,,man ,,and ,,nature2 ,,or1 ,,physical ,,geography ,,as ,,modified ,,by ,,human ,,action4 ,,by ,,george ,p4 ,,marsh4 ,not all the winds1 and storms1 and earthquakes1 and seas1 and seasons of the world1 have done so much to revolutionize the earth as ,,man1 the power of an endless life1 has done since the day he came forth upon it1 and received dominion over it4--,h4 ,,bushnell1 ,sermon on the ,power of an ,endless ,life4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,charles ,,scribner ,,co41 ,no4 #fed ,,broadway4 #ahfg4 ,,entered1 according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahfd1 by ,,charles ,,scribner1 ,in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,united ,states for the ,southern ,district of ,new ,york4 ,,john ,f4 ,,trow ,,co4 ,,printer1 ,,stereotyper1 ,,and ,,electrotyper1 #df1 #dh1 #ej ,greene ,st41 ,new ,york4 ,,preface4 ,the object of the present volume is3 to indicate the character and1 approximately1 the extent of the changes produced by human action in the physical conditions of the globe we inhabit2 to point out the dangers of imprudence and the necessity of caution in all operations which1 on a large scale1 interfere with the spontaneous arrangements of the organic or the inorganic world2 to suggest the possibility and the importance of the restoration of disturbed harmonies and the material improvement of waste and exhausted regions2 and1 incidentally1 to illustrate the doctrine1 that man is1 in both kind and degree1 a power of a higher order than any of the other forms of animated life1 which1 like him1 are nourished at the table of bounteous nature4 ,in the rudest stages of life1 man depends upon spontaneous animal and vegetable growth for food and clothing1 and his consumption of such products consequently diminishes the numerical abundance of the species which serve his uses4 ,at more advanced periods1 he protects and propagates certain esculent vegetables and certain fowls and quadrupeds1 and1 at the same time1 wars upon rival organisms which prey upon these objects of his care or obstruct the increase of their numbers4 ,hence the action of man upon the organic world tends to subvert the original balance of its species1 and while it reduces the numbers of some of them1 or even extirpates them altogether1 it multiplies other forms of animal and vegetable life4 ,the extension of agricultural and pastoral industry involves an enlargement of the sphere of man's domain1 by encroachment upon the forests which once covered the greater part of the earth's surface otherwise adapted to his occupation4 ,the felling of the woods has been attended with momentous consequences to the drainage of the soil1 to the external configuration of its surface1 and probably1 also1 to local climate2 and the importance of human life as a transforming power is1 perhaps1 more clearly demonstrable in the influence man has thus exerted upon superficial geography than in any other result of his material effort4 ,lands won from the woods must be both drained and irrigated2 river banks and maritime coasts must be secured by means of artificial bulwarks against inundation by inland and by ocean floods2 and the needs of commerce require the improvement of natural1 and the construction of artificial channels of navigation4 ,thus man is compelled to extend over the unstable waters the empire he had already founded upon the solid land4 ,the upheaval of the bed of seas and the movements of water and of wind expose vast deposits of sand1 which occupy space required for the convenience of man1 and often1 by the drifting of their particles1 overwhelm the fields of human industry with invasions as disastrous as the incursions of the ocean4 ,on the other hand1 on many coasts1 sand hills both protect the shores from erosion by the waves and currents1 and shelter valuable grounds from blasting sea winds4 ,man1 therefore1 must sometimes resist1 sometimes promote1 the formation and growth of dunes1 and subject the barren and flying sands to the same obedience to his will to which he has reduced other forms of terrestrial surface4 ,besides these old and comparatively familiar methods of material improvement1 modern ambition aspires to yet grander achievements in the conquest of physical nature1 and projects are meditated which quite eclipse the boldest enterprises hitherto undertaken for the modification of geographical surface4 ,the natural character of the various fields where human industry has effected revolutions so important1 and where the multiplying population and the impoverished resources of the globe demand new triumphs of mind over matter1 suggests a corresponding division of the general subject1 and ,i have conformed the distribution of the several topics to the chronological succession in which man must be supposed to have extended his sway over the different provinces of his material kingdom4 ,i have1 then1 in the ,introductory chapter1 stated1 in a comprehensive way1 the general effects and the prospective consequences of human action upon the earth's surface and the life which peoples it4 ,this chapter is followed by four others in which ,i have traced the history of man's industry as exerted upon ,animal and ,vegetable ,life1 upon the ,woods1 upon the ,waters1 and upon the ,sands2 and to these ,i have added a concluding chapter upon ,probable and ,possible ,geographical ,revolutions yet to be effected by the art of man4 ,i have only to add what1 indeed1 sufficiently appears upon every page of the volume1 that ,i address myself not to professed physicists1 but to the general intelligence of educated1 observing1 and thinking men2 and that my purpose is rather to make practical suggestions than to indulge in theoretical speculations properly suited to a different class from that to which those for whom ,i write belong4 ,,george ,p4 ,,marsh4 ,december #a1 #ahfc4 ,,bibliographical ,,list ,,of ,,works ,,consulted ,,in ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,this ,,volume4 ,amersfoordt1 ,j4 ,p4 ,het ,haarlemmermeer1 ,oorsprong1 ,geschiedenis1 ,droogmaking4 ,haarlem1 #aheg4 #hvo4 ,andresen1 ,c4 ,c4 ,om ,klitformationen og ,klittens ,behandling og ,bestyrelse4 ,kjoebenhavn1 #ahfa4 #hvo4 ,annali di ,agricoltura1 ,industria e ,commercio4 ,pubblicati per cura del ,ministero d',agricoltura1 ,industria e ,commercio4 ,fasc i-v4 ,torino1 #ahfb-'c4 #hvo4 ,arago1 ,f4 ,extracts from1 in ,becquerel1 ,des ,climats4 ,arriani1 ,opera4 ,lipsiae1 #ahef4 #b vols4 #abmo4 ,asbjoernsen1 ,p4 ,chr4 ,om ,skovene og om et ordnet ,skovbrug i ,norge4 ,christiania1 #ahee4 #abmo4 ,aus der ,natur4 ,die neuesten ,entdeckungen auf dem ,gebiete der ,naturwissenschaften4 ,leipzig1 various years4 #bj vols4 #hvo4 ,ave-,lallemant1 ,k4 ,c4 ,b4 ,die ,benutzung der ,palmen am ,amazonenstrom in der ,oekonomie der ,indier4 ,hamburg1 #ahfa4 #ahmo4 ,babinet4 ,etudes et ,lectures sur les ,sciences d',observation4 ,paris1 #ahee-ahfc4 #g vols4 #ahmo4 ,baer1 von4 ,kaspische ,studien4 ,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahee-ahei4 #hvo4 ,barth1 ,heinrich4 ,wanderungen durch die ,kuestenlaender des ,mittelmeeres4 ,v4 i4 ,berlin1 #ahdi4 #hvo4 ,barth1 ,j4 ,b4 ,om ,skovene i deres ,forhold til ,nationaloeconomien4 ,christiania1 #aheg4 #hvo4 ,baude1 ,j4 ,j4 ,les ,cotes de la ,manche1 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #ae ,janvier1 #ahei4 ,baumgarten4 ,notice sur les ,rivieres de la ,lombardie2 in ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahdg1 #a;er semestre1 pp4 #abi-aii4 ,beckwith1 ,lieut4 ,report in ,pacific ,railroad ,report1 vol4 ii4 ,becquerel4 ,des ,climats et de l',influence qu'exercent les ,sols boises et non-boises4 ,paris1 #ahec4 #hvo4 ---- ,elements de ,physique ,terrestre et de ,meteorologie4 ,paris1 #ahdg4 #hvo4 ,belgrand4 ,de l',influence des ,forets sur l'ecoulement des ,eaux ,pluviales2 in ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahed1 #a;er semestre1 pp4 #a1 #bg4 ,berg1 ,edmund von4 ,das ,verdraengen der ,laubwaelder im ,noerdlichen ,deutschlande durch die ,fichte und die ,kiefer4 ,darmstadt1 #ahdd4 #hvo4 ,bergsoee1 ,a4 ,f4 ,greve ,ch4 ,ditlev ,frederik ,reventlovs ,virksomhed som ,kongens ,embedsmand og ,statens ,borger4 ,kjoebenhavn1 #ahcg4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,berlepsch1 ,h4 ,die ,alpen in ,natur- und ,lebensbildern4 ,leipzig1 #ahfb4 #hvo4 ,bianchi1 ,celestino4 ,compendio di ,geografia ,fisica ,speciale d',italia4 ,appendice alla traduzione ,italiana della ,geog4-,fisica di ,maria ,somerville4 ,firenze1 #ahfa4 7#b;d vol4 of translation47 ,bigelow1 ,john4 ,les ,etats ,unis d',amerique en #ahfc4 ,paris1 #ahfc4 #hvo4 ,blake1 ,wm4 ,p4 ,reports in ,pacific ,railroad ,report1 vols4 ii and v4 ,blanqui4 ,memoire sur les ,populations des ,hautes ,alpes2 in ,memoires de l',academie des ,sciences ,morales et ,politiques1 #ahdc4 ---- ,voyage en ,bulgarie4 ,paris1 #ahdc4 #abmo4 ---- ,precis ,elementaire d',economie ,politique1 suivi du ,resume de l',histoire du ,commerce et de l',industrie4 ,paris1 #aheg4 #abmo4 ,boitel1 ,amedee4 ,mise en valeur des ,terres pauvres par le ,pin ,maritime4 #b;d edition4 ,paris1 #aheg4 #hvo4 ,bonnemere1 ,eugene4 ,histoire des ,paysans depuis la fin du ,moyen ,age jusqu'a nos jours4 ,paris1 #ahef4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,boettger1 ,c4 ,das ,mittelmeer4 ,leipzig1 #ahei4 ,boussingault1 ,j4 ,b4 ,economie ,rurale consideree dans ses ,rapports avec la ,chimie1 la ,physique1 et la ,meteorologie4 #b;d edition4 ,paris1 #ahea4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,bremontier1 ,n4 ,t4 ,memoire sur les ,dunes2 in ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahcc1 #a;er semestre1 pp4 #ade1 #bbc4 ,brincken1 ,j4 von den4 ,ansichten ueber die ,bewaldung der ,steppen des ,europaeischen ,russland4 ,braunschweig1 #ahed4 #dto4 ,buettner1 ,j4 ,g4 ,zur ,physikalischen ,geographie2 in ,berghaus1 ,geographisches ,jahrbuch1 ,no4 iv1 #aheb1 pp4 #i-ai4 ,caimi1 ,pietro4 ,cenni sulla ,importanza e ,coltura dei ,boschi4 ,milano1 #aheg4 #hvo4 ,cantegril1 and others4 ,extracts in ,comptes ,rendus a l',academie des ,sciences4 ,paris1 #ahfa4 ,castellani4 ,dell' immediata influenza delle ,selve sul corso delle acque4 ,torino1 #ahah1 #ahai4 #b vols4 #dto4 ,census of the ,united ,states for #ahfj4 ,preliminary ,report on1 ,washington1 #ahfb4 #hvo4 ,cerini1 ,giuseppe4 ,dell' ,impianto e ,conservazione dei ,boschi4 ,milano1 #ahdd4 #hvo4 ,champion1 ,maurice4 ,les ,inondations en ,france depuis le ,v,ime ,siecle jusqu'a nos jours4 ,paris1 #aheh1 #ahfb4 ,vols4 i-iv1 #hvo4 ,chateauvieux1 ,f4 ,lullin de4 ,lettres sur l',italie4 ,seconde edition1 ,geneve1 #ahcd4 #hvo4 ,chevandier4 ,extracts in ,comptes ,rendus a l',academie des ,sciences4 ,juillet-,decembre1 #ahdd4 ,paris4 ,clave1 ,jules4 ,etudes sur l',economie ,forestiere4 ,paris1 #ahfb4 #abmo4 ---- ,la ,foret de ,fontainebleau2 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #a ,mai1 #ahfc4 ,cooper1 ,j4 ,g4 ,the ,forests and ,trees of ,northern ,america2 in ,report of the ,commissioner of ,patents for the year #ahfj1 pp4 #daf-dde4 ,cotta1 ,bernhard4 ,deutschlands ,boden4 ,leipzig1 #aheh4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ---- ,vorwort zu ,paramelle's ,quellenkunde4 ,see ,paramelle4 ---- ,die ,alpen4 ,leipzig1 #ahea4 #hvo4 ,coultas1 ,harland4 ,what may be ,learned from a ,tree4 ,new ,york1 #ahfj4 #hvo4 ,courier1 ,paul-,louis4 ,,oeuvres ,completes4 ,bruxelles1 #ahcc4 #hvo4 ,dana1 ,james ,d4 ,manual of ,geology4 ,philadelphia1 #ahfc4 #hvo4 ,delamarre1 ,l4 ,g4 ,historique de la ,creation d'une ,richesse ,millionaire par la culture des ,pins4 ,paris1 #ahbg4 #hvo4 ,d4 ,hericourt1 ,a4 ,f4 ,les ,inondations et le livre de ,m4 ,valles2 ,annales ,forestieres1 ,december1 #aheg1 pp4 #caj1 #cba4 ,paris4 ,diggelen1 ,b4 ,p4 ,g4 van4 ,groote ,werken in ,nederland4 ,zwolle1 #ahee4 #hvo4 ,dumas1 ,m4 ,j4 ,la ,science des ,fontaines4 #bme edition1 ,paris1 #aheg4 #hvo4 ,dumont1 ,aristide4 ,des ,travaux ,publics dans leurs ,rapports avec l',agriculture4 ,paris1 #ahdg4 #hvo4 ,dwight1 ,timothy4 ,travels in ,new ,england and ,new ,york4 ,new ,haven1 #ahba4 #d vols4 #hvo4 ,emerson1 ,george ,b4 ,a ,report on the ,trees and ,shrubs growing naturally in ,massachusetts4 ,boston1 #ahej4 #hvo4 ,emory1 ,wm4 ,h41 ,col4 ,report of ,commissioners of the ,united ,states and ,mexican ,boundary ,survey1 vol4 i1 #aheg4 ,escourrou-,miliago1 ,a4 ,l',italie a propos de l',exposition ,universelle de ,paris4 ,paris1 #ahef4 #hvo4 ,evelyn1 ,john4 ,silva2 or1 a ,discourse of ,forest ,trees4 ,with ,notes by ,a4 ,hunter4 ,york1 #aghf4 #b vols4 #dto4 ---- ,terra1 a ,philosophical ,discourse of ,earth4 ,york1 #aghf4 #dto4 in vol4 ii of ,silva4 ,feraud-,giraud1 ,l4 ,j4 ,d4 ,police des ,bois1 ,defrichements et ,reboisements ,commentaire pratique sur les lois promulguees en #ahei et #ahfj4 ,paris1 #ahfa4 #hvo4 ,ferrara1 ,francesco4 ,descrizione dell' ,etna4 ,palermo1 #ahah4 #hvo4 ,feuillide1 ,c4 de4 ,l',algerie ,francaise4 ,paris1 #ahef4 #hvo4 ,figuier1 ,louis4 ,l',annee ,scientifique et ,industrielle4 ,paris1 #ahfb-'c4 #abmo4 ,finnboga ,saga hins rama4 ,kaupmannahoefn1 #ahab4 #dto4 ,foissac1 ,p4 ,meteorologie mit ,ruecksicht auf die ,lehre vom ,kosmos1 ,deutsch von ,a4 ,h4 ,emsmann4 ,leipzig1 #ahei4 #hvo4 ,forchhammer1 ,g4 ,geognostische ,studien am ,meeres-,ufer2 in ,leonhard und ,bronn's ,neues ,jahrbuch fuer ,mineralogie1 ,geognosie1 ,geologie1 etc4 ,jahrgang1 #ahda1 pp4 #a-ch4 ,fossombroni1 ,vittorio4 ,memorie ,idraulico-,storiche sopra la ,val-di-,chiana4 ,montepulciano1 #cza edizione1 #ahce4 #hvo4 ,fraas1 ,c4 ,klima und ,pflanzenwelt in der ,zeit4 ,landshut1 #ahdg4 #hvo4 ,frisi1 ,paolo4 ,del ,modo di regolare i ,fiumi e i ,torrenti4 ,lucca1 #agfb4 #dto4 ,fuller1 ,thomas4 ,the ,history of the ,worthies of ,england4 ,london1 #affb4 ,folio4 ,gilliss1 ,j4 ,m41 ,capt4 ,united ,states ,naval ,astronomical ,expedition to the ,southern ,hemisphere4 ,washington1 #ahee4 #b vols4 #dto4 ,giorgini4 ,paper by2 in ,salvagnoli-,marchetti1 ,rapporto sul ,bonificamento delle ,maremme1 ,app4 v4 ,girard et ,parent-,duchatelet4 ,rapport sur les ,puits fores dits ,artesiens2 ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahcc1 #bme semestre1 #cac-cdd4 ,graham1 ,j4 ,d41 ,lieut4-,col4 ,a ,lunar ,tidal ,wave in the ,north ,american ,lakes demonstrated4 ,cambridge1 #ahfa4 #hvo4 pamphlet4 ,also in vol4 xiv1 ,proc4 ,am4 ,ass4 for ,adv4 of ,science for #ahfj4 ,hakluyt1 ,richard4 ,the ,principal ,navigations1 ,voyages1 c41 of the ,english ,nation4 ,london1 #aeih-'i4 #c vols4 folio4 ,harrison1 ,w4 ,an ,historicall ,description of the ,iland of ,britaine2 in ,holinshed's ,chronicles4 ,reprint of #ahjg1 vol4 i4 ,hartwig1 ,g4 ,das ,leben des ,meeres4 ,frankfurt1 #aheg4 #hvo4 ,haxthausen1 ,august von4 ,transkaukasia4 ,leipzig1 #ahef4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,henry1 ,prof4 ,joseph4 ,paper on ,meteorology in its connection with ,agriculture2 in ,united ,states ,patent ,office ,report for #aheg1 pp4 #dai-eej4 ,herschel1 ,sir ,j4 ,f4 ,w4 ,physical ,geography4 ,edinburgh1 #ahfa4 #abmo4 ,heyer1 ,gustav4 ,das ,verhalten der ,waldbaeume gegen ,licht und ,schatten4 ,erlangen1 #aheb4 #hvo4 ,hohenstein1 ,adolph4 ,der ,wald sammt dessen wichtigem ,einfluss auf das ,klima1 c4 ,wien1 #ahfj4 #hvo4 ,humboldt1 ,alexander von4 ,ansichten der ,natur4 ,dritte ,ausgabe1 ,stuttgart und ,tuebingen1 #ahdi4 #b vols4 #abmo4 ,hummel1 ,karl4 ,physische ,geographie4 ,graz1 #ahee4 #hvo4 ,hunter1 ,a4 ,notes to ,evelyn1 ,silva1 and ,terra4 ,york1 #aghf4 ,see ,evelyn4 ,jacini1 ,stefano4 ,la ,proprieta ,fondiaria e le ,popolazioni agricole in ,lombardia4 ,milano e ,verona1 #aheg4 #hvo4 ,joinville4 ,histoire de ,saint-,louis4 ,nouvelle ,collection des ,memoires pour servir a l',histoire de ,france1 par ,michaud et ,poujoulat4 ,tome i4 ,paris1 #ahcf4 #hvo4 ,josselyn1 ,john4 ,new ,england ,rarities4 ,london1 #afgb4 #abmo4 ,knorr1 ,e4 ,a4 ,studien ueber die ,buchen-,wirthschaft4 ,nordhausen1 #ahfc4 #hvo4 ,kohl1 ,j4 ,g4 ,alpenreisen4 ,dresden und ,leipzig1 #ahdi4 #c vols4 #hvo4 ---- ,die ,marschen und ,inseln der ,herzogthuemer ,schleswig und ,holstein4 ,dresden und ,leipzig1 #ahdf4 #c vols4 #hvo4 ,kramer1 ,gustav4 ,der ,fuciner-,see4 ,berlin1 #ahci4 #dto4 ,krause1 ,g4 ,c4 ,a4 ,der ,duenenbau auf den ,ostsee-,kuesten ,west-,preussens4 #ahej4 #hvo4 ,kremer1 ,alfred von4 ,a,egypten1 ,forschungen ueber ,land und ,volk4 ,leipzig1 #ahfc4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,kriegk1 ,g4 ,l4 ,schriften zur allgemeinen ,erdkunde4 ,leipzig1 #ahdj4 #hvo4 ,ladoucette1 ,j4 ,c4 ,f4 ,histoire1 ,topographie1 ,antiquites1 ,usages1 ,dialectes des ,hautes ,alpes4 ,seconde edition1 #ahcd4 #a vol4 #hvo4 and ,atlas4 ,lastadius1 ,lars ,levi4 ,om ,moejligheten och ,foerdelen af allmaenna ,uppodlingar i ,lappmarken4 ,stockholm1 #ahbd4 #abmo4 ,laestadius1 ,petrus4 ,journal foer foersta aret af hans ,tjenstgoering sasom ,missionaire i ,lappmarken4 ,stockholm1 #ahca4 #hvo4 ---- ,fortsaettning af ,journalen oefver ,missions-,resor i ,lappmarken4 ,stockholm1 #ahcc4 #hvo4 ,lampridius4 ,vita ,elagabali in ,script4 ,hist41 ,august4 ,landgrebe1 ,georg4 ,naturgeschichte der ,vulcane4 ,gotha1 #ahee4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,laurent1 ,ch4 ,memoires sur le ,sahara ,oriental au point de vue des ,puits ,artesiens4 ,paris1 #ahei4 #hvo4 pamphlet4 ,also1 in ,mem de la ,soc4 des ,ingenieurs ,civils1 and the ,bulletin de la ,soc4 ,geologique de ,france4 ,laval4 ,memoire sur les ,dunes du ,golfe de ,gascogne2 in ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahdg1 #bme semestre1 pp4 #bah-bfh4 ,lavergne1 ,m4 ,l4 de4 ,economie ,rurale de la ,france1 depuis #aghi4 #bme edition1 ,paris1 #ahfa4 #abmo4 ,le ,alpi che cingono l',italia4 ,parte #a;er1 vol4 #a;er4 ,torino1 #ahde4 #hvo4 ,lefort4 ,notice sur les travaux de ,fixation des ,dunes2 in ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahca1 #bme semestre1 pp4 #cbj-ccb4 ,lenormant4 ,note relative a l',execution d'un ,puits ,artesien en ,egypte sous la ,,xviiime ,dynastie2 ,academie des ,inscriptions et ,belles-,lettres1 #ab ,novembre1 #aheb4 ,liber ,albus3 ,the ,white ,book of the ,city of ,london4 ,london1 #ahfa4 #dto4 ,loftus1 ,w4 ,k4 ,travels and ,researches in ,chaldaea and ,susiana4 ,new ,york1 #aheg4 #hvo4 ,lombardini4 ,cenni ,idrografi sulla ,lombardia2 ,intorno al ,sistema ,idraulico del ,po2 epitomized by ,baumgarten in ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahdg1 #a;er semestre1 pp4 #abi1 #aii2 and in ,dumont1 ,des ,travaux ,publics1 pp4 #bfh1 #cce4 ---- ,sui progetti intesi ad estendere l'irrigazione della ,pianura del ,po4 ,politecnico4 ,gennajo1 #ahfc1 pp4 #e-ej4 ,lorentz4 ,cours ,elementaire de ,culture des ,bois1 complete et publie par ,a4 ,parade1 #dme edition4 ,paris et ,nancy1 #ahfj4 #hvo4 ,lyell1 ,sir ,charles4 ,the ,geological ,evidence of the ,antiquity of ,man4 ,london1 #ahfc4 #hvo4 ,principles of ,geology4 ,new ,york1 #ahfb4 #hvo4 ,mardigny1 ,m4 de4 ,memoire sur les ,inondations des ,rivieres de l',ardeche4 ,paris1 #ahfj4 #hvo4 ,marschand1 ,a4 ,ueber die ,entwaldung der ,gebirge4 ,bern1 #ahdi4 #abmo4 pamphlet4 ,martineau4 ,endeavors after the ,christian ,life4 ,boston1 #aheh4 ,martins4 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 ,avril1 #ahfc4 ,maury1 ,m4 ,f4 ,the ,physical ,geography of the ,sea4 ,tenth edition4 ,london1 #ahfa4 #hvo4 ,medlicott1 ,dr4 ,observations of1 quoted from ,london ,athenaeum1 #ahfc4 ,meguscher1 ,francesco4 ,memorie sulla migliore maniera per rimettere i ,boschi della ,lombardia1 etc4 ,milano1 #ahei4 #hvo4 ,mejdell1 ,th4 ,om ,foranstaltninger til ,behandling af ,norges ,skove4 ,christiania1 #aheh4 #hvo4 ,mella4 ,delle ,inondazioni del ,mella nella notto del #ad al #ae ,agosto1 #ahej4 ,brescia1 #ahea4 #hvo4 ,meyer1 ,j4 ,physik der ,schweiz4 ,leipzig1 #ahed4 #hvo4 ,michelet1 ,j4 ,l',insecte1 #dme edition4 ,paris1 #ahfj4 #abmo4 ---- ,l',oiseau1 #gme edition4 ,paris1 #ahfa4 #abmo4 ,monestier-,savignat1 ,a4 ,etude sur les ,phenomenes1 l',amenagement et la ,legislation des ,eaux au point de vue des ,inondations4 ,paris1 #aheh4 #hvo4 ,montluisant4 ,note sur les ,dessechements1 les ,endiguements et les ,irrigations2 in ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahcc1 #bme semestre1 pp4 #bha-bid4 ,morozzi1 ,ferdinando4 ,dello ,stato ,antico e ,moderno del ,fiume ,arno4 ,firenze1 #agfb4 #dto4 ,mueller1 ,k4 ,das ,buch der ,pflanzenwelt4 ,leipzig1 #aheg4 #b vols4 #abmo4 ,nangis1 ,guillaume de4 ,extracts from1 in ,nouvelle ,collection des ,memoires pour servir par ,michaud et ,poujoulat4 ,vol4 i4 ,paris1 #ahcf4 ,nanquette1 ,henri4 ,cours d',amenagement des ,forets4 ,paris et ,nancy1 #ahfj4 #hvo4 ,newberry1 ,dr4 ,report in ,pacific ,railroad ,report1 vol4 vi4 ,niebelunge-,lied1 ,der4 ,abdruck der ,handschrift von ,joseph von ,lassberg4 ,leipzig1 #ahdj4 ,folio4 ,niel4 ,l',agriculture des ,etats ,sardes4 ,turin1 #aheg4 #hvo4 ,pacific ,railroad ,report4 ,reports of ,explorations and ,surveys for a ,railroad ,route to the ,pacific4 ,washington1 various years4 #ab vols4 #dto4 ,palissy1 ,bernard4 ,,oeuvres ,completes1 avec des ,notes1 etc41 par ,paul-,antoine ,cap4 ,paris1 #ahdd4 #abmo4 ,parade1 ,a4 ,see ,lorentz4 ,paramelle1 ,abbe4 ,quellenkunde1 ,lehre von der ,bildung und ,auffindung der ,quellen2 mit einem ,vorwort von ,b4 ,cotta4 ,leipzig1 #ahef4 #abmo4 ,parish1 ,dr4 ,life of ,dr4 ,eleazer ,wheelock4 #hvo4 ,parry1 ,c4 ,c4 ,report in ,united ,states and ,mexican ,boundary ,survey1 vol4 i4 ,parthey1 ,g4 ,wanderungen durch ,sicilien und die ,levante4 ,berlin1 #ahcd4 #b vols4 #abmo4 ,piper1 ,r4 ,u4 ,the ,trees of ,america4 ,boston1 #aheh1 ,nos4 i-iv4 #dto4 ,plinii1 ,historia ,naturalis1 ed4 ,hardouin4 ,paris1 #agbc4 #c vols4 folio4 ,ponz1 ,antonio4 ,viage de ,espana4 ,madrid1 #aghh1 etc4 #ah vols4 #abmo4 ,quatrefages1 ,a4 de4 ,souvenirs d'un ,naturaliste4 ,paris1 #ahed4 #b vols4 #abmo4 ,reclus1 ,elisee4 ,le ,littoral de la ,france2 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #ae ,decembre1 #ahfb4 ,rentzsch1 ,hermann4 ,der ,wald im ,haushalt der ,natur und der ,volkswirthschaft4 ,leipzig1 #ahfb4 #hvo4 ,ribbe1 ,charles de4 ,la ,provence au point de vue des ,bois1 des ,torrents et des ,inondations4 ,paris1 #aheg4 #hvo4 ,ridolfi1 ,cosimo4 ,lezioni ,orali4 ,firenze1 #ahfb4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,ritter1 ,carl4 ,einleitung zur allgemeinen vergleichenden ,geographie4 ,berlin1 #aheb4 #hvo4 ---- ,die ,erdkunde im ,verhaeltniss zur ,natur und zur ,geschichte des ,menschen4 ,berlin1 various years4 #ai vols4 #hvo4 ,rosa1 ,g4 ,le ,condizioni de' boschi1 de' fiumi e de' torrenti nella provincia di ,bergamo4 ,politecnico1 ,dicembre1 #ahfa1 pp4 #fjf1 #fba4 ---- ,studii sui ,boschi4 ,politecnico1 ,maggio1 #ahfb1 pp4 #bcb1 #bch4 ,rossmaessler1 ,c4 ,a4 ,der ,wald4 ,leipzig und ,heidelberg1 #ahfc4 #hvo4 ,roth1 ,j4 ,der ,vesuv und die ,umgebung von ,neapel4 ,berlin1 #aheg4 #hvo4 ,rozet1 ,m4 ,moyens de forcer les ,torrents des ,montagnes de rendre une partie du sol qu'ils ravagent4 ,paris1 #ahef4 #hvo4 pamphlet4 ,salvagnoli-,marchetti1 ,antonio4 ,memorie ,economico-,statistiche sulle ,maremme ,toscane4 ,firenze1 #ahdf4 #hvo4 ---- ,raccolta di ,documenti sul ,bonificamento delle ,maremmo ,toscane4 ,firenze1 #ahfa4 #hvo4 ---- ,rapporto sul ,bonificamento delle ,maremmo ,toscane4 ,firenze1 #ahei4 #hvo4 ---- ,rapporto sulle ,operazioni ,idrauliche ed ,economiche eseguite nel #ahei-'fj nelle ,maremmo ,toscane4 ,firenze1 #ahfj4 #hvo4 ,sandys1 ,george4 ,a ,relation of a ,journey begun ,an4 ,dom4 #afaj4 ,london1 #afbg4 ,folio4 ,schacht1 ,h4 ,les ,arbres1 ,etudes sur leur ,structure et leur ,vegetation1 traduit par ,e4 ,morren4 ,bruxelles et ,leipzig1 #ahfb4 #hvo4 ,schleiden1 ,m4 ,j4 ,die ,landenge von ,sues4 ,leipzig1 #aheh4 #hvo4 ---- ,die ,pflanze und ihr ,leben4 ,leipzig1 #ahdh4 #hvo4 ,schubert1 ,w4 von4 ,resa genom ,sverige1 ,norrige1 ,lappland1 etc4 ,stockholm1 #ahbc4 #c vols4 #hvo4 ,seneca1 ,l4 ,a4 ,opera ,omnia quae supersunt1 ex rec4 ,ruhkopf4 ,aug4 ,taurinorum1 #ahca4 #f vols4 #hvo4 ,simonde1 ,j4 ,e4 ,l4 ,tableau de l',agriculture ,toscane4 ,geneve1 #ahja4 #hvo4 ,smith1 ,dr4 ,william4 ,a ,dictionary of the ,bible4 ,london1 #ahfj4 #c vols4 #hvo4 ---- ,a ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,geography4 ,london1 #ahed1 #aheg4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,smith1 ,john4 ,historie of ,virginia4 ,london1 #afbd4 ,folio4 ,somerville1 ,mary4 ,physical ,geography4 ,fifth edition4 ,london1 #ahfb4 #abmo4 ,springer1 ,john ,s4 ,forest-,life and ,forest-,trees4 ,new ,york1 #ahea4 #abmo4 ,stanley1 ,dr4 ,lectures on the ,history of the ,jewish ,church4 ,london1 #ahfc4 #hvo4 ,staring1 ,w4 ,h4 ,de ,bodem van ,nederland4 ,haarlem1 #ahef4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ---- ,voormaals en ,thans4 ,haarlem1 #aheh4 #hvo4 ,stevens1 ,gov4 ,report in ,pacific ,railroad ,report1 vol4 xii4 ,strain1 ,lieut4 ,i4 ,c4 ,darien ,exploring ,expedition1 by ,j4 ,t4 ,headley1 in ,harper's ,magazine4 ,new ,york1 ,march1 ,april1 and ,may1 #ahee4 ,streffleur1 ,v4 ,ueber die ,natur und die ,wirkungen der ,wildbaeche4 ,sitz4 ,ber4 der ,m4 ,n4 ,w4 ,classe der ,kaiserl4 ,akad4 der ,wis4 ,february1 #aheb1 viii1 p4 #bdh4 ,stroem1 ,isr4 ,om ,skogarnas ,vard och ,skoetsel4 ,upsala1 #ahec4 ,pamphlet4 ,surell1 ,alexandre4 ,etude sur les ,torrents des ,hautes ,alpes4 ,paris1 #ahdd4 #dto4 ,tartini1 ,ferdinando4 ,memorie sul ,bonificamento delle ,maremme ,toscane4 ,firenze1 #ahch4 ,folio4 ,thomas and ,baldwin4 ,gazetteer4 ,philadelphia1 #ahee4 #a vol4 #hvo4 ,thompson1 ,z4 ,history of ,vermont1 ,natural1 ,civil1 and ,statistical4 ,burlington1 #ahdb4 #hvo4 ---- ,appendix to ,history of ,vermont4 ,burlington1 #ahec4 #hvo4 ,titcomb1 ,timothy4 ,lessons in ,life4 ,new ,york1 #ahfa4 #abmo4 ,treadwell1 ,dr4 ,observations of1 quoted from ,report of ,commissioner of ,patents4 ,troy1 ,paul4 ,etude sur le ,reboisement des ,montagnes4 ,paris et ,toulouse1 #ahfa4 #hvo4 pamphlet4 ,tschudi1 ,friedrich von4 ,ueber die ,landwirthschaftliche ,bedeutung der ,voegel4 ,st4 ,gallen1 #ahed4 #abmo4 ,tschudi1 ,j4 ,j4 von4 ,travels in ,peru4 ,new ,york1 #ahdh4 #hvo4 ,valles1 ,m4 ,f4 ,etudes sur les ,inondations1 leurs causes et leurs effets4 ,paris1 #aheg4 #hvo4 ,valvasor1 ,johann ,weichard4 ,die ,ehre des ,herzogthums ,crain4 ,laybach1 #afhi4 #d vols4 folio4 ,van ,lennep4 ,extracts from ,journal of1 in the ,missionary ,herald4 ,vaupell1 ,chr4 ,boegens ,indvandring i de ,danske ,skove4 ,kjoebenhavn1 #aheg4 #hvo4 ---- ,de ,nordsjaellandske ,skovmoser4 ,kjoebenhavn1 #ahea4 #dto4 pamphlet4 ,venema1 ,g4 ,a4 ,over het ,dalen van de ,noordelijke ,kuststreken van ons ,land4 ,groningen1 #ahed4 #hvo4 ,villa1 ,antonio ,giovanni ,batt4 ,necessita dei ,boschi nella ,lombardia4 ,milano1 #ahej4 #dto4 ,viollet1 ,j4 ,b4 ,theorie des ,puits ,artesiens4 ,paris1 #ahdj4 #hvo4 ,walterhausen1 ,w4 ,sartorius von4 ,ueber den ,sicilianischen ,ackerbau4 ,goettingen1 #ahfc4 ,webster1 ,noah4 ,a ,collection of ,papers on ,political1 ,literary1 and ,moral ,subjects4 ,new ,york1 #ahdc4 #hvo4 ,wessely1 ,joseph4 ,die ,oesterreichischen ,alpenlaender und ihre ,forste4 ,wien1 #ahec4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,wetzstein1 ,j4 ,g4 ,reisebericht ueber ,hauran und die ,trachonen4 ,berlin1 #ahfj4 #hvo4 ,wild1 ,albert4 ,die ,niederlande4 ,leipzig1 #ahfb4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,wilhelm1 ,gustav4 ,der ,boden und das ,wasser4 ,wien1 #ahfa4 #hvo4 ,williams1 ,dr4 ,history of ,vermont4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,wittwer1 ,w4 ,c4 ,die ,physikalische ,geographie4 ,leipzig1 #ahee4 #hvo4 ,young1 ,arthur4 ,voyages en ,france1 pendant les annees #aghg1 #aghh1 #aghi1 precedee d'une introduction par ,lavergne4 ,paris1 #ahfj4 #b vols4 #abmo4 ---- ,voyages en ,italie et en ,espagne1 pendant les annees #aghg1 #aghi4 ,paris1 #ahfj4 #a vol4 #abmo4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory4 ,natural ,advantages of the ,territory of the ,roman ,empire--,physical ,decay of that ,territory and of other parts of the ,old ,world-- ,causes of the ,decay--,new ,school of ,geographers--,reaction of ,man upon ,nature--,observation of ,nature--,cosmical and ,geological ,influences--,geographical ,influence of ,man--,uncertainty of our ,meteorological ,knowledge--,mechanical ,effects produced by ,man on the surface of the ,earth--,importance and ,possibility of ,physical ,restoration--,stability of ,nature--,restoration of ,disturbed ,harmonies--,destructiveness of ,man--,physical ,improvement--,human and ,brute ,action ,compared--,forms and ,formations most liable to ,physical ,degradation--,physical ,decay of ,new ,countries--,corrupt ,influence of ,private ,corporations1 ,note1 #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,transfer1 ,,modification1 ,,and ,,extirpation ,,of ,,vegetable ,,and ,,of ,,animal ,,species4 ,modern ,geography embraces ,organic ,life--,transfer of ,vegetable ,life--,foreign ,plants grown in the ,united ,states--,american ,plants grown in ,europe--,modes of ,introduction of ,foreign ,plants--,vegetables1 how affected by transfer to ,foreign ,soils--,extirpation of ,vegetables--,origin of ,domestic ,plants-- ,organic ,life as a ,geological and ,geographical ,agency--,origin and ,transfer of ,domestic ,animals--,extirpation of ,animals-- ,numbers of ,birds in the ,united ,states--,birds as ,sowers and ,consumers of ,seeds1 and as ,destroyers of ,insects--,diminution and ,extirpation of ,birds--,introduction of ,birds--,utility of ,insects and ,worms--,introduction of ,insects--,destruction of ,insects--,reptiles--,destruction of ,fish--,introduction and ,breeding of ,fish--,extirpation of ,aquatic ,animals--,minute ,organisms1 #eg ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,woods4 ,the ,habitable ,earth originally ,wooded--,the ,forest does not furnish ,food for ,man--,first ,removal of the ,woods--,effects of ,fire on ,forest ,soil--,effects of the ,destruction of the ,forest--,electrical ,influence of ,trees--,chemical ,influence of the ,forest4 ,influence of the ,forest1 considered as ,inorganic ,matter1 on ,temperature3 a1 ,absorbing and ,emitting ,surface2 b1 ,trees as ,conductors of ,heat2 c1 ,trees in ,summer and in ,winter2 d1 ,dead ,products of ,tree2 e1 ,trees as a ,shelter to ,grounds to the leeward of them2 f1 ,trees as a ,protection against ,malaria--,the ,forest1 as ,inorganic ,matter1 tends to mitigate extremes4 ,trees as ,organisms3 ,specific ,temperature--,total ,influence of the ,forest on ,temperature4 ,influence of ,forests on the ,humidity of the ,air and the ,earth3 a1 as ,inorganic ,matter2 b1 as ,organic--,wood ,mosses and ,fungi--,flow of ,sap--,absorption and ,exhalation of ,moisture by ,trees--,balance of ,conflicting ,influences--,influence of the ,forest on ,temperature and ,precipitation--,influence of the ,forest on the ,humidity of the ,soil--,its ,influence on the ,flow of ,springs--,general ,consequences of the ,destruction of the ,woods--,literature and ,condition of the ,forest in different ,countries--,the ,influence of the ,forest on ,inundations-- ,destructive ,action of ,torrents--,the ,po and its ,deposits-- ,mountain ,slides--,protection against the ,fall of ,rocks and ,avalanches by ,trees--,principal ,causes of the ,destruction of the ,forest--,american ,forest ,trees--,special ,causes of the ,destruction of ,european ,woods--,royal ,forests and ,game ,laws-- ,small ,forest ,plants1 ,vitality of ,seeds--,utility of the ,forest--,the ,forests of ,europe--,forests of the ,united ,states and ,canada--,the ,economy of the ,forest--,european and ,american ,trees ,compared--,sylviculture--,instability of ,american ,life1 #abh ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,waters4 ,land artificially won from the ,waters3 a1 ,exclusion of the ,sea by ,diking2 b1 ,draining of ,lakes and ,marshes2 c1 ,geographical ,influence of such ,operations--,lowering of ,lakes--,mountain ,lakes-- ,climatic ,effects of ,draining ,lakes and ,marshes4 ,geographical and ,climatic ,effects of ,aqueducts1 ,reservoirs1 and ,canals--,surface and ,underdraining1 and their ,climatic and ,geographical ,effects--,irrigation and its ,climatic and ,geographical ,effects4 ,inundations and ,torrents3 a1 ,river ,embankments2 b1 ,floods of the ,ardeche2 c1 ,crushing ,force of ,torrents2 d1 ,inundations of #ahef in ,france2 e1 ,remedies against ,inundations--,consequences if the ,nile had been confined by ,lateral ,dikes4 ,improvements in the ,val di ,chiana--,improvements in the ,tuscan ,maremme--,obstruction of ,river ,mouths--,subterranean ,waters-- ,artesian ,wells--,artificial ,springs--,economizing ,precipitation1 #ccj ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,sands4 ,origin of ,sand--,sand now carried down to the ,sea--,the ,sands of ,egypt and the adjacent ,desert--,the ,suez ,canal--,the ,sands of ,egypt--,coast ,dunes and ,sand ,plains--,sand ,banks--,dunes on ,coast of ,america--,dunes of ,western ,europe--,formation of ,dunes--,character of ,dune ,sand--,interior ,structure of ,dunes--,form of ,dunes--,geological ,importance of ,dunes--,inland ,dunes--,age1 ,character1 and ,permanence of ,dunes--,use of ,dunes as ,barrier against the ,sea--,encroachments of the ,sea--,the ,luemfjord--,encroachments of the ,sea--,drifting of ,dune ,sands--,dunes of ,gascony--,dunes of ,denmark--,dunes of ,prussia--,artificial ,formation of ,dunes--,trees suitable for ,dune ,plantations--,extent of ,dunes in ,europe--,dune ,vineyards of ,cape ,breton--,removal of ,dunes--,inland ,sand ,plains--,the ,landes of ,gascony--,the ,belgian ,campine--,sands and ,steppes of ,eastern ,europe--,advantages of ,reclaiming ,dunes--,government ,works of ,improvement1 #dea ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,projected ,,or ,,possible ,,geographical ,,changes ,,by ,,man4 ,cutting of ,marine ,isthmuses--,the ,suez ,canal--,canal across ,isthmus of ,darien--,canals to the ,dead ,sea--,maritime ,canals in ,greece-- ,canal of ,saros--,cape ,cod ,canal--,diversion of the ,nile--,changes in the ,caspian--,improvements in ,north ,american ,hydrography-- ,diversion of the ,rhine--,draining of the ,zuiderzee--,waters of the ,karst--,subterranean ,waters of ,greece--,soil below ,rock-- ,covering ,rocks with ,earth--,wadies of ,arabia ,petraea--,incidental ,effects of ,human ,action--,resistance to great ,natural ,forces-- ,effects of ,mining--,espy's ,theories--,river ,sediment--,nothing small in ,nature1 #eag ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory4 ,,natural ,,advantages ,,of ,,the ,,territory ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,empire--,,physical ,,decay ,,of ,,that ,,territory ,,and ,,of ,,other ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,world--,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,decay--,,new ,,school ,,of ,,geographers--,,reaction ,,of ,,man ,,upon ,,nature-- ,,observation ,,of ,,nature--,,cosmical ,,and ,,geological ,,influences--,,geographical ,,influence ,,of ,,man--,,uncertainty ,,of ,,our ,,meteorological ,,knowledge-- ,,mechanical ,,effects ,,produced ,,by ,,man ,,on ,,the ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,earth-- ,,importance ,,and ,,possibility ,,of ,,physical ,,restoration--,,stability ,,of ,,nature--,,restoration ,,of ,,disturbed ,,harmonies--,,destructiveness ,,of ,,man-- ,,physical ,,improvement--,,human ,,and ,,brute ,,action ,,compared--,,forms ,,and ,,formations ,,most ,,liable ,,to ,,physical ,,degradation--,,physical ,,decay ,,of ,,new ,,countries--,,corrupt ,,influence ,,of ,,private ,,corporations1 note4 ,natural ,advantages of the ,territory of the ,roman ,empire4 ,the ,roman ,empire1 at the period of its greatest expansion1 comprised the regions of the earth most distinguished by a happy combination of physical advantages4 ,the provinces bordering on the principal and the secondary basins of the ,mediterranean enjoyed a healthfulness and an equability of climate1 a fertility of soil1 a variety of vegetable and mineral products1 and natural facilities for the transportation and distribution of exchangeable commodities1 which have not been possessed in an equal degree by any territory of like extent in the ,old ,world or the ,new4 ,the abundance of the land and of the waters adequately supplied every material want1 ministered liberally to every sensuous enjoyment4 ,gold and silver1 indeed1 were not found in the profusion which has proved so baneful to the industry of lands richer in veins of the precious metals2 but mines and river beds yielded them in the spare measure most favorable to stability of value in the medium of exchange1 and1 consequently1 to the regularity of commercial transactions4 ,the ornaments of the barbaric pride of the ,east1 the pearl1 the ruby1 the sapphire1 and the diamond--though not unknown to the luxury of a people whose conquests and whose wealth commanded whatever the habitable world could contribute to augment the material splendor of their social life--were scarcely native to the territory of the empire2 but the comparative rarity of these gems in ,europe1 at somewhat earlier periods1 was1 perhaps1 the very circumstance that led the cunning artists of classic antiquity to enrich softer stones with engravings1 which invest the common onyx and carnelian with a worth surpassing1 in cultivated eyes1 the lustre of the most brilliant oriental jewels4 ,of these manifold blessings the temperature of the air1 the distribution of the rains1 the relative disposition of land and water1 the plenty of the sea1 the composition of the soil1 and the raw material of some of the arts1 were wholly gratuitous gifts4 ,yet the spontaneous nature of ,europe1 of ,western ,asia1 of ,libya1 neither fed nor clothed the civilized inhabitants of those provinces4 ,every loaf was eaten in the sweat of the brow4 ,all must be earned by toil4 ,but toil was nowhere else rewarded by so generous wages2 for nowhere would a given amount of intelligent labor produce so abundant1 and1 at the same time1 so varied returns of the good things of material existence4 ,the luxuriant harvests of cereals that waved on every field from the shores of the ,rhine to the banks of the ,nile1 the vines that festooned the hillsides of ,syria1 of ,italy1 and of ,greece1 the olives of ,spain1 the fruits of the gardens of the ,hesperides1 the domestic quadrupeds and fowls known in ancient rural husbandry--all these were original products of foreign climes1 naturalized in new homes1 and gradually ennobled by the art of man1 while centuries of persevering labor were expelling the wild vegetation1 and fitting the earth for the production of more generous growths4 ,only for the sense of landscape beauty did unaided nature make provision4 ,indeed1 the very commonness of this source of refined enjoyment seems to have deprived it of half its value2 and it was only in the infancy of lands where all the earth was fair1 that ,greek and ,roman humanity had sympathy enough with the inanimate world to be alive to the charms of rural and of mountain scenery4 ,in later generations1 when the glories of the landscape had been heightened by plantation1 and decorative architecture1 and other forms of picturesque improvement1 the poets of ,greece and ,rome were blinded by excess of light1 and became1 at last1 almost insensible to beauties that now1 even in their degraded state1 enchant every eye1 except1 too often1 those which a lifelong familiarity has dulled to their attractions4 ,physical ,decay of the ,territory of the ,roman ,empire1 and of other parts of the ,old ,world4 ,if we compare the present physical condition of the countries of which ,i am speaking1 with the descriptions that ancient historians and geographers have given of their fertility and general capability of ministering to human uses1 we shall find that more than one half of their whole extent--including the provinces most celebrated for the profusion and variety of their spontaneous and their cultivated products1 and for the wealth and social advancement of their inhabitants--is either deserted by civilized man and surrendered to hopeless desolation1 or at least greatly reduced in both productiveness and population4 ,vast forests have disappeared from mountain spurs and ridges2 the vegetable earth accumulated beneath the trees by the decay of leaves and fallen trunks1 the soil of the alpine pastures which skirted and indented the woods1 and the mould of the upland fields1 are washed away2 meadows1 once fertilized by irrigation1 are waste and unproductive1 because the cisterns and reservoirs that supplied the ancient canals are broken1 or the springs that fed them dried up2 rivers famous in history and song have shrunk to humble brooklets2 the willows that ornamented and protected the banks of the lesser watercourses are gone1 and the rivulets have ceased to exist as perennial currents1 because the little water that finds its way into their old channels is evaporated by the droughts of summer1 or absorbed by the parched earth1 before it reaches the lowlands2 the beds of the brooks have widened into broad expanses of pebbles and gravel1 over which1 though in the hot season passed dryshod1 in winter sealike torrents thunder2 the entrances of navigable streams are obstructed by sandbars1 and harbors1 once marts of an extensive commerce1 are shoaled by the deposits of the rivers at whose mouths they lie2 the elevation of the beds of estuaries1 and the consequently diminished velocity of the streams which flow into them1 have converted thousands of leagues of shallow sea and fertile lowland into unproductive and miasmatic morasses4 ,besides the direct testimony of history to the ancient fertility of the regions to which ,i refer--,northern ,africa1 the greater ,arabian peninsula1 ,syria1 ,mesopotamia1 ,armenia and many other provinces of ,asia ,minor1 ,greece1 ,sicily1 and parts of even ,italy and ,spain--the multitude and extent of yet remaining architectural ruins1 and of decayed works of internal improvement1 show that at former epochs a dense population inhabited those now lonely districts4 ,such a population could have been sustained only by a productiveness of soil of which we at present discover but slender traces2 and the abundance derived from that fertility serves to explain how large armies1 like those of the ancient ,persians1 and of the ,crusaders and the ,tartars in later ages1 could1 without an organized commissariat1 secure adequate supplies in long marches through territories which1 in our times1 would scarcely afford forage for a single regiment4 ,it appears1 then1 that the fairest and fruitfulest provinces of the ,roman ,empire1 precisely that portion of terrestrial surface1 in short1 which1 about the commencement of the ,christian era1 was endowed with the greatest superiority of soil1 climate1 and position1 which had been carried to the highest pitch of physical improvement1 and which thus combined the natural and artificial conditions best fitting it for the habitation and enjoyment of a dense and highly refined and cultivated population1 is now completely exhausted of its fertility1 or so diminished in productiveness1 as1 with the exception of a few favored oases that have escaped the general ruin1 to be no longer capable of affording sustenance to civilized man4 ,if to this realm of desolation we add the now wasted and solitary soils of ,persia and the remoter ,east1 that once fed their millions with milk and honey1 we shall see that a territory larger than all ,europe1 the abundance of which sustained in bygone centuries a population scarcely inferior to that of the whole ,christian world at the present day1 has been entirely withdrawn from human use1 or1 at best1 is thinly inhabited by tribes too few in numbers1 too poor in superfluous products1 and too little advanced in culture and the social arts1 to contribute anything to the general moral or material interests of the great commonwealth of man4 ,causes of this ,decay4 ,the decay of these once flourishing countries is partly due1 no doubt1 to that class of geological causes1 whose action we can neither resist nor guide1 and partly also to the direct violence of hostile human force2 but it is1 in a far greater proportion1 either the result of man's ignorant disregard of the laws of nature1 or an incidental consequence of war1 and of civil and ecclesiastical tyranny and misrule4 ,next to ignorance of these laws1 the primitive source1 the causa causarum1 of the acts and neglects which have blasted with sterility and physical decrepitude the noblest half of the empire of the ,caesars1 is1 first1 the brutal and exhausting despotism which ,rome herself exercised over her conquered kingdoms1 and even over her ,italian territory2 then1 the host of temporal and spiritual tyrannies which she left as her dying curse to all her wide dominion1 and which1 in some form of violence or of fraud1 still brood over almost every soil subdued by the ,roman legions4#a ,man cannot struggle at once against crushing oppression and the destructive forces of inorganic nature4 ,when both are combined against him1 he succumbs after a shorter or a longer struggle1 and the fields he has won from the primeval wood relapse into their original state of wild and luxuriant1 but unprofitable forest growth1 or fall into that of a dry and barren wilderness4 ,rome imposed on the products of agricultural labor in the rural districts taxes which the sale of the entire harvest would scarcely discharge2 she drained them of their population by military conscription2 she impoverished the peasantry by forced and unpaid labor on public works2 she hampered industry and internal commerce by absurd restrictions and unwise regulations4 ,hence1 large tracts of land were left uncultivated1 or altogether deserted1 and exposed to all the destructive forces which act with such energy on the surface of the earth when it is deprived of those protections by which nature originally guarded it1 and for which1 in well-ordered husbandry1 human ingenuity has contrived more or less efficient substitutes4#b ,similar abuses have tended to perpetuate and extend these evils in later ages1 and it is but recently that1 even in the most populous parts of ,europe1 public attention has been half awakened to the necessity of restoring the disturbed harmonies of nature1 whose well-balanced influences are so propitious to all her organic offspring1 of repaying to our great mother the debt which the prodigality and the thriftlessness of former generations have imposed upon their successors--thus fulfilling the command of religion and of practical wisdom1 to use this world as not abusing it4 ,new ,school of ,geographers4 ,the labors of ,humboldt1 of ,ritter1 of ,guyot and their followers1 have given to the science of geography a more philosophical1 and1 at the same time1 a more imaginative character than it had received from the hands of their predecessors4 ,perhaps the most interesting field of speculation1 thrown open by the new school to the cultivators of this attractive study1 is the inquiry3 how far external physical conditions1 and especially the configuration of the earth's surface1 and the distribution1 outline1 and relative position of land and water1 have influenced the social life and social progress of man4 ,reaction of ,man on ,nature4 ,but1 as we have seen1 man has reacted upon organized and inorganic nature1 and thereby modified1 if not determined1 the material structure of his earthly home4 ,the measure of that reaction manifestly constitutes a very important element in the appreciation of the relations between mind and matter1 as well as in the discussion of many purely physical problems4 ,but though the subject has been incidentally touched upon by many geographers1 and treated with much fulness of detail in regard to certain limited fields of human effort1 and to certain specific effects of human action1 it has not1 as a whole1 so far as ,i know1 been made matter of special observation1 or of historical research by any scientific inquirer4#c ,indeed1 until the influence of physical geography upon human life was recognized as a distinct branch of philosophical investigation1 there was no motive for the pursuit of such speculations2 and it was desirable to inquire whether we have or can become the architects of our own abiding place1 only when it was known how the mode of our physical1 moral1 and intellectual being is affected by the character of the home which ,providence has appointed1 and we have fashioned1 for our material habitation4#d ,it is still too early to attempt scientific method in discussing this problem1 nor is our present store of the necessary facts by any means complete enough to warrant me in promising any approach to fulness of statement respecting them4 ,systematic observation in relation to this subject has hardly yet begun1#e and the scattered data which have chanced to be recorded have never been collected4 ,it has now no place in the general scheme of physical science1 and is matter of suggestion and speculation only1 not of established and positive conclusion4 ,at present1 then1 all that ,i can hope is to excite an interest in a topic of much economical importance1 by pointing out the directions and illustrating the modes in which human action has been or may be most injurious or most beneficial in its influence upon the physical conditions of the earth we inhabit4 ,observation of ,nature4 ,in these pages1 as in all ,i have ever written or propose to write1 it is my aim to stimulate1 not to satisfy1 curiosity1 and it is no part of my object to save my readers the labor of observation or of thought4 ,for labor is life1 and ,death lives where power lives unused4#f ,self is the schoolmaster whose lessons are best worth his wages2 and since the subject ,i am considering has not yet become a branch of formal instruction1 those whom it may interest can1 fortunately1 have no pedagogue but themselves4 ,to the natural philosopher1 the descriptive poet1 the painter1 and the sculptor1 as well as to the common observer1 the power most important to cultivate1 and1 at the same time1 hardest to acquire1 is that of seeing what is before him4 ,sight is a faculty2 seeing1 an art4 ,the eye is a physical1 but not a self-acting apparatus1 and in general it sees only what it seeks4 ,like a mirror1 it reflects objects presented to it2 but it may be as insensible as a mirror1 and it does not necessarily perceive what it reflects4#g ,it is disputed whether the purely material sensibility of the eye is capable of improvement and cultivation4 ,it has been maintained by high authority1 that the natural acuteness of none of our sensuous faculties can be heightened by use1 and hence that the minutest details of the image formed on the retina are as perfect in the most untrained1 as in the most thoroughly disciplined organ4 ,this may well be doubted1 and it is agreed on all hands that the power of multifarious perception and rapid discrimination may be immensely increased by well-directed practice4#h ,this exercise of the eye ,i desire to promote1 and1 next to moral and religious doctrine1 ,i know no more important practical lessons in this earthly life of ours--which1 to the wise man1 is a school from the cradle to the grave--than those relating to the employment of the sense of vision in the study of nature4 ,the pursuit of physical geography1 embracing actual observation of terrestrial surface1 affords to the eye the best general training that is accessible to all4 ,the majority of even cultivated men have not the time and means of acquiring anything beyond a very superficial acquaintance with any branch of physical knowledge4 ,natural science has become so vastly extended1 its recorded facts and its unanswered questions so immensely multiplied1 that every strictly scientific man must be a specialist1 and confine the researches of a whole life within a comparatively narrow circle4 ,the study ,i am recommending1 in the view ,i propose to take of it1 is yet in that imperfectly developed state which allows its votaries to occupy themselves with such broad and general views as are attainable by every person of culture1 and it does not now require a knowledge of special details which only years of application can master4 ,it may be profitably pursued by all2 and every traveller1 every lover of rural scenery1 every agriculturist1 who will wisely use the gift of sight1 may add valuable contributions to the common stock of knowledge on a subject which1 as ,i hope to convince my readers1 though long neglected1 and now inartificially presented1 is not only a very important1 but a very interesting field of inquiry4 ,cosmical and ,geological ,influences4 ,the revolutions of the seasons1 with their alternations of temperature and of length of day and night1 the climates of different zones1 and the general condition and movements of the atmosphere and the seas1 depend upon causes for the most part cosmical1 and1 of course1 wholly beyond our control4 ,the elevation1 configuration1 and composition of the great masses of terrestrial surface1 and the relative extent and distribution of land and water1 are determined by geological influences equally remote from our jurisdiction4 ,it would hence seem that the physical adaptation of different portions of the earth to the use and enjoyment of man is a matter so strictly belonging to mightier than human powers1 that we can only accept geographical nature as we find her1 and be content with such soils and such skies as she spontaneously offers4 ,geographical ,influence of ,man4 ,but it is certain that man has done much to mould the form of the earth's surface1 though we cannot always distinguish between the results of his action and the effects of purely geological causes2 that the destruction of the forests1 the drainage of lakes and marshes1 and the operations of rural husbandry and industrial art have tended to produce great changes in the hygrometric1 thermometric1 electric1 and chemical condition of the atmosphere1 though we are not yet able to measure the force of the different elements of disturbance1 or to say how far they have been compensated by each other1 or by still obscurer influences2 and1 finally1 that the myriad forms of animal and vegetable life1 which covered the earth when man first entered upon the theatre of a nature whose harmonies he was destined to derange1 have been1 through his action1 greatly changed in numerical proportion1 sometimes much modified in form and product1 and sometimes entirely extirpated4 ,the physical revolutions thus wrought by man have not all been destructive to human interests4 ,soils to which no nutritious vegetable was indigenous1 countries which once brought forth but the fewest products suited for the sustenance and comfort of man--while the severity of their climates created and stimulated the greatest number and the most imperious urgency of physical wants--surfaces the most rugged and intractable1 and least blessed with natural facilities of communication1 have been made in modern times to yield and distribute all that supplies the material necessities1 all that contributes to the sensuous enjoyments and conveniences of civilized life4 ,the ,scythia1 the ,thule1 the ,britain1 the ,germany1 and the ,gaul which the ,roman writers describe in such forbidding terms1 have been brought almost to rival the native luxuriance and easily won plenty of ,southern ,italy2 and1 while the fountains of oil and wine that refreshed old ,greece and ,syria and ,northern ,africa have almost ceased to flow1 and the soils of those fair lands are turned to thirsty and inhospitable deserts1 the hyperborean regions of ,europe have conquered1 or rather compensated1 the rigors of climate1 and attained to a material wealth and variety of product that1 with all their natural advantages1 the granaries of the ancient world can hardly be said to have enjoyed4 ,these changes for evil and for good have not been caused by great natural revolutions of the globe1 nor are they by any means attributable wholly to the moral and physical action or inaction of the peoples1 or1 in all cases1 even of the races that now inhabit these respective regions4 ,they are products of a complication of conflicting or coincident forces1 acting through a long series of generations2 here1 improvidence1 wastefulness1 and wanton violence2 there1 foresight and wisely guided persevering industry4 ,so far as they are purely the calculated and desired results of those simple and familiar operations of agriculture and of social life which are as universal as civilization--the removal of the forests which covered the soil required for the cultivation of edible fruits1 the drying of here and there a few acres too moist for profitable husbandry1 by draining off the surface waters1 the substitution of domesticated and nutritious for wild and unprofitable vegetable growths1 the construction of roads and canals and artificial harbors--they belong to the sphere of rural1 commercial1 and political economy more properly than to geography1 and hence are but incidentally embraced within the range of our present inquiries1 which concern physical1 not financial balances4 ,i propose to examine only the greater1 more permanent1 and more comprehensive mutations which man has produced1 and is producing1 in earth1 sea1 and sky1 sometimes1 indeed1 with conscious purpose1 but for the most part1 as unforeseen though natural consequences of acts performed for narrower and more immediate ends4 ,the exact measurement of the geographical changes hitherto thus effected is1 as ,i have hinted1 impracticable1 and we possess1 in relation to them1 the means of only qualitative1 not quantitative analysis4 ,the fact of such revolutions is established partly by historical evidence1 partly by analogical deduction from effects produced in our own time by operations similar in character to those which must have taken place in more or less remote ages of human action4 ,both sources of information are alike defective in precision2 the latter1 for general reasons too obvious to require specification2 the former1 because the facts to which it bears testimony occurred before the habit or the means of rigorously scientific observation upon any branch of physical research1 and especially upon climatic changes1 existed4 ,uncertainty of our ,meteorological ,knowledge4 ,the invention of measures of heat1 and of atmospheric moisture1 pressure1 and precipitation1 is extremely recent4 ,hence1 ancient physicists have left us no thermometric or barometric records1 no tables of the fall1 evaporation1 and flow of waters1 and even no accurate maps of coast lines and the course of rivers4 ,their notices of these phenomena are almost wholly confined to excessive and exceptional instances of high or of low temperatures1 extraordinary falls of rain and snow1 and unusual floods or droughts4 ,our knowledge of the meteorological condition of the earth1 at any period more than two centuries before our own time1 is derived from these imperfect details1 from the vague statements of ancient historians and geographers in regard to the volume of rivers and the relative extent of forest and cultivated land1 from the indications furnished by the history of the agriculture and rural economy of past generations1 and from other almost purely casual sources of information4 ,among these latter we must rank certain newly laid open fields of investigation1 from which facts bearing on the point now under consideration have been gathered4 ,i allude to the discovery of artificial objects in geological formations older than any hitherto recognized as exhibiting traces of the existence of man2 to the ancient lacustrine habitations of ,switzerland1 containing the implements of the occupants1 remains of their food1 and other relics of human life2 to the curious revelations of the ,kjoekkenmoeddinger1 or heaps of kitchen refuse1 in ,denmark1 and of the peat mosses in the same and other northern countries2 to the dwellings and other evidences of the industry of man in remote ages sometimes laid bare by the movement of sand dunes on the coasts of ,france and of the ,north ,sea2 and to the facts disclosed on the shores of the latter1 by excavations in inhabited mounds which were1 perhaps1 raised before the period of the ,roman ,empire4 ,these remains are memorials of races which have left no written records1 because they perished before the historical period of the countries they occupied began4 ,the plants and animals that furnished the relics found in the deposits were certainly contemporaneous with man2 for they are associated with his works1 and have evidently served his uses4 ,in some cases1 the animals belonged to species well ascertained to be now altogether extinct2 in some others1 both the animals and the vegetables1 though extant elsewhere1 have ceased to inhabit the regions where their remains are discovered4 ,from the character of the artificial objects1 as compared with others belonging to known dates1 or at least to known periods of civilization1 ingenious inferences have been drawn as to their age2 and from the vegetation1 remains of which accompany them1 as to the climates of ,central and ,northern ,europe at the time of their production4 ,there are1 however1 sources of error which have not always been sufficiently guarded against in making these estimates4 ,when a boat1 composed of several pieces of wood fastened together by pins of the same material1 is dug out of a bog1 it is inferred that the vessel1 and the skeletons and implements found with it1 belong to an age when the use of iron was not known to the builders4 ,but this conclusion is not warranted by the simple fact that metals were not employed in its construction2 for the ,nubians at this day build boats large enough to carry half a dozen persons across the ,nile1 out of small pieces of acacia wood pinned together entirely with wooden bolts4 ,nor is the occurrence of flint arrow heads and knives1 in conjunction with other evidences of human life1 conclusive proof as to the antiquity of the latter4 ,lyell informs us that some ,oriental tribes still continue to use the same stone implements as their ancestors1 after that mighty empires1 where the use of metals in the arts was well known1 had flourished for three thousand years in their neighborhood2#i and the ,north ,american ,indians now manufacture and use weapons of stone1 and even of glass1 chipping them in the latter case out of the bottoms of thick bottles1 with great facility4#aj ,we may also be misled by our ignorance of the commercial relations existing between savage tribes4 ,extremely rude nations1 in spite of their jealousies and their perpetual wars1 sometimes contrive to exchange the products of provinces very widely separated from each other4 ,the mounds of ,ohio contain pearls1 thought to be marine1 which must have come from the ,gulf of ,mexico1 or perhaps even from ,california1 and the knives and pipes found in the same graves are often formed of far-fetched material1 that was naturally paid for by some home product exported to the locality whence the material was derived4 ,the art of preserving fish1 flesh1 and fowl by drying and smoking is widely diffused1 and of great antiquity4 ,the ,indians of ,long ,island ,sound are said to have carried on a trade in dried shell fish with tribes residing very far inland4 ,from the earliest ages1 the inhabitants of the ,faroe and ,orkney ,islands1 and of the opposite mainland coasts1 have smoked wild fowl and other flesh4 ,hence it is possible that the animal and the vegetable food1 the remains of which are found in the ancient deposits ,i am speaking of1 may sometimes have been brought from climates remote from that where it was consumed4 ,the most important1 as well as the most trustworthy conclusions with respect to the climate of ancient ,europe and ,asia1 are those drawn from the accounts given by the classical writers of the growth of cultivated plants2 but these are by no means free from uncertainty1 because we can seldom be sure of an identity of species1 almost never of an identity of race or variety1 between vegetables known to the agriculturists of ,greece and ,rome and those of modern times which are thought most nearly to resemble them4 ,besides this1 there is always room for doubt whether the habits of plants long grown in different countries may not have been so changed by domestication that the conditions of temperature and humidity which they required twenty centuries ago were different from those at present demanded for their advantageous cultivation4#aa ,even if we suppose an identity of species1 of race1 and of habit to be established between a given ancient and modern plant1 the negative fact that the latter will not grow now where it flourished two thousand years ago does not in all cases prove a change of climate4 ,the same result might follow from the exhaustion of the soil1#ab or from a change in the quantity of moisture it habitually contains4 ,after a district of country has been completely or even partially cleared of its forest growth1 and brought under cultivation1 the drying of the soil1 under favorable circumstances1 goes on for generations1 perhaps for ages4#ac ,in other cases1 from injudicious husbandry1 or the diversion or choking up of natural watercourses1 it may become more highly charged with humidity4 ,an increase or diminution of the moisture of a soil almost necessarily supposes an elevation or a depression of its winter or its summer heat1 and of its extreme1 if not of its mean annual temperature1 though such elevation or depression may be so slight as not sensibly to raise or lower the mercury in a thermometer exposed to the open air4 ,any of these causes1 more or less humidity1 or more or less warmth of soil1 would affect the growth both of wild and of cultivated vegetation1 and consequently1 without any appreciable change in atmospheric temperature1 precipitation1 or evaporation1 plants of a particular species might cease to be advantageously cultivated where they had once been easily reared4#ad ,we are very imperfectly acquainted with the present mean and extreme temperature1 or the precipitation and the evaporation of any extensive region1 even in countries most densely peopled and best supplied with instruments and observers4 ,the progress of science is constantly detecting errors of method in older observations1 and many laboriously constructed tables of meteorological phenomena are now thrown aside as fallacious1 and therefore worse than useless1 because some condition necessary to secure accuracy of result was neglected1 in obtaining the data on which they were founded4 ,to take a familiar instance3 it is but recently that attention has been drawn to the great influence of slight changes of station upon the results of observations of temperature and precipitation4 ,a thermometer removed but a few hundred yards from its first position differs not unfrequently five1 sometimes even ten degrees in its readings2 and when we are told that the annual fall of rain on the roof of the observatory at ,paris is two inches less than on the ground by the side of it1 we may see that the level of the rain-gauge is a point of much consequence in making estimates from its measurements4 ,the data from which results have been deduced with respect to the hygrometrical and thermometrical conditions1 the climate in short1 of different countries1 have very often been derived from observations at single points in cities or districts separated by considerable distances4 ,the tendency of errors and accidents to balance each other authorizes us1 indeed1 to entertain greater confidence than we could otherwise feel in the conclusions drawn from such tables2 but it is in the highest degree probable that they would be much modified by more numerous series of observations1 at different stations within narrow limits4#ae ,there is one branch of research which is of the utmost importance in reference to these questions1 but which1 from the great difficulty of direct observation upon it1 has been less successfully studied than almost any other problem of physical science4 ,i refer to the proportions between precipitation1 superficial drainage1 absorption1 and evaporation4 ,precise actual measurement of these quantities upon even a single acre of ground is impossible2 and in all cabinet experiments on the subject1 the conditions of the surface observed are so different from those which occur in nature1 that we cannot safely reason from one case to the other4 ,in nature1 the inclination of the ground1 the degree of freedom or obstruction of the surface1 the composition and density of the soil1 upon which its permeability by water and its power of absorbing and retaining or transmitting moisture depend1 its temperature1 the dryness or saturation of the subsoil1 vary at comparatively short distances2 and though the precipitation upon and the superficial flow from very small geographical basins may be estimated with an approach to precision1 yet even here we have no present means of knowing how much of the water absorbed by the earth is restored to the atmosphere by evaporation1 and how much carried off by infiltration or other modes of underground discharge4 ,when1 therefore1 we attempt to use the phenomena observed on a few square or cubic yards of earth1 as a basis of reasoning upon the meteorology of a province1 it is evident that our data must be insufficient to warrant positive general conclusions4 ,in discussing the climatology of whole countries1 or even of comparatively small local divisions1 we may safely say that none can tell what percentage of the water they receive from the atmosphere is evaporated2 what absorbed by the ground and conveyed off by subterranean conduits2 what carried down to the sea by superficial channels2 what drawn from the earth or the air by a given extent of forest1 of short pasture vegetation1 or of tall meadow-grass2 what given out again by surfaces so covered1 or by bare ground of various textures and composition1 under different conditions of atmospheric temperature1 pressure1 and humidity2 or what is the amount of evaporation from water1 ice1 or snow1 under the varying exposures to which1 in actual nature1 they are constantly subjected4 ,if1 then1 we are so ignorant of all these climatic phenomena in the best-known regions inhabited by man1 it is evident that we can rely little upon theoretical deductions applied to the former more natural state of the same regions--less still to such as are adopted with respect to distant1 strange1 and primitive countries4 ,mechanical ,effects produced by ,man on the ,surface of the ,earth more easily ascertainable4 ,in investigating the mechanical effects of human action on superficial geography1 we are treading on safer ground1 and dealing with much less subtile phenomena1 less intractable elements4 ,great physical changes can1 in some cases1 be positively shown1 in some almost certainly inferred1 to have been produced by the operations of rural industry1 and by the labors of man in other spheres of material effort2 and hence1 in this most important part of our subject1 we can arrive at many positive generalizations1 and obtain practical results of no small economical value4 ,importance and ,possibility of ,physical ,restoration4 ,many circumstances conspire to invest with great present interest the questions3 how far man can permanently modify and ameliorate those physical conditions of terrestrial surface and climate on which his material welfare depends2 how far he can compensate1 arrest1 or retard the deterioration which many of his agricultural and industrial processes tend to produce2 and how far he can restore fertility and salubrity to soils which his follies or his crimes have made barren or pestilential4 ,among these circumstances1 the most prominent1 perhaps1 is the necessity of providing new homes for a ,european population which is increasing more rapidly than its means of subsistence1 new physical comforts for classes of the people that have now become too much enlightened and have imbibed too much culture to submit to a longer deprivation of a share in the material enjoyments which the privileged ranks have hitherto monopolized4 ,to supply new hives for the emigrant swarms1 there are1 first1 the vast unoccupied prairies and forests of ,america1 of ,australia1 and of many other great oceanic islands1 the sparsely inhabited and still unexhausted soils of ,southern and even ,central ,africa1 and1 finally1 the impoverished and half-depopulated shores of the ,mediterranean1 and the interior of ,asia ,minor and the farther ,east4 ,to furnish to those who shall remain after emigration shall have conveniently reduced the too dense population of many ,european states1 those means of sensuous and of intellectual well-being which are styled artificial wants when demanded by the humble and the poor1 but are admitted to be necessaries when claimed by the noble and the rich1 the soil must be stimulated to its highest powers of production1 and man's utmost ingenuity and energy must be tasked to renovate a nature drained1 by his improvidence1 of fountains which a wise economy would have made plenteous and perennial sources of beauty1 health1 and wealth4 ,in those yet virgin lands which the progress of modern discovery in both hemispheres has brought and is still bringing to the knowledge and control of civilized man1 not much improvement of great physical conditions is to be looked for4 ,the proportion of forest is indeed to be considerably reduced1 superfluous waters to be drawn off1 and routes of internal communication to be constructed2 but the primitive geographical and climatic features of these countries ought to be1 as far as possible1 retained4 ,stability of ,nature4 ,nature1 left undisturbed1 so fashions her territory as to give it almost unchanging permanence of form1 outline1 and proportion1 except when shattered by geologic convulsions2 and in these comparatively rare cases of derangement1 she sets herself at once to repair the superficial damage1 and to restore1 as nearly as practicable1 the former aspect of her dominion4 ,in new countries1 the natural inclination of the ground1 the self-formed slopes and levels1 are generally such as best secure the stability of the soil4 ,they have been graded and lowered or elevated by frost and chemical forces and gravitation and the flow of water and vegetable deposit and the action of the winds1 until1 by a general compensation of conflicting forces1 a condition of equilibrium has been reached which1 without the action of man1 would remain1 with little fluctuation1 for countless ages4 ,we need not go far back to reach a period when1 in all that portion of the ,north ,american continent which has been occupied by ,british colonization1 the geographical elements very nearly balanced and compensated each other4 ,at the commencement of the seventeenth century1 the soil1 with insignificant exceptions1 was covered with forests2#af and whenever the ,indian1 in consequence of war or the exhaustion of the beasts of the chase1 abandoned the narrow fields he had planted and the woods he had burned over1 they speedily returned1 by a succession of herbaceous1 arborescent1 and arboreal growths1 to their original state4 ,even a single generation sufficed to restore them almost to their primitive luxuriance of forest vegetation4#ag ,the unbroken forests had attained to their maximum density and strength of growth1 and1 as the older trees decayed and fell1 they were succeeded by new shoots or seedlings1 so that from century to century no perceptible change seems to have occurred in the wood1 except the slow1 spontaneous succession of crops4 ,this succession involved no interruption of growth1 and but little break in the boundless contiguity of shade2 for1 in the husbandry of nature1 there are no fallows4 ,trees fall singly1 not by square roods1 and the tall pine is hardly prostrate1 before the light and heat1 admitted to the ground by the removal of the dense crown of foliage which had shut them out1 stimulate the germination of the seeds of broad-leaved trees that had lain1 waiting this kindly influence1 perhaps for centuries4 ,two natural causes1 destructive in character1 were1 indeed1 in operation in the primitive ,american forests1 though1 in the ,northern colonies1 at least1 there were sufficient compensations2 for we do not discover that any considerable permanent change was produced by them4 ,i refer to the action of beavers and of fallen trees in producing bogs1#ah and of smaller animals1 insects1 and birds1 in destroying the woods4 ,bogs are less numerous and extensive in the ,northern ,states of the ,american union1 because the natural inclination of the surface favors drainage2 but they are more frequent1 and cover more ground1 in the ,southern ,states1 for the opposite reason4#ai ,they generally originate in the checking of watercourses by the falling of timber1 or of earth and rocks1 across their channels4 ,if the impediment thus created is sufficient to retain a permanent accumulation of water behind it1 the trees whose roots are overflowed soon perish1 and then by their fall increase the obstruction1 and1 of course1 occasion a still wider spread of the stagnating stream4 ,this process goes on until the water finds a new outlet1 at a higher level1 not liable to similar interruption4 ,the fallen trees not completely covered by water are soon overgrown with mosses2 aquatic and semi-aquatic plants propagate themselves1 and spread until they more or less completely fill up the space occupied by the water1 and the surface is gradually converted from a pond to a quaking morass4#bj ,the morass is slowly solidified by vegetable production and deposit1 then very often restored to the forest condition by the growth of black ashes1 cedars1 or1 in southern latitudes1 cypresses1 and other trees suited to such a soil1 and thus the interrupted harmony of nature is at last reestablished4 ,i am disposed to think that more bogs in the ,northern ,states owe their origin to beavers than to accidental obstructions of rivulets by wind-fallen or naturally decayed trees2 for there are few swamps in those ,states1 at the outlets of which we may not1 by careful search1 find the remains of a beaver dam4 ,the beaver sometimes inhabits natural lakelets1 but he prefers to owe his pond to his own ingenuity and toil4 ,the reservoir once constructed1 its inhabitants rapidly multiply1 and as its harvests of pond lilies1 and other aquatic plants on which this quadruped feeds in winter1 become too small for the growing population1 the beaver metropolis sends out expeditions of discovery and colonization4 ,the pond gradually fills up1 by the operation of the same causes as when it owes its existence to an accidental obstruction1 and when1 at last1 the original settlement is converted into a bog by the usual processes of vegetable life1 the remaining inhabitants abandon it and build on some virgin brooklet a new city of the waters4 ,in countries somewhat further advanced in civilization than those occupied by the ,north ,american ,indians1 as in mediaeval ,ireland1 the formation of bogs may be commenced by the neglect of man to remove1 from the natural channels of superficial drainage1 the tops and branches of trees felled for the various purposes to which wood is applicable in his rude industry2 and1 when the flow of the water is thus checked1 nature goes on with the processes ,i have already described4 ,in such half-civilized regions1 too1 windfalls are more frequent than in those where the forest is unbroken1 because1 when openings have been made in it1 for agricultural or other purposes1 the entrance thus afforded to the wind occasions the sudden overthrow of hundreds of trees which might otherwise have stood for generations1 and thus have fallen to the ground1 only one by one1 as natural decay brought them down4#ba ,besides this1 the flocks bred by man in the pastoral state1 keep down the incipient growth of trees on the half-dried bogs1 and prevent them from recovering their primitive condition4 ,young trees in the native forest are sometimes girdled and killed by the smaller rodent quadrupeds1 and their growth is checked by birds which feed on the terminal bud2 but these animals1 as we shall see1 are generally found on the skirts of the wood only1 not in its deeper recesses1 and hence the mischief they do is not extensive4 ,the insects which damage primitive forests by feeding upon products of trees essential to their growth1 are not numerous1 nor is their appearance1 in destructive numbers1 frequent2 and those which perforate the stems and branches1 to deposit and hatch their eggs1 more commonly select dead trees for that purpose1 though1 unhappily1 there are important exceptions to this latter remark4#bb ,i do not know that we have any evidence of the destruction or serious injury of ,american forests by insects1 before or even soon after the period of colonization2 but since the white man has laid bare a vast proportion of the earth's surface1 and thereby produced changes favorable1 perhaps1 to the multiplication of these pests1 they have greatly increased in numbers1 and1 apparently1 in voracity also4 ,not many years ago1 the pines on thousands of acres of land in ,north ,carolina1 were destroyed by insects not known to have ever done serious injury to that tree before4 ,in such cases as this and others of the like sort1 there is good reason to believe that man is the indirect cause of an evil for which he pays so heavy a penalty4 ,insects increase whenever the birds which feed upon them disappear4 ,hence1 in the wanton destruction of the robin and other insectivorous birds1 the bipes implumis1 the featherless biped1 man1 is not only exchanging the vocal orchestra which greets the rising sun for the drowsy beetle's evening drone1 and depriving his groves and his fields of their fairest ornament1 but he is waging a treacherous warfare on his natural allies4#bc ,in fine1 in countries untrodden by man1 the proportions and relative positions of land and water1 the atmospheric precipitation and evaporation1 the thermometric mean1 and the distribution of vegetable and animal life1 are subject to change only from geological influences so slow in their operation that the geographical conditions may be regarded as constant and immutable4 ,these arrangements of nature it is1 in most cases1 highly desirable substantially to maintain1 when such regions become the seat of organized commonwealths4 ,it is1 therefore1 a matter of the first importance1 that1 in commencing the process of fitting them for permanent civilized occupation1 the transforming operations should be so conducted as not unnecessarily to derange and destroy what1 in too many cases1 it is beyond the power of man to rectify or restore4 ,restoration of ,disturbed ,harmonies4 ,in reclaiming and reoccupying lands laid waste by human improvidence or malice1 and abandoned by man1 or occupied only by a nomade or thinly scattered population1 the task of the pioneer settler is of a very different character4 ,he is to become a co-worker with nature in the reconstruction of the damaged fabric which the negligence or the wantonness of former lodgers has rendered untenantable4 ,he must aid her in reclothing the mountain slopes with forests and vegetable mould1 thereby restoring the fountains which she provided to water them2 in checking the devastating fury of torrents1 and bringing back the surface drainage to its primitive narrow channels2 and in drying deadly morasses by opening the natural sluices which have been choked up1 and cutting new canals for drawing off their stagnant waters4 ,he must thus1 on the one hand1 create new reservoirs1 and1 on the other1 remove mischievous accumulations of moisture1 thereby equalizing and regulating the sources of atmospheric humidity and of flowing water1 both which are so essential to all vegetable growth1 and1 of course1 to human and lower animal life4 ,destructiveness of ,man4 ,man has too long forgotten that the earth was given to him for usufruct alone1 not for consumption1 still less for profligate waste4 ,nature has provided against the absolute destruction of any of her elementary matter1 the raw material of her works2 the thunderbolt and the tornado1 the most convulsive throes of even the volcano and the earthquake1 being only phenomena of decomposition and recomposition4 ,but she has left it within the power of man irreparably to derange the combinations of inorganic matter and of organic life1 which through the night of aeons she had been proportioning and balancing1 to prepare the earth for his habitation1 when1 in the fulness of time1 his ,creator should call him forth to enter into its possession4 ,apart from the hostile influence of man1 the organic and the inorganic world are1 as ,i have remarked1 bound together by such mutual relations and adaptations as secure1 if not the absolute permanence and equilibrium of both1 a long continuance of the established conditions of each at any given time and place1 or at least1 a very slow and gradual succession of changes in those conditions4 ,but man is everywhere a disturbing agent4 ,wherever he plants his foot1 the harmonies of nature are turned to discords4 ,the proportions and accommodations which insured the stability of existing arrangements are overthrown4 ,indigenous vegetable and animal species are extirpated1 and supplanted by others of foreign origin1 spontaneous production is forbidden or restricted1 and the face of the earth is either laid bare or covered with a new and reluctant growth of vegetable forms1 and with alien tribes of animal life4 ,these intentional changes and substitutions constitute1 indeed1 great revolutions2 but vast as is their magnitude and importance1 they are1 as we shall see1 insignificant in comparison with the contingent and unsought results which have flowed from them4 ,the fact that1 of all organic beings1 man alone is to be regarded as essentially a destructive power1 and that he wields energies to resist which1 nature--that ,nature whom all material life and all inorganic substance obey--is wholly impotent1 tends to prove that1 though living in physical nature1 he is not of her1 that he is of more exalted parentage1 and belongs to a higher order of existences than those born of her womb and submissive to her dictates4 ,there are1 indeed1 brute destroyers1 beasts and birds and insects of prey--all animal life feeds upon1 and1 of course1 destroys other life1--but this destruction is balanced by compensations4 ,it is1 in fact1 the very means by which the existence of one tribe of animals or of vegetables is secured against being smothered by the encroachments of another2 and the reproductive powers of species1 which serve as the food of others1 are always proportioned to the demand they are destined to supply4 ,man pursues his victims with reckless destructiveness2 and1 while the sacrifice of life by the lower animals is limited by the cravings of appetite1 he unsparingly persecutes1 even to extirpation1 thousands of organic forms which he cannot consume4#bd ,the earth was not1 in its natural condition1 completely adapted to the use of man1 but only to the sustenance of wild animals and wild vegetation4 ,these live1 multiply their kind in just proportion1 and attain their perfect measure of strength and beauty1 without producing or requiring any change in the natural arrangements of surface1 or in each other's spontaneous tendencies1 except such mutual repression of excessive increase as may prevent the extirpation of one species by the encroachments of another4 ,in short1 without man1 lower animal and spontaneous vegetable life would have been constant in type1 distribution1 and proportion1 and the physical geography of the earth would have remained undisturbed for indefinite periods1 and been subject to revolution only from possible1 unknown cosmical causes1 or from geological action4 ,but man1 the domestic animals that serve him1 the field and garden plants the products of which supply him with food and clothing1 cannot subsist and rise to the full development of their higher properties1 unless brute and unconscious nature be effectually combated1 and1 in a great degree1 vanquished by human art4 ,hence1 a certain measure of transformation of terrestrial surface1 of suppression of natural1 and stimulation of artificially modified productivity becomes necessary4 ,this measure man has unfortunately exceeded4 ,he has felled the forests whose network of fibrous roots bound the mould to the rocky skeleton of the earth2 but had he allowed here and there a belt of woodland to reproduce itself by spontaneous propagation1 most of the mischiefs which his reckless destruction of the natural protection of the soil has occasioned would have been averted4 ,he has broken up the mountain reservoirs1 the percolation of whose waters through unseen channels supplied the fountains that refreshed his cattle and fertilized his fields2 but he has neglected to maintain the cisterns and the canals of irrigation which a wise antiquity had constructed to neutralize the consequences of its own imprudence4 ,while he has torn the thin glebe which confined the light earth of extensive plains1 and has destroyed the fringe of semi-aquatic plants which skirted the coast and checked the drifting of the sea sand1 he has failed to prevent the spreading of the dunes by clothing them with artificially propagated vegetation4 ,he has ruthlessly warred on all the tribes of animated nature whose spoil he could convert to his own uses1 and he has not protected the birds which prey on the insects most destructive to his own harvests4 ,purely untutored humanity1 it is true1 interferes comparatively little with the arrangements of nature1#be and the destructive agency of man becomes more and more energetic and unsparing as he advances in civilization1 until the impoverishment1 with which his exhaustion of the natural resources of the soil is threatening him1 at last awakens him to the necessity of preserving what is left1 if not of restoring what has been wantonly wasted4 ,the wandering savage grows no cultivated vegetable1 fells no forest1 and extirpates no useful plant1 no noxious weed4 ,if his skill in the chase enables him to entrap numbers of the animals on which he feeds1 he compensates this loss by destroying also the lion1 the tiger1 the wolf1 the otter1 the seal1 and the eagle1 thus indirectly protecting the feebler quadrupeds and fish and fowls1 which would otherwise become the booty of beasts and birds of prey4 ,but with stationary life1 or rather with the pastoral state1 man at once commences an almost indiscriminate warfare upon all the forms of animal and vegetable existence around him1 and as he advances in civilization1 he gradually eradicates or transforms every spontaneous product of the soil he occupies4#bf ,human and ,brute ,action ,compared4 ,it has been maintained by authorities as high as any known to modern science1 that the action of man upon nature1 though greater in degree1 does not differ in kind1 from that of wild animals4 ,it appears to me to differ in essential character1 because1 though it is often followed by unforeseen and undesired results1 yet it is nevertheless guided by a self-conscious and intelligent will aiming as often at secondary and remote as at immediate objects4 ,the wild animal1 on the other hand1 acts instinctively1 and1 so far as we are able to perceive1 always with a view to single and direct purposes4 ,the backwoodsman and the beaver alike fell trees2 the man that he may convert the forest into an olive grove that will mature its fruit only for a succeeding generation1 the beaver that he may feed upon their bark or use them in the construction of his habitation4 ,human differs from brute action1 too1 in its influence upon the material world1 because it is not controlled by natural compensations and balances4 ,natural arrangements1 once disturbed by man1 are not restored until he retires from the field1 and leaves free scope to spontaneous recuperative energies2 the wounds he inflicts upon the material creation are not healed until he withdraws the arm that gave the blow4 ,on the other hand1 ,i am not aware of any evidence that wild animals have ever destroyed the smallest forest1 extirpated any organic species or modified its natural character1 occasioned any permanent change of terrestrial surface1 or produced any disturbance of physical conditions which nature has not1 of herself1 repaired without the expulsion of the animal that had caused it4#bg ,the form of geographical surface1 and very probably the climate of a given country1 depend much on the character of the vegetable life belonging to it4 ,man has1 by domestication1 greatly changed the habits and properties of the plants he rears2 he has1 by voluntary selection1 immensely modified the forms and qualities of the animated creatures that serve him2 and he has1 at the same time1 completely rooted out many forms of animal if not of vegetable being4#bh ,what is there1 in the influence of brute life1 that corresponds to this8 ,we have no reason to believe that in that portion of the ,american continent which1 though peopled by many tribes of quadruped and fowl1 remained uninhabited by man1 or only thinly occupied by purely savage tribes1 any sensible geographical change had occurred within twenty centuries before the epoch of discovery and colonization1 while1 during the same period1 man had changed millions of square miles1 in the fairest and most fertile regions of the ,old ,world1 into the barrenest deserts4 ,the ravages committed by man subvert the relations and destroy the balance which nature had established between her organized and her inorganic creations2 and she avenges herself upon the intruder1 by letting loose upon her defaced provinces destructive energies hitherto kept in check by organic forces destined to be his best auxiliaries1 but which he has unwisely dispersed and driven from the field of action4 ,when the forest is gone1 the great reservoir of moisture stored up in its vegetable mould is evaporated1 and returns only in deluges of rain to wash away the parched dust into which that mould has been converted4 ,the well-wooded and humid hills are turned to ridges of dry rock1 which encumbers the low grounds and chokes the watercourses with its debris1 and--except in countries favored with an equable distribution of rain through the seasons1 and a moderate and regular inclination of surface--the whole earth1 unless rescued by human art from the physical degradation to which it tends1 becomes an assemblage of bald mountains1 of barren1 turfless hills1 and of swampy and malarious plains4 ,there are parts of ,asia ,minor1 of ,northern ,africa1 of ,greece1 and even of ,alpine ,europe1 where the operation of causes set in action by man has brought the face of the earth to a desolation almost as complete as that of the moon2 and though1 within that brief space of time which we call the historical period1 they are known to have been covered with luxuriant woods1 verdant pastures1 and fertile meadows1 they are now too far deteriorated to be reclaimable by man1 nor can they become again fitted for human use1 except through great geological changes1 or other mysterious influences or agencies of which we have no present knowledge1 and over which we have no prospective control4 ,the earth is fast becoming an unfit home for its noblest inhabitant1 and another era of equal human crime and human improvidence1 and of like duration with that through which traces of that crime and that improvidence extend1 would reduce it to such a condition of impoverished productiveness1 of shattered surface1 of climatic excess1 as to threaten the depravation1 barbarism1 and perhaps even extinction of the species4#bi ,physical ,improvement4 ,true1 there is a partial reverse to this picture4 ,on narrow theatres1 new forests have been planted2 inundations of flowing streams restrained by heavy walls of masonry and other constructions2 torrents compelled to aid1 by depositing the slime with which they are charged1 in filling up lowlands1 and raising the level of morasses which their own overflows had created2 ground submerged by the encroachments of the ocean1 or exposed to be covered by its tides1 has been rescued from its dominion by diking2#cj swamps and even lakes have been drained1 and their beds brought within the domain of agricultural industry2 drifting coast dunes have been checked and made productive by plantation2 seas and inland waters have been repeopled with fish1 and even the sands of the ,sahara have been fertilized by artesian fountains4 ,these achievements are more glorious than the proudest triumphs of war1 but1 thus far1 they give but faint hope that we shall yet make full atonement for our spendthrift waste of the bounties of nature4 ,it is1 on the one hand1 rash and unphilosophical to attempt to set limits to the ultimate power of man over inorganic nature1 and it is unprofitable1 on the other1 to speculate on what may be accomplished by the discovery of now unknown and unimagined natural forces1 or even by the invention of new arts and new processes4 ,but since we have seen aerostation1 the motive power of elastic vapors1 the wonders of modern telegraphy1 the destructive explosiveness of gunpowder1 and even of a substance so harmless1 unresisting1 and inert as cotton1 nothing in the way of mechanical achievement seems impossible1 and it is hard to restrain the imagination from wandering forward a couple of generations to an epoch when our descendants shall have advanced as far beyond us in physical conquest1 as we have marched beyond the trophies erected by our grandfathers4 ,i must therefore be understood to mean only1 that no agencies now known to man and directed by him seem adequate to the reducing of great ,alpine precipices to such slopes as would enable them to support a vegetable clothing1 or to the covering of large extents of denuded rock with earth1 and planting upon them a forest growth4 ,but among the mysteries which science is yet to reveal1 there may be still undiscovered methods of accomplishing even grander wonders than these4 ,mechanical philosophers have suggested the possibility of accumulating and treasuring up for human use some of the greater natural forces1 which the action of the elements puts forth with such astonishing energy4 ,could we gather1 and bind1 and make subservient to our control1 the power which a ,west ,indian hurricane exerts through a small area in one continuous blast1 or the momentum expended by the waves1 in a tempestuous winter1 upon the breakwater at ,cherbourg1#ca or the lifting power of the tide1 for a month1 at the head of the ,bay of ,fundy1 or the pressure of a square mile of sea water at the depth of five thousand fathoms1 or a moment of the might of an earthquake or a volcano1 our age--which moves no mountains and casts them into the sea by faith alone--might hope to scarp the rugged walls of the ,alps and ,pyrenees and ,mount ,taurus1 robe them once more in a vegetation as rich as that of their pristine woods1 and turn their wasting torrents into refreshing streams4#cb ,could this old world1 which man has overthrown1 be rebuilded1 could human cunning rescue its wasted hillsides and its deserted plains from solitude or mere nomade occupation1 from barrenness1 from nakedness1 and from insalubrity1 and restore the ancient fertility and healthfulness of the ,etruscan sea coast1 the ,campagna and the ,pontine marshes1 of ,calabria1 of ,sicily1 of the ,peloponnesus and insular and continental ,greece1 of ,asia ,minor1 of the slopes of ,lebanon and ,hermon1 of ,palestine1 of the ,syrian desert1 of ,mesopotamia and the delta of the ,euphrates1 of the ,cyrenaica1 of ,africa proper1 ,numidia1 and ,mauritania1 the thronging millions of ,europe might still find room on the ,eastern continent1 and the main current of emigration be turned toward the rising instead of the setting sun4 ,but changes like these must await great political and moral revolutions in the governments and peoples by whom those regions are now possessed1 a command of pecuniary and of mechanical means not at present enjoyed by those nations1 and a more advanced and generally diffused knowledge of the processes by which the amelioration of soil and climate is possible1 than now anywhere exists4 ,until such circumstances shall conspire to favor the work of geographical regeneration1 the countries ,i have mentioned1 with here and there a local exception1 will continue to sink into yet deeper desolation1 and in the mean time1 the ,american continent1 ,southern ,africa1 ,australia1 and the smaller oceanic islands1 will be almost the only theatres where man is engaged1 on a great scale1 in transforming the face of nature4 ,arrest of ,physical ,decay of ,new ,countries4 ,comparatively short as is the period through which the colonization of foreign lands by ,european emigrants extends1 great1 and1 it is to be feared1 sometimes irreparable1 injury has been already done in the various processes by which man seeks to subjugate the virgin earth2 and many provinces1 first trodden by the homo sapiens ,europae within the last two centuries1 begin to show signs of that melancholy dilapidation which is now driving so many of the peasantry of ,europe from their native hearths4 ,it is evidently a matter of great moment1 not only to the population of the states where these symptoms are manifesting themselves1 but to the general interests of humanity1 that this decay should be arrested1 and that the future operations of rural husbandry and of forest industry1 in districts yet remaining substantially in their native condition1 should be so conducted as to prevent the widespread mischiefs which have been elsewhere produced by thoughtless or wanton destruction of the natural safeguards of the soil4 ,this can be done only by the diffusion of knowledge on this subject among the classes that1 in earlier days1 subdued and tilled ground in which they had no vested rights1 but who1 in our time1 own their woods1 their pastures1 and their ploughlands as a perpetual possession for them and theirs1 and have1 therefore1 a strong interest in the protection of their domain against deterioration4 ,forms and ,formations most liable to ,physical ,degradation4 ,the character and extent of the evils under consideration depend very much on climate and the natural forms and constitution of surface4 ,if the precipitation1 whether great or small in amount1 be equally distributed through the seasons1 so that there are neither torrential rains nor parching droughts1 and if1 further1 the general inclination of ground be moderate1 so that the superficial waters are carried off without destructive rapidity of flow1 and without sudden accumulation in the channels of natural drainage1 there is little danger of the degradation of the soil in consequence of the removal of forest or other vegetable covering1 and the natural face of the earth may be considered as substantially permanent4 ,these conditions are well exemplified in ,ireland1 in a great part of ,england1 in extensive districts in ,germany and ,france1 and1 fortunately1 in an immense proportion of the valley of the ,mississippi and the basin of the great ,american lakes1 as well as in many parts of the continents of ,south ,america and of ,africa4 ,destructive changes are most frequent in countries of irregular and mountainous surface1 and in climates where the precipitation is confined chiefly to a single season1 and where the year is divided into a wet and a dry period1 as is the case throughout a great part of the ,ottoman empire1 and1 more or less strictly1 the whole ,mediterranean basin4 ,it is partly1 though by no means entirely1 owing to topographical and climatic causes that the blight1 which has smitten the fairest and most fertile provinces of ,imperial ,rome1 has spared ,britannia1 ,germania1 ,pannonia1 and ,moesia1 the comparatively inhospitable homes of barbarous races1 who1 in the days of the ,caesars1 were too little advanced in civilized life to possess either the power or the will to wage that war against the order of nature which seems1 hitherto1 an almost inseparable condition precedent of high social culture1 and of great progress in fine and mechanical art4#cc ,in mountainous countries1 on the other hand1 various causes combine to expose the soil to constant dangers4 ,the rain and snow usually fall in greater quantity1 and with much inequality of distribution2 the snow on the summits accumulates for many months in succession1 and then is not unfrequently almost wholly dissolved in a single thaw1 so that the entire precipitation of months is in a few hours hurried down the flanks of the mountains1 and through the ravines that furrow them2 the natural inclination of the surface promotes the swiftness of the gathering currents of diluvial rain and of melting snow1 which soon acquire an almost irresistible force1 and power of removal and transportation2 the soil itself is less compact and tenacious than that of the plains1 and if the sheltering forest has been destroyed1 it is confined by few of the threads and ligaments by which nature had bound it together1 and attached it to the rocky groundwork4 ,hence every considerable shower lays bare its roods of rock1 and the torrents sent down by the thaws of spring1 and by occasional heavy discharges of the summer and autumnal rains1 are seas of mud and rolling stones that sometimes lay waste1 and bury beneath them acres1 and even miles1 of pasture and field and vineyard4#cd ,physical ,decay of ,new ,countries4 ,i have remarked that the effects of human action on the forms of the earth's surface could not always be distinguished from those resulting from geological causes1 and there is also much uncertainty in respect to the precise influence of the clearing and cultivating of the ground1 and of other rural operations1 upon climate4 ,it is disputed whether either the mean or the extremes of temperature1 the periods of the seasons1 or the amount or distribution of precipitation and of evaporation1 in any country whose annals are known1 have undergone any change during the historical period4 ,it is1 indeed1 impossible to doubt that many of the operations of the pioneer settler tend to produce great modifications in atmospheric humidity1 temperature1 and electricity2 but we are at present unable to determine how far one set of effects is neutralized by another1 or compensated by unknown agencies4 ,this question scientific research is inadequate to solve1 for want of the necessary data2 but well conducted observation1 in regions now first brought under the occupation of man1 combined with such historical evidence as still exists1 may be expected at no distant period to throw much light on this subject4 ,australia is1 perhaps1 the country from which we have a right to expect the fullest elucidation of these difficult and disputable problems4 ,its colonization did not commence until the physical sciences had become matter of almost universal attention1 and is1 indeed1 so recent that the memory of living men embraces the principal epochs of its history2 the peculiarities of its fauna1 its flora1 and its geology are such as to have excited for it the liveliest interest of the votaries of natural science2 its mines have given its people the necessary wealth for procuring the means of instrumental observation1 and the leisure required for the pursuit of scientific research2 and large tracts of virgin forest and natural meadow are rapidly passing under the control of civilized man4 ,here1 then1 exist greater facilities and stronger motives for the careful study of the topics in question than have ever been found combined in any other theatre of ,european colonization4 ,in ,north ,america1 the change from the natural to the artificial condition of terrestrial surface began about the period when the most important instruments of meteorological observation were invented4 ,the first settlers in the territory now constituting the ,united ,states and the ,british ,american provinces had other things to do than to tabulate barometrical and thermometrical readings1 but there remain some interesting physical records from the early days of the colonies1#ce and there is still an immense extent of ,north ,american soil where the industry and the folly of man have as yet produced little appreciable change4 ,here1 too1 with the present increased facilities for scientific observation1 the future effects1 direct and contingent1 of man's labors1 can be measured1 and such precautions taken in those rural processes which we call improvements1 as to mitigate evils1 perhaps1 in some degree1 inseparable from every attempt to control the action of natural laws4 ,in order to arrive at safe conclusions1 we must first obtain a more exact knowledge of the topography1 and of the present superficial and climatic condition of countries where the natural surface is as yet more or less unbroken4 ,this can only be accomplished by accurate surveys1 and by a great multiplication of the points of meteorological registry1#cf already so numerous2 and as1 moreover1 considerable changes in the proportion of forest and of cultivated land1 or of dry and wholly or partially submerged surface1 will often take place within brief periods1 it is highly desirable that the attention of observers1 in whose neighborhood the clearing of the soil1 or the drainage of lakes and swamps1 or other great works of rural improvement1 are going on or meditated1 should be especially drawn not only to revolutions in atmospheric temperature and precipitation1 but to the more easily ascertained and perhaps more important local changes produced by these operations in the temperature and the hygrometric state of the superficial strata of the earth1 and in its spontaneous vegetable and animal products4 ,the rapid extension of railroads1 which now everywhere keeps pace with1 and sometimes even precedes1 the occupation of new soil for agricultural purposes1 furnishes great facilities for enlarging our knowledge of the topography of the territory they traverse1 because their cuttings reveal the composition and general structure of surface1 and the inclination and elevation of their lines constitute known hypsometrical sections1 which give numerous points of departure for the measurement of higher and lower stations1 and of course for determining the relief and depression of surface1 the slope of the beds of watercourses1 and many other not less important questions4#cg ,the geological1 hydrographical1 and topographical surveys1 which almost every general and even local government of the civilized world is carrying on1 are making yet more important contributions to our stock of geographical and general physical knowledge1 and1 within a comparatively short space1 there will be an accumulation of well established constant and historical facts1 from which we can safely reason upon all the relations of action and reaction between man and external nature4 ,but we are1 even now1 breaking up the floor and wainscoting and doors and window frames of our dwelling1 for fuel to warm our bodies and seethe our pottage1 and the world cannot afford to wait till the slow and sure progress of exact science has taught it a better economy4 ,many practical lessons have been learned by the common observation of unschooled men2 and the teachings of simple experience1 on topics where natural philosophy has scarcely yet spoken1 are not to be despised4 ,in these humble pages1 which do not in the least aspire to rank among scientific expositions of the laws of nature1 ,i shall attempt to give the most important practical conclusions suggested by the history of man's efforts to replenish the earth and subdue it2 and ,i shall aim to support those conclusions by such facts and illustrations only as address themselves to the understanding of every intelligent reader1 and as are to be found recorded in works capable of profitable perusal1 or at least consultation1 by persons who have not enjoyed a special scientific training4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,transfer1 ,,modification1 ,,and ,,extirpation ,,of ,,vegetable ,,and ,,of ,,animal ,,species4 ,,modern ,,geography ,,embraces ,,organic ,,life--,,transfer ,,of ,,vegetable ,,life-- ,,foreign ,,plants ,,grown ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states--,,american ,,plants ,,grows ,,in ,,europe--,,modes ,,of ,,introduction ,,of ,,foreign ,,plants--,,vegetables1 ,,how ,,affected ,,by ,,transfer ,,to ,,foreign ,,soils--,,extirpation ,,of ,,vegetables-- ,,origin ,,of ,,domestic ,,plants--,,organic ,,life ,,as ,a ,,geological ,,and ,,geographical ,,agency--,,origin ,,and ,,transfer ,,of ,,domestic ,,animals--,,extirpation ,,of ,,animals--,,numbers ,,of ,,birds ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states--,,birds ,,as ,,sowers ,,and ,,consumers ,,of ,,seeds1 ,,and ,,as ,,destroyers ,,of ,,insects--,,diminution ,,and ,,extirpation ,,of ,,birds--,,introduction ,,of ,,birds--,,utility ,,of ,,insects ,,and ,,worms--,,introduction ,,of ,,insects--,,destruction ,,of ,,insects--,,reptiles-- ,,destruction ,,of ,,fish--,,introduction ,,and ,,breeding ,,of ,,fish--,,extirpation ,,of ,,aquatic ,,animals--,,minute ,,organisms4 ,modern ,geography embraces ,organic ,life4 ,it was a narrow view of geography which confined that science to delineation of terrestrial surface and outline1 and to description of the relative position and magnitude of land and water4 ,in its improved form1 it embraces not only the globe itself1 but the living things which vegetate or move upon it1 the varied influences they exert upon each other1 the reciprocal action and reaction between them and the earth they inhabit4 ,even if the end of geographical studies were only to obtain a knowledge of the external forms of the mineral and fluid masses which constitute the globe1 it would still be necessary to take into account the element of life2 for every plant1 every animal1 is a geographical agency1 man a destructive1 vegetables1 and even wild beasts1 restorative powers4 ,the rushing waters sweep down earth from the uplands2 in the first moment of repose1 vegetation seeks to reestablish itself on the bared surface1 and1 by the slow deposit of its decaying products1 to raise again the soil which the torrent had lowered4 ,so important an element of reconstruction is this1 that it has been seriously questioned whether1 upon the whole1 vegetation does not contribute as much to elevate1 as the waters to depress1 the level of the surface4 ,whenever man has transported a plant from its native habitat to a new soil1 he has introduced a new geographical force to act upon it1 and this generally at the expense of some indigenous growth which the foreign vegetable has supplanted4 ,the new and the old plants are rarely the equivalents of each other1 and the substitution of an exotic for a native tree1 shrub1 or grass1 increases or diminishes the relative importance of the vegetable element in the geography of the country to which it is removed4 ,further1 man sows that he may reap4 ,the products of agricultural industry are not suffered to rot upon the ground1 and thus raise it by an annual stratum of new mould4 ,they are gathered1 transported to greater or less distances1 and after they have served their uses in human economy1 they enter1 on the final decomposition of their elements1 into new combinations1 and are only in small proportion returned to the soil on which they grew4 ,the roots of the grasses1 and of many other cultivated plants1 however1 usually remain and decay in the earth1 and contribute to raise its surface1 though certainly not in the same degree as the forest4 ,the vegetables1 which have taken the place of trees1 unquestionably perform many of the same functions4 ,they radiate heat1 they condense the humidity of the atmosphere1 they act upon the chemical constitution of the air1 their roots penetrate the earth to greater depths than is commonly supposed1 and form an inextricable labyrinth of filaments which bind the soil together and prevent its erosion by water4 ,the broad-leaved annuals and perennials1 too1 shade the ground1 and prevent the evaporation of moisture from its surface by wind and sun4#ch ,at a certain stage of growth1 grass land is probably a more energetic radiator and condenser than even the forest1 but this powerful action is exerted1 in its full intensity1 for a few days only1 while trees continue such functions1 with unabated vigor1 for many months in succession4 ,upon the whole1 it seems quite certain1 that no cultivated ground is as efficient in tempering climatic extremes1 or in conservation of geographical surface and outline1 as is the soil which nature herself has planted4 ,transfer of ,vegetable ,life4 ,it belongs to vegetable and animal geography1 which are almost sciences of themselves1 to point out in detail what man has done to change the distribution of plants and of animated life and to revolutionize the aspect of organic nature2 but some of the more important facts bearing on this subject may pertinently be introduced here4 ,most of the fruit trees grown in ,europe and the ,united ,states are believed1 and--if the testimony of ,pliny and other ancient naturalists is to be depended upon--many of them are historically known1 to have originated in the temperate climates of ,asia4 ,the wine grape has been thought to be truly indigenous only in the regions bordering on the eastern end of the ,black ,sea1 where it now1 particularly on the banks of the ,rion1 the ancient ,phasis1 propagates itself spontaneously1 and grows with unexampled luxuriance4#ci ,but1 some species of the vine seem native to ,europe1 and many varieties of grape have been too long known as common to every part of the ,united ,states to admit of the supposition that they were all introduced by ,european colonists4#dj ,it is an interesting fact that the commerce--or at least the maritime carrying trade--and the agricultural and mechanical industry of the world are1 in very large proportion1 dependent on vegetable and animal products little or not at all known to ancient ,greek1 ,roman1 and ,jewish civilization4 ,in many instances1 the chief supply of these articles comes from countries to which they are probably indigenous1 and where they are still almost exclusively grown2 but in many others1 the plants or animals from which they are derived have been introduced by man into the regions now remarkable for their most successful cultivation1 and that1 too1 in comparatively recent times1 or1 in other words1 within two or three centuries4 ,foreign ,plants grown in the ,united ,states4 ,according to ,bigelow1 the ,united ,states had1 on the first of ,june1 #ahfj1 in round numbers1 #afc1jjj1jjj acres of improved land1 the quantity having been increased by #ej1jjj1jjj acres within the ten years next preceding4#da ,not to mention less important crops1 this land produced1 in the year ending on the day last mentioned1 in round numbers1 #aga1jjj1jjj bushels of wheat1 #ba1jjj1jjj bushels of rye1 #agb1jjj1jjj bushels of oats1 #ae1jjj1jjj bushels of pease and beans1 #af1jjj1jjj bushels of barley1 orchard fruits to the value of #bj1jjj1jjj1 #ijj1jjj bushels of cloverseed1 #ijj1jjj bushels of other grass seed1 #ajd1jjj tons of hemp1 #d1jjj1jjj pounds of flax1 and #fjj1jjj pounds of flaxseed4 ,these vegetable growths were familiar to ancient ,european agriculture1 but they were all introduced into ,north ,america after the close of the sixteenth century4 ,of the fruits of agricultural industry unknown to the ,greeks and ,romans1 or too little employed by them to be of any commercial importance1 the ,united ,states produced1 in the same year1 #ahg1jjj1jjj pounds of rice1 #ah1jjj1jjj bushels of buckwheat1 #b1jge1jjj1jjj pounds of ginned cotton1#db #cjb1jjj1jjj pounds of cane sugar1 #af1jjj1jjj gallons of cane molasses1 #g1jjj1jjj gallons of sorghum molasses1 all yielded by vegetables introduced into that country within two hundred years1 and--with the exception of buckwheat1 the origin of which is uncertain1 and of cotton--all1 directly or indirectly1 from the ,east ,indies2 besides1 from indigenous plants unknown to ancient agriculture1 #hcj1jjj1jjj bushels of ,indian corn or maize1 #dbi1jjj1jjj pounds of tobacco1 #aaj1jjj1jjj bushels of potatoes1 #db1jjj1jjj bushels of sweet potatoes1 #ci1jjj1jjj pounds of maple sugar1 and #b1jjj1jjj gallons of maple molasses4 ,to all this we are to add #ai1jjj1jjj tons of hay1 produced partly by new1 partly by long known1 partly by exotic1 partly by native herbs and grasses1 an incalculable quantity of garden vegetables1 chiefly of ,european or ,asiatic origin1 and many minor agricultural products4 ,the weight of this harvest of a year would be not less than #fj1jjj1jjj tons--which is eleven times the tonnage of all the shipping of the ,united ,states at the close of the year #ahfa--;and1 with the exception of the maple sugar1 the maple molasses1 and the products of the ,western prairie lands and some small ,indian clearings1 it was all grown upon lands wrested from the forest by the ,european race within little more than two hundred years4 ,the wants of ,europe have introduced into the colonies of tropical ,america the sugar cane1 the coffee plant1 the orange and the lemon1#dc all of ,oriental origin1 have immensely stimulated the cultivation of the former two in the countries of which they are natives1 and1 of course1 promoted agricultural operations which must have affected the geography of those regions to an extent proportionate to the scale on which they have been pursued4 ,american ,plants grown in ,europe4 ,america has partially repaid her debt to the ,eastern continent4 ,maize and the potato are very valuable additions to the field agriculture of ,europe and the ,east1 and the tomato is no mean gift to the kitchen gardens of the ,old ,world1 though certainly not an adequate return for the multitude of esculent roots and leguminous plants which the ,european colonists carried with them4#dd ,i wish ,i could believe1 with some1 that ,america is not alone responsible for the introduction of the filthy weed1 tobacco1 the use of which is the most vulgar and pernicious habit engrafted by the semi-barbarism of modern civilization upon the less multifarious sensualism of ancient life2#de but the alleged occurrence of pipe-like objects in ,sclavonic1 and1 it has been said1 in ,hungarian sepulchres1 is hardly sufficient evidence to convict those races of complicity in this grave offence against the temperance and the refinement of modern society4 ,modes of ,introduction of ,foreign ,plants4 ,besides the vegetables ,i have mentioned1 we know that many plants of smaller economical value have been the subjects of international exchange in very recent times4 ,busbequius1 ,austrian ambassador at ,constantinople about the middle of the sixteenth century--whose letters contain one of the best accounts of ,turkish life which have appeared down to the present day--brought home from the ,ottoman capital the lilac and the tulip4 ,the ,belgian ,clusius about the same time introduced from the ,east the horse chestnut1 which has since wandered to ,america4 ,the weeping willows of ,europe and the ,united ,states are said to have sprung from a slip received from ,smyrna by the poet ,pope1 and planted by him in an ,english garden2 and the ,portuguese declare that the progenitor of all the ,european and ,american oranges was an ,oriental tree transplanted to ,lisbon1 and still living in the last generation4#df ,the present favorite flowers of the parterres of ,europe have been imported from ,america1 ,japan and other remote ,oriental countries1 within a century and a half1 and1 in fine1 there are few vegetables of any agricultural importance1 few ornamental trees or decorative plants1 which are not now common to the three civilized continents4 ,the statistics of vegetable emigration exhibit numerical results quite surprising to those not familiar with the subject4 ,the lonely island of ,st4 ,helena is described as producing1 at the time of its discovery in the year #aeja1 about sixty vegetable species1 including some three or four known to grow elsewhere also4 ,at the present time its flora numbers seven hundred and fifty species4 ,humboldt and ,bonpland found1 among the unquestionably indigenous plants of tropical ,america1 monocotyledons only1 all the dicotyledons of those extensive regions having been probably introduced after the colonization of the ,new ,world by ,spain4 ,the faculty of spontaneous reproduction and perpetuation necessarily supposes a greater power of accommodation1 within a certain range1 than we find in most domesticated plants1 for it would rarely happen that the seed of a wild plant would fall into ground as nearly similar1 in composition and condition1 to that where its parent grew1 as the soils of different fields artificially prepared for growing a particular vegetable are to each other4 ,accordingly1 though every wild species affects a habitat of a particular character1 it is found that1 if accidentally or designedly sown elsewhere1 it will grow under conditions extremely unlike those of its birthplace4#dg ,cooper says3 ,we cannot say positively that any plant is uncultivable anywhere until it has been tried2 and this seems to be even more true of wild than of domesticated vegetation4 ,the seven hundred new species which have found their way to ,st4 ,helena within three centuries and a half1 were certainly not all1 or even in the largest proportion1 designedly planted there by human art1 and if we were well acquainted with vegetable emigration1 we should probably be able to show that man has intentionally transferred fewer plants than he has accidentally introduced into countries foreign to them4 ,after the wheat1 follow the tares that infest it4 ,the weeds that grow among the cereal grains1 the pests of the kitchen garden1 are the same in ,america as in ,europe4#dh ,the overturning of a wagon1 or any of the thousand accidents which befall the emigrant in his journey across the ,western plains1 may scatter upon the ground the seeds he designed for his garden1 and the herbs which fill so important a place in the rustic materia medica of the ,eastern ,states1 spring up along the prairie paths but just opened by the caravan of the settler4#di ,the hortus siccus of a botanist may accidentally sow seeds from the foot of the ,himalayas on the plains that skirt the ,alps2 and it is a fact of very familiar observation1 that exotics1 transplanted to foreign climates suited to their growth1 often escape from the flower garden and naturalize themselves among the spontaneous vegetation of the pastures4 ,when the cases containing the artistic treasures of ,thorvaldsen were opened in the court of the museum where they are deposited1 the straw and grass employed in packing them were scattered upon the ground1 and the next season there sprang up from the seeds no less than twenty-five species of plants belonging to the ,roman campagna1 some of which were preserved and cultivated as a new tribute to the memory of the great ,scandinavian sculptor1 and at least four are said to have spontaneously naturalized themselves about ,copenhagen4#ej ,in the campaign of #ahad1 the ,russian troops brought1 in the stuffing of their saddles and by other accidental means1 seeds from the banks of the ,dnieper to the valley of the ,rhine1 and even introduced the plants of the steppes into the environs of ,paris4 ,the ,turkish armies1 in their incursions into ,europe1 brought ,eastern vegetables in their train1 and left the seeds of ,oriental wall plants to grow upon the ramparts of ,buda and ,vienna4#ea ,the ,canada thistle1 ,erigeron ,canadense1 is said to have sprung up in ,europe1 two hundred years ago1 from a seed which dropped out of the stuffed skin of a bird4#eb ,vegetables1 how affected by ,transfer to ,foreign ,soils4 ,vegetables1 naturalized abroad either by accident or design1 sometimes exhibit a greatly increased luxuriance of growth4 ,the ,european cardoon1 an esculent thistle1 has broken out from the gardens of the ,spanish colonies on the ,la ,plata1 acquired a gigantic stature1 and propagated itself1 in impenetrable thickets1 over hundreds of leagues of the ,pampas2 and the ,anacharis alsinastrum1 a water plant not much inclined to spread in its native ,american habitat1 has found its way into ,english rivers1 and extended itself to such a degree as to form a serious obstruction to the flow of the current1 and even to navigation4 ,not only do many wild plants exhibit a remarkable facility of accommodation1 but their seeds usually possess great tenacity of life1 and their germinating power resists very severe trials4 ,hence1 while the seeds of very many cultivated vegetables lose their vitality in two or three years1 and can be transported safely to distant countries only with great precautions1 the weeds that infest those vegetables1 though not cared for by man1 continue to accompany him in his migrations1 and find a new home on every soil he colonizes4 ,nature fights in defence of her free children1 but wars upon them when they have deserted her banners and tamely submitted to the dominion of man4#ec ,not only is the wild plant much hardier than the domesticated vegetable1 but the same law prevails in animated brute and even human life4 ,the beasts of the chase are more capable of endurance and privation and more tenacious of life1 than the domesticated animals which most nearly resemble them4 ,the savage fights on1 after he has received half a dozen mortal wounds1 the least of which would have instantly paralyzed the strength of his civilized enemy1 and1 like the wild boar1#ed he has been known to press forward along the shaft of the spear which was transpiercing his vitals1 and to deal a deathblow on the soldier who wielded it4 ,true1 domesticated plants can be gradually acclimatized to bear a degree of heat or of cold1 which1 in their wild state1 they would not have supported2 the trained ,english racer outstrips the swiftest horse of the pampas or prairies1 perhaps even the less systematically educated courser of the ,arab2 the strength of the ,european1 as tested by the dynamometer1 is greater than that of the ,new ,zealander4 ,but all these are instances of excessive development of particular capacities and faculties at the expense of general vital power4 ,expose untamed and domesticated forms of life1 together1 to an entire set of physical conditions equally alien to the former habits of both1 so that every power of resistance and accommodation shall be called into action1 and the wild plant or animal will live1 while the domesticated will perish4 ,the saline atmosphere of the sea is specially injurious both to seeds and to very many young plants1 and it is only recently that the transportation of some very important vegetables across the ocean has been made practicable1 through the invention of ,ward's airtight glass cases4 ,it is by this means that large numbers of the trees which produce the ,jesuit's bark have been successfully transplanted from ,america to the ,british possessions in the ,east1 where it is hoped they will become fully naturalized4 ,extirpation of ,vegetables4 ,lamentable as are the evils produced by the too general felling of the woods in the ,old ,world1 ,i believe it does not satisfactorily appear that any species of native forest tree has yet been extirpated by man on the ,eastern continent4 ,the roots1 stumps1 trunks1 and foliage found in bogs are recognized as belonging to still extant species4 ,except in some few cases where there is historical evidence that foreign material was employed1 the timber of the oldest ,european buildings1 and even of the lacustrine habitations of ,switzerland1 is evidently the product of trees still common in or near the countries where such architectural remains are found2 nor have the ,egyptian catacombs themselves revealed to us the former existence of any woods not now familiar to us as the growth of still living trees4#ee ,it is1 however1 said that the yew tree1 ,taxus baccata1 formerly very common in ,england1 ,germany1 and--as we are authorized to infer from ,theophrastus--in ,greece1 has almost wholly disappeared from the latter country1 and seems to be dying out in ,germany4 ,the wood of the yew surpasses that of any other ,european tree in closeness and fineness of grain1 and it is well known for the elasticity which of old made it so great a favorite with the ,english archer4 ,it is much in request among wood carvers and turners1 and the demand for it explains1 in part1 its increasing scarcity4 ,it is also worth remarking that no insect depends upon it for food or shelter1 or aids in its fructification1 no bird feeds upon its berries--the latter a circumstance of some importance1 because the tree hence wants one means of propagation or diffusion common to so many other plants4 ,but it is alleged that the reproductive power of the yew is exhausted1 and that it can no longer be readily propagated by the natural sowing of its seeds1 or by artificial methods4 ,if further investigation and careful experiment should establish this fact1 it will go far to show that a climatic change1 of a character unfavorable to the growth of the yew1 has really taken place in ,germany1 though not yet proved by instrumental observation1 and the most probable cause of such change would be found in the diminution of the area covered by the forests4 ,the industry of man is said to have been so successful in the local extirpation of noxious or useless vegetables in ,china1 that1 with the exception of a few water plants in the rice grounds1 it is sometimes impossible to find a single weed in an extensive district2 and the late eminent agriculturist1 ,mr4 ,coke1 is reported to have offered in vain a considerable reward for the detection of a weed in a large wheatfield on his estate in ,england4 ,in these cases1 however1 there is no reason to suppose that diligent husbandry has done more than to eradicate the pests of agriculture within a comparatively limited area1 and the cockle and the darnel will probably remain to plague the slovenly cultivator as long as the cereal grains continue to bless him4#ef ,origin of ,domestic ,plants4 ,one of the most important1 and1 at the same time1 most difficult questions connected with our subject is3 how far we are to regard our cereal grains1 our esculent bulbs and roots1 and the multiplied tree fruits of our gardens1 as artificially modified and improved forms of wild1 self-propagating vegetation4 ,the narratives of botanical travellers have often announced the discovery of the original form and habitat of domesticated plants1 and scientific journals have described the experiments by which the identity of particular wild and cultivated vegetables has been thought to be established4 ,it is confidently affirmed that maize and the potato--which we must suppose to have been first cultivated at a much later period than the breadstuffs and most other esculent vegetables of ,europe and the ,east--are found wild and self-propagating in ,spanish ,america1 though in forms not recognizable by the common observer as identical with the familiar corn and tuber of modern agriculture4 ,it was lately asserted1 upon what seemed very strong evidence1 that the ,a,egilops ovata1 a plant growing wild in ,southern ,france1 had been actually converted into common wheat2 but1 upon a repetition of the experiments1 later observers have declared that the apparent change was only a case of temporary hybridation or fecundation by the pollen of true wheat1 and that the grass alleged to be transformed into wheat could not be perpetuated as such from its own seed4 ,the very great modifications which cultivated plants are constantly undergoing under our eyes1 and the numerous varieties and races which spring up among them1 certainly countenance the doctrine1 that every domesticated vegetable1 however dependent upon human care for growth and propagation in its present form1 may have been really derived1 by a long succession of changes1 from some wild plant not now much resembling it4 ,but it is1 in every case1 a question of evidence4 ,the only satisfactory proof that a given wild plant is identical with a given garden or field vegetable1 is the test of experiment1 the actual growing of the one from the seed of the other1 or the conversion of the one into the other by transplantation and change of conditions4 ,it is hardly contended that any of the cereals or other plants important as human aliment1 or as objects of agricultural industry1 exist and propagate themselves uncultivated in the same form and with the same properties as when sown and reared by human art4#eg ,in fact1 the cases are rare where the identity of a wild with a domesticated plant is considered by the best authorities as conclusively established1 and we are warranted in affirming of but few of the latter1 as a historically known or experimentally proved fact1 that they ever did exist1 or could exist1 independently of man4#eh ,organic ,life as a ,geological and ,geographical ,agency4 ,the quantitative value of organic life1 as a geological agency1 seems to be inversely as the volume of the individual organism2 for nature supplies by numbers what is wanting in the bulk of the plant or animal out of whose remains or structures she forms strata covering whole provinces1 and builds up from the depths of the sea large islands1 if not continents4 ,there are1 it is true1 near the mouths of the great ,siberian rivers which empty themselves into the ,polar ,sea1 drift islands composed1 in an incredibly large proportion1 of the bones and tusks of elephants1 mastodons1 and other huge pachyderms1 and many extensive caves in various parts of the world are half filled with the skeletons of quadrupeds1 sometimes lying loose in the earth1 sometimes cemented together into an osseous breccia by a calcareous deposit or other binding material4 ,these remains of large animals1 though found in comparatively late formations1 generally belong to extinct species1 and their modern congeners or representatives do not exist in sufficient numbers to be of sensible importance in geology or in geography by the mere mass of their skeletons4#ei ,but the vegetable products found with them1 and1 in rare cases1 in the stomachs of some of them1 are those of yet extant plants2 and besides this evidence1 the recent discovery of works of human art1 deposited in juxtaposition with fossil bones1 and evidently at the same time and by the same agency which buried these latter--not to speak of alleged human bones found in the same strata--proves that the animals whose former existence they testify were contemporaneous with man1 and possibly even extirpated by him4#fj ,i do not propose to enter upon the thorny question1 whether the existing races of man are genealogically connected with these ancient types of humanity1 and ,i advert to these facts only for the sake of the suggestion that man1 in his earliest known stages of existence1 was probably a destructive power upon the earth1 though perhaps not so emphatically as his present representatives4 ,the larger wild animals are not now numerous enough in any one region to form extensive deposits by their remains2 but they have1 nevertheless1 a certain geographical importance4 ,if the myriads of large browsing and grazing quadrupeds which wander over the plains of ,southern ,africa--and the slaughter of which by thousands is the source of a ferocious pleasure and a brutal triumph to professedly civilized hunters--if the herds of the ,american bison1 which are numbered by hundreds of thousands1 do not produce visible changes in the forms of terrestrial surface1 they have at least an immense influence on the growth and distribution of vegetable life1 and1 of course1 indirectly upon all the physical conditions of soil and climate between which and vegetation a mutual interdependence exists4 ,the influence of wild quadrupeds upon vegetable life has been little studied1 and not many facts bearing upon it have been recorded1 but1 so far as it is known1 it appears to be conservative rather than pernicious4#fa ,few if any of them depend for their subsistence on vegetable products obtainable only by the destruction of the plant1 and they seem to confine their consumption almost exclusively to the annual harvest of leaf or twig1 or at least of parts of the vegetable easily reproduced4 ,if there are exceptions to this rule1 they are in cases where the numbers of the animal are so proportioned to the abundance of the vegetable1 that there is no danger of the extermination of the plant from the voracity of the quadruped1 or of the extinction of the quadruped from the scarcity of the plant4 ,in diet and natural wants the bison resembles the ox1 the ibex and the chamois assimilate themselves to the goat and the sheep2 but while the wild animal does not appear to be a destructive agency in the garden of nature1 his domestic congeners are eminently so4 ,this is partly from the change of habits resulting from domestication and association with man1 partly from the fact that the number of reclaimed animals is not determined by the natural relation of demand and spontaneous supply which regulates the multiplication of wild creatures1 but by the convenience of man1 who is1 in comparatively few things1 amenable to the control of the merely physical arrangements of nature4 ,when the domesticated animal escapes from human jurisdiction1 as in the case of the ox1 the horse1 the goat1 and perhaps the ass--which1 so far as ,i know1 are the only well-authenticated instances of the complete emancipation of household quadrupeds--he becomes again an unresisting subject of nature1 and all his economy is governed by the same laws as that of his fellows which have never been enslaved by man2 but1 so long as he obeys a human lord1 he is an auxiliary in the warfare his master is ever waging against all existences except those which he can tame to a willing servitude4 ,number of ,quadrupeds in the ,united ,states4 ,civilization is so intimately associated with1 if not dependent upon1 certain inferior forms of animal life1 that cultivated man has never failed to accompany himself1 in all his migrations1 with some of these humble attendants4 ,the ox1 the horse1 the sheep1 and even the comparatively useless dog and cat1 as well as several species of poultry1 are voluntarily transported by every emigrant colony1 and they soon multiply to numbers very far exceeding those of the wild genera most nearly corresponding to them4#fb ,according to the census of the ,united ,states for #ahfj1fc the total number of horses in all the ,states of the ,american ,union1 was1 in round numbers1 #g1cjj1jjj2 of asses and mules1 #a1cjj1jjj2 of the ox tribe1 #bi1jjj1jjj2fd of sheep1 #be1jjj1jjj2 and of swine1 #ci1jjj1jjj4 ,the only ,north ,american quadruped sufficiently gregarious in habits1 and sufficiently multiplied in numbers1 to form really large herds1 is the bison1 or1 as he is commonly called in ,america1 the buffalo2 and this animal is confined to the prairie region of the ,mississippi basin and ,northern ,mexico4 ,the engineers sent out to survey railroad routes to the ,pacific estimated the number of a single herd of bisons seen within the last ten years on the great plains near the ,upper ,missouri1 at not less than #bjj1jjj1 and yet the range occupied by this animal is now very much smaller in area than it was when the whites first established themselves on the prairies4#fe ,but it must be remarked that the ,american buffalo is a migratory animal1 and that1 at the season of his annual journeys1 the whole stock of a vast extent of pasture ground is collected into a single army1 which is seen at or very near any one point only for a few days during the entire season4 ,hence there is risk of great error in estimating the numbers of the bison in a given district from the magnitude of the herds seen at or about the same time at a single place of observation2 and1 upon the whole1 it is neither proved nor probable that the bison was ever1 at any one time1 as numerous in ,north ,america as the domestic bovine species is at present4 ,the elk1 the moose1 the musk ox1 the caribou1 and the smaller quadrupeds popularly embraced under the general name of deer1#ff though sufficient for the wants of a sparse savage population1 were never numerically very abundant1 and the carnivora which fed upon them were still less so4 ,it is almost needless to add that the ,rocky ,mountain sheep and goat must always have been very rare4 ,summing up the whole1 then1 it is evident that the wild quadrupeds of ,north ,america1 even when most numerous1 were few compared with their domestic successors1 that they required a much less supply of vegetable food1 and consequently were far less important as geographical elements than the many millions of hoofed and horned cattle now fed by civilized man on the same continent4 ,origin and ,transfer of ,domestic ,quadrupeds4 ,of the origin of our domestic animals1 we know historically nothing1 because their domestication belongs to the ages which preceded written history2 but though they cannot all be specifically identified with now extant wild animals1 it is presumable that they have been reclaimed from an originally wild state4 ,ancient annalists have preserved to us fewer data respecting the introduction of domestic animals into new countries than respecting the transplantation of domestic vegetables4 ,ritter1 in his learned essay on the camel1 has shown that this animal was not employed by the ,egyptians until a comparatively late period in their history2 that he was unknown to the ,carthaginians until after the downfall of their commonwealth2 and that his first appearance in ,western ,africa is more recent still4 ,the ,bactrian camel was certainly brought from ,asia ,minor to the ,northern shores of the ,black ,sea1 by the ,goths1 in the third or fourth century4#fg ,the ,arabian single-humped camel1 or dromedary1 has been carried to the ,canary ,islands1 partially introduced into ,australia1 ,greece1 ,spain1 and even ,tuscany1 experimented upon to little purpose in ,venezuela1 and finally imported by the ,american ,government into ,texas and ,new ,mexico1 where it finds the climate and the vegetable products best suited to its wants1 and promises to become a very useful agent in the promotion of the special civilization for which those regions are adapted4 ,america had no domestic quadruped but a species of dog1 the lama tribe1 and1 to a certain extent1 the bison or buffalo4#fh ,of course1 it owes the horse1 the ass1 the ox1 the sheep1 the goat1 and the swine1 as does also ,australia1 to ,european colonization4 ,modern ,europe has1 thus far1 not accomplished much in the way of importation of new animals1 though some interesting essays have been made4 ,the reindeer was successfully introduced into ,iceland about a century ago1 while similar attempts failed1 about the same time1 in ,scotland4 ,the ,cashmere or ,thibet goat was brought to ,france a generation since1 and succeeds well4 ,the same or an allied species and the ,asiatic buffalo were carried to ,south ,carolina about the year #ahej1 and the former1 at least1 is thought likely to prove of permanent value in the ,united ,states4 ,the yak1 or ,tartary ox1 seems to thrive in ,france1 and success has attended the recent efforts to introduce the ,south ,american alpaca into ,europe4 ,extirpation of ,quadrupeds4 ,although man never fails greatly to diminish1 and is perhaps destined ultimately to exterminate1 such of the larger wild quadrupeds as he cannot profitably domesticate1 yet their numbers often fluctuate1 and even after they seem almost extinct1 they sometimes suddenly increase1 without any intentional steps to promote such a result on his part4 ,during the wars which followed the ,french ,revolution1 the wolf multiplied in many parts of ,europe1 partly because the hunters were withdrawn from the woods to chase a nobler game1 and partly because the bodies of slain men and horses supplied this voracious quadruped with more abundant food4 ,the same animal became again more numerous in ,poland after the general disarming of the rural population by the ,russian ,government4 ,on the other hand1 when the hunters pursue the wolf1 the graminivorous wild quadrupeds increase1 and thus in turn promote the multiplication of their great four-footed destroyer by augmenting the supply of his nourishment4 ,so long as the fur of the beaver was extensively employed as a material for fine hats1 it bore a very high price1 and the chase of this quadruped was so keen that naturalists feared its speedy extinction4 ,when a ,parisian manufacturer invented the silk hat1 which soon came into almost universal use1 the demand for beavers' fur fell off1 and this animal--whose habits1 as we have seen1 are an important agency in the formation of bogs and other modifications of forest nature--immediately began to increase1 reappeared in haunts which he had long abandoned1 and can no longer be regarded as rare enough to be in immediate danger of extirpation4 ,thus the convenience or the caprice of ,parisian fashion has unconsciously exercised an influence which may sensibly affect the physical geography of a distant continent4 ,since the invention of gunpowder1 some quadrupeds have completely disappeared from many ,european and ,asiatic countries where they were formerly numerous4 ,the last wolf was killed in ,great ,britain two hundred years ago1 and the bear was extirpated from that island still earlier4 ,the ,british wild ox exists only in a few ,english and ,scottish parks1 while in ,irish bogs1 of no great apparent antiquity1 are found antlers which testify to the former existence of a stag much larger than any extant ,european species4 ,the lion is believed to have inhabited ,asia ,minor and ,syria1 and probably ,greece and ,sicily also1 long after the commencement of the historical period1 and he is even said to have been not yet extinct in the first-named two of these countries at the time of the first ,crusades4#fi ,two large graminivorous or browsing quadrupeds1 the ur and the schelk1 once common in ,germany1 are utterly extinct1 the eland and the auerochs nearly so4 ,the ,nibelungen-,lied1 which1 in the oldest form preserved to us1 dates from about the year #a1bjj1 though its original composition no doubt belongs to an earlier period1 thus sings3 ,then slowe the dowghtie ,sigfrid a wisent and an elk1 ,he smote four stoute uroxen and a grim and sturdie schelk4#gj ,modern naturalists identify the elk with the eland1 the wisent with the auerochs4 ,the period when the ur and the schelk became extinct is not known4 ,the auerochs survived in ,prussia until the middle of the last century1 but unless it is identical with a similar quadruped said to be found on the ,caucasus1 it now exists only in the ,russian imperial forest of ,bialowitz1 where about a thousand are still preserved1 and in some great menageries1 as for example that at ,schoenbrunn1 near ,vienna1 which1 in #aheb1 had four specimens4 ,the eland1 which is closely allied to the ,american wapiti1 if not specifically the same animal1 is still kept in the royal preserves of ,prussia1 to the number of four or five hundred individuals4 ,the chamois is becoming rare1 and the ibex or steinbock1 once common in all the high ,alps1 is now believed to be confined to the ,cogne mountains in ,piedmont1 between the valleys of the ,dora ,baltea and the ,orco4 ,number of ,birds in the ,united ,states4 ,the tame fowls play a much less conspicuous part in rural life than the quadrupeds1 and1 in their relations to the economy of nature1 they are of very much less moment than four-footed animals1 or than the undomesticated birds4 ,the domestic turkey#ga is probably more numerous in the territory of the ,united ,states than the wild bird of the same species ever was1 and the grouse cannot1 at the period of their greatest abundance1 have counted as many as we now number of the common hen4 ,the dove1 however1 must fall greatly short of the wild pigeon in multitude1 and it is hardly probable that the flocks of domestic geese and ducks are as numerous as once were those of their wild congeners4 ,the pigeon1 indeed1 seems to have multiplied immensely1 for some years after the first clearings in the woods1 because the settlers warred unsparingly upon the hawk1 while the crops of grain and other vegetable growths increased the supply of food within the reach of the young birds1 at the age when their power of flight is not yet great enough to enable them to seek it over a wide area4#gb ,the pigeon is not described by the earliest white inhabitants of the ,american ,states as filling the air with such clouds of winged life as astonish naturalists in the descriptions of ,audubon1 and1 at the present day1 the net and the gun have so reduced its abundance1 that its appearance in large numbers is recorded only at long intervals1 and it is never seen in the great flocks remembered by many still living observers as formerly very common4 ,birds as ,sowers and ,consumers of ,seeds1 and as ,destroyers of ,insects4 ,wild birds form of themselves a very conspicuous and interesting feature in the staffage1 as painters call it1 of the natural landscape1 and they are important elements in the view we are taking of geography1 whether we consider their immediate or their incidental influence4 ,birds affect vegetation directly by sowing seeds and by consuming them2 they affect it indirectly by destroying insects injurious1 or1 in some cases1 beneficial to vegetable life4 ,hence1 when we kill a seed-sowing bird1 we check the dissemination of a plant2 when we kill a bird which digests the seed it swallows1 we promote the increase of a vegetable4 ,nature protects the seeds of wild1 much more effectually than those of domesticated plants4 ,the cereal grains are completely digested when consumed by birds1 but the germ of the smaller stone fruits and of very many other wild vegetables is uninjured1 perhaps even stimulated to more vigorous growth1 by the natural chemistry of the bird's stomach4 ,the power of flight and the restless habits of the bird enable it to transport heavy seeds to far greater distances than they could be carried by the wind4 ,a swift-winged bird may drop cherry stones a thousand miles from the tree they grow on2 a hawk1 in tearing a pigeon1 may scatter from its crop the still fresh rice it had swallowed at a distance of ten degrees of latitude1#gc and thus the occurrence of isolated plants in situations where their presence cannot otherwise well be explained1 is easily accounted for4 ,there is a large class of seeds apparently specially fitted by nature for dissemination by animals4 ,i refer to those which attach themselves1 by means of hooks1 or by viscous juices1 to the coats of quadrupeds and the feathers of birds1 and are thus transported wherever their living vehicles may chance to wander4 ,some birds1 too1 deliberately bury seeds1 not indeed with a foresight aiming directly at the propagation of the plant1 but from apparently purposeless secretiveness1 or as a mode of preserving food for future use4 ,an unfortunate popular error greatly magnifies the injury done to the crops of grain and leguminous vegetables by wild birds4 ,very many of those generally supposed to consume large quantities of the seeds of cultivated plants really feed almost exclusively upon insects1 and frequent the wheatfields1 not for the sake of the grain1 but for the eggs1 larvae1 and fly of the multiplied tribes of insect life which are so destructive to the harvests4 ,this fact has been so well established by the examination of the stomachs of great numbers of birds in ,europe and ,new ,england1 at different seasons of the year1 that it is no longer open to doubt1 and it appears highly probable that even the species which consume more or less grain generally make amends1 by destroying insects whose ravages would have been still more injurious4#gd ,on this subject1 we have much other evidence besides that derived from dissection4 ,direct observation has shown1 in many instances1 that the destruction of wild birds has been followed by a great multiplication of noxious insects1 and1 on the other hand1 that these latter have been much reduced in numbers by the protection and increase of the birds that devour them4 ,many interesting facts of this nature have been collected by professed naturalists1 but ,i shall content myself with a few taken from familiar and generally accessible sources4 ,the following extract is from ,michelet1 ,l',oiseau pp4 #afi1 #agj3 ,the stingy farmer--an epithet justly and feelingly bestowed by ,virgil4 ,avaricious1 blind1 indeed1 who proscribes the birds--those destroyers of insects1 those defenders of his harvests4 ,not a grain for the creature which1 during the rains of winter1 hunts the future insect1 finds out the nests of the larvae1 examines1 turns over every leaf1 and destroys1 every day1 thousands of incipient caterpillars4 ,but sacks of corn for the mature insect1 whole fields for the grasshoppers1 which the bird would have made war upon4 ,with eyes fixed upon his furrow1 upon the present moment only1 without seeing and without foreseeing1 blind to the great harmony which is never broken with impunity1 he has everywhere demanded or approved laws for the extermination of that necessary ally of his toil--the insectivorous bird4 ,and the insect has well avenged the bird4 ,it has become necessary to revoke in haste the proscription4 ,in the ,isle of ,bourbon1 for instance1 a price was set on the head of the martin2 it disappeared1 and the grasshoppers took possession of the island1 devouring1 withering1 scorching with a biting drought all that they did not consume4 ,in ,north ,america it has been the same with the starling1 the protector of ,indian corn4#ge ,even the sparrow1 which really does attack grain1 but which protects it still more1 the pilferer1 the outlaw1 loaded with abuse and smitten with curses--it has been found in ,hungary that they were likely to perish without him1 that he alone could sustain the mighty war against the beetles and the thousand winged enemies that swarm in the lowlands2 they have revoked the decree of banishment1 recalled in haste this valiant militia1 which1 though deficient in discipline1 is nevertheless the salvation of the country4#gf ,not long since1 in the neighborhood of ,rouen and in the valley of ,monville1 the blackbird was for some time proscribed4 ,the beetles profited well by this proscription2 their larvae1 infinitely multiplied1 carried on their subterranean labors with such success1 that a meadow was shown me1 the surface of which was completely dried up1 every herbaceous root was consumed1 and the whole grassy mantle1 easily loosened1 might have been rolled up and carried away like a carpet4 ,diminution and ,extirpation of ,birds4 ,the general hostility of the ,european populace to the smaller birds is1 in part1 the remote effect of the reaction created by the game laws4 ,when the restrictions imposed upon the chase by those laws were suddenly removed in ,france1 the whole people at once commenced a destructive campaign against every species of wild animal4 ,arthur ,young1 writing in ,provence1 on the #cjth of ,august1 #aghi1 soon after the ,national ,assembly had declared the chase free1 thus complains of the annoyance he experienced from the use made by the peasantry of their newly won liberty4 ,one would think that every rusty firelock in all ,provence was at work in the indiscriminate destruction of all the birds4 ,the wadding buzzed by my ears1 or fell into my carriage1 five or six times in the course of the day4 99 99 ,the declaration of the ,assembly that every man is free to hunt on his own land 99 99 has filled all ,france with an intolerable cloud of sportsmen4 99 99 ,the declaration speaks of compensations and indemnities to the seigneurs1 but the ungovernable populace takes advantage of the abolition of the game laws and laughs at the obligation imposed by the decree4 ,the ,french ,revolution removed similar restrictions1 with similar results1 in other countries4 ,the habits then formed have become hereditary on the ,continent1 and though game laws still exist in ,england1 there is little doubt that the blind prejudices of the ignorant and half-educated classes in that country against birds are1 in some degree1 at least1 due to a legislation1 which1 by restricting the chase of all game worth killing1 drives the unprivileged sportsman to indemnify himself by slaughtering all wild life which is not reserved for the amusement of his betters4 ,hence the lord of the manor buys his partridges and his hares by sacrificing the bread of his tenants1 and so long as the farmers of ,crawley are forbidden to follow higher game1 they will suicidally revenge themselves by destroying the sparrows which protect their wheatfields4 ,on the ,continent1 and especially in ,italy1 the comparative scarcity and dearness of animal food combine with the feeling ,i have just mentioned to stimulate still further the destructive passions of the fowler4 ,in the ,tuscan province of ,grosseto1 containing less than #b1jjj square miles1 nearly #cjj1jjj thrushes and other small birds are annually brought to market4#gg ,birds are less hardy in constitution1 they possess less facility of accommodation1#gh and they are more severely affected by climatic excess than quadrupeds4 ,besides1 they generally want the means of shelter against the inclemency of the weather and against pursuit by their enemies1 which holes and dens afford to burrowing animals and to some larger beasts of prey4 ,the egg is exposed to many dangers before hatching1 and the young bird is especially tender1 defenceless1 and helpless4 ,every cold rain1 every violent wind1 every hailstorm during the breeding season1 destroys hundreds of nestlings1 and the parent often perishes with her progeny while brooding over it in the vain effort to protect it4#gi ,the great proportional numbers of birds1 their migratory habits1 and the ease with which they may escape most dangers that beset them1 would seem to secure them from extirpation1 and even from very great numerical reduction4 ,but experience shows that when not protected by law1 by popular favor or superstition1 or by other special circumstances1 they yield very readily to the hostile influences of civilization1 and1 though the first operations of the settler are favorable to the increase of many species1 the great extension of rural and of mechanical industry is1 in a variety of ways1 destructive even to tribes not directly warred upon by man4#hj ,nature sets bounds to the disproportionate increase of birds1 while at the same time1 by the multitude of their resources1 she secures them from extinction through her own spontaneous agencies4 ,man both preys upon them and wantonly destroys them4 ,the delicious flavor of game birds1 and the skill implied in the various arts of the sportsman who devotes himself to fowling1 make them favorite objects of the chase1 while the beauty of their plumage1 as a military and feminine decoration1 threatens to involve the sacrifice of the last survivor of many once numerous species4 ,thus far1 but few birds described by ancient or modern naturalists are known to have become absolutely extinct1 though there are some cases in which they are ascertained to have utterly disappeared from the face of the earth in very recent times4 ,the most familiar instances are those of the dodo1 a large bird peculiar to the ,mauritius or ,isle of ,france1 exterminated about the year #afij1 and now known only by two or three fragments of skeletons1 and the solitary1 which inhabited the islands of ,bourbon and ,rodriguez1 but has not been seen for more than a century4 ,a parrot and some other birds of the ,norfolk ,island group are said to have lately become extinct4 ,the wingless auk1 ,alca impennis1 a bird remarkable for its excessive fatness1 was very abundant two or three hundred years ago in the ,faroe ,islands1 and on the whole ,scandinavian seaboard4 ,the early voyagers found either the same or a closely allied species1 in immense numbers1 on all the coasts and islands of ,newfoundland4 ,the value of its flesh and its oil made it one of the most important resources of the inhabitants of those sterile regions1 and it was naturally an object of keen pursuit4 ,it is supposed to be now completely extinct1 and few museums can show even its skeleton4 ,there seems to be strong reason to believe that our boasted modern civilization is guiltless of one or two sins of extermination which have been committed in recent ages4 ,new ,zealand formerly possessed three species of dinornis1 one of which1 called moa by the islanders1 was much larger than the ostrich4 ,the condition in which the bones of these birds have been found and the traditions of the natives concur to prove that1 though the aborigines had probably extirpated them before the discovery of ,new ,zealand by the whites1 they still existed at a comparatively late period4 ,the same remarks apply to a winged giant the eggs of which have been brought from ,madagascar4 ,this bird must have much exceeded the dimensions of the moa1 at least so far as we can judge from the egg1 which is eight times as large as the average size of the ostrich egg1 or about one hundred and fifty times that of the hen4 ,but though we have no evidence that man has exterminated many species of birds1 we know that his persecutions have caused their disappearance from many localities where they once were common1 and greatly diminished their numbers in others4 ,the cappercailzie1 ,tetrao urogallus1 the finest of the grouse family1 formerly abundant in ,scotland1 had become extinct in ,great ,britain1 but has been reintroduced from ,sweden4#ha ,the ostrich is mentioned by all the old travellers1 as common on the ,isthmus of ,suez down to the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,it appears to have frequented ,syria and even ,asia ,minor at earlier periods1 but is now found only in the seclusion of remoter deserts4 ,the modern increased facilities of transportation have brought distant markets within reach of the professional hunter1 and thereby given a new impulse to his destructive propensities4 ,not only do all ,great ,britain and ,ireland contribute to the supply of game for the ,british capital1 but the canvas-back duck of the ,potomac1 and even the prairie hen from the basin of the ,mississippi1 may be found at the stalls of the ,london poulterer4 ,kohl#hb informs us that on the coasts of the ,north ,sea1 twenty thousand wild ducks are usually taken in the course of the season in a single decoy1 and sent to the large maritime towns for sale4 ,the statistics of the great ,european cities show a prodigious consumption of game birds1 but the official returns fall far below the truth1 because they do not include the rural districts1 and because neither the poacher nor his customers report the number of his victims4 ,reproduction1 in cultivated countries1 cannot keep pace with this excessive destruction1 and there is no doubt that all the wild birds which are chased for their flesh or their plumage are diminishing with a rapidity which justifies the fear that the last of them will soon follow the dodo and the wingless auk4 ,fortunately the larger birds which are pursued for their flesh or for their feathers1 and those the eggs of which are used as food1 are1 so far as we know the functions appointed to them by nature1 not otherwise specially useful to man1 and1 therefore1 their wholesale destruction is an economical evil only in the same sense in which all waste of productive capital is an evil4 ,if it were possible to confine the consumption of game fowl to a number equal to the annual increase1 the world would be a gainer1 but not to the same extent as it would be by checking the wanton sacrifice of millions of the smaller birds1 which are of no real value as food1 but which1 as we have seen1 render a most important service by battling1 in our behalf1 as well as in their own1 against the countless legions of humming and of creeping things1 with which the prolific powers of insect life would otherwise cover the earth4 ,introduction of ,birds4 ,man has undesignedly introduced into new districts perhaps fewer species of birds than of quadrupeds2 but the distribution of birds is very much influenced by the character of his industry1 and the transplantation of every object of agricultural production is1 at a longer or shorter interval1 followed by that of the birds which feed upon its seeds1 or more frequently upon the insects it harbors4 ,the vulture1 the crow1 and other winged scavengers1 follow the march of armies as regularly as the wolf4 ,birds accompany ships on long voyages1 for the sake of the offal which is thrown overboard1 and1 in such cases1 it might often happen that they would breed and become naturalized in countries where they had been unknown before4#hc ,there is a familiar story of an ,english bird which built its nest in an unused block in the rigging of a ship1 and made one or two short voyages with the vessel while hatching its eggs4 ,had the young become fledged while lying in a foreign harbor1 they would of course have claimed the rights of citizenship in the country where they first took to the wing4#hd ,some enthusiastic entomologist will1 perhaps1 by and by discover that insects and worms are as essential as the larger organisms to the proper working of the great terraqueous machine1 and we shall have as eloquent pleas in defence of the mosquito1 and perhaps even of the tzetze fly1 as ,toussenel and ,michelet have framed in behalf of the bird4#he ,the silkworm and the bee need no apologist2 a gallnut produced by the puncture of an insect on a ,syrian oak is a necessary ingredient in the ink ,i am writing with1 and from my windows ,i recognize the grain of the kermes and the cochineal in the gay habiliments of the holiday groups beneath them4 ,but agriculture1 too1 is indebted to the insect and the worm4 ,the ancients1 according to ,pliny1 were accustomed to hang branches of the wild fig upon the domestic tree1 in order that the insects which frequented the former might hasten the ripening of the cultivated fig by their punctures--or1 as others suppose1 might fructify it by transporting to it the pollen of the wild fruit--and this process1 called caprification1 is not yet entirely obsolete4 ,the earthworms long ago made good their title to the respect and gratitude of the farmer as well as of the angler4 ,the utility of the earthworms has been pointed out in many scientific as well as in many agricultural treatises4 ,the following extract1 cut from a newspaper1 will answer my present purpose3 ,mr4 ,josiah ,parkes1 the consulting engineer of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society of ,england1 says that worms are great assistants to the drainer1 and valuable aids to the farmer in keeping up the fertility of the soil4 ,he says they love moist1 but not wet soils2 they will bore down to1 but not into water2 they multiply rapidly on land after drainage1 and prefer a deeply dried soil4 ,on examining with ,mr4 ,thomas ,hammond1 of ,penhurst1 ,kent1 part of a field which he had deeply drained1 after long-previous shallow drainage1 he found that the worms had greatly increased in number1 and that their bores descended quite to the level of the pipes4 ,many worm bores were large enough to receive the little finger4 ,mr4 ,henry ,handley had informed him of a piece of land near the sea in ,lincolnshire1 over which the sea had broken and killed all the worms--the field remained sterile until the worms again inhabited it4 ,he also showed him a piece of pasture land near to his house1 in which worms were in such numbers that he thought their casts interfered too much with its produce1 which induced him to have it rolled at night in order to destroy the worms4 ,the result was1 that the fertility of the field greatly declined1 nor was it restored until they had recruited their numbers1 which was aided by collecting and transporting multitudes of worms from the fields4 ,the great depth into which worms will bore1 and from which they push up fine fertile soil1 and cast it on the surface1 has been admirably traced by ,mr4 ,c4 ,darwin1 of ,down1 ,kent1 who has shown that in a few years they have actually elevated the surface of fields by a large layer of rich mould1 several inches thick--thus affording nourishment to the roots of grasses1 and increasing the productiveness of the soil4 ,it should be added that the writer quoted1 and others who have discussed the subject1 have overlooked one very important element in the fertilization produced by earthworms4 ,i refer to the enrichment of the soil by their excreta during life1 and by the decomposition of their remains when they die4 ,the manure thus furnished is as valuable as the like amount of similar animal products derived from higher organisms1 and when we consider the prodigious numbers of these worms found on a single square yard of some soils1 we may easily see that they furnish no insignificant contribution to the nutritive material required for the growth of plants4#hf ,the perforations of the earthworm mechanically affect the texture of the soil and its permeability by water1 and they therefore have a certain influence on the form and character of surface4 ,but the geographical importance of insects proper1 as well as of worms1 depends principally on their connection with vegetable life as agents of its fecundation1 and of its destruction4#hg ,i am acquainted with no single fact so strikingly illustrative of this importance1 as the following statement which ,i take from a notice of ,darwin's volume1 ,on ,various ,contrivances by which ,british and ,foreign ,orchids are ,fertilized by ,insects1 in the ,saturday ,review1 of ,october #ah1 #ahfb3 ,the net result is1 that some six thousand species of orchids are absolutely dependent upon the agency of insects for their fertilization4 ,that is to say1 were those plants unvisited by insects1 they would all rapidly disappear4 ,what is true of the orchids is more or less true of many other vegetable families4 ,we do not know the limits of this agency1 and many of the insects habitually regarded as unqualified pests1 may directly or indirectly perform functions as important to the most valuable plants as the services rendered by certain tribes to the orchids4 ,i say directly or indirectly1 because1 besides the other arrangements of nature for checking the undue multiplication of particular species1 she has established a police among insects themselves1 by which some of them keep down or promote the increase of others2 for there are insects1 as well as birds and beasts1 of prey4 ,the existence of an insect which fertilizes a useful vegetable may depend on that of another1 which constitutes his food in some stage of his life1 and this other again may be as injurious to some plant as his destroyer is beneficial to another4 ,the equation of animal and vegetable life is too complicated a problem for human intelligence to solve1 and we can never know how wide a circle of disturbance we produce in the harmonies of nature when we throw the smallest pebble into the ocean of organic life4 ,this much1 however1 we seem authorized to conclude3 as often as we destroy the balance by deranging the original proportions between different orders of spontaneous life1 the law of self-preservation requires us to restore the equilibrium1 by either directly returning the weight abstracted from one scale1 or removing a corresponding quantity from the other4 ,in other words1 destruction must be either repaired by reproduction1 or compensated by new destruction in an opposite quarter4 ,the parlor aquarium has taught even those to whom it is but an amusing toy1 that the balance of animal and vegetable life must be preserved1 and that the excess of either is fatal to the other1 in the artificial tank as well as in natural waters4 ,a few years ago1 the water of the ,cochituate aqueduct at ,boston became so offensive in smell and taste as to be quite unfit for use4 ,scientific investigation found the cause in the too scrupulous care with which aquatic vegetation had been excluded from the reservoir1 and the consequent death and decay of the animalculae which could not be shut out1 nor live in the water without the vegetable element4#hh ,introduction of ,insects4 ,the general tendency of man's encroachments upon spontaneous nature has been to increase insect life at the expense of vegetation and of the smaller quadrupeds and birds4 ,doubtless there are insects in all woods1 but in temperate climates they are comparatively few and harmless1 and the most numerous tribes which breed in the forest1 or rather in its waters1 and indeed in all solitudes1 are those which little injure vegetation1 such as mosquitoes1 gnats1 and the like4 ,with the cultivated plants of man come the myriad tribes which feed or breed upon them1 and agriculture not only introduces new species1 but so multiplies the number of individuals as to defy calculation4 ,newly introduced vegetables frequently escape for years the insect plagues which had infested them in their native habitat2 but the importation of other varieties of the plant1 the exchange of seed1 or some mere accident1 is sure in the long run to carry the egg1 the larva1 or the chrysalis to the most distant shores where the plant assigned to it by nature as its possession has preceded it4 ,for many years after the colonization of the ,united ,states1 few or none of the insects which attack wheat in its different stages of growth1 were known in ,america4 ,during the ,revolutionary war1 the ,hessian fly1 ,cecidomyia destructor1 made its appearance1 and it was so called because it was first observed in the year when the ,hessian troops were brought over1 and was popularly supposed to have been accidentally imported by those unwelcome strangers4 ,other destroyers of cereal grains have since found their way across the ,atlantic1 and a noxious ,european aphis has first attacked the ,american wheatfields within the last four or five years4 ,unhappily1 in these cases of migration1 the natural corrective of excessive multiplication1 the parasitic or voracious enemy of the noxious insect1 does not always accompany the wanderings of its prey1 and the bane long precedes the antidote4 ,hence1 in the ,united ,states1 the ravages of imported insects injurious to cultivated crops1 not being checked by the counteracting influences which nature had provided to limit their devastations in the ,old ,world1 are much more destructive than in ,europe4 ,it is not known that the wheat midge is preyed upon in ,america by any other insect1 and in seasons favorable to it1 it multiplies to a degree which would prove almost fatal to the entire harvest1 were it not that1 in the great territorial extent of the ,united ,states1 there is room for such differences of soil and climate as1 in a given year1 to present in one ,state all the conditions favorable to the increase of a particular insect1 while in another1 the natural influences are hostile to it4 ,the only apparent remedy for this evil is1 to balance the disproportionate development of noxious foreign species by bringing from their native country the tribes which prey upon them4 ,this1 it seems1 has been attempted4 ,the ,united ,states' ,census ,report for #ahfj1 p4 #hb1 states that the ,new ,york ,agricultural ,society has introduced into this country from abroad certain parasites which ,providence has created to counteract the destructive powers of some of these depredators4 ,this is1 however1 not the only purpose for which man has designedly introduced foreign forms of insect life4 ,the eggs of the silkworm are known to have been brought from the farther ,east to ,europe in the sixth century1 and new silk spinners which feed on the castor oil bean and the ailanthus1 have recently been reared in ,france and in ,south ,america with promising success4 ,the cochineal1 long regularly bred in aboriginal ,america1 has been transplanted to ,spain1 and both the kermes insect and the cantharides have been transferred to other climates than their own4 ,the honey bee must be ranked next to the silkworm in economical importance4#hi ,this useful creature was carried to the ,united ,states by ,european colonists1 in the latter part of the seventeenth century2 it did not cross the ,mississippi till the close of the eighteenth1 and it is only within the last five or six years that it has been transported to ,california1 where it was previously unknown4 ,the ,italian stingless bee has very lately been introduced into the ,united ,states4 ,the insects and worms intentionally transplanted by man bear but a small proportion to those accidentally introduced by him4 ,plants and animals often carry their parasites with them1 and the traffic of commercial countries1 which exchange their products with every zone and every stage of social existence1 cannot fail to transfer in both directions the minute organisms that are1 in one way or another1 associated with almost every object important to the material interests of man4#ij ,the tenacity of life possessed by many insects1 their prodigious fecundity1 the length of time they often remain in the different phases of their existence1#ia the security of the retreats into which their small dimensions enable them to retire1 are all circumstances very favorable not only to the perpetuity of their species1 but to their transportation to distant climates and their multiplication in their new homes4 ,the teredo1 so destructive to shipping1 has been carried by the vessels whose wooden walls it mines to almost every part of the globe4 ,the termite1 or white ant1 is said to have been brought to ,rochefort by the commerce of that port a hundred years ago4#ib ,this creature is more injurious to wooden structures and implements than any other known insect4 ,it eats out almost the entire substance of the wood1 leaving only thin partitions between the galleries it excavates in it2 but as it never gnaws through the surface to the air1 a stick of timber may be almost wholly consumed without showing any external sign of the damage it has sustained4 ,the termite is found also in other parts of ,france1 and particularly at ,rochelle1 where1 thus far1 its ravages are confined to a single quarter of the city4 ,a borer1 of similar habits1 is not uncommon in ,italy1 and you may see in that country1 handsome chairs and other furniture which have been reduced by this insect to a framework of powder of post1 covered1 and apparently held together1 by nothing but the varnish4 ,the carnivorous1 and often the herbivorous insects render an important service to man by consuming dead and decaying animal and vegetable matter1 the decomposition of which would otherwise fill the air with effluvia noxious to health4 ,some of them1 the grave-digger beetle1 for instance1 bury the small animals in which they lay their eggs1 and thereby prevent the escape of the gases disengaged by putrefaction4 ,the prodigious rapidity of development in insect life1 the great numbers of the individuals in many species1 and the voracity of most of them while in the larva state1 justify the appellation of nature's scavengers which has been bestowed upon them1 and there is very little doubt that1 in warm countries1 they consume a much larger quantity of putrescent organic material than the quadrupeds and the birds which feed upon such aliment4 ,destruction of ,insects4 ,it is well known to naturalists1 but less familiarly to common observers1 that the aquatic larvae of some insects constitute1 at certain seasons1 a large part of the food of fresh-water fish1 while other larvae1 in their turn1 prey upon the spawn and even the young of their persecutors4#ic ,the larvae of the mosquito and the gnat are the favorite food of the trout in the wooded regions where those insects abound4#id ,earlier in the year the trout feeds on the larvae of the ,may fly1 which is itself very destructive to the spawn of the salmon1 and hence1 by a sort of house-that-,jack-built1 the destruction of the mosquito1 that feeds the trout that preys on the ,may fly that destroys the eggs that hatch the salmon that pampers the epicure1 may occasion a scarcity of this latter fish in waters where he would otherwise be abundant4 ,thus all nature is linked together by invisible bonds1 and every organic creature1 however low1 however feeble1 however dependent1 is necessary to the well-being of some other among the myriad forms of life with which the ,creator has peopled the earth4 ,i have said that man has promoted the increase of the insect and the worm1 by destroying the bird and the fish which feed upon them4 ,many insects1 in the four different stages of their growth1 inhabit in succession the earth1 the water1 and the air4 ,in each of these elements they have their special enemies1 and1 deep and dark as are the minute recesses in which they hide themselves1 they are pursued to the remotest1 obscurest corners by the executioners that nature has appointed to punish their delinquencies1 and furnished with cunning contrivances for ferreting out the offenders and dragging them into the light of day4 ,one tribe of birds1 the woodpeckers1 seems to depend for subsistence almost wholly on those insects which breed in dead or dying trees1 and it is1 perhaps1 needless to say that the injury these birds do the forest is imaginary4 ,they do not cut holes in the trunk of the tree to prepare a lodgment for a future colony of boring larvae1 but to extract the worm which has already begun his mining labors4 ,hence these birds are not found where the forester removes trees as fast as they become fit habitations for such insects4 ,in clearing new lands in the ,united ,states1 dead trees1 especially of the spike-leaved kinds1 too much decayed to serve for timber1 and which1 in that state1 are worth little for fuel1 are often allowed to stand until they fall of themselves4 ,such stubs1 as they are popularly called1 are filled with borers1 and often deeply cut by the woodpeckers1 whose strong bills enable them to penetrate to the very heart of the tree and drag out the lurking larvae4 ,after a few years1 the stubs fall1 or1 as wood becomes valuable1 are cut and carried off for firewood1 and1 at the same time1 the farmer selects for felling1 in the forest he has reserved as a permanent source of supply of fuel and timber1 the decaying trees which1 like the dead stems in the fields1 serve as a home for both the worm and his pursuer4 ,we thus gradually extirpate this tribe of insects1 and1 with them1 the species of birds which subsist principally upon them4 ,thus the fine1 large1 red-headed woodpecker1 ,picus erythrocephalus1 formerly very common in ,new ,england1 has almost entirely disappeared from those ,states1 since the dead trees are gone1 and the apples1 his favorite vegetable food1 are less abundant4 ,there are even large quadrupeds which feed almost exclusively upon insects4 ,the ant bear is strong enough to pull down the clay houses built by the species of termites that constitute his ordinary diet1 and the curious ai-ai1 a climbing quadruped of ,madagascar--of which ,i believe only a single specimen1 secured by ,mr4 ,sandwith1 has yet reached ,europe--is provided with a very slender1 hook-nailed finger1 long enough to reach far into a hole in the trunk of a tree1 and extract the worm which bored it4 ,reptiles4 ,but perhaps the most formidable foes of the insect1 and even of the small rodents1 are the reptiles4 ,the chameleon approaches the insect perched upon the twig of a tree1 with an almost imperceptible slowness of motion1 until1 at the distance of a foot1 he shoots out his long1 slimy tongue1 and rarely fails to secure the victim4 ,even the slow toad catches the swift and wary housefly in the same manner2 and in the warm countries of ,europe1 the numerous lizards contribute very essentially to the reduction of the insect population1 which they both surprise in the winged state upon walls and trees1 and consume as egg1 worm1 and chrysalis1 in their earlier metamorphoses4 ,the serpents feed much upon insects1 as well as upon mice1 moles1 and small reptiles1 including also other snakes4 ,the disgust and fear with which the serpent is so universally regarded expose him to constant persecution by man1 and perhaps no other animal is so relentlessly sacrificed by him4 ,in temperate climates1 snakes are consumed by scarcely any beast or bird of prey except the stork1 and they have few dangerous enemies but man1 though in the tropics other animals prey upon them4#ie ,it is doubtful whether any species of serpent has been exterminated within the human period1 and even the dense population of ,china has not been able completely to rid itself of the viper4 ,they have1 however1 almost entirely disappeared from particular localities4 ,the rattlesnake is now wholly unknown in many large districts where it was extremely common half a century ago1 and ,palestine has long been1 if not absolutely free from venomous serpents1 at least very nearly so4#if ,destruction of ,fish4 ,the inhabitants of the waters seem comparatively secure from human pursuit or interference by the inaccessibility of their retreats1 and by our ignorance of their habits--a natural result of the difficulty of observing the ways of creatures living in a medium in which we cannot exist4 ,human agency has1 nevertheless1 both directly and incidentally1 produced great changes in the population of the sea1 the lakes1 and the rivers1 and if the effects of such revolutions in aquatic life are apparently of small importance in general geography1 they are still not wholly inappreciable4 ,the great diminution in the abundance of the larger fish employed for food or pursued for products useful in the arts is familiar1 and when we consider how the vegetable and animal life on which they feed must be affected by the reduction of their numbers1 it is easy to see that their destruction may involve considerable modifications in many of the material arrangements of nature4 ,the whale does not appear to have been an object of pursuit by the ancients1 for any purpose1 nor do we know when the whale fishery first commenced4#ig ,it was1 however1 very actively prosecuted in the ,middle ,ages1 and the ,biscayans seem to have been particularly successful in this as indeed in other branches of nautical industry4#ih ,five hundred years ago1 whales abounded in every sea4 ,they long since became so rare in the ,mediterranean as not to afford encouragement for the fishery as a regular occupation2 and the great demand for oil and whalebone for mechanical and manufacturing purposes1 in the present century1 has stimulated the pursuit of the hugest of living creatures to such activity1 that he has now almost wholly disappeared from many favorite fishing grounds1 and in others is greatly diminished in numbers4 ,what special functions1 besides his uses to man1 are assigned to the whale in the economy of nature1 we do not know2 but some considerations1 suggested by the character of the food upon which certain species subsist1 deserve to be specially noticed4 ,none of the great mammals grouped under the general name of whale are rapacious4 ,they all live upon small organisms1 and the most numerous species feed almost wholly upon the soft gelatinous mollusks in which the sea abounds in all latitudes4 ,we cannot calculate even approximately the number of the whales1 or the quantity of organic nutriment consumed by an individual1 and of course we can form no estimate of the total amount of animal matter withdrawn by them1 in a given period1 from the waters of the sea4 ,it is certain1 however1 that it must have been enormous when they were more abundant1 and that it is still very considerable4 ,a very few years since1 the ,united ,states had more than six hundred whaling ships constantly employed in the ,pacific1 and the product of the ,american whale fishery for the year ending ,june #ast1 #ahfj1 was seven millions and a half of dollars4#ii ,the mere bulk of the whales destroyed in a single year by the ,american and the ,european vessels engaged in this fishery would form an island of no inconsiderable dimensions1 and each one of those taken must have consumed1 in the course of his growth1 many times his own weight of mollusks4 ,the destruction of the whales must have been followed by a proportional increase of the organisms they feed upon1 and if we had the means of comparing the statistics of these humble forms of life1 for even so short a period as that between the years #agfj and #ahfj1 we should find a difference sufficient1 possibly1 to suggest an explanation of some phenomena at present unaccounted for4 ,for instance1 as ,i have observed in another work1#ajj the phosphorescence of the sea was unknown to ancient writers1 or at least scarcely noticed by them1 and even ,homer--who1 blind as tradition makes him when he composed his epics1 had seen1 and marked1 in earlier life1 all that the glorious nature of the ,mediterranean and its coasts discloses to unscientific observation--nowhere alludes to this most beautiful and striking of maritime wonders4 ,in the passage just referred to1 ,i have endeavored to explain the silence of ancient writers with respect to this as well as other remarkable phenomena on psychological grounds2 but is it not possible that1 in modern times1 the animalculae which produce it may have immensely multiplied1 from the destruction of their natural enemies by man1 and hence that the gleam shot forth by their decomposition1 or by their living processes1 is both more frequent and more brilliant than in the days of classic antiquity8 ,although the whale does not prey upon smaller creatures resembling himself in form and habits1 yet true fishes are extremely voracious1 and almost every tribe devours unsparingly the feebler species1 and even the spawn and young of its own4 ,the enormous destruction of the pike1 the trout family1 and other ravenous fish1 as well as of the fishing birds1 the seal1 and the otter1 by man1 would naturally have occasioned a great increase in the weaker and more defenceless fish on which they feed1 had he not been as hostile to them also as to their persecutors4 ,we have little evidence that any fish employed as human food has naturally multiplied in modern times1 while all the more valuable tribes have been immensely reduced in numbers4#aja ,this reduction must have affected the more voracious species not used as food by man1 and accordingly the shark1 and other fish of similar habits1 though not objects of systematic pursuit1 are now comparatively rare in many waters where they formerly abounded4 ,the result is1 that man has greatly reduced the numbers of all larger marine animals1 and consequently indirectly favored the multiplication of the smaller aquatic organisms which entered into their nutriment4 ,this change in the relations of the organic and inorganic matter of the sea must have exercised an influence on the latter4 ,what that influence has been1 we cannot say1 still less can we predict what it will be hereafter2 but its action is not for that reason the less certain4 ,introduction and ,breeding of ,fish4 ,the introduction and successful breeding of fish of foreign species appears to have been long practised in ,china and was not unknown to the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,this art has been revived in modern times1 but thus far without any important results1 economical or physical1 though there seems to be good reason to believe it may be employed with advantage on an extended scale4 ,as in the case of plants1 man has sometimes undesignedly introduced new species of aquatic animals into countries distant from their birthplace4 ,the accidental escape of the ,chinese goldfish from ponds where they were bred as a garden ornament1 has peopled some ,european1 and it is said ,american streams with this species4 ,canals of navigation and irrigation interchange the fish of lakes and rivers widely separated by natural barriers1 as well as the plants which drop their seeds into the waters4 ,the ,erie ,canal1 as measured by its own channel1 has a length of about three hundred and sixty miles1 and it has ascending and descending locks in both directions4 ,by this route1 the fresh-water fish of the ,hudson and the ,upper ,lakes1 and some of the indigenous vegetables of these respective basins1 have intermixed1 and the fauna and flora of the two regions have now more species common to both than before the canal was opened4 ,some accidental attraction not unfrequently induces fish to follow a vessel for days in succession1 and they may thus be enticed into zones very distant from their native habitat4 ,several years ago1 ,i was told at ,constantinople1 upon good authority1 that a couple of fish1 of a species wholly unknown to the natives1 had just been taken in the ,bosphorus4 ,they were alleged to have followed an ,english ship from the ,thames1 and to have been frequently observed by the crew during the passage1 but ,i was unable to learn their specific character4 ,many of the fish which pass the greater part of the year in salt water spawn in fresh1 and some fresh-water species1 the common brook trout of ,new ,england for instance1 which1 under ordinary circumstances1 never visit the sea1 will1 if transferred to brooks emptying directly into the ocean1 go down into the salt water after spawning time1 and return again the next season4 ,sea fish1 the smelt among others1 are said to have been naturalized in fresh water1 and some naturalists have argued from the character of the fish of ,lake ,baikal1 and especially from the existence of the seal in that locality1 that all its inhabitants were originally marine species1 and have changed their habits with the gradual conversion of the saline waters of the lake--once1 as is assumed1 a maritime bay--into fresh4#ajb ,the presence of the seal is hardly conclusive on this point1 for it is sometimes seen in ,lake ,champlain at the distance of some hundreds of miles from even brackish water4 ,one of these animals was killed on the ice in that lake in ,february1 #ahaj1 another in ,february1 #ahdf1ajc and remains of the seal have been found at other times in the same waters4 ,the remains of the higher orders of aquatic animals are generally so perishable that1 even where most abundant1 they do not appear to be now forming permanent deposits of any considerable magnitude2 but it is quite otherwise with shell fish1 and1 as we shall see hereafter1 with many of the minute limeworkers of the sea4 ,there are1 on the southern coast of the ,united ,states1 beds of shells so extensive that they were formerly supposed to have been naturally accumulated1 and were appealed to as proofs of an elevation of the coast by geological causes2 but they are now ascertained to have been derived from oysters1 consumed in the course of long ages by the inhabitants of ,indian towns4 ,the planting of a bed of oysters in a new locality might1 very probably1 lead1 in time1 to the formation of a bank1 which1 in connection with other deposits1 might perceptibly affect the line of a coast1 or1 by changing the course of marine currents1 or the outlet of a river1 produce geographical changes of no small importance4 ,the transplantation of oysters to artificial ponds has long been common1 and it appears to have recently succeeded well on a large scale in the open sea on the ,french coast4 ,a great extension of this fishery is hoped for1 and it is now proposed to introduce upon the same coast the ,american soft clam1 which is so abundant in the tide-washed beach sands of ,long ,island ,sound as to form an important article in the diet of the neighboring population4 ,the intentional naturalization of foreign fish1 as ,i have said1 has not thus far yielded important fruits2 but though this particular branch of what is called1 not very happily1 pisciculture1 has not yet established its claims to the attention of the physical geographer or the political economist1 the artificial breeding of domestic fish has already produced very valuable results1 and is apparently destined to occupy an extremely conspicuous place in the history of man's efforts to compensate his prodigal waste of the gifts of nature4 ,the restoration of the primitive abundance of salt and fresh water fish1 is one of the greatest material benefits that1 with our present physical resources1 governments can hope to confer upon their subjects4 ,the rivers1 lakes1 and seacoasts once restocked1 and protected by law from exhaustion by taking fish at improper seasons1 by destructive methods1 and in extravagant quantities1 would continue indefinitely to furnish a very large supply of most healthful food1 which1 unlike all domestic and agricultural products1 would spontaneously renew itself and cost nothing but the taking4 ,there are many sterile or wornout soils in ,europe so situated that they might1 at no very formidable cost1 be converted into permanent lakes1 which would serve not only as reservoirs to retain the water of winter rains and snow1 and give it out in the dry season for irrigation1 but as breeding ponds for fish1 and would thus1 without further cost1 yield a larger supply of human food than can at present be obtained from them even at a great expenditure of capital and labor in agricultural operations4 ,the additions which might be made to the nutriment of the civilized world by a judicious administration of the resources of the waters1 would allow some restriction of the amount of soil at present employed for agricultural purposes1 and a corresponding extension of the area of the forest1 and would thus facilitate a return to primitive geographical arrangements which it is important partially to restore4 ,extirpation of ,aquatic ,animals4 ,it does not seem probable that man1 with all his rapacity and all his enginery1 will succeed in totally extirpating any salt-water fish1 but he has already exterminated at least one marine warm-blooded animal--,steller's sea cow--and the walrus1 the sea lion1 and other large amphibia1 as well as the principal fishing quadrupeds1 are in imminent danger of extinction4 ,steller's sea cow1 ,rhytina ,stelleri1 was first seen by ,europeans in the year #agda1 on ,bering's ,island4 ,it was a huge amphibious mammal1 weighing not less than eight thousand pounds1 and appears to have been confined exclusively to the islands and coasts in the neighborhood of ,bering's ,strait4 ,its flesh was very palatable1 and the localities it frequented were easily accessible from the ,russian establishments in ,kamtschatka4 ,as soon as its existence and character1 and the abundance of fur animals in the same waters1 were made known to the occupants of those posts by the return of the survivors of ,bering's expedition1 so active a chase was commenced against the amphibia of that region1 that1 in the course of twenty-seven years1 the sea cow1 described by ,steller as extremely numerous in #agda1 is believed to have been completely extirpated1 not a single individual having been seen since the year #agfh4 ,the various tribes of seals in the ,northern and ,southern ,pacific1 the walrus and the sea otter1 are already so reduced in numbers that they seem destined soon to follow the sea cow1 unless protected by legislation stringent enough1 and a police energetic enough1 to repress the ardent cupidity of their pursuers4 ,the seals1 the otter tribe1 and many other amphibia which feed almost exclusively upon fish1 are extremely voracious1 and of course their destruction or numerical reduction must have favored the multiplication of the species of fish principally preyed upon by them4 ,i have been assured by the keeper of several tamed seals that1 if supplied at frequent intervals1 each seal would devour not less than fourteen pounds of fish1 or about a quarter of his own weight1 in a day4#ajd ,a very intelligent and observing hunter1 who has passed a great part of his life in the forest1 after carefully watching the habits of the fresh-water otter of the ,northern ,american ,states1 estimates their consumption of fish at about four pounds per day4 ,man has promoted the multiplication of fish by making war on their brute enemies1 but he has by no means thereby compensated his own greater destructiveness4#aje ,the bird and beast of prey1 whether on land or in the water1 hunt only as long as they feel the stimulus of hunger1 their ravages are limited by the demands of present appetite1 and they do not wastefully destroy what they cannot consume4 ,man1 on the contrary1 angles to-day that he may dine to-morrow2 he takes and dries millions of fish on the banks of ,newfoundland1 that the fervent ,catholic of the shores of the ,mediterranean may have wherewithal to satisfy the cravings of the stomach during next year's ,lent1 without imperilling his soul by violating the discipline of the papal church2 and all the arrangements of his fisheries are so organized as to involve the destruction of many more fish than are secured for human use1 and the loss of a large proportion of the annual harvest of the sea in the process of curing1 or in transportation to the places of its consumption4#ajf ,fish are more affected than quadrupeds by slight and even imperceptible differences in their breeding places and feeding grounds4 ,every river1 every brook1 every lake stamps a special character upon its salmon1 its shad1 and its trout1 which is at once recognized by those who deal in or consume them4 ,no skill can give the fish fattened by food selected and prepared by man the flavor of those which are nourished at the table of nature1 and the trout of the artificial ponds in ,germany and ,switzerland are so inferior to the brook fish of the same species and climate1 that it is hard to believe them identical4 ,the superior sapidity of the ,american trout to the ,european species1 which is familiar to every one acquainted with both continents1 is probably due less to specific difference than to the fact that1 even in the parts of the ,new ,world which have been longest cultivated1 wild nature is not yet tamed down to the character it has assumed in the ,old1 and which it will acquire in ,america also when her civilization shall be as ancient as is now that of ,europe4 ,man has hitherto hardly anywhere produced such climatic or other changes as would suffice of themselves totally to banish the wild inhabitants of the dry land1 and the disappearance of the native birds and quadrupeds from particular localities is to be ascribed quite as much to his direct persecutions as to the want of forest shelter1 of appropriate food1 or of other conditions indispensable to their existence4 ,but almost all the processes of agriculture1 and of mechanical and chemical industry1 are fatally destructive to aquatic animals within reach of their influence4 ,when1 in consequence of clearing the woods1 the changes already described as thereby produced in the beds and currents of rivers1 are in progress1 the spawning grounds of fish are exposed from year to year to a succession of mechanical disturbances2 the temperature of the water is higher in summer1 colder in winter1 than when it was shaded and protected by wood2 the smaller organisms1 which formed the sustenance of the young fry1 disappear or are reduced in numbers1 and new enemies are added to the old foes that preyed upon them2 the increased turbidness of the water in the annual inundations chokes the fish2 and1 finally1 the quickened velocity of its current sweeps them down into the larger rivers or into the sea1 before they are yet strong enough to support so great a change of circumstances4#ajg ,industrial operations are not less destructive to fish which live or spawn in fresh water4 ,milldams impede their migrations1 if they do not absolutely prevent them1 the sawdust from lumber mills clogs their gills1 and the thousand deleterious mineral substances1 discharged into rivers from metallurgical1 chemical1 and manufacturing establishments1 poison them by shoals4 ,minute ,organisms4 ,besides the larger creatures of the land and of the sea1 the quadrupeds1 the reptiles1 the birds1 the amphibia1 the crustacea1 the fish1 the insects1 and the worms1 there are other countless forms of vital being4 ,earth1 water1 the ducts and fluids of vegetable and of animal life1 the very air we breathe1 are peopled by minute organisms which perform most important functions in both the living and the inanimate kingdoms of nature4 ,of the offices assigned to these creatures1 the most familiar to common observation is the extraction of lime1 and more rarely1 of silex1 from the waters inhabited by them1 and the deposit of these minerals in a solid form1 either as the material of their habitations or as the exuviae of their bodies4 ,the microscope and other means of scientific observation assure us that the chalk beds of ,england and of ,france1 the coral reefs of marine waters in warm climates1 vast calcareous and silicious deposits in the sea and in many fresh-water ponds1 the common polishing earths and slates1 and many species of apparently dense and solid rock1 are the work of the humble organisms of which ,i speak1 often1 indeed1 of animalculae so small as to become visible only by the aid of lenses magnifying a hundred times the linear measures4 ,it is popularly supposed that animalculae1 or what are commonly embraced under the vague name of infusoria1 inhabit the water alone1 but the atmospheric dust transported by every wind and deposited by every calm is full of microscopic life or of its relics4 ,the soil on which the city of ,berlin stands1 contains at the depth of ten or fifteen feet below the surface1 living elaborators of silex2#ajh and a microscopic examination of a handful of earth connected with the material evidences of guilt has enabled the naturalist to point out the very spot where a crime was committed4 ,it has been computed that one sixth part of the solid matter let fall by great rivers at their outlets consists of still recognizable infusory shells and shields1 and1 as the friction of rolling water must reduce much of these fragile structures to a state of comminution which even the microscope cannot resolve into distinct particles and identify as relics of animal or of vegetable life1 we must conclude that a considerably larger proportion of river deposits is really the product of animalcules4#aji ,it is evident that the chemical1 and in many cases the mechanical character of a great number of the objects important in the material economy of human life1 must be affected by the presence of so large an organic element in their substance1 and it is equally obvious that all agricultural and all industrial operations tend to disturb the natural arrangements of this element1 to increase or to diminish the special adaptation of every medium in which it lives to the particular orders of being inhabited by it4 ,the conversion of woodland into pasturage1 of pasture into plough land1 of swamp or of shallow sea into dry ground1 the rotations of cultivated crops1 must prove fatal to millions of living things upon every rood of surface thus deranged by man1 and must1 at the same time1 more or less fully compensate this destruction of life by promoting the growth and multiplication of other tribes equally minute in dimensions4 ,i do not know that man has yet endeavored to avail himself1 by artificial contrivances1 of the agency of these wonderful architects and manufacturers4 ,we are hardly well enough acquainted with their natural economy to devise means to turn their industry to profitable account1 and they are in very many cases too slow in producing visible results for an age so impatient as ours4 ,the over-civilization of the nineteenth century cannot wait for wealth to be amassed by infinitesimal gains1 and we are in haste to speculate upon the powers of nature1 as we do upon objects of bargain and sale in our trafficking one with another4 ,but there are still some cases where the little we know of a life1 whose workings are invisible to the naked eye1 suggests the possibility of advantageously directing the efforts of troops of artisans that we cannot see4 ,upon coasts occupied by the corallines1 the reef-building animalcule does not work near the mouth of rivers4 ,hence the change of the outlet of a stream1 often a very easy matter1 may promote the construction of a barrier to coast navigation at one point1 and check the formation of a reef at another1 by diverting a current of fresh water from the former and pouring it into the sea at the latter4 ,cases may probably be found in tropical seas1 where rivers have prevented the working of the coral animalcules in straits separating islands from each other or from the mainland4 ,the diversion of such streams might remove this obstacle1 and reefs consequently be formed which should convert an archipelago into a single large island1 and finally join that to the neighboring continent4 ,quatrefages proposed to destroy the teredo in harbors by impregnating the water with a mineral solution fatal to them4 ,perhaps the labors of the coralline animals might be arrested over a considerable extent of sea coast by similar means4 ,the reef builders are leisurely architects1 but the precious coral is formed so rapidly that the beds may be refished advantageously as often as once in ten years4#aaj ,it does not seem impossible that this coral might be transplanted to the ,american coast1 where the ,gulf stream would furnish a suitable temperature beyond the climatic limits that otherwise confine its growth2 and thus a new source of profit might perhaps be added to the scanty returns of the hardy fisherman4 ,in certain geological formations1 the diatomaceae deposit1 at the bottom of fresh-water ponds1 beds of silicious shields1 valuable as a material for a species of very light firebrick1 in the manufacture of water glass and of hydraulic cement1 and ultimately1 doubtless1 in many yet undiscovered industrial processes4 ,an attentive study of the conditions favorable to the propagation of the diatomaceae might perhaps help us to profit directly by the productivity of this organism1 and1 at the same time1 disclose secrets of nature capable of being turned to valuable account in dealing with silicious rocks1 and the metal which is the base of them4 ,our acquaintance with the obscure and infinitesimal life of which ,i have now been treating is very recent1 and still very imperfect4 ,we know that it is of vast importance in the economy of nature1 but we are so ambitious to grasp the great1 so little accustomed to occupy ourselves with the minute1 that we are not yet prepared to enter seriously upon the question how far we can control and direct the operations1 not of unembodied physical forces1 but of beings1 in popular apprehension1 almost as immaterial as they4 ,nature has no unit of magnitude by which she measures her works4 ,man takes his standards of dimension from himself4 ,the hair's breadth was his minimum until the microscope told him that there are animated creatures to which one of the hairs of his head is a larger cylinder than is the trunk of the giant ,california redwood to him4 ,he borrows his inch from the breadth of his thumb1 his palm and span from the width of his hand and the spread of his fingers1 his foot from the length of the organ so named2 his cubit is the distance from the tip of his middle finger to his elbow1 and his fathom is the space he can measure with his outstretched arms4 ,to a being who instinctively finds the standard of all magnitudes in his own material frame1 all objects exceeding his own dimensions are absolutely great1 all falling short of them absolutely small4 ,hence we habitually regard the whale and the elephant as essentially large and therefore important creatures1 the animalcule as an essentially small and therefore unimportant organism4 ,but no geological formation owes its origin to the labors or the remains of the huge mammal1 while the animalcule composes1 or has furnished1 the substance of strata thousands of feet in thickness1 and extending1 in unbroken beds1 over many degrees of terrestrial surface4 ,if man is destined to inhabit the earth much longer1 and to advance in natural knowledge with the rapidity which has marked his progress in physical science for the last two or three centuries1 he will learn to put a wiser estimate on the works of creation1 and will derive not only great instruction from studying the ways of nature in her obscurest1 humblest walks1 but great material advantage from stimulating her productive energies in provinces of her empire hitherto regarded as forever inaccessible1 utterly barren4#aaa ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,woods4 ,,the ,,habitable ,,earth ,,originally ,,wooded--,,the ,,forest ,,does ,,not ,,furnish ,,food ,,for ,,man--,,first ,,removal ,,of ,,the ,,woods--,,effects ,,of ,,fire ,,on ,,forest ,,soil--,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,destruction ,,of ,,the ,,forest--,,electrical ,,influence ,,of ,,trees--,,chemical ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,forest4 ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,forest1 ,,considered ,,as ,,inorganic ,,matter1 ,,on ,,temperature3 a1 ,,absorbing ,,and ,,emitting ,,surface2 b1 ,,trees ,,as ,,conductors ,,of ,,heat2 c1 ,,trees ,,in ,,summer ,,and ,,in ,,winter2 d1 ,,dead ,,products ,,of ,,trees2 e1 ,,trees ,,as ,a ,,shelter ,,to ,,grounds ,,to ,,the ,,leeward ,,of ,,them2 f1 ,,trees ,,as ,a ,,protection ,,against ,,malaria--,,the ,,forest1 ,,as ,,inorganic ,,matter1 ,,tends ,,to ,,mitigate ,,extremes4 ,,trees ,,as ,,organisms3 ,,specific ,,temperature--,,total ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,forest ,,on ,,temperature4 ,,influence ,,of ,,forests ,,on ,,the ,,humidity ,,of ,,the ,,air ,,and ,,the ,,earth3 a1 ,,as ,,inorganic ,,matter2 b1 ,,as ,,organic--,,wood ,,mosses ,,and ,,fungi-- ,,flow ,,of ,,sap--,,absorption ,,and ,,exhalation ,,of ,,moisture ,,by ,,trees--,,balance ,,of ,,conflicting ,,influences--,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,forest ,,on ,,temperature ,,and ,,precipitation--,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,forest ,,on ,,the ,,humidity ,,of ,,the ,,soil-- ,,its ,,influence ,,on ,,the ,,flow ,,of ,,springs--,,general ,,consequences ,,of ,,the ,,destruction ,,of ,,the ,,woods--,,literature ,,and ,,condition ,,of ,,the ,,forest ,,in ,,different ,,countries--,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,forest ,,on ,,inundations-- ,,destructive ,,action ,,of ,,torrents--,,the ,,po ,,and ,,its ,,deposits--,,mountain ,,slides--,,protection ,,against ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,rocks ,,and ,,avalanches ,,by ,,trees--,,principal ,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,destruction ,,of ,,the ,,forest--,,american ,,forest ,,trees--,,special ,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,destruction ,,of ,,european ,,woods-- ,,royal ,,forests ,,and ,,game ,,laws--,,small ,,forest ,,plants1 ,,vitality ,,of ,,seeds-- ,,utility ,,of ,,the ,,forest--,,the ,,forests ,,of ,,europe--,,forests ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,and ,,canada--,,the ,,economy ,,of ,,the ,,forest--,,european ,,and ,,american ,,trees ,,compared--,,sylviculture--,,instabilit y ,,of ,,american ,,life4 ,the ,habitable ,earth ,originally ,wooded4 ,there is good reason to believe that the surface of the habitable earth1 in all the climates and regions which have been the abodes of dense and civilized populations1 was1 with few exceptions1 already covered with a forest growth when it first became the home of man4 ,this we infer from the extensive vegetable remains--trunks1 branches1 roots1 fruits1 seeds1 and leaves of trees--so often found in conjunction with works of primitive art1 in the boggy soil of districts where no forests appear to have existed within the eras through which written annals reach2 from ancient historical records1 which prove that large provinces1 where the earth has long been wholly bare of trees1 were clothed with vast and almost unbroken woods when first made known to ,greek and ,roman civilization2#aab and from the state of much of ,north and of ,south ,america when they were discovered and colonized by the ,european race4#aac ,these evidences are strengthened by observation of the natural economy of our own time2 for1 whenever a tract of country1 once inhabited and cultivated by man1 is abandoned by him and by domestic animals1#aad and surrendered to the undisturbed influences of spontaneous nature1 its soil sooner or later clothes itself with herbaceous and arborescent plants1 and at no long interval1 with a dense forest growth4 ,indeed1 upon surfaces of a certain stability1 and not absolutely precipitous inclination1 the special conditions required for the spontaneous propagation of trees may all be negatively expressed and reduced to these three3 exemption from defect or excess of moisture1 from perpetual frost1 and from the depredations of man and browsing quadrupeds4 ,where these requisites are secured1 the hardest rock is as certain to be overgrown with wood as the most fertile plain1 though1 for obvious reasons1 the process is slower in the former than in the latter case4 ,lichens and mosses first prepare the way for a more highly organized vegetation4 ,they retain the moisture of rains and dews1 and bring it to act1 in combination with the gases evolved by their organic processes1 in decomposing the surface of the rocks they cover2 they arrest and confine the dust which the wind scatters over them1 and their final decay adds new material to the soil already half formed beneath and upon them4 ,a very thin stratum of mould is sufficient for the germination of seeds of the hardy evergreens and birches1 the roots of which are often found in immediate contact with the rock1 supplying their trees with nourishment from a soil derived from the decomposition of their own foliage1 or sending out long rootlets into the surrounding earth in search of juices to feed them4 ,the eruptive matter of volcanoes1 forbidding as is its aspect1 does not refuse nutriment to the woods4 ,the refractory lava of ,etna1 it is true1 remains long barren1 and that of the great eruption of #affi is still almost wholly devoid of vegetation4#aae ,but the cactus is making inroads even here1 while the volcanic sand and molten rock thrown out by ,vesuvius soon becomes productive4 ,george ,sandys1 who visited this latter mountain in #afaa1 after it had reposed for several centuries1 found the throat of the volcano at the bottom of the crater almost choked with broken rocks and trees that are falne therein4 ,next to this1 he continues1 the matter thrown up is ruddy1 light1 and soft3 more removed1 blacke and ponderous3 the uttermost brow1 that declineth like the seates in a theater1 flourishing with trees and excellent pasturage4 ,the midst of the hill is shaded with chestnut trees1 and others bearing sundry fruits4#aaf ,i am convinced that forests would soon cover many parts of the ,arabian and ,african deserts1 if man and domestic animals1 especially the goat and the camel1 were banished from them4 ,the hard palate and tongue and strong teeth and jaws of this latter quadruped enable him to break off and masticate tough and thorny branches as large as the finger4 ,he is particularly fond of the smaller twigs1 leaves1 and seedpods of the sont and other acacias1 which1 like the ,american ,robinia1 thrive well on dry and sandy soils1 and he spares no tree the branches of which are within his reach1 except1 if ,i remember right1 the tamarisk that produces manna4 ,young trees sprout plentifully around the springs and along the winter watercourses of the desert1 and these are just the halting stations of the caravans and their routes of travel4 ,in the shade of these trees1 annual grasses and perennial shrubs shoot up1 but are mown down by the hungry cattle of the ,bedouin1 as fast as they grow4 ,a few years of undisturbed vegetation would suffice to cover such points with groves1 and these would gradually extend themselves over soils where now scarcely any green thing but the bitter colocynth and the poisonous foxglove is ever seen4 ,the ,forest does not ,furnish ,food for ,man4 ,in a region absolutely covered with trees1 human life could not long be sustained1 for want of animal and vegetable food4 ,the depths of the forest seldom furnish either bulb or fruit suited to the nourishment of man2 and the fowls and beasts on which he feeds are scarcely seen except upon the margin of the wood1 for here only grow the shrubs and grasses1 and here only are found the seeds and insects1 which form the sustenance of the non-carnivorous birds and quadrupeds4#aag ,first ,removal of the ,forest4 ,as soon as multiplying man had filled the open grounds along the margin of the rivers1 the lakes1 and the sea1 and sufficiently peopled the natural meadows and savannas of the interior1 where such existed1#aah he could find room for expansion and further growth1 only by the removal of a portion of the forest that hemmed him in4 ,the destruction of the woods1 then1 was man's first geographical conquest1 his first violation of the harmonies of inanimate nature4 ,primitive man had little occasion to fell trees for fuel1 or1 for the construction of dwellings1 boats1 and the implements of his rude agriculture and handicrafts4 ,windfalls would furnish a thin population with a sufficient supply of such material1 and if occasionally a growing tree was cut1 the injury to the forest would be too insignificant to be at all appreciable4 ,the accidental escape and spread of fire1 or1 possibly1 the combustion of forests by lightning1 must have first suggested the advantages to be derived from the removal of too abundant and extensive woods1 and1 at the same time1 have pointed out a means by which a large tract of surface could readily be cleared of much of this natural incumbrance4 ,as soon as agriculture had commenced at all1 it would be observed that the growth of cultivated plants1 as well as of many species of wild vegetation1 was particularly rapid and luxuriant on soils which had been burned over1 and thus a new stimulus would be given to the practice of destroying the woods by fire1 as a means of both extending the open grounds1 and making the acquisition of a yet more productive soil4 ,after a few harvests had exhausted the first rank fertility of the virgin mould1 or when weeds and briers and the sprouting roots of the trees had begun to choke the crops of the half-subdued soil1 the ground would be abandoned for new fields won from the forest by the same means1 and the deserted plain or hillock would soon clothe itself anew with shrubs and trees1 to be again subjected to the same destructive process1 and again surrendered to the restorative powers of vegetable nature4#aai ,this rude economy would be continued for generations1 and wasteful as it is1 is still largely pursued in ,northern ,sweden1 ,swedish ,lapland1 and sometimes even in ,france and the ,united ,states4#abj ,effects of ,fire on ,forest ,soil4 ,aside from the mechanical and chemical effects of the disturbance of the soil by agricultural operations1 and of the freer admission of sun1 rain1 and air to the ground1 the fire of itself exerts an important influence on its texture and condition4 ,it consumes a portion of the half-decayed vegetable mould which served to hold its mineral particles together and to retain the water of precipitation1 and thus loosens1 pulverizes1 and dries the earth2 it destroys reptiles1 insects1 and worms1 with their eggs1 and the seeds of trees and of smaller plants2 it supplies1 in the ashes which it deposits on the surface1 important elements for the growth of a new forest clothing1 as well as of the usual objects of agricultural industry2 and by the changes thus produced1 it fits the ground for the reception of a vegetation different in character from that which had spontaneously covered it4 ,these new conditions help to explain the natural succession of forest crops1 so generally observed in all woods cleared by fire and then abandoned4 ,there is no doubt1 however1 that other influences contribute to the same result1 because effects more or less analogous follow when the trees are destroyed by other causes1 as by high winds1 by the woodman's axe1 and even by natural decay4#aba ,effects of ,destruction of the ,forest4 ,the physico-geographical effects of the destruction of the forests may be divided into two great classes1 each having an important influence on vegetable and on animal life in all their manifestations1 as well as on every branch of rural economy and productive industry1 and1 therefore1 on all the material interests of man4 ,the first respects the meteorology of the countries exposed to the action of these influences2 the second1 their superficial geography1 or1 in other words1 configuration1 consistence1 and clothing of surface4 ,for reasons assigned in the first chapter1 the meteorological or climatic branch of the subject is the most obscure1 and the conclusions of physicists respecting it are1 in a great degree1 inferential only1 not founded on experiment or direct observation4 ,they are1 as might be expected1 somewhat discordant1 though certain general results are almost universally accepted1 and seem indeed too well supported to admit of serious question4 ,electrical ,influence of ,trees4 ,the properties of trees1 singly and in groups1 as exciters or conductors of electricity1 and their consequent influence upon the electrical state of the atmosphere1 do not appear to have been much investigated2 and the conditions of the forest itself are so variable and so complicated1 that the solution of any general problem respecting its electrical influence would be a matter of extreme difficulty4 ,it is1 indeed1 impossible to suppose that a dense cloud1 a sea of vapor1 can pass over miles of surface bristling with good conductors1 without undergoing some change of electrical condition4 ,hypothetical cases may be put in which the character of the change could be deduced from the known laws of electrical action4 ,but in actual nature1 the elements are too numerous for us to seize4 ,the true electrical condition of neither cloud nor forest could be known1 and it could seldom be predicted whether the vapors would be dissolved as they floated over the wood1 or discharged upon it in a deluge of rain4 ,with regard to possible electrical influences of the forest1 wider still in their range of action1 the uncertainty is even greater4 ,the data which alone could lead to certain1 or even probable1 conclusions are wanting1 and we should1 therefore1 only embarrass our argument by any attempt to discuss this meteorological element1 important as it may be1 in its relations of cause and effect to more familiar and better understood meteoric phenomena4 ,it may1 however1 be observed that hail storms--which were once generally supposed1 and are still held by many1 to be produced by a specific electrical action1 and which1 at least1 are always accompanied by electrical disturbances--are believed1 in all countries particularly exposed to that scourge1 to have become more frequent and destructive in proportion as the forests have been cleared4 ,caimi observes3 ,when the chains of the ,alps and the ,apennines had not yet been stripped of their magnificent crown of woods1 the ,may hail1 which now desolates the fertile plains of ,lombardy1 was much less frequent2 but since the general prostration of the forest1 these tempests are laying waste even the mountain soils whose older inhabitants scarcely knew this plague4#abb ,the paragrandini1#abc which the learned curate of ,rivolta advised to erect1 with sheaves of straw set up vertically1 over a great extent of cultivated country1 are but a ,liliputian image of the vast paragrandini1 pines1 larches1 firs1 which nature had planted by millions on the crests and ridges of the ,alps and the ,apennines4#abd ,electrical action being diminished1 says ,meguscher1 and the rapid congelation of vapors by the abstraction of heat being impeded by the influence of the woods1 it is rare that hail or waterspouts are produced1 within the precincts of a large forest when it is assailed by the tempest4#abe ,arthur ,young was told that since the forests which covered the mountains between the ,riviera and the county of ,montferrat had disappeared1 hail had become more destructive in the district of ,acqui1#abf and it appears upon good authority1 that a similar increase in the frequency and violence of hail storms in the neighborhood of ,saluzzo and ,mondovi1 the lower part of the ,valtelline1 and the territory of ,verona and ,vicenza1 is probably to be ascribed to a similar cause4#abg ,chemical ,influence of the ,forest4 ,we know that the air in a close apartment is appreciably affected through the inspiration and expiration of gases by plants growing in it4 ,the same operations are performed on a gigantic scale by the forest1 and it has even been supposed that the absorption of carbon1 by the rank vegetation of earlier geological periods1 occasioned a permanent change in the constitution of the terrestrial atmosphere4#abh ,to the effects thus produced1 are to be added those of the ultimate gaseous decomposition of the vast vegetable mass annually shed by trees1 and of their trunks and branches when they fall a prey to time4 ,but the quantity of gases thus abstracted from and restored to the atmosphere is inconsiderable--infinitesimal1 one might almost say--in comparison with the ocean of air from which they are drawn and to which they return2 and though the exhalations from bogs1 and other low grounds covered with decaying vegetable matter1 are highly deleterious to human health1 yet1 in general1 the air of the forest is hardly chemically distinguishable from that of the sand plains1 and we can as little trace the influence of the woods in the analysis of the atmosphere1 as we can prove that the mineral ingredients of land springs sensibly affect the chemistry of the sea4 ,i may1 then1 properly dismiss the chemical1 as ,i have done the electrical influences of the forest1 and treat them both alike1 if not as unimportant agencies1 at least as quantities of unknown value in our meteorological equation4#abi ,our inquiries upon this branch of the subject will accordingly be limited to the thermometrical and hygrometrical influences of the woods4 ,influence of the ,forest1 considered as ,inorganic ,matter1 on ,temperature4 ,the evaporation of fluids1 and the condensation and expansion of vapors and gases1 are attended with changes of temperature2 and the quantity of moisture which the air is capable of containing1 and1 of course1 the evaporation1 rise and fall with the thermometer4 ,the hygroscopical and the thermoscopical conditions of the atmosphere are1 therefore1 inseparably connected as reciprocally dependent quantities1 and neither can be fully discussed without taking notice of the other4 ,but the forest1 regarded purely as inorganic matter1 and without reference to its living processes of absorption and exhalation of water and gases1 has1 as an absorbent1 a radiator and a conductor of heat1 and as a mere covering of the ground1 an influence on the temperature of the air and the earth1 which may be considered by itself4 a4 ,absorbing and ,emitting ,surface4 ,a given area of ground1 as estimated by the every-day rule of measurement in yards or acres1 presents always the same apparent quantity of absorbing1 radiating1 and reflecting surface2 but the real extent of that surface is very variable1 depending1 as it does1 upon its configuration1 and the bulk and form of the adventitious objects it bears upon it2 and1 besides1 the true superficies remaining the same1 its power of absorption1 radiation1 reflection1 and conduction of heat will be much affected by its consistence1 its greater or less humidity1 and its color1 as well as by its inclination of plane and exposure4#acj ,an acre of chalk1 rolled hard and smooth1 would have great reflecting power1 but its radiation would be much increased by breaking it up into clods1 because the actually exposed surface would be greater1 though the outline of the field remained the same4 ,the area of a triangle being equal to its base multiplied by half the length of a perpendicular let fall from its apex1 it follows that the entire superficies of the triangular faces of a quadrangular pyramid1 the perpendicular of whose sides should be twice the length of the base1 would be four times the area of the ground it covered1 and would add to the field on which it stood so much surface capable of receiving and emitting heat1 though1 in consequence of obliquity and direction of plane1 its actual absorption and emission of heat might not be so great as that of an additional quantity of level ground containing four times the area of its base4 ,the lesser inequalities which always occur in the surface of ordinary earth affect in the same way its quantity of superficies acting upon the temperature of the atmosphere1 and acted on by it1 though the amount of this action and reaction is not susceptible of measurement4 ,analogous effects are produced by other objects1 of whatever form or character1 standing or lying upon the earth1 and no solid can be placed upon a flat piece of ground1 without itself exposing a greater surface than it covers4 ,this applies1 of course1 to forest trees and their leaves1 and indeed to all vegetables1 as well as to other prominent bodies4 ,if we suppose forty trees to be planted on an acre1 one being situated in the centre of every square of two rods the side1 and to grow until their branches and leaves everywhere meet1 it is evident that1 when in full foliage1 the trunks1 branches1 and leaves would present an amount of thermoscopic surface much greater than that of an acre of bare earth2 and besides this1 the fallen leaves lying scattered on the ground1 would somewhat augment the sum total4#aca ,on the other hand1 the growing leaves of trees generally form a succession of stages1 or1 loosely speaking1 layers1 corresponding to the animal growth of the branches1 and more or less overlying each other4 ,this disposition of the foliage interferes with that free communication between sun and sky above1 and leaf surface below1 on which the amount of radiation and absorption of heat depends4 ,from all these considerations1 it appears that though the effective thermoscopic surface of a forest in full leaf does not exceed that of bare ground in the same proportion as does its measured superficies1 yet the actual quantity of area capable of receiving and emitting heat must be greater in the former than in the latter case4#acb ,it must further be remembered that the form and texture of a given surface are important elements in determining its thermoscopic character4 ,leaves are porous1 and admit air and light more or less freely into their substance2 they are generally smooth and even glazed on one surface2 they are usually covered on one or both sides with spiculae1 and they very commonly present one or more acuminated points in their outline--all circumstances which tend to augment their power of emitting heat by reflection or radiation4 ,direct experiment on growing trees is very difficult1 nor is it in any case practicable to distinguish how far a reduction of temperature produced by vegetation is due to radiation1 and how far to exhalation of the fluids of the plant in a gaseous form2 for both processes usually go on together4 ,but the frigorific effect of leafy structure is well observed in the deposit of dew and the occurrence of hoarfrost on the foliage of grasses and other small vegetables1 and on other objects of similar form and consistence1 when the temperature of the air a few yards above has not been brought down to the dew point1 still less to #cb deg41 the degree of cold required to congeal dew to frost4#acc b4 ,trees as ,conductors of ,heat4 ,we are also to take into account the action of the forest as a conductor of heat between the atmosphere and the earth4 ,in the most important countries of ,america and ,europe1 and especially in those which have suffered most from the destruction of the woods1 the superficial strata of the earth are colder in winter1 and warmer in summer than those a few inches lower1 and their shifting temperature approximates to the atmospheric mean of the respective seasons4 ,the roots of large trees penetrate beneath the superficial strata1 and reach earth of a nearly constant temperature1 corresponding to the mean for the entire year4 ,as conductors1 they convey the heat of the atmosphere to the earth when the earth is colder than the air1 and transmit it in the contrary direction when the temperature of the earth is higher than that of the atmosphere4 ,of course1 then1 as conductors1 they tend to equalize the temperature of the earth and the air4 c4 ,trees in ,summer and ,winter4 ,in countries where the questions ,i am considering have the greatest practical importance1 a very large proportion1 if not a majority1 of the trees are of deciduous foliage1 and their radiating as well as their shading surface is very much greater in summer than in winter4 ,in the latter season1 they little obstruct the reception of heat by the ground or the radiation from it2 whereas1 in the former1 they often interpose a complete canopy between the ground and the sky1 and materially interfere with both processes4 d4 ,dead ,products of ,trees4 ,besides this various action of standing trees considered as inorganic matter1 the forest exercises1 by the annual moulting of its foliage1 still another influence on the temperature of the earth1 and1 consequently1 of the atmosphere which rests upon it4 ,if you examine the constitution of the superficial soil in a primitive or an old and undisturbed artificially planted wood1 you find1 first1 a deposit of undecayed leaves1 twigs1 and seeds1 lying in loose layers on the surface2 then1 more compact beds of the same materials in incipient1 and1 as you descend1 more and more advanced stages of decomposition2 then1 a mass of black mould1 in which traces of organic structure are hardly discoverable except by microscopic examination2 then1 a stratum of mineral soil1 more or less mixed with vegetable matter carried down into it by water1 or resulting from the decay of roots2 and1 finally1 the inorganic earth or rock itself4 ,without this deposit of the dead products of trees1 this latter would be the superficial stratum1 and as its powers of absorption1 radiation1 and conduction of heat would differ essentially from those of the layers with which it has been covered by the droppings of the forest1 it would act upon the temperature of the atmosphere1 and be acted on by it1 in a very different way from the leaves and mould which rest upon it4 ,leaves1 still entire1 or partially decayed1 are very indifferent conductors of heat1 and1 therefore1 though they diminish the warming influence of the summer sun on the soil below them1 they1 on the other hand1 prevent the escape of heat from that soil in winter1 and1 consequently1 in cold climates1 even when the ground is not covered by a protecting mantle of snow1 the earth does not freeze to as great a depth in the wood as in the open field4 e4 ,trees as a ,shelter to ,ground to the ,leeward4 ,the action of the forest1 considered merely as a mechanical shelter to grounds lying to the leeward of it1 would seem to be an influence of too restricted a character to deserve much notice2 but many facts concur to show that it is an important element in local climate1 and that it is often a valuable means of defence against the spread of miasmatic effluvia1 though1 in this last case1 it may exercise a chemical as well as a mechanical agency4 ,in the report of a committee appointed in #ahcf to examine an article of the forest code of ,france1 ,arago observes3 ,if a curtain of forest on the coasts of ,normandy and of ,brittany were destroyed1 these two provinces would become accessible to the winds from the west1 to the mild breezes of the sea4 ,hence a decrease of the cold of winter4 ,if a similar forest were to be cleared on the eastern border of ,france1 the glacial east wind would prevail with greater strength1 and the winters would become more severe4 ,thus the removal of a belt of wood would produce opposite effects in the two regions4#acd ,this opinion receives confirmation from an observation of ,dr4 ,dwight1 who remarks1 in reference to the woods of ,new ,england3 ,another effect of removing the forest will be the free passage of the winds1 and among them of the southern winds1 over the surface4 ,this1 ,i think1 has been an increasing fact within my own remembrance4 ,as the cultivation of the country has extended farther to the north1 the winds from the south have reached distances more remote from the ocean1 and imparted their warmth frequently1 and in such degrees as1 forty years since1 were in the same places very little known4 ,this fact1 also1 contributes to lengthen the summer1 and to shorten the winter-half of the year4#ace ,it is thought in ,italy that the clearing of the ,apennines has very materially affected the climate of the valley of the ,po4 ,it is asserted in ,le ,alpi che cingono l',italia that3 ,in consequence of the felling of the woods on the ,apennines1 the sirocco prevails greatly on the right bank of the ,po1 in the ,parmesan territory1 and in a part of ,lombardy2 it injures the harvests and the vineyards1 and sometimes ruins the crops of the season4 ,to the same cause many ascribe the meteorological changes in the precincts of ,modena and of ,reggio4 ,in the communes of these districts1 where formerly straw roofs resisted the force of the winds1 tiles are now hardly sufficient2 in others1 where tiles answered for roofs1 large slabs of stone are now ineffectual2 and in many neighboring communes the grapes and the grain are swept off by the blasts of the south and southwest winds4 ,on the other hand1 according to the same authority1 the pinery of ,porto1 near ,ravenna--which is #cc kilometres long1 and is one of the oldest pine woods in ,italy--having been replanted with resinous trees after it was unfortunately cut1 has relieved the city from the sirocco to which it had become exposed1 and in a great degree restored its ancient climate4#acf ,the felling of the woods on the ,atlantic coast of ,jutland has exposed the soil not only to drifting sands1 but to sharp sea winds1 that have exerted a sensible deteriorating effect on the climate of that peninsula1 which has no mountains to serve at once as a barrier to the force of the winds1 and as a storehouse of moisture received by precipitation or condensed from atmospheric vapors4#acg ,it is evident that the effect of the forest1 as a mechanical impediment to the passage of the wind1 would extend to a very considerable distance above its own height1 and hence protect while standing1 or lay open when felled1 a much larger surface than might at first thought be supposed4 ,the atmosphere1 movable as are its particles1 and light and elastic as are its masses1 is nevertheless held together as a continuous whole by the gravitation of its atoms and their consequent pressure on each other1 if not by attraction between them1 and1 therefore1 an obstruction which mechanically impedes the movement of a given stratum of air1 will retard the passage of the strata above and below it4 ,to this effect may often be added that of an ascending current from the forest itself1 which must always exist when the atmosphere within the wood is warmer than the stratum of air above it1 and must be of almost constant occurrence in the case of cold winds1 from whatever quarter1 because the still air in the forest is slow in taking up the temperature of the moving columns and currents around and above it4 ,experience1 in fact1 has shown that mere rows of trees1 and even much lower obstructions1 are of essential service in defending vegetation against the action of the wind4 ,hardy proposes planting1 in ,algeria1 belts of trees at the distance of one hundred metres from each other1 as a shelter which experience had proved to be useful in ,france4#ach ,in the valley of the ,rhone1 says ,becquerel1 a simple hedge1 two metres in height1 is a sufficient protection for a distance of twenty-two metres4#aci ,the mechanical shelter acts1 no doubt1 chiefly as a defence against the mechanical force of the wind1 but its uses are by no means limited to this effect4 ,if the current of air which it resists moves horizontally1 it would prevent the access of cold or parching blasts to the ground for a great distance2 and did the wind even descend at a large angle with the surface1 still a considerable extent of ground would be protected by a forest to the windward of it4 ,if we suppose the trees of a wood to have a mean height of only twenty yards1 they would often beneficially affect the temperature or the moisture of a belt of land two or three hundred yards in width1 and thus perhaps rescue valuable crops from destruction4#adj ,the local retardation of spring so much complained of in ,italy1 ,france1 and ,switzerland1 and the increased frequency of late frosts at that season1 appear to be ascribable to the admission of cold blasts to the surface1 by the felling of the forests which formerly both screened it as by a wall1 and communicated the warmth of their soil to the air and earth to the leeward4 ,caimi states that since the cutting down of the woods of the ,apennines1 the cold winds destroy or stunt the vegetation1 and that1 in consequence of the usurpation of winter on the domain of spring1 the district of ,mugello has lost all its mulberries1 except the few which find in the lee of buildings a protection like that once furnished by the forest4#ada ,it is proved1 says ,clave1 ,etudes1 p4 #dd1 that the department of ,ardeche1 which now contains not a single considerable wood1 has experienced within thirty years a climatic disturbance1 of which the late frosts1 formerly unknown in the country1 are one of the most melancholy effects4 ,similar results have been observed in the plain of ,alsace1 in consequence of the denudation of several of the crests of the ,vosges4 ,dussard1 as quoted by ,ribbe1#adb maintains that even the mistral1 or northwest wind1 whose chilling blasts are so fatal to tender vegetation in the spring1 is the child of man1 the result of his devastations4 ,under the reign of ,augustus1 continues he1 the forests which protected the ,cevennes were felled1 or destroyed by fire1 in mass4 ,a vast country1 before covered with impenetrable woods--powerful obstacles to the movement and even to the formation of hurricanes--was suddenly denuded1 swept bare1 stripped1 and soon after1 a scourge hitherto unknown struck terror over the land from ,avignon to the ,bouches du ,rhone1 thence to ,marseilles1 and then extended its ravages1 diminished indeed by a long career which had partially exhausted its force1 over the whole maritime frontier4 ,the people thought this wind a curse sent of ,god4 ,they raised altars to it and offered sacrifices to appease its rage4 ,it seems1 however1 that this plague was less destructive than at present1 until the close of the sixteenth century1 when further clearings had removed most of the remaining barriers to its course4 ,up to that time1 the northwest wind appears not to have attained to the maximum of specific effect which now characterizes it as a local phenomenon4 ,extensive districts1 from which the rigor of the seasons has now banished valuable crops1 were not then exposed to the loss of their harvests by tempests1 cold1 or drought4 ,the deterioration was rapid in its progress4 ,under the ,consulate1 the clearings had exerted so injurious an effect upon the climate1 that the cultivation of the olive had retreated several leagues1 and since the winters and springs of #ahbj and #ahcf1 this branch of rural industry has been abandoned in a great number of localities where it was advantageously pursued before4 ,the orange now flourishes only at a few sheltered points of the coast1 and it is threatened even at ,ilyeres1 where the clearing of the hills near the town has proved very prejudicial to this valuable tree4 ,marchand informs us that1 since the felling of the woods1 late spring frosts are more frequent in many localities north of the ,alps2 that fruit trees thrive well no longer1 and that it is difficult to raise young trees4#adc f4 ,trees as a ,protection against ,malaria4 ,the influence of forests in preventing the diffusion of miasmatic vapors is a matter of less familiar observation1 and perhaps does not come strictly within the sphere of the present inquiry1 but its importance will justify me in devoting some space to the subject4 ,it has been observed 7,i quote again from ,becquerel7 that humid air1 charged with miasmata1 is deprived of them in passing through the forest4 ,rigaud de ,lille observed localities in ,italy where the interposition of a screen of trees preserved everything beyond it1 while the unprotected grounds were subject to fevers4#add ,few ,european countries present better opportunities for observation on this point than ,italy1 because in that kingdom the localities exposed to miasmatic exhalations are numerous1 and belts of trees1 if not forests1 are of so frequent occurrence that their efficacy in this respect can be easily tested4 ,the belief that rows of trees afford an important protection against malarious influences is very general among ,italians best qualified by intelligence and professional experience to judge upon the subject4 ,the commissioners appointed to report on the measures to be adopted for the improvement of the ,tuscan ,maremme advised the planting of three or four rows of poplars1 ,populus alba1 in such directions as to obstruct the currents of air from malarious localities1 and thus intercept a great proportion of the pernicious exhalations4#ade ,lieutenant ,maury even believed that a few rows of sunflowers1 planted between the ,washington ,observatory and the marshy banks of the ,potomac1 had saved the inmates of that establishment from the intermittent fevers to which they had been formerly liable4 ,maury's experiments have been repeated in ,italy4 ,large plantations of sunflowers have been made upon the alluvial deposits of the ,oglio1 above its entrance into the ,lake of ,iseo near ,pisogne1 and it is said with favorable results to the health of the neighborhood4#adf ,in fact1 the generally beneficial effects of a forest wall or other vegetable screen1 as a protection against noxious exhalations from marshes or other sources of disease situated to the windward of them1 are very commonly admitted4 ,it is argued that1 in these cases1 the foliage of trees and of other vegetables exercises a chemical as well as a mechanical effect upon the atmosphere1 and some1 who allow that forests may intercept the circulation of the miasmatic effluvia of swampy soils1 or even render them harmless by decomposing them1 contend1 nevertheless1 that they are themselves active causes of the production of malaria4 ,the subject has been a good deal discussed in ,italy1 and there is some reason to think that under special circumstances the influence of the forest in this respect may be prejudicial rather than salutary1 though this does not appear to be generally the case4#adg ,it is1 at all events1 well known that the great swamps of ,virginia and the ,carolinas1 in climates nearly similar to that of ,italy1 are healthy even to the white man1 so long as the forests in and around them remain1 but become very insalubrious when the woods are felled4#adh ,the ,forest1 as ,inorganic ,matter1 tends to mitigate ,extremes4 ,the surface which trees and leaves present augments the general superficies of the earth exposed to the absorption of heat1 and increases the radiating and reflecting area in the same proportion4 ,it is impossible to measure the relative value of these two elements--increase of absorbing and increase of emitting surface--as thermometrical influences1 because they exert themselves under infinitely varied conditions2 and it is equally impossible to make a quantitative estimate of any partial1 still more of the total effect of the forest1 considered as dead matter1 on the temperature of the atmosphere1 and of the portion of the earth's surface acted on by it4 ,but it seems probable that its greatest influence in this respect is due to its character of a screen1 or mechanical obstacle to the transmission of heat between the earth and the air2 and this is equally true of the standing tree and of the dead foliage which it deposits in successive layers at its foot4 ,the complicated action of trees and their products1 as dead absorbents1 radiators1 reflectors1 and conductors of heat1 and as interceptors of its transmission1 is so intimately connected with their effects upon the humidity of the air and the earth1 and with all their living processes1 that it is difficult to separate the former from the latter class of influences2 but upon the whole1 the forest must thus far be regarded as tending to mitigate extremes1 and1 therefore1 as an equalizer of temperature4 ,,trees ,,as ,,organisms4 ,specific ,heat4 ,trees1 considered as organisms1 produce in themselves1 or in the air1 a certain amount of heat1 by absorbing and condensing atmospheric vapor1 and they exert an opposite influence by absorbing water and exhaling it in the form of vapor2 but there is still another mode by which their living processes may warm the air around them1 independently of the thermometric effects of condensation and evaporation4 ,the vital heat of a dozen persons raises the temperature of a room4 ,if trees possess a specific temperature of their own1 an organic power of generating heat1 like that with which the warm-blooded animals are gifted1 though by a different process1 a certain amount of weight is to be ascribed to this element1 in estimating the action of the forest upon atmospheric temperature4 ,observation shows1 says ,meguscher1 that the wood of a living tree maintains a temperature of #ab deg4 or #ac deg4 ,cent4 #ed deg41 #ef deg4 ,fahr4 when the temperature of the air stands at #c deg41 #g deg41 and #h deg4 #cg deg41 #df deg41 #dg deg4 ,f4 above zero1 and that the internal warmth of the tree does not rise and fall in proportion to that of the atmosphere4 ,so long as the latter is below #ah deg4 #fg deg4 ,fahr41 that of the tree is always the highest2 but if the temperature of the air rises to #ah deg41 that of the vegetable growth is the lowest4 ,since1 then1 trees maintain at all seasons a constant mean temperature of #ab deg4 #ed deg4 ,fahr41 it is easy to see why the air in contact with the forest must be warmer in winter1 cooler in summer1 than in situations where it is deprived of that influence4#adi ,boussingault remarks3 ,in many flowers there has been observed a very considerable evolution of heat1 at the approach of fecundation4 ,in certain arums the temperature rises to #dj deg4 or #ej deg4 ,cent4 #ajd deg4 or #abb deg4 ,fahr44 ,it is very probable that this phenomenon is general1 and varies only in the intensity with which it is manifested4#aej ,if we suppose the fecundation of the flowers of forest trees to be attended with a tenth only of this calorific power1 they could not fail to exert an important influence on the warmth of the atmospheric strata in contact with them4 ,in a paper on ,meteorology by ,professor ,henry1 published in the ,united ,states ,patent ,office ,report for #aheg1 p4 #ejd1 that distinguished physicist observes3 ,as a general deduction from chemical and mechanical principles1 we think no change of temperature is ever produced where the actions belonging to one or both of these principles are not present4 ,hence1 in midwinter1 when all vegetable functions are dormant1 we do not believe that any heat is developed by a tree1 or that its interior differs in temperature from its exterior further than it is protected from the external air4 ,the experiments which have been made on this point1 we think1 have been directed by a false analogy4 ,during the active circulation of the sap and the production of new tissue1 variations of temperature belonging exclusively to the plant may be observed2 but it is inconsistent with general principles that heat should be generated where no change is taking place4 ,there can be no doubt that moisture is given out by trees and evaporated in extremely cold winter-weather1 and unless new fluid were supplied from the roots1 the tree would be exhausted of its juices before winter was over4 ,but this is not observed to be the fact1 and1 though the point is disputed1 respectable authorities declare that wood felled in the depth of winter is the heaviest and fullest of sap4#aea ,warm weather in winter1 of too short continuance to affect the temperature of the ground sensibly1 stimulates a free flow of sap in the maple4 ,thus1 in the last week of ,december1 #ahfb1 and the first week of ,january1 #ahfc1 sugar was made from that tree1 in various parts of ,new ,england4 ,a single branch of a tree1 admitted into a warm room in winter through an aperture in a window1 opened its buds and developed its leaves while the rest of the tree in the external air remained in its winter sleep4#aeb ,the roots of forest trees in temperate climates1 remain1 for the most part1 in a moist soil1 of a temperature not much below the annual mean1 through the whole winter2 and we cannot account for the uninterrupted moisture of the tree1 unless we suppose that the roots furnish a constant supply of water4 ,atkinson describes a ravine in a valley in ,siberia1 which was filled with ice to the depth of twenty-five feet4 ,poplars were growing in this ice1 which was thawed to the distance of some inches from the stem4 ,but the surface of the soil beneath it must have remained still frozen1 for the holes around the trees were full of water resulting from its melting1 and this would have escaped below if the ground had been thawed4 ,in this case1 although the roots had not thawed the thick covering of earth above them1 the trunks must have melted the ice in contact with them4 ,the trees1 when observed by ,atkinson1 were in full leaf1 but it does not appear at what period the ice around their stems had melted4 ,from these facts1 and others of the like sort1 it would seem that all vegetable functions are not absolutely dormant in winter1 and1 therefore1 that trees may give out some heat at that season4 ,but1 however this may be1 the circulation of the sap commences at a very early period in the spring1 and the temperature of the air in contact with trees may then be sufficiently affected by heat evolved in the vital processes of vegetation1 to raise the thermometric mean of wooded countries for that season1 and1 of course1 for the year4#aec ,total ,influence of the ,forest on ,temperature4 ,it has not yet been found practicable to measure1 sum up1 and equate the total influence of the forest1 its processes and its products1 dead and living1 upon temperature1 and investigators differ much in their conclusions on this subject4 ,it seems probable that in every particular case the result is1 if not determined1 at least so much modified by local conditions which are infinitely varied1 that no general formula is applicable to the question4 ,in the report to which ,i referred on page #adi1 ,gay-,lussac says3 ,in my opinion we have not yet any positive proof that the forest has1 in itself1 any real influence on the climate of a great country1 or of a particular locality4 ,by closely examining the effects of clearing off the woods1 we should perhaps find that1 far from being an evil1 it is an advantage2 but these questions are so complicated when they are examined in a climatological point of view1 that the solution of them is very difficult1 not to say impossible4 ,becquerel1 on the other hand1 considers it certain that in tropical climates1 the destruction of the forests is accompanied with an elevation of the mean temperature1 and he thinks it highly probable that it has the same effect in the temperate zones4 ,the following is the substance of his remarks on this subject3-- ,forests act as frigorific causes in three ways3 #a4 ,they shelter the ground against solar irradiation and maintain a greater humidity4 #b4 ,they produce a cutaneous transpiration by the leaves4 #c4 ,they multiply1 by the expansion of their branches1 the surfaces which are cooled by radiation4 ,these three causes acting with greater or less force1 we must1 in the study of the climatology of a country1 take into account the proportion between the area of the forests and the surface which is bared of trees and covered with herbs and grasses4 ,we should be inclined to believe a priori1 according to the foregoing considerations1 that the clearing of the woods1 by raising the temperature and increasing the dryness of the air1 ought to react on climate4 ,there is no doubt that1 if the vast desert of the ,sahara were to become wooded in the course of ages1 the sands would cease to be heated as much as at the present epoch1 when the mean temperature is twenty-nine degrees centigrade1 #he deg4 ,fahr44 ,in that case1 the ascending currents of warm air would cease1 or be less warm1 and would not contribute1 by descending in our latitudes1 to soften the climate of ,western ,europe4 ,thus the clearing of a great country may react on the climates of regions more or less remote from it4 ,the observations by ,boussingault leave no doubt on this point4 ,this writer determined the mean temperature of wooded and of cleared points1 under the same latitude1 and at the same elevation above the sea1 in localities comprised between the eleventh degree of north and the fifth degree of south latitude1 that is to say1 in the portion of the tropics nearest to the equator1 and where radiation tends powerfully during the night to lower the temperature under a sky without clouds4#aed ,the result of these observations1 which has been pretty generally adopted by physicists1 is that the mean temperature of cleared land in the tropics appears to be about one degree centigrade1 or a little less than two degrees of ,fahrenheit1 above that of the forest4 ,on page #adg of the volume just cited1 ,becquerel argues that1 inasmuch as the same and sometimes a greater difference is found in favor of the open ground1 at points within the tropics so elevated as to have a temperate or even a polar climate1 we must conclude that the forests in ,northern ,america exert a refrigerating influence equally powerful4 ,but the conditions of the soil are so different in the two regions compared1 that ,i think we cannot1 with entire confidence1 reason from the one to the other1 and it is much to be desired that observations be made on the summer and winter temperature of both the air and the ground in the depths of the ,north ,american forests1 before it is too late4#aee ,,influence ,,of ,,forests ,,on ,,the ,,humidity ,,of ,,the ,,air ,,and ,,the ,,earth4 a4 ,as ,inorganic ,matter4 ,the most important influence of the forest on climate is1 no doubt1 that which it exercises on the humidity of the air and the earth1 and this climatic action it exerts partly as dead1 partly as living matter4 ,by its interposition as a curtain between the sky and the ground1 it intercepts a large proportion of the dew and the lighter showers1 which would otherwise moisten the surface of the soil1 and restores it to the atmosphere by evaporation2 while in heavier rains1 the large drops which fall upon the leaves and branches are broken into smaller ones1 and consequently strike the ground with less mechanical force1 or are perhaps even dispersed into vapor without reaching it4#aef ,as a screen1 it prevents the access of the sun's rays to the earth1 and1 of course1 an elevation of temperature which would occasion a great increase of evaporation4 ,as a mechanical obstruction1 it impedes the passage of air currents over the ground1 which1 as is well known1 is one of the most efficient agents in promoting evaporation and the refrigeration resulting from it4#aeg ,in the forest1 the air is almost quiescent1 and moves only as local changes of temperature affect the specific gravity of its particles4 ,hence there is often a dead calm in the woods when a furious blast is raging in the open country at a few yards' distance4 ,the denser the forest--as for example1 where it consists of spike-leaved trees1 or is thickly intermixed with them--the more obvious is its effect1 and no one can have passed from the field to the wood in cold1 windy weather1 without having remarked it4#aeh ,the vegetable mould1 resulting from the decomposition of leaves and of wood1 carpets the ground with a spongy covering which obstructs the evaporation from the mineral earth below1 drinks up the rains and melting snows that would otherwise flow rapidly over the surface and perhaps be conveyed to the distant sea1 and then slowly gives out1 by evaporation1 infiltration1 and percolation1 the moisture thus imbibed4 ,the roots1 too1 penetrate far below the superficial soil1 conduct the water along their surface to the lower depths to which they reach1 and thus serve to drain the superior strata and remove the moisture out of the reach of evaporation4 b4 ,the ,forest as ,organic4 ,these are the principal modes in which the humidity of the atmosphere is affected by the forest regarded as lifeless matter4 ,let us inquire how its organic processes act upon this meteorological element4 ,the commonest observation shows that the wood and bark of living trees are always more or less pervaded with watery and other fluids1 one of which1 the sap1 is very abundant in trees of deciduous foliage when the buds begin to swell and the leaves to develop themselves in the spring4 ,the outer bark of most trees is of a corky character1 not admitting the absorption of much moisture from the atmosphere through its pores1 and we can hardly suppose that the buds are able to extract from the air a much larger supply4 ,the obvious conclusion as to the source from which the extraordinary quantity of sap at this season is derived1 is that to which scientific investigation leads us1 namely1 that it is absorbed from the earth by the roots1 and thence distributed to all parts of the plant4 ,popular opinion1 indeed1 supposes that all the vegetable fluids1 during the entire period of growth1 are thus drawn from the bosom of the earth1 and that the wood and other products of the tree are wholly formed from matter held in solution in the water abstracted by the roots from the ground4 ,this is an error1 for1 not only is the solid matter of the tree1 in a certain proportion not important to our present inquiry1 received from the atmosphere in a gaseous form1 through the pores of the leaves and of the young shoots1 but water in the state of vapor is absorbed and contributed to the circulation1 by the same organs4#aei ,the amount of water taken up by the roots1 however1 is vastly greater than that imbibed through the leaves1 especially at the season when the juices are most abundant1 and when1 as we have seen1 the leaves are yet in embryo4 ,the quantity of water thus received from the air and the earth1 in a single year1 by a wood of even a hundred acres1 is very great1 though experiments are wanting to furnish the data for even an approximate estimate of its measure2 for only the vaguest conclusions can be drawn from the observations which have been made on the imbibition and exhalation of water by trees and other plants reared in artificial conditions diverse from those of the natural forest4#afj ,wood ,mosses and ,fungi4 ,besides the water drawn by the roots from the earth and the vapor absorbed by the leaves from the air1 the wood mosses and fungi1 which abound in all dense forests1 take up a great quantity of moisture from the atmosphere when it is charged with humidity1 and exhale it again when the air is dry4 ,these humble organizations1 which play a more important part in regulating the humidity of the air than writers on the forest have usually assigned to them1 perish with the trees they grow on2 but1 in many situations1 nature provides a compensation for the tree mosses in ground species1 which1 on cold soils1 especially those with a northern exposure1 spring up abundantly both before the woods are felled1 and when the land is cleared and employed for pasturage1 or deserted4 ,these mosses discharge a portion of the functions appropriated to the wood1 and while they render the soil of improved lands much less fit for agricultural use1 they1 at the same time1 prepare it for the growth of a new harvest of trees1 when the infertility they produce shall have driven man to abandon it and suffer it to relapse into the hands of nature4#afa ,flow of ,sap4 ,the amount of sap which can be withdrawn from living trees furnishes1 not indeed a measure of the quantity of water sucked up by their roots from the ground--for we cannot extract from a tree its whole moisture--but numerical data which may aid the imagination to form a general notion of the powerful action of the forest as an absorbent of humidity from the earth4 ,the only forest tree known to ,europe and ,north ,america1 the sap of which is largely enough applied to economical uses to have made the amount of its flow a matter of practical importance and popular observation1 is the sugar maple1 ,acer saccharinum1 of the ,anglo-,american ,provinces and ,states4 ,in the course of a single sugar season1 which lasts ordinarily from twenty-five to thirty days1 a sugar maple two feet in diameter will yield not less than twenty gallons of sap1 and sometimes much more4#afb ,this1 however1 is but a trifling proportion of the water abstracted from the earth by the roots during this season1 when the yet undeveloped leaves can hardly absorb an appreciable quantity of vapor from the atmosphere2#afc for all this fluid runs from two or three incisions or auger holes1 so narrow as to intercept the current of comparatively few sap vessels1 and besides1 experience shows that large as is the quantity withdrawn from the circulation1 it is relatively too small to affect very sensibly the growth of the tree4#afd ,the number of large maple trees on an acre is frequently not less than fifty1#afe and of course the quantity of moisture abstracted from the soil by this tree alone is measured by thousands of gallons to the acre4 ,the sugar orchards1 as they are called1 contain also many young maples too small for tapping1 and numerous other trees--two of which1 at least1 the black birch1 ,betula lenta1 and yellow birch1 ,betula excelsa1 both very common in the same climate1 are far more abundant in sap than the maple#aff--;are scattered among the sugar trees2 for the ,north ,american native forests are remarkable for the mixture of their crops4 ,the sap of the maple1 and of other trees with deciduous leaves which grow in the same climate1 flows most freely in the early spring1 and especially in clear weather1 when the nights are frosty and the days warm2 for it is then that the melting snows supply the earth with moisture in the justest proportion1 and that the absorbent power of the roots is stimulated to its highest activity4#afg ,when the buds are ready to burst1 and the green leaves begin to show themselves beneath their scaly covering1 the ground has become drier1 the thirst of the roots is quenched1 and the flow of sap from them to the stem is greatly diminished4#afh ,absorption and ,exhalation of ,moisture4 ,the leaves now commence the process of absorption1 and imbibe both uncombined gases and an unascertained but perhaps considerable quantity of watery vapor from the humid atmosphere of spring which bathes them4 ,the organic action of the tree1 as thus far described1 tends to the desiccation of air and earth2 but when we consider what volumes of water are daily absorbed by a large tree1 and how small a proportion of the weight of this fluid consists of matter which enters into new combinations1 and becomes a part of the solid framework of the vegetable1 or a component of its deciduous products1 it is evident that the superfluous moisture must somehow be carried off almost as rapidly as it flows into the tree4#afi ,at the very commencement of vegetation in spring1 some of this fluid certainly escapes through the buds1 the nascent foliage1 and the pores of the barb1 and vegetable physiology tells us that there is a current of sap toward the roots as well as from them4#agj ,i do not know that the exudation of water into the earth1 through the bark or at the extremities of these latter organs1 has been directly proved1 but the other known modes of carrying off the surplus do not seem adequate to dispose of it at the almost leafless period when it is most abundantly received1 and it is therefore difficult to believe that the roots do not1 to some extent1 drain as well as flood the watercourses of their stem4 ,later in the season the roots absorb less1 and the now developed leaves exhale a vastly increased quantity of moisture into the air4 ,in any event1 all the water derived by the growing tree from the atmosphere and the ground is returned again by transpiration or exudation1 after having surrendered to the plant the small proportion of matter required for vegetable growth which it held in solution or suspension4#aga ,the hygrometrical equilibrium is then restored1 so far as this3 the tree yields up again the moisture it had drawn from the earth and the air1 though it does not return it each to each2 for the vapor carried off by transpiration greatly exceeds the quantity of water absorbed by the foliage from the atmosphere1 and the amount1 if any1 carried back to the ground by the roots4 ,the evaporation of the juices of the plant1 by whatever process effected1 takes up atmospheric heat and produces refrigeration4 ,this effect is not less real1 though much less sensible1 in the forest than in meadow or pasture land1 and it cannot be doubted that the local temperature is considerably affected by it4 ,but the evaporation that cools the air diffuses through it1 at the same time1 a medium which powerfully resists the escape of heat from the earth by radiation4 ,visible vapors or clouds1 it is well known1 prevent frosts by obstructing radiation1 or rather by reflecting back again the heat radiated by the earth1 just as any mechanical screen would do4 ,on the other hand1 clouds intercept the rays of the sun also1 and hinder its heat from reaching the earth4 ,the invisible vapors given out by leaves impede the passage of heat reflected and radiated by the earth and by all terrestrial objects1 but oppose much less resistance to the transmission of direct solar heat1 and indeed the beams of the sun seem more scorching when received through clear air charged with uncondensed moisture than after passing through a dry atmosphere4 ,hence the reduction of temperature by the evaporation of moisture from vegetation1 though sensible1 is less than it would be if water in the gaseous state were as impervious to heat given out by the sun as to that emitted by terrestrial objects4 ,the hygroscopicity of vegetable mould is much greater than that of any mineral earth1 and therefore the soil of the forest absorbs more atmospheric moisture than the open ground4 ,the condensation of the vapor by absorption disengages heat1 and consequently raises the temperature of the soil which absorbs it4 ,von ,babo found the temperature of sandy earth thus elevated from #bj deg4 to #bg deg4 centigrade1 making a difference of nearly thirteen degrees of ,fahrenheit1 and that of soil rich in humus from #bj deg4 to #ca deg4 centigrade1 a difference of almost twenty degrees of ,fahrenheit4#agb ,balance of ,conflicting ,influences4 ,we have shown that the forest1 considered as dead matter1 tends to diminish the moisture of the air1 by preventing the sun's rays from reaching the ground and evaporating the water that falls upon the surface1 and also by spreading over the earth a spongy mantle which sucks up and retains the humidity it receives from the atmosphere1 while1 at the same time1 this covering acts in the contrary direction by accumulating1 in a reservoir not wholly inaccessible to vaporizing influences1 the water of precipitation which might otherwise suddenly sink deep into the bowels of the earth1 or flow by superficial channels to other climatic regions4 ,we now see that1 as a living organism1 it tends1 on the one hand1 to diminish the humidity of the air by absorbing moisture from it1 and1 on the other1 to increase that humidity by pouring out into the atmosphere1 in a vaporous form1 the water it draws up through its roots4 ,this last operation1 at the same time1 lowers the temperature of the air in contact with or proximity to the wood1 by the same law as in other cases of the conversion of water into vapor4 ,as ,i have repeatedly said1 we cannot measure the value of any one of these elements of climatic disturbance1 raising or lowering of temperature1 increase or diminution of humidity1 nor can we say that in any one season1 any one year1 or any one fixed cycle1 however long or short1 they balance and compensate each other4 ,they are sometimes1 but certainly not always1 contemporaneous in their action1 whether their tendency is in the same or in opposite directions1 and1 therefore1 their influence is sometimes cumulative1 sometimes conflicting2 but1 upon the whole1 their general effect seems to be to mitigate extremes of atmospheric heat and cold1 moisture and drought4 ,they serve as equalizers of temperature and humidity1 and it is highly probable that1 in analogy with most other works and workings of nature1 they1 at certain or uncertain periods1 restore the equilibrium which1 whether as lifeless masses or as living organisms1 they may have temporarily disturbed4 ,when1 therefore1 man destroyed these natural harmonizers of climatic discords1 he sacrificed an important conservative power1 though it is far from certain that he has thereby affected the mean1 however much he may have exaggerated the extremes of atmospheric temperature and humidity1 or1 in other words1 may have increased the range and lengthened the scale of thermometric and hygrometric variation4 ,influence of the ,forest on ,temperature and ,precipitation4 ,aside from the question of compensation1 it does not seem probable that the forests sensibly affect the total quantity of precipitation1 or the general mean of atmospheric temperature of the globe1 or even that they had this influence when their extent was vastly greater than at present4 ,the waters cover about three fourths of the face of the earth1#agc and if we deduct the frozen zones1 the peaks and crests of lofty mountains and their craggy slopes1 the ,sahara and other great ,african and ,asiatic deserts1 and all such other portions of the solid surface as are permanently unfit for the growth of wood1 we shall find that probably not one tenth of the total superficies of our planet was ever1 at any one time in the present geological epoch1 covered with forests4 ,besides this1 the distribution of forest land1 of desert1 and of water1 is such as to reduce the possible influence of the former to a low expression2 for the forests are1 in large proportion1 situated in cold or temperate climates1 where the action of the sun is comparatively feeble both in elevating temperature and in promoting evaporation2 while1 in the torrid zone1 the desert and the sea--the latter of which always presents an evaporable surface--enormously preponderate4 ,it is1 upon the whole1 not probable that so small an extent of forest1 so situated1 could produce an appreciable influence on the general climate of the globe1 though it might appreciably affect the local action of all climatic elements4 ,the total annual amount of solar heat absorbed and radiated by the earth1 and the sum of terrestrial evaporation and atmospheric precipitation must be supposed constant2 but the distribution of heat and of humidity is exposed to disturbance in both time and place1 by a multitude of local causes1 among which the presence or absence of the forest is doubtless one4 ,so far as we are able to sum up the general results1 it would appear that1 in countries in the temperate zone still chiefly covered with wood1 the summers would be cooler1 moister1 shorter1 the winters milder1 drier1 longer1 than in the same regions after the removal of the forest4 ,the slender historical evidence we possess seems to point to the same conclusion1 though there is some conflict of testimony and of opinion on this point1 and some apparently well-established exceptions to particular branches of what appears to be the general law4 ,one of these occurs both in climates where the cold of winter is severe enough to freeze the ground to a considerable depth1 as in ,sweden and the ,northern ,states of the ,american ,union1 and in milder zones1 where the face of the earth is exposed to cold mountain winds1 as in some parts of ,italy and of ,france2 for there1 as we have seen1 the winter is believed to extend itself into the months which belong to the spring1 later than at periods when the forest covered the greater part of the ground4#agd ,more causes than one doubtless contribute to this result2 but in the case of ,sweden and the ,united ,states1 the most obvious explanation of the fact is to be found in the loss of the shelter afforded to the ground by the thick coating of leaves which the forest sheds upon it1 and the snow which the woods protect from blowing away1 or from melting in the brief thaws of winter4 ,i have already remarked that bare ground freezes much deeper than that which is covered by beds of leaves1 and when the earth is thickly coated with snow1 the strata frozen before it fell begin to thaw4 ,it is not uncommon to find the ground in the woods1 where the snow lies two or three feet deep1 entirely free from frost1 when the atmospheric temperature has been for several weeks below the freezing point1 and for some days even below the zero of ,fahrenheit4 ,when the ground is cleared and brought under cultivation1 the leaves are ploughed into the soil and decomposed1 and the snow1 especially upon knolls and eminences1 is blown off1 or perhaps half thawed1 several times during the winter4 ,the water from the melting snow runs into the depressions1 and when1 after a day or two of warm sunshine or tepid rain1 the cold returns1 it is consolidated to ice1 and the bared ridges and swells of earth are deeply frozen4#age ,it requires many days of mild weather to raise the temperature of soil in this condition1 and of the air in contact with it1 to that of the earth in the forests of the same climatic region4 ,flora is already plaiting her sylvan wreath before the corn flowers which are to deck the garland of ,ceres have waked from their winter's sleep2 and it is not a popular error to believe that1 where man has substituted his artificial crops for the spontaneous harvest of nature1 spring delays her coming4 ,in many cases1 the apparent change in the period of the seasons is a purely local phenomenon1 which is probably compensated by a higher temperature in other months1 without any real disturbance of the average thermometrical equilibrium4 ,we may easily suppose that there are analogous partial deviations from the general law of precipitation2 and1 without insisting that the removal of the forest has diminished the sum total of snow and rain1 we may well admit that it has lessened the quantity which annually falls within particular limits4 ,various theoretical considerations make this probable1 the most obvious argument1 perhaps1 being that drawn from the generally admitted fact1 that the summer and even the mean temperature of the forest is below that of the open country in the same latitude4 ,if the air in a wood is cooler than that around it1 it must reduce the temperature of the atmospheric stratum immediately above it1 and1 of course1 whenever a saturated current sweeps over it1 it must produce precipitation which would fall upon or near it4 ,but the subject is so exceedingly complex and difficult1 that it is safer to regard it as a historical problem1 or at least as what lawyers call a mixed question of law and fact1 than to attempt to decide it upon a priori grounds4 ,unfortunately the evidence is conflicting in tendency1 and sometimes equivocal in interpretation1 but ,i believe that a majority of the foresters and physicists who have studied the question are of opinion that in many1 if not in all cases1 the destruction of the woods has been followed by a diminution in the annual quantity of rain and dew4 ,indeed1 it has long been a popularly settled belief that vegetation and the condensation and fall of atmospheric moisture are reciprocally necessary to each other1 and even the poets sing of ,afric's barren sand1 ,where nought can grow1 because it raineth not1 ,and where no rain can fall to bless the land1 ,because nought grows there4#agf ,before stating the evidence on the general question and citing the judgments of the learned upon it1 however1 it is well to remark that the comparative variety or frequency of inundations in earlier and later centuries is not necessarily1 in most cases not probably1 entitled to any weight whatever1 as a proof that more or less rain fell formerly than now2 because the accumulation of water in the channel of a river depends far less upon the quantity of precipitation in its valley1 than upon the rapidity with which it is conducted1 on or under the surface of the ground1 to the central artery that drains the basin4 ,but this point will be more fully discussed in a subsequent chapter4 ,there is another important observation which may properly be introduced here4 ,it is not universally1 or even generally true1 that the atmosphere returns its humidity to the local source from which it receives it4 ,the air is constantly in motion1 ----howling tempests scour amain ,from sea to land1 from land to sea2#agg and1 therefore1 it is always probable that the evaporation drawn up by the atmosphere from a given river1 or sea1 or forest1 or meadow1 will be discharged by precipitation1 not at or near the point where it rose1 but at a distance of miles1 leagues1 or even degrees4 ,the currents of the upper air are invisible1 and they leave behind them no landmark to record their track4 ,we know not whence they come1 or whither they go4 ,we have a certain rapidly increasing acquaintance with the laws of general atmospheric motion1 but of the origin and limits1 the beginning and end of that motion1 as it manifests itself at any particular time and place1 we know nothing4 ,we cannot say where or when the vapor1 exhaled to-day from the lake on which we float1 will be condensed and fall2 whether it will waste itself on a barren desert1 refresh upland pastures1 descend in snow on ,alpine heights1 or contribute to swell a distant torrent which shall lay waste square miles of fertile corn land2 nor do we know whether the rain which feeds our brooklets is due to the transpiration from a neighboring forest1 or to the evaporation from a far-off sea4 ,if1 therefore1 it were proved that the annual quantity of rain and dew is now as great on the plains of ,castile1 for example1 as it was when they were covered with the native forest1 it would by no means follow that those woods did not augment the amount of precipitation elsewhere4 ,but ,i return to the question4 ,beginning with the latest authorities1 ,i cite a passage from ,clave4#agh ,after arguing that we cannot reason from the climatic effects of the forest in tropical and sub-tropical countries as to its influence in temperate latitudes1 the author proceeds3 ,the action of the forests on rain1 a consequence of that which they exercise on temperature1 is difficult to estimate in our climate1 but is very pronounced in hot countries1 and is established by numerous examples4 ,m4 ,boussingault states that in the region comprised between the ,bay of ,cupica and the ,gulf of ,guayaquil1 which is covered with immense forests1 the rains are almost continual1 and that the mean temperature of this humid country rises hardly to twenty-six degrees 7 #hj deg4 ,fahr474 ,m4 ,blanqui1 in his ',travels in ,bulgaria1' informs us that at ,malta rain has become so rare1 since the woods were cleared to make room for the growth of cotton1 that at the time of his visit in ,october1 #ahda1 not a drop of rain had fallen for three years4#agi ,the terrible droughts which desolate the ,cape ,verd ,islands must also be attributed to the destruction of the forests4 ,in the ,island of ,st4 ,helena1 where the wooded surface has considerably extended within a few years1 it has been observed that the rain has increased in the same proportion4 ,it is now in quantity double what it was during the residence of ,napoleon4 ,in ,egypt1 recent plantations have caused rains1 which hitherto were almost unknown4 ,schacht#ahj observes3 ,in wooded countries1 the atmosphere is generally humid1 and rain and dew fertilize the soil4 ,as the lightning rod abstracts the electric fluid from the stormy sky1 so the forest attracts to itself the rain from the clouds1 which1 in falling1 refreshes not it alone1 but extends its benefits to the neighboring fields4 99 99 ,the forest1 presenting a considerable surface for evaporation1 gives to its own soil and to all the adjacent ground an abundant and enlivening dew4 ,there falls1 it is true1 less dew on a tall and thick wood than on the surrounding meadows1 which1 being more highly heated during the day by the influence of insolation1 cool with greater rapidity by radiation4 ,but it must be remarked1 that this increased deposition of dew on the neighboring fields is partly due to the forests themselves2 for the dense1 saturated strata of air which hover over the woods descend in cool1 calm evenings1 like clouds1 to the valley1 and in the morning1 beads of dew sparkle on the leaves of the grass and the flowers of the field4 ,forests1 in a word1 exert1 in the interior of continents1 an influence like that of the sea on the climate of islands and of coasts3 both water the soil and thereby insure its fertility4 ,in a note upon this passage1 quoting as authority the ,historia de la ,conquista de las siete islas de ,gran ,canaria1 de ,juan de ,abreu ,galindo1 #afcb1 p4 #dg1 he adds3 ,old historians relate that a celebrated laurel in ,ferro formerly furnished drinkable water to the inhabitants of the island4 ,the water flowed from its foliage1 uninterruptedly1 drop by drop1 and was collected in cisterns4 ,every morning the sea breeze drove a cloud toward the wonderful tree1 which attracted it to its huge top1 where it was condensed to a liquid form4 ,in a number of the ,missionary ,herald1 published at ,boston1 the date of which ,i have mislaid1 the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,van ,lennep1 well known as a competent observer1 gives the following remarkable account of a similar fact witnessed by him in an excursion to the east of ,tocat in ,asia ,minor3 ,in this region1 some #c1jjj feet above the sea1 the trees are mostly oak1 and attain a large size4 ,i noticed an illustration of the influence of trees in general in collecting moisture4 ,despite the fog1 of a week's duration1 the ground was everywhere perfectly dry4 ,the dry oak leaves1 however1 had gathered the water1 and the branches and trunks of the trees were more or less wet4 ,in many cases the water had run down the trunk and moistened the soil around the roots of the tree4 ,in two places1 several trees had each furnished a small stream of water1 and these1 uniting1 had run upon the road1 so that travellers had to pass through the mud2 although1 as ,i said1 everywhere else the ground was perfectly dry4 ,moreover1 the collected moisture was not sufficient to drop directly from the leaves1 but in every case it ran down the branches and trunk to the ground4 ,farther on we found a grove1 and at the foot of each tree1 on the north side1 was a lump of ice1 the water having frozen as it reached the ground4 ,this is a most striking illustration of the acknowledged influence of trees in collecting moisture2 and one cannot for a moment doubt1 that the parched regions which commence at ,sivas1 and extend in one direction to the ,persian ,gulf1 and in another to the ,red ,sea1 were once a fertile garden1 teeming with a prosperous population1 before the forests which covered the hillsides were cut down--before the cedar and the fir tree were rooted up from the sides of ,lebanon4 ,as we now descended the northern side of the watershed1 we passed through the grove of walnut1 oak1 and black mulberry trees1 which shade the village of ,oktab1 whose houses1 cattle1 and ruddy children were indicative of prosperity4 ,coultas thus argues3 ,the ocean1 winds1 and woods may be regarded as the several parts of a grand distillatory apparatus4 ,the sea is the boiler in which vapor is raised by the solar heat1 the winds are the guiding tubes which carry the vapor with them to the forests where a lower temperature prevails4 ,this naturally condenses the vapor1 and showers of rain are thus distilled from the cloud masses which float in the atmosphere1 by the woods beneath them4#aha ,sir ,john ,f4 ,w4 ,herschel enumerates among the influences unfavorable to rain1 absence of vegetation in warm climates1 and especially of trees4 ,this is1 no doubt1 continues he1 one of the reasons of the extreme aridity of ,spain4 ,the hatred of a ,spaniard toward a tree is proverbial4 ,many districts in ,france have been materially injured by denudation 7,earl of ,lovelace on ,climate1 etc471 and1 on the other hand1 rain has become more frequent in ,egypt since the more vigorous cultivation of the palm tree4 ,hohenstein remarks3 ,with respect to the temperature in the forest1 ,i have already observed that1 at certain times of the day and of the year1 it is less than in the open field4 ,hence the woods may1 in the daytime1 in summer and toward the end of winter1 tend to increase the fall of rain2 but it is otherwise in summer nights and at the beginning of winter1 when there is a higher temperature in the forest1 which is not favorable to that effect4 99 99 99 ,the wood is1 further1 like the mountain1 a mechanical obstruction to the motion of rain clouds1 and1 as it checks them in their course1 it gives them occasion to deposit their water4 ,these considerations render it probable that the forest increases the quantity of rain2 but they do not establish the certainty of this conclusion1 because we have no positive numerical data to produce on the depression of temperature1 and the humidity of the air in the woods4#ahb ,barth presents the following view of the subject3 ,the ground in the forest1 as well as the atmospheric stratum over it1 continues humid after the woodless districts have lost their moisture2 and the air1 charged with the humidity drawn from them1 is usually carried away by the winds before it has deposited itself in a condensed form on the earth4 ,trees constantly transpire through their leaves a great quantity of moisture1 which they partly absorb again by the same organs1 while the greatest part of their supply is pumped up through their widely ramifying roots from considerable depths in the ground4 ,thus a constant evaporation is produced1 which keeps the forest atmosphere moist even in long droughts1 when all other sources of humidity in the forest itself are dried up4 99 99 99 ,little is required to compel the stratum of air resting upon a wood to give up its moisture1 which thus1 as rain1 fog1 or dew1 is returned to the forest4 99 99 99 ,the warm1 moist currents of air which come from other regions are cooled as they approach the wood by its less heated atmosphere1 and obliged to let fall the humidity with which they are charged4 ,the woods contribute to the same effect by mechanically impeding the motion of fog and rain cloud1 whose particles are thus accumulated and condensed to rain4 ,the forest thus has a greater power than the open ground to retain within its own limits already existing humidity1 and to preserve it1 and it attracts and collects that which the wind brings it from elsewhere1 and forces it to deposit itself as rain or other precipitation4 99 99 99 ,in consequence of these relations of the forest to humidity1 it follows that wooded districts have both more frequent and more abundant rain1 and in general are more humid1 than woodless regions2 for what is true of the woods themselves1 in this respect1 is true also of their treeless neighborhood1 which1 in consequence of the ready mobility of the air and its constant changes1 receives a share of the characteristics of the forest atmosphere1 coolness and moisture4 99 99 99 ,when the districts stripped of trees have long been deprived of rain and dew1 99 99 99 and the grass and the fruits of the field are ready to wither1 the grounds which are surrounded by woods are green and flourishing4 ,by night they are refreshed with dew1 which is never wanting in the moist air of the forest1 and in due season they are watered by a beneficent shower1 or a mist which rolls slowly over them4#ahc ,asbjoernsen1 after adducing the familiar theoretical arguments on this point1 adds3 ,the rainless territories in ,peru and ,north ,africa establish this conclusion1 and numerous other examples show that woods exert an influence in producing rain1 and that rain fails where they are wanting2 for many countries have1 by the destruction of the forests1 been deprived of rain1 moisture1 springs1 and watercourses1 which are necessary for vegetable growth4 99 99 99 ,the narratives of travellers show the deplorable consequences of felling the woods in the ,island of ,trinidad1 ,martinique1 ,san ,domingo1 and indeed1 in almost the entire ,west ,indian group4 99 99 99 ,in ,palestine and many other parts of ,asia and ,northern ,africa1 which in ancient times were the granaries of ,europe1 fertile and populous1 similar consequences have been experienced4 ,these lands are now deserts1 and it is the destruction of the forests alone which has produced this desolation4 99 99 99 ,in ,southern ,france1 many districts have1 from the same cause1 become barren wastes of stone1 and the cultivation of the vine and the olive has suffered severely since the baring of the neighboring mountains4 ,since the extensive clearings between the ,spree and the ,oder1 the inhabitants complain that the clover crop is much less productive than before4 ,on the other hand1 examples of the beneficial influence of planting and restoring the woods are not wanting4 ,in ,scotland1 where many miles square have been planted with trees1 this effect has been manifest1 and similar observations have been made in several places in ,southern ,france4 ,in ,lower ,egypt1 both at ,cairo and near ,alexandria1 rain rarely fell in considerable quantity--for example1 during the ,french occupation of ,egypt1 about #agih1 it did not rain for sixteen months--but since ,mehemet ,aali and ,ibrahim ,pacha executed their vast plantations 7the former alone having planted more than twenty millions of olive and fig trees1 cottonwood1 oranges1 acacias1 planes1 c471 there now falls a good deal of rain1 especially along the coast1 in the months of ,november1 ,december1 and ,january2 and even at ,cairo it rains both oftener and more abundantly1 so that real showers are no rarity4#ahd ,babinet1 in one of his lectures1#ahe cites the supposed fact of the increase of rain in ,egypt in consequence of the planting of trees1 and thus remarks upon it3 ,a few years ago it never rained in ,lower ,egypt4 ,the constant north winds1 which almost exclusively prevail there1 passed without obstruction over a surface bare of vegetation4 ,grain was kept on the roofs in ,alexandria1 without being covered or otherwise protected from injury by the atmosphere2 but since the making of plantations1 an obstacle has been created which retards the current of air from the north4 ,the air thus checked1 accumulates1 dilates1 cools1 and yields rain4#ahf ,the forests of the ,vosges and ,ardennes produce the same effects in the north east of ,france1 and send us a great river1 the ,meuse1 which is as remarkable for its volume as for the small extent of its basin4 ,with respect to the retardation of the atmospheric currents1 and the effects of that retardation1 one of my illustrious colleagues1 ,m4 ,mignet1 who is not less a profound thinker than an eloquent writer1 suggested to me that1 to produce rain1 a forest was as good as a mountain1 and this is literally true4 ,monestier-,savignat arrives at this conclusion3 ,forests on the one hand diminish evaporation2 on the other1 they act on the atmosphere as refrigerating causes4 ,the second scale of the balance predominates over the other1 for it is established that in wooded countries it rains oftener1 and that1 the quantity of rain being equal1 they are more humid4#ahg ,boussingault--whose observations on the drying up of lakes and springs1 from the destruction of the woods1 in tropical ,america1 have often been cited as a conclusive proof that the quantity of rain was thereby diminished--after examining the question with much care1 remarks3 ,in my judgment it is settled that very large clearings must diminish the annual fall of rain in a country2 and on a subsequent page1 he concludes that1 arguing from meteorological facts collected in the equinoctial regions1 there is reason to presume that clearings diminish the annual fall of rain4#ahh ,the same eminent author proposes series of observations on the level of natural lakes1 especially on those without outlet1 as a means of determining the increase or diminution of precipitation in their basins1 and1 of course1 of measuring the effect of clearing when such operations take place within those basins4 ,but it must be observed that lakes without a visible outlet are of very rare occurrence1 and besides1 where no superficial conduit for the discharge of lacustrine waters exists1 we can seldom or never be sure that nature has not provided subterranean channels for their escape4 ,indeed1 when we consider that most earths1 and even some rocks under great hydrostatic pressure1 are freely permeable by water1 and that fissures are frequent in almost all rocky strata1 it is evident that we cannot know in what proportion the depression of the level of a lake is to be ascribed to infiltration1 to percolation1 or to evaporation4#ahi ,further1 we are1 in general1 as little able to affirm that a given lake derives all its water from the fall of rain within its geographical basin1 or that it receives all the water that falls in that basin except what evaporates from the ground1 as we are to show that all its superfluous water is carried off by visible channels and by evaporation4 ,suppose the strata of the mountains on two sides of a lake1 east and west1 to be tilted in the same direction1 and that those of the hill on the east side incline toward the lake1 those of that on the west side from it4 ,in this case a large proportion of the rain which falls on the eastern slope of the eastern hill may find its way between the strata to the lake1 and an equally large proportion of the precipitation upon the eastern slope of the western ridge may escape out of the basin by similar channels4 ,in such case the clearing of the outer slopes of either or both mountains1 while the forests of the inner declivities remained intact1 might affect the quantity of water received by the lake1 and it would always be impossible to know to what territorial extent influences thus affecting the level of a lake might reach4 ,boussingault admits that extensive clearing below an alpine lake1 even at a considerable distance1 might affect the level of its waters4 ,how it would produce this influence he does not inform us1 but1 as he says nothing of the natural subterranean drainage of surface waters1 it is to be presumed that he refers to the supposed diminution of the quantity of rain from the removal of the forest1 which might manifest itself at a point more elevated than the cause which occasioned it4 ,the elevation or depression of the level of natural lakes1 then1 cannot be relied upon as a proof1 still less as a measure of an increase or diminution in the fall of rain within their geographical basins1 resulting from the felling of the woods which covered them2 though such phenomena afford very strong presumptive evidence that the supply of water is somehow augmented or lessened4 ,the supply is1 in most cases1 derived much less from the precipitation which falls directly upon the surface of lakes1 than from waters which flow above or under the ground around them1 and which1 in the latter case1 often come from districts not comprised within what superficial geography would regard as belonging to the lake basins4 ,it is1 upon the whole1 evident that the question can hardly be determined except by the comparison of pluviometrical observations made at a given station before and after the destruction of the woods4 ,such observations1 unhappily1 are scarcely to be found1 and the opportunity for making them is rapidly passing away1 except so far as a converse series might be collected in countries--,france1 for example--where forest plantation is now going on upon a large scale4 ,the ,smithsonian ,institution at ,washington is well situated for directing the attention of observers in the newer territory of the ,united ,states to this subject1 and it is to be hoped that it will not fail to avail itself of its facilities for this purpose4 ,numerous other authorities might be cited in support of the proposition that forests tend1 at least in certain latitudes and at certain seasons1 to produce rain2 but though the arguments of the advocates of this doctrine are very plausible1 not to say convincing1 their opinions are rather a priori conclusions from general meteorological laws1 than deductions from facts of observation1 and it is remarkable that there is so little direct evidence on the subject4 ,on the other hand1 ,foissac expresses the opinion that forests have no influence on precipitation1 beyond that of promoting the deposit of dew in their vicinity1 and he states1 as a fact of experience1 that the planting of large vegetables1 and especially of trees1 is a very efficient means of drying morasses1 because the plants draw from the earth a quantity of water larger than the average annual fall of rain4#aij ,kloeden1 admitting that the rivers ,oder and ,elbe have diminished in quantity of water1 the former since #aggh1 the latter since #ahbh1 denies that the diminution of volume is to be ascribed to a decrease of precipitation in consequence of the felling of the forests1 and states1 what other physicists confirm1 that1 during the same period1 meteorological records in various parts of ,europe show rather an augmentation than a reduction of rain4#aia ,the observations of ,belgrand tend to show1 contrary to the general opinion1 that less rain falls in wooded than in denuded districts4 ,he compared the precipitation for the year #aheb1 at ,vezelay in the valley of the ,bouchat1 and at ,avallon in the valley of the ,grenetiere4 ,at the first of these places it was #hha millimetres1 at the latter #eha millimetres4 ,the two cities are not more than eight miles apart4 ,they are at the same altitude1 and it is stated that the only difference in their geographical conditions consists in the different proportions of forest and cultivated country around them1 the basin of the ,bouchat being entirely bare1 while that of the ,grenetiere is well wooded4#aib ,observations in the same valleys1 considered with reference to the seasons1 show the following pluviometric results3 ,,for ,,la ,,grenetiere4 ,february1 #aheb1 #db4b millimetres precipitation4 ,november1 #bc4h ,january1 #ahec1 #ce4d ----- ,total1 #ajf4d in three cold months4 ,september1 #ahea1 #bg4a millimetres precipitation4 ,may1 #aheb1 #bj4i ,june1 #ef4c ,july1 #bb4h ,september1 #bb4h ----- ,total1 #adi4i in five warm months4 ,,for ,,le ,,bouchat4 ,february1 #aheb1 #ea4c millimetres precipitation4 ,november1 #cf4f ,january1 #ahec1 #ib4j ----- ,total1 #agi4i in three cold months4 ,september1 #ahea1 #dc4h millimetres precipitation4 ,may1 #aheb1 #ac4b ,june1 #ee4e ,july1 #ai4e ,september1 #bf4e ----- ,total1 #aeh4e in five warm months4 ,these observations1 so far as they go1 seem to show that more rain falls in cleared than in wooded countries1 but this result is so contrary to what has been generally accepted as a theoretical conclusion1 that further experiment is required to determine the question4 ,becquerel--whose treatise on the climatic effects of the destruction of the forest is the fullest general discussion of that subject known to me--does not examine this particular point1 and as1 in the summary of the results of his investigations1 he does not ascribe to the forest any influence upon precipitation1 the presumption is that he rejects the doctrine of its importance as an agent in producing the fall of rain4 ,the effect of the forest on precipitation1 then1 is not entirely free from doubt1 and we cannot positively affirm that the total annual quantity of rain is diminished or increased by the destruction of the woods1 though both theoretical considerations and the balance of testimony strongly favor the opinion that more rain falls in wooded than in open countries4 ,one important conclusion1 at least1 upon the meteorological influence of forests is certain and undisputed3 the proposition1 namely1 that1 within their own limits1 and near their own borders1 they maintain a more uniform degree of humidity in the atmosphere than is observed in cleared grounds4 ,scarcely less can it be questioned that they promote the frequency of showers1 and1 if they do not augment the amount of precipitation1 they equalize its distribution through the different seasons4 ,influence of the ,forest on the ,humidity of the ,soil4 ,i have hitherto confined myself to the influence of the forest on meteorological conditions1 a subject1 as has been seen1 full of difficulty and uncertainty4 ,its comparative effects on the temperature1 the humidity1 the texture and consistence1 the configuration and distribution of the mould or arable soil1 and1 very often1 of the mineral strata below1 and on the permanence and regularity of springs and greater superficial watercourses1 are much less disputable as well as more easily estimated1 and much more important1 than its possible value as a cause of strictly climatic equilibrium or disturbance4 ,the action of the forest on the earth is chiefly mechanical1 but the organic process of abstraction of water by its roots affects the quantity of that fluid contained in the vegetable mould1 and in the mineral strata near the surface1 and1 consequently1 the consistency of the soil4 ,in treating of the effects of trees on the moisture of the atmosphere1 ,i have said that the forest1 by interposing a canopy between the sky and the ground1 and by covering the surface with a thick mantle of fallen leaves1 at once obstructed insolation and prevented the radiation of heat from the earth4 ,these influences go far to balance each other2 but familiar observation shows that1 in summer1 the forest soil is not raised to so high a temperature as open grounds exposed to irradiation4 ,for this reason1 and in consequence of the mechanical resistance opposed by the bed of dead leaves to the escape of moisture1 we should expect that1 except after recent rains1 the superficial strata of woodland soil would be more humid than that of cleared land4 ,this agrees with experience4 ,the soil of the forest is always moist1 except in the extremest droughts1 and it is exceedingly rare that a primitive wood suffers from want of humidity4 ,how far this accumulation of water affects the condition of neighboring grounds by lateral infiltration1 we do not know1 but we shall see1 in a subsequent chapter1 that water is conveyed to great distances by this process1 and we may hence infer that the influence in question is an important one4 ,influence of the ,forest on the ,flow of ,springs4 ,it is well established that the protection afforded by the forest against the escape of moisture from its soil1 insures the permanence and regularity of natural springs1 not only within the limits of the wood1 but at some distance beyond its borders1 and thus contributes to the supply of an element essential to both vegetable and animal life4 ,as the forests are destroyed1 the springs which flowed from the woods1 and1 consequently1 the greater watercourses fed by them1 diminish both in number and in volume4 ,this fact is so familiar throughout the ,american ,states and the ,british ,provinces1 that there are few old residents of the interior of those districts who are not able to testify to its truth as a matter of personal observation4 ,my own recollection suggests to me many instances of this sort1 and ,i remember one case where a small mountain spring1 which disappeared soon after the clearing of the ground where it rose1 was recovered about ten or twelve years ago1 by simply allowing the bushes and young trees to grow up on a rocky knoll1 not more than half an acre in extent1 immediately above it1 and has since continued to flow uninterruptedly4 ,the uplands in the ,atlantic ,states formerly abounded in sources and rills1 but in many parts of those ,states which have been cleared for above a generation or two1 the hill pastures now suffer severely from drought1 and in dry seasons no longer afford either water or herbage for cattle4 ,foissac1 indeed1 quotes from the elder ,pliny 7,nat4 ,hist41 xxxi1 c4 #cj7 a passage affirming that the felling of the woods gives rise to springs which did not exist before because the water of the soil was absorbed by the trees2 and the same meteorologist declares1 as ,i observed in treating of the effect of the forest on atmospheric humidity1 that the planting of trees tends to drain marshy ground1 because the roots absorb more water than falls from the air4 ,but ,pliny's statement rests on very doubtful authority1 and ,foissac cites no evidence in support of his own proposition4#aic ,in the ,american ,states1 it is always observed that clearing the ground not only causes running springs to disappear1 but dries up the stagnant pools and the spongy soils of the low grounds4 ,the first roads in those ,states ran along the ridges1 when practicable1 because there only was the earth dry enough to allow of their construction1 and1 for the same reason1 the cabins of the first settlers were perched upon the hills4 ,as the forests have been from time to time removed1 and the face of the earth laid open to the air and sun1 the moisture has been evaporated1 and the removal of the highways and of human habitations from the bleak hills to the sheltered valleys1 is one of the most agreeable among the many improvements which later generations have witnessed in the interior of ,new ,england and the other ,northern ,states4 ,almost every treatise on the economy of the forest adduces numerous facts in support of the doctrine that the clearing of the woods tends to diminish the flow of springs and the humidity of the soil1 and it might seem unnecessary to bring forward further evidence on this point4#aid ,but the subject is of too much practical importance and of too great philosophical interest to be summarily disposed of2 and it ought particularly to be noticed that there is at least one case--that of some loose soils which1 when bared of wood1 very rapidly absorb and transmit to lower strata the water they receive from the atmosphere1 as argued by ,valles#aie--where the removal of the forest may increase the flow of springs at levels below it1 by exposing to the rain and melted snow a surface more bibulous1 and at the same time less retentive1 than its original covering4 ,under such circumstances1 the water of precipitation1 which had formerly flowed off without penetrating through the superficial layers of leaves upon the ground--as1 in very heavy showers1 it sometimes does--or been absorbed by the vegetable mould and retained until it was evaporated1 might descend through porous earth until it meets an impermeable stratum1 and then be conducted along it1 until1 finally1 at the outcropping of this stratum1 it bursts from a hillside as a running spring4 ,but such instances are doubtless too rare to form a frequent or an important exception to the general law1 because it is only under very uncommon circumstances that rain water runs off over the surface of forest ground instead of sinking into it1 and very rarely the case that such a soil as has just been supposed is covered by a layer of vegetable earth thick enough to retain1 until it is evaporated1 all the rain that falls upon it1 without imparting any water to the strata below it4 ,if we look at the point under discussion as purely a question of fact1 to be determined by positive evidence and not by argument1 the observations of ,boussingault are1 both in the circumstances they detail1 and in the weight of authority to be attached to the testimony1 among the most important yet recorded4 ,they are embodied in the fourth section of the twentieth chapter of that writer's ,economie ,rurale1 and ,i have already referred to them on page #aia for another purpose4 ,the interest of the question will justify me in giving1 in ,boussingault's own words1 the facts and some of the remarks with which he accompanies the details of them3 ,in many localities1 he observes1#aif it has been thought that1 within a certain number of years1 a sensible diminution has been perceived in the volume of water of streams utilized as a motive power2 at other points1 there are grounds for believing that rivers have become shallower1 and the increasing breadth of the belt of pebbles along their banks seems to prove the loss of a part of their water2 and1 finally1 abundant springs have almost dried up4 ,these observations have been principally made in valleys bounded by high mountains1 and it is thought to have been noticed that this diminution of the waters has immediately followed the epoch when the inhabitants have begun to destroy1 unsparingly1 the woods which were spread over the face of the land4 ,these facts would indicate that1 where clearings have been made1 it rains less than formerly1 and this is the generally received opinion4 99 99 99 ,but while the facts ,i have stated have been established1 it has been observed1 at the same time1 that1 since the clearing of the mountains1 the rivers and the torrents1 which seemed to have lost a part of their water1 sometimes suddenly swell1 and that1 occasionally1 to a degree which causes great disasters4 ,besides1 after violent storms1 springs which had become almost exhausted have been observed to burst out with impetuosity1 and soon after to dry up again4 ,these latter observations1 it will be easily conceived1 warn us not to admit hastily the common opinion that the felling of the woods lessens the quantity of rain2 for not only is it very possible that the quantity of rain has not changed1 but the mean volume of running water may have remained the same1 in spite of the appearance of drought presented by the rivers and springs1 at certain periods of the year4 ,perhaps the only difference would be that the flow of the same quantity of water becomes more irregular in consequence of clearing4 ,for instance3 if the low water of the ,rhone during one part of the year were exactly compensated by a sufficient number of floods1 it would follow that this river would convey to the ,mediterranean the same volume of water which it carried to that sea in ancient times1 before the period when the countries near its source were stripped of their woods1 and when1 probably1 its mean depth was not subject to so great variations as in our days4 ,if this were so1 the forests would have this value--that of regulating1 of economizing in a certain sort1 the drainage of the rain water4 ,if running streams really become rarer in proportion as clearing is extended1 it follows either that the rain is less abundant1 or that evaporation is greatly favored by a surface which is no longer protected by trees against the rays of the sun and the wind4 ,these two causes1 acting in the same direction1 must often be cumulative in their effects1 and before we attempt to fix the value of each1 it is proper to inquire whether it is an established fact that running waters diminish on the surface of a country in which extensive clearing is going on2 in a word1 to examine whether an apparent fact has not been mistaken for a real one4 ,and here lies the practical point of the question2 for if it is once established that clearing diminishes the volume of streams1 it is less important to know to what special cause this effect is due4 99 99 99 ,i shall attach no value except to facts which have taken place under the eye of man1 as it is the influence of his labors on the meteorological condition of the atmosphere which ,i propose to estimate4 ,what ,i am about to detail has been observed particularly in ,america1 but ,i shall endeavor to establish1 that what ,i believe to be true of ,america would be equally so for any other continent4 ,one of the most interesting parts of ,venezuela is1 no doubt1 the valley of ,aragua4 ,situated at a short distance from the coast1 and endowed1 from its elevation1 with various climates and a soil of unexampled fertility1 its agriculture embraces at once the crops suited to tropical regions and to ,europe4 ,wheat succeeds well on the heights of ,victoria4 ,bounded on the north by the coast chain1 on the south by a system of mountains connected with the ,llanos1 the valley is shut in on the east and the west by lines of hills which completely close it4 ,in consequence of this singular configuration1 the rivers which rise within it1 having no outlet to the ocean1 form1 by their union1 the beautiful ,lake of ,tacarigua or ,valencia4 ,this lake1 according to ,humboldt1 is larger than that of ,neufchatel2 it is at an elevation of #dci metres #a1dfj ,english feet above the sea1 and its greatest length does not exceed two leagues and a half seven ,english miles4 ,at the time of ,humboldt's visit to the valley of ,aragua1 the inhabitants were struck by the gradual diminution which the lake had been undergoing for thirty years4 ,in fact1 by comparing the descriptions given by historians with its actual condition1 even making large allowance for exaggeration1 it was easy to see that the level was considerably depressed4 ,the facts spoke for themselves4 ,oviedo1 who1 toward the close of the sixteenth century1 had often traversed the valley of ,aragua1 says positively that ,new ,valencia was founded1 in #aeee1 at half a league from the ,lake of ,tacarigua2 in #ahjj1 ,humboldt found this city #e1bfj metres #c-a_/c ,english miles from the shore4 ,the aspect of the soil furnished new proofs4 ,many hillocks on the plain retain the name of islands1 which they more justly bore when they were surrounded by water4 ,the ground laid bare by the retreat of the lake was converted into admirable plantations of cotton1 bananas1 and sugar cane2 and buildings erected near the lake showed the sinking of the water from year to year4 ,in #agif1 new islands made their appearance4 ,an important military point1 a fortress built in #agdj on the island of ,cabrera1 was now on a peninsula2 and1 finally1 on two granitic islands1 those of ,cura and ,cabo ,blanco1 ,humboldt observed among the shrubs1 some metres above the water1 fine sand filled with helicites4 ,these clear and positive facts suggested numerous explanations1 all assuming a subterranean outlet1 which permitted the discharge of the water to the ocean4 ,humboldt disposed of these hypotheses1 and1 after a careful examination of the locality1 the distinguished traveller did not hesitate to ascribe the diminution of the waters of the lake to the numerous clearings which had been made in the valley of ,aragua within half a century4 99 99 99 ,in #ahjj1 the valley of ,aragua possessed a population as dense as that of any of the best-peopled parts of ,france4 99 99 99 ,such was the prosperous condition of this fine country when ,humboldt occupied the ,hacienda de ,cura4 ,twenty-two years later1 ,i explored the valley of ,aragua1 fixing my residence in the little town of ,maracay4 ,for some years previous1 the inhabitants had observed that the waters of the lake were no longer retiring1 but1 on the contrary1 were sensibly rising4 ,grounds1 not long before occupied by plantations1 were submerged4 ,the islands of ,nuevas ,aparecidas1 which appeared above the surface in #agif1 had again become shoals dangerous to navigation4 ,cabrera1 a tongue of land on the north side of the valley1 was so narrow that the least rise of the water completely inundated it4 ,a protracted north wind sufficed to flood the road between ,maracay and ,new ,valencia4 ,the fears which the inhabitants of the shores had so long entertained were reversed4 99 99 99 ,those who had explained the diminution of the lake by the supposition of subterranean channels were suspected of blocking them up1 to prove themselves in the right4 ,during the twenty-two years which had elapsed1 important political events had occurred4 ,venezuela no longer belonged to ,spain4 ,the peaceful valley of ,aragua had been the theatre of bloody struggles1 and a war of extermination had desolated these smiling lands and decimated their population4 ,at the first cry of independence a great number of slaves found their liberty by enlisting under the banners of the new republic2 the great plantations were abandoned1 and the forest1 which in the tropics so rapidly encroaches1 had soon recovered a large proportion of the soil which man had wrested from it by more than a century of constant and painful labor4 ,at the time of the growing prosperity of the valley of ,aragua1 the principal affluents of the lake were diverted1 to serve for irrigation1 and the rivers were dry for more than six months of the year4 ,at the period of my visit1 their waters1 no longer employed1 flowed freely4 ,boussingault proceeds to state that two lakes near ,ubate in ,new ,granada1 at an elevation of #b1efb metres 7 #h1ejj ,english feet71 where there is a constant temperature of #ad deg4 to #af deg4 centigrade #eg deg41 #fa deg4 ,fahrenheit1 had formed but one1 a century before his visit2 that the waters were gradually retiring1 and the plantations extending over the abandoned bed2 that1 by inquiry of old hunters and by examination of parish records1 he found that extensive clearings had been made and were still going on4 ,he found1 also1 that the length of the ,lake of ,fuquene1 in the same valley1 had1 within two centuries1 been reduced from ten leagues to one and a half1 its breadth from three leagues to one4 ,at the former period1 timber was abundant1 and the neighboring mountains were covered1 to a certain height1 with ,american oaks1 laurels1 and other trees of indigenous species2 but at the time of his visit the mountains had been almost entirely stripped of their wood1 chiefly to furnish fuel for salt-works4 ,our author adds that other cases1 similar to those already detailed1 might be cited1 and he proceeds to show1 by several examples1 that the waters of other lakes in the same regions1 where the valleys had always been bare of wood1 or where the forests had not been disturbed1 had undergone no change of level4 ,boussingault further maintains that the lakes of ,switzerland have sustained a depression of level since the too prevalent destruction of the woods1 and arrives at the general conclusion1 that1 in countries where great clearings have been made1 there has most probably been a diminution in the living waters which flow upon the surface of the ground4 ,this conclusion he further supports by two examples3 one1 where a fine spring1 at the foot of a wooded mountain in the ,island of ,ascension1 dried up when the mountain was cleared1 but reappeared when the wood was replanted2 the other at ,marmato1 in the province of ,popayan1 where the streams employed to drive machinery were much diminished in volume1 within two years after the clearing of the heights from which they derived their supplies4 ,this latter is an interesting case1 because1 although the rain gauges1 established as soon as the decrease of water began to excite alarm1 showed a greater fall of rain for the second year of observation than the first1 yet there was no appreciable increase in the flow of the mill streams4 ,from these cases1 the distinguished physicist infers that very restricted local clearings may diminish and even suppress springs and brooks1 without any reduction in the total quantity of rain4 ,it will have been noticed that these observations1 with the exception of the last two cases1 do not bear directly upon the question of the diminution of springs by clearings1 but they logically infer it from the subsidence of the natural reservoirs which springs once filled4 ,there is1 however1 no want of positive evidence on this subject4 ,marschand cites the following instances3 ,before the felling of the woods1 within the last few years1 in the valley of the ,soulce1 the ,combe-es-,mounin and the ,little ,valley1 the ,sorne furnished a regular and sufficient supply of water for the iron works of ,unterwyl1 which was almost unaffected by drought or by heavy rains4 ,the ,sorne has now become a torrent1 every shower occasions a flood1 and after a few days of fine weather1 the current falls so low that it has been necessary to change the water wheels1 because those of the old construction are no longer able to drive the machinery1 and at last to introduce a steam engine to prevent the stoppage of the works for want of water4 ,when the factory of ,st4 ,ursanne was established1 the river that furnished its power was abundant1 long known and tried1 and had1 from time immemorial1 sufficed for the machinery of a previous factory4 ,afterward1 the woods near its sources were cut4 ,the supply of water fell off in consequence1 the factory wanted water for half the year1 and was at last obliged to stop altogether4 ,the spring of ,combefoulat1 in the commune of ,seleate1 was well known as one of the best in the country2 it was remarkably abundant and sufficient1 in spite of the severest droughts1 to supply all the fountains of the town2 but1 as soon as considerable forests were felled in ,combe-de-pre ,martin and in the valley of ,combefoulat1 the famous spring which lies below these woods has become a mere thread of water1 and disappears altogether in times of drought4 ,the spring of ,varieux1 which formerly supplied the castle of ,pruntrut1 lost more than half its water after the clearing of ,varieux and ,rongeoles4 ,these woods have been replanted1 the young trees are growing well1 and with the woods1 the waters of the spring are increasing4 ,the ,dog ,spring between ,pruntrut and ,bressancourt has entirely vanished since the surrounding forests grounds were brought under cultivation4 ,the ,wolf ,spring1 in the commune of ,soubey1 furnishes a remarkable example of the influence of the woods upon fountains4 ,a few years ago this spring did not exist4 ,at the place where it now rises1 a small thread of water was observed after very long rains1 but the stream disappeared with the rain4 ,the spot is in the middle of a very steep pasture inclining to the south4 ,eighty years ago1 the owner of the land1 perceiving that young firs were shooting up in the upper part of it1 determined to let them grow1 and they soon formed a flourishing grove4 ,as soon as they were well grown1 a fine spring appeared in place of the occasional rill1 and furnished abundant water in the longest droughts4 ,for forty or fifty years1 this spring was considered the best in the ,clos du ,doubs4 ,a few years since1 the grove was felled1 and the ground turned again to a pasture4 ,the spring disappeared with the wood1 and is now as dry as it was ninety years ago4#aig ,the influence of the forest on springs1 says ,hummel1 is strikingly shown by an instance at ,heilbronn4 ,the woods on the hills surrounding the town are cut in regular succession every twentieth year4 ,as the annual cuttings approach a certain point1 the springs yield less water1 some of them none at all2 but as the young growth shoots up1 they now more and more freely1 and at length bubble up again in all their original abundance4#aih ,piper states the following case3 ,within about half a mile of my residence there is a pond upon which mills have been standing for a long time1 dating back1 ,i believe1 to the first settlement of the town4 ,these have been kept in constant operation until within some twenty or thirty years1 when the supply of water began to fail4 ,the pond owes its existence to a stream which has its source in the hills which stretch some miles to the south4 ,within the time mentioned1 these hills1 which were clothed with a dense forest1 have been almost entirely stripped of trees2 and to the wonder and loss of the mill owners1 the water in the pond has failed1 except in the season of freshets2 and1 what was never heard of before1 the stream itself has been entirely dry4 ,within the last ten years a new growth of wood has sprung up on most of the land formerly occupied by the old forest2 and now the water runs through the year1 notwithstanding the great droughts of the last few years1 going back from #ahef4 ,dr4 ,piper quotes from a letter of ,william ,c4 ,bryant the following remarks3 ,it is a common observation that our summers are become drier1 and our streams smaller4 ,take the ,cuyahoga as an illustration4 ,fifty years ago large barges loaded with goods went up and down that river1 and one of the vessels engaged in the battle of ,lake ,erie1 in which the gallant ,perry was victorious1 was built at ,old ,portage1 six miles north of ,albion1 and floated down to the lake4 ,now1 in an ordinary stage of the water1 a canoe or skiff can hardly pass down the stream4 ,many a boat of fifty tons burden has been built and loaded in the ,tuscarawas1 at ,new ,portage1 and sailed to ,new ,orleans without breaking bulk4 ,now1 the river hardly affords a supply of water at ,new ,portage for the canal4 ,the same may be said of other streams--they are drying up4 ,and from the same cause--the destruction of our forests--our summers are growing drier1 and our winters colder4#aii ,no observer has more carefully studied the influence of the forest upon the flow of the waters1 or reasoned more ably on the ascertained phenomena than ,cantegril4 ,the facts presented in the following case1 communicated by him to the ,ami des ,sciences for ,december1 #ahei1 are as nearly conclusive as any single instance well can be3 ,in the territory of the commune of ,labruguiere1 there is a forest of #a1hcd hectares #d1ecj acres1 known by the name of the ,forest of ,montaut1 and belonging to that commune4 ,it extends along the northern slope of the ,black ,mountains4 ,the soil is granitic1 the maximum altitude #a1bdc metres #d1adj feet1 and the inclination ranges between #ae and #fj to #ajj4 ,a small current of water1 the brook of ,caunan1 takes its rise in this forest1 and receives the waters of two thirds of its surface4 ,at the lower extremity of the wood and on the stream are several fulleries1 each requiring a force of eight horse-power to drive the water wheels which work the stampers4 ,the commune of ,labruguiere had been for a long time famous for its opposition to forest laws4 ,trespasses and abuses of the right of pasturage had converted the wood into an immense waste1 so that this vast property now scarcely sufficed to pay the expense of protecting it1 and to furnish the inhabitants with a meagre supply of fuel4 ,while the forest was thus ruined1 and the soil thus bared1 the water1 after every abundant rain1 made an eruption into the valley1 brought down a great quantity of pebbles which still clog the current of the ,caunan4 ,the violence of the floods was sometimes such that they were obliged to stop the machinery for some time4 ,during the summer another inconvenience was felt4 ,if the dry weather continued a little longer than usual1 the delivery of water became insignificant4 ,each fullery could for the most part only employ a single set of stampers1 and it was not unusual to see the work entirely suspended4 ,after #ahdj1 the municipal authority succeeded in enlightening the population as to their true interests4 ,protected by a more watchful supervision1 aided by well-managed replantation1 the forest has continued to improve to the present day4 ,in proportion to the restoration of the forest1 the condition of the manufactories has become less and less precarious1 and the action of the water is completely modified4 ,for example1 there are1 no longer1 sudden and violent floods which make it necessary to stop the machinery4 ,there is no increase in the delivery until six or eight hours after the beginning of the rain2 the floods follow a regular progression till they reach their maximum1 and decrease in the same manner4 ,finally1 the fulleries are no longer forced to suspend work in summer2 the water is always sufficiently abundant to allow the employment of two sets of stampers at least1 and often even of three4 ,this example is remarkable in this respect1 that1 all other circumstances having remained the same1 the changes in the action of the stream can be attributed only to the restoration of the forest--changes which may be thus summed up3 diminution of flood water during rains--increase of delivery at other seasons4 ,the ,forest in ,winter4 ,to estimate rightly the importance of the forest as a natural apparatus for accumulating the water that falls upon the surface and transmitting it to the subjacent strata1 we must compare the condition and properties of its soil with those of cleared and cultivated earth1 and examine the consequently different action of these soils at different seasons of the year4 ,the disparity between them is greatest in climates where1 as in the ,northern ,american ,states and in the ,north of ,europe1 the open ground freezes and remains impervious to water during a considerable part of the winter2 though1 even in climates where the earth does not freeze at all1 the woods have still an important influence of the same character4 ,the difference is yet greater in countries which have regular wet and dry seasons1 rain being very frequent in the former period1 while1 in the latter1 it scarcely occurs at all4 ,these countries lie chiefly in or near the tropics1 but they are not wanting in higher latitudes2 for a large part of ,asiatic and even of ,european ,turkey is almost wholly deprived of summer rains4 ,in the principal regions occupied by ,european cultivation1 and where alone the questions discussed in this volume are recognized as having1 at present1 any practical importance1 rain falls at all seasons1 and it is to these regions that1 on this point as well as others1 ,i chiefly confine my attention4 ,the influence of the forest upon the waters of the earth has been more studied in ,france than in any other part of the civilized world1 because that country has1 in recent times1 suffered most severely from the destruction of the woods4 ,but in the southern provinces of that empire1 where the evils resulting from this cause are most sensibly felt1 the winters are not attended with much frost1 while1 in ,northern ,europe1 where the winters are rigorous enough to freeze the ground to the depth of some inches1 or even feet1 a humid atmosphere and frequent summer rains prevent the drying up of the springs observed in southern latitudes when the woods are gone4 ,for these reasons1 the specific character of the forest1 as a winter reservoir of moisture in countries with a cold and dry atmosphere1 has not attracted so much attention in ,france and ,northern ,europe as it deserves in the ,united ,states1 where an excessive climate renders that function of the woods more important4 ,in ,new ,england1 irregular as the climate is1 the first autumnal snows usually fall before the ground is frozen at all1 or when the frost extends at most to the depth of only a few inches4 ,in the woods1 especially those situated upon the elevated ridges which supply the natural irrigation of the soil and feed the perennial fountains and streams1 the ground remains covered with snow during the winter2 for the trees protect the snow from blowing from the general surface into the depressions1 and new accessions are received before the covering deposited by the first fall is melted4 ,snow is of a color unfavorable for radiation1 but1 even when it is of considerable thickness1 it is not wholly impervious to the rays of the sun1 and for this reason1 as well as from the warmth of lower strata1 the frozen crust1 if one has been formed1 is soon thawed1 and does not again fall below the freezing point during the winter4 ,the snow in contact with the earth now begins to melt1 with greater or less rapidity1 according to the relative temperature of the earth and the air1 while the water resulting from its dissolution is imbibed by the vegetable mould1 and carried off by infiltration so fast that both the snow and the layers of leaves in contact with it often seem comparatively dry1 when1 in fact1 the under surface of the former is in a state of perpetual thaw4 ,no doubt a certain proportion of the snow is returned to the atmosphere by direct evaporation1 but in the woods it is partially protected from the action of the sun1 and as very little water runs off in the winter by superficial watercourses1 except in rare cases of sudden thaw1 there can be no question that much the greater part of the snow deposited in the forest is slowly melted and absorbed by the earth4 ,the quantity of snow that falls in extensive forests1 far from the open country1 has seldom been ascertained by direct observation1 because there are few meteorological stations in such situations4 ,in the ,northeastern border ,states of the ,american ,union1 the ground in the deep woods is covered with snow four or five months1 and the proportion of water which falls in snow does not exceed one fifth of the total precipitation for the year4#bjj ,although1 in the open grounds1 snow and ice are evaporated with great rapidity in clear weather1 even when the thermometer stands far below the freezing point1 the surface of the snow in the woods does not indicate much loss in this way4 ,very small deposits of snowflakes remain unevaporated in the forest1 for many days after snow let fall at the same time in the cleared field has disappeared without either a thaw to melt it or a wind powerful enough to drift it away4 ,even when bared of their leaves1 the trees of a wood obstruct1 in an important degree1 both the direct action of the sun's rays on the snow1 and the movement of drying and thawing winds4 ,dr4 ,piper records the following observations3 ,a body of snow1 one foot in depth1 and sixteen feet square1 was protected from the wind by a tight board fence about five feet high1 while another body of snow1 much more sheltered from the sun than the first1 six feet in depth1 and about sixteen feet square1 was fully exposed to the wind4 ,when the thaw came on1 which lasted about a fortnight1 the larger body of snow was entirely dissolved in less than a week1 while the smaller body was not wholly gone at the end of the second week4 ,equal quantities of snow were placed in vessels of the same kind and capacity1 the temperature of the air being seventy degrees4 ,in the one case1 a constant current of air was kept passing over the open vessel1 while the other was protected by a cover4 ,the snow in the first was dissolved in sixteen minutes1 while the latter had a small unthawed proportion remaining at the end of eighty-five minutes4#bja ,the snow in the woods is protected in the same way1 though not literally to the same extent as by the fence in one of these cases and the cover in the other4 ,little of the winter precipitation1 therefore1 is lost by evaporation1 and as it slowly melts at bottom it is absorbed by the earth1 and but a very small quantity of water runs off from the surface4 ,the immense importance of the forest1 as a reservoir of this stock of moisture1 becomes apparent1 when we consider that a large proportion of the summer rain either flows into the valleys and the rivers1 because it falls faster than the ground can imbibe it2 or1 if absorbed by the warm superficial strata1 is evaporated from them without sinking deep enough to reach wells and springs1 which1 of course1 depend very much on winter rains and snows for their entire supply4 ,this observation1 though specially true of cleared and cultivated grounds1 is not wholly inapplicable to the forest1 particularly when1 as is too often the case in ,europe1 the underwood and the decaying leaves are removed4 ,the general effect of the forest in cold climates is to assimilate the winter state of the ground to that of wooded regions under softer skies2 and it is a circumstance well worth noting1 that in ,southern ,europe1 where nature has denied to the earth a warm winter-garment of flocculent snow1 she has1 by one of those compensations in which her empire is so rich1 clothed the hillsides with umbrella pines1 ilexes1 cork oaks1 and other trees of persistent foliage1 whose evergreen leaves afford to the soil a protection analogous to that which it derives from snow in more northern climates4 ,the water imbibed by the soil in winter sinks until it meets a more or less impermeable1 or a saturated stratum1 and then1 by unseen conduits1 slowly finds its way to the channels of springs1 or oozes out of the ground in drops which unite in rills1 and so all is conveyed to the larger streams1 and by them finally to the sea4 ,the water1 in percolating through the vegetable and mineral layers1 acquires their temperature1 and is chemically affected by their action1 but it carries very little matter in mechanical suspension4 ,the process ,i have described is a slow one1 and the supply of moisture derived from the snow1 augmented by the rains of the following seasons1 keeps the forest ground1 where the surface is level or but moderately inclined1 in a state of saturation through almost the whole year4 ,the rivers fed by springs and shaded by woods are comparatively uniform in volume1 in temperature1 and in chemical composition4 ,their banks are little abraded1 nor are their courses much obstructed by fallen timber1 or by earth and gravel washed down from the highlands4 ,their channels are subject only to slow and gradual changes1 and they carry down to the lakes and the sea no accumulation of sand or silt to fill up their outlets1 and1 by raising their beds1 to force them to spread over the low grounds near their mouth4#bjb ,in this state of things1 destructive tendencies of all sorts are arrested or compensated1 and tree1 bird1 beast1 and fish1 alike1 find a constant uniformity of condition most favorable to the regular and harmonious coexistence of them all4 ,general ,consequences of the ,destruction of the ,forest4 ,with the disappearance of the forest1 all is changed4 ,at one season1 the earth parts with its warmth by radiation to an open sky--receives1 at another1 an immoderate heat from the unobstructed rays of the sun4 ,hence the climate becomes excessive1 and the soil is alternately parched by the fervors of summer1 and seared by the rigors of winter4 ,bleak winds sweep unresisted over its surface1 drift away the snow that sheltered it from the frost1 and dry up its scanty moisture4 ,the precipitation becomes as regular as the temperature2 the melting snows and vernal rains1 no longer absorbed by a loose and bibulous vegetable mould1 rush over the frozen surface1 and pour down the valleys seaward1 instead of filling a retentive bed of absorbent earth1 and storing up a supply of moisture to feed perennial springs4 ,the soil is bared of its covering of leaves1 broken and loosened by the plough1 deprived of the fibrous rootlets which held it together1 dried and pulverized by sun and wind1 and at last exhausted by new combinations4 ,the face of the earth is no longer a sponge1 but a dust heap1 and the floods which the waters of the sky pour over it hurry swiftly along its slopes1 carrying in suspension vast quantities of earthy particles which increase the abrading power and mechanical force of the current1 and1 augmented by the sand and gravel of falling banks1 fill the beds of the streams1 divert them into new channels and obstruct their outlets4 ,the rivulets1 wanting their former regularity of supply and deprived of the protecting shade of the woods1 are heated1 evaporated1 and thus reduced in their summer currents1 but swollen to raging torrents in autumn and in spring4 ,from these causes1 there is a constant degradation of the uplands1 and a consequent elevation of the beds of watercourses and of lakes by the deposition of the mineral and vegetable matter carried down by the waters4 ,the channels of great rivers become unnavigable1 their estuaries are choked up1 and harbors which once sheltered large navies are shoaled by dangerous sandbars4 ,the earth1 stripped of its vegetable glebe1 grows less and less productive1 and1 consequently1 less able to protect itself by weaving a new network of roots to bind its particles together1 a new carpeting of turf to shield it from wind and sun and scouring rain4 ,gradually it becomes altogether barren4 ,the washing of the soil from the mountains leaves bare ridges of sterile rock1 and the rich organic mould which covered them1 now swept down into the dank low grounds1 promotes a luxuriance of aquatic vegetation that breeds fever1 and more insidious forms of mortal disease1 by its decay1 and thus the earth is rendered no longer fit for the habitation of man4#bjc ,to the general truth of this sad picture there are many exceptions1 even in countries of excessive climates4 ,some of these are due to favorable conditions of surface1 of geological structure1 and of the distribution of rain2 in many others1 the evil consequences of man's improvidence have not yet been experienced1 only because a sufficient time has not elapsed1 since the felling of the forest1 to allow them to develop themselves4 ,but the vengeance of nature for the violation of her harmonies1 though slow1 is sure1 and the gradual deterioration of soil and climate in such exceptional regions is as certain to result from the destruction of the woods as is any natural effect to follow its cause4 ,in the vast farrago of crudities which the elder ,pliny's ambition of encyclopaedic attainment and his ready credulity have gathered together1 we meet some judicious observations4 ,among these we must reckon the remark with which he accompanies his extraordinary statement respecting the prevention of springs by the growth of forest trees1 though1 as is usual with him1 his philosophy is wrong4 ,destructive torrents are generally formed when hills are stripped of the trees which formerly confined and absorbed the rains4 ,the absorption here referred to is not that of the soil1 but of the roots1 which1 ,pliny supposed1 drank up the water to feed the growth of the trees4 ,although this particular evil effect of too extensive clearing was so early noticed1 the lesson seems to have been soon forgotten4 ,the legislation of the ,middle ,ages in ,europe is full of absurd provisions concerning the forests1 which sovereigns sometimes destroyed because they furnished a retreat for rebels and robbers1 sometimes protected because they were necessary to breed stags and boars for the chase1 and sometimes spared with the more enlightened view of securing a supply of timber and of fuel to future generations4#bjd ,it was reserved to later ages to appreciate their geographical importance1 and it is only in very recent times1 only in a few ,european countries1 that the too general felling of the woods has been recognized as the most destructive among the many causes of the physical deterioration of the earth4 ,condition of the ,forest1 and its ,literature in different ,countries4 ,the literature of the forest1 which in ,england and ,america has not yet become sufficiently extensive to be known as a special branch of authorship1 counts its thousands of volumes in ,germany1 ,italy1 and ,france4 ,it is in the latter country1 perhaps1 that the relations of the woods to the regular drainage of the soil1 and especially to the permanence of the natural configuration of terrestrial surface1 have been most thoroughly investigated4 ,on the other hand1 the purely economical aspects of sylviculture have been most satisfactorily expounded1 and that art has been most philosophically discussed1 and most skilfully and successfully practised1 in ,germany4 ,the eminence of ,italian theoretical hydrographers and the great ability of ,italian hydraulic engineers are well known1 but the specific geographical importance of the woods has not been so clearly recognized in ,italy as in the states bordering it on the north and west4 ,it is true that the face of nature has been as completely revolutionized by man1 and that the action of torrents has created as wide and as hopeless devastation in that country as in ,france2 but in the ,french ,empire the desolation produced by clearing the forests is more recent1#bje has been more suddenly effected1 and1 therefore1 excites a livelier and more general interest than in ,italy1 where public opinion does not so readily connect the effect with its true cause4 ,italy1 too1 from ancient habit1 employs little wood in architectural construction2 for generations she has maintained no military or commercial marine large enough to require exhaustive quantities of timber1#bjf and the mildness of her climate makes small demands on the woods for fuel4 ,besides these circumstances1 it must be remembered that the sciences of observation did not become knowledges of practical application till after the mischief was already mainly done and even forgotten in ,alpine ,italy1 while its evils were just beginning to be sensibly felt in ,france when the claims of natural philosophy as a liberal study were first acknowledged in modern ,europe4 ,the former political condition of the ,italian ,peninsula would have effectually prevented the adoption of a general system of forest economy1 however clearly the importance of a wise administration of this great public interest might have been understood4 ,the woods which controlled and regulated the flow of the river sources were very often in one jurisdiction1 the plains to be irrigated1 or to be inundated by floods and desolated by torrents1 in another4 ,concert of action on such a subject between a multitude of jealous petty sovereignties was obviously impossible1 and nothing but the union of all the ,italian states under a single government can render practicable the establishment of such arrangements for the conservation and restoration of the forests and the regulation of the flow of the waters as are necessary for the full development of the yet unexhausted resources of that fairest of lands1 and even for the permanent maintenance of the present condition of its physical geography4 ,the denudation of the ,central and ,southern ,apennines and of the ,italian declivity of the ,western ,alps began at a period of unknown antiquity1 but it does not seem to have been carried to a very dangerous length until the foreign conquests and extended commerce of ,rome created a greatly increased demand for wood for the construction of ships and for military material4 ,the ,eastern ,alps1 the ,western ,apennines1 and the ,maritime ,alps retained their forests much later2 but even here the want of wood1 and the injury to the plains and the navigation of the rivers by sediment brought down by the torrents1 led to some legislation for the protection of the forests1 by the ,republic of ,venice in the fifteenth century1 by that of ,genoa as early at least as the seventeenth2 and ,marschand states that the latter ,government passed laws requiring the proprietors of mountain lands to replant the woods4 ,these1 however1 do not seem to have been effectually enforced4 ,it is very common in ,italy to ascribe to the ,french occupation under the first ,empire all the improvements1 and all the abuses of recent times1 according to the political sympathies of the individual2 and the ,french are often said to have prostrated every forest which has disappeared within a century4#bjg ,but1 however this may be1 no energetic system of repression or restoration was adopted by any of the ,italian states after the downfall of the ,empire1 and the taxes on forest property in some of them were so burdensome that rural municipalities sometimes proposed to cede their common woods to the ,government1 without any other compensation than the remission of the taxes imposed on forest lands4#bjh ,under such circumstances1 woodlands would soon become disafforested1 and where facilities of transportation and a good demand for timber have increased the inducements to fell it1 as upon the borders of the ,mediterranean1 the destruction of the forest and all the evils which attend it have gone on at a seriously alarming rate4 ,it has even been calculated that four tenths of the area of the ,ligurian provinces have been washed away or rendered incapable of cultivation by the felling of the woods4#bji ,the damp and cold climate of ,england requires the maintenance of household fires through a large part of the year4 ,contrivances for economizing fuel were of later introduction in that country than on the ,continent4 ,the soil1 like the sky1 was1 in general1 charged with humidity2 its natural condition was unfavorable for common roads1 and the transportation of so heavy a material as coal1 by land1 from the remote counties where alone it was mined in the ,middle ,ages1 was costly and difficult4 ,for all these reasons1 the consumption of wood was large1 and apprehensions of the exhaustion of the forests were excited at an early period4 ,legislation there1 as elsewhere1 proved ineffectual to protect them1 and many authors of the sixteenth century express fears of serious evils from the wasteful economy of the people in this respect4 ,harrison1 in his curious chapter ,of ,woods and ,marishes in ,holinshed's compilation1 complains of the rapid decrease of the forests1 and adds3 ,howbeit thus much ,i dare affirme1 that if woods go so fast to decaie in the next hundred yeere of ,grace1 as they haue doone and are like to doo in this1 99 99 99 it is to be feared that the fennie bote1 broome1 turfe1 gall1 heath1 firze1 brakes1 whinnes1 ling1 dies1 hassacks1 flags1 straw1 sedge1 reed1 rush1 and also seacole1 will be good merchandize euen in the citie of ,london1 whereunto some of them euen now haue gotten readie passage1 and taken vp their innes in the greatest merchants' parlours4 99 99 99 ,i would wish that ,i might liue no longer than to see foure things in this land reformed1 that is3 the want of discipline in the church3 the couetous dealing of most of our merchants in the preferment of the commodities of other countries1 and hinderance of their owne3 the holding of faires and markets vpon the sundaie to be abolished and referred to the wednesdaies3 and that euerie man1 in whatsoeuer part of the champaine soile enioieth fortie acres of land1 and vpwards1 after that rate1 either by free deed1 copie hold1 or fee farme1 might plant one acre of wood1 or sowe the same with oke mast1 hasell1 beech1 and sufficient prouision be made that it may be cherished and kept4 ,but ,i feare me that ,i should then liue too long1 and so long1 that ,i should either be wearie of the world1 or the world of me4#baj ,evelyn's ,silva1 the first edition of which appeared in #affd1 rendered an extremely important service to the cause of the woods1 and there is no doubt that the ornamental plantations in which ,england far surpasses all other countries1 are1 in some measure1 the fruit of ,evelyn's enthusiasm4 ,in ,england1 however1 arboriculture1 the planting and nursing of single trees1 has1 until recently1 been better understood than sylviculture1 the sowing and training of the forest4 ,but this latter branch of rural improvement is now pursued on a very considerable scale1 though1 so far as ,i know1 not by the ,national ,government4 ,the ,influence of the ,forest on ,inundations4 ,besides the climatic question1 which ,i have already sufficiently discussed1 and the obvious inconveniences of a scanty supply of charcoal1 of fuel1 and of timber for architectural and naval construction and for the thousand other uses to which wood is applied in rural and domestic economy1 and in the various industrial processes of civilized life1 the attention of ,french foresters and public economists has been specially drawn to three points1 namely3 the influence of the forests on the permanence and regular flow of springs or natural fountains2 on inundations by the overflow of rivers2 and on the abrasion of soil and the transportation of earth1 gravel1 pebbles1 and even of considerable masses of rock1 from higher to lower levels1 by torrents4 ,there are1 however1 connected with this general subject1 several other topics of minor or strictly local interest1 or of more uncertain character1 which ,i shall have occasion more fully to speak of hereafter4 ,the first of these three principal subjects--the influence of the woods on springs and other living waters--has been already considered2 and if the facts stated in that discussion are well established1 and the conclusions ,i have drawn from them are logically sound1 it would seem to follow1 as a necessary corollary1 that the action of the forest is as important in diminishing the frequency and violence of river floods1 as in securing the permanence and equability of natural fountains2 for any cause which promotes the absorption and accumulation of the water of precipitation by the superficial strata of the soil1 to be slowly given out by infiltration and percolation1 must1 by preventing the rapid flow of surface water into the natural channels of drainage1 tend to check the sudden rise of rivers1 and1 consequently1 the overflow of their banks1 which constitutes what is called inundation4 ,the mechanical resistance1 too1 offered by the trunks of trees and of undergrowth to the flow of water over the surface1 tends sensibly to retard the rapidity of its descent down declivities1 and to divert and divide streams which may have already accumulated from smaller threads of water4#baa ,inundations are produced by the insufficiency of the natural channels of rivers to carry off the waters of their basins as fast as those waters flow into them4 ,in accordance with the usual economy of nature1 we should presume that she had everywhere provided the means of discharging1 without disturbance of her general arrangements or abnormal destruction of her products1 the precipitation which she sheds upon the face of the earth4 ,observation confirms this presumption1 at least in the countries to which ,i confine my inquiries2 for1 so far as we know the primitive conditions of the regions brought under human occupation within the historical period1 it appears that the overflow of river banks was much less frequent and destructive than at the present day1 or1 at least1 that rivers rose and fell less suddenly before man had removed the natural checks to the too rapid drainage of the basins in which their tributaries originate4 ,the banks of the rivers and smaller streams in the ,north ,american colonies were formerly little abraded by the currents4 ,even now the trees come down almost to the water's edge along the rivers1 in the larger forests of the ,united ,states1 and the surface of the streams seems liable to no great change in level or in rapidity of current4 ,a circumstance almost conclusive as to the regularity of flow in forest rivers1 is that they do not form large sedimentary deposits1 at their points of discharge into lakes or larger streams1 such accumulations beginning1 or at least advancing far more rapidly1 after the valleys are cleared4 ,in the ,northern ,united ,states1 although inundations are sometimes produced in the height of summer by heavy rains1 it will be found generally true that the most rapid rise of the waters1 and1 of course1 the most destructive freshets1 as they are called in ,america1 are produced by the sudden dissolution of the snow before the open ground is thawed in the spring4 ,it frequently happens that a powerful thaw sets in after a long period of frost1 and the snow which had been months in accumulating is dissolved and carried off in a few hours4 ,when the snow is deep1 it1 to use a popular expression1 takes the frost out of the ground in the woods1 and1 if it lies long enough1 in the fields also4 ,but the heaviest snows usually fall after midwinter1 and are succeeded by warm rains or sunshine1 which dissolve the snow on the cleared land before it has had time to act upon the frost-bound soil beneath it4 ,in this case1 the snow in the woods is absorbed as fast as it melts1 by the soil it has protected from freezing1 and does not materially contribute to swell the current of the rivers4 ,if the mild weather1 in which great snowstorms usually occur1 does not continue and become a regular thaw1 it is almost sure to be followed by drifting winds1 and the inequality with which they distribute the snow leaves the ridges comparatively bare1 while the depressions are often filled with drifts to the height of many feet4 ,the knolls become frozen to a great depth2 succeeding partial thaws melt the surface snow1 and the water runs down into the furrows of ploughed fields1 and other artificial and natural hollows1 and then often freezes to solid ice4 ,in this state of things1 almost the entire surface of the cleared land is impervious to water1 and from the absence of trees and the general smoothness of the ground1 it offers little mechanical resistance to superficial currents4 ,if1 under these circumstances1 warm weather accompanied by rain occurs1 the rain and melted snow are swiftly hurried to the bottom of the valleys and gathered to raging torrents4 ,it ought further to be considered that1 though the lighter ploughed soils readily imbibe a great deal of water1 yet the grass lands1 and all the heavy and tenacious earths1 absorb it in much smaller quantities1 and less rapidly than the vegetable mould of the forest4 ,pasture1 meadow1 and clayey soils1 taken together1 greatly predominate over the sandy ploughed fields1 in all large agricultural districts1 and hence1 even if1 in the case we are supposing1 the open ground chance to have been thawed before the melting of the snow which covers it1 it is already saturated with moisture1 or very soon becomes so1 and1 of course1 cannot relieve the pressure by absorbing more water4 ,the consequence is that the face of the country is suddenly flooded with a quantity of melted snow and rain equivalent to a fall of six or eight inches of the latter1 or even more4 ,this runs unobstructed to rivers often still bound with thick ice1 and thus inundations of a fearfully devastating character are produced4 ,the ice bursts1 from the hydrostatic pressure from below1 or is violently torn up by the current1 and is swept by the impetuous stream1 in large masses and with resistless fury1 against banks1 bridges1 dams1 and mills erected near them4 ,the bark of the trees along the rivers is often abraded1 at a height of many feet above the ordinary water level1 by cakes of floating ice1 which are at last stranded by the receding flood on meadow or ploughland1 to delay1 by their chilling influence1 the advent of the tardy spring4 ,the surface of a forest1 in its natural condition1 can never pour forth such deluges of water as flow from cultivated soil4 ,humus1 or vegetable mould1 is capable of absorbing almost twice its own weight of water4 ,the soil in a forest of deciduous foliage is composed of humus1 more or less unmixed1 to the depth of several inches1 sometimes even of feet1 and this stratum is usually able to imbibe all the water possibly resulting from the snow which at any one time covers it4 ,but the vegetable mould does not cease to absorb water when it becomes saturated1 for it then gives off a portion of its moisture to the mineral earth below1 and thus is ready to receive a new supply2 and1 besides1 the bed of leaves not yet converted to mould takes up and retains a very considerable proportion of snow water1 as well as of rain4 ,in the warm climates of ,southern ,europe1 as ,i have already said1 the functions of the forest1 so far as the disposal of the water of precipitation is concerned1 are essentially the same at all seasons1 and are analogous to those which it performs in the ,northern ,united ,states in summer4 ,hence1 in the former countries1 the winter floods have not the characteristics which mark them in the latter1 nor is the conservative influence of the woods in winter relatively so important1 though it is equally unquestionable4 ,if the summer floods in the ,united ,states are attended with less pecuniary damage than those of the ,loire and other rivers of ,france1 the ,po and its tributaries in ,italy1 the ,emme and her sister torrents which devastate the valleys of ,switzerland1 it is partly because the banks of ,american rivers are not yet lined with towns1 their shores and the bottoms which skirt them not yet covered with improvements whose cost is counted by millions1 and1 consequently1 a smaller amount of property is exposed to injury by inundation4 ,but the comparative exemption of the ,american people from the terrible calamities which the overflow of rivers has brought on some of the fairest portions of the ,old ,world1 is1 in a still greater degree1 to be ascribed to the fact that1 with all our thoughtless improvidence1 we have not yet bared all the sources of our streams1 not yet overthrown all the barriers which nature has erected to restrain her own destructive energies4 ,let us be wise in time1 and profit by the errors of our older brethren6 ,the influence of the forest in preventing inundations has been very generally recognized1 both as a theoretical inference and as a fact of observation2 but ,belgrand and his commentator ,valles have deduced an opposite result from various facts of experience and from scientific considerations4 ,they contend that the superficial drainage is more regular from cleared than from wooded ground1 and that clearing diminishes rather than augments the intensity of inundations4 ,neither of these conclusions is warranted by their data or their reasoning1 and they rest partly upon facts1 which1 truly interpreted1 are not inconsistent with the received opinions on these subjects1 partly upon assumptions which are contradicted by experience4 ,two of these latter are1 first1 that the fallen leaves in the forest constitute an impermeable covering of the soil over1 not through1 which the water of rains and of melting snows flows off1 and secondly1 that the roots of trees penetrate and choke up the fissures in the rocks1 so as to impede the passage of water through channels which nature has provided for its descent to lower strata4 ,as to the first of these1 we may appeal to familiar facts within the personal knowledge of every man acquainted with the operations of sylvan nature4 ,i have before me a letter from an acute and experienced observer1 containing this paragraph3 ,i think that rain water does not ever1 except in very trifling quantities1 flow over the leaves in the woods in summer or autumn4 ,water runs over them only in the spring1 when they are pressed down smoothly and compactly1 a state in which they remain only until they are dry1 when shrinkage and the action of the wind soon roughen the surface so as effectually to stop1 by absorption1 all flow of water4 ,i have observed that when a sudden frost succeeds a thaw at the close of the winter after the snow has principally disappeared1 the water in and between the layers of leaves sometimes freezes into a solid crust1 which allows the flow of water over it4 ,but this occurs only in depressions and on a very small scale2 and the ice thus formed is so soon dissolved that no sensible effect is produced on the escape of water from the general surface4 ,as to the influence of roots upon drainage1 ,i believe there is no doubt that they1 independently of their action as absorbents1 mechanically promote it4 ,not only does the water of the soil follow them downward1#bab but their swelling growth powerfully tends to enlarge the crevices of rock into which they enter2 and as the fissures in rocks are longitudinal1 not mere circular orifices1 every line of additional width gained by the growth of roots within them increases the area of the crevice in proportion to its length4 ,consequently1 the widening of a fissure to the extent of one inch might give an additional drainage equal to a square foot of open tubing4 ,the observations and reasonings of ,belgrand and ,valles1 though their conclusions have not been accepted by many1 are very important in one point of view4 ,these writers insist much on the necessity of taking into account1 in estimating the relations between precipitation and evaporation1 the abstraction of water from the surface and surface currents1 by absorption and infiltration--an element unquestionably of great value1 but hitherto much neglected by meteorological inquirers1 who have very often reasoned as if the surface earth were either impermeable to water1 or already saturated with it2 whereas1 in fact1 it is a sponge1 always imbibing humidity and always giving it off1 not by evaporation only1 but by infiltration and percolation4 ,the destructive effects of inundations considered simply as a mechanical power by which life is endangered1 crops destroyed1 and the artificial constructions of man overthrown1 are very terrible4 ,thus far1 however1 the flood is a temporary and by no means an irreparable evil1 for if its ravages end here1 the prolific powers of nature and the industry of man soon restore what had been lost1 and the face of the earth no longer shows traces of the deluge that had overwhelmed it4 ,inundations have even their compensations4 ,the structures they destroy are replaced by better and more secure erections1 and if they sweep off a crop of corn1 they not unfrequently leave behind them1 as they subside1 a fertilizing deposit which enriches the exhausted field for a succession of seasons4#bac ,if1 then1 the too rapid flow of the surface waters occasioned no other evil than to produce1 once in ten years upon the average1 an inundation which should destroy the harvest of the low grounds along the rivers1 the damage would be too inconsiderable1 and of too transitory a character1 to warrant the inconveniences and the expense involved in the measures which the most competent judges in many parts of ,europe believe the respective governments ought to take to obviate it4 ,destructive ,action of ,torrents4 ,but the great1 the irreparable1 the appalling mischiefs which have already resulted1 and threaten to ensue on a still more extensive scale hereafter1 from too rapid superficial drainage1 are of a properly geographical character1 and consist primarily in erosion1 displacement1 and transportation of the superficial strata1 vegetable and mineral--of the integuments1 so to speak1 with which nature has clothed the skeleton framework of the globe4 ,it is difficult to convey by description an idea of the desolation of the regions most exposed to the ravages of torrent and of flood2 and the thousands1 who1 in these days of travel1 are whirled by steam near or even through the theatres of these calamities1 have but rare and imperfect opportunities of observing the destructive causes in action4 ,still more rarely can they compare the past with the actual condition of the provinces in question1 and trace the progress of their conversion from forest-crowned hills1 luxuriant pasture grounds1 and abundant cornfields and vineyards well watered by springs and fertilizing rivulets1 to bald mountain ridges1 rocky declivities1 and steep earth banks furrowed by deep ravines with beds now dry1 now filled by torrents of fluid mud and gravel hurrying down to spread themselves over the plain1 and dooming to everlasting barrenness the once productive fields4 ,in traversing such scenes1 it is difficult to resist the impression that nature pronounced the curse of perpetual sterility and desolation upon these sublime but fearful wastes1 difficult to believe that they were once1 and but for the folly of man might still be1 blessed with all the natural advantages which ,providence has bestowed upon the most favored climes4 ,but the historical evidence is conclusive as to the destructive changes occasioned by the agency of man upon the flanks of the ,alps1 the ,apennines1 the ,pyrenees1 and other mountain ranges in ,central and ,southern ,europe1 and the progress of physical deterioration has been so rapid that1 in some localities1 a single generation has witnessed the beginning and the end of the melancholy revolution4 ,it is certain that a desolation1 like that which has overwhelmed many once beautiful and fertile regions of ,europe1 awaits an important part of the territory of the ,united ,states1 and of other comparatively new countries over which ,european civilization is now extending its sway1 unless prompt measures are taken to check the action of destructive causes already in operation4 ,it is vain to expect that legislation can do anything effectual to arrest the progress of the evil in those countries1 except so far as the state is still the proprietor of extensive forests4 ,woodlands which have passed into private hands will everywhere be managed1 in spite of legal restrictions1 upon the same economical principles as other possessions1 and every proprietor will1 as a general rule1 fell his woods1 unless he believes that it will be for his pecuniary interest to preserve them4 ,few of the new provinces which the last three centuries have brought under the control of the ,european race1 would tolerate any interference by the law-making power with what they regard as the most sacred of civil rights--the right1 namely1 of every man to do what he will with his own4 ,in the ,old ,world1 even in ,france1 whose people1 of all ,european nations1 love best to be governed and are least annoyed by bureaucratic supervision1 law has been found impotent to prevent the destruction1 or wasteful economy1 of private forests2 and in many of the mountainous departments of that country1 man is at this moment so fast laying waste the face of the earth1 that the most serious fears are entertained1 not only of the depopulation of those districts1 but of enormous mischiefs to the provinces contiguous to them4#bad ,the only legal provisions from which anything is to be hoped1 are such as shall make it a matter of private advantage to the landholder to spare the trees upon his grounds1 and promote the growth of the young wood4 ,something may be done by exempting standing forests from taxation1 and by imposing taxes on wood felled for fuel or for timber1 something by premiums or honorary distinctions for judicious management of the woods4 ,it would be difficult to induce governments1 general or local1 to make the necessary appropriations for such purposes1 but there can be no doubt that it would be sound economy in the end4 ,in countries where there exist municipalities endowed with an intelligent public spirit1 the purchase and control of forests by such corporations would often prove advantageous2 and in some of the provinces of ,northern ,lombardy1 experience has shown that such operations may be conducted with great benefit to all the interests connected with the proper management of the woods4 ,in ,switzerland1 on the other hand1 except in some few cases where woods have been preserved as a defence against avalanches1 the forests of the communes have been productive of little advantage to the public interests1 and have very generally gone to decay4 ,the rights of pasturage1 everywhere destructive to trees1 combined with toleration of trespasses1 have so reduced their value1 that there is1 too often1 nothing left that is worth protecting4 ,in the canton of ,ticino1 the peasants have very frequently voted to sell the town woods and divide the proceeds among the corporators4 ,the sometimes considerable sums thus received are squandered in wild revelry1 and the sacrifice of the forests brings not even a momentary benefit to the proprietors4#bae ,it is evidently a matter of the utmost importance that the public1 and especially land owners1 be roused to a sense of the dangers to which the indiscriminate clearing of the woods may expose not only future generations1 but the very soil itself4 ,fortunately1 some of the ,american ,states1 as well as the governments of many ,european colonies1 still retain the ownership of great tracts of primitive woodland4 ,the ,state of ,new ,york1 for example1 has1 in its northeastern counties1 a vast extent of territory in which the lumberman has only here and there established his camp1 and where the forest1 though interspersed with permanent settlements1 robbed of some of its finest pine groves1 and often ravaged by devastating fires1 still covers far the largest proportion of the surface4 ,through this territory1 the soil is generally poor1 and even the new clearings have little of the luxuriance of harvest which distinguishes them elsewhere4 ,the value of the land for agricultural uses is therefore very small1 and few purchases are made for any other purpose than to strip the soil of its timber4 ,it has been often proposed that the ,state should declare the remaining forest the inalienable property of the commonwealth1 but ,i believe the motive of the suggestion has originated rather in poetical than in economical views of the subject4 ,both these classes of considerations have a real worth4 ,it is desirable that some large and easily accessible region of ,american soil should remain1 as far as possible1 in its primitive condition1 at once a museum for the instruction of the student1 a garden for the recreation of the lover of nature1 and an asylum where indigenous tree1 and humble plant that loves the shade1 and fish and fowl and four-footed beast1 may dwell and perpetuate their kind1 in the enjoyment of such imperfect protection as the laws of a people jealous of restraint can afford them4 ,the immediate loss to the public treasury from the adoption of this policy would be inconsiderable1 for these lands are sold at low rates4 ,the forest alone1 economically managed1 would1 without injury1 and even with benefit to its permanence and growth1 soon yield a regular income larger than the present value of the fee4 ,the collateral advantages of the preservation of these forests would be far greater4 ,nature threw up those mountains and clothed them with lofty woods1 that they might serve as a reservoir to supply with perennial waters the thousand rivers and rills that are fed by the rains and snows of the ,adirondacks1 and as a screen for the fertile plains of the central counties against the chilling blasts of the north wind1 which meet no other barrier in their sweep from the ,arctic pole4 ,the climate of ,northern ,new ,york even now presents greater extremes of temperature than that of ,southern ,france4 ,the long continued cold of winter is far more intense1 the short heats of summer not less fierce than in ,provence1 and hence the preservation of every influence that tends to maintain an equilibrium of temperature and humidity is of cardinal importance4 ,the felling of the ,adirondack woods would ultimately involve for ,northern and ,central ,new ,york consequences similar to those which have resulted from the laying bare of the southern and western declivities of the ,french ,alps and the spurs1 ridges1 and detached peaks in front of them4 ,it is true that the evils to be apprehended from the clearing of the mountains of ,new ,york may be less in degree than those which a similar cause has produced in ,southern ,france1 where the intensity of its action has been increased by the inclination of the mountain declivities1 and by the peculiar geological constitution of the earth4 ,the degradation of the soil is1 perhaps1 not equally promoted by a combination of the same circumstances1 in any of the ,american ,atlantic ,states1 but still they have rapid slopes and loose and friable soils enough to render widespread desolation certain1 if the further destruction of the woods is not soon arrested4 ,the effects of clearing are already perceptible in the comparatively unviolated region of which ,i am speaking4 ,the rivers which rise in it flow with diminished currents in dry seasons1 and with augmented volumes of water after heavy rains4 ,they bring down much larger quantities of sediment1 and the increasing obstructions to the navigation of the ,hudson1 which are extending themselves down the channel in proportion as the fields are encroaching upon the forest1 give good grounds for the fear of serious injury to the commerce of the important towns on the upper waters of that river1 unless measures are taken to prevent the expansion of improvements which have already been carried beyond the demands of a wise economy4 ,i have stated1 in a general way1 the nature of the evils in question1 and of the processes by which they are produced2 but ,i shall make their precise character and magnitude better understood by presenting some descriptive and statistical details of facts of actual occurrence4 ,i select for this purpose the southeastern portion of ,france1 not because that territory has suffered more severely than some others1 but because its deterioration is comparatively recent1 and has been watched and described by very competent and trustworthy observers1 whose reports are more easily accessible than those published in other countries4#baf ,the provinces of ,dauphiny1 ,avignon1 and ,provence comprise a territory of fourteen or fifteen thousand square miles1 bounded northwest by the ,isere1 northeast and east by the ,alps1 south by the ,mediterranean1 west by the ,rhone1 and extending from #db deg4 to about #de deg4 of north latitude4 ,the surface is generally hilly and even mountainous1 and several of the peaks in ,dauphiny rise above the limit of perpetual snow4 ,the climate1 as compared with that of the ,united ,states in the same latitude1 is extremely mild4 ,little snow falls1 except upon the higher mountain ranges1 the frosts are light1 and the summers long1 as might1 indeed1 be inferred from the vegetation2 for in the cultivated districts1 the vine and the fig everywhere flourish1 the olive thrives as far north as #dca_/b deg41 and upon the coast1 grow the orange1 the lemon1 and the date palm4 ,the forest trees1 too1 are of southern type1 umbrella pines1 various species of evergreen oaks1 and many other trees and shrubs of persistent broad-leaved foliage1 characterizing the landscape4 ,the rapid slope of the mountains naturally exposed these provinces to damage by torrents1 and the ,romans diminished their injurious effects by erecting1 in the beds of ravines1 barriers of rocks loosely piled up1 which permitted a slow escape of the water1 but compelled it to deposit above the dikes the earth and gravel with which it was charged4#bag ,at a later period the ,crusaders brought home from ,palestine1 with much other knowledge gathered from the wiser ,moslems1 the art of securing the hillsides and making them productive by terracing and irrigation4 ,the forests which covered the mountains secured an abundant flow of springs1 and the process of clearing the soil went on so slowly that1 for centuries1 neither the want of timber and fuel1 nor the other evils about to be depicted1 were seriously felt4 ,indeed1 throughout the ,middle ,ages1 these provinces were well wooded1 and famous for the fertility and abundance1 not only of the low grounds1 but of the hills4 ,such was the state of things at the close of the fifteenth century4 ,the statistics of the seventeenth show that while there had been an increase of prosperity and population in ,lower ,provence1 as well as in the correspondingly situated parts of the other two provinces ,i have mentioned1 there was an alarming decrease both in the wealth and in the population of ,upper ,provence and ,dauphiny1 although1 by the clearing of the forests1 a great extent of plough land and pasturage had been added to the soil before reduced to cultivation4 ,it was found1 in fact1 that the augmented violence of the torrents had swept away1 or buried in sand and gravel1 more land than had been reclaimed by clearing2 and the taxes computed by fires or habitations underwent several successive reductions in consequence of the gradual abandonment of the wasted soil by its starving occupants4 ,the growth of the large towns on and near the ,rhone and the coast1 their advance in commerce and industry1 and the consequently enlarged demand for agricultural products1 ought naturally to have increased the rural population and the value of their lands2 but the physical decay of the uplands was such that considerable tracts were deserted altogether1 and in ,upper ,provence1 the fires which in #adga counted #hig1 were reduced to #gdg in #afii1 to #gbh in #agcc1 and to #fce in #aggf4 ,these facts ,i take from the ,la ,provence au point de vue des ,bois1 des ,torrents et des ,inondations1 of ,charles de ,ribbe1 one of the highest authorities1 and ,i add further details from the same source4 ,commune of ,barles1 #agjg3 ,two hills have become connected by land slides1 and have formed a lake which covers the best part of the soil4 #agdf3 ,new slides buried twenty houses composing a village1 no trace of which is left2 more than one third of the land had disappeared4 ,monans1 #agbd3 ,deserted by its inhabitants and no longer cultivated4 ,gueydan1 #agfj3 ,it appears by records that the best grounds have been swept off since #agef1 and that ravines occupy their place4 ,digne1 #agfb3 ,the river ,bleone has destroyed the most valuable part of the territory4 ,malmaison1 #agfh3 ,the inhabitants have emigrated1 all their fields having been lost4 ,in the case of the commune of ,st4 ,laurent du ,var1 it appears that1 after clearings in the ,alps1 succeeded by others in the common woods of the town1 the floods of the torrent ,var became more formidable1 and had already carried off much land as early as #agjh4 ,the clearing continued1 and more soil was swept away in #agfa4 ,in #agfb1 after another destructive inundation1 many of the inhabitants emigrated1 and in #agfe1 one half of the territory had been laid waste4 ,in #agff1 the assessor ,serraire said to the ,assembly3 ',as to the damage caused by brooks and torrents1 it is impossible to deny its extent4 ,upper ,provence is in danger of total destruction1 and the waters which lay it waste threaten also the ruin of the most valuable grounds on the plain below4 ,villages have been almost submerged by torrents which formerly had not even names1 and large towns are on the point of destruction from the same cause4' ,in #aggf1 ,viscount ,puget thus reported3 ,the mere aspect of ,upper ,provence is calculated to appal the patriotic magistrate4 ,one sees only lofty mountains1 deep valleys with precipitous sides1 rivers with broad beds and little water1 impetuous torrents1 which in floods lay waste the cultivated land upon their banks and roll huge rocks along their channels2 steep and parched hillsides1 the melancholy consequences of indiscriminate clearing2 villages whose inhabitants1 finding no longer the means of subsistence1 are emigrating day by day2 houses dilapidated to huts1 and but a miserable remnant of population4 ,in a document of the year #agga1 the ravages of the torrents were compared to the effects of an earthquake1 half the soil in many communes seeming to have been swallowed up4 ,our mountains1 said the administrators of the province of the ,lower ,alps in #agib1 present nothing but a surface of stony tufa2 clearing is still going on1 and the little rivulets are becoming torrents4 ,many communes have lost their harvests1 their flocks1 and their houses by floods4 ,the washing down of the mountains is to be ascribed to the clearings and the practice of burning them over4 ,these complaints1 it will be seen1 all date before the ,revolution1 but the desolation they describe has since advanced with still swifter steps4 ,surell--whose valuable work1 ,etude sur les ,torrents des ,hautes ,alpes1 published in #ahda1 presents the most appalling picture of the desolations of the torrent1 and1 at the same time1 the most careful studies of the history and essential character of this great evil--in speaking of the valley of ,devoluy1 on page #aeb1 says3 ,everything concurs to show that it was anciently wooded4 ,in its peat bogs are found buried trunks of trees1 monuments of its former vegetation4 ,in the framework of old houses1 one sees enormous timber1 which is no longer to be found in the district4 ,many localities1 now completely bare1 still retain the name of 'wood1' and one of them is called1 in old deeds1 ,comba nigra ,black forest or dell1 on account of its dense woods4 ,these and many other proofs confirm the local traditions which are unanimous on this point4 ,there1 as everywhere in the ,upper ,alps1 the clearings began on the flanks of the mountains1 and were gradually extended into the valleys and then to the highest accessible peaks4 ,then followed the ,revolution1 and caused the destruction of the remainder of the trees which had thus far escaped the woodman's axe4 ,in a note to this passage1 the writer says3 ,several persons have told me that they had lost flocks of sheep1 by straying1 in the forests of ,mont ,auroux1 which covered the flanks of the mountain from ,la ,cluse to ,agneres4 ,these declivities are now as bare as the palm of the hand4 ,the ground upon the steep mountains being once bared of trees1 and the underwood killed by the grazing of horned cattle1 sheep1 and goats1 every depression becomes a watercourse4 ,every storm1 says ,surell1 page #aec1 gives rise to a new torrent4 ,examples of such are shown1 which1 though not yet three years old1 have laid waste the finest fields of their valleys1 and whole villages have narrowly escaped being swept into ravines formed in the course of a few hours4 ,sometimes the flood pours in a sheet over the surface1 without ravine or even bed1 and ruins extensive grounds1 which are abandoned forever4 ,i cannot follow ,surell in his description and classification of torrents1 and ,i must refer the reader to his instructive work for a full exposition of the theory of the subject4 ,in order1 however1 to show what a concentration of destructive energies may be effected by felling the woods that clothe and support the sides of mountain abysses1 ,i cite his description of a valley descending from the ,col ,isoard1 which he calls a complete type of a basin of reception1 that is1 a gorge which serves as a common point of accumulation and discharge for the waters of several lateral torrents4 ,the aspect of the monstrous channel1 says he1 is frightful4 ,within a distance of less than three kilometres one mile and seven eighths ,english1 more than sixty torrents hurl into the depths of the gorge the debris torn from its two flanks4 ,the smallest of these secondary torrents1 if transferred to a fertile valley1 would be enough to ruin it4 ,the eminent political economist ,blanqui1 in a memoir read before the ,academy of ,moral and ,political ,science on the #beth of ,november1 #ahdc1 thus expresses himself3 ,important as are the causes of impoverishment already described1 they are not to be compared to the consequences which have followed from the two inveterate evils of the ,alpine provinces of ,france1 the extension of clearing and the ravages of torrents4 99 99 ,the most important result of this destruction is this3 that the agricultural capital1 or rather the ground itself--which1 in a rapidly increasing degree1 is daily swept away by the waters--is totally lost4 ,signs of unparalleled destitution are visible in all the mountain zone1 and the solitudes of those districts are assuming an indescribable character of sterility and desolation4 ,the gradual destruction of the woods has1 in a thousand localities1 annihilated at once the springs and the fuel4 ,between ,grenoble and ,briancon in the valley of the ,romanche1 many villages are so destitute of wood that they are reduced to the necessity of baking their bread with sun-dried cowdung1 and even this they can afford to do but once a year4 ,this bread becomes so hard that it can be cut only with an axe1 and ,i have myself seen a loaf of bread in ,september1 at the kneading of which ,i was present the ,january previous4 ,whoever has visited the valley of ,barcelonette1 those of ,embrun1 and of ,verdun1 and that ,arabia ,petraea of the department of the ,upper ,alps1 called ,devoluy1 knows that there is no time to lose1 that in fifty years from this date ,france will be separated from ,savoy1 as ,egypt from ,syria1 by a desert4#bah ,it deserves to be specially noticed that the district here referred to1 though now among the most hopelessly waste in ,france1 was very productive even down to so late a period as the commencement of the ,french ,revolution4 ,arthur ,young1 writing in #aghi1 says3 ,about ,barcelonette and in the highest parts of the mountains1 the hill pastures feed a million of sheep1 besides large herds of other cattle2 and he adds3 ,with such a soil1 and in such a climate we are not to suppose a country barren because it is mountainous4 ,the valleys ,i have visited are1 in general1 beautiful4#bai ,he ascribes the same character to the provinces of ,dauphiny1 ,provence1 and ,auvergne1 and1 though he visited1 with the eye of an attentive and practised observer1 many of the scenes since blasted with the wild desolation described by ,blanqui1 the ,durance and a part of the course of the ,loire are the only streams he mentions as inflicting serious injury by their floods4 ,the ravages of the torrents had1 indeed1 as we have seen1 commenced earlier in some other localities1 but we are authorized to infer that they were1 in ,young's time1 too limited in range1 and relatively too insignificant1 to require notice in a general view of the provinces where they have now ruined so large a proportion of the soil4 ,but ,i resume my citations4 ,i do not exaggerate1 says ,blanqui4 ,when ,i shall have finished my excursion and designated localities by their names1 there will rise1 ,i am sure1 more than one voice from the spots themselves1 to attest the rigorous exactness of this picture of their wretchedness4 ,i have never seen its equal even in the ,kabyle villages of the province of ,constantine2 for there you can travel on horseback1 and you find grass in the spring1 whereas in more than fifty communes in the ,alps there is absolutely nothing4 ,the clear1 brilliant1 ,alpine sky of ,embrun1 of ,gap1 of ,barcelonette1 and of ,digne1 which for months is without a cloud1 produces droughts interrupted only by diluvial rains like those of the tropics4 ,the abuse of the right of pasturage and the felling of the woods have stripped the soil of all its grass and all its trees1 and the scorching sun bakes it to the consistence of porphyry4 ,when moistened by the rain1 as it has neither support nor cohesion1 it rolls down to the valleys1 sometimes in floods resembling black1 yellow1 or reddish lava1 sometimes in streams of pebbles1 and even huge blocks of stone1 which pour down with a frightful roar1 and in their swift course exhibit the most convulsive movements4 ,if you overlook from an eminence one of these landscapes furrowed with so many ravines1 it presents only images of desolation and of death4 ,vast deposits of flinty pebbles1 many feet in thickness1 which have rolled down and spread far over the plain1 surround large trees1 bury even their tops1 and rise above them1 leaving to the husbandman no longer a ray of hope4 ,one can imagine no sadder spectacle than the deep fissures in the flanks of the mountains1 which seem to have burst forth in eruption to cover the plains with their ruins4 ,these gorges1 under the influence of the sun which cracks and shivers to fragments the very rocks1 and of the rain which sweeps them down1 penetrate deeper and deeper into the heart of the mountain1 while the beds of the torrents issuing from them are sometimes raised several feet1 in a single year1 by the debris1 so that they reach the level of the bridges1 which1 of course1 are then carried off4 ,the torrent beds are recognized at a great distance1 as they issue from the mountains1 and they spread themselves over the low grounds1 in fan-shaped expansions1 like a mantle of stone1 sometimes ten thousand feet wide1 rising high at the centre1 and curving toward the circumference till their lower edges meet the plain4 ,such is their aspect in dry weather4 ,but no tongue can give an adequate description of their devastations in one of those sudden floods which resemble1 in almost none of their phenomena1 the action of ordinary river water4 ,they are now no longer overflowing brooks1 but real seas1 tumbling down in cataracts1 and rolling before them blocks of stone1 which are hurled forward by the shock of the waves like balls shot out by the explosion of gunpowder4 ,sometimes ridges of pebbles are driven down when the transporting torrent does not rise high enough to show itself1 and then the movement is accompanied with a roar louder than the crash of thunder4 ,a furious wind precedes the rushing water and announces its approach4 ,then comes a violent eruption1 followed by a flow of muddy waves1 and after a few hours all returns to the dreary silence which at periods of rest marks these abodes of desolation4 ,this is but an imperfect sketch of this scourge of the ,alps4 ,its devastations are increasing with the progress of clearing1 and are every day turning a portion of our frontier departments into barren wastes4 ,the unfortunate passion for clearing manifested itself at the beginning of the ,french ,revolution1 and has much increased under the pressure of immediate want4 ,it has now reached an extreme point1 and must be speedily checked1 or the last inhabitant will be compelled to retreat when the last tree falls4 ,the elements of destruction are increasing in violence4 ,rivers might be mentioned whose beds have been raised ten feet in a single year4 ,the devastation advances in geometrical progression as the higher slopes are bared of their wood1 and 'the ruin from above1' to use the words of a peasant1 'helps to hasten the desolation below4' ,the ,alps of ,provence present a terrible aspect4 ,in the more equable climate of ,northern ,france1 one can form no conception of those parched mountain gorges where not even a bush can be found to shelter a bird1 where1 at most1 the wanderer sees in summer here and there a withered lavender1 where all the springs are dried up1 and where a dead silence1 hardly broken by even the hum of an insect1 prevails4 ,but if a storm bursts forth1 masses of water suddenly shoot from the mountain heights into the shattered gulfs1 waste without irrigating1 deluge without refreshing the soil they overflow in their swift descent1 and leave it even more seared than it was from want of moisture4 ,man at last retires from the fearful desert1 and ,i have1 the present season1 found not a living soul in districts where ,i remember to have enjoyed hospitality thirty years ago4 ,in #ahec1 ten years after the date of ,blanqui's memoir1 ,m4 de ,bonville1 prefect of the ,lower ,alps1 addressed to the ,government a report in which the following passages occur3 ,it is certain that the productive mould of the ,alps1 swept off by the increasing violence of that curse of the mountains1 the torrents1 is daily diminishing with fearful rapidity4 ,all our ,alps are wholly1 or in large proportion1 bared of wood4 ,their soil1 scorched by the sun of ,provence1 cut up by the hoofs of the sheep1 which1 not finding on the surface the grass they require for their sustenance1 scratch the ground in search of roots to satisfy their hunger1 is periodically washed and carried off by melting snows and summer storms4 ,i will not dwell on the effects of the torrents4 ,for sixty years they have been too often depicted to require to be further discussed1 but it is important to show that their ravages are daily extending the range of devastation4 ,the bed of the ,durance1 which now in some places exceeds #b1jjj metres about #f1fjj feet1 or a mile and a quarter in width1 and1 at ordinary times1 has a current of water less than #aj metres about #cc feet wide1 shows something of the extent of the damage4#bbj ,where1 ten years ago1 there were still woods and cultivated grounds to be seen1 there is now but a vast torrent3 there is not one of our mountains which has not at least one torrent1 and new ones are daily forming4 ,an indirect proof of the diminution of the soil is to be found in the depopulation of the country4 ,in #aheb1 ,i reported to the ,general ,council that1 according to the census of that year1 the population of the department of the ,lower ,alps had fallen off no less than #e1jjj souls in the five years between #ahdf and #ahea4 ,unless prompt and energetic measures are taken1 it is easy to fix the epoch when the ,french ,alps will be but a desert4 ,the interval between #ahea and #ahef will show a further decrease of population4 ,in #ahfb1 the ministry will announce a continued and progressive reduction in the number of acres devoted to agriculture2 every year will aggravate the evil1 and1 in a half century1 ,france will count more ruins1 and a department the less4 ,time has verified the predictions of ,de ,bonville4 ,the later census returns show a progressive diminution in the population of the departments of the ,lower ,alps1 the ,isere1 the ,drome1 ,ariege1 the ,upper and the ,lower ,pyrenees1 the ,lozere1 the ,ardennes1 the ,doubs1 the ,vosges1 and1 in short1 in all the provinces formerly remarkable for their forests4 ,this diminution is not to be ascribed to a passion for foreign emigration1 as in ,ireland1 and in parts of ,germany and of ,italy2 it is simply a transfer of population from one part of the empire to another1 from soils which human folly has rendered uninhabitable1 by ruthlessly depriving them of their natural advantages and securities1 to provinces where the face of the earth was so formed by nature as to need no such safeguards1 and where1 consequently1 she preserves her outlines in spite of the wasteful improvidence of man4#bba ,highly colored as these pictures seem1 they are not exaggerated1 although the hasty tourist through ,southern ,france and ,northern ,italy1 finding little in his high road experiences to justify them1 might suppose them so4 ,the lines of communication by locomotive train and diligence lead generally over safer ground1 and it is only when they ascend the ,alpine passes and traverse the mountain chains1 that scenes somewhat resembling those just described fall under the eye of the ordinary traveller4 ,but the extension of the sphere of devastation1 by the degradation of the mountains and the transportation of their debris1 is producing analogous effects upon the lower ridges of the ,alps and the plains which skirt them2 and even now one needs but an hour's departure from some great thoroughfares to reach sites where the genius of destruction revels as wildly as in the most frightful of the abysses which ,blanqui has painted4#bbb ,there is one effect of the action of torrents which few travellers on the ,continent are heedless enough to pass without notice4 ,i refer to the elevation of the beds of mountain streams in consequence of the deposit of the debris with which they are charged4 ,to prevent the spread of sand and gravel over the fields and the deluging overflow of the raging waters1 the streams are confined by walls and embankments1 which are gradually built higher and higher as the bed of the torrent is raised1 so that1 to reach a river1 you ascend from the fields beside it2 and sometimes the ordinary level of the stream is above the streets and even the roofs of the towns through which it passes4#bbc ,the traveller who visits the depths of an ,alpine ravine1 observes the length and width of the gorge and the great height and apparent solidity of the precipitous walls which bound it1 and calculates the mass of rock required to fill the vacancy1 can hardly believe that the humble brooklet which purls at his feet has been the principal agent in accomplishing this tremendous erosion4 ,closer observation will often teach him1 that the seemingly unbroken rock which overhangs the valley is full of cracks and fissures1 and really in such a state of disintegration that every frost must bring down tons of it4 ,if he compute the area of the basin which finds here its only discharge1 he will perceive that a sudden thaw of the winter's deposit of snow1 or one of those terrible discharges of rain so common in the ,alps1 must send forth a deluge mighty enough to sweep down the largest masses of gravel and of rock4#bbd ,the simple measurement of the cubical contents of the semi-circular hillock which he climbed before he entered the gorge1 the structure and composition of which conclusively show that it must have been washed out of this latter by torrential action1 will often account satisfactorily for the disposal of most of the matter which once filled the ravine4 ,it must further be remembered1 that every inch of the violent movement of the rocks is accompanied with crushing concussion1 or1 at least1 with great abrasion1 and1 as you follow the deposit along the course of the waters which transport it1 you find the stones gradually rounding off in form1 and diminishing in size until they pass successively into gravel1 sand1 impalpable slime4 ,i do not mean to assert that all the rocky valleys of the ,alps have been produced by the action of torrents resulting from the destruction of the forests4 ,all the greater1 and many of the smaller channels1 by which that chain is drained1 owe their origin to higher causes4 ,they are primitive fissures1 ascribable to disruption in upheaval or other geological convulsion1 widened and scarped1 and often even polished1 so to speak1 by the action of glaciers during the ice period1 and but little changed in form by running water in later eras4#bbe ,in these valleys of ancient formation1 which extend into the very heart of the mountains1 the streams1 though rapid1 have lost the true torrential character1 if1 indeed1 they ever possessed it4 ,their beds have become approximately constant1 and their walls no longer crumble and fall into the waters that wash their bases4 ,the torrent-worn ravines1 of which ,i have spoken1 are of later date1 and belong more properly to what may be called the crust of the ,alps1 consisting of loose rocks1 of gravel1 and of earth1 strewed along the surface of the great declivities of the central ridge1 and accumulated thickly between their solid buttresses4 ,but it is on this crust that the mountaineer dwells4 ,here are his forests1 here his pastures1 and the ravages of the torrent both destroy his world1 and convert it into a source of overwhelming desolation to the plains below4 ,transporting ,power of ,rivers4 ,an instance that fell under my own observation in #aheg1 will serve to show something of the eroding and transporting power of streams which1 in these respects1 fall incalculably below the torrents of the ,alps4 ,in a flood of the ,ottaquechee1 a small river which flows through ,woodstock1 ,vermont1 a milldam on that stream burst1 and the sediment with which the pond was filled1 estimated after careful measurement at #ac1jjj cubic yards1 was carried down by the current4 ,between this dam and the slack water of another1 four miles below1 the bed of the stream1 which is composed of pebbles interspersed in a few places with larger stones1 is about sixty-five feet wide1 though1 at low water1 the breadth of the current is considerably less4 ,the sand and fine gravel were smoothly and evenly distributed over the bed to a width of fifty-five or sixty feet1 and for a distance of about two miles1 except at two or three intervening rapids1 filled up all the interstices between the stones1 covering them to the depth of nine or ten inches1 so as to present a regularly formed concave channel1 lined with sand1 and reducing the depth of water1 in some places1 from five or six feet to fifteen or eighteen inches4 ,observing this deposit after the river had subsided and become so clear that the bottom could be seen1 ,i supposed that the next flood would produce an extraordinary erosion of the banks and some permanent changes in the channel of the stream1 in consequence of the elevation of the bed and the filling up of the spaces between the stones through which formerly much water had flowed2 but no such result followed4 ,the spring freshet of the next year entirely washed out the sand its predecessor had deposited1 carried it to ponds and still-water reaches below1 and left the bed of the river almost precisely in its former condition1 though1 of course1 with the slight displacement of the pebbles which every flood produces in the channels of such streams4 ,the pond1 though often previously discharged by the breakage of the dam1 had then been undisturbed for about twenty-five years1 and its contents consisted almost entirely of sand1 the rapidity of the current in floods being such that it would let fall little lighter sediment1 even above an obstruction like a dam4 ,the quantity ,i have mentioned evidently bears a very inconsiderable proportion to the total erosion of the stream during that period1 because the wash of the banks consists chiefly of fine earth rather than of sand1 and after the pond was once filled1 or nearly so1 even this material could no longer be deposited in it4 ,the fact of the complete removal of the deposit ,i have described between the two dams in a single freshet1 shows that1 in spite of considerable obstruction from roughness of bed1 large quantities of sand may be taken up and carried off by streams of no great rapidity of inclination2 for the whole descent of the bed of the river between the two dams--a distance of four miles--is but sixty feet1 or fifteen feet to the mile4 ,the ,po and its ,deposits4 ,the current of the river ,po1 for a considerable distance after its volume of water is otherwise sufficient for continuous navigation1 is too rapid for that purpose until near ,piacenza1 where its velocity becomes too much reduced to transport great quantities of mineral matter1 except in a state of minute division4 ,its southern affluents bring down from the ,apennines a large quantity of fine earth from various geological formations1 while its ,alpine tributaries west of the ,ticino are charged chiefly with rock ground down to sand or gravel4#bbf ,the bed of the river has been somewhat elevated by the deposits in its channel1 though not by any means above the level of the adjacent plains as has been so often represented4 ,the dikes1 which confine the current at high water1 at the same time augment its velocity and compel it to carry most of its sediment to the ,adriatic4 ,it has1 therefore1 raised neither its own channel nor its alluvial shores1 as it would have done if it had remained unconfined4 ,but1 as the surface of the water in floods is from six to fifteen feet above the general level of its banks1 the ,po can1 at that period1 receive no contributions of earth from the washing of the fields of ,lombardy1 and there is no doubt that a large proportion of the sediment it now deposits at its mouth descended from the ,alps in the form of rock1 though reduced by the grinding action of the waters1 in its passage seaward1 to the condition of fine sand1 and often of silt4#bbg ,we know little of the history of the ,po1 or of the geography of the coast near the point where it enters the ,adriatic1 at any period more than twenty centuries before our own4 ,still less can we say how much of the plains of ,lombardy had been formed by its action1 combined with other causes1 before man accelerated its levelling operations by felling the first woods on the mountains whence its waters are derived4 ,but we know that since the ,roman conquest of ,northern ,italy1 its deposits have amounted to a quantity which1 if recemented into rock1 recombined into gravel1 common earth1 and vegetable mould1 and restored to the situations where eruption or upheaval originally placed1 or vegetation deposited it1 would fill up hundreds of deep ravines in the ,alps and ,apennines1 change the plan and profile of their chains1 and give their southern and northern faces respectively a geographical aspect very different from that they now present4 ,ravenna1 forty miles south of the principal mouth of the ,po1 was built like ,venice1 in a lagoon1 and the ,adriatic still washed its walls at the commencement of the ,christian era4 ,the mud of the ,po has filled up the lagoon1 and ,ravenna is now four miles from the sea4 ,the town of ,adria1 which lies between the ,po and the ,adige1 at the distance of some four or five miles from each1 was once a harbor famous enough to have given its name to the ,adriatic sea1 and it was still a seaport in the time of ,augustus4 ,the combined action of the two rivers has so advanced the coast line that ,adria is now about fourteen miles inland1 and1 in other places1 the deposits made within the same period by these and other neighboring streams have a width of twenty miles4 ,what proportion of the earth with which they are charged these rivers have borne out into deep water1 during the last two thousand years1 we do not know1 but as they still transport enormous quantities1 as the ,north ,adriatic appears to have shoaled rapidly1 and as long islands1 composed in great part of fluviatile deposits1 have formed opposite their mouths1 it must evidently have been very great4 ,the floods of the ,po occur but once1 or sometimes twice in a year4#bbh ,at other times1 its waters are comparatively limpid and seem to hold no great amount of mud or fine sand in mechanical suspension2 but at high water it contains a large proportion of solid matter1 and according to ,lombardini1 it annually transports to the shores of the ,adriatic not less than #db1gfj1jjj cubic metres1 or very nearly #ee1jjj1jjj cubic yards1 which carries the coast line out into the sea at the rate of more than #bjj feet in a year4#bbi ,the depth of the annual deposit is stated at eighteen centimetres1 or rather more than seven inches1 and it would cover an area of not much less than ninety square miles with a layer of that thickness4 ,the ,adige1 also1 brings every year to the ,adriatic many million cubic yards of ,alpine detritus1 and the contributions of the ,brenta from the same source are far from inconsiderable4 ,the ,adriatic1 however1 receives but a small proportion of the soil and rock washed away from the ,italian slope of the ,alps and the northern declivity of the ,apennines by torrents4 ,nearly the whole of the debris thus removed from the southern face of the ,alps between ,monte ,rosa and the sources of the ,adda--a length of watershed not less than one hundred and fifty miles--is arrested by the still waters of the ,lakes ,maggiore and ,como1 and some smaller lacustrine reservoirs1 and never reaches the sea4 ,the ,po is not continuously embanked except for the lower half of its course4 ,above ,piacenza1 therefore1 it spreads and deposits sediment over a wide surface1 and the water withdrawn from it for irrigation at lower points1 as well as its inundations in the occasional ruptures of its banks1 carry over the adjacent soil a large amount of slime4 ,if we add to the estimated annual deposits of the ,po at its mouth1 the earth and sand transported to the sea by the ,adige1 the ,brenta1 and other less important streams1 the prodigious mass of detritus swept into ,lago ,maggiore by the ,tosa1 the ,maggia1 and the ,ticino1 into the lake of ,como by the ,maira and the ,adda1 into the lake of ,garda by its affluents1 and the yet vaster heaps of pebbles1 gravel1 and earth permanently deposited by the torrents near their points of eruption from mountain gorges1 or spread over the wide plains at lower levels1 we may safely assume that we have an aggregate of not less than four times the quantity carried to the ,adriatic by the ,po1 or #bbj1jjj1jjj cubic yards of solid matter1 abstracted every year from the ,italian ,alps and the ,apennines1 and removed out of their domain by the force of running water4#bcj ,the present rate of deposit at the mouth of the ,po has continued since the year #afjj1 the previous advance of the coast1 after the year #abjj1 having been only one third as rapid4 ,the great increase of erosion and transport is ascribed by ,lombardini chiefly to the destruction of the forests in the basin of that river and the valleys1 of its tributaries1 since the beginning of the seventeenth century4#bca ,we have no data to show the rate of deposit in any given century before the year #abjj1 and it doubtless varied according to the progress of population and the consequent extension of clearing and cultivation4 ,the transporting power of torrents is greatest soon after their formation1 because at that time their points of delivery are lower1 and1 of course1 their general slope and velocity more rapid1 than after years of erosion above1 and deposit below1 have depressed the beds of their mountain valleys1 and elevated the channels of their lower course4 ,their eroding action also is most powerful at the same period1 both because their mechanical force is then greatest1 and because the loose earth and stones of freshly cleared forest ground are most easily removed4 ,many of the ,alpine valleys west of the ,ticino--that of the ,dora ,baltea for instance--were nearly stripped of their forests in the days of the ,roman empire1 others in the ,middle ,ages1 and1 of course1 there must have been1 at different periods before the year #abjj1 epochs when the erosion and transportation of solid matter from the ,alps and the ,apennines were as great as since the year #afjj4 ,upon the whole1 we shall not greatly err if we assume that1 for a period of not less than two thousand years1 the walls of the basin of the ,po--the ,italian slope of the ,alps1 and the northern and northeastern declivities of the ,apennines--have annually sent down into the ,adriatic1 the lakes1 and the plains1 not less than #aej1jjj1jjj cubic yards of earth and disintegrated rock4 ,we have1 then1 an aggregate of #cjj1jjj1jjj1jjj cubic yards of such material1 which1 allowing to the mountain surface in question an area of #ej1jjj1jjj1jjj square yards1 would cover the whole to the depth of six yards4#bcb ,there are very large portions of this area1 where1 as we know from ancient remains--roads1 bridges1 and the like--from other direct testimony1 and from geological considerations1 very little degradation has taken place within twenty centuries1 and hence the quantity to be assigned to localities where the destructive causes have been most active is increased in proportion4 ,if this vast mass of pulverized rock and earth were restored to the localities from which it was derived1 it certainly would not obliterate valleys and gorges hollowed out by great geological causes1 but it would reduce the length and diminish the depth of ravines of later formation1 modify the inclination of their walls1 reclothe with earth many bare mountain ridges1 essentially change the line of junction between plain and mountain1 and carry back a long reach of the ,adriatic coast many miles to the west4#bcc ,it is1 indeed1 not to be supposed that all the degradation of the mountains is due to the destruction of the forests--that the flanks of every ,alpine valley in ,central ,europe below the snow line were once covered with earth and green with woods1 but there are not many particular cases1 in which we can1 with certainty1 or even with strong probability1 affirm the contrary4 ,we cannot measure the share which human action has had in augmenting the intensity of causes of mountain degradation1 but we know that the clearing of the woods has1 in some cases1 produced within two or three generations1 effects as blasting as those generally ascribed to geological convulsions1 and has laid waste the face of the earth more hopelessly than if it had been buried by a current of lava or a shower of volcanic sand4 ,now torrents are forming every year in the ,alps4 ,tradition1 written records1 and analogy concur to establish the belief that the ruin of most of the now desolate valleys in those mountains is to be ascribed to the same cause1 and authentic descriptions of the irresistible force of the torrent show that1 aided by frost and heat1 it is adequate to level ,mont ,blanc and ,monte ,rosa themselves1 unless new upheavals shall maintain their elevation4 ,it has been contended that all rivers which take their rise in mountains originated in torrents4 ,these1 it is said1 have lowered the summits by gradual erosion1 and1 with the material thus derived1 have formed shoals in the sea which once beat against the cliffs2 then1 by successive deposits1 gradually raised them above the surface1 and finally expanded them into broad plains traversed by gently flowing streams4 ,if we could go back to earlier geological periods1 we should find this theory often verified1 and we cannot fail to see that the torrents go on at the present hour1 depressing still lower the ridges of the ,alps and the ,apennines1 raising still higher the plains of ,lombardy and ,provence1 extending the coast still farther into the ,adriatic and the ,mediterranean1 reducing the inclination of their own beds and the rapidity of their flow1 and thus tending to become river-like in character4 ,there are cases where torrents cease their ravages of themselves1 in consequence of some change in the condition of the basin where they originate1 or of the face of the mountain at a higher level1 while the plain or the sea below remains in substantially the same state as before4 ,if a torrent rises in a small valley containing no great amount of earth and of disintegrated or loose rock1 it may1 in the course of a certain period1 wash out all the transportable material1 and if the valley is then left with solid walls1 it will cease to furnish debris to be carried down by floods4 ,if1 in this state of things1 a new channel be formed at an elevation above the head of the valley1 it may divert a part1 or even the whole of the rain water and melted snow which would otherwise have flowed into it1 and the once furious torrent now sinks to the rank of a humble and harmless brooklet4 ,in traversing this department1 says ,surell1 one often sees1 at the outlet of a gorge1 a flattened hillock1 with a fan-shaped outline and regular slopes2 it is the bed of dejection of an ancient torrent4 ,it sometimes requires long and careful study to detect the primitive form1 masked as it is by groves of trees1 by cultivated fields1 and often by houses1 but1 when examined closely1 and from different points of view1 its characteristic figure manifestly appears1 and its true history cannot be mistaken4 ,along the hillock flows a streamlet1 issuing from the ravine1 and quietly watering the fields4 ,this was originally a torrent1 and in the background may be discovered its mountain basin4 ,such extinguished torrents1 if ,i may use the expression1 are numerous4#bcd ,but for the intervention of man and domestic animals1 these latter beneficent revolutions would occur more frequently1 proceed more rapidly4 ,the new scarped mountains1 the hillocks of debris1 the plains elevated by sand and gravel spread over them1 the shores freshly formed by fluviatile deposits1 would clothe themselves with shrubs and trees1 the intensity of the causes of degradation would be diminished1 and nature would thus regain her ancient equilibrium4 ,but these processes1 under ordinary circumstances1 demand1 not years1 generations1 but centuries2#bce and man1 who even now finds scarce breathing room on this vast globe1 cannot retire from the ,old ,world to some yet undiscovered continent1 and wait for the slow action of such causes to replace1 by a new creation1 the ,eden he has wasted4 ,mountain ,slides4 ,i have said that the mountainous regions of the ,atlantic ,states of the ,american ,union are exposed to similar ravages1 and ,i may add that there is1 in some cases1 reason to apprehend from the same cause even more appalling calamities than those which ,i have yet described4 ,the slide in the ,notch of the ,white ,mountains1 by which the ,willey family lost their lives1 is an instance of the sort ,i refer to1 though ,i am not able to say that in this particular case1 the slip of the earth and rock was produced by the denudation of the surface4 ,it may have been occasioned by this cause1 or by the construction of the road through the ,notch1 the excavations for which1 perhaps1 cut through the buttresses that supported the sloping strata above4 ,not to speak of the fall of earth when the roots which held it together1 and the bed of leaves and mould which sheltered it both from disintegrating frost and from sudden drenching and dissolution by heavy showers1 are gone1 it is easy to see that1 in a climate with severe winters1 the removal of the forest1 and1 consequently1 of the soil it had contributed to form1 might cause the displacement and descent of great masses of rock4 ,the woods1 the vegetable mould1 and the soil beneath1 protect the rocks they cover from the direct action of heat and cold1 and from the expansion and contraction which accompany them4 ,most rocks1 while covered with earth1 contain a considerable quantity of water4#bcf ,a fragment of rock pervaded with moisture cracks and splits1 if thrown into a furnace1 and sometimes with a loud detonation2 and it is a familiar observation that the fire1 in burning over newly cleared lands1 breaks up and sometimes almost pulverizes the stones4 ,this effect is due partly to the unequal expansion of the stone1 partly to the action of heat on the water it contains in its pores4 ,the sun1 suddenly let in upon rock which had been covered with moist earth for centuries1 produces more or less disintegration in the same way1 and the stone is also exposed to chemical influences from which it was sheltered before4 ,but in the climate of the ,united ,states as well as of the ,alps1 frost is a still more powerful agent in breaking up mountain masses4 ,the soil that protects the lime and sand stone1 the slate and the granite from the influence of the sun1 also prevents the water which filters into their crevices and between their strata from freezing in the hardest winters1 and the moisture descends1 in a liquid form1 until it escapes in springs1 or passes off by deep subterranean channels4 ,but when the ridges are laid bare1 the water of the autumnal rains fills the minutest pores and veins and fissures and lines of separation of the rocks1 then suddenly freezes1 and bursts asunder huge1 and apparently solid blocks of adamantine stone4#bcg ,where the strata are inclined at a considerable angle1 the freezing of a thin film of water over a large interstratal area might occasion a slide that should cover miles with its ruins2 and similar results might be produced by the simple hydrostatic pressure of a column of water1 admitted by the removal of the covering of earth to flow into a crevice faster than it could escape through orifices below4 ,earth or rather mountain slides1 compared to which the catastrophe that buried the ,willey family in ,new ,hampshire was but a pinch of dust1 have often occurred in the ,swiss ,italian1 and ,french ,alps4 ,the land slip1 which overwhelmed and covered to the depth of seventy feet1 the town of ,plurs in the valley of the ,maira1 on the night of the #dth of ,september1 #afah1 sparing not a soul of a population of #b1dcj inhabitants1 is one of the most memorable of these catastrophes1 and the fall of the ,rossberg or ,rufiberg1 which destroyed the little town of ,goldau in ,switzerland1 and #dej of its people1 on the #b;d of ,september1 #ahjf1 is almost equally celebrated4 ,in #agga1 according to ,wessely1 the mountain peak ,piz1 near ,alleghe in the province of ,belluno1 slipped into the bed of the ,cordevole1 a tributary of the ,piave1 destroying in its fall three hamlets and sixty lives4 ,the rubbish filled the valley for a distance of nearly two miles1 and1 by damming up the waters of the ,cordevole1 formed a lake about three miles long1 and a hundred and fifty feet deep1 which still subsists1 though reduced to half its original length by the wearing down of its outlet4#bch ,on the #adth of ,february1 #ahee1 the hill of ,belmonte1 a little below the parish of ,san ,stefano1 in ,tuscany1 slid into the valley of the ,tiber1 which consequently flooded the village to the depth of fifty feet1 and was finally drained off by a tunnel4 ,the mass of debris is stated to have been about #c1ejj feet long1 #a1jjj wide1 and not less than #fjj high4#bci ,such displacements of earth and rocky strata rise to the magnitude of geological convulsions1 but they are of so rare occurrence in countries still covered by the primitive forest1 so common where the mountains have been stripped of their native covering1 and1 in many cases1 so easily explicable by the drenching of incohesive earth from rain1 or the free admission of water between the strata of rocks--both of which a coating of vegetation would have prevented--that we are justified in ascribing them for the most part to the same cause as that to which the destructive effects of mountain torrents are chiefly due--the felling of the woods4 ,in nearly every case of this sort the circumstances of which are known1 the immediate cause of the slip has been1 either an earthquake1 the imbibition of water in large quantities by bare earth1 or its introduction between or beneath solid strata4 ,if water insinuates itself between the strata1 it creates a sliding surface1 or it may1 by its expansion in freezing1 separate beds of rock1 which had been nearly continuous before1 widely enough to allow the gravitation of the superincumbent mass to overcome the resistance afforded by inequalities of face and by friction2 if it finds its way beneath hard earth or rock reposing on clay or other bedding of similar properties1 it converts the supporting layer into a semi-fluid mud1 which opposes no obstacle to the sliding of the strata above4 ,the upper part of the mountain which buried ,goldau was composed of a hard but brittle conglomerate1 called nagelflue1 resting on an unctuous clay1 and inclining rapidly toward the village4 ,much earth remained upon the rock1 in irregular masses1 but the woods had been felled1 and the water had free access to the surface1 and to the crevices which sun and frost had already produced in the rock1 and of course1 to the slimy stratum beneath4 ,the whole summer of #ahjf had been very wet1 and an almost incessant deluge of rain had fallen the day preceding the catastrophe1 as well as on that of its occurrence4 ,all conditions then1 were favorable to the sliding of the rock1 and1 in obedience to the laws of gravitation1 it precipitated itself into the valley as soon as its adhesion to the earth beneath it was destroyed by the conversion of the latter into a viscous paste4 ,the mass that fell measured between two and a half and three miles in length by one thousand feet in width1 and its average thickness is thought to have been about a hundred feet4 ,the highest portion of the mountain was more than three thousand feet above the village1 and the momentum acquired by the rocks and earth in their descent carried huge blocks of stone far up the opposite slope of the ,rigi4 ,the ,piz1 which fell into the ,cordevole1 rested on a steeply inclined stratum of limestone1 with a thin layer of calcareous marl intervening1 which1 by long exposure to frost and the infiltration of water1 had lost its original consistence1 and become a loose and slippery mass instead of a cohesive and tenacious bed4 ,protection against fall of ,rocks and ,avalanches by ,trees4 ,forests often subserve a valuable purpose in preventing the fall of rocks1 by mere mechanical resistance4 ,trees1 as well as herbaceous vegetation1 grow in the ,alps upon declivities of surprising steepness of inclination1 and the traveller sees both luxuriant grass and flourishing woods on slopes at which the soil1 in the dry air of lower regions1 would crumble and fall by the weight of its own particles4 ,when loose rocks lie scattered on the face of these declivities1 they are held in place by the trunks of the trees1 and it is very common to observe a stone that weighs hundreds of pounds1 perhaps even tons1 resting against a tree which has stopped its progress just as it was beginning to slide down to a lower level4 ,when a forest in such a position is cut1 these blocks lose their support1 and a single wet season is enough not only to bare the face of a considerable extent of rock1 but to cover with earth and stone many acres of fertile soil below4#bdj ,in ,switzerland and other snowy and mountainous countries1 forests render a most important service by preventing the formation and fall of destructive avalanches1 and in many parts of the ,alps exposed to this catastrophe1 the woods are protected1 though too often ineffectually1 by law4 ,no forest1 indeed1 could arrest a large avalanche once in motion1 but the mechanical resistance afforded by the trees prevents their formation1 both by obstructing the wind1 which gives to the dry snow of the ,staub-,lawine1 or dust avalanche1 its first impulse1 and by checking the disposition of moist snow to gather itself into what is called the ,rutsch-,lawine1 or sliding avalanche4 ,marschand states that1 the very first winter after the felling of the trees on the higher part of a declivity between ,saanen and ,gsteig where the snow had never been known to slide1 an avalanche formed itself in the clearing1 thundered down the mountain1 and overthrew and carried with it a hitherto unviolated forest to the amount of nearly a million cubic feet of timber4#bda ,the path once opened down the flanks of the mountain1 the evil is almost beyond remedy4 ,the snow sometimes carries off the earth from the face of the rock1 or1 if the soil is left1 fresh slides every winter destroy the young plantations1 and the restoration of the wood becomes impossible4 ,the track widens with every new avalanche4 ,dwellings and their occupants are buried in the snow1 or swept away by the rushing mass1 or by the furious blasts it occasions through the displacement of the air2 roads and bridges are destroyed2 rivers blocked up1 which swell till they overflow the valley above1 and then1 bursting their snowy barrier1 flood the fields below with all the horrors of a winter inundation4#bdb ,principal ,causes of the ,destruction of the ,forest4 ,the needs of agriculture are the most familiar cause of the destruction of the forest in new countries2 for not only does an increasing population demand additional acres to grow the vegetables which feed it and its domestic animals1 but the slovenly husbandry of the border settler soon exhausts the luxuriance of his first fields1 and compels him to remove his household gods to a fresher soil4 ,with growing numbers1 too1 come the many arts for which wood is the material4 ,the demands of the near and the distant market for this product excite the cupidity of the hardy forester1 and a few years of that wild industry of which ,springer's ,forest ,life and ,forest ,trees so vividly depicts the dangers and the triumphs1 suffice to rob the most inaccessible glens of their fairest ornaments4 ,the value of timber increases with its dimensions in almost geometrical proportion1 and the tallest1 most vigorous1 and most symmetrical trees fall the first sacrifice4 ,this is a fortunate circumstance for the remainder of the wood2 for the impatient lumberman contents himself with felling a few of the best trees1 and then hurries on to take his tithe of still virgin groves4 ,the unparalleled facilities for internal navigation1 afforded by the numerous rivers of the present and former ,british colonial possessions in ,north ,america1 have proved very fatal to the forests of that continent4 ,quebec has become a centre for a lumber trade1 which1 in the bulk of its material1 and1 consequently1 in the tonnage required for its transportation1 rivals the commerce of the greatest ,european cities4 ,immense rafts are collected at ,quebec from the great ,lakes1 from the ,ottawa1 and from all the other tributaries which unite to swell the current of the ,st4 ,lawrence and help it to struggle against its mighty tides4#bdc ,ships1 of burden formerly undreamed of1 have been built to convey the timber to the markets of ,europe1 and during the summer months the ,st4 ,lawrence is almost as crowded with vessels as the ,thames4#bdd ,of late1 ,chicago1 in ,illinois1 has been one of the greatest lumber as well as grain depots of the ,united ,states1 and it receives and distributes contributions from all the forests in the ,states washed by ,lake ,michigan1 as well as from some more distant points4 ,the operations of the lumberman involve other dangers to the woods besides the loss of the trees felled by him4 ,the narrow clearings around his shanties#bde form openings which let in the wind1 and thus sometimes occasion the overthrow of thousands of trees1 the fall of which dams up small streams1 and creates bogs by the spreading of the waters1 while the decaying trunks facilitate the multiplication of the insects which breed in dead wood1 and are1 some of them1 injurious to living trees4 ,the escape and spread of camp fires1 however1 is the most devastating of all the causes of destruction that find their origin in the operations of the lumberman4 ,the proportion of trees fit for industrial uses is small in all primitive woods4 ,only these fall before the forester's axe1 but the fire destroys1 indiscriminately1 every age and every species of tree4#bdf ,while1 then1 without much injury to the younger growths1 the native forest will bear several cuttings over in a generation--for the increasing value of lumber brings into use1 every four or five years1 a quality of timber which had been before rejected as unmarketable--a fire may render the declivity of a mountain unproductive for a century4#bdg ,american ,forest ,trees4 ,the remaining forests of the ,northern ,states and of ,canada no longer boast the mighty pines which almost rivalled the gigantic ,sequoia of ,california2 and the growth of the larger forest trees is so slow1 after they have attained to a certain size1 that if every pine and oak were spared for two centuries1 the largest now standing would not reach the stature of hundreds recorded to have been cut within two or three generations4#bdh ,dr4 ,williams1 who wrote about sixty years ago1 states the following as the dimensions of such trees as are esteemed large ones of their kind in that part of ,america ,vermont1 qualifying his account with the remark that his measurements do not denote the greatest which nature has produced of their particular species1 but the greatest which are to be found in most of our towns4 ,diameter4 ,height4 ,pine1 #f feet1 #bdg feet4 ,maple1 #e #i inches1 ,buttonwood1 #e #f ,elm1 #e ,hemlock1 #d #i ,oak1 #d ,from #ajj to #bjj feet4 ,basswood1 #d ,ash1 #d ,birch1 #d ,he adds a note saying that a white pine was cut in ,dunstable1 ,new ,hampshire1 in the year #agcf1 the diameter of which was seven feet and eight inches4 ,dr4 ,dwight says that a fallen pine in ,connecticut was found to measure two hundred and forty-seven feet in height1 and adds3 ,a few years since1 such trees were in great numbers along the northern parts of ,connecticut ,river4 ,in another letter1 he speaks of the white pine as frequently six feet in diameter1 and two hundred and fifty feet in height1 and states that a pine had been cut in ,lancaster1 ,new ,hampshire1 which measured two hundred and sixty-four feet4 ,emerson wrote in #ahdf3 ,fifty years ago1 several trees growing on rather dry land in ,blandford1 ,massachusetts1 measured1 after they were felled1 two hundred and twenty-three feet4 ,all these trees are surpassed by a pine felled at ,hanover1 ,new ,hampshire1 about a hundred years ago1 and described as measuring two hundred and seventy-four feet4#bdi ,these descriptions1 it will be noticed1 apply to trees cut from sixty to one hundred years since4 ,persons1 whom observation has rendered familiar with the present character of the ,american forest1 will be struck with the smallness of the diameter which ,dr4 ,williams and ,dr4 ,dwight ascribe to trees of such extraordinary height4 ,individuals of the several species mentioned in ,dr4 ,williams's table1 are now hardly to be found in the same climate1 exceeding one half or at most two thirds of the height which he assigns to them2 but1 except in the case of the oak and the pine1 the diameter stated by him would not be thought very extraordinary in trees of far less height1 now standing4 ,even in the species ,i have excepted1 those diameters1 with half the heights of ,dr4 ,williams1 might perhaps be paralleled at the present time2 and many elms1 transplanted1 at a diameter of six inches1 within the memory of persons still living1 measure six1 and sometimes even seven feet through4 ,for this change in the growth of forest trees there are two reasons3 the one is1 that the great commercial value of the pine and the oak have caused the destruction of all the best--that is1 the tallest and straightest--specimens of both2 the other1 that the thinning of the woods by the axe of the lumberman has allowed the access of light and heat and air to trees of humbler worth and lower stature1 which have survived their more towering brethren4 ,these1 consequently1 have been able to expand their crowns and swell their stems to a degree not possible so long as they were overshadowed and stifled by the lordly oak and pine4 ,while1 therefore1 the ,new ,england forester must search long before he finds a pine fit to be the mast ,of some great ammiral1 beeches and elms and birches1 as sturdy as the mightiest of their progenitors1 are still no rarity4#bej ,another evil1 sometimes of serious magnitude1 which attends the operations of the lumberman1 is the injury to the banks of rivers from the practice of floating4 ,i do not here allude to rafts1 which1 being under the control of those who navigate them1 may be so guided as to avoid damage to the shore1 but to masts1 logs1 and other pieces of timber singly intrusted to the streams1 to be conveyed by their currents to sawmill ponds1 or to convenient places for collecting them into rafts4 ,the lumbermen usually haul the timber to the banks of the rivers in the winter1 and when the spring floods swell the streams and break up the ice1 they roll the logs into the water1 leaving them to float down to their destination4 ,if the transporting stream is too small to furnish a sufficient channel for this rude navigation1 it is sometimes dammed up1 and the timber collected in the pond thus formed above the dam4 ,when the pond is full1 a sluice is opened1 or the dam is blown up or otherwise suddenly broken1 and the whole mass of lumber above it is hurried down with the rolling flood4 ,both of these modes of proceeding expose the banks of the rivers employed as channels of flotation to abrasion1#bea and in some of the ,american ,states it has been found necessary to protect1 by special legislation1 the lands through which they flow from the serious injury sometimes received through the practices ,i have described4#beb ,special ,causes of the ,destruction of ,european ,woods4 ,the causes of forest waste thus far enumerated are more or less common to both continents2 but in ,europe extensive woods have1 at different periods1 been deliberately destroyed by fire or the axe1 because they afforded a retreat to enemies1 robbers1 and outlaws1 and this practice is said to have been resorted to in the ,mediterranean provinces of ,france as recently as the time of ,napoleon ,i4#bec ,the severe and even sanguinary legislation1 by which some of the governments of mediaeval ,europe1 as well as of earlier ages1 protected the woods1 was dictated by a love of the chase1 or the fear of a scarcity of fuel and timber4 ,the laws of almost every ,european state more or less adequately secure the permanence of the forest2 and ,i believe ,spain is the only ,european land which has not made some public provision for the protection and restoration of the woods--the only country whose people systematically war upon the garden of ,god4#bed ,royal ,forests and ,game ,laws4 ,the ,french authors ,i have quoted1 as well as many other writers of the same nation1 refer to the ,french ,revolution as having given a new impulse to destructive causes which were already threatening the total extermination of the woods4#bee ,the general crusade against the forests1 which accompanied that important event1 is to be ascribed1 in a considerable degree1 to political resentments4 ,the forest codes of the mediaeval kings1 and the local coutumes of feudalism contained many severe and even inhuman provisions1 adopted rather for the preservation of game than from any enlightened views of the more important functions of the woods4 ,ordericus ,vitalis informs us that ,william the ,conqueror destroyed sixty parishes1 and drove out their inhabitants1 in order that he might turn their lands into a forest1#bef to be reserved as a hunting ground for himself and his posterity1 and he punished with death the killing of a deer1 wild boar1 or even a hare4 ,his successor1 ,william ,rufus1 according to the ,histoire des ,ducs de ,normandie et des ,rois d',angleterre1 p4 #fg1 was hunting one day in a new forest1 which he had caused to be made out of eighteen parishes that he had destroyed1 when1 by mischance1 he was killed by an arrow wherewith ,tyreus de ,rois ,sir ,walter ,tyrell thought to slay a beast1 but missed the beast1 and slew the king1 who was beyond it4 ,and in this very same forest1 his brother ,richard ran so hard against a tree that he died of it4 ,and men commonly said that these things were because they had so laid waste and taken the said parishes4 ,these barbarous acts1 as ,bonnemere observes1#beg were simply the transfer of the customs of the ,french kings1 of their vassals1 and even of inferior gentlemen1 to conquered ,england4 ,the death of a hare1 says our author1 was a hanging matter1 the murder of a plover a capital crime4 ,death was inflicted on those who spread nets for pigeons2 wretches who had drawn a bow upon a stag were to be tied to the animal alive2 and among the seigniors it was a standing excuse for having killed game on forbidden ground1 that they aimed at a serf4 ,the feudal lords enforced these codes with unrelenting rigor1 and not unfrequently took the law into their own hands4 ,in the time of ,louis ,,ix1 according to ,william of ,nangis1 three noble children1 born in ,flanders1 who were sojourning at the abbey of ,st4 ,nicholas in the ,wood1 to learn the speech of ,france1 went out into the forest of the abbey1 with their bows and iron-headed arrows1 to disport them in shooting hares1 chased the game1 which they had started in the wood of the abbey1 into the forest of ,enguerrand1 lord of ,coucy1 and were taken by the sergeants which kept the wood4 ,when the fell and pitiless ,sir ,enguerrand knew this1 he had the children straightway hanged without any manner of trial4#beh ,the matter being brought to the notice of good ,king ,louis1 ,sir ,enguerrand was summoned to appear1 and1 finally1 after many feudal shifts and dilatory pleas1 brought to trial before ,louis himself and a special council4 ,notwithstanding the opposition of the other seigniors1 who1 it is needless to say1 spared no efforts to save a peer1 probably not a greater criminal than themselves1 the king was much inclined to inflict the punishment of death on the proud baron4 ,if he believed1 said he1 that our ,lord would be as well content with hanging as with pardoning1 he would hang ,sir ,enguerrand in spite of all his barons2 but noble and clerical interests unfortunately prevailed4 ,the king was persuaded to inflict a milder retribution1 and the murderer was condemned to pay ten thousand livres in coin1 and to build for the souls of the three children two chapels wherein mass should be said every day4#bei ,the hope of shortening the purgatorial term of the young persons1 by the religious rites to be celebrated in the chapels1 was doubtless the consideration which operated most powerfully on the mind of the king2 and ,europe lost a great example for the sake of a mass4 ,the desolation and depopulation1 resulting from the extension of the forest and the enforcement of the game laws1 induced several of the ,french kings to consent to some relaxation of the severity of these latter4 ,francis ,i1 however1 revived their barbarous provisions1 and1 according to ,bonnemere1 even so good a monarch as ,henry ,,iv reenacted them1 and signed the sentence of death upon peasants guilty of having defended their fields against devastation by wild beasts4 ,a fine of twenty livres1 he continues1 was imposed on every one shooting at pigeons1 which1 at that time1 swooped down by thousands upon the new-sown fields and devoured the seed4 ,but let us count even this a progress1 for we have seen that the murder of a pigeon had been a capital crime4#bfj ,not only were the slightest trespasses on the forest domain--the cutting of an oxgoad1 for instance--severely punished1 but game animals were still sacred when they had wandered from their native precincts and were ravaging the fields of the peasantry4 ,a herd of deer or of wild boars often consumed or trod down a harvest of grain1 the sole hope of the year for a whole family2 and the simple driving out of such animals from this costly pasturage brought dire vengeance on the head of the rustic1 who had endeavored to save his children's bread from their voracity4 ,at all times1 says ,paul ,louis ,courier1 speaking in the name of the peasants of ,chambord1 in the ,simple ,discours1 the game has made war upon us4 ,paris was blockaded eight hundred years by the deer1 and its environs1 now so rich1 so fertile1 did not yield bread enough to support the gamekeepers4#bfa ,in the popular mind1 the forest was associated with all the abuses of feudalism1 and the evils the peasantry had suffered from the legislation which protected both it and the game it sheltered1 blinded them to the still greater physical mischiefs which its destruction was to entail upon them4 ,no longer protected by law1 the crown forests and those of the great lords were attacked with relentless fury1 unscrupulously plundered and wantonly laid waste1 and even the rights of property in small private woods were no longer respected4#bfb ,various absurd theories1 some of which are not even yet exploded1 were propagated with regard to the economical advantages of converting the forest into pasture and ploughland1 its injurious effects upon climate1 health1 facility of internal communication1 and the like4 ,thus resentful memory of the wrongs associated with the forest1 popular ignorance1 and the cupidity of speculators cunning enough to turn these circumstances to profitable account1 combined to hasten the sacrifice of the remaining woods1 and a waste was produced which hundreds of years and millions of treasure will hardly repair4 ,small ,forest ,plants1 and ,vitality of ,seed4 ,another function of the woods to which ,i have barely alluded deserves a fuller notice than can be bestowed upon it in a treatise the scope of which is purely economical4 ,the forest is the native habitat of a large number of humbler plants1 to the growth and perpetuation of which its shade1 its humidity1 and its vegetable mould appear to be indispensable necessities4#bfc ,we cannot positively say that the felling of the woods in a given vegetable province would involve the final extinction of the smaller plants which are found only within their precincts4 ,some of these1 though not naturally propagating themselves in the open ground1 may perhaps germinate and grow under artificial stimulation and protection1 and finally become hardy enough to maintain an independent existence in very different circumstances from those which at present seem essential to their life4 ,besides this1 although the accounts of the growth of seeds1 which have lain for ages in the ashy dryness of ,egyptian catacombs1 are to be received with great caution1 or1 more probably1 to be rejected altogether1 yet their vitality seems almost imperishable while they remain in the situations in which nature deposits them4 ,when a forest old enough to have witnessed the mysteries of the ,druids is felled1 trees of other species spring up in its place2 and when they1 in their turn1 fall before the axe1 sometimes even as soon as they have spread their protecting shade over the surface1 the germs which their predecessors had shed years1 perhaps centuries before1 sprout up1 and in due time1 if not choked by other trees belonging to a later stage in the order of natural succession1 restore again the original wood4 ,in these cases1 the seeds of the new crop may often have been brought by the wind1 by birds1 by quadrupeds1 or by other causes2 but1 in many instances1 this explanation is not probable4 ,when newly cleared ground is burnt over in the ,united ,states1 the ashes are hardly cold before they are covered with a crop of fire weed1 a tall herbaceous plant1 very seldom seen growing under other circumstances1 and often not to be found for a distance of many miles from the clearing4 ,its seeds1 whether the fruit of an ancient vegetation or newly sown by winds or birds1 require either a quickening by a heat which raises to a certain high point the temperature of the stratum where they lie buried1 or a special pabulum furnished only by the combustion of the vegetable remains that cover the ground in the woods4 ,earth brought up from wells or other excavations soon produces a harvest of plants often very unlike those of the local flora4 ,moritz ,wagner1 as quoted by ,wittwer1#bfd remarks in his description of ,mount ,ararat3 ,a singular phenomenon to which my guide drew my attention is the appearance of several plants on the earth-heaps left by the last catastrophe an earthquake1 which grow nowhere else on the mountain1 and had never been observed in this region before4 ,the seeds of these plants were probably brought by birds1 and found in the loose1 clayey soil remaining from the streams of mud1 the conditions of growth which the other soil of the mountain refused them4 ,this is probable enough1 but it is hardly less so that the flowing mud brought them up to the influence of air and sun1 from depths where a previous convulsion had buried them ages before4 ,seeds of small sylvan plants1 too deeply buried by successive layers of forest foliage and the mould resulting from its decomposition to be reached by the plough when the trees are gone and the ground brought under cultivation1 may1 if a wiser posterity replants the wood which sheltered their parent stems1 germinate and grow1 after lying for generations in a state of suspended animation4 ,darwin says3 ,in ,staffordshire1 on the estate of a relation1 where ,i had ample means of investigation1 there was a large and extremely barren heath1 which had never been touched by the hand of man1 but several hundred acres of exactly the same nature had been enclosed twenty-five years previously and planted with ,scotch fir4 ,the change in the native vegetation of the planted part of the heath was most remarkable--more than is generally seen in passing from one quite different soil to another2 not only the proportional numbers of the heath plants were wholly changed1 but twelve species of plants 7not counting grasses and sedges7 flourished in the plantation which could not be found on the heath4#bfe ,had the author informed us that these twelve plants belonged to a species whose seeds enter into the nutriment of the birds which appeared with the young wood1 we could easily account for their presence in the soil2 but he says distinctly that the birds were of insectivorous species1 and it therefore seems more probable that the seeds had been deposited when an ancient forest protected the growth of the plants which bore them1 and that they sprang up to new life when a return of favorable conditions awaked them from a sleep of centuries4 ,darwin indeed says that the heath had never been touched by the hand of man4 ,perhaps not1 after it became a heath2 but what evidence is there to control the general presumption that this heath was preceded by a forest1 in whose shade the vegetables which dropped the seeds in question might have grown8#bff ,although1 therefore1 the destruction of a wood and the reclaiming of the soil to agricultural uses suppose the death of its smaller dependent flora1 these revolutions do not exclude the possibility of its resurrection4 ,in a practical view of the subject1 however1 we must admit that when the woodman fells a tree he sacrifices the colony of humbler growths which had vegetated under its protection4 ,some wood plants are known to possess valuable medicinal properties1 and experiment may show that the number of these is greater than we now suppose4 ,few of them1 however1 have any other economical value than that of furnishing a slender pasturage to cattle allowed to roam in the woods2 and even this small advantage is far more than compensated by the mischief done to the young trees by browsing animals4 ,upon the whole1 the importance of this class of vegetables1 as physic or as food1 is not such as to furnish a very telling popular argument for the conservation of the forest as a necessary means of their perpetuation4 ,more potent remedial agents may supply their place in the materia medica1 and an acre of grass land yields more nutriment for cattle than a range of a hundred acres of forest4 ,but he whose sympathies with nature have taught him to feel that there is a fellowship between all ,god's creatures2 to love the brilliant ore better than the dull ingot1 iodic silver and crystallized red copper better than the shillings and the pennies forged from them by the coiner's cunning2 a venerable oak tree than the brandy cask whose staves are split out from its heart wood2 a bed of anemones1 hepaticas1 or wood violets than the leeks and onions which he may grow on the soil they have enriched and in the air they made fragrant--he who has enjoyed that special training of the heart and intellect which can be acquired only in the unviolated sanctuaries of nature1 where man is distant1 but ,god is near--will not rashly assert his right to extirpate a tribe of harmless vegetables1 barely because their products neither tickle his palate nor fill his pocket2 and his regret at the dwindling area of the forest solitude will be augmented by the reflection that the nurselings of the woodland perish with the pines1 the oaks1 and the beeches that sheltered them4#bfg ,although1 as ,i have said1 birds do not frequent the deeper recesses of the wood1#bfh yet a very large proportion of them build their nests in trees1 and find in their foliage and branches a secure retreat from the inclemencies of the seasons and the pursuit of the reptiles and quadrupeds which prey upon them4 ,the borders of the forests are vocal with song2 and when the gray morning calls the creeping things of the earth out of their night cells1 it summons from the neighboring wood legions of their winged enemies1 which swoop down upon the fields to save man's harvests by devouring the destroying worm1 and surprising the lagging beetle in his tardy retreat to the dark cover where he lurks through the hours of daylight4 ,the insects most injurious to rural industry do not multiply in or near the woods4 ,the locust1 which ravages the ,east with its voracious armies1 is bred in vast open plains which admit the full heat of the sun to hasten the hatching of the eggs1 gather no moisture to destroy them1 and harbor no bird to feed upon the larvae4#bfi ,it is only since the felling of the forests of ,asia ,minor and ,cyrene that the locust has become so fearfully destructive in those countries2 and the grasshopper1 which now threatens to be almost as great a pest to the agriculture of some ,north ,american soils1 breeds in seriously injurious numbers only where a wide extent of surface is bare of woods4 ,utility of the ,forest4 ,in most parts of ,europe1 the woods are already so nearly extirpated that the mere protection of those which now exist is by no means an adequate remedy for the evils resulting from the want of them2 and besides1 as ,i have already said1 abundant experience has shown that no legislation can secure the permanence of the forest in private hands4 ,enlightened individuals in most ,european states1 governments in others1 have made very extensive plantations1#bgj and ,france has now set herself energetically at work to restore the woods in the southern provinces1 and thereby to prevent the utter depopulation and waste with which that once fertile soil and delicious climate are threatened4 ,the objects of the restoration of the forest are as multifarious as the motives that have led to its destruction1 and as the evils which that destruction has occasioned4 ,it is hoped that the planting of the mountains will diminish the frequency and violence of river inundations1 prevent the formation of torrents1 mitigate the extremes of atmospheric temperature1 humidity1 and precipitation1 restore dried-up springs1 rivulets1 and sources of irrigation1 shelter the fields from chilling and from parching winds1 prevent the spread of miasmatic effluvia1 and1 finally1 furnish an inexhaustible and self-renewing supply of a material indispensable to so many purposes of domestic comfort1 to the successful exercise of every art of peace1 every destructive energy of war4#bga ,but our enumeration of the uses of trees is not yet complete4 ,besides the influence of the forest1 in mountain ranges1 as a means of preventing the scooping out of ravines and the accumulations of water which fill them1 trees subserve a valuable purpose1 in lower positions1 as barriers against the spread of floods and of the material they transport with them2 but this will be more appropriately considered in the chapter on the waters2 and another very important use of trees1 that of fixing movable sand-dunes1 and reclaiming them to profitable cultivation1 will be pointed out in the chapter on the sands4 ,the vast extension of railroads1 of manufactures and the mechanical arts1 of military armaments1 and especially of the commercial fleets and navies of ,christendom within the present century1 has greatly augmented the demand for wood1#bgb and1 but for improvements in metallurgy which have facilitated the substitution of iron for that material1 the last twenty-five years would almost have stripped ,europe of her only remaining trees fit for such uses4#bgc ,the walnut trees alone felled in ,europe within two years to furnish the armies of ,america with gunstocks1 would form a forest of no inconsiderable extent4#bgd ,the ,forests of ,europe4 ,mirabeau estimated the forests of ,france in #agej at seventeen millions of hectares #db1jjj1jjj acres2 in #ahfj they were reduced to eight millions #ai1gfi1jjj acres4 ,this would be at the rate of #hb1jjj hectares #bjb1fjj acres per year4 ,troy1 from whose valuable pamphlet1 ,etude sur le ,reboisement des ,montagnes1 ,i take these statistical details1 supposes that ,mirabeau's statement may have been an extravagant one1 but it still remains certain that the waste has been enormous2 for it is known that1 in some departments1 that of ,ariege1 for instance1 clearing has gone on during the last half century at the rate of three thousand acres a year1#bge and in all parts of the empire trees have been felled faster than they have grown4 ,the total area of ,france1 excluding ,savoy1 is about one hundred and thirty-one millions of acres4 ,the extent of forest supposed by ,mirabeau would be about thirty-two per cent4 of the whole territory4#bgf ,in a country and a climate where the conservative influences of the forest are so necessary as in ,france1 trees must cover a large surface and be grouped in large masses1 in order to discharge to the best advantage the various functions assigned to them by nature4 ,the consumption of wood is rapidly increasing in that empire1 and a large part of its territory is mountainous1 sterile1 and otherwise such in character or situation that it can be more profitably devoted to the growth of wood than to any agricultural use4 ,hence it is evident that the proportion of forest in #agej1 taking even ,mirabeau's large estimate1 was not very much too great for permanent maintenance1 though doubtless the distribution was so unequal that it would have been sound policy to fell the woods and clear land in some provinces1 while large forests should have been planted in others4#bgg ,during the period in question1 ,france neither exported manufactured wood or rough timber1 nor derived important collateral advantages of any sort from the destruction of her forests4 ,she is consequently impoverished and crippled to the extent of the difference between what she actually possesses of wooded surface and what she ought to have retained4 ,italy and ,spain are bared of trees in a greater degree than ,france1 and even ,russia1 which we habitually consider as substantially a forest country1 is beginning to suffer seriously for want of wood4 ,jourdier1 as quoted by ,clave1 observes3 ,instead of a vast territory with immense forests1 which we expect to meet1 one sees only scattered groves thinned by the wind or by the axe of the moujik1 grounds cut over and more or less recently cleared for cultivation4 ,there is probably not a single district in ,russia which has not to deplore the ravages of man or of fire1 those two great enemies of ,muscovite sylviculture4 ,this is so true1 that clear-sighted men already foresee a crisis which will become terrible1 unless the discovery of great deposits of some new combustible1 as pit coal or anthracite1 shall diminish its evils4#bgh ,germany1 from character of surface and climate1 and from the attention which has long been paid in all the ,german ,states to sylviculture1 is1 taken as a whole1 in a far better condition in this respect than its more southern neighbors2 but in the ,alpine provinces of ,bavaria and ,austria1 the same improvidence which marks the rural economy of the corresponding districts of ,switzerland1 ,italy1 and ,france1 is producing effects hardly less disastrous4 ,as an instance of the scarcity of fuel in some parts of the territory of ,bavaria1 where1 not long since1 wood abounded1 ,i may mention the fact that the water of salt springs is1 in some instances1 conveyed to the distance of sixty miles1 in iron pipes1 to reach a supply of fuel for boiling it down4#bgi ,forests of the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,the vast forests of the ,united ,states and ,canada cannot long resist the improvident habits of the backwoodsman and the increased demand for lumber4 ,according to the census of the former country for #ahfj1 which gives returns of the sawed and planed lumber alone1 timber for framing and for a vast variety of mechanical purposes being omitted altogether1 the value of the former material prepared for market in the ,united ,states was1 in #ahej1 #eh1eba1igf2 in #ahfj1 #ie1iab1bhf4 ,the quantity of unsawed lumber is not likely to have increased in the same proportion1 because comparatively little is exported in that condition1 and because masonry is fast taking the place of carpentry in building1 and stone1 brick1 and iron are used instead of timber more largely than they were ten years ago4 ,still a much greater quantity of unsawed lumber must have been marketed in #ahfj than in #ahej4 ,it must further be admitted that the price of lumber rose considerably between those dates1 and consequently that the increase in quantity is not to be measured by the increase in pecuniary value4 ,perhaps this rise of prices may even be sufficient to make the entire difference between the value of sawed and planed lumber produced in the ten years in question by the six ,new ,england ,states 7#ba per cent471 and the six ,middle ,states 7#ae per cent472 but the amount produced by the ,western and by the ,southern ,states had doubled1 and that returned from the ,pacific ,states and ,territories had trebled in value in the same interval1 so that there was certainly1 in those ,states1 a large increase in the actual quantity prepared for sale4 ,i greatly doubt whether any one of the ,american ,states1 except1 perhaps1 ,oregon1 has1 at this moment1 more woodland than it ought permanently to preserve1 though1 no doubt1 a different distribution of the forests in all of them might be highly advantageous4 ,it is a great misfortune to the ,american ,union that the ,state ,governments have so generally disposed of their original domain to private citizens4 ,it is true that public property is not sufficiently respected in the ,united ,states2 and it is also true that1 within the memory of almost every man of mature age1 timber was of so little value in that country1 that the owners of private woodlands submitted1 almost without complaint1 to what would be regarded elsewhere as very aggravated trespasses upon them4#bhj ,under such circumstances1 it is difficult to protect the forest1 whether it belong to the state or to individuals4 ,property of this kind would be subject to much plunder1 as well as to frequent damage by fire4 ,the destruction from these causes would1 indeed1 considerably lessen1 but would not wholly annihilate the climatic and geographical influences of the forest1 or ruinously diminish its value as a regular source of supply of fuel and timber4 ,for prevention of the evils upon which ,i have so long dwelt1 the ,american people must look to the diffusion of general intelligence on this subject1 and to the enlightened self interest1 for which they are remarkable1 not to the action of their local or general legislatures4 ,even in ,france1 government has moved with too slow and hesitating a pace1 and preventive measures do not yet compensate destructive causes4 ,the judicious remarks of ,troy on this point may well be applied to other countries than ,france1 other measures of public policy than the preservation of the woods4 ,to move softly1 says he1 is to commit the most dangerous1 the most unpardonable of imprudences2 it diminishes the prestige of authority2 it furnishes a triumph to the sneerer and the incredulous2 it strengthens opposition and encourages resistance2 it ruins the administration in the opinion of the people1 weakens its power and depresses its courage4#bha ,the ,economy of the ,forest4 ,the legislation of ,european states upon sylviculture1 and the practice of that art1 divide themselves into two great branches--the preservation of existing forests1 and the creation of new4 ,from the long operation of causes already set forth1 what is understood in ,america and other new countries by the primitive forest1 no longer exists in the territories which were the seats of ancient civilization and empire1 except upon a small scale1 and in remote and almost inaccessible glens quite out of the reach of ordinary observation4 ,the oldest ,european woods1 indeed1 are native1 that is1 sprung from self-sown seed1 or from the roots of trees which have been felled for human purposes2 but their growth has been controlled1 in a variety of ways1 by man and by domestic animals1 and they always present more or less of an artificial character and arrangement4 ,both they and planted forests1 which1 though certainly not few1 are of recent date in ,europe1 demand1 as well for protection as for promotion of growth1 a treatment different in some respects from that which would be suited to the character and wants of the virgin wood4 ,on this latter branch of the subject1 experience and observation have not yet collected a sufficient stock of facts to serve for the construction of a complete system of sylviculture2 but the management of the forest as it exists in ,france--the different zones and climates of which country present many points of analogy with those of the ,united ,states and some of the ,british colonies--has been carefully studied1 and several manuals of practice have been prepared for the foresters of that empire4 ,i believe the best of these is the ,cours ,elementaire de ,culture des ,bois cree a l',ecole ,forestiere de ,nancy1 par ,m4 ,lorentz1 complete1 et publie par ,a4 ,parade1 with a supplement under the title of ,cours d',amenagement des ,forets1 par ,henri ,nanquette4 ,the ,etudes sur l',economie ,forestiere1 par ,jules ,clave1 which ,i have often quoted1 presents a great number of interesting views on this subject1 and well deserves to be translated for the use of the ,english and ,american reader2 but it is not designed as a practical guide1 and it does not profess to be sufficiently specific in its details to serve that purpose4 ,notwithstanding the difference of conditions between the aboriginal and the trained forest1 the judicious observer who aims at the preservation of the former will reap much instruction from the treatises ,i have cited1 and ,i believe he will be convinced that the sooner a natural wood is brought into the state of an artificially regulated one1 the better it is for all the multiplied interests which depend on the wise administration of this branch of public economy4#bhb ,one consideration bearing on this subject has received less attention than it merits1 because most persons interested in such questions have not opportunities for the comparison ,i refer to4 ,i mean the great general superiority of cultivated timber to that of strictly spontaneous growth4 ,i say general superiority1 because there are exceptions to the rule4 ,the white pine1 ,pinus strobus1 for instance1 and other trees of similar character and uses1 require1 for their perfect growth1 a density of forest vegetation around them1 which protects them from too much agitation by wind1 and from the persistence of the lateral branches which fill the wood with knots4 ,a pine which has grown under those conditions possesses a tall1 straight stem1 admirably fitted for masts and spars1 and1 at the same time1 its wood is almost wholly free from knots1 is regular in annular structure1 soft and uniform in texture1 and1 consequently1 superior to almost all other timber for joinery4 ,if1 while a large pine is spared1 the broad-leaved or other smaller trees around it are felled1 the swaying of the tree from the action of the wind mechanically produces separations between the layers of annual growth1 and greatly diminishes the value of the timber4 ,the same defect is often observed in pines which1 from some accident of growth1 have much overtopped their fellows in the virgin forest4 ,the white pine1 growing in the fields1 or in open glades in the woods1 is totally different from the true forest tree1 both in general aspect and in quality of wood4 ,its stem is much shorter1 its top less tapering1 its foliage denser and more inclined to gather into tufts1 its branches more numerous and of larger diameter1 its wood shows much more distinctly the divisions of annual growth1 is of coarser grain1 harder and more difficult to work into mitre joints4 ,intermixed with the most valuable pines in the ,american forests1 are met many trees of the character ,i have just described4 ,the lumbermen call them saplings1 and generally regard them as different in species from the true white pine1 but botanists are unable to establish a distinction between them1 and as they agree in almost all respects with trees grown in the open grounds from known white-pine seedlings1 ,i believe their peculiar character is due to unfavorable circumstances in their early growth4 ,the pine1 then1 is an exception to the general rule as to the inferiority of the forest to the open-ground tree4 ,the pasture oak and pasture beech1 on the contrary1 are well known to produce far better timber than those grown in the woods1 and there are few trees to which the remark is not equally applicable4#bhc ,another advantage of the artificially regulated forest is1 that it admits of such grading of the ground as to favor the retention or discharge of water at will1 while the facilities it affords for selecting and duly proportioning1 as well as properly spacing1 the trees which compose it1 are too obvious to require to be more than hinted at4 ,in conducting these operations1 we must have a diligent eye to the requirements of nature1 and must remember that a wood is not an arbitrary assemblage of trees to be selected and disposed according to the caprice of its owner4 ,a forest1 says ,clave1 is not1 as is often supposed1 a simple collection of trees succeeding each other in long perspective1 without bond of union1 and capable of isolation from each other2 it is1 on the contrary1 a whole1 the different parts of which are interdependent upon each other1 and it constitutes1 so to speak1 a true individuality4 ,every forest has a special character1 determined by the form of the surface it grows upon1 the kinds of trees that compose it1 and the manner in which they are grouped4#bhd ,european and ,american ,trees compared4 ,the woods of ,north ,america are strikingly distinguished from those of ,europe by the vastly greater variety of species they contain4 ,according to ,clave1 there are in ,france and in most parts of ,europe only about twenty forest trees1 five or six of which are spike-leaved and resinous1 the remainder broad-leaved4#bhe ,our author1 however1 doubtless means genera1 though he uses the word especes4 ,rossmaessler enumerates fifty-seven species of forest trees as found in ,germany1 but some of these are mere shrubs1 some are fruit and properly garden trees1 and some others are only varieties of familiar species4 ,the valuable manual of ,parade describes about the same number1 including1 however1 two of ,american origin--the locust1 ,robinia pseudacacia1 and the ,weymouth or white pine1 ,pinus strobus--and the cedar of ,lebanon from ,asia1 though it is indigenous in ,algeria also4 ,we may then safely say that ,europe does not possess above forty or fifty trees of such economical value as to be worth the special care of the forester1 while the oak alone numbers not less than thirty species in the ,united ,states1#bhf and some other ,north ,american genera are almost equally diversified4#bhg ,few ,european trees1 except those bearing edible fruit1 have been naturalized in the ,united ,states1 while the ,american forest flora has made large contributions to that of ,europe4 ,it is a very poor taste which has led to the substitution of the less picturesque ,european for the graceful and majestic ,american elm1 in some public grounds in the ,united ,states4 ,on the other hand1 the ,european mountain ash--which in beauty and healthfulness of growth is superior to our own--the horse chestnut1 and the abele1 or silver poplar1 are valuable additions to the ornamental trees of ,north ,america4 ,the ,swiss arve or zirbelkiefer1 ,pinus cembra1 which yields a well-flavored edible seed and furnishes excellent wood for carving1 the umbrella pine which also bears a seed agreeable to the taste1 and which1 from the color of its foliage and the beautiful form of its dome-like crown1 is among the most elegant of trees1 the white birch of ,central ,europe1 with its pendulous branches almost rivalling those of the weeping willow in length1 flexibility1 and gracefulness of fall1 and1 especially1 the cypresse funerall1 might be introduced into the ,united ,states with great advantage to the landscape4 ,the ,european beech and chestnut furnish timber of far better quality than that of their ,american congeners4 ,the fruit of the ,european chestnut1 though inferior to the ,american in flavor1 is larger1 and is an important article of diet among the ,french and ,italian peasantry4 ,the walnut of ,europe1 though not equal to some of the ,american species in beauty of growth or of wood1 or to others in strength and elasticity of fibre1 is valuable for its timber and its oil4#bhh ,the maritime pine1 which has proved of such immense use in fixing drifting sands in ,france1 may perhaps be better adapted to this purpose than any of the pines of the ,new ,world1 and it is of great importance for its turpentine1 resin1 and tar4 ,the epicea1 or common fir1 ,abies picea1 ,abies excelsa1 ,picea excelsa1 abundant in the mountains of ,france and the contiguous country1 is known for its product1 ,burgundy pitch1 and1 as it flourishes in a greater variety of soil and climate than almost any other spike-leaved tree1 it might be well worth transplantation4#bhi ,the cork oak has been introduced into the ,united ,states1 ,i believe1 and would undoubtedly thrive in the ,southern section of the ,union4#bij ,in the walnut1 the chestnut1 the cork oak1 the mulberry1 the olive1 the orange1 the lemon1 the fig1 and the multitude of other trees which1 by their fruit1 or by other products1 yield an annual revenue1 nature has provided ,southern ,europe with a partial compensation for the loss of the native forest4 ,it is true that these trees1 planted as most of them are at such distances as to admit of cultivation1 or of the growth of grass among them1 are but an inadequate substitute for the thick and shady wood2 but they perform to a certain extent the same offices of absorption and transpiration1 they shade the surface of the ground1 they serve to break the force of the wind1 and on many a steep declivity1 many a bleak and barren hillside1 the chestnut binds the soil together with its roots1 and prevents tons of earth and gravel from washing down upon the fields and the gardens4 ,fruit trees are not wanting1 certainly1 north of the ,alps4 ,the apple1 the pear1 and the prune are important in the economy both of man and of nature1 but they are far less numerous in ,switzerland and ,northern ,france than are the trees ,i have mentioned in ,southern ,europe1 both because they are in general less remunerative1 and because the climate1 in higher latitudes1 does not permit the free introduction of shade trees into grounds occupied for agricultural purposes4#bia ,the multitude of species1 intermixed as they are in their spontaneous growth1 gives the ,american forest landscape a variety of aspect not often seen in the woods of ,europe1 and the gorgeous tints1 which nature repeats from the dying dolphin to paint the falling leaf of the ,american maples1 oaks1 and ash trees1 clothe the hillsides and fringe the watercourses with a rainbow splendor of foliage1 unsurpassed by the brightest groupings of the tropical flora4 ,it must be admitted1 however1 that both the northern and the southern declivities of the ,alps exhibit a nearer approximation to this rich and multifarious coloring of autumnal vegetation than most ,american travellers in ,europe are willing to allow2 and1 besides1 the small deciduous shrubs which often carpet the forest glades of these mountains are dyed with a ruddy and orange glow1 which1 in the distant landscape1 is no mean substitute for the scarlet and crimson and gold and amber of the transatlantic woodland4 ,no ,american evergreen known to me resembles the umbrella pine sufficiently to be a fair object of comparison with it4#bib ,a cedar1 very common above the ,highlands on the ,hudson1 is extremely like the cypress1 straight1 slender1 with erect1 compressed ramification1 and feathered to the ground1 but its foliage is neither so dark nor so dense1 the tree does not attain the majestic height of the cypress1 nor has it the lithe flexibility of that tree4 ,in mere shape1 the ,lombardy poplar nearly resembles this latter1 but it is almost a profanation to compare the two1 especially when they are agitated by the wind2 for under such circumstances1 the one is the most majestic1 the other the most ungraceful1 or--if ,i may apply such an expression to anything but human affectation of movement--the most awkward of trees4 ,the poplar trembles before the blast1 flutters1 struggles wildly1 dishevels its foliage1 gropes around with its feeble branches1 and hisses as in impotent passion4 ,the cypress gathers its limbs still more closely to its stem1 bows a gracious salute rather than an humble obeisance to the tempest1 bends to the wind with an elasticity that assures you of its prompt return to its regal attitude1 and sends from its thick leaflets a murmur like the roar of the far-off ocean4 ,the cypress and the umbrella pine are not merely conventional types of the ,italian landscape4 ,they are essential elements in a field of rural beauty which can be seen in perfection only in the basin of the ,mediterranean1 and they are as characteristic of this class of scenery as the date palm is of the oases of the desert4 ,there is1 however1 this difference3 a single cypress or pine is often enough to shed beauty over a wide area2 the palm is a social tree1 and its beauty is not so much that of the individual as of the group4 ,the frequency of the cypress and the pine--combined with the fact that the other trees of ,southern ,europe which most interest a stranger from the north1 the orange and the lemon1 the cork oak1 the ilex1 the myrtle1 and the laurel1 are evergreens--goes far to explain the beauty of the winter scenery of ,italy4 ,indeed it is only in the winter that a tourist who confines himself to wheel carriages and high roads can acquire any notion of the face of the earth1 and form any proper geographical image of that country4 ,at other seasons1 not high walls only1 but equally impervious hedges1 and now1 unhappily1 acacias thickly planted along the railway routes1 confine the view so completely1 that the arch of a tunnel1 or a night cap over the traveller's eyes1 is scarcely a more effectual obstacle to the gratification of his curiosity4#bic ,sylviculture4 ,the art1 or1 as the ,continental foresters call it1 the science of sylviculture has been so little pursued in ,england and ,america1 that its nomenclature has not been introduced into the ,english vocabulary1 and ,i shall not be able to describe its processes with technical propriety of language1 without occasionally borrowing a word from the forest literature of ,france and ,germany4 ,a full discussion of the methods of sylviculture would1 indeed1 be out of place in a work like the present1 but the almost total want of conveniently accessible means of information on the subject1 in ,english-speaking countries1 will justify me in presenting it with somewhat more of detail than would otherwise be pertinent4 ,the two best known methods are those distinguished as the taillis1 copse or coppice treatment1#bid and the futaie1 for which ,i find no ,english equivalent1 but which may not inappropriately be called the full-growth system4 ,a taillis1 copse1 or coppice1 is a wood composed of shoots from the roots of trees previously cut for fuel and timber4 ,the shoots are thinned out from time to time1 and finally cut1 either after a fixed number of years1 or after the young trees have attained to certain dimensions1 their roots being then left to send out a new progeny as before4 ,this is the cheapest method of management1 and therefore the best wherever the price of labor and of capital bears a high proportion to that of land and of timber2 but it is essentially a wasteful economy4 ,if the woodland is1 in the first place1 completely cut over1 as is found most convenient in practice1 the young shoots have neither the shade nor the protection from wind so important to forest growth1 and their progress is comparatively slow1 while1 at the same time1 the thick clumps they form choke the seedlings that may have sprouted near them4 ,if domestic animals of any species are allowed to roam in the wood1 they browse upon the terminal buds and the tender branches1 thereby stunting1 if they do not kill1 the young trees1 and depriving them of all beauty and vigor of growth4 ,the evergreens1 once cut1 do not shoot up again1#bie and the mixed character of the forest--in many respects an important advantage1 if not an indispensable condition of growth--is lost2#bif and besides this1 large wood of any species cannot be grown in this method1 because trees which shoot from decaying stumps and their dying roots1 become hollow or otherwise unsound before they acquire their full dimensions4 ,a more fatal objection still1 is1 that the roots of trees will not bear more than two or three1 or at most four cuttings of their shoots before their vitality is exhausted1 and the wood can then be restored only by replanting entirely4 ,the period of cutting coppices varies in ,europe from fifteen to forty years1 according to soil1 species1 and rapidity of growth4 ,in the futaie1 or full-growth system1 the trees are allowed to stand as long as they continue in healthy and vigorous growth4 ,this is a shorter period than would be at first supposed1 when we consider the advanced age and great dimensions to which1 under favorable circumstances1 many forest trees attain in temperate climates4 ,but1 as every observing person familiar with the natural forest is aware1 these are exceptional cases1 just as are instances of great longevity or of gigantic stature among men4 ,able vegetable physiologists have maintained that the tree1 like most reptiles1 has no natural limit of life or of growth1 and that the only reason why our oaks and our pines do not reach the age of twenty centuries and the height of a hundred fathoms1 is1 that in the multitude of accidents to which they are exposed1 the chances of their attaining to such a length of years and to such dimensions of growth are a million to one against them4 ,but another explanation of this fact is possible4 ,in trees affected by no discoverable external cause of death1 decay begins at the topmost branches1 which seem to wither and die for want of nutriment4 ,the mysterious force by which the sap is carried from the roots to the utmost twigs1 cannot be conceived to be unlimited in power1 and it is probable that it differs in different species1 so that while it may suffice to raise the fluid to the height of five hundred feet in the sequoia1 it may not be able to carry it beyond one hundred and fifty in the oak4 ,the limit may be different1 too1 in different trees of the same species1 not from defective organization in those of inferior growth1 but from more or less favorable conditions of soil1 nourishment1 and exposure4 ,whenever a tree attains to the limit beyond which its circulating fluids cannot rise1 we may suppose that decay begins1 and death follows1 from the same causes which bring about the same results in animals of limited size--such1 for example1 as the interruption of functions essential to life1 in consequence of the clogging up of ducts by matter assimilable in the stage of growth1 but no longer so when increment has ceased4 ,in the natural woods1 we observe that1 though1 among the myriads of trees which grow upon a square mile1 there are several vegetable giants1 yet the great majority of them begin to decay long before they have attained their maximum of stature1 and this seems to be still more emphatically true of the artificial forest4 ,in ,france1 according to ,clave1 oaks1 in a suitable soil1 may stand1 without exhibiting any sign of decay1 for two or three hundred years2 the pines hardly exceed one hundred and twenty1 and the soft or white woods bois blancs1 in wet soils1 languish and die before reaching the fiftieth year4#big ,these ages are certainly below the average of those of ,american forest trees1 and are greatly exceeded in very numerous well-attested instances of isolated trees in ,europe4 ,the former mode of treating the futaie1 called the garden system1 was to cut the trees individually as they arrived at maturity1 but1 in the best regulated forests1 this practice has been abandoned for the ,german method1 which embraces not only the securing of the largest immediate profit1 but the replanting of the forest1 and the care of the young growth4 ,this is effected in the case of a forest1 whether natural or artificial1 which is to be subjected to regular management1 by three operations4 ,the first of these consists in felling about one third of the wood1 in such way as to leave convenient spaces for the growth of young trees4 ,the remaining two-thirds are relied upon to replant the vacancies1 by natural sowing1 which they seldom or never fail to do4 ,the seedlings are watched1 are thinned out when too dense1 the ill formed and sickly1 as well as those of inferior value1 and the shrubs and thorns which might otherwise choke or too closely shade them1 are pulled up4 ,when they have attained sufficient strength and development of foliage to bear or to require more light and air1 the second step is taken1 by removing a suitable proportion of the old trees which had been spared at the first cutting2 and when1 finally1 they are hardened enough to bear frost and sun without other protection than that which they mutually give to each other1 the remainder of the original forest is felled1 and the wood now consists wholly of young and vigorous trees4 ,this result is obtained after about twenty years4 ,at convenient periods afterward1 the unhealthy stocks and those injured by wind or other accidents are removed1 and in some instances the growth of the remainder is promoted by irrigation or by fertilizing applications4#bih ,when the forest is approaching to maturity1 the original processes already described are repeated2 and as1 in different parts of an extensive forest1 they would take place in different zones1 it would afford indefinitely an annual crop of firewood and timber4 ,the duties of the forester do not end here4 ,it sometimes happens that the glades left by felling the older trees are not sufficiently seeded1 or that the species1 or essences1 as the ,french oddly call them1 are not duly proportioned in the new crop4 ,in this case1 seed must be artificially sown1 or young trees planted in the vacancies4 ,one of the most important rules in the administration of the forest is the absolute exclusion of domestic quadrupeds from every wood which is not destined to be cleared4 ,no growth of young trees is possible where cattle are admitted to pasture at any season of the year1 though they are undoubtedly most destructive while trees are in leaf4#bii ,it is often necessary to take measures for the protection of young trees against the rabbit1 the mole1 and other rodent quadrupeds1 and of older ones against the damage done by the larvae of insects hatched upon the surface or in the tissues of the bark1 or even in the wood itself4 ,the much greater liability of the artificial than of the natural forest to injury from this cause is perhaps the only point in which the superiority of the former to the latter is not as marked as that of any domesticated vegetable to its wild representative4 ,but the better quality of the wood and the much more rapid growth of the trained and regulated forest are abundant compensations for the loss thus occasioned1 and the progress of entomological science will1 perhaps1 suggest new methods of preventing the ravages of insects4 ,thus far1 however1 the collection and destruction of the eggs1 by simple but expensive means1 has proved the only effectual remedy4#cjj ,it is common in ,europe to permit the removal of the fallen leaves and fragments of bark and branches with which the forest soil is covered1 and sometimes the cutting of the lower twigs of evergreens4 ,the leaves and twigs are principally used as litter for cattle1 and finally as manure1 the bark and wind-fallen branches as fuel4 ,by long usage1 sometimes by express grant1 this privilege has become a vested right of the population in the neighborhood of many public1 and even large private forests2 but it is generally regarded as a serious evil4 ,to remove the leaves and fallen twigs is to withdraw much of the pabulum upon which the tree was destined to feed4 ,the small branches and leaves are the parts of the tree which yield the largest proportion of ashes on combustion1 and of course they supply a great amount of nutriment for the young shoots4 ,a cubic foot of twigs1 says ,vaupell1 yields four times as much ashes as a cubic foot of stem wood4 99 99 ,for every hundred weight of dried leaves carried off from a beech forest1 we sacrifice a hundred and sixty cubic feet of wood4 ,the leaves and the mosses are a substitute1 not only for manure1 but for ploughing4 ,the carbonic acid given out by decaying leaves1 when taken up by water1 serves to dissolve the mineral constituents of the soil1 and is particularly active in disintegrating feldspar and the clay derived from its decomposition4 99 99 99 ,the leaves belong to the soil4 ,without them it cannot preserve its fertility1 and cannot furnish nutriment to the beech4 ,the trees languish1 produce seed incapable of germination1 and the spontaneous self-sowing1 which is an indispensable element in the best systems of sylviculture1 fails altogether in the bared and impoverished soil4#cja ,besides these evils1 the removal of the leaves deprives the soil of that spongy character which gives it such immense value as a reservoir of moisture and a regulator of the flow of springs2 and1 finally1 it exposes the surface roots to the drying influence of sun and wind1 to accidental mechanical injury from the tread of animals or men1 and1 in cold climates1 to the destructive effects of frost4 ,the annual lopping and trimming of trees for fuel1 so common in ,europe1 is fatal to the higher uses of the forest1 but where small groves are made1 or rows of trees planted1 for no other purpose than to secure a supply of firewood1 or to serve as supports for the vine1 it is often very advantageous4 ,the willows1 and many other trees1 bear polling for a long series of years without apparent diminution of growth of branches1 and though certainly a polled1 or1 to use an old ,english word1 a doddered tree1 is in general a melancholy object1 yet it must be admitted that the aspect of some species--the ,american locust1 ,robinia pseudacacia1 for instance--when young1 is improved by this process4#cjb ,i have spoken of the needs of agriculture as a principal cause of the destruction of the forest1 and of domestic cattle as particularly injurious to the growth of young trees4 ,but these animals affect the forest1 indirectly1 in a still more important way1 because the extent of cleared ground required for agricultural use depends very much on the number and kinds of the cattle bred4 ,we have seen1 in a former chapter1 that1 in the ,united ,states1 the domestic quadrupeds amount to more than a hundred millions1 or three times the number of the human population of the ,union4 ,in many of the ,western ,states1 the swine subsist more or less on acorns1 nuts1 and other products of the woods1 and the prairies1 or natural meadows of the ,mississippi valley1 yield a large amount of food for beast1 as well as for man4 ,with these exceptions1 all this vast army of quadrupeds is fed wholly on grass1 grain1 pulse1 and roots grown on soil reclaimed from the forest by ,european settlers4 ,it is true that the flesh of domestic quadrupeds enters very largely into the aliment of the ,american people1 and greatly reduces the quantity of vegetable nutriment which they would otherwise consume1 so that a smaller amount of agricultural product is required for immediate human food1 and1 of course1 a smaller extent of cleared land is needed for the growth of that product1 than if no domestic animals existed4 ,but the flesh of the horse1 the ass1 and the mule is not consumed by man1 and the sheep is reared rather for its fleece than for food4 ,besides this1 the ground required to produce the grass and grain consumed in rearing and fattening a grazing quadruped1 would yield a far larger amount of nutriment1 if devoted to the growing of breadstuffs1 than is furnished by his flesh2 and1 upon the whole1 whatever advantages may be reaped from the breeding of domestic cattle1 it is plain that the cleared land devoted to their sustenance in the originally wooded part of the ,united ,states1 after deducting a quantity sufficient to produce an amount of aliment equal to their flesh1 still greatly exceeds that cultivated for vegetables1 directly consumed by the people of the same regions2 or1 to express a nearly equivalent idea in other words1 the meadow and the pasture1 taken together1 much exceed the plough land4#cjc ,in fertile countries1 like the ,united ,states1 the foreign demand for animal and vegetable aliment1 for cotton1 and for tobacco1 much enlarges the sphere of agricultural operations1 and1 of course1 prompts further encroachments upon the forest4 ,the commerce in these articles1 therefore1 constitutes in ,america a special cause of the destruction of the woods1 which does not exist in the numerous states of the ,old ,world that derive the raw material of their mechanical industry from distant lands1 and import many articles of vegetable food or luxury which their own climates cannot advantageously produce4 ,the growth of arboreal vegetation is so slow that1 though he who buries an acorn may hope to see it shoot up to a miniature resemblance of the majestic tree which shall shade his remote descendants1 yet the longest life hardly embraces the seedtime and the harvest of a forest4 ,the planter of a wood must be actuated by higher motives than those of an investment the profits of which consist in direct pecuniary gain to himself or even to his posterity2 for if1 in rare cases1 an artificial forest may1 in two or three generations1 more than repay its original cost1 still1 in general1 the value of its timber will not return the capital expended and the interest accrued4#cjd ,but when we consider the immense collateral advantages derived from the presence1 the terrible evils necessarily resulting from the destruction of the forest1 both the preservation of existing woods1 and the far more costly extension of them where they have been unduly reduced1 are among the most obvious of the duties which this age owes to those that are to come after it4 ,especially is this obligation incumbent upon ,americans4 ,no civilized people profits so largely from the toils and sacrifices of its immediate predecessors as they2 no generations have ever sown so liberally1 and1 in their own persons1 reaped so scanty a return1 as the pioneers of ,anglo-,american social life4 ,we can repay our debt to our noble forefathers only by a like magnanimity1 by a like self-forgetting care for the moral and material interests of our own posterity4 ,instability of ,american ,life4 ,all human institutions1 associate arrangements1 modes of life1 have their characteristic imperfections4 ,the natural1 perhaps the necessary defect of ours1 is their instability1 their want of fixedness1 not in form only1 but even in spirit4 ,the face of physical nature in the ,united ,states shares this incessant fluctuation1 and the landscape is as variable as the habits of the population4 ,it is time for some abatement in the restless love of change which characterizes us1 and makes us almost a nomade rather than a sedentary people4#cje ,we have now felled forest enough everywhere1 in many districts far too much4 ,let us restore this one element of material life to its normal proportions1 and devise means for maintaining the permanence of its relations to the fields1 the meadows1 and the pastures1 to the rain and the dews of heaven1 to the springs and rivulets with which it waters the earth4 ,the establishment of an approximately fixed ratio between the two most broadly characterized distinctions of rural surface--woodland and plough land--would involve a certain persistence of character in all the branches of industry1 all the occupations and habits of life1 which depend upon or are immediately connected with either1 without implying a rigidity that should exclude flexibility of accommodation to the many changes of external circumstance which human wisdom can neither prevent nor foresee1 and would thus help us to become1 more emphatically1 a well-ordered and stable commonwealth1 and1 not less conspicuously1 a people of progress4 ,,note on word watershed1 omitted on p4 #beg4--,sir ,john ,f4 ,w4 ,herschel 7,physical ,geography1 #acg1 and elsewhere7 spells this word water-sched1 because he considers it a translation1 or rather an adoption of the ,german ,wasser-scheide1 separation of the waters1 not water-shed1 the slope down which the waters run1 ,as a point of historical etymology1 it is probable that the word in question was suggested to those who first used it by the ,german ,wasserscheide2 but the spelling water-sched1 proposed by ,herschel1 is objectionable1 both because sch is a combination of letters wholly unknown to modern ,english orthography and properly representing no sound recognized in ,english orthoepy1 and for the still better reason that watershed1 in the sense of division-of-the-waters1 has a legitimate ,english etymology4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon sceadan meant both to separate or divide1 and to shade or shelter4 ,it is the root of the ,english verbs to shed and to shade1 and in the former meaning is the ,a4 ,s4 equivalent of the ,german verb scheiden4 ,shed in ,old ,english had the meaning to separate or distinguish4 ,it is so used in the ,owl and the ,nightingale1 v4 #aig4 ,palsgrave 7,lesclarcissement1 etc41 p4 #gag7 defines ,i shede1 ,i departe thinges asonder2 and the word still means to divide in several ,english local dialects4 ,hence1 watershed1 the division or separation of the waters1 is good ,english both in sense and spelling4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,waters4 ,,land ,,artificially ,,won ,,from ,,the ,,waters3 a1 ,,exclusion ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,,by ,,diking2 b1 ,,draining ,,of ,,lakes ,,and ,,marshes2 c1 ,,geographical ,,influence ,,of ,,such ,,operations--,,lowering ,,of ,,lakes--,,mountain ,,lakes--,,climatic ,,effects ,,of ,,draining ,,lakes ,,and ,,marshes--,,geographical ,,and ,,climatic ,,effects ,,of ,,aqueducts1 ,,reservoirs1 ,,and ,,canals--,,surface ,,and ,,underdraining1 ,,and ,,their ,,climatic ,,and ,,geographical ,,effects--,,irrigation ,,and ,,its ,,climatic ,,and ,,geographical ,,effects4 ,,inundations ,,and ,,torrents3 a1 ,,river ,,embankments2 b1 ,,floods ,,of ,,the ,,ardeche2 c1 ,,crushing ,,force ,,of ,,torrents2 d1 ,,inundations ,,of #ahef ,,in ,,france2 e1 ,,remedies ,,against ,,inundations--,,consequences ,,if ,,the ,,nile ,,had ,,been ,,confined ,,by ,,lateral ,,dikes4 ,,improvements ,,in ,,the ,,val ,,di ,,chiana--,,improvements ,,in ,,the ,,tuscan ,,maremme--,,obstruction ,,of ,,river ,,mouths--,,subterranean ,,waters--,,artesian ,,wells--,,artificial ,,springs--,,economizing ,,precipitation4 ,land artificially won from the ,waters4 ,man1 as we have seen1 has done much to revolutionize the solid surface of the globe1 and to change the distribution and proportions1 if not the essential character1 of the organisms which inhabit the land and even the waters4 ,besides the influence thus exerted upon the life which peoples the sea1 his action upon the land has involved a certain amount of indirect encroachment upon the territorial jurisdiction of the ocean4 ,so far as he has increased the erosion of running waters by the destruction of the forest1 he has promoted the deposit of solid matter in the sea1 thus reducing its depth1 advancing the coast line1 and diminishing the area covered by the waters4 ,he has gone beyond this1 and invaded the realm of the ocean by constructing within its borders wharves1 piers1 lighthouses1 breakwaters1 fortresses1 and other facilities for his commercial and military operations2 and in some countries he has permanently rescued from tidal overflow1 and even from the very bed of the deep1 tracts of ground extensive enough to constitute valuable additions to his agricultural domain4 ,the quantity of soil gained from the sea by these different modes of acquisition is1 indeed1 too inconsiderable to form an appreciable element in the comparison of the general proportion between the two great forms of terrestrial surface1 land and water2 but the results of such operations1 considered in their physical and their moral bearings1 are sufficiently important to entitle them to special notice in every comprehensive view of the relations between man and nature4 ,there are cases1 as on the western shores of the ,baltic1 where1 in consequence of the secular elevation of the coast1 the sea appears to be retiring2 others1 where1 from the slow sinking of the land1 it seems to be advancing4 ,these movements depend upon geological causes wholly out of our reach1 and man can neither advance nor retard them4 ,there are also cases where similar apparent effects are produced by local oceanic currents1 by river deposit or erosion1 by tidal action1 or by the influence of the wind upon the waves and the sands of the sea beach4 ,a regular current may drift suspended earth and seaweed along a coast until they are caught by an eddy and finally deposited out of the reach of further disturbance1 or it may scoop out the bed of the sea and undermine promontories and headlands2 a powerful river1 as the wind changes the direction of its flow at its outlet1 may wash away shores and sandbanks at one point to deposit their material at another2 the tide or waves1 stirred to unusual depths by the wind1 may gradually wear down the line of coast1 or they may form shoals and coast dunes by depositing the sand they have rolled up from the bottom of the ocean4 ,these latter modes of action are slow in producing effects sufficiently important to be noticed in general geography1 or even to be visible in the representations of coast line laid down in ordinary maps2 but they nevertheless form conspicuous features in local topography1 and they are attended with consequences of great moment to the material and the moral interests of men4 ,the forces which produce these results are all in a considerable degree subject to control1 or rather to direction and resistance1 by human power1 and it is in guiding and combating them that man has achieved some of his most remarkable and honorable conquests over nature4 ,the triumphs in question1 or what we generally call harbor and coast improvements1 whether we estimate their value by the money and labor expended upon them1 or by their bearing upon the interests of commerce and the arts of civilization1 must take a very high rank among the great works of man1 and they are fast assuming a magnitude greatly exceeding their former relative importance4 ,the extension of commerce and of the military marine1 and especially the introduction of vessels of increased burden and deeper draught of water1 have imposed upon engineers tasks of a character which a century ago would have been pronounced1 and1 in fact1 would have been impracticable2 but necessity has stimulated an ingenuity which has contrived means of executing them1 and which gives promise of yet greater performance in time to come4 ,men have ceased to admire the power which heaped up the great pyramid to gratify the pride of a despot with a giant sepulchre2 for many great harbors1 many important lines of internal communication1 in the civilized world1 now exhibit works which surpass the vastest remains of ancient architectural art in mass and weight of matter1 demand the exercise of far greater constructive skill1 and involve a much heavier pecuniary expenditure than would now be required for the building of the tomb of ,cheops4 ,it is computed that the great pyramid1 the solid contents of which when complete were about #c1jjj1jjj cubic yards1 could be erected for a million of pounds sterling4 ,the breakwater at ,cherbourg1 founded in rough water sixty feet1 deep1 at an average distance of more than two miles from the shore1 contains double the mass of the pyramid1 and many a comparatively unimportant railroad has been constructed at twice the cost which would now build that stupendous monument4 ,indeed1 although man1 detached from the solid earth1 is almost powerless to struggle against the sea1 he is fast becoming invincible by it so long as his foot is planted on the shore1 or even on the bottom of the rolling ocean2 and though on some battle fields between the waters and the land1 he is obliged slowly to yield his ground1 yet he retreats still facing the foe1 and will finally be able to say to the sea3 ,thus far shalt thou come and no farther1 and here shall thy proud waves be stayed6 ,the description of works of harbor and coast improvement which have only an economical value1 not a true geographical importance1 does not come within the plan of the present volume1 and in treating this branch of my subject1 ,i shall confine myself to such as are designed either to gain new soil by excluding the waters from grounds which they had permanently or occasionally covered1 or to resist new encroachments of the sea upon the land4 a4 ,exclusion of the ,sea by ,diking4 ,the draining of the ,lincolnshire fens in ,england1 which converted about #djj1jjj acres of marsh1 pool1 and tide-washed flat into plough land and pasturage1 is a work1 or rather series of works1 of great magnitude1 and it possesses much economical1 and1 indeed1 no trifling geographical importance4 ,its plans and methods were1 at least in part1 borrowed from the example of like improvements in ,holland1 and it is1 in difficulty and extent1 inferior to works executed for the same purpose on the opposite coast of the ,north ,sea1 by ,dutch1 ,frisic1 and ,low ,german engineers4 ,the space ,i can devote to such operations will be better employed in describing the latter1 and ,i content myself with the simple statement ,i have already made of the quantity of worthless and even pestilential land which has been rendered both productive and salubrious in ,lincolnshire1 by diking out the sea1 and the rivers which traverse the fens of that country4 ,the almost continued prevalence of west winds upon both coasts of the ,german ,ocean occasions a constant set of the currents of that sea to the east1 and both for this reason and on account of the greater violence of storms from the former quarter1 the ,english shores are much less exposed to invasion by the waves than those of the ,netherlands and the provinces contiguous to them on the north4 ,the old ,netherlandish chronicles are filled with the most startling accounts of the damage done by the irruptions of the ocean1 from west winds or extraordinarily high tides1 at times long before any considerable extent of seacoast was diked4 ,several hundreds of these terrible inundations are recorded1 and in very many of them the loss of human lives is estimated as high as one hundred thousand4 ,it is impossible to doubt that there must be enormous exaggeration in these numbers2 for1 with all the reckless hardihood shown by men in braving the dangers and privations attached by nature to their birthplace1 it is inconceivable that so dense a population as such wholesale destruction of life supposes could find the means of subsistence1 or content itself to dwell1 on a territory liable1 a dozen times in a century1 to such fearful devastation4 ,there can be no doubt1 however1 that the low continental shores of the ,german ,ocean very frequently suffered immense injury from inundation by the sea1 and it is natural1 therefore1 that the various arts of resistance to the encroachments of the ocean1 and1 finally1 of aggressive warfare upon its domain1 and of permanent conquest of its territory1 should have been earlier studied and carried to higher perfection in the latter countries1 than in ,england1 which had much less to lose or to gain by the incursions or the retreat of the waters4 ,indeed1 although the confinement of swelling rivers by artificial embankments is of great antiquity1 ,i do not know that the defence or acquisition of land from the sea by diking was ever practised on a large scale until systematically undertaken by the ,netherlanders1 a few centuries after the commencement of the ,christian era4 ,the silence of the ,roman historians affords a strong presumption that this art was unknown to the inhabitants of the ,netherlands at the time of the ,roman invasion1 and the elder ,pliny's description of the mode of life along the coast which has now been long diked in1 applies precisely to the habits of the people who live on the low islands and mainland flats lying outside of the chain of dikes1 and wholly unprotected by embankments of any sort4 ,it has been conjectured1 and not without probability1 that the causeways built by the ,romans across the marshes of the ,low ,countries1 in their campaigns against the ,germanic tribes1 gave the natives the first hint of the utility which might be derived from similar constructions applied to a different purpose4#cjf ,if this is so1 it is one of the most interesting among the many instances in which the arts and enginery of war have been so modified as to be eminently promotive of the blessings of peace1 thereby in some measure compensating the wrongs and sufferings they have inflicted on humanity4#cjg ,the ,lowlanders are believed to have secured some coast and bay islands by ring dikes1 and to have embanked some fresh water channels1 as early as the eighth or ninth century2 but it does not appear that sea dikes1 important enough to be noticed in historical records1 were constructed on the mainland before the thirteenth century4 ,the practice of draining inland accumulation of water1 whether fresh or salt1 for the purpose of bringing under cultivation the ground they cover1 is of later origin1 and is said not to have been adopted until after the middle of the fifteenth century4#cjh ,the total amount of surface gained to the agriculture of the ,netherlands by diking out the sea and by draining shallow bays and lakes1 is estimated by ,staring at three hundred and fifty-five thousand bunder or hectares1 equal to eight hundred and seventy-seven thousand two hundred and forty acres1 which is one tenth of the area of the kingdom4#cji ,in very many instances1 the dikes have been partially1 in some particularly exposed localities totally destroyed by the violence of the sea1 and the drained lands again flooded4 ,in some cases1 the soil thus painfully won from the ocean has been entirely lost2 in others it has been recovered by repairing or rebuilding the dikes and pumping out the water4 ,besides this1 the weight of the dikes gradually sinks them into the soft soil beneath1 and this loss of elevation must be compensated by raising the surface1 while the increased burden thus added tends to sink them still lower4 ,tetens declares1 says ,kohl1 that in some places the dikes have gradually sunk to the depth of sixty or even a hundred feet4#caj ,for these reasons1 the processes of dike building have been almost everywhere again and again repeated1 and thus the total expenditure of money and of labor upon the works in question is much greater than would appear from an estimate of the actual cost of diking-in a given extent of coast land and draining a given area of water surface4#caa ,on the other hand1 by erosion of the coast line1 the drifting of sand dunes into the interior1 and the drowning of fens and morasses by incursions of the sea--all caused1 or at least greatly aggravated1 by human improvidence--the ,netherlands have lost a far larger area of land since the commencement of the ,christian era than they have gained by diking and draining4 ,staring despairs of the possibility of calculating the loss from the first-mentioned two causes of destruction1 but he estimates that not less than six hundred and forty thousand bunder1 or one million five hundred and eighty-one thousand acres1 of fen and marsh have been washed away1 or rather deprived of their vegetable surface and covered by water1 and thirty-seven thousand bunder1 or ninety-one thousand four hundred acres of recovered land1 have been lost by the destruction of the dikes which protected them4#cab ,the average value of land gained from the sea is estimated at about nineteen pounds sterling1 or ninety dollars1 per acre2 while the lost fen and morass was not worth more than one twenty-fifth part of the same price4 ,the ground buried by the drifting of the dunes appears to have been almost entirely of this latter character1 and1 upon the whole1 there is no doubt that the soil added by human industry to the territory of the ,netherlands1 within the historical period1 greatly exceeds in pecuniary value that which has fallen a prey to the waves during the same era4 ,upon most low and shelving coasts1 like those of the ,netherlands1 the maritime currents are constantly changing1 in consequence of the variability of the winds1 and the shifting of the sandbanks1 which the currents themselves now form and now displace4 ,while1 therefore1 at one point the sea is advancing landward1 and requiring great effort to prevent the undermining and washing away of the dikes1 it is shoaling at another by its own deposits1 and exposing1 at low water1 a gradually widening belt of sands and ooze4 ,the coast lands selected for diking-in are always at points where the sea is depositing productive soil4 ,the ,eider1 the ,elbe1 the ,weser1 the ,ems1 the ,rhine1 the ,maas1 and the ,schelde bring down large quantities of fine earth4 ,the prevalence of west winds prevents the waters from carrying this material far out from the coast1 and it is at last deposited northward or southward from the mouth of the rivers which contribute it1 according to the varying drift of the currents4 ,the process of natural deposit which prepares the coast for diking-in is thus described by ,staring3 ,all sea-deposited soil is composed of the same constituents4 ,first comes a stratum of sand1 with marine shells1 or the shells of mollusks living in brackish water4 ,if there be tides1 and1 of course1 flowing and ebbing currents1 mud is let fall upon the sand only after the latter has been raised above low-water mark2 for then only1 at the change from flood to ebb1 is the water still enough to form a deposit of so light a material4 ,where mud is found at greater depths1 as1 for example1 in a large proportion of the ,ij1 it is a proof that at this point there was never any considerable tidal flow or other current4 99 99 99 ,the powerful tidal currents1 flowing and ebbing twice a day1 drift sand with them4 ,they scoop out the bottom at one point1 raise it at another1 and the sandbanks in the current are continually shifting4 ,as soon as a bank raises itself above low-water mark1 flags and reeds establish themselves upon it4 ,the mechanical resistance of these plants checks the retreat of the high water and favors the deposit of the earth suspended in it1 and the formation of land goes on with surprising rapidity4 ,when it has risen to high-water level1 it is soon covered with grasses1 and becomes what is called schor in ,zeeland1 kwelder in ,friesland4 ,such grounds are the foundation or starting point of the process of diking4 ,when they are once elevated to the flood-tide level1 no more mud is deposited upon them except by extraordinary high tides4 ,their further rise is1 accordingly1 very slow1 and it is seldom advantageous to delay longer the operation of diking4#cac ,the formation of new banks by the sea is constantly going on at points favorable for the deposit of sand and earth1 and hence opportunity is continually afforded for enclosure of new land outside of that already diked in1 the coast is fast advancing seaward1 and every new embankment increases the security of former enclosures4 ,the province of ,zeeland consists of islands washed by the sea on their western coasts1 and separated by the many channels through which the ,schelde and some other rivers find their way to the ocean4 ,in the twelfth century these islands were much smaller and more numerous than at present4 ,they have been gradually enlarged1 and1 in several instances1 at last connected by the extension of their system of dikes4 ,walcheren is formed of ten islets united into one about the end of the fourteenth century4 ,at the middle of the fifteenth century1 ,goeree and ,overflakkee consisted of separate islands1 containing altogether about ten thousand acres2 by means of above sixty successive advances of the dikes1 they have been brought to compose a single island1 whose area is not less than sixty thousand acres4#cad ,in the ,netherlands--which the first ,napoleon characterized as a deposit of the ,rhine1 and as1 therefore1 by natural law1 rightfully the property of him who controlled the sources of that great river--and on the adjacent ,frisic1 ,low ,german and ,danish shores and islands1 sea and river dikes have been constructed on a grander and more imposing scale than in any other country4 ,the whole economy of the art has been there most thoroughly studied1 and the literature of the subject is very extensive4 ,for my present aim1 which is concerned with results rather than with processes1 it is not worth while to refer to professional treatises1 and ,i shall content myself with presenting such information as can be gathered from works of a more popular character4#cae ,the superior strata of the lowlands upon and near the coast are1 as we have seen1 principally composed of soil brought down by the great rivers ,i have mentioned1 and either directly deposited by them upon the sands of the bottom1 or carried out to sea by their currents1 and then1 after a shorter or longer exposure to the chemical and mechanical action of salt water and marine currents1 restored again to the land by tidal overflow and subsidence from the waters in which it was suspended4 ,at a very remote period1 the coast flats were1 at many points1 raised so high by successive alluvious or tidal deposits as to be above ordinary high water level1 but they were still liable to occasional inundation from river floods1 and from the sea water also1 when heavy or long-continued west winds drove it landward4 ,the extraordinary fertility of this soil and its security as a retreat from hostile violence attracted to it a considerable population1 while its want of protection against inundation exposed it to the devastations of which the chroniclers of the ,middle ,ages have left such highly colored pictures4 ,the first permanent dwellings on the coast flats were erected upon artificial mounds1 and many similar precarious habitations still exist on the unwalled islands and shores beyond the chain of dikes4 ,river embankments1 which1 as is familiarly known1 have from the earliest antiquity been employed in many countries where sea dikes are unknown1 were probably the first works of this character constructed in the ,low ,countries1 and when two neighboring streams of fresh water had been embanked1 the next step in the process would naturally be to connect the river walls together by a transverse dike or raised causeway1 which would serve to secure the intermediate ground both against the backwater of river floods and against overflow by the sea4 ,the oldest true sea dikes described in historical records1 however1 are those enclosing islands in the estuaries of the great rivers1 and it is not impossible that the double character they possess as a security against maritime floods and as a military rampart1 led to their adoption upon those islands before similar constructions had been attempted upon the mainland4 ,at some points of the coast1 various contrivances1 such as piers1 piles1 and1 in fact1 obstructions of all sorts to the ebb of the current1 are employed to facilitate the deposit of slime1 before a regular enclosure is commenced4 ,usually1 however1 the first step is to build low and cheap embankments1 extending from an older dike1 or from high ground1 around the parcel of flat intended to be secured4 ,these are called summer dikes 7sommer-deich1 pl4 sommer-deiche1 ,german2 zomerkaai1 zomerkade1 pl4 zomerkaaie1 zomerkaden1 ,dutch74 ,they are erected when a sufficient extent of ground to repay the cost has been elevated enough to be covered with coarse vegetation fit for pasturage4 ,they serve both to secure the ground from overflow by the ordinary flood tides of mild weather1 and to retain the slime deposited by very high water1 which would otherwise be partly carried off by the retreating ebb4 ,the elevation of the soil goes on slowly after this2 but when it has at last been sufficiently enriched1 and raised high enough to justify the necessary outlay1 permanent dikes are constructed by which the water is excluded at all seasons4 ,these embankments are constructed of sand from the coast dunes or from sandbanks1 and of earth from the mainland or from flats outside the dikes1 bound and strengthened by fascines1 and provided with sluices1 which are generally founded on piles and of very expensive construction1 for drainage at low water4 ,the outward slope of the sea dikes is gentle1 experience having shown that this form is least exposed to injury both from the waves and from floating ice1 and the most modern dikes are even more moderate in the inclination of the seaward scarp than the older ones4#caf ,the crown of the dike1 however1 for the last three or four feet of its height1 is much steeper1 being intended rather as a protection against the spray than against the waves1 and the inner slope is always comparatively abrupt4 ,the height and thickness of dikes varies according to the elevation of the ground they enclose1 the rise of the tides1 the direction of the prevailing winds1 and other special causes of exposure1 but it may be said that they are1 in general1 raised from fifteen to twenty feet above ordinary high-water mark4 ,the water slopes of river dikes are protected by plantations of willows or strong semi-aquatic shrubs or grasses1 but as these will not grow upon banks exposed to salt water1 sea dikes must be faced with stone1 fascines1 or some other revetement4#cag ,upon the coast of ,schleswig and ,holstein1 where the people have less capital at their command1 they defend their embankments against ice and the waves by a coating of twisted straw or reeds1 which must be renewed as often as once1 sometimes twice a year4 ,the inhabitants of these coasts call the chain of dikes the golden border1 a name it well deserves1 whether we suppose it to refer to its enormous cost1 or1 as is more probable1 to its immense value as a protection to their fields and their firesides4 ,when outlying flats are enclosed by building new embankments1 the old interior dikes are suffered to remain1 both as an additional security against the waves1 and because the removal of them would be expensive4 ,they serve1 also1 as roads or causeways1 a purpose for which the embankments nearest the sea are seldom employed1 because the whole structure might be endangered from the breaking of the turf by wheels and the hoofs of horses4 ,where successive rows of dikes have been thus constructed1 it is observed that the ground defended by the more ancient embankments is lower than that embraced within the newer enclosures1 and this depression of level has been ascribed to a general subsidence of the coast from geological causes2 but the better opinion seems to be that it is1 in most cases1 due merely to the consolidation and settling of the earth from being more effectually dried1 from the weight of the dikes1 from the tread of men and cattle1 and from the movement of the heavy wagons which carry off the crops4#cah ,notwithstanding this slow sinking1 most of the land enclosed by dikes is still above low-water mark1 and can1 therefore1 be wholly or partially freed from rain water1 and from that received by infiltration from higher ground1 by sluices opened at the ebb of the tide4 ,for this purpose1 the land is carefully ditched1 and advantage is taken of every favorable occasion for discharging the water through the sluices4 ,but the ground cannot be effectually drained by this means1 unless it is elevated four or five feet1 at least1 above the level of the ebb tide1 because the ditches would not otherwise have a sufficient descent to carry the water off in the short interval between ebb and flow1 and because the moisture of the saturated subsoil is always rising by capillary attraction4 ,whenever1 therefore1 the soil has sunk below the level ,i have mentioned1 and in cases where its surface has never been raised above it1 pumps1 worked by wind or some other mechanical power1 must be very frequently employed to keep the land dry enough for pasturage and cultivation4#cai b4 ,draining of ,lakes and ,marshes4 ,the substitution of steam engines for the feeble and uncertain action of windmills1 in driving pumps1 has much facilitated the removal of water from the polders and the draining of lakes1 marshes1 and shallow bays1 and thus given such an impulse to these enterprises1 that not less than one hundred and ten thousand acres were reclaimed from the waters1 and added to the agricultural domain of the ,netherlands1 between #ahae and #aheh4 ,the most important of these undertakings was the draining of the ,lake of ,haarlem1 and for this purpose some of the most powerful hydraulic engines ever constructed were designed and executed4#cbj ,the origin of this lake is unknown4 ,it is supposed by some geographers to be a part of an ancient bed of the ,rhine1 the channel of which1 as there is good reason to believe1 has undergone great changes since the ,roman invasion of the ,netherlands2 by others it is thought to have once formed an inland marine channel1 separated from the sea by a chain of low islands1 which the sand washed up by the tides has since connected with the mainland and converted into a continuous line of coast4 ,the best authorities1 however1 find geological evidence that the surface occupied by the lake was originally a marshy tract containing within its limits little solid ground1 but many ponds and inlets1 and much floating as well as fixed fen4 ,in consequence of the cutting of turf for fuel1 and the destruction of the few trees and shrubs which held the loose soil together with their roots1 the ponds are supposed to have gradually extended themselves1 until the action of the wind upon their enlarged surface gave their waves sufficient force to overcome the resistance of the feeble barriers which separated them1 and to unite them all into a single lake4 ,popular tradition1 it is true1 ascribes the formation of the ,lake of ,haarlem to a single irruption of the sea1 at a remote period1 and connects it with one or another of the destructive inundations of which the ,netherland chronicles describe so many2 but on a map of the year #aeca1 a chain of four smaller waters occupies nearly the ground afterward covered by the ,lake of ,haarlem1 and they have more probably been united by gradual encroachments resulting from the improvident practices above referred to1 though no doubt the consummation may have been hastened by floods1 and by the neglect to maintain dikes1 or the intentional destruction of them1 in the long wars of the sixteenth century4 ,the ,lake of ,haarlem was a body of water not far from fifteen miles in length1 by seven in greatest width1 lying between the cities of ,amsterdam and ,leyden1 running parallel with the coast of ,holland at the distance of about five miles from the sea1 and covering an area of about #de1jjj acres4 ,by means of the ,ij1 it communicated with the ,zuiderzee1 the ,mediterranean of the ,netherlands1 and its surface was little above the mean elevation of that of the sea4 ,whenever1 therefore1 the waters of the ,zuiderzee were acted upon by strong northwest winds1 those of the ,lake of ,haarlem were raised proportionally and driven southward1 while winds from the south tended to create a flow in the opposite direction4 ,the shores of the lake were everywhere low1 and though in the course of the eighty years between #agfg and #ahdh more than ,l#cej1jjj or #a1gjj1jjj had been expended in checking its encroachments1 it often burst its barriers1 and produced destructive inundations4 ,on the #bith of ,november1 #ahcf1 a south wind brought its waters to the very gates of ,amsterdam1 and on the #bfth of ,december of the same year1 in a northwest gale1 they overflowed twenty thousand acres of land at the southern extremity of the lake1 and flooded a part of the city of ,leyden4 ,the depth of water did not1 in general1 exceed fourteen feet1 but the bottom was a semi-fluid ooze or slime1 which partook of the agitation of the waves1 and added considerably to their mechanical force4 ,serious fears were entertained that the lake would form a junction with the inland waters of the ,legmeer and ,mijdrecht1 swallow up a vast extent of valuable soil1 and finally endanger the security of a large proportion of the land which the industry of ,holland had gained in the course of centuries from the ocean4 ,for this reason1 and for the sake of the large addition the bottom of the lake would make to the cultivable soil of the state1 it was resolved to drain it1 and the preliminary steps for that purpose were commenced in the year #ahdj4 ,the first operation was to surround the entire lake with a ring canal and dike1 in order to cut off the communication with the ,ij1 and to exclude the water of the streams and morasses which discharged themselves into it from the land side4 ,the dike was composed of different materials1 according to the means of supply at different points1 such as sand from the coast dunes1 earth and turf excavated from the line of the ring canal1 and floating turf1#cba fascines being everywhere used to bind and compact the mass together4 ,this operation was completed in #ahdh1 and three steam pumps were then employed for five years in discharging the water4 ,the whole enterprise was conducted at the expense of the state1 and in #ahec the recovered lands were offered for sale for its benefit4 ,up to #aheh1 forty-two thousand acres had been sold at not far from sixteen pounds sterling or seventy-seven dollars an acre1 amounting altogether to ,l#ffa1jjj sterling or #c1bjj1jjj4 ,the unsold lands were valued at more than ,l#f1jjj or nearly #cj1jjj1 and as the total cost was ,l#gfd1ejj or about #c1gjj1jjj1 the direct loss to the state1 exclusive of interest on the capital expended1 may be stated at ,l#ajj1jjj or something less than #ejj1jjj4 ,in a country like the ,united ,states1 of almost boundless extent of sparsely inhabited territory1 such an expenditure for such an object would be poor economy4 ,but ,holland has a narrow domain1 great pecuniary resources1 an excessively crowded population1 and a consequent need of enlarged room and opportunity for the exercise of industry4 ,under such circumstances1 and especially with an exposure to dangers so formidable1 there is no question of the wisdom of the measure4 ,it has already provided homes and occupation for more than five thousand citizens1 and furnished a profitable investment for a capital of not less than ,l#djj1jjj sterling or #b1jjj1jjj1 which has been expended in improvements over and above the purchase money of the soil2 and the greater part of this sum1 as well as of the cost of drainage1 has been paid as a compensation for labor4 ,the excess of governmental expenditure over the receipts1 if employed in constructing ships of war or fortifications1 would have added little to the military strength of the kingdom2 but the increase of territory1 the multiplication of homes and firesides which the people have an interest in defending1 and the augmentation of agricultural resources1 constitute a stronger bulwark against foreign invasion than a ship of the line or a fortress armed with a hundred cannon4 ,the bearing of the works ,i have noticed1 and of others similar in character1 upon the social and moral1 as well as the purely economical interests of the people of the ,netherlands1 has induced me to describe them more in detail than the general purpose of this volume may be thought to justify2 but if we consider them simply from a geographical point of view1 we shall find that they are possessed of no small importance as modifications of the natural condition of terrestrial surface4 ,there is good reason to believe that before the establishment of a partially civilized race upon the territory now occupied by ,dutch1 ,frisic1 and ,low ,german communities1 the grounds not exposed to inundation were overgrown with dense woods1 that the lowlands between these forests and the sea coasts were marshes1 covered and partially solidified by a thick matting of peat plants and shrubs interspersed with trees1 and that even the sand dunes of the shore were protected by a vegetable growth which1 in a great measure1 prevented the drifting and translocation of them4 ,the present causes of river and coast erosion existed1 indeed1 at the period in question2 but some of them must have acted with less intensity1 there were strong natural safeguards against the influence of marine and fresh-water currents1 and the conflicting tendencies had arrived at a condition of approximate equilibrium1 which permitted but slow and gradual changes in the face of nature4 ,the destruction of the forests around the sources and along the valleys of the rivers by man gave them a more torrential character4 ,the felling of the trees1 and the extirpation of the shrubbery upon the fens by domestic cattle1 deprived the surface of cohesion and consistence1 and the cutting of peat for fuel opened cavities in it1 which1 filling at once with water1 rapidly extended themselves by abrasion of their borders1 and finally enlarged to pools1 lakes1 and gulfs1 like the ,lake of ,haarlem and the northern part of the ,zuiderzee4 ,the cutting of the wood and the depasturing of the grasses upon the sand dunes converted them from solid bulwarks against the ocean to loose accumulations of dust1 which every sea breeze drove farther landward1 burying1 perhaps1 fertile soil and choking up watercourses on one side1 and exposing the coast to erosion by the sea upon the other4 c4 ,geographical ,influence of such ,operations4 ,the changes which human action has produced within twenty centuries in the ,netherlands and the neighboring provinces1 are certainly of no small geographical importance1 considered simply as a direct question of loss and gain of territory4 ,they have also undoubtedly been attended with some climatic consequences1 they have exercised a great influence on the spontaneous animal and vegetable life of this region1 and they cannot have failed to produce effects upon tidal and other oceanic currents1 the range of which may be very extensive4 ,the force of the tidal wave1 the height to which it rises1 the direction of its currents1 and1 in fact1 all the phenomena which characterize it1 as well as all the effects it produces1 depend as much upon the configuration of the coast it washes1 and the depth of water1 and form of bottom near the shore1 as upon the attraction which occasions it4 ,every one of the terrestrial conditions which affect the character of tidal and other marine currents has been very sensibly modified by the operations ,i have described1 and on this coast1 at least1 man has acted almost as powerfully on the physical geography of the sea as on that of the land4 ,lowering of ,lakes4 ,the hydraulic works of the ,netherlands and of the neighboring states are of such magnitude1 that they quite throw into the shade all other known artificial arrangements for defending the land against the encroachments of the rivers and the sea1 and for reclaiming to the domain of agriculture and civilization soil long covered by the waters4 ,but although the recovery and protection of lands flooded by the sea seems to be an art wholly of ,netherlandish origin1 we have abundant evidence1 that in ancient as well as in comparatively modern times1 great enterprises more or less analogous in character have been successfully undertaken1 both in inland ,europe and in the less familiar countries of the ,east4 ,one of the best known of these is the tunnel which serves to discharge the surplus waters of the ,lake of ,albano1 about fourteen miles from ,rome4 ,this lake1 about six miles in circuit1 occupies one of the craters of an extinct volcanic range1 and the surface of its waters is about nine hundred feet above the sea4 ,it is fed by rivulets and subterranean springs originating in the ,alban ,mount1 or ,monte ,cavo1 the most elevated peak of the volcanic group just mentioned1 which rises to the height of about three thousand feet4 ,at present the lake has no discoverable natural outlet1 but it is not known that the water ever stood at such a height as to flow regularly over the lip of the crater4 ,it seems that at the earliest period of which we have any authentic memorials1 its level was usually kept by evaporation1 or by discharge through subterranean channels1 considerably below the rim of the basin which encompassed it1 but in the year #cig ,b4 ,c41 the water1 either from the obstruction of such channels1 or in consequence of increased supplies from unknown sources1 rose to such a height as to flow over the edge of the crater1 and threaten inundation to the country below by bursting through its walls4 ,to obviate this danger1 a tunnel for carrying off the water was pierced at a level much below the height to which it had risen4 ,this gallery1 cut entirely with the chisel through the rock for a distance of six thousand feet1 or nearly a mile and one seventh1 is still in so good condition as to serve its original purpose4 ,the fact that this work was contemporaneous with the siege of ,veii1 has given to ancient annalists occasion to connect the two events1 but modern critics are inclined to reject ,livy's account of the matter1 as one of the many improbable fables which disfigure the pages of that historian4 ,it is1 however1 repeated by ,cicero and by ,dionysins of ,halicarnassus1 and it is by no means impossible that1 in an age when priests and soothsayers monopolized both the arts of natural magic and the little which yet existed of physical science1 the ,government of ,rome1 by their aid1 availed itself at once of the superstition and of the military ardor of its citizens to obtain their sanction to an enterprise which sounder arguments might not have induced them to approve4 ,still more remarkable is the tunnel cut by the ,emperor ,claudius to drain the ,lake ,fucinus1 now ,lago di ,celano1 in the ,neapolitan territory1 about fifty miles eastward of ,rome4 ,this lake1 as far as its history is known1 has varied very considerably in its dimensions at different periods1 according to the character of the seasons4 ,it has no visible outlet1 but was originally either drained by natural subterranean conduits1 or kept within certain extreme limits by evaporation4 ,in years of uncommon moisture1 it spread over the adjacent soil and destroyed the crops2 in dry seasons1 it retreated1 and produced epidemic disease by poisonous exhalations from the decay of vegetable and animal matter upon its exposed bed4 ,julius ,caesar had proposed the construction of a tunnel to drain the lake1 but the enterprise was not actually undertaken until the reign of ,claudius1 when--after a temporary failure1 from errors in levelling by the engineers1 as was pretended at the time1 or1 as now appears certain1 in consequence of frauds by the contractors in the execution of the work--it was at least partially completed4 ,from this imperfect construction1 it soon got out of repair1 but was restored by ,hadrian1 and seems to have answered its design for some centuries4 ,in the barbarism which followed the downfall of the empire1 it again fell into decay1 and though numerous attempts were made to repair it during the ,middle ,ages1 no tolerable success seems to have attended any of these efforts1 until the present generation4 ,works have now been some years in progress for restoring1 or rather enlarging and rebuilding this ancient tunnel1 upon a scale of grandeur which does infinite honor to the liberality and public spirit of the projectors1 and with an ingenuity of design and a constructive skill which reflect the highest credit upon the professional ability of the engineers who have planned the works and directed their execution4 ,the length of this tunnel is #ah1fcd feet1 or rather more than three miles and a half4 ,of course1 it is one of the longest subterranean galleries yet executed in ,europe1 and it offers many curious particulars in its original design which cannot here be described4 ,the difference between the highest and the lowest known levels of the surface of the lake amounts to at least forty feet1 and the difference of area covered at these respective stages is not much less than eight thousand acres4 ,the tunnel will reduce the water to a much lower point1 and it is computed that1 including the lands occasionally overflowed1 not less than forty thousand acres of as fertile soil as any in ,italy will be recovered from the lake and permanently secured from inundation by its waters4 ,many similar enterprises have been conceived and executed in modern times1 both for the purpose of reclaiming land covered by water and for sanitary reasons4#cbb ,they are sometimes attended with wholly unexpected evils1 as1 for example1 in the case of ,barton ,pond1 in ,vermont1 and in that of the ,lake ,storsjoe1 in ,sweden1 already mentioned on a former page4 ,another still less obvious consequence of the withdrawal of the waters has occasionally been observed in these operations4 ,the hydrostatic force with which the water1 in virtue of its specific gravity1 presses against the banks that confine it1 has a tendency to sustain them whenever their composition and texture are not such as to expose them to softening and dissolution by the infiltration of the water4 ,if then1 the slope of the banks is considerable1 or if the earth of which they are composed rests on a smooth and slippery stratum inclining toward the bed of the lake1 they are liable to fall or slide forward when the mechanical support of the water is removed1 and this sometimes happens on a considerable scale4 ,a few years ago1 the surface of the ,lake of ,lungern1 in the ,canton of ,unterwalden1 in ,switzerland1 was lowered by driving a tunnel about a quarter of a mile long through the narrow ridge1 called the ,kaiserstuhl1 which forms a barrier at the north end of the basin4 ,when the water was drawn off1 the banks1 which are steep1 cracked and burst1 several acres of ground slid down as low as the water receded1 and even the whole village of ,lungern was thought to be in no small danger4 ,other inconveniences of a very serious character have often resulted from the natural wearing down1 or1 much more frequently1 the imprudent destruction1 of the barriers which confine mountain lakes4 ,in their natural condition1 such basins serve both to receive and retain the rocks and other detritus brought down by the torrents which empty into them1 and to check the impetus of the rushing waters by bringing them to a temporary pause2 but if the outlets are lowered so as to drain the reservoirs1 the torrents continue their rapid flow through the ancient bed of the basins1 and carry down with them the sand and gravel with which they are charged1 instead of depositing their burden as before in the still waters of the lakes4 ,mountain ,lakes4 ,it is a common opinion in ,america that the river meadows1 bottoms1 or intervales1 as they are popularly called1 are generally the beds of ancient lakes which have burst their barriers and left running currents in their place4 ,it was shown by ,dr4 ,dwight1 many years ago1 that this is very far from being universally true2 but there is no doubt that mountain lakes were of much more frequent occurrence in primitive than in modern geography1 and there are many chains of such still existing in regions where man has yet little disturbed the original features of the earth4 ,in the long valleys of the ,adirondack range in ,northern ,new ,york1 and in the mountainous parts of ,maine1 eight1 ten1 and even more lakes and lakelets are sometimes found in succession1 each emptying into the next lower pool1 and so all at last into some considerable river4 ,when the mountain slopes which supply these basins shall be stripped of their woods1 the augmented swelling of the lakes will break down their barriers1 their waters will run off1 and the valleys will present successions of flats with rivers running through them1 instead of chains of lakes connected by natural canals4 ,a similar state of things seems to have existed in the ancient geography of ,france4 ,nature1 says ,lavergne1 has not excavated on the flanks of our ,alps reservoirs as magnificent as those of ,lombardy2 she had1 however1 constructed smaller1 but more numerous lakes1 which the negligence of man has permitted to disappear4 ,auguste de ,gasparin1 brother of the illustrious agriculturist1 demonstrated more than thirty years ago1 in an original paper1 that many natural dikes formerly existed in the mountain valleys1 which have been swept away by the waters4 ,he proposed to rebuild and to multiply them4 ,this interesting suggestion has reappeared several times since1 but has met with strong opposition from skilful engineers4 ,it would1 nevertheless1 be well to try the experiment of creating artificial lakes which should fill themselves with the water of melting snows and deluging rains1 to be drawn out in times of drought4 ,if this plan has able opposers1 it has also warm advocates4 ,experience alone can decide the question4#cbc ,climatic ,effects of ,draining ,lakes and ,marshes4 ,the draining of lakes1 marshes1 and other superficial accumulations of moisture1 reduces the water surface of a country1 and1 of course1 the evaporation from it4 ,lakes1 too1 in elevated positions1 lose a part of their water by infiltration1 and thereby supply other lakes1 springs1 and rivulets at lower levels4 ,hence1 it is evident that the draining of such waters1 if carried on upon a large scale1 must affect both the humidity and the temperature of the atmosphere1 and the permanent supply of water for extensive districts4#cbd ,geographical and ,climatic ,effects of ,aqueducts1 ,reservoirs1 and ,canals4 ,many processes of internal improvement1 such as aqueducts for the supply of great cities1 railroad cuts and embankments1 and the like1 divert water from its natural channels1 and affect its distribution and ultimate discharge4 ,the collecting of the waters of a considerable district into reservoirs1 to be thence carried off by means of aqueducts1 as1 for example1 in the forest of ,belgrade1 near ,constantinople1 deprives the grounds originally watered by the springs and rivulets of the necessary moisture1 and reduces them to barrenness4 ,similar effects must have followed from the construction of the numerous aqueducts which supplied ancient ,rome with such a profuse abundance of water4 ,on the other hand1 the filtration of water through the banks or walls of an aqueduct carried upon a high level across low ground1 often injures the adjacent soil1 and is prejudicial to the health of the neighboring population2 and it has been observed in ,switzerland1 that fevers have been produced by the stagnation of the water in excavations from which earth had been taken to form embankments for railways4 ,if we consider only the influence of physical improvements on civilized life1 we shall perhaps ascribe to navigable canals a higher importance1 or at least a more diversified influence1 than to any other works of man designed to control the waters of the earth1 and to affect their distribution1 ,they bind distant regions together by social ties1 through the agency of the commerce they promote2 they facilitate the transportation of military stores and engines1 and of other heavy material connected with the discharge of the functions of government2 they encourage industry by giving marketable value to raw material and to objects of artificial elaboration which would otherwise be worthless on account of the cost of conveyance2 they supply from their surplus waters means of irrigation and of mechanical power2 and1 in many other ways1 they contribute much to advance the prosperity and civilization of nations4 ,nor are they wholly without geographical importance4 ,they sometimes drain lands by conveying off water which would otherwise stagnate on the surface1 and1 on the other hand1 like aqueducts1 they render the neighboring soil cold and moist by the percolation of water through their embankments2#cbe they dam up1 check1 and divert the course of natural currents1 and deliver them at points opposite to1 or distant from1 their original outlets2 they often require extensive reservoirs to feed them1 thus retaining through the year accumulations of water--which would otherwise run off1 or evaporate in the dry season--and thereby enlarging the evaporable surface of the country2 and we have already seen that they interchange the flora and the fauna of provinces widely separated by nature4 ,all these modes of action certainly influence climate and the character of terrestrial surface1 though our means of observation are not yet perfected enough to enable us to appreciate and measure their effects4 ,climatic and ,geographical ,effects of ,surface and ,underground ,draining4 ,i have commenced this chapter with a description of the dikes and other hydraulic works of the ,netherland engineers1 because the geographical results of such operations are more obvious and more easily measured1 though certainly not more important1 than those of the older and more widely diffused modes of resisting or directing the flow of waters1 which have been practised from remote antiquity in the interior of all civilized countries4 ,draining and irrigation are habitually regarded as purely agricultural processes1 having little or no relation to technical geography2 but we shall find that they exert a powerful influence on soil1 climate1 and animal and vegetable life1 and may1 therefore1 justly claim to be regarded as geographical elements4 ,surface and ,under-draining and their ,effects4 ,superficial draining is a necessity in all lands newly reclaimed from the forest4 ,the face of the ground in the woods is never so regularly inclined as to permit water to flow freely over it4 ,there are1 even on the hillsides1 many small ridges and depressions1 partly belonging to the original distribution of the soil1 and partly occasioned by irregularities in the growth and deposit of vegetable matter4 ,these1 in the husbandry of nature1 serve as dams and reservoirs to collect a larger supply of moisture than the spongy earth can at once imbibe4 ,besides this1 the vegetable mould is1 even under the most favorable circumstances1 slow in parting with the humidity it has accumulated under the protection of the woods1 and the infiltration from neighboring forests contributes to keep the soil of small clearings too wet for the advantageous cultivation of artificial crops4 ,for these reasons1 surface draining must have commenced with agriculture itself1 and there is probably no cultivated district1 one may almost say no single field1 which is not provided with artificial arrangements for facilitating the escape of superficial water1 and thus carrying off moisture which1 in the natural condition of the earth1 would have been imbibed by the soil4 ,the beneficial effects of surface drainage1 the necessity of extending the fields as population increased1 and the inconveniences resulting from the presence of marshes in otherwise improved regions1 must have suggested at a very early period of human industry the expediency of converting bogs and swamps into dry land by drawing off their waters2 and it would not be long after the introduction of this practice before further acquisition of agricultural territory would be made by lowering the outlet of small ponds and lakes1 and adding the ground they covered to the domain of the husbandman4 ,all these processes belong to the incipient civilization of the ante-historical periods1 but the construction of subterranean channels for the removal of infiltrated water marks ages and countries distinguished by a great advance in agricultural theory and practice1 a great accumulation of pecuniary capital1 and a density of population which creates a ready demand and a high price for all products of rural industry4 ,under-draining1 too1 would be most advantageous in damp and cool climates1 where evaporation is slow1 and upon soils where the natural inclination of surface does not promote a very rapid flow of the surface waters4 ,all the conditions required to make this mode of rural improvement1 if not absolutely necessary1 at least apparently profitable1 exist in ,great ,britain1 and it is1 therefore1 very natural that the wealthy and intelligent farmers of ,england should have carried this practice farther1 and reaped a more abundant pecuniary return from it1 than those of any other country4 ,besides superficial and subsoil drains1 there is another method of disposing of superfluous surface water1 which1 however1 can rarely be practised1 because the necessary conditions for its employment are not of frequent occurrence4 ,whenever a tenacious water-holding stratum rests on a loose1 gravelly bed1 so situated as to admit of a free discharge of water from or through it by means of the outcropping of the bed at a lower level1 or of deep-lying conduits leading to distant points of discharge1 superficial waters may be carried off by opening a passage for them through the impervious into the permeable stratum4 ,thus1 according to ,bischof1 as early as the time of ,king ,rene1 in the first half of the fifteenth century1 the plain of ,paluns1 near ,marseilles1 was laid dry by boring1 and ,wittwer informs us that drainage is effected at ,munich by conducting the superfluous water into large excavations1 from which it filters through into a lower stratum of pebble and gravel lying a little above the level of the river ,isar4#cbf ,so at ,washington1 in the western part of the city1 which lies high above the rivers ,potomac and ,rock ,creek1 many houses are provided with dry wells for draining their cellars and foundations4 ,these extend through hard tenacious earth to the depth of thirty or forty feet1 when they strike a stratum of gravel1 through which the water readily passes off4 ,this practice has been extensively employed at ,paris1 not merely for carrying off ordinary surface water1 but for the discharge of offensive and deleterious fluids from chemical and manufacturing establishments4 ,a well of this sort received1 in the winter of #ahcb-'cc1 twenty thousand gallons per day of the foul water from a starch factory1 and the same process was largely used in other factories4 ,the apprehension of injury to common and artesian wells and springs led to an investigation on this subject1 in behalf of the municipal authorities1 by ,girard and ,parent ,duchatelet1 in the latter year4 ,the report of these gentlemen1 published in the ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees for #ahcc1 second half year1 is full of curious and instructive facts respecting the position and distribution of the subterranean waters under and near ,paris2 but it must suffice to say that the report came to the conclusion that1 in consequence of the absolute immobility of these waters1 and the relatively small quantity of noxious fluid to be conveyed to them1 there was no danger of the diffusion of this latter1 if discharged into them4 ,this result will not surprise those who know that1 in another work1 ,duchatelet maintains analogous opinions as to the effect of the discharge of the city sewers into the ,seine upon the waters of that river4 ,the quantity of matter delivered by them he holds to be so nearly infinitesimal1 as compared with the volume of water of the ,seine1 that it cannot possibly affect it to a sensible degree4 ,i would1 however1 advise determined water drinkers living at ,paris to adopt his conclusions1 without studying his facts and his arguments2 for it is quite possible that he may convert his readers to a faith opposite to his own1 and that they will finally agree with the poet who held water an ignoble beverage4 ,climatic and ,geographical ,effects of ,surface ,draining4 ,when we remove water from the surface1 we diminish the evaporation from it1 and1 of course1 the refrigeration which accompanies all evaporation is diminished in proportion4 ,hence superficial draining ought to be attended with an elevation of atmospheric temperature1 and1 in cold countries1 it might be expected to lessen the frequency of frosts4 ,accordingly1 it is a fact of experience that1 other things being equal1 dry soils1 and the air in contact with them1 are perceptibly warmer during the season of vegetation1 when evaporation is most rapid1 than moist lands and the atmospheric stratum resting upon them4 ,instrumental observation on this special point has not yet been undertaken on a very large scale1 but still we have thermometric data sufficient to warrant the general conclusion1 and the influence of drainage in diminishing the frequency of frost appears to be even better established than a direct increase of atmospheric temperature4 ,the steep and dry uplands of the ,green ,mountain range in ,new ,england often escape frosts when the ,indian corn harvest on moister grounds1 five hundred or even a thousand feet lower1 is destroyed or greatly injured by them4 ,the neighborhood of a marsh is sure to be exposed to late spring and early autumnal frosts1 but they cease to be feared after it is drained1 and this is particularly observable in very cold climates1 as1 for example1 in ,lapland4#cbg ,in ,england1 under-drains are not generally laid below the reach of daily variations of temperature1 or below a point from which moisture might be brought to the surface by capillary attraction and evaporated by the heat of the sun4 ,they1 therefore1 like surface drains1 withdraw from local solar action much moisture which would otherwise be vaporized by it1 and1 at the same time1 by drying the soil above them1 they increase its effective hygroscopicity1 and it consequently absorbs from the atmosphere a greater quantity of water than it did when1 for want of under-drainage1 the subsoil was always humid1 if not saturated4 ,under-drains1 then1 contribute to the dryness as well as to the warmth of the atmosphere1 and1 as dry ground is more readily heated by the rays of the sun than wet1 they tend also to raise the mean1 and especially the summer temperature of the soil4 ,so far as respects the immediate improvement of soil and climate1 and the increased abundance of the harvests1 the ,english system of surface and subsoil drainage has fully justified the eulogiums of its advocates2 but its extensive adoption appears to have been attended with some altogether unforeseen and undesirable consequences1 very analogous to those which ,i have described as resulting from the clearing of the forests4 ,the under-drains carry off very rapidly the water imbibed by the soil from precipitation1 and through infiltration from neighboring springs or other sources of supply4 ,consequently1 in wet seasons1 or after heavy rains1 a river bordered by artificially drained lands receives in a few hours1 from superficial and from subterranean conduits1 an accession of water which1 in the natural state of the earth1 would have reached it only by small instalments after percolating through hidden paths for weeks or even months1 and would have furnished perennial and comparatively regular contributions1 instead of swelling deluges1 to its channel4 ,thus1 when human impatience rashly substitutes swiftly acting artificial contrivances for the slow methods by which nature drains the surface and superficial strata of a river basin1 the original equilibrium is disturbed1 the waters of the heavens are no longer stored up in the earth to be gradually given out again1 but are hurried out of man's domain with wasteful haste2 and while the inundations of the river are sudden and disastrous1 its current1 when the drains have run dry1 is reduced to a rivulet1 it ceases to supply the power to drive the machinery for which it was once amply sufficient1 and scarcely even waters the herds that pasture upon its margin4#cbh ,irrigation and its ,climatic and ,geographical ,effects4 ,we know little of the history of the extinct civilizations which preceded the culture of the classic ages1 and no nation has1 in modern times1 spontaneously emerged from barbarism1 and created for itself the arts of social life4#cbi ,the improvements of the savage races whose history we can distinctly trace are borrowed and imitative1 and our theories as to the origin and natural development of industrial art are conjectural4 ,of course1 the relative antiquity of particular branches of human industry depends much upon the natural character of soil1 climate1 and spontaneous vegetable and animal life in different countries2 and while the geographical influence of man would1 under given circumstances1 be exerted in one direction1 it would1 under different conditions1 act in an opposite or a diverging line4 ,i have given some reasons for thinking that in the climates to which our attention has been chiefly directed1 man's first interference with the natural arrangement and disposal of the waters was in the way of drainage of surface4 ,but if we are to judge from existing remains alone1 we should probably conclude that irrigation is older than drainage2 for1 in the regions regarded by general tradition as the cradle of the human race1 we find traces of canals evidently constructed for the former purpose at a period long preceding the ages of which we have any written memorials4 ,there are1 in ancient ,armenia1 extensive districts which were already abandoned to desolation at the earliest historical epoch1 but which1 in a yet remoter antiquity1 had been irrigated by a complicated and highly artificial system of canals1 the lines of which can still be followed2 and there are1 in all the highlands where the sources of the ,euphrates rise1 in ,persia1 in ,egypt1 in ,india1 and in ,china1 works of this sort which must have been in existence before man had begun to record his own annals4 ,in warm countries1 such as most of those just mentioned1 the effects ,i have described as usually resulting from the clearing of the forests would very soon follow4 ,in such climates1 the rains are inclined to be periodical2 they are also violent1 and for these reasons the soil would be parched in summer and liable to wash in winter4 ,in these countries1 therefore1 the necessity for irrigation must soon have been felt1 and its introduction into mountainous regions like ,armenia must have been immediately followed by a system of terracing1 or at least scarping the hillsides4 ,pasture and meadow1 indeed1 may be irrigated even when the surface is both steep and irregular1 as may be observed abundantly on the ,swiss as well as on the ,piedmontese slope of the ,alps2 but in dry climates1 plough land and gardens on hilly grounds require terracing1 both for supporting the soil and for administering water by irrigation1 and it should be remembered that terracing1 of itself1 even without special arrangements for controlling the distribution of water1 prevents or at least checks the flow of rain water1 and gives it time to sink into the ground instead of running off over the surface4 ,there are few things in ,continental husbandry which surprise ,english or ,american observers so much as the extent to which irrigation is employed in agriculture1 and that1 too1 on soils1 and with a temperature1 where their own experience would have led them to suppose it would be injurious to vegetation rather than beneficial to it4 ,the summers in ,northern ,italy1 though longer1 are very often not warmer than in ,new ,england2 and in ordinary years1 the summer rains are as frequent and as abundant in the former country as in the latter4 ,yet in ,piedmont and ,lombardy1 irrigation is bestowed upon almost every crop1 while in ,new ,england it is never employed at all in farming husbandry1 or indeed for any purpose except in kitchen gardens1 and possibly1 in rare cases1 in some other small branch of agricultural industry4#ccj ,the summers in ,egypt1 in ,syria1 and in ,asia ,minor and even ,rumelia1 are almost rainless4 ,in such climates1 the necessity of irrigation is obvious1 and the loss of the ancient means of furnishing it readily explains the diminished fertility of most of the countries in question4#cca ,the surface of ,palestine1 for example1 is composed1 in a great measure1 of rounded limestone hills1 once1 no doubt1 covered with forests4 ,these were partially removed before the ,jewish conquest4#ccb ,when the soil began to suffer from drought1 reservoirs to retain the waters of winter were hewn in the rock near the tops of the hills1 and the declivities were terraced4 ,so long as the cisterns were in good order1 and the terraces kept up1 the fertility of ,palestine was unsurpassed1 but when misgovernment and foreign and intestine war occasioned the neglect or destruction of these works--traces of which still meet the traveller's eye at every step1--when the reservoirs were broken and the terrace walls had fallen down1 there was no longer water for irrigation in summer1 the rains of winter soon washed away most of the thin layer of earth upon the rocks1 and ,palestine was reduced almost to the condition of a desert4 ,the course of events has been the same in ,idumaea4 ,the observing traveller discovers everywhere about ,petra1 particularly if he enters the city by the route of ,wadi ,ksheibeh1 very extensive traces of ancient cultivation1 and upon the neighboring ridges are the ruins of numerous cisterns evidently constructed to furnish a supply of water for irrigation4#ccc ,in primitive ages1 the precipitation of winter in these hilly countries was1 in great part1 retained for a time in the superficial soil1 first by the vegetable mould of the forests1 and then by the artificial arrangements ,i have described4 ,the water imbibed by the earth was partly taken up by direct evaporation1 partly absorbed by vegetation1 and partly carried down by infiltration to subjacent strata which gave it out in springs at lower levels1 and thus a fertility of soil and a condition of the atmosphere were maintained sufficient to admit of the dense population that once inhabited those now arid wastes4 ,at present1 the rain water runs immediately off from the surface and is carried down to the sea1 or is drunk up by the sands of the wadis1 and the hillsides which once teemed with plenty are bare of vegetation1 and seared by the scorching winds of the desert4 ,in ,southern ,europe1 in the ,turkish ,empire1 and in many other countries1 a very large proportion of the surface is1 if not absolutely flooded1 at least thoroughly moistened by irrigation1 a great number of times in the course of every season1 and this1 especially1 at periods when it would otherwise be quite dry1 and when1 too1 the power of the sun and the capacity of the air for absorbing moisture are greatest4 ,hence it is obvious that the amount of evaporation from the earth in these countries1 and1 of course1 the humidity and the temperature of both the soil and the atmosphere in contact with it1 must be much affected by the practice of irrigation4 ,the cultivable area of ,egypt1 or the space accessible to cultivation1 between desert and desert1 is more than seven thousand square statute miles4 ,much of the surface1 though not out of the reach of irrigation1 lies too high to be economically watered1 and irrigation and cultivation are therefore confined to an area of five or six thousand square miles1 nearly the whole of which is regularly and constantly watered when not covered by the inundation1 except in the short interval between the harvest and the rise of the waters4 ,for nearly half of the year1 then1 irrigation adds five or six thousand square miles1 or more than a square equatorial degree1 to the evaporable surface of the ,nile valley1 or1 in other words1 more than decuples the area from which an appreciable quantity of moisture would otherwise be evaporated2 for after the ,nile has retired within its banks1 its waters by no means cover one tenth of the space just mentioned4#ccd ,the fresh-water canals now constructing1 in connection with the works for the ,suez canal1 will not only restore the long abandoned fields east of the ,nile1 but add to the arable soil of ,egypt hundreds of square miles of newly reclaimed desert1 and thus still further increase the climatic effects of irrigation4#cce ,the ,nile receives not a single tributary in its course through ,egypt2 there is not so much as one living spring in the whole land1#ccf and1 with the exception of a narrow strip of coast1 where the annual precipitation is said to amount to six inches1 the fall of rain in the territory of the ,pharaohs is not two inches in the year4 ,the subsoil of the whole valley is pervaded with moisture by infiltration from the ,nile1 and water can everywhere be found at the depth of a few feet4 ,were irrigation suspended1 and ,egypt abandoned1 as in that case it must be1 to the operations of nature1 there is no doubt that trees1 the roots of which penetrate deeply1 would in time establish themselves on the deserted soil1 fill the valley with verdure1 and perhaps at last temper the climate1 and even call down abundant rain from the heavens4#ccg ,but the immediate effect of discontinuing irrigation would be1 first1 an immense reduction of the evaporation from the valley in the dry season1 and then a greatly augmented dryness and heat of the atmosphere4 ,even the almost constant north wind--the strength of which would be increased in consequence of these changes--would little reduce the temperature of the narrow cleft between the burning mountains which hem in the channel of the ,nile1 so that a single year would transform the most fertile of soils to the most barren of deserts1 and render uninhabitable a territory that irrigation makes capable of sustaining as dense a population as has ever existed in any part of the world4#cch ,whether man found the valley of the ,nile a forest1 or such a waste as ,i have just described1 we do not historically know4 ,in either case1 he has not simply converted a wilderness into a garden1 but has unquestionably produced extensive climatic change4#cci ,the fields of ,egypt are more regularly watered than those of any other country bordering on the ,mediterranean1 except the rice grounds in ,italy1 and perhaps the marcite or winter meadows of ,lombardy2 but irrigation is more or less employed throughout almost the entire basin of that sea1 and is everywhere attended with effects which1 if less in degree1 are analogous in character to those resulting from it in ,egypt4 ,in general1 it may be said that the soil is nowhere artificially watered except when it is so dry that little moisture would be evaporated from it1 and1 consequently1 every acre of irrigated ground is so much added to the evaporable surface of the country4 ,when the supply of water is unlimited1 it is allowed1 after serving its purpose on one field1 to run into drains1 canals1 or rivers4 ,but in most regions where irrigation is regularly employed1 it is necessary to economize the water2 after passing over or through one parcel of ground1 it is conducted to another2 no more is withdrawn from the canals at any one point than is absorbed by the soil it irrigates1 or evaporated from it1 and1 consequently1 it is not restored to liquid circulation1 except by infiltration or precipitation4 ,we are safe1 then1 in saying that the humidity evaporated from any artificially watered soil is increased by a quantity bearing a large proportion to the whole amount distributed over it2 for most even of that which is absorbed by the earth is immediately given out again either by vegetables or by evaporation4 ,it is not easy to ascertain precisely either the extent of surface thus watered1 or the amount of water supplied1 in any given country1 because these quantities vary with the character of the season2 but there are not many districts in ,southern ,europe where the management of the arrangements for irrigation is not one of the most important branches of agricultural labor4 ,the eminent engineer ,lombardini describes the system of irrigation in ,lombardy as1 every day in summer1 diffusing over #eej1jjj hectares of land #de1jjj1jjj cubic metres of water1 which is equal to the entire volume of the ,seine1 at an ordinary flood1 or a rise of three metres above the hydrometer at the bridge of ,la ,tournelle at ,paris4#cdj ,niel states the quantity of land irrigated in the former kingdom of ,sardinia1 including ,savoy1 in #ahef1 at #bdj1jjj hectares1 or not much less than #fjj1jjj acres4 ,this is about four thirteenths of the cultivable soil of the kingdom4 ,according to the same author1 the irrigated lands in ,france did not exceed #ajj1jjj hectares1 or #bdg1jjj acres1 while those in ,lombardy amounted to #dej1jjj hectares1 more than #a1ajj1jjj acres4#cda ,in these three states alone1 then1 there were more than three thousand square miles of artificially watered land1 and if we add the irrigated soils of the rest of ,italy1 of the ,mediterranean islands1 of the ,spanish peninsula1 of ,turkey in ,europe and in ,asia ,minor1 of ,syria1 of ,egypt and the remainder of ,northern ,africa1 we shall see that irrigation increases the evaporable surface of the ,mediterranean basin by a quantity bearing no inconsiderable proportion to the area naturally covered by water within it4 ,as near as can be ascertained1 the amount of water applied to irrigated lands is scarcely anywhere less than the total precipitation during the season of vegetable growth1 and in general it much exceeds that quantity4 ,in grass grounds and in field culture it ranges from #bg or #bh to #fj inches1 while in smaller crops1 tilled by hand labor1 it is sometimes carried as high as #cjj inches4#cdb ,the rice grounds and the marcite of ,lombardy are not included in these estimates of the amount of water applied4 ,arrangements are concluded1 and new plans proposed1 for an immense increase of the lands fertilized by irrigation in ,france and ,italy1 and there is every reason to believe that the artificially watered soil of the latter country will be doubled1 that of ,france quadrupled1 before the end of this century4 ,there can be no doubt that by these operations man is exercising a powerful influence on soil1 on vegetable and animal life1 and on climate1 and hence that in this1 as in many other fields of industry1 he is truly a geographical agency4#cdc ,the quantity of water artificially withdrawn from running streams for the purpose of irrigation is such as very sensibly to affect their volume1 and it is1 therefore1 an important element in the geography of rivers4 ,brooks of no trifling current are often wholly diverted from their natural channels to supply the canals1 and their entire mass of water completely absorbed1 so that it does not reach the river which it naturally feeds1 except in such proportion as it is conveyed to it by infiltration4 ,irrigation1 therefore1 diminishes great rivers in warm countries by cutting off their sources of supply as well as by direct abstraction of water from their channels4 ,we have just seen that the system of irrigation in ,lombardy deprives the ,po of a quantity of water equal to the total delivery of the ,seine at ordinary flood1 or1 in other words1 of the equivalent of a tributary navigable for hundreds of miles by vessels of considerable burden4 ,the new canals commenced and projected will greatly increase the loss4 ,the water required for irrigation in ,egypt is less than would be supposed from the exceeding rapidity of evaporation in that arid climate2 for the soil is thoroughly saturated during the inundation1 and infiltration from the ,nile continues to supply a considerable amount of humidity in the dryest season4 ,linant ,bey computed that twenty-nine cubic metres per day sufficed to irrigate a hectare in the ,delta4#cdd ,this is equivalent to a fall of rain of two millimetres and nine tenths per day1 or1 if we suppose water to be applied for one hundred and fifty days during the dry season1 to a total precipitation of #dce millimetres1 about seventeen inches and one third4 ,taking the area of actually cultivated soil in ,egypt at the low estimate of #c1fjj1jjj acres1 and the average amount of water daily applied in both ,upper and ,lower ,egypt at twelve hundredths of an inch in depth1 we have an abstraction of #fa1jjj1jjj cubic yards1 which--the mean daily delivery of the ,nile being in round numbers #cbj1jjj1jjj cubic yards--is nearly one fifth of the average quantity of water contributed to the ,mediterranean by that river4 ,irrigation1 as employed for certain special purposes in ,europe and ,america1 is productive of very prejudicial climatic effects4 ,i refer particularly to the cultivation of rice in the ,slave ,states of the ,american ,union and in ,italy4 ,the climate of the ,southern ,states is not necessarily unhealthy for the white man1 but he can scarcely sleep a single night in the vicinity of the rice grounds without being attacked by a dangerous fever4#cde ,the neighborhood of the rice fields is less pestilential in ,lombardy and ,piedmont than in ,south ,carolina and ,georgia1 but still very insalubrious to both man and beast4 ,not only does the population decrease where rice is grown1 says ,escourrou ,milliago1 but even the flocks are attacked by typhus4 ,in the rice grounds1 the soil is divided into compartments rising in gradual succession to the level of the irrigating canal1 in order that the water1 after having flowed one field1 may be drawn off to another1 and thus a single current serve for several compartments1 the lowest field1 of course1 still being higher than the ditch which at last drains both it and the adjacent soil4 ,this arrangement gives a certain force of hydrostatic pressure to the water with which the rice is irrigated1 and the infiltration from these fields is said to extend through neighboring grounds1 sometimes to the distance of not less than a myriametre1 or six ,english miles1 and to be destructive to crops and even trees reached by it4 ,land thus affected can no longer be employed for any purpose but growing rice1 and when prepared for that crop1 it propagates still further the evils under which it had itself suffered1 and1 of course1 the mischief is a growing one4#cdf ,the attentive traveller in ,egypt and ,nubia cannot fail to notice many localities1 generally of small extent1 where the soil is rendered infertile by an excess of saline matter in its composition4 ,in many cases1 perhaps in all1 these barren spots lie rather above the level usually flooded by the inundations of the ,nile1 and yet they exhibit traces of former cultivation4 ,recent observations in ,india1 a notice of which ,i find in an account of a meeting of the ,asiatic ,society in the ,athenaeum of ,december #bj1 #ahfb1 ,no4 #ahcd1 suggest a possible explanation of this fact4 ,at this meeting1 ,professor ,medlicott read an essay on the saline efflorescence called ',reh' and ',kuller1' which is gradually invading many of the most fertile districts of ,northern and ,western ,india1 and changing them into sterile deserts4 ,it consists principally of sulphate of soda 7,glauber's salts71 with varying proportions of common salt4 ,mr4 ,medlicott pronounces these salts 7which1 in small quantities are favorable to fertility of soil7 to be the gradual result of concentration by evaporation of river and canal waters1 which contain them in very minute quantities1 and with which the lands are either irrigated or occasionally overflowed4 ,the river inundations in hot countries usually take place but once in a year1 and1 though the banks remain submerged for days or even weeks1 the water at that period1 being derived principally from rains and snows1 must be less highly charged with mineral matter than at lower stages1 and besides1 it is always in motion4 ,the water of irrigation1 on the other hand1 is applied for many months in succession1 it is drawn from rivers at the seasons when their proportion of salts is greatest1 and it either sinks into the superficial soil1 carrying with it the saline substances it holds in solution1 or is evaporated from the surface1 leaving them upon it4 ,hence irrigation must impart to the soil more salts than natural inundation4 ,the sterilized grounds in ,egypt and ,nubia lying above the reach of the floods1 as ,i have said1 we may suppose them to have been first cultivated in that remote antiquity when the ,nile valley received its earliest inhabitants4 ,they must have been artificially irrigated from the beginning2 they may have been under cultivation many centuries before the soil at a lower level was invaded by man1 and hence it is natural that they should be more strongly impregnated with saline matter than fields which are exposed every year1 for some weeks1 to the action of running water so nearly pure that it would be more likely to dissolve salts than to deposit them4 ,,inundations ,,and ,,torrents4 ,in pointing out in a former chapter the evils which have resulted from the too extensive destruction of the forests1 ,i dwelt at some length on the increased violence of river inundations1 and especially on the devastations of torrents1 in countries improvidently deprived of their woods1 and ,i spoke of the replanting of the forests as the only effectual method of preventing the frequent recurrence of disastrous floods4 ,there are many regions where1 from the loss of the superficial soil1 from financial considerations1 and from other causes1 the restoration of the woods is not1 under present circumstances1 to be hoped for4 ,even where that measure is feasible and in actual process of execution1 a great number of years must elapse before the action of the destructive causes in question can be arrested or perhaps even sensibly mitigated by it4 ,besides this1 leaving out of view the objections urged by ,belgrand and his followers to the generally received opinions concerning the beneficial influence of the forest as respects river inundations--for no one disputes its importance in preventing the formation and limiting the ravages of mountain torrents--floods will always occur in years of excessive precipitation1 whether the surface of the soil be generally cleared or generally wooded4 ,physical improvement in this respect1 then1 cannot he confined to preventive measures1 but1 in countries subject to damage by inundation1 means must he contrived to obviate dangers and diminish injuries to which human life and all the works of human industry will occasionally be exposed1 in spite of every effort to lessen the frequency of their recurrence by acting directly on the causes that produce them4 ,as every civilized country is1 in some degree1 subject to inundation by the overflow of rivers1 the evil is a familiar one1 and needs no general description4 ,in discussing this branch of the subject1 therefore1 ,i may confine myself chiefly to the means that have been or may be employed to resist the force and limit the ravages of floods1 which1 left wholly unrestrained1 would not only inflict immense injury upon the material interests of man1 but produce geographical revolutions of no little magnitude4 a4 ,river ,embankments4 ,the most obvious and doubtless earliest method of preventing the escape of river waters from their natural channels1 and the overflow of fields and towns by their spread1 is that of raised embankments along their course4 ,the necessity of such embankments usually arises from the gradual elevation of the bed of running streams in consequence of the deposit of the earth and gravel they are charged with in high water2 and1 as we have seen1 this elevation is rapidly accelerated when the highlands around the headwaters of rivers are cleared of their forests4 ,when a river is embanked at a given point1 and1 consequently1 the water of its floods1 which would otherwise spread over a wide surface1 is confined within narrow limits1 the velocity of the current and its transporting power are augmented1 and its burden of sand and gravel is deposited at some lower point1 where the rapidity of its flow is checked by a diminution in the inclination of the bed1 by a wider channel1 or finally by a lacustrine or marine basin which receives its waters4 ,wherever it lets fall solid material1 its channel is raised in consequence1 and the declivity of the whole bed between the head of the embankment and the slack of the stream is reduced4 ,hence the current1 at first accelerated by confinement1 is afterward checked by the mechanical resistance of the matter deposited1 and by the diminished inclination of its channel1 and then begins again to let fall the earth it holds in suspension1 and to raise its bed at the point where its overflow had been before prevented by embankment4 ,the bank must now be raised in proportion1 and these processes would be repeated and repeated indefinitely1 had not nature provided a remedy in floods1 which sweep out recent deposits1 burst the bonds of the river and overwhelm the adjacent country with final desolation1 or divert the current into a new channel1 destined to become1 in its turn1 the scene of a similar struggle between man and the waters4 ,few rivers1 like the ,nile1 more than compensate by the fertilizing properties of their water and their slime for the damage they may do in inundations1 and1 consequently1 there are few whose floods are not an object of dread1 few whose encroachments upon their banks are not a source of constant anxiety and expense to the proprietors of the lands through which they flow4 ,river dikes1 for confining the spread of currents at high water1 are of great antiquity in the ,east1 and those of the ,po and its tributaries were begun before we have any trustworthy physical or political annals of the provinces upon their borders4 ,from the earliest ages1 the ,italian hydraulic engineers have stood in the front rank of their profession1 and the ,italian literature of this branch of material improvement is exceedingly voluminous4 ,but the countries for which ,i write have no rivers like the ,po1 no plains like those of ,lombardy1 and the dangers to which the inhabitants of ,english and ,american river banks are exposed are more nearly analogous to those that threaten the soil and population in the valleys and plains of ,france1 than to the perils and losses of the ,lombard4 ,the writings of the ,italian hydrographers1 too1 though rich in professional instruction1 are less accessible to foreigners and less adapted to popular use than those of ,french engineers4#cdg ,for these reasons ,i shall take my citations principally from ,french authorities1 though ,i shall occasionally allude to ,italian writers on the floods of the ,tiber1 of the ,arno1 and some other ,italian streams which much resemble those of the rivers of ,england and the ,united ,states4 b4 ,floods of the ,ardeche4 ,the floods of mountain streams are attended with greater immediate danger to life and property than those of rivers of less rapid flow1 because their currents are more impetuous1 and they rise more suddenly and with less previous warning4 ,at the same time1 their ravages are confined within narrower limits1 the waters retire sooner to their accustomed channel1 and the danger is more quickly over1 than in the case of inundations of larger rivers4 ,the ,ardeche1 which has given its name to a department in ,france1 drains a basin of #fjj1bch acres1 or a little less than nine hundred and thirty-eight square miles4 ,its remotest source is about seventy-five miles1 in a straight line1 from its junction with the ,rhone1 and springs at an elevation of four thousand feet above that point4 ,at the lowest stage of the river1 the bed of the ,chassezac1 its largest and longest tributary1 is in many places completely dry on the surface--the water being sufficient only to supply the subterranean channels of infiltration--and the ,ardeche itself is almost everywhere fordable1 even below the mouth of the ,chassezac4 ,but in floods1 the river has sometimes risen more than sixty feet at the ,pont d',arc1 a natural arch of two hundred feet chord1 which spans the stream below its junction with all its important affluents4 ,at the height of the inundation of #ahbg1 the quantity of water passing this point--after deducting thirty per cent4 for material transported with the current and for irregularity of flow--was estimated at #h1hde cubic yards to the second1 and between twelve at noon on the #ajth of ,september of that year and ten o'clock the next morning1 the water discharged through the passage in question amounted to more than #dej1jjj1jjj cubic yards4 ,this quantity1 distributed equally through the basin of the river1 would cover its entire area to a depth of more than five inches4 ,the ,ardeche rises so suddenly that1 in the inundation of #ahdf1 the women who were washing in the bed of the river had not time to save their linen1 and barely escaped with their lives1 though they instantly fled upon hearing the roar of the approaching flood4 ,its waters and those of its affluents fall almost as rapidly1 for in less than twenty-four hours after the rain has ceased in the ,cevennes1 where it rises1 the ,ardeche returns within its ordinary channel1 even at its junction with the ,rhone4 ,in the flood of #aggb1 the water at ,la ,beaume de ,ruoms1 on the ,beaume1 a tributary of the ,ardeche1 rose thirty-five feet above low water1 but the stream was again fordable on the evening of the same day4 ,the inundation of #ahbg was1 in this respect1 exceptional1 for it continued three days1 during which period the ,ardeche poured into the ,rhone #a1cje1jjj1jjj cubic yards of water4 ,the ,nile delivers into the sea #aja1jjj cubic feet or #c1gda cubic yards per second1 on an average of the whole year4#cdh ,this is equal to #cbc1bbb1djj cubic yards per day4 ,in a single day of flood1 then1 the ,ardeche1 a river too insignificant to be known except in the local topography of ,france1 contributed to the ,rhone once and a half1 and for three consecutive days once and one third1 as much as the average delivery of the ,nile during the same periods1 though the basin of the latter river contains #ejj1jjj square miles of surface1 or more than five hundred times as much as that of the former4 ,the average annual precipitation in the basin of the ,ardeche is not greater than in many other parts of ,europe1 but excessive quantities of rain frequently fall in that valley in the autumn4 ,on the #ith of ,october1 #ahbg1 there fell at ,joyeuse1 on the ,beaume1 no less than thirty-one inches between three o'clock in the morning and midnight4 ,such facts as this explain the extraordinary suddenness and violence of the floods of the ,ardeche1 and the basins of many other tributaries of the ,rhone exhibit meteorological phenomena not less remarkable4#cdi ,the inundation of the #ajth ,september1 #aheg1 was accompanied with a terrific hurricane1 which passed along the eastern slope of the high grounds where the ,ardeche and several other western affluents of the ,rhone take their rise4 ,the wind tore up all the trees in its path1 and the rushing torrents bore their trunks down to the larger streams1 which again transported them to the ,rhone in such rafts that one might almost have crossed that river by stepping from trunk to trunk4#cej ,the ,rhone1 therefore1 is naturally subject to great and sudden inundations1 and the same remark may be applied to most of the principal rivers of ,france1 because the geographical character of all of them is approximately the same4 ,the height and violence of the inundations of most great rivers are determined by the degree in which the floods of the different tributaries are coincident in time4 ,were all the affluents of the ,rhone to pour their highest annual floods into its channel at once1 were a dozen ,niles to empty themselves into its bed at the same moment1 its water would rise to a height and rush with an impetus that would sweep into the ,mediterranean the entire population of its banks1 and all the works that man has erected upon the plains which border it4 ,but such a coincidence can never happen4 ,the tributaries of this river run in very different directions1 and some of them are swollen principally by the melting of the snows about their sources1 others almost exclusively by heavy rains4 ,when a damp southeast wind blows up the valley of the ,ardeche1 its moisture is condensed1 and precipitated in a deluge upon the mountains which embosom the headwaters of that stream1 thus producing a flood1 while a neighboring basin1 the axis of which lies transversely or obliquely to that of the ,ardeche1 is not at all affected4#cea ,it is easy to see that the damage occasioned by such floods as ,i have described must be almost incalculable1 and it is by no means confined to the effects produced by overflow and the mechanical force of the superficial currents4 ,in treating of the devastations of torrents in a former chapter1 ,i confined myself principally to the erosion of surface and the transportation of mineral matter to lower grounds by them4 ,the general action of torrents1 as there shown1 tends to the ultimate elevation of their beds by the deposit of the earth1 gravel1 and stone conveyed by them2 but until they have thus raised their outlets so as sensibly to diminish the inclination of their channels--and sometimes when extraordinary floods give the torrents momentum enough to sweep away the accumulations which they have themselves heaped up--the swift flow of their currents1 aided by the abrasion of the rolling rocks and gravel1 scoops their beds constantly deeper1 and they consequently not only undermine their banks1 but frequently sap the most solid foundations which the art of man can build for the support of bridges and hydraulic structures4#ceb ,in the inundation of #aheg1 the ,ardeche destroyed a stone bridge near ,la ,beaume1 which had been built about eighty years before4 ,the resistance of the piers1 which were erected on piles1 the channel at that point being of gravel1 produced an eddying current that washed away the bed of the river above them1 and the foundation1 thus deprived of lateral support1 yielded to the weight of the bridge1 and the piles and piers fell up stream4 ,by a curious law of compensation1 the stream which1 at flood1 scoops out cavities in its bed1 often fills them up again as soon as the diminished velocity of the current allows it to let fall the sand and gravel with which it is charged1 so that when the waters return to their usual channel1 the bottom shows no sign of having been disturbed4 ,in a flood of the ,escontay1 a tributary of the ,rhone1 in #ahdf1 piles driven sixteen feet into its gravelly bed for the foundation of a pier were torn up and carried off1 and yet1 when the river had fallen to low-water mark1 the bottom at that point appeared to have been raised higher than it was before the flood1 by new deposits of sand and gravel1 while the cut stones of the half-built pier were found buried to a great depth1 in the excavation which the water had first washed out4 ,the gravel with which rivers thus restore the level of their beds is principally derived from the crushing of the rocks brought down by the mountain torrents1 and the destructive effects of inundations are immensely diminished by this reduction of large stones to minute fragments4 ,if the blocks hurled down from the cliffs were transported unbroken to the channels of large rivers1 the mechanical force of their movement would be irresistible4 ,they would overthrow the strongest barriers1 spread themselves over a surface as wide as the flow of the waters1 and convert the most smiling valleys into scenes of the wildest desolation4 c4 ,crushing ,force of ,torrents4 ,there are few operations of nature where the effect seems more disproportioned to the cause than in the comminution of rock in the channel of swift waters4 ,igneous rocks are generally so hard as to be wrought with great difficulty1 and they bear the weight of enormous superstructures without yielding to the pressure2 but to the torrent they are as wheat to the millstone4 ,the streams which pour down the southern scarp of the ,mediterranean ,alps along the ,riviera di ,ponente1 near ,genoa1 have short courses1 and a brisk walk of a couple of hours or even less takes you from the sea beach to the headspring of many of them4 ,in their heaviest floods1 they bring rounded masses of serpentine quite down to the sea1 but at ordinary high water their lower course is charged only with finely divided particles of that rock4 ,hence1 while1 near their sources1 their channels are filled with pebbles and angular fragments1 intermixed with a little gravel1 the proportions are reversed near their mouths1 and1 just above the points where their outlets are partially choked by the rolling shingle of the beach1 their beds are composed of sand and gravel to the almost total exclusion of pebbles4 ,the greatest depth of the basin of the ,ardeche is seventy-five miles1 but most of its tributaries have a much shorter course4 ,these affluents1 says ,mardigny1 hurl into the bed of the ,ardeche enormous blocks of rock1 which this river1 in its turn1 bears onward1 and grinds down1 at high water1 so that its current rolls only gravel at its confluence with the ,rhone4#cec ,guglielmini argued that the gravel and sand of the beds of running streams were derived from the trituration of rocks by the action of the currents1 and inferred that this action was generally sufficient to reduce hard rock to sand in its passage from the source to the outlet of rivers4 ,frisi controverted this opinion1 and maintained that river sand was of more ancient origin1 and he inferred from experiments in artificially grinding stones that the concussion1 friction1 and attrition of rock in the channel of running waters were inadequate to its comminution1 though he admitted that these same causes might reduce silicious sand to a fine powder capable of transportation to the sea by the currents4#ced ,frisi's experiments were tried upon rounded and polished river pebbles1 and prove nothing with regard to the action of torrents upon the irregular1 more or less weathered1 and often cracked and shattered rocks which lie loose in the ground at the head of mountain valleys4 ,the fury of the waters and of the wind which accompanies them in the floods of the ,french ,alpine torrents is such1 that large blocks of stone are hurled out of the bed of the stream to the height of twelve or thirteen feet4 ,the impulse of masses driven with such force overthrows the most solid masonry1 and their concussion cannot fail to be attended with the crushing of the rocks themselves4#cee d4 ,inundations of #ahef in ,france4 ,the month of ,may1 #ahef1 was remarkable for violent and almost uninterrupted rains1 and most of the river basins of ,france were inundated to an extraordinary height4 ,in the valleys of the ,loire and its affluents1 about a million of acres1 including many towns and villages1 were laid under water1 and the amount of pecuniary damage was almost incalculable4#cef ,the flood was not less destructive in the valley of the ,rhone1 and in fact an invasion by a hostile army could hardly have been more disastrous to the inhabitants of the plains than was this terrible deluge4 ,there had been a flood of this latter river in the year #ahdj1 which1 for height and quantity of water1 was almost as remarkable as that of #ahef1 but it took place in the month of ,november1 when the crops had all been harvested1 and the injury inflicted by it upon agriculturists was1 therefore1 of a character to be less severely and less immediately felt than the consequences of the inundation of #ahef4ceg ,in the fifteen years between these two great floods1 the population and the rural improvements of the river valleys had much increased1 common roads1 bridges1 and railways had been multiplied and extended1 telegraph lines had been constructed1 all of which shared in the general ruin1 and hence greater and more diversified interests were affected by the catastrophe of #ahef than by any former like calamity4 ,the great flood of #ahdj had excited the attention and roused the sympathies of the ,french people1 and the subject was invested with new interest by the still more formidable character of the inundations of #ahef4 ,it was felt that these scourges had ceased to be a matter of merely local concern1 for1 although they bore most heavily on those whose homes and fields were situated within the immediate reach of the swelling waters1 yet they frequently destroyed harvests valuable enough to be a matter of national interest1 endangered the personal security of the population of important political centres1 interrupted communication for days and even weeks together on great lines of traffic and travel--thus severing as it were all ,southwestern ,france from the rest of the empire--and finally threatened to produce great and permanent geographical changes4 ,the well-being of the whole commonwealth was seen to be involved in preventing the recurrence1 and in limiting the range of such devastations4 ,the ,government encouraged scientific investigation of the phenomena and their laws4 ,their causes1 their history1 their immediate and remote consequences1 and the possible safeguards to be employed against them1 have been carefully studied by the most eminent physicists1 as well as by the ablest theoretical and practical engineers of ,france4 ,many hitherto unobserved facts have been collected1 many new hypotheses suggested1 and many plans1 more or less original in character1 have been devised for combating the evil2 but thus far1 the most competent judges are not well agreed as to the mode1 or even the possibility1 of applying a remedy4 e4 ,remedies against ,inundations4 ,perhaps no one point has been more prominent in the discussions than the influence of the forest in equalizing and regulating the flow of the water of precipitation4 ,as we have already seen1 opinion is still somewhat divided on this subject1 but the conservative action of the woods in this respect has been generally recognized by the public of ,france1 and the ,government of the empire has made this principle the basis of important legislation for the protection of existing forests1 and for the formation of new4 ,the clearing of woodland1 and the organization and functions of a police for its protection1 are regulated by a law bearing date ,june #ahth1 #ahei1 and provision was made for promoting the restoration of private woods by a statute adopted on the #bhth of ,july1 #ahfj4 ,the former of these laws passed the legislative body by a vote of #bdf against #d1 the latter with but a single negative voice4 ,the influence of the government1 in a country where the throne is so potent as in ,france1 would account for a large majority1 but when it is considered that both laws1 the former especially1 interfere very materially with the rights of private domain1 the almost entire unanimity with which they were adopted is proof of a very general popular conviction1 that the protection and extension of the forests is a measure more likely than any other to check the violence1 if not to prevent the recurrence1 of destructive inundations4 ,the law of ,july #bhth1 #ahfj1 appropriated #aj1jjj1jjj francs1 to be expended1 at the rate of #a1jjj1jjj francs per year1 in executing or aiding the replanting of woods4 ,it is computed that this appropriation will secure the creation of new forest to the extent of about #bej1jjj acres1 or one eleventh part of the soil where the restoration of the forest is thought feasible and1 at the same time1 specially important as a security against the evils ascribed in a great measure to its destruction4 ,the provisions of the laws in question are preventive rather than remedial2 but some immediate effect may be expected to result from them1 particularly if they are accompanied with certain other measures1 the suggestion of which has been favorably received4 ,the strong repugnance of the mountaineers to the application of a system which deprives them of a part of their pasturage--for the absolute exclusion of domestic animals is indispensable to the maintenance of an existing forest and to the formation of a new--is the most formidable obstacle to the execution of the laws of #ahei-'fj4 ,it is proposed to compensate this loss by a cheap system of irrigation of lower pasture grounds1 consisting in little more than in running horizontal furrows along the hillsides1 thus converting the scarp of the hills into a succession of small terraces which1 when once turfed over1 are very permanent4 ,experience is said to have demonstrated that this simple process suffices to retain the water of rains1 of snows1 and of small springs and rivulets1 long enough for the irrigation of the soil1 thus increasing its product of herbage in a fivefold proportion1 and that it partially checks the too rapid flow of surface water into the valleys1 and1 consequently1 in some measure obviates one of the most prominent causes of inundations4#ceh ,it is evident that1 if such results are produced by this method1 its introduction upon an extensive scale must also have the same climatic effects as other systems of irrigation4 ,whatever may be the ultimate advantages of reclothing a large extent of the territory of ,france with wood1 or of so shaping its surface as to prevent the too rapid flow of water over it1 the results to be obtained by such processes can be realized in an adequate measure only after a long succession of years4 ,other steps must be taken1 both for the immediate security of the lives and property of the present generation1 and for the prevention of yet greater and remoter evils which are inevitable unless means to obviate them are found before it is forever too late4 ,the frequent recurrence of inundations like those of #ahef1 for a single score of years1 in the basins of the ,rhone and the ,loire1 with only the present securities against them1 would almost depopulate the valleys of those rivers1 and produce physical revolutions in them1 which1 like revolutions in the political world1 could never be made to go backward4 ,destructive inundations are seldom1 if ever1 produced by precipitation within the limits of the principal valley1 but almost uniformly by sudden thaws or excessive rains on the mountain ranges where the tributaries take their rise4 ,it is therefore plain that any measures which shall check the flow of surface waters into the channels of the affluents1 or which shall retard the delivery of such waters into the principal stream by its tributaries1 will diminish in the same proportion the dangers and the evils of inundation by great rivers4 ,the retention of the surface waters upon or in the soil can hardly be accomplished except by the methods already mentioned1 replanting of forests1 and furrowing or terracing4 ,the current of mountain streams can be checked by various methods1 among which the most familiar and obvious is the erection of barriers or dams across their channels1 at points convenient for forming reservoirs large enough to retain the superfluous waters of great rains and thaws4 ,besides the utility of such basins in preventing floods1 the construction of them is recommended by very strong considerations1 such as the meteorological effects of increased evaporable surface1 the furnishing of a constant supply of water for agricultural and mechanical purposes1 and1 finally1 their value as ponds for breeding and rearing fish1 and1 perhaps1 for cultivating aquatic vegetables4 ,the objections to the general adoption of the system of reservoirs are these3 the expense of their construction and maintenance2 the reduction of cultivable area by the amount of surface they must cover2 the interruption they would occasion to free communication2 the probability that they would soon be filled up with sediment1 and the obvious fact that when full of earth or even water1 they would no longer serve their principal purpose2 the great danger to which they would expose the country below them in case of the bursting of their barriers2#cei the evil consequences they would occasion by prolonging the flow of inundations in proportion as they diminished their height2 the injurious effects it is supposed they would produce upon the salubrity of the neighboring districts2 and1 lastly1 the alleged impossibility of constructing artificial basins sufficient in capacity to prevent1 or in any considerable measure to mitigate1 the evils they are intended to guard against4 ,the last argument is more easily reduced to a numerical question than the others4 ,the mean and extreme annual precipitation of all the basins where the construction of such works would be seriously proposed is already approximately known by meteorological tables1 and the quantity of water1 delivered by the greatest floods which have occurred within the memory of man1 may be roughly estimated from their visible traces4 ,from these elements1 or from recorded observations1 the capacity of the necessary reservoirs can be calculated4 ,let us take the case of the ,ardeche4 ,in the inundation of #aheg1 that river poured into the ,rhone #a1cje1jjj1jjj cubic yards of water in three days4 ,if we suppose that half this quantity might have been suffered to flow down its channel without inconvenience1 we shall have about #fej1jjj1jjj cubic yards to provide for by reservoirs4 ,the ,ardeche and its principal affluent1 the ,chassezac1 have1 together1 about twelve considerable tributaries rising near the crest of the mountains which bound the basin4 ,if reservoirs of equal capacity were constructed upon all of them1 each reservoir must be able to contain #ed1jjj1jjj cubic yards1 or1 in other words1 must be equal to a lake #c1jjj yards long1 #a1jjj yards wide1 and #ah yards deep1 and besides1 in order to render any effectual service1 the reservoirs must all have been empty at the commencement of the rains which produced the inundation4 ,thus far1 ,i have supposed the swelling of the waters to be uniform throughout the whole basin2 but such was by no means the fact in the inundation of #aheg1 for the rise of the ,chassezac1 which is as large as the ,ardeche proper1 did not exceed the limits of ordinary floods1 and the dangerous excess came solely from the headwaters of the latter stream4 ,hence reservoirs of double the capacity ,i have supposed would have been necessary upon the tributaries of that river1 to prevent the injurious effects of the inundation4 ,it is evident that the construction of reservoirs of such magnitude for such a purpose is financially1 if not physically1 impracticable1 and when we take into account a point ,i have just suggested1 namely1 that the reservoirs must be empty at all times of apprehended flood1 and1 of course1 their utility limited almost solely to the single object of preventing inundations1 the total inapplicability of such a measure in this particular case becomes still more glaringly manifest4 ,another not less conclusive fact is that the valleys of all the upland tributaries of the ,ardeche descend so rapidly1 and have so little lateral expansion1 as to render the construction of capacious reservoirs in them quite impracticable4 ,indeed1 engineers have found but two points in the whole basin suitable for that purpose1 and the reservoirs admissible at these would have only a joint capacity of about #gj1jjj1jjj cubic yards1 or less than one ninth part of what ,i suppose to be required4 ,the case of the ,ardeche is no doubt an extreme one1 both in the topographical character of its basin and in its exposure to excessive rains2 but all destructive inundations are1 in a certain sense1 extreme cases also1 and this of the ,ardeche serves to show that the construction of reservoirs is not by any means to be regarded as a universal panacea against floods4 ,nor1 on the other hand1 is this measure to be summarily rejected4 ,nature has adopted it on a great scale1 on both flanks of the ,alps1 and on a smaller1 on those of the ,adirondacks and lower chains1 and in this as in many other instances1 her processes may often be imitated with advantage4 ,the validity of the remaining objections to the system under discussion depends on the topography1 geology1 and special climate of the regions where it is proposed to establish such reservoirs4 ,many upland streams present numerous points where none of these objections1 except those of expense and of danger from the breaking of dams1 could have any application4 ,reservoirs may be so constructed as to retain the entire precipitation of the heaviest thaws and rains1 leaving only the ordinary quantity to flow along the channel2 they may be raised to such a height as only partially to obstruct the surface drainage2 or they may be provided with sluices by means of which their whole contents can be discharged in the dry season and a summer crop be grown upon the ground they cover at high water4 ,the expediency of employing them and the mode of construction depend on local conditions1 and no rules of universal applicability can be laid down on the subject4 ,it is remarkable that nations which we1 in the false pride of our modern civilization1 so generally regard as little less than barbarian1 should have long preceded ,christian ,europe in the systematic employment of great artificial basins for the various purposes they are calculated to subserve4 ,the ancient ,peruvians built strong walls1 of excellent workmanship1 across the channels of the mountain sources of important streams1 and the ,arabs executed immense works of similar description1 both in the great ,arabian peninsula and in all the provinces of ,spain which had the good fortune to fall under their sway4 ,the ,spaniards of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 who1 in many points of true civilization and culture1 were far inferior to the races they subdued1 wantonly destroyed these noble monuments of social and political wisdom1 or suffered them to perish1 because they were too ignorant to appreciate their value1 or too unskilful as practical engineers to be able to maintain them1 and some of their most important territories were soon reduced to sterility and poverty in consequence4 ,another method of preventing or diminishing the evils of inundation by torrents and mountain rivers1 analogous to that employed for the drainage of lakes1 consists in the permanent or occasional diversion of their surplus waters1 or of their entire currents1 from their natural courses1 by tunnels or open channels cut through their banks4 ,nature1 in many cases1 resorts to a similar process4 ,most great rivers divide themselves into several arms in their lower course1 and enter the sea by different mouths4 ,there are also cases where rivers send off lateral branches to convey a part of their waters into the channel of other streams4#cfj ,the most remarkable of these is the junction between the ,amazon and the ,orinoco by the natural canal of the ,cassiquiare and the ,rio ,negro4 ,in ,india1 the ,cambodja and the ,menam are connected by the ,anam2 the ,saluen and the ,irawaddi by the ,panlaun4 ,there are similar examples1 though on a much smaller scale1 in ,europe4 ,the ,tornea and the ,calix rivers in ,lapland communicate by the ,tarando1 and in ,westphalia1 the ,else1 an arm of the ,haase1 falls into the ,weser4 ,the change of bed in rivers by gradual erosion of their banks is familiar to all1 but instances of the sudden abandonment of a primitive channel are by no means wanting4 ,at a period of unknown antiquity1 the ,ardeche pierced a tunnel #bjj feet wide and #ajj high1 through a rock1 and sent its whole current through it1 deserting its former bed1 which gradually filled up1 though its course remained traceable4 ,in the great inundation of #ahbg1 the tunnel proved insufficient for the discharge of the water1 and the river burst through the obstructions which had now choked up its ancient channel1 and resumed its original course4#cfa ,it was probably such facts as these that suggested to ancient engineers the possibility of like artificial operations1 and there are numerous instances of the execution of works for this purpose in very remote ages4 ,the ,bahr ,jusef1 the great stream which supplies the ,fayoum with water from the ,nile1 has been supposed1 by some writers1 to be a natural channel2 but both it and the ,bahr el ,wady are almost certainly artificial canals constructed to water that basin1 to regulate the level of ,lake ,moeris1 and possibly1 also1 to diminish the dangers resulting from excessive inundations of the ,nile1 by serving as waste-weirs to discharge a part of its surplus waters4 ,several of the seven ancient mouths of the ,nile are believed to be artificial channels1 and ,herodotus even asserts that ,king ,menes diverted the entire course of that river from the ,libyan to the ,arabian side of the valley4 ,there are traces of an ancient river bed along the western mountains1 which give some countenance to this statement4 ,but it is much more probable that the works of ,menes were designed rather to prevent a natural1 than to produce an artificial1 change in the channel of the river4 ,two of the most celebrated cascades in ,europe1 those of the ,teverone at ,tivoli and of the ,velino at ,terni1 owe1 if not their existence1 at least their position and character1 to the diversion of their waters from their natural beds into new channels1 in order to obviate the evils produced by their frequent floods4 ,remarkable works of the same sort have been executed in ,switzerland1 in very recent times4 ,until the year #agad1 the ,kander1 which drains several large ,alpine valleys1 ran1 for a considerable distance1 parallel with the ,lake of ,thun1 and a few miles below the city of that name emptied into the river ,aar4 ,it frequently flooded the flats along the lower part of its course1 and it was determined to divert it into the ,lake of ,thun4 ,for this purpose1 two parallel tunnels were cut through the intervening rock1 and the river turned into them4 ,the violence of the current burst up the roof of the tunnels1 and1 in a very short time1 wore the new channel down not less than one hundred feet1 and even deepened the former bed at least fifty feet1 for a distance of two or three miles above the tunnel4 ,the lake was two hundred feet deep at the point where the river was conducted into it1 but the gravel and sand carried down by the ,kander has formed at its mouth a delta containing more than a hundred acres1 which is still advancing at the rate of several yards a year4 ,the ,linth1 which formerly sent its waters directly to the ,lake of ,zurich1 and often produced very destructive inundations1 was turned into the ,wallensee about forty years ago1 and in both these cases a great quantity of valuable land was rescued both from flood and from insalubrity4 ,in ,switzerland1 the most terrible inundations often result from the damming up of deep valleys by ice slips or by the gradual advance of glaciers1 and the accumulation of great masses of water above the obstructions4 ,the ice is finally dissolved by the heat of summer or the flow of warm waters1 and when it bursts1 the lake formed above is discharged almost in an instant1 and all below is swept down to certain destruction4 ,in #aeie1 about a hundred and fifty lives and a great amount of property were lost by the eruption of a lake formed by the descent of a glacier into the valley of the ,drance1 and a similar calamity laid waste a considerable extent of soil in the year #ahah4 ,on this latter occasion1 the barrier of ice and snow was #c1jjj feet long1 #fjj thick1 and #djj high1 and the lake which had formed above it contained not less than #hjj1jjj1jjj cubic feet4 ,a tunnel was driven through the ice1 and about #cjj1jjj1jjj cubic feet of water safely drawn off by it1 but the thawing of the walls of the tunnel rapidly enlarged it1 and before the lake was half drained1 the barrier gave way and the remaining #ejj1jjj1jjj cubic feet of water were discharged in half an hour4 ,the recurrence of these floods has since been prevented by directing streams of water1 warmed by the sun1 upon the ice in the bed of the valley1 and thus thawing it before it accumulates in sufficient mass to threaten serious danger4 ,in the cases of diversion of streams above mentioned1 important geographical changes have been directly produced by those operations4 ,by the rarer process of draining glacier lakes1 natural eruptions of water1 which would have occasioned not less important changes in the face of the earth1 have been prevented by human agency4 ,the principal means hitherto relied upon for defence against river inundations has been the construction of dikes along the banks of the streams1 parallel to the channel and generally separated from each other by a distance not much greater than the natural width of the bed4#cfb ,if such walls are high enough to confine the water and strong enough to resist its pressure1 they secure the lands behind them from all the evils of inundation except those resulting from infiltration2 but such ramparts are enormously costly in original construction and maintenance1 and1 as we have already seen1 the filling up of the bed of the river in its lower course1 by sand and gravel1 involves the necessity of occasionally incurring new expenditures in increasing the height of the banks4#cfc ,they are attended1 too1 with some collateral disadvantages4 ,they deprive the earth of the fertilizing deposits of the waters1 which are powerful natural restoratives of soils exhausted by cultivation2 they accelerate the rapidity and transporting power of the current at high water by confining it to a narrower channel1 and it consequently conveys to the sea the earthy matter it holds in suspension1 and chokes up harbors with a deposit which it would otherwise have spread over a wide surface2 they interfere with roads and the convenience of river navigation1 and no amount of cost or care can secure them from occasional rupture1 in case of which the rush of the waters through the breach is more destructive than the natural flow of the highest inundation4#cfd ,for these reasons1 many experienced engineers are of opinion that the system of longitudinal dikes ought to be abandoned1 or1 where that cannot be done without involving too great a sacrifice of existing constructions1 their elevation should be much reduced1 so as to present no obstruction to the lateral spread of extraordinary floods1 and they should be provided with sluices to admit the water without violence whenever they are likely to be overflowed4 ,where dikes have not been erected1 and where they have been reduced in height1 it is proposed to construct1 at convenient intervals1 transverse embankments of moderate height running from the banks of the river across the plains to the hills which bound them4 ,these measures1 it is argued1 will diminish the violence of inundations by permitting the waters to extend themselves over a greater surface and thus retarding the flow of the river currents1 and will1 at the same time1 secure the deposit of fertilizing slime upon all the soil covered by the flood4 ,rozet1 an eminent ,french engineer1 has proposed a method of diminishing the ravages of inundations1 which aims to combine the advantages of all other systems1 and at the same time to obviate the objections to which they are all more or less liable4#cfe ,the plan of ,rozet is recommended by its simplicity and cheapness as well as its facility and rapidity of execution1 and is looked upon with favor by many persons very competent to judge in such matters4 ,he proposes to commence with the amphitheatres in which mountain torrents so often rise1 by covering their slopes and filling their beds with loose blocks of rock1 and by constructing at their outlets1 and at other narrow points in the channels of the torrents1 permeable barriers of the same material promiscuously heaped up1 much according to the method employed by the ancient ,romans in their northern provinces for a similar purpose4 ,by this means1 he supposes1 the rapidity of the current would be checked1 and the quantity of transported pebbles and gravel much diminished4 ,when the stream has reached that part of its course where it is bordered by soil capable of cultivation1 and worth the expense of protection1 he proposes to place along one or both sides of the stream1 according to circumstances1 a line of cubical blocks of stone or pillars of masonry three or four feet high and wide1 and at the distance of about eleven yards from each other4 ,the space between the two lines1 or between a line and the opposite high bank1 would1 of course1 be determined by observation of the width of the swift-water current at high floods4 ,as an auxiliary measure1 small ditches and banks1 or low walls of pebbles1 should be constructed from the line of blocks across the grounds to be protected1 nearly at right angles to the current1 but slightly inclining downward1 and at convenient distances from each other4 ,rozet thinks the proper interval would be #cjj yards1 and it is evident that1 if he is right in his main principle1 hedges1 rows of trees1 or even common fences1 would in many cases answer as good a purpose as banks and trenches or low walls4 ,the blocks or pillars of stone would1 he contends1 check the lateral currents so as to compel them to let fall all their pebbles and gravel in the main channel--where they would be rolled along until ground down to sand or silt--and the transverse obstructions would detain the water upon the soil long enough to secure the deposit of its fertilizing slime4 ,numerous facts are cited in support of the author's views1 and ,i imagine there are few residents of rural districts whose own observation will not furnish testimony confirmatory of their soundness4#cff ,the deposit of slime by rivers upon the flats along their banks not only contributes greatly to the fertility of the soil thus flowed1 but it subserves a still more important purpose in the general economy of nature4 ,all running streams begin with excavating channels for themselves1 or deepening the natural depressions in which they flow2#cfg but in proportion as their outlets are raised by the solid material transported by their currents1 their velocity is diminished1 they deposit gravel and sand at constantly higher and higher points1 and so at last elevate1 in the middle and lower part of their course1 the beds they had previously scooped out4#cfh ,the raising of the channels is compensated in part by the simultaneous elevation of their banks and the flats adjoining them1 from the deposit of the finer particles of earth and vegetable mould brought down from the mountains1 without which elevation the low grounds bordering all rivers would be1 as in many cases they in fact are1 mere morasses4 ,all arrangements which tend to obstruct this process of raising the flats adjacent to the channel1 whether consisting in dikes which confine the waters1 and1 at the same time1 augment the velocity of the current1 or in other means of producing the last-mentioned effect1 interfere with the restorative economy of nature1 and at last occasion the formation of marshes where1 if left to herself1 she would have accumulated inexhaustible stores of the richest soil1 and spread them out in plains above the reach of ordinary floods4#cfi ,consequences if the ,nile had been ,diked4 ,if a system of continuous lateral dikes1 like those of the ,po1 had been adopted in ,egypt in the early dynasties1 when the power and the will to undertake the most stupendous material enterprises were so eminently characteristic of the government of that country1 and the waters of the annual inundation consequently prevented from flooding the land1 it is conceivable that the productiveness of the small area of cultivable soil in the ,nile valley might have been long kept up by artificial irrigation and the application of manures4 ,but nature would have rebelled at last1 and centuries before our time the mighty river would have burst the fetters by which impotent man had vainly striven to bind his swelling floods1 the fertile fields of ,egypt would have been converted into dank morasses1 and then1 perhaps1 in some distant future1 when the expulsion of man should have allowed the gradual restoration of the primitive equilibrium1 would be again transformed into luxuriant garden and plough land4 ,fortunately1 the wisdom of ,egypt taught her children better things4 ,they invited and welcomed1 not repulsed1 the slimy embraces of ,nilus1 and his favors have been1 from the hoariest antiquity1 the greatest material blessing ever bestowed upon a people4#cgj ,the valley of the ,po has probably not been cultivated or inhabited so long as that of the ,nile1 but embankments have been employed on its lower course for at least two thousand years1 and for many centuries they have been connected in a continuous chain4 ,i have pointed out in a former chapter the effects produced on the geography of the ,adriatic by the deposit of river sediment in the sea at the mouths of the ,po1 the ,adige1 and the ,brenta4 ,if these rivers had been left unconfined1 like the ,nile1 and allowed to spread their muddy waters at will1 according to the laws of nature1 the slime they have carried to the coast would have been chiefly distributed over the plains of ,lombardy4 ,their banks would have risen as fast as their beds1 the coast line would not have been extended so far into the ,adriatic1 and1 the current of the streams being consequently shorter1 the inclination of their channel and the rapidity of their flow would not have been so greatly diminished4 ,had man spared a reasonable proportion of the forests of the ,alps1 and not attempted to control the natural drainage of the surface1 the ,po would resemble the ,nile in all its essential characteristics1 and1 in spite of the difference of climate1 perhaps be regarded as the friend and ally1 not the enemy and the invader1 of the population which dwells upon its banks4#cga ,the ,nile is larger than all the rivers of ,lombardy together1#cgb it drains a basin twenty times as extensive1 its banks have been occupied by man probably twice as long4 ,but its geographical character has not been much changed in the whole period of recorded history1 and1 though its outlets have somewhat fluctuated in number and position1 its historically known encroachments upon the sea are trifling compared with those of the ,po and the neighboring streams4 ,the deposits of the ,nile are naturally greater in ,upper than in ,lower ,egypt4 ,they are found to have raised the soil at ,thebes about seven feet within the last seventeen hundred years1 and in the ,delta the rise has been certainly more than half as great4 ,we shall1 therefore1 not exceed the truth if we suppose the annually inundated surface of ,egypt to have been elevated1 upon an average1 ten feet1 within the last #e1jjj years1 or twice and a half the period during which the history of the ,po is known to us4#cgc ,we may estimate the present actually cultivated area of ,egypt at about #e1ejj square statute miles4 ,as ,i have computed in a note on page #cgb1 that area is not more than half as extensive as under the dynasties of the ,pharaohs and the ,ptolemies2 for--though1 in consequence of the elevation of the river bed1 the inundations now have a wider natural spread--the industry of the ancient ,egyptians conducted the ,nile water over a great extent of soil it does not now reach4 ,we may1 then1 adopt a mean between the two quantities1 and we shall probably come near the truth if we assume the convenient number of #g1ibj square statute miles as the average measure of the inundated land during the historical period4 ,taking the deposit on this surface at ten feet1 the river sediment let fall on the soil of ,egypt within the last fifty centuries would amount to fifteen cubic miles4 ,had the ,nile been banked in1 like the ,po1 all this deposit1 except that contained in the water diverted by canals or otherwise drawn from the river for irrigation and other purposes1 would have been carried out to sea4#cgd ,this would have been a considerable quantity2 for the ,nile holds earth in suspension even at low water1 a much larger proportion during the flood1 and irrigation must have been carried on during the whole year4 ,the precise amount which would have been thus distributed over the soil is matter of conjecture1 but three cubic miles is certainly a liberal estimate4 ,this would leave twelve cubic miles as the quantity which embankments would have compelled the ,nile to transport to the ,mediterranean over and above what it has actually deposited in that sea4 ,the ,mediterranean is shoal for some miles out to sea along the whole coast of the ,delta1 and the large bays or lagoons within the coast line1 which communicate both with the river and the sea1 have little depth of water4 ,these lagoons the river deposits would have filled up1 and there would still have been surplus earth enough to extend the ,delta far into the ,mediterranean4#cge ,deposits of the ,tuscan ,rivers4 ,the ,arno1 and all the rivers rising on the western slopes and spurs of the ,apennines1 carry down immense quantities of mud to the ,mediterranean4 ,there can be no doubt that the volume of earth so transported is very much greater than it would have been had the soil about the headwaters of those rivers continued to be protected from wash by forests2 and there is as little question that the quantity borne out to sea by the rivers of ,western ,italy is much increased by artificial embankments1 because they are thereby prevented from spreading over the surface the sedimentary matter with which they are charged4 ,the western coast of ,tuscany has advanced some miles seaward within a very few centuries4 ,the bed of the sea1 for a long distance1 has been raised1 and of course the relative elevation of the land above it lessened2 harbors have been filled up and destroyed2 long lines of coast dunes have been formed1 and the diminished inclination of the beds of the rivers near their outlets has caused their waters to overflow their banks and convert them into pestilential marshes4 ,the territorial extent of ,western ,italy has thus been considerably increased1 but the amount of soil habitable and cultivable by man has been1 in a still higher proportion1 diminished4 ,the coast of ancient ,etruria was filled with great commercial towns1 and their rural environs were occupied by a large and prosperous population4 ,but maritime ,tuscany has long been one of the most unhealthy districts in ,christendom2 the famous mart of ,populonia has not an inhabitant2 the coast is almost absolutely depopulated1 and the malarious fevers have extended their ravages far into the interior4 ,these results are certainly not to be ascribed wholly to human action4 ,they are1 in a large proportion1 due to geological causes over which man has no control4 ,the soil of much of ,tuscany becomes pasty1 almost fluid even1 as soon as it is moistened1 and when thoroughly saturated with water1 it flows like a river4 ,such a soil as this would not be completely protected by woods1 and1 indeed1 it would now be difficult to confine it long enough to allow it to cover itself with forest vegetation4 ,nevertheless1 it certainly was once chiefly wooded1 and the rivers which flow through it must then have been much less charged with earthy matter than at present1 and they must have carried into the sea a smaller proportion of their sediment when they were free to deposit it on their banks than since they have been confined by dikes4#cgf ,it is1 in general1 true1 that the intervention of man has hitherto seemed to insure the final exhaustion1 ruin1 and desolation of every province of nature which he has reduced to his dominion4 ,attila was only giving an energetic and picturesque expression to the tendencies of human action1 as personified in himself1 when he said that no grass grew where his horse's hoofs had trod4 ,the instances are few1 where a second civilization has flourished upon the ruins of an ancient culture1 and lands once rendered uninhabitable by human acts or neglect have generally been forever abandoned as hopelessly irreclaimable4 ,it is1 as ,i have before remarked1 a question of vast importance1 how far it is practicable to restore the garden we have wasted1 and it is a problem on which experience throws little light1 because few deliberate attempts have yet been made at the work of physical regeneration1 on a scale large enough to warrant general conclusions in any one class of cases4 ,the valleys and shores of ,tuscany form1 however1 a striking exception to this remark4 ,the success with which human guidance has made the operations of nature herself available for the restoration of her disturbed harmonies1 in the ,val di ,chiana and the ,tuscan ,maremma1 is among the noblest1 if not the most brilliant achievements of modern engineering1 and1 regarded in all its bearings on the great question of which ,i have just spoken1 it is1 as an example1 of more importance to the general interests of humanity than the proudest work of internal improvement that mechanical means have yet constructed4 ,the operations in the ,val di ,chiana have consisted chiefly in so regulating the flow of the surface waters into and through it1 as to compel them to deposit their sedimentary matter at the will of the engineers1 and thereby to raise grounds rendered insalubrious and unfit for agricultural use by stagnating water2 the improvements in the ,maremma have embraced both this method of elevating the level of the soil1 and the prevention of the mixture of salt water with fresh in the coast marshes and shallow bays1 which is a very active cause of the development of malarious influences4#cgg ,improvements in the ,val di ,chiana4 ,for twenty miles or more after the remotest headwaters of the ,arno have united to form a considerable stream1 this river flows southeastward to the vicinity of ,arezzo4 ,it here sweeps round to the northwest1 and follows that course to near its junction with the ,sieve1 a few miles above ,florence1 from which point its general direction is westward to the sea4 ,from the bend at ,arezzo1 a depression called the ,val di ,chiana runs southeastward until it strikes into the valley of the ,paglia1 a tributary of the ,tiber1 and thus connects the basin of the latter river with that of the ,arno4 ,in the ,middle ,ages1 and down to the eighteenth century1 the ,val di ,chiana was often overflowed and devastated by the torrents which poured down from the highlands1 transporting great quantities of slime with their currents1 stagnating upon its surface1 and gradually converting it into a marshy and unhealthy district1 which was at last very greatly reduced in population and productiveness4 ,it had1 in fact1 become so desolate that even the swallow had deserted it4#cgh ,the bed of the ,arno near ,arezzo and that of the ,paglia at the southern extremity of the ,val di ,chiana did not differ much in level4 ,the general inclination of the valley was therefore small2 it does not appear to have ever been divided into opposite slopes by a true watershed1 and the position of the summit seems to have shifted according to the varying amount and place of deposit of the sediment brought down by the lateral streams which emptied into it4 ,the length of its principal channel of drainage1 and even the direction of its flow at any given point1 were therefore fluctuating4 ,hence1 much difference of opinion was entertained at different times with regard to the normal course of this stream1 and1 consequently1 to the question whether it was to be regarded as properly an affluent of the ,tiber or of the ,arno4 ,the bed of the latter river at the bend has been eroded to the depth of thirty or forty feet1 and that1 apparently1 at no very remote period4 ,if it were elevated to what was evidently its original height1 the current of the ,arno would be so much above that of the ,paglia as to allow of a regular flow from its channel to the latter stream1 through the ,val di ,chiana1 provided the bed of the valley had remained at the level which excavations prove it to have had a few centuries ago1 before it was raised by the deposits ,i have mentioned4 ,these facts1 together with the testimony of ancient geographers which scarcely admits of any other explanation1 are thought to prove that all the waters of the ,upper ,arno were originally discharged through the ,val di ,chiana into the ,tiber1 and that a part of them still continued to flow1 at least occasionally1 in that direction down to the days of the ,roman empire1 and perhaps for some time later4 ,the depression of the bed of the ,arno1 and the raising of that of the valley by the deposits of the lateral torrents and of the ,arno itself1 finally cut off the branch of the river which had flowed to the ,tiber1 and all its waters were turned into its present channel1 though the principal drainage of the ,val di ,chiana appears to have been in a southeastwardly direction until within a comparatively recent period4 ,in the sixteenth century1 the elevation of the bed of the valley had become so considerable1 that in #aeea1 at a point about ten miles south of the ,arno1 it was found to be not less than one hundred and thirty feet above that river2 then followed a level of ten miles1 and then a continuous descent to the ,paglia4 ,along the level portion of the valley was a boatable channel1 and lakes1 sometimes a mile or even two miles in breadth1 had formed at various points farther south4 ,at this period1 the drainage of the summit level might easily have been determined in either direction1 and the opposite descents of the valley made to culminate at the north or at the south end of the level4 ,in the former case1 the watershed would have been ten miles south of the ,arno2 in the latter1 twenty miles1 and the division would have been not very unequal4 ,various schemes were suggested at this time for drawing off the stagnant waters1 as well as for the future regular drainage of the valley1 and small operations for those purposes were undertaken with partial success2 but it was feared that the discharge of the accumulated waters into the ,tiber would produce a dangerous inundation1 while the diversion of the drainage into the ,arno would increase the violence of the floods to which that river was very subject1 and no decisive steps were taken4 ,in #afjf1 an engineer whose name has not been preserved proposed1 as the only possible method of improvement1 the piercing of a tunnel through the hills bounding the valley on the west to convey its waters to the ,ombrone1 but the expense and other objections prevented the adoption of this project4#cgi ,the fears of the ,roman ,government for the security of the valley of the ,tiber had induced it to construct barriers across that part of the channel which lay within its territory1 and these obstructions1 though not specifically intended for that purpose1 naturally promoted the deposit of sediment and the elevation of the bed of the valley in their neighborhood4 ,the effect of this measure and of the continued spontaneous action of the torrents was1 that the northern slope1 which in #aeea had commenced at the distance of ten miles from the ,arno1 was found in #afje to begin1 nearly thirty miles south of that river1 and in #afde it had been removed about six miles farther in the same direction4#chj ,in the seventeenth century1 the ,tuscan and ,papal ,governments consulted ,galileo1 ,torricelli1 ,castelli1 ,cassini1 ,viviani1 and other distinguished philosophers and engineers1 on the possibility of reclaiming the valley by a regular artificial drainage4 ,most of these eminent physicists were of opinion that the measure was impracticable1 though not altogether for the same reasons2 but they seem to have agreed in thinking that the opening of such channels1 in either direction1 as would give the current a flow sufficiently rapid to drain the lands properly1 would dangerously augment the inundations of the river--whether the ,tiber or the ,arno--into which the waters should be turned4 ,the general improvement of the valley was now for a long time abandoned1 and the waters were allowed to spread and stagnate until carried off by partial drainage1 infiltration1 and evaporation4 ,torricelli had contended that the slope of a large part of the valley was too small to allow it to be drained by ordinary methods1 and that no practicable depth and width of canal would suffice for that purpose4 ,it could be laid dry1 he thought1 only by converting its surface into an inclined plane1 and he suggested that this might be accomplished by controlling the flow of the numerous torrents which pour into it1 so as to force them to deposit their sediment at the pleasure of the engineer1 and1 consequently1 to elevate the level of the area over which it should be spread4#cha ,this plan did not meet with immediate general acceptance1 but it was soon adopted for local purposes at some points in the southern part of the valley1 and it gradually grew in public favor and was extended in application until its final triumph a hundred years later4 ,in spite of these encouraging successes1 however1 the fear of danger to the valley of the ,arno and the ,tiber1 and the difficulty of an agreement between ,tuscany and ,rome--the boundary between which states crossed the ,val di ,chiana not far from the halfway point between the two rivers--and of reconciling other conflicting interests1 prevented the resumption of the projects for the general drainage of the valley until after the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,in the mean time the science of hydraulics had become better understood1 and the establishment of the natural law according to which the velocity of a current of water1 and of course the proportional quantity discharged by it in a given time1 are increased by increasing its mass1 had diminished if not dissipated the fear of exposing the banks of the ,arno to greater danger from inundations by draining the ,val di ,chiana into it4 ,the suggestion of ,torricelli was finally adopted as the basis of a comprehensive system of improvement1 and it was decided to continue and extend the inversion of the original flow of the waters1 and to turn them into the ,arno from a point as far to the south as should be found practicable4 ,the conduct of the works was committed to a succession of able engineers who1 for a long series of years1 were under the general direction of the celebrated philosopher and statesman ,fossombroni1 and the success has fully justified the expectations of the most sanguine advocates of the scheme4 ,the plan of improvement embraced two branches3 the one1 the removal of certain obstructions in the bed of the ,arno1 and1 consequently1 the further depression of the channel of that river1 in certain places1 with the view of increasing the rapidity of its current2 the other1 the gradual filling up of the ponds and swamps1 and raising of the lower grounds of the ,val di ,chiana1 by directing to convenient points the flow of the streams which pour down into it1 and there confining their waters by temporary dams until the sediment was deposited where it was needed4 ,the economical result of these operations has been1 that in #ahce an area of more than four hundred and fifty square miles of pond1 marsh1 and damp1 sickly low grounds had been converted into fertile1 healthy and well-drained soil1 and1 consequently1 that so much territory has been added to the agricultural domain of ,tuscany4 ,but in our present view of the subject1 the geographical revolution which has been accomplished is still more interesting4 ,the climatic influence of the elevation and draining of the soil must have been considerable1 though ,i do not know that an increase or a diminution of the mean temperature or precipitation in the valley has been established by meteorological observation4 ,there is1 however1 in the improvement of the sanitary condition of the ,val di ,chiana1 which was formerly extremely unhealthy1 satisfactory proof of a beneficial climatic change4 ,the fevers1 which not only decimated the population of the low grounds but infested the adjacent hills1 have ceased their ravages1 and are now not more frequent than in other parts of ,tuscany4 ,the strictly topographical effect of the operations in question1 besides the conversion of marsh into dry surface1 has been the inversion of the inclination of the valley for a distance of thirty-five miles1 so that this great plain which1 within a comparatively short period1 sloped and drained its waters to the south1 now inclines and sends its drainage to the north4 ,the reversal of the currents of the valley has added to the ,arno a new tributary equal to the largest of its former affluents1 and a most important circumstance connected with this latter fact is1 that the increase of the volume of its waters has accelerated their velocity in a still greater proportion1 and1 instead of augmenting the danger from its inundations1 has almost wholly obviated that source of apprehension4 ,between the beginning of the fifteenth century and the year #agfa1 thirty-one destructive floods of the ,arno are recorded2 between #agfa1 when the principal streams of the ,val di ,chiana were diverted into that river1 and #ahce1 not one4#chb ,improvements in the ,tuscan ,maremme4 ,in the improvements of the ,tuscan ,maremma1 more formidable difficulties have been encountered4 ,the territory to be reclaimed was more extensive2 the salubrious places of retreat for laborers and inspectors were more remote2 the courses of the rivers to be controlled were longer and their natural inclination less rapid2 some of them1 rising in wooded regions1 transported comparatively little earthy matter1#chc and above all1 ,a like example is observed in the ,anapus near ,syracuse1 which1 below the junction of its two branches1 is narrower1 though swifter than either of them1 and such cases are by no means unfrequent4 ,the immediate effect of the confluence of two rivers upon the current below depends upon local circumstances1 and especially upon the angle of incidence4 ,if the two nearly coincide in direction1 so as to include a small angle1 the joint current will have a greater velocity than the slower confluent1 perhaps even than either of them4 ,if the two rivers run in transverse1 still more if they flow in more or less opposite directions1 the velocity of the principal branch will be retarded both above and below the junction1 and at high water it may even set back the current of the affluent4 ,on the other hand1 the diversion of a considerable branch from a river retards its velocity below the point of separation1 and here a deposit of earth in its channel immediately begins1 which has a tendency to turn the whole stream into the new bed4 ,theory and the authority of all hydrographical writers combine to show that the channels of rivers undergo an elevation of bed below a canal of diversion4--,letter of ,,fossombroni1 in ,,salvagnoli1 ,raccolta di ,documenti1 p4 #cb4 ,see the early authorities and discussions on the principle stated in the text1 in ,,frisi1 ,del modo di regolare i ,fiumi e i ,torrenti1 libro iii1 capit4 i4 the coast1 which is a recent deposit of the waters1 is little elevated above the sea1 and admits into its lagoons and the mouths of its rivers floods of salt water with every western wind1 every rising tide4#chd ,the western coast of ,tuscany is not supposed to have been an unhealthy region before the conquest of ,etruria by the ,romans1 but it certainly became so within a few centuries after that event4 ,this was a natural consequence of the neglect or wanton destruction of the public improvements1 and especially the hydraulic works in which the ,etruscans were so skilful1 and of the felling of the upland forests1 to satisfy the demand for wood at ,rome for domestic1 industrial1 and military purposes4 ,after the downfall of the ,roman empire1 the incursions of the barbarians1 and then feudalism1 foreign domination1 intestine wars1 and temporal and spiritual tyrannies1 aggravated still more cruelly the moral and physical evils which ,tuscany and the other ,italian ,states were doomed to suffer1 and from which they have enjoyed but brief respites during the whole period of modern history4 ,the ,maremma was already proverbially unhealthy in the time of ,dante1 who refers to the fact in several familiar passages1 and the petty tyrants upon its borders often sent criminals to places of confinement in its territory1 as a slow but certain mode of execution4 ,ignorance of the causes of the insalubrity1 and often the interference of private rights1#che prevented the adoption of measures to remove it1 and the growing political and commercial importance of the large towns in more healthful localities absorbed the attention of ,government1 and deprived the ,maremma of its just share in the systems of physical improvement which were successfully adopted in interior and ,northern ,italy4 ,before any serious attempts were made to drain or fill up the marshes of the ,maremme1 various other sanitary experiments were tried4 ,it was generally believed that the insalubrity of the province was the consequence1 not the cause1 of its depopulation1 and that1 if it were once densely inhabited1 the ordinary operations of agriculture1 and especially the maintenance of numerous domestic fires1 would restore it to its ancient healthfulness4#chf ,in accordance with these views1 settlers were invited from various parts of ,italy1 from ,greece1 and1 after the accession of the ,lorraine princes1 from that country also1 and colonized in the ,maremme4 ,to strangers coming from soils and skies so unlike those of the ,tuscan marshes1 the climate was more fatal than to the inhabitants of the neighboring districts1 whose constitutions had become in some degree inured to the local influences1 or who at least knew better how to guard against them4 ,the consequence very naturally was that the experiment totally failed to produce the desired effects1 and was attended with a great sacrifice of life and a heavy loss to the treasury of the state4 ,the territory known as the ,tuscan ,maremma1 ora maritima1 or ,maremme--for the plural form is most generally used--lies upon and near the western coast of ,tuscany1 and comprises about #a1ijj square miles ,english1 of which #ejj square miles1 or #cbj1jjj acres1 are plain and marsh including #de1ejj acres of water surface1 and about #bij1jjj acres are forest4 ,one of the mountain peaks1 that of ,mount ,amiata1 rises to the height of #f1bhj feet4 ,the mountains of the ,maremma are healthy1 the lower hills much less so1 as the malaria is felt at some points at the height of #a1jjj feet1 and the plains1 with the exception of a few localities favorably situated on the seacoast1 are in a high degree pestilential4 ,the fixed population is about #hj1jjj1 of whom one sixth live on the plains in the winter and about one tenth in the summer4 ,nine or ten thousand laborers come down from the mountains of the ,maremma and the neighboring provinces into the plain1 during the latter season1 to cultivate and gather the crops4 ,out of this small number of inhabitants and strangers1 #ce1fai were ill enough to require medical treatment between the #ast of ,june1 #ahdj1 and the #ast of ,june1 #ahda1 and more than one half the cases were of intermittent1 malignant1 gastric1 or catarrhal fever4 ,very few agricultural laborers escaped fever1 though the disease did not always manifest itself until they had returned to the mountains4 ,in the province of ,grosseto1 which embraces nearly the whole of the ,maremma1 the annual mortality was #c4ib per cent4 the average duration of life but #bc4ah years1 and #ge per cent4 of the deaths were among persons engaged in agriculture4 ,the filling up of the low grounds and the partial separation of the waters of the sea and the land1 which had been in progress since the year #ahbg1 now began to show very decided effects upon the sanitary condition of the population4 ,in the year ending ,june #ast1 #ahdb1 the number of the sick was reduced by more than #b1jjj1 and the cases of fever by more than #d1jjj4 ,the next year1 the cases of fever fell to #aj1ejj1 and in that ending ,june #ast1 #ahdd1 to #i1bjj4 ,the political events of #ahdh and the preceding and following years1 occasioned the suspension of the works of improvement in the ,maremma1 but they were resumed after the revolution of #ahei1 and are now in successful progress4 ,i have spoken1 with some detail1 of the improvements in the ,val di ,chiana and the ,tuscan ,maremma1 because of their great relative importance1 and because their history is well known2 but like operations have been executed in the territory of ,pisa and upon the coast of the duchy of ,lucca4 ,in the latter case1 they were confined principally to prevention of the intermixing of fresh water with that of the sea4 ,in #agda1 sluices or lock gates were constructed for this purpose1 and the following year1 the fevers1 which had been destructive to the coast population for a long time previous1 disappeared altogether4 ,in #agfh and #agfi1 the works having fallen to decay1 the fevers returned in a very malignant form1 but the rebuilding of the gates again restored the healthfulness of the shore4 ,similar facts recurred in #aghd and #aghe1 and again from #ahjd to #ahba4 ,this long and repeated experience has at last impressed upon the people the necessity of vigilant attention to the sluices1 which are now kept in constant repair4 ,the health of the coast is uninterrupted1 and ,viareggio1 the capital town of the district1 is now much frequented for its sea baths and its general salubrity1 at a season when formerly it was justly shunned as the abode of disease and death4#chg ,it is now a hundred years since the commencement of the improvements in the ,val di ,chiana1 and those of the ,maremma have been in more or less continued operation for above a generation4 ,they have1 as we have seen1 produced important geographical changes in the surface of the earth and in the flow of considerable rivers1 and their effects have been not less conspicuous in preventing other changes1 of a deleterious character1 which would infallibly have taken place if they had not been arrested by the improvements in question4 ,it has been already stated that1 in order to prevent the overflow of the valley of the ,tiber by freely draining the ,val di ,chiana into it1 the ,papal authorities1 long before the commencement of the ,tuscan works1 constructed strong barriers near the southern end of the valley1 which detained the waters of the wet season until they could be gradually drawn off into the ,paglia4 ,they consequently deposited most of their sediment in the ,val di ,chiana and carried down comparatively little earth to the ,tiber4 ,the lateral streams contributing the largest quantities of sedimentary matter to the ,val di ,chiana originally flowed into that valley near its northern end2 and the change of their channels and outlets in a southern direction1 so as to raise that part of the valley by their deposits and thereby reverse its drainage1 was one of the principal steps in the process of improvement4 ,we have seen that the north end of the ,val di ,chiana near the ,arno had been raised by spontaneous deposit of sediment to such a height as to interpose a sufficient obstacle to all flow in that direction4 ,if1 then1 the ,roman dam had not been erected1 or the works of the ,tuscan ,government undertaken1 the whole of the earth1 which has been arrested by those works and employed to raise the bed and reverse the declivity of the valley1 would have been carried down to the ,tiber and thence into the sea4 ,the deposit thus created1 would1 of course1 have contributed to increase the advance of the shore at the mouth of that river1 which has long been going on at the rate of three metres and nine tenths 7twelve feet and nine inches7 per annum4#chh ,it is evident that a quantity of earth1 sufficient to effect the immense changes ,i have described in a wide valley more than thirty miles long1 if deposited at the outlet of the ,tiber1 would have very considerably modified the outline of the coast1 and have exerted no unimportant influence on the flow of that river1 by raising its point of discharge and lengthening its channel4 ,the sediment washed into the marshes of the ,maremme is not less than #ab1jjj1jjj cubic yards per annum4 ,the escape of this quantity into the sea1 which is now almost wholly prevented1 would be sufficient to advance the coast line fourteen yards per year1 for a distance of forty miles1 computing the mean depth of the sea near the shore at twelve yards4 ,it is true that in this case1 as well as in that of other rivers1 the sedimentary matter would not be distributed equally along the shore1 and much of it would be carried out into deep water1 or perhaps transported by the currents to distant coasts4 ,the immediate effects of the deposit1 therefore1 would not be so palpable as they appear in this numerical form1 but they would be equally certain1 and would infallibly manifest themselves1 first1 perhaps1 at some remote point1 and afterward at or near the outlets of the rivers which produced them4 ,obstruction of ,river ,mouths4 ,the mouths of a large proportion of the streams known to ancient internal navigation are already blocked up by sandbars or fluviatile deposits1 and the maritime approaches to river harbors frequented by the ships of ,phenicia and ,carthage and ,greece and ,rome are shoaled to a considerable distance out to sea4 ,the inclination of almost every known river bed has been considerably reduced within the historical period1 and nothing but great volume of water1 or exceptional rapidity of flow1 now enables a few large streams like the ,amazon1 the ,la ,plata1 the ,ganges1 and1 in a less degree1 the ,mississippi1 to carry their own deposits far enough out into deep water to prevent the formation of serious obstructions to navigation4 ,but the degradation of their banks1 and the transportation of earthy matter to the sea by their currents1 are gradually filling up the estuaries even of these mighty floods1 and unless the threatened evil shall be averted by the action of geological forces1 or by artificial contrivances more efficient than dredging machines1 the destruction of every harbor in the world which receives a considerable river must inevitably take place at no very distant date4 ,this result would1 perhaps1 have followed in some incalculably distant future1 if man had not come to inhabit the earth as soon as the natural forces which had formed its surface had arrived at such an approximate equilibrium that his existence on the globe was possible2 but the general effect of his industrial operations has been to accelerate it immensely4 ,rivers1 in countries planted by nature with forests and never inhabited by man1 employ the little earth and gravel they transport chiefly to raise their own beds and to form plains in their basins4#chi ,in their upper course1 where the current is swiftest1 they are most heavily charged with coarse rolled or suspended matter1 and this1 in floods1 they deposit on their shores in the mountain valleys where they rise2 in their middle course1 a lighter earth is spread over the bottom of their widening basins1 and forms plains of moderate extent2 the fine silt which floats farther is deposited over a still broader area1 or1 if carried out to sea1 is1 in great part quickly swept far off by marine currents and dropped at last in deep water4 ,man's improvement of the soil increases the erosion from its surface2 his arrangements for confining the lateral spread of the water in floods compel the rivers to transport to their mouths the earth derived from that erosion even in their upper course2 and1 consequently1 the sediment they deposit at their outlets is not only much larger in quantity1 but composed of heavier materials1 which sink more readily to the bottom of the sea and are less easily removed by marine currents4 ,the tidal movement of the ocean1 deep sea currents1 and the agitation of inland waters by the wind1 lift up the sands strewn over the bottom by diluvial streams or sent down by mountain torrents1 and throw them up on dry land1 or deposit them in sheltered bays and nooks of the coast--for the flowing is stronger than the ebbing tide1 the affluent than the refluent wave4 ,this cause of injury to harbors it is not in man's power to resist by any means at present available2 but1 as we have seen1 something can be done to prevent the degradation of high grounds1 and to diminish the quantity of earth which is annually abstracted from the mountains1 from table lands1 and from river banks1 to raise the bottom of the sea4 ,this latter cause of harbor obstruction1 though an active agent1 is1 nevertheless1 in many cases1 the less powerful of the two4 ,the earth suspended in the lower course of fluviatile currents is lighter than sea sand1 river water lighter than sea water1 and hence1 if a land stream enters the sea with a considerable volume1 its water flows over that of the sea1 and bears its slime with it until it lets it fall far from shore1 or1 as is more frequently the case1 mingles with some marine current and transports its sediment to a remote point of deposit4 ,the earth borne out of the mouths of the ,nile is in part carried over the waves which throw up sea sand on the beach1 and deposited in deep water1 in part drifted by the current1 which sweeps east and north along the coasts of ,egypt and ,syria1 until it finds a resting place in the northeastern angle of the ,mediterranean4#cij ,thus the earth loosened by the rude ,abyssinian ploughshare1 and washed down by the rain from the hills of ,ethiopia which man has stripped of their protecting forests1 contributes to raise the plains of ,egypt1 to shoal the maritime channels which lead to the city built by ,alexander near the mouth of the ,nile1 and to fill up the harbors made famous by ,phenician commerce4 ,subterranean ,waters4 ,i have frequently alluded to a branch of geography1 the importance of which is but recently adequately recognized--the subterranean waters of the earth considered as stationary reservoirs1 as flowing currents1 and as filtrating fluids4 ,the earth drinks in moisture by direct absorption from the atmosphere1 by the deposition of dew1 by rain and snow1 by percolation from rivers and other superficial bodies of water1 and sometimes by currents flowing into caves or smaller visible apertures4#cia ,some of this humidity is exhaled again by the soil1 some is taken up by organic growths and by inorganic compounds1 some poured out upon the surface by springs and either immediately evaporated or carried down to larger streams and to the sea1 some flows by subterranean courses into the bed of fresh-water rivers#cib or of the ocean1 and some remains1 though even here not in forever motionless repose1 to fill deep cavities and underground channels4#cic ,in every case the aqueous vapors of the air are the ultimate source of supply1 and all these hidden stores are again returned to the atmosphere by evaporation4 ,the proportion of the water of precipitation taken up by direct evaporation from the surface of the ground seems to have been generally exaggerated1 sufficient allowance not being made for moisture carried downward1 or in a lateral direction1 by infiltration or by crevices in the superior rocky or earthy strata4 ,according to ,wittwer1 ,mariotte found that but one sixth of the precipitation in the basin of the ,seine was delivered into the sea by that river1 so that five sixths remained for evaporation and consumption by the organic world4#cid ,lieutenant ,maury--whose scientific reputation1 though fallen1 has not quite sunk to the level of his patriotism--estimates the annual amount of precipitation in the valley of the ,mississippi at #fbj cubic miles1 the discharge of that river into the sea at #ajg cubic miles1 and concludes that this would leave #eac cubic miles of water to be evaporated from this river basin annually4#cie ,in these and other like computations1 the water carried down into the earth by capillary and larger conduits is wholly lost sight of1 and no thought is bestowed upon the supply for springs1 for common and artesian wells1 and for underground rivers1 like those in the great caves of ,kentucky1 which may gush up in fresh-water currents at the bottom of the ,caribbean ,sea1 or rise to the light of day in the far-off peninsula of ,florida4 ,the progress of the emphatically modern science of geology has corrected these erroneous views1 because the observations on which it depends have demonstrated not only the existence1 but the movement1 of water in nearly all geological formations1 have collected evidence of the presence of large reservoirs at greater or less depths beneath surfaces of almost every character1 and have investigated the rationale of the attendant phenomena4 ,the distribution of these waters has been minutely studied with reference to a great number of localities1 and though the actual mode of their vertical and horizontal transmission is still involved in much doubt1 the laws which determine their aggregation are so well understood1 that1 when the geology of a given district is known1 it is not difficult to determine at what depth water will be reached by the borer1 and to what height it will rise4 ,the same principles have been successfully applied to the discovery of small subterranean collections or currents of water1 and some persons have acquired1 by a moderate knowledge of the superficial structure of the earth combined with long practice1 a skill in the selection of favorable places for digging wells which seems to common observers little less than miraculous4 ,the ,abbe ,paramelle--a ,french ecclesiastic who devoted himself for some years to this subject and was extensively employed as a well-finder--states1 in his work on ,fountains1 that in the course of thirty-four years he had pointed out more than ten thousand subterranean springs1 and though his geological speculations were often erroneous1 the highest scientific authorities in ,europe have testified to the great practical value of his methods1 and the almost infallible certainty of his predictions4#cif ,babinet quotes a ,french proverb1 ,summer rain wets nothing1 and explains it as meaning that the water of such rains is almost totally taken up by evaporation4 ,the rains of summer1 he adds1 however abundant they may be1 do not penetrate the soil to a greater depth than #ae or #bj centimetres4 ,in summer the evaporating power of the heat is five or six times as great as in winter1 and this power is exerted by an atmosphere capable of containing five times as much vapor as in winter4 ,a stratum of snow which prevents evaporation from the soil causes almost all the water that composes it to filter down into the earth1 and form a reserve for springs1 wells1 and rivers which could not be supplied by any amount of summer rain4 ,this latter--useful1 indeed like dew1 to vegetation--does not penetrate the soil and accumulate a store to feed springs and to be brought up by them to the open air4#cig ,this conclusion1 however applicable it may be to the climate and soil of ,france1 is too broadly stated to be accepted as a general truth1 and in countries where the precipitation is small in the winter months1 familiar observation shows that the quantity of water yielded by deep wells and natural springs depends not less on the rains of summer than on those of the rest of the year1 and1 consequently1 that much of the precipitation of that season must find its way to strata too deep to lose water by evaporation4 ,the supply of subterranean reservoirs and currents1 as well as of springs1 is undoubtedly derived chiefly from infiltration1 and hence it must be affected by all changes of the natural surface that accelerate or retard the drainage of the soil1 or that either promote or obstruct evaporation from it4 ,it has sufficiently appeared from what has gone before1 that the spontaneous drainage of cleared ground is more rapid than that of the forest1 and consequently1 that the felling of the woods1 as well as the draining of swamps1 deprives the subterranean waters of accessions which would otherwise be conveyed to them by infiltration4 ,the same effect is produced by artificial contrivances for drying the soil either by open ditches or by underground pipes or channels1 and in proportion as the sphere of these operations is extended1 the effect of them cannot fail to make itself more and more sensibly felt in the diminished supply of water furnished by wells and running springs4#cih ,it is undoubtedly true that loose soils1 stripped of vegetation and broken up by the plough or other processes of cultivation1 may1 until again carpeted by grasses or other plants1 absorb more rain and snow water than when they were covered by a natural growth2 but it is also true that the evaporation from such soils is augmented in a still greater proportion4 ,rain scarcely penetrates beneath the sod of grass ground1 but runs off over the surface2 and after the heaviest showers a ploughed field will often be dried by evaporation before the water can be carried off by infiltration1 while the soil of a neighboring grove will remain half saturated for weeks together4 ,sandy soils frequently rest on a tenacious subsoil1 at a moderate depth1 as is usually seen in the pine plains of the ,united ,states1 where pools of rain water collect in slight depressions on the surface of earth1 the upper stratum of which is as porous as a sponge4 ,in the open grounds such pools are very soon dried up by the sun and wind2 in the woods they remain unevaporated long enough for the water to diffuse itself laterally until it finds1 in the subsoil1 crevices through which it may escape1 or slopes which it may follow to their outcrop or descend along them to lower strata4 ,the readiness with which water not obstructed by impermeable strata diffuses itself through the earth in all directions--and1 consequently1 the importance of keeping up the supply of subterranean reservoirs--find a familiar illustration in the effect of paving the ground about the stems of vines and trees4 ,the surface earth around the trunk of a tree may be made perfectly impervious to water1 by flag stones and cement1 for a distance greater than the spread of the roots2 and yet the tree will not suffer for want of moisture1 except in droughts severe enough sensibly to affect the supply in deep wells and springs4 ,both forest and fruit trees grow well in cities where the streets and courts are closely paved1 and where even the lateral access of water to the roots is more or less obstructed by deep cellars and foundation walls4 ,the deep-lying veins and sheets of water1 supplied by infiltration from above1 send up moisture by capillary attraction1 and the pavement prevents the soil beneath it from losing its humidity by evaporation4 ,hence1 city-grown trees find moisture enough for their roots1 and though plagued with smoke and dust1 often retain their freshness while those planted in the open fields1 where sun and wind dry up the soil faster than the subterranean fountains can water it1 are withering from drought4 ,without the help of artificial conduit or of water carrier1 the ,thames and the ,seine refresh the ornamental trees that shade the thoroughfares of ,london and of ,paris1 and beneath the hot and reeking mould of ,egypt1 the ,nile sends currents to the extremest border of its valley4#cii ,artesian ,wells4 ,the existence of artesian wells depends upon that of subterranean reservoirs and rivers1 and the supply yielded by borings is regulated by the abundance of such sources4 ,the waters of the earth are1 in many cases1 derived from superficial currents which are seen to pour into chasms opened1 as it were1 expressly for their reception2 and in others where no apertures in the crust of the earth have been detected1 their existence is proved by the fact that artesian wells sometimes bring up from great depths seeds1 leaves1 and even living fish1 which must have been carried down through channels large enough to admit a considerable stream4 ,but in general1 the sheets and currents of water reached by deep boring appear to be primarily due to infiltration from highlands where the water is first collected in superficial or subterranean reservoirs4 ,by means of channels conforming to the dip of the strata1 these reservoirs communicate with the lower basins1 and exert upon them a fluid pressure sufficient to raise a column to the surface1 whenever an orifice is opened4#djj ,the water delivered by an artesian well is1 therefore1 often derived from distant sources1 and may be wholly unaffected by geographical or meteorological changes in its immediate neighborhood1 while the same changes may quite dry up common wells and springs which are fed only by the local infiltration of their own narrow basins4 ,in most cases1 artesian wells have been bored for purely economical or industrial purposes1 such as to obtain good water for domestic use or for driving light machinery1 to reach saline or other mineral springs1 and recently1 in ,america1 to open fountains of petroleum or rock oil4 ,the geographical and geological effects of such abstraction of fluids from the bowels of the earth are too remote and uncertain to be here noticed2#dja but artesian wells have lately been employed in ,algeria for a purpose which has even now a substantial1 and may hereafter acquire a very great geographical importance4 ,it was observed by many earlier as well as recent travellers in the ,east1 among whom ,shaw deserves special mention1 that the ,libyan desert1 bordering upon the cultivated shores of the ,mediterranean1 appeared in many places to rest upon a subterranean lake at an accessible distance below the surface4 ,the ,moors are vaguely said to have bored artesian wells down to this reservoir1 to obtain water for domestic use and irrigation1 but ,i do not find such wells described by any trustworthy traveller1 and the universal astonishment and incredulity with which the native tribes viewed the operations of the ,french engineers sent into the desert for that purpose1 are a sufficient proof that this mode of reaching the subterranean waters was new to them4 ,they were1 however1 aware of the existence of water below the sands1 and were dexterous in digging wells--square shafts lined with a framework of palm-tree stems--to the level of the sheet4 ,the wells so constructed1 though not technically artesian wells1 answer the same purpose2 for the water rises to the surface and flows over it as from a spring4#djb ,these wells1 however1 are too few and too scanty in supply to serve any other purposes than the domestic wells of other countries1 and it is but recently that the transformation of desert into cultivable land by this means has been seriously attempted4 ,the ,french ,government has bored a large number of artesian wells in the ,algerian desert within a few years1 and the native sheikhs are beginning to avail themselves of the process4 ,every well becomes the nucleus of a settlement proportioned to the supply of water1 and before the end of the year #ahfj1 several nomade tribes had abandoned their wandering life1 established themselves around the wells1 and planted more than #cj1jjj palm trees1 besides other perennial vegetables4#djc ,the water is found at a small depth1 generally from #ajj to #bjj feet1 and though containing too large a proportion of mineral matter to be acceptable to a ,european palate1 it answers well for irrigation1 and does not prove unwholesome to the natives4 ,the most obvious use of artesian wells in the desert at present is that of creating stations for the establishment of military posts and halting places for the desert traveller2 but if the supply of water shall prove adequate for the indefinite extension of the system1 it is probably destined to produce a greater geographical transformation than has ever been effected by any scheme of human improvement4 ,the most striking contrast of landscape scenery that nature brings near together in time or place1 is that between the greenery of the tropics1 or of a northern summer1 and the snowy pall of leafless winter4 ,next to this in startling novelty of effect1 we must rank the sudden transition from the shady and verdant oasis of the desert to the bare and burning party-colored ocean of sand and rock which surrounds it4#djd ,the most sanguine believer in indefinite human progress hardly expects that man's cunning will accomplish the universal fufilment of the prophecy1 the desert shall blossom as the rose1 in its literal sense2 but sober geographers have thought the future conversion of the sand plains of ,northern ,africa into fruitful gardens1 by means of artesian wells1 not an improbable expectation4 ,they have gone farther1 and argued that1 if the soil were covered with fields and forests1 vegetation would call down moisture from the ,libyan sky1 and that the showers which are now wasted on the sea1 or so often deluge ,southern ,europe with destructive inundation1 would in part be condensed over the arid wastes of ,africa1 and thus1 without further aid from man1 bestow abundance on regions which nature seems to have condemned to perpetual desolation4 ,an equally bold speculation1 founded on the well-known fact1 that the temperature of the earth and of its internal waters increases as we descend beneath the surface1 has suggested that artesian wells might supply heat for industrial and domestic purposes1 for hot-house cultivation1 and even for the local amelioration of climate4 ,the success with which ,count ,lardarello has employed natural hot springs for the evaporation of water charged with boracic acid1 and other fortunate applications of the heat of thermal sources1 lend some countenance to the latter project2 but both must1 for the present1 be ranked among the vague possibilities of science1 not regarded as probable future triumphs of man over nature4 ,artificial ,springs4 ,a more plausible and inviting scheme is that of the creation of perennial springs by husbanding rain and snow water1 storing it up in artificial reservoirs of earth1 and filtering it through purifying strata1 in analogy with the operations of nature4 ,the sagacious ,palissy--starting from the theory that all springs are primarily derived from precipitation1 and reasoning justly on the accumulation and movement of water in the earth--proposed to reduce theory to practice1 and to imitate the natural processes by which rain is absorbed by the earth and given out again in running fountains4 ,when ,i had long and diligently considered the cause of the springing of natural fountains and the places where they be wont to issue1 says he1 ,i did plainly perceive1 at last1 that they do proceed and are engendered of nought but the rains4 ,and it is this1 look you1 which hath moved me to enterprise the gathering together of rain water after the manner of nature1 and the most closely according to her fashion that ,i am able2 and ,i am well assured that by following the formulary of the ,supreme ,contriver of fountains1 ,i can make springs1 the water whereof shall be as good and pure and clear as of such which be natural4#dje ,palissy discusses the subject of the origin of springs at length and with much ability1 dwelling specially on infiltration1 and1 among other things1 thus explains the frequency of springs in mountainous regions3 ,having well considered the which1 thou mayest plainly see the reason why there be more springs and rivulets proceeding from the mountains than from the rest of the earth2 which is for no other cause but that the rocks and mountains do retain the water of the rains like vessels of brass4 ,and the said waters falling upon the said mountains descend continually through the earth1 and through crevices1 and stop not till they find some place that is bottomed with stone or close and thick rocks2 and they rest upon such bottom until they find some channel or other manner of issue1 and then they flow out in springs or brooks or rivers1 according to the greatness of the reservoirs and of the outlets thereof4#djf ,after a full exposition of his theory1 ,palissy proceeds to describe his method of creating springs1 which is substantially the same as that lately proposed by ,babinet in the following terms3 ,choose a piece of ground containing four or five acres1 with a sandy soil1 and with a gentle slope to determine the flow of the water4 ,along its upper line1 dig a trench five or six feet deep and six feet wide4 ,level the bottom of the trench1 and make it impermeable by paving1 by macadamizing1 by bitumen1 or1 more simply and cheaply1 by a layer of clay4 ,by the side of this trench dig another1 and throw the earth from it into the first1 and so on until you have rendered the subsoil of the whole parcel impermeable to rain water4 ,build a wall along the lower line with an aperture in the middle for the water1 and plant fruit or other low trees upon the whole1 to shade the ground and check the currents of air which promote evaporation4 ,this will infallibly give you a good spring which will flow without intermission and supply the wants of a whole hamlet or a large chateau4#djg ,babinet states that the whole amount of precipitation on a reservoir of the proposed area1 in the climate of ,paris1 would be about #ac1jjj cubic yards1 not above one half of which1 he thinks1 would be lost1 and1 of course1 the other half would remain available to supply the spring4 ,i much doubt whether this expectation would be realized in practice1 in its whole extent2 for if ,babinet is right in supposing that the summer rain is wholly evaporated1 the winter rains1 being much less in quantity1 would hardly suffice to keep the earth saturated and give off so large a surplus4 ,the method of ,palissy1 though1 as ,i have said1 similar in principle to that of ,babinet1 would be cheaper of execution1 and1 at the same time1 more efficient4 ,he proposes the construction of relatively small filtering receptacles1 into which he would conduct the rain falling upon a large area of rocky hillside1 or other sloping ground not readily absorbing water4 ,this process would1 in all probability1 be a very successful1 as well as an inexpensive1 mode of economizing atmospheric precipitation1 and compelling the rain and snow to form perennial fountains at will4 ,economizing ,precipitation4 ,the methods suggested by ,palissy and by ,babinet are of limited application1 and designed only to supply a sufficient quantity of water for the domestic use of small villages or large private establishments4 ,dumas has proposed a much more extensive system for collecting and retaining the whole precipitation in considerable valleys1 and storing it in reservoirs1 whence it is to be drawn for household and mechanical purposes1 for irrigation1 and1 in short1 for all the uses to which the water of natural springs and brooks is applicable4 ,his plan consists in draining both surface and subsoil1 by means of conduits differing in construction according to local circumstances1 but in the main not unlike those employed in improved agriculture1 collecting the water in a central channel1 securing its proper filterage1 checking its too rapid flow by barriers at convenient points1 and finally receiving the whole in spacious covered reservoirs1 from which it may be discharged in a constant flow or at intervals as convenience may dictate4#djh ,there is no reasonable doubt that a very wide employment of these various contrivances for economizing and supplying water is practicable1 and the expediency of resorting to them is almost purely an economical question4 ,there appears to be no serious reason to apprehend collateral evils from them1 and in fact all of them1 except artesian wells1 are simply indirect methods of returning to the original arrangements of nature1 or1 in other words1 of restoring the fluid circulation of the globe2 for when the earth was covered with the forest1 perennial springs gushed from the foot of every hill1 brooks flowed down the bed of every valley4 ,the partial recovery of the fountains and rivulets which once abundantly watered the face of the agricultural world seems practicable by such means1 even without any general replanting of the forests2 and the cost of one year's warfare1 if judiciously expended in a combination of both methods of improvement1 would secure1 to almost every country that man has exhausted1 an amelioration of climate1 a renovated fertility of soil1 and a general physical improvement1 which might almost be characterized as a new creation4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,sands4 ,,origin ,,of ,,sand--,,sand ,,now ,,carried ,,down ,,to ,,the ,,sea--,,the ,,sands ,,of ,,egypt ,,and ,,the ,,adjacent ,,desert----,,the ,,suez ,,canal----,,the ,,sands ,,of ,,egypt--,,coast ,,dunes ,,and ,,sand ,,plains--,,sand ,,banks--,,dunes ,,on ,,coast ,,of ,,america--,,dunes ,,of ,,western ,,europe--,,formation ,,of ,,dunes--,,character ,,of ,,dune ,,sand--,,interior ,,structure ,,of ,,dunes--,,form ,,of ,,dunes--,,geological ,,importance ,,of ,,dunes--,,inland ,,dunes-- ,,age1 ,,character1 ,,and ,,permanence ,,of ,,dunes--,,use ,,of ,,dunes ,,as ,,barrier ,,against ,,the ,,sea--,,encroachments ,,of ,,the ,,sea--,,the ,,liimfjord--,,encroachments ,,of ,,the ,,sea--,,drifting ,,of ,,dune ,,sands--,,dunes ,,of ,,gascony--,,dunes ,,of ,,denmark--,,dunes ,,of ,,prussia--,,artificial ,,formation ,,of ,,dunes--,,trees ,,suitable ,,for ,,dune ,,plantations--,,extent ,,of ,,dunes ,,in ,,europe--,,dune ,,vineyards ,,of ,,cape ,,breton-- ,,removal ,,of ,,dunes--,,inland ,,sand ,,plains--,,the ,,landes ,,of ,,gascony--,,the ,,belgian ,,campine--,,sands ,,and ,,steppes ,,of ,,eastern ,,europe--,,advantages ,,of ,,reclaiming ,,dunes--,,government ,,works ,,of ,,improvement4 ,origin of ,sand4 ,sand1 which is found in beds or strata at the bottom of the sea or in the channels of rivers1 as well as in extensive deposits upon or beneath the surface of the dry land1 appears to consist essentially of the detritus of rocks4 ,it is not always by any means clear through what agency the solid rock has been reduced to a granular condition2 for there are beds of quartzose sand1 where the sharp1 angular shape of the particles renders it highly improbable that they have been formed by gradual abrasion and attrition1 and where the supposition of a crushing mechanical force seems equally inadmissible4 ,in common sand1 the quartz grains are the most numerous2 but this is not a proof that the rocks from which these particles were derived were wholly1 or even chiefly1 quartzose in character2 for1 in many composite rocks1 as1 for example1 in the granitic group1 the mica1 felspar1 and hornblende are more easily decomposed by chemical action1 or disintegrated1 comminuted1 and reduced to an impalpable state by mechanical force1 than the quartz4 ,in the destruction of such rocks1 therefore1 the quartz would survive the other ingredients1 and remain unmixed1 when they had been decomposed and had entered into new chemical combinations1 or been ground to slime and washed away by water currents4 ,the greater or less specific gravity of the different constituents of rock doubtless aids in separating them into distinct masses when once disintegrated1 though there are veined and stratified beds of sand where the difference between the upper and lower layers1 in this respect1 is too slight to be supposed capable of effecting a complete separation4#dji ,in cases where rock has been reduced to sandy fragments by heat1 or by obscure chemical and other molecular forces1 the sandbeds may remain undisturbed1 and represent1 in the series of geological strata1 the solid formations from which they were derived4 ,the large masses of sand not found in place have been transported and accumulated by water or by wind1 the former being generally considered the most important of these agencies2 for the extensive deposits of the ,sahara1 of the deserts of ,persia1 and of that of ,gobi1 are commonly supposed to have been swept together or distributed by marine currents1 and to have been elevated above the ocean by the same means as other upheaved strata4 ,meteoric and mechanical influences are still active in the reduction of rocks to a fragmentary state2 but the quantity of sand now transported to the sea seems to be comparatively inconsiderable1 because--not to speak of the absence of diluvial action--the number of torrents emptying directly into the sea is much less than it was at earlier periods4 ,the formation of alluvial plains in maritime bays1 by the sedimentary matter brought down from the mountains1 has lengthened the flow of such streams and converted them very generally into rivers1 or rather affluents of rivers much younger than themselves4 ,the filling up of the estuaries has so reduced the slope of all large and many small rivers1 and1 consequently1 so checked the current of what the ,germans call their ,unterlauf1 or lower course1 that they are much less able to transport heavy material than at earlier epochs4 ,the slime deposited by rivers at their junction with the sea1 is usually found to be composed of material too finely ground and too light to be denominated sand1 and it can be abundantly shown that the sandbanks at the outlet of large streams are of tidal1 not of fluviatile origin1 or1 in lakes and tideless seas1 a result of the concurrent action of waves and of wind4 ,large deposits of sand1 therefore1 must in general be considered as of ancient1 not of recent formation1 and many eminent geologists ascribe them to diluvial action4 ,staring has discussed this question very fully1 with special reference to the sands of the ,north ,sea1 the ,zuiderzee1 and the bays and channels of the ,dutch coast4#daj ,his general conclusion is1 that the rivers of the ,netherlands move sand only by a very slow displacement of sandbanks1 and do not carry it with them as a suspended or floating material4 ,the sands of the ,german ,ocean he holds to be a product of the great ,north ,german drift1 deposited where they now lie before the commencement of the present geological period1 and he maintains similar opinions with regard to the sands thrown up by the ,mediterranean at the mouths of the ,nile and on the ,barbary coast4#daa ,sand now carried to the ,sea4 ,there are1 however1 cases where mountain streams still bear to the sea perhaps relatively small1 but certainly absolutely large1 amounts of disintegrated rock4#dab ,the quantity of sand and gravel carried into the ,mediterranean by the torrents of the ,maritime ,alps1 the ,ligurian ,apennines1 the islands of ,corsica1 ,sardinia1 and ,sicily1 and the mountains of ,calabria1 is apparently great4 ,in mere mass1 it is possible1 if not probable1 that as much rocky material1 more or less comminuted1 is contributed to the basin of the ,mediterranean by ,europe1 even excluding the shores of the ,adriatic and the ,euxine1 as is washed up from it upon the coasts of ,africa and ,syria4 ,a great part of this material is thrown out again by the waves on the ,european shores of that sea4 ,the harbors of ,luni1 ,albenga1 ,san ,remo1 and ,savona west of ,genoa1 and of ,porto ,fino on the other side1 are filling up1 and the coast near ,carrara and ,massa is said to have advanced upon the sea to a distance of #dge feet in thirty-three years4#dac ,besides this1 we have no evidence of the existence of deep-water currents in the ,mediterranean1 extensive enough and strong enough to transport quartzose sand across the sea4 ,it may be added that much of the rock from which the torrent sands of ,southern ,europe are derived contains little quartz1 and hence the general character of these sands is such that they must be decomposed or ground down to an impalpable slime1 long before they could be swept over to the ,african shore4 ,the torrents of ,europe1 then1 do not at present furnish the material which composes the beach sands of ,northern ,africa1 and it is equally certain that those sands are not brought down by the rivers of the latter continent4 ,they belong to a remote geological period1 and have been accumulated by causes which we cannot at present assign4 ,the wind does not stir water to great depths with sufficient force to disturb the bottom1#dad and the sand thrown upon the coast in question must be derived from a narrow belt of sea4 ,it must hence1 in time1 become exhausted1 and the formation of new sandbanks and dunes upon the southern shores of the ,mediterranean will cease at last for want of material4#dae ,but even in the cases where the accumulations of sand in extensive deserts appear to be of marine formation1 or rather aggregation1 and to have been brought to their present position by upheaval1 they are not wholly composed of material collected or distributed by the currents of the sea2 for1 in all such regions1 they continue to receive some small contributions from the disintegration of the rocks which underlie1 or crop out through1 the superficial deposits4 ,in some instances1 too1 as in ,northern ,africa1 additions are constantly made to the mass by the prevalence of sea winds1 which transport1 or1 to speak more precisely1 roll the finer beach sand to considerable distances into the interior4 ,but this is a very slow process1 and the exaggerations of travellers have diffused a vast deal of popular error on the subject4 ,sands of ,egypt4 ,in the narrow valley of the ,nile--which1 above its bifurcation near ,cairo1 is1 throughout ,egypt and ,nubia1 generally bounded by precipitous cliffs--wherever a ravine or other considerable depression occurs in the wall of rock1 one sees what seems a stream of desert sand pouring down1 and common observers have hence concluded that the whole valley is in danger of being buried under a stratum of infertile soil4 ,the ancient ,egyptians apprehended this1 and erected walls1 often of unburnt brick1 across the outlet of gorges and lateral valleys1 to check the flow of the sand streams4 ,in later ages1 these walls have mostly fallen into decay1 and no preventive measures against such encroachments are now resorted to4 ,but the extent of the mischief to the soil of ,egypt1 and the future danger from this source1 have been much overrated4 ,the sand on the borders of the ,nile is neither elevated so high by the wind1 nor transported by that agency in so great masses1 as is popularly supposed2 and of that which is actually lifted or rolled and finally deposited by air currents1 a considerable proportion is either calcareous1 and1 therefore1 readily decomposable1 or in the state of a very fine dust1 and so1 in neither case1 injurious to the soil4 ,there are1 indeed1 both in ,africa and in ,arabia1 considerable tracts of fine silicious sand1 which may be carried far by high winds1 but these are exceptional cases1 and in general the progress of the desert sand is by a rolling motion along the surface4#daf ,so little is it lifted1 and so inconsiderable is the quantity yet remaining on the borders of ,egypt1 that a wall four or five feet high suffices for centuries to check its encroachments4 ,this is obvious to the eye of every observer who prefers the true to the marvellous2 but the old-world fable of the overwhelming of caravans by the fearful simoom--which1 even the ,arabs no longer repeat1 if indeed they are the authors of it--is so thoroughly rooted in the imagination of ,christendom that most desert travellers1 of the tourist class1 think they shall disappoint the readers of their journals if they do not recount the particulars of their escape from being buried alive by a sand storm1 and the popular demand for a sensation must be gratified accordingly4#dag ,another circumstance is necessary to be considered in estimating the danger to which the arable lands of ,egypt are exposed4 ,the prevailing wind in the valley of the ,nile and its borders is from the north1 and it may be said without exaggeration that the north wind blows for three quarters of the year4#dah ,the effect of winds blowing up the valley is to drive the sands of the desert plateau which border it1 in a direction parallel with the axis of the valley1 not transversely to it2 and if it ran in a straight line1 the north wind would carry no desert sand into it4 ,there are1 however1 both curves and angles in its course1 and hence1 wherever its direction deviates from that of the wind1 it might receive sand drifts from the desert plain through which it runs4 ,but1 in the course of ages1 the winds have1 in a great measure1 bared the projecting points of their ancient deposits1 and no great accumulations remain in situations from which either a north or a south wind would carry them into the valley4#dai ,the ,suez ,canal4 ,these considerations apply1 with equal force1 to the supposed danger of the obstruction of the ,suez ,canal by the drifting of the desert sands4 ,the winds across the isthmus are almost uniformly from the north1 and they swept it clean of flying sands long ages since4 ,the traces of the ancient canal between the ,red ,sea and the ,nile are easily followed for a considerable distance from ,suez4 ,had the drifts upon the isthmus been as formidable as some have feared and others have hoped1 those traces would have been obliterated1 and ,lake ,timsah and the ,bitter ,lakes filled up1 many centuries ago4 ,the few particles driven by the rare east and west winds toward the line of the canal1 would easily be arrested by plantations or other simple methods1 or removed by dredging4 ,the real dangers and difficulties of this magnificent enterprise--and they are great--consist in the nature of the soil to be removed in order to form the line1 and especially in the constantly increasing accumulation of sea sand at the southern terminus by the tides of the ,red ,sea1 and at the northern1 by the action of the winds4 ,both seas are shallow for miles from the shore1 and the excavation and maintenance of deep channels1 and of capacious harbors with easy and secure entrances1 in such localities1 is doubtless one of the hardest problems offered to modern engineers for practical solution4 ,sands of ,egypt4 ,the sand let fall in ,egypt by the north wind is derived1 not from the desert1 but from a very different source--the sea4 ,considerable quantities of sand are thrown up by the ,mediterranean1 at and between the mouths of the ,nile1 and indeed along almost the whole southern coast of that sea1 and drifted into the interior to distances varying according to the force of the wind and the abundance and quality of the material4 ,the sand so transported contributes to the gradual elevation of the ,delta1 and of the banks and bed of the river itself4 ,but just in proportion as the bed of the stream is elevated1 the height of the water in the annual inundations is increased also1 and as the inclination of the channel is diminished1 the rapidity of the current is checked1 and the deposition of the slime it holds in suspension consequently promoted4 ,thus the winds and the water1 moving in contrary directions1 join in producing a common effect4 ,the sand1 blown over the ,delta and the cultivated land higher up the stream during the inundation1 is covered or mixed with the fertile earth brought down by the river1 and no serious injury is sustained from it4 ,that spread over the same ground after the water has subsided1 and during the short period when the soil is not stirred by cultivation or covered by the flood1 forms a thin pellicle over the surface as far as it extends1 and serves to divide and distinguish the successive layers of slime deposited by the annual inundations4 ,the particles taken up by the wind on the sea beach are borne onward1 by a hopping motion1 or rolled along the surface1 until they are arrested by the temporary cessation of the wind1 by vegetation1 or by some other obstruction1 and they may1 in process of time1 accumulate in large masses1 under the lee of rocky projections1 buildings1 or other barriers which break the force of the wind4 ,in these facts we find the true explanation of the sand drifts1 which have half buried the ,sphinx and so many other ancient monuments in that part of ,egypt4 ,these drifts1 as ,i have said1 are not primarily from the desert1 but from the sea2 and1 as might be supposed from the distance they have travelled1 they have been long in gathering4 ,while ,egypt was a great and flourishing kingdom1 measures were taken to protect its territory against the encroachment of sand1 whether from the desert or from the sea2 but the foreign conquerors1 who destroyed so many of its religious monuments1 did not spare its public works1 and the process of physical degradation undoubtedly began as early as the ,persian invasion4 ,the urgent necessity1 which has compelled all the successive tyrannies of ,egypt to keep up some of the canals and other arrangements for irrigation1 was not felt with respect to the advancement of the sands2 for their progress was so slow as hardly to be perceptible in the course of a single reign1 and long experience has shown that1 from the natural effect of the inundations1 the cultivable soil of the valley is1 on the whole1 trenching upon the domain of the desert1 not retreating before it4 ,the oases of the ,libyan1 as well as of many ,asiatic deserts1 have no such safeguards4 ,the sands are fast encroaching upon them1 and threaten soon to engulf them1 unless man shall resort to artesian wells and plantations1 or to some other efficient means of checking the advance of this formidable enemy1 in time to save these islands of the waste from final destruction4 ,accumulations of sand are1 in certain cases1 beneficial as a protection against the ravages of the sea2 but1 in general1 the vicinity1 and especially the shifting of bodies of this material1 are destructive to human industry1 and hence1 in civilized countries1 measures are taken to prevent its spread4 ,this1 however1 can be done only where the population is large and enlightened1 and the value of the soil1 or of the artificial erections and improvements upon it1 is considerable4 ,hence in the deserts of ,africa and of ,asia1 and the inhabited lands which border on them1 no pains are usually taken to check the drifts1 and when once the fields1 the houses1 the springs1 or the canals of irrigation are covered or choked1 the district is abandoned without a struggle1 and surrendered to perpetual desolation4#dbj ,sand ,dunes and ,sand ,plains4 ,two forms of sand deposit are specially important in ,european and ,american geography4 ,the one is that of dune or shifting hillock upon the coast1 the other that of barren plain in the interior4 ,the coast dunes are composed of sand washed up from the depths of the sea by the waves1 and heaped in knolls and ridges by the winds4 ,the sand with which many plains are covered1 appears sometimes to have been deposited upon them while they were yet submerged1 sometimes to have been drifted from the sea coast1 and scattered over them by wind currents1 sometimes to have been washed upon them by running water4 ,in these latter cases1 the deposit1 though in itself considerable1 is comparatively narrow in extent and irregular in distribution1 while1 in the former1 it is often evenly spread over a very wide surface4 ,in all great bodies of either sort1 the silicious grains are the principal constituent1 though1 when not resulting from the disintegration of silicious rock and still remaining in place1 they are generally accompanied with a greater or less admixture of other mineral particles1 and of animal and vegetable remains1#dba and they are1 also1 usually somewhat changed in consistence by the ever-varying conditions of temperature and moisture to which they have been exposed since their deposit4 ,unless the proportion of these latter ingredients is so large as to create a certain adhesiveness in the mass--in which case it can no longer properly be called sand--it is infertile1 and1 if not charged with water1 partially agglutinated by iron1 lime1 or other cement1 or confined by alluvion resting upon it1 it is much inclined to drift1 whenever1 by any chance1 the vegetable network which1 in most cases1 thinly clothes and at the same time confines it1 is broken4 ,human industry has not only fixed the flying dunes1 but1 by mixing clay and other tenacious earths with the superficial stratum of extensive sand plains1 and by the application of fertilizing substances1 it has made them abundantly productive of vegetable life4 ,these latter processes belong to agriculture and not to geography1 and1 therefore1 are not embraced within the scope of the present subject4 ,but the preliminary steps1 whereby wastes of loose1 drifting barren sands are transformed into wooded knolls and plains1 and finally1 through the accumulation of vegetable mould1 into arable ground1 constitute a conquest over nature which precedes agriculture--a geographical revolution--and1 therefore1 an account of the means by which the change has been effected belongs properly to the history of man's influence on the great features of physical geography4 ,i proceed1 then1 to examine the structure of dunes1 and to describe the warfare man wages with the sand hills1 striving on the one hand to maintain and even extend them1 as a natural barrier against encroachments of the sea1 and1 on the other1 to check their moving and wandering propensities1 and prevent them from trespassing upon the fields he has planted and the habitations in which he dwells4 ,coast ,dunes4 ,coast dunes are oblong ridges or round hillocks1 formed by the action of the wind upon sands thrown up by the waves on the beach of seas1 and sometimes of fresh-water lakes4 ,on most coasts1 the supply of sand for the formation of dunes is derived from tidal waves4 ,the flow of the tide is more rapid1 and consequently its transporting power greater1 than that of the ebb2 the momentum1 acquired by the heavy particles in rolling in with the water1 tends to carry them even beyond the flow of the waves2 and at the turn of the tide1 the water is in a state of repose long enough to allow it to let fall much of the solid matter it holds in suspension4 ,hence1 on all low1 tide-washed coasts of seas with sandy bottoms1 there exist several conditions favorable to the formation of sand deposits along high-water mark4#dbb ,if the land winds are of greater frequency1 duration1 or strength than the sea winds1 the sands left by the retreating wave will be constantly blown back into the water2 but if the prevailing air currents are in the opposite direction1 the sands will soon be carried out of the reach of the highest waves1 and transported continually farther and farther into the interior of the land1 unless obstructed by high grounds1 vegetation1 or other obstacles4 ,the tide1 though a usual1 is by no means a necessary condition for the accumulations of sand out of which dunes are formed4 ,the ,baltic and the ,mediterranean are almost tideless seas1 but there are dunes on the ,russian and ,prussian coasts of the ,baltic1 and at the mouths of the ,nile and many other points on the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,the vast shoals in the latter sea1 known to the ancients as the ,greater and ,lesser ,syrtis1 are of marine origin4 ,they are still filling up with sand1 washed up from greater depths1 or sometimes drifted from the coast in small quantities1 and will probably be converted1 at some future period1 into dry land covered with sand hills4 ,there are also extensive ranges of dunes upon the eastern shores of the ,caspian1 and at the southern1 or rather southeastern extremity of ,lake ,michigan4#dbc ,there is no doubt that this latter lake formerly extended much farther in that direction1 but its southern portion has gradually shoaled and at last been converted into solid land1 in consequence of the prevalence of the northwest winds4 ,these blow over the lake a large part of the year1 and create a southwardly set of the currents1 which wash up sand from the bed of the lake and throw it on shore4 ,sand is taken up from the beach at ,michigan ,city by every wind from that quarter1 and1 after a heavy blow of some hours' duration1 sand ridges may be observed on the north side of the fences1 like the snow wreaths deposited by a drifting wind in winter4 ,some of the particles are carried back by contrary winds1 but most of them lodge on or behind the dunes1 or in the moist soil near the lake1 or are entangled by vegetables1 and tend permanently to elevate the level4 ,like effects are produced by constant sea winds1 and dunes will generally be formed on all low coasts where such prevail1 whether in tideless or in tidal waters4 ,jobard thus describes the modus operandi1 under ordinary circumstances1 at the mouths of the ,nile1 where a tide can scarcely be detected3 ,when a wave breaks1 it deposits an almost imperceptible line of fine sand4 ,the next wave brings also its contribution1 and shoves the preceding line a little higher4 ,as soon as the particles are fairly out of the reach of the water they are dried by the heat of the burning sun1 and immediately seized by the wind and rolled or borne farther inland4 ,the gravel is not thrown out by the waves1 but rolls backward and forward until it is worn down to the state of fine sand1 when it1 in its turn1 is cast upon the land and taken up by the wind4#dbd ,this description applies only to the common every-day action of wind and water2 but just in proportion to the increasing force of the wind and the waves1 there is an increase in the quantity of sand1 and in the magnitude of the particles carried off from the beach by it1 and1 of course1 every storm in a landward direction adds sensibly to the accumulation upon the shore4 ,sand ,banks4 ,although dunes1 properly so called1 are found only on dry land and above ordinary high-water mark1 and owe their elevation and structure to the action of the wind1 yet1 upon many shelving coasts1 accumulations of sand much resembling dunes are formed under water at some distance from the shore by the oscillations of the waves1 and are well known by the name of sand banks4 ,they are usually rather ridges than banks1 of moderate inclination1 and with the steepest slope seaward2 and their form differs from that of dunes only in being lower and more continuous4 ,upon the western coast of the island of ,amrum1 for example1 there are three rows of such banks1 the summits of which are at a distance of perhaps a couple of miles from each other2 so that1 including the width of the banks themselves1 the spaces between them1 and the breadth of the zone of dunes upon the land1 the belt of moving sands on that coast is probably not less than eight miles wide4 ,under ordinary circumstances1 sand banks are always rolling landward1 and they compose the magazine from which the material for the dunes is derived4 ,the dunes1 in fact1 are but aquatic sand banks transferred to dry land4 ,the laws of their formation are closely analogous1 because the action of the two fluids1 by which they are respectively accumulated and built up1 is very similar when brought to bear upon loose particles of solid matter4 ,it would1 indeed1 seem that the slow and comparatively regular movements of the heavy1 unelastic water ought to affect such particles very differently from the sudden and fitful impulses of the light and elastic air4 ,but the velocity of the wind currents gives them a mechanical force approximating to that of the slower waves1 and1 however difficult it may be to explain all the phenomena that characterize the structure of the dunes1 observation has proved that it is nearly identical with that of submerged sand banks4 ,the differences of form are generally ascribable to the greater number and variety of surface accidents of the ground on which the sand hills of the land are built up1 and to the more frequent changes1 and wider variety of direction1 in the courses of the wind4 ,dunes on the ,coast of ,america4 ,upon the ,atlantic coast of the ,united ,states1 the prevalence of western or off-shore winds is unfavorable to the formation of dunes1 and1 though marine currents lodge vast quantities of sand1 in the form of banks1 on that coast1 its shores are proportionally more free from sand hills than some others of lesser extent4 ,there are1 however1 very important exceptions4 ,the action of the tide throws much sand upon some points of the ,new ,england coast1 as well as upon the beaches of ,long ,island and other more southern shores1 and here dunes resembling those of ,europe are formed4 ,there are also extensive ranges of dunes on the ,pacific coast of the ,united ,states1 and at ,san ,francisco they border some of the streets of the city4 ,the dunes of ,america are far older than her civilization1 and the soil they threaten or protect possesses1 in general1 too little value to justify any great expenditure in measures for arresting their progress or preventing their destruction4 ,hence1 great as is their extent and their geographical importance1 they have1 at present1 no such intimate relations to human life as to render them objects of special interest in the point of view ,i am taking1 and ,i do not know that the laws of their formation and motion have been made a subject of original investigation by any ,american observer4 ,dunes of ,western ,europe4 ,upon the western coast of ,europe1 on the contrary1 the ravages occasioned by the movement of sand dunes1 and the serious consequences often resulting from the destruction of them1 have long engaged the earnest attention of governments and of scientific men1 and for nearly a century persevering and systematic effort has been made to bring them under human control4 ,the subject has been carefully studied in ,denmark and the adjacent duchies1 in ,western ,prussia1 in the ,netherlands1 and in ,france2 and the experiments in the way of arresting the drifting of the dunes1 and of securing them1 and the lands they shelter1 from the encroachments of the sea1 have resulted in the adoption of a system of coast improvement substantially the same in all these countries4 ,the sands1 like the forests1 have now their special literature1 and the volumes and memoirs1 which describe them and the processes employed to subdue them1 are full of scientific interest and of practical instruction4#dbe ,formation of ,dunes4 ,the laws which govern the formation of dunes are substantially these4 ,we have seen that1 under certain conditions1 sand is accumulated above high-water mark on low sea and lake shores4 ,so long as the sand is kept wet by the spray or by capillary attraction1 it is not disturbed by air currents1 but as soon as the waves retire sufficiently to allow it to dry1 it becomes the sport of the wind1 and is driven up the gently sloping beach until it is arrested by stones1 vegetables1 or other obstructions1 and thus an accumulation is formed which constitutes the foundation of a dune4 ,however slight the elevation thus created1 it serves to stop or retard the progress of the sand grains which are driven against its shoreward face1 and to protect from the further influence of the wind the particles which are borne beyond it1 or rolled over its crest1 and fall down behind it4 ,if the shore above the beach line were perfectly level and straight1 the grass or bushes upon it of equal height1 the sand thrown up by the waves uniform in size and weight of particles as well as in distribution1 and if the action of the wind were steady and regular1 a continuous bank would be formed1 everywhere alike in height and cross section4 ,but no such constant conditions anywhere exist4 ,the banks are curved1 broken1 unequal in elevation2 they are sometimes bare1 sometimes clothed with vegetables of different structure and dimensions2 the sand thrown up is variable in quantity and character2 and the winds are shifting1 gusty1 vortical1 and often blowing in very narrow currents4 ,from all these causes1 instead of uniform hills1 there rise irregular rows of sand heaps1 and these1 as would naturally be expected1 are of a pyramidal1 or rather conical shape1 and connected at bottom by more or less continuous ridges of the same material4 ,on a receding coast1 dunes will not attain so great a height as on more secure shores1 because they are undermined and carried off before they have time to reach their greatest dimensions4 ,hence1 while at sheltered points in ,southwestern ,france1 there are dunes three hundred feet or more in height1 those on the ,frisic ,islands and the exposed parts of the coast of ,schleswig-,holstein range only from twenty to one hundred feet4 ,on the western shores of ,africa1 it is said that they sometimes attain an elevation of six hundred feet4 ,this is one of the very few points known to geographers where desert sands are advancing seaward1 and here they rise to the greatest altitude to which sand grains can be carried by the wind4 ,the hillocks1 once deposited1 are held together and kept in shape1 partly by mere gravity1 and partly by the slight cohesion of the lime1 clay1 and organic matter mixed with the sand2 and it is observed that1 from capillary attraction1 evaporation from lower strata1 and retention of rain water1 they are always moist a little below the surface4#dbf ,by successive accumulations1 they gradually rise to the height of thirty1 fifty1 sixty1 or a hundred feet1 and sometimes even much higher4 ,strong winds1 instead of adding to their elevation1 sweep off loose particles from their surface1 and these1 with others blown over or between them1 build up a second row of dunes1 and so on according to the character of the wind1 the supply and consistence of the sand1 and the face of the country4 ,in this way is formed a belt of sand dunes1 irregularly dispersed and varying much in height and dimensions1 and some times many miles in breadth4 ,on the ,island of ,sylt1 in the ,german ,sea1 where there are several rows1 the width of the belt is from half a mile to a mile4 ,there are similar ranges on the coast of ,holland1 exceeding two miles in breadth1 while at the mouths of the ,nile they form a zone not less than ten miles wide4 ,the base of some of the dunes in the ,delta of the ,nile is reached by the river during the annual inundation1 and the infiltration of the water1 which contains lime1 has converted the lower strata into a silicious limestone1 or rather a calcareous sandstone1 and thus afforded an opportunity of studying the structure of that rock in a locality where its origin and mode of aggregation and solidification are known4 ,character of ,dune ,sand4 ,dune sand1 says ,staring1 consists of well-rounded grains of quartz1 more or less colored by iron1 and often mingled with fragments of shells1 small indeed1 but still visible to the naked eye4#dbg ,these fragments are not constant constituents of dune sand4 ,they are sometimes found at the very summits of the hillocks1 as at ,overveen2 in the ,king's ,dune1 near ,egmond1 they form a coarse calcareous gravel very largely distributed through the sand1 while the interior dunes between ,haarlem and ,warmond exhibit no trace of them4 ,it is yet undecided whether the presence or absence of these fragments is determined by the period of the formation of the dunes1 or whether it depends on a difference in the process by which different dunes have been accumulated4 ,land shells1 such as snails1 for example1 are found on the surface of the dunes in abundance1 and many of the shelly fragments in the interior of the hillocks may be derived from the same source4#dbh ,j4 ,g4 ,kohl has some poetical thoughts upon the origin and character of the dune sands1 which are worth quoting3 ,the sand was composed of pure transparent quartz4 ,i could not observe this sand without the greatest admiration4 ,if it is the product of the waves1 breaking and crushing flints and fragments of quartz against each other1 it is a result which could be brought about only in the course of countless ages4 ,we need not lift ourselves to the stars1 to their incalculable magnitudes and distances and numbers1 in order to feel the giddiness of astonishment4 ,here1 upon earth1 in the simple sand1 we find miracle enough4 ,think of the number of sand grains contained in a single dune1 then of all the dunes upon this widely extended coast--not to speak of the innumerable grains in the ,arabian1 ,african1 and ,prussian deserts--this1 of itself1 is sufficient to overwhelm a thoughtful fancy4 ,how long1 how many times must the waves have risen and sunk in order to reduce these vast heaps to powder6 ,during the whole time ,i spent on this coast1 ,i had always some sand in my fingers1 was rubbing and rolling it about1 examining it on all sides1 holding a little shining grain on the tip of my finger1 and thinking to myself how1 in its corners1 its angles1 its whole configuration1 it might very probably have a history longer than that of the old ,german nation--possibly longer than that of the human race4 ,where was the original quartz crystal1 of which this is a fragment1 first formed8 ,to what was it once fixed8 ,what power broke it loose8 ,how was it beaten smaller and ever smaller by the waves8 ,they tossed it1 for aeons1 to and fro upon the beach1 rolled it up and down1 forced it to make thousands and thousands of daily voyages for millions and millions of days4 ,then the wind bore it away1 and used it in building up a dune2 there it lay for centuries1 packed in with its fellows1 protecting the marshes and cherished by the inhabitants1 till1 seized again by the pursuing sea1 it fell once more into the water1 there to begin the endless dance anew--and again to be swept away by the wind--and again to find rest in the dunes1 a protection and a blessing to the coast4 ,there is something mysterious about such a grain of sand1 and at last ,i went so far as to fancy a little immortal spark linked with each one1 presiding over its destiny1 and sharing its vicissitudes4 ,could we arm our eyes with a microscope1 and then dive1 like a sparling1 into one of these dunes1 the pile1 which is in fact only a heap of countless little crystal blocks1 would strike us as the most marvellous building upon earth4 ,the sunbeams would pass1 with illuminating power1 through all these little crystalline bodies4 ,we should see how every sand grain is formed1 by what multifarious little facets it is bounded1 we should even discover that it is itself composed of many distinct particles4#dbi ,sand concretions form within the dunes and especially in the depressions between them4 ,these are sometimes so extensive and impervious as to retain a sufficient supply of water to feed perennial springs1 and to form small permanent ponds1 and they are a great impediment to the penetration of roots1 and consequently to the growth of trees planted1 or germinating from self-sown seeds1 upon the dunes4#dcj ,interior ,structure of ,dunes4 ,the interior structure of the dunes1 the arrangement of their particles1 is not1 as might be expected1 that of an unorganized1 confused heap1 but they show a strong tendency to stratification4 ,this is a point of much geological interest1 because it indicates that sandstone may owe its stratified character to the action of wind as well as of water4 ,the origin and peculiar character of these layers are due to a variety of causes4 ,a southwest wind and current may deposit upon a dune a stratum of a given color and mineral composition1 and this may be succeeded by a northwest wind and current1 bringing with them particles of a different hue1 constitution1 and origin4 ,again1 if we suppose a violent tempest to strew the beach with sand grains very different in magnitude and specific gravity1 and1 after the sand is dry1 to be succeeded by a gentle breeze1 it is evident that only the lighter particles will be taken up and carried to the dunes4 ,if1 after some time1 the wind freshens1 heavier grains will be transported and deposited on the former1 and a still stronger succeeding gale will roll up yet larger kernels4 ,each of these deposits will form a stratum4 ,if we suppose the tempest to be followed1 after the sand is dry1 not by a gentle breeze1 but by a wind powerful enough to lift at the same time particles of very various magnitudes and weights1 the heaviest will often lodge on the dune while the lighter will be carried farther4 ,this would produce a stratum of coarse sand1 and the same effect might result from the blowing away of light particles out of a mixed layer1 while the heavier remained undisturbed4#dca ,still another cause of stratification may be found in the occasional interposition of a thin layer of leaves or other vegetable remains between successive deposits1 and this ,i imagine to be more frequent than has been generally supposed4 ,the eddies of strong winds between the hillocks must also occasion disturbances and re-arrangements of the sand layers1 and it seems possible that the irregular thickness and the strange contortions of the strata of the sandstone at ,petra may be due to some such cause4 ,a curious observation of ,professor ,forchhammer suggests an explanation of another peculiarity in the structure of the sandstone of ,mount ,seir4 ,he describes dunes in ,jutland1 composed of yellow quartzose sand intermixed with black titanian iron4 ,when the wind blows over the surface of the dunes1 it furrows the sand with alternate ridges and depressions1 ripples1 in short1 like those of water4 ,the swells1 the dividing ridges of the system of sand ripples1 are composed of the light grains of quartz1 while the heavier iron rolls into the depressions between1 and thus the whole surface of the dune appears as if covered with a fine black network4 ,form of ,dunes4 ,the sea side of dunes1 being more exposed to the caprices of the wind1 is more irregular in form than the lee or land side1 where the arrangement of the particles is affected by fewer disturbing and conflicting influences4 ,hence1 the stratification of the windward slope is somewhat confused1 while the sand on the lee side is found to be disposed in more regular beds1 inclining landward1 and with the largest particles lowest1 where their greater weight would naturally carry them4 ,the lee side of the dunes1 being thus formed of sand deposited according to the laws of gravity1 is very uniform in its slope1 which1 according to ,forchhammer1 varies little from an angle of #cj deg4 with the horizon1 while the more exposed and irregular weather side lies at an inclination of from #e deg4 to #aj deg44 ,when1 however1 the outer tier of dunes is formed so near the waterline as to be exposed to the immediate action of the waves1 it is undermined1 and the face of the hill is very steep and sometimes nearly perpendicular4 ,geological ,importance of ,dunes4 ,these observations1 and other facts which a more attentive study on the spot would detect1 might furnish the means of determining interesting and important questions concerning geological formations in localities very unlike those where dunes are now thrown up4 ,for example1 ,studer supposes that the drifting sand hills of the ,african desert were originally coast dunes1 and that they have been transported to their present position far in the interior1 by the rolling and shifting leeward movement to which all dunes not covered with vegetation are subject4 ,the present general drift of the sands of that desert appears to be to the southwest and west1 the prevailing winds blowing from the northeast and east2 but it has been doubted whether the shoals of the western coast of ,northern ,africa1 and the sands upon that shore1 are derived from the bottom of the ,atlantic1 in the usual manner1 or1 by an inverse process1 from those of the ,sahara4 ,the latter1 as has been before remarked1 is probably the truth1 though observations are wanting to decide the question4#dcb ,there is nothing violently improbable in the supposition that they may have been first thrown up by the ,mediterranean on its ,libyan coast1 and thence blown south and west over the vast space they now cover4 ,but whatever has been their source and movement1 they can hardly fail to have left on their route some sandstone monuments to mark their progress1 such1 for example1 as we have seen are formed from the dune sand at the mouth of the ,nile2 and it is conceivable that the character of the drifting sands themselves1 and of the conglomerates and sandstones to whose formation they have contributed1 might furnish satisfactory evidence as to their origin1 their starting point1 and the course by which they have wandered so far from the sea4#dcc ,if the sand of coast dunes is1 as ,staring describes it1 composed chiefly of well-rounded quartzose grains1 fragments of shells1 and other constant ingredients1 it would often be recognizable as coast sand1 in its agglutinate state of sandstone4 ,the texture of this rock varies from an almost imperceptible fineness of grain to great coarseness1 and affords good facilities for microscopic observation of its structure4 ,there are sandstones1 such1 for example1 as are used for grindstones1 where the grit1 as it is called1 is of exceeding sharpness2 others where the angles of the grains are so obtuse that they scarcely act at all on hard metals4 ,the former may be composed of grains of rock1 disintegrated indeed1 and recemented together1 but not1 in the meanwhile1 much rolled2 the latter1 of sands long washed by the sea1 and drifted by land winds4 ,there is1 indeed1 so much resemblance between the effects of driving winds and of rolling water upon light bodies1 that there would be difficulty in distinguishing them2#dcd but after all1 it is not probable that sandstone1 composed of grains thrown up from the salt sea1 and long tossed by the winds1 would be identical in its structure with that formed from fragments of rock crushed by mechanical force1 or disintegrated by heat1 and again agglutinated without much exposure to the action of moving water4#dce ,inland ,dunes4 ,i have met with some observations indicating a structural difference between interior and coast dunes1 which might perhaps be recognized in the sandstones formed from these two species of sand hills respectively4 ,in the great ,american desert between the ,andes and the ,pacific1 ,meyen found sand heaps of a perfect falciform shape4#dcf ,they were from seven to fifteen feet high1 the chord of their arc measuring from twenty to seventy paces4 ,the slope of the convex face is described as very small1 that of the concave as high as #gj deg4 or #hj deg41 and their surfaces were rippled4 ,no smaller dunes were observed1 nor any in the process of formation4 ,the concave side uniformly faced the northwest1 except toward the centre of the desert1 where1 for a distance of one or two hundred paces1 they gradually opened to the west1 and then again gradually resumed the former position4 ,poeppig ascribes a falciform shape to the movable1 a conical to the fixed dunes1 or medanos1 of the same desert4 ,the medanos1 he observes1 are hillock-like elevations of sand1 some having a firm1 others a loose base4 ,the former latter1 which are always crescent shaped1 are from ten to twenty feet high1 and have an acute crest4 ,the inner side is perpendicular1 and the outer or bow side forms an angle with a steep inclination downward4 ,when driven by violent winds1 the medanos pass rapidly over the plains4 ,the smaller and lighter ones move quickly forward1 before the larger2 but the latter soon overtake and crush them1 whilst they are themselves shivered by the collision4 ,these medanos assume all sorts of extraordinary figures1 and sometimes move along the plain in rows forming most intricate labyrinths4 99 99 ,a plain often appears to be covered with a row of medanos1 and some days afterward it is again restored to its level and uniform aspect4 99 99 99 ,the medanos with immovable bases are formed on the blocks of rocks which are scattered about the plain4 ,the sand is driven against them by the wind1 and as soon as it reaches the top point1 it descends on the other side until that is likewise covered2 thus gradually arises a conical-formed hill4 ,entire hillock chains with acute crests are formed in a similar manner4 99 99 99 ,on their southern declivities are found vast masses of sand1 drifted thither by the mid-day gales4 ,the northern declivity1 though not steeper than the southern1 is only sparingly covered with sand4 ,if a hillock chain somewhat distant from the sea extends in a line parallel with the ,andes1 namely1 from ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 to ,n4 ,n4 ,w41 the western declivity is almost entirely free of sand1 as it is driven to the plain below by the southeast wind1 which constantly alternates with the wind from the south4#dcg ,it is difficult to reconcile this description with that of ,meyen1 but if confidence is to be reposed in the accuracy of either observer1 the formation of the sand hills in question must be governed by very different laws from those which determine the structure of coast dunes4 ,captain ,gilliss1 of the ,american navy1 found the sand hills of the ,peruvian desert to be in general crescent shaped1 as described by ,meyen1 and a similar structure is said to characterize the inland dunes of the ,llano ,estacado and other plateaus of the ,north ,american desert1 though these latter are of greater height and other dimensions than those described by ,meyen4 ,there is no very obvious explanation of this difference in form between maritime and inland sand hills1 and the subject merits investigation4#dch ,age1 ,character1 and ,permanence of ,dunes4 ,the origin of most great lines of dunes goes back past all history4 ,there are on many coasts1 several distinct ranges of sand hills which seem to be of very different ages1 and to have been formed under different relative conditions of land and water4#dci ,in some cases1 there has been an upheaval of the coast line since the formation of the oldest hillocks1 and these have become inland dunes1 while younger rows have been thrown up on the new beach laid bare by elevation of the sea bed4 ,our knowledge of the mode of their first accumulation is derived from observation of the action of wind and water in the few instances where1 with or without the aid of man1 new coast dunes have been accumulated1 and of the influence of wind alone in elevating new sand heaps inland of the coast tier1 when the outer rows are destroyed by the sea1 as also when the sodded surface of ancient sands has been broken1 and the subjacent strata laid open to the air4 ,it is a question of much interest1 in what degree the naked condition of most dunes is to be ascribed to the improvidence and indiscretion of man4 ,there are1 in ,western ,france1 extensive ranges of dunes covered with ancient and dense forests1 while the recently formed sand hills between them and the sea are bare of vegetation1 and are rapidly advancing upon the wooded dunes1 which they threaten to bury beneath their drifts4 ,between the old dunes and the new1 there is no discoverable difference in material or in structure2 but the modern sand hills are naked and shifting1 the ancient1 clothed with vegetation and fixed4 ,it has been conjectured that artificial methods of confinement and plantation were employed by the primitive inhabitants of ,gaul2 and ,laval1 basing his calculations on the rate of annual movement of the shifting dunes1 assigns the fifth century of the ,christian era as the period when these processes were abandoned4#ddj ,there is no historical evidence that the ,gauls were acquainted with artificial methods of fixing the sands of the coast1 and we have little reason to suppose that they were advanced enough in civilization to be likely to resort to such processes1 especially at a period when land could have had but a moderate value4 ,in other countries1 dunes have spontaneously clothed themselves with forests1 and the rapidity with which their surface is covered by various species of sand plants1 and finally by trees1 where man and cattle and burrowing animals are excluded from them1 renders it highly probable that they would1 as a general rule1 protect themselves1 if left to the undisturbed action of natural causes4 ,the sand hills of the ,frische ,nehrung1 on the coast of ,prussia1 were formerly wooded down to the water's edge1 and it was only in the last century that1 in consequence of the destruction of their forests1 they became moving sands4#dda ,there is every reason to believe that the dunes of the ,netherlands were clothed with trees until after the ,roman invasion4 ,the old geographers1 in describing these countries1 speak of vast forests extending to the very brink of the sea2 but drifting coast dunes are first mentioned by the chroniclers of the ,middle ,ages1 and so far as we know they have assumed a destructive character in consequence of the improvidence of man4#ddb ,the history of the dunes of ,michigan1 so far as ,i have been able to learn from my own observation1 or that of others1 is the same4 ,thirty years ago1 when that region was scarcely inhabited1 they were generally covered with a thick growth of trees1 chiefly pines1 and underwood1 and there was little appearance of undermining and wash on the lake side1 or of shifting of the sands1 except where the trees had been cut or turned up by the roots4#ddc ,nature1 as she builds up dunes for the protection of the sea shore1 provides1 with similar conservatism1 for the preservation of the dunes themselves2 so that1 without the interference of man1 these hillocks would be1 not perhaps absolutely perpetual1 but very lasting in duration1 and very slowly altered in form or position4 ,when once covered with the trees1 shrubs1 and herbaceous growths adapted to such localities1 dunes undergo no apparent change1 except the slow occasional undermining of the outer tier1 and accidental destruction by the exposure of the interior1 from the burrowing of animals1 or the upturning of trees with their roots1 and all these causes of displacement are very much less destructive when a vegetable covering exists in the immediate neighborhood of the breach4 ,before the occupation of the coasts by civilized and therefore destructive man1 dunes1 at all points where they have been observed1 seem to have been protected in their rear by forests1 which served to break the force of the winds in both directions1#ddd and to have spontaneously clothed themselves with a dense growth of the various plants1 grasses1 shrubs1 and trees1 which nature has assigned to such soils4 ,it is observed in ,europe that dunes1 though now without the shelter of a forest country behind them1 begin to protect themselves as soon as human trespassers are excluded1 and grazing animals denied access to them4 ,herbaceous and arborescent plants spring up almost at once1 first in the depressions1 and then upon the surface of the sand hills4 ,every seed that sprouts1 binds together a certain amount of sand by its roots1 shades a little ground with its leaves1 and furnishes food and shelter for still younger or smaller growths4 ,a succession of a very few favorable seasons suffices to bind the whole surface together with a vegetable network1 and the power of resistance possessed by the dunes themselves1 and the protection they afford to the fields behind them1 are just in proportion to the abundance and density of the plants they support4 ,the growth of the vegetable covering can1 of course1 be much accelerated by judicious planting and watchful care1 and this species of improvement is now carried on upon a vast scale1 wherever the value of land is considerable and the population dense4 ,in the main1 the dunes on the coast of the ,german ,sea1 notwithstanding the great quantity of often fertile land they cover1 and the evils which result from their movement1 are1 upon the whole1 a protective and beneficial agent1 and their maintenance is an object of solicitude with the governments and people of the shores they protect4#dde ,use of ,dunes as a ,barrier against the ,sea4 ,although the sea throws up large quantities of sand on flat lee-shores1 there are1 as we have seen1 many cases where it continually encroaches on those same shores and washes them away4 ,at all points of the shallow ,north ,sea where the agitation of the waves extends to the bottom1 banks are forming and rolling eastward4 ,hence the sea sand tends to accumulate upon the coast of ,schleswig-,holstein and ,jutland1 and were there no conflicting influences1 the shore would rapidly extend itself westward4 ,but the same waves which wash the sand to the coast undermine the beach they cover1 and still more rapidly degrade the shore at points where it is too high to receive partial protection by the formation of dunes upon it4 ,the earth of the coast is generally composed of particles finer1 lighter1 and more transportable by water than the sea sand4 ,while1 therefore1 the billows raised by a heavy west wind may roll up and deposit along the beach thousands of tons of sand1 the same waves may swallow up even a larger quantity of fine shore earth4 ,this earth1 with a portion of the sand1 is swept off by northwardly and southwardly currents1 and let fall at other points of the coast1 or carried off1 altogether1 out of the reach of causes which might bring it back to its former position4 ,although1 then1 the eastern shore of the ,german ,ocean here and there advances into the sea1 it in general retreats before it1 and but for the protection afforded it by natural arrangements seconded by the art and industry of man1 whole provinces would soon be engulfed by the waters4 ,this protection consists in an almost unbroken chain of sand banks and dunes1 extending from the northernmost point of ,jutland to the ,elbe1 a distance of not much less than three hundred miles1 and from the ,elbe again1 though with more frequent and wider interruptions1 to the ,atlantic borders of ,france and ,spain4#ddf ,so long as the dunes are maintained by nature or by human art1 they serve1 like any other embankment or dike1 as a partial or a complete protection against the encroachments of the sea2 and on the other hand1 when their drifts are not checked by natural processes1 or by the industry of man1 they become a cause of as certain1 if not of as sudden1 destruction as the ocean itself whose advance they retard4 ,encroachments of the ,sea4 ,the eastward progress of the sea on the ,danish and ,netherlandish coast1 and on certain shores of the ,atlantic1 depends so much on local geological structure1 on the force and direction of tidal and other marine currents1 on the volume and rapidity of coast rivers1 on the contingencies of the weather and on other varying circumstances1 that no general rate can he assigned to it4 ,at ,agger1 near the western end of the ,liimfjord1 in ,jutland1 the coast was washed away1 between the years #ahae and #ahci1 at the rate of more than eighteen feet a year4 ,the advance of the sea appears to have been something less rapid for a century before2 but from #ahdj to #aheg1 it gained upon the land no less than thirty feet a year4 ,at other points of the shore of ,jutland1 the loss is smaller1 but the sea is encroaching generally upon the whole line of the coast4#ddg ,the ,liimfjord4 ,the irruption of the sea into the fresh-water lagoon of ,liimfjord in ,jutland1 in #ahbe--one of the most remarkable encroachments of the ocean in modern times--is expressly ascribed to mismanagement of the dunes on the narrow neck of land which separated the fjord from the ,north ,sea4 ,at earlier periods1 the sea had swept across the isthmus1 and even burst through it1 but the channel had been filled up again1 sometimes by artificial means1 sometimes by the operation of natural causes1 and on all these occasions effects were produced very similar to those resulting from the formation of the new channel in #ahbe1 which still remains open4#ddh ,within comparatively recent historical ages1 the ,liimfjord has thus been several times alternately filled with fresh and with salt water1 and man has produced1 by neglecting the dunes1 or at least might have prevented by maintaining them1 changes identical with those which are usually ascribed to the action of great geological causes1 and sometimes supposed to have required vast periods of time for their accomplishment4 ,this breach1 says ,forchhammer1 which converted the ,liimfjord into a sound1 and the northern part of ,jutland into an island1 occasioned remarkable changes4 ,the first and most striking phenomenon was the sudden destruction of almost all the fresh-water fish previously inhabiting this lagoon1 which was famous for its abundant fisheries4 ,millions of fresh-water fish were thrown on shore1 partly dead and partly dying1 and were carted off by the people4 ,a few only survived1 and still frequent the shores at the mouth of the brooks4 ,the eel1 however1 has gradually accommodated itself to the change of circumstances1 and is found in all parts of the fjord1 while to all other fresh-water fish1 the salt water of the ocean seems to have been fatal4 ,it is more than probable that the sand washed in by the irruption covers1 in many places1 a layer of dead fish1 and has thus prepared the way for a petrified stratum similar to those observed in so many older formations4 ,as it seems to be a law of nature that animals whose life is suddenly extinguished while yet in full vigor1 are the most likely to be preserved by petrification1 we find here one of the conditions favorable to the formation of such a petrified stratum4 ,the bottom of the ,liimfjord was covered with a vigorous growth of aquatic plants1 belonging both to fresh and to salt water1 especially ,zostera marina4 ,this vegetation totally disappeared after the irruption1 and1 in some instances1 was buried by the sand2 and here again we have a familiar phenomenon often observed in ancient strata--the indication of a given formation by a particular vegetable species--and when the strata deposited at the time of the breach shall be accessible by upheaval1 the period of eruption will be marked by a stratum of ,zostera1 and probably by impressions of fresh-water fishes4 ,it is very remarkable that the ,zostera marina1 a sea plant1 was destroyed even where no sand was deposited4 ,this was probably in consequence of the sudden change from brackish to salt water4 99 99 ,it is well established that the ,liimfjord communicated with the ,german ,ocean at some former period4 ,to that era belong the deep beds of oyster shells and ,cardium edule1 which are still found at the bottom of the fjord4 ,and now1 after an interval of centuries1 during which the lagoon contained no salt-water shell fish1 it again produces great numbers of ,mytilus edulis4 ,could we obtain a deep section of the bottom1 we should find beds of ,ostrea edulis and ,cardium edule1 then a layer of ,zostera marina with fresh-water fish1 and then a bed of ,mytilus edulis4 ,if1 in course of time1 the new channel should be closed1 the brooks would fill the lagoon again with fresh water2 fresh-water fish and shell fish would reappear1 and thus we should have a repeated alternation of organic inhabitants of the sea and of the waters of the land4 ,these events have been accompanied with but a comparatively insignificant change of land surface1 while the formations in the bed of this inland sea have been totally revolutionized in character4#ddi ,coasts of ,schleswig-,holstein1 ,holland1 and ,france4 ,on the islands on the coast of ,schleswig-,holstein1 the advance of the sea has been more unequivocal and more rapid4 ,near the beginning of the last century1 the dunes which had protected the western coast of the island of ,sylt began to roll to the east1 and the sea followed closely as they retired4 ,in #ageg1 the church of ,rantum1 a village upon that island1 was obliged to be taken down in consequence of the advance of the sand hills2 in #agia1 these hills had passed beyond its site1 the waves had swallowed up its foundations1 and the sea gained so rapidly1 that1 fifty years later1 the spot where they lay was seven hundred feet from the shore4#dej ,the most prominent geological landmark on the coast of ,holland is the ,huis te ,britten1 ,arx ,britannica1 a fortress built by the ,romans1 in the time of ,caligula1 on the main land near the mouth of the ,rhine4 ,at the close of the seventeenth century1 the sea had advanced sixteen hundred paces beyond it4 ,the older ,dutch annalists record1 with much parade of numerical accuracy1 frequent encroachments of the sea upon many parts of the ,netherlandish coast4 ,but though the general fact of an advance of the ocean upon the land is established beyond dispute1 the precision of the measurements which have been given is open to question4 ,staring1 however1 who thinks the erosion of the coast much exaggerated by popular geographers1 admits a loss of more than a million and a half acres1 chiefly worthless morass2#dea and it is certain that but for the resistance of man1 but for his erection of dikes and protection of dunes1 there would now be left of ,holland little but the name4 ,it is1 as has been already seen1 still a debated question among geologists whether the coast of ,holland now is1 and for centuries has been1 subsiding4 ,i believe most investigators maintain the affirmative2 and if the fact is so1 the advance of the sea upon the land is1 in part1 due to this cause4 ,but the rate of subsidence is at all events very small1 and therefore the encroachments of the ocean upon the coast are mainly to be ascribed to the erosion and transportation of the soil by marine waves and currents4 ,the sea is fast advancing at several points of the western coast of ,france1 and unknown causes have given a new impulse to its ravages since the commencement of the present century4 ,between #ahcj and #ahdb1 the ,point de ,grave1 on the north side of the ,gironde1 retreated one hundred and eighty metres1 or about fifty feet per year2 from the latter year to #ahdf1 the rate was increased to more than three times that quantity1 and the loss in those four years was above six hundred feet4 ,all the buildings at the extremity of the peninsula have been taken down and rebuilt farther landward1 and the lighthouse of the ,grave now occupies its third position4 ,the sea attacked the base of the peninsula also1 and the ,point de ,grave and the adjacent coasts have been for twenty years the scene of one of the most obstinately contested struggles between man and the ocean recorded in the annals of modern engineering4 ,it cannot1 indeed1 be affirmed that human power is able to arrest altogether the incursions of the waves on sandy coasts1 by planting the beach1 and clothing the dunes with wood4 ,on the contrary1 both in ,holland and on the ,french coast1 it has been found necessary to protect the dunes themselves by piling and by piers and sea walls of heavy masonry4 ,but experience has amply shown that the processes referred to are entirely successful in preventing the movement of the dunes1 and the drifting of their sands over cultivated lands behind them2 and that1 at the same time1 the plantations very much retard the landward progress of the waters4#deb ,drifting of ,dune ,sands4 ,besides their importance as a barrier against the inroads of the ocean1 dunes are useful by sheltering the cultivated ground behind them from the violence of the sea wind1 from salt spray1 and from the drifts of beach sand which would otherwise overwhelm them4 ,but the dunes themselves1 unless their surface sands are kept moist1 and confined by the growth of plants1 or at least by a crust of vegetable earth1 are constantly rolling inward2 and thus1 while1 on one side1 they lay bare the traces of ancient human habitations or other evidences of the social life of primitive man1 they are1 on the other1 burying fields1 houses1 churches1 and converting populous districts into barren and deserted wastes4 ,especially destructive are they when1 by any accident1 a cavity is opened into them to a considerable depth1 thereby giving the wind access to the interior1 where the sand is thus first dried1 and then scooped out and scattered far over the neighboring soil4 ,the dune is now a magazine of sand1 no longer a rampart against it1 and mischief from this source seems more difficult to resist than from almost any other drift1 because the supply of material at the command of the wind1 is more abundant and more concentrated than in its original thin and widespread deposits on the beach4 ,the burrowing of conies in the dunes is1 in this way1 not unfrequently a cause of their destruction and of great injury to the fields behind them4 ,drifts1 and even inland sand hills1 sometimes result from breaking the surface of more level sand deposits1 far within the range of the coast dunes4 ,thus we learn from ,staring1 that one of the highest inland dunes in ,friesland owes its origin to the opening of the drift sand by the uprooting of a large oak4#dec ,great as are the ravages produced by the encroachment of the sea upon the western shores of continental ,europe1 they have been in some degree compensated by spontaneous marine deposits at other points of the coast1 and we have seen in a former chapter that the industry of man has reclaimed a large territory from the bosom of the ocean4 ,these latter triumphs are not of recent origin1 and the incipient victories which paved the way for them date back perhaps as far as ten centuries4 ,in the mean time1 the dunes had been left to the operation of the laws of nature1 or rather freed1 by human imprudence1 from the fetters with which nature had bound them1 and it is scarcely three generations since man first attempted to check their destructive movements4 ,as they advanced1 he unresistingly yielded and retreated before them1 and they have buried under their sandy billows many hundreds of square miles of luxuriant cornfields and vineyards and forests4 ,dunes of ,gascony4 ,on the west coast of ,france1 a belt of dunes1 varying in width from a quarter of a mile to five miles1 extends from the ,adour to the estuary of the ,gironde1 and covers an area of three hundred and seventy-five square miles4 ,when not fixed by vegetable growths1 they advance eastward at a mean rate of about one rod1 or sixteen and a half feet1 a year4 ,we do not know historically when they began to drift1 but if we suppose their motion to have been always the same as at present1 they would have passed over the space between the sea coast and their eastern boundary1 and covered the large area above mentioned1 in fourteen hundred years4 ,we know1 from written records1 that they have buried extensive fields and forests and thriving villages1 and changed the courses of rivers1 and that the lighter particles carried from them by the winds1 even where not transported in sufficient quantities to form sand hills1 have rendered sterile much land formerly fertile4#ded ,they have also injuriously obstructed the natural drainage of the maritime districts by choking up the beds of the streams1 and forming lakes and pestilential swamps of no inconsiderable extent4 ,in fact1 so completely do they embank the coast1 that between the ,gironde and the village of ,mimizan1 a distance of one hundred miles1 there are but two outlets for the discharge of all the waters which flow from the land to the sea2 and the eastern front of the dunes is bordered by a succession of stagnant pools1 some of which are more than six miles in length and breadth4#dee ,the ,dunes of ,denmark and ,prussia4 ,in the small kingdom of ,denmark1 inclusive of the duchies of ,schleswig and ,holstein1 the dunes cover an area of more than two hundred and sixty square miles4 ,the breadth of the chain is very various1 and in some places it consists only of a single row of sand hills1 while in others1 it is more than six miles wide4 ,the general rate of eastward movement of the drifting dunes is from three to twenty-four feet per annum4 ,if we adopt the mean of thirteen feet and a half for the annual motion1 the dunes have traversed the widest part of the belt in about twenty-five hundred years4 ,historical data are wanting as to the period of the formation of these dunes and of the commencement of their drifting2 but there is recorded evidence that they have buried a vast extent of valuable land within three or four centuries1 and further proof is found in the fact that the movement of the sands is constantly uncovering ruins of ancient buildings1 and other evidences of human occupation1 at points far within the present limits of the uninhabitable desert4 ,andresen estimates the average depth of the sand deposited over this area at thirty feet1 which would give a cubic mile and a half for the total quantity4#def ,the drifting of the dunes on the coast of ,prussia commenced not much more than a hundred years ago4 ,the ,frische ,nehrung is separated from the mainland by the ,frische ,haff1 and there is but a narrow strip of arable land along its eastern borders4 ,hence its rolling sands have covered a comparatively small extent of dry land1 but fields and villages have been buried and valuable forests laid waste by them4 ,the loose coast row has drifted over the inland ranges1 which1 as was noticed in the description of these dunes on a former page1 were protected by a surface of different composition1 and the sand has thus been raised to a height which it could not have reached upon level ground4 ,this elevation has enabled it to advance upon and overwhelm woods1 which1 upon a plain1 would have checked its progress1 and1 in one instance1 a forest of many hundred acres of tall pines was destroyed by the drifts between #ahjd and #ahbg4 ,control of ,dunes by ,man4 ,there are three principal modes in which the industry of man is brought to bear upon the dunes4 ,first1 the creation of them1 at points where1 from changes in the currents or other causes1 new encroachments of the sea are threatened2 second1 the maintenance and protection of them where they have been naturally formed2 and third1 the removal of the inner rows where the belt is so broad that no danger is to be apprehended from the loss of them4 ,artificial ,formation of ,dunes4 ,in describing the natural formation of dunes1 it was said that they began with an accumulation of sand around some vegetable or other accidental obstruction to the drifting of the particles4 ,a high1 perpendicular cliff1 which deadens the wind altogether1 prevents all accumulation of sand2 but1 up to a certain point1 the higher and broader the obstruction1 the more sand will heap up in front of it1 and the more will that which falls behind it be protected from drifting farther4 ,this familiar observation has taught the inhabitants of the coast that an artificial wall or dike will1 in many situations1 give rise to a broad belt of dunes4 ,thus a sand dike or wall1 of three or four miles in length1 thrown in #afaj across the ,koegras1 a tide-washed flat between the ,zuiderzee and the ,north ,sea1 has occasioned the formation of rows of dunes a mile in breadth1 and thus excluded the sea altogether from the ,koegras4 ,a similar dike1 called the ,zijperzeedijk1 has produced another scarcely less extensive belt in the course of two centuries4 ,a few years since1 the sea was threatening to cut through the island of ,ameland1 and1 by encroachment on the southern side and the blowing off of the sand from a low flat which connected the two higher parts of the island1 it had made such progress1 that in heavy storms the waves sometimes rolled quite across the isthmus4 ,the construction of a breakwater and a sand dike have already checked the advance of the sea1 and a large number of sand hills has been formed1 the rapid growth of which promises complete future security against both wind and wave4 ,similar effects have been produced by the erection of plank fences1 and even of simple screens of wattling and reeds4#deg ,protection of ,dunes4 ,the dunes of ,holland are sometimes protected from the dashing of the waves by a revetement of stone1 or by piles2 and the lateral high-water currents1 which wash away their base1 are occasionally checked by transverse walls running from the foot of the dunes to low-water mark2 but the great expense of such constructions has prevented their adoption on a large scale4#deh ,the principal means relied on for the protection of the sand hills are the planting of their surfaces and the exclusion of burrowing and grazing animals4 ,there are grasses1 creeping plants1 and shrubs of spontaneous growth1 which flourish in loose sand1 and1 if protected1 spread over considerable tracts1 and finally convert their face into a soil capable of cultivation1 or1 at least1 of producing forest trees4 ,krause enumerates one hundred and seventy-one plants as native to the coast sands of ,prussia1 and the observations of ,andresen in ,jutland carry the number of these vegetables up to two hundred and thirty-four4 ,some of these plants1 especially the ,arundo arenaria or arenosa1 or ,psamma or ,psammophila arenaria--,klittetag1 or ,hjelme in ,danish1 helm in ,dutch1 ,duenenhalm1 ,sandschilf1 or ,huegelrohr in ,german1 gourbet in ,french1 and marram in ,english--are exclusively confined to sandy soils1 and thrive well only in a saline atmosphere4#dei ,the arundo grows to the height of about twenty-four inches1 but sends its strong roots with their many rootlets to a distance of forty or fifty feet4 ,it has the peculiar property of nourishing best in the loosest soil1 and a sand shower seems to refresh it as the rain revives the thirsty plants of the common earth4 ,its roots bind together the dunes1 and its leaves protect their surface4 ,when the sand ceases to drift1 the arundo dies1 its decaying roots fertilizing the sand1 and the decomposition of its leaves forming a layer of vegetable earth over it4 ,then follows a succession of other plants which gradually fit the sand hills1 by growth and decay1 for forest planting1 for pasturage1 and sometimes for ordinary agricultural use4 ,but the protection and gradual transformation of the dunes is not the only service rendered by this valuable plant4 ,its leaves are nutritious food for sheep and cattle1 its seeds for poultry2#dfj cordage and netting twine are manufactured from its fibres1 it makes a good material for thatching1 and its dried roots furnish excellent fuel4 ,these useful qualities1 unfortunately1 are too often prejudicial to its growth4 ,the peasants feed it down with their cattle1 cut it for rope making1 or dig it up for fuel1 and it has been found necessary to resort to severe legislation to prevent them from bringing ruin upon themselves by thus improvidently sacrificing their most effectual safeguard against the drifting of the sands4#dfa ,in #aeci1 a decree of ,christian ,,iii1 king of ,denmark1 imposed a fine upon persons convicted of destroying certain species of sand plants upon the west coast of ,jutland4 ,this ordinance was renewed and made more comprehensive in #aeeh1 and in #aefi the inhabitants of several districts were required1 by royal rescript1 to do their best to check the sand drifts1 though the specific measures to be adopted for that purpose are not indicated4 ,various laws against stripping the dunes of their vegetation were enacted in the following century1 but no active measures were taken for the subjugation of the sand drifts until #aggi1 when a preliminary system of operation for that purpose was adopted4 ,this consisted in little more than the planting of the ,arundo arenaria and other sand plants1 and the exclusion of animals destructive to these vegetables4#dfb ,ten years later1 plantations of forest trees1 which have since proved so valuable a means of fixing the dunes and rendering them productive1 were commenced1 and have been continued ever since4#dfc ,during this latter period1 ,bremontier1 without any knowledge of what was doing in ,denmark1 experimented upon the cultivation of forest trees on the dunes of ,gascony1 and perfected a system1 which1 with some improvements in matters of detail1 is still largely pursued on those shores4 ,the example of ,denmark was soon followed in the neighboring kingdom of ,prussia1 and in the ,netherlands2 and1 as we shall see hereafter1 these improvements have been everywhere crowned with most flattering success4 ,under the administration of ,reventlov1 a little before the close of the last century1 the ,danish ,government organized a regular system of improvement in the economy of the dunes4 ,they were planted with the arundo and other vegetables of similar habits1 protected against trespassers1 and at last partly covered with forest trees4 ,by these means much waste soil has been converted into arable ground1 a large growth of valuable timber obtained1 and the further spread of the drifts1 which threatened to lay waste the whole peninsula of ,jutland1 to a considerable extent arrested4 ,in ,france1 the operations for fixing and reclaiming the dunes--which began under the direction of ,bremontier about the same time as in ,denmark1 and which are1 in principle and in many of their details1 similar to those employed in the latter kingdom--have been conducted on a far larger scale1 and with greater success1 than in any other country4 ,this is partly owing to a climate more favorable to the growth of suitable forest trees than that of ,northern ,europe1 and partly to the liberality of the ,government1 which1 having more important landed interests to protect1 has put larger means at the disposal of the engineers than ,denmark and ,prussia have found it convenient to appropriate to that purpose4 ,the area of the dunes already secured from drifting1 and planted by the processes invented by ,bremontier and perfected by his successors1 is about #ajj1jjj acres4#dfd ,this amount of productive soil1 then1 has been added to the resources of ,france1 and a still greater quantity of valuable land has been thereby rescued from the otherwise certain destruction with which it was threatened by the advance of the rolling sand hills4 ,the improvements of the dunes on the coast of ,west ,prussia began in #agie1 under ,soeren ,bjoern1 a native of ,denmark1 and1 with the exception of the ten years between #ahjg and #ahag1 they have been prosecuted ever since4 ,the methods do not differ essentially from those employed in ,denmark and ,france1 though they are modified by local circumstances1 and1 with respect to the trees selected for planting1 by climate4 ,in #ahej1 between the mouth of the ,vistula and ,kahlberg1 #f1cjj acres1 including about #a1ijj acres planted with pines and birches1 had been secured from drifting2 between ,kahlberg and the eastern boundary of ,west-,prussia1 #h1jjj acres2 and important preliminary operations had been carried on for subduing the dunes on the west coast4#dfe ,trees suited to ,dune ,plantations4 ,the tree which has been found to thrive best upon the sand hills of the ,french coast1 and at the same time to confine the sand most firmly and yield the largest pecuniary returns1 is the maritime pine1 ,pinus maritima1 a species valuable both for its timber and for its resinous products4 ,it is always grown from seed1 and the young shoots require to be protected for several seasons1 by the branches of other trees1 planted in rows1 or spread over the surface and staked down1 by the growth of the ,arundo arenaria and other small sand plants1 or by wattled hedges4 ,the beach1 from which the sand is derived1 has been generally planted with the arundo1 because the pine does not thrive well so near the sea2 but it is thought that a species of tamarisk is likely to succeed in that latitude even better than the arundo4 ,the shade and the protection offered by the branching top of this pine are favorable to the growth of deciduous trees1 and1 while still young1 of shrubs and smaller plants1 which contribute more rapidly to the formation of vegetable mould1 and thus1 when the pine has once taken root1 the redemption of the waste is considered as effectually secured4 ,in ,france1 the maritime pine is planted on the sands of the interior as well as on the dunes of the sea coast1 and with equal advantage4 ,this tree resembles the pitch pine of the ,southern ,american ,states in its habits1 and is applied to the same uses4 ,the extraction of turpentine from it begins at the age of about twenty years1 or when it has attained a diameter of from nine to twelve inches4 ,incisions are made up and down the trunk1 to the depth of about half an inch in the wood1 and it is insisted that if not more than two such slits are cut1 the tree is not sensibly injured by the process4 ,the growth1 indeed1 is somewhat checked1 but the wood becomes superior to that of trees from which the turpentine is not extracted4 ,thus treated1 the pine continues to flourish to the age of one hundred or one hundred and twenty years1 and up to this age the trees on a hectare yield annually #cej kilogrammes of essence of turpentine1 and #bhj kilogrammes of resin1 worth together #aaj francs4 ,the expense of extraction and distillation is calculated at #dd francs1 and a clear profit of #ff francs per hectare1 or more than five dollars per acre1 is left4#dff ,this is exclusive of the value of the timber1 when finally cut1 which1 of course1 amounts to a very considerable sum4 ,in ,denmark1 where the climate is much colder1 hardier conifers1 as well as the birch and other northern trees1 are found to answer a better purpose than the maritime pine1 and it is doubtful whether this tree would be able to resist the winter on the dunes of ,massachusetts4 ,probably the pitch pine of the ,northern ,states1 in conjunction with some of the ,american oaks1 birches1 and poplars1 and especially the robinia or locust1 would prove very suitable to be employed on the sand hills of ,cape ,cod and ,long ,island4 ,the ailanthus1 now coming into notice as a sand-loving tree1 may1 perhaps1 serve a better purpose than any of them4 ,extent of ,dunes in ,europe4 ,the dunes of ,denmark1 as we have seen1 cover an area of two hundred and sixty square miles1 or one hundred and sixty-six thousand acres2 those of the ,prussian coast are vaguely estimated at from eighty-five to one hundred and ten thousand acres2 those of ,holland at one hundred and forty thousand acres2#dfg those of ,gascony at about three hundred thousand acres4#dfh ,i do not find any estimate of their extent in other provinces of ,france1 in the duchies of ,schleswig and ,holstein1 or in the ,baltic provinces of ,russia1 but it is probable that the entire quantity of dune land upon the eastern shores of the ,atlantic and the ,baltic does not fall much short of a million of acres4#dfi ,this vast deposit of sea sand extends along the coast for a distance of several hundred miles1 and from the time of the destruction of the forests which covered it1 to the year #aghi1 the whole line was rolling inward and burying the soil beneath it1 or rendering the fields unproductive by the sand which drifted from it4 ,at the same time1 as the sand hills moved eastward1 the ocean was closely following their retreat and swallowing up the ground they had covered1 as fast as their movement left it bare4 ,planting the dunes has completely prevented the surface sands from blowing over the soil to the leeward of the plantations1 and though it has not1 in all cases1 arrested the encroachments of the sea1 it has so greatly retarded the rapidity of their advance1 that sandy coasts1 when once covered with forests1 may be considered as substantially secure1 so long as proper measures are taken for the protection of the woods4 ,dune ,vineyards of ,cap ,breton4 ,in the vicinity of ,cap ,breton in ,france1 a peculiar process is successfully employed1 both for preventing the drifting of dunes1 and for rendering the sands themselves immediately productive2 but this method is applicable only in exceptional cases of favorable climate and exposure4 ,it consists in planting vineyards upon the dunes1 and protecting them by hedges of broom1 ,erica scoparia1 so disposed as to form rectangles about thirty feet by forty4 ,the vines planted in these enclosures thrive admirably1 and the grapes produced by them are among the best grown in ,france4 ,the dunes are so far from being an unfavorable soil for the vine1 that fresh sea-sand is regularly employed as a fertilizer for it1 alternating every other season with ordinary manure4 ,the quantity of sand thus applied every second year1 raises the surface of the vineyard about four or five inches4 ,the vines are cut down every year to three or four shoots1 and the raising of the soil rapidly covers the old stocks4 ,as fast as buried1 they send out new roots near the surface1 and thus the vineyard is constantly renewed1 and has always a youthful appearance1 though it may have been already planted a couple of generations4 ,this practice is ascertained to have been followed for two centuries1 and is among the oldest well-authenticated attempts of man to resist and vanquish the dunes4#dgj ,removal of ,dunes4 ,the artificial removal of dunes1 no longer necessary as a protection1 does not appear to have been practised upon a large scale except in the ,netherlands1 where the numerous canals furnish an easy and economical means of transporting the sand1 and where the construction and maintenance of sea and river dikes1 and of causeways and other embankments and fillings1 create a great demand for that material4 ,sand is also employed in ,holland1 in large quantities1 for improving the consistence of the tough clay bordering upon or underlying diluvial deposits1 and for forming an artificial soil for the growth of certain garden and ornamental vegetables4 ,when the dunes are removed1 the ground they covered is restored to the domain of industry2 and the quantity of land1 recovered in the ,netherlands by the removal of the barren sands which encumbered it1 amounts to hundreds and perhaps thousands of acres4#dga ,inland ,sand ,plains4 ,the inland sand plains of ,europe are either derived from the drifting of dunes or other beach sands1 or consist of diluvial deposits4 ,as we have seen1 when once the interior of a dune is laid open to the wind1 its contents are soon scattered far and wide over the adjacent country1 and the beach sands1 no longer checked by the rampart which nature had constrained them to build against their own encroachments1 are also carried to considerable distances from the coast4 ,few regions have suffered so much from this cause in proportion to their extent1 as the peninsula of ,jutland4 ,so long as the woods1 with which nature had planted the ,danish dunes1 were spared1 they seem to have been stationary1 and we have no historical evidence1 of an earlier date than the sixteenth century1 that they had become in any way injurious4 ,from that period1 there are frequent notices of the invasions of cultivated grounds by the sands2 and excavations are constantly bringing to light proof of human habitation and of agricultural industry1 in former ages1 on soils now buried beneath deep drifts from the dunes and beaches of the sea coast4#dgb ,extensive tracts of valuable plain land in the ,netherlands and in ,france have been covered in the same way with a layer of sand deep enough to render them infertile1 and they can be restored to cultivation only by processes analogous to those employed for fixing and improving the dunes4#dgc ,diluvial sand plains1 also1 have been reclaimed by these methods in the ,duchy of ,austria1 between ,vienna and the ,semmering ridge1 in ,jutland1 and in the great champaign country of ,northern ,germany1 especially the ,mark ,brandenburg1 where artificial forests can be propagated with great ease1 and where1 consequently1 this branch of industry has been pursued on a great scale1 and with highly beneficial results1 both as respects the supply of forest products and the preparation of the soil for agricultural use4 ,as a general rule1 inland sands are looser1 dryer1 and more inclined to drift1 than those of the sea coast1 where the moist and saline atmosphere of the ocean keeps them always more or less humid and cohesive4 ,no shore dunes are so movable as the medanos of ,peru described in a passage quoted from ,poeppig on a former page1 or as the sand hills of ,poland1 both of which seem better entitled to the appellation of sand waves than those of the ,sahara or of the ,arabian desert4 ,the sands of the valley of the ,lower ,euphrates--themselves probably of submarine origin1 and not derived from dunes--are advancing to the northwest with a rapidity which seems fabulous when compared with the slow movement of the sand hills of ,gascony and the ,low ,german coasts4 ,loftus1 speaking of ,niliyya1 an old ,arab town a few miles east of the ruins of ,babylon1 says that1 in #ahdh1 the sand began to accumulate around it1 and in six years1 the desert1 within a radius of six miles1 was covered with little1 undulating domes1 while the ruins of the city were so buried that it is now impossible to trace their original form or extent4#dgd ,loftus considers this sand flood as the vanguard of those vast drifts which1 advancing from the southeast1 threaten eventually to overwhelm ,babylon and ,baghdad4 ,an observation of ,layard1 cited by ,loftus1 appears to me to furnish a possible explanation of this irruption4 ,he passed two or three places where the sand1 issuing from the earth like water1 is called ',aioun-er-rummal1' sand springs4 ,these springs are very probably merely the drifting of sand from the ancient subsoil1 where the protecting crust of aquatic deposit and vegetable earth has been broken through1 as in the case of the drift which arose from the upturning of an oak mentioned on a former page4 ,when the valley of the ,euphrates was regularly irrigated and cultivated1 the underlying sands were bound by moisture1 alluvial slime1 and vegetation2 but now1 that all improvement is neglected1 and the surface1 no longer watered1 has become parched1 powdery1 and naked1 a mere accidental fissure in the superficial stratum may soon be enlarged to a wide opening1 that will let loose sand enough to overwhelm a province4 ,the ,landes of ,gascony4 ,the most remarkable sand plain of ,france lies at the southwestern extremity of the empire1 and is generally known as the ,landes1 or heaths1 of ,gascony4 ,clave thus describes it3 ,composed of pure sand1 resting on an impermeable stratum called alios1 the soil of the ,landes was1 for centuries1 considered incapable of cultivation4 ,parched in summer1 drowned in winter1 it produced only ferns1 rushes1 and heath1 and scarcely furnished pasturage for a few half-starved flocks4 ,to crown its miseries1 this plain was continually threatened by the encroachments of the dunes4 ,vast ridges of sand1 thrown up by the waves1 for a distance of more than fifty leagues along the coast1 and continually renewed1 were driven inland by the west wind1 and1 as they rolled over the plain1 they buried the soil and the hamlets1 overcame all resistance1 and advanced with fearful regularity4 ,the whole province seemed devoted to certain destruction1 when ,bremontier invented his method of fixing the dunes by plantations of the maritime pine4#dge ,although the ,landes had been almost abandoned for ages1 they show numerous traces of ancient cultivation and prosperity1 and it is principally by means of the encroachments of the sands that they have become reduced to their present desolate condition4 ,the destruction of the coast towns and harbors1 which furnished markets for the products of the plains1 the damming up of the rivers1 and the obstruction of the smaller channels of natural drainage by the advance of the dunes1 were no doubt very influential causes2 and if we add the drifting of the sea sand over the soil1 we have at least a partial explanation of the decayed agriculture and diminished population of this great waste4 ,when the dunes were once arrested1 and the soil to the east of them was felt to be secure against invasion by them1 experiments1 in the way of agricultural improvement1 by drainage and plantation1 were commenced1 and they have been attended with such signal success1 that the complete recovery of one of the dreariest and most extensive wastes in ,europe may be considered as both a probable and a near event4#dgf ,the ,belgian ,campine4 ,in the northern part of ,belgium1 and extending across the confines of ,holland1 is another very similar heath plain1 called the ,campine4 ,this is a vast sand flat1 interspersed with marshes and inland dunes1 and1 until recently1 considered wholly incapable of cultivation4 ,enormous sums have been expended in reclaiming it by draining and other familiar agricultural processes1 but without results at all proportional to the capital invested4 ,in #ahdi1 the unimproved portion of the ,campine was estimated at little less than three hundred and fifty thousand acres4 ,the example of ,france has prompted experiments in the planting of trees1 especially the maritime pine1 upon this barren waste1 and the results have been such as to show that its sands may both be fixed and made productive1 not only without loss1 but with positive pecuniary advantage4#dgg ,sands and ,steppes of ,eastern ,europe4 ,there are still unsubdued sand wastes in many parts of interior ,europe not familiarly known to tourists or even geographers4 ,olkuez and ,schiewier in ,poland1 says ,naumann1 lie in true sand deserts1 and a boundless plain of sand stretches around ,ozenstockau1 on which there grows neither tree nor shrub4 ,in heavy winds1 this plain resembles a rolling sea1 and the sand hills rise and disappear like the waves of the ocean4 ,the heaps of waste from the ,olkuez mines are covered with sand to the depth of four fathoms4#dgh ,no attempts have yet been made to subdue the sands of ,poland1 but when peace and prosperity shall be restored to that unhappy country1 there is no reasonable doubt that the measures1 which have proved so successful on similar formations in ,germany1 may be employed with advantage in the ,polish deserts4 ,there are sand drifts in parts of the steppes of ,russia1 but in general the soil of those vast plains is of a different1 though very varied1 composition1 and is covered with vegetation4 ,the steppes1 however1 have many points of analogy with the sand plains of ,northern ,germany1 and if they are ever fitted for civilized occupation1 it must be by the same means1 that is1 by planting forests4 ,it is disputed whether the steppes were ever wooded4 ,they were certainly bare of forest growth at a very remote period2 for ,herodotus describes the country of the ,scythians between the ,ister and the ,tanais as woodless1 with the exception of the small province of ,xylaea between the ,dnieper and the ,gulf of ,perekop4 ,they are known to have been occupied by a large nomade and pastoral population down to the sixteenth century1 though these tribes are now much reduced in numbers4 ,the habits of such races are scarcely less destructive to the forest than those of civilized life4 ,pastoral tribes do not employ much wood for fuel or for construction1 but they carelessly or recklessly burn down the forests1 and their cattle effectually check the growth of young trees wherever their range extends4 ,at present1 the furious winds which sweep over the plains1 the droughts of summer1 and the rights and abuses of pasturage1 constitute very formidable obstacles to the employment of measures which have been attended with so valuable results on the sand wastes of ,france and ,germany4 ,the ,russian ,government has1 however1 attempted the wooding of the steppes1 and there are thriving plantations in the neighborhood of ,odessa1 where the soil is of a particularly loose and sandy character4#dgi ,the trees best suited to this locality1 and1 as there is good reason to suppose1 to sand plains in general1 is the ,ailanthus glandulosa1 or ,japan varnish tree4#dhj ,the remarkable success which has crowned the experiments with the ailanthus at ,odessa1 will1 no doubt1 stimulate to similar trials elsewhere1 and it seems not improbable that the arundo and the maritime pine1 which have fixed so many thousand acres of drifting sands in ,western ,europe1 will be1 partially at least1 superseded by the tamarisk and the varnish tree4 ,advantages of ,reclaiming the ,sands4 ,if we consider the quantity of waste land which has been made productive by the planting of the sand hills and plains1 and the extent of fertile soil1 the number of villages and other human improvements1 and the value of the harbors1 which the same process has saved from being buried under the rolling dunes1 and at last swallowed up forever by the invasions of the sea1 we shall be inclined to rank ,bremontier and ,reventlov among the greatest benefactors of their race4 ,with the exception of the dikes of the ,netherlands1 their labors are the first deliberate and direct attempts of man to make himself1 on a great scale1 a geographical power1 to restore natural balances which earlier generations had disturbed1 and to atone1 by acts guided by foreseeing and settled purpose1 for the waste which thoughtless improvidence had created4 ,government ,works4 ,there is an important political difference between these latter works and the diking system of the ,netherlandish and ,german coasts4 ,the dikes originally were1 and in modern times very generally have been1 private enterprises1 undertaken with no other aim than to add a certain quantity of cultivable soil to the former possessions of their proprietor1 or sometimes of the state4 ,in short1 with few exceptions1 they have been merely a pecuniary investment1 a mode of acquiring land not economically different from purchase4 ,the planting of the dunes1 on the contrary1 has always been a public work1 executed1 not with the expectation of reaping a regular direct percentage of income from the expenditure1 but dictated by higher views of state economy--by the same governmental principles1 in fact1 which animate all commonwealths in repelling invasion by hostile armies1 or in repairing the damages that invading forces may have inflicted on the general interests of the people4 ,the restoration of the forests in the southern part of ,france1 as now conducted by the ,government of that empire1 is a measure of the same elevated character as the fixing of the dunes4 ,in former ages1 forests were formed or protected simply for the sake of the shelter they afforded to game1 or for the timber they yielded2 but the recent legislation of ,france1 and of some other ,continental countries1 on this subject1 looks to more distant as well as nobler ends1 and these are among the public acts which most strongly encourage the hope that the rulers of ,christendom are coming better to understand the true duties and interests of civilized government4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,projected ,,or ,,possible ,,geographical ,,changes ,,by ,,man4 ,,cutting ,,of ,,marine ,,isthmuses--,,the ,,suez ,,canal--,,canal ,,across ,,isthmus ,,of ,,darien--,,canals ,,to ,,the ,,dead ,,sea--,,maritime ,,canals ,,in ,,greece--,,canal ,,of ,,saros--,,cape ,,cod ,,canal--,,diversion ,,of ,,the ,,nile--,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,caspian-- ,,improvements ,,in ,,north ,,american ,,hydrography--,,diversion ,,of ,,rhine-- ,,draining ,,of ,,the ,,zuiderzee--,,waters ,,of ,,the ,,karst--,,subterranean ,,waters ,,of ,,greece--,,soil ,,below ,,rock--,,covering ,,rocks ,,with ,,earth--,,wadies ,,of ,,arabia ,,petraea--,,incidental ,,effects ,,of ,,human ,,action--,,resistance ,,to ,,great ,,natural ,,forces--,,effects ,,of ,,mining--,,espy',s ,,theories--,,river ,,sediment--,,nothing ,,small ,,in ,,nature4 ,cutting of ,marine ,isthmuses4 ,besides the great enterprises of physical transformation of which ,i have already spoken1 other works of internal improvement or change have been projected in ancient and modern times1 the execution of which would produce considerable1 and1 in some cases1 extremely important1 revolutions in the face of the earth4 ,some of the schemes to which ,i refer are evidently chimerical2 others are difficult1 indeed1 but cannot be said to be impracticable1 though discouraged by the apprehension of disastrous consequences from the disturbance of existing natural or artificial arrangements2 and there are still others1 the accomplishment of which is ultimately certain1 though for the present forbidden by economical considerations4 ,when we consider the number of narrow necks or isthmuses which separate gulfs and bays of the sea from each other1 or from the main ocean1 and take into account the time and cost1 and risks of navigation which would be saved by executing channels to connect such waters1 and thus avoiding the necessity of doubling long capes and promontories1 or even continents1 it seems strange that more of the enterprise and money which have been so lavishly expended in forming artificial rivers for internal navigation should not have been bestowed upon the construction of maritime canals4 ,many such have been projected in early and in recent ages1 and some trifling cuts between marine waters have been actually made1 but no work of this sort1 possessing real geographical or even commercial importance1 has yet been effected4 ,these enterprises are attended with difficulties and open to objections1 which are not1 at first sight1 obvious4 ,nature guards well the chains by which she connects promontories with mainlands1 and binds continents together4 ,isthmuses are usually composed of adamantine rock or of shifting sands--the latter being much the more refractory material to deal with4 ,in all such works there is a necessity for deep excavation below low-water mark--always a matter of great difficulty2 the dimensions of channels for sea-going ships must be much greater than those of canals of inland navigation2 the height of the masts or smoke pipes of that class of vessels would often render bridging impossible1 and thus a ship canal might obstruct a communication more important than that which it was intended to promote2 the securing of the entrances of marine canals and the construction of ports at their termini would in general be difficult and expensive1 and the harbors and the channel which connected them would be extremely liable to fill up by deposits washed in from sea and shore4 ,besides all this1 there is1 in many cases1 an alarming uncertainty as to the effects of joining together waters which nature has put asunder4 ,a new channel may deflect strong currents from safe courses1 and thus occasion destructive erosion of shores otherwise secure1 or promote the transportation of sand or slime to block up important harbors1 or it may furnish a powerful enemy with dangerous facilities for hostile operations along the coast4 ,nature sometimes mocks the cunning and the power of man by spontaneously performing1 for his benefit1 works which he shrinks from undertaking1 and the execution of which by him she would resist with unconquerable obstinacy4 ,a dangerous sand bank1 that all the enginery of the world could not dredge out in a generation1 may be carried off in a night by a strong river flood1 or a current impelled by a violent wind from an unusual quarter1 and a passage scarcely navigable by fishing boats may be thus converted into a commodious channel for the largest ship that floats upon the ocean4 ,in the remarkable gulf of ,liimfjord in ,jutland1 nature has given a singular example of a canal which she alternately opens as a marine strait1 and1 by shutting again1 converts into a fresh-water lagoon4 ,the ,liimfjord was doubtless originally an open channel from the ,atlantic to the ,baltic between two islands1 but the sand washed up by the sea blocked up the western entrance1 and built a wall of dunes to close it more firmly4 ,this natural dike1 as we have seen1 has been more than once broken through1 and it is perhaps in the power of man1 either permanently to maintain the barrier1 or to remove it and keep a navigable channel constantly open4 ,if the ,liimfjord becomes an open strait1 the washing of sea sand through it would perhaps block up some of the belts and small channels now important for the navigation of the ,baltic1 and the direct introduction of a tidal current might produce very perceptible effects on the hydrography of the ,cattegat4 ,the ,suez ,canal4 ,if the ,suez ,canal--the greatest and most truly cosmopolite physical improvement ever undertaken by man--shall prove successful1 it will considerably affect the basins of the ,mediterranean and of the ,red ,sea1 though in a different manner1 and probably in a less degree than the diversion of the current of the ,nile from the one to the other--to which ,i shall presently refer--would do4 ,it is1 indeed1 conceivable1 that if a free channel be once cut from sea to sea1 the coincidence of a high tide and a heavy south wind might produce a hydraulic force that would convert the narrow canal into an open strait4 ,in such a case1 it is impossible to estimate1 or even to foresee1 the consequences which might result from the unobstructed mingling of the flowing and ebbing currents of the ,red ,sea with the almost tideless waters of the ,mediterranean4 ,there can be no doubt1 however1 that they would be of a most important character as respects the simply geographical features and the organic life of both4 ,but the shallowness of the two seas at the termini of the canal1 the action of the tides of the one and the currents of the other1 and the nature of the intervening isthmus1 render the occurrence of such a cataclysm in the highest degree improbable4 ,the obstruction of the canal by sea sand at both ends is a danger far more difficult to guard against and avert1 than an irruption of the waters of either sea4 ,there is1 then1 no reason to expect any change of coast lines or of natural navigable channels as a direct consequence of the opening of the ,suez ,canal1 but it will1 no doubt1 produce very interesting revolutions in the animal and vegetable population of both basins4 ,the ,mediterranean1 with some local exceptions--such as the bays of ,calabria1 and the coast of ,sicily so picturesquely described by ,quatrefages#dha--;is comparatively poor in marine vegetation1 and in shell as well as in fin fish4 ,the scarcity of fish in some of its gulfs is proverbial1 and you may scrutinize long stretches of beach on its northern shores1 after every south wind for a whole winter1 without finding a dozen shells to reward your search4 ,but no one who has not looked down into tropical or subtropical seas can conceive the amazing wealth of the ,red ,sea in organic life4 ,its bottom is carpeted or paved with marine plants1 with zoophytes and with shells1 while its waters are teeming with infinitely varied forms of moving life4 ,most of its vegetables and its animals1 no doubt1 are confined by the laws of their organization to warmer temperatures than that of the ,mediterranean1 but among them there must be many1 whose habitat is of a wider range1 many whose powers of accommodation would enable them to acclimate themselves in a colder sea4 ,we may suppose the less numerous aquatic fauna and flora of the ,mediterranean to be equally capable of climatic adaptation1 and hence1 when the canal shall be opened1 there will be an interchange of the organic population not already common to both seas4 ,destructive species1 thus newly introduced1 may diminish the numbers of their proper prey in either basin1 and1 on the other hand1 the increased supply of appropriate food may greatly multiply the abundance of others1 and at the same time add important contributions to the aliment of man in the countries bordering on the ,mediterranean4 ,a collateral feature of this great project deserves notice as possessing no inconsiderable geographical importance4 ,i refer to the conduit or conduits constructed from the ,nile to the isthmus1 primarily to supply fresh water to the laborers on the great canal1 and ultimately to serve as aqueducts for the city of ,suez1 and for the irrigation and reclamation of a large extent of desert soil4 ,in the flourishing days of the ,egyptian empire1 the waters of the ,nile were carried over important districts east of the river4 ,in later ages1 most of this territory relapsed into a desert1 from the decay of the canals which once fertilized it4 ,there is no difficulty in restoring the ancient channels1 or in constructing new1 and thus watering not only all the soil that the wisdom of the ,pharaohs had improved1 but much additional land4 ,hundreds of square miles of arid sand waste would thus be converted into fields of perennial verdure1 and the geography of ,lower ,egypt would be thereby sensibly changed4 ,if the canal succeeds1 considerable towns will grow up at once at both ends of the channel1 and at intermediate points1 all depending on the maintenance of aqueducts from the ,nile1 both for water and for the irrigation of the neighboring fields which are to supply them with bread4 ,important interests will thus be created1 which will secure the permanence of the hydraulic works and of the geographical changes produced by them1 and ,suez1 or ,port ,said1 or the city at ,lake ,timsah1 may become the capital of the government which has been so long established at ,cairo4 ,canal across the ,isthmus of ,darien4 ,the most colossal project of canalization ever suggested1 whether we consider the physical difficulties of its execution1 the magnitude and importance of the waters proposed to be united1 or the distance which would be saved in navigation1 is that of a channel between the ,gulf of ,mexico and the ,pacific1 across the ,isthmus of ,darien4 ,i do not now speak of a lock canal1 by way of the ,lake of ,nicaragua or any other route--for such a work would not differ essentially from other canals1 and would scarcely possess a geographical character--but of an open cut between the two seas4 ,it has been by no means shown that the construction of such a channel is possible1 and1 if it were opened1 it is highly probable that sand bars would accumulate at both entrances1 so as to obstruct any powerful current through it4 ,but if we suppose the work to be actually accomplished1 there would be1 in the first place1 such a mixture of the animal and vegetable life of the two great oceans as ,i have stated to be likely to result from the opening of the ,suez ,canal between two much smaller basins4 ,in the next place1 if the channel were not obstructed by sand bars1 it might sooner or later be greatly widened and deepened by the mechanical action of the current through it1 and consequences1 not inferior in magnitude to any physical revolution which has taken place since man appeared upon the earth1 might result from it4 ,what those consequences would be is in a great degree matter of pure conjecture1 and there is much room for the exercise of the imagination on the subject2 but1 as more than one geographer has suggested1 there is one possible result which throws all other conceivable effects of such a work quite into the shade4 ,i refer to changes in the course of the two great oceanic rivers1 the ,gulf ,stream and the corresponding current on the ,pacific side of the isthmus4 ,the warm waters which the ,gulf ,stream transports to high latitudes and then spreads out1 like an expanded hand1 along the eastern shores of the ,atlantic1 give out1 as they cool1 heat enough to raise the mean temperature of ,western ,europe several degrees4 ,in fact1 the ,gulf ,stream is the principal cause of the superiority of the climate of ,western ,europe over those of ,eastern ,america and ,eastern ,asia in the corresponding latitudes4 ,all the meteorological conditions of the former region are in a great measure regulated by it1 and hence it is the grandest and most beneficent of all purely geographical phenomena4 ,we do not yet know enough of the laws which govern the movements of this mighty flood of warmth and life to be able to say whether its current would be perceptibly affected by the severance of the ,isthmus of ,darien2 but as it enters and sweeps round the ,gulf of ,mexico1 it is possible that the removal of the resistance of the land which forms the western shore of that sea1 might allow the stream to maintain its original westward direction1 and join itself to the tropical current of the ,pacific4 ,the effect of such a change would be an immediate depression of the mean temperature of ,western ,europe to the level of that of ,eastern ,america1 and perhaps the climate of the former continent might become as excessive as that of the latter1 or even a new ice period be occasioned by the withdrawal of so important a source of warmth from the northern zones4 ,hence would result the extinction of vast multitudes of land and sea plants and animals1 and a total revolution in the domestic and rural economy of human life in all those countries from which the ,new ,world has received its civilized population4 ,other scarcely less startling consequences may be imagined as possible2 but the whole speculation is too dreary1 distant1 and improbable to deserve to be long indulged in4#dhb ,canals to the ,dead ,sea4 ,the project of ,captain ,allen for opening a new route to ,india by cuts between the ,mediterranean and the ,dead ,sea1 and between the ,dead ,sea and the ,red ,sea1 presents many interesting considerations4#dhc ,the hypsometrical observations of ,bertou1 ,roth1 and others1 render it highly probable1 if not certain1 that the watershed in the ,wadi-el-,araba between the ,dead ,sea and the ,red ,sea is not less than three hundred feet above the mean level of the latter1 and if this is so1 the execution of a canal from the one sea to the other is quite out of the question4 ,but the summit level between the ,mediterranean and the ,jordan1 near ,jezreel1 is believed to be little1 if at all1 more than one hundred feet above the sea1 and the distance is so short that the cutting of a channel through the dividing ridge would probably be found by no means an impracticable undertaking4 ,although1 therefore1 we have no reason to believe it possible to open a navigable channel to the east by way of the ,dead ,sea1 there is not much doubt that the basin of the latter might be made accessible from the ,mediterranean4 ,the level of the ,dead ,sea lies #a1caf4g feet below that of the ocean4 ,it is bounded east and west by mountain ridges1 rising to the height of from #b1jjj to #d1jjj feet above the ocean4 ,from its southern end1 a depression called the ,wadi-el-,araba extends to the ,gulf of ,akaba1 the eastern arm of the ,red ,sea4 ,the ,jordan empties into its northern extremity1 after having passed through the ,lake of ,tiberias at an elevation of #ffc4d feet above the ,dead ,sea1 or #fec4c below the ,mediterranean1 and drains a considerable valley north of the lake1 as well as the plain of ,jericho1 which lies between the lake and the sea4 ,if the waters of the ,mediterranean were admitted freely into the basin of the ,dead ,sea1 they would raise its surface to the general level of the ocean1 and consequently flood all the dry land below that level within the basin4 ,i do not know that accurate levels have been taken in the valley of the ,jordan above the ,lake of ,tiberias1 and our information is very vague as to the hypsometry of the northern part of the ,wadi-el-,araba4 ,as little do we know where a contour line1 carried around the basin at the level of the ,mediterranean1 would strike its eastern and western borders4 ,we cannot1 therefore1 accurately compute the extent of now dry land which would be covered by the admission of the waters of the ,mediterranean1 or the area of the inland sea which would be thus created4 ,its length1 however1 would certainly exceed one hundred and fifty miles1 and its mean breadth1 including its gulfs and bays1 could scarcely be less than fifteen1 perhaps even twenty4 ,it would cover very little ground now occupied by civilized or even uncivilized man1 though some of the soil which would be submerged--for instance1 that watered by the ,fountain of ,elisha and other neighboring sources--is of great fertility1 and1 under a wiser government and better civil institutions1 might rise to importance1 because1 from its depression1 it possesses a very warm climate1 and might supply ,southeastern ,europe with tropical products more readily than they can be obtained from any other source4 ,such a canal and sea would be of no present commercial importance1 because they would give access to no new markets or sources of supply2 but when the fertile valleys and the deserted plains east of the ,jordan shall be reclaimed to agriculture and civilization1 these waters would furnish a channel of communication which might become the medium of a very extensive trade4 ,whatever might be the economical results of the opening and filling of the ,dead ,sea basin1 the creation of a new evaporable area1 adding not less than #b1jjj or perhaps #c1jjj square miles to the present fluid surface of ,syria1 could not fail to produce important meteorological effects4 ,the climate of ,syria would be tempered1 its precipitation and its fertility increased1 the courses of its winds and the electrical condition of its atmosphere modified4 ,the present organic life of the valley would be extinguished1 and many tribes of plants and animals would emigrate from the ,mediterranean to the new home which human art had prepared for them4 ,it is possible1 too1 that the addition of #a1cjj feet1 or forty atmospheres1 of hydrostatic pressure upon the bottom of the basin might disturb the equilibrium between the internal and the external forces of the crust of the earth at this point of abnormal configuration1 and thus produce geological convulsions the intensity of which cannot be even conjectured4 ,maritime ,canals in ,greece4 ,a maritime canal executed and another projected in ancient times1 the latter of which is again beginning to excite attention1 deserve some notice1 though their importance is of a commercial rather than a geographical character4 ,the first of these is the cut made by ,xerxes through the rock which connects the promontory of ,mount ,athos with the mainland2 the other1 a navigable canal through the ,isthmus of ,corinth4 ,in spite of the testimony of ,herodotus and ,thucydides1 the ,romans classed the canal of ,xerxes among the fables of mendacious ,greece1 and yet traces of it are perfectly distinct at the present day through its whole extent1 except at a single point where1 after it had become so choked as to be no longer navigable1 it was probably filled up to facilitate communication by land between the promontory and the country in the rear of it4 ,if the fancy kingdom of ,greece shall ever become a sober reality1 escape from its tutelage and acquire such a moral as well as political status that its own capitalists--who now prefer to establish themselves and employ their funds anywhere else rather than in their native land--have any confidence in the permanency of its institutions1 a navigable channel will no doubt be opened between the gulfs of ,lepanto and ,a,egina4 ,the annexation of the ,ionian ,islands to ,greece will make such a work almost a political necessity1 and it would not only furnish valuable facilities for domestic intercourse1 but become an important channel of communication between the ,levant and the countries bordering on the ,adriatic1 or conducting their trade through that sea4 ,as ,i have said1 the importance of this latter canal and of a navigable channel between ,mount ,athos and the continent would be chiefly commercial1 but both of them would be conspicuous instances of the control of man over nature in a field where he has thus far done little to interfere with her spontaneous arrangements4 ,if they were constructed upon such a scale as to admit of the free passage of the water through them1 in either direction1 as the prevailing winds should impel it1 they would exercise a certain influence on the coast currents1 which are important as hydrographical elements1 and also as producing abrasion of the coast and a drift at the bottom of seas1 and hence would be entitled to a higher rank than simply as artificial means of transit4 ,canal of ,saros4 ,it has been thought practicable to cut a canal across the peninsula of ,gallipoli from the outlet of the ,sea of ,marmora into the ,gulf of ,saros4 ,it may be doubted whether the mechanical difficulties of such a work would not be found insuperable2 but when ,constantinople shall recover the important political and commercial rank which naturally belongs to her1 the execution of such a canal will be recommended by strong reasons of military expediency1 as well as by the interests of trade4 ,an open channel across the peninsula would divert a portion of the water which now flows through the ,dardanelles1 diminish the rapidity of that powerful current1 and thus in part remove the difficulties which obstruct the navigation of the strait4 ,it would considerably abridge the distance by water between ,constantinople and the northern coast of the ,a,egean1 and it would have the important advantage of obliging an enemy to maintain two blockading fleets instead of one4 ,cape ,cod ,canal4 ,the opening of a navigable cut through the narrow neck which separates the southern part of ,cape ,cod ,bay in ,massachusetts from the ,atlantic1 was long ago suggested1 and there are few coast improvements on the ,atlantic shores of the ,united ,states which are recommended by higher considerations of utility4 ,it would save the most important coasting trade of the ,united ,states the long and dangerous navigation around ,cape ,cod1 afford a new and safer entrance to ,boston harbor for vessels from ,southern ports1 secure a choice of passages1 thus permitting arrivals upon the coast and departures from it at periods when wind and weather might otherwise prevent them1 and furnish a most valuable internal communication in case of coast blockade by a foreign power4 ,the difficulties of the undertaking are no doubt formidable1 but the expense of maintenance and the uncertainty of the effects of currents setting through the new strait are still more serious objections4 ,diversion of the ,nile4 ,perhaps the most remarkable project of great physical change1 proposed or threatened in earlier ages1 is that of the diversion of the ,nile from its natural channel1 and the turning of its current into either the ,libyan desert or the ,red ,sea4 ,the ,ethiopian or ,abyssinian princes more than once menaced the ,memlouk sultans with the execution of this alarming project1 and the fear of so serious an evil is said to have induced the ,moslems to conciliate the ,abyssinian kings by large presents1 and by some concessions to the oppressed ,christians of ,egypt4#dhd ,indeed1 ,arabic historians affirm that in the tenth century the ,ethiopians dammed the river1 and1 for a whole year1 cut off its waters from ,egypt4 ,the probable explanation of this story is to be found in a season of extreme drought1 such as have sometimes occurred in the valley of the ,nile4 ,about the beginning of the sixteenth century1 ,albuquerque the ,terrible revived the scheme of turning the ,nile into the ,red ,sea1 with the hope of destroying the transit trade through ,egypt by way of ,kesseir4 ,in #aebe the ,king of ,portugal was requested by the ,emperor of ,abyssinia to send him engineers for that purpose2 a successor of that prince threatened to attempt the project about the year #agjj1 and even as late as the ,french occupation of ,egypt1 the possibility of driving out the intruder by this means was suggested in ,england4 ,it cannot be positively affirmed that the diversion of the waters of the ,nile to the ,red ,sea is impossible4 ,in the chain of mountains which separates the two valleys1 ,brown found a deep depression or wadi1 extending from the one to the other1 at no great elevation above the bed of the river4 ,the ,libyan desert is so much higher than the ,nile below the junction of the two principal branches at ,khartum1 that there is no reason to believe a new channel for their united waters could be found in that direction2 but the ,bahr-el-,abiad flows through1 if it does not rise in1 a great table land1 and some of its tributaries are supposed to communicate in the rainy season with branches of great rivers flowing in quite another direction4 ,hence it is probable that a portion at least of the waters of this great arm of the ,nile--and perhaps a quantity the abstraction of which would be sensibly felt in ,egypt--might be sent to the ,atlantic by the ,niger1 lost in the inland lakes of ,central ,africa1 or employed to fertilize the ,libyan sand wastes4 ,admitting the possibility of turning the whole river into the ,red ,sea1 let us consider the probable effect of the change4 ,first and most obvious is the total destruction of the fertility of ,middle and ,lower ,egypt1 the conversion of that part of the valley into a desert1 and the extinction of its imperfect civilization1 if not the absolute extirpation of its inhabitants4 ,this is the calamity threatened by the ,abyssinian princes and the ferocious ,portuguese warrior1 and feared by the sultans of ,egypt4 ,beyond these immediate and palpable consequences neither party then looked2 but a far wider geographical area1 and far more extensive and various human interests1 would be affected by the measure4 ,the spread of the ,nile during the annual inundation covers1 for many weeks1 several thousand square miles with water1 and at other seasons of the year pervades the same and even a larger area with moisture by infiltration4 ,the abstraction of so large an evaporable surface from the southern shores of the ,mediterranean could not but produce important effects on many meteorological phenomena1 and the humidity1 the temperature1 the electrical condition and the atmospheric currents of ,northeastern ,africa might be modified to a degree that would sensibly affect the climate of ,europe4 ,the ,mediterranean1 deprived of the contributions of the ,nile1 would require a larger supply1 and of course a stronger current1 of water from the ,atlantic through the ,straits of ,gibraltar2 the proportion of salt it contains would be increased1 and the animal life of at least its southern borders would be consequently modified2 the current which winds along its southern1 eastern1 and northeastern shores would be diminished in force and volume1 if not destroyed altogether1 and its basin and its harbors would be shoaled by no new deposits from the highlands of inner ,africa4 ,in the much smaller ,red ,sea1 more immediately perceptible1 if not greater1 effects1 would be produced4 ,the deposits of slime would reduce its depth1 and perhaps1 in the course of ages1 divide it into an inland and an open sea2 its waters would be more or less freshened1 and its immensely rich marine fauna and flora changed in character and proportion1 and1 near the mouth of the river1 perhaps even destroyed altogether2 its navigable channels would be altered in position and often quite obstructed2 the flow of its tides would be modified by the new geographical conditions2 the sediment of the river would form new coast lines and lowlands1 which would be covered with vegetation1 and probably thereby produce sensible climatic changes4 ,changes in the ,caspian4 ,the ,russian ,government has contemplated the establishment of a nearly direct water communication between the ,caspian ,sea and the ,sea of ,azoff1 partly by natural and partly by artificial channels1 and there are now navigable canals between the ,don and the ,volga2 but these works1 though not wanting in commercial and political interest1 do not possess any geographical importance4 ,it is1 however1 very possible to produce appreciable geographical changes in the basin of the ,caspian by the diversion of the great rivers which flow from ,central ,russia4 ,the surface of the ,caspian is eighty-three feet below the level of the ,sea of ,azoff1 and its depression has been explained upon the hypothesis that the evaporation exceeds the supply derived1 directly and indirectly1 from precipitation1 though able physicists now maintain that the sinking of this sea is due to a subsidence of its bottom from geological causes4 ,at ,tsaritsin1 the ,don1 which empties into the ,sea of ,azoff1 and the ,volga1 which pours into the ,caspian1 approach each other within ten miles4 ,near this point1 by means of open or subterranean canals1 the ,don might be turned into the ,volga1 or the ,volga into the ,don4 ,if we suppose the whole or a large proportion of the waters of the ,don to be thus diverted from their natural outlet and sent down to the ,caspian1 the equilibrium between the evaporation from that sea and its supply of water might be restored1 or its level even raised above its ancient limits4 ,if the ,volga were turned into the ,sea of ,azoff1 the ,caspian would be reduced in dimensions until the balance between loss and gain should be reestablished1 and it would occupy a much smaller area than at present4 ,such changes in the proportion of solid and fluid surface would have some climatic effects in the territory which drains into the ,caspian1 and on the other hand1 the introduction of a greater quantity of fresh water into the ,sea of ,azoff would render that gulf less saline1 affect the character and numbers of its fish1 and perhaps be not wholly without sensible influence on the water of the ,black ,sea4 ,improvements in ,north ,american ,hydrography4 ,we are not yet well enough acquainted with the geography of ,central ,africa1 or of the interior of ,south ,america1 to conjecture what hydrographical revolutions might there be wrought2 but from the fact that many important rivers in both continents drain extensive table lands1 of very moderate inclination1 there is reason to suppose that important changes in the course of rivers might be accomplished4 ,our knowledge of the drainage of ,north ,america is much more complete1 and it is certain that there are numerous points where the courses of great rivers1 or the discharge of considerable lakes1 might be completely diverted1 or at least partially directed into different channels4 ,the surface of ,lake ,erie is #efe feet above that of the ,hudson at ,albany1 and it is so near the level of the great plain lying east of it1 that it was found practicable to supply the western section of the canal1 which unites it with the ,hudson1 with water from the lake1 or rather from the ,niagara which flows out of it4 ,hence a channel might be constructed1 which would draw off into the valley of the ,genesee any desirable proportion of the water naturally discharged by the ,niagara4 ,the greatest depth of water yet sounded in ,lake ,erie is but two hundred and seventy feet1 the mean depth one hundred and twenty4 ,open canals parallel with the ,niagara1 or directly toward the ,genesee1 might be executed upon a scale which would exercise an important influence on the drainage of the lake1 if there were any adequate motive for such an undertaking4 ,still easier would it be to create additional outlets for the waters of ,lake ,superior at the ,saut ,st4 ,mary--where the river which drains the lake descends twenty-two feet in a single mile--and thus produce incalculable effects1 both upon that lake and upon the great chain of inland waters which communicate with it4 ,the summit level between ,lake ,michigan and the ,des ,plaines1 a tributary of the ,mississippi1 is only twenty-seven feet above the lake1 and the intervening distance is but a very few miles4 ,it has often been proposed to cut an open channel across this ridge1 and there is no doubt of the practicability of the project4 ,were this accomplished1 although such a cut would not1 of itself1 form a navigable canal1 a part of the waters of ,lake ,michigan would be contributed to the ,gulf of ,mexico1 instead of to that of ,st4 ,lawrence1 and the flow might be so regulated as to keep the ,illinois and the ,mississippi at flood at all seasons of the year4 ,the increase in the volume of these rivers would augment their velocity and their transporting power1 and consequently1 the erosion of their banks and the deposit of slime in the ,gulf of ,mexico1 while the introduction of a larger body of cold water into the beds of these rivers would very probably produce a considerable effect on the animal life that peoples them4 ,the diversion of water from the common basin of the great lakes through a new channel1 in a direction opposite to their natural discharge1 would not be absolutely without influence on the ,st4 ,lawrence1 though probably the effect would be too small to be in any way perceptible4 ,diversion of the ,rhine4 ,the interference of physical improvements with vested rights and ancient arrangements1 is a more formidable obstacle in old countries than in new1 to enterprises involving anything approaching to a geographical revolution4 ,hence such projects meet with stronger opposition in ,europe than in ,america1 and the number of probable changes in the face of nature in the former continent is proportionally less4 ,i have noticed some important hydraulic improvements as already executed or in progress in ,europe1 and ,i may refer to some others as contemplated or suggested4 ,one of these is the diversion of the ,rhine from its present channel below ,ragatz1 by a cut through the narrow ridge near ,sargans1 and the consequent turning of its current into the ,lake of ,wallenstadt4 ,this would be an extremely easy undertaking1 for the ridge is but twenty feet above the level of the ,rhine1 and hardly two hundred yards wide4 ,there is no present adequate motive for this diversion1 but it is easy to suppose that it may become advisable within no long period4 ,the navigation of the ,lake of ,constance is rapidly increasing in importance1 and the shoaling of the eastern end of that lake by the deposits of the ,rhine may require a remedy which can be found by no other so ready means as the discharge of that river into the ,lake of ,wallenstadt4 ,the navigation of this latter lake is not important1 nor is it ever likely to become so1 because the rocky and precipitous character of its shores renders their cultivation impossible4 ,it is of great depth1 and its basin is capacious enough to receive and retain all the sediment which the ,rhine would carry into it for thousands of years4 ,draining of the ,zuiderzee4 ,i have referred to the draining of the ,lake of ,haarlem as an operation of great geographical as well as economical and mechanical interest4 ,a much more gigantic project1 of a similar character1 is now engaging the attention of the ,netherlandish engineers4 ,it is proposed to drain the great salt-water basin called the ,zuiderzee4 ,this inland sea covers an area of not less than two thousand square miles1 or about one million three hundred thousand acres4 ,the seaward half1 or that portion lying northwest of a line drawn from ,enkhuizen to ,stavoren1 is believed to have been converted from a marsh to an open bay since the fifth century after ,christ1 and this change is ascribed1 partly if not wholly1 to the interference of man with the order of nature4 ,the ,zuiderzee communicates with the sea by at least six considerable channels1 separated from each other by low islands1 and the tide rises within the basin to the height of three feet4 ,to drain the ,zuiderzee1 these channels must first be closed and the passage of the tidal flood through them cut off4 ,if this be done1 the coast currents will be restored approximately to the lines they followed fourteen or fifteen centuries ago1 and there can be little doubt that an appreciable effect will thus be produced upon all the tidal phenomena of that coast1 and1 of course1 upon the maritime geography of ,holland4 ,a ring dike and canal must then be constructed around the landward side of the basin1 to exclude and carry off the fresh-water streams which now empty into it4 ,one of these1 the ,ijssel1 a considerable river1 has a course of eighty miles1 and is1 in fact1 one of the outlets of the ,rhine1 though augmented by the waters of several independent tributaries4 ,these preparations being made1 and perhaps transverse dikes erected at convenient points for dividing the gulf into smaller portions1 the water must be pumped out by machinery1 in substantially the same way as in the case of the ,lake of ,haarlem4 ,no safe calculations can be made as to the expenditure of time and money required for the execution of this stupendous enterprise1 but ,i believe its practicability is not denied by competent judges1 though doubts are entertained as to its financial expediency4 ,the geographical results of this improvement would be analogous to those of the draining of the ,lake of ,haarlem1 but many times multiplied in extent1 and its meteorological effects1 though perhaps not perceptible on the coast1 could hardly fail to be appreciable in the interior of ,holland4 ,waters of the ,karst4 ,the singular structure of the ,karst1 the great limestone plateau lying to the north of ,trieste1 has suggested some engineering operations which might be attended with sensible effects upon the geography of the province4 ,i have described this table land as1 though now bare of forests1 and almost of vegetation1 having once been covered with woods1 and as being completely honeycombed by caves through which the drainage of that region is conducted4 ,schmidl has spent years in studying the subterranean geography and hydrography of this singular district1 and his discoveries1 and those of earlier cave-hunters1 have led to various proposals of physical improvement of a novel character4 ,many of the underground water courses of the ,karst are without visible outlet1 and1 in some instances at least1 they1 no doubt1 send their waters1 by deep channels1 to the ,adriatic4#dhe ,the city of ,trieste is very insufficiently provided with fresh water4 ,it has been thought practicable to supply this want by tunnelling through the wall of the plateau1 which rises abruptly in the rear of the town1 until some subterranean stream is encountered1 the current of which can be conducted to the city4 ,more visionary projectors have gone further1 and imagined that advantage might be taken of the natural tunnels under the ,karst for the passage of roads1 railways1 and even navigable canals4 ,but however chimerical these latter schemes may seem1 there is every reason to believe that art might avail itself of these galleries for improving the imperfect drainage of the champaign country bounded by the ,karst1 and that stopping or opening the natural channels might very much modify the hydrography of an extensive region4 ,subterranean ,waters of ,greece4 ,there are parts of continental ,greece which resemble the ,karst and the adjacent plains in being provided with a natural subterranean drainage4 ,the superfluous waters run off into limestone caves called catavothra 7,greek3 katabothra74 ,in ancient times1 the entrances to the catavothra were enlarged or partially closed as the convenience of drainage or irrigation required1 and there is no doubt that similar measures might be adopted at the present day with great advantage both to the salubrity and the productiveness of the regions so drained4 ,soil below ,rock4 ,one of the most singular changes of natural surface effected by man is that observed by ,beechey and by ,barth at ,lin ,tefla1 and near ,gebel ,genunes1 in the district of ,ben ,gasi1 in ,northern ,africa4 ,in this region the superficial stratum originally consisted of a thin sheet of rock covering a layer of fertile earth4 ,this rock has been broken up1 and1 when not practicable to find use for it in fences1 fortresses1 or dwellings1 heaped together in high piles1 and the soil1 thus bared of its stony shell1 has been employed for agricultural purposes4#dhf ,if we remember that gunpowder was unknown at the period when these remarkable improvements were executed1 and of course that the rock could have been broken only with the chisel and wedge1 we must infer that land had at that time a very great pecuniary value1 and1 of course1 that the province1 though now exhausted1 and almost entirely deserted by man1 had once a dense population4 ,covering ,rock with ,earth4 ,if man has1 in some cases1 broken up rock to reach productive ground beneath1 he has1 in many other instances1 covered bare ledges1 and sometimes extensive surfaces of solid stone1 with fruitful earth1 brought from no inconsiderable distance4 ,not to speak of the ,campo ,santo at ,pisa1 filled1 or at least coated1 with earth from the ,holy ,land1 for quite a different purpose1 it is affirmed that the garden of the monastery of ,st4 ,catherine at ,mount ,sinai is composed of ,nile mud1 transported on the backs of camels from the banks of that river4 ,parthey and older authors state that all the productive soil of the ,island of ,malta was brought over from ,sicily4#dhg ,the accuracy of the information may be questioned in both cases1 but similar practices1 on a smaller scale1 are matter of daily observation in many parts of ,southern ,europe4 ,much of the wine of the ,moselle is derived from grapes grown on earth carried high up the cliffs on the shoulders of men4 ,in ,china1 too1 rock has been artificially covered with earth to an extent which gives such operations a real geographical importance1 and the accounts of the importation of earth at ,malta1 and the fertilization of the rocks on ,mount ,sinai with slime from the ,nile1 may be not wholly without foundation4 ,wadies of ,arabia1 ,petraea4 ,in the latter case1 indeed1 river sediment might be very useful as a manure1 but it could hardly be needed as a soil2 for the growth of vegetation in the wadies of the ,sinaitic ,peninsula shows that the disintegrated rock of its mountains requires only water to stimulate it to considerable productiveness4 ,the wadies present1 not unfrequently1 narrow gorges1 which might easily be closed1 and thus accumulations of earth1 and reservoirs of water to irrigate it1 might be formed which would convert many a square mile of desert into flourishing date gardens and cornfields4 ,not far from ,wadi ,feiran1 on the most direct route to ,wadi ,esh-,sheikh1 is a very narrow pass called by the ,arabs ,el ,bueb 7,el ,bab7 or1 ,the ,gate1 which might be securely closed to a very considerable height1 with little labor or expense4 ,above this pass is a wide and nearly level expanse1 containing a hundred acres1 perhaps much more4 ,this is filled up to a certain regular level with deposits brought down by torrents before the ,gate1 or ,bueb1 was broken through1 and they have now worn down a channel in the deposits to the bed of the wadi4 ,if a dam were constructed at the pass1 and reservoirs built to retain the winter rains1 a great extent of valley might be rendered cultivable4 ,incidental ,effects of ,human ,action4 ,i have more than once alluded to the collateral and unsought consequences of human action as being often more momentous than the direct and desired results4 ,there are cases where such incidental1 or1 in popular speech1 accidental1 consequences1 though of minor importance in themselves1 serve to illustrate natural processes2 others1 where1 by the magnitude and character of the material traces they leave behind them1 they prove that man1 in primary or in more advanced stages of social life1 must have occupied particular districts for a longer period than has been supposed by popular chronology4 ,on the coast of ,jutland1 says ,forchhammer1 wherever a bolt from a wreck or any other fragment of iron is deposited in the beach sand1 the particles are cemented together1 and form a very solid mass around the iron4 ,a remarkable formation of this sort was observed a few years ago in constructing the sea wall of the harbor of ,elsineur4 ,this stratum1 which seldom exceeded a foot in thickness1 rested upon common beach sand1 and was found at various depths1 less near the shore1 greater at some distance from it4 ,it was composed of pebbles and sand1 and contained a great quantity of pins1 and some coins of the reign of ,christian ,,iv1 between the beginning and the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,here and there1 a coating of metallic copper had been deposited by galvanic action1 and the presence of completely oxydized metallic iron was often detected4 ,an investigation undertaken by ,councillor ,reinhard and myself1 at the instance of the ,society of ,science1 made it in the highest degree probable that this formation owed its origin to the street sweepings of the town1 which had been thrown upon the beach1 and carried off and distributed by the waves over the bottom of the harbor4#dhh ,these and other familiar observations of the like sort show that a sandstone reef1 of no inconsiderable magnitude1 might originate from the stranding of a ship with a cargo of iron1#dhi or from throwing the waste of an establishment for working metals into running water which might carry it to the sea4 ,parthey records a singular instance of unforeseen mischief from an interference with the arrangements of nature4 ,a landowner at ,malta possessed a rocky plateau sloping gradually toward the sea1 and terminating in a precipice forty or fifty feet high1 through natural openings in which the sea water flowed into a large cave under the rock4 ,the proprietor attempted to establish salt works on the surface1 and cut shallow pools in the rock for the evaporation of the water4 ,in order to fill the salt pans more readily1 he sank a well down to the cave beneath1 through which he drew up water by a windlass and buckets4 ,the speculation proved a failure1 because the water filtered through the porous bottom of the pans1 leaving little salt behind4 ,but this was a small evil1 compared with other destructive consequences that followed4 ,when the sea was driven into the cave by violent west or northwest winds1 it shot a jet d'eau through the well to the height of sixty feet1 the spray of which was scattered far and wide over the neighboring gardens and blasted the crops4 ,the well was now closed with stones1 but the next winter's storms hurled them out again1 and spread the salt spray over the grounds in the vicinity as before4 ,repeated attempts were made to stop the orifice1 but at the time of ,parthey's visit the sea had thrice burst through1 and it was feared that the evil was without remedy4#dij ,i have mentioned the great extent of the heaps of oyster and other shells left by the ,american ,indians on the ,atlantic coast of the ,united ,states4 ,some of the ,danish kitchen-middens1 which closely resemble them1 are a thousand feet long1 from one hundred and fifty to two hundred wide1 and from six to ten high4 ,these piles have an importance as geological witnesses1 independent of their bearing upon human history4 ,wherever the coast line appears1 from other evidence1 to have remained unchanged in outline and elevation since they were accumulated1 they are found near the sea1 and not more than about ten feet above its level4 ,in some cases they are at a considerable distance from the beach1 and in these instances1 so far as yet examined1 there are proofs that the coast has advanced in consequence of upheaval or of fluviatile or marine deposit4 ,where they are altogether wanting1 the coast seems to have sunk or been washed away by the sea4 ,the constancy of these observations justifies geologists in arguing1 where other evidence is wanting1 the advance of land or sea respectively1 or the elevation or depression of the former1 from the position or the absence of these heaps alone4 ,every traveller in ,italy is familiar with ,monte ,testaccio1 the mountain of potsherds1 at ,rome2 but this deposit1 large as it is1 shrinks into insignificance when compared with masses of similar origin in the neighborhood of older cities4 ,the castaway pottery of ancient towns in ,magna ,graecia composes strata of such extent and thickness that they have been dignified with the appellation of the ceramic formation4 ,the ,nile1 as it slowly changes its bed1 exposes in its banks masses of the same material1 so vast that the population of the world during the whole historical period would seem to have chosen this valley as a general deposit for its broken vessels4 ,the fertility imparted to the banks of the ,nile by the water and the slime of the inundations1 is such that manures are little employed4 ,hence much domestic waste1 which would elsewhere be employed to enrich the soil1 is thrown out into vacant places near the town4 ,hills of rubbish are thus piled up which astonish the traveller almost as much as the solid pyramids themselves4 ,the heaps of ashes and other household refuse collected on the borders and within the limits of ,cairo were so large1 that the removal of them by ,ibrahim ,pacha has been looked upon as one of the great works of the age4 ,the soil near cities1 the street sweepings of which are spread upon the ground as manure1 is perceptibly raised by them and by other effects of human industry1 and in spite of all efforts to remove the waste1 the level of the ground on which large towns stand is constantly elevated4 ,the present streets of ,rome are twenty feet above those of the ancient city4 ,the ,appian way between ,rome and ,albano1 when cleared out a few years ago1 was found buried four or five feet deep1 and the fields along the road were elevated nearly or quite as much4 ,the floors of many churches in ,italy1 not more than six or seven centuries old1 are now three or four feet below the adjacent streets1 though it is proved by excavations that they were built as many feet above them4 ,resistance to ,great ,natural ,forces4 ,i have often spoken of the greater and more subtile natural forces1 and especially of geological agencies1 as powers beyond human guidance or resistance4 ,this is no doubt at present true in the main1 but man has shown that he is not altogether impotent to struggle with even these mighty servants of nature1 and his unconscious as well as his deliberate action may in some cases have increased or diminished the intensity of their energies4 ,it is a very ancient belief that earthquakes are more destructive in districts where the crust of the earth is solid and homogeneous1 than where it is of a looser and more interrupted structure4 ,aristotle1 ,pliny the elder1 and ,seneca believed that not only natural ravines and caves1 but quarries1 wells1 and other human excavations1 which break the continuity of the terrestrial strata and facilitate the escape of elastic vapors1 have a sensible influence in diminishing the violence and preventing the propagation of the earth waves4 ,in all countries subject to earthquakes this opinion is still maintained1 and it is asserted that1 both in ancient and in modern times1 buildings protected by deep wells under or near them have suffered less from earthquakes than those the architects of which have neglected this precaution4#dia ,if the commonly received theory of the cause of earthquakes is true--that1 namely1 which ascribes them to the elastic force of gases accumulated or generated in subterranean reservoirs--it is evident that open channels of communication between such reservoirs and the atmosphere might serve as a harmless discharge of gases that would otherwise acquire destructive energy4 ,the doubt is whether artificial excavations can be carried deep enough to reach the laboratory where the elastic fluids are distilled4 ,there are1 in many places1 small natural crevices through which such fluids escape1 and the source of them sometimes lies at so moderate a depth that they pervade the superficial soil and1 as it were1 transpire from it1 over a considerable area4 ,when the borer of an ordinary artesian well strikes into a cavity in the earth1 imprisoned air often rushes out with great violence1 and this has been still more frequently observed in sinking mineral-oil wells4 ,in this latter case1 the discharge of a vehement current of inflammable fluid sometimes continues for hours and even longer periods4 ,these facts seem to render it not wholly improbable that the popular belief of the efficacy of deep wells in mitigating the violence of earthquakes is well founded4 ,in general1 light1 wooden buildings are less injured by earthquakes than more solid structures of stone or brick1 and it is commonly supposed that the power put forth by the earth wave is too great to be resisted by any amount of weight or solidity of mass that man can pile up upon the surface4 ,but the fact that in countries subject to earthquakes many very large and strongly constructed palaces1 temples1 and other monuments have stood for centuries1 comparatively uninjured1 suggests a doubt whether this opinion is sound4 ,the earthquake of the first of ,november1 #agee1 which was felt over a twelfth part of the earth's surface1 was probably the most violent of which we have any clear and distinct account1 and it seems to have exerted its most destructive force at ,lisbon4 ,it has often been noticed as a remarkable fact1 that the mint1 a building of great solidity1 was almost wholly unaffected by the shock which shattered every house and church in the city1 and its escape from the common ruin can hardly be accounted for except upon the supposition that its weight1 compactness1 and strength of material enabled it to resist an agitation of the earth which overthrew all weaker structures4 ,on the other hand1 a stone pier in the harbor of ,lisbon1 on which thousands of people had taken refuge1 sank with its foundations to a great depth during the same earthquake2 and it is plain that where subterranean cavities exist1 at moderate depths1 the erection of heavy masses upon them would tend to promote the breaking down of the strata which roof them over4 ,no physicist1 ,i believe1 has supposed that man can avert the eruption of a volcano or diminish the quantity of melted rock which it pours out of the bowels of the earth2 but it is not always impossible to divert the course of even a large current of lava4 ,the smaller streams of lava near ,catania1 says ,ferrara1 in describing the great eruption of #affi1 were turned from their course by building dry walls of stone as a barrier against them4 99 99 99 ,it was proposed to divert the main current from ,catania1 and fifty men1 protected by hides1 were sent with hooks and iron bars to break the flank of the stream near ,belpasso4#dib ,when the opening was made1 fluid lava poured forth and flowed rapidly toward ,paterno2 but the inhabitants of that place1 not caring to sacrifice their own town to save ,catania1 rushed out in arms and put a stop to the operation4#dic ,in the eruption of ,vesuvius in #agid1 the viceroy saved from impending destruction the town of ,portici1 and the valuable collection of antiquities then deposited there but since removed to ,naples1 by employing several thousand men to dig a ditch above the town1 by which the lava current was carried off in another direction4#did ,effects of ,mining4 ,the excavations made by man1 for mining and other purposes1 may sometimes occasion disturbance of the surface by the subsidence of the strata above them1 as in the case of the mine of ,fahlun1 but such accidents must always be too inconsiderable in extent to deserve notice in a geographical point of view4 ,such excavations1 however1 may interfere materially with the course of subterranean waters1 and it has even been conjectured that the removal of large bodies of metallic ore from their original deposits might1 at least locally1 affect the magnetic and electrical condition of the earth's crust to a sensible degree4 ,accidental fires in mines of coal or lignite sometimes lead to consequences not only destructive to large quantities of valuable material1 but may1 directly or indirectly1 produce results important in geography4 ,the coal occasionally takes fire from the miners' lights or other fires used by them1 and1 if long exposed to air in deserted galleries1 may be spontaneously kindled4 ,under favorable circumstances1 a stratum of coal will burn till it is exhausted1 and a cavity may be burnt out in a few months which human labor could not excavate in many years4 ,wittwer informs us that a coal mine at ,st4 ,etienne in ,dauphiny has been burning ever since the fourteenth century1 and that a mine near ,duttweiler1 another near ,epterode1 and a third at ,zwickau1 have been on fire for two hundred years4 ,such conflagrations not only produce cavities in the earth1 but communicate a perceptible degree of heat to the surface1 and the author just quoted cites cases where this heat has been advantageously employed in forcing vegetation4#die ,espy's ,theories4 ,espy's well known suggestion of the possibility of causing rain artificially1 by kindling great fires1 is not likely to be turned to practical account1 but the speculations of this able meteorologist are not1 for that reason1 to be rejected as worthless4 ,his labors exhibit great industry in the collection of facts1 much ingenuity in dealing with them1 remarkable insight into the laws of nature1 and a ready perception of analogies and relations not obvious to minds less philosophically constituted4 ,they have unquestionably contributed very essentially to the advancement of meteorological science4 ,the possibility that the distribution and action of electricity may be considerably modified by long lines of iron railways and telegraph wires1 is a kindred thought1 and in fact rests much on the same foundation as the belief in the utility of lightning rods1 but such influence is too obscure and too small to have been yet detected4 ,river ,sediment4 ,the manifestation of the internal heat of the earth at any given point is conditioned by the thickness of the crust at such point4 ,the deposits of rivers tend to augment that thickness at their estuaries4 ,the sediment of slowly flowing rivers emptying into shallow seas is spread over so great a surface that we can hardly imagine the foot or two of slime they let fall over a wide area in a century to form an element among even the infinitesimal quantities which compose the terms of the equations of nature4 ,but some swift rivers1 rolling mountains of fine earth1 discharge themselves into deeply scooped gulfs or bays1 and in such cases the deposit amounts1 in the course of a few years1 to a mass the transfer of which from the surface of a large basin1 and its accumulation at a single point1 may be supposed to produce other effects than those measurable by the sounding line4 ,now1 almost all the operations of rural life1 as ,i have abundantly shown1 increase the liability of the soil to erosion by water4 ,hence1 the clearing of the valley of the ,ganges by man must have much augmented the quantity of earth transported by that river to the sea1 and of course have strengthened the effects1 whatever they may be1 of thickening the crust of the earth in the ,bay of ,bengal4 ,in such cases1 then1 human action must rank among geological influences4 ,nothing ,small in ,nature4 ,it is a legal maxim that the law concerneth not itself with trifles1 de minimus non curat lex2 but in the vocabulary of nature1 little and great are terms of comparison only2 she knows no trifles1 and her laws are as inflexible in dealing with an atom as with a continent or a planet4#dif ,the human operations mentioned in the last few paragraphs1 therefore1 do act in the ways ascribed to them1 though our limited faculties are at present1 perhaps forever1 incapable of weighing their immediate1 still more their ultimate consequences4 ,but our inability to assign definite values to these causes of the disturbance of natural arrangements is not a reason for ignoring the existence of such causes in any general view of the relations between man and nature1 and we are never justified in assuming a force to be insignificant because its measure is unknown1 or even because no physical effect can now be traced to it as its origin4 ,the collection of phenomena must precede the analysis of them1 and every new fact1 illustrative of the action and reaction between humanity and the material world around it1 is another step toward the determination of the great question1 whether man is of nature or above her4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,in the ,middle ,ages1 feudalism1 and a nominal ,christianity whose corruptions had converted the most beneficent of religions into the most baneful of superstitions1 perpetuated every abuse of ,roman tyranny1 and added new oppressions and new methods of extortion to those invented by older despotisms4 ,the burdens in question fell most heavily on the provinces that had been longest colonized by the ,latin race1 and these are the portions of ,europe which have suffered the greatest physical degradation4 ,feudalism1 says ,blanqui1 was a concentration of scourges4 ,the peasant1 stripped of the inheritance of his fathers1 became the property of inflexible1 ignorant1 indolent masters2 he was obliged to travel fifty leagues with their carts whenever they required it2 he labored for them three days in the week1 and surrendered to them half the product of his earnings during the other three2 without their consent he could not change his residence1 or marry4 ,and why1 indeed1 should he wish to marry1 when he could scarcely save enough to maintain himself8 ,the ,abbot ,alcuin had twenty thousand slaves1 called serfs1 who were forever attached to the soil4 ,this is the great cause of the rapid depopulation observed in the ,middle ,ages1 and of the prodigious multitude of monasteries which sprang up on every side4 ,it was doubtless a relief to such miserable men to find in the cloisters a retreat from oppression2 but the human race never suffered a more cruel outrage1 industry never received a wound better calculated to plunge the world again into the darkness of the rudest antiquity4 ,it suffices to say that the prediction of the approaching end of the world1 industriously spread by the rapacious monks at this time1 was received without terror4--,resume de l',histoire du ,commerce1 p4 #aef4 ,the abbey of ,saint-,germain-des-,pres1 which1 in the time of ,charlemagne1 had possessed a million of acres1 was1 down to the ,revolution1 still so wealthy1 that the personal income of the abbot was #cjj1jjj livres4 ,the abbey of ,saint-,denis was nearly as rich as that of ,saint-,germain-des-,pres4--,,lavergne1 ,economie ,rurale de la ,france1 p4 #ajd4 ,paul ,louis ,courier quotes from ,la ,bruyere the following striking picture of the condition of the ,french peasantry in his time3 ,one sees certain dark1 livid1 naked1 sunburnt1 wild animals1 male and female1 scattered over the country and attached to the soil1 which they root and turn over with indomitable perseverance4 ,they have1 as it were1 an articulate voice1 and when they rise to their feet1 they show a human face4 ,they are1 in fact1 men2 they creep at night into dens1 where they live on black bread1 water1 and roots4 ,they spare other men the labor of ploughing1 sowing1 and harvesting1 and therefore deserve some small share of the bread they have grown4 ,these are his own words1 adds ,courier2 he is speaking of the fortunate peasants1 of those who had work and bread1 and they were then the few4--,petition a la ,chambre des ,deputis pour les ,villageois que l'on empeche de danser4 ,arthur ,young1 who travelled in ,france from #aghg to #aghi1 gives1 in the twenty-first chapter of his ,travels1 a frightful account of the burdens of the rural population even at that late period4 ,besides the regular governmental taxes1 and a multitude of heavy fines imposed for trifling offences1 he enumerates about thirty seignorial rights1 the very origin and nature of some of which are now unknown1 while those of some others1 claimed and enforced by ecclesiastical as well as by temporal lords1 are as repulsive to humanity and morality1 as the worst abuses ever practised by heathen despotism4 ,most of these1 indeed1 had been commuted for money payments1 and were levied on the peasantry as pecuniary imposts for the benefit of prelates and lay lords1 who1 by virtue of their nobility1 were exempt from taxation4 ,who can wonder at the hostility of the ,french plebeian classes toward the aristocracy in the days of the ,revolution8 #b ,the temporary depopulation of an exhausted soil may be1 in some cases1 a physical1 though1 like fallows in agriculture1 a dear-bought advantage4 ,under favorable circumstances1 the withdrawal of man and his flocks allows the earth to clothe itself again with forests1 and in a few generations to recover its ancient productiveness4 ,in the ,middle ,ages1 worn-out fields were depopulated1 in many parts of the ,continent1 by civil and ecclesiastical tyrannies1 which insisted on the surrender of the half of a loaf already too small to sustain its producer4 ,thus abandoned1 these lands often relapsed into the forest state1 and1 some centuries later1 were again brought under cultivation with renovated fertility4 #c ,the subject of climatic change1 with and without reference to human action as a cause1 has been much discussed by ,moreau de ,jonnes1 ,dureau1 de la ,malle1 ,arago1 ,humboldt1 ,fuster1 ,gasparin1 ,becquerel1 and many other writers in ,europe1 and by ,noah ,webster1 ,forry1 ,drake1 and others in ,america4 ,fraas has endeavored to show1 by the history of vegetation in ,greece1 not merely that clearing and cultivation have affected climate1 but that change of climate has essentially modified the character of vegetable life4 ,see his ,klima und ,pflanzenwelt in der ,zeit4 #d ,gods ,almagt wenkte van den troon1 ,en schiep elk volk een land ter woon3 ,hier vestte ,zij een grondgebied1 ,dat ,zij ons zelven scheppen liet4 #e ,the udometric measurements of ,belgrand1 reported in the ,annales ,forestieres for #ahed1 and discussed by ,valles in chap4 vi of his ,etudes sur les ,inondations1 constitute the earliest1 and1 in some respects1 the most remarkable series known to me1 of persevering and systematic observations bearing directly and exclusively upon the influence of human action on climate1 or1 to speak more accurately1 on precipitation and natural drainage4 ,the conclusions of ,belgrand1 however1 and of ,valles1 who adopts them1 have not been generally accepted by the scientific world1 and they seem to have been1 in part at least1 refuted by the arguments of ,hericourt and the observations of ,cantegril1 ,jeandel1 and ,belland4 ,see chapter iii3 ,the ,woods4 #f ,verses addressed by ,g4 ,c4 to ,sir ,walter ,raleigh4--,,hakluyt1 i1 p4 #ffh4 #g ----,i troer1 at ,synets ,sands er lagt i ,oeiet1 ,mens dette kun er ,redskab4 ,synet stroemmer ,fra ,sjaelens ,dyb1 og ,oeiets fine ,nerver ,gaae ud fra ,hjernens hemmelige ,vaerksted4 ,,henrik ,,hertz1 ,kong ,rene's ,datter1 sc4 ii4 ,in the material eye1 you think1 sight lodgeth6 ,the eye is but an organ4 ,seeing streameth ,from the soul's inmost depths4 ,the fine perceptive ,nerve springeth from the brain's mysterious workshop4 #h ,skill in marksmanship1 whether with firearms or with other projectile weapons1 depends more upon the training of the eye than is generally supposed1 and ,i have often found particularly good shots to possess an almost telescopic vision4 ,in the ordinary use of the rifle1 the barrel serves as a guide to the eye1 but there are sportsmen who fire with the but of the gun at the hip4 ,in this case1 as in the use of the sling1 the lasso1 and the bolas1 in hurling the knife 7see ,,babinet1 ,lectures1 vii1 p4 #hd71 in throwing the boomerang1 the javelin1 or a stone1 and in the employment of the blow pipe and the bow1 the movements of the hand and arm are guided by that mysterious sympathy which exists between the eye and the unseeing organs of the body4 ,in shooting the tortoises of the ,amazon and its tributaries1 the ,indians use an arrow with a long twine and a float attached to it4 ,ave-,lallemant 7,die ,benutzung der ,palmen am ,amazonenstrom1 p4 #cb7 thus describes their mode of aiming3 ,as the arrow1 if aimed directly at the floating tortoise1 would strike it at a small angle1 and glance from its flat and wet shell1 the archers have a peculiar method of shooting4 ,they are able to calculate exactly their own muscular effort1 the velocity of the stream1 the distance and size of the tortoise1 and they shoot the arrow directly up into the air1 so that it falls almost vertically upon the shell of the tortoise1 and sticks in it4 ,analogous calculations--if such physico-mental operations can properly be so called--are made in the use of other missiles2 for no projectile flies in a right line to its mark4 ,but the exact training of the eye lies at the bottom of all of them1 and marksmanship depends almost wholly upon the power of that organ1 whose directions the blind muscles implicitly follow4 ,it is perhaps not out of place to observe here that our ,english word aim comes from the ,latin aestimo1 ,i calculate or estimate4 ,see ,,wedgwood',s ,dictionary of ,english ,etymology1 and the note to the ,american edition1 under ,aim4 ,another proof of the control of the limbs by the eye has been observed in deaf-and-dumb schools1 and others where pupils are first taught to write on large slates or blackboards4 ,the writing is in large characters1 the small letters being an inch or more high4 ,they are formed with chalk or a slate pencil firmly grasped in the fingers1 and by appropriate motions of the wrist1 elbow1 and shoulder1 not of the finger joints4 ,nevertheless1 when a pen is put into the hand of a pupil thus taught1 his handwriting1 though produced by a totally different set of muscles and muscular movements1 is identical in character with that which he has practised on the blackboard4 ,it has been much doubted whether the artists of the classic ages possessed a more perfect sight than those of modern times1 or whether1 in executing their minute mosaics and gem engravings1 they used magnifiers4 ,glasses ground convex have been found at ,pompeii1 but they are too rudely fashioned and too imperfectly polished to have been of any practical use for optical purposes4 ,but though the ancient artists may have had a microscopic vision1 their astronomers cannot have had a telescopic power of sight2 for they did not discover the satellites of ,jupiter1 which are often seen with the naked eye at ,oormeeah1 in ,persia1 and sometimes1 as ,i can testify by personal observation1 at ,cairo4 ,for a very remarkable account of the restoration of vision impaired from age1 by judicious training1 see ,lessons in ,life1 by ,,timothy ,,titcomb1 lesson xi4 #i ,antiquity of ,man1 p4 #cgg4 #aj ,one of them the ,indians seated himself near me1 and made from a fragment of quartz1 with a simple piece of round bone1 one end of which was hemispherical1 with a small crease in it 7as if worn by a thread7 the sixteenth of an inch deep1 an arrow head which was very sharp and piercing1 and such as they use on all their arrows4 ,the skill and rapidity with which it was made1 without a blow1 but by simply breaking the sharp edges with the creased bone by the strength of his hands--for the crease merely served to prevent the instrument from slipping1 affording no leverage--was remarkable4--,reports of ,explorations and ,surveys for ,pacific ,railroad1 vol4 ii1 #ahee1 ,lieut4 ,,beckwith',s ,report1 p4 #dc4 ,it has been said that stone weapons are not found in ,sicily1 except in certain caves half filled with the skeletons of extinct animals4 ,if they have not been found in that island in more easily accessible localities1 ,i suspect it is because eyes familiar with such objects have not sought for them4 ,in ,january1 #ahed1 ,i picked up an arrow head of quartz in a little ravine or furrow just washed out by a heavy rain1 in a field near the ,simeto4 ,it is rudely fashioned1 but its artificial character and its special purpose are quite unequivocal4 #aa ,probably no cultivated vegetable affords so good an opportunity of studying the laws of acclimation of plants as maize or ,indian corn4 ,maize is grown from the tropics to at least lat4 #dg deg4 in ,northeastern ,america1 and farther north in ,europe4 ,every two or three degrees of latitude brings you to a new variety1 with new climatic adaptations1 and the capacity of the plant to accommodate itself to new conditions of temperature and season seems almost unlimited4 ,we may easily suppose a variety of this grain1 which had become acclimated in still higher latitudes1 to have been lost1 and in such case the failure to raise a crop from seed brought from some distance to the south would not prove that the climate had become colder4 ,many persons now living remember that1 when the common tomato was first introduced into ,northern ,new ,england1 it often failed to ripen2 but1 in the course of a very few years1 it completely adapted itself to the climate1 and now not only matures both its fruit and its seeds with as much certainty as any cultivated vegetable1 but regularly propagates itself by self-sown seed4 ,meteorological observations1 however1 do not show any amelioration of the summer climate in those ,states within that period4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #a4 ,maize and the tomato1 if not new to human use1 have not been long known to civilization1 and were1 very probably1 reclaimed and domesticated at a much more recent period than the plants which form the great staples of agricultural husbandry in ,europe and ,asia4 ,is the great power of accomodation to climate possessed by them due to this circumstance8 ,there is some reason to suppose that the character of maize has been sensibly changed by cultivation in ,south ,america2 for1 according to ,poeppig1 the ears of this grain found in old ,peruvian tombs belong to varieties not now known in ,peru4--,travels in ,peru1 chap4 vii4 #ab ,the cultivation of madder is said to have been introduced into ,europe by an ,oriental in the year #agfe1 and it was first planted in the neighborhood of ,avignon4 ,of course1 it has been grown in that district for less than a century2 but upon soils where it has been a frequent crop1 it is already losing much of its coloring properties4--,,lavergne1 ,economie ,rurale de la ,france1 pp4 #bei-bia4 ,i believe there is no doubt that the cultivation of madder in the vicinity of ,avignon is of recent introduction2 but it appears from ,fuller and other evidence1 that this plant was grown in ,europe before the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,the madder brought to ,france from ,persia may be of a different species1 or1 at least1 variety4 ,some two years since1 says ,fuller1 madder was sown by ,sir ,nicholas ,crispe at ,debtford1 and ,i hope will have good success2 first because it groweth in ,zeland in the same 7if not a more northern7 latitude4 ,secondly1 because wild madder grows here in abundance2 and why may not tame madder if cicurated by art4 ,lastly1 because as good as any grew some thirty years since at ,barn-,elms1 in ,surrey1 though it quit not cost through some error in the first planter thereof1 which now we hope will be rectified4--,,fuller1 ,worthies of ,england1 ii1 pp4 #eg1 #eh4 ,perhaps the recent diseases of the olive1 the vine1 and the silkworm--the prevailing malady of which insect is supposed by some to be the effect of an incipient decay of the mulberry tree--may be1 in part1 due to changes produced in the character of the soil by exhaustion through long cultivation4 #ac ,in many parts of ,new ,england there are tracts1 miles in extent1 and presenting all varieties of surface and exposure1 which were partially cleared sixty or seventy years ago1 and where little or no change in the proportion of cultivated ground1 pasturage1 and woodland has taken place since4 ,in some cases1 these tracts compose basins apparently scarcely at all exposed to any local influence in the way of percolation or infiltration of water toward or from neighboring valleys4 ,but in such situations1 apart from accidental disturbances1 the ground is growing drier and drier1 from year to year1 springs are still disappearing1 and rivulets still diminishing in their summer supply of water4 ,a probable explanation of this is to be found in the rapid drainage of the surface of cleared ground1 which prevents the subterranean natural reservoirs1 whether cavities or merely strata of bibulous earth1 from filling up4 ,how long this process is to last before an equilibrium is reached1 none can say4 ,it may be1 for years2 it may be1 for centuries4 ,livingstone states facts which favor the supposition that a secular desiccation is still going on in central ,africa4 ,when the regions where the earth is growing drier were cleared of wood1 or1 indeed1 whether forests ever grew there1 we are unable to say1 but the change appears to have been long in progress4 ,there is reason to suspect a similar revolution in ,arabia ,petraea4 ,in many of the wadis1 and particularly in the gorges between ,wadi ,feiran and ,wadi ,esh ,sheikh1 there are water-worn banks showing that1 at no very remote period1 the winter floods must have risen fifty feet in channels where the growth of acacias and tamarisks and the testimony of the ,arabs concur to prove that they have not risen six feet within the memory or tradition of the present inhabitants4 ,there is little probability that any considerable part of the ,sinaitic peninsula has been wooded since its first occupation by man1 and we must seek the cause of its increasing dryness elsewhere than in the removal of the forest4 #ad ,the soil of newly subdued countries is generally in a high degree favorable to the growth of the fruits of the garden and the orchard1 but usually becomes much less so in a very few years4 ,plums1 of many varieties1 were formerly grown1 in great perfection and abundance1 in many parts of ,new ,england where at present they can scarcely be reared at all2 and the peach1 which1 a generation or two ago1 succeeded admirably in the southern portion of the same ,states1 has almost ceased to be cultivated there4 ,the disappearance of these fruits is partly due to the ravages of insects1 which have in later years attacked them2 but this is evidently by no means the sole1 or even the principal cause of their decay4 ,in these cases1 it is not to the exhaustion of the particular acres on which the fruit trees have grown that we are to ascribe their degeneracy1 but to a general change in the condition of the soil or the air2 for it is equally impossible to rear them successfully on absolutely new land in the neighborhood of grounds where1 not long since1 they bore the finest fruit4 ,i remember being told1 many years ago1 by one of the earliest settlers of the ,state of ,ohio1 a very intelligent and observing person1 that the apple trees raised there from seed sown soon after the land was cleared1 bore fruit in less than half the time required to bring to bearing those reared from seed sown when the ground had been twenty years under cultivation4 ,in the peat mosses of ,denmark1 ,scotch firs and other trees not now growing in the same localities1 are found in abundance4 ,every generation of trees leaves the soil in a different state from that in which it found it2 every tree that springs up in a group of trees of another species than its own1 grows under different influences of light and shade and atmosphere from its predecessors4 ,hence the succession of crops1 which occurs in all natural forests1 seems to be due rather to changes of condition than of climate4 ,see chapter iii1 post4 #ae ,the nomenclature of meteorology is vague and sometimes equivocal4 ,not long since1 it was suspected that the observers reporting to a scientific institution did not agree in their understanding of the mode of expressing the direction of the wind prescribed by their instructions4 ,it was found1 upon inquiry1 that very many of them used the names of the compass-points to indicate the quarter from which the wind blew1 while others employed them to signify the quarter toward which the atmospheric currents were moving4 ,in some instances1 the observers were no longer within the reach of inquiry1 and of course their tables of the wind were of no value4 ,winds1 says ,mrs4 ,somerville1 are named from the points whence they blow1 currents exactly the reverse4 ,an easterly wind comes from the east2 whereas an easterly current comes from the west1 and flows toward the east4--,physical ,geography1 p4 #bbi4 ,there is no philological ground for this distinction1 and it probably originated in a confusion of the terminations -wardly and -erly1 both of which are modern4 ,the root of the former ending implies the direction to or to-ward which motion is supposed4 ,it corresponds to1 and is probably allied with1 the ,latin versus4 ,the termination -erly is a corruption or softening of -ernly1 easterly for easternly1 and many authors of the seventeenth century so write it4 ,in ,hakluyt 7i1 p4 #b71 easterly is applied to place1 easterly bounds1 and means eastern4 ,in a passage in ,drayton1 easterly winds must mean winds from the east2 but the same author1 in speaking of nations1 uses northerly for northern4 ,hakewell says3 ,the sonne cannot goe more southernely from vs1 nor come more northernely towards vs4 ,holland1 in his translation of ,pliny1 referring to the moon has3 ,when shee is northerly1 and shee is gone southerly4 ,richardson1 to whom ,i am indebted for the above citations1 quotes a passage from ,dampier where westerly is applied to the wind1 but the context does not determine the direction4 ,the only example of the termination in -wardly given by this lexicographer is from ,donne1 where it means toward the west4 ,shakspeare1 in ,hamlet 7v4 ii71 uses northerly wind for wind from the north4 ,milton does not employ either of these terminations1 nor were they known to the ,anglo-,saxons1 who1 however1 had adjectives of direction in -an or -en1 -ern and -weard1 the last always meaning the point toward which motion is supposed1 the others that from which it proceeds4 ,we use an east wind1 an eastern wind1 and an easterly wind1 to signify the same thing4 ,the two former expressions are old1 and constant in meaning2 the last is recent1 superfluous1 and equivocal4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #b4 #af ,i do not here speak of the vast prairie region of the ,mississippi valley1 which cannot properly be said ever to have been a field of ,british colonization2 but of the original colonies1 and their dependencies in the territory of the present ,united ,states1 and in ,canada4 ,it is1 however1 equally true of the ,western prairies as of the ,eastern forest land1 that they had arrived at a state of equilibrium1 though under very different conditions4 #ag ,the great fire of ,miramichi in #ahbe1 probably the most extensive and terrific conflagration recorded in authentic history1 spread its ravages over nearly six thousand square miles1 chiefly of woodland1 and was of such intensity that it seemed to consume the very soil itself4 ,but so great are the recuperative powers of nature1 that1 in twenty-five years1 the ground was thickly covered again with trees of fair dimensions1 except where cultivation and pasturage kept down the forest growth4 #ah ,the ,english nomenclature of this geographical feature does not seem well settled4 ,we have bog1 swamp1 marsh1 morass1 moor1 fen1 turf moss1 peat moss1 quagmire1 all of which1 though sometimes more or less accurately discriminated1 are often used interchangeably1 or are perhaps employed1 each exclusively1 in a particular district4 ,in ,sweden1 where1 especially in the ,lappish provinces1 this terr-aqueous formation is very extensive and important1 the names of its different kinds are more specific in their application4 ,the general designation of all soils permanently pervaded with water is ,kaerr4 ,the elder ,laestadius divides the ,kaerr into two genera3 ,myror 7sing4 myra71 and ,mossar 7sing4 mosse74 ,the former1 he observes1 are grass-grown1 and overflowed with water through almost the whole summer2 the latter are covered with mosses and always moist1 but very seldom overflowed4 ,he enumerates the following species of ,myra1 the character of which will perhaps be sufficiently understood by the ,latin terms into which he translates the vernacular names1 for the benefit of strangers not altogether familiar with the language and the subject3 #a4 ,hoemyror1 paludes graminosae4 #b4 ,dy1 paludes profundae4 #c4 ,flarkmyror1 or proper kaerr1 paludes limosae4 #d4 ,fjaellmyror1 paludes uliginosae4 #e4 ,tufmyror1 paludes caespitosae4 #f4 ,rismyror1 paludes virgatae4 #g4 ,starraengar1 prata irrigata1 with their subdivisions1 dry starraengar or risaengar1 wet starraengar and fraekengropar4 #h4 ,poelar1 laeunae4 #i4 ,goelar1 fossae inundatae4 ,the ,mossar1 paludes turfosae1 which are of great extent1 have but two species3 #a4 ,torfmossar1 called also ,mossmyror and ,snottermyror1 and1 #b4 ,bjoernmossar4 ,the accumulations of stagnant or stagnating water originating in bogs are distinguished into ,trask1 stagna1 and ,tjernar or ,tjaernar 7sing4 ,tjern or ,tjaern71 stagnatiles4 ,trask are pools fed by bogs1 or water emanating from them1 and their bottoms are slimy2 ,tjernar are small ,traesk situated within the limits of ,mossar4--,l4 ,l4 ,,laestadius1 om ,moejligheten af ,uppodlingar i ,lappmarken1 pp4 #bc1 #bd4 #ai ,although the quantity of bog land in ,new ,england is less than in many other regions of equal area1 yet there is a considerable extent of this formation in some of the ,northeastern ,states4 ,dana 7,manual of ,geology1 p4 #fad7 states that the quantity of peat in ,massachusetts is estimated at #abj1jjj1jjj cords1 or nearly #efi1jjj1jjj cubic yards1 but he does not give either the area or the depth of the deposits4 ,in any event1 however1 bogs cover but a small percentage of the territory in any of the ,northern ,states1 while it is said that one tenth of the whole surface of ,ireland is composed of bogs1 and there are still extensive tracts of undrained marsh in ,england4 ,bogs1 independently of their importance in geology as explaining the origin of some kinds of mineral coal1 have a present value as repositories of fuel4 ,peat beds have sometimes a thickness of ten or twelve yards1 or even more4 ,a depth of ten yards would give #dh1jjj cubic yards to the acre4 ,the greatest quantity of firewood yielded by the forests of ,new ,england to the acre is #ajj cords solid measure1 or #dgd cubic yards2 but this comprises only the trunks and larger branches4 ,if we add the small branches and twigs1 it is possible that #fjj cubic yards might1 in some cases1 be cut on an acre4 ,this is only one eightieth part of the quantity of peat sometimes found on the same area4 ,it is true that a yard of peat and a yard of wood are not the equivalents of each other1 but the fuel on an acre of deep peat is worth much more than that on an acre of the best woodland4 ,besides this1 wood is perishable1 and the quantity on an acre cannot be increased beyond the amount just stated2 peat is indestructible1 and the beds are always growing4 #bj ,aquatic plants have a utility in raising the level of marshy grounds1 which renders them very valuable1 and may well be called a geological function4 99 99 99 ,the engineer drains ponds at a great expense by lowering the surface of the water2 nature attains the same end1 gratuitously1 by raising the level of the soil without depressing that of the water2 but she proceeds more slowly4 ,there are1 in the ,landes1 marshes where this natural filling has a thickness of four metres1 and some of them1 at first lower than the sea1 have been thus raised and drained so as to grow summer crops1 such1 for example1 as maize4--,,boitel1 ,mise en valeur des ,terres pauvres1 p4 #bbg4 ,the bogs of ,denmark--the examination of which by ,steenstrup and ,vaupell has presented such curious results with respect to the natural succession of forest trees--appear to have gone through this gradual process of drying1 and the birch1 which grows freely in very wet soils1 has contributed very effectually by its annual deposits to raise the surface above the water level1 and thus to prepare the ground for the oak4--,,vaupell1 ,boegens ,indvandring1 pp4 #ci1 #dj4 #ba ,careful examination of the peat mosses in ,north ,sjaelland--which are so abundant in fossil wood that1 within thirty years1 they have yielded above a million of trees--shows that the trees have generally fallen from age and not from wind4 ,they are found in depressions on the declivities of which they grew1 and they lie with the top lowest1 always falling toward the bottom of the valley4--,,vaupell1 ,boegens ,indvandring i de ,danske ,skove1 pp4 #aj1 #ad4 #bb ,the locust insect1 ,clitus pictus1 which deposits its eggs in the ,american locust1 ,robinia pseudacacia1 is one of these1 and its ravages have been and still are most destructive to that very valuable tree1 so remarkable for combining rapidity of growth with strength and durability of wood4 ,this insect1 ,i believe1 has not yet appeared in ,europe1 where1 since the so general employment of the ,robinia to clothe and protect embankments and the scarps of deep cuts on railroads1 it would do incalculable mischief4 ,as a traveller1 however1 ,i should find some compensation for this evil in the destruction of these acacia hedges1 which as completely obstruct the view on hundreds of miles of ,french and ,italian railways1 as the garden walls of the same countries do on the ordinary roads4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #d4 #bc ,in the artificial woods of ,europe1 insects are far more numerous and destructive to trees than in the primitive forests of ,america1 and the same remark may be made of the smaller rodents1 such as moles1 mice1 and squirrels4 ,in the dense native wood1 the ground and the air are too humid1 the depth of shade too great for many tribes of these creatures1 while near the natural meadows and other open grounds1 where circumstances are otherwise more favorable for their existence and multiplication1 their numbers are kept down by birds1 serpents1 foxes1 and smaller predacious quadrupeds4 ,in civilized countries1 these natural enemies of the worm1 the beetle and the mole1 are persecuted1 sometimes almost exterminated1 by man1 who also removes from his plantations the decayed or wind-fallen trees1 the shrubs and underwood1 which1 in a state of nature1 furnished food and shelter to the borer and the rodent1 and often also to the animals that preyed upon them4 ,hence the insect and the gnawing quadruped are allowed to increase1 from the expulsion of the police which1 in the natural wood1 prevent their excessive multiplication1 and they become destructive to the forest because they are driven to the living tree for nutriment and cover4 ,the forest of ,fontainebleau is almost wholly without birds1 and their absence is ascribed by some writers to the want of water1 which1 in the thirsty sands of that wood1 does not gather into running brooks2 but the want of undergrowth is perhaps an equally good reason for their scarcity4 ,in a wood of spontaneous growth1 ordered and governed by nature1 the squirrel does not attack trees1 or at least the injury he may do is too trifling to be perceptible1 but he is a formidable enemy to the plantation4 ,the squirrels bite the cones of the pine and consume the seed which might serve to restock the wood2 they do still more mischief by gnawing off1 near the leading shoot1 a strip of bark1 and thus often completely girdling the tree4 ,trees so injured must be felled1 as they would never acquire a vigorous growth4 ,the squirrel is especially destructive to the pine in ,sologne1 where he gnaws the bark of tress twenty or twenty-five years old4 ,but even here1 nature sometimes provides a compensation1 by making the appetite of this quadruped serve to prevent an excessive production of seed cones1 which tends to obstruct the due growth of the leading shoot4 ,in some of the pineries of ,brittany which produce cones so abundantly as to strangle the development of the leading shoot of the maritime pine1 it has been observed that the pines are most vigorous where the squirrels are most numerous1 a result attributed to the repression of the cones by this rodent4--,,boitel1 ,mise en valeur des ,terres pauvres1 p4 #ej4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #e4 #bd ,the terrible destructiveness of man is remarkably exemplified in the chase of large mammalia and birds for single products1 attended with the entire waste of enormous quantities of flesh1 and of other parts of the animal1 which are capable of valuable uses4 ,the wild cattle of ,south ,america are slaughtered by millions for their hides and horns2 the buffalo of ,north ,america for his skin or his tongue2 the elephant1 the walrus1 and the narwhal for their tusks2 the cetacea1 and some other marine animals1 for their oil and whalebone2 the ostrich and other large birds1 for their plumage4 ,within a few years1 sheep have been killed in ,new ,england by whole flocks1 for their pelts and suet alone1 the flesh being thrown away2 and it is even said that the bodies of the same quadrupeds have been used in ,australia as fuel for limekilns4 ,what a vast amount of human nutriment1 of bone1 and of other animal products valuable in the arts1 is thus recklessly squandered6 ,in nearly all these cases1 the part which constitutes the motive for this wholesale destruction1 and is alone saved1 is essentially of insignificant value as compared with what is thrown away4 ,the horns and hide of an ox are not economically worth a tenth part as much as the entire carcass4 ,one of the greatest benefits to be expected from the improvements of civilization is1 that increased facilities of communication will render it possible to transport to places of consumption much valuable material that is now wasted because the price at the nearest market will not pay freight4 ,the cattle slaughtered in ,south ,america for their hides would feed millions of the starving population of the ,old ,world1 if their flesh could be economically preserved and transported across the ocean4 ,we are beginning to learn a better economy in dealing with the inorganic world4 ,the utilization--or1 as the ,germans more happily call it1 the ,verwerthung1 the beworthing--of waste from metallurgical1 chemical1 and manufacturing establishments1 is among the most important results of the application of science to industrial purposes4 ,the incidental products from the laboratories of manufacturing chemists often become more valuable than those for the preparation of which they were erected4 ,the slags from silver refineries1 and even from smelting houses of the coarser metals1 have not unfrequently yielded to a second operator a better return than the first had derived from dealing with the natural ore2 and the saving of lead carried off in the smoke of furnaces has1 of itself1 given a large profit on the capital invested in the works4 ,a few years ago1 an officer of an ,american mint was charged with embezzling gold committed to him for coinage4 ,he insisted1 in his defence1 that much of the metal was volatilized and lost in refining and melting1 and upon scraping the chimneys of the melting furnaces and the roofs of the adjacent houses1 gold enough was found in the soot to account for no small part of the deficiency4 #be ,it is an interesting and not hitherto sufficiently noticed fact1 that the domestication of the organic world1 so far as it has yet been achieved1 belongs1 not indeed to the savage state1 but to the earliest dawn of civilization1 the conquest of inorganic nature almost as exclusively to the most advanced stages of artificial culture4 ,it is familiarly known to all who have occupied themselves with the psychology and habits of the ruder races1 and of persons with imperfectly developed intellects in civilized life1 that although these humble tribes and individuals sacrifice1 without scruple1 the lives of the lower animals to the gratification of their appetites and the supply of their other physical wants1 yet they nevertheless seem to cherish with brutes1 and even with vegetable life1 sympathies which are much more feebly felt by civilized men4 ,the popular traditions of the simpler peoples recognize a certain community of nature between man1 brute animals1 and even plants2 and this serves to explain why the apologue or fable1 which ascribes the power of speech and the faculty of reason to birds1 quadrupeds1 insects1 flowers1 and trees1 is one of the earliest forms of literary composition4 ,in almost every wild tribe1 some particular quadruped or bird1 though persecuted as a destroyer of more domestic beasts1 or hunted for food1 is regarded with peculiar respect1 one might almost say1 affection4 ,some of the ,north ,american aboriginal nations celebrate a propitiatory feast to the manes of the intended victim before they commence a bear hunt2 and the ,norwegian peasantry have not only retained an old proverb which ascribes to the same animal ti ,moends ,styrke og tolv ,moends ,vid1 ten men's strength and twelve men's cunning1 but they still pay to him something of the reverence with which ancient superstition invested him4 ,the student of ,icelandic literature will find in the saga of ,finnbogi hinn rami a curious illustration of this feeling1 in an account of a dialogue between a ,norwegian bear and an ,icelandic champion--dumb show on the part of ,bruin1 and chivalric words on that of ,finnbogi--followed by a duel1 in which the latter1 who had thrown away his arms and armor in order that the combatants might meet on equal terms1 was victorious4 ,drummond ,hay's very interesting work on ,morocco contains many amusing notices of a similar feeling entertained by the ,moors toward the redoubtable enemy of their flocks--the lion4 ,this sympathy helps us to understand how it is that most if not all the domestic animals--if indeed they ever existed in a wild state--were appropriated1 reclaimed and trained before men had been gathered into organized and fixed communities1 that almost every known esculent plant had acquired substantially its present artificial character1 and that the properties of nearly all vegetable drugs and poisons were known at the remotest period to which historical records reach4 ,did nature bestow upon primitive man some instinct akin to that by which she teaches the brute to select the nutritious and to reject the noxious vegetables indiscriminately mixed in forest and pasture8 ,this instinct1 it must be admitted1 is far from infallible1 and1 as has been hundreds of times remarked by naturalists1 it is in many cases not an original faculty but an acquired and transmitted habit4 ,it is a fact familiar to persons engaged in sheep husbandry in ,new ,england--and ,i have seen it confirmed by personal observation--that sheep bred where the common laurel1 as it is called1 ,kalmia angustifolia1 abounds1 almost always avoid browsing upon the leaves of that plant1 while those brought from districts where laurel is unknown1 and turned into pastures where it grows1 very often feed upon it and are poisoned by it4 ,a curious acquired and hereditary instinct1 of a different character1 may not improperly be noticed here4 ,i refer to that by which horses bred in provinces where quicksands are common avoid their dangers or extricate themselves from them4 ,see ,,bremontier1 ,memoire sur les ,dunes1 ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahcc3 premier semestre1 pp4 #aee-aeg4 ,it is commonly said in ,new ,england1 and ,i believe with reason1 that the crows of this generation are wiser than their ancestors4 ,scarecrows which were effectual fifty years ago are no longer respected by the plunderers of the cornfield1 and new terrors must from time to time be invented for its protection4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #f4 ,civilization has added little to the number of vegetable or animal species grown in our fields or bred in our folds1 while1 on the contrary1 the subjugation of the inorganic forces1 and the consequent extension of man's sway over1 not the annual products of the earth only1 but her substance and her springs of action1 is almost entirely the work of highly refined and cultivated ages4 ,the employment of the elasticity of wood and of horn1 as a projectile power in the bow1 is nearly universal among the rudest savages4 ,the application of compressed air to the same purpose1 in the blowpipe1 is more restricted1 and the use of the mechanical powers1 the inclined plane1 the wheel and axle1 and even the wedge and lever1 seems almost unknown except to civilized man4 ,i have myself seen ,european peasants to whom one of the simplest applications of this latter power was a revelation4 #bf ,the difference between the relations of savage life1 and of incipient civilization1 to nature1 is well seen in that part of the valley of the ,mississippi which was once occupied by the mound builders and afterward by the far less developed ,indian tribes4 ,when the tillers of the fields1 which must have been cultivated to sustain the large population that once inhabited those regions perished1 or were driven out1 the soil fell back to the normal forest state1 and the savages who succeeded the more advanced race interfered very little1 if at all1 with the ordinary course of spontaneous nature4 #bg ,there is a possible--but only a possible--exception in the case of the ,american bison4 ,see note on that subject in chap4 iii1 post4 #bh ,whatever may be thought of the modification of organic species by natural selection1 there is certainly no evidence that animals have exerted upon any form of life an influence analogous to that of domestication upon plants1 quadrupeds1 and birds reared artificially by man2 and this is as true of unforeseen as of purposely effected improvements accomplished by voluntary selection of breeding animals4 #bi ----,and it may be remarked that1 as the world has passed through these several stages of strife to produce a ,christendom1 so by relaxing in the enterprises it has learnt1 does it tend downwards1 through inverted steps1 to wildness and the waste again4 ,let a people give up their contest with moral evil2 disregard the injustice1 the ignorance1 the greediness1 that may prevail among them1 and part more and more with the ,christian element of their civilization2 and in declining this battle with sin1 they will inevitably get embroiled with men4 ,threats of war and revolution punish their unfaithfulness2 and if then1 instead of retracing their steps1 they yield again1 and are driven before the storm1 the very arts they had created1 the structures they had raised1 the usages they had established1 are swept away2 'in that very day their thoughts perish4' ,the portion they had reclaimed from the young earth's ruggedness is lost2 and failing to stand fast against man1 they finally get embroiled with nature1 and are thrust down beneath her ever-living hand4--,,martineau',s ,sermon1 ,the ,good ,soldier of ,jesus ,christ4 #cj ,the dependence of man upon the aid of spontaneous nature1 in his most arduous material works1 is curiously illustrated by the fact that one of the most serious difficulties to be encountered in executing the proposed gigantic scheme of draining the ,zuiderzee in ,holland1 is that of procuring brushwood for the fascines to be employed in the embankments4 ,see ,,diggelen',s pamphlet1 ,groote ,werken in ,nederland4 #ca ,in heavy storms1 the force of the waves as they strike against a sea wall is from one and a half to two tons to the square foot1 and ,stevenson1 in one instance at ,skerryvore1 found this force equal to three tons per foot4 ,the seaward front of the breakwater at ,cherbourg exposes a surface of about #b1ejj1jjj square feet4 ,in rough weather the waves beat against this whole face1 though at the depth of twenty-two yards1 which is the height of the breakwater1 they exert a very much less violent motive force than at and near the surface of the sea1 because this force diminishes in geometrical1 as the distance below the surface increases in arithmetical proportion4 ,the shock of the waves is received several thousand times in the course of twenty-four hours1 and hence the sum of impulse which the breakwater resists in one stormy day amounts to many thousands of millions of tons4 ,the breakwater is entirely an artificial construction4 ,if then man could accumulate and control the forces which he is able effectually to resist1 he might be said to be1 physically speaking1 omnipotent4 #cb ,some well known experiments show that it is quite possible to accumulate the solar heat by a simple apparatus1 and thus to obtain a temperature which might be economically important even in the climate of ,switzerland4 ,saussure1 by receiving the sun's rays in a nest of boxes blackened within and covered with glass1 raised a thermometer enclosed in the inner box to the boiling point2 and under the more powerful sun of the cape of ,good ,hope1 ,sir ,john ,herschel cooked the materials for a family dinner by a similar process1 using1 however1 but a single box1 surrounded with dry sand and covered with two glasses4 ,why should not so easy a method of economizing fuel be resorted to in ,italy1 and even in more northerly climates8 ,the unfortunate ,john ,davidson records in his journal that he saved fuel in ,morocco by exposing his teakettle to the sun on the roof of his house1 where the water rose to the temperature of one hundred and forty degrees1 and1 of course1 needed little fire to bring it to boil4 ,but this was the direct and simple1 not the accumulated heat of the sun4 #cc ,in the successive stages of social progress1 the most destructive periods of human action upon nature are the pastoral condition1 and that of incipient stationary civilization1 or1 in the newly discovered countries of modern geography1 the colonial1 which corresponds to the era of early civilization in older lands4 ,in more advanced states of culture1 conservative influences make themselves felt2 and if highly civilized communities do not always restore the works of nature1 they at least use a less wasteful expenditure than their predecessors in consuming them4 #cd ,the character of geological formation is an element of very great importance in determining the amount of erosion produced by running water1 and1 of course1 in measuring the consequences of clearing off the forests4 ,the soil of the ,french ,alps yields very readily to the force of currents1 and the declivities of the northern ,apennines are covered with earth which becomes itself a fluid when saturated with water4 ,hence the erosion of such surfaces is vastly greater than on many other mountains of equal steepness of inclination4 ,this point is fully considered by the authors referred to in chap4 iii1 post4 #ce ,the ,travels of ,dr4 ,dwight1 president of ,yale ,college1 which embody the results of his personal observations1 and of his inquiries among the early settlers1 in his vacation excursions in the ,northern ,states of the ,american ,union1 though presenting few instrumental measurements or tabulated results1 are of value for the powers of observation they exhibit1 and for the sound common sense with which many natural phenomena1 such for instance as the formation of the river meadows1 called intervales1 in ,new ,england1 are explained4 ,they present a true and interesting picture of physical conditions1 many of which have long ceased to exist in the theatre of his researches1 and of which few other records are extant4 #cf ,the general law of temperature is that it decreases as we ascend4 ,but1 in hilly regions1 the law is reversed in cold1 still weather1 the cold air descending1 by reason of its greater gravity1 into the valleys4 ,if there be wind enough1 however1 to produce a disturbance and intermixture of higher and lower atmospheric strata1 this exception to the general law does not take place4 ,these facts have long been familiar to the common people of ,switzerland and of ,new ,england1 but their importance has not been sufficiently taken into account in the discussion of meteorological observations4 ,the descent of the cold air and the rise of the warm affect the relative temperatures of hills and valleys to a much greater extent than has been usually supposed4 ,a gentleman well known to me kept a thermometrical record for nearly half a century1 in a ,new ,england country town1 at an elevation of at least #a1ejj feet above the sea4 ,during these years his thermometer never fell lower than #bf deg4 ,fahrenheit1 while at the shire town of the county1 situated in a basin one thousand feet lower1 and ten miles distant1 as well as at other points in similar positions1 the mercury froze several times in the same period4 #cg ,railroad surveys must be received with great caution where any motive exists for cooking them4 ,capitalists are shy of investments in roads with steep grades1 and of course it is important to make a fair show of facilities in obtaining funds for new routes4 ,joint-stock companies have no souls2 their managers1 in general1 no consciences4 ,cases can be cited where engineers and directors of railroads1 with long grades above one hundred feet to the mile1 have regularly sworn in their annual reports1 for years in succession1 that there were no grades upon their routes exceeding half that elevation4 ,in fact1 every person conversant with the history of these enterprises knows that in their public statements falsehood is the rule1 truth the exception4 ,what ,i am about to remark is not exactly relevant to my subject2 but it is hard to get the floor in the world's great debating society1 and when a speaker who has anything to say once finds access to the public ear1 he must make the most of his opportunity1 without inquiring too nicely whether his observations are in order4 ,i shall harm no honest man by endeavoring1 as ,i have often done elsewhere1 to excite the attention of thinking and conscientious men to the dangers which threaten the great moral and even political interests of ,christendom1 from the unscrupulousness of the private associations that now control the monetary affairs1 and regulate the transit of persons and property1 in almost every civilized country4 ,more than one ,american ,state is literally governed by unprincipled corporations1 which not only defy the legislative power1 but have1 too often1 corrupted even the administration of justice4 ,similar evils have become almost equally rife in ,england1 and on the ,continent2 and ,i believe the decay of commercial morality1 and indeed of the sense of all higher obligations than those of a pecuniary nature1 on both sides of the ,atlantic1 is to be ascribed more to the influence of joint-stock banks and manufacturing and railway companies1 to the workings1 in short1 of what is called the principle of associate action1 than to any other one cause of demoralization4 ,the apophthegm1 the world is governed too much1 though unhappily too truly spoken of many countries--and perhaps1 in some aspects1 true of all--has done much mischief whenever it has been too unconditionally accepted as a political axiom4 ,the popular apprehension of being over-governed1 and1 ,i am afraid1 more emphatically the fear of being over-taxed1 has had much to do with the general abandonment of certain governmental duties by the ruling powers of most modern states4 ,it is theoretically the duty of government to provide all those public facilities of intercommunication and commerce1 which are essential to the prosperity of civilized commonwealths1 but which individual means are inadequate to furnish1 and for the due administration of which individual guaranties are insufficient4 ,hence public roads1 canals1 railroads1 postal communications1 the circulating medium of exchange1 whether metallic or representative1 armies1 navies1 being all matters in which the nation at large has a vastly deeper interest than any private association can have1 ought legitimately to be constructed and provided only by that which is the visible personification and embodiment of the nation1 namely1 its legislative head4 ,no doubt the organization and management of these institutions by government are liable1 as are all things human1 to great abuses4 ,the multiplication of public placeholders1 which they imply1 is a serious evil4 ,but the corruption thus engendered1 foul as it is1 does not strike so deep as the rottenness of private corporations2 and official rank1 position1 and duty have1 in practice1 proved better securities for fidelity and pecuniary integrity in the conduct of the interests in question1 than the suretyships of private corporate agents1 whose bondsmen so often fail or abscond before their principal is detected4 ,many theoretical statesmen have thought that voluntary associations for strictly pecuniary and industrial purposes1 and for the construction and control of public works1 might furnish1 in democratic countries1 a compensation for the small and doubtful advantages1 and at the same time secure an exemption from the great and certain evils1 of aristocratic institutions4 ,the example of the ,american ,states shows that private corporations--whose rule of action is the interest of the association1 not the conscience of the individual--though composed of ultra-democratic elements1 may become most dangerous enemies to rational liberty1 to the moral interests of the commonwealth1 to the purity of legislation and of judicial action1 and to the sacredness of private rights4 #ch ,it is impossible to say how far the abstraction of water from the earth by broad-leaved field and garden plants--such as maize1 the gourd family1 the cabbage1 c4--is compensated by the condensation of dew1 which sometimes pours from them in a stream1 by the exhalation of aqueous vapor from their leaves1 which is directly absorbed by the ground1 and by the shelter they afford the soil from sun and wind1 thus preventing evaporation4 ,american farmers often say that after the leaves of ,indian corn are large enough to shade the ground1 there is little danger that the plants will suffer from drought2 but it is probable that the comparative security of the fields from this evil is in part due to the fact that1 at this period of growth1 the roots penetrate down to a permanently humid stratum of soil1 and draw from it the moisture they require4 ,stirring the ground between the rows of maize with a light harrow or cultivator1 in very dry seasons1 is often recommended as a preventive of injury by drought4 ,it would seem1 indeed1 that loosening and turning over the surface earth might aggravate the evil by promoting the evaporation of the little remaining moisture2 but the practice is founded partly on the belief that the hygroscopicity of the soil is increased by it to such a degree that it gains more by absorption than it loses by evaporation1 and partly on the doctrine that to admit air to the rootlets1 or at least to the earth near them1 is to supply directly elements of vegetable growth4 #ci ,the vine-wood planks of the ancient great door of the cathedral at ,ravenna1 which measured thirteen feet in length by a foot and a quarter in width1 are traditionally said to have been brought from the ,black ,sea1 by way of ,constantinople1 about the eleventh or twelfth century4 ,no vines of such dimensions are now found in any other part of the ,east1 and1 though ,i have taken some pains on the subject1 ,i never found in ,syria or in ,turkey a vine stock exceeding six inches in diameter1 bark excluded4 #dj ,the ,northmen who--as ,i think it has been indisputably established by ,professor ,rafn of ,copenhagen--visited the coast of ,massachusetts about the year #ajjj1 found grapes growing there in profusion1 and the vine still flourishes in great variety and abundance in the southeastern counties of that ,state4 ,the townships in the vicinity of the ,dighton rock1 supposed by many--with whom1 however1 ,i am sorry ,i cannot agree--to bear a ,scandinavian inscription1 abound in wild vines1 and ,i have never seen a region which produced them so freely4 ,i have no doubt that the cultivation of the grape will become1 at no distant day1 one of the most important branches of rural industry in that district4 #da ,les ,etats ,unis d',amerique en #ahfc1 p4 #cfj4 ,by improved land1 in the reports on the census of the ,united ,states1 is meant cleared land used for grazing1 grass1 or tillage1 or which is now fallow1 connected with or belonging to a farm4--,instructions to ,marshals and ,assistants1 ,census of #ahej1 schedule #d1 ,sec4,sec4 #b1 #c4 #db ,cotton1 though cultivated in ,asia and ,africa from the remotest antiquity1 and known as a rare and costly product to the ,latins and the ,greeks1 was not used by them to any considerable extent1 nor did it enter into their commerce as a regular article of importation4 ,the early voyagers found it in common use in the ,west ,indies and in the provinces first colonized by the ,spaniards2 but it was introduced into the territory of the ,united ,states by ,european settlers1 and did not become of any importance until after the ,revolution4 ,cotton seed was sown in ,virginia as early as #afba1 but was not cultivated with a view to profit for more than a century afterward4 ,sea-island cotton was first grown on the coast of ,georgia in #aghf1 the seed having been brought from the ,bahamas1 where it had been introduced from ,anguilla4--,,bigelow1 ,les ,etats ,unis en #ahfc1 p4 #cgj4 #dc ,the sugar cane was introduced by the ,arabs into ,sicily and ,spain as early as the ninth century1 and though it is now scarcely grown in those localities1 ,i am not aware of any reason to doubt that its cultivation might be revived with advantage4 ,from ,spain it was carried to the ,west ,indies1 though different varieties have since been introduced into those islands from other sources4 ,tea is now cultivated with a certain success in ,brazil1 and promises to become an important crop in the ,southern ,states of the ,american ,union4 ,the lemon is1 ,i think1 readily recognizable1 by ,pliny's description1 as known to the ancients1 but it does not satisfactorily appear that they were acquainted with the orange4 #dd ,john ,smith mentions1 in his ,historie of ,virginia1 #afbd1 pease and beans as having been cultivated by the natives before the arrival of the whites1 and there is no doubt1 ,i believe1 that the pumpkin and several other cucurbitaceous plants are of ,american origin2 but most1 if not all the varieties of pease1 beans1 and other pod fruits now grown in ,american gardens1 are from ,european and other foreign seed4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no1 #h4 #de ,there are some usages of polite society which are inherently low in themselves1 and debasing in their influence and tendency1 and which no custom or fashion can make respectable or fit to be followed by self-respecting persons4 ,it is essentially vulgar to smoke or chew tobacco1 and especially to take snuff2 it is unbecoming a gentleman1 to perform the duties of his coachman2 it is indelicate in a lady to wear in the street skirts so long that she cannot walk without grossly soiling them4 ,not that all these things are not practised by persons justly regarded as gentlemen and ladies2 but the same individuals would be1 and feel themselves to be1 much more emphatically gentlemen and ladies1 if they abstained from them4 #df ,the name portogallo1 so generally applied to the orange in ,italy1 seems to favor this claim4 ,the orange1 however1 was known in ,europe before the discovery of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and1 therefore1 before the establishment of direct relations between ,portugal and the ,east4 ,a correspondent of the ,athenaeum1 in describing the newly excavated villa1 which has been named ,livia's ,villa1 near the ,porta del ,popolo at ,rome1 states that3 ,the walls of one of the rooms are1 singularly enough1 decorated with landscape paintings1 a grove of palm and orange trees1 with fruits and birds on the branches--the colors all as fresh and lively as if painted yesterday4 ,the writer remarks on the character of this decoration as something very unusual in ,roman architecture2 and if the trees in question are really orange1 and not lemon trees1 this circumstance may throw some doubt on the antiquity of the painting4 ,if1 on the other hand1 it proves really ancient1 it shows that the orange was known to the ,roman painters1 if not gardeners4 ,the landscape may perhaps represent ,oriental1 not ,european scenery4 ,the accessories of the picture would probably determine that question4--,athenaeum1 ,no4 #ahei1 ,june #ac1 #ahfc4 ,m,ue,l,l,e,r1 ,das ,buch der ,pflanzenwelt1 p4 #hf1 asserts that in #ahjb the ancestor of all the mulberries in ,france1 planted in #aejj1 was still standing in a garden in the village of ,allan-,montelimart4 #dg ,the vegetables which1 so far as we know their history1 seem to have been longest the objects of human care1 can1 by painstaking industry1 be made to grow under a great variety of circumstances1 and some of them--the vine for instance--prosper nearly equally well1 when planted and tended1 on soils of almost any geological character2 but their seeds vegetate only in artificially prepared ground1 they have little self-sustaining power1 and they soon perish when the nursing hand of man is withdrawn from them4 ,in range of climate1 wild plants are much more limited than domestic1 but much less so with regard to the state of the soil in which they germinate and grow4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #i4 ,dr4 ,dwight remarks that the seeds of ,american forest trees will not vegetate when dropped on grassland4 ,this is one of the very few errors of personal observation to be found in that author's writings4 ,there are seasons1 indeed1 when few tree seeds germinate in the meadows and the pastures1 and years favorable to one species are not always propitious to another2 but there is no ,american forest tree known to me which does not readily propagate itself by seed in the thickest greensward1 if its germs are not disturbed by man or animals4 #dh ,some years ago ,i made a collection of weeds in the wheatfields of ,upper ,egypt1 and another in the gardens on the ,bosphorus4 ,nearly all the plants were identical with those which grow under the same conditions in ,new ,england4 ,i do not remember to have seen in ,america the scarlet wild poppy so common in ,european grainfields4 ,i have heard1 however1 that it has lately crossed the ,atlantic1 and ,i am not sorry for it4 ,with our abundant harvests of wheat1 we can well afford to pay now and then a loaf of bread for the cheerful radiance of this brilliant flower4 #di ,josselyn1 who wrote about fifty years after the foundation of the first ,british colony in ,new ,england1 says that the settlers at ,plymouth had observed more than twenty ,english plants springing up spontaneously near their improvements4 ,every country has many plants not now1 if ever1 made use of by man1 and therefore not designedly propagated by him1 but which cluster around his dwelling1 and continue to grow luxuriantly on the ruins of his rural habitation after he has abandoned it4 ,the site of a cottage1 the very foundation stones of which have been carried off1 may often be recognized1 years afterward1 by the rank weeds which cover it1 though no others of the same species are found for miles4 ,mediaeval ,catholicism1 says ,vaupell1 brought us the red horsehoof--whose reddish-brown flower buds shoot up from the ground when the snow melts1 and are followed by the large leaves--laegekulsukker and snake-root1 which grow only where there were convents and other dwellings in the ,middle ,ages4--,boegens ,indvandring i de ,danske ,skove1 pp4 #a1 #b4 #ej ,,vaupell1 ,boegens ,indvandring i de ,danske ,skove1 p4 #b4 #ea ,it is1 ,i believe1 nearly certain that the ,turks inflicted tobacco upon ,hungary1 and probable that they in some measure compensated the injury by introducing maize also1 which1 as well as tobacco1 has been claimed as ,hungarian by patriotic ,magyars4 #eb ,accidents sometimes limit1 as well as promote1 the propagation of foreign vegetables in countries new to them4 ,the ,lombardy poplar is a dioecious tree1 and is very easily grown from cuttings4 ,in most of the countries into which it has been introduced the cuttings have been taken from the male1 and as1 consequently1 males only have grown from them1 the poplar does not produce seed in those regions4 ,this is a fortunate circumstance1 for otherwise this most worthless and least ornamental of trees would spread with a rapidity that would make it an annoyance to the agriculturist4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #aj4 #ec ,tempests1 violent enough to destroy all cultivated plants1 often spare those of spontaneous growth4 ,during the present summer1 ,i have seen in ,northern ,italy1 vineyards1 maize fields1 mulberry and fruit trees completely stripped of their foliage by hail1 while the forest trees scattered through the meadows1 and the shrubs and brambles which sprang up by the wayside1 passed through the ordeal with scarcely the loss of a leaflet4 #ed ,the boar spear is provided with a short crossbar1 to enable the hunter to keep the infuriated animal at bay after he has transfixed him4 #ee ,some botanists think that a species of water lily represented in many ,egyptian tombs has become extinct1 and the papyrus1 which must have once been abundant in ,egypt1 is now found only in a very few localities near the mouth of the ,nile4 ,it grows very well and ripens its seeds in the waters of the ,anapus near ,syracuse1 and ,i have seen it in garden ponds at ,messina and in ,malta4 ,there is no apparent reason for believing that it could not be easily cultivated in ,egypt1 to any extent1 if there were any special motive for encouraging its growth4 #ef ,although it is not known that man has extirpated any vegetable1 the mysterious diseases which have1 for the last twenty years1 so injuriously affected the potato1 the vine1 the orange1 the olive1 and silk husbandry--whether in this case the malady resides in the mulberry or in the insect--are ascribed by some to a climatic deterioration produced by excessive destruction of the woods4 ,as will be seen in the next chapter1 a retardation in the period of spring has been observed in numerous localities in ,southern ,europe1 as well as in the ,united ,states4 ,this change has been thought to favor the multiplication of the obscure parasites which cause the injury to the vegetables just mentioned4 ,babinet supposes the parasites which attack the grape and the potato to be animal1 not vegetable1 and he ascribes their multiplication to excessive manuring and stimulation of the growth of the plants on which they live4 ,they are now generally1 if not universally1 regarded as vegetable1 and if they are so1 ,babinet's theory would be even more plausible than on his own supposition4--,etudes et ,lectures1 ii1 p4 #bfi4 ,it is a fact of some interest in agricultural economy1 that the oidium1 which is so destructive to the grape1 has produced no pecuniary loss to the proprietors of the vineyards in ,france4 ,the price of wine1 says ,lavergne1 has quintupled1 and as the product of the vintage has not diminished in the same proportion1 the crisis has been1 on the whole1 rather advantageous than detrimental to the country4--,economie ,rurale de la ,france1 pp4 #bfc1 #bfd4 ,france produces a considerable surplus of wines for exportation1 and the sales to foreign consumers are the principal source of profit to ,french vinegrowers4 ,in ,northern ,italy1 on the contrary1 which exports little wine1 there has been no such increase in the price of wine as to compensate the great diminution in the yield of the vines1 and the loss of this harvest is severely felt4 ,in ,sicily1 however1 which exports much wine1 prices have risen as rapidly as in ,france4 ,waltershausen informs us that in the years #ahch-'db1 the red wine of ,mount ,etna sold at the rate of one kreuzer and a half1 or one cent the bottle1 and sometimes even at but two thirds that price1 but that at present it commands five or six times as much4 ,the grape disease has operated severely on small cultivators whose vineyards only furnished a supply for domestic use1 but ,sicily has received a compensation in the immense increase which it has occasioned in both the product and the profits of the sulphur mines4 ,flour of sulphur is applied to the vine as a remedy against the disease1 and the operation is repeated from two to three or four--and even1 it is said1 eight or ten times--in a season4 ,hence there is a great demand for sulphur in all the vine-growing countries of ,europe1 and ,waltershausen estimates the annual consumption of that mineral for this single purpose at #hej1jjj centner1 or more than forty thousand tons4 ,the price of sulphur has risen in about the same proportion as that of wine4--,,waltershausen1 ,ueber den ,sicilianischen ,ackerbau1 pp4 #ai1 #bj4 #eg ,some recent observations of the learned traveller ,wetzstein are worthy of special notice4 ,the soil of the ,hauran1 he remarks1 produces1 in its primitive condition1 much wild rye1 which is not known as a cultivated plant in ,syria1 and much wild barley and oats4 ,these cereals precisely resemble the corresponding cultivated plants in leaf1 ear1 size1 and height of straw1 but their grains are sensibly flatter and poorer in flour4--,reisebericht ueber ,hauran und die ,trachonen1 p4 #dj4 #eh ,this remark is much less applicable to fruit trees than to garden vegetables and the cerealia4 ,the wild orange of ,florida1 though once considered indigenous1 is now generally thought by botanists to be descended from the ,european orange introduced by the early colonists4 ,the fig and the olive are found growing wild in every country where those trees are cultivated4 ,the wild fig differs from the domesticated in its habits1 its season of fructification1 and its insect population1 but is1 ,i believe1 not specifically distinguishable from the garden fig1 though ,i do not know that it is reclaimable by cultivation4 ,the wild olive1 which is so abundant in the ,tuscan ,maremma1 produces good fruit without further care1 when thinned out and freed from the shade of other trees1 and is particularly suited for grafting4 ,see ,,salvagnoli1 ,memorie sulle ,maremme1 pp4 #fc-gc4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #ab4 ,,fraas1 ,klima und ,pflanzenwelt in der ,zeit1 pp4 #ce-ch1 gives1 upon the authority of ,link and other botanical writers1 a list of the native habitats of most cereals and of many fruits1 or at least of localities where these plants are said to be now found wild2 but the data do not appear to rest1 in general1 upon very trustworthy evidence4 ,theoretically1 there can be little doubt that all our cultivated plants are modified forms of spontaneous vegetation1 but the connection is not historically shown1 nor are we able to say that the originals of some domesticated vegetables may not be now extinct and unrepresented in the existing wild flora4 ,see1 on this subject1 ,,humboldt1 ,ansichten der ,natur1 i1 pp4 #bjh1 #bji4 ,the following are interesting incidents3 ,a negro slave of the great ,cortez was the first who sowed wheat in ,new ,spain4 ,he found three grains of it among the rice which had been brought from ,spain as food for the soldiers4 ,in the ,franciscan monastery at ,quito1 ,i saw the earthen pot which contained the first wheat sown there by ,friar ,jodoco ,rixi1 of ,ghent4 ,it was preserved as a relic4 ,the ,adams of modern botany and zoology have been put to hard shifts in finding names for the multiplied organisms which the ,creator has brought before them1 to see what they would call them2 and naturalists and philosophers have shown much moral courage in setting at naught the laws of philology in the coinage of uncouth words to express scientific ideas4 ,it is much to be wished that some bold neologist would devise ,english technical equivalents for the ,german verwildert1 run-wild1 and veredelt1 improved by cultivation4 #ei ,could the bones and other relics of the domestic quadrupeds destroyed by disease or slaughtered for human use in civilized countries be collected into large deposits1 as obscure causes have gathered together those of extinct animals1 they would soon form aggregations which might almost be called mountains4 ,there were in the ,united ,states1 in #ahfj1 as we shall see hereafter1 nearly one hundred and two millions of horses1 black cattle1 sheep1 and swine4 ,there are great numbers of all the same animals in the ,british ,american ,provinces1 and in ,mexico1 and there are large herds of wild horses on the plains1 and of tamed among the independent ,indian tribes of ,north ,america4 ,it would perhaps not be extravagant to suppose that all those cattle may amount to two thirds as many as those of the ,united ,states1 and thus we have in ,north ,america a total of #agj1jjj1jjj domestic quadrupeds belonging to species introduced by ,european colonization1 besides dogs1 cats1 and other four-footed household pets and pests1 also of foreign origin4 ,if we allow half a solid foot to the skeleton and other slowly destructible parts of each animal1 the remains of these herds would form a cubical mass measuring not much short of four hundred and fifty feet to the side1 or a pyramid equal in dimensions to that of ,cheops1 and as the average life of these animals does not exceed six or seven years1 the accumulations of their bones1 horns1 hoofs1 and other durable remains would amount to at least fifteen times as great a volume in a single century4 ,it is true that the actual mass of solid matter1 left by the decay of dead domestic quadrupeds and permanently added to the crust of the earth1 is not so great as this calculation makes it4 ,the greatest proportion of the soft parts of domestic animals1 and even of the bones1 is soon decomposed1 through direct consumption by man and other carnivora1 industrial use1 and employment as manure1 and enters into new combinations in which its animal origin is scarcely traceable2 there is1 nevertheless1 a large annual residuum1 which1 like decayed vegetable matter1 becomes a part of the superficial mould2 and in any event1 brute life immensely changes the form and character of the superficial strata1 if it does not sensibly augment the quantity of the matter composing them4 ,the remains of man1 too1 add to the earthy coating that covers the face of the globe4 ,the human bodies deposited in the catacombs during the long1 long ages of ,egyptian history1 would perhaps build as large a pile as one generation of the quadrupeds of the ,united ,states4 ,in the barbarous days of old ,moslem warfare1 the conquerors erected large pyramids of human skulls4 ,the soil of cemeteries in the great cities of ,europe has sometimes been raised several feet by the deposit of the dead during a few generations4 ,in the ,east1 ,turks and ,christians alike bury bodies but a couple of feet beneath the surface4 ,the grave is respected as long as the tombstone remains1 but the sepultures of the ignoble poor1 and of those whose monuments time or accident has removed1 are opened again and again to receive fresh occupants4 ,hence the ground in ,oriental cemeteries is pervaded with relics of humanity1 if not wholly composed of them2 and an examination of the soil of the lower part of the ,petit ,champ des ,morts at ,pera1 by the naked eye alone1 shows the observer that it consists almost exclusively of the comminuted bones of his fellow man4 #fj ,it is asserted that the bones of mammoths and mastodons1 in many instances1 appear to have been grazed or cut by flint arrow-heads or other stone weapons4 ,these accounts have often been discredited1 because it has been assumed that the extinction of these animals was more ancient than the existence of man4 ,recent discoveries render it highly probable1 if not certain1 that this conclusion has been too hastily adopted4 ,lyell observes3 ,these stories 99 99 must in future be more carefully inquired into1 for we can scarcely doubt that the mastodon in ,north ,america lived down to a period when the mammoth coexisted with man in ,europe4--,antiquity of ,man1 p4 #ced4 ,on page #adc of the volume just quoted1 the same very distinguished writer remarks that man no doubt played his part in hastening the era of the extinction of the large pachyderms and beasts of prey2 but1 as contemporaneous species of other animals1 which man cannot be supposed1 to have extirpated1 have also become extinct1 he argues that the disappearance of the quadrupeds in question cannot be ascribed to human action alone4 ,on this point it may be observed that1 as we cannot know what precise physical conditions were necessary to the existence of a given extinct organism1 we cannot say how far such conditions may have been modified by the action of man1 and he may therefore have influenced the life of such organisms in ways1 and to an extent1 of which we can form no just idea4 #fa ,evelyn thought the depasturing of grass by cattle serviceable to its growth4 ,the biting of cattle1 he remarks1 gives a gentle loosening to the roots of the herbage1 and makes it to grow fine and sweet1 and their very breath and treading as well as soil1 and the comfort of their warm bodies1 is wholesome and marvellously cherishing4--,terra1 or ,philosophical ,discourse of ,earth1 p4 #cf4 ,in a note upon this passage1 ,hunter observes3 ,nice farmers consider the lying of a beast upon the ground1 for one night only1 as a sufficient tilth for the year4 ,the breath of graminivorous quadrupeds does certainly enrich the roots of grass2 a circumstance worthy of the attention of the philosophical farmer4--,terra1 same page4 ,the philosophical farmer of the present day will not adopt these opinions without some qualification4 #fb ,the rat and the mouse1 though not voluntarily transported1 are passengers by every ship that sails from ,europe to a foreign port1 and several species of these quadrupeds have1 consequently1 much extended their range and increased their numbers in modern times4 ,from a story of ,heliogabalus related by ,lampridius1 ,hist4 ,aug4 ,scriptores1 ed4 ,casaubon1 #afij1 p4 #aaj1 it would seem that mice at least were not very common in ancient ,rome4 ,among the capricious freaks of that emperor1 it is said that he undertook to investigate the statistics of the arachnoid population of the capital1 and that #aj1jjj pounds of spiders 7or spiders' webs--for aranea is equivocal7 were readily collected2 but when he got up a mouse show1 he thought ten thousand mice a very fair number4 ,i believe as many might almost be found in a single palace in modern ,rome4 ,rats are not less numerous in all great cities1 and in ,paris1 where their skins are used for gloves1 and their flesh1 it is whispered1 in some very complex and equivocal dishes1 they are caught by legions4 ,i have read of a manufacturer who contracted to buy of the rat catchers1 at a high price1 all the rat skins they could furnish before a certain date1 and failed1 within a week1 for want of capital1 when the stock of peltry had run up to #fjj1jjj4 #fc ,,bigelow1 ,les ,etats ,unis en #ahfc1 pp4 #cgi1 #chj4 ,in the same paragraph this volume states the number of animals slaughtered in the ,united ,states by butchers1 in #ahei1 at #bab1hga1fec4 ,this is an error of the press4 ,number is confounded with value4 ,a reference to the tables of the census shows that the animals slaughtered that year were estimated at #bab1hga1fec dollars2 the number of head is not given4 ,the wild horses and horned cattle of the prairies and the horses of the ,indians are not included in the returns4 #fd ,of this total number1 #b1bdj1jjj1 or nearly nine per cent41 are reported as working oxen4 ,this would strike ,european1 and especially ,english agriculturists1 as a large proportion2 but it is explained by the difference between a new country and an old1 in the conditions which determine the employment of animal labor4 ,oxen are very generally used in the ,united ,states and ,canada for hauling timber and firewood through and from the forests2 for ploughing in ground still full of rocks1 stumps1 and roots2 for breaking up the new soil of the prairies with its strong matting of native grasses1 and for the transportation of heavy loads over the rough roads of the interior4 ,in all these cases1 the frequent obstructions to the passage of the timber1 the plough1 and the sled or cart1 are a source of constant danger to the animals1 the vehicles1 and the harness1 and the slow and steady step of the ox is attended with much less risk than the swift and sudden movements of the impatient horse4 ,it is surprising to see the sagacity with which the dull and clumsy ox--hampered as he is by the rigid yoke1 the most absurd implement of draught ever contrived by man--picks his way1 when once trained to forest work1 among rocks and roots1 and even climbs over fallen trees1 not only moving safely1 but drawing timber over ground wholly impracticable for the light and agile horse4 ,cows1 so constantly employed for draught in ,italy1 are never yoked or otherwise used for labor in ,america1 except in the ,slave ,states4 #fe ,about five miles from camp we ascended to the top of a high hill1 and for a great distance ahead every square mile seemed to have a herd of buffalo upon it4 ,their number was variously estimated by the members of the party2 by some as high as half a million4 ,i do not think it any exaggeration to set it down at #bjj1jjj4--,,stevens',s ,narrative and ,final ,report4 ,reports of ,explorations and ,surveys for ,railroad to ,pacific1 vol4 xii1 book i1 #ahfj4 ,the next day1 the party fell in with a buffalo trail1 where at least #ajj1jjj were thought to have crossed a slough4 #ff ,the most zealous and successful ,new ,england hunter of whom ,i have any personal knowledge1 and who continued to indulge his favorite passion much beyond the age which generally terminates exploits in woodcraft1 lamented on his deathbed that he had not lived long enough to carry up the record of his slaughtered deer to the number of one thousand1 which he had fixed as the limit of his ambition4 ,he was able to handle the rifle1 for sixty years1 at a period when the game was still nearly as abundant as ever1 but had killed only nine hundred and sixty of these quadrupeds1 of all species4 ,the exploits of this ,nimrod have been far exceeded by prairie hunters1 but ,i doubt whether1 in the originally wooded territory of the ,union1 any single marksman has brought down a larger number4 #fg ,erdkunde1 viii4 ,asien1 #aste ,abtheilung1 pp4 #ffj1 #geh4 #fh ,see chapter iii1 post2 also ,,humboldt1 ,ansichten der ,natur1 i1 p4 #ga4 ,from the anatomical character of the bones of the urus1 or auerochs1 found among the relics of the lacustrine population of ancient ,switzerland1 and from other circumstances1 it is inferred that this animal had been domesticated by that people2 and it is stated1 ,i know not upon what authority1 in ,le ,alpi che cingono l',italia1 that it had been tamed by the ,veneti also4 ,see ,,lyell1 ,antiquity of ,man1 pp4 #bd1 #be1 and the last-named work1 p4 #dhi4 ,this is a fact of much interest1 because it is1 ,i believe1 the only known instance of the extinction of a domestic quadruped1 and the extreme improbability of such an event gives some countenance to the theory of the identity of the domestic ox with1 and its descent from1 the urus4 #fi ,in maintaining the recent existence of the lion in the countries named in the text1 naturalists have1 perhaps1 laid too much weight on the frequent occurrence of representations of this animal in sculptures apparently of a historical character4 ,it will not do to argue1 twenty centuries hence1 that the lion and the unicorn were common in ,great ,britain in ,queen ,victoria's time1 because they are often seen fighting for the crown in the carvings and paintings of that period4 #gj ,dar nach sloger schiere1 einen wisent bat elch4 ,starcher bore biere4 but einen grimmen schelch4 ,,xvi ,auentiure4 ,the testimony of the ,nibelungen-,lied is not conclusive evidence that these quadrupeds existed in ,germany at the time of the composition of that poem4 ,it proves too much2 for1 a few lines above those just quoted1 ,sigfrid is said to have killed a lion1 an animal which the most patriotic ,teuton will hardly claim as a denizen of mediaeval ,germany4 #ga ,the wild turkey takes readily to the water1 and is able to cross rivers of very considerable width by swimming4 ,by way of giving me an idea of the former abundance of this bird1 an old and highly respectable gentleman who was among the early white settlers of the ,west1 told me that he once counted1 in walking down the northern bank of the ,ohio ,river1 within a distance of four miles1 eighty-four turkeys as they landed singly1 or at most in pairs1 after swimming over from the ,kentucky side4 #gb ,the wood pigeon has been observed to increase in numbers in ,europe also1 when pains have been taken to exterminate the hawk4 ,the pigeons1 which migrated in flocks so numerous that they were whole days in passing a given point1 were no doubt injurious to the grain1 but probably less so than is generally supposed2 for they did not confine themselves exclusively to the harvests for their nourishment4 #gc ,pigeons were shot near ,albany1 in ,new ,york1 a few years ago1 with green rice in their crops1 which it was thought must have been growing1 a very few hours before1 at the distance of seven or eight hundred miles4 #gd ,professor ,treadwell1 of ,massachusetts1 found that a half-grown ,american robin in confinement ate in one day sixty-eight earthworms1 weighing together nearly once and a half as much as the bird himself1 and another had previously starved upon a daily allowance of eight or ten worms1 or about twenty per cent4 of his own weight4 ,the largest of these numbers appeared1 so far as could be judged by watching parent birds of the same species1 as they brought food to their young1 to be much greater than that supplied to them when fed in the nest2 for the old birds did not return with worms or insects oftener than once in ten minutes on an average4 ,if we suppose the parents to hunt for food twelve hours in a day1 and a nest to contain four young1 we should have seventy-two worms1 or eighteen each1 as the daily supply of the brood4 ,it is probable enough that some of the food collected by the parents may be more nutritious than the earthworms1 and consequently that a smaller quantity sufficed for the young in the nest than when reared under artificial conditions4 ,the supply required by growing birds is not the measure of their wants after they have arrived at maturity1 and it is not by any means certain that great muscular exertion always increases the demand for nourishment1 either in the lower animals or in man4 ,the members of the ,english ,alpine ,club are not distinguished for appetites which would make them unwelcome guests to ,swiss landlords1 and ,i think every man who has had the personal charge of field or railway hands1 must have observed that laborers who spare their strength the least are not the most valiant trencher champions4 ,during the period when imprisonment for debt was permitted in ,new ,england1 persons confined in country jails had no specific allowance1 and they were commonly fed without stint4 ,i have often inquired concerning their diet1 and been assured by the jailers that their prisoners1 who were not provided with work or other means of exercise1 consumed a considerably larger supply of food than common out-door laborers4 #ge ,i hope ,michelet has good authority for this statement1 but ,i am unable to confirm it4 #gf ,apropos of the sparrow--a single pair of which1 according to ,michelet1 p4 #cae1 carries to the nest four thousand and three hundred caterpillars or coleoptera in a week--,i take from the ,record1 an ,english religious newspaper1 of ,december #ae1 #ahfb1 the following article communicated to a country paper by a person who signs himself ,a real friend to the farmer3 ,crawley ,sparrow ,club4--,the annual dinner took place at the ,george ,inn on ,wednesday last4 ,the first prize was awarded to ,mr4 ,i4 ,redford1 ,worth1 having destroyed within the last year #a1dfg4 ,mr4 ,heayman took the second with #a1ddh destroyed4 ,mr4 ,stone1 third1 with #ihb affixed4 ,total destroyed1 #aa1idd4 ,old birds1 #h1ffc2 young ditto1 #gbb2 eggs1 #b1eef4 ,this trio of valiant fowlers1 and their less fortunate--or rather less unfortunate1 but not therefore less guilty--associates1 have rescued by their prowess1 it may be1 a score of pecks of grain from being devoured by the voracious sparrow1 but every one of the twelve thousand hatched and unhatched birds1 thus sacrificed to puerile vanity and ignorant prejudice1 would have saved his bushel of wheat by preying upon insects that destroy the grain4 ,mr4 ,redford1 ,mr4 ,heayman1 and ,mr4 ,stone ought to contribute the value of the bread they have wasted to the fund for the benefit of the ,lancashire weavers2 and it is to be hoped that the next ,byron will satirize the sparrowcide as severely as the first did the prince of anglers1 ,walton1 in the well known lines3 ,the quaint1 old1 cruel coxcomb in his gullet ,should have a hook1 and a small trout to pull it4 #gg ,,salvagnoli1 ,memorie sulle ,maremme ,toscane1 p4 #adc4 ,the country about ,naples is filled with slender towers fifteen or twenty feet high1 which are a standing puzzle to strangers4 ,they are the stations of the fowlers who watch from them the flocks of small birds and drive them down in to the nets by throwing stones over them4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #ad4 ,tschudi has collected in his little work1 ,ueber die ,landwirthschaftliche ,bedeutung der ,voegel1 many interesting facts respecting the utility of birds1 and the wanton destruction of them in ,italy and elsewhere4 ,not only the owl1 but many other birds more familiarly known as predacious in their habits1 are useful by destroying great numbers of mice and moles4 ,the importance of this last service becomes strikingly apparent when it is known that the burrows of the mole are among the most frequent causes of rupture in the dikes of the ,po1 and1 consequently1 of inundations which lay many square miles under water4--,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahdg1 #are semestre1 p4 #aej4 ,see also ,,vogt1 ,nuetzliche u4 schaedliche ,thiere4 #gh ,wild birds are very tenacious in their habits4 ,the extension of particular branches of agriculture introduces new birds2 but unless in the case of such changes in physical conditions1 particular species seem indissolubly attached to particular localities4 ,the migrating tribes follow almost undeviatingly the same precise line of flight in their annual journeys1 and establish themselves in the same breeding places from year to year4 ,the stork is a strong-winged bird and roves far for food1 but very rarely establishes new colonies4 ,he is common in ,holland1 but unknown in ,england4 ,not above five or six pairs of storks commonly breed in the suburbs of ,constantinople along the ,european shore of the narrow ,bosphorus1 while--much to the satisfaction of the ,moslems1 who are justly proud of the marked partiality of so orthodox a bird--dozens of chimneys of the true believers on the ,asiatic side are crowned with his nests4 ,see ,app4 ,no4 #ae4 #gi ,it is not the unfledged and the nursing bird alone that are exposed to destruction by severe weather4 ,whole flocks of adult and strong-winged tribes are killed by hail4 ,severe winters are usually followed by a sensible diminution in the numbers of the non-migrating birds1 and a cold storm in summer often proves fatal to the more delicate species4 ,on the #ajth of ,june1 #ahd-1 five or six inches of snow fell in ,northern ,vermont4 ,the next morning ,i found a humming bird killed by the cold1 and hanging by its claws just below a loose clapboard on the wall of a small wooden building where it had sought shelter4 #hj ,,lyell1 ,antiquity of ,man1 p4 #dji1 observes3 ,of birds it is estimated that the number of those which die every year equals the aggregate number by which the species to which they respectively belong is1 on the average1 permanently represented4 ,a remarkable instance of the influence of new circumstances upon birds was observed upon the establishment of a lighthouse on ,cape ,cod some years since4 ,the morning after the lamps were lighted for the first time1 more than a hundred dead birds of several different species1 chiefly water fowl1 were found at the foot of the tower4 ,they had been killed in the course of the night by flying against the thick glass or grating of the lantern4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #af4 ,migrating birds1 whether for greater security from eagles1 hawks1 and other enemies1 or for some unknown reason1 perform a great part of their annual journeys by night2 and it is observed in the ,alps that they follow the high roads in their passage across the mountains4 ,this is partly because the food in search of which they must sometimes descend is principally found near the roads4 ,it is1 however1 not altogether for the sake of consorting with man1 or of profiting by his labors1 that their line of flight conforms to the paths he has traced1 but rather because the great roads are carried through the natural depressions in the chain1 and hence the birds can cross the summit by these routes without rising to a height where at the seasons of migration the cold would be excessive4 ,the instinct which guides migratory birds in their course is not in all cases infallible1 and it seems to be confounded by changes in the condition of the surface4 ,i am familiar with a village in ,new ,england1 at the junction of two valleys1 each drained by a mill stream1 where the flocks of wild geese which formerly passed1 every spring and autumn1 were very frequently lost1 as it was popularly phrased1 and ,i have often heard their screams in the night as they flew wildly about in perplexity as to the proper course4 ,perhaps the village lights embarrassed them1 or perhaps the constant changes in the face of the country1 from the clearings then going on1 introduced into the landscape features not according with the ideal map handed down in the anserine family1 and thus deranged its traditional geography4 #ha ,the cappercailzie1 or tjaeder1 as he is called in ,sweden1 is a bird of singular habits1 and seems to want some of the protective instincts which secure most other wild birds from destruction4 ,the younger ,laestadius frequently notices the tjaeder1 in his very remarkable account of the ,swedish ,laplanders--a work wholly unsurpassed as a genial picture of semi-barbarian life1 and not inferior in minuteness of detail to ,schlatter's description of the manners of the ,nogai ,tartars1 or even to ,lane's admirable and exhaustive work on the ,modern ,egyptians4 ,the tjaeder1 though not a bird of passage1 is migratory1 or rather wandering in domicile1 and appears to undertake very purposeless and absurd journeys4 ,when he flits1 says ,laestadius1 he follows a straight course1 and sometimes pursues it quite out of the country4 ,it is said that1 in foggy weather1 he sometimes flies out to sea1 and1 when tired1 falls into the water and is drowned4 ,it is accordingly observed that1 when he flies westwardly1 toward the mountains1 he soon comes back again2 but when he takes an eastwardly course1 he returns no more1 and for a long time is very scarce in ,lapland4 ,from this it would seem that he turns back from the bald mountains1 when he discovers that he has strayed from his proper home1 the wood2 but when he finds himself over the ,baltic1 where he cannot alight to rest and collect himself1 he flies on until he is exhausted and falls into the sea4--,,petrus ,,laestadius1 ,journal af foersta aret1 etc41 p4 #cbe4 #hb ,die ,herzogthuemer ,schleswig und ,holstein1 i1 p4 #bjc4 #hc ,gulls hover about ships in port1 and often far out at sea1 diligently watching for the waste of the caboose4 ,while the four great fleets1 ,english1 ,french1 ,turkish1 and ,egyptian1 were lying in the ,bosphorus1 in the summer and autumn of #ahec1 a young lady of my family called my attention to the fact that the gulls were far more numerous about the ships of one of the fleets than about the others4 ,this was verified by repeated observation1 and the difference was owing no doubt to the greater abundance of the refuse from the cookrooms of the naval squadron most frequented by the birds4 ,persons acquainted with the economy of the navies of the states in question1 will be able to conjecture which fleet was most favored with these delicate attentions4 #hd ,birds do not often voluntarily take passage on board ships bound for foreign countries1 but ,i can testify to one such case4 ,a stork1 which had nested near one of the palaces on the ,bosphorus1 had1 by some accident1 injured a wing1 and was unable to join his follows when they commenced their winter migration to the banks of the ,nile4 ,before he was able to fly again1 he was caught1 and the flag of the nation to which the palace belonged was tied to his leg1 so that he was easily identified at a considerable distance4 ,as his wing grow stronger1 he made several unsatisfactory experiments at flight1 and at last1 by a vigorous effort1 succeeded in reaching a passing ship bound southward1 and perched himself on a topsail yard4 ,i happened to witness this movement1 and observed him quietly maintaining his position as long as ,i could discern him with a spyglass4 ,i suppose he finished the voyage1 for he certainly did not return to the palace4 #he ,the enthusiasm of naturalists is not always proportioned to the magnitude or importance of the organisms they concern themselves with4 ,it is not recorded that ,adams1 who found the colossal antediluvian pachyderm in a thick-ribbed mountain of ,siberian ice1 ran wild over his trouvaille2 but ,schmidl1 in describing the natural history of the caves of the ,karst1 speaks of an eminent entomologist as der glueckliche ,entdecker1 the happy discoverer of a new coleopteron1 in one of those dim caverns4 ,how various are the sources of happiness6 ,think of a learned ,german professor1 the bare enumeration of whose ,rath-ships and scientific ,mitglied-ships fills a page1 made famous in the annals of science1 immortal1 happy1 by the discovery of a beetle6 ,had that imperial ennuye1 who offered a premium for the invention of a new pleasure1 but read ,schmidl's ,hoehlen des ,karstes1 what splendid rewards would he not have heaped upon ,kirby and ,spence6 #hf ,i believe there is no foundation for the supposition that earthworms attack the tuber of the potato4 ,some of them1 especially one or two species employed by anglers as bait1 if natives of the woods1 are at least rare in shaded grounds1 but multiply very rapidly after the soil is brought under cultivation4 ,forty or fifty years ago they were so scarce in the newer parts of ,new ,england1 that the rustic fishermen of every village kept secret the few places where they were to be found in their neighborhood1 as a professional mystery1 but at present one can hardly turn over a shovelful of rich moist soil anywhere1 without unearthing several of them4 ,a very intelligent lady1 born in the woods of ,northern ,new ,england1 told me that1 in her childhood1 these worms were almost unknown in that region1 though anxiously sought for by the anglers1 but that they increased as the country was cleared1 and at last became so numerous in some places1 that the water of springs1 and even of shallow wells1 which had formerly been excellent1 was rendered undrinkable by the quantity of dead worms that fell into them4 ,the increase of the robin and other small birds which follow the settler when he has prepared a suitable home for them1 at last checked the excessive multiplication of the worms1 and abated the nuisance4 #hg ,i have already remarked that the remains of extant animals are rarely1 if ever1 gathered in sufficient quantities to possess any geographical importance by their mere mass2 but the decayed exuviae of even the smaller and humbler forms of life are sometimes abundant enough to exercise a perceptible influence on soil and atmosphere4 ,the plain of ,cumana1 says ,humboldt1 presents a remarkable phenomenon1 after heavy rains4 ,the moistened earth1 when heated by the rays of the sun1 diffuses the musky odor common in the torrid zone to animals of very different classes1 to the jaguar1 the small species of tiger cat1 the cabiai1 the gallinazo vulture1 the crocodile1 the viper1 and the rattlesnake4 ,the gaseous emanations1 the vehicles of this aroma1 appear to be disengaged in proportion as the soil1 which contains the remains of an innumerable multitude of reptiles1 worms1 and insects1 begins to be impregnated with water4 ,wherever we stir the earth1 we are struck with the mass of organic substances which in turn are developed and become transformed or decomposed4 ,nature in these climes seems more active1 more prolific1 and so to speak1 more prodigal of life4 #hh ,it is remarkable that ,palissy1 to whose great merits as an acute observer ,i am happy to have frequent occasion to bear testimony1 had noticed that vegetation was necessary to maintain the purity of water in artificial reservoirs1 though he mistook the rationale of its influence1 which he ascribed to the elemental salt supposed by him to play an important part in all the operations of nature4 ,in his treatise upon ,waters and ,fountains1 p4 #agd1 of the reprint of #ahdd1 he says3 ,and in special1 thou shalt note one point1 the which is understood of few3 that is to say1 that the leaves of the trees which fall upon the parterre1 and the herbs growing beneath1 and singularly the fruits1 if any there be upon the trees1 being decayed1 the waters of the parterre shall draw unto them the salt of the said fruits1 leaves1 and herbs1 the which shall greatly better the water of thy fountains1 and hinder the putrefaction thereof4 #hi ,between the years #ahea and #ahec1 both inclusive1 the ,united ,states exported #b1ffe1heg pounds of beeswax1 besides a considerable quantity employed in the manufacture of candles for exportation4 ,this is an average of more than #ccj1jjj pounds per year4 ,the census of #ahej gave the total production of wax and honey for that year at #ad1hec1abh pounds4 ,in #ahfj1 it amounted to #bf1cgj1hac pounds1 the increase being partly due to the introduction of improved races of bees from ,italy and ,switzerland4--,,bigelow1 ,les ,etats ,unis en #ahfc1 p4 #cgf4 #ij ,a few years ago1 a laborer1 employed at a ,north ,american port in discharging a cargo of hides from the opposite extremity of the continent1 was fatally poisoned by the bite or the sting of an unknown insect1 which ran out from a hide he was handling4 #ia ,in many insects1 some of the stages of life regularly continue for several years1 and they may1 under peculiar circumstances1 be almost indefinitely prolonged4 ,dr4 ,dwight mentions the following remarkable case of this sort1 which may be new to many readers3 ,while ,i was here at ,williamstown1 ,mass41 ,dr4 ,fitch showed me an insect1 about an inch in length1 of a brown color tinged with orange1 with two antennae1 not unlike a rosebug4 ,this insect came out of a tea table1 made of the boards of an apple tree4 ,dr4 ,dwight examined the table1 and found the cavity whence the insect had emerged into the light1 to be about two inches in length1 nearly horizontal1 and inclining upward very little1 except at the mouth4 ,between the hole1 and the outside of the leaf of the table1 there were forty grains of the wood4 ,it was supposed that the sawyer and the cabinet maker must have removed at least thirteen grains more1 and the table had been in the possession of its proprietor for twenty years4 #ib ,it does not appear to be quite settled whether the termites of ,france are indigenous or imported4 ,see ,,quatrefages1 ,souvenirs d'un ,naturaliste1 ii1 pp4 #djj1 #edb1 #edc4 #ic ,i have seen the larva of the dragon fly in an aquarium1 bite off the head of a young fish as long as itself4 #id ,insects and fish--which prey upon and feed each other--are the only forms of animal life that are numerous in the native woods1 and their range is1 of course1 limited by the extent of the waters4 ,the great abundance of the trout1 and of other more or less allied genera in the lakes of ,lapland1 seems to be due to the supply of food provided for them by the swarms of insects which in the larva state inhabit the waters1 or1 in other stages of their life1 are accidentally swept into them4 ,all travellers in the north of ,europe speak of the gnat and the mosquito as very serious drawbacks upon the enjoyments of the summer tourist1 who visits the head of the ,gulf of ,bothnia to see the midnight sun1 and the brothers ,laestadius regard them as one of the great plagues of sub-,arctic life4 ,the persecutions of these insects1 says ,lars ,levi ,laestadius ,culex pipiens1 ,culex reptans1 and ,culex pulicaris1 leave not a moment's peace1 by day or night1 to any living creature4 ,not only man1 but cattle1 and even birds and wild beasts1 suffer intolerably from their bite4 ,he adds in a note1 ,i will not affirm that they have ever devoured a living man1 but many young cattle1 such as lambs and calves1 have been worried out of their lives by them4 ,all the people of ,lapland declare that young birds are killed by them1 and this is not improbable1 for birds are scarce after seasons when the midge1 the gnat1 and the mosquito are numerous4--,om ,uppodlingar i ,lappmarken1 p4 #ej4 ,petrus ,laestadius makes similar statements in his ,journal foer foersta aret1 p4 #bhe4 #ie ,it is very questionable whether there is any foundation for the popular belief in the hostility of swine and of deer to the rattlesnake1 and careful experiments as to the former quadruped seem to show that the supposed enmity is wholly imaginary4 ,observing that the starlings1 stornelli1 which bred in an old tower in ,piedmont1 carried something from their nests and dropped it upon the ground1 about as often as they brought food to their young1 ,i watched their proceedings1 and found every day lying near the tower numbers of dead or dying slowworms1 and1 in a few cases1 small lizards1 which had1 in every instance1 lost about two inches of the tail4 ,this part ,i believe the starlings gave to their nestlings1 and threw away the remainder4 #if ,russell denies the existence of poisonous snakes in ,northern ,syria1 and states that the last instance of death known to have occurred from the bite of a serpent near ,aleppo took place a hundred years before his time4 ,in ,palestine1 the climate1 the thinness of population1 the multitude of insects and of lizards1 all circumstances1 in fact1 seem very favorable to the multiplication of serpents1 but the venomous species1 at least1 are extremely rare1 if at all known1 in that country4 ,i have1 however1 been assured by persons very familiar with ,mount ,lebanon1 that cases of poisoning from the bite of snakes had occurred within a few years1 near ,hasbeiyeh1 and at other places on the southern declivities of ,lebanon and ,hermon4 ,in ,egypt1 on the other hand1 the cobra1 the asp1 and the cerastes are as numerous as ever1 and are much dreaded by all the natives1 except the professional snake charmers4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #ah4 #ig ,i use whale not in a technical sense1 but as a generic term for all the large inhabitants of the sea popularly grouped under that name4 #ih ,from the narrative of ,ohther1 introduced by ,king ,alfred into his translation of ,orosius1 it is clear that the ,northmen pursued the whale fishery in the ninth century1 and it appears1 both from the poem called ,the ,whale1 in the ,codex ,exoniensis1 and from the dialogue with the fisherman in the ,colloquies of ,aelfric1 that the ,anglo-,saxons followed this dangerous chase at a period not much later4 ,i am not aware of any evidence to show that any of the ,latin nations engaged in this fishery until a century or two afterward1 though it may not be easy to disprove their earlier participation in it4 ,in mediaeval literature1 ,latin and ,romance1 very frequent mention is made of a species of vessel called in ,latin1 baleneria1 balenerium1 balenerius1 balaneria1 etc42 in ,catalan1 balener2 in ,french1 balenier2 all of which words occur in many other forms4 ,the most obvious etymology of these words would suggest the meaning1 whaler1 baleinier2 but some have supposed that the name was descriptive of the great size of the ships1 and others have referred it to a different root4 ,from the fourteenth century1 the word occurs oftener1 perhaps1 in old ,catalan1 than in any other language2 but ,capmany does not notice the whale fishery as one of the maritime pursuits of the very enterprising ,catalan people1 nor do ,i find any of the products of the whale mentioned in the old ,catalan tariffs4 ,the whalebone of the mediaeval writers1 which is described as very white1 is doubtless the ivory of the walrus or of the narwhale4 #ii ,in consequence of the great scarcity of the whale1 the use of coal gas for illumination1 the substitution of other fatty and oleaginous substances1 such as lard1 palm oil1 and petroleum1 for right-whale oil and spermaceti1 the whale fishery has rapidly fallen off within a few years4 ,the great supply of petroleum1 which is much used for lubricating machinery as well as for numerous other purposes1 has produced a more perceptible effect on the whale fishery than any other single circumstance4 ,according to ,bigelow1 ,les ,etats ,unis en #ahfc1 p4 #cdf1 the ,american whaling fleet was diminished by #bi in #aheh1 #eg in #ahfj1 #id in #ahfa1 and #fe in #ahfb4 ,the present number of ,american ships employed in that fishery is #cec4 #ajj ,the ,origin and ,history of the ,english ,language1 c41 pp4 #dbc1 #dbd4 #aja ,among the unexpected results of human action1 the destruction or multiplication of fish1 as well as of other animals1 is a not unfrequent occurrence4 ,i shall have occasion to mention on a following page the extermination of the fish in a ,swedish river by a flood occasioned by the sudden discharge of the waters of a pond4 ,williams1 in his ,history of ,vermont1 i1 p4 #adi1 quoted in ,thompson's ,natural ,history of ,vermont1 p4 #adb1 records a case of the increase of trout from an opposite cause4 ,in a pond formed by damming a small stream to obtain water power for a sawmill1 and covering one thousand acres of primitive forest1 the increased supply of food brought within reach of the fish multiplied them to that degree1 that1 at the head of the pond1 where1 in the spring1 they crowded together in the brook which supplied it1 they were taken by the hands at pleasure1 and swine caught them without difficulty4 ,a single sweep of a small scoopnet would bring up half a bushel1 carts were filled with them as fast as if picked up on dry land1 and in the fishing season they were commonly sold at a shilling 7eightpence halfpenny1 or about seventeen cents7 a bushel4 ,the increase in the size of the trout was as remarkable as the multiplication of their numbers4 #ajb ,,babinet1 ,etudes et ,lectures1 ii1 pp4 #ajh1 #aaj4 #ajc ,,thompson1 ,natural ,history of ,vermont1 p4 #ch1 and ,appendix1 p4 #ac4 ,there is no reason to believe that the seal breeds in ,lake ,champlain1 but the individual last taken there must have been some weeks1 at least1 in its waters4 ,it was killed on the ice in the widest part of the lake1 on the #bc;d of ,february1 thirteen days after the surface was entirely frozen1 except the usual small cracks1 and a month or two after the ice closed at all points north of the place where the seal was found4 #ajd ,see page #hi1 note1 ante4 #aje ,according to ,hartwig1 the ,united ,provinces of ,holland had1 in #afah1 three thousand herring busses and nine thousand vessels engaged in the transport of these fish to market4 ,the whole number of persons employed in the ,dutch herring fishery was computed at #bjj1jjj4 ,in the latter part of the eighteenth century1 this fishery was most successfully prosecuted by the ,swedes1 and in #agha1 the town of ,gottenburg alone exported #acf1fdi barrels1 each containing #a1bjj herrings1 making a total of about #afd1jjj1jjj2 but so rapid was the exhaustion of the fish1 from this keen pursuit1 that in #agii it was found necessary to prohibit the exportation of them altogether4--,das ,leben des ,meeres1 p4 #ahb4 ,in #ahee1 the ,british fisheries produced #ijj1jjj barrels1 or enough to supply a fish to every human inhabitant of the globe4 ,on the shores of ,long ,island ,sound1 the white fish1 a species of herring too bony to be easily eaten1 is used as manure in very great quantities4 ,ten thousand are employed as a dressing for an acre1 and a single net has sometimes taken #bjj1jjj in a day4--,,dwight's ,travels1 ii1 pp4 #eab1 #eae4 #ajf ,the indiscriminate hostility of man to inferior forms of animated life is little creditable to modern civilization1 and it is painful to reflect that it becomes keener and more unsparing in proportion to the refinement of the race4 ,the savage slays no animal1 not even the rattlesnake1 wantonly2 and the ,turk1 whom we call a barbarian1 treats the dumb beast as gently as a child4 ,one cannot live many weeks in ,turkey without witnessing touching instances of the kindness of the people to the lower animals1 and ,i have found it very difficult to induce even the boys to catch lizards and other reptiles for preservation as specimens4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #ai4 ,the fearless confidence in man1 so generally manifested by wild animals in newly discovered islands1 ought to have inspired a gentler treatment of them2 but a very few years of the relentless pursuit1 to which they are immediately subjected1 suffice to make them as timid as the wildest inhabitants of the ,european forest4 ,this timidity1 however1 may easily be overcome4 ,the squirrels introduced by ,mayor ,smith into the public parks of ,boston are so tame as to feed from the hands of passengers1 and they not unfrequently enter the neighboring houses4 #ajg ,a fact mentioned by ,schubert--and which in its causes and many of its results corresponds almost precisely with those connected with the escape of ,barton ,pond in ,vermont1 so well known to geological students--is important1 as showing that the diminution of the fish in rivers exposed to inundations is chiefly to be ascribed to the mechanical action of the current1 and not mainly1 as some have supposed1 to changes of temperature occasioned by clearing4 ,our author states that1 in #agif1 a terrible inundation was produced in the ,indalself1 which rises in the ,storsjoe in ,jemtland1 by drawing off into it the waters of another lake near ,ragunda4 ,the flood destroyed houses and fields2 much earth was swept into the channel1 and the water made turbid and muddy2 the salmon and the smaller fish forsook the river altogether1 and never returned4 ,the banks of the river have never regained their former solidity1 and portions of their soil are still continually falling into the water4--,resa genom ,sverge1 ii1 p4 #ea4 #ajh ,,wittwer1 ,physikalische ,geographie1 p4 #adb4 #aji ,to vary the phrase1 ,i make occasional use of animalcule1 which1 as a popular designation1 embraces all microscopic organisms4 ,the name is founded on the now exploded supposition that all of them are animated1 which was the general belief of naturalists when attention was first drawn to them4 ,it was soon discovered that many of them were unquestionably vegetable1 and there are numerous genera the true classification of which is matter of dispute among the ablest observers4 ,there are cases in which objects formerly taken for living animalcules turn out to be products of the decomposition of matter once animated1 and it is admitted that neither spontaneous motion nor even apparent irritability are sure signs of animal life4 #aaj ,see an interesting report on the coral fishery1 by ,sant' ,agabio1 ,italian ,consul-,general at ,algiers1 in the ,bollettino ,consolare1 published by the ,department of ,foreign ,affairs1 #ahfb1 pp4 #aci1 #aea1 and in the ,annali di ,agricoltura1 ,industria e ,commercio1 ,no4 ii1 pp4 #cfj1 #cgc4 #aaa ,the fermentation of liquids1 and in many cases the decomposition of semi-solids1 formerly supposed to be owing purely to chemical action1 are now ascertained to be due to vital processes of living minute organisms both vegetable and animal1 and consequently to physiological1 as well as to chemical forces4 ,even alcohol is stated to be an animal product4 ,see an interesting article by ,auguste ,laugel on the recent researches of ,pasteur1 in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 for ,september #aeth1 #ahfc4 #aab ,the recorded evidence in support of the proposition in the text has been collected by ,l4 ,f4 ,alfred ,maury1 in his ,histoire des grandes ,forets de la ,gaule et de l'ancienne ,france1 and by ,becquerel1 in his important work1 ,des climats et de l',influence qu'exercent les ,sols boises et non boises1 livre ii1 chap4 i to iv4 ,we may rank among historical evidences on this point1 if not technically among historical records1 old geographical names and terminations etymologically indicating forest or grove1 which are so common in many parts of the ,eastern ,continent now entirely stripped of woods--such as1 in ,southern ,europe1 ,breuil1 ,broglio1 ,brolio1 ,brolo2 in ,northern1 ,bruehl1 -wald1 -wold1 -wood1 -shaw1 -skeg1 and -skov4 #aac ,the island of ,madeira1 whose noble forests were devastated by fire not long after its colonization by ,european settlers1 derives its name from the ,portuguese word for wood4 #aad ,browsing animals1 and most of all the goat1 are considered by foresters as more injurious to the growth of young trees1 and1 therefore1 to the reproduction of the forest1 than almost any other destructive cause4 ,according to ,beatson's ,saint ,helena1 introductory chapter1 and ,darwin's ,journal of ,researches in ,geology and ,natural ,history1 pp4 #ehb1 #ehc1 says ,emsmann1 in the notes to his translation of ,foissac1 p4 #fed1 it was the goats which destroyed the beautiful forests that1 three hundred and fifty years ago1 covered a continuous surface of not less than two thousand acres in the interior of the island of ,st4 ,helena1 not to mention scattered groups of trees4 ,darwin observes3 ',during our stay at ,valparaiso1 ,i was most positively assured that sandal wood formerly grew in abundance on the island of ,juan ,fernandez1 but that this tree had now become entirely extinct there1 having been extirpated by the goats which early navigators had introduced4 ,the neighboring islands1 to which goats have not been carried1 still abound in sandal wood4' ,in the winter1 the deer tribe1 especially the great ,american moose deer1 subsists much on the buds and young sprouts of trees2 yet--though from the destruction of the wolves or from some not easily explained cause1 these latter animals have recently multiplied so rapidly in some parts of ,north ,america1 that1 not long since1 four hundred of them are said to have been killed1 in one season1 on a territory in ,maine not comprising more than one hundred and fifty square miles--the wild browsing quadrupeds are rarely1 if ever1 numerous enough in regions uninhabited by man to produce any sensible effect on the condition of the forest4 ,a reason why they are less injurious than the goat to young trees may be that they resort to this nutriment only in the winter1 when the grasses and shrubs are leafless or covered with snow1 whereas the goat feeds upon buds and young shoots principally in the season of growth4 ,however this may be1 the natural law of consumption and supply keeps the forest growth1 and the wild animals which live on its products1 in such a state of equilibrium as to insure the indefinite continuance of both1 and the perpetuity of neither is endangered until man1 who is above natural law1 interferes and destroys the balance4 ,when1 however1 deer are bred and protected in parks1 they multiply like domestic cattle1 and become equally injurious to trees4 ,a few years ago1 says ,clave1 there were not less than two thousand deer of different ages in the forest of ,fontainebleau4 ,for want of grass1 they are driven to the trees1 and they do not spare them4 99 99 ,it is calculated that the browsing of these animals1 and the consequent retardation of the growth of the wood1 diminishes the annual product of the forest to the amount of two hundred thousand cubic feet per year1 99 99 and besides this1 the trees thus mutilated are soon exhausted and die4 ,the deer attack the pines1 too1 tearing off the bark in long strips1 or rubbing their heads against them when shedding their horns2 and sometimes1 in groves of more than a hundred hectares1 not one pine is found uninjured by them4--,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 ,mai1 #ahfc1 p4 #aeg4 ,see also ,appendix1 ,no4 #ba4 ,beckstein computes that a park of #b1ejj acres1 containing #bej acres of marsh1 #bej of fields and meadows1 and the remaining #b1jjj of wood1 may keep #cfd deer of different species1 #dg wild boars1 #bjj hares1 #ajj rabbits1 and an indefinite number of pheasants4 ,these animals would require1 in winter1 #abc1jjj pounds of hay1 and #bb1jjj pounds of potatoes1 besides what they would pick up themselves4 ,the natural forest most thickly peopled with wild animals would not1 in temperate climates1 contain1 upon the average1 one tenth of these numbers to the same extent of surface4 #aae ,even the volcanic dust of ,etna remains very long unproductive4 ,near ,nicolosi is a great extent of coarse black sand1 thrown out in #affi1 which1 for almost two centuries1 lay entirely bare1 and can be made to grow plants only by artificial mixtures and much labor4 ,the increase in the price of wines1 in consequence of the diminution of the product from the grape disease1 however1 has brought even these ashes under cultivation4 ,i found1 says ,waltershausen1 referring to the years #ahfa-'fb1 plains of volcanic sand and half-subdued lava streams1 which twenty years ago lay utterly waste1 now covered with fine vineyards4 ,the ashfield of ten square miles above ,nicolosi1 created by the eruption of #affi1 which was entirely barren in #ahce1 is now planted with vines almost to the summits of ,monte ,rosso1 at a height of three thousand feet4--,ueber den ,sicilianischen ,ackerbau1 p4 #ai4 #aaf ,a ,relation of a ,journey ,begun ,an4 ,dom4 #afaj1 lib4 #d1 p4 #bfj1 edition of #afbg4 ,the testimony of ,sandys on this point is confirmed by that of ,pighio1 ,braccini1 ,magliocco1 ,salimbeni1 and ,nicola di ,rubeo1 all cited by ,roth1 ,der ,vesuv41 p4 #i4 ,there is some uncertainty about the date of the last eruption previous to the great one of #afca4 ,ashes1 though not lava1 appear to have been thrown out about the year #aejj1 and some chroniclers have recorded an eruption in the year #acjf2 but this seems to be an error for #ajcf1 when a great quantity of lava was ejected4 ,in #aaci1 ashes were thrown out for many days4 ,i take those dates from the work of ,roth just cited4 #aag ,except upon the banks of rivers or of lakes1 the woods of the interior of ,north ,america1 far from the habitations of man1 are almost destitute of animal life4 ,dr4 ,newberry1 describing the vast forests of the yellow pine of the ,west1 ,pinus ponderosa1 remarks3 ,in the arid and desert regions of the interior basin1 we made whole days' marches in forests of yellow pine1 of which neither the monotony was broken by other forms of vegetation1 nor its stillness by the flutter of a bird or the hum of an insect4--,pacific ,railroad ,report1 vol4 vi1 #aheg4 ,dr4 ,,newberry's ,report on ,botany1 p4 #cg4 ,the wild fruit and nut trees1 the ,canada plum1 the cherries1 the many species of walnut1 the butternut1 the hazel1 yield very little1 frequently nothing1 so long as they grow in the woods2 and it is only when the trees around them are cut down1 or when they grow in pastures1 that they become productive4 ,the berries1 too--the strawberry1 the blackberry1 the raspberry1 the whortleberry1 scarcely bear fruit at all except in cleared ground4 ,the ,north ,american ,indians did not inhabit the interior of the forests4 ,their settlements were upon the shores of rivers and lakes1 and their weapons and other relics are found only in the narrow open grounds which they had burned over and cultivated1 or in the margin of the woods around their villages4 ,the rank forests of the tropics are as unproductive of human aliment as the less luxuriant woods of the temperate zone4 ,in ,strain's unfortunate expedition across the great ,american isthmus1 where the journey lay principally through thick woods1 several of the party died of starvation1 and for many days the survivors were forced to subsist on the scantiest supplies of unnutritious vegetables perhaps never before employed for food by man4 ,see the interesting account of that expedition in ,harper's ,magazine for ,march1 ,april1 and ,may1 #ahee4 ,clave1 as well as many earlier writers1 supposes that primitive man derived his nutriment from the spontaneous productions of the wood4 ,it is to the forests1 says he1 that man was first indebted for the means of subsistence4 ,exposed alone1 without defence1 to the rigor of the seasons1 as well as to the attacks of animals stronger and swifter than himself1 he found in them his first shelter1 drew from them his first weapons4 ,in the first period of humanity1 they provided for all his wants3 they furnished him wood for warmth1 fruits for food1 garments to cover his nakedness1 arms for his defence4--,etudes sur l',economie ,forestiere1 p4 #ac4 ,but the history of savage life1 as far as it is known to us1 presents man in that condition as inhabiting only the borders of the forest and the open grounds that skirt the waters and the woods1 and as finding only there the aliments which make up his daily bread4 #aah ,the origin of the great natural meadows1 or prairies as they are called1 of the valley of the ,mississippi1 is obscure4 ,there is1 of course1 no historical evidence on the subject1 and ,i believe that remains of forest vegetation are seldom or never found beneath the surface1 even in the sloughs1 where the perpetual moisture would preserve such remains indefinitely4 ,the want of trees upon them has been ascribed to the occasional long-continued droughts of summer1 and the excessive humidity of the soil in winter2 but it is1 in very many instances1 certain that1 by whatever means the growth of forests upon them was first prevented or destroyed1 the trees have been since kept out of them only by the annual burning of the grass1 by grazing animals1 or by cultivation4 ,the groves and belts of trees which are found upon the prairies1 though their seedlings are occasionally killed by drought1 or by excess of moisture1 extend themselves rapidly over them when the seeds and shoots are protected against fire1 cattle1 and the plough4 ,the prairies1 though of vast extent1 must be considered as a local1 and1 so far as our present knowledge extends1 abnormal exception to the law which clothes all suitable surfaces with forest2 for there are many parts of the ,united ,states--,ohio1 for example--where the physical conditions appear to be nearly identical with those of the ,states lying farther west1 but where there were comparatively few natural meadows4 ,the prairies were the proper feeding grounds of the bison1 and the vast number of those animals is connected1 as cause or consequence1 with the existence of those vast pastures4 ,the bison1 indeed1 could not convert the forest into a pasture1 but he would do much to prevent the pasture from becoming a forest4 ,there is positive evidence that some of the ,american tribes possessed large herds of domesticated bisons4 ,see ,,humboldt1 ,ansichten der ,natur1 i1 pp4 #ga-gc4 ,what authorizes us to affirm that this was simply the wild bison reclaimed1 and why may we not1 with equal probability1 believe that the migratory prairie buffalo is the progeny of the domestic animal run wild8 ,there are1 both on the prairies1 as in ,wisconsin1 and in deep forests1 as in ,ohio1 extensive remains of a primitive people1 who must have been more numerous and more advanced in art than the present ,indian tribes4 ,there can be no doubt that the woods where such earthworks are found in ,ohio were cleared by them1 and that the vicinity of these fortresses or temples was inhabited by a large population4 ,nothing forbids the supposition that the prairies were cleared by the same or a similar people1 and that the growth of trees upon them has been prevented by fires and grazing1 while the restoration of the woods in ,ohio may be due to the abandonment of that region by its original inhabitants4 ,the climatic conditions unfavorable to the spontaneous growth of trees on the prairies may be an effect of too extensive clearings1 rather than a cause of the want of woods4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #bb4 #aai ,in many parts of the ,north ,american ,states1 the first white settlers found extensive tracts of thin woods1 of a very park-like character1 called oak openings1 from the predominance of different species of that tree upon them4 ,these were the semi-artificial pasture grounds of the ,indians1 brought into that state1 and so kept1 by partial clearing1 and by the annual burning of the grass4 ,the object of this operation was to attract the deer to the fresh herbage which sprang up after the fire4 ,the oaks bore the annual scorching1 at least for a certain time2 but if it had been indefinitely continued1 they would very probably have been destroyed at last4 ,the soil would have then been much in the prairie condition1 and would have needed nothing but grazing for a long succession of years to make the resemblance perfect4 ,that the annual fires alone occasioned the peculiar character of the oak openings1 is proved by the fact1 that as soon as the ,indians had left the country1 young trees of many species sprang up and grew luxuriantly upon them4 ,see a very interesting account of the oak openings in ,,dwight's ,travels1 iv1 pp4 #eh-fc4 #abj ,the practice of burning over woodland1 at once to clear and manure the ground1 is called in ,swedish svedjande1 a participial noun from the verb att svedja1 to burn over4 ,though used in ,sweden as a preparation for crops of rye or other grain1 it is employed in ,lapland more frequently to secure an abundant growth of pasturage1 which follows in two or three years after the fire2 and it is sometimes resorted to as a mode of driving the ,laplanders and their reindeer from the vicinity of the ,swedish backwoodsman's grass grounds and haystacks1 to which they are dangerous neighbors4 ,the forest1 indeed1 rapidly recovers itself1 but it is a generation or more before the reindeer moss grows again4 ,when the forest consists of pine1 tall1 the ground1 instead of being rendered fertile by this process1 becomes hopelessly barren1 and for a long time afterward produces nothing but weeds and briers4--,,laestadius1 ,om ,uppodlingar i ,lappmarken1 p4 #ae4 ,see also ,,schubert1 ,resa i ,sverge1 ii1 p4 #cge4 ,in some parts of ,france this practice is so general that ,clave says3 ,in the department of ,ardennes it 7le sartage7 is the basis of agriculture4 ,the northern part of the department1 comprising the arrondissements of ,rocroi and ,mezieres1 is covered by steep wooded mountains with an argillaceous1 compact1 moist and cold soil2 it is furrowed by three valleys1 or rather three deep ravines1 at the bottom of which roll the waters of the ,meuse1 the ,semoy1 and the ,sormonne1 and villages show themselves wherever the walls of the valleys retreat sufficiently from the rivers to give room to establish them4 ,deprived of arable soil1 since the nature of the ground permits neither regular clearing nor cultivation1 the peasant of the ,ardennes1 by means of burning1 obtains from the forest a subsistence which1 without this resource1 would fail him4 ,after the removal of the disposable wood1 he spreads over the soil the branches1 twigs1 briars1 and heath1 sets fire to them in the dry weather of ,july and ,august1 and sows in ,september a crop of rye1 which he covers by a light ploughing4 ,thus prepared1 the ground yields from seventeen to twenty bushels an acre1 besides a ton and a half or two tons of straw of the best quality for the manufacture of straw hats4--,,clave1 ,etudes sur l',economie ,forestiere1 p4 #ba4 ,clave does not expressly condemn the sartage1 which indeed seems the only practicable method of obtaining crops from the soil he describes1 but1 as we shall see hereafter1 it is regarded by most writers as a highly pernicious practice4 #aba ,the remarkable mounds and other earthworks constructed in the valley of the ,ohio and elsewhere in the territory of the ,united ,states1 by a people apparently more advanced in culture than the modern ,indian1 were overgrown with a dense clothing of forest when first discovered by the whites4 ,but though the ground where they were erected must have been occupied by a large population for a considerable length of time1 and therefore entirely cleared1 the trees which grew upon the ancient fortresses and the adjacent lands were not distinguishable in species1 or even in dimensions and character of growth1 from the neighboring forests1 where the soil seemed never to have been disturbed4 ,this apparent exception to the law of change of crop in natural forest growth was ingeniously explained by ,general ,harrison's suggestion1 that the lapse of time since the era of the mound builders was so great as to have embraced several successive generations of trees1 and occasioned1 by their rotation1 a return to the original vegetation4 ,the successive changes in the spontaneous growth of the forest1 as proved by the character of the wood found in bogs1 is not unfrequently such as to suggest the theory of a considerable change of climate during the human period4 ,but the laws which govern the germination and growth of forest trees must be further studied1 and the primitive local conditions of the sites where ancient woods lie buried must be better ascertained1 before this theory can be admitted upon the evidence in question4 ,in fact1 the order of succession--for a rotation or alternation is not yet proved--may move in opposite directions in different countries with the same climate and at the same time4 ,thus in ,denmark and in ,holland the spike-leaved firs have given place to the broad-leaved beech1 while in ,northern ,germany the process has been reversed1 and evergreens have supplanted the oaks and birches of deciduous foliage4 ,the principal determining cause seems to be the influence of light upon the germination of the seeds and the growth of the young tree4 ,in a forest of firs1 for instance1 the distribution of the light and shade1 to the influence of which seeds and shoots are exposed1 is by no means the same as in a wood of beeches or of oaks1 and hence the growth of different species will be stimulated in the two forests4 ,see ,,berg1 ,das ,verdraengen der ,laubwaelder im ,noerdlichen ,deutschland1 #ahdd4 ,,heyer1 ,das ,verhalten der ,waldbaeume gegen ,licht und ,schatten1 #aheb4 ,,staring1 ,de ,bodem van ,nederland1 #ahef1 i1 pp4 #abj-bjj4 ,,vaupell1 ,om ,boegens ,indvandring i de ,danske ,skove1 #aheg4 ,,knorr1 ,studien ueber die ,buchen-,wirthschaft1 #ahfc4 #abb ,there are1 in ,northern ,italy and in ,switzerland1 joint-stock companies which insure against damage by hail1 as well as by fire and lightning4 ,between the years #ahed and #ahfa1 a single one of these companies1 ,la ,riunione ,adriatica1 paid1 for damage by hail in ,piedmont1 ,venetian ,lombardy1 and the ,duchy of ,parma1 above #f1ejj1jjj francs1 or nearly #bjj1jjj per year4 #abc ,the paragrandine1 or1 as it is called in ,french1 the paragrele1 is a species of conductor by which it has been hoped to protect the harvests in countries particularly exposed to damage by hail4 ,it was at first proposed to employ for this purpose poles supporting sheaves of straw connected with the ground by the same material2 but the experiment was afterward tried in ,lombardy on a large scale1 with more perfect electrical conductors1 consisting of poles secured to the top of tall trees and provided with a pointed wire entering the ground and reaching above the top of the pole4 ,it was at first thought that this apparatus1 erected at numerous points over an extent of several miles1 was of some service as a protection against hail1 but this opinion was soon disputed1 and does not appear to be supported by well-ascertained facts4 ,the question of a repetition of the experiment over a wide area has been again agitated within a very few years in ,lombardy2 but the doubts expressed by very able physicists as to its efficacy1 and as to the point whether hail is an electrical phenomenon1 have discouraged its advocates from attempting it4 #abd ,cenni sulla ,importanza e ,coltura dei ,boschi1 p4 #f4 #abe ,memoria sui ,boschi1 etc41 p4 #dd4 #abf ,travels in ,italy1 chap4 iii4 #abg ,le ,alpi che cingono l',italia1 i1 p4 #cgg4 #abh ,long before the appearance of man1 99 99 99 they the forests had robbed the atmosphere of the enormous quantity of carbonic acid it contained1 and thereby transformed it into respirable air4 ,trees heaped upon trees had already filled up the ponds and marshes1 and buried with them in the bowels of the earth--to restore it to us after thousands of ages in the form of bituminous coal and of anthracite--the carbon which was destined to become1 by this wonderful condensation1 a precious store of future wealth4--,,clave1 ,etudes sur l',economie ,forestiere1 p4 #ac4 ,this opinion of the modification of the atmosphere by vegetation is contested4 #abi ,schacht ascribes to the forest a specific1 if not a measurable1 influence upon the constitution of the atmosphere4 ,plants imbibe from the air carbonic acid and other gaseous or volatile products exhaled by animals or developed by the natural phenomena of decomposition4 ,on the other hand1 the vegetable pours into the atmosphere oxygen1 which is taken up by animals and appropriated by them4 ,the tree1 by means of its leaves and its young herbaceous twigs1 presents a considerable surface for absorption and evaporation2 it abstracts the carbon of carbonic acid1 and solidifies it in wood1 fecula1 and a multitude of other compounds4 ,the result is that a forest withdraws from the air1 by its great absorbent surface1 much more gas than meadows or cultivated fields1 and exhales proportionally a considerably greater quantity of oxygen4 ,the influence of the forests on the chemical composition of the atmosphere is1 in a word1 of the highest importance4--,les ,arbres1 p4 #aaa4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #bc4 #acj ,composition1 texture and color of soil are important elements to be considered in estimating the effects of the removal of the forest upon its thermoscopic action4 ,experience has proved1 says ,becquerel1 that when the soil is bared1 it becomes more or less heated by the rays of the sun according to the nature and the color of the particles which compose it1 and according to its humidity1 and that1 in the refrigeration resulting from radiation1 we must take into the account the conducting power of those particles also4 ,other things being equal1 silicious and calcareous sands1 compared in equal volumes with different argillaceous earths1 with calcareous powder or dust1 with humus1 with arable and with garden earth1 are the soils which least conduct heat4 ,it is for this reason that sandy ground1 in summer1 maintains a high temperature even during the night4 ,we may hence conclude that when a sandy soil is stripped of wood1 the local temperature will be raised4 ,after the sands follow successively argillaceous1 arable1 and garden ground1 then humus1 which occupies the lowest rank4 ,if we represent the power of calcareous sand to retain heat by #ajj1 we have1 according to ,schubler1 ,for silicious8 sand #ie4f arable calcareous soil #gd4h argillaceous earth #fh4d garden earth #fd4h humus #di4j ,the retentive power of humus1 then1 is but half as great as that of calcareous sand4 ,we will add that the power of retaining heat is proportional to the density4 ,it has also a relation to the magnitude of the particles4 ,it is for this reason that ground covered with silicious pebbles cools more slowly than silicious sand1 and that pebbly soils are best suited to the cultivation of the vine1 because they advance the ripening of the grape more rapidly than chalky and clayey earths1 which cool quickly4 ,hence we see that in examining the calorific effects of clearing forests1 it is important to take into account the properties of the soil laid bare4--,,becquerel1 ,des ,climats et des ,sols boises1 p4 #acg4 #aca ,the ,washington elm at ,cambridge--a tree of no extraordinary size--was some years ago estimated to produce a crop of seven millions of leaves1 exposing a surface of two hundred thousand square feet1 or about five acres of foliage4--,,gray1 ,first ,lessons in ,botany and ,vegetable ,physiology1 as quoted by ,,coultas1 ,what may be learned from a ,tree1 p4 #cd4 #acb ,see1 on this particular point1 and on the general influence of the forest on temperature1 ,,humboldt1 ,ansichten der ,natur1 i1 #aeh4 #acc ,the radiating and refrigerating power of objects by no means depends on their form alone4 ,melloni cut sheets of metal into the shape of leaves and grasses1 and found that they produced little cooling effect1 and were not moistened under atmospheric conditions which determined a plentiful deposit of dew on the leaves of vegetables4 #acd ,,becquerel1 ,des ,climats1 etc41 ,discours ,prelim4 vi4 #ace ,travels1 i1 p4 #fa4 #acf ,le ,alpi che cingono l',italia1 pp4 #cgj1 #cga4 #acg ,b,e,r,g,s,oe,e1 ,reventlovs ,virksomhed1 ii1 p4 #abe4 #ach ,,becquerel1 ,des ,climats1 etc41 p4 #agi4 #aci ,ibid41 p4 #aaf4 #adj ,the following well-attested instance of a local change of climate is probably to be referred to the influence of the forest as a shelter against cold winds4 ,to supply the extraordinary demand for ,italian iron occasioned by the exclusion of ,english iron in the time of ,napoleon ,i1 the furnaces of the valleys of ,bergamo were stimulated to great activity4 ,the ordinary production of charcoal not sufficing to feed the furnaces and the forges1 the woods were felled1 the copses cut before their time1 and the whole economy of the forest was deranged4 ,at ,piazzatorre there was such a devastation of the woods1 and consequently such an increased severity of climate1 that maize no longer ripened4 ,an association1 formed for the purpose1 effected the restoration of the forest1 and maize flourishes again in the fields of ,piazzatorre4--,report by ,g4 ,,rosa1 in ,il ,politecnico1 ,dicembre1 #ahfa1 p4 #fad4 ,similar ameliorations have been produced by plantations in ,belgium4 ,in an interesting series of articles by ,baude1 entitled ,les ,cotes de la ,manche1 in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 ,i find this statement3 ,a spectator placed on the famous bell tower of the cathedral of ,antwerp1 saw1 not long since1 on the opposite side of the ,schelde only a vast desert plain2 now he sees a forest1 the limits of which are confounded with the horizon4 ,let him enter within its shade4 ,the supposed forest is but a system of regular rows of trees1 the oldest of which is not forty years of age4 ,these plantations have ameliorated the climate which had doomed to sterility the soil where they are planted4 ,while the tempest is violently agitating their tops1 the air a little below is still1 and sands far more barren than the plateau of ,la ,hague have been transformed1 under their protection1 into fertile fields4--,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 ,january1 #ahei1 p4 #bgg4 #ada ,cenni sulla ,importanza e ,coltura dei ,boschi1 p4 #ca4 #adb ,la ,provence au point de vue des ,torrents et des ,inondations1 p4 #ai4 #adc ,ueber die ,entwaldung der ,gebirge1 p4 #bh4 #add ,,becquerel1 ,des ,climats1 etc41 p4 #i4 #ade ,,salvagnoli1 ,rapporto sul ,bonificamento delle ,maremme ,toscane1 pp4 xli1 #abd4 #adf ,il ,politecnico1 ,milano1 ,aprile e ,maggio1 #ahfc1 p4 #ce4 #adg ,,salvagnoli1 ,memorie sulle ,maremme ,toscane1 pp4 #bac1 #bad4 #adh ,except in the seething marshes of the tropics1 where vegetable decay is extremely rapid1 the uniformity of temperature and of atmospheric humidity renders all forests eminently healthful4 ,see ,,hohenstein's observations on this subject1 ,der ,wald1 p4 #da4 ,there is no question that open squares and parks conduce to the salubrity of cities1 and many observers are of opinion that the trees and other vegetables with which such grounds are planted contribute essentially to their beneficial influence4 ,see an article in ,aus der ,natur1 xxii1 p4 #hac4 #adi ,memoria sui ,boschi di ,lombardia1 p4 #de4 #aej ,economie ,rurale1 i1 p4 #bb4 #aea ,r,o,s,s,m,ae,s,s,l,e,r1 ,der ,wald1 p4 #aeh4 #aeb ,ibid41 p4 #afj4 #aec ,the low temperature of air and soil at which1 in the frigid zone1 as well as in warmer latitudes under special circumstances1 the processes of vegetation go on1 seems to necessitate the supposition that all the manifestations of vegetable life are attended with an evolution of heat4 ,in the ,united ,states1 it is common to protect ice1 in icehouses1 by a covering of straw1 which naturally sometimes contains kernels of grain4 ,these often sprout1 and even throw out roots and leaves to a considerable length1 in a temperature very little above the freezing point4 ,three or four years since1 ,i saw a lump of very clear and apparently solid ice1 about eight inches long by six thick1 on which a kernel of grain had sprouted in an icehouse1 and sent half a dozen or more very slender roots into the pores of the ice and through the whole length of the lump4 ,the young plant must have thrown out a considerable quantity of heat2 for though the ice was1 as ,i have said1 otherwise solid1 the pores through which the roots passed were enlarged to perhaps double the diameter of the fibres1 but still not so much as to prevent the retention of water in them by capillary attraction4 ,see ,app4 #bd4 #aed ,,becquerel1 ,des ,climats1 etc41 pp4 #aci-ada4 #aee ,dr4 ,williams made some observations on this subject in #aghi1 and in #agia1 but they generally belonged to the warmer months1 and ,i do not know that any extensive series of comparisons between the temperature of the ground in the woods and the fields has been attempted in ,america4 ,dr4 ,williams's thermometer was sunk to the depth of ten inches1 and gave the following results3 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,temperature ,temperature ,,time4 of ground in of ground in ,difference4 pasture4 woods4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,may #bc #eb #df #f #bh #eg #dh #i ,june #ae #fd #ea #ac #bg #fb #ea #aa ,july #af #fb #ea #aa #cj #fea_/b #eea_/b #aj ,aug4 #ae #fh #eh #aj #ca #eia_/b #ee #da_/b ,sept4 #ae #eia_/b #ee #da_/b ,oct4 #a #eia_/b #ee #da_/b #ae #di #di #j ,nov4 #a #dc #dc #j #af #dca_/b #dca_/b #j ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,on the #adth of ,january1 #agia1 in a winter remarkable for its extreme severity1 he found the ground1 on a plain open field where the snow had been blown away1 frozen to the depth of three feet and five inches2 in the woods where the snow was three feet deep1 and where the soil had frozen to the depth of six inches before the snow fell1 the thermometer1 at six inches below the surface of the ground1 stood at #ci deg44 ,in consequence of the covering of the snow1 therefore1 the previously frozen ground had been thawed and raised to seven degrees above the freezing point4--,,williams',s ,vermont1 i1 p4 #gd4 ,bodies of fresh water1 so large as not to be sensibly affected by local influences of narrow reach or short duration1 would afford climatic indications well worthy of special observation4 ,lake ,champlain1 which forms the boundary between the ,states of ,new ,york and ,vermont1 presents very favorable conditions for this purpose4 ,this lake1 which drains a basin of about #f1jjj square miles1 covers an area1 excluding its islands1 of about #ejj square miles4 ,it extends from lat4 #dc deg4 #cj' to #de deg4 #bj'1 in very nearly a meridian line1 has a mean width of four and a half miles1 with an extreme breadth1 excluding bays almost land-locked1 of thirteen miles4 ,its mean depth is not well known4 ,it is1 however1 #djj feet deep in some places1 and from #ajj to #bjj in many1 and has few shoals or flats4 ,the climate is of such severity that it rarely fails to freeze completely over1 and to be safely crossed upon the ice1 with heavy teams1 for several weeks every winter4 ,,thompson 7,vermont1 p4 #ad1 and ,appendix1 p4 #i7 gives the following table of the times of the complete closing and opening of the ice1 opposite ,burlington1 about the centre of the lake1 and where it is ten miles wide4 -------------------------------------- ,year4 ,closing4 ,opening4 ,days closed4 -------------------------------------- #ahaf ,february #i #ahag ,january #bi ,april #af #gh #ahah ,february #b ,april #ae #gb #ahai ,march #d ,april #ag #dd #ahbj ,february #c ,february #d ,march #h ,march #ab #ahba ,january #ae ,april #ba #ie #ahbb ,january #bd ,march #cj #ge #ahbc ,february #g ,april #e #eg #ahbd ,january #bb ,february #aa #bj #ahbe ,february #i #ahbf ,february #a ,march #bd #ea #ahbg ,january #ba ,march #ca #fh #ahbh not closed #ahbi ,january #ca ,april #ahcb ,february #f ,april #ag #gj #ahcc ,february #b ,april #f #fc #ahcd ,february #ac ,february #bj #g #ahce ,january #aj ,january #bc #ah ,february #g ,april #ab #fd #ahcf ,january #bg ,april #ba #he #ahcg ,january #ae ,april #bf #aja #ahch ,february #b ,april #ac #gj #ahci ,january #be ,april #f #ga #ahdj ,january #be ,february #bj #bf #ahda ,february #ah ,april #ai #fa #ahdb not closed #ahdc ,february #af ,april #bb #fe #ahdd ,january #be ,april #aa #gg #ahde ,february #c ,march #bf #ea #ahdf ,february #aj ,march #bf #dd #ahdg ,february #ae ,april #bc #fh #ahdh ,february #ac ,february #bf #ac #ahdi ,february #g ,march #bc #dd #ahej not closed #ahea ,february #a ,march #ab #hi #aheb ,january #ah ,april #aj #ib -------------------------------------- ,in #ahdg1 although1 at the point indicated1 the ice broke up on the #bc;d of ,april1 it remained frozen much later at the ,north1 and steamers were not able to traverse the whole length of the lake until ,may #fth4 #aef ,we are not1 indeed1 to suppose that condensation of vapor and evaporation of water are going on in the same stratum of air at the same time1 or1 in other words1 that vapor is condensed into raindrops1 and raindrops evaporated1 under the same conditions2 but rain formed in one stratum1 may fall through another1 where vapor would not be condensed4 ,two saturated strata of different temperatures may be brought into contact in the higher regions1 and discharge large raindrops1 which1 if not divided by some obstruction1 will reach the ground1 though passing all the time through strata which would vaporize them if they were in a state of more minute division4 #aeg ,it is perhaps too much to say that the influence of trees upon the wind is strictly limited to the mechanical resistance of their trunks1 branches1 and foliage4 ,so far as the forest1 by dead or by living action1 raises or lowers the temperature of the air within it1 so far it creates upward or downward currents in the atmosphere above it1 and1 consequently1 a flow of air toward or from itself4 ,these air streams have a certain1 though doubtless a very small influence on the force and direction of greater atmospheric movements4 #aeh ,as a familiar illustration of the influence of the forest in checking the movement of winds1 ,i may mention the well-known fact1 that the sensible cold is never extreme in thick woods1 where the motion of the air is little felt4 ,the lumbermen in ,canada and the ,northern ,united ,states labor in the woods1 without inconvenience1 when the mercury stands many degrees below the zero of ,fahrenheit1 while in the open grounds1 with only a moderate breeze1 the same temperature is almost insupportable4 ,the engineers and firemen of locomotives1 employed on railways running through forests of any considerable extent1 observe that1 in very cold weather1 it is much easier to keep up the steam while the engine is passing through the woods than in the open ground4 ,as soon as the train emerges from the shelter of the trees the steam gauge falls1 and the stoker is obliged to throw in a liberal supply of fuel to bring it up again4 ,another less frequently noticed fact1 due1 no doubt1 in a great measure to the immobility of the air1 is1 that sounds are transmitted to incredible distances in the unbroken forest4 ,many instances of this have fallen under my own observation1 and others1 yet more striking1 have been related to me by credible and competent witnesses familiar with a more primitive condition of the ,anglo-,american world4 ,an acute observer of natural phenomena1 whose childhood and youth were spent in the interior of one of the newer ,new ,england ,states1 has often told me that when he established his home in the forest1 he always distinctly heard1 in still weather1 the plash of horses' feet1 when they forded a small brook nearly seven-eighths of a mile from his house1 though a portion of the wood that intervened consisted of a ridge seventy or eighty feet higher than either the house or the ford4 ,i have no doubt that1 in such cases1 the stillness of the air is the most important element in the extraordinary transmissibility of sound2 but it must be admitted that the absence of the multiplied and confused noises1 which accompany human industry in countries thickly peopled by man1 contributes to the same result4 ,we become1 by habit1 almost insensible to the familiar and never-resting voices of civilization in cities and towns2 but the indistinguishable drone1 which sometimes escapes even the ear of him who listens for it1 deadens and often quite obstructs the transmission of sounds which would otherwise be clearly audible4 ,an observer1 who wishes to appreciate that hum of civic life which he cannot analyze1 will find an excellent opportunity by placing himself on the hill of ,capo di ,monte at ,naples1 in the line of prolongation of the street called ,spaccanapoli4 ,it is probably to the stillness of which ,i have spoken1 that we are to ascribe the transmission of sound to great distances at sea in calm weather4 ,in ,june1 #ahec1 ,i and my family were passengers on board a ship of war bound up the ,a,egean4 ,on the evening of the #bgth of that month1 as we were discussing1 at the tea table1 some observations of ,humboldt on this subject1 the captain of the ship told us that he had once heard a single gun at sea at the distance of ninety nautical miles4 ,the nest morning1 though a light breeze had sprung up from the north1 the sea was of glassy smoothness when we went on deck4 ,as we came up1 an officer told us that he had heard a gun at sunrise1 and the conversation of the previous evening suggested the inquiry whether it could have been fired from the combined ,french and ,english fleet then lying at ,beshika ,bay4 ,upon examination of our position we were found to have been1 at sunrise1 ninety sea miles from that point4 ,we continued beating up northward1 and between sunrise and twelve o'clock meridian of the #bhth1 we had made twelve miles northing1 reducing our distance from ,beshika ,bay to seventy-eight sea miles4 ,at noon we heard several guns so distinctly that we were able to count the number4 ,on the #bith we came up with the fleet1 and learned from an officer who came on board that a royal salute had been fired at noon on the #bhth1 in honor of the day as the anniversary of the ,queen of ,england's coronation4 ,the report at sunrise was evidently the morning gun1 those at noon the salute4 ,such cases are rare1 because the sea is seldom still1 and the ,greek3 kymaton anerithmon gelasma rarely silent1 over so great a space as ninety or even seventy-eight nautical miles4 ,i apply the epithet silent to ,greek3 gelasma advisedly4 ,i am convinced that ,a,eschylus meant the audible laugh of the waves1 which is indeed of countless multiplicity1 not the visible smile of the sea1 which1 belonging to the great expanse as one impersonation1 is single1 though1 like the human smile1 made up of the play of many features4 #aei ,the presence of watery vapor in the air is general4 99 99 99 ,vegetable surfaces are endowed with the power of absorbing gases1 vapors1 and also1 no doubt1 the various soluble bodies which are presented to them4 ,the inhalation of humidity is carried on by the leaves upon a large scale2 the dew of a cold summer night revives the groves and the meadows1 and a single shower of rain suffices to refresh the verdure of a forest which a long drought had parched4--,,schacht1 ,les ,arbres1 ix1 p4 #cdj4 ,the absorption of the vapor of water by leaves is disputed4 ,the absorption of watery vapor by the leaves of plants is1 according to ,unger's experiments1 inadmissible4--,,wilhelm1 ,der ,boden und das ,wasser1 p4 #ai4 ,if this latter view is correct1 the apparently refreshing effects of atmospheric humidity upon vegetation must be ascribed to moisture absorbed by the ground from the air and supplied to the roots4 ,in some recent experiments by ,dr4 ,sachs1 a porous flower-pot1 with a plant growing in it1 was left unwatered until the earth was dry1 and the plant began to languish4 ,the pot was then placed in a glass case containing air1 which was kept always saturated with humidity1 but no water was supplied1 and the leaves of the plant were exposed to the open atmosphere4 ,the soil in the flower pot absorbed from the air moisture enough to revive the foliage1 and keep it a long time green1 but not enough to promote development of new leaves4--,id41 ibid41 p4 #ah4 #afj ,the experiments of ,hales and others1 on the absorption and exhalation of water by vegetables1 are of the highest physiological interest2 but observations on sunflowers1 cabbages1 hops1 and single branches of isolated trees1 growing in artificially prepared soils and under artificial conditions1 furnish no trustworthy data for computing the quantity of water received and given off by the natural wood4 #afa ,in the primitive forest1 except where the soil is too wet for the dense growth of trees1 the ground is generally too thickly covered with leaves to allow much room for ground mosses4 ,in the more open woods of ,europe1 this form of vegetation is more frequent--as1 indeed1 are many other small plants of a more inviting character--than in the native ,american forest4 ,see1 on the cryptogams and wood plants1 ,r,o,s,s,m,ae,s,s,l,e,r1 ,der ,wald1 pp4 #cc et seqq4 #afb ,emerson 7,trees of ,massachusetts1 p4 #dic7 mentions a maple six feet in diameter1 as having yielded a barrel1 or thirty-one and a half gallons of sap in twenty-four hours1 and another1 the dimensions of which are not stated1 as having yielded one hundred and seventy-five gallons in the course of the season4 ,the ,cultivator1 an ,american agricultural journal1 for ,june1 #ahdb1 states that twenty gallons of sap were drawn in eighteen hours from a single maple1 two and a half feet in diameter1 in the town of ,warner1 ,new ,hampshire1 and the truth of this account has been verified by personal inquiry made in my behalf4 ,this tree was of the original forest growth1 and had been left standing when the ground around it was cleared4 ,it was tapped only every other year1 and then with six or eight incisions4 ,dr4 ,williams 7,history of ,vermont1 i1 p4 #ia7 says3 ,a man much employed in making maple sugar1 found that1 for twenty-one days together1 a maple tree discharged seven and a half gallons per day4 ,an intelligent correspondent1 of much experience in the manufacture of maple sugar1 writes me that a second-growth maple1 of about two feet in diameter1 standing in open ground1 tapped with four incisions1 has1 for several seasons1 generally run eight gallons per day in fair weather4 ,he speaks of a very large tree1 from which sixty gallons were drawn in the course of a season1 and of another1 something more than three feet through1 which made forty-two pounds of wet sugar1 and must have yielded not less than one hundred and fifty gallons4 #afc ,the buds of the maple1 says the same correspondent1 do not start till toward the close of the sugar season4 ,as soon as they begin to swell1 the sap seems less sweet1 and the sugar made from it is of a darker color1 and with less of the distinctive maple flavor4 #afd ,in this region1 maples are usually tapped with a three-quarter inch bit1 boring to the depth of one and a half or two inches4 ,in the smaller trees1 one incision only is made1 two in those of eighteen inches in diameter1 and four in trees of larger size4 ,two #c_/d-;inch holes in a tree twenty-two inches in diameter #a_/df of the circumference1 and #a_/afi of the area of section4 ,tapping does not check the growth1 but does injure the quality of the wood of maples4 ,the wood of trees often tapped is lighter and less dense than that of trees which have not been tapped1 and gives less heat in burning4 ,no difference has been observed in the starting of the buds of tapped and untapped trees4--,same correspondent4 #afe ,dr4 ,rush1 in a letter to ,jefferson1 states the number of maples fit for tapping on an acre at from thirty to fifty4 ,this1 observes my correspondent1 is correct with regard to the original growth1 which is always more or less intermixed with other trees2 but in second growth1 composed of maples alone1 the number greatly exceeds this4 ,i have had the maples on a quarter of an acre1 which ,i thought about an average of second-growth 'maple orchards1' counted4 ,the number was found to be fifty-two1 of which thirty-two were ten inches or more in diameter1 and1 of course1 large enough to tap4 ,this gives two hundred and eight trees to the acre1 one hundred and twenty-eight of which were of proper size for tapping4 ,according to the census returns1 the quantity of maple sugar made in the ,united ,states in #ahej was #cd1bec1dcf pounds2 in #ahfj1 it was #ch1hfc1hhd pounds1 besides #a1idd1eid gallons of molasses4 ,the cane sugar made in #ahej amounted to #bcg1acc1jjj pounds2 in #ahei1 to #cjb1bje1jjj4--,preliminary ,report on the ,eighth ,census1 p4 #hh4 ,according to ,bigelow1 ,les ,etats ,unis d',amerique en #ahfc1 chap4 iv1 the sugar product of ,louisiana alone for #ahfb is estimated at #ebh1cba1ejj pounds4 #aff ,the correspondent already referred to informs me that a black birch1 tapped about noon with two incisions1 was found the next morning to have yielded sixteen gallons4 ,dr4 ,williams 7,history of ,vermont1 i1 p4 #ia7 says3 ,a large birch1 tapped in the spring1 ran at the rate of five gallons an hour when first tapped4 ,eight or nine days after1 it was found to run at the rate of about two and a half gallons an hour1 and at the end of fifteen days the discharge continued in nearly the same quantity4 ,the sap continued to flow for four or five weeks1 and it was the opinion of the observers that it must have yielded as much as sixty barrels #a1hij gallons4 #afg ,the best state of weather for a good run1 says my correspondent1 is clear days1 thawing fast in the daytime and freezing well at night1 with a gentle west or northwest wind2 though we sometimes have clear1 fine1 thawing days followed by frosty nights1 without a good run of sap1 ,i have thought it probable that the irregular flow of sap on different days in the same season is connected with the variation in atmospheric pressure2 for the atmospheric conditions above mentioned as those most favorable to a free flow of sap are also those in which the barometer usually indicates pressure considerably above the mean4 ,with a south or southeast wind1 and in lowering weather1 which causes a fall in the barometer1 the flow generally ceases1 though the sap sometimes runs till after the beginning of the storm4 ,with a gentle wind1 south of west1 maples sometimes run all night4 ,when this occurs1 it is oftenest shortly before a storm4 ,last spring1 the sap of a sugar orchard in a neighboring town flowed the greater part of the time for two days and two nights successively1 and did not cease till after the commencement of a rain storm4 ,the cessation of the flow of sap at night is perhaps in part to be ascribed to the nocturnal frost1 which checks the melting of the snow1 of course diminishing the supply of moisture in the ground1 and sometimes congeals the strata from which the rootlets suck in water4 ,from the facts already mentioned1 however1 and from other well-known circumstances--such1 for example1 as the more liberal flow of sap from incisions on the south side of the trunk--it is evident that the withdrawal of the stimulating influences of the sun's light and heat is the principal cause of the suspension of the circulation in the night4 #afh ,the flow ceases altogether soon after the buds begin to swell4--,letter before quoted4 #afi ,we might obtain a contribution to an approximate estimate of the quantity of moisture abstracted by forest vegetation from the earth and the air1 by ascertaining1 as nearly as possible1 the quantity of wood on a given area1 the proportion of assimilable matter contained in the fluids of the tree at different seasons of the year1 the ages of the trees respectively1 and the quantity of leaf and seed annually shed by them4 ,the results would1 indeed1 be very vague1 but they might serve to check or confirm estimates arrived at by other processes4 ,the following facts are items too loose perhaps to be employed as elements in such a computation4 ,dr4 ,williams1 who wrote when the woods of ,northern ,new ,england were generally in their primitive condition1 states the number of trees growing on an acre at from one hundred and fifty to six hundred and fifty1 according to their size and the quality of the soil2 the quantity of wood1 at from fifty to two hundred cords1 or from #bch to #ieb cubic yards1 but adds that on land covered with pines1 the quantity of wood would be much greater4 ,whether he means to give the entire solid contents of the tree1 or1 as is usual in ordinary estimates in ,new ,england1 the marketable wood only1 the trunks and larger branches1 does not appear4 ,next to the pine1 the maple would probably yield a larger amount to a given area than any of the other trees mentioned by ,dr4 ,williams1 but mixed wood1 in general1 measures most4 ,in a good deal of observation on this subject1 the largest quantity of marketable wood ,i have ever known cut on an acre of virgin forest was one hundred and four cords1 or #dic cubic yards1 and half that amount is considered a very fair yield4 ,the smaller trees1 branches1 and twigs would not increase the quantity more than twenty-five per cent41 and if we add as much more for the roots1 we should have a total of about #gej cubic yards4 ,i think ,dr4 ,williams's estimate too large1 though it would fall much below the product of the great trees of the ,mississippi ,valley1 of ,oregon1 and of ,california4 ,it should be observed that these measurements are those of the wood as it lies when 'corded' or piled up for market1 and exceed the real solid contents by not less than fifteen per cent4 ,in a soil of medium quality1 says ,clave1 quoting the estimates of ,pfeil1 for the climate of ,prussia1 the volume of a hectare of pines twenty years old1 would exceed #hj cubic metres #dba_/b cubic yards to the acre2 it would amount to but #bd in a meagre soil4 ,this tree attains its maximum of mean growth at the age of seventy-five years4 ,at that age1 in the sandy earth of ,prussia1 it produces annually about #e cubic metres1 with a total volume of #caa cubic metres per hectare #aff cubic yards per acre4 ,after this age the volume increases1 but the mean rate of growth diminishes4 ,at eighty years1 for instance1 the volume is #cce cubic metres1 the annual production #d only4 ,the beech reaches its maximum of annual growth at one hundred and twenty years4 ,it then has a total volume of #fcc cubic metres to the hectare #cce cubic yards to the acre1 and produces #e cubic metres per year4--,,clave1 ,etudes1 p4 #aea4 ,these measures1 ,i believe1 include the entire ligneous product of the tree1 exclusive of the roots1 and express the actual solid contents4 ,the specific gravity of maple wood is stated to be #ge4 ,maple sap yields sugar at the rate of about one pound wet sugar to three gallons of sap1 and wet sugar is to dry sugar in about the proportion of nineteen to sixteen4 ,besides the sugar1 there is a small residuum of sand1 composed of phosphate of lime1 with a little silex1 and it is certain that by the ordinary hasty process of manufacture1 a good deal of sugar is lost2 for the drops1 condensed from the vapor of the boilers on the rafters of the rude sheds where the sap is boiled1 have a decidedly sweet taste4 #agj ,the elaborated sap1 passing out of the leaves1 is received into the inner bark1 99 99 99 and a part of what descends finds its way even to the ends of the roots1 and is all along diffused laterally into the stem1 where it meets and mingles with the ascending crude sap or raw material4 ,so there is no separate circulation of the two kinds of sap2 and no crude sap exists separately in any part of the plant4 ,even in the root1 where it enters1 this mingles at once with some elaborated sap already there4--,,gray1 ,how ,plants ,grow1 ,sec4 #bgc4 #aga ,ward's tight glazed cases for raising1 and especially for transporting plants1 go far to prove that water only circulates through vegetables1 and is again and again absorbed and transpired by organs appropriated to these functions4 ,seeds1 growing grasses1 shrubs1 or trees planted in proper earth1 moderately watered and covered with a glass bell or close frame of glass1 live for months and even years1 with only the original store of air and water4 ,in one of ,ward's early experiments1 a spire of grass and a fern1 which sprang up in a corked bottle containing a little moist earth introduced as a bed for a snail1 lived and flourished for eighteen years without a new supply of either fluid4 ,in these boxes the plants grow till the enclosed air is exhausted of the gaseous constituents of vegetation1 and till the water has yielded up the assimilable matter it held in solution1 and dissolved and supplied to the roots the nutriment contained in the earth in which they are planted4 ,after this1 they continue for a long time in a state of vegetable sleep1 but if fresh air and water be introduced into the cases1 or the plants be transplanted into open ground1 they rouse themselves to renewed life1 and grow vigorously1 without appearing to have suffered from their long imprisonment4 ,the water transpired by the leaves is partly absorbed by the earth directly from the air1 partly condensed on the glass1 along which it trickles down to the earth1 enters the roots again1 and thus continually repeats the circuit4 ,see ,aus der ,natur1 #ba1 ,b4 ,s4 #ecg4 #agb ,,wilhelm1 ,der ,boden und das ,wasser1 p4 #ah4 ,it is not ascertained in what proportions the dew is evaporated1 and in what it is absorbed by the earth1 in actual nature1 but there can be no doubt that the amount of water taken up by the ground1 both from vapor suspended in the air and from dew1 is large4 ,the annual fall of dew in ,england is estimated at five inches1 but this quantity is much exceeded in many countries with a clearer sky4 ,in many of our ,algerian campaigns1 says ,babinet1 when it was wished to punish the brigandage of the unsubdued tribes1 it was impossible to set their grain fields on fire until a late hour of the day2 for the plants were so wet with the night dew that it was necessary to wait until the sun had dried them4--,etudes et ,lectures1 ii1 p4 #bab4 #agc ,it has been concluded that the dry land occupies about #di1hjj1jjj square statute miles4 ,this does not include the recently discovered tracts of land in the vicinity of the poles1 and allowing for yet undiscovered land 7which1 however1 can only exist in small quantity71 if we assign #ea1jjj1jjj to the land1 there will remain about #adf1jjj1jjj of square miles for the extent of surface occupied by the ocean4--,sir ,j4 ,f4 ,w4 ,,herschel1 ,physical ,geography1 #ahfa1 p4 #ai4 ,it does not appear to which category ,herschel assigns the inland seas and the fresh-water lakes and rivers of the earth2 and ,mrs4 ,somerville1 who states that the dry land occupies an area of #ch1jjj1jjj of square miles1 and that the ocean covers nearly three fourths of the surface of the globe1 is equally silent on this point4--,physical ,geography1 fifth edition1 p4 #cj4 ,on the following page1 ,mrs4 ,somerville1 in a note1 cites ,mr4 ,gardner as her authority1 and says that1 according to his computation1 the extent of land is about #cg1fgc1jjj square ,british miles1 independently of ,victoria ,continent2 and the sea occupies #aaj1hdi1jjj4 ,hence the land is to the sea as #a to #d nearly4 ,sir ,john ,f4 ,w4 ,herschel makes the area of dry land and ocean together #aig1jjj1jjj square miles2 ,mrs4 ,somerville1 or rather ,mr4 ,gardner1 #adh1ebb1jjj4 ,i suppose ,sir ,john ,herschel includes the islands in his aggregate of the dry land1 and the inland waters under the general designation of the ocean1 and that ,mrs4 ,somerville excludes both4 #agd ,it has been observed in ,sweden that the spring1 in many districts where the forests have been cleared off1 now comes on a fortnight later than in the last century4--,a,s,b,j,oe,r,n,s,e,n1 ,om ,skovene i ,norge1 p4 #aja4 ,the conclusion arrived at by ,noah ,webster1 in his very learned and able paper on the supposed change in the temperature of winter1 read before the ,connecticut ,academy of ,arts and ,sciences in #agii1 was as follows3 ,from a careful comparison of these facts1 it appears that the weather1 in modern winters1 in the ,united ,states1 is more inconstant than when the earth was covered with woods1 at the first settlement of ,europeans in the country2 that the warm weather of autumn extends further into the winter months1 and the cold weather of winter and spring encroaches upon the summer2 that1 the wind being more variable1 snow is less permanent1 and perhaps the same remark may be applicable to the ice of the rivers4 ,these effects seem to result necessarily from the greater quantity of heat accumulated in the earth in summer since the ground has been cleared of wood and exposed to the rays of the sun1 and to the greater depth of frost in the earth in winter by the exposure of its uncovered surface to the cold atmosphere4--,collection of ,papers by ,,noah ,,webster1 p4 #afb4 #age ,i have seen1 in ,northern ,new ,england1 the surface of the open ground frozen to the depth of twenty-two inches1 in the month of ,november1 when in the forest earth no frost was discoverable2 and later in the winter1 ,i have known an exposed sand knoll to remain frozen six feet deep1 after the ground in the woods was completely thawed4 #agf ----,det golde ,stroeg i ,afrika1 ,der ,intet voxe kan1 da ei det regner1 ,og1 omvendt1 ingen ,regn kan falde1 da ,der ,intet voxer4 ,,paludan-,m,ue,l,l,e,r1 ,adam ,homo1 ii1 #djh4 #agg ,und ,stuerme brausen um die ,wette ,vom ,meer aufs ,land1 vom ,land aufs ,meer4 ,,goethe1 ,faust1 ,song of the ,archangels4 #agh ,etudes sur l',economie ,forestiere1 pp4 #de1 #df4 #agi ,i am not aware of any evidence to show that ,malta had any woods of importance at any time since the cultivation of cotton was introduced there2 and if it is true1 as has been often asserted1 that its present soil was imported from ,sicily1 it can certainly have possessed no forests since a very remote period4 ,in ,sandys's time1 #afaa1 there were no woods in the island1 and it produced little cotton4 ,he describes it as a country altogether champion1 being no other than a rocke couered ouer with earth1 but two feete deepe where the deepest2 hauing but few trees but such as beare fruite4 99 99 99 ,so that their wood they haue from ,sicilia4 ,they have an indifferent quantity of cotton wooll1 but that the best of all other4--,,sandys1 ,travels1 p4 #bbh4 #ahj ,,schacht1 ,les ,arbres1 p4 #dab4 #aha ,what may be learned from a ,tree1 p4 #aag4 #ahb ,der ,wald1 p4 #ac4 #ahc ,om ,skovene og deres ,forhold til ,nationaloeconomien1 pp4 #aca-acc4 #ahd ,om ,skovene og om et ordnet ,skovbrug i ,norge1 p4 #ajf4 #ahe ,etudes et ,lectures1 iv4 p4 #aad4 #ahf ,the supposed increase in the frequency and quantity of rain in ,lower ,egypt is by no means established4 ,i have heard it disputed on the spot by intelligent ,franks1 whose residence in that country began before the plantations of ,mehemet ,aali and ,ibrahim ,pacha1 and ,i have been assured by them that meteorological observations1 made at ,alexandria about the beginning of this century1 show an annual fall of rain as great as is usual at this day4 ,the mere fact1 that it did not rain during the ,french occupation1 is not conclusive4 ,having experienced a gentle shower of nearly twenty-four hours' duration in ,upper ,egypt1 ,i inquired of the local governor in relation to the frequency of this phenomenon1 and was told by him that not a drop of rain had fallen at that point for more than two years previous4 ,the belief in the increase of rain in ,egypt rests almost entirely on the observations of ,marshal ,marmont1 and the evidence collected by him in #ahcf4 ,his conclusions have been disputed1 if not confuted1 by ,jomard and others1 and are probably erroneous4 ,see1 ,,foissac1 ,meteorologie1 ,german translation1 pp4 #fcd-fci4 ,it certainly sometimes rains briskly at ,cairo1 but evaporation is exceedingly rapid in ,egypt--as any one1 who ever saw a ,fellah woman wash a napkin in the ,nile1 and dry it by shaking it a few moments in the air1 can testify2 and a heap of grain1 wet a few inches below the surface1 would probably dry again without injury4 ,at any rate1 the ,egyptian ,government often has vast quantities of wheat stored at ,boulak1 in uncovered yards through the winter1 though it must be admitted that the slovenliness and want of foresight in ,oriental life1 public and private1 are such that we cannot infer the safety of any practice followed in the ,east1 merely from its long continuance4 ,grain1 however1 may be long kept in the open air in climates much less dry than that of ,egypt1 without injury1 except to the superficial layers2 for moisture does not penetrate to a great depth in a heap of grain once well dried1 and kept well aired4 ,when ,louis ,,ix was making his preparations for his campaign in the ,east1 he had large quantities of wine and grain purchased in the ,island of ,cyprus1 and stored up1 for two years1 to await his arrival4 ,when we were come to ,cyprus1 says ,joinville1 ,histoire de ,saint ,louis1 ,sec4,sec4 #gb1 #gc1 we found there greate foison of the ,kynge's purveyance4 99 99 ,the wheate and the barley they had piled up in greate heapes in the feeldes1 and to looke vpon1 they were like vnto mountaynes2 for the raine1 the whyche hadde beaten vpon the wheate now a longe whyle1 had made it to sproute on the toppe1 so that it seemed as greene grasse4 ,and whanne they were mynded to carrie it to ,egypte1 they brake that sod of greene herbe1 and dyd finde under the same the wheate and the barley1 as freshe as yf menne hadde but nowe thrashed it4 #ahg ,etude sur les ,eaux au point de vue des ,inondations1 p4 #ia4 #ahh ,economie ,rurale1 ii1 chap4 xx1 ,sec4 #d1 pp4 #gef-gei4 ,see also p4 #gcc4 #ahi ,jacini1 speaking of the great ,italian lakes1 says3 ,a large proportion of the water of the lakes1 instead of discharging itself by the ,ticino1 the ,adda1 the ,oglio1 the ,mincio1 filters through the silicious strata which underlie the hills1 and follows subterranean channels to the plain1 where it collects in the fontanili1 and being thence conducted into the canals of irrigation1 becomes a source of great fertility4--,la ,proprieta ,fondiaria1 etc41 p4 #add4 #aij ,meteorologie1 ,german translation by ,,emsmann1 p4 #fje4 #aia ,handbuch der ,physischen ,geographie1 p4 #feh4 #aib ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahed1 #ast semestre1 pp4 #ba et seqq4 ,see the comments of ,,valles on these observations1 in his ,etudes sur les ,inondations1 pp4 #dda et seqq4 #aic ,the passage in ,pliny is as follows3 ,nascuntur fontes1 decisis plerumque silvis1 quos arborum alimenta consumebant1 sicut in ,haemo1 obsidente ,gallos ,cassandro1 quum valli gratia cecidissent4 ,plerumque vero damnosi torrentes corrivantur1 detracta collibus silva continere nimbos ac digerere consueta4--,nat4 ,hist41 xxxi1 #cj4 ,seneca cites this case1 and another similar one said to have been observed at ,magnesia1 from a passage in ,theophrastus1 not to be found in the extant works of that author2 but he adds that the stories are incredible1 because shaded grounds abound most in water3 fere aquosissima sunt quaecumque umbrosissima4--,quaest4 ,nat41 iii1 #aa4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #bf4 #aid ,why go so far for the proof of a phenomenon that is repeated every day under our own eyes1 and of which every ,parisian may convince himself1 without venturing beyond the ,bois de ,boulogne or the forest of ,meudon8 ,let him1 after a few rainy days1 pass along the ,chevreuse road1 which is bordered on the right by the wood1 on the left by cultivated fields4 ,the fall of water and the continuance of the rain have been the same on both sides2 but the ditch on the side of the forest will remain filled with water proceeding from the infiltration through the wooded soil1 long after the other1 contiguous to the open ground1 has performed its office of drainage and become dry4 ,the ditch on the left will have discharged in a few hours a quantity of water1 which the ditch on the right requires several days to receive and carry down to the valley4--,,clave1 ,etudes1 etc41 pp4 #ec1 #ed4 #aie ,,valles1 ,etudes sur les ,inondations1 p4 #dgb4 #aif ,economie ,rurale1 p4 #gcj4 #aig ,ueber die ,entwaldung der ,gebirge1 pp4 #bj et seqq4 #aih ,physische ,geographie1 p4 #cb4 #aii ,the ,trees of ,america1 pp4 #ej1 #ea4 #bjj ,,thompson's ,vermont1 appendix1 p4 #h4 #bja ,trees of ,america1 p4 #dh4 #bjb ,dumont1 following ,dansse1 gives an interesting extract from the ,misopogon of the ,emperor ,julian1 showing that1 in the fourth century1 the ,seine--the level of which now varies to the extent of thirty feet between extreme high and extreme low water mark--was almost wholly exempt from inundations1 and flowed with a uniform current through the whole year4 ,ego olim eram in hibernis apud caram ,lutetiam1 sic enim ,galli ,parisiorum oppidum appellant1 quae insula est non magna1 in fluvio sita1 qui eam omni ex parte eingit4 ,pontes sublicii utrinque ad eam ferunt1 raroque fluvius minuitur ae crescit2 sed qualis aestate1 talis esse solet hyeme4--,des ,travaux ,publics dans leur ,rapports avec l',agriculture1 p4 #cfa1 note4 ,as ,julian was six years in ,gaul1 and his principal residence was at ,paris1 his testimony as to the habitual condition of the ,seine1 at a period when the provinces where its sources originate were well wooded1 is very valuable4 #bjc ,almost every narrative of travel in those countries which were the earliest seats of civilization1 contains evidence of the truth of these general statements1 and this evidence is presented with more or less detail in most of the special works on the forest which ,i have occasion to cite4 ,i may refer particularly to ,,hohenstein1 ,der ,wald1 #ahfj1 as full of important facts on this subject4 ,see also ,,caimi1 ,cenni sulla ,importanza dei ,boschi1 for some statistics not readily found elsewhere1 on this and other topics connected with the forest4 #bjd ,stanley1 citing ,,selden1 ,de ,jure ,naturali1 book vi1 and ,,fabricius1 ,cod4 ,pseudap4 ,v4 ,t41 i1 #hgd1 mentions a remarkable ,jewish tradition of uncertain but unquestionably ancient date1 which is among the oldest evidences of public respect for the woods1 and of enlightened views of their importance and proper treatment3 ,to ,joshua a fixed ,jewish tradition ascribed ten decrees1 laying down precise rules1 which were instituted to protect the property of each tribe and of each householder from lawless depredation4 ,cattle1 of a smaller kind1 were to be allowed to graze in thick woods1 not in thin woods2 in woods1 no kind of cattle without the owner's consent4 ,sticks and branches might be gathered by any ,hebrew1 but not cut4 99 99 99 ,woods might be pruned1 provided they were not olives or fruit trees1 and that there was sufficient shade in the place4--,lectures on the ,history of the ,jewish ,church1 part i1 p4 #bga4 #bje ,there seems to have been a tendency to excessive clearing in ,central and ,western1 earlier than in ,southeastern ,france4 ,wise and good ,bernard ,palissy--one of those persecuted ,protestants of the sixteenth century1 whose heroism1 virtue1 refinement1 and taste shine out in such splendid contrast to the brutality1 corruption1 grossness1 and barbarism of their oppressors--in the ,recepte ,veritable1 first printed in #aefc1 thus complains3 ,when ,i consider the value of the least clump of trees1 or even of thorns1 ,i much marvel at the great ignorance of men1 who1 as it seemeth1 do nowadays study only to break down1 fell1 and waste the fair forests which their forefathers did guard so choicely4 ,i would think no evil of them for cutting down the woods1 did they but replant again some part of them2 but they care nought for the time to come1 neither reck they of the great damage they do to their children which shall come after them4--,,oeuvres ,completes de ,bernard ,palissy1 #ahdd1 p4 #hh4 #bjf ,the great naval and commercial marines of ,venice and of ,genoa must have occasioned an immense consumption of lumber in the ,middle ,ages1 and the centuries immediately succeeding those commonly embraced in that designation4 ,the marine construction of that period employed larger timbers than the modern naval architecture of most commercial countries1 but apparently without a proportional increase of strength4 ,the old modes of ship building have been1 to a considerable extent1 handed down to the present day in the ,mediterranean1 and an ,american or an ,englishman looks with astonishment at the huge beams and thick planks so often employed in the construction of very small vessels navigating that sea4 ,according to ,hummel1 the desolation of the ,karst1 the high plateau lying north of ,trieste1 now one of the most parched and barren districts in ,europe1 is owing to the felling of its woods to build the navies of ,venice4 ,where the miserable peasant of the ,karst now sees nothing but bare rock swept and scoured by the raging ,bora1 the fury of this wind was once subdued by mighty firs1 which ,venice recklessly cut down to build her fleets4--,physische ,geographie1 p4 #cb4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #bg4 #bjg ,le ,alpi che cingono l',italia1 i1 p4 #cfg4 #bjh ,see the periodical ,politecnico1 published at ,milan1 for the month of ,may1 #ahfb1 p4 #bcd4 #bji ,annali di ,agricoltura1 ,industria e ,commercio1 vol4 i1 p4 #gg4 #baj ,,holinshed1 reprint of #ahjg1 i1 pp4 #ceg1 #ceh4 ,it is evident from this passage1 and from another on page #cig of the same volume1 that1 though sea coal was largely exported to the ,continent1 it had not yet come into general use in ,england4 ,it is a question of much interest1 when coal was first employed in ,england for fuel4 ,i can find no evidence that it was used as a combustible until more than a century after the ,norman conquest4 ,it has been said that it was known to the ,anglo-,saxon population1 but ,i am acquainted with no passage in the literature of that people which proves this4 ,the dictionaries explain the ,anglo-,saxon word graefa by sea coal4 ,i have met with this word in no ,anglo-,saxon work1 except in the ,chronicle1 ,a4 ,d4 #heb1 from a manuscript certainly not older than the twelfth century1 and in that passage it may as probably mean peat as coal1 and quite as probably something else as either4 ,coal is not mentioned in ,king ,alfred's ,bede1 in ,glanville1 or in ,robert of ,gloucester1 though all these writers speak of jet as found in ,england1 and are full in their enumeration of the mineral products of the island4 ,england was anciently remarkable for its forests1 but ,caesar says it wanted the fagus and the abies4 ,there can be no doubt that fagus means the beech1 which1 as the remains in the ,danish peat mosses show1 is a tree of late introduction into ,denmark1 where it succeeded the fir1 a tree not now native to that country4 ,the succession of forest crops seems to have been the same in ,england2 for ,harrison1 p4 #cei1 speaks of the great store of firre found lying at their whole lengths in the fens and marises of ,lancashire and other counties1 where not even bushes grew in his time4 ,we cannot be sure what species of evergreen ,caesar intended by abies4 ,the popular designations of spike-leaved trees are always more vague and uncertain in their application than those of broad-leaved trees4 ,pinus1 pine1 has been very loosely employed even in botanical nomenclature1 and ,kiefer1 ,fichte1 and ,tanne are often confounded in ,german4--,r,o,s,s,m,ae,s,s,l,e,r1 ,der ,wald1 pp4 #bef1 #bhi1 #cbd4 ,if it were certain that the abies of ,caesar was the fir formerly and still found in peat mosses1 and that he was right in denying the existence of the beech in ,england in his time1 the observation would be very important1 because it would fix a date at which the fir had become extinct1 and the beech had not yet appeared in the island4 ,the ,english oak1 though strong and durable1 was not considered generally suitable for finer work in the sixteenth century4 ,there were1 however1 exceptions4 ,of all in ,essex1 observes ,,harrison1 ,holinshed1 i1 p4 #ceg1 that growing in ,bardfield parke is the finest for ioiners craft3 for oftentimes haue ,i seene of their workes made of that oke so fine and faire1 as most of the wainescot that is brought hither out of ,danske2 for our wainescot is not made in ,england4 ,yet diuerse haue assaied to deale without with our okes to that end1 but not with so good successe as they haue hoped1 bicause the ab or iuice will not so soone be remoued and cleane drawne out1 which some attribute to want of time in the salt water4 ,this passage is also of interest as showing that soaking in salt water1 as a mode of seasoning1 was practised in ,harrison's time4 ,but the importation of wainscot1 or boards for ceiling1 panelling1 and otherwise finishing rooms1 which was generally of oak1 commenced three centuries before the time of ,harrison4 ,on page #bjd of the ,liber ,albus--a book which could have been far more valuable if the editor had given us the texts1 with his learned notes1 instead of a translation--mention is made of squared oak timber1 brought in from the country by carts1 and of course of domestic growth1 as free of city duty or octroi1 and of planks of oak coming in in the same way as paying one plank a cartload4 ,but in the chapter on the ,customs of ,billyngesgate1 pp4 #bjh1 #bji1 relating to goods imported from foreign countries1 a duty of one halfpenny is imposed on every hundred of boards called weynscotte1 and of one penny on every hundred of boards called ,rygholt4 ,the editor explains ,rygholt as wood of ,riga4 ,this was doubtless pine or fir4 ,the year in which these provisions were made does not appear1 but they belong to the reign of ,henry ,,iii4 #baa ,in a letter addressed to the ,minister of ,public ,works1 after the terrible inundations of #aheg1 the ,emperor thus happily expressed himself3 ,before we seek the remedy for an evil1 we inquire into its cause4 ,whence come the sudden floods of our rivers8 ,from the water which falls on the mountains1 not from that which falls on the plains4 ,the waters which fall on our fields produce but few rivulets1 but those which fall on our roofs and are collected in the gutters1 form small streams at once4 ,now1 the roofs are mountains--the gutters are valleys4 ,to continue the comparison1 observes ,d',hericourt1 roofs are smooth and impermeable1 and the rain water pours rapidly off from their surfaces2 but this rapidity of flow would be greatly diminished if the roofs were carpeted with mosses and grasses2 more still1 if they were covered with dry leaves1 little shrubs1 strewn branches1 and other impediments--in short1 if they were wooded4--,annales ,forestieres1 ,dec41 #aheg1 p4 #caa4 #bab ,the roots of vegetables1 says ,d',hericourt1 perform the office of a perpendicular drainage analogous to that which has been practised with success in ,holland and in some parts of the ,british ,islands4 ,this system consists in driving down three or four thousand stakes upon a hectare2 the rain water filters down along the stakes1 and1 in certain cases1 as favorable results are obtained by this method as by horizontal drains4--,annales ,forestieres1 #aheg1 p4 #cab4 #bac ,the productiveness of ,egypt has been attributed too exclusively to the fertilizing effects of the slime deposited by the inundations of the ,nile2 for in that climate a liberal supply of water would produce good crops on almost any ordinary sand1 while1 without water1 the richest soil would yield nothing4 ,the sediment deposited annually is but a very small fraction of an inch in thickness4 ,it is alleged that in quantity it would be hardly sufficient for a good top dressing1 and that in quality it is not chemically distinguishable from the soil inches or feet below the surface4 ,but to deny1 as some writers have done1 that the slime has any fertilizing properties at all1 is as great an error as the opposite one of ascribing all the agricultural wealth of ,egypt to that single cause of productiveness4 ,fine soils deposited by water are almost uniformly rich in all climates2 those brought down by rivers1 carried out into salt water1 and then returned again by the tide1 seem to be more permanently fertile than any others4 ,the polders of the ,netherland coast are of this character1 and the meadows in ,lincolnshire1 which have been covered with slime by warping1 as it is called1 or admitting water over them at high tide1 are remarkably productive4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #bh4 #bad ,the laws against clearing have never been able to prevent these operations when the proprietor found his advantage in them1 and the long series of royal ordinances and decrees of parliaments1 proclaimed from the days of ,charlemagne to our own1 with a view of securing forest property1 have served only to show the impotence of legislative notion on this subject4--,,clave1 ,etudes sur l',economie ,forestiere1 p4 #cb4 ,a proprietor can always contrive to clear his woods1 whatever may be done to prevent him2 it is a mere question of time1 and a few imprudent cuttings1 a few abuses of the right of pasturage1 suffice to destroy a forest in spite of all regulations to the contrary4--,,dunoyer1 ,de la ,liberte du ,travail1 ii1 p4 #deb1 as quoted by ,clave1 p4 #cec4 ,both authors agree that the preservation of the forests in ,france is practicable only by their transfer to the state1 which alone can protect them and secure their proper treatment4 ,it is much to be feared that even this measure would be inadequate to save the forests of the ,american ,union4 ,there is little respect for public property in ,america1 and the ,federal ,government1 certainly1 would not be the proper agent of the nation for this purpose4 ,it proved itself unable to protect the live-oak woods of ,florida1 which were intended to be preserved for the use of the navy1 and it more than once paid contractors a high price for timber stolen from its own forests4 ,the authorities of the individual ,states might be more efficient4 #bae ,see the lively account of the sale of a communal wood in ,,berlepsch1 ,die ,alpen1 ,holzschlaeger und ,floesser4 #baf ,streffleur 7,ueber die ,natur und die ,wirkungen der ,wildbaeche1 p4 #c7 maintains that all the observations and speculations of ,french authors on the nature of torrents had been anticipated by ,austrian writers4 ,in proof of this assertion he refers to the works of ,franz von ,zallinger1 #aggh1 ,von ,arretin1 #ahjh1 ,franz ,duile1 #ahbf1 all published at ,innsbruck1 and ,,hagen's ,beschreibung neuerer ,wasserbauwerke1 ,koenigsberg1 #ahbf1 none of which works are known to me4 ,it is evident1 however1 that the conclusions of ,surell and other ,french writers whom ,i cite1 are original results of personal investigation1 and not borrowed opinions4 #bag ,whether ,palissy was acquainted with this ancient practice1 or whether it was one of those original suggestions of which his works are so full1 ,i know not2 but in his treatise1 ,des ,eaux et ,fontaines1 he thus recommends it1 by way of reply to the objections of ,theorique1 who had expressed the fear that the waters which rush violently down from the heights of the mountain would bring with them much earth1 sand1 and other things1 and thus spoil the artificial fountain that ,practique was teaching him to make3 ,and for hindrance of the mischiefs of great waters which may be gathered in few hours by great storms1 when thou shalt have made ready thy parterre to receive the water1 thou must lay great stones athwart the deep channels which lead to thy parterre4 ,and so the force of the rushing currents shall be deadened1 and thy water shall flow peacefully into his cisterns4--,,oeuvres ,completes1 p4 #agc4 #bah ,ladoucette says the peasant of ,devoluy often goes a distance of five hours over rocks and precipices for a single man's load of wood2 and he remarks on another page1 that the justice of peace of that canton had1 in the course of forty-three years1 but once heard the voice of the nightingale4--,histoire1 etc41 des ,hautes ,alpes1 pp4 #bbj1 #dcd4 #bai ,the valley of ,embrun1 now almost completely devastated1 was once remarkable for its fertility4 ,in #ahjf1 ,hericart de ,thury said of it3 ,in this magnificent valley nature had been prodigal of her gifts4 ,its inhabitants have blindly revelled in her favors1 and fallen asleep in the midst of her profusion4--,,becquerel1 ,des ,climats1 etc41 p4 #cad4 #bbj ,in the days of the ,roman empire the ,durance was a navigable river1 with a commerce so important that the boatmen upon it formed a distinct corporation4--,,ladoucette1 ,histoire1 etc41 des ,hautes ,alpes1 p4 #ced4 ,even as early as #aghi1 the ,durance was computed to have already covered with gravel and pebbles not less than #acj1jjj acres1 which1 but for its inundations1 would have been the finest land in the province4--,,arthur ,,young1 ,travels in ,france1 vol4 i1 ch4 i4 #bba ,between #ahea and #ahef the population of ,languedoc and ,provence had increased by #aja1jjj souls4 ,the augmentation1 however1 was wholly in the provinces of the plains1 where all the principal cities are found4 ,in these provinces the increase was #bjd1jjj1 while in the mountain provinces there was a diminution of #ajc1jjj4 ,the reduction of the area of arable land is perhaps even more striking4 ,in #ahdb1 the department of the ,lower ,alps possessed #ii1jjj hectares1 or nearly #bde1jjj acres1 of cultivated soil4 ,in #aheb1 it had but #gd1jjj hectares4 ,in other words1 in ten years #be1jjj hectares1 or #fa1jjj acres1 had been washed away or rendered worthless for cultivation1 by torrents and the abuses of pasturage4--,,clave1 ,etudes1 pp4 #ff1 #fg4 #bbb ,the ,skalaera-,tobel1 for instance1 near ,coire4 ,see the description in ,,berlepsch1 ,die ,alpen1 pp4 #afi et seqq1 or in ,stephen's ,english translation4 ,the recent change in the character of the ,mella--a river anciently so remarkable for the gentleness of its current that it was specially noticed by ,catullus as flowing molli flumine--deserves more than a passing remark4 ,this river rises in the mountain chain east of ,lake ,iseo1 and traversing the district of ,brescia1 empties into the ,oglio after a course of about seventy miles4 ,the iron works in the upper valley of the ,mella had long created a considerable demand for wood1 but their operations were not so extensive as to occasion any very sudden or general destruction of the forests1 and the only evil experienced from the clearings was the gradual diminution of the volume of the river4 ,within the last twenty years1 the superior quality of the arms manufactured at ,brescia has greatly enlarged the sale of them1 and very naturally stimulated the activity of both the forges and of the colliers who supply them1 and the hillsides have been rapidly stripped of their timber4 ,up to #ahej1 no destructive inundation of the ,mella had been recorded4 ,buildings in great numbers had been erected upon its margin1 and its valley was conspicuous for its rural beauty and its fertility4 ,but when the denudation of the mountains had reached a certain point1 avenging nature began the work of retribution4 ,in the spring and summer of #ahej several new torrents were suddenly formed in the upper tributary valleys1 and on the #adth and #aeth of ,august in that year1 a fall of rain1 not heavier than had been often experienced1 produced a flood which not only inundated much ground never before overflowed1 but destroyed a great number of bridges1 dams1 factories1 and other valuable structures1 and1 what was a far more serious evil1 swept off from the rocks an incredible extent of soil1 and converted one of the most beautiful valleys of the ,italian ,alps into a ravine almost as bare and as barren as the savagest gorge of ,southern ,france4 ,the pecuniary damage was estimated at many millions of francs1 and the violence of the catastrophe was deemed so extraordinary1 even in a country subject to similar visitations1 that the sympathy excited for the sufferers produced1 in five months1 voluntary contributions for their relief to the amount of nearly #bjj1jjj--;,delle ,inondazioni del ,mella1 etc41 nella notte del #ad al #ae ,agosto1 #ahej4 ,the author of this remarkable pamphlet has chosen as a motto a passage from the ,vulgate translation of ,job1 which is interesting as showing accurate observation of the action of the torrent3 ,mons cadens definit1 et saxum transfertur de loco suo2 lapides excavant aquae et alluvione paullatim terra consumitur4--,job xiv1 #ah1 #ai4 ,the ,english version is much less striking1 and gives a different sense4 #bbc ,streffleur quotes from ,duile the following observations3 ,the channel of the ,tyrolese brooks is often raised much above the valleys through which they flow4 ,the bed of the ,fersina is elevated high above the city of ,trient1 which lies near it4 ,the ,villerbach flows at a much more elevated level than that of the market place of ,neumarkt and ,vill1 and threatens to overwhelm both of them with its waters4 ,the ,talfer at ,botzen is at least even with the roofs of the adjacent town1 if not above them4 ,the tower steeples of the villages of ,schlanders1 ,kortsch1 and ,laas1 are lower than the surface of the ,gadribach4 ,the ,saldurbach at ,schluderns menaces the far lower village with destruction1 and the chief town1 ,schwaz1 is in similar danger from the ,lahnbach4--,,streffleur1 ,ueber die ,wildbaeche1 etc41 p4 #g4 #bbd ,the snow drifts into the ravines and accumulates to incredible depths1 and the water resulting from its dissolution and from the deluging rains which fall in spring1 and sometimes in the summer1 being confined by rocky walls on both sides1 rises to a very great height1 and of course acquires an immense velocity and transporting power in its rapid descent to its outlet from the mountain4 ,in the winter of #ahdb--'c1 the valley of the ,doveria1 along which the ,simplon road passes1 was filled with solid snowdrifts to the depth of a hundred feet above the carriage road1 and the sledge track by which passengers and the mails were carried ran at that height4 ,other things being equal1 the transporting power of the water is greatest where its flow is most rapid4 ,this is usually in the direction of the axis of the ravine4 ,as the current pours out of the gorge and escapes from the lateral confinement of its walls1 it spreads and divides itself into numerous smaller streams1 which shoot out from the mouth of the valley1 as from a centre1 in different directions1 like the ribs of a fan from the pivot1 each carrying with it its quota of stones and gravel4 ,the plain below the point of issue from the mountain is rapidly raised by newly formed torrents1 the elevation depending on the inclination of the bed and the form and weight of the matter transported4 ,every flood both increases the height of this central point and extends the entire circumference of the deposit4 ,the stream retaining most nearly the original direction moves with the greatest momentum1 and consequently transports the solid matter with which it is charged to the greatest distance4 ,the untravelled reader will comprehend this the better when he is informed that the southern slope of the ,alps generally rises suddenly out of the plain1 with no intervening hill to break the abruptness of the transition1 except those consisting of comparatively small heaps of its own debris brought down by ancient glaciers or recent torrents4 ,the torrents do not wind down valleys gradually widening to the rivers or the sea1 but leap at once from the flanks of the mountains upon the plains below4 ,this arrangement of surfaces naturally facilitates the formation of vast deposits at their points of emergence1 and the centre of the accumulation in the case of very small torrents is not unfrequently a hundred feet high1 and sometimes very much more4 ,torrents and the rivers that receive them transport mountain debris to almost incredible distances4 ,lorentz1 in an official report on this subject1 as quoted by ,marschand from the ,memoirs of the ,agricultural ,society of ,lyons1 says3 ,the felling of the woods produces torrents which cover the cultivated soil with pebbles and fragments of rock1 and they do not confine their ravages to the vicinity of the mountains1 but extend them into the fertile fields of ,provence and other departments1 to the distance of forty or fifty leagues4--,entwaldung der ,gebirge1 p4 #ag4 #bbe ,the precipitous walls of the ,val de ,lys1 and more especially of the ,val ,doveria1 though here and there shattered1 show in many places a smoothness of face over a large vertical plane1 at the height of hundreds of feet above the bottom of the valley1 which no known agency but glacier ice is capable of producing1 and of course they can have undergone no sensible change at those points for a vast length of time4 ,the beds of the rivers which flow through those valleys suffer lateral displacement occasionally1 where there is room for the shifting of the channel2 but if any elevation or depression takes place in them1 it is too slow to be perceptible except in case of some merely temporary obstruction4 #bbf ,lombardini found1 twenty years ago1 that the mineral matter brought down to the ,po by its tributaries was1 in general1 comminuted to about the same degree of fineness as the sands of its bed at their points of discharge4 ,in the case of the ,trebbia1 which rises high in the ,apennines and empties into the ,po at ,piacenza1 it was otherwise1 that river rolling pebbles and coarse gravel into the channel of the principal stream4 ,the banks of the other affluents--excepting some of those which discharge their waters into the great lakes--then either retained their woods1 or had been so long clear of them1 that the torrents had removed most of the disintegrated and loose rock in their upper basins4 ,the valley of the ,trebbia had been recently cleared1 and all the forces which tend to the degradation and transportation of rock were in full activity4--,notice sur les ,rivieres de la ,lombardie1 ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahdg1 #a;er semestre1 p4 #aca4 ,since the date of ,lombardini's observations1 many ,alpine valleys have been stripped of their woods4 ,it would be interesting to know whether any sensible change has been produced in the character or quantity of the matter transported by them to the ,po4 #bbg ,in proportion as the dikes are improved1 and breaches and the escape of the water through them are less frequent1 the height of the annual inundations is increased4 ,many towns on the banks of the river1 and of course within the system of parallel embankments1 were formerly secure from flood by the height of the artificial mounds on which they were built2 but they have recently been obliged to construct ring dikes for their protection4--,,baumgarten1 after ,,lombardini1 in the paper last quoted1 pp4 #ada1 #adg4 #bbh ,three centuries ago1 when the declivities of the mountains still retained a much larger proportion of their woods1 the moderate annual floods of the ,po were occasioned by the melting of the snows1 and1 as appears by a passage of ,tasso quoted by ,castellani 7,dell' ,influenza delle ,selve1 i1 p4 #eh1 note71 they took place in ,may4 ,the much more violent inundations of the present century are due to rains1 the waters of which are no longer retained by a forest soil1 but conveyed at once to the rivers--and they occur almost uniformly in the autumn or late summer4 ,castellani1 on the page just quoted1 says that even so late as about #aghj1 the ,po required a heavy rain of a week to overflow its banks1 but that forty years later1 it was sometimes raised to full flood in a single day4 #bbi ,this change of coast line cannot be ascribed to upheaval1 for a comparison of the level of old buildings--as1 for instance1 the church of ,san ,vitale and the tomb of ,theodoric at ,ravenna--with that of the sea1 tends to prove a depression rather than an elevation of their foundations4 ,a computation by a different method makes the deposits at the mouth of the ,po #b1abc1jjj metres less2 but as both of them omit the gravel and silt rolled1 if not floated1 down at ordinary and low water1 we are safe in assuming the larger quantity4--,article last quoted1 p4 #agd4 7,see note1 p4 #cbi7 #bcj ,mengotti estimated the mass of solid matter annually united to the waters of the ,po at #hbb1jjj1jjj cubic metres1 or nearly twenty times as much as1 according to ,lombardini1 that river delivers into the ,adriatic4 ,castellani supposes the computation of ,mengotti to fall much below the truth1 and there can be no doubt that a vastly larger quantity of earth and gravel is washed down from the ,alps and the ,apennines than is carried to the sea4--,,castellani1 ,dell' ,immediata ,influenza delle ,selve sul corso delle ,acque1 i1 pp4 #db1 #dc4 ,i have contented myself with assuming less than one fifth of ,mengotti's estimate4 #bca ,,baumgarten1 ,an4 des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahdg1 #a;er semestre1 p4 #age4 #bcb ,the total superficies of the basin of the ,po1 down to ,ponte ,lagoscuro ,ferrara--a point where it has received all its affluents--is #f1ich1bjj hectares1 that is1 #d1aje1fjj in mountain lands1 #b1hcb1fjj in plain lands4--,,dumont1 ,travaux ,publics1 etc41 p4 #bgb4 ,these latter two quantities are equal respectively to #aj1ade1cdh1 and #f1iii1fch acres1 or #ae1heb and #aj1icg square miles4 #bcc ,i do not use the numbers ,i have borrowed or assumed as factors the value of which is precisely ascertained2 nor1 for the purposes of the present argument1 is quantitative exactness important4 ,i employ numerical statements simply as a means of aiding the imagination to form a general and certainly not extravagant idea of the extent of geographical revolutions which man has done much to accelerate1 if not1 strictly speaking1 to produce4 ,there is an old proverb1 ,dolus latet in generalibus1 and ,arthur ,young is not the only public economist who has warned his readers against the deceitfulness of round numbers4 ,i think1 on the contrary1 that vastly more error has been produced by the affectation of precision in cases where precision is impossible4 ,in all the great operations of terrestrial nature1 the elements are so numerous and so difficult of exact appreciation1 that1 until the means of scientific observation and measurement are much more perfected than they now are1 we must content ourselves with general approximations4 ,i say terrestrial nature1 because in cosmical movements we have fewer elements to deal with1 and may therefore arrive at much more rigorous accuracy in determination of time and place than we can in fixing and predicting the quantities and the epochs of variable natural phenomena on the earth's surface4 ,the value of a high standard of accuracy in scientific observation can hardly be overrated2 but habits of rigorous exactness will never be formed by an investigator who allows himself to trust implicitly to the numerical precision of the results of a few experiments4 ,the wonderful accuracy of geodetic measurements in modern times is1 in general1 attained by taking the mean of a great number of observations at every station1 and this final precision is but the mutual balance and compensation of numerous errors4 ,travellers are often misled by local habits in the use of what may be called representative numbers1 where a definite is put for an indefinite quantity4 ,a ,greek1 who wished to express the notion of a great1 but undetermined number1 used myriad1 or ten thousand2 a ,roman1 six hundred2 an ,oriental1 forty1 or1 at present1 very commonly1 fifteen thousand4 ,many a tourist has gravely repeated1 as an ascertained fact1 the vague statement of the ,arabs and the monks of ,mount ,sinai1 that the ascent from the convent of ,st4 ,catherine to the summit of ,gebel ,moosa counts fifteen thousand steps1 though the difference of level is barely two thousand feet1 and the ,forty ,thieves1 the forty martyr monks of the convent of ,el ,arbain--not to speak of a similar use of this numeral in more important cases--have often been understood as expressions of a known number1 when in fact they mean simply many4 ,the number fifteen thousand has found its way to ,rome1 and ,de ,quincey seriously informs us1 on the authority of a lady who had been at much pains to ascertain the exact truth1 that1 including closets large enough for a bed1 the ,vatican contains fifteen thousand rooms4 ,any one who has observed the vast dimensions of most of the apartments of that structure will admit that we make a very small allowance of space when we assign a square rod1 sixteen and a half feet square1 to each room upon the average4 ,on an acre1 there might be one hundred and sixty such rooms1 including partition walls2 and1 to contain fifteen thousand of them1 a building must cover more than nine acres1 and be ten stories high1 or possess other equivalent dimensions1 which1 as every traveller knows1 many times exceeds the truth4 ,that most entertaining writer1 ,about1 reduces the number of rooms in the ,vatican1 but he compensates this reduction by increased dimensions1 for he uses the word salle1 which cannot be applied to closets barely large enough to contain a bed4 ,according to him1 there are in that presbytere1 as he irreverently calls it1 twelve thousand large rooms salles1 thirty courts1 and three hundred staircases4--,rome ,contemporaire1 p4 #fh4 ,the pretended exactness of statistical tables is generally little better than an imposture2 and those founded not on direct estimation by competent observers1 but on the report of persons who have no particular interest in knowing1 but often have a motive for distorting1 the truth--such as census returns--are commonly to be regarded as but vague guesses at the actual fact4 ,fuller1 who1 for the combination of wit1 wisdom1 fancy1 and personal goodness1 stands first in ,english literature1 thus remarks on the pretentious exactness of historical and statistical writers3 ,i approve the plain1 country ,by-word1 as containing much ,innocent ,simplicity therein1 ',almost and very nigh ,have saved many a ,lie4' ,so have the ,latines their prope1 fere1 juxta1 circiter1 plus minus1 used in matters of fact by the most authentic ,historians4 ,yea1 we may observe that the ,spirit of ,truth itself1 where ,numbers and ,measures are concerned1 in ,times1 ,places1 and ,persons1 useth the aforesaid ,modifications1 save in such cases where some mystery contained in the number requireth a particular specification thereof3 ,in ,times4 ,in ,places4 ,in ,person4 ,daniel1 #e3cc4 ,luke1 #bd3ac4 ,exodus1 #ab3cg4 ,luke1 #c3bc4 ,john1 #f3ai4 ,acts1 #b3da4 ,none therefore can justly find fault with me1 if1 on the like occasion1 ,i have secured myself with the same ,qualifications4 ,indeed1 such ,historians who grind their ,intelligence to the powder of fraction1 pretending to cleave the pin1 do sometimes misse the ,but4 ,thus1 one reporteth1 how in the ,persecution under ,dioeletian1 there were neither under nor over1 but just nine hundred ninety-nine martyrs4 ,yea1 generally those that trade in such ,retail-ware1 and deal in such small parcells1 may by the ignorant be commended for their care1 but condemned by the judicious for their ridiculous curiosity4--,the ,history of the ,worthies of ,england1 i1 p4 #ei4 #bcd ,,surell1 ,les ,torrents des ,hautes ,alpes1 chap4 xxiv4 ,in such cases1 the clearing of the ground1 which1 in consequence of a temporary diversion of the waters1 or from some other cause1 has become rewooded1 sometimes renews the ravages of the torrent4 ,thus1 on the left bank of the ,durance1 a wooded declivity had been formed by the debris brought down by torrents1 which had extinguished themselves after having swept off much of the superficial strata of the mountain of ,morgon4 ,all this district was covered with woods1 which have now been thinned out and are perishing from day to day2 consequently1 the torrents have recommenced their devastations1 and if the clearings continue1 this declivity1 now fertile1 will be ruined1 like so many others4--,id41 p4 #aee4 #bce ,where a torrent has not been long in operation1 and earth still remains mixed with the rocks and gravel it heaps up at its point of eruption1 vegetation soon starts up and prospers1 if protected from encroachment4 ,in ,provence1 several communes determined1 about ten years ago1 to reserve the soils thus wasted1 that is1 to abandon them for a certain time1 to spontaneous vegetation1 which was not slow in making its appearance4--,,becquerel1 ,des ,climats1 p4 #cae4 #bcf ,rock is permeable by water to a greater extent than is generally supposed4 ,freshly quarried marble1 and even granite1 as well as most other stones1 are sensibly heavier1 as well as softer and more easily wrought1 than after they are dried and hardened by air-seasoning4 ,many sandstones are porous enough to serve as filters for liquids1 and much of that of ,upper ,egypt and ,nubia hisses audibly when thrown into water1 from the escape of the air forced out of it by hydrostatic pressure and the capillary attraction of the pores for water4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #bi4 #bcg ,palissy had observed the action of frost in disintegrating rock1 and he thus describes it1 in his essay on the formation of ice3 ,i know that the stones of the mountains of ,ardennes be harder than marble4 ,nevertheless1 the people of that country do not quarry the said stones in winter1 for that they be subject to frost2 and many times the rocks have been seen to fall without being cut1 by means whereof many people have been killed1 when the said rocks were thawing4 ,palissy was ignorant of the expansion of water in freezing--in fact he supposed that the mechanical force exerted by freezing water was due to compression1 not dilatation--and therefore he ascribes to thawing alone effects resulting not less from congelation4 ,various forces combine to produce the stone avalanches of the higher ,alps1 the fall of which is one of the greatest dangers incurred by the adventurous explorers of those regions--the direct action of the sun upon the stone1 the expansion of freezing water1 and the loosening of masses of rock by the thawing of the ice which supported them or held them together4 #bch ,,wessely1 ,die ,oesterreichischen ,alpenlaender und ihre ,forste1 pp4 #abe1 #abf4 ,wessely records several other more or less similar occurrences in the ,austrian ,alps4 ,some of them1 certainly1 are not to be ascribed to the removal of the woods1 but in most cases they are clearly traceable to that cause4 #bci ,,bianchi1 ,appendix to the ,italian translation of ,mrs4 ,,somerville's ,physical ,geography1 p4 xxxvi4 #bdj ,see in ,,kohl1 ,alpenreisen1 i1 #abj1 an account of the ruin of fields and pastures1 and even of the destruction of a broad belt of forest1 by the fall of rocks in consequence of cutting a few large trees4 ,cattle are very often killed in ,switzerland by rock avalanches1 and their owners secure themselves from loss by insurance against this risk as against damage by fire or hail4 #bda ,entwaldung der ,gebirge1 p4 #da4 #bdb ,the importance of the wood in preventing avalanches is well illustrated by the fact that1 where the forest is wanting1 the inhabitants of localities exposed to snow slides often supply the place of the trees by driving stakes through the snow into the ground1 and thus checking its propensity to slip4 ,the woods themselves are sometimes thus protected against avalanches originating on slopes above them1 and as a further security1 small trees are cut down along the upper line of the forest1 and laid against the trunks of larger trees1 transversely to the path of the slide1 to serve as a fence or dam to the motion of an incipient avalanche1 which may by this means be arrested before it acquires a destructive velocity and force4 #bdc ,the tide rises at ,quebec to the height of twenty-five feet1 and when it is aided by a northeast wind1 it flows with almost irresistible violence4 ,rafts containing several hundred thousand cubic feet of timber are often caught by the flood tide1 torn to pieces1 and dispersed for miles along the shores4 #bdd ,one of these1 the ,baron of ,renfrew--so named from one of the titles of the kings of ,england--built thirty or forty years ago1 measured #e1jjj tons4 ,they were little else than rafts1 being almost solid masses of timber designed to be taken to pieces and sold as lumber on arriving at their port of destination4 ,the lumber trade at ,quebec is still very large4 ,according to a recent article in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 that city exported1 in #ahfj1 #cj1jjj1jjj cubic feet of squared timber1 and #djj1jjj1jjj square feet of planches4 ,the thickness of the boards is not stated1 but ,i believe they are generally cut an inch and a quarter thick for the ,quebec trade1 and as they shrink somewhat in drying1 we may estimate ten square for one cubic foot of boards4 ,this gives a total of #gj1jjj1jjj cubic feet4 ,the specific gravity of white pine is 4#eed1 and the weight of this quantity of lumber1 very little of which is thoroughly seasoned1 would exceed a million of tons1 even supposing it to consist wholly of wood as light as pine4 ,new ,brunswick1 too1 exports a large amount of lumber4 #bde ,this name1 from the ,french chantier1 which has a wider meaning1 is applied in ,america to temporary huts or habitations erected for the convenience of forest life1 or in connection with works of material improvement4 #bdf ,trees differ much in their power of resisting the action of forest fires4 ,different woods vary greatly in combustibility1 and even when their bark is scarcely scorched1 they are1 partly in consequence of physiological character1 and partly from the greater or less depth at which their roots habitually lie below the surface1 very differently affected by running fires4 ,the white pine1 ,pinus strobus1 as it is the most valuable1 is also perhaps the most delicate tree of the ,american forest1 while its congener1 the ,northern pitch pine1 ,pinus rigida1 is less injured by fire than any other tree of that country4 ,i have heard experienced lumbermen maintain that the growth of this pine was even accelerated by a fire brisk enough to destroy all other trees1 and ,i have myself seen it still flourishing after a conflagration which had left not a green leaf but its own in the wood1 and actually throwing out fresh foliage1 when the old had been quite burnt off and the bark almost converted into charcoal4 ,the wood of the pitch pine is of comparatively little value for the joiner1 but it is useful for very many purposes4 ,its rapidity of growth in even poor soils1 its hardihood1 and its abundant yield of resinous products1 entitle it to much more consideration1 as a plantation tree1 than it has hitherto received in ,europe or ,america4 #bdg ,between fifty and sixty years ago1 a steep mountain with which ,i am very familiar1 composed of metamorphic rock1 and at that time covered with a thick coating of soil and a dense primeval forest1 was accidentally burnt over4 ,the fire took place in a very dry season1 the slope of the mountain was too rapid to retain much water1 and the conflagration was of an extraordinarily fierce character1 consuming the wood almost entirely1 burning the leaves and combustible portion of the mould1 and in many places cracking and disintegrating the rock beneath4 ,the rains of the following autumn carried off much of the remaining soil1 and the mountain side was nearly bare of wood for two or three years afterward4 ,at length1 a new crop of trees sprang up and grew vigorously1 and the mountain is now thickly covered again4 ,but the depth of mould and earth is too small to allow the trees to reach maturity4 ,when they attain to the diameter of about six inches1 they uniformly die1 and this they will no doubt continue to do until the decay of leaves and wood on the surface1 and the decomposition of the subjacent rock1 shall have formed1 perhaps hundreds of years hence1 a stratum of soil thick enough to support a full-grown forest4 #bdh ,the growth of the white pine1 on a good soil and in open ground1 is rather rapid until it reaches the diameter of a couple of feet1 after which it is much slower4 ,the favorite habitat of this tree is light sandy earth4 ,on this soil1 and in a dense wood1 it requires a century to attain the diameter of a yard4 ,emerson 7,trees of ,massachusetts1 p4 #fe71 says that a pine of this species1 near ,paris1 thirty years planted1 is eighty feet high1 with a diameter of three feet4 ,he also states that ten white pines planted at ,cambridge1 ,massachusetts1 in #ahji or #ahaj1 exhibited1 in the winter of #ahda and #ahdb1 an average of twenty inches diameter at the ground1 the two largest measuring1 at the height of three feet1 four feet eight inches in circumference2 and he mentions another pine growing in a rocky swamp1 which1 at the age of thirty-two years1 gave seven feet in circumference at the but1 with a height of sixty-two feet six inches4 ,this latter ,i suppose to be a seedling1 the others transplanted trees1 which might have been some years old when placed where they finally grew4 ,the following case came under my own observation3 ,in #ahbd1 a pine tree1 so small that a young lady1 with the help of a lad1 took it up from the ground and carried it a quarter of a mile1 was planted near a house in a town in ,vermont4 ,it was occasionally watered1 but received no other special treatment4 ,i measured this tree in #ahfj1 and found it1 at four feet from the ground1 and entirely above the spread of the roots1 two feet and four inches in diameter4 ,it could not have been more than three inches through when transplanted1 and must have increased its diameter twenty-five inches in thirty-six years4 #bdi ,,williams1 ,history of ,vermont1 ii1 p4 #ec4 ,,dwight's ,travels1 iv1 p4 #ba1 and iii1 p4 #cf4 ,,emerson1 ,trees of ,massachusetts1 p4 #fa4 ,,parish1 ,life of ,president ,wheelock1 p4 #ef4 #bej ,the forest trees of the ,northern ,states do not attain to extreme longevity in the dense woods4 ,dr4 ,williams found that none of the huge pines1 the age of which he ascertained1 exceeded three hundred and fifty or four hundred years1 though he quotes a friend who thought he had noticed trees considerably older4 ,the oak lives longer than the pine1 and the hemlock spruce is perhaps equally long lived4 ,a tree of this latter species1 cut within my knowledge in a thick wood1 counted four hundred and eighty-six1 or1 according to another observer1 five hundred annual circles4 ,great luxuriance of animal and vegetable production is not commonly accompanied by long duration of the individual4 ,the oldest men are not found in the crowded city2 and in the tropics1 where life is prolific and precocious1 it is also short4 ,the most ancient forest trees of which we have accounts have not been those growing in thick woods1 but isolated specimens1 with no taller neighbor to intercept the light and heat and air1 and no rival to share the nutriment afforded by the soil4 ,the more rapid growth and greater dimensions of trees standing near the boundary of the forest1 are matters of familiar observation4 ,long experience has shown that trees growing on the confines of the wood may be cut at sixty years of age as advantageously as others of the same species1 reared in the depth of the forest1 at a hundred and twenty4 ,we have often remarked1 in our ,alps1 that the trunk of trees upon the border of a grove is most developed or enlarged upon the outer or open side1 where the branches extend themselves farthest1 while the concentric circles of growth are most uniform in those entirely surrounded by other trees1 or standing entirely alone4--,a4 and ,g4 ,,villa1 ,necessita dei ,boschi1 pp4 #ag1 #ah4 #bea ,caimi states that a single flotation in the ,valtelline in #ahci1 caused damages alleged to amount to more than #hjj1jjj1 and actually appraised at #bej1jjj4--;,cenni sulla ,importanza e ,coltura dei ,boschi1 p4 #fe4 #beb ,most physicists who have investigated the laws of natural hydraulics maintain that1 in consequence of direct obstruction and frictional resistance to the flow of the water of rivers along their banks1 there is both an increased rapidity of current and an elevation of the water in the middle of the channel1 so that a river presents always a convex surface4 ,the lumbermen deny this4 ,they affirm that1 while rivers are rising1 the water is highest in the middle of the channel1 and tends to throw floating objects shoreward2 while they are falling1 it is lowest in the middle1 and floating objects incline toward the centre4 ,logs1 they say1 rolled into the water during the rise1 are very apt to lodge on the banks1 while those set afloat during the falling of the waters keep in the current1 and are carried without hindrance to their destination4 ,foresters and lumbermen1 like sailors and other persons whose daily occupations bring them into contact1 and often1 into conflict1 with great natural forces1 have many peculiar opinions1 not to say superstitions4 ,in one of these categories we must rank the universal belief of lumbermen1 that with a given head of water1 and in a given number of hours1 a sawmill cuts more lumber by night than by day4 ,having been personally interested in several sawmills1 ,i have frequently conversed with sawyers on this subject1 and have always been assured by them that their uniform experience established the fact that1 other things being equal1 the action of the machinery of sawmills is more rapid by night than by day4 ,i am sorry--perhaps ,i ought to be ashamed--to say that my scepticism has been too strong to allow me to avail myself of my opportunities of testing this question by passing a night1 watch in hand1 counting the strokes of a millsaw4 ,more unprejudiced1 and ,i must add1 very intelligent and credible persons have informed me that they have done so1 and found the report of the sawyers abundantly confirmed4 ,a land surveyor1 who was also an experienced lumberman1 sawyer1 and machinist1 a good mathematician and an exact observer1 has repeatedly told me1 that he had very often timed sawmills1 and found the difference in favor of night work above thirty per cent4 ,sed quaere4 #bec ,for many instances of this sort1 see ,,becquerel1 ,des ,climats1 etc41 pp4 #cja-cjc4 ,in #affd1 the ,swedes made an incursion into ,jutland and felled a considerable extent of forest4 ,after they retired1 a survey of the damage was had1 and the report is still extant4 ,the number of trees cut was found to be #abj1jjj1 and as an account was kept of the numbers of each species of tree1 the document is of interest in the history of the forest1 as showing the relative proportions between the different trees which composed the wood4 ,see ,,vaupell4 ,boegens ,indvandring1 p4 #ce1 and ,notes1 p4 #ee4 #bed ,since writing this paragraph1 ,i have fallen upon--and that in a ,spanish author--one of those odd coincidences of thought which every man of miscellaneous reading so often meets with4 ,antonio ,ponz 7,viage de ,espana1 i1 prologo1 p4 lxiii71 says3 ,nor would this be so great an evil1 were not some of them declaimers against trees1 thereby proclaiming themselves1 in some sort1 enemies of the works of ,god1 who gave us the leafy abode of ,paradise to dwell in1 where we should be even now sojourning1 but for the first sin1 which expelled us from it4 ,i do not know at what period the two ,castiles were bared of their woods1 but the ,spaniard's proverbial hatred of a tree is of long standing4 ,herrera vigorously combats this foolish prejudice2 and ,ponz1 in the prologue to the ninth volume of his journey1 says that many carried it so far as wantonly to destroy the shade and ornamental trees planted by the municipal authorities4 ,trees1 they contended1 and still believe1 breed birds1 and birds eat up the grain4 ,our author argues against the supposition of the breeding of birds by trees1 which1 he says1 is as absurd as to believe that an elm tree can yield pears2 and he charitably suggests that the expression is1 perhaps1 a maniere de dire1 a popular phrase1 signifying simply that trees harbor birds4 #bee ,religious intolerance had produced similar effects in ,france at an earlier period4 ,the revocation of the edict of ,nantes and the dragonnades occasioned the sale of the forests of the unhappy ,protestants1 who fled to seek in foreign lands the liberty of conscience which was refused to them in ,france4 ,the forests were soon felled by the purchasers1 and the soil in part brought under cultivation4'--,,becquerel1 ,des ,climats1 etc41 p4 #cjc4 #bef ,the ,american reader must be reminded that1 in the language of the chase and of the ,english law1 a forest is not necessarily a wood4 ,any large extent of ground1 withdrawn from cultivation1 reserved for the pleasures of the chase1 and allowed to clothe itself with a spontaneous growth1 serving as what is technically called cover for wild animals1 is1 in the dialects ,i have mentioned1 a forest4 ,when1 therefore1 the ,norman kings afforested the grounds referred to in the text1 it is not to be supposed that they planted them with trees1 though the protection afforded to them by the game laws would1 if cattle had been kept out1 soon have converted them into real woods4 #beg ,histoire des ,paysans1 ii1 p4 #aij4 ,the work of ,bonnemere is of great value to those who study the history of mediaeval ,europe from a desire to know its real character1 and not in the hope of finding apparent facts to sustain a false and dangerous theory4 ,bonnemere is one of the few writers who1 like ,michelet1 have been honest enough and bold enough to speak the truth with regard to the relations between the church and the people in the ,middle ,ages4 #beh ,it is painful to add that a similar outrage was perpetrated a very few years ago1 in one of the ,european states1 by a prince of a family now dethroned4 ,in this case1 however1 the prince killed the trespasser with his own hand1 his sergeants refusing to execute his mandate4 #bei ,,guillaume ,,de ,,nangis1 as quoted in the notes to ,,joinville1 ,nouvelle ,collection des ,memoires1 etc41 par ,michaud et ,poujoulat1 premiere serie1 i1 p4 #cce4 ,persons acquainted with the character and influence of the mediaeval clergy will hardly need to be informed that the ten thousand livres never found their way to the royal exchequer4 ,it was easy to prove to the simple-minded king that1 as the profits of sin were a monopoly of the church1 he ought not to derive advantage from the commission of a crime by one of his subjects2 and the priests were cunning enough both to secure to themselves the amount of the fine1 and to extort from ,louis large additional grants to carry out the purposes to which they devoted the money4 ,and though the king did take the moneys1 says the chronicler1 he put them not into his treasury1 but turned them into good works2 for he builded therewith the maison-,dieu of ,pontoise1 and endowed the same with rents and lands2 also the schools and the dormitory of the friars preachers of ,paris1 and the monastery of the ,minorite friars4 #bfj ,histoire des ,paysans1 ii1 p4 #bjj4 #bfa ,the following details from ,bonnemere will serve to give a more complete idea of the vexatious and irritating nature of the game laws of ,france4 ,the officers of the chase went so far as to forbid the pulling up of thistles and weeds1 or the mowing of any unenclosed ground before ,st4 ,john's day #bdth ,june1 in order that the nests of game birds might not be disturbed4 ,it was unlawful to fence-in any grounds in the plains where royal residences were situated2 thorns were ordered to be planted in all fields of wheat1 barley1 or oats1 to prevent the use of ground nets for catching the birds which consumed1 or were believed to consume1 the grain1 and it was forbidden to cut or pull stubble before the first of ,october1 lest the partridge and the quail might be deprived of their cover4 ,for destroying the eggs of the quail1 a fine of one hundred livres was imposed for the first offence1 double that amount for the second1 and for the third the culprit was flogged and banished for five years to a distance of six leagues from the forest4--,histoire des ,paysans1 ii1 p4 #bjb1 text and notes4 ,neither these severe penalties1 nor any provisions devised by the ingenuity of modern legislation1 have been able effectually to repress poaching4 ,the game laws1 says ,clave1 have not delivered us from the poachers1 who kill twenty times as much game as the sportsmen4 ,in the forest of ,fontainebleau1 as in all those belonging to the state1 poaching is a very common and a very profitable offence4 ,it is in vain that the gamekeepers are on the alert night and day1 they cannot prevent it4 ,those who follow the trade begin by carefully studying the habits of the game4 ,they will lie motionless on the ground1 by the roadside or in thickets1 for whole days1 watching the paths most frequented by the animals1 c4--,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 ,mai1 #ahfc1 p4 #afj4 ,the writer adds many details on this subject1 and it appears that1 as there are beggars on horseback in ,south ,america1 there are poachers in carriages in ,france4 #bfb ,whole trees were sacrificed for the most insignificant purposes2 the peasants would cut down two firs to make a single pair of wooden shoes4--,,michelet1 as quoted by ,,clave1 ,etudes1 p4 #bd4 ,a similar wastefulness formerly prevailed in ,russia1 though not from the same cause4 ,in ,st4 ,pierre's time1 the planks brought to ,st4 ,petersburg were not sawn1 but hewn with the axe1 and a tree furnished but a single plank4 #bfc ,a hundred and fifty paces from my house is a hill of drift sand1 on which stood a few scattered pines4 ,pinus sylvestris1 and ,sempervivum tectorum in abundance1 ,statice armeria1 ,ammone vernalis1 ,dianthus carthusianorum1 with other sand plants1 were growing there4 ,i planted the hill with a few birches1 and all the plants ,i have mentioned completely disappeared1 though there were many naked spots of sand between the trees4 ,it should be added1 however1 that the hillock is more thickly wooded than before4 99 99 99 ,it seems then that ,sempervivum tectorum1 c41 will not bear the neighborhood of the birch1 though growing well near the ,pinus sylvestris4 ,i have found the large red variety of ,agaricus deliciosus only among the roots of the pine2 the greenish-blue ,agaricus deliciosus among alder roots1 but not near any other tree4 ,birds have their partialities among trees and shrubs4 ,the ,silviae prefer the ,pinus ,larix to other trees4 ,in my garden this ,pinus is never without them1 but ,i never saw a bird perch on ,thuja occidenialis or ,juniperus sabina1 although the thick foliage of these latter trees affords birds a better shelter than the loose leafage of other trees4 ,not even a wren ever finds its way to one of them4 ,perhaps the scent of the ,thuja and the ,juniperus is offensive to them4 ,i have spoiled one of my meadows by cutting away the bushes4 ,it formerly bore grass four feet high1 because many umbelliferous plants1 such as ,heracleum spondylium1 ,spiraea ulmaria1 ,laserpitium latifolia1 c41 grew in it4 ,under the shelter of the bushes these plants ripened and bore seed1 but they gradually disappeared as the shrubs were extirpated1 and the grass now does not grow to the height of more than two feet1 because it is no longer obliged to keep pace with the umbellifera which flourished among it4 ,see a paper by ,j4 ,g4 ,b,ue,t,t,n,e,r1 of ,kurland1 in ,,berghaus' ,geographisches ,jahrbuch1 #aheb1 ,no4 #d1 pp4 #ad1 #ae4 ,these facts are interesting as illustrating the multitude of often obscure conditions upon which the life or vigorous growth of smaller organisms depends4 ,particular species of truffles and of mushrooms are found associated with particular trees1 without being1 as is popularly supposed1 parasites deriving their nutriment from the dying or dead roots of those trees4 ,the success of ,rousseau's experiments seem decisive on this point1 for he obtains larger crops of truffles from ground covered with young seedling oaks than from that filled with roots of old trees4 ,see an article on ,mont ,ventoux1 by ,charles ,martins1 in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 ,avril1 #ahfc1 p4 #fbf4 ,it ought to be much more generally known than it is that most1 if not1 all mushrooms1 even of the species reputed poisonous1 may be rendered harmless and healthful as food by soaking them for two hours in acidulated or salt water4 ,the water requires two or three spoonfuls of vinegar or two spoonfuls of gray salt to the quart1 and a quart of water is enough for a pound of sliced mushrooms4 ,after thus soaking1 they are well washed in fresh water1 thrown into cold water1 which is raised to the boiling point1 and1 after remaining half an hour1 taken out and again washed4 ,gerard1 to prove that crumpets is wholesome1 ate one hundred and seventy-five pounds of the most poisonous mushrooms thus prepared1 in a single month1 fed his family ad libitum with the same1 and finally administered them1 in heroic doses1 to the members of a committee appointed by the ,council of ,health of the city of ,paris4 ,see ,,figuier1 ,l',annee ,scientifique1 #ahfb1 pp4 #cec1 #chd4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #ca4 ,it has long been known that the ,russian peasantry eat1 with impunity1 mushrooms of species everywhere else regarded as very poisonous4 ,is it not probable that the secret of rendering them harmless--which was known to ,pliny1 though since forgotten in ,italy--is possessed by the rustic ,muscovites8 #bfd ,physikalische ,geographie1 p4 #dhf4 #bfe ,origin of ,species1 ,american edition1 p4 #fi4 #bff ,writers on vegetable physiology record numerous instances where seeds have grown after lying dormant for ages4 ,the following cases1 mentioned by ,dr4 ,dwight 7,travels1 ii1 pp4 #dch1 #dci71 may be new to many readers3 ,the lands in ,panton1 ,vermont1 which have here been once cultivated1 and again permitted to lie waste for several years1 yield a rich and fine growth of hickory ,carya porcina4 ,of this wood there is not1 ,i believe1 a single tree in any original forest within fifty miles from this spot4 ,the native growth was here white pine1 of which ,i did not see a single stem in a whole grove of hickory4 ,the hickory is a walnut1 bearing a fruit too heavy to be likely to be carried fifty miles by birds1 and besides1 ,i believe it is not eaten by any bird indigenous to ,vermont4 ,a field1 about five miles from ,northampton1 on an eminence called ,rail ,hill1 was cultivated about a century ago4 ,the native growth here1 and in all the surrounding region1 was wholly oak1 chestnut1 c4 ,as the field belonged to my grandfather1 ,i had the best opportunity of learning its history4 ,it contained about five acres1 in the form of an irregular parallelogram4 ,as the savages rendered the cultivation dangerous1 it was given up4 ,on this ground there sprang up a grove of white pines covering the field and retaining its figure exactly4 ,so far as ,i remember1 there was not in it a single oak or chestnut tree4 99 99 99 ,there was not a single pine whose seeds were1 or1 probably1 had for ages been1 sufficiently near to have been planted on this spot4 ,the fact that these white pines covered this field exactly1 so as to preserve both its extent and its figure1 and that there were none in the neighborhood1 are decisive proofs that cultivation brought up the seeds of a former forest within the limits of vegetation1 and gave them an opportunity to germinate4 #bfg ,quaint old ,valvasor had observed the subduing influence of nature's solitudes4 ,in describing the lonely ,canker-,thal1 which1 though rocky1 was in his time well wooded with fir1 larches1 beeches1 and other trees1 he says3 ,gladsomeness and beauty1 which dwell in many valleys1 may not be looked for there4 ,the journey through it is cheerless1 melancholy1 wearisome1 and serveth to temper and mortify over-joyousness of thought4 99 99 99 ,in sum it is a very wild1 wherein the wildness of human pride doth grow tame4--,ehre der ,crain1 i1 p4 #acf1 b4 #bfh ,valvasor says1 in the same paragraph from which ,i have just quoted1 ,in my many journeys through this valley1 ,i did never have sight of so much as a single bird4 #bfi ,smela1 in the government of ,kiew1 has1 for some years1 not suffered at all from the locusts1 which formerly came every year in vast swarms1 and the curculio1 so injurious to the turnip crops1 is less destructive there than in other parts of the province4 ,this improvement is owing partly to the more thorough cultivation of the soil1 partly to the groves which are interspersed among the plough lands4 99 99 99 ,when in the midst of the plains woods shall be planted and filled with insectivorous birds1 the locusts will cease to be a plague and a terror to the farmer4--,,rentzsch1 ,der ,wald1 pp4 #de1 #df4 #bgj ,england is1 ,i believe1 the only country where private enterprise has pursued sylviculture on a really great scale1 though admirable examples have been set in many others on both sides of the ,atlantic4 ,in ,england the law of primogeniture1 and other institutions and national customs which tend to keep large estates long undivided and in the same line of inheritance1 the wealth of the landholders1 and the difficulty of finding safe and profitable investments of capital1 combine to afford encouragements for the plantation of forests1 which nowhere else exist in the same degree4 ,the climate of ,england1 too1 is very favorable to the growth of forest trees1 though the character of surface secures a large part of the island from the evils which have resulted from the destruction of the woods elsewhere1 and therefore their restoration is a matter of less geographical importance in ,england than on the ,continent4 #bga ,the preservation of the woods on the eastern frontier of ,france1 as a kind of natural abattis1 is also recognized by the ,government of that country as an important measure of military defence1 though there have been conflicting opinions on the subject4 #bgb ,let us take the supply of timber for railroad ties4 ,according to ,clave 7p4 #bdh71 ,france has #i1jjj kilometres of railway in operation1 #g1jjj in construction1 half of which is built with a double track4 ,adding turnouts and extra tracks at stations1 the number of ties required for a single track is stated at #a1bjj to the kilometre1 or1 as ,clave computes1 for the entire network of ,france1 #eh1jjj1jjj4 ,as the schoolboys say1 this sum does not prove2 for #af1jjj #h1jjj for the double track halfway #bd1jjj1 and #bd1jjj x #a1bjj #bh1hjj1jjj4 ,according to ,bigelow 7,les ,etats ,unis en #ahfc1 p4 #dci71 the ,united ,states had in operation or construction on the first of ,january1 #ahfb1 #ea1jjj miles1 or about #ha1jjj kilometres of railroad1 and the military operations of the present civil war are rapidly extending the system4 ,allowing the same proportion as in ,france1 the ,american railroads required #ig1bjj1jjj ties in #ahfb4 ,the consumption of timber in ,europe and ,america during the present generation1 occasioned by this demand1 has required the sacrifice of many hundred thousand acres of forest1 and if we add the quantity employed for telegraph posts1 we have an amount of destruction1 for entirely new purposes1 which is really appalling4 ,the consumption of wood for lucifer matches is enormous1 and ,i have heard of several instances where tracts of pine forest1 hundreds and even thousands of acres in extent1 have been purchased and felled1 solely to supply timber for this purpose4 ,the demand for wood for small carvings and for children's toys is incredibly large4 ,rentzsch states the export of such objects from the town of ,sonneberg alone to have amounted1 in #ahec1 to #fj1jjj centner1 or three thousand tons' weight4--,der ,wald1 p4 #fh4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #cc4 ,the importance of so managing the forest that it may continue indefinitely to furnish an adequate supply of material for naval architecture is well illustrated by some remarks of the same author in the valuable little work just cited4 ,he suggests that the prosperity of modern ,england is due1 in no small degree1 to the supplies of wood and other material for building and equipping ships1 received from the forests of her colonies and of other countries with which she has maintained close commercial relations1 and he adds3 ,spain1 which by her position seemed destined for universal power1 and once1 in fact1 possessed it1 has lost her political rank1 because during the unwise administration of the successors of ,philip ,,ii1 the empty exchequer could not furnish the means of building new fleets2 for the destruction of the forests had raised the price of timber above the resources of the state4--,der ,wald1 p4 #fc4 ,the market price of timber1 like that of all other commodities1 may be said1 in a general way1 to be regulated by the laws of demand and supply1 but it is also controlled by those seemingly unrelated accidents which so often disappoint the calculations of political economists in other branches of commerce4 ,a curious case of this sort is noticed by ,,cerini1 ,dell' ,impianto e ,conservazione dei ,boschi1 p4 #ag3 ,in the mountains on the ,lago ,maggiore1 in years when maize is cheap1 the woodcutters can provide themselves with corn meal enough for a week by three days' labor1 and they refuse to work the remaining four4 ,hence the dealers in wood1 not being able to supply the demand1 for want of laborers1 are obliged to raise the price for the following season1 both for timber and for firewood2 so that a low price of grain occasions a high price of building lumber and of fuel4 ,the consequence is1 that though the poor have supplied themselves cheaply with food1 they must pay dear for firewood1 and they cannot get work1 because the high price of lumber has discouraged repairs and building1 the expense of which landed proprietors cannot undertake when their incomes have been reduced by sales of grain at low rates1 and hence there is not demand enough for lumber to induce the timber merchants to furnish employment to the woodmen4 #bgc ,besides the substitution of iron for wood1 a great saving of consumption of this latter material has been effected by the revival of ancient methods of increasing its durability1 and the invention of new processes for the same purpose4 ,the most effectual preservative yet discovered for wood employed on land1 is sulphate of copper1 a solution of which is introduced into the pores of the wood while green1 by soaking1 by forcing-pumps1 or1 most economically1 by the simple pressure of a column of the fluid in a small pipe connected with the end of the piece of timber subjected to the treatment4 ,clave 7,etudes ,forestieres1 pp4 #bdj-bdi7 gives an interesting account of the various processes employed for rendering wood imperishable1 and states that railroad ties injected with sulphate of copper in #ahdf1 were found absolutely unaltered in #ahee2 and telegraphic posts prepared two years earlier1 are now in a state of perfect preservation4 ,for many purposes1 the method of injection is too expensive1 and some simpler process is much to be desired4 ,the question of the proper time of felling timber is not settled1 and the best modes of air1 water1 and steam seasoning are not yet fully ascertained4 ,experiments on these subjects would be well worth the patronage of governments in new countries1 where they can be very easily made1 without the necessity of much waste of valuable material1 and without expensive arrangements for observation4 ,the practice of stripping living trees of their bark some years before they are felled1 is as old as the time of ,vitruvius1 but is much less followed than it deserves1 partly because the timber of trees so treated inclines to crack and split1 and partly because it becomes so hard as to be wrought with considerable difficulty4 ,in ,america1 economy in the consumption of fuel has been much promoted by the substitution of coal for wood1 the general use of stoves both for wood and coal1 and recently by the employment of anthracite in the furnaces of stationary and locomotive steam-engines4 ,all the objections to the use of anthracite for this latter purpose appear to have been overcome1 and the improvements in its combustion have been attended with a great pecuniary saving1 and with much advantage to the preservation of the woods4 ,the employment of coal has produced a great reduction in the consumption of fire wood in ,paris4 ,in #ahae1 the supply of fire wood for the city required #a1bjj1jjj steres1 or cubic metres2 in #ahei1 it had fallen to #eja1hje1 while1 in the mean time1 the consumption of coal had risen from #fjj1jjj to #dcb1jjj1jjj metrical quintals4 ,see ,,clave1 ,etudes1 p4 #bab4 ,i think there must be some error in this last sum1 as #dcb millions of metrical quintals would amount to #dc millions of tons1 a quantity which it is difficult to suppose could be consumed in the city of ,paris4 ,the price of fire wood has scarcely advanced at all in ,paris for half a century1 though that of timber generally has risen enormously4 #bgd ,in the first two years of the present civil war in the ,united ,states1 twenty-eight thousand walnut trees were felled to supply a single ,european manufactory of gunstocks for the ,american market4 #bge ,among the indirect proofs of the comparatively recent existence of extensive forests in ,france1 may be mentioned the fact1 that wolves were abundant1 not very long since1 in parts of the empire where there are now neither wolves nor woods to shelter them4 ,arthur ,young more than once speaks of the innumerable multitudes of these animals which infested ,france in #aghi1 and ,george ,sand states1 in the ,histoire de ma ,vie1 that some years after the restoration of the ,bourbons1 they chased travellers on horseback in the ,southern provinces1 and literally knocked at the doors of her father-in-law's country seat4 #bgf ,in the ,recepte ,veritable1 ,palissy having expressed his indignation at the folly of men in destroying the woods1 his interlocutor defends the policy of felling them1 by citing the example of divers bishops1 cardinals1 priors1 abbots1 monkeries1 and chapters1 which1 by cutting their woods1 have made three profits1 the sale of the timber1 the rent of the ground1 and the good portion they received of the grain grown by the peasants upon it4 ,to this argument1 ,palissy replies3 ,i cannot enough detest this thing1 and ,i call it not an error1 but a curse and a calamity to all ,france2 for when forests shall be cut1 all arts shall cease1 and they which practise them shall be driven out to eat grass with ,nebuchadnezzar and the beasts of the field4 ,i have divers times thought to set down in writing the arts which shall perish when there shall be no more wood2 but when ,i had written down a great number1 ,i did perceive that there could be no end of my writing1 and having diligently considered1 ,i found there was not any which could be followed without wood4 99 99 ,and truly ,i could well allege to thee a thousand reasons1 but 'tis so cheap a philosophy1 that the very chamber wenches1 if they do but think1 may see that without wood1 it is not possible to exercise any manner of human art or cunning4--,,oeuvres de ,,bernard ,,palissy1 p4 #hi4 #bgg ,since writing the above paragraph1 ,i have found the view ,i have taken of this point confirmed by the careful investigations of ,rentzsch1 who estimates the proper proportion of woodland to entire surface at twenty-three per cent4 for the interior of ,germany1 and supposes that near the coast1 where the air is supplied with humidity by evaporation from the sea1 it might safely be reduced to twenty per cent4 ,see ,rentzsch's very valuable prize essay1 ,der ,wald im ,haushalt der ,natur und der ,volkswirthschaft1 cap4 viii4 ,the due proportion in ,france would considerably exceed that for the ,german ,states1 because ,france has relatively more surface unfit for any growth but that of wood1 because the form and geological character of her mountains expose her territory to much greater injury from torrents1 and because at least her southern provinces are more frequently visited both by extreme drought and by deluging rains4 #bgh ,etudes sur l',economie ,forestiere1 p4 #bfa4 ,clave adds 7p4 #bfb73 ,the ,russian forests are very unequally distributed through the territory of this vast empire4 ,in the north they form immense masses1 and cover whole provinces1 while in the south they are so completely wanting that the inhabitants have no other fuel than straw1 dung1 rushes1 and heath4 99 99 99 ,at ,moscow1 firewood costs thirty per cent4 more than at ,paris1 while1 at the distance of a few leagues1 it sells for a tenth of that price4 ,this state of things is partly due to the want of facilities of transportation1 and some parts of the ,united ,states are in a similar condition4 ,during a severe winter1 six or seven years ago1 the sudden freezing of the canals and rivers1 before a large ,american town had received its usual supply of fuel1 occasioned an enormous rise in the price of wood and coal1 and the poor suffered severely for want of it4 ,within a few hours of the city were large forests and an abundant stock of firewood felled and prepared for burning4 ,this might easily have been carried to town by the railroads which passed through the woods2 but the managers of the roads refused to receive it as freight1 because the opening of a new market for wood might raise the price of the fuel they employed for their locomotives4 ,hohenstein1 who was long professionally employed as a forester in ,russia1 describes the consequences of the general war upon the woods in that country as already most disastrous1 and as threatening still more ruinous evils4 ,the river ,volga1 the life artery of ,russian internal commerce1 is drying up from this cause1 and the great ,muscovite plains are fast advancing to a desolation like that of ,persia4--,der ,wald1 p4 #bbc4 ,the level of the ,caspian ,sea is eighty-three feet lower than that of the ,sea of ,azoff1 and the surface of ,lake ,aral is fast sinking4 ,von ,baer maintains that the depression of the ,caspian was produced by a sudden subsidence1 from geological causes1 and not gradually by excess of evaporation over supply4 ,see ,kaspische ,studien1 p4 #be4 ,but this subsidence diminished the area and consequently the evaporation of that sea1 and the rivers which once maintained its ancient equilibrium ought to raise it to its former level1 if their own flow had not been diminished4 ,it is1 indeed1 not proved that the laying bare of a wooded country diminishes the total annual precipitation upon it2 but it is certain that the summer evaporation from the surface of a champaign region1 like that through which the ,volga1 its tributaries1 and the feeders of ,lake ,aral flow1 is increased by the removal of its woods4 ,hence1 though as much rain may still fall in the valleys of those rivers as when their whole surface was covered with forests1 a less quantity of water may be delivered by them since their basins were cleared1 and therefore the present condition of the inland waters in question may be due to the removal of the forests in their basins4 #bgi ,rentzsch 7,der ,wald1 etc41 pp4 #abc1 #abd7 states the proportions of woodland in different ,european countries as follows3 ------------------------------------ ,acres per ,per cent4 head of population4 ------------------------------------ ,germany #bf4eh #j4ffch ,great ,britain #e4 #j4a ,france #af4gi #j4cgff ,russia #cj4ij #d4bh ,sweden #fj4 #h4ee ,norway #ff4 #bd4fa ,denmark #e4ej #j4bb ,switzerland #ae4 #j4cif ,holland #g4aj #j4ab ,belgium #ah4eb #j4ahf ,spain #e4eb #j4bia ,portugal #d4dj #j4ahb ,sardinia #ab4bi #j4bbc ,naples #i4dc #j4ach ------------------------------------ ,probably no ,european countries can so well dispense with the forests1 in their capacity of conservative influences1 as ,england and ,ireland4 ,their insular position and latitude secure an abundance of atmospheric moisture1 and the general inclination of surface is not such as to expose it to special injury from torrents4 ,the due proportion of woodland in ,england and ,ireland is1 therefore1 almost purely an economical question1 to be decided by the comparative direct pecuniary return from forest growth1 pasturage1 and plough land4 ,in ,scotland1 where the country is for the most part more broken and mountainous1 the general destruction of the forests has been attended with very serious evils1 and it is in ,scotland that many of the most extensive ,british forest plantations have now been formed4 ,but although the inclination of surface in ,scotland is rapid1 the geological constitution of the soil is not of a character to promote such destructive degradation by running water as in ,southern ,france1 and it has not to contend with the parching droughts by which the devastations of the torrents are rendered more injurious in that part of the ,french empire4 ,in giving the proportion of woodland to population1 ,i compute ,rentzsch's ,morgen at 4#chhb of an ,english acre1 because ,i find1 by ,alexander's most accurate and valuable ,dictionary of ,weights and ,measures1 that this is the value of the ,dresden ,morgen1 and ,rentzsch is a ,saxon writer4 ,in the different ,german ,states1 there are more than twenty different land measures known by the name of ,morgen1 varying from about one third of an acre to more than three acres in value4 ,when will the world be wise enough to unite in adopting the ,french metrical and monetary systems8 ,as to the latter1 never while ,christendom continues to be ruled by money changers1 who can compel you to part with your sovereigns in ,france at twenty-five francs1 and in ,england to accept fifteen shillings for your napoleons4 ,i speak as a sufferer4 ,experto crede ,roberto4 #bhj ,according to the maxims of ,english jurisprudence1 the common law consists of general customs so long established that the memory of man runneth not to the contrary4 ,in other words1 long custom makes law4 ,in new countries1 the change of circumstances creates new customs1 and1 in time1 new law1 without the aid of legislation4 ,had the ,american colonists observed a more sparing economy in the treatment of their woods1 a new code of customary forest law would have sprung up and acquired the force of a statute4 ,popular habit was fast elaborating the fundamental principles of such a code1 when the rapid increase in the value of timber1 in consequence of the reckless devastation of the woodlands1 made it the interest of the proprietors to interfere with this incipient system of forest jurisprudence1 and appeal to the rules of ,english law for the protection of their woods4 ,the courts have sustained these appeals1 and forest property is now legally as inviolable as any other1 though common opinion still combats the course of judicial decision on such questions4 ,in the ,united ,states1 swarms of honey bees1 on leaving the parent hive1 often take up their quarters in hollow trees in the neighboring woods4 ,by the early customs of ,new ,england1 the finder of a bee tree on the land of another owner was regarded as entitled to the honey by right of discovery2 and as a necessary incident of that right1 he might cut the tree1 at the proper season1 without asking permission of the proprietor of the soil4 ,the quantity of wild honey in a tree was often large1 and bee hunting was so profitable that it became almost a regular profession4 ,the bee hunter sallied forth with a small box containing honey and a little vermilion4 ,the bees which were attracted by the honey marked themselves with the vermilion1 and hence were more readily followed in their homeward flight1 and recognized when they returned a second time for booty4 ,when loaded with spoil1 this insect returns to his hive by the shortest route1 and hence a straight line is popularly called in ,america a bee line4 ,by such a line1 the hunter followed the bees to their sylvan hive1 marked the tree with his initials1 and returned to secure his prize in the autumn4 ,when the right of the bee hunter was at last disputed by the land proprietors1 it was with difficulty that judgments could be obtained1 in inferior courts1 in favor of the latter1 and it was only after repeated decisions of the higher legal tribunals that the superior right of the owner of the soil was at last acquiesced in4 #bha ,etude sur le ,reboisement des ,montagnes1 p4 #e4 #bhb ,in ,america1 says ,clave 7p4 #abd1 #abe71 where there is a vast extent of land almost without pecuniary value1 but where labor is dear and the rate of interest high1 it is profitable to till a large surface at the least possible cost2 extensive cultivation is there the most advantageous4 ,in ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany1 where every corner of soil is occupied1 and the least bit of ground is sold at a high price1 but where labor and capital are comparatively cheap1 it is wisest to employ intensive cultivation4 99 99 99 ,all the efforts of the cultivator ought to be directed to the obtaining of a given result with the least sacrifice1 and there is equally a loss to the commonwealth if the application of improved agricultural processes be neglected where they are advantageous1 or if they be employed where they are not required4 99 99 99 ,in this point of view1 sylviculture must follow the same laws as agriculture1 and1 like it1 be modified according to the economical conditions of different states4 ,in countries abounding in good forests1 and thinly peopled1 elementary and cheap methods must be pursued2 in civilized regions1 where a dense population requires that the soil shall be made to produce all it can yield1 the regular artificial forest1 with all the processes that science teaches1 should be cultivated4 ,it would be absurd to apply to the endless woods of ,brazil and of ,canada the method of the ,spessart by double stages1 and not less so in our country1 where every yard of ground has a high value1 to leave to nature the task of propagating trees1 and to content ourselves with cutting1 every twenty or twenty-five years1 the meagre growths that chance may have produced4 #bhc ,it is often laid down as a universal law1 that the wood of trees of slow vegetation is superior to that of quick growth4 ,this is one of those commonplaces by which men love to shield themselves from the labor of painstaking observation4 ,it has1 in fact1 so many exceptions1 that it may be doubted whether it is in any sense true4 ,most of the cedars are slow of growth2 but while the timber of some of them is firm and durable1 that of others is light1 brittle1 and perishable4 ,the hemlock spruce is slower of growth than the pines1 but its wood is of very little value4 ,the pasture oak and beech show a breadth of grain--and1 of course1 an annual increment--twice as great as trees of the same species grown in the woods2 and the ,american locust1 ,robinia pseudacacia1 the wood of which is of extreme toughness and durability1 is1 of all trees indigenous to ,northeastern ,america1 by far the most rapid in growth4 ,as an illustration of the mutual interdependence of the mechanic arts1 ,i may mention that in ,italy1 where stone1 brick1 and plaster are almost the only materials used in architecture1 and where the hollow ware kitchen implements are of copper or of clay1 the ordinary tools for working wood are of a very inferior description1 and the locust timber is found too hard for their temper4 ,southey informs us1 in ,espriella's ,letters1 that when a small quantity of mahogany was brought to ,england1 early in the last century1 the cabinetmakers were unable to use it1 from the defective temper of their tools1 until the demand for furniture from the new wood compelled them to improve the quality of their implements4 ,in ,america1 the cheapness of wood long made it the preferable material for almost all purposes to which it could by any possibility be applied4 ,the mechanical cutlery and artisans' tools of the ,united ,states are of admirable temper1 finish1 and convenience1 and no wood is too hard1 or otherwise too refractory1 to be wrought with great facility1 both by hand tools and by the multitude of ingenious machines which the ,americans have invented for this purpose4 #bhd ,etudes ,forestieres1 p4 #g4 #bhe ,etudes ,forestieres1 p4 #g4 #bhf ,for very full catalogues of ,american forest trees1 and remarks on their geographical distribution1 consult papers on the subject by ,dr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,cooper1 in the ,report of the ,smithsonian ,institution for #aheh1 and the ,report of the ,united ,states ,patent ,office1 ,agricultural ,division1 for #ahfj4 #bhg ,although ,spenser's catalogue of trees occurs in the first canto of the first book of the ,faery ,queene--the only canto of that exquisite poem actually read by most students of ,english literature--it is not so generally familiar as to make the quotation of it altogether superfluous3 ,,vii4 ,enforst to seeke some covert nigh at hand1 ,a shadie grove not farr away they spide1 ,that promist ayde the tempest to withstand2 ,whose loftie trees1 yelad with sommers pride1 ,did spred so broad1 that heavens light did hide1 ,not perceable with power of any starr3 ,and all within were pathes and alleies wide1 ,with footing worne1 and leading inward farr2 ,faire harbour that them seems2 so in they entred ar4 ,,viii4 ,and foorth they passe1 with pleasure forward led1 ,joying to heare the birdes sweete harmony1 ,which therein shrouded from the tempest dred1 ,seemd in their song to scorne the cruell sky4 ,much can they praise the trees so straight and hy1 ,the sayling pine2 the cedar stout and tall2 ,the vine-propp elm2 the poplar never dry2 ,the builder oake1 sole king of forrests all2 ,the aspine good for staves2 the cypresse funerall2 ,,ix4 ,the laurell1 meed of mightie conquerours ,and poets sage2 the firre that weepeth still2 ,the willow1 worne of forlorn paramours2 ,the eugh1 obedient to the benders will2 ,the birch for shaftes2 the sallow for the mill2 ,the mirrhe sweete-bleeding in the bitter wound2 ,the warlike beech2 the ash for nothing ill2 ,the fruitfull olive2 and the platane round2 ,the carver holme2 the maple seeldom inward sound4 #bhh ,the walnut is a more valuable tree than is generally supposed4 ,it yields one third of the oil produced in ,france1 and in this respect occupies an intermediate position between the olive of the south1 and the oleaginous seeds of the north4 ,a hectare 7about two and a half acres71 will produce nuts to the value of five hundred francs a year1 which cost nothing but the gathering4 ,unfortunately1 its maturity must be long waited for1 and more nut-trees are felled than planted4 ,the demand for its wood in cabinet work is the principal cause of its destruction4 ,see ,,lavergne1 ,economie ,rurale de la ,france1 p4 #bec4 ,according to ,cosimo ,ridolfi 7,lezioni ,orali1 ii4 p4 #dbd71 ,france obtains three times as much oil from the walnut as from the olive1 and nearly as much as from all oleaginous seeds together4 ,he states that the walnut bears nuts at the age of twenty years1 and yields its maximum product at seventy1 and that a hectare of ground1 with thirty trees1 or twelve to the acre1 is equal to a capital of twenty-five hundred francs4 ,the nut of this tree is known in the ,united ,states as the ,english walnut4 ,the fruit and the wood much resemble those of the ,american black walnut1 ,juglans nigra1 but for cabinet work the ,american is the more beautiful material1 especially when the large knots are employed4 ,the timber of the ,european species1 when straight grained1 and clear1 or free from knots1 is1 for ordinary purposes1 better than that of the ,american black walnut1 but bears no comparison with the wood of the hickory1 when strength combined with elasticity is required1 and its nut is very inferior in taste to that of the shagbark1 as well as to the butternut1 which it somewhat resembles4 ,the chestnut is more valuable still1 for it produces on a sterile soil1 which1 without it1 would yield only ferns and heaths1 an abundant nutriment for man4--,,lavergne1 ,economie ,rurale de la ,france1 p4 #bec4 ,i believe the varieties developed by cultivation are less numerous in the walnut than in the chestnut1 which latter tree is often grafted in ,southern ,europe4 #bhi ,this fir is remarkable for its tendency to cicatrize or heal over its stumps1 a property which it possesses in common with some other firs1 the maritime pine1 and the ,european larch4 ,when these trees grow in thick clumps1 their roots are apt to unite by a species of natural grafting1 and if one of them be felled1 although its own proper rootlets die1 the stump may continue1 sometimes for a century1 to receive nourishment from the radicles of the surrounding trees1 and a dome of wood and bark of considerable thickness be formed over it4 ,the cicatrization is1 however1 only apparent1 for the entire stump1 except the outside ring of annual growth1 soon dies1 and even decays within its covering1 without sending out new shoots4 #bij ,at the age of twelve or fifteen years1 the cork tree is stripped of its outer bark for the first time4 ,this first yield is of inferior quality1 and is employed for floats for nets and buoys1 or burnt for lampblack4 ,after this1 a new layer of cork1 an inch or an inch and a quarter in thickness1 is formed about once in ten years1 and is removed in large sheets without injury to the tree1 which lives a hundred and fifty years or more4 ,according to ,clave 7p4 #beb71 the annual product of a forest of cork oaks is calculated at about #ffj kilogrammes1 worth #aej francs1 to the hectare1 which1 deducting expenses1 leaves a profit of #ajj francs4 ,this is about equal to #bej pound weight1 and eight dollars profit to the acre4 ,the cork oaks of the national domain in ,algeria cover about #ejj1jjj acres1 and are let to individuals at rates which are expected1 when the whole is rented1 to yield to the state a revenue of about #b1jjj1jjj4 ,george ,sand1 in the ,histoire de ma ,vie1 speaks of the cork forests in ,southern ,france as among the most profitable of rural possessions1 and states1 what ,i do not remember to have seen noticed elsewhere1 that ,russia is the best customer for cork4 ,the large sheets taken from the trees are slit into thin plates1 and used to line the walls of apartments in that cold climate4 #bia ,the walnut1 the chestnut1 the apple1 and the pear are common to the border between the countries ,i have mentioned1 but the range of the other trees is bounded by the ,alps1 and by a well-defined and sharply drawn line to the west of those mountains4 ,i cannot give statistical details as to the number of any of the trees in question1 or as to the area they would cover if brought together in a given country4 ,from some peculiarity in the sky of ,europe1 cultivated plants will thrive1 in ,northern ,italy1 in ,southern ,france1 and even in ,switzerland1 under a depth of shade where no crop1 not even grass1 worth harvesting1 would grow in the ,united ,states with an equally high summer temperature4 ,hence the cultivation of all these trees is practicable in ,europe to a greater extent than would be supposed reconcilable with the interests of agriculture4 ,some idea of the importance of the olive orchards may be formed from the fact that ,sicily alone1 an island scarcely exceeding #aj1jjj square miles in area1 of which one third at least is absolutely barren1 has exported to the single port of ,marseilles more than #b1jjj1jjj pounds weight of olive oil per year1 for the last twenty years4 #bib ,it is hard to say how far the peculiar form of the graceful crown of this pine is due to pruning4 ,it is true that the extremities of the topmost branches are rarely lopped1 but the lateral boughs are almost uniformly removed to a very considerable height1 and it is not improbable that the shape of the top is thereby affected4 #bic ,besides this1 in a country so diversified in surface--,i wish we could with the ,french say accidented--as ,italy with the exception of the champaign region drained by the ,po1 every new field of view requires either an extraordinary coup d'oeil in the spectator1 or a long study1 in order to master its relief1 its plans1 its salient and retreating angles4 ,in summer1 the universal greenery confounds light and shade1 distance and foreground2 and though the impression upon a traveller1 who journeys for the sake of sensations1 may be strengthened by the mysterious annihilation of all standards for the measurement of space1 yet the superior intelligibility of the winter scenery of ,italy is more profitable to those who see with a view to analyze4 #bid ,copse1 or coppice1 from the ,french couper1 to cut1 signifies properly a wood the trees of which are cut at certain periods of immature growth1 and allowed to shoot up again from the roots2 but it has come to signify1 very commonly1 a young wood1 grove1 or thicket1 without reference to its origin1 or to its character of a forest crop4 #bie ,it has been recently stated1 upon the evidence of the ,government foresters of ,greece1 and of the queen's gardener1 that a large wood has been discovered in ,arcadia1 consisting of a fir which has the property of sending up both vertical and lateral shoots from the stump of felled trees and forming a new crown4 ,it was at first supposed that this forest grew only on the mountains1 of which the hero of ,about's most amusing story1 ,le ,roi des ,montagnes1 was king2 but it is now said that small stumps1 with the shoots attached1 have been sent to ,germany1 and recognized by able botanists as true natural products4 #bif ,natural forests are rarely1 if ever1 composed of trees of a single species1 and experience has shown that oaks and other broad-leaved trees1 planted as artificial woods1 require to be mixed1 or associated with others of different habits4 ,in the forest of ,fontainebleau1 oaks1 mingled with beeches in due proportion1 says ,clave1 may arrive at the age of five or six hundred years in full vigor1 and attain dimensions which ,i have never seen surpassed2 when1 however1 they are wholly unmixed with other trees1 they begin to decay and die at the top1 at the age of forty or fifty years1 like men1 old before their time1 weary of the world1 and longing only to quit it4 ,this has been observed in most of the oak plantations of which ,i have spoken1 and they have not been able to attain to full growth4 ,when the vegetation was perceived to languish1 they were cut1 in the hope that this operation would restore their vigor1 and that the new shoots would succeed better than the original trees2 and1 in fact1 they seemed to be recovering for the first few years4 ,but the shoots were soon attacked by the same decay1 and the operation had to be renewed at shorter and shorter intervals1 until at last it was found necessary to treat as coppices plantations originally designed for the full-growth system4 ,nor was this all3 the soil1 periodically bared by these cuttings1 became impoverished1 and less and less suited to the growth of the oak4 99 99 99 ,it was then proposed to introduce the pine and plant with it the vacancies and glades4 99 99 99 ,by this means1 the forest was saved from the ruin which threatened it1 and now more than #aj1jjj acres of pines1 from fifteen to thirty years old1 are disseminated at various points1 sometimes intermixed with broad-leaved trees1 sometimes forming groves by themselves4--,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 ,mai1 #ahfc1 pp4 #aec1 #aed4 ,the forests of ,denmark1 which1 in modern times1 have been succeeded by the beech--a species more inclined to be exclusive than any other broad-leaved tree--were composed of birches1 oaks1 firs1 aspens1 willows1 hazel1 and maple1 the first three being the leading species4 ,at present1 the beech greatly predominates4--,,vaupell1 ,boegens ,indvandring1 pp4 #ai1 #bj4 #big ,etudes ,forestieres1 p4 #hi4 #bih ,the grounds which it is most important to clothe with wood as a conservative influence1 and which1 also1 can best be spared from agricultural use1 are steep hillsides4 ,but the performance of all the offices of the forester to the tree--seeding1 planting1 thinning1 and finally felling and removing for consumption--is more laborious upon a rapid declivity than on a level soil1 and at the same time it is difficult to apply irrigation or manures to trees so situated4 ,experience has shown that there is great advantage in terracing the face of a hill before planting it1 both as preventing the wash of the earth by checking the flow of water down its slope1 and as presenting a surface favorable for irrigation1 as well as for manuring and cultivating the tree4 ,but even without so expensive a process1 very important results have been obtained by simply ditching declivities4 ,in order to hasten the growth of wood on the flanks of a mountain1 ,mr4 ,eugene ,chevandier divided the slope into zones forty or fifty feet wide1 by horizontal ditches closed at both ends1 and thereby obtained1 from firs of different ages1 shoots double the dimensions of those which grew on a dry soil of the same character1 where the water was allowed to run off without obstruction4--,,dumont1 ,des ,travaux ,publics1 etc41 pp4 #id-if4 ,the ditches were about two feet and a half deep1 and three feet and a half wide1 and they cost about forty francs the hectare1 or three dollars the acre4 ,this extraordinary growth was produced wholly by the retention of the rain water in the ditches1 whence it filtered through the whole soil and supplied moisture to the roots of the trees4 ,it may be doubted whether in a climate cold enough to freeze the entire contents of the ditches in winter1 it would not be expedient to draw off the water in the autumn1 as the presence of so large a quantity of ice in the soil might prove injurious to trees too young and small to shelter the ground effectually against frost4 ,chevandier computes that1 if the annual growth of the pine in the marshy soil of the ,vosges be represented by one1 it will equal two in dry ground1 four or five on slopes so ditched or graded as to retain the water flowing upon them from roads or steep declivities1 and six where the earth is kept constantly moist by infiltration from running brooks4--,comptes ,rendus a l',academie des ,sciences--t4 xix1 ,juillet1 ,dec41 #ahdd1 p4 #afg4 ,the effect of accidental irrigation is well shown in the growth of the trees planted along the canals of irrigation which traverse the fields in many parts of ,italy4 ,they flourish most luxuriantly1 in spite of continual lopping1 and yield a very important contribution to the stock of fuel for domestic use2 while trees1 situated so far from canals as to be out of the reach of infiltration from them1 are of much slower growth1 under circumstances otherwise equally favorable4 ,in other experiments of ,chevandier1 under better conditions1 the yield of wood was increased1 by judicious irrigation1 in the ratio of seven to one1 the profits in that of twelve to one4 ,at the ,exposition of #ahee1 ,chambrelent exhibited young trees1 which1 in four years from the seed1 had grown to the height of sixteen and twenty feet1 and the diameter of ten and twelve inches4 ,chevandier experimented with various manures1 and found that some of them might be profitably applied to young1 but not to old trees1 the quantity required in the latter case being too great4 ,wood ashes and the refuse of soda factories are particularly recommended4 ,i have seen an extraordinary growth produced in fir trees by the application of soapsuds4 #bii ,although the economy of the forest has received little attention in the ,united ,states1 no lover of ,american nature can have failed to observe a marked difference between a native wood from which cattle are excluded and one where they are permitted to browse4 ,a few seasons suffice for the total extirpation of the underbrush1 including the young trees on which alone the reproduction of the forest depends1 and all the branches of those of larger growth which hang within reach of the cattle are stripped of their buds and leaves1 and soon wither and fall off4 ,these effects are observable at a great distance1 and a wood pasture is recognized1 almost as far as it can be seen1 by the regularity with which its lower foliage terminates at what ,ruskin somewhere calls the cattle line4 ,this always runs parallel to the surface of the ground1 and is determined by the height to which domestic quadrupeds can reach to feed upon the leaves4 ,in describing a visit to the grand-ducal farm of ,san ,rossore near ,pisa1 where a large herd of camels is kept1 ,chateauvieux says3 ,in passing through a wood of evergreen oaks1 ,i observed that all the twigs and foliage of the trees were clipped up to the height of about twelve feet above the ground1 without leaving a single spray below that level4 ,i was informed that the browsing of the camels had trimmed the trees as high as they could reach4--,,lullin ,,de ,,chateauvieux1 ,lettres sur l',italie1 p4 #aac4 ,the removal of the shelter afforded by the brushwood and the pendulous branches of trees permits drying and chilling winds to parch and cool the ground1 and of course injuriously affects the growth of the wood4 ,but this is not all4 ,the tread of quadrupeds exposes and bruises the roots of the trees1 which often die from this cause1 as any one may observe by following the paths made by cattle through woodlands4 #cjj ,i have remarked elsewhere that most insects which deposit and hatch their eggs in the wood of the natural forest confine themselves to dead trees4 ,not only is this the fact1 but it is also true that many of the borers attack only freshly cut timber4 ,their season of labor is a short one1 and unless the tree is cut during this period1 it is safe from them4 ,in summer you may hear them plying their augers in the wood of a young pine with soft green bark1 as you sit upon its trunk1 within a week after it has been felled1 but the windfalls of the winter lie uninjured by the worm and even undecayed for centuries4 ,in the pine woods of ,new ,england1 after the regular lumberman has removed the standing trees1 these old trunks are hauled out from the mosses and leaves which half cover them1 and often furnish excellent timber4 ,the slow decay of such timber in the woods1 it may be remarked1 furnishes another proof of the uniformity of temperature and humidity in the forest1 for the trunk of a tree lying on grass or plough land1 and of course exposed to all the alternations of climate1 hardly resists complete decomposition for a generation4 ,the forests of ,europe exhibit similar facts4 ,wessely1 in a description of the primitive wood of ,neuwald in ,lower ,austria1 says that the windfalls required from #aej to #bjj years for entire decay4--,die ,oesterreichischen ,alpenlaender und ihre ,forste1 p4 #cab4 #cja ,,vaupell1 ,boegens ,indvandring i de ,danske ,skove1 pp4 #bi1 #df4 ,vaupell further observes1 on the page last quoted3 ,the removal of leaves is injurious to the forest1 not only because it retards the growth of trees1 but still more because it disqualifies the soil for the production of particular species4 ,when the beech languishes1 and the development of its branches is less vigorous and its crown less spreading1 it becomes unable to resist the encroachments of the fir4 ,this latter tree thrives in an inferior soil1 and being no longer stifled by the thick foliage of the beech1 it spreads gradually through the wood1 while the beech retreats before it and finally perishes4 ,the study of the natural order of succession in forest trees is of the utmost importance in sylviculture1 because it guides us in the selection of the species to be employed in planting a new or restoring a decayed forest4 ,when ground is laid bare both of trees and of vegetable mould1 and left to the action of unaided and unobstructed nature1 she first propagates trees which germinate and grow only under the influence of a full supply of light and air1 and then1 in succession1 other species1 according to their ability to bear the shade and their demand for more abundant nutriment4 ,in ,northern ,europe1 the larch1 the white birch1 the aspen1 first appear2 then follow the maple1 the alder1 the ash1 the fir2 then the oak and the linden2 and then the beech4 ,the trees called by these respective names in the ,united ,states are not specifically the same as their ,european namesakes1 nor are they always even the equivalents of these latter1 and therefore the order of succession in ,america would not be precisely as indicated by the foregoing list1 but it nevertheless very nearly corresponds to it4 ,it is thought important to encourage the growth of the beech in ,denmark and ,northern ,germany1 because it upon the whole yields better returns than other trees1 and particularly because it appears not to exhaust1 but on the contrary to enrich the soil2 for by shedding its leaves it returns to it most of the nutriment it has drawn from it1 and at the same time furnishes a solvent which aids materially in the decomposition of its mineral constituents4 ,when the forest is left to itself1 the order of succession is constant1 and its occasional inversion is always explicable by some human interference4 ,it is curious that the trees which require most light are content with the poorest soils1 and vice versa4 ,the trees which first appear are also those which propagate themselves farthest to the north4 ,the birch1 the larch1 and the fir bear a severer climate than the oak1 the oak than the beech4 ,these parallelisms1 says ,vaupell1 are very interesting1 because they are entirely independent of each other1 and each prescribes the same order of succession4--,boegens ,indvandring1 p4 #db4 #cjb ,when vigorous young locusts1 of two or three inches in diameter1 are polled1 they throw out a great number of very thick-leaved shoots1 which arrange themselves in a globular head1 so unlike the natural crown of the acacia1 that persons familiar only with the untrained tree often take them for a different species4 #cjc ,the two ideas expressed in the text are not exactly equivalent1 because1 though the consumption of animal food diminishes the amount of vegetable aliment required for human use1 yet the animals themselves consume a great quantity of grain and roots grown on ground ploughed and cultivated as regularly and as laboriously as any other4 ,the #agj1jjj1jjj bushels of oats raised in the ,united ,states in #ahfj1 and fed to the #f1jjj1jjj horses1 the potatoes1 the turnips1 and the maize employed in fattening the oxen1 the sheep1 and the swine slaughtered the same year1 occupied an extent of ground which1 cultivated by hand labor and with ,chinese industry and skill1 would probably have produced a quantity of vegetable food equal in alimentary power to the flesh of the quadrupeds killed for domestic use4 ,hence1 so far as the naked question of amount of aliment is concerned1 the meadows and the pastures might as well have remained in the forest condition4 #cjd ,according to ,clave 7,etudes1 p4 #aei71 the net revenue from the forests of the state in ,france1 making no allowance for interest on the capital represented by the forest1 is two dollars per acre4 ,in ,saxony it is about the same1 though the cost of administration is twice as much as in ,france2 in ,wuertemberg it is about a dollar an acre2 and in ,prussia1 where half the income is consumed in the expenses of administration1 it sinks to less than half a dollar4 ,this low rate in ,prussia is partly explained by the fact that a considerable proportion of the annual product of wood is either conceded to persons claiming prescriptive rights1 or sold1 at a very small price1 to the poor4 ,taking into account the capital invested in forest land1 and adding interest upon it1 ,pressler calculates that a pine wood1 managed with a view to felling it when eighty years old1 would yield only one eighth of one per cent4 annual profit2 a fir wood1 at one hundred years1 one sixth of one per cent42 a beech wood1 at one hundred and twenty years1 one fourth of one per cent4 ,the same author 7p4 #cce7 gives the net income of the ,new forest in ,england1 over and above expenses1 interest not computed1 at twenty-five cents per acre only4 ,in ,america1 where no expense is bestowed upon the woods1 the annual growth would generally be estimated much higher4 #cje ,it is rare that a middle-aged ,american dies in the house where he was born1 or an old man even in that which he has built2 and this is scarcely less true of the rural districts1 where every man owns his habitation1 than of the city1 where the majority live in hired houses4 ,this life of incessant flitting is unfavorable for the execution of permanent improvements of every sort1 and especially of those which1 like the forest1 are slow in repaying any part of the capital expended in them4 ,it requires a very generous spirit in a landholder to plant a wood on a farm he expects to sell1 or which he knows will pass out of the hands of his descendants at his death4 ,but the very fact of having begun a plantation would attach the proprietor more strongly to the soil for which he had made such a sacrifice2 and the paternal acres would have a greater value in the eyes of a succeeding generation1 if thus improved and beautified by the labors of those from whom they were inherited4 ,landed property1 therefore1 the transfer of which is happily free from every legal impediment or restriction in the ,united ,states1 would find1 in the feelings thus prompted1 a moral check against a too frequent change of owners1 and would tend to remain long enough in one proprietor or one family to admit of gradual improvements which would increase its value both to the possessor and to the state4 #cjf ,it has been often asserted by eminent writers that a part of the fens in ,lincolnshire was reclaimed by sea dikes under the government of the ,romans4 ,i have found no ancient authority in support of this allegation1 nor can ,i refer to any passage in ,roman literature in which sea dikes are expressly mentioned otherwise than as walls or piers1 except that in ,pliny 7,hist4 ,nat4 xxxvi1 #bd71 where it is said that the ,tyrrhenian sea was excluded from the ,lucrine lake by dikes4 #cjg ,a friend has recently suggested to me an interesting illustration of the applicability of military instrumentalities to pacific art4 ,the sale of gunpowder in the ,united ,states1 he informs me1 is smaller since the commencement of the present rebellion than before1 because the war has caused the suspension of many public and private improvements1 in the execution of which great quantities of powder were used for blasting4 ,it is alleged that the same observation was made in ,france during the ,crimean war1 and that1 in general1 not ten per cent4 of the powder manufactured on either side of the ,atlantic is employed for military purposes4 ,it is a fact not creditable to the moral sense of modern civilization1 that very many of the most important improvements in machinery and the working of metals have originated in the necessities of war1 and that man's highest ingenuity has been shown1 and many of his most remarkable triumphs over natural forces achieved1 in the contrivance of engines for the destruction of his fellow man4 ,the military material employed by the first ,napoleon has become1 in less than two generations1 nearly as obsolete as the sling and stone of the shepherd1 and attack and defence now begin at distances to which1 half a century ago1 military reconnoissances hardly extended4 ,upon a partial view of the subject1 the human race seems destined to become its own executioner--on the one hand1 exhausting the capacity of the earth to furnish sustenance to her taskmaster2 on the other1 compensating diminished production by inventing more efficient methods of exterminating the consumer4 ,but war develops great civil virtues1 and brings into action a degree and kind of physical energy which seldom fails to awaken a new intellectual life in a people that achieves great moral and political results through great heroism and endurance and perseverance4 ,domestic corruption has destroyed more nations than foreign invasion1 and a people is rarely conquered till it has deserved subjugation4 #cjh ,,staring1 ,voormaals en ,thans1 p4 #aej4 #cji ,idem1 p4 #afc4 ,much the largest proportion of the lands so reclaimed1 though for the most part lying above low-water tidemark1 are at a lower level than the ,lincolnshire fens1 and more subject to inundation from the irruptions of the sea4 #caj ,die ,inseln und ,marschen der ,herzogthuemer ,schleswig und ,holstein1 iii1 p4 #aea4 #caa ,the purely agricultural island of ,pelworm1 off the coast of ,schleswig1 containing about #aj1jjj acres1 annually expends for the maintenance of its dikes not less than ,l#f1jjj sterling1 or nearly #cj1jjj4--;,j4 ,g4 ,,kohl1 ,inseln und ,marschen ,schleswig's und ,holstein's1 ii1 p4 #cid4 ,the original cost of the dikes of ,pelworm is not stated4 ,the greatest part of the province of ,zeeland is protected by dikes measuring #bej miles in length1 the maintenance of which costs1 in ordinary years1 more than a million guilders above #djj1jjj4 99 99 99 ,the annual expenditure for dikes and hydraulic works in ,holland is from five to seven million guilders #b1jjj1jjj to #b1hjj1jjj4--,,wild1 ,die ,niederlande1 i1 p4 #fb4 ,one is not sorry to learn that the ,spanish tyranny in the ,netherlands had some compensations4 ,the great chain of ring dikes which surrounds a large part of ,zeeland is due to the energy of ,caspar de ,robles1 the ,spanish governor of that province1 who in #aegj ordered the construction of these works at the public expense1 as a substitute for the private embankments which had previously partially served the same purpose4--,,wild1 ,die ,niederlande1 i1 p4 #fb4 #cab ,,staring1 ,voormaals en ,thans1 p4 #afc4 #cac ,voormaals en ,thans1 pp4 #aej1 #aea4 #cad ,,staring1 ,voormaals en ,thans1 p4 #aeb4 ,kohl states that the peninsula of ,diksand on the coast of ,holstein consisted1 at the close of the last century1 of several islands measuring together less than five thousand acres4 ,in #ahcg they had been connected with the mainland1 and had nearly doubled in area4--,inseln u4 ,marschen ,schlesw4 ,holst41 iii1 p4 #bfb4 #cae ,the most instructive and entertaining of tourists1 ,j4 ,g4 ,kohl--so aptly characterized by ,davies as the ,herodotus of modern ,europe--furnishes a great amount of interesting information on the dikes of the ,low ,german seacoast1 in his ,inseln und ,marschen der ,herzogthuemer ,schleswig und ,holstein4 ,i am acquainted with no popular work on this subject which the reader can consult with greater profit4 ,see also ,,staring1 ,voormaals en ,thans1 and ,de ,bodem van ,nederland1 on the dikes of the ,netherlands4 #caf ,the inclination varies from one foot rise in four of base to one foot in fourteen4--,,kohl1 iii1 p4 #baj4 #cag ,the dikes are sometimes founded upon piles1 and sometimes protected by one or more rows of piles driven deeply down into the bed of the sea in front of them4 ,triple rows of piles of ,scandinavian pine1 says ,wild1 have been driven down along the coast of ,friesland1 where there are no dunes1 for a distance of one hundred and fifty miles4 ,the piles are bound together by strong cross timbers and iron clamps1 and the interstices filled with stones4 ,the ground adjacent to the piling is secured with fascines1 and at exposed points heavy blocks of stone are heaped up as an additional protection4 ,the earth dike is built behind the mighty bulwark of this breakwater1 and its foot also is fortified with stones4 99 99 99 ,the great ,helder dike is about five miles long and forty feet wide at the top1 along which runs a good road4 ,it slopes down two hundred feet into the sea1 at an angle of forty degrees4 ,the highest waves do not reach the summit1 the lowest always cover its base4 ,at certain distances1 immense buttresses1 of a height and width proportioned to those of the dike1 and even more strongly built1 run several hundred feet out into the rolling sea4 ,this gigantic artificial coast is entirely composed of ,norwegian granite4--,,wild1 ,die ,niederlande1 i1 pp4 #fa1 #fb4 #cah ,the shaking of the ground1 even when loaded with large buildings1 by the passage of heavy carriages or artillery1 or by the march of a body of cavalry or even infantry1 shows that such causes may produce important mechanical effects on the condition of the soil4 ,the bogs in the ,netherlands1 as in most other countries1 contain large numbers of fallen trees1 buried to a certain depth by earth and vegetable mould4 ,when the bogs are dry enough to serve as pastures1 it is observed that trunks of these ancient trees rise of themselves to the surface4 ,staring ascribes this singular phenomenon to the agitation of the ground by the tread of cattle4 ,when roadbeds1 observes he1 are constructed of gravel and pebbles of different sizes1 and these latter are placed at the bottom without being broken and rolled hard together1 they are soon brought to the top by the effect of travel on the road4 ,lying loosely1 they undergo some motion from the passage of every wagon wheel and the tread of every horse that passes over them4 ,this motion is an oscillation or partial rolling1 and as one side of a pebble is raised1 a little fine sand or earth is forced under it1 and the frequent repetition of this process by cattle or carriages moving in opposite directions brings it at last to the surface4 ,we may suppose that a similar effect is produced on the stems of trees in the bogs by the tread of animals4--,de ,bodem van ,nederland1 i1 pp4 #ge1 #gf4 ,it is observed in the ,northern ,united ,states1 that when soils containing pebbles are cleared and cultivated1 and the stones removed from the surface1 new pebbles1 and even bowlders of many pounds weight1 continue to show themselves above the ground1 every spring1 for a long series of years4 ,in clayey soils the fence posts are thrown up in a similar way1 and it is not uncommon to see the lower rail of a fence thus gradually raised a foot or even two feet above the ground4 ,this rising of stones and fences is popularly ascribed to the action of the severe frosts of that climate4 ,the expansion of the ground1 in freezing1 it is said1 raises its surface1 and1 with the surface1 objects lying near or connected with it4 ,when the soil thaws in the spring1 it settles back again to its former level1 while the pebbles and posts are prevented from sinking as low as before by loose earth which has fallen under them4 ,the fact that the elevation spoken of is observed only in the spring1 gives countenance to this theory1 which is perhaps applicable also to the cases stated by ,staring1 and it is probable that the two causes above assigned concur in producing the effect4 ,the question of the subsidence of the ,netherlandish coast has been much discussed4 ,not to mention earlier geologists1 ,venema1 in several essays1 and particularly in ,het ,dalen van de ,noordelijke ,kuststreken van ons ,land1 #ahed1 adduces many facts and arguments to prove a slow sinking of the northern provinces of ,holland4 ,laveleye 7,affaissement du sol et envasement des fleuves survenus dans les temps historiques1 #ahei71 upon a still fuller investigation1 arrives at the same conclusion4 ,the eminent geologist ,staring1 however1 who briefly refers to the subject in ,de ,bodem van ,nederland1 i1 p4 #cef et seqq41 does not consider the evidence sufficient to prove anything more than the sinking of the surface of the polders from drying and consolidation4 #cai ,the elevation of the lands enclosed by dikes--or polders1 as they are called in ,holland--above low water mark1 depends upon the height of the tides1 or1 in other words1 upon1 the difference between ebb and flood4 ,the tide cannot deposit earth higher than it flows1 and after the ground is once enclosed1 the decay of the vegetables grown upon it and the addition of manures do not compensate the depression occasioned by drying and consolidation4 ,on the coast of ,zeeland and the islands of ,south ,holland1 the tides1 and of course the surface of the lands deposited by them1 are so high that the polders can be drained by ditching and sluices1 but at other points1 as in the enclosed grounds of ,north ,holland on the ,zuiderzee1 where the tide rises but three feet or even less1 pumping is necessary from the beginning4--,,staring1 ,voormaals en ,thans1 p4 #aeb4 #cbj ,the principal engine--called the ,leeghwater1 from the name of an engineer who had proposed the draining of the lake in #afda--was of #ejj horse power1 and drove eleven pumps making six strokes per minute4 ,each pump raised six cubic metres1 or nearly eight cubic yards of water to the stroke1 amounting in all to #bc1gfj cubic metres1 or above #ca1jjj cubic yards1 the hour4--,,wild1 ,die ,niederlande1 i1 p4 #hg4 #cba ,in ,england and ,new ,england1 where the marshes have been already drained or are of comparatively small extent1 the existence of large floating islands seems incredible1 and has sometimes been treated as a fable1 but no geographical fact is better established4 ,kohl 7,inseln und ,marschen ,schleswig-,holsteins1 iii1 p4 #cji7 reminds us that ,pliny mentions among the wonders of ,germany the floating islands1 covered with trees1 which met the ,roman fleets at the mouths of the ,elbe and the ,weser4 ,our author speaks also of having visited1 in the territory of ,bremen1 floating moors1 bearing not only houses but whole villages4 ,at low stages of the water these moors rest upon a bed of sand1 but are raised from six to ten feet by the high water of spring1 and remain afloat until1 in the course of the summer1 the water beneath is exhausted by evaporation and drainage1 when they sink down upon the sand again4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #dj4 ,staring explains1 in an interesting way1 the whole growth1 formation1 and functions of floating fens or bogs1 in his very valuable work1 ,de ,bodem van ,nederland1 i1 pp4 #cf-dc4 ,the substance of his account is as follows3 ,the first condition for the growth of the plants which compose the substance of turf and the surface of the fens1 is stillness of the water4 ,hence they are not found in running streams1 nor in pools so large as to be subject to frequent agitation by the wind4 ,for example1 not a single plant grew in the open part of the ,lake of ,haarlem1 and fens cease to form in all pools as soon as1 by the cutting of the turf for fuel or other purposes1 their area is sufficiently enlarged to be much acted on by wind4 ,when still water above a yard deep is left undisturbed1 aquatic plants of various genera1 such us ,nuphar1 ,nymphaea1 ,limnanthemum1 ,stratiotes1 ,polygonum1 and ,potamogeton1 fill the bottom with roots and cover the surface with leaves4 ,many of the plants die every year1 and prepare at the bottom a soil fit for the growth of a higher order of vegetation1 ,phragmites1 ,acorus1 ,sparganium1 ,rumex1 ,lythrum1 ,pedicularis1 ,spiraea1 ,polystichum1 ,comarum1 ,caltha1 c41 c4 ,in the course of twenty or thirty years the muddy bottom is filled with roots of aquatic and marsh plants1 which are lighter than water1 and if the depth is great enough to give room for detaching this vegetable network1 a couple of yards for example1 it rises to the surface1 bearing with it1 of course1 the soil formed above it by decay of stems and leaves4 ,new genera now appear upon the mass1 such as ,carex1 ,menyanthes1 and others1 and soon thickly cover it4 ,the turf has now acquired a thickness of from two to four feet1 and is called in ,groningen lad2 in ,friesland1 til1 tilland1 or drijftil2 in ,overijssel1 krag2 and in ,holland1 rietzod4 ,it floats about as driven by the wind1 gradually increasing in thickness by the decay of its annual crops of vegetation1 and in about half a century reaches the bottom and becomes fixed4 ,if it has not been invaded in the mean time by men or cattle1 trees and arborescent plants1 ,alnus1 ,salix1 ,myrica1 c4 appear1 and these contribute to hasten the attachment of the turf to the bottom1 both by their weight and by sending their roots quite through into the ground4 ,this is the regular method employed by nature for the gradual filling up of shallow lakes and pools1 and converting them first into morass and then into dry land4 ,whenever therefore man removes the peat or turf1 he exerts an injurious geographical agency1 and1 as ,i have already said1 there is no doubt that the immense extension of the inland seas of ,holland in modern times is owing to this and other human imprudences4 ,hundreds of hectares of floating pastures1 says our author1 which have nothing in their appearance to distinguish them from grass lands resting on solid bog1 are found in ,overijssel1 in ,north ,holland and near ,utrecht4 ,in short1 they occur in all deep bogs1 and wherever deep water is left long undisturbed4 ,in one case1 a floating island1 which had attached itself to the shore1 continued to float about for a long time after it was torn off by a flood1 and was solid enough to keep a pond of fresh water upon it sweet1 though the water in which it was swimming had become brackish from the irruption of the sea4 ,after the hay is cut1 cattle are pastured upon those islands1 and they sometimes have large trees growing upon them4 ,when the turf or peat has been cut1 leaving water less than a yard deep1 ,equisetum limosum grows at once1 and is followed by the second class of marsh plants mentioned above4 ,their roots do not become detached from the bottom in such shallow water1 but form ordinary turf or peat4 ,these processes are so rapid that a thickness of from three to six feet of turf is formed in half a century1 and many men have lived to mow grass where they had fished in their boyhood1 and to cut turf twice in the same spot4 ,captain ,gilliss says that before ,lake ,taguataga in ,chili was drained1 there were in it islands composed of dead plants matted together to a thickness of from four to six feet1 and with trees of medium size growing upon them4 ,these islands floated before the wind with their trees and browsing cattle4--,united ,states ,naval ,astronomical ,expedition to the ,southern ,hemisphere1 i1 pp4 #af1 #ag4 #cbb ,a considerable work of this character is mentioned by ,captain ,gilliss as having been executed in ,chili1 a country to which we should have hardly looked for an improvement of such a nature4 ,the ,lake ,taguataga was partially drained by cutting through a narrow ridge of land1 not at the natural outlet1 but upon one side of the lake1 and eight thousand acres of land covered by it were gained for cultivation4--,u4 ,s4 ,naval ,astronomical ,expedition to the ,southern ,hemisphere1 i1 pp4 #af1 #ag4 #cbc ,economie ,rurale de la ,france1 p4 #bhi4 #cbd ,in a note on a former page of this volume ,i noticed an observation of ,jacini1 to the effect that the great ,italian lakes discharge themselves partly by infiltration beneath the hills which bound them4 ,the amount of such infiltration must depend much upon the hydrostatic pressure on the walls of the lake basins1 and1 of course1 the lowering of the surface of these lakes1 by diminishing that pressure1 would diminish also the infiltration4 ,it is now proposed to lower the level of the ,lake of ,como some feet by deepening its outlet4 ,it is possible that the effect of this may manifest itself in a diminution of the water in springs and fontanili or artesian wells in ,lombardy4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #dc4 #cbe ,simonde1 speaking of the ,tuscan canals1 observes3 ,but inundations are not the only damage caused by the waters to the plains of ,tuscany4 ,raised1 as the canals are1 above the soil1 the water percolates through their banks1 penetrates every obstruction1 and1 in spite of all the efforts of industry1 sterilizes and turns to morasses fields which nature and the richness of the soil seemed to have designed for the most abundant harvests4 ,in ground thus pervaded with moisture1 or rendered cold1 as the ,tuscans express it1 by the filtration of the canal water1 the vines and the mulberries1 after having for a few years yielded fruit of a saltish taste1 rot and perish4 ,the wheat decays in the ground1 or dies as soon as it sprouts4 ,winter crops are given up1 and summer cultivation tried for a time2 but the increasing humidity1 and the saline matter communicated to the earth--which affects the taste of all its products1 even to the grasses1 which the cattle refuse to touch--at last compel the husbandman to abandon his fields1 and leave uncultivated a soil that no longer repays his labor4--,tableau de l',agriculture ,toscane4 pp4 #aa1 #ab4 #cbf ,physikalische ,geographie1 p4 #bhh4 ,draining by driving down stakes1 mentioned in a note in a chapter on the woods1 ante1 is a process of the same nature4 #cbg ,the simplest backwoodsman knows by experience that all cultivation is impossible in the neighborhood of bogs and marshes4 ,why is a crop near the borders of a marsh cut off by frost1 while a field upon a hillock1 a few stone's throws from it1 is spared8--,,lars ,,levi ,,laestadius1 ,om ,uppodlingar i ,lappmarken1 pp4 #fi1 #gd4 #cbh ,babinet condemns even the general draining of marshes4 ,draining1 says he1 has been much in fashion for some years4 ,it has been a special object to dry and fertilize marshy grounds4 ,my opinion has always been that excessive dryness is thus produced1 and that other soils in the neighborhood are sterilized in proportion4 #cbi ,i ought perhaps to except the ,mexicans and the ,peruvians1 whose arts and institutions are not yet shown to be historically connected with those of any more ancient people4 ,the lamentable destruction of so many memorials of these tribes1 by the ignorance and bigotry of the so-called ,christian barbarians who conquered them1 has left us much in the dark as to many points of their civilization2 but they seem to have reached that stage where continued progress in knowledge and in power over nature is secure1 and a few more centuries of independence might have brought them to originate for themselves most of the great inventions which the last four centuries have bestowed upon man4 #ccj ,the necessity of irrigation in the great alluvial plain of ,northern ,italy is partly explained by the fact that the superficial stratum of fine earth and vegetable mould is very extensively underlaid by beds of pebbles and gravel brought down by mountain torrents at a remote epoch4 ,the water of the surface soil drains rapidly down into these loose beds1 and passes off by subterranean channels to some unknown point of discharge2 but this circumstance alone is not a sufficient solution4 ,is it not possible that the habits of vegetables1 grown in countries where irrigation has been immemorially employed1 have been so changed that they require water under conditions of soil and climate where their congeners1 which have not been thus indulgently treated1 do not8 ,there are some atmospheric phenomena in ,northern ,italy1 which an ,american finds it hard to reconcile with what he has observed in the ,united ,states4 ,to an ,american eye1 for instance1 the sky of ,piedmont1 ,lombardy1 and the northern coast of the ,mediterranean1 is always whitish and curdled1 and it never has the intensity and fathomless depth of the blue of his native heavens4 ,and yet the heat of the sun's rays1 as measured by sensation1 and1 at the same time1 the evaporation1 are greater than they would be with the thermometer at the same point in ,america4 ,i have frequently felt in ,italy1 with the mercury below #fj deg4 ,fahrenheit1 and with a mottled and almost opaque sky1 a heat of solar irradiation which ,i can compare to nothing but the scorching sensation experienced in ,america at a temperature twenty degrees higher1 during the intervals between showers1 or before a rain1 when the clear blue of the sky seems infinite in depth and transparency4 ,such circumstances may create a necessity for irrigation where it would otherwise be superfluous1 if not absolutely injurious4 ,in speaking of the superior apparent clearness of the sky in ,america1 ,i confine myself to the concave vault of the heavens1 and do not mean to assert that terrestrial objects are generally visible at greater distances in the ,united ,states than in ,italy4 ,indeed ,i am rather disposed to maintain the contrary2 for though ,i know that the lower strata of the atmosphere in ,europe never equal in transparency the air near the earth in ,new ,mexico1 ,peru1 and ,chili1 yet ,i think the accidents of the coast line of the ,riviera1 as1 for example1 between ,nice and ,la ,spezia1 and those of the incomparable ,alpine panorama seen from ,turin1 are distinguishable at greater distances than they would be in the ,united ,states4 #cca ,in ,egypt1 evaporation and absorption by the earth are so rapid1 that all annual crops require irrigation during the whole period of their growth4 ,as fast as the water retires by the subsidence of the annual inundation1 the seed is sown upon the still moist uncovered soil1 and irrigation begins at once4 ,upon the ,nile1 you hear the creaking of the water wheels1 and sometimes the movement of steam pumps1 through the whole night1 while the poorer cultivators unceasingly ply the simple shadoof1 or bucket-and-sweep1 laboriously raising the water from trough to trough by as many as six or seven stages when the river is low4 ,the bucket is of flexible leather1 with a stiff rim1 and is emptied into the trough1 not by inverting it like a wooden bucket1 but by putting the hand beneath and pushing the bottom up till the water all runs out over the brim1 or1 in other words1 by turning the vessel inside out4 ,the quantity of water thus withdrawn from the ,nile is enormous4 ,most of this is evaporated directly from the surface or the superficial strata1 but some moisture percolates down and oozes through the banks into the river again1 while a larger quantity sinks till it joins the slow current of infiltration by which the ,nile water pervades the earth of the valley to the distance1 at some points1 of not less than fifty miles4 #ccb ,forests1 woods1 and groves1 are very frequently mentioned in the ,old ,testament as existing at particular places1 and they are often referred to by way of illustration1 as familiar objects4 ,wood is twice spoken of as a material in the ,new ,testament1 but otherwise--at least according to ,cruden--not one of the above words occurs in that volume4 ,this interesting fact1 were other evidence wanting1 would go far to prove that a great change had taken place in this respect between the periods when the ,old ,testament and the ,new were respectively composed2 for the scriptural writers1 and the speakers introduced into their narratives1 are remarkable for their frequent allusions to the natural objects and the social and industrial habits which characterized their ages and their country4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #dd4 ,solomon anticipated ,chevandier in the irrigation of forest trees3 ,i made me pools of water1 to water therewith the wood that bringeth forth trees4--,ecclesiastes ii1 #f4 #ccc ,one of these1 upon ,mount ,hor1 two stories in height1 is still in such preservation that ,i found not less than ten feet of water in it in the month of ,june1 #ahea4 ,the brook ,ain ,musa1 which runs through the city of ,petra and finally disappears in the sands of ,wadi el ,araba1 is a considerable river in winter1 and the inhabitants of that town were obliged to excavate a tunnel through the rock near the right bank1 just above the upper entrance of the ,sik1 to discharge a part of its swollen current4 ,the sagacity of ,dr4 ,robinson detected the necessity of this measure1 though the tunnel1 the mouth of which was hidden by brushwood1 was not discovered till some time after his visit4 ,i even noticed unequivocal remains of a sluice by which the water was diverted to the tunnel near the arch that crosses the ,sik4 ,immense labor was also expended in widening the natural channel at several points below the town1 to prevent the damming up and setting back of the water--a fact ,i believe not hitherto noticed by travellers4 ,the ,fellahheen above ,petra still employ the waters of ,ain ,musa for irrigation1 and in summer the superficial current is wholly diverted from its natural channel for that purpose4 ,at this season1 the bed of the brook1 which is composed of pebbles1 gravel1 and sand1 is dry in the ,sik and through the town2 but the infiltration is such that water is generally found by digging to a small depth in the channel4 ,observing these facts in a visit to ,petra in the summer1 ,i was curious to know whether the subterranean waters escaped again to daylight1 and ,i followed the ravine below the town for a long distance4 ,not very far from the upper entrance of the ravine1 arborescent vegetation appeared upon its bottom1 and as soon as the ground was well shaded1 a thread of water burst out4 ,this was joined by others a little lower down1 and1 at the distance of a mile from the town1 a strong current was formed and ran down toward ,wadi el ,araba4 #ccd ,the authorities differ as to the extent of the cultivable and the cultivated soil of ,egypt4 ,lippincott's1 or rather ,thomas and ,baldwin's1 ,gazetteer--a work of careful research--estimates the whole area comprised in the valley below the first cataract and delta1 at #aa1jjj square miles4 ,smith's ,dictionary of the ,bible1 article ,egypt1 says3 ,egypt has a superficies of about #i1ehb square geographical miles of soil1 which the ,nile either does or can water and fertilize4 ,this computation includes the river and lakes as well as sundry tracts which can be inundated1 and the whole space either cultivated or fit for cultivation is no more than about #e1fbf square miles4 ,by geographical mile is here meant1 ,i suppose1 the nautical mile of sixty to an equatorial degree1 or about #b1jbe yards4 ,the whole area1 then1 by this estimate1 is #ab1fhb square statute or ,english miles1 that of the space cultivated or fit for cultivation1 #g1ddg4 ,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,geography1 article ,a,egyptus1 gives #b1bee square miles as the area of the valley between ,syene and the bifurcation of the ,nile1 exclusive of the ,fayoom1 which is estimated at #cdj4 ,the area of the ,delta is stated at #a1igf square miles between the main branches of the river1 and1 including the irrigated lands east and west of those branches1 at #d1ejj square miles4 ,this latter work does not inform us whether these are statute or nautical miles1 but nautical miles must be intended4 ,other writers give estimates differing considerably from those just cited4 ,the latest computations ,i have seen are those in the first volume of ,kremer's ,a,egypten1 #ahfc4 ,this author 7pp4 #f1 #g7 assigns to the ,delta an area of #bjj square ,german geographical miles 7fifteen to the degree72 to all ,lower ,egypt1 including1 of course1 the ,delta1 #djj such miles4 ,these numbers are equal1 respectively1 to #d1bci and #h1dgh square statute miles1 and the great lagoons are embraced in the areas computed4 ,upper ,egypt 7above ,cairo7 is said 7p4 #aa7 to contain #d1jjj1jjj feddan of culturflaeche1 or cultivable land4 ,the feddan is stated 7p4 #cg7 to contain #g1ccc square piks1 the pik being #ge centimetres1 and it therefore corresponds almost exactly to the ,english acre4 ,hence1 according to ,kremer1 the cultivable soil of ,upper ,egypt is #f1bej square statute miles1 or twice as much as the whole area of the valley between ,syene and the bifurcation of the ,nile1 according to ,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,geography4 ,i suspect that #d1jjj1jjj feddan is erroneously given as the cultivable area of ,upper ,egypt alone1 when in fact it should be taken for the arable surface of both ,lower and ,upper ,egypt2 for from the statistical tables in the same volume1 it appears that #c1cag1abe feddan1 or #e1bec square statute miles1 were cultivated1 in both geographical divisions1 in the year referred to in the tables1 the date of which is not stated4 ,the area which the ,nile would now cover at high water1 if left to itself1 is greater than in ancient times1 because the bed of the river has been elevated1 and consequently the lateral spread of the inundation increased4 ,see ,,smith',s ,dictionary of ,geography1 article ,a,egyptus4 ,but the industry of the ,egyptians in the days of the ,pharaohs and the ,ptolomies carried the ,nile-water to large provinces which have now been long abandoned and have relapsed into the condition of a desert4 ,anciently1 observes the writer of the article ,egypt in ,smith's ,dictionary of the ,bible1 #b1gce square miles more about #c1gjj square statute miles may have been cultivated4 ,in the best days of ,egypt1 probably all the land was cultivated that could be made available for agricultural purposes1 and hence we may estimate the ancient arable area of that country at not less than #aa1jjj square statute miles1 or fully double its present extent4 #cce ,a canal has been constructed1 and new ones are in progress1 to convey water from the ,nile to the city of ,suez1 and to various points on the line of the ship canal1 with the double purpose of supplying fresh water to the inhabitants and laborers1 and of irrigating the adjacent soil4 ,the area of land which may be thus reclaimed and fertilized is very large1 but the actual quantity which it will be found economically expedient to bring under cultivation cannot now be determined4 #ccf ,the so-called spring at ,heliopolis is only a thread of water infiltrated from the ,nile or the canals4 #ccg ,the date and the doum palm1 the sont and many other acacias1 the caroub1 the sycamore1 and other trees1 grow well in ,egypt without irrigation1 and would doubtless spread through the entire valley in a few years4 #cch ,wilkinson has shown that the cultivable soil of ,egypt has not been diminished by encroachment of the desert sands1 or otherwise1 but that1 on the contrary1 it must have been increased since the age of the ,pharaohs4 ,the ,gotha ,almanac for #ahfb states the population of ,egypt in #ahei at #e1abe1jjj souls2 but this must be a great exaggeration1 even supposing the estimate to include the inhabitants of ,nubia1 and of much other territory not geographically belonging to ,egypt4 ,in general1 the population of that country has been estimated at something more than three millions1 or about six hundred to the square mile2 but with a better government and better social institutions1 the soil would sustain a much greater number1 and in fact it is believed that in ancient times its inhabitants were twice1 perhaps even thrice1 as numerous as at present4 ,wilkinson 7,handbook for ,travellers in ,egypt1 p4 #aj7 observes that the total population1 which two hundred years ago was estimated at #d1jjj1jjj1 amounted till lately only to about #a1hjj1jjj souls1 having been reduced since #ahjj from #b1ejj1jjj to that number4 #cci ,ritter supposes ,egypt to have been a sandy desert when it was first occupied by man4 ,the first inhabitant of the sandy valley of the ,nile was a desert dweller1 as his neighbors right and left1 the ,libyan1 the nomade ,arab1 still are4 ,but the civilized people of ,egypt transformed1 by canals1 the waste into the richest granary of the world2 they liberated themselves from the shackles of the rock and sand desert1 in the midst of which1 by a wise distribution of the fluid through the solid geographical form1 by irrigation in short1 they created a region of culture most rich in historical monuments4--,einleitung zur allgemeinen vergleichenden ,geographie1 pp4 #afe1 #aff4 ,this view seems to me highly improbable2 for though1 by canals and embankments1 man has done much to modify the natural distribution of the waters of the ,nile1 and possibly has even transferred its channel from one side of the valley to the other1 yet the annual inundation is not his work1 and the river must have overflowed its banks and carried spontaneous vegetation with its waters1 as well before as since ,egypt was first occupied by the human family4 ,there is1 indeed1 some reason to suppose that man lived upon the banks of the ,nile when its channel was much lower1 and the spread of its inundations much narrower than at present2 but wherever its flood reached1 there the forest would propagate itself1 and its shores are much more likely to have been morasses than sands4 #cdj ,memorie sui progetti per l'estensione dell' ,irrigazione1 etc41 il ,politecnico1 for ,january1 #ahfc1 p4 #f4 #cda ,,niel1 ,l',agriculture des ,etats ,sardes1 p4 #bcb4 #cdb ,,niel1 ,agriculture des ,etats ,sardes1 p4 #bcg4 ,lombardini's computation just given allows eighty-one cubic metres per day to the hectare1 which1 supposing the season of irrigation to be one hundred days1 is equal to a precipitation of thirty-two inches4 ,but in ,lombardy1 water is applied to some crops during a longer period than one hundred days2 and in the marcite it flows over the ground even in winter4 ,according to ,boussingault 7,economie ,rurale1 ii1 p4 #bdf7 grass grounds ought to receive1 in ,germany1 twenty-one centimetres of water per week1 and with less than half that quantity it is not advisable to incur the expense of supplying it4 ,the ground is irrigated twenty-five or thirty times1 and if the full quantity of twenty-one centimetres is applied1 it receives about two hundred inches of water1 or six times the total amount of precipitation4 ,puvis1 quoted by ,boussingault1 after much research comes to the conclusion that a proper quantity is twenty centimetres applied twenty-five or thirty times1 which corresponds with the estimate just stated4 ,puvis adds--and1 as our author thinks1 with reason--that this amount might be doubled without disadvantage4 ,boussingault observes that rain water is vastly more fertilizing than the water of irrigating canals1 and therefore the supply of the latter must be greater4 ,this is explained partly by the different character of the substances held in solution or suspension by the waters of the earth and of the sky1 partly by the higher temperature of the latter1 and1 possibly1 partly also by the mode of application--the rain being finely divided in its fall or by striking plants on the ground1 river water flowing in a continuous sheet4 ,the temperature of the water is thought even more important than its composition4 ,the sources which irrigate the marcite of ,lombardy--meadows so fertile that less than an acre furnishes grass for a cow the whole year--are very warm4 ,the ground watered by them never freezes1 and a first crop1 for soiling1 is cut from it in ,january or ,february4 ,the ,canal ,cavour1 just now commenced--which is to take its supply from the ,po at ,chivasso1 fourteen or fifteen miles below ,turin--will furnish water of much higher fertilizing power than that derived from the ,dora ,baltea and the ,sesia1 both because it is warmer1 and because it transports a more abundant and a richer sediment than the latter streams1 which are fed by ,alpine icefields and melting snows1 and which flow1 for long distances1 in channels ground smooth and bare by ancient glaciers1 and not now contributing much vegetable mould or fine slime to their waters4 #cdc ,it belongs rather to agriculture than to geography to discuss the quality of the crops obtained by irrigation1 or the permanent effects produced by it on the productiveness of the soil4 ,there is no doubt1 however1 that all crops which can be raised without watering are superior in flavor and in nutritive power to those grown by the aid of irrigation4 ,garden vegetables1 particularly1 profusely watered1 are so insipid as to be hardly eatable4 ,wherever irrigation is practised1 there is an almost irresistible tendency1 especially among ignorant cultivators1 to carry it to excess2 and in ,piedmont and ,lombardy1 if the supply of water is abundant1 it is so liberally applied as sometimes not only to injure the quality of the product1 but to drown the plants and diminish the actual weight of the crop4 ,professor ,liebig1 in his ,modern ,agriculture1 says3 ,there is not to be found in chemistry a more wonderful phenomenon1 one which more confounds all human wisdom1 than is presented by the soil of a garden or field4 ,by the simplest experiment1 any one may satisfy himself that rain water filtered through field or garden soil does not dissolve out a trace of potash1 silicic acid1 ammonia1 or phosphoric acid4 ,the soil does not give up to the water one particle of the food of plants which it contains4 ,the most continuous rains cannot remove from the field1 except mechanically1 any of the essential constituents of its fertility4 ,the soil not only retains firmly all the food of plants which is actually in it1 but its power to preserve all that may be useful to them extends much farther4 ,if rain or other water holding in solution ammonia1 potash1 and phosphoric and silicic acids1 be brought in contact with soil1 these substances disappear almost immediately from the solution2 the soil withdraws them from the water4 ,only such substances are completely withdrawn by the soil as are indispensable articles of food for plants2 all others remain wholly or in part in solution4 ,the first of the paragraphs just quoted is not in accordance with the alleged experience of agriculturists in those parts of ,italy where irrigation is most successfully applied4 ,they believe that the constituents of vegetable growth are washed out of the soil by excessive and long-continued watering4 ,they consider it also established as a fact of observation1 that water which has flowed through or over rich ground is far more valuable for irrigation than water from the same source1 which has not been impregnated with fertilizing substances by passing through soils containing them2 and1 on the other hand1 that water1 rich in the elements of vegetation1 parts with them in serving to irrigate a poor soil1 and is therefore less valuable as a fertilizer of lower grounds to which it may afterward be conducted4 ,the practice of irrigation--except in mountainous countries where springs and rivulets are numerous--is attended with very serious economical1 social1 and political evils4 ,the construction of canals and their immensely ramified branches1 and the grading and scarping of the ground to be watered1 are always expensive operations1 and they very often require an amount of capital which can be commanded only by the state1 by moneyed corporations1 or by very wealthy proprietors2 the capacity of the canals must be calculated with reference to the area intended to be irrigated1 and when they and their branches are once constructed1 it is very difficult to extend them1 or to accommodate any of their original arrangements to changes in the condition of the soil1 or in the modes or objects of cultivation2 the flow of the water being limited by the abundance of the source or the capacity of the canals1 the individual proprietor cannot be allowed to withdraw water at will1 according to his own private interest or convenience1 but both the time and the quantity of supply must be regulated by a general system applicable1 as far as may be1 to the whole area irrigated by the same canal1 and every cultivator must conform his industry to a plan which may be quite at variance with his special objects or with his views of good husbandry4 ,the clashing interests and the jealousies of proprietors depending on the same means of supply are a source of incessant contention and litigation1 and the caprices or partialities of the officers who control1 or of contractors who farm the canals1 lead not unfrequently to ruinous injustice toward individual landholders4 ,these circumstances discourage the division of the soil into small properties1 and there is a constant tendency to the accumulation of large estates of irrigated land in the hands of great capitalists1 and consequently to the dispossession of the small cultivators1 who pass from the condition of owners of the land to that of hireling tillers4 ,the farmers are no longer yeomen1 but peasants4 ,having no interest in the soil which composes their country1 they are virtually expatriated1 and the middle class1 which ought to constitute the real physical and moral strength of the land1 ceases to exist as a rural estate1 and is found only among the professional1 the mercantile1 and the industrial population of the cities4 #cdd ,,boussingault1 ,economie ,rurale1 ii1 pp4 #bdh1 #bdi4 #cde ,the cultivation of rice is so prejudicial to health everywhere that nothing but the necessities of a dense population can justify the sacrifice of life it costs in countries where it is pursued4 ,it has been demonstrated by actual experiment1 that even in ,mississippi1 cotton can be advantageously raised by the white man without danger to health2 and in fact1 a great deal of the cotton brought to the ,vicksburg market for some years past has been grown exclusively by white labor4 ,there is no reason why the cultivation of cotton should be a more unhealthy occupation in ,america than it is in other countries where it was never dreamed of as dangerous1 and no well-informed ,american1 in the ,slave ,states or out of them1 believes that the abolition of slavery in the ,south would permanently diminish the cotton crop of those ,states4 #cdf ,l',italie a propos de l',exposition de ,paris1 p4 #ib4 #cdg ,the very valuable memoirs of ,lombardini1 ,cenni idrografi sulla ,lombardia1 ,intorno al sistema idraulico del ,po1 and other papers on similar subjects1 were published in periodicals little known out of ,italy2 and the ,idraulica ,pratica of ,mari has not1 ,i believe1 been translated into ,french or ,english4 ,these works1 and other sources of information equally inaccessible out of ,italy1 have been freely used by ,baumgarten1 in a memoir entitled ,notice sur les ,rivieres de la ,lombardie1 in the ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahdg1 #a;er semestre1 pp4 #abi et seqq41 and by ,dumont1 ,des ,travaux ,publics dans leurs ,rapports avec l',agriculture1 note1 viii1 pp4 #bfi et seqq4 ,for the convenience of my readers1 ,i shall use these two articles instead of the original authorities on which they are founded4 #cdh ,sir ,john ,f4 ,w4 ,herschel1 citing ,talabot as his authority1 ,physical ,geography 7#bd74 ,in an elaborate paper on ,irrigation1 printed in the ,united ,states ,patent ,report for #ahfj1 p4 #afi1 it is stated that the volume of water poured into the ,mediterranean by the ,nile in twenty-four hours1 at low water1 is #aej1eff1cib1cfh cubic metres2 at high water1 #gje1ead1ffg1ddj cubic metres4 ,taking the mean of these two numbers1 the average daily delivery of the ,nile would be #dbh1jha1jei1hjh cubic metres1 or more than #eej1jjj1jjj1jjj cubic yards4 ,there is some enormous mistake1 probably a typographical error1 in this statement1 which makes the delivery of the ,nile seventeen hundred times as great as computed by ,talabot1 and many times more than any physical geographer has ever estimated the quantity supplied by all the rivers on the face of the globe4 #cdi ,the ,drac1 a torrent emptying into the ,isere a little below ,grenoble1 has discharged #e1bjj1 the ,isere1 which receives it1 #g1hjj cubic yards1 and the ,durance an equal quantity1 per second4--,,montluisant1 ,note sur les ,dessechements1 etc41 ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahcc1 #bme semestre1 p4 #bhh4 ,the floods of some other ,french rivers scarcely fall behind those of the ,rhone4 ,the ,loire1 above ,roanne1 has a basin of #b1dga square miles1 or about twice and a half the area of that of the ,ardeche4 ,in some of its inundations it has delivered above #i1ejj cubic yards per second4--,,belgrand1 ,de l',influence des ,forets1 etc41 ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahed1 #a;er semestre1 p4 #ae1 note4 #cej ,the original forests in which the basin of the ,ardeche was rich have been rapidly disappearing1 for many years1 and the terrific violence of the inundations which are now laying it waste is ascribed1 by the ablest investigators1 to that cause4 ,in an article inserted in the ,annales ,forestieres for #ahdc1 quoted by ,hohenstein1 ,der ,wald1 p4 #agg1 it is said that about one third of the area of the department had already become absolutely barren1 in consequence of clearing1 and that the destruction of the woods was still going on with great rapidity4 ,new torrents were constantly forming1 and they were estimated to have covered more than #gj1jjj acres of good land1 or one eighth of the surface of the department1 with sand and gravel4 #cea ,there is no example of a coincidence between great floods of the ,ardeche and of the ,rhone1 all the known inundations of the former having taken place when the latter was very low4--,,mardigny1 ,memoire sur les ,inondations des ,rivieres de l',ardeche1 p4 #bf4 ,i take this occasion to acknowledge myself indebted to the interesting memoir just quoted for all the statements ,i make respecting the floods of the ,ardeche1 except the comparison of the volume of its waters with that of the ,nile1 and the computation with respect to the capacity required for reservoirs to be constructed in its basin4 #ceb ,in some cases where the bed of rapid ,alpine streams is composed of very hard rock--as is the case in many of the valleys once filled by ancient glaciers--and especially where they are fed by glaciers not overhung by crumbling cliffs1 the channel may remain almost unchanged for centuries4 ,this is observable in many of the tributaries of the ,dora ,baltea1 which drains the valley of the ,aosta4 ,several of these small rivers are spanned by more or less perfect ,roman bridges--one of which1 that over the ,lys at ,pont ,st4 ,martin1 is still in good repair and in constant use4 ,an examination of the rocks on which the abutments of this and some other similar structures are founded1 and of the channels of the rivers they cross1 shows that the beds of the streams cannot have been much elevated or depressed since the bridges were built4 ,in other cases1 as at the outlet of the ,val ,tournanche at ,chatillon1 where a single rib of a ,roman bridge still remains1 there is nothing to forbid the supposition that the deep excavation of the channel may have been partly effected at a much later period4 ,see ,app41 ,no4 #de4 #cec ,memoire sur les ,inondations des ,rivieres de l',ardeche1 p4 #af4 ,the terrific roar1 the thunder of the raging torrents proceeds principally from the stones which are rolled along in the bed of the stream4 ,this movement is attended with such powerful attrition that1 in the ,southern ,alps1 the atmosphere of valleys where the limestone contains bitumen1 has1 at the time of floods1 the marked bituminous smell produced by rubbing pieces of such limestone together4--,,wessely1 ,die ,oesterreichischien ,alpenlaender1 i1 p4 #aac4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #dh4 #ced ,,frisi1 ,del modo di regolare i ,fiumi e i ,torrenti1 pp4 #d-ai4 #cee ,,surell1 ,etude sur les ,torrents1 pp4 #ca-cf4 #cef ,,champion1 ,les ,inondations en ,france1 iii1 p4 #aef1 note4 #ceg ,notwithstanding this favorable circumstance1 the damage done by the inundation of #ahdj in the valley of the ,rhone was estimated at seventy-two millions of francs4--,,champion1 ,les ,inondations en ,france1 iv1 p4 #abd4 ,several smaller floods of the ,rhone1 experienced at a somewhat earlier season of the year in #ahdf1 occasioned a loss of forty-five millions of francs4 ,what if1 says ,dumont1 instead of happening in ,october1 that is between harvest and seedtime1 they had occurred before the crops were secured8 ,the damage would have been counted by hundreds of millions4--,des ,travaux ,publics1 p4 #ii1 note4 #ceh ,,troy1 ,etude sur le ,reboisement des ,montagnes1 ,sec4,sec4 #f1 #g1 #ba4 #cei ,for accounts of damage from the bursting of reservoirs1 see ,,vallee1 ,memoire sur les ,reservoirs d',alimentation des ,canaux1 ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahcc1 #a;er semestre1 p4 #bfa4 #cfj ,some geographical writers apply the term bifurcation exclusively to this intercommunication of rivers2 others1 with more etymological propriety1 use it to express the division of great rivers into branches at the head of their deltas4 ,a technical term is wanting to designate the phenomenon mentioned in the text4 #cfa ,,mardigny1 ,memoire sur les ,inondations de l',ardeche1 p4 #ac4 #cfb ,in the case of rivers flowing through wide alluvial plains and much inclined to shift their beds1 like the ,po1 the embankments often leave a very wide space between them4 ,the dikes of the ,po are sometimes three or four miles apart4--,,baumgarten1 after ,,lombardini1 ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahdg1 #a;er semestre1 p4 #adi4 #cfc ,it appears from the investigations of ,lombardini that the rate of elevation of the bed of the ,po has been much exaggerated by earlier writers1 and in some parts of its course the change is so slow that its level may be regarded as nearly constant4--,,baumgarten1 volume before cited1 pp4 #age1 et seqq4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #di4 ,if the western coast of the ,adriatic is undergoing a secular depression1 as many circumstances concur to prove1 the sinking of the plain near the coast may both tend to prevent the deposit of sediment in the river bed by increasing the velocity of its current1 and compensate the elevation really produced by deposits1 so that no sensible elevation would result1 though much gravel and slime might be let fall4 #cfd ,to secure the city of ,sacramento in ,california from the inundations to which it is subject1 a dike or levee was built upon the bank of the river and raised to an elevation above that of the highest known floods1 and it was connected1 below the town1 with grounds lying considerably above the river4 ,on one occasion a breach in the dike occurred above the town at a very high stage of the flood4 ,the water poured in behind it1 and overflowed the lower part of the city1 which remained submerged for some time after the river had retired to its ordinary level1 because the dike1 which had been built to keep the water out1 now kept it in4 ,according to ,arthur ,young1 on the lower ,po1 where the surface of the river has been elevated much above the level of the adjacent fields by diking1 the peasants in his time frequently endeavored to secure their grounds against threatened devastation through the bursting of the dikes1 by crossing the river when the danger became imminent and opening a cut in the opposite bank1 thus saving their own property by flooding their neighbors'4 ,he adds1 that at high water the navigation of the river was absolutely interdicted1 except to mail and passenger boats1 and that the guards fired upon all others2 the object of the prohibition being to prevent the peasants from resorting to this measure of self-defence4--,travels in ,italy and ,spain1 ,nov4 #g1 #aghi4 ,in a flood of the ,po in #ahci1 a breach of the embankment took place at ,bonizzo4 ,the water poured through and inundated #aaf1jjj acres1 or #aha square miles1 of the plain1 to the depth of from twenty to twenty-three feet in its lower parts4--,,baumgarten1 after ,,lombardini1 volume before cited1 p4 #aeb4 #cfe ,,moyens de forcer les ,torrents de rendre une partie du sol qu'ils ravagent1 et d'empecher les grandes ,inondations4 #cff ,the effect of trees and other detached obstructions in checking the flow of water is particularly noticed by ,palissy in his essay on ,waters and ,fountains1 p4 #agc1 edition of #ahdd4 ,there be1 says he1 in divers parts of ,france1 and specially at ,nantes1 wooden bridges1 where1 to break the force of the waters and of the floating ice1 which might endamage the piers of the said bridges1 they have driven upright timbers into the bed of the rivers above the said piers1 without the which they should abide but little4 ,and in like wise1 the trees which be planted along the mountains do much deaden the violence of the waters that flow from them4 #cfg ,i do not mean to say that all rivers excavate their own valleys1 for ,i have no doubt that in the majority of cases such depressions of the surface originate in higher geological causes1 and hence the valley makes the river1 not the river the valley4 ,but even if we suppose a basin of the hardest rock to be elevated at once1 completely formed1 from the submarine abyss where it was fashioned1 the first shower of rain that falls upon it after it rises to the air1 while its waters will follow the lowest lines of the surface1 will cut those lines deeper1 and so on with every successive rain4 ,the disintegrated rock from the upper part of the basin forms the lower by alluvial deposit1 which is constantly transported farther and farther until the resistance of gravitation and cohesion balances the mechanical force of the running water4 ,thus plains1 more or less steeply inclined1 are formed1 in which the river is constantly changing its bed1 according to the perpetually varying force and direction of its currents1 modified as they are by ever-fluctuating conditions4 ,thus the ,po is said to have long inclined to move its channel southward in consequence of the superior mechanical force of its northern affluents4 ,a diversion of these tributaries from their present beds1 so that they should enter the main stream at other points and in different directions1 might modify the whole course of that great river4 ,but the mechanical force of the tributary is not the only element of its influence on the course of the principal stream4 ,the deposits it lodges in the bed of the latter1 acting as simple obstructions or causes of diversion1 are not less important agents of change4 #cfh ,the distance to which a new obstruction to the flow of a river1 whether by a dam or by a deposit in its channel1 will retard its current1 or1 in popular phrase1 set back the water1 is a problem of more difficult practical solution than almost any other in hydraulics4 ,the elements--such as straightness or crookedness of channel1 character of bottom and banks1 volume and previous velocity of current1 mass of water far above the obstruction1 extraordinary drought or humidity of seasons1 relative extent to which the river may be affected by the precipitation in its own basin1 and by supplies received through subterranean channels from sources so distant as to be exposed to very different meteorological influences1 effects of clearing and other improvements always going on in new countries--are all extremely difficult1 and some of them impossible1 to be known and measured4 ,in the ,american ,states1 very numerous watermills have been erected within a few years1 and there is scarcely a stream in the settled portion of the country which has not several milldams upon it4 ,when a dam is raised--a process which the gradual diminution of the summer currents renders frequently necessary--or when a new dam is built1 it often happens that the meadows above are flowed1 or that the retardation of the stream extends back to the dam next above4 ,this leads to frequent lawsuits4 ,from the great uncertainty of the facts1 the testimony is more conflicting in these than in any other class of cases1 and the obstinacy with which water causes are disputed has become proverbial4 ,the subterranean courses of the waters form a subject very difficult of investigation1 and it is only recently that its vast importance has been recognized4 ,the interesting observations of ,schmidt on the caves of the ,karst and their rivers throw much light on the underground hydrography of limestone districts1 and serve to explain how1 in the low peninsula of ,florida1 rivers1 which must have their sources in mountains a hundred or more miles distant1 can pour out of the earth in currents large enough to admit of steamboat navigation to their very basins of eruption4 ,artesian wells are revealing to us the existence of subterranean lakes and rivers sometimes superposed one above another in successive sheets2 but the still more important subject of the absorption of water by earth and its transmission by infiltration is yet wrapped in great obscurity4 #cfi ,the sediment of the ,po has filled up some lagoons and swamps in its delta1 and converted them into comparatively dry land2 but1 on the other hand1 the retardation of the current from the lengthening of its course1 and the diminution of its velocity by the deposits at its mouth1 have forced its waters at some higher points to spread in spite of embankments1 and thus fertile fields have been turned into unhealthy and unproductive marshes4--,see ,,botter1 ,sulla condizione dei ,terreni ,maremmani nel ,ferrarese4 ,annali di ,agricoltura1 etc41 ,fasc4 v1 #ahfc4 #cgj ,deep borings have not detected any essential difference in the quantity or quality of the deposits of the ,nile for forty or fifty1 or1 as some compute1 for a hundred centuries4 ,from what vast store of rich earth does this river derive the three or four inches of fertilizing material which it spreads over the soil of ,egypt every hundred years8 ,not from the ,white ,nile1 for that river drops nearly all its suspended matter in the broad expansions and slow current of its channel south of the tenth degree of north latitude4 ,nor does it appear that much sediment is contributed by the ,bahr-el-,azrek1 which flows through forests for a great part of its course4 ,i have been informed by an old ,european resident of ,egypt who is very familiar with the ,upper ,nile1 that almost the whole of the earth with which its waters are charged is brought down by the ,takazze4 #cga ,it is very probably true that1 as ,lombardini supposes1 the plain of ,lombardy was anciently covered with forests and morasses 7,baumgarten1 l4 c4 p4 #aef72 but1 had the ,po remained unconfined1 its deposits would have raised its banks as fast as its bed1 and there is no obvious reason why this plain should be more marshy than other alluvial flats traversed by great rivers4 ,its lower course would possibly have become more marshy than at present1 but the banks of its middle and upper course would have been in a better condition for agricultural use than they now are4 #cgb ,from daily measurements during a period of fourteen years--#ahbg to #ahdj--the mean delivery of the ,po at ,ponte ,lagoscuro1 below the entrance of its last tributary1 is found to be #a1gbj cubic metres1 or #fj1gde cubic feet1 per second4 ,its smallest delivery is #ahf cubic metres1 or #f1efi cubic feet1 its greatest #e1aef cubic metres1 or #ahb1jid cubic feet4--,,baumgarten1 following ,,lombardini1 volume before cited1 p4 #aei4 ,the average delivery of the ,nile being #aja1jjj cubic feet per second1 it follows that the ,po contributes to the ,adriatic six tenths as much water as the ,nile to the ,mediterranean--a result which will surprise most readers4 #cgc ,we are quite safe in supposing that the valley of the ,nile has been occupied by man at least #e1jjj years4 ,the dates of ,egyptian chronology are uncertain1 but ,i believe no inquirer estimates the age of the great pyramids at less than forty centuries1 and the construction of such works implies an already ancient civilization4 #cgd ,there are many dikes in ,egypt1 but they are employed in but a very few cases to exclude the waters of the inundation4 ,their office is to retain the water received at high ,nile into the inclosures formed by them until it shall have deposited its sediment or been drawn out for irrigation2 and they serve also as causeways for interior communication during the floods4 ,the ,egyptian dikes1 therefore1 instead of forcing the river1 like those of the ,po1 to transport its sediment to the sea1 help to retain the slime1 which1 if the flow of the current over the land were not obstructed1 might be carried back into the channel1 and at last to the ,mediterranean4 #cge ,the ,mediterranean front of the ,delta may be estimated at one hundred and fifty miles in length4 ,two cubic miles of earth would more than fill up the lagoons on the coast1 and the remaining ten1 even allowing the mean depth of the water to be twenty fathoms1 which is beyond the truth1 would have been sufficient to extend the coast line about three miles farther seaward1 and thus1 including the land gained by the filling up of the lagoons1 to add more than five hundred square miles to the area of ,egypt4 ,nor is this all2 for the retardation of the current1 by lengthening the course and consequently diminishing the inclination of the channel1 would have increased the deposit of suspended matter1 and proportionally augmented the total effect of the embankment4 #cgf ,for the convenience of navigation1 and to lessen the danger of inundation by giving greater directness1 and1 of course1 rapidity to the current1 bends in rivers are sometimes cut off and winding channels made straight4 ,this process has the same general effects as diking1 and therefore cannot be employed without many of the same results4 ,this practice has often been resorted to on the ,mississippi with advantage to navigation1 but it is quite another question whether that advantage has not been too dearly purchased by the injury to the banks at lower points4 ,if we suppose a river to have a navigable course of #a1fjj miles as measured by its natural channel1 with a descent of #hjj feet1 we shall have a fall of six inches to the mile4 ,if the length of channel be reduced to #a1bjj miles by cutting off bends1 the fall is increased to eight inches per mile4 ,the augmentation of velocity consequent upon this increase of inclination is not computable without taking into account other elements1 such as depth and volume of water1 diminution of direct resistance1 and the like1 but in almost any supposable case1 it would be sufficient to produce great effects on the height of floods1 the deposit of sediment in the channel1 on the shores1 and at the outlet1 the erosion of banks and other points of much geographical importance4 ,the ,po1 in those parts of its course where the embankments leave a wide space between1 often cuts off bends in its channel and straightens its course4 ,these short cuts are called salti1 or leaps1 and sometimes reduce the distance between their termini by several miles4 ,in #aggg1 the salto of ,cottaro shortened a distance of #g1jjj metres by #e1jjj1 or1 in other words1 reduced the length of the channel more than three miles2 and in #ahjg and #ahaj the two salti of ,mezzanone effected a reduction of distance to the amount of between seven and eight miles4--,,baumgarten1 l4 c4 p4 #ch4 #cgg ,the fact1 that the mixing of salt and fresh water in coast marshes and lagoons is deleterious to the sanitary condition of the vicinity1 seems almost universally admitted1 though the precise reason why a mixture of both should be more injurious than either alone1 is not altogether clear4 ,it has been suggested that the admission of salt water to the lagoons and rivers kills many fresh water plants and animals1 while the fresh water is equally fatal to many marine organisms1 and that the decomposition of the remains originates poisonous miasmata4 ,other theories however have been proposed4 ,the whole subject is fully and ably discussed by ,dr4 ,salvagnoli ,marchetti in the appendix to his valuable ,rapporto sul ,bonificamento delle ,maremme ,toscane4 ,see also the ,memorie ,economico-,statistiche sulle ,maremme ,toscane1 of the same author4 #cgh ,this curious fact is thus stated in the preface to ,fossombroni 7,memorie sopra la ,val di ,chiana1 edition of #ahce1 p4 xiii71 from which also ,i borrow most of the data hereafter given with respect to that valley3 ,it is perhaps not universally known1 that the swallows1 which come from the north south to spend the summer in our climate1 do not frequent marshy districts with a malarious atmosphere4 ,a proof of the restoration of salubrity in the ,val di ,chiana is furnished by these aerial visitors1 which had never before been seen in those low grounds1 but which have appeared within a few years at ,forano and other points similarly situated4 ,is the air of swamps destructive to the swallows1 or is their absence in such localities merely due to the want of human habitations1 near which this half-domestic bird loves to breed1 perhaps because the house fly and other insects which follow man are found only in the vicinity of his dwellings8 ,in almost all ,european countries1 the swallow is protected1 by popular opinion or superstition1 from the persecution to which almost all other birds are subject4 ,it is possible that this respect for the swallow is founded upon ancient observation of the fact just stated on the authority of ,fossombroni4 ,ignorance mistakes the effect for the cause1 and the absence of this bird may have been supposed to be the occasion1 not the consequence1 of the unhealthiness of particular localities4 ,this opinion once adopted1 the swallow would become a sacred bird1 and in process of time fables and legends would be invented to give additional sanction to the prejudices which protected it4 ,the ,romans considered the swallow as consecrated to the ,penates1 or household gods1 and according to ,peretti 7,le ,serate del ,villaggio1 p4 #afh7 the ,lombard peasantry think it a sin to kill them1 because they are le gallinelle del ,signore1 the chickens of the ,lord4 ,the following little ,tuscan rispetto from ,gradi 7,racconti ,popolari1 p4 #cc7 well expresses the feeling of the peasantry toward this bird3 ,o rondinella che passi lo mare ,torna 'ndietro1 vo' dirti du' parole2 ,dammi 'na penna delle tue bell' ale1 ,vo' scrivere 'na lettera al mi' amore2 ,e quando l' avro scritta 'n carta bella1 ,ti rendero la penna1 o rondinella2 ,e quando l' avro scritta 'n carta bianca1 ,ti rendero la penna che ti manca2 ,e quando l' avro scritta in carta d' oro1 ,ti rendero la penna al tuo bel volo4 ,o swallow1 that fliest beyond the sea1 ,turn back6 ,i would fain have a word with thee4 ,a feather oh grant1 from thy wing so bright6 ,for ,i to my sweetheart a letter would write2 ,and when it is written on paper fine ,i'll give thee1 ,o swallow1 that feather of thine2 --,on paper so white1 and ,i'll give thee back1 ,o pretty swallow1 the pen thou dost lack2 --,on paper of gold1 and then ,i'll restore ,to thy beautiful pinion the feather once more4 ,popular traditions and superstitions are so closely connected with localities1 that1 though an emigrant people may carry them to a foreign land1 they seldom survive a second generation4 ,the swallow1 however1 is still protected in ,new ,england by prejudices of transatlantic origin2 and ,i remember hearing1 in my childhood1 that if the swallows were killed1 the cows would give bloody milk4 #cgi ,,morozzi1 ,dello stato antico e moderno del fiume ,arno1 ii1 p4 #db4 #chj ,,morozzi1 ,dello stato1 etc41 dell' ,arno1 ii1 pp4 #ci1 #dj4 #cha ,torricelli thus expressed himself on this point3 ,if we content ourselves with what nature has made practicable to human industry1 we shall endeavor to control1 as far as possible1 the outlets of these streams1 which1 by raising the bed of the valley with their deposits1 will realize the fable of the ,tagus and the ,pactolus1 and truly roll golden sands for him that is wise enough to avail himself of them4--,,fossombroni1 ,memorie sopra la ,val di ,chiana1 p4 #bai4 #chb ,arrian observes that at the junction of the ,hydaspes and the ,acesines1 both of which are described as wide streams1 one very narrow river is formed of two confluents1 and its current is very swift4--,,arrian1 ,alex4 ,anab41 vi1 #d4 #chc ,this difficulty has been remedied as to one important river of the ,maremma1 the ,pecora1 by clearings recently executed along its upper course4 ,the condition of this marsh and of its affluents are now1 ,november1 #ahei1 much changed1 and it is advisable to prosecute its improvement by deposits4 ,in consequence of the extensive felling of the woods upon the plains1 hills1 and mountains of the territory of ,massa and ,scarlino1 within the last ten years1 the ,pecora and other affluents of the marsh receive1 during the rains1 water abundantly charged with slime1 so that the deposits within the first division of the marsh are already considerable1 and we may now hope to see the whole marsh and pond filled up in a much shorter time than we had a right to expect before #ahej4 ,this circumstance totally changes the terms of the question1 because the filling of the marsh and pond1 which then seemed almost impossible on account of the small amount of sediment deposited by the ,pecora1 has now become practicable4--,,salvagnoli1 ,rapporto sul ,bonificamento delle ,maremme ,toscane1 pp4 li1 lii4 ,the annual amount of sediment brought down by the rivers of the ,maremma is computed at more than #ab1jjj1jjj cubic yards1 or enough to raise an area of four square miles one yard4 ,between #ahcj and #ahei more than three times that quantity was deposited in the marsh and shoal water lake of ,castiglione alone4--,,salvagnoli1 ,raccolta di ,documenti1 pp4 #gd1 #ge4 #chd ,the tide rises ten inches on the coast of ,tuscany4 ,see ,memoir by ,,fantoni1 in the appendix to ,,salvagnoli1 ,rapporto1 p4 #ahi4 ,on the tides of the ,mediterranean1 see ,b,oe,t,t,g,e,r1 ,das ,mittelmeer1 p4 #aij4 ,not having ,admiral ,smyth's ,mediterranean--on which ,boettger's work is founded--at hand1 ,i do not know how far credit is due to the former author for the matter contained in the chapter referred to4 #che ,in ,catholic countries1 the discipline of the church requires a meagre diet at certain seasons1 and as fish is not flesh1 there is a great demand for that article of food at those periods4 ,for the convenience of monasteries and their patrons1 and as a source of pecuniary emolument to ecclesiastical establishments and sometimes to lay proprietors1 great numbers of artificial fish ponds were created during the ,middle ,ages4 ,they were generally shallow pools formed by damming up the outlet of marshes1 and they were among the most fruitful sources of endemic disease1 and of the peculiar malignity of the epidemics which so often ravaged ,europe in those centuries4 ,these ponds1 in religious hands1 were too sacred to be infringed upon for sanitary purposes1 and when belonging to powerful lay lords they were almost as inviolable4 ,the rights of fishery were a standing obstacle to every proposal of hydraulic improvement1 and to this day large and fertile districts in ,southern ,europe remain sickly and almost unimproved and uninhabited1 because the draining of the ponds upon them would reduce the income of proprietors who derive large profits by supplying the faithful1 in ,lent1 with fish1 and with various species of waterfowl which1 though very fat1 are1 ecclesiastically speaking1 meagre4 #chf ,macchiavelli advised the ,government of ,tuscany to provide that men should restore the wholesomeness of the soil by cultivation1 and purify the air by fires4--,,salvagnoli1 ,memorie1 p4 #aaa4 #chg ,,giorgini1 ,sur les causes de l',insalubrite de l'air dans le voisinage des marais1 etc41 lue a l',academie des ,sciences a ,paris1 le #ab ,juillet1 #ahbe4 ,reprinted in ,,salvagnoli1 ,rapporto1 etc41 appendice1 p4 #e1 et seqq4 #chh ,see the careful estimates of ,,roset1 ,moyens de forcer les ,torrents1 etc41 pp4 #db1 #dd4 #chi ,rivers which transport sand1 gravel1 pebbles1 heavy mineral matter in short1 tend to raise their own beds2 those charged only with fine1 light earth1 to cut them deeper4 ,the prairie rivers of the ,west have deep channels1 because the mineral matter they carry down is not heavy enough to resist the impulse of even a moderate current1 and those tributaries of the ,po which deposit their sediment in the lakes--the ,ticino1 the ,adda1 the ,oglio1 and the ,mincio--flow1 in deep cuts1 for the same reason4--,,baumgarten1 l4 c41 p4 #acb4 #cij ,the stream carries this mud1 c41 at first farther to the east1 and only lets it fall where the force of the current becomes weakened4 ,this explains the continual advance of the land seaward along the ,syrian coast1 in consequence of which ,tyre and ,sidon no longer lie on the shore1 but some distance inland4 ,that the ,nile contributes to this deposit may easily be seen1 even by the unscientific observer1 from the stained and turbid character of the water for many miles from its mouths4 ,a somewhat alarming phenomenon was observed in this neighborhood in #ahja1 on board the ,english frigate ,romulus1 ,captain ,culverhouse1 on a voyage from ,acre to ,abukir4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke1 who was a passenger on board this ship1 thus describes it3 '#bfth ,july4--,to-day1 ,sunday1 we accompanied the captain to the wardroom to dine1 as usual1 with his officers4 ,while we were at table1 we heard the sailors who were throwing the lead suddenly cry out3 ,three and a half6 ,the captain sprang up1 was on deck in an instant1 and1 almost at the same moment1 the ship slackened her way1 and veered about4 ,every sailor on board supposed she would ground at once4 ,meanwhile1 however1 as the ship came round1 the whole surface of the water was seen to be covered with thick1 black mud1 which extended so far that it appeared like an island4 ,at the same time1 actual land was nowhere to be seen--not even from the masthead--nor was any notice of such a shoal to be found on any chart on board4 ,the fact is1 as we learned afterward1 that a stratum of mud1 stretching from the mouths of the ,nile for many miles out into the open sea1 forms a movable deposit along the ,egyptian coast4 ,if this deposit is driven forward by powerful currents1 it sometimes rises to the surface1 and disturbs the mariner by the sudden appearance of shoals where the charts lead him to expect a considerable depth of water4 ,but these strata of mud are1 in reality1 not in the least dangerous4 ,as soon as a ship strikes them they break up at once1 and a frigate may hold her course in perfect safety where an inexperienced pilot1 misled by his soundings1 would every moment expect to be stranded4'--,b,oe,t,t,g,e,r1 ,das ,mittelmeer1 pp4 #ahh1 #ahi4 #cia ,the caves of ,carniola receive considerable rivers from the surface of the earth1 which cannot1 in all cases1 be identified with streams flowing out of them at other points1 and like phenomena are not uncommon in other limestone countries4 ,the cases are certainly not numerous where marine currents are known to pour continuously into cavities beneath the surface of the earth1 but there is at least one well-authenticated instance of this sort--that of the mill streams at ,argostoli in the island of ,cephalonia4 ,it had been long observed that the sea water flowed into several rifts and cavities in the limestone rocks of the coast1 but the phenomenon has excited little attention until very recently4 ,in #ahcc1 three of the entrances were closed1 and a regular channel1 sixteen feet long and three feet wide1 with a fall of three feet1 was cut into the mouth of a larger cavity4 ,the sea water flowed into this canal1 and could be followed eighteen or twenty feet beyond its inner terminus1 when it disappeared in holes and clefts in the rock4 ,in #aheh1 the canal had been enlarged to the width of five feet and a half1 and a depth of a foot4 ,the water pours rapidly through the canal into an irregular depression and forms a pool1 the surface of which is three or four feet below the adjacent soil1 and about two and a half or three feet below the level of the sea4 ,from this pool it escapes through several holes and clefts in the rock1 and has not yet been found to emerge elsewhere4 ,there is a tide at ,argostoli of about six inches in still weather1 but it is considerably higher with a south wind4 ,i do not find it stated whether water flows through the canal into the cavity at low tide1 but it distinctly appears that there is no refluent current1 as of course there could not be from a basin so much below the sea4 ,mousson found the delivery through the canal to be at the rate of #bd4hh cubic feet to the second2 at what stage of the tide does not appear4 ,other mills of the same sort have been erected1 and there appear to be several points on the coast where the sea flows into the land4 ,various hypotheses have been suggested to explain this phenomenon1 some of which assume that the water descends to a great depth beneath the crust of the earth1 but the supposition of a difference of level in the surface of the sea on the opposite sides of the island1 which seems confirmed by other circumstances1 is the most obvious method of explaining these singular facts4 ,if we suppose the level of the water on one side of the island to be raised by the action of currents three or four feet higher than on the other1 the existence of cavities and channels in the rock would easily account for a subterranean current beneath the island1 and the apertures of escape might be so deep or so small as to elude observation4 ,see ,aus der ,natur1 vol4 #ai1 pp4 #abi1 et seqq4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #ec4 #cib ,the affluents received by the ,seine below ,rouen are so inconsiderable1 that the augmentation of the volume of that river must be ascribed principally to springs rising in its bed4 ,this is a point of which engineers now take notice1 and ,m4 ,belgrand1 the able officer charged with the improvement of the navigation of the ,seine between ,paris and ,rouen1 has devoted much attention to it4--,,babinet1 ,etudes et ,lectures1 iii1 p4 #ahe4 ,on page #bcb of the volume just quoted1 the same author observes3 ,in the lower part of its course1 from the falls of the ,oise1 the ,seine receives so few important affluents1 that evaporation alone would suffice to exhaust all the water which passes under the bridges of ,paris4 ,this supposes a much greater amount of evaporation than has been usually computed1 but ,i believe it is well settled that the ,seine conveys to the sea much more water than is discharged into it by all its superficial branches4 #cic ,girard and ,duchatelet maintain that the subterranean waters of ,paris are absolutely stagnant4 ,see their report on drainage by artesian wells1 ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahcc1 #bme semestre1 pp4 #cac1 et seqq4 ,this opinion1 if locally true1 cannot be generally so1 for it is inconsistent with the well-known fact that the very first eruption of water from a boring often brings up leaves and other objects which must have been carried into the underground reservoirs by currents4 #cid ,physikalische ,geographie1 p4 #bhf4 ,it does not appear whether this inference is ,mariotte's or ,wittwer's4 ,i suppose it is a conclusion of the latter4 #cie ,physical ,geography of the ,sea4 ,tenth edition4 ,london1 #ahfa1 ,sec4 #bgd4 #cif ,,paramelle1 ,quellenkunde1 mit einem ,vorwort von ,b4 ,,cotta1 #ahef4 #cig ,etudes et ,lectures1 vi1 p4 #aah4 #cih ,the area of soil dried by draining is constantly increasing1 and the water received by the surface from atmospheric precipitation is thereby partly conducted into new channels1 and1 in general1 carried off more rapidly than before4 ,will not this fact exert an influence on the condition of many springs1 whose basin of supply thus undergoes a partial or complete transformation8 ,i am convinced that it will1 and it is important to collect data for solving the question4 ,,bernhard ,,cotta1 ,preface to ,,paramelle1 ,quellenkunde 7,german translation71 pp4 vii1 viii4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #ed4 #cii ,see the interesting observations of ,,kriegk on this subject1 ,schriften zur allgemeinen ,erdkunde1 cap4 iii1 ,sec4 #f1 and especially the passages in ,,ritter',s ,erdkunde1 vol4 i1 there referred to4 ,laurent1 7,memoires sur le ,sahara ,oriental1 pp4 #h1 #i71 in speaking of a river at ,el-,faid1 which1 like all those of the desert1 is1 most of the time1 without water1 observes1 that many wells are dug in the bed of the river in the dry season1 and that the subterranean current thus reached appears to extend itself laterally1 at about the same level1 at least a kilometre from the river1 as water is found by digging to the depth of twelve or fifteen metres at a village situated at that distance from the bank4 ,the most remarkable case of infiltration known to me by personal observation is the occurrence of fresh water in the beach sand on the eastern side of the ,gulf of ,akaba1 the eastern arm of the ,red ,sea4 ,if you dig a cavity in the beach near the sea level1 it soon fills with water so fresh as not to be undrinkable1 though the sea water two or three yards from it contains even more than the average quantity of salt4 ,it cannot be maintained that this is sea water freshened by filtration through a few feet or inches of sand1 for salt water cannot be deprived of its salt by that process4 ,it can only come from the highlands of ,arabia1 and it would seem that there must exist some large reservoir in the interior to furnish a supply which1 in spite of evaporation1 holds out for months after the last rains of winter1 and perhaps even through the year4 ,i observed the fact in the month of ,june4 ,the precipitation in the mountains that border the ,red ,sea is not known by pluviometric measurement1 but the mass of debris brought down the ravines by the torrents proves that their volume must be large4 ,the proportion of surface covered by sand and absorbent earth1 in ,arabia ,petraea and the neighboring countries1 is small1 and the mountains drain themselves rapidly into the wadies or ravines where the torrents are formed2 but the beds of earth and disintegrated rock at the bottom of the valleys are of so loose and porous texture1 that a great quantity of water is absorbed in saturating them before a visible current is formed on their surface4 ,in a heavy thunder storm1 accompanied by a deluging rain1 which ,i witnessed at ,mount ,sinai in the month of ,may1 a large stream of water poured1 in an almost continuous cascade1 down the steep ravine north of the convent1 by which travellers sometimes descend from the plateau between the two peaks1 but after reaching the foot of the mountain1 it flowed but a few yards before it was swallowed up in the sands4 #djj ,it is conceivable that in large and shallow subterranean basins the superincumbent earth may rest upon the water and be partly supported by it4 ,in such case the weight of the earth would be an additional1 if not the sole1 cause of the ascent of the water through the tubes of artesian wells4 ,the elasticity of gases in the cavities may also aid in forcing up water4 ,a ,french engineer1 ,m4 ,mullot1 invented a simple method of bringing to the surface water from any one of several successive accumulations at different depths1 or of raising it1 unmixed1 from two or more of them at once4 ,it consists in employing concentric tubes1 one within the other1 leaving a space for the rise of water between them1 and reaching each to the sheet from which it is intended to draw4 #dja ,many more or less probable conjectures have been made on this subject1 but thus far ,i am not aware that any of the apprehended results have been actually shown to have happened4 ,in an article in the ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees for ,july and ,august1 #ahci1 p4 #aca1 it was suggested that the sinking of the piers of a bridge at ,tours in ,france was occasioned by the abstraction of water from the earth by artesian wells1 and the consequent withdrawal of the mechanical support it had previously given to the strata containing it4 ,a reply to this article will be found in ,,violett1 ,theorie des ,puits ,artesiens1 p4 #bag4 ,in some instances the water has rushed up with a force which seemed to threaten the inundation of the neighborhood1 and even the washing away of much soil2 but in those cases the partial exhaustion of the supply1 or the relief of hydrostatic or elastic pressure1 has generally produced a diminution of the flow in a short time1 and ,i do not know that any serious evil has ever been occasioned in this way4 #djb ,see a very interesting account of these wells1 and of the workmen who clean them out when obstructed by sand brought up with the water1 in ,laurent's memoir on the artesian wells recently bored by the ,french ,government in the ,algerian desert1 ,memoire sur le ,sahara ,oriental1 etc41 pp4 #ai1 et seqq4 ,some of the men remained under water from two minutes to two minutes and forty seconds4 ,several officers are quoted as having observed immersions of three minutes' duration1 and ,m4 ,berbrugger alleges that he witnessed one of five minutes and fifty-five seconds4 ,the shortest of these periods is longer than the best pearl diver can remain below the surface of salt water4 ,the wells of the ,sahara are from twenty to eighty metres deep4 ,it has often been asserted that the ancient ,egyptians were acquainted with the art of boring artesian wells4 ,parthey1 describing the ,little ,oasis1 mentions ruins of a ,roman aqueduct1 and observes3 ,it appears from the recent researches of ,aim1 a ,french engineer1 that these aqueducts are connected with old artesian wells1 the restoration of which would render it practicable to extend cultivation much beyond its present limits4 ,this agrees with ancient testimony4 ,it is asserted that the inhabitants of the oases sunk wells to the depth of #bjj1 #cjj1 and even #ejj ells1 from which affluent streams of water poured out4 ,see ,,olympiodorus in ,photii ,bibl41 cod4 #hj1 p4 #fa1 l4 #ag1 ed4 ,bekk4--,,parthey1 ,wanderungen1 ii1 p4 #ebh4 ,in a paper entitled1 ,note relative a l'execution d'un ,puits ,artesien en ,egypte sous la ,,xviii dynastie1 presented to the ,academie des ,inscriptions et ,belles ,lettres1 on the #abth of ,november1 #aheb1 ,m4 ,lenormant endeavors to show that a hieroglyphic inscription found at ,contrapscelcis proves the execution of a work of this sort in the ,nubian desert1 at the period indicated in the title to his paper4 ,the interpretation of the inscription is a question for ,egyptologists2 but if wells were actually bored through the rock by the ,egyptians after the ,chinese or the ,european fashion1 it is singular that among the numerous and minute representations of their industrial operations1 painted or carved on the walls of their tombs1 no trace of the processes employed for so remarkable and important a purpose should have been discovered4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #ef4 ,it is certain that artesian wells have been common in ,china from a very remote antiquity1 and the simple method used by the ,chinese--where the borer is raised and let fall by a rope1 instead of a rigid rod--has been lately been employed in ,europe with advantage4 ,some of the ,chinese wells are said to be #c1jjj feet deep2 that of ,neusalzwerk in ,silesia--the deepest in ,europe--is #b1cjj4 ,a well was bored at ,st4 ,louis1 in ,missouri1 a few years ago1 to supply a sugar refinery1 to the depth of #b1aii feet4 ,this was executed by a private firm in three years1 at the expense of only #aj1jjj4 ,another has since been bored at the ,state capitol at ,columbus1 ,ohio1 #b1ejj feet deep1 but without obtaining the desired supply of water4 #djc ,in the anticipation of our success at ,oum-,thiour1 every thing had been prepared to take advantage of this new source of wealth without a moment's delay4 ,a division of the tribe of the ,selmia1 and their sheikh1 ,aissa ben ,sha1 laid the foundation of a village as soon as the water flowed1 and planted twelve hundred date palms1 renouncing their wandering life to attach themselves to the soil4 ,in this arid spot1 life had taken the place of solitude1 and presented itself1 with its smiling images1 to the astonished traveller4 ,young girls were drawing water at the fountain2 the flocks1 the great dromedaries with their slow pace1 the horses led by the halter1 were moving to the watering trough2 the hounds and the falcons enlivened the group of party-colored tents1 and living voices and animated movement had succeeded to silence and desolation4--,,laurent1 ,memoires sur le ,sahara1 p4 #he4 #djd ,the variety of hues and tones in the local color of the desert is1 ,i think1 one of the phenomena which most surprise and interest a stranger to those regions4 ,in ,england and the ,united ,states1 rock is so generally covered with moss or earth1 and earth with vegetation1 that untravelled ,englishmen and ,americans are not very familiar with naked rock as a conspicuous element of landscape4 ,hence1 in their conception of a bare cliff or precipice1 they hardly ascribe definite color to it1 but depict it to their imagination as wearing a neutral tint not assimilable to any of the hues with which nature tinges her atmospheric or paints her organic creations4 ,there are certainly extensive desert ranges1 chiefly limestone formations1 where the surface is either white1 or has weathered down to a dull uniformity of tone which can hardly be called color at all2 and there are sand plains and drifting hills of wearisome monotony of tint4 ,but the chemistry of the air1 though it may tame the glitter of the limestone to a dusky gray1 brings out the green and brown and purple of the igneous rocks1 and the white and red and blue and violet and yellow of the sandstone4 ,many a cliff in ,arabia ,petraea is as manifold in color as the rainbow1 and the veins are so variable in thickness and inclination1 so contorted and involved in arrangement1 as to bewilder the eye of the spectator like a disk of party-colored glass in rapid revolution4 ,in the narrower wadies1 the mirage is not common2 but on broad expanses1 as at many points between ,cairo and ,suez1 and in ,wadi el ,araba1 it mocks you with lakes and land-locked bays1 studded with islands and fringed with trees1 all painted with an illusory truth of representation absolutely indistinguishable from the reality4 ,the checkered earth1 too1 is canopied with a heaven as variegated as itself4 ,you see1 high up in the sky1 rosy clouds at noonday1 colored probably by reflection from the ruddy mountains1 while near the horizon float cumuli of a transparent ethereal blue1 seemingly balled up out of the clear cerulean substance of the firmament1 and detached from the heavenly vault1 not by color or consistence1 but solely by the light and shade of their prominences4 #dje ,,oeuvres de ,palissy1 ,des ,eaux et ,fontaines1 p4 #aeg4 #djf ,id41 p4 #aff4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #eg4 #djg ,,babinet1 ,etudes et ,lectures sur les ,sciences d',observation1 ii1 p4 #bbe4 ,our author precedes his account of his method with a complaint which most men who indulge in thinking have occasion to repeat many times in the course of their lives4 ,i will explain to my readers the construction of artificial fountains according to the plan of the famous ,bernard de ,palissy1 who1 a hundred and fifty three hundred years ago1 came and took away from me1 a humble academician of the nineteenth century1 this discovery which ,i had taken a great deal of pains to make4 ,it is enough to discourage all invention when one finds plagiarists in the past as well as in the future6 7,p4 #bbd47 #djh ,m4 ,g4 ,,dumas1 ,la ,science des ,fontaines1 #aheg4 #dji ,in the curiously variegated sandstone of ,arabia ,petraea--which is certainly a reaggregation of loose sand derived from particles of older rocks--the contiguous veins frequently differ very widely in color1 but not sensibly in specific gravity or in texture2 and the singular way in which they are now alternated1 now confusedly intermixed1 must be explained otherwise than by the weight of the respective grains which compose them4 ,they seem1 in fact1 to have been let fall by water in violent ebullition or tumultuous mechanical agitation1 or by a succession of sudden aquatic or aerial currents flowing in different directions and charged with differently colored matter4 #daj ,de ,bodem van ,nederland1 i1 pp4 #bdc1 #bdf-cgg1 et seqq4 ,see also the arguments of ,bremontier as to the origin of the dune sands of ,gascony1 ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahcc1 #a;er semestre1 pp4 #aeh1 #afa4 ,bremontier estimates the sand annually thrown up on that coast at five cubic toises and two feet to the running toise 7ubi supra1 p4 #afb71 or rather more than two hundred and twenty cubic feet to the running foot4 ,laval1 upon observations continued through seven years1 found the quantity to be twenty-five metres per running metre1 which is equal to two hundred and sixty-eight cubic feet to the running foot4--,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahdb1 #bme semestre1 p4 #bbi4 ,these computations make the proportion of sand deposited on the coast of ,gascony three or four times as great as that observed by ,andresen on the shores of ,jutland4 ,laval estimates the total quantity of sand annually thrown up on the coast of ,gascony at #f1jjj1jjj cubic metres1 or more than #g1hjj1jjj cubic yards4 #daa ,de ,bodem van ,nederland1 i1 p4 #cci4 #dab ,the conditions favorable to the production of sand from disintegrated rock1 by causes now in action1 are perhaps nowhere more perfectly realized than in the ,sinaitic ,peninsula4 ,the mountains are steep and lofty1 unprotected by vegetation or even by a coating of earth1 and the rocks which compose them are in a shattered and fragmentary condition4 ,they are furrowed by deep and precipitous ravines1 with beds sufficiently inclined for the rapid flow of water1 and generally without basins in which the larger blocks of stone rolled by the torrents can be dropped and left in repose2 there are severe frosts and much snow on the higher summits and ridges1 and the winter rains are abundant and heavy4 ,the mountains are principally of igneous formation1 but many of the less elevated peaks are capped with sandstone1 and on the eastern slope of the peninsula you may sometimes see1 at a single glance1 several lofty pyramids of granite1 separated by considerable intervals1 and all surmounted by horizontally stratified deposits of sandstone often only a few yards square1 which correspond to each other in height1 are evidently contemporaneous in origin1 and were once connected in continuous beds4 ,the degradation of the rock on which this formation rests is constantly bringing down masses of it1 and mingling them with the basaltic1 porphyritic1 granitic1 and calcareous fragments which the torrents carry down to the valleys1 and1 through them1 in a state of greater or less disintegration1 to the sea4 ,the quantity of sand annually washed into the ,red ,sea by the larger torrents of the ,lesser ,peninsula1 is probably at least equal to that contributed to the ocean by any streams draining basins of no greater extent4 ,absolutely considered1 then1 the mass may be said to be large1 but it is apparently very small as compared with the sand thrown up by the ,german ,ocean and the ,atlantic on the coasts of ,denmark and of ,france4 ,there are1 indeed1 in ,arabia ,petraea1 many torrents with very short courses1 for the sea waves in many parts of the peninsular coast wash the base of the mountains4 ,in these cases1 the debris of the rocks do not reach the sea in a sufficiently comminuted condition to be entitled to the appellation of sand1 or even in the form of well-rounded pebbles4 ,the fragments retain their angular shape1 and1 at some points on the coast1 they become cemented together by lime or other binding substances held in solution or mechanical suspension in the sea water1 and are so rapidly converted into a singularly heterogeneous conglomerate1 that one deposit seems to be consolidated into a breccia before the next winter's torrents cover it with another4 ,in the northern part of the peninsula there are extensive deposits of sand intermingled with agate pebbles and petrified wood1 but these are evidently neither derived from the ,sinaitic group1 nor products of local causes known to be now in action4 ,i may here notice the often repeated but mistaken assertion1 that the petrified wood of the ,western ,arabian desert consists wholly of the stems of palms1 or at least of endogenous vegetables4 ,this is an error4 ,i have myself picked up in that desert1 within the space of a very few square yards1 fragments both of fossil palms1 and of at least two petrified trees distinctly marked as of exogenous growth both by annular structure and by knots4 ,in ligneous character1 one of these almost precisely resembles the grain of the extant beech1 and this specimen was wormeaten before it was converted into silex4 #dac ,b,oe,t,t,g,e,r1 ,das ,mittelmeer1 p4 #abh4 #dad ,the testimony of divers and of other observers on this point is conflicting1 as might be expected from the infinite variety of conditions by which the movement of water is affected4 ,it is generally believed that the action of the wind upon the water is not perceptible at greater depths than from fifteen feet in ordinary1 to eighty or ninety in extreme cases2 but these estimates are probably very considerably below the truth4 ,andresen quotes ,bremontier as stating that the movement of the waves sometimes extends to the depth of five hundred feet1 and he adds that others think it may reach to six or even seven hundred feet below the surface4--,,andresen1 ,om ,klitformationen1 p4 #bj4 ,many physicists now suppose that the undulations of great bodies of water reach even deeper4 ,but a movement of undulation is not necessarily a movement of translation1 and besides1 there is very frequently an undertow1 which tends to carry suspended bodies out to sea as powerfully as the superficial waves to throw them on shore4 ,sandbanks sometimes recede from the coast1 instead of rolling toward it4 ,reclus informs us that the ,mauvaise1 a sandbank near the ,point de ,grave1 on the ,atlantic coast of ,france1 has moved five miles to the west in less than a century4--,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 for ,december1 #ahfb1 p4 #ije4 ,the action of currents may1 in some cases1 have been confounded with that of the waves4 ,sea currents1 strong enough1 possibly1 to transport sand for some distance1 flow far below the surface in parts of the open ocean1 and in narrow straits they have great force and velocity4 ,the divers employed at ,constantinople in #ahec found in the ,bosphorus1 at the depth of twenty-five fathoms and at a point much exposed to the wash from ,galata and ,pera1 a number of bronze guns supposed to have belonged to a ship of war blown up about a hundred and fifty years before4 ,these guns were not covered by sand or slime1 though a crust of earthy matter1 an inch in thickness1 adhered to their upper surfaces1 and the bottom of the strait appeared to be wholly free from sediment4 ,the current was so powerful at this depth that the divers were hardly able to stand1 and a keg of nails1 purposely dropped into the water1 in order that its movements might serve as a guide in the search for a bag of coin accidentally lost overboard from a ship in the harbor1 was rolled by the stream several hundred yards before it stopped4 #dae ,few seas have thrown up so much sand as the shallow ,german ,ocean2 but there is some reason to think that the amount of this material now cast upon its northern shores is less than at some former periods1 though no extensive series of observations on this subject has been recorded4 ,on the ,spit of ,agger1 at the present outlet of the ,liimfjord1 ,andresen found the quantity during ten years1 on a beach about five hundred and seventy feet broad1 equal to an annual deposit of an inch and a half over the whole surface4--,om ,klitformationen1 p4 #ef4 ,this gives seventy-one and a quarter cubic feet to the running foot--a quantity certainly much smaller than that cast up by the same sea on the shores of the ,dano-,german duchies and of ,holland1 and1 as we have seen1 scarcely one fourth of that deposited by the ,atlantic on the coast of ,gascony4 ,see ante1 p4 #dec1 note4 #daf ,sand heaps1 three and even six hundred feet high1 are indeed formed by the wind1 but this is effected by driving the particles up an inclined plane1 not by lifting them4 ,bremontier1 speaking of the sand hills on the western coast of ,france1 says3 ,the particles of sand composing them are not large enough to resist wind of a certain force1 nor small enough to be taken up by it1 like dust2 they only roll along the surface from which they are detached1 and1 though moving with great velocity1 they rarely rise to a greater height than three or four inches4--,memoire sur les ,dunes1 ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahcc1 #a;er semestre1 p4 #adh4 ,andresen says that a wind1 having a velocity of forty feet per second1 is strong enough to raise particles of sand as high as the face and eyes of a man1 but that1 in general1 it rolls along the ground1 and is scarcely ever thrown more than to the height of a couple of yards from the surface4 ,even in these cases1 it is carried forward by a hopping1 not a continuous1 motion2 for a very narrow sheet or channel of water stops the drift entirely1 all the sand dropping into it until it is filled up4 ,the character of the motion of sand drifts is well illustrated by an interesting fact not much noticed hitherto by travellers in the ,east4 ,in situations where the sand is driven through depressions in rock beds1 or over deposits of silicious pebbles1 the surface of the stone is worn and smoothed much more effectually than it could be by running water1 and you may pick up1 in such localities1 rounded1 irregularly broken fragments of agate1 which have received from the attrition of the sand as fine a polish as could be given them by the wheel of the lapidary4 ,very interesting observations on the polishing of hard stones by drifting sand will be found in the ,geological ,report of ,william ,p4 ,blake3 ,pacific ,railroad ,report1 vol4 v1 pp4 #ib1 #bcj1 #bca4 ,the same geologist observes1 p4 #bdb1 that the sand of the ,colorado desert does not rise high in the air1 but bounds along on the surface or only a few inches above it4 #dag ,wilkinson says that1 in much experience in the most sandy parts of the ,libyan desert1 and much inquiry of the best native sources1 he never saw or heard of any instance of danger to man or beast from the mere accumulation of sand transported by the wind4 ,chesney's observations in ,arabia1 and the testimony of the ,bedouins he consulted1 are to the same purpose4 ,the dangers of the simoom are of a different character1 though they are certainly aggravated by the blinding effects of the light particles of dust and sand borne along by it1 and by that of the inhalation of them upon the respiration4 #dah ,in the narrow valley of the ,nile1 bounded as it is1 above the ,delta1 by high cliffs1 all air currents from the northern quarter become north winds1 though1 of course varying in partial direction1 in conformity with the sinuosities of the valley4 ,upon the desert plateau they incline westward1 and have already borne into the valley the sands of the eastern banks1 and driven those of the western quite out of the ,egyptian portion of the ,nile basin4 #dai ,the ,north ,african desert falls into two divisions3 the ,sahel1 or western1 and the ,sahar1 or eastern4 ,the sands of the ,sahar were1 at a remote period1 drifted to the west4 ,in the ,sahel1 the prevailing east winds drive the sand-ocean with a progressive westward motion4 ,the eastern half of the desert is swept clean4--,,naumann1 ,geognosie1 ii1 p4 #aagc4 #dbj ,in parts of the ,algerian desert1 some efforts are made to retard the advance of sand dunes which threaten to overwhelm villages4 ,at ,debila1 says ,laurent1 the lower parts of the lofty dunes are planted with palms1 99 99 99 but they are constantly menaced with burial by the sands4 ,the only remedy employed by the natives consists in little dry walls of crystallized gypsum1 built on the crests of the dunes1 together with hedges of dead palm leaves4 ,these defensive measures are aided by incessant labor2 for every day the people take up in baskets the sand blown over to them the night before and carry it back to the other side of the dune4--,memoires sur le ,sahara1 p4 #ad4 #dba ,organic constituents1 such as comminuted shells1 and silicious and calcareous exuviae of infusorial animals and plants1 are sometimes found mingled in considerable quantities with mineral sands4 ,these are usually the remains of aquatic vegetables or animals1 but not uniformly so1 for the microscopic organisms1 whose flinty cases enter so largely into the sandbeds of the ,mark of ,brandenburg1 are still living and prolific in the dry earth4 ,see ,,wittwer1 ,physikalische ,geographie1 p4 #adb4 ,the desert on both sides of the ,nile is inhabited by a land snail1 and thousands of its shells are swept along and finally buried in the drifts by every wind4 ,every handful of the sand contains fragments of them4 ,,forchhammer1 in ,,leonhard ,und ,,bronn's ,jahrbuch1 #ahda1 p4 #h1 says of the sand hills of the ,danish coast3 ,it is not rare to find1 high in the knolls1 marine shells1 and especially those of the oyster4 ,they are due to the oyster eater ,haemalopus ostralegus1 which carries his prey to the top of the dunes to devour it4 ,see also ,,staring1 ,de ,bodem van1 ,n4 ,i4 p4 #cba4 #dbb ,there are various reasons why the formation of dunes is confined to low shores1 and this law is so universal1 that when bluffs are surmounted by them1 there is always cause to suspect upheaval1 or the removal of a sloping beach in front of the bluff1 after the dunes were formed4 ,bold shores are usually without a sufficient beach for the accumulation of large deposits2 they are commonly washed by a sea too deep to bring up sand from its bottom2 their abrupt elevation1 even if moderate in amount1 would still be too great to allow ordinary winds to lift the sand above them2 and their influence in deadening the wind which blows toward them would even more effectually prevent the raising of sand from the beach at their foot4 ,forchhammer1 describing the coast of ,jutland1 says that1 in high winds1 one can hardly stand upon the dunes1 except when they are near the water line and have been cut down perpendicularly by the waves4 ,then the wind is little or not at all felt--a fact of experience very common on our coasts1 observed on all the steep shore bluffs of two hundred feet in height1 and1 in the ,faroe ,islands1 on precipices two thousand feet high4 ,in heavy gales in those islands1 the cattle fly to the very edge of the cliffs for shelter1 and frequently fall over4 ,the wind1 impinging against the vertical wall1 creates an ascending current which shoots somewhat past the crest of the rock1 and thus the observer or the animal is protected against the tempest by a barrier of air4--,,leonhard und ,,bronn1 ,jahrbuch1 #ahda1 p4 #c4 ,the calming1 or rather diversion1 of the wind by cliffs extends to a considerable distance in front of them1 and no wind would have sufficient force to raise the sand vertically1 parallel to the face of a bluff1 even to the height of twenty feet4 ,it is very commonly believed that it is impossible to grow forest trees on sea-shore bluffs1 or points much exposed to strong winds4 ,the observations just cited tend to show that it would not be difficult to protect trees from the mechanical effect of the wind1 by screens much lower than the height to which they are expected to grow4 ,recent experiments confirm this1 and it is found that1 though the outer row or rows may suffer from the wind1 every tree shelters a taller one behind it4 ,extensive groves have thus been formed in situations where an isolated tree would not grow at all4 ,piper1 in his ,trees of ,america1 p4 #ai1 gives an interesting account of ,mr4 ,tudor's success in planting trees on the bleak and barren shore of ,nahant4 ,mr4 ,tudor1 observes he1 has planted more than ten thousand trees at ,nahant1 and1 by the results of his experiments1 has fully demonstrated that trees1 properly cared for in the beginning1 may be made to grow up to the very bounds of the ocean1 exposed to the biting of the wind and the spray of the sea4 ,the only shelter they require is1 at first1 some interruption to break the current of the wind1 such as fences1 houses1 or other trees4 #dbc ,the careful observations of ,colonel ,j4 ,d4 ,graham1 of the ,united ,states ,army1 show a tide of about three inches in ,lake ,michigan4 ,see ,a ,lunar ,tidal ,wave in the ,north ,american ,lakes1 demonstrated by ,lieut4-,colonel ,j4 ,d4 ,graham1 in the fourteenth volume of the ,proceedings of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science4 #dbd ,,staring1 ,de ,bodem van ,nederland1 i1 p4 #cbg1 note4 #dbe ,the principal special works and essays on this subject known to me are3 ,,bremontier1 ,memoire sur les ,dunes1 etc41 #agij1 reprinted in ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahcc1 #a;er semestre1 pp4 #ade-ahf4 ,rapport sur les differents ,memoires de ,m4 ,bremontier1 par ,,laumont et autres1 #ahjf1 same volume1 pp4 #aib1 #bbd4 ,,lefort1 ,notice sur les ,travaux de ,fixation des ,dunes1 ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahca1 #bme semestre1 pp4 #cbj-ccb4 ,,forchhammer1 ,geognostische ,studien am ,meeres ,ufer1 in ,,leonhard und ,,bronn1 ,jahrbuch1 etc41 #ahda1 pp4 #a1 #ch4 ,j4 ,g4 ,,kohl1 ,die ,inseln und ,marschen der ,herzogthuemer ,schleswig und ,holstein1 #ahdf1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #aab-afb1 #aic-bjd4 ,,laval1 ,memoire sur les ,dunes du ,golfe de ,gascogne1 ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahdg1 #bme semestre1 pp4 #bah-bfh4 ,g4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,krause1 ,der ,duenenbau auf den ,ostsee-,kuesten ,west-,preussens1 #ahej1 #a vol4 #hvo4 ,w4 ,c4 ,h4 ,,staring1 ,de ,bodem van ,nederland1 #ahef1 vol4 i1 pp4 #caj-cda1 and #dbd-dca4 ,same author1 ,voormaals en ,thans1 #aheh1 pages cited4 ,c4 ,c4 ,,andresen1 ,om ,klitformationen og ,klittens ,behandling og ,bestyrelse1 #ahfa1 #a vol4 #hvo1 x1 #cib pp41 much the most complete treatise on the subject4 ,,andresen cites1 upon the origin of the dunes3 ,,hull1 ,over den ,oorsprong en de ,geschiedenis der ,hollandsche ,duinen1 #ahch1 and ,,gross's ,veiledning ved ,behandlingen af ,sandflugtstraekningerne1 #ahdg2 and upon the improvement of sand plains by planting1 ,,pannewitz1 ,anleitung zum ,anbau der ,sandflaechen1 #ahcb4 ,i am not acquainted with either of the latter two works but ,i have consulted with advantage1 on this subject1 ,,delamarre1 ,historique de la ,creation d'une ,richesse millionaire par la culture des ,pins1 #ahbg2 ,,boitel1 ,mise en valeur des terres pauvres par le ,pin maritime1 #aheg2 and ,,brincken1 ,ansichten ueber die ,bewaldung der ,steppen des ,europaeischen ,russlands1 #ahed4 #dbf ,dunes are always full of water1 from the action of capillary attraction4 ,upon the summits1 one seldom needs to dig more than a foot to find the sand moist1 and in the depressions1 fresh water is met with near the surface4--,,forchhammer1 in ,,leonhard und ,,bronn1 for #ahda1 p4 #e1 note4 ,on the other hand1 ,andresen1 who has very carefully investigated this as well as all other dune phenomena1 maintains that the humidity of the sand ridges cannot be derived from capillary attraction4 ,he found by experiment that drift sand was not moistened to a greater height than eight and a half inches1 after standing a whole night in water4 ,he states the minimum of water contained by the sand of the dunes1 one foot below the surface1 after a long drought1 at two per cent41 the maximum1 after a rainy month1 at four per cent4 ,at greater depths the quantity is larger4 ,the hygroscopicity of the sand of the coast of ,jutland he found to be thirty-three per cent4 by measure1 or #ba4e by weight4 ,the annual precipitation on that coast is twenty-seven inches1 and1 as the evaporation is about the same1 he argues that rain water does not penetrate far beneath the surface of the dunes1 and concludes that their humidity can be explained only by evaporation from below4--,om ,klitformationen1 pp4 #ajf-aaj4 ,in the dunes of ,algeria1 water is so abundant that wells are constantly dug in them at high points on their surface4 ,they are sunk to the depth of three or four metres only1 and the water rises to the height of a metre in them4--,,laurent1 ,memoire sur le ,sahara1 pp4 #aa1 #ab1 #ac4 ,the same writer observes 7p4 #ad7 that the hollows in the dunes are planted with palms which find moisture enough a little below the surface4 ,it would hence seem that the proposal to fix the dunes which are supposed to threaten the ,suez ,canal1 by planting the maritime pine and other trees upon them1 is not altogether so absurd as it is thought to be by some of those disinterested philanthropists of other nations who are distressed with fears that ,french capitalists will lose the money they have invested in that great undertaking4 ,ponds of water are often found in the depressions between the sand hills of the dune chains in the ,north ,american desert4 #dbg ,according to the ,french authorities1 the dunes of ,france are not always composed of quartzose sand4 ,the dune sands of different characters1 says ,bremontier1 partake of the nature of the different materials which compose them4 ,at certain points on the coast of ,normandy they are found to be purely calcareous2 they are of mixed composition on the shores of ,brittany and ,saintonge1 and generally quartzose between the mouth of the ,gironde and that of the ,adour4--,memoire sur les ,dunes1 ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 t4 vii1 #ahcc1 #a;er semestre1 p4 #adf4 ,in the dunes of ,long ,island and of ,jutland1 there are considerable veins composed almost wholly of garnet4 ,for a very full examination of the mechanical and chemical composition of the dune sands of ,jutland1 see ,,andresen1 ,om ,klitformationen1 p4 #aaj4 #dbh ,de ,bodem van ,nederland1 i1 p4 #cbc4 #dbi ,j4 ,g4 ,,kohl1 ,die ,inseln und ,marschen der ,herzogthuemer ,schleswig und ,holstein1 ii1 p4 #bjj4 #dcj ,,staring1 ,de ,bodem van ,nederland1 i1 p4 #cag4 ,see also1 ,b,e,r,g,s,oe,e1 ,reventov's ,virksomhed1 ii1 p4 #aa4 ,in the sand-hill ponds mentioned in the text1 there is a vigorous growth of bog plants accompanied with the formation of peat1 which goes on regularly as long as the dune sand does not drift4 ,but if the surface of the dunes is broken1 the sand blows into the ponds1 covers the peat1 and puts an end to its formation4 ,when1 in the course of time1 marine currents cut away the coast1 the dunes move landward and fill up the ponds1 and thus are formed the remarkable strata of fossile peat called ,martoerv1 which appears to be unknown to the geologists of other parts of ,europe4--,,forchhammer1 in ,,leonhard und ,,bronn1 #ahda1 p4 #ac4 #dca ,the lower strata must be older than the superficial layers1 and the particles which compose them may in time become more disintegrated1 and therefore finer than those deposited later and above them4 #dcb ,on the west coast of ,africa the dunes are drifting seawards1 and always receiving new accessions from the ,sahara4 ,they are constantly advancing out into the sea4 ,see ante1 p4 #af1 note4--,,naumann1 ,geognosie1 ii1 p4 #aagb4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #eh4 #dcc ,forchhammer1 after pointing out the coincidence between the inclined stratification of dunes and the structure of ancient tilted rocks1 says3 ,but ,i am not able to point out a sandstone formation corresponding to the dunes4 ,probably most ancient dunes have been destroyed by submersion before the loose sand became cemented to solid stone1 but we may suppose that circumstances have existed somewhere which have preserved the characteristics of this formation4--,,leonhard und ,,bronn1 #ahda1 p4 #h1 #i4 ,such formations1 however1 certainly exist4 ,i find from ,laurent 7,memoire sur le ,sahara1 etc41 p4 #ab71 that in the ,algerian desert there exist sandstone formations not only corresponding to the dunes1 but actually consolidated within them4 ,a place called ,el-,mouia-,tadjer presents a repetition of what we saw at ,el-,baya2 one of the funnels formed in the middle of the dunes contains wells from two metres to two and a half in depth1 dug in a sand which pressure1 and probably the presence of certain salts1 have cemented so as to form true sandstone1 soft indeed1 but which does not yield except to the pickaxe4 ,these sandstones exhibit an inclination which seems to be the effect of wind2 for they conform to the direction of the sands which roll down a scarp occasioned by the primitive obstacle4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #ei4 ,the dunes near the mouth of the ,nile1 the lower sands of which have been cemented together by the infiltration of ,nile water1 would probably show a similar stratification in the sandstone which now forms their base4 #dcd ,forchhammer ascribes the resemblance between the furrowing of the dune sands and the beach ripples1 not to the similarity of the effect of wind and water upon sand1 but wholly to the action of the former fluid2 in the first instance1 directly1 in the latter1 through the water4 ,the wind ripples on the surface of the dunes precisely resemble the water ripples of sand flats occasionally overflowed by the sea2 and with the closest scrutiny1 ,i have never been able to detect the slightest difference between them4 ,this is easily explained by the fact1 that the water ripples are produced by the action of light wind on the water which only transmits the air waves to the sand4--,,leonhard und ,,bronn1 #ahda1 pp4 #g1 #h4 #dce ,american observers do not agree in their descriptions of the form and character of the sand grains which compose the interior dunes of the ,north ,american desert4 ,c4 ,c4 ,parry1 geologist to the ,mexican ,boundary ,commission1 in describing the dunes near the station at a spring thirty-two miles west from the ,rio ,grande at ,el ,paso1 says3 ,the separate grains of the sand composing the sand hills are seen under a lens to be angular1 and not rounded1 as would be the case in regular beach deposits4--,u4 ,s4 ,mexican ,boundary ,survey1 ,report of1 vol4 i1 ,geological ,report of ,c4 ,c4 ,parry1 p4 #aj4 ,in the general description of the country traversed1 same volume1 p4 #dg1 ,colonel ,emory says that on an examination of the sand with a microscope of sufficient power1 the grains are seen to be angular1 not rounded by rolling in water4 ,on the other hand1 ,blake1 in ,geological ,report1 ,pacific ,railroad ,rep41 vol4 v1 p4 #aai1 observes that the grains of the dune sand1 consisting of quartz1 chalcedony1 carnelian1 agate1 rose quartz1 and probably chrysolite1 were much rounded2 and on page #bda1 he says that many of the sand grains of the ,colorado desert are perfect spheres4 ,on page #bj of a report in vol4 ii of the ,pacific ,railroad ,report1 by the same observer1 it is said that an examination of dune sands brought from the ,llano ,estacado by ,captain ,pope1 showed the grains to be much rounded by attrition4 ,the sands described by ,mr4 ,parry and ,colonel ,emory are not from the same localities as those examined by ,mr4 ,blake1 and the difference in their character may denote a difference of origin or of age4 #dcf ,,laurent 7,memoire sur le ,sahara1 pp4 #aa1 #ab1 and elsewhere7 speaks of a funnel-shaped depression at a high point in the dunes1 as a characteristic feature of the sand hills of the ,algerian desert4 ,this seems to be an approximation to the crescent form noticed by ,meyen and ,poeppig in the inland dunes of ,peru4 #dcg ,travels in ,peru1 ,new ,york1 #ahdh1 chap4 ix4 #dch ,notwithstanding the general tendency of isolated coast dunes and of the peaks of the sand ridges to assume a conical form1 ,andresen states that the hills of the inner or landward rows are sometimes bow-shaped1 and sometimes undulating in outline4--,om ,klitformationen1 p4 #hd4 ,he says further that3 ,before an obstruction1 two or three feet high and considerably longer1 lying perpendicularly to the direction of the wind1 the sand is deposited with a windward angle of from #f deg4 to #ab deg41 and the bank presents a concave face to the wind1 while1 behind the obstruction1 the outline is convex2 and he lays it down as a general rule1 that a slope1 from which sand is blown1 is left with a concavity of about one inch of depth to four feet of distance2 a slope1 upon which sand is dropped by the wind1 is convex4 ,it appears from ,andresen's figures1 however1 that the concavity and convexity referred to1 apply1 not to the horizontal longitudinal section of the sand bank1 as his language unexplained by the drawings might be supposed to mean1 but to the vertical cross-section1 and hence the dunes he describes1 with the exception above noted1 do not correspond to those of the ,american deserts4--,om ,klitformationen1 p4 #hf4 ,the dunes of ,gascony1 which sometimes exceed three hundred feet in height1 present the same concavity and convexity of vertical cross-section4 ,the slopes of these dunes are much steeper than those of the ,netherlands and the ,danish coast2 for while all observers agree in assigning to the seaward and landward faces of those latter1 respectively1 angles of from #e deg4 to #ab deg41 and #cj deg4 with the horizon1 the corresponding faces of the dunes of ,gascony present angles of from #aj deg4 to #be deg41 and #ej deg4 to #fj deg44--,,laval1 ,memoire sur les ,dunes de ,gascogne1 ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahdg1 #bme semestre4 #dci ,krause1 speaking of the dunes on the coast of ,prussia1 says3 ,their origin belongs to three different periods1 in which important changes in the relative level of sea and land have unquestionably taken place4 99 99 99 ,except in the deep depressions between them1 the dunes are everywhere sprinkled1 to a considerable height1 with brown oxydulated iron1 which has penetrated into the sand to the depth of from three to eighteen inches1 and colored it red4 99 99 99 ,above the iron is a stratum of sand differing in composition from ordinary sea sand1 and on this1 growing woods are always found4 99 99 99 ,the gradually accumulated forest soil occurs in beds of from one to three feet thick1 and changes1 proceeding upward1 from gray sand to black humus4 ,even on the third or seaward range1 the sand grasses appear and thrive luxuriantly1 at least on the west coast1 though4 ,krause doubts whether the dunes of the east coast were ever thus protected4--,der ,duenenbau1 pp4 #h1 #aa4 #ddj ,,laval1 ,memoire sur les ,dunes de ,gascogne1 ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahdg1 #bme semestre1 p4 #bca4 ,the same opinion had been expressed by ,,bremontier1 ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahcc1 #a;er semestre1 p4 #ahe4 #dda ,in the ,middle ,ages1 says ,willibald ,alexis1 as quoted by ,mueller1 ,das ,buch der ,pflanzenwelt i1 p4 #af1 the ,nehrung was extending itself further1 and the narrow opening near ,lochstadt had filled itself up with sand4 ,a great pine forest bound with its roots the dune sand and the heath uninterruptedly from ,danzig to ,pillau4 ,king ,frederick ,william ,i was once in want of money4 ,a certain ,herr von ,korff promised to procure it for him1 without loan or taxes1 if he could be allowed to remove something quite useless4 ,he thinned out the forests of ,prussia1 which then1 indeed1 possessed little pecuniary value2 but he felled the entire woods of the ,frische ,nehrung1 so far as they lay within the ,prussian territory4 ,the financial operation was a success4 ,the king had money1 but in the elementary operation which resulted from it1 the state received irreparable injury4 ,the sea winds rush over the bared hills2 the ,frische ,haff is half-choked with sand2 the channel between ,elbing1 the sea1 and ,koenigsberg is endangered1 and the fisheries in the ,haff injured4 ,the operation of ,herr von ,korff brought the king #bjj1jjj thalers4 ,the state would now willingly expend millions to restore the forests again4 #ddb ,,staring1 ,voormaals en ,thans1 p4 #bca4 ,had the dunes of the ,netherlandish and ,french coasts1 at the period of the ,roman invasion1 resembled the moving sand hills of the present day1 it is inconceivable that they could have escaped the notice of so acute a physical geographer as ,strabo2 and the absolute silence of ,caesar1 ,ptolemy1 and the encyclopaedic ,pliny1 respecting them1 would be not less inexplicable4 ,the ,old ,northern language1 the ancient tongue of ,denmark1 though rich in terms descriptive of natural scenery1 had no name for dune1 nor do ,i think the sand hills of the coast are anywhere noticed in ,icelandic literature4 ,the modern ,icelanders1 in treating of the dunes of ,jutland1 call them klettr1 hill1 cliff1 and the ,danish klit is from that source4 ,the word ,duene is also of recent introduction into ,german4 ,had the dunes been distinguished from other hillocks1 in ancient times1 by so remarkable a feature as the propensity to drift1 they would certainly have acquired a specific name in both ,old ,northern and ,german4 ,so long as they were wooded knolls1 they needed no peculiar name2 when they became formidable1 from the destruction of the woods which confined them1 they acquired a designation4 #ddc ,the sands of ,cape ,cod were partially1 if not completely1 covered with vegetation by nature4 ,dr4 ,dwight1 describing the dunes as they were in #ahjj1 says3 ,some of them are covered with beach grass2 some fringed with whortleberry bushes2 and some tufted with a small and singular growth of oaks4 99 99 99 ,the parts of this barrier1 which are covered with whortleberry bushes and with oaks1 have been either not at all1 or very little blown4 ,the oaks1 particularly1 appear to be the continuation of the forests originally formed on this spot4 99 99 99 ,they wore all the marks of extreme age2 were1 in some instances1 already decayed1 and in others decaying2 were hoary with moss1 and were deformed by branches1 broken and wasted1 not by violence1 but by time4--,travels1 iii1 p4 #ia4 #ddd ,bergsoee 7,reventlovs ,virksomhed1 ii1 #c7 states that the dunes on the west coast of ,jutland were stationary before the destruction of the forests to the east of them4 ,the felling of the tall trees removed the resistance to the lower currents of the westerly winds1 and the sands have since buried a great extent of fertile soil4 ,see also same work1 ii1 p4 #abd4 #dde ,we must1 therefore1 not be surprised to see the people here deal as gingerly with their dunes1 as if treading among eggs4 ,he who is lucky enough to own a molehill of dune pets it affectionately1 and spends his substance in cherishing and fattening it4 ,that fair1 fertile1 rich province1 the peninsula of ,eiderstaedt in the south of ,friesland1 has1 on the point toward the sea1 only a tiny row of dunes1 some six miles long or so2 but the people talk of their fringe of sand hills as if it were a border set with pearls4 ,they look upon it as their best defence against ,neptune4 ,they have connected it with their system of dikes1 and for years have kept sentries posted to protect it against wanton injury4--,j4 ,g4 ,,kohl1 ,die ,inseln u4 ,marschen ,schleswig-,holsteins1 ii1 p4 #aae4 #ddf ,sand banks sometimes connect themselves with the coast at both ends1 and thus cut off a portion of the sea4 ,in this case1 as well as when salt water is enclosed by sea dikes1 the water thus separated from the ocean gradually becomes fresh1 or at least brackish4 ,the ,haffs1 or large expanses of fresh water in ,eastern ,prussia--which are divided from the ,baltic by narrow sand banks called ,nehrungen1 or1 at sheltered points of the coast1 by fluviatile deposits called ,werders--all have one or more open passages1 through which the water of the rivers that supply them at last finds its way to the sea4 #ddg ,,andresen1 ,om ,klitformationen1 pp4 #fh-gb4 #ddh ,id41 pp4 #bca1 #bcb4 ,andresen's work1 though printed in #ahfa1 was finished in #ahei4 ,lyell 7,antiquity of ,man1 #ahfc1 p4 #ad7 says3 ,even in the course of the present century1 the salt waters have made one eruption into the ,baltic by the ,liimfjord1 although they have been now again excluded4 #ddi ,,forchhammer1 ,geognostische ,studien am ,meeres-,ufer4 ,,leonhard und ,,bronn1 ,jahrbuch1 #ahda1 pp4 #aa1 #ac4 #dej ,,andresen1 ,om ,klitformationen1 pp4 #fh1 #gb4 #dea ,voormaals en ,thans1 pp4 #abf1 #agj4 #deb ,see a very interesting article entitled ,le ,littoral de la ,france1 by ,,elisee ,,reclus1 in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 for ,december1 #ahfb1 pp4 #ija1 #icf4 #dec ,de ,bodem van ,nederland1 i1 p4 #dbe4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #fj4 #ded ,the movement of the dunes has been hardly less destructive on the north side of the ,gironde4 ,sea the valuable article of ,,elisee ,,reclus already referred to1 in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 for ,december1 #ahfb1 entitled ,le ,littoral de la ,france4 #dee ,,laval1 ,memoire sur les ,dunes du ,golfe de ,gascogne1 ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahdg1 p4 #bbc4 ,the author adds1 as a curious and unexplained fact1 that some of these pools1 though evidently not original formations but mere accumulations of water dammed up by the dunes1 have1 along their western shore1 near the base of the sand hills1 a depth of more than one hundred and thirty feet1 and hence their bottoms are not less than eighty feet below the level of the lowest tides4 ,their western banks descend steeply1 conforming nearly to the slope of the dunes1 while on the northeast and south the inclination of their beds is very gradual4 ,the greatest depth of these pools corresponds to that of the sea ten miles from the shore4 ,is it possible that the weight of the sands has pressed together the soil on which they rest1 and thus occasioned a subsidence of the surface extending beyond their base8 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #fa4 #def ,,andresen1 ,om ,klitformationem1 pp4 #ef1 #gi1 #hb4 #deg ,,staring1 ,de ,bodem van ,nederland1 i1 pp4 #cbi-cca4 ,id41 ,voormaals en ,thans1 p4 #afc4 ,,andresen1 ,om ,klitformationen1 pp4 #bhj1 #bie4 ,the creation of new dunes1 by the processes mentioned in the text1 seems to be much older in ,europe than the adoption of measures for securing them by planting4 ,dr4 ,dwight mentions a case in ,massachusetts1 where a beach was restored1 and new dunes formed1 by planting beach grass4 ,within the memory of my informant1 the sea broke over the beach which connects ,truro with ,province ,town1 and swept the body of it away for some distance4 ,the beach grass was immediately planted on the spot2 in consequence of which the beach was again raised to a sufficient height1 and in various places into hills4--,dwight's ,travels1 iii1 p4 #ic4 #deh ,,staring1 i1 pp4 #caj1 #ccb4 #dei ,there is some confusion in the popular use of these names1 and in the scientific designations of sand plants1 and they are possibly applied to different plants in different places4 ,some writers style the gourbet ,calamagrostis arenaria1 and distinguish it from the ,danish ,klittetag or ,hjelme4 #dfj ,bread1 not indeed very palatable1 has been made of the seeds of the arundo1 but the quantity which can be gathered is not sufficient to form an important economical resource4----,,andresen1 ,om ,klitformationen1 p4 #afj4 #dfa ,b,e,r,g,s,oe,e1 ,reventlovs ,virksomhed1 ii1 p4 #d4 #dfb ,measures were taken for the protection of the dunes of ,cape ,cod1 in ,massachusetts1 during the colonial period1 though ,i believe they are now substantially abandoned4 ,a hundred years ago1 before the valley of the ,mississippi1 or even the rich plains of ,central and ,western ,new ,york1 were opened to the white settler1 the value of land was relatively much greater in ,new ,england than it is at present1 and consequently some rural improvements were then worth making1 which would not now yield sufficient returns to tempt the investment of capital4 ,the money and the time required to subdue and render productive twenty acres of sea sand on ,cape ,cod1 would buy a section and rear a family in ,illinois4 ,the son of the ,pilgrims1 therefore1 abandons the sand hills1 and seeks a better fortune on the fertile prairies of the ,west4 ,dr4 ,dwight1 who visited ,cape ,cod in the year #ahjj1 after describing the beach grass1 a vegetable bearing a general resemblance to sedge1 but of a light bluish-green1 and of a coarse appearance1 which flourishes with a strong and rapid vegetation on the sands1 observes that he received from a ,mr4 ,collins1 formerly of ,truro1 the following information3 ,when he lived at ,truro1 the inhabitants were1 under the authority of law1 regularly warned in the month of ,april1 yearly1 to plant beach grass1 as1 in other towns of ,new ,england1 they are warned to repair highways4 ,it was required by the laws of the ,state1 and under the proper penalties for disobedience2 being as regular a public tax as any other4 ,the people1 therefore1 generally attended and performed the labor4 ,the grass was dug in bunches1 as it naturally grows2 and each bunch divided into a number of smaller ones4 ,these were set out in the sand at distances of three feet4 ,after one row was set1 others were placed behind it in such a manner as to shut up the interstices2 or1 as a carpenter would say1 so as to break the joints4 99 99 99 ,when it is once set1 it grows and spreads with rapidity4 99 99 99 ,the seeds are so heavy that they bend down the heads of the grass2 and when ripe1 drop directly down by its side1 where they immediately vegetate4 ,thus in a short time the ground is covered4 ,where this covering is found1 none of the sand is blown4 ,on the contrary1 it is accumulated and raised continually as snow gathers and rises among bushes1 or branches of trees cut and spread upon the earth4 ,nor does the grass merely defend the surface on which it is planted2 but rises1 as that rises by new accumulations2 and always overtops the sand1 however high that may be raised by the wind4--,dwight's ,travels in ,new ,england and ,new ,york1 ii1 p4 #ib1 #ic4 ,this information was received in #ahjj1 and it relates to a former state of things1 probably more than twenty years previous1 and earlier than #aggi1 when the ,government of ,denmark first seriously attempted the conquest of the dunes4 ,the depasturing of the beach grass--a plant allied in habits1 if not in botanical character1 to the arundo--has been attended with very injurious effects in ,massachusetts4 ,dr4 ,dwight1 after referring to the laws for its propagation1 already cited1 says3 ,the benefit of this useful plant1 and of these prudent regulations1 is1 however1 in some measure lost4 ,there are in ,province ,town1 as ,i was informed1 one hundred and forty cows4 ,these animals1 being stinted in their means of subsistence1 are permitted to wander1 at times1 in search of food4 ,in every such case1 they make depredations on the beach grass1 and prevent its seeds from being formed4 ,in this manner the plant is ultimately destroyed4--,travels1 iii1 p4 #id4 ,on page #aja of the same volume1 the author mentions an instance of great injury from this cause4 ,here1 about one thousand acres were entirely blown away to the depth1 in many places1 of ten feet4 99 99 99 ,not a green thing was visible except the whortleberries1 which tufted a few lonely hillocks rising to the height of the original surface and prevented by this defence from being blown away also4 ,these1 although they varied the prospect1 added to the gloom by their strongly picturesque appearance1 by marking exactly the original level of the plain1 and by showing us in this manner the immensity of the mass which had been thus carried away by the wind4 ,the beach grass had been planted here1 and the ground had been formerly enclosed2 but the gates had been left open1 and the cattle had destroyed this invaluable plant4 #dfc ,,andresen1 ,om ,klitformationen1 pp4 #bcg1 #bdj4 #dfd ,these plantations1 perseveringly continued from the time of ,bremontier now cover more than #dj1jjj hectares1 and compose forests which are not only the salvation of the department1 but constitute its wealth4--,,clave1 ,etudes ,forestieres1 p4 #bed4 ,other authors have stated the plantations of the ,french dunes to be much more extensive4 #dfe ,,kruse1 ,duenenbau1 pp4 #cd1 #ch1 #dj4 #dff ,these processes are substantially similar to those employed in the pineries of the ,carolinas1 but they are better systematized and more economically conducted in ,france4 ,in the latter country1 all the products of the pine1 even to the cones1 find a remunerating market1 while1 in ,america1 the price of resin is so low1 that in the fierce steamboat races on the great rivers1 large quantities of it are thrown into the furnaces to increase the intensity of the fires4 ,in a carefully prepared article on the ,southern pineries published in an ,american magazine--,i think ,harper's--a few years ago1 it was stated that the resin from the turpentine distilleries was sometimes allowed to run to waste2 and the writer1 in one instance1 observed a mass1 thus rejected as rubbish1 which was estimated to amount to two thousand barrels4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #fb4 #dfg ,,andresen1 ,om ,klitformationen1 pp4 #gh1 #bfb1 #bge4 #dfh ,,laval1 ,memoire sur les ,dunes du ,golfe de ,gascogne1 ,annales des ,ponts et ,chaussees1 #ahdg1 #bme semestre1 p4 #bfa4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #fc4 #dfi ,there are extensive ranges of dunes on various parts of the coasts of the ,british ,islands1 but ,i find no estimate of their area4 ,pannewitz 7,anleitung zam ,anbau der ,sandflaechen71 as cited by ,andresen 7,om ,klitformationen1 p4 #de71 states that the drifting sands of ,europe1 including1 of course1 sand plains as well as dunes1 cover an extent of #ba1jjj square miles4 ,this is1 perhaps1 an exaggeration1 though there is1 undoubtedly1 much more desert land of this description on the ,european continent than has been generally supposed4 ,there is no question that most of this waste is capable of reclamation by simple planting1 and no mode of physical improvement is better worth the attention of civilized ,governments than this4 ,there are often serious objections to extensive forest planting on soils capable of being otherwise made productive1 but they do not apply to sand wastes1 which1 until covered by woods1 are not only a useless incumbrance1 but a source of serious danger to all human improvements in the neighborhood of them4 #dgj ,,boitel1 ,mise en valeur des ,terres pauvres par le ,pin maritime1 pp4 #bab1 #bah4 #dga ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 4 #dgb ,for details1 consult ,,andresen1 ,om ,klitformationen1 pp4 #bbc1 #bcf4 #dgc ,when the deposit is not very deep1 and the adjacent land lying to the leeward of the prevailing winds is covered with water1 or otherwise worthless1 the surface is sometimes freed from the drifts by repeated harrowings1 which loosen the sand1 so that the wind takes it up and transports it to grounds where accumulations of it are less injurious4 #dgd ,travels and ,researches in ,chaldaea1 chap4 ix4 #dge ,etudes ,forestieres1 p4 #bec4 #dgf ,,lavergne1 ,economie ,rurale de la ,france1 p4 #cjj1 estimates the area of the ,landes of ,gascony at #gjj1jjj hectares1 or about #a1gjj1jjj acres4 ,the same author states 7p4 #cjd71 that when the ,moors were driven from ,spain by the blind cupidity and brutal intolerance of the age1 they demanded permission to establish themselves in this desert2 but political and religious prejudices prevented the granting of this liberty4 ,at this period the ,moors were a far more cultivated people than their ,christian persecutors1 and they had carried many arts1 that of agriculture especially1 to a higher pitch than any other ,european nation4 ,but ,france was not wise enough to accept what ,spain had cast out1 and the ,landes remained a waste for three centuries longer4 ,see ,appendix1 ,no4 #fd4 ,the forest of ,fontainebleau1 which contains above #dj1jjj acres1 is not a plain1 but its soil is composed almost wholly of sand1 interspersed with ledges of rock4 ,the sand forms not less than ninety-eight per cent4 of the earth1 and1 as it is almost without water1 it would be a drifting desert but for the artificial propagation of forest trees upon it4 #dgg ,economie ,rurale de la ,belgique1 par ,,emile ,,de ,,laveleye1 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 ,juin1 #ahfa1 pp4 #fag-fdd4 #dgh ,geognosie1 ii1 p4 #aagc4 #dgi ,according to ,,hohenstein1 ,der ,wald1 pp4 #bbh1 #bbi1 an extensive plantation of pines--a tree new to ,southern ,russia--was commenced in #ahdb1 on the barren and sandy banks of the ,ingula1 near ,elisabethgrod1 and has met with very flattering success4 ,other experiments in sylviculture at different points on the steppes promise valuable results4 #dhj ,sixteen years ago1 says an ,odessa landholder1 ,i attempted to fix the sand of the steppes1 which covers the rocky ground to the depth of a foot1 and forms moving hillocks with every change of wind4 ,i tried acacias and pines in vain2 nothing would grow in such a soil4 ,at length ,i planted the varnish tree1 or ailanthus1 which succeeded completely in binding the sand4 ,this result encouraged the proprietor to extend his plantations over both dunes and sand steppes1 and in the course of sixteen years this rapidly growing tree had formed real forests4 ,other landowners have imitated his example with great advantage4--,,rentsch1 ,der ,wald1 p4 #dd1 #de4 #dha ,souvenirs d'un ,naturaliste1 i1 pp4 #bjd et seqq4 #dhb ,if we suppose the narrow isthmus of ,central ,america to be sunk in the ocean1 the warm equatorial current would no longer follow its circuitous route around the ,gulf of ,mexico1 but pour itself through the new opening directly into the ,pacific4 ,we should then lose the warmth of the ,gulf ,stream1 and cold polar currents flowing farther southward would take its place and be driven upon our coasts by the western winds4 ,the ,north ,sea would resemble ,hudson's ,bay1 and its harbors be free from ice at best only in summer4 ,the power and prosperity of its coasts would shrivel under the breath of winter1 as a medusa thrown on shore shrinks to an insignificant film under the influence of the destructive atmosphere4 ,commerce1 industry1 fertility of soil1 population1 would disappear1 and the vast waste--a new ,labrador--would become a worthless appendage of some clime more favored by nature4--,,hartwig1 ,das ,leben des ,meeres1 p4 #gj4 #dhc ,i know nothing of ,captain ,allen's work but its title and its subject4 ,very probably he may have anticipated many of the following speculations1 and thrown light on points upon which ,i am ignorant4 #dhd ,some haue writte1 that by certain kings inhabiting aboue1 the ,nilus should there be stopped2 at a time prefixt1 let loose vpon a certaine tribute payd them by the ,aegyptians4 ,the error springing perhaps fro a truth 7as all wandring reports for the most part doe7 in that the ,sultan doth pay a certaine annuall summe to the ,abissin ,emperour for not diuerting the course of the ,riuer1 which 7they say7 he may1 or impouerish it at the least4--,,george ,,sandys1 ,a ,relation of a ,journey1 etc41 p4 #ih4 #dhe ,the ,recca1 a river with a considerable current1 has been satisfactorily identified with a stream flowing through the cave of ,trebich1 and with the ,timavo--the ,timavus of ,virgil and the ancient geographers--which empties through several mouths into the ,adriatic between ,trieste and ,aquileia4 ,the distance from ,trieste to a suitable point in the grotto of ,trebich is thought to be less than three miles1 and the difficulties in the way of constructing a tunnel do not seem formidable4 ,the works of ,schmidl1 ,die ,hoehlen des ,karstes1 and ,der unterirdische ,lauf der ,recca1 are not common out of ,germany1 but the reader will find many interesting facts derived from them in two articles entitled ,der unterirdische ,lauf der ,recca1 in ,aus der ,natur1 xx1 pp4 #bej-bed1 #bfc-bff4 #dhf ,,barth1 ,wanderungen durch die ,kuesten des ,mittelmeeres1 i1 p4 #cec4 ,in a note on page #chj1 of the same volume1 ,barth cites ,strabo as asserting that a similar practice prevailed in ,iapygia2 but it may be questioned whether the epithet ,greek3 tracheia1 applied by ,strabo to the original surface1 necessarily implies that it was covered with a continuous stratum of rock4 #dhg ,,parthey1 ,wanderungen durch ,sicilien und die ,levante1 i1 p4 #djd4 #dhh ,geognostische ,studien am ,meeres ,ufer1 ,,leonhard und ,,bronn1 ,jahrbuch1 #ahda1 pp4 #be1 #bf4 #dhi ,,kohl1 ,schleswig-,holstein1 ii1 p4 #de4 #dij ,wanderungen durch ,sicilien und die ,levante1 i1 p4 #djf4 #dia ,,landgrebe1 ,naturgeschichte der ,vulkane1 ii1 pp4 #ai1 #bj4 #dib ,soon after the current issues from the volcano1 it is covered above and at its sides1 and finally in front1 with scoriae1 formed by the cooling of the exposed surface1 which bury and conceal the fluid mass4 ,the stream rolls on under the coating1 and between the walls of scoriae1 and it was the lateral crust which was broken through by the workmen mentioned in the text4 ,the distance to which lava flows1 before its surface begins to solidify1 depends on its volume1 its composition1 its temperature and that of the air1 the force with which it is ejected1 and the inclination of the declivity over which it runs4 ,in most cases it is difficult to approach the current at points where it is still entirely fluid1 and hence opportunities of observing it in that condition are not very frequent4 ,in the eruption of ,february1 #ahej1 on the east side of ,vesuvius1 ,i went quite up to one of the outlets4 ,the lava shot out of the orifice upward with great velocity1 like the water from a spring1 in a stream eight or ten feet in diameter1 throwing up occasionally volcanic bombs1 but it immediately spread out on the declivity down which it flowed1 to the width of several yards4 ,it continued red hot in broad daylight1 and without a particle of scoriae on its surface1 for a course of at least one hundred yards4 ,at this distance1 the suffocating1 sulphurous vapors became so dense that ,i could follow the current no farther4 ,the undulations of the surface were like those of a brook swollen by rain4 ,i estimated the height of the waves at five or six inches by a breadth of eighteen or twenty4 ,to the eye1 the fluidity of the lava seemed as perfect as that of water1 but masses of cold lava weighing ten or fifteen pounds floated upon it like cork4 ,the heat emitted by lava currents seems extremely small when we consider the temperature required to fuse such materials and the great length of time they take in cooling4 ,i saw at ,nicolosi ancient oil jars1 holding a hundred gallons or more1 which had been dug out from under a stream of old lava above that town4 ,they had been very slightly covered with volcanic ashes before the lava flowed over them1 but the lead with which holes in them had been plugged was not melted4 ,the current that buried ,mompiliere in #affi was thirty-five feet thick1 but marble statues1 in a church over which the lava formed an arch1 were found uncalcined and uninjured in #agjd4 ,see ,,scrope1 ,volcanoes1 chap4 ,,vi4 ,sec4 #f4 #dic ,,ferrara1 ,descrizione dell' ,etna1 p4 #ajh4 #did ,,langrebe1 ,naturgeschichte der ,vulkane1 ii1 p4 #hb4 #die ,physikalische ,geographie1 p4 #afh4 ,beds of peat1 accidentally set on fire1 sometimes continue to burn for months4 ,i take the following account of a case of this sort from a recent ,american journal3 ,a ,,curious ,,phenomenon4--,when the track of the railroad between ,brunswick and ,bath was being graded1 in crossing a meadow near the populous portion of the latter city1 the 'dump' suddenly took on a sinking symptom1 and down went the twenty feet fill of gravel1 clay1 and broken rocks1 out of sight1 and it was a long1 long time before dirt trains could fill the capacious stomach that seemed ready to receive all the solid material that could be turned into it4 ,the difficulty was at length overcome1 but all along the side of the sinkage the earth was thrown up1 broken into yawning chasms1 and the surface was thus elevated above its old watery level4 ,since that time this ground1 thus slightly elevated1 has been cultivated1 and has yielded enormously of whatever the owner seemed disposed to plant upon it4 ,some three months ago1 by some means unknown to us1 the underlying peat took fire1 and for weeks1 as we had occasion to pass it1 we noticed the smoke arising from the smouldering combustion beneath the surface4 ,rains fell1 but the fire burned1 and the smoke continued to arise4 ,monday we had occasion to pass the spot1 and though nearly a week's rain had been drenching the ground1 and though the surface was whitened with snow1 and though pools of water were standing upon the surface in the immediate neighborhood1 still the everlasting subterranean fire was burning1 and the smoke arising through the snow4 #dif ,one of the sublimest1 and at the same time most fearful suggestions that have been prompted by the researches of modern science1 was made by ,babbage in the ninth chapter of his ,ninth ,bridgewater ,treatise4 ,i have not the volume at hand1 but the following explanation will recall to the reader1 if it does not otherwise make intelligible1 the suggestion ,i refer to4 ,no atom can be disturbed in place1 or undergo any change of temperature1 of electrical state1 or other material condition1 without affecting1 by attraction or repulsion or other communication1 the surrounding atoms4 ,these1 again1 by the same law1 transmit the influence to other atoms1 and the impulse thus given extends through the whole material universe4 ,every human movement1 every organic act1 every volition1 passion1 or emotion1 every intellectual process1 is accompanied with atomic disturbance1 and hence every such movement1 every such act or process affects all the atoms of universal matter4 ,though action and reaction are equal1 yet reaction does not restore disturbed atoms to their former place and condition1 and consequently the effects of the least material change are never cancelled1 but in some way perpetuated1 so that no action can take place in physical1 moral1 or intellectual nature1 without leaving all matter in a different state from what it would have been if such action had not occurred4 ,hence1 to use language which ,i have employed on another occasion3 there exists1 not alone in the human conscience or in the omniscience of the ,creator1 but in external material nature1 an ineffaceable1 imperishable record1 possibly legible even to created intelligence1 of every act done1 every word uttered1 nay1 of every wish and purpose and thought conceived by mortal man1 from the birth of our first parent to the final extinction of our race2 so that the physical traces of our most secret sins shall last until time shall be merged in that eternity of which not science1 but religion alone1 assumes to take cognizance4 ,,appendix4 ,no4 #a 7page #ai1 note74 ,it may be said that the cases referred to in the note on p4 #ai--;and indeed all cases of a supposed acclimation consisting in physiological changes--are instances of the origination of new varieties by natural selection1 the hardier maize1 tomato1 and other vegetables of the ,north1 being the progeny of seeds of individuals endowed1 exceptionally1 with greater power of resisting cold than belongs in general to the species which produced them4 ,but1 so far as the evidence of change of climate1 from a difference in vegetable growth1 is concerned1 it is immaterial whether we adopt this view or maintain the older and more familiar doctrine of a local modification of character in the plants in question4 ,no4 #b 7page #bd1 note74 ,the adjectives of direction in -erly are not unfrequently used to indicate1 in a loose way1 the course of winds blowing from unspecified points between ,n4,e4 and ,s4,e42 ,s4,e4 and ,s4,w42 ,s4,w4 and ,n4,w4 or ,n4,w4 and ,n4,e4 ,if the employment of these words were understood to be limited to thus expressing a direction nearer to the cardinal point from whose name the adjective is taken than to any other cardinal point1 they would be valuable elements of ,english meteorological nomenclature4 ,no4 #c 7page #ca74 ,i find a confirmation of my observations on the habits of the beaver as a geographical agency1 in a report of the proceedings of the ,british ,association1 in the ,london ,athenaeum of ,october #h1 #ahfd1 p4 #dfi4 ,it is there stated that ,viscount ,milton and ,dr4 ,cheadle1 in an expedition across the ,rocky ,mountains by the ,yellow ,head1 or ,leather ,pass1 observed that a great portion of the country to the east of the mountains had been completely changed in character by the agency of the beaver1 which formerly existed here in enormous numbers4 ,the shallow valleys were formerly traversed by rivers and chains of lakes which1 dammed up along their course at numerous points1 by the work of those animals1 have become a series of marshes in various stages of consolidation4 ,so complete has this change been1 that hardly a stream is found for a distance of two hundred miles1 with the exception of the large rivers4 ,the animals have thus destroyed1 by their own labors1 the waters necessary to their own existence4 ,when the process of consolidation shall have been completed1 and the forest reestablished upon the marshes1 the water now diffused through them will be collected in the lower or more yielding portions1 cut new channels for their flow1 become running brooks1 and thus restore the ancient aspect of the surface4 ,no4 #d 7page #cc1 note74 ,the lignivorous insects that attack living trees almost uniformly confine their ravages to trees already unsound or diseased in growth from the depredations of leaf-eaters1 such as caterpillars and the like1 or from other causes4 ,the decay of the tree1 therefore1 is the cause not the consequence of the invasions of the borer4 ,this subject has been discussed by ,perris in the ,annales de la ,societe ,entomologique de la ,france1 for #ahea 7871 and his conclusions are confirmed by the observations of ,samanos1 who quotes1 at some length1 the views of ,perris4 ,having1 for fifteen years1 says the latter author1 incessantly studied the habits of lignivorous insects in one of the best wooded regions of ,france1 ,i have observed facts enough to feel myself warranted in expressing my conclusions1 which are3 that insects in general--,i am not speaking of those which confine their voracity to the leaf--do not attack trees in sound health1 and they assail those only whose normal conditions and functions have been by some cause impaired4 ,see1 more fully1 ,samanos1 ,traite de la ,culture du ,pin ,maritime1 ,paris1 #ahfd1 pp4 #adj-ade4 ,no4 #e 7page #cd1 note74 ,very interesting observations1 on the agency of the squirrel and other small animals in planting and in destroying nuts and other seeds of trees1 may be found in a paper on the ,succession of ,forests in ,thoreau's ,excursions1 pp4 #ace et seqq4 ,i once saw several quarts of beech-nuts taken from the winter quarters of a family of flying squirrels in a hollow tree4 ,the kernels were neatly stripped of their shells and carefully stored in a dry cavity4 ,no4 #f 7page #dj1 note74 ,schroeder van der ,kolk1 in ,het ,verschil tusschen den ,psychischen ,aanleg van het ,dier en van den ,mensch1 cites from ,burdach and other authorities many interesting facts respecting instincts lost1 or newly developed and become hereditary1 in the lower animals1 and he quotes ,aristotle and ,pliny as evidence that the common quadrupeds and fowls of our fields and our poultry yards were much less perfectly domesticated in their times than long1 long ages of servitude have now made them4 ,perhaps the half-wild character ascribed by ,p4 ,laestadius and other ,swedish writers to the reindeer of ,lapland1 may be in some degree due to the comparative shortness of the period during which he has been partially tamed4 ,the domestic swine bred in the woods of ,hungary and the buffaloes of ,southern ,italy are so wild and savage as to be very dangerous to all but their keepers4 ,the former have relapsed into their original condition1 the latter have not yet been reclaimed from it4 ,among other instances of obliterated instincts1 ,schroeder van der ,kolk states that in ,holland1 where1 for centuries1 the young of the cow has been usually taken from the dam at birth and fed by hand1 calves1 even if left with the mother1 make no attempt to suck2 while in ,england1 where calves are not weaned until several weeks old1 they resort to the udder as naturally as the young of wild quadrupeds4--,ziel en ,ligchaam1 p4 #abh1 n4 ,no4 #g 7page #fj1 first note74 ,at ,pie di ,mulera1 at the outlet of the ,val ,anzasca1 near the principal hotel1 is a vine measuring thirty-one inches in circumference4 ,the door of the chapter-hall in the cloister of the church of ,san ,giovanni1 at ,saluzzo1 is of vine wood1 and the boards of which the panels were made could not have been less than ten inches wide4 ,statues and other objects of considerable dimensions1 of vine wood1 are mentioned by ancient writers4 ,no4 #h 7page #fc1 second note74 ,cartier1 ,a4 ,d4 #aece-'f1 mentions vines1 great melons1 cucumbers1 gourds courges1 pease1 beans of various colors1 but not like ours1 as common among the ,indians of the banks of the ,st4 ,lawrence4--,bref ,recit1 etc41 reprint4 ,paris1 #ahfc1 pp4 #ac1 a2 #ad1 b2 #bj1 b2 #ca1 a4 ,no4 #h 7page #fe1 second paragraph74 ,it may be considered very highly probable1 if not certain1 that the undiscriminating herbalists of the sixteenth century must have overlooked many plants native to this island4 ,an ,english botanist1 in an hour's visit to ,aden1 discovered several species of plants on rocks always reported1 even by scientific travellers1 as absolutely barren4 ,but after all1 it appears to be well established that the original flora of ,st4 ,helena was extremely limited1 though now counting hundreds of species4 ,no4 #i 7page #ff1 first note74 ,although the vine genus is very catholic and cosmopolite in its habits1 yet particular varieties are extremely fastidious and exclusive in their requirements as to soil and climate4 ,the stocks of many celebrated vineyards lose their peculiar qualities by transplantation1 and the most famous wines are capable of production only in certain well-defined1 and for the most part narrow districts4 ,the ,ionian vine which bears the little stoneless grape known in commerce as the ,zante currant1 has resisted almost all efforts to naturalize it elsewhere1 and is scarcely grown except in two or three of the ,ionian islands and in a narrow territory on the northern shores of the ,morea4 ,no4 #aj 7page #fh1 first note74 ,in most of the countries of ,southern ,europe1 sheep and beeves are wintered upon the plains1 but driven in the summer to mountain pastures at many days' distance from the homesteads of their owners4 ,they transport seeds in their coats in both directions1 and hence ,alpine plants often shoot up at the foot of the mountains1 the grasses of the plain on the borders of the glaciers2 but in both cases1 they usually fail to propagate themselves by ripening their seed4 ,this explains the scattered tufts of common clover1 with pale and flaccid blossoms1 which are sometimes seen at heights exceeding #g1jjj feet above the sea4 ,no4 #aa 7page #gc1 last paragraph74 ,the poisonous wild parsnip1 which is very common in ,new ,england1 is popularly believed to be identical with the garden parsnip1 and differenced only by conditions of growth1 a richer soil depriving it1 it is said1 of its noxious properties4 ,many wild medicinal plants1 such as pennyroyal for example1 are so much less aromatic and powerful1 when cultivated in gardens1 than when self-sown on meagre soils1 as to be hardly fit for use4 ,no4 #ab 7page #gd1 second note74 ,see in ,thoreau's ,excursions1 an interesting description of the wild apple-trees of ,massachusetts4 ,no4 #ac 7page #hf1 first paragraph74 ,it is said at ,courmayeur that a very few ibexes of a larger variety than those of the ,cogne mountains1 still linger about the ,grande ,jorasse4 ,no4 #ad 7page #ib1 first note74 ,in ,northern and ,central ,italy1 one often sees hillocks crowned with grove-like plantations of small trees1 much resembling large arbors4 ,these serve to collect birds1 which are entrapped in nets in great numbers4 ,these plantations are called ragnaje1 and the reader will find1 in ,bindi's edition of ,davanzati1 a very pleasant description of a ragnaja1 though its authorship is not now ascribed to that eminent writer4 ,no4 #ae 7page #ic1 second note74 ,the appearance of the dove-like grouse1 ,tetrao paradoxus1 or ,syrrhaptes ,pallasii1 in various parts of ,europe1 in #ahei and the following years1 is a noticeable exception to the law of regularity which seems to govern the movements and determine the habitat of birds4 ,the proper home of this bird is the steppes of ,tartary1 and it is not recorded to have been observed in ,europe1 or at least west of ,russia1 until the year abovementioned1 when many flocks of twenty or thirty1 and even a hundred individuals1 were seen in ,bohemia1 ,germany1 ,holland1 ,denmark1 ,england1 ,ireland1 and ,france4 ,a considerable flock frequented the ,frisian island of ,borkum for more than five months4 ,it was hoped they would breed and remain permanently in the island1 but this expectation has been disappointed1 and the steppe-grouse seems to have disappeared again altogether4 ,no4 #af 7page #id1 note74 ,from an article by ,a4 ,esquiros1 in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes for ,sept4 #a1 #ahfd1 entitled1 ,la vie ,anglaise1 p4 #aai1 it appears that such occurrences as that stated in the note are not unfrequent on the ,british coast4 ,no4 #ag 7page #ajj1 first paragraph74 ,i cannot learn that caprification is now practised in ,italy1 but it is still in use in ,greece4 ,no4 #ah 7page #aab1 first note74 ,the recent great multiplication of vipers in some parts of ,france1 is a singular and startling fact4 ,toussenel1 quoting from official documents1 states1 that upon the offer of a reward of fifty centimes1 or ten cents1 a head1 twelve thousand vipers were brought to the prefect of a single department1 and that in #ahei fifteen hundred snakes and twenty quarts of snakes' eggs were found under a farm-house hearthstone4 ,the granary1 the stables1 the roof1 the very beds swarmed with serpents1 and the family were obliged to abandon its habitation4 ,dr4 ,viaugrandmarais1 of ,nantes1 reported to the prefect of his department more than two hundred recent cases of viper bites1 twenty-four of which proved fatal4--,tristia1 p4 #agf et seqq4 ,no4 #ai 7page #aba1 first note74 ,the ,beduins are little given to the chase1 and seldom make war on the game birds and quadrupeds of the desert4 ,hence the wild animals of ,arabia are less timid than those of ,europe4 ,on one occasion1 when ,i was encamped during a sand storm of some violence in ,arabia ,petraea1 a wild pigeon took refuge in one of our tents which had not been blown down1 and remained quietly perched on a boy in the midst of four or five persons1 until the storm was over1 and then took his departure1 insalutato hospite4 ,no4 #bj 7page #abb74 ,it is possible that time may modify the habits of the fresh water fish of the ,north ,american ,states1 and accommodate them to the now physical conditions of their native waters4 ,hence it may be hoped that nature1 even unaided by art1 will do something toward restoring the ancient plenty of our lakes and rivers4 ,the decrease of our fresh water fish cannot be ascribed alone to exhaustion by fishing1 for in the waters of the valleys and flanks of the ,alps1 which have been inhabited and fished ten times as long by a denser population1 fish are still very abundant1 and they thrive and multiply under circumstances where no ,american species could live at all4 ,on the southern slope of those mountains1 trout are caught in great numbers1 in the swift streams which rush from the glaciers1 and where the water is of icy coldness1 and so turbid with particles of fine-ground rock1 that you cannot see an inch below the surface4 ,the glacier streams of ,switzerland1 however1 are less abundant in fish4 ,no4 #ba 7page #aca1 note74 ,vaupell1 though agreeing with other writers as to the injury done to the forest by most domestic animals--which he illustrates in an interesting way in his posthumous work1 ,the ,danish ,woods--thinks1 nevertheless1 that at the season when the mast is falling swine are rather useful than otherwise to forests of beech and oak1 by treading into the ground and thus sowing beechnuts and acorns1 and by destroying moles and mice4--,de ,danske ,skore1 p4 #ab4 ,no4 #bb 7page #ace1 note74 ,the able authors of ,humphreys and ,abbot's most valuable ,report on the ,physics and ,hydraulics of the ,mississippi1 conclude that the delta of that river began its encroachments on the ,gulf of ,mexico not more than #d1djj years ago1 before which period they suppose the ,mississippi to have been a comparatively clear stream1 conveying very little sediment to the sea4 ,the present rate of advance of the delta is #bfb feet a year1 and there are reasons for thinking that the amount of deposit has long been approximately constant4--,report1 pp4 #dce1 #dcf4 ,the change in the character of the river must1 if this opinion is well founded1 be due to some geological revolution1 or at least convulsion1 and the hypothesis of the former existence of one or more great lakes in its upper valley1 whose bottoms are occupied by the present prairie region1 has been suggested4 ,the shores of these supposed lakes have not1 ,i believe1 been traced1 or even detected1 and we cannot admit the truth of this hypothesis without supposing changes much more extensive than the mere bursting of the barrier which confined the waters4 ,no4 #bc 7page #adc1 note74 ,see on this subject a paper by ,j4 ,jamin1 in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes for ,sept4 #ae1 #ahfd2 and1 on the effects of human industry on the atmosphere1 an article in ,aus der ,natur1 vol4 #bi1 #ahfd1 pp4 #ddc1 #ddi1 #dfe et seqq4 ,no4 #bd 7page #aei1 second paragraph74 ,all evergreens1 even the broad-leaved trees1 resist frosts of extraordinary severity better than the deciduous trees of the same climates4 ,is not this because the vital processes of trees of persistent foliage are less interrupted during winter than those of trees which annually shed their leaves1 and therefore more organic heat is developed8 ,no4 #be 7page #aia1 first paragraph74 ,in discussing the influence of mountains on precipitation1 meteorologists have generally treated the popular belief1 that mountains attract to them clouds floating within a certain distance from them1 as an ignorant prejudice1 and they ascribe the appearance of clouds about high peaks solely to the condensation of the humidity of the air carried by atmospheric currents up the slopes of the mountain to a colder temperature4 ,but if mountains do not really draw clouds and invisible vapors to them1 they are an exception to the universal law of attraction4 ,the attraction of the small ,mount ,shehallien was found sufficient to deflect from the perpendicular1 by a measurable quantity1 a plummet weighing but a few ounces4 ,why1 then1 should not greater masses attract to them volumes of vapor weighing hundreds of tons1 and floating freely in the atmosphere within moderate distances of the mountains8 ,no4 #bf 7page #aih1 note74 ,elisee ,redus ascribes the diminution of the ponds which border the dunes of ,gascony to the absorption of their water by the trees which have been planted upon the sands4--,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #a ,aug41 #ahfc1 p4 #fid4 ,no4 #bg 7page #bai1 note74 ,the waste of wood in ,european carpentry was formerly enormous1 the beams of houses being both larger and more numerous than permanence or stability required4 ,in examining the construction of the houses occupied by the eighty families which inhabit the village of ,faucigny1 in ,savoy1 in #ahcd1 the forest inspector found that fifty thousand trees had been employed in building them4 ,the builders seemed1 says ,hudry-,menos1 to have tried to solve the problem of piling upon the walls the largest quantity of timber possible without crushing them4--,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #a ,june1 #ahfd1 p4 #fja4 ,no4 #bh 7page #bca1 note74 ,in a remarkable pamphlet1 to which ,i shall have occasion to refer more than once hereafter1 entitled ,avant-projet pour la creation d'un sol fertile a la surface des ,landes de ,gascogne1 ,duponchel argues with much force1 that the fertilizing properties of river-slime are generally due much more to its mineral than to its vegetable constituents4 ,no4 #bi 7page #bfe1 note74 ,even the denser silicious stones are penetrable by fluids and the coloring matter they contain1 to such an extent that agates and other forms of silex may be artificially stained through their substance4 ,this art was known to and practised by the ancient lapidaries1 and it has been revived in recent times4 ,no4 #cj 7page #bfh74 ,there is good reason for thinking that many of the earth and rock slides in the ,alps occurred at an earlier period than the origin of the forest vegetation which1 in later ages1 covered the flanks of those mountains4 ,see ,bericht ueber die ,untersuchung der ,schweizerischen ,hochgebirgswaldungen4 #ahfb4 ,p4 #fa4 ,where more recent slides have been again clothed with woods1 the trees1 shrubs1 and smaller plants which spontaneously grow upon them are usually of different species from those observed upon soil displaced at remote periods4 ,this difference is so marked that the site of a slide can often be recognized at a great distance by the general color of the foliage of its vegetation4 ,no4 #ca 7page #bhf1 note74 ,it should have been observed that the venomous principle of poisonous mushrooms is not decomposed and rendered innocent by the process described in the note4 ,it is merely extracted by the acidulated or saline water employed for soaking the plants1 and care should be taken that this water be thrown away out of the reach of mischief4 ,no4 #cb 7page #bic1 note74 ,gaudry estimates the ties employed in the railways of ,france at thirty millions1 to supply which not less than two millions of large trees have been felled4 ,these ties have been1 upon the average1 at least once renewed1 and hence we must double the number of ties and of trees required to furnish them4--,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #ae ,july1 #ahfc1 p4 #dbe4 ,no4 #cc 7page #bid1 second paragraph of note74 ,after all1 the present consumption of wood and timber for fuel and other domestic and rural purposes1 in many parts of ,europe1 seems incredibly small to an ,american4 ,in rural ,switzerland1 the whole supply of firewood1 fuel for small smitheries1 dairies1 breweries1 brick and lime kilns1 distilleries1 fences1 furniture1 tools1 and even house building--exclusive of the small quantity derived from the trimmings of fruit trees1 grape vines and hedges1 and from decayed fences and buildings--does not exceed an average of two hundred and thirty cubic feet1 or less than two cords1 a year per household4 ,the average consumption of wood in ,new ,england for domestic fuel alone1 is from five to ten times as much as ,swiss families require for all the uses above enumerated4 ,but the existing habitations of ,switzerland are sufficient for a population which increases but slowly1 and in the peasants' houses but a single room is usually heated4 ,see ,bericht ueber die ,untersuchung der ,schweiz4 ,hochgebirgswaldungen1 pp4 #he-hi4 ,no4 #cd 7page #cjd74 ,among more recent manuals may be mentioned3 ,les ,etudes de ,maitre ,pierre4 ,paris1 #ahfd4 #abmo2 ,,bazelaire1 ,traite de ,reboisement4 #b;d edition1 ,paris1 #ahfd2 and1 in ,italian1 ,,siemoni1 ,manuale teorico-pratico d'arte ,forestale4 ,firenze1 #ahfd4 #hvo4 ,a very important work has lately been published in ,france by ,viscount de ,courval1 which is known to me only by a ,german translation published at ,berlin1 in #ahfd1 under the title1 ,das ,aufaesten der ,waldbaeume4 ,the principal feature of ,de ,courval's very successful system of sylviculture1 is a mode of trimming which compels the tree to develop the stem by reducing the lateral ramification4 ,beginning with young trees1 the buds are rubbed off from the stems1 and superfluous lateral shoots are pruned down to the trunk4 ,when large trees are taken in hand1 branches which can be spared1 and whose removal is necessary to obtain a proper length of stem1 are very smoothly cut off quite close to the trunk1 and the exposed surface is immediately brushed over with mineral-coal tar4 ,when thus treated1 it is said that the healing of the wound is perfect1 and without any decay of the tree4 ,no4 #ce 7page #cac74 ,the most gorgeous autumnal coloring ,i have observed in the vegetation of ,europe1 has been in the valleys of the ,durance and its tributaries in ,dauphiny4 ,i must admit that neither in variety nor in purity and brilliancy of tint1 does this coloring fall much1 if at all1 short of that of the ,new ,england woods4 ,but there is this difference3 in ,dauphiny1 it is only in small shrubs that this rich painting is seen1 while in ,north ,america the foliage of large trees is dyed in full splendor4 ,hence the ,american woodland has fewer broken lights and more of what painters call breadth of coloring4 ,besides this1 the arrangement of the leafage in large globular or conical masses1 affords a wider scale of light and shade1 thus aiding now the gradation1 now the contrast of tints1 and gives the ,american ,october landscape a softer and more harmonious tone than marks the humble shrubbery of the forest hill-sides of ,dauphiny4 ,thoreau--who was not1 like some very celebrated landscape critics of the present day1 an outside spectator of the action and products of natural forces1 but1 in the old religious sense1 an observer of organic nature1 living1 more than almost any other descriptive writer1 among and with her children--has a very eloquent paper on the ,autumnal ,tints of the ,new ,england landscape4--,see his ,excursions1 pp4 #bae et seqq4 ,few men have personally noticed so many facts in natural history accessible to unscientific observation as ,thoreau1 and yet he had never seen that very common and striking spectacle1 the phosphorescence of decaying wood1 until1 in the latter years of his life1 it caught his attention in a bivouac in the forests of ,maine4 ,he seems to have been more excited by this phenomenon than by any other described in his works4 ,it must be a capacious eye that takes in all the visible facts in the history of the most familiar natural object4--,the ,maine ,woods1 p4 #ahd4 ,the luminous appearance of bodies projected against the sky adjacent to the rising or setting sun1 so well described in ,professor ,necker's ,letter to ,sir ,david ,brewster1 is1 as ,tyndall observes1 hardly ever seen by either guides or travellers1 though it would seem1 prima facie1 that it must be of frequent occurrence4 ,see ,,tyndall1 ,glaciers of the ,alps4 ,part ,i4 ,second ascent of ,mont ,blanc4 ,judging from my own observation1 however1 ,i should much doubt whether this brilliant phenomenon can be so often seen in perfection as would be expected2 for ,i have frequently sought it in vain at the foot of the ,alps1 under conditions apparently otherwise identical with those where1 in the elevated ,alpine valleys1 it shows itself in the greatest splendor4 ,no4 #cf 7page #cad74 ,european poets1 whose knowledge of the date palm is not founded on personal observation1 often describe its trunk as not only slender1 but particularly straight4 ,nothing can be farther from the truth4 ,when the ,orientals compare the form of a beautiful girl to the stem of the palm1 they do not represent it as rigidly straight1 but on the contrary as made up of graceful curves1 which seem less like permanent outlines than like flowing motion4 ,in a palm grove1 the trunks1 so far from standing planted upright like the candles of a chandelier1 bend in a vast variety of curves1 now leaning towards1 now diverging from1 now crossing1 each other1 and among a hundred you will hardly see two whose axes are parallel4 ,no4 #cg 7page #caf1 first note74 ,charles ,martin ascribes the power of reproduction by shoots from the stump to the cedar of ,mount ,atlas1 which appears to be identical with the cedar of ,lebanon4--,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #ae ,july1 #ahfd1 p4 #cae4 ,no4 #ch 7page #ccb74 ,in an interesting article on recent internal improvements in ,england1 in the ,london ,quarterly ,review for ,january1 #aheh1 it is related that in a single rock cutting on the ,liverpool and ,manchester railway1 #dhj1jjj cubic yards of stone were removed2 that the earth excavated and removed in the construction of ,english railways up to that date1 amounted to a hundred and fifty million cubic yards1 and that at the ,round ,down ,cliff1 near ,dover1 a single blast of nineteen thousand pounds of powder blew down a thousand million tons of chalk1 and covered fifteen acres of land with the fragments4 ,no4 #ci 7page #cci74 ,according to ,reventlov1 whose work is one of the best sources of information on the subject of diking-in tide-washed flats1 ,salicornia herbacea appears as soon as the flat is raised high enough to be dry for three hours at ordinary ebb tide1 or1 in other words1 where the ordinary flood covers it to a depth of not more than two feet4 ,at a flood depth of one foot1 the ,salicornia dies and is succeeded by various sand plants4 ,these are followed by ,poa distans and ,poa maritima as the ground is raised by further deposits1 and these plants finally by common grasses4 ,the ,salicornia is preceded by confervae1 growing in deeper water1 which spread over the bottom1 and when covered by a fresh deposit of slime reappear above it1 and thus vegetable and alluvial strata alternate until the flat is raised sufficiently high for the growth of ,salicornia4--,om ,marskdannelsen paa ,vestkysten af ,hertugdoemmet ,slesvig1 pp4 #g1 #h4 ,no4 #dj 7page #cdh1 note74 ,the drijftil employed for the ring dike of the ,lake of ,haarlem1 was in part cut in sections fifty feet long by six or seven wide1 and these were navigated like rafts to the spot where they were sunk to form the dike4--,,emile ,,de ,,laveleye1 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #ae ,sept41 #ahfc1 p4 #bhe4 ,no4 #da 7page #ceb1 last paragraph74 ,see on the influence of the improvements in question on tidal and other marine currents1 ,staring1 ,de ,bodem van ,nederland1 ,i4 p4 #bgi4 ,although the dikes of the ,netherlands and the adjacent states have protected a considerable extent of coast from the encroachments of the sea1 and have won a large tract of cultivable land from the dominion of the waters1 it has been questioned whether a different method of accomplishing these objects might not have been adopted with advantage4 ,it has been suggested that a system of inland dikes and canals1 upon the principle of those which1 as will be seen in a subsequent part of the chapter on the waters1 have been so successfully employed in the ,val di ,chiana and in ,egypt1 might have elevated the low grounds above the ocean tides1 by spreading over them the sediment brought down by the ,rhine1 the ,maes1 and the ,scheld4 ,if this process had been introduced in the ,middle ,ages and constantly pursued to our times1 the superficial and coast geography1 as well as the hydrography of the countries in question1 would undoubtedly have presented an aspect very different from their present condition2 and by combining the process with a system of maritime dikes1 which would have been necessary1 both to resist the advance of the sea and to retain the slime deposited by river overflows1 it is possible that the territory of those states would have been as extensive as it now is1 and1 at the same time1 more elevated by several feet4 ,but it must be borne in mind that we do not know the proportions in which the marine deposits that form the polders have been derived from materials brought down by these rivers or from other more remote sources4 ,much of the river slime has no doubt been transported by marine currents quite beyond the reach of returning streams1 and it is uncertain how far this loss has been balanced by earth washed by the sea from distant shores and let fall on the coasts of the ,netherlands and other neighboring countries4 ,we know little or nothing of the quantity of solid matter brought down by the rivers of ,western ,europe in early ages1 but1 as the banks of those rivers are now generally better secured against wash and abrasion than in former centuries1 the sediment transported by them must be less than at periods nearer the removal of the primitive forests of their valleys4 ,kloeden states the quantity of sedimentary matter now annually brought down by the ,rhine at ,bonn to be sufficient only to cover a square ,english mile to the depth of a little more than a foot4--,erdkunde1 ,i4 p4 #chd4 ,no4 #db 7page #ceh1 first paragraph74 ,meteorological observations have been regularly recorded at ,zwanenburg1 near the north end of the ,lake of ,haarlem1 for more than a century1 and since #ahde a similar register has been kept at the ,helder1 forty or fifty miles farther north4 ,in comparing these two series of observations1 it is found that about the end of the year #aheb1 when the drawing off of the waters of the ,lake of ,haarlem was completed1 and the preceding summer had dried the grounds laid bare so as greatly to reduce the evaporable surface1 a change took place in the relative temperature of the two stations4 ,taking the mean of every successive period of five days from #ahde to #aheb1 the temperature at ,zwanenburg was thirty-three hundredths of a centigrade degree lower than at the ,helder4 ,since the end of #aheb1 the thermometer at ,zwanenburg has stood1 from the #aath of ,april to the #bjth of ,september inclusive1 twenty-two hundredths of a degree higher than at the ,helder1 but from the #adth of ,october to the #agth of ,march1 it has averaged one-tenth of a degree lower than its mean between the same dates before #ahec4 ,there is no reasonable doubt that these differences are due to the draining of the lake4 ,there has been less refrigeration from evaporation in summer1 and the ground has absorbed more solar heat at the same period1 while in the winter it has radiated more warmth then when it was covered with water4 ,doubtless the quantity of humidity contained in the atmosphere has also been affected by the same cause1 but observations do not appear to have been made on that point4 ,see ,,krecke1 ,het ,klimaat van ,nederland1 ,,ii4 #fd4 ,no4 #dc 7page #ceh1 note74 ,in the course of the present year 7#ahfd71 there have been several land slips on the borders of the ,lake of ,como1 and in one instance the grounds of a villa lying upon the margin of the water suffered a considerable displacement4 ,if the lake should be lowered to any considerable extent1 in pursuance of the plan mentioned in the note on page #ceh1 there is ground to fear that the steep shores of the lake might1 at some points1 be deprived of a lateral pressure requisite to their stability1 and slide into the water as on the ,lake of ,lungern4 ,see p4 #cef4 ,no4 #dd 7page #cfi1 last paragraph but one of note74 ,in like manner1 while the box1 the cedar1 the fir1 the oak1 the pine1 beams1 and timber1 are very frequently mentioned in the ,old ,testament1 not one of these words is found in the ,new1 except the case of the beam in the eye1 in the parable in ,matthew and ,luke4 ,no4 #de 7page #cge1 note74 ,in all probability1 the real change effected by human art in the superficial geography of ,egypt1 is the conversion of pools and marshes into dry land1 by a system of transverse dikes1 which compelled the flood water to deposit its sediment on the banks of the river instead of carrying it to the sea4 ,the colmate of modern ,italy were thus anticipated in ancient ,egypt4 ,no4 #df 7page #cgh74 ,we have seen in ,appendix1 ,no4 #db1 ante1 that the mean temperature of a station on the borders of the ,lake of ,haarlem--a sheet of water formerly covering sixty-two and a half square ,english miles--for the period between the #aath of ,april and the #bjth of ,september1 had been raised not less than a degree of ,fahrenheit by the draining of that lake2 or1 to state the case more precisely1 that the formation of the lake1 which was a consequence of man's improvidence1 had reduced the temperature one degree ,f4 below the natural standard4 ,the artificially irrigated lands of ,france1 ,piedmont1 and ,lombardy1 taken together1 are fifty times as extensive as the ,lake of ,haarlem1 and they are situated in climates where evaporation is vastly more rapid than in the ,netherlands4 ,they must therefore1 no doubt1 affect the local climate to a far greater extent than has been observed in connection with the draining of the lake in question4 ,i do not know that special observations have been made with a view to measure the climatic effects of irrigation1 but in the summer ,i have often found the morning temperature1 when the difference would naturally be least perceptible1 on the watered plains of ,piedmont1 nine miles south of ,turin1 several degrees lower than that recorded at an observatory in the city4 ,no4 #dg 7page #cia1 note74 ,the ,roman aqueduct known as the ,pont du ,gard1 near ,nismes1 was built1 in all probability1 nineteen centuries ago4 ,the bed of the river ,gardon1 a rather swift stream1 which flows beneath it1 can have suffered but a slight depression since the piers of the aqueduct were founded4 ,no4 #dh 7page #cic1 first note74 ,duponchel makes the following remarkable statement3 ,the river ,herault rises in a granitic region1 but soon reaches calcareous formations1 which it traverses for more than sixty kilometres1 rolling through deep and precipitous ravines1 into which the torrents are constantly discharging enormous masses of pebbles belonging to the hardest rocks of the ,jurassian period4 ,these debris1 continually renewed1 compose1 even below the exit of the gorge where the river enters into a regular channel cut in a tertiary deposit1 broad beaches1 prodigious accumulations of rolled pebbles1 extending several kilometres down the stream1 but they diminish in size and weight so rapidly that above the mouth of the river1 which is at a distance of thirty or thirty-five kilometres from the gorge1 every trace of calcareous matter has disappeared from the sands of the bottom1 which are exclusively silicious4--,avant-projet pour la creation d'un sol fertile1 etc41 p4 #bj4 ,no4 #di 7page #djd1 first paragraph of second note74 ,the length of the lower course of the ,po having been considerably increased by the filling up of the ,adriatic with its deposits1 the velocity of the current ought1 prima facie1 to have been diminished and its bed raised in proportion4 ,there are grounds for believing that this has happened in the case of the ,nile1 and one reason why the same effect has not been more sensibly perceptible in the ,po is1 that the confinement of the current by continuous embankments gives it a high-water velocity sufficient to sweep out deposits let fall at lower stages and slower movements of the water4 ,torrential streams tend first to excavate1 then to raise1 their beds4 ,no general law on this point can be stated in relation to the middle and lower course of rivers4 ,the conditions which determine the question of the depression or elevation of a river bed are too multifarious1 variable1 and complex to be subjected to formulae1 and they can scarcely even be enumerated4 ,see1 however1 note on p4 #dca4 ,no4 #ej 7page #djf1 first paragraph74 ,the system proposed in the text is substantially the ,egyptian method1 the ,nile dikes having been constructed rather to retain than to exclude the water4 ,the waters of rivers which flow down planes of gentle inclination1 deposit in their inundations the largest proportion of their sediment as soon as1 by overflowing their banks1 they escape from the swift current of the channel1 and consequently the immediate banks of such rivers become higher than the grounds lying farther from the stream4 ,in the intervals1 or bottoms1 of the great ,north ,american rivers1 the alluvial banks are elevated and dry1 the flats more remote from the river lower and swampy4 ,this is generally observable in ,egypt1 though less so than in the valley of the ,mississippi1 where1 below ,cape ,girardeau1 the alluvial banks constitute natural glacis descending as you recede from the river1 at an average of seven feet in the first mile4--,,humphreys ,,and ,,abbot',s ,report1 pp4 #if1 #ig4 ,the ,egyptian crossdikes1 by retaining the water of the inundations1 compel it to let fall its remaining slime1 and hence the elevation of the remoter land goes on at a rate not very much slower than that of the immediate banks4 ,probably transverse embankments would produce the same effect in the ,mississippi valley4 ,in the great floods of this river1 it is observed that1 at a certain distance from the channel1 the bottoms1 though lower than the banks1 are flooded to a less depth4 ,see cross sections in ,plate ,,iv4 of ,humphreys and ,abbot's ,report4 ,this apparently anomalous fact is due1 ,i suppose1 to the greater swiftness of the current of the overflowing water in the low grounds1 which are often drained through the channels of rivers whose beds lie at a lower level than that of the ,mississippi1 or by the bayous which are so characteristic a feature of the geography of that valley4 ,a judicious use of dikes would probably convert the swamps of the lower ,mississippi valley into a region like ,egypt4 ,no4 #ea 7second note74 ,the mean discharge of the ,mississippi is #fge1jjj cubic feet per second1 and1 accordingly1 that river contributes to the sea about eleven times as much water as the ,po1 and more than sis and a half times as much as the ,nile4 ,the discharge of the ,mississippi is estimated at one-fourth of the precipitation in its basin1 certainly a very large proportion1 when we consider the rapidity of evaporation in many parts of the basin1 and the probable loss by infiltration4--,,humphreys ,,and ,,abbot',s ,report1 p4 #ic4 ,no4 #eb 7page #dbc1 first paragraph74 ,artificially directed currents of water have been advantageously used in civil engineering for displacing and transporting large quantities of earth1 and there is no doubt that this agency might be profitably employed to a far greater extent than has yet been attempted4 ,some of the hydraulic works in ,california for washing down masses of auriferous earth are on a scale stupenduous enough to produce really important topographical changes4 ,no4 #ec 7page #dce1 first note74 ,i have lately been informed by a resident of the ,ionian ,islands1 who is familiar with this phenomenon1 that the sea flows uninterruptedly into the sub-insular cavities1 at all stages of the tide4 ,no4 #ed 7page #dch1 note74 ,it is observed in ,cornwall that deep mines are freer from water in artificially well-drained1 than in undrained agricultural districts4--,,esquiros1 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 ,nov4 #ae1 #ahfc1 p4 #dcj4 ,no4 #ee 7page #dda74 ,see1 on the ,artesian wells of the ,sahara1 and especially on the throwing up of living fish by them1 an article entitled1 ,le ,sahara1 etc41 by ,charles ,martins1 in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes for ,august #a1 #ahfd1 pp4 #fah1 #fai4 ,no4 #ef 7page #ddd1 first note74 ,from the article in the ,rev4 des ,deux ,mondes1 referred to in the preceding note1 it appears that the wells discovered by ,ayme were truly artesian4 ,they were bored in rock1 and provided at the outlet with a pear-shaped valve of stone1 by which the orifice could be closed or opened at pleasure4 ,no4 #eg 7page #ddg1 second note74 ,hull ingeniously suggests that1 besides other changes1 fine sand intermixed with or deposited above a coarser stratum1 as well as the minute particles resulting from the disintegration of the latter1 may be carried by rain in the case of dunes1 or by the ordinary action of sea water in that of subaqueous sandbanks1 down through the interstices in the coarser layer1 and thus the relative position of fine sand and gravel may be more or less changed4--,oorsprong der ,hollandsche ,duinen1 p4 #ajc4 ,no4 #eh 7page #dgi74 ,it appears from ,laurent1 that marine shells1 of extant species1 are found in the sands of the ,sahara1 far from the sea1 and even at considerable depths below the surface4--,memoires sur le ,sahara ,oriental1 p4 #fb4 ,this observation has been confirmed by late travellers1 and is an important link in the chain of evidence which tends to prove that the upheaval of the ,libyan desert is of comparatively recent date4 ,no4 #ei 7p4 #dhj74 ,at ,new ,quay in ,england the dune sands are converted to stone by an oxyde of iron held in solution by the water which pervades them4 ,this stone1 which is formed1 so to speak1 under our eye1 has been found solid enough to be employed for building4--,,esquiros1 ,l',angleterre et la vie ,anglaise1 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #a ,march1 #ahfd1 pp4 #dd1 #de4 ,no4 #fj 7page #dif1 first paragraph74 ,in ,ditmarsh1 the breaking of the surface by the manoeuvering of a corps of cavalry let loose a sand-drift which did serious injury before it was subdued4--,,kohl1 ,inseln u4 ,marschen4 etc41 ,,iii4 p4 #bhb4 ,similar cases have occurred in ,eastern ,massachusetts1 from equally slight causes4--,see ,,thoreau1 ,a ,week on the ,concord and ,merrimack ,rivers1 pp4 #aea-bjh4 ,no4 #fa 7page #dig1 last note74 ,a more probable explanation of the fact stated in the note is suggested by ,elisee ,reclus1 in an article entitled1 ,le ,littoral de la ,france1 in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes for ,sept4 #a1 #ahfd1 pp4 #aic1 #aid4 ,this able writer believes such pools to be the remains of ancient maritime bays1 which have been cut off from the ocean by gradually accumulated sand banks raised by the waves and winds to the character of dunes4 ,no4 #fb 7page #ejf1 note74 ,the statement in the note is confirmed by ,olmsted3 ,there is not a sufficient demand for rosin1 except of the first qualities1 to make it worth transporting from the inland distilleries2 it is ordinarily1 therefore1 conducted off to a little distance1 in a wooden trough1 and allowed to flow from it to waste upon the ground4 ,at the first distillery ,i visited1 which had been in operation but one year1 there lay a congealed pool of rosin1 estimated to contain over three thousand barrels4--,a ,journey in the ,seaboard ,slave ,states1 #ahfc1 p4 #cde4 ,no4 #fc 7page #ejg74 ,in an article on the dunes of ,europe1 in ,vol4 #bi 7#ahfd7 of ,aus der ,natur1 p4 #eij1 the dunes are estimated to cover1 on the islands and coasts of ,schleswig ,holstein1 in ,northwest ,germany1 ,denmark1 ,holland1 and ,france1 one hundred and eighty-one ,german1 or nearly four thousand ,english square miles2 in ,scotland1 about ten ,german1 or two hundred and ten ,english miles2 in ,ireland1 twenty ,german1 or four hundred and twenty ,english miles2 and in ,england1 one hundred and twenty ,german1 or more than twenty-five hundred ,english miles4 ,no4 #fd 7page #eab1 last paragraph74 ,for a brilliant account of the improvement of the ,landes1 see ,edmond ,about1 ,le ,progres1 ,chap1 ,,vii4 ,in the memoir referred to in ,appendix1 ,no4 #dh1 ante1 ,duponchel proposes the construction of artificial torrents to grind calcareous rock to slime by rolling and attrition in its bed1 and1 at the same time1 the washing down of an argillaceous deposit which is to be mixed with the calcareous slime and distributed over the ,landes by watercourses constructed for the purpose4 ,by this means1 he supposes that a highly fertile soil could be formed on the surface1 which would also be so raised by the process as to admit of freer drainage4 ,that nothing may be wanting to recommend this project1 ,duponchel suggests that1 as some of the rivers of ,western ,france are auriferous1 it is probable that gold enough may be collected from the washings to reduce the cost of the operations materially4 ,no4 #fe 7page #ebh1 first paragraph74 ,the opening of a channel across ,cape ,cod would have1 though perhaps to a smaller extent1 the same effects in interchanging the animal life of the southern and northern shores of the isthmus1 as in the case of the ,suez canal2 for although the breadth of ,cape ,cod does not anywhere exceed twenty miles1 and is in some places reduced to one1 it appears from the official reports on the ,natural ,history of ,massachusetts1 that the population of the opposite waters differs widely in species4 ,not having the original documents at hand1 ,i quote an extract from the ,report on the ,invertebrate ,animals of ,mass41 given by ,thoreau1 ,excursions1 p4 #fi3 ,the distribution of the marine shells is well worthy of notice as a geological fact4 ,cape ,cod1 the right arm of the ,commonwealth1 reaches out into the ocean some fifty or sixty miles4 ,it is nowhere many miles wide2 but this narrow point of land has hitherto proved a barrier to the migration of many species of mollusca4 ,several genera and numerous species1 which are separated by the intervention of only a few miles of land1 are effectually prevented from mingling by the ,cape1 and do not pass from one side to the other 99 99 99 99 ,of the one hundred and ninety-seven marine species1 eighty-three do not pass to the south shore1 and fifty are not found on the north shore of the ,cape4 ,probably the distribution of the species of mollusks is affected by unknown local conditions1 and therefore an open canal across the ,cape might not make every species that inhabits the waters on one side common to those of the other2 but there can be no doubt that there would be a considerable migration in both directions4 ,the fact stated in the report may suggest an important caution in drawing conclusions upon the relative age of formations from the character of their fossils4 ,had a geological movement or movements upheaved to different levels the bottoms of waters thus separated by a narrow isthmus1 and dislocated the connection between those bottoms1 naturalists1 in after ages1 reasoning from the character of the fossil faunas1 might have assigned them to different1 and perhaps very widely distant1 periods4 ,no4 #ff 7page #edh1 first paragraph74 ,to the geological effects of the thickening of the earth's crust in the ,bay of ,bengal1 are to be added those of thinning it on the highlands where the ,ganges rises4 ,the same action may1 as a learned friend suggests to me1 even have a cosmical influence4 ,the great rivers of the earth1 taken as a whole1 transport sediment from the polar regions in an equatorial direction1 and hence tend to increase the equatorial diameter1 and at the same time1 by their inequality of action1 to a continual displacement of the centre of gravity1 of the earth4 ,the motion of the globe and of all bodies affected by its attraction1 is modified by every change of its form1 and in this case we are not authorized to say that such effects are in any way compensated4 ,,index ,abbeys of ,st4 ,germain and ,st4 ,denis1 revenues of1 #f4 ,adirondack forest1 #bce2 lakes of1 #ceg4 ,ailanthus glandulosa1 #eae4 ,akaba1 gulf of1 infiltration of fresh water in1 #ddj4 ,albano1 lake of1 artificial lowering of1 #cec4 ,algeria1 deserts of1 artesian wells in1 #ddc2 sand dunes of1 #dfc2 consolidated dunes1 #dhj4 ,alpaca1 ,south ,american1 #hc4 ,amazon1 ,indians of1 #aa4 ,ameland1 island of1 #dii4 ,america1 ,north1 primitive physical condition of1 #bg1 #dc2 forests of1 #bh2 possibility of noting its physical changes1 #eb2 by scientific observation1 #ec2 forest trees of1 #bgd2 sand dunes of1 #dfi2 proposed changes in hydrography of1 #ecb4 ,animal life1 sympathy of ruder races with1 #ci2 instinct1 fallibility of1 #dj2 hostility of civilized man to inferior forms of1 #aba4 ,animals1 wild1 action of on vegetation1 #gh4 ,aphis1 the ,european1 #ajd4 ,apennines1 effects of felling the woods on1 #aej1 #aeb4 ,appian way1 the1 #edb4 ,aqueducts1 geographical and climatic effects of1 #ceh4 ,arabia ,petraea1 surface drainage of1 #ddj2 sandstone of1 #deb2 sands and petrified wood of1 #dee2 wadies of1 #ech4 ,aragua1 valley of1 ,venezuela1 #bjb4 ,ararat1 ,mt41 phenomenon of vegetation on1 #bhg4 ,ardeche1 l'1 department of1 #aeb2 destruction of forests in1 #chi4 -- river and basin1 floods of1 #chf2 supply of water to the ,rhone1 #chh1 #cih2 violence of inundations of1 #chh2 damage done by1 #cij2 effect on river beds1 #cia2 force of its affluents1 #cib4 ,argostoli1 ,cephalonia1 millstreams of1 #dcd4 ,armenia1 ancient irrigation of1 #cff4 ,arno1 the river1 deposits of1 #dad2 upper course of in the ,val di ,chiana1 #dag1 #dbj4 ,artesian wells1 their sources1 #dda2 usual objects1 #ddb2 occasional effects1 #ddb2 employment in the ,algerian desert1 #ddc2 by the ,french ,government1 #ddd2 success and probable results of1 #dde2 known to the ancients1 #ddc2 depth of1 #ddd4 ,arundo arenaria1 #eja4 ,ascension1 island of1 #bje4 ,auk1 the wingless1 extirpation of1 #ie4 ,australia a field of physical observation1 #ea4 ,avalanches1 ,alpine1 various causes of1 #bff2 by felling trees1 #bgj4 ,azoff1 sea of1 proposed changes1 #eca4 ,babinet1 plan for artificial springs1 by1 #ddh4 ,baikal ,lake1 the fish of1 #aag4 ,baltic ,sea1 sand dunes of1 #dfg4 ,barcelonette1 valley of1 former fertility1 #bdc2 present degradation of1 #bdd4 ,bavaria1 scarcity of fuel in1 #bii4 ,bear1 the mythical character of1 #dj4 ,beaver1 the1 agency in forming bogs1 #ca2 cause of its increased numbers1 #hd4 ,bee1 the honey1 products of1 #aje2 introduction in ,united ,states1 #ajf4 ,belgium1 effect of plantations in1 #aeb2 ,campine of1 #eac4 ,ben ,gasi1 district of1 rock formation in1 #ecg4 ,bergamo1 change of climate in the valley of1 #aea4 ,bibliographical list of authorities1 vii4 ,birch tree 7black and yellow71 produce of1 #aga4 ,birds1 number of1 in ,united ,states1 #hf2 the turkey1 dove1 pigeon1 #hg2 as sowers and consumers of seeds1 #hg2 as destroyers of insects1 #hi2 injurious extirpation of1 #ij2 wanton destruction of1 #ib2 weakness of1 #ic2 instinct of migratory1 #id2 extinction of species1 #ie2 commercial value of1 #ig2 introduction of species1 #ih4 ,bison1 the ,american1 #gh2 number and migrations of1 #ha1 #hc2 domesticated1 #ace4 ,blackbird1 the proscription of1 #ia4 ,bogs1 formation and nomenclature of1 #bi-cb2 of ,new ,england1 #bi2 repositories of fuel1 #cj4 ,bremontier1 system of dune plantations of1 #ejc2 a benefactor to his race1 #eae4 ,breton1 ,cap1 dune vineyards of1 #ejh4 ,busbequius' letters1 #fd4 ,camel1 the1 transfer and migrations of1 #hc2 injurious to vegetation1 #acb4 ,campine of ,belgium1 #eac4 ,canada thistle1 the1 #fh4 ,canals1 geographic and climatic effects of1 #cei2 injurious effects of ,tuscan1 #cei2 projected1 ,suez1 #eai2 ,isthmus of ,darien1 #ebb2 to the ,dead ,sea1 #ebd2 maritime1 in ,greece1 #ebf2 ,saros1 #ebg2 ,cape ,cod1 #ebh2 the ,don and the ,volga1 #eca2 ,lake ,erie and the ,genesee1 #ecb2 ,lake ,michigan and the ,mississippi1 #ecc4 ,cape ,cod1 sand dunes of1 #dhg2 legislative protection of1 #ejb2 vegetation of1 #ejc2 projected canal through1 #ebh4 ,cappercailzie1 the1 extinction of1 in ,britain1 #if4 ,carniola1 caves of1 #dcd4 ,caspian ,sea1 proposed changes in its basin1 #eca4 ,catania1 lava streams of1 #edd4 ,catavothra of ,greece1 #ecf4 ,cevennes1 effects of clearing the1 #aec4 ,champlain1 lake1 dates of its congelation1 #afc4 ,cherbourg1 breakwater of1 #df1 #ccb4 ,chiana1 ,val di1 description and character of1 #dag-dbj2 plans for its restoration1 #dbj2 artificial drainage of1 attempted1 #dba2 successfully executed1 #dbc4 ,clergy1 mediaeval1 their character1 #bhb4 ,climatic change1 discussions of1 #i2 how tested1 #bj2 causes producing1 in ,new ,england1 ,africa1 ,arabia ,petraea1 #bj-bb2 man's action on1 difficult to ascertain1 #ea2 deterioration1 #ga4 ,coal mines1 combustion of1 #edf4 ,coal1 sea1 early use of1 for fuel1 #bbb2 increased use of1 in ,paris1 #bie4 ,coast line1 change of1 from natural causes1 #cca2 subject to human guidance1 #ccb4 ,cochineal insect transferred to ,spain1 #aje4 ,cochituate ,aqueduct1 ,boston1 #ajc4 ,col ,isoard1 valley of1 devastated1 #bdb4 ,commerce1 modern1 on what dependent1 #fj4 ,como1 lake of1 proposed lowering of1 #ceh4 ,constance1 lake of1 #ecd4 ,cork-oak tree1 yield of1 #caa4 ,corporations1 social and political1 influence of1 #ed4 ,cosmical influences1 #ac4 ,cotton1 early cultivation of1 #fa2 can be raised by white labor1 #cha4 ,crawley ,sparrow ,club1 #ij4 ,currents1 sea1 strength of1 #def2 in the ,bosphorus1 #deg4 ,cuyahoga river1 #bjh4 ,cypress tree1 its beauty1 #cad4 ,darien1 ,isthmus of1 proposed canal across1 #ebb2 conjectural effects of1 #ebc4 ,dead ,sea1 projected canals to1 #ebd2 possible results of1 #ebe4 ,deer1 numbers of1 in ,united ,states2 #hb2 tame1 injurious to trees1 #acj4 ,denmark1 peat mosses of1 #bb2 dunes of1 #dig2 extent and movement of1 #dih2 legislative protection of1 #eja1 #ejd4 ,desert1 the1 richness of local color1 #dde2 mirage in1 #ddf4 ,des ,plaines river1 #ecc4 ,despotism a cause of physical decay1 #e4 ,dikes1 recovery of land by1 in the ,netherlands1 #cce2 early usage and immense extent of1 #ccf2 encouraged by the ,spaniards1 #ccg2 details of their construction and effect on the land gained1 #cdj-cde2 in ,egypt1 #dac4 ,dinornis1 or moa1 recent extirpation of1 in ,new ,zealand1 #ie4 ,dodo1 the1 extirpation of1 #ie4 ,domestic animals1 action of1 on vegetation1 #gi2 origin and transfer of1 #hb2 injurious to the forest growth1 #acj4 ,don river1 proposed diversion of1 #eca4 ,draining a geographical element1 #cfj2 superficial1 its necessity in forest lands1 #cfc2 effect on temperature1 #cfd2 underground1 ib42 extensive use of1 in ,england1 #cfb2 affects the atmosphere1 #cfd2 disturbs the equilibrium of river supply1 #cfe2 by boring1 #cfb2 in ,france1 c41 #cfb2 ,paris1 #cfc4 ,drance1 ,switzerland1 glacier lake of1 #djc4 ,dry land and water1 relative extent of1 #agh4 ,dwight1 ,dr41 ,travels in the ,united ,states1 characterized1 #eb4 ,earth1 fertile1 below the rock1 #ecg2 transported to cover rocky surfaces1 #ecg4 ,earthquakes1 effects of1 #edb2 causes and possible prevention of1 #edc2 of ,lisbon1 #edd4 ,earthworm1 utility of1 in agriculture1 #ajj2 multiplication of1 in ,new ,england1 #aja4 ,egypt1 catacombs1 #gj2 papyrus or water lily1 #gj2 poisonous snakes of1 #aab2 supposed increase of rain in1 #aij2 productiveness of1 #bcj2 necessity and extent of irrigation in1 #cfh1 #cgc2 cultivated soil of1 #cgb1 #cgd2 population of1 #cgd2 amount of water used for irrigation1 #chj2 saline deposits1 #chb2 artificial river courses of1 #djb2 cultivated area of1 #dab2 sands of1 #deh2 their prevalence and extent1 #dei2 source of1 #dfa2 action on the ,delta and cultivated land1 #dfb2 effect of the diversion of the ,nile on1 #ebi2 refuse heaps near ,cairo1 #eda4 ,eland1 the1 preserved in ,prussia1 #hf4 ,elm1 the ,washington1 ,cambridge1 #adf4 ,elsineur1 artificial formation in harbor of1 #eci4 ,england1 forest economy of1 #bba2 large extent of ornamental plantations1 #bbb2 ,forests of1 described by ,caesar1 #bbb2 private enterprise in sylviculture1 #bib2 sand dunes of1 #ejg4 ,enguerrand de ,coucy1 cruelty of1 #bha4 ,erie ,canal1 the1 influence on the fauna and flora of its region1 #aaf2 lake1 depth and level of1 #ecb2 proposed canal from1 #ecb4 ,espy's theories of artificial rain1 #edg4 ,etna1 volcanic lava and dust1 #aca4 ,euphrates1 sand plains in the valley of1 #eaa4 ,eye1 cultivation of the1 #aa2 control of the limbs by1 #ab2 trained by the study of physical geography1 #ab4 ,feudalism1 pernicious influence of1 #f4 ,fir tree1 the1 its products1 #caa4 ,fire weed1 in burnt forests of the ,united 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general consequences of its destruction1 #bad2 on the earth1 springs1 rivers1 #bae2 literature of1 in ,france1 #bag2 ,germany1 #bah2 ,italy1 #bah2 ,england1 #bba2 influence of1 on inundations1 #bbc2 in ,north ,america1 #bbe2 disputed effects of1 in ,europe1 #bbh2 principal causes of its destruction1 #bgj2 in ,british ,america1 #bga2 in ,europe1 #bgi2 royal forests1 #bhj2 effects of the ,revolution on1 in ,france1 #bhd2 utility of1 for the preservation of smaller plants1 #bhf1 #bij2 do4 of birds1 #bia2 economic utility of1 and necessity for its restoration1 #bib2 extent of1 in ,europe1 #bif2 proportion in different countries of1 #cjj2 of the ,united ,states and ,canada1 #cjj2 economy of1 #cjc2 management of1 in ,france1 #cjd2 ,european forests1 all of artificial growth1 #cje2 artificial and natural1 their respective advantages1 #cjg2 ,american do41 their peculiar characteristics1 #cac2 economic action of cattle on1 #cbe2 duty of preserving1 #cbg2 average revenue from1 #cbg2 regulated by laws in ,france1 #cie4 ,see ,trees1 ,woods4 ,forests of ,north ,america1 balance of geographical elements in1 #bg2 agency of quadrupeds and insects in1 #cb2 injury to1 by insects1 #cc2 meteorological importance of1 #aci4 ,forest laws1 mediaeval1 character of1 #bag2 do4 ,jewish1 #bag2 severity of1 in ,france and ,england1 #bhj2 under ,louis ,,ix41 #bha2 of ,america1 created by circumstances1 #cjb4 ,france1 forest literature and economy of1 #bag2 legislation on forests1 #bcc2 -- ,southeastern1 former physical state of1 #bcg2 altered condition of1 #bci2 royal forests of1 and forest laws1 #bhj2 extent of1 in1 #bif2 ancient lakes of1 #ceg2 inundations of #ahef in1 #cic2 remedies against inundations in1 #cie2 sand dunes of ,western1 #dhe2 encroachments of the sea on1 #did4 ,french peasantry1 described by ,la ,bruyere1 #f2 do4 ,arthur ,young1 #g2 of ,chambord1 #bhc4 ,friesland1 sand dunes of1 #dhi4 ,fucinus ,lake 7,lago di ,celano71 drainage of1 by the ,romans1 #ced2 moderns1 #cee4 ,game ,laws1 effect on the numbers of birds in ,france1 #ia2 in ,england and ,italy1 #ib2 severity of1 in ,france1 #bhc2 unable to stop poaching1 #bhd4 ,ganges1 valley of the1 #edh4 ,gascony1 coast sands of1 #dec2 dunes of1 #dif2 extent and advance of1 #dig2 fixing and reclaiming of1 #ejd2 ,landes of1 #eaa2 their reclamation1 #eab4 ,geological influences1 #ac4 ,geographers1 new school of1 #h4 ,geographical influence of changes produced by man1 #ceb4 ,geography1 modern1 improved form of1 #eg4 ,german ,ocean1 sands of1 #ded1 #deg4 ,germany1 extent of forests in1 #bii4 ,glacier lakes in ,switzerland1 #djc4 ,goat1 the ,cashmere or ,thibet1 #hc4 ,gold fish1 the migration from ,china1 #aaf4 ,goldau1 ,switzerland1 destruction of1 #bfh4 ,grape disease1 its economic effect in ,france1 ,italy1 ,sicily1 #gb4 ,grasshopper1 the rapid increase in ,america1 #bia4 ,gravedigger beetle1 the1 #ajg4 ,greece1 proposed maritime canals in1 through the ,corinthian ,isthmus1 #ebf2 ,mount ,athos1 #ebg2 subterranean waters of1 #ecf4 ,gulls1 sea1 habits of1 #ih4 ,gulf stream1 the1 #ebc4 ,gunpowder chiefly used for industrial purposes1 #cce4 ,haarlem ,lake1 origin and extent of1 #cdf1 #cdg2 reasons for draining it1 #cdh2 means employed1 #cdi2 successful results1 #cej4 ,hauran1 the productions of1 its soil1 #gd4 ,heilbronn1 springs at1 #bjg4 ,herring fishery1 produce of1 #abj4 ,hessian fly1 introduction of in the ,united ,states1 #ajd4 ,honey bee1 the wild1 ,new ,england1 legal usage1 #cjb4 ,humid air1 movement of1 #ahc4 ,hunter in ,new ,england1 exploits of1 #hb4 ,ibex1 the ,alpine1 #hf4 ,india1 saline efflorescence of its soil1 #chb2 natural connection of rivers in1 #dja4 ,insects1 injurious to vegetable life1 #cc2 utility of1 #ii2 agency in the fertilization of orchids1 #ajb2 mass of their exuviae in ,south ,america1 #ajb2 introduction of injurious species1 #ajd1 #ajf2 ravages of1 #aje2 tenacity of life in1 #ajf2 the carnivorous1 useful to man1 #ajg2 destruction of1 by fish1 #ajh2 abundance of1 in ,northern ,europe1 #ajh2 destruction of1 by birds1 #aji2 do4 quadrupeds1 #aaj2 do4 reptiles1 #aaj2 do not multiply in the forest1 #bia2 confine themselves to dead trees1 #cbb4 ,inundations1 influence of the forest on1 #bbc2 of the ,german ,ocean1 #ccd2 means for obviating1 #chd2 of #ahef in ,france1 #cic2 remedies against1 #cie2 legislative regulation of the woodlands in ,france for prevention of1 #cif2 proposed basins of reception1 #cih2 do4 in ,peru and ,spain1 #djj2 ,rozet's plan for diminishing1 #djf4 ,irrigation1 remote date of in ancient nations1 #cff2 among ,mexicans and ,peruvians1 #cff2 its necessity in hot climates1 #cfg2 in ,europe1 #cfg2 in ,palestine1 #cfh2 in ,idumaea1 #cgj2 ,egypt1 #cga1 #cgc2 quantity of water so applied1 #cgf1 #cgg2 extent of lands irrigated1 #cif2 effects of1 #cgh2 on river supply1 #chj2 on human health1 #cha2 saline deposits from1 in ,india and ,egypt1 #chb2 effect of1 on vegetable crops1 #cgh2 on the soil1 #cgi2 economic evils of1 #cgi4 ,islands1 floating1 in ,holland and ,south ,america1 #cdi1 #cea4 ,ijssel river1 ,holland1 #ece4 ,italy1 effects of the denudation of its forests1 #bbj2 political condition adverse to their preservation1 #bai2 beauty of its winter scenery1 #cad2 extent of irrigation in1 #cfh2 atmospheric phenomena of ,northern1 #cfh4 ,jupiter1 satellites of1 visible to the eye1 #ab4 ,jutland1 effects of felling the woods in1 #aej2 destruction of forests in1 #bgi2 encroachments of the sea on1 #dia4 ,kander river1 ,switzerland1 artificial course of1 #djc4 ,karst1 the subterranean waters of1 #ecf4 ,kjoekkenmoeddinger in ,denmark1 #af2 their extent1 #edj4 ,kohl1 ,j4 ,g41 the ,herodotus of modern ,europe1 #cdj2 on dune sand1 #dge4 ,labruguiere1 commune of1 #bjh4 ,laestadius1 account of the ,swedish ,laplanders1 #if4 ,lakes1 draining of1 by steam hydraulic engines1 #cdf2 natural process of filling up by aquatic vegetation1 #cdi2 lowering of1 in ancient and modern times1 #cec2 in ,italy1 #ced2 in ,switzerland1 #cef2 inconvenient consequences of1 #cef2 mountain1 their disappearance1 #ceg4 ,landscape beauty1 insensibility of the ancients to1 #b2 of the oasis and the desert1 #dde4 ,lava currents1 diversion of their course1 #edd2 from ,vesuvius1 phenomena of1 #ede2 heat emitted by1 #ede4 ,life1 balance of animal and vegetable1 #ajc4 ,liimfjord1 the1 irruption of the sea into1 #dia2 aquatic vegetation of1 #dib2 original state of1 #eai4 ,lion1 an inhabitant of ,europe1 #he4 ,lisbon1 earthquake of1 #edd4 ,locust1 the1 does not multiply in woods1 #bif2 tree and insect1 #cb4 ,lombardy1 statistics of irrigation in1 #cgf4 ,louis ,,ix41 of ,france1 clemency of1 #bhb4 ,lower ,alps1 department of1 ravages of torrents in1 #bdf4 ,lumber trade of ,quebec1 #bga2 of ,united ,states1 #ahej-'fj1 #cja4 ,lungern1 lake of1 lowering of1 #cef4 ,madagascar1 gigantic bird of1 #if2 the ai-ai of1 #aaj4 ,madder1 early cultivation of1 in ,europe1 #bj4 ,madeira1 named from its forests1 #abi4 ,maize1 early cultivation of1 law of its acclimation1 #ai2 native country of1 #gc4 ,malta1 transported soil of1 #ech2 salt works at1 #edj4 ,man1 reaction of1 on nature1 #h2 insufficiency of data1 #i2 geographical influence of1 #ac2 physical revolutions wrought by1 #ad2 unpremeditated results of conscious action1 #ae2 ancient relics of1 in old geological formations1 #af2 mechanical effects of1 on the earth's surface1 #be2 destructiveness of1 #ce2 in animal life and inorganic nature1 #cf-ci2 character of his action compared with that of brutes1 #db2 subversive of the balance of nature1 #dc2 sometimes exercised for good1 #dd2 present limits to1 #de2 transfer of vegetable life by1 #ei2 remains of1 #gf2 contemporary with the mammoth1 #gg2 agency in the extermination of birds1 #if2 do4 introduction of species1 #ih2 increase of insect life1 #ajd2 introduction of new forms of do4 by1 #aje2 destruction of fish by1 #aab1 #abj1 #abb2 extirpation of aquatic animals by1 #aai2 possible control of minute organisms1 #abe2 his first 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#dg4 ,pine1 the ,american1 former ordinary dimensions of1 #bge2 how affected by the accidents of its growth1 #cjf2 the maritime1 on dune sands in ,france1 #ejf2 the pitch1 hardihood of1 #bgc2 umbrella1 the1 most elegant of trees1 #cji1 #cac2 the white1 rapidity of its growth1 #bgd4 ,pinus cembra of ,switzerland1 #cji4 ,pisciculture1 its valuable results1 #aah4 ,plants1 cultivated1 uncertain identity of ancient and modern1 #ai2 do4 of wild and domestic species1 #gc2 changes of habit by domestication1 #ai2 geographical influence of1 #eh2 foreign1 grown in ,united ,states1 #fa2 ,american1 grown in ,europe1 #fc2 modes of introduction1 #fd2 accidental do41 #ff2 power of accommodation of1 #fe2 how affected by transfer1 #fh2 tenacity of life in wild species1 #fi2 extirpation of1 #gj2 domestic origin of1 #gb2 species employed for protection of sand dunes1 #ejj4 ,pliny1 the elder1 theory of springs1 #aih1 #baf4 ,po1 river1 ancient state of its basin1 #bee2 modern changes1 #bef2 its floods1 tributaries1 and deposits1 #bef-bfa1 #dje2 embankments of1 #che1 #djd2 sediment of1 #daj2 age and consequences of its embankments1 #daa2 mean delivery of1 #dab2 salti of1 #dae4 ,poland1 sand plains of1 #ead4 ,poplar1 the ,lombardy1 #fh2 characterized1 #cac4 ,potato1 native country of1 #gc4 ,prairies1 conjectural origin of1 #acd4 ,provence1 physical structure of1 #bcg2 ancient state of1 #bch2 destructive action of torrents on1 #bcf2 ,alps of1 #bde4 ,prussia1 sand dunes of1 #dhe2 drifting of1 #dih2 measures for reclaiming of1 #eje4 ,quadrupeds1 number in ,united ,states1 #gi2 extirpation of1 #hd4 ,quebec1 high tides of1 #bga2 lumber trade of1 #bgb4 ,railways1 scientific uses of1 #ec4 ,rain water1 its absorption and infiltration1 #dch1 #dci2 economizing its precipitation1 #ddi4 ,ravenna1 cathedral of1 #fj2 pine woods of1 #aej4 ,red ,sea1 richness of1 in organic life1 #cbj2 diversion of the ,nile to1 its effects1 #ecj4 ,reindeer1 the1 #hc4 ,reservoirs1 geographic and climatic effects of1 #beh4 ,reventlov's organization of dune economy in ,denmark1 #ejd2 a benefactor to his race1 #eae4 ,rhine1 river1 proposed diversion of1 #ecc4 ,rice1 cultivation of1 #cha4 ,rivers1 transporting power of1 #beb2 in ,vermont1 #bec2 their origin1 #bfb2 injury to their banks by lumbermen1 #bgg2 conditions of their rise and fall1 #bgh2 mutual action of rivers and valleys1 #djh2 effect of obstructions in1 #dji2 subterranean course of1 #dji2 confluences of1 effect on the current below1 #dbd2 sediment of1 its extent1 #edg4 ,river beds1 natural change of1 #dja2 artificial do4 in ,egypt1 #djb2 ,italy and ,switzerland1 #djc4 ,river deposits1 #djh2 of the ,nile1 #daj2 the ,po1 #daa2 the ,tuscan rivers1 #dad4 ,river embankments1 #chd2 their use1 #djd2 disadvantages1 #dje2 transverse do41 superiority of1 #djf2 effects of1 #dji4 ,river mouths1 obstructions of1 #dcj2 by sand banks1 #dca2 accelerated by man's influence1 #dcb2 effect of tidal movements1 #dcb4 ,robin1 the ,american1 voracity of1 #hh4 ,rock generally permeable by water1 #bfe4 ,roman empire1 natural advantages of its territory1 #a2 increased by intelligent labor1 #b2 physical decay of1 #c2 present desolation1 #d2 caused by its despotism and oppression1 #e4 ,rozet's plan for diminishing inundations1 #djf4 ,rude tribes1 continuity of arts among1 #ag2 commerce of1 #ah2 relations to organic life1 #ci2 and to nature1 #da4 ,russia1 diminution of forests in1 #bih2 effects of1 on rivers and lakes1 #bii2 sand drifts of the steppes of1 #ead2 attempts to reclaim them1 #eae4 ,sacramento ,city1 ,california1 effect of river dike at1 #dje4 ,sand1 its composition and origin1 #deb2 action of rivers1 #dec2 ancient deposits of1 #ded1 #def2 amount of1 carried to the ,mediterranean1 #dee2 of ,egypt1 #deh1 #dfa2 movement of1 by the wind1 #dei2 drifts of1 from the sea1 #dfa2 dangers of accumulation of1 #dfc2 two forms of deposit1 #dfc2 drifting of dune1 #die4 ,sand banks1 aquatic1 #dfh2 movement of1 #dfi2 connect themselves with the coast1 #dij4 ,sand dunes1 how formed1 #dfd2 utilization of1 #dfe2 inland1 of the ,south ,american desert1 #dhb2 their peculiarities1 #dhc2 age1 character1 and permanence of1 #dhd2 naturally wooded1 #dhf2 not noticed by ancient writers1 #dhg2 management of1 #dhh2 coast1 sources of supply1 #dfe2 law of their formation1 #dff1 #dga1 #dhc2 of the ,mediterranean1 #dfg2 of ,lake ,michigan1 #dfg2 of the ,nile mouths1 #dfh2 of ,america1 #dfi2 of ,western ,europe1 #dgj2 literature of1 #dga2 height of1 #dgb2 humidity of1 #dgc2 of ,cape ,cod1 #dhg2 character of their sand1 #dgd1 #dha2 concretion within1 #dgf2 interior structure of1 #dgg2 general form of1 #dgh2 geological importance of1 #dgi2 composition of sandstone1 #dha2 as barriers against the sea1 #dhi2 in ,western ,europe1 #dij2 extent of1 #ejg2 of ,gascony1 #dif2 of ,denmark1 #dig2 of ,prussia1 #dig2 artificial formation of1 in ,holland1 #dii2 protection of1 #ejj2 by vegetation1 #eja2 trees adapted to1 #eje2 removal of1 #eji4 ,sand-dune vineyard of ,cap ,breton1 #ejh4 ,sand plains1 mode of deposit1 #dfd2 constituent parts1 #dfd2 inland1 of ,europe1 #eji2 landes of ,gascony1 #eaa2 ,belgium1 #eac2 ,eastern ,europe1 #eac2 advantages of reclaiming1 #eae2 private and public enterprise1 #eaf4 ,sand springs1 #eaa4 ,sandal wood extirpated in ,juan ,fernandez1 #acj4 ,saros1 projected canal of1 #ebg4 ,sawmills1 action of their machinery more rapid by night1 #bgh4 ,schelk1 the extirpation of1 #he4 ,schleswig-,holstein1 encroachments of the sea on1 #dic4 ,scientific observation1 practical lessons of1 #ed-ef4 ,sea1 the1 exclusion of1 by dikes1 in ,lincolnshire1 #ccc2 encroachments of1 #dij2 coast1 #dia2 the ,liimfjord1 #dia2 ,schleswig-,holstein1 #dic2 ,holland1 #did2 ,france1 #did4 ,sea cow1 ,steller's1 extirpation of1 #aai4 ,seal1 the1 in ,lake ,champlain1 #aag2 voracity of1 #abj4 ,seeds1 vitality of1 as preserved by the forest1 #bhg1 #bhi4 ,seine river1 ancient level of1 #bad2 affluents of1 #dce4 ,ship building of the middle ages1 ,venice and ,genoa1 #bah4 ,siberia1 ice ravine in1 #aeh4 ,sicily1 stone weapons found in1 #ah2 sulphur mines of1 #gb2 olive oil crop of1 #cab4 ,silkworm1 introduction in ,south ,america1 #aje4 ,sinai1 ,mt41 rain torrent at1 #dda2 production of sand in peninsula of1 #ded2 garden of monastery at1 #ecg4 ,snakes1 destructive to insects1 #aaj2 tenacity of species1 #aaa2 number of1 in ,palestine and ,egypt1 #aaa4 ,snow1 action of the woods on1 #baa2 experiments on1 #bab4 ,soils1 amount of thermoscopic action on various1 #add2 mechanical effects of shaking in the ,netherlands1 #cdd2 effect of frost on1 in ,united ,states1 #cdd4 ,solar heat1 economic employment of1 #dg4 ,solitary1 the1 extirpation of1 #ie4 ,sound1 transmission of1 in still air1 #afe4 ,springs1 artificial1 proposed by ,palissy1 #ddg2 by ,babinet1 #ddh4 ,spain1 neglect of forest culture in1 #bgi4 ,squirrel1 the1 destructiveness of1 in forests1 #cd2 of ,boston1 #aba4 ,st4 ,helena1 flora of1 #fe2 destruction of its forests1 #acj4 ,staffordshire1 phenomena of vegetation in1 #bhh4 ,starlings1 habits of1 in ,piedmont1 #aaa4 ,stork1 the1 geographical range of1 #ic2 anecdote of a1 #ii4 ,subterranean waters1 their origin1 #dcd2 sources of supply1 #dce2 reservoirs and currents of1 #dch2 diffusion of1 in the soil1 #dci2 importance1 #ddj2 of the ,karst1 #ece2 of ,greece1 #ecf4 ,suez canal1 the1 danger from sand drifts1 #dfa2 effect on the ,mediterranean and ,red ,sea basins1 #ebj4 ,sugar cane1 culture of1 #fb4 ,sugar-maple tree1 produce of1 #afi4 ,summer dikes of ,holland1 #cdb4 ,sunflowers1 effect of plantations of1 #aed4 ,swallow1 the1 popular superstitions respecting1 #dah4 ,switzerland1 ancient lacustrine habitations of1 #af1 #gj1 #hc4 ,sylt ,island1 sand dunes of1 #dgd2 encroachments of the sea on1 #dic4 ,sylviculture1 best manuals of practice of1 #cjd2 when and how profitable1 #cje2 its methods1 #cae2 the taillis treatment1 #cae2 the futaie do41 #cag2 beneficial effects of irrigation1 #cai2 exclusion of animals1 #cba2 removal of leaves1 c41 #cbb2 topping and trimming1 #cbd4 ,taguataga ,lake1 ,chili1 #cee4 ,tea plant1 the1 cultivated in ,america1 #fb4 ,temperature1 general law of1 #eb4 ,teredo1 the general diffusion of1 #ajg4 ,termite1 or white ant1 ravages of1 #ajg4 ,teverone1 cascade of1 ,tivoli1 #djb4 ,timber1 general superiority of cultivated1 #cje2 slow decay of1 in forest1 #cbb4 ,tobacco an ,american plant1 #fh2 introduction in ,hungary1 #fg4 ,tocat1 ,asia ,minor1 oak woods of1 #ahf4 ,tomato1 the1 introduction to ,new ,england1 #ai4 ,torricelli1 successful plan for draining the ,val di ,chiana1 #dba4 ,torrents1 destructive action of1 #bca2 means of prevention1 #bcc2 ravages of1 in ,southeastern ,france1 #bcg2 ,provence1 #bci2 ,upper ,alps1 #bdj2 ,lower ,alps1 #bdf2 action of1 in elevating the beds of mainland streams1 #bdi2 in excavating ravines1 #bej2 transporting power of1 #bea2 signs of1 extinguished1 #bfc2 crushing force of1 #cib4 ,trees1 as organisms1 specific temperature of1 #aef2 moisture given out by1 #aeh2 total influence on temperature1 #aei2 absorption of water by1 #aff2 flow of sap1 #afi2 absorption of moisture by foliage of1 #agb2 exhalation of do41 #agd2 consequent refrigeration1 #age2 amount of ligneous products of1 #agc2 protection against avalanches afforded by1 #bfi2 power of resisting the action of fire1 #bgc2 ,american forest trees1 #bgd2 their dimensions1 #bge2 change in relative proportions of height and diameter1 #bgf2 comparative longevity of1 #bgg2 ,european and ,american compared1 #cjh2 species more numerous in ,america1 #cji2 ,spenser's catalogue of1 #cjh2 interchange of ,european and ,american species1 #caj2 species of ,southern ,europe and their extent1 #cab2 natural order of succession in1 #cbc4 ,see ,forest1 ,woods4 ,trieste1 proposed supply of water to1 #ecf4 ,trout1 the ,american1 #aae1 #aag1 #aba4 ,tuscany1 rivers of1 their deposits1 #dad2 physical restoration in1 #daf2 improvements in ,val di ,chiana1 #dag2 do4 in the ,maremma1 #dbd4 ,tyrolese rivers1 elevation of their beds1 #bdi4 ,ubate1 lakes of1 ,new ,granada1 #bjd4 ,undulation of water1 #def4 ,united ,states1 foreign plants grown in1 #fa2 weight of annual harvest in1 #fb2 number of quadrupeds in1 #gi2 of birds1 #hf2 effect of felling woods on its climate1 #ahj2 forests of1 #cjj2 instability of life in1 #cbh4 ,upper ,alps1 department of1 ravages of torrents in1 #bdj4 ,urus1 or auerochs1 domesticated by man1 #hc2 extirpation of1 #he4 ,val de ,lys1 evidence of glacier action in1 #beb4 ,vegetable life1 transfer by man's action1 #ei4 ,velino1 cascade of1 ,tivoli1 #djb4 ,vesuvius1 vegetation on1 #aca2 eruption of ,february1 #ahea1 #edd4 ,volcanic action1 resistance to1 #edd2 matter1 vegetation in1 #aca4 ,volga river1 proposed diversion of1 #eca4 ,walcheren1 formation of the island1 #cdj4 ,wallenstadt1 lake of1 #ecd4 ,walnut tree1 consumption of1 for gun stocks1 #bif2 oil yielded by1 #caj4 ,ward's cases for plants1 #age4 ,waste products1 utilization of1 #cg4 ,weeds common to ,old and ,new ,world1 #ff2 extirpated in ,china1 c41 #ga4 ,whale1 the1 food of1 #aac2 destruction of1 #aad4 ,whale fishery1 date of its commencement unknown1 #aab2 in the middle ages1 #aab2 ,american1 #aac4 ,wheat1 its asserted origin1 #gc2 introduction to ,america1 #gd4 ,wild animals1 number of1 #hd4 ,wild organisms1 vegetable and animal1 tenacity of life in1 #fi4 ,willow1 the weeping1 introduction in ,europe1 #fd4 ,wolf1 increase of the1 #hd2 prevalence in forests of ,france1 #bif4 ,wolf ,spring1 ,soubey1 #bjf4 ,wood1 increased demand for1 #bic2 ship building1 railroads1 c41 #bid2 market price of1 #bid2 replaced by iron in the arts1 #bie2 means of increasing its durability1 #bie2 how affected by rapid growth1 #cjf2 facilities for working1 #cjg4 ,woods1 habitable earth originally covered by1 #abh2 conditions of their propagation1 #aca2 destructive agency of man and domestic animals1 #acb2 do not furnish food for man1 #acc2 first removal of1 #acd2 burning of1 #acf2 in ,sweden and ,france1 #acg2 effect on the soil1 #ach2 destruction of1 its effect1 #aci2 electrical influence of1 #adj2 chemical influence of1 #adb2 influence on temperature1 #adc2 absorbing and emitting surface of1 #add2 in summer and winter1 #adg2 dead products of1 #adh2 as a shelter1 #adi2 in ,france1 #adi1 #aea2 ,new ,england1 #adi2 ,italy and ,jutland1 #aej2 as a protection against malaria1 #aed2 tend to mitigate extremes of temperature1 #aee4 ,see ,forest1 ,trees4 ,wood mosses and fungi1 absorbent of moisture1 #afh4 ,woodpecker1 the1 destroyer of insects1 #aji4 ,yak1 or ,tartary ox1 the1 #hc4 ,yew tree1 geographical range of1 #gj4 ,zeeland1 province1 formation of1 #cci4 ,zostera marina1 #dib4 ,zuiderzee1 proposed drainage of1 #ecd2 means of1 and geographical results1 #ece4 ,,the ,,end4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,forsyth',s ,,cicero4 ,a ,new ,life of ,cicero4 ,,by ,,william ,,forsyth1 ,m4 ,a41 ,q4 ,c4 ,with ,twenty ,illustrations4 #b vols4 crown octavo4 ,printed on tinted and laid paper4 ,price1 #e4jj4 ,the object of this work is to exhibit ,cicero not merely as a ,statesman and an ,orator1 but as he was at home in the relations of private life1 as a ,husband1 a ,father1 a ,brother1 and a ,friend4 ,his letters are full of interesting details1 which enable us to form a vivid idea of how the old ,romans lived #b1jjj years ago2 and the ,biography embraces not only a ,history of ,events1 as momentous as any in the annals of the world1 but a large amount of ,anecdote and ,gossip1 which amused the generation that witnessed the downfall of the ,republic4 ,the ,london ,athenaeuem says3 ,mr4 ,forsyth has rightly aimed to set before us a portrait of ,cicero in the modern style of biography1 carefully gleaning from his extensive correspondence all those little traits of character and habit which marked his private and domestic life4 ,these volumes form a very acceptable addition to the classic library4 ,the style is that of a scholar and a man of taste4 ,from the ,saturday ,review3--,mr4 ,forsyth has discreetly told his story1 evenly and pleasantly supplied it with apt illustrations from modern law1 eloquence1 and history1 and brought ,cicero as near to the present time as the differences of age and manners warrant4 99 99 99 ,these volumes we heartily recommend as both a useful and agreeable guide to the writings and character of one who was next in intellectual and political rank to the foremost man of all the world1 at a period when there were many to dispute with him the triple crown of forensic1 philosophic1 and political composition4 ,a scholar without pedantry1 and a ,christian without cant1 ,mr4 ,forsyth seems to have seized with praiseworthy tact the precise attitude which it behoves a biographer to take when narrating the life1 the personal life1 of ,cicero4 ,mr4 ,forsyth produces what we venture to say will become one of the classics of ,english biographical literature1 and will be welcomed by readers of all ages and both sexes1 of all professions and of no profession at all4--,london ,quarterly4 ,this book is a valuable contribution to our ,standard ,literature4 ,it is a work which will aid our progress towards the truth2 it lifts a corner of the veil which has hung over the scenes and actors of times so full of ferment1 and allows us to catch a glimpse of the stage upon which the great drama was played4--,north ,american ,review4 ,copies sent by mail1 post paid1 on receipt of price4 ,,lord ,,derby',s ,,homer4 ,the ,iliad of ,homer4 ,,rendered ,,into ,,english ,,blank ,,verse ,,by ,,edward1 ,,earl ,,of ,,derby4 ,from the fifth ,london ,edition4 ,two volumes1 royal octavo1 on tinted paper4 ,price #g4ej per vol4 ,extracts from ,notices and ,reviews from the ,english ,quarterlies1 c4 ,the merits of ,lord ,derby's translation may be summed up in one word3 it is eminently attractive2 it is instinct with life2 it may be read with fervent interest2 it is immeasurably nearer than ,pope to the text of the original4 99 99 99 ,we think that ,lord ,derby's translation will not only be read1 but read over and over again4 99 99 99 ,lord ,derby has given to ,england a version far more closely allied to the original1 and superior to any that has yet been attempted in the blank verse of our language4--,edinburgh ,review1 ,january #ahfe4 ,as often as we return from even the best of them 7other translations7 to the translation before us1 we find ourselves in a purer atmosphere of taste4 ,we find more spirit1 more tact in avoiding either trivial or conceited phrases1 and altogether a presence of merits1 and an absence of defects which continues1 as we read1 to lengthen more and more the distance between ,lord ,derby and the foremost of his competitors4--,london ,quarterly ,review1 ,january1 #ahfe4 ,while the versification of ,lord ,derby is such as ,pope himself would have admired1 his ,iliad is in all other essentials superior to that of his great rival4 ,for the rest1 if ,pope is dethroned what remains8 99 99 99 ,it is the ,iliad we would place in the hands of ,english readers as the truest counterpart of the original1 the nearest existing approach to a reproduction of that original's matchless feature4--,saturday ,review4 ,among those curiosities of literature which are also its treasures1 ,lord ,derby's translation of ,homer must occupy a very conspicuous place4 99 99 99 ,lord ,derby's work is1 on the whole1 more remarkable for the constancy of its excellence and the high level which it maintains throughout1 than for its special bursts of eloquence4 ,it is uniformly worthy of itself and its author4--,the ,reader4 ,whatever may be the ultimate fate of this poem--whether it take sufficient hold of the public mind to satisfy that demand for a translation of ,homer which we have alluded to1 and thus become a permanent classic of the language1 or whether it give place to the still more perfect production of some yet unknown poet--it must equally be considered a splendid performance2 and for the present we have no hesitation in saying that it is by far the best representation of ,homer's ,iliad in the ,english language4 ,,american ,,notices4 ,the ,publishers ,circular says3--,at the advanced age of sixty-five1 the ,earl of ,derby1 leader of the ,tory party in ,england1 has published a translation of ,homer1 in blank verse4 ,nearly all the ,london critics unite in declaring1 with ,the ,times1 that it is by far the best representation of ,homer's ',iliad' in the ,english language4 ,his purpose was to produce a translation1 and not a paraphrase--fairly and honestly giving the sense of every passage and of every line4 ,without doubt the greatest of all living ,british orators1 he has now shown high poetic power as well as great scholarship4 ,from the ,new ,york ,world3--,the reader of ,english1 who seeks to know what ,homer really was1 and in what fashion he thought and felt and wrote1 will owe to ,lord ,derby his first honest opportunity of doing so4 ,the ,earl's translation is devoid alike of pretension and of prettiness4 ,it is animated in movement1 simple and representative to phraseology1 breezy in atmosphere1 if we may so speak1 and pervaded by a refinement of taste which is as far removed from daintiness or effeminacy as can well be imagined4 ,copies sent by mail1 post paid1 on receipt of price4 ,,transcriber',s ,,notes3 #a4 ,passages in italics are surrounded by underscores4 #b4 ,the original text includes ,greek characters4 ,for this text version these letters have been replaced with transliterations4 #c4 ,certain words use oe ligature in the original1 indicated by oe and ,,oe4 #d4 ,the letters with macron are represented within square braces with an equals sign preceding it4 ,for example1 letter a with macron is indicated by a4 #e4 ,in this text version1 some of the references to appendix notes within footnotes were incorrect which have been corrected4 ,also1 errors found in page references within ,appendix have been corrected4