pots4 ,n--,grating4   
,if pyrites or cadmia1 or any other ore 
containing metal1 possesses a good deal 
of sulphur or bitumen1 it should be so  
roasted that neither is lost4 ,for this 
purpose it is thrown on an iron plate   
full of holes1 and roasted with charcoal
 placed on top2 three walls support this
 plate1 two on the sides and the third  
at the back4 ,beneath the plate are     
placed pots containing water1 into which
 the sulphurous or bituminous vapour    
descends1 and in the water the fat      
accumulates and floats on the top4 ,if  
it is sulphur1 it is generally of a     
yellow colour2 if bitumen1 it is black  
like pitch4 ,if these were not drawn out
 they would do much harm to the metal1  
when the ore is being smelted4 ,when    

they have thus been separated they prove
 of some service to man1 especially the 
sulphurous kind4 ,from the vapour which 
is carried down1 not into the water1 but
 into the ground1 there is created a    
sulphurous or a bituminous substance    
resembling pompholyx#g1 and so light    
that it can be blown away with a breath4
 ,some employ a vaulted furnace1 open at
 the front and divided into two         
chambers4 ,a wall built in the middle of
 the furnace divides the lower chamber  
into two equal parts1 in which are set  
pots containing water1 as above         
described4 ,the upper chamber is again  
divided into three parts1 the middle one
 of which is always open1 for in it the 
wood is placed1 and it is not broader   
than the middle wall1 of which it forms 
the topmost portion4 ,the other two     
compartments have iron doors which are  
closed1 and which1 together with the    
roof1 keep in the heat when the wood is 
lighted4 ,in these upper compartments   
are iron bars which take the place of a 

floor1 and on these are arranged pots   
without bottoms1 having in place of a   
bottom1 a grating made of iron wire1    
fixed to each1 through the openings of  
which the sulphurous or bituminous      
vapours roasted from the ore run into   
the lower pots4 ,each of the upper pots 
holds a hundred pounds of ore2 when they
 are filled they are covered with lids  
and smeared with lute4  ,illustration   
#bgh 7,heap ,roasting73 ,a--,heap of    
cupriferous stones4 ,b--,kindled heap4  
,c--,stones being taken to the beds of  
faggots4  ,in ,eisleben and the         
neighbourhood1 when they roast the      
schistose stone from which copper is    
smelted1 and which is not free from     
bitumen1 they do not use piles of logs1 
but bundles of faggots4 ,at one time1   
they used to pile this kind of stone1   
when extracted from the pit1 on bundles 
of faggots and roast it by firing the   
faggots2 nowadays1 they first of all    
carry these same stones to a heap1 where
 they are left to lie for some time in  

such a way as to allow the air and rain 
to soften them4 ,then they make a bed of
 faggot bundles near the heap1 and carry
 the nearest stones to this bed2        
afterward they again place bundles of   
faggots in the empty place from which   
the first stones have been removed1 and 
pile over this extended bed1 the stones 
which lay nearest to the first lot2 and 
they do this right up to the end1 until 
all the stones have been piled          
mound-shape on a bed of faggots4        
,finally they fire the faggots1 not1    
however1 on the side where the wind is  
blowing1 but on the opposite side1 lest 
the fire blown up by the force of the   
wind should consume the faggots before  
the stones are roasted and made soft2 by
 this method the stones which are       
adjacent to the faggots take fire and   
communicate it to the next ones1 and    
these again to the adjoining ones1 and  
in this way the heap very often burns   
continuously for thirty days or more4   
,this schist rock when rich in copper1  

as ,i have said elsewhere1 exudes a     
substance of a nature similar to        
asbestos4  ,illustration #bhd           
7,stamp-mill73 ,a--,mortar4 ,b--,upright
 posts4 ,c--,cross-beams4 ,d--,stamps4  
,e--,their heads4 ,f--,axle 7cam-shaft74
 ,g--,tooth of the stamp 7tappet74      
,h--,teeth of axle 7cams74  ,ore is     
crushed with iron-shod stamps1 in order 
that the metal may be separated from the
 stone and the hangingwall rock4#h ,the 
machines which miners use for this      
purpose are of four kinds1 and are made 
by the following method4 ,a block of oak
 timber six feet long1 two feet and a   
palm square1 is laid on the ground4 ,in 
the middle of this is fixed a           
mortar-box1 two feet and six digits     
long1 one foot and six digits deep2 the 
front1 which might be called a mouth1   
lies open2 the bottom is covered with a 
plate of iron1 a palm thick and two     
palms and as many digits wide1 each end 
of which is wedged into the timber with 
broad wedges1 and the front and back    

part of it are fixed to the timber with 
iron nails4 ,to the sides of the mortar 
above the block are fixed two upright   
posts1 whose upper ends are somewhat cut
 back and are mortised to the timbers of
 the building4 ,two and a half feet     
above the mortar are placed two         
cross-beams joined together1 one in     
front and one in the back1 the ends of  
which are mortised into the upright     
posts already mentioned4 ,through each  
mortise is bored a hole1 into which is  
driven an iron clavis2 one end of the   
clavis has two horns1 and the other end 
is perforated in order that a wedge     
driven through1 binds the beams more    
firmly2 one horn of the clavis turns up 
and the other down4 ,three and a half   
feet above the cross-beams1 two other   
cross-beams of the same kind are again  
joined in a similar manner2 these       
cross-beams have square openings1 in    
which the iron-shod stamps are inserted4
 ,the stamps are not far distant from   
each other1 and fit closely in the      

cross-beams4 ,each stamp has a tappet at
 the back1 which requires to be daubed  
with grease on the lower side that it   
can be raised more easily4 ,for each    
stamp there are on a cam-shaft1 two     
cams1 rounded on the outer end1 which   
alternately raise the stamp1 in order   
that1 by its dropping into the mortar1  
it may with its iron head pound and     
crush the rock which has been thrown    
under it4 ,to the cam-shaft is fixed a  
water-wheel whose buckets are turned by 
water-power4 ,instead of doors1 the     
mouth of the mortar has a board1 which  
is fitted into notches cut out of the   
front of the block4 ,this board can be  
raised1 in order that when the mouth is 
open1 the workmen can remove with a     
shovel the fine sand1 and likewise the  
coarse sand and broken rock1 into which 
the rocks have been crushed2 this board 
can be lowered1 so that the mouth thus  
being closed1 the fresh rock thrown in  
may be crushed with the iron-shod       
stamps4 ,if an oak block is not         

available1 two timbers are placed on the
 ground and joined together with iron   
clamps1 each of the timbers being six   
feet long1 a foot wide1 and a foot and a
 half thick4 ,such depth as should be   
allowed to the mortar1 is obtained by   
cutting out the first beam to a width of
 three-quarters of a foot and to a      
length of two and a third and one       
twenty-fourth of a foot4 ,in the bottom 
of the part thus dug out1 there should  
be laid a very hard rock1 a foot thick  
and three-quarters of a foot wide2 about
 it1 if any space remains1 earth or sand
 should be filled in and pounded4 ,on   
the front1 this bed rock is covered with
 a plank2 this rock when it has been    
broken1 should be taken away and        
replaced by another4 ,a smaller mortar  
having room for only three stamps may   
also be made in the same manner4        
,illustration #bhe 7,stamps73           
,a--,stamp4 ,b--,stem cut out in lower  
part4 ,c--,shoe4 ,d--,the other shoe1   
barbed and grooved4 ,e--,quadrangular   

iron band4 ,f--,wedge4 ,g--,tappet4     
,h--,angular cam-shaft4 ,i--,cams4      
,k--,pair of compasses4  ,the           
stamp-stems are made of small square    
timbers nine feet long and half a foot  
wide each way4 ,the iron head of each is
 made in the following way2 the lower   
part of the head is three palms long and
 the upper part the same length4 ,the   
lower part is a palm square in the      
middle for two palms1 then below this1  
for a length of two digits it gradually 
spreads until it becomes five digits    
square2 above the middle part1 for a    
length of two digits1 it again gradually
 swells out until it becomes a palm and 
a half square4 ,higher up1 where the    
head of the shoe is enclosed in the     
stem1 it is bored through and similarly 
the stem itself is pierced1 and through 
the opening of each1 there passes a     
broad iron wedge1 which prevents the    
head falling off the stem4 ,to prevent  
the stamp head from becoming broken by  
the constant striking of fragments of   

ore or rocks1 there is placed around it 
a quadrangular iron band a digit thick1 
seven digits wide1 and six digits deep4 
,those who use three stamps1 as is      
common1 make them much larger1 and they 
are made square and three palms broad   
each way2 then the iron shoe of each has
 a total length of two feet and a palm2 
at the lower end1 it is hexagonal1 and  
at that point it is seven digits wide   
and thick4 ,the lower part of it which  
projects beyond the stem is one foot and
 two palms long2 the upper part1 which  
is enclosed in the stem1 is three palms 
long2 the lower part is a palm wide and 
thick2 then gradually the upper part    
becomes narrower and thinner1 so that at
 the top it is three digits and a half  
wide and two thick4 ,it is bored through
 at the place where the angles have been
 somewhat cut away2 the hole is three   
digits long and one wide1 and is one    
digit's distance from the top4 ,there   
are some who make that part of the head 
which is enclosed in the stem1 barbed   

and grooved1 in order that when the     
hooks have been fixed into the stem and 
wedges fitted to the grooves1 it may    
remain tightly fixed1 especially when it
 is also held with two quadrangular iron
 bands4 ,some divide the cam-shaft with 
a compass into six sides1 others into   
nine2 it is better for it to be divided 
into twelve sides1 in order that        
successively one side may contain a cam 
and the next be without one4            
,illustration #bhf 7,stamp-mill73       
,a--,box4 ,although the upper part is   
not open1 it is shown open here1 that   
the wheel may be seen4 ,b--,wheel4      
,c--,cam-shaft4 ,d--,stamps4  ,the      
water-wheel is entirely enclosed under a
 quadrangular box1 in case either the   
deep snows or ice in winter1 or storms1 
may impede its running and its turning  
around4 ,the joints in the planks are   
stopped all around with moss4 ,the      
cover1 however1 has one opening1 through
 which there passes a race bringing down
 water which1 dropping on the buckets of

 the wheel1 turns it round1 and flows   
out again in the lower race under the   
box4 ,the spokes of the water-wheel are 
not infrequently mortised into the      
middle of the cam-shaft2 in this case   
the cams on both sides raise the stamps1
 which either both crush dry or wet ore1
 or else the one set crushes dry ore and
 the other set wet ore1 just as         
circumstances require the one or the    
other2 further1 when the one set is     
raised and the iron clavises in them are
 fixed into openings in the first       
cross-beam1 the other set alone crushes 
the ore4  ,illustration #bhg 7,handling 
stamped material73 ,a--,box laid flat on
 the ground4 ,b--,its bottom which is   
made of iron wire4 ,c--,box inverted4   
,d--,iron rods4 ,e--,box suspended from 
a beam1 the inside being visible4       
,f--,box suspended from a beam1 the     
outside being visible4  ,broken rock or 
stones1 or the coarse or fine sand1 are 
removed from the mortar of this machine 
and heaped up1 as is also done with the 

same materials when raked out of the    
dump near the mine4 ,they are thrown by 
a workman into a box1 which is open on  
the top and the front1 and is three feet
 long and nearly a foot and a half wide4
 ,its sides are sloping and made of     
planks1 but its bottom is made of iron  
wire netting1 and fastened with wire to 
two iron rods1 which are fixed to the   
two side planks4 ,this bottom has       
openings1 through which broken rock of  
the size of a hazel nut cannot pass2 the
 pieces which are too large to pass     
through are removed by the workman1 who 
again places them under stamps1 while   
those which have passed through1        
together with the coarse and fine sand1 
he collects in a large vessel and keeps 
for the washing4 ,when he is performing 
his laborious task he suspends the box  
from a beam by two ropes4 ,this box may 
rightly be called a quadrangular sieve1 
as may also that kind which follows4    
,illustration #bhh 7,sifting ,ore73     
,a--,sieve4 ,b--,small planks4          

,c--,post4 ,d--,bottom of sieve4        
,e--,open box4 ,f--,small cross-beam4   
,g--,upright posts4  ,some employ a     
sieve shaped like a wooden bucket1 bound
 with two iron hoops2 its bottom1 like  
that of the box1 is made of iron wire   
netting4 ,they place this on two small  
cross-planks fixed upon a post set in   
the ground4 ,some do not fix the post in
 the ground1 but stand it on the ground 
until there arises a heap of the        
material which has passed through the   
sieve1 and in this the post is fixed4   
,with an iron shovel the workman throws 
into this sieve broken rock1 small      
stones1 coarse and fine sand raked out  
of the dump2 holding the handles of the 
sieve in his hands1 he agitates it up   
and down in order that by this movement 
the dust1 fine and coarse sand1 small   
stones1 and fine broken rock may fall   
through the bottom4 ,others do not use a
 sieve1 but an open box1 whose bottom is
 likewise covered with wire netting2    
this they fix on a small cross-beam     

fastened to two upright beams and tilt  
it backward and forward4  ,illustration 
#bhi 7,sifting ,ore73 ,a--,box4         
,b--,bale4 ,c--,rope4 ,d--,beam4        
,e--,handles4 ,f--,five-toothed rake4   
,g--,sieve4 ,h--,its handles4 ,i--,pole4
 ,k--,rope4 ,l--,timber4  ,some use a   
sieve made of copper1 having square     
copper handles on both sides1 and       
through these handles runs a pole1 of   
which one end projects three-quarters of
 a foot beyond one handle2 the workman  
then places that end in a rope which is 
suspended from a beam1 and rapidly      
shakes the pole alternately backward and
 forward4 ,by this movement the small   
particles fall through the bottom of the
 sieve4 ,in order that the end of the   
pole may be easily placed in the rope1 a
 stick1 two palms long1 holds open the  
lower part of the rope as it hangs      
double1 each end of the rope being tied 
to the beam2 part of the rope1 however1 
hangs beyond the stick to a length of   
half a foot4 ,a large box is also used  

for this purpose1 of which the bottom is
 either made of a plank full of holes or
 of iron netting1 as are the other      
boxes4 ,an iron bale is fastened from   
the middle of the planks which form its 
sides2 to this bale is fastened a rope  
which is suspended from a wooden beam1  
in order that the box may be moved or   
tilted in any direction4 ,there are two 
handles on each end1 not unlike the     
handles of a wheelbarrow2 these are held
 by two workmen1 who shake the box to   
and fro4 ,this box is the one           
principally used by the ,germans who    
dwell in the ,carpathian mountains4 ,the
 smaller particles are separated from   
the larger ones by means of three boxes 
and two sieves1 in order that those     
which pass through each1 being of equal 
size1 may be washed together2 for the   
bottoms of both the boxes and sieves    
have openings which do not let through  
broken rock of the size of a hazel nut4 
,as for the dry remnants in the bottoms 
of the sieves1 if they contain any metal

 the miners put them under the stamps4  
,the larger pieces of broken rock are   
not separated from the smaller by this  
method until the men and boys1 with     
five-toothed rakes1 have separated them 
from the rock fragments1 the little     
stones1 the coarse and the fine sand and
 earth1 which have been thrown on to the
 dumps4  ,illustration #bia 7,sifting   
,ore73 ,a--,workman carrying broken rock
 in a barrow4 ,b--,first chute4         
,c--,first box4 ,d--,its handles4       
,e--,its bales4 ,f--,rope4 ,g--,beam4   
,h--,post4 ,i--,second chute4           
,k--,second box4 ,l--,third chute4      
,m--,third box4 ,n--,first table4       
,o--,first sieve4 ,p--,first tub4       
,q--,second table4 ,r--,second sieve4   
,s--,second tub4 ,t--,third table4      
,v--,third sieve4 ,x--,third tub4       
,y--,plugs4  ,at ,neusohl1 in the       
,carpathians1 there are mines where the 
veins of copper lie in the ridges and   
peaks of the mountains1 and in order to 
save expense being incurred by a long   

and difficult transport1 along a rough  
and sometimes very precipitous road1 one
 workman sorts over the dumps which have
 been thrown out from the mines1 and    
another carries in a wheelbarrow the    
earth1 fine and coarse sand1 little     
stones1 broken rock1 and even the poorer
 ore1 and overturns the barrow into a   
long open chute fixed to a steep rock4  
,this chute is held apart by small      
cleats1 and the material slides down a  
distance of about one hundred and fifty 
feet into a short box1 whose bottom is  
made of a thick copper plate1 full of   
holes4 ,this box has two handles by     
which it is shaken to and fro1 and at   
the top there are two bales made of     
hazel sticks1 in which is fixed the iron
 hook of a rope hung from the branch of 
a tree or from a wooden beam which      
projects from an upright post4 ,from    
time to time a sifter pulls this box and
 thrusts it violently against the tree  
or post1 by which means the small       
particles passing through its holes     

descend down another chute into another 
short box1 in whose bottom there are    
smaller holes4 ,a second sifter1 in like
 manner1 thrusts this box violently     
against a tree or post1 and a second    
time the smaller particles are received 
into a third chute1 and slide down into 
a third box1 whose bottom has still     
smaller holes4 ,a third sifter1 in like 
manner1 thrusts this box violently      
against a tree or post1 and for the     
third time the tiny particles fall      
through the holes upon a table4 ,while  
the workman is bringing in the barrow1  
another load which has been sorted from 
the dump1 each sifter withdraws the     
hooks from his bale and carries away his
 own box and overturns it1 heaping up   
the broken rock or sand which remains in
 the bottom of it4 ,as for the tiny     
particles which have slid down upon the 
table1 the first washer--for there are  
as many washers as sifters--sweeps them 
off and in a tub nearly full of water1  
washes them through a sieve whose holes 

are smaller than the holes of the third 
box4 ,when this tub has been filled with
 the material which has passed through  
the sieve1 he draws out the plug to let 
the water run away2 then he removes with
 a shovel that which has settled in the 
tub and throws it upon the table of a   
second washer1 who washes it in a sieve 
with smaller holes4 ,the sediment which 
has this time settled in his tub1 he    
takes out and throws on the table of a  
third washer1 who washes it in a sieve  
with the smallest holes4 ,the copper    
concentrates which have settled in the  
last tub are taken out and smelted2 the 
sediment which each washer has removed  
with a limp is washed on a canvas       
strake4 ,the sifters at ,altenberg1 in  
the tin mines of the mountains bordering
 on ,bohemia1 use such boxes as ,i have 
described1 hung from wooden beams4      
,these1 however1 are a little larger and
 open in the front1 through which       
opening the broken rock which has not   
gone through the sieve can be shaken out

 immediately by thrusting the sieve     
against its post4  ,illustration #bib   
7,sifting ,ore73 ,a--,sieve4 ,b--,its   
handles4 ,c--,tub4 ,d--,bottom of sieve 
made of iron wires4 ,e--,hoop4          
,f--,rods4 ,g--,hoops4 ,h--,woman       
shaking the sieve4 ,i--,boy supplying it
 with material which requires washing4  
,k--,man with shovel removing from the  
tub the material which has passed       
through the sieve4  ,if the ore is rich 
in metal1 the earth1 the fine and coarse
 sand1 and the pieces of rock which have
 been broken from the hangingwall1 are  
dug out of the dump with a spade or rake
 and1 with a shovel1 are thrown into a  
large sieve or basket1 and washed in a  
tub nearly full of water4 ,the sieve is 
generally a cubit broad and half a foot 
deep2 its bottom has holes of such size 
that the larger pieces of broken rock   
cannot pass through them1 for this      
material rests upon the straight and    
cross iron wires1 which at their points 
of contact are bound by small iron      

clips4 ,the sieve is held together by an
 iron band and by two cross-rods        
likewise of iron2 the rest of the sieve 
is made of staves in the shape of a     
little tub1 and is bound with two iron  
hoops2 some1 however1 bind it with hoops
 of hazel or oak1 but in that case they 
use three of them4 ,on each side it has 
handles1 which are held in the hands by 
whoever washes the metalliferous        
material4 ,into this sieve a boy throws 
the material to be washed1 and a woman  
shakes it up and down1 turning it       
alternately to the right and to the     
left1 and in this way passes through it 
the smaller pieces of earth1 sand1 and  
broken rock4 ,the larger pieces remain  
in the sieve1 and these are taken out1  
placed in a heap and put under the      
stamps4 ,the mud1 together with fine    
sand1 coarse sand1 and broken rock1     
which remain after the water has been   
drawn out of the tub1 is removed by an  
iron shovel and washed in the sluice1   
about which ,i will speak a little      

later4  ,illustration #bic 7,sifting    
,ore73 ,a--,basket4 ,b--,its handles4   
,c--,dish4 ,d--,its back part4 ,e--,its 
front part4 ,f--,handles of same4  ,the 
,bohemians use a basket a foot and a    
half broad and half a foot deep1 bound  
together by osiers4 ,it has two handles 
by which it is grasped1 when they move  
it about and shake it in the tub or in a
 small pool nearly full of water4 ,all  
that passes through it into the tub or  
pool they take out and wash in a bowl1  
which is higher in the back part and    
lower and flat in the front2 it is      
grasped by the two handles and shaken in
 the water1 the lighter particles       
flowing away1 and the heavier and       
mineral portion sinking to the bottom4  
,illustration #bid 7,mills for ,grinding
 ,ore73 ,a--,axle4 ,b--,water-wheel4    
,c--,toothed drum4 ,d--,drum made of    
rundles4 ,e--,iron axle4 ,f--,millstone4
 ,g--,hopper4 ,h--,round wooden plate4  
,i--,trough4  ,gold ore1 after being    
broken with hammers or crushed by the   

stamps1 and even tin ore1 is further    
milled to powder4 ,the upper millstone1 
which is turned by water-power1 is made 
in the following way4 ,an axle is       
rounded to compass measure1 or is made  
angular1 and its iron pinions turn in   
iron sockets which are held in beams4   
,the axle is turned by a water-wheel1   
the buckets of which are fixed to the   
rim and are struck by the force of a    
stream4 ,into the axle is mortised a    
toothed drum1 whose teeth are fixed in  
the side of the rim4 ,these teeth turn a
 second drum of rundles1 which are made 
of very hard material4 ,this drum       
surrounds an iron axle which has a      
pinion at the bottom and revolves in an 
iron cup in a timber4 ,at the top of the
 iron axle is an iron tongue1           
dove-tailed into the millstone1 and so  
when the teeth of the one drum turn the 
rundles of the other1 the millstone is  
made to turn round4 ,an overhanging     
machine supplies it with ore through a  
hopper1 and the ore1 being ground to    

powder1 is discharged from a round      
wooden plate into a trough and flowing  
away through it accumulates on the      
floor2 from there the ore is carried    
away and reserved for washing4 ,since   
this method of grinding requires the    
millstone to be now raised and now      
lowered1 the timber in whose socket the 
iron of the pinion axle revolves1 rests 
upon two beams1 which can be raised and 
lowered4  ,illustration #bif 7,mills for
 ,grinding ,ore73 ,a--,first mill4      
,b--,wheel turned by goats4 ,c--,second 
mill4 ,d--,disc of upright axle4        
,e--,its toothed drum4 ,f--,third mill4 
,g--,shape of lower millstone4          
,h--,small upright axle of the same4    
,i--,its opening4 ,k--,lever of the     
upper millstone4 ,l--,its opening4      
,there are three mills in use in milling
 gold ores1 especially for quartz#aa    
which is not lacking in metal4 ,they are
 not all turned by water-power1 but some
 by the strength of men1 and two of them
 even by the power of beasts of burden4 

,the first revolving one differs from   
the next only in its driving wheel1     
which is closed in and turned by men    
treading it1 or by horses1 which are    
placed inside1 or by asses1 or even by  
strong goats2 the eyes of these beasts  
are covered by linen bands4 ,the second 
mill1 both when pushed and turned round1
 differs from the two above by having an
 upright axle in the place of the       
horizontal one2 this axle has at its    
lower end a disc1 which two workmen turn
 by treading back its cleats with their 
feet1 though frequently one man sustains
 all the labour2 or sometimes there     
projects from the axle a pole which is  
turned by a horse or an ass1 for which  
reason it is called an asinaria4 ,the   
toothed drum which is at the upper end  
of the axle turns the drum which is made
 of rundles1 and together with it the   
millstone4  ,the third mill is turned   
round and round1 and not pushed by hand2
 but between this and the others there  
is a great distinction1 for the lower   

millstone is so shaped at the top that  
it can hold within it the upper         
millstone1 which revolves around an iron
 axle2 this axle is fastened in the     
centre of the lower stone and passes    
through the upper stone4 ,a workman1 by 
grasping in his hand an upright iron bar
 placed in the upper millstone1 moves it
 round4 ,the middle of the upper        
millstone is bored through1 and the ore1
 being thrown into this opening1 falls  
down upon the lower millstone and is    
there ground to powder1 which gradually 
runs out through its opening2 it is     
washed by various methods before it is  
mixed with quicksilver1 which ,i will   
explain presently4  ,illustration #bii  
7,stamp-mill73 ,a--,water-wheel4        
,b--,axle4 ,c--,stamp4 ,d--,hopper in   
the upper millstone4 ,e--,opening       
passing through the centre4 ,f--,lower  
millstone4 ,g--,its round depression4   
,h--,its outlet4 ,i--,iron axle4        
,k--,its crosspiece4 ,l--,beam4         
,m--,drum of rundles on the iron axle4  

,n--,toothed drum of main axle4         
,o--,tubs4 ,p--,the small planks4       
,q--,small upright axles4 ,r--,enlarged 
part of one4 ,s--,their paddles4        
,t--,their drums which are made of      
rundles4 ,v--,small horizontal axle set 
into the end of the main axle4 ,x--,its 
toothed drums4 ,y--,three sluices4      
,z--,their small axles4 ,,aa--,spokes4  
,,bb--,paddles4  ,some people build a   
machine which at one and the same time  
can crush1 grind1 cleanse1 and wash the 
gold ore1 and mix the gold with         
quicksilver4 ,this machine has one      
water-wheel1 which is turned by a stream
 striking its buckets2 the main axle on 
one side of the water-wheel has long    
cams1 which raise the stamps that crush 
the dry ore4 ,then the crushed ore is   
thrown into the hopper of the upper     
millstone1 and gradually falling through
 the opening1 is ground to powder4 ,the 
lower millstone is square1 but has a    
round depression in which the round1    
upper millstone turns1 and it has an    

outlet from which the powder falls into 
the first tub4 ,a vertical iron axle is 
dove-tailed into a cross-piece1 which is
 in turn fixed into the upper millstone2
 the upper pinion of this axle is held  
in a bearing fixed in a beam2 the drum  
of the vertical axle is made of rundles1
 and is turned by the toothed drum on   
the main axle1 and thus turns the       
millstone4 ,the powder falls continually
 into the first tub1 together with      
water1 and from there runs into a second
 tub which is set lower down1 and out of
 the second into a third1 which is the  
lowest2 from the third1 it generally    
flows into a small trough hewn out of a 
tree trunk4 ,quicksilver#ab is placed in
 each tub1 across which is fixed a small
 plank1 and through a hole in the middle
 of each plank there passes a small     
upright axle1 which is enlarged above   
the plank to prevent it from dropping   
into the tub lower than it should4 ,at  
the lower end of the axle three sets of 
paddles intersect1 each made from two   

little boards fixed to the axle opposite
 each other4 ,the upper end of this axle
 has a pinion held by a bearing set in a
 beam1 and around each of these axles is
 a small drum made of rundles1 each of  
which is turned by a small toothed drum 
on a horizontal axle1 one end of which  
is mortised into the large horizontal   
axle1 and the other end is held in a    
hollow covered with thick iron plates in
 a beam4 ,thus the paddles1 of which    
there are three sets in each tub1 turn  
round1 and agitating the powder1        
thoroughly mix it with water and        
separate the minute particles of gold   
from it1 and these are attracted by the 
quicksilver and purified4 ,the water    
carries away the waste4 ,the quicksilver
 is poured into a bag made of leather or
 cloth woven from cotton1 and when this 
bag is squeezed1 as ,i have described   
elsewhere1 the quicksilver drips through
 it into a jar placed underneath4 ,the  
pure gold#ac remains in the bag4 ,some  
people substitute three broad sluices   

for the tubs1 each of which has an      
angular axle on which are set six narrow
 spokes1 and to them are fixed the same 
number of broad paddles2 the water that 
is poured in strikes these paddles and  
turns them round1 and they agitate the  
powder which is mixed with the water and
 separate the metal from it4 ,if the    
powder which is being treated contains  
gold particles1 the first method of     
washing is far superior1 because the    
quicksilver in the tubs immediately     
attracts the gold2 if it is powder in   
which are the small black stones from   
which tin is smelted1 this latter method
 is not to be despised4 ,it is very     
advantageous to place interlaced fir    
boughs in the sluices in which such     
tin-stuff is washed1 after it has run   
through the launders from the mills1    
because the fine tin-stone is either    
held back by the twigs1 or if the       
current carries them along they fall    
away from the water and settle down4    
,seven methods of washing are in common 

use for the ores of many metals2 for    
they are washed either in a simple      
buddle1 or in a divided buddle1 or in an
 ordinary strake1 or in a large tank1 or
 in a short strake1 or in a canvas      
strake1 or in a jigging sieve4 ,other   
methods of washing are either peculiar  
to some particular metal1 or are        
combined with the method of crushing wet
 ore by stamps4  ,illustration #cja     
7,buddles73 ,a--,head of buddle4        
,b--,pipe4 ,c--,buddle4 ,d--,board4     
,e--,transverse buddle4 ,f--,shovel4    
,g--,scrubber4  ,a simple buddle is made
 in the following way4 ,in the first    
place1 the head is higher than the rest 
of the buddle1 and is three feet long   
and a foot and a half broad2 this head  
is made of planks laid upon a timber and
 fastened1 and on both sides1           
side-boards are set up so as to hold the
 water1 which flows in through a pipe or
 trough1 so that it shall fall straight 
down4 ,the middle of the head is        
somewhat depressed in order that the    

broken rock and the larger metallic     
particles may settle into it4 ,the      
buddle is sunk into the earth to a depth
 of three-quarters of a foot below the  
head1 and is twelve feet long and a foot
 and a half wide and deep2 the bottom   
and each side are lined with planks to  
prevent the earth1 when it is softened  
by the water1 from falling in or from   
absorbing the metallic particles4 ,the  
lower end of the buddle is obstructed by
 a board1 which is not as high as the   
sides4 ,to this straight buddle there is
 joined a second transverse buddle1 six 
feet long and a foot and a half wide and
 deep1 similarly lined with planks2 at  
the lower end it is closed up with a    
board1 also lower than the sides of the 
buddle so that the water can flow away2 
this water falls into a launder and is  
carried outside the building4 ,in this  
simple buddle is washed the metallic    
material which has passed on to the     
floor of the works through the five     
large sieves4 ,when this has been       

gathered into a heap1 the washer throws 
it into the head of the buddle1 and     
water is poured upon it through the pipe
 or small trough1 and the portion which 
sinks and settles in the middle of the  
head compartment he stirs with a wooden 
scrubber1--this is what we will         
henceforth call the implement made of a 
stick to which is fixed a piece of wood 
a foot long and a palm broad4 ,the water
 is made turbid by this stirring1 and   
carries the mud and sand and small      
particles of metal into the buddle      
below4 ,together with the broken rock1  
the larger metallic particles remain in 
the head compartment1 and when these    
have been removed1 boys throw them upon 
the platform of a washing tank or the   
short strake1 and separate them from the
 broken rock4 ,when the buddle is full  
of mud and sand1 the washer closes the  
pipe through which the water flows into 
the head2 very soon the water which     
remains in the buddle flows away1 and   
when this has taken place1 he removes   

with a shovel the mud and sand which are
 mixed with minute particles of metal1  
and washes them on a canvas strake4     
,sometimes before the buddles have been 
filled full1 the boys throw the material
 into a bowl and carry it to the strakes
 and wash it4  ,pulverized ore is washed
 in the head of this kind of a buddle2  
but usually when tin-stone is washed in 
it1 interlacing fir boughs are put into 
the buddle1 in the same manner as in the
 sluice when wet ore is crushed with    
stamps4 ,the larger tin-stone particles1
 which sink in the upper part of the    
buddle1 are washed separately in a      
strake2 those particles which are of    
medium size1 and settle in the middle   
part1 are washed separately in the same 
way2 and the mud mixed with minute      
particles of tin-stone1 which has       
settled in the lowest part of the buddle
 below the fir boughs1 is washed        
separately on the canvas strakes4       
,illustration #cjb 7,buddles73          
,a--,pipe4 ,b--,cross launder4          

,c--,small troughs4 ,d--,head of the    
buddle4 ,e--,wooden scrubber4           
,f--,dividing boards4 ,g--,short strake4
  ,the divided buddle differs from the  
last one by having several cross-boards1
 which1 being placed inside it1 divide  
it off like steps2 if the buddle is     
twelve feet long1 four of them are      
placed within2 if nine feet long1 three4
 ,the nearer each one is to the head1   
the greater is its height2 the further  
from the head1 the lower it is2 and so  
when the highest is a foot and a palm   
high1 the second is usually a foot and  
three digits high1 the third a foot and 
two digits1 and the lowest a foot and   
one digit4 ,in this buddle is generally 
washed that metalliferous material which
 has been sifted through the large sieve
 into the tub containing water4 ,this   
material is continuously thrown with an 
iron shovel into the head of the buddle1
 and the water which has been let in is 
stirred up by a wooden scrubber1 until  
the buddle is full1 then the            

cross-boards are taken out by the       
washer1 and the water is drained off2   
next the metalliferous material which   
has settled in the compartments is again
 washed1 either on a short strake or on 
the canvas strakes or in the jigging    
sieves4 ,since a short strake is often  
united with the upper part of this      
buddle1 a pipe in the first place       
carries the water into a cross launder1 
from which it flows down through one    
little launder into the buddle1 and     
through another into the short strake4  
,illustration #cjc 7,washing material73 
,a--,head4 ,b--,strake4 ,c--,trowel4    
,d--,scrubber4 ,e--,canvas4 ,f--,rod by 
which the canvas is made smooth4  ,an   
ordinary strake1 so far as the planks   
are concerned1 is not unlike the last   
two4 ,the head of this1 as of the       
others1 is first made of earth stamped  
down1 then covered with planks2 and     
where it is necessary1 earth is thrown  
in and beaten down a second time1 so    
that no crevice may remain through which

 water carrying the particles of metal  
can escape4 ,the water ought to fall    
straight down into the strake1 which has
 a length of eight feet and a breadth of
 a foot and a half2 it is connected with
 a transverse launder1 which then       
extends to a settling pit outside the   
building4 ,a boy with a shovel or a     
ladle takes the impure concentrates or  
impure tin-stone from a heap1 and throws
 them into the head of the strake or    
spreads them over it4 ,a washer with a  
wooden scrubber then agitates them in   
the strake1 whereby the mud mixed with  
water flows away into the transverse    
launder1 and the concentrates or the    
tin-stone settle on the strake4 ,since  
sometimes the concentrates or fine      
tin-stone flow down together with the   
mud into the transverse launder1 a      
second washer closes it1 after a        
distance of about six feet1 with a      
cross-board and frequently stirs the mud
 with a shovel1 in order that when mixed
 with water it may flow out into the    

settling-pit2 and there remains in the  
launder only the concentrates or        
tin-stone4 ,the tin-stuff of            
,schlackenwald and ,erbisdorff is washed
 in this kind of a strake once or twice2
 those of ,altenberg three or four      
times2 those of ,geyer often seven      
times2 for in the ore at ,schlackenwald 
and ,erbisdorff the tin-stone particles 
are of a fair size1 and are crushed with
 stamps2 at ,altenberg they are of much 
smaller size1 and in the broken ore at  
,geyer only a few particles of tin-stone
 can be seen occasionally4  ,this method
 of washing was first devised by the    
miners who treated tin ore1 whence it   
passed on from the works of the tin     
workers to those of the silver workers  
and others2 this system is even more    
reliable than washing in jigging-sieves4
 ,near this ordinary strake there is    
generally a canvas strake4              
,illustration #cje 7,washing material73 
,a--,upper cross launder4 ,b--,small    
launders4 ,c--,heads of strakes4        

,d--,strakes4 ,e--,lower transverse     
launder4 ,f--,settling pit4 ,g--,socket 
in the sill4 ,h--,halved iron rings     
fixed to beam4 ,i--,pole4 ,k--,its      
little scrubber4 ,l--,second small      
scrubber4  ,in modern times two ordinary
 strakes1 similarly made1 are generally 
joined together2 the head of one is     
three feet distant from that of the     
other1 while the bodies are four feet   
distant from each other1 and there is   
only one cross launder under the two    
strakes4 ,one boy shovels1 from the heap
 into the head of each1 the concentrates
 or tin-stone mixed with mud4 ,there are
 two washers1 one of whom sits at the   
right side of one strake1 and the other 
at the left of the other strake1 and    
each pursues his task1 using the        
following sort of implement4 ,under each
 strake is a sill1 from a socket in     
which a round pole rises1 and is held by
 half an iron ring in a beam of the     
building1 so that it may revolve2 this  
pole is nine feet long and a palm thick4

 ,penetrating the pole is a small round 
piece of wood1 three palms long and as  
many digits thick1 to which is affixed a
 small board two feet long and five     
digits wide1 in an opening of which one 
end of a small axle revolves1 and to    
this axle is fixed the handle of a      
little scrubber4 ,the other end of this 
axle turns in an opening of a second    
board1 which is likewise fixed to a     
small round piece of wood2 this round   
piece1 like the first one1 is three     
palms long and as many digits thick1 and
 is used by the washer as a handle4 ,the
 little scrubber is made of a stick     
three feet long1 to the end of which is 
fixed a small tablet of wood a foot     
long1 six digits broad1 and a digit and 
a half thick4 ,the washer constantly    
moves the handle of this implement with 
one hand2 in this way the little        
scrubber stirs the concentrates or the  
fine tin-stone mixed with mud in the    
head of the strake1 and the mud1 on     
being stirred1 flows on to the strake4  

,in the other hand he holds a second    
little scrubber1 which has a handle of  
half the length1 and with this he       
ceaselessly stirs the concentrates or   
tin-stone which have settled in the     
upper part of the strake2 in this way   
the mud and water flow down into the    
transverse launder1 and from it into the
 settling-pit which is outside the      
building4  ,illustration #cjf 7,washing 
material73 ,a--,trough4 ,b--,platform4  
,c--,wooden scrubber4  ,before the short
 strake and the jigging-sieve had been  
invented1 metalliferous ores1 especially
 tin1 were crushed dry with stamps and  
washed in a large trough hollowed out of
 one or two tree trunks2 and at the head
 of this trough was a platform1 on which
 the ore was thrown after being         
completely crushed4 ,the washer pulled  
it down into the trough with a wooden   
scrubber which had a long handle1 and   
when the water had been let into the    
trough1 he stirred the ore with the same
 scrubber4  ,illustration #cjg 7,washing

 material73 ,a--,short strake4          
,b--,small launder4 ,c--,transverse     
launder4 ,d--,wooden scrubber4  ,the    
short strake is narrow in the upper part
 where the water flows down into it     
through the little launder2 in fact it  
is only two feet wide2 at the lower end 
it is wider1 being three feet and as    
many palms4 ,at the sides1 which are six
 feet long1 are fixed boards two palms  
high4 ,in other respects the head       
resembles the head of the simple buddle1
 except that it is not depressed in the 
middle4 ,beneath is a cross launder     
closed by a low board4 ,in this short   
strake not only is ore agitated and     
washed with a wooden scrubber1 but boys 
also separate the concentrates from the 
broken rock in them and collect them in 
tubs4 ,the short strake is now rarely   
employed by miners1 owing to the        
carelessness of the boys1 which has been
 frequently detected2 for this reason1  
the jigging-sieve has taken its place4  
,the mud which settles in the launder1  

if the ore is rich1 is taken up and     
washed in a jigging-sieve or on a canvas
 strake4  ,illustration #cjh 7,washing  
material73 ,a--,beams4 ,b--,canvas4     
,c--,head of strake4 ,d--,small launder4
 ,e--,settling pit or tank4 ,f--,wooden 
scrubber4 ,g--,tubs4  ,a canvas strake  
is made in the following way4 ,two      
beams1 eighteen feet long and half a    
foot broad and three palms thick1 are   
placed on a slope2 one half of each of  
these beams is partially cut away       
lengthwise1 to allow the ends of planks 
to be fastened in them1 for the bottom  
is covered by planks three feet long1   
set crosswise and laid close together4  
,one half of each supporting beam is    
left intact and rises a palm above the  
planks1 in order that the water that is 
running down may not escape at the      
sides1 but shall flow straight down4    
,the head of the strake is higher than  
the rest of the body1 and slopes so as  
to enable the water to flow away4 ,the  
whole strake is covered by six stretched

 pieces of canvas1 smoothed with a      
stick4 ,the first of them occupies the  
lowest division1 and the second is so   
laid as to slightly overlap it2 on the  
second division1 the third is similarly 
laid1 and so on1 one on the other4 ,if  
they are laid in the opposite way1 the  
water flowing down carries the          
concentrates or particles of tin-stone  
under the canvas1 and a useless task is 
attempted4 ,boys or men throw the       
concentrates or tin-stuff mixed with mud
 into the head of the strake1 after the 
canvas has been thus stretched1 and     
having opened the small launder they let
 the water flow in2 then they stir the  
concentrates or tin-stone with a wooden 
scrubber till the water carries them all
 on to the canvas2 next they gently     
sweep the linen with the wooden scrubber
 until the mud flows into the           
settling-pit or into the transverse     
launder4 ,as soon as there is little or 
no mud on the canvas1 but only          
concentrates or tin-stone1 they carry   

the canvas away and wash it in a tub    
placed close by4 ,the tin-stone settles 
in the tub1 and the men return          
immediately to the same task4 ,finally1 
they pour the water out of the tub1 and 
collect the concentrates or tin-stone4  
,however1 if either concentrates or     
tin-stone have washed down from the     
canvas and settled in the settling-pit  
or in the transverse launder1 they wash 
the mud again4  ,illustration #cji      
7,collecting concentrates73 ,a--,canvas 
strake4 ,b--,man dashing water on the   
canvas4 ,c--,bucket4 ,d--,bucket of     
another kind4 ,e--,man removing         
concentrates or tin-stone from the      
trough4  ,some neither remove the canvas
 nor wash it in the tubs1 but place over
 it on each edge narrow strips1 of no   
great thickness1 and fix them to the    
beams with nails4 ,they agitate the     
metalliferous material with wooden      
scrubbers and wash it in a similar way4 
,as soon as little or no mud remains on 
the canvas1 but only concentrates or    

fine tin-stone1 they lift one beam so   
that the whole strake rests on the      
other1 and dash it with water1 which has
 been drawn with buckets out of the     
small tank1 and in this way all the     
sediment which clings to the canvas     
falls into the trough placed underneath4
 ,this trough is hewn out of a tree and 
placed in a ditch dug in the ground2 the
 interior of the trough is a foot wide  
at the top1 but narrower in the bottom1 
because it is rounded out4 ,in the      
middle of this trough they put a        
cross-board1 in order that the fairly   
large particles of concentrates or      
fairly large-sized tin-stone may remain 
in the forepart into which they have    
fallen1 and the fine concentrates or    
fine tin-stone in the lower part1 for   
the water flows from one into the other1
 and at last flows down through an      
opening into the pit4 ,as for the fairly
 large-sized concentrates or tin-stone  
which have been removed from the trough1
 they are washed again on the ordinary  

strake4 ,the fine concentrates and fine 
tin-stone are washed again on this      
canvas strake4 ,by this method1 the     
canvas lasts longer because it remains  
fixed1 and nearly double the work is    
done by one washer as quickly as can be 
done by two washers by the other method4
  ,illustration #caa 7,jigging ,sieve73 
,a--,fine sieves4 ,b--,limp4 ,c--,finer 
sieve4 ,d--,finest sieve4  ,the jigging 
sieve has recently come into use by     
miners4 ,the metalliferous material is  
thrown into it and sifted in a tub      
nearly full of water4 ,the sieve is     
shaken up and down1 and by this movement
 all the material below the size of a   
pea passes through into the tub1 and the
 rest remains on the bottom of the      
sieve4 ,this residue is of two kinds1   
the metallic particles1 which occupy the
 lower place1 and the particles of rock 
and earth1 which take the higher place1 
because the heavy substance always      
settles1 and the light is borne upward  
by the force of the water4 ,this light  

material is taken away with a limp1     
which is a thin tablet of wood almost   
semicircular in shape1 three-quarters of
 a foot long1 and half a foot wide4     
,before the lighter portion is taken    
away the contents of the sieve are      
generally divided crosswise with a limp1
 to enable the water to penetrate into  
it more quickly4 ,afterward fresh       
material is again thrown into the sieve 
and shaken up and down1 and when a great
 quantity of metallic particles have    
settled in the sieve1 they are taken out
 and put into a tray close by4 ,but     
since there fall into the tub with the  
mud1 not only particles of gold or      
silver1 but also of sand1 pyrites1      
cadmia1 galena1 quartz1 and other       
substances1 and since the water cannot  
separate these from the metallic        
particles because they are all heavy1   
this muddy mixture is washed a second   
time1 and the part which is useless is  
thrown away4 ,to prevent the sieve      
passing this sand again too quickly1 the

 washer lays small stones or gravel in  
the bottom of the sieve4 ,however1 if   
the sieve is not shaken straight up and 
down1 but is tilted to one side1 the    
small stones or broken ore move from one
 part to another1 and the metallic      
material again falls into the tub1 and  
the operation is frustrated4 ,the miners
 of our country have made an even finer 
sieve1 which does not fail even with    
unskilled washers2 in washing with this 
sieve they have no need for the bottom  
to be strewn with small stones4 ,by this
 method the mud settles in the tub with 
the very fine metallic particles1 and   
the larger sizes of metal remain in the 
sieve and are covered with the valueless
 sand1 and this is taken away with a    
limp4 ,the concentrates which have been 
collected are smelted together with     
other things4 ,the mud mixed with the   
very fine metallic particles is washed  
for a third time and in the finest      
sieve1 whose bottom is woven of hair4   
,if the ore is rich in metal1 all the   

material which has been removed by the  
limp is washed on the canvas strakes1 or
 if the ore is poor it is thrown away4  
,i have explained the methods of washing
 which are used in common for the ores  
of many metals4 ,i now come to another  
method of crushing ore1 for ,i ought to 
speak of this before describing those   
methods of washing which are peculiar to
 ores of particular metals4             
,illustration #cac 7,stamp-mill73       
,a--,mortar4 ,b--,open end of mortar4   
,c--,slab of rock4 ,d--,iron sole       
plates4 ,e--,screen4 ,f--,launder4      
,g--,wooden shovel4 ,h--,settling pit4  
,i--,iron shovel4 ,k--,heap of material 
which has settled4 ,l--,ore which       
requires crushing4 ,m--,small launder4  
,in the year #aeab1 ,george1 the        
illustrious ,duke of ,saxony#ad1 gave   
the overlordship of all the dumps       
ejected from the mines in ,meissen to   
the noble and wise ,sigismund ,maltitz1 
father of ,john1 ,bishop of ,meissen4   
,rejecting the dry stamps1 the large    

sieve1 and the stone mills of           
,dippoldswalde and ,altenberg1 in which 
places are dug the small black stones   
from which tin is smelted1 he invented a
 machine which could crush the ore wet  
under iron-shod stamps4 ,that is called 
wet ore which is softened by water which
 flows into the mortar box1 and they are
 sometimes called wet stamps because    
they are drenched by the same water2 and
 on the other hand1 the other kinds are 
called dry stamps or dry ore1 because no
 water is used to soften the ore when   
the stamps are crushing4 ,but to return 
to our subject4 ,this machine is not    
dissimilar to the one which crushes the 
ore with dry iron-shod stamps1 but the  
heads of the wet stamps are larger by   
half than the heads of the others4 ,the 
mortar-box1 which is made of oak or     
beech timber1 is set up in the space    
between the upright posts2 it does not  
open in front1 but at one end1 and it is
 three feet long1 three-quarters of a   
foot wide1 and one foot and six digits  

deep4 ,if it has no bottom1 it is set up
 in the same way over a slab of hard1   
smooth rock placed in the ground1 which 
has been dug down a little4 ,the joints 
are stopped up all round with moss or   
cloth rags4 ,if the mortar has a bottom1
 then an iron sole-plate1 three feet    
long1 three-quarters of a foot wide1 and
 a palm thick1 is placed in it4 ,in the 
opening in the end of the mortar there  
is fixed an iron plate full of holes1 in
 such a way that there is a space of two
 digits between it and the shoe of the  
nearest stamp1 and the same distance    
between this screen and the upright     
post1 in an opening through which runs a
 small but fairly long launder4 ,the    
crushed particles of silver ore flow    
through this launder with the water into
 a settling-pit1 while the material     
which settles in the launder is removed 
with an iron shovel to the nearest      
planked floor2 that material which has  
settled in the pit is removed with an   
iron shovel on to another floor4 ,most  

people make two launders1 in order that 
while the workman empties one of them of
 the accumulation which has settled in  
it1 a fresh deposit may be settling in  
the other4 ,the water flows in through a
 small launder at the other end of the  
mortar that is near the water-wheel     
which turns the machine4 ,the workman   
throws the ore to be crushed into the   
mortar in such a way that the pieces1   
when they are thrown in among the       
stamps1 do not impede the work4 ,by this
 method a silver or gold ore is crushed 
very fine by the stamps4  ,illustration 
#cad 7,buddle73 ,a--,launder reaching to
 the screen4 ,b--,transverse trough4    
,c--,spouts4 ,d--,large buddles4        
,e--,shovel4 ,f--,interwoven twigs4     
,g--,boards closing the buddles4        
,h--,cross trough4  ,when tin ore is    
crushed by this kind of iron-shod       
stamps1 as soon as crushing begins1 the 
launder which extends from the screen   
discharges the water carrying the fine  
tin-stone and fine sand into a          

transverse trough1 from which the water 
flows down through the spouts1 which    
pierce the side of the trough1 into the 
one or other of the large buddles set   
underneath4 ,the reason why there are   
two is that1 while the washer empties   
the one which is filled with fine       
tin-stone and sand1 the material may    
flow into the other4 ,each buddle is    
twelve feet long1 one cubit deep1 and a 
foot and a half broad4 ,the tin-stone   
which settles in the upper part of the  
buddles is called the large size2 these 
are frequently stirred with a shovel1 in
 order that the medium sized particles  
of tin-stone1 and the mud mixed with the
 very fine particles of the stones may  
flow away4 ,the particles of medium size
 generally settle in the middle part of 
the buddle1 where they are arrested by  
interwoven fir twigs4 ,the mud which    
flows down with the water settles       
between the twigs and the board which   
closes the lower end of the buddle4 ,the
 tin-stone of large size is removed     

separately from the buddle with a       
shovel2 those of medium size are also   
removed separately1 and likewise the mud
 is removed separately1 for they are    
separately washed on the canvas strakes 
and on the ordinary strake1 and         
separately roasted and smelted4 ,the    
tin-stone which has settled in the      
middle part of the buddle1 is also      
always washed separately on the canvas  
strakes2 but if the particles are nearly
 equal in size to those which have      
settled in the upper part of the buddle1
 they are washed with them in the       
ordinary strake and are roasted and     
smelted with them4 ,however1 the mud is 
never washed with the others1 either on 
the canvas strakes or on the ordinary   
strake1 but separately1 and the fine    
tin-stone which is obtained from it is  
roasted and smelted separately4 ,the two
 large buddles discharge into a cross   
trough1 and it again empties through a  
launder into a settling-pit which is    
outside the building4  ,this method of  

washing has lately undergone a          
considerable change2 for the launder    
which carries the water1 mixed with the 
crushed tin-stone and fine sand which   
flow from the openings of the screen1   
does not reach to a transverse trough   
which is inside the same room1 but runs 
straight through a partition into a     
small settling-pit4 ,a boy draws a      
three-toothed rake through the material 
which has settled in the portion of the 
launder outside the room1 by which means
 the larger sized particles of tin-stone
 settle at the bottom1 and these the    
washer takes out with the wooden shovel 
and carries into the room2 this material
 is thrown into an ordinary strake and  
swept with a wooden scrubber and washed4
 ,as for those tin-stone particles which
 the water carries off from the strake1 
after they have been brought back on to 
the strake1 he washes them again until  
they are clean4  ,illustration #cae     
7,buddle73 ,a--,first launder4          
,b--,three-toothed rake4 ,c--,small     

settling pit4 ,d--,large buddle4        
,e--,buddle resembling the simple       
buddle4 ,f--,small roller4 ,g--,boards4 
,h--,their holes4 ,i--,shovel4          
,k--,building4 ,l--,stove4 7,this       
picture does not entirely agree with the
 text74  ,the remaining tin-stone1 mixed
 with sand1 flows into the small        
settling-pit which is within the        
building1 and this discharges into two  
large buddles4 ,the tin-stone of        
moderate size1 mixed with those of      
fairly large size1 settle in the upper  
part1 and the small size in the lower   
part2 but both are impure1 and for this 
reason they are taken out separately and
 the former is washed twice1 first in a 
buddle like the simple buddle1 and      
afterward on an ordinary strake4        
,likewise the latter is washed twice1   
first on a canvas strake and afterward  
on an ordinary strake4 ,this buddle1    
which is like the simple buddle1 differs
 from it in the head1 the whole of which
 in this case is sloping1 while in the  

case of the other it is depressed in the
 centre4 ,in order that the boy may be  
able to rest the shovel with which he   
cleanses the tin-stone1 this sluice has 
a small wooden roller which turns in    
holes in two thick boards fixed to the  
sides of the buddle2 if he did not do   
this1 he would become over-exhausted by 
his task1 for he spends whole days      
standing over these labours4 ,the large 
buddle1 the one like the simple buddle1 
the ordinary strake1 and the canvas     
strakes1 are erected within a special   
building4 ,in this building there is a  
stove that gives out heat through the   
earthen tiles or iron plates of which it
 is composed1 in order that the washers 
can pursue their labours even in winter1
 if the rivers are not completely frozen
 over4  ,illustration #cag 7,workroom   
with settling-pit73 ,a--,launder from   
the screen of the mortar-box4           
,b--,three-toothed rake4 ,c--,small     
settling-pit4 ,d--,canvas4 ,e--,strakes4
 ,f--,brooms4  ,on the canvas strakes   

are washed the very fine tin-stone mixed
 with mud which has settled in the lower
 end of the large buddle1 as well as in 
the lower end of the simple buddle and  
of the ordinary strake4 ,the canvas is  
cleaned in a trough hewn out of one tree
 trunk and partitioned off with two     
boards1 so that three compartments are  
made4 ,the first and second pieces of   
canvas are washed in the first          
compartment1 the third and fourth in the
 second compartment1 the fifth and sixth
 in the third compartment4 ,since among 
the very fine tin-stone there are       
usually some grains of stone1 rock1 or  
marble1 the master cleanses them on the 
ordinary strake1 lightly brushing the   
top of the material with a broom1 the   
twigs of which do not all run the same  
way1 but some straight and some         
crosswise4 ,in this way the water       
carries off these impurities from the   
strake into the settling-pit because    
they are lighter1 and leaves the        
tin-stone on the table because it is    

heavier4  ,below all buddles or strakes1
 both inside and outside the building1  
there are placed either settling-pits or
 cross-troughs into which they          
discharge1 in order that the water may  
carry on down into the stream but very  
few of the most minute particles of     
tin-stone4 ,the large settling-pit which
 is outside the building is generally   
made of joined flooring1 and is eight   
feet in length1 breadth and depth4 ,when
 a large quantity of mud1 mixed with    
very fine tin-stone1 has settled in it1 
first of all the water is let out by    
withdrawing a plug1 then the mud which  
is taken out is washed outside the house
 on the canvas strakes1 and afterward   
the concentrates are washed on the      
strake which is inside the building4 ,by
 these methods the very finest tin-stone
 is made clean4  ,illustration #cah     
7,streaming for ,tin73 ,a--,river4      
,b--,weir4 ,c--,gate4 ,d--,area4        
,e--,meadow4 ,f--,fence4 ,g--,ditch4    
,the mud mixed with the very fine       

tin-stone1 which has neither settled in 
the large settling-pit nor in the       
transverse launder which is outside the 
room and below the canvas strakes1 flows
 away and settles in the bed of the     
stream or river4 ,in order to recover   
even a portion of the fine tin-stone1   
many miners erect weirs in the bed of   
the stream or river1 very much like     
those that are made above the mills1 to 
deflect the current into the races      
through which it flows to the           
water-wheels4 ,at one side of each weir 
there is an area dug out to a depth of  
five or six or seven feet1 and if the   
nature of the place will permit1        
extending in every direction more than  
sixty feet4 ,thus1 when the water of the
 river or stream in autumn and winter   
inundates the land1 the gates of the    
weir are closed1 by which means the     
current carries the mud mixed with fine 
tin-stone into the area4 ,in spring and 
summer this mud is washed on the canvas 
strakes or on the ordinary strake1 and  

even the finest black-tin is collected4 
,within a distance of four thousand     
fathoms along the bed of the stream or  
river below the buildings in which the  
tin-stuff is washed1 the miners do not  
make such weirs1 but put inclined fences
 in the meadows1 and in front of each   
fence they dig a ditch of the same      
length1 so that the mud mixed with the  
fine tin-stone1 carried along by the    
stream or river when in flood1 may      
settle in the ditch and cling to the    
fence4 ,when this mud is collected1 it  
is likewise washed on canvas strakes and
 on the ordinary strake1 in order that  
the fine tin-stone may be separated from
 it4 ,indeed we may see many such areas 
and fences collecting mud of this kind  
in ,meissen below ,altenberg in the     
river ,moglitz1--which is always of a   
reddish colour when the rock containing 
the black tin is being crushed under the
 stamps4  ,illustration #cbj            
7,stamp-mill73 ,a--,first machine4      
,b--,its stamps4 ,c--,its mortar-box4   

,d--,second machine4 ,e--,its stamps4   
,f--,its mortar-box4 ,g--,third machine4
 ,h--,its stamps4 ,i--,its mortar-box4  
,k--,fourth machine4 ,l--,its stamps4   
,m--,its mortar-box4  ,but to return to 
the stamping machines4 ,some usually set
 up four machines of this kind in one   
place1 that is to say1 two above and the
 same number below4 ,by this plan it is 
necessary that the current which has    
been diverted should fall down from a   
greater height upon the upper           
water-wheels1 because these turn axles  
whose cams raise heavier stamps4 ,the   
stamp-stems of the upper machines should
 be nearly twice as long as the stems of
 the lower ones1 because all the        
mortar-boxes are placed on the same     
level4 ,these stamps have their tappets 
near their upper ends1 not as in the    
case of the lower stamps1 which are     
placed just above the bottom4 ,the water
 flowing down from the two upper        
water-wheels is caught in two broad     
races1 from which it falls on to the two

 lower water-wheels4 ,since all these   
machines have the stamps very close     
together1 the stems should be somewhat  
cut away1 to prevent the iron shoes from
 rubbing each other at the point where  
they are set into the stems4 ,where so  
many machines cannot be constructed1 by 
reason of the narrowness of the valley1 
the mountain is excavated and levelled  
in two places1 one of which is higher   
than the other1 and in this case two    
machines are constructed and generally  
placed in one building4 ,a broad race   
receives in the same way the water which
 flows down from the upper water-wheel1 
and similarly lets it fall on the lower 
water-wheel4 ,the mortar-boxes are not  
then placed on one level1 but each on   
the level which is appropriate to its   
own machine1 and for this reason1 two   
workmen are then required to throw ore  
into the mortar-boxes4 ,when no stream  
can be diverted which will fall from a  
higher place upon the top of the        
water-wheel1 one is diverted which will 

turn the foot of the wheel2 a great     
quantity of water from the stream is    
collected in one pool capable of holding
 it1 and from this place1 when the gates
 are raised1 the water is discharged    
against the wheel which turns in the    
race4 ,the buckets of a water-wheel of  
this kind are deeper and bent back1     
projecting upward2 those of the former  
are shallower and bent forward1         
inclining downward4  ,illustration #cba 
7,stamp-mill73 ,a--,stamps4 ,b--,mortar4
 ,c--,plates full of holes4             
,d--,transverse launder4 ,e--,planks    
full of cup-like depressions4           
,f--,spout4 ,g--,bowl into which the    
concentrates fall4 ,h--,canvas strake4  
,i--,bowls shaped like a small boat4    
,k--,settling-pit under the canvas      
strake4  ,further1 in the ,julian and   
,rhaetian ,alps#ae and in the           
,carpathian ,mountains1 gold or even    
silver ore is now put under stamps1     
which are sometimes placed more than    
twenty in a row1 and crushed wet in a   

long mortar-box4 ,the mortar has two    
plates full of holes through which the  
ore1 after being crushed1 flows out with
 the water into the transverse launder  
placed underneath1 and from there it is 
carried down by two spouts into the     
heads of the canvas strakes4 ,each head 
is made of a thick broad plank1 which   
can be raised and set upright1 and to   
which on each side are fixed pieces     
projecting upward4 ,in this plank there 
are many cup-like depressions equal in  
size and similar in shape1 in each of   
which an egg could be placed4 ,right    
down in these depressions are small     
crevices which can retain the           
concentrates of gold or silver1 and when
 the hollows are nearly filled with     
these materials1 the plank is raised on 
one side so that the concentrates will  
fall into a large bowl4 ,the cup-like   
depressions are washed out by dashing   
them with water4 ,these concentrates are
 washed separately in different bowls   
from those which have settled on the    

canvas4 ,this bowl is smooth and two    
digits wide and deep1 being in shape    
very similar to a small boat2 it is     
broad in the fore part1 narrow in the   
back1 and in the middle of it there is a
 cross groove1 in which the particles of
 pure gold or silver settle1 while the  
grains of sand1 since they are lighter1 
flow out of it4  ,in some parts of      
,moravia1 gold ore1 which consists of   
quartz mixed with gold1 is placed under 
the stamps and crushed wet4 ,when       
crushed fine it flows out through a     
launder into a trough1 is there stirred 
by a wooden scrubber1 and the minute    
particles of gold which settle in the   
upper end of the trough are washed in a 
black bowl4  ,so far ,i have spoken of  
machines which crush wet ore with       
iron-shod stamps4 ,i will now explain   
the methods of washing which are in a   
measure peculiar to the ore of certain  
metals1 beginning with gold4 ,the ore   
which contains particles of this metal1 
and the sand of streams and rivers which

 contains grains of it1 are washed in   
frames or bowls2 the sands especially   
are also washed in troughs4 ,more than  
one method is employed for washing on   
frames1 for these frames either pass or 
retain the particles or concentrates of 
gold2 they pass them if they have holes1
 and retain them if they have no holes4 
,but either the frame itself has holes1 
or a box is substituted for it2 if the  
frame itself is perforated it passes the
 particles or concentrates of gold into 
a trough2 if the box has them1 it passes
 the gold material into the long sluice4
 ,i will first speak of these two       
methods of washing4 ,the frame is made  
of two planks joined together1 and is   
twelve feet long and three feet wide1   
and is full of holes large enough for a 
pea to pass4 ,to prevent the ore or sand
 with which the gold is mixed from      
falling out at the sides1 small         
projecting edge-boards are fixed to it4 
,this frame is set upon two stools1 the 
first of which is higher than the       

second1 in order that the gravel and    
small stones can roll down it4 ,the     
washer throws the ore or sand into the  
head of the frame1 which is higher1 and 
opening the small launder1 lets the     
water into it1 and then agitates it with
 a wooden scrubber4 ,in this way1 the   
gravel and small stones roll down the   
frame on to the ground1 while the       
particles or concentrates of gold1      
together with the sand1 pass through the
 holes into the trough which is placed  
under the frame1 and after being        
collected are washed in the bowl4       
,illustration #cbb 7,frames for ,washing
 ,ore or ,alluvial73 ,a--,head of frame4
 ,b--,frame4 ,c--,holes4                
,d--,edge-boards4 ,e--,stools4          
,f--,scrubber4 ,g--,trough4             
,h--,launder4 ,i--,bowl4  ,illustration 
#cbc 7,frames for ,washing ,ore or      
,alluvial73 ,a--,sluice4 ,b--,box4      
,c--,bottom of inverted box4 ,d--,open  
part of it4 ,e--,iron hoe4 ,f--,riffles4
 ,g--,small launder4 ,h--,bowl with     

which settlings are taken away4         
,i--,black bowl in which they are       
washed4  ,a box which has a bottom made 
of a plate full of holes1 is placed over
 the upper end of a sluice1 which is    
fairly long but of moderate width4 ,the 
gold material to be washed is thrown    
into this box1 and a great quantity of  
water is let in4 ,the lumps1 if ore is  
being washed1 are mashed with an iron   
shovel4 ,the fine portions fall through 
the bottom of the box into the sluice1  
but the coarse pieces remain in the box1
 and these are removed with a scraper   
through an opening which is nearly in   
the middle of one side4 ,since a large  
amount of water is necessarily let into 
the box1 in order to prevent it from    
sweeping away any particles of gold     
which have fallen into the sluice1 the  
sluice is divided off by ten1 or if it  
is as long again1 by fifteen riffles4   
,these riffles are placed equidistant   
from one another1 and each is higher    
than the one next toward the lower end  

of the sluice4 ,the little compartments 
which are thus made are filled with the 
material and the water which flows      
through the box2 as soon as these       
compartments are full and the water has 
begun to flow over clear1 the little    
launder through which this water enters 
into the box is closed1 and the water is
 turned in another direction4 ,then the 
lowest riffle is removed from the       
sluice1 and the sediment which has      
accumulated flows out with the water and
 is caught in a bowl4 ,the riffles are  
removed one by one and the sediment from
 each is taken into a separate bowl1 and
 each is separately washed and cleansed 
in a bowl4 ,the larger particles of gold
 concentrates settle in the higher      
compartments1 the smaller size1 in the  
lower compartments4 ,this bowl is       
shallow and smooth1 and smeared with oil
 or some other slippery substance1 so   
that the tiny particles of gold may not 
cling to it1 and it is painted black1   
that the gold may be more easily        

discernible2 on the exterior1 on both   
sides and in the middle1 it is slightly 
hollowed out in order that it may be    
grasped and held firmly in the hands    
when shaken4 ,by this method the        
particles or concentrates of gold settle
 in the back part of the bowl2 for if   
the back part of the bowl is tapped or  
shaken with one hand1 as is usual1 the  
contents move toward the fore part4 ,in 
this way the ,moravians1 especially1    
wash gold ore4  ,the gold particles are 
also caught on frames which are either  
bare or covered4 ,if bare1 the particles
 are caught in pockets2 if covered1 they
 cling to the coverings4 ,pockets are   
made in various ways1 either with iron  
wire or small cross-boards fixed to the 
frame1 or by holes which are sunk into  
the sluice itself or into its head1 but 
which do not quite go through4 ,these   
holes are round or square1 or are       
grooves running crosswise4 ,the frames  
are either covered with skins1 pieces of
 cloth1 or turf1 which ,i will deal with

 one by one in turn4  ,illustration #cbd
 7,frames for ,washing ,ore or          
,alluvial73 ,a--,plank4                 
,b--,side-boards4 ,c--,iron wire4       
,d--,handles4  ,in order to prevent the 
sand which contains the particles of    
gold from spilling out1 the washer fixes
 side-boards to the edges of a plank    
which is six feet long and one and a    
quarter wide4 ,he then lays crosswise   
many iron wires a digit apart1 and where
 they join he fixes them to the bottom  
plank with iron nails4 ,then he makes   
the head of the frame higher1 and into  
this he throws the sand which needs     
washing1 and taking in his hands the    
handles which are at the head of the    
frame1 he draws it backward and forward 
several times in the river or stream4   
,in this way the small stones and gravel
 flow down along the frame1 and the sand
 mixed with particles of gold remains in
 the pockets between the strips4 ,when  
the contents of the pockets have been   
shaken out and collected in one place1  

he washes them in a bowl and thus cleans
 the gold dust4  ,illustration #cbf     
7,frames for ,washing ,ore or           
,alluvial73 ,a--,head of the sluice4    
,b--,riffles4 ,c--,wooden scrubber4     
,d--,pointed stick4 ,e--,dish4 ,f--,its 
cup-like depression4 ,g--,grooved dish4 
,other people1 among whom are the       
,lusitanians#af1 fix to the sides of a  
sluice1 which is about six feet long and
 a foot and a half broad1 many          
cross-strips or riffles1 which project  
backward and are a digit apart4 ,the    
washer or his wife lets the water into  
the head of the sluice1 where he throws 
the sand which contains the particles of
 gold4 ,as it flows down he agitates it 
with a wooden scrubber1 which he moves  
transversely to the riffles4 ,he        
constantly removes with a pointed wooden
 stick the sediment which settles in the
 pockets between the riffles1 and in    
this way the particles of gold settle in
 them1 while the sand and other         
valueless materials are carried by the  

water into a tub placed below the       
sluice4 ,he removes the particles of    
metal with a small wooden shovel into a 
wooden bowl4 ,this bowl does not exceed 
a foot and a quarter in breadth1 and by 
moving it up and down in the stream he  
cleanses the gold dust1 for the         
remaining sand flows out of the dish1   
and the gold dust settles in the middle 
of it1 where there is a cup-like        
depression4 ,some make use of a bowl    
which is grooved inside like a shell1   
but with a smooth lip where the water   
flows out4 ,this smooth place1 however1 
is narrower where the grooves run into  
it1 and broader where the water flows   
out4  ,illustration #cbg 7,frames for   
,washing ,ore or ,alluvial73 ,a--,head  
of the sluice4 ,b--,side-boards4        
,c--,lower end of the sluice4           
,d--,pockets4 ,e--,grooves4 ,f--,stools4
 ,g--,shovel4 ,h--,tub set below4       
,i--,launder4  ,the cup-like pockets and
 grooves are cut or burned at the same  
time into the bottom of the sluice2 the 

bottom is composed of three planks ten  
feet long1 and is about four feet wide2 
but the lower end1 through which the    
water is discharged1 is narrower4 ,this 
sluice1 which likewise has side-boards  
fixed to its edges1 is full of rounded  
pockets and of grooves which lead to    
them1 there being two grooves to one    
pocket1 in order that the water mixed   
with sand may flow into each pocket     
through the upper groove1 and that after
 the sand has partly settled1 the water 
may again flow out through the lower    
groove4 ,the sluice is set in the river 
or stream or on the bank1 and placed on 
two stools1 of which the first is higher
 than the second in order that the      
gravel and small stones may roll down   
the sluice4 ,the washer throws sand into
 the head with a shovel1 and opening the
 launder1 lets in the water1 which      
carries the particles of metal with a   
little sand down into the pockets1 while
 the gravel and small stones with the   
rest of the sand falls into a tub placed

 below the sluice4 ,as soon as the      
pockets are filled1 he brushes out the  
concentrates and washes them in a bowl4 
,he washes again and again through this 
sluice4  ,illustration #cbh 7,frames for
 ,washing ,ore or ,alluvial73 ,a--,cross
 grooves4 ,b--,tub set under the sluice4
 ,c--,another tub4  ,some people cut a  
number of cross-grooves1 one palm       
distant from each other1 in a sluice    
similarly composed of three planks eight
 feet long4 ,the upper edge of these    
grooves is sloping1 that the particles  
of gold may slip into them when the     
washer stirs the sand with a wooden     
shovel2 but their lower edge is vertical
 so that the gold particles may thus be 
unable to slide out of them4 ,as soon as
 these grooves are full of gold         
particles mixed with fine sand1 the     
sluice is removed from the stools and   
raised up on its head4 ,the head in this
 case is nothing but the upper end of   
the planks of which the sluice is       
composed4 ,in this way the metallic     

particles1 being turned over backward1  
fall into another tub1 for the small    
stones and gravel have rolled down the  
sluice4 ,some people place large bowls  
under the sluice instead of tubs1 and as
 in the other cases1 the unclean        
concentrates are washed in the small    
bowl4  ,illustration #cbi 7,frames for  
,washing ,ore or ,alluvial73 ,a--,sluice
 covered with canvas4 ,b--,its head full
 of pockets and grooves4 ,c--,head      
removed and washed in a tub4 ,d--,sluice
 which has square pockets4 ,e--,sluice  
to whose planks small shavings cling4   
,f--,broom4 ,g--,skins of oxen4         
,h--,wooden scrubber4  ,the ,thuringians
 cut rounded pockets1 a digit in        
diameter and depth1 in the head of the  
sluice1 and at the same time they cut   
grooves reaching from one to another4   
,the sluice itself they cover with      
canvas4 ,the sand which is to be washed1
 is thrown into the head and stirred    
with a wooden scrubber2 in this way the 
water carries the light particles of    

gold on to the canvas1 and the heavy    
ones sink in the pockets1 and when these
 hollows are full1 the head is removed  
and turned over a tub1 and the          
concentrates are collected and washed in
 a bowl4 ,some people make use of a     
sluice which has square pockets with    
short vertical recesses which hold the  
particles of gold4 ,other workers use a 
sluice made of planks1 which are rough  
by reason of the very small shavings    
which still cling to them2 these sluices
 are used instead of those with         
coverings1 of which this sluice is bare1
 and when the sand is washed1 the       
particles of gold cling no less to these
 shavings than to canvas1 or skins1 or  
cloths1 or turf4 ,the washer sweeps the 
sluice upward with a broom1 and when he 
has washed as much of the sand as he    
wishes1 he lets a more abundant supply  
of water into the sluice again to wash  
out the concentrates1 which he collects 
in a tub set below the sluice1 and then 
washes again in a bowl4 ,just as        

,thuringians cover the sluice with      
canvas1 so some people cover it with the
 skins of oxen or horses4 ,they push the
 auriferous sand upward with a wooden   
scrubber1 and by this system the light  
material flows away with the water1     
while the particles of gold settle among
 the hairs2 the skins are afterward     
washed in a tub2 and the concentrates   
are collected in a bowl4  ,illustration 
#ccj 7,washing material in spring73     
,a--,spring4 ,b--,skin4 ,c--,argonauts4 
,the ,colchians#ag placed the skins of  
animals in the pools of springs2 and    
since many particles of gold had clung  
to them when they were removed1 poets   
invented the golden fleece of the       
,colchians4 ,in like manner1 it can be  
contrived by the methods of miners that 
skins should take up1 not only particles
 of gold1 but also of silver and gems4  
,illustration #cca 7,frames for ,washing
 ,ore or ,alluvial73 ,a--,head of frame4
 ,b--,frame4 ,c--,cloth4 ,d--small      
launder4 ,e--,tub set below the frame4  

,f--,tub in which cloth is washed4      
,many people cover the frame with a     
green cloth as long and wide as the     
frame itself1 and fasten it with iron   
nails in such a way that they can easily
 draw them out and remove the cloth4    
,when the cloth appears to be golden    
because of the particles which adhere to
 it1 it is washed in a special tub and  
the particles are collected in a bowl4  
,the remainder which has run down into  
the tub is again washed on the frame4   
,illustration #ccb 7,frames for ,washing
 ,ore or ,alluvial73 ,a--,cloth full of 
small knots1 spread out4 ,b--,small     
knots more conspicuously shown4 ,c--,tub
 in which cloth is washed4  ,some       
people1 in place of a green cloth1 use a
 cloth of tightly woven horsehair1 which
 has a rough knotty surface4 ,since     
these knots stand out and the cloth is  
rough1 even the very small particles of 
gold adhere to it2 these cloths are     
likewise washed in a tub with water4    
,illustration #ccc 7,frames for ,washing

 ,ore or ,alluvial73 ,a--,head of frame4
 ,b--,small launder through which water 
flows into head of frame4 ,c--,pieces of
 turf4 ,d--,trough placed under frame4  
,e--,tub in which pieces of turf are    
washed4  ,some people construct a frame 
not unlike the one covered with canvas1 
but shorter4 ,in place of the canvas    
they set pieces of turf in rows4 ,they  
wash the sand1 which has been thrown    
into the head of the frame1 by letting  
in water4 ,in this way the particles of 
gold settle in the turf1 the mud and    
sand1 together with the water1 are      
carried down into the settling-pit or   
trough below1 which is opened when the  
work is finished4 ,after all the water  
has passed out of the settling-pit1 the 
sand and mud are carried away and washed
 over again in the same manner4 ,the    
particles which have clung to the turf  
are afterward washed down into the      
settling-pit or trough by a stronger    
current of the water1 which is let into 
the frame through a small launder4 ,the 

concentrates are finally collected and  
washed in a bowl4 ,pliny was not        
ignorant of this method of washing gold4
 ,the ulex1 he says1 after being dried1 
is burnt1 and its ashes are washed over 
a grassy turf1 that the gold may settle 
on it4  ,illustration #ccd 7,trays for  
,washing ,alluvial73 ,a--,tray4         
,b--,bowl-like depression4 ,c--,handles4
  ,sand mixed with particles of gold is 
also washed in a tray1 or in a trough or
 bowl4 ,the tray is open at the further 
end1 is either hewn out of a squared    
trunk of a tree or made out of a thick  
plank to which side-boards are fixed1   
and is three feet long1 a foot and a    
half wide1 and three digits deep4 ,the  
bottom is hollowed out into the shape of
 an elongated bowl whose narrow end is  
turned toward the head1 and it has two  
long handles1 by which it is drawn      
backward and forward in the river4 ,in  
this way the fine sand is washed1       
whether it contains particles of gold or
 the little black stones from which tin 

is made4  ,illustration #cce 7,trough   
for washing alluvial73 ,a--,trough4     
,b--,its open end4 ,c--,end that may be 
closed4 ,d--,stream4 ,e--,hoe4          
,f--,end-board4 ,g--,bag4  ,the         
,italians who come to the ,german       
mountains seeking gold1 in order to wash
 the river sand which contains gold-dust
 and garnets1#ai use a fairly long      
shallow trough hewn out of a tree1      
rounded within and without1 open at one 
end and closed at the other1 which they 
turn in the bed of the stream in such a 
way that the water does not dash into   
it1 but flows in gently4 ,they stir the 
sand1 which they throw into it1 with a  
wooden hoe1 also rounded4 ,to prevent   
the particles of gold or garnets from   
running out with the light sand1 they   
close the end with a board similarly    
rounded1 but lower than the sides of the
 trough4 ,the concentrates of gold or   
garnets which1 with a small quantity of 
heavy sand1 have settled in the trough1 
they wash in a bowl and collect in bags 

and carry away with them4  ,illustration
 #ccf 7,bowls for ,alluvial ,washing73  
,a--,large bowl4 ,b--,ropes4 ,c--,beam4 
,d--,other large bowl which coiners use4
 ,e--,small bowl4  ,some people wash    
this kind of sand in a large bowl which 
can easily be shaken1 the bowl being    
suspended by two ropes from a beam in a 
building4 ,the sand is thrown into it1  
water is poured in1 then the bowl is    
shaken1 and the muddy water is poured   
out and clear water is again poured in1 
this being done again and again4 ,in    
this way1 the gold particles settle in  
the back part of the bowl because they  
are heavy1 and the sand in the front    
part because it is light2 the latter is 
thrown away1 the former kept for        
smelting4 ,the one who does the washing 
then returns immediately to his task4   
,this method of washing is rarely used  
by miners1 but frequently by coiners and
 goldsmiths when they wash gold1 silver1
 or copper4 ,the bowl they employ has   
only three handles1 one of which they   

grasp in their hands when they shake the
 bowl1 and in the other two is fastened 
a rope by which the bowl is hung from a 
beam1 or from a cross-piece which is    
upheld by the forks of two upright posts
 fixed in the ground4 ,miners frequently
 wash ore in a small bowl to test it4   
,this bowl1 when shaken1 is held in one 
hand and thumped with the other hand4   
,in other respects this method of       
washing does not differ from the last4  
,illustration #ccg 7,ground ,sluicing73 
,a--,stream4 ,b--,ditch4 ,c--,mattock4  
,d--,pieces of turf4 ,e--,seven-pronged 
fork4 ,f--,iron shovel4 ,g--,trough4    
,h--,another trough below it4 ,i--,small
 wooden trowel4  ,i have spoken of the  
various methods of washing sand which   
contains grains of gold2 ,i will now    
speak of the methods of washing the     
material in which are mixed the small   
black stones from which tin is made#bj4 
,eight such methods are in use1 and of  
these two have been invented lately4    
,such metalliferous material is usually 

found torn away from veins and stringers
 and scattered far and wide by the      
impetus of water1 although sometimes    
venae dilatatae are composed of it4 ,the
 miners dig out the latter material with
 a broad mattock1 while they dig the    
former with a pick4 ,but they dig out   
the little stones1 which are not rare in
 this kind of ore1 with an instrument   
like the bill of a duck4 ,in districts  
which contain this material1 if there is
 an abundant supply of water1 and if    
there are valleys or gentle slopes and  
hollows1 so that rivers can be diverted 
into them1 the washers in summer-time   
first of all dig a long ditch sloping so
 that the water will run through it     
rapidly4 ,into the ditch is thrown the  
metallic material1 together with the    
surface material1 which is six feet     
thick1 more or less1 and often contains 
moss1 roots of plants1 shrubs1 trees1   
and earth2 they are all thrown in with a
 broad mattock1 and the water flows     
through the ditch4 ,the sand and        

tin-stone1 as they are heavy1 sink to   
the bottom of the ditch1 while the moss 
and roots1 as they are light1 are       
carried away by the water which flows   
through the ditch4 ,the bottom of the   
ditch is obstructed with turf and stones
 in order to prevent the water from     
carrying away the tin-stone at the same 
time4 ,the washers1 whose feet are      
covered with high boots made of hide1   
though not of rawhide1 themselves stand 
in the ditch and throw out of it the    
roots of the trees1 shrubs1 and grass   
with seven-pronged wooden forks1 and    
push back the tin-stone toward the head 
of the ditch4 ,after four weeks1 in     
which they have devoted much work and   
labour1 they raise the tin-stone in the 
following way2 the sand with which it is
 mixed is repeatedly lifted from the    
ditch with an iron shovel and agitated  
hither and thither in the water1 until  
the sand flows away and only the        
tin-stone remains on the shovel4 ,the   
tin-stone is all collected together and 

washed again in a trough by pushing it  
up and turning it over with a wooden    
trowel1 in order that the remaining sand
 may separate from it4 ,afterward they  
return to their task1 which they        
continue until the metalliferous        
material is exhausted1 or until the     
water can no longer be diverted into the
 ditches4  ,illustration #cch 7,sluicing
 ,tin73 ,a--,trough4 ,b--,wooden shovel4
 ,c--,tub4 ,d--,launder4 ,e--,wooden    
trowel4 ,f--,transverse trough4         
,g--,plug4 ,h--,falling water4          
,i--,ditch4 ,k--,barrow conveying       
material to be washed4 ,l--,pick like   
the beak of a duck with which the miner 
digs out the material from which the    
small stones are obtained4  ,the trough 
which ,i mentioned is hewn out of the   
trunk of a tree and the interior is five
 feet long1 three-quarters of a foot    
deep1 and six digits wide4 ,it is placed
 on an incline and under it is put a tub
 which contains interwoven fir twigs1 or
 else another trough is put under it1   

the interior of which is three feet long
 and one foot wide and deep2 the fine   
tin-stone1 which has run out with the   
water1 settles in the bottom4 ,some     
people1 in place of a trough1 put a     
square launder underneath1 and in like  
manner they wash the tin-stone in this  
by agitating it up and down and turning 
it over with a small wooden trowel4 ,a  
transverse trough is put under the      
launder1 which is either open on one end
 and drains off into a tub or           
settling-pit1 or else is closed and     
perforated through the bottom2 in this  
case1 it drains into a ditch beneath1   
where the water falls when the plug has 
been partly removed4 ,the nature of this
 ditch ,i will now describe4            
,illustration #cdj 7,sluicing ,tin73    
,a--,launder4 ,b--,interlacing fir      
twigs4 ,c--,logs2 three on one side1 for
 the fourth cannot be seen because the  
ditch is so full with material now being
 washed4 ,d--,logs at the head of the   
ditch4 ,e--,barrow4 ,f--,seven-pronged  

fork4 ,g--,hoe4  ,if the locality does  
not supply an abundance of water1 the   
washers dig a ditch thirty or thirty-six
 feet long1 and cover the bottom1 the   
full length1 with logs joined together  
and hewn on the side which lies flat on 
the ground4 ,on each side of the ditch1 
and at its head also1 they place four   
logs1 one above the other1 all hewn     
smooth on the inside4 ,but since the    
logs are laid obliquely along the sides1
 the upper end of the ditch is made four
 feet wide and the tail end1 two feet4  
,the water has a high drop from a       
launder and first of all it falls into  
interlaced fir twigs1 in order that it  
shall fall straight down for the most   
part in an unbroken stream and thus     
break up the lumps by its weight4 ,some 
do not place these twigs under the end  
of the launder1 but put a plug in its   
mouth1 which1 since it does not entirely
 close the launder1 nor altogether      
prevent the discharge from it1 nor yet  
allow the water to spout far afield1    

makes it drop straight down4 ,the       
workman brings in a wheelbarrow the     
material to be washed1 and throws it    
into the ditch4 ,the washer standing in 
the upper end of the ditch breaks the   
lumps with a seven-pronged fork1 and    
throws out the roots of trees1 shrubs1  
and grass with the same instrument1 and 
thereby the small black stones settle   
down4 ,when a large quantity of the     
tin-stone has accumulated1 which        
generally happens when the washer has   
spent a day at this work1 to prevent it 
from being washed away he places it upon
 the bank1 and other material having    
been again thrown into the upper end of 
the ditch1 he continues the task of     
washing4 ,a boy stands at the lower end 
of the ditch1 and with a thin pointed   
hoe stirs up the sediment which has     
settled at the lower end1 to prevent the
 washed tin-stone from being carried    
further1 which occurs when the sediment 
has accumulated to such an extent that  
the fir branches at the outlet of the   

ditch are covered4  ,illustration #cda  
7,sifting ,ore73 ,a--,strakes4          
,b--,tank4 ,c--,launder4 ,d--,plug4     
,e--,wooden shovel4 ,f--,wooden mallet4 
,g--,wooden shovel with short handle4   
,h--,the plug in the strake4 ,i--,tank  
placed under the plug4  ,the third      
method of washing materials of this kind
 follows4 ,two strakes are made1 each of
 which is twelve feet long and a foot   
and a half wide and deep4 ,a tank is set
 at their head1 into which the water    
flows through a little launder4 ,a boy  
throws the ore into one strake2 if it is
 of poor quality he puts in a large     
amount of it1 if it is rich he puts in  
less4 ,the water is let in by removing  
the plug1 the ore is stirred with a     
wooden shovel1 and in this way the      
tin-stone1 mixed with the heavier       
material1 settles in the bottom of the  
strake1 and the water carries the light 
material into the launder1 through which
 it flows on to a canvas strake4 ,the   
very fine tin-stone1 carried by the     

water1 settles on to the canvas and is  
cleansed4 ,a low cross-board is placed  
in the strake near the head1 in order   
that the largest sized tin-stone may    
settle there4 ,as soon as the strake is 
filled with the material which has been 
washed1 he closes the mouth of the tank 
and continues washing in the other      
strake1 and then the plug is withdrawn  
and the water and tin-stone flow down   
into a tank below4 ,then he pounds the  
sides of the loaded strake with a wooden
 mallet1 in order that the tin-stone    
clinging to the sides may fall off2 all 
that has settled in it1 he throws out   
with a wooden shovel which has a short  
handle4 ,silver slags which have been   
crushed under the stamps1 also fragments
 of silver-lead alloy and of cakes      
melted from pyrites1 are washed in a    
strake of this kind4  ,illustration #cdb
 7,sifting ,ore73 ,a--,sieve4 ,b--,tub4 
,c--,water flowing out of the bottom of 
it4 ,d--,strake4 ,e--,three-toothed     
rake4 ,f--,wooden scrubber4  ,material  

of this kind is also washed while wet1  
in a sieve whose bottom is made of woven
 iron wire1 and this is the fourth      
method of washing4 ,the sieve is        
immersed in the water which is contained
 in a tub1 and is violently shaken4 ,the
 bottom of this tub has an opening of   
such size that as much water1 together  
with tailings from the sieve1 can flow  
continuously out of it as water flows   
into it4 ,the material which settles in 
the strake1 a boy either digs over with 
a three-toothed iron rake or sweeps with
 a wooden scrubber2 in this way the     
water carries off a great part of both  
sand and mud4 ,the tin-stone or         
metalliferous concentrates settle in the
 strake and are afterward washed in     
another strake4  ,illustration #cdc     
7,sluicing ,tin73 ,a--,box4             
,b--,perforated plate4 ,c--,trough4     
,d--,cross-boards4 ,e--,pool4           
,f--,launder4 ,g--,shovel4 ,h--,rake4   
,these are ancient methods of washing   
material which contains tin-stone2 there

 follow two modern methods4 ,if the     
tin-stone mixed with earth or sand is   
found on the slopes of mountains or     
hills1 or in the level fields which are 
either devoid of streams or into which a
 stream cannot be diverted1 miners have 
lately begun to employ the following    
method of washing1 even in the winter   
months4 ,an open box is constructed of  
planks1 about six feet long1 three feet 
wide1 and two feet and one palm deep4   
,at the upper end on the inside1 an iron
 plate three feet long and wide is      
fixed1 at a depth of one foot and a half
 from the top2 this plate is very full  
of holes1 through which tin-stone about 
the size of a pea can fall4 ,a trough   
hewn from a tree is placed under the    
box1 and this trough is about           
twenty-four feet long and three-quarters
 of a foot wide and deep2 very often    
three cross-boards are placed in it1    
dividing it off into compartments1 each 
one of which is lower than the next4    
,the turbid waters discharge into a     

settling-pit4  ,the metalliferous       
material is sometimes found not very    
deep beneath the surface of the earth1  
but sometimes so deep that it is        
necessary to drive tunnels and sink     
shafts4 ,it is transported to the       
washing-box in wheelbarrows1 and when   
the washers are about to begin they lay 
a small launder1 through which there    
flows on to the iron plate so much water
 as is necessary for this washing4      
,next1 a boy throws the metalliferous   
material on to the iron plate with an   
iron shovel and breaks the small lumps1 
stirring them this way and that with the
 same implement4 ,then the water and    
sand penetrating the holes of the plate1
 fall into the box1 while all the coarse
 gravel remains on the plate1 and this  
he throws into a wheelbarrow with the   
same shovel4 ,meantime1 a younger boy   
continually stirs the sand under the    
plate with a wooden scrubber nearly as  
wide as the box1 and drives it to the   
upper end of the box2 the lighter       

material1 as well as a small amount of  
tin-stone1 is carried by the water down 
into the underlying trough4 ,the boys   
carry on this labour without            
intermission until they have filled four
 wheelbarrows with the coarse and       
worthless residues1 which they carry off
 and throw away1 or three wheelbarrows  
if the material is rich in black tin4   
,then the foreman has the plank removed 
which was in front of the iron plate1   
and on which the boy stood4 ,the sand1  
mixed with the tin-stone1 is frequently 
pushed backward and forward with a      
scrubber1 and the same sand1 because it 
is lighter1 takes the upper place1 and  
is removed as soon as it appears2 that  
which takes the lower place is turned   
over with a spade1 in order that any    
that is light can flow away2 when all   
the tin-stone is heaped together1 he    
shovels it out of the box and carries it
 away4 ,while the foreman does this1 one
 boy with an iron hoe stirs the sand    
mixed with fine tin-stone1 which has run

 out of the box and has settled in the  
trough and pushes it back to the        
uppermost part of the trough1 and this  
material1 since it contains a very great
 amount of tin-stone1 is thrown on to   
the plate and washed again4 ,the        
material which has settled in the lowest
 part of the trough is taken out        
separately and piled in a heap1 and is  
washed on the ordinary strake2 that     
which has settled in the pool is washed 
on the canvas strake4 ,in the           
summer-time this fruitful labour is     
repeated more often1 in fact ten or     
eleven times4 ,the tin-stone which the  
foreman removes from the box1 is        
afterward washed in a jigging sieve1 and
 lastly in a tub1 where at length all   
the sand is separated out4 ,finally1 any
 material in which are mixed particles  
of other metals1 can be washed by all   
these methods1 whether it has been      
disintegrated from veins or stringers1  
or whether it originated from venae     
dilatatae1 or from streams and rivers4  

,illustration #cde 7,ground ,sluicing73 
,a--,launder4 ,b--,cross trough4        
,c--,two spouts4 ,d--,boxes4 ,e--,plate4
 ,f--,grating4 ,g--,shovels4 ,h--,second
 cross trough4 ,i--,strake4 ,k--,wooden 
scrubber4 ,l--,third cross trough4      
,m--,launder4 ,n--,three-toothed rake4  
,the sixth method of washing material of
 this kind is even more modern and more 
useful than the last4 ,two boxes are    
constructed1 into each of which water   
flows through spouts from a cross trough
 into which it has been discharged      
through a pipe or launder4 ,when the    
material has been agitated and broken up
 with iron shovels by two boys1 part of 
it runs down and falls through the iron 
plates full of holes1 or through the    
iron grating1 and flows out of the box  
over a sloping surface into another     
cross trough1 and from this into a      
strake seven feet long and two and a    
half feet wide4 ,then the foreman again 
stirs it with a wooden scrubber that it 
may become clean4 ,as for the material  

which has flowed down with the water and
 settled in the third cross trough1 or  
in the launder which leads from it1 a   
third boy rakes it with a two-toothed   
rake2 in this way the fine tin-stone    
settles down and the water carries off  
the valueless sand into the creek4 ,this
 method of washing is most advantageous1
 for four men can do the work of washing
 in two boxes1 while the last method1 if
 doubled1 requires six men1 for it      
requires two boys to throw the material 
to be washed on to the plate and to stir
 it with iron shovels2 two more are     
required with wooden scrubbers to keep  
stirring the sand1 mixed with the       
tin-stone1 under the plate1 and to push 
it toward the upper end of the box2     
further1 two foremen are required to    
clean the tin-stone in the way ,i have  
described4 ,in the place of a plate full
 of holes1 they now fix in the boxes a  
grating made of iron wire as thick as   
the stalks of rye2 that these may not be
 depressed by the weight and become     

bent1 three iron bars support them1     
being laid crosswise underneath4 ,to    
prevent the grating from being broken by
 the iron shovels with which the        
material is stirred in washing1 five or 
six iron rods are placed on top in cross
 lines1 and are fixed to the box so that
 the shovels may rub them instead of the
 grating2 for this reason the grating   
lasts longer than the plates1 because it
 remains intact1 while the rods1 when   
worn by rubbing1 can easily be replaced 
by others4  ,illustration #cdf 7,ground 
,sluicing73 ,a--,pits4 ,b--,torrent4    
,c--,seven-pronged fork4 ,d--,shovel4   
,miners use the seventh method of       
washing when there is no stream of water
 in the part of the mountain which      
contains the black tin1 or particles of 
gold1 or of other metals4 ,in this case 
they frequently dig more than fifty     
ditches on the slope below1 or make the 
same number of pits1 six feet long1     
three feet wide1 and three-quarters of a
 foot deep1 not any great distance from 

each other4 ,at the season when a       
torrent rises from storms of great      
violence or long duration1 and rushes   
down the mountain1 some of the miners   
dig the metalliferous material in the   
woods with broad hoes and drag it to the
 torrent4 ,other miners divert the      
torrent into the ditches or pits1 and   
others throw the roots of trees1 shrubs1
 and grass out of the ditches or pits   
with seven-pronged wooden forks4 ,when  
the torrent has run down1 they remove   
with shovels the uncleansed tin-stone or
 particles of metal which have settled  
in the ditches or pits1 and cleanse it4 
,illustration #cdg 7,ground ,sluicing73 
,a--,gully4 ,b--,ditch4 ,c--,torrent4   
,d--,sluice box employed by the         
,lusitanians4  ,the eighth method is    
also employed in the regions which the  
,lusitanians hold in their power and    
sway1 and is not dissimilar to the last4
 ,they drive a great number of deep     
ditches in rows in the gullies1 slopes1 
and hollows of the mountains4 ,into     

these ditches the water1 whether flowing
 down from snow melted by the heat of   
the sun or from rain1 collects and      
carries together with earth and sand1   
sometimes tin-stone1 or1 in the case of 
the ,lusitanians1 the particles of gold 
loosened from veins and stringers4 ,as  
soon as the waters of the torrent have  
all run away1 the miners throw the      
material out of the ditches with iron   
shovels1 and wash it in a common sluice 
box4  ,illustration #cdh 7,trough for   
washing alluvial73 ,a--,trough4         
,b--,launder4 ,c--,hoe4 ,d--,sieve4     
,the ,poles wash the impure lead from   
venae dilatatae in a trough ten feet    
long1 three feet wide1 and one and      
one-quarter feet deep4 ,it is mixed with
 moist earth and is covered by a wet and
 sandy clay1 and so first of all the    
clay1 and afterward the ore1 is dug out4
 ,the ore is carried to a stream or     
river1 and thrown into a trough into    
which water is admitted by a little     
launder1 and the washer standing at the 

lower end of the trough drags the ore   
out with a narrow and nearly pointed    
hoe1 whose wooden handle is nearly ten  
feet long4 ,it is washed over again once
 or twice in the same way and thus made 
pure4 ,afterward when it has been dried 
in the sun they throw it into a copper  
sieve1 and separate the very small      
pieces which pass through the sieve from
 the larger ones2 of these the former   
are smelted in a faggot pile and the    
latter in the furnace4 ,of such a number
 then are the methods of washing4       
,illustration #cdi 7,tin burning        
,furnace73 ,a--,furnace4 ,b--,its mouth4
 ,c--,poker4 ,d--,rake with two teeth4  
,e--,hoe4  ,one method of burning is    
principally employed1 and two of        
roasting4 ,the black tin is burned by a 
hot fire in a furnace similar to an     
oven#ba2 it is burned if it is a        
dark-blue colour1 or if pyrites and the 
stone from which iron is made are mixed 
with it1 for the dark blue colour if not
 burnt1 consumes the tin4 ,if pyrites   

and the other stone are not volatilised 
into fumes in a furnace of this kind1   
the tin which is made from the tin-stone
 is impure4 ,the tin-stone is thrown    
either into the back part of the        
furnace1 or into one side of it2 but in 
the former case the wood is placed in   
front1 in the latter case alongside1 in 
such a manner1 however1 that neither    
firebrands nor coals may fall upon the  
tin-stone itself or touch it4 ,the fuel 
is manipulated by a poker made of wood4 
,the tin-stone is now stirred with a    
rake with two teeth1 and now again      
levelled down with a hoe1 both of which 
are made of iron4 ,the very fine        
tin-stone requires to be burned less    
than that of moderate size1 and this    
again less than that of the largest     
size4 ,while the tin-stone is being thus
 burned1 it frequently happens that some
 of the material runs together4  ,the   
burned tin-stone should then be washed  
again on the strake1 for in this way the
 material which has been run together is

 carried away by the water into the     
cross-trough1 where it is gathered up   
and worked over1 and again washed on the
 strake4 ,by this method the metal is   
separated from that which is devoid of  
metal4  ,illustration #cej 7,stall      
,roasting ,matte73 ,a--,pits4 ,b--,wood4
 ,c--,cakes4 ,d--,launder4  ,cakes from 
pyrites1 or cadmia1 or cupriferous      
stones1 are roasted in quadrangular     
pits1 of which the front and top are    
open1 and these pits are generally      
twelve feet long1 eight feet wide1 and  
three feet deep4 ,the cakes of melted   
pyrites are usually roasted twice over1 
and those of cadmia once4 ,these latter 
are first rolled in mud moistened with  
vinegar1 to prevent the fire from       
consuming too much of the copper with   
the bitumen1 or sulphur1 or orpiment1 or
 realgar4 ,the cakes of pyrites are     
first roasted in a slow fire and        
afterward in a fierce one1 and in both  
cases1 during the whole following night1
 water is let in1 in order that1 if     

there is in the cakes any alum or       
vitriol or saltpetre capable of injuring
 the metals1 although it rarely does    
injure them1 the water may remove it and
 make the cakes soft4 ,the solidified   
juices are nearly all harmful to the    
metal1 when cakes or ore of this kind   
are smelted4 ,the cakes which are to be 
roasted are placed on wood piled up in  
the form of a crate1 and this pile is   
fired#bb4  ,illustration #cea 7,matte   
,roasting73 ,a--,cakes4 ,b--,bundles of 
faggots4 ,c--,furnaces4  ,the cakes     
which are made of copper smelted from   
schist are first thrown upon the ground 
and broken1 and then placed in the      
furnace on bundles of faggots1 and these
 are lighted4 ,these cakes are generally
 roasted seven times and occasionally   
nine times4 ,while this is being done1  
if they are bituminous1 then the bitumen
 burns and can be smelled4 ,these       
furnaces have a structure like the      
structure of the furnaces in which ore  
is smelted1 except that they are open in

 front2 they are six feet high and four 
feet wide4 ,as for this kind of furnace1
 three of them are required for one of  
those in which the cakes are melted4    
,first of all they are roasted in the   
first furnace1 then when they are       
cooled1 they are transferred into the   
second furnace and again roasted2 later 
they are carried to the third1 and      
afterward back to the first1 and this   
order is preserved until they have been 
roasted seven or nine times4       ,,end
 ,,of ,,book ,,viii4   ,,footnotes3  #a 
,as would be expected1 practically all  
the technical terms used by ,agricola in
 this chapter are adaptations4 ,the     
,latin terms1 canalis1 area1 lacus1     
vasa1 cribrum1 and fossa1 have had to be
 pressed into service for many different
 devices1 largely by extemporised       
combinations4 ,where the devices        
described have become obsolete1 we have 
adopted the nomenclature of the old     
works on ,cornish methods4 ,the         
following examples may be of interest3--

    ,simple buddle    ,canalis simplex  
,divided buddle   ,canalis tabellis     
distinctus   ,ordinary strake  ,canalis 
devexus   ,short strake     ,area curta 
,canvas strake    ,area linteis extensis
 contecta   ,limp             ,radius4  
,the strake 7or streke7 when applied to 
alluvial tin1 would have been termed a  
tye in some parts of ,cornwall1 and the 
short strake a gounce4 ,in the case of  
the stamp mill1 inasmuch as almost every
 mechanical part has its counterpart in 
a modern mill1 we have considered the   
reader will have less difficulty if the 
modern designations are used instead of 
the old ,cornish4 ,the following are the
 essential terms in modern1 old         
,cornish1 and ,latin3--    ,stamp       
,stamper      ,pilum   ,stamp-stem      
,lifter       ,pilum   ,shoes           
,stamp-heads  ,capita   ,mortar-box     
,box          ,capsa   ,cam-shaft       
,barrell      ,axis   ,cams             
,caps         ,dentes   ,tappets        
,tongues      ,pili dentes   ,screen    

,crate        ,laminae foraminum plenae 
,settling pit   ,catchers     ,lacus    
,jigging sieve  ,dilleugher   ,cribrum  
angustum   #b ,agricola uses four ,latin
 verbs in connection with heat          
operations at temperatures under the    
melting point3 ,calefacio1 uro1 torreo1 
and cremo4 ,the first he always uses in 
the sense of to warm or to heat1 but the
 last three he uses indiscriminately in 
much the same way as the ,english verbs 
burn1 roast1 and calcine are used2 but  
in general he uses the ,latin verbs in  
the order given to indicate degrees of  
heat4 ,we have used the ,english verbs  
in their technical sense as indicated by
 the context4  ,it is very difficult to 
say when roasting began as a distinct   
and separate metallurgical step in      
sulphide ore treatment4 ,the ,greeks and
 ,romans worked both lead and copper    
sulphides 7see note on p4 #cia1 and note
 on p4 #djc71 but neither in the remains
 of old works nor in their literature is
 there anything from which satisfactory 

details of such a step can be obtained4 
,the ,ancients1 of course1 understood   
lime-burning1 and calcined several salts
 to purify them or to render them more  
caustic4 ,practically the only specific 
mention is by ,pliny regarding lead ores
 7see p4 #cia74 ,even the statement of  
,theophilus 7#ajej-aajj1 ,a4,d471 may   
refer simply to rendering ore more      
fragile1 for he says 7p4 #cje7 in regard
 to copper ore3 ,this stone dug up in   
abundance is placed upon a pile and     
burned 7comburitur7 after the manner of 
lime4 ,nor does it change colour1 but   
loses its hardness and can be broken up1
 and afterward it is smelted4 ,the      
,probierbuechlein casually mentions     
roasting prior to assaying1 and         
,biringuccio 7,,iii1 #b7 mentions       
incidentally that dry and ill-disposed  
ores before everything must be roasted  
in an open oven so that the air can get 
in4 ,he gives no further information2   
and therefore this account of           
,agricola's becomes practically the     

first4 ,apparently roasting1 as a       
preliminary to the treatment of copper  
sulphides1 did not come into use in     
,england until some time later than     
,agricola1 for in ,col4 ,grant ,francis'
 ,smelting of ,copper in the ,swansea   
,district 7,london1 #ahha1 p4 #bi71 a   
report is set of the ,doeinges of       
,jochim ,ganse--an imported ,german--at 
the ,mynes by ,keswicke in ,cumberland1 
,a4,d41 #aeha1 wherein the delinquencies
 of the then current practice are       
described3 ,thei never coulde1 nether   
yet can make 7copper7 under ,,xxii4     
tymes passinge thro the fire1 and       
,,xxii4 weekes doeing thereof ane       
sometyme more4 ,but now the nature of   
these ,,ix4 hurtfull humors abovesaid   
being discovered and opened by ,jochim's
 way of doeing1 we can1 by his order of 
workeinge1 so correct theim1 that parte 
of theim beinge by nature hurtfull to   
the copper in wasteinge of it1 ar by    
arte maide freindes1 and be not onely an
 encrease to the copper1 but further it 

in smeltinge2 and the rest of the other 
evill humors shalbe so corrected1 and   
their humors so taken from them1 that by
 once rosteinge and once smeltinge the  
ure 7which shalbe done in the space of  
three dayes71 the same copper ure shall 
yeeld us black copper4 ,jochim proposed 
by 'rostynge' to be rid of sulphur1     
arsineque1 and antimony4  #c ,orpiment  
and realgar are the red and yellow      
arsenical sulphides4 7,see note on p4   
#aaa74  #d ,cadmia bituminosa4 ,the     
description of this substance by        
,agricola1 given below1 indicates that  
it was his term for the complex         
copper-zinc-arsenic-cobalt minerals     
found in the well-known1 highly         
bituminous1 copper schists at           
,mannsfeld4 ,the later ,mineralogists1  
,wallerius 7,mineralogia1 ,stockholm1   
#agdg71 ,valmont ,de ,bomare            
7,mineralogie1 ,paris1 #agfb71 and      
others assume ,agricola's cadmia        
bituminosa to be black arsenic or       
arsenic noir1 but we see no reason for  

this assumption4 ,agricola's statement  
7,de ,nat4 ,foss41 p4 #cfi7 is 444 the  
schistose stone dug up at the foot of   
the ,melibocus ,mountains1 or as they   
are now called the ,harz 7,hercynium71  
near ,eisleben1 ,mannsfeld1 and near    
,hettstedt1 is similar to spinos 7a     
bituminous substance described by       
,theophrastus71 if not identical with   
it4 ,this is black1 bituminous1 and     
cupriferous1 and when first extracted   
from the mine it is thrown out into an  
open space and heaped up in a mound4    
,then the lower part of the mound is    
surrounded by faggots1 on to which are  
likewise thrown stones of the same kind4
 ,then the faggots are kindled and the  
fire soon spreads to the stones placed  
upon them2 by these the fire is         
communicated to the next1 which thus    
spreads to the whole heap4 ,this easy   
reception of fire is a characteristic   
which bitumen possesses in common with  
sulphur4 ,yet the small1 pure and black 
bituminous ore is distinguished from the

 stones as follows3 when they burn they 
emit the kind of odour which is usually 
given off by burning bituminous coal1   
and besides1 if while they are burning a
 small shower of rain should fall1 they 
burn more brightly and soften more      
quickly4 ,indeed1 when the wind carries 
the fumes so that they descend into     
nearby standing waters1 there can be    
seen floating in it something like a    
bituminous liquid1 either black1 or     
brown1 or purple1 which is sufficient to
 indicate that those stones were        
bituminous4 ,and that genus of stones   
has been recently found in the ,harz in 
layers1 having occasionally             
gold-coloured specks of pyrites adhering
 to them1 representing various flat     
sea-fish or pike or perch or birds1 and 
poultry cocks1 and sometimes            
salamanders4  #e ,atramentum sutorium   
rubrum4 ,literally1 this would be red   
vitriol4 ,the ,german translation gives 
rot kupferwasser1 also red vitriol4 ,we 
must confess that we cannot make this   

substance out1 nor can we find it       
mentioned in the other works of         
,agricola4 ,it may be the residue from  
leaching roasted pyrites for vitriol1   
which would be reddish oxide of iron4   
#f ,the statement elsewhere does not    
convey very much more information4 ,it  
is 7,de ,nat4 ,fos41 p4 #bec73 ,when    
,goslar pyrites and ,eisleben 7copper7  
schists are placed on the pyre and      
roasted for the third time1 they both   
exude a certain substance which is of a 
greenish colour1 dry1 rough1 and fibrous
 7tenue74 ,this substance1 like         
asbestos1 is not consumed by the fire4  
,the schists exude it more plentifully  
than the pyrites4 ,the ,interpretatio   
gives federwis1 as the ,german          
equivalent of amiantus 7asbestos74 ,this
 term was used for the feathery alum    
efflorescence on aluminous slates4  #g  
,bearing in mind that bituminous cadmia 
contained arsenical-cobalt minerals1    
this substance resembling pompholyx     
would probably be arsenic oxide4 ,in ,de

 ,natura ,fossilium 7p4 #cfh74 ,agricola
 discusses the pompholyx from cadmia at 
length and pronounces it to be of       
remarkably corrosive quality4 7,see also
 note on p4 #aab47  #h ,,historical     
,,note ,,on ,,crushing ,,and            
,,concentration ,,of ,,ores4 ,there can 
be no question that the first step in   
the metallurgy of ores was direct       
smelting1 and that this antedates human 
records4 ,the obvious advantages of     
reducing the bulk of the material to be 
smelted by the elimination of barren    
portions of the ore1 must have appealed 
to metallurgists at a very early date4  
,logically1 therefore1 we should find   
the second step in metallurgy to be     
concentration in some form4 ,the        
question of crushing is so much involved
 with concentration that we have not    
endeavoured to keep them separate4 ,the 
earliest indication of these processes  
appears to be certain inscriptions on   
monuments of the ,,iv ,dynasty 7#d1jjj  
,b4,c487 depicting gold washing         

7,wilkinson1 ,the ,ancient ,egyptians1  
,london1 #ahgd1 ,,ii1 p4 #acg74 ,certain
 stelae of the ,,xii ,dynasty 7#b1djj   
,b4,c47 in the ,british ,museum 7#add   
,bay #a and #ade ,bay #f7 refer to gold 
washing in the ,sudan1 and one of them  
appears to indicate the working of gold 
ore as distinguished from alluvial4 ,the
 first written description of the       
,egyptian methods--and probably that    
reflecting the most ancient technology  
of crushing and concentration--is that  
of ,agatharchides1 a ,greek geographer  
of the second ,century ,b4,c4 ,this work
 is lost1 but the passage in question is
 quoted by ,diodorus ,siculus 7#ast     
,century ,b4,c47 and by ,photius 7died  
#hia ,a4,d474 ,we give ,booth's         
translation of ,diodorus 7,london1      
#agjj1 p4 #hi71 slightly amended3 ,in   
the confines of ,egypt and the          
neighbouring countries of ,arabia and   
,ethiopia there is a place full of rich 
gold mines1 out of which with much cost 
and pains of many labourers gold is dug4

 ,the soil here is naturally black1 but 
in the body of the earth run many white 
veins1 shining like white marble1       
surpassing in lustre all other bright   
things4 ,out of these laborious mines1  
those appointed overseers cause the gold
 to be dug up by the labour of a vast   
multitude of people4 ,for the ,kings of 
,egypt condemn to these mines notorious 
criminals1 captives taken in war1       
persons sometimes falsely accused1 or   
against whom the ,king is incens'd2 and 
not only they themselves1 but sometimes 
all their kindred and relations together
 with them1 are sent to work here1 both 
to punish them1 and by their labour to  
advance the profit and gain of the      
,kings4 ,there are infinite numbers upon
 these accounts thrust down into these  
mines1 all bound in fetters1 where they 
work continually1 without being admitted
 any rest night or day1 and so strictly 
guarded that there is no possibility or 
way left to make an escape4 ,for they   
set over them barbarians1 soldiers of   

various and strange languages1 so that  
it is not possible to corrupt any of the
 guard by discoursing one with another1 
or by the gaining insinuations of       
familiar converse4 ,the earth which is  
hardest and full of gold they soften by 
putting fire under it1 and then work it 
out with their hands4 ,the rocks thus   
soften'd and made more pliant and       
yielding1 several thousands of          
profligate wretches break in pieces with
 hammers and pickaxes4 ,there is one    
artist that is the overseer of the whole
 work1 who marks out the stone1 and     
shows the labourers the way and manner  
how he would have it done4 ,those that  
are the strongest amongst them that are 
appointed to this slavery1 provided with
 sharp iron pickaxes1 cleave the        
marble-shining rock by mere force and   
strength1 and not by arts or            
sleight-of-hand4 ,they undermine not the
 rock in a direct line1 but follow the  
bright shining vein of the mine4 ,they  
carry lamps fastened to their foreheads 

to give them light1 being otherwise in  
perfect darkness in the various windings
 and turnings wrought in the mine2 and  
having their bodies appearing sometimes 
of one colour and sometimes of another  
7according to the nature of the mine    
where they work7 they throw the lumps   
and pieces of the stone cut out of the  
rock upon the floor4 ,and thus they are 
employed continually without            
intermission1 at the very nod of the    
overseer1 who lashes them severely      
besides4 ,and there are little boys who 
penetrate through the galleries into the
 cavities and with great labour and toil
 gather up the lumps and pieces hewed   
out of the rock as they are cast upon   
the ground1 and carry them forth and lay
 them upon the bank4 ,those that are    
over thirty years of age take a piece of
 the rock of such a certain quantity1   
and pound it in a stone mortar with iron
 pestles till it be as small as a vetch2
 then those little stones so pounded are
 taken from them by women and older men1

 who cast them into mills that stand    
together there near at hand in a long   
row1 and two or three of them being     
employed at one mill they grind a       
certain measure given to them at a time1
 until it is as small as fine meal4 ,no 
care at all is taken of the bodies of   
these poor creatures1 so that they have 
not a rag so much as to cover their     
nakedness1 and no man that sees them can
 choose but commiserate their sad and   
deplorable condition4 ,for though they  
are sick1 maimed1 or lame1 no rest nor  
intermission in the least is allowed    
them2 neither the weakness of old age1  
nor women's infirmities are any plea to 
excuse them2 but all are driven to their
 work with blows and cudgelling1 till at
 length1 overborne with the intolerable 
weight of their misery1 they drop down  
dead in the midst of their insufferable 
labours2 so that these miserable        
creatures always expect the future to be
 more terrible than even the present1   
and therefore long for death as far more

 desirable than life4  ,at length the   
masters of the work take the stone thus 
ground to powder1 and carry it away in  
order to perfect it4 ,they spread the   
mineral so ground upon a broad board1   
somewhat sloping1 and pouring water upon
 it1 rub it and cleanse it2 and so all  
the earthy and drossy part being        
separated from the rest by the water1 it
 runs off the board1 and the gold by    
reason of its weight remains behind4    
,then washing it several times again1   
they first rub it lightly with their    
hands2 afterward they draw off any      
earthy and drossy matter with slender   
sponges gently applied to the powdered  
dust1 till it be clean1 pure gold4 ,at  
last other workmen take it away by      
weight and measure1 and these put it    
into earthen pots1 and according to the 
quantity of the gold in every pot they  
mix with it some lead1 grains of salt1 a
 little tin and barley bran4 ,then1     
covering every pot close1 and carefully 
daubing them over with clay1 they put   

them in a furnace1 where they abide five
 days and nights together2 then after a 
convenient time that they have stood to 
cool1 nothing of the other matter is to 
be found in the pots but only pure1     
refined gold1 some little thing         
diminished in the weight4 ,and thus gold
 is prepared in the borders of ,egypt1  
and perfected and completed with so many
 and so great toils and vexations4 ,and1
 therefore1 ,i cannot but conclude that 
nature itself teaches us1 that as gold  
is got with labour and toil1 so it is   
kept with difficulty2 it creates        
everywhere the greatest cares2 and the  
use of it is mixed both with pleasure   
and sorrow4  ,the remains at ,mt4       
,laurion show many of the ancient mills 
and concentration works of the ,greeks1 
but we cannot be absolutely certain at  
what period in the history of these     
mines crushing and concentration were   
introduced4 ,while the mines were worked
 with great activity prior to #ejj      
,b4,c4 7see note #f1 p4 #bg71 it was    

quite feasible for the ancient miner to 
have smelted these argentiferous lead   
ores direct4 ,however1 at some period   
prior to the decadence of the mines in  
the #crd ,century ,b4,c41 there was in  
use an extensive system of milling and  
concentration4 ,for the following       
details we are indebted mostly to       
,edouard ,ardaillon 7,les ,mines ,du    
,laurion dans l',antiquite1 ,chap4      
,,iv474 ,the ore was first hand-picked  
7in #ahfi one portion of these rejects  
was estimated at #g1jjj1jjj tons7 and   
afterward it was apparently crushed in  
stone mortars some #af to #bd inches in 
diameter1 and thence passed to the      
mills4 ,these mills1 which crushed dry1 
were of the upper and lower millstone   
order1 like the old-fashioned flour     
mills1 and were turned by hand4 ,the    
stones were capable of adjustment in    
such a way as to yield different sizes4 
,the sand was sifted and the oversize   
returned to the mills4 ,from the mills  
it was taken to washing plants1 which   

consisted essentially of an inclined    
area1 below which a canal1 sometimes    
with riffles1 led through a series of   
basins1 ultimately returning the water  
again to near the head of the area4     
,these washing areas1 constructed with  
great care1 were made of stone cemented 
over smoothly1 and were so efficiently  
done as to remain still intact4 ,in     
washing1 a workman brushed upward the   
pulp placed on the inclined upper       
portion of the area1 thus concentrating 
there a considerable proportion of the  
galena2 what escaped had an opportunity 
to settle in the sequence of basins1    
somewhat on the order of the buddle4 ,a 
quotation by ,strabo 7,,iii1 #b1 #aj7   
from the lost work of ,polybius         
7#bjj-abe ,b4,c47 also indicates        
concentration of lead-silver ores in    
,spain previous to the ,christian era3  
,polybius speaking of the silver mines  
of ,new ,carthage1 tells us that they   
are extremely large1 distant from the   
city about #bj stadia1 and occupy a     

circuit of #djj stadia1 that there are  
#dj1jjj men regularly engaged in them1  
and that they yield daily to the ,roman 
people 7a revenue of7 #be1jjj drachmae4 
,the rest of the process ,i pass over1  
as it is too long1 but as for the silver
 ore collected1 he tells us that it is  
broken up1 and sifted through sieves    
over water2 that what remains is to be  
again broken1 and the water having been 
strained off1 it is to be sifted and    
broken a third time4 ,the dregs which   
remain after the fifth time are to be   
melted1 and the lead being poured off1  
the silver is obtained pure4 ,these     
silver mines still exist2 however1 they 
are no longer the property of the state1
 neither these nor those elsewhere1 but 
are possessed by private individuals4   
,the gold mines1 on the contrary1 nearly
 all belong to the state4 ,both at      
,castlon and other places there are     
singular lead mines worked4 ,they       
contain a small proportion of silver1   
but not sufficient to pay for the       

expense of refining4 7,hamilton's       
,translation1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #bbb74      
,while ,pliny gives considerable        
information on vein mining and on       
alluvial washing1 the following obscure 
passage 7,,xxxiii1 #ba7 appears to be   
the only reference to concentration of  
ores3 ,that which is dug out is crushed1
 washed1 roasted1 and ground to powder4 
,this powder is called apitascudes1     
while the silver 7lead87 which becomes  
disengaged in the furnace is called     
sudor 7sweat74 ,that which is ejected   
from the chimney is called scoria as    
with other metals4 ,in the case of gold 
this scoria is crushed and melted again4
 ,it is evident enough from these       
quotations that the ,ancients by washing
 and sifting1 grasped the practical     
effect of differences in specific       
gravity of the various components of an 
ore4 ,such processes are barely         
mentioned by other mediaeval authors1   
such as ,theophilus1 ,biringuccio1 etc41
 and thus the account in this chapter is

 the first tangible technical           
description4 ,lead mining has been in   
active progress in ,derbyshire since the
 #acth century1 and concentration was   
done on an inclined board until the     
#afth century1 when ,william ,humphrey  
7see below7 introduced the jigging      
sieve4 ,some further notes on this      
industry will be found in note #a1 p4   
#gg4 ,however1 the buddle and strake    
which appear at that time1 are but      
modest improvements over the board      
described by ,agatharchides in the      
quotation above4  ,the ancient crushing 
appliances1 as indicated by the ancient 
authors and by the ,greek and ,roman    
remains scattered over ,europe1 were    
hand-mortars and mill-stones of the same
 order as those with which they ground  
flour4 ,the stamp-mill1 the next advance
 over grinding in mill-stones1 seems to 
have been invented some time late in the
 #aeth or early in the #afth centuries1 
but who invented it is unknown4         
,beckmann 7,hist4 of ,inventions1 ,,ii1 

p4 #cce7 says3 ,in the year #aeai the   
process of sifting and wet-stamping was 
established at ,joachimsthal by ,paul   
,grommestetter1 a native of ,schwarz1   
named on that account the ,schwarzer1   
whom ,melzer praises as an ingenious and
 active washer2 and we are told that he 
had before introduced the same          
improvements at ,schneeberg4 ,soon      
after1 that is in #aeba1 a large        
stamping-work was erected at            
,joachimsthal1 and the process of       
washing was begun4 ,a considerable      
saving was thus made1 as a great many   
metallic particles were before left in  
the washed sand1 which was either thrown
 away or used as mortar for building4   
,in the year #aebe1 ,hans ,poertner     
employed at ,schlackenwalde the wet     
method of stamping1 whereas before that 
period the ore there was ground4 ,in the
 ,harz this invention was introduced at 
,wildenmann by ,peter ,philip1 who was  
assay-master there soon after the works 
at the ,upper ,harz were resumed by     

,duke ,henry the ,younger1 about the    
year #aebd4 ,this we learn from the     
papers of ,herdan ,hacke or ,haecke1 who
 was preacher at ,wildenmann in #aegb4  
,in view of the great amount of direct  
and indirect reference to tin mining in 
,cornwall1 covering four centuries prior
 to ,agricola1 it would be natural to   
expect some statement bearing upon the  
treatment of ore4 ,curiously enough1    
while alluvial washing and smelting of  
the black-tin are often referred to1    
there is nothing that we have been able 
to find1 prior to ,richard ,carew's     
,survey of ,cornwall 7,london1 #afjb1 p4
 #ab7 which gives any tangible evidence 
on the technical phases of ore-dressing4
 ,in any event1 an inspection of        
charters1 tax-rolls1 ,stannary ,court   
proceedings1 etc41 prior to that date   
gives the impression that vein mining   
was a very minor portion of the source  
of production4 ,although ,carew's work  
dates #de years after ,agricola1 his    
description is of interest3 ,as much    

almost dooth it exceede credite1 that   
the ,tynne1 for and in so small         
quantitie digged up with so great toyle1
 and passing afterwards thorow the      
managing of so many hands1 ere it comes 
to sale1 should be any way able to      
acquite the cost3 for being once brought
 above ground in the stone1 it is first 
broken in peeces with hammers2 and then 
carryed1 either in waynes1 or on horses'
 backs1 to a stamping mill1 where three1
 and in some places sixe great logges of
 timber1 bounde at the ends with yron1  
and lifted up and downe by a wheele1    
driven with the water1 doe break it     
smaller4 ,if the stones be over-moyst1  
they are dried by the fire in an yron   
cradle or grate4 ,from the stamping     
mill1 it passeth to the crazing mill1   
which betweene two grinding stones1     
turned also with a water-wheel1 bruseth 
the same to a find sand2 howbeit1 of    
late times they mostly use wet stampers1
 and so have no need of the crazing     
mills for their best stuffe1 but only   

for the crust of their tayles4 ,the     
streame1 after it hath forsaken the     
mill1 is made to fall by certayne       
degrees1 one somewhat distant from      
another2 upon each of which1 at every   
discent1 lyeth a greene turfe1 three or 
foure foote square1 and one foote thick4
 ,on this the ,tinner layeth a certayne 
portion of the sandie ,tinne1 and with  
his shovel softly tosseth the same to   
and fro1 that1 through this stirring1   
the water which runneth over it may wash
 away the light earth from the ,tinne1  
which of a heavier substance lyeth fast 
on the turfe4 ,having so clensed one    
portion1 he setteth the same aside1 and 
beginneth with another1 until his labour
 take end with his taske4 ,the best of  
those turfes 7for all sorts serve not7  
are fetched about two miles to the      
eastwards of ,s4 ,michael's ,mount1     
where at low water they cast aside the  
sand1 and dig them up2 they are full of 
rootes of trees1 and on some of them    
nuts have been found1 which confirmeth  

my former assertion of the sea's        
intrusion4 ,after it is thus washed1    
they put the remnant into a wooden dish1
 broad1 flat1 and round1 being about two
 foote over1 and having two handles     
fastened at the sides1 by which they    
softly shogge the same to and fro in the
 water betweene their legges1 as they   
sit over it1 untill whatsoever of the   
earthie substance that was yet left be  
flitted away4 ,some of later time1 with 
a sleighter invention1 and lighter      
labour1 doe cause certayne boyes to stir
 it up and down with their feete1 which 
worketh the same effect2 the residue1   
after this often clensing1 they call    
,blacke ,tynne4  ,it will be noticed    
that the wet stampers and the           
buddle--worked with boyes feete--are    
innovations of late times4 ,and the     
interesting question arises as to       
whether ,cornwall did not derive the    
stamp-mill1 buddle1 and strake1 from the
 ,germans4 ,the first adequate detailed 
description of ,cornish appliances is   

that of ,pryce 7,mineralogia            
,cornubiensis1 ,london1 #aggh7 where the
 apparatus is identical with that       
described by ,agricola #acj years       
before4 ,the word stamper of ,cornwall  
is of ,german origin1 from stampfer1 or1
 as it is often written in old ,german  
works1 stamper4 ,however1 the pursuit of
 the subject through etymology ends     
here1 for no derivatives in ,german can 
be found for buddle1 tye1 strake1 or    
other collateral terms4 ,the first      
tangible evidence of ,german influence  
is to be found in ,carew who1 continuing
 after the above quotation1 states3 ,but
 sithence ,i gathered stickes to the    
building of this poore nest1 ,sir       
,francis ,godolphin 7whose kind helpe   
hath much advanced this my playing      
labour7 entertained a ,dutch ,mynerall  
man1 and taking light from his          
experience1 but building thereon farre  
more profitable conclusions of his owne 
invention1 hath practised a more saving 
way in these matters1 and besides1 made 

,tynne with good profit of that refuse  
which ,tynners rejected as nothing      
worth4 ,beyond this quotation we can    
find no direct evidence of the influence
 of ,dutch ,mynerall men in ,cornish tin
 mining at this time4 ,there can be no  
doubt1 however1 that in copper mining in
 ,cornwall and elsewhere in ,england1   
the ,dutch ,mynerall men did play a     
large part in the latter part of the    
#afth ,century4 ,pettus 7,fodinae       
,regales1 ,london1 #afgj1 p4 #bj7 states
 that about the third year of ,queen    
,elizabeth 7#aefa7 she by the advice of 
her ,council sent over for some ,germans
 experienced in mines1 and being        
supplied1 she1 on the tenth of ,october1
 in the sixth of her reign1 granted the 
mines of eight counties 444 to          
,houghsetter1 a ,german whose name and  
family still continue in ,cardiganshire4
 ,elizabeth granted large mining rights 
to various ,germans1 and the opening    
paragraphs of two out of several        
,charters may be quoted in point4 ,this 

grant is dated #aefe1 and in part reads3
 ,,elizabeth1 by the ,grace of ,god1    
,queen of ,england1 ,france1 and        
,ireland1 ,defender of the ,faith1 c4   
,to all ,men to whom these ,letters     
,patents shall come1 ,greeting4 ,where  
heretofore we have granted ,privileges  
to ,cornelius de ,voz1 for the ,mining  
and ,digging in our ,realm of ,england1 
for ,allom and ,copperas1 and for divers
 ,ewers of ,metals that were to be found
 in digging for the said ,allom and     
,copperas1 incidently and consequently  
without fraud or guile1 as by the same  
our ,privilege may appear4 ,and where we
 also moved1 by credible ,report to us  
made1 of one ,daniel ,houghsetter1 a    
,german born1 and of his ,skill and     
,knowledge of and in all manner of      
,mines1 of ,metals and ,minerals1 have  
given and granted ,privilege to ,thomas 
,thurland1 ,clerk1 one of our           
,chaplains1 and ,master of the ,hospital
 of ,savoy1 and to the same ,daniel1 for
 digging and mining for all manner of   

,ewers of ,gold1 ,silver1 ,copper1 and  
,quicksilver1 within our ,counties of   
,york1 ,lancaster1 ,cumberland1         
,westmorland1 ,cornwall1 ,devon1        
,gloucester1 and ,worcester1 and within 
our ,principality of ,wales2 and with   
the same further to deal1 as by our said
 ,privilege thereof granted and made to 
the said ,thomas ,thurland and ,daniel  
,houghsetter may appear4 ,and we now    
being minded that the said ,commodities1
 and all other ,treasures of the ,earth1
 in all other ,places of our ,realm of  
,england4444 ,on the same date another  
grant reads3 ,,elizabeth1 by the ,grace 
of ,god1 ,queen of ,england1 ,france1   
and ,ireland1 ,defender of the ,faith1  
c4 ,to all ,men to whom these our       
,letters ,patents shall come1 ,greeting4
 ,where we have received credible       
,information that our faithful and      
well-beloved ,subject ,william ,humfrey1
 ,saymaster of our ,mint within our     
,tower of ,london1 by his great         
,endeavour1 ,labour1 and ,charge1 hath  

brought into this our ,realm of ,england
 one ,christopher ,shutz1 an ,almain1   
born at ,st4 ,annen ,berg1 under the    
,obedience of the ,electer of ,saxony2 a
 ,workman as it is reported1 of great   
,cunning1 ,knowledge1 and ,experience1  
as well in the finding of the ,calamin  
,stone1 call'd in ,latin1 lapis         
calaminaris1 and in the right and proper
 use and commodity thereof1 for the     
,composition of the mix'd ,metal        
commonly call'd latten1 etc4 ,col4      
,grant-,francis1 in his most valuable   
collection 7,smelting of ,copper in the 
,swansea ,district1 ,london1 #ahha7 has 
published a collection of correspondence
 relating to early mining and smelting  
operations in ,great ,britain4 ,and     
among them 7p4 #a41 etc47 are letters in
 the years #aehc-f from ,william        
,carnsewe and others to ,thomas ,smyth1 
with regard to the first smelter erected
 at ,neath1 which was based upon copper 
mines in ,cornwall4 ,he mentions ,mr4   
,weston's 7a partner7 provydence in     

bringynge hys ,dutch myners hether to   
aplye such businys in this countrye ys  
more to be commendyd than his ignorance 
of our countrymen's actyvytyes in suche 
matters4 ,the principal ,dutche ,mineral
 ,master referred to was one ,ulrick    
,frosse1 who had charge of the mine at  
,perin ,sands in ,cornwall1 and         
subsequently of the smelter at ,neath4  
,further on is given 7p4 #be7 a ,report 
by ,jochim ,gaunse upon the ,smelting of
 copper ores at ,keswick in ,cumberland 
in #aeha1 referred to in note #b1 p4    
#bfg4 ,the ,daniel ,hochstetter         
mentioned in the ,charter above1        
together with other ,german and ,english
 gentlemen1 formed the ,company of      
,mines ,royal and among the properties  
worked were those with which ,gaunse's  
report is concerned4 ,there is in the   
,record ,office1 ,london 7,exchequer    
,k4,r4 ,com4 ,derby #faa4 ,eliz47 the   
record of an interesting inquisition    
into ,derbyshire methods in which a then
 recent great improvement was the       

jigging sieve1 the introduction of which
 was due to ,william ,humphrey          
7mentioned above74 ,it is possible that 
he learned of it from the ,german with  
whom he was associated4 ,much more      
evidence of the activity of the ,germans
 in ,english mining at this period can  
be adduced4  ,on the other hand1        
,cornwall has laid claims to having     
taught the art of tin mining and        
metallurgy to the ,germans4 ,matthew    
,paris1 a ,benedictine monk1 by birth an
 ,englishman1 who died in #abei1 relates
 7,historia ,major ,angliae1 ,london1   
#aega7 that a ,cornishman who fled to   
,germany on account of a murder1 first  
discovered tin there in #abda1 and that 
in consequence the price of tin fell    
greatly4 ,this statement is recalled    
with great persistence by many writers  
on ,cornwall4 7,camden1 ,britannia1     
,london1 #aehf2 ,borlase1 ,natural      
,history of ,cornwall1 ,oxford1 #ageh2  
,pryce1 ,mineralogia ,cornubiensis1     
,london1 #aggh1 p4 #gj1 and others74    

#aa ,lapidibus liquescentibus4 7,see    
note #ae1 p4 #chj74  #ab ,,historical   
,,note ,,on ,,amalgamation4 ,the        
recovery of gold by the use of mercury  
possibly dates from ,roman times1 but   
the application of the process to silver
 does not seem to go back prior to the  
#afth ,century4 ,quicksilver was        
well-known to the ,greeks1 and is       
described by ,theophrastus 7#aje7 and   
others 7see note #eh1 p4 #dcb1 on       
quicksilver74 ,however1 the ,greeks made
 no mention of its use for amalgamation1
 and1 in fact1 ,dioscorides 7,v1 #gj7   
says it is kept in vessels of glass1    
lead1 tin or silver2 if kept in vessels 
of any other kind it consumes them and  
flows away4 ,it was used by them for    
medicinal purposes4 ,the ,romans        
amalgamated gold with mercury1 but      
whether they took advantage of the      
principle to recover gold from ores we  
do not know4 ,vitruvius 7,,vii1 #h7     
makes the following statement3--,if     
quicksilver be placed in a vessel and a 

stone of a hundred pounds' weight be    
placed on it1 it will swim at the top1  
and will1 notwithstanding its weight1 be
 incapable of pressing the liquid so as 
to break or separate it4 ,if this be    
taken out1 and only a single scruple of 
gold be put in1 that will not swim1 but 
immediately descend to the bottom4 ,this
 is a proof that the gravity of a body  
does not depend on its weight1 but on   
its nature4 ,quicksilver is used for    
many purposes2 without it1 neither      
silver nor brass can be properly gilt4  
,when gold is embroidered on a garment  
which is worn out and no longer fit for 
use1 the cloth is burnt over the fire in
 earthen pots2 the ashes are thrown into
 water and quicksilver added to them2   
this collects all the particles of gold 
and unites with them4 ,the water is then
 poured off and the residuum placed in a
 cloth1 which1 when squeezed with the   
hands1 suffers the liquid quicksilver to
 pass through the pores of the cloth1   
but retains the gold in a mass within   

it4 7,gwilt's ,trans41 p4 #bag74 ,pliny 
is rather more explicit 7,,xxxiii1 #cb73
 ,all floats on it 7quicksilver7 except 
gold4 ,this it draws into itself1 and on
 that account is the best means of      
purifying2 for1 on being repeatedly     
agitated in earthen pots it casts out   
the other things and the impurities4    
,these things being rejected1 in order  
that it may give up the gold1 it is     
squeezed in prepared skins1 through     
which1 exuding like perspiration1 it    
leaves the gold pure4 ,it may be noted  
particularly that both these authors    
state that gold is the only substance   
that does not float1 and1 moreover1     
nowhere do we find any reference to     
silver combining with mercury1 although 
,beckmann 7,hist4 of ,inventions1 ,vol4 
,i1 p4 #ad7 not only states that the    
above passage from ,pliny refers to     
silver1 but in further error1 attributes
 the origin of silver amalgamation of   
ores to the ,spaniards in the ,indies4  
,the ,alchemists of the ,middle ,ages   

were well aware that silver would       
amalgamate with mercury4 ,there is1     
however1 difficulty in any conclusion   
that it was applied by them to          
separating silver or gold from ore4 ,the
 involved gibberish in which most of    
their utterances was couched1 obscures  
most of their reactions in any event4   
,the ,school of ,geber 7,appendix ,b7   
held that all metals were a compound of 
spiritual mercury and sulphur1 and they 
clearly amalgamated silver with mercury1
 and separated them by distillation4    
,the ,probierbuechlein 7#aebj87         
describes a method of recovering silver 
from the cement used in parting gold and
 silver1 by mixing the cement 7silver   
chlorides7 with quicksilver4 ,agricola  
nowhere in this work mentions the       
treatment of silver ores by             
amalgamation1 although he was familiar  
with ,biringuccio 7,de ,la              
,pirotechnia71 as he himself mentions in
 the ,preface4 ,this work1 published at 
least ten years before ,de ,re          

,metallica1 contains the first          
comprehensive account of silver         
amalgamation4 ,there is more than usual 
interest in the description1 because1   
not only did it precede ,de ,re         
,metallica1 but it is also a specific   
explanation of the fundamental          
essentials of the ,patio ,process long  
before the date when the ,spaniards     
could possibly have invented that       
process in ,mexico4 ,we quote ,mr4 ,a4  
,dick's translation from ,percy         
7,metallurgy of ,silver and ,gold1 p4   
#efj73  ,he was certainly endowed with  
much useful and ingenious thought who   
invented the short method of extracting 
metal from the sweepings produced by    
those arts which have to do with gold   
and silver1 every substance left in the 
refuse by smelters1 and also the        
substance from certain ores themselves1 
without the labour of fusing1 but by the
 sole means and virtue of mercury4 ,to  
effect this1 a large basin is first     
constructed of stone or timber and      

walled1 into which is fitted a millstone
 made to turn like that of a mill4 ,into
 the hollow of this basin is placed     
matter containing gold 7della materia   
vra che tiene oro71 well ground in a    
mortar and afterward washed and dried2  
and1 with the above-mentioned millstone1
 it is ground while being moistened with
 vinegar1 or water1 in which has been   
dissolved corrosive sublimate           
7solimato71 verdigris 7verde rame71 and 
common salt4 ,over these materials is   
then put as much mercury as will cover  
them2 they are then stirred for an hour 
or two1 by turning the millstone1 either
 by hand1 or horse-power1 according to  
the plan adopted1 bearing in mind that  
the more the mercury and the materials  
are bruised together by the millstone1  
the more the mercury may be trusted to  
have taken up the substance which the   
materials contain4 ,the mercury1 in this
 condition1 can then be separated from  
the earthy matter by a sieve1 or by     
washing1 and thus you will recover the  

auriferous mercury 7el vro mercurio74   
,after this1 by driving off the mercury 
by means of a flask 7i4e41 by heating in
 a retort or an alembic71 or by passing 
it through a bag1 there will remain1 at 
the bottom1 the gold1 silver1 or copper1
 or whatever metal was placed in the    
basin under the millstone to be ground4 
,having been desirous of knowing this   
secret1 ,i gave to him who taught it to 
me a ring with a diamond worth #be      
ducats2 he also required me to give him 
the eighth part of any profit ,i might  
make by using it4 ,this ,i wished to    
tell you1 not that you should return the
 ducats to me for teaching you the      
secret1 but in order that you should    
esteem it all the more and hold it dear4
  ,in another part of the treatise      
,biringuccio states that washed         
7concentrated7 ores may be ultimately   
reduced either by lead or mercury4      
,concerning these silver concentrates he
 writes3 ,afterward drenching them with 
vinegar in which has been put green     

copper 7i4e41 verdigris72 or drenching  
them with water in which has been       
dissolved vitriol and green copper4444  
,he next describes how this material    
should be ground with mercury4 ,the     
question as to who was the inventor of  
silver amalgamation will probably never 
be cleared up4 ,according to ,ulloa     
7,relacion ,historica ,del ,viage a la  
,america ,meridional1 ,madrid1 #agdh7   
,dom ,pedro ,fernandes ,de ,velasco     
discovered the process in ,mexico in    
#aeff4 ,the earliest technical account  
is that of ,father ,joseph ,de ,acosta  
7,historia ,natural y ,moral de las     
,indias1 ,seville1 #aeij1 ,english      
trans4 ,edward ,grimston1 ,london1      
#afjd1 re-published by the ,hakluyt     
,society1 #ahhj74 ,acosta was born in   
#aedj1 and spent the years #aegj to     
#aehe in ,peru1 and #aehf in ,mexico4   
,it may be noted that ,potosi was       
discovered in #aede4 ,he states that    
refining silver with mercury was        
introduced at ,potosi by ,pedro         

,fernandes de ,velasco from ,mexico in  
#aega1 and states 7,grimston's ,trans41 
,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bai73 444 ,they put the   
powder of the metall into the vessels   
upon furnaces1 whereas they anoint it   
and mortifie it with brine1 putting to  
every fiftie quintalles of powder five  
quintalles of salt4 ,and this they do   
for that the salt separates the earth   
and filth1 to the end the quicksilver   
may the more easily draw the silver unto
 it4 ,after1 they put quicksilver into a
 piece of holland and presse it out upon
 the metall1 which goes forth like a    
dewe1 alwaies turning and stirring the  
metall1 to the end it may be well       
incorporate4 ,before the invention of   
these furnaces of fire1 they did often  
mingle their metall with quicksilver in 
great troughes1 letting it settle some  
daies1 and did then mix it and stirre it
 againe1 until they thought all the     
quicksilver were well incorporate with  
the silver1 the which continued twentie 
daies and more1 and at least nine daies4

 ,frequent mention of the different     
methods of silver amalgamation is made  
by the ,spanish writers subsequent to   
this time1 the best account being that  
of ,alonso ,barba1 a priest4 ,barba was 
a native of ,lepe1 in ,andalusia1 and   
followed his calling at various places  
in ,peru from about #afjj to about      
#afcj1 and at one time held the ,curacy 
of ,st4 ,bernard at ,potosi4 ,in #afdj  
he published at ,madrid his ,arte de los
 ,metales1 etc41 in five books4 ,the    
first two books of this work were       
translated into ,english by the ,earl of
 ,sandwich1 and published in ,london in 
#afgd1 under the title ,the ,first ,book
 of the ,art of ,metals4 ,this          
translation is equally wretched with    
those in ,french and ,german1 as might  
be expected from the translators' total 
lack of technical understanding4 ,among 
the methods of silver amalgamation      
described by ,barba is one which1 upon  
later discovery at ,virginia ,city1 is  
now known as the ,washoe ,process4 ,none

 of the ,spanish writers1 so far as we  
know1 make reference to ,biringuccio's  
account1 and the question arises whether
 the ,patio ,process was an importation 
from ,europe or whether it was          
re-invented in ,mexico4 ,while there is 
no direct evidence on the point1 the    
presumption is in favour of the former4 
,the general introduction of the        
amalgamation of silver ores into        
,central ,europe seems to have been very
 slow1 and over #bjj years elapsed after
 its adoption in ,peru and ,mexico      
before it received serious attention by 
the ,german ,metallurgists4 ,ignaz      
,elder v4 ,born was the first to        
establish the process effectually in    
,europe1 he having in #aghd erected a   
quick-mill at ,glasshutte1 near         
,shemnitz4 ,he published an elaborate   
account of a process which he claimed as
 his own1 under the title ,ueber das    
,anquicken der ,gold und                
,silberhaeltigen ,erze1 ,vienna1 #aghf4 
,the only thing new in his process seems

 to have been mechanical agitation4     
,according to ,born1 a ,spaniard named  
,don ,juan de ,corduba1 in the year     
#aehh1 applied to the ,court at ,vienna 
offering to extract silver from ores    
with mercury4 ,various tests were       
carried out under the celebrated        
,lazarus ,erckern1 and although it      
appears that some vitriol and salt were 
used1 the trials apparently failed1 for 
,erckern concluded his report with the  
advice3 ,that their ,lordships should   
not suffer any more expense to be thrown
 away upon this experiment4 ,born's work
 was translated into ,english by ,r4 ,e4
 ,raspe1 under the title--,baron ,inigo 
,born's ,new ,process of ,amalgamation1 
etc41 ,london1 #agia4 ,some interest    
attaches to ,raspe1 in that he was not  
only the author of ,baron ,munchausen1  
but was also the villain in ,scott's    
,antiquary4 ,raspe was a ,german        
,professor at ,cassel1 who fled to      
,england to avoid arrest for theft4 ,he 
worked at various mines in ,cornwall1   

and in #agia involved ,sir ,john        
,sinclair in a fruitless mine1 but      
disappeared before that was known4 ,the 
incident was finally used by ,sir       
,walter ,scott in this novel4  #ac      
,aurum in ea remanet purum4 ,this same  
error of assuming squeezed amalgam to be
 pure gold occurs in ,pliny2 see        
previous footnote4  #ad ,george1 ,duke  
of ,saxony1 surnamed ,the ,bearded1 was 
born #adga1 and died #aeci4 ,he was     
chiefly known for his bitter opposition 
to the ,reformation4  #ae ,the ,julian  
,alps are a section east of the ,carnic 
,alps and lie north of ,trieste4 ,the   
term ,rhaetian ,alps is applied to that 
section along the ,swiss ,italian       
,boundary1 about north of ,lake ,como4  
#af ,ancient ,lusitania comprised       
,portugal and some neighbouring portions
 of ,spain4  #ag ,colchis1 the          
traditional land of the ,golden ,fleece1
 lay between the ,caucasus on the north1
 ,armenia on the south1 and the ,black  
,sea on the west4 ,if ,agricola's       

account of the metallurgical purpose of 
the fleece is correct1 then ,jason must 
have had real cause for complaint as to 
the tangible results of his expedition4 
,the fact that we hear nothing of the   
fleece after the day it was taken from  
the dragon would thus support           
,agricola's theory4 ,tons of ink have   
been expended during the past thirty    
centuries in explanations of what the   
fleece really was4 ,these explanations  
range through the supernatural and      
metallurgical1 but more recent writers  
have endeavoured to construct the       
journey of the ,argonauts into an epic  
of the development of the ,greek trade  
in gold with the ,euxine4 ,we will not  
attempt to traverse them from a         
metallurgical point of view further than
 to maintain that ,agricola's           
explanation is as probable and equally  
as ingenious as any other1 although     
,strabo 7,,xi1 #b1 #ai47 gives much the 
same view long before4  ,alluvial       
mining--gold washing--being as old as   

the first glimmer of civilization1 it is
 referred to1 directly or indirectly1 by
 a great majority of ancient writers1   
poets1 historians1 geographers1 and     
naturalists4 ,early ,egyptian           
inscriptions often refer to this        
industry1 but from the point of view of 
technical methods the description by    
,pliny is practically the only one of   
interest1 and in ,pliny's chapter on the
 subject1 alluvial is badly confused    
with vein mining4 ,this passage         
7,,xxxiii1 #ba7 is as follows3 ,gold is 
found in the world in three ways1 to say
 nothing of that found in ,india by the 
ants1 and in ,scythia by the ,griffins4 
,the first is as gold dust found in     
streams1 as1 for instance1 in the ,tagus
 in ,spain1 in the ,padus in ,italy1 in 
the ,hebrus in ,thracia1 in the         
,pactolus in ,asia1 and in the ,ganges  
in ,india2 indeed1 there is no gold     
found more perfect than this1 as the    
current polishes it thoroughly by       
attrition4444 ,others by equal labour   

and greater expense bring rivers from   
the mountain heights1 often a hundred   
miles1 for the purpose of washing this  
debris4 ,the ditches thus made are      
called corrugi1 from our word           
corrivatio1 ,i suppose2 and these entail
 a thousand fresh labours4 ,the fall    
must be steep1 that the water may rush  
down from very high places1 rather than 
flow gently4 ,the ditches across the    
valleys are joined by aqueducts1 and in 
other places1 impassable rocks have to  
be cut away and forced to make room for 
troughs of hollowed-out logs4 ,those who
 cut the rocks are suspended by ropes1  
so that to those who watch them from a  
distance1 the workmen seem not so much  
beasts as birds4 ,hanging thus1 they    
take the levels and trace the lines     
which the ditch is to take2 and thus1   
where there is no place for man's       
footstep1 streams are dragged by men4   
,the water is vitiated for washing if   
the current of the stream carries mud   
with it4 ,this kind of earth is called  

urium1 hence these ditches are laid out 
to carry the water over beds of pebbles 
to avoid this urium4 ,when they have    
reached the head of the fall1 at the top
 of the mountain1 reservoirs are        
excavated a couple of hundred feet long 
and wide1 and about ten feet deep4 ,in  
these reservoirs there are generally    
five gates left1 about three feet       
square1 so that when the reservoir is   
full1 the gates are opened1 and the     
torrent bursts forth with such violence 
that the rocks are hurled along4 ,when  
they have reached the plain there is yet
 more labour4 ,trenches called agogae   
are dug for the flow of the water4 ,the 
bottoms of these are spread at regular  
intervals with ulex to catch the gold4  
,this ulex is similar to rosemary1 rough
 and prickly4 ,the sides1 too1 are      
closed in with planks and are suspended 
when crossing precipitous spots4 ,the   
earth is carried to the sea and thus the
 shattered mountain is washed away and  
scattered2 and this deposition of the   

earth in the sea has extended the shore 
of ,spain4444 ,the gold procured from   
arrugiae does not require to be melted1 
but is already pure gold4 ,it is found  
in lumps1 in shafts as well1 sometimes  
even exceeding ten librae in weight4    
,these lumps are called palagae and     
palacurnae1 while the small grains are  
called baluce4 ,the ,ulex is dried and  
burnt and the ashes are washed on a bed 
of grassy turf in order that the gold   
may settle thereon4  #ai ,carbunculus   
,carchedonius--,carthaginian carbuncle4 
,the ,german is given by ,agricola in   
the ,interpretatio as granat1 i4e41     
garnet4  #bj ,as the concentration of   
crushed tin ore has been exhaustively   
treated of already1 the descriptions    
from here on probably refer entirely to 
alluvial tin4  #ba ,from a metallurgical
 point of view all of these operations  
are roasting4 ,even to-day1 however1 the
 expression burning tin is in use in    
some parts of ,cornwall1 and in former  
times it was general4  #bb ,there can be

 no doubt that these are mattes1 as will
 develop in ,book ,,ix4 ,the ,german    
term in the ,glossary for panes ex      
pyrite is stein1 the same as the modern 
,german for matte4 ,orpiment and realgar
 are the yellow and red arsenical       
sulphides4 ,the cadmia was no doubt the 
cobalt-arsenic minerals 7see note on p4 
#aab74 ,the solidified juices were      
generally anything that could be        
expelled short of smelting1 i4e41       
roasted off or leached out1 as shown in 
note #d1 p4 #a2 they embrace the        
sulphates1 salts1 sulphur1 bitumen1 and 
arsenical sulphides1 etc4 ,for further  
information on leaching out the         
sulphates1 alum1 etc41 see note #aj1 p4 
#efd4     ,,book ,,ix4#a   ,since ,i    
have written of the varied work of      
preparing the ores1 ,i will now write of
 the various methods of smelting them4  
,although those who burn1 roast and     
calcine#b the ore1 take from it         
something which is mixed or combined    
with the metals2 and those who crush it 

with stamps take away much2 and those   
who wash1 screen and sort it1 take away 
still more2 yet they cannot remove all  
which conceals the metal from the eye   
and renders it crude and unformed4      
,wherefore smelting is necessary1 for by
 this means earths1 solidified juices1  
and stones are separated from the metals
 so that they obtain their proper colour
 and become pure1 and may be of great   
use to mankind in many ways4 ,when the  
ore is smelted1 those things which were 
mixed with the metal before it was      
melted are driven forth1 because the    
metal is perfected by fire in this      
manner4 ,since metalliferous ores differ
 greatly amongst themselves1 first as to
 the metals which they contain1 then as 
to the quantity of the metal which is in
 them1 and then by the fact that some   
are rapidly melted by fire and others   
slowly1 there are1 therefore1 many      
methods of smelting4 ,constant practice 
has taught the smelters by which of     
these methods they can obtain the most  

metal from any one ore4 ,moreover1 while
 sometimes there are many methods of    
smelting the same ore1 by which an equal
 weight of metal is melted out1 yet one 
is done at a greater cost and labour    
than the others4 ,ore is either melted  
with a furnace or without one2 if       
smelted with a furnace the tap-hole is  
either temporarily closed or always     
open1 and if smelted without a furnace1 
it is done either in pots or in         
trenches4 ,but in order to make this    
matter clearer1 ,i will describe each in
 detail1 beginning with the buildings   
and the furnaces4  ,a wall which will be
 called the second wall is constructed  
of brick or stone1 two feet and as many 
palms thick1 in order that it may be    
strong enough to bear the weight4 ,it is
 built fifteen feet high1 and its length
 depends on the number of furnaces which
 are put in the works2 there are usually
 six furnaces1 rarely more1 and often   
less4 ,there are three furnace walls1 a 
back one which is against the second    

wall1 and two side ones1 of which ,i    
will speak later4 ,these should be made 
of natural stone1 as this is more       
serviceable than burnt bricks1 because  
bricks soon become defective and crumble
 away1 when the smelter or his deputy   
chips off the accretions which adhere to
 the walls when the ore is smelted4     
,natural stone resists injury by the    
fire and lasts a long time1 especially  
that which is soft and devoid of cracks2
 but1 on the contrary1 that which is    
hard and has many cracks is burst       
asunder by the fire and destroyed4 ,for 
this reason1 furnaces which are made of 
the latter are easily weakened by the   
fire1 and when the accretions are       
chipped off they crumble to pieces4 ,the
 front furnace wall should be made of   
brick1 and there should be in the lower 
part a mouth three palms wide and one   
and a half feet high1 when the hearth is
 completed4 ,a hole slanting upward1    
three palms long1 is made through the   
back furnace wall1 at the height of a   

cubit1 before the hearth has been       
prepared2 through this hole and a hole  
one foot long in the second wall--as the
 back of this wall has an arch--is      
inserted a pipe of iron or bronze1 in   
which are fixed the nozzles of the      
bellows4 ,the whole of the front furnace
 wall is not more than five feet high1  
so that the ore may be conveniently put 
into the furnace1 together with those   
things which the master needs for his   
work of smelting4 ,both the side walls  
of the furnace are six feet high1 and   
the back one seven feet1 and they are   
three palms thick4 ,the interior of the 
furnace is five palms wide1 six palms   
and a digit long1 the width being       
measured by the space which lies between
 the two side walls1 and the length by  
the space between the front and the back
 walls2 however1 the upper part of the  
furnace widens out somewhat4            
,illustration #ceg 7,blast ,furnaces73  
,a--,furnaces4 ,b--,forehearths4  ,there
 are two doors in the second wall if    

there are six furnaces1 one of the doors
 being between the second and third     
furnaces and the other between the      
fourth and fifth furnaces4 ,they are a  
cubit wide and six feet high1 in order  
that the smelters may not have mishaps  
in coming and going4 ,it is necessary to
 have a door to the right of the first  
furnace1 and similarly one to the left  
of the last1 whether the wall is longer 
or not4 ,the second wall is carried     
further when the rooms for the          
cupellation furnaces1 or any other      
building1 adjoin the rooms for the blast
 furnaces1 these buildings being only   
divided by a partition4 ,the smelter1   
and the ones who attend to the first and
 the last furnaces1 if they wish to look
 at the bellows or to do anything else1 
go out through the doors at the end of  
the wall1 and the other people go       
through the other doors1 which are the  
common ones4 ,the furnaces are placed at
 a distance of six feet from one        
another1 in order that the smelters and 

their assistants may more easily sustain
 the fierceness of the heat4 ,inasmuch  
as the interior of each furnace is five 
palms wide and each is six feet distant 
from the other1 and inasmuch as there is
 a space of four feet three palms at the
 right side of the first furnace and as 
much at the left side of the last       
furnace1 and there are to be six        
furnaces in one building1 then it is    
necessary to make the second wall       
fifty-two feet long2 because the total  
of the widths of all of the furnaces is 
seven and a half feet1 the total of the 
spaces between the furnaces is thirty   
feet1 the space on the outer sides of   
the first and last furnaces is nine feet
 and two palms1 and the thickness of the
 two transverse walls is five feet1     
which make a total measurement of       
fifty-two feet4#c  ,outside each furnace
 hearth there is a small pit full of    
powder which is compressed by ramming1  
and in this manner is made the          
forehearth which receives the metal     

flowing from the furnaces4 ,of this ,i  
will speak later4  ,illustration #ceh   
7,blast ,furnaces73 ,a--,furnaces4      
,b--,forehearth4 ,c--,door4 ,d--,water  
tank4 ,e--,stone which covers it4       
,f--,material of the vent walls4        
,g--,stone which covers it4 ,h--,pipe   
exhaling the vapour4  ,buried about a   
cubit under the forehearth and the      
hearth of the furnace is a transverse   
water-tank1 three feet long1 three palms
 wide and a cubit deep4 ,it is made of  
stone or brick1 with a stone cover1 for 
if it were not covered1 the heat would  
draw the moisture from below and the    
vapour might be blown into the hearth of
 the furnace as well as into the        
forehearth1 and would dampen the blast4 
,the moisture would vitiate the blast1  
and part of the metal would be absorbed 
and part would be mixed with the slags1 
and in this manner the melting would be 
greatly damaged4 ,from each water-tank  
is built a walled vent1 to the same     
depth as the tank1 but six digits wide2 

this vent slopes upward1 and sooner or  
later penetrates through to the other   
side of the wall1 against which the     
furnace is built4 ,at the end of this   
vent there is an opening where the      
steam1 into which the water has been    
converted1 is exhausted through a copper
 or iron tube or pipe4 ,this method of  
making the tank and the vent is much the
 best4 ,another kind has a similar vent 
but a different tank1 for it does not   
lie transversely under the forehearth1  
but lengthwise2 it is two feet and a    
palm long1 and a foot and three palms   
wide1 and a foot and a palm deep4 ,this 
method of making tanks is not condemned 
by us1 as is the construction of those  
tanks without a vent2 the latter1 which 
have no opening into the air through    
which the vapour may discharge freely1  
are indeed to be condemned4             
,illustration #cei 7,bellows for blast  
furnaces7  ,fifteen feet behind the     
second wall is constructed the first    
wall1 thirteen feet high4 ,in both of   

these are fixed roof beams#d1 which are 
a foot wide and thick1 and nineteen feet
 and a palm long2 these are placed three
 feet distant from one another4 ,as the 
second wall is two feet higher than the 
first wall1 recesses are cut in the back
 of it two feet high1 one foot wide1 and
 a palm deep1 and in these recesses1 as 
it were in mortises1 are placed one end 
of each of the beams4 ,into these ends  
are mortised the bottoms of just as many
 posts2 these posts are twenty-four feet
 high1 three palms wide and thick1 and  
from the tops of the posts the same     
number of rafters stretch downward to   
the ends of the beams superimposed on   
the first wall2 the upper ends of the   
rafters are mortised into the posts and 
the lower ends are mortised into the    
ends of the beams laid on the first     
wall2 the rafters support the roof1     
which consists of burnt tiles4 ,each    
separate rafter is propped up by a      
separate timber1 which is a cross-beam1 
and is joined to its post4 ,planks close

 together are affixed to the posts above
 the furnaces2 these planks are about   
two digits thick and a palm wide1 and   
they1 together with the wicker work     
interposed between the timbers1 are     
covered with lute so that there may be  
no risk of fire to the timbers and      
wicker-work4 ,in this practical manner  
is constructed the back part of the     
works1 which contains the bellows1 their
 frames1 the mechanism for compressing  
the bellows1 and the instrument for     
distending them1 of all of which ,i will
 speak hereafter4  ,illustration #cfa   
7,plan of ,smelter ,building73 ,the four
 long walls3 ,a--,first4 ,b--,second4   
,c--,third4 ,d--,fourth4 ,the seven     
transverse walls3 ,e--,first4           
,f--,second4 ,g--,third4 ,h--,fourth4   
,i--,fifth4 ,k--,sixth4 ,l--,seventh1 or
 middle4  ,in front of the furnaces is  
constructed the third long wall and     
likewise the fourth4 ,both are nine feet
 high1 but of the same length and       
thickness as the other two1 the fourth  

being nine feet distant from the third2 
the third is twenty-one and a half feet 
from the second4 ,at a distance of      
twelve feet from the second wall1 four  
posts seven and a half feet high1 a     
cubit wide and thick1 are set upon rock 
laid underneath4 ,into the tops of the  
posts the roof beam is mortised2 this   
roof beam is two feet and as many palms 
longer than the distance between the    
second and the fifth transverse walls1  
in order that its ends may rest on the  
transverse walls4 ,if there should not  
be so long a beam at hand1 two are      
substituted for it4 ,as the length of   
the long beam is as above1 and as the   
posts are equidistant1 it is necessary  
that the posts should be a distance of  
nine feet1 one palm1 two and two-fifths 
digits from each other1 and the end ones
 this distance from the transverse      
walls4 ,on this longitudinal beam and to
 the third and fourth walls are fixed   
twelve secondary beams twenty-four feet 
long1 one foot wide1 three palms thick1 

and distant from each other three feet1 
one palm1 and two digits4 ,in these     
secondary beams1 where they rest on the 
longitudinal beams1 are mortised the    
ends of the same number of rafters as   
there are posts which stand on the      
second wall4 ,the ends of the rafters do
 not reach to the tops of the posts1 but
 are two feet away from them1 that      
through this opening1 which is like the 
open part of a forge1 the furnaces can  
emit their fumes4 ,in order that the    
rafters should not fall down1 they are  
supported partly by iron rods1 which    
extend from each rafter to the opposite 
post1 and partly supported by a few     
tie-beams1 which in the same manner     
extend from some rafters to the posts   
opposite1 and give them stability4 ,to  
these tie-beams1 as well as to the      
rafters which face the posts1 a number  
of boards1 about two digits thick and a 
palm wide1 are fixed at a distance of a 
palm from each other1 and are covered   
with lute so that they do not catch     

fire4 ,in the secondary beams1 where    
they are laid on the fourth wall1 are   
mortised the lower ends of the same     
number of rafters as those in a set of  
rafters#e opposite them4 ,from the third
 long wall these rafters are joined and 
tied to the ends of the opposite        
rafters1 so that they may not slip1 and 
besides they are strengthened with      
substructures which are made of cross   
and oblique timbers4 ,the rafters       
support the roof4  ,in this manner the  
front part of the building is made1 and 
is divided into three parts2 the first  
part is twelve feet wide and is under   
the hood1 which consists of two walls1  
one vertical and one inclined4 ,the     
second part is the same number of feet  
wide and is for the reception of the ore
 to be smelted1 the fluxes1 the         
charcoal1 and other things which are    
needed by the smelter4 ,the third part  
is nine feet wide and contains two      
separate rooms of equal size1 in one of 
which is the assay furnace1 while the   

other contains the metal to be melted in
 the cupellation furnaces4 ,it is thus  
necessary that in the building there    
should be1 besides the four long walls1 
seven transverse walls1 of which the    
first is constructed from the upper end 
of the first long wall to the upper end 
of the second long wall2 the second     
proceeds from the end of this to the end
 of the third long wall2 the third      
likewise from this end of the last      
extends to the end of the fourth long   
wall2 the fourth leads from the lower   
end of the first long wall to the lower 
end of the second long wall2 the fifth  
extends from the end of this to the end 
of the third long wall2 the sixth       
extends from this last end to the end of
 the fourth long wall2 the seventh      
divides into two parts the space between
 the third and fourth long walls4  ,to  
return to the back part of the building1
 in which1 as ,i said1 are the          
bellows#f1 their frames1 the machinery  
for compressing them1 and the instrument

 for distending them4 ,each bellows     
consists of a body and a head4 ,the body
 is composed of two boards1 two bows1   
and two hides4 ,the upper board is a    
palm thick1 five feet and three palms   
long1 and two and a half feet wide at   
the back part1 where each of the sides  
is a little curved1 and it is a cubit   
wide at the front part near the head4   
,the whole of the body of the bellows   
tapers toward the head4 ,that which we  
now call the board consists of two      
pieces of pine1 joined and glued        
together1 and of two strips of linden   
wood which bind the edges of the board1 
these being seven digits wide at the    
back1 and in front near the head of the 
bellows one and a half digits wide4     
,these strips are glued to the boards1  
so that there shall be less damage from 
the iron nails driven through the hide4 
,there are some people who do not       
surround the boards with strips1 but use
 boards only1 which are very thick4 ,the
 upper board has an aperture and a      

handle2 the aperture is in the middle of
 the board and is one foot three palms  
distant from where the board joins the  
head of the bellows1 and is six digits  
long and four wide4 ,the lid for this   
aperture is two palms and a digit long  
and wide1 and three digits thick2 toward
 the back of the lid is a little notch  
cut into the surface so that it may be  
caught by the hand2 a groove is cut out 
of the top of the front and sides1 so   
that it may engage in mouldings a palm  
wide and three digits thick1 which are  
also cut out in a similar manner under  
the edges4 ,now1 when the lid is drawn  
forward the hole is closed1 and when    
drawn back it is opened2 the smelter    
opens the aperture a little so that the 
air may escape from the bellows through 
it1 if he fears the hides might be burst
 when the bellows are too vigorously and
 quickly inflated2 he1 however1 closes  
the aperture if the hides are ruptured  
and the air escapes4 ,others perforate  
the upper board with two or three round 

holes in the same place as the          
rectangular one1 and they insert plugs  
in them which they draw out when it is  
necessary4 ,the wooden handle is seven  
palms long1 or even longer1 in order    
that it may extend outside2 one-half of 
this handle1 two palms wide and one     
thick1 is glued to the end of the board 
and fastened with pegs covered with     
glue2 the other half projects beyond the
 board1 and is rounded and seven digits 
thick4 ,besides this1 to the handle and 
to the board is fixed a cleat two feet  
long1 as many palms wide and one palm   
thick1 and to the under side of the same
 board1 at a distance of three palms    
from the end1 is fixed another cleat two
 feet long1 in order that the board may 
sustain the force of distension and     
compression2 these two cleats are glued 
to the board1 and are fastened to it    
with pegs covered with glue4  ,the lower
 bellows-board1 like the upper1 is made 
of two pieces of pine and of two strips 
of linden wood1 all glued together2 it  

is of the same width and thickness as   
the upper board1 but is a cubit longer1 
this extension being part of the head of
 which ,i have more to say a little     
later4 ,this lower bellows-board has an 
air-hole and an iron ring4 ,the air-hole
 is about a cubit distant from the      
posterior end1 and it is midway between 
the sides of the bellows-board1 and is a
 foot long and three palms wide2 it is  
divided into equal parts by a small rib 
which forms part of the board1 and is   
not cut from it2 this rib is a palm long
 and one-third of a digit wide4 ,the    
flap of the air-hole is a foot and three
 digits long1 three palms and as many   
digits wide2 it is a thin board covered 
with goat skin1 the hairy part of which 
is turned toward the ground4 ,there is  
fixed to one end of the flap1 with small
 iron nails1 one-half of a doubled piece
 of leather a palm wide and as long as  
the flap is wide2 the other half of the 
leather1 which is behind the flap1 is   
twice perforated1 as is also the        

bellows-board1 and these perforations   
are seven digits apart4 ,passing through
 these a string is tied on the under    
side of the board2 and thus the flap    
when tied to the board does not fall    
away4 ,in this manner are made the flap 
and the air-hole1 so when the bellows   
are distended the flap opens1 when      
compressed it closes4 ,at a distance of 
about a foot beyond the air-hole a      
slightly elliptical iron ring1 two palms
 long and one wide1 is fastened by means
 of an iron staple to the under part of 
the bellows-board2 it is at a distance  
of three palms from the back of the     
bellows4 ,in order that the lower       
bellows-board may remain stationary1 a  
wooden bolt is driven into the ring1    
after it penetrates through the hole in 
the transverse supporting plank which   
forms part of the frame for the bellows4
 ,there are some who dispense with the  
ring and fasten the bellows-board to the
 frame with two iron screws something   
like nails4  ,the bows are placed       

between the two boards and are of the   
same length as the upper board4 ,they   
are both made of four pieces of linden  
wood three digits thick1 of which the   
two long ones are seven digits wide at  
the back and two and a half at the      
front2 the third piece1 which is at the 
back1 is two palms wide4 ,the ends of   
the bows are a little more than a digit 
thick1 and are mortised to the long     
pieces1 and both having been bored      
through1 wooden pegs covered with glue  
are fixed in the holes2 they are thus   
joined and glued to the long pieces4    
,each of the ends is bowed 7arcuatur7 to
 meet the end of the long part of the   
bow1 whence its name bow originated4    
,the fourth piece keeps the ends of the 
bow distended1 and is placed a cubit    
distant from the head of the bellows2   
the ends of this piece are mortised into
 the ends of the bow and are joined and 
glued to them2 its length without the   
tenons is a foot1 and its width a palm  
and two digits4 ,there are1 besides1 two

 other very small pieces glued to the   
head of the bellows and to the lower    
board1 and fastened to them by wooden   
pegs covered with glue1 and they are    
three palms and two digits long1 one    
palm high1 and a digit thick1 one half  
being slightly cut away4 ,these pieces  
keep the ends of the bow away from the  
hole in the bellows-head1 for if they   
were not there1 the ends1 forced inward 
by the great and frequent movement1     
would be broken4  ,the leather is of    
ox-hide or horse-hide1 but that of the  
ox is far preferable to that of the     
horse4 ,each of these hides1 for there  
are two1 is three and a half feet wide  
where they are joined at the back part  
of the bellows4 ,a long leathern thong  
is laid along each of the bellows-boards
 and each of the bows1 and fastened by  
,t-shaped iron nails five digits long2  
each of the horns of the nails is two   
and a half digits long and half a digit 
wide4 ,the hide is attached to the      
bellows-boards by means of these nails1 

so that a horn of one nail almost       
touches the horn of the next2 but it is 
different with the bows1 for the hide is
 fastened to the back piece of the bow  
by only two nails1 and to the two long  
pieces by four nails4 ,in this practical
 manner they put ten nails in one bow   
and the same number in the other4       
,sometimes when the smelter is afraid   
that the vigorous motion of the bellows 
may pull or tear the hide from the bows1
 he also fastens it with little strips  
of pine by means of another kind of     
nail1 but these strips cannot be        
fastened to the back pieces of the bow1 
because these are somewhat bent4 ,some  
people do not fix the hide to the       
bellows-boards and bows by iron nails1  
but by iron screws1 screwed at the same 
time through strips laid over the hide4 
,this method of fastening the hide is   
less used than the other1 although there
 is no doubt that it surpasses it in    
excellence4  ,lastly1 the head of the   
bellows1 like the rest of the body1     

consists of two boards1 and of a nozzle 
besides4 ,the upper board is one cubit  
long1 one and a half palms thick4 ,the  
lower board is part of the whole of the 
lower bellows-board2 it is of the same  
length as the upper piece1 but a palm   
and a digit thick4 ,from these two glued
 together is made the head1 into which1 
when it has been perforated1 the nozzle 
is fixed4 ,the back part of the head1   
where it is attached to the rest of the 
bellows-body1 is a cubit wide1 but three
 palms forward it becomes two digits    
narrower4 ,afterward it is somewhat cut 
away so that the front end may be       
rounded1 until it is two palms and as   
many digits in diameter1 at which point 
it is bound with an iron ring three     
digits wide4  ,the nozzle is a pipe made
 of a thin plate of iron2 the diameter  
in front is three digits1 while at the  
back1 where it is encased in the head of
 the bellows1 it is a palm high and two 
palms wide4 ,it thus gradually widens   
out1 especially at the back1 in order   

that a copious wind can penetrate into  
it2 the whole nozzle is three feet long4
  ,illustration #cfe 7,bellows for blast
 furnaces73 ,a--,upper bellows-board4   
,b--,lower bellows-board4 ,c--,the two  
pieces of wood of which each consists4  
,d--,posterior arched part of each4     
,e--,tapered front part of each4        
,f--,pieces of linden wood4             
,g--,aperture in the upper board4       
,h--,lid4 ,i--,little mouldings of wood4
 ,k--,handle4 ,l--,cleat on the outside4
 ,the cleat inside ,i am not able to    
depict4 ,m--,interior of the lower      
bellows-board4 ,n--,part of the head4   
,o--,air-hole4 ,p--,supporting bar4     
,q--,flap4 ,r--,hide4 ,s--,thong4       
,t--,exterior of the lower board4       
,v--,staple4 ,x--,ring4 ,y--,bow4       
,z--,its long pieces4 ,,aa--,back piece 
of the bow4 ,,bb--,the bowed ends4      
,,cc--,crossbar distending the bow4     
,,dd--,the two little pieces4           
,,ee--,hide4 ,,ff--,nail4 ,,gg--,horn of
 the nail4 ,,hh--,a screw4 ,,ii--,long  

thong4 ,,kk--,head4 ,,ll--,its lower    
board4 ,,mm--,its upper board4          
,,nn--,nozzle4 ,,oo--,the whole of the  
lower bellows-board4 ,,pp--,the two     
exterior plates of the head hinges4     
,,qq--,their curved piece4 ,,rr--,middle
 plate of the head4 ,,ss--,the two outer
 plates of the upper bellows-board4     
,,tt--,its middle plate4 ,,vv--,little  
axle4 ,,xx--,whole bellows4  ,the upper 
bellows-board is joined to the head of  
the bellows in the following way4 ,an   
iron plate#g1 a palm wide and one and a 
half palms long1 is first fastened to   
the head at a distance of three digits  
from the end2 from this plate there     
projects a piece three digits long and  
two wide1 curved in a small circle4 ,the
 other side has a similar plate4 ,then  
in the same part of the upper board are 
fixed two other iron plates1 distant two
 digits from the edge1 each of which are
 six digits wide and seven long2 in each
 of these plates the middle part is cut 
away for a little more than three digits

 in length and for two in depth1 so that
 the curved part of the plates on the   
head corresponding to them may fit into 
this cut out part4 ,from both sides of  
each plate there project pieces1 three  
digits long and two digits wide1        
similarly curved into small circles4 ,a 
little iron pin is passed through these 
curved pieces of the plates1 like a     
little axle1 so that the upper board of 
the bellows may turn upon it4 ,the      
little axle is six digits long and a    
little more than a digit thick1 and a   
small groove is cut out of the upper    
board1 where the plates are fastened to 
it1 in such a manner that the little    
axle when fixed to the plates may not   
fall out4 ,both plates fastened to the  
bellows-board are affixed by four iron  
nails1 of which the heads are on the    
inner part of the board1 whereas the    
points1 clinched at the top1 are        
transformed into heads1 so to speak4    
,each of the other plates is fastened to
 the head of the bellows by means of a  

nail with a wide head1 and by two other 
nails of which the heads are on the edge
 of the bellows-head4 ,midway between   
the two plates on the bellows-board     
there remains a space two palms wide1   
which is covered by an iron plate       
fastened to the board by little nails2  
and another plate corresponding to this 
is fastened to the head between the     
other two plates2 they are two palms and
 the same number of digits wide4  ,the  
hide is common to the head as to all the
 other parts of the body2 the plates are
 covered with it1 as well as the front  
part of the upper bellows-board1 and    
both the bows and the back of the head  
of the bellows1 so that the wind may not
 escape from that part of the bellows4  
,it is three palms and as many digits   
wide1 and long enough to extend from one
 of the sides of the lower board over   
the back of the upper2 it is fastened by
 many ,t-headed nails on one side to the
 upper board1 and on the other side to  
the head of the bellows1 and both ends  

are fastened to the lower bellows-board4
  ,in the above manner the bellows is   
made4 ,as two are required for each     
furnace1 it is necessary to have twelve 
bellows1 if there are to be six furnaces
 in one works4  ,illustration #cfh      
7,bellows for blast furnaces73          
,a--,front sill4 ,b--,back sill4        
,c--,front posts4 ,d--,their slots4     
,e--,beam imposed upon them4 ,f--,higher
 posts4 ,g--,their slots4 ,h--,beam     
imposed upon them4 ,i--,timber joined in
 the mortises of the posts4 ,k--,planks4
 ,l--,transverse supporting planks4     
,m--,the holes in them4 ,n--,pipe4      
,o--,its front end4 ,p--,its rear end4  
,now it is time to describe their       
framework4 ,first1 two sills a little   
shorter than the furnace wall are placed
 on the ground4 ,the front one of these 
is three palms wide and thick1 and the  
back one three palms and two digits4    
,the front one is two feet distant from 
the back wall of the furnace1 and the   
back one is six feet three palms distant

 from the front one4 ,they are set into 
the earth1 that they may remain firm2   
there are some who accomplish this by   
means of pegs which1 through several    
holes1 penetrate deeply into the ground4
  ,then twelve short posts are erected1 
whose lower ends are mortised into the  
sill that is near the back of the       
furnace wall2 these posts are two feet  
high1 exclusive of the tenons1 and are  
three palms and the same number of      
digits wide1 and two palms thick4 ,a    
slot one and a half palms wide is cut   
through them1 beginning two palms from  
the bottom and extending for a height of
 three palms4 ,all the posts are not    
placed at the same intervals1 the first 
being at a distance of three feet five  
digits from the second1 and likewise the
 third from the fourth1 but the second  
is two feet one palm and three digits   
from the third2 the intervals between   
the other posts are arranged in the same
 manner1 equal and unequal1 of which    
each four pertain to two furnaces4 ,the 

upper ends of these posts are mortised  
into a transverse beam which is twelve  
feet1 two palms1 and three digits long1 
and projects five digits beyond the     
first post and to the same distance     
beyond the fourth2 it is two palms and  
the same number of digits wide1 and two 
palms thick4 ,since each separate       
transverse beam supports four bellows1  
it is necessary to have three of them4  
,behind the twelve short posts the same 
number of higher posts are erected1 of  
which each has the middle part of the   
lower end cut out1 so that its two      
resulting lower ends are mortised into  
the back sill2 these posts1 exclusive of
 the tenons1 are twelve feet and two    
palms high1 and are five palms wide and 
two palms thick4 ,they are cut out from 
the bottom upward1 the slot being four  
feet and five digits high and six digits
 wide4 ,the upper ends of these posts   
are mortised into a long beam imposed   
upon them2 this long beam is placed     
close under the timbers which extend    

from the wall at the back of the furnace
 to the first long wall2 the beam is    
three palms wide and two palms thick1   
and forty-three feet long4 ,if such a   
long one is not at hand1 two or three   
may be substituted for it1 which when   
joined together make up that length4    
,these higher posts are not placed at   
equal distances1 but the first is at a  
distance of two feet three palms one    
digit from the second1 and the third is 
at the same distance from the fourth2   
while the second is at a distance of one
 foot three palms and the same number of
 digits from the third1 and in the same 
manner the rest of the posts are        
arranged at equal and unequal intervals4
 ,moreover1 there is in every post1     
where it faces the shorter post1 a      
mortise at a foot and a digit above the 
slot2 in these mortises of the four     
posts is tenoned a timber which itself  
has four mortises4 ,tenons are enclosed 
in mortises in order that they may be   
better joined1 and they are transfixed  

with wooden pins4 ,this timber is       
thirteen feet three palms one digit     
long1 and it projects beyond the first  
post a distance of two palms and two    
digits1 and to the same number of palms 
and digits beyond the fourth post4 ,it  
is two palms and as many digits wide1   
and also two palms thick4 ,as there are 
twelve posts it is necessary to have    
three timbers of this kind4  ,on each of
 these timbers1 and on each of the      
cross-beams which are laid upon the     
shorter posts1 are placed four planks1  
each nine feet long1 two palms three    
digits wide1 and two palms one digit    
thick4 ,the first plank is five feet one
 palm one digit distant from the second1
 at the front as well as at the back1   
for each separate plank is placed       
outside of the posts4 ,the third is at  
the same distance from the fourth1 but  
the second is one foot and three digits 
distant from the third4 ,in the same    
manner the rest of the eight planks are 
arranged at intervals1 the fifth from   

the sixth and the seventh from the      
eighth are at the same distances as the 
first from the second and the third from
 the fourth2 the sixth is at the same   
distance from the seventh as the second 
from the third4  ,two planks support one
 transverse plank six feet long1 one    
foot wide1 one palm thick1 placed at a  
distance of three feet and two palms    
from the back posts4 ,when there are six
 of these supporting planks1 on each    
separate one are placed two bellows2 the
 lower bellows-boards project a palm    
beyond them4 ,from each of the          
bellows-boards an iron ring descends    
through a hole in its supporting plank1 
and a wooden peg is driven into the     
ring1 so that the bellows-board may     
remain stationary1 as ,i stated above4  
,the two bellows communicate1 each by   
its own plank1 to the back of a copper  
pipe in which are set both of the       
nozzles1 and their ends are tightly     
fastened in it4 ,the pipe is made of a  
rolled copper or iron plate1 a foot and 

two palms and the same number of digits 
long2 the plate is half a digit thick1  
but a digit thick at the back4 ,the     
interior of the pipe is three digits    
wide1 and two and a half digits high in 
the front1 for it is not absolutely     
round2 and at the back it is a foot and 
two palms and three digits in diameter4 
,the plate from which the pipe is made  
is not entirely joined up1 but at the   
front there is left a crack half a digit
 wide1 increasing at the back to three  
digits4 ,this pipe is placed in the hole
 in the furnace1 which1 as ,i said1 was 
in the middle of the wall and the arch4 
,the nozzles of the bellows1 placed in  
this pipe1 are a distance of five digits
 from its front end4  ,illustration #cgj
 7,bellows for blast furnaces73         
,a--,lever which when depressed by means
 of a cam compresses the bellows4       
,b--,slots through the posts4 ,c--,bar4 
,d--,iron implement with a rectangular  
link4 ,e--,iron instrument with round   
ring4 ,f--,handle of bellows4 ,g--,upper

 post4 ,h--,upper lever4 ,i--,box with  
equal sides4 ,k--,box narrow at the     
bottom4 ,l--,pegs driven into the upper 
lever4  ,the levers are of the same     
number as the bellows1 and when         
depressed by the cams of the long axle  
they compress the bellows4 ,these levers
 are eight feet three palms long1 one   
palm wide and thick1 and the ends are   
inserted in the slots of the posts2 they
 project beyond the front posts to a    
distance of two palms1 and the same     
distance beyond the back posts in order 
that each may have its end depressed by 
its two cams on the axle4 ,the cams not 
only penetrate into the slots of the    
back posts1 but project three digits    
beyond them4 ,an iron pin is set in     
round holes made through both sides of  
the slot of each front post1 at three   
palms and as many digits from the       
bottom2 the pin penetrates the lever1   
which turns about it when depressed or  
raised4 ,the back of the lever for the  
length of a cubit is a palm and a digit 

wider than the rest1 and is perforated2 
in this hole is engaged a bar six feet  
and two palms long1 three digits wide1  
and about one and one-half digits thick2
 it is somewhat hooked at the upper end1
 and approaches the handle of the       
bellows4 ,under the lever there is a    
nail1 which penetrates through a hole in
 the bar1 so that the lever and bar may 
move together4 ,the bar is perforated in
 the upper end at a distance of six     
digits from the top2 this hole is two   
palms long and a digit wide1 and in it  
is engaged the hook of an iron implement
 which is a digit thick4 ,at the upper  
part this implement has either a round  
or square opening1 like a link1 and at  
the lower end is hooked2 the link is two
 digits high and wide and the hook is   
three digits long2 the middle part      
between the link and the hook is three  
palms and two digits long4 ,the link of 
this implement engages either the handle
 of the bellows1 or else a large ring   
which does engage it4 ,this iron ring is

 a digit thick1 two palms wide on the   
inside of the upper part1 and two digits
 in the lower part1 and this iron ring1 
not unlike the first one1 engages the   
handle of the bellows4 ,the iron ring   
either has its narrower part turned     
upward1 and in it is engaged the ring of
 another iron implement1 similar to the 
first1 whose hook1 extending upward1    
grips the rope fastened to the iron ring
 holding the end of the second lever1 of
 which ,i will speak presently2 or else 
the iron ring grips this lever1 and then
 in its hook is engaged the ring of the 
other implement whose ring engages the  
handle of the bellows1 and in this case 
the rope is dispensed with4  ,resting on
 beams fixed in the two walls is a      
longitudinal beam1 at a distance of four
 and a half feet from the back posts2 it
 is two palms wide1 one and a half palms
 thick4 ,there are mortised into this   
longitudinal beam the lower ends of     
upper posts three palms wide and two    
thick1 which are six feet two palms     

high1 exclusive of their tenons4 ,the   
upper ends of these posts are mortised  
into an upper longitudinal beam1 which  
lies close under the rafters of the     
building2 this upper longitudinal beam  
is two palms wide and one thick4 ,the   
upper posts have a slot cut out upward  
from a point two feet from the bottom1  
and the slot is two feet high and six   
digits wide4 ,through these upper posts 
a round hole is bored from one side to  
the other at a point three feet one palm
 from the bottom1 and a small iron axle 
penetrates through the hole and is      
fastened there4 ,around this small iron 
axle turns the second lever when it is  
depressed and raised4 ,this lever is    
eight feet long1 and its other end is   
three digits wider than the rest of the 
lever2 at this widest point is a hole   
two digits wide and three high1 in which
 is fixed an iron ring1 to which is tied
 the rope ,i have mentioned2 it is five 
palms long1 its upper loop is two palms 
and as many digits wide1 and the lower  

one is one palm one digit wide4 ,this   
half of the second lever1 the end of    
which ,i have just mentioned1 is three  
palms high and one wide2 it projects    
three feet beyond the slot of the post  
on which it turns2 the other end1 which 
faces the back wall of the furnaces1 is 
one foot and a palm high and a foot     
wide4  ,on this part of the lever stands
 and is fixed a box three and a half    
feet long1 one foot and one palm wide1  
and half a foot deep2 but these         
measurements vary2 sometimes the bottom 
of this box is narrower1 sometimes equal
 in width to the top4 ,in either case1  
it is filled with stones and earth to   
make it heavy1 but the smelters have to 
be on their guard and make provision    
against the stones falling out1 owing to
 the constant motion2 this is prevented 
by means of an iron band which is placed
 over the top1 both ends being          
wedge-shaped and driven into the lever  
so that the stones can be held in4 ,some
 people1 in place of the box1 drive four

 or more pegs into the lever and put mud
 between them1 the required amount being
 added to the weight or taken away from 
it4  ,there remains to be considered the
 method of using this machine4 ,the     
lower lever1 being depressed by the     
cams1 compresses the bellows1 and the   
compression drives the air through the  
nozzle4 ,then the weight of the box on  
the other end of the upper lever raises 
the upper bellows-board1 and the air is 
drawn in1 entering through the air-hole4
  ,illustration #cgb 7,bellows for blast
 furnaces73 ,a--,axle4 ,b--,water-wheel4
 ,c--,drum composed of rundles4         
,d--,other axle4 ,e--,toothed wheel4    
,f--,its spokes4 ,g--,its segments4     
,h--,its teeth4 ,i--,cams of the axle4  
,the machine whose cams depress the     
lower lever is made as follows4 ,first  
there is an axle1 on whose end outside  
the building is a water-wheel2 at the   
other end1 which is inside the building1
 is a drum made of rundles4 ,this drum  
is composed of two double hubs1 a foot  

apart1 which are five digits thick1 the 
radius all round being a foot and two   
digits2 but they are double1 because    
each hub is composed of two discs1      
equally thick1 fastened together with   
wooden pegs glued in4 ,these hubs are   
sometimes covered above and around by   
iron plates4 ,the rundles are thirty in 
number1 a foot and two palms and the    
same number of digits long1 with each   
end fastened into a hub2 they are       
rounded1 three digits in diameter1 and  
the same number of digits apart4 ,in    
this practical manner is made the drum  
composed of rundles4  ,there is a       
toothed wheel1 two palms and a digit    
thick1 on the end of another axle2 this 
wheel is composed of a double disc#h4   
,the inner disc is composed of four     
segments a palm thick1 everywhere two   
palms and a digit wide4 ,the outer disc1
 like the inner1 is made of four        
segments1 and is a palm and a digit     
thick2 it is not equally wide1 but where
 the head of the spokes are inserted it 

is a foot and a palm and digit wide1    
while on each side of the spokes it     
becomes a little narrower1 until the    
narrowest part is only two palms and the
 same number of digits wide4 ,the outer 
segments are joined to the inner ones in
 such a manner that1 on the one hand1 an
 outer segment ends in the middle of an 
inner one1 and1 on the other hand1 the  
ends of the inner segments are joined in
 the middle of the outer ones2 there is 
no doubt that by this kind of joining   
the wheel is made stronger4 ,the outer  
segments are fastened to the inner by   
means of a large number of wooden pegs4 
,each segment1 measured over its round  
back1 is four feet and three palms long4
 ,there are four spokes1 each two palms 
wide and a palm and a digit thick2 their
 length1 excluding the tenons1 being two
 feet and three digits4 ,one end of the 
spoke is mortised into the axle1 where  
it is firmly fastened with pegs2 the    
wide part of the other end1 in the shape
 of a triangle1 is mortised into the    

outer segment opposite it1 keeping the  
shape of the same as far as the segment 
ascends4 ,they also are joined together 
with wooden pegs glued in1 and these    
pegs are driven into the spokes under   
the inner disc4 ,the parts of the spokes
 in the shape of the triangle are on the
 inside2 the outer part is simple4 ,this
 triangle has two sides equal1 the erect
 ones as is evident1 which are a palm   
long2 the lower side is not of the same 
length1 but is five digits long1 and a  
mortise of the same shape is cut out of 
the segments4 ,the wheel has sixty      
teeth1 since it is necessary that the   
rundle drum should revolve twice while  
the toothed wheel revolves once4 ,the   
teeth are a foot long1 and project one  
palm from the inner disc of the wheel1  
and three digits from the outer disc2   
they are a palm wide and two and a half 
digits thick1 and it is necessary that  
they should be three digits apart1 as   
were the rundles4  ,the axle should have
 a thickness in proportion to the spokes

 and the segments4 ,as it has two cams  
to depress each of the levers1 it is    
necessary that it should have           
twenty-four cams1 which project beyond  
it a foot and a palm and a digit4 ,the  
cams are of almost semicircular shape1  
of which the widest part is three palms 
and a digit wide1 and they are a palm   
thick2 they are distributed according to
 the four sides of the axle1 on the     
upper1 the lower and the two lateral    
sides4 ,the axle has twelve holes1 of   
which the first penetrates through from 
the upper side to the lower1 the second 
from one lateral side to the other2 the 
first hole is four feet two palms       
distant from the second2 each alternate 
one of these holes is made in the same  
direction1 and they are arranged at     
equal intervals4 ,each single cam must  
be opposite another2 the first is       
inserted into the upper part of the     
first hole1 the second into the lower   
part of the same hole1 and so fixed by  
pegs that they do not fall out2 the     

third cam is inserted into that part of 
the second hole which is on the right   
side1 and the fourth into that part on  
the left4 ,in like manner all the cams  
are inserted into the consecutive holes1
 for which reason it happens that the   
cams depress the levers of the bellows  
in rotation4 ,finally we must not omit  
to state that this is only one of many  
such axles having cams and a            
water-wheel4  ,i have arrived thus far  
with many words1 and yet it is not      
unreasonable that ,i have in this place 
pursued the subject minutely1 since the 
smelting of all the metals1 to which ,i 
am about to proceed1 could not be       
undertaken without it4  ,the ores of    
gold1 silver1 copper1 and lead1 are     
smelted in a furnace by four different  
methods4 ,the first method is for the   
rich ores of gold or silver1 the second 
for the mediocre ores1 the third for the
 poor ores1 and the fourth method is for
 those ores which contain copper or     
lead1 whether they contain precious     

metals or are wanting in them4 ,the     
smelting of the first ores is performed 
in the furnace of which the tap-hole is 
intermittently closed2 the other three  
ores are melted in furnaces of which the
 tap-holes are always open4             
,illustration #cgc 7,stamp-mill73       
,a--,charcoal4 ,b--,mortar-box4         
,c--,stamps4  ,first1 ,i will speak of  
the manner in which the furnaces are    
prepared for the smelting of the ores1  
and of the first method of smelting4    
,the powder from which the hearth and   
forehearth should be made is composed of
 charcoal and earth 7clay874 ,the       
charcoal is crushed by the stamps in a  
mortar-box1 the front of which is closed
 by a board at the top1 while the       
charcoal1 crushed to powder1 is removed 
through the open part below2 the stamps 
are not shod with iron1 but are made    
entirely of wood1 although at the lower 
part they are bound round at the wide   
part by an iron band4  ,illustration    
#cgd 7,clay ,washing73 ,a--,tub4        

,b--,sieve4 ,c--,rods4 ,d--,bench-frame4
  ,the powder into which the charcoal is
 crushed is thrown on to a sieve whose  
bottom consists of interwoven withes of 
wood4 ,the sieve is drawn backward and  
forward over two wooden or iron rods    
placed in a triangular position on a    
tub1 or over a bench-frame set on the   
floor of the building2 the powder which 
falls into the tub or on to the floor is
 of suitable size1 but the pieces of    
small charcoal which remain in the sieve
 are emptied out and thrown back under  
the stamps4  ,illustration #cge 7,clay  
,washing73 ,a--,screen4 ,b--,poles4     
,c--,shovel4 ,d--,two-wheeled cart4     
,e--,hand-sieve4 ,f--,narrow boards4    
,g--,box4 ,h--,covered pit4  ,when the  
earth is dug up it is first exposed to  
the sun that it may dry4 ,later on it is
 thrown with a shovel on to a           
screen--set up obliquely and supported  
by poles1--made of thick1 loosely woven 
hazel withes1 and in this way the fine  
earth and its small lumps pass through  

the holes of the screen1 but the clods  
and stones do not pass through1 but run 
down to the ground4 ,the earth which    
passes through the screen is conveyed in
 a two-wheeled cart to the works and    
there sifted4 ,this sieve1 which is not 
dissimilar to the one described above1  
is drawn backward and forward upon      
narrow boards of equal length placed    
over a long box2 the powder which falls 
through the sieve into the box is       
suitable for the mixture2 the lumps that
 remain in the sieve are thrown away by 
some people1 but by others they are     
placed under the stamps4 ,this powdered 
earth is mixed with powdered charcoal1  
moistened1 and thrown into a pit1 and in
 order that it may remain good for a    
long time1 the pit is covered up with   
boards so that the mixture may not      
become contaminated4  ,illustration #cgg
 7,implements for ,furnace ,work73      
,a--,furnace4 ,b--,ladder4 ,c--,board   
fixed to it4 ,d--,hoe4 ,e--,five-toothed
 rake4 ,f--,wooden spatula4 ,g--,broom4 

,h--,rammer4 ,i--,rammer1 same diameter4
 ,k--,two wooden spatulas4 ,l--,curved  
blade4 ,m--,bronze rammer4 ,n--,another 
bronze rammer4 ,o--,wide spatula4       
,p--,rod4 ,q--,wicker basket4 ,r--,two  
buckets of leather in which water is    
carried for putting out a conflagration1
 should the officina catch fire4        
,s--,brass pump with which the water is 
squirted out4 ,t--,two hooks4 ,v--,rake4
 ,x--,workman beating the clay with an  
iron implement4  ,they take two parts of
 pulverised charcoal and one part of    
powdered earth1 and mix them well       
together with a rake2 the mixture is    
moistened by pouring water over it so   
that it may easily be made into shapes  
resembling snowballs2 if the powder be  
light it is moistened with more water1  
if heavy with less4 ,the interior of the
 new furnace is lined with lute1 so that
 the cracks in the walls1 if there are  
any1 may be filled up1 but especially in
 order to preserve the rock from injury 
by fire4 ,in old furnaces in which ore  

has been melted1 as soon as the rocks   
have cooled the assistant chips away1   
with a spatula1 the accretions which    
adhere to the walls1 and then breaks    
them up with an iron hoe or a rake with 
five teeth4 ,the cracks of the furnace  
are first filled in with fragments of   
rock or brick1 which he does by passing 
his hand into the furnace through its   
mouth1 or else1 having placed a ladder  
against it1 he mounts by the rungs to   
the upper open part of the furnace4 ,to 
the upper part of the ladder a board is 
fastened that he may lean and recline   
against it4 ,then standing on the same  
ladder1 with a wooden spatula1 he smears
 the furnace walls over with lute2 this 
spatula is four feet long1 a digit      
thick1 and for a foot upward from the   
bottom it is a palm wide1 or even wider1
 generally two and a half digits4 ,he   
spreads the lute equally over the inner 
walls of the furnace4 ,the mouth of the 
copper pipe#i should not protrude from  
the lute1 lest sows#aj form round about 

it and thus impede the melting1 for the 
furnace bellows could not force a blast 
through them4 ,then the same assistant  
throws a little powdered charcoal into  
the pit of the forehearth and sprinkles 
it with pulverised earth4 ,afterward1   
with a bucket he pours water into it and
 sweeps this all over the forehearth    
pit1 and with the broom drives the      
turbid water into the furnace hearth and
 likewise sweeps it out4 ,next he throws
 the mixed and moistened powder into the
 furnace1 and then a second time        
mounting the steps of the ladder1 he    
introduces the rammer into the furnace  
and pounds the powder so that the hearth
 is made solid4 ,the rammer is rounded  
and three palms long2 at the bottom it  
is five digits in diameter1 at the top  
three and a half1 therefore it is made  
in the form of a truncated cone2 the    
handle of the rammer is round and five  
feet long and two and a half digits     
thick2 the upper part of the rammer1    
where the handle is inserted1 is bound  

with an iron band two digits wide4      
,there are some who1 instead1 use two   
rounded rammers three and a half digits 
in diameter1 the same at the bottom as  
at the top4 ,some people prefer two     
wooden spatulas1 or a rammer spatula4   
,in a similar manner1 mixed and         
moistened powder is thrown and pounded  
with a rammer in the forehearth pit1    
which is outside the furnace4 ,when this
 is nearly completed1 powder is again   
put in1 and pushed with the rammer up   
toward the protruding copper pipe1 so   
that from a point a digit under the     
mouth of the copper pipe the hearth     
slopes down into the crucible of the    
forehearth1#aa and the metal can run    
down4 ,the same is repeated until the   
forehearth pit is full1 then afterward  
this is hollowed out with a curved      
blade2 this blade is of iron1 two palms 
and as many digits long1 three digits   
wide1 blunt at the top and sharp at the 
bottom4 ,the crucible of the forehearth 
must be round1 a foot in diameter and   

two palms deep if it has to contain a   
centumpondium of lead1 or if only       
seventy librae1 then three palms in     
diameter and two palms deep like the    
other4 ,when the forehearth has been    
hollowed out it is pounded with a round 
bronze rammer4 ,this is five digits high
 and the same in diameter1 having a     
curved round handle one and a half      
digits thick2 or else another bronze    
rammer is used1 which is fashioned in   
the shape of a cone1 truncated at the   
top1 on which is imposed another cut    
away at the bottom1 so that the middle  
part of the rammer may be grasped by the
 hand2 this is six digits high1 and five
 digits in diameter at the lower end and
 four at the top4 ,some use in its place
 a wooden spatula two and a half palms  
wide at the lower end and one palm      
thick4  ,the assistant1 having prepared 
the forehearth1 returns to the furnace  
and besmears both sides as well as the  
top of the mouth with simple lute4 ,in  
the lower part of the mouth he places   

lute that has been dipped in charcoal   
dust1 to guard against the risk of the  
lute attracting to itself the powder of 
the hearth and vitiating it4 ,next he   
lays in the mouth of the furnace a      
straight round rod three quarters of a  
foot long and three digits in diameter4 
,afterward he places a piece of charcoal
 on the lute1 of the same length and    
width as the mouth1 so that it is       
entirely closed up2 if there be not at  
hand one piece of charcoal so large1 he 
takes two instead4 ,when the mouth is   
thus closed up1 he throws into the      
furnace a wicker basket full of         
charcoal1 and in order that the piece of
 charcoal with which the mouth of the   
furnace is closed should not then fall  
out1 the master holds it in with his    
hand4 ,the pieces of charcoal which are 
thrown into the furnace should be of    
medium size1 for if they are large they 
impede the blast of the bellows and     
prevent it from blowing through the     
tap-hole of the furnace into the        

forehearth to heat it4 ,then the master 
covers over the charcoal1 placed at the 
mouth of the furnace1 with lute and     
extracts the wooden rod1 and thus the   
furnace is prepared4 ,afterward the     
assistant throws four or five larger    
baskets full of charcoal into the       
furnace1 filling it right up2 he also   
throws a little charcoal into the       
forehearth1 and places glowing coals    
upon it in order that it may be kindled1
 but in order that the flames of this   
fire should not enter through the       
tap-hole of the furnace and fire the    
charcoal inside1 he covers the tap-hole 
with lute or closes it with fragments of
 pottery4 ,some do not warm the         
forehearth the same evening1 but place  
large charcoals round the edge of it1   
one leaning on the other2 those who     
follow the first method sweep out the   
forehearth in the morning1 and clean out
 the little pieces of charcoal and      
cinders1 while those who follow the     
latter method take1 early in the        

morning1 burning firebrands1 which have 
been prepared by the watchman of the    
works1 and place them on the charcoal4  
,at the fourth hour the master begins   
his work4 ,he first inserts a small     
piece of glowing coal into the furnace1 
through the bronze nozzle-pipe of the   
bellows1 and blows up the fire with the 
bellows2 thus within the space of half  
an hour the forehearth1 as well as the  
hearth1 becomes warmed1 and of course   
more quickly if on the preceding day    
ores have been smelted in the same      
furnace1 but if not then it warms more  
slowly4 ,if the hearth and forehearth   
are not warmed before the ore to be     
smelted is thrown in1 the furnace is    
injured and the metals lost2 or if the  
powder from which both are made is damp 
in summer or frozen in winter1 they will
 be cracked1 and1 giving out a sound    
like thunder1 they will blow out the    
metals and other substances with great  
peril to the workmen4 ,after the furnace
 has been warmed1 the master throws in  

slags1 and these1 when melted1 flow out 
through the tap-hole into the           
forehearth4 ,then he closes up the      
tap-hole at once with mixed lute and    
charcoal dust2 this plug he fastens with
 his hand to a round wooden rammer that 
is five digits thick1 two palms high1   
with a handle three feet long4 ,the     
smelter extracts the slags from the     
forehearth with a hooked bar2 if the ore
 to be smelted is rich in gold or silver
 he puts into the forehearth a          
centumpondium of lead1 or half as much  
if the ore is poor1 because the former  
requires much lead1 the latter little2  
he immediately throws burning firebrands
 on to the lead so that it melts4       
,afterward he performs everything       
according to the usual manner and order1
 whereby he first throws into the       
furnace as many cakes melted from       
pyrites#ab1 as he requires to smelt the 
ore2 then he puts in two wicker baskets 
full of ore with litharge and           
hearth-lead#ac1 and stones which fuse   

easily by fire of the second order1 all 
mixed together2 then one wicker basket  
full of charcoal1 and lastly the slags4 
,the furnace now being filled with all  
the things ,i have mentioned1 the ore is
 slowly smelted2 he does not put too    
much of it against the back wall of the 
furnace1 lest sows should form around   
the nozzles of the bellows and the blast
 be impeded and the fire burn less      
fiercely4  ,this1 indeed1 is the custom 
of many most excellent smelters1 who    
know how to govern the four elements#ad4
 ,they combine in right proportion the  
ores1 which are part earth1 placing no  
more than is suitable in the furnaces2  
they pour in the needful quantity of    
water2 they moderate with skill the air 
from the bellows2 they throw the ore    
into that part of the fire which burns  
fiercely4 ,the master sprinkles water   
into each part of the furnace to dampen 
the charcoal slightly1 so that the      
minute parts of ore may adhere to it1   
which otherwise the blast of the bellows

 and the force of the fire would agitate
 and blow away with the fumes4 ,but as  
the nature of the ores to be smelted    
varies1 the smelters have to arrange the
 hearth now high1 now low1 and to place 
the pipe in which the nozzles of the    
bellows are inserted sometimes on a     
great and sometimes at a slight angle1  
so that the blast of the bellows may    
blow into the furnace in either a mild  
or a vigorous manner4 ,for those ores   
which heat and fuse easily1 a low hearth
 is necessary for the work of the       
smelters1 and the pipe must be placed at
 a gentle angle to produce a mild blast 
from the bellows4 ,on the contrary1     
those ores that heat and fuse slowly    
must have a high hearth1 and the pipe   
must be placed at a steep incline in    
order to blow a strong blast of the     
bellows1 and it is necessary1 for this  
kind of ore1 to have a very hot furnace 
in which slags1 or cakes melted from    
pyrites1 or stones which melt easily in 
the fire#ae1 are first melted1 so that  

the ore should not settle in the hearth 
of the furnace and obstruct and choke up
 the tap-hole1 as the minute metallic   
particles that have been washed from the
 ores are wont to do4 ,large bellows    
have wide nozzles1 for if they were     
narrow the copious and strong blast     
would be too much compressed and too    
acutely blown into the furnace1 and then
 the melted material would be chilled1  
and would form sows around the nozzle1  
and thus obstruct the opening into the  
furnace1 which would cause great damage 
to the proprietors' property4 ,if the   
ores agglomerate and do not fuse1 the   
smelter1 mounting on the ladder placed  
against the side of the furnace1 divides
 the charge with a pointed or hooked    
bar1 which he also pushes down into the 
pipe in which the nozzle of the bellows 
is placed1 and by a downward movement   
dislodges the ore and the sows from     
around it4  ,after a quarter of an hour1
 when the lead which the assistant has  
placed in the forehearth is melted1 the 

master opens the tap-hole of the furnace
 with a tapping-bar4 ,this bar is made  
of iron1 is three and a half feet long1 
the forward end pointed and a little    
curved1 and the back end hollow so that 
into it may be inserted a wooden handle1
 which is three feet long and thick     
enough to be well grasped by the hand4  
,the slag first flows from the furnace  
into the forehearth1 and in it are      
stones mixed with metal or with the     
metal adhering to them partly altered1  
the slag also containing earth and      
solidified juices4 ,after this the      
material from the melted pyrites flows  
out1 and then the molten lead contained 
in the forehearth absorbs the gold and  
silver4 ,when that which has run out has
 stood for some time in the forehearth1 
in order to be able to separate one from
 the other1 the master first either     
skims off the slags with the hooked bar 
or else lifts them off with an iron     
fork2 the slags1 as they are very light1
 float on the top4 ,he next draws off   

the cakes of melted pyrites1 which as   
they are of medium weight hold the      
middle place2 he leaves in the          
forehearth the alloy of gold or silver  
with the lead1 for these being the      
heaviest1 sink to the bottom4 ,as1      
however1 there is a difference in slags1
 the uppermost containing little metal1 
the middle more1 and the lowest much1 he
 puts these away separately1 each in its
 own place1 in order that to each heap1 
when it is re-smelted1 he may add the   
proper fluxes1 and can put in as much   
lead as is demanded for the metal in the
 slag2 when the slag is re-melted1 if it
 emits much odour1 there is some metal  
in it2 if it emits no odour1 then it    
contains none4 ,he puts the cakes of    
melted pyrites away separately1 as they 
were nearest in the forehearth to the   
metal1 and contain a little more of it  
than the slags2 from all these cakes a  
conical mound is built up1 by always    
placing the widest of them at the       
bottom4 ,the hooked bar has a hook on   

the end1 hence its name2 otherwise it is
 similar to other bars4  ,illustration  
#chc 7,blast ,furnaces73 ,a1 ,b1        
,c--,three furnaces4 ,at the first      
stands the smelter1 who with a ladle    
pours the alloy out of the forehearth   
into the moulds4 ,d--,forehearth4       
,e--,ladle4 ,f--,moulds4 ,g--,round     
wooden rammer4 ,h--,tapping-bar4 ,at the
 second furnace stands the smelter1 who 
opens the tap-hole with his tapping-bar4
 ,the assistant1 standing on steps      
placed against the third furnace which  
has been broken open1 chips off the     
accretions4 ,i--,steps4 ,k--,spatula4   
,l--,the other hooked bar4 ,m--,mine    
captain carrying a cake1 in which he has
 stuck the pick1 to the scales to be    
weighed4 ,n--,another mine captain opens
 a chest in which his things are kept4  
,afterward the master closes up the     
tap-hole and fills the furnace with the 
same materials ,i described above1 and  
again1 the ores having been melted1 he  
opens the tap-hole1 and with a hooked   

bar extracts the slags and the cakes    
melted from pyrites1 which have run down
 into the forehearth4 ,he repeats the   
same operation until a certain and      
definite part of the ore has been       
smelted1 and the day's work is at an    
end2 if the ore was rich the work is    
finished in eight hours2 if poor1 it    
takes a longer time4 ,but if the ore was
 so rich as to be smelted in less than  
eight hours1 another operation is in the
 meanwhile combined with the first1 and 
both are performed in the space of ten  
hours4 ,when all the ore has been       
smelted1 he throws into the furnace a   
basket full of litharge or hearth-lead1 
so that the metal which has remained in 
the accretions may run out with these   
when melted4 ,when he has finally drawn 
out of the forehearth the slags and the 
cakes melted from pyrites1 he takes out1
 with a ladle1 the lead alloyed with    
gold or silver and pours it into little 
iron or copper pans1 three palms wide   
and as many digits deep1 but first lined

 on the inside with lute and dried by   
warming1 lest the glowing molten        
substances should break through4 ,the   
iron ladle is two palms wide1 and in    
other respects it is similar to the     
others1 all of which have a sufficiently
 long iron shaft1 so that the fire      
should not burn the wooden part of the  
handle4 ,when the alloy has been poured 
out of the forehearth1 the smelter      
foreman and the mine captain weigh the  
cakes4  ,then the master breaks out the 
whole of the mouth of the furnace with a
 crowbar1 and with that other hooked    
bar1 the rabble and the five-toothed    
rake1 he extracts the accretions and the
 charcoal4 ,this crowbar is not unlike  
the other hooked one1 but larger and    
wider2 the handle of the rabble is six  
feet long and is half of iron and half  
of wood4 ,the furnace having cooled1 the
 master chips off the accretions        
clinging to the walls with a rectangular
 spatula six digits long1 a palm broad1 
and sharp on the front edge2 it has a   

round handle four feet long1 half of it 
being of iron and half of wood4 ,this is
 the first method of smelting ores4     
,because they generally consist of      
unequal constituents1 some of which melt
 rapidly and others slowly1 the ores    
rich in gold and silver cannot be       
smelted as rapidly or as easily by the  
other methods as they can by the first  
method1 for three important reasons4    
,the first reason is that1 as often as  
the closed tap-hole of the furnace is   
opened with a tapping-bar1 so often can 
the smelter observe whether the ore is  
melting too quickly or too slowly1 or   
whether it is flaming in scattered bits1
 and not uniting in one mass2 in the    
first case the ore is smelting too      
slowly and not without great expense2 in
 the second case the metal mixes with   
the slag which flows out of the furnace 
into the forehearth1 wherefore there is 
the expense of melting it again2 in the 
third case1 the metal is consumed by the
 violence of the fire4 ,each of these   

evils has its remedy2 if the ore melts  
slowly or does not come together1 it is 
necessary to add some amount of fluxes  
which melt the ore2 or if they melt too 
readily1 to decrease the amount4  ,the  
second reason is that each time that the
 furnace is opened with a tapping-bar1  
it flows out into the forehearth1 and   
the smelter is able to test the alloy of
 gold and lead or of silver with lead1  
which is called stannum4#af ,when the   
tap-hole is opened the second or third  
time1 this test shows us whether the    
alloy of gold or silver has become      
richer1 or whether the lead is too      
debilitated and wanting in strength to  
absorb any more gold or silver4 ,if it  
has become richer1 some portion of lead 
added to it should renew its strength2  
if it has not become richer1 it is      
poured out of the forehearth that it may
 be replaced with fresh lead4  ,the     
third reason is that if the tap-hole of 
the furnace is always open when the ore 
and other things are being smelted1 the 

fluxes1 which are easily melted1 run out
 of the furnace before the rich gold and
 silver ores1 for these are sometimes of
 a kind that oppose and resist melting  
by the fire for a longer period4 ,it    
follows in this case1 that some part of 
the ore is either consumed or is mixed  
with the accretions1 and as a result    
little lumps of ore not yet melted are  
now and then found in the accretions4   
,therefore when these ores are being    
smelted1 the tap-hole of the furnace    
should be closed for a time1 as it is   
necessary to heat and mix the ore and   
the fluxes at the same time2 since the  
fluxes fuse more rapidly than the ore1  
when the molten fluxes are held in the  
furnace1 they thus melt the ore which   
does not readily fuse or mix with the   
lead4 ,the lead absorbs the gold or     
silver1 just as tin or lead when melted 
in the forehearth absorbs the other     
unmelted metal which has been thrown    
into it4 ,but if the molten matter is   
poured upon that which is not molten1 it

 runs off on all sides and consequently 
does not melt it4 ,it follows from all  
this that ores rich in gold or silver1  
when put into a furnace with its        
tap-hole always open1 cannot for that   
reason be smelted so successfully as in 
one where the tap-hole is closed for a  
time1 so that during this time the ore  
may be melted by the molten fluxes4     
,afterward1 when the tap-hole has been  
opened1 they flow into the forehearth   
and mix there with the molten lead4     
,this method of smelting the ores is    
used by us and by the ,bohemians4       
,illustration #che 7,blast ,furnaces73  
,a1 ,b--,two furnaces4 ,c--,forehearths4
 ,d--,dipping-pot4 ,the smelter standing
 by the first furnace draws off the     
slags with a hooked bar4 ,e--,hooked    
bar4 ,f--,slags4 ,g--,the assistant     
drawing a bucket of water which he pours
 over the glowing slags to quench them4 
,h--,basket made of twigs of wood       
intertwined4 ,i--,rabble4 ,k--,ore to be
 smelted4 ,l--,the master stands at the 

other furnace and prepares the          
forehearth by ramming it with two       
rammers4 ,m--,crowbar4  ,the three      
remaining methods of smelting ores are  
similar to each other in that the       
tap-holes of the furnaces always remain 
open1 so that the molten metals may     
continually run out4 ,they differ       
greatly from each other1 however1 for   
the tap-hole of the first of this kind  
is deeper in the furnace and narrower   
than that of the third1 and besides it  
is invisible and concealed4 ,it easily  
discharges into the forehearth1 which is
 one and a half feet higher than the    
floor of the building1 in order that    
below it to the left a dipping-pot can  
be made4 ,when the forehearth is nearly 
full of the slags1 which well up from   
the invisible tap-hole of the furnace1  
they are skimmed off from the top with a
 hooked bar2 then the alloy of gold or  
silver with lead and the melted pyrites1
 being uncovered1 flow into the         
dipping-pot1 and the latter are made    

into cakes2 these cakes are broken and  
thrown back into the furnace so that all
 their metal may be smelted out4 ,the   
alloy is poured into little iron moulds4
  ,the smelter1 besides lead and cognate
 things1 uses fluxes which combine with 
the ore1 of which ,i gave a sufficient  
account in ,book ,,vii4 ,the metals     
which are melted from ores that fuse    
readily in the fire1 are profitable     
because they are smelted in a short     
time1 while those which are difficult to
 fuse are not as profitable1 because    
they take a long time4 ,when fluxes     
remain in the furnace and do not melt1  
they are not suitable2 for this reason1 
accretions and slags are the most       
convenient for smelting1 because they   
melt quickly4 ,it is necessary to have  
an industrious and experienced smelter1 
who in the first place takes care not to
 put into the furnace more ores mixed   
with fluxes than it can accommodate4    
,the powder out of which this furnace   
hearth and the adjoining forehearth and 

the dipping-pot are usually made1       
consists mostly of equal proportions of 
charcoal dust and of earth1 or of equal 
parts of the same and of ashes4 ,when   
the hearth of the furnace is prepared1 a
 rod that will reach to the forehearth  
is put into it1 higher up if the ore to 
be smelted readily fuses1 and lower down
 if it fuses with difficulty4 ,when the 
dipping-pot and forehearth are finished1
 the rod is drawn out of the furnace so 
that the tap-hole is open1 and through  
it the molten material flows            
continuously into the forehearth1 which 
should be very near the furnace in order
 that it may keep very hot and the alloy
 thus be made purer4 ,if the ore to be  
smelted does not melt easily1 the hearth
 of the furnace must not be made too    
sloping1 lest the molten fluxes should  
run down into the forehearth before the 
ore is smelted1 and the metal thus      
remain in the accretions on the sides of
 the furnace4 ,the smelter must not ram 
the hearth so much that it becomes too  

hard1 nor make the mistake of ramming   
the lower part of the mouth to make it  
hard1 for it could not breathe#ag1 nor  
could the molten matter flow freely out 
of the furnace4 ,the ore which does not 
readily melt is thrown as much as       
possible to the back of the furnace1 and
 toward that part where the fire burns  
very fiercely1 so that it may be smelted
 longer4 ,in this way the smelter may   
direct it whither he wills4 ,only when  
it glows at the part near the bellows'  
nozzle does it signify that all the ore 
is smelted which has been thrown to the 
side of the furnace in which the nozzles
 are placed4 ,if the ore is easily      
melted1 one or two wicker baskets full  
are thrown into the front part of the   
furnace so that the fire1 being driven  
back by it1 may also smelt the ore and  
the sows that form round about the      
nozzles of the bellows4 ,this process of
 smelting is very ancient among the     
,tyrolese#ah1 but not so old among the  
,bohemians4  ,illustration #chg 7,blast 

,furnaces73 ,a1 ,b--,two furnaces4      
,c--,forehearth4 ,d--,dipping-pots4 ,the
 master stands at the one furnace and   
draws away the slags with an iron fork4 
,e--,iron fork4 ,f--,wooden hoe with    
which the cakes of melted pyrites are   
drawn out4 ,g--,the forehearth crucible3
 one-half inside is to be seen open in  
the other furnace4 ,h--,the half outside
 the furnace4 ,i--,the assistant        
prepares the forehearth1 which is       
separated from the furnace that it may  
be seen4 ,k--,bar4 ,l--,wooden rammer4  
,m--,ladder4 ,n--,ladle4  ,the second   
method of smelting ores stands in a     
measure midway between that one         
performed in a furnace of which the     
tap-hole is closed intermittently1 and  
the first of the methods performed in a 
furnace where the tap-hole is always    
open4 ,in this manner are smelted the   
ores of gold and silver that are neither
 very rich nor very poor1 but mediocre1 
which fuse easily and are readily       
absorbed by the lead4 ,it was found that

 in this way a large quantity of ore    
could be smelted at one operation       
without much labour or great expense1   
and could thus be alloyed with lead4    
,this furnace has two crucibles1 one of 
which is half inside the furnace and    
half outside1 so that the lead being put
 into this crucible1 the part of the    
lead which is in the furnace absorbs the
 metals of the ores which easily fuse2  
the other crucible is lower1 and the    
alloy and the molten pyrites run into   
it4 ,those who make use of this method  
of smelting1 tap the alloy of gold or   
silver with lead from the upper crucible
 once or twice if need be1 and throw in 
other lead or litharge1 and each absorbs
 that flux which is nearest4 ,this      
method of smelting is in use in         
,styria#ai4  ,illustration #chi         
7,furnaces73 ,a1 ,b--,two furnaces4     
,c--,tap-holes of furnaces4             
,d--,forehearths4 ,e--,their tap-holes4 
,f--,dipping-pots4 ,g--,at the one      
furnace stands the smelter carrying a   

wicker basket full of charcoal4 ,at the 
other furnace stands a smelter who with 
the third hooked bar breaks away the    
material which has frozen the tap-hole  
of the furnace4 ,h--,hooked bar4        
,i--,heap of charcoal4 ,k--,barrow on   
which is a box made of wicker work in   
which the coals are measured4 ,l--,iron 
spade4  ,the furnace in the third method
 of smelting ores has the tap-hole      
likewise open1 but the furnace is higher
 and wider than the others1 and its     
bellows are larger2 for these reasons a 
larger charge of the ore can be thrown  
into it4 ,when the mines yield a great  
abundance of ore for the smelter1 they  
smelt in the same furnace continuously  
for three days and three nights1        
providing there be no defect either in  
the hearth or in the forehearth4 ,in    
this kind of a furnace almost every kind
 of accretion will be found4 ,the       
forehearth of the furnace is not unlike 
the forehearth of the first furnace of  
all1 except that it has a tap-hole4     

,however1 because large charges of ore  
are smelted uninterruptedly1 and the    
melted material runs out and the slags  
are skimmed off1 there is need for a    
second forehearth crucible1 into which  
the molten material runs through an     
opened tap-hole when the first is full4 
,when a smelter has spent twelve hours' 
labour on this work1 another always     
takes his place4 ,the ores of copper and
 lead and the poorest ores of gold and  
silver are smelted by this method1      
because they cannot be smelted by the   
other three methods on account of the   
greater expense occasioned4 ,yet by this
 method a centumpondium of ore          
containing only one or two drachmae of  
gold1 or only a half to one uncia1 of   
silver1#bj can be smelted2 because there
 is a large amount of ore in each       
charge1 smelting is continuous1 and     
without expensive fluxes such as lead1  
litharge1 and hearth-lead4 ,in this     
method of smelting we must use only     
cupriferous pyrites which easily melt in

 the fire1 in truth the cakes melted out
 from this1 if they no longer absorb    
much gold or silver1 are replenished    
again from crude pyrites alone4 ,if from
 this poor ore1 with melted pyrites     
alone1 material for cakes cannot be     
made1 there are added other fluxes which
 have not previously been melted4 ,these
 fluxes are1 namely1 lead ore1 stones   
easily fused by fire of the second order
 and sand made from them1 limestone1    
tophus1 white schist1 and iron stone#ba4
  ,although this method of smelting ores
 is rough and might not seem to be of   
great use1 yet it is clever and useful2 
for a great weight of ores1 in which the
 gold1 silver1 or copper are in small   
quantities1 may be reduced into a few   
cakes containing all the metal4 ,if on  
being first melted they are too crude to
 be suitable for the second melting1 in 
which the lead absorbs the precious     
metals that are in the cakes1 or in     
which the copper is melted out of them1 
yet they can be made suitable if they   

are repeatedly roasted1 sometimes as    
often as seven or eight times1 as ,i    
have explained in the last book4        
,smelters of this kind are so clever and
 expert1 that in smelting they take out 
all the gold and silver which the       
assayer in assaying the ores has stated 
to be contained in them1 because if     
during the first operation1 when he     
makes the cakes1 there is a drachma of  
gold or half an uncia of silver lost    
from the ores1 the smelter obtains it   
from the slags by the second smelting4  
,this method of smelting ores is old and
 very common to most of those who use   
other methods4  ,illustration #cic      
7,lead smelting ,furnaces73 ,a--,furnace
 of the ,carni4 ,b--,low wall4          
,c--,wood4 ,d--,ore dripping lead4      
,e--,large crucible4 ,f--,moulds4       
,g--,ladle4 ,h--,slabs of lead4         
,i--,rectangular hole at the back of the
 furnace4 ,k--,saxon furnace4           
,l--,opening in the back of the furnace4
 ,m--,wood4 ,n--,upper crucible4        

,o--,dipping-pot4 ,p--,westphalian      
method of melting4 ,q--,heaps of        
charcoal4 ,r--,straw4 ,s--,wide slabs4  
,t--,crucibles4 ,v--,polish hearth4     
,although lead ores are usually smelted 
in the third furnace--whose tap-hole is 
always open1--yet not a few people melt 
them in special furnaces by a method    
which ,i will briefly explain4 ,the     
,carni#bb first burn such lead ores1 and
 afterward break and crush them with    
large round mallets4 ,between the two   
low walls of a hearth1 which is inside a
 furnace made of and vaulted with a rock
 that resists injury by the fire and    
does not burn into chalk1 they place    
green wood with a layer of dry wood on  
the top of it2 then they throw the ore  
on to this1 and when the wood is kindled
 the lead drips down and runs on to the 
underlying sloping hearth#bc4 ,this     
hearth is made of pulverised charcoal   
and earth1 as is also a large crucible1 
one-half of which lies under the furnace
 and the other half outside it1 into    

which runs the lead4 ,the smelter1      
having first skimmed off the slags and  
other things with a hoe1 pours the lead 
with a ladle into moulds1 taking out the
 cakes after they have cooled4 ,at the  
back of the furnace is a rectangular    
hole1 so that the fire may be allowed   
more draught1 and so that the smelter   
can crawl through it into the furnace if
 necessity demands4  ,the ,saxons who   
inhabit ,gittelde1 when smelting lead   
ore in a furnace not unlike a baking    
oven1 put the wood in through a hole at 
the back of the furnace1 and when it    
begins to burn vigorously the lead      
trickles out of the ore into a          
forehearth4 ,when this is full1 the     
smelting being accomplished1 the        
tap-hole is opened with a bar1 and in   
this way the lead1 together with the    
slags1 runs into the dipping-pots below4
 ,afterward the cakes of lead1 when they
 are cold1 are taken from the moulds4   
,in ,westphalia they heap up ten        
wagon-loads of charcoal on some hillside

 which adjoins a level place1 and the   
top of the heap being made flat1 straw  
is thrown upon it to the thickness of   
three or four digits4 ,on the top of    
this is laid as much pure lead ore as   
the heap can bear2 then the charcoal is 
kindled1 and when the wind blows1 it    
fans the fire so that the ore is        
smelted4 ,in this wise the lead1        
trickling down from the heap1 flows on  
to the level and forms broad thin slabs4
 ,a few hundred pounds of lead ore are  
kept at hand1 which1 if things go well1 
are scattered over the heap4 ,these     
broad slabs are impure and are laid upon
 dry wood which in turn is placed on    
green wood laid over a large crucible1  
and the former having been kindled1 the 
lead is re-melted4  ,the ,poles use a   
hearth of bricks four feet high1 sloping
 on both sides and plastered with lute4 
,on the upper level part of the hearth  
large pieces of wood are piled1 and on  
these is placed small wood with lute put
 in between2 over the top are laid wood 

shavings1 and upon these again pure lead
 ore covered with large pieces of wood4 
,when these are kindled1 the ore melts  
and runs down on to the lower layer of  
wood2 and when this is consumed by the  
fire1 the metal is collected4 ,if       
necessity demand1 it is melted over and 
over again in the same manner1 but it is
 finally melted by means of wood laid   
over the large crucible1 the slabs of   
lead being placed upon it4  ,the        
concentrates from washing are smelted   
together with slags 7fluxes87 in a third
 furnace1 of which the tap-hole is      
always open4  ,illustration #cie 7,blast
 ,furnaces73 ,a--,furnaces4 ,b--,vaulted
 roof4 ,c--,columns4 ,d--,dust-chamber4 
,e--,opening4 ,f--,chimney4 ,g--,window4
 ,h--,door4 ,i--,chute4  ,it is worth   
while to build vaulted dust-chambers    
over the furnaces1 especially over those
 in which the precious ores are to be   
smelted1 in order that the thicker part 
of the fumes1 in which metals are not   
wanting1 may be caught and saved4 ,in   

this way two or more furnaces are       
combined under the same vaulted ceiling1
 which is supported by the wall1 against
 which the furnaces are built1 and by   
four columns4 ,under this the smelters  
of the ore perform their work4 ,there   
are two openings through which the fumes
 rise from the furnaces into the wide   
vaulted chamber1 and the wider this is  
the more fumes it collects2 in the      
middle of this chamber over the arch is 
an opening three palms high and two     
wide4 ,this catches the fumes of both   
furnaces1 which have risen up from both 
sides of the vaulted chamber to its     
arch1 and have fallen again because they
 could not force their way out2 and they
 thus pass out through the opening      
mentioned1 into the chimney which the   
,greeks call ,greek3 kapnodoche1 the    
name being taken from the object4 ,the  
chimney has thin iron plates fastened   
into the walls1 to which the thinner    
metallic substances adhere when         
ascending with the fumes4 ,the thicker  

metallic substances1 or cadmia1#be      
adhere to the vaulted chamber1 and often
 harden into stalactites4 ,on one side  
of the chamber is a window in which are 
set panes of glass1 so that the light   
may be transmitted1 but the fumes kept  
in2 on the other side is a door1 which  
is kept entirely closed while the ores  
are being smelted in the furnaces1 so   
that none of the fumes may escape4 ,it  
is opened in order that the workman1    
passing through it1 may be enabled to   
enter the chamber and remove the soot   
and pompholyx#bf and chip off the       
cadmia2 this sweeping is done twice a   
year4 ,the soot mixed with pompholyx and
 the cadmia1 being chipped off1 is      
thrown down through a long chute made of
 four boards joined in the shape of a   
rectangle1 that they should not fly     
away4 ,they fall on to the floor1 and   
are sprinkled with salt water1 and are  
again smelted with ore and litharge1 and
 become an emolument to the proprietors4
 ,such chambers1 which catch the        

metallic substances that rise with the  
fumes1 are profitable for all           
metalliferous ores2 but especially for  
the minute metallic particles collected 
by washing crushed ores and rock1       
because these usually fly out with the  
fire of the furnaces4  ,i have explained
 the four general methods of smelting   
ores2 now ,i will state how the ores of 
each metal are smelted1 or how the metal
 is obtained from the ore4 ,i will begin
 with gold4 ,its sand1 the concentrates 
from washing1 or the gold dust collected
 in any other manner1 should very often 
not be smelted1 but should be mixed with
 quicksilver and washed with tepid      
water1 so that all the impurities may be
 eliminated4 ,this method ,i explained  
in ,book ,,vii4 ,or they are placed in  
the aqua which separates gold from      
silver1 for this also separates its     
impurities4 ,in this method we see the  
gold sink in the glass ampulla1 and     
after all the aqua has been drained from
 the particles1 it frequently remains as

 a gold-coloured residue at the bottom2 
this powder1 when it has been moistened 
with oil made from argol#bg1 is then    
dried and placed in a crucible1 where it
 is melted with borax or with saltpetre 
and salt2 or the same very fine dust is 
thrown into molten silver1 which absorbs
 it1 and from this it is again parted by
 aqua valens#bh4  ,it is necessary to   
smelt gold ore either outside the blast 
furnace in a crucible1 or inside the    
blast furnace2 in the former case a     
small charge of ore is used1 in the     
latter a large charge of it4 ,rudis     
gold1 of whatever colour it is1 is      
crushed with a libra each of sulphur and
 salt1 a third of a libra of copper1 and
 a quarter of a libra of argol2 they    
should be melted in a crucible on a slow
 fire for three hours1 then the alloy is
 put into molten silver that it may melt
 more rapidly4 ,or a libra of the same  
crude gold1 crushed up1 is mixed        
together with half a libra of stibium   
likewise crushed1 and put into a        

crucible with half an uncia of copper   
filings1 and heated until they melt1    
then a sixth part of granulated lead is 
thrown into the same crucible4 ,as soon 
as the mixture emits an odour1          
iron-filings are added to it1 or if     
these are not at hand1 iron             
hammer-scales1 for both of these break  
the strength of the stibium4 ,when the  
fire consumes it1 not alone with it is  
some strength of the stibium consumed1  
but some particles of gold and also of  
silver1 if it be mixed with the gold#bi4
 ,when the button has been taken out of 
the crucible and cooled1 it is melted in
 a cupel1 first until the antimony is   
exhaled1 and thereafter until the lead  
is separated from it4  ,crushed pyrites 
which contains gold is smelted in the   
same way2 it and the stibium should be  
of equal weight and in truth the gold   
may be made from them in a number of    
different ways#cj4 ,one part of crushed 
material is mixed with six parts of     
copper1 one part of sulphur1 half a part

 of salt1 and they are all placed in a  
pot and over them is poured wine        
distilled by heating liquid argol in an 
ampulla4 ,the pot is covered and smeared
 over with lute and is put in a hot     
place1 so that the mixture moistened    
with wine may dry for the space of six  
days1 then it is heated for three hours 
over a gentle fire that it may combine  
more rapidly with the lead4 ,finally it 
is put into a cupel and the gold is     
separated from the lead#ca4  ,or else   
one libra of the concentrates from      
washing pyrites1 or other stones to     
which gold adheres1 is mixed with half a
 libra of salt1 half a libra of argol1 a
 third of a libra of glass-galls1 a     
sixth of a libra of gold or silver      
slags1 and a sicilicus of copper4 ,the  
crucible into which these are put1 after
 it has been covered with a lid1 is     
sealed with lute and placed in a small  
furnace that is provided with small     
holes through which the air is drawn in1
 and then it is heated until it turns   

red and the substances put in have      
alloyed2 this should take place within  
four or five hours4 ,the alloy having   
cooled1 it is again crushed to powder   
and a pound of litharge is added to it2 
then it is heated again in another      
crucible until it melts4 ,the button is 
taken out1 purged of slag1 and placed in
 a cupel1 where the gold is separated   
from the lead4  ,or to a libra of the   
powder prepared from such metalliferous 
concentrates1 is added a libra each of  
salt1 of saltpetre1 of argol1 and of    
glass-galls1 and it is heated until it  
melts4 ,when cooled and crushed1 it is  
washed1 then to it is added a libra of  
silver1 a third of copper filings1 a    
sixth of litharge1 and it is likewise   
heated again until it melts4 ,after the 
button has been purged of slag1 it is   
put into the cupel1 and the gold and    
silver are separated from the lead2 the 
gold is parted from the silver with aqua
 valens4 ,or else a libra of the powder 
prepared from such metalliferous        

concentrates1 a quarter of a libra of   
copper filings1 and two librae of that  
second powder#cb which fuses ores1 are  
heated until they melt4 ,the mixture    
when cooled is again reduced to powder1 
roasted and washed1 and in this manner a
 blue powder is obtained4 ,of this1 and 
silver1 and that second powder which    
fuses ores1 a libra each are taken1     
together with three librae of lead1 and 
a quarter of a libra of copper1 and they
 are heated together until they melt2   
then the button is treated as before4   
,or else a libra of the powder prepared 
from such metalliferous concentrates1   
half a libra of saltpetre1 and a quarter
 of a libra of salt are heated until    
they melt4 ,the alloy when cooled is    
again crushed to powder1 one libra of   
which is absorbed by four pounds of     
molten silver4 ,or else a libra of the  
powder made from that kind of           
concentrates1 together with a libra of  
sulphur1 a libra and a half of salt1 a  
third of a libra of salt made from      

argol1 and a third of a libra of copper 
resolved into powder with sulphur1 are  
heated until they melt4 ,afterward the  
lead is re-melted1 and the gold is      
separated from the other metals4 ,or    
else a libra of the powder of this kind 
of concentrates1 together with two      
librae of salt1 half a libra of sulphur1
 and one libra of litharge1 are heated1 
and from these the gold is melted out4  
,by these and similar methods           
concentrates containing gold1 if there  
be a small quantity of them or if they  
are very rich1 can be smelted outside   
the blast furnace4  ,if there be much of
 them and they are poor1 then they are  
smelted in the blast furnace1 especially
 the ore which is not crushed to powder1
 and particularly when the gold mines   
yield an abundance of it#cc4 ,the gold  
concentrates mixed with litharge and    
hearth-lead1 to which are added         
iron-scales1 are smelted in the blast   
furnace whose tap-hole is intermittently
 closed1 or else in the first or the    

second furnaces in which the tap-hole is
 always open4 ,in this manner an alloy  
of gold and lead is obtained which is   
put into the cupellation furnace4 ,two  
parts of roasted pyrites or cadmia which
 contain gold1 are put with one part of 
unroasted1 and are smelted together in  
the third furnace whose tap-hole is     
always open1 and are made into cakes4   
,when these cakes have been repeatedly  
roasted1 they are re-smelted in the     
furnace whose tap-hole is temporarily   
closed1 or in one of the two others     
whose tap-holes are always open4 ,in    
this manner the lead absorbs the gold1  
whether pure or argentiferous or        
cupriferous1 and the alloy is taken to  
the cupellation furnace4 ,pyrites1 or   
other gold ore which is mixed with much 
material that is consumed by fire and   
flies out of the furnace1 is melted with
 stone from which iron is melted1 if    
this is at hand4 ,six parts of such     
pyrites1 or of gold ore reduced to      
powder and sifted1 four of stone from   

which iron is made1 likewise crushed1   
and three of slaked lime1 are mixed     
together and moistened with water2 to   
these are added two and a half parts of 
the cakes which contain some copper1    
together with one and a half parts of   
slag4 ,a basketful of fragments of the  
cakes is thrown into the furnace1 then  
the mixture of other things1 and then   
the slag4 ,now when the middle part of  
the forehearth is filled with the molten
 material which runs down from the      
furnace1 the slags are first skimmed    
off1 and then the cakes made of pyrites2
 afterward the alloy of copper1 gold and
 silver1 which settles at the bottom1 is
 taken out4 ,the cakes are gently       
roasted and re-smelted with lead1 and   
made into cakes1 which are carried to   
other works4 ,the alloy of copper1 gold1
 and silver is not roasted1 but is      
re-melted again in a crucible with an   
equal portion of lead4 ,cakes are also  
made much richer in copper and gold than
 those ,i spoke of4 ,in order that the  

alloy of gold and silver may be made    
richer1 to eighteen librae of it are    
added forty-eight librae of crude ore1  
three librae of the stone from which    
iron is made1 and three-quarters of a   
libra of the cakes made from pyrites1   
and mixed with lead1 all are heated     
together in the crucible until they     
melt4 ,when the slag and the cakes      
melted from pyrites have been skimmed   
off1 the alloy is carried to other      
furnaces4  ,there now follows silver1 of
 which the native silver or the lumps of
 rudis silver#cd obtained from the mines
 are not smelted in the blast furnaces1 
but in small iron pans1 of which ,i will
 speak at the proper place2 these lumps 
are heated and thrown into molten       
silver-lead alloy in the cupellation    
furnace when the silver is being        
separated from the lead1 and refined4   
,the tiny flakes or tiny lumps of silver
 adhering to stones or marble or rocks1 
or again the same little lumps mixed    
with earth1 or silver not pure enough1  

should be smelted in the furnace of     
which the tap-hole is only closed for a 
short time1 together with cakes melted  
from pyrites1 with silver slags1 and    
with stones which easily fuse in fire of
 the second order4  ,in order that      
particles of silver should not fly      
away#ce from the lumps of ore consisting
 of minute threads of pure silver and   
twigs of native silver1 they are        
enclosed in a pot1 and are placed in the
 same furnace where the rest of the     
silver ores are being smelted4 ,some    
people smelt lumps of native silver not 
sufficiently pure1 in pots or triangular
 crucibles1 whose lids are sealed with  
lute4 ,they do not place these pots in  
the blast furnace1 but arrange them in  
the assay furnace into which the draught
 of the air blows through small holes4  
,to one part of the native silver they  
add three parts of powdered litharge1 as
 many parts of hearth-lead1 half a part 
of galena#cf1 and a small quantity of   
salt and iron-scales4 ,the alloy which  

settles at the bottom of the other      
substances in the pot is carried to the 
cupellation furnace1 and the slags are  
re-melted with the other silver slags4  
,they crush under the stamps and wash   
the pots or crucibles to which          
silver-lead alloy or slags adhere1 and  
having collected the concentrates they  
smelt them together with the slags4     
,this method of smelting rudis silver1  
if there is a small quantity of it1 is  
the best1 because the smallest portion  
of silver does not fly out of the pot or
 the crucible1 and get lost4  ,if       
bismuth ore or antimony ore or lead     
ore#cg contains silver1 it is smelted   
with the other ores of silver2 likewise 
galena or pyrites1 if there is a small  
amount of it4 ,if there be much galena1 
whether it contain a large or a small   
amount of silver1 it is smelted         
separately from the others2 which       
process ,i will explain a little further
 on4  ,because lead and copper ores and 
their metals have much in common with   

silver ores1 it is fitting that ,i      
should say a great deal concerning them1
 both now and later on4 ,also in the    
same manner1 pyrites are smelted        
separately if there be much of them4 ,to
 three parts of roasted lead or copper  
ore and one part of crude ore1 are added
 concentrates if they were made by      
washing the same ore1 together with     
slags1 and all are put in the third     
furnace whose tap-hole is always open4  
,cakes are made from this charge1 which1
 when they have been quenched with      
water1 are roasted4 ,of these roasted   
cakes generally four parts are again    
mixed with one part of crude pyrites and
 re-melted in the same furnace4 ,cakes  
are again made from this charge1 and if 
there is a large amount of copper in    
these cakes1 copper is made immediately 
after they have been roasted and        
re-melted2 if there is little copper in 
the cakes they are also roasted1 but    
they are re-smelted with a little soft  
slag4 ,in this method the molten lead in

 the forehearth absorbs the silver4     
,from the pyritic material which floats 
on the top of the forehearth are made   
cakes for the third time1 and from them 
when they have been roasted and         
re-smelted is made copper4 ,similarly1  
three parts of roasted cadmia#ch in     
which there is silver1 are mixed with   
one part of crude pyrites1 together with
 slag1 and this charge is smelted and   
cakes are made from it2 these cakes     
having been roasted are re-smelted in   
the same furnace4 ,by this method the   
lead contained in the forehearth absorbs
 the silver1 and the silver-lead is     
taken to the cupellation furnace4 ,crude
 quartz and stones which easily fuse in 
fire of the third order1 together with  
other ores in which there is a small    
amount of silver1 ought to be mixed with
 crude roasted pyrites or cadmia1       
because the roasted cakes of pyrites or 
cadmia cannot be profitably smelted     
separately4 ,in a similar manner earths 
which contain little silver are mixed   

with the same2 but if pyrites and cadmia
 are not available to the smelter1 he   
smelts such silver ores and earths with 
litharge1 hearth-lead1 slags1 and stones
 which easily melt in the fire4 ,the    
concentrates#ci originating from the    
washing of rudis silver1 after first    
being roasted#dj until they melt1 are   
smelted with mixed litharge and         
hearth-lead1 or else1 after being       
moistened with water1 they are smelted  
with cakes made from pyrites and cadmia4
 ,by neither of these methods do 7the   
concentrates7 fall back in the furnace1 
or fly out of it1 driven by the blast of
 the bellows and the agitation of the   
fire4 ,if the concentrates originated   
from galena they are smelted with it    
after having been roasted2 and if from  
pyrites1 then with pyrites4  ,pure      
copper ore1 whether it is its own colour
 or is tinged with chrysocolla or azure1
 and copper glance1 or grey or black    
rudis copper1 is smelted in a furnace of
 which the tap-hole is closed for a very

 short time1 or else is always open#da4 
,if there is a large amount of silver in
 the ore it is run into the forehearth1 
and the greater part of the silver is   
absorbed by the molten lead1 and the    
remainder is sold with the copper to the
 proprietor of the works in which silver
 is parted from copper#db4 ,if there is 
a small amount of silver in the ore1 no 
lead is put into the forehearth to      
absorb the silver1 and the              
above-mentioned proprietors buy it in   
with the copper2 if there be no silver1 
copper is made direct4 ,if such copper  
ore contains some minerals which do not 
easily melt1 as pyrites or cadmia       
metallica fossilis#dc1 or stone from    
which iron is melted1 then crude pyrites
 which easily fuse are added to it1     
together with slag4 ,from this charge1  
when smelted1 they make cakes2 and from 
these1 when they have been roasted as   
much as is necessary and re-smelted1 the
 copper is made4 ,but if there be some  
silver in the cakes1 for which an outlay

 of lead has to be made1 then it is     
first run into the forehearth1 and the  
molten lead absorbs the silver4         
,indeed1 rudis copper ore of inferior   
quality1 whether ash-coloured or purple1
 blackish and occasionally in parts     
blue1 is smelted in the first furnace   
whose tap-hole is always open4 ,this is 
the method of the ,tyrolese4 ,to as much
 rudis copper ore as will fill eighteen 
vessels1 each of which holds almost as  
much as seven ,roman moduli#dd1 the     
first smelter--for there are three--adds
 three cartloads of lead slags1 one     
cartload of schist1 one fifth of a      
centumpondium of stones which easily    
fuse in the fire1 besides a small       
quantity of concentrates collected from 
copper slag and accretions1 all of which
 he smelts for the space of twelve      
hours1 and from which he makes six      
centumpondia of primary cakes and       
one-half of a centumpondium of alloy4   
,one half of the latter consists of     
copper and silver1 and it settles to the

 bottom of the forehearth4 ,in every    
centumpondium of the cakes there is half
 a libra of silver and sometimes half an
 uncia besides2 in the half of a        
centumpondium of the alloy there is a   
bes or three-quarters of silver4 ,in    
this way every week1 if the work is for 
six days1 thirty-six centumpondia of    
cakes are made and three centumpondia of
 alloy1 in all of which there is often  
almost twenty-four librae of silver4    
,the second smelter separates from the  
primary cakes the greater part of the   
silver by absorbing it in lead4 ,to     
eighteen centumpondia of cakes made from
 crude copper ore1 he adds twelve       
centumpondia of hearth-lead and         
litharge1 three centumpondia of stones  
from which lead is smelted1 five        
centumpondia of hard cakes rich in      
silver1 and two centumpondia of         
exhausted liquation cakes#de2 he adds   
besides1 some of the slags resulting    
from smelting crude copper1 together    
with a small quantity of concentrates   

made from accretions1 all of which he   
melts for the space of twelve hours1 and
 makes eighteen centumpondia of         
secondary cakes1 and twelve centumpondia
 of copper-lead-silver alloy2 in each   
centumpondium of the latter there is    
half a libra of silver4 ,after he has   
taken off the cakes with a hooked bar1  
he pours the alloy out into copper or   
iron moulds2 by this method they make   
four cakes of alloy1 which are carried  
to the works in which silver is parted  
from copper4 ,on the following day1 the 
same smelter1 taking eighteen           
centumpondia of the secondary cakes1    
again adds twelve centumpondia of       
hearth-lead and litharge1 three         
centumpondia of stones from which lead  
is smelted1 five centumpondia of hard   
cakes rich in silver1 together with     
slags from the smelting of the primary  
cakes1 and with concentrates washed from
 the accretions which are usually made  
at that time4 ,this charge is likewise  
smelted for the space of twelve hours1  

and he makes as many as thirteen        
centumpondia of tertiary cakes and      
eleven centumpondia of                  
copper-lead-silver alloy1 each          
centumpondium of which contains         
one-third of a libra and half an uncia  
of silver4 ,when he has skimmed off the 
tertiary cakes with a hooked bar1 the   
alloy is poured into copper moulds1 and 
by this method four cakes of alloy are  
made1 which1 like the preceding four    
cakes of alloy1 are carried to the works
 in which silver is parted from copper4 
,by this method the second smelter makes
 primary cakes on alternate days and    
secondary cakes on the intermediate     
days4 ,the third smelter takes eleven   
cartloads of the tertiary cakes and adds
 to them three cartloads of hard cakes  
poor in silver1 together with the slag  
from smelting the secondary cakes1 and  
the concentrates from the accretions    
which are usually made at that time4    
,from this charge when smelted1 he makes
 twenty centumpondia of quaternary      

cakes1 which are called hard cakes1 and 
also fifteen centumpondia of those hard 
cakes rich in silver1 each centumpondium
 of which contains a third of a libra of
 silver4 ,these latter cakes the second 
smelter1 as ,i said before1 adds to the 
primary and secondary cakes when he     
re-melts them4 ,in the same way1 from   
eleven cartloads of quaternary cakes    
thrice roasted1 he makes the final      
cakes1 of which one centumpondium       
contains only half an uncia of silver4  
,in this operation he also makes fifteen
 centumpondia of hard cakes poor in     
silver1 in each centumpondium of which  
is a sixth of a libra of silver4 ,these 
hard cakes the third smelter1 as ,i have
 said1 adds to the tertiary cakes when  
he re-smelts them1 while from the final 
cakes1 thrice roasted and re-smelted1 is
 made black copper#df4  ,the rudis      
copper from which pure copper is made1  
if it contains little silver or if it   
does not easily melt1 is first smelted  
in the third furnace of which the       

tap-hole is always open2 and from this  
are made cakes1 which after being seven 
times roasted are re-smelted1 and from  
these copper is melted out2 the cakes of
 copper are carried to a furnace of     
another kind1 in which they are melted  
for the third time1 in order that in the
 copper bottoms there may be more       
silver1 while in the tops there may be  
less1 which process is explained in     
,book ,,xi4  ,pyrites1 when they contain
 not only copper1 but also silver1 are  
smelted in the manner ,i described when 
,i treated of ores of silver4 ,but if   
they are poor in silver1 and if the     
copper which is melted out of them      
cannot easily be treated1 they are      
smelted according to the method which ,i
 last explained4  ,finally1 the copper  
schists containing bitumen or sulphur   
are roasted1 and then smelted with      
stones which easily fuse in a fire of   
the second order1 and are made into     
cakes1 on the top of which the slags    
float4 ,from these cakes1 usually       

roasted seven times and re-melted1 are  
melted out slags and two kinds of cakes2
 one kind is of copper and occupies the 
bottom of the crucible1 and these are   
sold to the proprietors of the works in 
which silver is parted from copper2 the 
other kind of cakes are usually         
re-melted with primary cakes4 ,if the   
schist contains but a small amount of   
copper1 it is burned1 crushed under the 
stamps1 washed and sieved1 and the      
concentrates obtained from it are melted
 down2 from this are made cakes from    
which1 when roasted1 copper is made4 ,if
 either chrysocolla or azure1 or yellow 
or black earth containing copper and    
silver1 adheres to the schist1 it is not
 washed1 but is crushed and smelted with
 stones which easily fuse in fire of the
 second order4  ,lead ore1 whether it be
 molybdaena#dg1 pyrites1 7galena87 or   
stone from which it is melted1 is often 
smelted in a special furnace1 of which  
,i have spoken above1 but no less often 
in the third furnace of which the       

tap-hole is always open4 ,the hearth and
 forehearth are made from powder        
containing a small portion of iron      
hammer-scales2 iron slag forms the      
principal flux for such ores2 both of   
these the expert smelters consider      
useful and to the owner's advantage1    
because it is the nature of iron to     
attract lead4 ,if it is molybdaena or   
the stone from which lead is smelted1   
then the lead runs down from the furnace
 into the forehearth1 and when the slags
 have been skimmed off1 the lead is     
poured out with a ladle4 ,if pyrites are
 smelted1 the first to flow from the    
furnace into the forehearth1 as may be  
seen at ,goslar1 is a white molten      
substance1 injurious and noxious to     
silver1 for it consumes it4 ,for this   
reason the slags which float on the top 
having been skimmed off1 this substance 
is poured out2 or if it hardens1 then it
 is taken out with a hooked bar2 and the
 walls of the furnace exude the same    
substance#dh4 ,then the stannum runs out

 of the furnace into the forehearth2    
this is an alloy of lead and silver4    
,from the silver-lead alloy they first  
skim off the slags1 not rarely white1 as
 some pyrites#di are1 and afterward they
 skim off the cakes of pyrites1 if there
 are any4 ,in these cakes there is      
usually some copper2 but since there is 
usually but a very small quantity1 and  
as the forest charcoal is not abundant1 
no copper is made from them4 ,from the  
silver-lead poured into iron moulds they
 likewise make cakes2 when these cakes  
have been melted in the cupellation     
furnace1 the silver is parted from the  
lead1 because part of the lead is       
transformed into litharge and part into 
hearth-lead1 from which in the blast    
furnace on re-melting they make         
de-silverized lead1 for in this lead    
each centumpondium contains only a      
drachma of silver1 when before the      
silver was parted from it each          
centumpondium contained more or less    
than three unciae of silver#ej4  ,the   

little black stones#ea and others from  
which tin is made1 are smelted in their 
own kind of furnace1 which should be    
narrower than the other furnaces1 that  
there may be only the small fire which  
is necessary for this ore4 ,these       
furnaces are higher1 that the height may
 compensate for the narrowness and make 
them of almost the same capacity as the 
other furnaces4 ,at the top1 in front1  
they are closed and on the other side   
they are open1 where there are steps1   
because they cannot have the steps in   
front on account of the forehearth2 the 
smelters ascend by these steps to put   
the tin-stone into the furnace4 ,the    
hearth of the furnace is not made of    
powdered earth and charcoal1 but on the 
floor of the works are placed sandstones
 which are not too hard2 these are set  
on a slight slope1 and are two and      
three-quarters feet long1 the same      
number of feet wide1 and two feet thick1
 for the thicker they are the longer    
they last in the fire4 ,around them is  

constructed a rectangular furnace eight 
or nine feet high1 of broad sandstones1 
or of those common substances which by  
nature are composed of diverse          
materials#eb4 ,on the inside the furnace
 is everywhere evenly covered with lute4
 ,the upper part of the interior is two 
feet long and one foot wide1 but below  
it is not so long and wide4 ,above it   
are two hood-walls1 between which the   
fumes ascend from the furnace into the  
dust chamber1 and through this they     
escape by a narrow opening in the roof4 
,the sandstones are sloped at the bed of
 the furnace1 so that the tin melted    
from the tin-stone may flow through the 
tap-hole of the furnace into the        
forehearth4#ec  ,as there is no need for
 the smelters to have a fierce fire1 it 
is not necessary to place the nozzles of
 the bellows in bronze or iron pipes1   
but only through a hole in the furnace  
wall4 ,they place the bellows higher at 
the back so that the blast from the     
nozzles may blow straight toward the    

tap-hole of the furnace4 ,that it may   
not be too fierce1 the nozzles are wide1
 for if the fire were fiercer1 tin could
 not be melted out from the tin-stone1  
as it would be consumed and turned into 
ashes4 ,near the steps is a hollowed    
stone1 in which is placed the tin-stone 
to be smelted2 as often as the smelter  
throws into the furnace an iron         
shovel-ful of this tin-stone1 he puts on
 charcoal that was first put into a vat 
and washed with water to be cleansed    
from the grit and small stones which    
adhere to it1 lest they melt at the same
 time as the tin-stone and obstruct the 
tap-hole and impede the flow of tin from
 the furnace4 ,the tap-hole of the      
furnace is always open2 in front of it  
is a forehearth a little more than half 
a foot deep1 three-quarters of two feet 
long and one foot wide2 this is lined   
with lute1 and the tin from the tap-hole
 flows into it4 ,on one side of the     
forehearth is a low wall1 three-quarters
 of a foot wider and one foot longer    

than the forehearth1 on which lies      
charcoal powder4 ,on the other side the 
floor of the building slopes1 so that   
the slags may conveniently run down and 
be carried away4 ,as soon as the tin    
begins to run from the tap-hole of the  
furnace into the forehearth1 the smelter
 scrapes down some of the powdered      
charcoal into it from the wall1 so that 
the slags may be separated from the hot 
metal1 and so that it may be covered1   
lest any part of it1 being very hot1    
should fly away with the fumes4 ,if     
after the slag has been skimmed off1 the
 powder does not cover up the whole of  
the tin1 the smelter draws a little more
 charcoal off the wall with a scraper4  
,after he has opened the tap-hole of the
 forehearth with a tapping-bar1 in order
 that the tin can flow into the         
tapping-pot1 likewise smeared with lute1
 he again closes the tap-hole with pure 
lute or lute mixed with powdered        
charcoal4 ,the smelter1 if he be        
diligent and experienced1 has brooms at 

hand with which he sweeps down the walls
 above the furnace2 to these walls and  
to the dust chamber minute tin-stones   
sometimes adhere with part of the fumes4
 ,if he be not sufficiently experienced 
in these matters and has melted at the  
same time all of the tin-stone1--which  
is commonly of three sizes1 large1      
medium1 and very small1--not a little   
waste of the proprietor's tin results2  
because1 before the large or the medium 
sizes have melted1 the small have either
 been burnt up in the furnace1 or else1 
flying up from it1 they not only adhere 
to the walls but also fall in the dust  
chamber4 ,the owner of the works has the
 sweepings by right from the owner of   
the ore4 ,for the above reasons the most
 experienced smelter melts them down    
separately2 indeed1 he melts the very   
small size in a wider furnace1 the      
medium in a medium-sized furnace1 and   
the largest size in the narrowest       
furnace4 ,when he melts down the small  
size he uses a gentle blast from the    

bellows1 with the medium-sized a        
moderate one1 with the large size a     
violent blast2 and when he smelts the   
first size he needs a slow fire1 for the
 second a medium one1 and for the third 
a fierce one2 yet he uses a much less   
fierce fire than when he smelts the ores
 of gold1 silver1 or copper4 ,when the  
workmen have spent three consecutive    
days and nights in this work1 as is     
usual1 they have finished their labours2
 in this time they are able to melt out 
a large weight of small sized tin-stone 
which melts quickly1 but less of the    
large ones which melt slowly1 and a     
moderate quantity of the medium-sized   
which holds the middle course4 ,those   
who do not smelt the tin-stone in       
furnaces made sometimes wide1 sometimes 
medium1 or sometimes narrow1 in order   
that great loss should not be           
occasioned1 throw in first the smallest 
size1 then the medium1 then the large   
size1 and finally those which are not   
quite pure2 and the blast of the bellows

 is altered as required4 ,in order that 
the tin-stone thrown into the furnace   
should not roll off from the large      
charcoal into the forehearth before the 
tin is melted out of it1 the smelter    
uses small charcoal2 first some of this 
moistened with water is placed in the   
furnace1 and then he frequently repeats 
this succession of charcoal and         
tin-stone4  ,the tin-stone1 collected   
from material which during the summer   
was washed in a ditch through which a   
stream was diverted1 and during the     
winter was screened on a perforated iron
 plate1 is smelted in a furnace a palm  
wider than that in which the fine       
tin-stone dug out of the earth is       
smelted4 ,for the smelting of these1 a  
more vigorous blast of the bellows and a
 fiercer fire is needed than for the    
smelting of the large tin-stone4        
,whichever kind of tin-stone is being   
smelted1 if the tin first flows from the
 furnace1 much of it is made1 and if    
slags first flow from the furnace1 then 

only a little4 ,it happens that the     
tin-stone is mixed with the slags when  
it is either less pure or               
ferruginous--that is1 not enough        
roasted--and is imperfect when put into 
the furnace1 or when it has been put in 
in a larger quantity than was necessary2
 then1 although it may be pure and melt 
easily1 the ore either runs out of the  
furnace at the same time1 mixed with the
 slags1 or else it settles so firmly at 
the bottom of the furnace that the      
operation of smelting being necessarily 
interrupted1 the furnace freezes up4    
,illustration #dae 7,tin smelting       
,furnaces73 ,a--,furnace4 ,b--,its      
tap-hole4 ,c--,forehearth4 ,d--,its     
tap-hole4 ,e--,slags4 ,f--,scraper4     
,g--,dipping-pot4 ,h--,walls of the     
chimney4 ,i--,broom4 ,k--,copper plate4 
,l--,latticework bars4 ,m--,iron seal or
 die4 ,n--,hammer4  ,the tap-hole of the
 forehearth is opened and the tin is    
diverted into the dipping-pot1 and as   
often as the slags flow down the sloping

 floor of the building they are skimmed 
off with a rabble2 as soon as the tin   
has run out of the forehearth1 the      
tap-hole is again closed up with lute   
mixed with powdered charcoal4 ,glowing  
coals are put in the dipping-pot so that
 the tin1 after it has run out1 should  
not get chilled4 ,if the metal is so    
impure that nothing can be made from it1
 the material which has run out is made 
into cakes to be re-smelted in the      
hearth1 of which ,i shall have something
 to say later2 if the metal is pure1 it 
is poured immediately upon thick copper 
plates1 at first in straight lines and  
then transversely over these to make a  
lattice4 ,each of these lattice bars is 
impressed with an iron die2 if the tin  
was melted out of ore excavated from    
mines1 then one stamp only1 namely1 that
 of the ,magistrate1 is usually         
imprinted1 but if it is made from       
tin-stone collected on the ground after 
washing1 then it is impressed with two  
seals1 one the ,magistrate's and the    

other a fork which the washers use4     
,generally1 three of this kind of       
lattice bars are beaten and amalgamated 
into one mass with a wooden mallet4     
,the slags that are skimmed off are     
afterward thrown with an iron shovel    
into a small trough hollowed from a     
tree1 and are cleansed from charcoal by 
agitation2 when taken out they are      
broken up with a square iron mallet1 and
 then they are re-melted with the fine  
tin-stone next smelted4 ,there are some 
who crush the slags three times under   
wet stamps and re-melt them three times2
 if a large quantity of this be smelted 
while still wet1 little tin is melted   
from it1 because the slag1 soon melted  
again1 flows from the furnace into the  
forehearth4 ,under the wet stamps are   
also crushed the lute and broken rock   
with which such furnaces are lined1 and 
also the accretions1 which often contain
 fine tin-stone1 either not melted or   
half-melted1 and also prills of tin4    
,the tin-stone not yet melted runs out  

through the screen into a trough1 and is
 washed in the same way as tin-stone1   
while the partly melted and the prills  
of tin are taken from the mortar-box and
 washed in the sieve on which not very  
minute particles remain1 and thence to  
the canvas strake4 ,the soot which      
adheres to that part of the chimney     
which emits the smoke1 also often       
contains very fine tin-stone which flies
 from the furnace with the fumes1 and   
this is washed in the strake which ,i   
have just mentioned1 and in other       
sluices4 ,the prills of tin and the     
partly melted tin-stone that are        
contained in the lute and broken rock   
with which the furnace is lined1 and in 
the remnants of the tin from the        
forehearth and the dipping-pot1 are     
smelted together with the tin-stone4    
,when tin-stone has been smelted for    
three days and as many nights in a      
furnace prepared as ,i have said above1 
some little particles of the rock from  
which the furnace is constructed become 

loosened by the fire and fall down2 and 
then the bellows being taken away1 the  
furnace is broken through at the back1  
and the accretions are first chipped off
 with hammers1 and afterward the whole  
of the interior of the furnace is       
re-fitted with the prepared sandstone1  
and again evenly lined with lute4 ,the  
sandstone placed on the bed of the      
furnace1 if it has become faulty1 is    
taken out1 and another is laid down in  
its place2 those rocks which are too    
large the smelter chips off and fits    
with a sharp pick4  ,illustration #dag  
7,tin smelting ,furnaces73              
,a--,furnaces4 ,b--,forehearths4        
,c--,their tap-holes4 ,d--,dipping-pots4
 ,e--,pillars4 ,f--,dust-chamber4       
,g--,window4 ,h--,chimneys4 ,i--,tub in 
which the coals are washed4  ,some build
 two furnaces against the wall just like
 those ,i have described1 and above them
 build a vaulted ceiling supported by   
the wall and by four pillars4 ,through  
holes in the vaulted ceiling the fumes  

from the furnaces ascend into a dust    
chamber1 similar to the one described   
before1 except that there is a window on
 each side and there is no door4 ,the   
smelters1 when they have to clear away  
the flue-dust1 mount by the steps at the
 side of the furnaces1 and climb by     
ladders into the dust chamber through   
the apertures in the vaulted ceilings   
over the furnaces4 ,they then remove the
 flue-dust from everywhere and collect  
it in baskets1 which are passed from one
 to the other and emptied4 ,this dust   
chamber differs from the other          
described1 in the fact that the         
chimneys1 of which it has two1 are not  
dissimilar to those of a house2 they    
receive the fumes which1 being unable to
 escape through the upper part of the   
chamber1 are turned back and re-ascend  
and release the tin2 thus the tin set   
free by the fire and turned to ash1 and 
the little tin-stones which fly up with 
the fumes1 remain in the dust chamber or
 else adhere to copper plates in the    

chimney4  ,illustration #dah 7,refining 
,tin73 ,a--,hearths4 ,b--,dipping-pots4 
,c--,wood4 ,d--,cakes4 ,e--,ladle4      
,f--,copper plate4 ,g--,lattice-shaped  
bars4 ,h--,iron dies4 ,i--,wooden       
mallet4 ,k--,mass of tin bars4          
,l--,shovel4  ,if the tin is so impure  
that it cracks when struck with the     
hammer1 it is not immediately made into 
lattice-like bars1 but into the cakes   
which ,i have spoken of before1 and     
these are refined by melting again on a 
hearth4 ,this hearth consists of        
sandstones1 which slope toward the      
centre and a little toward a            
dipping-pot2 at their joints they are   
covered with lute4 ,dry logs are        
arranged on each side1 alternately      
upright and lengthwise1 and more closely
 in the middle2 on this wood are placed 
five or six cakes of tin which all      
together weigh about six centumpondia2  
the wood having been kindled1 the tin   
drips down and flows continuously into  
the dipping-pot which is on the floor4  

,the impure tin sinks to the bottom of  
this dipping-pot and the pure tin floats
 on the top2 then both are ladled out by
 the master1 who first takes out the    
pure tin1 and by pouring it over thick  
plates of copper makes lattice-like     
bars4 ,afterward he takes out the impure
 tin from which he makes cakes2 he      
discriminates between them1 when he     
ladles and pours1 by the ease or        
difficulty of the flow4 ,one            
centumpondium of the lattice-like bars  
sells for more than a centumpondium of  
cakes1 for the price of the former      
exceeds the price of the latter by a    
gold coin#ed4 ,these lattice-like bars  
are lighter than the others1 and when   
five of them are pounded and amalgamated
 with a wooden mallet1 a mass is made   
which is stamped with an iron die4      
,there are some who do not make a       
dipping-pot on the floor for the tin to 
run into1 but in the hearth itself2 out 
of this the master1 having removed the  
charcoal1 ladles the tin and pours it   

over the copper-plate4 ,the dross which 
adheres to the wood and the charcoal1   
having been collected1 is re-smelted in 
the furnace4  ,illustration #dai 7,blast
 ,furnaces73 ,a--,furnace4 ,b--,bellows4
 ,c--,iron ,disc4 ,d--,nozzle4          
,e--,wooden ,disc4 ,f--,blow-hole4      
,g--,handle4 ,h--,haft4 ,i--,hoops4     
,k--,masses of tin4  ,some of the       
,lusitanians melt tin from tin-stone in 
small furnaces4 ,they use round bellows 
made of leather1 of which the fore end  
is a round iron disc and the rear end a 
disc of wood2 in a hole in the former is
 fixed the nozzle1 in the middle of the 
latter the blow-hole4 ,above this is the
 handle or haft1 which draws open the   
round bellows and lets in the air1 or   
compresses it and drives the air out4   
,between the discs are several iron     
hoops to which the leather is fastened1 
making such folds as are to be seen in  
paper lanterns that are folded together4
 ,since this kind of bellows does not   
give a vigorous blast1 because they are 

drawn apart and compressed slowly1 the  
smelter is not able during a whole day  
to smelt much more than half a          
centumpondium of tin4  ,illustration    
#dbb 7,iron smelting ,furnaces73        
,a--,hearth4 ,b--,heap4 ,c--,slag-vent4 
,d--,iron mass4 ,e--,wooden mallets4    
,f--,hammer4 ,g--,anvil4  ,very good    
iron ore is smelted#ee in a furnace     
almost like the cupellation furnace4    
,the hearth is three and a half feet    
high1 and five feet long and wide2 in   
the centre of it is a crucible a foot   
deep and one and a half feet wide1 but  
it may be deeper or shallower1 wider or 
narrower1 according to whether more or  
less ore is to be made into iron4 ,a    
certain quantity of iron ore is given to
 the master1 out of which he may smelt  
either much or little iron4 ,he being   
about to expend his skill and labour on 
this matter1 first throws charcoal into 
the crucible1 and sprinkles over it an  
iron shovel-ful of crushed iron ore     
mixed with unslaked lime4 ,then he      

repeatedly throws on charcoal and       
sprinkles it with ore1 and continues    
this until he has slowly built up a     
heap2 it melts when the charcoal has    
been kindled and the fire violently     
stimulated by the blast of the bellows1 
which are skilfully fixed in a pipe4 ,he
 is able to complete this work sometimes
 in eight hours1 sometimes in ten2 and  
again sometimes in twelve4 ,in order    
that the heat of the fire should not    
burn his face1 he covers it entirely    
with a cap1 in which1 however1 there are
 holes through which he may see and     
breathe4 ,at the side of the hearth is a
 bar which he raises as often as is     
necessary1 when the bellows blow too    
violent a blast1 or when he adds more   
ore and charcoal4 ,he also uses the bar 
to draw off the slags1 or to open or    
close the gates of the sluice1 through  
which the waters flow down on to the    
wheel which turns the axle that         
compresses the bellows4 ,in this        
sensible way1 iron is melted out and a  

mass weighing two or three centumpondia 
may be made1 providing the iron ore was 
rich4 ,when this is done the master     
opens the slag-vent with the            
tapping-bar1 and when all has run out he
 allows the iron mass to cool4          
,afterward he and his assistant stir the
 iron with the bar1 and then in order to
 chip off the slags which had until then
 adhered to it1 and to condense and     
flatten it1 they take it down from the  
furnace to the floor1 and beat it with  
large wooden mallets having slender     
handles five feet long4 ,thereupon it is
 immediately placed on the anvil1 and   
repeatedly beaten by the large iron     
hammer that is raised by the cams of an 
axle turned by a water-wheel4 ,not long 
afterward it is taken up with tongs and 
placed under the same hammer1 and cut up
 with a sharp iron into four1 five1 or  
six pieces1 according to whether it is  
large or small4 ,these pieces1 after    
they have been re-heated in the         
blacksmith's forge and again placed on  

the anvil1 are shaped by the smith into 
square bars or into ploughshares or     
tyres1 but mainly into bars4 ,four1 six1
 or eight of these bars weigh one-fifth 
of a centumpondium1 and from these they 
make various implements4 ,during the    
blows from the hammer by which it is    
shaped by the smith1 a youth pours water
 with a ladle on to the glowing iron1   
and this is why the blows make such a   
loud sound that they may be heard a long
 distance from the works4 ,the masses1  
if they remain and settle in the        
crucible of the furnace in which the    
iron is smelted1 become hard iron which 
can only be hammered with difficulty1   
and from these they make the iron-shod  
heads for the stamps1 and such-like very
 hard articles4  ,illustration #dbd     
7,iron smelting ,furnaces73             
,a--,furnace4 ,b--,stairs4 ,c--,ore4    
,d--,charcoal4  ,but to iron ore which  
is cupriferous1 or which when heated#ef 
melts with difficulty1 it is necessary  
for us to give a fiercer fire and more  

labour2 because not only must we        
separate the parts of it in which there 
is metal from those in which there is no
 metal1 and break it up by dry stamps1  
but we must also roast it1 so that the  
other metals and noxious juices may be  
exhaled2 and we must wash it1 so that   
the lighter parts may be separated from 
it4 ,such ores are smelted in a furnace 
similar to the blast furnace1 but much  
wider and higher1 so that it may hold a 
great quantity of ore and much charcoal2
 mounting the stairs at the side of the 
furnace1 the smelters fill it partly    
with fragments of ore not larger than   
nuts1 and partly with charcoal2 and from
 this kind of ore once or twice smelted 
they make iron which is suitable for    
re-heating in the blacksmith's forge1   
after it is flattened out with the large
 iron hammer and cut into pieces with   
the sharp iron4  ,illustration #dbe     
7,steel making ,furnaces73 ,a--,forge4  
,b--,bellows4 ,c--,tongs4 ,d--,hammer4  
,e--,cold stream4  ,by skill with fire  

and fluxes is made that kind of iron    
from which steel is made1 which the     
,greeks call ,greek3 stomoma4 ,iron     
should be selected which is easy to     
melt1 is hard and malleable4 ,now       
although iron may be smelted from ore   
which contains other metals1 yet it is  
then either soft or brittle2 such 7iron7
 must be broken up into small pieces    
when it is hot1 and then mixed with     
crushed stone which melts4 ,then a      
crucible is made in the hearth of the   
smith's furnace1 from the same moistened
 powder from which are made the         
forehearths in front of the furnaces in 
which ores of gold or silver are        
smelted2 the width of this crucible is  
about one and a half feet and the depth 
one foot4 ,the bellows are so placed    
that the blast may be blown through the 
nozzle into the middle of the crucible4 
,then the whole of the crucible is      
filled with the best charcoal1 and it is
 surrounded by fragments of rock to hold
 in place the pieces of iron and the    

superimposed charcoal4 ,as soon as all  
the charcoal is kindled and the crucible
 is glowing1 a blast is blown from the  
bellows and the master pours in         
gradually as much of the mixture of iron
 and flux as he wishes4 ,into the middle
 of this1 when it is melted1 he puts    
four iron masses each weighing thirty   
pounds1 and heats them for five or six  
hours in a fierce fire2 he frequently   
stirs the melted iron with a bar1 so    
that the small pores in each mass absorb
 the minute particles1 and these        
particles by their own strength consume 
and expand the thick particles of the   
masses1 which they render soft and      
similar to dough4 ,afterward the master1
 aided by his assistant1 takes out a    
mass with the tongs and places it on the
 anvil1 where it is pounded by the      
hammer which is alternately raised and  
dropped by means of the water-wheel2    
then1 without delay1 while it is still  
hot1 he throws it into water and tempers
 it2 when it is tempered1 he places it  

again on the anvil1 and breaks it with a
 blow from the same hammer4 ,then at    
once examining the fragments1 he decides
 whether the iron in some part or other1
 or as a whole1 appears to be dense and 
changed into steel2 if so1 he seizes one
 mass after another with the tongs1 and 
taking them out he breaks them into     
pieces4 ,afterward he heats the mixture 
up again1 and adds a portion afresh to  
take the place of that which has been   
absorbed by the masses4 ,this restores  
the energy of that which is left1 and   
the pieces of the masses are again put  
back into the crucible and made purer4  
,each of these1 after having been       
heated1 is seized with the tongs1 put   
under the hammer and shaped into a bar4 
,while they are still glowing1 he at    
once throws them into the very coldest  
nearby running water1 and in this       
manner1 being suddenly condensed1 they  
are changed into pure steel1 which is   
much harder and whiter than iron4  ,the 
ores of the other metals are not smelted

 in furnaces4 ,quicksilver ores and also
 antimony are melted in pots1 and       
bismuth in troughs4  ,illustration #dbg 
7,quicksilver distillation ,furnaces73  
,a--,hearth4 ,b--,poles4 ,c--,hearth    
without fire in which the pots are      
placed4 ,d--,rocks4 ,e--,rows of pots4  
,f--,upper pots4 ,g--,lower pots4  ,i   
will first speak of quicksilver4 ,this  
is collected when found in pools formed 
from the outpourings of the veins and   
stringers2 it is cleansed with vinegar  
and salt1 and then it is poured into    
canvas or soft leather1 through which1  
when squeezed and compressed1 the       
quicksilver runs out into a pot or pan4 
,the ore of quicksilver is reduced in   
double or single pots4 ,if in double    
pots1 then the upper one is of a shape  
not very dissimilar to the glass        
ampullas used by doctors1 but they taper
 downward toward the bottom1 and the    
lower ones are little pots similar to   
those in which men and women make       
cheese1 but both are larger than these2 

it is necessary to sink the lower pots  
up to the rims in earth1 sand1 or ashes4
 ,the ore1 broken up into small pieces  
is put into the upper pots2 these having
 been entirely closed up with moss1 are 
placed upside down in the openings of   
the lower pots1 where they are joined   
with lute1 lest the quicksilver which   
takes refuge in them should be exhaled4 
,there are some who1 after the pots have
 been buried1 do not fear to leave them 
uncemented1 and who boast that they are 
able to produce no less weight of       
quicksilver than those who do cement    
them1 but nevertheless cementing with   
lute is the greatest protection against 
exhalation4 ,in this manner seven       
hundred pairs of pots are set together  
in the ground or on a hearth4 ,they must
 be surrounded on all sides with a      
mixture consisting of crushed earth and 
charcoal1 in such a way that the upper  
pots protrude to a height of a palm     
above it4 ,on both sides of the hearth  
rocks are first laid1 and upon them     

poles1 across which the workmen place   
other poles transversely2 these poles do
 not touch the pots1 nevertheless the   
fire heats the quicksilver1 which       
fleeing from the heat is forced to run  
down through the moss into the lower    
pots4 ,if the ore is being reduced in   
the upper pots1 it flees from them1     
wherever there is an exit1 into the     
lower pots1 but if the ore on the       
contrary is put in the lower pots the   
quicksilver rises into the upper pot or 
into the operculum1 which1 together with
 the gourd-shaped vessels1 are cemented 
to the upper pots4  ,the pots1 lest they
 should become defective1 are moulded   
from the best potters' clay1 for if     
there are defects the quicksilver flies 
out in the fumes4 ,if the fumes give out
 a very sweet odour it indicates that   
the quicksilver is being lost1 and since
 this loosens the teeth1 the smelters   
and others standing by1 warned of the   
evil1 turn their backs to the wind1     
which drives the fumes in the opposite  

direction2 for this reason1 the building
 should be open around the front and the
 sides1 and exposed to the wind4 ,if    
these pots are made of cast copper they 
last a long time in the fire4 ,this     
process for reducing the ores of        
quicksilver is used by most people4  ,in
 a similar manner the antimony ore1#eg  
if free from other metals1 is reduced in
 upper pots which are twice as large as 
the lower ones4 ,their size1 however1   
depends on the cakes1 which have not the
 same weight everywhere2 for in some    
places they are made to weigh six       
librae1 in other places ten1 and        
elsewhere twenty4 ,when the smelter has 
concluded his operation1 he extinguishes
 the fire with water1 removes the lids  
from the pots1 throws earth mixed with  
ash around and over them1 and when they 
have cooled1 takes out the cakes from   
the pots4  ,illustration #dbi           
7,quicksilver distillation ,furnaces73  
,a--,pots4 ,b--,opercula4 ,c--,nozzles4 
,d--,gourd-shaped earthenware vessels4  

,other methods for reducing quicksilver 
are given below4 ,big-bellied pots1     
having been placed in the upper         
rectangular open part of a furnace1 are 
filled with the crushed ore4 ,each of   
these pots is covered with a lid with a 
long nozzle--commonly called a          
campana--in the shape of a bell1 and    
they are cemented4 ,each of the small   
earthenware vessels shaped like a gourd 
receives two of these nozzles1 and these
 are likewise cemented4 ,dried wood     
having been placed in the lower part of 
the furnace and kindled1 the ore is     
heated until all the quicksilver has    
risen into the operculum which is over  
the pot2 it then flows from the nozzle  
and is caught in the earthenware        
gourd-shaped vessel4  ,illustration #dcj
 7,quicksilver distillation ,furnaces73 
,a--,enclosed chamber4 ,b--,door4       
,c--,little windows4 ,d--,mouths through
 the walls4 ,e--,furnace in the enclosed
 chamber4 ,f--,pots4  ,others build a   
hollow vaulted chamber1 of which the    

paved floor is made concave toward the  
centre4 ,inside the thick walls of the  
chamber are the furnaces4 ,the doors    
through which the wood is put are in the
 outer part of the same wall4 ,they     
place the pots in the furnaces and fill 
them with crushed ore1 then they cement 
the pots and the furnaces on all sides  
with lute1 so that none of the vapour   
may escape from them1 and there is no   
entrance to the furnaces except through 
their mouths4 ,between the dome and the 
paved floor they arrange green trees1   
then they close the door and the little 
windows1 and cover them on all sides    
with moss and lute1 so that none of the 
quicksilver can exhale from the chamber4
 ,after the wood has been kindled the   
ore is heated1 and exudes the           
quicksilver2 whereupon1 impatient with  
the heat1 and liking the cold1 it       
escapes to the leaves of the trees1     
which have a cooling power4 ,when the   
operation is completed the smelter      
extinguishes the fire1 and when all gets

 cool he opens the door and the windows1
 and collects the quicksilver1 most of  
which1 being heavy1 falls of its own    
accord from the trees1 and flows into   
the concave part of the floor2 if all   
should not have fallen from the trees1  
they are shaken to make it fall4        
,illustration #dca 7,quicksilver        
distillation ,furnaces73 ,a--,larger    
pot4 ,b--,smaller4 ,c--,tripod4 ,d--,tub
 in which the sand is washed4  ,the     
following is the fourth method of       
reducing ores of quicksilver4 ,a larger 
pot standing on a tripod is filled with 
crushed ore1 and over the ore is put    
sand or ashes to a thickness of two     
digits1 and tamped2 then in the mouth of
 this pot is inserted the mouth of      
another smaller pot and cemented with   
lute1 lest the vapours are emitted4 ,the
 ore heated by the fire exhales the     
quicksilver1 which1 penetrating through 
the sand or the ashes1 takes refuge in  
the upper pot1 where condensing into    
drops it falls back into the sand or the

 ashes1 from which the quicksilver is   
washed and collected4  ,illustration    
#dcb 7,quicksilver distillation         
,furnaces73 ,a--,pots4 ,b--,lids4       
,c--,stones4 ,d--,furnace4  ,the fifth  
method is not very unlike the fourth4   
,in the place of these pots are set     
other pots1 likewise of earthenware1    
having a narrow bottom and a wide mouth4
 ,these are nearly filled with crushed  
ore1 which is likewise covered with     
ashes to a depth of two digits and      
tamped in4 ,the pots are covered with   
lids a digit thick1 and they are smeared
 over on the inside with liquid         
litharge1 and on the lid are placed     
heavy stones4 ,the pots are set on the  
furnace1 and the ore is heated and      
similarly exhales quicksilver1 which    
fleeing from the heat takes refuge in   
the lid2 on congealing there1 it falls  
back into the ashes1 from which1 when   
washed1 the quicksilver is collected4   
,by these five methods quicksilver may  
be made1 and of these not one is to be  

despised or repudiated2 nevertheless1 if
 the mine supplies a great abundance of 
ore1 the first is the most expeditious  
and practical1 because a large quantity 
of ore can be reduced at the same time  
without great expense4#eh  ,illustration
 #dcd 7,bismuth ,smelting73 ,a--,pit    
across which wood is placed4            
,b--,forehearth4 ,c--,ladle4 ,d--,iron  
mould4 ,e--,cakes4 ,f--,empty pot lined 
with stones in layers4 ,g--,troughs4    
,h--,pits dug at the foot of the        
troughs4 ,i--,small wood laid over the  
troughs4 ,k--,wind4  ,bismuth#ei ore1   
free from every kind of silver1 is      
smelted by various methods4 ,first a    
small pit is dug in the dry ground2 into
 this pulverised charcoal is thrown and 
tamped in1 and then it is dried with    
burning charcoal4 ,afterward1 thick dry 
pieces of beech wood are placed over the
 pit1 and the bismuth ore is thrown on  
it4 ,as soon as the kindled wood burns1 
the heated ore drips with bismuth1 which
 runs down into the pit1 from which when

 cooled the cakes are removed4 ,because 
pieces of burnt wood1 or often charcoal 
and occasionally slag1 drop into the    
bismuth which collects in the pit1 and  
make it impure1 it is put back into     
another kind of crucible to be melted1  
so that pure cakes may be made4 ,there  
are some who1 bearing these things in   
mind1 dig a pit on a sloping place and  
below it put a forehearth1 into which   
the bismuth continually flows1 and thus 
remains clean2 then they take it out    
with ladles and pour it into iron pans  
lined inside with lute1 and make cakes  
of it4 ,they cover such pits with flat  
stones1 whose joints are besmeared with 
a lute of mixed dust and crushed        
charcoal1 lest the joints should absorb 
the molten bismuth4 ,another method is  
to put the ore in troughs made of       
fir-wood and placed on sloping ground2  
they place small firewood over it1      
kindling it when a gentle wind blows1   
and thus the ore is heated4 ,in this    
manner the bismuth melts and runs down  

from the troughs into a pit below1 while
 there remains slag1 or stones1 which   
are of a yellow colour1 as is also the  
wood laid across the pit4 ,these are    
also sold4  ,illustration #dce 7,bismuth
 ,smelting73 ,a--,wood4 ,b--,bricks4    
,c--,pans4 ,d--,furnace4 ,e--,crucible4 
,f--,pipe4 ,g--,dipping-pot4  ,others   
reduce the ore in iron pans as next     
described4 ,they lay small pieces of dry
 wood alternately straight and          
transversely upon bricks1 one and a half
 feet apart1 and set fire to it4 ,near  
it they put small iron pans lined on the
 inside with lute1 and full of broken   
ore2 then when the wind blows the flame 
of the fierce fire over the pans1 the   
bismuth drips out of the ore2 wherefore1
 in order that it may run1 the ore is   
stirred with the tongs2 but when they   
decide that all the bismuth is exuded1  
they seize the pans with the tongs and  
remove them1 and pour out the bismuth   
into empty pans1 and by turning many    
into one they make cakes4 ,others reduce

 the ore1 when it is not mixed with     
cadmia1#fj in a furnace similar to the  
iron furnace4 ,in this case they make a 
pit and a crucible of crushed earth     
mixed with pulverised charcoal1 and into
 it they put the broken ore1 or the     
concentrates from washing1 from which   
they make more bismuth4 ,if they put in 
ore1 they reduce it with charcoal and   
small dried wood mixed1 and if          
concentrates1 they use charcoal only2   
they blow both materials with a gentle  
blast from a bellows4 ,from the crucible
 is a small pipe through which the      
molten bismuth runs down into a         
dipping-pot1 and from this cakes are    
made4  ,illustration #dcf 7,bismuth     
,smelting73 ,a--,hearth in which ore is 
melted4 ,b--,hearth on which lie drops  
of bismuth4 ,c--,tongs4 ,d--,basket4    
,e--,wind4  ,on a dump thrown up from   
the mines1 other people construct a     
hearth exposed to the wind1 a foot high1
 three feet wide1 and four and a half   
feet long4 ,it is held together by four 

boards1 and the whole is thickly coated 
at the top with lute4 ,on this hearth   
they first put small dried sticks of fir
 wood1 then over them they throw broken 
ore2 then they lay more wood over it1   
and when the wind blows they kindle it4 
,in this manner the bismuth drips out of
 the ore1 and afterward the ashes of the
 wood consumed by the fire and the      
charcoals are swept away4 ,the drops of 
bismuth which fall down into the hearth 
are congealed by the cold1 and they are 
taken away with the tongs and thrown    
into a basket4 ,from the melted bismuth 
they make cakes in iron pans4           
,illustration #dcg 7,bismuth ,smelting73
 ,a--,box4 ,b--,pivot4 ,c--,transverse  
wood beams4 ,d--,grate4 ,e--,its feet4  
,f--,burning wood4 ,g--,stick4 ,h--,pans
 in which the bismuth is melted4        
,i--,pans for moulds4 ,k--,cakes4       
,l--,fork4 ,m--,brush4  ,others again   
make a box eight feet long1 four feet   
wide1 and two feet high1 which they fill
 almost full of sand and cover with     

bricks1 thus making the hearth4 ,the box
 has in the centre a wooden pivot1 which
 turns in a hole in two beams laid      
transversely one upon the other2 these  
beams are hard and thick1 are sunk into 
the ground1 both ends are perforated1   
and through these holes wedge-shaped    
pegs are driven1 in order that the beams
 may remain fixed1 and that the box may 
turn round1 and may be turned toward the
 wind from whichever quarter of the sky 
in may blow4 ,in such a hearth they put 
an iron grate1 as long and wide as the  
box and three-quarters of a foot high2  
it has six feet1 and there are so many  
transverse bars that they almost touch  
one another4 ,on the grate they lay     
pine-wood and over it broken ore1 and   
over this they again lay pine-wood4     
,when it has been kindled the ore melts1
 out of which the bismuth drips down2   
since very little wood is burned1 this  
is the most profitable method of        
smelting the bismuth4 ,the bismuth drips
 through the grate on to the hearth1    

while the other things remain upon the  
grate with the charcoal4 ,when the work 
is finished1 the workman takes a stick  
from the hearth and overturns the grate1
 and the things which have been         
accumulated on it2 with the brush he    
sweeps up the bismuth and collects it in
 a basket1 and then he melts it in an   
iron pan and makes cakes4 ,as soon as   
possible after it is cool1 he turns the 
pans over1 so that the cakes may fall   
out1 using for this purpose a           
two-pronged fork of which one prong is  
again forked4 ,and immediately afterward
 he returns to his labours4       ,,end 
,,of ,,book ,,ix4   ,,footnotes3  #a    
,the history of the fusion of ores and  
of metals is the history of individual  
processes1 and such information as we   
have been able to discover upon the     
individual methods previous to ,agricola
 we give on the pages where such        
processes are discussed4 ,in general the
 records of the beginnings of metallurgy
 are so nebular that1 if one wishes to  

shirk the task1 he can adopt the        
explanation of ,william ,pryce one      
hundred and fifty years ago3 ,it is very
 probable that the nature and use of    
,metals were not revealed to ,adam in   
his state of innocence3 the toil and    
labour necessary to procure and use     
those implements of the iron age could  
not be known1 till they made part of the
 curse incurred by his fall3 ',in the   
sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread1 
till thou return unto the ground2 in    
sorrow shalt thou eat of it all the days
 of thy life' 7,genesis74 ,that they    
were very early discovered1 however1 is 
manifest from the ,mosaick account of   
,tubal ,cain1 who was the first         
instructor of every artificer in ,brass 
sic and ,iron 7,mineralogia             
,cornubiensis1 p4 #b74  ,it is          
conceivable that gold could be found in 
large enough pieces to have had general 
use in pre-historic times1 without      
fusion2 but copper1 which was also in   
use1 must have been smelted1 and        

therefore we must assume a considerable 
development of human knowledge on the   
subject prior to any human record4 ,such
 incidental mention as exists after     
record begins does not1 of course1      
extend to the beginning of any          
particular branch of the art--in fact1  
special arts obviously existed long     
before such mention1 and down to the    
complete survey of the state of the art 
by ,agricola our dates are necessarily  
prior to some first mention in          
literature1 or prior to the known period
 of existing remains of metallurgical   
operations4 ,the scant ,egyptian        
records1 the ,scriptures1 and the ,shoo 
,king give a little insight prior to    
#ajjj ,b4,c4 ,the more extensive ,greek 
literature of about the #eth to the #crd
 centuries ,b4,c41 together with the    
remains of ,greek mines1 furnish another
 datum point of view1 and the ,roman and
 ,greek writers at the beginning of the 
,christian era give a still larger view4
 ,after them our next step is to the    

,monk ,theophilus and the ,alchemists1  
from the #abth to the #adth centuries4  
,finally1 the awakening of learning at  
the end of the #aeth and the beginning  
of the #afth centuries1 enables us for  
the first time to see practically all   
that was known4 ,the wealth of          
literature which exists subsequent to   
this latter time makes history          
thereafter a matter of some precision1  
but it is not included in this          
undertaking4 ,considering the great part
 that the metals have played in         
civilization1 it is astonishing what a  
minute amount of information is         
available on metallurgy4 ,either the    
ancient metallurgists were secretive as 
to their art1 or the ancient authors    
despised such common things1 or1 as is  
equally probable1 the very partial      
preservation of ancient literature1 by  
painful transcription over a score of   
centuries1 served only for those works  
of more general interest4 ,in any event1
 if all the direct or indirect material 

on metallurgy prior to the #aeth century
 were compiled1 it would not fill #dj   
pages such as these4  ,it may be of     
service to give a tabular summary       
indicating approximately the time when  
evidence of particular operations appear
 on the historical horizon3    ,gold    
washed from alluvial                    
,prior to recorded                      
civilization    ,copper reduced from    
ores by smelting                 ,prior 
to recorded                             
civilization    ,bitumen mined and used 
,prior to recorded                      
civilization    ,tin reduced from ores  
by smelting                    ,prior to
 #cejj ,b4,c4    ,bronze made           
,prior to #cejj ,b4,c4    ,iron reduced 
from ores by smelting                   
,prior to #cejj ,b4,c4    ,soda mined   
and used                                
,prior to #cejj ,b4,c4    ,gold reduced 
from ores by concentration              
,prior to #bejj ,b4,c4    ,silver       
reduced from ores by smelting           

,prior to #bjjj ,b4,c4    ,lead reduced 
from ores by smelting                   
,prior to #bjjj ,b4,c4                  
7perhaps prior                          
to #cejj ,b4,c47    ,silver parted from 
lead by cupellation               ,prior
 to #bjjj ,b4,c4    ,bellows used in    
furnaces                                
,prior to #aejj ,b4,c4    ,steel        
produced                                
,prior to #ajjj ,b4,c4    ,base metals  
separated from ores by water            
,prior to #ejj ,b4,c4                   
concentration    ,gold refined by       
cupellation                             
,prior to #ejj ,b4,c4    ,sulphide ores 
smelted for lead                        
,prior to #ejj ,b4,c4    ,mercury       
reduced from ores by 787                
,prior to #djj ,b4,c4    ,white-lead    
made with vinegar                       
,prior to #cjj ,b4,c4    ,touchstone    
known for determining gold and silver   
,prior to #cjj ,b4,c4       fineness    
,quicksilver reduced from ore by        

distillation         ,prior to          
,christian ,era    ,silver parted from  
gold by cementation with salt     ,prior
 to               ,brass made by        
cementation of copper and calamine      
,prior to               ,zinc oxides    
obtained from furnace fumes by          
,prior to                  construction 
of dust chambers    ,antimony reduced   
from ores by smelting 7accidental7      
,prior to               ,gold recovered 
by amalgamation                         
,prior to               ,refining of    
copper by repeated fusion               
,prior to               ,sulphide ores  
smelted for copper                      
,prior to               ,vitriol 7blue  
and green7 made                         
,prior to               ,alum made      
,prior to               ,copper refined 
by oxidation and poling                 
,prior to #abjj ,a4,d4    ,gold parted  
from copper by cupelling with lead      
,prior to #abjj ,a4,d4    ,gold parted  
from silver by fusion with sulphur      

,prior to #abjj ,a4,d4    ,manufacture  
of nitric acid and aqua regia           
,prior to #adjj ,a4,d4    ,gold parted  
from silver by nitric acid              
,prior to #adjj ,a4,d4    ,gold parted  
from silver with antimony sulphide      
,prior to #aejj ,a4,d4    ,gold parted  
from copper with sulphur                
,prior to #aejj ,a4,d4    ,silver parted
 from iron with antimony sulphide       
,prior to #aejj ,a4,d4    ,first text   
book on assaying                        
,prior to #aejj ,a4,d4    ,silver       
recovered from ores by amalgamation     
,prior to #aejj ,a4,d4    ,separation of
 silver from copper by liquation        
,prior to #aedj ,a4,d4    ,cobalt and   
manganese used for pigments             
,prior to #aedj ,a4,d4    ,roasting     
copper ores prior to smelting           
,prior to #aeej ,a4,d4    ,stamp-mill   
used                                    
,prior to #aeej ,a4,d4    ,bismuth      
reduced from ore                        
,prior to #aeej ,a4,d4    ,zinc reduced 

from ore 7accidental7                   
,prior to #aeej ,a4,d4  ,further1 we    
believe it desirable to sketch at the   
outset the development of metallurgical 
appliances as a whole1 leaving the      
details to special footnotes2 otherwise 
a comprehensive view of the development 
of such devices is difficult to grasp4  
,we can outline the character of        
metallurgical appliances at various     
periods in a few words4 ,it is possible 
to set up a description of the imaginary
 beginning of the bronze age prior to   
recorded civilization1 starting with the
 savage who accidentally built a fire on
 top of some easily reducible ore1 and  
discovered metal in the ashes1 etc42 but
 as this method has been pursued times  
out of number to no particular purpose1 
we will confine ourselves to a summary  
of such facts as we can assemble4       
,founders' hoards of the bronze age are 
scattered over ,western ,europe1 and    
indicate that smelting was done in      
shallow pits with charcoal4 ,with the   

,egyptians we find occasional           
inscriptions showing small furnaces with
 forced draught1 in early cases with a  
blow-pipe1 but later--about #aejj       
,b4,c4--with bellows also4 ,the crucible
 was apparently used by the ,egyptians  
in secondary melting1 such remains at   
,mt4 ,sinai probably dating before #bjjj
 ,b4,c4 ,with the advent of the         
,prophets1 and the first ,greek         
literature--#ith to #gth century        
,b4,c4--we find frequent references to  
bellows4 ,the remains of smelting       
appliances at ,mt4 ,laurion 7#ejj-cjj   
,b4,c47 do not indicate much advance    
over the primitive hearth2 however1 at  
this locality we do find evidence of the
 ability to separate minerals by        
specific gravity1 by washing crushed ore
 over inclined surfaces with a sort of  
buddle attachment4 ,stone grinding-mills
 were used to crush ore from the        
earliest times of ,mt4 ,laurion down to 
the ,middle ,ages4 ,about the beginning 
of the ,christian era the writings of   

,diodorus1 ,strabo1 ,dioscorides1 and   
,pliny indicate considerable advance in 
appliances4 ,strabo describes high      
stacks to carry off lead fumes2         
,dioscorides explains a furnace with a  
dust-chamber to catch pompholyx 7zinc   
oxide72 ,pliny refers to the upper and  
lower crucibles 7a forehearth7 and to   
the pillars and arches of the furnaces4 
,from all of their descriptions we may  
conclude that the furnaces had then     
reached some size1 and were1 of course1 
equipped with bellows4 ,at this time    
sulphide copper and lead ores were      
smelted2 but as to fluxes1 except lead  
for silver1 and lead and soda for gold1 
we have practically no mention4         
,charcoal was the universal fuel for    
smelting down to the #ahth century4     
,both ,dioscorides and ,pliny describe a
 distillation apparatus used to recover 
quicksilver4 ,a formidable list of      
mineral products and metal alloys in    
use1 indicate in themselves considerable
 apparatus1 of the details of which we  

have no indication2 in the main these   
products were lead sulphide1 sulphate1  
and oxide 7red-lead and litharge72 zinc 
oxide2 iron sulphide1 oxide and         
sulphate2 arsenic and antimony          
sulphides2 mercury sulphide1 sulphur1   
bitumen1 soda1 alum and potash2 and of  
the alloys1 bronze1 brass1 pewter1      
electrum and steel4  ,from this period  
to the period of the awakening of       
learning our only light is an occasional
 gleam from ,theophilus and the         
,alchemists4 ,the former gave a more    
detailed description of metallurgical   
appliances than had been done before1   
but there is little vital change        
apparent from the apparatus of ,roman   
times4 ,the ,alchemists gave a great    
stimulus to industrial chemistry in the 
discovery of the mineral acids1 and     
described distillation apparatus of     
approximately modern form4  ,the next   
period--the ,renaissance--is one in     
which our descriptions are for the first
 time satisfactory1 and a discussion    

would be but a review of ,de ,re        
,metallica4  #b ,see footnote #b1 p4    
#bfg1 on verbs used for roasting4  #c   
,agricola has here either forgotten to  
take into account his three-palm-thick  
furnace walls1 which will make the      
length of this long wall sixty-one feet1
 or else he has included this foot and a
 half in each case in the six-foot      
distance between the furnaces1 so that  
the actual clear space is only four and 
a half feet between the furnace with    
four feet on the ends4  #d ,the paucity 
of terms in ,latin for describing       
structural members1 and the consequent  
repetition of beam 7trabs71 timber      
7tignum71 billet 7tigillum71 pole       
7asser71 with such modifications as     
small1 large1 and transverse1 and with  
long explanatory clauses showing their  
location1 renders the original very     
difficult to follow4 ,we have1          
therefore1 introduced such terms as     
posts1 tie-beams1 sweeps1 levers1       
rafters1 sills1 moulding1 braces1       

cleats1 supports1 etc41 as the context  
demands4  #e ,this set of rafters       
appears to start from the longitudinal  
beam4  #f ,devices for creating an air  
current must be of very old invention1  
for it is impossible to conceive of     
anything but the crudest melting of a   
few simple ores without some forced     
draft4 ,wilkinson 7,the ,ancient        
,egyptians1 ,,ii1 p4 #caf7 gives a copy 
of an illustration of a foot-bellows    
from a tomb of the time of ,thotmes     
,,iii4 7#aejj ,b4,c474 ,the rest of the 
world therefore1 probably obtained them 
from the ,egyptians4 ,they are mentioned
 frequently in the ,bible1 the most     
pointed reference to metallurgical      
purposes being ,jeremiah 7,,vi1 #bi73   
,the bellows are burned1 the lead is    
consumed in the fire2 the founder       
melteth in vain2 for the wicked are not 
plucked away4 ,strabo 7,,vii1 #c7 states
 that ,ephorus ascribed the invention of
 bellows to ,anacharsis--a ,thracian    
prince of about #fjj ,b4,c4  #g ,this   

whole arrangement could be summarized by
 the word hinge4  #h ,the rim of this   
wheel is obviously made of segments     
fixed in two layers2 the disc meaning   
the aggregate of segments on either side
 of the wheel4  #i ,it has not been     
considered necessary to introduce the   
modern term twyer in these descriptions1
 as the literal rendering is            
sufficiently clear4  #aj ,ferruminata4  
,these accretions are practically always
 near the hearth1 and would correspond  
to ,english sows1 and therefore that    
term has been adopted4 ,it will be noted
 that1 like most modern metallurgists1  
,agricola offers no method for treating 
them4 ,pliny 7,,xxxiv1 #cg7 describes a 
sow1 and uses the verb ferruminare 7to  
weld or solder73 ,some say that in the  
furnace there are certain masses of     
stone which become soldered together1   
and that the copper fuses around it1 the
 mass not becoming liquid unless it is  
transferred to another furnace2 it thus 
forms a sort of knot1 as it were1 of the

 metal4  #aa ,what are known in ,english
 as crucible1 furnace well1 forehearth1 
dipping-pot1 tapping-pot1 receiving-pot1
 etc41 are in the text all catinus1     
i4e41 crucible4 ,for easier reading1    
however1 we have assigned the names     
indicated in the context4  #ab ,panes ex
 pyrite conflati4 ,while the term matte 
would cover most cases where this       
expression appears1 and in many cases   
would be more expressive to the modern  
reader1 yet there are instances where   
the expression as it stands indicates   
its particular origin1 and it has been1 
therefore1 considered advisable to      
adhere to the literal rendering4  #ac   
,molybdaena4 ,see note #cg1 p4 #dgf4 ,it
 was the saturated furnace bottoms from 
cupellation4  #ad ,the four elements    
were earth1 air1 fire1 and water4  #ae  
,stones which easily melt in the fire4  
,nowhere in ,de ,re ,metallica does the 
author explain these substances4        
,however in the ,interpretatio 7p4 #dfe7
 he gives three genera or orders with   

their ,german equivalents1 as           
follows3--,lapides qui igni liquescunt  
primi generis1--,schoene fluesse2       
secundi1--fluesse zum schmeltzen flock  
quertze2 tertii1--quertze oder          
kiselstein4 ,we confess our inability to
 make certain of most of the substances 
comprised in the first and second       
orders4 ,we consider they were in part  
fluor-spar1 and in any event the third  
order embraced varieties of quartz1     
flint1 and silicious material generally4
 ,as the matter is of importance from a 
metallurgical point of view1 we         
reproduce at some length ,agricola's own
 statements on the subject from         
,bermannus and ,de ,natura ,fossilium4  
,in the latter 7p4 #bfh7 he states3     
,finally there now remain those stones  
which ,i call 'stones which easily melt 
in the fire1' because when thrown into  
hot furnaces they flow 7fluunt74 ,there 
are three orders 7genera7 of these4 ,the
 first resembles the transparent gems2  
the second is not similar1 and is       

generally not translucent2 it is        
translucent in some part1 and in rare   
instances altogether translucent4 ,the  
first is sparingly found in silver and  
other mines2 the second abounds in veins
 of its own4 ,the third genus is the    
material from which glass is made1      
although it can also be made out of the 
other two4 ,the stones of the first     
order are not only transparent1 but are 
also resplendent1 and have the colours  
of gems1 for some resemble crystal1     
others emerald1 heliotrope1 lapis       
lazuli1 amethyst1 sapphire1 ruby1       
chrysolithus1 morion 7cairngorm871 and  
other gems1 but they differ from them in
 hardness4444 ,to the first genus       
belongs the lapis alabandicus 7modern   
albandite871 if indeed it was different 
from the alabandic carbuncle4 ,it can be
 melted1 according to ,pliny1 in the    
fire1 and fused for the preparation of  
glass4 ,it is black1 but verging upon   
purple4 ,it comes from ,caria1 near     
,alabanda1 and from ,miletus in the same

 province4 ,the second order of stones  
does not show a great variety of        
colours1 and seldom beautiful ones1 for 
it is generally white1 whitish1 greyish1
 or yellowish4 ,because these 7stones7  
very readily melt in the fire1 they are 
added to the ores from which the metals 
are smelted4 ,the small stones found in 
veins1 veinlets1 and the spaces between 
the veins1 of the highest peaks of the  
,sudetic range 7,suditorum montium71    
belong partly to this genus and partly  
to the first4 ,they differ in size1     
being large and small2 and in shape1    
some being round or angular or pointed2 
in colour they are black or ash-grey1 or
 yellow1 or purple1 or violet1 or iron  
colour4 ,all of these are lacking in    
metals4 ,neither do the little stones   
contain any metals which are usually    
found in the streams where gold dust is 
collected by washing4444 ,in the rivers 
where are collected the small stones    
from which tin is smelted1 there are    
three genera of small stones to be      

found1 all somewhat rounded and of very 
light weight1 and devoid of all metals4 
,the largest are black1 both on the     
outside and inside1 smooth and brilliant
 like a mirror2 the medium-sized are    
either bluish black or ash-grey2 the    
smallest are of a yellowish colour1     
somewhat like a silkworm4 ,but because  
both the former and the latter stones   
are devoid of metals1 and fly to pieces 
under the blows of the hammer1 we       
classify them as sand or gravel4 ,glass 
is made from the stones of the third    
order1 and particularly from sand4 ,for 
when this is thrown into the heated     
furnace it is melted by the fire4444    
,this kind of stone is either found in  
its own veins1 which are occasionally   
very wide1 or else scattered through the
 mines4 ,it is less hard than flint1 on 
account of which no fire can be struck  
from it4 ,it is not transparent1 but it 
is of many colours--that is to say1     
white1 yellowish1 ash-grey1 brown1      
black1 green1 blue1 reddish or red4     

,this genus of stones occurs here and   
there in mountainous regions1 on banks  
of rivers1 and in the fields4 ,those    
which are black right through to the    
interior1 and not merely on the surface1
 are more rare2 and very frequently one 
coloured vein is intersected by another 
of a different colour--for instance1 a  
white one by a red one2 the green is    
often spotted with white1 the ash-grey  
with black1 the white with crimson4     
,fragments of these stones are          
frequently found on the surface of the  
earth1 and in the running water they    
become polished by rubbing against      
stones of their own or of another genus4
 ,in this way1 likewise1 fragments of   
rocks are not infrequently shaped into  
spherical forms4444 ,this stone is put  
to many uses2 the streets are paved with
 it1 whatever its colour2 the blue      
variety is added to the ash of pines for
 making those other ashes which are used
 by wool-dyers4 ,the white variety is   
burned1 ground1 and sifted1 and from    

this they make the sand out of which    
glass is made4 ,the whiter the sand is1 
the more useful it is4  ,perusal of the 
following from ,bermannus 7p4 #deh7 can 
leave little doubt as to the first or   
second order being in part fluor-spar4  
,agricola derived the name fluores from 
fluo to flow1 and we in turn obtain     
fluorite1 or fluorspar1 from ,agricola4 
,bermannus4--,these stones are similar  
to gems1 but less hard4 ,allow me to    
explain word for word4 ,our miners call 
them fluores1 not inappropriately to my 
mind1 for by the heat of fire1 like ice 
in the sun1 they liquefy and flow away4 
,they are of varied and bright colours4 
,naevius4--,theophrastus says of them   
that they are made by a conflux in the  
earth4 ,these red fluores1 to employ the
 words just used by you1 are the ruby   
silver which you showed us before4      
,bermannus4--,at the first glance it    
appears so1 although it is not          
infrequently translucent4               
,naevius4--,then they are rubies8       

,bermannus4--,not that either4          
,naevius4--,in what way1 then1 can they 
be distinguished from rubies8           
,bermannus4--,chiefly by this sign1 that
 they glitter more feebly when          
translucent4 ,those which are not       
translucent may be distinguished from   
rubies4 ,moreover1 fluores of all kinds 
melt when they are subject to the first 
fire2 rubies do not melt in fire4       
,naevius4--,you distinguish well4       
,bermannus4--,you see the other kind1 of
 a paler purple colour8 ,naevius4--,they
 appear to be an inferior kind of       
amethyst1 such as are found in many     
places in ,bohemia4                     
,bermannus4--,indeed1 they are not very 
dissimilar1 therefore the common people 
who do not know amethysts well1 set them
 in rings for gems1 and they are easily 
sold4 ,the third kind1 as you see here1 
is white4 ,naevius4--,i should have     
thought it a crystal4 ,bermannus4--,a   
fourth is a yellow colour1 a fifth ash  
colour1 a sixth blackish4 ,some are     

violet1 some green1 others              
gold-coloured4 ,anton4--,what is the use
 of fluores8 ,bermannus4--,they are wont
 to be made use of when metals are      
smelted1 as they cause the material in  
the fire to be much more fluid1 exactly 
like a kind of stone which we said is   
made from pyrites 7matte72 it is1       
indeed1 made not far from here1 at      
,breitenbrunn1 which is near            
,schwarzenberg4 ,moreover1 from fluores 
they can make colours which artists use4
  #af ,stannum4 7,interpretatio1--werck1
 modern werk74 ,this term has been      
rendered throughout as silver-lead or   
silver-lead alloy4 ,it was the          
argentiferous lead suitable for         
cupellation4 ,agricola1 in using it in  
this sense1 was no doubt following his  
interpretation of its use by ,pliny4    
,further remarks upon this subject will 
be found in note #cc1 p4 #dgc4  #ag     
,expirare1--to exhale or blow out4  #ah 
,rhetos4 ,the ancient ,rhaetia comprised
 not only the greater part of ,tyrol1   

but also parts of ,switzerland and      
,lombardy4 ,the mining section was1     
however1 in ,tyrol4  #ai ,noricum was a 
region south of the ,danube1 embracing  
not only modern ,styria1 but also parts 
of ,austria1 ,salzberg1 and ,carinthia4 
#bj ,one drachma of gold to a           
centumpondium would be 7if we assume    
these were ,roman weights7 #c ozs4 #a   
dwt4 ,troy per short ton4 ,one-half     
uncia of silver would be #ab ozs4 #c    
dwts4 per short ton4  #ba ,for          
discussion of these fluxes see note page
 #bcb4  #bb ,carni4 ,probably the people
 of modern ,austrian ,carniola1 which   
lies south of ,styria and west of       
,croatia4  #bc ,,historical ,,note ,,on 
,,smelting ,,lead ,,and ,,silver4--,the 
history of lead and silver smelting is  
by no means a sequent array of exact    
facts4 ,with one possible exception1    
lead does not appear upon the historical
 horizon until long after silver1 and   
yet their metallurgy is so inextricably 
mixed that neither can be considered    

wholly by itself4 ,as silver does not   
occur native in any such quantities as  
would have supplied the amounts         
possessed by the ,ancients1 we must1    
therefore1 assume its reduction by      
either 7#a7 intricate chemical          
processes1 7#b7 amalgamation1 7#c7      
reduction with copper1 7#d7 reduction   
with lead4 ,it is impossible to conceive
 of the first with the ancient knowledge
 of chemistry2 the second 7see note #ab1
 p4 #big7 does not appear to have been  
known until after ,roman times2 in any  
event1 quicksilver appears only at about
 #djj ,b4,c4 ,the third was impossible1 
as the parting of silver from copper    
without lead involves metallurgy only   
possible during the last century4       
,therefore1 one is driven to the        
conclusion that the fourth case         
obtained1 and that the lead must have   
been known practically contemporaneously
 with silver4 ,there is a leaden figure 
exhibited in the ,british ,museum among 
the articles recovered from the ,temple 

of ,osiris at ,abydos1 and considered to
 be of the ,archaic period--prior to    
#chjj ,b4,c4 ,the earliest known        
,egyptian silver appears to be a        
necklace of beads1 supposed to be of the
 ,,xii4 ,dynasty 7#bdjj ,b4,c471 which  
is described in the #agth ,memoir1      
,egyptian ,exploration ,fund 7,london1  
#ahih1 p4 #bb74 ,with this exception of 
the above-mentioned lead specimen1      
silver articles antedate positive       
evidence of lead by nearly a millennium1
 and if we assume lead as a necessary   
factor in silver production1 we must    
conclude it was known long prior to any 
direct 7except the above solitary       
possibility7 evidence of lead itself4   
,further1 if we are to conclude its     
necessary association with silver1 we   
must assume a knowledge of cupellation  
for the parting of the two metals4 ,lead
 is mentioned in #aejj ,b4,c4 among the 
spoil captured by ,thotmes ,,iii4       
,leaden objects have frequently been    
found in ,egyptian tombs as early as    

,rameses ,,iii4 7#abjj ,b4,c474 ,the    
statement is made by ,pulsifer 7,notes  
for a ,history of ,lead1 ,new ,york     
#ahhh1 p4 #adf7 that ,egyptian pottery  
was glazed with lead4 ,we have been     
unable to find any confirmation of this4
 ,it may be noted1 incidentally1 that   
lead is not included in the metals of   
the ,tribute of ,yue in the ,shoo ,king 
7,the ,chinese ,classics1 #bejj         
,b4,c4871 although silver is so         
included4  ,after #abjj or #acjj ,b4,c4 
evidences of the use of lead become     
frequent4 ,moses 7,numbers ,,xxxi1      
#bb-bc7 directs the ,israelites with    
regard to their plunder from the        
,midianites 7#acjj ,b4,c473 ,only the   
gold and the silver1 the brass sic1 the 
iron1 the tin1 and the lead4 ,everything
 that may abide the fire1 ye shall make 
it go through the fire1 and it shall be 
clean2 nevertheless1 it shall be        
purified with the water of separation1  
and all that abideth not the fire ye    
shall make go through the water4        

,numerous other references occur in the 
,scriptures 7,psalms ,,xii1 #f2         
,proverbs ,,xvii1 #c2 ,,xxv1 #d2 etc471 
one of the most pointed from a          
metallurgical point of view being that  
of ,jeremiah 7#fjj ,b4,c471 who says    
7,,vi1 #bi-cj73 ,the bellows are burned1
 the lead is consumed of the fire2 the  
founder melteth in vain2 for the wicked 
are not plucked away4 ,reprobate silver 
shall men call them because the ,lord   
hath rejected them4 ,from the number of 
his metaphors in metallurgical terms we 
may well conclude that ,jeremiah was of 
considerable metallurgical experience1  
which may account for his critical tenor
 of mind4 ,these ,biblical references   
all point to a knowledge of separating  
silver and lead4 ,homer mentions lead   
7,iliad ,,xxiv1 #aji71 and it has been  
found in the remains of ancient ,troy   
and ,mycenae 7,h4 ,schliemann1 ,troy and
 its ,remains1 ,london1 #ahge1 and      
,mycenae1 ,new ,york1 #ahgg74 ,both     
,herodotus 7,i1 #ahf7 and ,diodorus     

7,,ii1 #a7 speak of the lead used to fix
 iron clamps in the stone bridge of     
,nitocris 7#fjj ,b4,c47 at ,babylon4    
,our best evidence of ancient           
lead-silver metallurgy is the result of 
the studies at ,mt4 ,laurion by ,edouard
 ,ardaillon 7,mines du ,laurion dans    
l',antiquite1 ,paris1 #ahig74 ,here the 
very extensive old workings and the slag
 heaps testify to the greatest activity4
 ,the re-opening of the mines in recent 
years by a ,french ,company has well    
demonstrated their technical character1 
and the frequent mention in ,greek      
,history easily determines their date4  
,these deposits of argentiferous galena 
were extensively worked before #ejj     
,b4,c4 and while the evidence of        
concentration methods is ample1 there is
 but little remaining of the ancient    
smelters4 ,enough1 however1 remains to  
demonstrate that the galena was smelted 
in small furnaces at low heat1 with     
forced draught1 and that it was         
subsequently cupelled4 ,in order to     

reduce the sulphides the ancient        
smelters apparently depended upon       
partial roasting in the furnace at a    
preliminary period in reduction1 or else
 upon the ferruginous character of the  
ore1 or upon both4 ,see notes p4 #bg and
 p4 #bfe4 ,theognis 7#fth century       
,b4,c47 and ,hippocrates 7#eth century  
,b4,c47 are frequently referred to as   
mentioning the refining of gold with    
lead2 an inspection of the passages     
fails to corroborate the importance     
which has been laid upon them4 ,among   
literary evidences upon lead metallurgy 
of later date1 ,theophrastus 7#cjj      
,b4,c47 describes the making of         
white-lead with lead plates and vinegar4
 ,diodorus ,siculus 7#ast century       
,b4,c471 in his well-known quotation    
from ,agatharchides 7#bnd century       
,b4,c47 with regard to gold mining and  
treatment in ,egypt1 describes the      
refining of gold with lead4 7,see note  
#h1 p4 #bgi47 ,strabo 7#fc ,b4,c4-#bd   
,a4,d47 says 7,,iii1 #b1 #h73 ,the      

furnaces for silver are constructed     
lofty in order that the vapour1 which is
 dense and pestilent1 may be raised and 
carried off4 ,and again 7,,iii1 #b1     
#aj71 in quoting from ,polybius         
7#bjd-abe ,b4,c473 ,polybius1 speaking  
of the silver mines of ,new ,carthage1  
tells us that they are extremely large1 
distant from the city about #bj stadia1 
and occupy a circuit of #djj stadia2    
that there are #dj1jjj men regularly    
engaged in them1 and that they yield    
daily to the ,roman people 7a revenue   
of7 #be1jjj drachmae4 ,the rest of the  
process ,i pass over1 as it is too long2
 but as for the silver ore collected1 he
 tells us that it is broken up and      
sifted through sieves over water2 that  
what remains is to be again broken1 and 
the water having been strained off it is
 to be sifted and broken a third time4  
,the dregs which remain after the fifth 
time are to be melted1 and the lead     
being poured off1 the silver is obtained
 pure4 ,these silver mines still exist2 

however1 they are no longer the property
 of the ,state1 neither these nor those 
elsewhere1 but are possessed by private 
individuals4 ,the gold mines1 on the    
contrary1 nearly all belong to the      
,state4 ,both at ,castlon and other     
places there are singular lead mines    
worked4 ,they contain a small proportion
 of silver1 but not sufficient to pay   
for the expense of refining 7,hamilton's
 ,trans474 ,dioscorides 7#ast century   
,a4,d471 among his medicines1 describes 
several varieties of litharge1 their    
origin1 and the manner of making        
white-lead 7see on pp4 #dfe1 #ddj71 but 
he gives no very tangible information on
 lead smelting4 ,pliny1 at the same     
period in speaking of silver1 7,,xxxiii1
 #ca71 says3 ,after this we speak of    
silver1 the next folly4 ,silver is only 
found in shafts1 there being no         
indications like shining particles as in
 the case of gold4 ,this earth is       
sometimes red1 sometimes of an ashy     
colour4 ,it is impossible to melt it    

except with lead ore 7vena plumbi71     
called galena1 which is generally found 
next to silver veins4 ,and this the same
 agency of fire separates part into     
lead1 which floats on the silver like   
oil on water4 7,we have transferred lead
 and silver in this last sentence1      
otherwise it means nothing47 ,also      
7,,xxxiv1 #dg7 he says3 ,there are two  
different sources of lead1 it being     
smelted from its own ore1 whence it     
comes without the admixture of any other
 substance1 or else from an ore which   
contains it in common with silver4 ,the 
metal1 which flows liquid at the first  
melting in the furnace1 is called       
stannum that at the second melting is   
silver2 that which remains in the       
furnace is galena1 which is added to a  
third part of the ore4 ,this being again
 melted1 produces lead with a deduction 
of two-ninths4 ,we have1 despite some   
grammatical objections1 rendered this   
passage quite differently from other    
translators1 none of whom have          

apparently had any knowledge of         
metallurgy2 and we will not1 therefore1 
take the several pages of space         
necessary to refute their extraordinary 
and unnecessary hypotheses4 ,from a     
metallurgical point of view1 two facts  
must be kept in mind1--first1 that      
galena in this instance was the same    
substance as molybdaena1 and they were  
both either a variety of litharge or of 
lead carbonates2 second1 that the       
stannum of the ,ancients was silver-lead
 alloy4 ,therefore1 the metallurgy of   
this paragraph becomes a simple melting 
of an argentiferous lead ore1 its       
subsequent cupellation1 with a return of
 the litharge to the furnace4 ,pliny    
goes into considerable detail as to     
varieties of litharge1 for further notes
 upon which see p4 #dff4 ,the ,romans   
were most active lead-silver miners1 not
 only in ,spain1 but also in ,britain4  
,there are scores of lead pigs of the   
,roman era in various ,english museums1 
many marked ex argent4 ,bruce 7,the     

,roman ,wall1 ,london1 #aheb1 p4 #dcb7  
describes some ,roman lead furnaces in  
,cumberland where the draught was       
secured by driving a tapering tunnel    
into the hills4 ,the ,roman lead slag   
ran high in metal1 and formed a basis   
for quite an industry in ,england in the
 early #ahth century 7,hunt1 ,british   
,mining1 ,london1 #ahhg1 p4 #bf1 etc474 
,there is nothing in mediaeval          
literature which carries us further with
 lead metallurgy than the knowledge     
displayed by ,pliny1 until we arrive at 
,agricola's period4 ,the history of     
cupellation is specially dealt with in  
note on p4 #dfe4  #be ,cadmia4 ,in the  
,german ,translation this is given as   
kobelt4 ,it would be of uncertain       
character1 but no doubt partially       
furnace calamine4 7,see note on p4      
#aab47  #bf ,pompholyx4 7,interpretatio 
gives the ,german as ,weisser huetten   
rauch als ober dem garherde und ober dem
 kupfer ofen74 ,this was the impure     
protoxide of zinc deposited in the      

furnace outlets1 and is modern tutty4   
,the ancient products1 no doubt1        
contained arsenical oxides as well4 ,it 
was well known to the ,ancients1 and    
used extensively for medicinal purposes1
 they dividing it into two              
species--pompholyx and spodos4 ,the     
first adequate description is by        
,dioscorides 7,v1 #df73 ,pompholyx      
differs from spodos in species1 not in  
genus4 ,for spodos is blacker1 and is   
often heavier1 full of straws and hairs1
 like the refuse that is swept from the 
floors of copper smelters4 ,but         
pompholyx is fatty1 unctuous1 white and 
light enough to fly in the air4 ,of this
 there are two kinds--the one inclines  
to sky blue and is unctuous2 the other  
is exceedingly white1 and is extremely  
light4 ,white pompholyx is made every   
time that the artificer1 in the         
preparation and perfecting of copper    
7brass87 sprinkles powdered cadmia upon 
it to make it more perfect1 for the soot
 which rises being very fine becomes    

pompholyx4 ,other pompholyx is made1 not
 only in working copper 7brass871 but is
 also made from cadmia by continually   
blowing with bellows4 ,the manner of    
doing it is as follows3--,the furnace is
 constructed in a two-storied building1 
and there is a medium-sized aperture    
opening to the upper chamber2 the       
building wall nearest the furnace is    
pierced with a small opening to admit   
the nozzle of the bellows4 ,the building
 must have a fair-sized door for the    
artificer to pass in and out4 ,another  
small building must adjoin this1 in     
which are the bellows and the man who   
works them4 ,then the charcoal in the   
furnace is lighted1 and the artificer   
continually throws broken bits of cadmia
 from the place above the furnace1      
whilst his assistant1 who is below1     
throws in charcoals1 until all of the   
cadmia inside is consumed4 ,by this     
means the finest and lightest part of   
the stuff flies up with the smoke to the
 upper chamber1 and adheres to the walls

 of the roof4 ,the substance which is   
thus formed has at first the appearance 
of bubbles on water1 afterward          
increasing in size1 it looks like skeins
 of wool4 ,the heaviest parts settle in 
the bottom1 while some fall over and    
around the furnaces1 and some lie on the
 floor of the building4 ,this latter    
part is considered inferior1 as it      
contains a lot of earth and becomes full
 of dirt4  ,pliny 7,,xxxiv1 #cc7 appears
 somewhat confused as to the difference 
between the two species3 ,that which is 
called pompholyx and spodos is found in 
the copper-smelting furnaces1 the       
difference between them being that      
pompholyx is separated by washing1 while
 spodos is not washed4 ,some have called
 that which is white and very light     
pompholyx1 and it is the soot of copper 
and cadmia2 whereas spodos is darker and
 heavier4 ,it is scraped from the walls 
of the furnace1 and is mixed with       
particles of metal1 and sometimes with  
charcoal4 7,,xxxiv1 #cd47 ,the ,cyprian 

spodos is the best4 ,it is formed by    
fusing cadmia with copper ore4 ,this    
being the lightest part of the metal1 it
 flies up in the fumes from the furnace1
 and adheres to the roof1 being         
distinguished from the soot by its      
whiteness4 ,that which is less white is 
immature from the furnace1 and it is    
this which some call 'pompholyx4'       
,agricola 7,de ,natura ,fossilium1 p4   
#cej7 traverses much the same ground as 
the authors previously quoted1 and      
especially recommends the pompholyx     
produced when making brass by melting   
alternate layers of copper and calamine 
7cadmia fossilis74  #bg ,oleo1 ex fece  
vini sicca confecto4 ,this oil1 made    
from argol1 is probably the same        
substance mentioned a few lines further 
on as wine1 distilled by heating argol  
in a retort4 ,still further on1 salt    
made from argol is mentioned4 ,it must  
be borne in mind that this argol was    
crude tartrates from wine vats1 and     
probably contained a good deal of       

organic matter4 ,heating argol          
sufficiently would form potash1 but that
 the distillation product could be      
anything effective it is difficult to   
see4  #bh ,aqua valens4 ,no doubt mainly
 nitric acid1 the preparation of which  
is explained at length in ,book ,x1 p4  
#dci4  #bi ,quod cum ignis consumit non 
modo una cum eo1 quae ipsius stibii vis 
est1 aliqua auri particula1 sed etiam   
argenti1 si cum auro fuerit permistum1  
consumitur4 ,the meaning is by no means 
clear4 ,on p4 #dea is set out the old   
method of parting silver from gold with 
antimony sulphide1 of which this may be 
a variation4 ,the silver combines with  
sulphur1 and the reduced antimony forms 
an alloy with the gold4 ,the added iron 
and copper would also combine with the  
sulphur from the antimony sulphide1 and 
no doubt assist by increasing the amount
 of free collecting agent and by        
increasing the volume of the matte4     
7,see note #ag1 p4 #dea47  #cj ,there   
follow eight different methods of       

treating crude bullion or rich          
concentrates4 ,in a general way three   
methods are involved1--#ast1 reduction  
with lead or antimony1 and cupellation2 
#bnd1 reduction with silver1 and        
separation with nitric acid2 #crd1      
reduction with lead and silver1 followed
 by cupellation and parting with nitric 
acid4 ,the use of sulphur or antimony   
sulphide would tend to part out a       
certain amount of silver1 and thus      
obtain fairly pure bullion upon         
cupellation4 ,but the introduction of   
copper could only result deleteriously1 
except that it is usually accompanied by
 sulphur in some form1 and would thus   
probably pass off harmlessly as a matte 
carrying silver4 7,see note #cc below47 
#ca ,it is not very clear where this    
lead comes from4 ,should it be antimony8
 ,the ,german translation gives this as 
silver4  #cb ,these powders are         
described in ,book ,,vii41 p4 #bcf4 ,it 
is difficult to say which the second    
really is4 ,there are numbers of such   

recipes in the ,probierbuechlein 7see   
,appendix ,b71 with which a portion of  
these are identical4  #cc ,a variety of 
methods are involved in this paragraph3 
#ast1 crude gold ore is smelted direct2 
#bnd1 gold concentrates are smelted in a
 lead bath with some addition of        
iron--which would simply matte off--the 
lead bullion being cupelled2 #crd1      
roasted and unroasted pyrites and cadmia
 7probably blende1 cobalt1 arsenic1     
etc47 are melted into a matte2 this     
matte is repeatedly roasted1 and then   
re-melted in a lead bath2 #dth1 if the  
material flies out of the furnace it is 
briquetted with iron ore and lime1 and  
the briquettes smelted with copper      
matte4 ,three products result3 7a7 slag2
 7b7 matte2 7c7 copper-gold-silver      
alloy4 ,the matte is roasted1 re-smelted
 with lead1 and no doubt a button       
obtained1 and further matte4 ,the       
process from this point is not clear4   
,it appears that the copper bullion is  
melted with lead1 and normally this     

product would be taken to the liquation 
furnace1 but from the text it would     
appear that the lead-copper bullion was 
melted again with iron ore and pyrites1 
in which case some of the copper would  
be turned into the matte1 and the lead  
alloy would be richer in gold and       
silver4  ,,historical ,,note ,,on       
,,gold4--,there is ample evidence of    
gold being used for ornamental purposes 
prior to any human record4 ,the         
occurrence of large quantities of gold  
in native form1 and the possibility of  
working it cold1 did not necessitate any
 particular metallurgical ingenuity4    
,the earliest indications of            
metallurgical work are1 of course1 among
 the ,egyptians1 the method of washing  
being figured as early as the monuments 
of the ,,iv ,dynasty 7prior to #chjj    
,b4,c474 ,there are in the ,british     
,museum two stelae of the ,,xii ,dynasty
 7#bdjj ,b4,c47 7#add ,bay #a and #ade  
,bay #f7 relating to officers who had to
 do with gold mining in ,nubia1 and upon

 one there are references to working    
what appears to be ore4 ,if this be     
true1 it is the earliest reference to   
this subject4 ,the ,papyrus map 7#aejj  
,b4,c47 of a gold mine1 in the ,turin   
,museum 7see note #af1 p4 #abi71        
probably refers to a quartz mine4 ,of   
literary evidences there is frequent    
mention of refining gold and passing it 
through the fire in the ,books of       
,moses1 arts no doubt learned from the  
,egyptians4 ,as to working gold1 ore as 
distinguished from alluvial1 we have    
nothing very tangible1 unless it be the 
stelae above1 until the description of  
,egyptian gold mining by ,agatharchides 
7see note #h1 p4 #bgi74 ,this           
geographer1 of about the #bnd century   
,b4,c41 describes very clearly indeed   
the mining1 crushing1 and concentration 
of ore and the refining of the          
concentrates in crucibles with lead1    
salt1 and barley bran4 ,we may mention  
in passing that ,theognis 7#fth ,century
 ,b4,c47 is often quoted as mentioning  

the refining of gold with lead1 but we  
do not believe that the passage in      
question 7#aaja73 ,but having been put  
to the test and being rubbed beside 7or 
against7 lead as being refined gold1 you
 will be fair1 etc42 or much the same   
statement again 7#dah7 will stand much  
metallurgical interpretation4 ,in any   
event1 the myriads of metaphorical      
references to fining and purity of gold 
in the earliest shreds of literature do 
not carry us much further than do those 
of ,shakespeare or ,milton4 ,vitruvius  
and ,pliny mention the recovery or      
refining of gold with mercury 7see note 
#ab1 p4 #big on ,amalgamation72 and it  
appears to us that gold was parted from 
silver by cementation with salt prior to
 the ,christian era4 ,we first find     
mention of parting with sulphur in the  
#abth century1 with nitric acid prior to
 the #adth century1 by antimony sulphide
 prior to the #aeth century1 and by     
cementation with nitre by ,agricola4    
7,see historical note on parting gold   

and silver1 p4 #deh47 ,the first mention
 of parting gold from copper occurs in  
the early #afth century 7see note #bd1  
p4 #dfb74 ,the first comprehensive      
description of gold metallurgy in all   
its branches is in ,de ,re ,metallica4  
#cd ,rudis silver comprised all fairly  
pure silver ores1 such as silver        
sulphides1 chlorides1 arsenides1 etc4   
,this is more fully discussed in note   
#f1 p4 #ajh4  #ce ,evolent1--volatilize8
  #cf ,lapidis plumbarii facile         
liquescentis4 ,the ,german ,translation 
gives glantz1 i4e41 ,galena1 and the    
,interpretatio also gives glantz for    
lapis plumbarius4 ,we are1 however1     
uncertain whether this easily melting   
material is galena or some other lead   
ore4  #cg ,molybdaena is usually        
hearth-lead in ,de ,re ,metallica1 but  
the ,german translation in this instance
 uses pleyertz1 lead ore4 ,from the     
context it would not appear to mean     
hearth-lead--saturated bottoms of       
cupellation furnaces--for such material 

would not contain appreciable silver4   
,agricola does confuse what are         
obviously lead carbonates with his other
 molybdaena 7see note #cg1 p4 #dgf74    
#ch ,the term cadmia is used in this    
paragraph without the usual definition4 
,whether it was cadmia fornacis 7furnace
 accretions7 or cadmia metallica        
7cobalt-arsenic-blende mixture7 is      
uncertain4 ,we believe it to be the     
former4  #ci ,ramentum si lotura ex     
argento rudi4 ,this expression is       
generally used by the author to indicate
 concentrates1 but it is possible that  
in this sentence it means the tailings  
after washing rich silver minerals1     
because the treatment of the rudis      
silver has been already discussed above4
  #dj ,ustum4 ,this might be rendered   
burnt4 ,in any event1 it seems that the 
material is sintered4  #da ,aes purum   
sive proprius ei color insederit1 sive  
chrysocolla vel caeruleo fuerit tinctum1
 et rude plumbei coloris1 aut fusci1 aut
 nigri4 ,there are six copper minerals  

mentioned in this sentence1 and from our
 study of ,agricola's ,de ,natura       
,fossilium we hazard the                
following3--,proprius ei color          
insederit1--its own colour1--probably   
cuprite or ruby copper4 ,tinctum        
chrysocolla--partly the modern mineral  
of that name and partly malachite4      
,tinctum caeruleo1 partly azurite and   
partly other blue copper minerals4 ,rude
 plumbei coloris1--lead coloured1--was  
certainly chalcocite 7copper glance74   
,we are uncertain of fusci aut nigri1   
but they were probably alteration       
products4 ,for further discussion see   
note on p4 #aji4  #db ,,historical      
,,note ,,on ,,copper ,,smelting4--,the  
discoverer of the reduction of copper by
 fusion1 and his method1 like the       
discoverer of tin and iron1 will never  
be known1 because he lived long before  
humanity began to make records of its   
discoveries and doings4 ,moreover1 as   
different races passed independently and
 at different times through the         

so-called ,bronze ,age1 there may have  
been several independent discoverers4   
,upon the metallurgy of pre-historic man
 we have some evidence in the many      
founders' hoards or smelters' hoards of 
the ,bronze ,age which have been found1 
and they indicate a simple shallow pit  
in the ground into which the ore was    
placed1 underlaid with charcoal4 ,rude  
round copper cakes eight to ten inches  
in diameter resulted from the cooling of
 the metal in the bottom of the pit4    
,analyses of such ,bronze ,age copper by
 ,professor ,gowland and others show a  
small percentage of sulphur1 and this is
 possible only by smelting oxidized     
ores4 ,copper objects appear in the     
pre-historic remains in ,egypt1 are     
common throughout the first three       
dynasties1 and bronze articles have been
 found as early as the ,,iv ,dynasty    
7from #chjj to #dgjj ,b4,c41 according  
to the authority adopted74 ,the question
 of the origin of this bronze1 whether  
from ores containing copper and tin or  

by alloying the two metals1 is one of   
wide difference of opinion1 and we      
further discuss the question in note    
#ec1 p4 #daa1 under ,tin4 ,it is also   
interesting to note that the crucible is
 the emblem of copper in the            
hieroglyphics4 ,the earliest source of  
,egyptian copper was probably the ,sinai
 ,peninsula1 where there are reliefs as 
early as ,seneferu 7about #cgjj ,b4,c471
 indicating that he worked the copper   
mines4 ,various other evidences exist of
 active copper mining prior to #bejj    
,b4,c4 7,petrie1 ,researches in ,sinai1 
,london1 #aijf1 p4 #ea1 etc474 ,the     
finding of crucibles here would indicate
 some form of refining4 ,our knowledge  
of ,egyptian copper metallurgy is       
limited to deductions from their        
products1 to a few pictures of crude    
furnaces and bellows1 and to the minor  
remains on the ,sinai ,peninsula2 none  
of the pictures were1 so far as we are  
aware1 prior to #bcjj ,b4,c41 but they  
indicate a considerable advance over the

 crude hearth1 for they depict small    
furnaces with forced draught--first a   
blow-pipe1 and in the ,,xviii ,dynasty  
7about #aejj ,b4,c47 the bellows appear4
 ,many copper articles have been found  
scattered over the ,eastern             
,mediterranean and ,asia ,minor of      
pre-,mycenaean ,age1 some probably as   
early as #cjjj ,b4,c4 ,this metal is    
mentioned in the ,tribute of ,yue in the
 ,shoo ,king 7#bejj ,b4,c4872 but even  
less is known of early ,chinese         
metallurgy than of the ,egyptian4 ,the  
remains of ,mycenaean1 ,phoenician1     
,babylonian1 and ,assyrian              
civilizations1 stretching over the      
period from #ahjj to #ejj ,b4,c41 have  
yielded endless copper and bronze       
objects1 the former of considerable     
purity1 and the latter a fairly constant
 proportion of from #aj to #ad tin4 ,the
 copper supply of the pre-,roman world  
seems to have come largely1 first from  
,sinai1 and later from ,cyprus1 and from
 the latter comes our word copper1 by   

way of the ,romans shortening aes       
cyprium 7,cyprian copper7 to cuprum4    
,research in this island shows that it  
produced copper from #cjjj ,b4,c41 and  
largely because of its copper it passed 
successively under the domination of the
 ,egyptians1 ,assyrians1 ,phoenicians1  
,greeks1 ,persians1 and ,romans4 ,the   
bronze objects found in ,cyprus show #b 
to #aj of tin1 although tin does not1 so
 far as modern research goes1 occur on  
that island4 ,there can be no doubt that
 the ,greeks obtained their metallurgy  
from the ,egyptians1 either direct or   
second-hand--possibly through ,mycenae  
or ,phoenicia4 ,their metallurgical gods
 and the tradition of ,cadmus indicate  
this much4  ,by way of literary         
evidences1 the following lines from     
,homer 7,iliad1 ,,xviii47 have interest 
as being the first preserved description
 in any language of a metallurgical     
work4 ,hephaestus was much interrupted  
by ,thetis1 who came to secure a shield 
for ,achilles1 and whose general        

conversation we therefore largely omit4 
,we adopt ,pope's translation3--        
,there the lame architect the goddess   
found     ,obscure in smoke1 his forges 
flaming round1     ,while bathed in     
sweat from fire to fire he flew2        
,and puffing loud the roaring bellows   
blew4     99 99 99     ,in moulds       
prepared1 the glowing ore 7metal87 he   
pours4     99 99 99     ,vouchsafe1 oh  
,thetis6 at our board to share     ,the 
genial rites and hospitable fare2       
,while ,i the labours of the forge      
forego1     ,and bid the roaring bellows
 cease to blow4     ,then from his anvil
 the lame artist rose2     ,wide with   
distorted legs oblique he goes1     ,and
 stills the bellows1 and 7in order laid7
     ,locks in their chests his         
instruments of trade2     ,then with a  
sponge1 the sooty workman dress'd       
,his brawny arms embrown'd and hairy    
breast4     99 99 99     ,thus having   
said1 the father of the fires     ,to   
the black labours of his forge retires4 

,soon as he bade them blow the bellows  
turn'd     ,their iron mouths2 and where
 the furnace burn'd     ,resounding     
breathed3 at once the blast expires1    
,and twenty forges catch at once the    
fires2     ,just as the ,god directs1   
now loud1 now low1     ,they raise a    
tempest1 or they gently blow2     ,in   
hissing flames huge silver bars are     
roll'd1     ,and stubborn brass         
7copper87 and tin1 and solid gold2      
,before1 deep fixed1 the eternal anvils 
stand4     ,the ponderous hammer loads  
his better hand2     ,his left with     
tongs turns the vex'd metal round4      
,and thick1 strong strokes1 the doubling
 vaults rebound     ,then first he      
formed the immense and solid shield2    
,even if we place the siege of ,troy at 
any of the various dates from #acej to  
#aajj ,b4,c41 it does not follow that   
the epic received its final form for    
many centuries later1 probably #ijj-hjj 
,b4,c42 and the experience of the race  
in metallurgy at a much later period    

than ,troy may have been drawn upon to  
fill in details4 ,it is possible to fill
 a volume with indirect allusion to     
metallurgical facts and to the origins  
of the art1 from ,greek mythology1 from 
,greek poetry1 from the works of the    
grammarians1 and from the ,bible4 ,but  
they are of no more technical value than
 the metaphors from our own tongue4     
,greek literature in general is         
singularly lacking in metallurgical     
description of technical value1 and it  
is not until ,dioscorides 7#ast ,century
 ,a4,d47 that anything of much          
importance can be adduced4 ,aristotle1  
however1 does make an interesting       
reference to what may be brass 7see note
 on p4 #daj71 and there can be no doubt 
that if we had the lost work of         
,aristotle's successor1 ,theophrastus   
7#cgb-bhh ,b4,c471 on metals we should  
be in possession of the first adequate  
work on metallurgy4 ,as it is1 we find  
the green and blue copper minerals from 
,cyprus mentioned in his ,stones4 ,and  

this is the first mention of any        
particular copper ore4 ,he also mentions
 7,,xix47 pyrites which melt1 but       
whether it was a copper variety cannot  
be determined4 ,theophrastus further    
describes the making of verdigris 7see  
note #d1 p4 #ddj74 ,from ,dioscorides we
 get a good deal of light on copper     
treatment1 but as his objective was to  
describe medicinal preparations1 the    
information is very indirect4 ,he states
 7,v1 #ajj7 that pyrites is a stone from
 which copper is made4 ,he mentions     
chalcitis 7copper sulphide1 see note on1
 p4 #egc72 while his misy1 sory1        
melanteria1 caeruleum1 and chrysocolla  
were all oxidation copper or iron       
minerals4 7,see notes on p4 #egc47 ,in  
giving a method of securing pompholyx   
7zinc oxide71 the soot flies up when the
 copper refiners sprinkle powdered      
cadmia over the molten metal 7see note  
#bf1 p4 #cid72 he indirectly gives us   
the first definite indication of making 
brass1 and further gives some details as

 to the furnaces there employed1 which  
embraced bellows and dust chambers4 ,in 
describing the making of flowers of     
copper 7see note #bf1 p4 #ech7 he states
 that in refining copper1 when the      
molten metal flows through its tube into
 a receptacle1 the workmen pour cold    
water on it1 the copper spits and throws
 off the flowers4 ,he gives the first   
description of vitriol 7see note #aa1 p4
 #egb71 and describes the pieces as     
shaped like dice which stick together in
 bunches like grapes4 ,altogether1 from 
,dioscorides we learn for the first time
 of copper made from sulphide ores1 and 
of the recovery of zinc oxides from     
furnace fumes2 and he gives us the first
 certain description of making brass1   
and finally the first notice of blue    
vitriol4  ,the next author we have who  
gives any technical detail of copper    
work is ,pliny 7#bc-gi ,a4,d471 and     
while his statements carry us a little  
further than ,dioscorides1 they are not 
as complete as the same number of words 

could have afforded had he ever had     
practical contact with the subject1 and 
one is driven to the conclusion that he 
was not himself much of a metallurgist4 
,pliny indicates that copper ores were  
obtained from veins by underground      
mining4 ,he gives the same minerals as  
,dioscorides1 but is a good deal        
confused over chrysocolla and chalcitis4
 ,he gives no description of the shapes 
of furnaces1 but frequently mentions the
 bellows1 and speaks of the cadmia and  
pompholyx which adhered to the walls and
 arches of the furnaces4 ,he has nothing
 to say as to whether fluxes are used or
 not4 ,as to fuel1 he says 7,,xxxiii1   
#cj7 that for smelting copper and iron  
pine wood is the best4 ,the following   
7,,xxxiv1 #bj7 is of the greatest       
interest on the subject3--,cyprian      
copper is known as coronarium and       
regulare2 both are ductile4444 ,in other
 mines are made that known as regulare  
and caldarium4 ,these differ1 because   
the caldarium is only melted1 and is    

brittle to the hammer2 whereas the      
regulare is malleable or ductile4 ,all  
,cyprian copper is this latter kind4    
,but in other mines with care the       
difference can be eliminated from       
caldarium1 the impurities being         
carefully purged away by smelting with  
fire1 it is made into regulare4 ,among  
the remaining kinds of copper the best  
is that of ,campania1 which is most     
esteemed for vessels and utensils4 ,this
 kind is made in several ways4 ,at      
,capua it is melted with wood1 not with 
charcoal1 after which it is sprinkled   
with water and washed through an oak    
sieve4 ,after it is melted a number of  
times ,spanish plumbum argentum         
7probably pewter7 is added to it in     
proportion of ten pounds of the lead to 
one hundred pounds of copper1 and       
thereby it is made pliable and assumes  
that pleasing colour which in other     
kinds of copper is effected by oil and  
the sun4 ,in many parts of the ,italian 
provinces they make a similar kind of   

metal2 but there they add eight pounds  
of lead1 and it is re-melted over       
charcoal because of the scarcity of     
wood4 ,very different is the method     
carried on in ,gaul1 particularly where 
the ore is smelted between red hot      
stones1 for this burns the metal and    
renders it black and brittle4 ,moreover1
 it is re-melted only a single time1    
whereas the oftener this operation is   
repeated the better the quality becomes4
 ,it is well to remark that all copper  
fuses best when the weather is intensely
 cold4 ,the red hot stones in ,gaul were
 probably as much figments of           
imagination as was the assumption of one
 commentator that they were a           
reverberatory furnace4 ,apart from the  
above1 ,pliny says nothing very direct  
on refining copper4 ,it is obvious that 
more than one melting was practised1 but
 that anything was known of the nature  
of oxidation by a blast and reduction by
 poling is uncertain4 ,we produce the   
three following statements in connection

 with some bye-products used for        
medicinal purposes1 which at least      
indicate operations subsequent to the   
original melting4 ,as to whether they   
represent this species of refining or   
not1 we leave it to the metallurgical   
profession 7,,xxxiv1 #bd73--,the flowers
 of copper are used in medicine2 they   
are made by fusing copper and moving it 
to another furnace1 where the rapid     
blast separates it into a thousand      
particles1 which are called flowers4    
,these scales are also made when the    
copper cakes are cooled in water        
7,,xxxiv1 #ce74 ,smega is prepared in   
the copper works2 when the metal is     
melted and thoroughly smelted charcoal  
is added to it and gradually kindled2   
after this1 being blown upon by a       
powerful bellows1 it spits out1 as it   
were1 copper chaff 7,,xxxiv1 #cg74      
,there is another product of these works
 easily distinguished from smega1 which 
the ,greeks call diphrygum4 ,this       
substance has three different           

origins4444 ,a third way of making it is
 from the residues which fall to the    
bottom in copper furnaces4 ,the         
difference between the different        
substances 7in the furnace7 is that the 
copper itself flows into a receiver2 the
 slag makes its escape from the furnace2
 the flowers float on the top 7of the   
copper871 and the diphrygum remains     
behind4 ,some say that in the furnace   
there are certain masses of stone which1
 being smelted1 become soldered         
together1 and that the copper fuses     
around it1 the mass not becoming liquid 
unless it is transferred to another     
furnace4 ,it thus forms a sort of knot1 
as it were1 in the metal4  ,pliny is a  
good deal confused over the copper      
alloys1 failing to recognise aurichalcum
 as the same product as that made by    
mixing cadmia and molten copper4        
,further1 there is always the difficulty
 in translation arising from the fact   
that the ,latin aes was indiscriminately
 copper1 brass1 and bronze4 ,he does    

not1 except in one instance 7,,xxxiv41  
#b71 directly describe the mixture of   
cadmia and copper4 ,next to ,livian     
7copper7 this kind 7corduban1 from      
,spain7 most readily absorbs cadmia1 and
 becomes almost as excellent as         
aurichalcum for making sesterces4 ,as to
 bronze1 there is no very definite      
statement2 but the argentatium given in 
the quotation above from ,,xxxiv1 #bj1  
is stated in ,,xxxiv1 #dh1 to be a      
mixture of tin and lead4 ,the ,romans   
carried on most extensive copper mining 
in various parts of their empire2 these 
activities extended from ,egypt through 
,cyprus1 ,central ,europe1 the ,spanish 
,peninsula1 and ,britain4 ,the activity 
of such works is abundantly evidenced in
 the mines1 but very little remains upon
 the surface to indicate the equipment2 
thus1 while mining methods are clear    
enough1 the metallurgy receives little  
help from these sources4 ,at ,rio ,tinto
 there still remain enormous slag heaps 
from the ,romans1 and the ,phoenician   

miners before them4 ,professor ,w4 ,a4  
,carlyle informs us that the ore worked 
must have been almost exclusively       
sulphides1 as only negligible quantities
 of carbonates exist in the deposits2   
they probably mixed basic and siliceous 
ores4 ,there is some evidence of        
roasting1 and the slags run from 4#b to 
4#f4 ,they must have run down mattes1   
but as to how they ultimately arrived at
 metallic copper there is no evidence to
 show4  ,the special processes for      
separating other metals from copper by  
liquation and matting1 or of refining by
 poling1 etc41 are none of them clearly 
indicated in records or remains until we
 reach the #abth century4 ,here we find 
very adequate descriptions of copper    
smelting and refining by the ,monk      
,theophilus 7see ,appendix ,b74 ,we     
reproduce two paragraphs of interest    
from ,hendrie's excellent translation   
7p4 #cje and #cac73 ,copper is          
engendered in the earth4 ,when a vein of
 which is found1 it is acquired with the

 greatest labour by digging and         
breaking4 ,it is a stone of a green     
colour and most hard1 and naturally     
mixed with lead4 ,this stone1 dug up in 
abundance1 is placed upon a pile and    
burned after the manner of chalk1 nor   
does it change colour1 but yet loses its
 hardness1 so that it can be broken up4 
,then1 being bruised small1 it is placed
 in the furnace2 coals and the bellows  
being applied1 it is incessantly forged 
by day and night4 ,this should be done  
carefully and with caution2 that is1 at 
first coals are placed in1 then small   
pieces of stone are distributed over    
them1 and again coals1 and then stone   
anew1 and it is thus arranged until it  
is sufficient for the size of the       
furnace4 ,and when the stone has        
commenced to liquefy1 the lead flows out
 through some small cavities1 and the   
copper remains within4 7#cac7 ,of the   
purification of copper4 ,take an iron   
dish of the size you wish1 and line it  
inside and out with clay strongly beaten

 and mixed1 and it is carefully dried4  
,then place it before a forge upon the  
coals1 so that when the bellows act upon
 it the wind may issue partly within and
 partly above it1 and not below it4 ,and
 very small coals being placed round it1
 place copper in it equally1 and add    
over it a heap of coals4 ,when1 by      
blowing a long time1 this has become    
melted1 uncover it and cast immediately 
fine ashes of coals over it1 and stir it
 with a thin and dry piece of wood as if
 mixing it1 and you will directly see   
the burnt lead adhere to these ashes    
like a glue4 ,which being cast out again
 superpose coals1 and blowing for a long
 time1 as at first1 again uncover it1   
and then do as you did before4 ,you do  
this until at length1 by cooking it1 you
 can withdraw the lead entirely4 ,then  
pour it over the mould which you have   
prepared for this1 and you will thus    
prove if it be pure4 ,hold it with      
pincers1 glowing as it is1 before it has
 become cold1 and strike it with a large

 hammer strongly over the anvil1 and if 
it be broken or split you must liquefy  
it anew as before4  ,the next writer of 
importance was ,biringuccio1 who was    
contemporaneous with ,agricola1 but     
whose book precedes ,de ,re ,metallica  
by #ae years4 ,that author 7,,iii1 #b7  
is the first to describe particularly   
the furnace used in ,saxony and the     
roasting prior to smelting1 and the     
first to mention fluxes in detail4 ,he1 
however1 describes nothing of matte     
smelting2 in copper refining he gives   
the whole process of poling1 but omits  
the pole4 ,it is not until we reach ,de 
,re ,metallica that we find adequate    
descriptions of the copper minerals1    
roasting1 matte smelting1 liquation1 and
 refining1 with a wealth of detail which
 eliminates the necessity for a large   
amount of conjecture regarding technical
 methods of the time4  #dc ,cadmia      
metallica fossilis 7see note on p4      
#aab74 ,this was undoubtedly the complex
 cobalt-arsenic-zinc minerals found in  

,saxony4 ,in the ,german translation1   
however1 this is given as ,kalmey1      
calamine1 which is unlikely from the    
association with pyrites4  #dd ,the     
,roman modius 7modulus87 held about #eej
 cubic inches1 the ,english peck holding
 #ece cubic inches4 ,then1 perhaps1 his 
seven moduli would be roughly1 #a bushel
 #c pecks1 and #ah vessels full would be
 about #ca bushels--say1 roughly1 #e1djj
 lbs4 of ore4  #de ,exhausted liquation 
cakes 7panes aerei fathiscentes74 ,this 
is the copper sponge resulting from the 
first liquation of lead1 and still      
contains a considerable amount of lead4 
,the liquation process is discussed in  
great detail in ,book ,,xi4  #df ,the   
method of this paragraph involves two   
main objectives--first1 the gradual     
enrichment of matte to blister copper2  
and1 second1 the creation of large cakes
 of copper-lead-silver alloy of suitable
 size and ratio of metals for liquation4
 ,this latter process is described in   
detail in ,book ,,xi4 ,the following    

groupings show the circuit of the       
various products1 the lbs4 being ,roman 
librae3--                ,,charge4      
,,products4         ,crude ore          
#e1djj lbs4     ,primary matte 7#a7     
#fjj lbs4        ,lead slags            
#c cartloads      #ast  ,schist         
#a cartload     ,silver-copper alloy    
7,a7  #ej          ,flux                
#bj lbs4               ,concentrates    
from                      ,slags 7,b7   
slags  accretions   ,small quantity     
,primary matte 7#a7       #a1hjj lbs4   
,secondary matte 7#b7   #a1hjj lbs4     
,hearth-lead  litharge  #a1bjj          
,lead ore                  #cjj         
,silver-copper-lead   #bnd  ,rich hard  
cakes 7,a#d7   #ejj           alloy     
7liquation        ,liquated cakes       
#bjj           cakes7 7,a#b7      #a1bjj
          ,slags 7,b7                   
,concentrates from                      
,slags 7,b#b7          accretions       
,secondary matte 7#b7     #a1hjj lbs4   
,tertiary matte 7#c7    #a1cjj lbs4     

,hearth-lead  litharge  #a1bjj          
,silver-copper-lead        ,lead ore    
#cjj             alloy 7liquation   #crd
  ,rich hard cakes 7,a#d7 #ejj          
cakes7 7,a#c7      #a1ajj               
,slags 7,b#b7                           
,slags 7,b#c7        ,concentrates from 
accretions                              
,tertiary matte 7#c7     #aa cartloads  
,quaternary hard cakes        ,poor hard
 cakes 7,a#e7 #c                matte   
7#d7          #b1jjj lbs4   #dth  ,slags
 7,b#c7                                 
,rich hard cakes of        ,concentrates
 from                         matte     
7,a#d7      #a1ejj            accretions
                                        
,roasted quartz                         
,poor hard cakes of   #eth  ,matte 7#d7 
7three                         matte    
7,a#e7       #a1ejj lbs4          times 
roasted7       #aa cartloads    ,final  
cakes of matte 7#e7  #fth ,final matte  
three times roasted is smelted to       
blister copper4  ,the following would be

 a rough approximation of the value of  
the various products3--    7#a47        
,primary matte               #aeh ounces
 troy per short ton4   7#b47            
,secondary matte              #he       
7#c47   ,tertiary matte                 
#fj                   7#d47             
,quaternary matte                       
,indeterminate4    ,a4    ,copper-silver
 alloy         #chh ounces ,troy per    
short ton4    ,a#b ,copper-silver-lead  
alloy    #ade                       ,a#c
                          #aji          
,a#d ,rich hard cakes              #ig  
,a#e ,poor hard cakes                   
,indeterminate4          ,final blister 
copper         #ab ozs4 ,troy per short 
ton4  #dg ,this expression is usually   
used for hearth-lead1 but in this case  
the author is apparently confining      
himself to lead ore1 and apparently     
refers to lead carbonates4 ,the ,german 
,translation gives pleyschweiss4 ,the   
pyrites mentioned in this paragraph may 
mean galena1 as pyrites was to ,agricola

 a sort of genera4  #dh 7,excoquitur7   
444 si vero pyrites1 primo e fornace1 ut
 ,goselariae videre licet1 in catinum   
defluit liquor quidam candidus1 argento 
inimicus et nocivus2 id enim comburit3  
quo circa recrementis1 quae supernatant1
 detractis effunditur3 vel induratus    
conto uncinato extrahitur3 eundem       
liquorem parietes fornacis exudant4 ,in 
the ,glossary the following statement   
appears3 ,liquor candidus primo e       
fornace defluens cum ,goselariae        
excoquitur pyrites1--kobelt2 quem       
parietes fornacis exudant1--conterfei4  
,in this latter statement ,agricola     
apparently recognised that there were   
two different substances1 i4e41 that the
 substance found in the furnace         
walls--conterfei--was not the same      
substance as that which first flowed    
from the furnace--kobelt4 ,we are at no 
difficulty in recognizing conterfei as  
metallic zinc2 it was long known by that
 term1 and this accidental occurrence is
 repeatedly mentioned by other authors  

after ,agricola4 ,the substance which   
first flowed into the forehearth        
presents greater difficulties2 it       
certainly was not zinc4 ,in ,de ,natura 
,fossilium 7p4 #cdg71 ,agricola says    
that at ,goslar the lead has a certain  
white slag floating upon it1 the colour 
derived from the pyrites 7pyriten       
argenteum7 from which it was produced4  
,pyriten argenteum was either marcasite 
or mispickel1 neither of which offers   
much suggestion2 nor are we able to     
hazard an explanation of value4         
,,historical ,,note ,,on ,,zinc4 ,the   
history of zinc metallurgy falls into   
two distinct lines--first1 that of the  
metal1 and second1 that of zinc ore1 for
 the latter was known and used to make  
brass by cementation with copper and to 
yield oxides by sublimation for         
medicinal purposes1 nearly #b1jjj years 
before the metal became generally known 
and used in ,europe4  ,there is some    
reason to believe that metallic zinc was
 known to the ,ancients1 for bracelets  

made of it1 found in the ruins of       
,cameros 7prior to #ejj ,b4,c471 may    
have been of that age 7,raoul ,jagnaux1 
,traite de ,chimie ,generale1 #ahhg1    
,,ii1 #che72 and further1 a passage in  
,strabo 7#fc ,b4,c4-#bd ,a4,d47 is of   
much interest4 ,he states3 7,,xiii1 #a1 
#ef7 ,there is found at ,andeira a stone
 which when burnt becomes iron4 ,it is  
then put into a furnace1 together with  
some kind of earth1 when it distils a   
mock silver 7pseudargyrum71 or with the 
addition of copper it becomes the       
compound called orichalcum4 ,there is   
found a mock silver near ,tismolu also4 
7,hamilton's ,trans41 ,,ii1 p4 #cha74   
,about the ,christian era the terms     
orichalcum or aurichalcum undoubtedly   
refer to brass1 but whether these terms 
as used by earlier ,greek writers do not
 refer to bronze only1 is a matter of   
considerable doubt4 ,beyond these slight
 references we are without information  
until the #afth ,century4 ,if the metal 
was known to the ,ancients it must have 

been locally1 for by its greater        
adaptability to brass-making it would   
probably have supplanted the crude      
melting of copper with zinc minerals4   
,it appears that the metal may have been
 known in the ,far ,east prior to such  
knowledge in ,europe2 metallic zinc was 
imported in considerable quantities from
 the ,east as early as the #afth and    
#agth centuries under such terms as     
tuteneque1 tuttanego1 calaem1 and       
spiauter--the latter1 of course1 being  
the progenitor of our term spelter4 ,the
 localities of ,eastern production have 
never been adequately investigated4 ,w4 
,hommel 7,engineering and ,mining       
,journal1 ,june #ae1 #aiab7 gives a very
 satisfactory review of the ,eastern    
literature upon the subject1 and        
considers that the origin of manufacture
 was in ,india1 although the most of the
 #afth and #agth ,century product came  
from ,china4 ,the earliest certain      
description seems to be some recipes for
 manufacture quoted by ,praphulla       

,chandra ,ray 7,a ,history of ,hindu    
,chemistry1 ,london1 #aijb1 p4 #ci7     
dating from the #aath to the #adth      
,centuries4 ,there does not appear to be
 any satisfactory description of the    
,chinese method until that of ,sir      
,george ,staunton 7,journal ,asiatique  
,paris1 #ahce1 p4 #ada47 ,we may add    
that spelter was produced in ,india by  
crude distillation of calamine in clay  
pots in the early part of the #aith     
,century 7,brooke1 ,jour4 ,asiatic ,soc4
 of ,bengal1 vol4 ,,xix1 #ahej1 p4      
#bab71 and the remains of such smelting 
in ,rajputana are supposed to be very   
ancient4  ,the discovery of zinc in     
,europe seems to have been quite        
independent of the ,east1 but precisely 
where and when is clouded with much     
uncertainty4 ,the marchasita aurea of   
,albertus ,magnus has been called upon  
to serve as metallic zinc1 but such     
belief requires a hypothesis based upon 
a great deal of assumption4 ,further1   
the statement is frequently made that   

zinc is mentioned in ,basil ,valentine's
 ,triumphant ,chariot of ,antimony 7the 
only one of the works attributed to this
 author which may date prior to the     
#agth ,century71 but we have been unable
 to find any such reference4 ,the first 
certain mention of metallic zinc is     
generally accredited to ,paracelsus     
7#adic-aeda71 who states 7,liber        
,mineralium ,,ii473 ,moreover there is  
another metal generally unknown called  
zinken4 ,it is of peculiar nature and   
origin2 many other metals adulterate it4
 ,it can be melted1 for it is generated 
from three fluid principles2 it is not  
malleable4 ,its colour is different from
 other metals and does not resemble     
others in its growth4 ,its ultimate     
matter 7ultima materia7 is not to me yet
 fully known4 ,it admits of no mixture  
and does not permit of the fabricationes
 of other metals4 ,it stands alone      
entirely to itself4 ,we do not believe  
that this book was published until after
 ,agricola's works4 ,agricola introduced

 the following statements into his      
revised edition of ,bermannus 7p4 #dca71
 published in #aeeh3 ,it 7a variety of  
pyrites7 is almost the colour of galena1
 but of entirely different components4  
,from it there is made gold and silver1 
and a great quantity is dug in          
,reichenstein1 which is in ,silesia1 as 
was recently reported to me4 ,much more 
is found at ,raurici1 which they call   
zincum1 which species differs from      
pyrites1 for the latter contains more   
silver than gold1 the former only gold  
or hardly any silver4 ,in ,de ,natura   
,fossilium 7p4 #cfh73 ,for this cadmia  
is put1 in the same way as quicksilver1 
in a suitable vessel so that the heat of
 the fire will cause it to sublime1 and 
from it is made a black or brown or grey
 body which the ,alchemists call cadmia 
sublimata4 ,this possesses corrosive    
properties to the highest degree4       
,cognate with this cadmia and pyrites is
 a compound which the ,noricans and     
,rhetians call zincum4 ,we leave it to  

readers to decide how near this comes to
 metallic zinc2 in any event1 he        
apparently did not recognise his        
conterfei from the furnaces as the same 
substance as the zincum from ,silesia4  
,the first correlation of these         
substances was apparently by ,lohneys1  
in #afag1 who says 7,vom ,bergwerk1 p4  
#hc-d73 ,when the people in the smelting
 works are smelting1 there is made under
 the furnace and in the cracks in the   
walls among the badly plastered stones1 
a metal which is called zinc or         
counterfeht1 and when the wall is       
scraped it falls into a vessel placed to
 receive it4 ,this metal greatly        
resembles tin1 but it is harder and less
 malleable4444 ,the ,alchemists have a  
great desire for this zinc or bismuth4  
,that this metal originated from blende 
or calamine was not recognised until    
long after1 and ,libavis 7,alchymia1    
,frankfort1 #afjf71 in describing       
specimens which came from the ,east1 did
 not so identify it1 this office being  

performed by ,glauber1 who says 7,de    
,prosperitate ,germanias1 ,amsterdam1   
#afef73 ,zink is a volatile mineral or  
half-ripe metal when it is extracted    
from its ore4 ,it is more brilliant than
 tin and not so fusible or malleable 444
 it turns 7copper7 into brass1 as does  
lapis calaminaris1 for indeed this stone
 is nothing but infusible zinc1 and this
 zinc might be called a fusible lapis   
calaminaris1 inasmuch as both of them   
partake of the same nature4444 ,it      
sublimates itself up into the cracks of 
the furnace1 whereupon the smelters     
frequently break it out4 ,the systematic
 distillation of zinc from calamine was 
not discovered in ,europe until the     
#ahth ,century4 ,henkel is generally    
accredited with the first statement to  
that effect4 ,in a contribution         
published as an ,appendix to his other  
works1 of which we have had access only 
to a ,french translation 7,pyritologie1 
,paris1 #agfj1 p4 #did71 he concludes   
that zinc is a half-metal of which the  

best ore is calamine1 but believes it is
 always associated with lead1 and       
mentions that an ,englishman lately     
arrived from ,bristol had seen it being 
obtained from calamine in his own       
country4 ,he further mentions that it   
can be obtained by heating calamine and 
lead ore mixed with coal in a thick     
earthen vessel4 ,the ,bristol works were
 apparently those of ,john ,champion1   
established about #agdj4 ,the art of    
distillation was probably learned in the
 ,east4  ,definite information as to the
 zinc minerals goes back to but a little
 before the ,christian ,era1 unless we  
accept nebular references to aurichalcum
 by the poets1 or what is possibly zinc 
ore in the earth mentioned by ,aristotle
 7,de ,mirabilibus1 #fb73 ,men say that 
the copper of the ,mossynoeci is very   
brilliant and white1 no tin being mixed 
with it2 but there is a kind of earth   
there which is melted with it4 ,this    
might quite well be an arsenical        
mineral4 ,but whether we can accept the 

poets or ,aristotle or the remark of    
,strabo given above1 as sufficient      
evidence or not1 there is no difficulty 
with the description of cadmia and      
pompholyx and spodos of ,dioscorides    
7#ast ,century71 parts of which we      
reproduce in note #bf1 p4 #cid4 ,his    
cadmia is described as rising from the  
copper furnaces and clinging to the iron
 bars1 but he continues3 ,cadmia is also
 prepared by burning the stone called   
pyrites1 which is found near ,mt4 ,soloi
 in ,cyprus4444 ,some say that cadmia   
may also be found in stone quarries1 but
 they are deceived by stones having a   
resemblance to cadmia4 ,pompholyx and   
spodos are evidently furnace calamine4  
,from reading the quotation given on p4 
#cid1 there can be no doubt that these  
materials1 natural or artificial1 were  
used to make brass1 for he states 7,v1  
#df73 ,white pompholyx is made every    
time that the artificer in the working  
and perfecting of the copper sprinkles  
powdered cadmia upon it to make it more 

perfect1 the soot arising from this 444 
is pompholyx4 ,pliny is confused between
 the mineral cadmia and furnace         
calamine1 and none of his statements are
 very direct on the subject of brass    
making4 ,his most pointed statement is  
7,,xxxiv1 #b73 444 ,next to ,livian     
7copper7 this kind best absorbs cadmia1 
and is almost as good as aurichalcum for
 making sesterces and double asses4 ,as 
stated above1 there can be little doubt 
that the aurichalcum of the ,christian  
,era was brass1 and further1 we do know 
of brass sesterces of this period4      
,other ,roman writers of this and later 
periods refer to earth used with copper 
for making brass4 ,apart from these     
evidences1 however1 there is the        
evidence of analyses of coins and       
objects1 the earliest of which appears  
to be a large brass of the ,cassia      
family of #bj ,b4,c41 analyzed by       
,phillips1 who found #ag4c zinc         
7,records of ,mining and ,metallurgy1   
,london1 #aheg1 p4 #ac74 ,numerous      

analyses of coins and other objects     
dating during the following century     
corroborate the general use of brass4   
,professor ,gowland 7,presidential      
,address1 ,inst4 of ,metals1 #aiab7     
rightly considers the ,romans were the  
first to make brass1 and at about the   
above period1 for there appears to be no
 certainty of any earlier production4   
,the first adequate technical           
description of brass making is in about 
#abjj ,a4,d4 being that of ,theophilus1 
who describes 7,hendrie's ,trans41 p4   
#cjg7 calcining calamina and mixing it  
with finely divided copper in glowing   
crucibles4 ,the process was repeated by 
adding more calamine and copper until   
the pots were full of molten metal4     
,this method is repeatedly described    
with minor variations by ,biringuccio1  
,agricola 7,de ,nat4 ,fos471 and others1
 down to the #ahth ,century4 ,for       
discussion of the zinc minerals see note
 on p4 #aab4  #di 444 non raro1 ut      
nonnulli pyritae sunt1 candida4444 ,this

 is apparently the unknown substance    
mentioned above4  #ej ,one drachma is   
about #c ounces ,troy per short ton4    
,three unciae are about #gb ounces #f   
dwts4 ,troy per short ton4  #ea ,in this
 section1 which treats of the metallurgy
 of plumbum candidum1 tin1 the word     
candidum is very often omitted in the   
,latin1 leaving only plumbum1 which is  
confusing at times with lead4 ,the black
 tin-stone1 lapilli nigri has been      
treated in a similar manner1 lapilli    
7small stones7 constantly occurring     
alone in the ,latin4 ,this has been     
rendered as tin-stone throughout1 and   
the material prior to extraction of the 
lapilli nigri has been rendered         
tin-stuff1 after the ,cornish4  #eb 444 
ex saxis vilibus1 quae natura de diversa
 materia composuit4 ,the ,glossary gives
 grindstein4 ,granite 7874  #ec         
,,historical ,,notes ,,on ,,tin         
,,metallurgy4 ,the first appearance of  
tin lies in the ancient bronzes4 ,and   
while much is written upon the ,bronze  

,age by archaeologists1 we seriously    
doubt whether or not a large part of    
so-called bronze is not copper4 ,in any 
event1 this period varied with each     
race1 and for instance1 in ,britain may 
have been much later than ,egyptian     
historic times4 ,the bronze articles of 
the ,,iv ,dynasty 7from #chjj to #dgjj  
,b4,c4 depending on the authority7 place
 us on certain ground of antiquity4     
,professor ,gowland 7,presidential      
,address1 ,inst4 of ,metals1 ,london1   
#aiab7 maintains that the early bronzes 
were the result of direct smelting of   
stanniferous copper ores1 and while this
 may be partially true for ,western     
,europe1 the distribution and nature of 
the copper deposits do not warrant this 
assumption for the earlier scenes of    
human activity--,asia ,minor1 ,egypt1   
and ,india4 ,further1 the lumps of rough
 tin and also of copper found by        
,borlase 7,tin ,mining in ,spain1 ,past 
and ,present1 ,london1 #ahig1 p4 #be7 in
 ,cornwall1 mixed with bronze celts     

under conditions certainly indicating   
the ,bronze ,age1 is in itself of       
considerable evidence of independent    
melting4 ,to our mind the vast majority 
of ancient bronzes must have been made  
from copper and tin mined and smelted   
independently4 ,as to the source of     
supply of ancient tin1 we are on clear  
ground only with the advent of the      
,phoenicians1 #aejj-ajjj ,b4,c41 who1 as
 is well known1 distributed to the      
ancient world a supply from ,spain and  
,britain4 ,what the source may have been
 prior to this time has been subject to 
much discussion1 and while some slender 
threads indicate the ,east1 we believe  
that a more local supply to ,egypt1     
etc41 is not impossible4 ,the discovery 
of large tin fields in ,central ,africa 
and the native-made tin ornaments in    
circulation among the negroes1 made     
possible the entrance of the metal into 
,egypt along the trade routes4 ,further1
 we see no reason why alluvial tin may  
not have existed within easy reach and  

have become exhausted4 ,how quickly such
 a source of metal supply can be        
forgotten and no evidence remain1 is    
indicated by the seldom remembered      
alluvial gold supply from ,ireland4     
,however1 be these conjectures as they  
may1 the ,east has long been the scene  
of tin production and of transportation 
activity4 ,among the slender evidences  
that point in this direction is that the
 ,sanskrit term for tin is kastira1 a   
term also employed by the ,chaldeans1   
and represented in ,arabic by kasdir1   
and it may have been the progenitor of  
the ,greek cassiteros4 ,there can be no 
doubt that the ,phoenicians also traded 
with ,malacca1 etc41 but beyond these   
threads there is little to prove the    
pre-western source4 ,the strained       
argument of ,beckmann 7,hist4 of        
,inventions1 vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #bjg7 that  
the cassiteros of ,homer and the bedil  
of the ,hebrews was possibly not tin1   
and that tin was unknown at this time1  
falls to the ground in the face of the  

vast amount of tin which must have been 
in circulation to account for the bronze
 used over a period #b1jjj years prior  
to those peoples4 ,tin is early         
mentioned in the ,scriptures 7,numbers  
,,xxxi1 #bb71 being enumerated among the
 spoil of the ,midianites 7#abjj        
,b4,c4871 also ,ezekiel 7#fjj ,b4,c41   
,,xxvii1 #ab7 speaks of tin from        
,tarshish 7the ,phoenician settlement on
 the coast of ,spain74 ,according to    
,homer tin played considerable part in  
,vulcan's metallurgical stores4 ,even   
approximately at what period the        
,phoenicians began their distribution   
from ,spain and ,britain cannot be      
determined4 ,they apparently established
 their settlements at ,gades 7,cadiz7 in
 ,tarshish1 beyond ,gibraltar1 about    
#aajj ,b4,c4 ,the remains of tin mining 
in the ,spanish peninsula prior to the  
,christian ,era indicate most extensive 
production by the ,phoenicians1 but     
there is little evidence as to either   
mining or smelting methods4 ,generally  

as to the technical methods of mining   
and smelting tin1 we are practically    
without any satisfactory statement down 
to ,agricola4 ,however1 such scraps of  
information as are available are those  
in ,homer 7see note on p4 #djb71        
,diodorus1 and ,pliny4  ,diodorus says  
7,v1 #b7 regarding tin in ,spain3 ,they 
dig it up1 and melt it down in the same 
way as they do gold and silver2 and     
again1 speaking of the tin in ,britain1 
he says3 ,these people make tin1 which  
they dig up with a great deal of care   
and labour2 being rocky1 the metal is   
mixed with earth1 out of which they melt
 the metal1 and then refine it4 ,pliny  
7,,xxxiv1 #dg71 in the well-known and   
much-disputed passage3 ,next to be      
considered are the characteristics of   
lead1 which is of two kinds1 black and  
white4 ,the most valuable is the white2 
the ,greeks called it cassiteros1 and   
there is a fabulous story of its being  
searched for and carried from the       
islands of ,atlantis in barks covered   

with hides4 ,certainly it is obtained in
 ,lusitania and ,gallaecia on the       
surface of the earth from black-coloured
 sand4 ,it is discovered by its great   
weight1 and it is mixed with small      
pebbles in the dried beds of torrents4  
,the miners wash these sands1 and that  
which settles they heat in the furnace4 
,it is also found in gold mines1 which  
are called alutiae4 ,a stream of water  
passing through detaches small black    
pebbles variegated with white spots1 the
 weight of which is the same as gold4   
,hence it is that they remain in the    
baskets of the gold collectors with the 
gold2 afterward1 they are separated in a
 camillum and when melted become white  
lead4  ,there is practically no         
reference to the methods of ,cornish    
tin-working over the whole period of    
#b1jjj years that mining operations were
 carried on there prior to the ,norman  
occupation4 ,from then until ,agricola's
 time1 a period of some four centuries1 
there are occasional references in      

,stannary ,court proceedings1 ,charters1
 and such-like official documents which 
give little metallurgical insight4 ,from
 a letter of ,william de ,wrotham1 ,lord
 ,warden of the ,stannaries1 in #aaih1  
setting out the regulations for the     
impost on tin1 it is evident that the   
black tin was smelted once at the mines 
and that a second smelting or refining  
was carried out in specified towns under
 the observation of the ,crown          
,officials4 ,in many other official     
documents there are repeated references 
to the right to dig turfs and cut wood  
for smelting the tin4 ,under note #h1 p4
 #bhb1 we give some further information 
on tin concentration1 and the relation  
of ,cornish and ,german tin miners4     
,biringuccio 7#aedj7 gives very little  
information on tin metallurgy1 and we   
are brought to ,de ,re ,metallica for   
the first clear exposition4  ,as to the 
description on these pages it must be   
remembered that the tin-stone has been  
already roasted1 thus removing some     

volatile impurities and oxidizing       
others1 as described on page #cdh4 ,the 
furnaces and the methods of working the 
tin1 here described1 are almost         
identical with those in use in ,saxony  
to-day4 ,in general1 since ,agricola's  
time tin has not seen the mechanical and
 metallurgical development of the other 
metals4 ,the comparatively small        
quantities to be dealt with2 the        
necessity of maintaining a strong       
reducing atmosphere1 and consequently a 
mild cold blast2 and the comparatively  
low temperature demanded1 gave little   
impetus to other than crude appliances  
until very modern times4  #ed ,aureo    
nummo4 ,german ,translation gives       
reinschen guelden1 which was the        
equivalent of about #a4ff1 or #f4i      
shillings4 ,the purchasing power of     
money was1 however1 several times as    
great as at present4  #ee ,in the       
following descriptions of iron-smelting1
 we have three processes described2 the 
first being the direct reduction of     

malleable iron from ore1 the second the 
transition stage then in progress from  
the direct to indirect method by way of 
cast-iron2 and the third a method of    
making steel by cementation4 ,the first 
method is that of primitive iron-workers
 of all times and all races1 and        
requires little comment4 ,a pasty mass  
was produced1 which was subsequently    
hammered to make it exude the slag1 the 
hammered mass being the ancient bloom4  
,the second process is of considerable  
interest1 for it marks one of the       
earliest descriptions of working iron in
 a furnace similar to a blast furnace1  
but much wider and higher4 ,this        
original ,german ,stueckofen or high    
bloomery furnace was used for making    
masses of wrought-iron under essentially
 the same conditions as its progenitor  
the forge--only upon a larger scale4    
,with high temperatures1 however1 such a
 furnace would1 if desired1 yield molten
 metal1 and thus the step to cast-iron  
as a preliminary to wrought-iron became 

very easy and natural1 in fact ,agricola
 mentions above that if the iron is left
 to settle in the furnace it becomes    
hard4 ,the making of malleable iron by  
subsequent treatment of the             
cast-iron--the indirect                 
method--originated in about ,agricola's 
time1 and marks the beginning of one of 
those subtle economic currents destined 
to have the widest bearing upon         
civilization4 ,it is to us uncertain    
whether he really understood the double 
treatment or not4 ,in the above         
paragraph he says from ore once or twice
 smelted they make iron1 etc41 and in   
,de ,natura ,fossilium 7p4 #cci7 some   
reference is made to pouring melted     
iron1 all of which would appear to be   
cast-iron4 ,he does not1 however1       
describe the #afth ,century method of   
converting cast into wrought iron by way
 of in effect roasting the pig iron to  
eliminate carbon by oxidation1 with     
subsequent melting into a ball or mass4 
,it must be borne in mind that puddling 

for this purpose did not come into use  
until the end of the #ahth ,century4 ,a 
great deal of discussion has arisen as  
to where and at what time cast-iron was 
made systematically1 but without        
satisfactory answer2 in any event1 it   
seems to have been in about the end of  
the #adth ,century1 as cast cannon began
 to appear about that time4 ,it is our  
impression that the whole of this       
discussion on iron in ,de ,re ,metallica
 is an abstract from ,biringuccio1 who  
wrote #ae years earlier1 as it is in so 
nearly identical terms4 ,those          
interested will find a translation of   
,biringuccio's statement with regard to 
steel in ,percy's ,metallurgy of ,iron  
and ,steel1 ,london1 #ahfd1 p4 #hjg4    
,,historical ,,note ,,on ,,iron         
,,smelting4 ,the archaeologists'        
division of the history of racial       
development into the ,stone1 ,bronze1   
and ,iron ,ages1 based upon objects     
found in tumuli1 burial places1 etc41   
would on the face of it indicate the    

prior discovery of copper metallurgy    
over iron1 and it is generally so       
maintained by those scientists4 ,the    
metallurgists have not hesitated to     
protest that while this distinction of  
,ages may serve the archaeologists1 and 
no doubt represents the sequence in     
which the metal objects are found1 yet  
it by no means follows that this was the
 order of their discovery or use1 but   
that iron by its rapidity of oxidation  
has simply not been preserved4 ,the     
arguments which may be advanced from our
 side are in the main these4 ,iron ore  
is of more frequent occurrence than     
copper ores1 and the necessary reduction
 of copper oxides 7as most surface ores 
must have been7 to fluid metal requires 
a temperature very much higher than does
 the reduction of iron oxides to        
wrought-iron blooms1 which do not       
necessitate fusion4 ,the comparatively  
greater simplicity of iron metallurgy   
under primitive conditions is well      
exemplified by the hill tribes of       

,northern ,nigeria1 where in village    
forges the negroes reduce iron          
sufficient for their needs1 from        
hematite4 ,copper alone would not be a  
very serviceable metal to primitive man1
 and he early made the advance to       
bronze2 this latter metal requires three
 metallurgical operations1 and presents 
immeasurably greater difficulties than  
iron4 ,it is1 as ,professor ,gowland has
 demonstrated 7,presidential ,address1  
,inst4 of ,metals1 ,london1 #aiab7 quite
 possible to make bronze from melting   
stanniferous copper ores1 yet such      
combined occurrence at the surface is   
rare1 and1 so far as known1 the copper  
sources from which ,asia ,minor and     
,egypt obtained their supply do not     
contain tin4 ,it seems to us1 therefore1
 that in most cases the separate fusions
 of different ores and their subsequent 
re-melting were required to make bronze4
 ,the arguments advanced by the         
archaeologists bear mostly upon the fact
 that1 had iron been known1 its         

superiority would have caused the       
primitive races to adopt it1 and we     
should not find such an abundance of    
bronze tools4 ,as to this1 it may be    
said that bronze weapons and tools are  
plentiful enough in ,egyptian1          
,mycenaean1 and early ,greek remains1   
long after iron was demonstrably well   
known4 ,there has been a good deal      
pronounced by etymologists on the       
history of iron and copper1 for         
instance1 by ,max ,mueller1 7,lectures  
on the ,science of ,language1 ,vol4     
,,ii1 p4 #bee1 ,london1 #ahfd71 and many
 others1 but the amazing lack of        
metallurgical knowledge nullifies       
practically all their conclusions4 ,the 
oldest ,egyptian texts extant1 dating   
#cejj ,b4,c41 refer to iron1 and there  
is in the ,british ,museum a piece of   
iron found in the ,pyramid of ,kephron  
7#cgjj ,b4,c47 under conditions         
indicating its co-incident origin4      
,there is exhibited also a fragment of  
oxidized iron lately found by ,professor

 ,petrie and placed as of the ,,vi      
,dynasty 7,b4,c4 #cbjj74 ,despite this  
evidence of an early knowledge of iron1 
there is almost a total absence of      
,egyptian iron objects for a long period
 subsequent to that time1 which in a    
measure confirms the view of its        
disappearance rather than that of       
ignorance of it4 ,many writers have     
assumed that the ,ancients must have had
 some superior art of hardening copper  
or bronze1 because the cutting of the   
gigantic stonework of the time could not
 have been done with that alloy as we   
know it2 no such hardening appears among
 the bronze tools found1 and it seems to
 us that the argument is stronger that  
the oldest ,egyptian stoneworkers       
employed mostly iron tools1 and that    
these have oxidized out of existence4   
,the reasons for preferring copper      
alloys to iron for decorative objects   
were equally strong in ancient times as 
in the present day1 and accounts        
sufficiently for these articles1 and1   

therefore1 iron would be devoted to more
 humble objects less likely to be       
preserved4 ,further1 the ,egyptians at a
 later date had some prejudices against 
iron for sacred purposes1 and the media 
of preservation of most metal objects   
were not open to iron4 ,we know         
practically nothing of very early       
,egyptian metallurgy1 but in the time of
 ,thotmes ,,iii4 7#aejj ,b4,c47 bellows 
were used upon the forge4  ,of literary 
evidences the earliest is in the ,shoo  
,king among the ,tribute of ,yue 7#bejj 
,b4,c4874 ,iron is frequently mentioned 
in the ,bible1 but it is doubtful if any
 of the early references apply to steel4
 ,there is scarcely a ,greek or ,latin  
author who does not mention iron in some
 connection1 and of the earliest1 none  
are so suggestive from a metallurgical  
point of view as ,homer1 by whom        
laboured mass 7wrought-iron87 is often  
referred to4 ,as1 for instance1 in the  
,odyssey 7,i41 #bcd7 ,pallas in the     
guise of ,mentes1 says according to     

,pope3      ,freighted with iron from my
 native land     ,i steer my voyage to  
the ,brutian strand1     ,to gain by    
commerce for the laboured mass     ,a   
just proportion of refulgent brass4     
7,brass is modern poetic licence for    
copper or bronze74 ,also1 in the        
,odyssey 7,,ix1 #dfe7 when ,homer       
describes how ,ulysses plunged the stake
 into ,cyclop's eye1 we have the first  
positive evidence of steel1 although    
hard iron mentioned in the ,tribute of  
,yue1 above referred to1 is sometimes   
given as steel3      ,and as when       
armourers temper in the ford     ,the   
keen-edg'd pole-axe1 or the shining     
sword1     ,the red-hot metal hisses in 
the lake4  ,no doubt early wrought-iron 
was made in the same manner as ,agricola
 describes4 ,we are1 however1 not so    
clear as to the methods of making steel4
 ,under primitive methods of making     
wrought-iron it is quite possible to    
carburize the iron sufficiently to make 
steel direct from ore4 ,the primitive   

method of ,india and ,japan was to      
enclose lumps of wrought-iron in sealed 
crucibles with charcoal and sawdust1 and
 heat them over a long period4 ,neither 
,pliny nor any of the other authors of  
the period previous to the ,christian   
,era give us much help on steel         
metallurgy1 although certain obscure    
expressions of ,aristotle have been     
called upon 7for instance1 ,st4 ,john   
,v4 ,day1 ,prehistoric ,use of ,iron and
 ,steel1 ,london1 #ahgg1 p4 #acd7 to    
prove its manufacture by immersing      
wrought-iron in molten cast-iron4  #ef  
,quae vel aerosa est1 vel cocta4 ,it is 
by no means certain that cocta1 cooked  
is rightly translated1 for the author   
has not hitherto used this expression   
for heated4 ,this may be residues from  
roasting and leaching pyrites for       
vitriol1 etc4  #eg ,agricola draws no   
sharp line of distinction between       
antimony the metal1 and its sulphide4   
,he uses the ,roman term stibi or       
stibium 7,interpretatio1--,spiesglas7   

throughout this book1 and evidently in  
most cases means the sulphide1 but in   
others1 particularly in parting gold and
 silver1 metallic antimony would be     
reduced out4 ,we have been in much doubt
 as to the term to introduce into the   
text1 as the ,english stibnite carries  
too much precision of meaning4          
,originally the antimony of trade was   
the sulphide4 ,later1 with the          
application of that term to the metal1  
the sulphide was termed grey antimony1  
and we have either used stibium for lack
 of better alternative1 or adopted grey 
antimony4 ,the method described by      
,agricola for treating antimony sulphide
 is still used in the ,harz1 in         
,bohemia1 and elsewhere4 ,the stibnite  
is liquated out at a low heat and drips 
from the upper to the lower pot4 ,the   
resulting purified antimony sulphide is 
the modern commercial crude antimony or 
grey antimony4  ,,historical ,,note ,,on
 ,,the ,,metallurgy ,,of ,,antimony4    
,the ,egyptologists have adopted the    

term antimony for certain cosmetics     
found in ,egyptian tombs from a very    
early period4 ,we have1 however1 failed 
to find any reliable analyses which     
warrant this assumption1 and we believe 
that it is based on the knowledge that  
antimony was used as a base for eye     
ointments in ,greek and ,roman times1   
and not upon proper chemical            
investigation4 ,it may be that the      
ideograph which is interpreted as       
antimony may really mean that substance1
 but we only protest that the chemist   
should have been called in long since4  
,in ,st4 ,jerome's translation of the   
,bible1 the cosmetic used by ,jezebel   
7,,ii4 ,kings ,,ix1 #cj7 and by the lady
 mentioned by ,ezekiel 7,,xxiii1 #dj71  
who didst wash thyself and paintedst    
thine eyes is specifically given as     
stibio4 ,our modern translation carries 
no hint of the composition of the       
cosmetic1 and whether some of the ,greek
 or ,hebrew ,,mss4 do furnish a basis   
for such translation we cannot say4 ,the

 ,hebrew term for this mineral was kohl1
 which subsequently passed into alcool  
and alkohol in other languages1 and     
appears in the ,spanish ,bible in the   
above passage in ,ezekiel as            
alcoholaste4 ,the term antimonium seems 
to have been first used in ,latin       
editions of ,geber published in the     
latter part of the #aeth ,century4 ,in  
any event1 the metal is clearly         
mentioned by ,dioscorides 7#ast         
,century71 who calls it stimmi1 and     
,pliny1 who termed it stibium1 and they 
leave no doubt that it was used as a    
cosmetic for painting the eyebrows and  
dilating the eyes4 ,dioscorides 7,v1    
#ei7 says3 ,the best stimmi is very     
brilliant and radiant4 ,when broken it  
divides into layers with no part earthy 
or dirty2 it is brittle4 ,some call it  
stimmi1 others platyophthalmon 7wide    
eyed72 others larbason1 others          
gynaekeion 7feminine74444 ,it is roasted
 in a ball of dough with charcoal until 
it becomes a cinder4444 ,it is also     

roasted by putting it on live charcoal  
and blowing it4 ,if it is roasted too   
much it becomes lead4 ,pliny states     
7,,xxxiii1 #cc and #cd73 ,in the same   
mines in which silver is found1 properly
 speaking there is a stone froth4 ,it is
 white and shining1 not transparent2 is 
called stimmi1 or stibi1 or alabastrum1 
and larbasis4 ,there are two kinds of   
it1 the male and the female4 ,the most  
approved is the female1 the male being  
more uneven1 rougher1 less heavy1 not so
 radiant1 and more gritty4 ,the female  
kind is bright and friable1 laminar and 
not globular4 ,it is astringent and     
refrigerative1 and its principal use is 
for the eyes4444 ,it is burned in manure
 in a furnace1 is quenched with milk1   
ground with rain water in a mortar1 and 
while thus turbid it is poured into a   
copper vessel and purified with nitrum  
444 above all in roasting it care should
 be taken that it does not turn to lead4
 ,there can be little doubt from        
,dioscorides' statement of its turning  

to lead that he had seen the metal      
antimony1 although he thought it a      
species of lead4 ,of further interest in
 connection with the ancient knowledge  
of the metal is the ,chaldean vase made 
of antimony described by ,berthelot     
7,comptes ,rendus1 #ahhg1 ,,civ1 #bfe74 
,it is possible that ,agricola knew the 
metal1 although he gives no details as  
to de-sulphurizing it or for recovering 
the metal itself4 ,in ,de ,natura       
,fossilium 7p4 #aha7 he makes a         
statement which would indicate the      
metal1 ,stibium when melted in the      
crucible and refined has as much right  
to be regarded as a metal as is accorded
 to lead by most writers4 ,if when      
smelted a certain portion be added to   
tin1 a printer's alloy is made from     
which type is cast that is used by those
 who print books4 ,basil ,valentine1 in 
his ,triumphal ,chariot of ,antimony1   
gives a great deal that is new with     
regard to this metal1 even if we can    
accredit the work with no earlier origin

 than its publication--about #afjj2 it  
seems possible however1 that it was     
written late in the #aeth ,century 7see 
,appendix ,b74 ,he describes the        
preparation of the metal from the crude 
ore1 both by roasting and reduction from
 the oxide with argol and saltpetre1 and
 also by fusing with metallic iron4     
,while the first description of these   
methods is usually attributed to        
,valentine1 it may be pointed out that  
in the ,probierbuechlein 7#aejj7 as well
 as in ,agricola the separation of      
silver from iron by antimony sulphide   
implies the same reaction1 and the      
separation of silver and gold with      
antimony sulphide1 often attributed to  
,valentine1 is repeatedly set out in the
 ,probierbuechlein and in ,de ,re       
,metallica4 ,biringuccio 7#aedj7 has    
nothing of importance to say as to the  
treatment of antimonial ores1 but       
mentions it as an alloy for bell-metal1 
which would imply the metal4  #eh       
,,historical ,,note ,,on ,,the          

,,metallurgy ,,of ,,quicksilver4 ,the   
earliest mention of quicksilver appears 
to have been by ,aristotle              
7,meteorologica ,,iv1 #h1 #aa71 who     
speaks of it as fluid silver 7argyros   
chytos74 ,theophrastus 7#aje7 states3   
,such is the production of quicksilver1 
which has its uses4 ,this is obtained   
from cinnabar rubbed with vinegar in a  
brass mortar with a brass pestle4       
7,hill's ,trans41 p4 #aci74             
,theophrastus also 7#ajc7 mentions      
cinnabar from ,spain and elsewhere4     
,dioscorides 7,v1 #gj7 appears to be the
 first to describe the recovery of      
quicksilver by distillation3            
,quicksilver 7hydrargyros1 i4e41 liquid 
silver7 is made from ammion1 which is   
called cinnabari4 ,an iron bowl         
containing cinnabari is put into an     
earthen vessel and covered over with a  
cup-shaped lid smeared with clay4 ,then 
it is set on a fire of coals and the    
soot which sticks to the cover when     
wiped off and cooled is quicksilver4    

,quicksilver is also found in drops     
falling from the walls of the silver    
mines4 ,some say there are quicksilver  
mines4 ,it can be kept only in vessels  
of glass1 lead1 tin 7871 or silver1 for 
if put in vessels of any other          
substances it consumes them and flows   
through4 ,pliny 7,,xxxiii1 #da73 ,there 
has been discovered a way of extracting 
hydrargyros from the inferior minium as 
a substitute for quicksilver1 as        
mentioned4 ,there are two methods3      
either by pounding minium and vinegar in
 a brass mortar with a brass pestle1 or 
else by putting minium into a flat      
earthen dish covered with a lid1 well   
luted with potter's clay4 ,this is set  
in an iron pan and a fire is then       
lighted under the pan1 and continually  
blown by a bellows4 ,the perspiration   
collects on the lid and is wiped off and
 is like silver in colour and as liquid 
as water4 ,pliny is somewhat confused   
over the minium--or the text is corrupt1
 for this should be the genuine minium  

of ,roman times4 ,the methods of        
condensation on the leaves of branches  
placed in a chamber1 of condensing in   
ashes placed over the mouth of the lower
 pot1 and of distilling in a retort1 are
 referred to by ,biringuccio 7,a4,d4    
#aedj71 but with no detail4  #ei ,most  
of these methods depend upon simple     
liquation of native bismuth4 ,the       
sulphides1 oxides1 etc41 could not be   
obtained without fusing in a furnace    
with appropriate de-sulphurizing or     
reducing agents1 to which ,agricola     
dimly refers4 ,in ,bermannus 7p4 #dci71 
he says3 ,bermannus4--,i will show you  
another kind of mineral which is        
numbered amongst metals1 but appears to 
me to have been unknown to the          
,ancients2 we call it bisemutum4        
,naevius4--,then in your opinion there  
are more kinds of metals than the seven 
commonly believed8 ,bermannus4--,more1  
,i consider2 for this which just now ,i 
said we called bisemutum1 cannot        
correctly be called plumbum candidum    

7tin7 nor nigrum 7lead71 but is         
different from both1 and is a third one4
 ,plumbum candidum is whiter and plumbum
 nigrum is darker1 as you see4          
,naevius4--,we see that this is of the  
colour of galena4 ,ancon4--,how then can
 bisemutum1 as you call it1 be          
distinguished from galena8              
,bermannus4--,easily2 when you take it  
in your hands it stains them with black 
unless it is quite hard4 ,the hard kind 
is not friable like galena1 but can be  
cut4 ,it is blacker than the kind of    
crude silver which we say is almost the 
colour of lead1 and thus is different   
from both4 ,indeed1 it not rarely       
contains some silver4 ,it generally     
shows that there is silver beneath the  
place where it is found1 and because of 
this our miners are accustomed to call  
it the 'roof of silver4' ,they are wont 
to roast this mineral1 and from the     
better part they make metal2 from the   
poorer part they make a pigment of a    
kind not to be despised4 ,this pigment  

was cobalt blue 7see note on p4 #aab71  
indicating a considerable confusion of  
these minerals4 ,this quotation is the  
first description of bismuth1 and the   
above text the first description of     
bismuth treatment4 ,there is1 however1  
bare mention of the mineral earlier1 in 
the following single line from the      
,probierbuechlein 7p4 #a73 ,jupiter     
7controls7 the ores of tin and wismundt4
 ,and it is noted in the ,nuetzliche    
,bergbuechlein in association with      
silver 7see ,appendix ,b74  #fj ,this   
cadmia is given in the ,german          
translation as kobelt4 ,it is probably  
the cobalt-arsenic-bismuth minerals     
common in ,saxony4 ,a large portion of  
the world's supply of bismuth to-day    
comes from the cobalt treatment works   
near ,schneeberg4 ,for further          
discussion of cadmia see note on p4     
#aab4     ,,book ,x4   ,questions as to 
the methods of smelting ores and of     
obtaining metals ,i discussed in ,book  
,,ix4 ,following this1 ,i should explain

 in what manner the precious metals are 
parted from the base metals1 or on the  
other hand the base metals from the     
precious#a4 ,frequently two metals1     
occasionally more than two1 are melted  
out of one ore1 because in nature       
generally there is some amount of gold  
in silver and in copper1 and some silver
 in gold1 copper1 lead1 and iron2       
likewise some copper in gold1 silver1   
lead1 and iron1 and some lead in silver2
 and lastly1 some iron in copper#b4 ,but
 ,i will begin with gold4  ,gold is     
parted from silver1 or likewise the     
latter from the former1 whether it be   
mixed by nature or by art1 by means of  
aqua valens#c1 and by powders which     
consist of almost the same things as    
this aqua4 ,in order to preserve the    
sequence1 ,i will first speak of the    
ingredients of which this aqua is made1 
then of the method of making it1 then of
 the manner in which gold is parted from
 silver or silver from gold4 ,almost all
 these ingredients contain vitriol or   

alum1 which1 by themselves1 but much    
more when joined with saltpetre1 are    
powerful to part silver from gold4 ,as  
to the other things that are added to   
them1 they cannot individually by their 
own strength and nature separate those  
metals1 but joined they are very        
powerful4 ,since there are many         
combinations1 ,i will set out a few4 ,in
 the first1 the use of which is common  
and general1 there is one libra of      
vitriol and as much salt1 added to a    
third of a libra of spring water4 ,the  
second contains two librae of vitriol1  
one of saltpetre1 and as much spring or 
river water by weight as will pass away 
whilst the vitriol is being reduced to  
powder by the fire4 ,the third consists 
of four librae of vitriol1 two and a    
half librae of saltpetre1 half a libra  
of alum1 and one and a half librae of   
spring water4 ,the fourth consists of   
two librae of vitriol1 as many librae of
 saltpetre1 one quarter of a libra of   
alum1 and three-quarters of a libra of  

spring water4 ,the fifth is composed of 
one libra of saltpetre1 three librae of 
alum1 half a libra of brick dust1 and   
three-quarters of a libra of spring     
water4 ,the sixth consists of four      
librae of vitriol1 three librae of      
saltpetre1 one of alum1 one libra       
likewise of stones which when thrown    
into a fierce furnace are easily        
liquefied by fire of the third order1   
and one and a half librae of spring     
water4 ,the seventh is made of two      
librae of vitriol1 one and a half librae
 of saltpetre1 half a libra of alum1 and
 one libra of stones which when thrown  
into a glowing furnace are easily       
liquefied by fire of the third order1   
and five-sixths of a libra of spring    
water4 ,the eighth is made of two librae
 of vitriol1 the same number of librae  
of saltpetre1 one and a half librae of  
alum1 one libra of the lees of the aqua 
which parts gold from silver2 and to    
each separate libra a sixth of urine is 
poured over it4 ,the ninth contains two 

librae of powder of baked bricks1 one   
libra of vitriol1 likewise one libra of 
saltpetre1 a handful of salt1 and       
three-quarters of a libra of spring     
water4 ,only the tenth lacks vitriol and
 alum1 but it contains three librae of  
saltpetre1 two librae of stones which   
when thrown into a hot furnace are      
easily liquefied by fire of the third   
order1 half a libra each of verdigris#d1
 of stibium1 of iron scales and filings1
 and of asbestos#e1 and one and         
one-sixth librae of spring water4  ,all 
the vitriol from which the aqua is      
usually made is first reduced to powder 
in the following way4 ,it is thrown into
 an earthen crucible lined on the inside
 with litharge1 and heated until it     
melts2 then it is stirred with a copper 
wire1 and after it has cooled it is     
pounded to powder4 ,in the same manner  
saltpetre melted by the fire is pounded 
to powder when it has cooled4 ,some     
indeed place alum upon an iron plate1   
roast it1 and make it into powder4      

,although all these aquae cleanse gold  
concentrates or dust from impurities1   
yet there are certain compositions which
 possess singular power4 ,the first of  
these consists of one libra of verdigris
 and three-quarters of a libra of       
vitriol4 ,for each libra there is poured
 over it one-sixth of a libra of spring 
or river water1 as to which1 since this 
pertains to all these compounds1 it is  
sufficient to have mentioned once for   
all4 ,the second composition is made    
from one libra of each of the following1
 artificial orpiment1 vitriol1 lime1    
alum1 ash which the dyers of wool use1  
one quarter of a libra of verdigris1 and
 one and a half unciae of stibium4 ,the 
third consists of three librae of       
vitriol1 one of saltpetre1 half a libra 
of asbestos1 and half a libra of baked  
bricks4 ,the fourth consists of one     
libra of saltpetre1 one libra of alum1  
and half a libra of sal-ammoniac4#f     
,illustration #ddb 7,nitric ,acid       
,making73 ,a--,furnace4 ,b--,its round  

hole4 ,c--,air-holes4 ,d--,mouth of the 
furnace4 ,e--,draught opening under it4 
,f--,earthenware crucible4 ,g--,ampulla4
 ,h--,operculum4 ,i--,its spout4        
,k--,other ampulla4 ,l--,basket in which
 this is usually placed lest it be      
broken4  ,the furnace in which aqua     
valens is made#g is built of bricks1    
rectangular1 two feet long and wide1 and
 as many feet high and a half besides4  
,it is covered with iron plates         
supported with iron rods2 these plates  
are smeared on the top with lute1 and   
they have in the centre a round hole1   
large enough to hold the earthen vessel 
in which the glass ampulla is placed1   
and on each side of the centre hole are 
two small round air-holes4 ,the lower   
part of the furnace1 in order to hold   
the burning charcoal1 has iron plates at
 the height of a palm1 likewise         
supported by iron rods4 ,in the middle  
of the front there is the mouth1 made   
for the purpose of putting the fire into
 the furnace2 this mouth is half a foot 

high and wide1 and rounded at the top1  
and under it is the draught opening4    
,into the earthen vessel set over the   
hole is placed clean sand a digit deep1 
and in it the glass ampulla is set as   
deeply as it is smeared with lute4 ,the 
lower quarter is smeared eight or ten   
times with nearly liquid lute1 each time
 to the thickness of a blade1 and each  
time it is dried again1 until it has    
become as thick as the thumb2 this kind 
of lute is well beaten with an iron rod1
 and is thoroughly mixed with hair or   
cotton thread1 or with wool and salt1   
that it should not crackle4 ,the many   
things of which the compounds are made  
must not fill the ampulla completely1   
lest when boiling they rise into the    
operculum4 ,the operculum is likewise   
made of glass1 and is closely joined to 
the ampulla with linen1 cemented with   
wheat flour and white of egg moistened  
with water1 and then lute free from salt
 is spread over that part of it4 ,in a  
similar way the spout of the operculum  

is joined by linen covered with lute to 
another glass ampulla which receives the
 distilled aqua4 ,a kind of thin iron   
nail or small wooden peg1 a little      
thicker than a needle1 is fixed in this 
joint1 in order that when air seems     
necessary to the artificer distilling by
 this process he can pull it out2 this  
is necessary when too much of the vapour
 has been driven into the upper part4   
,the four air-holes which1 as ,i have   
said1 are on the top of the furnace     
beside the large hole on which the      
ampulla is placed1 are likewise covered 
with lute4  ,all this preparation having
 been accomplished in order1 and the    
ingredients placed in the ampulla1 they 
are gradually heated over burning       
charcoal until they begin to exhale     
vapour and the ampulla is seen to       
trickle with moisture4 ,but when this1  
on account of the rising of the vapour1 
turns red1 and the aqua distils through 
the spout of the operculum1 then one    
must work with the utmost care1 lest the

 drops should fall at a quicker rate    
than one for every five movements of the
 clock or the striking of its bell1 and 
not slower than one for every ten2 for  
if it falls faster the glasses will be  
broken1 and if it drops more slowly the 
work begun cannot be completed within   
the definite time1 that is within the   
space of twenty-four hours4 ,to prevent 
the first accident1 part of the coals   
are extracted by means of an iron       
implement similar to pincers2 and in    
order to prevent the second happening1  
small dry pieces of oak are placed upon 
the coals1 and the substances in the    
ampulla are heated with a sharper fire1 
and the air-holes on the furnace are    
re-opened if need arise4 ,as soon as the
 drops are being distilled1 the glass   
ampulla which receives them is covered  
with a piece of linen moistened with    
water1 in order that the powerful vapour
 which arises may be repelled4 ,when the
 ingredients have been heated and the   
ampulla in which they were placed is    

whitened with moisture1 it is heated by 
a fiercer fire until all the drops have 
been distilled#h4 ,after the furnace has
 cooled1 the aqua is filtered and poured
 into a small glass ampulla1 and into   
the same is put half a drachma of       
silver#i1 which when dissolved makes the
 turbid aqua clear4 ,this is poured into
 the ampulla containing all the rest of 
the aqua1 and as soon as the lees have  
sunk to the bottom the aqua is poured   
off1 removed1 and reserved for use4     
,gold is parted from silver by the      
following method#aj4 ,the alloy1 with   
lead added to it1 is first heated in a  
cupel until all the lead is exhaled1 and
 eight ounces of the alloy contain only 
five drachmae of copper or at most six1 
for if there is more copper in it1 the  
silver separated from the gold soon     
unites with it again4 ,such molten      
silver containing gold is formed into   
granules1 being stirred by means of a   
rod split at the lower end1 or else is  
poured into an iron mould1 and when     

cooled is made into thin leaves4 ,as the
 process of making granules from        
argentiferous gold demands greater care 
and diligence than making them from any 
other metals1 ,i will now explain the   
method briefly4 ,the alloy is first     
placed in a crucible1 which is then     
covered with a lid and placed in another
 earthen crucible containing a few      
ashes4 ,then they are placed in the     
furnace1 and after they are surrounded  
by charcoal1 the fire is blown by the   
blast of a bellows1 and lest the        
charcoal fall away it is surrounded by  
stones or bricks4 ,soon afterward       
charcoal is thrown over the upper       
crucible and covered with live coals2   
these again are covered with charcoal1  
so that the crucible is surrounded and  
covered on all sides with it4 ,it is    
necessary to heat the crucibles with    
charcoal for the space of half an hour  
or a little longer1 and to provide that 
there is no deficiency of charcoal1 lest
 the alloy become chilled2 after this   

the air is blown in through the nozzle  
of the bellows1 that the gold may begin 
to melt4 ,soon afterward it is turned   
round1 and a test is quickly taken to   
see whether it be melted1 and if it is  
melted1 fluxes are thrown into it2 it is
 advisable to cover up the crucible     
again closely that the contents may not 
be exhaled4 ,the contents are heated    
together for as long as it would take to
 walk fifteen paces1 and then the       
crucible is seized with tongs and the   
gold is emptied into an oblong vessel   
containing very cold water1 by pouring  
it slowly from a height so that the     
granules will not be too big2 in        
proportion as they are lighter1 more    
fine and more irregular1 the better they
 are1 therefore the water is frequently 
stirred with a rod split into four parts
 from the lower end to the middle4  ,the
 leaves are cut into small pieces1 and  
they or the silver granules are put into
 a glass ampulla1 and the aqua is poured
 over them to a height of a digit above 

the silver4 ,the ampulla is covered with
 a bladder or with waxed linen1 lest the
 contents exhale4 ,then it is heated    
until the silver is dissolved1 the      
indication of which is the bubbling of  
the aqua4 ,the gold remains in the      
bottom1 of a blackish colour1 and the   
silver mixed with the aqua floats above4
 ,some pour the latter into a copper    
bowl and pour into it cold water1 which 
immediately congeals the silver2 this   
they take out and dry1 having poured off
 the aqua#aa4 ,they heat the dried      
silver in an earthenware crucible until 
it melts1 and when it is melted they    
pour it into an iron mould4  ,the gold  
which remains in the ampulla they wash  
with warm water1 filter1 dry1 and heat  
in a crucible with a little chrysocolla 
which is called borax1 and when it is   
melted they likewise pour it into an    
iron mould4  ,some workers1 into an     
ampulla which contains gold and silver  
and the aqua which separates them1 pour 
two or three times as much of this aqua 

valens warmed1 and into the same ampulla
 or into a dish into which all is       
poured1 throw fine leaves of black lead 
and copper2 by this means the gold      
adheres to the lead and the silver to   
the copper1 and separately the lead from
 the gold1 and separately the copper    
from the silver1 are parted in a cupel4 
,but no method is approved by us which  
loses the aqua used to part gold from   
silver1 for it might be used again#ab4  
,illustration #ddf 7,parting precious   
metals with nitric acid73 ,a--,ampullae 
arranged in the vessels4 ,b--,an ampulla
 standing upright between iron rods4    
,c--,ampullae placed in the sand which  
is contained in a box1 the spouts of    
which reach from the opercula into      
ampullae placed under them4             
,d--,ampullae likewise placed in sand   
which is contained in a box1 of which   
the spouts from the opercula extend     
crosswise into ampullae placed under    
them4 ,e--,other ampullae receiving the 
distilled aqua and likewise arranged in 

sand contained in the lower boxes4      
,f--,iron tripod1 in which the ampulla  
is usually placed when there are not    
many particles of gold to be parted from
 the silver4 ,g--,vessel4  ,a glass     
ampulla1 which bulges up inside at the  
bottom like a cone1 is covered on the   
lower part of the outside with lute in  
the way explained above1 and into it is 
put silver bullion weighing three and a 
half ,roman librae4 ,the aqua which     
parts the one from the other is poured  
into it1 and the ampulla is placed in   
sand contained in an earthen vessel1 or 
in a box1 that it may be warmed with a  
gentle fire4 ,lest the aqua should be   
exhaled1 the top of the ampulla is      
plastered on all sides with lute1 and it
 is covered with a glass operculum1     
under whose spout is placed another     
ampulla which receives the distilled    
drops2 this receiver is likewise        
arranged in a box containing sand4 ,when
 the contents are heated it reddens1 but
 when the redness no longer appears to  

increase1 it is taken out of the vessel 
or box and shaken2 by this motion the   
aqua becomes heated again and grows red2
 if this is done two or three times     
before other aqua is added to it1 the   
operation is sooner concluded1 and much 
less aqua is consumed4 ,when the first  
charge has all been distilled1 as much  
silver as at first is again put into the
 ampulla1 for if too much were put in at
 once1 the gold would be parted from it 
with difficulty4 ,then the second aqua  
is poured in1 but it is warmed in order 
that it and the ampulla may be of equal 
temperature1 so that the latter may not 
be cracked by the cold2 also if a cold  
wind blows on it1 it is apt to crack4   
,then the third aqua is poured in1 and  
also if circumstances require it1 the   
fourth1 that is to say more aqua and    
again more is poured in until the gold  
assumes the colour of burned brick4 ,the
 artificer keeps in hand two aquae1 one 
of which is stronger than the other2 the
 stronger is used at first1 then the    

less strong1 then at the last again the 
stronger4 ,when the gold becomes of a   
reddish yellow colour1 spring water is  
poured in and heated until it boils4    
,the gold is washed four times and then 
heated in the crucible until it melts4  
,the water with which it was washed is  
put back1 for there is a little silver  
in it2 for this reason it is poured into
 an ampulla and heated1 and the drops   
first distilled are received by one     
ampulla1 while those which come later1  
that is to say when the operculum begins
 to get red1 fall into another4 ,this   
latter aqua is useful for testing the   
gold1 the former for washing it2 the    
former may also be poured over the      
ingredients from which the aqua valens  
is made4  ,the aqua that was first      
distilled1 which contains the silver1 is
 poured into an ampulla wide at the     
base1 the top of which is also smeared  
with lute and covered by an operculum1  
and is then boiled as before in order   
that it may be separated from the       

silver4 ,if there be so much aqua that  
7when boiled7 it rises into the         
operculum1 there is put into the ampulla
 one lozenge or two2 these are made of  
soap1 cut into small pieces and mixed   
together with powdered argol1 and then  
heated in a pot over a gentle fire2 or  
else the contents are stirred with a    
hazel twig split at the bottom1 and in  
both cases the aqua effervesces1 and    
soon after again settles4 ,when the     
powerful vapour appears1 the aqua gives 
off a kind of oil1 and the operculum    
becomes red4 ,but1 lest the vapours     
should escape from the ampulla and the  
operculum in that part where their      
mouths communicate1 they are entirely   
sealed all round4 ,the aqua is boiled   
continually over a fiercer fire1 and    
enough charcoal must be put into the    
furnace so that the live coals touch the
 vessel4 ,the ampulla is taken out as   
soon as all the aqua has been distilled1
 and the silver1 which is dried by the  
heat of the fire1 alone remains in it2  

the silver is shaken out and put in an  
earthenware crucible1 and heated until  
it melts4 ,the molten glass is extracted
 with an iron rod curved at the lower   
end1 and the silver is made into cakes4 
,the glass extracted from the crucible  
is ground to powder1 and to this are    
added litharge1 argol1 glass-galls1 and 
saltpetre1 and they are melted in an    
earthen crucible4 ,the button that      
settles is transferred to the cupel and 
re-melted4  ,if the silver was not      
sufficiently dried by the heat of the   
fire1 that which is contained in the    
upper part of the ampulla will appear   
black2 this when melted will be         
consumed4 ,when the lute1 which was     
smeared round the lower part of the     
ampulla1 has been removed1 it is placed 
in the crucible and is re-melted1 until 
at last there is no more appearance of  
black#ac4  ,if to the first aqua the    
other which contains silver is to be    
added1 it must be poured in before the  
powerful vapours appear1 and the aqua   

gives off the oily substance1 and the   
operculum becomes red2 for he who pours 
in the aqua after the vapour appears    
causes a loss1 because the aqua         
generally spurts out and the glass      
breaks4 ,if the ampulla breaks when the 
gold is being parted from the silver or 
the silver from the aqua1 the aqua will 
be absorbed by the sand or the lute or  
the bricks1 whereupon1 without any      
delay1 the red hot coals should be taken
 out of the furnace and the fire        
extinguished4 ,the sand and bricks after
 being crushed should be thrown into a  
copper vessel1 warm water should be     
poured over them1 and they should be put
 aside for the space of twelve hours2   
afterward the water should be strained  
through a canvas1 and the canvas1 since 
it contains silver1 should be dried by  
the heat of the sun or the fire1 and    
then placed in an earthen crucible and  
heated until the silver melts1 this     
being poured out into an iron mould4    
,the strained water should be poured    

into an ampulla and separated from the  
silver1 of which it contains a minute   
portion2 the sand should be mixed with  
litharge1 glass-galls1 argol1 saltpetre1
 and salt1 and heated in an earthen     
crucible4 ,the button which settles at  
the bottom should be transferred to a   
cupel1 and should be re-melted1 in order
 that the lead may be separated from the
 silver4 ,the lute1 with lead added1    
should be heated in an earthen crucible1
 then re-melted in a cupel4  ,we also   
separate silver from gold by the same   
method when we assay them4 ,for this    
purpose the alloy is first rubbed       
against a touchstone1 in order to learn 
what proportion of silver there is in   
it2 then as much silver as is necessary 
is added to the argentiferous gold1 in a
 bes of which there must be less than a 
semi-uncia or a semi-uncia and a        
sicilicus#ad of copper4 ,after lead has 
been added1 it is melted in a cupel     
until the lead and the copper have      
exhaled1 then the alloy of gold with    

silver is flattened out1 and little     
tubes are made of the leaves2 these are 
put into a glass ampulla1 and strong    
aqua is poured over them two or three   
times4 ,the tubes after this are        
absolutely pure1 with the exception of  
only a quarter of a siliqua1 which is   
silver2 for only this much silver       
remains in eight unciae of gold#ae4  ,as
 great expense is incurred in parting   
the metals by the methods that ,i have  
explained1 as night vigils are necessary
 when aqua valens is made1 and as       
generally much labour and great pains   
have to be expended on this matter1     
other methods for parting have been     
invented by clever men1 which are less  
costly1 less laborious1 and in which    
there is less loss if through           
carelessness an error is made4 ,there   
are three methods1 the first performed  
with sulphur1 the second with antimony1 
the third by means of some compound     
which consists of these or other        
ingredients4  ,illustration #ddi        

7,parting precious metals with sulphur73
 ,a--,pot4 ,b--,circular fire4          
,c--,crucibles4 ,d--,their lids4        
,e--,lid of the pot4 ,f--,furnace4      
,g--,iron rod4  ,in the first method1#af
 the silver containing some gold is     
melted in a crucible and made into      
granules4 ,for every libra of granules1 
there is taken a sixth of a libra and a 
sicilicus of sulphur 7not exposed to the
 fire72 this1 when crushed1 is sprinkled
 over the moistened granules1 and then  
they are put into a new earthen pot of  
the capacity of four sextarii1 or into  
several of them if there is an abundance
 of granules4 ,the pot1 having been     
filled1 is covered with an earthen lid  
and smeared over1 and placed within a   
circle of fire set one and a half feet  
distant from the pot on all sides1 in   
order that the sulphur added to the     
silver should not be distilled when     
melted4 ,the pot is opened1 the         
black-coloured granules are taken out1  
and afterward thirty-three librae of    

these granules are placed in an earthen 
crucible1 if it has such capacity4 ,for 
every libra of silver granules1 weighed 
before they were sprinkled with sulphur1
 there is weighed out also a sixth of a 
libra and a sicilicus of copper1 if each
 libra consists either of three-quarters
 of a libra of silver and a quarter of a
 libra of copper1 or of three-quarters  
of a libra and a semi-uncia of silver   
and a sixth of a libra and a semi-uncia 
of copper4 ,if1 however1 the silver     
contains five-sixths of a libra of      
silver and a sixth of a libra of copper1
 or five-sixths of a libra and a        
semi-uncia of silver and an uncia and a 
half of copper1 then there are weighed  
out a quarter of a libra of copper      
granules4 ,if a libra contains          
eleven-twelfths of a libra of silver and
 one uncia of copper1 or eleven-twelfths
 and a semi-uncia of silver and a       
semi-uncia of copper1 then are weighed  
out a quarter of a libra and a          
semi-uncia and a sicilicus of copper    

granules4 ,lastly1 if there is only pure
 silver1 then as much as a third of a   
libra and a semi-uncia of copper        
granules are added4 ,half of these      
copper granules are added soon afterward
 to the black-coloured silver granules4 
,the crucible should be tightly covered 
and smeared over with lute1 and placed  
in a furnace1 into which the air is     
drawn through the draught-holes4 ,as    
soon as the silver is melted1 the       
crucible is opened1 and there is placed 
in it a heaped ladleful more of         
granulated copper1 and also a heaped    
ladleful of a powder which consists of  
equal parts of litharge1 of granulated  
lead1 of salt1 and of glass-galls2 then 
the crucible is again covered with the  
lid4 ,when the copper granules are      
melted1 more are put in1 together with  
the powder1 until all have been put in4 
,a little of the regulus is taken from  
the crucible1 but not from the gold lump
 which has settled at the bottom1 and a 
drachma of it is put into each of the   

cupels1 which contain an uncia of molten
 lead2 there should be many of these    
cupels4 ,in this way half a drachma of  
silver is made4 ,as soon as the lead and
 copper have been separated from the    
silver1 a third of it is thrown into a  
glass ampulla1 and aqua valens is poured
 over it4 ,by this method is shown      
whether the sulphur has parted all the  
gold from the silver1 or not4 ,if one   
wishes to know the size of the gold lump
 which has settled at the bottom of the 
crucible1 an iron rod moistened with    
water is covered with chalk1 and when   
the rod is dry it is pushed down        
straight into the crucible1 and the rod 
remains bright to the height of the gold
 lump2 the remaining part of the rod is 
coloured black by the regulus1 which    
adheres to the rod if it is not quickly 
removed4  ,if when the rod has been     
extracted the gold is observed to be    
satisfactorily parted from the silver1  
the regulus is poured out1 the gold     
button is taken out of the crucible1 and

 in some clean place the regulus is     
chipped off from it1 although it usually
 flies apart4 ,the lump itself is       
reduced to granules1 and for every libra
 of this gold they weigh out a quarter  
of a libra each of crushed sulphur and  
of granular copper1 and all are placed  
together in an earthen crucible1 not    
into a pot4 ,when they are melted1 in   
order that the gold may more quickly    
settle at the bottom1 the powder which  
,i have mentioned is added4  ,although  
minute particles of gold appear to      
scintillate in the regulus of copper and
 silver1 yet if all that are in a libra 
do not weigh as much as a single        
sesterce1 then the sulphur has          
satisfactorily parted the gold from the 
silver2 but if it should weigh a        
sesterce or more1 then the regulus is   
thrown back again into the earthen      
crucible1 and it is not advantageous to 
add sulphur1 but only a little copper   
and powder1 by which method a gold lump 
is again made to settle at the bottom2  

and this one is added to the other      
button which is not rich in gold4  ,when
 gold is parted from sixty-six librae of
 silver1 the silver1 copper1 and sulphur
 regulus weighs one hundred and         
thirty-two librae4 ,to separate the     
copper from the silver we require five  
hundred librae of lead1 more or less1   
with which the regulus is melted in the 
second furnace4 ,in this manner litharge
 and hearth-lead are made1 which are    
re-smelted in the first furnace4 ,the   
cakes that are made from these are      
placed in the third furnace1 so that the
 lead may be separated from the copper  
and used again1 for it contains very    
little silver4 ,the crucibles and their 
covers are crushed1 washed1 and the     
sediment is melted together with        
litharge and hearth-lead4  ,those who   
wish to separate all the silver from the
 gold by this method leave one part of  
gold to three of silver1 and then reduce
 the alloy to granules4 ,then they place
 it in an ampulla1 and by pouring aqua  

valens over it1 part the gold from the  
silver1 which process ,i explained in   
,book ,,vii4  ,if sulphur from the lye  
with which sal artificiosus is made1 is 
strong enough to float an egg thrown    
into it1 and is boiled until it no      
longer emits fumes1 and melts when      
placed upon glowing coals1 then1 if such
 sulphur is thrown into the melted      
silver1 it parts the gold from it4      
,illustration #dec 7,parting precious   
metals with antimony73 ,a--,furnace in  
which the air is drawn in through holes4
 ,b--,goldsmith's forge4 ,c--,earthen   
crucibles4 ,d--,iron pots4 ,e--,block4  
,silver is also parted from gold by     
means of stibium#ag4 ,if in a bes of    
gold there are seven1 or six1 or five   
double sextulae of silver1 then three   
parts of stibium are added to one part  
of gold2 but in order that the stibium  
should not consume the gold1 it is      
melted with copper in a red hot earthen 
crucible4 ,if the gold contains some    
portion of copper1 then to eight unciae 

of stibium a sicilicus of copper is     
added2 and if it contains no copper1    
then half an uncia1 because copper must 
be added to stibium in order to part    
gold from silver4 ,the gold is first    
placed in a red hot earthen crucible1   
and when melted it swells1 and a little 
stibium is added to it lest it run over2
 in a short space of time1 when this has
 melted1 it likewise again swells1 and  
when this occurs it is advisable to put 
in all the remainder of the stibium1 and
 to cover the crucible with a lid1 and  
then to heat the mixture for the time   
required to walk thirty-five paces4     
,then it is at once poured out into an  
iron pot1 wide at the top and narrow at 
the bottom1 which was first heated and  
smeared over with tallow or wax1 and set
 on an iron or wooden block4 ,it is     
shaken violently1 and by this agitation 
the gold lump settles to the bottom1 and
 when the pot has cooled it is tapped   
loose1 and is again melted four times in
 the same way4 ,but each time a less    

weight of stibium is added to the gold1 
until finally only twice as much stibium
 is added as there is gold1 or a little 
more2 then the gold lump is melted in a 
cupel4 ,the stibium is melted again     
three or four times in an earthen       
crucible1 and each time a gold lump     
settles1 so that there are three or four
 gold lumps1 and these are all melted   
together in a cupel4  ,to two librae and
 a half of such stibium are added two   
librae of argol and one libra of        
glass-galls1 and they are melted in an  
earthen crucible1 where a lump likewise 
settles at the bottom2 this lump is     
melted in the cupel4 ,finally1 the      
stibium with a little lead added1 is    
melted in the cupel1 in which1 after all
 the rest has been consumed by the fire1
 the silver alone remains4 ,if the      
stibium is not first melted in an       
earthen crucible with argol and         
glass-galls1 before it is melted in the 
cupel1 part of the silver is consumed1  
and is absorbed by the ash and powder of

 which the cupel is made4  ,the crucible
 in which the gold and silver alloy are 
melted with stibium1 and also the cupel1
 are placed in a furnace1 which is      
usually of the kind in which the air is 
drawn in through holes2 or else they are
 placed in a goldsmith's forge4  ,just  
as aqua valens poured over silver1 from 
which the sulphur has parted the gold1  
shows us whether all has been separated 
or whether particles of gold remain in  
the silver2 so do certain ingredients1  
if placed in the pot or crucible        
alternately with the gold1 from which   
the silver has been parted by stibium1  
and heated1 show us whether all have    
been separated or not4  ,we use         
cements#ah when1 without stibium1 we    
part silver or copper or both so        
ingeniously and admirably from gold4    
,there are various cements4 ,some       
consist of half a libra of brick dust1 a
 quarter of a libra of salt1 an uncia of
 saltpetre1 half an uncia of            
sal-ammoniac1 and half an uncia of rock 

salt4 ,the bricks or tiles from which   
the dust is made must be composed of    
fatty clays1 free from sand1 grit1 and  
small stones1 and must be moderately    
burnt and very old4  ,another cement is 
made of a bes of brick dust1 a third of 
rock salt1 an uncia of saltpetre1 and   
half an uncia of refined salt4 ,another 
cement is made of a bes of brick dust1 a
 quarter of refined salt1 one and a half
 unciae of saltpetre1 an uncia of       
sal-ammoniac1 and half an uncia of rock 
salt4 ,another has one libra of brick   
dust1 and half a libra of rock salt1 to 
which some add a sixth of a libra and a 
sicilicus of vitriol4 ,another is made  
of half a libra of brick dust1 a third  
of a libra of rock salt1 an uncia and a 
half of vitriol1 and one uncia of       
saltpetre4 ,another consists of a bes of
 brick dust1 a third of refined salt1 a 
sixth of white vitriol#ai1 half an uncia
 of verdigris1 and likewise half an     
uncia of saltpetre4 ,another is made of 
one and a third librae of brick dust1 a 

bes of rock salt1 a sixth of a libra and
 half an uncia of sal-ammoniac1 a sixth 
and half an uncia of vitriol1 and a     
sixth of saltpetre4 ,another contains a 
libra of brick dust1 a third of refined 
salt1 and one and a half unciae of      
vitriol4  ,those ingredients above are  
peculiar to each cement1 but what       
follows is common to all4 ,each of the  
ingredients is first separately crushed 
to powder2 the bricks are placed on a   
hard rock or marble1 and crushed with an
 iron implement2 the other things are   
crushed in a mortar with a pestle2 each 
is separately passed through a sieve4   
,then they are all mixed together1 and  
are moistened with vinegar in which a   
little sal-ammoniac has been dissolved1 
if the cement does not contain any4 ,but
 some workers1 however1 prefer to       
moisten the gold granules or gold-leaf  
instead4  ,the cement should be placed1 
alternately with the gold1 in new and   
clean pots in which no water has ever   
been poured4 ,in the bottom the cement  

is levelled with an iron implement1 and 
afterward the gold granules or leaves   
are placed one against the other1 so    
that they may touch it on all sides2    
then1 again1 a handful of the cement1 or
 more if the pots are large1 is thrown  
in and levelled with an iron implement2 
the granules and leaves are laid over   
this in the same manner1 and this is    
repeated until the pot is filled4 ,then 
it is covered with a lid1 and the place 
where they join is smeared over with    
artificial lute1 and when this is dry   
the pots are placed in the furnace4     
,illustration #dee 7,parting precious   
metals by cementation73 ,a--,furnace4   
,b--,pot4 ,c--,lid4 ,d--,air-holes4     
,the furnace has three chambers1 the    
lowest of which is a foot high2 into    
this lowest chamber the air penetrates  
through an opening1 and into it the     
ashes fall from the burnt wood1 which is
 supported by iron rods1 arranged to    
form a grating4 ,the middle chamber is  
two feet high1 and the wood is pushed in

 through its mouth4 ,the wood ought to  
be oak1 holmoak1 or turkey-oak1 for from
 these the slow and lasting fire is made
 which is necessary for this operation4 
,the upper chamber is open at the top so
 that the pots1 for which it has the    
depth1 may be put into it2 the floor of 
this chamber consists of iron rods1 so  
strong that they may bear the weight of 
the pots and the heat of the fire2 they 
are sufficiently far apart that the fire
 may penetrate well and may heat the    
pots4 ,the pots are narrow at the       
bottom1 so that the fire entering into  
the space between them may heat them2 at
 the top the pots are wide1 so that they
 may touch and hold back the heat of the
 fire4 ,the upper part of the furnace is
 closed in with bricks not very thick1  
or with tiles and lute1 and two or three
 air-holes are left1 through which the  
fumes and flames may escape4  ,the gold 
granules or leaves and the cement1      
alternately placed in the pots1 are     
heated by a gentle fire1 gradually      

increasing for twenty-four hours1 if the
 furnace was heated for two hours before
 the full pots were stood in it1 and if 
this was not done1 then for twenty-six  
hours4 ,the fire should be increased in 
such a manner that the pieces of gold   
and the cement1 in which is the potency 
to separate the silver and copper from  
the gold1 may not melt1 for in this case
 the labour and cost will be spent in   
vain2 therefore1 it is ample to have the
 fire hot enough that the pots always   
remain red4 ,after so many hours all the
 burning wood should be drawn out of the
 furnace4 ,then the refractory bricks or
 tiles are removed from the top of the  
furnace1 and the glowing pots are taken 
out with the tongs4 ,the lids are       
removed1 and if there is time it is well
 to allow the gold to cool by itself1   
for then there is less loss2 but if time
 cannot be spared for that operation1   
the pieces of gold are immediately      
placed separately into a wooden or      
bronze vessel of water and gradually    

quenched1 lest the cement which absorbs 
the silver should exhale it4 ,the pieces
 of gold1 and the cement adhering to    
them1 when cooled or quenched1 are      
rolled with a little mallet so as to    
crush the lumps and free the gold from  
the cement4 ,then they are sifted by a  
fine sieve1 which is placed over a      
bronze vessel2 in this manner the cement
 containing the silver or the copper or 
both1 falls from the sieve into the     
bronze vessel1 and the gold granules or 
leaves remain on it4 ,the gold is placed
 in a vessel and again rolled with the  
little mallet1 so that it may be        
cleansed from the cement which absorbs  
silver and copper4  ,the particles of   
cement1 which have dropped through the  
holes of the sieve into the bronze      
vessel1 are washed in a bowl1 over a    
wooden tub1 being shaken about with the 
hands1 so that the minute particles of  
gold which have fallen through the sieve
 may be separated4 ,these are again     
washed in a little vessel1 with warm    

water1 and scrubbed with a piece of wood
 or a twig broom1 that the moistened    
cement may be detached4 ,afterward all  
the gold is again washed with warm      
water1 and collected with a bristle     
brush1 and should be washed in a copper 
full of holes1 under which is placed a  
little vessel4 ,then it is necessary to 
put the gold on an iron plate1 under    
which is a vessel1 and to wash it with  
warm water4 ,finally1 it is placed in a 
bowl1 and1 when dry1 the granules or    
leaves are rubbed against a touchstone  
at the same time as a touch-needle1 and 
considered carefully as to whether they 
be pure or alloyed4 ,if they are not    
pure enough1 the granules or the leaves1
 together with the cement which attracts
 silver and copper1 are arranged        
alternately in layers in the same       
manner1 and again heated2 this is done  
as often as is necessary1 but the last  
time it is heated as many hours as are  
required to cleanse the gold4  ,some    
people add another cement to the        

granules or leaves4 ,this cement lacks  
the ingredients of metalliferous origin1
 such as verdigris and vitriol1 for if  
these are in the cement1 the gold       
usually takes up a little of the base   
metal2 or if it does not do this1 it is 
stained by them4 ,for this reason some  
very rightly never make use of cements  
containing these things1 because brick  
dust and salt alone1 especially rock    
salt1 are able to extract all the silver
 and copper from the gold and to attract
 it to themselves4  ,it is not necessary
 for coiners to make absolutely pure    
gold1 but to heat it only until such a  
fineness is obtained as is needed for   
the gold money which they are coining4  
,the gold is heated1 and when it shows  
the necessary golden yellow colour and  
is wholly pure1 it is melted and made   
into bars1 in which case they are either
 prepared by the coiners with           
chrysocolla1 which is called by the     
,moors borax1 or are prepared with salt 
of lye made from the ashes of ivy or of 

other salty herbs4  ,the cement which   
has absorbed silver or copper1 after    
water has been poured over it1 is dried 
and crushed1 and when mixed with        
hearth-lead and de-silverized lead1 is  
smelted in the blast furnace4 ,the alloy
 of silver and lead1 or of silver and   
copper and lead1 which flows out1 is    
again melted in the cupellation furnace1
 in order that the lead and copper may  
be separated from the silver4 ,the      
silver is finally thoroughly purified in
 the refining furnace1 and in this      
practical manner there is no silver     
lost1 or only a minute quantity4  ,there
 are besides this1 certain other        
cements#bj which part gold from silver1 
composed of sulphur1 stibium and other  
ingredients4 ,one of these compounds    
consists of half an uncia of vitriol    
dried by the heat of the fire and       
reduced to powder1 a sixth of refined   
salt1 a third of stibium1 half a libra  
of prepared sulphur 7not exposed to the 
fire71 one sicilicus of glass1 likewise 

one sicilicus of saltpetre1 and a       
drachma of sal-ammoniac4#ba ,the sulphur
 is prepared as follows3 it is first    
crushed to powder1 then it is heated for
 six hours in sharp vinegar1 and finally
 poured into a vessel and washed with   
warm water2 then that which settles at  
the bottom of the vessel is dried4 ,to  
refine the salt it is placed in river   
water and boiled1 and again evaporated4 
,the second compound contains one libra 
of sulphur 7not exposed to fire7 and two
 librae of refined salt4 ,the third     
compound is made from one libra of      
sulphur 7not exposed to the fire71 half 
a libra of refined salt1 a quarter of a 
libra of sal-ammoniac1 and one uncia of 
red-lead4 ,the fourth compound consists 
of one libra each of refined salt1      
sulphur 7not exposed to the fire7 and   
argol1 and half a libra of chrysocolla  
which the ,moors call borax4 ,the fifth 
compound has equal proportions of       
sulphur 7not exposed to the fire71      
sal-ammoniac1 saltpetre1 and verdigris4 

,the silver which contains some portion 
of gold is first melted with lead in an 
earthen crucible1 and they are heated   
together until the silver exhales the   
lead4 ,if there was a libra of silver1  
there must be six drachmae of lead4     
,then the silver is sprinkled with two  
unciae of that powdered compound and is 
stirred2 afterward it is poured into    
another crucible1 first warmed and lined
 with tallow1 and then violently shaken4
 ,the rest is performed according to the
 process ,i have already explained4     
,gold may be parted without injury from 
silver goblets and from other gilt      
vessels and articles#bb1 by means of a  
powder1 which consists of one part of   
sal-ammoniac and half a part of sulphur4
 ,the gilt goblet or other article is   
smeared with oil1 and the powder is     
dusted on2 the article is seized in the 
hand1 or with tongs1 and is carried to  
the fire and sharply tapped1 and by this
 means the gold falls into water in     
vessels placed underneath1 while the    

goblet remains uninjured4  ,gold is also
 parted from silver on gilt articles by 
means of quicksilver4 ,this is poured   
into an earthen crucible1 and so warmed 
by the fire that the finger can bear the
 heat when dipped into it2 the          
silver-gilt objects are placed in it1   
and when the quicksilver adheres to them
 they are taken out and placed on a     
dish1 into which1 when cooled1 the gold 
falls1 together with the quicksilver4   
,again and frequently the same          
silver-gilt object is placed in heated  
quicksilver1 and the same process is    
continued until at last no more gold is 
visible on the object2 then the object  
is placed in the fire1 and the          
quicksilver which adheres to it is      
exhaled4 ,then the artificer takes a    
hare's foot1 and brushes up into a dish 
the quicksilver and the gold which have 
fallen together from the silver article1
 and puts them into a cloth made of     
woven cotton or into a soft leather2 the
 quicksilver is squeezed through one or 

the other into another dish4#bc ,the    
gold remains in the cloth or the        
leather1 and when collected is placed in
 a piece of charcoal hollowed out1 and  
is heated until it melts1 and a little  
button is made from it4 ,this button is 
heated with a little stibium in an      
earthen crucible and poured out into    
another little vessel1 by which method  
the gold settles at the bottom1 and the 
stibium is seen to be on the top2 then  
the work is completed4 ,finally1 the    
gold button is put in a hollowed-out    
brick and placed in the fire1 and by    
this method the gold is made pure4 ,by  
means of the above methods gold is      
parted from silver and also silver from 
gold4  ,now ,i will explain the methods 
used to separate copper from gold#bd4   
,the salt which we call                 
sal-artificiosus1#be is made from a     
libra each of vitriol1 alum1 saltpetre1 
and sulphur not exposed to the fire1 and
 half a libra of sal-ammoniac2 these    
ingredients when crushed are heated with

 one part of lye made from the ashes    
used by wool dyers1 one part of unslaked
 lime1 and four parts of beech ashes4   
,the ingredients are boiled in the lye  
until the whole has been dissolved4     
,then it is immediately dried and kept  
in a hot place1 lest it turn into oil2  
and afterward when crushed1 a libra of  
lead-ash is mixed with it4 ,with each   
libra of this powdered compound one and 
a half unciae of the copper is gradually
 sprinkled into a hot crucible1 and it  
is stirred rapidly and frequently with  
an iron rod4 ,when the crucible has     
cooled and been broken up1 the button of
 gold is found4  ,the second method for 
parting is the following4 ,two librae of
 sulphur not exposed to the fire1 and   
four librae of refined salt are crushed 
and mixed2 a sixth of a libra and half  
an uncia of this powder is added to a   
bes of granules made of lead1 and twice 
as much copper containing gold2 they are
 heated together in an earthen crucible 
until they melt4 ,when cooled1 the      

button is taken out and purged of slag4 
,from this button they again make       
granules1 to a third of a libra of which
 is added half a libra of that powder of
 which ,i have spoken1 and they are     
placed in alternate layers in the       
crucible2 it is well to cover the       
crucible and to seal it up1 and         
afterward it is heated over a gentle    
fire until the granules melt4 ,soon     
afterward1 the crucible is taken off the
 fire1 and when it is cool the button is
 extracted4 ,from this1 when purified   
and again melted down1 the third        
granules are made1 to which1 if they    
weigh a sixth of a libra1 is added one  
half an uncia and a sicilicus of the    
powder1 and they are heated in the same 
manner1 and the button of gold settles  
at the bottom of the crucible4  ,the    
third method is as follows4 ,from time  
to time small pieces of sulphur1        
enveloped in or mixed with wax1 are     
dropped into six librae of the molten   
copper1 and consumed2 the sulphur weighs

 half an uncia and a sicilicus4 ,then   
one and a half sicilici of powdered     
saltpetre are dropped into the same     
copper and likewise consumed2 then again
 half an uncia and a sicilicus of       
sulphur enveloped in wax2 afterward one 
and a half sicilici of lead-ash         
enveloped in wax1 or of minium made from
 red-lead4 ,then immediately the copper 
is taken out1 and to the gold button1   
which is now mixed with only a little   
copper1 they add stibium to double the  
amount of the button2 these are heated  
together until the stibium is driven    
off2 then the button1 together with lead
 of half the weight of the button1 are  
heated in a cupel4 ,finally1 the gold is
 taken out of this and quenched1 and if 
there is a blackish colour settled in   
it1 it is melted with a little of the   
chrysocolla which the ,moors call borax2
 if too pale1 it is melted with stibium1
 and acquires its own golden-yellow     
colour4 ,there are some who take out the
 molten copper with an iron ladle and   

pour it into another crucible1 whose    
aperture is sealed up with lute1 and    
they place it over glowing charcoal1 and
 when they have thrown in the powders of
 which ,i have spoken1 they stir the    
whole mass rapidly with an iron rod1 and
 thus separate the gold from the copper2
 the former settles at the bottom of the
 crucible1 the latter floats on the top4
 ,then the aperture of the crucible is  
opened with the red-hot tongs1 and the  
copper runs out4 ,the gold which remains
 is re-heated with stibium1 and when    
this is exhaled the gold is heated for  
the third time in a cupel with a fourth 
part of lead1 and then quenched4  ,the  
fourth method is to melt one and a third
 librae of the copper with a sixth of a 
libra of lead1 and to pour it into      
another crucible smeared on the inside  
with tallow or gypsum2 and to this is   
added a powder consisting of half an    
uncia each of prepared sulphur1         
verdigris1 and saltpetre1 and an uncia  
and a half of sal coctus4 ,the fifth    

method consists of placing in a crucible
 one libra of the copper and two librae 
of granulated lead1 with one and a half 
unciae of sal-artificiosus2 they are at 
first heated over a gentle fire and then
 over a fiercer one4 ,the sixth method  
consists in heating together a bes of   
the copper and one-sixth of a libra each
 of sulphur1 salt1 and stibium4 ,the    
seventh method consists of heating      
together a bes of the copper and        
one-sixth each of iron scales and       
filings1 salt1 stibium1 and glass-galls4
 ,the eighth method consists of heating 
together one libra of the copper1 one   
and a half librae of sulphur1 half a    
libra of verdigris1 and a libra of      
refined salt4 ,the ninth method consists
 of placing in one libra of the molten  
copper as much pounded sulphur1 not     
exposed to the fire1 and of stirring it 
rapidly with an iron rod2 the lump is   
ground to powder1 into which quicksilver
 is poured1 and this attracts to itself 
the gold4  ,gilded copper articles are  

moistened with water and placed on the  
fire1 and when they are glowing they are
 quenched with cold water1 and the gold 
is scraped off with a brass rod4 ,by    
these practical methods gold is         
separated from copper4  ,either copper  
or lead is separated from silver by the 
methods which ,i will now explain4#bf   
,this is carried on in a building near  
by the works1 or in the works in which  
the gold or silver ores or alloys are   
smelted4 ,the middle wall of such a     
building is twenty-one feet long and    
fifteen feet high1 and from this a front
 wall is distant fifteen feet toward the
 river2 the rear wall is nineteen feet  
distant1 and both these walls are       
thirty-six feet long and fourteen feet  
high2 a transverse wall extends from the
 end of the front wall to the end of the
 rear wall2 then fifteen feet back a    
second transverse wall is built out from
 the front wall to the end of the middle
 wall4 ,in that space which is between  
those two transverse walls are set up   

the stamps1 by means of which the ores  
and the necessary ingredients for       
smelting are broken up4 ,from the       
further end of the front wall1 a third  
transverse wall leads to the other end  
of the middle wall1 and from the same to
 the end of the rear wall4 ,the space   
between the second and third transverse 
walls1 and between the rear and middle  
long walls1 contains the cupellation    
furnace1 in which lead is separated from
 gold or silver4 ,the vertical wall of  
its chimney is erected upon the middle  
wall1 and the sloping chimney-wall rests
 on the beams which extend from the     
second transverse wall to the third2    
these are so located that they are at a 
distance of thirteen feet from the      
middle long wall and four from the rear 
wall1 and they are two feet wide and    
thick4 ,from the ground up to the       
roof-beams is twelve feet1 and lest the 
sloping chimney-wall should fall down1  
it is partly supported by means of many 
iron rods1 and partly by means of a few 

tie-beams covered with lute1 which      
extend from the small beams of the      
sloping chimney-wall to the beams of the
 vertical chimney-wall4 ,the rear roof  
is arranged in the same way as the roof 
of the works in which ore is smelted4   
,in the space between the middle and the
 front long walls and between the       
second#bg and the third transverse walls
 are the bellows1 the machinery for     
depressing and the instrument for       
raising them4 ,a drum on the axle of a  
water-wheel has rundles which turn the  
toothed drum of an axle1 whose long cams
 depress the levers of the bellows1 and 
also another toothed drum on an axle1   
whose cams raise the tappets of the     
stamps1 but in the opposite direction4  
,so that if the cams which depress the  
levers of the bellows turn from north to
 south1 the cams of the stamps turn from
 south to north4  ,illustration #dfh    
7,cupellation ,furnace73                
,a--,rectangular stones4                
,b--,sole-stone4 ,c--,air-holes4        

,d--,internal walls4 ,e--,dome4         
,f--,crucible4 ,g--,bands4 ,h--,bars4   
,i--,apertures in the dome4 ,k--,lid of 
the dome4 ,l--,rings4 ,m--,pipes4       
,n--,valves4 ,o--,chains4  ,lead is     
separated from gold or silver in a      
cupellation furnace1 of which the       
structure consists of rectangular       
stones1 of two interior walls of which  
the one intersects the other            
transversely1 of a round sole1 and of a 
dome4 ,its crucible is made from powder 
of earth and ash2 but ,i will first     
speak of the structure and also of the  
rectangular stones4 ,a circular wall is 
built four feet and three palms high1   
and one foot thick2 from the height of  
two feet and three palms from the       
bottom1 the upper part of the interior  
is cut away to the width of one palm1 so
 that the stone sole may rest upon it4  
,there are usually as many as fourteen  
stones2 on the outside they are a foot  
and a palm wide1 and on the inside      
narrower1 because the inner circle is   

much smaller than the outer2 if the     
stones are wider1 fewer are required1 if
 narrower more2 they are sunk into the  
earth to a depth of a foot and a palm4  
,at the top each one is joined to the   
next by an iron staple1 the points of   
which are embedded in holes1 and into   
each hole is poured molten lead4 ,this  
stone structure has six air-holes near  
the ground1 at a height of a foot above 
the ground2 they are two feet and a palm
 from the bottom of the stones2 each of 
these air-holes is in two stones1 and is
 two palms high1 and a palm and three   
digits wide4 ,one of them is on the     
right side1 between the wall which      
protects the main wall from the fire1   
and the channel through which the       
litharge flows out of the furnace       
crucible2 the other five air-holes are  
distributed all round at equal distances
 apart2 through these escapes the       
moisture which the earth exhales when   
heated1 and if it were not for these    
openings the crucible would absorb the  

moisture and be damaged4 ,in such a case
 a lump would be raised1 like that which
 a mole throws up from the earth1 and   
the ash would float on the top1 and the 
crucible would absorb the silver-lead   
alloy2 there are some who1 because of   
this1 make the rear part of the         
structure entirely open4 ,the two inner 
walls1 of which one intersects the      
other1 are built of bricks1 and are a   
brick in thickness4 ,there are four     
air-holes in these1 one in each part1   
which are about one digit's breadth     
higher and wider than the others4 ,into 
the four compartments is thrown a       
wheelbarrowful of slag1 and over this is
 placed a large wicker basket full of   
charcoal dust4 ,these walls extend a    
cubit above the ground1 and on these1   
and on the ledge cut in the rectangular 
stones1 is placed the stone sole2 this  
sole is a palm and three digits thick1  
and on all sides touches the rectangular
 stones2 if there are any cracks in it  
they are filled up with fragments of    

stone or brick4 ,the front part of the  
sole is sloped so that a channel can be 
made1 through which the litharge flows  
out4 ,copper plates are placed on this  
part of the sole-stone so that the      
silver-lead or other alloy may be more  
rapidly heated4  ,a dome which has the  
shape of half a sphere covers the       
crucible4 ,it consists of iron bands and
 of bars and of a lid4 ,there are three 
bands1 each about a palm wide and a     
digit thick2 the lowest is at a distance
 of one foot from the middle one1 and   
the middle one a distance of two feet   
from the upper one4 ,under them are     
eighteen iron bars fixed by iron rivets2
 these bars are of the same width and   
thickness as the bands1 and they are of 
such a length1 that curving1 they reach 
from the lower band to the upper1 that  
is two feet and three palms long1 while 
the dome is only one foot and three     
palms high4 ,all the bars and bands of  
the dome have iron plates fastened on   
the underside with iron wire4 ,in       

addition1 the dome has four apertures2  
the rear one1 which is situated opposite
 the channel through which the litharge 
flows out1 is two feet wide at the      
bottom2 toward the top1 since it slopes 
gently1 it is narrower1 being a foot1   
three palms1 and a digit wide2 there is 
no bar at this place1 for the aperture  
extends from the upper band to the      
middle one1 but not to the lower one4   
,the second aperture is situated above  
the channel1 is two and a half feet wide
 at the bottom1 and two feet and a palm 
at the top2 and there is likewise no bar
 at this point2 indeed1 not only does   
the bar not extend to the lower band1   
but the lower band itself does not      
extend over this part1 in order that the
 master can draw the litharge out of the
 crucible4 ,there are besides1 in the   
wall which protects the principal wall  
against the heat1 near where the nozzles
 of the bellows are situated1 two       
apertures1 three palms wide and about a 
foot high1 in the middle of which two   

rods descend1 fastened on the inside    
with plates4 ,near these apertures are  
placed the nozzles of the bellows1 and  
through the apertures extend the pipes  
in which the nozzles of the bellows are 
set4 ,these pipes are made of iron      
plates rolled up2 they are two palms    
three digits long1 and their inside     
diameter is three and a half digits2    
into these two pipes the nozzles of the 
bellows penetrate a distance of three   
digits from their valves4 ,the lid of   
the dome consists of an iron band at the
 bottom1 two digits wide1 and of three  
curved iron bars1 which extend from one 
point on the band to the point opposite2
 they cross each other at the top1 where
 they are fixed by means of iron rivets4
 ,on the under side of the bars there   
are likewise plates fastened by rivets2 
each of the plates has small holes the  
size of a finger1 so that the lute will 
adhere when the interior is lined4 ,the 
dome has three iron rings engaged in    
wide holes in the heads of iron claves1 

which fasten the bars to the middle band
 at these points4 ,into these rings are 
fastened the hooks of the chains with   
which the dome is raised1 when the      
master is preparing the crucible4  ,on  
the sole and the copper plates and the  
rock of the furnace1 lute mixed with    
straw is placed to a depth of three     
digits1 and it is pounded with a wooden 
rammer until it is compressed to a depth
 of one digit only4 ,the rammer-head is 
round and three palms high1 two palms   
wide at the bottom1 and tapering upward2
 its handle is three feet long1 and     
where it is set into the rammer-head it 
is bound around with an iron band4 ,the 
top of the stonework in which the dome  
rests is also covered with lute1        
likewise mixed with straw1 to the       
thickness of a palm4 ,all this1 as soon 
as it becomes loosened1 must be         
repaired4  ,illustration #dgj           
7,cupellation ,furnace73 ,a--,an        
artificer tamping the crucible with a   
rammer4 ,b--,large rammer4 ,c--,broom4  

,d--,two smaller rammers4 ,e--,curved   
iron plates4 ,f--,part of a wooden      
strip4 ,g--,sieve4 ,h--,ashes4 ,i--,iron
 shovel4 ,k--,iron plate4 ,l--block of  
wood4 ,m--,rock4 ,n--,basket made of    
woven twigs4 ,o--,hooked bar4           
,p--,second hooked bar4 ,q--,old linen  
rag4 ,r--bucket4 ,s--,doeskin4          
,t--,bundles of straw4 ,v--,wood4       
,x--,cakes of lead alloy4 ,y--,fork4    
,z--,another workman covers the outside 
of the furnace with lute where the dome 
fits on it4 ,,aa--,basket full of ashes4
 ,,bb--,lid of the dome4 ,,cc--,the     
assistant standing on the steps pours   
charcoal into the crucible through the  
hole at the top of the dome4 ,,dd--,iron
 implement with which the lute is       
beaten4 ,,ee--,lute4 ,,ff--,ladle with  
which the workman or master takes a     
sample4 ,,gg--,rabble with which the    
scum of impure lead is drawn off4       
,,hh--,iron wedge with which the silver 
mass is raised4  ,the artificer who     
undertakes the work of parting the      

metals1 distributes the operation into  
two shifts of two days4 ,on the one     
morning he sprinkles a little ash into  
the lute1 and when he has poured some   
water over it he brushes it over with a 
broom4 ,then he throws in sifted ashes  
and dampens them with water1 so that    
they could be moulded into balls like   
snow4 ,the ashes are those from which   
lye has been made by letting water      
percolate through them1 for other ashes 
which are fatty would have to be burnt  
again in order to make them less fat4   
,when he has made the ashes smooth by   
pressing them with his hands1 he makes  
the crucible slope down toward the      
middle2 then he tamps it1 as ,i have    
described1 with a rammer4 ,he afterward1
 with two small wooden rammers1 one held
 in each hand1 forms the channel through
 which the litharge flows out4 ,the     
heads of these small rammers are each a 
palm wide1 two digits thick1 and one    
foot high2 the handle of each is        
somewhat rounded1 is a digit and a half 

less in diameter than the rammer-head1  
and is three feet in length2 the        
rammer-head as well as the handle is    
made of one piece of wood4 ,then with   
shoes on1 he descends into the crucible 
and stamps it in every direction with   
his feet1 in which manner it is packed  
and made sloping4 ,then he again tamps  
it with a large rammer1 and removing his
 shoe from his right foot he draws a    
circle around the crucible with it1 and 
cuts out the circle thus drawn with an  
iron plate4 ,this plate is curved at    
both ends1 is three palms long1 as many 
digits wide1 and has wooden handles a   
palm and two digits long1 and two digits
 thick2 the iron plate is curved back at
 the top and ends1 which penetrate into 
handles4 ,there are some who use in the 
place of the plate a strip of wood1 like
 the rim of a sieve2 this is three      
digits wide1 and is cut out at both ends
 that it may be held in the hands4      
,afterward he tamps the channel through 
which the litharge discharges4 ,lest the

 ashes should fall out1 he blocks up the
 aperture with a stone shaped to fit it1
 against which he places a board1 and   
lest this fall1 he props it with a      
stick4 ,then he pours in a basketful of 
ashes and tamps them with the large     
rammer2 then again and again he pours in
 ashes and tamps them with the rammer4  
,when the channel has been made1 he     
throws dry ashes all over the crucible  
with a sieve1 and smooths and rubs it   
with his hands4 ,then he throws three   
basketsful of damp ashes on the margin  
all round the edge of the crucible1 and 
lets down the dome4 ,soon after1        
climbing upon the crucible1 he builds up
 ashes all around it1 lest the molten   
alloy should flow out4 ,then1 having    
raised the lid of the dome1 he throws a 
basketful of charcoal into the crucible1
 together with an iron shovelful of     
glowing coals1 and he also throws some  
of the latter through the apertures in  
the sides of the dome1 and he spreads   
them with the same shovel4 ,this work   

and labour is finished in the space of  
two hours4  ,an iron plate is set in the
 ground under the channel1 and upon this
 is placed a wooden block1 three feet   
and a palm long1 a foot and two palms   
and as many digits wide at the back1 and
 two palms and as many digits wide in   
front2 on the block of wood is placed a 
stone1 and over it an iron plate similar
 to the bottom one1 and upon this he    
puts a basketful of charcoal1 and also  
an iron shovelful of burning charcoals4 
,the crucible is heated in an hour1 and 
then1 with the hooked bar with which the
 litharge is drawn off1 he stirs the    
remainder of the charcoal about4 ,this  
hook is a palm long and three digits    
wide1 has the form of a double triangle1
 and has an iron handle four feet long1 
into which is set a wooden one six feet 
long4 ,there are some who use instead a 
simple hooked bar4 ,after about an      
hour's time1 he stirs the charcoal again
 with the bar1 and with the shovel      
throws into the crucible the burning    

charcoals lying in the channel2 then    
again1 after the space of an hour1 he   
stirs the burning charcoals with the    
same bar4 ,if he did not thus stir them 
about1 some blackness would remain in   
the crucible and that part would be     
damaged1 because it would not be        
sufficiently dried4 ,therefore the      
assistant stirs and turns the burning   
charcoal that it may be entirely burnt  
up1 and so that the crucible may be well
 heated1 which takes three hours2 then  
the crucible is left quiet for the      
remaining two hours4  ,when the hour of 
eleven has struck1 he sweeps up the     
charcoal ashes with a broom and throws  
them out of the crucible4 ,then he      
climbs on to the dome1 and passing his  
hand in through its opening1 and dipping
 an old linen rag in a bucket of water  
mixed with ashes1 he moistens the whole 
of the crucible and sweeps it4 ,in this 
way he uses two bucketsful of the       
mixture1 each holding five ,roman       
sextarii1#bh and he does this lest the  

crucible1 when the metals are being     
parted1 should break open2 after this he
 rubs the crucible with a doe skin1 and 
fills in the cracks4 ,then he places at 
the left side of the channel1 two       
fragments of hearth-lead1 laid one on   
the top of the other1 so that when      
partly melted they remain fixed and form
 an obstacle1 that the litharge will not
 be blown about by the wind from the    
bellows1 but remain in its place4 ,it is
 expedient1 however1 to use a brick in  
the place of the hearth-lead1 for as    
this gets much hotter1 therefore it     
causes the litharge to form more        
rapidly4 ,the crucible in its middle    
part is made two palms and as many      
digits deeper4#bi  ,there are some who  
having thus prepared the crucible1 smear
 it over with incense#cj1 ground to     
powder and dissolved in white of egg1   
soaking it up in a sponge and then      
squeezing it out again2 there are others
 who smear over it a liquid consisting  
of white of egg and double the amount of

 bullock's blood or marrow4 ,some throw 
lime into the crucible through a sieve4 
,afterward the master of the works      
weighs the lead with which the gold or  
silver or both are mixed1 and he        
sometimes puts a hundred centumpondia#ca
 into the crucible1 but frequently only 
sixty1 or fifty1 or much less4 ,after it
 has been weighed1 he strews about in   
the crucible three small bundles of     
straw1 lest the lead by its weight      
should break the surface4 ,then he      
places in the channel several cakes of  
lead alloy1 and through the aperture at 
the rear of the dome he places some     
along the sides2 then1 ascending to the 
opening at the top of the dome1 he      
arranges in the crucible round about the
 dome the cakes which his assistant     
hands to him1 and after ascending again 
and passing his hands through the same  
aperture1 he likewise places other cakes
 inside the crucible4 ,on the second day
 those which remain he1 with an iron    
fork1 places on the wood through the    

rear aperture of the dome4  ,when the   
cakes have been thus arranged through   
the hole at the top of the dome1 he     
throws in charcoal with a basket woven  
of wooden twigs4 ,then he places the lid
 over the dome1 and the assistant covers
 over the joints with lute4 ,the master 
himself throws half a basketful of      
charcoal into the crucible through the  
aperture next to the nozzle pipe1 and   
prepares the bellows1 in order to be    
able to begin the second operation on   
the morning of the following day4 ,it   
takes the space of one hour to carry out
 such a piece of work1 and at twelve all
 is prepared4 ,these hours all reckoned 
up make a sum of eight hours4  ,now it  
is time that we should come to the      
second operation4 ,in the morning the   
workman takes up two shovelsful of live 
charcoals and throws them into the      
crucible through the aperture next to   
the pipes of the nozzles2 then through  
the same hole he lays upon them small   
pieces of fir-wood or of pitch pine1    

such as are generally used to cook fish4
 ,after this the water-gates are opened1
 in order that the machine may be turned
 which depresses the levers of the      
bellows4 ,in the space of one hour the  
lead alloy is melted2 and when this has 
been done1 he places four sticks of     
wood1 twelve feet long1 through the hole
 in the back of the dome1 and as many   
through the channel2 these sticks1 lest 
they should damage the crucible1 are    
both weighted on the ends and supported 
by trestles2 these trestles are made of 
a beam1 three feet long1 two palms and  
as many digits wide1 two palms thick1   
and have two spreading legs at each end4
 ,against the trestle1 in front of the  
channel1 there is placed an iron plate1 
lest the litharge1 when it is extracted 
from the furnace1 should splash the     
smelter's shoes and injure his feet and 
legs4 ,with an iron shovel or a fork he 
places the remainder of the cakes       
through the aperture at the back of the 
dome on to the sticks of wood already   

mentioned4  ,the native silver1 or      
silver glance1 or grey silver1 or ruby  
silver1 or any other sort1 when it has  
been flattened out#cb1 and cut up1 and  
heated in an iron crucible1 is poured   
into the molten lead mixed with silver1 
in order that impurities may be         
separated4 ,as ,i have often said1 this 
molten lead mixed with silver is called 
stannum#cc4  ,illustration #dgd         
7,cupellation ,furnace73 ,a--,furnace4  
,b--,sticks of wood4 ,c--,litharge4     
,d--,plate4 ,e--,the foreman when hungry
 eats butter1 that the poison which the 
crucible exhales may not harm him1 for  
this is a special remedy against that   
poison4  ,when the long sticks of wood  
are burned up at the fore end1 the      
master1 with a hammer1 drives into them 
pointed iron bars1 four feet long and   
two digits wide at the front end1 and   
beyond that one and a half digits wide  
and thick2 with these he pushes the     
sticks of wood forward and the bars then
 rest on the trestles4 ,there are others

 who1 when they separate metals1 put two
 such sticks of wood into the crucible  
through the aperture which is between   
the bellows1 as many through the holes  
at the back1 and one through the        
channel2 but in this case a larger      
number of long sticks of wood is        
necessary1 that is1 sixty2 in the former
 case1 forty long sticks of wood suffice
 to carry out the operation4 ,when the  
lead has been heated for two hours1 it  
is stirred with a hooked bar1 that the  
heat may be increased4  ,if it be       
difficult to separate the lead from the 
silver1 he throws copper and charcoal   
dust into the molten silver-lead alloy4 
,if the alloy of argentiferous gold and 
lead1 or the silver-lead alloy1 contains
 impurities from the ore1 then he throws
 in either equal portions of argol and  
,venetian glass or of sal-ammoniac1 or  
of ,venetian glass and of ,venetian     
soap2 or else unequal portions1 that is1
 two of argol and one of iron rust2     
there are some who mix a little         

saltpetre with each compound4 ,to one   
centumpondium of the alloy is added a   
bes or a libra and a third of the       
powder1 according to whether it is more 
or less impure4 ,the powder certainly   
separates the impurities from the alloy4
 ,then1 with a kind of rabble he draws  
out through the channel1 mixed with     
charcoal1 the scum1 as one might say1 of
 the lead2 the lead makes this scum when
 it becomes hot1 but that less of it may
 be made it must be stirred frequently  
with the bar4  ,within the space of a   
quarter of an hour the crucible absorbs 
the lead2 at the time when it penetrates
 into the crucible it leaps and bubbles4
 ,then the master takes out a little    
lead with an iron ladle1 which he       
assays1 in order to find what proportion
 of silver there is in the whole of the 
alloy2 the ladle is five digits wide1   
the iron part of its handle is three    
feet long and the wooden part the same4 
,afterward1 when they are heated1 he    
extracts with a bar the litharge which  

comes from the lead and the copper1 if  
there be any of it in the alloy4        
,wherefore1 it might more rightly be    
called spuma of lead than of silver#cd4 
,there is no injury to the silver1 when 
the lead and copper are separated from  
it4 ,in truth the lead becomes much     
purer in the crucible of the other      
furnace1 in which silver is refined4 ,in
 ancient times1 as the author ,pliny#ce 
relates1 there was under the channel of 
the crucible another crucible1 and the  
litharge flowed down from the upper one 
into the lower one1 out of which it was 
lifted up and rolled round with a stick 
in order that it might be of moderate   
weight4 ,for which reason1 they formerly
 made it into small tubes or pipes1 but 
now1 since it is not rolled round a     
stick1 they make it into bars4  ,if     
there be any danger that the alloy might
 flow out with the litharge1 the foreman
 keeps on hand a piece of lute1 shaped  
like a cylinder and pointed at both     
ends2 fastening this to a hooked bar he 

opposes it to the alloy so that it will 
not flow out4  ,illustration #dgf       
7,cleansing of ,silver ,cakes73         
,a--,cake4 ,b--,stone4 ,c--,hammer4     
,d--,brass wire4 ,e--,bucket containing 
water4 ,f--,furnace from which the cake 
has been taken1 which is still smoking4 
,g--,labourer carrying a cake out of the
 works4  ,now when the colour begins to 
show in the silver1 bright spots appear1
 some of them being almost white1 and a 
moment afterward it becomes absolutely  
white4 ,then the assistant lets down the
 water-gates1 so that1 the race being   
closed1 the water-wheel ceases to turn  
and the bellows are still4 ,then the    
master pours several buckets of water on
 to the silver to cool it2 others pour  
beer over it to make it whiter1 but this
 is of no importance since the silver   
has yet to be refined4 ,afterward1 the  
cake of silver is raised with the       
pointed iron bar1 which is three feet   
long and two digits wide1 and has a     
wooden handle four feet long fixed in   

its socket4 ,when the cake of silver has
 been taken from the crucible1 it is    
laid upon a stone1 and from part of it  
the hearth-lead1 and from the other part
 the litharge1 is chipped away with a   
hammer2 then it is cleansed with a      
bundle of brass wire dipped in water4   
,when the lead is separated from the    
silver1 more silver is frequently found 
than when it was assayed2 for instance1 
if before there were three unciae and as
 many drachmae in a centumpondium1 they 
now sometimes find three unciae and a   
half#cf4 ,often the hearth-lead         
remaining in the crucible is a palm     
deep2 it is taken out with the rest of  
the ashes and is sifted1 and that which 
remains in the sieve1 since it is       
hearth-lead1 is added to the            
hearth-lead#cg4  ,the ashes which pass  
through the sieve are of the same use as
 they were at first1 for1 indeed1 from  
these and pulverised bones they make the
 cupels4 ,finally1 when much of it has  
accumulated1 the yellow pompholyx       

adhering to the walls of the furnace1   
and likewise to those rings of the dome 
near the apertures1 is cleared away4    
,illustration #dgi 7,crane for          
cupellation furnace73 ,a--,crane-post4  
,b--,socket4 ,c--,oak cross-sills4      
,d--,band4 ,e--,roof-beam4 ,f--,frame4  
,g--,lower small cross-beam4            
,h--,upright timber4 ,i--,bars which    
come from the sides of the crane-post4  
,k--,bars which come from the sides of  
the upright timber4 ,l--,rundle drums4  
,m--,toothed wheels4 ,n--,chain4        
,o--,pulley4 ,p--,beams of the          
crane-arm4 ,q--,oblique beams supporting
 the beams of the crane-arm4            
,r--,rectangular iron plates4           
,s--,trolley4 ,t--,dome of the furnace4 
,v--,ring4 ,x--,three chains4           
,y--,crank4 ,z--,the crane-post of the  
other contrivance4 ,,aa--,crane-arm4    
,,bb--,oblique beam4 ,,cc--,ring of the 
crane-arm4 ,,dd--,the second ring4      
,,ee--,lever-bar4 ,,ff--,third ring4    
,,gg--,hook4 ,,hh--,chain of the dome4  

,,ii--,chain of the lever-bar4  ,i must 
also describe the crane with which the  
dome is raised4 ,when it is made1 there 
is first set up a rectangular upright   
post twelve feet long1 each side of     
which measures a foot in width4 ,its    
lower pinion turns in a bronze socket   
set in an oak sill2 there are two sills 
placed crosswise so that the one fits in
 a mortise in the middle of the other1  
and the other likewise fits in the      
mortise of the first1 thus making a kind
 of a cross2 these sills are three feet 
long and one foot wide and thick4 ,the  
crane-post is round at its upper end and
 is cut down to a depth of three palms1 
and turns in a band fastened at each end
 to a roof-beam1 from which springs the 
inclined chimney wall4 ,to the          
crane-post is affixed a frame1 which is 
made in this way3 first1 at a height of 
a cubit from the bottom1 is mortised    
into the crane-post a small cross-beam1 
a cubit and three digits long1 except   
its tenons1 and two palms in width and  

thickness4 ,then again1 at a height of  
five feet above it1 is another small    
cross-beam of equal length1 width1 and  
thickness1 mortised into the crane-post4
 ,the other ends of these two small     
cross-beams are mortised into an upright
 timber1 six feet three palms long1 and 
three-quarters wide and thick2 the      
mortise is transfixed by wooden pegs4   
,above1 at a height of three palms from 
the lower small cross-beam1 are two     
bars1 one foot one palm long1 not       
including the tenons1 a palm three      
digits wide1 and a palm thick1 which are
 mortised in the other sides of the     
crane-post4 ,in the same manner1 under  
the upper small cross-beam are two bars 
of the same size4 ,also in the upright  
timber there are mortised the same      
number of bars1 of the same length as   
the preceding1 but three digits thick1 a
 palm two digits wide1 the two lower    
ones being above the lower small        
cross-beam4 ,from the upright timber    
near the upper small cross-beam1 which  

at its other end is mortised into the   
crane-post1 are two mortised bars4 ,on  
the outside of this frame1 boards are   
fixed to the small cross-beams1 but the 
front and back parts of the frame have  
doors1 whose hinges are fastened to the 
boards which are fixed to the bars that 
are mortised to the sides of the        
crane-post4  ,then boards are laid upon 
the lower small cross-beam1 and at a    
height of two palms above these there is
 a small square iron axle1 the sides of 
which are two digits wide2 both ends of 
it are round and turn in bronze or iron 
bearings1 one of these bearings being   
fastened in the crane-post1 the other in
 the upright timber4 ,about each end of 
the small axle is a wooden disc1 of     
three palms and a digit radius and one  
palm thick1 covered on the rim with an  
iron band2 these two discs are distant  
two palms and as many digits from each  
other1 and are joined with five rundles2
 these rundles are two and a half digits
 thick and are placed three digits      

apart4 ,thus a drum is made1 which is a 
palm and a digit distant from the       
upright timber1 but further from the    
crane-post1 namely1 a palm and three    
digits4 ,at a height of a foot and a    
palm above this little axle is a second 
small square iron axle1 the thickness of
 which is three digits2 this one1 like  
the first one1 turns in bronze or iron  
bearings4 ,around it is a toothed wheel1
 composed of two discs a foot three     
palms in diameter1 a palm and two digits
 thick2 on the rim of this there are    
twenty-three teeth1 a palm wide and two 
digits thick2 they protrude a palm from 
the wheel and are three digits apart4   
,and around this same axle1 at a        
distance of two palms and as many digits
 toward the upright timber1 is another  
disc of the same diameter as the wheel  
and a palm thick2 this turns in a       
hollowed-out place in the upright       
timber4 ,between this disc and the disc 
of the toothed wheel another drum is    
made1 having likewise five rundles4     

,there is1 in addition to this second   
axle1 at a height of a cubit above it1 a
 small wooden axle1 the journals of     
which are of iron2 the ends are bound   
round with iron rings so that the       
journals may remain firmly fixed1 and   
the journals1 like the little iron      
axles1 turn in bronze or iron bearings4 
,this third axle is at a distance of    
about a cubit from the upper small      
cross-beam2 it has1 near the upright    
timber1 a toothed wheel two and a half  
feet in diameter1 on the rim of which   
are twenty-seven teeth2 the other part  
of this axle1 near the crane-post1 is   
covered with iron plates1 lest it should
 be worn away by the chain which winds  
around it4 ,the end link of the chain is
 fixed in an iron pin driven into the   
little axle2 this chain passes out of   
the frame and turns over a little pulley
 set between the beams of the crane-arm4
  ,above the frame1 at a height of a    
foot and a palm1 is the crane-arm4 ,this
 consists of two beams fifteen feet     

long1 three palms wide1 and two thick1  
mortised into the crane-post1 and they  
protrude a cubit from the back of the   
crane-post and are fastened together4   
,moreover1 they are fastened by means of
 a wooden pin which penetrates through  
them and the crane-post2 this pin has at
 the one end a broad head1 and at the   
other a hole1 through which is driven an
 iron bolt1 so that the beams may be    
tightly bound into the crane-post4 ,the 
beams of the crane-arm are supported and
 stayed by means of two oblique beams1  
six feet and two palms long1 and        
likewise two palms wide and thick2 these
 are mortised into the crane-post at    
their lower ends1 and their upper ends  
are mortised into the beams of the      
crane-arm at a point about four feet    
from the crane-post1 and they are       
fastened with iron nails4 ,at the back  
of the upper end of these oblique beams1
 toward the crane-post1 is an iron      
staple1 fastened into the lower sides of
 the beams of the crane-arm1 in order   

that it may hold them fast and bind     
them4 ,the outer end of each beam of the
 crane-arm is set in a rectangular iron 
plate1 and between these are three      
rectangular iron plates1 fixed in such a
 manner that the beams of the crane-arm 
can neither move away from1 nor toward1 
each other4 ,the upper sides of these   
crane-arm beams are covered with iron   
plates for a length of six feet1 so that
 a trolley can move on it4  ,the body of
 the trolley is made of wood from the   
,ostrya or any other hard tree1 and is a
 cubit long1 a foot wide1 and three     
palms thick2 on both edges of it the    
lower side is cut out to a height and   
width of a palm1 so that the remainder  
may move backward and forward between   
the two beams of the crane-arm2 at the  
front1 in the middle part1 it is cut out
 to a width of two palms and as many    
digits1 that a bronze pulley1 around a  
small iron axle1 may turn in it4 ,near  
the corners of the trolley are four     
holes1 in which as many small wheels    

travel on the beams of the crane-arm4   
,since this trolley1 when it travels    
backward and forward1 gives out a sound 
somewhat similar to the barking of a    
dog1 we have given it this name#ch4 ,it 
is propelled forward by means of a      
crank1 and is drawn back by means of a  
chain4 ,there is an iron hook whose ring
 turns round an iron pin fastened to the
 right side of the trolley1 which hook  
is held by a sort of clavis1 which is   
fixed in the right beam of the          
crane-arm4  ,at the end of the          
crane-post is a bronze pulley1 the iron 
axle of which is fastened in the beams  
of the crane-arm1 and over which the    
chain passes as it comes from the frame1
 and then1 penetrating through the      
hollow in the top of the trolley1 it    
reaches to the little bronze pulley of  
the trolley1 and passing over this it   
hangs down4 ,a hook on its end engages a
 ring1 in which are fixed the top links 
of three chains1 each six feet long1    
which pass through the three iron rings 

fastened in the holes of the claves     
which are fixed into the middle iron    
band of the dome1 of which ,i have      
spoken4  ,therefore when the master     
wishes to lift the dome by means of the 
crane1 the assistant fits over the lower
 small iron axle an iron crank1 which   
projects from the upright beam a palm   
and two digits2 the end of the little   
axle is rectangular1 and one and a half 
digits wide and one digit thick2 it is  
set into a similar rectangular hole in  
the crank1 which is two digits long and 
a little more than a digit wide4 ,the   
crank is semi-circular1 and one foot    
three palms and two digits long1 as many
 digits wide1 and one digit thick4 ,its 
handle is straight and round1 and three 
palms long1 and one and a half digits   
thick4 ,there is a hole in the end of   
the little axle1 through which an iron  
pin is driven so that the crank may not 
come off4 ,the crane having four drums1 
two of which are rundle-drums and two   
toothed-wheels1 is more easily moved    

than another having two drums1 one of   
which has rundles and the other teeth4  
,many1 however1 use only a simple       
contrivance1 the pivots of whose        
crane-post turn in the same manner1 the 
one in an iron socket1 the other in a   
ring4 ,there is a crane-arm on the      
crane-post1 which is supported by an    
oblique beam2 to the head of the        
crane-arm a strong iron ring is fixed1  
which engages a second iron ring4 ,in   
this iron ring a strong wooden lever-bar
 is fastened firmly1 the head of which  
is bound by a third iron ring1 from     
which hangs an iron hook1 which engages 
the rings at the ends of the chains from
 the dome4 ,at the other end of the     
lever-bar is another chain1 which1 when 
it is pulled down1 raises the opposite  
end of the bar and thus the dome2 and   
when it is relaxed the dome is lowered4 
,illustration #dha 7,cupellation        
,furnace at ,freiberg73 ,a--,chamber of 
the furnace4 ,b--,its bed4              
,c--,passages4 ,d--,rammer4 ,e--,mallet4

 ,f--,artificer making tubes from       
litharge according to the ,roman method4
 ,g--,channel4 ,h--,litharge4 ,i--,lower
 crucible or hearth4 ,k--,stick4        
,l--,tubes4  ,in certain places1 as at  
,freiberg in ,meissen1 the upper part of
 the cupellation furnace is vaulted     
almost like an oven4 ,this chamber is   
four feet high and has either two or    
three apertures1 of which the first1 in 
front1 is one and a half feet high and a
 foot wide1 and out of this flows the   
litharge2 the second aperture and       
likewise the third1 if there be three1  
are at the sides1 and are a foot and a  
half high and two and a half feet wide1 
in order that he who prepares the       
crucible may be able to creep into the  
furnace4 ,its circular bed is made of   
cement1 it has two passages two feet    
high and one foot wide1 for letting out 
the vapour1 and these lead directly     
through from one side to the other1 so  
that the one passage crosses the other  
at right angles1 and thus four openings 

are to be seen2 these are covered at the
 top by rocks1 wide1 but only a palm    
thick4 ,on these and on the other parts 
of the interior of the bed made of      
cement1 is placed lute mixed with straw1
 to a depth of three digits1 as it was  
placed over the sole and the plates of  
copper and the rocks of that other      
furnace4 ,this1 together with the ashes 
which are thrown in1 the master or the  
assistant1 who1 upon his knees1 prepares
 the crucible1 tamps down with short    
wooden rammers and with mallets likewise
 made of wood4  ,illustration #dhb      
7,cupellation ,furnace in ,poland73     
,a--,furnace similar to an oven4        
,b--,passage4 ,c--,iron bars4 ,d--,hole 
through which the litharge is drawn out4
 ,e--,crucible which lacks a dome4      
,f--,thick sticks4 ,g--,bellows4  ,the  
cupellation furnace in ,poland and      
,hungary is likewise vaulted at the top1
 and is almost similar to an oven1 but  
in the lower part the bed is solid1 and 
there is no opening for the vapours1    

while on one side of the crucible is a  
wall1 between which and the bed of the  
crucible is a passage in place of the   
opening for vapours2 this passage is    
covered by iron bars or rods extending  
from the wall to the crucible1 and      
placed a distance of two digits from    
each other4 ,in the crucible1 when it is
 prepared1 they first scatter straw1 and
 then they lay in it cakes of           
silver-lead alloy1 and on the iron bars 
they lay wood1 which when kindled heats 
the crucible4 ,they melt cakes to the   
weight of sometimes eighty centumpondia 
and sometimes a hundred centumpondia#ci4
 ,they stimulate a mild fire by means of
 a blast from the bellows1 and throw on 
to the bars as much wood as is required 
to make a flame which will reach into   
the crucible1 and separate the lead from
 the silver4 ,the litharge is drawn out 
on the other side through an aperture   
that is just wide enough for the master 
to creep through into the crucible4 ,the
 ,moravians and ,carni1 who very rarely 

make more than a bes or five-sixths of a
 libra of silver1 separate the lead from
 it1 neither in a furnace resembling an 
oven1 nor in the crucible covered by a  
dome1 but on a crucible which is without
 a cover and exposed to the wind2 on    
this crucible they lay cakes of         
silver-lead alloy1 and over them they   
place dry wood1 and over these again    
thick green wood4 ,the wood having been 
kindled1 they stimulate the fire by     
means of a bellows4  ,illustration #dhd 
7,refining ,silver73 ,a--,pestle with   
teeth4 ,b--,pestle without teeth4       
,c--,dish or tray full of ashes4        
,d--,prepared tests placed on boards or 
shelves4 ,e--,empty tests4 ,f--,wood4   
,g--,saw4  ,illustration #dhe 7,refining
 ,silver73 ,a--,straight knife having   
wooden handles4 ,b--,curved knife       
likewise having wooden handles4         
,c--,curved knife without wooden        
handles4 ,d--,sieve4 ,e--,balls4        
,f--,iron door which the master lets    
down when he refines silver1 lest the   

heat of the fire should injure his eyes4
 ,g--,iron implement on which the wood  
is placed when the liquid silver is to  
be refined4 ,h--,its other part passing 
through the ring of another iron        
implement enclosed in the wall of the   
furnace4 ,i--,tests in which burning    
charcoal has been thrown4  ,i have      
explained the method of separating lead 
from gold or silver4 ,now ,i will speak 
of the method of refining silver1 for ,i
 have already explained the process for 
refining gold4 ,silver is refined in a  
refining furnace1 over whose hearth is  
an arched chamber built of bricks2 this 
chamber in the front part is three feet 
high4 ,the hearth itself is five feet   
long and four wide4 ,the walls are      
unbroken along the sides and back1 but  
in front one chamber is placed over the 
other1 and above these and the wall is  
the upright chimney4 ,the hearth has a  
round pit1 a cubit wide and two palms   
deep1 into which are thrown sifted      
ashes1 and in this is placed a prepared 

earthenware test1 in such a manner that 
it is surrounded on all sides by ashes  
to a height equal to its own4 ,the      
earthenware test is filled with a powder
 consisting of equal portions of bones  
ground to powder1 and of ashes taken    
from the crucible in which lead is      
separated from gold or silver2 others   
mix crushed brick with the ashes1 for by
 this method the powder attracts no     
silver to itself4 ,when the powder has  
been made up and moistened with water1 a
 little is thrown into the earthenware  
test and tamped with a wooden pestle4   
,this pestle is round1 a foot long1 and 
a palm and a digit wide1 out of which   
extend six teeth1 each a digit thick1   
and a digit and a third long and wide1  
and almost a digit apart2 these six     
teeth form a circle1 and in the centre  
of them is the seventh tooth1 which is  
round and of the same length as the     
others1 but a digit and a half thick2   
this pestle tapers a little from the    
bottom up1 that the upper part of the   

handle may be round and three digits    
thick4 ,some use a round pestle without 
teeth4 ,then a little powder is again   
moistened1 and thrown into the test1 and
 tamped2 this work is repeated until the
 test is entirely full of the powder1   
which the master then cuts out with a   
knife1 sharp on both sides1 and turned  
upward at both ends so that the central 
part is a palm and a digit long2        
therefore it is partly straight and     
partly curved4 ,the blade is one and a  
half digits wide1 and at each end it    
turns upward two palms1 which ends to   
the depth of a palm are either not      
sharpened or they are enclosed in wooden
 handles4 ,the master holds the knife   
with one hand and cuts out the powder   
from the test1 so that it is left three 
digits thick all round2 then he sifts   
the powder of dried bones over it       
through a sieve1 the bottom of which is 
made of closely-woven bristles4         
,afterward a ball made of very hard     
wood1 six digits in diameter1 is placed 

in the test and rolled about with both  
hands1 in order to make the inside even 
and smooth2 for that matter he may move 
the ball about with only one hand4 ,the 
tests#dj are of various capacities1 for 
some of them when prepared hold much    
less than fifteen librae of silver1     
others twenty1 some thirty1 others      
forty1 and others fifty4 ,all these     
tests thus prepared are dried in the    
sun1 or set in a warm and covered place2
 the more dry and old they are the      
better4 ,all of them1 when used for     
refining silver1 are heated by means of 
burning charcoal placed in them4 ,others
 use instead of these tests an iron     
ring2 but the test is more useful1 for  
if the powder deteriorates the silver   
remains in it1 while there being no     
bottom to the ring1 it falls out2       
besides1 it is easier to place in the   
hearth the test than the iron ring1 and 
furthermore it requires much less       
powder4 ,in order that the test should  
not break and damage the silver1 some   

bind it round with an iron band4        
,illustration #dhf 7,refining ,silver73 
,a--,grate4 ,b--,brass block4 ,c--,block
 of wood4 ,d--,cakes of silver4         
,e--,hammer4 ,f--,block of wood         
channelled in the middle4 ,g--,bowl full
 of holes4 ,h--,block of wood fastened  
to an iron implement4 ,i--,fir-wood4    
,k--,iron bar4 ,l--,implement with a    
hollow end4 ,the implement which has a  
circular end is shown in the next       
picture4 ,m--,implement1 the extremity  
of which is bent upwards4 ,n--,implement
 in the shape of tongs4  ,in order that 
they may be more easily broken1 the     
silver cakes are placed upon an iron    
grate by the refiner1 and are heated by 
burning charcoal placed under them4 ,he 
has a brass block two palms and two     
digits long and wide1 with a channel in 
the middle1 which he places upon a block
 of hard wood4 ,then with a             
double-headed hammer1 he beats the hot  
cakes of silver placed on the brass     
block1 and breaks them in pieces4 ,the  

head of this hammer is a foot and two   
digits long1 and a palm wide4 ,others   
use for this purpose merely a block of  
wood channelled in the top4 ,while the  
fragments of the cake are still hot1 he 
seizes them with the tongs and throws   
them into a bowl with holes in the      
bottom1 and pours water over them4 ,when
 the fragments are cooled1 he puts them 
nicely into the test by placing them so 
that they stand upright and project from
 the test to a height of two palms1 and 
lest one should fall against the other1 
he places little pieces of charcoal     
between them2 then he places live       
charcoal in the test1 and soon two twig 
basketsful of charcoal4 ,then he blows  
in air with the bellows4 ,this bellows  
is double1 and four feet two palms long1
 and two feet and as many palms wide at 
the back2 the other parts are similar to
 those described in ,book ,,vii4 ,the   
nozzle of the bellows is placed in a    
bronze pipe a foot long1 the aperture in
 this pipe being a digit in diameter in 

front and quite round1 and at the back  
two palms wide4 ,the master1 because he 
needs for the operation of refining     
silver a fierce fire1 and requires on   
that account a vigorous blast1 places   
the bellows very much inclined1 in order
 that1 when the silver has melted1 it   
may blow into the centre of the test4   
,when the silver bubbles1 he presses the
 nozzle down by means of a small block  
of wood moistened with water and        
fastened to an iron rod1 the outer end  
of which bends upward4 ,the silver melts
 when it has been heated in the test for
 about an hour2 when it is melted1 he   
removes the live coals from the test and
 places over it two billets of fir-wood1
 a foot and three palms long1 a palm two
 digits wide1 one palm thick at the     
upper part1 and three digits at the     
lower4 ,he joins them together at the   
lower edges1 and into the billets he    
again throws the coals1 for a fierce    
fire is always necessary in refining    
silver4 ,it is refined in two or three  

hours1 according to whether it was pure 
or impure1 and if it is impure it is    
made purer by dropping granulated copper
 or lead into the test at the same time4
 ,in order that the refiner may sustain 
the great heat from the fire while the  
silver is being refined1 he lets down an
 iron door1 which is three feet long and
 a foot and three palms high2 this door 
is held on both ends in iron plates1 and
 when the operation is concluded1 he    
raises it again with an iron shovel1 so 
that its edge holds against the iron    
hook in the arch1 and thus the door is  
held open4 ,when the silver is nearly   
refined1 which may be judged by the     
space of time1 he dips into it an iron  
bar1 three and a half feet long and a   
digit thick1 having a round steel point4
 ,the small drops of silver that adhere 
to the bar he places on the brass block 
and flattens with a hammer1 and from    
their colour he decides whether the     
silver is sufficiently refined or not4  
,if it is thoroughly purified it is very

 white1 and in a bes there is only a    
drachma of impurities4 ,some ladle up   
the silver with a hollow iron implement4
 ,of each bes of silver one sicilicus is
 consumed1 or occasionally when very    
impure1 three drachmae or half an       
uncia#da4  ,illustration #dhh           
7,cleansing of ,silver ,cakes73         
,a--,implement with a ring4 ,b--,ladle4 
,c--,its hole4 ,d--,pointed bar4        
,e--,forks4 ,f--,cake of silver laid    
upon the implement shaped like tongs4   
,g--,tub of water4 ,h--,block of wood1  
with a cake laid upon it4 ,i--,hammer4  
,k--,silver again placed upon the       
implement resembling tongs4 ,l--,another
 tub full of water4 ,m--,brass wires4   
,n--,tripod4 ,o--,another block4        
,p--,chisel4 ,q--,crucible of the       
furnace4 ,r--,test still smoking4  ,the 
refiner governs the fire and stirs the  
molten silver with an iron implement1   
nine feet long1 a digit thick1 and at   
the end first curved toward the right1  
then curved back in order to form a     

circle1 the interior of which is a palm 
in diameter2 others use an iron         
implement1 the end of which is bent     
directly upward4 ,another iron implement
 has the shape of tongs1 with which1 by 
compressing it with his hands1 he seizes
 the coals and puts them on or takes    
them off2 this is two feet long1 one and
 a half digits wide1 and the third of a 
digit thick4  ,when the silver is seen  
to be thoroughly refined1 the artificer 
removes the coals from the test with a  
shovel4 ,soon afterward he draws water  
in a copper ladle1 which has a wooden   
handle four feet long2 it has a small   
hole at a point half-way between the    
middle of the bowl and the edge1 through
 which a hemp seed just passes4 ,he     
fills this ladle three times with water1
 and three times it all flows out       
through the hole on to the silver1 and  
slowly quenches it2 if he suddenly      
poured much water on it1 it would burst 
asunder and injure those standing near4 
,the artificer has a pointed iron bar1  

three feet long1 which has a wooden     
handle as many feet long1 and he puts   
the end of this bar into the test in    
order to stir it4 ,he also stirs it with
 a hooked iron bar1 of which the hook is
 two digits wide and a palm deep1 and   
the iron part of its handle is three    
feet long and the wooden part the same4 
,then he removes the test from the      
hearth with a shovel or a fork1 and     
turns it over1 and by this means the    
silver falls to the ground in the shape 
of half a sphere2 then lifting the cake 
with a shovel he throws it into a tub of
 water1 where it gives out a great      
sound4 ,or else1 having lifted the cake 
of silver with a fork1 he lays it upon  
the iron implement similar to tongs1    
which are placed across a tub full of   
water2 afterward1 when cooled1 he takes 
it from the tub again and lays it on the
 block made of hard wood and beats it   
with a hammer1 in order to break off any
 of the powder from the test which      
adheres to it4 ,the cake is then placed 

on the implement similar to tongs1 laid 
over the tub full of water1 and cleaned 
with a bundle of brass wire dipped into 
the water2 this operation of beating and
 cleansing is repeated until it is all  
clean4 ,afterward he places it on an    
iron grate or tripod2 the tripod is a   
palm and two digits high1 one and a half
 digits wide1 and its span is two palms 
wide2 then he puts burning charcoal     
under the tripod or grate1 in order     
again to dry the silver that was        
moistened by the water4 ,finally1 the   
,royal ,inspector#db in the employment  
of the ,king or ,prince1 or the owner1  
lays the silver on a block of wood1 and 
with an engraver's chisel he cuts out   
two small pieces1 one from the under and
 the other from the upper side4 ,these  
are tested by fire1 in order to         
ascertain whether the silver is         
thoroughly refined or not1 and at what  
price it should be sold to the          
merchants4 ,finally he impresses upon it
 the seal of the ,king or the ,prince or

 the owner1 and1 near the same1 the     
amount of the weight4  ,illustration    
#dhi 7,refining ,silver73 ,a--,muffle4  
,b--,its little windows4 ,c--,its little
 bridge4 ,d--,bricks4 ,e--,iron door4   
,f--,its little window4 ,g--,bellows4   
,h--,hammer-chisel4 ,i--,iron ring which
 some use instead of the test4          
,k--,pestle with which the ashes placed 
in the ring are pounded4  ,there are    
some who refine silver in tests placed  
under iron or earthenware muffles4 ,they
 use a furnace1 on the hearth of which  
they place the test containing the      
fragments of silver1 and they place the 
muffle over it2 the muffle has small    
windows at the sides1 and in front a    
little bridge4 ,in order to melt the    
silver1 at the sides of the muffle are  
laid bricks1 upon which the charcoal is 
placed1 and burning firebrands are put  
on the bridge4 ,the furnace has an iron 
door1 which is covered on the side next 
to the fire with lute in order that it  
may not be injured4 ,when the door is   

closed it retains the heat of the fire1 
but it has a small window1 so that the  
artificers may look into the test and   
may at times stimulate the fire with the
 bellows4 ,although by this method      
silver is refined more slowly than by   
the other1 nevertheless it is more      
useful1 because less loss is caused1 for
 a gentle fire consumes fewer particles 
than a fierce fire continually excited  
by the blast of the bellows4 ,if1 on    
account of its great size1 the cake of  
silver can be carried only with         
difficulty when it is taken out of the  
muffle1 they cut it up into two or three
 pieces while it is still hot1 with a   
wedge or a hammer-chisel2 for if they   
cut it up after it has cooled1 little   
pieces of it frequently fly off and are 
lost4       ,,end ,,of ,,book ,x4       
,,footnotes3  #a ,vile a precioso4  #b  
,the reagents mentioned in this ,book   
are much the same as those of ,book     
,,vii1 where 7p4 #bbj7 a table is given 
showing the ,latin and ,old ,german     

terms4 ,footnotes in explanation of our 
views as to these substances may be most
 easily consulted through the index4  #c
 ,aqua valens1 literally strong1 potent1
 or powerful water4 ,it will appear     
later1 from the method of manufacture1  
that hydrochloric1 nitric1 and sulphuric
 acids and aqua regia were more or less 
all produced and all included in this   
term4 ,we have1 therefore1 used either  
the term aqua valens or simply aqua as  
it occurs in the text4 ,the terms aqua  
fortis and aqua regia had come into use 
prior to ,agricola1 but he does not use 
them2 the ,alchemists used various      
terms1 often aqua dissolvia4 ,it is     
apparent from the uses to which this    
reagent was put in separating gold and  
silver1 from the method of clarifying it
 with silver and from the red fumes1    
that ,agricola could have had practical 
contact only with nitric acid4 ,it is   
probable that he has copied part of the 
recipes for the compounds to be         
distilled from the ,alchemists and from 

such works as the ,probierbuechlein4 ,in
 any event he could not have had        
experience with them all1 for in some   
cases the necessary ingredients for     
making nitric acid are not all present1 
and therefore could be of no use for    
gold and silver separation4 ,the        
essential ingredients for the production
 of this acid by distillation1 were     
saltpetre1 water1 and either vitriol or 
alum4 ,the other substances mentioned   
were unnecessary1 and any speculation as
 to the combinations which would result1
 forms a useful exercise in chemistry1  
but of little purpose here4 ,the first  
recipe would no doubt produce           
hydrochloric acid4  #d ,agricola1 in the
 ,interpretatio1 gives the ,german      
equivalent for the ,latin aerugo as     
,spanschgruen--because it was first     
brought to ,germany from ,spain2        
foreigners call it viride aeris 7copper 
green74 ,the ,english verdigris is a    
corruption of vert de grice4 ,both      
verdigris and white lead were very      

ancient products1 and they naturally    
find mention together among the ancient 
authors4 ,the earliest description of   
the method of making is from the #crd   
,century ,b4,c41 by ,theophrastus1 who  
says 7#aja-b73 ,but these are works of  
art1 as is also ,ceruse 7psimythion7 to 
make which1 lead is placed in earthen   
vessels over sharp vinegar1 and after it
 has acquired some thickness of a kind  
of rust1 which it commonly does in about
 ten days1 they open the vessels and    
scrape off1 as it were1 a kind of       
foulness2 they then place the lead over 
the vinegar again1 repeating over and   
over again the same method of scraping  
it till it is wholly dissolved2 what has
 been scraped off they then beat to     
powder and boil for a long time2 and    
what at last subsides to the bottom of  
the vessel is the white lead4444 ,also  
in a manner somewhat resembling this1   
verdigris 7ios7 is made1 for copper is  
placed over lees of wine 7grape         
refuse871 and the rust which it acquires

 by this means is taken off for use4    
,and it is by this means that the rust  
which appears is produced4 7,based on   
,hill's translation47 ,vitruvius 7,,vii1
 #ab71 ,dioscorides 7,v1 #ea71 and      
,pliny 7,,xxxiv1 #bf and #ed71 all      
describe the method of making somewhat  
more elaborately4  #e ,amiantus         
7,interpretatio gives federwis1 pliant1 
salamanderhar74 ,from ,agricola's       
elaborate description in ,de ,natura    
,fossilium 7p4 #beb7 there can be no    
doubt that he means asbestos4 ,this     
mineral was well-known to the ,ancients1
 and is probably earliest referred to   
7#crd ,century ,b4,c47 by ,theophrastus 
in the following passage 7#bi73 ,there  
is also found in the mines of           
,scaptesylae a stone1 in its external   
appearance somewhat resembling wood1 on 
which1 if oil be poured1 it burns2 but  
when the oil is burnt away1 the burning 
of the stone ceases1 as if it were in   
itself not liable to such accidents4    
,there can be no doubt that ,strabo 7,x1

 #a7 describes the mineral3 ,at         
,carystus there is found in the earth a 
stone1 which is combed like wool1 and   
woven1 so that napkins are made of this 
substance1 which1 when soiled1 are      
thrown into the fire and cleaned1 as in 
the washing of linen4 ,it is also       
described by ,dioscorides 7,v1 #aac7 and
 ,pliny 7,,xix1 #d74 ,asbestos cloth has
 been found in ,pre-,augustinian ,roman 
tombs4  #f ,this list of four recipes is
 even more obscure than the previous    
list4 ,if they were distilled1 the first
 and second mixtures would not produce  
nitric acid1 although possibly some     
sulphuric would result4 ,the third might
 yield nitric1 and the fourth aqua      
regia4 ,in view of the water1 they were 
certainly not used as cements1 and the  
first and second are deficient in the   
vital ingredients4  #g ,distillation1 at
 least in crude form1 is very old4      
,aristotle 7,meteorologica1 ,,iv47      
states that sweet water can be made by  
evaporating salt-water and condensing   

the steam4 ,dioscorides and ,pliny both 
describe the production of mercury by   
distillation 7note #eh1 p4 #dcb74 ,the  
,alchemists of the ,alexandrian ,school1
 from the #ast to the #fth ,centuries1  
mention forms of imperfect apparatus--an
 ample discussion of which may be found 
in ,kopp1 ,beitraege zur ,geschichte der
 ,chemie1 ,braunschweig1 #ahfi1 p4 #bag4
  #h ,it is desirable to note the       
contents of the residues in the retort1 
for it is our belief that these are the 
materials to which the author refers as 
lees of the water which separates gold  
from silver1 in many places in ,book    
,,vii4 ,they would be strange mixtures  
of sodium1 potassium1 aluminium         
sulphates1 with silica1 brickdust1      
asbestos1 and various proportions of    
undigested vitriol1 salt1 saltpetre1    
alum1 iron oxides1 etc4 ,their effect   
must have been uncertain4 ,many old     
,german metallurgies also refer to the  
,todenkopf der ,scheidwasser1 among them
 the ,probierbuechlein before ,agricola1

 and after him ,lazarus ,ercker         
7,beschreibung ,allerfuernemsten1 etc41 
,prague1 #aegd74 ,see also note #af1 p4 
#bcd4  #i ,this use of silver could     
apply to one purpose only1 that is1 the 
elimination of minor amounts of         
hydrochloric from the nitric acid1 the  
former originating no doubt from the use
 of salt among the ingredients4 ,the    
silver was thus converted into a        
chloride and precipitated4 ,this use of 
a small amount of silver to purify the  
nitric acid was made by metallurgists   
down to fairly recent times4            
,biringuccio 7,,iv1 #b7 and ,lazarus    
,ercker 7p4 #ga7 both recommend that the
 silver be dissolved first in a small   
amount of acid1 and the solution poured 
into the newly-manufactured supply4     
,they both recommend preserving this    
precipitate and its cupellation after   
melting with lead--which ,agricola      
apparently overlooked4  #aj ,in this    
description of parting by nitric acid1  
the author digresses from his main theme

 on pages #ddd and #dde1 to explain a   
method apparently for small quantities  
where the silver was precipitated by    
copper1 and to describe another cryptic 
method of precipitation4 ,these subjects
 are referred to in notes #aa and #ab   
below4 ,the method of parting set out   
here falls into six stages3             
a--cupellation1 b--granulation1         
c--solution in acid1 d--treatment of the
 gold residues1 e--evaporation of the   
solution1 f--reduction of the silver    
nitrate4 ,for nitric acid parting1      
bullion must be free from impurities1   
which cupellation would ensure2 if      
copper were left in1 it would have the  
effect he mentions if we understand the 
silver separated from the gold soon     
unites with it again1 to mean that the  
silver unites with the copper1 for the  
copper would go into solution and come  
down with the silver on evaporation4    
,agricola does not specifically mention 
the necessity of an excess of silver in 
this description1 although he does so   

elsewhere1 and states that the ratio    
must be at least three parts silver to  
one part gold4 ,the first description of
 the solution of the silver is clear    
enough1 but that on p4 #dde is somewhat 
difficult to follow1 for the author     
states that the bullion is placed in a  
retort with the acid1 and that          
distillation is carried on between each 
additional charge of acid4 ,so far as   
the arrangement of a receiver might     
relate to the saving of any acid that   
came over accidentally in the boiling1  
it can be understood1 but to distill off
 much acid would soon result in the     
crystallization of the silver nitrate1  
which would greatly impede the action of
 subsequent acid additions1 and finally 
the gold could not be separated from    
such nitrate in the way described4 ,the 
explanation may be 7apart from          
incidental evaporation when heating7    
that the acids used were very weak1 and 
that by the evaporation of a certain    
amount of water1 not only was the acid  

concentrated1 but room was provided for 
the further charges4 ,the acid in the   
gold wash-water1 mentioned in the       
following paragraph1 was apparently thus
 concentrated4 ,the glass mentioned as  
being melted with litharge1 argols1     
nitre1 etc41 was no doubt the silver    
nitrate4 ,the precipitation of the      
silver from the solution as a chloride1 
by the use of salt1 so generally used   
during the #ahth and #aith ,centuries1  
was known in ,agricola's time1 although 
he does not mention it4 ,it is mentioned
 in ,geber and the ,probierbuechlein4   
,the clarity of the latter on the       
subject is of some interest 7p4 #cd;a73 
,how to pulverise silver and again make 
it into silver4 ,take the silver and    
dissolve it in water with the           
starckenwasser1 aqua fort1 and when that
 is done1 take the silver water and pour
 it into warm salty water1 and          
immediately the silver settles to the   
bottom and becomes powder4 ,let it stand
 awhile until it has well settled1 then 

pour away the water from it and dry the 
settlings1 which will become a powder   
like ashes4 ,afterward one can again    
make it into silver4 ,take the powder   
and put it on a test1 and add thereto   
the powder from the settlings from which
 the aqua forte has been made1 and add  
lead4 ,then if there is a great deal1   
blow on it until the lead has           
incorporated itself 444 blow it until it
 plickt 7blickens74 ,then you will have 
as much silver as before4  #aa ,the     
silver is apparently precipitated by the
 copper of the bowl4 ,it would seem that
 this method was in considerable use for
 small amounts of silver nitrate in the 
#afth ,century4 ,lazarus ,ercker gives  
elaborate directions for this method    
7,beschreibung ,allerfuernemsten1 etc41 
,prague1 #aegd1 p4 #gg74  #ab ,we       
confess to a lack of understanding of   
this operation with leaves of lead and  
copper4  #ac ,we do not understand this 
appearance of black4 ,if the nitrate    
came into contact with organic matter it

 would1 of course1 turn black by        
reduction of the silver1 and sunlight   
would have the same effect4  #ad ,this  
would be equal to from #fb to #id parts 
of copper in #a1jjj4  #ae ,as #add      
siliquae are #a uncia1 then #a_/d       
siliqua in #h unciae would equal one    
part silver in #d1fjh parts gold1 or    
about #iii4h fine4  #af ,the object of  
this treatment with sulphur and copper  
is to separate a considerable portion of
 silver from low-grade bullion 7i4e41   
silver containing some gold71 in        
preparation for final treatment of the  
richer gold-silver alloy with nitric    
acid4 ,silver sulphide is created by    
adding sulphur1 and is drawn off in a   
silver-copper regulus4 ,after the first 
sentence1 the author uses silver alone  
where he obviously means silver         
containing some gold1 and further he    
speaks of the gold lump 7massula7 where 
he likewise means a button containing a 
great deal of silver4 ,for clarity we   
introduced the term regulus for the     

,latin mistura4 ,the operation falls    
into six stages3 a1 granulation2 b1     
sulphurization of the granulated        
bullion2 c1 melting to form a           
combination of the silver sulphide with 
copper into a regulus1 an alloy of gold 
and silver settling out2 d1 repetition  
of the treatment to abstract further    
silver from the lump2 e1 refining the   
lump with nitric acid2 f1 recovery of   
the silver from the regulus by addition 
of lead1 liquation and cupellation4     
,the use of a circle of fire secures a  
low temperature that would neither      
volatilize the sulphur nor melt the     
bullion4 ,the amount of sulphur given is
 equal to a ratio of #dh parts bullion  
and #i parts sulphur4 ,we are not       
certain about the translation of the    
paragraph in relation to the proportion 
of copper added to the granulated       
bullion2 because in giving definite     
quantities of copper to be added in the 
contingencies of various original copper
 contents in the bullion1 it would be   

expected that they were intended to     
produce some positive ratio of copper   
and silver4 ,however1 the ratio as we   
understand the text in various cases    
works out to irregular amounts1 i4e41   
#dh parts of silver to #af1 #ab4f1 #bd1 
#bj4e1 #bj4h1 #ag4h1 or #ah parts of    
copper4 ,in order to obtain complete    
separation there should be sufficient   
sulphur to have formed a sulphide of the
 copper as well as of the silver1 or    
else some of the copper and silver would
 come down metallic with the lump4 ,the 
above ratio of copper added to the      
sulphurized silver1 in the first        
instance would give about #ah parts of  
copper and #i parts of sulphur to #dh   
parts of silver4 ,the copper would      
require #d4e parts of sulphur to convert
 it into sulphide1 and the silver about 
#g parts1 or a total of #aa4e parts     
required against #i parts furnished4 ,it
 is plain1 therefore1 that insufficient 
sulphur is given4 ,further1 the litharge
 would probably take up some sulphur and

 throw down metallic lead into the lump4
 ,however1 it is necessary that there   
should be some free metallics to collect
 the gold1 and1 therefore1 the          
separation could not be complete in one 
operation4 ,in any event1 on the above  
ratios the gold lump from the first     
operation was pretty coppery1 and       
contained some lead and probably a good 
deal of silver1 because the copper would
 tend to desulphurize the latter4 ,the  
powder of glass-galls1 salt1 and        
litharge would render the mass more     
liquid and assist the gold lump to      
separate out4  ,the ,roman silver       
sesterce1 worth about #b-a_/h pence or  
#d4b ,american cents1 was no doubt used 
by ,agricola merely to indicate an      
infinitesimal quantity4 ,the test to be 
applied to the regulus by way of        
cupellation and parting of a sample with
 nitric acid1 requires no explanation4  
,the truth of the description as to     
determining whether the gold had settled
 out1 by using a chalked iron rod1 can  

only be tested by actual experiment4 ,it
 is probable1 however1 that the sulphur 
in the regulus would attack the iron and
 make it black4 ,the re-melting of the  
regulus1 if some gold remains in it1    
with copper and powder without more     
sulphur1 would provide again free       
metallics to gather the remaining gold1 
and by desulphurizing some silver this  
button would probably not be very pure4 
,from the necessity for some free       
metallics besides the gold in the first 
treatment1 it will be seen that a       
repetition of the sulphur addition and  
re-melting is essential gradually to    
enrich the lump4 ,why more copper is    
added is not clear4 ,in the second      
melting1 the ratio is #dh parts of the  
gold lump1 #ab parts of sulphur and #ab 
parts copper4 ,in this case the added   
copper would require about #c parts     
sulphur1 and if we consider the         
deficiency of sulphur in the first      
operations pertained entirely to the    
copper1 then about #b4e parts would be  

required to make good the shortage1 or  
in other words the second addition of   
sulphur is sufficient4 ,in the final    
parting of the lump it will be noticed  
that the author states that the silver  
ratio must be arranged as three of      
silver to one of gold4 ,as to the       
recovery of the silver from the regulus1
 he states that #ff librae of silver    
give #acb librae of regulus4 ,to this1  
#ejj librae of lead are added1 and it is
 melted in the second furnace1 and the  
litharge and hearth-lead made are       
re-melted in the first furnace1 the     
cakes made being again treated in the   
third furnace to separate the copper and
 lead4 ,the first is usually the blast  
furnace1 the second furnace is the      
cupellation furnace1 and the third the  
liquation furnace4 ,it is difficult to  
understand this procedure4 ,the charge  
sent to the cupellation furnace would   
contain between #c and #e copper1 and   
between #c and #e sulphur4 ,however1    
possibly the sulphur and copper could be

 largely abstracted in the skimmings    
from the cupellation furnace1 these     
being subsequently liquated in the third
 furnace4 ,it may be noted that two     
whole lines from this paragraph are     
omitted in the editions of ,de ,re      
,metallica after #afjj4 ,for historical 
note on sulphur separation see page     
#dfa4  #ag ,there can be no doubt that  
in most instances ,agricola's stibium is
 antimony sulphide1 but it does not     
follow that it was the mineral stibnite1
 nor have we considered it desirable to 
introduce the precision of either of    
these modern terms1 and have therefore  
retained the ,latin term where the      
sulphide is apparently intended4 ,the   
use of antimony sulphide to part silver 
from gold is based upon the greater     
affinity of silver than antimony for    
sulphur4 ,thus the silver1 as in the    
last process1 is converted into a       
sulphide1 and is absorbed in the        
regulus1 while the metallic antimony    
alloys with the gold and settles to the 

bottom of the pot4 ,this process has    
several advantages over the             
sulphurization with crude sulphur2      
antimony is a more convenient vehicle of
 sulphur1 for it saves the preliminary  
sulphurization with its attendant       
difficulties of volatilization of the   
sulphur2 it also saves the granulation  
necessary in the former method2 and the 
treatment of the subsequent products is 
simpler4 ,however1 it is possible that  
the sulphur-copper process was better   
adapted to bullion where the proportion 
of gold was low1 because the fineness of
 the bullion mentioned in connection    
with the antimonial process was         
apparently much higher than the previous
 process4 ,for instance1 a bes of gold1 
containing #e1 #f1 or #g double sextulae
 of silver would be 4#gib1 4#gej or     
4#gjh fine4 ,the antimonial method would
 have an advantage over nitric acid     
separation1 in that high-grade bullion  
could be treated direct without         
artificial decrease of fineness required

 by inquartation to about 4#bej fine1   
with the consequent incidental losses of
 silver involved4  ,the process in this 
description falls into six operations3  
a1 sulphurization of the silver by      
melting with antimony sulphide2 b1      
separation of the gold lump 7massula7 by
 jogging2 c1 re-melting the regulus     
7mistura7 three or four times for       
recovery of further lumps2 d1 re-melting
 of the lump four times1 with further   
additions of antimony sulphide2 e1      
cupellation of the regulus to recover   
the silver2 f1 cupellation of the       
antimony from the lump to recover the   
gold4 ,percy seems to think it difficult
 to understand the insistence upon the  
addition of copper4 ,biringuccio 7,,iv1 
#f7 states1 among other things1 that    
copper makes the ingredients more       
liquid4 ,the later metallurgists1       
however1 such as ,ercker1 ,lohneys1 and 
,schlueter1 do not mention this         
addition2 they do mention the swelling  
and frothing1 and recommend that the    

crucible should be only partly filled4  
,as to the copper1 we suggest that it   
would desulphurize part of the antimony 
and thus free some of that metal to     
collect the gold4 ,if we assume bullion 
of the medium fineness mentioned and    
containing no copper1 then the          
proportions in the first charge would be
 about #cf parts gold1 #ab parts silver1
 #da parts sulphur1 #ajc parts antimony1
 and #i parts copper4 ,the silver and   
copper would take up #d4be parts of     
sulphur1 and thus free about #aj4f parts
 of antimony as metallics4 ,it would    
thus appear that the amount of metallics
 provided to assist the collection of   
the gold was little enough1 and that the
 copper in freeing #e4f parts of the    
antimony was useful4 ,it appears to have
 been necessary to have a large excess  
of antimony sulphide2 for even with the 
great surplus in the first charge1 the  
reaction was only partial1 as is        
indicated by the necessity for repeated 
melting with further antimony4  ,the    

later metallurgists all describe the    
separation of the metallic antimony from
 the gold as being carried out by       
oxidation of the antimony1 induced by a 
jet of air into the crucible1 this being
 continued until the mass appears limpid
 and no cloud forms in the surface in   
cooling4 ,agricola describes the        
separation of the silver from the       
regulus by preliminary melting with     
argols1 glass-gall1 and some lead1 and  
subsequent cupellation of the           
lead-silver alloy4 ,the statement that  
unless this preliminary melting is done1
 the cupel will absorb silver1 might be 
consonant with an attempt at cupellation
 of sulphides1 and it is difficult to   
see that much desulphurizing could take 
place with the above fluxes4 ,in fact1  
in the later descriptions of the        
process1 iron is used in this melting1  
and we are under the impression that    
,agricola had omitted this item for a   
desulphurizing reagent4 ,at the ,dresden
 ,mint1 in the methods described by     

,percy 7,metallurgy ,silver and ,gold1  
p4 #cgc7 the gold lumps were tested for 
fineness1 and from this the amount of   
gold retained in the regulus was        
computed4 ,it is not clear from         
,agricola's account whether the test    
with nitric acid was applied to the     
regulus or to the lumps4 ,for historical
 notes see p4 #dfa4  #ah ,as will be    
shown in the historical note1 this      
process of separating gold and silver is
 of great antiquity--in all probability 
the only process known prior to the     
,middle ,ages1 and in any event1 the    
first one used4 ,in general the process 
was performed by cementing the          
disintegrated bullion with a paste and  
subjecting the mass to long-continued   
heat at a temperature under the melting 
point of the bullion4 ,the cement       
7compositio7 is of two different        
species2 in the first species saltpetre 
and vitriol and some aluminous or       
silicious medium are the essential      
ingredients1 and through them the silver

 is converted into nitrate and absorbed 
by the mass2 in the second species1     
common salt and the same sort of medium 
are the essentials1 and in this case the
 silver is converted into a chloride4   
,agricola does not distinguish between  
these two species1 for1 as shown by the 
text1 his ingredients are badly mixed4  
,the process as here described falls    
into five operations3 a1 granulation of 
the bullion or preparation of leaves2 b1
 heating alternate layers of cement and 
bullion in pots2 c1 washing the gold to 
free it of cement2 d1 melting the gold  
with borax or soda2 e1 treatment of the 
cement by way of melting with lead and  
cupellation to recover the silver4      
,investigation by ,boussingault 7,ann4  
,de ,chimie1 #ahcc1 p4 #bec-f71         
,d',elhuyar 7,bergbaukunde1 ,leipzig1   
#agij1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bjj71 and ,percy 
7,metallurgy of ,silver and ,gold1 p4   
#cie71 of the action of common salt upon
 silver under cementation conditions1   
fairly well demonstrated the reactions  

involved in the use of this species of  
cement4 ,certain factors are essential  
besides salt3 a1 the admission of air1  
which is possible through the porous    
pots used2 b1 the presence of some      
moisture to furnish hydrogen2 c1 the    
addition of alumina or silica4 ,the     
first would be provided by ,agricola in 
the use of new pots1 the second possibly
 by use of wood fuel in a closed        
furnace1 the third by the inclusion of  
brickdust4 ,the alumina or silica at    
high temperatures decomposes the salt1  
setting free hydrochloric acid and      
probably also free chlorine4 ,the result
 of the addition of vitriol in          
,agricola's ingredients is not discussed
 by those investigators1 but inasmuch as
 vitriol decomposes into sulphuric acid 
under high temperatures1 this acid would
 react upon the salt to free            
hydrochloric acid1 and thus assist to   
overcome deficiencies in the other      
factors4 ,it is possible also that      
sulphuric acid under such conditions    

would react directly upon the silver to 
form silver sulphates1 which would be   
absorbed into the cement4 ,as nitric    
acid is formed by vitriol and saltpetre 
at high temperatures1 the use of these  
two substances as a cementing compound  
would produce nitric acid1 which would  
at once attack the silver to form silver
 nitrate1 which would be absorbed into  
the melted cement4 ,in this case the    
brickdust probably acted merely as a    
vehicle for the absorption1 and to lower
 the melting point of the mass and      
prevent fusion of the metal4 ,while     
nitric acid will only part gold and     
silver when the latter is in great      
excess1 yet when applied as fumes under 
cementation conditions it appears to    
react upon a minor ratio of silver4     
,while the reactions of the two above   
species of compounds can be accounted   
for in a general way1 the problem       
furnished by ,agricola's statements is  
by no means simple1 for only two of his 
compounds are simply salt cements1 the  

others being salt and nitre mixtures4   
,an inspection of these compounds       
produces at once a sense of confusion4  
,salt is present in every compound1     
saltpetre in all but two1 vitriol in all
 but three4 ,lewis 7,traite ,singulier  
de ,metallique1 ,paris1 #agdc1 ,,ii1 pp4
 #dh-fj71 in discussing these processes1
 states that salt and saltpetre must    
never be used together1 as he asserts   
that in this case aqua regia would be   
formed and the gold dissolved4          
,agricola1 however1 apparently found no 
such difficulty4 ,as to the other       
ingredients1 apart from nitre1 salt1    
vitriol1 and brickdust1 they can have   
been of no use4 ,agricola himself points
 out that ingredients of metallic origin
 corrupt the gold and that brickdust and
 common salt are sufficient4 ,in a      
description of this process in the      
,probierbuechlein 7p4 #eh71 no nitre is 
mentioned4 ,this booklet does mention   
the recovery of the silver from the     
cement by amalgamation with mercury--the

 earliest mention of silver             
amalgamation4  #ai ,while a substance   
which we now know to be natural zinc    
sulphate was known to ,agricola 7see    
note #aa1 p4 #egb71 it is hardly        
possible that it is referred to here4   
,if green vitriol be dehydrated and     
powdered1 it is white4  #bj ,the        
processes involved by these other       
compounds are difficult to understand1  
because of the lack of information given
 as to the method of operation4 ,it     
might be thought that these were five   
additional recipes for cementing pastes1
 but an inspection of their internal    
composition soon dissipates any such    
assumption1 because1 apart from the lack
 of brickdust or some other similar     
necessary ingredient1 they all contain  
more or less sulphur4 ,after describing 
a preliminary treatment of the bullion  
by cupellation1 the author says3 ,then  
the silver is sprinkled with two unciae 
of that powdered compound and is        
stirred4 ,afterward it is poured into   

another crucible 444 and violently      
shaken4 ,the rest is performed according
 to the process ,i have already         
explained4 ,as he has already explained 
four or five parting processes1 it is   
not very clear to which one this refers4
 ,in fact1 the whole of this discussion 
reads as if he were reporting hearsay1  
for it lacks in every respect the       
infinite detail of his usual            
descriptions4 ,in any event1 if the     
powder was introduced into the molten   
bullion1 the effect would be to form    
some silver sulphides in a regulus of   
different composition depending upon the
 varied ingredients of different        
compounds4 ,the enriched bullion was    
settled out in a lump and treated as ,i 
have explained1 which is not clear4  #ba
 ,,historical ,,note ,,on ,,parting     
,,gold ,,and ,,silver4 ,although the    
earlier ,classics contain innumerable   
references to refining gold and silver1 
there is little that is tangible in     
them1 upon which to hinge the metallurgy

 of parting the precious metals4 ,it    
appears to us1 however1 that some       
ability to part the metals is implied in
 the use of the touchstone1 for we fail 
to see what use a knowledge of the ratio
 of gold and silver in bullion could    
have been without the power to separate 
them4 ,the touchstone was known to the  
,greeks at least as early as the #eth   
,century ,b4,c4 7see note #cg1 p4 #beb71
 and a part of ,theophrastus' statement 
7,,lxxviii47 on this subject bears      
repetition in this connection3 ,the     
nature of the stone which tries gold is 
also very wonderful1 as it seems to have
 the same power as fire2 which is also a
 test of that metal4444 ,the trial by   
fire is by the colour and the quantity  
lost by it1 but that of the stone is    
made only by rubbing1 etc4 ,this trial  
by fire certainly implies a parting of  
the metals4 ,it has been argued from the
 common use of electrum--a gold-silver  
alloy--by the ,ancients1 that they did  
not know how to part the two metals or  

they would not have wasted gold in such 
a manner1 but it seems to us that the   
very fact that electrum was a positive  
alloy 7#bj gold1 #hj silver71 and that  
it was deliberately made 7,pliny        
,,xxxiii1 #bc7 and held of value for its
 supposed superior brilliancy to silver 
and the belief that goblets made of it  
detected poison1 is sufficient answer to
 this4  ,to arrive by a process of      
elimination1 we may say that in the     
,middle ,ages1 between #aajj and #aejj  
,a4,d41 there were known four methods of
 parting these metals3 a1 parting by    
solution in nitric acid2 b1             
sulphurization of the silver in         
finely-divided bullion by heating it    
with sulphur1 and the subsequent removal
 of the silver sulphide in a regulus by 
melting with copper1 iron1 or lead2 c1  
melting with an excess of antimony      
sulphide1 and the direct conversion of  
the silver to sulphide and its removal  
in a regulus2 d1 cementation of the     
finely-divided bullion with salt1 and   

certain necessary collateral re-agents1 
and the separation of the silver by     
absorption into the cement as silver    
chloride4 ,inasmuch as it can be clearly
 established that mineral acids were    
unknown to the ,ancients1 we can        
eliminate that method4 ,further1 we may 
say at once that there is not1 so far as
 has yet been found1 even a remote      
statement that could be applied to the  
sulphide processes4 ,as to cementation  
with salt1 however1 we have some data at
 about the beginning of the ,christian  
,era4  ,before entering into a more     
detailed discussion of the history of   
various processes1 it may be useful1 in 
a word1 to fix in the mind of the reader
 our view of the first authority on     
various processes1 and his period4      
7#a7 ,separation by cementation with    
salt1 ,strabo 787 #fc ,b4,c4-#bd        
,a4,d42 ,pliny #bc-gi ,a4,d4       7#b7 
,separation by sulphur1 ,theophilus1    
#aaej-abjj ,a4,d4       7#c7 ,separation
 by nitric acid1 ,geber1 prior to #adth 

,century4       7#d7 ,separation by     
antimony sulphide1 ,basil ,valentine1   
end #adth          ,century1 or         
,probierbuechlein1 beginning #aeth      
,century4       7#e7 ,separation by     
antimony sulphide and copper1 or sulphur
 and          copper1 ,probierbuechlein1
 beginning #aeth ,century4       7#f7   
,separation by cementation with         
saltpetre1 ,agricola1 #aeef4       7#g7 
,separation by sulphur and iron1        
,schlueter1 #agch4       7#h7           
,separation by sulphuric acid1          
,d',arcet1 #ahjb4       7#i7 ,separation
 by chloride gas1 ,thompson1 #ahcc4     
7#aj7 ,separation electrolytically1     
latter part #aith ,century4  ,,parting  
,,by ,,cementation4 ,the following      
passage from ,strabo is of prime        
interest as the first definite statement
 on parting of any kind 7,,iii1 #b1 #h73
 ,that when they have melted the gold   
and purified it by means of a kind of   
aluminous earth1 the residue left is    
electrum4 ,this1 which contains a       

mixture of silver and gold1 being again 
subjected to the fire1 the silver is    
separated and the gold left 7pure72 for 
this metal is easily dissipated and fat1
 and on this account gold is most easily
 molten by straw1 the flame of which is 
soft1 and bearing a similarity 7to the  
gold7 causes it easily to dissolve1     
whereas coal1 besides wasting a great   
deal1 melts it too much1 by reason of   
its vehemence1 and carries it off 7in   
vapour74 ,this statement has provoked   
the liveliest discussion1 not only on   
account of the metallurgical interest   
and obscurity1 but also because of      
differences of view as to its           
translation2 we have given that of ,mr4 
,h4 ,c4 ,hamilton 7,london1 #aijc74 ,a  
review of this discussion will be found 
in ,percy's ,metallurgy of ,gold and    
,silver1 p4 #cii4 ,that it refers to    
cementation at all hangs by a slender   
thread1 but it seems more nearly this   
than anything else4  ,pliny 7,,xxxiii1  
#be7 is a little more ample3 7,the gold7

 is heated with double its weight of    
salt and thrice its weight of misy1 and 
again with two portions of salt and one 
of a stone which they call schistos4    
,the virus is drawn out when these      
things are burnt together in an earthen 
crucible1 itself remaining pure and     
incorrupt1 the remaining ash being      
preserved in an earthen pot and mixed   
with water as a lotion for lichen       
7ring-worm7 on the face4 ,percy         
7,metallurgy ,silver and ,gold1 p4 #cih7
 rightly considers that this undoubtedly
 refers to the parting of silver and    
gold by cementation with common salt4   
,especially as ,pliny further on states 
that with regard to misy1 ,in purifying 
gold they mix it with this substance4   
,there can be no doubt from the         
explanations of ,pliny and ,dioscorides 
that misy was an oxidized pyrite1 mostly
 iron sulphate4 ,assuming the latter    
case1 then all of the necessary elements
 of cementation1 i4e41 vitriol1 salt1   
and an aluminous or silicious element1  

are present4  ,the first entirely       
satisfactory evidence on parting is to  
be found in ,theophilus 7#abth          
,century71 and we quote the following   
from ,hendrie's translation 7p4 #bde73  
,of ,heating the ,gold4 ,take gold1 of  
whatsoever sort it may be1 and beat it  
until thin leaves are made in breadth   
three fingers1 and as long as you can4  
,then cut out pieces that are equally   
long and wide and join them together    
equally1 and perforate through all with 
a fine cutting iron4 ,afterwards take   
two earthen pots proved in the fire1 of 
such size that the gold can lie flat in 
them1 and break a tile very small1 or   
clay of the furnace burned and red1     
weigh it1 powdered1 into two equal      
parts1 and add to it a third part salt  
for the same weight2 which things being 
slightly sprinkled with urine1 are mixed
 together so that they may not adhere   
together1 but are scarcely wetted1 and  
put a little of it upon a pot about the 
breadth of the gold1 then a piece of the

 gold itself1 and again the composition1
 and again the gold1 which in the       
digestion is thus always covered1 that  
gold may not be in contact with gold2   
and thus fill the pot to the top and    
cover it above with another pot1 which  
you carefully lute round with clay1     
mixed and beaten1 and you place it over 
the fire1 that it may be dried4 ,in the 
meantime compose a furnace from stones  
and clay1 two feet in height1 and a foot
 and a half in breadth1 wide at the     
bottom1 but narrow at the top1 where    
there is an opening in the middle1 in   
which project three long and hard       
stones1 which may be able to sustain the
 flame for a long time1 upon which you  
place the pots with the gold1 and cover 
them with other tiles in abundance4     
,then supply fire and wood1 and take    
care that a copious fire is not wanting 
for the space of a day and night4 ,in   
the morning taking out the gold1 again  
melt1 beat and place it in the furnace  
as before4 ,again also1 after a day and 

night1 take it away and mixing a little 
copper with it1 melt it as before1 and  
replace it upon the furnace4 ,and when  
you have taken it away a third time1    
wash and dry it carefully1 and so       
weighing it1 see how much is wanting1   
then fold it up and keep it4  ,the next 
mention is by ,geber1 of whose date and 
authenticity there is great doubt1 but1 
in any event1 the work bearing his name 
is generally considered to be prior to  
the #adth1 although he has been placed  
as early as the #hth ,century4 ,we quote
 from ,russell's translation1 pp4 #ag   
and #bbd1 which we have checked with the
 ,latin edition of #aedb3 ,sol1 or gold1
 is beaten into thin plates and with    
them and common salt very well prepared 
lay upon lay in a vessel of calcination 
which set into the furnace and calcine  
well for three days until the whole is  
subtily calcined4 ,then take it out1    
grind well and wash it with vinegar1 and
 dry it in the sun4 ,afterwards grind it
 well with half its weight of cleansed  

sal-armoniac2 then set it to be         
dissolved until the whole be dissolved  
into most clear water4 ,further on3 ,now
 we will declare the way of cementing4  
,seeing it is known to us that cement is
 very necessary in the examen of        
perfection1 we say it is compounded of  
inflammable things4 ,of this kind are1  
all blackening1 flying1 penetrating1 and
 burned things2 as is vitriol1          
sal-armoniac1 flos aeris 7copper oxide  
scales7 and the ancient fictile stone   
7earthen pots71 and a very small        
quantity1 or nothing1 of sulphur1 and   
urine with like acute and penetrating   
things4 ,all these are impasted with    
urine and spread upon thin plates of    
that body which you intend shall be     
examined by this way of probation4 ,then
 the said plates must be laid upon a    
grate of iron included in an earthen    
vessel1 yet so as one touch not the     
other that the virtue of the fire may   
have free and equal access to them4     
,thus the whole must be kept in fire in 

a strong earthen vessel for the space of
 three days4 ,but here great caution is 
required that the plates may be kept but
 not melt4  ,albertus ,magnus           
7#abje-abhj7 ,de ,mineralibus et ,rebus 
,metallicis1 ,lib4 ,,iv1 describes the  
process as follows3--,but when gold is  
to be purified an earthen vessel is made
 like a cucurbit or dish1 and upon it is
 placed a similar vessel2 and they are  
luted together with the tenacious lute  
called by alchemists the lute of wisdom4
 ,in the upper vessel there are numerous
 holes by which vapour and smoke may    
escape2 afterwards the gold in the form 
of short thin leaves is arranged in the 
vessel1 the leaves being covered        
consecutively with a mixture obtained by
 mixing together soot1 salt1 and brick  
dust2 and the whole is strongly heated  
until the gold becomes perfectly pure   
and the base substances with which it   
was mixed are consumed4 ,it will be     
noted that salt is the basis of all     
these cement compounds4 ,we may also add

 that those of ,biringuccio and all     
other writers prior to ,agricola were of
 the same kind1 our author being the    
first to mention those with nitre4      
,,parting ,,with ,,nitric ,,acid4 ,the  
first mention of nitric acid is in      
connection with this purpose1 and1      
therefore1 the early history of this    
reagent becomes the history of the      
process4 ,mineral acids of any kind were
 unknown to the ,greeks or ,romans4 ,the
 works of the ,alchemists and others    
from the #abth to the #aeth ,centuries1 
have been well searched by chemical     
historians for indications of knowledge 
of the mineral acids1 and many of such  
suspected indications are of very       
doubtful order4 ,in any event1 study of 
the ,alchemists for the roots of        
chemistry is fraught with the greatest  
difficulty1 for not only is there the   
large ratio of fraud which characterised
 their operations1 but there is even the
 much larger field of fraud which       
characterised the authorship and dates  

of writing attributed to various members
 of the cult4 ,the mention of saltpetre 
by ,roger ,bacon 7#abad-id71 and        
,albertus ,magnus 7#abje-hj71 have      
caused some strain to read a knowledge  
of mineral acids into their works1 but  
with doubtful result4 ,further1 the     
,monk ,theophilus 7#aaej-abjj7 is       
supposed to have mentioned products     
which would be mineral acids1 but by the
 most careful scrutiny of that work we  
have found nothing to justify such an   
assertion1 and it is of importance to   
note that as ,theophilus was a most     
accomplished gold and silver worker1 his
 failure to mention it is at least      
evidence that the process was not       
generally known4 ,the transcribed       
manuscripts and later editions of such  
authors are often altered to bring them 
up-to-date4 ,the first mention is in the
 work attributed to ,geber1 as stated   
above1 of date prior to the #adth       
,century4 ,the following passage from   
his ,de ,inventione ,veritatis          

7,nuremberg edition1 #aede1 p4 #ahb7 is 
of interest3--,first take one libra of  
vitriol of ,cyprus and one-half libra of
 saltpetre and one-quarter of alum of   
,jameni1 extract the aqua with the      
redness of the alembic--for it is very  
solvative--and use as in the foregoing  
chapters4 ,this can be made acute if in 
it you dissolve a quarter of            
sal-ammoniac1 which dissolves gold1     
sulphur1 and silver4 ,distilling        
vitriol1 saltpetre and alum would       
produce nitric acid4 ,the addition of   
sal-ammoniac would make aqua regia2     
,geber used this solvent water--probably
 without being made more acute--to      
dissolve silver1 and he crystallized out
 silver nitrate4 ,it would not be       
surprising to find all the ,alchemists  
subsequent to ,geber mentioning acids4  
,it will thus be seen that even the     
approximate time at which the           
mineral-acids were first made cannot be 
determined1 but it was sometime previous
 to the #aeth ,century1 probably not    

earlier than the #abth ,century4        
,beckmann 7,hist4 of ,inventions ,,ii1  
p4 #ejh7 states that it appears to have 
been an old tradition that acid for     
separating the precious metals was first
 used at ,venice by some ,germans2 that 
they chiefly separated the gold from    
,spanish silver and by this means       
acquired great riches4 ,beckmann        
considers that the first specific       
description of the process seems to be  
in the work of ,william ,budaeus 7,de   
,asse1 #aeaf1 ,,iii1 p4 #aja71 who      
speaks of it as new at this time4 ,he   
describes the operation of one1 ,le     
,conte1 at ,paris1 who also acquired a  
fortune through the method4 ,beckmann   
and others have1 however1 entirely      
overlooked the early ,probierbuechlein4 
,if our conclusions are correct that the
 first of these began to appear at about
 #aeaj1 then they give the first        
description of inquartation4 ,this book 
7see appendix7 is made up of recipes1   
like a cook-book1 and four or five      

different recipes are given for this    
purpose2 of these we give one1 which    
sufficiently indicates a knowledge of   
the art 7p4 #ci73 ,if you would part    
them do it this way3 ,beat the silver   
which you suppose to contain gold1 as   
thin as possible2 cut it in small pieces
 and place it in 'strong' water         
7starkwasser74 ,put it on a mild fire   
till it becomes warm and throws up      
blisters or bubbles4 ,then take it and  
pour off the water into a copper-bowl2  
let it stand and cool4 ,then the silver 
settles itself round the copper bowl2   
let the silver dry in the copper bowl1  
then pour the water off and melt the    
silver in a crucible4 ,then take the    
gold also out of the glass kolken and   
melt it together4 ,biringuccio 7#aedj1  
,book ,,vi47 describes the method1 but  
with much less detail than ,agricola4   
,he made his acid from alum and         
saltpetre and calls it lacque forti4    
,,parting ,,with ,,sulphur4 ,this       
process first appears in ,theophilus    

7#aaej-abjj71 and in form is somewhat   
different from that mentioned by        
,agricola4 ,we quote from ,hendrie's    
,translation1 p4 #cag1 ,how gold is     
separated from silver4 ,when you have   
scraped the gold from silver1 place this
 scraping in a small cup in which gold  
or silver is accustomed to be melted1   
and press a small linen cloth upon it1  
that nothing may by chance be abstracted
 from it by the wind of the bellows1 and
 placing it before the furnace1 melt it2
 and directly lay fragments of sulphur  
in it1 according to the quantity of the 
scraping1 and carefully stir it with a  
thin piece of charcoal until its fumes  
cease2 and immediately pour it into an  
iron mould4 ,then gently beat it upon   
the anvil lest by chance some of that   
black may fly from it which the sulphur 
has burnt1 because it is itself silver4 
,for the sulphur consumes nothing of the
 gold1 but the silver only1 which it    
thus separates from the gold1 and which 
you will carefully keep4 ,again melt    

this gold in the same small cup as      
before1 and add sulphur4 ,this being    
stirred and poured out1 break what has  
become black and keep it1 and do thus   
until the gold appear pure4 ,then gather
 together all that black1 which you have
 carefully kept1 upon the cup made from 
the bone and ash1 and add lead1 and so  
burn it that you may recover the silver4
 ,but if you wish to keep it for the    
service of niello1 before you burn it   
add to it copper and lead1 according to 
the measure mentioned above1 and mix    
with sulphur4 ,this process appears in  
the ,probierbuechlein in many forms1    
different recipes containing other      
ingredients besides sulphur1 such as    
salt1 saltpetre1 sal-ammoniac1 and other
 things more or less effective4 ,in     
fact1 a series of hybrid methods between
 absolute melting with sulphur and      
cementation with salt1 were in use1 much
 like those mentioned by ,agricola on p4
 #deh4  ,,parting ,,with ,,antimony     
,,sulphide4 ,the first mention of this  

process lies either in ,basil           
,valentine's ,triumphant ,chariot of    
,antimony or in the first               
,probierbuechlein4 ,the date to be      
assigned to the former is a matter of   
great doubt4 ,it was probably written   
about the end of the #aeth ,century1 but
 apparently published considerably      
later4 ,the date of the                 
,probierbuechlein we have referred to   
above4 ,the statement in the ,triumphal 
,chariot is as follows 7,waite's        
,translation1 p4 #aag-aah73 ,the elixir 
prepared in this way has the same power 
of penetrating and pervading the body   
with its purifying properties that      
antimony has of penetrating and         
purifying gold4444 ,this much1 however1 
,i have proved beyond a possibility of  
doubt1 that antimony not only purifies  
gold and frees it from foreign matter1  
but it also ameliorates all other       
metals1 but it does the same for animal 
bodies4 ,there are most specific        
descriptions of this process in the     

other works attributed to ,valentine1   
but their authenticity is so very       
doubtful that we do not quote4 ,the     
,probierbuechlein gives several recipes 
for this process1 all to the same       
metallurgical effect1 of which we quote 
two3 ,how to separate silver from gold4 
,take #a part of golden silver1 #a part 
of spiesglass1 #a part copper1 #a part  
lead2 melt them together in a crucible4 
,when melted pour into the crucible     
pounded sulphur and directly you have   
poured it in cover it up with soft lime 
so that the fumes cannot escape1 and let
 it get cold and you will find your gold
 in a button4 ,put that same in a pot   
and blow on it4 ,how to part gold and   
silver by melting or fire4 ,take as much
 gold-silver as you please and granulate
 it2 take #a mark of these grains1 #a   
mark of powder2 put them together in a  
crucible4 ,cover it with a small cover1 
put it in the fire1 and let it slowly   
heat2 blow on it gently until it melts2 
stir it all well together with a stick1 

pour it out into a mould1 strike the    
mould gently with a knife so that the   
button may settle better1 let it cool1  
then turn the mould over1 strike off the
 button and twice as much spiesglas as  
the button weighs1 put them in a        
crucible1 blow on it till it melts1 then
 pour it again into a mould and break   
away the button as at first4 ,if you    
want the gold to be good always add to  
the button twice as much spiesglass4 ,it
 is usually good gold in three meltings4
 ,afterward take the button1 place it on
 a cupel1 blow on it till it melts4 ,and
 if it should happen that the gold is   
covered with a membrane1 then add a very
 little lead1 then it shines 7plickt7   
and becomes clearer4 ,biringuccio       
7#aedj7 also gives a fairly clear       
exposition of this method4 ,all the old 
refiners varied the process by using    
mixtures of salt1 antimony sulphide1 and
 sulphur1 in different proportions1 with
 and without lead or copper2 the net    
effect was the same4 ,later than        

,agricola these methods of parting      
bullion by converting the silver into a 
sulphide and carrying it off in a       
regulus took other forms4 ,for instance1
 ,schlueter 7,huette-,werken1           
,braunschweig1 #agch7 describes a method
 by which1 after the granulated bullion 
had been sulphurized by cementation with
 sulphur in pots1 it was melted with    
metallic iron4 ,lampadius 7,grundriss   
,einer ,allgemeinen ,huettenkunde1      
,goettingen1 #ahbg7 describes a         
treatment of the bullion1 sulphurized as
 above1 with litharge1 thus creating a  
lead-silver regulus and a               
lead-silver-gold bullion which had to be
 repeatedly put through the same cycle4 
,the principal object of these processes
 was to reduce silver bullion running   
low in gold to a ratio acceptable for   
nitric acid treatment4  ,before closing 
the note on the separation of gold and  
silver1 we may add that with regard to  
the three processes largely used to-day1
 the separation by solution of the      

silver from the bullion by concentrated 
sulphuric acid where silver sulphate is 
formed1 was first described by          
,d',arcet1 ,paris1 in #ahjb2 the        
separation by introducing chlorine gas  
into the molten bullion and thus forming
 silver chlorides was first described by
 ,lewis ,thompson in a communication to 
the ,society of ,arts1 #ahcc1 and was   
first applied on a large scale by ,f4   
,b4 ,miller at the ,sydney ,mint in     
#ahfg-gj2 we do not propose to enter    
into the discussion as to who is the    
inventor of electrolytic separation4    
#bb ,there were three methods of gilding
 practised in the ,middle ,ages--the    
first by hammering on gold leaf2 the    
second by laying a thin plate of gold on
 a thicker plate of silver1 expanding   
both together1 and fabricating the      
articles out of the sheets thus         
prepared2 and the third by coating over 
the article with gold amalgam1 and      
subsequently driving off the mercury by 
heat4 ,copper and iron objects were     

silver-plated by immersing them in      
molten silver after coating with        
sal-ammoniac or borax4 ,tinning was done
 in the same way4  #bc ,see note #ab1 p4
 #big1 for complete discussion of       
amalgamation4  #bd ,these nine methods  
of separating gold from copper are based
 fundamentally upon the sulphur         
introduced in each case1 whereby the    
copper is converted into sulphides and  
separated off as a matte4 ,the various  
methods are much befogged by the        
introduction of extraneous ingredients1 
some of which serve as fluxes1 while    
others would provide metallics in the   
shape of lead or antimony for collection
 of the gold1 but others would be of no 
effect1 except to increase the matte or 
slag4 ,inspection will show that the    
amount of sulphur introduced in many    
instances is in so large ratio that     
unless a good deal of volatilization    
took place there would be insufficient  
metallics to collect the gold1 if it    
happened to be in small quantities4 ,in 

a general way the auriferous button is  
gradually impoverished in copper until  
it is fit for cupellation with lead1    
except in one case where the final stage
 is accomplished by amalgamation4 ,the  
lore of the old refiners was much after 
the order of that of modern cooks--they 
treasured and handed down various       
efficacious recipes1 and of those given 
here most can be found in identical     
terms in the ,probierbuechlein1 some    
editions of which1 as mentioned before1 
were possibly fifty years before ,de ,re
 ,metallica4 ,this knowledge1 no doubt1 
accumulated over long experience2 but1  
so far as we are aware1 there is no     
description of sulphurizing copper for  
this purpose prior to the publication   
mentioned4  #be ,sal artificiosus4 ,the 
compound given under this name is of    
quite different ingredients from the    
stock fluxes given in ,book ,,vii under 
the same term4 ,the method of           
preparation1 no doubt1 dehydrated this  
one2 it would1 however1 be quite        

effective for its purpose of            
sulphurizing the copper4 ,there is a    
compound given in the ,probierbuechlein 
identical with this1 and it was probably
 ,agricola's source of information4  #bf
 ,throughout the book the cupellation   
furnace is styled the secunda fornax    
7,glossary1 ,treibeherd74 ,except in one
 or two cases1 where there is some doubt
 as to whether the author may not refer 
to the second variety of blast furnace1 
we have used cupellation furnace4       
,agricola's description of the actual   
operation of the old ,german cupellation
 is less detailed than that of such     
authors as ,schlueter 7,huette-,werken1 
,braunschweig1 #agch7 or ,winkler       
7,beschreibung der ,freyberger ,schmelz 
,huttenprozesse1 ,freyberg1 #ahcg74 ,the
 operation falls into four periods4 ,in 
the first period1 or a short time after 
melting1 the first scum--the            
abzug--arises4 ,this material contains  
most of the copper1 iron1 zinc1 or      
sulphur impurities in the lead4 ,in the 

second period1 at a higher temperature1 
and with the blast turned on1 a second  
scum arises--the abstrich4 ,this        
material contains most of the antimony  
and arsenical impurities4 ,in the third 
stage the litharge comes over4 ,at the  
end of this stage the silver            
brightens--blicken--due to insufficient 
litharge to cover the entire surface4   
,winkler gives the following average    
proportion of the various products from 
a charge of #ajj centners3--    ,abzug  
#b      centners1 containing #fd lead   
,abstrich            #e-a_/b            
#gc     ,herdtplei          #ba-a_/b    
#fj     ,impure litharge      #ah       
#he     ,litharge             #ff       
#hi                         ---         
,total     #aac centners  ,he estimates 
the lead loss at from #h to #ae1 and    
gives the average silver contents of    
blicksilber as about #ij4 ,many analyses
 of the various products may be found in
 ,percy 7,metallurgy of ,lead1 pp4      
#aih-bja71 ,schnabel and ,lewis         

7,metallurgy1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #eha72 but as
 they must vary with every charge1 a    
repetition of them here is of little    
purpose4  ,,historical ,,note ,,on      
,,cupellation4 ,the cupellation process 
is of great antiquity1 and the          
separation of silver from lead in this  
manner very probably antedates the      
separation of gold and silver4 ,we can  
be certain that the process has been    
used continuously for at least #b1cjj   
years1 and was only supplanted in part  
by ,pattinson's crystallization process 
in #ahcc1 and further invaded by ,parks'
 zinc method in #ahej1 and during the   
last fifteen years further supplanted in
 some works by electrolytic methods4    
,however1 it yet survives as an         
important process4 ,it seems to us that 
there is no explanation possible of the 
recovery of the large amounts of silver 
possessed from the earliest times1      
without assuming reduction of that metal
 with lead1 and this necessitates       
cupellation4 ,if this be the case1 then 

cupellation was practised in #bejj      
,b4,c4 ,the subject has been further    
discussed on p4 #chi4 ,the first direct 
evidence of the process1 however1 is    
from the remains at ,mt4 ,laurion 7note 
#f1 p4 #bg71 where the period of        
greatest activity was at #ejj ,b4,c41   
and it was probably in use long before  
that time4 ,of literary evidences1 there
 are the many metaphorical references to
 fining silver and separating dross in  
the ,bible1 such as ,job 7,,xxviii1 #a71
 ,psalms 7,,xii1 #f1 ,,lxvi1 #aj71      
,proverbs 7,,xvii1 #c74 ,the most       
certain1 however1 is ,jeremiah 7,,vi1   
#bh-cj73 ,they are all brass sic and    
iron2 they are corrupters4 ,the bellows 
are burned1 the lead is consumed in the 
fire1 the founder melteth in vain2 for  
the wicked are not plucked away4        
,reprobate silver shall men call them4  
,jeremiah lived about #fjj ,b4,c4 ,his  
contemporary ,ezekiel 7,,xxii1 #ah7 also
 makes remark3 ,all they are brass and  
tin and iron and lead in the midst of   

the furnace2 they are even the dross of 
the silver4 ,among ,greek authors       
,theognis 7#fth century ,b4,c47 and     
,hippocrates 7#eth century ,b4,c47 are  
often cited as mentioning the refining  
of gold with lead1 but we do not believe
 their statements will stand this       
construction without strain4 ,aristotle 
7,problems ,,xxiv1 #i7 makes the        
following remark1 which has been        
construed not only as cupellation1 but  
also as the refining of silver in tests4
 ,what is the reason that boiling water 
does not leap out of the vessel 444     
silver also does this when it is        
purified4 ,hence those whose office it  
is in the silversmiths' shops to purify 
silver1 derive gain by appropriation to 
themselves of the sweepings of silver   
which leap out of the melting-pot4  ,the
 quotation of ,diodorus ,siculus from   
,agatharchides 7#bnd century ,b4,c47 on 
gold refining with lead and salt in     
,egypt we give in note #h1 p4 #bgi4 ,the
 methods quoted by ,strabo 7#fc         

,b4,c4-#bd ,a4,d47 from ,polybius       
7#bjd-abe ,b4,c47 for treating silver1  
which appear to involve cupellation1 are
 given in note #h1 p4 #bha4 ,it is not1 
however1 until the beginning of the     
,christian era that we get definite     
literary information1 especially with   
regard to litharge1 in ,dioscorides and 
,pliny4 ,the former describes many      
substances under the terms scoria1      
molybdaena1 scoria argyros and          
lithargyros1 which are all varieties of 
litharge4 ,under the latter term he says
 7,v1 #fb73 ,one kind is produced from a
 lead sand 7concentrates871 which has   
been heated in the furnaces until       
completely fused2 another 7is made7 out 
of silver2 another from lead4 ,the best 
is from ,attica1 the second 7best7 from 
,spain2 after that the kinds made in    
,puteoli1 in ,campania1 and at ,baia in 
,sicily1 for in these places it is      
mostly produced by burning lead plates4 
,the best of all is that which is a     
bright golden colour1 called chrysitis1 

that from ,sicily 7is called7 argyritis1
 that made from silver is called        
lauritis4 ,pliny refers in several      
passages to litharge 7spuma argenti7 and
 to what is evidently cupellation1      
7,,xxxiii1 #ca73 ,and this the same     
agency of fire separates part into lead1
 which floats on the silver like oil on 
water 7,,xxxiv1 #dg74 ,the metal which  
flows liquid at the first melting is    
called stannum1 the second melting is   
silver2 that which remains in the       
furnace is galena1 which is added to a  
third part of the ore4 ,this being again
 melted1 produced lead with a deduction 
of two-ninths4 ,assuming stannum to be  
silver-lead alloy1 and galena to be     
molybdaena1 and therefore litharge1 this
 becomes a fairly clear statement of    
cupellation 7see note #bc1 p4 #cib74 ,he
 further states 7,,xxxiii1 #ce73 ,there 
is made in the same mines what is called
 spuma argenti 7litharge74 ,there are   
three varieties of it2 the best1 known  
as chrysitis2 the second best1 which is 

called argyritis2 and a third kind1     
which is called molybditis4 ,and        
generally all these colours are to be   
found in the same tubes 7see p4 #dhj74  
,the most approved kind is that of      
,attica2 the next1 that which comes from
 ,spain4 ,chrysitis is the product from 
the ore itself2 argyritis is made from  
the silver1 and molybditis is the result
 of smelting of lead1 which is done at  
,puteoli1 and from this has its name4   
,all three are made as the material when
 smelted flows from an upper crucible   
into a lower one4 ,from this last it is 
raised with an iron bar1 and is then    
twirled round in the flames in order to 
make it less heavy 7made in tubes74     
,thus1 as may be easily perceived from  
the name1 it is in reality the spuma of 
a boiling substance--of the future      
metal1 in fact4 ,it differs from slag in
 the same way that the scum of a liquid 
differs from the lees1 the one being    
purged from the material while purifying
 itself1 the other an excretion of the  

metal when purified4  ,the works of     
either ,theophilus 7#aaej-abjj ,a4,d47  
or ,geber 7prior to the #adth century7  
are the first where adequate description
 of the cupel itself can be found4 ,the 
uncertainty of dates renders it         
difficult to say which is earliest4     
,theophilus 7,hendrie's ,trans41 p4     
#cag7 says3 ,how gold is separated from 
copper3 ,but if at any time you have    
broken copper or silver-gilt vessels1 or
 any other work1 you can in this manner 
separate the gold4 ,take the bones of   
whatever animal you please1 which       
7bones7 you may have found in the       
street1 and burn them1 being cold1 grind
 them finely1 and mix with them a third 
part of beechwood ashes1 and make cups  
as we have mentioned above in the       
purification of silver2 you will dry    
these at the fire or in the sun4 ,then  
you carefully scrape the gold from the  
copper1 and you will fold this scraping 
in lead beaten thin1 and one of these   
cups being placed in the embers before  

the furnace1 and now become warm1 you   
place in this fold of lead with the     
scraping1 and coals being heaped upon it
 you will blow it4 ,and when it has     
become melted1 in the same manner as    
silver is accustomed to be purified1    
sometimes by removing the embers and by 
adding lead1 sometimes by re-cooking and
 warily blowing1 you burn it until1 the 
copper being entirely absorbed1 the gold
 may appear pure4  ,we quote ,geber from
 the ,nuremberg edition of #aede1 p4    
#aeb3 ,now we describe the method of    
this4 ,take sifted ashes or calx1 or the
 powder of the burned bones of animals1 
or all of them mixed1 or some of them2  
moisten with water1 and press it with   
your hand to make the mixture firm and  
solid1 and in the middle of this bed    
make a round solid crucible and sprinkle
 a quantity of crushed glass4 ,then     
permit it to dry4 ,when it is dry1 place
 into the crucible that which we have   
mentioned which you intend to test4 ,on 
it kindle a strong fire1 and blow upon  

the surface of the body that is being   
tested until it melts1 which1 when      
melted1 piece after piece of lead is    
thrown upon it1 and blow over it a      
strong flame4 ,when you see it agitated 
and moved with strong shaking motion it 
is not pure4 ,then wait until all of the
 lead is exhaled4 ,if it vanishes and   
does not cease its motion it is not     
purified4 ,then again throw lead and    
blow again until the lead separates4 ,if
 it does not become quiet again1 throw  
in lead and blow on it until it is quiet
 and you see it bright and clear on the 
surface4  ,cupellation is mentioned by  
most of the alchemists1 but as a        
metallurgical operation on a large scale
 the first description is by            
,biringuccio in #aedj4  #bg ,in         
,agricola's text this is                
first1--obviously an error4  #bh ,the   
,roman sextarius was about a pint4  #bi 
,this sentence continues1 ,ipsa vero    
media pars praeterea digito1 to which we
 are unable to attribute any meaning4   

#cj ,thus1 or tus--incense4  #ca ,one   
centumpondium1 ,roman1 equals about     
#gj4f lbs4 avoirdupois2 one centner1 old
 ,german1 equals about #aad4b lbs4      
avoirdupois4 ,therefore1 if ,german     
weights are meant1 the maximum charge   
would be about #e4g short tons2 if      
,roman weights1 about #c4e short tons4  
#cb ,see description1 p4 #bfi4  #cc     
,stannum1 as a term for lead-silver     
alloys1 is a term which ,agricola 7,de  
,natura ,fossilium1 pp4 #cda-c7 adopted 
from his views of ,pliny4 ,in the       
,interpretatio and the ,glossary he     
gives the ,german equivalent as werk1   
which would sufficiently identify his   
meaning were it not obvious from the    
context4 ,there can be little doubt that
 ,pliny uses the term for lead alloys1  
but it had come into general use for tin
 before ,agricola's time4 ,the ,roman   
term was plumbum candidum1 and as a     
result of ,agricola's insistence on     
using it and stannum in what he         
conceived was their original sense1 he  

managed to give considerable confusion  
to mineralogic literature for a century 
or two4 ,the passages from ,pliny1 upon 
which he bases his use1 are 7,,xxxiv1   
#dg73 ,the metal which flows liquid at  
the first melting in the furnace is     
called stannum1 the second melting is   
silver1 etc4 7,,xxxiv1 #dh73 ,when      
copper vessels are coated with stannum  
they produce a less disagreeable        
flavour1 and it prevents verdigris4 ,it 
is also remarkable that the weight is   
not increased4444 ,at the present day a 
counterfeit stannum is made by adding   
one-third of white copper to tin4 ,it is
 also made in another way1 by mixing    
together equal parts of tin and lead2   
this last is called by some             
argentarium4444 ,there is also a        
composition called tertiarium1 a mixture
 of two parts of lead and one of tin4   
,its price is twenty denarii per pound1 
and it is used for soldering pipes4     
,persons still more dishonest mix       
together equal parts of tertiarium and  

tin1 and calling the compound           
argentarium1 when it is melted coat     
articles with it4 ,although this last   
passage probably indicates that stannum 
was a tin compound1 yet it is not       
inconsistent with the view that the     
genuine stannum was silver-lead1 and    
that the counterfeits were made as      
stated by ,pliny4 ,at what period the   
term stannum was adopted for tin is     
uncertain4 ,as shown by ,beckmann       
7,hist4 of ,inventions ,,ii1 p4 #bbe71  
it is used as early as the #fth century 
in occasions where tin was undoubtedly  
meant4 ,we may point out that this term 
appears continuously in the official    
documents relating to ,cornish tin      
mining1 beginning with the report of    
,william de ,wrotham in #aaih4  #cd ,the
 ,latin term for litharge is spuma      
argenti1 spume of silver4  #ce ,pliny1  
,,xxxiii1 #ce4 ,this quotation is given 
in full in the footnote p4 #dff4        
,agricola illustrates these tubes of    
litharge on p4 #dha4  #cf ,assuming     

,roman weights1 three unciae and three  
drachmae per centumpondium would be     
about #hb ozs41 and the second case     
would equal about #he ozs4 per short    
ton4  #cg ,agricola uses throughout ,de 
,re ,metallica the term molybdaena for  
this substance4 ,it is obvious from the 
context that he means saturated furnace 
bottoms--the herdpley of the old ,german
 metallurgists--and1 in fact1 he himself
 gives this equivalent in the           
,interpretatio1 and describes it in     
great detail in ,de ,natura ,fossilium  
7p4 #cec74 ,the derivatives coined one  
time and another from the ,greek        
molybdos for lead1 and their            
applications1 have resulted in a stream 
of wasted ink1 to which we also must    
contribute4 ,agricola chose the word    
molybdaena in the sense here used from  
his interpretation of ,pliny4 ,the      
statements in ,pliny are a hopeless     
confusion of molybdaena and galena4 ,he 
says 7,,xxxiii1 #ce73 ,there are three  
varieties of it 7litharge7--the         

best-known is chrysitis2 the second best
 is called argyritis2 and a third kind  
is called molybditis4444 ,molybditis is 
the result of the smelting of lead4444  
,some people make two kinds of litharge1
 which they call scirerytis and peumene2
 and a third variety being molybdaena1  
will be mentioned with lead4 7,,xxxiv1  
#ec73 ,molybdaena1 which in another     
place ,i have called galena1 is an ore  
of mixed silver and lead4 ,it is        
considered better in quality the nearer 
it approaches to a golden colour and the
 less lead there is in it2 it is also   
friable and moderately heavy4 ,when it  
is boiled with oil it becomes           
liver-coloured1 adheres to the gold and 
silver furnaces1 and in this state it is
 called metallica4 ,from these two      
passages it would seem that molybdaena1 
a variety of litharge1 might quite well 
be hearth-lead4 ,further 7in ,,xxxiv1   
#dg71 he says3 ,the metal which flows   
liquid at the first melting in the      
furnace is called stannum1 at the second

 melting is silver1 that which remains  
in the furnace is galena4 ,if we still  
maintain that molybdaena is hearth-lead1
 and galena is its equivalent1 then this
 passage becomes clear enough1 the      
second melting being cupellation4 ,the  
difficulty with ,pliny1 however1 arises 
from the passage 7,,xxxiii1 #ca71 where1
 speaking of silver ore1 he says3 ,it is
 impossible to melt it except with lead 
ore1 called galena1 which is generally  
found next to silver veins4 ,agricola   
7,bermannus1 p4 #dbg1 c471 devotes a    
great deal of inconclusive discussion to
 an attempt to reconcile this conflict  
of ,pliny1 and also that of             
,dioscorides4 ,the probable explanation 
of this conflict arises in the          
resemblance of cupellation furnace      
bottoms to lead carbonates1 and the     
native molybdaena of ,dioscorides2 and  
some of those referred to by ,pliny may 
be this sort of lead ores4 ,in fact1 in 
one or two places in ,book ,,ix1        
,agricola appears to use the term in    

this sense himself4 ,after ,agricola's  
time the term molybdaenum was applied to
 substances resembling lead1 such as    
graphite1 and what we now know as       
molybdenite 7,mo,s#b74 ,some time in the
 latter part of the #ahth century1 an   
element being separated from the latter1
 it was dubbed molybdenum1 and confusion
 was five times confounded4  #ch        
,agricola here refers to the ,german    
word used in this connection1 i4e41     
hundt1 a dog4  #ci ,if ,agricola means  
the ,german centner1 this charge would  
be from about #d4f to #e4g short tons4  
,if he is using ,roman weights1 it would
 be from about #c to #c4g short tons4   
#dj ,the refining of silver in tests    
7,latin testa7 is merely a second       
cupellation1 with greater care and under
 stronger blast4 ,stirring the mass with
 an iron rod serves to raise the        
impurities which either volatilize as   
litharge or1 floating to the edges1 are 
absorbed into the test4 ,the capacity of
 the tests1 from #ae librae to #ej      

librae1 would be from about #aee to #eae
 ozs4 ,troy4  #da ,a drachma of         
impurities in a bes1 would be one part  
in #fd1 or #ihd4d fine4 ,a loss of a    
sicilicus of silver to the bes1 would be
 one part in #cb1 or about #c4a2 three  
drachmae would equal #d4g1 and half an  
uncia #f4b1 or would indicate that the  
original bullion had a fineness in the  
various cases of about #iej1 #icc1 and  
#iab4  #db ,praefectus ,regis4          
,,book ,,xi4   ,different methods of    
parting gold from silver1 and1 on the   
other hand1 silver from gold1 were      
discussed in the last book2 also the    
separation of copper from the latter1   
and further1 of lead from gold as well  
as from silver2 and1 lastly1 the methods
 for refining the two precious metals4  
,now ,i will speak of the methods by    
which silver must be separated from     
copper1 and likewise from iron4#a       
,illustration #dic 7,building ,plan for 
,refinery73 ,six long walls3 ,a--,the   
first4 ,b--,the first part of the       

second4 ,c--,the further part of the    
second4 ,d--,the third4 ,e--,the fourth4
 ,f--,the fifth4 ,g--,the sixth4        
,fourteen transverse walls3 ,h--,the    
first4 ,i--,the second4 ,k--,the third4 
,l--,the fourth4 ,m--,the fifth4        
,n--,the sixth4 ,o--,the seventh4       
,p--,the eighth4 ,q--,the ninth4        
,r--,the tenth4 ,s--,the eleventh4      
,t--,the twelfth4 ,v--,the thirteenth4  
,x--,the fourteenth4  ,the officina1 or 
the building necessary for the purposes 
and use of those who separate silver    
from copper1 is constructed in this     
manner4 ,first1 four long walls are     
built1 of which the first1 which is     
parallel with the bank of a stream1 and 
the second1 are both two hundred and    
sixty-four feet long4 ,the second1      
however1 stops at one hundred and       
fifty-one feet1 and after1 as it were1 a
 break for a length of twenty-four feet1
 it continues again until it is of a    
length equal to the first wall4 ,the    
third wall is one hundred and twenty    

feet long1 starting at a point opposite 
the sixty-seventh foot of the other     
walls1 and reaching to their one hundred
 and eighty-sixth foot4 ,the fourth wall
 is one hundred and fifty-one feet long4
 ,the height of each of these walls1 and
 likewise of the other two and of the   
transverse walls1 of which ,i will speak
 later on1 is ten feet1 and the         
thickness two feet and as many palms4   
,the second long wall only is built     
fifteen feet high1 because of the       
furnaces which must be built against it4
 ,the first long wall is distant fifteen
 feet from the second1 and the third is 
distant the same number of feet from the
 fourth1 but the second is distant      
thirty-nine feet from the third4 ,then  
transverse walls are built1 the first of
 which leads from the beginning of the  
first long wall to the beginning of the 
second long wall2 and the second        
transverse wall from the beginning of   
the second long wall to the beginning of
 the fourth long wall1 for the third    

long wall does not reach so far4 ,then  
from the beginning of the third long    
wall are built two walls--the one to the
 sixty-seventh foot of the second long  
wall1 the other to the same point in the
 fourth long wall4 ,the fifth transverse
 wall is built at a distance of ten feet
 from the fourth transverse wall toward 
the second transverse wall2 it is twenty
 feet long1 and starts from the fourth  
long wall4 ,the sixth transverse wall is
 built also from the fourth long wall1  
at a point distant thirty feet from the 
fourth transverse wall1 and it extends  
as far as the back of the third long    
wall4 ,the seventh transverse wall is   
constructed from the second long wall1  
where this first leaves off1 to the     
third long wall2 and from the back of   
the third long wall the eighth          
transverse wall is built1 extending to  
the end of the fourth long wall4 ,then  
the fifth long wall is built from the   
seventh transverse wall1 starting at a  
point nineteen feet from the second long

 wall2 it is one hundred and nine feet  
in length2 and at a point twenty-four   
feet along it1 the ninth transverse wall
 is carried to the third end of the     
second long wall1 where that begins     
again4 ,the tenth transverse wall is    
built from the end of the fifth long    
wall1 and leads to the further end of   
the second long wall2 and from there the
 eleventh transverse wall leads to the  
further end of the first long wall4     
,behind the fifth long wall1 and five   
feet toward the third long wall1 the    
sixth long wall is built1 leading from  
the seventh transverse wall2 its length 
is thirty-five feet1 and from its       
further end the twelfth transverse wall 
is built to the third long wall1 and    
from it the thirteenth transverse wall  
is built to the fifth long wall4 ,the   
fourteenth transverse wall divides into 
equal parts the space which lies between
 the seventh transverse wall and the    
twelfth4  ,the length1 height1 breadth1 
and position of the walls are as above4 

,their archways1 doors1 and openings are
 made at the same time that the walls   
are built4 ,the size of these and the   
way they are made will be much better   
understood hereafter4 ,i will now speak 
of the furnace hoods and of the roofs4  
,the first side#b of the hood stands on 
the second long wall1 and is similar in 
every respect to those whose structure  
,i explained in ,book ,,ix1 when ,i     
described the works in whose furnaces   
are smelted the ores of gold1 silver1   
and copper4 ,from this side of the hood 
a roof1 which consists of burnt tiles1  
extends to the first long wall2 and this
 part of the building contains the      
bellows1 the machinery for compressing  
them1 and the instruments for inflating 
them4 ,in the middle space1 which is    
situated between the second and third   
transverse walls1 an upright post eight 
feet high and two feet thick and wide1  
is erected on a rock foundation1 and is 
distant thirteen feet from the second   
long wall4 ,on that upright post1 and in

 the second transverse wall1 which has  
at that point a square hole two feet    
high and wide1 is placed a beam         
thirty-four feet and a palm long4       
,another beam1 of the same length1      
width1 and thickness1 is fixed on the   
same upright post and in the third      
transverse wall4 ,the heads of those two
 beams1 where they meet1 are joined     
together with iron staples4 ,in a       
similar manner another post is erected1 
at a distance of ten feet from the first
 upright post in the direction of the   
fourth wall1 and two beams are laid upon
 it and into the same walls in a similar
 way to those ,i have just now          
described4 ,on these two beams and on   
the fourth long wall are fixed seventeen
 cross-beams1 forty-three feet and three
 palms long1 a foot wide1 and three     
palms thick2 the first of these is laid 
upon the second transverse wall1 the    
last lies along the third and fourth    
transverse walls2 the rest are set in   
the space between them4 ,these          

cross-beams are three feet apart one    
from the other4  ,in the ends of these  
cross-beams1 facing the second long     
wall1 are mortised the ends of the same 
number of rafters reaching to those     
timbers which stand upright on the      
second long wall1 and in this manner is 
made the inclined side of the hood in a 
similar way to the one described in     
,book ,,ix4 ,to prevent this from       
falling toward the vertical wall of the 
hood1 there are iron rods securing it1  
but only a few1 because the four brick  
chimneys which have to be built in that 
space partly support it4 ,twelve feet   
back are likewise mortised into the     
cross-beams1 which lie upon the two     
longitudinal beams and the fourth long  
wall1 the lower ends of as many rafters1
 whose upper ends are mortised into the 
upper ends of an equal number of similar
 rafters1 whose lower ends are mortised 
to the ends of the beams at the fourth  
long wall4 ,from the first set of       
rafters#d to the second set of rafters  

is a distance of twelve feet1 in order  
that a gutter may be well placed in the 
middle space4 ,between these two are    
again erected two sets of rafters1 the  
lower ends of which are likewise        
mortised into the beams1 which lie on   
the two longitudinal beams and the      
fourth long wall1 and are interdistant a
 cubit4 ,the upper ends of the ones     
fifteen feet long rest on the backs of  
the rafters of the first set2 the ends  
of the others1 which are eighteen feet  
long1 rest on the backs of the rafters  
of the second set1 which are longer2 in 
this manner1 in the middle of the       
rafters1 is a sub-structure4 ,upon each 
alternate cross-beam which is placed    
upon the two longitudinal beams and the 
fourth long wall is erected an upright  
post1 and that it may be sufficiently   
firm it is strengthened by means of a   
slanting timber4 ,upon these posts is   
laid a long beam1 upon which rests one  
set of middle rafters4 ,in a similar    
manner the other set of middle rafters  

rests on a long beam which is placed    
upon other posts4 ,besides this1 two    
feet above every cross-beam1 which is   
placed on the two longitudinal beams and
 the fourth long wall1 is placed a      
tie-beam which reaches from the first   
set of middle rafters to the second set 
of middle rafters2 upon the tie-beams is
 placed a gutter hollowed out from a    
tree4 ,then from the back of each of the
 first set of middle rafters a beam six 
feet long reaches almost to the gutter2 
to the lower end of this beam is        
attached a piece of wood two feet long2 
this is repeated with each rafter of the
 first set of middle rafters4 ,similarly
 from the back of each rafter of the    
second set of middle rafters a little   
beam1 seven feet long1 reaches almost to
 the gutter2 to the lower end of it is  
likewise attached a short piece of wood2
 this is repeated on each rafter of the 
second set of middle rafters4 ,then in  
the upper part1 to the first and second 
sets of principal rafters are fastened  

long boards1 upon which are fixed the   
burnt tiles2 and in the same manner1 in 
the middle part1 they are fastened to   
the first and second sets of middle     
rafters1 and at the lower part to the   
little beams which reach from each      
rafter of the first and second set of   
middle rafters almost to the gutter2    
and1 finally1 to the little boards      
fastened to the short pieces of wood are
 fixed shingles of pine-wood extending  
into the gutter1 so that the violent    
rain or melted snow may not penetrate   
into the building4 ,the substructures in
 the interior which support the second  
set of rafters1 and those on the        
opposite side which support the third1  
being not unusual1 ,i need not explain4 
,in that part of the building against   
the second long wall are the furnaces1  
in which exhausted liquation cakes which
 have already been dried are smelted1   
that they may recover once again the    
appearance and colour of copper1        
inasmuch as they really are copper4 ,the

 remainder of the room is occupied by   
the passage which leads from the door to
 the furnaces1 together with two other  
furnaces1 in one of which the whole     
cakes of copper are heated1 and in the  
other the exhausted liquation cakes are 
dried by the heat of the fire4          
,likewise1 in the room between the third
 and seventh#e transverse walls1 two    
posts are erected on rock foundation2   
both of them are eight feet high and two
 feet wide and thick4 ,the one is at a  
distance of thirteen feet from the      
second long wall2 the other at the same 
distance from the third long wall2 there
 is a distance of thirteen feet between 
them4 ,upon these two posts and upon the
 third transverse wall are laid two     
longitudinal beams1 forty-one feet and  
one palm long1 and two feet wide and    
thick4 ,two other beams of the same     
length1 width1 and thickness are laid   
upon the upright posts and upon the     
seventh transverse wall1 and the heads  
of the two long beams1 where they meet1 

are joined with iron staples4 ,on these 
longitudinal beams are again placed     
twenty-one transverse beams1 thirteen   
feet long1 a foot wide1 and three palms 
thick1 of which the first is set on the 
third transverse wall1 and the last on  
the seventh transverse wall2 the rest   
are laid in the space between these two1
 and they are distant from one another  
three feet4 ,into the ends of the       
transverse beams which face the second  
long wall1 are mortised the ends of the 
same number of rafters erected toward   
the upright posts which are placed upon 
the second long wall1 and in this manner
 is made the second inclined side wall  
of the hood4 ,into the ends of the      
transverse beams facing the third long  
wall1 are mortised the ends of the same 
number of rafters rising toward the     
rafters of the first inclined side of   
the second hood1 and in this manner is  
made the other inclined side of the     
second hood4 ,but to prevent this from  
falling in upon the opposite inclined   

side of the hood1 and that again upon   
the opposite vertical one1 there are    
many iron rods reaching from some of the
 rafters to those opposite them2 and    
this is also prevented in part by means 
of a few tie-beams1 extending from the  
back of the rafters to the back of those
 which are behind them4 ,these tie-beams
 are two palms thick and wide1 and have 
holes made through them at each end2    
each of the rafters is bound round with 
iron bands three digits wide and half a 
digit thick1 which hold together the    
ends of the tie-beams of which ,i have  
spoken2 and so that the joints may be   
firm1 an iron nail1 passing through the 
plate on both sides1 is driven through  
the holes in the ends of the beams4     
,since one weight counter-balances      
another1 the rafters on the opposite    
hoods cannot fall4 ,the tie-beams and   
middle posts which have to support the  
gutters and the roof1 are made in every 
particular as ,i stated above1 except   
only that the second set of middle      

rafters are not longer than the first   
set of middle rafters1 and that the     
little beams which reach from the back  
of each rafter of the second set of     
middle rafters nearly to the gutter are 
not longer than the little beams which  
reach from the back of each rafter of   
the first set of middle rafters almost  
to the gutter4 ,in this part of the     
building1 against the second long wall1 
are the furnaces in which copper is     
alloyed with lead1 and in which slags   
are re-smelted4 ,against the third long 
wall are the furnaces in which silver   
and lead are liquated from copper4 ,the 
interior is also occupied by two cranes1
 of which one deposits on the ground the
 cakes of copper lifted out of the      
moulding pans2 the other lifts them from
 the ground into the second furnace4    
,on the third and the fourth long walls 
are set twenty-one beams eighteen feet  
and three palms long4 ,in mortises in   
them1 two feet behind the third long    
wall1 are set the ends of the same      

number of rafters erected opposite to   
the rafters of the other inclined wall  
of the second furnace hood1 and in this 
manner is made the third inclined wall1 
exactly similar to the others4 ,the ends
 of as many rafters are mortised into   
these beams where they are fixed in the 
fourth long wall2 these rafters are     
erected obliquely1 and rest against the 
backs of the preceding ones and support 
the roof1 which consists entirely of    
burnt tiles and has the usual           
substructures4 ,in this part of the     
building there are two rooms1 in the    
first of which the cakes of copper1 and 
in the other the cakes of lead1 are     
stored4  ,in the space enclosed between 
the ninth and tenth transverse walls and
 the second and fifth long walls1 a post
 twelve feet high and two feet wide and 
thick is erected on a rock foundation2  
it is distant thirteen feet from the    
second long wall1 and six from the fifth
 long wall4 ,upon this post and upon the
 ninth transverse wall is laid a beam   

thirty-three feet and three palms long1 
and two palms wide and thick4 ,another  
beam1 also of the same length1 width and
 thickness1 is laid upon the same post  
and upon the tenth transverse wall1 and 
the ends of these two beams where they  
meet are joined by means of iron        
staples4 ,on these beams and on the     
fifth long wall are placed ten          
cross-beams1 eight feet and three palms 
long1 the first of which is placed on   
the ninth transverse wall1 the last on  
the tenth1 the remainder in the space   
between them2 they are distant from one 
another three feet4 ,into the ends of   
the cross-beams facing the second long  
wall1 are mortised the ends of the same 
number of rafters inclined toward the   
posts which stand vertically upon the   
second long wall4 ,this1 again1 is the  
manner in which the inclined side of the
 furnace hood is made1 just as with the 
others2 at the top where the fumes are  
emitted it is two feet distant from the 
vertical side4 ,the ends of the same    

number of rafters are mortised into the 
cross-beams1 where they are set in the  
fifth long wall2 each of them is set up 
obliquely and rests against the back of 
one of the preceding set2 they support  
the roof1 made of burnt tiles4 ,in this 
part of the building1 against the second
 long wall1 are four furnaces in which  
lead is separated from silver1 together 
with the cranes by means of which the   
domes are lifted from the crucibles4    
,in that part of the building which lies
 between the first long wall and the    
break in the second long wall1 is the   
stamp with which the copper cakes are   
crushed1 and the four stamps with which 
the accretions that are chipped off the 
walls of the furnace are broken up and  
crushed to powder1 and likewise the     
bricks on which the exhausted liquation 
cakes of copper are stood to be dried4  
,this room has the usual roof1 as also  
has the space between the seventh       
transverse wall and the twelfth and     
thirteenth transverse walls4            

,illustration #dii 7,hearths for melting
 lead cakes73 ,a--,hearth4 ,b--,rocks   
sunk into the ground4 ,c--,walls which  
protect the fourth long wall from damage
 by fire4 ,d--,dipping-pot4 ,e--,masses 
of lead4 ,f--,trolley4 ,g--,its wheels4 
,h--,crane4 ,i--,tongs4 ,k--,wood4      
,l--,moulds4 ,m--,ladle4 ,n--,pick4     
,o--,cakes4  ,at the sides of these     
rooms are the fifth1 the sixth1 and the 
third long walls4 ,this part of the     
building is divided into two parts1 in  
the first of which stand the little     
furnaces in which the artificer assays  
metals2 and the bone ash1 together with 
the other powders1 are kept here4 ,in   
the other room is prepared the powder   
from which the hearths and the crucibles
 of the furnaces are made4 ,outside the 
building1 at the back of the fourth long
 wall1 near the door to the left as you 
enter1 is a hearth in which smaller     
masses of lead are melted from large    
ones1 that they may be the more easily  
weighed2 because the masses of lead1    

just as much as the cakes of copper1    
ought to be first prepared so that they 
can be weighed1 and a definite weight   
can be melted and alloyed in the        
furnaces4 ,to begin with1 the hearth in 
which the masses of lead are liquefied  
is six feet long and five wide2 it is   
protected on both sides by rocks partly 
sunk into the earth1 but a palm higher  
than the hearth1 and it is lined in the 
inside with lute4 ,it slopes toward the 
middle and toward the front1 in order   
that the molten lead may run down and   
flow out into the dipping-pot4 ,there is
 a wall at the back of the hearth which 
protects the fourth long wall from      
damage by the heat2 this wall1 which is 
made of bricks and lute1 is four feet   
high1 three palms thick1 and five feet  
long at the bottom1 and at the top three
 feet and two palms long2 therefore it  
narrows gradually1 and in the upper part
 are laid seven bricks1 the middle ones 
of which are set upright1 and the end   
ones inclined2 they are all thickly     

coated with lute4 ,in front of the      
hearth is a dipping-pot1 whose pit is a 
foot deep1 and a foot and three palms   
wide at the top1 and gradually narrows4 
,when the masses of lead are to be      
melted1 the workman first places the    
wood in the hearth so that one end of   
each billet faces the wall1 and the     
other end the dipping-pot4 ,then1       
assisted by other workmen1 he pushes the
 mass of lead forward with crowbars on  
to a low trolley1 and draws it to the   
crane4 ,the trolley consists of planks  
fastened together1 is two and one-half  
feet wide and five feet long1 and has   
two small iron axles1 around which at   
each end revolve small iron wheels1 two 
palms in diameter and as many digits    
wide4 ,the trolley has a tongue1 and    
attached to this is a rope1 by which it 
is drawn to the crane4 ,the crane is    
exactly similar to those in the second  
part of the works1 except that the      
crane-arm is not so long4 ,the tongs in 
whose jaws#f the masses of lead are     

seized1 are two feet a palm and two     
digits long2 both of the jaws1 when     
struck with a hammer1 impinge upon the  
mass and are driven into it4 ,the upper 
part of both handles of the tongs are   
curved back1 the one to the right1 the  
other to the left1 and each handle is   
engaged in one of the lowest links of   
two short chains1 which are three links 
long4 ,the upper links are engaged in a 
large round ring1 in which is fixed the 
hook of a chain let down from the pulley
 of the crane-arm4 ,when the crank of   
the crane is turned1 the mass is lifted 
and is carried by the crane-arm to the  
hearth and placed on the wood4 ,the     
workmen wheel up one mass after another 
and place them in a similar manner on   
the wood of the hearth2 masses which    
weigh a total of about a hundred and    
sixty centumpondia#g are usually placed 
upon the wood and melted at one time4   
,then a workman throws charcoal on the  
masses1 and all are made ready in the   
evening4 ,if he fears that it may rain1 

he covers it up with a cover1 which may 
be moved here and there2 at the back    
this cover has two legs1 so that the    
rain which it collects may flow down the
 slope on to the open ground4 ,early in 
the morning of the following day1 he    
throws live coals on the charcoal with a
 shovel1 and by this method the masses  
of lead melt1 and from time to time     
charcoal is added4 ,the lead1 as soon as
 it begins to run into the dipping-pot1 
is ladled out with an iron ladle into   
copper moulds such as the refiners      
generally use4 ,if it does not cool     
immediately he pours water over it1 and 
then sticks the pointed pick into it and
 pulls it out4 ,the pointed end of the  
pick is three palms long and the round  
end is two digits long4 ,it is necessary
 to smear the moulds with a wash of     
lute1 in order that1 when they have been
 turned upside down and struck with the 
broad round end of the pick1 the cakes  
of lead may fall out easily4 ,if the    
moulds are not washed over with the     

lute1 there is a risk that they may be  
melted by the lead and let it through4  
,others take hold of a billet of wood   
with their left hand1 and with the heavy
 lower end of it they pound the mould1  
and with the right hand they stick the  
point of the pick into the cake of lead1
 and thus pull it out4 ,then immediately
 the workman pours other lead into the  
empty moulds1 and this he does until the
 work of melting the lead is finished4  
,when the lead is melted1 something     
similar to litharge is produced2 but it 
is no wonder that it should be possible 
to make it in this case1 when it used   
formerly to be produced at ,puteoli from
 lead alone when melted by a fierce fire
 in the cupellation furnace4#h          
,afterward these cakes of lead are      
carried into the lead store-room4       
,illustration #eja 7,stamp-mill for     
breaking copper cakes73 ,a--,block of   
wood4 ,b--,upright posts4               
,c--,transverse beams4 ,d--,head of the 
stamp4 ,e--,its tooth4 ,f--,the hole in 

the stamp-stem4 ,g--,iron bar4          
,h--,masses of lead4 ,i--,the bronze    
saddle4 ,k--,axle4 ,l--,its arms4       
,m--,little iron axle4 ,n--,bronze pipe4
  ,the cakes of copper1 put into        
wheelbarrows1 are carried into the third
 part of the building1 where each is    
laid upon a saddle1 and is broken up by 
the impact of successive blows from the 
iron-shod stamp4 ,this machine is made  
by placing upon the ground a block of   
oak1 five feet long and three feet wide 
and thick2 it is cut out in the middle  
for a length of two feet and two palms1 
a width of two feet1 and a depth of     
three palms and two digits1 and is open 
in front2 the higher part of it is at   
the back1 and the wide part lies flat in
 the block4 ,in the middle of it is     
placed a bronze saddle4 ,its base is a  
palm and two digits wide1 and is planted
 between two masses of lead1 and extends
 under them to a depth of a palm on both
 sides4 ,the whole saddle is three palms
 and two digits wide1 a foot long1 and  

two palms thick4 ,upon each end of the  
block stands a post1 a cubit wide and   
thick1 the upper end of which is        
somewhat cut away and is mortised into  
the beams of the building4 ,at a height 
of four feet and two digits above the   
block there are joined to the posts two 
transverse beams1 each of which is three
 palms wide and thick2 their ends are   
mortised into the upright posts1 and    
holes are bored through them2 in the    
holes are driven iron claves1 horned in 
front and so driven into the post that  
one of the horns of each points upward  
and the other downward2 the other end of
 each clavis is perforated1 and a wide  
iron wedge is inserted and driven into  
the holes1 and thus holds the transverse
 beams in place4 ,these transverse beams
 have in the middle a square opening    
three palms and half a digit wide in    
each direction1 through which the       
iron-shod stamp passes4 ,at a height of 
three feet and two palms above these    
transverse beams there are again two    

beams of the same kind1 having also a   
square opening and holding the same     
stamp4 ,this stamp is square1 eleven    
feet long1 three palms wide and thick2  
its iron shoe is a foot and a palm long2
 its head is two palms long and wide1 a 
palm two digits thick at the top1 and at
 the bottom the same number of digits1  
for it gradually narrows4 ,but the tail 
is three palms long2 where the head     
begins is two palms wide and thick1 and 
the further it departs from the same the
 narrower it becomes4 ,the upper part is
 enclosed in the stamp-stem1 and it is  
perforated so that an iron bolt may be  
driven into it2 it is bound by three    
rectangular iron bands1 the lowest of   
which1 a palm wide1 is between the iron 
shoe and the head of the stamp2 the     
middle band1 three digits wide1 follows 
next and binds round the head of the    
stamp1 and two digits above is the upper
 one1 which is the same number of digits
 wide4 ,at a distance of two feet and as
 many digits above the lowest part of   

the iron shoe1 is a rectangular tooth1  
projecting from the stamp for a distance
 of a foot and a palm2 it is two palms  
thick1 and when it has extended to a    
distance of six digits from the stamp it
 is made two digits narrower4 ,at a     
height of three palms upward from the   
tooth there is a round hole in the      
middle of the stamp-stem1 into which can
 be thrust a round iron bar two feet    
long and a digit and a half in diameter2
 in its hollow end is fixed a wooden    
handle two palms and the same number of 
digits long4 ,the bar rests on the lower
 transverse beam1 and holds up the stamp
 when it is not in use4 ,the axle which 
raises the stamp has on each side two   
arms1 which are two palms and three     
digits distant from each other1 and     
which project from the axle a foot1 a   
palm and two digits2 penetrating through
 them are bolts1 driven in firmly2 the  
arms are each a palm and two digits wide
 and thick1 and their round heads1 for a
 foot downward on either side1 are      

covered with iron plates of the same    
width as the arms and fastened by iron  
nails4 ,the head of each arm has a round
 hole1 into which is inserted an iron   
pin1 passing through a bronze pipe2 this
 little axle has at the one end a wide  
head1 and at the other end a perforation
 through which is driven an iron nail1  
lest this little axle should fall out of
 the arms4 ,the bronze pipe is two palms
 long and one in diameter2 the little   
iron axle penetrates through its round  
interior1 which is two digits in        
diameter4 ,the bronze pipe not only     
revolves round the little iron axle1 but
 it also rotates with it2 therefore1    
when the axle revolves1 the little axle 
and the bronze tube in their turn raise 
the tooth and the stamp4 ,when the      
little iron axle and the bronze pipe    
have been taken out of the arms1 the    
tooth of the stamps is not raised1 and  
other stamps may be raised without this 
one4 ,further on1 a drum with spindles  
fixed around the axle of a water-wheel  

moves the axle of a toothed drum1 which 
depresses the sweeps of the bellows in  
the adjacent fourth part of the         
building2 but it turns in the contrary  
direction2 for the axis of the drum     
which raises the stamps turns toward the
 north1 while that one which depresses  
the sweeps of the bellows turns toward  
the south4  ,illustration #ejd 7,hearths
 for heating copper cakes73 ,a--,back   
wall4 ,b--,walls at the sides4          
,c--,upright posts4 ,d--,chimney4       
,e--,the cakes arranged4 ,f--,iron      
plates4 ,g--,rocks4 ,h--,rabble with two
 prongs4 ,i--,hammers4  ,those cakes    
which are too thick to be rapidly broken
 by blows from the iron-shod stamp1 such
 as are generally those which have      
settled in the bottom of the crucible1#i
 are carried into the first part of the 
building4 ,they are there heated in a   
furnace1 which is twenty-eight feet     
distant from the second long wall and   
twelve feet from the second transverse  
wall4 ,the three sides of this furnace  

are built of rectangular rocks1 upon    
which bricks are laid2 the back furnace 
wall is three feet and a palm high1 and 
the rear of the side walls is the same2 
the side walls are sloping1 and where   
the furnace is open in front they are   
only two feet and three palms high2 all 
the walls are a foot and a palm thick4  
,upon these walls stand upright posts   
not less thick1 in order that they may  
bear the heavy weight placed upon them1 
and they are covered with lute2 these   
posts support the sloping chimney and   
penetrate through the roof4 ,moreover1  
not only the ribs of the chimney1 but   
also the rafters1 are covered thickly   
with lute4 ,the hearth of the furnace is
 six feet long on each side1 is sloping1
 and is paved with bricks4 ,the cakes of
 copper are placed in the furnace and   
heated in the following way4 ,they are  
first of all placed in the furnace in   
rows1 with as many small stones the size
 of an egg between1 so that the heat of 
the fire can penetrate through the      

spaces between them2 indeed1 those cakes
 which are placed at the bottom of the  
crucible are each raised upon half a    
brick for the same reason4 ,but lest the
 last row1 which lies against the mouth 
of the furnace1 should fall out1 against
 the mouth are placed iron plates1 or   
the copper cakes which are the first    
taken from the crucible when copper is  
made1 and against them are laid         
exhausted liquation cakes or rocks4     
,then charcoal is thrown on the cakes1  
and then live coals2 at first the cakes 
are heated by a gentle fire1 and        
afterward more charcoal is added to them
 until it is at times three-quarters of 
a foot deep4 ,a fiercer fire is         
certainly required to heat the hard     
cakes of copper than the fragile ones4  
,when the cakes have been sufficiently  
heated1 which usually occurs within the 
space of about two hours1 the exhausted 
liquation cakes or the rocks and the    
iron plate are removed from the mouth of
 the furnace4 ,then the hot cakes are   

taken out row after row with a          
two-pronged rabble1 such as the one     
which is used by those who dry the      
exhausted liquation cakes4 ,then the    
first cake is laid upon the exhausted   
liquation cakes1 and beaten by two      
workmen with hammers until it breaks2   
the hotter the cakes are1 the sooner    
they are broken up2 the less hot1 the   
longer it takes1 for now and then they  
bend into the shape of copper basins4   
,when the first cake has been broken1   
the second is put on to the other       
fragments and beaten until it breaks    
into pieces1 and the rest of the cakes  
are broken up in the same manner in due 
order4 ,the head of the hammer is three 
palms long and one wide1 and sharpened  
at both ends1 and its handle is of wood 
three feet long4 ,when they have been   
broken by the stamp1 if cold1 or with   
hammers if hot1 the fragments of copper 
or the cakes are carried into the       
store-room for copper4  ,the foreman of 
the works1 according to the different   

proportions of silver in each           
centumpondium of copper1 alloys it with 
lead1 without which he could not        
separate the silver from the copper4#aj 
,if there be a moderate amount of silver
 in the copper1 he alloys it fourfold2  
for instance1 if in three-quarters of a 
centumpondium of copper there is less   
than the following proportions1 i4e43   
half a libra of silver1 or half a libra 
and a sicilicus1 or half a libra and a  
semi-uncia1 or half a libra and         
semi-uncia and a sicilicus1 then rich   
lead--that is1 that from which the      
silver has not yet been separated--is   
added1 to the amount of half a          
centumpondium or a whole centumpondium1 
or a whole and a half1 in such a way    
that there may be in the copper-lead    
alloy some one of the proportions of    
silver which ,i have just mentioned1    
which is the first alloy4 ,to this first
 alloy is added such a weight of        
de-silverized lead or litharge as is    
required to make out of all of these a  

single liquation cake that will contain 
approximately two centumpondia of lead2 
but as usually from one hundred and     
thirty librae of litharge only one      
hundred librae of lead are made1 a      
greater proportion of litharge than of  
de-silverized lead is added as a        
supplement4 ,since four cakes of this   
kind are placed at the same time into   
the furnace in which the silver and lead
 is liquated from copper1 there will be 
in all the cakes three centumpondia of  
copper and eight centumpondia of lead4  
,when the lead has been liquated from   
the copper1 it weighs six centumpondia1 
in each centumpondium of which there is 
a quarter of a libra and almost a       
sicilicus of silver4 ,only seven unciae 
of the silver remain in the exhausted   
liquation cakes and in that copper-lead 
alloy which we call liquation thorns2   
they are not called by this name so much
 because they have sharp points as      
because they are base4 ,if in           
three-quarters of a centumpondium of    

copper there are less than seven uncia  
and a semi-uncia or a bes of silver1    
then so much rich lead must be added as 
to make in the copper and lead alloy one
 of the proportions of silver which ,i  
have already mentioned4 ,this is the    
second alloy4 ,to this is again to be   
added as great a weight of de-silverized
 lead1 or of litharge1 as will make it  
possible to obtain from that alloy a    
liquation cake containing two and a     
quarter centumpondia of lead1 in which  
manner in four of these cakes there will
 be three centumpondia of copper and    
nine centumpondia of lead4 ,the lead    
which liquates from these cakes weighs  
seven centumpondia1 in each             
centumpondium of which there is a       
quarter of a libra of silver and a      
little more than a sicilicus4 ,about    
seven unciae of silver remain in the    
exhausted liquation cakes and in the    
liquation thorns1 if we may be allowed  
to make common the old name 7spinae     
thorns7 and bestow it upon a new        

substance4 ,if in three-quarters of a   
centumpondium of copper there is less   
than three-quarters of a libra of       
silver1 or three-quarters and a         
semi-uncia1 then as much rich lead must 
be added as will produce one of the     
proportions of silver in the copper-lead
 alloy above mentioned2 this is the     
third alloy4 ,to this is added such an  
amount of de-silverized lead or of      
litharge1 that a liquation cake made    
from it contains in all two and         
three-quarters centumpondia of lead4 ,in
 this manner four such cakes will       
contain three centumpondia of copper and
 eleven centumpondia of lead4 ,the lead 
which these cakes liquate1 when they are
 melted in the furnace1 weighs about    
nine centumpondia1 in each centumpondium
 of which there is a quarter of a libra 
and more than a sicilicus of silver2 and
 seven unciae of silver remain in the   
exhausted liquation cakes and in the    
liquation thorns4 ,if1 however1 in      
three-quarters of a centumpondium of    

copper there is less than ten-twelfths  
of a libra or ten-twelfths of a libra   
and a semi-uncia of silver1 then such a 
proportion of rich lead is added as will
 produce in the copper-lead alloy one of
 the proportions of silver which ,i     
mentioned above2 this is the fourth     
alloy4 ,to this is added such a weight  
of de-silverized lead or of litharge1   
that a liquation cake made from it      
contains three centumpondia of lead1 and
 in four cakes of this kind there are   
three centumpondia of copper and twelve 
centumpondia of lead4 ,the lead which is
 liquated therefrom weighs about ten    
centumpondia1 in each centumpondium of  
which there is a quarter of a libra and 
more than a semi-uncia of silver1 or    
seven unciae2 a bes1 or seven unciae and
 a semi-uncia1 of silver remain in the  
exhausted liquation cakes and in the    
liquation thorns4  ,illustration #ejh   
7,blast ,furnaces73 ,a--,furnace in     
which slags are re-smelted4 ,b--,furnace
 in which copper is alloyed with lead4  

,c--,door4 ,d--,forehearths on the      
ground4 ,e--,copper moulds4 ,f--,rabble4
 ,g--,hook4 ,h--,cleft stick4 ,i--,arm  
of the crane4 ,k--,the hook of its      
chain4  ,against the second long wall in
 the second part of the building1 whose 
area is eighty feet long by thirty-nine 
feet wide1 are four furnaces in which   
the copper is alloyed with lead1 and six
 furnaces in which slags are re-smelted4
 ,the interior of the first kind of     
furnace is a foot and three palms wide1 
two feet three digits long2 and of the  
second is a foot and a palm wide and a  
foot three palms and a digit long4 ,the 
side walls of these furnaces are the    
same height as the furnaces in which    
gold or silver ores are smelted4 ,as the
 whole room is divided into two parts by
 upright posts1 the front part must     
have1 first1 two furnaces in which slags
 are re-melted2 second1 two furnaces in 
which copper is alloyed with lead2 and  
third1 one furnace in which slags are   
re-melted4 ,the back part of the room   

has first1 one furnace in which slags   
are re-melted2 next1 two furnaces in    
which copper is alloyed with lead2 and  
third1 two furnaces in which slags are  
re-melted4 ,each of these is six feet   
distant from the next2 on the right side
 of the first is a space of three feet  
and two palms1 and on the left side of  
the last one of seven feet4 ,each pair  
of furnaces has a common door1 six feet 
high and a cubit wide1 but the first and
 the tenth furnace each has one of its  
own4 ,each of the furnaces is set in an 
arch of its own in the back wall1 and in
 front has a forehearth pit2 this is    
filled with a powder compound rammed    
down and compressed in order to make a  
crucible4 ,under each furnace is a      
hidden receptacle for the moisture1#aa  
from which a vent is made through the   
back wall toward the right1 which allows
 the vapour to escape4 ,finally1 to the 
right1 in front1 is the copper mould    
into which the copper-lead alloy is     
poured from the forehearth1 in order    

that liquation cakes of equal weight may
 be made4 ,this copper mould is a digit 
thick1 its interior is two feet in      
diameter and six digits deep4 ,behind   
the second long wall are ten pairs of   
bellows1 two machines for compressing   
them1 and twenty instruments for        
inflating them4 ,the way in which these 
should be made may be understood from   
,book ,,ix4  ,the smelter1 when he      
alloys copper with lead1 with his hand  
throws into the heated furnace1 first   
the large fragments of copper1 then a   
basketful of charcoal1 then the smaller 
fragments of copper4 ,when the copper is
 melted and begins to run out of the    
tap-hole into the forehearth1 he throws 
litharge into the furnace1 and1 lest    
part of it should fly away1 he first    
throws charcoal over it1 and lastly     
lead4 ,as soon as he has thrown into the
 furnace the copper and the lead1 from  
which alloy the first liquation cake is 
made1 he again throws in a basket of    
charcoal1 and then fragments of copper  

are thrown over them1 from which the    
second cake may be made4 ,afterward with
 a rabble he skims the slag from the    
copper and lead as they flow into the   
forehearth4 ,such a rabble is a board   
into which an iron bar is fixed2 the    
board is made of elder-wood or willow1  
and is ten digits long1 six wide1 and   
one and a half digits thick2 the iron   
bar is three feet long1 and the wooden  
handle inserted into it is two and a    
half feet long4 ,while he purges the    
alloy and pours it out with a ladle into
 the copper mould1 the fragments of     
copper from which he is to make the     
second cake are melting4 ,as soon as    
this begins to run down he again throws 
in litharge1 and when he has put on more
 charcoal he adds the lead4 ,this       
operation he repeats until thirty       
liquation cakes have been made1 on which
 work he expends nine hours1 or at most 
ten2 if more than thirty cakes must be  
made1 then he is paid for another shift 
when he has made an extra thirty4  ,at  

the same time that he pours the         
copper-lead alloy into the copper mould1
 he also pours water slowly into the top
 of the mould4 ,then1 with a cleft      
stick1 he takes a hook and puts its     
straight stem into the molten cake4 ,the
 hook itself is a digit and a half      
thick2 its straight stem is two palms   
long and two digits wide and thick4     
,afterward he pours more water over the 
cakes4 ,when they are cold he places an 
iron ring in the hook of the chain let  
down from the pulley of the crane arm2  
the inside diameter of this ring is six 
digits1 and it is about a digit and a   
half thick2 the ring is then engaged in 
the hook whose straight stem is in the  
cake1 and thus the cake is raised from  
the mould and put into its place4  ,the 
copper and lead1 when thus melted1 yield
 a small amount of slag#ab and much     
litharge4 ,the litharge does not cohere1
 but falls to pieces like the residues  
from malt from which beer is made4      
,pompholyx adheres to the walls in white

 ashes1 and to the sides of the furnace 
adheres spodos4  ,in this practical     
manner lead is alloyed with copper in   
which there is but a moderate portion of
 silver4 ,if1 however1 there is much    
silver in it1 as1 for instance1 two     
librae1 or two librae and a bes1 to the 
centumpondium1--which weighs one hundred
 and thirty-three and a third librae1 or
 one hundred and forty-six librae and a 
bes1#ac--then the foreman of the works  
adds to a centumpondium of such copper  
three centumpondia of lead1 in each     
centumpondium of which there is a third 
of a libra of silver1 or a third of a   
libra and a semi-uncia4 ,in this manner 
three liquation cakes are made1 which   
contain altogether three centumpondia of
 copper and nine centumpondia of        
lead4#ad ,the lead1 when it has been    
liquated from the copper1 weighs seven  
centumpondia2 and in each               
centumpondium--if the centumpondium of  
copper contain two librae of silver1 and
 the lead contain a third of a          

libra--there will be a libra and a sixth
 and more than a semi-uncia of silver2  
while in the exhausted liquation cakes1 
and in the liquation thorns1 there      
remains a third of a libra4 ,if a       
centumpondium of copper contains two    
librae and a bes of silver1 and the lead
 a third of a libra and a semi-uncia1   
there will be in each liquation cake one
 and a half librae and a semi-uncia1 and
 a little more than a sicilicus of      
silver4 ,in the exhausted liquation     
cakes there remain a third of a libra   
and a semi-uncia of silver4             
,illustration #eaj 7,furnaces enriching 
copper bottoms73 ,a--,furnace4          
,b--,forehearth4 ,c--,dipping-,pot4     
,d--,cakes4  ,if there be in the copper 
only a minute proportion of silver1 it  
cannot be separated easily until it has 
been re-melted in other furnaces1 so    
that in the bottoms there remains more  
silver and in the tops less4#ae ,this   
furnace1 vaulted with unbaked bricks1 is
 similar to an oven1 and also to the    

cupellation furnace1 in which the lead  
is separated from silver1 which ,i      
described in the last book4 ,the        
crucible is made of ashes1 in the same  
manner as in the latter1 and in the     
front of the furnace1 three feet above  
the floor of the building1 is the mouth 
out of which the re-melted copper flows 
into a forehearth and a dipping-pot4 ,on
 the left side of the mouth is an       
aperture1 through which beech-wood may  
be put into the furnace to feed the     
fire4 ,if in a centumpondium of copper  
there were a sixth of a libra and a     
semi-uncia of silver1 or a quarter of a 
libra1 or a quarter of a libra and a    
semi-uncia--there is re-melted at the   
same time thirty-eight centumpondia of  
it in this furnace1 until there remain  
in each centumpondium of the copper     
bottoms a third of a libra and a        
semi-uncia of silver4 ,for example1 if  
in each centumpondium of copper not yet 
re-melted1 there is a quarter of a libra
 and a semi-uncia of silver1 then the   

thirty-eight centumpondia that are      
smelted together must contain a total of
 eleven librae and an uncia of silver4  
,since from fifteen centumpondia of     
re-melted copper there was a total of   
four and a third librae and a semi-uncia
 of silver1 there remain only two and a 
third librae4 ,thus there is left in the
 bottoms1 weighing twenty-three         
centumpondia1 a total of eight and      
three-quarter librae of silver4         
,therefore1 each centumpondium of this  
contains a third of a libra and a       
semi-uncia1 a drachma1 and the          
twenty-third part of a drachma of       
silver2 from such copper it is          
profitable to separate the silver4 ,in  
order that the master may be more       
certain of the number of centumpondia of
 copper in the bottoms1 he weighs the   
tops that have been drawn off from it2  
the tops were first drawn off into the  
dipping-pot1 and cakes were made from   
them4 ,fourteen hours are expended on   
the work of thus dividing the copper4   

,the bottoms1 when a certain weight of  
lead has been added to them1 of which   
alloy ,i shall soon speak1 are melted in
 the blast furnace2 liquation cakes are 
then made1 and the silver is afterward  
separated from the copper4 ,the tops are
 subsequently melted in the blast       
furnace1 and re-melted in the refining  
furnace1 in order that red copper shall 
be made#af2 and the tops from this are  
again smelted in the blast furnace1 and 
then again in the refining furnace1 that
 therefrom shall be made caldarium      
copper4 ,but when the copper1 yellow or 
red or caldarium is re-smelted in the   
refining furnace1 forty centumpondia are
 placed in it1 and from it they make at 
least twenty1 and at most thirty-five1  
centumpondia4 ,about twenty-two         
centumpondia of exhausted liquation     
cakes and ten of yellow copper and eight
 of red1 are simultaneously placed in   
this latter furnace and smelted1 in     
order that they may be made into refined
 copper4  ,the copper bottoms are       

alloyed in three different ways with    
lead4#ag ,first1 five-eighths of a      
centumpondium of copper and two and     
three-quarters centumpondia of lead are 
taken2 and since one liquation cake is  
made from this1 therefore two and a half
 centumpondia of copper and eleven      
centumpondia of lead make four liquation
 cakes4 ,inasmuch as in each            
centumpondium of copper there is a third
 of a libra of silver1 there would be in
 the whole of the copper ten-twelfths of
 a libra of silver2 to these are added  
four centumpondia of lead re-melted from
 slags1 each centumpondium of which     
contains a sicilicus and a drachma of   
silver1 which weights make up a total of
 an uncia and a half of silver4 ,there  
is also added seven centumpondia of     
de-silverized lead1 in each             
centumpondium of which there is a       
drachma of silver2 therefore in the four
 cakes of copper-lead alloy there is a  
total of a libra1 a sicilicus and a     
drachma of silver4 ,in each single      

centumpondium of lead1 after it has been
 liquated from the copper1 there is an  
uncia and a drachma of silver1 which    
alloy we call poor argentiferous lead1  
because it contains but little silver4  
,but as five cakes of that kind are     
placed together in the furnace1 they    
liquate from them usually as much as    
nine and three-quarters centumpondia of 
poor argentiferous lead1 in each        
centumpondium of which there is an uncia
 and a drachma of silver1 or a total of 
ten unciae less four drachmae4 ,of the  
liquation thorns there remain three     
centumpondia1 in each centumpondium of  
which there are three sicilici of       
silver2 and there remain four           
centumpondia of exhausted liquation     
cakes1 each centumpondium of which      
contains a semi-uncia or four and a half
 drachmae4 ,inasmuch as in a            
centumpondium of copper bottoms there is
 a third of a libra and a semi-uncia of 
silver1 in five of those cakes there    
must be more than one and a half unciae 

and half a drachma of silver4  ,then1   
again1 from another two and a half      
centumpondia of copper bottoms1 together
 with eleven centumpondia of lead1 four 
liquation cakes are made4 ,if in each   
centumpondium of copper there was a     
third of a libra of silver1 there would 
be in the whole of the centumpondia of  
base metal five-sixths of a libra of the
 precious metal4 ,to this copper is     
added eight centumpondia of poor        
argentiferous lead1 each centumpondium  
of which contains an uncia and a drachma
 of silver1 or a total of three-quarters
 of a libra of silver4 ,there is also   
added three centumpondia of             
de-silverized lead1 in each             
centumpondium of which there is a       
drachma of silver4 ,therefore1 four     
liquation cakes contain a total of a    
libra1 seven unciae1 a sicilicus and a  
drachma of silver2 thus each            
centumpondium of lead1 when it has been 
liquated from the copper1 contains an   
uncia and a half and a sicilicus of     

silver1 which alloy we call medium      
silver-lead4  ,then1 again1 from another
 two and a half centumpondia of copper  
bottoms1 together with eleven           
centumpondia of lead1 they make four    
liquation cakes4 ,if in each            
centumpondium of copper there were      
likewise a third of a libra of silver1  
there will be in all the weight of the  
base metal five-sixths of a libra of the
 precious metal4 ,to this is added nine 
centumpondia of medium silver-lead1 each
 centumpondium of which contains an     
uncia and a half and a sicilicus of     
silver2 or a total of a libra and a     
quarter and a semi-uncia and a sicilicus
 of silver4 ,and likewise they add two  
centumpondia of poor silver-lead1 in    
each of which there is an uncia and a   
drachma of silver4 ,therefore the four  
liquation cakes contain two and a third 
librae of silver4 ,each centumpondium of
 lead1 when it has been liquated from   
the copper1 contains a sixth of a libra 
and a semi-uncia and a drachma of       

silver4 ,this alloy we call rich        
silver-lead2 it is carried to the       
cupellation furnace1 in which lead is   
separated from silver4 ,i have now      
mentioned in how many ways copper       
containing various proportions of silver
 is alloyed with lead1 and how they are 
melted together in the furnace and run  
into the casting pan4  ,illustration    
#ead 7,crane for liquation cakes73      
,a--,crane4 ,b--,drum consisting of     
rundles4 ,c--,toothed drum4 ,d--,trolley
 and its wheels4 ,e--,triangular board4 
,f--,cakes4 ,g--,chain of the crane4    
,h--,its hook4 ,i--,ring4 ,k--,the      
tongs4  ,now ,i will speak of the method
 by which lead is liquated from copper  
simultaneously with the silver4 ,the    
liquation cakes are raised from the     
ground with the crane1 and placed on the
 copper plates of the furnaces4 ,the    
hook of the chain let down from the arm 
of the crane1 is inserted in a ring of  
the tongs1 one jaw of which has a tooth2
 a ring is engaged in each of the       

handles of the tongs1 and these two     
rings are engaged in a third1 in which  
the hook of the chain is inserted4 ,the 
tooth on the one jaw of the tongs is    
struck by a hammer1 and driven into the 
hole in the cake1 at the point where the
 straight end of the hook was driven    
into it when it was lifted out of the   
copper mould2 the other jaw of the      
tongs1 which has no tooth1 squeezes the 
cake1 lest the tooth should fall out of 
it2 the tongs are one and a half feet   
long1 each ring is a digit and a half   
thick1 and the inside is a palm and two 
digits in diameter4 ,those cranes by    
which the cakes are lifted out of the   
copper pans and placed on the ground1   
and lifted up again from there and      
placed in the furnaces1 are two in      
number--one in the middle space between 
the third transverse wall and the two   
upright posts1 and the other in the     
middle space between the same posts and 
the seventh transverse wall4 ,the       
rectangular crane-post of both of these 

is two feet wide and thick1 and is      
eighteen feet from the third long wall1 
and nineteen from the second long wall4 
,there are two drums in the framework of
 each--one drum consisting of rundles1  
the other being toothed4 ,the crane-arm 
of each extends seventeen feet1 three   
palms and as many digits from the post4 
,the trolley of each crane is two feet  
and as many palms long1 a foot and two  
digits wide1 and a palm and two digits  
thick2 but where it runs between the    
beams of the crane-arm it is three      
digits wide and a palm thick2 it has    
five notches1 in which turn five brass  
wheels1 four of which are small1 and the
 fifth much larger than the rest4 ,the  
notches in which the small wheels turn  
are two palms long and as much as a palm
 wide2 those wheels are a palm wide and 
a palm and two digits in diameter2 four 
of the notches are near the four corners
 of the trolley2 the fifth notch is     
between the two front ones1 and it is   
two palms back from the front4 ,its     

pulley is larger than the rest1 and     
turns in its own notch2 it is three     
palms in diameter and one palm wide1 and
 grooved on the circumference1 so that  
the iron chain may run in the groove4   
,the trolley has two small axles1 to the
 one in front are fastened three1 and to
 the one at the back1 the two wheels2   
two wheels run on the one beam of the   
crane-arm1 and two on the other2 the    
fifth wheel1 which is larger than the   
others1 runs between those two beams4   
,those people who have no cranes place  
the cakes on a triangular board1 to     
which iron cleats are affixed1 so that  
it will last longer2 the board has three
 iron chains1 which are fixed in an iron
 ring at the top2 two workmen pass a    
pole through the ring and carry it on   
their shoulders1 and thus take the cake 
to the furnace in which silver is       
separated from copper4  ,from the       
vicinity of the furnaces in which copper
 is mixed with lead and the slags are   
re-melted1 to the third long wall1 are  

likewise ten furnaces1 in which silver  
mixed with lead is separated from       
copper4 ,if this space is eighty feet   
and two palms long1 and the third long  
wall has in the centre a door three feet
 and two palms wide1 then the spaces    
remaining at either side of the door    
will be thirty-eight feet and two palms2
 and if each of the furnaces occupies   
four feet and a palm1 then the interval 
between each furnace and the next one   
must be a foot and three palms2 thus the
 width of the five furnaces and four    
interspaces will be twenty-eight feet   
and a palm4 ,therefore1 there remain ten
 feet and a palm1 which measurement is  
so divided that there are five feet and 
two digits between the first furnace and
 the transverse wall1 and as many feet  
and digits between the fifth furnace and
 the door2 similarly in the other part  
of the space from the door to the sixth 
furnace1 there must be five feet and two
 digits1 and from the tenth furnace to  
the seventh transverse wall1 likewise1  

five feet and two digits4 ,the door is  
six feet and two palms high2 through it 
the foreman of the officina and the     
workmen enter the store-room in which   
the silver-lead alloy is kept4          
,illustration #eag 7,liquation          
,furnace73 ,a--,sole-stones4            
,b--,rectangular stones4 ,c--,copper    
plates4 ,d--,front panel4 ,e--,side     
panels4 ,f--,bar4 ,g--,front end of the 
long iron rods4 ,h--,short chain4       
,i--,hooked rod4 ,k--,wall which        
protects the third long wall from injury
 by fire4 ,l--,third long wall4         
,m--,feet of the panels4 ,n--,iron      
blocks4 ,o--,cakes4 ,p--,hearth4        
,q--,receiving-pit4  ,each furnace has a
 bed1 a hearth1 a rear wall1 two sides  
and a front1 and a receiving-pit4 ,the  
bed consists of two sole-stones1 four   
rectangular stones1 and two copper      
plates2 the sole-stones are five feet   
and a palm long1 a cubit wide1 a foot   
and a palm thick1 and they are sunk into
 the ground1 so that they emerge a palm 

and two digits2 they are distant from   
each other about three palms1 yet the   
distance is narrower at the back than   
the front4 ,each of the rectangular     
stones is two feet and as many palms    
long1 a cubit wide1 and a cubit thick at
 the outer edge1 and a foot and a palm  
thick on the inner edge which faces the 
hearth1 thus they form an incline1 so   
that there is a slope to the copper     
plates which are laid upon them4 ,two of
 these rectangular stones are placed on 
one sole-stone2 a hole is cut in the    
upper edge of each1 and into the holes  
are placed iron clamps1 and lead is     
poured in2 they are so placed on the    
sole-stones that they project a palm at 
the sides1 and at the front the         
sole-stones project to the same extent2 
if rectangular stones are not available1
 bricks are laid in their place4 ,the   
copper plates are four feet two palms   
and as many digits long1 a cubit wide1  
and a palm thick2 each edge has a       
protuberance1 one at the front end1 the 

other at the back2 these are a palm and 
three digits long1 and a palm wide and  
thick4 ,the plates are so laid upon the 
rectangular stones that their rear ends 
are three digits from the third long    
wall2 the stones project beyond the     
plate the same number of digits in      
front1 and a palm and three digits at   
the sides4 ,when the plates have been   
joined1 the groove which is between the 
protuberances is a palm and three digits
 wide1 and four feet long1 and through  
it flows the silver-lead which liquates 
from the cakes4 ,when the plates are    
corroded either by the fire or by the   
silver-lead1 which often adheres to them
 in the form of stalactites1 and is     
chipped off1 they are exchanged1 the    
right one being placed to the left1 and 
the left one1 on the contrary1 to the   
right2 but the left side of the plates1 
which1 when the fusion of the copper    
took place1 came into contact with the  
copper1 must lie flat2 so that when the 
exchange of the plates has been carried 

out1 the protuberances1 which are thus  
on the underside1 raise the plate from  
the stones1 and they have to be         
partially chipped off1 lest they should 
prove an impediment to the work2 and in 
each of their places is laid a piece of 
iron1 three palms long1 a digit thick at
 both ends1 and a palm thick in the     
centre for the length of a palm and     
three digits4  ,the passage under the   
plates between the rectangular stones is
 a foot wide at the back1 and a foot and
 a palm wide at the front1 for it       
gradually widens out4 ,the hearth1 which
 is between the sole-stones1 is covered 
with a bed of hearth-lead1 taken from   
the crucible in which lead is separated 
from silver4 ,the rear end is the       
highest1 and should be so high that it  
reaches to within six digits of the     
plates1 from which point it slopes down 
evenly to the front end1 so that the    
argentiferous lead alloy which liquates 
from the cakes can flow into the        
receiving-pit4 ,the wall built against  

the third long wall in order to protect 
it from injury by fire1 is constructed  
of bricks joined together with lute1 and
 stands on the copper plates2 this wall 
is two feet1 a palm and two digits high1
 two palms thick1 and three feet1 a palm
 and three digits wide at the bottom1   
for it reaches across both of them2 at  
the top it is three feet wide1 for it   
rises up obliquely on each side4 ,at    
each side of this wall1 at a height of a
 palm and two digits above the top of   
it1 there is inserted in a hole in the  
third long wall a hooked iron rod1      
fastened in with molten lead2 the rod   
projects two palms from the wall1 and is
 two digits wide and one digit thick2 it
 has two hooks1 the one at the side1 the
 other at the end4 ,both of these hooks 
open toward the wall1 and both are a    
digit thick1 and both are inserted in   
the last1 or the adjacent1 links of a   
short iron chain4 ,this chain consists  
of four links1 each of which is a palm  
and a digit long and half a digit thick2

 the first link is engaged in the first 
hole in a long iron rod1 and one or     
other of the remaining three links      
engages the hook of the hooked rod4 ,the
 two long rods are three feet and as    
many palms and digits long1 two digits  
wide1 and one digit thick2 both ends of 
both of these rods have holes1 the back 
one of which is round and a digit in    
diameter1 and in this is engaged the    
first link of the chain as ,i have      
stated2 the hole at the front end is two
 digits and a half long and a digit and 
a half wide4 ,this end of each rod is   
made three digits wide1 while for the   
rest of its length it is only two       
digits1 and at the back it is two and a 
half digits4 ,into the front hole of    
each rod is driven an iron bar1 which is
 three feet and two palms long1 two     
digits wide and one thick2 in the end of
 this bar are five small square holes1  
two-thirds of a digit square2 each hole 
is distant from the other half a digit1 
the first being at a distance of about a

 digit from the end4 ,into one of these 
holes the refiner drives an iron pin2 if
 he should desire to make the furnace   
narrower1 then he drives it into the    
last hole2 if he should desire to widen 
it1 then into the first hole2 if he     
should desire to contract it moderately1
 then into one of the middle holes4 ,for
 the same reason1 therefore1 the hook is
 sometimes inserted into the last link  
of the chain1 and sometimes into the    
third or the second4 ,the furnace is    
widened when many cakes are put into it1
 and contracted when there are but few1 
but to put in more than five is neither 
usual nor possible2 indeed1 it is       
because of thin cakes that the walls are
 contracted4 ,the bar has a hump1 which 
projects a digit on each side at the    
back1 of the same width and thickness as
 itself4 ,these humps project1 lest the 
bar should slip through the hole of the 
right-hand rod1 in which it remains     
fixed when it1 together with the rods1  
is not pressing upon the furnace walls4 

,illustration #eai 7,liquation          
,furnaces73 ,a--,furnace in which the   
operation of liquation is being         
performed4 ,b--,furnace in which it is  
not being performed4 ,c--,receiving-pit4
 ,d--,moulds4 ,e--,cakes4 ,f--,liquation
 thorns4  ,there are three panels to the
 furnace--two at the sides1 one in front
 and another at the back4 ,those which  
are at the sides are three feet and as  
many palms and two digits long1 and two 
feet high2 the front one is two feet and
 a palm and three digits long1 and1 like
 the side ones1 two feet high4 ,each    
consists of iron bars1 of feet1 and of  
iron plates4 ,those which are at the    
side have seven bars1 the lower and     
upper of which are of the same length as
 the panels2 the former holds up the    
upright bars2 the latter is placed upon 
them2 the uprights are five in number1  
and have the same height as the panels2 
the middle ones are inserted into holes 
in the upper and lower bars2 the outer  
ones are made of one and the same bar as

 the lower and upper ones4 ,they are two
 digits wide and one thick4 ,the front  
panel has five bars2 the lower one holds
 similar uprights1 but there are three  
of them only2 the upper bar is placed on
 them4 ,each of these panels has two    
feet fixed at each end of the lower bar1
 and these are two palms long1 one wide1
 and a digit thick4 ,the iron plates are
 fastened to the inner side of the bars 
with iron wire1 and they are covered    
with lute1 so that they may last longer 
and may be uninjured by the fire4 ,there
 are1 besides1 iron blocks three palms  
long1 one wide1 and a digit and a half  
thick2 the upper surface of these is    
somewhat hollowed out1 so that the cakes
 may stand in them2 these iron blocks   
are dipped into a vessel in which there 
is clay mixed with water1 and they are  
used only for placing under the cakes of
 copper and lead alloy made in the      
furnaces4 ,there is more silver in these
 than in those which are made of        
liquation thorns1 or furnace accretions1

 or re-melted slags4 ,two iron blocks   
are placed under each cake1 in order    
that1 by raising it up1 the fire may    
bring more force to bear upon it2 the   
one is put on the right bed-plate1 the  
other on the left4 ,finally1 outside the
 hearth is the receiving-pit1 which is a
 foot wide and three palms deep2 when   
this is worn away it is restored with   
lute alone1 which easily retains the    
lead alloy4  ,if four liquation cakes   
are placed on the plates of each        
furnace1 then the iron blocks are laid  
under them2 but if the cakes are made   
from copper bottoms1 or from liquation  
thorns1 or from the accretions or slags1
 of which ,i have partly written above  
and will further describe a little      
later1 there are five of them1 and      
because they are not so large and heavy1
 no blocks are placed under them4       
,pieces of charcoal six digits long are 
laid between the cakes1 lest they should
 fall one against the other1 or lest the
 last one should fall against the wall  

which protects the third long wall from 
injury by fire4 ,in the middle empty    
spaces1 long and large pieces of        
charcoal are likewise laid4 ,then when  
the panels have been set up1 and the bar
 has been closed1 the furnace is filled 
with small charcoal1 and a wicker basket
 full of charcoal is thrown into the    
receiving-pit1 and over that are thrown 
live coals2 soon afterward the burning  
coal1 lifted up in a shovel1 is spread  
over all parts of the furnace1 so that  
the charcoal in it may be kindled2 any  
charcoal which remains in the           
receiving-pit is thrown into the        
passage1 so that it may likewise be     
heated4 ,if this has not been done1 the 
silver-lead alloy liquated from the     
cakes is frozen by the coldness of the  
passage1 and does not run down into the 
receiving-pit4  ,after a quarter of an  
hour the cakes begin to drip silver-lead
 alloy1#ah which runs down through the  
openings between the copper plates into 
the passage4 ,when the long pieces of   

charcoal have burned up1 if the cakes   
lean toward the wall1 they are placed   
upright again with a hooked bar1 but if 
they lean toward the front bar they are 
propped up by charcoal2 moreover1 if    
some cakes shrink more than the rest1   
charcoal is added to the former and not 
to the others4 ,the silver drips        
together with the lead1 for both melt   
more rapidly than copper4 ,the liquation
 thorns do not flow away1 but remain in 
the passage1 and should be turned over  
frequently with a hooked bar1 in order  
that the silver-lead may liquate away   
from them and flow down into the        
receiving pit2 that which remains is    
again melted in the blast furnace1 while
 that which flows into the receiving pit
 is at once carried with the remaining  
products to the cupellation furnace1    
where the lead is separated from the    
silver4 ,the hooked bar has an iron     
handle two feet long1 in which is set a 
wooden one four feet long4 ,the         
silver-lead which runs out into the     

receiving-pit is poured out by the      
refiner with a bronze ladle into eight  
copper moulds1 which are two palms and  
three digits in diameter2 these are     
first smeared with a lute wash so that  
the cakes of silver-lead may more easily
 fall out when they are turned over4 ,if
 the supply of moulds fails because the 
silver-lead flows down too rapidly into 
the receiving-pit1 then water is poured 
on them1 in order that the cakes may    
cool and be taken out of them more      
rapidly2 thus the same moulds may be    
used again immediately2 if no such      
necessity urges the refiner1 he washes  
over the empty moulds with a lute wash4 
,the ladle is exactly similar to that   
which is used in pouring out the metals 
that are melted in the blast furnace4   
,when all the silver-lead has run down  
from the passage into the receiving-pit1
 and has been poured out into copper    
moulds1 the thorns are drawn out of the 
passage into the receiving-pit with a   
rabble2 afterward they are raked on to  

the ground from the receiving-pit1      
thrown with a shovel into a wheelbarrow1
 and1 having been conveyed away to a    
heap1 are melted once again4 ,the blade 
of the rabble is two palms and as many  
digits long1 two palms and a digit wide1
 and joined to its back is an iron      
handle three feet long2 into the iron   
handle is inserted a wooden one as many 
feet in length4  ,the residue cakes1    
after the silver-lead has been liquated 
from the copper1 are called exhausted   
liquation cakes 7fathiscentes71 because 
when thus smelted they appear to be     
dried up4 ,by placing a crowbar under   
the cakes they are raised up1 seized    
with tongs1 and placed in the           
wheelbarrow2 they are then conveyed away
 to the furnace in which they are dried4
 ,the crowbar is somewhat similar to    
those generally used to chip off the    
accretions that adhere to the walls of  
the blast furnace4 ,the tongs are two   
and a half feet long4 ,with the same    
crowbar the stalactites are chipped off 

from the copper plates from which they  
hang1 and with the same instrument the  
iron blocks are struck off the exhausted
 liquation cakes to which they adhere4  
,the refiner has performed his day's    
task when he has liquated the           
silver-lead from sixteen of the large   
cakes and twenty of the smaller ones2 if
 he liquates more than this1 he is paid 
separately for it at the price for      
extraordinary work4  ,silver1 or lead   
mixed with silver1 which we call        
stannum1 is separated by the above      
method from copper4 ,this silver-lead is
 carried to the cupellation furnace1 in 
which lead is separated from silver2 of 
these methods ,i will mention only one1 
because in the previous book ,i have    
explained them in detail4 ,amongst us   
some years ago only forty-four          
centumpondia of silver-lead and one of  
copper were melted together in the      
cupellation furnaces1 but now they melt 
forty-six centumpondia of silver-lead   
and one and a half centumpondia of      

copper2 in other places1 usually a      
hundred and twenty centumpondia of      
silver-lead alloy and six of copper are 
melted1 in which manner they make about 
one hundred and ten centumpondia more or
 less of litharge and thirty of         
hearth-lead4 ,but in all these methods  
the silver which is in the copper is    
mixed with the remainder of silver2 the 
copper itself1 equally with the lead1   
will be changed partly into litharge and
 partly into hearth-lead4#ai ,the       
silver-lead alloy which does not melt is
 taken from the margin of the crucible  
with a hooked bar4  ,illustration #ebb  
7,exhausted ,liquation ,cakes73         
,a--,cakes4 ,b--,hammer4  ,the work of  
drying is distributed into four         
operations1 which are performed in four 
days4 ,on the first--as likewise on the 
other three days--the master begins at  
the fourth hour of the morning1 and with
 his assistant chips off the stalactites
 from the exhausted liquation cakes4    
,they then carry the cakes to the       

furnace1 and put the stalactites upon   
the heap of liquation thorns4 ,the head 
of the chipping hammer is three palms   
and as many digits long2 its sharp edge 
is a palm wide2 the round end is three  
digits thick2 the wooden handle is four 
feet long4  ,the master throws          
pulverised earth into a small vessel1   
sprinkles water over it1 and mixes it2  
this he pours over the whole hearth1 and
 sprinkles charcoal dust over it to the 
thickness of a digit4 ,if he should     
neglect this1 the copper1 settling in   
the passages1 would adhere to the copper
 bed-plates1 from which it can be       
chipped off only with difficulty2 or    
else it would adhere to the bricks1 if  
the hearth was covered with them1 and   
when the copper is chipped off these    
they are easily broken4 ,on the second  
day1 at the same time1 the master       
arranges bricks in ten rows2 in this    
manner twelve passages are made4 ,the   
first two rows of bricks are between the
 first and the second openings on the   

right of the furnace2 the next three    
rows are between the second and third   
openings1 the following three rows are  
between the third and the fourth        
openings1 and the last two rows between 
the fourth and fifth openings4 ,these   
bricks are a foot and a palm long1 two  
palms and a digit wide1 and a palm and  
two digits thick2 there are seven of    
these thick bricks in a row1 so there   
are seventy all together4 ,then on the  
first three rows of bricks they lay     
exhausted liquation cakes and a layer   
five digits thick of large charcoal2    
then in a similar way more exhausted    
liquation cakes are laid upon the other 
bricks1 and charcoal is thrown upon     
them2 in this manner seventy            
centumpondia of cakes are put on the    
hearth of the furnace4 ,but if half of  
this weight1 or a little more1 is to be 
dried1 then four rows of bricks will    
suffice4 ,those who dry exhausted       
liquation cakes#bj made from copper     
bottoms place ninety or a hundred       

centumpondia#ba into the furnace at the 
same time4 ,a place is left in the front
 part of the furnace for the topmost    
cakes removed from the forehearth in    
which copper is made1 these being more  
suitable for supporting the exhausted   
liquation cakes than are iron plates2   
indeed1 if the former cakes drip copper 
from the heat1 this can be taken back   
with the liquation thorns to the first  
furnace1 but melted iron is of no use to
 us in these matters4 ,when the cakes of
 this kind have been placed in front of 
the exhausted liquation cakes1 the      
workman inserts the iron bar into the   
holes on the inside of the wall1 which  
are at a height of three palms and two  
digits above the hearth2 the hole to the
 left penetrates through into the wall1 
so that the bar may be pushed back and  
forth4 ,this bar is round1 eight feet   
long and two digits in diameter2 on the 
right side it has a haft made of iron1  
which is about a foot from the right    
end2 the aperture in this haft is a palm

 wide1 two digits high1 and a digit     
thick4 ,the bar holds the exhausted     
liquation cakes opposite1 lest they     
should fall down4 ,when the operation of
 drying is completed1 a workman draws   
out this bar with a crook which he      
inserts into the haft1 as ,i will       
explain hereafter4  ,illustration #ebe  
7,drying ,furnace for ,liquation73      
,a--,side walls4 ,b--,front arch4       
,c--,rear arch4 ,d--,wall in the rear   
arch4 ,e--,inner wall4 ,f--,vent holes4 
,g--,chimney4 ,h--,hearth4 ,i--,tank4   
,k--,pipe4 ,l--,plug4 ,m--,iron door4   
,n--,transverse bars4 ,o--,upright bars4
 ,p--,plates4 ,q--,rings of the bars4   
,r--,chains4 ,s--,rows of bricks4       
,t--,bar4 ,v--,its haft4 ,x--,copper    
bed-plates4  ,in order that one should  
understand those things of which ,i have
 spoken1 and concerning which ,i am     
about to speak1 it is necessary for me  
to give some information beforehand     
about the furnace and how it is to be   
made4 ,it stands nine feet from the     

fourth long wall1 and as far from the   
wall which is between the second and    
fourth transverse walls4 ,it consists of
 walls1 an arch1 a chimney1 an interior 
wall1 and a hearth2 the two walls are at
 the sides2 and they are eleven feet    
three palms and two digits long1 and    
where they support the chimney they are 
eight feet and a palm high4 ,at the     
front of the arch they are only seven   
feet high2 they are two feet three palms
 and two digits thick1 and are made     
either of rock or of bricks2 the        
distance between them is eight feet1 a  
palm and two digits4 ,there are two of  
the arches1 for the space at the rear   
between the walls is also arched from   
the ground1 in order that it may be able
 to support the chimney2 the foundations
 of these arches are the walls of the   
furnace2 the span of the arch has the   
same length as the space between the    
walls2 the top of the arch is five feet1
 a palm and two digits high4 ,in the    
rear arch there is a wall made of bricks

 joined with lime2 this wall at a height
 of a foot and three palms from the     
ground has five vent-holes1 which are   
two palms and a digit high1 a palm and a
 digit wide1 of which the first is near 
the right interior wall1 and the last   
near the left interior wall1 the        
remaining three in the intervening      
space2 these vent-holes penetrate       
through the interior of the wall which  
is in the arch4 ,half-bricks can be     
placed over the vent-holes1 lest too    
much air should be drawn into the       
furnace1 and they can be taken out at   
times1 in order that he who is drying   
the exhausted liquation cakes may       
inspect the passages1 as they are       
called1 to see whether the cakes are    
being properly dried4 ,the front arch is
 three feet two palms distant from the  
rear one2 this arch is the same         
thickness as that of the rear arch1 but 
the span is six feet wide2 the interior 
of the arch itself is of the same height
 as the walls4 ,a chimney is built upon 

the arches and the walls1 and is made of
 bricks joined together with lime2 it is
 thirty-six feet high and penetrates    
through the roof4 ,the interior wall is 
built against the rear arch and both the
 side walls1 from which it juts out a   
foot2 it is three feet and the same     
number of palms high1 three palms thick1
 and is made of bricks joined together  
with lute and smeared thickly with lute1
 sloping up to the height of a foot     
above it4 ,this wall is a kind of       
shield1 for it protects the exterior    
walls from the heat of the fire1 which  
is apt to injure them2 the latter cannot
 be easily re-made1 while the former can
 be repaired with little work4  ,the    
hearth is made of lute1 and is covered  
either with copper plates1 such as those
 of the furnaces in which silver is     
liquated from copper1 although they have
 no protuberances1 or it may be covered 
with bricks1 if the owners are unwilling
 to incur the expense of copper plates4 
,the wider part of the hearth is made   

sloping in such a manner that the rear  
end reaches as high as the five         
vent-holes1 and the front end of the    
hearth is so low that the back of the   
front arch is four feet1 three palms and
 as many digits above it1 and the front 
five feet1 three palms and as many      
digits4 ,the hearth beyond the furnaces 
is paved with bricks for a distance of  
six feet4 ,near the furnace1 against the
 fourth long wall1 is a tank thirteen   
feet and a palm long1 four feet wide1   
and a foot and three palms deep4 ,it is 
lined on all sides with planks1 lest the
 earth should fall into it2 on one side 
the water flows in through pipes1 and on
 the other1 if the plug be pulled out1  
it soaks into the earth2 into this tank 
of water are thrown the cakes of copper 
from which the silver and lead have been
 separated4 ,the fore part of the front 
furnace arch should be partly closed    
with an iron door2 the bottom of this   
door is six feet and two digits wide2   
the upper part is somewhat rounded1 and 

at the highest point1 which is in the   
middle1 it is three feet and two palms  
high4 ,it is made of iron bars1 with    
plates fastened to them with iron wire1 
there being seven bars--three transverse
 and four upright--each of which is two 
digits wide and half a digit thick4 ,the
 lowest transverse bar is six feet and  
two palms long2 the middle one has the  
same length2 the upper one is curved and
 higher at the centre1 and thus longer  
than the other two4 ,the upright bars   
are two feet distant from one another2  
both the outer ones are two feet and as 
many palms high2 but the centre ones are
 three feet and two palms4 ,they project
 from the upper curved transverse bar   
and have holes1 in which are inserted   
the hooks of small chains two feet long2
 the topmost links of these chains are  
engaged in the ring of a third chain1   
which1 when extended1 reaches to one end
 of a beam which is somewhat cut out4   
,the chain then turns around the beam1  
and again hanging down1 the hook in the 

other end is fastened in one of the     
links4 ,this beam is eleven feet long1 a
 palm and two digits wide1 a palm thick1
 and turns on an iron axle fixed in a   
nearby timber2 the rear end of the beam 
has an iron pin1 which is three palms   
and a digit long1 and which penetrates  
through it where it lies under a timber1
 and projects from it a palm and two    
digits on one side1 and three digits on 
the other side4 ,at this point the pin  
is perforated1 in order that a ring may 
be fixed in it and hold it1 lest it     
should fall out of the beam2 that end is
 hardly a digit thick1 while the other  
round end is thicker than a digit4 ,when
 the door is to be shut1 this pin lies  
under the timber and holds the door so  
that it cannot fall2 the pin likewise   
prevents the rectangular iron band which
 encircles the end of the beam1 and into
 which is inserted the ring of a long   
hook1 from falling from the end4 ,the   
lowest link of an iron chain1 which is  
six feet long1 is inserted in the ring  

of a staple driven into the right wall  
of the furnace1 and fixed firmly by     
filling in with molten lead4 ,the hook  
suspended at the top from the ring      
should be inserted in one of these lower
 links1 when the door is to be raised2  
when the door is to be let down1 the    
hook is taken out of that link and put  
into one of the upper links4            
,illustration #ebg 7,drying ,furnace for
 ,liquation73 ,a--,the door let down4   
,b--,bar4 ,c--,exhausted liquation      
cakes4 ,d--,bricks4 ,e--,tongs4  ,on the
 third day the master sets about the    
principal operation4 ,first he throws a 
basketful of charcoals on to the ground 
in front of the hearth1 and kindles them
 by adding live coals1 and having thrown
 live coals on to the cakes placed      
within1 he spreads them equally all over
 with an iron shovel4 ,the blade of the 
shovel is three palms and a digit long1 
and three palms wide2 its iron handle is
 two palms long1 and the wooden one ten 
feet long1 so that it can reach to the  

rear wall of the furnace4 ,the exhausted
 liquation cakes become incandescent in 
an hour and a half1 if the copper was   
good and hard1 or after two hours1 if it
 was soft and fragile4 ,the workman adds
 charcoal to them where he sees it is   
needed1 throwing it into the furnace    
through the openings on both sides      
between the side walls and the closed   
door4 ,this opening is a foot and a palm
 wide4 ,he lets down the door1 and when 
the slags begin to flow he opens the    
passages with a bar2 this should take   
place after five hours2 the door is let 
down over the upper open part of the    
arch for two feet and as many digits1 so
 that the master can bear the violence  
of the heat4 ,when the cakes shrink1    
charcoal should not be added to them    
lest they should melt4 ,if the cakes    
made from poor and fragile copper are   
dried with cakes made from good hard    
copper1 very often the copper so settles
 into the passages that a bar thrust    
into them cannot penetrate them4 ,this  

bar is of iron1 six feet and two palms  
long1 into which a wooden handle five   
feet long is inserted4 ,the refiner     
draws off the slags with a rabble from  
the right side of the hearth4 ,the blade
 of the rabble is made of an iron plate 
a foot and a palm wide1 gradually       
narrowing toward the handle2 the blade  
is two palms high1 its iron handle is   
two feet long1 and the wooden handle set
 into it is ten feet long4              
,illustration #ebh 7,drying ,furnace for
 ,liquation73 ,a--,the door raised4     
,b--,hooked bar4 ,c--,two-pronged rake4 
,d--,tongs4 ,e--,tank4  ,when the       
exhausted liquation cakes have been     
dried1 the master raises the door in the
 manner ,i have described1 and with a   
long iron hook inserted into the haft of
 the bar he draws it through the hole in
 the left wall from the hole in the     
right wall2 afterward he pushes it back 
and replaces it4 ,the master then takes 
out the exhausted liquation cakes       
nearest to him with the iron hook2 then 

he pulls out the cakes from the bricks4 
,this hook is two palms high1 as many   
digits wide1 and one thick2 its iron    
handle is two feet long1 and the wooden 
handle eleven feet long4 ,there is also 
a two-pronged rake with which the dried 
cakes are drawn over to the left side so
 that they may be seized with tongs2 the
 prongs of the rake are pointed1 and are
 two palms long1 as many digits wide1   
and one digit thick2 the iron part of   
the handle is a foot long1 the wooden   
part nine feet long4 ,the dried cakes1  
taken out of the hearth by the master   
and his assistants1 are seized with     
other tongs and thrown into the         
rectangular tank1 which is almost filled
 with water4 ,these tongs are two feet  
and three palms long1 both the handles  
are round and more than a digit thick1  
and the ends are bent for a palm and two
 digits2 both the jaws are a digit and a
 half wide in front and sharpened2 at   
the back they are a digit thick1 and    
then gradually taper1 and when closed1  

the interior is two palms and as many   
digits wide4  ,the dried cakes which are
 dripping copper are not immediately    
dipped into the tank1 because1 if so1   
they burst in fragments and give out a  
sound like thunder4 ,the cakes are      
afterward taken out of the tank with the
 tongs1 and laid upon the two transverse
 planks on which the workmen stand2 the 
sooner they are taken out the easier it 
is to chip off the copper that has      
become ash-coloured4 ,finally1 the      
master1 with a spade1 raises up the     
bricks a little from the hearth1 while  
they are still warm4 ,the blade of the  
spade is a palm and two digits long1 the
 lower edge is sharp1 and is a palm and 
a digit wide1 the upper end a palm wide2
 its handle is round1 the iron part     
being two feet long1 and the wooden part
 seven and a half feet long4  ,on the   
fourth day the master draws out the     
liquation thorns which have settled in  
the passages2 they are much richer in   
silver than those that are made when the

 silver-lead is liquated from copper in 
the liquation furnace4 ,the dried cakes 
drip but little copper1 but nearly all  
their remaining silver-lead and the     
thorns consist of it1 for1 indeed1 in   
one centumpondium of dried copper there 
should remain only half an uncia of     
silver1 and there sometimes remain only 
three drachmae4#bb ,some smelters chip  
off the metal adhering to the bricks    
with a hammer1 in order that it may be  
melted again2 others1 however1 crush the
 bricks under the stamps and wash them1 
and the copper and lead thus collected  
is melted again4 ,the master1 when he   
has taken these things away and put them
 in their places1 has finished his day's
 work4  ,illustration #ecj 7,dried      
,liquation ,cakes73 ,a--,tank4          
,b--,board4 ,c--,tongs4 ,d--,dried cakes
 taken out of the tanks4 ,e--,block4    
,f--,rounded hammer4 ,g--,pointed       
hammer4  ,the assistants take the dried 
cakes out of the tank on the next day1  
place them on an oak block1 and first   

pound them with rounded hammers in order
 that the ash-coloured copper may fall  
away from them1 and then they dig out   
with pointed picks the holes in the     
cakes1 which contain the same kind of   
copper4 ,the head of the round hammer is
 three palms and a digit long2 one end  
of the head is round and two digits long
 and thick2 the other end is            
chisel-shaped1 and is two digits and a  
half long4 ,the sharp pointed hammer is 
the same length as the round hammer1 but
 one end is pointed1 the other end is   
square1 and gradually tapers to a point4
  ,the nature of copper is such that    
when it is dried it becomes ash         
coloured1 and since this copper contains
 silver1 it is smelted again in the     
blast furnaces4#bc  ,illustration #ecb  
7,copper ,refining ,furnace73           
,a--,hearth of the furnace4             
,b--,chimney4 ,c--,common pillar4       
,d--,other pillars4 ,the partition wall 
is behind the common pillar and not to  
be seen4 ,e--,arches4 ,f--,little walls 

which protect the partition wall from   
injury by the fire4 ,g--,crucibles4     
,h--,second long wall4 ,i--,door4       
,k--,spatula4 ,l--,the other spatula4   
,m--,the broom in which is inserted a   
stick4 ,n--,pestles4 ,o--,wooden mallet4
 ,p--,plate4 ,q--,stones4 ,r--,iron rod4
  ,i have described sufficiently the    
method by which exhausted liquation     
cakes are dried2 now ,i will speak of   
the method by which they are made into  
copper after they have been dried4      
,these cakes1 in order that they may    
recover the appearance of copper which  
they have to some extent lost1 are      
melted in four furnaces1 which are      
placed against the second long wall in  
the part of the building between the    
second and third transverse walls4 ,this
 space is sixty-three feet and two palms
 long1 and since each of these furnaces 
occupies thirteen feet1 the space which 
is on the right side of the first       
furnace1 and on the left of the fourth1 
are each three feet and three palms     

wide1 and the distance between the      
second and third furnace is six feet4   
,in the middle of each of these three   
spaces is a door1 a foot and a half wide
 and six feet high1 and the middle one  
is common to the master of each of the  
furnaces4 ,each furnace has its own     
chimney1 which rises between the two    
long walls mentioned above1 and is      
supported by two arches and a partition 
wall4 ,the partition wall is between the
 two furnaces1 and is five feet long1   
ten feet high1 and two feet thick2 in   
front of it is a pillar belonging in    
common to the front arches of the       
furnace on either side1 which is two    
feet and as many palms thick1 three feet
 and a half wide4 ,the front arch       
reaches from this common pillar to      
another pillar that is common to the    
side arch of the same furnace2 this arch
 on the right spans from the second long
 wall to the same pillar1 which is two  
feet and as many palms wide and thick at
 the bottom4 ,the interior of the front 

arch is nine feet and a palm wide1 and  
eight feet high at its highest point2   
the interior of the arch which is on the
 right side1 is five feet and a palm    
wide1 and of equal height to the other1 
and both the arches are built of the    
same height as the partition wall4      
,imposed upon these arches and the      
partition wall are the walls of the     
chimney2 these slope upward1 and thus   
contract1 so that at the upper part1    
where the fumes are emitted1 the opening
 is eight feet in length1 one foot and  
three palms in width4 ,the fourth wall  
of the chimney is built vertically upon 
the second long wall4 ,as the partition 
wall is common to the two furnaces1 so  
its superstructure is common to the two 
chimneys4 ,in this sensible manner the  
chimney is built4 ,at the front each    
furnace is six feet two palms long1 and 
three feet two palms wide1 and a cubit  
high2 the back of each furnace is       
against the second long wall1 the front 
being open4 ,the first furnace is open  

and sloping at the right side1 so that  
the slags may be drawn out2 the left    
side is against the partition wall1 and 
has a little wall built of bricks       
cemented together with lute2 this little
 wall protects the partition wall from  
injury by the fire4 ,on the contrary1   
the second furnace has the left side    
open and the right side is against the  
partition wall1 where also it has its   
own little wall which protects the      
partition wall from the fire4 ,the front
 of each furnace is built of rectangular
 rocks2 the interior of it is filled up 
with earth4 ,then in each of the        
furnaces at the rear1 against the second
 long wall1 is an aperture through an   
arch at the back1 and in these are fixed
 the copper pipes4 ,each furnace has a  
round pit1 two feet and as many palms   
wide1 built three feet away from the    
partition wall4 ,finally1 under the pit 
of the furnace1 at a depth of a cubit1  
is the hidden receptacle for moisture1  
similar to the others1 whose vent       

penetrates through the second long wall 
and slopes upward to the right from the 
first furnace1 and to the left from the 
second4 ,if copper is to be made the    
next day1 then the master cuts out the  
crucible with a spatula1 the blade of   
which is three digits wide and as many  
palms long1 the iron handle being two   
feet long and one and a half digits in  
diameter2 the wooden handle inserted    
into it is round1 five feet long and two
 digits in diameter4 ,then1 with another
 cutting spatula1 he makes the crucible 
smooth2 the blade of this spatula is a  
palm wide and two palms long2 its       
handle1 partly of iron1 partly of wood1 
is similar in every respect to the first
 one4 ,afterward he throws pulverised   
clay and charcoal into the crucible1    
pours water over it1 and sweeps it over 
with a broom into which a stick is      
fixed4 ,then immediately he throws into 
the crucible a powder1 made of two      
wheelbarrowsful of sifted charcoal dust1
 as many wheelbarrowsful of pulverised  

clay likewise sifted1 and six basketsful
 of river sand which has passed through 
a very fine sieve4 ,this powder1 like   
that used by smelters1 is sprinkled with
 water and moistened before it is put   
into the crucible1 so that it may be    
fashioned by the hands into shapes      
similar to snowballs4 ,when it has been 
put in1 the master first kneads it and  
makes it smooth with his hands1 and then
 pounds it with two wooden pestles1 each
 of which is a cubit long2 each pestle  
has a round head at each end1 but one of
 these is a palm in diameter1 the other 
three digits2 both are thinner in the   
middle1 so that they may be held in the 
hand4 ,then he again throws moistened   
powder into the crucible1 and again     
makes it smooth with his hands1 and     
kneads it with his fists and with the   
pestles2 then1 pushing upward and       
pressing with his fingers1 he makes the 
edge of the crucible smooth4 ,after the 
crucible has been made smooth1 he       
sprinkles in dry charcoal dust1 and     

again pounds it with the same pestles1  
at first with the narrow heads1 and     
afterward with the wider ones4 ,then he 
pounds the crucible with a wooden mallet
 two feet long1 both heads of which are 
round and three digits in diameter2 its 
wooden handle is two palms long1 and one
 and a half digits in diameter4         
,finally1 he throws into the crucible as
 much pure sifted ashes as both hands   
can hold1 and pours water into it1 and1 
taking an old linen rag1 he smears the  
crucible over with the wet ashes4 ,the  
crucible is round and sloping4 ,if      
copper is to be made from the best      
quality of dried cakes1 it is made two  
feet wide and one deep1 but if from     
other cakes1 it is made a cubit wide and
 two palms deep4 ,the master also has an
 iron band curved at both ends1 two     
palms long and as many digits wide1 and 
with this he cuts off the edges of the  
crucible if they are higher than is     
necessary4 ,the copper pipe is inclined1
 and projects three digits from the     

wall1 and has its upper end and both    
sides smeared thick with lute1 that it  
may not be burned2 but the underside of 
the pipe is smeared thinly with lute1   
for this side reaches almost to the edge
 of the crucible1 and when the crucible 
is full the molten copper touches it4   
,the wall above the pipe is smeared over
 with lute1 lest that should be damaged4
 ,he does the same to the other side of 
an iron plate1 which is a foot and three
 palms long and a foot high2 this stands
 on stones near the crucible at the side
 where the hearth slopes1 in order that 
the slag may run out under it4 ,others  
do not place the plates upon stones1 but
 cut out of the plate underneath a small
 piece1 three digits long and three     
digits wide2 lest the plate should fall1
 it is supported by an iron rod fixed in
 the wall at a height of two palms and  
the same number of digits1 and it       
projects from the wall three palms4     
,then with an iron shovel1 whose wooden 
handle is six feet long1 he throws live 

charcoal into the crucible2 or else     
charcoal1 kindled by means of a few live
 coals1 is added to them4 ,over the live
 charcoal he lays dried cakes1 which1 if
 they were of copper of the first       
quality1 weigh all together three       
centumpondia1 or three and a half       
centumpondia2 but if they were of copper
 of the second quality1 then two and a  
half centumpondia2 if they were of the  
third quality1 then two centumpondia    
only2 but if they were of copper of very
 superior quality1 then they place upon 
it six centumpondia1 and in this case   
they make the crucible wider and        
deeper4#bd ,the lowest dried cake is    
placed at a distance of two palms from  
the pipe1 the rest at a greater         
distance1 and when the lower ones are   
melted the upper ones fall down and get 
nearer to the pipe2 if they do not fall 
down they must be pushed with a shovel4 
,the blade of the shovel is a foot long1
 three palms and two digits wide1 the   
iron part of the handle is two palms    

long1 the wooden part nine feet4 ,round 
about the dried cakes are placed large  
long pieces of charcoal1 and in the pipe
 are placed medium-sized pieces4 ,when  
all these things have been arranged in  
this manner1 the fire must be more      
violently excited by the blast from the 
bellows4 ,when the copper is melting and
 the coals blaze1 the master pushes an  
iron bar into the middle of them in     
order that they may receive the air1 and
 that the flame can force its way out4  
,this pointed bar is two and a half feet
 long1 and its wooden handle four feet  
long4 ,when the cakes are partly melted1
 the master1 passing out through the    
door1 inspects the crucible through the 
bronze pipe1 and if he should find that 
too much of the slag is adhering to the 
mouth of the pipe1 and thus impeding the
 blast of the bellows1 he inserts the   
hooked iron bar into the pipe through   
the nozzle of the bellows1 and1 turning 
this about the mouth of the pipe1 he    
removes the slags from it4 ,the hook on 

this bar is two digits high2 the iron   
part of the handle is three feet long2  
the wooden part is the same number of   
palms long4 ,now it is time to insert   
the bar under the iron plate1 in order  
that the slags may flow out4 ,when the  
cakes1 being all melted1 have run into  
the crucible1 he takes out a sample of  
copper with the third round bar1 which  
is made wholly of iron1 and is three    
feet long1 a digit thick1 and has a     
steel point lest its pores should absorb
 the copper4 ,when he has compressed the
 bellows1 he introduces this bar as     
quickly as possible into the crucible   
through the pipe between the two        
nozzles1 and takes out samples two1     
three1 or four times1 until he finds    
that the copper is perfectly refined4   
,if the copper is good it adheres easily
 to the bar1 and two samples suffice2 if
 it is not good1 then many are required4
 ,it is necessary to smelt it in the    
crucible until the copper adhering to   
the bar is seen to be of a brassy       

colour1 and if the upper as well as the 
lower part of the thin layer of copper  
may be easily broken1 it signifies that 
the copper is perfectly melted2 he      
places the point of the bar on a small  
iron anvil1 and chips off the thin layer
 of copper from it with a hammer4#be    
,illustration #ecd 7,copper ,refining73 
,a--,pointed bar4 ,b--,thin copper      
layer4 ,c--,anvil4 ,d--,hammer4         
,illustration #ecg 7,copper ,refining73 
,a--,crucible4 ,b--,board4              
,c--,wedge-shaped bar4 ,d--,cakes of    
copper made by separating them with the 
wedge-shaped bar4 ,e--,tongs4 ,f--,tub4 
,if the copper is not good1 the master  
draws off the slags twice1 or three     
times if necessary--the first time when 
some of the cakes have been melted1 the 
second when all have melted1 the third  
time when the copper has been heated for
 some time4 ,if the copper was of good  
quality1 the slags are not drawn off    
before the operation is finished1 but at
 the time they are to be drawn off1 he  

depresses the bar over both bellows1 and
 places over both a stick1 a cubit long 
and a palm wide1 half cut away at the   
upper part1 so that it may pass under   
the iron pin fixed at the back in the   
perforated wood4 ,this he does likewise 
when the copper has been completely     
melted4 ,then the assistant removes the 
iron plate with the tongs2 these tongs  
are four feet three palms long1 their   
jaws are about a foot in length1 and    
their straight part measures two palms  
and three digits1 and the curved a palm 
and a digit4 ,the same assistant1 with  
the iron shovel1 throws and heaps up the
 larger pieces of charcoal into that    
part of the hearth which is against the 
little wall which protects the other    
wall from injury by fire1 and partly    
extinguishes them by pouring water over 
them4 ,the master1 with a hazel stick   
inserted into the crucible1 stirs it    
twice4 ,afterward he draws off the slags
 with a rabble1 which consists of an    
iron blade1 wide and sharp1 and of      

alder-wood2 the blade is a digit and a  
half in width and three feet long2 the  
wooden handle inserted in its hollow    
part is the same number of feet long1   
and the alder-wood in which the blade is
 fixed must have the figure of a        
rhombus2 it must be three palms and a   
digit long1 a palm and two digits wide1 
and a palm thick4 ,subsequently he takes
 a broom and sweeps the charcoal dust   
and small coal over the whole of the    
crucible1 lest the copper should cool   
before it flows together2 then1 with a  
third rabble1 he cuts off the slags     
which may adhere to the edge of the     
crucible4 ,the blade of this rabble is  
two palms long and a palm and one digit 
wide1 the iron part of the handle is a  
foot and three palms long1 the wooden   
part six feet4 ,afterward he again draws
 off the slags from the crucible1 which 
the assistant does not quench by pouring
 water upon them1 as the other slags are
 usually quenched1 but he sprinkles over
 them a little water and allows them to 

cool4 ,if the copper should bubble1 he  
presses down the bubbles with the       
rabble4 ,then he pours water on the wall
 and the pipes1 that it may flow down   
warm into the crucible1 for1 the copper1
 if cold water were to be poured over it
 while still hot1 would spatter about4  
,if a stone1 or a piece of lute or wood1
 or a damp coal should then fall into   
it1 the crucible would vomit out all the
 copper with a loud noise like thunder1 
and whatever it touches it injures and  
sets on fire4 ,subsequently he lays a   
curved board with a notch in it over the
 front part of the crucible2 it is two  
feet long1 a palm and two digits wide1  
and a digit thick4 ,then the copper in  
the crucible should be divided into     
cakes with an iron wedge-shaped bar2    
this is three feet long1 two digits     
wide1 and steeled on the end for the    
distance of two digits1 and its wooden  
handle is three feet long4 ,he places   
this bar on the notched board1 and1     
driving it into the copper1 moves it    

forward and back1 and by this means the 
water flows into the vacant space in the
 copper1 and he separates the cake from 
the rest of the mass4 ,if the copper is 
not perfectly smelted the cakes will be 
too thick1 and cannot be taken out of   
the crucible easily4 ,each cake is      
afterward seized by the assistant with  
the tongs and plunged into the water in 
the tub2 the first one is placed aside  
so that the master may re-melt it again 
immediately1 for1 since some slags      
adhere to it1 it is not as perfect as   
the subsequent ones2 indeed1 if the     
copper is not of good quality1 he places
 the first two cakes aside4 ,then1 again
 pouring water over the wall and the    
pipes1 he separates out the second cake1
 which the assistant likewise immerses  
in water and places on the ground       
together with the others separated out  
in the same way1 which he piles upon    
them4 ,these1 if the copper was of good 
quality1 should be thirteen or more in  
number2 if it was not of good quality1  

then fewer4 ,if the copper was of good  
quality1 this part of the operation1    
which indeed is distributed into four   
parts1 is accomplished by the master in 
two hours2 if of mediocre quality1 in   
two and a half hours2 if of bad quality1
 in three4 ,the dried cakes are         
re-melted1 first in the first crucible  
and then in the second4 ,the assistant  
must1 as quickly as possible1 quench all
 the cakes with water1 after they have  
been cut out of the second crucible4    
,afterward with the tongs he replaces in
 its proper place the iron plate which  
was in front of the furnace1 and throws 
the charcoal back into the crucible with
 a shovel4 ,meanwhile the master1       
continuing his work1 removes the wooden 
stick from the bars of the bellows1 so  
that in re-melting the other cakes he   
may accomplish the third part of his    
process2 this must be carefully done1   
for if a particle from any iron         
implement should by chance fall into the
 crucible1 or should be thrown in by any

 malevolent person1 the copper could not
 be made until the iron had been        
consumed1 and therefore double labour   
would have to be expended upon it4      
,finally1 the assistant extinguishes all
 the glowing coals1 and chips off the   
dry lute from the mouth of the copper   
pipe with a hammer2 one end of this     
hammer is pointed1 the other round1 and 
it has a wooden handle five feet long4  
,because there is danger that the copper
 would be scattered if the pompholyx and
 spodos1 which adhere to the walls and  
the hood erected upon them1 should fall 
into the crucible1 he cleans them off in
 the meantime4 ,every week he takes the 
copper flowers out of the tub1 after    
having poured off the water1 for these  
fall into it from the cakes when they   
are quenched4#bf  ,the bellows which    
this master uses differ in size from the
 others1 for the boards are seven and a 
half feet long2 the back part is three  
feet wide2 the front1 where the head is 
joined on is a foot1 two palms and as   

many digits4 ,the head is a cubit and a 
digit long2 the back part of it is a    
cubit and a palm wide1 and then becomes 
gradually narrower4 ,the nozzles of the 
bellows are bound together by means of  
an iron chain1 controlled by a thick    
bar1 one end of which penetrates into   
the ground against the back of the long 
wall1 and the other end passes under the
 beam which is laid upon the foremost   
perforated beams4 ,these nozzles are so 
placed in a copper pipe that they are at
 a distance of a palm from the mouth2   
the mouth should be made three digits in
 diameter1 that the air may be violently
 expelled through this narrow aperture4 
,there now remain the liquation thorns1 
the ash-coloured copper1 the slags1 and 
the cadmia4#bg ,liquation cakes are made
 from thorns in the following manner4#bh
 ,there are taken three-quarters of a   
centumpondium of thorns1 which have     
their origin from the cakes of          
copper-lead alloy when lead-silver is   
liquated1 and as many parts of a        

centumpondium of the thorns derived from
 cakes made from once re-melted thorns  
by the same method1 and to them are     
added a centumpondium of de-silverized  
lead and half a centumpondium of        
hearth-lead4 ,if there is in the works  
plenty of litharge1 it is substituted   
for the de-silverized lead4 ,one and a  
half centumpondia of litharge and       
hearth-lead is added to the same weight 
of primary thorns1 and half a           
centumpondium of thorns which have their
 origin from liquation cakes composed of
 thorns twice re-melted by the same     
method 7tertiary thorns71 and a fourth  
part of a centumpondium of thorns which 
are produced when the exhausted         
liquation cakes are dried4 ,by both     
methods one single liquation cake is    
made from three centumpondia4 ,in this  
manner the smelter makes every day      
fifteen liquation cakes1 more or less2  
he takes great care that the metallic   
substances1 from which the first        
liquation cake is made1 flow down       

properly and in due order into the      
forehearth1 before the material of which
 the subsequent cake is to be made4     
,five of these liquation cakes are put  
simultaneously into the furnace in which
 silver-lead is liquated from copper1   
they weigh almost fourteen centumpondia1
 and the slags made therefrom usually   
weigh quite a centumpondium4 ,in all the
 liquation cakes together there is      
usually one libra and nearly two unciae 
of silver1 and in the silver-lead which 
drips from those cakes1 and weighs seven
 and a half centumpondia1 there is in   
each an uncia and a half of silver4 ,in 
each of the three centumpondia of       
liquation thorns there is almost an     
uncia of silver1 and in the two         
centumpondia and a quarter of exhausted 
liquation cakes there is altogether one 
and a half unciae2 yet this varies      
greatly for each variety of thorns1 for 
in the thorns produced from primary     
liquation cakes made of copper and lead 
when silver-lead is liquated from the   

copper1 and those produced in drying the
 exhausted liquation cakes1 there are   
almost two unciae of silver2 in the     
others not quite an uncia4 ,there are   
other thorns besides1 of which ,i will  
speak a little further on4  ,those in   
the ,carpathian ,mountains who make     
liquation cakes from the copper bottoms 
which remain after the upper part of the
 copper is divided from the lower1 in   
the furnace similar to an oven1 produce 
thorns when the poor or mediocre        
silver-lead is liquated from the copper4
 ,these1 together with those made of    
cakes of re-melted thorns1 or made with 
re-melted litharge1 are placed in a heap
 by themselves2 but those that are made 
from cakes melted from hearth-lead are  
placed in a heap separate from the      
first1 and likewise those produced from 
drying the exhausted liquation cakes are
 placed separately2 from these thorns   
liquation cakes are made4 ,from the     
first heap they take the fourth part of 
a centumpondium1 from the second the    

same amount1 from the third a           
centumpondium1--to which thorns are     
added one and a half centumpondia of    
litharge and half a centumpondium of    
hearth-lead1 and from these1 melted in  
the blast furnace1 a liquation cake is  
made2 each workman makes twenty such    
cakes every day4 ,but of theirs enough  
has been said for the present2 ,i will  
return to ours4  ,the ash-coloured      
copper#bi which is chipped off1 as ,i   
have stated1 from the dried cakes1 used 
some years ago to be mixed with the     
thorns produced from liquation of the   
copper-lead alloy1 and contained in     
themselves1 equally with the first1 two 
unciae of silver2 but now it is mixed   
with the concentrates washed from the   
accretions and the other material4 ,the 
inhabitants of the ,carpathian          
,mountains melt this kind of copper in  
furnaces in which are re-melted the     
slags which flow out when the copper is 
refined2 but as this soon melts and     
flows down out of the furnace1 two      

workmen are required for the work of    
smelting1 one of whom smelts1 while the 
other takes out the thick cakes from the
 forehearth4 ,these cakes are only      
dried1 and from the dried cakes copper  
is again made4  ,the slags#cj are melted
 continually day and night1 whether they
 have been drawn off from the alloyed   
metals with a rabble1 or whether they   
adhered to the forehearth to the        
thickness of a digit and made it smaller
 and were taken off with spatulas4 ,in  
this manner two or three liquation cakes
 are made1 and afterward much or little 
of the slag1 skimmed from the molten    
alloy of copper and lead1 is re-melted4 
,such liquation cakes should weigh up to
 three centumpondia1 in each of which   
there is half an uncia of silver4 ,five 
cakes are placed at the same time in the
 furnace in which argentiferous lead is 
liquated from copper1 and from these are
 made lead which contains half an uncia 
of silver to the centumpondium4 ,the    
exhausted liquation cakes are laid upon 

the other baser exhausted liquation     
cakes1 from both of which yellow copper 
is made4 ,the base thorns thus obtained 
are re-melted with a few baser slags1   
after having been sprinkled with        
concentrates from furnace accretions and
 other material1 and in this manner six 
or seven liquation cakes are made1 each 
of which weighs some two centumpondia4  
,five of these are placed at the same   
time in the furnace in which silver-lead
 is liquated from copper2 these drip    
three centumpondia of lead1 each of     
which contains half an uncia of silver4 
,the basest thorns thus produced should 
be re-melted with only a little slag4   
,the copper alloyed with lead1 which    
flows down from the furnace into the    
forehearth1 is poured out with a ladle  
into oblong copper moulds2 these cakes  
are dried with base exhausted liquation 
cakes4 ,the thorns they produce are     
added to the base thorns1 and they are  
made into cakes according to the method 
,i have described4 ,from the dried cakes

 they make copper1 of which some add a  
small portion to the best dried cakes   
when copper is made from them1 in order 
that by mixing the base copper with the 
good it may be sold without loss4 ,the  
slags1 if they are utilisable1 are      
re-melted a second and a third time1 the
 cakes made from them are dried1 and    
from the dried cakes is made copper1    
which is mixed with the good copper4    
,the slags1 drawn off by the master who 
makes copper out of dried cakes1 are    
sifted1 and those which fall through the
 sieve into a vessel placed underneath  
are washed2 those which remain in it are
 emptied into a wheelbarrow and wheeled 
away to the blast furnaces1 and they are
 re-melted together with other slags1   
over which are sprinkled the            
concentrates from washing the slags or  
furnace accretions made at this time4   
,the copper which flows out of the      
furnace into the forehearth1 is likewise
 dipped out with a ladle into oblong    
copper moulds2 in this way nine or ten  

cakes are made1 which are dried1        
together with bad exhausted liquation   
cakes1 and from these dried cakes       
yellow#ca copper is made4  ,illustration
 #edc 7,copper ,refining73 ,a--,furnace4
 ,b--,forehearth4 ,c--,oblong moulds4   
,the cadmia1#cb as it is called by us1  
is made from the slags which the master1
 who makes copper from dried cakes1     
draws off together with other re-melted 
base slags2 for1 indeed1 if the copper  
cakes made from such slags are broken1  
the fragments are called cadmia2 from   
this and yellow copper is made caldarium
 copper in two ways4 ,for either two    
parts of cadmia are mixed with one of   
yellow copper in the blast furnaces1 and
 melted2 or1 on the contrary1 two parts 
of yellow copper with one of cadmia1 so 
that the cadmia and yellow copper may be
 well mixed2 and the copper which flows 
down from the furnace into the          
forehearth is poured out with a ladle   
into oblong copper moulds heated        
beforehand4 ,these moulds are sprinkled 

over with charcoal dust before the      
caldarium copper is to be poured into   
them1 and the same dust is sprinkled    
over the copper when it is poured in1   
lest the cadmia and yellow copper should
 freeze before they have become well    
mixed4 ,with a piece of wood the        
assistant cleanses each cake from the   
dust1 when it is turned out of the      
mould4 ,then he throws it into the tub  
containing hot water1 for the caldarium 
copper is finer if quenched in hot      
water4 ,but as ,i have so often made    
mention of the oblong copper moulds1 ,i 
must now speak of them a little2 they   
are a foot and a palm long1 the inside  
is three palms and a digit wide at the  
top1 and they are rounded at the bottom4
  ,the concentrates are of two          
kinds--precious and base4#cc ,the first 
are obtained from the accretions of the 
blast furnace1 when liquation cakes are 
made from copper and lead1 or from      
precious liquation thorns1 or from the  
better quality slags1 or from the best  

grade of concentrates1 or from the      
sweepings and bricks of the furnaces in 
which exhausted liquation cakes are     
dried2 all of these things are crushed  
and washed1 as ,i explained in ,book    
,,viii4 ,the base concentrates are made 
from accretions formed when cakes are   
cast from base thorns or from the worst 
quality of slags4 ,the smelter who makes
 liquation cakes from the precious      
concentrates1 adds to them three        
wheelbarrowsful of litharge and four    
barrowsful of hearth-lead and one of    
ash-coloured copper1 from all of which  
nine or ten liquation cakes are melted  
out1 of which five at a time are placed 
in the furnace in which silver-lead is  
liquated from copper2 a centumpondium of
 the lead which drips from these cakes  
contains one uncia of silver4 ,the      
liquation thorns are placed apart by    
themselves1 of which one basketful is   
mixed with the precious thorns to be    
re-melted4 ,the exhausted liquation     
cakes are dried at the same time as     

other good exhausted liquation cakes4   
,the thorns which are drawn off from the
 lead1 when it is separated from silver 
in the cupellation furnace#cd1 and the  
hearth-lead which remains in the        
crucible in the middle part of the      
furnaces1 together with the hearth      
material which has become defective and 
has absorbed silver-lead1 are all melted
 together with a little slag in the     
blast furnaces4 ,the lead1 or rather the
 silver-lead1 which flows from the      
furnace into the forehearth1 is poured  
out into copper moulds such as are used 
by the refiners2 a centumpondium of such
 lead contains four unciae of silver1   
or1 if the hearth was defective1 it     
contains more4 ,a small portion of this 
material is added to the copper and lead
 when liquation cakes are made from     
them1 if more were to be added the alloy
 would be much richer than it should be1
 for which reason the wise foreman of   
the works mixes these thorns with other 
precious thorns4 ,the hearth-lead which 

remains in the middle of the crucible1  
and the hearth material which absorbs   
silver-lead1 is mixed with other        
hearth-lead which remains in the        
cupellation furnace crucible2 and yet   
some cakes1 made rich in this manner1   
may be placed again in the cupellation  
furnaces1 together with the rest of the 
silver-lead cakes which the refiner has 
made4  ,the inhabitants of the          
,carpathian ,mountains1 if they have an 
abundance of finely crushed copper#ce or
 lead either made from slags1 or        
collected from the furnace in which the 
exhausted liquation cakes are dried1 or 
litharge1 alloy them in various ways4   
,the first alloy consists of two        
centumpondia of lead melted out of      
thorns1 litharge1 and thorns made from  
hearth-lead1 and of half a centumpondium
 each of lead collected in the furnace  
in which exhausted liquation cakes are  
dried1 and of copper minutum1 and from  
these are made liquation cakes2 the task
 of the smelter is finished when he has 

made forty liquation cakes of this kind4
 ,the second alloy consists of two      
centumpondia of litharge1 of one and a  
quarter centumpondia of de-silverized   
lead or lead from slags1 and of half a  
centumpondium of lead made from thorns1 
and of as much copper minutum4 ,the     
third alloy consists of three           
centumpondia of litharge and of half a  
centumpondium each of de-silverized     
lead1 of lead made from thorns1 and of  
copper minutum contusum4 ,liquation     
cakes are made from all these alloys2   
the task of the smelters is finished    
when they have made thirty cakes4  ,the 
process by which cakes are made among   
the ,tyrolese1 from which they separate 
the silver-lead1 ,i have explained in   
,book ,,ix4  ,silver is separated from  
iron in the following manner4 ,equal    
portions of iron scales and filings and 
of stibium are thrown into an           
earthenware crucible which1 when covered
 with a lid and sealed1 is placed in a  
furnace1 into which air is blown4 ,when 

this has melted and again cooled1 the   
crucible is broken2 the button that     
settles in the bottom of it1 when taken 
out1 is pounded to powder1 and the same 
weight of lead being added1 is mixed and
 melted in a second crucible2 at last   
this button is placed in a cupel and the
 lead is separated from the silver4#cf  
,there are a great variety of methods by
 which one metal is separated from other
 metals1 and the manner in which the    
same are alloyed ,i have explained      
partly in the eighth book of ,de ,natura
 ,fossilium1 and partly ,i will explain 
elsewhere4 ,now ,i will proceed to the  
remainder of my subject4       ,,end    
,,of ,,book ,,xi4   ,,footnotes3  #a    
,the whole of this ,book is devoted to  
the subject of the separation of silver 
from copper by liquation1 except pages  
#ecj-i on copper refining1 and page #edd
 on the separation of silver from iron4 
,we believe a brief outline of the      
liquation process here will refresh the 
mind of the reader1 and enable him to   

peruse the ,book with more satisfaction4
 ,the fundamental principle of the      
process is that if a copper-lead alloy1 
containing a large excess of lead1 be   
heated in a reducing atmosphere1 above  
the melting point of lead but below that
 of copper1 the lead will liquate out   
and carry with it a large proportion of 
the silver4 ,as the results are         
imperfect1 the process cannot be carried
 through in one operation1 and a large  
amount of bye-products is created which 
must be worked up subsequently4 ,the    
process1 as here described1 falls into  
six stages4 #ast1 ,melting the copper   
and lead in a blast furnace to form     
liquation cakes--that is1 the leading4  
,if the copper contain too little silver
 to warrant liquation directly1 then the
 copper is previously enriched by       
melting and drawing off from a settling 
pot the less argentiferous tops from the
 metal1 liquation cakes being made from 
the enriched bottoms4 #bnd1 ,liquation  
of the argentiferous lead from the      

copper4 ,this work was carried out in a 
special furnace1 to which the admission 
of air was prevented as much as possible
 in order to prevent oxidation4 #crd1   
,drying the residual copper1 which      
retained some lead1 in a furnace with a 
free admission of air4 ,the temperature 
was raised to a higher degree than in   
the liquation furnace1 and the expelled 
lead was oxidized4 #dth1 ,cupellation of
 the argentiferous lead4 #eth1 ,refining
 of the residual copper from the drying 
furnace by oxidation of impurities and  
poling in a refining furnace4 #fth1     
,re-alloy and re-liquation of the       
bye-products4 ,these consist of3 a1     
slags from leading2 b1 slags from       
drying2 c1 slags from refining of the   
copper4 ,all of these slags were mainly 
lead oxides1 containing some cuprous    
oxides and silica from the furnace      
linings2 d1 thorns from liquation2 e1   
thorns from drying2 f1 thorns from      
skimmings during cupellation2 these were
 again largely lead oxides1 but         

contained rather more copper and less   
silica than the slags2 g1 ash-coloured  
copper1 being scales from the dried     
copper1 were cuprous oxides1 containing 
considerable lead oxides2 h1            
concentrates from furnace accretions1   
crushed bricks1 c4  ,the discussion of  
detailed features of the process has    
been reserved to notes attached to the  
actual text1 to which the reader is     
referred4 ,as to the general result of  
liquation1 ,karsten 7see below7         
estimates the losses in the liquation of
 the equivalent of #ajj lbs4 of         
argentiferous copper to amount to #cb-ce
 lbs4 of lead and #e to #f lbs4 of      
copper4 ,percy 7see below7 quotes       
results at ,lautenthal in the ,upper    
,harz for the years #aheg-fj1 showing   
losses of #be of the silver1 #i4a of the
 copper1 and #cf4cg lbs4 of lead to the 
#ajj lbs4 of copper1 or say1 #af of the 
lead2 and a cost of ,l#h #fs4 per ton of
 copper4 ,the theoretical considerations
 involved in liquation have not been    

satisfactorily determined4 ,those who   
may wish to pursue the subject will find
 repeated descriptions and much         
discussion in the following works1 which
 have been freely consulted in the notes
 which follow upon particular features  
of the process4 ,it may be mentioned    
that ,agricola's treatment of the       
subject is more able than any down to   
the #ahth century4 ,ercker              
7,beschreibung ,allerfuernemsten        
,mineralischen1 etc41 ,prague1 #aegd74  
,lohneys 7,bericht vom ,bergwercken1    
etc41 ,zellerfeldt1 #afag74 ,schlueter  
7,gruendlicher ,unterricht von          
,huette-,werken1 ,braunschweig1 #agch74 
,karsten 7,system der ,metallurgie ,v4  
and ,archiv fuer ,bergbau und           
,huettenwesen1 #ast series1 #ahbe74     
,berthier 7,annales des ,mines1 #ahbe1  
,,ii474 ,percy 7,metallurgy of ,silver  
and ,gold1 ,london1 #ahhj74             
,,nomenclature4--,this process held a   
very prominent position in ,german      
metallurgy for over four centuries1 and 

came to have a well-defined nomenclature
 of its own1 which has never found      
complete equivalents in ,english1 our   
metallurgical writers to the present day
 adopting more or less of the ,german   
terms4 ,agricola apparently found no    
little difficulty in adapting ,latin    
words to his purpose1 but stubbornly    
adhered to his practice of using no     
,german at the expense of long          
explanatory clauses4 ,the following     
table1 prepared for convenience in      
translation1 is reproduced4 ,the ,german
 terms are spelled after the manner used
 in most ,english metallurgies1 some of 
them appear in ,agricola's ,glossary to 
,de ,re ,metallica4    ,english4        
,latin4                                 
,german4    ,blast furnace              
,prima fornax                           
,schmeltzofen    ,liquation furnace     
,fornax in qua argentum et              
,saigernofen                            
plumbum ab aere secernuntur    ,drying  
furnace        ,fornax in qua aerei     

panes          ,darrofen                
fathiscentes torrentur    ,refining     
hearth       ,fornax in qua panes aerei 
,gaarherd                               
torrefacti coquuntur    ,cupellation    
,secunda fornax1 or                     
,treibherd     furnace                  
fornax in qua plumbum                   
ab argento separatur    ,leading        
,mistura                                
,frischen    ,liquating                 
,stillare1 or distillare                
,saigern    ,drying                     
,torrere                                
,darren    ,refining              ,aes  
ex panibus torrefactis                  
,gaarmachen                             
conficere   ,liquation cakes            
,panes ex aere ac plumbo misti          
,saigerstock    ,exhausted              
,panes fathiscentes                     
,kiehnstock1     liquation cakes        
or ,kinstocke    ,dried cakes           
,panes torrefacti                       
,darrlinge    ,slags from leading       

,recrementa                             
,frischschlacke                         
7with explanatory phrases7    ,slags    
from drying     ,recrementa             
,darrost                           7with
 explanatory phrases7    ,slags from    
refining   ,recrementa                  
,gaarschlacke                           
7with explanatory phrases7    ,liquation
 thorns      ,spinae                    
,saigerdoerner1                         
7with explanatory phrases7          or  
,roestdoerner    ,thorns from drying    
,spinae                                 
,darrsoehle                             
7with explanatory phrases7    ,thorns   
from           ,spinae                  
,abstrich     cupellation               
7with explanatory phrases7              
,silver-lead or        ,stannum         
,saigerwerk or     liquated             
saigerblei     silver-lead              
,ash-coloured copper   ,aes cinereum    
,pickschiefer                           
or schifer    ,furnace accretions       

,cadmiae                                
,offenbrueche     or accretions         
,,historical ,,note4--,so far as we are 
aware1 this is the first complete       
discussion of this process1 although it 
is briefly mentioned by one writer      
before ,agricola--that is1 by           
,biringuccio 7,,iii1 #e1 #h71 who wrote 
ten years before this work was sent to  
the printer4 ,his account is very       
incomplete1 for he describes only the   
bare liquation1 and states that the     
copper is re-melted with lead and       
re-liquated until the silver is         
sufficiently abstracted4 ,he neither    
mentions drying nor any of the          
bye-products4 ,in his directions the    
silver-lead alloy was cupelled and the  
copper ultimately refined1 obviously by 
oxidation and poling1 although he omits 
the pole4 ,in ,a4,d4 #aaej ,theophilus  
7p4 #cje1 ,hendrie's ,trans47 describes 
melting lead out of copper ore1 which   
would be a form of liquation so far as  
separation of these two metals is       

concerned1 but obviously not a process  
for separating silver from copper4 ,this
 passage is quoted in the note on copper
 smelting 7,note on p4 #dje74 ,a process
 of such well-developed and complicated 
a character must have come from a period
 long before ,agricola2 but further than
 such a surmise1 there appears little to
 be recorded4 ,liquation has been during
 the last fifty years displaced by other
 methods1 because it was not only       
tedious and expensive1 but the losses of
 metal were considerable4  #b           
,paries1--,partition or wall4 ,the      
author uses this term throughout in     
distinction to murus1 usually applying  
the latter to the walls of the building 
and the former to furnace walls1 chimney
 walls1 etc4 ,in order to gain clarity1 
we have introduced the term hood in     
distinction to chimney1 and so far as   
possible refer to the paries of these   
constructions and furnaces as side of   
the furnace1 side of the hood1 etc4  #d 
,from this point on1 the construction of

 the roofs1 in the absence of           
illustration1 is hopeless of intelligent
 translation4 ,the constant repetition  
of tignum1 tigillum1 trabs1 for at least
 fifteen different construction members 
becomes most hopelessly involved1       
especially as the author attempts to    
distinguish between them in a sort of   
,house-that-,jack-built arrangement of  
explanatory clauses4  #e ,in the        
original text this is given as the      
fifth1 a manifest impossibility4  #f    
,chelae1--claws4  #g ,if ,roman weights1
 this would be #e4f short tons1 and #g4e
 tons if ,german centner is meant4  #h  
,this is1 no doubt1 a reference to      
,pliny's statement 7,,xxxiii1 #ce7      
regarding litharge at ,puteoli4 ,this   
passage from ,pliny is given in the     
footnote on p4 #dff4 ,puteoli was       
situated on the ,bay of ,naples4  #i ,by
 this expression is apparently meant the
 bottoms produced in enriching copper1  
as described on p4 #eaj4  #aj ,the      
details of the preparation of liquation 

cakes--leading--were matters of great   
concern to the old metallurgists4 ,the  
size of the cakes1 the proportion of    
silver in the original copper and in the
 liquated lead1 the proportion of lead  
and silver left in the residual cakes1  
all had to be reached by a series of    
compromises among militant forces4 ,the 
cakes were generally two and one-half to
 three and one-half inches thick and    
about two feet in diameter1 and weighed 
#bbe to #cge lbs4 ,this size was        
wonderfully persistent from ,agricola   
down to modern times2 and was1 no doubt1
 based on sound experience4 ,if the     
cakes were too small1 they required     
proportionately more fuel and labour2   
whilst if too large1 the copper began to
 melt before the maximum lead was       
liquated4 ,the ratio of the copper and  
lead was regulated by the necessity of  
enough copper to leave a substantial    
sponge mass the shape of the original   
cake1 and not so large a proportion as  
to imprison the lead4 ,that is1 if the  

copper be in too small proportion the   
cakes break down2 and if in too large1  
then insufficient lead liquates out1 and
 the extraction of silver decreases4    
,ercker 7p4 #ajf-i7 insists on the      
equivalent of about #c copper to #i4e   
lead2 ,lohneys 7p4 #ii71 #c copper to #i
 or #aj lead4 ,schlueter 7p4 #dgi1 etc47
 insists on a ration of #c copper to    
about #aa lead4 ,kerl 7,handbuch ,der   
,metallurgischen ,huettenkunde1 #ahee2  
,vol4 ,,iii41 p4 #aaf7 gives #c copper  
to #f to #g parts lead4 ,agricola gives 
variable amounts of #c parts copper to  
from #h to #ab parts lead4 ,as to the   
ratio of silver in the copper1 or to the
 cakes1 there does not1 except the limit
 of payability1 seem to have been any   
difficulty on the minimum side4 ,on the 
other hand1 ,ercker1 ,lohneys1          
,schlueter1 and ,karsten all contend    
that if the silver ran above a certain  
proportion1 the copper would retain     
considerable silver4 ,these authors give
 the outside ratio of silver permissible

 for good results in one liquation at   
what would be equivalent to #de to #fe  
ozs4 per ton of cakes1 or about #aij to 
#bej ozs4 per ton on the original       
copper4 ,it will be seen1 however1 that 
,agricola's cakes greatly exceed these  
values4 ,a difficulty did arise when the
 copper ran low in silver1 in that the  
liquated lead was too poor to cupel1 and
 in such case the lead was used over    
again1 until it became rich enough for  
this purpose4 ,according to ,karsten1   
copper containing less than an          
equivalent of #hj to #ij ozs4 per ton   
could not be liquated profitably1       
although the ,upper ,harz copper1       
according to ,kerl1 containing the      
equivalent of about #ej ozs4 per ton1   
was liquated at a profit4 ,in such a    
case the cakes would run only #ab to #ad
 ozs4 per ton4 ,it will be noticed that 
in the eight cases given by ,agricola   
the copper ran from #ig to over #ehj    
ozs4 per ton1 and in the description of 
enrichment of copper bottoms the        

original copper runs #he ozs41 and it   
cannot be separated easily2 as a result1
 it is raised to #aaj ozs4 per ton      
before treatment4 ,in addition to the   
following tabulation of the proportions 
here given by ,agricola1 the reader     
should refer to footnotes #ae and #ag1  
where four more combinations are        
tabulated4 ,it will be observed from    
this table that with the increasing     
richness of copper an increased         
proportion of lead was added1 so that   
the products were of similar value4 ,it 
has been assumed 7see footnote #ac p4   
#eji71 that ,roman weights are intended4
 ,it is not to be expected that         
metallurgical results of this period    
will tie up with the exactness of the   
modern operator's1 and it has not been  
considered necessary to calculate beyond
 the nearest pennyweight4 ,where two or 
more values are given by the author the 
average has been taken4                 
#a,,st ,,charge4    #b,,nd ,,charge4    
#c,,rd ,,charge4    #d,,th ,,charge4    

,amount of             #baa4h lbs4      
#baa4h lbs4     #baa4h lbs4     #baa4h  
lbs4    argentiferous copper    ,amount 
of lead        #efd4h         #fce4d    
#ggf4f         #hdg4b      ,weight of   
each cake   #aic4e         #baa4e       
#bdg4a         #bfd4ge     ,average     
value of        #ef ozs4        #fb ozs4
        #fd ozs4        #ff ozs4        
charge                   #c;dwts4       
#d;dwts4         #d;dwts4               
#g;dwts4    ,per cent4 of copper        
#bg4b          #be            #ba4d     
#bj    ,average value of       #bjg ozs4
       #bea ozs4       #bii ozs4        
#ccb ozs4    original copper            
#d;dwts4         #c;dwts4               
#ae;dwts4         #c;dwts4    per ton   
,weight of             #dbc4f lbs4      
#did4b lbs4     #fce4d lbs4     #gjf    
lbs4    argentiferous lead    liquated  
out    ,average value of        #gi ozs4
        #gi ozs4        #gi ozs4        
#he ozs4    liquated lead    per ton    
,weight of residues    #cec lbs4        

#cec lbs4       #cec lbs4       #cec    
lbs4    7residual copper     and thorns7
    ,average value of        #cd ozs4   
#cd ozs4        #cd ozs4      #cd ozs4  
to    residues per ton                  
#ch ozs4    ,extraction of              
#gf4e          #gc4d          #gi       
#he4c    silver into the                
argentiferous lead  #aa ,see p4 #cef4   
#ab ,an analysis of this slag by        
,karsten 7,archiv4 #ast ,series ,,ix1 p4
 #bd7 showed #fc4b lead oxide1 #e4a     
cuprous oxide1 #bj4a silica 7from the   
fuel and furnace linings71 together with
 some iron alumina1 etc4 ,the pompholyx 
and spodos were largely zinc oxide 7see 
note1 p4 #cid74  #ac ,this description  
of a centumpondium which weighed either 
#acc-a_/c librae1 or #adf-c_/d librae1  
adds confusion to an already much mixed 
subject 7see ,appendix ,c474 ,assuming  
the ,german pfundt to weigh #g1bai troy 
grains1 and the ,roman libra #d1idf     
grains1 then a centner would weigh      
#ade4ie librae1 which checks up fairly  

well with the second case2 but under    
what circumstances a centner can weigh  
#acc-a_/c librae we are unable to       
record4 ,at first sight it might appear 
from this statement that where ,agricola
 uses the word centumpondium he means   
the ,german centner4 ,on the other hand1
 in the previous five or six pages the  
expressions one-third1 five-sixths1     
ten-twelfths of a libra are used1 which 
are even divisions of the ,roman #ab    
unciae to one libra1 and are used where 
they manifestly mean divisions of #ab   
units4 ,if ,agricola had in mind the    
,german scale1 and were using the libra 
for a pfundt of #af untzen1 these       
divisions would amount to fractions1 and
 would not total the sicilicus and      
drachma quantities given1 nor would they
 total any of the possibly synonymous   
divisions of the ,german untzen 7see    
also page #bed74  #ad ,if we assume     
,roman weights1 the charge in the first 
case can be tabulated as follows1 and   
for convenience will be called the fifth

 charge3--                              
#e,,th ,,charge 7#c cakes74   ,amount of
 copper                                 
#baa4h lbs4   ,amount of lead           
#fce4d lbs4   ,weight of each cake      
#bhb4d lbs4   ,average value of charge  
#bah ozs4 #ah dwts4   ,per cent4 of     
copper                               #be
   ,average value of original copper per
 ton          #ehc ozs4 #f dwts4 #af    
grs4   ,weight of argentiferous lead    
liquated out         #did4b lbs4        
,average value of liquated lead per ton 
#ceb ozs4 #h dwts4   ,weight of residues
                                #cec    
lbs4   ,average value of residues per   
ton                 #bj ozs4 7about74   
,extraction of silver into the          
argentiferous lead  #id  ,the results   
given in the second case where the      
copper contains #b librae and a bes per 
centumpondium do not tie together at    
all1 for each liquation cake should     
contain #c librae #i-a_/b unciae1       
instead of #a-a_/b librae and #a_/b     

uncia of silver4  #ae ,in this          
enrichment of copper by the settling of 
the silver in the molten mass the       
original copper ran1 in the two cases   
given1 #fj ozs4 #ae dwts4 and #he ozs4  
#a dwt4 per ton4 ,the whole charge      
weighed #b1fhe lbs41 and contained in   
the second case #aad ozs4 ,troy1        
omitting fractions4 ,on melting1 #a1jfj 
lbs4 were drawn off as tops1 containing 
#bd ozs4 of silver1 or running #de ozs4 
per ton1 and there remained #a1fbe lbs4 
of bottoms1 containing #ij ozs4 of      
silver1 or averaging #aaj ozs4 per ton4 
,it will be noticed later on in the     
description of making liquation cakes   
from these copper bottoms1 that the     
author alters the value from one-third  
librae1 a semi-uncia and a drachma per  
centumpondium to one-third of a libra1  
i4e41 from #aaj ozs4 to #ig ozs4 #d     
dwts4 per ton4 ,in the ,glossary this   
furnace is described as a spleisofen1   
i4e41 a refining hearth4  #af ,the      
latter part of this paragraph presents  

great difficulties4 ,the term refining  
furnace is given in the ,latin as the   
second furnace1 an expression usually   
applied to the cupellation furnace4 ,the
 whole question of refining is          
exhaustively discussed on pages #ecj to 
#eci4 ,exactly what material is meant by
 the term red 7rubrum71 yellow 7fulvum7 
and caldarium copper is somewhat        
uncertain4 ,they are given in the       
,german text simply as rot1 geel1 and   
lebeter kupfer1 and apparently all were 
coarse copper of different characters   
destined for the refinery4 ,the author  
states in ,de ,natura ,fossilium 7p4    
#ccd73 ,copper has a red colour peculiar
 to itself2 this colour in smelted      
copper is considered the most excellent4
 ,it1 however1 varies4 ,in some it is   
red1 as in the copper smelted at        
,neusohl4444 ,other copper is prepared  
in the smelters where silver is         
separated from copper1 which is called  
yellow copper 7luteum71 and is regulare4
 ,in the same place a dark yellow copper

 is made which is called caldarium1     
taking its name among the ,germans from 
a caldron4444 ,regulare differs from    
caldarium in that the former is not only
 fusible1 but also malleable2 while the 
latter is1 indeed1 fusible1 but is not  
ductile1 for it breaks when struck with 
the hammer4 ,later on in ,de ,re        
,metallica 7p4 #edb7 he describes yellow
 copper as made from baser liquation    
thorns and from exhausted liquation     
cakes made from thorns4 ,these products 
were necessarily impure1 as they        
contained1 among other things1 the      
concentrates from furnace accretions4   
,therefore1 there was ample source for  
zinc1 arsenic or other metallics which  
would lighten the colour4 ,caldarium    
copper is described by ,pliny 7see note1
 p4 #djd71 and was1 no doubt1 coarse    
copper1 and apparently ,agricola adopted
 this term from that source1 as we have 
found it used nowhere else4 ,on page    
#edb the author describes making        
caldarium copper from a mixture of      

yellow copper and a peculiar cadmia1    
which he describes as the slags from    
refining copper4 ,these slags1 which are
 the result of oxidation and poling1    
would contain almost any of the metallic
 impurities of the original ore1        
antimony1 lead1 arsenic1 zinc1 cobalt1  
etc4 ,coming from these two sources the 
caldarium must have been1 indeed1       
impure4  #ag ,the liquation of these    
low-grade copper bottoms required that  
the liquated lead should be re-used     
again to make up fresh liquation cakes1 
in order that it might eventually become
 rich enough to warrant cupellation4 ,in
 the following table the poor           
silver-lead is designated 7,a7 the      
medium 7,b7 and the rich 7,c74 ,the     
three charges here given are designated 
sixth1 seventh1 and eighth for purposes 
of reference4 ,it will be seen that the 
data is insufficient to complete the    
ninth and tenth4 ,moreover1 while the   
author gives directions for making four 
cakes1 he says the charge consists of   

five1 and it has1 therefore1 been       
necessary to reduce the volume of       
products given to this basis4           
#f,,th ,,charge4        #g,,th ,,charge4
    #h,,th ,,charge4    ,amount of      
copper      #agf4e lbs4         #agf4e  
lbs4     #agf4e lbs4    bottoms         
,amount of lead        #bhb4d lbs4      
#efd4h lbs4       #fce4d lbs4           
7slags7            of 7,a7           of 
7,b7    ,amount of             #did4b   
lbs4         #baa4h lbs4       #ada4b   
lbs4 7,a7    de-silverized lead         
,weight of each cake   #bch4c lbs4      
#bch4c lbs4       #bch4c lbs4           
,average value of       #bb ozs4        
#ce ozs4           #ej ozs4    charge   
per ton          #e;dwts4               
#ae;dwts4           #e;dwts4    ,per    
cent4 of copper    #ah4e                
#ah4e             #ah4e    ,average     
value per      #ig ozs4            #ig  
ozs4           #ig ozs4    ton original 
copper     #d;dwts4            #d;dwts4 
#d;dwts4    ,average value per      #ij 

ozs4            #bh ozs4           #bh  
ozs4    ton of                  #b;dwts4
 7slags7     #e;dwts4 7,a7              
#e;dwts4 7,a7    ,average value per     
#c ozs4             #c ozs4             
#db ozs4    ton of                      
#a;dwt4 7lead7        #a;dwt4 7lead7    
#aj;dwts4 7,b7    ,weight of liquated   
#eej4f lbs4    lead    ,average value of
       #bh ozs4            #db ozs4     
#fc ozs4    the liquated lead           
#e;dwts4 7,a7        #aj;dwts4 7,b7     
#af;dwts4 7,c7    per ton    ,weight of 
exhausted   #bbe4i lbs4     liquation   
cakes    ,average value of       #ab    
ozs4    the exhausted           #c;dwts4
    liquation cakes    per ton          
,weight of liquation   #afi4d lbs4      
thorns    ,average value of       #ah   
ozs4    the liquation           #d;dwts4
    thorns per ton    ,extraction of    
#ga    silver into the    liquated lead 
#ah ,for the liquation it was necessary 
to maintain a reducing atmosphere1      
otherwise the lead would oxidize2 this  

was secured by keeping the cakes well   
covered with charcoal and by preventing 
the entrance of air as much as possible4
 ,moreover1 it was necessary to preserve
 a fairly even temperature4 ,the        
proportions of copper and lead in the   
three liquation products vary           
considerably1 depending upon the method 
of conducting the process and the       
original proportions4 ,from the authors 
consulted 7see note p4 #dib7 an average 
would be about as follows3--,the        
residual copper--exhausted liquation    
cakes--ran from #be to #cc lead2 the    
liquated lead from #b to #c copper2 and 
the liquation thorns1 which were largely
 oxidized1 contained about #ae copper   
oxides1 #hj lead oxides1 together with  
impurities1 such as antimony1 arsenic1  
etc4 ,the proportions of the various    
products would obviously depend upon the
 care in conducting the operation2 too  
high temperature and the admission of   
air would increase the copper melted and
 oxidize more lead1 and thus increase   

the liquation thorns4 ,there are        
insufficient data in ,agricola to adduce
 conclusions as to the actual ratios    
produced4 ,the results given for the    
#fth charge 7note #ag1 p4 #eab7 would   
indicate about #cj lead in the residual 
copper1 and would indicate that the     
original charge was divided into about  
#bd of residual copper1 #ah of liquation
 thorns1 and #eg of liquated lead4      
,this1 however1 was an unusually large  
proportion of liquation thorns1 some of 
the authors giving instances of as low  
as #e4  #ai ,the first instance given1  
of #dd centumpondia 7#c1aji lbs47 lead  
and one centumpondium 7#gj4f lbs47      
copper1 would indicate that the liquated
 lead contained #b4b copper4 ,the       
second1 of #df centumpondia 7#c1bej     
lbs47 lead and #a-a_/b centumpondia     
copper 7#ajf lbs471 would indicate #c   
copper2 and in the third1 #abj          
centumpondia 7#h1dgh lbs47 lead and six 
copper 7#dbd lbs47 would show #d4gf     
copper4 ,this charge of #abj            

centumpondia in the cupellation furnace 
would normally make more than #aaj      
centumpondia of litharge and #cj of     
hearth-lead1 i4e41 saturated furnace    
bottoms4 ,the copper would be largely   
found in the silver-lead which does not 
melt1 at the margin of the crucible4    
,these skimmings are afterward referred 
to as thorns4 ,it is difficult to       
understand what is meant by the         
expression that the silver which is in  
the copper is mixed with the remaining  
7reliquo7 silver4 ,the coppery skimmings
 from the cupellation furnace are       
referred to again in ,note #bh1 p4 #eci4
  #bj ,a further amount of lead could be
 obtained in the first liquation1 but a 
higher temperature is necessary1 which  
was more economical to secure in the    
drying furnace4 ,therefore1 the drying  
was really an extension of liquation2   
but as air was admitted the lead and    
copper melted out were oxidized4 ,the   
products were the final residual copper1
 called by ,agricola the dried copper1  

together with lead and copper oxides1   
called by him the slags1 and the scale  
of copper and lead oxides termed by him 
the ash-coloured copper4 ,the ,german   
metallurgists distinguished two kinds of
 slag3 the first and principal one1 the 
darrost1 and the second the darrsoehle1 
this latter differing only in that it   
contained more impurities from the floor
 of the furnace1 and remained behind    
until the furnace cooled4 ,agricola     
possibly refers to these as more        
liquation thorns1 because in describing 
the treatment of the bye-products he    
refers to thorns from the process1      
whereas in the description of drying he 
usually refers to slags4 ,a number of   
analyses of these products1 given by    
,karsten1 show the dried copper to      
contain from #hb4g to #ij4f copper1 and 
from #i4d to #ag4c lead2 the slag to    
contain #gf4e to #he4a lead oxide1 and  
from #d4a to #g4h cuprous oxide1 with #i
 to #ac silica from the furnace bottoms1
 together with some other impurities2   

the ash-coloured copper to contain about
 #fj cuprous oxide and #cj lead oxide1  
with some metallic copper and minor     
impurities4 ,an average of proportions  
given by various authors shows1 roughly1
 that out of #ajj centners of exhausted 
liquation cakes1 containing about #gj   
copper and #cj lead1 there were about   
#fc centners of dried copper1 #ch       
centners of slag1 and #f-a_/b centners  
of ash-coloured copper4 ,according to   
,karsten1 the process fell into stages2 
first1 at low temperature some metallic 
lead appeared2 second1 during an        
increasing temperature for over #ad to  
#ae hours the slags ran out2 third1     
there was a period of four hours of     
lower temperature to allow time for the 
lead to diffuse from the interior of the
 cakes2 and fourth1 during a period of  
eight hours the temperature was again   
increased4 ,in fact1 the latter portion 
of the process ended with the economic  
limit between leaving some lead in the  
copper and driving too much copper into 

the slags4 ,agricola gives the silver   
contents of the dried copper as #c      
drachmae to #a centumpondium1 or equal  
to about #i ozs4 per ton2 and assuming  
that the copper finally recovered from  
the bye-products ran no higher1 then the
 first four charges 7see note on p4     
#ejf7 would show a reduction in the     
silver values of from #ie to #ig2 the   
#gth and #hth charges 7note on p4 #eab7 
of about #ij4  #ba ,if ,roman weights1  
this would equal from #f1cfj lbs4 to    
#g1jff lbs4  #bb ,one half uncia1 or    
three drachmae of silver would equal    
either #ab ozs4 or #i ozs4 per ton4 ,if 
we assume the values given for residual 
copper in the first four charges 7note  
p4 #ejf7 of #cd ozs41 this would mean an
 extraction of1 roughly1 #fe of the     
silver from the exhausted liquation     
cakes4  #bc ,see note #bi1 p4 #edj4  #bd
    ,assuming ,roman weights3 #b        
centumpondia  #ada4c lbs4               
#b-a_/b                #agf4f           
#c                    #baa4i            

#c-a_/b                #bdh4b           
#f                    #dbc4i    #be     
,this description of refining copper in 
an open hearth by oxidation with a blast
 and poling--the gaarmachen of the      
,germans--is so accurate1 and the       
process is so little changed in some    
parts of ,saxony1 that it might have    
been written in the #bjth century       
instead of the #afth4 ,the best account 
of the old practice in ,saxony after    
,agricola is to be found in ,schlueter's
 ,huette ,werken 7,braunschweig1 #agch1 
,chap4 ,,cxviii474 ,the process has     
largely been displaced by electrolytic  
methods1 but is still in use in most    
refineries as a step in electrolytic    
work4 ,it may be unnecessary to repeat  
that the process is one of subjecting   
the molten mass of impure metal to a    
strong and continuous blast1 and as a   
result1 not only are the impurities to a
 considerable extent directly oxidized  
and taken off as a slag1 but also a     
considerable amount of copper is turned 

into cuprous oxide4 ,this cuprous oxide 
mostly melts and diffuses through the   
metallic copper1 and readily parting    
with its oxygen to the impurities       
further facilitates their complete      
oxidation4 ,the blast is continued until
 the impurities are practically         
eliminated1 and at this stage the molten
 metal contains a great deal of         
dissolved cuprous oxide1 which must be  
reduced4 ,this is done by introducing a 
billet of green wood 7poling71 the dry  
distillation of which generates large   
quantities of gases1 which reduce the   
oxide4 ,the state of the metal is even  
to-day in some localities tested by     
dipping into it the point of an iron    
rod2 if it be at the proper state the   
adhering copper has a net-like          
appearance1 should be easily loosened   
from the rod by dipping in water1 is of 
a reddish-copper colour and should be   
quite pliable2 if the metal is not yet  
refined1 the sample is thick1 smooth1   
and detachable with difficulty2 if      

over-refined1 it is thick and brittle4  
,by allowing water to run on to the     
surface of the molten metal1 thin cakes 
are successively formed and taken off4  
,these cakes were the article known to  
commerce over several centuries as      
rosetta copper4 ,the first few cakes are
 discarded as containing impurities or  
slag1 and if the metal be of good       
quality the cakes are thin and of a red 
colour4 ,their colour and thinness1     
therefore1 become a criterion of purity4
 ,the cover of charcoal or charcoal dust
 maintained upon the surface of the     
metal tended to retard oxidation1 but   
prevented volatilization and helped to  
secure the impurities as a slag instead4
 ,karsten 7,archiv41 #ast series1 p4    
#df7 gives several analyses of the slag 
from refining dried copper1 showing it  
to contain from #ea4g to #fg4d lead     
oxide1 #f4b to #ai4b cuprous oxide1 and 
#ba4d to #bc4i silica 7from the furnace 
bottoms71 with minor quantities of iron1
 antimony1 etc4 ,the bubbles referred to

 by ,agricola were apparently the shower
 of copper globules which takes place   
upon the evolution of sulphur dioxide1  
due to the reaction of the cuprous oxide
 upon any remaining sulphide of copper  
when the mass begins to cool4           
,,historical ,,note4--,it is impossible 
to say how the ,ancients refined copper1
 beyond the fact that they often        
re-smelted it4 ,such notes as we can    
find are set out in the note on copper  
smelting 7note #db1 p4 #djb74 ,the first
 authentic reference to poling is in    
,theophilus 7#aaej to #abjj ,a4,d41     
,hendrie's translation1 p4 #cac71 which 
shows a very good understanding of this 
method of refining copper3--,of the     
,purification of ,copper4 ,take an iron 
dish of the size you wish1 and line it  
inside and out with clay strongly beaten
 and mixed1 and it is carefully dried4  
,then place it before a forge upon the  
coals1 so that when the bellows act upon
 it the wind may issue partly within and
 partly above it1 and not below it4 ,and

 very small coals being placed round it1
 place the copper in it equally1 and add
 over it a heap of coals4 ,when by      
blowing a long time this has become     
melted1 uncover it and cast immediately 
fine ashes of coals over it1 and stir it
 with a thin and dry piece of wood as if
 mixing it1 and you will directly see   
the burnt lead adhere to these ashes    
like a glue1 which being cast out again 
superpose coals1 and blowing for a long 
time1 as at first1 again uncover it1 and
 then do as you did before4 ,you do this
 until at length by cooking it you can  
withdraw the lead entirely4 ,then pour  
it over the mould which you have        
prepared for this1 and you will thus    
prove if it be pure4 ,hold it with the  
pincers1 glowing as it is1 before it has
 become cold1 and strike it with a large
 hammer strongly over the anvil1 and if 
it be broken or split you must liquefy  
it anew as before4 ,if1 however1 it     
should remain sound1 you will cool it in
 water1 and you cook other 7copper7 in  

the same manner4 ,biringuccio 7,,iii1   
#h7 in #aedj describes the process      
briefly1 but omits the poling1 an       
essential in the production of malleable
 copper4  #bf ,pompholyx and spodos were
 impure zinc oxides 7see note #bf1 p4   
#cid74  ,the copper flowers were no     
doubt cupric oxide4 ,they were used by  
the ,ancients for medicinal purposes4   
,dioscorides 7,v1 #dh7 says3 ,of flowers
 of copper1 which some call the         
scrapings of old nails1 the best is     
friable2 it is gold-coloured when       
rubbed1 is like millet in shape and     
size1 is moderately bright1 and somewhat
 astringent4 ,it should not be mixed    
with copper filings1 with which it is   
often adulterated4 ,but this deception  
is easily detected1 for when bitten in  
the teeth the filings are malleable4 ,it
 7the flowers7 is made when the copper  
fused in a furnace has run into the     
receptacle through the spout pertaining 
to it1 for then the workmen engaged in  
this trade cleanse it from dirt and pour

 clear water over it in order to cool   
it2 from this sudden condensation the   
copper spits and throws out the         
aforesaid flowers4 ,pliny 7,,xxxiv1 #bd7
 says3 ,the flower1 too1 of copper      
7aeris flos7 is used in medicine4 ,this 
is made by fusing copper1 and then      
removing it to another furnace1 where   
the repeated blast makes the metal      
separate into small scales like millet1 
known as flowers4 ,these scales also    
fall off when the cakes of metal are    
cooled in water2 they become red1 too1  
like the scales of copper known as      
'lepis1' by use of which the flowers of 
copper are adulterated1 it being also   
sold for it4 ,these are made when       
hammering the nails that are made from  
the cakes of copper4 ,all these methods 
are carried on in the works of ,cyprus2 
the difference between these substances 
is that the squamae 7copper scales7 are 
detached from hammering the cakes1 while
 the flower falls off spontaneously4    
,agricola 7,de ,nat4 ,fos41 p4 #ceb7    

notes that flowers of copper 7flos      
aeris7 have the same properties as      
'roasted copper4'  #bg ,it seems        
scarcely necessary to discuss in detail 
the complicated flow scheme of the      
various minor bye-products4 ,they are   
all re-introduced into the liquation    
circuit1 and thereby are created other  
bye-products of the same kind ad        
infinitum4 ,further notes are given     
on3--    ,liquation thorns         ,note
 #bh4   ,slags                          
#cj4   ,ash-coloured copper             
#bi4   ,concentrates                    
#cc4   ,cadmia                     #cb4 
,there are no data given1 either by     
,agricola or the later authors1 which   
allow satisfactory calculation of the   
relative quantities of these products4  
,a rough estimate from the data given in
 previous notes would indicate that in  
one liquation only about #gj of the     
original copper came out as refined     
copper1 and that about #gj of the       
original lead would go to the           

cupellation furnace1 i4e41 about #cj of 
the original metal sent to the blast    
furnace would go into the thorns1 slags1
 and ash-coloured copper4 ,the ultimate 
losses were very great1 as given before 
7p4 #dia71 they probably amounted to #be
 of the silver1 #i copper1 and #af of   
the lead4  #bh ,there were the following
 classes of thorns3--    #ast4  ,from   
liquation4   #bnd4  ,from drying4       
#crd4  ,from cupellation4  ,in a general
 way1 according to the later authors1   
they were largely lead oxide1 and       
contained from #e to #bj cuprous oxide4 
,if a calculation be made backward from 
the products given as the result of the 
charge described1 it would appear that  
in this case they must have contained at
 least one-fifth copper4 ,the silver in 
these liquation cakes would run about   
#bd ozs4 per ton1 in the liquated lead  
about #cf ozs4 per ton1 and in the      
liquation thorns #bd ozs4 per ton4 ,the 
extraction into the liquated lead would 
be about #hj of the silver4  #bi ,the   

ash-coloured copper is a cuprous oxide1 
containing some #c lead oxide2 and if   
,agricola means they contained two      
unciae of silver to the centumpondium1  
then they ran about #dh ozs4 per ton1   
and would contain much more silver than 
the mass4  #cj ,there are three         
principal slags mentioned--    #ast4    
,slag from leading4   #bnd4 ,slag from  
drying4   #crd4 ,slag from refining the 
copper4  ,from the analyses quoted by   
various authors these ran from #eb to   
#he lead oxide1 #e to #cj cuprous oxide1
 and considerable silica from the       
furnace bottoms4 ,they were reduced in  
the main into liquation cakes1 although 
,agricola mentions instances of the     
metal reduced from slags being taken    
directly to the drying furnace4 ,such   
liquation cakes would run very low in   
silver1 and at the values given only    
averaged #ab ozs4 per ton2 therefore the
 liquated lead running the same value as
 the cakes1 or less than half that of   
the poor lead mentioned in ,note #ag1 p4

 #eab1 could not have been cupelled     
directly4  #ca ,see ,note #af1 p4 #eaa1 
for discussion of yellow and caldarium  
copper4  #cb ,this cadmia is given in   
the ,glossary and the ,german           
translation as kobelt4 ,a discussion of 
this substance is given in the note on  
p4 #aab2 and it is sufficient to state  
here that in ,agricola's time the metal 
cobalt was unknown1 and the substances  
designated cadmia and cobaltum were     
arsenical-cobalt-zinc minerals4 ,a metal
 made from slag from refining1 together 
with base thorns1 would be very impure2 
for the latter1 according to the        
paragraph on concentrates a little later
 on1 would contain the furnace          
accretions1 and would thus be           
undoubtedly zincky4 ,it is just possible
 that the term kobelt was used by the   
,german smelters at this time in the    
sense of an epithet--black devil 7see   
,note #ba1 p4 #bad74  #cc ,it is        
somewhat difficult to see exactly the   
meaning of base 7vile7 and precious     

7preciosum7 in this connection4 ,while  
base could mean impure1 precious could  
hardly mean pure1 and while precious    
could mean high value in silver1 the    
reverse does not seem entirely apropos4 
,it is possible that bad and good would 
be more appropriate terms4  #cd ,the    
skimmings from the molten lead in the   
early stages of cupellation have been   
discussed in ,note #bh1 p4 #eci4 ,they  
are probably called thorns here because 
of the large amount of copper in them4  
,the lead from liquation would contain  
#b to #c of copper1 and this would be   
largely recovered in these skimmings1   
although there would be some copper in  
the furnace bottoms--hearth-lead--and   
the litharge4 ,these thorns are         
apparently fairly rich1 four unciae to  
the centumpondium being equivalent to   
about #ig ozs4 per ton1 and they are    
only added to low-grade liquation       
material4  #ce ,particulis aeris tusi4  
,unless this be the fine concentrates   
from crushing the material mentioned1 we

 are unable to explain the expression4  
#cf ,this operation would bring down a  
button of antimony under an iron matte1 
by de-sulphurizing the antimony4 ,it    
would seem scarcely necessary to add    
lead before cupellation4 ,this process  
is given in an assay method1 in the     
,probierbuechlein 7folio #ca7 #ej years 
before ,de ,re ,metallica3 ,how to      
separate silver from iron3 ,take that   
silver which is in iron plechen         
7plachmal71 pulverize it finely1 take   
the same iron or plec one part1         
spiesglasz 7antimony sulphide7 one part1
 leave them to melt in a crucible placed
 in a closed windtofen4 ,when it is     
melted1 let it cool1 break the crucible1
 chip off the button that is in the     
bottom1 and melt it in a crucible with  
as much lead4 ,then break the crucible1 
and seek from the button in the cupel1  
and you will find what silver it        
contains4     ,,book ,,xii4             
,previously ,i have dealt with the      
methods of separating silver from       

copper4 ,there now remains the portion  
which treats of solidified juices2 and  
whereas they might be considered as     
alien to things metallic1 nevertheless1 
the reasons why they should not be      
separated from it ,i have explained in  
the second book4  ,solidified juices are
 either prepared from waters in which   
nature or art has infused them1 or they 
are produced from the liquid juices     
themselves1 or from stony minerals4     
,sagacious people1 at first observing   
the waters of some lakes to be naturally
 full of juices which thickened on being
 dried up by the heat of the sun and    
thus became solidified juices1 drew such
 waters into other places1 or diverted  
them into low-lying places adjoining    
hills1 so that the heat of the sun      
should likewise cause them to condense4 
,subsequently1 because they observed    
that in this wise the solidified juices 
could be made only in summer1 and then  
not in all countries1 but only in hot   
and temperate regions in which it seldom

 rains in summer1 they boiled them in   
vessels over a fire until they began to 
thicken4 ,in this manner1 at all times  
of the year1 in all regions1 even the   
coldest1 solidified juices could be     
obtained from solutions of such juices1 
whether made by nature or by art4       
,afterward1 when they saw juices drip   
from some roasted stones1 they cooked   
these in pots in order to obtain        
solidified juices in this wise also4 ,it
 is worth the trouble to learn the      
proportions and the methods by which    
these are made4  ,i will therefore begin
 with salt1 which is made from water    
either salty by nature1 or by the labour
 of man1 or else from a solution of     
salt1 or from lye1 likewise salty4      
,water which is salty by nature1 is     
condensed and converted into salt in    
salt-pits by the heat of the sun1 or    
else by the heat of a fire in pans or   
pots or trenches4 ,that which is made   
salty by art1 is also condensed by fire 
and changed into salt4 ,there should be 

as many salt-pits dug as the            
circumstance of the place permits1 but  
there should not be more made than can  
be used1 although we ought to make as   
much salt as we can sell4 ,the depth of 
salt-pits should be moderate1 and the   
bottom should be level1 so that all the 
water is evaporated from the salt by the
 heat of the sun4 ,the salt-pits should 
first be encrusted with salt1 so that   
they may not suck up the water4 ,the    
method of pouring or leading sea-water  
into salt-pits is very old1 and is still
 in use in many places4 ,the method is  
not less old1 but less common1 to pour  
well-water into salt-pits1 as was done  
in ,babylon1 for which ,pliny is the    
authority1 and in ,cappadocia1 where    
they used not only well-water1 but also 
spring-water4 ,in all hot countries     
salt-water and lake-water are conducted1
 poured or carried into salt-pits1 and1 
being dried by the heat of the sun1 are 
converted into salt4#a ,while the       
salt-water contained in the salt-pits is

 being heated by the sun1 if they be    
flooded with great and frequent showers 
of rain the evaporation is hindered4 ,if
 this happens rarely1 the salt acquires 
a disagreeable#b flavour1 and in this   
case the salt-pits have to be filled    
with other sweet water4  ,illustration  
#edg 7,salt ,pans73 ,a--,sea4 ,b--,pool4
 ,c--,gate4 ,d--,trenches4 ,e--,salt    
basins4 ,f--,rake4 ,g--,shovel4  ,salt  
from sea-water is made in the following 
manner4 ,near that part of the seashore 
where there is a quiet pool1 and there  
are wide1 level plains which the        
inundations of the sea do not overflow1 
three1 four1 five1 or six trenches are  
dug six feet wide1 twelve feet deep1 and
 six hundred feet long1 or longer if the
 level place extends for a longer       
distance2 they are two hundred feet     
distant from one another2 between these 
are three transverse trenches4 ,then are
 dug the principal pits1 so that when   
the water has been raised from the pool 
it can flow into the trenches1 and from 

thence into the salt-pits1 of which     
there are numbers on the level ground   
between the trenches4 ,the salt-pits are
 basins dug to a moderate depth2 these  
are banked round with the earth which   
was dug in sinking them or in cleansing 
them1 so that between the basins1 earth 
walls are made a foot high1 which retain
 the water let into them4 ,the trenches 
have openings1 through which the first  
basins receive the water2 these basins  
also have openings1 through which the   
water flows again from one into the     
other4 ,there should be a slight fall1  
so that the water may flow from one     
basin into the other1 and can thus be   
replenished4 ,all these things having   
been done rightly and in order1 the gate
 is raised that opens the mouth of the  
pool which contains sea-water mixed with
 rain-water or river-water2 and thus all
 of the trenches are filled4 ,then the  
gates of the first basins are opened1   
and thus the remaining basins are filled
 with the water from the first2 when    

this salt-water condenses1 all these    
basins are incrusted1 and thus made     
clean from earthy matter4 ,then again   
the first basins are filled up from the 
nearest trench with the same kind of    
water1 and left until much of the thin  
liquid is converted into vapour by the  
heat of the sun and dissipated1 and the 
remainder is considerably thickened4    
,then their gates being opened1 the     
water passes into the second basins2 and
 when it has remained there for a       
certain space of time the gates are     
opened1 so that it flows into the third 
basins1 where it is all condensed into  
salt4 ,after the salt has been taken    
out1 the basins are filled again and    
again with sea-water4 ,the salt is raked
 up with wooden rakes and thrown out    
with shovels4  ,illustration #edi 7,salt
 ,wells73 ,a--,shed4 ,b--,painted signs4
 ,c--,first room4 ,d--,middle room4     
,e--,third room4 ,f--,two little windows
 in the end wall4 ,g--,third little     
window in the roof4 ,h--,well4 ,i--,well

 of another kind4 ,k--,cask4 ,l--,pole4 
,m--,forked sticks in which the porters 
rest the pole when they are tired4      
,salt-water is also boiled in pans1     
placed in sheds near the wells from     
which it is drawn4 ,each shed is usually
 named from some animal or other thing  
which is pictured on a tablet nailed to 
it4 ,the walls of these sheds are made  
either from baked earth or from wicker  
work covered with thick mud1 although   
some may be made of stones or bricks4   
,when of brick they are often sixteen   
feet high1 and if the roof rises        
twenty-four feet high1 then the walls   
which are at the ends must be made forty
 feet high1 as likewise the interior    
partition walls4 ,the roof consists of  
large shingles four feet long1 one foot 
wide1 and two digits thick2 these are   
fixed on long narrow planks placed on   
the rafters1 which are joined at the    
upper end and slope in opposite         
directions4 ,the whole of the under side
 is plastered one digit thick with straw

 mixed with lute2 likewise the roof on  
the outside is plastered one and a half 
feet thick with straw mixed with lute1  
in order that the shed should not run   
any risk of fire1 and that it should be 
proof against rain1 and be able to      
retain the heat necessary for drying the
 lumps of salt4 ,each shed is divided   
into three parts1 in the first of which 
the firewood and straw are placed2 in   
the middle room1 separated from the     
first room by a partition1 is the       
fireplace on which is placed the        
caldron4 ,to the right of the caldron is
 a tub1 into which is emptied the brine 
brought into the shed by the porters2 to
 the left is a bench1 on which there is 
room to lay thirty pieces of salt4 ,in  
the third room1 which is in the back    
part of the house1 there is made a pile 
of clay or ashes eight feet higher than 
the floor1 being the same height as the 
bench4 ,the master and his assistants1  
when they carry away the lumps of salt  
from the caldrons1 go from the former to

 the latter4 ,they ascend from the right
 side of the caldron1 not by steps1 but 
by a slope of earth4 ,at the top of the 
end wall are two small windows1 and a   
third is in the roof1 through which the 
smoke escapes4 ,this smoke1 emitted from
 both the back and the front of the     
furnace1 finds outlet through a hood    
through which it makes its way up to the
 windows2 this hood consists of boards  
projecting one beyond the other1 which  
are supported by two small beams of the 
roof4 ,opposite the fireplace the middle
 partition has an open door eight feet  
high and four feet wide1 through which  
there is a gentle draught which drives  
the smoke into the last room2 the front 
wall also has a door of the same height 
and width4 ,both of these doors are     
large enough to permit the firewood or  
straw or the brine to be carried in1 and
 the lumps of salt to be carried out2   
these doors must be closed when the wind
 blows1 so that the boiling will not be 
hindered4 ,indeed1 glass panes which    

exclude the wind but transmit the light1
 should be inserted in the windows in   
the walls4  ,they construct the greater 
part of the fireplace of rock-salt and  
of clay mixed with salt and moistened   
with brine1 for such walls are greatly  
hardened by the fire4 ,these fireplaces 
are made eight and a half feet long1    
seven and three quarters feet wide1 and1
 if wood is burned in them1 nearly four 
feet high2 but if straw is burned in    
them1 they are six feet high4 ,an iron  
rod1 about four feet long1 is engaged in
 a hole in an iron foot1 which stands on
 the base of the middle of the furnace  
mouth4 ,this mouth is three feet in     
width1 and has a door which opens       
inward2 through it they throw in the    
straw4  ,illustration #eea 7,salt       
,caldron73 ,a--,fireplace4 ,b--,mouth of
 fireplace4 ,c--,caldron4 ,d--,posts    
sunk into the ground4 ,e--,cross-beams4 
,f--,shorter bars4 ,g--,iron hooks4     
,h--,staples4 ,i--,longer bars4         
,k--,iron rod bent to support the       

caldron4  ,the caldrons are rectangular1
 eight feet long1 seven feet wide1 and  
half a foot high1 and are made of sheets
 of iron or lead1 three feet long and of
 the same width1 all but two digits4    
,these plates are not very thick1 so    
that the water is heated more quickly by
 the fire1 and is boiled away rapidly4  
,the more salty the water is1 the sooner
 it is condensed into salt4 ,to prevent 
the brine from leaking out at the points
 where the metal plates are fastened    
with rivets1 the caldrons are smeared   
over with a cement made of ox-liver and 
ox-blood mixed with ashes4 ,on each side
 of the middle of the furnace two       
rectangular posts1 three feet long1 and 
half a foot thick and wide are set into 
the ground1 so that they are distant    
from each other only one and a half     
feet4 ,each of them rises one and a half
 feet above the caldron4 ,after the     
caldron has been placed on the walls of 
the furnace1 two beams of the same width
 and thickness as the posts1 but four   

feet long1 are laid on these posts1 and 
are mortised in so that they shall not  
fall4 ,there rest transversely upon     
these beams three bars1 three feet long1
 three digits wide1 and two digits      
thick1 distant from one another one     
foot4 ,on each of these hang three iron 
hooks1 two beyond the beams and one in  
the middle2 these are a foot long1 and  
are hooked at both ends1 one hook       
turning to the right1 the other to the  
left4 ,the bottom hook catches in the   
eye of a staple1 whose ends are fixed in
 the bottom of the caldron1 and the eye 
projects from it4 ,there are besides1   
two longer bars six feet long1 one palm 
wide1 and three digits thick1 which pass
 under the front beam and rest upon the 
rear beam4 ,at the rear end of each of  
the bars there is an iron hook two feet 
and three digits long1 the lower end of 
which is bent so as to support the      
caldron4 ,the rear end of the caldron   
does not rest on the two rear corners of
 the fireplace1 but is distant from the 

fireplace two thirds of a foot1 so that 
the flame and smoke can escape2 this    
rear end of the fireplace is half a foot
 thick and half a foot higher than the  
caldron4 ,this is also the thickness and
 height of the wall between the caldron 
and the third room of the shed1 to which
 it is adjacent4 ,this back wall is made
 of clay and ashes1 unlike the others   
which are made of rock-salt4 ,the       
caldron rests on the two front corners  
and sides of the fireplace1 and is      
cemented with ashes1 so that the flames 
shall not escape4 ,if a dipperful of    
brine poured into the caldron should    
flow into all the corners1 the caldron  
is rightly set upon the fireplace4  ,the
 wooden dipper holds ten ,roman         
sextarii1 and the cask holds eight      
dippers full#c4 ,the brine drawn up from
 the well is poured into such casks and 
carried by porters1 as ,i have said     
before1 into the shed and poured into a 
tub1 and in those places where the brine
 is very strong it is at once           

transferred with the dippers into the   
caldron4 ,that brine which is less      
strong is thrown into a small tub with a
 deep ladle1 the spoon and handle of    
which are hewn out of one piece of wood4
 ,in this tub rock-salt is placed in    
order that the water should be made more
 salty1 and it is then run off through a
 launder which leads into the caldron4  
,from thirty-seven dippersful of brine  
the master or his deputy1 at ,halle in  
,saxony1#d makes two cone-shaped pieces 
of salt4 ,each master has a helper1 or  
in the place of a helper his wife       
assists him in his work1 and1 in        
addition1 a youth who throws wood or    
straw under the caldron4 ,he1 on account
 of the great heat of the workshop1     
wears a straw cap on his head and a     
breech cloth1 being otherwise quite     
naked4 ,as soon as the master has poured
 the first dipperful of brine into the  
caldron the youth sets fire to the wood 
and straw laid under it4 ,if the        
firewood is bundles of faggots or       

brushwood1 the salt will be white1 but  
if straw is burned1 then it is not      
infrequently blackish1 for the sparks1  
which are drawn up with the smoke into  
the hood1 fall down again into the water
 and colour it black4  ,illustration    
#eec 7,salt ,caldron73 ,a--,wooden      
dipper4 ,b--,cask4 ,c--,tub4            
,d--,master4 ,e--,youth4 ,f--,wife4     
,g--,wooden spade4 ,h--,boards4         
,i--,baskets4 ,k--,hoe4 ,l--,rake4      
,m--,straw4 ,n--,bowl4 ,o--,bucket      
containing the blood4 ,p--,tankard which
 contains beer4  ,in order to accelerate
 the condensation of the brine1 when the
 master has poured in two casks and as  
many dippersful of brine1 he adds about 
a ,roman cyathus and a half of bullock's
 blood1 or of calf's blood1 or buck's   
blood1 or else he mixes it into the     
nineteenth dipperful of brine1 in order 
that it may be dissolved and distributed
 into all the corners of the caldron2 in
 other places the blood is dissolved in 
beer4 ,when the boiling water seems to  

be mixed with scum1 he skims it with a  
ladle2 this scum1 if he be working with 
rock-salt1 he throws into the opening in
 the furnace through which the smoke    
escapes1 and it is dried into rock-salt2
 if it be not from rock-salt1 he pours  
it on to the floor of the workshop4     
,from the beginning to the boiling and  
skimming is the work of half-an-hour2   
after this it boils down for another    
quarter-of-an-hour1 after which time it 
begins to condense into salt4 ,when it  
begins to thicken with the heat1 he and 
his helper stir it assiduously with a   
wooden spatula1 and then he allows it to
 boil for an hour4 ,after this he pours 
in a cyathus and a half of beer4 ,in    
order that the wind should not blow into
 the caldron1 the helper covers the     
front with a board seven and a half feet
 long and one foot high1 and covers each
 of the sides with boards three and     
three quarters feet long4 ,in order that
 the front board may hold more firmly1  
it is fitted into the caldron itself1   

and the side-boards are fixed on the    
front board and upon the transverse     
beam4 ,afterward1 when the boards have  
been lifted off1 the helper places two  
baskets1 two feet high and as many wide 
at the top1 and a palm wide at the      
bottom1 on the transverse beams1 and    
into them the master throws the salt    
with a shovel1 taking half-an-hour to   
fill them4 ,then1 replacing the boards  
on the caldron1 he allows the brine to  
boil for three quarters of an hour4     
,afterward the salt has again to be     
removed with a shovel1 and when the     
baskets are full1 they pile up the salt 
in heaps4  ,in different localities the 
salt is moulded into different shapes4  
,in the baskets the salt assumes the    
form of a cone2 it is not moulded in    
baskets alone1 but also in moulds into  
which they throw the salt1 which are    
made in the likeness of many objects1 as
 for instance tablets4 ,these tablets   
and cones are kept in the higher part of
 the third room of the house1 or else on

 the flat bench of the same height1 in  
order that they may dry better in the   
warm air4 ,in the manner ,i have        
described1 a master and his helper      
continue one after the other1           
alternately boiling the brine and       
moulding the salt1 day and night1 with  
the exception only of the annual feast  
days4 ,no caldron is able to stand the  
fire for more than half a year4 ,the    
master pours in water and washes it out 
every week2 when it is washed out he    
puts straw under it and pounds it2 new  
caldrons he washes three times in the   
first two weeks1 and afterward twice4   
,in this manner the incrustations fall  
from the bottom2 if they are not cleared
 off1 the salt would have to be made    
more slowly over a fiercer fire1 which  
requires more brine and burns the plates
 of the caldron4 ,if any cracks make    
their appearance in the caldron they are
 filled up with cement4 ,the salt made  
during the first two weeks is not so    
good1 being usually stained by the rust 

at the bottom where incrustations have  
not yet adhered4  ,although salt made in
 this manner is prepared only from the  
brine of springs and wells1 yet it is   
also possible to use this method in the 
case of river-1 lake-1 and sea-water1   
and also of those waters which are      
artificially salted4 ,for in places     
where rock-salt is dug1 the impure and  
the broken pieces are thrown into fresh 
water1 which1 when boiled1 condenses    
into salt4 ,some1 indeed1 boil sea-salt 
in fresh water again1 and mould the salt
 into the little cones and other shapes4
  ,illustration #eed 7,salt ,boiling73  
,a--,pool4 ,b--,pots4 ,c--,ladle4       
,d--,pans4 ,e--,tongs4  ,some people    
make salt by another method1 from salt  
water which flows from hot springs that 
issue boiling from the earth4 ,they set 
earthenware pots in a pool of the       
spring-water1 and into them they pour   
water scooped up with ladles from the   
hot spring until they are half full4    
,the perpetual heat of the waters of the

 pool evaporates the salt water just as 
the heat of the fire does in the        
caldrons4 ,as soon as it begins to      
thicken1 which happens when it has been 
reduced by boiling to a third or more1  
they seize the pots with tongs and pour 
the contents into small rectangular iron
 pans1 which have also been placed in   
the pool4 ,the interior of these pans is
 usually three feet long1 two feet wide1
 and three digits deep1 and they stand  
on four heavy legs1 so that the water   
flows freely all round1 but not into    
them4 ,since the water flows            
continuously from the pool through the  
little canals1 and the spring always    
provides a new and copious supply1      
always boiling hot1 it condenses the    
thickened water poured into the pans    
into salt2 this is at once taken out    
with shovels1 and then the work begins  
all over again4 ,if the salty water     
contains other juices1 as is usually the
 case with hot springs1 no salt should  
be made from them4  ,illustration #eee  

7,salt ,boiling73 ,a--,pots4            
,b--,tripod4 ,c--,deep ladle4  ,others  
boil salt water1 and especially         
sea-water1 in large iron pots2 this salt
 is blackish1 for in most cases they    
burn straw under them4 ,some people boil
 in these pots the brine in which fish  
is pickled4 ,the salt which they make   
tastes and smells of fish4              
,illustration #eef 7,salt evaporated on 
faggots73 ,a--,trench4 ,b--,vat into    
which the salt water flows4 ,c--,ladle4 
,d--,small bucket with pole fastened    
into it4  ,those who make salt by       
pouring brine over firewood1 lay the    
wood in trenches which are twelve feet  
long1 seven feet wide1 and two and one  
half feet deep1 so that the water poured
 in should not flow out4 ,these trenches
 are constructed of rock-salt wherever  
it is to be had1 in order that they     
should not soak up the water1 and so    
that the earth should not fall in on the
 front1 back and sides4 ,as the charcoal
 is turned into salt at the same time as

 the salt liquor1 the ,spaniards think1 
as ,pliny writes#e1 that the wood itself
 turns into salt4 ,oak is the best wood1
 as its pure ash yields salt2 elsewhere 
hazel-wood is lauded4 ,but with whatever
 wood it be made1 this salt is not      
greatly appreciated1 being black and not
 quite pure2 on that account this method
 of salt-making is disdained by the     
,germans and ,spaniards4  ,illustration 
#eeg 7,lye ,making73 ,a--,large vat4    
,b--,plug4 ,c--,small tub4 ,d--,deep    
ladle4 ,e--,small vat4 ,f--,caldron4    
,the solutions from which salt is made  
are prepared from salty earth or from   
earth rich in salt and saltpetre4 ,lye  
is made from the ashes of reeds and     
rushes4 ,the solution obtained from     
salty earth by boiling1 makes salt only2
 from the other1 of which ,i will speak 
more a little later1 salt and saltpetre 
are made2 and from ashes is derived lye1
 from which its own salt is obtained4   
,the ashes1 as well as the earth1 should
 first be put into a large vat2 then    

fresh water should be poured over the   
ashes or earth1 and it should be stirred
 for about twelve hours with a stick1 so
 that it may dissolve the salt4 ,then   
the plug is pulled out of the large vat2
 the solution of salt or the lye is     
drained into a small tub and emptied    
with ladles into small vats2 finally1   
such a solution is transferred into iron
 or lead caldrons and boiled1 until the 
water having evaporated1 the juices are 
condensed into salt4 ,the above are the 
various methods for making salt4        
7,illustration p4 #eeg47  ,illustration 
#eei 7,nitrum-pits73 ,a--,nile4         
,b--,nitrum-pits1 such as ,i conjecture 
them to be4#g  ,nitrum#f is usually made
 from nitrous waters1 or from solutions 
or from lye4 ,in the same manner as     
sea-water or salt-water is poured into  
salt-pits and evaporated by the heat of 
the sun and changed into salt1 so the   
nitrous ,nile is led into nitrum pits   
and evaporated by the heat of the sun   
and converted into nitrum4 ,just as the 

sea1 in flowing of its own will over the
 soil of this same ,egypt1 is changed   
into salt1 so also the ,nile1 when it   
overflows in the dog days1 is converted 
into nitrum when it flows into the      
nitrum pits4 ,the solution from which   
nitrum is produced is obtained from     
fresh water percolating through nitrous 
earth1 in the same manner as lye is made
 from fresh water percolating through   
ashes of oak or hard oak4 ,both         
solutions are taken out of vats and     
poured into rectangular copper caldrons1
 and are boiled until at last they      
condense into nitrum4  ,illustration    
#efa 7,soda ,making73 ,a--,vat in which 
the soda is mixed4 ,b--,caldron4        
,c--,tub in which chrysocolla is        
condensed4 ,d--,copper wires4           
,e--,mortar4  ,native as well as        
manufactured nitrum is mixed in vats    
with urine and boiled in the same       
caldrons2 the decoction is poured into  
vats in which are copper wires1 and1    
adhering to them1 it hardens and becomes

 chrysocolla1 which the ,moors call     
borax4 ,formerly nitrum was compounded  
with ,cyprian verdigris1 and ground with
 ,cyprian copper in ,cyprian mortars1 as
 ,pliny writes4 ,some chrysocolla is    
made of rock-alum and sal-ammoniac4#h   
,illustration #efc 7,saltpetre ,making73
 ,a--,caldron4 ,b--,large vat into which
 sand is thrown4 ,c--,plug4 ,d--,tub4   
,e--,vat containing the rods4           
,saltpetre#i is made from a dry1        
slightly fatty earth1 which1 if it be   
retained for a while in the mouth1 has  
an acrid and salty taste4 ,this earth1  
together with a powder1 are alternately 
put into a vat in layers a palm deep4   
,the powder consists of two parts of    
unslaked lime and three parts of ashes  
of oak1 or holmoak1 or ,italian oak1 or 
,turkey oak1 or of some similar kind4   
,each vat is filled with alternate      
layers of these to within three-quarters
 of a foot of the top1 and then water is
 poured in until it is full4 ,as the    
water percolates through the material it

 dissolves the saltpetre2 then1 the plug
 being pulled out from the vat1 the     
solution is drained into a tub and      
ladled out into small vats4 ,if when    
tested it tastes very salty1 and at the 
same time acrid1 it is good2 but1 if    
not1 then it is condemned1 and it must  
be made to percolate again through the  
same material or through a fresh lot4   
,even two or three waters may be made to
 percolate through the same earth and   
become full of saltpetre1 but the       
solutions thus obtained must not be     
mixed together unless all have the same 
taste1 which rarely or never happens4   
,the first of these solutions is poured 
into the first vat1 the next into the   
second1 the third into the third vat2   
the second and third solutions are used 
instead of plain water to percolate     
through fresh material2 the first       
solution is made in this manner from    
both the second and third4 ,as soon as  
there is an abundance of this solution  
it is poured into the rectangular copper

 caldron and evaporated to one half by  
boiling2 then it is transferred into a  
vat covered with a lid1 in which the    
earthy matter settles to the bottom4    
,when the solution is clear it is poured
 back into the same pan1 or into        
another1 and re-boiled4 ,when it bubbles
 and forms a scum1 in order that it     
should not run over and that it may be  
greatly purified1 there is poured into  
it three or four pounds of lye1 made    
from three parts of oak or similar ash  
and one of unslaked lime4 ,but in the   
water1 prior to its being poured in1 is 
dissolved rock-alum1 in the proportion  
of one hundred and twenty librae of the 
former to five librae of the latter4    
,shortly afterward the solution will be 
found to be clear and blue4 ,it is      
boiled until the waters1 which are      
easily volatile 7subtiles71 are         
evaporated1 and then the greater part of
 the salt1 after it has settled at the  
bottom of the pan1 is taken out with    
iron ladles4 ,then the concentrated     

solution is transferred to the vat in   
which rods are placed horizontally and  
vertically1 to which it adheres when    
cold1 and if there be much1 it is       
condensed in three or four days into    
saltpetre4 ,then the solution which has 
not congealed1 is poured out and put on 
one side or re-boiled4 ,the saltpetre   
being cut out and washed with its own   
solution1 is thrown on to boards that it
 may drain and dry4 ,the yield of       
saltpetre will be much or little in     
proportion to whether the solution has  
absorbed much or little2 when the       
saltpetre has been obtained from lye1   
which purifies itself1 it is somewhat   
clear and pure4  ,the purest and most   
transparent1 because free from salt1 is 
made if it is drawn off at the          
thickening stage1 according to the      
following method4 ,there are poured into
 the caldron the same number of amphorae
 of the solution as of congii of the lye
 of which ,i have already spoken1 and   
into the same caldron is thrown as much 

of the already made saltpetre as the    
solution and lye will dissolve4 ,as soon
 as the mixture effervesces and forms   
scum1 it is transferred to a vat1 into  
which on a cloth has been thrown washed 
sand obtained from a river4 ,soon       
afterward the plug is drawn out of the  
hole at the bottom1 and the mixture1    
having percolated through the sand1     
escapes into a tub4 ,it is then reduced 
by boiling in one or another of the     
caldrons1 until the greater part of the 
solution has evaporated2 but as soon as 
it is well boiled and forms scum1 a     
little lye is poured into it4 ,then it  
is transferred to another vat in which  
there are small rods1 to which it       
adheres and congeals in two days if     
there is but little of it1 or if there  
is much in three days1 or at the most in
 four days2 if it does not condense1 it 
is poured back into the caldron and     
re-boiled down to half2 then it is      
transferred to the vat to cool4 ,the    
process must be repeated as often as is 

necessary4  ,others refine saltpetre by 
another method1 for with it they fill a 
pot made of copper1 and1 covering it    
with a copper lid1 set it over live     
coals1 where it is heated until it      
melts4 ,they do not cement down the lid1
 but it has a handle1 and can be lifted 
for them to see whether or not the      
melting has taken place4 ,when it has   
melted1 powdered sulphur is sprinkled   
in1 and if the pot set on the fire does 
not light it1 the sulphur kindles1      
whereby the thick1 greasy matter        
floating on the saltpetre burns up1 and 
when it is consumed the saltpetre is    
pure4 ,soon afterward the pot is removed
 from the fire1 and later1 when cold1   
the purest saltpetre is taken out1 which
 has the appearance of white marble1 the
 earthy residue then remains at the     
bottom4 ,the earths from which the      
solution was made1 together with        
branches of oak or similar trees1 are   
exposed under the open sky and sprinkled
 with water containing saltpetre4 ,after

 remaining thus for five or six years1  
they are again ready to be made into a  
solution4  ,pure saltpetre which has    
rested many years in the earth1 and that
 which exudes from the stone walls of   
wine cellars and dark places1 is mixed  
with the first solution and evaporated  
by boiling4  ,thus far ,i have described
 the methods of making nitrum1 which are
 not less varied or multifarious than   
those for making salt4 ,now ,i propose  
to describe the methods of making       
alum1#aj which are likewise neither all 
alike1 nor simple1 because it is made   
from boiling aluminous water until it   
condenses to alum1 or else from boiling 
a solution of alum which is obtained    
from a kind of earth1 or from rocks1 or 
from pyrites1 or other minerals4        
,illustration #efg 7,vitriol ,making73  
,a--,tanks4 ,b--,stirring poles4        
,c--,plug4 ,d--,trough4 ,e--,reservoir4 
,f--,launder4 ,g--lead caldron4         
,h--,wooden tubs sunk into the earth4   
,i--,vats in which twigs are fixed4     

,this kind of earth having first been   
dug up in such quantity as would make   
three hundred wheelbarrow loads1 is     
thrown into two tanks2 then the water is
 turned into them1 and if it 7the earth7
 contains vitriol it must be diluted    
with urine4 ,the workmen must many times
 a day stir the ore with long1 thick    
sticks in order that the water and urine
 may be mixed with it2 then the plugs   
having been taken out of both tanks1 the
 solution is drawn off into a trough1   
which is carved out of one or two trees4
 ,if the locality is supplied with an   
abundance of such ore1 it should not    
immediately be thrown into the tanks1   
but first conveyed into open spaces and 
heaped up1 for the longer it is exposed 
to the air and the rain1 the better it  
is2 after some months1 during which the 
ore has been heaped up in open spaces   
into mounds1 there are generated        
veinlets of far better quality than the 
ore4 ,then it is conveyed into six or   
more tanks1 nine feet in length and     

breadth and five in depth1 and afterward
 water is drawn into them of similar    
solution4 ,after this1 when the water   
has absorbed the alum1 the plugs are    
pulled out1 and the solution escapes    
into a round reservoir forty feet wide  
and three feet deep4 ,then the ore is   
thrown out of the tanks into other      
tanks1 and water again being run into   
the latter and the urine added and      
stirred by means of poles1 the plugs are
 withdrawn and the solution is run off  
into the same reservoir4 ,a few days    
afterward1 the reservoirs containing the
 solution are emptied through a small   
launder1 and run into rectangular lead  
caldrons2 it is boiled in them until the
 greater part of the water has          
evaporated4 ,the earthy sediment        
deposited at the bottom of the caldron  
is composed of fatty and aluminous      
matter1 which usually consists of small 
incrustations1 in which there is not    
infrequently found a very white and very
 light powder of asbestos or gypsum4    

,the solution now seems to be full of   
meal4 ,some people instead pour the     
partly evaporated solution into a vat1  
so that it may become pure and clear2   
then pouring it back into the caldron1  
they boil it again until it becomes     
mealy4 ,by whichever process it has been
 condensed1 it is then poured into a    
wooden tub sunk into the earth in order 
to cool it4 ,when it becomes cold it is 
poured into vats1 in which are arranged 
horizontal and vertical twigs1 to which 
the alum clings when it condenses2 and  
thus are made the small white           
transparent cubes1 which are laid to dry
 in hot rooms4  ,if vitriol forms part  
of the aluminous ore1 the material is   
dissolved in water without being mixed  
with urine1 but it is necessary to pour 
that into the clear and pure solution   
when it is to be re-boiled4 ,this       
separates the vitriol from the alum1 for
 by this method the latter sinks to the 
bottom of the caldron1 while the former 
floats on the top2 both must be poured  

separately into smaller vessels1 and    
from these into vats to condense4 ,if1  
however1 when the solution was re-boiled
 they did not separate1 then they must  
be poured from the smaller vessels into 
larger vessels and covered over2 then   
the vitriol separating from the alum1 it
 condenses4 ,both are cut out and put to
 dry in the hot room1 and are ready to  
be sold2 the solution which did not     
congeal in the vessels and vats is again
 poured back into the caldron to be     
re-boiled4 ,the earth which settled at  
the bottom of the caldron is carried    
back to the tanks1 and1 together with   
the ore1 is again dissolved with water  
and urine4 ,the earth which remains in  
the tanks after the solution has been   
drawn off is emptied in a heap1 and     
daily becomes more and more aluminous in
 the same way as the earth from which   
saltpetre was made1 but fuller of its   
juices1 wherefore it is again thrown    
into the tanks and percolated by water4 
,illustration #ega 7,alum ,making73     

,a--,furnace4 ,b--,enclosed space4      
,c--,aluminous rock4 ,d--,deep ladle4   
,e--,caldron4 ,f--,launder4             
,g--,troughs4  ,aluminous rock is first 
roasted in a furnace similar to a lime  
kiln4 ,at the bottom of the kiln a      
vaulted fireplace is made of the same   
kind of rock2 the remainder of the empty
 part of the kiln is then entirely      
filled with the same aluminous rocks4   
,then they are heated with fire until   
they are red hot and have exhaled their 
sulphurous fumes1 which occurs1         
according to their divers nature1 within
 the space of ten1 eleven1 twelve1 or   
more hours4 ,one thing the master must  
guard against most of all is not to     
roast the rock either too much or too   
little1 for on the one hand they would  
not soften when sprinkled with water1   
and on the other they either would be   
too hard or would crumble into ashes2   
from neither would much alum be         
obtained1 for the strength which they   
have would be decreased4 ,when the rocks

 are cooled they are drawn out and      
conveyed into an open space1 where they 
are piled one upon the other in heaps   
fifty feet long1 eight feet wide1 and   
four feet high1 which are sprinkled for 
forty days with water carried in deep   
ladles4 ,in spring the sprinkling is    
done both morning and evening1 and in   
summer at noon besides4 ,after being    
moistened for this length of time the   
rocks begin to fall to pieces like      
slaked lime1 and there originates a     
certain new material of the future alum1
 which is soft and similar to the       
liquidae medullae found in the rocks4   
,it is white if the stone was white     
before it was roasted1 and rose-coloured
 if red was mixed with the white2 from  
the former1 white alum is obtained1 and 
from the latter1 rose-coloured4 ,a round
 furnace is made1 the lower part of     
which1 in order to be able to endure the
 force of the heat1 is made of rock that
 neither melts nor crumbles to powder by
 the fire4 ,it is constructed in the    

form of a basket1 the walls of which are
 two feet high1 made of the same rock4  
,on these walls rests a large round     
caldron made of copper plates1 which is 
concave at the bottom1 where it is eight
 feet in diameter4 ,in the empty space  
under the bottom they place the wood to 
be kindled with fire4 ,around the edge  
of the bottom of the caldron1 rock is   
built in cone-shaped1 and the diameter  
of the bottom of the rock structure is  
seven feet1 and of the top ten feet2 it 
is eight feet deep4 ,the inside1 after  
being rubbed over with oil1 is covered  
with cement1 so that it may be able to  
hold boiling water2 the cement is       
composed of fresh lime1 of which the    
lumps are slaked with wine1 of          
iron-scales1 and of sea-snails1 ground  
and mixed with the white of eggs and    
oil4 ,the edges of the caldron are      
surmounted with a circle of wood a foot 
thick and half a foot high1 on which the
 workmen rest the wooden shovels with   
which they cleanse the water of earth   

and of the undissolved lumps of rock    
that remain at the bottom of the        
caldron4 ,the caldron1 being thus       
prepared1 is entirely filled through a  
launder with water1 and this is boiled  
with a fierce fire until it bubbles4    
,then little by little eight wheelbarrow
 loads of the material1 composed of     
roasted rock moistened with water1 are  
gradually emptied into the caldron by   
four workmen1 who1 with their shovels   
which reach to the bottom1 keep the     
material stirred and mixed with water1  
and by the same means they lift the     
lumps of undissolved rock out of the    
caldron4 ,in this manner the material is
 thrown in1 in three or four lots1 at   
intervals of two or three hours more or 
less2 during these intervals1 the water1
 which has been cooled by the rock and  
material1 again begins to boil4 ,the    
water1 when sufficiently purified and   
ready to congeal1 is ladled out and run 
off with launders into thirty troughs4  
,these troughs are made of oak1 holm    

oak1 or ,turkey oak2 their interior is  
six feet long1 five feet deep1 and four 
feet wide4 ,in these the water congeals 
and condenses into alum1 in the spring  
in the space of four days1 and in summer
 in six days4 ,afterward the holes at   
the bottom of the oak troughs being     
opened1 the water which has not         
congealed is drawn off into buckets and 
poured back into the caldron2 or it may 
be preserved in empty troughs1 so that  
the master of the workmen1 having seen  
it1 may order his helpers to pour it    
into the caldron1 for the water which is
 not altogether wanting in alum1 is     
considered better than that which has   
none at all4 ,then the alum is hewn out 
with a knife or a chisel4 ,it is thick  
and excellent according to the strength 
of the rock1 either white or pink       
according to the colour of the rock4    
,the earthy powder1 which remains three 
to four digits thick as the residue of  
the alum at the bottom of the trough is 
again thrown into the caldron and boiled

 with fresh aluminous material4 ,lastly1
 the alum cut out is washed1 and dried1 
and sold4  ,alum is also made from crude
 pyrites and other aluminous mixtures4  
,it is first roasted in an enclosed     
area2 then1 after being exposed for some
 months to the air in order to soften   
it1 it is thrown into vats and          
dissolved4 ,after this the solution is  
poured into the leaden rectangular pans 
and boiled until it condenses into alum4
 ,the pyrites and other stones which are
 not mixed with alum alone1 but which   
also contain vitriol1 as is most usually
 the case1 are both treated in the      
manner which ,i have already described4 
,finally1 if metal is contained in the  
pyrites and other rock1 this material   
must be dried1 and from it either gold1 
silver1 or copper is made in a furnace4 
,vitriol#aa can be made by four         
different methods2 by two of these      
methods from water containing vitriol2  
by one method from a solution of        
melanteria1 sory and chalcitis2 and by  

another method from earth or stones     
mixed with vitriol4  ,illustration #egd 
7,vitriol ,making73 ,a--,tunnel4        
,b--,bucket4 ,c--,pit4  ,the vitriol    
water is collected into pools1 and if it
 cannot be drained into them1 it must be
 drawn up and carried to them in buckets
 by a workman4 ,in hot regions or in    
summer1 it is poured into out-of-door   
pits which have been dug to a certain   
depth1 or else it is extracted from     
shafts by pumps and poured into         
launders1 through which it flows into   
the pits1 where it is condensed by the  
heat of the sun4 ,in cold regions and in
 winter these vitriol waters are boiled 
down with equal parts of fresh water in 
rectangular leaden caldrons2 then1 when 
cold1 the mixture is poured into vats or
 into tanks1 which ,pliny calls wooden  
fish-tanks4 ,in these tanks light       
cross-beams are fixed to the upper part1
 so that they may be stationary1 and    
from them hang ropes stretched with     
little stones2 to these the contents of 

the thickened solutions congeal and     
adhere in transparent cubes or seeds of 
vitriol1 like bunches of grapes4        
,illustration #ege 7,vitriol ,making73  
,a--,caldron4 ,b--,tank4                
,c--,cross-bars4 ,d--,ropes4 ,e--,little
 stones4  ,by the third method vitriol  
is made out of melanteria and sory4 ,if 
the mines give an abundant supply of    
melanteria and sory1 it is better to    
reject the chalcitis1 and especially the
 misy1 for from these the vitriol is    
impure1 particularly from the misy4     
,these materials having been dug and    
thrown into the tanks1 they are first   
dissolved with water2 then1 in order to 
recover the pyrites from which copper is
 not rarely smelted and which forms a   
sediment at the bottom of the tanks1 the
 solution is transferred to other vats1 
which are nine feet wide and three feet 
deep4 ,twigs and wood which float on the
 surface are lifted out with a broom    
made of twigs1 and afterward all the    
sediment settles at the bottom of this  

vat4 ,the solution is poured into a     
rectangular leaden caldron eight feet   
long1 three feet wide1 and the same in  
depth4 ,in this caldron it is boiled    
until it becomes thick and viscous1 when
 it is poured into a launder1 through   
which it runs into another leaden       
caldron of the same size as the one     
described before4 ,when cold1 the       
solution is drawn off through twelve    
little launders1 out of which it flows  
into as many wooden tubs four and a half
 feet deep and three feet wide4 ,upon   
these tubs are placed perforated        
crossbars distant from each other from  
four to six digits1 and from the holes  
hang thin laths1 which reach to the     
bottom1 with pegs or wedges driven into 
them4 ,the vitriol adheres to these     
laths1 and within the space of a few    
days congeals into cubes1 which are     
taken away and put into a chamber having
 a sloping board floor1 so that the     
moisture which drips from the vitriol   
may flow into a tub beneath4 ,this      

solution is re-boiled1 as is also that  
solution which was left in the twelve   
tubs1 for1 by reason of its having      
become too thin and liquid1 it did not  
congeal1 and was thus not converted into
 vitriol4  ,illustration #egf 7,vitriol 
,making73 ,a--,wooden tub4              
,b--,cross-bars4 ,c--,laths4            
,d--,sloping floor of the chamber4      
,e--,tub placed under it4  ,illustration
 #egg 7,vitriol ,making73 ,a--,caldron4 
,b--,moulds4 ,c--,cakes4  ,the fourth   
method of making vitriol is from        
vitriolous earth or stones4 ,such ore is
 at first carried and heaped up1 and is 
then left for five or six months exposed
 to the rain of spring and autumn1 to   
the heat of summer1 and to the rime and 
frost of winter4 ,it must be turned over
 several times with shovels1 so that the
 part at the bottom may be brought to   
the top1 and it is thus ventilated and  
cooled2 by this means the earth crumbles
 up and loosens1 and the stone changes  
from hard to soft4 ,then the ore is     

covered with a roof1 or else it is taken
 away and placed under a roof1 and      
remains in that place six1 seven1 or    
eight months4 ,afterward as large a     
portion as is required is thrown into a 
vat1 which is half-filled with water2   
this vat is one hundred feet long1      
twenty-four feet wide1 eight feet deep4 
,it has an opening at the bottom1 so    
that when it is opened the dregs of the 
ore from which the vitriol comes may be 
drawn off1 and it has1 at the height of 
one foot from the bottom1 three or four 
little holes1 so that1 when closed1 the 
water may be retained1 and when opened  
the solution flows out4 ,thus the ore is
 mixed with water1 stirred with poles   
and left in the tank until the earthy   
portions sink to the bottom and the     
water absorbs the juices4 ,then the     
little holes are opened1 the solution   
flows out of the vat1 and is caught in a
 vat below it2 this vat is of the same  
length as the other1 but twelve feet    
wide and four feet deep4 ,if the        

solution is not sufficiently vitriolous 
it is mixed with fresh ore2 but if it   
contains enough vitriol1 and yet has not
 exhausted all of the ore rich in       
vitriol1 it is well to dissolve the ore 
again with fresh water4 ,as soon as the 
solution becomes clear1 it is poured    
into the rectangular leaden caldron     
through launders1 and is boiled until   
the water is evaporated4 ,afterward as  
many thin strips of iron as the nature  
of the solution requires1 are thrown in1
 and then it is boiled again until it is
 thick enough1 when cold1 to congeal    
into vitriol4 ,then it is poured into   
tanks or vats1 or any other receptacle1 
in which all of it that is apt to       
congeal does so within two or three     
days4 ,the solution which does not      
congeal is either poured back into the  
caldron to be boiled again1 or it is put
 aside for dissolving the new ore1 for  
it is far preferable to fresh water4    
,the solidified vitriol is hewn out1 and
 having once more been thrown into the  

caldron1 is re-heated until it          
liquefies2 when liquid1 it is poured    
into moulds that it may be made into    
cakes4 ,if the solution first poured out
 is not satisfactorily thickened1 it is 
condensed two or three times1 and each  
time liquefied in the caldron and       
re-poured into the moulds1 in which     
manner pure cakes1 beautiful to look at1
 are made from it4  ,the vitriolous     
pyrites1 which are to be numbered among 
the mixtures 7mistura71 are roasted as  
in the case of alum1 and dissolved with 
water1 and the solution is boiled in    
leaden caldrons until it condenses into 
vitriol4 ,both alum and vitriol are     
often made out of these1 and it is no   
wonder1 for these juices are cognate1   
and only differ in the one point1--that 
the former is less1 the latter more1    
earthy4 ,that pyrites which contains    
metal must be smelted in the furnace4   
,in the same manner1 from other mixtures
 of vitriolic and metalliferous material
 are made vitriol and metal4 ,indeed1 if

 ores of vitriolous pyrites abound1 the 
miners split small logs down the centre 
and cut them off in lengths as long as  
the drifts and tunnels are wide1 in     
which they lay them down transversely2  
but1 that they may be stable1 they are  
laid on the ground with the wide side   
down and the round side up1 and they    
touch each other at the bottom1 but not 
at the top4 ,the intermediate space is  
filled with pyrites1 and the same       
crushed are scattered over the wood1 so 
that1 coming in or going out1 the road  
is flat and even4 ,since the drifts or  
tunnels drip with water1 these pyrites  
are soaked1 and from them are freed the 
vitriol and cognate things4 ,if the     
water ceases to drip1 these dry and     
harden1 and then they are raised from   
the shafts1 together with the pyrites   
not yet dissolved in the water1 or they 
are carried out from the tunnels2 then  
they are thrown into vats or tanks1 and 
boiling water having been poured over   
them1 the vitriol is freed and the      

pyrites are dissolved4 ,this green      
solution is transferred to other vats or
 tanks1 that it may be made clear and   
pure2 it is then boiled in the lead     
caldrons until it thickens2 afterward it
 is poured into wooden tubs1 where it   
condenses on rods1 or reeds1 or twigs1  
into green vitriol4  ,sulphur is made   
from sulphurous waters1 from sulphurous 
ores1 and from sulphurous mixtures4     
,these waters are poured into the leaden
 caldrons and boiled until they condense
 into sulphur4 ,from this latter1 heated
 together with iron-scales1 and         
transferred into pots1 which are        
afterward covered with lute and refined 
sulphur1 another sulphur is made1 which 
we call caballinum4#ab  ,illustration   
#egi 7,sulphur ,making73 ,a--,pots      
having spouts4 ,b--,pots without spouts4
 ,c--,lids4  ,the ores#ac which consist 
mostly of sulphur and of earth1 and     
rarely of other minerals1 are melted in 
big-bellied earthenware pots4 ,the      
furnaces1 which hold two of these pots1 

are divided into three parts2 the lowest
 part is a foot high1 and has an opening
 at the front for the draught2 the top  
of this is covered with iron plates1    
which are perforated near the edges1 and
 these support iron rods1 upon which the
 firewood is placed4 ,the middle part of
 the furnace is one and a half feet     
high1 and has a mouth in front1 so that 
the wood may be inserted2 the top of    
this has rods1 upon which the bottom of 
the pots stand4 ,the upper part is about
 two feet high1 and the pots are also   
two feet high and one digit thick2 these
 have below their mouths a long1 slender
 spout4 ,in order that the mouth of the 
pot may be covered1 an earthenware lid  
is made which fits into it4 ,for every  
two of these pots there must be one pot 
of the same size and shape1 and without 
a spout1 but having three holes1 two of 
which are below the mouth and receive   
the spouts of the two first pots2 the   
third hole is on the opposite side at   
the bottom1 and through it the sulphur  

flows out4 ,in each furnace are placed  
two pots with spouts1 and the furnace   
must be covered by plates of iron       
smeared over with lute two digits thick2
 it is thus entirely closed in1 but for 
two or three vent-holes through which   
the mouths of the pots project4 ,outside
 of the furnace1 against one side1 is   
placed the pot without a spout1 into the
 two holes of which the two spouts of   
the other pots penetrate1 and this pot  
should be built in at both sides to keep
 it steady4 ,when the sulphur ore has   
been placed in the pots1 and these      
placed in the furnace1 they are closely 
covered1 and it is desirable to smear   
the joint over with lute1 so that the   
sulphur will not exhale1 and for the    
same reason the pot below is covered    
with a lid1 which is also smeared with  
lute4 ,the wood having been kindled1 the
 ores are heated until the sulphur is   
exhaled1 and the vapour1 arising through
 the spout1 penetrates into the lower   
pot and thickens into sulphur1 which    

falls to the bottom like melted wax4 ,it
 then flows out through the hole1 which1
 as ,i said1 is at the bottom of this   
pot2 and the workman makes it into      
cakes1 or thin sticks or thin pieces of 
wood are dipped in it4 ,then he takes   
the burning wood and glowing charcoal   
from the furnace1 and when it has       
cooled1 he opens the two pots1 empties  
the residues1 which1 if the ores were   
composed of sulphur and earth1 resemble 
naturally extinguished ashes2 but if the
 ores consisted of sulphur and earth and
 stone1 or sulphur and stone only1 they 
resemble earth completely dried or      
stones well roasted4 ,afterward the pots
 are re-filled with ore1 and the whole  
work is repeated4  ,illustration #eha   
7,sulphur ,making73 ,a--,long wall4     
,b--,high walls4 ,c--,low walls4        
,d--,plates4 ,e--,upper pots4 ,f--,lower
 pots4  ,the sulphurous mixture1 whether
 it consists of stone and sulphur only1 
or of stone and sulphur and metal1 may  
be heated in similar pots1 but with     

perforated bottoms4 ,before the furnace 
is constructed1 against the second wall 
of the works two lateral partitions are 
built seven feet high1 three feet long1 
one and a half feet thick1 and these are
 distant from each other twenty-seven   
feet4 ,between them are seven low brick 
walls1 that measure but two feet and the
 same number of digits in height1 and1  
like the other walls1 are three feet    
long and one foot thick2 these little   
walls are at equal distances from one   
another1 consequently they will be two  
and one half feet apart4 ,at the top1   
iron bars are fixed into them1 which    
sustain iron plates three feet long and 
wide and one digit thick1 so that they  
can bear not only the weight of the     
pots1 but also the fierceness of the    
fire4 ,these plates have in the middle a
 round hole one and a half digits wide2 
there must not be more than eight of    
these1 and upon them as many pots are   
placed4 ,these pots are perforated at   
the bottom1 and the same number of whole

 pots are placed underneath them2 the   
former contain the mixture1 and are     
covered with lids2 the latter contain   
water1 and their mouths are under the   
holes in the plates4 ,after wood has    
been arranged round the upper pots and  
ignited1 the mixture being heated1 red1 
yellow1 or green sulphur drips from it  
and flows down through the hole1 and is 
caught by the pots placed underneath the
 plates1 and is at once cooled by the   
water4 ,if the mixture contains metal1  
it is reserved for smelting1 and1 if    
not1 it is thrown away4 ,the sulphur    
from such a mixture can best be         
extracted if the upper pots are placed  
in a vaulted furnace1 like those which  
,i described among other metallurgical  
subjects in ,book ,,viii41 which has no 
floor1 but a grate inside2 under this   
the lower pots are placed in the same   
manner1 but the plates must have larger 
holes4  ,illustration #ehb 7,bitumen    
,making73 ,a--,lower pot4 ,b--,upper    
pot4 ,c--,lid4  ,others bury a pot in   

the ground1 and place over it another   
pot with a hole at the bottom1 in which 
pyrites or cadmia1 or other sulphurous  
stones are so enclosed that the sulphur 
cannot exhale4 ,a fierce fire heats the 
sulphur1 and it drips away and flows    
down into the lower pot1 which contains 
water4 7,illustration p4 #ehb74         
,illustration #ehc 7,bitumen ,making73  
,a--,bituminous spring4 ,b--,bucket4    
,c--,pot4 ,d--,lid4  ,bitumen#ad is made
 from bituminous waters1 from liquid    
bitumen1 and from mixtures of bituminous
 substances4 ,the water1 bituminous as  
well as salty1 at ,babylon1 as ,pliny   
writes1 was taken from the wells to the 
salt works and heated by the great heat 
of the sun1 and condensed partly into   
liquid bitumen and partly into salt4    
,the bitumen being lighter1 floats on   
the top1 while the salt being heavier1  
sinks to the bottom4 ,liquid bitumen1 if
 there is much floating on springs1     
streams and rivers1 is drawn up in      
buckets or other vessels2 but1 if there 

is little1 it is collected with goose   
wings1 pieces of linen1 ralla1 shreds of
 reeds1 and other things to which it    
easily adheres1 and it is boiled in     
large brass or iron pots by fire and    
condensed4 ,as this bitumen is put to   
divers uses1 some mix pitch with the    
liquid1 others old cart-grease1 in order
 to temper its viscosity2 these1 however
 long they are boiled in the pots1      
cannot be made hard4 ,the mixtures      
containing bitumen are also treated in  
the same manner as those containing     
sulphur1 in pots having a hole in the   
bottom1 and it is rare that such bitumen
 is not highly esteemed4  ,illustration 
#ehe 7,chrysocolla ,making73 ,a--,mouth 
of the tunnel4 ,b--,trough4 ,c--,tanks4 
,d--,little trough4  ,since all         
solidified juices and earths1 if        
abundantly and copiously mixed with the 
water1 are deposited in the beds of     
springs1 streams or rivers1 and the     
stones therein are coated by them1 they 
do not require the heat of the sun or   

fire to harden them4 ,this having been  
pondered over by wise men1 they         
discovered methods by which the         
remainder of these solidified juices and
 unusual earths can be collected4 ,such 
waters1 whether flowing from springs or 
tunnels1 are collected in many wooden   
tubs or tanks arranged in consecutive   
order1 and deposit in them such juices  
or earths2 these being scraped off every
 year1 are collected1 as chrysocolla#ae 
in the ,carpathians and as ochre in the 
,harz4  ,there remains glass1 the       
preparation of which belongs here1 for  
the reason that it is obtained by the   
power of fire and subtle art from       
certain solidified juices and from      
coarse or fine sand4 ,it is transparent1
 as are certain solidified juices1 gems1
 and stones2 and can be melted like     
fusible stones and metals4 ,first ,i    
must speak of the materials from which  
glass is made2 then of the furnaces in  
which it is melted2 then of the methods 
by which it is produced4  ,it is made   

from fusible stones and from solidified 
juices1 or from other juicy substances  
which are connected by a natural        
relationship4 ,stones which are fusible1
 if they are white and translucent1 are 
more excellent than the others1 for     
which reason crystals take the first    
place4 ,from these1 when pounded1 the   
most excellent transparent glass was    
made in ,india1 with which no other     
could be compared1 as ,pliny relates4   
,the second place is accorded to stones 
which1 although not so hard as crystal1 
are yet just as white and transparent4  
,the third is given to white stones1    
which are not transparent4 ,it is       
necessary1 however1 first of all to heat
 all these1 and afterward they are      
subjected to the pestle in order to     
break and crush them into coarse sand1  
and then they are passed through a      
sieve4 ,if this kind of coarse or fine  
sand is found by the glass-makers near  
the mouth of a river1 it saves them much
 labour in burning and crushing4 ,as    

regards the solidified juices1 the first
 place is given to soda2 the second to  
white and translucent rock-salt2 the    
third to salts which are made from lye1 
from the ashes of the musk ivy1 or from 
other salty herbs4 ,yet there are some  
who give to this latter1 and not to the 
former1 the second place4 ,one part of  
coarse or fine sand made from fusible   
stones should be mixed with two parts of
 soda or of rock-salt or of herb salts1 
to which are added minute particles of  
magnes4#af ,it is true that in our day1 
as much as in ancient times1 there      
exists the belief in the singular power 
of the latter to attract to itself the  
vitreous liquid just as it does iron1   
and by attracting it to purify and      
transform green or yellow into white2   
and afterward fire consumes the magnes4 
,when the said juices are not to be had1
 two parts of the ashes of oak or       
holmoak1 or of hard oak or ,turkey oak1 
or if these be not available1 of beech  
or pine1 are mixed with one part of     

coarse or fine sand1 and a small        
quantity of salt is added1 made from    
salt water or sea-water1 and a small    
particle of magnes2 but these make a    
less white and translucent glass4 ,the  
ashes should be made from old trees1 of 
which the trunk at a height of six feet 
is hollowed out and fire is put in1 and 
thus the whole tree is consumed and     
converted into ashes4 ,this is done in  
winter when the snow lies long1 or in   
summer when it does not rain1 for the   
showers at other times of the year1 by  
mixing the ashes with earth1 render them
 impure2 for this reason1 at such times1
 these same trees are cut up into many  
pieces and burned under cover1 and are  
thus converted into ashes4              
,illustration #ehg 7,glass-making       
,furnace73 ,a--,lower chamber of the    
first furnace4 ,b--,upper chamber4      
,c--,vitreous mass4  ,some glass-makers 
use three furnaces1 others two1 others  
only one4 ,those who use three1 melt the
 material in the first1 re-melt it in   

the second1 and in the third they cool  
the glowing glass vessels and other     
articles4 ,of these the first furnace   
must be vaulted and similar to an oven4 
,in the upper chamber1 which is six feet
 long1 four feet wide1 and two feet     
high1 the mixed materials are heated by 
a fierce fire of dry wood until they    
melt and are converted into a vitreous  
mass4 ,and if they are not              
satisfactorily purified from dross1 they
 are taken out and cooled and broken    
into pieces2 and the vitreous pieces are
 heated in pots in the same furnace4    
,illustration #ehh 7,glass-making       
,furnace73 ,a--,arches of the second    
furnace4 ,b--,mouth of the lower        
chamber4 ,c--,windows of the upper      
chamber4 ,d--,big-bellied pots4         
,e--,mouth of the third furnace4        
,f--,recesses for the receptacles4      
,g--,openings in the upper chamber4     
,h--,oblong receptacles4  ,the second   
furnace is round1 ten feet in diameter  
and eight feet high1 and on the outside1

 so that it may be stronger1 it is      
encompassed by five arches1 one and one 
half feet thick2 it consists in like    
manner of two chambers1 of which the    
lower one is vaulted and is one and one 
half feet thick4 ,in front this chamber 
has a narrow mouth1 through which the   
wood can be put into the hearth1 which  
is on the ground4 ,at the top and in the
 middle of its vault1 there is a large  
round hole which opens to the upper     
chamber1 so that the flames can         
penetrate into it4 ,between the arches  
in the walls of the upper chamber are   
eight windows1 so large that the        
big-bellied pots may be placed through  
them on to the floor of the chamber1    
around the large hole4 ,the thickness of
 these pots is about two digits1 their  
height the same number of feet1 and the 
diameter of the belly one and a half    
feet1 and of the mouth and bottom one   
foot4 ,in the back part of the furnace  
is a rectangular hole1 measuring in     
height and width a palm1 through which  

the heat penetrates into a third furnace
 which adjoins it4  ,this third furnace 
is rectangular1 eight feet long and six 
feet wide2 it also consists of two      
chambers1 of which the lower has a mouth
 in front1 so that firewood may be      
placed on the hearth which is on the    
ground4 ,on each side of this opening in
 the wall of the lower chamber is a     
recess for oblong earthenware           
receptacles1 which are about four feet  
long1 two feet high1 and one and a half 
feet wide4 ,the upper chamber has two   
holes1 one on the right side1 the other 
on the left1 of such height and width   
that earthenware receptacles may be     
conveniently placed in them4 ,these     
latter receptacles are three feet long1 
one and a half feet high1 the lower part
 one foot wide1 and the upper part      
rounded4 ,in these receptacles the glass
 articles1 which have been blown1 are   
placed so that they may cool in a milder
 temperature2 if they were not cooled   
slowly they would burst asunder4 ,when  

the vessels are taken from the upper    
chamber1 they are immediately placed in 
the receptacles to cool4  ,illustration 
#ehi 7,glass-making ,furnaces73         
,a--,lower chamber of the other second  
furnace4 ,b--,middle one4 ,c--,upper    
one4 ,d--,its opening4 ,e--,round       
opening4 ,f--,rectangular opening4      
,some who use two furnaces partly melt  
the mixture in the first1 and not only  
re-melt it in the second1 but also      
replace the glass articles there4       
,others partly melt and re-melt the     
material in different chambers of the   
second furnace4 ,thus the former lack   
the third furnace1 and the latter1 the  
first4 ,but this kind of second furnace 
differs from the other second furnace1  
for it is1 indeed1 round1 but the       
interior is eight feet in diameter and  
twelve feet high1 and it consists of    
three chambers1 of which the lowest is  
not unlike the lowest of the other      
second furnace4 ,in the middle chamber  
wall there are six arched openings1 in  

which are placed the pots to be heated1 
and the remainder of the small windows  
are blocked up with lute4 ,in the middle
 top of the middle chamber is a square  
opening a palm in length and width4     
,through this the heat penetrates into  
the upper chamber1 of which the rear    
part has an opening to receive the      
oblong earthenware receptacles1 in which
 are placed the glass articles to be    
slowly cooled4 ,on this side1 the ground
 of the workshop is higher1 or else a   
bench is placed there1 so that the      
glass-makers may stand upon it to stow  
away their products more conveniently4  
,those who lack the first furnace in the
 evening1 when they have accomplished   
their day's work1 place the material in 
the pots1 so that the heat during the   
night may melt it and turn it into      
glass4 ,two boys alternately1 during    
night and day1 keep up the fire by      
throwing dry wood on to the hearth4     
,those who have but one furnace use the 
second sort1 made with three chambers4  

,then in the evening they pour the      
material into the pots1 and in the      
morning1 having extracted the fused     
material1 they make the glass objects1  
which they place in the upper chamber1  
as do the others4  ,the second furnace  
consists either of two or three         
chambers1 the first of which is made of 
unburnt bricks dried in the sun4 ,these 
bricks are made of a kind of clay that  
cannot be easily melted by fire nor     
resolved into powder2 this clay is      
cleaned of small stones and beaten with 
rods4 ,the bricks are laid with the same
 kind of clay instead of lime4 ,from the
 same clay the potters also make their  
vessels and pots1 which they dry in the 
shade4 ,these two parts having been     
completed1 there remains the third4     
,illustration #eia 7,glass ,making73    
,a--,blow-pipe4 ,b--,little window4     
,c--,marble4 ,d--,forceps4 ,e--,moulds  
by means of which the shapes are        
produced4  ,the vitreous mass having    
been made in the first furnace in the   

manner ,i described1 is broken up1 and  
the assistant heats the second furnace1 
in order that the fragments may be      
re-melted4 ,in the meantime1 while they 
are doing this1 the pots are first      
warmed by a slow fire in the first      
furnace1 so that the vapours may        
evaporate1 and then by a fiercer fire1  
so that they become red in drying4      
,afterward the glass-makers open the    
mouth of the furnace1 and1 seizing the  
pots with tongs1 if they have not       
cracked and fallen to pieces1 quickly   
place them in the second furnace1 and   
they fill them up with the fragments of 
the heated vitreous mass or with glass4 
,afterward they close up all the windows
 with lute and bricks1 with the         
exception that in each there are two    
little windows left free2 through one of
 these they inspect the glass contained 
in the pot1 and take it up by means of a
 blow-pipe2 in the other they rest      
another blow-pipe1 so that it may get   
warm4 ,whether it is made of brass1     

bronze1 or iron1 the blow-pipe must be  
three feet long4 ,in front of the window
 is inserted a lip of marble1 on which  
rests the heaped-up clay and the iron   
shield4 ,the clay holds the blow-pipe   
when it is put into the furnace1 whereas
 the shield preserves the eyes of the   
glass-maker from the fire4 ,all this    
having been carried out in order1 the   
glass-makers bring the work to          
completion4 ,the broken pieces they     
re-melt with dry wood1 which emits no   
smoke1 but only a flame4 ,the longer    
they re-melt it1 the purer and more     
transparent it becomes1 the fewer spots 
and blisters there are1 and therefore   
the glass-makers can carry out their    
work more easily4 ,for this reason those
 who only melt the material from which  
glass is made for one night1 and then   
immediately make it up into glass       
articles1 make them less pure and       
transparent than those who first produce
 a vitreous mass and then re-melt the   
broken pieces again for a day and a     

night4 ,and1 again1 these make a less   
pure and transparent glass than do those
 who melt it again for two days and two 
nights1 for the excellence of the glass 
does not consist solely in the material 
from which it is made1 but also in the  
melting4 ,the glass-makers often test   
the glass by drawing it up with the     
blowpipes2 as soon as they observe that 
the fragments have been re-melted and   
purified satisfactorily1 each of them   
with another blow-pipe which is in the  
pot1 slowly stirs and takes up the glass
 which sticks to it in the shape of a   
ball like a glutinous1 coagulated gum4  
,he takes up just as much as he needs to
 complete the article he wishes to make2
 then he presses it against the lip of  
marble and kneads it round and round    
until it consolidates4 ,when he blows   
through the pipe he blows as he would if
 inflating a bubble2 he blows into the  
blow-pipe as often as it is necessary1  
removing it from his mouth to re-fill   
his cheeks1 so that his breath does not 

draw the flames into his mouth4 ,then1  
twisting the lifted blow-pipe round his 
head in a circle1 he makes a long glass1
 or moulds the same in a hollow copper  
mould1 turning it round and round1 then 
warming it again1 blowing it and        
pressing it1 he widens it into the shape
 of a cup or vessel1 or of any other    
object he has in mind4 ,then he again   
presses this against the marble to      
flatten the bottom1 which he moulds in  
the interior with his other blow-pipe4  
,afterward he cuts out the lip with     
shears1 and1 if necessary1 adds feet and
 handles4 ,if it so please him1 he gilds
 it and paints it with various colours4 
,finally1 he lays it in the oblong      
earthenware receptacle1 which is placed 
in the third furnace1 or in the upper   
chamber of the second furnace1 that it  
may cool4 ,when this receptacle is full 
of other slowly-cooled articles1 he     
passes a wide iron bar under it1 and1   
carrying it on the left arm1 places it  
in another recess4  ,the glass-makers   

make divers things1 such as goblets1    
cups1 ewers1 flasks1 dishes1 plates1    
panes of glass1 animals1 trees1 and     
ships1 all of which excellent and       
wonderful works ,i have seen when ,i    
spent two whole years in ,venice some   
time ago4 ,especially at the time of the
 ,feast of the ,ascension they were on  
sale at ,morano1 where are located the  
most celebrated glass-works4 ,these ,i  
saw on other occasions1 and when1 for a 
certain reason1 ,i visited ,andrea      
,naugerio in his house which he had     
there1 and conversed with him and       
,francisco ,asulano4       ,,end ,,of   
,,book ,,xii4   ,,footnotes3  #a ,the   
history of salt-making in salt-pans1    
from sea-water or salt springs1 goes    
further back than human records4 ,from  
an historical point of view the real    
interest attached to salt lies in the   
bearing which localities rich in either 
natural salt or salt springs1 have had  
upon the movements of the human race4   
,many ancient trade routes have been due

 to them1 and innumerable battles have  
been fought for their possession4 ,salt 
has at times served for currency1 and   
during many centuries in nearly every   
country has served as a basis of        
taxation4 ,these subjects do not1       
however1 come within the scope of this  
text4 ,for the quotation from ,pliny    
referred to1 see ,note #ad below1 on    
bitumen4  #b ,the first edition gives   
graviorem1 the latter editions          
gratiorem1 which latter would have quite
 the reverse meaning from the above4  #c
 ,the following are approximately the   
,english equivalents3--                 
,pints4   ,quarts4  ,gallons4    #a     
,cyathus                        4#jh    
#c ,cyathi     #a ,quartarius     4#bd  
#d ,quartarii  #a ,sextarius      4#ii  
#f ,sextarii   #a ,congius       #e4id  
#b4ig   #af ,sextarii   #a ,modius      
#ae4he      #g4ic      #a4ih    #h      
,congii     #a ,amphora      #dg4eg     
#bc4gh      #e4id  ,the dipper mentioned
 would thus hold about one and one      

quarter gallons1 and the cask ten       
gallons4  #d ,the salt industry1 founded
 upon salt springs1 is still of         
importance to this city4 ,it was a salt 
centre of importance to the ,germanic   
tribes before ,charles1 the son of      
,charlemagne1 erected a fortress here in
 #hjf4 ,mention of the salt works is    
made in the charter by ,otto ,i41       
conveying the place to the ,diocese of  
,magdeburg1 in #ifh4  #e ,pliny ,,xxxi41
 #ci-dj4 ,in the ,gallic provinces in   
,germany they pour salt water upon      
burning wood4 ,the ,spaniards in a      
certain place draw the brine from wells1
 which they call ,muria4 ,they indeed   
think that the wood turns to salt1 and  
that the oak is the best1 being the kind
 which is itself salty4 ,elsewhere the  
hazel is praised4 ,thus the charcoal    
even is turned into salt when it is     
steeped in brine4 ,whenever salt is made
 with wood it is black4  #f ,we have    
elsewhere in this book used the word    
soda for the ,latin term nitrum1 because

 we believe as used by ,agricola it was 
always soda1 and because some confusion 
of this term with its modern adaptation 
for saltpetre 7nitre7 might arise in the
 mind of the reader4 ,fortunately1      
,agricola usually carefully mentions    
other alkalis1 such as the product from 
lixiviation of ashes1 separately from   
his nitrum4 ,in these paragraphs1       
however1 he has soda and potash         
hopelessly mixed1 wherefore we have here
 introduced the ,latin term4 ,the actual
 difference between potash and soda--the
 nitrum of the ,ancients1 and the alkali
 of ,geber 7and the glossary of         
,agricola71 was not understood for two  
hundred years after ,agricola1 when     
,duhamel made his well-known            
determinations2 and the isolation of    
sodium and potassium was1 of course1    
still later by fifty years4 ,if the     
reeds and rushes described in this      
paragraph grew near the sea1 the salt   
from lixiviation would be soda1 and     
likewise the ,egyptian product was soda1

 but the lixiviation of wood-ash        
produces only potash2 as seen above1 all
 are termed nitrum except the first4    
,,historical ,,notes4--,the word nitrum1
 nitron1 nitri1 neter1 nether1 or       
similar forms1 occurs in innumerable    
ancient writings4 ,among such references
 are ,jeremiah 7,,ii41 #bb7 ,proverbs   
7,,xxv41 #bj71 ,herodotus 7,,ii41 #hf1  
#hg71 ,aristotle 7,prob4 ,i41 #ci1 ,de  
,mirab4 #ed71 ,theophrastus 7,de ,igne  
#dce ed4 ,heinsii1 ,hist4 ,plants       
,,iii41 #i71 ,dioscorides 7,v41 #hi71   
,pliny 7,,xiv41 #bf1 and ,,xxxi41 #df74 
,a review of disputations on what salts 
this term comprised among the ,ancients 
would itself fill a volume1 but from the
 properties named it was no doubt mostly
 soda1 more rarely potash1 and sometimes
 both mixed with common salt4 ,there is 
every reason to believe from the        
properties and uses mentioned1 that it  
did not generally comprise nitre        
7saltpetre7--into which superficial     
error the nomenclature has led many     

translators4 ,the preparation by way of 
burning1 and the use of nitrum for      
purposes for which we now use soap1 for 
making glass1 for medicines1 cosmetics1 
salves1 painting1 in baking powder1 for 
preserving food1 embalming1 etc41 and   
the descriptions of its taste in nitrous
 waters1--all answer for soda and       
potash1 but not for saltpetre4 ,it is   
possible that the common occurrence of  
saltpetre as an efflorescence on walls  
might naturally lead to its use1 but in 
any event its distinguishing            
characteristics are nowhere mentioned4  
,as sal-ammoniac occurred in the        
volcanoes in ,italy1 it also may have   
been included in the nitrum mentioned4  
,nitrum was in the main exported from   
,egypt1 but ,theophrastus mentions its  
production from wood-ash1 and ,pliny    
very rightly states that burned lees of 
wine 7argol7 had the nature of nitrum4  
,many of the ancient writers understood 
that it was rendered more caustic by    
burning1 and still more so by treatment 

with lime4 ,according to ,beckmann      
7,hist4 of ,inventions ,,ii41 p4 #dhh71 
the form of the word natron was first   
introduced into ,europe by two          
travellers in ,egypt1 ,peter ,ballon and
 ,prosper ,alpinus1 about #aeej4 ,the   
word was introduced into mineralogy by  
,linnaeus in #agcf4 ,in the first       
instance natron was applied to soda and 
potash in distinction to nitre for      
saltpetre1 and later natron was applied 
solely to soda4  ,it is desirable to    
mention here two other forms of soda and
 potash which are frequently mentioned  
by ,agricola4 ,ashes which wool dyers   
use 7cineres quo infectores lanarum     
utuntur74--,there is no indication in   
any of ,agricola's works as to whether  
this was some special wood-ash or       
whether it was the calcined residues    
from wool washing4 ,the yolk or suint of
 wool1 originating from the perspiration
 of the animal1 has long been a source  
of crude potash4 ,the water1 after      
washing the wool1 is evaporated1 and the

 residue calcined4 ,it contains about   
#he ,k#b;,,co#c1 the remainder being    
sodium and potassium sulphates4 ,another
 reason for assuming that it was not a  
wood-ash product1 is that these products
 are separately mentioned4 ,in either   
event1 whether obtained from wool       
residues or from lixiviation of         
wood-ash1 it would be an impure potash4 
,in some methods of wool dyeing1 a wash 
of soda was first given1 so that it is  
barely possible that this substance was 
sodium carbonate4  ,salt made from the  
ashes of musk ivy 7sal ex anthyllidis   
cinere factus1--,glossary1 salalkali74  
,this would be largely potash4  #g ,this
 wondrous illustration of soda-making   
from ,nile water is no doubt founded    
upon ,pliny 7,,xxxi41 #df74 ,it is made 
in almost the same manner as salt1      
except that sea-water is put into salt  
pans1 whereas in the nitrous pans it is 
water of the ,nile2 these1 with the     
subsidence of the ,nile during the forty
 days1 are impregnated with nitrum4  #h 

,this paragraph displays hopeless       
ignorance4 ,borax was known to ,agricola
 and greatly used in his time2 it       
certainly was not made from these       
compounds1 but was imported from        
,central ,asia4 ,sal-ammoniac was also  
known in his time1 and was used like    
borax as a soldering agent4 ,the        
reaction given by ,agricola would yield 
free ammonia4 ,the following historical 
notes on borax and sal-ammoniac may be  
of service4  ,,borax4--,the             
uncertainties of the ancient            
distinctions in salts involve borax     
deeply4 ,the word ,baurach occurs in    
,geber and the other early ,alchemistic 
writings1 but there is nothing to prove 
that it was modern borax4 ,there cannot 
be the slightest doubt1 however1 that   
the material referred to by ,agricola as
 borax was our borax1 because of the    
characteristic qualities incidentally   
mentioned in ,book ,,vii4 ,that he      
believed it was an artificial product   
from nitrum is evident enough from his  

usual expression chrysocolla made from  
nitrum1 which the ,moors call borax4    
,agricola1 in ,de ,natura ,fossilium 7p4
 #bjf-g71 makes the following           
statements1 which could leave no doubt  
on the subject3--,native nitrum is found
 in the earth or on the surface4444 ,it 
is from this variety that the ,venetians
 make chrysocolla1 which ,i call        
borax4444 ,the second variety of        
artificial nitrum is made at the present
 day from the native nitrum1 called by  
the ,arabs tincar1 but ,i call it       
usually by the ,greek name chrysocolla2 
it is really the ,arabic borax4444 ,this
 nitrum does not decrepitate nor fly out
 of the fire2 however1 the native       
variety swells up from within4 ,the     
application of the word chrysocolla     
7chrysos1 gold2 colla1 solder7 to       
soldering materials1 and at the same    
time to the copper mineral1 is of ,greek
 origin4 ,if any further proof were     
needed as to the substance meant by     
,agricola1 it lies in the word tincar4  

,for a long time the borax of ,europe   
was imported from ,central ,asia1       
through ,constantinople and ,venice1    
under the name of tincal or tincar4     
,when this trade began1 we do not know2 
evidently before ,agricola's time4 ,the 
statement here of making borax from alum
 and sal-ammoniac is identical with the 
assertion of ,biringuccio 7,,ii41 #i74  
,,sal-,,ammoniac4--,the early history of
 this--ammonium chloride--is also under 
a cloud4 ,pliny 7,,xxxi41 #ci7 speaks of
 a sal-hammoniacum1 and ,dioscorides    
7,v41 #he7 uses much the same word4     
,pliny describes it as from near the    
temple of ,ammon in ,egypt4 ,none of the
 distinctive characteristics of         
sal-ammoniac are mentioned1 and there is
 every reason to believe it was either  
common salt or soda4 ,herodotus1        
,strabo1 and others mention common salt 
sent from about the same locality4 ,the 
first authentic mention is in ,geber1   
who calls it sal-ammoniacum1 and        
describes a method of making1 and       

several characteristic reactions4 ,it   
was known in the ,middle ,ages under    
various names1 among them               
sal-aremonicum4 ,agricola 7,de ,nat4    
,fos41 ,,iii41 p4 #bjf7 notes its       
characteristic quality of               
volatilization4 ,sal-ammoniac 444 in the
 fire neither crackles nor flies out1   
but is totally consumed4 ,he also says  
7p4 #bjh73 ,borax is used by goldsmiths 
to solder gold1 likewise silver4 ,the   
artificers who make iron needles        
7tacks87 similarly use sal-ammoniac when
 they cover the heads with tin4 ,the    
statement from ,pliny mentioned in this 
paragraph is from ,,xxxiii41 #bi1 where 
he describes the chrysocolla used as    
gold solder as made from verdigris1     
nitrum1 and urine in the way quoted4 ,it
 is quite possible that this solder was 
sal-ammoniac1 though not made in quite  
this manner4 ,pliny refers in several   
places 7,,xxxiii41 #bf1 #bg1 #bh1 and   
#bi1 ,,xxxv41 #bh1 etc47 to chrysocolla1
 about which he is greatly confused as  

between gold-solder1 the copper mineral1
 and a green pigment1 the latter being  
of either mineral origin4  #i ,saltpetre
 was secured in the ,middle ,ages in two
 ways1 but mostly from the treatment of 
calcium nitrate efflorescence on cellar 
and similar walls1 and from so-called   
saltpetre plantations4 ,in this         
description of the latter1 one of the   
most essential factors is omitted until 
the last sentence1 i4e41 that the       
nitrous earth was the result of the     
decay of organic or animal matter over a
 long period4 ,such decomposition1 in   
the presence of potassium and calcium   
carbonates--the lye and lime--form      
potassium and calcium nitrates1 together
 with some magnesium and sodium         
nitrates4 ,after lixiviation1 the       
addition of lye converts the calcium and
 magnesium nitrates into saltpetre1     
i4e41 ,ca7,,no#c7b  ,k#b;,,co#c         
,ca,c,o#c  #b,,kno#c4 ,the carbonates   
precipitate out1 leaving the saltpetre  
in solution1 from which it was          

evaporated and crystallized out4 ,the   
addition of alum as mentioned would     
scarcely improve the situation4  ,the   
purification by repeated re-solution and
 addition of lye1 and filtration1 would 
eliminate the remaining other salts4    
,the purification with sulphur1 however1
 is more difficult to understand4 ,in   
this case the saltpetre is melted and   
the sulphur added and set alight4 ,such 
an addition to saltpetre would no doubt 
burn brilliantly4 ,the potassium        
sulphate formed would possibly settle to
 the bottom1 and if the greasy matter   
were simply organic impurities1 they    
might be burned off4 ,this method of    
refining appears to have been copied    
from ,biringuccio 7,x41 #a71 who states 
it in almost identical terms4           
,,historical ,,note4--,as mentioned in  
,note #f above1 it is quite possible    
that the ,ancients did include          
efflorescence of walls under nitrum2    
but1 so far as we are aware1 no specific
 mention of such an occurrence of nitrum

 is given1 and1 as stated before1 there 
is every reason to believe that all the 
substances under that term were soda and
 potash4 ,especially the frequent       
mention of the preparation of nitrum by 
way of burning1 argues strongly against 
saltpetre being included1 as they would 
hardly have failed to notice the        
decrepitation4 ,argument has been put   
forward that ,greek fire contained      
saltpetre1 but it amounts to nothing    
more than argument1 for in those        
receipts preserved1 no salt of any kind 
is mentioned4 ,it is most likely that   
the leprosy of house-walls of the       
,mosaic code 7,leviticus ,,xiv41 #cd to 
#ec7 was saltpetre efflorescence4 ,the  
drastic treatment by way of destruction 
of such unclean walls and houses1       
however1 is sufficient evidence that    
this salt was not used4 ,the first      
certain mention of saltpetre 7sal       
petrae7 is in ,geber4 ,as stated before1
 the date of this work is uncertain2 in 
any event it was probably as early as   

the #acth ,century4 ,he describes the   
making of solvative water with alum and 
saltpetre1 so there can be no doubt as  
to the substance 7see ,note on p4 #dfj1 
on nitric acid74 ,there is also a work  
by a nebulous ,marcus ,graecus1 where   
the word sal petrosum is used4 ,and it  
appears that ,roger ,bacon 7died #abid7 
and ,albertus ,magnus 7died #abhj7 both 
had access to that work4 ,bacon uses the
 term sal petrae frequently enough1 and 
was the first to describe gunpowder 7,de
 ,mirabili ,potestate ,artis et ,naturae
 #abdb74 ,he gives no mention of the    
method of making his sal petrae4        
,agricola uses throughout the ,latin    
text the term halinitrum1 a word he     
appears to have coined himself4         
,however1 he gives its ,german          
equivalent in the ,interpretatio as     
salpeter4 ,the only previous description
 of the method of making saltpetre1 of  
which we are aware1 is that of          
,biringuccio 7#aedj71 who mentions the  
boiling of the excrescences from walls1 

and also says a good deal about boiling 
solutions from nitrous earth1 which may 
or may not be of plantation origin4 ,he 
also gives this same method of refining 
with sulphur4 ,in any event1 this       
statement by ,agricola is the first     
clear and complete description of the   
saltpetre plantations4 ,saltpetre was in
 great demand in the ,middle ,ages for  
the manufacture of gunpowder1 and the   
first record of that substance and of   
explosive weapons necessarily involves  
the knowledge of saltpetre4 ,however1   
authentic mention of such weapons only  
begins early in the #adth ,century4     
,among the earliest is an authority to  
the ,council of ,twelve at ,florence to 
appoint persons to make cannon1 etc41   
7#acbf71 references to cannon in the    
stores of the ,tower of ,london1 #achh1 
c4  #aj ,there are three methods of     
manufacturing alum described by         
,agricola1 the first and third          
apparently from shales1 and the second  
from alum rock or alunite4 ,the reasons 

for assuming that the first process was 
from shales1 are the reference to the   
aluminous earth as ore 7venae7 coming   
from veins1 and also the mixture of     
vitriol4 ,in this process the free      
sulphuric acid formed by the oxidation  
of pyrites reacts upon the argillaceous 
material to form aluminium sulphate4    
,the decomposed ore is then placed in   
tanks and lixiviated4 ,the solution     
would contain aluminium sulphate1       
vitriol1 and other impurities4 ,by the  
addition of urine1 the aluminium        
sulphate would be converted into ammonia
 alum4 ,agricola is1 of course1 mistaken
 as to the effect of the addition1 being
 under the belief that it separated the 
vitriol from the alum2 in fact1 this    
belief was general until the latter part
 of the #ahth ,century1 when ,lavoisier 
determined that alum must have an alkali
 base4 ,nor is it clear from this       
description exactly how they were       
separated4 ,in a condensed solution     
allowed to cool1 the alum would         

precipitate out as alum meal1 and the   
vitriol would float on top--in solution4
 ,the reference to meal may represent   
this phenomenon1 and the re-boiling     
referred to would be the normal method  
of purification by crystallization4 ,the
 asbestos and gypsum deposited in the   
caldrons were no doubt feathery and     
mealy calcium sulphate4 ,the alum       
produced would1 in any event1 be mostly 
ammonia alum4  ,the second process is   
certainly the manufacture from alum rock
 or alunite 7the hydrous sulphate of    
aluminium and potassium71 such as that  
mined at ,la ,tolfa in the ,papal       
,states1 where the process has been for 
centuries identical with that here      
described4 ,the alum there produced is  
the double basic potassium alum1 and    
crystallizes into cubes instead of      
octahedra1 i4e41 the ,roman alum of     
commerce4 ,the presence of much ferric  
oxide gives the rose colour referred to 
by ,agricola4 ,this account is almost   
identical with that of ,biringuccio     

7,,ii41 #d71 and it appears from        
similarity of details that ,agricola1 as
 stated in his preface1 must have       
refreshed his mind from this            
description2 it would also appear from  
the preface that he had himself visited 
the locality4  ,the third process is    
essentially the same as the first1      
except that the decomposition of the    
pyrites was hastened by roasting4 ,the  
following obscure statement of some     
interest occurs in ,agricola's ,de      
,natura ,fossilium1 p4 #bji3--444 alum  
is made from vitriol1 for when oil is   
made from the latter1 alum is distilled 
out 7expirat74 ,this absorbs the clay   
which is used in cementing glass1 and   
when the operation is complete the clay 
is macerated with pure water1 and the   
alum is soon afterward deposited in the 
shape of small cubes4 ,assuming the oil 
of vitriol to be sulphuric acid and the 
clay used in cementing glass to be      
kaolin1 we have here the first          
suggestion of a method for producing    

alum which came into use long after4    
,burnt alum 7alumen coctum74--,agricola 
frequently uses this expression1 and on 
p4 #efh1 describes the operation1 and   
the substance is apparently the same as 
modern dehydrated alum1 often referred  
to as burnt alum4  ,,historical         
,,notes4--,whether the ,ancients knew of
 alum in the modern sense is a most     
vexed question4 ,the ,greeks refer to a 
certain substance as stypteria1 and the 
,romans refer to this same substance as 
alumen4 ,there can be no question as to 
their knowledge and common use of       
vitriol1 nor that substances which they 
believed were entirely different from   
vitriol were comprised under the above  
names4 ,beckmann 7,hist4 of ,inventions1
 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #aha7 seems to have been 
the founder of the doctrine that the    
ancient alumen was vitriol1 and scores  
of authorities seem to have adopted his 
arguments without inquiry1 until that   
belief is now general4 ,one of the      
strongest reasons put forward was that  

alum does not occur native in           
appreciable quantities4 ,apart from the 
fact that the weight of this argument   
has been lost by the discovery that alum
 does occur in nature to some extent as 
an aftermath of volcanic action1 and as 
an efflorescence from argillaceous      
rocks1 we see no reason why the         
,ancients may not have prepared it      
artificially4 ,one of the earliest      
mentions of such a substance is by      
,herodotus 7,,ii41 #ahj7 of a thousand  
talents of stypteria1 sent by ,amasis   
from ,egypt as a contribution to the    
rebuilding of the temple of ,delphi4    
,diodorus 7,v41 #a7 mentions the        
abundance which was secured from the    
,lipari ,islands 7,stromboli1 etc471 and
 a small quantity from the ,isle of     
,melos4 ,dioscorides 7,v41 #hb7 mentions
 ,egypt1 ,lipari ,islands1 ,melos1      
,sardinia1 ,armenia1 etc41 and generally
 in any other places where one finds red
 ochre 7rubrica74 ,pliny 7,,xxxv41 #eb7 
gives these same localities1 and is more

 explicit as to how it originates--from 
an earthy water which exudes from the   
earth4 ,of these localities1 the ,lipari
 ,islands 7,stromboli1 etc471 and ,melos
 are volcanic enough1 and both ,lipari  
and ,melos are now known to produce     
natural alum 7,dana4 ,syst4 ,min41 p4   
#ie2 and ,tournefort1 ,relation d'un    
voyage du ,levant4 ,london1 #agag1      
,lettre ,,iv41 ,vol4 #a474 ,further1 the
 hair-like alum of ,dioscorides1        
repeated by ,pliny below1 was quite     
conceivably fibrous kalinite1 native    
potash alum1 which occurs commonly as an
 efflorescence4 ,be the question of     
native alum as it may--and vitriol is   
not much more common--our own view that 
the ancient alumen was alum1 is equally 
based upon the artificial product4      
,before entering upon the subject1 we   
consider it desirable to set out the    
properties of the ancient substance1 a  
complete review of which is given by    
,pliny 7,,xxxv41 #eb71 he obviously     
quoting also from ,dioscorides1 which1  

therefore1 we do not need to reproduce4 
,pliny says3--  ,not less important1 or 
indeed dissimilar1 are the uses made of 
alumen2 by which name is understood a   
sort of salty earth4 ,of this1 there are
 several kinds4 ,in ,cyprus there is a  
white alumen1 and a darker kind4 ,there 
is not a great difference in their      
colour1 though the uses made of them are
 very dissimilar1--the white alumen     
being employed in a liquid state for    
dyeing wool bright colours1 and the     
dark-coloured alumen1 on the other hand1
 for giving wool a sombre tint4 ,gold is
 purified with black alumen4 ,every kind
 of alumen is from a limus water which  
exudes from the earth4 ,the collection  
of it commences in winter1 and it is    
dried by the summer sun4 ,that portion  
of it which first matures is the        
whitest4 ,it is obtained in ,spain1     
,egypt1 ,armenia1 ,macedonia1 ,pontus1  
,africa1 and the islands of ,sardinia1  
,melos1 ,lipari1 and ,strongyle2 the    
most esteemed1 however1 is that of      

,egypt1 the next best from ,melos4 ,of  
this last there are two kinds1 the      
liquid alumen1 and the solid4 ,liquid   
alumen1 to be good1 should be of a      
limpid and milky appearance2 when       
rubbed1 it should be without roughness1 
and should give a little heat4 ,this is 
called phorimon4 ,the mode of detecting 
whether it has been adulterated is by   
pomegranate juice1 for1 if genuine1 the 
mixture turns black4 ,the other1 or     
solid1 is pale and rough and turns dark 
with nut-galls2 for which reason it is  
called paraphoron4 ,liquid alumen is    
naturally astringent1 indurative1 and   
corrosive2 used in combination with     
honey1 it heals ulcerations4444 ,there  
is one kind of solid alumen1 called by  
the ,greeks schistos1 which splits into 
filaments of a whitish colour2 for which
 reason some prefer calling it trichitis
 7hair like74 ,alumen is produced from  
the stone chalcitis1 from which copper  
is also made1 being a sort of coagulated
 scum from that stone4 ,this kind of    

alumen is less astringent than the      
others1 and is less useful as a check   
upon bad humours of the body4444 ,the   
mode of preparing it is to cook it in a 
pan until it has ceased being a liquid4 
,there is another variety of alumen     
also1 of a less active nature1 called   
strongyle4 ,it is of two kinds4 ,the    
fungous1 which easily dissolves1 is     
utterly condemned4 ,the better kind is  
the pumice-like kind1 full of small     
holes like a sponge1 and is in round    
pieces1 more nearly white in colour1    
somewhat greasy1 free from grit1        
friable1 and does not stain black4 ,this
 last kind is cooked by itself upon     
charcoal until it is reduced to pure    
ashes4 ,the best kind of all is that    
called melinum1 from the ,isle of       
,melos1 as ,i have said1 none being more
 effectual as an astringent1 for        
staining black1 and for indurating1 and 
none becomes more dry4444 ,above all    
other properties of alumen is its       
remarkable astringency1 whence its      

,greek name4444 ,it is injected for     
dysentry and employed as a gargle4 ,the 
lines omitted refer entirely to medical 
matters which have no bearing here4 ,the
 following paragraph 7often overlooked7 
from ,pliny 7,,xxxv41 #db7 also has an  
important bearing upon the subject3--,in
 ,egypt they employ a wonderful method  
of dyeing4 ,the white cloth1 after it is
 pressed1 is stained in various places1 
not with dye stuffs1 but with substances
 which absorb colours4 ,these           
applications are not apparent on the    
cloth1 but when it is immersed in a     
caldron of hot dye it is removed the    
next moment brightly coloured4 ,the     
remarkable circumstance is that although
 there be only one dye in the caldron   
yet different colours appear in the     
cloth4  ,it is obvious from ,pliny's    
description above1 and also from the    
making of vitriol 7see ,note #aa1 p4    
#egb71 that this substance was obtained 
from liquor resulting from natural or   
artificial lixiviation of rocks--in the 

case of vitriols undoubtedly the result 
of decomposition of pyritiferous rocks  
7such as chalcitis74 ,such liquors are  
bound to contain aluminum sulphate if   
there is any earth or clay about1 and   
whether they contained alum would be a  
question of an alkali being present4 ,if
 no alkali were present in this liquor1 
vitriol would crystallize out first1 and
 subsequent condensation would yield    
aluminum sulphate4 ,if alkali were      
present1 the alum would crystallize out 
either before or with the vitriol4      
,pliny's remark1 that portion of it     
which first matures is whitest1 agrees  
well enough with this hypothesis4 ,no   
one will doubt that some of the         
properties mentioned above belong       
peculiarly to vitriol1 but equally      
convincing are properties and uses that 
belong to alum alone4 ,the strongly     
astringent taste1 white colour1 and     
injection for dysentry1 are more        
peculiar to alum than to vitriol4 ,but  
above all other properties is that      

displayed in dyeing1 for certainly if we
 read this last quotation from ,pliny in
 conjunction with the statement that    
white alumen produces bright colours and
 the dark kind1 sombre colours1 we have 
the exact reactions of alum and vitriol 
when used as mordants4 ,therefore1 our  
view is that the ancient salt of this   
character was a more or less impure     
mixture ranging from alum to            
vitriol--the whiter the better4         
,further1 considering the ancient       
knowledge of soda 7nitrum71 and the     
habit of mixing it into almost          
everything1 it does not require much    
flight of imagination to conceive its   
admixture to the water1 and the absolute
 production of alum4  ,whatever may have
 been the confusion between alum and    
vitriol among the ,ancients1 it appears 
that by the time of the works attributed
 to ,geber 7#abth or #acth ,century71   
the difference was well known4 ,his work
 7,investigationes perfectiones1 ,,iv47 
refers to alumen glaciale and alumen    

jameni as distinguished from vitriol1   
and gives characteristic reactions which
 can leave no doubt as to the           
distinction4 ,we may remark here that   
the repeated statement apparently       
arising from ,meyer 7,history of        
,chemistry1 p4 #ea7 that ,geber used the
 term alum de rocca is untrue1 this term
 not appearing in the early ,latin      
translations4 ,during the #aeth ,century
 alum did come to be known in ,europe as
 alum de rocca4 ,various attempts have  
been made to explain the origin of this 
term1 ranging from the ,italian root1 a 
rock1 to the town of ,rocca in ,syria1  
where alum was supposed to have been    
produced4 ,in any event1 the supply for 
a long period prior to the middle of the
 #aeth ,century came from ,turkey1 and  
the origin of the methods of manufacture
 described by ,agricola1 and used down  
to the present day1 must have come from 
the ,orient4  ,in the early part of the 
#aeth ,century1 a large trade in alum   
was done between ,italy and ,asia       

,minor1 and eventually various ,italians
 established themselves near            
,constantinople and ,smyrna for its     
manufacture 7,dudae1 ,historia          
,byzantina ,venetia1 #agbi1 p4 #ga74    
,the alum was secured by burning the    
rock1 and lixiviation4 ,with the capture
 of ,constantinople by the ,turks       
7#adec71 great feeling grew up in ,italy
 over the necessity of buying this      
requisite for their dyeing              
establishments from the infidel1 and    
considerable exertion was made to find  
other sources of supply4 ,some minor    
works were attempted1 but nothing much  
eventuated until the appearance of one  
,john de ,castro4 ,from the             
,commentaries of ,pope ,pius ,,ii4      
7#afad1 p4 #ahe71 it appears that this  
,italian had been engaged in dyeing     
cloth in ,constantinople1 and thus      
became aware of the methods of making   
alum4 ,driven out of that city through  
its capture by the ,turks1 he returned  
to ,italy and obtained an office under  

the ,apostolic ,chamber4 ,while in this 
occupation he discovered a rock at      
,tolfa which appeared to him identical  
with that used at ,constantinople in    
alum manufacture4 ,after experimental   
work1 he sought the aid of the ,pope1   
which he obtained after much            
vicissitude4 ,experts were sent1 who    
after examination shed tears of joy1    
they kneeling down three times1         
worshipped ,god and praised ,his        
kindness in conferring such a gift on   
their age4 ,castro was rewarded1 and the
 great papal monopoly was gradually     
built upon this discovery4 ,the industry
 firmly established at ,tolfa exists to 
the present day1 and is the source of   
the ,roman alum of commerce4 ,the ,pope 
maintained this monopoly strenuously1 by
 fair means and by excommunication1     
gradually advancing the price until the 
consumers had greater complaint than    
against the ,turks4 ,the history of the 
disputes arising over the papal alum    
monopoly would alone fill a volume4  ,by

 the middle of the #aeth ,century alum  
was being made in ,spain1 ,holland1 and 
,germany1 and later in ,england4 ,in her
 efforts to encourage home industries   
and escape the tribute to the ,pope1    
,elizabeth 7see ,note on p4 #bhc7       
invited over certain foreign chymistes  
and mineral masters and gave them       
special grants to induce them to settle 
in these realmes4 ,among them was       
,cornelius ,devoz1 to whom was granted  
the privilege of mining and digging in  
our ,realm of ,england for allom and    
copperas4 ,what ,devoz accomplished is  
not recorded1 but the first alum        
manufacture on a considerable scale     
seems to have been in ,yorkshire1 by one
 ,thomas ,chaloner 7about #afjh71 who   
was supposed to have seduced workmen    
from the ,pope's alum works at ,tolfa1  
for which he was duly cursed with all   
the weight of the ,pope and ,church4    
7,pennant1 ,tour of ,scotland1 #aghf74  
#aa ,the term for vitriol used by the   
,roman authors1 followed by ,agricola1  

is atramentum sutorium1 literally       
shoemaker's blacking1 the term no doubt 
arising from its ancient 7and modern7   
use for blackening leather4 ,the ,greek 
term was chalcanthon4 ,the term vitriol 
seems first to appear in ,albertus      
,magnus 7,de ,mineralibus1 ,liber ,v471 
who died in #abhj1 where he uses the    
expression atramentum viride a quibusdam
 vitreolum vocatur4 ,agricola 7,de ,nat4
 ,foss41 p4 #bac7 states1 ,in recent    
years the name vitriolum has been given 
to it4 ,the first adequate description  
of vitriol is by ,dioscorides 7,v41     
#gf71 as follows3--,vitriol             
7chalcanthon7 is of one genus1 and is a 
solidified liquid1 but it has three     
different species4 ,one is formed from  
the liquids which trickle down drop by  
drop and congeal in certain mines2      
therefore those who work in the ,cyprian
 mines call it stalactis4 ,petesius     
calls this kind pinarion4 ,the second   
kind is that which collects in certain  
caverns2 afterward it is poured into    

trenches1 where it congeals1 whence it  
derives its name pectos4 ,the third kind
 is called hephthon and is mostly made  
in ,spain2 it has a beautiful colour but
 is weak4 ,the manner of preparing it is
 as follows3 dissolving it in water1    
they boil it1 and then they transfer it 
to cisterns and leave it to settle4     
,after a certain number of days it      
congeals and separates into many small  
pieces1 having the form of dice1 which  
stick together like grapes4 ,the most   
valued is blue1 heavy1 dense1 and       
translucent4 ,pliny 7,,xxxiv41 #cb7     
says3--,by the name which they have     
given to it1 the ,greeks indicate the   
similar nature of copper and atramentum 
sutorium1 for they call it chalcanthon4 
,there is no substance of an equally    
miraculous nature4 ,it is made in ,spain
 from wells of this kind of water4 ,this
 water is boiled with an equal quantity 
of pure water1 and is then poured into  
wooden tanks 7fish ponds74 ,across these
 tanks there are fixed beams1 to which  

hang cords stretched by little stones4  
,upon these cords adheres the limus     
7,agricola's 'juice'7 in drops of a     
vitreous appearance1 somewhat resembling
 a bunch of grapes4 ,after removal1 it  
is dried for thirty days4 ,it is of a   
blue colour1 and of a brilliant lustre1 
and is very like glass4 ,its solution is
 the blacking used for colouring        
leather4 ,chalcanthon is made in many   
other ways3 its kind of earth is        
sometimes dug from ditches1 from the    
sides of which exude drops1 which       
solidify by the winter frosts into      
icicles1 called stalagmia1 and there is 
none more pure4 ,when its colour is     
nearly white1 with a slight tinge of    
violet1 it is called leukoion4 ,it is   
also made in rock basins1 the rain water
 collecting the limus into them1 where  
it becomes hardened4 ,it is also made in
 the same way as salt by the intense    
heat of the sun4 ,hence it is that some 
distinguish two kinds1 the mineral and  
the artificial2 the latter being paler  

than the former and as much inferior to 
it in quality as it is in colour4       
,while ,pliny gives prominence to blue  
vitriol1 his solution for colouring     
leather must have been the iron         
sulphate4 ,there can be no doubt from   
the above1 however1 that both iron and  
copper sulphates were known to the      
,ancients4 ,from the methods for making 
vitriol given here in ,de ,re           
,metallica1 it is evident that only the 
iron sulphate would be produced1 for the
 introduction of iron strips into the   
vats would effectually precipitate any  
copper4 ,it is our belief that generally
 throughout this work1 the iron sulphate
 is meant by the term atramentum        
sutorium4 ,in ,de ,natura ,fossilium 7p4
 #bac-ae7 ,agricola gives three         
varieties of atramentum                 
sutorium1--viride1 caeruleum1 and       
candidum1 i4e41 green1 blue1 and white4 
,thus the first mention of white vitriol
 7zinc sulphate7 appears to be due to   
him1 and he states further 7p4 #bac73 ,a

 white sort is found1 especially at     
,goslar1 in the shape of icicles1       
transparent like crystals4 ,and on p4   
#bae3 ,since ,i have explained the      
nature of vitriol and its relatives1    
which are obtained from cupriferous     
pyrites1 ,i will next speak of an acrid 
solidified juice which commonly comes   
from cadmia4 ,it is found at ,annaberg  
in the tunnel driven to the ,saint ,otto
 mine2 it is hard and white1 and so     
acrid that it kills mice1 crickets1 and 
every kind of animal4 ,however1 that    
feathery substance which oozes out from 
the mountain rocks and the thick        
substance found hanging in tunnels and  
caves from which saltpetre is made1     
while frequently acrid1 does not come   
from cadmia4 ,dana 7,syst4 of ,min41 p4 
#ici7 identifies this as                
,goslarite--native zinc sulphate4 ,it   
does not appear1 however1 that          
artificial zinc vitriol was made in     
,agricola's time4 ,schlueter            
7,huette-,werken1 ,braunschweig #agch1  

p4 #eig7 states it to have been made for
 the first time at ,rammelsberg about   
#aegj4  ,it is desirable here to enquire
 into the nature of the substances given
 by all of the old mineralogists under  
the ,latinized ,greek terms chalcitis1  
misy1 sory1 and melanteria4 ,the first  
mention of these minerals is in         
,dioscorides1 who 7,v41 #ge-gg7 says3   
,the best chalcitis is like copper4 ,it 
is friable1 not stony1 and is           
intersected by long brilliant veins4444 
,misy is obtained from ,cyprus2 it      
should have the appearance of gold1 be  
hard1 and when pulverised it should have
 the colour of gold and sparkle like    
stars4 ,it has the same properties as   
chalcitis4444 ,the best is from         
,egypt4444 ,one kind of melanteria      
congeals like salt in the entries to    
copper mines4 ,the other kind is earthy 
and appears on the surface of the       
aforesaid mines4 ,it is found in the    
mines of ,cilicia and other regions4    
,the best has the colour of sulphur1 is 

smooth1 pure1 homogenous1 and upon      
contact with water immediately becomes  
black4444 ,those who consider sory to be
 the same as melanteria1 err greatly4   
,sory is a species of its own1 though it
 is not dissimilar4 ,the smell of sory  
is oppressive and provokes nausea4 ,it  
is found in ,egypt and in other regions1
 as ,libya1 ,spain1 and ,cyprus4 ,the   
best is from ,egypt1 and when broken is 
black1 porous1 greasy1 and astringent4  
,pliny 7,,xxxiv41 #bi-ca7 says3--,that  
is called chalcitis from which1 as well 
as itself copper 787 is extracted by    
heat4 ,it differs from cadmia in that   
this is obtained from rocks near the    
surface1 while that is taken from rocks 
below the surface4 ,also chalcitis is   
immediately friable1 being naturally so 
soft as to appear like compressed wool4 
,there is also this other distinction2  
chalcitis contains three other          
substances1 copper1 misy1 and sory4 ,of 
each of these we shall speak in their   
appropriate places4 ,it contains        

elongated copper veins4 ,the most       
approved kind is of the colour of honey2
 it is streaked with fine sinuous veins 
and is friable and not stony4 ,it is    
considered most valuable when fresh4444 
,the sory of ,egypt is the most         
esteemed1 being much superior to that of
 ,cyprus1 ,spain1 and ,africa2 although 
some prefer the sory from ,cyprus for   
affections of the eyes4 ,but from       
whatever nation it comes1 the best is   
that which has the strongest odour1 and 
which1 when ground up1 becomes greasy1  
black1 and spongy4 ,it is a substance so
 unpleasant to the stomach that some    
persons are nauseated by its smell4     
,some say that misy is made by the      
burning of stones in trenches1 its fine 
yellow powder being mixed with the ashes
 of pine-wood4 ,the truth is1 as ,i said
 above1 that though obtained from the   
stone1 it is already made and in solid  
masses1 which require force to detach   
them4 ,the best comes from the works of 
,cyprus1 its characteristics being that 

when broken it sparkles like gold1 and  
when ground it presents a sandy         
appearance1 but on the contrary1 if     
heated1 it is similar to chalcitis4     
,misy is used in refining gold4444      
,agricola's views on the subject appear 
in ,de ,natura ,fossilium4 ,he says 7p4 
#bab73--,the cupriferous pyrites        
7pyrites aerosus7 called chalcitis is   
the mother and cause of sory--which is  
likewise known as mine vitriol          
7atramentum metallicum7--and melanteria4
 ,these in turn yield vitriol and such  
related things4 ,this may be seen       
especially at ,goslar1 where the nodular
 lumps of dark grey colour are called   
vitriol stone 7lapis atramenti74 ,in the
 centre of them is found greyish        
pyrites1 almost dissolved1 the size of a
 walnut4 ,it is enclosed on all sides1  
sometimes by sory1 sometimes by         
melanteria4 ,from them start little     
veinlets of greenish vitriol which      
spread all over it1 presenting somewhat 
the appearance of hairs extending in all

 directions and cohering together4444   
,there are five species of this         
solidified juice1 melanteria1 sory1     
chalcitis1 misy1 and vitriol4 ,sometimes
 many are found in one place1 sometimes 
all of them1 for one originates from the
 other4 ,from pyrites1 which is1 as one 
might say1 the root of all these juices1
 originates the above-mentioned sory and
 melanteria4 ,from sory1 chalcitis1 and 
melanteria originate the various kinds  
of vitriol4444 ,sory1 melanteria1       
chalcitis1 and misy are always native2  
vitriol alone is either native or       
artificial4 ,from them vitriol          
effloresces white1 and sometimes green  
or blue4 ,misy effloresces not only from
 sory1 melanteria1 and chalcitis1 but   
also from all the vitriols1 artificial  
as well as natural4444 ,sory and        
melanteria differ somewhat from the     
others1 but they are of the same        
colours1 grey and black2 but chalcitis  
is red and copper-coloured2 misy is     
yellow or gold-coloured4 ,all these     

native varieties have the odour of      
lightning 7brimstone71 but sory is the  
most powerful4 ,the feathery vitriol is 
soft and fine and hair-like1 and        
melanteria has the appearance of wool   
and it has a similarity to salt2 all    
these are rare and light2 sory1         
chalcitis1 and misy have the following  
relations4 ,sory because of its density 
has the hardness of stone1 although its 
texture is very coarse4 ,misy has a very
 fine texture4 ,chalcitis is between the
 two2 because of its roughness and      
strong odour it differs from melanteria1
 although they do not differ in colour4 
,the vitriols1 whether natural or       
artificial1 are hard and dense 444 as   
regarding shape1 sory1 chalcitis1 misy1 
and melanteria are nodular1 but sory is 
occasionally porous1 which is peculiar  
to it4 ,misy when it effloresces in no  
great quantity from the others is like a
 kind of pollen1 otherwise it is        
nodular4 ,melanteria sometimes resembles
 wool1 sometimes salt4  ,the sum and    

substance1 therefore1 appears to be that
 misy is a yellowish material1 possibly 
ochre1 and sory a blackish stone1 both  
impregnated with vitriol4 ,chalcitis is 
a partially decomposed pyrites2 and     
melanteria is no doubt native vitriol4  
,from this last term comes the modern   
melanterite1 native hydrous ferrous     
sulphate4 ,dana 7,system of ,mineralogy1
 p4 #ifd7 considers misy to be in part  
copiapite--basic ferric sulphate--but   
any such part would not come under      
,agricola's objection to it as a source 
of vitriol4 ,the disabilities of this   
and chalcitis may1 however1 be due to   
their copper content4  #ab ,agricola    
7,de ,nat4 ,fos41 #bba7 says3--,there is
 a species of artificial sulphur made   
from sulphur and iron hammer-scales1    
melted together and poured into moulds4 
,this1 because it heals scabs of horses1
 is generally called caballinum4 ,it is 
difficult to believe such a combination 
was other than iron sulphide1 but it is 
equally difficult to understand how it  

was serviceable for this purpose4  #ac  
,inasmuch as pyrites is discussed in the
 next paragraph1 the material of the    
first distillation appears to be native 
sulphur4 ,until the receiving pots      
became heated above the melting point of
 the sulphur1 the product would be      
flowers of sulphur1 and not the wax-like
 product4 ,the equipment described for  
pyrites in the next paragraph would be  
obviously useful only for coarse        
material4  ,but little can be said on   
the history of sulphur2 it is mentioned 
often enough in the ,bible and also by  
,homer 7,od4 ,,xxii41 #dha74 ,the       
,greeks apparently knew how to refine   
it1 although neither ,dioscorides nor   
,pliny specifically describes such an   
operation4 ,agricola says 7,de ,nat4    
,fos41 #bbj73 ,sulphur is of two kinds2 
the mineral1 which the ,latins call     
vivum1 and the ,greeks apyron1 which    
means 'not exposed to the fire' 7ignem  
non expertum7 as rightly interpreted by 
,celsius2 and the artificial1 called by 

the ,greeks pepyromenon1 that is1       
'exposed to the fire4' ,in ,book ,x41   
the expression sulfur ignem non expertum
 frequently appears1 no doubt in        
,agricola's mind for native sulphur1    
although it is quite possible that the  
,greek distinction was between flowers  
of sulphur and the wax-like variety4    
#ad ,the substances referred to under   
the names bitumen1 asphalt1 maltha1     
naphtha1 petroleum1 rock-oil1 etc41 have
 been known and used from most ancient  
times1 and much of our modern           
nomenclature is of actual ,greek and    
,roman ancestry4 ,these peoples         
distinguished three related             
substances1--the ,greek asphaltos and   
,roman bitumen for the hard             
material1--,greek pissasphaltos and     
,roman maltha for the viscous1 pitchy   
variety--and occasionally the ,greek    
naphtha and ,roman naphtha for petroleum
 proper1 although it is often enough    
referred to as liquid bitumen or liquid 
asphaltos4 ,the term petroleum          

apparently first appears in ,agricola's 
,de ,natura ,fossilium 7p4 #bbb71 where 
he says the oil of bitumen 444 now      
called petroleum4 ,bitumen was used by  
the ,egyptians for embalming from       
pre-historic times1 i4e41 prior to #ejjj
 ,b4,c41 the term mummy arising from the
 ,persian word for bitumen1 mumiai4 ,it 
is mentioned in the tribute from        
,babylonia to ,thotmes ,,iii41 who lived
 about #aejj ,b4,c4 7,wilkinson1        
,ancient ,egyptians ,i41 p4 #cig74 ,the 
,egyptians1 however1 did not need to go 
further afield than the ,sinai          
,peninsula for abundant supplies4       
,bitumen is often cited as the real     
meaning of the slime mentioned in       
,genesis 7,,xi41 #c2 ,,xiv41 #aj71 and  
used in building the ,tower of ,babel4  
,there is no particular reason for this 
assumption1 except the general          
association of ,babel1 ,babylon1 and    
,bitumen4 ,however1 the ,hebrew word    
sift for pitch or bitumen does occur as 
the cement used for ,moses's bulrush    

cradle 7,exodus ,,ii41 #c71 and ,moses  
is generally accounted about #acjj      
,b4,c4 ,other attempts to connect       
,biblical reference to petroleum and    
bitumen revolve around ,job ,,xxix41 #f1
 ,deut4 ,,xxxii41 #ac1 ,maccabees ,,ii41
 ,i1 #ah1 ,matthew ,v41 #ac1 but all    
require an unnecessary strain on the    
imagination4  ,the plentiful occurrence 
of bitumen throughout ,asia ,minor1 and 
particularly in the ,valley of the      
,euphrates and in ,persia1 is the       
subject of innumerable references by    
writers from ,herodotus 7#dhd-dbd       
,b4,c47 down to the author of the       
company prospectus of recent months4    
,herodotus 7,i41 #agi7 and ,diodorus    
,siculus 7,i7 state that the walls of   
,babylon were mortared with bitumen--a  
fact partially corroborated by modern   
investigation4 ,the following statement 
by ,herodotus 7,,vi41 #aai7 is probably 
the source from which ,pliny drew the   
information which ,agricola quotes      
above4 ,in referring to a well at       

,ardericca1 a place about #dj miles from
 ancient ,susa1 in ,persia1 ,herodotus  
says3--,for from the well they get      
bitumen1 salt1 and oil1 procuring it in 
the way that ,i will now describe3 they 
draw with a swipe1 and instead of a     
bucket they make use of the half of a   
wine-skin2 with this the man dips and1  
after drawing1 pours the liquid into a  
reservoir1 wherefrom it passes into     
another1 and there takes three different
 shapes4 ,the salt and bitumen forthwith
 collect and harden1 while the oil is   
drawn off into casks4 ,it is called by  
the ,persians rhadinace1 is black1 and  
has an unpleasant smell4 7,rawlinson's  
,trans4 ,,iii41 p4 #dji74 ,the statement
 from ,pliny 7,,xxxi41 #ci7 here        
referred to by ,agricola1 reads3--,it   
7salt7 is made from water of wells      
poured into salt-pans4 ,at ,babylon the 
first condensed is a bituminous liquid  
like oil which is burned in lamps4 ,when
 this is taken off1 salt is found       
beneath4 ,in ,cappadocia also the water 

from both wells and springs is poured   
into salt-pans4 ,when petroleum began to
 be used as an illuminant it is         
impossible to say4 ,a passage in        
,aristotle's ,de ,mirabilibus 7#abg7 is 
often quoted1 but in reality it refers  
only to a burning spring1 a phenomenon  
noted by many writers1 but from which to
 its practical use is not a great step4 
,the first really definite statement as 
to the use of petroleum as an illuminant
 is ,strabo's quotation 7,,xvi41 #a1    
#ae7 from ,posidonius3 ,asphaltus is    
found in great abundance in ,babylonia4 
,eratosthenes describes it as           
follows3--,the liquid asphaltus1 which  
is called naphtha1 is found in ,susa2   
the dry kind1 which can be made solid1  
in ,babylonia4 ,there is a spring of it 
near the ,euphrates4444 ,others say that
 the liquid kind is also found in       
,babylonia4444 ,the liquid kind1 called 
naphtha1 is of a singular nature4 ,when 
it is brought near the fire1 the fire   
catches it4444 ,posidonius says that    

there are springs of naphtha in         
,babylonia1 some of which produce white1
 others black naphtha2 the first of     
these1 ,i mean white naphtha1 which     
attracts flame1 is liquid sulphur2 the  
second or black naphtha is liquid       
asphaltus1 and is burnt in lamps instead
 of oil4 7,hamilton's ,translation1     
,vol4 ,,iii41 p4 #aea74 ,eratosthenes   
lived about #bjj ,b4,c41 and ,posidonius
 about #ajj years later4 ,dioscorides   
7,i41 #hc71 after discussing the usual  
sources of bitumen says3 ,it is found in
 a liquid state in ,agrigentum in       
,sicily1 flowing on streams2 they use it
 for lights in lanterns in place of oil4
 ,those who call the ,sicilian kind oil 
are under a delusion1 for it is agreed  
that it is a kind of liquid bitumen4    
,pliny adds nothing much new to the     
above quotations1 except in regard to   
these same springs 7,,xxxv41 #ea7 that  
,the inhabitants collect it on the      
panicles of reeds1 to which it quickly  
adheres and they use it for burning in  

lamps instead of oil4 ,agricola 7,de    
,natura ,fossilium1 ,book ,,iv47        
classifies petroleum1 coal1 jet1 and    
obsidian1 camphor1 and amber as         
varieties of bitumen1 and devotes much  
space to the refutation of the claims   
that the last two are of vegetable      
origin4  #ae ,agricola 7,de ,natura     
,fossilium1 p4 #bae7 in discussing      
substances which originate from copper1 
gives among them green chrysocolla 7as  
distinguished from borax1 etc41 see     
,note #h above71 and says3 ,native      
chrysocolla originates in veins and     
veinlets1 and is found mostly by itself 
like sand1 or adhering to metallic      
substances1 and when scraped off from   
this appears similar to its own sand4   
,occasionally it is so thin that very   
little can be scraped off4 ,or else it  
occurs in waters which1 as ,i have said1
 wash these minerals1 and afterward it  
settles as a powder4 ,at ,neusohl in the
 ,carpathians1 green water flowing from 
an ancient tunnel wears away this       

chrysocolla with it4 ,the water is      
collected in thirty large reservoirs1   
where it deposits the chrysocolla as a  
sediment1 which they collect every year 
and sell1--as a pigment4 ,this          
description of its occurrence would     
apply equally well to modern chrysocolla
 or to malachite4 ,the solution from    
copper ores would deposit some sort of  
green incrustation1 of carbonates       
mostly4  #af ,the statement in ,pliny   
7,,xxxvi41 #ff7 to which ,agricola      
refers is as follows3 ,then as ingenuity
 was not content with the mixing of     
nitrum1 they began the addition of lapis
 magnes1 because of the belief that it  
attracts liquefied glass as well as     
iron4 ,in a similar manner many kinds of
 brilliant stones began to be added to  
the melting1 and then shells and fossil 
sand4 ,authors tell us that the glass of
 ,india is made of broken crystal1 and  
in consequence nothing can compare with 
it4 ,light and dry wood is used for     
fusing1 cyprium 7copper87 and nitrum    

being added1 particularly nitrum from   
,ophir etc4  ,a great deal of discussion
 has arisen over this passage1 in       
connection with what this lapis magnes  
really was4 ,pliny 7,,xxxvi41 #be7      
describes the lodestone under this term1
 but also says3 ,there 7in ,ethiopia7   
also is haematites magnes1 a stone of   
blood colour1 which shows a red colour  
if crushed1 or of saffron4 ,the         
haematites has not the same property of 
attracting iron as magnes4 ,relying upon
 this sentence for an exception to the  
ordinary sort of magnes1 and upon the   
impossible chemical reaction involved1  
most commentators have endeavoured to   
show that lodestone was not the         
substance meant by ,pliny1 but          
manganese1 and thus they find here the  
first knowledge of this mineral4 ,there 
can be little doubt that ,pliny assumed 
it to be the lodestone1 and ,agricola   
also4 ,whether the latter had any       
independent knowledge on this point in  
glass-making or was merely quoting      

,pliny--which seems probable--we do not 
know4 ,in any event1 ,biringuccio1 whose
 work preceded ,de ,re ,metallica by    
fifteen years1 does definitely mention  
manganese in this connection4 ,he       
dismisses this statement of ,pliny with 
the remark 7p4 #cg-ch73 ,the ,ancients  
wrote about lodestones1 as ,pliny       
states1 and they mixed it together with 
nitrum in their first efforts to make   
glass4 ,the following passage from this 
author 7p4 #cf-cg71 however1 is not only
 of interest in this connection1 but    
also as possibly being the first        
specific mention of manganese under its 
own name4 ,moreover1 it has been        
generally overlooked in the many        
discussions of the subject4 ,of a       
similar nature 7to zaffir7 is also      
another mineral called manganese1 which 
is found1 besides in ,germany1 at the   
mountain of ,viterbo in ,tuscany 444 it 
is the colour of ferrigno scuro 7iron   
slag874 ,in melting it one cannot obtain
 any metal 444 but it gives a very fine 

colour to glass1 so that the glass      
workers use it in their pigments to     
secure an azure colour4444 ,it also has 
such a property that when put into      
melted glass it cleanses it and makes it
 white1 even if it were green or yellow4
 ,in a hot fire it goes off in a vapour 
like lead1 and turns into ashes4  ,to   
enter competently into the discussion of
 the early history of glass-making would
 employ more space than can be given1   
and would lead but to a sterile end4 ,it
 is certain that the art was            
pre-,grecian1 and that the ,egyptians   
were possessed of some knowledge of     
making and blowing it in the ,,xi       
,dynasty 7according to ,petrie #c1ejj   
,b4,c471 the wall painting at ,beni     
,hassen1 which represents glass-blowing1
 being attributed to that period4 ,the  
remains of a glass factory at ,tel el   
,amarna are believed to be of the       
,,xviii ,dynasty4 7,petrie1 #a1ejj      
,b4,c474 ,the art reached a very high   
state of development among the ,greeks  

and ,romans4 ,no discussion of this     
subject omits ,pliny's well-known story 
7,,xxxvi1 #fe71 which we also add3 ,the 
tradition is that a merchant ship laden 
with nitrum being moored at this place1 
the merchants were preparing their meal 
on the beach1 and not having stones to  
prop up their pots1 they used lumps of  
nitrum from the ship1 which fused and   
mixed with the sands of the shore1 and  
there flowed streams of a new           
translucent liquid1 and thus was the    
origin of glass4     ,,appendix ,a4     
,,agricola',s ,,works4  ,georgius       
,agricola was not only the author of    
works on ,mining and allied subjects1   
usually associated with his name1 but he
 also interested himself to some extent 
in political and religious subjects4    
,for convenience in discussion we may1  
therefore1 divide his writings on the   
broad lines of 7#a7 works on mining1    
geology1 mineralogy1 and allied         
subjects2 7#b7 works on other subjects1 
medical1 religious1 critical1 political1

 and historical4 ,in respect especially 
to the first division1 and partially    
with regard to the others1 we find three
 principal cases3 7a7 ,works which can  
be authenticated in ,european libraries 
to-day2 7b7 references to editions of   
these in bibliographies1 catalogues1    
etc41 which we have been unable to      
authenticate2 and 7c7 references to     
works either unpublished or lost4 ,the  
following are the short titles of all of
 the published works which we have been 
able to find on the subjects allied to  
mining1 arranged according to their     
present importance3--,de ,re ,metallica1
 first edition1 #aeef2 ,de ,natura      
,fossilium1 first edition1 #aedf2 ,de   
,ortu et ,causis ,subterraneorum1 first 
edition1 #aedf2 ,bermannus1 first       
edition1 #aecj2 ,rerum ,metallicarum    
,interpretatio1 first edition1 #aedf2   
,de ,mensuris et ,ponderibus1 first     
edition1 #aecc2 ,de ,precio ,metallorum 
et ,monetis1 first edition1 #aeej2 ,de  
,veteribus et ,novis ,metallis1 first   

edition1 #aedf2 ,de ,natura eorum quae  
,effluunt ex ,terra1 first edition1     
#aedf2 ,de ,animantibus ,subterraneis1  
first edition1 #aedi4  ,of the lost or  
unpublished works1 on which there is    
some evidence1 the following are the    
most important3--,de ,metallicis et     
,machinis1 ,de ,ortu ,metallorum        
,defensio ad ,jacobum ,scheckium1 ,de   
,jure et ,legibus ,metallicis1 ,de      
,varia ,temperie sive ,constitutione    
,aeris1 ,de ,terrae ,motu1 and          
,commentariorum1 ,libri ,,vi4  ,the     
known published works upon other        
subjects are as follows3--,latin        
,grammar1 first edition1 #aebj2 ,two    
,religious ,tracts1 first edition1      
#aebb2 ,galen 7,joint ,revision of      
,greek ,text71 first edition1 #aebe2 ,de
 ,bello adversus ,turcam1 first edition1
 #aebh2 ,de ,peste1 first edition1      
#aeed4  ,the lost or partially completed
 works on subjects unrelated to mining1 
of which some trace has been found1     
are3--,de ,medicatis ,fontibus1 ,de     

,putredine solidas partes1 etc41        
,castigationes in ,hippocratem1         
,typographia ,mysnae et ,toringiae1 ,de 
,traditionibus ,apostolicis1 ,oratio de 
rebus gestis ,ernesti et ,alberti1      
,ducum ,saxoniae4   ,,review ,,of       
,,principal ,,works4  ,before proceeding
 with the bibliographical detail1 we    
consider it desirable to review briefly 
the most important of the author's works
 on subjects related to mining4  ,de    
,natura ,fossilium4 ,this is the most   
important work of ,agricola1 excepting  
,de ,re ,metallica4 ,it has always been 
printed in combination with other works1
 and first appeared at ,basel1 #aedf4   
,this edition was considerably revised  
by the author1 the amended edition being
 that of #aeeh1 which we have used in   
giving references4 ,the work comprises  
ten books of a total of #bag folio      
pages4 ,it is the first attempt at      
systematic mineralogy1 the minerals#a   
being classified into 7#a7 earths 7clay1
 ochre1 etc471 7#b7 stones properly     

so-called 7gems1 semi-precious and      
unusual stones1 as distinguished from   
rocks71 7#c7 solidified juices 7salt1   
vitriol1 alum1 etc471 7#d7 metals1 and  
7#e7 compounds 7homogeneous mixtures of 
simple substances1 thus forming such    
minerals as galena1 pyrite1 etc474 ,in  
this classification ,agricola           
endeavoured to find some fundamental    
basis1 and therefore adopted solubility1
 fusibility1 odour1 taste1 etc41 but any
 true classification without the atomic 
theory was1 of course1 impossible4      
,however1 he makes a very creditable    
performance out of their properties and 
obvious characteristics4 ,all of the    
external characteristics which we use   
to-day in discrimination1 such as       
colour1 hardness1 lustre1 etc41 are     
enumerated1 the origin of these being   
attributed to the proportions of the    
,peripatetic elements and their binary  
properties4 ,dana1 in his great work#b1 
among some fourscore minerals which he  
identifies as having been described by  

,agricola and his predecessors1         
accredits a score to ,agricola himself4 
,it is our belief1 however1 that        
although in a few cases ,agricola has   
been wrongly credited1 there are still  
more of which priority in description   
might be assigned to him4 ,while a      
greater number than fourscore of        
so-called species are given by ,agricola
 and his predecessors1 many of these    
are1 in our modern system1 but          
varieties2 for instance1 some eight or  
ten of the ancient species consist of   
one form or another of silica4  ,book   
,i4 is devoted to mineral               
characteristics--colour1 brilliance1    
taste1 shape1 hardness1 etc41 and to the
 classification of minerals2 ,book      
,,ii41 earths--clay1 ,lemnian earth1    
chalk1 ochre1 etc42 ,book ,,iii41       
solidified juices--salt1 nitrum 7soda   
and potash71 saltpetre1 alum1 vitriol1  
chrysocolla1 caeruleum 7part azurite71  
orpiment1 realgar1 and sulphur2 ,book   
,,iv41 camphor1 bitumen1 coal1          

bituminous shales1 amber2 ,book ,v41    
lodestone1 bloodstone1 gypsum1 talc1    
asbestos1 mica1 calamine1 various       
fossils1 geodes1 emery1 touchstones1    
pumice1 fluorspar1 and quartz2 ,book    
,,vi41 gems and precious stones2 ,book  
,,vii41 rocks--marble1 serpentine1 onyx1
 alabaster1 limestone1 etc42 ,book      
,,viii41 metals--gold1 silver1          
quicksilver1 copper1 lead1 tin1         
antimony1 bismuth1 iron1 and alloys1    
such as electrum1 brass1 etc42 ,book    
,,ix41 various furnace operations1 such 
as making brass1 gilding1 tinning1 and  
products such as slags1 furnace         
accretions1 pompholyx 7zinc oxide71     
copper flowers1 litharge1 hearth-lead1  
verdigris1 white-lead1 red-lead1 etc42  
,book ,x41 compounds1 embracing the     
description of a number of recognisable 
silver1 copper1 lead1 quicksilver1 iron1
 tin1 antimony1 and zinc minerals1 many 
of which we set out more fully in ,note 
#h1 page #ajh4  ,de ,ortu et ,causis    
,subterraneorum4 ,this work also has    

always been published in company with   
others4 ,the first edition was printed  
at ,basel1 #aedf2 the second at ,basel1 
#aeeh1 which1 being the edition revised 
and added to by the author1 has been    
used by us for reference4 ,there are    
five books1 and in the main they contain
 ,agricola's philosophical views on     
geologic phenomena4 ,the largest portion
 of the actual text is occupied with    
refutations of the ancient philosophers1
 the alchemists1 and the astrologers2   
and these portions1 while they exhibit  
his ability in observation and in       
dialectics1 make but dull reading4      
,those sections of the book which       
contain his own views1 however1 are of  
the utmost importance in the history of 
science1 and we reproduce extensively   
the material relating to ore deposits in
 the footnotes on pages #dc to #eb4     
,briefly1 ,book ,i4 is devoted to       
discussion of the origin and            
distribution of ground waters and       
juices4 ,the latter part of this book   

and a portion of ,book ,,ii4 are devoted
 to the origin of subterranean heat1    
which he assumes is in the main due to  
burning bitumen--a genus which with him 
embraced coal--and also1 in a minor     
degree1 to friction of internal winds   
and to burning sulphur4 ,the remainder  
of ,book ,,ii4 is mainly devoted to the 
discussion of subterranean air1 vapour1 
and exhalations1 and he conceives that  
volcanic eruptions and earthquakes are  
due to their agency1 and in these       
hypotheses he comes fairly close to the 
modern theory of eruptions from         
explosions of steam4 ,vapour arises when
 the internal heat of the earth or some 
hidden fire burns earth which is        
moistened with vapour4 ,when heat or    
subterranean fire meets with a great    
force of vapour which cold has          
contracted and encompassed in every     
direction1 then the vapour1 finding no  
outlet1 tries to break through whatever 
is nearest to it1 in order to give place
 to the insistent and urgent cold4 ,heat

 and cold cannot abide together in one  
place1 but expel and drive each other   
out of it by turns4  ,as he was1 we     
believe1 the first to recognise the     
fundamental agencies of mountain        
sculpture1 we consider it is of         
sufficient interest to warrant a        
reproduction of his views on this       
subject3 ,hills and mountains are       
produced by two forces1 one of which is 
the power of water1 and the other the   
strength of the wind4 ,there are three  
forces which loosen and demolish the    
mountains1 for in this case1 to the     
power of the water and the strength of  
the wind we must add the fire in the    
interior of the earth4 ,now we can      
plainly see that a great abundance of   
water produces mountains1 for the       
torrents first of all wash out the soft 
earth1 next carry away the harder earth1
 and then roll down the rocks1 and thus 
in a few years they excavate the plains 
or slopes to a considerable depth2 this 
may be noticed in mountainous regions   

even by unskilled observers4 ,by such   
excavation to a great depth through many
 ages1 there rises an immense eminence  
on each side4 ,when an eminence has thus
 arisen1 the earth rolls down1 loosened 
by constant rain and split away by      
frost1 and the rocks1 unless they are   
exceedingly firm1 since their seams are 
similarly softened by the damp1 roll    
down into the excavations below4 ,this  
continues until the steep eminence is   
changed into a slope4 ,each side of the 
excavation is said to be a mountain1    
just as the bottom is called a valley4  
,moreover1 streams1 and to a far greater
 extent rivers1 effect the same results 
by their rushing and washing2 for this  
reason they are frequently seen flowing 
either between very high mountains which
 they have created1 or close by the     
shore which borders them4444 ,nor did   
the hollow places which now contain the 
seas all formerly exist1 nor yet the    
mountains which check and break their   
advance1 but in many parts there was a  

level plain1 until the force of winds   
let loose upon it a tumultuous sea and a
 scathing tide4 ,by a similar process   
the impact of water entirely overthrows 
and flattens out hills and mountains4   
,but these changes of local conditions1 
numerous and important as they are1 are 
not noticed by the common people to be  
taking place at the very moment when    
they are happening1 because1 through    
their antiquity1 the time1 place1 and   
manner in which they began is far prior 
to human memory4 ,the wind produces     
hills and mountains in two ways3 either 
when set loose and free from bonds1 it  
violently moves and agitates the sand2  
or else when1 after having been driven  
into the hidden recesses of the earth by
 cold1 as into a prison1 it struggles   
with a great effort to burst out4 ,for  
hills and mountains are created in hot  
countries1 whether they are situated by 
the sea coasts or in districts remote   
from the sea1 by the force of winds2    
these no longer held in check by the    

valleys1 but set free1 heap up the sand 
and dust1 which they gather from all    
sides1 to one spot1 and a mass arises   
and grows together4 ,if time and space  
allow1 it grows together and hardens1   
but if it be not allowed 7and in truth  
this is more often the case71 the same  
force again scatters the sand far and   
wide4444 ,then1 on the other hand1 an   
earthquake either rends and tears away  
part of a mountain1 or engulfs and      
devours the whole mountain in some      
fearful chasm4 ,in this way it is       
recorded the ,cybotus was destroyed1 and
 it is believed that within the memory  
of man an island under the rule of      
,denmark disappeared4 ,historians tell  
us that ,taygetus suffered a loss in    
this way1 and that ,therasia was        
swallowed up with the island of ,thera4 
,thus it is clear that water and the    
powerful winds produce mountains1 and   
also scatter and destroy them4 ,fire    
only consumes them1 and does not produce
 at all1 for part of the                

mountains--usually the inner part--takes
 fire4  ,the major portion of ,book     
,,iii4 is devoted to the origin of ore  
channels1 which we reproduce at some    
length on page #dg4 ,in the latter part 
of ,book ,,iii41 and in ,books ,,iv4 and
 ,v41 he discusses the principal        
divisions of the mineral kingdom given  
in ,de ,natura ,fossilium1 and the      
origin of their characteristics4 ,it    
involves a large amount of what now     
appears fruitless tilting at the        
,peripatetics and the alchemists2 but   
nevertheless1 embracing1 as ,agricola   
did1 the fundamental ,aristotelian      
elements1 he must needs find in these   
same elements and their subordinate     
binary combinations cause for every     
variation in external character4        
,bermannus4 ,this1 ,agricola's first    
work in relation to mining1 was         
apparently first published at ,basel1   
#aecj4 ,the work is in the form of a    
dialogue between ,bermannus1 who is     
described as a miner1 mineralogist1 and 

a student of mathematics and poetry1 and
 ,nicolaus ,ancon and ,johannes         
,naevius1 both scholars and physicians4 
,ancon is supposed to be of             
philosophical turn of mind and a student
 of ,moorish literature1 ,naevius to be 
particularly learned in the writings of 
,dioscorides1 ,pliny1 ,galen1 etc4      
,bermannus was probably an adaptation by
 ,agricola of the name of his friend    
,lorenz ,berman1 a prominent miner4 ,the
 book is in the main devoted to a       
correlation of the minerals mentioned by
 the ,ancients with those found in the  
,saxon mines4 ,this phase is interesting
 as indicating the natural trend of     
,agricola's scholastic mind when he     
first comes into contact with the       
sciences to which he devoted himself4   
,the book opens with a letter of        
commendation from ,erasmus1 of          
,rotterdam1 and with the usual          
dedication and preface by the author4   
,the three conversationalists are       
supposed to take walks among the mines  

and to discuss1 incidentally1 matters   
which come to their attention2 therefore
 the book has no systematic or logical  
arrangement4 ,there are occasional      
statements bearing on the history1      
management1 titles1 and methods used in 
the mines1 and on mining lore generally4
 ,the mineralogical part1 while of      
importance from the point of view of    
giving the first description of several 
minerals1 is immensely improved upon in 
,de ,natura ,fossilium1 published #ae   
years later4 ,it is of interest to find 
here the first appearance of the names  
of many minerals which we have since    
adopted from the ,german into our own   
nomenclature4 ,of importance is the     
first description of bismuth1 although1 
as pointed out on page #dcc1 the metal  
had been mentioned before4 ,in the      
revised collection of collateral works  
published in #aeeh1 the author makes    
many important changes and adds some new
 material1 but some of the later        
editions were made from the unrevised   

older texts4  ,rerum ,metallicarum      
,interpretatio4 ,this list of ,german   
equivalents for ,latin mineralogical    
terms was prepared by ,agricola himself1
 and first appears in the #aedf         
collection of ,de ,ortu et ,causis1 ,de 
,natura ,fossilium1 etc41 being repeated
 in all subsequent publications of these
 works4 ,it consists of some #ejj ,latin
 mineralogical and metallurgical terms1 
many of which are of ,agricola's own    
coinage4 ,it is of great help in        
translation and of great value in the   
study of mineralogic nomenclature4  ,de 
,mensuris et ,ponderibus4 ,this work is 
devoted to a discussion of the ,greek   
and ,roman weights and measures1 with   
some correlation to those used in       
,saxony4 ,it is a careful work still    
much referred to by students of these   
subjects4 ,the first edition was        
published at ,paris in #aecc1 and in the
 #aeej edition at ,basel appears1 for   
the first time1 ,de ,precio ,metallorum 
et ,monetis4  ,de ,veteribus et ,novis  

,metallis4 ,this short work comprises   
#ca folio pages1 and first appears in   
the #aedf collection of collateral      
works4 ,it consists mainly of historical
 and geographical references to the     
occurrence of metals and mines1 culled  
from the ,greek and ,latin classics1    
together with some information as to the
 history of the mines in ,central       
,europe4 ,the latter is the only        
original material1 and unfortunately is 
not very extensive4 ,we have            
incorporated some of this information in
 the footnotes4  ,de ,animantibus       
,subterraneis4 ,this short work was     
first printed in ,basel1 #aedi1 and     
consists of one chapter of #bc folio    
pages4 ,practically the whole is devoted
 to the discussion of various animals   
who at least a portion of their time    
live underground1 such as hibernating1  
cave-dwelling1 and burrowing animals1   
together with cave-dwelling birds1      
lizards1 crocodiles1 serpents1 etc4     
,there are only a few lines of remote   

geological interest as to migration of  
animals imposed by geologic phenomena1  
such as earthquakes1 floods1 etc4 ,this 
book also discloses an occasional vein  
of credulity not to be expected from the
 author's other works1 in that he       
apparently believes ,aristotle's story  
of the flies which were born and lived  
only in the smelting furnace2 and       
further1 the last paragraph in the book 
is devoted to underground gnomes4 ,this 
we reproduce in the footnote on page    
#bag4  ,de ,natura eorum quae ,effluunt 
ex ,terra4 ,this work of four books1    
comprising #hc folio pages1 first       
appears in the #aedf collection4 ,as the
 title indicates1 the discussion is upon
 the substances which flow from the     
earth1 such as water1 bitumen1 gases1   
etc4 ,altogether it is of microscopic   
value and wholly uninteresting4 ,the    
major part refers to colour1 taste1     
temperature1 medicinal uses of water1   
descriptions of rivers1 lakes1 swamps1  
and aqueducts4   ,,bibliographical      

,,notes4  ,for the following we have    
mainly to thank ,miss ,kathleen         
,schlesinger1 who has been employed many
 months in following up every clue1 and 
although the results display very       
considerable literary activity on the   
part of the author1 they do not by any  
means indicate ,miss ,schlesinger's     
labours4 ,agricola's works were many of 
them published at various times in      
combination1 and therefore to set out   
the title and the publication of each   
work separately would involve much      
repetition of titles1 and we            
consequently give the titles of the     
various volumes arranged according to   
dates4 ,for instance1 ,de ,natura       
,fossilium1 ,de ,ortu et ,causis1 ,de   
,veteribus et ,novis ,metallis1 ,de     
,natura eorum quae ,effluunt ex ,terra1 
and ,interpretatio have always been     
published together1 and the ,latin and  
,italian editions of these works always 
include ,bermannus as well4 ,moreover1  
the ,latin ,de ,re ,metallica of #afeg  

includes all of these works4  ,we mark  
with an asterisk the titles to editions 
which we have been able to authenticate 
by various means from actual books4     
,those unmarked are editions which we   
are satisfied do exist1 but the titles  
of which are possibly incomplete1 as    
they are taken from library catalogues1 
etc4 ,other editions to which we find   
reference and of which we are not       
certain are noted separately in the     
discussion later on4#c  99#aecj 7#hvo73 
,georgii ,agricolae ,medici1 ,bermannus 
sive de re ,metallica4       7,froben's 
mark74       ,basileae in aedibus       
,frobenianis ,anno4 ,,mdxxx4            
,bound with this edition is 7p4         
#aca-ace71 at least occasionally1       
,rerum metallicarum appellationes juxta 
vernaculam ,germanorum      linguam1    
autori ,plateano4       ,basileae in    
officina ,frobeniana1 ,anno4 ,,mdxxx4   
99#aecc 7#hvo73       ,georgii          
,agricolae ,medici libri quinque de     
,mensuris et      ,ponderibus3 in quibus

 plaeraque a ,budaeo et ,portio parum   
animadversa diligenter excutiuntur4     
,opus nunc primum in lucem      aeditum4
       7,wechelus's ,mark74             
,parisiis4 ,excudebat ,christianus      
,wechelus1 in vico ,iacobaeo1      sub  
scuto ,basileiensi1 ,anno ,,mdxxxiii4   
#bfa pages and index of #e pages4       
99#aecc 7#dto73       ,georgii          
,agricolae ,medici ,libri quinque4 ,de  
,mensuris et      ,ponderibus3 ,in      
quibus pleraque a ,budaeo et ,portio    
parum      animadversa diligenter       
excutiuntur4       7,froben's ,mark74   
,basileae ex ,officina ,frobeniana ,anno
 ,,mdxxxiii4 ,cum gratia et             
privilegio ,caesareo ad sex annos4      
#aecd 7#dto73       ,georgii ,agricolae4
 ,epistola ad ,plateanum1 cui sunt      
adiecta      aliquot loca castigata in  
libris de mensuris et ponderibus        
nuper editis4       ,froben1 ,basel1    
#aecd4  99#aece 7#hvo73       ,georgii  
,agricolae ,medici libri ,v4 de         
,mensuris et ,ponderibus3      in quibus

 pleraque a ,budaeo et ,portio parum    
animadversa      diligenter excutiuntur4
       7,printer's ,mark74       ,at the
 end of ,index3 ,venitues per ,juan     
,anto4 de ,nicolinis de      ,sabio1    
sumptu vero et requisitione ,dni        
,melchionis ,sessae4 ,anno4      ,dni   
,,mdxxxv4 ,mense ,julii4 #aaf folios4   
,on back of title page is given3 ,liber 
primus de mensuris      ,romanis1       
,secundus de mensuris ,graecis1 ,tertius
 de rerum quas      metimur pondere1    
,quartus de ponderibus ,romanis1        
,quintus de      ponderibus ,graecis4   
99#aeda 7#hvo73       ,georgii          
,agricolae ,medici ,bermannus sive de re
 metallica4       ,parisiis4 ,apud      
,hieronymum ,gormontiu4 ,in ,vico       
,jacobeo sub      signotrium coronarum4 
#aeda4  99#aedf 7#hvo73       ,georgii  
,agricolae medici ,bermannus1 sive de   
metallica ab      accurata autoris      
recognitione et emendatione nunc primum 
editus      cum nomenclatura rerum      
metallicarum4 ,eorum ,lipsiae ,in       

officina      ,valentini ,papae ,anno4  
,,mdxlvi4  99#aedf 7folio73             
,georgii ,agricolae ,de ortu et causis  
subterraneorum ,lib4 ,v4 ,de      natura
 eorum quae effluunt ex terra ,lib4     
,,iiii4 ,de natura      fossilium ,lib4 
,x4 ,de veteribus et novis metallis1    
,lib4 ,,ii4      ,bermannus sive ,de re 
,metallica dialogus4 ,interpretatio     
,germanica vocum rei metallicae addito  
,indice faecundissimo4       ,apud      
,hieron ,frobenium et ,nicolaum         
,episcopium ,basileae1 ,,mdxlvi4        
,cum privilegio ,imp4 ,maiestatis ad    
quinquennium4  99#aedi 7#hvo73          
,georgii ,agricolae de animantibus      
subterraneis ,liber4       ,froben1     
,basel1 ,,mdxlix4  99#aeej 7#hvo73      
,di ,georgio ,agricola ,de la           
generatione de le cose1 che sotto la    
terra sono1 e de le cause de' loro      
effetti e natura1 ,lib4 ,v4 ,de      ,la
 ,natura di quelle cose1 che de la terra
 scorrono ,lib4 ,,iiii4      ,de ,la    
,natura de le cose ,fossili1 e che sotto

 la terra si ,cavano      ,lib4 ,x4 ,de 
,le ,minere antiche e moderne ,lib4     
,,ii4 ,il ,bermanno1 o      de le cose  
,metallice ,dialogo1 ,recato tutto hora 
dal ,latino in      ,buona ,lingua      
volgare4       7,vignette of ,sybilla   
surrounded by the words7--,qv ,al ,piv  
,fermo      ,e ,il ,mio ,foglio ,e ,il  
,mio ,presaggio4       ,col ,privilegio 
del ,sommo ,pontefice ,papa ,giulio     
,,iii4 ,et del      ,illustriss4 ,senato
 ,veneto per anni4 ,,xx4                
7,colophon74 ,in ,vinegia per ,michele  
,tramezzino1 ,,mdl4  99#aeej 7folio73   
,georgii ,agricolae4 ,de ,mensuris et   
ponderibus ,rom4 atque ,graec4      lib4
 ,v4 ,de externis mensuris et ponderibus
 ,lib4 ,,ii4 ,ad ea quae      ,andreas  
,alciatus denuo disputavit ,de ,mensuris
 et ,ponderibus      brevis defensio    
,lib4 ,i4 ,de ,mensuris quibus          
intervalla metimur      ,lib4 ,i4 ,de   
restituendis ponderibus atque mensuris4 
,lib4 ,i4 ,de      precio metallorum et 
monetis4 ,lib4 ,,iii4       ,basileae4  

,froben4 ,,mdl4 ,cum privilegio ,imp4   
,maiestatis ad      quinquennium4#d     
99#aeef 7folio73       ,georgii         
,agricolae ,de ,re ,metallica ,libri    
,,xii4 quibus ,officia1                 
,instrumenta1 ,machinae1 ac omnia       
denique ad ,metallicam      spectantia1 
non modo luculentissime describuntur1   
sed et per      effigies1 suis locis    
insertas1 adjunctis ,latinis1           
,germanicisque      appellationibus ita 
ob oculos ponuntur1 ut clarius tradi non
      possint ,eiusdem ,de ,animantibus 
,subterraneis ,liber1 ab ,autore        
recognitus3 cum ,indicibus diversis1    
quicquid in opere tractatum      est1   
pulchre demonstrantibus4                
7,froben's ,mark74       ,basileae      
,,mdlvi4 ,cum ,privilegio ,imperatoris  
in annos ,v4 et      ,galliarum ,regis  
ad ,sexennium4       ,folio #ech pages  
and preface1 glossary and index         
amounting to #hf      pages4 ,this is   
the first edition of ,de ,re ,metallica4
 ,we      reproduce this title-page on  

page ,,xix4  99#aeeg 7folio73       ,vom
 ,bergkwerck xii ,buecher darinn alle   
,empter1 ,instrument1      ,gezeuge1    
unnd ,alles zu disem ,handel gehoerig1  
mitt schoenen      figuren vorbildet1   
und ,klaerlich beschriben seindt        
erstlich in      ,lateinischer ,sprach  
durch den ,hochgelerten und             
weittberuempten      ,herrn ,georgium   
,agricolam1 ,doctorn und4               
,buergermeistern der                    
,churfuerstlichen statt ,kempnitz1      
jezundt aber verteuescht durch      den 
,achtparen4 unnd ,hochgelerten ,herrn   
,philippum ,bechium1      ,philosophen1 
,artzer und in der ,loblichen           
,universitet zu ,basel      ,professorn4
       ,gedruckt zu ,basel durch        
,jeronymus ,froben ,und ,niclausen      
,bischoff im #aeeg ,jar mitt            
,keiserlicher ,freyheit4  99#aeeh       
7folio73       ,georgii ,agricolae ,de  
ortu et causis subterraneorum ,lib4 ,v4 
,de      natura eorum quae effluunt ex  
terra ,lib4 ,,iv4 ,de natura            

fossilium ,lib4 ,x4 ,de veteribus et    
novis metallis ,lib4 ,,ii4              
,bermannus1 sive ,de ,re ,metallica     
,dialogus ,liber4 ,interpretatio        
,germanica vocum rei metallicae1 addito 
duplici ,indice1 altero      rerum1     
altero locorum ,omnia ab ipso authore1  
cum haud      poenitenda accessione1    
recens recognita4       ,froben1 et     
,episcop4 ,basileae ,,mdlviii4 ,cum     
,imp4 ,maiestatis      renovato         
privilegio ad quinquennium4       #bgj  
pages and index4 ,as the title states1  
this is a revised      edition by the   
author1 and as the changes are very     
considerable      it should be the one  
used4 ,the ,italian translation and the 
#afab      ,wittenberg edition1         
mentioned below1 are taken from the     
#aedf      edition1 and are1 therefore1 
very imperfect4  99#aefa 7folio73       
,second edition of ,de ,re ,metallica   
including ,de ,animantibus              
,subterraneis1 with same title as the   
first edition except the      addition1 

after the body of the title1 of the     
words ,atque      omnibus nunc iterum ad
 archetypum diligenter restitutis et    
castigatis and the year ,,mdlxi4 #ejb   
pages and #gb pages of      glossary and
 index4  99#aefc 7folio73       ,opera  
di ,giorgio ,agricola de ,l'arte de     
,metalli ,partita in ,,xii4      libri1 
ne quali si descrivano tutte le sorti1 e
 qualita de gli      uffizii1 de gli    
strumenti1 delle macchine1 e di tutte   
l'altre      cose attenenti a cotal     
arte1 non pure con parole chiare ma     
eziandio si mettano a luoghi loro le    
figure di dette cose1      ritratte al  
naturale1 con l'aggiunta de nomi di     
quelle1 cotanto      chiari1 e spediti1 
che meglio non si puo desiderare1 o     
havere4       ,aggiugnesi il libro del  
medesimo autore1 che tratta de gl'      
,animali di sottoterra da lui stesso    
corretto et riveduto4      ,tradotti in 
lingua ,toscana da ,m4 ,michelangelo    
,florio      ,fiorentino4       ,con    
l',indice di tutte le cose piu notabili 

alla fine      7,froben's mark7 in      
,basilea per ,hieronimo ,frobenio et    
,nicolao      ,episcopio1 ,,mdlxiii4    
#edb pages with #f pages of index4      
99#aehj 7folio73       ,bergwerck ,buch3
 ,darinn nicht ,allain alle ,empte      
,instrument      ,gezeug und alles so zu
 diesem ,handel gehoerig mit figuren    
vorgebildet und klaerlich beschriben1   
etc4 ,durch den      ,hochgelehrten 444 
,herrn ,georgium ,agricolam der ,artzney
 ,doctorn      und ,burgermeister der   
,churfuerstlichen ,statt ,kemnitz       
erstlich      mit grossem fleyss muehe  
und arbeit in ,latein beschriben und in 
zwoelff ,buecher abgetheilt3 ,nachmals  
aber durch den ,achtbarn und      auch  
,hochgelehrten ,philippum ,bechium      
,philosophen ,artzt und in      der     
,loeblichen ,universitet zu ,basel      
,professorn mit sonderm      fleyss     
,teutscher ,nation zu gut verteutscht   
und an ,tag geben4      ,allen          
,berckherrn ,gewercken ,berckmeistern   
,geschwornen      ,schichtmeistern      

,steigern ,berckheuwern ,waeschern und  
,schmeltzern      nicht allein nuetzlich
 und dienstlich sondern auch zu wissem  
hochnotwendig4       ,mit ,roemischer   
,keys4 ,may ,freyheit nicht             
nachzutrucken4       ,getruckt in der   
,keyserlichen ,reichsstatt1 ,franckfort 
am ,mayn1      etc4 ,im ,jahr ,,mdlxxx4 
99#afab 7#abmo73       ,georgii         
,agricolae ,de ortu et causis           
subterraneorum ,lib4 ,v4 ,de      natura
 eorum quae effluunt ex terra1 ,lib4    
,,iv4 ,de natura      fossilium ,lib4   
,x4 ,de veteribus et novis metallis     
,lib4 ,,ii4      ,bermannus1 sive de re 
metallica ,dialogus4 ,interpretatio     
,germanica vocum rei metallicae4        
,addito ,indice faecundissimo1 ,plurimos
 jam annos a ,germanis1 et              
externarum quoque nationum doctissimis  
viris1 valde desiderati      et         
expetiti4       ,nunc vero in rei       
metallicae studiosorum gratiam          
recensiti1 in      certa capita         
distributi1 capitum argumentis1 et      

nonnullis      scholiis marginalibus    
illustrati a ,johanne ,sigfrido ,philos3
 et      ,medicinae ,doctore et in      
illustri ,julia ,professore ordinario4  
,accesserunt ,de metallicis rebus et    
nominibus observationes      variae et  
eruditae1 ex schedis ,georgii ,fabricii1
 quibus ea      potissimum explicantur1 
quae ,georgius ,agricola praeteriit4    
,wittebergae ,sumptibus ,zachariae      
,schuereri ,bibliopolae ,typis          
,andreae ,ruedingeri1 #afab4            
,there are #igj pages in the work of    
,agricola proper1 the notes      of     
,fabricius comprising a further #dd     
pages1 and the index #aab      pages4   
99#afad 7#hvo73       ,georgii          
,agricolae ,de ,animantibus             
,subterraneis ,liber ,hactenus a        
multis desideratus1 nunc vero in gratiam
 studiosorum seorsim      editus1 in    
certa capita divisus1 capitum argumentis
 et      nonnullis marginalibus         
exornatus a ,johanne ,sigfrido1 ,phil4  
,med4 ,doctore1 etc4       ,wittebergae4

 ,typis ,meisnerianis3 ,impensis        
,zachariae4 ,schureri      ,bibliop4    
,anno4 ,,mdcxiv4  99#afba 7folio73      
,georgii ,agricolae ,kempnicensis       
,medici ac ,philosophi ,clariss4        
,de ,re ,metallica ,libri ,,xii ,quibus 
,officia1 ,instrumenta1      ,machinae1 
ac omnia denique ad metallicam          
spectantia1 non modo                    
,luculentissime describuntur2 sed et per
 effigies1 suis locis      insertas     
adjunctis ,latinis1 ,germanicisque2     
appellationibus1 ita      ob oculos     
ponuntur1 ut clarius tradi non possint4 
,ejusdem ,de ,animantibus ,subterraneis 
,liber1 ab ,autore      recognitus cum  
,indicibus diversis quicquid in ,opere  
tractatum      est1 pulchre             
demonstrantibus4       7,vignette of man
 at assay furnace74       ,basileae     
,helvet4 ,sumptibus itemque typis       
chalcographicis      ,ludovici ,regis   
,anno ,,mdcxxi4       #ejb pages and #eh
 pages glossary and indices4  99#afba   
7folio73       ,bergwerck ,buch         

,darinnen nicht allein alle ,empter     
,instrument      ,gezeug und alles so zu
 disem ,handel gehoerig mit ,figuren    
vorgebildet und klaerlich               
beschrieben34444 ,durch den             
,hochgelehrten und weitberuehmten ,herrn
 ,georgium ,agricolam1 der      ,artzney
 ,doctorn und ,burgermeister der        
,churfuerstlichen ,statt      ,kemnitz  
,erstlich mit grossem fleiss muehe und  
arbeit in ,latein      beschrieben und  
in zwoelff ,buecher abgetheilt3         
,nachmals aber      durch den ,achtbarn 
und auch ,hochgelehrten ,philippum      
,bechium4      ,philosophen1 ,artzt1 und
 in der loblichen ,universitet zu ,basel
      ,professorn mit sonderm fleiss    
,teutscher ,nation zu gut               
verteutscht und an ,tag geben und nun   
zum andern mal getruckt4       ,allen   
,bergherrn ,gewercken ,bergmeistern     
,geschwornen      ,schichtmeistern      
,steigern ,berghaewern ,waeschern unnd  
,schmeltzern      nicht allein nutzlich 
und dienstlich sondern auch zu wissen   

hochnohtwendig4       7,vignette of man 
at assay furnace74       ,getruckt zu   
,basel inverlegung ,ludwig ,koenigs ,im 
,jahr1 ,,mdcxxi4       #dia pages #e    
pages glossary--no index4  99#afeg      
7folio73       ,georgii ,agricolae      
,kempnicensis ,medici ac ,philosophi    
,clariss4      ,de ,re ,metallica ,libri
 ,,xii4 ,quibus ,officia1 instrumenta1  
machinae1 ac omnia denique ad metallicam
 spectantia1 non modo                   
luculentissime describuntur3 sed et per 
effigies1 suis locis      insertas1     
adjunctis ,latinis1 ,germanicisque      
appellationibus1 ita      ob oculos     
ponuntur1 ut clarius tradi non possint4 
,quibus      accesserunt hac ultima     
editione1 ,tractatus ejusdem argumenti1 
ab eodem conscripti1 sequentes4         
,de ,animantibus ,subterraneis ,lib4    
,i41 ,de ,ortu et ,causis               
,subterraneorum ,lib4 ,v41 ,de ,natura  
eorum quae effluunt ex ,terra      ,lib4
 ,,iv41 ,de ,natura ,fossilium ,lib4    
,x41 ,de ,veteribus et ,novis           

,metallis ,lib4 ,,ii41 ,bermannus sive  
de ,re ,metallica1 ,dialogus      ,lib4 
,i4       ,cum ,indicibus diversis1     
quicquid in ,opere tractatum est1       
pulchre demonstrantibus4                
7,vignette of assayer and furnace74     
,basileae ,sumptibus et ,typis          
,emanuelis ,koenig4 ,anno ,,mdclvii4    
,folio1 #gjh pages and #ij pages of     
glossary and indices4 ,this is      a   
very serviceable edition of all of      
,agricola's important      works1 and so
 far as we have noticed there are but   
few      typographical errors4  99#aggh 
7#hvo73       ,gespraech vom ,bergwesen1
 wegen seiner ,fuertrefflich keit aus   
dem      ,lateinischen in das ,deutsche 
uebersetzet1 mit nuetzl4 ,anmerkungen   
erlaeutert4 u4 mit einem ganz neuen     
,zusatze von ,zlueglicher               
,anstellung des ,bergbaues u4 von der   
,zugutemachung der ,erze auf      den   
,huettenwerken versehen von ,johann     
,gottlieb ,stoer4       ,rotenburg a4 d4
 ,fulda1 ,hermstaedt #aggh4 #ahj pages4 

99#ahjf 7#hvo73       ,georg ,agricola's
 ,bermannus eine ,einleitung in die     
metallurgischen ,schriften desselben1   
uebersetzt und mit      ,exkursionen    
herausgegeben von ,friedrich ,august    
,schmid4      ,haushalts- und           
,befahrungs-,protokollist im ,churf4    
vereinigten      ,bergamte zu ,st4      
,annaberg4       ,freyberg #ahjf4 ,bey  
,craz und ,gerlach4  99#ahjg-ab 7#hvo74 
,georg ,agrikola's ,mineralogische      
,schriften uebersetzt und mit           
erlaeuternden ,anmerkungen4 ,begleitet  
von ,ernst ,lehmann                     
,bergamts-,assessor1 ,berg- ,gegen- und 
,receszschreiber in ,dem      ,koenigl4 
,saechs4 ,bergamte ,voigtsberg der      
jenaischen ,societaet fuer      die     
gesammte ,mineralogie ,ehrenmitgliede4  
,freyberg1 #ahjg-ab4 ,bey ,craz und     
,gerlach4       ,this ,german           
translation consists of four parts3 the 
first being      ,de ,ortu et ,causis1  
the second ,de ,natura eorum quae       
effluunt      ex terra1 and the third in

 two volumes ,de ,natura ,fossilium1    
the fourth ,de ,veteribus et ,novis     
,metallis2 with glossary and      index 
to the four parts4  ,we give the        
following notes on other possible       
prints1 as a great many references to   
the above works occur in various        
quarters1 of date other than the above4 
,unless otherwise convinced it is our   
belief that most of these refer to the  
prints given above1 and are due to error
 in giving titles or dates4 ,it is      
always possible that such prints do     
exist and have escaped our search4  ,de 
,re ,metallica4 ,leupold1 ,richter1     
,schmid1 van der ,linden1 ,mercklinus   
and ,eloy give an #hvo edition of ,de   
,re ,metallica without illustrations1   
,schweinfurt1 #afjg4 ,we have found no  
trace of this print4 ,leupold1 van der  
,linden1 ,richter1 ,schmid and ,eloy    
mention an #hvo edition1 ,wittenberg1   
#afad4 ,it is our belief that this      
refers to the #afab ,wittenberg edition 
of the selected works1 which contains a 

somewhat similar title referring in     
reality to ,bermannus1 which was and is 
still continually confused with ,de ,re 
,metallica4 ,ferguson mentions a ,german
 edition1 ,schweinfurt1 #hvo1 #afhg4 ,we
 can find no trace of this2 it may refer
 to the #afjg ,schweinfurt edition      
mentioned above4  ,de ,natura           
,fossilium4 ,leupold and ,gatter refer  
to a folio edition of #aeej4 ,this was  
probably an error for either the #aedf  
or the #aeeh editions4 ,watt refers to  
an edition of #aefa combined with ,de   
,medicatis ,fontibus4 ,we find no trace 
of such edition1 nor even that the      
latter work was ever actually printed4  
,he also refers to an edition of #afad  
and one of #afba1 this probably being an
 error for the #afab edition of the     
subsidiary works and the ,de ,re        
,metallica of #afba4 ,leupold also      
refers to an edition of #afbb1 this     
probably being an error for #afab4  ,de 
,ortu et ,causis4 ,albinus1 ,hofmann1   
,jacobi1 ,schmid1 ,richter1 and ,reuss  

mention an edition of #aedd4 ,this we   
believe to be an error in giving the    
date of the dedication instead of that  
of the publication 7#aedf74 ,albinus and
 ,ferguson give an edition of #aeee1    
which date is1 we believe1 an error for 
#aeeh4 ,ferguson gives an edition of the
 ,italian translation as #aeei2 we      
believe this should be #aeej4 ,draud    
gives an edition of #afba2 probably this
 should be #afab4  ,bermannus4 ,albinus1
 ,schmid1 ,reuss1 ,richter1 and ,weinart
 give the first edition as #aebh4 ,we   
have been unable to learn of any actual 
copy of that date1 and it is our belief 
that the date is taken from the         
dedication instead of from the          
publication1 and should be #aecj4       
,leupold1 ,schmid1 and ,reuss give an   
edition by ,froben in #aedi2 we have    
been unable to confirm this4 ,leupold   
also gives an edition of #aeej 7folio71 
and ,joecher gives an edition of ,geneva
 #aefa 7folio72 we have also been unable
 to find this1 and believe the latter to

 be a confusion with the ,de ,re        
,metallica of #aefa1 as it is unlikely  
that ,bermannus would be published by   
itself in folio4 ,the catalogue of the  
library at ,siena 7,vol4 ,,iii41 p4 #gh7
 gives ,il ,bermanno1 ,vinegia1 #aeej1  
#hvo4 ,we have found no trace of this   
edition elsewhere4  ,de ,mensuris et    
,ponderibus4 ,albinus and ,schmid       
mention an edition of #aeci1 and one of 
#aeej4 ,the ,biographie ,universelle1   
,paris1 gives one of #aeec1 and ,leupold
 one of #agad1 all of which we have been
 unable to find4 ,an epitome of this    
work was published at various times1    
sometimes in connection with editions of
 ,vitruvius2 so far as we are aware on  
the following dates1 #aeeb1 #aehe1      
#aehf1 #ahbi4 ,there also appear        
extracts in relation to liquid measures 
in works entitled ,vocabula rei numariae
 ponderum et mensurarum1 etc4 ,paul     
,eber and ,caspar ,peucer1 ,lipsiae1    
#aedi1 and in same ,wittenberg1 #aeeb4  
,de ,veteribus et ,novis ,metallis4     

,watt gives an edition1 ,basel1 #aecj1  
and ,paris1 #aeda2 we believe this is   
incorrect and refers to ,bermannus4     
,reuss mentions a folio print of ,basel1
 #aeej4 ,we consider this very unlikely4
  ,de ,natura eorum quae ,effluunt ex   
,terra4 ,albinus1 ,hofmann1 ,schmid1    
,jacobi1 ,richter1 ,reuss1 and ,weinart 
give an edition of #aede4 ,we believe   
this is again the dedication instead of 
the publication date 7#aedf74  ,de      
,animantibus ,subterraneis4 ,van der    
,linden gives an edition at             
,schweinfurt1 #hvo1 #afjg4 ,although we 
have been unable to find a copy1 this   
slightly confirms the possibility of an 
octavo edition of ,de ,re ,metallica of 
this date1 as they were usually         
published together4 ,leupold gives      
assurance that he handled an octavo     
edition of ,wittenberg1 #afab1 cum notis
 ,johann ,sigfridi4 ,we think he        
confused this with ,bermannus sive de re
 metallica of that date and place4      
,schmid1 ,richter1 and ,draud all refer 

to an edition similarly annotated1      
,leipzig1 #afac1 #hvo4 ,we have no trace
 of it otherwise4   ,,unpublished       
,,works ,,on ,,subjects ,,related ,,to  
,,mining4  ,agricola apparently         
projected a complete series of works    
covering the whole range of subjects    
relating to minerals3 geology1          
mineralogy1 mining1 metallurgy1 history 
of metals1 their uses1 laws1 etc4 ,in a 
letter#e from ,fabricius to ,meurer     
7,march1 #aeec71 the former states that 
,agricola intended writing about #cj    
books 7chapters7 in addition to those   
already published1 and to the twelve    
books ,de ,re ,metallica which he was   
about to publish4 ,apparently a number  
of these works were either unfinished or
 unpublished at ,agricola's death1 for  
his friend ,george ,fabricius seems to  
have made some effort to secure their   
publication1 but did not succeed1       
through lack of sympathy on the part of 
,agricola's family4 ,hofmann#f states on
 this matter3 ,his intentions were      

frustrated mainly through the lack of   
support with which he was met by the    
heirs of the ,mineralogist4 ,these1 as  
he complains to a ,councillor of the    
,electorate1 ,christopher von           
,carlovitz1 in #aeef1 and to ,paul ,eber
 in another letter1 adopted a grudging  
and ungracious tone with regard to his  
proposal to collect all ,agricola's     
works left behind1 and they only        
consented to communicate to him as much 
as they were obliged by express command 
of the ,prince4 ,at the ,prince's       
command they showed him a little1 but he
 supposed that there was much more that 
they had suppressed or not preserved4   
,the attempt to purchase some of the    
works--the ,elector had given ,fabricius
 money for the purpose 7#cj nummos      
unciales7--proved unavailing1 owing to  
the disagreeableness of ,agricola's     
heirs4 ,it is no doubt due to these     
regrettable circumstances that all the  
works of the industrious scholar did not
 come down to us4 ,the disagreeableness 

was probably due to the refusal of the  
,protestant townsfolk to allow the      
burial of ,agricola in the ,cathedral at
 ,chemnitz4 ,so far as we know the      
following are the unpublished or lost   
works4  ,de ,jure et ,legibus           
,metallicis4 ,this work on mining law is
 mentioned at the end of ,book ,,iv4 of 
,de ,re ,metallica1 and it is referred  
to by others apparently from that       
source4 ,we have been unable to find any
 evidence that it was ever published4   
,de ,varia temperie sive ,constitutione 
,aeris4 ,in a letter#g to ,johann       
,naevius1 ,agricola refers to having a  
work in hand of this title4  ,de        
,metallis et ,machinis4 ,hofmann#h      
states that a work of this title by     
,agricola1 dated ,basel #aedc1 was sold 
to someone in ,america by a             
,frankfort-on-,main bookseller in #ahif4
 ,this is apparently the only reference 
to it that we know of1 and it is        
possibly a confusion of titles or a     
separate of some chapters from ,de ,re  

,metallica4  ,de ,ortu ,metallorum      
,defensio ad ,jacobum ,scheckium4       
,referred to by ,fabricius in a letter#i
 to ,meurer4 ,if published was probably 
only a tract4  ,de ,terrae ,motu4 ,in a 
letter#aj from ,agricola to ,meurer     
7,jan4 #a1 #aedd7 is some reference     
which might indicate that he was        
formulating a work on earthquakes under 
this title1 or perhaps may be only      
incidental to the portions of ,de ,ortu 
et ,causis dealing with this subject4   
,commentariorum in quibus utriusque     
linguae scriptorum locos difficiles de  
rebus subterraneis explicat1 ,libri     
,,vi4 ,agricola apparently partially    
completed a work under some such title  
as this1 which was to embrace chapters  
entitled ,de ,methodis and ,de          
,demonstratione4 ,the main object seems 
to have been a commentary on the terms  
and passages in the classics relating to
 mining1 mineralogy1 etc4 ,it is        
mentioned in the ,preface of ,de        
,veteribus et ,novis ,metallis1 and in a

 letter#aa from one of ,froben's firm to
 ,agricola in #aedh1 where it is        
suggested that ,agricola should defer   
sending his new commentaries until the  
following spring4 ,the work is mentioned
 by ,albinus#ab1 and in a letter from   
,georg ,fabricius to ,meurer on the #bnd
 ,jan4 #aedh1ac in another from ,g4     
,fabricius1 to his brother ,andreas on  
,oct4 #bh1 #aeee1ad and in a third from 
,fabricius to ,melanchthon on ,december 
#hth1 #aeeeae1 in which regret is       
expressed that the work was not         
completed by ,agricola4   ,,writings    
,,not ,,related ,,to ,,mining1          
,,including ,,lost ,,or ,,unpublished   
,,works4  ,latin ,grammar4 ,this was    
probably the first of ,agricola's       
publications1 the full title to which is
 ,georgii ,agricolae ,glaucii ,libellus 
de prima ac simplici institutione       
grammatica4 ,excusum ,lipsiae in        
,officina ,melchioris ,lottheri4 ,anno  
,,mdxx4 7#dto71 #bd folios4#af ,there is
 some reason to believe that ,agricola  

also published a ,greek grammar1 for    
there is a letter#ag from ,agricola     
dated ,march #ahth1 #aebb1 in which     
,henicus ,camitianus is requested to    
send a copy to ,stephan ,roth4          
,theological ,tracts4 ,there are        
preserved in the ,zwickau ,rathsschul   
,library#ah copies by ,stephan ,roth of 
two tracts1 the one entitled1 ,deum non 
esse auctorem ,peccati1 the other1      
,religioso patri ,petri ,fontano1 sacre 
theologie ,doctori eximio ,georgius     
,agricola salutem dicit in ,christo4    
,the former was written from ,leipzig in
 #aebb1 and the latter1 although not    
dated1 is assigned to the same period4  
,both are printed in ,zwei theologische 
,abhandlungen des ,georg ,agricola1 an  
article by ,otto ,clemen1 ,neuen ,archiv
 fur ,saechsische ,geschichte1 etc41    
,dresden1 #aijj4 ,there is some reason  
7from a letter of ,fabricius to         
,melanchthon1 ,dec4 #hth1 #aeee7 to     
believe that ,agricola had completed a  
work on the unwritten traditions        

concerning the ,church4 ,there is no    
further trace of it4  ,galen4 ,agricola 
appears to have been joint author with  
,andreas ,asulanus and ,j4 ,b4 ,opizo of
 a revision of this well-known ,greek   
work4 ,it was published at ,venice in   
#aebe1 under the title of ,galeni       
,librorum1 etc41 etc4 ,agricola's name  
is mentioned in a prefatory letter to   
,opizo by ,asulanus4  ,de ,bello        
adversus ,turcam4 ,this political tract1
 directed against the ,turks1 was       
written in ,latin and first printed by  
,froben1 ,basel1 #aebh4 ,it was         
translated into ,german apparently by   
,agricola's friend ,laurenz ,berman1 and
 published under the title ,oration     
,anrede ,und ,vormanunge 444 widder den 
,tuercken by ,frederich ,peypus1        
,nuremberg1 in #aeca 7#hvo71 and either 
in #aecj or #aeca by ,wolfgang          
,stoeckel1 ,dresden1 #dto4 ,it was again
 printed in ,latin by ,froben1 ,basel1  
#aech1 #dto2 by ,h4 ,grosius1 ,leipzig1 
#aeid1 #hvo2 it was included among other

 works published on the same subject by 
,nicholas ,reusnerus1 ,leipzig1 #aeie2  
by ,michael ,lantzenberger1             
,frankfurt-am-,main1 #aeig1 #dto4       
,further1 there is reference by ,watt to
 an edition at ,eisleben1 #afjc1 of     
which we have no confirmation4 ,there is
 another work on the subject1 or a      
revision by the author mentioned by     
,albinus#ai as having been1 after       
,agricola's death1 sent to ,froben by   
,george ,fabricius to be printed2       
nothing further appears in this matter  
however4  ,de ,peste4 ,this work on the 
,plague appears to have been first      
printed by ,froben1 ,basel1 #aeed1 #hvo4
 ,the work was republished at           
,schweinfurt1 #afjg1 and at ,augsburg in
 #afad1 under various editors4 ,it would
 appear from ,albinus#bj that the work  
was revised by ,agricola and in         
,froben's hands for publication after   
the author's death4  ,de ,medicatis     
,fontibus4 ,this work is referred to by 
,agricola himself in ,de ,natura        

,eorum1#ba in the prefatory letter in   
,de ,veteribus et ,novis ,metallis2 and 
,albinus#bb quotes a letter of ,agricola
 to ,sebastian ,munster on the subject4 
,albinus states 7,bergchronik1 p4 #aic7 
that to his knowledge it had not yet    
been published4 ,conrad ,gesner1 in his 
work ,excerptorum et observationum de   
,thermis1 which is reprinted in ,de     
,balneis1 ,venice1 #aeec1 after         
,agricola's ,de ,natura ,eorum1         
states#bc concerning ,agricola in libris
 quos de medicatis fontibus instituerit 
copiosus se dicturum pollicetur4 ,watt  
mentions it as having been published in 
#aedi1 #aefa1 #afad1 and #afba4 ,he1    
however1 apparently confuses it with ,de
 ,natura ,eorum4 ,we are unable to state
 whether it was ever printed or not4 ,a 
note of inquiry to the principal        
libraries in ,germany gave a negative   
result4  ,de ,putredine solidas partes  
humani corporis corrumpente4 ,this work1
 according to ,albinus was received by  
,fabricius a year after ,agricola's     

death1 but whether it was published or  
not is uncertain4#bd  ,castigationes in 
,hippocratem et ,galenum4 ,this work is 
referred to by ,agricola in the preface 
of ,bermannus1 and ,albinus#be mentions 
several letters referring to the        
preparation of the work4 ,there is no   
evidence of publication4  ,typographia  
,mysnae et ,toringiae4 ,it seems from   
,agricola's letter#bf to ,munster that  
,agricola prepared some sort of a work  
on the history of ,saxony and of the    
,royal ,family thereof at the command of
 the ,elector and sent it to him when   
finished1 but it was never published as 
written by ,agricola4 ,albinus1         
,hofmann1 and ,struve give some details 
of letters in reference to it4          
,fabricius in a letter#bg dated ,nov4   
#aa1 #aecf asks ,meurer to send         
,agricola some material for it2 in a    
letter from ,fabricius to ,meurer dated 
,oct4 #cj1 #aeed1 it appears that the   
,elector had granted ,agricola #bjj     
thalers to assist in the work4 ,after   

,agricola's death the material seems to 
have been handed over to ,fabricius1 who
 made use of it 7as he states in the    
preface7 in preparing the work he was   
commissioned by the ,elector to write1  
the title of which was1 ,originum       
illustrissimae stirpis ,saxonicae       
,libri1 and was published in ,leipzig1  
#aeig4 ,it includes on page #hhj a      
fragment of a work entitled ,oratio de  
rebus ,gestis ,ernesti et ,alberti      
,ducum ,saxoniae1 by ,agricola4         
,,works ,,wrongly ,,attributed ,,to     
,,georgius ,,agricola4  ,the following  
works have been at one time or another  
wrongly attributed to ,georgius         
,agricola3--  ,galerazeya sive          
,revelator ,secretorum ,de ,lapide      
,philosophorum1 ,cologne1 #aeca and     
#aecd1 by one ,daniel ,agricola1 which  
is merely a controversial book with a   
catch-title1 used by ,catholics for     
converting heretics4  ,rechter ,gebrauch
 der ,alchimey1 a book of miscellaneous 
receipts which treats very slightly of  

transmutation4#bh  ,chronik der ,stadt  
,freiberg by a ,georg ,agricola 7died   
#afcj71 a preacher at ,freiberg4        
,dominatores ,saxonici1 by the same     
author4  ,breviarum de ,asse by         
,guillaume ,bude4  ,de ,inventione      
,dialectica by ,rudolph ,agricola4      
,,footnotes3  #a ,see footnote #d1 page 
#a4  #b ,system of ,mineralogy4  #c ,the
 following are the titles of the works  
referred to in this discussion3--       
,petrus ,albinus3 ,meissnische ,land und
 ,berg ,chronica ,in welcher ein        
wollnstendige description des ,landes1  
etc41 ,dresden1 #aeij 7contains part ,i1
 ,commentatorium de ,mysnia74 ,newe     
,chronica und ,beschreibung des ,landes 
zu ,meissen1 pp4 #a to #ddi1 besides    
preface and index1 and ,part ,,ii4      
,meissnische ,bergk ,chronica1 ,dresden1
 #aeij1 pp4 #a to #bje1 besides preface 
and index4  ,adam ,daniel ,richter3     
,umstaendliche 444 ,chronica der 444    
,stadt ,chemnitz nebst beygefuegten     
,urkunden1 #b pts4 #dto1 ,zittau        

,leipzig1 #agfg4  ,ben4 ,g4 ,weinart3   
,versuch einer ,litteratur d4           
,saechsischen ,geschichte und ,staats   
kunde1 ,leipzig1 #ahhe4  ,friedrich     
,august ,schmid3 ,georg ,agrikola's     
,bermannus3 ,einleitung in die          
metallurgischen ,schriften desselben1   
,freyberg1 ,craz  ,gerlach4 #ahjf1 pp4  
,,viii41 #a-bfj4  ,franz ,ambros ,reuss3
 ,mineralogische ,geographie van        
,boehmen4 #b vols4 #dto1 ,dresden1      
#agic-ig4 7,agricola ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #b74  
,jacob ,leupold3 ,prodromus             
,bibliothecae ,metallicae1 corrected1   
continued1 and augmented by ,f4 ,e4     
,brueckmann4 ,wolfenbuettel1 #agcb1 s4v4
 ,agricola4  ,christian ,gottlieb       
,goecher3 ,allgemeines                  
,gelehrten-,lexicon1 with continuation  
and supplements by ,adelung1 ,leipzig1  
#agej1 s4v4 ,agricola4  ,john ,anton    
,van der ,linden3 ,de ,scriptis medicis1
 ,libri duo1 ,amsterdam1 #affb1 s4v4    
,georgius ,agricola4  ,nicolas ,francois
 ,joseph ,eloy3 ,dictionnaire           

,historique de la ,medecine1 ,liege     
,francfort 7chez ,j4 ,f4 ,bassompierre71
 #agee1 #hvo 7,agricola p4 #bh1 vol4    
,i74  ,georg ,abraham ,mercklinus3      
,lindenius ,renovatus de scriptis       
medicis continuati 444 amplificati1     
etc41 ,amsterdam1 #afhf1 s4v4 ,georgius 
,agricola4  ,john ,ferguson3            
,bibliotheca ,chemica3 ,a catalogue of  
the ,alchemical1 ,chemical1 and         
,pharmaceutical books in the collection 
of the late ,james ,young of ,kelly     
,durris1 ,esq41 ,l4,l4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41   
,f4,r4,s4,e4 ,glasgow1 #aijf1 #dto1 #b  
vols41 s4v4 ,agricola4  ,christoph      
,wilhelm ,gatterer3 ,allgemeines        
,repertorium der mineralogischen1       
bergwerks und ,salz                     
werkswissenschaftlichen ,literatur1     
,goettingen1 #agih1 vol4 ,i4  ,dr4      
,reinhold ,hofmann3 ,dr4 ,georg         
,agricola1 ,ein ,gelehrtenleben aus dem 
,zeitalter der ,reformation1 #hvo1      
,gotha1 #aije4  ,georg ,heinrich        
,jacobi3 ,der ,mineralog ,georgius      

,agricola und sein ,verhaeltnis zur     
wissenschaft seiner ,zeit1 etc41 #hvo4  
,zwickau 7#ahhi71                       
7,dissertation--,leipzig74  ,georg      
,draud3 ,bibliotheca ,classica1         
,frankfurt-am-,main1 #afaa4  ,b4 ,g4    
,struve3 ,bibliotheca ,saxonica1 #hvo1  
,halle1 #agcf4  #d ,albinus states 7p4  
#ced73 ,omnes simul editi ,anno4 #aedi1 
iterum #aeej1 ,basileae1 as though two  
separate editions4  #e ,g4 ,fabricii    
epistolae ad ,w4 ,meurerum et alios     
aequales1 by ,baumgarten-,crusius1      
,leipzig1 #ahde1 p4 #hc4  #f ,dr4 ,georg
 ,agricola1 ,gotha1 #aije1 pp4 #fj-fa4  
#g ,albinus1 ,landchronik1 pp4 #ced-e4  
#h ,dr4 ,georg ,agricola1 p4 #fc4  #i   
,baumgarten-,crusius1 p4 #aae4  #aj     
,virorum ,clarorum ,saec4 ,,xvi4 et     
,,xvii4 ,epistolae ,selectae by ,ernst  
,weber1 ,leipzig1 #ahid1 p4 #b4  #aa    
,nicholas ,episcopius to ,georg         
,agricola1 ,sept4 #ag1 #aedh1 published 
in ,schmid's ,bermannus p4 #ch4 ,see    
also ,hofmann1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fb and     

#adj4  #ab ,meissnische ,landchronik1   
,dresden1 #aehi1 p4 #ced4  #ac ,printed 
in ,baumgarten-,crusius1 pp4 #dh-di1    
letter ,,xlviii4  #ad ,printed in       
,hermann ,peter's ,meissner             
,jahresbericht der ,fuerstenschule1     
#ahia1 p4 #bd4  #ae                     
,baumgarten-,crusius4 ,georgii ,fabricii
 ,chemnicensis ,epistolae1 ,leipzig1    
#ahde1 p4 #aci4  #af ,there is a copy of
 this work in the ,rathsschul ,library  
at ,zwickau4  #ag ,in the ,rathsschul   
,library at ,zwickau4  #ah ,contained in
 ,vols4 ,,xxxvii4 and ,,xl4 of ,stephan 
,roth's ,kollectanenbaende ,volumes of  
,transcripts4  #ai ,landchronik1 p4     
#ced4  #bj ,op4 cit41 p4 #ced4  #ba     
,book ,,iv4  #bb ,op4 cit41 p4 #cee4    
#bc ,page #bia4  #bd ,see               
,baumgarten-,crusius1 p4 #aad1 letter   
from ,georg ,fabricius4  #be ,op4 cit41 
p4 #ced4  #bf ,albinus1 ,op4 cit41 p4   
#cee4  #bg ,baumgarten-,crusius1 p4 #b4 
#bh ,see ,ferguson1 ,bibliotheca        
,chemica1 s4v4 ,daniel ,agricola4       

,,appendix ,b4  ,,ancient ,,authors4    
,we give the following brief notes on   
early works containing some reference to
 mineralogy1 mining1 or metallurgy1 to  
indicate the literature available to    
,agricola and for historical notes      
bearing upon the subject4 ,references to
 these works in the footnotes may be    
most easily consulted through the       
personal index4  ,,greek                
,,authors4--,only a very limited ,greek 
literature upon subjects allied to      
mining or natural science survives4 ,the
 whole of the material of technical     
interest could be reproduced on less    
than twenty of these pages4 ,those of   
most importance are3 ,aristotle         
7#chd-cbb ,b4,c471 ,theophrastus        
7#cga-bhh ,b4,c471 ,diodorus ,siculus   
7#ast ,century ,b4,c471 ,strabo 7#fd    
,b4,c4-#be ,a4,d471 and ,dioscorides    
7#ast ,century ,a4,d474  ,aristotle1    
apart from occasional mineralogical or  
metallurgical references in ,de         
,mirabilibus1 is mostly of interest as  

the author of the ,peripatetic theory of
 the elements and the relation of these 
to the origin of stones and metals4     
,agricola was1 to a considerable        
measure1 a follower of this school1 and 
their views colour much of his writings4
 ,we1 however1 discuss elsewhere#a at   
what point he departed from them4       
,especially in ,de ,ortu et ,causis does
 he quote largely from ,aristotle's     
,meteorologica1 ,physica1 and ,de ,coelo
 on these subjects4 ,there is a spurious
 work on stones attributed to ,aristotle
 of some interest to mineralogists4 ,it 
was probably the work of some ,arab     
early in the ,middle ,ages4             
,theophrastus1 the principal disciple of
 ,aristotle1 appears to have written at 
least two works relating to our         
subject--one ,on ,stones1 and the other 
on metals1 mining or metallurgy1 but the
 latter is not extant4 ,the work ,on    
,stones was first printed in ,venice in 
#adih1 and the ,greek text1 together    
with a fair ,english translation by ,sir

 ,john ,hill1 was published in ,london  
in #agdf under the title ,theophrastus  
on ,stones2 the translation is1 however1
 somewhat coloured with ,hill's views on
 mineralogy4 ,the work comprises #abj   
short paragraphs1 and would1 if         
reproduced1 cover but about four of     
these pages4 ,in the first paragraphs   
are the ,peripatetic view of the origin 
of stones and minerals1 and upon the    
foundation of ,aristotle he makes some  
modifications4 ,the principal interest  
in ,theophrastus' work is the           
description of minerals2 the information
 given is1 however1 such as might be    
possessed by any ordinary workman1 and  
betrays no particular abilities for     
natural philosophy4 ,he enumerates      
various exterior characteristics1 such  
as colour1 tenacity1 hardness1          
smoothness1 density1 fusibility1 lustre1
 and transparence1 and their quality of 
reproduction1 and then proceeds to      
describe various substances1 but usually
 omits his enumerated characteristics4  

,apart from the then known metals and   
certain earths 7ochre1 marls1 clay1     
etc471 it is possible to identify from  
his descriptions the following rocks and
 minerals3--marble1 pumice1 onyx1       
gypsum1 pyrites1 coal1 bitumen1 amber1  
azurite1 chrysocolla1 realgar1 orpiment1
 cinnabar1 quartz in various forms1     
lapis lazuli1 emerald1 sapphire1        
diamond1 and ruby4 ,altogether there are
 some sixteen distinct mineral species4 
,he also describes the touchstone and   
its uses1 the making of white-lead and  
verdigris1 and of quicksilver from      
cinnabar4  ,diodorus ,siculus was a     
,greek native of ,sicily4 ,his          
historical library consisted of some #dj
 books1 of which parts of #ae are       
extant4 ,the first print was in ,latin1 
#adgb1 and in ,greek in #aeci2 the first
 translation into ,english was by       
,thomas ,stocker1 ,london1 #aefh1 and   
later by ,g4 ,booth1 #agjj4 ,we have    
relied upon ,booth's translation1 but   
with some amendments by friends1 to gain

 more literal statement4 ,diodorus1 so  
far as relates to our subject1 gives    
merely the occasional note of a         
traveller4 ,the most interesting        
paragraphs are his quotation from       
,agatharchides on ,egyptian mining and  
upon ,british tin4  ,strabo was also a  
geographer4 ,his work consists of #ag   
books1 and practically all survive4 ,we 
have relied upon the most excellent     
translation of ,hamilton and ,falconer1 
,london1 #aijc1 the only one in         
,english4 ,mines and minerals did not   
escape such an acute geographer1 and the
 matters of greatest interest are those 
with relation to ,spanish mines4        
,dioscorides was a ,greek physician who 
wrote entirely from the standpoint of   
materia medica1 most of his work being  
devoted to herbs2 but ,book ,v4 is      
devoted to minerals and rocks1 and their
 preparation for medicinal purposes4    
,the work has never been translated into
 ,english1 and we have relied upon the  
,latin translation of ,matthioli1       

,venice1 #aefe1 and notes upon the      
,greek text prepared for us by ,mr4 ,c4 
,katopodes4 ,in addition to most of the 
substances known before1 he1 so far as  
can be identified1 adds schist1 cadmia  
7blende or calamine71 chalcitis 7copper 
sulphide71 misy1 melanteria1 sory       
7copper or iron sulphide oxidation      
minerals74 ,he describes the making of  
certain artificial products1 such as    
copper oxides1 vitriol1 litharge1       
pompholyx1 and spodos 7zinc and_/or     
arsenical oxides74 ,his principal       
interest for us1 however1 lies in the   
processes set out for making his        
medicines4  ,occasional scraps of       
information relating to the metals or   
mines in some connection are to be found
 in many other ,greek writers1 and in   
quotations by them from others which are
 not now extant1 such as ,polybius1     
,posidonius1 etc4 ,the poets            
occasionally throw a gleam of light on  
ancient metallurgy1 as for instance in  
,homer's description of ,vulcan's       

foundry2 while the historians1          
philosophers1 statesmen1 and physicians1
 among them ,herodotus1 ,xenophon1      
,demosthenes1 ,galen1 and many others1  
have left some incidental references to 
the metals and mining1 helpful to       
gleaners from a field1 which has been   
almost exhausted by time4 ,even         
,archimedes made pumps1 and ,hero       
surveying instruments for mines4        
,,roman ,,authors4--,pre-eminent among  
all ancient writers on these subjects   
is1 of course1 ,pliny1 and in fact1     
except some few lines by ,vitruvius1    
there is practically little else in     
extant ,roman literature of technical   
interest1 for the metallurgical         
metaphors of the poets and orators were 
threadbare by this time1 and do not     
excite so much interest as upon their   
first appearance among the ,greeks and  
,hebrews4  ,pliny 7,caius ,plinius      
,secundus7 was born #bc ,a4,d41 and was 
killed by eruption of ,vesuvius #gi     
,a4,d4 ,his ,natural ,history should be 

more properly called an encyclopaedia1  
the whole comprising #cg books2 but only
 portions of the last four books relate 
to our subject1 and over one-half of the
 material there is upon precious stones4
 ,to give some rough idea of the small  
quantity of even this1 the most         
voluminous of ancient works upon our    
subject1 we have made an estimate that  
the portions of metallurgical character 
would cover1 say1 three pages of this   
text1 on mining two pages1 on building  
and precious stones about ten pages4    
,pliny and ,dioscorides were            
contemporaries1 and while ,pliny nowhere
 refers to the ,greek1 internal evidence
 is most convincing1 either that they   
drew from the same source1 or that      
,pliny drew from ,dioscorides4 ,we have1
 therefore1 throughout the text given   
precedence in time to the ,greek author 
in matters of historical interest4 ,the 
works of ,pliny were first printed at   
,venice in #adfi4 ,they have passed     
dozens of editions in various languages1

 and have been twice translated into    
,english4 ,the first translation by     
,philemon ,holland1 ,london1 #afja1 is  
quite impossible4 ,the second           
translation1 by ,bostock and ,riley1    
,london1 #ahee1 was a great advance1 and
 the notes are most valuable1 but in    
general the work has suffered from a    
freedom justifiable in the translation  
of poetry1 but not in science4 ,we have 
relied upon the ,latin edition of       
,janus1 ,leipzig1 #ahgj4 ,the frequent  
quotations in our footnotes are         
sufficient indication of the character  
of ,pliny's work4 ,in general it should 
be remembered that he was himself but a 
compiler of information from others1    
and1 so far as our subjects are         
concerned1 of no other experience than  
most travellers4 ,when one considers the
 reliability of such authors to-day on  
technical subjects1 respect for ,pliny  
is much enhanced4 ,further1 the text is 
no doubt much corrupted through the     
generations of transcription before it  

was set in type4 ,so far as can be      
identified with any assurance1 ,pliny   
adds but few distinct minerals to those 
enumerated by ,theophrastus and         
,dioscorides4 ,for his metallurgical and
 mining information we refer to the     
footnotes1 and in general it may be said
 that while those skilled in metallurgy 
can dimly see in his statements many    
metallurgical operations1 there is      
little that does not require much       
deduction to arrive at a conclusion4 ,on
 geology he offers no new philosophical 
deductions of consequence2 the remote   
connection of building stones is        
practically all that can be enumerated1 
lest one build some assumption of a     
knowledge of ore-deposits on the use of 
the word vein4 ,one point of great      
interest to this work is that in his    
search for ,latin terms for technical   
purposes ,agricola relied almost wholly 
upon ,pliny1 and by some devotion to the
 latter we have been able to disentangle
 some very puzzling matters of          

nomenclature in ,de ,re ,metallica1 of  
which the term molybdaena may be cited  
as a case in point4  ,vitruvius was a   
,roman architect of note of the #ast    
,century ,b4,c4 ,his work of ten books  
contains some very minor references to  
pumps and machinery1 building stones1   
and the preparation of pigments1 the    
latter involving operations from which  
metallurgical deductions can            
occasionally be safely made4 ,his works 
were apparently first printed in ,rome  
in #adif4 ,there are many editions in   
various languages1 the first ,english   
translation being from the ,french in   
#afib4 ,we have relied upon the         
translation of ,joseph ,gwilt1 ,london1 
#ahge1 with such alterations as we have 
considered necessary4  ,,mediaeval      
,,authors4--,for convenience we group   
under this heading the writers of       
interest from ,roman times to the       
awakening of learning in the early #afth
 ,century4 ,apart from ,theophilus1 they
 are mostly alchemists2 but1            

nevertheless1 some are of great         
importance in the history of metallurgy 
and chemistry4 ,omitting a horde of     
lesser lights upon whom we have given   
some data under the author's preface1   
the works principally concerned are     
those ascribed to ,avicenna1            
,theophilus1 ,geber1 ,albertus ,magnus1 
,roger ,bacon1 and ,basil ,valentine4   
,judging from the ,preface to ,de ,re   
,metallica1 and from quotations in his  
subsidiary works1 ,agricola must have   
been not only familiar with a wide range
 of alchemistic material1 but also with 
a good deal of the ,arabic literature1  
which had been translated into ,latin4  
,the ,arabs were1 of course1 the only   
race which kept the light of science    
burning during the ,dark ,ages1 and     
their works were in considerable vogue  
at ,agricola's time4  ,avicenna         
7#ihj-ajcg7 was an ,arabian physician of
 great note1 a translator of the ,greek 
classics into ,arabic1 and a follower of
 ,aristotle to the extent of attempting 

to reconcile the ,peripatetic elements  
with those of the alchemists4 ,he is    
chiefly known to the world through the  
works which he compiled on medicine1    
mostly from the ,greek and ,latin       
authors4 ,these works for centuries     
dominated the medical world1 and were   
used in certain ,european ,universities 
until the #agth century4 ,a great many  
works are attributed to him1 and he is  
copiously quoted by ,agricola1          
principally in his ,de ,ortu et ,causis1
 apparently for the purpose of exposure4
  ,theophilus was a ,monk and the author
 of a most illuminating work1 largely   
upon working metal and its decoration   
for ecclesiastical purposes4 ,an        
excellent translation1 with the ,latin  
text1 was published by ,robert ,hendrie1
 ,london1 #ahdg1 under the title ,an    
,essay upon various ,arts1 in three     
books1 by ,theophilus1 called also      
,rugerus1 ,priest and ,monk4 ,hendrie1  
for many sufficient reasons1 places the 
period of ,theophilus as the latter half

 of the #aath century4 ,the work is     
mainly devoted to preparing pigments1   
making glass1 and working metals1 and   
their conversion into ecclesiastical    
paraphernalia1 such as mural decoration1
 pictures1 windows1 chalices1 censers1  
bells1 organs1 etc4 ,however1 he        
incidentally describes the making of    
metallurgical furnaces1 cupellation1    
parting gold and silver by cementation  
with salt1 and by melting with sulphur1 
the smelting of copper1 liquating lead  
from it1 and the refining of copper     
under a blast with poling4  ,geber was  
until recent years considered to be an  
,arab alchemist of a period somewhere   
between the #gth and #abth centuries4 ,a
 mere bibliography of the very          
considerable literature which exists in 
discussion of who1 where1 and at what   
time the author was1 would fill pages4  
,those who are interested may obtain a  
start upon such references from ,hermann
 ,kopp's ,beitraege zur ,geschichte der 
,chemie1 ,braunschweig1 #ahge1 and in   

,john ,ferguson's ,bibliotheca ,chemica1
 ,glasgow1 #aijf4 ,berthelot1 in his    
,chimie au ,moyen ,age1 ,paris1 #ahic1  
considers the works under the name of   
,geber were not in the main of ,arabic  
origin1 but composed by some ,latin     
scholar in the #acth century4 ,in any   
event1 certain works were1 under this   
name1 printed in ,latin as early as     
#adgj-hj1 and have passed innumerable   
editions since4 ,they were first        
translated into ,english by ,richard    
,russell1 ,london1 #afgh1 and we have   
relied upon this and the ,nuremberg     
edition in ,latin of #aeda4 ,this work1 
even assuming ,berthelot's view1 is one 
of the most important in the history of 
chemistry and metallurgy1 and is        
characterised by a directness of        
statement unique among alchemists4 ,the 
making of the mineral acids--certainly  
nitric and aqua regia1 and perhaps      
hydrochloric and sulphuric--are here    
first described4 ,the author was        
familiar with saltpetre1 sal-ammoniac1  

and alkali1 and with the acids he       
prepared many salts for the first time4 
,he was familiar with amalgamation1     
cupellation1 the separation of gold and 
silver by cementation with salt and by  
nitric acid4 ,his views on the primary  
composition of bodies dominated the     
alchemistic world for centuries4 ,he    
contended that all metals were composed 
of spiritual sulphur 7or arsenic1 which 
he seems to consider a special form of  
sulphur7 and quicksilver1 varying       
proportions and qualities yielding      
different metals4 ,the more the         
quicksilver1 the more perfect the metal4
  ,albertus ,magnus 7,albert von        
,bollstadt7 was a ,dominican ,monk1     
afterwards ,bishop1 born about #abje1   
and died about #abhj4 ,he was rated the 
most learned man of his time1 and       
evidence of his literary activities lies
 in the complete edition of his works   
issued by ,pierre ,jammy1 ,lyons1 #afea1
 which comprises #ba folio volumes4     
,however1 there is little doubt that a  

great number of works attributed to him1
 especially upon alchemy1 are spurious4 
,he covered a wide range of theology1   
logic1 alchemy1 and natural science1 and
 of the latter the following works which
 concern our subject are considered     
genuine3--,de ,rebus ,metallicis et     
,mineralibus1 ,de ,generatione et       
,corruptione1 and ,de ,meteoris4 ,they  
are little more than compilations and   
expositions of the classics muddled with
 the writings of the ,arabs1 and in     
general an attempt to conciliate the    
,peripatetic and ,alchemistic schools4  
,his position in the history of science 
has been greatly over-estimated4        
,however1 his mineralogy is1 except for 
books on gems1 the only writing of any  
consequence at all on the subject       
between ,pliny and ,agricola1 and while 
there are but two or three minerals     
mentioned which are not to be found in  
the ancient authors1 this work1         
nevertheless1 deserves some place in the
 history of science1 especially as some 

attempt at classification is made4      
,agricola devotes some thousands of     
words to the refutation of his errors4  
,roger ,bacon 7#abad-abid7 was a        
,franciscan ,friar1 a lecturer at       
,oxford1 and a man of considerable      
scientific attainments for his time4 ,he
 was the author of a large number of    
mathematical1 philosophical1 and        
alchemistic treatises4 ,the latter are  
of some importance in the history of    
chemistry1 but have only minute bearing 
upon metallurgy1 and this chiefly as    
being one of the earliest to mention    
saltpetre4  ,basil ,valentine is the    
reputed author of a number of           
alchemistic works1 of which none        
appeared in print until early in the    
#agth century4 ,internal evidence seems 
to indicate that the ,triumphant        
,chariot of ,antimony is the only one   
which may possibly be authentic1 and    
could not have been written prior to the
 end of the #aeth or early #afth        
century1 although it has been variously 

placed as early as #acej4 ,to this work 
has been accredited the first mention of
 sulphuric and hydrochloric acid1 the   
separation of gold and silver by the use
 of antimony 7sulphide71 the reduction  
of the antimony sulphide to the metal1  
the extraction of copper by the         
precipitation of the sulphate with iron1
 and the discovery of various antimonial
 salts4 ,at the time of the publication 
of works ascribed to ,valentine         
practically all these things were well  
known1 and had been previously          
described4 ,we are1 therefore1 in much  
doubt as to whether this author really  
deserves any notice in the history of   
metallurgy4  ,,early #afth ,,century    
,,works4--,during the #afth century1 and
 prior to ,de ,re ,metallica1 there are 
only three works of importance from the 
point of view of mining technology--the 
,nuetzlich ,bergbuechlin1 the           
,probierbuechlein1 and ,biringuccio's   
,de ,la ,pirotechnia4 ,there are also   
some minor works by the alchemists of   

some interest for isolated statements1  
particularly those of ,paracelsus4 ,the 
three works mentioned1 however1         
represent such a stride of advance over 
anything previous1 that they merit      
careful consideration4  ,eyn ,nuetzlich 
,bergbuechlin4 ,under this title we     
frequently refer to a little booklet on 
veins and ores1 published at the        
beginning of the #afth century4 ,the    
title page of our copy is as below3--   
,illustration #faj 7,title page7  ,this 
book is small #hvo1 comprises #bd folios
 without pagination1 and has no         
typographical indications upon the title
 page1 but the last line in the book    
reads3 ,gedruckt zu ,erffurd durch      
,johan ,loersfelt1 #aebg4 ,another      
edition in our possession1 that of      
,frankfurt am ,meyn1 #aecc1 by          
,christian ,egenolph1 is entitled       
,bergwerk und ,probierbuechlin1 etc41   
and contains1 besides the above1 an     
extract and plates from the             
,probierbuechlein 7referred to later    

on71 and a few recipes for assay tests4 
,all of these booklets1 of which we find
 mention1 comprise instructions from    
,daniel1 a skilled miner1 to ,knappius1 
his mining boy4 ,although the little    
books of this title are all anonymous1  
we are convinced1 largely from the      
statement in the ,preface of ,de ,re    
,metallica1 that one ,calbus of         
,freiberg was the original author of    
this work4 ,agricola says3 ,two books   
have been written in our tongue3 the one
 on the assaying of mineral substances  
and metals1 somewhat confused1 whose    
author is unknown2 the other ',on       
,veins'1 of which ,pandulfus ,anglus is 
also said to have written1 although the 
,german book was written by ,calbus of  
,freiberg1 a well-known doctor2 but     
neither of them accomplished the task he
 had begun4 ,he again refers to ,calbus 
at the end of ,book ,,iii4#b of ,de ,re 
,metallica1 and gives an almost verbatim
 quotation from the ,nuetzlich          
,bergbuechlin4 ,jacobi#c says3 ,calbus  

,fribergius1 so called by ,agricola     
himself1 is certainly no other than the 
,freiberg doctor1 ,ruehlein von         
,c7,k7albe4 ,there are also certain     
internal evidences that support         
,agricola's statement1 for the work was 
evidently written in ,meissen1 and the  
statement of ,agricola that the book was
 unfinished is borne out by a short     
dialogue at the end of the earlier      
editions1 designed to introduce further 
discussion4 ,calbus 7or ,dr4 ,ulrich    
,ruehlein von ,kalbe7 was a very active 
citizen of ,freiberg1 having been a town
 councillor in #aeji1 burgomaster in    
#aead1 a mathematician1 mining surveyor1
 founder of a school of liberal arts1   
and in general a physician4 ,he died in 
#aebc4d ,the book possesses great       
literary interest1 as it is1 so far as  
we are aware1 undoubtedly the first work
 on mining geology1 and in consequence  
we have spent some effort in endeavour  
to find the date of its first           
appearance4 ,through the courtesy of ,m4

 ,polain1 who has carefully examined for
 us the ,nuetzlich ,bergbuechlein       
described in ,marie ,pellechet's        
,catalogue ,general des ,incunables des 
,bibliotheques ,publiques de ,france1#e 
we have ascertained that it is similar  
as regards text and woodcuts to the     
,erfurt edition1 #aebg4 ,this copy in   
the ,bibliotheque ,nationale is without 
typographical indications1 and ,m4      
,polain considers it very possible that 
it is the original edition printed at   
the end of the fifteenth or beginning of
 the sixteenth centuries4 ,mr4 ,bennett 
,brough1#f quoting ,hans von ,dechen1#g 
states that the first edition was       
printed at ,augsburg in #aeje1 no copy  
of which seems to be extant4 ,the       
,librarian at the ,school of ,mines at  
,freiberg has kindly furnished us with  
the following notes as to the titles of 
the copies in that ,institution3--7#a7  
,eyn ,wolgeordent und ,nuetzlich        
,bergbuechlein1 etc41 ,worms1 #aeabh and
 #aeahi 7the place and date are written 

in71 7#b7 the same as ours 7#aebg72 7#c7
 the same1 ,heinrich ,steyner1          
,augsburg1 #aecd2 7#d7 the same1 #aeci4 
,on comparing these various editions 7to
 which may be added one probably        
published in ,nuernberg by ,friedrich   
,peypus in #aecbaj7 we find that they   
fall into two very distinct groups1     
characterised by their contents and by  
two entirely different sets of woodcuts4
  ,group ,i4       7a7 ,eyn ,nuetzlich  
,bergbuechlein 7in ,bibl4 ,nat41 ,paris7
      before #aejj 7874       7b7       
,ditto1 ,erfurt1 #aebg4  ,group ,,ii4   
7c7 ,wolgeordent ,nuetzlich             
,bergbuechlein1 ,worms1 ,peter          
,schoefern1 #aeab4       7d7            
,wolgeordent ,nuetzlich ,bergbuechlein1 
,worms1 ,peter      ,schoefern1 #aeah4  
7e7 ,bergbuechlin von ,erkantnus der    
,berckwerck1 ,nuernberg1      undated1  
#aecb 7874       7f7 ,bergwerckbuch     
,probirbuch1 ,christian ,egenolph1      
,frankfurt-am-,meyn1 #aecc4       7g7   
,wolgeordent ,nuetzlich ,bergbuechlein1 

,augsburg1 ,heinrich      ,steyner1     
#aecd4       7h7 ,wolgeordent ,nuetzlich
 ,bergbuechlein1 ,augsburg1 ,heinrich   
,steyner1 #aeci4  ,there are also others
 of later date toward the end of the    
sixteenth century4  ,the ,buechlein of  
,group ,i4 terminate after the short    
dialogue between ,daniel and ,knappius  
with the words3 ,mitt welchen das       
kleinspeissig ertz geschmeltzt soil     
werden2 whereas in those of ,group ,,ii4
 these words are followed by a short    
explanation of the signs used in the    
woodcuts1 and by directions for         
colouring the woodcuts1 and in some     
cases by several pages containing       
definitions of some #ib mining terms4   
,in the editions of ,group ,i4 the      
woodcut on the title page represents a  
miner hewing ore in a vein and two      
others working a windlass4 ,in those of 
,group ,,ii4 the woodcut on the title   
page represents one miner hewing on the 
surface1 another to the right carting   
away ore in a handcart1 and two others  

carrying between them a heavy timber4   
,in our opinion ,group ,i4 represents   
the older and original work of ,calbus2 
but as we have not seen the copy in the 
,bibliotheque ,nationale1 and the       
,augsburg edition of #aeje has only so  
far been traced to ,veith's             
catalogue1#aa the question of the first 
edition cannot be considered settled at 
present4 ,in any event1 it appears that 
the material grafted on in the second   
group was later1 and by various authors4
  ,the earliest books comprise ten      
chapters1 in which ,daniel delivers     
about #f1jjj words of instruction4 ,the 
first four chapters are devoted to the  
description of veins and the origin of  
the metals1 of the remaining six        
chapters one each to silver1 gold1 tin1 
copper1 iron1 lead1 and quicksilver4    
,among the mining terms are explained   
the meaning of country rock 7zechstein71
 hanging and footwalls 7hangends and    
liegends71 the strike 7streichen71 dip  
7fallen71 and outcrop 7ausgehen74 ,of   

the latter two varieties are given1 one 
of the whole vein1 the other of the     
gesteins1 which may be the ore-shoot4   
,various veins are illustrated1 and also
 for the first time a mining compass4   
,the account of the origin of the metals
 is a muddle of the ,peripatetics1 the  
alchemists1 and the astrologers1 for    
which acknowledgment to ,albertus       
,magnus is given4 ,they are represented 
to originate from quicksilver and       
sulphur through heat1 cold1 dampness1   
and dryness1 and are drawn out as       
exhalations through the veins1 each     
metal owing its origin to the special   
influence of some planet2 the ,moon for 
silver1 ,saturn for lead1 etc4 ,two     
types of veins are mentioned1 standing  
7stehendergang7 and flat 7flachgang74   
,stringers are given the same           
characteristics as veins1 but divided   
into hanging1 footwall1 and other       
varieties4 ,prominence is also given to 
the geschick 7selvage seams or joints874
 ,the importance of the bearing of the  

junctions of veins and stringers on     
enrichment is elaborated upon1 and veins
 of east-west strike lying upon a south 
slope are considered the best4 ,from the
 following notes it will be seen that   
two or three other types of deposits    
besides veins are referred to4  ,in     
describing silver veins1 of peculiar    
interest is the mention of the          
association of bismuth 7wismuth71 this  
being1 we believe1 the first mention of 
that metal1 galena 7glantz71 quartz     
7quertz71 spar 7spar71 hornstone        
7hornstein71 ironstone and pyrites      
7kies71 are mentioned as gangue         
materials1 according to the mingling of 
the various vapours4 ,the term glasertz 
is used1 but it is difficult to say if  
silver glance is meant2 if so1 it is the
 first mention of this mineral4 ,so far 
as we know1 this is the first use of any
 of the terms in print4 ,gold alluvial  
is described1 part of the gold being    
assumed as generated in the gravel4 ,the
 best alluvial is in streams running    

east and west4 ,the association of gold 
with pyrites is mentioned1 and the      
pyrites is found in some places as a    
complete stratum carried through        
horizontally1 and is called a           
schwebender gang4 ,this sort of         
occurrence is not considered very good  
because the work of the heavens can be  
but little completed on account of the  
unsuitability of the position4 ,gold    
pyrites that comes in veins is better4  
,tin is mentioned as found in alluvial1 
and also in veins1 the latter being     
better or worse1 according to the amount
 of pyrites1 although the latter can be 
burned off4 ,tin-stone is found in      
masses1 copper ore in schist and in     
veins sometimes with pyrites4 ,the ore  
from veins is better than schist4 ,iron 
ore is found in masses1 and sometimes in
 veins2 the latter is the best4 ,the    
iron veins with good hanging- and       
foot-walls are not to be despised1      
especially if their strike be from east 
to west1 their dip to the south1 the    

foot-wall and outcrop to the north1 then
 if the ironstone is followed down1 the 
vein usually reveals gold or other      
valuable ore4 ,lead ore is found in     
schwebenden gang and stehenden gang4    
,quicksilver1 like other ore1 is        
sometimes found in brown earth1 and     
sometimes1 again1 in caves where it has 
run out like water4 ,the classification 
of veins is the same as in ,de ,re      
,metallica4#ab ,the book generally1     
however1 seems to have raised           
,agricola's opposition1 for the         
quotations are given in order to be     
demolished4  ,probierbuechlein4         
,agricola refers in the ,preface of ,de 
,re ,metallica to a work in ,german on  
assaying and refining metals1 and it is 
our belief that it was to some one of   
the little assay books published early  
in the #afth century4 ,there are several
 of them1 seemingly revised editions of 
each other2 in the early ones no        
author's name appears1 although among   
the later editions various names appear 

on the title page4 ,an examination of   
these little books discloses the fact   
that their main contents are identical1 
for they are really collections of      
recipes after the order of cookery      
books1 and intended rather to refresh   
the memory of those already skilled than
 to instruct the novice4 ,the books     
appear to have grown by accretions from 
many sources1 for a large number of     
methods are given over and over again in
 the same book with slight variations4  
,we reproduce the title page of our     
earliest copy4  ,illustration #fab      
7,title page7  ,the following is a list 
of these booklets so far as we have been
 able to discover actual copies3--      
,date4  ,place4     ,publisher4         
,title 7,short74         ,author4       
,unknown  ,unknown      ,unknown        
,probierbuechlein        ,anon4         
7,undated2 but catalogue of ,british    
,museum suggests ,augsburg1 #aeaj47     
#aebd     ,magdeburg                    
,probirbuechleyn          ,anon4        

tzu ,gotteslob    #aeca     ,augsburg   
,unknown         ,probierbuch aller     
,anon4                                  
,sachsischer ,ertze    #aecc            
,frankfurt a4                 ,bergwerck
 und           ,anon4              ,meyn
                                        
,probierbuechlein    #aecd     ,augsburg
     ,heinrich        ,probirbuechlein  
,anon4                                  
,steyner1 #hvo4    #aedf     ,augsburg  
,ditto1 ditto    ,probirbuechlein       
,anon4    #aedi     ,augsburg           
,ditto1 ditto    ,probirbuechlein       
,anon4    #aefd     ,augsburg     ,math4
 ,francke1  ,probirbuechlein            
,zach4 ,lochner                         
#dto    #aegc     ,augsburg     #hvo4   
,probirbuch             ,sam4           
,zimmermann    #aegd     ,franckfurt    
,probierbuechlein        ,anon4         
a4 ,meyn    #aegh     ,ditto            
,probierbuechlein ,fremde  ,cyriacus    
und subtile ,kunst     ,schreittmann    
#aehj     ,ditto                        

,probierbuechlein        ,anon4    #aeie
     ,ditto                             
,probierbuechlein darinn  ,modestin     
,fachs                                  
gruendlicher ,bericht    #afjg          
,dresden      #dto                      
,metallische ,probier     ,c4 ,c4       
,schindler                              
,kunst                                  
,bericht vom ,ursprung und              
,erkenntniss der                        
,metallischen erze    #affi             
,amsterdam                              
,probierbuechlein darinn  ,modestin     
,fachs                                  
gruendlicher ,bericht    #afgh          
,leipzig                                
,probierbuechlein darinn  ,modestin     
,fachs                                  
gruendlicher ,bericht    #afhi          
,leipzig                                
,probierbuechlein darinn  ,modestin     
,fachs                                  
gruendlicher ,bericht    #afie          
,nuernberg     #abmo4                   

,deutliche ,vorstellung   ,anon4        
der ,probier ,kunst    #agdd            
,luebeck       #hvo4                    
,neu-eroeffnete ,probier    ,anon4      
,buch    #agee     ,frankfurt    #hvo4  
,scheid-,kuenstler 444      ,anon4      
and ,leipzig                   alle     
,ertz und ,metalle                      
444 probiren    #aghb     ,rotenburg an 
#hvo4          ,probierbuch aus         
,k4 ,a4 ,scheidt              der ,fulde
                    ,erfahrung          
aufgesetzt  ,as mentioned under the     
,nuetzlich ,bergbuechlein1 our copy of  
that work1 printed in #aecc1 contains   
only a portion of the ,probierbuechlein4
 ,ferguson#ac mentions an edition of    
#afjh1 and the ,freiberg ,school of     
,mines ,catalogue gives also ,frankfort1
 #afjh1 and ,nuernberg1 #agjf4 ,the     
,british ,museum copy of earliest date1 
like the title page reproduced1 contains
 no date4 ,the title page woodcut1      
however1 in the ,museum copy is referred
 from that above1 possibly indicating an

 earlier date of the ,museum copy4  ,the
 booklets enumerated above vary a great 
deal in contents1 the successive prints 
representing a sort of growth by        
accretion4 ,the first portion of our    
earliest edition is devoted to weights1 
in which the system of lesser weights   
7the principle of the assay ton7 is     
explained4 ,following this are          
exhaustive lists of touch-needles of    
various composition4 ,directions are    
given with regard to assay furnaces1    
cupels1 muffles1 scorifiers1 and        
crucibles1 granulated and leaf metals1  
for washing1 roasting1 and the          
preparation of assay charges4 ,various  
reagents1 including glass-gall1         
litharge1 salt1 iron filings1 lead1     
alkali1 talc1 argol1 saltpetre1         
sal-ammoniac1 alum1 vitriol1 lime1      
sulphur1 antimony1 aqua fortis1 or      
scheidwasser1 etc41 are made use of4    
,various assays are described and       
directions given for crucible1          
scorification1 and cupellation tests4   

,the latter part of the book is devoted 
to the refining and parting of precious 
metals4 ,instructions are given for the 
separation of silver from iron1 from    
lead1 and from antimony2 of gold from   
silver with antimony 7sulphide7 and     
sulphur1 or with sulphur alone1 with    
scheidwasser1 and by cementation with   
salt2 of gold from copper with sulphur  
and with lead4 ,the amalgamation of gold
 and silver is mentioned4  ,the book is 
diffuse and confused1 and without       
arrangement or system1 yet a little     
consideration enables one of experience 
to understand most statements4 ,there   
are over #abj recipes1 with1 as said    
before1 much repetition2 for instance1  
the parting of gold and silver by use of
 sulphur is given eight times in        
different places4 ,the final line of the
 book is3 ,take this in good part1 dear 
reader1 after it1 please ,god1 there    
will be a better4 ,in truth1 however1   
there are books on assaying four        
centuries younger that are worse4 ,this 

is1 without doubt1 the first written    
word on assaying1 and it displays that  
art already full grown1 so far as       
concerns gold and silver1 and to some   
extent copper and lead2 for if we       
eliminate the words dependent on the    
atomic theory from modern works on dry  
assaying1 there has been but very minor 
progress4 ,the art could not1 however1  
have reached this advanced stage but by 
slow accretion1 and no doubt this       
collection of recipes had been handed   
from father to son long before the #afth
 century4 ,it is of wider interest that 
these booklets represent the first      
milestone on the road to quantitative   
analysis1 and in this light they have   
been largely ignored by the historians  
of chemistry4 ,internal evidence in     
,book ,,vii4 of ,de ,re ,metallica1     
together with the reference in the      
,preface1 leave little doubt that       
,agricola was familiar with these       
booklets4 ,his work1 however1 is        
arranged more systematically1 each      

operation stated more clearly1 with more
 detail and fresh items2 and further1 he
 gives methods of determining copper and
 lead which are but minutely touched    
upon in the ,probierbuechlein1 while the
 directions as to tin1 bismuth1         
quicksilver1 and iron are entirely new4 
,biringuccio 7,vanuccio74 ,we           
practically know nothing about this     
author4 ,from the preface to the first  
edition of his work it appears he was   
styled a mathematician1 but in the      
text#ad he certainly states that he was 
most of his time engaged in             
metallurgical operations1 and that in   
pursuit of such knowledge he had visited
 ,germany4 ,the work was in ,italian1   
published at ,venice in #aedj1 the title
 page of the first edition as below3--  
,illustration #fad 7,title page7  ,it   
comprises ten chapters in #afh folios   
demi-octavo4 ,other ,italian editions of
 which we find some record are the      
second at ,venice1 #aeeb2 third1        
,venice1 #aeeh2 fourth1 ,venice1 #aeei2 

fifth1 ,bologna1 #afgh4 ,a ,french      
translation1 by ,jacques ,vincent1 was  
published in ,paris1 #aeef1 and this    
translation was again published at      
,rouen in #afbg4 ,of the ten chapters   
the last six are almost wholly devoted  
to metal working and founding1 and it is
 more largely for this description of   
the methods of making artillery1        
munitions of war and bells that the book
 is celebrated4 ,in any event1 with the 
exception of a quotation which we give  
on page #big on silver amalgamation1    
there is little of interest on our      
subject in the latter chapters4 ,the    
first four chapters are undoubtedly of  
importance in the history of            
metallurgical literature1 and represent 
the first work on smelting4 ,the        
descriptions are1 however1 very diffuse1
 difficult to follow1 and lack          
arrangement and detail4 ,but like the   
,probierbuechlein1 the fact that it was 
written prior to ,de ,re ,metallica     
demands attention for it which it would 

not otherwise receive4 ,the ores of     
gold1 silver1 copper1 lead1 tin1 and    
iron are described1 but much interrupted
 with denunciations of the alchemists4  
,there is little of geological or       
mineralogical interest1 he too holding  
to a muddle of the classic elements     
astrology and alchemy4 ,he has nothing  
of consequence to say on mining1 and    
dismisses concentration with a few      
words4 ,upon assaying his work is not so
 useful as the ,probierbuechlein4 ,on   
ore smelting he describes the reduction 
of iron and lead ores and cupriferous   
silver or gold ores with lead4 ,he gives
 the barest description of a blast      
furnace1 but adds an interesting account
 of a reverbero furnace4 ,he describes  
liquation as consisting of one          
operation2 the subsequent treatment of  
the copper by refining with an oxidizing
 blast1 but does not mention poling2 the
 cupellation of argentiferous lead and  
the reduction of the litharge2 the      
manufacture of nitric acid and that     

method of parting gold and silver4 ,he  
also gives the method of parting with   
antimony and sulphur1 and by cementation
 with common salt4 ,among the side      
issues1 he describes the method of      
making brass with calamine2 of making   
steel2 of distilling quicksilver2 of    
melting out sulphur2 of making vitriol  
and alum4 ,he states that arsenico and  
orpimento and etrisagallio 7realgar7 are
 the same substance1 and are used to    
colour copper white4  ,in general1      
,biringuccio should be accredited with  
the first description 7as far as we are 
aware7 of silver amalgamation1 of a     
reverberatory furnace1 and of liquation1
 although the description is not        
complete4 ,also he is1 so far as we are 
aware1 the first to mention cobalt blue 
7,zaffre7 and manganese1 although he    
classed them as half metals4 ,his       
descriptions are far inferior to        
,agricola's2 they do not compass        
anything like the same range of         
metallurgy1 and betray the lack of a    

logical mind4  ,other works4 ,there are 
several works devoted to mineralogy1    
dating from the fifteenth and early     
sixteenth centuries1 which were1 no     
doubt1 available to ,agricola in the    
compilation of his ,de ,natura          
,fossilium4 ,they are1 however1         
practically all compiled from the       
jeweller's point of view rather than    
from that of the miner4 ,among them we  
may mention the poem on precious stones 
by ,marbodaeus1 an author who lived from
 #ajce to #aabc1 but which was first    
printed at ,vienna in #aeaa2 ,speculum  
,lapidum1 a work on precious stones1 by 
,camilli ,leonardi1 first printed in    
,venice in #aejb4 ,a work of wider      
interest to mineralogists is that by    
,christoph ,entzelt 7or ,enzelius1      
,encelio1 ,encelius1 as it is variously 
given71 entitled ,de ,re ,metallica1 and
 first printed in #aeea4 ,the work is   
five years later than ,de ,natura       
,fossilium1 but contains much new       
material and was available to ,agricola 

prior to his revised editions4          
,,footnotes3  #a ,see pages #dd and #df4
  #b ,page #ge4  #c ,der ,mineralog     
,georgius ,agricola1 ,zwickau1 #ahhi1 p4
 #df4  #d ,andreas ,moeller1 ,theatrum  
,freibergense ,chronicum1 etc41         
,freiberg1 #afec4  #e ,paris1 #ahig1    
,vol4 ,i4 p4 #eja4  #f ,cantor          
,lectures1 ,london1 ,april #ahib4  #g   
,hans von ,dechen1 ,das aelteste        
deutsche ,bergwerksbuch1 reprint from   
,zts4 fuer ,bergrecht ,bd4 ,,xxvi41     
,bonn1 #ahhe4  #h ,panzer's ,annalen1   
,nuernberg1 #aghb1 p4 #dbb1 gives an    
edition ,worms bei ,peter ,schoefern1   
#aeab4  #i ,the ,royal ,library at      
,dresden and the ,state ,library at     
,munich have each a copy1 dated #aeah1  
,worms4  #aj ,hans von ,decken op4 cit41
 p4 #dh-di4  #aa ,annales typographiae  
augustanae ab ejus origine1 ,,mccclxvi4 
usque ad4 an4 ,m4,d4,,xxx4 ,accedit dom 
,franc4 ,ant4 ,veith4 ,diatribe de      
origine 444 artis typographicae in urbe 
augusta vindelica edidit4444 ,georgius  

,g4 ,zapf41 ,augsburg1 #aggh1 ,x4 p4    
#bc4  #ab ,see p4 #dd4  #ac ,bibliotheca
 ,chemica4  #ad ,book ,i41 ,chap4 #b4   
,,appendix ,c4  ,,weights ,,and         
,,measures4   ,as stated in the preface1
 the nomenclature to be adopted for     
weights and measures has presented great
 difficulty4 ,agricola uses1 throughout1
 the ,roman and the ,romanized ,greek   
scales1 but in many cases he uses these 
terms merely as lingual equivalents for 
the ,german quantities of his day4      
,moreover the classic language sometimes
 failed him1 whereupon he coined new    
,latin terms adapted from the ,roman    
scale1 and thus added further confusion4
 ,we can1 perhaps1 make the matter      
clearer by an illustration of a case in 
weights4 ,the ,roman centumpondium1     
composed of #ajj librae1 the old ,german
 centner of #ajj pfundt1 and the        
,english hundredweight of #aab pounds   
can be called lingual equivalents4 ,the 
first weighs about #did1fjj ,troy       
grains1 the second #gba1ijj1 and the    

third #ghd1jjj4 ,while the divisions of 
the centumpondium and the centner are   
the same1 the libra is divided into #ab 
unciae and the pfundt into #af untzen1  
and in most places a summation of the   
units given proves that the author had  
in mind the ,roman ratios4 ,however1 on 
p4 #eji he makes the direct statement   
that the centumpondium weighs #adf      
librae1 which would be about the correct
 weight if the centumpondium referred to
 was a centner4 ,if we take an example  
such as each centumpondium of lead      
contains one uncia of silver1 and reduce
 it according to purely lingual         
equivalents1 we should find that it runs
 #bd4c ,troy ounces per short ton1 on   
the basis of ,roman values1 and #ah4be  
ounces per short ton1 on the basis of   
old ,german4 ,if we were to translate   
these into ,english lingual equivalents 
of one ounce per hundredweight1 then the
 value would be #ag4i ounces per short  
ton4  ,several possibilities were open  
in translation3 first1 to calculate the 

values accurately in the ,english units2
 second1 to adopt the nearest ,english  
lingual equivalent2 third1 to introduce 
the ,german scale of the period2 or1    
fourth1 to leave the original ,latin in 
the text4 ,the first would lead to an   
indefinite number of decimals and to    
constant doubt as to whether the values1
 upon which calculations were to be     
based1 were ,roman or ,german4 ,the     
second1 that is the substitution of     
lingual equivalents1 is objectionable1  
not only because it would indicate      
values not meant by the author1 but also
 because we should have1 like ,agricola1
 to coin new terms to accommodate the   
lapses in the scales1 or again to use   
decimals4 ,in the third case1 that is in
 the use of the old ,german scale1 while
 it would be easier to adapt than the   
,english1 it would be more unfamiliar to
 most readers than the ,latin1 and not  
so expressive in print1 and further1 in 
some cases would present the same       
difficulties of calculation as in using 

the ,english scale4 ,nor does the       
contemporary ,german translation of ,de 
,re ,metallica prove of help1 for its   
translator adopted only lingual         
equivalents1 and in consequence the     
summation of his weights often gives    
incorrect results4 ,from all these      
possibilities we have chosen the fourth1
 that is simply to reproduce the ,latin 
terms for both weights and measures4 ,we
 have introduced into the footnotes such
 reductions to the ,english scale as we 
considered would interest readers4 ,we  
have1 however1 digressed from the rule  
in two cases1 in the adoption of foot   
for the ,latin pes1 and fathom for      
passus4 ,apart from the fact that these 
were not cases where accuracy is        
involved1 ,agricola himself explains 7p4
 #gg7 that he means the ,german values  
for these particular terms1 which1      
fortunately1 fairly closely approximate 
to the ,english4 ,further1 we have      
adopted the ,anglicized words digit1    
palm1 and cubit1 instead of their ,latin

 forms4  ,for purposes of reference1 we 
reproduce the principal ,roman and old  
,german scales1 in so far as they are   
used by ,agricola in this work1 with    
their values in ,english4 ,all students 
of weights and measures will realize    
that these values are but approximate1  
and that this is not an occasion to     
enter upon a discussion of the          
variations in different periods or by   
different authorities4 ,agricola himself
 is the author of one of the standard   
works on ,ancient ,weights and ,measures
 7see ,appendix ,a71 and further gives  
fairly complete information on          
contemporary scales of weight and       
fineness for precious metals in ,book   
,,vii4 p4 #bfb etc41 to which we refer  
readers4    ,,roman ,,scales ,,of       
,,weights4                              
,troy ,grains4     #a ,siliqua          
#b4hg     #f ,siliquae   #a ,scripulum  
#ag4b     #d ,scripula   #a ,sextula    
#fh4g     #f ,sextulae   #a ,uncia      
#dab4b    #ab ,unciae     #a ,libra     

#didf4d   #ajj ,librae     #a           
,centumpondium   #didfdj4j    ,also     
#a ,scripulum                           
#ag4b     #c ,scripula   #a ,drachma    
#ea4e     #b ,drachmae   #a ,sicilicus  
#ajc4j     #d ,sicilici   #a ,uncia     
#dab4b     #h ,unciae     #a ,bes       
#cbig4f    ,,scale ,,of ,,fineness      
7,,agricola',s ,,adaptation74      #d   
,siliquae           #a ,unit of         
,siliquae     #c ,units of ,siliquae  #a
 ,semi-sextula     #d ,semi-sextulae    
#a ,duella    #bd ,duellae            #a
 ,bes    ,,old ,,german ,,scale ,,of    
,,weights4                              
,troy ,grains4     #a ,pfennig          
#ad4a     #d ,pfennige   #a ,quintlein  
#ef4d     #d ,quintlein  #a ,loth       
#bbe4f     #b ,loth       #a ,untzen    
#dea4b     #h ,untzen     #a ,mark      
#cfji4f     #b ,mark       #a ,pfundt   
#gbai4b   #ajj ,pfundt     #a ,centner  
#gbaibj4j    ,,scale ,,of ,,fineness4   
#c ,grenlin  #a ,gran     #d ,gran      
#a ,krat    #bd ,krat     #a ,mark      

,,roman ,,long ,,measure4               
,inches4     #a ,digitus                
4#gbf     #d ,digiti       #a ,palmus   
#b4ij     #d ,palmi        #a ,pes      
#aa4fa     #a-a_/b ,pedes    #a ,cubitus
      #ag4da     #e ,pedes        #a    
,passus       #eh4a    ,also      #a    
,roman ,uncia                     4#ig  
#ab ,unciae       ,pes                  
#aa4fa    ,,greek ,,long ,,measure4     
,inches4     #a ,dactylos               
4#geh     #d ,dactyloi     #a ,palaiste 
#c4jc     #d ,palaistai    #a ,pous     
#ab4ace     #a-a_/b ,pous     #a ,pechus
       #ah4bj     #f ,pous         #a   
,orguia       #gb4ha    ,,old ,,german  
,,long ,,measure4                       
,inches4     #a ,querfinger             
4#gjc    #af ,querfinger   #a           
,werckschuh   #aa4bdg     #b ,werckschuh
   #a ,elle         #bb4did     #c ,elle
         #a ,lachter      #fg4eah       
,also      #a ,zoll                     
4#he    #ab ,zoll         #a ,werkschuh 
,,roman ,,liquid ,,measure4             

,cubic inches4  ,pints4    #a           
,quartarius                   #h4f      
4#bdg    #d ,quartarii   #a ,sextarius  
#ca4d        4#iia    #f ,sextarii    #a
 ,congius    #bjf4d       #e4idg   #af  
,sextarii    #a ,modius     #eej4d      
#ae4hfg    #h ,congii      #a ,amphora  
#afej4j      #dg4egg       7,agricola   
nowhere uses the ,saxon liquid measures1
 nor do they      fall into units       
comparable with the ,roman74            
,,general ,,index4  ,,note4--,the       
numbers in heavy type refer to the      
,text2 those in plain type to the       
,footnotes1 ,appendices1 etc4           
,abandonment of ,mines1 #bag            
,abertham4     ,mines at1 #gd2 #ib2 #gd 
,abolite1 #aac    ,abstrich1 #dfe2 #dib 
,abydos4     ,gold mines of1 #bf2 #bg   
,lead figure from1 #cij    ,abzug1 #dfd2
 #dfe2 #dge    ,achates 7see ,agate74   
,accidents ,to ,miners1 #bad-bah        
,accounts 7,mining71 #if-ih    ,adit1   
#aja    ,aeris flos 7see ,copper        
,flowers74    ,aeris squama 7see ,copper

 ,scales74    ,aes caldarium1 #aji      
,aes luteum1 #aji    ,aes nigrum1 #aji  
,aes purum fossile 7see ,native         
,copper74    ,aes rude plumbei coloris  
7see ,copper ,glance74    ,aes ustum    
7see ,roasted ,copper74    ,aetites1 #b 
,africa4     ,iron1 #dbj     ,tin1 #dab 
,agate1 #aad    ,agriculture4           
,mining compared with1 #e    ,ailments  
of ,miners 7see ,maladies of ,miners74  
,air ,currents in ,mines1 #aba2 #bjj    
,alabaster1 #aad    ,alchemists1        
,,xxvii-,,xxx2 #dd2 #fjh     ,agricola's
 opinion of1 ,,xii2 ,,xxvii4            
,amalgamation1 #big     ,assaying1 #bdh2
 #bai     ,discovery of acids1 #dci2    
#dfj     ,distillation1 #dda            
,aljustrel ,tablet1 #hc-hd    ,alkali1  
#eeh    ,alloys1 ,assaying of1 #bdg-beb 
,alluvial ,mining1 #cba-cdh2 #ccj-ccb   
,alston ,moor1 #hd    ,altenberg1       
,,xxxi2 ,,vi4     ,collapse of mine1    
#baf     ,miners poisoned1 #bad     ,tin
 working appliances1 #bij2 #cjd2 #cah   
,alum1 #efd-efh2 #efd-egj     ,a        

solidified juice1 #a     ,elizabethan   
,charter1 #bhc     ,in roasted pyrites1 
#cej     ,in ,sal artificiosus1 #dfc    
,latin and ,german terms1 #bbj2 #bba    
,papal monopoly1 #egj     ,use in making
 nitric acid1 #dci2 #dfj    ,amalgam4   
,parting the gold from1 #bih2 #big      
,amalgamation1 #big     ,of gilt        
objects1 #dfa     ,mills1 #bie-bii      
,amber1 #cd2 #ce    ,amethyst1 #aad     
,amiantus 7see ,asbestos74    ,ampulla1 
#dde-ddg2 #bbj    ,annaberg1 ,,vi2      
,,xxxi2 #db2 #ge2 #ge     ,profits1 #ib 
,ant1 venomous1 #baf    ,antimony1 #bbj2
 #dbh2 #ced     ,minerals1 #aaj         
,smelting of1 #djj2 #dbh     ,use as    
type-metal1 #b2 #dbi    ,antimony       
,sulphide1 #bbj2 #dbh2 #dea     ,parting
 gold and silver with1 #dea2 #dea2 #dfa 
,parting gold from copper1 #dfc         
,parting silver and iron1 #edd          
,antwerp1 ,scale of ,weights1 #bfc      
,apex ,law1 #ha2 #hc-hf    ,aqua regia1 
#dci2 #dda2 #ced    ,aqua valens 7see   
also ,nitric ,acid71 #dci-ddc2 #dci2    

#bbj     ,clarification with silver1    
#ddc2 #ddc     ,cleansing gold-dust     
with1 #cif     ,parting precious metals 
with1 #ddc-ddg    ,arbores dissectae    
7,lagging71 #aja    ,archimedes1 ,screw 
of1 #adi    ,architecture4              
,knowledge necessary for miners1 #d     
,area fodinarum 7see ,meer74            
,argentiferous ,copper ,ores1 ,smelting 
of1 #djd-djg    ,argentite1 #aji        
,argentum purum in venis 7see ,native   
,silver74    ,argentum rude plumbei     
coloris 7see ,silver ,glance74          
,argentum rude rubrum translucidum 7see 
,ruby ,silver74    ,argol1 #bcd2 #bbj   
,as a flux1 #bcd2 #bch2 #bdc     ,use in
 melting silver nitrate1 #ddg     ,use  
in smelting gold dust1 #cif-cih         
,argonauts1 #ccj    ,arithmetical       
,science4     ,knowledge necessary for  
miners1 #d    ,armenia1 ,stone of1 #aae 
,arsenic 7see also ,orpiment and        
,realgar71 #aaa2 #bad    ,arsenicum1    
#aaa    ,arsenopyrite1 #aaa             
,asbestos1 #ddj2 #ddj2 #aad             

,ash-coloured ,copper1 #eci-edj2 #edj2  
#ebc-ebd2 #dib     ,from liquation1     
#ebi-ecj    ,ashes which ,wool ,dyers   
use 7see also ,potash71 #bcc2 #eei2 #bbj
     ,use in assaying1 #bcf-bch    ,ash 
of ,lead1 #bcg-bch2 #bcg2 #bbj    ,ash  
of ,musk ,ivy 7see also ,potash and     
,nitrum71 #bcf-bch2 #bbj    ,asphalt1   
#eha    ,asphaltites 7see ,dead ,sea74  
,assay ,balances 7see ,balances74       
,assay ,fluxes 7see ,fluxes74    ,assay 
,furnaces1 #bbd-bbh2 #bbj     ,crucible1
 #bbf-bbg     ,muffle1 #bbd-bbh2 #bci   
,assaying 7see also ,probierbuechlein71 
#bai2 #bai2 #bbj2 #ced                  
,amalgamation1 #bdc     ,bismuth1 #bdg  
,copper1 #bdd     ,cupellation1 #bdj    
,gold and silver alloys1 #bdh     ,gold 
ore1 #bdb-bdd     ,iron ore1 #bdg       
,lead1 #bde-bdf     ,silver1 #bdb-bde   
,silver and copper alloys1 #bdi-bej     
,tin1 #bdf     ,tin and silver alloys1  
#bea    ,assay ,muffles 7see ,muffles74 
,assay ,ton1 #bfa2 #bdb    ,assyrian    
,copper1 #djb    ,asthma1 #bad          

,astronomy4     ,knowledge necessary for
 miners1 #d    ,atarnea4     ,mines     
near1 #bf2 #bg    ,athens4     ,mining  
law1 #hc     ,sea power and mines1 #bg  
,silver mines 7see ,mt4 ,laurion1 ,mines
 of74    ,atramentum ,sutorium 7see also
 ,vitriol71 #egb2 #aaj    ,atramentum   
,sutorium candidum1 #aac    ,atramentum 
,sutorium rubrum1 #bgd2 #bgd            
,aurichalcum1 #dji2 #djd                
,auripigmentum 7see ,orpiment74         
,azure1 #a2 #aji2 #bbj     ,an          
indication of copper1 #aaf     ,an      
indication of gold1 #aag     ,colour of 
flame1 #bce    ,azurite #aji2 #bbj2 #djb
     ,babel1 ,tower of1 #ehb            
,babylonia4     ,bitumen in1 #ehb       
,use of lead1 #cia    ,babytace4        
,gold buried by inhabitants1 #i2 #ae    
,baebelo1 #db2 #db    ,balances1 #bbd2  
#bfd-bfe    ,barite1 #aae    ,barmaster1
 of ,high ,peak1 #gg    ,bars1 for      
,furnace ,work1 #chb    ,baskets1 for   
,hoisting1 #aec    ,batea1 #aef         
,beer1 #bcj2 #bbj    ,bell1 to call     

,workmen1 #ajj    ,bellows1 #cfb-cgc2   
#dai     ,ancient use of1 #ced2 #cee2   
#cfb     ,assay furnace1 #bbf2 #bde     
,mine ventilation with1 #bjg-baj        
,beni ,hassen1 ,inscriptions at1 #ehf   
,berg-geel1 #aaa    ,bergmeister1 #cc2  
#ha2 #ie2 #gg2 #gg2 #gh     ,deals with 
forfeited shares1 #ib-ic     ,jurors1   
#if    ,bergmeister's ,clerk1 #ie2 #gh  
,bergzinober 7see ,quicksilver74        
,bermius 7,bermium71 ,mt4 7see ,mt4     
,bermius74    ,bismuth1 #dcc2 #ced2 #bbj
     ,assaying ores of1 #bdg            
,indication of silver1 #aaf             
,minerals1 #b2 #aaa     ,smelting of1   
#dcc-dcg2 #djj     ,the roof of silver1 
#aag2 #dcc     ,zaffre1 #aab            
,bitumen4     ,ancient knowledge of1    
#bbj2 #eha-ehb2 #ced     ,colour of     
fumes1 #bce     ,dead ,sea1 #cc         
,distillation1 #eha     ,from springs1  
#ehb     ,harmful to metals1 #bgc       
,roasting from ore1 #bgc2 #bgf2 #cea    
,solidified juice1 #a    ,bituminosa    
cadmia 7see ,cadmia bituminosa74        

,blast1 ,regulation of1 #chj2 #chf      
,blasting1 #aai    ,blende1 #aac        
,bleyberg1 #bci    ,bloodstone1 #aaa2 #b
    ,bloom1 #dbj    ,bluetstein 7see    
,ironstone74    ,bohemia4     ,antimony 
sulphide1 #dbh     ,pestilential        
vapours1 #baf     ,sifting ore in1 #bic 
,smelting1 #chd    ,bone-ash1 #bcj2 #dff
    ,borax1 #efj2 #bba2 #aaj     ,method
 of manufacture1 #efj     ,use in gold  
smelting1 #ddd2 #deg2 #dfd     ,use in  
assaying1 #bde2 #bdf    ,bornite1 #aji  
,boundary ,stones1 #hg2 #abi            
,boundaries1 #gg2 #adg    ,bowls for    
,alluvial ,washing1 #cbb2 #cbd2 #ccd2   
#ccf    ,brass1 #daj2 #ced2 #b          
,ancient methods of making1 #djd-dje2   
#aab    ,breaking ,ore1 #aag-aai        
,brick ,dust4     ,used in cementation1 
#ded2 #ded     ,used in making nitric   
acid1 #ddj    ,brine 7see also ,salt74  
,evaporation of1 #edg-edh    ,britain4  
,lead-silver smelting1 #cib     ,miners 
mentioned by ,pliny1 #hc     ,tin trade1
 #daa-dac    ,british ,museum4          

,egyptian gold-mining1 #cii             
,egyptian lead1 #cij     ,egyptian      
steel1 #djb    ,bromyrite1 #aji         
,bronze4     ,historical notes1 #daa2   
#djb2 #ced    ,bronze ,age1 #cee2 #djb2 
#daa    ,bryle 7,outcrop71 #aja         
,buckets1 for ,hoisting ,ore1 #aec-aed2 
#aeg    ,buddle1 #bha2 #bhb2 #bfg       
,divided1 #cjb-cjc     ,simple1         
#cjj-cjb2 #cab-cae    ,bullion1 ,pouring
 into ,bars1 #chb    ,burning ,ore1     
#bca2 #bgc2 #bfg    ,burnt ,alum1 #bcc2 
#efe2 #bba     ,cadmia 7see also ,zinc1 
,pompholyx1 and ,cobalt71 #edb2 #edb2   
#aab-aac     ,ancient ore of brass1 #daj
     ,from dust chambers1 #cid     ,from
 liquation1 #eci2 #edb     ,from        
roasting matte1 #cdi     ,poisonous to  
miners1 #bad2 #bad     ,roasting1 #bgf  
,smelting for gold and silver1 #daj     
,cadmia bituminosa1 #bgf2 #bgc2 #aac    
,cadmia fornacis 7see ,furnace          
,accretions74    ,cadmia fossilis 7see  
,calamine and ,blende74    ,cadmia      
metallica 7see also ,cobalt71 #djc2 #aac

    ,caeruleum 7see ,azure74    ,cakes  
of ,melted ,pyrites1 #cgi2 #bbb     ,a  
flux1 #bcd     ,roasting of1 #cdi-cea   
,use in smelting1 #cgi    ,calaem 7see  
also ,zinc71 #dji    ,calamine1 #aab2   
#aac2 #dji2 #daj    ,calcite1 #aad      
,calcspar1 #aaf2 #aad    ,caldarium     
,copper1 #eab2 #edb2 #djd2 #eaa         
,caldrons1 for ,evaporating ,salts1 #edh
    ,calmei 7see ,calamine74            
,cameros4     ,zinc found at1 #dji      
,camphor1 #bch2 #bch2 #bba              
,cam-shaft1 #bhb-bhc2 #bfg    ,canales  
7,ore ,channels71 #dc2 #df2 #dg     ,ore
 shoots in1 #aag    ,cannon1 #aa        
,cardinal ,points1 #eg2 #eh             
,carnelian1 #aad    ,carneol 7see       
,carnelian74    ,carni1 #cij            
,cupellation1 #dhc     ,smelting of lead
 ores1 #cij    ,carpathian ,mountains4  
,liquation practice in1 #edj2 #edd      
,sieves1 #bhi     ,stamp-milling1 #cai  
,carthage4     ,mines in ,spain1 #bg    
,castulo 7,cazlona71 #db    ,cementation
 7see also ,parting ,gold from ,silver71

 #dec-deg2 #dec2 #deh    ,centumpondium1
 #faf2 #bdb2 #eji     ,scale of weights1
 #bfj-bfa    ,cerargurite1 #aji         
,cerussa 7see ,white-lead74             
,cerussite1 #aaj    ,chain ,pumps1      
#aga-age    ,chalcanthite1 #aaj         
,chalcanthum 7see also ,vitriol71 #aji2 
#egb    ,chalcedony1 #aad    ,chalcitis1
 #egc2 #aji     ,indication of copper1  
#aaf    ,chalcocite1 #aji2 #djb         
,chalcopyrite1 #aji    ,chaldean        
,antimony1 #dbi    ,chemistry4          
,origin1 ,,xxvii2 #bbj    ,chemnitz4    
,agricola appointed city physician1     
,,vii4     ,agricola elected            
burgomaster1 ,,viii2 ,,ix4     ,quarrel 
over ,agricola's burial1 ,,xi4          
,china1 ,grand ,canal of1 #abi          
,chinese4     ,early copper smelting1   
#djb     ,early iron1 #dba     ,early   
silver metallurgy1 #cia     ,early zinc 
smelting1 #dji    ,chrysocolla 7see also
 ,borax71 #aaj2 #bba2 #ehd2 #a          
,collection in vats1 #ehd     ,colour of
 fumes1 #bce     ,indication of copper1 

#aaf     ,indication of gold1 #aag      
,mineral1 #aji     ,smelting of1 #dja   
,church1 ,share in ,mines1 #ia          
,cimolite1 #ca    ,cinnabar 7see        
,quicksilver and ,minium74    ,claim1 in
 ,american ,title1 #gg    ,cloth4       
,lining sluices1 #cbb     ,ventilation  
by shaking1 #baj    ,coal1 #cd          
,cobalt1 #ced2 #edb2 #aab-aac           
,cobalt-blue1 #aab2 #dcc     ,from lead 
smelting1 #djh     ,king ,hiram's       
experience with1 #bad     ,poisonous to 
miners1 #bad     ,relation to cadmia1   
#aab     ,relation to bismuth1 #dce     
,smelting ores of1 #dja                 
,cobalt-,arsenic ,minerals 7see         
,arsenic74    ,cobaltite1 #aac          
,cobaltum cineraceum 7see ,smallite74   
,cobaltum ferri colore 7see ,cobaltite74
    ,cobaltum nigrum 7see ,abolite74    
,coiners1 #ie2 #gh    ,coins1 #bea-bec2 
#deg    ,colchis4     ,alluvial gold    
washing1 #ccj    ,cologne4     ,scale of
 weights1 #bfc    ,companies1 ,mining1  
#hi-ic2 #ij     ,fraudulent dealing1 #bb

     ,investment in1 #bi    ,compass1   
#ada-adb2 #ef2 #abi     ,divisions of   
the1 #ef2 #eg     ,swiss1 #ade2 #acg    
,concentrates4     ,from washing        
liquation products1 #edb     ,sintering 
of1 #dja     ,smelting of1 #cid2        
#cif-cii2 #dja    ,concentration1       
#bfg-cdh2 #bgi2 #ced    ,congius1 #aec2 
#agb1 #fag    ,constantinople1 ,alum    
,trade1 #efi    ,consumption4           
,miners liable to1 #bad    ,conterfei   
7see ,zinc74    ,contracts1 ,method of  
,setting1 #if    ,copiapite1 #aaa       
,copper 7see also ,liquation71 #aji2    
#djb2 #eaa     ,assay of1 #bdd2 #bdi    
,granulation of1 #bej     ,indications  
of1 #aaf     ,parting from gold1        
#dfb-dfd     ,parting gold from silver1 
#ddh-dea2 #ddh     ,ratio in liquation  
cakes1 #eje2 #ejf     ,residues from    
liquation1 #eba     ,rosette1 #ech      
,copper-filings1 #bcc2 #bcc2 #bba       
,copper flowers1 #ech2 #aaj2 #bcc2 #ech 
,pliny's description1 #djd    ,copper   
,glance1 #dja2 #aji    ,copper ,matte4  

,roasting1 #cej     ,smelting1 #djd-djg 
,copper ,ore 7see also ,copper          
,smelting1 etc471 #aji     ,assaying1   
#bdd-bde    ,copper ,pyrites1 #aag2 #aji
    ,copper ,refining1 #ecj-ech2 #ced2  
#dib2 #ece-ecf     ,breaking cakes1     
#eja-ejc     ,enrichment of silver by   
settling1 #eaj     ,roman method1 #djd  
,rosette copper1 #ece    ,copper        
,scales1 #aaj2 #bba2 #bcc2 #eci     ,use
 in assaying1 #bde    ,copper ,schists  
7see also ,mannsfeld ,copper ,slates71  
#abg     ,method of smelting1 #djh      
,copper ,smelting1 #chh-cij2 #dja2 #djd2
 #djb     ,invention of appliances1     
#cec-ced    ,cornwall4     ,ancient tin 
mining1 #dac     ,early ,german miners1 
#bhb     ,early mining law1 #he         
,early ore dressing1 #bhb     ,influence
 on ,german mining1 #bhc     ,knockers1 
#bag     ,mining terms1 #gg2 #aja2 #bfg2
 #bhb     ,royal ,geol4 ,soc4           
,transactions1 #hd    ,coticula 7see    
,touchstone74    ,counterfeht 7see      
,zinc74    ,crane4     ,for cupellation 

furnaces1 #dgf-dgg     ,for lead cakes1 
#ejj     ,for liquation cakes1 #ead     
,cremnitz4     ,age of mines1 #e        
,width of veins1 #eb    ,crinoid ,stems1
 #aae    ,croppings1 #cg2 #cg           
,crosscuts1 #ajf    ,crowbars1 #aeb     
,crucible4     ,assay1 #bbh2 #bcj2 #bda2
 #bde2 #bba     ,of blast furnaces1     
#cgf2 #cgg    ,crudaria1 #fe            
,crushing ,mills 7see ,stamp-mill and   
,mills74    ,crushing ,ore1 #bca2       
#bgi-bhg2 #bgi    ,crystal              
7,crystallum71 #aad    ,cumberland4     
,early report on ores of1 #bfg          
,roman lead furnaces1 #cib              
,cup-,bearer4     ,right to a meer1 #ha 
,cupellation1 #dfd-dhc2 #dfe-dff        
,buildings and furnaces1 #dfd-dgb2 #dib 
,brightening of the silver1 #bda1 #dge  
,in assaying1 #bdj     ,in tests1 #dhc  
,latin and ,german terms1 #bba2 #dib    
,litharge1 #dge    ,cupels1 #bbh-bcj2   
#bba2 #dff     ,drying of1 #bdj         
,moulds1 #bca    ,cupric ,oxide1 #bba   
,cuprite1 #aji2 #djb    ,cyanus 7see    

also ,azurite71 #aaj    ,cyprus4        
,ancient copper smelting1 #djb          
,dach1 #abg    ,dactylos1 #fag2 #gh     
,dangers to ,miners1 #bad-bah           
,darrlinge1 #dib    ,darrofen1 #dib     
,darrsoehle1 #dib    ,dawling1 of a     
,vein1 #aja    ,dead ,sea4     ,bitumen 
in1 #cc    ,decemviral ,college1 #if    
,decumanus 7see ,tithe ,gatherer74      
,demensum 7see ,measure74    ,demons    
7see also ,gnomes71 #bag2 #bag          
,derbyshire 7see also ,high ,peak74     
,early ore washing1 #bha                
,introduction jigging sieve1 #bhc       
,mining law1 #gg2 #hd-he    ,descent    
into ,mines1 #bab    ,devon4     ,mining
 law1 #he    ,dilleugher1 #bfg          
,dioptra1 #abi    ,diphrygum1 #djd      
,dip of ,veins1 #fe-ge    ,dippas1 #aja 
,dippers1 #aeg     ,of pumps1 #agb      
,discretores 7see ,sorters74            
,distillation1 #dda     ,for making     
nitric acid1 #dda     ,of amalgam1 #bdd 
,of quicksilver1 #dbf-dcb               
,distributor1 #gh    ,divining ,rod1    

#ch-dj2 #ch2 #dj    ,divisions of the   
,compass1 #ef2 #eg    ,drainage of      
,mines1 #aba2 #aga-aih     ,with        
buckets1 #aga     ,with chain pumps1    
#agb     ,with rag and chain pumps1 #ahh
     ,with suction pumps1 #agb     ,with
 water bags1 #aih    ,drawing4          
,knowledge necessary for miners1 #d     
,drifts1 #ajd2 #aje2 #aja     ,timbering
 of1 #abe    ,drusy ,veins1 #ajg2 #ajg  
,drying ,liquation ,residues 7see also  
,liquation71 #ebg-ebi2 #dia2 #dib       
,furnaces for1 #eba2 #ebf2 #dib         
,silver extracted by1 #ebi     ,slags   
from1 #ebc    ,dumps1 ,working of1 #cj  
,dust ,chambers1 #cid2 #daf2 #ced       
,dutins1 7,timbers71 #aja    ,dynamite1 
#aai     ,earths4     ,agricola's view  
of1 #a2 #df2 #dh     ,extraordinary1    
#aae     ,peripatetic view of1 #df2 #dg 
,egyptians4     ,alluvial mining1 #ccj  
,antimony1 #dbh     ,bronze1 #djb2 #daa 
,copper smelting1 #djb     ,crushing and
 concentration1 #bgi     ,furnaces1 #cee
     ,glass making1 #ehf     ,gold      

mining1 #cii     ,iron1 #dba     ,maps1 
#abi     ,mining law1 #hc     ,silver   
and lead metallurgy1 #cij     ,tin1     
#daa2 #dab    ,egyptian ,screw 7see     
,archimedes1 ,screw of74    ,eifel4     
,spalling ore1 #bgb    ,eisenertz 7see  
,ironstone74    ,eisenglantz 7see       
,ironstone74    ,eisleben4     ,heap    
roasting1 #bgi2 #bgd    ,electrum1 #deh2
 #b2 #ce    ,elements1 ,peripatetic     
,theory of1 #dd    ,emery1 #aae         
,erbisdorff4     ,tin strakes1 #cjd     
,excoctores 7see ,smelters74            
,exhalations4     ,from veins1 #ch2 #dd 
,exhausted ,liquation ,cakes 7see       
,liquation ,cakes1 ,exhausted74         
,fans1 ,ventilation1 #bjc-bjg           
,fathom1 #faf2 #gg2 #gh    ,federwis1   
7see also ,asbestos71 #aad2 #bgd        
,feldspar1 #aad    ,ferrugo 7see        
,iron-rust74    ,ferrum purum 7see      
,native ,iron74    ,fibrae 7see         
,stringers74    ,fineness1 ,scales of1  
#bec2 #fag    ,fire-setting1 #aah-abj2  
#aah-aai    ,firstum ,mines 7see        

,fuerst74    ,fissure ,vein 7see ,vena  
profunda74    ,flame4     ,determination
 of metal by1 #bce     ,determination of
 required flux by1 #bce    ,flint1 as a 
,flux1 #chj    ,float1 from ,veins1 #cg 
,flookan1 #aja    ,flue-dust1 #cid-cif  
,fluores 7see ,fluorspar74              
,fluorspar1 #aae2 #chj2 #cha            
,indication of ore1 #aaf    ,fluesse    
7see ,fluorspar74    ,fluxes 7see also  
,argol1 ,saltpetre1 ,limestone1 ,stones 
which easily     melt1 etc471 #bcb-bci2 
#bcb2 #bcg2 #chj2 #bba     ,basic1 #bcg 
,de-sulphurizing1 #bcf2 #bcg     ,for   
smelting1 #cgi2 #chj2 #chf2 #cij        
,reducing1 #bcf2 #bcg     ,stock fluxes 
for assaying1 #bcf     ,sulphurizing1   
#bcf2 #bcg    ,footwall1 #fh2 #aag      
,forehearth1 #cef2 #cge-cgh2 #chf2 #cee 
,for tin furnaces1 #daa2 #dac           
,foreman 7see ,mining ,foreman74        
,forest-,fires1 #cf2 #cf    ,forest of  
,dean1 #hd    ,forest of ,mendip1 #hd   
,formae1 #aja    ,fossa latens 7see also
 ,drifts71 #aja    ,fossa latens        

transversa 7see also ,crosscuts71 #aja  
,fossores 7see ,miners74    ,founders'  
,hoards1 #cee2 #djb    ,fractional      
,meers1 #hj    ,france4     ,mediaeval  
mining law1 #hd    ,free ,mining        
,cities1 #hd    ,freiberg1 ,,xxxi4      
,age of the mines1 #e     ,bergmeister1 
#ie     ,division of shares1 #ha2 #ij2  
#ia     ,first discovery of veins1 #ce2 
#cf     ,flooding of mines1 #bah        
,method of cupellation1 #dhb            
,fullers' ,earth1 #aae    ,fumes4       
,from heated ore1 #bce     ,poisonous1  
#bae-baf    ,fundamentum 7see also      
,footwall71 #aja    ,fundgrube 7see also
 ,meer71 #gg    ,furnaces1 #cgd-cgh2    
#chf2 #chh2 #cee2 #dib     ,assaying    
7see ,assay ,furnaces74     ,bismuth    
smelting1 #dcc-dcg     ,burning tin     
concentrates1 #cdi     ,cementation1    
#dee     ,copper smelting1 #dja-djh     
,cupellation1 #dfg-dfh2 #dhb-dhc        
,drying liquated copper1 #ebb-ebf       
,enriching copper bottoms1 #eaj         
,gold and silver ores1 #chb-chd         

,heating copper cakes1 #ejc     ,iron   
smelting1 #dbj-dba2 #dbj     ,latin and 
,german terms1 #bbj     ,lead ores1     
#djh-daj     ,liquation of silver1 #eae 
,melting lead cakes1 #dih     ,nitric   
acid making1 #dda     ,parting precious 
metals with antimony1 #deb-dec          
,quicksilver distillation1 #dbf-dcb     
,refining copper1 #eca-ecc     ,refining
 silver1 #dhc2 #dhi     ,refining tin1  
#dah     ,roasting1 #bgf-bgg            
,smelting liquation slags1 #ejg     ,tin
 smelting1 #daa-dac2 #dai    ,furnace   
,accretions1 #aac2 #bba2 #dib           
,removal of1 #cgf    ,furnace ,hoods1   
#did    ,fuerst4     ,mines of1 #bd2 #bd
     ,gaarherd 7see ,refining-hearth74  
,gaarmachen 7see ,copper ,refining74    
,gad1 #aej    ,galena1 #ea2 #aji2 #aaj2 
#bba     ,bismuth distinguished from1 #c
     ,smelting of1 #djj-dja    ,gangue  
,minerals1 #dh    ,garlic4     ,magnet  
weakened by1 #ci    ,garnets1 #ccd      
,gases 7see also ,fumes7     ,from      
fire-setting1 #abj    ,gedigen eisen1   

silber1 etc4 7see ,native ,iron1        
,silver1 etc474    ,gel atrament 7see   
,misy74    ,gems1 #aae2 #a    ,geology4 
,agricola's views1 #eie    ,germans4    
,english mining influenced by1 #bhc     
,mining men imported into ,england1 #bhb
     ,ore-dressing methods1 #bha-bhb    
,geschwornen 7in ,saxon mines71 #gg     
,geyer1 ,,xxxi2 #db2 ,,vi4     ,shafts1 
#ajb     ,tin-strakes1 #cjd    ,gilding1
 #dfj     ,removal from objects1 #dfj2  
#dfd    ,gips 7see ,gypsum74            
,gittelde4     ,smelting of lead ore1   
#cia    ,glantz 7see ,galena74          
,glasertz 7see ,silver ,glance74        
,glaskoepfe 7see ,ironstone74    ,glass1
 #ehd-eib     ,blowing1 #eib            
,furnaces1 #ehf-eij     ,from sand1 #chj
    ,glass-galls1 #bce2 #bba     ,as a  
flux1 #bce2 #bch2 #bdc2 #bdf     ,use in
 parting gold from copper1 #dfd     ,use
 in smelting gold concentrates1 #cig2   
#cih    ,glette 7see ,litharge74        
,glimmer 7see ,mica74    ,gnomes4       
,in mines1 #bag2 #aab2 #bad2 #bag       

,goblins 7see ,gnomes74    ,god's ,gift 
,mine 7see ,gottsgaab ,mine74    ,gold  
7see also ,gold ,ores1 ,parting1        
,smelting1 ,stamp-,mill1 etc474         
,alluvial mining1 #cba-ccf2 #ccj        
,alluvial streams1 #ge                  
,amalgamation1 #big     ,gold-dust1 #cif
     ,historical notes1 #cii2 #ced      
,indications of1 #ajh2 #aaf     ,lust   
for1 not the fault of the metal1 #af    
,minerals1 #ajh     ,minerals associated
 with1 #ajh-aji     ,smelting of ores1  
#cha-chb2 #chf2 #chh2 #cij2 #cif        
,wickedness caused by1 #i-aj    ,gold   
,concentrates1 #cif-cii2 #cih    ,golden
 ,fleece1 #ccj2 #ccj    ,gold ,ores1    
#ajg-ajh     ,amalgamation1 #bie-bii2   
#big     ,assay by amalgamation1        
#bdc-bdd     ,assay by fire1 #bdb-bdc   
,flux used in assaying1 #bce     ,flux  
used in smelting1 #cih     ,smelting in 
blast furnace1 #cih-djj     ,smelting   
cupriferous ores1 #djd-djg     ,smelting
 in lead bath1 #cii     ,smelting       
pyritiferous ore1 #cih-dja              

,stamp-milling1 #cba    ,goldstein 7see 
,touchstone74    ,goslar1 #e2 #cg2 #cg  
,lead smelting1 #djh     ,native zinc   
vitriol1 #egb     ,roasting ores1 #bgd2 
#bgd     ,spalling hard ore1 #bga       
,goslarite1 #aac2 #egb    ,gottsgaab    
,mine1 ,,vi2 ,,vii2 #gd2 #gd    ,gounce1
 #bfg    ,grand ,canal of ,china1 #abi  
,granulation ,methods for ,bullion1 #ddd
    ,granulation of ,copper1 #bej       
,greeks4     ,antimony1 #dbh     ,brass 
making1 #daj     ,copper smelting1 #djc 
,iron and steel making1 #dba            
,metallurgy from ,egypt1 #djb           
,mining law1 #hc     ,ore dressing1 #bha
     ,quicksilver1 #dcb     ,silver-lead
 smelting1 #cia     ,smelting           
appliances1 #cee    ,grey ,antimony 7see
 also ,stibium71 #aaj2 #bba2 #dbh       
,griffins1 #cca    ,groom of the        
,chamber4     ,right to a meer1 #ha     
,groove 7see also ,shafts71 #aja        
,ground ,sluices1 #ccf-ccg    ,ground   
,waters1 #df-dh    ,gruenspan 7see      
,verdigris74    ,gulden1 #ib2 #dai      

,gunpowder4     ,first use for blasting 
in mines1 #aai     ,invention of1 #efb  
,gypsum1 #aad     ,hade1 #aja           
,haematites 7see ,ironstone74           
,halinitrum 7see ,saltpetre74    ,halle1
 ,salt ,industry1 #eeb    ,hammers1 #aea
     ,with water power1 #dbc            
,hangingwall1 #fh2 #aag    ,harz        
,miners4     ,agricola consulted1 ,,vii4
     ,antimony sulphide1 #dbh     ,first
 mining charter1 #hd     ,first         
stamp-mill1 #bhb     ,pumps1 #aid       
,hauling ,appliances 7see also ,whims   
and ,windlasses71 #afj-afh2 #adi        
,heap ,roasting1 #bgd-bgf               
,hearth-lead 7see also ,molybdaena71    
#dge2 #dgf2 #aaj2 #bba     ,as a flux1  
#bcb     ,use in smelting1 #cgi2 #cih2  
#djj    ,hearths4     ,for bismuth      
smelting1 #dcc-dcg     ,for melting     
lead1 #cij2 #dih    ,heavenly ,host     
,mine 7see ,himmelisch ,hoez ,mine74    
,heavy ,spar1 #aae    ,hebrews4         
,knowledge of antimony1 #dbh            
,silver-lead smelting1 #cia     ,term   

for tin1 #dab    ,hematite1 #aaa        
,hemicycle 7,hemicyclium71 #acg-ach     
,heraclion 7see ,lodestone74            
,herdplei 7see ,hearth-,lead74          
,hiero1 ,king1 #bdg2 #bdg    ,high ,peak
 7,derbyshire74     ,mining law1 #hd    
,nomenclature in mines1 #gg     ,saxon  
customs1 connection with1 #gg2 #he      
,himmelisch ,hoez mine1 #gd2 #ib2 #ge   
,hoe1 #aeb    ,holidays of ,miners1 #ii 
,horn ,silver1 #aji    ,horns of ,deer1 
#bcj    ,hornstone1 #aaf2 #aad          
,hungary4     ,cupellation1 #dhc        
,huettenrauch 7see ,pompholyx74         
,iglau1 ,charter of1 #hd    ,incense in 
,cupellation ,furnaces1 #dgb            
,indications of ,ore1 #ajf2 #ajg2 #aaf  
,ingestores 7see ,shovellers74          
,india4     ,steel1 #dbc     ,zinc1 #dji
    ,intervenium1 #ea2 #ej              
,investment in ,mines1 #bf-bi    ,iron1 
#dbj2 #ced2 #aaa     ,cast1 #dbj        
,censure of1 #aa     ,indications of1   
#aaf     ,malleable1 #dbj     ,smelting1
 #dbj-dbf     ,sulphur harmful to1 #bgc 

,iron ,age1 #dbj    ,iron ,filings 7see 
also ,iron-,scales71 #bba     ,use in   
assaying1 #bcd2 #bch2 #bdf    ,iron     
,ore4     ,assaying of1 #bdg            
,smelting of1 #dbj-dbf    ,iron-rust1   
#aaf2 #dgd2 #a2 #aaa    ,iron-scales1   
#bba     ,flux1 #bcd     ,use in        
smelting gold1 #cih     ,use in smelting
 silver1 #djj     ,use in making nitric 
acid1 #ddj     ,use in parting gold from
 copper1 #dfd    ,iron-slag1 #bba       
,as a flux1 #bcd2 #bce    ,ironstone1   
#cij2 #aaa    ,italians4     ,alluvial  
mining in ,germany1 #ccd    ,italy4     
,mining formerly forbidden1 #h          
,jade1 #aad    ,japan4     ,steel1 #dbc 
,jasper1 #aaa2 #b    ,jaspis1 #aad      
,jet1 #cd    ,jigging ,sieve1 #caj2     
#bfg2 #bhc    ,joachimsthal1 ,,vi4      
,first stamp-mill1 #bha     ,mining     
shares and profits1 #ia2 #ib            
,juedenstein 7see ,lapis ,judaicus74    
,juices1 #a2 #dg     ,agricola's theory1
 #df2 #eb     ,from springs and streams1
 #cc     ,stone juice1 #df2 #di         

,tastes of1 #cd    ,juices1 ,solidified4
     ,agricola's view of1 #a2 #di       
,extraction of metals from1 #cej        
,preparation of1 #ede    ,julian ,alps4 
,stamp-milling in1 #cai    ,junctions   
7see ,veins1 ,intersections of74        
,jurati 7see ,jurors74    ,jurors1 #bb2 
#ib2 #if2 #gh     ,in ,english mining   
custom1 #he     ,relations to           
,bergmeister1 #ie2 #gg    ,justinian    
,code4     ,mines1 #hd     ,kalchstein  
7see ,limestone74    ,kammschale1 #abg  
,kaolinite 7see ,porcelain ,clay74      
,katzensilber 7see ,mica74    ,king4    
,deputy1 #id     ,right to a meer1 #ha  
,kinstock 7see ,liquation ,cakes1       
,exhausted74    ,kis 7see ,pyrites74    
,knockers 7see ,gnomes74    ,kobelt 7see
 ,cobalt74    ,koelergang ,vein1 #db    
,koenigsberg4     ,fire-setting1 #aai   
,kupferglas ertz 7see ,copper ,glance74 
,kupferschiefer 7see ,copper ,schists74 
,kuttenberg4     ,depths of shafts1 #ajb
     ,labour ,condition in ,mining      
,title1 #ib2 #hc-he    ,lacedaemonians  

7see ,spartans74    ,lachter 7see       
,fathom74    ,ladderways in ,shafts1    
#abd2 #bab    ,ladle for ,bullion1 #chb 
,lapis aerarius 7see ,copper ,ore74     
,lapis alabandicus1 #chj    ,lapis      
,judaicus1 #aae2 #aae    ,lapis         
specularis 7see ,gypsum74    ,laths     
7,lagging71 #aja    ,la ,tolfa4         
,alum manufacture1 #efe     ,discovery  
of1 #egj    ,laurion 7,laurium71 ,mt4   
7see ,mt4 ,laurion1 ,mines of74         
,lautental1 ,liquation at1 #dia    ,law 
7see ,mining ,law74    ,law-suits over  
,shares in ,mines1 #id    ,lead1 #ced2  
#cij2 #aaj     ,censure of1 #aa         
,cupellation1 #dfd-dhc     ,melting     
prior to liquation1 #ejj     ,in        
liquation cakes1 #eje-ejf2 #eje2 #ejf   
,refining silver1 #dhc-dij     ,smelting
 of ores1 #chh-cib2 #djj     ,use in    
assaying1 #bcb2 #bci2 #bdb2 #bdd2 #bdi2 
#bea     ,washing in sluices1 #cdg      
,lead-ash1 #bcg2 #bcg2 #bba     ,as a   
flux1 #bcd     ,use in parting gold from
 copper1 #dfc    ,lead ,bath1 #cha      

,lead-glass1 #bcf    ,lead ,granules1   
#bci2 #dfc2 #bba    ,leading 7in        
liquation71 #cjd2 #ejg2 #eac2 #dia2     
#dib2 #ejd     ,components of the       
charge1 #eje-eji    ,lead ,ochre1 #bcb2 
#aaj2 #bba    ,lead ,ore4     ,assay    
methods1 #bde-bdf     ,roasting1 #bge   
,smelting in blast furnace1 #cij2 #djh  
,lease1 in ,australian ,title1 #gg      
,leaves1 ,preparation of ,bullion into1 
#ddd    ,leberthal1 #bd    ,lees of aqua
 which separates ,gold from ,silver1    
#bcd2 #ddc2 #bba     ,as a flux1 #bcd2  
#bch    ,lees of ,vinegar 7see also     
,argol71 #bba     ,as a flux1 #bcd2     
#bcf2 #bdc2 #bcd    ,lees of ,wine 7see 
,argol74    ,lemnos1 ,island of1 #ca    
,lemnian ,earth1 #ca    ,leprosy of     
,house ,walls 7see ,saltpetre74         
,level 7see also ,drift71 #aja          
,level1 ,plummet 7see ,plummet ,level74 
,limestone1 #aad2 #bba     ,as a flux1  
#bcf2 #cij    ,limonite1 #aaa    ,limp1 
#bfg    ,linares4     ,hannibal's mines 
near1 #db    ,lipari ,islands4     ,alum

 from1 #eff    ,liquated ,silver-lead   
7see ,stannum and ,silver-lead74        
,liquation1 #eai-eba2 #dia2 #eai        
,ash-coloured copper from1 #ebi         
,buildings for1 #dia     ,furnace1      
#eae-eah2 #dib     ,historical note on1 
#did     ,losses1 #dia2 #eci            
,nomenclature1 #dib    ,liquation       
,cakes1 #eje-eji2 #dib2 #eje2 #ejf      
,enrichment of the lead1 #eab2 #eab     
,extraction of silver from1 #eab        
,from bye-products of liquation1        
#eci-edj     ,from copper bottoms1 #eab2
 #eab     ,proportion of lead in rich   
silver copper1 #eji    ,liquation       
,cakes1 ,exhausted1 #eba-ebf2 #djf2     
#dib2 #ebj    ,liquation ,slags1 #eji2  
#dib2 #eda     ,furnaces for1 #ejg      
,treatment of1 #eda    ,liquation       
,thorns1 #ebb2 #eci2 #dib2 #eci2 #edj   
,from cupellation1 #edc2 #edc     ,from 
drying copper residues1 #ebi            
,litharge 7see also ,cupellation71 #dge2
 #bcb-bch2 #dff2 #dgf2 #aaj2 #bbb       
,use in reducing silver nitrate1 #ddg   

,use in smelting1 #cgi2 #cih2 #djj      
,lithargyrum 7see ,litharge74           
,lodestone1 #aae2 #aaa2 #aae2 #b        
,compass1 #eg    ,los ,pozos de ,anibal1
 #db    ,lotores 7see ,washers74        
,lusitania4     ,gold alluvial1 #cdg    
,sluices for gold washing1 #cbe     ,tin
 smelting1 #dai    ,lute1 #a            
,preparation of for furnace linings1    
#cge-cgf    ,lydia4     ,mining law1 #hc
     ,the ,king's mines1 #bg    ,lye1   
#eeh2 #bba2 #bcc     ,use in making     
fluxes1 #bcf     ,use in parting1 #dfc  
,magister ,metallicorum 7see            
,bergmeister74    ,magister             
,monetariorum 7see ,master of the       
,mint74    ,magnes 7see also ,lodestone 
and ,manganese71 #ehe2 #aaa2 #aae2 #ehe 
,magnet1 #bdg     ,garlic1 #ci          
,magnetis 7see ,mica74    ,magnetite1   
#aaa    ,malachite1 #aji2 #bba          
,maladies of ,miners1 #bad-bag          
,maltha1 #eha    ,manager 7see ,mine    
,manager74    ,manganese1 #ehf2 #ced    
,mannsfeld ,copper ,slates1 #abf-abg2   

#bgi2 #abg2 #bgc    ,map-making1 #abi   
,marble1 #aae2 #b2 #aad    ,marcasite1  
#aaa2 #aab2 #dji    ,marga 7see ,marl74 
,marienberg1 ,,xxxi2 ,,vi4    ,marl1    
#aad    ,marmelstein 7see ,marble74     
,marmor 7see ,marble74    ,marmor       
alabastrites 7see ,alabaster74          
,marmor glarea1 #aad    ,massicot 7see  
also ,lead ,ochre71 #aaj2 #bba2 #bcb    
,master of the ,horse1 #ha    ,master of
 the ,mint1 #ie2 #gh    ,matte 7see     
,cakes of ,melted ,pyrites74    ,matte  
,smelting1 #djd-djg    ,measure 7unit of
 mining area71 #gh2 #gh    ,measures1   
#faf-fag2 #gh2 #eej    ,medicine4       
,knowledge necessary for miners1 #c     
,medulla saxorum 7see ,porcelain ,clay74
    ,meer1 #gg-hi     ,boundary stones1 
#hg     ,on vena cumulata1 #hg     ,on  
vena dilatata1 #hf    ,meissen4         
,dumps from mines1 #cab    ,melanteria1 
#aag2 #aab2 #egc     ,indication of     
copper1 #aaf    ,melanterite1 #aaa      
,melos1 ,island of1 #eff    ,menning    
7see ,red-lead74    ,mergel 7see ,marl74

    ,metals1 #b2 #dd2 #ea               
,advantages and uses1 #ai2 #bj          
,necessity to man1 ,,xxv2 #ab-ac        
,not responsible for evil passions1 #ae 
,metreta1 #aec    ,mexico4     ,patio   
process1 #big    ,mica1 #aad    ,middle 
,ages1 ,mining ,law of1 #hd    ,mills   
for ,grinding ,ore1 #bid-bii2 #bhj      
,mimes 7see also ,gnomes71 #bag    ,mine
 ,captain1 #bf2 #gg    ,mine ,manager1  
#ig2 #ih2 #gg2 #gh    ,mineral ,kingdom1
 ,agricola's ,divisions of1 #a          
,minerals1 #eid2 #ajh2 #dh2 #ea         
,compound1 #b2 #ea     ,mixed1 #b2 #ea  
,miners1 #a-d2 #be2 #gh     ,duties and 
punishments1 #ajj2 #bb     ,law 7see    
,mining ,law74     ,litigation among1   
#ba     ,slaves as1 #bc    ,mines4      
,abandonment of1 #bag     ,conditions   
desirable1 #cj-cc     ,investments in1  
#bf-bi     ,management of1 #be2 #bf     
,names of1 #db    ,mines ,royal1        
,company of1 #bhc    ,mining 7see also  
,sett1 ,lease1 ,claim1 ,meer1 etc474    
,criticisms of1 #d-ab     ,harmless and 

honourable1 #ad2 #bj2 #bc     ,methods  
of breaking ore1 #aag-aah     ,stoping1 
#abe    ,mining ,clerk1 #ic2 #ie2 #if2  
#gh    ,mining ,companies 7see          
,companies1 ,mining74    ,mining        
,foreman1 #ih-ii2 #gh     ,frauds by1   
#ba-bb    ,mining ,law1 #hb-hf          
,boundary stones1 #hg     ,drainage     
requirements1 #ib-ic     ,england1      
#hd-hf     ,europe1 #hd     ,forfeiture 
of title1 #ib-ic     ,france1 #hd       
,greek and ,roman1 #hc     ,middle      
,ages1 #hd-he     ,right of ,overlord1  
,landowner1 ,state and ,miner1 #hb      
,tunnels1 #hh-hi    ,mining ,prefect1   
#bf2 #id2 #gh    ,mining ,rights 7see   
,mining ,law and ,meer74    ,mining     
,terms1 ,old ,english1 #gg2 #aja        
,mining ,tools1 #adi-aec     ,buckets   
for ore1 #aec-aed     ,buckets for      
water1 #aeg     ,trucks1 #aef           
,wheelbarrows1 #aee    ,minium1 #aaa    
,quicksilver from1 #dcc     ,red-lead1  
#bcb    ,minium secundarium 7see        
,red-lead74    ,mispickel 7,mistpuckel71

 #aaa    ,misy 7the mineral71 #egc2     
#aaa2 #djc     ,an indication of copper1
 #aaf     ,use in parting gold and      
silver1 #dei    ,mitlere und obere      
offenbrueche 7see ,furnace ,accretions74
    ,modius1 #fag2 #dje    ,moglitz4    
,tin working1 #cah    ,moil1 #aej       
,molybdaena1 #aaj2 #bba2 #dgf2 #djj2    
#djh     ,term for lead carbonates1     
#djj2 #djh    ,molybdenite1 #dgg        
,monetarius 7see ,coiners74    ,money1  
,assaying of1 #bea-beb    ,morano ,glass
 ,factories1 #eib    ,moravia4          
,cupellation1 #dhc     ,stamp-milling1  
#cba     ,washing gold ore1 #cbd        
,mordants1 #efi    ,mortar-box1         
#bgi-bhj2 #cab2 #cai2 #bfg              
,mountains4     ,formation of1 #eie     
,mt4 ,bermius4     ,gold ,mines of1 #bf2
 #bg    ,mt4 ,laurion1 ,mines of1 #bg2  
#bg-bi2 #cia     ,crushing and          
concentration of ores1 #bha             
,cupellation1 #dfe     ,mining law1 #hc 
,smelting appliances1 #cee     ,xenophon
 on1 #f    ,mt4 ,sinai4     ,ancient    

copper smelting1 #cee2 #djb    ,muffle  
,furnaces1 #bbd-bbh2 #bci    ,muffles1  
#bbg2 #bci2 #bbb     ,refining silver1  
#dhi-dij    ,muehlberg1 ,battle of1 ,x4 
,murrhina 7see ,chalcedony74            
,muskets1 #aa    ,mycenae4     ,copper1 
#djb     ,silver-lead smelting1 #cia    
,names of ,mines1 #db    ,naphtha1 #eha 
,native ,copper1 #aji    ,native ,iron1 
#aaa    ,native ,minerals1 #ajg         
,native ,silver1 #bfi2 #aji    ,natron  
7see ,nitrum74    ,neolithic ,furnaces1 
#cee    ,neusohl1 ,method of ,screening 
,ore1 #bij    ,newbottle ,abbey1 #ce    
,nitocris1 ,bridge of1 #cia    ,nitric  
,acid 7see also ,aqua valens71 #dci-ddc2
 #dfj2 #dci2 #ced     ,assay parting    
gold and silver1 #bdh     ,testing      
silver regulus with1 #ddi     ,use in   
cleaning gold dust1 #cif    ,nitrum 7see
 also ,soda71 #eeh2 #aaj                
,nomenclature1 ,i2 #bfg     ,mining law1
 #gg2 #gh     ,mining officials1 #gg2   
#gh    ,norici1 #chh     ,conveyance of 
ore1 #afi    ,normans4     ,mining ,law 

in ,england1 #he    ,notary1 #id2   #gh 
,nubia4     ,early gold-mining1 #cii    
,nuremberg1 ,scale of ,weights1 #bfc    
,obolus1 #be    ,ochra nativa1 #aaa     
,ochre ,yellow1 #aaa    ,offenbrueche   
7see ,furnace ,accretions74             
,olynthus4     ,betrayal to ,philip of  
,macedon1 #i    ,operculum1 #dda2 #bbb  
,orbis1 #ada2 #acg    ,ore 7see various 
metals1 ,assaying1 ,mining1 etc474      
,ore ,channels 7see ,canales74    ,ore  
,deposits1 ,theory of1 ,,xiii2 #dc-ec   
,ore ,dressing1 #bfg-cea     ,burning1  
#bgc     ,hand spalling1 #bga-bgb       
,sorting1 #bfh-bga    ,orguia1 #gh2 #gh2
 #fag    ,orichalcum 7see ,aurichalcum74
    ,orpiment1 #aaa2 #a2 #bbb           
,colour of fumes1 #bce     ,harmful to  
metals1 #bgc     ,indication of gold1   
etc41 #aaf     ,roasted from ore1 #bgc  
,use in assaying1 #bcg    ,outcrops1    
#fh2 #dc    ,ox-blood in ,salt ,making1 
#eeb     ,pactolus1 ,gold ,sands of1 #bg
    ,park's ,process1 #dfe    ,parting  
,gold from ,copper1 #dfb-dfd    ,parting

 ,gold from ,silver1 #ddc-dfj2 #deh-dfc 
,antimony sulphide1 #dea-deb2 #dea-deb2 
#dfa     ,cementation1 #dec-deg2        
#dec-ded2 #deh     ,chlorine gas1 #deh2 
#dfb     ,electrolysis1 #deh2 #dfb      
,nitric acid1 #ddc-ddg2 #ddc2 #ddg2 #dfj
     ,nitric acid 7in assaying71        
#bdg-bdi     ,sulphur and copper1       
#ddh-dea2 #ddh2 #dfa     ,sulphuric     
acid1 #deh2 #dfb    ,partitions1 #dic   
,passau1 ,peace of1 ,,ix4    ,passus1   
#faf2 #gh    ,patio ,process1 #big-bih  
,pattinson's ,process1 #dfe    ,peak1   
,the 7see ,high ,peak74    ,pentremites1
 #aae    ,pergamum4     ,brazen ox of1  
#aa     ,mines near1 #bf2 #bg           
,peripatetics1 ,,xii4     ,theory of ore
 deposits1 #dg2 #dd     ,view of wealth1
 #ah    ,persians4     ,ancient mining  
law1 #hc    ,pes1 #faf2 #gh    ,pestles1
 #bca2 #dhc    ,petroleum1 #eha-ehb     
,phalaris1 ,brazen ,bull of1 #aa        
,philosophy4     ,knowledge necessary   
for miners1 #c    ,phoenicians4         
,copper and bronze1 #djb     ,in        

,thasos1 #bd     ,tin1 #daa-dab         
,picks1 #aeb-aec    ,pickschiefer 7see  
,ash-coloured ,copper74    ,placer      
,mining1 #cba-cdh    ,pleigeel 7see     
,lead ,ochre74    ,pleiweis 7see        
,white-lead74    ,pleygang ,vein1 #db   
,plumbago1 #aaj    ,plumbum candidum1   
#aaj2 #c2 #dgc    ,plumbum cinereum1    
#aaa2 #c    ,plumbum nigrum lutei       
coloris1 #aaj2 #c    ,plummet ,level4   
,standing1 #adc2 #acg     ,suspended1   
#ade2 #adf2 #acg    ,pockets in         
,alluvial ,sluices1 #cbb-ccj            
,poisonous ,fumes 7see ,fumes74         
,poland4     ,cupellation1 #dhc         
,lead ore washing1 #cdg     ,lead       
smelting1 #cib    ,poletae1 ,tablets of 
the1 #hc    ,poling ,copper1 #eca-ech2  
#ece-ecf    ,pompeiopolis4     ,arsenic 
mine at1 #aaa    ,pompholyx1 #cid2      
#aac-aad2 #djc     ,from copper         
refinings1 #ech     ,from cupellation1  
#dgf     ,from dust-chambers1 #cid      
,from roasting ore1 #bgh     ,poisonous1
 #bad2 #bae     ,used for brass making1 

#daj    ,porcelain ,clay1 #aae          
,potash1 #eeh-eei2 #eeh2 #bcc2 #bbj     
,in ,sal artificiosus1 #dfc    ,pottery1
 ,egyptian1 #cia    ,potosi1 #bih       
,pozos de ,anibal1 ,los1 #db    ,pous1  
#fag2 #gh    ,praefectus cuniculi1 #gh  
,praefectus fodinae 7see ,mine          
,manager74    ,praefectus metallorum    
7see ,mining ,prefect74    ,praeses     
cuniculi1 #gh    ,praeses fodinae 7see  
,mining ,foreman74    ,precious and     
,base ,metals1 #dci    ,primgap1 #hj    
,procurator metallorum1 #hc             
,prospecting1 #ce    ,proustite1 #ajh   
,pumps1 #aga-bjj2 #adi     ,chain1      
#aga-age     ,rag and chain1 #ahh-bjj   
,suction1 #age-ahh    ,purgator argenti 
7see ,silver ,refiner74    ,purser1 #gg 
,puteoli1 #eja    ,pyrargyrite1 #ajh    
,pyriten argentum1 #djh    ,pyrites 7see
 also ,cakes of ,melted ,pyrites71 #ea2 
#aaa2 #aab2 #a     ,as a flux1 #bcd     
,assay for gold1 #bdc     ,in tin       
concentrates1 #cdh     ,latin and       
,german terms1 #bbb     ,roasting1      

#bgc-bgd     ,roasting cakes of1        
#cdi-cea     ,smelting for gold and     
silver1 #cii2 #dja     ,used in making  
vitriol1 #egh    ,pyrites aerosus 7see  
,copper ,pyrites74    ,pyrites aurei    
coloris 7see ,copper ,pyrites74         
,quartz 7see also ,stones which easily  
melt71 #aad     ,as a flux1 #chj     ,an
 indication of ore1 #aaf     ,material  
of glass1 #chj     ,silver ore1 #aac    
,smelting of1 #dja    ,quarzum 7see     
,quartz74    ,quertze1 #chj             
,quicksilver1 #dcb2 #b2 #ced2 #aaj      
,amalgamation of gilt objects1 #dfa     
,amalgamation of gold dust1 #cif        
,amalgamation of gold ores1 #big2 #big  
,assaying methods1 #bdg     ,ore1       
#dbf-dcb     ,use in assaying gold ore1 
#bdc     ,rag and ,chain ,pumps1        
#ahh-bjj    ,rake ,veins1 #aja          
,rammelsberg4     ,collapse of mines1   
#baf     ,discovery1 #cg     ,early     
vitriol making1 #egb    ,rauchstein1    
#abg    ,realgar1 #a2 #aaa2 #bbb        
,colour of fumes1 #bce     ,harmful to  

metals1 #bgc     ,indication of ore1    
#aaf     ,roasted from ore1 #bgc        
,rederstein 7see ,trochitis74           
,red-lead1 #bcb2 #aaj2 #bbb     ,use in 
parting gold from copper1 #dfc     ,use 
in parting gold from silver1 #dei       
,refined ,salt1 #ded2 #dfc2 #bcc        
,refinery for ,silver and ,copper1      
#dia-dih    ,refining ,gold from        
,copper1 #dfb-dfd    ,refining ,gold    
from ,silver1 #ddc-deh                  
,refining-hearth1 #dib    ,refining     
,silver1 #dhc-dij2 #dfe2 #dhd           
,refining ,silver from ,lead1 #dfd      
,reformation1 ,the1 ,v2 ,,viii4         
,re-opening of ,old ,mines1 #bag        
,revival of ,learning4     ,agricola's  
position in1 ,,xiii4    ,reward ,lease1 
in ,australian ,law1 #gg    ,rhaetia1   
#chh    ,rhaetian ,alps4     ,stamp     
milling in1 #cai    ,ring-fire1 #ddh    
,rio ,tinto ,mines4     ,roman methods  
of smelting1 #dje     ,roman            
water-wheels1 #adi    ,risks of ,mining1
 #bh-bi    ,rither 7a horse71 #aja      

,roasted ,copper1 #bcc2 #bcc2 #bbb      
,roasting1 #bgc-bgi2 #bfg     ,heap     
roasting1 #bgd-bge     ,in furnaces1    
#bgf     ,mattes1 #cdi-cea     ,prior to
 assaying1 #bca    ,rocks1 #aai2 #b     
,rock-salt1 #edh2 #bbb     ,use in      
cementation1 #ded    ,roman ,alum1 #efe 
,romans4     ,amalgamation1 #big        
,antimony1 #dbh     ,brass making1 #daj 
,companies1 #ij     ,copper smelting1   
#djd-dje     ,mining law1 #hc           
,minium ,company1 #bcb     ,quicksilver1
 #dcc     ,roasting1 #bfg               
,silver-lead smelting1 #cib     ,washing
 of ore1 #bha    ,rosette ,copper1 #ech2
 #ece    ,rosgeel 7see ,realgar74       
,ruby ,copper1 #aji2 #djb    ,ruby      
,silver1 #ea2 #ajh     ,assaying of1    
#bdd     ,cupellation1 #dgc    ,rudis   
,ores1 #ajh    ,rust 7see ,iron-rust74  
,sabines1 #i    ,saigerdoerner 7see     
,liquation ,thorns74    ,saigerwerk 7see
 ,stannum74    ,salamander har 7see     
,asbestos74    ,salamis1 ,battle of1 #bg
    ,sal-ammoniac1 #efj2 #efj2 #bbb     

,in cements for parting gold and silver1
 #ded-deg     ,in making aqua valens1   
#dda     ,uses in cupellation1 #dgd     
,uses in making aqua regia1 #dfj        
,uses in parting gold from copper1 #dfc 
,sal artificiosus1 #bcf2 #dfc2 #bcf     
,in assaying1 #bdb     ,as a flux1 #bcd 
,salt1 #ede2 #eef2 #edf2 #bcc2 #bbb     
,as a flux1 #bcd-bch     ,pans1 #ede2   
#edf     ,solidified juice1 #a     ,use 
in cementation1 #ded2 #ded     ,use in  
parting gold from copper1 #dfc2 #dfd    
,use in smelting ores1 #cif2 #djj       
,wells1 #edf-edg    ,salt made from     
,ashes of ,musk ,ivy1 #efj2 #bcc    ,sal
 torrefactus1 #bdb2 #bbb2 #bcc    ,sal  
tostus1 #bcc2 #bcc2 #bbb    ,saltpetre1 
#efa-efd2 #efa2 #efb2 #bbb     ,as a    
flux1 #bcc2 #bcf-bch2 #bde2 #bdg     ,in
 smelting gold concentrates1 #cih       
,uses in cementation1 #ded2 #ded        
,uses in making nitric acid1 #dci2 #ddj2
 #ddg2 #ded     ,uses in melting silver 
nitrate1 #ddg    ,sampling ,copper      
,bullion1 #bdi    ,sand1 #aag           

,sandaraca 7see ,realgar74    ,sandiver 
7see ,glass-galls74    ,sarda 7see      
,carnelian74    ,saxony4     ,high ,peak
 customs from1 #gg2 #he     ,political  
state in ,agricola's time1 ,,viii2 ,,ix4
     ,reformation1 ,,ix4    ,saxum      
calcis 7see ,limestone74    ,scales of  
,fineness1 #bec2 #fag    ,scapte-,hyle1 
,mines of1 #bc    ,schemnitz4     ,age  
of mines1 #e     ,gunpowder for         
blasting1 #aai     ,pumps1 #aid         
,schist1 #bbb    ,schistos 7see         
,ironstone74    ,schlackenwald4     ,ore
 washing1 #cjd    ,schmalkalden ,league1
 ,,ix4    ,schmalkalden ,war1 ,,ix2 ,x4 
,schneeberg1 ,,xxxi2 ,,vi4     ,cobalt1 
#dce     ,depth of shafts1 #ajb     ,ore
 stamping1 #bha     ,shares1 #ia        
,st4 ,george mine1 #ia2 #gd2 #ge        
,schwartz-atrament 7see ,melanteria and 
,sory74    ,scorification ,assay1 #bci  
,scorifier1 #bbh2 #bcj2 #bbb     ,assays
 in1 #bch2 #bci    ,screening ,ore 7see 
,sifting ,ore74    ,screens 7see also   
,screening71 #bfg     ,in stamp-mill1   

#cae    ,scriba fodinarum 7see ,mining  
,clerk74    ,scriba magistri            
metallicorum 7see ,bergmeister's        
,clerk74    ,scriba partium 7see ,share 
,clerk74    ,scum of ,lead from         
,cupellation1 #dge    ,scythians4       
,wealth condemned1 #i2 #ae    ,seams in 
the ,rocks1 #gb2 #dc2 #dg               
,indications of ore1 #fg2 #ajg          
,sea-,water1 ,salt from1 #ede-edf       
,sesterce1 #ddh    ,sett1 #gg           
,settling ,pits1 #caf2 #bfg             
,shaft-houses1 #ajb    ,shafts1         
#ajb-ajg2 #abb-abd     ,surveys of1     
#abi-ace     ,venae cumulatae1 #abh     
,shakes1 #aja    ,share ,clerk1 #ig2    
#ic2 #gh    ,share in ,mines 7see       
,companies1 ,mining74    ,shears for    
,cutting ,native ,silver1 #bfi          
,shift1 #ii2 #ib    ,shoes 7stamp71     
#bhe-bhf2 #bfg    ,shovellers1 #aec2    
#afi2 #gh    ,sideritis 7see            
,lodestone74    ,siegelstein 7see       
,lodestone74    ,sieves4     ,for       
charcoal1 #cge     ,for crushed ore1    

#bhg-bic2 #cda    ,sifting ,ore1        
#bhg-bic    ,signator publicus 7see     
,notary74    ,silberweis 7see ,mica74   
,silex1 #aad2 #aah    ,silver 7see also 
,assaying1 ,liquation1 ,parting1        
,refining1     etc471 #cij2 #ced2 #ajh  
,amalgamation1 #big2 #cjj     ,assaying1
 #bdh-bea     ,cupellation1 #dfd-dhc2   
#bda     ,drying copper residues from   
liquation1 #ebi     ,enrichment in      
copper bottoms1 #eaj2 #eaj              
,exhausted liquation cakes1 #ebd        
,indicated by bismuth1 etc41 #aaf       
,liquation1 #eje-ejg2 #ejf2 #eji2 #eab  
,parting from gold 7see ,parting ,gold  
and ,silver74     ,parting from iron1   
#edd2 #edd     ,precipitation from      
solution in copper bowl1 #ddd           
,refining1 #dhc-dij2 #dfe2 #dhd         
,smelting of ores1 #cha-chb2 #chf2 #chh2
 #cij2 #djj2 #djb     ,use in           
clarification of nitric acid1 #ddc2 #ddc
    ,silver1 ,ruby 7see ,ruby ,silver74 
,silver ,glance1 #ajh     ,assaying1    
#bdd     ,cupellation1 #dgc             

,dressing1 #bfi    ,silver-,lead ,alloy 
7see ,stannum1 etc474    ,silver ,ores1 
#ajh2 #ajh     ,assaying1 #bdb-bdd      
,assaying cupriferous ores1 #bde        
,fluxes required in assaying1 #bce      
,smelting cupriferous ores1 #djd-djg    
,silver-,plating1 #dfj    ,silver       
,refiner1 #ie2 #gh    ,silver ,refining 
7see ,refining74    ,silver ,veins1 #aag
    ,singing by ,miners1 #aah           
,sintering ,concentrates1 #dja    ,slags
 7see also ,liquation ,slags71 #bbb     
,from blast furnace1 #cgi2 #cha         
,from liquation1 #dia2 #dib2 #ebc       
,slaves as ,miners1 #bc2 #hc     ,in    
,greek mines1 #be2 #be2 #bh    ,slough  
7tunnel71 #aja    ,sluices1 #cai2       
#cbb-cdh    ,smallite1 #aac    ,smalt1  
#aab    ,smega1 #djd    ,smelters1 #gh  
,smelting 7see also various metals71    
#cgi-cij2 #cec-cee     ,assaying        
compared1 #bbj     ,building for1       
#cee-cfa     ,objects of1 #cec          
,smirgel 7see ,emery74    ,smiris 7see  
,emery74    ,smyrna4     ,mines near1   

#bg    ,snake-,bites1 #ca    ,soda 7see 
also ,nitrum71 #eeh2 #eei2 #bcc2 #bbb   
,as a flux1 #bcc2 #bcd     ,historical  
notes1 #eeh2 #ced     ,solidified juice1
 #a    ,sole1 #aja    ,solidified       
,juices 7see ,juices1 ,solidified74     
,solifuga1 #baf2 #baf    ,sorters1 #gh  
,sorting ,ore1 #bfh-bga    ,sory1 #aab2 
#djc2 #egc    ,sows1 #cgf2 #chf2 #cgf   
,spain 7see also ,lusitania74           
,ancient silver-lead mines1 #adi2 #cib  
,ancient silver mines of ,carthage1 #bg 
,ancient tin mines1 #daa-dab            
,spalling ,ore1 #bga-bgb    ,spangen    
7see ,trochitis74    ,spanschgruen 7see 
,verdigris74    ,spartans4     ,gold and
 silver forbidden1 #i2 #ae              
,interference with ,athenian mines1 #bg 
,spat 7see ,heavy ,spar74    ,spelter1  
#dji    ,sphalerite1 #aac    ,spiauter1 
#dji    ,spiesglas 7see ,stibium74      
,spines of ,fishes for ,cupels1 #bcj    
,spodos1 #ech2 #cid2 #aac2 #aad         
,spuma argenti 7see ,litharge74         
,staffordshire4     ,first pumping      

engine1 #adi    ,stalagmites1 #aad      
,stall ,roasting1 #cej-cea    ,stamp1   
#bfg     ,for breaking copper cakes1    
#eja-ejc     ,for crushing crucible     
lining1 #cgc-cge    ,stamping ,refined  
,silver1 #dhi    ,stamp-mill1 #bgi-bhg2 
#bha-bhb2 #bfg     ,wet ore1 #cab-cad2  
#cai-cba    ,standing ,plummet ,level   
7see ,plummet ,level74    ,stannaries1  
#he    ,stannum1 #dgc2 #b2 #chd2 #dib   
,steel1 #dbc-dbf2 #dbb-dbc2 #ced        
,steiger1 #gg    ,steinmarck 7see       
,porcelain ,clay74    ,stemple 7stull71 
#aja    ,stephanite1 #aji    ,sternen   
,mine1 #ib2 #ge    ,steward 7of ,high   
,peak mines71 #gg    ,st4 ,george ,mine 
7,schneeberg71 #ia2 #gd2 #ge    ,stibium
 7see also ,antimony and ,antimony      
,sulphide71 #aaj2 #dbh2 #b2 #bba        
,flux to be added to1 #bce     ,in      
assaying1 #bcg-bci     ,in cementation1 
#deh-dfj     ,indication of silver1 #aaf
     ,in making nitric acid1 #ddj       
,in parting gold and silver1 #dea-deb2  
#dei     ,in parting gold from copper1  

#dfd     ,in treatment of gold          
concentrates1 #cif2 #cig    ,stibnite1  
#dbh2 #dea    ,st4 ,lorentz ,mine1 #gd2 
#ib    ,stockwerke 7see ,vena cumulata74
    ,stoics4     ,views on wealth1 #ah  
,stomoma1 #dbc    ,stone ,juice1 #df2   
#di    ,stones4     ,agricola's view of1
 #b2 #df2 #di     ,various orders of    
fusibility1 #chj    ,stones which       
,easily ,melt 7see also ,quartz71 #chj2 
#bbb     ,as a flux1 #bcc2 #bcf2 #bcc   
,in making nitric acid1 #ddj     ,in    
smelting1 #cgi2 #chj2 #cij     ,smelting
 of1 #dja    ,stool 7of a drift71 #aja  
,stope1 #abf    ,stoping1 #abe          
,venae cumulatae1 #abh     ,venae       
dilatatae1 #abf2 #abg    ,strake1       
#cjc-caj2 #bfg2 #bhb     ,canvas1       
#cjg-caj2 #cad2 #caf2 #bfg              
,egyptians1 #bhj     ,greeks1 #bha      
,short1 #cjf-cjg2 #bfg     ,washing tin 
concentrates1 #cda-cdc    ,strata1 #abf 
,streaming1 #caf-cah    ,stringers1 #gj2
 #dc2 #dg2 #gj     ,indication of ore1  
#ajf     ,mining method1 #abh           

,styria1 #chh    ,subterranean ,heat1   
#df2 #eie    ,suction ,pumps1 #age-ahh  
,sulphides1 #bfg2 #cee    ,sulphur1     
#egh-eha2 #egi2 #bbb     ,colour of     
fumes1 #bce     ,harmful to metals1 #bgc
     ,in assaying1 #bce-bch     ,in     
parting gold from copper1 #dfc2 #dfb    
,in parting gold from silver1 #ddh-dea2 
#ddh2 #dfa     ,in smelting gold dust1  
#cif     ,roasted from ores1 #bgc2 #bgf 
,solidified juice1 #a    ,sulphur not   
exposed to the fire1 #deh2 #dfc2 #egi   
,surveyor's ,field1 #acg2 #add2 #adb    
,surveying1 #abh-adh2 #abi              
,necessary for miners1 #d     ,rod1     
#acg-ach    ,suspended ,plummet ,level  
7see ,plummet ,level74    ,swiss        
,compass1 #ade2 #acg    ,swiss          
,surveyors1 #ade    ,symposium1 #ia     
,tap-hole1 #cgh2 #chf    ,tappets1 #bhb2
 #cai2 #bfg    ,tapping-bar1 #cha       
,tarshish1 ,tin ,trade1 #dab    ,tartar 
7,cream of71 #bbj2 #bcd    ,tectum      
7,hangingwall71 #aja    ,terra sigillata
 7see ,lemnian ,earth74    ,tests1      

refining silver in1 #dhc-dij2 #dfe2 #dhd
    ,thaler1 #ib    ,thasos1 ,mines of1 
#bc2 #ie2 #bc    ,theamedes1 #aae       
,theodosian ,code4     ,mines1 #hd      
,thorns 7see ,liquation ,thorns74       
,thuringia4     ,roasting pyrites1 #bgf 
,sluices of gold washing1 #cbg    ,tigna
 7,wall plate71 #aja    ,timbering4     
,of ladderways and shafts1 #abb2 #abc2  
#abd     ,of stopes1 #abf     ,of       
tunnels and drifts1 #abd-abe    ,tin1   
#daa-dac2 #ced2 #aaj     ,alluvial      
mining1 #ccf-cdj     ,assaying ore1 #bdf
     ,assaying for silver1 #bea         
,colour of fumes1 #bce                  
,concentrates1 #cdj-cdb2 #cdh-cdi       
,cornish treatment1 #bhb     ,refining1 
#dah-dai     ,smelting1 #daa-dbj        
,stamp-milling1 #cab-cag     ,streaming1
 #caf-cah     ,washing1 #bih2 #cjb2 #cjd
    ,tincar or ,tincal 7see ,borax74    
,tithe ,gatherer1 #ha2 #ie2 #ih2 #gh    
,tithe on ,metals1 #ha2 #hb    ,toden   
,kopff1 #bce    ,tofstein 7see ,tophus74
    ,tolfa1 ,la 7see ,la ,tolfa74       

,tools1 #adi-aec    ,topfstein 7see     
,tophus74    ,tophus1 #bcc2 #aad2 #bbb  
,as a flux1 #bcc2 #bcg2 #cij            
,tortures4     ,with metals1 #aa        
,without metals1 #ag    ,touch-needles1 
#bec-bfj2 #bec    ,touchstone1 #beb-bec2
 #beb2 #ced2 #deh2 #bbb     ,mineral1   
#aad     ,uses1 #bdc2 #bdh2 #ddg        
,trade-routes4     ,salt-deposits       
influence on1 #edf    ,transport of     
,ore1 #afh-afi    ,trent1 ,bishop of4   
,charter 7#aahe71 #hd    ,triangles in  
,surveying1 #abi-acg    ,tripoli1 #aae  
,trochitis1 #aae2 #aae    ,trolley1     
#dhj2 #ejj2 #ead    ,troy4     ,lead    
found in1 #cia    ,troy ,weights1 #faf2 
#fag2 #bdb    ,trucks1 #aef    ,tunnels1
 #ajb2 #aja     ,law1 #hh-ic            
,surveys of1 #acj-ada     ,timbering1   
#abd    ,turin ,papyrus1 #abi2 #cii     
,turn 7winze71 #aja    ,tuteneque1 #dji 
,tuttanego1 #dji    ,tutty1 #cid        
,twitches of the ,vein1 #aja    ,twyer1 
#cgf    ,tye1 #bfg    ,type4            
,stibium used for1 #b2 #dbi    ,tyrants4

     ,inimical to miners1 #cb           
,tyrolese4     ,smelting1 #chh2 #djd    
,ulcers1 #bad2 #ca    ,uncia 7length71  
#gh2 #faf2 #gh    ,uncia 7weight71 #faf2
 #bdb    ,undercurrents 7see ,sluices74 
,united ,states4     ,apex law1 #hb     
,vectiarii 7see ,windlass ,men74        
,veins1 #dc2 #fd-fi2 #ajf-ajg2 #dg      
,barren1 #gb2 #ajg     ,direction of1   
#ed-eh     ,drusy1 #gb2 #gc2 #ajg       
,hardness variable1 #aag                
,indications1 #ce-ch     ,intersections 
of1 #fe2 #ff2 #fg2 #ajf2 #ajg    ,vena4 
,use of term1 #dc2 #dg    ,vena         
cumulata1 #df2 #di2 #gj2 #dc2 #dg       
,mining method1 #abh     ,mining rights1
 #hg    ,vena dilatata1 #da2 #de2 #ec2  
#fj-fa2 #dc2 #dg     ,junctions with    
vena profunda1 #fg2 #fh     ,mining     
method1 #abf-abg     ,mining rights1    
#hc-hf     ,washing lead ore from1 #cdg 
,vena profunda1 #dd2 #ea2 #fj2 #fb2 #fc2
 #fh2 #fi2 #dc2 #dg     ,cross veins1   
#fe     ,functions1 #fe2 #ff2 #fg2 #fh  
,mining rights1 #gi-hc    ,venetian     

,glass1 #bbb     ,factories1 #eib       
,in assaying1 #bch2 #bde2 #bdf     ,in  
cupellation1 #dgd    ,venice4           
,glass-factories1 #eib     ,parting with
 nitric acid1 #dfa     ,scale of        
weights1 #bfc    ,ventilation1 #bjj-bab2
 #aba     ,with bellows1 #bjg-baj       
,with fans1 #bjc-bjg     ,with linen    
cloths1 #baj     ,with windsails1       
#bjj-bjc    ,verdigris1 #ddj2 #a2 #aaj2 
#bbb     ,in cementation1 #ded2 #deg    
,indication of ore1 #aaf     ,in making 
nitric acid1 #ddj     ,in parting gold  
from copper1 #dfd    ,vermilion4        
,adulteration with red-lead1 #bcb       
,poisonous1 #bae    ,villacense ,lead1  
#bci2 #bci    ,vinegar4     ,use in     
breaking rocks1 #aai2 #aah     ,use in  
cleansing quicksilver1 #dbf     ,use in 
roasting matte1 #cdi     ,use in        
softening ore1 #bca    ,virgula divina  
7see ,divining ,rod74    ,vitriol1 #ega2
 #egb2 #djc2 #bbb2 #a     ,in assaying1 
#bcg-bch     ,in cementation1 #ded2 #ded
     ,indication of copper1 #aaf     ,in

 making nitric acid1 #dci-ddj     ,in   
roasted ores1 #cej     ,in sal          
artificiosus1 #dfc     ,native1 #aaa    
,native blue1 #aji     ,native white1   
#aac     ,red1 #bgd     ,white1 #ded    
,volcanic ,eruptions1 #eie     ,washers1
 #gh    ,washing ,ore 7see also         
,concentration1 ,screening ,ore1 etc471 
#cjj-caj    ,water-,bags1 #aeg-aei2 #aih
    ,water-,buckets1 #aeg-aeh           
,water-,wheels1 #ahg2 #bhc2 #bhf2 #cai  
,water-,tank1 under ,blast ,furnaces1   
#cef-ceg    ,wealth1 #g-bj    ,wedges1  
#aej    ,weights1 #bfj-bfd2 #faf-fag2   
#bdb2 #bec    ,weisser ,kis1 #aaa       
,werckschuh1 #fag2 #gh    ,westphalia4  
,smelting lead ore1 #cia     ,spalling  
ore1 #bgb    ,wheelbarrows1 #aed        
,whims1 #afd-afg    ,white-,lead1 #ddj2 
#ced2 #aaj2 #bcb    ,white ,schist1     
#bcd2 #cij2 #bcd2 #bbb    ,winding      
,appliances 7see ,hauling ,appliances74 
,windlasses1 #afj2 #aga2 #adi           
,windlass ,men1 #afj2 #gh    ,winds4    
,greek and ,roman names1 #eh            

,sailors' names1 #ei2 #fj    ,winds     
7winze71 #aja    ,windsails1 #bjj-bjc   
,winzes1 #ajb    ,wittenberg1           
,capitulation of1 ,,ix4    ,wizards4    
,divining rods1 #dj    ,workmen1 #ih2   
#ajj    ,woughs1 #aja     ,zaffre1 #aab 
,zeitz1 ,,xi4    ,zinc 7see also ,cadmia
 and ,cobalt74     ,historical notes1   
#djh-daj2 #ced     ,minerals1 #aab-aac  
,zinck 7see ,zinc74    ,zinc ,oxides1   
#aac2 #ced    ,zinc ,sulphate 7see      
,vitriol74    ,zincum 7see ,zinc74      
,zoll1 #fag2 #gh    ,zwickau1 ,,vi4     
,zwitter1 #aaj     ,,index ,,to         
,,persons ,,and ,,authorities4          
,,note4--,the numbers in heavy type     
refer to the ,text2 those in plain type 
to the ,footnotes1 ,appendices1 etc4    
,acosta1 ,joseph ,de1 #bih              
,aeschylus4     ,amber1 #ce             
,aesculapius4     ,love of gold1 #i     
,africanus 7alchemist71 ,,xxvii2        
,,xxviii    ,agatharchides4             
,cupellation1 #dfe     ,egyptian gold   
mining1 #bgi2 #cia2 #cii                

,fire-setting1 #aah    ,agathocles4     
,money1 #ba    ,agathodaemon            
7alchemist71 ,,xxvii2 ,,xxviii          
,agricola1 ,daniel1 #fjf    ,agricola1  
,georg 7a preacher at ,freiberg71 #fjf  
,agricola1 ,georgius4     ,assaying1    
#bbj     ,biography1 ,v-,,xvi           
,founder of ,science1 ,,xiv             
,geologist1 ,,xii2 #df2 #ec             
,interest in ,gottsgaab mine1 ,,vii2 #gd
     ,mineralogist1 ,,xii2 #ajh2 #eid   
,paracelsus compared with1 ,,xiv        
,real name1 ,v     ,works1 ,appendix ,a 
,see also3         ,bermannus4          
,de ,animantibus4         ,de ,natura   
eorum1 etc4         ,de ,natura         
,fossilium4         ,de ,ortu et        
,causis4         ,de ,peste4         ,de
 ,precio ,metallorum4         ,de ,re   
,metallica4         ,de ,veteribus      
,metallis4         ,etc4    ,agricola1  
,rudolph1 #fjf    ,albert the ,brave1   
,duke of ,meissen1 ,,viii    ,albertus  
,magnus 7,albert von ,bollstadt71 ,,xxx2
 #fji     ,alluvial gold1 #gf           

,cementation1 #dfj     ,metallic        
arsenic1 #aaa     ,metals1 #dd          
,saltpetre1 #efb     ,zinc1 #dji        
,albinus1 ,petrus1 ,v2 #eii     ,cuntz  
von ,glueck1 #bd    ,alpinus1 ,prosper1 
#eei    ,alyattes1 ,king of ,lydia4     
,mines owned by1 #bf2 #bg    ,american  
,institute of ,mining ,engineers1 #ch2  
#ec    ,anacharsis4     ,invention of   
bellows1 #cfb    ,anacreon of ,teos4    
,money despised by1 #i2 #ae             
,anaxagoras4     ,money despised by1 #ae
    ,anna1 ,daughter of ,agricola1 ,,vii
    ,anna1 ,wife of ,agricola1 ,,vii    
,antiphanes4     ,on wealth1 #ai        
,apollodorus1 #bf    ,apulejus          
7alchemist71 ,,xxvii2 ,,xxix            
,archimedes4     ,king ,hiero's crown1  
#bdg     ,machines1 #adi    ,ardaillon1 
,edouard4     ,mt4 ,laurion1 #bh2 #bha2 
#cia    ,aristippus4     ,gold1 #i2 #ad 
,aristodemus4     ,money1 #h            
,aristotle1 ,,xii2 #fjg     ,amber1 #ce 
,athenian mines1 #bg2 #hc     ,burning  
springs1 #ehc     ,coal1 #cd            

,cupellation1 #dfe     ,distillation1   
#dda     ,lodestone1 #aae     ,nitrum1  
#eeh     ,ores of brass1 #daj           
,quicksilver1 #dcb     ,silver from     
forest fires1 #cf     ,theory of ore    
deposits1 #dd     ,wealth of1 #ae       
,arnold de ,villa ,nova4 7see ,villa    
,nova1 ,arnold de74    ,athenaeus4      
,silver from forest fires1 #cf          
,augurellus1 ,johannes ,aurelius        
7alchemist71 ,,xxvii2 ,,xxx             
,augustinus ,pantheus 7alchemist71      
,,xxvii    ,augustus1 ,elector of       
,saxony1 ,,ix     ,dedication of ,de ,re
 ,metallica1 ,,xxv     ,letter to       
,agricola1 ,,xv    ,avicenna1 ,,xxx2    
#fjh     ,bacon1 ,roger1 ,,xxx2 #fji    
,saltpetre1 #dfj2 #efb    ,badoarius1   
,franciscus1 ,,xxvii    ,balboa1 ,v4 ,n4
 de1 ,v    ,ballon1 ,peter1 #eei        
,barba1 ,alonso1 #cjj2 #a    ,barbarus1 
,hermolaus1 ,,xxvii    ,barrett1 ,w4    
,f41 #ch    ,becher1 ,j4 ,j41 #ec       
,bechius1 ,philip1 ,,xv    ,beckmann1   
,johann4     ,alumen1 #efe              

,amalgamation1 #big     ,nitrum1 #eei   
,parting with nitric acid1 #dfa         
,stamp-mills1 #bha     ,stannum1 #dgc   
,tin1 #dab    ,bergbuechlein 7see       
,nuetzlich ,bergbuechlin74    ,bergwerks
 lexicon1 #cg2 #hj2 #ha    ,berman1     
,lorenz1 ,,vi2 #eig    ,bermannus1 #eif2
 #eii2 ,,vi     ,arsenical minerals1    
#aaa     ,bismuth1 #c2 #dcc     ,cadmia1
 #aac     ,cobalt1 #aab     ,fluorspar1 
#cha     ,molybdaena1 #dgg     ,schist1 
#bcd     ,shafts1 #ajb     ,zinc1 #dji  
,berthelot1 ,m4 ,p4 ,e41 #dbi2 #fji     
,berthier1 #dib    ,bias of ,priene4    
,wealth1 #h2 #ad    ,biringuccio1       
,vannuccio1 #fad     ,agricola indebted 
to1 ,,xxvii     ,amalgamation of silver 
ores1 #big     ,assaying1 #bbj          
,assay ton1 #bdb     ,brass making1 #daj
     ,clarifying nitric acid1 #ddc      
,copper refining1 #ecf     ,copper      
smelting1 #dje     ,cupellation1 #dff   
,liquation1 #did     ,manganese1 #ehf   
,parting precious metals1 #dea2 #dfa2   
#dfb     ,roasting1 #bfg     ,steel     

making1 #dbj     ,zaffre1 #aab          
,boeckh1 ,august1 #bh    ,boerhaave1    
,hermann1 ,,xxix    ,borlase1 ,w4 ,c4   
,bronze celts1 #daa    ,borlase1        
,william4     ,cornish miners in        
,germany1 #bhc    ,born1 ,ignaz ,edler  
von1 #cjj    ,boussingault1 ,j4 ,b41    
#ded    ,boyle1 ,robert4     ,divining  
rod1 #ch    ,brough1 ,bennett1 #abi     
,bruce1 ,j4 ,c41 #cib    ,brunswick1    
,duke ,henry of 7see ,henry1 ,duke of   
,brunswick74    ,budaeus1 ,william      
7,guillaume ,bude71 #dfa2 #fjf          
,cadmus1 #bg    ,calbus 7see also       
,nuetzlich ,bergbuechlin71 #faj2 ,,xxvi2
 ,,xxvii     ,alluvial gold1 #ge        
,caligula4     ,gold from auripigmentum1
 #aaa    ,callides 7alchemist71 ,,xxvii2
 ,,xxviii    ,callimachus4     ,on      
wealth1 #ai    ,camerarius1 ,,viii      
,canides 7alchemist71 ,,xxvii2 ,,xxviii 
,carew1 ,richard4     ,cornish mining   
law1 #he     ,cornish ore-dressing1 #bhb
    ,carlyle1 ,w4 ,a4     ,ancient ,rio 
,tinto smelting1 #dje    ,carne1        

,joseph4     ,cornish cardinal points1  
#eg    ,casibrotius1 ,leonardus1 ,,vi   
,castigationes in ,hippocratem et       
,galenum1 #fje    ,castro1 ,john de1    
#egj    ,chabas1 ,f4 ,j41 #abi          
,chaloner1 ,thomas1 #egj    ,chanes     
7alchemist71 ,,xxvii2 ,,xxviii          
,charles ,v4 of ,spain1 ,,ix            
,agricola sent on mission to1 ,x        
,chevreul1 ,m4 ,e41 #ch    ,chronik der 
,stadt ,freiberg1 #fjf    ,cicero4      
,divining rod1 #ch     ,wealth of1 #ae  
,cincinnatus ,l4 ,quintius1 #bc         
,circe4     ,magic rod1 #dj             
,cleopatra4     ,as an alchemist1       
,,xxvii2 ,,xxix    ,collins1 ,a4 ,l4    
#aai    ,columbus1 ,christopher1 ,v     
,columella1 ,moderatus1 ,,xxv2 ,,xxvi   
,comerius1 ,,xxvii2 ,,xxix              
,commentariorum 444 ,libri ,,vi41 #fjd  
,conrad 7,graf ,cuntz von ,glueck71 #bc2
 #bd    ,corduba1 ,don ,juan ,de1 #cjj  
,cortes1 ,hernando1 ,v    ,cramer1      
,john1 #bcf    ,crassus1 ,marcus4       
,love of gold1 #i    ,crates1 the       

,theban4     ,money despised by1 #ae    
,croesus1 ,king of ,lydia4     ,mines   
owned by1 #bf2 #bg    ,ctesias4         
,divining rod1 #ch    ,ctesibius4       
,machines1 #adi    ,curio1 ,claudius4   
,love of gold1 #i    ,curius1 ,marcus4  
,gold of ,samnites1 #i2 #ae     ,dana1  
,j4 ,d41 #ajh     ,alum1 #eff           
,copiapite1 #egd     ,emery1 #aae       
,lemnian earth1 #ca     ,minerals of    
,agricola1 #eid     ,zinc vitriol1 #egb 
,danae4     ,jove and1 #aj    ,d',arcet1
 ,j4     ,parting with sulphuric acid1  
#dfb    ,day1 ,st4 ,john ,v4            
,ancient steel making1 #dbc    ,de      
,animantibus ,subterraneis1 #eig2 ,,vii 
,editions1 #fjj     ,gnomes1 #bag2 #bag 
,de ,bello adversus ,turcam1 #fje    ,de
 ,inventione ,dialectica1 #fjf    ,de   
,jure et ,legibus ,metallicis1 #ajj2    
#fjd    ,de ,medicatis ,fontibus1 #fje  
,de ,mensuris et ,ponderibus1 #eig      
,editions1 #eii     ,weights and        
measures1 #bfc2 #gh    ,de ,metallis et 
,machinis1 #fjd    ,democritus          

7alchemist71 ,,xxvii2 ,,xxviii          
,demosthenes4     ,mt4 ,laurion mines1  
#bg2 #hc    ,de ,natura eorum quae      
,effluunt ex ,terra1 #eih2 #cb          
,dedication1 ,,vii     ,editions1 #fjj  
,de ,natura ,fossilium1 #eid2 #fjj2     
,,iii2 ,,xii     ,alum1 #efe     ,amber1
 #ce     ,antimony1 #dbi     ,argol1    
#bcd     ,arsenical minerals1 #aaa      
,asbestos1 #ddj     ,bismuth1 #aaj      
,bitumen1 #eha     ,borax1 #efj         
,brass making1 #daj     ,cadmia1 #aac   
,caldarium copper1 #eaa     ,camphor1   
#bch     ,chrysocolla1 #ehd     ,coal1  
#ce     ,cobalt1 #aab     ,copper       
flowers1 #eci2 #bcc     ,copper scales1 
#bcc     ,crinoid stems1 #aae           
,emery1 #aae     ,fluorspar1 #chj       
,goslar ores1 #bgc     ,goslar smelting1
 #djh     ,iron ores1 #aaa     ,iron    
smelting1 #dbj     ,jet1 #cd     ,lapis 
judaicus1 #aae     ,lead minerals1 #aaj 
,mannsfeld ores1 #bgc     ,melanteria1  
#egc     ,mineral ,kingdom1 #a          
,misy1 #egc     ,molybdaena1 #dgf       

,native metals1 #ajh     ,petroleum1    
#eha     ,pompholyx1 #aad2 #bgh         
,pyrites1 #aab     ,quicksilver1 #aaj   
,rudis minerals1 #ajh     ,sal-ammoniac1
 #efj     ,silver glance1 #aji          
,sory1 #egc     ,spodos1 #aad           
,stannum1 #dgc     ,stones which easily 
melt1 #chj     ,sulphur1 #egh           
,tophus1 #bcc     ,touchstone1 #bec     
,white schist1 #bcd     ,zinc1 #dji     
,de ,ortu et ,causis ,subterraneorum1   
#eid2 #fjj2 ,,iii2 ,,vii2 ,,xii2 ,,xiii 
,earths1 #dh     ,gangue minerals1 #dh  
,gold in alluvial1 #gf     ,ground      
waters1 #dh     ,juices1 #eb            
,metals1 #ea     ,solidified juices1 #di
     ,stones1 #di     ,touchstone1 #bec 
,veins1 #dg    ,de ,ortu ,metallorum    
,defensio ad ,j4 ,scheckium1 #fjd    ,de
 ,peste1 #fje2 ,,viii    ,de ,precio    
,metallorum et ,monetis1 #eig2 #fjj     
,mention by ,agricola1 #beb2 #bfc    ,de
 ,putredine solidas partes1 etc41 #fje  
,de ,re ,metallica1 ,i2 ,,xiii2         
,,xiv-,,xvi     ,editions1 #fjj2 ,,xiv  

,title page1 ,,xix    ,de ,soto1        
,fernandes1 ,v    ,de ,terrae ,motu1    
#fjd    ,de ,varia temperie sive        
,constitutione ,aeris1 #fjd    ,de      
,veteribus et ,novis ,metallis1 #eig2   
#fjj2 ,,vii2 ,,xxvi2 #e     ,agricola's 
training1 ,,vi     ,conrad1 #bd         
,discovery of mines1 #cf2 #e2 #cg       
,gottsgaab mine1 #gd    ,devoz 7de      
,voz71 ,cornelius1 #egj2 #bhc           
,diodorus ,siculus1 #fjg     ,alum1 #eff
     ,bitumen1 #ehb     ,cupellation1   
#dfe     ,drainage of ,spanish mines1   
#adi     ,egyptian gold mining1 #bgi    
,fire-setting1 #aah     ,lead1 #cia     
,silver from forest fires1 #cf     ,tin1
 #dab    ,diogenes ,laertius1 #g2 #i2   
#aj    ,dioscorides1 #fjg2 #fjh         
,alum1 #eff     ,antimony1 #dbh         
,argol1 #bcd     ,arsenic minerals1 #aaa
     ,asbestos1 #ddj     ,bitumen1 #ehd 
,brass making1 #daj     ,burned lead1   
#bcg     ,cadmia1 #aab     ,chalcitis1  
#egc     ,copper flowers1 #bcc2 #ech    
,copper smelting1 #djc     ,cupellation1

 #dfe     ,distillation apparatus1 #cee 
,dust-chambers1 #cee2 #cid     ,emery1  
#aae     ,lead1 #cib     ,lead minerals1
 #dgg     ,lemnian earth1 #ca           
,litharge1 #dfe     ,lodestone1 #aae    
,melanteria1 #egc     ,misy1 #egc       
,naphtha1 #ehd     ,pompholyx1 #cid2    
#daj     ,quicksilver1 #big2 #dcb       
,red-lead1 #bcb     ,sal-ammoniac1 #efj 
,sory1 #egc     ,spodos1 #cid           
,verdigris1 #ddj     ,vitriol1 #egb     
,white-lead1 #ddj    ,diphilos1 #bg2 #hc
    ,diphilus 7poet74     ,gold1 #aj    
,dominatores ,saxonici1 #fjf    ,draud1 
,g41 #eii    ,dudae4     ,alum trade1   
#efi     ,elizabeth1 ,queen of ,england4
     ,charters to alum makers1 #bhc2    
#egj     ,dedication of ,italian ,de ,re
 ,metallica to1 ,,xv     ,importation of
 ,german miners1 #bhc2 #egj    ,eloy1   
,n4 ,f4 ,j41 #eii    ,entzelt           
7,enzelius1 ,encelio71 #fae    ,erasmus1
 ,,vi2 ,,viii2 ,,xiv    ,ercker1        
,lazarus4     ,amalgamation1 #cjj       
,liquation1 #dia2 #eje     ,nitric acid 

preparation1 #ddc     ,parting gold and 
silver1 #ddd2 #dea    ,eriphyle4        
,love of gold1 #i    ,ernest1 ,elector  
of ,saxony1 ,,viii    ,euripides4       
,amber mentioned by1 #ce     ,plutus1   
#h2 #g    ,ezekiel1 ,prophet4           
,antimony1 #dbh     ,cupellation1 #dfe  
,tin1 #dab     ,fabricius1 ,george4     
,agricola's death1 ,x     ,friendship   
with ,agricola1 ,,viii     ,laudatory   
poem on ,agricola1 ,,xxi     ,letters1  
,,ix2 ,x2 ,,xiv2 ,,xv     ,posthumous   
editor of ,agricola1 #fjc2 #fjf         
,fairclough1 ,h4 ,r41 ,,iii             
,farinator1 ,mathias1 ,,xxvi            
,ferdinand1 ,king of ,austria4          
,agricola sent on mission to1 ,x        
,badoarius sent on mission to1 ,,xxvii  
,ferguson1 ,john4     ,editions of ,de  
,re ,metallica1 ,,xvi2 #eii             
,feyrabendt1 ,sigmundi1 ,,xv            
,figuier1 ,l41 #ch    ,flach1 ,jacques4 
,aljustrel tablet1 #hc    ,florio1      
,michelangelo1 ,,xv    ,foerster1       
,johannes1 ,,vi    ,francis1 ,col4      

,grant1 #bfg2 #bhc    ,francis ,i41     
,king of ,france1 ,,ix    ,frederick1   
,elector of ,saxony1 ,,viii2 ,,ix       
,froben1 ,publisher of ,de ,re          
,metallica1 ,,xiv2 ,,xv    ,frontinus1  
,sextus ,julius1 #hg     ,galen4        
,agricola's revision of1 #fje2 ,,vi     
,lemnian earth1 #ca     ,mention by     
,agricola1 #b    ,galerazeya sive       
,revelator ,secretorum1 etc41 #fjf      
,gama1 ,vasco da1 ,v    ,ganse          
7,gaunse71 ,joachim1 #bfg2 #bhc         
,gatterer1 ,c4 ,w41 #eii    ,geber1     
,,xxvii2 ,,xxx2 #fji     ,alum1 #efi    
,assaying1 #bai     ,cementation1 #dei  
,cupels1 #dff     ,nitric acid1 #dfj    
,origin of metals1 #dd                  
,precipitation of silver nitrate1 #ddc  
,genesis1 ,book of1 ,,xii2 #dc          
,george1 ,duke of ,saxony1 ,,ix2 #caj2  
#caj    ,gesner1 ,conrad1 #eb           
,gibbon1 ,edward1 #aai    ,glauber1 ,j4 
,r41 #daj    ,glueck1 ,cuntz von 7see   
,conrad74    ,gmelin1 ,j4 ,f41 #hd      
,goecher1 ,c4 ,g41 #eii    ,godolphin1  

,sir ,francis1 #bhb    ,gowland1        
,william4     ,ancient bronze1 #daj2    
#daa2 #dba     ,early smelting1 #djb    
,graecus1 ,marcus4     ,saltpetre1 #efb 
,grommestetter1 ,paul1 #bha             
,grymaldo1 ,leodigaris1 ,,xvi    ,gyges1
 ,king of ,lydia4     ,mines owned by1  
#bf2 #bg     ,hannibal4     ,alps broken
 by vinegar1 #aai     ,spanish mines1   
#db2 #db    ,hardy1 ,william1 #he       
,heath1 ,thomas4     ,on ,hero1 #abi    
,heliodorus 7alchemist71 ,,xxvii2 ,,xxix
    ,henckel1 ,j4 ,f41 #ec2 #aab2 #daj  
,hendrie1 ,r41 #fji    ,hennebert1 ,e41 
#aai    ,henry1 ,duke of ,brunswick1    
,,vii    ,henry1 ,duke of ,meissen1 ,,ix
    ,hermes 7alchemist71 ,,xxvi2        
,,xxviii    ,hermes 7,mercury74         
,magic rod1 #dj    ,hero4               
,underground surveying1 #abi            
,herodotus4     ,alum1 #eff             
,bitumen1 #ehb     ,lead1 #cia          
,mines of ,thrace1 #bc     ,nitrum1 #eeh
    ,hertel1 ,valentine1 ,,xiv          
,hiero1 ,king of ,syracuse4     ,crown1 

#bdg    ,hill1 ,john1 #fjg              
,auripigmentum1 #aaa    ,himilce1 wife  
of ,hannibal1 #db    ,hippocrates4      
,cupellation1 #cia2 #dfe     ,lodestone1
 #aae    ,hiram1 ,king of ,tyre4        
,mines1 #bad    ,hofmann1 ,dr4 ,r4      
,biography of ,agricola1 ,v2 ,,xi2 #eii2
 #fjc    ,homer4     ,amber1 #ce        
,divining rod1 #dj2 #dj     ,lead1 #cia 
,smelting1 #djb     ,steel1 #dba        
,sulphur1 #egi     ,tin1 #dab           
,hommel1 ,w4     ,early zinc smelting1  
#dji    ,horace4     ,metals1 #aa       
,wealth1 #ae2 #ag    ,hordeborch1       
,johannes1 ,,vii    ,houghstetter1      
,daniel1 #bhc    ,houghton1 ,thomas1 #he
    ,humphrey1 ,william4     ,jigging   
sieve1 #bhc    ,hunt1 ,robert4          
,roman lead smelting1 #cib              
,inama-,sternegg1 ,k4 ,t4 von1 #hd      
,interpretatio ,rerum ,metallicarum 7see
 ,rerum ,metall4 ,interpretatio74       
,irene1 ,daughter of ,agricola1 ,,vii   
,jacobi1 ,g4 ,h4     ,biography of      
,agricola1 ,v2 #eii     ,calbus1        

,,xxvii2 #faj    ,jagnaux1 ,raoul4      
,ancient zinc1 #dji    ,jason4          
,golden fleece1 #ccj    ,jeremiah4      
,bellows1 #cfb     ,cupellation1 #dfe   
,lead smelting1 #cia     ,nitrum1 #eeh  
,jezebel4     ,use of antimony1 #dbh    
,job4     ,refining silver1 #dfe        
,johannes 7alchemist71 ,,xxvii2 ,,xxviii
    ,john1 ,elector of ,saxony1 ,,ix    
,john1 ,king of ,england4     ,mining   
claims1 #he    ,john ,frederick1        
,elector of ,saxony1 ,,ix    ,josephus4 
,dead ,sea bitumen1 #cc    ,jove4       
,danae legend1 #aj    ,justin1 #cf      
,juvenal4     ,money1 #aj     ,karsten1 
,k4 ,j4 ,b4     ,liquation1 #dia2 #dib2 
#eje2 #eji2 #ebc2 #ece    ,kerl1 ,bruno4
     ,liquation1 #eje    ,koenig1       
,emanuel1 ,,xv    ,koenig1 ,ludwig1 ,,xv
    ,kopp1 ,dr4 ,hermann1 #fji2 #dda    
,lampadius1 ,g4 ,a41 #dfb    ,lasthenes4
     ,love of gold1 #i    ,latin        
,grammar 7,agricola71 #fje    ,leonardi1
 ,camilli1 #fae    ,leupold1 ,jacob1    
,,xv2 #eii    ,leviticus4     ,leprosy  

of walls1 #efb    ,lewis1 ,g4 ,r1 #hd   
,lewis1 #ded    ,libavis1 ,andrew1 #daj 
,lieblein1 ,j4 ,d4 ,c41 #abi            
,linnaeus1 ,charles1 #eei    ,livy4     
,hannibal's march over the ,alps1 #aai  
,lohneys1 ,g4 ,e4     ,liquation1 #dia2 
#eje     ,parting with antimony1 #dea   
,zinc1 #dji2 #daj    ,lucretia1 daughter
 of ,agricola1 ,,vii    ,lucretius4     
,forest fires melting veins1 #cf        
,lully1 ,raymond1 ,,xxvii2 ,,xxx        
,luscinus1 ,fabricius4     ,gold1 #i2   
#ae    ,luther1 ,martin1 ,v2 ,,vi2      
,,viii2 ,,ix    ,lycurgus 7,athenian    
orator74     ,prosecution of ,diphilos1 
#bg2 #hc    ,lycurgus 7,spartan         
legislator74     ,wealth prohibited by1 
#i2 #ae     ,magellan1 ,f4 de1 ,v       
,maltitz1 ,sigismund1 #cab    ,manlove1 
,edward1 #gj2 #he    ,marbodaeus1 #fae  
,marcellinus1 ,ammianus4     ,on        
,thucydides1 #bc    ,marcellus1 ,nonius1
 ,,xxxi    ,maria the ,jewess1 ,,xxvii2 
,,xxviii    ,mathesius1 ,johann4        
,cobalt1 #bad     ,conrad mentioned by1 

#bd     ,de ,re ,metallica1 ,,xiv       
,king ,hiram's mines1 #bad    ,matthew  
,paris4     ,cornish miners in ,germany1
 #bhc    ,maurice1 ,elector of ,saxony1 
,,xxv2 ,,viii2 ,,ix2 ,x    ,mawe1 ,j41  
#gj    ,maximilian1 ,emperor1 #bc2 #bd  
,meissen1 ,dukes of 7see under personal 
names3 ,albert1 ,henry1 etc474          
,melanchthon4     ,relations with       
,agricola1 ,,viii2 ,x    ,menander4     
,riches1 #h    ,mercklinus1 ,g4 ,a41    
#eii    ,mercury 7see ,hermes74         
,merlin 7magician71 ,,xxvii2 ,,xxx      
,meurer1 ,wolfgang4     ,letters1 ,,ix2 
,x    ,meyer1 ,ernst von1 #bdh2 #efi    
,meyner1 ,matthias1 ,,vii    ,midas1    
,king of ,lydia4     ,mines owned by1   
#bf2 #bg    ,miller1 ,f4 ,b41 #dfb      
,minerva4     ,magic rod1 #dj           
,morris1 ,w4 ,o',c41 #aai               
,mosellanus1 ,petrus1 ,,vi    ,moses4   
,bitumen1 #ehb     ,lead1 #cia          
,refining gold1 #cii     ,rod of ,horeb1
 #ch2 #dj    ,mueller1 ,max4            
,ancient iron1 #dba     ,naevius4       

,money1 #bj    ,nash1 ,w4 ,g4     ,rio  
,tinto mine1 #adi    ,naumachius4       
,gold and silver1 #h    ,neckam1        
,alexander4     ,compass1 #eg           
,newcomen1 ,thomas1 #adi    ,nicander4  
,on coal1 #cd    ,nicias4     ,sosias   
and slaves of1 #be2 #be    ,nuetzlich   
,bergbuechlin1 #faj2 ,,xxvi2 ,,xxvii    
,alluvial gold1 #ge     ,bismuth1 #aaj2 
#dcc     ,compass1 #eg2 #abi            
,ore-deposits1 #dd     ,ore-shoots1 #dc 
,veins1 #dc2 #df2 #gc     ,olympiodorus 
7alchemist71 ,,xxvii2 ,,xxx    ,oppel1  
van 7see ,van ,oppel74    ,orus         
,chrysorichites 7alchemist71 ,,xxvii2   
,,xxviii    ,osthanes 7alchemist71      
,,xxvii2 ,,xxix    ,otho the ,great1 #f 
,otho1 ,prince1 #f    ,ovid4     ,mining
 censured by1 #g     ,pandulfus ,anglus1
 ,,xxvi    ,pantaenetus4                
,demosthenes' oration against1 #bg2 #hc 
,pantheus1 ,augustinus 7alchemist71     
,,xxvii    ,paracelsus1 ,,xiv2 ,,xxx    
,divining rod1 #ch     ,zinc1 #aab2 #dji
    ,paris1 ,matthew 7see ,matthew      

,paris74    ,pebichius 7alchemist71     
,,xxvii2 ,,xxviii    ,pelagius          
7alchemist71 ,,xxvii    ,pennent1       
,thomas1 #egj    ,percy1 ,john4         
,cementation1 #ded2 #dei                
,cupellation1 #dfe     ,liquation1 #dia 
,parting with antimony1 #dea2 #deb      
,peregrinus1 ,petrus4     ,compass1 #eg 
,petasius 7alchemist71 ,,xxvii2 ,,xxviii
    ,petrie1 ,w4 ,m4 ,f4     ,egyptian  
iron1 #dba     ,mt4 ,sinai copper1 #djb 
,pettus1 ,sir ,john1 ,,xvi2 #bhc        
,phaenippus4     ,demosthenes' oration  
against1 #bg2 #hc    ,phaeton's sisters1
 #ce    ,pherecrates1 ,,xxvi            
,philemon4     ,riches1 #g    ,philip of
 ,macedonia1 #bg    ,philip1 ,peter1    
#bhb    ,phillips1 ,j4 ,a41 #daj        
,philo4     ,lost work on mining1 ,,xxvi
    ,phocion4     ,bribe of ,alexander1 
#i2 #ae    ,phocylides4     ,gold1 #g   
,photius1 #bgi     ,fire-setting1 #aah  
,pindar4     ,wealth1 #ai2 #beb    ,pius
 ,,ii1 ,pope4     ,alum maker1 #egj     
,pizarro1 ,f41 ,v    ,plateanus1        

,petrus1 ,,xiv    ,plautus4     ,gold1  
#aj    ,pliny 7,caius ,plinius          
,secundus71 ,,xxvi2 #fjh     ,alluvial  
mining1 #cca2 #ccc     ,alum1 #eff      
,amalgamation1 #big     ,amber1 #ce     
,antimony1 #dbh     ,argol1 #bcd        
,arrhenicum1 #aaa     ,asbestos1 #ddj   
,bitumen1 #cc2 #ehc     ,brass1 #daj    
,british miners1 #hc     ,cadmia1 #aab  
,cementation1 #dei     ,chrysocolla1    
#efj     ,copper flowers and scales1    
#bcc2 #ech     ,copper smelting1 #djd   
,cupellation1 #dff     ,drainage of     
,spanish mines1 #adi     ,electrum1 #deh
     ,fire-setting1 #aah     ,galena1   
#dgf     ,glass1 #ehe2 #ehf             
,hannibal's silver mine1 #db2 #db       
,hoisting ore1 #aeg2 #aeg     ,iron1 #aa
     ,jew-stone1 #aae     ,lead1 #cib   
,lemnian earth1 #ca     ,litharge1 #dge2
 #dff2 #eja     ,lodestone1 #aae        
,manganese 7871 #ehf     ,metallurgical 
appliances1 #cee     ,misy1 #egc        
,molybdaena1 #dff2 #dgf     ,naphtha1   
#ehc     ,nitrum1 #efj                  

,ore-dressing1 #bha     ,outcrops1 #fe  
,pompholyx1 #cif     ,protection from   
poison1 #bae     ,quicksilver1 #dcc     
,red-lead1 #bcb     ,roasting1 #bfg     
,sal-ammoniac1 #efj     ,salt from wood1
 #eeh     ,silver-lead smelting1 #cib   
,sory1 #egc     ,spodos1 #cif           
,stannum1 #dgc     ,tin1 ,spanish1 #dab 
,tophus1 #bcc     ,touchstone1 #bef2    
#bec     ,turfs in sluices1 #cca2 #ccb  
,vena1 #dc     ,ventilation with wet    
cloths1 #baj2 #baj     ,verdigris1 #ddj 
,vitriol1 #egb     ,white-lead1 #ddj    
,plutarch1 #be    ,pluto1 #baf          
,polybius4     ,ore washing1 #bha       
,silver-lead smelting1 #cib2 #dfe       
,polymnestor1 ,king of ,thrace4         
,love of gold1 #i2 #af    ,poertner1    
,hans1 #bha    ,posepny1 ,franz1 #ec    
,posidonius4     ,asphalt and naphtha1  
#ehd     ,drainage of ,spanish mines1   
#adi     ,silver from forest fires1 #cf 
,priam1 ,king of ,troy4     ,gold mines 
of1 #bf2 #bg    ,probierbuechlein1 #fab2
 ,,xxvi     ,amalgamation1 #big         

,antimony1 #dbj     ,assaying1 #bbj     
,assay ton1 #bdb     ,bismuth1 #dcc     
,cementation1 #ded     ,nitric acid1    
#dci     ,parting1 #dfa2 #dfb2 #dfc     
,precipitation of silver nitrate1 #ddc  
,residues from distillation of nitric   
acid1 #bce2 #ddc     ,roasting1 #bfg    
,stock fluxes1 #bce2 #bcf               
,touchstone1 #bec    ,propertius4       
,gold1 #aj    ,pryce1 ,william4         
,adam's fall1 #cec     ,divining rod1   
#ch     ,juices1 #a     ,ore-deposits1  
#ec     ,stamp-mill1 #bhb               
,stringers1 #gj    ,psalms4     ,silver 
refining1 #dfe    ,pulsifer1 ,wm4 ,h41  
#cia    ,pygmalion4     ,love of gold1  
#i2 #af     ,rachaidibus 7alchemist71   
,,xxvii    ,rameses ,i4     ,map of     
mines1 #abi    ,rameses ,,iii4          
,leaden objects dating from1 #cia       
,raspe1 ,r4 ,e41 #cjj    ,rawlinson1    
,george1 #ehc    ,ray1 ,p4 ,chandra4    
,indian zinc1 #dji    ,raymond1         
,rossiter ,w41 #ch    ,rechter ,gebrauch
 der ,alchimey1 #fjf    ,rerum          

,metallicarum ,interpretatio1 #eig2     
,,vii2 #fjj    ,reuss1 ,f4 ,a41 #eii    
,richter1 ,a4 ,d41 ,v2 #eii    ,rodianus
 7alchemist71 ,,xxvii2 ,,xxviii         
,roessler1 ,b41 #ec    ,royal           
,geological ,society of ,cornwall1 #hd  
,ruehlein von ,kalbe 7see ,calbus74     
,salmoneus4     ,lightning1 #aa         
,sandwich1 ,earl of1 trans4 ,barba's    
book1 #cjj    ,sappho4     ,wealth1 #ai 
,savery1 ,thomas1 #adi    ,saxony1      
,dukes and ,electors of4     7,see under
 personal names3 ,albert1 ,ernest1      
etc474    ,schliemann1 ,h41 #cia        
,schlueter1 ,c4 ,a4     ,artificial zinc
 vitriol1 #egb     ,copper refining1    
#ece     ,cupellation1 #dfd             
,liquation1 #dia2 #eje     ,parting with
 sulphur1 #dfb    ,schmid1 ,f4 ,a41 ,v2 
,,xv2 #eii    ,schnabel and ,lewis1 #dfe
    ,scott1 ,sir ,walter4               
,antiquary1 #cjj    ,seneca4     ,wealth
 of1 #ae    ,seneferu4     ,copper      
mines1 #djb    ,seti ,i4     ,map of    
mine1 #abi    ,shaw1 ,peter1 ,,xxviii   

,shoo ,king4     ,copper and lead1 #cia2
 #djb     ,iron1 #dba    ,shutz1        
,christopher1 #bhc    ,sigfrido1        
,joanne4     ,ed4 ,agricola's works1    
,,xv    ,socrates4     ,riches1 #g2 #i2 
#ad2 #ah    ,solinus1 ,c4 ,julius4      
,solifuga1 #baf2 #baf    ,solomon1      
,king4     ,cobalt in mines1 #bad       
,solon4     ,scarcity of silver under1  
#bg    ,sosias1 the ,thracian4          
,slaves employed by1 #be    ,stahl1 ,g4 
,e41 #ec    ,staunton1 ,sir ,george1    
#dji    ,stephanus 7alchemist71 ,,xxvii2
 ,,xxx    ,stephenson1 ,george1 #adi    
,strabo1 #fjg     ,arsenical minerals1  
#aaa     ,asbestos1 #ddj     ,asphalt1  
#ehd2 #cc     ,bellows1 #cfb            
,cementation1 #deh     ,cupellation1    
#dfe     ,drainage of ,spanish mines1   
#adi     ,forest fires melting veins1   
#cf     ,high stacks1 #cee     ,lydian  
mines1 #bf2 #bg     ,mt4 ,laurion1 #bg  
,silver-lead smelting1 #cia     ,spanish
 ore-washing1 #bha     ,zinc 7871 #dji  
,strato4     ,lost work on mines1       

,,xxvi2 ,,xxvii2 ,,xii    ,struve1 ,b4  
,g41 #eii    ,synesius 7alchemist71     
,,xxvii2 ,,xxix     ,tantalus1 #bg      
,taphnutia 7alchemist71 ,,xxvii2        
,,xxviii    ,tapping1 ,thomas1 #he      
,thales of ,miletus4     ,amber1 #ce    
,themistocles4     ,athenian mine       
royalties1 #bg    ,theodor1 son of      
,agricola1 ,,vii    ,theognis4          
,cupellation1 #dfe     ,on greed1 #ah   
,plutus1 #h     ,refining gold1 #cii    
,theological ,tracts 7,agricola71 #fje  
,theophilus 7alchemist71 ,,xxvii2       
,,xxviii    ,theophilus the ,monk1 #fji 
,brass making1 #daj     ,calamine1 #aab 
,cementation1 #dei     ,copper refining1
 #ecf     ,copper smelting1 #dje        
,cupels1 #dff     ,divining rod1 #ch    
,liquation1 #did     ,metallurgical     
appliances1 #cee     ,parting with      
sulphur1 #dfa     ,roasting1 #bfg       
,theophrastus1 ,,xii2 #fjg     ,amber1  
#ce     ,arsenical minerals1 #aaa       
,asbestos1 #ddj     ,assaying1 #bai     
,coal1 #cd     ,copper minerals1 #aaj   

,copper ore1 #djc     ,emery1 #aae      
,lodestone1 #aae     ,lost works1       
,,xxvi2 #djc     ,origin of minerals1   
#dd     ,parting precious metals1 #deh  
,quicksilver1 #big2 #dcb                
,touchstone1 #beb     ,verdigris1 #ddj  
,vermilion1 #bcb     ,white-lead1 #cia2 
#ddj    ,thompson1 ,lewis1 #dfb         
,thoth4     ,hermes ,trismegistos1      
,,xxix    ,thotmes ,,iii4     ,lead1    
#cia2 #ehb    ,thucydides4     ,mining  
prefect1 #bc2 #bc2 #ie    ,tibullus4    
,wealth condemned by1 #af    ,timocles4 
,riches1 #h    ,timocreon of ,rhodes4   
,plutus1 #g    ,tournefort1 ,joseph ,p4 
,de1 #eff    ,tubal ,cain4              
,instructor in metallurgy1 #cec         
,tursius1 #bd    ,twain1 ,mark4         
,merlin1 ,,xxx    ,typographia ,mysnae  
et ,toringiae1 #fje     ,ulloa1 ,don    
,antonio ,de1 #bih    ,ulysses4         
,magic rod1 #dj     ,valentine1 ,basil1 
,,xxx2 #fji     ,antimony1 #dbi         
,divining rod1 #ch     ,parting with    
antimony1 #dfa     ,zinc1 #dji          

,valerius1 son of ,agricola1 ,,vii      
,van der ,linden1 ,j4 ,a41 #eii    ,van 
,oppel1 ,,xiii2 #eb    ,varro1 ,marcus1 
,,xxvi    ,vasco da ,gama 7see ,gama1   
,vasco da74    ,veiga1 ,estacia de1 #hc 
,velasco1 ,dom ,pedro ,de1 #bih         
,veradianus 7alchemist71 ,,xxvii2       
,,xxviii    ,villa ,nova1 ,arnold ,de   
7alchemist71 ,,xxvii2 ,,xxx    ,virgil4 
,avarice condemned by1 #af              
,vitruvius1 #fjh     ,amalgamation1 #big
     ,hiero's ,crown1 #bdh     ,pumps1  
#agd2 #adi     ,red-lead1 #bcb          
,surveying1 #abi     ,verdigris1 #ddj   
,white-lead1 #ddj    ,vladislaus ,,iii41
 ,king of ,poland1 #bd    ,von ,oppel   
7see ,van ,oppel74    ,voz1 ,cornelius  
de 7see ,devoz1 ,cornelius74            
,wallerius1 ,j4 ,g41 #bcd2 #bgc         
,watt1 ,james1 #adi    ,watt1 ,robert1  
,,xxvii    ,wefring1 ,basilius1 ,,xiv   
,weindle1 ,caspar1 #aai    ,weinart1 ,b4
 ,g41 #eii    ,weller1 ,j4 ,g41 ,v      
,werner1 ,a4 ,g41 ,,xiii2 #ec           
,wilkinson1 ,j4 ,gardner4     ,bitumen1 

#ehb     ,egyptian bellows1 #cfb        
,egyptian gold-washing1 #bgi            
,williams1 ,john1 #ec    ,winkler1 ,k4  
,a41 #dfd    ,wrotham1 ,william de1 #he2
 #dac2 #dgc     ,xenophon4     ,athenian
 mines1 #bh2 #hc2 #bg2 #bi              
,fruitfulness of mines1 #f     ,mining  
companies1 #ij     ,mine slaves1 #be2   
#bh     ,quoted by ,agricola1 #bf2 #bh  
,zimmerman1 ,c4 ,f41 #ec    ,zosimus    
7alchemist71 ,,xxvii2 ,,xxix     ,,index
 ,,to ,,illustrations4     ,alum        
,making1 #ega    ,amalgamation ,mill1   
#bii    ,ampulla1 #ddb2 #ddf            
,argonauts1 #ccj    ,assay ,balances    
7see ,balances74    ,assay ,crucible1   
#bbi    ,assay ,furnaces4     ,crucible1
 #bbg     ,muffle1 #bbc2 #bbd           
,balances1 #bfe    ,baling ,water1 #aii 
,bars1 for ,furnace ,work1 #cgg2 #chi   
,batea1 #aeg    ,bellows4     ,for blast
 furnaces1 #cei2 #cfe2 #cfh2 #cgj2 #cgb 
,for mine ventilation1 #bjh2 #bji2 #baa 
,for tin furnace1 #dai    ,bismuth      
,smelting1 #dcd2 #dce2 #dcf2 #dcg       

,bitumen ,making1 #ehb    ,bitumen      
,spring1 #ehc    ,bowls for ,alluvial   
,washing 7see also ,batea71 #ccf        
,buckets4     ,for hoisting ore1 #aed   
,for hoisting water1 #aeh    ,buddle1   
#cja2 #cjb2 #cad2 #cae    ,building     
,plan for ,refinery1 #dic    ,building  
,plan for ,smelter1 #cfa     ,chain     
,pumps1 #agc2 #agd2 #age    ,chrysocolla
 ,making1 #ehe    ,circular ,fire 7see  
,ring-,fire74    ,clay ,washing1 #cgd2  
#cge    ,compass1 #eg2 #ei2 #adb2 #adg  
,copper ,mould for ,assaying1 #bej      
,copper ,refining1 #ecd2 #ecg    ,copper
 ,refining ,furnace1 #ecb    ,crane4    
,for cupellation furnace1 #dgi     ,for 
liquation cakes1 #ead    ,crowbars1 #aeb
    ,cupel1 #bbi     ,mould1 #bca       
,cupellation ,furnace1 #dfh2 #dgj2 #dgd 
,at ,freiberg1 #dha     ,in ,poland1    
#dhb    ,cutting ,metal1 #bfi           
,descent into ,mines1 #bac              
,dipping-pots1 #che2 #chg2 #chi2 #cic2  
#dae2 #dag    ,distillation 7see ,nitric
 ,acid and ,quicksilver74    ,divining  

,rod1 #dj    ,dogs ,packing ,ore1 #afh  
,drifts1 #aje    ,drying ,furnace for   
,liquation1 #ebe2 #ebg2 #ebh    ,dust   
,chambers1 #cie2 #dag     ,fans1        
,ventilation1 #bjd2 #bje2 #bjf2 #bjg    
,fire-,buckets1 #cgg    ,fire ,pump1    
#cgg    ,fire-,setting1 #abj            
,forehearth1 #ceg2 #ceh2 #chc2 #che2    
#chg2 #chi2 #dag    ,frames 7or         
,sluices7 for ,washing ,ore or          
,alluvial1 #cbb-cbd2     #cbf-cbi2      
#cca-ccc    ,furnaces4     ,assaying    
7see ,assay ,furnaces74     ,blast1     
#ceg2 #ceh2 #cgc2 #cgg2 #chc2 #che2     
#chg2 #chi2       #cie2 #dai2 #dbd2 #ejh
     ,copper refining1 #ecg             
,cupellation1 #dfh2 #dgj2 #dgd2 #dha2   
#dhb     ,distilling sulphur1 #bgg      
,enriching copper bottoms1 #eaj         
,glass-making1 #ehg2 #ehh2 #ehi2 #eia   
,iron smelting1 #dbb2 #dbd     ,lead    
smelting 7see also ,furnaces1 blast71   
#cic     ,liquation1 #eag2 #eai2 #ebe2  
#ebg2 #ebh     ,nitric acid making1 #ddb
     ,nitric acid parting1 #ddf         

,parting precious metals with antimony1 
#dec     ,ditto cementation1 #dee       
,quicksilver distillation1 #dbg-dcb     
,refining silver1 #dhe2 #dhf2 #dhi      
,roasting1 #bgf     ,steel making1 #dbe 
,tin burning1 #cdi     ,tin smelting1   
#dae     ,gad1 #aej    ,glass ,making1  
#eia     ,furnaces1 #ehg2 #ehh2 #ehi    
,ground ,sluicing1 #ccg2 #cdj2 #cdc2    
#cdf2 #cdg     ,hammers1 #aea     ,with 
water-power1 #dbb2 #dbe    ,heap        
,roasting1 #bge2 #bgh    ,hearths4      
,for bismuth smelting1 #dcf2 #dcg       
,for heating copper cakes1 #ejd     ,for
 melting lead1 #cic     ,for melting    
lead cakes1 #dii     ,for refining tin1 
#dah     ,for roasting1 #bgg            
,hemicycle1 #ach    ,hoe1 #aeb          
,intervenium1 #ej    ,iron ,fork for    
,metal1 #chg    ,iron ,hook for         
,assaying1 #bdj    ,iron ,smelting1     
#dbb2 #dbd    ,iron ,tools1 #aej        
,jigging ,sieve1 #caa     ,ladders1 #bac
    ,ladle for ,metal1 #chc    ,lead    
,mould for ,assaying1 #bdj    ,liquation

 ,cakes4     ,dried1 #ecj    ,liquation 
,cakes1 ,exhausted1 #ebb    ,liquation  
,furnaces1 #eag2 #eai2 #ebe2 #ebg2 #ebh 
,lye ,making1 #eeg     ,matte ,roasting1
 #cej2 #cea    ,meers1 ,shape of1 #gi2  
#hj2 #hf2 #hg2 #hi    ,mills for        
,grinding ,ore1 #bid2 #bif    ,muffle   
,furnaces1 #bbc2 #dhi    ,muffles1 #bbh 
,nitric ,acid ,making1 #ddb    ,nitrum  
,pits1 #eei     ,operculum1 #ddf        
,orbis1 #adb;,a     ,parting ,precious  
,metals4     ,with antimony1 #dec       
,by cementation1 #dee     ,with nitric  
acid1 #ddf     ,with sulphur1 #ddi      
,picks1 #aeb    ,plummet level4         
,standing1 #adc     ,suspended1 #adf    
,pumps4     ,chain1 #agc2 #agd2 #age    
,duplex suction1 #ahj2 #ahe2 #ahi       
,rag and chain1 #aia2 #aic2 #aid2 #aie  
,suction1 #agg2 #agh2 #agi2 #ahb2 #ahc2 
#ahg     ,quicksilver ,distillation1    
#dbg2 #dbi2 #dcj2 #dca2 #dcb     ,rag   
and ,chain ,pumps1 #aia2 #aic2 #aid2    
#aie2 #aig    ,rammers for ,fire-,clay1 
#cgg2 #chc    ,ring-,fire1 for ,parting 

with ,sulphur1 #ddi    ,roasting 7see   
also ,heap and ,stall ,roasting71 #bgh2 
#cej2 #cea2     #bgd2 #bge2 #bgf        
,rosette ,copper ,making1 #ecg          
,salt4     ,boiling1 #edi2 #eed2 #eee   
,caldron1 #eea2 #eec     ,evaporated on 
faggots1 #eef     ,pans1 #edg           
,wells1 #edi    ,saltpetre ,making1 #efc
    ,saxon ,lead ,furnace1 #cic         
,scorifier1 #bbi    ,seams in the       
,rocks1 #ed2 #ee2 #ef2 #fj2 #gb         
,shafts4     ,inclined1 #ajd            
,timbering1 #abc     ,vertical1 #ajc2   
#aje    ,shears for ,cutting ,metal1    
#bfi    ,shield for ,muffle ,furnace1   
#bda    ,sifting ,ore1 #bhg2 #bhh2 #bhi2
 #bia2 #bib2 #bic2 #caa2 #cdb           
,silver4     ,cakes1 ,cleansing of1     
#dgf2 #dhh     ,refining1 #dhd2 #dhe2   
#dhf2 #dhi    ,sleigh for ,ore1 #afh    
,sluicing ,tin1 #ccg2 #cch2 #cdj2 #cdc  
,smelter1 ,plan of ,building1 #cfa      
,soda ,making1 #efa    ,sorting ,ore1   
#bfh2 #bgj    ,spalling ,ore1 #bgj2     
#bga2 #bgb    ,stall ,roasting4         

,matte1 #cej2 #cea     ,ore1 #bgd2 #bgf 
,stamp-mill1 #bhd2 #bhf2 #bhg2 #bii2    
#cac2 #cbj2 #cba2 #cgc     ,for breaking
 copper cakes1 #eja    ,stamps1 #bhe    
,steel ,furnace1 #dbe    ,strake1 #cjb2 
#cjc2 #cje2 #cjf2 #cjg2 #cda2 #cdb2 #cde
     ,canvas1 #cjh2 #cji2 #cag2 #cba2   
#cbi    ,streaming for ,tin1 #cah       
,stringers4     ,associated1 #ga        
,fibra dilatata1 #ga     ,fibra         
incumbens1 #ga     ,oblique1 #ga        
,transverse1 #ga    ,surveying4         
,rods1 #ach;,a     ,shafts and ,tunnels1
 #aca     ,triangles1 #acc2 #acd2 #ace2 
#acf2 #acg2 #aci2 #adj    ,suction      
,pumps 7see ,pumps74    ,sulphur        
,making1 #egi2 #eha     ,tap-holes in   
,furnaces1 #chi    ,tapping-bar1 #chc2  
#che    ,tests for ,refining ,silver1   
#dhd2 #dhe    ,timbering4     ,shafts1  
#abc     ,tunnels1 #abe    ,tin4        
,bars1 #dae     ,burning1 #cdi          
,refining1 #dah     ,smelting1 #dae2    
#dai    ,touch-needles1 #bee    ,trays  
for ,washing ,alluvial1 #ccd    ,tread  

,whim1 #afc    ,trough1 #aei     ,for   
washing alluvial1 #cce2 #cdh    ,trucks1
 #aef    ,tunnels1 #ajc2 #ajd2 #aje2    
#abj     ,timbering1 #abe     ,veins4   
,barren1 #gc     ,beginning of1 #fi     
,cavernous1 #gc     ,curved1 #fa        
,end of1 #fi     ,head of1 #fi          
,horizontal1 #fa     ,intersections of1 
#fd2 #fe2 #ff2 #fg2 #fh     ,solid1 #gc 
,strike of1 #fb2 #fc    ,vena cumulata1 
#di2 #gj    ,vena dilatata1 #de2 #ej2   
#ed2 #fj2 #fa2 #fh2 #fi    ,vena        
profunda1 #de2 #ej2 #ec2 #fa2 #fb2 #fc2 
#fd2 #fh    ,ventilating with ,damp     
,cloth 7see also ,bellows1 ,fans1 and   
,windsails71 #bab    ,vitriol ,making1  
#efg2 #egd2 #ege2 #egf2 #egg            
,wagons1 for ,hauling ,ore1 #agj        
,washing ,ore 7see ,sifting ,ore74      
,water ,tanks1 under ,furnaces1 #ceh    
,wedges1 #aej    ,weights1 for ,assay   
,balances1 #bfb    ,westphalian ,lead   
,smelting1 #cic    ,wheelbarrows1 #aee  
,whims4     ,horse1 #afe2 #afg          
,tread1 #afc    ,windlasses1 #afa2 #afb2

 #aga    ,winds1 ,direction of1 #ei     
,windsails for ,ventilation1 #bja2 #bjb2
 #bjc     ,transcriber's ,notes4   ,this
 document includes quotes from very     
early authors4 ,as such1 it's no        
surprise that there are many spelling   
and punctuation irregularities4 ,also   
the authors were ,american1 but writing 
for a ,british journal4 ,in addition1   
whether ae and oe appear as ligatures or
 separate characters seems to be fairly 
random4 ,unless there was a clearly     
preferred spelling choice1 variants were
 kept as is4 ,all changes are explicitly
 documented below4 ,noted spelling      
variants that were preserved include3   
aluminum and aluminium2 ampullas and    
ampullae2 beechwood and beech-wood2     
,bluetstein and ,bluet stein2 brick dust
 and brickdust2 calcspar1 calc spar and 
calc-spar2 derivatives of crossbar and  
cross-bar1 and similarly for crosscut1  
crosspiece1 etc42 7,hans von7 ,dechen   
and ,decken2 desulphurizing and         
de-sulphurizing2 dissension and         

dissention 7and their plurals72 distill 
and distil 7and derivatives72 encrusted 
and incrusted2 enquire and inquire 7and 
derivatives72 ensure and insure2        
7,lazarus7 ,ercker and ,erckern2 flavor 
and flavour2 fluor-spar and fluorspar2  
,flusse and ,fluesse2 7,rotenburg an    
der7 ,fulda and ,fulde2 ,gatter and     
,gatterer may be the same person2 gold  
workers1 goldworkers and gold-workers2  
gray and grey 7and derivatives72 grove  
and groove 7,english mining term for a  
shaft72 halitum and halitus2 ,henckel   
and ,henkel2 holm oak and holmoak2      
homogenous and homogeneous2 ,daniel     
,houghsetter1 ,houghstetter and         
,hochstetter2 ,joannes and ,johannes    
7the alchemist72 ,johanes and ,johannes 
7,aurelius ,augurellus71 a4k4a4 ,john   
,aurelio ,augurello2 ,juedenstein and   
,jueden stein2 ,kinstock and ,kinstocke2
 ,lautental and ,lautenthal2 lawsuit and
 law-suit2 ,leipsic and ,leipzig2 ,krat 
and ,kratt2 ,mosaic and ,mosaick2       
mineralogic and mineralogical2          

,nuetzlich ,bergbuechlin1 ,nuetzliche   
,bergbuechlin1 ,nuetzlich               
,bergbuechlein1 and ,nuetzliche         
,bergbuechlein2 organisation and        
organization2 7,thomas7 ,pennant and    
,pennent2 ,probier ,buechlein1          
,probierbuechlin1 ,probierbuechlein1    
,probirbuechlein1 and ,probirbuechleyn  
7which may be different books in some   
cases72 derivatives of pulverise and    
pulverize2 reagent and re-agent 7and    
their plurals72 derivatives of recognise
 and recognize2 republished and         
re-published2 salamander har and        
salamanderhar2 seashore and sea-shore2  
semicircle and semi-circle 7and         
derivatives72 shovelful and shovel-ful2 
spiesglas1 spiesglass1 and spiesglasz2  
,turkey oak and turkey-oak2 ,vannucci1  
,vannuccio and ,vanuccio 7,biringuccio72
 ,vectarii and ,vectiarii2 derivatives  
of volatilise and volatilize4  ,there   
appears to be no rule whether           
punctuation following a quote should be 
inside or outside the quotation marks4  

,the text was simply left as is4  ,there
 appears to be no rule whether ,roman   
numerals have periods after them or not2
 even references to the same document   
may differ4 ,the text was simply left as
 is4  ,for the text version of the      
document1 replaced the oe-ligature with 
the separate characters oe4 ,also       
removed the macron from the e in pectos4
  ,some footnote numbers are skipped4   
,to avoid confusion with references to  
the footnotes1 none of the footnotes    
were re-numbered4 ,in particular1 ,book 
,i does not have footnote #bd2 ,book    
,,vi does not have footnote #i2 ,book   
,,viii does not have footnote #i1 #aj or
 #ah2 ,book ,,ix does not have footnote 
#bd2 ,book ,,xi does not have footnote  
#c4  ,inserted missing anchor for       
footnote #a on page v4  ,changed        
,albertham to ,abertham on page vii3 the
 ,god's ,gift mine at ,abertham4        
,changed honored to honoured on page xi3
 most honoured citizens4  ,treated the  
explanatory text on page xxiv as a      

footnote 7number #a7 and created its    
anchor on page xxi4  ,changed license to
 licence in the note on page xxiv3 only 
poets have licence4  ,changed           
,bibliotheque to ,bibliotheque in the   
footnote on page xxix3 the ,bibliotheque
 ,nationale4  ,changed ,theosebeia to   
,theosebia and inserted closing double  
quotation mark after written to         
,theosebia1 etc4444' on page xxx4  ,left
 loadstone on page #b although it's     
spelled lodestone everywhere else1      
because it's in a quote4  ,changed      
silver-mines to silver mines on page #e3
 the silver mines at ,freiberg4         
,removed the extra comma after ll4 in   
footnote #bj on page #aa3 ,odes1 ,i41   
#ce1 ll4 #ag-bj2 and in footnote #ba on 
page #ae3 ,satires1 ,,ii41 #c1 ll4      
#ii-ajb4  ,changed realised to realized 
on page #be3 his hopes are not realized4
  ,removed extra double quotation mark  
from before probable that the work on   
page #bh4  ,changed ,hipprocrene to     
,hippocrene in footnote #ai on page #cg3

 named ,hippocrene after that horse4    
,changed ,joachimstal to ,joachimsthal  
on page #db4  ,adjusted the formats of  
the captions to the illustrations on    
page #de1 #ee1 #ef and #fj to be        
consistent with other captions4         
,removed extra double quotation mark    
after not a metal in the footnote from  
page #ea4  ,changed foot walls and      
hanging walls to footwalls and          
hangingwalls on page #fe4  ,changed     
hanging-wall to hangingwall in footnote 
#e on page #hj3 into the hangingwall4   
,changed ,phaenippis to ,phaenippus in  
the footnote on page #hc3 the other     
against ,phaenippus4  ,inserted double  
quotation mark after ,droit ,francais et
 ,etranger in the footnote on page #hd4 
,changed ,inama-,strenegg to            
,inama-,sternegg in the footnote on page
 #hd4  ,changed ,himmelich to           
,himmelisch on page #ib3 ,himmelisch    
,hoez4 ,himmelsch hoz was retained as a 
variant elsewhere4  ,changed shovelers  
to shovellers on page #ajj3 miners1     

shovellers1 windlass men4  ,the table in
 the note on page #aji refers to note #g
 on p4 #egc4 ,it would make more sense  
to refer to note #h1 but was left as is4
  ,changed chrusos to chrysos in the    
footnote on page #aaj3 7chrysos1 gold   
and kolla1 solder74  ,the footnote on   
page #aaj contains the reference 7see   
note xx41 p4 x74 ,rather than ,roman    
numerals1 this appears to be a          
placeholder to a reference that was not 
filled in4 ,perhaps it should be 7see   
note #h1 p4 #efj71 but it was left as   
is4  ,changed tinstone to tin-stone in  
the footnote on page #aaj4  ,changed ,de
 ,la ,pirotechnica to ,de ,la           
,pirotechnia in the footnote on page    
#aab4  ,changed ,mansfeld to ,mannsfeld 
in the footnote on page #aac3 ,mannsfeld
 copper schists4  ,changed ,co,as,a to  
,co,as,s in the footnote on page #aac3  
,cobaltite 7,co,as,s74  ,changed        
,phoenecians to ,phoenicians on page    
#aai3 ,phoenicians must have possessed4 
,changed hanging wall to hangingwall on 

page #abd3 the hangingwall and the      
footwall4  ,changed venae dilatatae     
7ae-ligature7 to venae dilatatae on page
 #abg3 mine venae dilatatae lying down4 
,changed venae cumulatae 7ae-ligature7  
to venae cumulatae on page #abh3 as to  
venae cumulatae4  ,changed ,watts's to  
,watt's in footnote #a on page #adi3    
,watt's improvements4  ,changed locks to
 blocks on page #aea3 blocks1 and       
plates4  ,something is wrong with the   
sentence on page #aec that ends with the
 reference to footnote #c4 ,one metreta 
is larger than one-sixth of a congius4  
,perhaps metreta and congius should be  
swapped in this sentence1 but it was    
left as is4  ,changed bail to bale on   
page #aec3 iron semi-circular bale4     
,changed ,fosilium to ,fossilium twice  
in the footnote on page #aee3 ,de       
,natura ,fossilium4  ,changed decends to
 descends on page #aff3 descends into an
 underground chamber1 and again on page 
#aij3 the plank descends4  ,changed     
,pig-skin to ,pigskin in the caption to 

the illustration on page #afh3 ,pigskin 
sacks4  ,left vapor as is in footnote   
#bj on page #baj although it's spelled  
vapour everywhere else1 because it's in 
a quote4  ,changed de hydrated to       
dehydrated in the footnote on page #bba3
 ,probably dehydrated alum4  ,changed   
,na#b;,co#c to ,na#b;,,co#c in the      
footnote on page #bbb4  ,changed        
fore-part to forepart on page #bbf3 the 
forepart lies4  ,changed four-fold to   
fourfold on page #bbf3 with fourfold    
curves4  ,changed or to of on page #bcj3
 an ore of copper4  ,changed factictius 
to facticius in the footnote on page    
#bcc3 ,sal facticius4  ,changed         
,interpretaltio to ,interpretatio in    
footnote #ac on page #bcd3              
,interpretatio1 die heffe4  ,changed    
,loehneys to ,lohneys in footnote #ba on
 page #bcg4  ,cramner in footnote #ba on
 page #bcg may be a typo for ,cramer1   
but it was left as is4  ,changed        
neutralized to neutralised in footnote  
#ba on page #bcg3 neutralised by the    

nitre4  ,changed notes to note in       
footnote #cc on page #bdh3 note #aj4    
,changed liquified to liquefied on page 
#bej3 has become sufficiently liquefied4
  ,changed touchneedles to touch-needles
 in footnote #cg on page #bec3 detailed 
account of touch-needles4  ,the         
reference to page #bei in footnote #ci  
on page #bec does not seem to make      
sense1 but was not changed4 ,perhaps the
 reference should be to footnote #bg on 
page #bdb4  ,in the table on page #beg1 
the entries for the #bjth and #bast     
needles do not add up1 because the entry
 for the number of sextulae of copper   
belongs in the #bast needle1 not the    
#bjth4 ,this was corrected4 ,however1   
there are other errors in this table1   
which are not so obvious and were not   
corrected4 ,in particular1 the entries  
for the #bbnd1 #bhth and #cast needles  
do not add correctly4  ,in the table on 
page #beh1 the number for the siliquae  
of copper was sometimes in the sextulae 
column4 ,these were corrected4 ,the     

affected lines were the ones for needles
 #ac1 #bb and #bd4 ,there is some other 
error 7uncorrected7 for the #agth       
needle2 probably it should have another 
sextula of silver4  ,filled in the      
missing #d in the line for the #hth     
needle in the table on page #bfj4       
,changed #eb to #be in the line for the 
#crd weight in the table for the greater
 weights on page #bfa4  ,changed stele  
to stelae on page #bgi3 ,certain stelae4
  ,changed hanging-wall to hangingwall  
on page #bgi3 the hangingwall rock2 and 
on page #bib3 from the hangingwall4     
,changed lead to led in the footnote on 
page #bha3 led through a series4        
,changed ,humpfrey to ,humphrey in the  
footnote on page #bhc3 ,william         
,humphrey4  ,changed ,erbisdroff to     
,erbisdorff on page #cjd3 tin-stuff of  
,schlackenwald and ,erbisdorff4         
,changed colleced to collected on page  
#cbh3 concentrates are collected4       
,changed civilisation to civilization in
 footnote #ag on page #ccj3 glimmer of  

civilization4  ,changed ,chapter ,,ix to
 ,book ,,ix in footnote #bb from page   
#cej4  ,changed ,thothmes to ,thotmes in
 footnote #f on page #cfb3 the time of  
,thotmes ,,iii4  ,changed unseasonable  
to unreasonable on page #cgd3 yet it is 
not unreasonable4  ,inserted ,l-- in the
 caption for the illustration on page   
#che4  ,footnote #bc1 p4 #cia1 refers to
 a note on p4 #bfe1 but there is no such
 note4  ,changed carni to ,carni in the 
caption to the illustration on page     
#cic4  ,removed extra right parenthesis 
at end of footnote #bh1 from page #cif1 
and footnote #g1 from page #dda4        
,changed ,agatharcides to ,agatharchides
 in the footnote on page #cii1 and again
 in the footnote on page #dfe4  ,changed
 bare to bars on page #dah3 the         
lattice-like bars sells4  ,changed      
,nuetliche to ,nuetzliche in footnote   
#ei on page #dcc3 the ,nuetzliche       
,bergbuechlein in association4  ,changed
 threequarters to three-quarters on page
 #dcg3 three-quarters of a foot4        

,changed the spout from the opercula    
extends to the spouts from the opercula 
extend in the caption to the            
illustration on page #ddf4  ,changed    
earthern to earthen on page #dea3 melted
 with copper in a red hot earthen       
crucible4  ,changed ,boussingalt to     
,boussingault in footnote #ah on page   
#ded3 ,investigation by ,boussingault4  
,footnote #bf1 on page #dfe1 refers to a
 discussion on page #chi2 there is no   
such discussion4 ,perhaps the note on   
page #cij was intended1 but no change   
was made4  ,the reference to p4 #dhj in 
the footnote on page #dff doesn't seem  
to make sense4 ,perhaps the reference   
should be to the note on p4 #dge or the 
illustration on p4 #dha1 but it was not 
changed4  ,changed ,agricolas' to       
,agricola's in footnote #bg on page     
#dfg4  ,changed roman to ,roman in the  
caption to the figure on page #dha4     
,changed pinewood to pine-wood on page  
#dif3 shingles of pine-wood4  ,changed  
,fore-hearths to ,forehearths in the    

caption to the illustration on page     
#ejh4  ,changed or to of in the table in
 footnote #ag on page #eab3 #efd4h lbs4 
of 7,a74  ,changed near-by to nearby on 
page #ebf3 in a nearby timber4  ,changed
 fore-hearth to forehearth on page #edj3
 into the forehearth1 and on page #edc3 
into the forehearth4  ,changed          
sideboards to side-boards on page #eeb3 
the side-boards are fixed4  ,changed    
superscripts to subscripts in footnote  
#i on page #efa3 ,ca7,,no#c7b           
,k#b;,,co#c  ,ca,c,o#c  #b,,kno#c4      
,changed crystallised to crystallized in
 footnote #i on page #efa4  ,changed    
hydros to hydrous in the footnote on    
page #efe3 the hydrous sulphate4        
,changed octrahedra to octahedra in the 
footnote on page #efe4  ,changed        
subtance to substance in footnote #aa on
 page #egb3 that feathery substance4    
,changed ventholes to vent-holes on page
 #ehj3 two or three vent-holes4         
,changed prehistoric to pre-historic on 
page #ehb3 from pre-historic times4     

,changed ,rawlinsons1 ,trans4 to        
,rawlinson's ,trans4 in the footnote on 
page #ehc4  ,changed ,neavius to        
,naevius on page #eif3 ,johannes        
,naevius4  ,changed ,unstaendliche to   
,umstaendliche in footnote #c on page   
#eii3 ,umstaendliche 444 ,chronica4     
,changed ,watts to ,watt on page #fje3  
,watt mentions it4  ,changed begininng  
to beginning on page #faa3 beginning of 
the sixteenth centuries4  ,changed      
oxidising to oxidizing on page #fae3 an 
oxidizing blast4  ,changed ,oryguia to  
,orguia on page #fag4  ,changed the     
reference for ,annaberg on page #fai    
from ,,xxi to ,,xxxi4  ,changed         
,ceragurite to ,cerargurite in its index
 entry on page #fbj4  ,changed ,fibrae  
to ,fibrae 7ae-ligature7 in its index   
entry on page #fbb4  ,changed the       
reference for ,glass on page #fbc from  
#ecd-eib to #ehd-eib4  ,changed two     
references for ,magnes on page #fbe from
 #ehd to #ehe4  ,changed the reference  
for ,nuremberg1 ,scale of ,weights on   

page #fbf from #bfd to #bfc4  ,changed  
,pickscheifer to ,pickschiefer in its   
index entry on page #fbf4  ,changed the 
reference for ,proustite on page #fbf1  
and the references for ,pyrargyrite1 for
 ,ruby ,silver1 for ,silver1 for ,silver
 ,glance and for ,silver ,ores on page  
#fbg1 from #aji to #ajh4  ,changed the  
reference for ,quicksilver on page #fbf 
from #aaa to #aaj4  ,changed ,stuices to
 ,sluices on page #fbf1 in the index    
entry for ,pockets in ,alluvial         
,sluices4  ,changed the references for  
,schneeberg1 ,st4 ,george mine and for  
,st4 ,george ,mine on page #fbg from #ib
 to #ia4  ,changed ,steinmack to        
,steinmarck in its index entry on page  
#fbh4  ,in the ,index to ,persons and   
,authorities 7starting page #fcj71 there
 are a number of references to page #eii
 that appear to make more sense as      
references to #fjc1 but which were not  
changed4  ,changed the reference for    
,venice1 ,scale of ,weights on page #fcj
 from #bfd to #bfc4  ,changed the       

reference for ,de ,mensuris et          
,ponderibus1 ,weights and ,measures on  
page #fcb from #bfd to #bfc4  ,changed  
the reference for ,de ,natura eorum quae
 ,effluunt ex ,terra1 ,dedication on    
page #fcb from ,,viii to ,,vii4         
,changed the reference for ,de ,precio  
,metallorum et ,monetis on page #fcb    
from #bfd to #bfc4  ,changed ,diphilus  
to ,diphilos in its index entry on page 
#fcb4  ,changed the references for      
,forehearth and for ,furnaces1 ,blast on
 page #fcg from #cij to #chi4  ,changed 
the references for ,pumps1 ,suction on  
page #fch from #ahh2 #acg to #ahc2 #ahg4
  ,changed the reference for ,tests for 
,refining ,silver on page #fch from #chd
 to #dhd4