,,morals ,,& ,,! ,,evolution   ,,( ,,man
      ,,morals ,,& ,,!   ,,evolution ,,(
 ,,man    ,,by   ,,max ,,nordau    ,a   
,translation (   ,,biologie ,,d] ,,e?ik 
,by   ,,m>ie ,a4 ,,lew5z1 ,m4,a4        
,fell[ ( ,univ]sity ,college1 ,london   
,,cassell ,,& ,,company1 ,,ltd          
,london1 ,new ,york1 ,toronto &         
,melb\rne   #aibb      ,,to ,,my ,,de>  
,,wife ,,anna 7ne ,,dons71    ! sun%9e (
 my life 9 happy days1 my brave         
comrade 9 ! /orms ( ! _w-cata/rophe1 )  
love & gratitude ,i d$icate ?is book :i*
 help$   bo? h] & me to endure ! d>k    
ye>s :5 we   7 homeless w&]]s4          
,,madrid1 ,septemb] #bf?1 #aiaf         
,,cont5ts    ,,*apt]                    
,,page   #a4 ,,! ,,ph5om5on ,,(         
,,morality                            #a
   #b4 ,,! ,,imman5ce ,,( ,,! ,,concept 
,,( ,,morality             #df   #c4 ,,!
 ,,biological ,,aspect ,,( ,,morality   
#hd   #d4 ,,morality ,,& ,,law          
#aae   #e4 ,,individual ,,morality ,,&  
,,collective ,,immorality       #add    

#f4 ,,fre$om ,,& ,,responsibility       
#ahe   #g4 ,,morality ,,& ,,progress    
#bae   #h4 ,,! ,,sanctions ,,(          
,,morality                              
#bdg     ,,morals ,,& ,,!  ,,evolution  
,,( ,,man     ,,*apt] ,i  ,,! ,,ph5om5on
 ,,( ,,morality   ,a v well-kn[n        
exp]im5t 9 animal psy*ology 0 once made 
by ,mbius4 ,an aqu>ium 0 divid$ into two
 comp>tm5ts by means ( a pane ( glass2 9
 "o ( ^! a pike 0 put & 9 ! o!r a t5*4  
,h>dly _h ! =m] caught sight ( 8 prey1  
:5 he ru%$ to ! attack )\t notic+ !     
transp>5t p>tition4 ,he cra%$ ) extreme 
viol5ce aga9 ! ob/acle & 0 hurl$ back   
/unn$1 ) a badly batt]$ nose4 ,no soon] 
_h he recov]$ f ! bl[ ?an he aga9 made  
an onslaught ^u 8 neighb\r--) ! same    
result4 ,he repeat$ 8 ef=ts a few times 
m1 b succe$$ only 9 badly hurt+ 8 head &
 m\?4 ,at la/ a dim idea dawn$ ^u 8 dull
 m9d t "s unkn[n & invisible p[] 0      
protect+ ! t5*1 & t any attempt to dev\r
 x w\ld be 9 va92 consequ5tly f t mom5t 
he ceas$ f all fur!r endeav\rs to mole/ 

8 prey4 ,!reupon ! pane ( glass 0 remov$
 f ! tank1 & pike & t5* swam ar\nd      
toge!r2 ! =m] took no notice :atev] ( 8 
def5celess neighb\r1 :o _h become sacr$ 
to him4 ,9 ! fir/ in/ance ! pike _h n   
p]ceiv$ ! glass p>tition aga9/ :i* he _h
 da%$ 8 head2 n[ he did n see t x _h be5
 tak5 away4 ,all he knew 0 ?is3 he mu/ n
 attack ?is t5*1 o!rwise he w\ld f>e    
badly4 ,! pane ( glass1 ?\gh no long]   
actually !re1 surr\nd$ ! t5* z ) a coat 
( mail :i* effectually w>d$ (f ! murd]\s
 attacks ( ! pike4  ,! fact s (t5       
obs]v$1 t man 9 _m cases does t :i* he  
passionately desires to leave undone1 & 
refra9s f do+ t :i* all 8 in/9cts urge  
him to d--?is ph5om5on ( ,morality is a 
g5]alization ^u a huge scale ( ! above  
exp]im5t on animals ) ! pane ( glass 9 a
 tank4  ,jean ,jacques ,r\sseau ?\ght   
out a !oretical human be+ :o 0 by nature
 good4 ,su* a human be+ does n exi/ &   
has nev] exi/$4 ,f %e] annoyance at !   
provok+ obliquity ( vision :i* l$ !     
en?usia/ ( ,g5eva to develop su* a !ory1

 "o is sorely tempt$ to g to ! opposite 
extreme & decl>e t man is by nature     
fundam5tally bad2 b su* an ass]tion is j
 z nave z ,r\sseau's cont5tion4 ,good & 
bad are values :i* we c only le>n to    
appreciate :5 we h felt ! effect ( !    
ph5om5on ( ,morality4 ,! concepts ( good
 & evil are ( mu* lat] orig9 ?an mank9d1
 & c !re=e no m con/itute a fundam5tal  
*>act]i/ic ( man's orig9al nature ?an1 =
 in/ance1 ! cut & col\r ( 8 clo!s2 ?\gh 
x is op5 to wiseacres to ma9ta9 t man's 
nature to "s ext5t actually f9ds        
expression 9 ! cut & col\r ( 8 clo!s--t 
is1 9 8 *oice ( !m4 ,anyone contemplat+ 
primitive man1 man z he em]ges f ! h&s (
 ,nature1 /ripp$ ( all ! additions :i*  
he has acquir$ 9 ! c\rse ( 8 hi/orical  
developm5t1 is b\nd to admit t man is   
nei!r good nor bad2 he is a liv+ be+    
act+ accord+ to ! in/9cts implant$ 9 8  
nature2 j l ! pike4 ,b 9 mo/ cont+5cies 
he does n obey ^! in/9cts1 & if he      
reflects ^u himself & 8 actions1 he is  
a/\nd$ at realiz+ ?is1 & asks3 ,:y d ,i 

refra9 f revell+ 9 ! gratification ( my 
desires8  ,innum]able times e day ( 8   
life he w\ld l to break _m or all ( !   
,t5 ,comm&m5ts2 b he ab/a9s f s do+1 &1 
:at is m1 mo/ly )\t ef=t1 )\t hav+      
pa9fully to suppress 8 desire4 ,:at     
prev5ts him f yield+ to 8 impulses8 ,an 
invisible p[] :i* lays its comm&s ^u    
him3 ,?\ %alt n6 ,?\ %alt6 ,(t5 8 aims &
 incl9ations come into viol5t collision 
) ?is ord]1 or ?is prohibition1 & are   
hurl$ back by ! pa9ful impact4 ,man he>s
 ! ?reat5+1 imp]i\s voice1 b _c see :5ce
 x comes4 ,accu/om$ to reason by        
analogy1 he concludes t x is1 l ?und]1 a
 voice ( ,nature4 ,:5 ! pike has        
suffici5tly injur$ 8 nose aga9/ ! pane (
 glass1 he assumes z an actual fact t an
 insup]able b>ri] sep>ates him f ! t5*1 
&1 moreov]1 t x is bo? useless & pa9ful 
to come into contact ) ?is4 ,he does n  
try to discov] ! nature ( ! ob/acle1 &  
gives up any fur!r attempt ^u 8         
my/]i\sly protect$ prey4 ,man1 ) a m    
highly develop$ intellig5ce ?an ! pike1 

does n accept ! ph5om5on ( ,morality )  
dull resignation4 ,s9ce he has become   
consci\s ( a my/]i\s b>ri] erect$ betwe5
 8 volitions & 8 actions1 he has n ceas$
 to reflect ^u ?is b>ri]1 to inve/igate 
x ) a timid yet irresi/ible desire = k1 
& to try & discov] its nature4  ,x      
r$\nds to man's cr$it t he has devot$ s 
mu* "t & en]gy to inve/igat+ ! "* &     
ess5ce ( ,morality4 ,b ! result ( ^!    
inve/igations does n r$\nd to 8 cr$it4  
,) ! exception ( !ology1 !re is no      
subject ^u :i* s mu* has be5 writt5 z ^u
 e?ics4 ,yet :osoev] plunges into ?is   
b\ndless sea ( lit]ature w em]ge )      
feel+s bord]+ ^u horror & despair4 ,"h a
 free re9 is giv5 to all man's errors1  
to 8 habit ( draw+ false conclusions1 to
 8 faulty modes ( ?\ght4 ,incapacity to 
int]pret facts1 association ( ideas1    
elusive z a w-o'-!-wisp & uncurb$ by any
 criticism1 intemp]ate my/icism1        
arrogant dogmatism1 %all[               
self-suffici5cy--all ^! vie ) "o ano!r 9
 ! pres5tm5t ( !ories :i* ei!r are      

pat5tly fooli%1 arbitr>y or ill-f\nd$1  
or else prove to be s :5 imp>tially     
exam9$4  ,x is h>d = ! few reasonable   
?9k]s :o h tak5 "p 9 ?is great          
inve/igation to make _! voices he>d amid
 ! upro> rais$ by ! solemn1 unctu\s1    
dictatorial or p$antic tomfools4 ,& ev5 
! =m] are n entirely satisfactory1      
because !y d n di/+ui% cle>ly en\gh     
betwe5 ! =m & ! sub/ance1 ! ext]nals & !
 ess5ce ( ,morality1 & because !y d n   
discrim9ate ) suffici5t c>e betwe5      
que/ions z to its nature1 orig9 & aim1 &
 its p[]s or sanctions--que/ions :i* mu/
 on no acc\nt be conf\nd$4  ,:at is     
,morality8 ,obvi\sly x is necess>y to   
attempt a cle> answ] to ?is "q be=e any 
useful purpose c be s]v$ by inquir+ into
 ! gr\p ( problems to :i* x gives rise3 
its aim1 its laws1 its orig91 its me?od1
 its assumptions4 ,! ,/oics answ] ?is "q
 z foll[s3 ,morality is liv+ accord+ to 
,nature4 ,fur!rmore1 x is q 9 accordance
 ) ! doctr9e ( ! ,/oics t ,cic]o says3  
,virtue1 h[ev]1 is no?+ b ,nature       

develop$ to ! highe/ possible degree (  
p]fection 7ad summum p]ducta74 ,moral   
!re=e means natural2 ,morality & ,nature
 are equival5t2 !y are "o4 ,really a    
simpl] or m *ildlike explanation is     
h>dly possible4 ,! mo/ sup]ficial glance
 at human life & at our own s\l tea*es u
 t ,morality is contr>y to ,nature1 t x 
mu/ /ruggle aga9/ ,nature to ass]t      
itself1 t x means a victory ov] ,nature1
 9 s f> z we und]/& by ,nature 9 ?is    
special s5se ! mo/ primitive reaction ( 
man to simple & m complicat$ /imuli1 !  
fir/ t5d5cy ( impulse1 ! imm$iate1      
in/9ctive urge to act4 ,fur!r1 !        
def9ition ( ! ,/oics ignores !          
aggregation ( concepts :i* ! syn!tic    
conception1 ,morality1 involves2 z if   
?is 7 self-evid5t & requir$ no          
def9ition4 ,! ,/oics tacitly assume t   
,morality & ,good are synonym\s4 ,cic]o 
makes ?is assumption cle>] by us+ ! ^w  
,virtue 7virtus7 in/ead ( ,morality4 ,b 
9 all languages ?is ^w implies          
approbation & praise4 ,x is an          

appreciation ( wor? 7,w]turteil71 to use
 ! expression s appropriately co9$ by   
,lotze4  ,b ! v fact t we recognize     
,morality z be+ valuable is by no means 
a matt] ( c\rse & x dem&s an            
explanation4  ,c]ta9 actions c\ld only  
be judg$ to be good if !y 7 di/+ui%$ f  
o!rs :i* did n sugge/ ! same judgm5t1   
:i* 7 felt to be n good1 to be bad or   
indiff]5t4 ,we come to ! "q1 ,:at is    
,good1 :at is ,bad8 ,! ,/oics reply1 ,t 
:i* is good is natural4 ,x is easy to   
call facts :i* please u natural1 & su* z
 displease u unnatural4 ,9 reality bo?  
s]ies ( facts are equally natural2      
because ev]y?+ t happ5s is natural2     
because by def9ition ,nature is !       
syn!sis ( all ph5om5a2 because no?+     
exi/s outside ( ,nature1 & )9 ,nature   
ev]y?+ is a "p ( h] & !re=e is natural &
 c be no?+ b natural4 ,if we nev]!less  
wi% to di/+ui% betwe5 natural &         
unnatural ph5om5a1 if we call ,good1    
,morality1 & ,virtue natural1 & comp>e  
!m fav\rably ) ! unnatural1 ?is only    

proves t we use ! words natural &       
unnatural z synonyms = good & bad1 & t  
we h a ready-made /&>d by :i* we measure
 ! naturalness or unnaturalness 7t is1 !
 goodness or badness7 ( actions1 & t !re
 exi/s )9 ourselves ! law by :i* we     
judge !m to be good or bad4 ,b h[ d we  
come by ?is law8 ,h[1 ( :at mat]ial1 &  
:y d we fa%ion ?is /&>d8 ,:y d we       
approve ( "o ?+ z good & condemn ano!r z
 bad8 ,:at qualities d ! =m] & ! latt]  
possess1 or :at qualities d we ascribe  
to !m8 ,t is :at we want to "k :5 we    
inquire z to ! significance ( ,morality1
 & ! def9ition ( ! ,/oics ?r[s no light 
:atev] ^u ! matt]4  ,accord+ to         
,ari/otle ,morality is ! activity (     
,practical ,reason1 :i* is accompani$ by
 pleasurable emotion4 ,x is n wor? :ile 
to dwell ^u ?is def9ition4 ,x is        
absolutely valueless4 ,practical ,reason
 is n a def9ite concept2 ,ari/otle does 
n say any:]e :at he und]/&s by practical
 :5 he applies ?is attribute to ,reason2
 & to call e activity ( ,practical      

,reason accompani$ by pleasurable       
emotion ,morality is m]e ecc5tricity4   
,to take only "o example3 if ,i h a h\se
 built1 & accept ! ar*itect's plans     
because !y please me greatly1 my        
practical reason is mo/ c]ta9ly active2 
! gratification induc$ by my reasonable 
*oice ( ! plans is d\btless a           
pleasurable emotion2 b assur$ly no "o w 
*>act]ize z moral ?is activity ( my     
practical reason :i* is accompani$ by   
pleasurable emotion4 ,x may be t        
,ari/otle 0 contemplat+ n a s+le action1
 b conduct 9 life z a :ole4 ,9 t case he
 has express$ 9 an un=tunate1 & mu* too 
loose a mann] ! ?\ght t ,morality is    
,reason plus pleasurable emotion4 ,we   
%all frequ5tly meet ) & h to exam9e ?is 
idea1 :i* omits to expla9 :y pleasurable
 emotions att5d c]ta9 activities (      
,practical ,reason1 :atev] t may be1 &  
fail to be ar\s$ by o!rs4  ,judaism1 z  
embodi$ 9 its law-giv]s & prophets1     
tea*es t ,morality consi/s 9 liv+ & act+
 9 accordance ) ! div9e ,w4 ,maimonides1

 :o1 h[ev]1 0 reg>d$ by _m ( 8          
contempor>ies z a h]etic1 does n consid]
 ,judaism a cre$ at all1 b a code (     
,morality4 ,he ma9ta9s t anyone :o      
repudiates ! t5ets ( ! ,jewi% fai?1 ev5 
! mo/ ess5tial "o1 namely1 ! belief 9 a 
s+le god1 mu/ n be exclud$ f ! ,jewi%   
community z long z he con=ms to its     
moral laws4 ,?is ?9k]1 usually s        
accurate & nice 9 8 reason+1 ov]looks ! 
fact t 9 ?is case he is contradict+     
himself 9 a mann] wellnigh comic4       
,accord+ to him1 too1 ,morality consi/s 
9 ! endeav\r to live & act 9 accordance 
) ! div9e ,w4 ,h[ is su* an endeav\r    
possible = a man :o does n believe 9    
,god & = :om consequ5tly no div9e ,w    
exi/s8 ,!re=e ei!r ,morality mu/ be     
some?+ diff]5t f an approximation to !  
/&>d set up by ! div9e ,w1 or else he :o
 d5ies ,god _c be moral4 ,b ,i w leave !
 au?or ( ! ,guide ( ^? :o h gone a/ray  
to 8 self-contradiction1 & only reta9 ! 
,jewi% def9ition ( ,morality z bas$ ^u !
 ,w ( ,god4  ,)\t any re/riction        

,*ri/ianity has tak5 ov] ?is def9ition f
 ! "m-religion4 ,9 8 zeal to claim t    
,god alone is ! s\rce ( all ,morality1  
,/4 ,augu/9e all[s himself to be c>ri$  
away to su* an ext5t t he libels mank9d 
mo/ hatefully4 ,j z = ,r\sseau man is by
 nature good1 = ! ,bi%op ( ,hippo he is 
by nature fundam5tally bad4 ,left to 8  
own devices he w\ld always wall[ 9 !    
mire ( s9 & vice1 & w\ld nev] ev5 feel !
 wi% to ab&on 8 wick$ness4 ,x is ,god's 
m]cy alone :i* rescues him f 8 depravity
 & sets 8 feet ^u ! pa? ( righte\sness1 
lead+ him to virtue1 salvation & et]nal 
bliss4 ,?omas ,aqu9as is no less def9ite
 on ?is po9t4 ,! scriptures ( ,judaism &
 ,*ri/ianity conta9 ! et]nal law :i*    
,god has orda9$ = mank9d4 ,he po9ts out 
! pa?s t man %\ld foll[4 ,all ,morality 
spr+s f ,him alone4  ,to ?is v day true 
believ]s adh]e to ?is doctr9e4 ,morality
 did n orig9ate on e>?2 ! k ( x is a    
gift ( grace f heav5 to mank9d4 ,x is   
d]iv$ f ,god2 x is t :i* ,god has will$2
 or else x does n ne$ any special act ( 

volition on ! "p ( ,god1 b is ! ess5ce (
 ,god himself4 ,t is ! tea*+ ( ,paley1 !
 classical moral philosoph]4 ,virtue    
consi/s 9 do+ good to mank9d 9 ob$i5ce  
to ! ,w ( ,god1 & 9 ord] to atta9 et]nal
 salvation4 ,"h /ress is laid ^u ! fact 
t ,morality is active love = "o's       
neighb\r1 & ?is is a concession on ! "p 
( ! conciliatory ,engli%man to !        
utilit>ian e?ics ( 8 c\ntrym52 b = him !
 necess>y & suffici5t reason = ?is love 
( "o's neighb\r is ! ,w ( ,god & !      
desire = et]nal salvation4 ,! ,g]man    
devotee1 ,baad]1 blu/]+ l a capu*91     
prea*es ?is twaddle3 ,any ,morality :i* 
is n root$ 9 div9e law is ! intellectual
 impiety ( our "t rais$ to its highe/   
p[]2 x is ! p]fection ( a!ism2 = ! idea 
( ! absolute autonomy ( man a!i/ically  
d5ies ! ,fa!r z law-giv]2 ! !i/ic d5ial 
( ! necessity = div9e aid 9 fulfill+ !  
law does away ) ! ,son or ,m$iator1 &   
f9ally ! mat]iali/ic-pan!i/ic apo!osis (
 ,matt] does away ) ! ,holy ,gho/ ) its 
sanctify+ p[]4 ,! ,fr5*man ,j\ffroy1    

?\gh m c>eful & retic5t 9 8 mann]1      
unmi/akably expresses 8 conviction t    
e?ics1 z well z ! philosophy ( law1     
inevitably & necess>ily lead to !ology4 
,b ?is necessity only exi/s = m9ds ^:   
desire = k & tru? is easily satisfi$ by 
words )\t a mean+ t c be visualiz$1 by  
fabul\s /atem5ts accept$ )\t pro(1 by   
fictions ( ! imag9ation1 & by %all[     
juggl+ ) ! association ( ideas4 ,ev5 ^? 
:o d n approve all ,augu/e ,comte's     
argum5ts w agree ) him :5 he classifies 
! successive /eps 9 ! m5tal developm5t (
 mank9d z ! !ological1 transc5d5tal1 &  
sci5tific modes ( ?\ght4 ,:5 man's      
und]/&+ is 9 its infancy he is cont5t ) 
a sup]natural explanation ( all ph5om5a 
:i* /rike him z my/]i\s1 disquiet him or
 r\se 8 curiosity4 ,only ,i h nev] be5  
able to und]/& :y ,comte discrim9ates   
betwe5 ! !ological & ! transc5d5tal     
modes ( ?\ght1 & assigns to ! latt] a   
high] place ?an ! =m]4 ,bo? are on a    
foot+ ( absolute equality2 bo? raise    
arbitr>y fictions ( ! imag9ation to !   

position ( s\rces ( k2 bo? sub/itute    
an?ropomorphic trivialities = !         
obs]vation ( ph5om5a & rese>* into !    
conditions "u :i* !y occur & _!         
relation%ip to "o ano!r4 ,! only        
diff]5ce betwe5 !m lies 9 ! fact t      
transc5d5talism expresses itself 9 *oic]
 language ?an does !ology1 t x pres5ts  
=mul t are m complicat$ & pret5ti\s1    
less transp>5t & hone/--=mul :i* !      
unpractis$ m9d does n imm$iately        
recognize z my?ological dogmas 9 a      
pseudo-sci5tific disguise4  ,!          
relation%ip ( !ological to transc5d5tal 
?\ght is mu* ! same z t ( sup]/ition to 
religion4 ,bo? ( !m are "o & ! same4    
,religion is %amefac$ sup]/ition1 :]eas 
sup]/ition has n yet le>n$ to feel %ame4
 ,religion is sup]/ition 9 a dress-coat1
 & !re=e fit = polite circles2          
sup]/ition is religion 9 a cotton smock 
& !re=e _c be admitt$ to society4       
,sup]/ition is ! religion ( ! poor &    
unassum+1 religion is ! sup]/ition ( f9e
 folk :o plume !mselves on _! =mal &    

v]bal s*ol>%ip4  ,ev] s9ce man has ris5 
above ! level ( ! bea/s1 ev] s9ce ! fir/
 fa9t glimm]+s ( ?\ght began 9 !        
?ick-wall$1 n>r[ & d>k skull ( a hunt] (
 ! ,ne&]?al or ,cro ,magnon1 he has     
ascrib$ ev]y?+ un9telligible 9 life & 9 
! _w ar\nd him to div9e actions & div9e 
s\rces4 ,h[ did ! _w come into exi/5ce8 
,a god or gods creat$ x4 ,h[ does       
,nature "w8 ,9 accordance ) ! w ( a god 
or gods1 9 ob$i5ce to div9e comm&s1 z a 
result ( div9e activities4 ,:at is life8
 ,a div9e gift ( grace4 ,:at is         
consci\sness8 ,an irradiation ( !       
div9ity4 ,:at is inf9ity1 :at et]nity8  
,attributes ( ! god4 ,god is ! "n t f ! 
beg9n+ ( "t to ! pres5t day m5 h giv5 to
 _! ignorance4 ,!y f9d x easi] to be>   
disguis$ by ?is pseudonym2 !y are ev5   
pr\d ( x4 ,) cunn+ self-deception !y h  
end[$ ! ^w ) ! dignity p]ta9+ to a title
 ( ! mo/ awe-inspir+ maje/y1 & !y no    
long] feel a%am$ ( a pov]ty ( m9d :i* c 
boa/ ( su* a magnific5t "n4 ,morality   
also is "o ( ^? ph5om5a :i* are n       

intelligible z a matt] ( c\rse4 ,!      
que/ions h[1 :5ce1 :y1 & to :at end     
,morality exi/s1 & :at x is1 _c be solv$
 at a glance2 its life-hi/ory is n      
app>5t to e obs]v]1 z is t ( ! dome/ic  
cat4 ,b :y cudgel "o's bra9s8 ,*eap     
explanations are ready to h&4 ,?is way  
my?ology1 y maid-(-all-"w6 ,morality has
 be5 orda9$ by ,god4 ,a moral life is "o
 9 accordance ) ,god's comm&m5ts4 ,he :o
 w n cont5t himself ) ?is answ] is an   
infidel & does n des]ve to h any notice 
tak5 ( him4  ,let u leave ! paltry      
/atem5ts ( !ologians & note h[ m5 :o    
inve/igate que/ions m ?or\ghly h dealt )
 ,morality4 ,desc>tes def9es ,morality z
 ! su/a9$ endeav\r to d t :i* "o has    
recogniz$ to be "r4 ,x is difficult to  
disc]n 9 ?is def9ition ! fa!r (         
sci5tific scepticism4 ,:at are !        
di/+ui%+ m>ks ( ,"r8 ,is ! decision z to
 :at is "r & :at is wrong to be left to 
! subjective judgm5t ( ! individual8 ,9 
t case ,desc>tes mu/ conc$e t ! action (
 a burgl> is moral1 if he has recogniz$ 

t x is "r = him to p]petrate 8 crime    
betwe5 two & ?ree o'clock 9 ! morn+1 t  
be+ ! mo/ fav\rable "t = x1 & !n /rives 
to ! be/ ( 8 ability to effect an       
entrance into ! build+ he has select$1  
at ! mom5t :i* he has recogniz$ z ! "r  
"o4 ,or %all all mank9d1 or at lea/ !   
majority1 & n ! individual1 decide :at  
is "r8 ,9 t case ! def9ition w\ld       
c]ta9ly approximate to ! "o :i* ,i hold 
to be true2 b = "o ?+ x w\ld suff] f    
vagu5ess2 &1 moreov]1 its orig9ator w\ld
 lay himself op5 to ! reproa* ( n hav+  
%[n :y ! individual is wor?y ( praise :5
 he acts 9 accordance ) ! convictions ( 
! majority1 ?\gh ^! be oppos$ to 8 own1 
& 9 s do+ all[s 8 action to be det]m9$  
by a judgm5t due to a psy*ic me*anism   
o!r ?an 84  ,sp9oza's ,e?ics leaves !   
read] 9 great discom=t1 ! result (      
vacillat+ & contradictory explanations4 
,obvi\sly ,desc>tes' great disciple _h  
no cle> conception ( ! ess5ce (         
,morality & held ei!r consecutively1 or 
may be ev5 simultane\sly1 div]s views on

 ! subject1 among/ :i* ^? ( all s*ools (
 ?\ght are ei!r q cle>ly express$ or at 
lea/ impli$4 ,by ,good1 he says1 ,i mean
 t :i* we "k = c]ta9 to be useful to    
u4#a    #a ,i quote ! word+ ( ,b]?old   
,au]ba*'s translation3       ,b4 de     
,sp9oza's collect$ works4 ,translat$ f !
 ,lat9       by ,b]?old ,au]ba*4        
,/uttg>t1 ,j4 ,g4 ,cotta1 #ahga4 ,second
       edition1 ,vol4 ,,ii4  ,& aga93   
,to act absolutely virtu\sly is m]ely to
 act1 live1 pres]ve "o's be+ 7^! ?ree   
mean ! same ?+7 9 accordance ) !        
dictates ( ,reason1 because "o seeks    
"o's own int]e/4  ,accord+ to t         
,morality is synonym\s ) egoism1 & its  
aim is man's individual pr(it or int]e/4
 ,ev5 ! mo/ pron\nc$ ,utilit>ians among 
e?ical !ori/s h n v5tur$ to g to su*    
l5g?s4 ,true1 !y h cont5d$ t ! aim (    
moral action is happ9ess1 b at lea/ !y  
def9e x z ! happ9ess ( ! :ole community 
& n t ( ! individual1 except 9 s f> z he
 is a memb] ( ! community & has 8 fair  
%>e ( its well-be+4 ,sp9oza =esees !    

objection t ! pursuit ( "o's own        
happ9ess _c possibly des]ve ! univ]sal  
e/eem 9 :i* virtue is held1 & he tries  
to adduce reasons :]eby ! egoism :i* he 
*>act]izes z moral may be ju/ifi$ &     
palliat$3  ,ev]yone exi/s accord+ to !  
supreme law ( ,nature1 & consequ5tly    
ev]yone does1 accord+ to ! supreme law (
 ,nature1 t :i* results f ! necessities 
( 8 own nature2 & !re=e e man =ms 8     
judgm5t z to :at is good & bad accord+  
to ! supreme law ( ,nature1 pursues 8   
own int]e/ accord+ to 8 lights1 seeks   
rev5ge1 /rives to pres]ve :at he loves &
 to de/roy :at he hates4 ,t is possibly 
! mo/ audaci\s & at ! same "t ! mo/     
ill-f\nd$ /atem5t t has ev] be5 writt5  
on ! subject ( ,morality4 ,morality     
means behavi\r calculat$ to fur!r "o's  
own int]e/4 ,morality is !re=e utility4 
,b man _c act o!rwise ?an morally1 s9ce 
he always acts z he is compell$ to d by 
8 own nature4 ,!re is no s5se 9         
discrim9at+ betwe5 good & bad1 moral &  
immoral1 s9ce "o always acts 9          

accordance ) ! behe/s ( ,nature4 ,man   
automatically executes ! dictates (     
,nature :i* is alone responsible = 8    
de$s4  ,= ! ,/oics1 too1 ,morality is   
action 9 accordance ) ! law ( ,nature1 b
 ,sp9oza goes fur!r ?an ! ,/oics1 9 t he
 does away ) any univ]sally applicable  
/&>d ( moral conduct1 & sets up in/ead (
 ,nature pure & simple1 :i* is ! same = 
all1 ea* man's individual nature z !    
au?ority :i* %all lay d[n rules (       
behavi\r = him4 ,s ,morality is some?+  
individual & subjective4 ,man acts      
accord+ to ! requirem5ts ( 8 int]e/2 8  
own nature %[s him :at 8 int]e/         
requires2 no o!r p]son has any "r or any
 qualification to =m a judgm5t ^u ! wor?
 ( 8 conduct1 to call x good or bad1 =  
he _c "k :at c\rse ( action ! man's     
p]sonal nature1 peculi> to himself & to 
no o!r1 may prescribe to him4 ,?is is ! 
doctr9e ( an>*y & amorality put 9 a     
nut%ell1 a m wordy p>aphrase ( ! ,fais  
ce que v\ldras 7please y\rself71 ! t]se 
inscription t ,rabelais put ov] !       

entrance to 8 ,abbey ( ,?lme1 z ! only  
law gov]n+ t abode ( allur+ wantonness4 
,sp9oza c]ta9ly does half-he>t$ly conc$e
 to ,reason ! rle :i* ,ari/otle         
positively assigns to x 7,to act 9 an   
absolutely virtu\s mann] is m]ely to act
 accord+ to ! guidance ( ,reason1 etc471
 b x is impossible to see h[ ,reason c  
ex]cise guidance & control if ev]yone   
does accord+ to ! supreme law ( ,nature 
t :i* results f ! necessities ( 8       
nature4 ,?is c surely only mean t       
ev]yone may yield to ! unbridl$ desires 
( 8 natural in/9cts1 :i* is ! v rev]se (
 self-control by ,reason4 ,if ,nature is
 to rule despotically1 !re is obvi\sly  
no place = a con/itutional limitation ( 
h] sole p[] by ! effective c\nsel &     
prote/s ( ,reason4  ,b ,sp9oza r5\nces 9
 a mu* m def9ite way 8 views recogniz+ !
 "r ( e individual to =m 8 judgm5t z to 
:at is good & bad accord+ to ! supreme  
law ( ,nature1 = he calmly adds3        
,society c be f\nd$1 if x res]ves to    
itself ! "r possess$ by ! individual to 

take rev5ge1 & to pron\nce a v]dict on  
:at is good & :at is bad2 !reby x       
acquires ! p[] to prescribe rules (     
conduct = ! community1 to make laws1 &  
to en=ce !m1 n by means ( ,reason1 :i*  
_c re/rict passions1 b by ?reats4444    
,h5ce 9 a /ate ( ,nature1 s9 _c ev5 be  
imag9$4  ,?is concession to ,society mo/
 emphatically contradicts 8 fir/        
def9ition ( ,morality4 ,x does away ) ! 
"r claim$ = ! individual to d accord+ to
 ! supreme law ( ,nature t :i* results f
 ! necessities ( 8 own nature1 & by !   
same supreme law ( ,nature to judge :at 
is good & :at is bad4 ,x subjects       
conduct to ! re/ra9t1 n ( ,nature1 b (  
,society4 ,x be>s witness to ! admission
 t ,reason _c re/rict passions1 al?\gh  
,sp9oza has j requir$ ! virtu\s man to  
act accord+ to ! guidance ( ,reason4    
,sp9oza admits t ,morality is n !       
consequ5ce ( a law inh]5t 9 !           
individual1 b ( an extrane\s law =c$ ^u 
him by society2 t x is n an individual b
 a social ph5om5on4 ,9 ?is he agrees ) !

 conclusions ( mod]n sociological ?\ght1
 b 8 m]it is mu* dim9i%$ by ! fact t he 
skims lightly ov] ! "o great difficulty 
:i* sociological e?ics is /ruggl+ to    
ov]come4 ,he says1 society res]ves to   
itself ! "r 444 to pron\nce a v]dict on 
:at is good & :at is bad1 & !reby       
acquires ! p[] to prescribe rules (     
conduct to ! community1 etc4  ,x has !  
p[] "r en\gh2 police1 judge1 prison &   
gall[s be> witness to t2 b has x ! "r8  
,t is n cle> )\t fur!r inve/igation4 ,x 
requires to be prov$4 ,! amorali/ c     
emphatically d5y ?is1 bas+ 8 conclusion 
on ,sp9oza's own def9ition4 ,he c       
legitimately decl>e t he ne$ submit to  
no dictates ( society1 t he owes ob$i5ce
 only to 8 own nature & 8 own inn] ne$s1
 & ! moral philosoph] c only prove to   
him t he is wrong by scornfully indicat+
 ! p5al code & its /alw>t m9ions4       
,sp9oza1 we see1 has already giv5 a :ole
 s]ies ( mutually de/ructive &          
contradictory def9itions ( ,morality3 x 
is ! law ( life & conduct :i* society   

lays d[n = ! individual1 ?\gh we d n    
le>n f him on :at pr9ciples x is bas$2 x
 is ! pursuit ( "o's own int]e/ z       
indicat$ by ,reason2 x is ob$i5ce to    
necessity--t is to say1 to ! dem&s (    
"o's own nature4 ,all ?is does n suffice
 him4 ,he discov]s a new aspect (       
,morality4 ,recognition ( ,good & ,evil 
is no?+ b a pleasurable or a            
disagreeable emotion 9 s f> z we are    
consci\s ( x4 ,& aga91 ,pleasure is n   
actually bad 7z ! ascetics probably     
cont5d71 b good2 pa91 on ! contr>y1 is  
actually bad4  ,9 ?is case ! ideas      
pleasure & pa9 are treat$ z equival5ts (
 good & bad1 z 7 useful & h>mful 9 ! =m]
 case4 ,accord+ to ! axiom t ?+s t are  
equal to ! same ?+ mu/ be equal to "o   
ano!r1 pleasurable is synonym\s n only )
 good1 b also ) b5eficial1 & 9 l mann]  
pa9ful ) bad & h>mful4 ,br&y und\bt$ly  
produces a s5sation ( pleasure 9 !      
dr9k]2 is br&y1 !n1 good 9 a moral s5se8
 ,above all1 is x b5eficial8 ,_m su*    
que/ions c\ld be put to ,sp9oza1 b ?is  

"o is en\gh4  ,?us we discov] ,sp9oza to
 be at "o & ! same "t a ,utilit>ian & a 
,h$oni/1 ! *ampion ( ,impulse & aga9 (  
,reason1 an an>*i/ic individuali/ & a   
h]ald ( ! "r ( society to rule !        
individual4 ,angry & disappo9t$1 we turn
 f him1 = in/ead ( f9d+ 9 him ! def9ite 
/&>d we s\ght we h met ) ! %ift+ hues ( 
! *ameleon & ! uncanny *anges ( =m (    
,proteus4  ,! views ( ! ,engli% ?9k]s   
are cle>] & m conv9c+ al?\gh !y1 too1 d 
n c>ry _! inve/igations f> en\gh4       
,hobbes uses ,ju/ice & ,inju/ice z      
synonyms = ,morality & ,immorality1 & he
 def9itely recognizes :at ,sp9oza only  
dimly guess$1 namely1 t ^! ideas c\ld   
only arise 9 man :5 liv+ z a memb] (    
society & n 9 a be+ dwell+ alone4       
,accord+ to him1 !re=e1 ,morality is a  
social & n an individual ph5om5on2 j z !
 moral philosoph]s ( ! !ological s*ool  
look ^u x z ! ,w ( ,god1 s he consid]s x
 to be ! ,w ( ,society4 ,b he 0 "u !    
obligation 7non-exi/5t = ! !ologian7 to 
trace to its s\rce ?is social ,w1 to %[ 

h[ x is manife/$1 to expla9 :y !        
individual n only submits to x1 b values
 ?is submission f> m highly ?an m]e     
utility4 ,man le>ns ! ,w ( ,god by      
revelation1 & x is =bidd5 to inquire    
into its basis4 ,to ! ,w ( ,society     
,hobbes _c possibly ascribe ! same      
inconte/able sanctity4 ,x %\ld n h      
escap$ 8 notice t ?is ,w is nei!r uni=m 
nor ( assur$ /ability1 & t x (t5 wav]s &
 is sometimes self-contradictory4       
,!re=e1 if he wants to call ! ,w (      
,society ,ju/ice1 z ! !ologians call !  
,w ( ,god ,morality1 & if he wants to   
look ^u ,ju/ice & ,morality z           
equival5ts1 !n x is 8 duty to expla9 h[ 
,society c make claims :i* conflict ) ! 
pr9ciples on :i* ! univ]sal rules x has 
drawn up are bas$1 & :i*1 consequ5tly1 n
 be+ j or moral1 are unju/ & immoral1 b 
:i*1 nev]!less1 mu/ be ackn[l$g$ by !   
individual z be+ bo? j & moral1 simply  
because !y are social claims4  ,9       
,kant's moral philosophy we f9d !       
extreme/ =m ( my/ic dogmatism2 its      

success w\ld be inexplicable did "o n "k
 h[ prone mank9d is to be intimidat$ by 
brusque /atem5ts4 ,kant's dictatorial   
pron\ncem5ts h become common-places4    
,act only on t maxim :]eby ?\ can/ at ! 
same "t w t x %\ld become a univ]sal    
law4 ,t is v impressive4 ,b :at is !    
maxim on :i* y act8 ,?is maxim is !     
moral law4 ,n[ we ye>n to "k :at ?is    
moral law is1 :5ce x comes1 & on :at x  
is bas$4  ,b our ye>n+s rema9s          
unsatisfi$4 ,! moral law is a secret4 ,x
 is an incompreh5sible p[] :i* rules our
 consci\sness4 ,ask no que/ions4 ,be    
sil5t1 submit & obey4 ,ev5 ! !ologian   
discuss+ moral philosophy w li/5 to     
reason4 ,he gives u ! in=mation1        
sibyll9e ?\gh x be1 t ! moral law       
emanates f ! ,w ( ,god1 & is %[n to u 9 
! revelations ( religion4 ,kant does n  
ev5 give su* meagre in=mation4 ,! moral 
law exi/s4 ,t mu/ suffice4 ,! />ry      
heav5s above !e1 ! moral law )9 !e4 ,y  
retort t t is a metaphor :i* y may call 
poetical1 if y l1 b x is no explanation4

 ,y w get ! foll[+ reply3 ?is metaphor1 
rightly und]/ood1 indicates t ! moral   
law is et]nal1 t x is "p & p>cel (      
uncreat$ ,nature l ! />s1 t x is a      
ph5om5on ( ! same ord] z all ! elem5ts t
 g to make up ! univ]se4 ,! moral law   
does n fl[ f antec$5t ideas ( ,good &   
,evil2 on ! contr>y1 ! moral law decides
 :at is good & :at is evil4 ,x is n     
d]iv$ f human exp]i5ce4 ,! less s s9ce x
 _c be prov$ by exp]i5ce t x has at any 
place or any "t become real4 ,9 o!r     
words1 no "o c te/ify t ! ,categorical  
,imp]ative has ev] be5 realiz$1 t !     
moral law has at any place or any "t    
ceas$ to be a ,kantian !ory productive (
 sacr$ ?rills1 t x has ev] em]g$ f !    
unapproa*able cell :]e9 x dwells 9 !    
temple ( human consci\sness1 to take a  
place & play an active "p among mortals4
  ,! lessee ( all ,kant's wisdom1       
,h]mann ,coh51 ) ! clums9ess ( an       
ov]-zeal\s assi/ant1 has express$ 8     
ma/]'s ?\ght 9 a p]fectly ludicr\s =m3  
,! moral law is to be conceiv$ z a      

reality ( su* k9d t x mu/ exi/1 t its   
be+ mu/ be 7note ! elegance & euphony ( 
! phrase be+ mu/ be67 ev5 if no creature
 exi/$ = :om x w\ld be valid4 ,true1 !  
moral law is a maxim on :i* y %\ld act1 
a /&>d ( human conduct1 b x w\ld /ill   
exi/ if !re 7 no human be+s & no action4
 ,x w\ld come to exactly ! same ?+ if   
,h]mann ,coh5 said3 ! railway is to be  
conceiv$ z a reality ( su* k9d t x mu/  
exi/ if !re 7 no human be+s &           
consequ5tly no travell]s2 ev5 if !re 7  
no e>? on ! surface ( :i* rails &       
sleep]s c\ld be laid4 ,?is is su*       
palpable nons5se t x w\ld be a "w (     
sup]]ogation to prove its absurdity4 ,by
 ?is grotesque exagg]ation ,h]mann ,coh5
 has cle>ly br\ght to light ! holl[ness 
& weakness ( ,kant's ,moral philosophy  
:i* culm9ates 9 ! ,categorical          
,imp]ative4 ,9 spite ( its arbitr>y     
dogmatism1 ! =mula ( ! ,categorical     
,imp]ative has tak5 a hold on !         
imag9ation ( ! sup]ficially educat$1 &  
has nev] ceas$ to be repeat$ ) ! f]v\r  

ev9c$ by a dev\t man at pray]1 by sev]al
 g5]ations ( ^? :o h made x _! bus9ess  
to cultivate m5tal & moral sci5ce4  ,9  
"o ( 8 e>ly novels1 ,! ,isl& ( ,dr4     
,moreau1 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells has describ$ h[ 
an audaci\s sci5ti/1 by p]=m+ an        
op]ation on ! bra9s ( ! mo/ savage bea/s
 ( prey1 su* z pan!rs1 wolves1 etc41    
trans=m$ !m into creatures ) ! p[]s (   
?\ght & spee*4 ,he succe$s 9 suppress+1 
or at lea/ 9 lull+ = ! "t be+1 _!       
blood?ir/y in/9cts1 b he is always      
afraid t ^! may be r\s$ aga91 & =bids ! 
animals on :i* he exp]im5ts to t\* blood
 or fre% meat4 ,he takes good c>e to    
give no reason = ?is prohibition4 ,he   
m]ely issues x /]nly & ?reat5+ly4 ,x is 
! ,law1 an unkn[n1 inexplicable1 b      
t]rible p[] to :i* "o mu/ submit1       
because opposition w\ld expose "o to    
unimag9able1 b t]rible evils4 ,if       
temptation assails ! bea/s !y flee x1   
:isp]+ fe>fully & w>n+ly to "o ano!r3 ,!
 ,law6 ! ,law6 ,wells is a tra9$        
philosoph]1 & (t5 has 8 tongue 9 8 *eek4

 ,i %rewdly suspect t :5 he writes ( !  
my/]i\s ,law :i* fills ,dr4 ,moreau's   
semi-humaniz$ bea/s ( prey ) sup]/iti\s 
t]ror1 he is pok+ fun at ,kant's        
,categorical ,imp]ative4  ,! great      
logical mi/ake 9 ,kant's moral          
philosophy is t he conceives ,morality z
 a social or collective ph5om5on1 & yet 
def9es x z an individual "o4 ,accord+ to
 ,kant1 ! ,categorical ,imp]ative exi/s 
)9 u4 ,x is z immutable z ! />ry heav5s 
above u4 ,x gives u ! crit]ion by :i* to
 discrim9ate betwe5 good & evil4 ,its   
realm is our consci\sness :]e9 x lives &
 rules2 x is n introduc$ f outside1 x   
spr+s f no p[] or conditions outside our
 p]son4 ,all ! same1 ! only law :i* ?is 
ultra subjective ,categorical ,imp]ative
 imposes on u is ! mo/ c5trifugal t c   
possibly be imag9$3 ,act only on t maxim
 :]eby ?\ can/ at ! same "t w t x %\ld  
become a univ]sal law4 ,h5ce our action 
is design$ to produce an effect on ! _w 
ar\nd u4 ,x is to become a univ]sal law 
c1 ( c\rse1 only mean1 x is to become a 

univ]sal law ( human society1 = ,kant _c
 possibly h aspir$ to make !            
,categorical ,imp]ative impose laws ^u !
 />s 9 _! c\rses4 ,our moral law1 9 s f>
 z x applies to our actions1 deals )    
society4 ,:5 we =mulate x 9 our m9ds1 we
 associate x f its fir/ inception ) !   
notion ( ! society to :i* x is to be    
appli$4 ,x w\ld h be5 logical to say3   
,y\r /&>d ( conduct is to be :at society
 recognizes z its univ]sal law4 ,b ,kant
 puts ! c>t be=e ! horse & says on !    
contr>y3 ,! maxims on :i* ?y action is  
bas$ are by ?y w to become ! univ]sal   
law ( society4  ,o!r philosoph]s h      
avoid$ ?is mi/ake4 ,hegel decl>es3 ,x is
 n until man becomes a memb] ( a moral  
community t ! ideas ( ,duty & ,virtue   
atta9 a def9ite mean+ & become direct   
repres5tatives ( a univ]sal _s 9        
subjectivity1 :i* kn[s t x is actuat$ 9 
its aim by ! univ]sal & realizes t its  
dignity & its p>ticul> aims are f\nd$ ^u
 x4 ,if we translate ?is horribly hazy  
language ( ,hegel's into pla9 spee* we  

f9d x means3 ,! ideas ( ,duty & ,virtue 
only acquire a mean+ :5 !y are appli$ to
 ! acts ( commission & omission ( !     
individual memb] ( a community4 7,:5    
,hegel speaks ( moral community 8 use ( 
! ^w moral is inadmissible1 = he takes x
 = grant$ t ! mean+ ( ! ^w moral has be5
 det]m9$ & is cle>ly und]/ood1 :]eas he 
ought fir/ to h def9$ its mean+47 ,!    
concepts ( ,duty & ,virtue d5ote t !    
individual 9 tak+ action ?9ks ( !       
community1 t reg>d = its int]e/s        
det]m9es him1 t 8 actions d n atta9     
dignity & wor? until 8 aim becomes !    
int]e/s ( ! community1 t ^! int]e/s mu/ 
co9cide ) ^? ( ! individual if 8 actions
 9 8 own int]e/s are to m]it !          
appellations ( dutiful & virtu\s4 ,9    
%ort3 to act morally is to act s z to   
ensure ! well-be+ ( ! community4 ,! real
 ,categorical ,imp]ative is a social    
consci5ce4  ,feu]ba* expresses ?is ?\ght
 cle>ly & di/9ctly :5 he says3 ,!re c be
 no "q ( ,morality 9 ! /rict s5se ( ! ^w
 except :]e ! subject ( discussion is ! 

relation%ip ( man to man1 ( "o p]son to 
ano!r1 ( me to !e4  ,rec5t contempor>y  
,fr5* writ]s are 9 no way d\btful ( !   
mean+ impli$ by ! concept ( ,morality4  
,morality1 says ,littr1 is ! :ole       
collection ( rules :i* det]m9e our      
conduct t[>ds o!rs4 ,moral ,good is !   
ideal1 :i* at any p]iod ( a civilization
 =ms op9ions & cu/oms ) respect to ?is  
conduct2 moral evil is t :i* (f5ds ?is  
ideal4 ,?is def9ition is v incomplete & 
weak1 z w be se5 9 ! c\rse ( our rem>ks1
 b on "o po9t x is q cle>3 x treats     
,morality z a social ph5om5on1 x        
p>aphrases x z ! adju/m5t ( individual  
action to ! /&>d set up by ! community4 
,! "q ( ! orig9 & ! aim ( ?is /&>d is   
left op54  ,l4 ,lvy-,brhl =mulates      
,littr's idea m cle>ly4 ,we call by ! "n
 ( ,morality ! collection ( su*         
conceptions1 op9ions1 feel+s & cu/oms   
respect+ ! mutual rights & duties ( m5 9
 _! life z memb]s ( a community1 z are  
recogniz$ & g5]ally obs]v$ at a giv5 "t 
9 a giv5 civilization4  ,?us1 accord+ to

 "s1 ,morality is subjection to an      
absolute law ( div9e1 or at any rate (  
unexpla9$ & inexplicable orig91 :i*     
religion or a my/]i\s inn] voice reveals
 to man2 accord+ to o!rs1 x is !        
recognition t ! claims ( ! community1 or
 at any rate ( ! majority ( "o's fell[  
m51 are ( b9d+ =ce ^u ! actions ( !     
individual4 ,^! diff]5t answ]s to an    
inquiry z to ! orig9 ( ,morality bo?    
conta9 ! tacit admission t x is a law   
:i* p]emptorily dictates to man :at he  
%all d & :at he %all n d4 ,b by means ( 
:at psy*ic me*anism does ?is law en=ce  
ob$i5ce 9 ! consci\sness ( man8 ,x is   
rem>kable t all moral philosoph]s1 no   
matt] to :at age1 nation or s*ool !y    
belong1 dimly feel or cle>ly recognize t
 9 civiliz$ man at any rate1 natural    
in/9cts & judgm5t are always at w>2 t ! 
latt] opposes ! =m]2 t 9 ! victory (    
judgm5t ov] impulse lies ! v ess5ce (   
,morality2 t consequ5tly ! ess5ce (     
,morality implies ! control & repression
 ( in/9ct by ,reason--9 a ^w1 t x is    

inhibition4  ,we h se5 t ,ari/otle1 9   
def9ite ?\gh unconsci\s opposition to ! 
,/oics1 :o consid] ,morality synonym\s )
 ,nature1 def9es x z ! activity (       
,reason4  ,h5ry ,m 0 ! fir/ to express  
?is q cle>ly3 ,virtue is an intellectual
 =ce ( ! s\l :i* enables x to control   
444 animal in/9cts & s5sual passions4   
,& ,dr4 ,jodl sums up ! "* ( ,*ri/ian   
morality 9 ! /atem5t3 ,moral philosophy 
"u ! influ5ce ( ,*ri/ian ideas makes    
,morality always appe> 9 ! guise ( a    
prohibition2 at any rate x is apt to    
conceive ,morality z act+ 9 an          
ess5tially re/rictive & prohibitive     
mann] ^u ! natural impulses & in/9cts ( 
man4  ,?is is n q correct4 ,?is ,*ri/ian
 code ( morals does n always manife/    
itself z a prohibition4 ,its ma9 precept
 is3 ,love ?y neighb\r z ?yself4 ,t is n
 a prohibition b a positive comm&4      
,nev]!less1 ! po9t ( dep>ture ( ?is     
comm& is an inhibition4 ,= ! fir/       
in/9ctive movem5t ( man is selfi%ness &1
 z its consequ5ce1 indiff]5ce to "o's   

neighb\r2 ! fir/ imp]i\s impulse is to  
sacrifice ! latt]'s int]e/s to "o's own4
 ,b if reg>d = "o's neighb\r1 nay1 love 
= him p]meates our feel+s1 ?\ghts &     
actions1 t d5otes a victory ( ,*ri/ian  
ideas ov] ! impulse ( in/9ct1 a         
suppression ( t impulse--t is1 an       
inhibition :i*1 n cont5t ) m]e          
prev5tion1 prolongs its efficacy 9 !    
same direction until x *anges ! impulse 
( selfi%ness & inconsid]at5ess into its 
v anti!sis1 t ( unselfi%ness & *>ity4   
,x con/itutes an important advance 9 k  
to recognize t ,morality1 & n1 z ,jodl  
makes out1 only ,*ri/ian ,morality1 is  
manife/$ z an inhibition1 z ! victory   
a*iev$ by ,reason ov] ,in/9ct :i* is    
contemptu\sly describ$ z animal1 simply 
because its wor? is judg$ by a /&>d     
already suppli$ by curr5t views on      
,morals4 ,x is inadmissible to judge by 
?is /&>d :5 "o attempts an imp>tial     
inve/igation into ! ultimate f\ndations 
& ! ess5ce ( ,morality4 ,we h no pla9ly 
obvi\s "r--no "r :i* does n require a   

pro(--simply to scorn in/9ct z animal2  
to run x d[n f ! />t & ) a respectful b[
 to give ,reason prec$5ce ov] x2 to     
applaud ) satisfaction ! suppression (  
rascally ,in/9ct by highly respectable  
,reason4 ,in/9ct is no m animal ?an any 
o!r manife/ation ( life 9 man2 & he     
indulges 9 pleasant self-deception if he
 imag9es t he is o!r ?an an animal1 t   
is1 a liv+ organism 9 :i* all processes 
take place accord+ to ! same laws z 9   
all o!r liv+ be+s1 f ! simple/ "o-cell$ 
creature to ! mo/ highly develop$ &     
complicat$4  ,9 itself ,in/9ct has !    
same claim to dignity z ,reason2 accord+
 to "s p an ev5 great] "o1 because ! =m]
 is m primitive1 unprem$itat$1          
self-assur$ & firmly e/abli%$ ?an !     
latt]1 & if ,reason claims to be !      
sup]ior1 x mu/ sub/antiate t claim4  ,z 
a matt] ( fact1 t claim has nev] be5    
univ]sally ackn[l$g$4  ,p]iods dur+ :i* 
,reason rules at lea/ 9 "n & is treat$ )
 ! obsequi\s rev]5ce :i* ! model citiz5 
has1 or feigns to h1 = 8 sov]eign1 are  

foll[$ by o!rs 9 :i* ,in/9ct revolts2   
rebels de?rone ,reason & set up ,in/9ct 
9 its place1 or1 z !y call x1 passion & 
nature4 ,! p>ties :i* 9 turn wield p[] 9
 ^! p]iodic revolutions may be briefly  
t]m$ classical & romantic4 ,! classici/s
 are ! legitimi/ support]s ( ,reason2 ! 
romantici/s are revolution>ies1 & _!    
lead]s are m5 l ,cleon or ,jack ,cade1  
,cromwell1 ,wa%+ton or ,robespi]re2 t is
 to say1 rude demagogues or subtle      
dialecticians 9 fav\r ( ,in/9ct4 ,among 
! legitimi/s 9 ,reason z 9 politics1 are
 to be f\nd ^? :o ma9ta9 ! div9e "r1 :o 
base ! "r ( ,reason to rule ov] ,in/9ct 
^u ! ,w ( ,god1 & o!rs aga91 !          
con/itutionali/s1 :o base _! support on 
! ,w ( ! p1 on univ]sal suffrage1 :o =ce
 ^u ,in/9ct ! law promulgat$ by society4
 ,i ne$ n c>ry ! metaphor to extremes4  
,e read] c "w x out 9 all its details4  
,i only want$ to %[ q cle>ly t almo/ all
 moral philosoph]s conceiv$ ,morality z 
a /ruggle betwe5 ,reason & ,in/9ct1 z ! 
defeat ( lawlessness by law4 ,b _! views

 div]ge widely :5 !y try to expla9 !    
s\rce ( ?is law & its claim to ob$i5ce4 
,! !ologians f9d no difficulty 9 ?is    
explanation4 ,j z ! ess5ce ( ,morality  
accord+ to _! ideas is ! ne>e/ possible 
approximation to div9e p]fection1 s !   
moral law is "o enact$ by ,god ,himself1
 & x is a s9 puni%able ) hell fire to   
fail to obs]ve x or to rebel aga9/ x4   
,o!rs look ^u ,man z 8 own law-giv]1 &  
trace 8 moral conduct1 8 will+ness to   
combat 8 own in/9cts1 to an inn] voice  
:i* tea*es him :at is "r4 ,!y call ?is  
inn] voice by diff]5t names4 ,!y call x 
,nature1 ,reason or ,consci5ce1 & look  
^u x z some?+ innate1 z a normal        
con/itu5t ( man's psy*ic nature4 ,t is !
 mean+ ( ,fi*te's apodictic /atem5t3 ,t 
:i* does n meet ) ! approval ( "o's own 
consci5ce is necess>ily s94 ,!re=e he :o
 acts on anyone else's au?ority acts 9 a
 consci5celess mann]4  ,) ?is emphatic  
utt]ance ,fi*te dismisses bo? ! dev\t   
believ]s1 = :om ,morality is ! reveal$  
,w ( ,god1 & ! ,rationali/s :o look ^u x

 z ! dictate ( society4 ,he consid]s t  
if man claims to act morally1 he c d s  
only on 8 own au?ority1 i4e4 on t ( 8   
consci5ce4 ,he is n aw>e t 9 s do+ he   
frivol\sly ab&ons all rights to pron\nce
 an objective moral judgm5t on any human
 action4 ,he !reby rel9qui%es ! p[] to  
ask any fur!r "q except3 ,did he act 9  
accordance ) 8 own consci5ce8 ,if s1 !n 
he has act$ 9 a subjectively consci5ti\s
 way1 ev5 if x appe>s to me to be       
immoral or ev5 crim9al & mon/r\s4 ,if he
 has act$ contr>y to ! prompt+s ( 8 own 
consci5ce1 !n he is assur$ly a s9n]1 ev5
 if 8 action be 9 my eyes spl5did &     
exempl>y4 ,?us ,fi*te1 ) 8 subjective   
basis ( ,morality1 is l$ to a conclusion
 :i* is a ludicr\s rev]sal ( g5]ally    
accept$ ideas4 ,accord+ to him1 a man   
w\ld be act+ consci5ti\sly if1 despis+  
:at all o!rs hold good1 "r & sacr$1 he  
wall[s 9 ! satisfaction ( 8 selfi%      
in/9cts1 z long z 8 consci5ce approves  
or ev5 bids him d s2 on ! o!r h&1 he is 
a s9n] if1 9 opposition to 8 inn] voice1

 b accord+ to moral law1 t is 9 ob$i5ce 
to extrane\s au?ority1 he practices all 
! virtues4  ,all ^! subjective moral    
philosoph]s tacitly assume ) ,r\sseau t 
man is by nature good4 ,!y take no      
acc\nt ( ! empirically e/abli%$ fact t  
!re are m5 ^: ,fi*tean consci5ce1 or ^: 
,kantian categorical imp]ative1 urges !m
 to a c\rse ( action :i* accord+ to !   
g5]al op9ion is bad1 wick$ & revolt+4   
,?is criticism applies to ,b5eke1       
accord+ to :om ,morality is a developm5t
 ( human nature :i* exi/s z su* )9 u1 & 
:i* we ne$ only cont9ue or promote2 x   
applies equally to ,reid & ,dugald      
,/ew>t1 :o describe x z an incl9ation1  
:i* has become a habit or a pr9ciple1 to
 act accord+ to ! dictates ( consci5ce4 
,b consci5ce mu/ be expla9$4 ,x is by no
 means self-evid5t t ea* individual     
consci5ce w h ! same /&>d ( good & evil4
 ,! moral philosoph] mu/ n %irk ! duty (
 %[+ h[ ! consci5ce acquires its        
concepts ( moral values1 ) :at weapons x
 provides ,reason to combat ,in/9ct1 :i*

 dem&s satisfaction )\t pay+ any        
att5tion to ! w>n+s ( consci5ce4  ,!    
great majority ( moral philosoph]s d n  
endorse ! view ( ,kant & ,fi*te1 t      
consci5ce is a piece ( human nature1 a  
s5se inborn 9 man1 an inn] voice t is   
indep5d5t (1 & unmov$ by1 ext]nal       
influ5ces2 on ! contr>y1 !y are conv9c$ 
t consci5ce orig9ates outside !         
individual1 t1 9 8 consci\sness1 x is ! 
advocate reta9$ by society1 commission$ 
to plead ! cause ( ! community be=e !   
reason ( ! individual ev51 nay1         
especially1 :5 ! int]e/s ( ! community  
run c\nt] to ^? ( ! individual4  ,bacon 
calls ! pres5ce 9 our consci\sness ( a  
def5d] ( ! int]e/s ( society our innate 
social affection1 & treats x unres]v$ly 
z ! s\rce ( ,morality4 ,long be=e 8 "t !
 ,/oics _h not$ ! exi/5ce ( ?is social  
affection & call$ x ,greek3 oikeisis2   
,hugo ,grotius1 ) ! intellectual        
p]spicuity peculi> to himself1 says t   
,"r & ,morality fl[ f ! same s\rce1 &   
?is s\rce is a /rong social in/9ct      

natural to man1 x is solicitude = !     
community1 a solicitude guid$ by        
,reason4 ,! ,engli% philosoph]s are     
practically unanim\s 9 ascrib+ bo?      
consci5ce & ,morality 9 g5]al to a      
social s\rce4 ,! welf>e ( ! community1  
says ,ri*>d ,cumb]l&1 is ! highe/ moral 
law2 ,hut*eson rem>ks t1 9 ! /ruggle    
betwe5 egoism & univ]sal b5evol5ce1 !   
decisive factor 9 fav\r ( ! latt] is !  
accompany+ feel+1 ! reflective emotion (
 approval4  ,9 mod]n p>lance we call    
univ]sal b5evol5ce1 altruism1 & !       
reflective emotion ( approval is a      
p>aphrase ( consci5ce :i* conta9s an    
indication ( its mode ( action4 ,= !    
idea t our action w meet ) ! approval ( 
! community & ! pleasurable emotion (   
satisfaction are 9 fact ! reasons :y we 
mo/ly submit to ! dictates ( consci5ce  
voic+ ! comm&s ( ! community4 ,only     
,hut*eson is too v5turesome & goes too  
f>1 :5 he ma9ta9s unres]v$ly t !        
reflective emotion ( approval 9 !       
/ruggle betwe5 egoism & univ]sal        

b5evol5ce is ! decisive factor :i* turns
 ! scales 9 fav\r ( ! latt]4 ,?is is by 
no means always ! case4 ,:5 x does occur
 we call ! action moral1 b we *>act]ize 
x z immoral :51 9 spite ( ! reflective  
emotion ( approval univ]sal b5evol5ce is
 wor/$ by egoism4  ,x is unnecess>y to  
quote ! op9ions ( o!r moral philosoph]s4
 ,x is en\gh to obs]ve t mo/ ( !m       
describe ! moral law z a social agreem5t
 & make consci5ce its accr$it$          
repres5tative4 ,l4 ,lvy-,brhl repeats a 
doctr9e curr5t s9ce ! days ( ,py?agoras 
:5 he says3 ,! s5se ( duty & t (        
responsibility1 horror ( crime1 love (  
:at is good & rev]5ce = ju/ice--all ^!1 
:i* a consci5ce s5sitive to ,morality   
?9ks x d]ives f itself & f itself alone1
 h nev]!less a social orig92 & ,feu]ba* 
expresses ! same view 9 an ent]ta9+ly   
melodramatic fa%ion :5 he calls ! voice 
( consci5ce ,an e*o ( ! cry ( rev5ge    
utt]$ by ! injur$ p>ty4 ,?is cry (      
rev5ge w\ld nev] wake an e*o 9 u if we  
did n possess a s\nd+ bo>d :i* cries (  

di/ress & lam5tation cause to vibrate4  
,s*op5hau]1 digg+ deep] ?an 8           
pr$ecessor1 cle>ly recognizes ?is s\nd+ 
bo>d1 & describes its *>act]i/ics :5 he 
says t ! f\ndation ( e?ics is pity1 :i* 
9 its passive =m w>ns u3 ,nem9em la$e6  
,d h>m to no "o6 ,& 9 its active =m     
gives ! ord]3 ,imo omnes quantum potes  
juva6 ,assi/ ev]yone ) all y\r might6   
,! assumption1 t sympa?y ) 8 neighb\r   
mu/ be pres5t 9 man's consci\sness be=e 
he is capable ( moral action1 is "o t   
ne$ n be made by subjective moral       
philosoph]s1 :o hold ) ,kant & 8 s*ool t
 ! moral law is an inborn categorical   
imp]ative1 :i* proclaims its comm&s )\t 
ref]5ce to any extrane\s object1 or to !
 _w1 or mank9d4  ,9 ! same way !        
!ologians h no ne$ ( x1 = !y consid] t  
:at is morally good is ! ,w ( ,god4  ,b 
he :o holds ) ! moral philosoph]s (     
sociological t5d5cies t ,morality is    
reg>d = "o's fell[ m51 & ! recognition t
 ! claims ( ! real or suppos$ int]e/ ( !
 community are sup]ior to ^? ( ! com=t (

 ! individual1 mu/ admit t sympa?y is a 
necess>y prelim9>y to moral action2 i4e4
 t ! individual mu/ h ! ability to      
picture ! suff]+s ( o!rs s vividly t he 
feels _! sorr[s z 8 own1 & ) all 8 might
 & all 8 w /rives to prev5t1 alleviate &
 heal !m4 ,! lack ( ?is ability1 psy*ic 
an/hesia1 is a symptom ( disease4 ,x    
r5d]s ! p]son affect$ incapable ( moral 
action4 ,x is a *>act]i/ic ( ! born     
crim9al1 & is ! ess5tial symptom ( t    
/ate ( m9d :i* ali5i/s t]m moral        
insanity4 ,ev5 9 ?is condition1 if      
reason & ! p[] ( judgm5t are n affect$1 
great (f5ces aga9/ curr5t moral law c be
 avoid$4 ,b ?is results f ! fe> ( !     
pa9ful & ru9\s results :i* a collision )
 public op9ion entails1 ev5 if ! (f5d]  
is n actually hal$ into c\rt4 ,x is n   
due to any inn] necessity1 nor to !     
prompt+ ( "o's own feel+s4  ,only !     
,rationali/s h any cause or reason to   
inquire into ! aims ( ,morality1 :e!r !y
 look ^u ! moral law z dictat$ by       
society or are ( ! op9ion t x is ! sum  

total ( ! rules by :i* ,reason1 ( its   
own initiative1 successfully combats !  
urg+ ( ,in/9ct4 ,if ! moral law is a    
creation ( society1 & is obey$ by !     
individual out ( sympa?y ) 8 fell[-m5 or
 consid]ation = society1 ! logical      
conclusion is t society has set up !    
moral law to satisfy "s real or imag9$  
ne$4 ,its aim 9 ?is case c only be !    
real or suppos$ welf>e ( ! community4   
,?is is ! mo/ widely accept$ view4      
,morality & univ]sal welf>e1 says       
,mac*iavelli1 are conceptions :i*       
co9cide4 ,9 8 calm assurance ?is        
apodictic writ]1 :o d\btlessly slept    
well & _h an excell5t dige/ion1 is nev] 
tr\bl$ by a d\bt z to :e!r !re is su* a 
?+ z an absolutely reliable measure (   
univ]sal welf>e1 & !re=e :e!r ,morality1
 :i* is t]m$ its equival5t1 c provide u 
) a p]fectly unimpea*able /&>d4 ,he ^:  
e?ical consci5ce is m t5d] & timid w    
inevitably anxi\sly ask himself3 ,:o    
decides :at univ]sal welf>e dem&s & :at 
is conducive to x8 ,is x to be ! masses8

 ,is ! mob1 incapable ( ?\ght1 ignorant1
 sway$ by mom5t>y & %ift+ impulses1 to  
make moral laws = ! select few :o are   
its natural guides8 ,:at trag$ies w\ld  
necess>ily result f ?is def9ition6 ,h[  
(t5 a /rong p]sonality1 tra9$ to come to
 indep5d5t conclusions1 refuses to obey 
! voice ( ! mob6 ,is ! %eep :o trots    
bleat+ along ) ! h]d to be tak5 z ! type
 ( a moral be+8 ,mu/ we necess>ily      
condemn z immoral ^? :o swim aga9/ !    
/ream1 enlight5$ tyrants :o =ce ^u _! p 
hateful innovations calculat$ to ensure 
_! welf>e1--su* m5 z ,pet] ! ,great1 !  
,emp]or ,joseph ,,ii1 ! re=m] :o comes  
into viol5t conflict ) ! majority :o are
 creatures ( habit8 ,! aim ( ,morality  
is ! welf>e ( society2 ?is is inde$ !   
ess5ce ( ,morality4 ,a suffici5tly safe 
& mo/ soo?+ =mula ?is seems2 b really ! 
security x gives is mo/ deceptive1 & x  
leaves unsolv$ ! mo/ important problems 
relat+ to ! ph5om5on ( ,morality4  ,a   
num]\s gr\p ( moral philosoph]s seeks ! 
aim ( moral conduct 9 ! individual      

himself1 n outside him4 ,9 spite (      
,s*op5hau]'s sympa?y1 !y d\bt t         
consid]ation = ! well-be+ ( ! community 
w\ld act =cibly en\gh ^u ! individual to
 induce him to wage unceas+ w> on 8     
impulses & /ruggle to ov]come !m4 ,r !y 
hold t ! individual mu/ f9d 9 8 inn]    
consci\sness n only ! spur to moral     
action1 b also ! rew>d = ! same1 & !y   
*>act]ize ?is driv+ =ce z pleasurable   
emotions 9 e s5se ( ! words4 ,accord+ to
 !m man acts morally because1 & 9 s f>  
z1 he anticipates pleasurable results f 
s do+4 ,epicurus consid]s ! aim (       
,morality always to be ,pleasure4 ,he   
makes only ! "o res]vation1 t a         
reasonable man w r5\nce an imm$iate     
pleasure = ! sake ( a great] "o 9 !     
future1 & t he may delight 9 !          
anticipation ( pleasurable emotions :i* 
defeat & dull pres5t pa9s4 ,?us ! m>tyr 
may be a true ,epicurean1 ev5 if by 8   
actions he exposes himself to mo/ cruel 
torture & ! mo/ pa9ful dea?1 = he is    
conv9c$ t ! ev]la/+ joys ( p>adise w m  

?an indemnify him = 8 tempor>y suff]+s4 
,i h already %[n t ,ari/otle consid]s   
,morality ! activity ( practical        
,reason1 :i* is accompani$ by           
pleasurable emotions4 ,he makes ^!      
pleasurable emotions an ess5tial "p (   
,morality1 & ,sp9oza %>es ?is view1 = he
 says3 ,k ( good & evil is no?+ b a     
pleasurable or a disagreeable emotion 9 
s f> z we are consci\s ( x4  ,no less   
r\ndly1 "o might almo/ say brutally1    
,leibnitz decl>es3 ,we t]m good t :i*   
gives u pleasure2 evil t :i* gives u    
pa91 :ile ,feu]ba* expresses himself r m
 c>efully & indef9itely ?us3 ,! in/9ct =
 happ9ess is ! mo/ pot5t ( all in/9cts4 
,:]e exi/5ce always occurs toge!r )     
volition1 volition & ! w to be happy are
 insep>able2 !y are1 inde$1 ess5tially  
"o4 ',i w1' means ',i h ! w n to suff]1 
n to be h9d]$ & de/roy$1 b1 on !        
contr>y1 to be assi/$ & pres]v$2 t is1  
,i h ! w to be happy4' ,?is is a wordy  
p>aphrase ( ,sp9oza's3 ,all exi/5ce is  
self-ass]tion1 & ,morality is only !    

highe/ & pure/ =m ( ?is fundam5tal      
in/9ct 9 a reasonable be+4  ,among ^?   
moral philosoph]s :o see 9 pleasurable  
emotions ! aim ( ,morality1 its rew>d & 
its inc5tive1 we mu/ di/+ui% two gr\ps3 
^? :o und]/& by pleasurable emotions su*
 z appeal to ! s5ses--! ,h$oni/s2 & ^?  
:o spiritualize ! mean+ ( ! ^w & expect 
( ,morality n an imm$iate bodily        
gratification1 a pleasure1 or an insipid
 satisfaction ( ! s5se1 b la/+          
happ9ess--! ,eudmoni/s4 ,at ! fir/      
glance ! ,eudmoni/s seem to h a high] & 
m wor?y conception ( ! subjective       
reaction ( moral conduct ?an h !        
,h$oni/s2 = ! satisfaction ! =m] expect 
& promise does n apply to ! l[] sph]es (
 our organic life1 b to ! l(tie/        
functions ( our m9d1 f :i* alone a feel+
 ( happ9ess c emanate4  ,b if we look   
into ! matt] m closely we f9d t to draw 
a %>p di/9ction betwe5 ! ,h$oni/s &     
,eudmoni/s is m ?an a little arbitr>y4  
,= ,pleasure & ,happ9ess diff] h>dly at 
all 9 ess5tials1 b *iefly 9 degree2 &   

?is w\ld at once be obvi\s if "o only   
took ! tr\ble to def9e ! two ideas1 :i*1
 h[ev]1 is mo/ly n done4 ,& ) good      
reason1 = x is impossible to expla9     
,pleasure4 ,y c use synonyms = x2 y c   
look wise & say3 ,pleasure is t :i* is  
agreeable1 or t :i* "o desires1 t 9 :i* 
"o delights1 or a c]ta9 quality ( feel+ 
:i* accompanies su* organic processes z 
/r5g!n or vitalize ! sy/em2 b all t ?is 
am\nts to is to say 9 a r\ndab\t way1   
,pleasure is ,pleasure4 ,x is a         
fundam5tal fact ( our inn] consci\sness1
 j z inexplicable z life1 or z its      
anti!sis1 ,pa94 ,b if we assume t       
,pleasure is some?+ giv5 by subjective  
exp]i5ce1 !n ! idea ( ,happ9ess c be    
def9$4 ,happ9ess is a flood+ ( !        
consci\sness ) sun%9e2 x is enjoym5t ( !
 mom5t1 a s5se ( liv+ 9 ! pres5t        
acc5tuat$ by pleasurable emotion4 ,if   
?is feel+ is organically diff]5tiat$1 t 
is1 if x spr+s f a c]ta9 section ( ! m9d
 or me*anism ( ! body & c be locat$ !re1
 x is ec/asy4 ,x is only felt z         

,happ9ess :5 x is1 s to speak1 melt$1   
dissolv$1 di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! organism1 
co5e/hetically diffus$4  ,if we agree to
 ?is def9ition we c take ,eudmonism into
 consid]ation z an aim ( moral action1 b
 ,h$onism we %all h to disc>d f ! />t4  
,if ,morality is to be inhibition1 a    
victory ( ,reason ov] ,in/9ct1 !n x _c  
possibly ar\se ,pleasure1 s9ce ! fir/ & 
mo/ imm$iate s\rce ( ,pleasure is !     
surr5d] to in/9ct1 ! satisfaction ( !   
organic appetites2 b if "o resi/s !m1   
suppresses !m1 !n "o exp]i5ces a        
privation :i* at be/ occasions discom=t 
& may easily cause pa94 ,by its v nature
 & ! me*anism by :i* x works1 ,morality 
c !re=e give rise to no pleasure1 b only
 to discom=t4 ,all ! same1 x c af=d a   
feel+ ( happ9ess4  ,x may be object$ t  
,i am guilty ( a contradiction :5 ,i    
assume ! possibility ( ,happ9ess )\t    
,pleasure1 z ,i h j describ$ ,happ9ess z
 a p>ticul> k9d ( ,pleasure2 b 9 reality
 !re is no contradiction4 ,= ,pleasure  
spr+s f a special organic app>atus1     

:]eas ,happ9ess is n a condition ( any  
p>ticul> app>atus 9 our body1 b a g5]al 
feel+ t _c be locat$2 if x is r\s$ by   
moral actions x orig9ates 9 !           
self-satisfaction ( ,reason1 9 its pride
 9 ! victory ov] ,in/9ct1 9 ! rapture   
occasion$ by "o's own /r5g? ( w2 !re=e1 
x c well exi/ )\t any diff]5tiat$       
pleasurable emotion locat$ 9 any        
p>ticul> organic app>atus4  ,_m moral   
philosoph]s h = v>i\s reasons reject$   
plausible ,eudmonism z well z ,h$onism1 
& ^! reasons c all be trac$ back to !   
recognition1 or at lea/ an inkl+1 ( !   
fact t moral action 9 ! nature ( ?+s mu/
 exclude pleasurable emotions2 at any   
rate imm$iate ones1 & su* z are p]ceiv$ 
by ! s5ses4 ,p]haps ,fi*te does ?is 9 ! 
mo/ nave fa%ion1 = he rejects e =m (    
,eudmonism z ! aim ( moral action1 b    
admits z its purpose only bliss1 t is to
 say1 ! self-satisfaction ( ,reason     
result+ f action 9 accordance ) its own 
laws4 ,h[ev]1 he /ruggles 9 va9 to d5y t
 ?is bliss is ( ! nature ( a pleasurable

 emotion1 or to int]pret x z diff]+ f   
,eudmonism4 ,he is only giv+ ! latt]    
ano!r "n to make x con=m 9 an or?odox   
mann] ) 8 doctr9e ( ! ,supreme ,ego4    
,baptizo te c>pam6 ,i baptize !e1 c>p6  
,9 ?is way ! pi\s man complies ) ! law  
enjo9+ ab/95ce f meat1 & ) an easy      
consci5ce smacks 8 lips ov] a roa/      
pheasant :i* he has dubb$ fi%4  ,plato  
is among ^? :o mo/ emphatically d5y t   
,pleasure is ei!r ! motive =ce1 !       
accompanim5t1 ! consequ5ce1 or ! aim (  
,morality4 ,b a reasonable ?9k] c d]ive 
no pr(it f 8 argum5ts 9 support ( ?is   
po9t ( view1 = !y are rambl+1 fanta/ic1 
my/ical & vision>y4 ,plato ?9ks x a     
necess>y consequ5ce ( ! v nature ( ,good
 t x %\ld be absolutely self-suffici5t4 
,= ,pleasure is a p]petual gr[?1 a      
ceaseless long+ = m2 x c !re=e n be     
self-suffici5t1 & on ?is acc\nt c n be !
 f\ndation ( ,morality4  ,h[ev]1 x is by
 no means obvi\s :y ,morality %\ld n be 
9 a p]petual /ate ( gr[? 7j z ,pleasure 
is1 accord+ to ,plato71 or :y x %\ld n  

con/antly desire an increase ( its own  
activities4 ,on ! contr>y1 ?is crav+ is 
j :at "o w\ld mo/ wi% ,morality to h4   
,true1 x w\ld n !n atta9                
self-satisfaction4 ,b :at is ! good (   
?is self-satisfaction8 ,x is a          
pleasurable emotion1 & accord+ to ,plato
 ,morality is suppos$ to h no?+ 9 common
 ) ,pleasure4 ,x is n to be cont5tm5t & 
s]5e satisfaction1 b r tireless         
endeav\r4 ,h[ev]1 ,plato1 ( c\rse1 _c   
admit ?is1 because = him ,good & ! deity
 are id5tical1 & be+ p]fect c !re=e     
advance no f>!r 9 p]fection2 & ! /riv+  
aft] ,good is m]ely an ef=t ( memory on 
man's "p to call to m9d m cle>ly ! deity
 :om he saw 9 8 spiritual life be=e     
bir?1 & ( :om he reta9s a dim & confus$ 
memory 9 8 e>?ly life4 ,x is pla9ly idle
 to wa/e reasonable criticism ^u su*    
vision>y argum5ts4  ,! ,/oics1 too1 try 
to sev] ! connexion betwe5 moral conduct
 & ,pleasure1 & to conceive ! =m] z a   
simple activity ( human nature1 "o1     
moreov]1 f :i* !y expect no p>ticul>    

satisfaction4 ,!y ov]look ! fact t e    
activity ( ! impulses & in/9cts ( man's 
own nature af=ds him satisfaction1 & t  
,pleasure is no?+ b ?is v satisfaction (
 natural in/9cts4 ,if1 !n1 ,morality 71 
z ! ,/oics cont5d1 only ,life 9 h>mony )
 ,nature h]self1 !n1 l e o!r            
satisfaction ( natural desires1 x %\ld  
be an ev]-fl[+ s\rce ( pleasurable      
emotions1 & ?is *>act]i/ic w\ld be      
insep>able f x1 ?\gh ! ,/oics may va9ly 
try to d5y x4  ,*ri/ianity has an easi] 
job ?an ,/oicism4 ,) h>% sev]ity1       
disreg>d+ any plea = indulg5ce 9 view ( 
! weakness ( ! fle%1 x absolutely       
excludes ! factor ( pleasure f !        
fulfilm5t ( moral duties4 ,b ?is sev]ity
 is only app>5t4 ,! good & j man c      
expect no rew>d = 8 moral conduct "h on 
e>?1 b he w f9d a mu* m ample "o 9 !    
life to come4 ,to ! dev\t believ] :o    
gives unlimit$ cr$it to x1 ! promise ( !
 joys ( p>adise has ! full value ( a ca%
 disbursem5t4 ,x is some:at *ildi%      
juggl+ ) words to d5y pleasurable       

emotion to be ! aim ( moral conduct if  
at ! same "t a mo/ vivid =eta/e ( !     
et]nal bliss :i* awaits him aft] dea? be
 giv5 to ! virtu\s man2 z if !          
anticipation ( heav5ly bliss 7 n a      
pleasurable emotion ( ! highe/ degree6  
,kant f9ds x due to 8 po9t ( view to    
spurn e weak incl9ation to ,eudmonism4  
,a ,categorical ,imp]ative _c issue     
comm&s ) an eye to pr(it or com=t4 ,t is
 z cle> z daylight4 ,all ,morality (    
action mu/ be f\nd$ on ! necessity :i*  
arises f duty & respect = ! law1 & n f  
love or incl9ation = ! desir$ result ( !
 action4 ,s*op5hau]1 ,feu]ba*1 & ,john  
,/u>t ,mill h record$ su* irrefutable   
criticisms ( ! ,kantian doctr9e ( !     
absolute dis9t]e/$ness ( moral action1 t
 x is unnecess>y to add to _! argum5ts4 
,only "s moral philosoph]s1 & p>ticul>ly
 ,mill1 are guilty ( logical inaccuracy 
:5 !y reject ,eudmonism b reta9 ,utility
 z ! aim ( morality4 ,:y d !            
,utilit>ians n realize t !y are m]ely   
,eudmoni/s "u ano!r "n1 & t he :o       

disreg>ds 8 own imm$iate int]e/s 9 ord] 
to fur!r ! well-be+ ( ! community       
exp]i5ces a pleasurable emotion ( high  
ord] 9 ! satisfaction he d]ives f !     
sacrifices :]eby he has contribut$ to ! 
good ( ! community8  ,! useless ex]tions
 ( a section ( moral philosoph]s to     
elim9ate n only ,h$onism b also         
,eudmonism f moral action are a v]itable
 lab\r ( ,sisyphus4 ,h>dly h ^! two )   
difficulty be5 expell$ by ! door ?an !y 
return by ! w9d[ or ! *imney4 ,x is a   
m]e conjur+ trick to remove !m f ?is _w 
to ! next1 z d ! !ologians1 or to       
sub/itute univ]sal well-be+ = ! feel+ ( 
happ9ess4 ,all ! same1 ! desire to purge
 moral action ( ! lea/ admixture ( hope 
( pr(it or pleasure is compreh5sible4   
,common exp]i5ce1 :i* is equally =c$ ^u 
! pr(\nd ?9k] & ^u ! pla9 man 9 ! /reet 
lea/ incl9$ to cudgel 8 bra91 tea*es u t
 ,morality consi/s1 ) v few exceptions1 
9 act+ aga9/ our own imm$iate int]e/1 9 
d5y+ ourselves "s covet$ pleasure1 9    
r5\nc+ "s atta9able pr(it1 9 und]tak+ "s

 disagreeable ex]tion because ,reason   
bids u d s4 ,f ?is practical exp]i5ce ! 
man 9 ! /reet gets ! impression t duty  
is a bitt] necessity & t dec5cy is      
att5d$ by _m & v>i$ inconv5i5ces4 ,!    
!ori/1 ! philosoph]1 d]ives a pr9ciple f
 8 empirical facts2 he obs]ves t ! moral
 man (t5 acts aga9/ 8 own imm$iate      
int]e/s1 & expresses ?is 9 ! pret5ti\s  
axiom3 ,morality f ! v beg9n+ excludes  
all ?\ght ( pr(it4  ,& yet ! philosoph]s
 are guilty ( ! same sup]ficiality z !  
man 9 ! /reet4 ,!y d n g f> en\gh into !
 matt] to p]ceive t ! morality (        
pleasure1 ( int]e/1 & ( duty1 ,h$onism1 
,utilit>ianism & ! ,categorical         
,imp]ative1 all lead 9 v slightly       
diff]5t ways to ! same goal--,eudmonism4
 ,! fulfilm5t ( duty af=ds spiritual    
satisfaction1 a pre-em95tly pleasurable 
emotion :i* increases 9 direct          
proportion to ! ef=t :i* its fulfilm5t  
dem&s4 ,int]e/ also implies pleasure1 = 
e int]e/ ultimately comes to ?is1 t x is
 an attempt to secure a pleasure4 ,?is  

aim lies at ! bottom ( all int]e/s2 x is
 ! fundam5tal int]e/ f :i* all seem+ly  
diff]5t int]e/s are d]iv$2 x is !       
univ]sal goal to :i* all human ef=t     
t5ds1 :e!r x be a "q ( mak+ money to    
satisfy ambition1 ( w9n+ love &         
fri5d%ip1 ( mat]ial1 spiritual1 p]sonal 
or social values4 ,int]e/ is            
self-ass]tion & ! int5sify+ ( ! ze/ =   
life4 ,b ^! are always accompani$ by    
pleasurable emotions2 ?us int]e/ is =?) 
id5tifi$ ) pleasurable emotion1 ev5 ?\gh
 "o has to "w h>d1 ev5 ?\gh at ! mom5t x
 entails drudg]y & discom=t4 ,h$onism   
makes no secret ( its nature & its      
t5d5cy4 ,x op5ly admits :at !           
,categorical ,imp]ative d5ies & :at     
,utilit>ianism veils ) vague phrases3 t 
! aim & object ( moral action is        
,pleasure & no?+ else4  ,9 our %ort     
survey ( ! imm5se field ( lit]ature     
deal+ ) moral philosophy we h le>nt t1  
al?\gh ! mo/ v>i\s & div]g5t views are  
express$ z to ! ess5ce & s\rce (        
,morality1 nev]!less !re is b "o op9ion1

 be x cle>ly or vaguely /at$1 be x !    
result ( k or surmise1 z to ! me*anism  
by means ( :i* moral concepts det]m9e   
action1 & z to ! consci\s or unconsci\s 
aim ( moral action3 ,moral concepts d _!
 "w by means ( inhibition1 & ! aim (    
moral action is a feel+ ( happ9ess4     
,,*apt] ,,ii  ,,! ,,imman5ce ,,( ,,!    
,,concept ,,( ,,morality   ,x is natural
 = man's ?\ghts to be conc5trat$ on     
himself until he has le>nt to rise f !  
deep & n>r[ well ( 8 egoism to a high] &
 wid] view ( life &1 free f ! ta9t (    
self-love1 to =m an idea ( 8 place 9 !  
_w & 8 relation%ip to x4 ,n till !      
developm5t ( 8 intellect is f> advanc$  
does any d\bt assail him z to ! tru? ( 8
 conviction t all 8 p]sonal affairs1 !  
lea/ z well z ! mo/ weighty1 are ( !    
greate/ importance to ! univ]se1 t e a*e
 or pa9 he feels mu/ wake an e*o 9 !    
heav5s1 t ! ,e>? %udd]s 9 anticipation  
:5 he is ab\t to /umble & spra9 8 ankle1
 & t ! />s 9 _! c\rses my/]i\sly1 ?\gh  
intelligibly to ! disc]n+1 =etell ! h\r 

( 8 bir? & ( 8 dea?4 ,an ,indian leg5d  
p\rs cruel scorn ^u ?is *ildlike        
megalomania3 ,a fox _h fall5 into a     
/ream & 0 dr[n+4 ,! _w is com+ to an    
end6 gasp$ ! animal 9 its agony4 ,a     
peasant /&+ on ! br9k repli$ coldly1    
,oh1 no1 ,i see only a little fox dr[n+4
  ,_m moral philosoph]s1 ^? ( ! ,kantian
 s*ool )\t exception1 lab\r "u !        
delusion ( ?is same1 egoc5tric view4 ,9 
_! eyes ! ph5om5on ( ,morality is a     
cosmic "o4 ,morality is ! law ( human   
conduct1 !re=e x is ! law ( _w          
processes1 ( ! univ]se4 ,inde$1 x is !  
law ( ! univ]se be=e x becomes t ( human
 conduct4 ,x w\ld exi/ ev5 if !re 7 no  
m51 no humanity1 no human conduct at    
all4 ,! solemn innoc5ts :o weightily    
give utt]ance to ?is doctr9e are unaw>e 
h[ ridicul\s !y are4 ,!y d n hesitate to
 subject ,sirius to ! yoke ( ! ,t5      
,comm&m5ts4 ,!y are conv9c$ t ! ,milky  
,way practises virtue & %uns1 or ought  
to %un1 vice1 j z we inconsid]able human
 be+s d4 ,! precept1 ,?\ %alt n /eal1   

applies ) b9d+ =ce to gravity1 & ! w>n+1
 ,?\ %alt n kill1 to electricity1 ?\gh !
 latt] ru?lessly disreg>ds x1 z !       
results ( be+ /ruck by lightn+ &        
accid5ts ) high voltage in/allations    
frequ5tly prove4 ,if !y d n ?reat5      
,nature ) police & prison x is only     
because 9 _! eyes ,morality is indep5d5t
 ( all sanctions1 is sup]ior to rew>ds &
 puni%m5ts1 dep5ds ^u itself alone1     
con/itutes its own aim1 is by its v     
nature a compell+ =ce1 & !re=e has no   
ne$ ( adv5titi\s compulsion4  ,su*      
pr(\nd nons5se _c lay claim to s]i\s    
treatm5t4 ,x is a c\nt]p>t to ! belief t
 ev5ts 9 ! hi/ory ( mank9d1 l w> &      
pe/il5ce1 are =etold by heav5ly signs   
su* z fi]y comets4 ,! />s revolve1 !    
clockwork ( ! univ]se cont9ues          
undi/urb$1 z ?\gh ! e>? 7 /ill          
un9habit$1 z x 0 :5 x 0 a gl[+ fluid    
globe or1 e>li] /ill1 a nebul> mass2 &  
?is al?\gh man's self-e/eem be hurt by  
su* a lack ( consid]ation4 ,if we c>e to
 call ! 7s f> z we "k7 unalt]able laws1 

accord+ to :i* ! =ces ( ,nature act & ! 
me*anism ( ! _w works1 ! ,morality ( !  
,univ]se1 t may pass4 ,only we mu/ 9 t  
case cle>ly realize t we are speak+     
metaphorically1 t we are mak+ use ( a   
poetic simile1 t we are                 
an?ropomorphically attribut+ human      
traits to ! univ]se4 ,morality is a     
ph5om5on re/rict$ to mank9d1 or1 to be  
/rictly accurate1 a ph5om5on :i* occurs 
only among liv+ be+s2 = ! beg9n+s (     
,morality may be trac$ 9 creatures ( a  
l[] ord] ?an man1 & x develops          
simultane\sly ) ! consci\sness & !      
m5tality ( liv+ be+s4 ,morality is a    
function ( life1 dep5d5t ^u x1 begott5 &
 develop$ by x1 to meet life's ne$s &   
s]ve its int]e/s4 ,! exi/5ce ( ,morality
 ap>t f life is z un?9kable z t ( hung]1
 ambition1 or gratitude4  ,morality is a
 collection ( laws & prohibitions :i*   
,reason opposes to organic in/9cts1 by  
means ( :i* ! =m] =ces ! latt] into     
actions f :i* !y w\ld l to refra91 or   
prev5ts !m f c>ry+ out t :i* !y ye>n to 

d4 ,! exi/5ce ( ,morality1 !re=e1       
presupposes 9 ! fir/ place t ( an       
intellig5ce suffici5tly develop$ to =m a
 cle> idea ( some?+ t is /ill 9 !       
future1 namely1 an image ( ! consequ5ces
 result+ f an action4  ,guid$ by ?is    
inn] contemplation ( ! image ( !        
consequ5ces ( an action1 ,reason decides
 to c>ry out or prev5t ! action4 ,?is   
gives u ! l[e/ plane ^u :i* ,morality c 
occur z ! cause ( action & ( ab/5tion f 
action4 ,x implies1 above all ?+s1      
=esight1 & c !re=e only exi/ 9 a        
consci\sness :i* is suffici5tly develop$
 to grasp ! idea ( ! future & =m a      
picture ( x4 ,?is consci\sness mu/ be   
capable ( extract+ ! elem5ts ( a        
conception f memory accord+ to ! laws ( 
! association ( ideas1 & be able to gr\p
 !m logically 9 a new ord]4 ,9 o!r      
words1 z long z ! m9d _c visualize ! pa/
 & f x build up a picture ( ! future1   
,morality c f9d no place 9 x4  ,?is     
/atem5t requires no limitation1 b x     
dem&s a %ort explanation4 ,x is q true t

 ,morality is =esight1 b x is only among
 ! elect t ! latt] is develop$ to su* a 
pit* t x is possible to =m images ( !   
consequ5ces ( action & ab/5tion         
suffici5tly cle> & def9ite to ex]cise a 
re/ra9+ or enc\rag+ influ5ce4  ,! av]age
 man c act morally )\t fir/ work+ out a 
cle> picture ( ! future4 ,x is en\gh t  
he has be5 tra9$ to ! habit ( respect+  
curr5t precepts1 & ( accept+ ! views    
obta9+ 9 8 circle z to :at is good or   
bad1 :at is admissible or inadmissible4 
,?is morality1 ( c\rse1 is m]ely a matt]
 ( drill or tra9+2 x is un?9k+          
automatism2 x is inf]ior1 & n to be     
comp>$ ) ! liv+1 creative morality (    
high] natures1 :i*1 z a sov]eign        
law-giv]1 comes to an indep5d5t decision
 9 e case &1 l ! gu>dian angel (        
*ildlike fai?1 guides man on 8 pa? ?r\gh
 life1 indicates ! "r c\rse at !        
cross-roads1 & w>ns him ( pitfalls &    
/umbl+-blocks4 ,b = ev]yday use         
me*anical morality may suffice4 ,9 !    
unev5tful exi/5ce ( ! av]age man1 :i*   

passes 9 a /]eotyp$ way1 ?is me*anical  
morality is an acceptable guide &       
c\nsellor1 b x rema9s an outside        
influ5ce =eign to 8 inn] consci\sness2  
he is glad to deceive & outwit x1 z a   
slave does 8 ma/]'s bailiff if he c d s 
)\t runn+ ! risk ( a ?ra%+2 b if 8 de/9y
 unexpect$ly rises above its accu/om$   
dead level1 !n ?is dogmatic morality1   
:i* he has nev] really assimilat$1      
leaves him 9 ! lur*1 & m\rnfully1 9     
pite\s tones1 he utt]s ! well-kn[n cry1 
,x is easy to d "o's duty2 x is         
difficult to "k :]e "o's duty lies4     
,reason1 !n1 :i* is capable ( =esee+ !  
results ( actions1 tea*es a man :at he  
mu/ d & f :at he mu/ ab/a91 :]e he may  
foll[ 8 in/9ct & :]e he mu/ resi/ x1    
accord+ z x consid]s ! presumptive      
results ( yield+ to impulse good or bad4
 ,b :5ce does ,reason obta9 ! /&>d x    
applies to ! actions ( m5 & _! results8 
,h[ does x acquire ! fundam5tal concepts
 ,good & ,bad1 & :at is _! significance8
 ,g5]ally speak+1 ! answ] w be z foll[s3

 ,moral values are apprais$ by a /&>d   
suppli$ by a g5]al cons5sus ( op9ion2   
,reason ackn[l$ges z good t :i* meets ) 
! approval ( ! community1 t :i* ! latt] 
desires & !re=e praises2 ! community1 = 
its "p1 e*oes ! pron\ncem5ts (          
influ5tial p]sonages1 i4e4 ( ! mo/      
respect$1 mo/ p[]ful1 & mo/ ari/ocratic2
 ,reason condemns z bad t :i* !         
community disapproves1 & :i* x !re=e    
c5sures & rejects4 ,?is def9ition does n
 solve ! problem ( good & bad1 x only   
%ifts x4  ,lat] we %all h to %[ ^u :at  
gr\nds ! community discrim9ates betwe5  
acceptable & repreh5sible facts1 call+ !
 =m] good & ! latt] bad4 ,= ! pres5t x  
is en\gh to obs]ve t ,reason d]ives !   
laws1 :i* x con/antly impresses on man1 
f ! op9ion ( ! community4  ,x c happ5 t 
,reason rejects ! op9ion ( ! community &
 =ms a conclusion oppos$ to x4 ,?is     
revolt ( individual morality aga9/      
conv5tional morality is ! great trag$y (
 man4 ,x c only occur 9 ! s\l ( a h]o1 =
 m$iocre & insipid p always b[ to !     

op9ion ( ! majority4 ,!re is cle>ly     
imm95t dang] ( mak+ a mi/ake4 ,n seldom1
 h[ev]1 ! individual is "r 9 8          
opposition to ! community1 & !n ! latt] 
is fir$ by 8 example to exam9e its      
traditional dogmas & to correct or      
reject !m4 ,?is is n ! only1 b x is !   
mo/ common means by :i* ,morality is    
develop$ & *ang$4 ,its progress dem&s   
m>tyrs4 ,/rong p]sonalities mu/ be      
sacrific$ to =ce a revision ( moral     
values4 ,socrates has to swall[ ! draft 
( hemlock s t unfett]$ ?\ght may acquire
 ! "r to d\bt ! leg5d ( ! gods4 ,jesus  
has to incur ! dang]\s ang] ( !         
,ph>isees s t ! adult]ess may be treat$ 
) indulg5ce & human sympa?y in/ead ( be+
 puni%$ accord+ to rigor\s law4 ,b !    
opposition ( a self-will$1 subjective   
,morality to ! accept$ moral law is     
always exceptional2 ! g5]al rule is     
submission to ! moral law4 ,?is is inde$
 a necess>y prelim9>y to revolt aga9/ ! 
moral law ( ! community1 = x is only by 
means ( a vigor\s social education t man

 develops su* a nicely balanc$ & ke5    
s5se ( ,good & ,bad1 t he _c prevail ^u 
himself to c>ry out g5]ally approv$     
actions :i* 8 own intellig5ce does n    
recognize z moral4 ,he ^: moral s5se has
 n be5 int5sifi$ by /rict discipl9e w   
nev] be assail$ by d\bt1 z long z he    
foll[s 9 ! foot/eps ( ! multitude4      
,h5ce1 z a rule1 ,reason ex]cises its   
control ( ! actions ( man 9 con=mity ) !
 laws prescrib$ by ! community4 ,be=e   
,morality develops into ! practice (    
,good & ! rejection ( ,bad x takes ! =m 
( consid]ation = ! _w at l>ge1 s9ce x is
 ! latt] :i* has creat$ ! concepts (    
,good & ,bad z well z ! /&>d by :i* !y  
are judg$1 & 9 ord] to avoid conflict ) 
! community1 & to ma9ta9 un9t]rupt$     
agreem5t ) x1 ! individual ex]ts himself
 to p]si/ 9 do+ good & to refra9 f do+  
evil4  ,! e/abli%m5t ( ^! facts gives   
deep (f5ce to ! my/ics among moral      
philosoph]s4 ,:at a debasem5t & belittl+
 ( ,morality6 ,:at6 ,x is suppos$ to be 
no?+ m ?an a sort ( obsequi\sness t[>ds 

! multitude8 ,its laws are obs]v$ = !   
sake ( pleas+ o!rs8 ,x is a com$y play$ 
to w9 applause & a call be=e ! curta98  
,t is a libel & a calumny4 ,! truly     
moral man looks nei!r to ! "r nor to !  
left4 ,he does n condesc5d to ask1 ',:at
 w ! _w say to ?is8' ,!re is b "o judge 
9 ^: eyes he wi%es to be ju/ifi$3 8     
consci5ce4  ,q "r4 ,b :at is consci5ce  
f\nd to be if we p5etrate ! fog ( my/ic 
words ) :i* x has come to be surr\nd$8  
,consci5ce is ! p]man5t repres5tative ( 
! community 9 ! consci\sness ( !        
individual1 j z public op9ion may be    
t]m$ ! consci5ce ( e memb] ( society    
made manife/4 ,metaphorically1 x wields 
! p[]s p]ta9+ to society2 x praises &   
blames1 x condemns & exalts1 x puni%es &
 rew>ds1 z society c\ld d2 & x actually 
pron\nces judgm5t 9 ! "n ( society1 ev5 
?\gh x does n preface su* judgm5t ) ?is 
=mula :i* is tacitly impli$ & mu/ always
 be m5tally add$4 ,consci5ce is !       
invisible l9k :i* unites ! individual ) 
a social gr\p1 j z spee*1 cu/om1        

tradition1 & political in/itutions are !
 visible l9ks4 ,b ! social orig9 &      
repres5tative nature ( consci5ce set    
limits to its p[]4 ,consci5ce is a      
respect$ au?ority ) wide p[]s only 9 !  
consci\sness ( ^? individuals :o h a    
highly develop$ social s5se4 ,i         
purposely d n say ^? 9 :om ! in/9ct to  
foll[ ! cr[d prepond]ates1 because ?is  
mode ( expression might imply blame &   
condemnation :i* ,i d n int5d to convey4
  ,= social in/9ct comes natural to an  
individual born1 educat$ & work+ 9 a    
community1 :o %>es its feel+s1 views &  
int]e/s1 nay1 ev5 its prejudices &      
mi/akes2 & if he lacks x1 x is a sign ( 
a morbid deviation f ! normal4 ,only !  
decad5t man is uncannily lonely 9 _s1   
ali51 indiff]5t or def9itely ho/ile to 8
 human surr\nd+s2 he is1 accord+ to !   
viol5ce & pol>ization ( 8 in/9cts1 !    
passionate an>*i/ or ! born crim9al2 !  
public op9ion ( 8 circle is             
un9telligible to him & makes no         
impression on him2 x has no significance

 = him2 he atta*es no importance to its 
approbation1 & its ang] leaves him cold2
 he w\ld take no notice ( x1 7 x n t he 
kn[s its p[] to de/roy him1 & fe>s its  
police1 its prisons1 & its scaffolds4   
,su* a man1 organically pr$ispos$ to    
crime1 mo/ urg5tly ne$s a consci5ce4 ,x 
w\ld arre/ him on ! d[nw>d pa? to :i* 8 
evil in/9cts lead4 ,x w\ld w>n him to   
resi/ ! wick$ impulses ( 8 selfi%ness4  
,b he1 ( all p1 has no consci5ce4 ,he c 
h none4 ,he is anti-social1 he is at w> 
) society1 diplomatic relations betwe5  
him & x h be5 brok5 (f1 & x has no      
repres5tative 9 8 consci\sness4 ,a      
lively & active feel+ ( jo9t            
responsibility ) ! community is a       
necess>y pr$isposition on ! "p ( !      
individual be=e consci5ce c h any p[]4  
,:]e ! =m] is lack+ ! latt] is mute &   
p>alys$4  ,! ess5ce ( ,morality1 z we h 
f\nd1 is ! subjection ( in/9ct & direct 
organic impulses to ! discipl9e (       
,reason4 ,! latt] ex]cises a c5sor%ip 9 
pursuance ( a law :i* x d]ives n f )91 b

 f )\t1 f ! ord9ances ( ! community :i* 
in/ructs ,reason z to :at x %\ld p]mit1 
:at x %\ld =bid1 & :at x %\ld dem&4     
,consci5ce ensures respect = its comm&s1
 & may be call$ ! executive p[] or      
police ( ,reason1 act+ z ! au?oriz$     
repres5tative ( ,morality4 ,x is !      
g>rison :i* ! community ma9ta9s 9 !     
individual's consci\sness1 :i* x arms & 
supplies ) au?ority & in/ructions2 ! p[]
 ( consci5ce lies 9 ! /r5g? ( !         
community at its back1 & is )\t influ5ce
 only ^u ^? :o refuse admission to !    
troops ( ! community & yield to none b  
actual physical =ce4 ,all ?is proves    
irrefutably t ,morality is a ph5om5on   
aris+ f ! social life ( man1 & its p[]  
is a function ( society4  ,if "u !      
conditions 9 :i* humanity lives n[adays 
"o c\ld imag9e a man totally deta*$ f 8 
species1 lead+ a solit>y life1 ,morality
 w\ld be absolutely mean+less to him4 ,!
 idea is "o he c\ld nev] conceive4 ,x   
w\ld h no significance4 ,good & bad w\ld
 always reta9 _! orig9al mean+ z labels 

= s5sual qualities1 = pleasant or       
unpleasant s5sations ( ta/e1 smell1     
etc42 !y w\ld nev] be spiritualiz$ or   
apply to ! quality ( actions4 ,he w\ld  
be unable to atta* any mean+ to ! words 
duty & "r4 ,! t]ms virtue1 vice1        
consci5ce1 rep5tance w\ld convey no?+ to
 him4 ,morality c only orig9ate :5 !    
individual lives unit$ ) fell[ be+s 9 a 
social community4 ,x is a consequ5ce (  
?is union4 ,x is ! "o condition on :i*  
alone ?is union c be p]man5t4  ,!       
solit>y individual mu/1 h[ev]1 n be     
confus$ ) ! lonely "o4 ,rob9son ,crusoe1
 %ipwreck$ on a des]t isl& & =c$ to /ay 
!re )\t companion%ip1 is n primitive    
man4 ,he is a son ( civilization :o has 
fall5 ^u evil days4 ,9 8 en=c$          
solit>9ess he ma9ta9s ! habits ( ?\ght (
 8 orig9al surr\nd+s4 ,he pres]ves !    
concepts ( ,morality ev5 ?\gh he has no 
occasion to obey its dictates4 ,he c1 if
 n actually yet pot5tially1 be a p>agon 
( virtue or a s9k ( iniquity2 he c h a v
 delicate or a v dull consci5ce4 ,he    

cont9ues to be a man ( social in/9cts   
cut (f f society1 & goes on ?9k+ & feel+
 9 a social mann]4 ,by primitive man ,i 
mean man z he 0 be=e society orig9at$4  
,=1 contr>y to ! sociological s*ool :i* 
d5ies ! individual & boldly refuses to  
all[ him any exi/5ce1 decl>+ society to 
be old] & e>li] ?an ! individual1 ,i ?9k
 ,i h conclusively %[n 7,d] ,s9n d]     
,ges*i*te ,! ,mean+ ( ,hi/ory7 t man is 
n by nature a greg>i\s animal1 t he liv$
 alone1 be+ self-suffic+ z long z !     
climatic conditions1 "u :i* he fir/ made
 8 appe>ance on e>?1 enabl$ him to exi/ 
by 8 own unaid$ ef=ts & capabilities1 & 
t he b&$ himself toge!r ) o!rs 9 gangs1 
troops & hordes--! e>lie/ =ms (         
subsequ5t society--:51 aft] ! fir/ ice  
age foll[+ 8 appe>ance1 ! /ruggle =     
exi/5ce grew ev] h>d]1 ev] m labori\s1  
transc5d+ ! p[]s ( ! individual s t he  
c\ld only ov]come ,nature1 n[ gr[n      
ho/ile to him1 by unit+ ) o!rs ( 8 k9d4 
,?is primitive man ( ! gold5 geological 
p]iod be=e ! ,ice ,age knew no          

,morality1 & z f> z human intellig5ce c 
tell he w\ld nev] h kn[n ( x _h !re be5 
a cont9uance ( ! p>adisaic conditions   
obta9+ at ! "t ( 8 bir?1 & _h ! climate 
n det]iorat$4 ,! occurr5ce ( murd]\s    
fro/s1 ! necessity ( seek+ protection f 
!m 9 natural caves or artificially      
con/ruct$ %elt]s1 & ( k9dl+ & ma9ta9+   
fires1 ! dim9ution or disappe>ance (    
vegetable food1 & ! ne$ to replace x by 
! booty ( ! *ase or fi%+--all ^! =c$ him
 to unite 8 ef=ts ) ^? ( o!r m5 :o %>$ 8
 wret*$ lot on e>?4 ,b 9 ord] to ma9ta9 
?is community ) o!rs he _h to le>n a new
 sci5ce1 "o he _h hi!rto n kn[n because 
he _h _h no ne$ ( x3 consid]ation = 8   
fell[s4 ,he might no long] ?9k ( himself
 alone1 consid] 8 own incl9ations 9 all 
ev5tualities1 give way to all 8 moods or
 yield to e :im2 he _h unceas+ly to be> 
8 neighb\r 9 m9d & take c>e n to annoy  
him1 n to make an enemy ( him1 n to     
become hateful to him4 ,=be>ance t[>ds 8
 neighb\r 0 ! necess>y condition ( _!   
life 9 common1 j z _! life 9 common 0 ! 

necess>y condition ( self-pres]vation4  
,! p5alty = selfi% indulg5ce 0 /]n      
p]secution1 puni%m5t1 p]haps dea?2 9 any
 case1 expulsion f ! community4 ,man1   
!re=e1 /ood be=e ! *oice ( self-control 
or de/ruction1 & ?is dilemma taught him 
,morality4  ,su*1 we mu/ imag9e1 7 !    
beg9n+s ( ,morality4 ,x 0 n pre>rang$ or
 purposely s\ght2 x grew naturally f !  
companion%ip ( m5 & develop$            
simultane\sly ) society4 ,if ! /ruggle =
 exi/5ce made life 9 communities a      
necessity1 ! fir/ co]cive law ( !       
community 0 to enjo9 ^u its memb]s a    
mode ( conduct :i* alone r5d]$ ! exi/5ce
 ( ! community possible1 & ! fundam5tal 
rule ( ?is conduct 0 mutual             
consid]ation4 ,)\t ?is two egoisms _c   
exi/ side by side & develop4 ,!y ei!r   
de/roy or %un "o ano!r4 ,?is ph5om5on   
may also be obs]v$ among ! high]        
animals4 ,elephants1 liv+ 9 h]ds1 expel 
qu>relsome individuals & =ce !m to w&]  
alone f> f ! re/4 ,! natives ( ,ceylon &
 ,india fe> ^! ba*elor elephants z be+  

specially savage & malici\s4 ,!y ?9k t  
!y gr[ l ?is because ( _! lonel9ess4 ,t 
is probably a false conclusion4 ,x is   
mu* m likely t ^! animals h be5 driv5 f 
_! h]d because !y 7 savage & malici\s1  
because _! *>act]s 7 oppos$ to          
discipl9e4 ,"h we come ^u ! fir/ fa9t   
=e%ad[+ ( ! ph5om5on ( ,morality 9 an   
animal community4  ,n[ t we h introduc$ 
! idea ( ! gr[? & developm5t (          
,morality1 x becomes obvi\s t x mu/ h   
begun ) m]e indications1 & t f rude1    
dim1 undevelop$ beg9n+s x gradually gr[s
 m p]fect1 m ref9$1 m nicely            
diff]5tiat$4 ,at fir/ man avoids only ! 
mo/ brutal injuries to 8 neighb\r1 su* z
 hurt+ him1 do+ him bodily h>m1 ?reat5+ 
to kill him1 op5ly robb+ him4 ,9        
proportion z he becomes m spiritually   
s5sitive1 z he le>ns to feel ! insult & 
humiliation ( injuries o!r ?an ^?       
inflict$ ) a fi/ or club1 he is l$ to   
refra9 f giv+ 8 fell[-m5 simil> (f5ce1  
:i* ?\gh x deals no gap+ w\nds1 yet     
hurts 8 spiritual s5sibilities4 ,a s]ies

 ( values is develop$1 gr[+ ev] long]1  
ev] m complicat$1 ) m & m gradations1   
until1 go+ f> beyond ! simple1 artless  
comm&m5ts1 ,?\ %alt n kill1 ,?\ %alt n  
/eal1 ,?\ %alt n covet ?y neighb\r's    
wife nor 8 goods1 x rea*es ! pit* (     
agoniz$ self-reproa*1 because ( !       
slighte/ & mo/ secret impulses to       
dislike1 inju/ice1 covet\sness1         
dissimulation1 etc4  ,morality mu/ be   
reg>d$ z a support & a weapon 9 !       
/ruggle = exi/5ce 9 s f> z1 giv5 pres5t 
climatic conditions on e>? & !          
civilization aris+ !refrom1 man c only  
exi/ 9 societies1 & society _c exi/ )\t 
,morality4 ,! *a9 ( ?\ght runs z foll[s3
 )\t morality no society1 )\t society no
 individual exi/5ce2 consequ5tly1       
,morality is ! ess5tial condition = !   
exi/5ce ( ! individual z well z = t ( ! 
community4 ,h[ev]1 we mu/ always be> 9  
m9d ! res]vation1 giv5 ! pres5t climatic
 conditions on e>?4 ,_h ! e>? cont9u$ to
 be ! p>adise x mu/ h be5 at ! bir? (   
our species 7s9ce o!rwise ! latt] c\ld  

simply n h orig9at$71 ! necessity w\ld  
nev] h aris5 = ! individual to b&       
himself toge!r ) o!rs ( 8 k9d1 no       
society w\ld ev] h develop$1 & !re w\ld 
h be5 no ,morality4 ,s]i\s z ! subject  
is1 "o _c b smile at ! ?\ght ( ! comic  
figure ! le>n$1 pr(essorial             
,neo-,kantians w\ld cut ) _! dogma ( !  
absolute & cosmic nature ( ,morality1 if
 !y prop\nd$ x among m5 ^: wants        
,nature's b\nty 0 able to satisfy z     
easily z ! frog is satisfi$ 9 8 puddle  
or ! cr[ on 8 tree top4 ,!y w\ld f9d no 
trace ( absolute ,morality among mank9d1
 & w\ld be r$uc$ to seek+ x among ! />s4
  ,! v nature ( ,morality1 9 t x is an  
aid to man 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 makes 
x easy to und]/& ! orig9 & nature ( !   
concepts ,good & ,bad4 ,!re are         
prop5sities & actions :i* facilitate    
life 9 a community :i*1 inde$1 alone    
make x possible3 love ( "o's neighb\r1  
helpfulness1 lib]ality1 consid]ation = !
 feel+s ( o!rs1 & amiability4 ,!re are  
o!rs :i* make su* a life difficult or   

absolutely impossible3 uncompromis+     
selfi%ness1 viol5ce1 cruelty1 rapacity1 
in/9ctive ho/ility to "o's neighb\r4 ,m5
 recogniz$ t ! =m] 7 b5eficial to !m1 ! 
latt] h>mful4 ,! =m] ar\s$ _! lik+1 !   
latt] _! disapproval1 dislike &         
animosity4 ,! quality ( feel+ :i*       
accompani$ ! p]ceptions ( actions ( !   
=m] k9d 0 ak9 to t ) :i* !y respond$ to 
b5eficial1 pr(itable1 useful & welcome  
s5se impressions4 ,! quality ( feel+1   
:i* actions ( ! second category gave    
rise to1 0 ak9 to t due to h>mful &     
repell5t s5se impressions4 ,foll[+ ! law
 ( analogy1 !y plac$ on an equal foot+  
actions :i* 7 felt to be pleas+ &       
pleasant s5sations ( ta/e & smell2      
simil>ly ) disagreeable actions &       
unpleasant s5se impressions2 & f9ally !y
 call$ ! =m] good & ! latt] bad1 us+    
t]ms orig9ally applicable only to !     
realm ( ! s5ses4  ,n ev]y?+ t is        
pleasant to ! s5ses is b5eficial4 ,!re  
are poisons :i* are pleas+ to ta/e1 b   
none ! less noxi\s = t1 su* z 7to give  

only "o example7 alcoholic dr9ks &      
impressions ( a c]ta9 ord]1 l           
voluptu\sness1 :i* man gre$ily pursues1 
ev5 ?\gh !y ru9 8 heal?4 ,b ^! are      
exceptions4 ,z a rule1 n only man1 b all
 liv+ creatures1 d]ive pleasant         
s5sations f b5eficial ?+s2 & x is       
probable t t category ( s5sations1 :i*  
we are consci\s ( z be+ pleasant1 is    
no?+ b ! /ate ( co5e/hesis1 :5 !        
organism functions p>ticul>ly           
en]getically "u ! influ5ce ( !          
absorption ( food or ( a special /imulus
 ( ! s5ses1 :5 x feels its life         
processes c>ri$ on p>ticul>ly vigor\sly1
 freely & h>moni\sly2 j z we feel t /ate
 ( co5e/hesis to be unpleasant1 :i*     
occurs :5 ! organism functions badly1   
slackly1 & 9 a mann] calculat$ to       
endang] ! cont9uance ( life4 ,) !       
res]vation t has be5 indicat$ we c say 9
 g5]al t ,good is equival5t to b5eficial
 & pleasant1 ,bad to h>mful &           
unpleasant4 ,?is is true ( ! transf]r$ &
 spiritualiz$ z well z ( ! imm$iate &   

mat]ial mean+ ( ^! expressions ( value4 
,! significance ( ! words ,good & ,bad1 
! po9t ( dep>ture1 developm5t & *ange ( 
conception !y indicate1 suffice to      
ju/ify ! ,utilit>ians & ! ,h$oni/s or   
,eudmoni/s among ! moral philosoph]s1 & 
to confute ! cont5tions ( _! critics1 :o
 d5y all connexion betwe5 ,morality & a 
practical purpose1 pr(it or pleasure1 & 
decl>e ^! to be unwor?y humiliations (  
its maje/y4  ,!y wriggle1 ) ! agility ( 
a contortioni/ on ! music-hall /age1 to 
get ov] ! obvi\s & palpable aim ( moral 
conduct4 ,!y display all ! cunn+ (      
di%one/ sophi/ry 9 _! argum5ts to prove 
t ! elem5t ( subjective satisfaction :i*
 moral action yields is non-exi/5t1 & t1
 !re=e1 ! ,h$oni/s & ,eudmoni/s are     
wrong4 ,!y /ir up an opaque cl\d (      
words1 phrases & =mul to hide ! fact1   
:i* nev]!less em]ges cle>ly1 t he :o    
acts morally expects to d]ive           
pleasurable emotions f 8 action1 or at  
lea/ tries !reby to avoid probable      
pa9ful emotions1 & t moral conduct1 j z 

x is design$ to give ! individual       
subjective satisfaction :i* is a k9d (  
pleasure1 is also meant to be a b5efit1 
or at any rate a suppos$ b5efit1 to !   
community4  ,morality mu/ nev] try = a  
rew>d & nev] expect "o4 ,x mu/ be       
absolutely dis9t]e/$4 ,x has no bus9ess 
to pursue any aim outside itself4 ,?us  
say ! my/ics ( moral philosophy1 juggl+ 
) words2 & !y ?9k !y are do+ especial   
hon\r to ,morality & rais+ x to a       
p>ticul>ly pr\d em95ce4 ,b ,morality has
 no ne$ ( ?is artificial & false gr&eur 
to ma9ta9 its l(ty place among ! ph5om5a
 ( life1 & x is d]ogatory nei!r to its  
au?ority nor to its influ5ce to be      
recogniz$ z a b5eficial =ce conducive to
 happ9ess4  ,! oppon5ts ( ,utilit>ianism
 & ,eudmonism 9 ,e?ics1 if !y speak 9   
good fai?1 may be excus$ on ! gr\nds t  
_! analysis ( ! ph5om5on ( ,morality is 
%all[4 ,= !m ,morality is some?+        
absolute1 :i* exi/s by itself z an      
et]nal & unalt]able law ( ! ,univ]se1 b 
:i* is reveal$ 9 ! individual & !re=e   

mu/ be conceiv$ individually z a quality
 :i* has become human1 z a human value4 
,if anyone p]si/s 9 look+ ^u ,morality z
 an absolutely individual matt]1 )\t any
 connexion ) any?+ outside ! individual1
 if anyone ob/9ately %uts 8 eyes to !   
fact t ,morality has n be5 develop$ by !
 individual out ( 8 own imm$iate ne$s & 
9 consid]ation ( himself alone1 b t x   
is1 on ! contr>y1 a creation ( society &
 has no s5se or significance except z a 
social ph5om5on1 !n inde$ he c ) "s %[ (
 ju/ification d5y ,utilit>ianism &      
,h$onism4 ,= truly1 look$ at f ! po9t ( 
view ( ! individual1 moral conduct      
appe>s nei!r pleasant nor imm$iately    
b5eficial4 ,on ! contr>y1 x is1 z a     
rule1 directly oppos$ to 8 own app>5t   
int]e/1 & x is a*iev$ ) difficulty by   
sacrifice & r5unciation1 :i* are nev]   
pleasant & (t5 v pa9ful4  ,once 9 a     
draw+-room1 dur+ a game ( def9itions1 ,i
 he>d a light-he>t$ "y lady def9e ,duty 
9 ! foll[+ t]ms3 ,duty is t :i* we d    
unwill+ly4 ,a /]n pr(essor contradict$  

h] at once ) ! solemnity he ?\ght due to
 8 position1 & assur$ h] reprov+ly3 ,x  
is my duty to give lectures1 & ,i d ?is 
duty gladly4 ,if y 7 "r1 madam1         
expressions su* z 'zeal\s 9 "o's duty' &
 'will+ p]=mance ( duty' w\ld h no mean+
 & c\ld nev] h be5 co9$4 ,t seems       
conv9c+1 b yet x is wrong4 ,expressions 
su* z zeal\s 9 "o's duty & will+        
p]=mance ( duty 7 n co9$ until society  
_h develop$ its sy/em ( ,morality & _h  
educat$ its memb]s to /rive = its       
approval by conduct+ !mselves 9         
accordance ) ?is sy/em1 to look on its  
approval z a flatt]+ di/9ction & to fe> 
its disapproval z a disgrace4 ,su*      
phrases are ,ph>isaical1 calculat$ to   
ex]cise a sugge/ive influ5ce pr(itable  
to society4 ,!y are ! sug> to sweet5 !  
pill2 b ! "y lady 0 hone/ & ! pr(essor  
conv5tional2 ! pill is bitt]4 ,?9k]s    
recogniz$ & admitt$ ?is ?\s&s ( ye>s    
ago4 ,antiphon1 ! sophi/1 says3 ,! law1 
! outcome ( an agreem5t1 co]ces nature1 
! result ( gr[?1 & goes aga9/ ! int]e/ (

 ! individual4 ,! same idea is express$ 
by ! tragic poet 9 ! l9es3 ,! gods h    
plac$ sweat be=e virtue4 ,?is 0 said 9 !
 v same words by ,lao ,tse1 ! disciple (
 ,m5g ,tse1 ! pupil ( ,confucius & !    
re=m] ( 8 doctr9e4  ,! law1 n only ! law
 ( ! /ate :i* ,antiphon has pr9cipally 9
 view1 b also ! moral law1 goes aga9/ ! 
int]e/ ( ! individual2 n 9 reality1 b   
app>5tly1 at ! fir/ sup]ficial glance4  
,moral conduct is ! rev]se ( natural    
conduct2 x takes place 9 opposition to  
in/9ct by deflect+ ! orig9al impulse2 x 
is a subjugation ( incl9ation1 a victory
 ov] ! real nature ( ! man4 ,virtue has 
to ex]t its utmo/ /r5g? 9 bitt]         
/ruggles1 f\ght out )9 ! individual1    
be=e x c reveal itself actively 9 de$s4 
,t is a natural consequ5ce ( ! mann] 9  
:i* ,morality orig9at$4  ,! po9t is t x 
0 n creat$ directly = ! individual1 b = 
! community1 & = ! =m] only 9 s f> z he 
is a "p ( ! community1 & f its /ability 
& well-be+ d]ives a b5efit :i* he may1  
or may n1 be consci\s (2 :i* he may1 or 

may n1 be able to appreciate2 :i* he    
accepts z some?+ natural & self-und]/ood
 )\t fur!r ?\ght2 = :i* he does n       
consid] any return s]vice to be due2 b  
:i* is nev]!less ( real magnitude1      
pr(it+ ! individual1 facilitat+ 8       
exi/5ce1 or ev5 alone mak+ x possible2 &
 = :i*1 z = e o!r gift1 he mu/ make     
sacrifices4 ,= )9 society !re c be no   
gifts4 ,x possesses no?+ b :at x has    
acquir$ f its memb]s1 & ! latt] mu/ pay 
full value = ev]y?+ x provides1 unask$  
or o!rwise4  ,z ! ,moral law orig9at$ to
 meet ! ne$s ( ! community1 & 0         
gradually =mulat$ 9 def9ite precepts1 x 
is compreh5sible t ! community nev]     
paus$ to inquire :at subjective effect  
its law w\ld h on ! feel+s ( !          
individual4 ,if y impose a law ^u       
someone y h>dly ev] consid] h[ great w  
be ! emotions ( pleasure or displeasure 
:i* its en=cem5t w entail4 ,! ord] is1  
,obey1 :e!r y l x or n2 t :i* deep]     
insight & m f>-see+ wisdom prescribe is 
= y\r good4 ,?us ! individual is =c$ to 

"w labori\sly = 8 own good1 :i* 9 8     
purbl9dness he does n ev5 recognize4 ,x 
w\ld be compreh5sible if ! individual1  
:o does n see f>!r ?an 8 own nose & does
 n look beyond ! pres5t mom5t1 =m$ !    
op9ion t ,morality is n p]ceptibly      
b5eficial to him & gives him no         
pleasure1 & t1 !re=e1 ! ,utilit>ians & !
 ,h$oni/s talk nons5se4 ,b ! moral      
philosoph]1 :o obs]ves ! individual 9   
relation%ip to ! community & surveys    
human actions1 ! way !y are connect$1 & 
! way !y int]act ^u "o ano!r1 has no "r 
to pursue ! same l9e ( ?\ght z !        
individual1 & d5y t ,morality aims at   
utility & pleasure1 ev5 ?\gh !          
individual1 :5 he acts morally1 does n  
p]ceive any p]sonal advantage1 nor feel 
any pleasure except ! self-satisfaction 
:i* he has be5 tra9$ to feel1 s9ce 9 !  
eyes ( o!rs he is s good & hone/4 ,t    
,morality aims at utility1 & is at !    
same "t a s\rce ( pleasure & happ9ess1  
may seem d>k & d\btful :ile we consid] !
 individual1 b x becomes cle> z day &   

indisputable :5 we reg>d ! community4   
,among creatures ( a l[] ord] ?an man1  
inde$ among all animals t live toge!r 9 
flocks or h]ds1 we f9d ! fir/ beg9n+s ( 
t mode ( conduct :i* 9 man we call      
moral1 & :i* is n int5d$ to be ( direct 
b5efit to ! individual1 or to add to 8  
mom5t>y pleasure1 b :i* subord9ates or  
sacrifices ^! p]sonal satisfactions to !
 good ( ! community4  ,*amois1 :5 !y are
 graz+1 set "o ( _! numb] on gu>d ^u a  
rocky em95ce ) a di/ant view1 & ?is     
individual is responsible = ! safety ( !
 h]d4 ,:ile ! o!rs fe$ 9 peace & com=t1 
?is gu>dian *amois =goes ! food :i* is  
d\btless j z attractive to x z to !     
o!rs1 & tirelessly keeps a %>p look out 
ov] its :ole field ( vision1 w>n+ its   
companions at ! fir/ approa* ( dang] by 
utt]+ a %rill cry4  ,:5 ! great h]ds (  
buffaloes /ill inhabit$ ! ,nor? ,am]ican
 prairies1 !y _h at ! head & on ! flanks
 ( ! h]d ! /ronge/ bulls1 :ile ! c5tre 0
 occupi$ by ! c[s ) _! calves & ! "y    
animals4 ,be=e civilization came to     

tr\ble !m1 ! grizzly be> 0 ! only enemy 
t ?reat5$ !m1 & ) him !y 7 able to deal2
 "o ( !m w\ld meet ! attack+ be> 9 s+le 
combat1 b did n always em]ge f x unhurt4
 ,(t5 en\gh at ! end ( ! fight bo? !    
bull & ! be> w\ld be t]ribly injur$ or  
ev5 dead2 yet by sacrific+ 8 life ! bull
 sav$ ! re/ ( ! h]d4  ,! ?rill+ adv5ture
 ( ! ,abyss9ian baboon is well kn[n2    
fir/ told by ,alfr$ ,brehm 9 8 ,ti]leb5 
7animal life71 x 0 aft]w>ds quot$ by    
,d>w9 & _m o!r writ]s4 ,on a hunt+      
exp$ition ,brehm surpris$ a p>ty (      
monkeys 9 a cle>+4 ,!y fl$ at once & _h 
f\nd %elt] 9 ! wood be=e ! dogs c\ld    
rea* !m4 ,only "o "y "o _h got sep>at$ f
 ! re/ & 0 left beh9d alone4 ,x _h      
scrambl$ up on to a solit>y rock /&+ 9 !
 pla91 r\nd :i* ! dogs 7 b>k+ furi\sly1 
& 9 its t]ror ! creature utt]$ pi]c+    
cries = help4 ,a little male monkey1    
he>+ x1 deta*$ himself f ! gr\p1 turn$  
back f ! safety ( ! =e/1 made quietly = 
! rock & fet*$ away ! trembl+ "y baboon 
f among ! pack1 sil5t n[ & %r9k+ 9      

amazem5t2 & !n /rok+ & c>ess+ ! little  
creature he c>ri$ x safely 9 8 arms to  
its family 9 ! wood1 unmole/$ by !      
/upefi$ dogs & sp>$ by ! hunt]1 lo/ 9   
admiration ( ?is self-sacrific+ c\rage4 
,9 ^! ?ree in/ances we see h[ ! jo9t    
responsibility among greg>i\s animals   
develops 9 !m an ev] increas+ s5se (    
duty1 :i* tea*es ! *amois to =go its    
food dur+ ! h\rs x is on gu>d1 r\ses 9 !
 buffalo a savage lu/ = battle1 & makes 
! baboon p]=m a prem$itat$ de$ ( epic   
h]oism4 ,:5 m5 act z ^! animals did1 we 
ascribe ?is to ,morality4 ,?is is no?+ b
 jo9t responsibility 9 action1 ! jo9t   
responsibility :i* ! species is =c$ by !
 conditions ( life to adopt1 if x is to 
survive4  ,among ! moral philosoph]s !  
my/ics are prev5t$1 by ! haze :i*       
obscures all _! ?\ght1 f see+ t         
,morality orig9ates f ?is jo9t          
responsibility4 ,or r1 if !y d see x1 !y
 ?9k ?is orig9 too l[4 ,!y dem& a m     
exalt$ g5ealogy = ! ph5om5on (          
,morality4 ,accord+ to !m ! ,moral law  

comes /raight f ,god4 ,! concepts ,good 
& ,evil are reveal$4 ,comm&s &          
prohibitions are impos$ ^u ! s\l by t   
omnipot5ce :i* spiritualizes ! univ]se &
 ( :i* ! s\l is an immortal "p4  ,if ^! 
phrases 7 any?+ b moon%9e & t9kl+       
cymbals !y c]ta9ly w\ld make any o!r    
explanation ( ?is a/oni%+ fact          
sup]flu\s2 ! fact1 namely1 t man does   
:at is repugnant to him1 & refra9s f do+
 :at w\ld give him pleasure1 t he is    
cont5t ) himself :5 he has volunt>ily   
curb$ 8 impulses & made sacrifices1 & t 
he feels ! pricks ( consci5ce if he     
*ances to exp]i5ce ! pleasure (         
appeasem5t because he has satisfi$ 8    
desires4 ,man obeys div9e comm&s4 ,t    
suffices & obviates ! necessity ( seek+ 
= explanations ( ?is ph5om5on1 :i* %all 
satisfy ,reason4  ,x is a m]e mirage1 ! 
reflection ( an e>?ly /ate ( affairs 9 !
 heav5s1 to assume t ! univ]se is gov]n$
 by an au?ority devoid ( responsibility1
 :i* imposes on its subjects1 t is to   
say m51 laws & in/ructions1 discipl9e & 

ord]4  ,x is a =m ( an?ropomorphism1 !  
mo/ widespread & /ubborn ( errors 9     
?\ght among ^? m5 :o try to und]/& !    
un9telligible1 & are cont5t ) ! mo/     
unf\nd$ explanation :i* _! nave         
imag9ation freely inv5ts = !m4 ,?is same
 an?ropomorphism1 n ev5 at a loss to    
solve ! problem ( ! orig9 & ess5ce ( !  
univ]se1 replies unhesitat+ly t ,god by 
an act ( volition creat$ x out ( no?+ to
 prove to ,himself ,8 own omnipot5ce &  
omnisci5ce2 9 l mann] x has no scruple 9
 ascrib+ ! ph5om5on ( ,morality to a    
creative act ( ,god's1 & makes ,e?ics1  
:i* prop]ly speak+ =m ! *ief "p (       
psy*ology1 an?ropology & sociology1 a   
subdivision ( !ology1 t is1 (           
an?ropomorphic my?ology4  ,critical     
,reason1 :i* realizes t deceptive       
fictions are n true ?\ght1 b dreams--n !
 result ( ripe intellectual ef=t1 b ( ! 
*ildi% play ( ! imag9ation1 seeks !     
roots ( ,morality n 9 ! air or 9 ! e!r1 
b 9 ! solid e>?2 n 9 "s indemon/rable1  
transc5d5tal sph]e1 b 9 an obvi\s ne$ ( 

human nature4 ,! biological necessities 
( ! species1 :i* c only survive by d9t (
 liv+ 9 communities1 suffici5tly expla9 
! orig9 ( ! feel+ ( jo9t responsibility1
 ( consid]ation = "o's neighb\r1 ( !    
concepts ,good & ,evil & ( consci5ce2 & 
we h no use = ! dogmas ( reveal$        
,morality d]iv$ f "s fabul\s1           
sup]natural s\rce1 or = ! ,kantian      
categorical imp]ative4  ,morality1      
und]/ood z a =m ( jo9t responsibility1  
det]m9es ! inn] & out] relations ( !    
individual to ! community2 t is to say1 
to z mu* ( x z he comes 9 imm$iate      
contact )1 to wit1 8 neighb\r4 ,morality
 provides him ) ! notions ( ,duty & ,"r1
 ( ! consid]ation he owes 8 neighb\r & (
 t :i* he may dem& f 8 neighb\r4 ,x is  
cu/om>y to look ^u ,rights & ,duties z  
opposites4 ,?is is m]e indol5ce ( ?\ght4
 ,"r & ,duty are supplem5t>y1 =m+ toge!r
 "o concept4 ,!y are 9 reality "o & !   
same ?+ reg>d$ f diff]5t po9ts ( view4  
,my ,duty is ! subjective =m ( my       
neighb\r's ,"r2 my ,"r ! subjective =m (

 o!r p's ,duty4 ,t :i* is ,duty1 :5 ,i h
 to d x out ( consid]ation = o!rs1      
becomes my ,"r1 :5 o!rs h to d x out (  
consid]ation = me4  ,respect = !        
p]sonality ( o!rs1 :i* is ! feel+ f :i* 
! concept ( ,"r & ,duty emanates1 seems 
to be a late & noble product ( ,morality
 & a p>ticul>ly praisewor?y victory (   
presci5t intellig5ce ov] selfi%ness4    
,?is factor ( our consci\sness :i*      
det]m9es our w & :i* gradually becomes  
an in/9ct1 is really only a special     
application ( ! law ( lea/ resi/ance :i*
 gov]ns all organic life4 ,we h no      
selfless1 ideal respect = ! p]sonality (
 ano!r2 b1 made wise by exp]i5ce &      
obs]vation1 we assume t t o!r has ! p[] 
to resi/ & to retaliate if a wrong is   
done to him or he is injur$2 h5ce we    
avoid1 to ! be/ ( our ability1 actions  
to :i* he is likely to object1 s z n to 
come into conflict ) him1 because to    
ov]come 8 opposition w\ld require ef=t &
 expose u to dang]4 ,respect = !        
p]sonality ( ano!r & = 8 rights may be  

express$ by a me*anical =mula :i* runs z
 foll[s3 ?is respect v>ies directly z ! 
real or suppos$ might ( ! o!r p]son1 &  
inv]sely z our own real or suppos$      
might4  ,! society ( :i* he is a memb]1 
& :i* makes 8 exi/5ce possible1         
prescribes to ! individual ! laws gov]n+
 8 moral conduct4 ,t :i* a community at 
any giv5 "t approves & dem&s1 rejects or
 =bids1 con/itutes ! precept :]eby its  
memb]s regulate _! conduct1 & (f]s ample
 security = _! consci5ce4  ,! concepts  
,good & ,bad orig9ate simultane\sly )   
society2 !y are ! =m 9 :i* its actual   
conditions ( exi/5ce are convey$ to !   
consci\sness ( its memb]s4 ,! only      
immutable ?+ ab\t !m is ! fact ( _!     
cont9u$ exi/5ce4 ,)\t ! co]cive         
discipl9e ( a rule conducive to ! common
 weal & gov]n+ ! mutual relations betwe5
 its memb]s1 no society c\ld be imag9$  
to exi/1 unless its memb]s 7 all simil> 
9 nature1 react$ 9 an id5tical fa%ion to
 all impressions & possess$ ! same      
feel+s & s5sations1 ! same incl9ations &

 ! same impulses ( volition4 ,9 t case  
no diff]5ce c\ld ev] arise betwe5 "o    
individual & ano!r1 or betwe5 an        
individual & ! community1 :i* w\ld h to 
be smoo!d ov] by ! moral law emanat+ f !
 community & controll+ ! individual1 or 
be suppress$ by ! community's ord]4 ,e  
individual c\ld be left to ! guidance ( 
8 own in/9cts1 = he w\ld "k himself     
always to be 9 agreem5t ) ! community2  
no consid]ation = o!rs ne$ hamp] or     
modify 8 actions2 he c\ld behave j z if 
he 7 alone 9 ! _w4 ,b z individuals     
diff] f "o ano!r1 feel1 ?9k & want      
diff]5t ?+s1 collisions 9 :i* !y hurt1  
cripple or ev5 kill "o ano!r are !      
inevitable consequ5ce ( _! oppos+       
movem5ts2 & ! int]f]5ce ( ! moral law is
 absolutely necess>y to pol>ize ^!      
movem5ts & guide !m into p>allel c\rses1
 s t !y d n run c\nt] to "o ano!r4  ,b  
,good & ,bad d]ive n only _! exi/5ce b  
_! measure & _! significance f ! views (
 ! community4 ,!y are !re=e n absolute b
 v>iable2 !y are n an immutable /&>d    

amid ! ev]-*ang+ conditions ( humanity1 
a rule by :i* ! value ( ! actions & aims
 ( mortals are indisputably det]m9$1 b  
are subject to ! laws ( evolution 9     
society & !re=e 9 a con/ant /ate ( flux4
 ,at diff]5t times & 9 diff]5t places !y
 pres5t ! mo/ v>i$ aspects4 ,:at is     
virtue "h & n[ may h be5 vice =m]ly & at
 ano!r spot1 & vice v]sa4 ,9 ! royal    
family ( anci5t ,egypt m>riage betwe5   
bro!rs & si/]s 0 ! prescrib$ cu/om4 ,we 
call ?is ince/ & x fills u ) horror4 ,to
 ! sons ( ,egypt x seem$ m]itori\s &    
con/itut$ a claim to special v5]ation4  
,! ,babylonians & ,canaanites burnt _!  
fir/-born 9 ,molo*'s fi]y furnace1 & ?is
 sacrifice 0 acc\nt$ a highly           
praisewor?y act ( piety & ( ! fe> (     
,god4 ,! ,sp>tans taught _! sons1 _!    
future w>riors1 ! art ( /eal+ )\t be+   
caught2 & he :o did ?is mo/ clev]ly     
a*iev$ ! mo/ flatt]+ recognition4 ,!    
,*]usci but*]$ ! ,roman prison]s tak5 f 
! legions ( ,v>us z a sacrifice to _!   
tribal gods1 & a noble-m9d$ & brave man 

l ,arm9ius consid]$ ?is absolutely      
hon\rable & knightly4 ,! ,aztecs1 :o _h 
und5iably atta9$ an advanc$ degree (    
civilization1 at high fe/ivals us$ )    
obsidian knives to cut op5 ! brea/s (   
human sacrifices on ! alt>s ( _! gods1 &
 te> ! he>t out ( _! liv+ bodies4 ,t 0  
an action f9d+ fav\r 9 ! sight ( ! gods1
 & ! p wat*$ x ) awe & ^? my/ic emotions
 :i* religi\s rites are int5d$ to ar\se4
  ,moral law 9 ,europe1 dur+ ! ,middle  
,ages & almo/ up to mod]n times1        
p]mitt$1 & ev5 orda9$1 ! puni%m5t by    
horrible torture & dea? ( ^? ^: religi\s
 convictions diff]$ f ! tea*+ ( !       
e/abli%$ *ur*2 & ) its cons5t suppos$   
wit*es 7 s5t to ! /ake4 ,9 feudal times 
! mo/ t]rible & revolt+ ( crimes 0      
felony--t is1 a brea* ( fai? on ! "p ( !
 vassal aga9/ 8 ov]lord--& no torture 0 
too cruel z a puni%m5t4 ,nobles1 :o _h s
 delicate a s5se ( hon\r t = a wry look 
or ! accid5tal t\* ( an elb[ !y w\ld    
draw _! swords1 enunciat$ ! pr9ciple3 ! 
k+'s blood does n defile1 & vi$ ) ea*   

o!r 9 =c+ _! daught]s ^u ! k+ z         
concub9es4 ,until ,wilb]=ce r\s$ !      
,engli% consci5ce at ! end ( ! eighte5? 
c5tury1 & ,s*l*] did ! same 9 ,france 9 
! middle ( ! n9ete5?1 slav]y 0 consid]$ 
a /ate ( affairs :i* a moral community  
c\ld tol]ate4 ,! ,nor? ,am]ican         
desc5dants ( ^? ,puritans :om no        
p]secution & no m>tyrdom c\ld prev5t f  
lead+ a life consonant ) ! dictates ( _!
 consci5ce1 did n scruple to ex]cise    
propriet>y rights ov] human be+s :o1 9 !
 case ( octoroons & ev5 ( quadroons1 did
 n ev5 diff] f !m 9 col\r1 suppos+ t    
diff]5ce ( col\r c\ld be consid]$ an    
excuse4 ,! code1 :i* began ) !          
,decl>ation ( ,rights1 conta9$ heavy    
p5alties = ^? :o help$ a slave to       
escape4 ,m51 ^: uprightness no "o c\ld  
d\bt1 did n hesitate to set bloodh\nds  
on ! track ( an escap$ nigg]1 & f\r ye>s
 ( a bloody civil w> 7 ne$$ be=e        
refractory slave-own]s 7 =c$ to         
ackn[l$ge ! immorality ( =c$ lab\r4  ,^!
 examples h be5 tak5 f ! cu/oms (       

civiliz$ nations4 ,among/ races t h n   
atta9$ ! high degree ( developm5t to :i*
 ! :ite man has ris51 we meet ) mu* m   
revolt+ deviations f ! moral law obta9+ 
among :ite m54 ,tribes are kn[n 9 :i* ! 
comm&m5t1 ,hon\r ?y fa!r & ?y "m1 is    
int]pret$ s1 t ! *ildr5 kill & eat _!   
p>5ts z soon z ! latt] h atta9$ a       
consid]able age4 ,! ,nor? ,am]ican      
,indians1 :o _h a well develop$ s5se (  
hon\r1 7 capable ( *ivalr\s feel+s &    
kept _! ^w ) absolute loyalty1 us$ to   
torture helpless prison]s & scalp _!    
defeat$ enemies1 ev5 ! wom54 ,among !   
,dyaks1 :o are "u ,dut* rule & are      
famili> ) ! laws & cu/oms ( ,*ri/ian    
,europe1 a m>riageable y\? mu/ fir/ cut 
(f a human be+'s head be=e he is all[$  
to w$4 ,he ne$ n ov]come 8 victim 9     
hon\rable combat2 he may creep ^u him   
surreptiti\sly1 & ev5 fall ^u him 9 8   
sleep & murd] him 9 c[>dly fa%ion )\t   
dang] to himself4  ,all ^! are in/ances 
:i* we unhesitat+ly condemn4 ,to our    
idea !y are crimes & misde$s :i* among u

 w\ld make _! p]petrators liable ei!r to
 contempt & expulsion f dec5t society or
 to ! extreme/ p5alties ( ! law2 yet at 
_! "t & 9 _! place !y 7 consid]$        
m]itori\s & virtu\s1 & 7 approv$ by     
public op9ion & ! consci5ce ( _! au?ors4
 ,b we c g f>!r & subject our own moral 
law to a simil> indep5d5t consid]ation4 
,we %all f9d t to u also de$s appe>     
p]missible1 virtu\s & ev5 spl5did1 :i* d
 n diff] ess5tially f ! !fts ( !        
,sp>tans or ! head-hunt+ ( ! ,dyaks4 ,a 
company promot] :o sells on ! ,/ock     
,ex*ange %>es t he mu/ "k to be         
wor?less1 c ) ,sp>tan cunn+ rob ?\s&s ( 
tru/ful victims ( ! fruits ( _! lab\r & 
economy1 & r$uce !m to begg>y2 & n only 
does he g unpuni%$1 b if by 8 knav]y he 
becomes a millionaire & uses 8 weal?    
clev]ly1 he c atta9 ! highe/ political &
 social hon\rs & di/9ctions4 ,we may    
admit t f9ancial rogu]y ( ?is sort c n[ 
no long] be class$ among /rictly moral  
actions1 t public op9ion is on ! v]ge ( 
plac+ x 9 ! category ( vice & crime1 & t

 legislators are beg9n+ to make attempts
 to inflict sev]e & humiliat+ p5alties  
on its p]petrators4  ,b ano!r s]ies (   
de$s is /ill g5]ally consid]$ s         
und\bt$ly virtu\s & laudable1 t x evokes
 ! highe/ homage f ! be/ intellects ( ! 
age1 poets1 musicians1 sci5ti/s1 tea*]s1
 sculptors & pa9t]s1 & ! lead]s ( ! p--!
 de$s ( w>4 ,! mo/ horrible but*]y ( m51
 ! !ft ( prop]ty & lib]ty1 ill-treatm5t1
 de/ruction are n only p]missible b     
obligatory & laudable1 if !y occur 9 w>1
 & if _! au?ors c po9t to ! fact t !y   
are act+ 9 ! s]vice ( _! c\ntry at !    
ord] ( a legitimate au?ority4 ,nei!r !  
soldi]s nor _! lead]s are b\nd to       
inquire :e!r ! au?ority1 :e!r _! "m     
c\ntry is wag+ w> = a purpose t moral   
law c approve4 ,"r or wrong1 my c\ntry4 
,9 ! eyes ( h] sons ! c\ntry is always 9
 ! "r1 ev5 if x be objectively 9 !      
wrong1 & by its ord]s e soldi] murd]s1  
robs1 burns & ravages1 plays !          
execution] to h>mless1 un>m$1 innoc5t   
/rang]s1 compels prison]s to =c$ lab\r1 

/eals lett]s t fall into 8 h&s & prev5ts
 families :o are cruelly sep>at$ f      
communicat+ ) "o ano!r2 & 8 consci5ce   
does n reproa* him 9 ! lea/1 nor is he  
consci\s ( be+ a crim9al des]v+ ( all ! 
p5alties ( ! law4 ,e s+le "o ( ^!       
actions1 if p]petrat$ by an individual  
on 8 own acc\nt & = 8 own purposes1 w\ld
 result 9 ! dea? p5alty1 & x w\ld be    
ri*ly des]v$1 too4 ,b 9 w>1 c>ri$ out   
collectively at ! bidd+ ( a gov]nm5t1 !y
 become de$s ( h]oism1 fill+ ! do] )    
pride1 mov+ ! community to te>s (       
en?usiasm1 & !y are held up to y\? z %9+
 examples to be imitat$4 ,x is m ?an    
likely t future times w judge ! e/eem 9 
:i* ^! de$s are held n o!rwise ?an we d 
! value plac$ by o!r =ms ( society on   
human sacrifices1 ! slaught] ( p>5ts &  
head-hunt+4  ,x is h>d to det]m9e !     
exact "p :i* consci5ce plays 9 ! *anges 
und]gone by ! concepts ,good & ,evil4 ,z
 consci5ce is ! voice ( ! community 9 ! 
consci\sness ( ! individual1 x approves 
on pr9ciple :at seems "r & praisewor?y  

to ! community4 ,j z little z consci5ce 
prev5t$ a ,babylonian "m f sacrific+ h] 
*ild to ,molo*1 does x 9 ^! days /op !  
av]age citiz5 f do+ a soldi]'s "w (     
kill+ & de/roy+ 9 "t ( w>4 ,if an       
individual kn[s himself to be 9 complete
 agreem5t ) ! g5]al op9ion1 !n he lives 
at peace ) 8 consci5ce4 ,no impulse to  
*ange ! cu/oms1 to set up a new         
,morality1 to condemn long-e/abli%$     
usages1 is to be expect$ f su* an "o4   
,! me*anism :]eby *anges are wr\ght 9   
views on ,good & ,evil is q diff]5t4    
,ev]y:]e & at all times !re are         
exceptional p]sons ^: abilities r5d] !m 
specially fit to feel & ?9k indep5d5tly4
 ,to _! idea ! community has no det]m9+ 
b only an advisory voice4 ,!y res]ve to 
!mselves ! "r ( decision 9 e case4 ,9 _!
 consci\sness !re p]si/s a cle>         
recognition ( ! fact t ! ess5ce (       
,morality lies 9 consid]ation = o!rs1 & 
:5 ! curr5t acceptation ( ! moral law   
among ! majority all[s !m1 nay1 comm&s  
!m to disreg>d ?is consid]ation1 !y     

exp]i5ce a feel+ ( discom=t :i* dull1   
un?9k+ imitation ( ! g5]al example does 
n soo!4 ,!y m$itate ^u ! deviation f !  
fundam5tal rule ( consid]+ "o's         
neighb\r1 !y te/ its ju/ification1 & !y 
condemn x1 if its diff]5ce ) ! g5]al    
moral law _c be adju/$4 ,if ! ess5ce (  
,morality is consid]ation = "o's        
neighb\r1 its purpose is ! well-be+ ( ! 
community2 its ess5ce mu/ be adapt$ to  
?is purpose1 t is to say1 consid]ation =
 "o's neighb\r mu/ be subord9at$ to !   
g5]al welf>e4 ,! ?ief1 ! robb] & !      
murd]] h no claim ^u consid]ation1 & ev5
 a man ) ! mo/ delicate s5se ( ,morality
 w agree t co]cion ( ! crim9al is       
desirable4 ,tol/oy's w>n+3 ,d n oppose !
 evildo]1 is n ,morality1 b an exagg]at$
 p>ody ( x1 :i* r5d]s x nugatory4 ,?us !
 mo/ moral p]son w n raise any objection
 to a w> wag$ 9 def5ce ( he>? & home :5 
_! safety is ?reat5$ by a ru?less       
attack4  ,b1 if a mode ( action :i*1    
?\gh x be g5]ally practis$ & approv$1   
injures ! individual & causes him to    

suff]1 _c be ju/ifi$ on ! gr\nds ( an   
obvi\s b5efit to ! community1 !n a      
small1 sometimes an almo/ inf9itesimal  
m9ority ( indep5d5t ?9k]s w rise aga9/ !
 cu/om2 !y are n afraid ( com+ into     
viol5t conflict ) g5]ally accept$ views2
 !y def5d ! fundam5tal pr9ciple (       
,morality1 namely1 consid]ation = !     
individual1 aga9/ ! exception1 namely1  
oppression ( ! individual = ! o/5sible  
good ( ! community2 !y br& z immoral :at
 is g5]ally acc\nt$ moral2 !y ann\nce t 
! curr5t acceptation ( ! goodness or    
badness ( a c]ta9 ord] ( actions mu/    
cease4  ,! int]v5tion ( su* re=m]s      
always gives (f5ce1 & ar\ses ang] :i* at
 times rises to murd]\s fury4 ,b ?is    
wra?ful indignation is j :at makes a    
break 9 ! automatic fa%ion 9 :i* !      
majority ( av]age m5 act accord+ to     
traditional cu/om2 ! att5tion ( m & m   
m9ds is arre/$1 critically !y exam9e !  
accept$ moral law1 !y are p5etrat$ fir/ 
by ! suspicion & f9ally by ! cle>       
conviction t x is contr>y to ! ess5ce ( 

,morality1 & !y swell ! ranks ( !       
innovators :o inveigh aga9/ ! tradition4
 ,! /ruggle la/s long & is c>ri$ on     
pitilessly4 ,! prea*]s ( ! new ,morality
 seem corrupt & crim9al to ! support]s (
 ! old4 ,!y are p]secut$ & sl&]$ & n    
seldom h to suff] m>tyrdom1 b !y always 
em]ge victori\s if _! doctr9e is 9      
agreem5t ) ! logic ( ! fundam5tal       
pr9ciples ( ,moral law4 ,t is ! hi/ory (
 ! abolition ( human sacrifices1 ( !    
v5detta1 ( slav]y1 ( legal torture1 (   
religi\s co]cion4  ,:oev] looks ab\t him
 ) op5 eyes w note t civiliz$ m5 are at 
! mom5t adopt+ new ideas ) reg>d to !   
op]ation ( /ate omnipot5ce1 to w>1 to ! 
"r ( ! economically /rong to exploit    
o!rs1 to ! rights ( wom51 to sexual     
morality1 to ! p5al sy/em4 ,! advocates 
( a new ,morality mu/ /ill put up ) !   
mo/ humiliat+ abuse4 ,he :o wi%es to    
def5d ! individual f co]cion by ! /ate  
is an an>*i/ & des]ves to be hang$ or   
brok5 on ! :eel4 ,he :o ma9ta9s t w> is 
immoral belongs to ! rabble ( vagabonds 

:o own no nationality1 = :om no contempt
 is too deep & no puni%m5t too sev]e4   
,he :o refuses a duel is a di%on\r$     
c[>d1 & !reby cuts himself (f f dec5t   
society4 ,he :o recognizes woman's "r to
 mo!rhood is a da/>dly purveyor (       
opportunities = pro/itution4 ,he :o     
attacks ! pres5t relation betwe5        
,capital & ,lab\r z a hypocritical      
cont9uation ( slav]y is an ignorant     
agitator or an enemy ( society4 ,he :o  
w\ld l to see ! idea ( puni%m5t exclud$ 
f ! law1 z be+ retrograde & unsci5tific1
 & :o wi%es only ! po9t ( view ( !      
def5ce ( society to be recogniz$ z      
valid1 talks s5tim5tal nons5se1 dis>ms  
ju/ice & places ! community at l>ge at !
 m]cy ( crim9als4  ,b ! issue ( !       
/ruggle is n 9 d\bt4 ,! pres5t sy/ems1  
:i* pres5t exceptions to ! moral law (  
consid]ation = "o's neighb\r1 mu/ g4    
,al?\gh !y are consid]$ moral to-day1   
are1 9 fact1 ,morality itself1 to-morr[ 
!y w be felt to be immoral & be abhorr$ 
by all m5 ( moral feel+s4 ,?us !        

concepts ,good & ,bad gradually *ange _!
 mean+2 views on :at is moral & :at     
immoral are con/antly 9 a /ate ( flux2 &
 ! only p]man5t ?+ is recognition ( !   
fact t man's actions mu/ be )drawn f !  
control ( subjective *oice & :im1 & mu/ 
be subject to a law set up by !         
community2 ! ju/ification ( ?is law lies
 9 its be+ necess>y to ! exi/5ce (      
society4 ,e revision ( ,moral values    
orig9ates 9 "s vexation1 & ends by ref9+
 & deep5+ moral s5tim5t4 ,9 ?is *apt]   
only ! s*eme ( developm5t ( moral views 
& ( _! *anges has be5 indicat$4 ,! "q ( 
moral progress w be dealt ) fully lat]  
on4  ,to sum up ! argum5ts ( ?is        
section1 ,morality is n transc5d5tal b  
imman5t2 x is a social ph5om5on &       
re/rict$ to ! sph]e ( liv+ be+s4 ,its   
beg9n+s may be trac$ 9 animal societies1
 x is develop$ among mank9d4 ,!         
prelim9>y condition necess>y = ?is      
developm5t is ! ability to visualize    
future happ5+s1 s9ce moral conduct is   
det]m9$ by e/imat+ its effects &        

results1 t is1 by conceiv+ some?+ 9 !   
future4 ,morality has a positive1       
concrete aim4 ,x makes ! exi/5ce (      
society possible1 & ?is1 giv5 !         
circum/ances obta9+ on our planet1 is ! 
necess>y condition = ! pres]vation ( ea*
 individual1 & x orig9at$ f ! in/9ct (  
self-pres]vation 9 ! species4 ,its      
ess5ce lies 9 consid]ation = "o's       
neighb\r1 because )\t ?is ! communal    
life ( individuals1 t is1 a society1    
w\ld be impossible4  ,if individuals _h 
be5 able to live alone1 ,morality c\ld  
nev] h come into exi/5ce4 ,! concepts   
,good & ,bad *>act]ize ^? actions :i*   
society feels to be b5eficial or h>mful 
to itself4 ,z moral conduct implies     
consid]ation = "o's neighb\r1 x is (t51 
if n always1 9 conflict ) selfi%ness1 t 
is1 ) ! imm$iate & in/9ctive impulses1 &
 is1 9 ! fir/ place1 accompani$ by      
disagreeable s5sations4 ,! pleasurable  
emotion ( satisfaction arises lat] ?r\gh
 habit & reflection2 x accompanies !    
?\ght ( ! m]it & praisewor?9ess ( !     

victory ov] self4 ,consci5ce is ! voice 
( ! community 9 ! individual's          
consci\sness4 ,! idea ( ,duty is !      
subjective conception ( ! ,rights ( our 
neighb\r2 ! idea ( ,rights is !         
subjective conception ( our neighb\r's  
,duty to u4 ,morality is n absolute1 b  
relative1 & is subject to cont9ual      
*anges4 ,to ma9ta9 t ,morality is       
cosmic1 et]nal1 immutable1 t x aims     
nei!r at pr(it nor pleasure1 b          
con/itutes its own aim1 is pure         
an?ropomorphic sup]/ition4     ,,*apt]  
,,iii  ,,! ,,biological ,,aspect ,,(    
,,morality   ,morality is a re/ra9t :i* 
! community imposes on ea* ( its memb]s4
 ,x dem&s f ! individual ! sacrifice ( 8
 transitory & mom5t>y com=t 9 fav\r ( 8 
g5]al welf>e :i* is dep5d5t on t ( !    
community4 ,x prohibits ! pleasure (    
gratify+ 8 desires 9 ord] t by ?is      
unpleasant r5unciation 8 la/+ well-be+  
may be ensur$4 ,subjectively exp]i5c$ & 
view$1 !re=e1 ,morality always implies !
 limitation ( free w1 ! curb+ ( desire1 

opposition to incl9ations & appetites1 &
 ! dim9ution or suppression ( free1 or  
let u r say ( unbridl$1 action4 ,be=e   
,morality c pr(it ! community1 x di/urbs
 & incommodes ! individual1 x r\ses 9   
him disagreeable s5sations :i* may rea* 
su* a pit* z to be int5se pa94 ,x is    
only aft] deep reflection1 ( :i* n      
ev]yone is capable1 t ! individual      
realizes t ,morality is an ess5tial     
condition ( ! life ( society1 & t !     
pres]vation ( society is an ess5tial    
condition ( 8 own life2 be=e he         
inve/igates1 be=e he ev5 m$itates on    
,morality1 ! individual feels x directly
 to be unpleasant1 labori\s1 /]n--nay1  
ho/ile4  ,! control :i* ,morality       
ex]cises ov] ! actions1 & inde$ 9 _m    
cases ov] ! mo/ secret ?\ghts ( !       
individual1 appe>s at ! fir/ glance to  
be some:at p>adoxical4 ,x is by no means
 obvi\s :y ! individual %\ld always take
 sides aga9/ himself &1 adopt+ a        
def5sive & disapprov+ attitude1 hold 8  
in/9ctive t5d5cies 9 *eck4 ,moral       

conduct w\ld be intelligible if !       
community 7 always ready ) means (      
co]cion & c\ld con/ra9 ! individual by  
brute =ce to place its int]e/ be=e 8 own
 pleasure4 ,b ! individual does n wait =
 police int]v5tion on ! "p ( !          
community4 ,he fr[ns ^u himself ) !     
awful sev]ity ( ! law4 ,he ?reat5s      
himself ) a cudgel4 ,he divides himself 
into two be+s1 "o ( :i* wants to foll[  
its in/9cts1 :ile ! o!r curbs !m        
vigor\sly2 "o is a re>+1 (t5 a          
refractory1 horse1 ! o!r a rid] )       
bridle1 :ip & spur4  ,?is r$uplication (
 ! ego1 "o-half ( :i* e/abli%es control 
ov] ! o!r1 "o-half ( :i* tries to rema9 
true to itself1 :ile ! o!r dive/s itself
 ( its id5tity & d5ies itself--?is is ! 
inn] process1 ! outw>d manife/ation (   
:i* is moral conduct4 ,?is dem&s        
inve/igation & explanation4 ,we mu/ %[  
h[ ! organism c\ld develop f )9 itself !
 p[] to p>alyse1 or completely repress1 
its own elem5tal activities1 & h[       
,morality 0 able to become an integral  

"p 9 ! g5]al s*eme ( life processes4  ,!
 me*anism :]eby ! m9d1 apprais+1 =esee+ 
& judg+1 *ecks ! fir/ movem5t ( impulse1
 is inhibition or repression4 ,)\t      
inhibition moral conduct w\ld n be      
possible4 ,! m9d w\ld h no me?od (      
indicat+ ! pa? & prescrib+ rules to !   
organism's in/9ct4 ,x w\ld h no means ( 
mak+ its insight prevail ov] ! desires (
 ! s5ses4 ,x w\ld h no weapon ) :i* to  
=ce its be+ to actions oppos$ to its    
organic incl9ations4 ,)\t inhibition !  
individual w\ld nev] give prec$5ce to ! 
dem&s ( ! community & lay himself op5 to
 disagreeable emotions 9 ord] to please 
! community4 ,inhibition 0 ! necess>y   
organic prelim9>y to ! ph5om5on (       
,morality4 ,x _h to be pre-exi/5t 9 !   
individual1 s t ,morality c\ld make     
itself at home 9 8 intellectual life1 s 
t x c\ld acquire creative1 rul+ &       
practical p[] among ! elect1 & become an
 unconsci\s & easy habit among ! av]age4
 ,morality took possession ( a          
pre-exi/5t organic aptitude & made x    

s]ve its own purposes4 ,b organic       
aptitudes are n alike 9 all individuals4
 ,9 "s cases !y are m or less p]fect2 9 
o!rs !y may be lack+ altoge!r4 ,inde$   
only individuals ) highly develop$ p[]s 
( inhibition are capable ( t h]oic      
,morality :i* lib]ates !m f ! weakness (
 ! fle% & makes !m indep5d5t ( ! dem&s (
 ! body2 ^? 9 :om ?is p[] ( inhibition  
is scantily develop$ evade ! influ5ce ( 
,morality entirely1 & x has no au?ority 
ov] !m4  ,t :i* is call$ "* is at bottom
 ! "n we give to ! p[] ( inhibition4    
,:]e x is weak we speak ( lack ( "*1    
:]eas by /r5g? ( "* we mean t ! p[] (   
inhibition is great4 ,! w makes use (   
inhibition4 ,) its help ! w guides !    
liv+ ma*9e 9 a c]ta9 direction & urges x
 to p]=m giv5 tasks4 ,at ! fir/ glance x
 may n seem obvi\s t positive actions c 
come ( repression1 :i* is some?+        
negative4 ,b if we analyse              
psy*ologically ! actions dem&$ & promot$
 by ! w1 & trace !m back to _! organic  
orig9s1 we %all f9d t1 z a rule1 ! fir/ 

elem5ts consi/ 9 ! prev5tion ( impulsive
 movem5ts1 & t ! impetus to positive    
ef=t is giv5 by ! w1 :i* conv]ts ^!     
movem5ts into contr>y ones4 ,a few      
in/ances may make ?is psy*ic process    
cle>]4 ,w9kelri$1 at ,sempa*1 cleaves a 
pa? ?r\gh ! cuirassi]s :ile !y bury _!  
lances 9 8 brea/2 he becomes capable (  
?is great de$ ( self-sacrifice 9 t1 by a
 mighty ef=t ( w p[]1 he suppresses !   
/ronge/ ( all in/9cts1 t (              
self-pres]vation1 & =ces all 8 en]gies1 
:i* are naturally direct$ t[>ds flight f
 dang]1 to *all5ge dang] & yield        
completely to x4 ,! lov] :o ov]comes 8  
passion & r5\nces its object1 because 8 
idol is ! bride ( 8 be/ fri5d1 beg9s ) !
 det]m9$ inhibition ( ! impulse :i*     
urges him t[>ds ! woman1 & atta9s       
r5unciation by ! suppression ( 8 desire2
 ?is r5unciation f9ds expression 9      
positive actions1 9 ! rupture (         
relations :i* br+ him happ9ess1 !       
avoidance ( meet+s :i* w\ld prev5t !    
w\nd 9 8 he>t f heal+1 & s on4 ,! brave 

rescu] :o plunges into ! waves to save a
 dr[n+ man1 or ent]s a burn+ h\se to    
save a fell[ creature ?reat5$ by !      
flames1 mu/ fir/ ov]come 8 natural %r9k+
 fe> ( ! wat] & ! fire2 & n till aft] ! 
suppression ( /rong impulses to avoid ! 
uncanny adv5ture1 does he succe$ 9 mak+ 
8 muscles obey ! impulse to save life4  
,inhibition1 !re=e1 is ! organic        
f\ndation on :i* ,morality builds1 n    
only t ,morality :i* consi/s 9 ab/5tion 
f c]ta9 actions1 b t :i* is manife/$ 9  
active virtue4 ,b inhibition is a       
faculty :i* ! organism has develop$ =   
its own ends1 ! bett] & m easily to     
pres]ve its own life1 & to r5d] its p[] 
( a*ievem5t great]4 ,morality makes use 
( ?is faculty1 :i* x f9ds ready to h&1 =
 ! ends ( ! community1 & v (t5 aga9/ !  
imm$iate int]e/s ( ! individual = ^:    
advantage x is nev]!less int5d$4 ,n[ !  
individual w\ld n put up ) ?is inexp$i5t
 use1 "o is tempt$ to say ?is clev]     
misuse1 ( "o ( its organic capacities1  
if ?is yield+ up ( ! me*anism (         

inhibition to ,morality 7 n b5eficial to
 life & !re=e came )9 ! sph]e ( !       
biological purpose ( inhibition4 ,by be+
 graft$ on a pre-exi/5t organic faculty 
,morality becomes su* itself2 x =ms a   
l9k 9 ! *a9 ( biological processes )9 ! 
individual organism2 x ceases to be     
purely a product ( society =c$ ^u !     
individual to 8 mole/ation & 9 spite ( 8
 annoyance2 x acquires ! "* ( a         
diff]5tiation ( inhibition 9 ord] to    
help ! individual1 or ev5 to make x at  
all possible = him to adapt himself to  
life 9 a society4  ,t "u ! pres5t       
conditions obta9+ on our planet ! human 
individual c only live 9 society dem&s  
no pro(4 ,& z he c only live 9 society  
if he submits to its rules ( good & bad1
 ,morality1 :i* urges him to ?is        
submission1 aids & ev5 pres]ves 8 life4 
,we %all n[ %[ t inhibition1 ( :i*      
,morality is a diff]5tiation mak+ x     
easi] = ! individual to adapt himself to
 ! conditions ( social life1 is ( !     
greate/ value to ! individual f !       

biological po9t ( view4  ,! l[e/ =ms (  
life x is possible = u to obs]ve %[ no?+
 :i* c be int]pret$ z inhibition4 ,all  
ext]nal influ5ces to :i* !y are n       
indiff]5t inv>iably produce ! same      
effects4 ,!y respond to e /imulus ) a   
reflex action :i* reveals no?+ t we %\ld
 be ju/ifi$ 9 describ+ z an activity ( !
 w4 ,! reaction foll[s ) /rictly        
automatic regul>ity ^u ! /imulus1 & no?+
 int]v5es betwe5 ! two :i* w\ld p]mit ! 
conclusion t 9 ! simple organism !re is 
any faculty t c\ld delay1 modify or     
*ange ! reaction to ! ext]nal /imulus4  
,j z iron fil+s always respond to !     
attraction ( a magnet 9 ! same way1 j z 
c]ta9 comb9ations ( m]cury at ! impact (
 a bl[ fl>e up ) an explosion1 j z ice  
:5 w>m$ melts & becomes wat]1 & wat] :5 
cool$ to a def9ite po9t freezes into    
ice1 s d ! simple/ liv+ ?+s seek out    
c]ta9 rays 9 ! spectrum1 c]ta9          
temp]atures1 c]ta9 *emical conditions & 
avoid o!rs4 ,n only unicellul> organisms
 d ?is1 b also comp>atively highly      

develop$ animals1 su* z ! daphni1 = if  
light is s5t ?r\gh a prism into a vessel
 conta9+ wat]1 ^! little creatures      
collect at ! violet end ( ! spectrum2   
su* z ! wood-lice1 :i* hate ! light &   
creep into d>k crevices2 su* z gnats1   
:i* are attract$ by ! sun & dance 9 _!  
hundr$s 9 its rays4 ,moreov]1 we meet ) 
a simil> ph5om5on 9 man4 ,we1 too1 9    
w9t] & spr+ seek ! sun & 9 summ] ! %ade2
 9 ! cold season ! w>m /ove attracts u2 
bad smells put u to flight1 sweet sc5ts 
( fl[]s allure u4 ,! simple/ automatic  
reflex actions are at ! root ( ^!       
attractions & repulsions1 exactly ! same
 z ) ! daphni1 wood-lice & gnats4 ,only 
we are able to control & suppress ^!    
reflex actions :i* ! l[] animals        
app>5tly _c4  ,an?ropomorphic modes (   
?\ght easily mislead u into ?9k+ t !    
processes we obs]ve 9 l[] animals are   
due to an ex]cise ( w p[]4 ,we draw ne> 
to ! fire 9 w9t] because x is pleasant1 
b we c quit x if duty calls u into !    
cold /reets4 ,"o is apt to imag9e t !   

simple organisms also exp]i5ce pleasant 
& unpleasant feel+s1 t !y try & avoid ! 
latt]1 t ! daphnia seeks ! violet rays  
because x likes !m1 t ! wood-l\se flees 
! light because x dislikes x2 9 fact1 t 
^! creatures possess a consci\sness :i* 
becomes aw>e ( & di/+ui%es betwe5 pleas+
 & displeas+ impressions1 & t !y possess
 a w :i* responds to ^! impressions )   
suitable reactions4 ,v di/+ui%$ sci5ti/s
 h be5 unable to resi/ ! temptation to  
assume 9 ! l[] animals1 ev5 9 unicellul>
 organisms1 ! exi/5ce ( processes ) :i* 
we are famili> 9 ! human consci\sness4  
,william ,r\x introduces u to a         
psy*ology ( proti/a1 & ,w4 ,kle9sorge   
goes s f> z to ma9ta9 ! exi/5ce (       
cellul> e?ics1 & to devote himself to   
rese>* into its laws4 ,! "w ( bo? ^!    
biologi/s is z fasc9at+ z ! mo/         
beautiful fairy-tale1 b x is probably ! 
creation ( a lively & f]tile imag9ation1
 j z ! fairy /ory is4  ,m prosaic & less
 imag9ative sci5ti/s d n see evid5ces ( 
psy*ology 9 ! signs ( life 9 ! proti/a1 

or e?ics 9 ! movem5ts ( a cell1 b m]ely 
! effects ( univ]sal *emical & physical 
laws :i* also control lifeless inorganic
 matt]4 ,to ^! laws !y trace ! tropisms 
( simple organisms :i* tempt !          
imag9ation1 prone z x is to             
an?ropomorphism1 into errors2 su*       
tropisms1 t is to say1 z _! t5d5cy to   
seek mod]ate w>m?1 c]ta9 rays ( light & 
weak alkal9e solutions1 or to avoid     
acids1 heat & ultra-violet rays4 ,!     
little organisms probably d n obey ^!   
impulses = reasons ( pleasure or pa9 any
 m ?an ! iron fil+s obey ! attraction ( 
a magnet = su* reasons4 ,!y d n fly to x
 because x gives !m pleasure2 ! little  
metal leaves ( an electroscope d n move 
ap>t because contact ) ea* o!r          
displeases !m4 ,all =ms ( tropism1      
*emicotropic1 !rmotropic1 phototropic   
manife/ations1 active & passive tropisms
 cle>ly %[ t m9ute organisms            
involunt>ily & unresi/+ly respond to !  
influ5ce ( natural =ces1 j z if !y 7    
inanimate p>ticles4  ,microscopic       

inve/igations reveal _m ph5om5a :i* "o  
is tempt$ to consid] signs ( life1 b :i*
 _c be su*1 z !y occur 9 connexion )    
inanimate matt]4 ,! ,br[nian movem5ts   
are rhy?mical molecul> *anges (         
position1 n due to any me*anical impulse
 emanat+ f ! surr\nd+s1 nor to a curr5t 
9 ! fluid 9 :i* ! object ( inve/igation 
is imm]s$1 b aris+ f ! object itself1   
mo/ly v f9ely divid$1 t9y balls (       
m]cury4 ,a v small drop ( *lor(orm      
introduc$ into a fluid ( diff]5t d5sity 
behaves exactly l a unicellul> organism4
 ,x s5ds out pseudopods1 wriggles &     
draws !m 9 aga94 ,! pseudopods seem to  
feel & exam9e p>ticles ( matt] ) :i* !y 
come 9 contact1 & !n ei!r to )draw      
quickly f !m or to surr\nd & incorporate
 !m 9 ! drop4 ,?is is deceptively simil>
 to ! behavi\r ( a liv+ cell absorb+    
food1 ?\gh !re c be no "q ( ?is 9 ! case
 ( ! drop ( *lor(orm4 ,9 ! latt] x is   
m]ely a "q ( ! effects ( surface t5sion1
 t is1 ( ! normal behavi\r ( matt] 9    
accordance ) ! laws gov]n+ ! =ces (     

nature1 ! inve/igation ( :i* lies 9 !   
doma9 ( *emi/ry & physics4  ,imp>tial   
?\ght comes to a conclusion ab\t ^!     
ph5om5a diff]5t f t d]iv$ f             
an?ropomorphic delusions4 ,x does n try 
to smuggle dim1 d>k life into !         
collections ( m]cury molecules app>5tly 
obey+ "s inn] impulse1 or into ! seek+  
or feel+ ab\t ( a pseudopod ( *lor(orm4 
,on ! contr>y1 x und]/&s life z ! play (
 natural =ces "u ! conditions suppli$ by
 a liv+ organism1 z ! automatic work+ ( 
a ma*9e-l app>atus to :i* natural =ces  
supply ! motive p[]4 ,simil>            
manife/ations 9 inanimate matt] & 9     
elem5t>y organisms seem to ju/ify !     
conclusion t ! di/9ction betwe5 liv+ &  
non-liv+ matt] is arbitr>y1 t !re are   
only =ces1 or p]haps "o s+le =ce1 t is  
to say1 "o movem5t1 9 ! univ]se1 ^:     
activity is manife/$ 9 ! mo/ manifold   
=ms1 ( :i* life is "o4 ,mod]n ,monism   
has come to ?is conclusion1 b x is n    
alone 9 s do+4 ,long be=e ,monism !re 0 
a philosophy :i* conceiv$ all cosmic    

en]gies to =m a unity2 & really x is    
only an ob/9ate qu>rel ab\t words1 = !  
,hylozoi/s reg>d ! univ]se z some?+ liv+
 & ascribe life to all matt] & all atoms
 ( :i* matt] is made up1 :ile !         
,mat]iali/s reg>d life z a play ( =ces 9
 matt]4 ,fundam5tally ! ,hylozoi/s &    
,mat]iali/s hold ! same views1 only t ! 
=m] call =ce life & ! latt] call life   
=ce2 j z ! only po9t ( diff]5ce betwe5  
!m & ! ,pan!i/s is t ^! h giv5 ! maje/ic
 title ( ,god to ! univ]sal life !y     
assume--z ,sp9oza has x1 ,omnia quamvis 
div]sis gradibus animata sunt4  ,! "q1  
:at is life8 is ! greate/ t ! human     
und]/&+ c ask ( itself4 ,= ?\s&s ( ye>s 
man has cudgell$ 8 bra9 ov] ?is1 & is z 
f> f f9d+ an answ] to-day z he 0 on !   
fir/ day4 ,! def9ition mo/ (t5 repeat$  
runs ?us3 ,life is ! ability possess$ by
 c]ta9 bodies to react to /imuli1 to    
absorb n\ri%m5t & to reproduce !mselves4
 ,t is a /atem5t ( obs]v$ facts1 b x is 
no explanation4 ,x in=ms u t we are     
famili> ) bodies :i* behave 9 a way     

di/+ui%+ !m f o!r bodies2 b :y !y       
conduct !mselves diff]5tly f o!rs1 :at !
 p>ticul> ?+ is :i* is pres5t 9 c]ta9   
comb9ations ( matt] & abs5t 9 o!rs--t is
 an imp5etrable secret4  ,sci5ce has    
tri$ by ! mo/ v>i$ me?ods to solve !    
problem4 ,x seem$ a triumph ( rese>* t  
,woehl] produc$ urea1 t *emi/s lat] on  
manufactur$ c>bohydrates1 t ,fis*] is on
 ! high road to ! production ( syn!tic  
album54 ,:at is ga9$ by ^! discov]ies8  
,we br+ ab\t ! same comb9ations z ! liv+
 cell does4 ,t is1 no d\bt1 an int]e/+  
a*ievem5t1 b its value z an addition to 
our k on ?is po9t is inf9itesimal4 ,= we
 accompli% ! production ( sug>1 urea &  
am9e 9 a mann] v diff]5t to t ( ! liv+  
cell1 & he :o copies ! ?+s turn$ out 9 a
 work%op has contribut$ no?+ to our k ( 
! workman :o plies 8 trade 9 ! work%op4 
,! divid+ l9e betwe5 life & lifelessness
 0 suppos$ to h be5 oblit]at$ :5        
elem5t>y manife/ations ( life 7 prov$ to
 exi/ 9 inanimate matt]2 ! ,br[nian     
movem5ts 9 ! smalle/ p>ticles2 ! gr[? ( 

cry/als imm]s$ 9 a solution ( ! same    
*emical composition z !mselves2         
cry/allization itself :i* repres5ts a   
k9d ( v simple organization ( matt]1 &  
at any rate proves ! sway ( a regulat+ &
 directive =ce2 ! t5d5cy ( c]ta9 elem5ts
 to comb9e1 :i* has be5 call$ _!        
aff9ity4 ,b ?is "n is only a poetical   
metaphor :i* no "o w take lit]ally4 ,!  
gr[? ( cry/als 9 _! "m liquor is m]ely  
me*anical precipitation on _! surface1  
an ext]nal addition ( lay]s ( ! same    
mat]ial2 b n gr[? by ! incorporation (  
su* matt]1 t is1 ?r\gh ! absorption (   
n\ri%m5t4  ,^! & simil> results (       
obs]vation d n suffice absolutely to    
ju/ify ! assumption1 s$uctive ?\gh x be1
 t life is a fundam5tal attribute (     
matt]1 t x is pres5t ev]y:]e ?\gh       
graduat$ 9 int5sity1 t !re=e app>5tly   
inanimate matt] diff]s n qualitatively1 
b only quantitatively f liv+ be+s1 t    
life /ret*es 9 an unbrok5 l9e f ! block 
( metal or rock1 9 :i* x is completely  
obscur$1 to man1 ! mo/ highly develop$  

organism we "k (2 & t at a c]ta9 po9t 9 
its range x reveals itself 9 a =m :i*   
p]mits no di/9ction betwe5 organic &    
inorganic matt]4  ,! orig9 ( life is z  
completely unkn[n to u z its ess5ce4 ,= 
?\s&s ( ye>s ! assumption 0 ligh!>t$ly  
made t "u c]ta91 some:at vague          
circum/ances1 life orig9at$ ( its own   
accord4 ,pa/eur %[$ t a g5]atio         
spontanea _c be prov$ to exi/1 t e liv+ 
?+ comes f ano!r liv+ ?+1 a p>5t        
organism1 & t ! old philosoph]s 7 "r 9  
prop\nd+ omne vivum ex ovo z a law1     
al?\gh !y only guess$ x & _h n prov$ x  
exp]im5tally4 ,a v few critics1 :o are  
h>d to conv9ce1 /ill d>e to ass]t 9 a   
small voice t ,pa/eur's "w & all ! facts
 e/abli%$ by microbiology d n prove     
conclusively t life does n nev]!less    
orig9ate f inorganic matt] "u conditions
 :i* we _c n[adays reproduce 9 our      
laboratories4 ,no answ] c be made to ?is
 objection4 ,an exp]im5t is only        
conclusive = ! conditions 9 :i* x is    
made1 & n = o!rs4 ,all t we c positively

 ass]t is t on e>? ! g5esis ( life )\t a
 demon/rable p>5t organism has nev] be5 
obs]v$4 ,to g f>!r1 & to ass]t t a      
g5]atio spontanea is absolutely         
impossible "u any conditions1 on e>? or 
else:]e1 is arbitr>y1 j z x is to ass]t 
! contr>y4  ,^? :o are support]s ( !    
!ory t life c be develop$ f non-liv+    
matt] = a long "t ?\ght !y _h           
conclusively prov$ _! case2 !y argu$ z  
foll[s3 ,at ! pres5t "t life exi/s on   
our planet2 accord+ to ! ,kant-,laplace 
hypo!sis our planet 0 =m$ f a cosmic    
nebula & pass$ ?r\gh a /ate ( fluid     
inc&esc5ce2 9 ?is /ate life is          
impossible2 !re=e life mu/ h orig9at$   
spontane\sly "o day aft] ! ,e>? _h cool$
 d[n2 consequ5tly ei!r ! ,kant-,laplace 
hypo!sis is wrong or ! ass]tion t life c
 only be g5]at$ by life is errone\s2 !  
two assumptions are incompatible4 ,?is  
conclusion no long] pres5ts any         
insup]able difficulties4 ,x has be5     
obs]v$ t spores :i* h be5 kept = mon?s  
at ! temp]ature ( froz5 hydrog51 t is1 v

 ne>ly at absolute z]o1 h reta9$ _!     
g]m9ative p[] & h develop$ :5 !y 7      
br\ght back to a fav\rable temp]ature4  
,!re=e !y w\ld n be kill$ by ! cold (   
int]/ell> space on _! way f "o heav5ly  
body to ano!r1 & c\ld become ! se$s (   
life on ano!r hi!rto inanimate />4 ,t   
l>ge numb]s ( t9y p>ticles ( matt] exi/ 
9 int]/ell> space & are precipitat$ on !
 heav5ly bodies is prov$ by ! cosmic du/
 t arctic explor]s h collect$ f !       
surface ( sn[ & ice4 ,!re=e ! ,e>? may  
well h be5 9 an inc&esc5t /ate1 & may   
yet h receiv$ f int]/ell> space ! g]ms (
 life :i* develop$ & multipli$ :5 !     
,e>?'s cru/ _h cool$ suffici5tly to     
provide ! conditions fav\rable to _!    
exi/5ce2 & ^! g]ms may h be5 ! ance/ors 
( all ! life t exi/s on e>? to-day aft] 
a p]iod ( evolution la/+ hundr$s (      
millions ( ye>s4  ,?is w\ld acc\nt = !  
orig9 ( life ^u ! ,e>?1 b n ( life 9    
g5]al4 ,! g]ms1 :i* travel z c>ri]s (   
life f an old] heav5ly body to a y\ng]  
"o1 mu/ h sprung f p>5ts1 & h[ev] f>    

back we trace _! g5ealogical tree we are
 always f9ally fac$ by ?is dilemma3 ei!r
 life did1 aft] all1 orig9ate at "o "t f
 some?+ lifeless1 & :at has happ5$ once 
mu/ be able to happ5 aga91 n[ & always2 
or life nev] orig9at$ at all1 b has     
always exi/$2 x is et]nal l matt]1 9 =ms
 ^: v>iety we _c ev5 dimly grasp1 its   
?reads1 hav+ nei!r beg9n+ nor end1 w9d  
?r\gh et]nity4 ,( ^! two assumptions !  
latt] is incomp>ably m 9 h>mony ) our   
pres5t-day views on ! univ]se4 ,we      
believe ! matt] ( :i* ! univ]se is built
 up to be ev]la/+4 ,x co/s no great ef=t
 to believe life to be et]nal too4      
,true1 ! idea ( et]nity is inconceivable
 to u2 x is a dim conception :i* has    
giv5 rise to a ^w1 a tone picture :i*   
portrays some?+ indef9ite1 b )9 ! b\nds 
( ! inconceivable !re is room = bo?     
semi-obscurities1 ! ev]la/+ness ( matt] 
& ! ev]la/+ness ( life4  ,b ! mo/       
enigmatical po9t 9 ! riddle ( life is n 
life itself1 :i* is a =m ( be+1 & is    
nei!r m nor less compreh5sible ?an !    

exi/5ce ( an inanimate object1 ( a /one1
 ( wat]1 ( ! air2 x is consci\sness4    
,desc>tes proves 8 own exi/5ce to       
himself by ! fact t he ?9ks4 ,life mu/  
be accompani$ by consci\sness 9 ord] to 
conv9ce ! liv+ be+ t x exi/s4 ,! =mula3 
cogito ergo sum has be5 admir$ = hundr$s
 ( ye>s4 ,x c]ta9ly is speci\s4 ,b h[ _m
 que/ions x leaves unansw]$6 ,has x ! "r
 to d5y life to an entity t does n      
conceive itself8 ,mu/ x n be complet$ by
 ! pro( t life )\t ?\ght1 t is1 )\t     
consci\sness1 does n exi/1 t            
consci\sness is ! necess>y complem5t (  
life8 ,&1 above all1 ought n ,desc>tes  
to h giv5 u an explanation ( :at ?\ght &
 consci\sness are8  ,i w attempt to     
answ] ! que/ions left unansw]$ by       
,desc>tes4 ,b ,i mu/ premise "o ?+4 ,e  
def9ition ( consci\sness implies a      
po/ulate3 life4 ,?\gh at a p9* we c     
picture life )\t consci\sness1          
consci\sness )\t life is absolutely     
inconceivable4 ,i d n und]take to expla9
 :at life is1 any m ?an ,i attempt$ x   

above4 ,we mu/ take x z some?+ giv54    
,consci\sness1 !n1 is ! subjective      
realization ( some?+ objective1 ! inw>d 
realization ( some?+ outside4 ,if 9 a   
liv+ be+ a picture ( its surr\nd+s is   
develop$1 !n x absorbs some?+ :i* is n a
 necess>y "p ( itself4 ,( c\rse1 ?is    
inn] image mu/ n be und]/ood to imply an
 absorption ( matt]4 ,x is a process 9 !
 matt] ( :i* ! liv+ be+ is built up4 ,b1
 all ! same1 ! image ( ! out] _w 9 !    
inn] be+ does signify a p5etration ( !  
latt] by ! =m]4 ,?is image1 :i* foll[s !
 *anges ( ! out] _w & repeats !m 9 !    
inn] be+1 is consci\sness4 ,x may be    
%ad[y & blurr$1 or cle> & di/9ct2 x may 
9 rapid succession be =m$ & pass away1 &
 x c be pres]v$ z a memory2 x may       
reflect a great] or a less] portion ( ! 
out] _w2 consci\sness is accord+ly dull]
 or %>p]2 its cont5ts are scant or      
pl5tiful1 x reta9s ! images ( a %ort] or
 long] s]ies ( conditions 9 ! surr\nd+  
_w4 ,betwe5 nutrition1 :i* is recogniz$ 
z an ess5tial ph5om5on ( life1 &        

consci\sness a surpris+ p>allelism      
subsi/s4 ,bo? consi/ 9 an absorption ( !
 out] _w by ! organism2 nutrition is !  
assimilation ( matt]1 consci\sness t (  
/imuli4 ,9 ! process ( nutrition !      
organism dige/s small quantities ( !    
outside _w2 9 consci\sness x dige/s ! _w
 z a :ole4  ,?is p>allelism is no m]e   
play ( ! intellect4 ,if x is foll[$ out 
x leads to significant ideas if n to    
actual k4 ,:at p5etrates f ! out] _w    
into ! inn] be+ ( ! organism is         
vibration1 movem5t1 =ce4 ,is ! matt] :i*
 is absorb$ z n\ri%m5t ultimately any?+ 
diff]5t8 ,"h we come up aga9/ ! ultimate
 problems ( physics1 ! v>i\s hypo!ses   
reg>d+ ! nature ( =ce & matt]1 ! !ories 
t 9 addition to matt] !re is an e!r1 or 
t ! e!r is a diff]5t1 m subtle1 =m (    
matt]1 or t nei!r matt] nor e!r exi/1 b 
atoms out ( :i* ev]y?+ is built up1 :i* 
!mselves consi/ ( electrons :i* are     
c5tres ( =ce1 motions )\t mat]ial       
consi/5cy4 ,all ^! !ories1 ( :i* ! la/  
_c be grasp$ by ! human und]/&+1 we c   

leave sev]ely alone4 ,?is is n ! place  
to inve/igate !m4 ,b ! attitude ( ! liv+
 organism t[>ds ! out] _w f :i* x       
absorbs n\ri%m5t & impressions1 conv]t+ 
!m into p[] to drive ! life ma*9e &     
transmut+ !m into consci\sness1 l5ds    
peculi> support to ! supposition t =ce &
 matt] are n only insep>able b id5tical1
 t 9 !m we mu/ seek a pr9ciple1 or      
p]haps reg>d !m !mselves z a pr9ciple1  
:i* mu/ be ( ! same nature z            
consci\sness1 = o!rwise x c\ld n be     
transmut$ into ! latt]4  ,! s5ses are ! 
means by :i* ! out] _w p5etrates z an   
image into ! inn] be+4 ,be=e ! s5ses are
 diff]5tiat$ ! liv+ organism possesses a
 g5]al s5sitiv5ess2 t is to say1 t "u ! 
influ5ce ( ! out] _w its cell protoplasm
 und]goes a process ( regr\p+1 result+ 9
 *emical & dynamic *anges4 ,! *emical   
results ( /imulus are anabolism &       
katabolism1 a build+ up & break+ d[n ( !
 cell cont5t2 ! dynamic results are     
movem5ts :i* 9 ! l[e/ =ms ( life are    
purely me*anical1 b 9 ! high] =ms adapt 

! organism to ! ext]nal influ5ce 9 s f> 
z !y place x ei!r s z to be affect$ by !
 latt] z long & z p[]fully z possible1  
or else s z to evade x4 ,! liv+ organism
 c exp]i5ce no /imulus & respond to x   
)\t absorb+ & transmut+ x1 conv]t+ x    
into a *emical process or a movem5t4    
,?is inn] process is a subjective       
realization ( some?+ objective1 a       
p5etration by ! out] _w1 !re=e an       
elem5t>y consci\sness4 ,9 proportion z !
 g5]al s5sitiv5ess becomes diff]5tiat$  
into specific ones1 z ! image ( ! out]  
_w filt]s ?r\gh ! diff]5t col\r$ glass  
panes ( ! v>i\s s5ses into ! inn] be+ ( 
! organism1 ?is image becomes           
multicol\r$ & v>i$4  ,x lies 9 ! nature 
( ?is me*anism t ! subjective image is n
 id5tical ) ! objective orig9al1 b is   
modifi$ & ev5 di/ort$ by ! panes ?r\gh  
:i* x p5etrates to ! inn] be+ ( !       
organism4 ,:at ! subject p]ceives is    
nev] any?+ b a symbol ( ! object1 nev] !
 object itself2 b ?is symbol suffices to
 enable ! consci\sness to =m an idea ( !

 object1 j z lett]s enable ! read] to   
take 9 words & ?\ghts4 ,we mu/ conceive 
! developm5t ( consci\sness to g h& 9 h&
 ) t ( ! s5ses4 ,! m w9d[s ! organism c 
op5 to ! out] _w ! m easily & ! m cle>ly
 does its image p5etrate4 ,! numb] (    
objects :i* ! subject c take 9 is !     
measure ( ! p]fection ( its             
consci\sness4 ,! proti/a1 lack+ specific
 s5se organs & possess+ only ! g5]al    
s5sitiv5ess ( protoplasm1 c =m only to a
 v limit$ ext5t & ) v little v>iety an  
inn] realization ( ! /imuli ( ! out] _w4
 ,its consci\sness is necess>ily v      
re/rict$ & exce$+ly dim4 ,consci\sness  
is enl>g$ & gr[s cle>] z ! organism     
develops & its g5]al s5sitiv5ess is     
diff]5tiat$ into specific s5ses1 until  
we rea* ! level ( man ^: consci\sness   
embraces f> m ( ! out] _w ?an does t (  
any o!r liv+ creature2 because1 lack+   
new s5ses1 he has succe$$ 9 amplify+ &  
enl>g+ ^? he possesses1 & has by        
artificial means made himself capable ( 
p]ceiv+ /imuli to :i* he is n directly  

susceptible & :i* !re=e w\ld h rema9$   
unkn[n to him2 to a c]ta9 ext5t he has  
translat$ !m into a =m :i* 8 s5ses c    
p]ceive4  ,i d n ov]look any ( !        
difficulties :i* my attempt to expla9   
consci\sness leaves unt\*$4 ,on all     
sides ! mo/ urg5t & disquiet+ que/ions  
arise4 ,above all1 ! fundam5tal "q1 !   
mo/ enigmatic ( all3 h[ is an ext]nal   
/imulus1 t is a movem5t1 a vibration1   
conv]t$ into a s5sation1 a p]ception8   
,fur!r3 mu/ we 9 ! consci\sness di/+ui% 
betwe5 ! frame & its cont5ts1 !         
conceptual me*anism & ! concept8 ,or d !
 two co9cide8 ,is !re no consci\sness   
)\t a conceptual cont5t8 ,& is x !      
movem5t ent]+ into ! organism1 ! inn]   
realization ( ! out] _w :i*1 transmut+  
itself 9 an incompreh5sible mann] into a
 concept1 creates consci\sness1 becomes 
consci\sness8 ,is ! consci\sness ( ! man
 /&+ ^u ! highe/ plane ( intellectuality
 ! greate/ consci\sness possible8 ,does 
!re exi/ any:]e 9 ! univ]se a m         
abundant1 p]haps an inf9itely m abundant

 consci\sness ?an t ( human be+s on !   
,e>?1 & w ! latt] ev] rise to ?is       
height8 ,x is obvi\s t a developm5t is 9
 progress4 ,!re 0 a "t :5 ! mo/         
compreh5sive1 ! cle>e/ consci\sness on  
e>? 0 t ( ! trilobite or ! cephalopod4  
,evolution has gone z f> z man4 ,does x 
/op at t or w x cont9ue8  ,accord+ to   
,h]b]t ,sp5c] evolution is progress f ! 
simple to ! complicat$4 ,let u accept   
?is def9ition4 ,h we ! "r to set up a   
scale ( values & place ! complicat$     
above ! simple8 ,is ! latt] n ! m p]fect
 because x has m p[] ( resi/ance1 great]
 durability1 & c hold its own           
triumphantly aga9/ all de/ructive       
influ5ces8 ,is n evolution1 !n1 a       
retrogression f ! p]fect1 because       
simple1 to ! m complicat$1 & !re=e m    
fragile1 m easily upset & less capable (
 resi/ance to h>m8 ,is x n %e]          
egoc5trism if we appraise ! value ( liv+
 be+s accord+ to _! great] or less      
resemblance to ourselves1 & judge !m to 
be less or m wor?y 9 proportion to _!   

disp>ity ) u8 ,are ! fi% :i*1 liv+ 9 !  
sea :]e9 we _c exi/1 c inhabit ! great] 
"p ( ! globe1 are wild duck :i* fly1    
swim & walk1 n m p]fect ?an we1 :o h _h 
to conqu] ! air & ! wat] by artificial  
means8 ,is n ! m\se's he>+ %>p] ?an     
ours8 ,! eagle's sight ke5]8 ,! dog's   
sc5t incomp>ably m delicate8 ,has n !   
c>ri] pigeon an inf9itely bett] s5se (  
locality ?an we h8 ,are n _m bea/s      
physically /rong]1 m nimble & agile ?an 
man8 ,8 only claim to sup]iority re/s on
 ! great] p]fection ( 8 consci\sness4   
,:y d n all liv+ creatures p>ticipate   
equally 9 ! evolution to :i* ?is        
sup]iority is due8 ,:y does x n take    
place 9 e organism & lead ! unicellul>  
liv+ be+ 9 an unbrok5 asc5t to ! level (
 ,goe! or ,napoleon1 or to a /ill m l(ty
 "o1 if su* an "o exi/ any:]e 9 !       
univ]se8  ,if "o c\ld believe 9 a ,rul+ 
,p[] & ! plan ( ! univ]se z its "w1 w\ld
 x n be t]ribly cruel & revolt+ly unju/ 
t ?is p[]1 in/ead ( treat+ all liv+ be+s
 alike1 %\ld make a k9d ( selection (   

grace & lead "s up to a high] level :ile
 x condemn$ o!rs to la/+ l[l9ess1 & t x 
%\ld orda9 t on ! road f ! unicellul>   
organism to man1 c\ntless connect+ l9ks 
%\ld be left hopelessly beh9d & n be    
p]mitt$ to cont9ue _! asc5t8 ,or mu/ we 
admit ! humiliat+ conclusion t a great] 
am\nt ( consci\sness does n necess>ily  
imply high] rank & great] dignity1 & t a
 proti/a1 ) its almo/ unimag9ably pale &
 n>r[ consci\sness1 c h j z great a     
feel+ ( well-be+ z man ) 8 immeasurably 
sup]ior intellectual life2 t !re=e !    
proti/a suff]s no wrong if x nev] gets  
beyond its pres5t /age ( evolution2 &   
f9ally t ! am\nt ( ! out] _w :i* man c  
absorb 9 8 consci\sness is z f> remov$ f
 ! entirety ( ! univ]se z ! cont5ts ( ! 
proti/a's consci\sness are f t ( ! human
 m9d8 ,no answ] c be f\nd to ^!         
que/ions4 ,:atev] purports to be an     
answ]1 be x introduc$ z !ology or z     
philosophy1 is vision>y or nons5sical4  
,we mu/ resign ourselves to mov+ 9 a v  
small circle mod]ately illum9at$ by     

,reason1 :ile all ar\nd1 if we seek to  
p5etrate beyond x1 we p]ceive gruesome  
d>kness4  ,evolution1 t is a progress f 
! comp>atively simple to ! m complicat$1
 is a /rik+ fact--,i say comp>atively   
simple advis$ly1 = ev5 9 ! unicellul>   
organism ! processes are f> remov$ f !  
absolutely simple4 ,we d n "k f :at "p (
 ! organism ! impulse to evolution      
comes4 ,"h we meet ) ! same my/]y :i*   
%r\ds gr[?1 its duration1 its measure & 
its b\nds4 ,z ! conception is lack+1 a  
^w has be5 f\nd1 viz41 entele*y1 :i*    
,dries* introduc$ into biology1 !       
co-op]ation ( all p>ts ( ! organism = ! 
purpose n only ( pres]v+ x b also ( mak+
 x m effici5t 9 ! matt] (               
self-pres]vation & m p]fect4 ,a critical
 inve/igation ( entele*y w\ld involve ! 
broa*+ ( ! :ole "q ( life4 ,x does n    
come )9 ! scope ( ?is "w4 ,i %all !re=e 
cont5t myself ) a v few rem>ks4         
,entele*y works z if x 7 reasonable &   
act$ ) a set purpose4 ,if y ?9k x out   
exhau/ively x =ces y to ! assumption t  

life is an intellectual pr9ciple1 ev5 9 
! protoplasm ( ! cell1 long be=e !re is 
any p]ceptible trace ( consci\sness2 t  
?is intellectual pr9ciple makes use (   
matt]1 builds x up1 organizes x1 m\lds x
 into mat]ial & tools = con/ruction1 &  
sets up a me*anism 9 :i* & by :i* x     
develops itself4 ,z f> z we c see !     
purpose ( life is life itself4 ,entele*y
 directs all ! "w ( ! organism 9 su* a  
way t x becomes m & m capable (         
self-pres]vation1 t its effici5cy       
becomes great]1 t x c absorb m ( ! out] 
_w & c react m vigor\sly ^u ! out] _w4  
,9 o!r words1 life /rives cont9u\sly to 
make its embodim5ts m p]man5t1 secur]1  
ri*] & m manifold4  ,h[ev]1 if we d n "k
 h[ ! impulse to evolution orig9ates1 we
 c at lea/ =m an idea ( ! me*anism (    
evolution4 ,fundam5tally life consi/s 9 
! absorption ( cosmic movem5ts or       
vibrations1 & _! trans=mation into ano!r
 =m ( movem5t4 ,! liv+ cell is a ma*9e  
:i* makes use ( cosmic en]gy =          
physio-*emical "w4 ,metabolism1 w>m?1   

electric manife/ations1 movem5t1 & z _! 
concomitant a graduat$ consci\sness1 are
 ! result ( ?is "w :i* is c>ri$ out by  
cosmic en]gy 9 ! cell p[] ma*9e4  ,to   
/>t )1 ?is ma*9e works 9 ! v simple/    
fa%ion4 ,x uses up its motive p[] z fa/ 
z x acquires x4 ,en]gy fl[s 9 &         
imm$iately fl[s out aga9 9 ano!r =m4 ,! 
organism is l a pipe or a vessel )\t a  
bottom1 s t its cont5ts _c be /or$4 ,!  
l[] organisms :i* obey tropisms are su* 
bottomless vessels4 ,!y are cont9ually &
 inevitably subject$ to ! same          
attractions & repulsions & h no means to
 )/& !m4 ,b at a c]ta9 /age (           
evolution--h[8 :y8 ,dries* replies3     
,entele*y6--a new "p is develop$ 9 !    
ma*9e1 some?+ l ! cam on a cog:eel :i*  
=ces x to come to re/4 ,or1 to keep to !
 e>li] simile1 ! bottomless vessel      
acquires a bottom ) a tap t c be op5$ & 
clos$4 ,) ?is arrangem5t ! organism is  
able to /ore ! en]gy x has receiv$ & !n 
to make use ( x accord+ to its ne$s1 to 
d mu* m or mu* less "w ) x1 to a*ieve   

mu* great] or mu* small] effects1 ?an x 
w\ld be capable ( do+ ) ! am\nt ( en]gy 
x receives f outside 9 a giv5 unit ( "t4
 ,x is obvi\s h[ mu* m effici5t !       
organism becomes if x c /ore up en]gy & 
c adapt to its ne$s ! am\nt us$ up4 ,?is
 new "p ( ! ma*9e is ,inhibition4  ,x   
appe>s e>ly1 & takes "p 9 ! g5]al       
developm5t ( ! organism2 x is inde$ !   
/ronge/ factor 9 ?is developm5t4 ,be=e  
,inhibition int]v5es ! organism has only
 "o response to /imulus3 reflex action4 
,?is is ( ! "* ( an electric dis*>ge4 ,x
 may be /rong] or weak]1 b is uni=m 9   
k9d4 ,x v>ies quantitatively b n        
qualitatively4 ,9 ! l[] organisms x is a
 contraction ( ! cell protoplasm1 a     
movem5t4 ,9 ! high] organisms1 9 :i* !  
life processes are c>ri$ out on !       
pr9ciple ( ! division ( lab\r & :i* h   
develop$ v>i\s organs = ?is purpose1 ea*
 organ p]=ms ! action ( its specific    
function2 ! muscle contracts1 ! n]ve    
s5ds out a n]v\s impulse1 ! gl& =ms a   
secretion1 & s on4 ,all reflex actions h

 ?is 9 common1 t !y s]ve no o!r purpose 
?an t ( relax+ t5sion 9 ! organism4 ,!y 
d n imply any co-ord9at$ ef=t to promote
 ! com=t & ! welf>e ( ! liv+ be+4 ,!y _c
 fulfil any complicat$ task4 ,!y exhau/ 
! organism :i*1 aft] a s]ies ( reflex   
actions1 becomes ins5sitive to /imuli & 
mu/ re/ = a "t be=e x c react aga94     
,beg9n+ f t /age ( evolution :]e        
inhibition int]v5es1 reflex action loses
 ! "* ( an automatic response to impulse
 & becomes discipl9$4 ,inhibition tries 
to suppress reflex action4 ,its success 
is m or less complete accord+ to !      
s5sitiv5ess & life en]gy ( ! tissue     
receiv+ ! /imulus & ! degree to :i* !   
me*anism ( inhibition is develop$4 ,!   
organism reta9s its t5sion1 rema9s *>g$ 
) en]gy1 & is able to c>ry out "w =     
def9ite purposes4 ,9 place ( an>*i/ic   
reflex action :i* occurs reg>dless ( !  
ne$s ( ! organism1 we f9d economy (     
en]gy1 co-ord9ation ( ef=t1 movem5t     
direct$ to a pr(itable end4 ,x is only  
inhibition :i* c raise ! organism f its 

/ate ( passivity1 its helpless dep5d5ce 
^u tropism1 to a be+ 9 :i* a w is beg9n+
 to dawn & :i* by its w becomes         
self-det]m9ative4 ,inhibition is a      
function ( ! w2 x is ! w's tool4 ,ev5   
,plato dimly p]ceiv$ ?is1 & he expresses
 x 9 ! metaphorical language peculi> to 
himself1 :51 9 ! ,republic1 he comp>es a
 human be+ to a creature made up ( ?ree 
animals3 a hundr$-head$ sea-s]p5t :i*   
mu/ at "o & ! same "t be f$ & tam$1 a   
bl9d lion1 & a man :o tames ! s]p5t by  
means ( ! lion4 ,^! ?ree animals are    
desire 7,greek3 epi?umia71 c\rage       
7,greek3 ?umos71 & m9d 7,greek3 n\s74   
,we say 9 biological language1 reflex   
action1 inhibition1 & w or volitional   
reason4  ,all ! concepts t are ref]r$ to
 "h3 purpose1 co-ord9ation1 inhibition &
 w1 are e "o ( !m dep5d5t ^u "o         
fundam5tal concept1 consci\sness4 ,)\t x
 !y are un?9kable4 ,s*op5hau]'s         
unconsci\s w is a ^w )\t mean+4 ,i h    
po/ulat$ consci\sness z ! insep>able    
concomitant ( life4 ,x is probably !    

ess5ce ( life4 ,9 its l[e/ /age x is too
 dim1 its cont5ts too meagre & blurr$1  
prop]ly to di/+ui% ! organism 9 :i* x   
dwells f ! _w ar\nd4 ,9 a high] /ate (  
developm5t1 :5 x gradually gr[s cle>] & 
beg9s to be fill$ ) m %>ply def9$ ideas1
 x le>ns to keep its organism & !       
surr\nd+ _w ap>t1 & tries to make !     
attitude ( ! =m] to ! latt] "o (        
self-def5ce1 self-pres]vation &         
self-developm5t4 ,f ?is /age (          
developm5t onw>d1 concepts beg9 to      
connect & gr\p !mselves 9 su* a way t   
consci\sness conta9s n only an image ( !
 imm$iate pres5t1 b also memories ( !   
pa/ & a =eca/ ( ! future4 ,! ability to 
prolong ! pres5t into ! future1 to      
und]/& ! actual z a cause ( ! effects t 
foll[ & to =esee ^! effects1 t is ! />t+
 po9t ( logic & reason4 ,x is ! necess>y
 antec$5t ( ! w1 :i* w\ld h no mean+ if 
x 7 n ! ef=t to realize a conception (  
actions & _! consequ5ces1 previ\sly     
work$ out by consci\sness4 ,w is a      
function ( consci\sness :i*1 9 pursuance

 ( ! well-kn[n biological law1 creates  
an in/rum5t = its purposes1 & ?is       
in/rum5t is inhibition4 ,! high] an     
organism /&s on ! ladd] ( evolution ! m 
en]getically & surely does inhibition   
"w1 ! nic] & ! m ma/]ly does its        
int]v5tion 9 ! orig9al reflex actions   
gr[4  ,?anks to ! pil+ up ( res]ves (   
en]gy1 :i* is a result ( inhibition1 !  
organism c c>ry out its "w (            
diff]5tiation1 c develop organs &       
organic sy/ems1 & obta9 ! p[] to p]=m m 
complicat$ functions2 ^! r5d] x ev] m   
indep5d5t ( ! out] _w & enable x to     
affect ! out] _w to an increas+ ext5t4  
,inhibition plays an important "p 9     
diff]5tiation4 ,its app>atus becomes    
organiz$4 ,! n]ve c5tres f :i* !        
inhibition proce$s =m a ladd] ( :i* ea* 
rung is subord9ate to ! next4 ,!        
p]iph]al n]ves are controll$ by ! n]ve  
c5tres 9 ! sp9al cord1 ^! aga9 by !     
c5tres 9 ! m$ulla oblongata1 & !n 9     
succession by ! c]ebellum & ! c]ebrum1 &
 f9ally by ! corticle4 ,on ! pr9ciple ( 

lea/ resi/ance1 on :i* all life is bas$1
 ! highe/ c5tres ( inhibition unburd5   
!mselves by grant+ ! l[] ones a c]ta9   
measure ( indep5d5ce4 ,! reaction to !  
mo/ ord9>y & frequ5t /imuli is controll$
 & organiz$ 9 its "* & /r5g? by !       
app>atus ( inhibition1 s t x ensues     
automatically1 & no active inhibition1 t
 is1 no consci\s ef=t ( ! w1 is requir$4
 ,! simple/ ( ^! automatic reflex       
movem5ts take place bel[ ! level (      
consci\sness4  ,^? organiz$ complexes ( 
movem5t1 h[ev]1 :i* we call in/9cts1 are
 c>efully wat*$ by ! consci\sness &     
subject$ to sev]e *eck if !y appe> to   
run c\nt] to ! suppos$ int]e/ ( !       
organism4 ,! h]$it>y complexes ( movem5t
 con/itut+ in/9ct are highly organiz$ & 
oppose inhibition1 only yield+ to x :5 x
 is /rong] ?an !y are4 ,?is c be obs]v$ 
9 animals :i* are capable ( tam+ &      
tra9+4 ,all ! artificial actions &      
omissions t man tea*es !m are triumphs (
 inhibition ov] automatism4 ,among human
 be+s x is only ! elect :o c vigor\sly  

suppress _! in/9cts by inhibition       
direct$ by ,reason4 ,! be+ t has atta9$ 
! summit ( organic evolution on e>? is  
man1 9 :om only ! l[]1 vegetative life  
processes are liable to ! influ5ce (    
tropism & prim>y reflex actions1 :ile   
all ! high] & highe/ functions are ! "w 
( ,reason1 :i* arms ! w ) inhibition &  
suppresses all impulses & actions t h9d]
 its purposes4 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( ^!    
functions t !y are fir/ work$ out z     
concepts by ! consci\sness be=e !y are  
realiz$ z movem5ts4  ,x 0 ess5tial =    
,morality to f9d ?is :ole organic       
/ructure ready to its h& be=e x c\ld    
become a factor 9 human life4 ,?is      
/ructure _h be5 develop$ & p]fect$ by ! 
organism = its own purposes1 = ! def5ce 
& enri*m5t ( its life1 to w>d (f pa9ful 
& obta9 pleasurable feel+s4 ,morality   
took possession ( x & us$ x = its own   
ends1 :i* d n at ! fir/ glance co9cide )
 ! aims :i* ! individual imm$iately     
p]ceives & imag9es1 & may inde$ be      
diametrically oppos$ to ^!1 prev5t+     

pleasurable emotions1 caus+ him pa9 &   
ev5 endang]+ 8 life4  ,b ,morality1 :i* 
is a creation ( society1 0 only able to 
dom9ate ! individual & ga9 control ( !  
organic app>atus ( 8 vital economy1     
because its purpose is direct$ t[>ds !  
same goal z ! t5d5cies ( ! individual   
organism1 prolong+ !m beyond !          
individual's scope1 aim+ at 8           
pres]vation1 & ?us co9cid+ ) 8 in/9ct = 
self-pres]vation4  ,morality limits !   
individual's va+lory & subord9ates him  
to ! community2 x is ! condition on :i* 
! community all[s ! individual to       
p>ticipate 9 ! mighti] & m v>i$ means ( 
protection & ! enri*m5t ( exi/5ce :i* x 
has to (f]4 ,b ap>t f ?is some:at remote
 advantage ( ,morality1 !re is ano!r    
imm$iate "o = ! individual3 x consi/s 9 
! cont9ual ex]cise & consequ5t /r5g!n+ (
 inhibition2 !re=e1 z we h le>nt to see 
9 inhibition ! ma9 factor 9 ! developm5t
 & diff]5tiation ( all liv+ creatures1 x
 (f]s a means ( rais+ ! individual to   
biological p]fection4 ,! faculty (      

inhibition1 be+ 9 a cont9ual /ate (     
/rong t5sion1 makes automatic reflexes  
subject to ! w1 makes bl9d impulses     
ob$i5t to ! some:at less bl9d reason1 & 
helps man along ! pa? ( evolution f !   
/atus ( a creature ( in/9ct to t ( a    
?9k+ p]sonality ( /rong "*1 capable (   
judgm5t & =esight1 a p]sonality :i* does
 n seek to atta9 ! pleasurable emotions 
necess>y to e liv+ creature by p&]+ to 8
 s5ses & satisfy+ ! appetites ( ! fle%1 
b a*ieves !m by gratification ( a high] 
ord]1 by ! triumph ( ! intellect ov]    
vegetative life1 by /r5g!n+ ! w 9       
relation to ! /imuli ( ! out] _w & !    
organs1 by tak+ pleasure 9 ! fact t ! w 
is cont5t ) its sway4 ,^! are h>% b     
subtle pleasures :i*1 :5 !y cont9ue to  
prepond]ate 9 ! consci\sness1 br+ ab\t t
 /ate ( subjective happ9ess :i* is 9 !  
highe/ degree b5eficial to life4        
,morality is an arrangem5t :i* has aris5
 f ! ne$s ( society2 t is to say1 x is n
 innate1 b is an artificial in/itution (
 ! race4 ,h[ev]1 x grafts itself ^u !   

natural organs & attributes ( man1 &    
?us1 f be+ a sociological ph5om5on1 x   
becomes a biological "o4 ,! idea t      
,morality is some?+ absolute1 a cosmic  
=ce1 & t x w\ld /ill exi/ & be valid if 
!re 7 no human be+s1 & ev5 if ! e>? _h  
no exi/5ce1 ,i h refut$ ) scorn4 ,we mu/
 hold fa/ to ! fact t ,morality is a law
 ( human conduct1 t x is 9 =ce only     
among mank9d1 & t ap>t f mank9d x is    
un?9kable4 ,z1 h[ev]1 x becomes a       
diff]5tiat$ function ( ! app>atus (     
inhibition1 x p>ticipates 9 ! g5]al     
processes ( life & leads u to t po9t    
:]e1 inde$1 we face ! unn]v+ outlook ^u 
! absolute & ! "q ( et]nity4  ,my       
argum5ts h l$ me to _m ph5om5a t c be   
e/abli%$ & int]pret$ z facts ( exp]i5ce1
 b ! explanation ( :i* lies beyond ! p[]
 ( ! human m9d4 ,we h exam9$ ! riddle ( 
life1 & we h di/+ui%$ !re9 a numb] (    
inexplicable ?+s3 ! lack ( a beg9n+1    
s5sitiv5ess to /imuli1 consci\sness1 !  
trans=mation ( vibrations into s5sations
 & concepts1 ! w1 & inhibition4 ,we are 

=c$ to ! conclusion t ! only disc]nible 
aim ( life's activities is ! pres]vation
 ( life1 or1 m %ortly1 t life is its own
 aim & object4 ,morality1 too1 ei!r     
op5ly or by implication1 sets itself !  
"o cle>ly demon/rable task ( ensur+ to !
 individual ! pres]vation & security ( 8
 exi/5ce 9 a high] sph]e ?an t (        
individual vegetative life processes4   
,!reby x fits into ! s*eme ( exi/5ce1   
its my/]ies & aims1 & becomes an        
integral "p ( ! cycle ( life :i* em]ges 
f et]nity & returns to x4     ,,*apt]   
,,iv  ,,morality ,,& ,,law   ,! co]cion 
:i* ! community ex]cises ^u its memb]s1 
by means ( :i* x =ces !m to adapt _!    
actions & ab/5tion f action to ! /&>d x 
has set up1 has two =ms3 ,cu/om & ,law4 
,are ! two really diff]5t8 ,:at is _!   
relation1 "o to ! o!r8 ,^! are que/ions 
wor? inve/igat+4  ,ev] s9ce ! e>lie/    
times1 grave m5 h m$itat$ on ! relation 
betwe5 ,cu/om & ,law4 ,!y 7 =c$ by      
evid5ce & practical exp]i5ce to note a  
diff]5ce betwe5 ! two in/itutions1 b at 

! same "t !y _h ! def9ite impression t  
!y trace _! orig9 to ! same s\rce4      
,socrates di/+ui%es betwe5 ! writt5 laws
 ( 8 c\ntry & ! unwritt5 ones :i*       
express ! w ( ! gods4 ,! =m] con/itute  
positive ,law :i* ! citiz5 mu/ obs]ve & 
to :i* he mu/ submit2 ! latt]1 h[ev]1   
are high]1 = !y emanate f ! gods        
!mselves4 ,! immutability ( ! unwritt5  
laws is a pro( t !y are sup]ior to !    
writt5 ones4 ,writt5 laws v>y f /ate to 
/ate4 ,!y are ! "w ( individual         
law-giv]s :o 7 sometimes wise m5 &      
sometimes unreasonable tyrants4 ,b all  
conta9 c]ta9 precepts :i* are ev]y:]e   
alike1 :i* ev]y:]e impose ! same rules  
^u man4 ,x is almo/ z if "o & ! same    
law-giv] _h co-op]at$ 9 ! mak+ ( all !  
laws t obta9 9 ! diff]5t t[ns &         
c\ntries1 & are s unlike "o ano!r 9 _m  
po9ts4 ,?is common law-giv]1 ^: w is    
manife/ 9 all laws1 h[ev] f> remov$ !y  
be f "o ano!r1 is ! ,deity4 ,t is       
ess5tially ,socrates' tra9 ( ?\ght z    
giv5 by ,x5ophon 9 8 ,memorabilia4 ,!   

,attic sage speaks ! language ( 8 "t1   
:i*1 by ! way1 is /ill t ( _m pres5t-day
 p4 ,! ,deity1 ^: w p]meates all writt5 
laws & to :om !y may be trac$1 is !     
pr9ciple ( ,morality4 ,hugo ,grotius1 9 
a mann] m appropriate to mod]n ?\ght1   
expresses x ?us3 ,law & ,morality spr+ f
 ! same s\rce1 namely1 ! /rong social   
in/9ct natural to man4 ,!y be> witness  
to reasonable solicitude = ! welf>e ( ! 
community4 ,?is plac+ on an equality (  
,law & ,cu/om1 ( jus & mos1 is v        
rem>kable 9 su* a /rictly pr(essional   
?9k]1 su* a positive juri/ z ,grotius4  
,kant discrim9ates betwe5 ! doctr9e (   
,virtue & ! doctr9e ( ,law2 he keeps !m 
ap>t1 b he emphasizes _! connexion1 & ! 
two toge!r make up 8 doctr9e ( ,e?ics4  
,z a matt] ( fact1 no fundam5tal        
diff]5ce betwe5 ,law & ,cu/om exi/s2    
only ,law is en=c$ diff]5tly to ,cu/om4 
,x w\ld be go+ too f> to say3 ,law has  
sanctions & ,cu/om has none4 ,! latt]   
has sanctions too1 b !y are ( a diff]5t 
k9d to ^? ( ! ,law4 ,he :o transgresses 

,cu/om w suff] ! contempt ( 8 fell[ m51 
& ?is may become s p5etrat+ly sev]e t ! 
mo/ h>d5$ & %ameless rascal mu/ feel x4 
,9 an old1 loose =m ( society :]e       
individualism is highly develop$1 & ea* 
"o goes 8 own way1 pay+ little reg>d to 
! o!rs1 !re an unscrupul\s1             
consci5celess rogue may s9 aga9/        
,socrates' unwritt5 law )\t be+ p5aliz$4
 ,9 a "y1 closely-knit community1 h[ev]1
 9 :i* ! feel+ ( intimate connexion     
betwe5 ! memb]s is lively & vivid1 he   
w\ld be proscrib$1 z soon z he 0 f\nd   
out1 & x w\ld be impossible = him to    
rema91 say1 = example1 9 a small t[n ( !
 ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,public op9ion w\ld make
 x s hot = him t he w\ld be glad to     
escape ) a :ole sk94 ,b ?is puni%m5t is 
exceptional = transgressions ( ,cu/om1  
:]eas x is ! rule = ^? ( ! ,law4  ,!    
sanction ( ! ,law is /rict] ?an t (     
,cu/om1 j z ! ,law itself is /rict] ?an 
is ,cu/om4 ,! ,law conc]ns itself )     
concrete cases 9 :i* consid]ation = "o's
 fell[ m5 mu/ be practis$1 duties to him

 fulfill$1 & 8 claims respect$4 ,^!     
cases are def9$ by ,law z cle>ly z      
possible1 :]eas ,cu/om conf9es itself to
 g5]alities & det]m9es ! :ole attitude (
 ! individual to 8 neighb\r4 ,cu/om     
embraces ! out] & inn] life ( man &     
sup]vises 8 op9ions1 :i* are ! p>5ts ( 8
 de$s1 & also 8 de$s !mselves2 ,law is  
only conc]n$ ) actions1 & refra9s f     
p5etrat+ to ! intimacy ( ?\ghts1 unless 
! latt] alt] ! ess5tial "* ( ! action1 z
 prem$itation 9 an act ( rev5ge &       
tempor>y or p]man5t irresponsibility    
alt] ! judgm5t ( (f5ces & crimes4 ,law  
is a mis]ly extract ( cu/om1 a meagre   
selection f its v>iety1 a conc5tration &
 embodim5t ( its surg+ vagu5ess4 ,x may 
be comp>$ ) cry/als1 :i* 9 _!           
geometrically accurate =ms are          
cry/alliz$ cle>ly & def9itely out ( a   
liquid1 ! "m liquor2 or ) ! heav5ly     
bodies :i* agglom]ate out ( surg+ primal
 nebul4 ,cu/om is ! primitive ?+1 ,law  
is d]iv$ f x4 ,x appeals to its desc5t f
 ,cu/om1 & f\nds1 at any rate tacitly1  

its claim to respect on ^! gr\nds4 ,a   
law :i* ran c\nt] to ,cu/om1 :i* 0      
confess$ly 9 opposition to ,cu/om1 c\ld 
nev] be ma9ta9$ or prevail1 ?\gh x      
bri/l$ ) ! m5ace ( ! mo/ dreadful       
puni%m5ts4  ,! relation%ip ( "m to *ild 
betwe5 ,cu/om & ,law may be obscure to !
 majority2 x is cle> to ! analytical    
m9d4 ,recognition ( ! ess5tial unity (  
bo? ph5om5a expla9s an assumption :i* 0 
widespread among ! be/ intellects f !   
,middle ,ages until well into ! eighte5?
 c5tury1 b :i* has n[ be5 ab&on$ z      
errone\s by m positive1 ?\gh inde$      
n>r[]1 legal m9ds4 ,?is assumption is t 
!re is a natural ,law antec$5t to       
hi/orical ,law1 :i* exi/s & acts beside 
& above ! latt]1 & :i* =ms ! basis & !  
measure ( e positive law1 ( e concrete  
legal judgm5t4 ,x is compreh5sible t !  
n9ete5? c5tury swept away ! idea (      
natural ,law & freely made fun ( x4 ,to 
a /]nly discipl9$ legal m9d x mu/ inde$ 
seem grotesque if a judge1 9 ord] to    
arrive at a v]dict 9 "s concrete        

dispute1 cites ! rights to :i* man is   
born in/ead ( a c]ta9 text ( ! law1 or  
ev51 foll[+ ,s*ill]'s advice1 rea*es up 
to ! />s & br+s d[n !nce ! et]nal ,law4 
,ev5 ?is proc$ure is n s f>cical z x    
seems to /upid article-mong]s &         
hair-splitt+ p>agraphi/s1 = ! proc$ure (
 equity ( ! ,engli% judges1 :o are n    
prone to cl[n+1 is at bottom no?+ b ?is 
rea*+ up to ! />s & ?is judg+ by !      
rights to :i* man is born4 ,! feud      
betwe5 natural ,law & hi/orical ,law 0  
really a qu>rel ab\t a ^w4 ,jean        
,jacques ,r\sseau1 8 contempor>ies &    
disciples1 simply made a mi/ake 9 _!    
*oice ( an expression4 ,!y 7 guilty ( an
 inaccuracy :5 !y spoke ( natural ,law4 
,!y %\ld h said3 ! innate claim ( man t 
8 p]son %\ld be respect$1 or1 natural   
consid]ation = "o's fell[ man1 or1 mo/  
%ortly & simply1 ,morality4 ,to ! latt] 
legal lights w\ld h rais$ none ( !      
objections ) :i* !y victori\sly oppos$  
natural ,law4  ,! beg9n+s ( ,morality   
co9cide ) ! beg9n+s ( society1 z ! latt]

 c\ld n h exi/$ = a s+le day )\t ! =m]4 
,s9ce m51 =c$ by ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1   
em]g$ f _! orig9al1 natural solitude &  
unit$ 9 a community1 !y h _h to wat* ov]
 _! impulses1 suppress _! desires1 d ?+s
 !y dislik$1 & 9 all _! actions &       
ab/5tions f action consid] _! neighb\rs'
 feel+s1 z !y dem&$ t _! feel+s1 too1   
%\ld be consid]$4 ,t 0 ,morality :i*    
limit$ ! va+lory & arbitr>y conduct (   
unfett]$ man4 ,x includ$ all rules t    
det]m9e ! attitude ( man to man4 ,!re 0 
no di/9ction betwe5 ,cu/om & ,law4 ,m5 7
 rul$ by cu/om :i* 0 traditional 9 _!   
community & obs]v$ by all2 & _! ,cu/om  
_h ! =ce ( ,law4  ,=mulat$ laws1 & m    
especially writt5 laws1 appe>           
comp>atively late4 ,true1 ,asia has old 
examples ( su*2 ! ,manava ,dh>ma ,%a/ra1
 ! book ( laws ( ! ,indian ,manu1 !     
,*9ese ,*+s1 ! law ( ,hammu ,rabi1 & t  
o!r law1 ak9 to ?is1 ?\gh n d]iv$ f x1 b
 probably drawn f a simil> old] s\rce1 !
 law ( ! ,p5tateu*4 ,! laws ( ,draco1   
,solon & ,lycurgus & ! ,roman ,twelve   

table law are appreciably y\ng]2 mu*    
lat] /ill ! leges b>b>orum 7 writt5 d[n1
 "s ( !m1 l ! prescriptive ,law ( !     
,g]mans set d[n 9 ! ,sa*s5spiegel1 n    
till ! end ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,x is     
peculi> to mo/ ( ! old ,asiatic laws t  
!y conta9 bo? rules ( conduct & legal   
regulations1 & t !y d n diff]5tiate     
betwe5 ^! two k9ds ( precepts4  ,let u  
take "o example3 ! ,t5 ,comm&m5ts4      
,beside su* positive ord]s z ,?\ %alt n 
/eal2 ,?\ %alt n kill2 ,hon\r ?y fa!r & 
?y "m2 we f9d su* z give rules = ! "* & 
c\rse ( spiritual happ5+s1 reg>d+ :i*   
o!rs _c obs]ve :e!r !y are obey$ or n1 l
 ! comm&m5ts respect+ man's relation%ip 
to ,god1 or admoni%+ man n to covet 8   
neighb\r's wife or goods4 ,^? are       
subjective impulses1 spiritual moods :i*
 are reveal$ only to ! eye ( consci5ce z
 long z !y d n betray !mselves 9 action1
 & :i* by _! v nature _c be ! subject ( 
,law :i* deals only ) outw>d            
manife/ations ( ?\ght & w1 & is conc]n$ 
only ) ?+s done4  ,9 con/itutional ,law1

 too1 no less ?an 9 crim9al & civil     
,law1 ! eighte5? c5tury t5ds to preface 
c]ta9 laws ) univ]sal moral pr9ciples1 &
 to e/abli% by =mal law t ! =m] are     
d]iv$ f ! latt]4 ,! ,decl>ation (       
,indep5d5ce ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ,july1  
#aggd1 says3 ,we consid] ! foll[+ tru?s 
self-evid5t3 t all m5 are born equal2 t 
! ,creator has be/[$ ^u !m inali5able   
rights1 among/ :i* are ! "r to life1 to 
fre$om1 to ! pursuit ( happ9ess1 etc4 ,s
 be=e ^! rights are gu>ante$ by ! ,law1 
!y are ann\nc$ to belong by bir? &      
nature to man1 to be indep5d5t ( any    
p>ticul> & express be/[al by ! law-giv]1
 & beyond all dispute or ev5 argum5t4 ,(
 ! ?irte5 ,/ates :i* =m$ ! orig9al      
,union1 t5 accompani$ _! con/itution by 
a ,bill ( ,rights :i* repeat$ ! ess5tial
 cont5ts ( ! ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce (
 ,july1 #aggd2 sev5 ( !m plac$ !m z an  
introduction be=e _! fundam5tal law1 &  
?ree ( !m incorporat$ !m 9 ! latt]4 ,two
 o!rs1 ,new ,york & ,georgia1 di/ribut$ 
!m among v>i\s articles ( _!            

con/itution4 ,rhode ,isl& alone refra9$ 
f a g5]al decl>ation4 ,! ,/ates :i* jo9$
 ! ,union lat]1 ) few exceptions foll[$ 
! example ( _! pr$ecessors & built up _!
 con/itution on ! f\ndation ( an        
explicit /atem5t ( ! natural rights (   
man4 ,! ,fr5* ,revolution foll[$ ! c\rse
 :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates _h indicat$1 &     
began its con/itution ( #agia ) !       
,decl>ation ( ! rights ( m5 & citiz5s1  
:i* is n a law 9 ! te*nical s5se ( ! ^w1
 b is sup]ior to all positive ,law1     
con/itutes ! latt]'s /&>d & t\*/one1 &  
/raightway makes all laws invalid :i*   
are n animat$ by its _s or :i*          
contradict x4  ,9 ! beg9n+1 !re=e1 !re 0
 ,morality1 & ! fir/ laws1 :i* =mulat$  
its precepts ei!r 9 oral tradition or 9 
writ+1 recomm5d$ )\t di/9ction :at 0    
good & desirable1 & :at 0 necess>y &    
exp$i5t4 ,! diff]5tiation ( ! ,morality1
 :i* ! commonweal? felt to be its code (
 "r & wrong1 into ,cu/om & ,law took    
place 9 late times4 ,x 0 mo/ def9ite 9  
,rome1 :]e = ! fir/ "t a cle> di/9ction 

0 made betwe5 m5's relation to _! gods &
 _! relation to "o ano!r2 ! =m] 0 left  
to ! individual's consci5ce1 ! latt]    
subject$ to ! p[] ( ! ,/ate2 ! elem5ts (
 feel+ & ( dim p]ception 7 bani%$ f !   
,law :i* conf9$ its att5tion to de$s :i*
 x regulat$ 9 a high-h&$ mann]4 ,law    
*ose f out ! all-embrac+ sph]e (        
,morality "o n>r[ area1 t ( mank9d's    
imm$iate1 mat]ial int]e/s1 & took ?is z 
its sole !me4 ,! object ( all ,morality 
is to enable m5 to live toge!r 9 a      
community peacefully & prosp]\sly2 )9 ! 
b\nds ( ?is m g5]al purpose1 ! task ( ! 
,law is to suppress by =ce ! gross]     
h9drances to ?is h>mony among           
individuals1 & by mat]ial means (       
co]cion emphatically oblige ev]yone to  
respect ! int]e/s ( 8 neighb\r4 ,:at e  
responsible man ( s\nd m9d dem&s fir/ & 
=emo/ is a prop] respect = ! possessions
 t are 8 by bir? & acquisition1 t is = 8
 life1 = 8 bodily welf>e1 = all ! goods 
he owns t m9i/] to 8 ne$s1 8 com=t & 8  
pleasure4 ,he :o lays viol5t h&s on ^!  

possessions1 or ?reat5s to endang] !m1  
is recogniz$ to be an enemy2 man arms   
himself aga9/ su* an "o1 fights aga9/   
him1 tries1 if he h a /rong "*1 to      
de/roy him1 or flees f him if he is too 
weak to triumph ov] him2 man only yields
 to su* an "o if he simply _c help      
himself1 b he does s ) hatr$ & rev5ge 9 
8 he>t1 & 9 a /ate ( m9d :i*1 if x      
becomes fairly widespread1 sets e man's 
h& aga9/ 8 fell[-m5 & leads to ! ru9 &  
ev5 to ! dissolution ( ! community4     
,h5ce ! task ( ,law is effectively to   
protect ! individual f ! infr+em5t ( 8  
rights by o!rs4 ,x places ! organiz$    
=ces ( ! community at ! s]vice ( !      
individual ^: int]e/s are ?reat5$1 = !  
crim9al law p5alizes m or less sev]ely  
attempts aga9/ life & heal?1 unlawful   
seizure ( prop]ty :e!r by =ce or cunn+1 
malici\s mole/ation & (f5ce2 ! laws (   
comm]ce keep wat* ov] ! fai?ful         
fulfilm5t ( contracts deal+ ) ! fair    
ex*ange ( goods or ! execution ( "w1 & 9
 case ( ne$ en=ce x4  ,a select few1    

ev]y:]e only a small m9ority1 has a     
diff]5t scale ( values to t ( ! masses4 
,= !m life is n ! supreme ?+4 ,!re are  
?+s !y value m highly4 ,! masses h no   
und]/&+ = ^! p's ne$s & f9e feel+s4 ,_! 
self-respect & _! dignity are de> to !m 
z weal?1 _! hon\r m sacr$ ?an life      
itself4 ,unhesitat+ly !y sacrifice _!   
prop]ty to fre$om1 & m unbe>able ?an    
anxiety = _! mat]ial int]e/s is life 9  
surr\nd+s 9 :i* brutality1 vulg>        
s5tim5ts1 h>% egotism1 malice1 hypocrisy
 & trea*]y prepond]ate4 ,! ,law does n  
consid] ?is m9ority4 ,x is ! creation & 
! s]vant ( ! great majority4 ,x cl+s to 
e>? & is incapable ( l(ty flights4 ,x is
 ( no s]vice to ! elect 9 ! pres]vation 
( _! noble/ spiritual possessions or !  
def5ce ( _! ideals aga9/ clumsy         
maltreatm5t4 ,x decl>es itself to be    
incompet5t to deal ) any b mat]ial      
affairs4  ,!re9 lies at "o & ! same "t !
 /r5g? & ! weakness ( ! ,law4 ,its /r5g?
 lies 9 ! fact t x def9itely limits its 
sph]e ( action & /rives to a*ieve       

positive results by positive means1     
results intelligible ev5 to a mean      
und]/&+4 ,its weakness lies 9 ! fact t x
 ignores man's highe/ & noble/ int]e/s4 
,& ^! int]e/s are !re1 !y too des]ve    
consid]ation & protection1 !y h a "r to 
dem& t ! gu>antee ( ! community %\ld    
embrace !m z well4 ,! well-be+ ( !      
community1 :i* is ! object ( ,morality &
 ( ,law too1 dem&s t su* conditions %\ld
 be creat$ & ma9ta9$1 z %\ld enable !   
elect also to enjoy life or at lea/ f9d 
exi/5ce be>able4 ,b ,law does n suffice 
= t4 ,no law enjo9s ^u ! c>eless ?rong (
 pa*yd]ms to sp>e ! t5d]e/ & noble/     
s5sibilities ( l(ty natures2 no judge   
puni%es ?\ghtless or purposely malici\s 
injury to !m4 ,to rem$y ?is evil we mu/ 
rise f ! l[ly pla9 ( ,law1 ! natural    
dwell+-place ( ! masses1 to ! heights ( 
,morality1 ! habitual abode ( sup]ior   
m9ds4 ,at ! !ological /age (            
civilization refuge is s\ght ) ! gods 9 
^: h&s ! protection ( ess5tial1         
spiritual possessions is plac$4 ,!y are 

expect$ to puni% ! wick$ ^: evil de$s   
are beyond ! rea* ( any p5al code1 !y   
are expect$ to soo! & com=t :5 life is  
h>d or ev5 un5durable4 ,t is !          
compromise t ! elect made ) life 9 ! h>d
 times ( ,european b>b>ism4 ,!y escap$ f
 ! _w & ?us avoid$ contact ) ! repugnant
 masses4 ,!y %ut !mselves up 9 cloi/]$  
cells away f mank9d & held my/ic        
int]c\rse ) ,god4 ,among ! p1 cruel     
au?orities ) difficulty ma9ta9$         
discipl9e & scanty law & ord] by means (
 flogg+ & ! pillory1 torture1 ! gall[s &
 ! :eel4 ,! m9ority ( ! elect discipl9$ 
!mselves1 suppress$ _! l[] impulses by  
self-impos$ mortification1 & ) ! help ( 
pray] & belief 9 ,god's promis$         
mill5nium manag$ to keep _! heads above 
wat] despite ! cru%+ spectacle ( ! life 
( ^? times4  ,long be=e ! ,*ri/ian era1 
! ,greeks ( noble disposition felt ! ne$
 ( liv+ 9 an atmosph]e ( high]          
intellectuality & morality ?an t ( !    
m>ket-place1 & !y hid !mselves beh9d !  
cl\d-curta9 ( ! ,eleus9ian ,my/]ies1 :]e

 !y kept to !mselves1 escap$ ! rule ( ! 
rude ,law1 & foll[$ ! nobl] precepts (  
,morality4 ,:5ev] ! measure ( ,morality 
conta9$ 9 positive law did n suffice = !
 m9ority ) high] aspirations1 ?is       
m9ority adopt$ ! same exp$i5t1 a =m (   
esot]icism2 small circles 7 =m$ outside 
! community 9 :i* !re 0 add$ to ! curr5t
 legal code a sup]/ructure ( /rict]     
rules1 m f9ely %ad$ duties1 m c\rte\s   
consid]ation4 ,pres5t-day life also (f]s
 examples ( ?is t5d5cy :i* is met ) 9   
all ages4 ,!re are select circles &     
pr(essions 9 :i* ! /&>d (               
irreproa*abl5ess is f> high] ?an among !
 mass ( ! p4 ,!re a man is n held       
blameless1 simply because he has nev]   
transgress$ a positive law1 nev] come   
into conflict ) ! p[]s ( ju/ice4 ,he mu/
 be z unspott$ 9 ! eye ( moral ju/ice z 
he is 9 t ( ! ,law4 ,a club or          
association t is self-respect+ w n admit
 to memb]%ip a c&idate reput$ to lie1 to
 h an evil tongue1 to break 8 ^w1 to be 
a toady & a snob1 ?\gh none ( ^! (f5ces 

are puni%able by law4 ,x has happ5$ t a 
corps ( ,g]man (fic]s has =c$ "o ( _!   
numb] to s5d 9 8 pap]s because he has   
s$uc$ & des]t$ a respectable girl1 an   
adv5ture flatt]+ to ! vanity ( puppies  
:o1 z l z n1 boa/ ( x1 & ) :i* a judge c
 only deal if ! injur$ girl appeals to  
him--& ev5 !n he _c puni% ! (f5d]1 b    
m]ely s5t5ce him to pay damages4  ,almo/
 ! :ole _w is agre$ on ! po9t t ! ,law  
does n suffici5tly protect hon\r4       
,positive ,law evid5tly does n consid] x
 ( su* value z mat]ial possessions1 = ! 
def5ce ( :i* x kn[s itself to be        
qualifi$4 ,b !re are numb]s ( p ^: hon\r
 is de>] to !m ?an _! =tune1 ev5 ?an _! 
life1 & trembl+ ) indignation !y see t a
 ?ief :o /eals _! purse ) a few %ill+s  
is hal$ (f to prison1 :ile a sl&]] :o   
sullies _! hon\r ei!r goes unpuni%$1 or 
at mo/ gets (f ) a f9e1 :i* m]ely adds  
(ficial insult to ! injury4 ,9 ?is case 
! ,law has lagg$ s f> beh9d ,morality t 
individuals try ( _! own accord to      
bridge ! gulf )\t c\nt+ on ! int]v5tion 

( ! community4 ,= asp]sions ( _! hon\r !
 masses take rev5ge ) fi/s & cudgels1   
(t5 ) bloody results2 & among ! elect !y
 resort to duels ) le?al weapons1 a     
prepo/]\s proce$+ due to desp]ation1 & a
 bitt] indictm5t ( ! prevail+ laws4 ,x  
is a de$ ( self-help1 l ! =mation ( a   
vigilance committee among ! an>*ical    
?rong ( a lawless rabble4 ,h>dly to be  
ju/ifi$ on reasonable gr\nds1 x is      
intelligible f ! po9t ( view ( hi/orical
 tradition1 & z a survival ( dim &      
primitive ideas4 ,9 e>ly days a prop]ly 
regulat$ duel 0 an ordeal %[+ ! judgm5t 
( heav54 ,x 0 ! g5]al conviction t ,god 
w\ld give victory to ! "r & cru% !      
wrong4 ,:5 human ,law fail$1 ! injur$   
p>ty appeal$ to ! s\rce ( all ,law &    
plac$ 8 cause 9 ! h&s ( ! ,almighty4 ,f 
?is po9t ( view ! duel is no unsuitable 
means ( prev5t+ plots to evade ! law4   
,ev5 if ! injur$ p>ty is inexp]i5c$ 9 ! 
use ( ! weapon1 ev5 if 8 oppon5t is     
skill$ & va/ly 8 sup]ior1 he ne$ n      
worry1 = ,god fights on 8 side4 ,!re=e  

he is m sure ( success ?an if he entru/$
 8 cause to fallible human judges4 ,b f 
! mom5t t ! duel ceases to be reg>d$ z a
 means ( arriv+ at ! v]dict ( ,god1 no?+
 c be urg$ 9 its def5ce1 & t x nev]!less
 p]si/s is a fact t c only be acc\nt$ = 
by ! inadequacy ( ! curr5t laws4  ,x    
really is a/oni%+ t ! ,law does n yet   
appraise hon\r at its true value4       
,educat$ p almo/ unanim\sly regret &    
condemn ! backw>dness ( ! ,law 9 ?is    
respect1 all ! m s because ! trem5d\s   
developm5t ( ! respectable1 z well z ( !
 disreputable1 ,press facilitates &     
aggravates libel to a hi!rto undream$-( 
ext5t1 & no def5ce c ov]take ! sl&] :i* 
is quickly spread broadca/4 ,d\btless   
public op9ion w urge t measures be tak5 
to br+ ! ,law into l9e ) ! views n[ held
 on all sides on ! significance ( hon\r1
 its def5celessness & its ne$ =         
protection4 ,t ?is has n yet be5 done is
 due to ! sl[ness ) :i* ! ,law adapts   
itself to ! dem&s ( a ,morality :i* gr[s
 ev] m pr(\nd & m ref9$4 ,law1 :i*      

orig9ally devot$ itself only to ! crude/
 mat]ial int]e/s1 v sl[ly ext5ds ! range
 ( its protection1 b x does s           
cont9ually1 ) an ev]-wid5+ embrace1     
includ+ m & m delicate1 m & m noble1    
possessions1 tak+ into consid]ation ev] 
high] & ev] f9] ne$s4 ,:at e>ly         
legislator w\ld h ?\ght ( man's ne$+    
protection n only aga9/ murd]1 griev\s  
bodily h>m & maltreatm5t1 b also aga9/ !
 dang]s due to ignorance & c>elessness 9
 light-he>t$ly spread+ infecti\s        
diseases1 & contam9at+ wat] & ! air8 ,:o
 w\ld h dream$ 9 =m] times t positive   
,law w\ld consid] ! s5sitiv5ess ( n]ves1
 desire = beauty1 dislike ( ugl9ess &   
=bid di/urb+ /reet noises1 protect !    
c\ntryside f wick$ disfigurem5t1 &      
prev5t ! con/ruction ( build+s :i* w\ld 
spoil ! arti/ic ar*itectural plan ( a   
city8  ,^! little traits1 ^! concessions
 to p]sonal dem&s1 :i* to a co>se m9d d 
n seem obvi\sly ju/ifi$1 g to prove t   
positive ,law cont9ues to gr[ beyond !  
b\nds ( its unavoidably crude           

mat]ialism1 & /rives to rise into !     
regions ( ! unwritt5 law ( !            
,p]ipatetics1 :]e ideal possessions are 
( m importance ?an ^? :i* h             
traditionally come )9 ! scope ( crim9al 
& civil ,law4 ,law & ,cu/om h a natural 
t5d5cy to approa* m & m ne>ly to "o     
ano!r1 to become m]g$ 9 "o ano!r :]e !  
l9e t divides !m is b fa9tly indicat$4  
,! clos] ! union betwe5 !m1 ! m p]fect  
is ! ,morality ( a society4 ,absolute   
p]fection w\ld be rea*$ if ,law1 :i* has
 be5 d]iv$ by diff]5tiation f ,morality1
 %\ld1 aft] a protract$ p]iod (         
developm5t1 return to its s\rce & be    
completely m]g$ aga9 9 ,morality4 ,b t  
is a dream :i* c nev] be realiz$ z long 
z man is con/itut$ z he is at ! pres5t  
"t4 ,en?usia/s h dream$ ( x1 & 9 _!     
imag9ation h se5 an an>*ical & lawless  
society 9 :i* no positive ,law1 no      
sanctions ( =ce 7 ne$$1 & 9 :i* !       
und]/&+ & consci5ce ( individuals w\ld  
suffice to ensure ! rule ( good fai? &  
goodness1 & ! curb+ ( selfi%ness4 ,z f> 

z man c tell we %all nev] atta9 ?is     
,utopia4 ,we %all nev] be able to d )\t 
positive ,law1 n only on acc\nt (       
undevelop$ & p]v]se natures1 9 :i*      
animalism has ! upp] h& ( humanity1 &   
:i* mu/ be kept "u /rict discipl9e1 b   
because a sure guide is ne$$ 9 cases (  
d\bt & irresolution :i* confuse ev5 !   
good1 nay1 ! be/1 m5 :5 passion & viol5t
 desire1 ) _! heavy ?und]cl\ds1 d>k5 !  
outlook ( ,reason1 & judgm5t wav]s amid 
! hurly-burly ( a spiritual tempe/4 ,all
 t we may hope = & %\ld desire is t ,law
 %\ld be fill$ ) ! _s ( ,morality &     
embrace z _m moral ideas z possible4  ,x
 lies 9 ! nature ( ! ?+ t ,morality 0   
nev] cle>ly & def9itely =mulat$1 = z    
soon z ?is 0 done x assum$ ! "* ( ,law4 
,x rema9$ g5]al & slightly vague1 x     
spoke to m5 9 su* indef9ite t]ms z good1
 virtue1 duty1 love ( "o's neighb\r1    
unselfi%ness1 pati5ce--t]ms into :i*    
ev]yone c read ! mean+ :i* suits 8      
?\ghts & feel+s4 ,mank9d has nev] lack$ 
moral tea*]s4 ,! ,indian ,%a/ras & !    

,*+s1 ,confucius & ,m5g ,tse1 ! prophets
 ( ,israel & ,b5 ,sira*1 ,plato & ! wise
 m5 ( ! ,/oics1 ! ,z5d ,ave/a1 ,jesus & 
,paul1 ! platonic e?ics ( ,nicoma*us1 ^?
 ( ,epictetus & ,m>cus ,aurelius1 ?\s&s 
( ye>s ago prea*$ ! pr9ciples :i* exhau/
 ! :ole field ( ,morality1 & beyond !   
ess5tials ( :i* none ( ! lat] morali/s h
 gone2 nei!r ! ,imitation ( ,*ri/ nor   
,ibn ,ba*ia1 ,sp9oza1 ! ,scot* s*ool &  
,kant1 up to ,wundt & ,guyau4  ,b :at   
ab\t ! effect ( ! doctr9es :i* !y       
advocat$ g5tly or passionately1 adduc+  
pro(s or utt]+ ?reats8 ,to l5d weight to
 !m !y ei!r appeal$ to ,god1 ?reat5+    
mank9d ) ,8 wra? & v5geance1 or to      
,reason1 :i*1 accord+ to !m1 c\ld advise
 man only = 8 good4 ,p]haps !y c\ld     
intimidate ^? :o _h bl9d fai? & conv9ce 
! reasonable4 ,b !re are _m ( little    
fai?1 & m /ill :o are unreasonable1 & on
 ^! ! p]suasion1 w>n+s & conclusions ( !
 ,morali/s _h no effect4 ,= ^! x 0      
imp]ative to clo! ! m9imum ( ,morality1 
! m9imum )\t :i* no society c exi/1 9 ! 

def9ite =m ( laws1 & s create ! ,law to 
:i* ! weapons ( ! community l5d compell+
 =ce4 ,?us ! :ole mat]ial ( ,e?ics is   
divid$ into ,morality & ,law4 ,!        
,!ologians & ,s*olia/s :o trace all b9d+
 rules ( human conduct back to          
revelations ( ! ,div9e ,w recogniz$ on  
pr9ciple only "o s+le law3 b ! aspect ( 
practical life made ev5 !m di/+ui%      
betwe5 ! lex indicativa & ! lex         
prceptiva1 betwe5 an indication or      
c\nsel & precept or comm&4 ,! lex       
indicativa is ,morality1 ! lex prceptiva
 is ! ,law4  ,codes are ! normal        
expression ( ! ,law4 ,n all ,law is     
=mulat$ 9 ?is way1 = !re is a recogniz$ 
,law ( cu/om1 b all laws1 codifi$ or n1 
become a "p ( ! prevail+ ,law4          
,naturally1 & z is only reasonable1 all 
,law is pre-exi/5t 9 ! consci\sness ( ! 
majority1 & ! law-giv]'s rle is limit$  
to sett+ d[n 9 p>agraphs univ]sally     
ackn[l$g$ pr9ciples dictat$ by public   
op9ion4 ,h[ev]1 !re are an appreciable  
numb] ( hi/orical in/ances 9 :i* ?is    

proc$ure is rev]s$2 ! law-giv]1 )\t     
inquir+ :e!r 8 ideas 7 9 accord ) !     
g5]al consci5ce1 arbitr>ily clo!d 8     
dictates to ! community 9 p>agraphs :i* 
x _h to accept z ,law4 ,x is cle> t ?is 
proc$ure is extremely risky4 ,ev5 if !  
law-giv] possesses sup]ior wisdom1 ev5  
if he is f> 9 advance ( 8 p & 8 age1 ev5
 if 8 int5tions are ( ! be/1 !re is     
grave dang] t ! moral feel+ ( ! p w     
revolt aga9/ ! laws ?us =c$ on !m4      
,outw>dly !y yield to ! pressure (      
public au?ority1 b !y obey ! ,law ) a   
ke5 inn] s5se ( opposition2 a *asm yawns
 betwe5 consci5ce & ! practice ( ! ,law1
 ideas ( ,morality & ,law become        
confus$1 ! moral f\ndation ( all laws   
tott]s1 & ! public gets into ! habit (  
reg>d+ ! ,law z some?+ ali5 & ho/ile1   
:i* _c be disreg>d$ ) impunity1 b :i* x 
is n only n culpable1 b ev5 m]itori\s to
 evade4  ,an enorm\s am\nt has be5      
writt5 on ! subject ( :at a law is1 &   
all ?is lit]ature expresses 9 endless   
words v few &1 almo/ )\t exception1 v   

m$iocre ?\ghts4 ,i %\ld consid] x an    
unp>donable wa/e ( "t to devote any     
consid]able space to ?is rubbi%1 ei!r 9 
ord] m]ely to quote op9ions or to       
inve/igate & confute !m4 ,p]haps ! be/  
?+ said ( ! laws is ,hobbes's           
description3 ,civil ,law 7! law ( !     
c\ntry7 is no?+ b a gu>antee ( natural  
,law4 ,x is true t ?is def9ition implies
 a supposition3 ! exi/5ce ( natural ,law
 :i*1 h[ev]1 is n b9d+ 9 itself b       
requires ! sanctions ( ! law ( ! c\ntry4
 ,moreov]1 x is only correct if we add !
 limitation t x does n gu>antee all     
natural ,law1 b only a "p ( x4 ,hobbes  
is also =c$ by 8 def9ition ( ! law ( a  
c\ntry to expla9 :at he means by natural
 ,law1 & he does n evade ?is duty4      
,natural ,law1 he says1 is ! decree (   
true ,reason 7ratioc9atio recta7 ) reg>d
 to :at we mu/ d & :at avoid = our      
self-pres]vation4444 ,transgression (   
natural ,laws is due to false ,reason   
7ratioc9atio falsa74  ,9 spite ( its    
vagu5ess ?is explanation ( ,hobbes's %[s

 t :at he really means by natural ,law  
is ,morality1 & 9 ?is respect 8 views on
 ! relation ( natural ,law to civil     
,law1 t is1 ( ,morality to ,law1        
practically co9cide ) m9e4 ,nev]!less1  
he ignobly d5ies ! moral dec5cy ( 8     
doctr9e ( ,law :5 lat] on he coldly &   
dryly rem>ks3 ,all t ! /ate comm&s is j1
 all t x =bids is unju/4 ,say+ ?is he   
/upidly & obsequi\sly makes ! civil code
 ! s\rce ( ,law1 :]eas by 8 own         
def9ition ,law 7he says ,natural ,law7  
is ! s\rce ( ! civil code4 ,x is m      
p>donable = ,pus5dorf1 a =mal juri/1 to 
say3 ,law is ! decree 7decretum7 ) :i* a
 sup]ior b9ds 8 subject 7sibi           
subjectum74 ,t int]pretation ( ,law is  
possible if x is consid]$ f outside2 x  
is a means ( co]cion 9 ! h&s ( ! mighty 
to subjugate ! dep5dant2 ?is po9t ( view
 ignores ! ess5tial2 b ,pus5dorf has no 
conc]n ) ?is1 = he makes no claim to be 
a philosoph]1 he keeps )9 ! b\nds (     
juridical practice4  ,! ,bi%op (        
,seville1 ,sa9t ,isidor1 ! mo/ respect$ 

!ologian ( ! "t betwe5 ! la/ patri/ic   
writ]s & ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as1 gives !    
foll[+ def9ition ( ,law3 ,law is an     
in/itution 7con/itutio7 made by ! p1 by 
:i* ! nobles 7majores natu71 toge!r ) ! 
common folk1 h giv5 a sanction to "s    
ord9ance4 ,?is says little ab\t ! ess5ce
 ( ,law1 b x leads to ! "q ( ! orig9 (  
laws4 ,on ?is subject1 too1 :ole        
libr>ies full ( books h be5 writt5 s9ce 
! "t ( ,plato & ,ari/otle2 luckily1 = ! 
mo/ "p1 !y n[ only s]ve z food = mo?s & 
worms4  ,f ?is tangle ( hair-splitt+ &  
sophi/ry1 f ?is muddle ( syllogisms1    
dogmatism & deep-s\nd+ phrases :i* mean 
no?+ at all1 "o ?\ght em]ges pretty     
cle>ly1 to wit1 t only ! highe/ au?ority
 9 ! ,/ate has ! "r to make laws4 ,on   
?is po9t !re is p]fect unanimity2 & t is
 natural1 = x is s obvi\s t x has no ne$
 to be circum/antially inve/igat$ &     
prov$ 9 ! fifty ?\s& books t h be5      
writt5 on ! subject4 ,x is p]fectly cle>
 t "o _c possibly =ce all ! memb]s ( a  
/ate to obey c]ta9 comm&s & prohibitions

 :i* ! ,law conta9s1 unless "o is /rong]
 ?an ea* "o ( !m1 & !re=e ! ,law mu/    
necess>ily emanate f ! highe/ p[] 9 !   
/ate4 ,x is beside ! po9t to obscure ?is
 simple/ & mo/ transp>5t fact by        
que/ions z to ! "r ( ! law-giv]4 ,he    
ne$s no !oretical "r s9ce he has !      
might4 ,to use ,kant's expression1      
positive ,law is n a creation ( ! m9d   
7,greek3 n\m5on71 x is a ph5om5on2 its  
exi/5ce is a matt] ( empiricism1 n (    
reason2 x is a matt] ( fact & is "u no  
obligation to ju/ify itself             
intellectually to ! intellect4 ,no      
law-giv] has ev] tr\bl$ to tack on a    
preamble or an addition to ! law he     
promulgates prov+ t he has ! "r to enact
 x4  ,b 9 ! lit]ature deal+ ) ?is matt] 
op9ions diff] widely z to :o embodies or
 possesses ! highe/ p[] 9 ! /ate4       
,accord+ to "s x is ! k+1 because he    
wields ! sword & !re=e c en=ce          
unconditional ob$i5ce2 accord+ to o!rs x
 is ! ,*ur*1 because ! ,law1 to be b9d+1
 mu/ be moral1 & ,morality is e/abli%$  

by ,god s9ce ! ,*ur* is ! repres5tative 
( ,god on e>?4 ,o!rs aga9 reg>d ! p z a 
:ole z ! highe/ p[]1 because )\t _!     
ass5t no law c prevail1 & because ev5 ! 
k+ only has ! p[] ( :i* ! p dive/s      
itself to transf] x to him4 ,hi/ory has 
advanc$ beyond ?is qu>rel4  ,to-day no  
"o d>es to dispute ! fact t ! nation    
alone is qualifi$ to enact laws = itself
 ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( its *os5               
repres5tatives1 & t no law c be b9d+ = !
 p )\t _! explicit or tacit cons5t4 ,9  
,switz]l&1 :]e !y h in/itut$ ! ref]5dum1
 ! p by _! vote c repudiate a law1 made 
by _! repres5tatives 9 _! "n1 be=e x    
comes into =ce2 & 9 ! o!r con/itutional 
/ates !y h rec\rse to ! foll[+ exp$i5t3 
:5ev] a law is promulgat$ :i* seems     
inacceptable to !m1 at ! next           
,p>liam5t>y election !y vote = m5 :o are
 pl$g$ to d away ) x4 ,! p h ! p[] to   
make laws1 !re=e !y also h ! "r to d s1 
& !y d n hesitate to revolt if ?is "r is
 tamp]$ )4 ,9 rec5t times no nation     
outside ,russia has submitt$ to hav+    

laws =c$ on x1 9 fram+ :i* x has n      
co-op]at$1 & :i* x has n expressly      
accept$4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates tore !mselves 
away f ! ,"m ,c\ntry ) ! cry3 ,no       
taxation )\t repres5tation6 & m ?an a   
hundr$ ye>s be=e t ! ,engli% p _h       
irrefutably prov$ to ! ,/u>t k+1 ,*>les 
,i1 t he _h no "r to make & unmake laws1
 by condemn+ him 9 a c\rt ( law ) legal 
=malities & !n hav+ 8 head cut (f by a  
mask$ execution]4  ,! legal code is !   
concrete =m ( ! ,law1 & ! ,law is !     
cry/allization ( ! mo/ mat]ial "p (     
,morality4 ,& z ,morality b9ds e memb] (
 ! community1 z man is only tol]at$ 9 ! 
community on condition t he respects    
,morality1 x is a matt] ( logic t he    
%\ld also respect ! ,law2 t is to say1 t
 he mu/ n only submit to x because he   
fe>s puni%m5t if he fails to d s1 b t he
 mu/ feel ob$i5ce to ! ,law to be "p ( 8
 ,morality1 t he mu/ act lawfully at !  
dictate ( 8 own consci5ce1 & n because (
 ! ?reat ( ! p[] ( ! /ate4 ,?is might be
 enunciat$ z a pr9ciple )\t res]vation &

 )\t limitation1 if 9 practice ! laws   
always 71 z 9 !ory !y %\ld be1 moral4 ,b
 ?is is n necess>ily ! case4 ,! law is a
 =m1 & e =m c be abus$ by fill+ x )     
unlawful cont5ts4 ,if an unscrupul\s    
adult]ator ( w9e fills a *ampagne bottle
 ( ! usual %ape1 complete ) metall$ &   
wir$ cork & a label recomm5d+ x1 ) "s   
disgu/+ mixture & puts x on ! m>ket1 he 
is sev]ely puni%$ = adult]ation ( food &
 infr+em5t ( ! law protect+ trade m>ks4 
,b if ! gov]nm5t publi% 9 ! ,gazette    
fooli%1 risky1 & p]haps absolutely      
immoral ord]s 9 ! =m ( a law1 duly      
arrang$ 9 *apt]s1 articles & p>agraphs1 
z ! p are accu/om$ to see+ _! moral laws
 express$1 :o impugns !m = x8  ,!       
examples ( ?is 9 hi/ory are only too    
num]\s4 ,to ?is category belong all laws
 seek+ to ma9ta9 ! validity ( /ate      
au?ority at ! exp5se ( ! natural rights 
( ?9k+ & feel+ m51 e4g4 all religi\s    
p]secutions1 ! maltreatm5t ( sociali/s1 
excise laws & duties :i* hamp] fre$om ( 
"w & movem5t1 or are tantam\nt to robb+ 

a p>ticul> man or all citiz5s4 ,z a     
rule1 laws ( ?is k9d c be impos$ ^u ! p 
only 9 a despotically rul$ /ate1 s9ce ! 
p 9 ?is case has no %>e 9 legislation2 b
 con/itutional gov]nm5t is no gu>antee  
aga9/ x1 = p>liam5t>y majorities c be   
=c$ to enact tyrannical laws1 by fann+ !
 flame ( national or p>ty fanaticism1 by
 enc\rag+ prejudices1 or by             
intimidation2 ?is is prov$ by ,bism>ck's
 ,may laws & ,sociali/ laws1 & also by !
 laws pass$ by ! ,national ,assembly at 
,v]sailles aga9/ ! rebels ( ! ,commune &
 aga9/ ,p>is4 ,ob$i5ce to su* laws _c   
reasonably be dem&$4 ,only a ,hobbes w  
dispute ?is1 = :om ev]y?+ t ! /ate      
comm&s is j1 ev]y?+ t x prohibits is    
unju/1 or ! ,dige/ accord+ to :i* quod  
pr9cipi placuit1 legis habet vigorem    
7:at pleases ! rul] has ! =ce ( law74   
,legal enactm5ts1 ?\gh !y be immoral1   
are yet =mal ,law2 z a matt] ( fact1    
h[ev]1 !y are wrong1 & ev5 if _!        
orig9ator has ! p[] by brute =ce to     
secure ob$i5ce to !m1 no man :o tries to

 evade !m & to get !m aboli%$ w be      
accus$ ( immorality4  ,a trivial        
objection /rikes "o at once4 ,only a    
despotic megalomaniac w =bid 8 subjects 
to make repres5tations 9 ! prop] qu>t]s1
 & 9 ! prop] way1 = ! purpose ( gett+ a 
bad law abrogat$2 b z long z x is 9 =ce 
x mu/ be obey$4 ,= if e citiz5 7 all[$  
to make a selection ( ! laws accord+ to 
8 *oice1 acquiesc+ 9 "s & reject+ o!rs1 
?is w\ld lead /raight to an>*y4 ,! reply
 to ?is is t an>*y1 al?\gh a t]rible    
evil1 is not)/&+ a less] "o ?an an      
immoral law1 t is1 a law :i* s9s aga9/  
,morality4 ,= ! ma9t5ance ( law & ord]  
:i* ! ,/ate gu>antees is only pref]able 
to an>*y because x enables individuals  
to live toge!r 9 peace1 & gu>antees     
lib]ty ( movem5t & respect = p]sons1    
life & prop]ty4 ,b if ! ,/ate acts      
wrongly1 & int]f]es 9 ! feel+s &        
convictions ( individuals1 if x uses    
brute =ce to compel !m to actions &     
ab/5tions aga9/ :i* all ! good 9 !m     
rebels1 !n its law & ord] is law &      

disord]1 & x is ! ,/ate itself :i* br+s 
ab\t a condition ( an>*y by mak+ =ce !  
rul+ factor 9 ! life ( ! individual4 ,= 
! latt] x is all "o :e!r he has to yield
 to ! =ce ( ! ,/ate or t ( 8 neighb\r4  
,nay1 m1 8 position is worse 9 a        
condition ( an>*y caus$ by ! ,/ate1 ?an 
9 t :i* exi/$ be=e ! ,/ate 0 =m$1       
because x is easi] to meet =ce ) =ce1 :5
 ?is emanates f an individual :o is "o's
 equal1 ?an :5 x is ex]cis$ by ! sup]ior
 organization ( ! ,/ate4 ,! ,/ate :i*   
enacts immoral laws d5ies its own       
pr9ciple & causes its own dissolution4  
,! intellectual con/ructions ( !        
eighte5? c5tury1 ( :i* ! mo/ fam\s is   
,j4 ,j4 ,r\sseau's ,social ,contract1   
are n tak5 lit]ally by anyone n[adays4  
,nobody s]i\sly believes t "o day       
individuals liv+ 9 a /ate ( nature b&$  
!mselves toge!r & made a contract1 by   
virtue ( :i* !y r5\nc$ c]ta9 lib]ties & 
rights & transf]r$ !m to a sup]ior      
au?ority :i* 0 to rule !m s z to promote
 ! g5]al welf>e1 peace & happ9ess4 ,b if

 ! proc$ure 0 n q s simple z ?is1 at    
lea/ x is c]ta9 t ! ,/ate und]takes !   
task :i* ,r\sseau expressly prescribes z
 its aim4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ?r\gh its fault1 !
 fault ( its legislation1 ! welf>e ( !  
community suff]s1 & peace & happ9ess are
 n promot$ b h9d]$1 di/urb$ & de/roy$1  
!n e citiz5 has ! moral "r to revolt    
aga9/ ! ,/ate & p>alyse its p]nici\s    
might2 n because x has brok5 a =mal     
contract ) its citiz5s1 b because x has 
become inimical to ! peaceful life (    
mank9d1 ! purpose ( e social community4 
,if anyone is tr\bl$ at ! ?\ght t !re is
 no reliable /&>d :]eby to te/ !        
morality ( a law & no place indicat$ :]e
 su* a measure c be appli$1 he may take 
com=t by rememb]+ t all ,morality is    
surr5d]$ to ! feel+s & judgm5t ( !      
majority & has no o!r sanction ?an ?is4 
,hi/ory tea*es u t ! majority does n    
acquit itself too badly ( its duty4     
,public op9ion suffices to ma9ta9       
,morality at a c]ta9 level 9 a          
community4 ,& if public op9ion is       

capable ( ensur+ respect = ! unwritt5   
law ( ,morality )\t ! sanctions ( ,/ate 
,law1 x may surely be recogniz$ z a fit 
judge ( ! morality ( a law4 ,t is ! !ory
 ( ! "r ( citiz5s to def5d !mselves by  
all means1 ev5 by =ce1 aga9/ immoral    
laws4 ,practically1 x is ( no           
importance1 because n[adays1 at lea/ 9  
all progressive & lib]ally gov]n$       
,/ates1 ! p h con/itutional means at _! 
disposal to prev5t or quickly to rid    
!mselves ( laws t are obnoxi\s4         
,morality includes ! ,law1 :]eas ,law is
 only a "p ( ,morality4 ,ow+ to its     
co]cive nature1 ! ,law is oblig$ to be  
concrete & mat]ial & to ignore all !    
impond]able1 b>ely p]ceptible1 spiritual
 & dream-l ?+s :i* hov] r\nd ,morality1 
surr\nd x ) an atmosph]e & transport x  
beyond def9ite b\nd>ies into ! realm ( !
 unconsci\s & vision>y4 ,! total        
exclusion ( ! elem5t ( feel+ :i*        
,morality includes1 con/itutes ! mo/    
pr(\nd diff]5ce betwe5 x & ! ,law4 ,law 
protects ord] b kn[s no love4 ,!        

sep>ation ( ,law f ,morality is due to !
 pressure ( selfi%ness :i* ?9ks x has   
made ! greate/ possible concession :5 x 
rises to ! height ( say+ ) ,ulpian3     
,nem9em la$]e4 ,suum cuique r$d]e4      
,hone/e viv]e4 ,injure no "o2 t is1     
refra9 f ! ru?less use ( =ce2 r5d] to   
ea* 8 own2 t is1 d n reta9 9 rascally   
fa%ion :at belongs to ano!r2 live       
hon\rably2 t is1 give no (f5ce to y\r   
neighb\r by disord]ly conduct &         
depravity4  ,well & good4 ,at a p9* "o c
 live l t4 ,b ! words pity1 k9dness1    
love ( "o's neighb\r d n occur 9        
,ulpian's pi?y /atem5ts1 & ! ,law kn[s  
no?+ ( !m4  ,! ,law gu>ds ea* man's     
well-e>n$ possessions1 b x bids no "o   
make sacrifices4 ,morality c dem& ^!4 ,x
 c insi/ t ! individual %\ld freely1 &  
urg$ by 8 own inn] impulse1 impose      
sacrifices ^u himself1 r$uce 8          
possessions 9 fav\r ( ano!r1 di/urb 8   
p]sonal com=t at any mom5t1 p]haps ev5  
risk 8 life2 t is to say1 t ( 8 own free
 w he %\ld d j ^? ?+s f :i* ! ,law      

c>efully %ields him4 ,:]e ! ,law says3  
injure no "o6 ,morality says (t5 en\gh3 
injure y\rself to d good to y\r         
neighb\r4 ,:]e ! ,law says3 to ea* man 8
 own6 ,morality n seldom says3 to ea*   
man y\r own if he ne$s x m ?an y d4     
,morality c\nts on ! exi/5ce ( a quality
 ( :i* ! ,law has no ne$3 ,sympa?y4 ,to 
be moral we mu/ feel 9 our own be+ at ! 
"t1 or retrospectively1 ! subjective    
exp]i5ces ( our neighb\r1 ) ! same      
quality ( emotion t he feels2 8 pa9 mu/ 
be our pa91 z 8 pleasure mu/ be our     
pleasure4 ,= ! man :o _c d ?is--:o      
realizes 9 8 m9d ! circum/ances ( 8     
neighb\r only z an image1 & )\t !       
concomitant note ( feel+--x is          
impossible to rise to ! height (        
,morality4 ,x is n 8 fault1 = ! gift (  
sympa?y is an organic disposition1 :i* y
 ei!r d or d n possess1 :i* y c develop 
or suppress1 b :i* y _c create if x is  
lack+4 ,nev]!less1 ! lack ( sympa?y is a
 pitiable infirmity1 = x prev5ts a man f
 scal+ ! heights ( ,morality4  ,to      

respect ! ,law is to practise a wise    
selfi%ness4 ,to act morally is to dive/ 
oneself ( selfi%ness & atta9 ! privilege
 ( unselfi%ness4 ,to behave 9 /rict     
accordance ) ! ,law e>ns ! m]it$ praise 
( civic blamelessness4 ,b to act morally
 is a virtue :i* is ( incomp>ably high] 
quality ?an t ( m]e blamelessness4 ,!   
law-abid+ man1 ! hone/ man1 is prais$ z 
hav+ be5 ,integ] vitae scel]is purus4 ,t
 is an acceptable epitaph4 ,b ! man (   
active ,morality1 will+ly suff]+ = o!rs1
 provides an example :i* reconciles     
millions to ! h>d%ips ( life4 ,! =m] is 
a wor?y man1 b ! latt] is a sa9t4       
,,*apt] ,v  ,,individual ,,morality ,,& 
,,collective ,,immorality   ,m51 :o w\ld
 be deeply (f5d$ if _! ,morality 7 call$
 into "q1 q coolly inve/igate ! problem 
z to :e!r ! ,/ate 9 its actions &       
omissions is b\nd by ! same moral laws z
 ! individual1 & ! majority ( !m come to
 ! conclusion t 9 its relation to o!r   
,/ates1 ! ,/ate mu/ n be guid$1 t is to 
say1 hamp]$1 by moral consid]ations4 ,!y

 g fur!r ?an ?is & n only lib]ate !     
,/ate 9 its deal+s ) o!r c\ntries f !   
trammels ( ,morality1 b claim = !       
gov]nm5t ! privilege ( /&+ beyond &     
above ! moral law 9 ! conduct ( public  
affairs1 because to _! m9d bo? =eign &  
home politics move on a diff]5t plane to
 t ( e?ics4 ,if anyone objects to ?is   
%ameless cont5tion1 its advocates       
contemptu\sly dismiss him ) ! disda9ful 
rem>k3 ,t is ! drivel ( a layman1 & no  
man ( sci5ce w\ld wa/e 8 "t on x4 ,& if 
y 7 to reply3 ,y\r views are ^? (       
gaolbirds :o try aft] ! ev5t to hat* a  
!ory ju/ify+ _! misde$s1 !y w\ld        
probably %rug _! %\ld]s & murmur        
scornfully3 ,! man is obvi\sly mad4     
,pr(essorial wisdom has =mulat$         
p$antically :at practical politicians1 !
 heads ( /ates & lead+ m9i/]s h ?\ght1  
said & done4 ,napoleon rem>k$ at ,/4    
,hel5a to ,c\nt de ,las ,cases1 :o      
respectfully notes ! fact 9 8 ,mmorial  
de ,sa9te ,hlne3 ,! actions ( a rul] :o 
lab\rs = ! community1 mu/ be di/+ui%$ f 

^? ( a private individual :o is free to 
indulge 8 feel+s2 policy p]mits1 nay1   
comm&s1 ! "o to d :at 9 ! case ( ! o!r  
w\ld (t5 be inexcusable4 ,p]haps x 0 "u 
! influ5ce ( ?is rem>k1 ) :i* he1 no    
d\bt1 0 famili>1 t ,pr(essor ,nis>d "o  
day 9 a lecture at ! ,sorbonne 9 ,p>is  
prop\nd$ ! !ory t !re 0 a dual          
,morality1 "o public or political1 ! o!r
 private1 & t ^! two did n foll[ ! same 
rules4 ,t 0 %ortly aft] ! ,c\p d',etat (
 ,napoleon ,,iii1 & x 0 easy to descry1 
9 ! words ( ! celebrat$ pr(essor (      
lit]>y hi/ory1 obsequi\sness t[>ds ! new
 ,emp]or & ! ef=t ( a c\rti] to excuse !
 viol5ce :i* ! ,emp]or _h j done to !   
con/itution he _h sworn to uphold4      
,nis>d 0 "o ( ! ornam5ts ( ! univ]sity1 
a tea*] ( y\?1 :o 0 z popul> z he 0     
respect$4 ,b ! s\nd e?ical feel+ ( 8    
he>]s revolt$ aga9/ ! depravity ( !     
pr9ciples he _h j enunciat$1 & ! viol5t 
expression ( _! indignation drove him 9 
%ame & disgrace f 8 *air & out ( !      
lecture hall4  ,mac*iavelli is ! mo/    

fam\s advocate ( ! ,immorality ( ! ,/ate
 & ! "r ( politics to be une?ical1 & 8  
"n is id5tifi$ ) ?is infam\s !ory4 ,an  
enorm\s am\nt has be5 writt5 ab\t !     
,flor5t9e /atesman1 8 book ( ! ,pr9ce & 
! doctr9es he advances 9 x2 among ^!    
works ^? 9 :i* 8 !ories are endors$     
prepond]ate to a horrify+ ext5t ov] ^?  
:i* oppose & refute !m4 ,mohl & ,paul   
,janet h furni%$ u ) ! be/ ab/racts ( ^!
 v num]\s writ+s1 & ,i ref] ! read] to  
!m4 ,"h ,i c only dwell on ! ma9 po9ts (
 ! inve/igation4  ,mac*iavelli writes3  
,a man :o wi%es to be p]fectly good is  
)\t d\bt 9 dang] among ^? :o are n good4
 ,x is !re=e advisable t a pr9ce %\ld   
le>n n always to be good1 s z to be able
 to put ^! rules ( life into practice1  
or n1 z circum/ances may dem&4 ,a pr9ce 
_c ma9ta9 loyalty to a treaty if x      
become dang]\s to 8 int]e/s4 ,9 %ort1 ! 
pr9ce n only may1 b mu/1 d :at is 9 8   
own int]e/s4 ,he ne$ n /op to ?9k :e!r 8
 actions are hone/4 ,! only measure ( _!
 wor? & appropriat5ess is ! pr(it !y    

promise4 ,_! success always ju/ifies !m1
 only _! failure proves !m to be bad4   
,! mo/ revolt+ ?+ 9 ! argum5ts ( !      
,pr9ce is ! equanimity ) :i* ! au?or    
adduces !m4 ,nev] does he let slip a ^w 
( excitem5t1 nev] does an indication (  
feel+ appe>4 ,he treats 8 subject n z an
 inve/igation ( pr9ciples to :i* "o     
adopts a m5tal attitude & :i* "o %\ld   
approve or disapprove1 b z a description
 ( exi/+ facts :i* ar\se "o's emotions z
 little z1 = in/ance1 ! enum]ation ( !  
qualities & *>act]i/ics ( a m9]al4 ,x   
has be5 said 9 8 def5ce t 8 book is a   
concrete /udy1 ! pres5tation ( ! "* (   
,cs> ,borgia1 ( 8 psy*ology & ( 8       
pr9ciples ( gov]nm5t2 & t ,mac*iavelli  
wi%$ to give an objective acc\nt ( !    
philosophy ( ! ev5ts he _h obs]v$1 b did
 n wi% to judge !m subjectively2 & ?is1 
if = no o!r reason1 because an          
expression ( 8 own op9ion w\ld h be5 too
 dang]\s = him4 ,x is fur!r urg$ t 8    
p]sonal views are reveal$ 9 ! treatise  
on ,livy4  ,?is def5ce1 h[ev]1 is f> f  

conv9c+4 ,9 ! ,pr9ce ,mac*iavelli       
ma9ta9s ! same unconc]n$ & cool note t  
prevails 9 8 acc\nt ( ! trea*]\s        
assass9ations p]petrat$ 9 ,s5igaglia by 
8 h]o ,cs> ,borgia4 ,! only p]sonal     
feel+1 :i* peeps out occasionally 9 bo? 
works1 is a c]ta9 p]v]se1 /hetic        
satisfaction1 exp]i5c$ by ! arti/ ) !   
eye ( a connoisseur :o l+]s ov] a "w (  
nature1 p]fect 9 its way1 & delights 9 !
 h>mony ( actions :i*1 ) absolute logic1
 almo/ ) ma!matical precision1 result f 
! def9ite premise suppli$ by a c]ta9 "*4
 ,des ,esse9tes1 ! ideal /hete inv5t$ by
 ,joris ,k>l ,huysmans1 may appraise !  
wor? ( a mon/] solely by its beauty1 )\t
 a ?\ght = its morality4 ,b by su*      
appraisem5t he cuts himself (f f !      
community ( m51 ?\gh he1 9 8 arrogance1 
be+ morally insane1 may abuse !m z      
phili/9es4  ,s9ce x fir/ appe>$1        
,mac*iavellism has f\nd disciples &     
admir]s 9 e age2 & ^!1 9 lib]at+        
politics f all fett]s ( ,morality1 g    
fur!r ?an its orig9ator4 ,! ,g]man juri/

 ( ! c5tury ( ! ,re=mation1 ,s*oppe     
7#aegf-afdi71 decl>es s5t5ti\sly t      
politics diff] f ,morality & h _! own   
pr9ciples1 j z ,morality has3 he        
consid]s t ! *ief diff]5ce betwe5 !m is 
t ! latt] takes z its subject ( /udy t  
:i* %\ld be2 ! =m]1 t :i* is4 ,= ?is "o 
phrase ?is p$ant1 :o has o!rwise rightly
 des]v$ oblivion1 has "s claim to be    
rememb]$4 ,= "h he consigns ,morality to
 ! realm ( pure ?\ght1 ( !oretical &    
m$itative idealism1 :ile = politics he  
claims ! sph]e ( practical reality & %[s
 ! fir/ dim dawn+ ( t practical policy  
7,realpolitik7 :i*1 two hundr$ & fifty  
ye>s lat]1 0 to be z ! light ( ! sun to 
/atesm54  ,! ,fr5*man1 ,gabriel ,naud1  
almo/ a contempor>y ( ,s*oppe's1        
con/itut$ himself ! *ampion ( ,c\ps     
d',etat1 if !y promis$ political        
advantages2 fur!r1 he ju/ifies & praises
 ! ,night ( ,sa9t ,b>?olomew1 a v       
en]getic measure tak5 9 8 lifetime to   
put an end to ! religi\s /rife :i* 0    
weak5+ ,france & caus+ ! gov]nm5t mu*   

emb>rassm5t2 8 only regret is t ! happy 
idea ( slaught]+ all ! ,hugu5ots 0 n    
c>ri$ out m completely2 9 o!r words1 t !
 massacre ( ! obnoxi\s ,prote/ants 0 n  
cont9u$ until !y _h be5 completely wip$ 
out4  ,ev5 9 ,desc>tes1 :o confess$ to a
 some:at %ady opportunism 9 que/ions (  
/ate &1 = in/ance1 conc$es reasonable & 
moral ju/ification to ,absolutism1 we   
f9d ! depress+ /atem5t3 ,aga9/ ! enemy  
"o is1 s to speak 7'quasi'71 p]mitt$ to 
d any?+1 a consci\s & det]m9$ d5ial ( ! 
,*ri/ian comm&m5t ,love ?9e enemies1 :i*
 p]haps dem&s too mu* ( ! av]age man & c
 only be expect$ f sa9ts1 b :i*1 anyway1
 conta9s an exhortation = all ! _w at   
lea/ to be j to "o's enemies & act      
accord+ to ! dictates ( ,morality4      
,d',holba* does n beat ab\t ! bu%1 b    
decl>es r\ndly3 ,9 politics ! only crime
 is n to succe$4 ,ev5 ,mac*iavelli did n
 express x z baldly z t4 ,to quote !    
,duke ( ,la ,ro*ef\cauld1 he at lea/    
pays virtue ! complim5t ( hypocrisy1 =  
he gives ?is advice3 ,d 7! evil :i* is  

pr(itable7 & excuse x aft]w>ds4 ,?is is 
a p>aphrase ( ! old advice giv5 by a    
pettifogg+ lawy] = ! b5efit ( ! crim9al3
 ,if y h done x1 d5y x1 & ( ! well-kn[n 
phrase ( ,fr$]ick ! ,great :i* runs     
some?+ l ?is3 ,if ,i h a desire = a     
=eign c\ntry1 ,i beg9 by seiz+ x1 !n ,i 
s5d = lawy]s :o prove t ,i _h a "r to x4
 ,?is1 !n1 0 ! op9ion ( t k+ :o wrote an
 ,anti-,mac*iavelli1 ( :om1 h[ev]1 ,paul
 ,janet neatly rem>ks3 ,no?+ is m       
typical ( ,mac*iavellism ?an z heir     
presumptive to ! ?rone to refute        
,mac*iavelli's pr9ciples1 & !n z rul+   
mon>* to apply !m ) ! m det]m9ation4  ,=
 ! sake ( ! incorruptible ,morality :i* 
,kant def5ds 9 8 little "w ,vom ewig5   
,fri$5 7,( ,et]nal ,peace71 he may be   
=giv5 = 8 weakly worldly wisdom 9 foll[+
 up ! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason ) !     
,critique ( ,practical ,reason4 ,9 ,vom 
ewig5 ,fri$5 he bravely dem&s h>mony    
betwe5 ,politics & ,morality4 ,m        
sweep+ly ?an ! ,engli% prov]b1 ,hone/y  
is ! be/ policy1 he demon/rates t hone/y

 is bett] ?an policy4 ,x is an old      
tradition ( all gov]nm5ts1 & especially 
( diplomacy1 to affect secrecy1 s9ce _! 
inav[able intrigues %un ! light ( day & 
! eye ( outsid]s4 ,to-day ! democracy 9 
all con/itutional /ates dem&s t =eign   
policy %\ld be giv5 full publicity4     
,kant express$ 8 op9ion %ortly & %>ply a
 hundr$ & fifty ye>s ago3 ,all political
 actions :i* _c be made public are      
unju/4 ,9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 9 :i* he   
liv$ & :i* began ) ! w> ( ! ,spani%     
,succession1 w5t on to ! w>s ( ,fr$]ick 
! ,great1 & end$ ) ! w> ( ! ,coalition  
aga9/ ! ,fr5* ,revolution1 he does n d>e
 to make a def9ite claim t =ce %\ld be  
expell$ f int]-/ate relations & ,law put
 9 its place1 b he does say1 if some:at 
timidly1 t "o may dream ( an ideal 9 :i*
 ! qu>rels ( nations are adju/$1 l ^? ( 
private p]sons1 by laws :i* h be5 fram$ 
& approv$ by all4 ,kant is a com=t+     
exception amid ! _m tea*]s (            
con/itutional law :o are almo/          
unanim\sly ,mac*iavellian 9 _! attitude1

 & :o reg>d 8 po9t ( view ) contemptu\s 
& condesc5d+ l5i5cy because he 0 an     
unworldly philosoph]1 a !ori/ 9         
politics4  ,! ,engli% & ,scotti% moral  
philosoph]s1 f ,locke to ,j4 ,s4 ,mill &
 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 are all unta9t$ by      
,mac*iavellism & recognize only "o      
,morality = ! /ate z = ! individual1 =  
political z = private action4 ,b x mu/  
be admitt$ t _! doctr9es h n yet be5    
g5]ally assimilat$ by ! consci\sness (  
_! own p4 ,n[1 z ev]1 x is a fundam5tal 
pr9ciple ( ,engli% law t ! k+ c d no    
wrong4 ,t means t ! k+1 ! embodim5t &   
epitome ( ! /ate1 z ! s\rce ( ,law is   
,law itself1 & is sup]ior to all ! laws 
( ! c\ntry1 :i* is a /ill m dra/ic      
p>aphrase ( ! doctr9e ( ! ,dige/3 quod  
pr9cipi placuit legis habet vigorem2 e  
:im ( ! pot5tate has ! =ce ( law1 & !   
,engli% h co9$ ! horrible phrase1 ,my   
c\ntry1 "r or wrong1 a dictum :i* all[s 
ru?less deceiv]s ( ! p & de/roy]s ( _!  
c\ntry to hide _! mo/ appall+ misde$s   
b5ea? ! mask ( patriotism & to disguise 

de$s wor?y ( a crim9al 9 ! habilim5ts ( 
virtue4  ,real patriotism dem&s t a true
 citiz5 & an hon\rable man %\ld ) might 
& ma91 ev5 at ! price ( 8 life1 oppose  
any inju/ice ab\t to be committ$ by 8   
gov]nm5t & 8 misguid$ compatriots2 &1   
fur!r1 t he %\ld /rive to ma9ta9 8      
c\ntry 9 ! pa? ( ,"r & ,morality ev5 if1
 z sometimes happ5s1 9 a dispute betwe5 
8 nation & a =eign "o ! latt] has ,"r & 
,morality on its side4 ,on ! plea (     
inevitable p>tiality a judge may refuse 
to try a case 9 :i* a ne> relative ( 8  
is involv$4 ,t is a p]missible          
concession to t human imp]fection :i*   
causes reason to fall sil5t :5 feel+    
raises its voice2 & ju/ice does n suff]1
 = !re are o!r judges :o c take ! seat t
 has be5 volunt>ily vacat$4 ,no citiz5  
has ! "r to evade ! duty ( judg+ 8      
c\ntry1 because1 if he fails1 !re is no 
o!r judge :o c be put 9 8 place & fulfil
 8 duty4 ,e citiz5 is p]sonally         
responsible = ! j & moral behavi\r ( 8  
community1 responsible to 8 own         

consci5ce1 to 8 nation1 to ! _w1 to !   
pres5t & to ! future2 & if he is p[]less
 to prev5t depravity & misde$s1 he mu/  
at lea/ solemnly & l\dly condemn !m1 z  
?is is 8 only means ( avoid+ jo9t       
responsibility = ! infamy4 ,if he fails 
to d ?is1 ! public crime becomes 8      
p]sonal crime z well4 ,! eld] ,brutus1 s
 mu* & s ju/ly admir$ by ! ,romans1 is  
an example to all1 = )\t m]cy he h&$ 8  
own fle% & blood ov] to ! execution]1 :5
 accord+ to ! law 8 life 0 =feit4 ,!    
/ate has no great] claim to indulg5ce & 
m]cy ?an _h ,brutus's son1 if kn[+ly &  
int5tionally x indulges 9 vice4 ,= if y 
all[ ! dictum1 ,"r or wrong1 my c\ntry1 
to be valid1 !n y mu/ also apply x to ! 
/ate ( filibu/]]s t once exi/$ 9 !      
,antilles1 & mu/ dem& ( its citiz5s t _!
 patriotism %\ld approve & def5d !ft1   
piracy1 rape & assass9ation1 = !        
sy/ematic p]petration ( :i* _! /ate 0   
f\nd$4  ,9 contra/ ) ?is wret*$ ,my     
c\ntry1 "r or wrong1 ! inflexible dictum
 ( ! anci5ts /&s out3 ,fiat ju/itia1    

p]eat mundus6 7,let ju/ice be done ?\gh 
! _w p]i%674 ,& :at does mo/ hon\r to ! 
,fr5* ,revolution is ! phrase s (t5     
mock$ by political pr(ite]s3 ,soon] %all
 ! colonies p]i% ?an a pr9ciple6 ,t 0 ! 
/&po9t ( ! prophets ( ,israel1 :o truly 
did n love _! p less ?an d ! wret*$     
sc\ndrels :o %\t hurray6 & yell songs1  
:5 _! c\ntry deals ,morality & ,"r a    
brutal bl[1 because ! lead]s ?9k t ?is w
 pr(it ! c\ntry1 or !mselves4  ,fr$]ick 
! ,great & ,napoleon1 z heads ( ! /ate1 
act$ 9 accordance ) ,mac*iavelli's      
views4 ,at _! "t ?is 0 express$ by say+ 
t !y 7 guid$ by ! necessities ( ! /ate4 
,9 ! second half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury     
,mac*iavellism receiv$ ! "n ( practical 
policy 7,realpolitik74 ,! despis]s (    
,morality1 :o call ! misde$s ( ! /ate   
,realpolitik1 app>5tly d n "k t ?is "o  
^w implies a v compreh5sive admission4  
,to _! idea ,realpolitik is a policy :i*
 reckons only ) realities1 n ) desires1 
ye>n+s or hope1 or z ,s*oppe brutally   
expresses x3 ) t :i* is1 n ) t :i* ought

 to be4 ,x is active 9 ! doma9 ( facts1 
n 9 t ( pr9ciples4  ,b1 accord+ to !    
advocates ( ,realpolitik1 facts &       
realities mean no?+ b ! sole rule (     
int]e/1 selfi%ness1 ru?lessness1 =ce1   
cunn+ & contempt = all =eign rights2    
:]eas fairness1 ju/ice1 ! curb+ &       
suppression ( "o's own desires1         
consid]ation = "o's neighb\r1 love (    
mank9d--all ^! are phrases1 or let u r  
say ideals1 :i* are to be f\nd1 n 9 !   
_w1 b 9 ! bra9s ( a small m9ority (     
en?usia/s )\t influ5ce4 ,he :o confesses
 to su* views1 to :om ! wor/ impulses   
alone are real1 :ile he relegates       
,morality to ! sph]e ( ! unreal1 (      
visions f> f reality1 is a pessimi/ z   
long z 8 convictions rema9 !ory2 b if he
 puts !m into practice1 or urges !      
lead]s ( ! /ate to d s1 !n he is an     
evildo] :o breaks ! moral law z soon z x
 appe>s unaccompani$ by ! police1 !     
prison & ! gall[s4 ,9 private life a man
 ) su* views is a crim9al :o obeys 8    
evil in/9cts :5ev] he may hope to evade 

! law ( ! /ate4 ,! b&it1 :o is clev]    
en\gh to manage s t police & c\rt (     
ju/ice _c t\* him1 is a practical       
politician1 = ! ri*es he acquires by    
!ft1 robb]y & murd] are realities2 !    
crim9al code is b a scrap ( pap]1 some?+
 vision>y1 z long z its m9ions d n seize
 him by ! coll>4  ,! immorality (       
politics1 ! way 9 :i* ! f\ndations (    
,morality are ignor$ by ! /ate1 is !    
natural consequ5ce ( ! p[] ( rul]s2 = 9 
!m all ! orig9al in/9cts ( ! human bea/ 
/ill untam$ by moral law are exagg]at$  
by ! int5se realization ( _! l(t9ess1 ! 
glory & ! illu/ri\sness ( _! position1 &
 !y are n =c$ by :olesome fe> ( ! means 
( co]cion wield$ by ! moral adm9i/ration
 to control !mselves1 to ex]cise &      
develop _! organic p[]s ( inhibition4 ,!
 elevation ( ?is fact ( ! ,immorality ( 
! /ate to a !ory t ! /ate is n b\nd by  
moral law1 is d]iv$ f ! conception :i*  
philosoph]s ( all ages1 f anci5t times  
to ! pres5t day1 h =m$ ( ! "* & !       
purpose ( ! /ate4 ,plato1 9 ! ,republic1

 ma9ta9s ! omnipot5ce ( ! /ate1 :i* no?+
 & no "o c limit2 & ,ari/otle1 n ris+ to
 su* heights ( error z 8 ma/]1 says m   
sob]ly3 ,x is a grave mi/ake to believe 
t e citiz5 is 8 own ma/]4 ,! ,italian   
philosoph] ,filangi]i consid]s ! guid+  
pr9ciple & motive p[] ( ! /ate to be    
love ( p[]1 :i* a fool ?ree c5turies    
lat] call$ ! w to p[]1 :]eupon o!r fools
 decl>$ ?is to be a br&-new discov]y4   
,hegel goes f>!/ ( all 9 8 idolatry ( ! 
/ate2 accord+ to him ! /ate is n alone  
moral1 b ,morality itself1 j z ,god is  
accord+ to ! !ologians4 ,z x w\ld be    
arrogant blasphemy to *>act]ize any?+ t 
,god orda9s z immoral1 z x w\ld be      
nons5sical to wi% to impose ^u ,god a   
moral law f outside1 n emanat+ f ,him1  
to :i* ,he w\ld h to submit ev5 aga9/ ,8
 w1 s x is repreh5sible to judge !      
actions ( ! /ate by ! /&>d ( individual 
,morality2 & x is equally absurd to     
admit any moral co]cion impos$ on ! /ate
 f outside1 any guid+ pr9ciple o!r ?an !
 law ( its necessities & ! logic :i*    

indicates ! means ne$$ to atta9 !       
necess>y end4  ,accord+ to ,treits*ke ! 
/ate is ! highe/ =m ( human exi/5ce2    
no?+ high] ?an ! /ate exi/s4 ,he has    
nev] ask$ himself ! "q :e!r1 aft] all1  
humanity itself is n sup]ior to ! /ate  
:i* is ! =m1 a =m1 ( its exi/5ce & !re=e
 n its ess5ce4  ,f 8 conviction t ! /ate
 is ! highe/ ?+ exi/+1 ,treits*ke       
concludes t c]ta9 moral duties1 e4g4 t (
 self-sacrifice1 _c possibly exi/ = !   
/ate4 ,! individual is to sacrifice     
himself = ! sake ( a high] community (  
:i* he is a memb]2 b ! /ate is itself ! 
highe/ ?+ 9 ! out] community ( mank9d1  
!re=e x c nev] be confront$ ) ! duty (  
self-de/ruction4  ,h[ obvi\s t seems6   
,h[ grossly mi/ak5 x is all ! same6     
,fir/ ( all ! /ate is n ! highe/ ?+2 !re
 is some?+ high]1 & t is humanity2 if !n
 we recognize a moral duty (            
self-sacrifice = humanity1 !oretically  
?is duty may arise j z mu* = ! /ate z = 
! individual4  ,secondly1 ! idea t ow+  
to ,morality ! /ate might "o day        

actually be 9 su* a position z to be =c$
 to sacrifice itself is ! mo/ %ock+     
nons5se4 ,h[ c\ld t possibly be8 ,if !  
/ate always acts ) /rict ,morality t[>ds
 its citiz5s & =eign /ates1 x is simply 
impossible t x %\ld h to sacrifice its  
exi/5ce 9 ! fulfilm5t ( "s task2 = tasks
 only arise :51 & z long z1 ! /ate      
exi/s4 ,once x is dis9tegrat$ !re c be  
no task1 ei!r !oretically or            
practically1 = x to accompli%1 !re=e x  
_c h to sacrifice itself = su* a task4  
,b if ! ,immorality ( ano!r /ate1 or ( a
 m9ority ( its citiz5s1 %\ld endang] x1 
?reat5 x ) an unju/ attack f )9 or )\t1 
!n !re is no rule ( ,morality t c =bid x
 to def5d itself to ! la/1 & its        
self-sacrifice c\ld !n only be a result 
( its complete annihilation 9 a         
ju/ifiable w> ( necessity4 ,on ! o!r h&1
 ev5 ! mo/ unscrupul\s practical        
politicians d n possess any absolute    
gu>antee aga9/ defeat1 ?\gh !y decl>e a 
w> ( aggression to be p]missible1 :e!r  
wag$ on acc\nt ( an it*+ = p[]1 =       

purposes ( conque/1 = ! w9n+ ( pre/ige1 
pr$om9ance or economic advantages4      
,?irdly & la/ly1 ! duty ( self-sacrifice
 = ! /ate c only be envisag$ & s]i\sly  
discuss$1 if ! /ate be conceiv$ z a     
p]son to :om ! duty ( ,morality applies 
9 e way2 b ?is conception is my/ic      
an?ropomorphism1 n sob]1 s5sible        
recognition ( realities su* z !         
practical politicians love to boa/ (4   
,=1 z a matt] ( fact1 ! /ate is n a     
p]son b a concept1 an in/itution creat$ 
by man 9 ! int]e/s ( "o individual1 ( a 
few1 ( _m or ( all2 an organization (   
habits & int]e/s1 a relation 9 :i*      
individuals live toge!r4 ,! my/icism ( !
 weak-m9d$ has trans=m$ x into a p]son )
 human features1 ) ! qualities1 desires1
 duties1 & aims ( an individual2 ^! m5  
are intellectually incapable ( p5etrat+ 
to ! fundam5tal facts und]ly+ ! concept1
 & cl+ entirely to ^w-pictures :i* are  
m]e v]balism4 ,s*ola/icism 9 ! elev5? & 
twelf? c5turies 0 *iefly occupi$ 9 a    
qu>rel ab\t ,nom9alism & ,realism4 ,x 0 

all[$ to drop & 0 n f\ght out to a      
decision4 ,p]haps because x is          
impossible to conv9ce ^! sup]ficial     
babbl]s :o take a "n or a ^w = an object
 actually exi/5t 9 "t & space1 t !y are 
9 error4 ,! fight betwe5 ,abel>d &      
,roscelet & t betwe5 ! two ( !m & ,duns 
,scotus ought to be tak5 up aga94 ,above
 all1 "o ought to knock x into ! heads (
 ^? :o make a feti% ( ! /ate t x is a   
m]e ^w1 ! fam\s flatus vocis ( !        
,nom9ali/s1 :i* !y wor%ip1 to :i* !y    
build alt>s & make human sacrifices4    
,?is humiliat+ =m ( idolatry is practis$
 by ! s*ool ( sociologi/s kn[n z        
organici/ic1 z well z by ! practical    
politicians4 ,?is s*ool ma9ta9s t !     
individual has no indep5d5t exi/5ce at  
all1 t he cont9ues to exi/ only 9 !     
community1 by ! community1 z a totally  
subord9ate1 dep5d5t & incomplete        
fraction ( ! community2 t ! only real ?+
 9 ! species is society1 ! /ate2 t ?is  
mu/ be reg>d$ z a liv+ organism1 9 :i* !
 individual human be+ is m]ely a cell   

:i* 9 solitude1 outside ! community &   
deta*$ f x1 is z little capable ( life &
 has z little significance z a cell     
sep>at$ f a highly diff]5tiat$ creature1
 su* z a man or "s o!r mammal4 ,9 my    
book ,d] ,s9n d] ,ges*i*te 7,! ,mean+ ( 
,hi/ory71 ,i ?rew z mu* light z ,i      
possibly c\ld on ?is sup]/ition1 & ,i   
po9t$ out 9 detail its lack ( s5se z    
well z its dang]s4 ,i c1 !re=e1 cont5t  
myself "h ) a rsum & a few indications4 
,!re is no?+ my/]i\s or sup]natural ab\t
 ! hi/oric or ev5 ! prehi/oric orig9 ( !
 /ate2 "p we c le>n f reliable docum5t>y
 evid5ce1 "p we c ga!r ) c]ta9ty f      
obvi\s facts4 ,f ! primitive human      
family1 :i* m probably consi/$ ( a pair 
?an ( a man & sev]al wom51 !re arose !  
=mless horde1 a cr[d ( individuals ( all
 ages1 connect$ by blood2 ?is develop$  
into a tribe 9 :i* age1 /r5g?1 c\rage & 
intellig5ce 7 appreciat$ 9 a c]ta9 ord]1
 & !reby 7 produc$ ! beg9n+s (          
discipl9e1 co-op]ation & regul>iz$      
mutual relations2 t is to say1 (        

organization4 ,?is embryo ( lat]        
=mations1 ?is sket*y beg9n+ ( an        
economic & political community1 evolv$ m
 def9ite & diff]5tiat$ =ms :5 ! w&]+    
huntsm5 & %eph]ds1 seek+ prolific hunt+ 
gr\nds & pa/ure l&s1 & lat] on arable l&
 too1 came ^u o!r gr\ps ( m5 & f\ght )  
!m = ! possession ( ! desir$ doma94 ,9 !
 conflict /rong & brave m5 came to !    
front1 & ! victor became ! natural1 & = 
! mo/ "p will+ly recogniz$1 lead] & ma/]
 ( 8 companions1 :ile any :o oppos$ him 
7 r$uc$ by =ce to submit to 8 au?ority4 
,! /ate cry/alliz$ ar\nd ?is w>-h]o1 &  
by all its memb]s its aim 0 cle>ly &    
obvi\sly recogniz$ to be def5ce & !     
increase ( prop]ty outside ! /ate2 t is1
 ! w>d+ (f ( attacks by =eign robb]s &  
acquisitive invasions ( neighb\r+       
doma9s--w>s ( def5ce & conque/1 b always
 w>2 & )9 ! /ate ! ma9t5ance ( a c]ta9  
measure ( safety = individuals4 ,?is    
safety1 h[ev]1 _h to be pur*as$ de>ly by
 ! limitation1 (t5 en\gh ! complete     
surr5d]1 ( ! "r ( self-det]m9ation1 (   

indep5d5ce ( w & fre$om2 s de>ly1 9     
fact1 t ! price 0 f> high] ?an ! value (
 ! advantages acquir$4  ,! lead] 9 w>f>e
 became ! rul] & bequea!d 8 privileges  
to 8 desc5dants4 ,! /ate 0 he himself1 !
 l& 8 prop]ty1 ! p 8 family 9 ! old s5se
 ( ! ^w--t is1 8 k9dr$1 8 s]vants1 8    
slaves4 ,8 comrades 9 arms :o _h mo/    
di/+ui%$ !mselves became an ari/ocracy (
 ! sword1 ! support]s & tools ( 8 p[]1  
?\gh (t5 en\gh !y became 8 rebelli\s    
rivals & ov]?rew him4 ,defeat$ enemies 7
 robb$ ( all _! possessions & slaught]$2
 lat] on !y 7 degrad$ to s]fs1 a        
position little bett] ?an t ( bea/s (   
burd54 ,a regul> p>asitism develop$1 by 
means ( :i* ! rul] & 8 companions 9 arms
 exploit$ ! subjugat$ & productive      
masses = _! own pr(it4  ,! acute =m (   
?is p>asitism 0 w>f>e 9 its *ronic =m1  
its prolongation 9 times ( peace1 !     
extortion ( contributions & duties1 !   
imposition ( taxes & =c$ lab\r f ! p4 ,!
 rul] 0 clev] en\gh to provide himself )
 a moral "r to 8 ex]cise ( brute =ce1 by

 inv5t+ a div9e orig9 = 8 p]son & p[]1 &
 mak+ wor%ip ( 8 p]son an ess5tial t5et 
( ! national religion4 ,! sy/ematic     
suppression ( ! masses )\t rights became
 ! univ]sal practice ( ! rul] & ( !     
in/rum5ts ( 8 p[]1 & ?is gradually      
spread to ! high] classes :o c\ld /ill  
play ! ma/] to ! l[] /rata1 b 7 ( no m  
acc\nt ?an ! vulg> h]d 9 ! eyes ( !     
rul]1 hav+ to b[ _! pr\d heads b5ea? !  
same yoke4 ,a v few races foll[$ a      
diff]5t c\rse ( developm5t f ! primitive
 horde to an organiz$ /ate4 ,!y rema9$  
free memb]s ( ! community ) equal       
rights1 !y all[$ no h]$it>y rul] f among
 !mselves to become _! sup]ior1 & gov]n$
 !mselves z republicans1 :o nev]!less   
also wag$ w> )\t exception1 ei!r =c$    
!reto by ! attacks ( gre$y neighb\rs or 
lur$ into do+ s by ! example ( !        
mon>*ies )9 _! purview or by lu/ =      
booty4 ,9 w>f>e !y won slaves &         
subjects1 & *ang$ into olig>*ies1 mo/   
(t5 into despotic /ates1 & be=e !y      
ultimately decl9$ to ! p>asitism ( a    

s+le man & 8 aids fell victims to a     
collective p>asitism :i* gave ! conqu]$ 
& subjugat$ population up to !          
spoliation ( ! victors4  ,up till mod]n 
times ! /ate pres]v$ ! "* ( a private   
doma9 belong+ to ! rul] & 8 h\se4 ,w>s 7
 wag$ 9 ! int]e/s ( dyna/ies1 & z late z
 ! eighte5? c5tury ! succession 9 ,spa9 
& 9 c]ta9 prov9ces ( ,au/ria 0 ! orig9 &
 purpose ( v>i\s campaigns4 ,! ,fr5*    
,revolution fir/ wr\ght a *ange 9 ?is4  
,s9ce ?is great ev5t x has be5          
impossible to plunge any ,european /ate 
into w> 9 ord] to support ! claims to   
prop]ty1 m or less legally ju/ifi$1 made
 by its rul+ h\se4 ,! p h tak5 ! place (
 pr9ces1 & n[ ! pr9ciple ( nationalities
 furni%es ! reason or excuse = bloody   
conflicts betwe5 /ates2 & ?is has become
 a factor 9 mod]n politics & hi/ory     
m]ely because dyna/ies _h built up _!   
realms reg>dless ( ! orig9 & language ( 
! inhabitants ( ! di/ricts :i* !y _h    
conqu]$1 /ol51 b\ght1 or acquir$ by     
ex*ange1 by m>riage or by inh]itance1 & 

7 indiff]5t to ! national unity ( _!    
subjects z long z !y c\ld ga9 possession
 ( ! c\ntry & ! p4  ,f ! "t ( its fir/  
vague beg9n+s up till ! rise ( mod]n    
democracy1 ! /ate has be5 no?+ b a means
 ( p>asitism 9 ! h&s ( ! rul+ p]son or  
gr\p1 & an in/rum5t = ! prep>ation =1 & 
! wag+ (1 w>4 ,all ! /ate's tasks1 :i*  
app>5tly lie outside ! sph]e ( w>1 if !y
 are c>efully exam9$1 w be f\nd1 aft]   
all1 to aim at effici5cy 9 w>1 & x has  
gradually select$ ^! tasks f ! simple   
consid]ation t _! execution increases ! 
gu>antees ( success 9 w>f>e & 9         
gov]nm5t4  ,! deification ( ! rul] 9    
,asiatic & ,egyptian l&s1 !             
unconditional id5tification ( ! realm ) 
8 p]son1 ! uni=m enslavem5t ( ! :ole p1 
its nave exploitation = ! sole b5efit ( 
! sov]eign & 8 assi/ants are no long]   
possible 9 ,europe at ! pres5t day4 ,!  
developm5t ( ! nations to a high] plane 
( civilization & a cle>] consci\sness ( 
_! own wor? =c$ ! /ate to alt] its      
con/itution to a c]ta9 ext5t & to devote

 itself1 at lea/ !oretically1 m to !    
int]e/s ( its citiz5s ?an ! s]vice ( its
 pr9ce4 ,! intellectual con/ructions ( !
 eighte5? c5tury correspond to no       
hi/orical reality4 ,! ,social ,contract1
 ! inception ( :i* ,j4 ,j4 ,r\sseau     
describ$ s graphically1 0 nev] made4    
,hut*eson1 :o _h express$ ! idea long   
be=e ! en?usia/ ( ,g5eva1 conceiv$ x    
only z ! epitome ( ! pr9ciples :i* !    
/ate %\ld embody2 accord+ to ,hume1 !   
relations ( ! citiz5s to ea* o!r & to ! 
/ate are a tacit contract :i* ne$ n be  
explicitly =mulat$1 because x orig9ates 
9 human nature2 & ,fi*te ev5 assures u t
 ,r\sseau himself did n mean 8 ,social  
,contract to be tak5 lit]ally4 ,accord+ 
to him x 0 only an idea4 ,b societies   
mu/ act 9 pursuance ( ?is idea1 & !y 7  
f\nd$1 if n actually1 yet legally ^u an 
unwritt5 contract4 ,anyway1 ! ideas (   
,hut*eson1 ,hume & ,r\sseau h n[adays   
be5 assimilat$ by ! g5]al consci\sness4 
,! masses believe 9 ! natural1 inborn   
rights ( man1 "s ( :i* he c]ta9ly has   

surr5d]$ 9 fav\r ( ! community2 !y dem& 
& expect ( ! /ate t x %\ld s]ve _! j    
int]e/s1 & !y are no long] ready to be  
made use ( by ! rul] & a p[]ful1 (t5 v  
small1 m9ority1 = purposes :i* are =eign
 to !m1 :i* !y d n "k1 & = :i* !y d n   
c>e4  ,^? :o juggle ) words1 :o talk d>k
 & my/]i\s nons5se ab\t ! concept ( !   
/ate1 or dogmatize fanatically on !     
subject1 contemptu\sly call ?is         
conception ( ! nature ( ! /ate & !      
relation ( its citiz5s to x %all[       
rationalism1 & f ! heights ( _! suppos$ 
k !y look d[n disda9fully ^u argum5ts   
:i* !y libell\sly call ! laym5's babble4
 ,!y are only 9 "p bumpti\s fools :o    
pret5d t uncritical1 p>rotlike          
repetition ( traditional =mul is        
erudition & confus$ ?\ght is pr(undity1 
& :o decl>e ! cle>-head$ m5 :o mock _!  
silly my/icism1 _! sup]/iti\s dread ( ^w
 phantoms1 to be simply incapable (     
und]/&+ _! dep?4 ,p>tly !y are v sly    
toadies1 v cunn+ sycophants ( p[]1 or   
ru?less egoi/s1 unscrupul\s freeboot]s1 

:o pret5d to be en?usia/ic & dev\t      
apo/les ( ! div9ity ( ! /ate & dem& !   
mo/ humble submission1 adoration &      
unconditional devotion 9 ord] t1 z      
prie/s 9 its temple1 !y may gr9d _! own 
axes at its alt>s4  ,su* are ^? folk :o 
ma9ta9 ! d\ble !sis t ! /ate is ev]y?+1 
! individual no?+1 ! =m] ! sole reality1
 ! latt] )\t any sep>ate exi/5ce1 & t ! 
/ate1 z mank9d's highe/ =m ( exi/5ce1   
ne$ recognize no?+ z sup]ior to itself1 
nei!r "r nor law1 & may !re=e take z    
sole guide = its actions its own int]e/s
 & n ,morality4  ,y _c ma9ta9 a s+le "o 
( ^! cont5tions unless y & all m5 are   
depriv$ ( reason+ p[]2 !y crumble away  
in/antly 9 ! light ( ,reason4 ,x is n   
true t ! /ate alone is real & t x is    
sup]ior to ! individual1 n only because 
( ! =ces at its disposal1 ! complex (   
:i* x repres5ts1 b also z an entity1 z a
 ?\ght1 a pr9ciple4 ,! individual alone 
9 ! species1 t is1 liv+1 feel+1 ?9k+ &  
act+ man1 is real4 ,! individual creat$ 
! /ate out ( himself4 ,he c also de/roy 

x4 ,! practical politicians above all p 
%\ld be ( ?is op9ion2 z he c d x1 he may
 d x2 z he has ! p[] to d x1 he has ! "r
 to d x4 ,! individuali/ w n make ?is a 
"q ( law1 b w simply ass]t t1 ?\gh !    
individual is ! fa!r ( ! /ate1 yet he   
has no reasonable gr\nds = de/roy+ x1 s 
long z x makes no murd]\s attacks on its
 creator4 ,! individual did n create !  
/ate consci\sly1 int5tionally & =mally  
by means ( a social contract1 b         
naturally & organically1 "u pressure (  
circum/ances4 ,x is cle>ly to 8 int]e/s 
to ma9ta9 x1 to furni% ! necess>y means 
= its exi/5ce & effici5cy1 b always on !
 "o condition t ! /ate %\ld really      
protect & promote ! int]e/s ( !         
individual1 light5 8 burd5s 9 ! /ruggle 
= exi/5ce1 & make t prosp]ity1 com=t &  
happ9ess possible :i* he _c secure      
unaid$ 9 8 /ruggle ) ! ho/ile =ces (    
,nature & ) rival fell[-m54  ,b if !    
/ate oppresses ! individual ) burd5s &  
duties :i* he feels no inn] necessity to
 fulfil1 if x confiscates him1 body &   

s\l1 in/ead ( respect+ 8 fre$om & 8 "r  
to self-det]m9ation1 !n ! assumption    
falls to ! gr\nd2 ! /ate is no long] an 
in/itution :i* b5efits ! individual2 x  
is inimical to ! individual1 h9d]s him 9
 8 /ruggle = exi/5ce1 de/roys 8         
happ9ess2 & he obeys 8 primitive in/9ct 
= self-pres]vation if he turns aga9/ x1 
ma/]s x z he w\ld a mon/]1 draws its    
tee? & claws1 & =ces x back to ! place x
 0 meant to occupy1 t ( a docile &      
indu/ri\s s]vant ( ! individual1 n ( "o 
individual :o aspires to rule ! o!rs1 b 
( all individuals :o are ( ! p t make up
 ! /ate4  ,i consid] x unnecess>y & a   
little ridicul\s to quote au?orities 9  
support ( ! /atem5t t twice two are f\r2
 :at is reasonable & cle> is conv9c+ )\t
 fur!r recomm5dation2 nev]!less1 x is a 
fact t may be wor?y ( m5tion t "s ( !   
be/ intellects ( all nations h sid$ ) ! 
individual aga9/ ! /ate4 ,on ! "o side  
we h ,plato1 ^: ideal is ,sp>ta & :o    
w\ld l to see ! despotism ( ?is model   
/ate & its communal meals complet$ by ! 

addition ( community ( prop]ty1 ( wives1
 & ( *ildr52 we h ,hegel1 :o has gone   
f>!r ?an any "o 9 8 idolatry ( ! /ate2  
we h ,augu/e ,comte1 :o1 9 8 zeal = 8   
newly f\nd$ sci5ce ( ,sociology1        
conceives society z an organism         
biologically sup]ior to ! individual1 & 
!reby has become ! fa!r ( ! ,organici/s4
 ,b aga9/ ^! we c put ! ,engli%man1     
,j]emy ,b5?am1 ! embodim5t ( s\nd common
 s5se1 :om ! muddle-head$ fools t pose z
 deep ?9k]s h good reason to hate & fe>1
 & :om !y try to depreciate z vulg> &   
%all[2 fur!r1 8 compatriot1 ,h]b]t      
,sp5c]1 :o is 8 k9dr$ _s2 ! ,fr5*man1   
,frdric ,ba/iat1 ^: writ+s sp>kle )     
fla%es ( wit2 ! ,g]man1 ,wilhelm        
,humboldt1 :o bravely & successfully    
combat$ ! /ate tyranny def5d$ by ,fi*te4
 ,all ^! are conv9c$ individuali/s :o   
adduce irrefutable reasons = _! views4  
,we may also include ,kant among !m1 z  
he gave utt]ance to ?is decisive s5t5ce3
 ,man is 8 own aim & end1 & mu/ nev] be 
a m]e means2 consequ5tly x is nev]      

p]missible to sacrifice ! sov]eignty (  
"o's own p]son to t ( ! /ate1 or make   
use ( x = ! realization ( political aims
 by disreg>d+1 & do+ viol5ce to1 "o's "r
 ( self-det]m9ation4 ,h>ald ,hfd+       
cont5ds t progress %\ld be measur$ by ! 
ext5t to :i*1 9 ,kant's s5se ( ! words1 
man is recogniz$ to be 8 own aim & end2 
b t is n only a measure ( progress1 x is
 ! measure ( all civilization4  ,=      
civilization1 to my idea1 means a /ate  
wor?y ( man1 imply+ 8 m5tal1 moral &    
mat]ial indep5d5ce ( all motive =ces o!r
 ?an ^? ( 8 own nature2 its aim is ! mo/
 complete atta9m5t possible ( ?is       
indep5d5ce2 its measure ! ext5t to :i* !
 individual det]m9es 8 own fate & is    
able to w>d (f f x undesir$ outside     
influ5ces4 ,at ! fir/ awak5+ ( 8        
consci\sness primitive man 0 aw>e ( be+ 
expos$ to unkn[n =ces :i* controll$ him 
at w & aga9/ :i* 8 w 0 p[]less4 ,f ! v  
beg9n+1 at fir/ dimly & !n m & m cle>ly1
 man has felt ?is to be unwor?y &       
intol]able4 ,! be/ ( ! species h always 

lab\r$ ) all _! /r5g? to lib]ate        
!mselves1 & ! great ambition ( man      
?r\gh\t 8 developm5t has always be5 n   
submissively to accept :atev] fate 0    
accord$ him1 b to "w out 8 de/9y accord+
 to 8 ne$s & 8 own ideas4  ,! angui%    
caus$ by wret*$ dep5d5ce ^u ext]nal =ces
 is ! orig9 ( religion z ( sup]/ition1  
:i* bo? spr+ f ! same root4 ,) !        
an?ropomorphism peculi> to ! e>lie/     
/ages ( ?\ght1 man p]sonifi$ ! my/]i\s  
p[]s :i* rul$ 8 fate4 ,he creat$ gods = 
himself1 & !n1 z f> z 8 k p]mitt$1 he   
s\ght "s relation betwe5 himself & !m1 &
 tri$ to get at !m by e means available4
 ,he imag9$ !m l unto himself1 t is1    
va91 caprici\s1 gre$y1 easily fright5$  
by d>k ?reats1 & !n1 v reasonably on ?is
 hypo!sis1 he importun$ !m ) pray]s1    
sacrifices1 hymns ( praise & v[s1 z well
 z magic =mul & incantations1 always ) !
 inflexible int5tion ( mak+ !m s]ve 8   
purposes1 n ( s]v+ !irs4 ,! contrite    
,jewi% pray]3 ,?y w be done1 ,"l1 ,?y w1
 n m9e1 is a new trait 9 ! religi\s     

?\ght ( man4 ,! hea!n always /rives to h
 8 w done 9 opposition to t ( ! gods1 & 
to div]t !m f _! decisions if he        
dislikes !m4  ,9 a /ate ( advanc$       
developm5t !ological ?\ght gave way be=e
 ! sci5tific4 ,man le>nt to conceive    
,nature's rule1 n transc5d5tally1 b     
intr9sically4 ,he recogniz$ t ! =ces    
ar\nd him1 :i* s (t5 cross$ 8 purpose1  
are n to be influ5c$ by pray] &         
sacrifice1 b t x is exp$i5t & possible  
to discov] _! "* & ! conditions ( _!    
activity4 ,by d9t ( long-su/a9$ ef=ts he
 has succe$$ 9 effectively /&+ up to    
ho/ile ,nature & 9 w>d+ (f h] undesir$  
int]f]5ce 9 8 de/9y4 ,if ! tribulations1
 :i* =m]ly sudd5ly br\ght 8 s*emes to   
n\ght & (t5 de/roy$ him1 are n entirely 
ov]come1 x is m]ely because 8 practice  
does n con=m closely en\gh to !         
directions evolv$ by 8 !oretical k1     
because he is too c>eless or too clumsy 
to make prop] use ( ! weapons aga9/ !   
elem5ts ) :i* sci5ce has arm$ him4  ,b  
?is same man1 :o has le>nt to be a mat* 

= ,nature1 8 creator1 is p[]less aga9/ 8
 creature1 ! /ate4 ,he c nei!r evade x  
nor escape f x4 ,! /ate disposes ( him  
)\t 8 cons5t1 aga9/ 8 mo/ obvi\s        
int]e/s1 9 spite ( 8 p[]less opposition2
 x hurls him hi!r & ?i!r1 annihilates   
him1 cru%es him by its w & is unmov$ by 
! w ( ! individual4  ,true1 man has     
s\ght to ma9ta9 8 "r ( self-det]m9ation 
aga9/ ! =ces ( politics1 z aga9/ all    
o!rs t broke 8 w & int]v5$ 9 8 life )\t 
8 cons5t4 ,= ?\s&s ( ye>s all /ate      
developm5t has tri$ to protect ! mode/  
individual1 lo/ 9 ! cr[d & featureless1 
b nev]!less a p]son1 t is1 a _w to      
himself1 aga9/ ! arbitr>9ess ( rul]s or 
lead+ /atesm54 ,t is ! "o un*ang+ t5d5cy
 :i* leads f ,h>modius & ,ari/ogeiton1 !
 slay]s ( a tyrant1 ! rebellion ( ! eld]
 ,brutus1 ! murd] ( ,cs>1 by way ( !    
,revolt ( ! ,ne!rl&s & ! execution (    
,*>les ,i ( ,engl&1 to ! great          
,revolution1 ! ris+s ( #ahdh & ! /ruggle
 = con/itutional gov]nm5t 9 all /ates ( 
! ,old ,_w & ! ,new4 ,! =mula has long  

be5 discov]$ :]eby ! individual c ma9ta9
 ! dignity ( 8 sov]eign p]sonality & 8  
own responsibility = ! %ap+ ( 8 de/9y4  
,x is civil fre$om1 con/itutionalism1   
sov]eignty ( ! p4 ,!re are arrangem5ts1 
c>efully ?\ght out1 nicely weigh$1      
clev]ly work$ out to ! smalle/ detail1  
by :i* ! individual is fitt$ into 8     
place 9 ! community )\t be+ depriv$ ( ! 
managem5t ( 8 own affairs1 by :i* !     
sacrifices ne$ful = ! fulfilm5t (       
collective tasks are exact$ )\t 8 be+   
r$uc$ to a condition ( slav]y1 by :i* ! 
indep5d5ce ( ! individual is safegu>d$ &
 yet a /ate ( *aos & an>*y is avoid$4   
,b ?is =mula f>es z d ! doctr9es (      
sci5ce3 hi!rto x has rema9$ a !ory      
ev]y:]e4 ,! fran*ise1 repres5tation ( ! 
p1 responsibility ( m9i/]s1             
con/itutional limitation ( ! rul]'s p[]1
 are infallibly effective weapons or    
in/rum5ts1 b no p has yet le>nt h[ to   
h&le !m rightly4 ,t is :y pessimi/s     
speak ( ! bankruptcy ( civilization1 t  
is :y ! aim ( civilization1 ! lib]ation 

( ! p]son & ! en=cem5t ( its sov]eignty1
 has n[h]e be5 atta9$1 t is :y1 to quote
 ,napoleon ,i 9 8 int]view ) ,goe! at   
,erfurt1 ,9 our times ! p[] ( fate is   
politics4 ,& yet all ^! in/itutions ( a 
mod]n con/itutional /ate1 f !           
ballot-pap] & ! vot+ ( taxes 9 ,p>liam5t
 to ! en=c$ resignation ( ! m9i/ry on a 
vote ( c5sure & ! oa? ( ! rul] to obs]ve
 ! con/itution1 recognize ! rights ( !  
individual z oppos$ to ! /ate1 & at lea/
 !oretically give ! lie to ! bold       
decl>ation t ! /ate is ev]y?+ & !       
individual no?+4  ,x is no less untrue  
to say t ! /ate is sup]ior to ,morality 
& is n b\nd by x4 ,9 ord] to prove ?is  
we ne$ only be brave en\gh n to be      
intimidat$ by ! my/]i\s mi5 & ge/ures & 
! d>k1 pomp\s phrases ( ! my/ics :o     
wor%ip ! /ate1 & to p5etrate to ! real1 
conceptual idea ( ! ^w4  ,! hocus pocus 
t ! wor%ipp]s ( ! /ate p]=m ar\nd _!    
idol puts "o 9 m9d ( ,kempel51 :o creat$
 a s5sation ) 8 automaton 9 ! beg9n+ ( !
 n9ete5? c5tury4 ,?is figure1 got up z a

 ,turki% woman1 gave rise to a/oni%m5t  
&1 among n a few1 to sup]/iti\s fe>4 ,x 
play$ *ess1 & s well1 too1 t x almo/    
always succe$$ 9 w9n+1 ev5 aga9/ its mo/
 skill$ oppon5ts4 ,p cudgell$ _! bra9s  
to solve ! riddle1 all sorts (          
explanations 7 sugge/$1 "o m impossible 
?an ! o!r1 b /ill ! my/]y rema9$ d>k1   
until ! own]1 hav+ made en\gh money &   
sick ( ! "p ( an it9]ant sw9dl]1 reveal$
 ! trick4 ,9 ! holl[ figure !re sat a   
clev] *ess play] :o work$ its h&s & ) !m
 c>ri$ out ! moves on ! bo>d4  ,?is     
anecdote c be appli$ lit]ally to ! /ate4
 ,simpletons1 drunk ) phrases1 & cunn+  
*eats cont5d t ! /ate is a sup]natural  
creation 9 :i* ! _s ( ! univ]se1 ! _s ( 
hi/ory takes %ape1 & ?r\gh :i* x        
realizes its aims2 ^! aims1 utt]ly      
transc5d+ ! und]/&+ ( ! individual1 are 
un9telligible to man4 ,su* ov]:elm+     
phrases /rike ! simple1 cr$ul\s he>]    
dumb & s5d cold %udd]s ( awe up 8 sp9e4 
,b let u look at ! inside ( ?is magic   
ma*9e ^: works are driv5 by ! _s ( ! _w 

& ) ^: help ?is _s fulfils its          
imp5etrable designs4 ,:at d we f9d8 ,m51
 q ord9>y mortals1 :o sit 9 ! ma*9e & "w
 its lev]s2 m5 ^: intellectual p[]s are 
only 9 r>e cases sup]ior to ^? ( _!     
enslav$ subjects b]eft ( w2 m5 :o are1 z
 a rule1 ( av]age intellig5ce & n seldom
 ev5 bel[ ! av]age4  ,^! m5 are ! rul]s1
 m9i/]s :o cl+ to (fice1 high (ficials1 
p>ty lead]s & pr(essional politicians :o
 w\ld l to become m9i/]s1 g5]als :o seek
 to make !mselves conspicu\s1 publici/s 
:o hope to d]ive p]sonal pr(it by d9t ( 
b[+ & scrap+ be=e ! m5 9 p[]1 by flatt]+
 ! /upide/ & mo/ despicable prejudices (
 ! masses1 or ev5 by implant+ su*       
prejudices ) p]suasive talk & purposely 
lead+ !m a/ray4 ,^! m5 are =m$ on ! same
 model z all individuals ( ! species &  
are !re=e full ( human weaknesses1 a    
prey to all human desires1 mov$ by all  
human impulses4 ,!y are selfi%1 va91 !  
sport ( likes & dislikes1 (             
self-deception z to ! value ( _! ideas1 
op9ions & judgm5ts1 disputati\s1        

arrogant1 gre$y ( possessions1 p[] &    
pleasure1 spurr$ by ! in/9ct to magnify 
& swell _! p]sonality & impose x ^u     
o!rs4 ,& ^! m5 are to be lib]at$ f !    
discipl9e ( ! moral law8 ,!y are to be  
sup]ior to ! moral law8  ,= :om1 !n1 0 !
 moral law creat$ & develop$ if n = ^!  
m5--^: actions1 al?\gh !y spr+ f ! same 
motives & aspire to ! same satisfaction 
( self z ^? ( all o!r m51 c be fraught )
 consequ5ces incomp>ably m evil1 because
 !y make use ( ! /ate ma*9e = _!        
purposes4 ,?r\gh ! =ce & mom5tum giv5 by
 ! ma*9]y ( ! /ate ^! actions are       
b\ndlessly augm5t$1 _! range be+        
indef9itely increas$ & _! results       
multipli$ a ?\s&fold4 ,! simple/ logic  
%[s t ^! m5 )9 ! /ate ma*9e1 r5d]$ s    
specially dang]\s by _! t]rible armam5t 
& weapons1 f> f be+ lib]at$ f ! co]cion 
( moral law1 ought to be subject$ to x )
 extraord9>y sev]ity1 a sev]ity :i* %\ld
 be great] ?an t :i* suffices = ! av]age
 man1 9 proportion z _! p[] to d h>m is 
great] ?an t ( ! man 9 ! /reet4  ,n[ all

 ?is "t1 r c>elessly1 or at any rate    
weakly1 ,i am mak+ a concession to !    
pi\s devotees ( ! religion ( ! /ate1 by 
speak+ ( ! /ate ma*9e1--a dubi\s        
expression1 co9$ to deceive by r\s+     
sup]/iti\s ideas4 ,! phrase is a        
picture1 a rhetorical figure t "o mu/ be
 c>eful n to take lit]ally4 ,!re is no  
/ate ma*9e4 ,!re is only a relation ( m5
 to "o ano!r & to traditional habits1   
organiz$ rules ( comm&1 ob$i5ce &       
equable conduct--habits into :i* !      
community ( m5 has fall5 9 accordance ) 
! law ( lea/ resi/ance1 9 ord] to       
promote _! own int]e/s1 at lea/         
!oretically1 )\t be+ =c$ to ex]t        
!mselves cont9ually to =m new judgm5ts1 
decisions & arrangem5ts :i* ! ev]-%ift+1
 ev]-*ang+ conditions ( life r5d]       
necess>y4  ,"h aga91 beh9d ! ^w1 we f9d 
m51 always only m54 ,j z ^? :o comm&1 f 
^: w all /ate action emanates1 are m51 s
 also ! in/rum5ts by :i* !y c>ry out _! 
decisions are only metaphorically       
speak+1 lev]s & :eels1 p>ts ( a ma*9e ( 

/eel & iron2 9 reality !y are (ficials1 
soldi]s & policem51 !y are judges &     
bailiffs2 9 %ort1 !y are m54 ,& ^! m51  
:o 9 all private relations ) _! fell[ m5
 are /]nly requir$ to submit to !       
dictates ( ,morality & ! dem&s ( ! ,law1
 are ! same on :om o!r m51 ! lead]s ( ! 
/ate1 impose ! duty ( break+ all ^!     
precepts & laws2 z ambassadors !y mu/   
d5y & di%on\r ! signatures to treaties2 
z lead]s or paid s]vants ( ! press      
bureau !y mu/ sy/ematically spread lies2
 z attorneys ( ! /ate !y mu/ p]secute & 
maltreat ^? :o tell ! tru?2 z policem5  
!y mu/ te> ! fa!rs ( families f wife &  
*ildr5 & hunt !m into ! b>racks2 z      
soldi]s !y mu/ invade a =eign l&1 murd] 
unkn[n & innoc5t m51 rob !m ( _!        
prop]ty1 burn d[n _! h\ses1 lay wa/e _! 
l&s1 9 a ^w1 d ev]y?+ t is puni%able )  
prison & gall[s2 !y mu/ p]petrate all   
crimes :i* ! aim & end ( ,morality &    
,law are to prev5t & condemn4 ,if "o    
def5ds su* action1 :]e c "o f9d ! c\rage
 & ! ju/ification to require ^! m5 at "o

 "t to hon\r ! ,t5 ,comm&m5ts & at ano!r
 to disreg>d !m1 to be crim9als 9 ! "n (
 ! /ate 9 ! morn+ & to be moral private 
p]sons & law-abid+ citiz5s 9 ! aft]noon8
 ,aft] all1 !y only h "o nature1 "o m9d1
 "o "* & "o set ( p]ceptive faculties4  
,to realize ! mon/rosity ( ?is doctr9e (
 tw(old ,morality1 public & private1 & (
 ! non-compulsor9ess ( moral law = !    
/ate1 x suffices to ref] aga9 to !      
fundam5tal concepts ( ,morality4        
,individuals h b&$ !mselves toge!r 9 a  
community 9 ord] to be able to live m   
easily1 or to live at all1 "u ! pres5t  
conditions obta9+ on our planet4 ,le/   
society %\ld be dis9tegrat$ by ! qu>rels
 ( its memb]s1 & ! latt] %\ld f9d       
!mselves expos$ s+le-h&$ to a hopeless  
/ruggle = exi/5ce1 a limitation ( _!    
unfett]$ :ims & desires1 ! curb+ ( _!   
selfi%ness1 control ( _! impulses & !   
ex]cise ( consid]ation = _! neighb\rs h 
be5 impos$ ^u !m4  ,?is co]cion is      
,morality1 & society c en=ce x by       
vigor\s measures2 b = ! mo/ "p ?is is   

unnecess>y1 = society has inculcat$ 9   
its memb]s ! faculty ( urg+ ^u !mselves 
9 e situation ! dictates ( ! community &
 ( insi/+ on ob$i5ce to !m4 ,?is faculty
 is consci5ce4 ,! means by :i*          
consci5ce1 inspir$ & assi/$ by reason1  
det]m9es ! w to keep 9 *eck or to       
suppress organic impulses & incl9ations1
 desires & appetites1 is inhibition2    
moreov]1 ! developm5t & /r5g!n+ (       
inhibition does n alone promote ! aims (
 ! community1 b is ( ! highe/ biological
 importance to ! individual himself1    
ap>t f 8 relations to society1 z x r5d]s
 him /rong] & m effici5t1 diff]5tiates  
him m subtly1 & raises him to a high]   
level ( developm5t4  ,n[ ! /ate is a    
special developm5t ( society2 x owes its
 exi/5ce to ! same necessities z !      
latt]1 its task is to m9imize ! /ruggle 
= exi/5ce = ! individual1 to protect him
 f avoidable dang]s & to ensure ! safety
 ( 8 life1 ! fruits ( 8 lab\r & t       
measure ( fre$om :i* is compatible )    
life 9 a community4 ,b if ! /ate puts an

 end to ! co]cion in/itut$ by !         
community & !re=e by ! /ate itself2 if x
 does away ) ,morality = itself1 t is1 =
 a numb] ( individuals1 be !y few or _m1
 t act 9 its "n2 if x all[s selfi%ness1 
appetites & ru?lessness to h ! same free
 play z ) creatures ( a l[] ord] ?an    
man1 or z ) m5 be=e !y =m$ !mselves into
 communities2 if 9 ! pursuit ( its plans
 beyond ! b\nds ( ,morality x int5sifies
 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce 9 a tragic mann]1  
exposes m5 to ! mo/ t]rible dang]s1     
brutally de/roys _! lib]ty1 gravely     
?reat5s _! life & prop]ty or ev5 devotes
 !m to ru9--:y1 !n x de/roys !          
assumptions on :i* ! /ate itself is     
bas$1 d5ies its own aim1 deprives itself
 ( any "r to exi/5ce1 & ! individuals h 
!nce=w>d b "o int]e/1 namely1 to drive  
away ?is bogey ( ! /ate & ) all possible
 means to =ce ! m51 :o make use ( x & ! 
sup]/itions cl++ to x1 to respect !     
moral law :i* ! community has creat$ to 
ov]:elm anti-social1 immoral            
individuals1 to r5d] !m h>mless & if    

necess>y to de/roy !m4  ,"o po9t !re is 
on :i* ! ,ma*iavellian or practical     
politicians are p>ticul>ly fond ( talk+ 
nons5se1 & t is ! /ate's loyalty to     
treaties4 ,is ! /ate b\nd by a treaty8  
,mu/ x hon\r its signature8 ,mu/ x p]=m 
:at x has und]tak5 to d8 ,! dete/able1  
unanim\s answ] is ,no4 ,a treaty _c h9d]
 ! /ate f do+ :at its int]e/ dem&s4     
,pr9ce ,bism>ck is (t5 cit$ on ?is po9t1
 z he once said3 ,! only s\nd f\ndation 
= ! /ate is /ate egoism4 ,& ano!r "t3 ,a
 treaty is only valid rebus sic         
/antibus1 if ! situation is ! same z :5 
x 0 conclud$2 if ! circum/ances *ange1 x
 becomes invalid by ! v fact4 ,su* views
 are revolt+1 h[ev] great a "n be app5d$
 to !m4 ,contract1 or treaty1 is ! basis
 ( ! law4 ,:oev] breaks x is di%on\r$1 &
 d\bly di%on\r$ is he :o f ! beg9n+     
ent]s ^u x ) ! idea at ! back ( 8 m9d ( 
d]iv+ e possible advantage f x & (      
break+ x :5 ! "t comes to fulfil        
obligations4  ,! phrase1 s\nd egoism1   
:e!r x ref] to a private p]son or to !  

/ate1 mu/ make e dec5t man blu% = %ame4 
,egoism may be s\nd1 b x is always !    
contr>y ( moral4 ,x is j z conv5i5t = ! 
individual z = ! /ate to ?9k only ( 8   
own advantage & unhesitat+ly to         
sacrifice 8 neighb\r's rights to x2 b   
,morality arose & 0 con/itut$ a rule (  
human relations 9 ord] to break ! back (
 ?is selfi%ness & to tea* man           
consid]ation = 8 neighb\r4 ,x is no     
valid excuse to say t /ate egoism is no 
s91 b a virtue & a m]it1 t x is diff]5t 
9 "* f ! egoism ( ! individual4 ,t is n 
true4 ,x is n diff]5t 9 "*4 ,x is (     
exactly ! same "* z 9 private life4 ,!  
responsible lead] ( ! /ate :o is guilty 
( a brea* ( treaty makes believe to     
himself & o!rs t he does n d x = 8 own  
sake1 b 9 ! int]e/s ( ! /ate4 ,b :o is !
 /ate8 ,i h already giv5 ! answ] to ?is4
 ,! /ate consi/s ( m51 ! int]e/s s]v$ by
 a brea* ( treaty are ^? ( m51 n1 z a   
rule1 ( all1 n ev5 ( _m memb]s ( ! /ate1
 b ( a few1 ( a class1 a gr\p1 p]haps ( 
only "o family ^: p[]1 weal? &          

reputation x is int5d$ to increase4     
,s-call$ /ate egoism is 9 actual fact ! 
private egoism ( _m individuals1 :o     
break ! law1 or tol]ate & condone a     
brea* ( ! law1 = ! sake ( pocket+       
ill-gott5 ga9s2 & no "o is s /upid z to 
let himself be bamboozl$ into believ+ t 
! %ameful crime ( break+ a treaty = !   
purpose ( s\nd egoi/ic grabb+ becomes   
moral :5 x is p]petrat$ n by "o         
individual b by ?\s&s or millions (     
individuals4  ,! res]vatio m5talis1 too1
 ( rebus sic /antibus is an unw>rantable
 & wick$ res]vation4 ,no?+ prev5ts a    
dec5t man :5 mak+ a contract f add+ a   
clause res]v+ ! "r to t]m9ate x if !    
ess5tial conditions %\ld *ange4 ,if !   
o!r p>ty to ! contract does n agree to  
?is1 well1 !n ! contract _c be conclud$4
 ,b to sign x ) ! m5tal res]vation t "o 
w disav[ "o's signature if ! obligations
 und]tak5 become irksome1 t is sw9dl+4  
,!re is "o consid]ation s simple t x is 
inconceivable t ^? :o break contracts d 
n realize x4 ,9 "s concrete case ! lead]

 ( ! /ate judges x to be pr(itable to ! 
/ate to disreg>d good fai?4 ,:at        
gu>antee has he t 8 judgm5t is "r8 ,he  
is a man1 & no man is infallible4 ,b all
 mank9d h made good fai? ! f\ndation (  
_! life 9 communities1 & if a s+le man  
has ! tem]ity to draw a conclusion      
violat+ ! immutable convictions &       
doctr9es ( all mank9d1 he mu/ be mad n  
to see t mo/ probably he is wrong & t   
all mank9d 9 e age & e clime is "r4 ,i h
 left out ( consid]ation ! fact t any   
possible advantage aris+ f ! brea* (    
fai? w\ld n excuse him morally1 & sett+ 
aside ! e?ical aspect ( ! case1 ,i dwell
 only on ! logical argum5t4  ,!re is "o 
case & "o only 9 :i* a contract is n    
b9d+1 ei!r on ! /ate or on ! private    
individual1 & t is :5 ! signatory 0 =c$ 
to ent] ^u x ) a knife at 8 ?roat4      
,obligations :i* a victor imposes on 8  
defeat$ & dis>m$ oppon5t are by _! v    
nature invalid4 ,! old cry ( ,br5nus3   
,vae victis6 is might & _c con/itute a  
"r4 ,civil law calls ?is k9d ( ?+       

compulsion & decrees t x invalidates any
 contract4 ,only a p$antic m9d1 /upid & 
deprav$1 imm]s$ 9 hair-splitt+ trick]y &
 incapable ( a /raight ?\ght1 c\ld      
complac5tly ma9ta9 9 ! face ( all common
 s5se t might & compulsion1 f> f do+    
away ) "r1 are ! s\rce ( all "r4 ,!     
silly =mula co9$ = ?is is3 ,might is "r4
 ,might may be a fact1 b x is n "r4 ,!  
s\rce ( "r is n might b ,morality1 :i*  
might disav[s & de/roys4 ,! necess>y    
condition ( any obligation :i* is to be 
valid is fre$om4 ,kant prov$ ?is1 b 8   
pro( 0 unnecess>y1 = x is self-evid5t4  
,a =c$ treaty is no treaty1 = x is !    
victor's fi/ :i* has guid$ ! h& ( !     
vanqui%$1 & x is he :o wrote ! latt]'s  
signature "u ! docum5t4 ,! w1 !         
consci\sness ( ! seem+ signatory 7 abs5t
 at ! "t4  ,b ! wor/ & mo/ immoral      
action ( ! /ate1 beside :i* a brea* (   
treaty = selfi% reasons pales to        
insignificance1 is ! w> ( aggression =  
purposes ( pr(it1 t is1 = ! conque/ (   
t]ritory1 extortion ( money1 increase ( 

p[]1 or fame4 ,w> is ! qu9tess5ce ( all 
crimes aga9/ life & prop]ty1 aga9/ !    
body & m9d ( a p]son1 ! prev5tion ( :i* 
is ! aim & object ( all ,morality & all 
laws d]iv$ f x4 ,any means are          
p]missible :]eby ?is wick$ness may be   
prev5t$2 ! w> ( def5ce1 wag$ by ! p>ty  
attack$1 is n only ju/ifi$ b sacr$1 z   
are ! functions ( ! in/itutions t       
society has develop$ to hunt d[n & puni%
 ^? :o d n respect ,morality & ,law4 ,& 
j z x is ! duty ( e society to ma9ta9   
c\rts ( ju/ice1 police & prisons1 s x is
 ! duty ( e /ate to be well arm$1 well  
v]s$ 9 ! use ( weapons & /rong1 s long z
 x mu/ c\nt on ! fact t !re are         
practical politicians :o d n recognize  
,morality z b9d+ ! /ate1 & nations t are
 ready on ! fir/ h9t ( _! lead]s to     
p]petrate e crime t consci5ce1 ! ,t5    
,comm&m5ts & p5al law =bid4  ,x is idle1
 9 my op9ion1 to discuss ! "q :e!r w> w 
ev] disappe> f ! _w4 ,x s]ves no purpose
 to contradict ^? :o decl>e x to be     
et]nal4 ,x is possible t x w cont9ue to 

exi/ z long z !re is vice1 s9 & crime2 &
 ,i d n believe t ^! w ev] be completely
 ext]m9at$4 ,among mank9d !re w probably
 nev] be a lack ( sick & deprav$ p ^:   
selfi%ness is mon/r\sly exagg]at$1 ^:   
in/9cts urge !m ) /ormy viol5ce1 ^: p[]s
 ( inhibition are scantily develop$ or  
altoge!r want+1 :o suff] f an/hesia ( ! 
feel+s & are !re=e incapable ( any      
sympa?y ) _! fell[ m5 & :o are m5tally  
too weak to =esee ! results ( _!        
actions4 ,individuals ( ?is k9d are born
 crim9als ^: exi/5ce society w probably 
nev] be able to prev5t & aga9/ :om x is 
oblig$ to protect itself4 ,n[ w> arises 
f ! same psy*ic conditions z !          
antisocial actions ( ^! born crim9als1 &
 !re=e ! pessimi/s may be "r 9 ma9ta9+ t
 x c nev] be aboli%$4 ,b x is "o ?+ to  
ass]t ! exi/5ce ( a deplorable fact & q 
ano!r to glorify x4 ,to say t w> is a "p
 ( ! univ]se con/itut$ by ,god is       
blasphemy1 ev5 ?\gh ! say+ emanates f   
,moltke4 ,to extol w> ec/atically & to  
s+ hymns ( praise to x1 to decl>e t x   

evokes ! highe/ virtues ( man is a      
panegyric ( crime1 a ?+ anticipat$ &    
puni%able 9 ! p5al code4  ,i am n "h    
attempt+ to solve ! problem ( :at       
practical measures c be tak5 :]eby "r   
may be set 9 ! place ( might 9 int]-/ate
 relations1 & in/ead ( ru?less          
selfi%ness1 ,morality1 t is1            
self-control1 consid]ation & respect = !
 j claims ( "o's fell[ m5 & love ( "o's 
neighb\r4 ,t is z f> beyond ! scope (   
?is "w z is ! inve/igation ( ! me?ods ( 
education1 crim9al ju/ice1 police       
organization or prison conditions int5d$
 to deal ) ! tide ( crime & to /em x z  
f> z possible4 ,i am conc]n$ ) moral    
philosophy1 & f t po9t ( view ,i %[ t   
all ,morality is root$ 9 ! desire ( m5  
to live toge!r peaceably 9 a society1 to
 h great] security ( life & prop]ty1    
great] possibilities ( happ9ess1 & t !  
same ne$s mu/ impose ! rules ( ,morality
 ^u /ates 9 _! relations to "o ano!r4   
,accord+ to ,hobbes ! primitive         
condition ( mank9d is t ( a w> ( e man  

aga9/ all o!r m51 & only ! creation (   
society makes an end ( x4 ,b if ! /ate  
unlea%es ! dogs ( aggressive w>f>e x    
hurls mank9d back into its primitive    
condition & de/roys ! "w x 0 creat$ to  
d4 ,! ,/oic ,s5eca says3 ,homo sacra res
 hom9i1 ,man is sacr$ to man4 ,!        
practical politicians :o praise w>      
repeat ) ,hobbes3 ,homo hom9i lupus1    
,man is a wolf to man4 ,! moral man     
dem&s a return f ,hobbes to ,s5eca4 ,if 
x has be5 possible 9 ! /ate to tame !   
wolfi% in/9cts ( ! individual & to make 
him b[ d[n be=e ,cu/om & ,law1 x mu/ be 
equally possible to d s 9 ! relations ( 
/ates to "o ano!r4 ,he :o d5ies ?is 9   
pr9ciple disav[s ,morality altoge!r1 n  
only = ! /ate b also = ! individual2 he 
:o admits x 9 pr9ciple b 9 practice     
scornfully disreg>ds x is a b&it1 & x is
 desirable to treat him l any o!r robb] 
& murd]] :o1 to satisfy 8 wolfi%        
appetites1 tramples on ,morality & ,"r &
 acts l a wild bea/4  ,to ?is1 h[ev]1 ! 
,morali/ w object sadly1 & ! practical  

politician ) scornful sup]iority1 t !   
/ate has creat$ in/itutions = suppress+ 
! b&it1 b t !re are none su* to control 
b&it /ates1 & t self-def5ce alone1 !    
only means ( self-protection = man 9    
,hobbes's primitive condition1 c ga9 a  
foot+ betwe5 !m4 ,cle>ly only ! p>ty    
attack$ is 9 a /ate ( self-def5ce1 b !  
b&it :o has a suffici5t s5se ( hum\r to 
play ! pettifogg+ lawy] c always ma9ta9 
t attack is also self-def5ce1 !         
prev5tive =m ( self-def5ce4 ,! answ] to 
?is is3 if society has manag$ to provide
 judges & police 9 ord] to secure peace1
 !n mank9d w = ! same purpose le>n h[ to
 provide c\rts ( ju/ice & a police =ce  
to deal ) ! b&its ( practical politics  
:o endang] peace among nations4 ,b t is 
a practical "q1 n a !oretical "o1 n a   
pr9ciple ( moral philosophy4 ,! latt]   
%[s irrefutably t !re is only "o        
,morality1 n a private "o & a public "o 
:i* is its negation1 n "o k9d = !       
individual & ano!r = politics1 = ! /ate4
  ,he :o def5ds ! !sis ( a tw(old       

,morality m]ely %[s t he does n possess 
simple ,morality4     ,,*apt] ,,vi      
,,fre$om ,,& ,,responsibility           
,!ological ?\ght is fac$ ) a problem 9  
e?ics :i* pres5ts ! greate/             
difficulties4 ,x is ! problem ( ,free   
,w4  ,is man :o p]ceives1 judges1 has   
volition & acts1 a free be+ inw>dly8 ,c 
he1 guid$ only by 8 own reasonable      
?\ghts & conclusions1 det]m9$ entirely  
by 8 own inn] impulses & un9flu5c$ by   
out] circum/ances1 *oose "o or ! o!r (  
two conflict+ possibilities8 ,:5 he has 
to make a decision1 is he always l      
,h]cules at ! cross-roads :o has to make
 up 8 m9d alone z to :i* pa? he %all    
take1 :e!r he is to foll[ quiet1 mode/  
virtue1 or allur+1 voluptu\s vice8 ,does
 he d evil because he will$ to d s & n  
o!rwise1 al?\gh x 0 9 8 p[] to avoid x8 
,does he decide = ! good1 because aft]  
due inve/igation & consid]ation he      
recogniz$ x z pref]able1 ?\gh he might h
 reject$ x8 ,or is man always subject to
 co]cion f :i* at no "t & no place he c 

escape8 ,are all 8 actions det]m9$ by ! 
law ( ,nature :i* regulates e "o ( 8    
movem5ts j z me*anically z ! c\rse ( !  
/>s or ! fall ( a body to our e>? :5 its
 support is remov$8 ,is he an automaton1
 set go+ by cosmic =ces1 :o possesses ! 
d\btful privilege consci\sly to be able 
to foll[ ! turn+ ( 8 :eels1 ! action ( 8
 lev]s1 rods & indicators & to li/5 to  
_! humm+ & knock+ )\t be+ all[$ to      
int]f]e 9 _! movem5ts or to *ange ! lea/
 ?+ 9 _! functions or "w8 ,is he fett]$ 
by ! *a9 ( causes :i* h exi/$ et]nally &
 cont9ue to act immutably to all        
et]nity8  ,!ological ?\ght is condemn$  
to f9d an answ] to ! "q ( fre$om or     
det]m9ism1 z x is ! necess>y condition =
 ! ess5tial concepts ( ! !ological      
doctr9e ( ,morality1 t is1 ! concept (  
responsibility & ^? consequ5t ^u ?is1   
namely1 s91 rew>d & puni%m5t4 ,= ! true 
believ] ,god is ! s\rce ( ,morality4 ,he
 ,himself is ,morality4 ,:at ,he orda9s 
is good 9 itself & _c be o!rwise1 = !re 
is no room = evil 9 ,8 nature1 s9ce if  

,he c\ld be conceiv$ to d evil1 x w\ld  
by ! v fact ( ,8 do+ x become good4 ,a  
man1 to be moral1 mu/ approximate to !  
nature ( ,god z ne>ly z x is grant$ to  
mortals to d4 ,! moral law is reveal$ by
 ,god's m]cy to give man a light :i* %[s
 him ! "r pa? & lights him on 8 way4    
,?anks to ,him ! poor mortal is reliev$ 
( ! inc]titude due to 8 limit$ m5tal    
p[]s & is end[$ ) ! priceless possession
 ( a c]ta9 precept :i* he ne$ only obey 
9 ord] to be sure ( salvation4  ,h[ev]1 
grant$ ! correctness ( ?is assumption1 x
 is n compreh5sible h[ evil came into ! 
_w4 ,x contradicts all attributes ) :i* 
fai? has end[$ ! deity4 ,x _c appe> )\t 
,god's k1 = ,he is omnisci5t & no?+ is  
hidd5 f ,him4 ,x _c occur aga9/ ,8 w1 = 
,he is omnipot5t & no?+ resi/s ,8 bidd+4
 ,b lea/ ( all c x rage ) ,8 k & cons5t1
 = ,he is inf9itely good & !re=e does n 
p]mit 8 creatures to fall victims to    
evil4 ,b exp]i5ce tea*es u t evil has a 
p]man5t place 9 human life1 & ?is =ces  
"o to ! conclusion t ei!r ,god is h>d & 

cruel1 & !re=e n inf9itely good & n     
,morality itself1 or t ,he has no k (   
evil & !re=e is n omnisci5t1 b1 on !    
contr>y1 bl9d z well z /upid1 or t ,he  
sees ! evil b _c prev5t x1 & !re=e is n 
omnipot5t & mu/ recognize ! exi/5ce (   
high] p[]s ?an ,himself aga9/ :om ,he is
 impot5t4  ,^! t]rify+ conclusions h n  
escap$ ! notice ( ! dev\t1 & !y h always
 made ! mo/ desp]ate ef=ts to evade !m4 
,"s h *os5 ! easie/ way out ( !         
difficulty2 !y close _! eyes be=e !     
yawn+ abyss1 fold _! h&s dev\tly & inv5t
 pi\s phrases ab\t ! inscrutable ways ( 
,provid5ce & its inf9ite wisdom1 :i* !  
weak intellig5ce ( mortals _c grasp4    
,o!rs take inf9ite pa9s2 9 ! sweat ( _! 
br[ !y ) difficulty evolve tortu\s &    
hypocritical explanations1 :i* 9 reality
 expla9 no?+1 b 9 a m9d :i* l5ds itself 
will+ly to !m give rise to ! illusion t 
! contradiction has be5 solv$4 ,p]haps !
 mo/ a/\nd+ piece ( "w accompli%$ by ?is
 mis]able juggl+1 or ?is delusion ( self
 by means ( an exub]ant fl[ ( words1 is 

pres5t$ 9 ! f\r volumes ( ! ,?odice1 by 
:i* ,leibnitz made himself a            
laugh+-/ock4 ,mazdeism has inv5t$ an    
allur+ b at ! same "t risky exp$i5t4 ,x 
lightly assumes t two pr9ciples obta9 9 
! univ]se1 a good "o & a bad "o1 !      
creator & ! de/roy]1 ! m]ciful ,god & ! 
cruel demon1 ,ormuzd & ,ahriman4 ,9 ?is 
way ev]y?+ is easy to und]/&4 ,good is !
 "w ( radiant ,ormuzd1 evil ! de$ ( d>k 
,ahriman4 ,! two fight toge!r ) v ne>ly 
equal =ces1 b ?is doctr9e reveals !     
com=t+ prospect ( a di/ant future 9 :i* 
,ormuzd %all f9ally triumph ov]         
,ahriman1 & fills ! trembl+ believ] )   
elation at ! ?\ght t aft] ons ( ! tragic
 /ruggle betwe5 good & evil1 at ! end ( 
! _w ! curta9 w fall on ! victory (     
good4 ,by ?is victory ,mazdeism1 :i*    
claims to be mono!i/ic1 rescues its s+le
 god1 al?\gh ! introduction ( a second  
pr9ciple ( v ne>ly equal p[]1 :i* holds 
! "o god 9 *eck = an immeasurable p]iod 
( "t1 br+s ?is sy/em p]il\sly close to  
poly!ism4  ,to ! pur] mono!ism (        

,*ri/ianity !re is inde$ some?+         
repugnant 9 ! assumption ( a second1    
opposite pr9ciple ( almo/ equal p[]1 b  
yet x has admitt$ ! exi/5ce ( ! devil1  
:o is und\bt$ly rem9isc5t ( ,ahriman4   
,only he lacks ! indep5d5ce ( ! ,mazdean
 demon4 ,he is n on a foot+ ( equality )
 ,god1 b is subject to ,him z is e      
creature4 ,he is n /rong en\gh to oppose
 ,god & c only d evil because ,god all[s
 x4 ,b :y does ,he all[ x8 ,:y does ,he 
tol]ate ! devil8 ,:y c ! latt] proce$ ) 
8 evil "w ) ,god's cons5t8 ,to ?is      
!ology gives a crafty answ] :i* ,goe!   
has clo!d 9 ! glori\s beauty (          
inimitable poetry4 ,god has assign$ to !
 devil ! task ( tempt+ man ) all ! arts 
( s$uction 9 ord] to give him !         
opportunity ( te/+ & develop+ 8 moral   
/r5g? 9 resi/ance1 ( purg+ himself1 (   
atta9+ purity & salvation by 8 own      
ef=ts4 ,9 %ort1 he exi/s 9 ord] to give 
man a sort ( ,sw$i% gymna/ics 9 virtue4 
,! /ruggle is n q fair1 = ! devil is    
held by a halt] & is pull$ up if he gets

 too big an advantage1 & man is always  
assi/$ by r$eem+ m]cy1 a h& be+ /ret*$  
out to him f ! cl\ds :i* sets him on 8  
feet z (t5 z he /umbles4 ,b !ology is n 
b\nd by rules ( sport4 ,t is h[ !       
picture ( ! univ]se is pres5t$ 9 ,fau/4 
,b he :o pa9t$ x is ! same ,goe! :o on  
ano!r occasion angrily compla9s3 ,y all[
 man to become guilty--& !n leave him to
 8 suff]+4 ,does ! div9ity all[ man to  
fall a victim to evil )\t turn+ x aside 
f him8 ,does he only try him 9 ord]     
m]cifully to rescue him at ! mom5t :5 he
 is ab\t to succumb8 ,goe! does n answ] 
?is "q )\t ambiguity4 ,t is n 8 bus9ess 
ei!r4 ,he may contradict himself4 ,he is
 a poet :o is all[$ to express          
contradictory views4 ,he is n a !ologian
 ^: duty x is1 by means ( a def9ite     
dogma1 to support ^? :o tott] 9 d\bt4   
,all ^! attempts to reconcile !         
attributes ( ! deity ) ! fact t !re is  
evil 9 ! _w :i* cont9ually leads man    
into dang]1 emanate f ! explicit or     
tacit assumption t man possesses ,free  

,w4 ,= if 8 w is n free & he does evil1 
!n he does x because he mu/ & because he
 _c d o!rwise4 ,b ?is mu/ c only come f 
! deity :o is almighty2 x is ! deity :o 
condemns man1 :o =ces him to d evil4    
,man !re=e does evil z ,god's tool )\t  
volition2 !re=e1 z a matt] ( fact1 x is 
,god ,himself :o does evil4 ,b if ,god  
is capable ( do+ evil ,he is n ,morality
 itself1 or e di/9ction betwe5 good &   
evil is de/roy$1 & we mu/ recognize :at 
seems evil to u to be j z moral z :at   
seems good1 because ! "o is z mu* ! "w (
 ,god z ! o!r4 ,b if ?is is admitt$1 & x
 is logically impossible n to admit x1  
!n ! :ole f\ndation ( transc5d5tal1 t   
is1 ( !ological1 e?ics breaks d[n4 ,!   
latt] is !re=e =c$1 on pa9 ( suicide1 to
 ma9ta9 t man has ,free ,w4  ,b ) ?is   
ass]tion !ological e?ics by no means    
dis>ms all ! objections :i* ?reat5 its  
life4 ,r5\vi]'s book on ,free ,w is     
probably ! mo/ ?or\gh & exhau/ive "w on 
?is subject :i* has be5 treat$ by ?\s&s 
( ?9k]s & n a few babbl]s s9ce ! "t ( ! 

anci5t ,greeks1 & he describes x z      
foll[s3 ,w is free & spontane\s if      
,reason _c =etell its untrammell$ action
 at any "t o!r ?an t at :i* x actually  
takes place4 ,r5\vi] makes no limitation
 & no res]vation4 ,he does n say1 if    
human reason _c =etell its action1 & ?is
 omission ( ! p>ticul>iz+ adjective is n
 c>elessness or a mi/ake on 8 "p1 x is  
duly consid]$2 = ! prud5t dialectician  
kn[s v well t he w\ld ru9 8 !ory ( ,free
 ,w if he only ma9ta9$ t human reason   
alone %\ld be able to =etell its action4
 ,!re are _m happ5+s :i* human reason _c
 =etell1 & :i* nev]!less obey immutable 
laws & take place accord+ to absolutely 
fix$ rules )\t ! ex]cise ( any inn]     
fre$om or au?ority on ! "p ( !          
individual4 ,if human reason _c =etell  
^! happ5+s1 x is n because no ext]nal   
=ce ( ! univ]se det]m9es !m & !y are    
entirely spontane\s1 b simply because ! 
laws controll+ !m are unkn[n4 ,!re=e !  
impossibility ( =etell+ !m is no pro( ( 
_! fre$om1 x is only a pro( ( !         

ignorance ( ! human m9d4 ,!re 0 a "t :5 
no human intellect c\ld =etell !        
occurr5ce ( a sol> or lun> eclipse4 ,0 t
 because ! heav5ly bodies act freely &  
are eclips$ only at _! own spontane\s   
desire1 :5 & h[ !y please8 ,no1 because 
man _h n discov]$ & compreh5d$ _!       
movem5ts4 ,to ?is v day we are unable to
 =etell ! wea!r on a p>ticul> day next  
ye>1 or ! result ( ! next h>ve/1 or an  
e>?quake4 ,does ?is prove ! fre$om1 !   
absolute indep5d5ce ( ^! occurr5ces8    
,no2 x only proves ! inadequacy ( our k4
 ,r5\vi] !re=e w\ld a*ieve no?+ = 8 !ory
 ( ,free ,w1 if only human und]/&+ 7 to 
be unable to =etell ! actions ( ! ,w4 ,t
 is :y he does n say human reason1 b    
simply ,reason4 ,! ess5ce ( ,free ,w is 
t its actions altoge!r %all be incapable
 ( be+ =ese52 x is n 9 its nature to act
 9 accordance ) "s pr$et]m9ation :i* mu/
 necess>ily reckon ) out] circum/ances &
 giv5 =ces2 & ! impossibility ( =etell+ 
its actions exi/s n only = human ,reason
 b = e ,reason--= ,reason 9 g5]al4  ,= e

 ,reason & !re=e = ! div9e ,reason z    
well4 ,& n[ !ological e?ics mu/ f9d a   
way out ( ?is dilemma3 ei!r ,god does n 
=esee ! decisions ( free human ,w1 !n   
?is is a d5ial ( 8 omnisci5ce1 t is1 (  
"o ( ,8 ess5tial attributes2 or ,god    
=esees ! decisions ( free human ,w1 !n  
?is is a d5ial ( ! ,fre$om ( ! ,w1 !    
ess5ce ( :i*1 accord+ to ,r5\vi]1 lies 9
 ! fact t x _c be =ese54 ,= ?is         
impossibility ( be+ =ese5 is inde$ !    
quality by :i* ,free ,w /&s or falls4   
,let u realize ! significance ( ?is     
concept4 ,no?+ c be =ese5 :i* w n )     
c]ta9ty occur4 ,b :atev] at "s future "t
 w become a reality1 mu/ ev5 n[ be      
virtually a reality = an omnisci5t      
,reason n b\nd by ! human categories (  
"t & space1 s9ce = ?is ,reason nei!r    
proximity nor di/ance exi/s1 b ev]y?+ is
 on "o plane1 & !re is no future or pa/1
 b ev]y?+ is pres5t4 ,s if ! div9e      
,reason =esees n[ h[ ! free ,w ( man w  
act 9 ! future1 t is equival5t to say+ t
 ?is free ,w is =c$ to act 9 ! p>ticul> 

way :i* ,god =esees & n o!rwise4 ,!re=e 
! ,w is n free b1 on ! contr>y1 /rictly 
b\nd4 ,x is oblig$ to make ! ev5t =ese5 
by ,god a fact1 z ,god c only =esee :at 
mu/ c]ta9ly come to pass1 & a =ese5 ev5t
 t does n happ5 w\ld mean a mi/ake1 a   
false assumption1 ( :i* "o _c believe   
,god capable )\t d5y+ ,him4 ,?is app>5t 
free ,w is co]cion at sight4 ,z its     
action is =ese5 by ,god1 ! ,w is subject
 to ! law ( fate1 b a p]iod ( delay is  
grant$4 ,e movem5t ( ! suppos$ly free ,w
 becomes a "p ( ! ord] ( ! univ]se :i*  
has be5 unalt]ably laid d[n f et]nity1 &
 :i* ! human ,w _c upset )\t bury+ ,god 
9 ! ru9s4 ,man may imag9e t 8 ,w is     
free4 ,b t is self-deception1 & he c    
only indulge 9 x because :at ,god sees  
cle>ly is hidd5 f him1 namely1 ! goal   
t[>ds :i*1 ?\gh he does n realize x1 he 
is inevitably l$ along /rictly def9$    
pa?s by ! iron h& ( fate4  ,x w\ld be   
unju/ t[>ds !ology to say t x has nev]  
se5 ! incompatibility ( ,free ,w ) div9e
 omnisci5ce4 ,?is has n escap$ its      

notice1 b x has attempt$ by ! use (     
famili> =mul to get out ( ! difficulty4 
,9 8 book ,de lib]o ,arbitrio ,sa9t     
,augu/9e /\tly ma9ta9s t ! human ,w is  
free1 b he tries to rescue ! attributes 
( ! deity by res]v+ to x ! "r or ! p[]  
to int]v5e by its m]cy 9 ! actions ( !  
,w1 if 9 its fre$om x comes to a        
decision :i* endang]s ! salvation ( !   
s\l4 ,sa9t ,?omas ,aqu9as takes good c>e
 n to diff] 9 op9ion f ! ,bi%op (       
,hippo4 ,! re=m]s1 ,calv91 ,lu!r &      
,bi%op ,jans51 too1 7 bett] logicians   
?an ! patri/ic writ]s1 & unhesitat+ly   
d5i$ ! fre$om ( ! ,w1 b !y did n notice 
t !y made ,god responsible = all !      
misde$s ( man1 lack+ fre$om & act+ )    
,god's =ekn[l$ge & at ,8 behe/4 ,!      
,c\ncil ( ,tr5t scorn$ all ^!           
contradictions & un9telligible po9ts1 & 
decl>$ ) infallible au?ority t man's ,w 
is free & t at ! same "t ,god is        
omnisci5t4 ,! ,ca?olic ,*ur* at ! "t 0 9
 "s c\ntries /ill 9 a position to meet  
,reason1 if x rais$ objections1 ) an    

unansw]able argum5t3 ! /ake4  ,t is !   
peculi>ity ( !ological z di/+ui%$ f     
sci5tific ?\ght1 ! pure/ =m ( :i* is    
ma!matics4 ,! =m] nev] foll[s a tra9 (  
?\ght to its /rictly logical conclusion1
 b only foll[s a c]ta9 di/ance1 to a    
po9t :]e x loses itself 9 an imp5etrable
 black fog1 or 9 a cl\d ( glory :i*     
dazzles ! behold]4 ,ma!matical ?\ght1 on
 ! contr>y1 develops ! tra9 ( ?\ght to !
 bitt] end1 to its ultimate conclusions4
 ,^! are necess>ily absurd if ! premises
 are errone\s1 & _! absurdity is s cle> 
t x conv9c+ly proves ! mi/ake 9 ! po9t (
 dep>ture4 ,su* a scrupul\s confutation 
( self is to be expect$ z little f my/ic
 visions z f arrogant dogmatism4 ,! =m] 
obey ! laws ( dreams1 9 :i* !           
association ( ideas1 unfett]$ by logic1 
holds sway & /r+s toge!r ! mo/          
incompatible ideas to =m an app>5tly    
connect$ s]ies2 ! latt] dem&s !         
privilege ( be+ indep5d5t ( ! judgm5t ( 
,reason1 & ( be+ tri$ by ,fai?1 a judge 
:o always decides 9 its fav\r4  ,^? :o  

believe 9 ,free ,w adduce a pro( ( x :i*
 !y d]ive by ! me?od ( introspection4   
,man1 !y say1 w nev] be conv9c$ t he is 
n free1 t 8 actions are n det]m9$ by 8  
own w alone1 = he has ! incontrov]tible 
consci\sness ( ! contr>y4 ,he is q cle> 
on ! po9t t he does a ?+ because x is 8 
w to d s1 t he _h ! *oice ( do+ x or n1 
t he does :at he wants1 t he comes to 8 
decision ow+ to consid]ations1          
incl9ations1 moods or int5tions :i* are 
p]fectly kn[n to him1 if to him only4   
,at ! ,sorbonne 9 ,p>is !y /ill rememb] 
! pr(essor--:5 ! anecdote 0 told me     
,victor ,c\s9 0 nam$ z ! h]o1 b ,i _c   
gu>antee t x 0 he & no o!r--:o us$ to   
say 9 8 lecture on ,free ,w3 ,man's w is
 free4 ,!re is no ne$ to prove ?is by   
giv+ reasons4 ,we feel x imm$iately z a 
tru?4 ,i w %[ y4 ,i w raise my "r arm4  
,i raise x--"h he rais$ 8 "r arm ) a    
comm&+ ge/ure1 kept x = a %ort "t 9 ?is 
position1 & add$ triumphantly3 ,y see t 
my w is free4 ,8 he>]s broke into       
en?usia/ic applause at ?is triumphant   

demon/ration4 ,to-day !y w\ld receive x 
) l\d laught]4  ,we h le>nt to seek !   
roots ( mo/1 p]haps ( all1 human actions
 9 ! subconsci\sness4 ,!re !y are work$ 
out "u influ5ces :i* _c be p]ceiv$ by   
introspection & 9 :i* inborn & acquir$  
incl9ations1 exp]i5ces1 organic         
conditions at ! "t1 in/9cts1 attractions
 & repulsions play a decisive "p4 ,!y   
rise ready made into consci\sness1 & !  
latt]1 n hav+ se5 !m be+ =m$1 p]suades  
itself t x has produc$ !m spontane\sly1 
& imag9es reasons :y x will$ to d       
actions t 7 det]m9$ outside its sph]e4  
,! pr(essor :o au?oritatively /ates1 ,i 
wi% to raise my "r arm & !re=e ,i d x1  
c]ta9ly says ?is 9 all good fai?1 b     
equally c]ta9ly he is ignorant4 ,he is n
 aw>e ( ! play ( =ces :i* end 9 8       
ge/ure4 ,he raises 8 "r arm1 :i* he     
believes he *ooses ) complete fre$om1   
because he is 9 ! habit ( us+ 8 "r arm  
by pref]5ce2 if he _h be5 left-h&$ he   
w\ld h ann\nc$ 8 wi% to raise 8 left    
arm1 & w\ld h be5 equally conv9c$ t he  

_h decid$1 ) complete fre$om1 = 8 left  
arm4 ,if he suff]$ f *ronic muscul>     
rheumatism 9 "o ( 8 arms1 s t x w\ld    
tr\ble him or hurt him to move x1 he    
w\ld unconsci\sly *oose ! o!r1 s\nd arm1
 & ma9ta9 j z positively t he _h done s 
) complete fre$om4 ,i h m5tion$ z       
in/ances two p>ticul>ly crude & !re=e v 
obvi\s reasons :i* may det]m9e ! action 
( ?is simple-m9d$ pr(essor )\t 8 be+    
aw>e ( x4 ,b ea* "o ( our m complicat$1 
& ev5 ( our simple/1 movem5ts is !      
outcome ( numb]less subtle causes :i*   
are p>tly due to ! organiz$ exp]i5ces & 
habits ( our individual life1 p>tly a   
necess>y consequ5ce ( our inh]it$       
qualities1 our bodily & intellectual    
con/itution1 & _! orig9 goes back to !  
f> di/ant pa/ ( our species1 to !       
beg9n+s ( life1 we may ev5 say to       
et]nity4 ,our consci\sness c tell no?+ (
 ^! causes4 ,!y elude our obs]vation &  
inve/igation & rema9 ev] unkn[n to u4   
,r5\vi] is q "r :5 he says no und]/&+--&
 ,i say )\t 8 ambiguity no human und]/&+

 ( ! pres5t "t--c =etell ! actions (    
ano!r1 nor inde$ 8 own1 b n because !y  
come to pass indep5d5tly ( inevitable   
causes1 b simply because ^! causes _c be
 descri$ by our ignorance4  ,x is va9   
lab\r to try & d]ive ! solution ( ! "q (
 ,free ,w1 or ev5 a contribution t[>ds  
x1 f introspection4 ,x is a me?od       
unsuitable = ?is purpose4 ,! ,greek sage
 well knew :at a great & difficult task 
he set man :5 he admoni%$ him3 ,greek3  
gn?i seauton4 ,t is easy to say b       
difficult if n impossible to d4 ,sp9oza 
v happily *>act]iz$ ! self-deception 9  
:i* ! individual is plung$ ) reg>d to ! 
"p play$ 9 det]m9+ 8 actions by 8       
consci\s ,w aid$ by ,reason2 he says t  
if a /one1 flung by "s h&1 _h           
consci\sness1 x w\ld imag9e x 0 fly+ (  
its own free w2 & 9 ano!r place he po9ts
 out )\t any illu/rative metaphor1 t a  
drunk man & a *ild1 :o c]ta9ly d n act  
on _! own initiative1 also believe 9 !  
fre$om ( _! w4 ,x has be5 possible to   
prove exp]im5tally h[ ignorant ( ! real 

motives ( 8 actions ! individual may be4
 ,x is sugge/$ to a p]son :o has be5    
hypnotiz$ t on awak5+ he is to c>ry out 
a c]ta9 action1 some?+ p>ticul>ly       
absurd1 unju/ifi$ & aimless be+         
int5tionally *os54 ,! subject ( !       
exp]im5t on awak+ fai?fully c>ries out !
 sugge/ion1 & z he has no memory ( :at  
happ5$ :ile he 0 9 ! hypnotic /ate1 he  
is conv9c$ t he is yield+ to a sudd5    
idea1 a :im1 b t 9 any case 8 action is 
det]m9$ by 8 own w4 ,b s9ce he mu/      
realize ! absurdity ( :at he is do+1 he 
seeks = "s suffici5t motive to expla9 x1
 & always f9ds "o to 8 own satisfaction4
  ,all ! ef=ts ( angui%$ sophi/s to     
prove _! !sis ( ! ,fre$om ( ! ,w f data 
suppli$ by introspection h fail$        
mis]ably4 ,b !y 7 =c$ to und]take !m1 = 
!ology _c give up ! cont5tion t man acts
 ) free ,w4 ,x is an important "p ( !   
religi\s conception ( ! univ]se & ( !   
relation 9 :i*1 accord+ to ?is1 man /&s 
to ,god4  ,to put x %ortly1 religion    
sees 9 man's life on e>? a prep>ation = 

et]nity4 ,x gives him ! opportunity (   
com+ ne>] to ,god by 8 own ef=ts & ?us  
mak+ himself wor?y ( ! salvation :i*    
secures him a place 9 ! sight ( ,god to 
! end ( "t4 ,?us ! life ( ! fle% is made
 a me?od ( selection by :i* ! %eep are  
sund]$ f ! goats4 ,god provides man )   
free ,w = ?is special purpose1 s t he   
may make use ( x to *oose good ( 8 own  
accord & to avoid evil4 ,?is und\bt$ly  
we>isome task is made mu* easi] = him1  
because ,god 9 ,8 goodness has giv5 him 
laws1 doctr9es ( ,morality & examples   
:i* po9t out ! way ( salvation4 ,if man 
makes prop] use ( 8 gifts1 if 9         
pursuance ( div9e admonition1 he treads 
( 8 own free w ! pa? ( virtue1 he       
acquires m]it :i* gives him a legitimate
 claim to ! rew>d ( f9d+ fav\r 9 ,god's 
eyes & to be admitt$ to ! company ( ! j 
& pure4 ,b if man purposely turns to    
evil1 ( :i* he is w>n$ by revelation &  
:i* he has be5 giv5 ! p[] to avoid1 !n  
he is a s9n] & des]ves ! puni%m5t (     
damnation1 :i*1 h[ev]1 he may yet escape

 if ,god 9 ,8 m]cy =gives him 8 s94     
,!re=e man holds 9 8 h& ! fate ( 8      
immortal s\l4 ,x dep5ds on him :e!r ?is 
fate be salvation or damnation4 ,he is  
responsible = direct+ x to ! =m] or !   
latt]4 ,( c\rse1 ,god has ! p[] to =ce  
him to virtue & to /op him f vice4 ,b x 
is n ,8 plan to condemn man to be !     
slave ( virtue4 ,he wants man to *oose  
virtue ( 8 own accord1 ,he wants noble  
s\ls ab\t ,him :o by fre$om h atta9$    
,morality4  ,?is religi\s view ( !      
univ]se1 :i* deals 9 ass]tions & disda9s
 on pr9ciple to prove ev5 "o ( !m to    
,reason by facts t c be te/$1 contra/s )
 ! sci5tific view ( ! univ]se :i* ass]ts
 no?+ b :at c be objectively asc]ta9$ to
 be true1 :i* di/+ui%es %>ply betwe5 !  
acc\nt ( :at has be5 obs]v$ & c be te/$ 
by ev]yone & hypo!ses = :i* x dem&s no  
belief1 b only ! recognition ( _!       
possibility or probability1 & :i* x     
disc>ds z soon z an asc]ta9$ fact       
def9itely disproves !m4 ,no compromise  
is possible betwe5 ^! two views ( !     

univ]se4 ,no?+ c bridge ! *asm betwe5   
!m4 ,x w\ld be sup]ficial to say t ! !me
 ( ! sci5tific view is realities & t ( !
 religi\s "o imag9ation4 ,imag9ation is 
also a reality1 only ( a diff]5t ord] to
 t :i* is call$ s 9 common p>lance4 ,x  
is a subjective reality2 x exi/s only 9 
! m9d t conceives x4 ,reality itself is 
= ! ?9k+ m9d only a /ate ( consci\sness1
 b x is an image ( conditions :i* h an  
objective exi/5ce1 ?\gh 9 ano!r =m1     
outside ! consci\sness4 ,! support]s (  
religion ma9ta9 t !re is an objective   
reality correspond+ to _! concepts1 b   
?is _c be asc]ta9$ by any ( ! s5ses :i* 
! liv+ organism has develop$ 9 ord] to  
e/abli% a relation betwe5 ! _w1 ( :i* x 
is a "p1 & itself4 ,x is p]fectly       
useless = support]s ( ! "o view ( !     
univ]se to try & conv9ce ^? ( ! o!r4    
,ea* ( !m moves on a diff]5t plane & is 
unapproa*able to ! o!r4 ,all t c be done
 is to def9e bo? ! "o & ! o!r z cle>ly z
 possible & prove _! incompatibility4   
,= ! sci5tific view ( ! ,univ]se !      

problem ( ,free ,w does n exi/ & _c     
exi/4 ,all facts t sci5ce has obs]v$ =ce
 x to ! assumption ( causation1 :i* does
 n only mean t e ph5om5on is produc$ by 
a cause1 is ! effect ( a cause & c\ld   
nev] h occurr$ b = ?is cause1 b also    
means t ! effect repres5ts ! exact      
equival5t ( ! en]gy :i* 0 its cause4    
,?us ! hypo!sis ( ! inde/ructibility ( !
 total en]gy 9 ! univ]se is an ess5tial 
"p ( ! concept ( causation1 ! fundam5tal
 hypo!sis )\t :i* ! ph5om5on ( ! univ]se
 & ! ?+s :i* occur 9 x are simply       
un9telligible to ,reason2 & ev]y?+ 9 &  
outside ourselves1 ev]y?+ t we p]ceive1 
becomes *aos1 *ance1 lawless :im or     
miracle 9 ! !ological s5se ( ! ^w4  ,x  
is inconceivable t an effect %\ld be    
any?+ o!r ?an ! reappe>ance 9 a diff]5t 
=m ( ! exact quantity ( en]gy t caus$ x2
 = if ! en]gy ( ! effect exce$$ t ( its 
cause1 !n "p ( ! effect w\ld h be5      
produc$ )\t cause2 & if ! en]gy ( !     
effect fell %ort ( t ( ! cause1 !n "p ( 
! en]gy ( ! cause w\ld h be5 exp5d$ )\t 

produc+ an effect4 ,t1 h[ev]1 w\ld be ! 
negation ( causation1 x w\ld be an      
admission t "p ( ! effect 7i4e4 an      
effect7 c\ld be produc$ )\t suffici5t   
cause1 i4e4 out ( no?+1 & t a "p ( !    
cause 7i4e4 en]gy7 c\ld disappe> 7into  
no?+7 )\t produc+ an equival5t effect1  
:i* is obvi\sly absurd4  ,! human ,w    
manife/s itself by an action or !       
prev5tion ( an action accord+ to !      
impulse felt by our organism4 ,bo? ^!   
are an ex]cise ( =ce1 ! am\nt ( :i* c be
 measur$4 ,inde$1 inhibition1 too1 is a 
dynamical ef=t :i* repres5ts ! exact    
equival5t ( ! =ce ) :i* ! impulse :i* x 
has *eck$ act$ on ! motory c5tres4 ,!   
,w1 !re=e1 exp5ds en]gy :i* does "w t c 
be measur$4 ,b ! ,w mu/ d]ive ?is en]gy 
f "s s\rce4 ,x !re=e also only conv]ts  
en]gy d]iv$ f ! en]gy ( ! univ]se1 !    
total am\nt ( :i* c nei!r be augm5t$ nor
 dim9i%$2 ! ,w consequ5tly is a "p ( !  
dynamic en]gy ( ! univ]se1 & mu/        
necess>ily be subject to its me*anical  
law2 t is1 to ! law ( causation4 ,x is  

!re=e n free1 b dep5d5t1 z is e ph5om5on
 9 ! univ]se4 ,:oev] ma9ta9s its fre$om 
ma9ta9s t x is indep5d5t1 t x is n      
subject to ! law ( causation1 t x has no
 cause ( :i* ! elem5ts1 if !y c\ld be   
fully kn[n to u1 w\ld be measurable1 t x
 exp5ds en]gy :i* x d]ives f n[h]e1 t x 
produces en]gy out ( no?+4 ,:oev]       
ma9ta9s ?is contradicts all exp]i5ce f  
:i* ! k ( ,nature & h] laws has be5     
built up2 x is obvi\sly hopeless to     
expect a reasonable discussion ) su* a  
p]son4  ,n[ ! support]s ( free ,w may   
reply t !y d n d5y t ! ,w d]ives its    
en]gy f ! organism & !re=e f ! univ]sal 
s\rce ( cosmic en]gy1 & t x makes use ( 
x accord+ to ! laws ( me*anics2 b !y    
ass]t t ! direction 9 :i* en]gy is      
exp5d$ by ! ,w is freely det]m9$ by x2  
fur!r1 t ! direction does n affect !    
am\nt ( en]gy us$1 & consequ5tly ! ,w c 
act absolutely 9 accordance ) !         
me*anical laws ( ! univ]se & yet c1     
indep5d5tly ( outside causes1 det]m9e ! 
mann] 9 :i* ! en]gy %all be exp5d$2 t is

 to say1 ! ,w c be free4 ,b ?is         
objection is pure sophi/ry1 = !         
det]m9ation ( ! direction1 9 s f> z x is
 n m]e imag9ation & !re=e ineffective & 
/]ile1 b really controls ! action1 is an
 exp5diture ( en]gy4 ,! controll+ p[]   
uses up en]gy & obeys a cause1 s we h   
arriv$ at ! same dilemma aga9--ei!r !   
controll+ ,w is subject to ! law (      
causation1 !n x is n free2 or x is free 
& is det]m9$ by no outside cause1 !n we 
mu/ ascribe to x motion )\t driv+ p[] & 
en]gy d]iv$ f no?+--:i* is absurd4  ,no4
 ,!re is no su* ?+ z ,free ,w4 ,!       
concept ( fre$om itself is an illusion (
 ?\ght :i* _c survey suffici5tly        
ext5sive connexions4 ,no?+ 9 ! univ]se  
is free2 all ?+s mutually det]m9e ea*   
o!r4 ,all are cause & effect1 & !y fit  
into "o ano!r l cog :eels4 ,ev]y?+ is   
l9k$ up & dovetail$4 ,! philosoph]'s    
phrase1 ,ev]y?+ is 9 flux1 is !         
description ( ! outw>d appe>ance ( ?+s4 
,aga9/ x we mu/ set ! reality :i* is3   
,ev]y?+ is et]nally at re/4 ,= a        

circumscrib$ sy/em ( motion )\t beg9n+  
or end may mean motion = e individual   
po9t :i* describes ! c\rse1 b is1 z a   
:ole1 virtually at re/4 ,ev]y?+ t exi/s1
 or ev] w exi/1 has its necess>y &      
suffici5t cause 9 t :i* has always be52 
! sequ5ce ( ph5om5a has be5 unalt]ably  
det]m9$ s9ce all et]nity = all et]nity2 
:at we call *ance is an occurr5ce = :i* 
our ignorance _c p]ceive ! necess>y     
causes & conditions2 pa/ & future w\ld  
be 9 ! same plane1 !re=e w\ld be pres5t 
= an omnisci5ce1 :i* knew & und]/ood !  
ma*9e ( ! univ]se d[n to its smalle/    
:eel & p94  ,"o ( ! logical consequ5ces 
( ?is is t1 )\t any miracle or !        
assumption ( any sup]natural influ5ces1 
x w\ld be possible to =etell ! mo/      
di/ant ev5ts 9 all _! smalle/ details4  
,an intellig5ce suffici5tly wide &      
p5etrat+ w\ld1 foll[+ ! /rict law (     
causation1 be able to produce all l9es (
 ! pres5t ) absolute c]ta9ty            
immeasurably f> into ! future4 ,z ev]y?+
 t ev] w be necess>ily mu/ be1 x        

virtually exi/s at pres5t & has always  
exi/$2 !re=e x is only a "q ( cl>ity (  
vision1 :i* h[ev]1 is d5i$ to man1 to   
see x at any "t & to any ext5t4  ,!     
illusion ( flux is explicable4 ,life1   
:i* l all _w processes is a cyclical    
motion1 is pass$ 9 an endless alt]nation
 betwe5 ! %9+ =? & ext9ction (          
consci\sness1 ! be>]s ( :i* are an      
ev]la/+ s]ies ( organisms foll[+ "o     
ano!r4 ,e organism la/s a limit$ "t1    
dur+ :i* x is c>ri$ along an            
inconceivably small fraction ( !        
trem5d\s cycle4 ,x sees all ! po9ts (   
?is %ort /ret* b once1 & does n le>n t  
!y are et]nally ! same4 ,x ga!rs ! false
 impression t !y fly pa/ x1 :]eas !y are
 at re/ & x passes !m1 until x ceases to
 be a suitable be>] ( consci\sness &    
disappe>s1 mak+ room = a successor4 ,?is
 rigid immutability ( ! :ole ,univ]se is
 c]ta9ly intol]ably gruesome to !       
imag9ation1 b !n1 e "t we look beyond ! 
n>r[ conf9es ( life & human             
circum/ances1 to peep into ! inf9ity &  

et]nity :i* surr\nds u1 d n t]rify+     
vi/as op5 up be=e u8  ,n only ! religi\s
 m9d$1 b _m free ?9k]s1 too1 h ,free ,w 
at he>t1 ?\gh ! latt] are o!rwise       
guiltless ( any my/icism4 ,!y claim x 9 
! "n ( man's dignity1 :i* w\ld be deeply
 humiliat$ if we _h to confess ourselves
 ! slaves ( outside influ5ces1 automata 
mov$ by univ]sal causation )\t our hav+ 
any say 9 ! matt]4 ,we are n entitl$ to 
su* trump]y pride4 ,let u seek our      
dignity 9 our /riv+ = k1 9 ! subjection 
( our own in/9cts to ! control ( our    
,reason1 b n 9 an imag9>y indep5d5ce ( !
 laws ( ,nature1 ^: comm&s we %\ld      
oppose 9 va94  ,) ,free ,w              
responsibility also disappe>s4 ,t is    
obvi\s4 ,b t means a collapse only =    
!ological ,morality4 ,sci5tific e?ics c 
manage v well )\t responsibility4 ,nay1 
m2 !re is no room 9 x = ?is concept4 ,9 
! sy/em ( !ological ,morality           
responsibility has a transc5d5tal       
significance4 ,to sum up once m %ortly  
:at has be5 dealt ) 9 detail above3     

accord+ to ?is sy/em ,morality is a     
div9e comm&1 ob$i5ce to1 or disreg>d (  
:i* results 9 salvation or damnation2 9 
ord] t rew>d & puni%m5t may be j1 "o z  
well z ! o!r mu/ be m]it$2 t implies !  
assumption t virtue is practis$ or vice 
*os5 int5tionally & ) =e?\ght2 b ?is    
mode ( action mu/ be freely will$ if man
 is to be responsible = x be=e 8 div9e  
,judge4  ,sci5tific e?ics kn[s no?+ (   
?is sup]natural dream4 ,9 its view      
,morality is an imman5t ph5om5on :i*    
occurs only )9 humanity--or to def9e x m
 accurately1 )9 humanity organiz$ z a   
society4 ,x arose f a def9ite necessity2
 f ! und5iable ne$ ( m5 to unite1 s z to
 be able1 9 company ) "o ano!r1 %\ld] to
 %\ld]1 to succe$ m easily1 or inde$ to 
succe$ at all1 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce :i*
 is too h>d = ! solit>y individual4 ,x  
has a cle>ly recognizable aim3 to tea*  
man to curb 8 selfi% in/9cts & to       
practise consid]ation = 8 neighb\r1 by  
:i* means alone peaceable life 9 common 
& productive co-op]ation are possible4  

,! in/9ct ( self-pres]vation supplies   
society ) ! laws ( ,morality :i* x      
imp]i\sly imposes on all its memb]s1 &  
unconditional ob$i5ce to :i* x dem&s4   
,society does n dream ( say+ to !       
individual3 ,y are free2 y mu/ y\rself  
decide :e!r y w foll[ ! pa? ( virtue or 
t ( vice4 ,on ! contr>y1 x says to him3 
,:e!r y wi% x or n1 y mu/ d t :i* my    
doctr9e ( ,morality indicates z good &  
es*ew t :i* x decl>es to be evil4 ,y h  
no *oice4 ,i tol]ate y 9 my mid/ only if
 y submit to ! laws ( ,morality4 ,if y  
transgress !m ,i %all draw y\r tee? &   
claws or de/roy y altoge!r4 ,by         
discipl9e la/+ _m ?\s&s ( ye>s society  
has develop$ 9 ! individual1 ?\gh n 9   
all1 an organ t wat*es t 8 conduct is   
moral1 & ?is is ! consci5ce4 ,b ?is is  
only supplem5t>y to1 & repres5tative (1 
society1 :i* 9 ! ma9 ex]cises police    
sup]vision itself1 & sees t 9 g5]al !   
moral law is obey$4 ,x judges all !     
actions ( ! individual t come to its k4 
,consci5ce only is ! compet5t au?ority  

:]e occurr5ces are conc]n$ :i* take     
place simply 9 ! consci\sness ( !       
individual1 & :i* he alone is aw>e (4   
,consci5ce is only too (t5 a l5i5t judge
 :o acquits ! individual too easily &   
ne>ly always admits ext5uat+            
circum/ances4 ,society does n let him (f
 s lightly2 8 puni%m5t is c]ta9 if he _c
 prev5t 8 s9 f becom+ kn[n4             
,responsibility !re=e also exi/s 9      
,morality z und]/ood by sociologi/s4 ,z 
f> z 8 int5tions are conc]n$ !          
individual mu/ come to t]ms ) 8         
consci5ce1 :i*1 z a rule1 he does n f9d 
difficult4 ,= 8 de$s he mu/ acc\nt to   
society1 & x does n ask :at took place 9
 8 consci\sness1 b only h[ 8 spiritual  
impulses 7 manife/$4 ,= 8 de$s1 !n1 he  
is summon$ be=e society's c\rt ( ju/ice 
& mu/ answ] = !m )\t hav+ rec\rse to !  
excuse t he act$ z he 0 =c$ to d by 8   
disposition & ! pressure ( circum/ances1
 & t he _h no *oice & c\ld n act        
o!rwise4 ,?\gh ,morality has always be5 
necess>y = ! life ( ! community1 & ?\gh 

! latt] has1 "u ! pressure ( ! law (    
self-pres]vation1 always _h to make its 
memb]s /rictly subs]vi5t to ,morality1 x
 has ev] _h a dim idea t !              
responsibility ( ! individual = 8       
actions is only ( practical1 n (        
fundam5tal or ideal significance4 ,x has
 nev] pu%$ inve/igation z to h[ f> !    
individual act$ freely or n to any great
 l5g?s1 nev] attempt$ to trace x to !   
f\ndations ( 8 consci\sness1 to !       
inception ( ! impulses ( 8 ,w4 ,:]e !   
lack ( fre$om 0 obvi\s1 = in/ance1 :]e e
 layman c\ld see !re 0 insanity1 !      
,moral law has be5 disreg>d$ ev] s9ce   
anci5t times1 & society has cont5t$     
itself ) protect+ itself f ! intol]able 
actions ( ! lunatic by r5d]+ him        
h>mless4 ,s9ce positive ,law1 made      
concrete 9 ! laws ) p5al sanctions1 0   
evolv$ f ! univ]sal ,moral law1 x has   
admitt$ ! plea ( irresponsibility &     
refra9$ f ex]cis+ its co]cive p[]s :]e  
su* irresponsibility has be5 e/abli%$4  
,9 addition to madness1 demon/rable     

co]cion & self-def5ce relieve !         
individual f responsibility = ! crime & 
r5d] him immune f puni%m5t4  ,9 ! c\rse 
( evolution society has conc$$ /ill     
fur!r limitations ( individual          
responsibility4 ,x will+ly admits new k 
ga9$ by sci5tific psy*ology & conc$es   
limit$ responsibility1 n only 9 case (  
madness1 b 9 su* cases1 too1 :]e exp]ts 
c conv9c+ly prove to ! judges1 !        
gu>dians ( its ,law1 t ! individual 0 9 
an abnormal condition & affect$ by      
morbid influ5ces at ! "t ( ! crime4     
,f>!r society _c g1 if x does n want to 
put an end to ,moral law & d away       
altoge!r ) positive law4 ,conc]n = its  
cont9u$ exi/5ce =bids ?is4 ,x mu/ leave 
x to ! philosoph]s to cont9ue !         
inve/igation4 ,!y mu/ %[ t ! ,w is nev] 
free1 always fett]$1 n only 9 ! extreme 
cases ( madness or :5 "u ! influ5ce (   
sugge/ion4 ,!y mu/ make x cle> t !re is 
only a diff]5ce ( degree & n ( k9d      
betwe5 ! det]m9+ influ5ces "u :i* !     
individual is con/ra9$ to act1 & t !    

causation :i* b9ds him proce$s by       
imp]ceptible degrees f ! delirium ( !   
maniac & ! obsession ( ! abnormal man to
 ! passion1 lu/ & desire ( ! man )      
/rongly develop$ in/9cts1 & to ! slight 
/imulus ( habits1 ! col\rless judgm5t & 
%all[ consid]ations ( ! ord9>y man ) a  
de=m$ "* & no def9ite features4 ,society
 c draw no practical conclusion f !     
!oretical recognition ( ! la/+          
limitation & lack ( fre$om ( ! ,w1      
because moral law by its v nature       
implies co]cion1 & !re=e excludes       
fre$om4 ,:e!r ! individual submits to ! 
,moral law ( 8 own accord1 or because he
 is =c$ !reto by ! community's p[]s (   
co]cion1 is ( no acc\nt to society4 ,x  
deals only ) ! visible results4  ,b x is
 n m]ely a matt] ( flat utilit>ianism1 x
 is n ev5 unju/1 if society1 )\t inquir+
 :e!r ! ,w is free or n1 makes !        
individual responsible = 8 actions &    
only makes an exception f ?is univ]sal  
rule 9 extreme cases4 ,ev5 ?\gh 8 w is  
subject to ! law ( causation1 & !       

individual always acts z he mu/1 he     
nev]!less has a means ( keep+ )9 ! moral
 law despite inn] impulses & out]       
pressure1 & t is by 8 judgm5t & its     
in/rum5t1 inhibition4 ,l e organic      
function :i* is n purely vegetative &   
!re=e beyond ! influ5ce ( ! ,w1 judgm5t 
& inhibition c be /r5g!n$ & p]fect$ by  
me?odical ex]cise1 :ile total neglect ( 
!m w weak5 & f9ally atrophy !m4 ,!      
community may dem& t ea* ( its memb]s   
%all devote att5tion to ! developm5t ( !
 natural functions :i* p]mit him to     
discrim9ate & to suppress any incl9ation
 to evil :i* may appe>4 ,x facilitates  
?is duty t[>ds itself & himself = !     
individual--= x is a "q ( ! increase ( 8
 organic effici5cy & ( 8 p]sonal        
wor?--by ! in/itutions x f\nds = !      
education ( y\?1 by s*ools :i* n only   
imp>t k1 b also =m ! "*1 by in/ruction  
aft] ! s*ool age1 by ! hon\rs ) :i* x   
di/+ui%es especially excell5t p]sons1   
!reby hold+ !m up to example4 ,!        
community prescribes t ev]yone %\ld     

acquire a c]ta9 m9imum ( k1 & = ?is     
purpose =ces ea* individual by law to g 
to s*ool = a c]ta9 numb] ( ye>s4 ,x may 
& ought to =ce him also to r5d] himself 
m capable ( obey+ ! moral law by        
me?odical ex]cise ( 8 w4 ,e citiz5 is   
responsible to ! /ate = be+ able to read
 & write4 ,9 ?is s5se ! individual is   
also responsible = suffici5tly /r5g!n+ 8
 faculty ( inhibition to be able to     
control 8 selfi%1 anti-social & immoral 
desires4  ,! p>ticul> purpose = :i* he  
is to employ 8 faculty ( inhibition     
dep5ds on ! curr5t moral law ( ! age1   
:i* is det]m9$ n by ! individual1 b by !
 community4 ,! individual does q en\gh &
 is free ( blame if he /rives ) all 8   
might to approximate 8 actions to !     
ideal :i* ! community dem&s at a giv5 "t
 = ! life ( its memb]s 9 common & = _!  
mutual relations4 ,to alt] & p]fect ?is 
ideal is ! bus9ess ( a few select m5 )  
wid] judgm5t1 /rong] w & w>m] sympa?ies 
?an ! av]age4 ,9 ^! exceptional cases x 
is n ! community :i* imposes its ideal  

on ! individual1 b1 on ! contr>y1 !     
individual :o works out a new ideal = ! 
community1 &1 s to speak1 ?anks to 8    
p]sonal qualities1 e/abli%es a new      
record 9 ! gymna/ic ( ! ,w :i* beats all
 e>li] ones4  ,f9ally1 x is true1 !     
individual is dep5d5t on 8 natural      
disposition4 ,to say t he c be1 & is to 
be1 rais$ above himself is a v          
impressive1 b really nons5sical1 phrase4
 ,he c get out ( himself only :at is 9  
him by nature1 & h[ev] h>d he may try to
 rea* out beyond ! b\nd>ies drawn by 8  
organic disposition1 he f9ds x          
impossible to ov]/ep !m4 ,b1 z a rule1  
!y are f> wid] ?an ! individual has any 
idea ( until he attempts to rea* !m1 &  
he w f9d _m surprises if he lab\rs      
untir+ly to develop to _! fulle/ ext5t  
all ! possibilities lat5t 9 him4 ,ev5 a 
born weakl+ c1 by d9t ( me?odical       
practice1 h>d5 8 flaccid muscles        
suffici5tly to become a gymna/ ( av]age 
skill1 ?\gh he is h>dly likely to become
 a fir/-class a?lete4  ,9 j ! same way a

 weak-will$ or simple p]son c by e>ne/  
endeav\rs rise to a consi/5t morality2  
if1 nev]!less1 !re appe> 9 him1         
cont9ually or occasionally1 organic     
impulses :i* c>ry him away1 x is n 8    
fault b 8 mis=tune4 ,9 t case he is     
subjectively n responsible = 8          
immorality4 ,b ! community c1 all !     
same1 n lib]ate him f responsibility1   
because ! law ( self-pres]vation =ces x 
to insi/ on obs]vance ( ! moral law1 & x
 has no means ( accurately measur+ h[   
/rong ! pressure ( in/9cts & ! p[] (    
inhibition is 9 any individual1 & to :at
 ext5t he has fulfill$ ! duty ( ex]cis+ 
& /r5g!n+ ! latt]4 ,! phrase ,to und]/& 
ev]y?+ is to =give ev]y?+ %[s insight1 b
 is only true 9 ! s5se t "o mu/ n blame 
an individual = 8 natural imp]fection4  
,x compreh5ds recognition ( ! ,w's lack 
( fre$om1 & ! inadmissibility1 f !      
philosophical po9t ( view1 ( ! concept (
 responsibility1 b x does n affect ! "r 
& ! duty ( ! community to dem& moral    
conduct reg>dless ( ?is lack ( fre$om4  

,x is n p]mitt$ to =give because x      
und]/&s4 ,moreov]1 !re w\ld be no s5se 9
 =giv5ess by ! community1 = ! concept ( 
=giv5ess implies feel+ & k9dly          
=getfulness ( an injury inflict$ (      
malice prep5se2 b insult & (f5ce play no
 "p 9 ! puni%m5t by society (           
transgressions ( ! moral law1 &         
indulg5ce due to s5sibility w\ld endang]
 its exi/5ce4  ,! c]ta9ty possess$ by ! 
individual t 8 evil de$s1 if !y become  
kn[n1 w h evil consequ5ces = him is "o (
 ! det]m9+ factors :i* is indisp5sable 9
 help+ him to make a decision4 ,x is an 
inadmissible affectation to condemn !   
fe> ( puni%m5t z a motive = moral       
action1 because x ought to be ! result (
 ! conviction t x is absolutely "r4 ,x  
is a p[]ful aid to self-discipl9e1 z    
also are ! ?\ght & ! =eta/e ( !         
satisfaction ^u :i* self-respect may    
c\nt if g5]al respect & praise are to be
 ! rew>d ( exempl>y conduct4  ,! great  
weakness ( ! ,kantian doctr9e (         
,morality lies 9 ! fact t x reta9s ,free

 ,w1 ev5 ?\gh x gives x ano!r "n4 ,x is 
call$ autonomy ( ,w & is contra/$ )     
het]onomy4 ,?is doctr9e dem&s1 &        
consid]s x possible1 t ! ,w %\ld be its 
own lawgiv] & %\ld n all[ o!rs to lay   
d[n laws = x2 b x fails to exam9e h[ !  
,w comes to make laws = itself1 ( :at   
hypo!sis ^! laws are ! necess>y         
conclusions1 by :at means ! ,w secures  
respect = its law1 & :e!r ?is seem+ly   
self-impos$ law is n really ! inn]      
realization ( a ready-made law (        
extrane\s orig94 ,! dogma ( ! autonomy (
 ! ,w is a consequ5ce ( ! prelim9>y     
error ( exclud+ utility f ,morality & ( 
decl>+ its imp]ative to be categorical1 
t is1 n dep5d5t on ! aim1 b indep5d5t & 
reg>dless ( any aim4 ,! :ole tomfool]y (
 ! categorical imp]ative & ( ! autonomy 
( ! ,w is transc5d5tal my/icism1 & is   
all ! m surpris+ z x is ! result ( an   
inve/igation :i* claims to be ! "w (    
pure ,reason4 ,x is ! %ad[ ( ! gho/ly   
bogies ( religi\s conceptions 9 !       
daylight ( pure ,reason4  ,f ! po9t (   

view ( ! community we may speak ( m]it &
 s91 b n f ! subjective po9t ( view4 ,= 
! community ! moral conduct ( !         
individual is useful1 immoral conduct is
 disadvantage\s1 !re=e x praises ! "o & 
condemns & puni%es ! o!r4 ,t is         
opportunism1 b n moral philosophy4      
,consid]$ subjectively1 moral conduct is
 j z little m]itori\s z beauty1 great   
/ature1 muscul> /r5g?1 ke5 intellig5ce1 
heal?1 a good memory1 prompt reactions (
 consci\sness & all o!r advantages t !  
individual has receiv$ )\t 8 p]sonal    
int]v5tion z a gift ( nature4 ,& immoral
 conduct is j z little blamewor?y z     
ugl9ess1 /upidity1 sickness & o!r       
mis=tunes :i* ! individual is burd5$ )  
by h]$ity or :i* a h>d fate has impos$  
on him4 ,happy is ! fav\r$ man6         
,pitiable ! un=tunate "o6 ,bo? are ! "w 
( =ces :i* are absolutely beyond !      
control ( _! wills4 ,9 ! same way ! good
 man acts morally because he possesses  
insight & re/ra9+ w-p[]1 & ! bad man    
acts immorally because ^! p]fections h  

be5 d5i$ him1 & nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r c d
 any?+ 9 ! matt]4  ,t does n relieve man
 ( ! duty ( lab\r+ assidu\sly at 8 moral
 developm5t1 b x does relieve him (     
responsibility = ! result ( 8 ef=ts4 ,on
 "o po9t ! sociological1 ! biological & 
! !ological morali/s agree3 !y all b[   
d[n humbly be=e ,grace4     ,,*apt]     
,,vii  ,,morality ,,& ,,progress   ,i h 
fully inve/igat$ 9 ano!r book 7,d] ,s9n 
d] ,ges*i*te7 ! problem ( progress 9 all
 its details4 ,i !re=e ref] ! read] to t
 = all p>ticul>s1 & w "h give only a    
summ>y ( ! ma9 po9ts4  ,progress implies
 motion f "o po9t to ano!r4 ,?is simple 
concept is supplem5t$ by o!rs1 "s cle> &
 "s dim1 :i* gr\p !mselves r\nd x3 !    
conception t ! po9t t[>ds :i* motion is 
direct$ signifies some?+ bett] & m      
desirable ?an ! "o f :i* ! motion takes 
place1 & ! assumption t ! motion is due 
to an impulse1 ei!r inh]5t 9 ! mov+     
object or complex ( objects & an        
ess5tial "p ( x1 or else impress$ ^u x  
by outside =ces2 fur!r1 t ! impulse     

connotes a consci\s image ( ! goal      
arriv$ at1 recognition ( its high] wor? 
& ! desire = great] p]fection4  ,all ^! 
ideas1 :i* are concomitants ( ! concept 
( progress1 are *ildi% an?ropomorphism  
:5 appli$ to ! univ]se4 ,to def9e       
progress z motion f a worse po9t to a   
bett] "o implies ! exi/5ce ( a scale    
:]eby value may be measur$4 ,n[ values  
are cle>ly det]m9$ & grad$ z f> z human 
be+s or any simil> creatures are        
conc]n$4 ,worse or bett] means to man   
less or m pleasant1 useful1 pleas+2     
progress1 !re=e1 is a developm5t to a   
condition :i* man consid]s m suitable & 
useful = him & feels to be m h>moni\s & 
pleasant]4 ,! univ]se1 f ?is /&po9t1    
w\ld make progress to prep>e itself = ! 
appe>ance ( man1 to become m            
intelligible1 habitable & com=table =   
man1 to please & delight him4 ,:e!r x   
obeys its own natural disposition or a  
high] intellig5ce1 a god1 9 c>ry+ out   
?is "w1 9 ei!r case x w\ld realize      
progress to s]ve mank9d4 ,b if ?is      

ceases to exi/1 !re is no po9t 9        
*>act]iz+ a developm5t z progress 9 !   
s5se ( amelioration1 beautification &   
p]fection4 ,"o w\ld !n h no "r to       
describe1 = in/ance1 ! sol> sy/em ) its 
planets z indicat+ progress f ! orig9al 
condition ( nebula1 because ! latt] 9   
itself1 ap>t f man & ! conditions ( 8   
exi/5ce1 is n bett] or worse1 n m       
beautiful or ugli]1 n m p]fect or m     
defective ?an ! =m]2 ! orig9al nebula & 
! sol> sy/em are equally ! result ( !   
play ( ! same cosmic =ces1 & ! dynamic  
=mula ( ! "o is ! same z t ( ! o!r4 ,b  
,reason rejects z nons5sical any view   
:i* decl>es man to be ! aim ( ! univ]se1
 :i* puts all ! "w ( ! univ]se at 8     
s]vice1 & conceives x z a huge ma*9e    
function+ = 8 advantage4  ,= reasons (  
=mal logic1 too1 ! idea ( progress 9 !  
univ]se is un?9kable4 ,! und]/&+ _c     
conceive ( ! univ]se z o!r ?an et]nal4  
,n[ 9 et]nity all progress1 t is1 all   
motion f a po9t ( dep>ture1 mu/ h rea*$ 
its goal et]nities ago1 h[ev] sl[ !     

motion1 h[ev] di/ant ! goal4 ,et]nity & 
progress are two concepts :i* logically 
exclude "o ano!r4  ,9 ! univ]se !re c be
 no progress 9 ! s5se ( asc5t1 ( motion 
f a worse to a bett] ?+2 ! only ?+ 9 !  
univ]se1 9 ,nature1 :i* is compreh5sible
 to ! und]/&+ & :i* exp]i5ce1 d]iv$ f   
s5se p]ceptions1 c e/abli%1 is          
evolution1 an et]nal1 equable motion    
always on ! same level2 & human /&>ds ( 
value are n applicable to its regul>1   
successive /ages4 ,"o /ate is m]g$ )\t a
 break 9 ano!r1 ! simple becomes m      
manifold until a maximum ( complexity is
 rea*$2 !reupon :at is intricate        
gradually falls to pieces1 & !          
complicat$ is dissolv$ & returns to !   
simple2 !n1 :5 ?is po9t is atta9$1 !    
same c\rse beg9s aga91 & s on = all     
et]nity4 ,?us evolution 9 ! univ]se is  
an endless succession ( cyclic movem5ts 
f ! simple to ! intricate & back to !   
simple2 ) a con/ant alt]nation f "o po9t
 ( ea* s+le circle to ! o!r2 ) ! mo/    
extreme1 cru%+ uni=mity 9 ! totality (  

all cycles2 ) absolutely equal dignity (
 all ! phases ( ! endless c\rse z !y    
develop "o f ! o!r2 ) a syn*ronism1     
inconceivable to man1 ( all =ms (       
evolution 9 numb]less circles revolv+   
side by side )9 ! inf9ite :ole ( !      
univ]se4  ,b ! concept ( progress1 :i*  
_c be d]iv$ f ! processes 9 ! univ]se & 
has no s5se :5 appli$ to !m1 becomes a  
reasonable "o z soon z its validity is  
limit$ to ! evolution ( humanity4 ,"h we
 no long] deal ) conceptions ( et]nity &
 inf9ity4 ,x is a "q ( temporal &       
spacial ph5om5a4 ,! exi/5ce ( man _h a  
beg9n+4 ,no d\bt x w h an end4 ,x appe>$
 on e>? late/ at ! comm5cem5t ( !       
,quat]n>y geological p]iod1 b m probably
 t[>ds ! end ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,x mu/  
necess>ily disappe> :5 ! e>?1 ow+ to    
cold & evaporation1 becomes incapable ( 
support+ life1 a /ate ( affairs :i*1    
accord+ to our pres5t k ( natural laws1 
mu/ inevitably come to pass4 ,a few     
million ye>s are allott$ to x 9 :i* to  
fulfil its de/9y1 c]ta9ly a %ort span ( 

"t comp>$ ) ! et]nity ( ! univ]se1 b    
comp>$ ) ! duration ( individual &      
national life1 ) p]sonal de/9ies &      
hi/orical occurr5ces1 an immeasurably   
va/ prospect4 ,)9 ! limits ( its g5esis1
 its be+ & its disappe>ance1 x is 9 a   
con/ant /ate ( evolution4 ,x is         
impossible to d5y ?is4 ,comp>isons      
betwe5 ! skulls f\nd among rema9s ( !   
paleoli?ic age & ^? ( our times1 betwe5 
! /ate ( ! undevelop$ tribes ( c5tral   
,africa & ,au/ralia & t ( ! peoples (   
,europe & ,am]ica1 betwe5 ! beg9n+s (   
human spee* & ! pres5t-day languages1   
betwe5 ! ?\ght1 k & abilities ( =m]     
g5]ations & ours--all ^! prove ?is      
incontrov]tibly4  ,! purpose ( ?is      
evolution is unmi/akable4 ,x is direct$ 
t[>ds an ev] clos]1 ev] subtl]          
adaptation to ! unalt]able conditions   
:i* are impos$ on m5 by ,nature1 & :i*  
!y mu/ make ! be/ ( if !y are n to p]i%4
 ,& x is synonym\s ) progress2 t is to  
say1 n only ) *ange1 simple motion f "o 
po9t to ano!r1 b ) amelioration &       

improvem5t4  ,"h we may apply /&>ds (   
value4 ,! aim & object ( evolution1 :i* 
we "k & desire1 supply u ) !m4 ,"h we   
may judge & appraise an?ropomorphically4
 ,n only may we d s1 b we mu/1 = x is a 
"q ( matt]s :i* conc]n mank9d alone4    
,all evolution ( mank9d1 corporal &     
intellectual1 ! enl>gem5t ( ! bra9 case 
s z to accommodate a l>g] bra92 !       
developm5t ( ! muscles ( ! l>ynx1 palate
 & h&1 & ! accurate co-ord9ation ( _!   
movem5ts1 :i* ?+s make cle>] & m        
emphatic spee* possible & r5d] ! h&s    
deft]2 ! acquisition1 int]pretation &   
/or+ up ( exp]i5ces lead+ to discov]ies 
& inv5tions1 all are direct$ to ! same  
end3 to provide m5 ) m reliable weapons 
9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce2 to def5d !m f !  
dang]s surr\nd+ !m1 ! de/ructive =ces ( 
,nature2 to r5d] _! life m secure1 long]
 & ri*]2 to save !m f fatigue & suff]+2 
to give !m pleasurable emotions &       
possibilities ( happ9ess4 ,& z we h a   
cle> idea ( ! object ( our evolution1 z 
we desire ?is object & cont9ually seek  

to f9d new means :]eby to rea* x1 we are
 absolutely ju/ifi$ 9 call+ e movem5t t 
br+s u ne>] to ! aim we h 9 view1 &     
aspire to rea*1 a progressive /ep1 & 9  
call+ e /age ( evolution :i* realizes a 
biggi% "p ( ! object desir$ an          
amelioration1 an improvem5t1 an asc5t4  
,! total am\nt ( progress :i* has secur$
 to mank9d its developm5t we sum up 9 ! 
concept ( civilization4 ,! latt]1 h[ev]1
 is /ill f> remov$ f ideal p]fection4   
,:at we "k is inf9itesimally small      
comp>$ ) ! trem5d\s bulk ( ! unkn[n1    
p]haps ! unkn[able1 :i* greets our view 
on all sides4 ,our te*nical a*ievem5ts  
(t5 leave u 9 ! lur* & indicate no way  
out ( _m difficulties4 ,9 ! human be+ :o
 kn[s & c d some?+1 too mu* /ill rema9s 
( ! /upid1 helpless1 untam$1 primitive  
bea/4  ,nev]!less1 :at has be5 a*iev$ is
 ( value1 & x is *ildi% to depreciate x4
 ,p>adoxical m9ds1 l ,j4 ,j4 ,r\sseau & 
8 p>rot-l imitators1 may d5y ! use ( all
 civilization & decl>e t ! s-call$ /ate 
( nature1 ! ignorance & helplessness (  

undevelop$ man amid all too mighty      
,nature1 is pref]able4 ,t is an         
intellectual joke :i* is n v amus+4 ,we 
h n vanqui%$ dea?1 b we h prolong$ life1
 z ! mortality /ati/ics prove4 ,we _c   
cure all diseases2 cr[d$ dwell+s 9 great
 cities1 ! nature & int5sity ( our      
occupations--civilization1 9 %ort--br+  
diseases f :i* we %\ld probably n suff] 
if we 7 savages2 b ! cave-dwell]s1 too1 
7 subject to illnesses1 & our antisepsis
 & hygi5e effectually prev5t _m & grave 
bodily ills4 ,division ( lab\r makes !  
individual dep5d5t on ! :ole economic   
organism2 x makes x easi] = ! fav\r$ few
 to exploit ! _m & to be p>asites at _! 
exp5se1 b nev]!less ! individual c m    
easily satisfy 8 ne$s ?an if1 be+       
completely free & indep5d5t1 he alone _h
 to provide all ! objects he requires4  
,! spe$ & facility ) :i* ! ex*ange (    
goods is effect$1 ?anks to ev] new & ev]
 m excell5t means ( communication1 (t5  
give rise to artificial wants2 *eap     
travel occasions useless re/lessness1 b 

! emancipation ( ! individual f ! place 
( 8 bir?1 ! conv]sion ( ! :ole globe    
into "o s+le economic doma91 ( :i* e "p 
) its own p>ticul> sup]abundance ( m5 & 
products supplies ! lack ( ! same 9 o!r 
p>ts1 has at lea/ ?is invaluable        
advantage1 t x makes man m indep5d5t (  
local haz>ds & makes ! e>? m habitable =
 him4 ,_m ?+s provid$ by civilization   
are obta9able only by ! ri*1 & !        
spectacle ( ! luxury ( ^! fav\r$ mortals
 makes ! lot ( ! poor h>d] to be>1 b !  
possibility ( work+ "o's way up into !  
ranks ( ! =tunate is a mighty spur to   
/rong *>act]s1 & gives rise to ef=ts :i*
 are pr(itable to _m4 ,all ! great      
te*nical a*ievem5ts ( civilization c    
c]ta9ly n br+ happ9ess ei!r to !        
individual or to ! community1 because   
happ9ess is a spiritual /ate :i* does n 
dep5d on bodily satisfactions &1 ?\gh x 
may be tr\bl$ by mat]ial conditions1 c  
nev] be creat$ by !m2 b ! mom5ts (      
happ9ess :i* ! individual exp]i5ces     
d]ive an extraord9>y int5sity f !       

in/rum5ts ( civilization :i* surr\nd &  
s]ve u4  ,c]ta9ly civilization has its  
bad po9ts1 & x requires no great        
clev]ness to discov] !m1 to po9t !m out 
& to exagg]ate !m4 ,c]ta9ly _m ( its mo/
 boa/$1 suppos$ b5efits are n really a  
bless+1 b ei!r m]ely imag9>y or else    
unimportant--little1 sup]flu\s ?+s :i*  
may be pleasant1 b lack+ :i* we c live  
)\t great deprivation1 & = :i* we       
und\bt$ly pay f> too de>ly4 ,b1 on !    
:ole1 x is a mighty a*ievem5t ( man's   
/ruggl+ intellect1 an invaluable        
improvem5t ( ! lot ( man1 & if anyone   
d5ies ?is he =feits any claim to s]i\s  
refutation4 ,r\sseau's /ate ( nature may
 be a v pleasant *ange = a summ]        
holiday1 b e man ( s\nd common s5se w\ld
 decl9e x z a p]man5t abode4  ,we may   
!re=e freely conc$e ! fact ( progress 9 
civilization 9 s f> z ! latt] implies   
great] safety1 facility1 ord] &         
equability ( life1 deep] & m widely     
diffus$ k & m p]fect adaptation ( man to
 ! natural conditions 9 :i* he f9ds     

himself4 ,= x is no res]vation to note 9
 ! c\rse ( evolution bo? individual     
deviations f ! pa? :i* leads to ! goal (
 civilization1 ! amelioration ( !       
con/itution ( mank9d1 & occasional      
relapses into bygone b>b>isms4 ,to make 
use ( ,gumpl[icz's expression1 x is n an
 acro*ronic & acrotopic illusion 7t is1 
a =m ( self-deception :i* consi/s 9 ?9k+
 ! "t :5 "o lives & ! place :]e "o lives
 ! be/ ( all times & ! mo/ wond]ful (   
all places7 if we place ! pres5t f>     
above all pa/ ages & decl>e our         
civilization to be incomp>ably ri*] & m 
p]fect ?an any?+ t has prec$$ x4 ,!     
laudator acti1 ! cross-gra9$ ,ne/or :o  
praises ! pa/ at ! exp5se ( ! pres5t1 ! 
en?usia/ = ! good old times1 is a figure
 t has always be5 famili>4 ,b x proves  
no?+4 ,?is t5d] love ( ! pa/ is n !     
outcome ( objective comp>ison &         
consid]ation1 b an impulse ( subjective 
psy*ology4 ,x is simply ! emotion &     
long+ :i* fill an old man's he>t :5 he  
looks back on 8 y\?4 ,he rememb]s !     

pleasurable emotions :i* once accompani$
 all 8 impressions & :i* are n[ unkn[n  
to 8 worn-out organism1 & he ?9ks ! _w 0
 bett] because he f\nd m joy 9 x4 ,! ag$
 man is conv9c$ t 9 8 y\? ! sky 0 blu]1 
! rose m odor\s1 ! wom5 m beautiful ?an 
n[1 b an imp>tial obs]v] w\ld pity+ly   
%ake 8 head at ?is4  ,b c ! progress1   
:i* _c reasonably be d5i$ 9             
civilization1 also be trac$ 9 ,morality8
 ,philosoph]s :o are by no means        
negligible h r\ndly repli$ 9 ! negative4
 ,buckle decl>es uncompromis+ly t ! only
 progress possible to man is            
intellectual1 & by ?is he means t mank9d
 gr[s 9 k1 =esight & cl>ity ( ?\ght1 b n
 at ! same "t 9 ,morality1 :i*1 accord+ 
to him1 diff]s f ! intellect & und]/&+ &
 is n includ$ 9 !m4 ,buckle's           
unfav\rable judgm5t has be5 turn$ into a
 =mula :i* has (t5 be5 repeat$4         
,sci5tifically1 te*nically1 we progress2
 morally we /& /ill or slip back2 ! two 
ord]s ( developm5t move nei!r 9 ! same  
direction nor ) ! same spe$4 ,t is a    

view t is widely held4 ,fr4 ,b\illi]    
comes to ! same conclusion z ,buckle1   
?\gh f diff]5t consid]ations4 ,he ass]ts
 t a savage :o obeys 8 consci5ce1 h[ev] 
ignorant ?is may be1 c be z virtu\s z a 
,socrates or an ,ari/ides2 "o c ev5 g s 
f> z to def5d ! view t social progress  
in/ead ( /r5g!n+ individual morality    
weak5s x1 = society1 9 proportion z x is
 bett] ord]$1 saves ! individual !      
tr\ble ( a great _m virtu\s actions4    
,h[ev]1 !re are o!r morali/s :o take !  
opposite view4 ,%aftesbury _c imag9e a  
moral sy/em 9 :i* !re is no place = !   
idea ( con/ant progress1 ( cont9u\s     
improvem5t4 ,! great ,fr5*m5 ( !        
eighte5? c5tury are conv9c$ ( ! moral   
rise ( humanity4 ,! mass ( mank9d1 says 
,turgot1 advances con/antly t[>ds an    
ev]-gr[+ p]fection1 & else:]e3 ,m5      
taught by exp]i5ce gr[ 9 ev] great]     
measure & 9 a bett] s5se humane4        
,condorcet def5ds no less emphatically !
 view t ! faculty ( gr[+ m p]fect is    
inh]5t 9 man4 ,?is is a case ( pessimism

 & optimism :i* h _! roots less 9       
reasonable ?\ght ?an 9 temp]am5t4 ,a    
worn-out1 we>y individual1 or g5]ation1 
looks back & sp5ds ! "t 9 futile ye>n+ &
 melan*oly visions ( ! pa/2 b a /urdy   
g5]ation1 full ( life1 & consci\s ( x1  
looks =w>d1 & plann+1 inv5t+1 & det]m9$ 
to realize its creative ideas1 x        
conjures up ! image ( ! future4         
,pessimism regrets & groans2 optimism   
hopes & promises4 ,! =m]1 l ,ovid1 ?9ks 
! ,gold5 ,age is 9 ! pa/1 ! latt]1 l !  
fa!rs ( ! great ,revolution1 looks = x 9
 ! future4 ,9 nei!r case d !y rea*      
conclusions z a result ( obs]vation &   
logical ?\ght1 r !y inv5t reasons       
aft]w>ds = _! conclusions1 z !y d       
int]pretations ( _! obs]vations4 ,b he  
:o reg>ds life nei!r ) bitt]ness nor )  
pride1 & tries to und]/& x objectively1 
w come to ! op9ion t ,morality too has  
its fair %>e 9 ! progress (             
civilization4  ,!ological ?\ght         
int]prets moral p]fection diff]5tly f   
sci5tific ?\ght4 ,accord+ to ! =m] x is 

indep5d5t ( intellectual developm5t &   
purely a matt] ( fai?4 ,god is ! ideal (
 ,morality1 belief 9 ,him ! necess>y    
condition = a moral life4 ,?r\gh its    
fall mank9d )drew f ,god & 0 left a prey
 to ,immorality2 orig9al s9 p]petually  
burd5$ x2 by r$emption & grace x has be5
 purifi$ f ?is inborn /a91 l$ back to   
,god & once m r5d]$ capable ( ,morality4
 ,= mank9d only "o k9d ( progress 9     
,morality 0 possible1 & ?is took place1 
n gradually & /ep by /ep1 b ) "o sudd5  
swift advance1 by :i* x imm$iately      
atta9$ ! highe/ degree ( moral p]fection
 possible1 & t 0 :5 ! true fai? 0       
reveal$ to x4 ,be=e ! revelation mank9d 
did n "k real ,morality1 only its dim   
%ad[1 only a vague ye>n+ = x2 by !      
revelation at "o bl[ x 0 9 full         
possession ( ,morality1 & n[ x is !     
bus9ess ( e individual1 :e!r he w draw  
ne> to ! div9e example by pi\s ef=ts or 
ru?lessly )draw f x4 ,s9ce ! glad tid+s 
( fai? 7 ann\nc$ to humanity !re c be no
 "q ( moral progress = mank9d z a :ole2 

x has become a p]sonal matt] :i* ev]yone
 has to deal ) himself4 ,criticism ( ?is
 dogmatism is sup]flu\s4 ,x is q en\gh  
to place x be=e ! read]4  ,x is q       
compreh5sible1 too1 t ^? ^: views p]mit 
!m to talk ) ,b\illi] ( a savage :o     
obeys 8 consci5ce %\ld d5y moral        
progress4 ,!y assume t a savage has a   
consci5ce1 t consci5ce is an elem5t (   
human nature1 t x is a quality or a     
capacity l s5sation or memory1 t x is   
born ) man l 8 limbs & organs4 ,9 t case
 x might well be ass]t$ t subjective    
,morality has made no progress 9 hi/oric
 & p]haps ev5 9 prehi/oric times1 & t   
actually a savage :o obeys 8 consci5ce c
 be j z virtu\s z a ,socrates or an     
,ari/ides4  ,x w\ld h>dly be possible to
 give a concrete pro( ( ! contr>y2 if = 
no o!r reason because = a long "t !re h 
be5 no savages 9 ! /rict s5se ( ! ^w    
any:]e on e>?4 ,by savages we mean human
 be+s 9 _! primitive1 zoological        
condition :o h develop$ solely accord+  
to ! biological =ms ( ! species & "u !  

influ5ce ( surr\nd+ ,nature & h tak5 ov]
 no?+ ( an intellectual "* f ! gr\p to  
:i* !y belong4 ,all savages ( :om we "k 
=m societies :i* = ! mo/ "p are n ev5   
loosely1 b firmly1 knit toge!r1 ) laws t
 may seem nons5sical & b>b>ic to u1 b   
are none ! less b9d+ ) cle>ly def9$     
duties :i* !y impose on e memb]1 )      
sanctions ^: cruelty sup]s$es t ( any   
puni%m5t p]mitt$ by civilization4 ,a man
 :o is a memb] ( a society1 no matt] h[ 
primitive x may be1 may c]ta9ly h a     
consci5ce1 b ! po9t is t he is n a      
savage1 b ! contr>y ( a savage1 namely3 
a social be+ :o has receiv$ an education
 f 8 society1 :o is b\nd to con=m to its
 habits1 cu/oms & views1 & :o 9 all 8   
actions mu/ consid] its op9ion4 ,b ^!   
conditions1 z ,i h %[n1 produce a       
consci5ce1 ! repres5tative ( society 9 !
 consci\sness ( ! individual4 ,consci5ce
 is no innate feature ( man un9flu5c$ by
 society1 x is n a product ( ,nature1 x 
is ! result ( education2 he :o possesses
 a consci5ce is no savage1 b a p]son =m$

 by discipl9e & subs]vi5t to x2         
consci5ce is ! fruit ( civilization1 ( a
 c]ta9 civilization2 9 itself x         
repres5ts progress comp>$ ) ! primitive 
/ate ( man4 ,consequ5tly x is an        
objectionable contradiction to talk (   
consci5ce & at ! same "t d5y moral      
progress4  ,x is peculi>ly arbitr>y1    
too1 to ?9k t a savage1 if he _h a      
consci5ce1 c\ld obey x to ! same ext5t1 
t is1 be j z virtu\s1 z a ,socrates or  
an ,ari/ides4 ,?is w\ld contradict all !
 obs]vations & exp]i5ce f :i* ,i h d]iv$
 ! doctr9e t consci5ce works by means ( 
inhibition1 & t ,morality & ,virtue f ! 
biological po9t ( view are inhibition4  
,= inhibition is develop$ by practice & 
use4 ,except 9 cases ( morbid di/urbance
 x develops simultane\sly ) ! und]/&+   
:i* manipulates x & dem&s effici5cy f x4
 ,!re c be no two op9ions ab\t ! fact t 
! und]/&+ & ! faculty ( inhibition 9    
liv+ be+s h develop$ progressively4 ,!re
 is no ne$ to adduce any pro( t ! frog  
is intellectually sup]ior to ! zoospore1

 & man to ! frog1 & t z we asc5d ! scale
 ( organisms we f9d _! reactions to     
/imuli are increas+ly subject to        
individual modification1 & t !re is a   
gradual transition f ! orig9al1 purely  
me*anical tropism to diff]5tiat$ reflex 
action1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is /ill beyond !    
control ( ! w1 & f9ally to resi/ances   
:i* suppress e ext]nally visible reply  
on ! "p ( ! organism to ! impression x  
has receiv$4  ,9 ! c\rse ( ?is          
developm5t ! faculty ( inhibition gr[s  
/rong] & m effici5t & obeys ! behe/s ( !
 und]/&+ m & m swiftly1 surely &        
reliably2 x c rea* a pit* ( inv9cibility
 aga9/ :i* all ! revolts ( in/9ct1 all !
 /orms ( passion1 are p[]less4  ,9 !    
savage1 or r 9 man at a l[ /age (       
civilization1 ! p[] ( inhibition is f> f
 hav+ rea*$ su* p]fect developm5t4 ,x is
 n v robu/1 works defectively & (t5     
fails4 ,little civiliz$ man1 if he has a
 consci5ce1 _c ev5 ) ! be/ int5tions    
always obey x punctually4 ,8 in/9ct is  
/rong] ?an 8 insight4 ,he is n ma/] ( 8 

impulses2 r x is !y t ma/] him4 ,all :o 
h describ$ tribes ( l[ civilization h   
obs]v$ t _! reactions resemble reflex   
movem5ts & t !y lack self-control4      
,moral conduct1 t is1 control ( _!      
selfi%ness & consid]ation = _! fell[ m51
 is difficult = !m if x dem&s ef=t1     
sacrifice & pa9ful r5unciation4 ,h[ev]1 
we ne$ n tr\ble to g to ! negroes ( !   
,congo or ! inhabitants ( ! ,solomon    
,isl&s to obs]ve ! ineffici5cy ( ! p[] (
 inhibition4 ,we ne$ only look ar\nd u4 
,we %all f9d en\gh in/ances among       
ourselves4 ,! un$ucat$1 ! badly educat$ 
& abnormal p on :om tea*+ & example make
 no impression _c foll[ ! precepts (    
,morality1 al?\gh !y "k !m4 ,to express 
x z ! ,roman poet does1 !y "k ! bett] & 
approve x1 b !y h a long+ = ! worse4 ,s 
x is wrong to say t a savage c be j z   
virtu\s z a ,socrates or an ,ari/ides4  
,he c\ld n1 ev5 if he w\ld4 ,he w\ld    
lack ! organic means3 a suffici5tly     
tra9$ intellig5ce to po9t out 8 moral   
duty1 a suffici5tly develop$ faculty (  

inhibition to foll[ ! admonition ( 8    
intellig5ce4 ,b\illi]'s objection to    
moral progress w n hold wat]4 ,!        
,romantics :o h inv5t$ ! fairy tale ( ! 
noble savage & :o decl>e 9 ,seume's     
words3 ,see1 we savages are bett] m5    
aft] all1 are out ( t\* ) reality4 ,l   
civilization1 & simultane\sly )         
civilization1 ,morality progresses t[>ds
 improvem5t1 t[>ds p]fection4  ,!       
,kantian morali/1 l ! !ologian1 is      
=bidd5 by ! logic ( 8 sy/em to admit !  
possibility ( moral progress4 ,if !     
moral law is categorical1 t is1 unlimit$
 by any special purpose1 if x exi/s )9  
u1 et]nal & immutable z ! />s above u1  
we %\ld be h>d put to x to say h[ ?is   
unalt]able block1 plac$ 9 our s\ls we "k
 n h[ or by :om1 c\ld receive an impetus
 to progressive developm5t1 or 9 :at way
 ?is developm5t c\ld be c>ri$ out4 ,t   
:i* is categorical is absolute1 & !     
concept ( progress 9 ! absolute1 z 9 !  
inf9ite & ! et]nal1 has no s5se4 ,b     
:oev] reg>ds ,morality f ! biological & 

sociological po9t ( view is =c$ to ass]t
 its progress1 j z ! dogmatic my/ic1 :o 
believes 9 ! categorical imp]ative1 is  
=c$ to d5y x4  ,let u recapitulate !    
fundam5tal concepts4 ,reg>d$            
biologically ,morality is ,inhibition1 !
 developm5t ( :i* is ( ! greate/        
importance to ! individual1 z x enables 
him n to wa/e ! liv+ =ce ( 8 cell plasm 
& ( 8 organs 9 /]ile reflex movem5ts1 b 
to /ore x up & hold x ready = useful    
purposes4 ,! /rong] 8 p[] ( inhibition !
 bett] he is arm$ = ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1
 & ! bett] he is arm$ ! m effici5t he   
is4 ,d5ial ( ! progressive developm5t ( 
,inhibition implies a d5ial t mod]n man 
c ma9ta9 himself ) m ease & security    
aga9/ ,nature & ho/ile or injuri\s      
natural ph5om5a1 & t he is m successful 
9 competition ) o!r m5 ?an 8 pr$ecessors
 on e>?4 ,b ?is latt] d5ial is obvi\sly 
nons5se4 ,! only individuals :o d n take
 "p 9 progressive developm5t are !      
deg5]ates4 ,!y are organically inf]ior1 
_! faculty ( inhibition is defective or 

altoge!r lack+1 !y are slaves ( impulses
 :i* _! w & intellig5ce h no means (    
controll+1 !y are ! outcome ( morbidly  
arre/$ or retrograde developm5t1 !y are 
! victims & refuse ( a civilization too 
int5sive1 too exhau/+ & we>+ = "s m51 & 
!y are de/9$ to fall out ( ! ranks ( a  
race mov+ maje/ically =w>d & to lie     
helplessly by ! roadside4  ,f !         
sociological po9t ( view ,morality is ! 
bond :i* unites ! individuals 9 a       
community1 ! f\ndation ^u :i* alone     
society c be built up & ma9ta9$4 ,= x   
implies a victory ov] self1 consid]ation
 = "o's neighb\r1 recognition ( 8       
rights1 concession ( 8 claims1 ev5 :5   
valu$ possessions mu/ unwill+ly be giv5 
up & pa9ful r5unciation ( atta9able     
satisfaction is requir$4 ,?is is        
neighb\rly k9dness & ! *>ity ( ! ,bible1
 ,hut*eson's & ,hume's b5evol5ce1 ,adam 
,smi?'s sympa?y & ,h]b]t ,sp5c]'s       
altruism2 x is ! necess>y condition on  
:i* alone individuals c live peaceably  
toge!r & helpfully assi/ ea* o!r to make

 life easi]4 ,if mo/ or all individuals 
lack x1 we h ,hobbes's w> ( all aga9/   
all2 !n man is z a wolf to o!r m51 & ea*
 "o is condemn$ to ! /ate ( a bea/ roam+
 9 lonel9ess4 ,if a few1 a m9ority1 lack
 x1 !n ! majority w n tol]ate !m 9 its  
mid/1 b w expel !m f ! community z a    
dang]\s nuisance & deprive !m ( !       
privilege ( mutual aid & ( ! advantage (
 jo9t responsibility4  ,! species ( man1
 l e o!r species ( organism & l e       
individual1 wants to live4 ,x c only    
a*ieve ?is by adapt+ itself to exi/+    
natural conditions4 ,! m suitable &     
p]fect ! adaptation ! m easily &        
securely x lives4 ,"u ! pres5t          
conditions ( ! univ]se & ! e>? a solit>y
 human individual c\ld n manage to exi/1
 let alone develop into an intellig5t   
be+4 ,! =m 8 adaptation to circum/ances 
has tak5 is t ( union 9 an organiz$     
community4 ,= ! exi/5ce ( society & !   
adju/m5t ( ! individual 9 x is !        
indisp5sable condition = ! life ( !     
species z well z ( ! individual4        

,society c only cont9ue to exi/ if      
individuals le>n to consid] "o ano!r &  
practise b5evol5ce t[>ds ea* o!r4       
,society !re=e creat$ ,morality &       
inculcat$ x 9 all its memb]s1 because x 
0 its fir/ ne$1 ! ess5tial condition :i*
 r5d]$ its exi/5ce possible1 j z !      
species creat$ society1 because x c\ld  
only cont9ue to live z an organiz$      
society4  ,?us ,morality ) ! /ricte/    
logical necessity has its place 9 !     
totality ( ef=ts :i* human be+s _h to   
make1 & /ill h to make1 9 ord] to       
pres]ve life1 to make x suffici5tly     
pr(\nd & to enri* x ) satisfactions1 t  
is1 ) pleasurable emotions ( e k9d1 s t 
!y may cont9ue to h ! w & ! eag] desire 
to ma9ta9 _! exi/5ce by ef=t & /ruggle2 
9 %ort1 9 ord] to make life seem wor?   
liv+1 ev5 at ! co/ ( con/ant toil &     
moil4 ,)\t society x is impossible = !  
individual to exi/2 )\t ,morality x is  
impossible = society to exi/2 ! in/9ct (
 self-pres]vation furni%es society )    
habits & rules gov]n+ ! mutual relations

 ( its memb]s & ) in/itutions =         
economiz+ =ce2 all ^! toge!r we call    
civilization4 ,! developm5t & improvem5t
 ( civilization is obvi\s2 x is prov$ by
 ! fact t x draws ne>] & ne>] to its    
goal1 namely1 ! e/abli%m5t (            
satisfactory relations betwe5           
individuals & gr\ps1 & ! atta9m5t ( a   
maximum ( satisfaction ) a m9imum (     
individual ef=t4 ,b x w\ld be           
incompreh5sible if ,morality1 ! ess5tial
 condition = ! exi/5ce ( society :i*    
creates civilization1 %\ld h no "p 9 !  
indisputable1 because easily            
demon/rable1 progress ( ! latt]4        
,morality occupies su* a l>ge place 9   
civilization t ! mi/ak5 view has aris5  
among _m moral philosoph]s t x is ! aim 
( civilization & has no aim o!r ?an     
itself4 ,clos] inve/igation %[s ?is to  
be an error1 a rev]sal ( ! true         
relation4 ,morality is no aim1 c]ta9ly  
no aim to itself1 x is a means to an    
end1 ! mo/ important1 mo/ indisp5sable  
means to ! "o end1 to br+ ab\t          

civilization1 to ma9ta9 & ref9e x1 &    
adapt x m & m to its task4 ,b ! task (  
civilization1 z ,i h %[n1 is to pres]ve1
 facilitate & enri* ! life ( !          
individual & ! species4 ,morality !re=e 
is ! mo/ important =m 9 :i* ! in/9ct (  
self-pres]vation 9 ! species is         
manife/$1 & to d5y progress to x implies
 ! assumption t ! species does n possess
 ! impulse to pres]ve & beautify its    
exi/5ce1 t its in/9ct ( self-pres]vation
 flags1 t x does n recognize its aim &  
is ignorant ( ! pa? lead+ to its goal4  
,?is assumption1 h[ev]1 is contradict$  
by all1 & support$ by none1 ( ! ph5om5a 
obs]vable 9 ! life ( ! species--!       
absolute increase ( ! population ( !    
e>?1 ! prolongation ( individual life & 
( ! age ( effici5cy1 ! combat+ ( e k9d (
 h>mful ?+4  ,! /eadfa/ self-control (  
civiliz$ man comp>$ ) ! unreliability ( 
! savage1 :o appe>s caprici\s &         
unacc\ntable because he freely obeys e  
impulse1 proves ! progressive developm5t
 ( ! faculty ( inhibition 9 ! individual

 organism4 ,! ord] & def9ite            
organization ( mod]n society1 ! rule (  
law1 m5's equality be=e ! law1 !        
gu>antee ( fre$om & respect = ! p]son1  
all ^! comp>$ ) ! /ate ( nations 9 e>li]
 times 7actually an>*y "u a mantle (    
tyranny & ! unlimit$ p[] ( a few mighty 
ones ov] ! helpless masses7 prove !     
progressive developm5t ( civilization 9 
! social organism4 ,b logically !       
progressive developm5t ( ,morality      
itself mu/ correspond to ! progressive  
developm5t ( its in/rum5t1 inhibition1 &
 ( its product1 civilization4  ,!       
conclusion to :i* we are =c$ by         
!oretical consid]ations is fully endors$
 by obs]vation ( actual life4 ,x is     
suffici5t to indicate broad facts to "o 
:o d5ies moral progress4 ,slav]y1 :i*   
,ari/otle ?\ght a law ( ,nature1 :i*    
,*ri/ianity tol]at$1 :i* mod]n /ates1   
su* z ,engl&1 ,france1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates &
 ,brazil1 def5d$ & protect$ by law1 0   
ev]y:]e aboli%$ "s ye>s ago4 ,!         
objection is rais$ t mod]n hir$ lab\r is

 m]ely slav]y ( ! prolet>iat "u ano!r   
"n1 t ! exploitation ( workm5 by        
employ]s is a hypocritical cont9uation (
 s]fdom4 ,b t is sophi/ry4 ,! hir$      
lab\r] is n b\nd to 8 contract4 ,he c   
break x4 ,yes1 at ! price ( />vation4 ,t
 us$ to be ! case1 b n[adays organiz$   
work+ m5 are no long] at ! m]cy ( p[]ful
 capital1 & !re9 lies progress4 ,!y are 
9 a position to make conditions & n     
seldom to =ce _! acceptance4 ,!y h ! "r 
to /rike1 to move f place to place1 to  
=m unions4 ,! community has recogniz$ ! 
duty ( mitigat+1 at lea/ to "s ext5t1 ! 
evils to :i* faulty economic            
organization exposes ! workman4 ,x has  
in/itut$ accid5t & heal? insurance1 old 
age p5sions1 &1 9 "s places1 assi/ance =
 ^? :o are out ( "w ?r\gh no fault ( _! 
own4 ,all ?is is /ill v defective1 b ^! 
are hopeful beg9n+s1 all ! same1 &1     
above all1 x %[s ! awak5+ ( a social    
consci5ce t e>li] ages did n "k4        
,ju/ice is adm9i/]$ m & m humanely1 t   
is1 morally4 ,x is a c5tury s9ce legal  

torture 0 aboli%$4 ,society is a%am$ to 
get at ! tru? easily by tortur+ a       
suspect :o aft] all may be innoc5t4 ,!  
condemn$ man is no long] br&$ or        
mutilat$2 he suff]s no corporal         
ill-treatm5t ( :i* ! results c nev] be  
oblit]at$4 ,capital puni%m5t is /ill a  
blot on ! hon\r ( civilization4 ,b = m  
?an a c5tury n[1 s9ce ! "t ( ,becc>ia1 x
 has be5 viol5tly oppos$ & has already  
be5 aboli%$ 9 "s /ates2 ! o!rs w no d\bt
 h to foll[ suit )9 a %ort "t4 ,consid] 
t 9 ,engl& at ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5?      
c5tury a ?ief 0 hang$ if he _h /ol5 a ?+
 ( no m value ?an ! rope t 0 to hang    
him1 & ev5 *ildr5 ( f\rte5 ye>s 7       
condemn$ to ?is fate4 ,to-day ! judge   
pron\nces s5t5ce ( dea?1 ev5 :]e x is   
/ill legal1 ) grave misgiv+s & se>*+s ( 
consci5ce1 & ! execution1 =m]ly a public
 spectacle1 is c>ri$ out m or less      
secretly1 because ! conviction is       
gradually rip5+ 9 society t by !        
cold-blood$ kill+ ( a man x is p]petrat+
 a crime :i* x mu/ keep z secret z      

possible4 ,! s5t5ce is n[ almo/ ev]y:]e 
def]r$1 & ?us ! conviction becomes a v  
emphatic w>n+ :i* po9ts out ! pa? (     
rep5tance1 ( conv]sion & improvem5t to !
 guilty man1 & leaves him ! possibility 
( becom+ a dec5t human be+ aga94        
,special c\rts = *ildr5 mitigate ! /]n  
p5al code & modify x accord+ to ! ne$s (
 unripe1 y\?ful *>act]s4 ,imprisonm5t = 
debt is a half-=gott5 ?+ ( ! pa/ &      
reg>d$ m or less z a joke4 ,:at ^!      
*anges h 9 common is t !y "o & all      
indicate a deep5+ ( ! community's feel+ 
( duty & responsibility t[>ds !         
individual1 great] respect = p]sons on !
 "p ( ! law1 an increase ( ! w to resi/ 
! fir/ impulse ( ang]1 rev5ge &         
m]cilessness4 ,^! t5d5cies1 h[ev]1 are !
 v ess5ce ( ,morality4  ,i =be> to      
adduce z a pro( ( progress t !          
,inquisition no long] rules & n[h]e     
burns its victims4 ,= actually !re is no
 great] tol]ation ( ^? :o hold o!r      
op9ions ?an !re 0 =m]ly4 ,religi\s      
tol]ation is expla9$ by ! fact t ! p's  

consci\sness no long] atta*es su*       
enorm\s importance to religion z 9 pa/  
c5turies4 ,b political1 /hetic &        
philosophical antagonisms ar\se z mu*   
blood?ir/y rage to-day z did =m]ly h]esy
 9 religion1 & oppon5ts w\ld            
unhesitat+ly apply torture & ! /ake to  
"o ano!r if ! great mass ( ! p w\ld     
develop suffici5tly en?usia/ic zeal = _!
 views to all[ _! rag+ fanaticism to h  
rec\rse to viol5ce1 z x once p]mitt$    
dom9e]+ religi\s or?odoxy to d4  ,o!r   
aspects ( civilization1 n s ess5tial1   
are h>dly less enc\rag+ ?an !           
developm5ts on :i* ,i h hi!rto dwelt4   
,drunk5ness1 =m]ly an almo/ univ]sal    
vice1 is on ! decrease4 ,among ! educat$
 classes x is only met ) exceptionally1 
& is recogniz$ z a morbid ab]ration2    
among ! l[] classes x cont9ually gr[s   
less4 ,! /ati/ics ( ! sav+s banks %[ an 
ev]-gr[+ det]m9ation to save4 ,! masses 
:o us$ to rejoice 9 dirt n[ manife/ an  
increas+ly vigor\s desire = a cleanl9ess
 t dem&s soap & ba?s4 ,?is indicates    

control ( impulse1 ( ! incl9ation =     
alcoholic dr9ks & ! t5d5cy to squ&]1 &  
an increase ( self-respect :i*          
recognizes dirt to be humiliat+4 ,^! are
 activities ( ! moral feel+s1 _! mat]ial
 activities4  ,if1 9 spite ( ^! mat]ial 
pro(s ( ! progress ( ,morality 9 all    
social functions & 9 _m individual      
habits1 s]i\s-m9d$ m5 /ill ma9ta9 t x   
/&s /ill or ev5 t x %[s retrogression   
comp>$ ) =m] times1 ?is view1 :i* is    
und\bt$ly a mi/ak5 "o1 is due to wrong  
int]pretation ( facts4  ,b\illi]'s rem>k
 t social progress in/ead ( increas+    
individual ,morality weak5s x1 because  
society1 9 proportion z x is bett]      
organiz$1 saves ! individual ! tr\ble ( 
a numb] ( virtu\s actions has a p]fectly
 correct po9t ( dep>ture4 ,_m tasks (   
neighb\rly k9dness & humane jo9t        
responsibility :i* us$ to be left to !  
incl9ation1 ! free *oice & ! noble zeal 
( individuals1 & c\ld be c>ri$ out or   
neglect$ by !m1 are n[ me?odically      
fulfill$ by ! community4 ,sa9t ,m>t9 no 

long] ne$s to divide 8 cloak to give    
half to a poor %iv]+ man4 ,! public     
*>ity commission gives him w9t] clo!s if
 he _c af=d to buy any4 ,no knights are 
ne$$ to protect innoc5ce1 weakness &    
humility f oppressors4 ,! oppress$      
appeal successfully to ! police1 ! c\rt 
( ju/ice1 or1 by writ+ to ! pap]s1 to   
public op9ion4 ,!re is no ne$ = ,knights
 ,templ> or ,knights ( ,/4 ,john to c>e 
= /rang]s & t5d ! sick4 ,inns & public  
hospitals are at _! disposal4 ,to-day   
!re w\ld be nei!r occasion nor reason = 
! miracle ( ,/4 ,elizabe? ( ,hung>y1 :o 
aga9/ ! ord]s ( h] h>d husb& took to !  
/>v+ bread :i* 0 turn$ into roses4 ,!   
poor are regul>ly f$ 9 municipal &      
communal kit*5s4 ,individual de$s ( m]cy
 are less necess>y n[ ?an =m]ly1 :51 if 
!y occurr$1 !y 7 ! outcome (            
exceptionally noble & dev\t sympa?y &   
h]oic self-sacrifice4  ,"o is !re=e     
incl9$ to believe t m5 are less capable 
( su* de$s ?an !y 7 9 ! pa/4 ,b t is do+
 !m a grave inju/ice4 ,dr4 ,b>n>do1 :o  

op5$ a home = ! little waifs & /rays ( !
 ,ea/ ,end ( ,london1 is n inf]ior to   
,/4 ,v9c5t de ,paul :o adopt$ & br\ght  
up =sak5 *ildr54 ,john ,br[n :o suff]$ a
 m>tyr's dea? by hang+ because he       
attempt$ ) arms to lib]ate ! negro      
slaves ( ! ,s\!rn ,/ates1 ,h5ry ,dumont 
:o devot$ ! ef=ts ( a lifetime to f\nd+ 
! ,r$ ,cross to help ^? w\nd$ 9 w>1     
,emile ,zola :o sacrific$ 8 =tune1 8    
reputation z an au?or1 8 p]sonal safety1
 & suff]$ p]secution1 calumny1 exile1 a 
%ameful condemnation 9 c\rt1 & viol5t   
?reats to 8 life 9 ord] to get ju/ice = 
,capta9 ,dreyfus :o _h be5 wrongfully   
accus$--all ^! c well comp>e ) ! sa9ts 9
 ! ,gold5 ,leg5d4 ,virtue exi/s         
pot5tially 9 z _m cases z =m]ly1        
probably 9 m2 & x is actively practis$  
:5ev] & :]ev] x is appeal$ to4  ,ano!r  
result ( ! long evolution ( civilization
 & ,morality is ! developm5t ( an e?ical
 in/9ct 9 all except abnormal1 deg5]ate 
individuals1 :i* causes m5 to act       
morally 9 ne>ly all situations )\t      

consci\s reflection1 *oice or ef=t4 ,!  
individual :o is e?ically well gr\nd$1 9
 :om moral conduct has become an        
organiz$ reflex action1 does :at is "r  
)\t any consci\s ef=t1 & !re=e does n 9 
s do+ evoke any idea ( m]it ei!r 9      
himself or 9 witnesses4 ,b to d "r      
habitually1 c>elessly & almo/ )\t ?\ght1
 z "o brea!s & eats1 easily makes "o    
unju/ 9 "o's judgm5ts4 ,! battle betwe5 
,reason & bl9d in/9ct1 betwe5 ! ,w &    
refractory ,impulse1 ! victory ( ! l(ty 
pr9ciple1 ( spirituality ov] :at is     
irrational & mat]iali/ic1 :i* give u !  
illusion t free humanity is sup]ior to !
 fatality ( cosmic =ces1 h some?+ s     
elevat$ & beautiful ab\t !m t we are    
disappo9t$ if !y are abs5t1 & practical 
,morality )\t ?is dramatic sett+ does n 
appe> to be real ,morality4  ,nev]!less 
we mu/ n give way to ?is /hetic po9t (  
view4 ,we mu/ always rememb] t ,morality
 has a biological & sociological aim &  
mu/ sob]ly admit t x is all ! bett] if  
?is aim is realiz$ )\t 9 e s+le case    

dep5d+ on unc]ta9 individual decisions4 
,x w\ld be an ideal /ate ( affairs if 9 
a society !re 7 su* cle> k ( all its    
vital necessities1 & ?is _h be5 s       
inculcat$ 9 all its memb]s1 t _!        
h>moni\s life toge!r & _! co-op]ation = 
! common weal w\ld nev] m be tr\bl$ by !
 revolt ( ru?less individual selfi%ness 
aga9/ ! love ( "o's neighb\r & will+ness
 to sacrifice oneself = ! community4 ,! 
ideal ( ,morality w\ld be atta9$1 b !   
concept ( ,m]it w\ld be transf]r$ f !   
individual to ! community4 ,sup]ficial  
obs]vation might object to f9d+ 9       
individuals no victori\s /ruggle aga9/  
resi/ance1 h5ce no virtue1 & might      
bemoan ! /agnation1 nay1 !              
retrogression1 ( ,morality4 ,b :oev]    
views matt]s z a :ole w\ld h to admit t 
x w\ld imply ! greate/ progress 9 virtue
 if ! latt] f be+ an individual m]it _h 
become an attribute ( ! community4 ,i am
 f> f ma9ta9+ t we h rea*$ ?is ideal    
/ate2 b evolution t5ds unmi/akably 9 ?is
 direction2 & ?is is "o ( ! reasons :y  

,morality may appe> to make no progress4
  ,! v rise ( ! community to a high]    
/age ( ,morality may be a fre% cause (  
error conc]n+ ! progress ( ,morality4 ,!
 "w ( ! /ronge/ & mo/ cle>-head$ ?9k]s =
 _m ?\s& ye>s1 :o h bequea!d z a legacy 
to ! community _! lifelong lab\rs = !   
amelioration ( ! lot ( mank9d1 has      
develop$ 9 u an ideal ( active & passive
 ,morality :i* is always pres5t1 ev5 to 
! m9d ( ! weak or bad man :o _c or w n  
live up to x4 ,by ?is ideal1 :i* is t ( 
! community & :i* we be> )9 u1 we       
involunt>ily judge real life z we obs]ve
 x1 )\t apply+ ! necess>y corrections4  
,we necess>ily note a discrepancy betwe5
 !ory & practice1 :i* appe>s to u to be 
n m]e inadequacy b a contradiction (    
pr9ciples1 n a quantitative1 b a        
qualitative diff]5ce1 & ?us he :o is n  
=ew>n$ easily becomes d\btful1          
pessimi/ic1 & bitt]ly contemptu\s (     
mank9d4  ,?is is ! !me ) :i* light      
lit]ature unwe>i$ly deals4 ,novels & !  
drama con/antly %[ u types3 ,pill>s (   

society & o!r wor?y m51 :o pret5d to be 
hon\rable1 :o are full ( good pr9ciples1
 prea* unctu\sly & condemn o!rs ) pi\s  
indignation1 b :o !mselves 9 all        
situations behave ) ! mo/ horrible      
selfi%ness & are s9ks ( iniquity4 ,!    
creators ( ^! rogues pr(ess+ virtue1 (  
^! secret s9n]s1 ?9k !y are mightily    
sup]ior2 !y ?9k !y "k mank9d1 t !y are  
deceiv$ by no "o & c see deep d[n into  
m5's s\ls2 !y call _! me?od realism1 &  
!y look d[n ) ! greate/ contempt ^u     
poets :o depict good1 unselfi%1 noble1 9
 %ort1 moral *>act]s1 & call !m         
optimi/s1 flirts1 di/ill]s ( rosewat]1  
:o are ei!r too silly or too di%one/ to 
see ! tru? or to confess x4 ,if realism 
happ5s to be ! fa%ion1 ! public believes
 ^! m5 :o depict :at is ugly & disgu/+1 
admires !m1 is impress$ by !m1 & scorns 
! ideali/s :o h a bett] op9ion ( mank9d4
  ,h[ev]1 realism is onesid$ &          
exagg]at$1 & !re=e j z f> f ! tru? z    
en?usia/ic idealism4 ,x picks out c]ta9 
*>act]i/ics ( human nature1 g5]alizes f 

!m & neglects ! o!rs1 !reby libell+     
mank9d4 ,! same p :o 9 _! flat1 insipid 
daily life unhesitat+ly indulge _! poor 
little vanities1 _! nave selfi%ness1 _! 
*ildi% jeal\sy1 _! secret s5suality & _!
 moral c[>dice because x is ( no        
consequ5ce1 because x alt]s no?+ 9 !    
g5]al con/itution ( society1 because !  
community takes good c>e t moral        
pr9ciples %all be ma9ta9$1 ^! same p c1 
on great occasions1 :i*1 h[ev]1 seldom  
occur1 reveal virtues :i* !y !mselves   
nev] suspect$ & :i* we gaze at 9 blank  
a/oni%m5t ) rev]5t awe4 ,! hypocritical 
,phili/9es ( reali/ic lit]ature1 rott5  
at ! core1 :5 ! ,titanic sank1 dur+ !   
plague 9 ,man*uria1 at ! e>?quake (     
,mess9a1 9 ! m9e disa/] at ,c\rrires1 & 
on ,arctic & ,ant>ctic exp$itions1 prov$
 to be h]oes :o came v ne> to ! !atrical
 ideal ( ,morality1 if !y did n q rea*  
x4 ,if "o takes ! valet's po9t ( view & 
obs]ves man 9 8 dress+-g[n & slipp]s :5 
he does n feel call$ ^u to pull himself 
toge!r1 "o may v well =m a poor op9ion (

 him4 ,b if "o consid]s ! actions ( !   
community & dwells on ! l(tie/ de$s (   
individuals1 "o w no long] believe t !  
,morality ( ! pres5t "t is inf]ior to t 
( any o!r age4  ,!re is "o ph5om5on1    
?\gh1 :i* seems to prove t ^? :o d5y    
moral progress are 9 ! "r1 & t is w>4   
,?is is inde$ ! triumph ( ! bea/ 9      
mank9d1 a be/ial trampl+ "u foot (      
civilization1 its pr9ciples1 me?ods &   
aims1 & x might be adduc$ z a cru%+ pro(
 ( ! /agnation or retrogression (       
,morality t to ?is v day its horrors c  
deva/ate ! e>?1 z !y did hundr$s & ?\s&s
 ( ye>s ago1 only to an incomp>ably     
great] ext5t1 m cruelly & m ?or\ghly4 ,b
 ?is1 too1 w\ld be a false conclusion4  
,x is c]ta9 t ! m5 :o take x ^u !mselves
 freely1 purposely & int5tionally to    
make w> are mon/]s2 _! action is a crime
 t _c be expiat$4 ,unhesitat+ly !y h    
rec\rse to massacre1 robb]y1 fire & all 
o!r horrors 9 ord] to satisfy _! devili%
 self-seek+ :i* desires ! fulfilm5t ( _!
 ambition1 t is1 ( _! self-love &       

vanity1 :i* covets ri*es1 increase (    
p[]1 a rul+ position & its privileges4  
,^! !y pursue ei!r = !mselves or = a    
family or ca/e1 & !y pret5d t !y wi% to 
def5d _! c\ntry f its enemies1 to       
acquire new b\nd>ies = x af=d+ bett]    
protection ?an ! old1 to promote !      
developm5t ( ! nation by gett+ fre%     
t]ritory1 to spread its civilization &  
secure a glori\s future = x4  ,nations1 
h[ev]1 :i* all[ _! rul]s to plunge !m   
into a w> ( aggression may be fooli% &  
clumsy1 b !y ne$ n be immoral4 ,!y are  
made drunk ) phrases :i* appeal to _!   
noble/ feel+s1 :i* _! gov]nm5t & its    
intellectual bailiffs p\r out to !m 9   
ov]fl[+ measure2 !y believe ! %ameless  
lies :i* are told !m boa/fully2 & ?is is
 und\bt$ly a lam5table1 m5tal weakness  
:i* drew f ,dante ! bitt] cry3 ,(t5 "o  
he>s ! p 9 _! intoxication cry3 ',long  
live our dea?6 ,d[n ) our life6' ,b hav+
 simply accept$ ^! prelim9>y ideas ! p  
act ) su* ,morality z "o _c =be> to     
admire4 ,9 a gr& flight !y rise sup]ior 

to all ?\ght ( self1 raise _! feel+ (   
jo9t responsibility to ! pit* ( h]oism &
 m>tyrdom1 & gladly sacrifice to _! duty
 to _! neighb\r & to ! community _!     
possessions1 _! com=t1 _! heal? & _!    
lives4 ,t is v great virtue ^:          
subjective m]it is no :it dim9i%$ by !  
fact t x is manife/$ 9 a cause t is     
objectively unju/4 ,& ?is virtue on ! "p
 ( nations :i* h be5 misl$ 0 nev] s     
widespread or s real z n[4 ,! attitude (
 m]c5>ies :o s]v$ ! highe/ bidd]1 ! lack
 ( ideals among ! soldi]s :o foll[$     
=eign conqu]ors at ^: comm& !y tyranniz$
 ov] nations :o did n conc]n !m at all1 
! cynicism ( ! lead]s :o unhesitat+ly   
w5t ov] to ! enemy & f\ght aga9/ _! own 
c\ntry & p1 ^! are ?+s t are n to be    
f\nd n[adays & are almo/ un?9kable4 ,no 
,napoleon ( to-day c\ld lead ! m5 (     
,wrtemb]g & ,bav>ia to ,spa9 & ,russia1 
nor c\ld an ,elector ( ,hesse sell      
recruits to ,engl& = ! conque/ ( ,nor?  
,am]ica2 no ,l\is ,,xiv c\ld induce a   
,b]n>d ( ,saxe-,weim> to fight 8 battles

 aga9/ ,g]man adv]s>ies1 no ,con/able ( 
,b\rbon ally himself ) ,spa9 aga9/ 8    
native ,france4 ,leonidas1 once admir$ &
 prais$ z an exception1 is to-day !     
rule4 ,! gu>ds :o die b d n yield are to
 be f\nd on e battlefield n[adays4  ,9  
mod]n w>f>e a high]1 m p]fect ,morality 
( ! masses obta9s ?an 0 ! case 9 ! pa/4 
,t w> itself is ! mo/ immoral ?+ does n 
detract f ! moral wor? ( ^? :o are l$ & 
misl$4 ,! masses lack insight & judgm5t1
 _! und]/&+ is n suffici5tly develop$ to
 realize ! be/iality ( ! rul]s :o put !m
 to su* evil use2 b ! way !y suppress _!
 own feel+s1 ! way _! w controls _!     
impulses1 _! social discipl9e1 9 %ort1  
_! ,morality1 is admirable4 ,moreov]1 ! 
consci5ce ( mank9d revolts m & m aga9/ !
 wick$ness ( w>1 & ! be/ m5 ( ! "t are  
/riv+ to br+ ! mutual relations (       
nations1 l ^? ( individuals1 )9 !       
jurisdiction ( ,law & ,morality4        
,morality w d\btless at no di/ant date d
 away ) w>1 z x has aboli%$ human       
sacrifice1 slav]y1 blood feuds1 head    

hunt+ & cannibalism4  ,no ph5om5on (    
individual wor?lessness obs]v$ )9 a n>r[
 sph]e c detract f ! fact t ! community 
con/antly improves4 ,a pessimi/ic view (
 ! developm5t ( ,morality has no        
ju/ification4 ,progress ( civilization  
implies progress ( ,morality1 its mo/   
important in/rum5t 9 ! "w ( adapt+ !    
race to ! immutable conditions ( its    
exi/5ce4     ,,*apt] ,,viii  ,,!        
,,sanctions ,,( ,,morality   ,! concept 
( ,morality includes an idea (          
compulsion1 ( co]cion4 ,a voice says to 
man3 ,y mu/6 or ,y may n6 ,x comm&s him 
to d1 or to refra9 f do+1 some?+4 ,if he
 obeys1 all is well2 b if he takes no   
notice ( x1 pays no he$ to x1 ! "q      
arises3 ,:at n[8 ,w ! voice re/ cont5t )
 cry+ 9 ! wild]ness8 ,w x n m9d speak+  
to deaf e>s8 ,w ! refractory individual 
n suff] = disreg>d+ x1 or has x means to
 en=ce ob$i5ce1 & :at are ^! means8  ,! 
answ] to ?is "q dep5ds on :at view "o   
holds z to ! nature ( ?is monitory1     
w>n+1 comm&+ voice4 ,:oev] believes 9   

,kant's categorical imp]ative mu/ admit 
t ?is ^w ( comm& is d5ud$ ( all p[] (   
co]cion & mu/ absolutely rely on ! good 
w ( ! individual 9 ^: s\l x makes itself
 he>d4 ,accord+ to ,kant ! moral law    
aims at no extrane\s result1 no utility4
 ,x is its own aim & object4 ,b its own 
aim is fulfill$ z soon z ! categorical  
imp]ative has spok51 :e!r ! individual  
acts 9 accordance ) x or n4 ,x has !re=e
 9 pr9ciple no sanction4  ,true1 ,kant  
contradicts himself1 = aft] hav+ /]nly  
exclud$ f 8 doctr9e all utility z ! end 
( ,morality1 all trace ( feel+ f moral  
action1 he smuggles blissful happ9ess 9 
by a back door2 ! result ( submission to
 ! moral law & its dutiful fulfilm5t1 he
 decl>es1 w be bliss4 ,bliss1 h[ev] y   
int]pret x1 is a pleasurable emotion4   
,:e!r y act morally ) ! decl>$ int5tion 
( atta9+ ! pleasurable emotion ( bliss1 
or :e!r ?is pleasurable emotion comes ( 
its own accord z an undesir$ rew>d :5 y 
h act$ morally m]ely f a feel+ ( duty1  
)\t a ?\ght = su* a result1 )\t a wi% to

 atta9 x1 x makes no diff]5ce to ! fact 
t moral action actually meets ) a rew>d4
 ,kant does n op5ly promise ?is1 b ) a  
w9k he :isp]s 9 y\r e> t !re is a       
prospect ( x4  ,nor does x alt] ! fur!r 
fact t ,kant1 hav+ contemptu\sly expell$
 ,eudmonism f 8 sy/em1 re9/ates x ) full
 hon\rs4 ,once x has be5 conc$$ t moral 
conduct makes man blissful1 9 o!r words 
gives him a rew>d1 ! categorical        
imp]ative also has a sanction1 albeit a 
v insuffici5t "o4 ,he :o fulfils ! moral
 law atta9s bliss2 t is a spur :e!r y   
admit x or n4 ,b he :o does n fulfil x  
loses ?is advantage1 o!rwise1 h[ev]1    
no?+ happ5s to him4 ,! sanction1 !re=e1 
is onesid$4 ,a rew>d is (f]$ = !        
fulfilm5t ( ! moral law1 b !re is no    
puni%m5t = its non-fulfilm5t4 ,= x is no
 p5alty if bliss is )held f him :o has  
no conception ( x & no desire = x4 ,no  
matt]1 !n1 if ! moral law be et]nal &   
immutable z ! />s above u1 if x be      
categorical1 if x be fulfill$1 n ow+ to 
a conception ( its effect1 n f lik+ =   

?is effect1 b f an inn] necessity1 x    
ceases to be a liv+ =ce = mank9d or to h
 any practical significance2 = ! s+le   
?read :i* unites x ) human feel+s--!    
:isp]$1 vague promise ( bliss--is too   
?94 ,feel+ :i* has no k ( ?is mi/y      
bliss1 & !re=e no ye>n+ = x1 is         
un9flu5c$ by ! categorical moral law4   
,reason is n necess>ily conv9c$ t x is  
"r & valid4 ,! moral law abides l ! />s 
) :i* x is arbitr>ily comp>$1 itself a  
/> 9 airless space1 pursu+ its c\rse    
reg>dless ( humanity1 hav+ no relation  
to x or connexion ) x2 reg>d = or       
disreg>d ( ! moral law makes no         
p]ceptible diff]5ce1 & x ceases to h any
 b a k9d ( a/ronomical int]e/ = mank9d1 
a purely !oretical int]e/ = purposes (  
sci5tific obs]vation & calculation1 & is
 9 no way applicable to ! feel+s1 ?\ghts
 & actions ( m54  ,!ological ,morality  
adopts a widely diff]5t po9t ( view4    
,its logic compels x to provide ! mo/   
effective sanctions4 ,god is ! lawgiv] (
 ,morality4 ,he prescribes ) dictatorial

 omnisci5ce :at is good1 :at is bad1 :at
 %\ld be practis$ & :at avoid$4 ,ob$i5ce
 e>ns a glori\s rew>d1 revolt entails ! 
mo/ t]rible puni%m5t4 ,rew>d & puni%m5t 
are et]nal1 or may 9 c]ta9 circum/ances 
be s1 & ?is1 by ! way1 is cruelty :i*   
ill accords ) ! univ]sal goodness       
ascrib$ to ,god4 ,= human und]/&+ w nev]
 be p]suad$1 w nev] be able to grasp1 t 
a s9n]1 h[ev] grave & num]\s 8 s9s      
committ$ dur+ ! brief p]iod ( ! fleet+  
life ( man1 c ev] des]ve an et]nity ( ! 
mo/ fe>ful puni%m5t4 ,! lack (          
proportion betwe5 ! de$ & ! p5alty is s 
mon/r\s t x is felt to be ! grave/      
inju/ice1 aga9/ :i* bo? ,reason & feel+ 
revolt4 ,imag9ation c conceive hell fire
 t la/s a c]ta9 "t & has an aim1 l life 
) its praisewor?y & wick$ de$s1 b x     
boggles at ! idea ( a hell f :i* !re is 
no escape & ! agonies ( :i* are endless4
  ,! ,old ,te/am5t conceives ! sanctions
 ( ! moral law enunciat$ by ,god 9 a    
?or\ghly reali/ic mann]4 ,fulfil !      
comm&m5t t ?y days may be long 9 ! l&4  

,if y disobey1 ! curse ( ! ,"l w be on y
 & y w be pursu$ by ,8 ang] unto ! f\r? 
g5]ation4 ,*ri/ianity consid]$ x dubi\s 
to make ?is life ! sc5e ( rew>d &       
puni%m5t4 ,x is imprud5t to let div9e   
ju/ice rule "h bel[1 s to say1 9 public1
 be=e an audi5ce & repres5tatives ( !   
,press :o att5tively foll[ ! proce$+s1  
wat* all its details1 & c judge :e!r !  
v]dict is put into execution4 ,prud5ce  
dem&s t ! trial %\ld take place 9 ! next
 _w1 :]e x is protect$ f annoy+         
curiosity4 ,mock+ onlook]s _c !n obs]ve 
t x is only 9 ! dramas ( noble-m9d$     
poets t 9 ! la/ act vice is inevitably  
puni%$ & virtue rew>d$1 :ile 9 real life
 only too (t5 m]it />ves1 suff]s        
humiliation & pov]ty & altoge!r leads a 
mis]able exi/5ce1 :ile s9 fl\ri%es 9 an 
objectionable mann] & to ! v end revels 
9 all ! good ?+s ( ?is e>?4 ,h[ev]1 !   
religi\s morali/s pa9t$ su* a vivid &   
arre/+ picture ( :at awaits ! s9n]s 9 ! 
next _w1 t if m5 _h n be5 obdurate 9 _! 
disbelief !y mu/ h %udd]+ly realiz$ x1 z

 if x actually happ5$ 9 ?is _w4 ,words f
 ! pulpit admoni%+ m5 to obey ,god's law
 "u p5alty ( mo/ t]rible puni%m5t 7     
greatly emphasiz$ by ! pa9t+s &         
sculpture ov] ! alt>s & ! *ur* doors1   
:]e all ! tortures ( hell 7 depict$ by  
great arti/s :o put all _! imag9ation & 
all _! g5ius into ! "w4  ,z innum]able p
 h te/ifi$1 ^! repres5tations 7 tak5 s  
lit]ally1 n only by ! simple-m9d$ masses
 b also by ! m highly educat$1 t !y 7   
haunt$ by !m1 wak+ & sleep+1 & imag9$ t 
9 _! own fle% !y felt ! torture (       
flames1 ( boil+ pit*1 ( ! prick ( !     
pit*=k z ! devil turn$ !m on ! grid1 ( !
 tee? ) :i* ! spirits ( hell tore _!    
fle% f _! bones4 ,! fe> ( hell poison$  
_m a life up till q rec5tly1 especially 
9 ,scotl&1 & kept p 9 a con/ant /ate (  
agitation & angui% :i* occasionally rose
 to mad despair4 ,x is rem>kable t only 
puni%m5t 0 s impressively held up to    
man's view1 b n rew>d4 ,pictures (      
p>adise are mu* less ri* & v>i$ ?an ^? (
 hell1 & its joys are peculi>ly mode/4  

,! inv5tive p[]s ( pa9t]s1 sculptors1 & 
poets did n rise above a beautifully    
illum9at$ hall :]e ! bless$ are rang$   
ar\nd ,god's ?rone & ) fold$ h&s s+     
hymns ( praise to ,him1 :ile angels play
 an accompanim5t on trumpets & fiddles4 
,a pray] meet+1 a *oir & a conc]t (     
music1 t is all t ,*ri/ian es*atology   
holds out z an et]nal rew>d to virtue4  
,x r$\nds to its cr$it t x assumes a    
suffici5tly mode/ ta/e among ! good to  
make !m long = ^! joys & f9d inf9ite    
happ9ess 9 !m4  ,islam does n c\nt on   
su* mod]ation4 ,! joys ( p>adise t x    
promises are s crudely s5sual t !y may  
well ar\se lu/ 9 co>se natures1 & c     
c\nt]balance ! fe> ( hell fire4 ,! ideas
 ( ! rew>d ( m]it 9 ! h]eaft] held by ! 
nor!rn nations1 ,g]mans & ,sc&9avians1  
are j z l[ & co>se4 ,= ! ,moham$ans     
p>adise is a h>em2 = ! wor%ipp]s ( ,od9 
x is a pot-h\se :]e !re are free dr9ks &
 a jolly brawl to end up )4 ,h]oes :o   
fall 9 battle--!y knew no virtues b a   
w>like _s & contempt ( dea?--ent]       

,valhalla1 :]e !y p>take ( ! ev]la/+    
orgies ( ! gods1 dr9k unlimit$          
quantities ( mead & be]1 & fight = !m to
 _! he>t's cont5t )\t tak+ any h>m4 ,!  
,nor? ,am]ican ,indians hope1 aft] lead+
 a model life1 to be ga!r$ to ! ,great  
,_s1 & 9 ! happy hunt+ gr\nds ( heav5   
ev]more to kill abundant game4 ,only    
,buddhism com=ts ! virtu\s man ) f9] & m
 spiritual hopes4 ,f out 8 _w ( we>9ess 
& pessimism x op5s up ! prospect (      
,nirvana to him1 t is1 ( ! end ( all    
feel+1 :i* aft] all c only be pa9ful1 & 
( all ?\ght1 :i* aft] all is only       
melan*oly & despair1 & ( !              
volatilization ( ! p]sonality1 ! only   
real release2 :ile x condemns ! s9n] to 
! wor/ puni%m5t1 cont9u$ exi/5ce 9 ev]  
new inc>nations4  ,^! are inde$         
extraord9>ily vigor\s sanctions1 :i*1   
?\gh !y fail to h any effect on !       
unbeliev]1 make a v deep impression on !
 believ]1 & are well fitt$ to det]m9e 8 
actions4 ,b !y imply a debasem5t ( !    
motives = lead+ a moral life1 :i* are no

 long] ! outcome ( insight & a conv9c$  
desire = good1 b ! result ( fe> &       
avidity1 a speculation = pr(it1 a prud5t
 flight f dang]4 ,! practice ( morality 
becomes a safe inve/m5t = ! fa!r ( a    
family :o hopes to f9d 8 sav+s augm5t$  
by int]e/ 9 ! h]eaft]1 & ! avoidance (  
vice becomes a s*oolboy's fe> (         
puni%m5t4 ,nev]!less1 ! view is widely  
held by sup]ficial1 practical m5 t ^!   
imag9>y & deceptive sanctions (         
,morality _c be disp5s$ )1 t only ! fe> 
( hell c keep ! masses f giv+ !mselves  
up to e =m ( vice & crime1 t only !     
promise ( p>adise is capable ( induc+ !m
 to act unselfi%ly & make sacrifices1 & 
t all bonds ( discipl9e w\ld be loos5$  
if !y ceas$ to believe 9 a la/ judgm5t &
 an h]eaft] ) its rew>ds & puni%m5ts4   
,?is :ole sy/em ( sanctions 9 a future  
life is a transc5d5tal projection       
7accord+ ) primitive1 *ildlike ?\ght7 ( 
imman5t practices & =ms 9 ! positive    
adm9i/ration ( ju/ice :i* are transf]r$ 
to a class ( actions t successfully     

evade x4 ,traditional & cu/om>y ,law1 z 
well z writt5 ,law1 puts its :ole       
emphasis on sanctions2 x p>takes itself 
( ! nature ( a sanction4 ,)\t sanctions 
x has no mean+4 ,x is n k9dly c\nsel1   
nor fa!rly admonition1 nor wise advice1 
x is a /]n comm&1 x is co]cion1 & ?is   
ar\ses only scorn if x is n arm$ ) !    
means to make itself a reality to :i* ! 
unwill+ mu/ also submit1 because !y _c  
help !mselves4 ,!re is no law1 !re c be 
no law1 :i* is n supplem5t$ by          
arrangem5ts t make x b9d+ = ev]yone4  ,9
 ! ,briti% ,h\se ( ,commons x has be5   
cu/om>y = _m hundr$ ye>s to designate   
memb]s z ! repres5tatives ( _! p>ticul> 
con/itu5cy4 ,only if a memb] commits a  
grave (f5ce aga9/ ! rules ( ! ,h\se does
 he run ! risk ( ! ,speak]'s call+ him  
by "n1 b ?is case has n aris5 )9 !      
memory ( man4 ,a disrespectful ,iri%    
memb] ( ,p>liam5t1 urg$ by p]v]se       
curiosity1 ask$ ! ,speak] "o day3 ,:at  
w\ld happ5 if y call$ me by my "n8 ,!   
,speak] ?\ght = a %ort "t & !n answ]$ ) 

impressive gravity3 ,i h no idea1 b x   
mu/ be some?+ t]rible4 ,su* a my/]i\s   
?reat ( an unkn[n cata/rophe may suffice
 = a pick$ assembly ^: memb]s w\ld no   
d\bt ma9ta9 ord] & obs]ve all ! rules ( 
p>liam5t>y dec5cy1 ev5 if !y 7 n held 9 
*eck by ! fe> ( "s d>k dang]4 ,x w\ld n 
be suffici5t by a long way to gu>antee !
 rule ( ,law 9 a society :i* includes   
individuals ( ! mo/ v>i$ disposition1   
m9d developm5t1 education & /r5g? (     
impulse4  ,positive ,law1 z ,i h %[n1   
pres5ts a v simplifi$ exc]pt ( ,morality
 = ! use ( co>s] natures4 ,x is a summ>y
 ( ! m9imum ( self-d5ial1 consid]ation =
 "o's fell[ m51 & ! feel+ ( jo9t        
responsibility1 ! obs]vance ( :i* !     
community mu/ pitilessly dem& f all its 
memb]s if x is to cont9ue to exi/ & n   
fall back )9 a v %ort "t into ! /ate (  
,hobbes's w> ( all aga9/ all4 ,!        
necessity ( self-pres]vation makes x a  
duty = ! community to provide = ! case t
 "o ( its memb]s refuses to accept !    
m9imum ( discipl9e & to recognize !     

claims ( ano!r p]sonality4 ,! community 
prev5ts ?is revolt1 :i* w\ld fru/rate   
its aim & endang] its exi/5ce1 by       
employ+ physical =ce to break all       
resi/ance to ! ,law :i* x mu/1 = !      
common weal1 impose on all its memb]s4  
,t is an extrane\s compulsion t c]ta9ly 
has some?+ brutal & unwor?y ( man ab\t x
 & may well ar\se discom=t 9 m highly   
develop$ m9ds4 ,x w\ld und\bt$ly be m   
dignifi$ & bett] if !re 7 no ne$ = !    
h&cuffs ( ! police1 = prison cells &    
execution]s1 if man's own insight & !   
admonition ( 8 consci5ce 7 en\gh to     
con/ra9 ev]yone to respect ! ,law1 t is1
 to practise a m9imum ( ,morality4  ,b !
 community _c wait until ?is /age (     
moral developm5t has be5 g5]ally atta9$4
 ,x refuses to entru/ its exi/5ce to !  
spiritual purity ( all its memb]s4 ,on  
pr9ciple x disreg>ds processes 9 !      
consci\sness ( ! individual--,i h cit$ 9
 an e>li] *apt] ! few exceptions to ?is 
rule3 inve/igation z to prem$itation1   
acc\ntability1 fre$om f undue           

influ5ce--& keeps to actions :i* alone x
 judges4 ,x decl>es itself incompet5t to
 pron\nce s5t5ce ^u a /orm inside a     
skull1 to quote ,victor ,hugo4 ,its     
sph]e is t ( obvi\s facts4 ,n until     
subjective impulses & decisions are     
manife/$ 9 outw>d =m does x int]v5e )   
me?ods ( ! same ord]1 ) outw>d co]cion4 
,! sanctions ( its law are mat]ial1 are 
puni%m5ts & f9es4 ,x hits ! wrongdo] ov]
 ! head & on 8 h&s & =cibly empties 8   
pockets4 ,to look into 8 s\l & set      
matt]s to rights !re is a task und]tak5 
mu* lat] by law-giv]s4 ,x 0 only aft] !y
 _h rememb]$ t ! s\rce ( law is         
,morality & t its ultimate aim is n !   
b>e atta9m5t ( a /ate ( mutual respect =
 "o ano!r's rights1 b ! education ( !   
community to a univ]sal condition (     
self-discipl9e1 consid]ation &          
neighb\rly love1 t ! law-giv]s made a   
po9t n only ( requit+ ! bad man's       
misde$s1 b also ( try+ to elevate him   
morally4  ,at diff]5t times1 at diff]5t 
/ages ( civilization1 & accord+ to !    

curr5t views ( ! univ]se1 society has   
int]pret$ 9 diff]5t ways ! puni%m5t x   
inflicts & :i* x c>ries out by =cible   
means1 s z to ensure respect = its laws4
 ,its orig9al "* is t ( rev5ge = an     
(f5ce4 ,! wrongdo] has (f5d$ !          
community1 x attacks him furi\sly &     
breaks e bone 9 8 body j z an angry     
individual w\ld d 9 8 fir/ access (     
indignation4 ,t is ,draco's p5al code4  
,t is ! law ( lit]al requital4 ,!       
special *>act]i/ic ( ?is sanction is its
 viol5ce & lack ( mod]ation4 ,x does n  
tr\ble to f9d ! "r proportion betwe5    
puni%m5t & crime4 ,x does n c>efully &  
fairly weigh ! =ce ( its bl[s4 ,! club  
falls ) a frightful cra%1 b its         
dynamical effect is n calculat$ be=eh& 9
 kilogrammetres4 ,! /ab ( a knife is n  
measur$1 z an ,italian prov]b says4 ,?us
 conceiv$1 puni%m5t has some?+ primitive
 ab\t x1 some?+ intol]ably b>b>\s4 ,!   
community does ! v ?+s x 0 creat$1 by   
,morality & ,law1 to prev5t2 x ex]cises 
! "r ( ! /rong] aga9/ ! *all5g]2 x      

promotes w>1 n t ( all aga9/ all1 b (   
all aga9/ "o1 & its puni%m5t is an act (
 w>4  ,9 a /rongly religi\s society :i* 
lives 9 ! idea ( imm$iate community ) ! 
deity1 e transgression ( ! law is felt  
to be a s9 aga9/ ! gods1 & ! puni%m5t   
becomes an expiation (f]$ to !m s z to  
av]t _! dang]\s ang] f ! commonweal?4 ,9
 ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice dim religi\s   
ideas are m+l$1 puni%m5t is t+$ ) a v5e]
 ( civilization1 ! culprit is1 s to     
speak1 (f]$ z a sacrifice to ! gods4    
,?is sup]natural view 0 prolong$ by !   
,inquisition1 at lea/ = a c]ta9 class ( 
(f5ces1 until almo/ mod]n times4  ,:5   
society awak5s to ! consci\sness t its  
bond ( union is ,morality1 & t its mo/  
important task is to educate its memb]s 
9 ,morality1 x introduces ! concept (   
bett]m5t into its p5al sy/em4 ,x wants n
 only to puni% ! wrongdo] %>ply b also  
to trans=m him inw>dly & purify him4 ,he
 is to feel t ! puni%m5t is n only a    
requital b a m5tal b5efit4 ,9 ! ,au/rian
 army1 until corporal puni%m5t 0        

aboli%$1 x 0 a rule t ! soldi]1 aft] be+
 flogg$1 %\ld approa* ! (fic] on duty & 
say1 z he salut$1 ,i ?ank y = ! k9d     
puni%m5t4 ,t is ! attitude t society1 :5
 x gives a moraliz+ t5d5cy to its p5al  
laws1 wi%es ! p]son :o has be5 puni%$ to
 atta94 ,9 ?is !re is mu* pleas+        
self-deception n unmix$ ) a good deal ( 
hypocrisy4 ,p5al law (f]s ! wrongdo] b  
little scope = improvem5t4  ,all        
misdemean\rs & crimes fl[ f ?ree s\rces3
 ignorance1 passion & innate1           
anti-social self-seek+4 ,ignorance is ! 
ma91 almo/ ! exclusive cause ( wrongdo+ 
among "y crim9als :o h be5 badly br\ght 
up or neglect$1 :o h nev] _h any?+ b bad
 examples be=e !m1 & :o _c di/+ui%      
betwe5 good & evil4 ,society may hope to
 improve ^! by "r treatm5t2 x mu/ n     
puni%1 x mu/ educate !m4 ,m5 :o commit  
crimes f passion are ^? :o possess a    
consci\sness ( ,morality & a consci5ce1 
:o "k q well :at is "r & :at wrong1 b h 
n suffici5t /r5g? ( "*1 t is1 n an      
adequately develop$ p[] ( inhibition1 to

 resi/ an opportunity1 a temptation1 a  
turmoil ( _! in/9cts4 ,to want to       
improve !m is s5seless1 = !y are n bad2 
!y are weak1 or at any rate n /rong     
en\gh4 ,:at !y ne$ is a /r5g!n+ ( _! "*1
 ( _! faculty ( inhibition1 & to a*ieve 
?is is beyond ! p[] ( society4 ,all x c 
d is to humiliate ! guilty p>ty by      
publicly expos+ 8 lapse & by condemn+   
him1 & !n grant a delay ( ! execution ( 
! s5t5ce4 ,9 s do+ x says to him3 ,y h  
act$ basely & ought to be a%am$ (       
y\rself1 n[ g & d n d x aga94 ,if ! w>n+
 is unavail+ & he relapses1 !n ! e>li]  
s5t5ce1 z well z ! new "o1 is execut$4  
,fe> ( ?is is add$ to 8 motives = act+  
hone/ly1 & may possibly /r5g!n 8        
resi/ance to ! onslaught ( 8 evil       
in/9cts4 ,b 8 good conduct w always be  
at /ake 9 ! /ruggle betwe5 8 p[] (      
inhibition & 8 in/9cts1 & ! /rong] ( !  
two w always c>ry ! day4 ,& f9ally1 ^u !
 man ^: organic disposition makes him   
anti-social1 ^u ,lombroso's born        
crim9al1 society c h no educative effect

 :atev]4 ,x is a hopeless case4 ,society
 c r5d] him h>mless1 x _c alt] him4     
,consid]ation = 8 neighb\r w nev] f9d a 
place 9 8 consci\sness4 ,he w nev] le>n 
to resi/ 8 impulses & desires4 ,8       
spiritual ins5sibility makes him        
indiff]5t to ! suff]+s ( o!rs4          
,incapable ( cont9u\s & equable ef=t1 he
 w always want to prey on society by    
begg+1 deceiv+1 /eal+ & robb+4 ,he has  
no consci5ce & does n he> ! voice (     
society 9 8 m9d4 ,he kn[s no?+ ( good & 
evil1 :i* are bo? empty phrases = him1  
words )\t any mean+1 & he is conv9c$ t  
he acts rightly e "t he seeks to satisfy
 8 appetites4 ,9 8 case x is love's     
lab\r lo/ to try & give a moral mean+ to
 ! sanctions ( ! law4 ,puni%m5t is n    
direct$ aga9/ ! s\l ( ! born crim9al1   
only aga9/ 8 body4 ,x ov]:elms him1     
fett]s him & makes him ei!r = ! "t be+1 
or p]man5tly1 h>mless2 b 8 organic      
t5d5cy cont9ues to sway him1 & :5ev] he 
recov]s 8 lib]ty he is ! same z be=e he 
0 puni%$4  ,! ,my/ics give to puni%m5t !

 "* ( fa!rly & *a/5+ discipl9e by :i* ! 
s9n] expiates 8 crime & is purg$ ( ! s92
 ?us x purifies him & leads him back to 
! /ate ( innoc5ce2 a k9d ( anticipatory 
hell fire :i* enables him to ent]       
p>adise4 ,9 ,gorgias ,plato says        
explicitly3 ,he :o is puni%$ is lib]at$ 
f ! evil ( 8 s\l4 ,& ! ,apo/le ,paul    
tea*es u3 ,puni%m5t is orda9$ = !       
bett]m5t ( man4 ,crim9al an?ropology    
recognizes t x is useless to expect ?is 
moraliz+ & r$eem+ effect f puni%m5t4    
,lombroso altoge!r rejects puni%m5t z a 
means ( discipl9e & expiation1 & be=e   
him ,b5?am & ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 &           
simultane\sly ) him & aft] him ,f\ille1 
,guyau & ,maudsley adopt$ ! same view4  
,accord+ to !m ! sanction ( crim9al law1
 :i* ext5ds & completes x & ensures its 
efficacy1 c h no o!r aim ?an ! law      
itself1 & ?is aim is to def5d society   
aga9/ its active enemies1 if possible by
 conv]t+ !m1 if necess>y by =cible      
subjugation4  ,9 a book :i* is full (   
int]e/1 b ^: value is consid]ably       

dim9i%$ by a /rong admixture ( my/icism1
 ,esquisse d'une morale sans obligation 
ni sanction1 ,m4 ,guyau goes mu* f>!r   
?an ! crim9al an?ropologi/s &           
sociological oppon5ts ( puni%m5t1 &     
expresses ! some:at p>adoxical view t ! 
real sanction seems to imply complete   
fre$om f puni%m5t = ! crime committ$1 z 
puni%m5t = any action t has be5         
accompli%$ is useless4 ,x is q correct t
 no puni%m5t "u ! sun c undo :at has be5
 done4 ,b x is n feasible = t reason to 
disp5se ) all puni%m5t = misde$s & to   
call ?is sy/ematic fre$om f puni%m5t a  
sanction4 ,guyau ov]looks ! fact t !    
puni%m5t is direct$ n to ! crime b !    
p]petrator4 ,x c]ta9ly alt]s no?+ 9 a   
pa/ transgression ( ! law1 & t is n its 
object1 b x may possibly h ! effect (   
prev5t+ fre% misde$s on ! "p ( ! same   
wrongdo] or ( o!rs1 & t w\ld ju/ify x4  
,if society mu/ r5\nce ! idea ( improv+ 
! misdemeanant1 especially ! man ^:     
organic t5d5cies make him a crim9al & :o
 is ! mo/ dang]\s & commits ! mo/ num]\s

 & wor/ crimes1 x nev]!less assumes t x 
makes an impression on morally d\btful  
*>act]s by puni%+ misdemean\rs & crimes1
 t x w>ns !m & prev5ts !m f err+4 ,t is 
! !ory ( intimidation1 :i* also has _m  
oppon5ts4 ,x w h>dly be d5i$ t          
psy*ologically x is well f\nd$4 ,!      
conception ( ! evil consequ5ces =       
himself t 8 action may entail /r5g!ns ! 
impulsive man's p[] ( inhibition :5 he  
is ab\t to d wrong1 & p]haps enables him
 to ov]come 8 immoral in/9ct4 ,only x is
 difficult to measure ! =ce :i* ! ?\ght 
( puni%m5t adds to ! ef=t ( inhibition4 
,?is =ce does n come into "q at all ) ! 
man :o s9s occasionally f passion4 ,!   
flood ( 8 impulses sweeps away all      
b>ri]s :i* reason may oppose1 & _! p[] (
 resi/ance is n mat]ially increas$ by ! 
fe> ( consequ5ces1 because ! m5tal      
horizon is completely d>k5$ at ! "t ( ! 
/orm & no prevision is possible4 ,!     
crim9al f organic causes ex]cises no    
inhibition4 ,he kn[s t society condemns 
8 actions1 b he is conv9c$ ( 8 p]sonal  

"r to c>ry !m out1 & fe>s no puni%m5t1  
because he hopes to escape x1 & tries 8 
utmo/ by means ( plann+1 prud5ce &      
self-control to outwit society4 ,! !ory 
( intimidation is n applicable to ^! two
 classes ( crim9als1 & !y con/itute a   
l>ge proportion ( ! army ( wrongdo]s    
aga9/ :i* society has to def5d itself by
 =ce4  ,b !re rema9s ! great numb] (    
m$iocre natures ^: sympa?y ) _! fell[   
m51 ! emotional f\ndation ( ! subjective
 impulse to ,morality1 is only slightly 
develop$1 :o h a sup]ficial v5e] (      
,morality1 :o act hon\rably out (       
prud5ce1 b :o w\ld feel no repugnance   
t[>ds p]petrat+ pr(itable misde$s1 if !y
 7 c]ta9 t !y w\ld incur no risk4 ,^!   
insipid *>act]s ^: emotional temp]ature 
oscillates r\nd ab\t freez+ po9t & :o   
are incapable ( great excitem5t1 (      
passion1 w\ld see no reason to resi/ any
 temptation1 to disreg>d any fav\rable  
opportunity1 if ! p5al code1 ! judge & !
 policeman did n w>n !m to be c>eful4 ,=
 ?is k9d ( man ! p5al sanction is really

 a useful & p]haps an indisp5sable means
 ( prev5tion1 & x has be5 ?\ght out &   
develop$ by ! community ) a view to su* 
p4  ,n cont5t ) !oretical consid]ations1
 p h also appeal$ to practical exp]i5ce 
to te/ ! !ory ( intimidation4 ,9 "s     
c\ntries capital puni%m5t 0 ei!r legally
 aboli%$ or tacitly suppress$1 ! judges 
ei!r refra9+ f pron\nc+ ! s5t5ce on !   
prison] or ! head ( ! /ate1 :5 appeal$  
to1 commut+ x by an act ( p>don to loss 
( lib]ty4 ,/ati/ics seem$ to %[ t s]i\s 
crimes m]it+ ! dea? p5alty increas$1 &  
capital puni%m5t 0 re9troduc$ or !      
practice ( sy/ematic p>dons 0 ab&on$1 ) 
! alleg$ result t ! wor/ crimes grew    
less num]\s4 ,i express myself          
d\btfully1 because ,i d n ?9k t !       
/ati/ics 7 suffici5tly conclusive4 ,!y  
embrac$ too small a numb] ( cases & too 
%ort a p]iod ( "t4 ,x _c be conclusively
 prov$ t ! abolition ( ! dea? p5alty    
result$ 9 an increase ( capital crimes2 
b x is c]ta9 t crimes 7 nev] m frequ5t  
or m horrible ?an 9 ! times :5 crim9al  

ju/ice 0 mo/ cruel & made use ( ! mo/   
t]rible sanctions4 ,up to ! dawn ( mod]n
 times legal torture 0 adm9i/]$1 at e   
/reet corn] !re 7 gall[s1 ! poor wret*  
"u s5t5ce ( dea? 0 p9*$ ) r$-hot p9c]s1 
! execution] tore ! fle% f 8 bones1 p\r$
 boil+ pit* ov] him1 cut out 8 tongue1  
hack$ (f 8 h&s1 broke him on ! :eel or  
burnt him alive2 executions 7 a sort (  
public ent]ta9m5t or popul> holiday1 &  
ef=ts 7 made to attract z _m spectators 
z possible2 e inhabitant ( "o ( ! l>g]  
t[ns 0 famili> f *ildhood ) ! horrid    
spectacle ( mutilat$ human bodies wri?+ 
9 torture1 & !re rang 9 8 e>s ! e*o ( ! 
screams ( pa9 & ( ! %rill dea? rattle ( 
! victims4 ,b ^! impressions 7 s f> f   
intimidat+ ! gap+ cr[d t _m hurri$ f !  
place ( execution to commit ! mo/       
execrable crimes1 ! puni%m5t ( :i* !y _h
 j witness$2 consequ5tly puni%m5ts h    
gradually be5 made less cruel1 & !      
public is exclud$ f executions1 :i*     
cle>ly indicates a decisive rejection ( 
! !ory ( intimidation4  ,! tru? is t !  

sev]ity ( ! puni%m5t has no effect ^u ! 
frequ5cy or ! savag]y ( crimes4 ,!      
crim9ality ( a community dep5ds on !    
value & emphasis ( ! moral education :i*
 x be/[s ^u ! ris+ g5]ation4 ,x c prev5t
 its memb]s1 at any rate ! av]age1      
normal type1 f develop+ into crim9als4  
,b ! fe> ( puni%m5t has no det]r5t      
effect ^u ^? ^: crim9al impulses h n be5
 subjugat$ by social discipl9e4 ,!      
sev]ity ( ! puni%m5t does n contribute  
any?+ to ! def5ce ( society4 ,x only    
proves t ! lawgiv] & ! crim9al judges   
are on ! l[e/ level ( civilization :i*  
corresponds to a widespread & b>b>\s    
crim9ality1 & t _! modes ( ?\ght & feel+
 are horribly l ^? ( ! crim9als :om !y  
s5t5ce to torture1 ! gall[s1 & ! :eel4  
,positive law aims at def5d+ society1 & 
tries to atta9 its end by puni%+        
transgressions4 ,x provides no rew>d =  
consci5ti\s ob$i5ce4 ,! law has no      
hon\rs to be/[ on blamelessness &       
virtue4 ,society felt ! want ( ?is &    
made attempts to enc\rage hon\rable     

conduct by conf]r+ di/9ctions1 j z x    
tries to intimidate vice by puni%+      
crime4 ,^! attempts 7 n p>ticul>ly      
happy4 ,! be/[al ( titles & ord]s is no 
recognition ( virtue1 b a means adopt$  
by gov]nm5ts to ensure devotion to p[]4 
,an arrangem5t 0 made 9 "s places to    
hon\r model citiz5s 9 public & cr[n !m )
 laurels1 b x soon came to grief ow+ to 
indiff]5ce & mock]y4 ,a private         
individual want$ to fill ?is gap 9      
social in/itutions4 ,! ,c\nt ( ,montyon1
 a son ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 ^:          
philosophy he _h imbib$1 in/itut$ !     
prizes = virtue :i* are di/ribut$       
annually by ! ,fr5* ,academy4 ,!y are   
be/[$ on mode/ integrity 9 humble       
circum/ances :i* has manife/$ a s5se (  
duty1 neighb\rly love & self-sacrifice4 
,?is fri5d ( man has _h few imitators1 &
 t is und]/&able4 ,s\nd common s5se     
realizes t rew>ds l ! ,montyon prizes = 
virtue d n ) ! infallibility ( a natural
 law fall to ! lot ( m]it1 b are ne>ly  
always adjudicat$ to ! prizew9n] by     

*ance1 by recomm5dation1 & by all sorts 
( influ5ces t h no?+ to d ) virtue2 & x 
seems unju/ t among equal claims "s %\ld
 be satisfi$ :ile o!rs1 ! great         
majority1 are n4 ,x w\ld be va9 to      
cont5d t "o virtue :i* goes empty-h&$ is
 n unfairly treat$ :5 ano!r gets a      
b5efit on :i* x has n c\nt$1 & t 9 a    
moral "*1 su* z alone w\ld be eligible =
 a prize = virtue1 !re is no room =     
envy4 ,t w\ld be ! moral ( ! ,gospel    
conc]n+ ! lab\r]s :o came at ! elev5?   
h\r1 :i* has met ) opposition f o!rs    
besides ! contempor>ies ( ,jesus4  ,on !
 :ole1 ! community has nev] felt call$  
^u to solve ! moral problem ( ! rew>d ( 
virtue4 ,x has always cont5t$ itself ) !
 puni%m5t ( vice & has giv5 its law     
?reat5+1 b n enc\rag+1 sanctions4 ,?is  
attitude %[s t x has always _h a cle>   
conception ( its moral task4 ,9 its     
positive law x nev] includ$ any?+ b t   
m9imum ( ,morality t 0 absolutely       
necess>y to its exi/5ce1 & )\t :i* x    
w\ld dissolve into its orig9al elem5ts1 

its ord] w\ld be replac$ by *aos1 by !  
w> ( all aga9/ all4 ,x mu/ insi/ on !   
obs]vance ( ?is m9imum2 x mu/ use =cible
 means to a*ieve ?is4 ,b x does n feel  
ju/ifi$ 9 dem&+ m ?an ?is m9imum1       
because m is n claim$ by its in/9ct (   
self-pres]vation4 ,a surplus ( virtue   
ov] & above ! am\nt necess>y = ! life ( 
society is desirable2 b x does n lie )9 
! scope ( ! natural functions ( !       
community1 det]m9$ by its organic       
necessities1 to a*ieve ?is by compulsion
 & ! provision ( legal rew>ds z an      
enc\ragem5t4 ,x is ! bus9ess ( !        
individual to "w at 8 own moral         
improvem5t1 & ! community _c int]f]e    
directly 9 ! matt]4 ,x is en\gh t x     
enc\rage ?is "w indirectly by be/[+ c>e 
on ! culture & education ( ! individual1
 by mak+ x ! duty ( its public s*ools to
 inculcate good pr9ciples1 & by creat+ a
 public op9ion :i* surr\nds all !       
activities ( high] morality )           
admiration1 respect & gratitude4 ,!     
moral education ( ! individual is n an  

object ) :i* laws are conc]n$2 x is !   
result ( ! con/ant1 vital influ5ce ( !  
community1 & c h no sanction o!r ?an !  
increase ( well-be+ ( e s+le p]son )9 ! 
social union1 :i* is a natural          
consequ5ce ( rais+ ! moral level ( !    
community4  ,! p5al sanctions ( positive
 law h a gross mat]ialism ab\t !m       
correspond+ to ! def9ite concret5ess ( !
 actions ) :i* positive law deals4 ,!   
broad field ( ,morality1 h[ev]1 :i* is  
outside ! n>r[ sph]e ( ! laws1 has no   
room = sanctions ( a mat]ial nature4 ,! 
p5alties prescrib$ by law are direct$ to
 actions :i*1 if !y became g5]al1 w\ld 9
 a v %ort space ( "t result 9 !         
dissolution ( society4 ,! community     
essays by =cible measures to prev5t ?is 
k9d ( action1 & ^! measures m or less   
fulfil _! aim1 :e!r y int]pret _! use on
 ! !ory ( discipl9e1 ( expiation &      
purification by rep5tance1 ( improvem5t 
& moral re-bir?1 or ( intimidation4 ,all
 ^! !ories 7 inv5t$ lat] on1 aft] !     
community _h be5 conv9c$ by exp]i5ce t  

puni%m5t1 if x does n entirely prev5t   
crime1 at lea/ limits x suffici5tly to  
make ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( society        
possible1 & m or less to gu>antee to its
 memb]s ! safety ( _! life1 _! prop]ty &
 _! p]sonal dignity4  ,aga9/            
transgressions ( ! moral law1 ! results 
( :i* are n imm$iately obvi\s1 su* z    
ru?less selfi%ness1 blunt$ sympa?y &    
lack ( active neighb\rly k9dness1 !     
community does n proce$ ) =cible        
measures2 fir/ly1 because x _c e/abli%  
_! exi/5ce conv9c+ly & h5ce _c try !m 9 
a c\rt ( ju/ice1 & secondly1 because x  
does n recognize !m z con/itut+ an      
imm$iate dang] to its exi/5ce4 ,n[1 z ! 
sanctions set up by society are n       
applicable to ^! transgressions1 an     
individual ^: m9d does n p5etrate v f>  
into matt]s is disquiet$1 = accu/om$ z  
he is to ! spectacle ( ! /eady ju/ice ( 
! /ate1 he seeks ! c\nt]p>t 9 ! =ms (   
?is ju/ice 9 ! _w ( ,morality1 & does n 
discov] x at ! fir/ glance4 ,he asks    
anxi\sly :]e are ! police1 ! public     

prosecutor1 ! exam9+ magi/rate1 !       
crim9al c\rt1 ! prison = s9s aga9/      
,morality1 & inv5ts !m1 s9ce he _c f9d  
!m4 ,he transf]s to ! h]eaft] !         
sanctions ( ,morality1 :i* are n visible
 on e>?4 ,he _c make up 8 m9d to r5\nce 
!m1 because ! fact t s9s aga9/ ! moral  
law g unpuni%$ w\ld seem to him to      
indicate intol]able an>*y1 comp>able ) !
 /ate ( a community :]e ev]yone c\ld    
murd]1 rob & mutilate to 8 he>t's cont5t
 )\t incurr+ ! risk ( ! lea/ p]sonal    
unpleasantness4  ,9 ! sph]e ( ! moral   
law puni%m5t c]ta9ly does n foll[ hot   
foot ^u crime1 b x nev]!less does n fail
 to appe>1 & becomes visible :5 ! eye is
 capable ( embrac+ long p]iods ( "t & ( 
trac+ intricate connexions4 ,! sanctions
 ( ! moral law diff] f ^? ( crim9al law1
 b !y are n want+4 ,!y are ( a          
subjective & ( an objective "*4 ,!      
subjective puni%m5t = a s9 aga9/ ! laws 
( ,morality is remorse4 ,x is inflict$  
by ! inn] judge :o rules 9 !            
consci\sness ( ! individual1 by         

consci5ce1 & p5etrates to ! v deepe/    
dep?s ( a p]son's m9d :i* no outw>d     
puni%m5t impos$ by ! community ev]      
rea*es4 ,x is n only religi\s &         
political m>tyrs :o endure torture &    
dea? ) pr\d s]5ity1 consci\s t !y are   
morally immeasurably sup]ior to _!      
execution]s2 ev5 common crim9als rema9  
p]fectly unmov$ by _! puni%m5t & regret 
only t !y are weak] ?an _! captors4     
,prisons are full ( convicts :o look ^u 
_! condition z t ( prison]s ( w>4 ,!y h 
be5 wor/$ 9 _! battle ) law4 ,t seems to
 !m a mis=tune b n a disgrace4 ,!y are  
nei!r humble nor contrite1 b rev5geful4 
,!y are det]m9$ & ready to take up !    
duel ) society z soon z an opportunity  
(f]s & !y may hope to d s ) "s prospect 
( success4  ,b remorse is an unresi/+   
submission to ! v]dict ( consci5ce & !  
consci\sness ( "o's own unwor?9ess4 ,x  
is ! recognition ( ! ju/ice ( ! s5t5ce  
:i* br&s "o1 & ! con/ant1 angui%$       
realization t "o's p]sonality has be5   
des]v$ly humiliat$1 di%on\r$ & depriv$ (

 its rights4 ,z a spiritual process1    
remorse causes ! s9n] cont9ually to     
relive ! misde$ he committ$1 :ile at !  
same "t he is fully consci\s ( its      
atrocity4 ,! ego becomes dual1 "o "p    
active1 ! o!r wat*+ & judg+4 ,! "o aga9 
& aga9 p]petrates its misde$1 ! o!r     
looks on horrifi$ & suff]s agonies4 ,x  
is "o long torture & disgrace ( self4   
,remorse condemns ! s9n] p]petually to  
repeat 9 8 m9d ! de$ :i* fills him )    
horror ( himself4 ,?is /ate ( m9d is !  
ne>e/ approa* to et]nal damnation 9     
hell4 ,!re is only "o means ( tempor>y  
escape3 to ext+ui% memory by n>cotics4  
,t is :y remorse n seldom leads to      
drunk5ness4 ,%akespe>e1 ) a poet's      
infallible insight into ! s\l1 has      
grasp$ & depict$ ! nature ( remorse1 !  
un9t]rupt$1 tortur+ pres5ce ( ! misde$ 9
 man's consci\sness4 ,lady ,macbe? sees 
h] h&s ev] /a9$ ) ! blood ( ! innoc5t   
royal victim :om %e h]self did n ev5    
murd]1 & %e compla9s t all ! p]fumes (  
,arabia w n sweet5 ?is little h&4       

,leontes1 9 ! ,w9t]'s ,tale1 on he>+ (  
,h]mione's alleg$ dea?1 ( :i* he        
believes himself guilty1 m\rns3         
,once a day ,i'll visit   ,! *apel :]e  
!y lie2 & te>s %$ !re   ,%all be my     
recreation3 s long z nature   ,w be> up 
) ?is ex]cise1 s long   ,i daily v[ to  
use x4  ,remorse is ! mo/ effective ( ! 
subjective sanctions ( ,morality2 x is  
almo/ too effective1 = ow+ to its       
duration & sev]ity ! puni%m5t easily    
gr[s disproportionate to ! crime4 ,b x  
has "o great disadvantage1 x affects    
only bett] natures :o h an active       
consci5ce & spiritual delicacy1 :ile x  
sp>es ! wick$ :o h no consci5ce1 :o     
p]petrate _! misde$s cont5t$ly1 )\t a   
qualm1 & regret !m only :5 !y are       
discov]$ & lead to unpleasantness4      
,nev]!less1 ! actions ( ^! h>d5$ s9n]s d
 n g q unpuni%$4 ,moral law always takes
 v5geance = transgressions1 b n directly
 on ! evildo]4 ,9 addition to !         
subjective1 x also has an objective     
sanction2 :5 x is violat$ retribution   

falls on ! community4 ,! masses h a dim 
idea t e evil de$ meets ) requital &    
express x 9 ! prov]b t ,?\gh ! mills (  
,god gr9d sl[ly1 yet !y gr9d exce$+     
small4 ,!y h notic$ t ! curse ( an evil 
de$ nev] fails to come1 & is consummat$ 
) cru%+ =ce1 only t x does n happ5 at   
once4 ,x seems objectionably unju/ t !  
culprit %\ld n feel ! effect ( 8 crime1 
:il/ o!rs d :o 7 n born :5 x 0          
p]petrat$4 ,b ! concept ( retributory   
ju/ice is z little applicable to !      
f>-rea*+ relations 9 ! life ( humanity z
 to ! actions ( ! laws ( ,nature1 =     
in/ance gravity or electricity4         
,morality is1 z ,i h %[n1 an adaptation 
( ! species to ! natural conditions 9   
:i* x is =c$ to live4 ,morality1 !re=e1 
has an aim1 :i* is to make social life 9
 common possible = ! individual1 ?is    
life alone enabl+ him to ma9ta9 8       
exi/5ce amid ! conditions obta9+ on ?is 
e>?4 ,! discipl9e :i* ,morality imposes 
on ! individual leaves him a c]ta9 am\nt
 ( free play4 ,if he escapes f ?is      

discipl9e to a c]ta9 small ext5t :i*    
does n ?reat5 ! exi/5ce ( society1 ?is  
revolt has no ill effect ^u ! life ( !  
species1 ! latt] has no gr\nds = puni%+ 
him1 & ! only1 yet suffici5t1 sanction (
 ! loose ,morality ( an undiscipl9$     
individual lies 9 ! fact t he is m or   
less inf]ior to ! mo/ p]fect type ( !   
species1 & visibly be>s ! /amp ( 8      
wor?lessness 9 8 "*1 8 be>+ & 8 mode (  
?\ght4 ,b if 9 8 disreg>d ( ,morality ! 
individual goes s f> z to fru/rate its  
aim & endang] ! exi/5ce ( society1 !n ! 
latt] mu/ ei!r f9d ways & means ( r5d]+ 
! culprit h>mless or else x ov]looks 8  
misde$ & !reby becomes an accessory &   
ju/ly suff]s ! evils consequ5t ^u a     
det]ioration ( ,morals :i* is univ]sally
 tol]at$4  ,! means by :i* a society mu/
 def5d ! ,morality necess>y to its      
exi/5ce c only be spiritual1 = x is n a 
"q ( brea*es ( ! positive law :i* result
 9 ! int]v5tion ( ju/ice & ( mat]ial    
p5alties1 b ( a disreg>d ( ! comm&s (   
,morality1 :i* are n drawn up 9         

p>agraphs4 ,public op9ion suffices to   
r\se ! individual :o despises ! ,moral  
law to an uncom=table s5se ( 8          
unwor?9ess2 if he f9ds himself treat$ ) 
contempt & sees disapproval & dislike 9 
ev]yone's face1 ei!r he w be spurr$ to  
an ef=t to ov]come 8 immoral in/9cts or 
8 self-respect w suff] f ! univ]sal     
contempt ) :i* he meets2 & ?is suff]+ is
 8 puni%m5t1 !re=e x is ! sanction ( a  
brea* ( ! ,moral law4  ,if public op9ion
 does n keep c>eful & sev]e wat*1 su* z 
may be t]m$ ! function ( a high] moral  
police1 !n inevitably ! moral tone ( !  
:ole society w s9k to a l[] level1 & ?is
 w result 9 mak+ life h>d] & m          
difficult1 & 9 c]ta9 circum/ances may   
lead to dissolution4 ,?is is n a        
!oretical assumption1 b an obs]v$ fact1 
a lesson taught by hi/ory4 ,x tells u ( 
epo*s 9 :i* ! lic5ti\sness (            
individuals1 fav\r$ by a society too    
dull1 weak & indiff]5t to /& up aga9/   
bad examples1 succe$$ 9 corrupt+ all    
classes4 ,su* a p]iod is exemplifi$ by !

 fall ( ,rome4 ,common natures indulg$ &
 wall[$ 9 e vice1 ! bett] ones felt su* 
disgu/ = a life )\t nobility & virtue t 
!y disc>d$ x1 & ! community lo/ all     
excuse ( jo9t responsibility & became s 
loosely knit toge!r t x 0 incapable (   
common ef=t or sacrifice1 & collaps$    
mis]ably at ! fir/ onslaught ( a =eign  
aggressor tempt$ by its depravity4  ,!  
dis9tegration ( a society1 ! sanction ( 
its s9s aga9/ ,morality1 is a sl[       
process4 ,x does n (t5 take place       
cata/rophically1 ) !atrical effect1 s t 
ev5 a dull obs]v] c grasp ! connexion   
betwe5 cause & effect4 ,b :oev]         
inve/igates closely w realize t all     
evils f :i* society suff]s1 :i* make    
life m bitt] & h>d] = its memb]s1 are   
ultimately due to defective ,morality4  
,:at are class /ruggles ) _! consequ5t  
ho/ilities betwe5 gr\ps ( ! same nation1
 _! co]cion & damage1 b manife/ations ( 
self-seek+1 lack ( consid]ation &       
inju/ice1 t is1 ( ,immorality8 ,w\ld !y 
be possible if memb]s ( all classes1    

capitali/s & work]s1 agriculturi/s &    
t[nsm51 rul]s & subjects 7 inspir$ by   
neighb\rly k9dness1 und]/&+ &           
appreciation ( ! ne$s1 pret5sions &     
feel+s ( _! oppon5ts1 & by a _s (       
self-sacrifice8 ,w\ld ! decay ( "*1 !   
arbitr>9ess & arrogance ( ! mighty1 !   
c[>dly slavi%ness ( ! masses1 ) !       
resultant rott5ness ( public affairs1 be
 conceivable if individuals 7 consci\s (
 _! dignity & _! duty to !mselves & !   
community1 & if !y _h ! /r5g? & !       
det]m9ation to ov]come _! fe> ( m58     
,c\ld w>s ( aggression br+ ru9 ^u mank9d
 if lead+ p]sonalities did n give way to
 ! desire = outw>d hon\rs1 to ! hung] = 
p[]1 to av>ice1 to ! it* ( vanity1 t is 
to ! l[e/ =ms ( selfi%ness1 & if !      
masses out ( /upidity or fe> ( a m5tal  
ef=t1 & out ( dread = _! p]sonal        
responsibility did n all[ !mselves to be
 misus$ = base purposes8  ,?us we f9d   
insuffici5t ,morality 9 individuals1 or 
! complete lack ( x1 to be at ! root (  
all evils ) :i* ! community is afflict$1

 & we are ju/ifi$ 9 conceiv+ w>1 p>ty   
qu>rels1 collisions betwe5 gr\ps        
repres5t+ diff]5t int]e/s1 revolutions1 
9 fact1 all trag$ies ( life 9 societies 
) ! suff]+ & de/ruction !y entail1 z !  
p5al sanction ( s9s aga9/ ,morality4    
,morality1 :i* 0 creat$ to facilitate   
life = ! individual or to make x at all 
possible = him1 is no long] able to     
fulfil its aim1 & ! society f9ds itself 
by its own fault back 9 ! condition (   
mis]y & fe>1 ow+ to :i* its in/9ct (    
self-pres]vation orig9ally =c$ x to make
 ! ef=t ( sett+ up ! ,moral law4 ,ev5 ! 
mo/ m]ciless zealot _c wi% = a m        
efficaci\s & pa9ful puni%m5t (          
,immorality4  ,b ,morality does n       
possess ! sanction ( puni%m5t alone1 x  
has also ! m amiable "o ( rew>d4 ,we h  
se5 t by /r5g!n+ ! faculty ( inhibition 
x raises ! individual to a high] level (
 organic developm5t1 t by ! inculcation 
( consid]ation & neighb\rly k9dness x   
af=ds ! community ! possibility ( work+ 
toge!r peacefully & pr(itably4 ,b x does

 m ?an t4 ,x gives life an incomp>ably  
high] value ?an :5 x is dull & uni=m1 by
 enri*+ & beautify+ x ) h]oism & )      
ideals4  ,ideals & h]oism are direct    
creations ( ,morality & inconceivable   
)\t x4 ,! ideal is a conception (       
p]fection2 ! ?\ght ( atta9+ x is        
accompani$ by ! mo/ pleasurable         
emotions1 & ! individual reg>ds x z 8   
life's task to /rive = x4 ,! /ruggle = !
 ideal implies ef=t at all times1       
r5unciation ( ! ease ( a ?\ghtless &    
c>e-free exi/5ce1 an endless s]ies (    
difficult victories ov] appetites       
clam\r+ = imm$iate satisfaction1 t is1  
con/ant "w 9 ! s]vice ( ,morality4 ,he  
:o has an ideal is nev] tr\bl$ by !     
problem ( ! mean+ ( life4 ,8 life has an
 aim & significance4 ,he kn[s :i!r he   
goes1 :y he lives1 = :at he works4 ,he  
kn[s no?+ ( ! d\bts ( ! aimless w&]]1 ( 
! disc\rag+ consci\sness ( "o's own     
uselessness1 & 8 assurance1 8 conviction
 t 8 ef=ts are useful & wor?y come v ne>
 to happ9ess4 ,h]oism is ! noble/       

victory ( a ?9k+ & volitional p]sonality
 ov] selfi%ness2 x is altruism :i* rises
 to self-sacrifice1 ! pr\d subjugation  
by ,reason ( ! mo/ primitive & p[]ful ( 
all in/9cts1 t ( self-pres]vation4 ,x is
 ! highe/ a*ievem5t ( :i* ,morality is  
capable4 ,x is nev] develop$ = ! pr(it (
 an individual1 b always = t ( a        
community1 = a ?\ght1 = an ideal4 ,8    
h]oic conduct raises ! h]o out ( ! rut (
 8 exi/5ce1 lib]ates him f ! trammels ( 
8 individuality & enl>ges ?is to        
repres5t a community1 its long+s1 its   
resolutions1 its det]m9ation4 ,at !     
mom5t ( 8 h]oic action ! h]o lives      
innum]able lives1 ! lives ( all = :om he
 risks 8 own1 & if dea? rea*es him1 x c 
de/roy only 8 s+le p]son1 b _c put an   
end to ! dynamic activity ( ! community 
:i* is includ$ 9 ! h]o1 :ile he is      
magnific5tly elevat$ f> above himself4  
,! faculty ( =m+ an ideal ( exi/5ce &   
activity1 & ( ris+ to ! heights (       
h]oism1 is ! royal rew>d ( ,morality :i*
 ! p]fect subjection ( animal in/9cts to

 ! rule ( human ,reason has a*iev$4 ,its
 puni%m5t = ^? retrograde individuals :o
 nev] le>n to control _! in/9ctive      
reflex actions is t !y are d5i$ ! sight 
( ! glory ( ! ideal1 t h]oism is unkn[n 
& incompreh5sible to !m1 t !y lead _!   
lives fett]$ & imprison$1 unconsci\s (  
any task1 )\t prospect or exaltation1 z 
if !y dwelt 9 a cell> or 9 a d>k        
dungeon4 ,^! are ! sanctions (          
,morality4 ,x has no o!rs1 nor does x   
ne$ !m4  ,9 "o passage ( ! book cit$    
above ,guyau makes ! d\bt+ rem>k3 ,:o c 
tell u :e!r ,morality is n 444 at "o & !
 same "t a beautiful & useful art8      
,p]haps x bewit*es u & deceives u4 ,let 
u assume t x is an illusion4 ,t w\ld n  
detract f its value = mank9d4 ,is n all 
our k ( ! _w1 is n our :ole view (      
,nature an illusion8 ,we are made       
consci\s ( ! univ]se by its qualities1 &
 ^! qualities are conf]r$ on x by our   
s5ses4 ,b all k t we d]ive f our s5ses  
is an illusion4 ,= ! s5ses d n convey   
reality to u1 b ! modifications :i* !   

influ5ce ( reality produces 9 our s5se  
organs4 ,! univ]se has nei!r s\nd nor   
col\r nor sc5t4 ,b we p]ceive x z s\nd+1
 col\r$ & sc5t$4 ,^! qualities we       
attribute to reality are illusions ( our
 s5ses1 b ^! illusions make up all !    
beauty ( ! _w :i* )\t !m w\ld be dumb1  
bl9d & )\t *>m = u4  ,life = u is an    
unspeakably oppressive riddle4 ,has x an
 aim1 &1 if s1 :at8 ,we d n "k4 ,all    
?\ght only leads to ! conclusion3 life  
is its own aim & end1 we live = life's  
sake4 ,& ?is conclusion is no solution (
 ! problem4 ,!n ,morality appe>s1 & n   
only makes life easi] & possible1 b ev5 
%[s u an aim1 if n = univ]sal1 at lea/ =
 individual life4 ,t aim is !           
humanization ( ! animal1 !              
spiritualization ( man1 ! exaltation &  
enri*m5t ( ! individual by means (      
sympa?y1 neighb\rly k9dness1 a s5se (   
jo9t responsibility1 & ! subjection (   
,in/9ct to ,reason :i*1 z f> z we "k1 is
 ! noble/ product ( ,nature4 ,x is      
possible t ,morality1 :i* hides ! e]ie  

un9telligibility ( life f u1 is an      
illusion4 ,bless$ be ! illusion :i*     
makes life wor? liv+4     ,pr9t$ 9      
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