,l4 ,,annaeus ,,seneca1 ,,on ,,benefits 
,by ,seneca  ,edited by ,aubrey ,stewart
     ,,preface  ,seneca1 the favourite  
classic of the early fathers of the     
church and of the ,middle ,ages1 whom   
,jerome1 ,tertullian1 and ,augustine    
speak of as ,seneca noster1 who was     
believed to have corresponded with ,st4 
,paul1 and upon whom ,footnote3 ,on the 
,de ,clementia1 an odd subject for the  
man who burned ,servetus alive for      
differing with him4 ,calvin wrote a     
commentary1 seems almost forgotten in   
modern times4 ,perhaps some of his      
popularity may have been due to his     
being supposed to be the author of those
 tragedies which the world has long     
ceased to read1 but which delighted a   
period that preferred ,euripides to     
,aeschylus3 while casuists must have    
found congenial matter in an author     
whose fantastic cases of conscience are 
often worthy of ,sanchez or ,escobar4   
,yet ,seneca's morality is always pure1 
and from him we gain1 albeit at second  

hand1 an insight into the doctrines of  
the ,greek philosophers1 ,zeno1         
,epicurus1 ,chrysippus1 c41 whose       
precepts and system of religious thought
 had in cultivated ,roman society taken 
the place of the old worship of ,jupiter
 and ,quirinus4  ,since ,lodge's edition
 7fol4 #afad71 no complete translation  
of ,seneca has been published in        
,england1 though ,sir ,roger            
,l',estrange wrote paraphrases of       
several ,dialogues1 which seem to have  
been enormously popular1 running through
 more than sixteen editions4 ,i think we
 may conjecture that ,shakespeare had   
seen ,lodge's translation1 from several 
allusions to philosophy1 to that        
impossible conception the wise man1 and 
especially from a passage in ,all's     
,well that ends ,well1 which seems to   
breathe the very spirit of ,de          
,beneficiis4    ',tis pity--    ,that   
wishing well had not a body in it       
,which might be felt3 that we1 the      
poorer born1    ,whose baser stars do   

shut us up in wishes1    ,might with    
effects of them follow our friends      
,and show what we alone must think2     
which never    ,returns us thanks4      
,all's ,well that ends ,well1 ,act i4   
sc4 #a4  ,though1 if this will not fit  
the supposed date of that play1 he may  
have taken the idea from ,the ,woorke of
 ,lucius ,annaeus ,seneca concerning    
,benefyting1 that is too say1 the       
dooing1 receyving1 and requyting of good
 turnes1 translated out of ,latin by ,a4
 ,golding4 ,j4 ,day1 ,london1 #aegh4    
,and even during the ,restoration1      
,pepys's ideal of virtuous and lettered 
seclusion is a country house in whose   
garden he might sit on summer afternoons
 with his friend1 ,sir ,w4 ,coventry1 it
 maybe1 to read a chapter of ,seneca4   
,in sharp contrast to this is ,vahlen's 
preface to the minor ,dialogues1 which  
he edited after the death of his friend 
,koch1 who had begun that work1 in which
 he remarks that he has read much of    
this writer1 in order to perfect his    

knowledge of ,latin1 for otherwise he   
neither admires his artificial          
subtleties of thought1 nor his childish 
mannerisms of style 7,vahlen1 preface1  
p4 v41 ed4 #ahgi1 ,jena74  ,yet by the  
student of the history of ,rome under   
the ,caesars1 ,seneca is not to be      
neglected1 because1 whatever may be     
thought of the intrinsic merit of his   
speculations1 he represents1 more       
perhaps even than ,tacitus1 the         
intellectual characteristics of his age1
 and the tone of society in ,rome--nor  
could we well spare the gossiping       
stories which we find imbedded in his   
graver dissertations4 ,the following    
extract from ,dean ,merivale's ,history 
of the ,romans under the ,empire will   
show the estimate of him which has been 
formed by that accomplished writer3--   
,at ,rome1 we1 have no reason1 to       
suppose that ,christianity was only the 
refuge of the afflicted and miserable2  
rather1 if we may lay any stress on the 
documents above referred to1 it was     

first embraced by persons in a certain  
grade of comfort and respectability2 by 
persons approaching to what we should   
call the ,,middle ,,classes in their    
condition1 their education1 and their   
moral views4 ,of this class ,seneca     
himself was the idol1 the oracle2 he    
was1 so to speak1 the favourite preacher
 of the more intelligent and humane     
disciples of nature and virtue4 ,now the
 writings of ,seneca show1 in their way1
 a real anxiety among this class to     
raise the moral tone of mankind around  
them2 a spirit of reform1 a zeal for the
 conversion of souls1 which1 though it  
never rose1 indeed1 under the teaching  
of the philosophers1 to boiling heat1   
still simmered with genial warmth on the
 surface of society4 ,far different as  
was their social standing-point1 far    
different as were the foundations and   
the presumed sanctions of their teaching
 respectively1 ,seneca and ,st4 ,paul   
were both moral reformers2 both1 be it  
said with reverence1 were fellow-workers

 in the cause of humanity1 though the   
,christian could look beyond the        
proximate aims of morality and prepare  
men for a final development on which the
 ,stoic could not venture to gaze4      
,hence there is so much in their        
principles1 so much even in their       
language1 which agrees together1 so that
 the one has been thought1 though it    
must be allowed without adequate reason1
 to have borrowed directly from the     
other4 ,footnote3 ,it is hardly         
necessary to refer to the pretended     
letters between ,st4 ,paul and ,seneca4 
,besides the evidence from style1 some  
of the dates they contain are quite     
sufficient to condemn them as clumsy    
forgeries4 ,they are mentioned1 but with
 no expression of belief in their       
genuineness1 by ,jerome and ,augustine4 
,see ,jones1 ,on the ,canon1 ii4 #hj4   
,but the philosopher1 be it remembered1 
discoursed to a large and not           
inattentive audience1 and surely the    
soil was not all unfruitful on which his

 seed was scattered when he proclaimed  
that ,god dwells not in temples of wood 
and stone1 nor wants the ministrations  
of human hands2,footnote3 ,sen41 ,ep4   
#ie1 and in ,lactantius1 ,inst4 vi4 that
 ,he has no delight in the blood of     
victims3,footnote3 ,ep4 #aaf3 ,colitur  
,deus non tauris sed pia et recta       
voluntate4 that ,he is near to all ,his 
creatures3,footnote3 ,ep4 #da1 #gc4 that
 ,his ,spirit resides in men's          
hearts3,footnote3 ,ep4 #df3 ,sacer intra
 nos spiritus sedet4 that all men are   
truly ,his offspring3,footnote3 ,de     
,prov1 i4 that we are members of one    
body1 which is ,god or                  
,nature2,footnote3 ,ep4 #ic1 #ie3       
,membra sumus magni corporis4 that men  
must believe in ,god before they can    
approach ,him3,footnote3 ,ep4 #ie3      
,primus ,deorum cultus est ,deos        
credere4 that the true service of ,god  
is to be like unto ,him3,footnote3 ,ep4 
#ie3 ,satis coluit quisquis imitatus    
est4 that all men have sinned1 and none 

performed all the works of the          
law3,footnote3 ,sen4 de ,ira4 i4 #ad2   
ii4 #bg3 ,quis est iste qui se          
profitetur omnibus legibus innocentem8  
that ,god is no respecter of nations1   
ranks1 or conditions1 but all1 barbarian
 and ,roman1 bond and free1 are alike   
under ,his all-seeing                   
,providence4,footnote3 ,de ,benef41 iii4
 #ah3 ,virtus omnes admittit1           
libertinos1 servos1 reges4 ,these and   
many other passages are collected by    
,champagny1 ii4 #edf1 after ,fabricius  
and others1 and compared with well-known
 texts of ,scripture4 ,the version of   
the ,vulgate shows a great deal of      
verbal correspondence4 ,m4 ,troplong    
remarks1 after ,de ,maistre1 that       
,seneca has written a fine book on      
,providence1 for which there was not    
even a name at ,rome in the time of     
,cicero4--,l',influence du              
,christianisme1 c41 i41 ch4 #d4  ,st4   
,paul enjoined submission and obedience 
even to the tyranny of ,nero1 and       

,seneca fosters no ideas subversive of  
political subjection4 ,endurance is the 
paramount virtue of the ,stoic4 ,to     
forms of government the wise man was    
wholly indifferent2 they were among the 
external circumstances above which his  
spirit soared in serene                 
self-contemplation4 ,we trace in ,seneca
 no yearning for a restoration of       
political freedom1 nor does he even     
point to the senate1 after the manner of
 the patriots of the day1 as a          
legitimate check to the autocracy of the
 despot4 ,the only mode1 in his view1 of
 tempering tyranny is to educate the    
tyrant himself in virtue4 ,his was the  
self-denial of the ,christians1 but     
without their anticipated compensation4 
,it seems impossible to doubt that in   
his highest flights of rhetoric--and no 
man ever recommended the unattainable   
with a finer grace--,seneca must have   
felt that he was labouring to build up a
 house without foundations2 that his    
system1 as ,caius said of his style1 was

 sand without lime4 ,he was surely not  
unconscious of the inconsistency of his 
own position1 as a public man and a     
minister1 with the theories to which he 
had wedded himself2 and of the          
impossibility of preserving in it the   
purity of his character as a philosopher
 or a man4 ,he was aware that in the    
existing state of society at ,rome1     
wealth was necessary to men high in     
station2 wealth alone could retain      
influence1 and a poor minister became at
 once contemptible4 ,the distributor of 
the ,imperial favours must have his     
banquets1 his receptions1 his slaves and
 freedmen2 he must possess the means of 
attracting if not of bribing2 he must   
not seem too virtuous1 too austere1     
among an evil generation2 in order to do
 good at all he must swim with the      
stream1 however polluted it might be4   
,all this inconsistency ,seneca must    
have contemplated without blenching2 and
 there is something touching in the     
serenity he preserved amidst the        

conflict that must have perpetually     
raged between his natural sense and his 
acquired principles4 ,both ,cicero and  
,seneca were men of many weaknesses1 and
 we remark them the more because both   
were pretenders to unusual strength of  
character2 but while ,cicero lapsed into
 political errors1 ,seneca cannot be    
absolved of actual crime4 ,nevertheless1
 if we may compare the greatest masters 
of ,roman wisdom together1 the ,stoic   
will appear1 ,i think1 the more earnest 
of the two1 the more anxious to do his  
duty for its own sake1 the more sensible
 of the claims of mankind upon him for  
such precepts of virtuous living as he  
had to give4 ,in an age of unbelief and 
compromise he taught that ,truth was    
positive and ,virtue objective4 ,he     
conceived1 what never entered ,cicero's 
mind1 the idea of improving his         
fellow-creatures2 he had1 what ,cicero  
had not1 a heart for conversion to      
,christianity4  ,to this eloquent       
account of ,seneca's position and of the

 tendency of his writings ,i have       
nothing to add4 ,the main particulars of
 his life1 his ,spanish extraction 7like
 that of ,lacan and ,martial71 his      
father's treatises on ,rhetoric1 his    
mother ,helvia1 his brothers1 his       
wealth1 his exile in ,corsica1 his      
outrageous flattery of ,claudius and his
 satiric poem on his death--,the ,vision
 of ,judgment1 ,merivale calls it1 after
 ,lord ,byron--his position as ,nero's  
tutor1 and his death1 worthy at once of 
a ,roman and a ,stoic1 by the orders of 
that tyrant1 may be read of in ,the     
,history of the ,romans under the       
,empire1 or in the article ,seneca in   
the ,dictionary of ,classical           
,biography1 and need not be reproduced  
here3 but ,i cannot resist pointing out 
how entirely ,grote's view of the       
,sophists as a sort of established      
clergy1 and ,seneca's account of the    
various sects of philosophers as        
representing the religious thought of   
the time1 is illustrated by his anecdote

 of ,julia ,augusta1 the mother of      
,tiberius1 better known to ,english     
readers as ,livia the wife of ,augustus1
 who in her first agony of grief at the 
loss of her first husband applied to his
 ,greek philosopher1 ,areus1 as to a    
kind of domestic chaplain1 for spiritual
 consolation4 7,ad ,marciam de          
,consolatione1 ch4 iv47  ,i take this   
opportunity of expressing my gratitude  
to the ,rev4 ,j4 ,e4 ,b4 ,mayor1        
,professor of ,latin in the ,university 
of ,cambridge1 for his kindness in      
finding time among his many and         
important literary labours for reading  
and correcting the proofs of this work4 
,the text which ,i have followed for ,de
 ,beneficiis is that of ,gertz1 ,berlin 
7#ahgf474  ,,aubrey ,,stewart  ,london1 
,march1 #ahhg4       ,,contents   ,,book
 ,i4 ,the prevalence of                 
ingratitude--,how a benefit ought to be 
bestowed--,the three ,graces--,benefits 
are the chief bond of human             
society--,what we owe in return for a   

benefit received--,a benefit consists   
not of a thing but of the wish to do    
good--,socrates and ,aeschines--,what   
kinds of benefits should be bestowed1   
and in what manner--,alexander and the  
franchise of ,corinth4  ,,book ,,ii4    
,many men give through weakness of      
character--,we ought to give before our 
friends ask--,many benefits are spoiled 
by the manner of the giver--,marius     
,nepos and ,tiberius--,some benefits    
should be given secretly--,we must not  
give what would harm the                
receiver--,alexander's gift of a        
city--,interchange of benefits like a   
game of ball--,from whom ought one to   
receive a benefit8--,examples--,how to  
receive a benefit--,ingratitude caused  
by self-love1 by greed1 or by           
jealousy--,gratitude and repayment not  
the same thing--,phidias and the statue4
  ,,book ,,iii4 ,ingratitude--,is it    
worse to be ungrateful for kindness or  
not even to remember it8--,should       
ingratitude be punished by law8--,can a 

slave bestow a benefit8--,can a son     
bestow a benefit upon his               
father8--,examples  ,,book ,,iv4        
,whether the bestowal of benefits and   
the return of gratitude for them are    
desirable objects in themselves8 ,does  
,god bestow benefits8--,how to choose   
the man to be benefited--,we ought not  
to look for any return--,true           
gratitude--,of keeping one's            
promise--,philip and the soldier--,zeno 
,,book ,v4 ,of being worsted in a       
contest of benefits--,socrates and      
,archelaus--,whether a man can be       
grateful to himself1 or can bestow a    
benefit upon himself--,examples of      
ingratitude--,dialogue on               
ingratitude--,whether one should remind 
one's friends of what one has done for  
them--,caesar and the                   
soldier--,tiberius4  ,,book ,,vi4       
,whether a benefit can be taken from one
 by force--,benefits depend upon        
thought--,we are not grateful for the   
advantages which we receive from        

inanimate ,nature1 or from dumb         
animals--,in order to lay me under an   
obligation you must benefit me          
intentionally--,cleanthes's story of the
 two slaves--,of benefits given in a    
mercenary spirit--,physicians and       
teachers bestow enormous benefits1 yet  
are sufficiently paid by a moderate     
fee--,plato and the ferryman--,are we   
under an obligation to the sun and      
moon8--,ought we to wish that evil may  
befall our benefactors1 in order that we
 may show our gratitude by helping them8
  ,,book ,,vii4 ,the cynic              
,demetrius--his rules of conduct--,of   
the truly wise man--,whether one who has
 done everything in his power to return 
a benefit has returned it--,ought one to
 return a benefit to a bad man8--,the   
,pythagorean1 and the shoemaker--,how   
one ought to bear with the ungrateful4  
,l4 ,a4 ,,seneca  ,,on ,,benefits4      
,,dedicated ,,to  ,,aebutius            
,,liberalis4     ,,book ,i4  ,i4        
,among the numerous faults of those who 

pass their lives recklessly and without 
due reflexion1 my good friend           
,liberalis1 ,i should say that there is 
hardly any one so hurtful to society as 
this1 that we neither know how to bestow
 or how to receive a benefit4 ,it       
follows from this that benefits are     
badly invested1 and become bad debts3 in
 these cases it is too late to complain 
of their not being returned1 for they   
were thrown away when we bestowed them4 
,nor need we wonder that while the      
greatest vices are common1 none is more 
common than ingratitude3 for this ,i see
 is brought about by various causes4    
,the first of these is1 that we do not  
choose worthy persons upon whom to      
bestow our bounty1 but although when we 
are about to lend money we first make a 
careful enquiry into the means and      
habits of life of our debtor1 and avoid 
sowing seed in a worn-out or unfruitful 
soil1 yet without any discrimination we 
scatter our benefits at random rather   
than bestow them4 ,it is hard to say    

whether it is more dishonourable for the
 receiver to disown a benefit1 or for   
the giver to demand a return of it3 for 
a benefit is a loan1 the repayment of   
which depends merely upon the good      
feeling of the debtor4 ,to misuse a     
benefit like a spendthrift is most      
shameful1 because we do not need our    
wealth but only our intention to set us 
free from the obligation of it2 for a   
benefit is repaid by being acknowledged4
 ,yet while they are to blame who do not
 even show so much gratitude as to      
acknowledge their debt1 we ourselves are
 to blame no less4 ,we find many men    
ungrateful1 yet we make more men so1    
because at one time we harshly and      
reproachfully demand some return for our
 bounty1 at another we are fickle and   
regret what we have given1 at another we
 are peevish and apt to find fault with 
trifles4 ,by acting thus we destroy all 
sense of gratitude1 not only after we   
have given anything1 but while we are in
 the act of giving it4 ,who has ever    

thought it enough to be asked for       
anything in an off-hand manner1 or to be
 asked only once8 ,who1 when he         
suspected that he was going to be asked 
for any thing1 has not frowned1 turned  
away his face1 pretended to be busy1 or 
purposely talked without ceasing1 in    
order not to give his suitor a chance of
 preferring his request1 and avoided by 
various tricks having to help his friend
 in his pressing need8 and when driven  
into a corner1 has not either put the   
matter off1 that is1 given a cowardly   
refusal1 or promised his help           
ungraciously1 with a wry face1 and with 
unkind words1 of which he seemed to     
grudge the utterance4 ,yet no one is    
glad to owe what he has not so much     
received from his benefactor1 as wrung  
out of him4 ,who can be grateful for    
what has been disdainfully flung to him1
 or angrily cast at him1 or been given  
him out of weariness1 to avoid further  
trouble8 ,no one need expect any return 
from those whom he has tired out with   

delays1 or sickened with expectation4 ,a
 benefit is received in the same temper 
in which it is given1 and ought not1    
therefore1 to be given carelessly1 for a
 man thanks himself for that which he   
receives without the knowledge of the   
giver4 ,neither ought we to give after  
long delay1 because in all good offices 
the will of the giver counts for much1  
and he who gives tardily must long have 
been unwilling to give at all4 ,nor1    
assuredly1 ought we to give in offensive
 manner1 because human nature is so     
constituted that insults sink deeper    
than kindnesses2 the remembrance of the 
latter soon passes away1 while that of  
the former is treasured in the memory2  
so what can a man expect who insults    
while he obliges8 ,all the gratitude    
which he deserves is to be forgiven for 
helping us4 ,on the other hand1 the     
number of the ungrateful ought not to   
deter us from earning men's gratitude2  
for1 in the first place1 their number is
 increased by our own acts4 ,secondly1  

the sacrilege and indifference to       
religion of some men does not prevent   
even the immortal gods from continuing  
to shower their benefits upon us3 for   
they act according to their divine      
nature and help all alike1 among them   
even those who so ill appreciate their  
bounty4 ,let us take them for our guides
 as far as the weakness of our mortal   
nature permits2 let us bestow benefits1 
not put them out at interest4 ,the man  
who while he gives thinks of what he    
will get in return1 deserves to be      
deceived4 ,but what if the benefit turns
 out ill8 ,why1 our wives and our       
children often disappoint our hopes1 yet
 we marry--and bring up children1 and   
are so obstinate in the face of         
experience that we fight after we have  
been beaten1 and put to sea after we    
have been shipwrecked4 ,how much more   
constancy ought we to show in bestowing 
benefits6 ,if a man does not bestow     
benefits because he has not received    
any1 he must have bestowed them in order

 to receive them in return1 and he      
justifies ingratitude1 whose disgrace   
lies in not returning benefits when able
 to do so4 ,how many are there who are  
unworthy of the light of day8 and       
nevertheless the sun rises4 ,how many   
complain because they have been born8   
yet ,nature is ever renewing our race1  
and even suffers men to live who wish   
that they had never lived4 ,it is the   
property of a great and good mind to    
covet1 not the fruit of good deeds1 but 
good deeds themselves1 and to seek for a
 good man even after having met with bad
 men4 ,if there were no rogues1 what    
glory would there be in doing good to   
many8 ,as it is1 virtue consists in     
bestowing benefits for which we are not 
certain of meeting with any return1 but 
whose fruit is at once enjoyed by noble 
minds4 ,so little influence ought this  
to have in restraining us from doing    
good actions1 that even though ,i were  
denied the hope of meeting with a       
grateful man1 yet the fear of not having

 my benefits returned would not prevent 
my bestowing them1 because he who does  
not give1 forestalls the vice of him who
 is ungrateful4 ,i will explain what ,i 
mean4 ,he who does not repay a benefit1 
sins more1 but he who does not bestow   
one1 sins earlier4    ,if thou at random
 dost thy bounties waste1    ,much must 
be lost1 for one that's rightly placed4 
,,ii4 ,in the former verse you may blame
 two things1 for one should not cast    
them at random1 and it is not right to  
waste anything1 much less benefits2 for 
unless they be given with judgement1    
they cease to be benefits1 and1 may be  
called by any other name you please4    
,the meaning of the latter verse is     
admirable1 that one benefit rightly     
bestowed makes amends for the loss of   
many that have been lost4 ,see1 ,i pray 
you1 whether it be not truer and more   
worthy of the glory of the giver1 that  
we should encourage him to give1 even   
though none of his gifts should be      
worthily placed4 ,much must be lost4    

,nothing is lost because he who loses   
had counted the cost before4 ,the       
book-keeping of benefits is simple3 it  
is all expenditure2 if any one returns  
it1 that is clear gain2 if he does not  
return it1 it is not lost1 ,i gave it   
for the sake of giving4 ,no one writes  
down his gifts in a ledger1 or like a   
grasping creditor demands repayment to  
the day and hour4 ,a good man never     
thinks of such matters1 unless reminded 
of them by some one returning his gifts2
 otherwise they become like debts owing 
to him4 ,it is a base usury to regard a 
benefit as an investment4 ,whatever may 
have been the result of your former     
benefits1 persevere in bestowing others 
upon other men2 they will be all the    
better placed in the hands of the       
ungrateful1 whom shame1 or a favourable 
opportunity1 or imitation of others may 
some day cause to be grateful4 ,do not  
grow weary1 perform your duty1 and act  
as becomes a good man4 ,help one man    
with money1 another with credit1 another

 with your favour2 this man with good   
advice1 that one with sound maxims4     
,even wild beasts feel kindness1 nor is 
there any animal so savage that good    
treatment will not tame it and win love 
from it4 ,the mouths of lions are       
handled by their keepers with impunity2 
to obtain their food fierce elephants   
become as docile as slaves3 so that     
constant unceasing kindness wins the    
hearts even of creatures who1 by their  
nature1 cannot comprehend or weigh the  
value of a benefit4 ,is a man ungrateful
 for one benefit8 perhaps he will not be
 so after receiving a second4 ,has he   
forgotten two kindnesses8 perhaps by a  
third he may be brought to remember the 
former ones also4  ,,iii4 ,he who is    
quick to believe that he has thrown away
 his benefits1 does really throw them   
away2 but he who presses on and adds new
 benefits to his former ones1 forces out
 gratitude even from a hard and         
forgetful breast4 ,in the face of many  
kindnesses1 your friend will not dare to

 raise his eyes2 let him see you        
whithersoever he turns himself to escape
 from his remembrance of you2 encircle  
him with your benefits4 ,as for the     
power and property of these1 ,i will    
explain it to you if first you will     
allow me to glance at a matter which    
does not belong to our subject1 as to   
why the ,graces are three in number1 why
 they are sisters1 why hand in hand1 and
 why they are smiling and young1 with a 
loose and transparent dress4 ,some      
writers think that there is one who     
bestows a benefit1 one who receives it1 
and a third who returns it2 others say  
that they represent the three sorts of  
benefactors1 those who bestow1 those who
 repay1 and those who both receive and  
repay them4 ,but take whichever you     
please to be true2 what will this       
knowledge profit us8 ,what is the       
meaning of this dance of sisters in a   
circle1 hand in hand8 ,it means that the
 course of a benefit is from hand to    
hand1 back to the giver2 that the beauty

 of the whole chain is lost if a single 
link fails1 and that it is fairest when 
it proceeds in unbroken regular order4  
,in the dance there is one1 esteemed    
beyond the others1 who represents the   
givers of benefits4 ,their faces are    
cheerful1 as those of men who give or   
receive benefits are wont to be4 ,they  
are young1 because the memory of        
benefits ought not to grow old4 ,they   
are virgins1 because benefits are pure  
and untainted1 and held holy by all2 in 
benefits there should be no strict or   
binding conditions1 therefore the       
,graces wear loose flowing tunics1 which
 are transparent1 because benefits love 
to be seen4 ,people who are not under   
the influence of ,greek literature may  
say that all this is a matter of course2
 but there can be no one who would think
 that the names which ,hesiod has given 
them bear upon our subject4 ,he named   
the eldest ,aglaia1 the middle one      
,euphrosyne1 the third ,thalia4 ,every  
one1 according to his own ideas1 twists 

the meaning of these names1 trying to   
reconcile them with some system1 though 
,hesiod merely gave his maidens their   
names from his own fancy4 ,so ,homer    
altered the name of one of them1 naming 
her ,pasithea1 and betrothed her to a   
husband1 in order that you may know that
 they are not vestal virgins4 ,footnote3
 i4e4 not vowed to chastity4  ,i could  
find another poet1 in whose writings    
they are girded1 and wear thick or      
embroidered ,phrygian robes4 ,mercury   
stands with them for the same reason1   
not because argument or eloquence       
commends benefits1 but because the      
painter chose to do so4 ,also           
,chrysippus1 that man of piercing       
intellect who saw to the very bottom of 
truth1 who speaks only to the point1 and
 makes use of no more words than are    
necessary to express his meaning1 fills 
his whole treatise with these           
puerilities1 insomuch that he says but  
very little about the duties of giving1 
receiving1 and returning a benefit1 and 

has not so much inserted fables among   
these subjects1 as he has inserted these
 subjects among a mass of fables4 ,for1 
not to mention what ,hecaton borrows    
from him1 ,chrysippus tells us that the 
three ,graces are the daughters of      
,jupiter and ,eurynome1 that they are   
younger than the ,hours1 and rather more
 beautiful1 and that on that account    
they are assigned as companions to      
,venus4 ,he also thinks that the name of
 their mother bears upon the subject1   
and that she is named ,eurynome because 
to distribute benefits requires a wide  
inheritance2 as if the mother usually   
received her name after her daughters1  
or as if the names given by poets were  
true4 ,in truth1 just as with a         
'nomenclator' audacity supplies the     
place of memory1 and he invents a name  
for every one whose name he cannot      
recollect1 so the poets think that it is
 of no importance to speak the truth1   
but are either forced by the exigencies 
of metre1 or attracted by sweetness of  

sound1 into calling every one by        
whatever name runs neatly into verse4   
,nor do they suffer for it if they      
introduce another name into the list1   
for the next poet makes them bear what  
name he pleases4 ,that you may know that
 this is so1 for instance ,thalia1 our  
present subject of discourse1 is one of 
the ,graces in ,hesiod's poems1 while in
 those of ,homer she is one of the      
,muses4  ,,iv4 ,but lest ,i should do   
the very thing which ,i am blaming1 ,i  
will pass over all these matters1 which 
are so far from the subject that they   
are not even connected with it4 ,only do
 you protect me1 if any one attacks me  
for putting down ,chrysippus1 who1 by   
,hercules1 was a great man1 but yet a   
,greek1 whose intellect1 too sharply    
pointed1 is often bent and turned back  
upon itself2 even when it seems to be in
 earnest it only pricks1 but does not   
pierce4 ,here1 however1 what occasion is
 there for subtlety8 ,we are to speak of
 benefits1 and to define a matter which 

is the chief bond of human society2 we  
are to lay down a rule of life1 such    
that neither careless openhandedness may
 commend itself to us under the guise of
 goodness of heart1 and yet that our    
circumspection1 while it moderates1 may 
not quench our generosity1 a quality in 
which we ought neither to exceed nor to 
fall short4 ,men must be taught to be   
willing to give1 willing to receive1    
willing to return2 and to place before  
themselves the high aim1 not merely of  
equalling1 but even of surpassing those 
to whom they are indebted1 both in good 
offices and in good feeling2 because the
 man whose duty it is to repay1 can     
never do so unless he out-does his      
benefactor2 ,footnote3 ,that is1 he     
never comes up to his benefactor unless 
he leaves him behind3 he can only make a
 dead heat of it by getting a start4 the
 one class must be taught to look for no
 return1 the other to feel deeper       
gratitude4 ,in this noblest of contests 
to outdo benefits by benefits1          

,chrysippus encourages us by bidding us 
beware lest1 as the ,graces are the     
daughters of ,jupiter1 to act           
ungratefully may not be a sin against   
them1 and may not wrong those beauteous 
maidens4 ,do thou teach me how ,i may   
bestow more good things1 and be more    
grateful to those who have earned my    
gratitude1 and how the minds of both    
parties may vie with one another1 the   
giver in forgetting1 the receiver in    
remembering his debt4 ,as for those     
other follies1 let them be left to the  
poets1 whose purpose is merely to charm 
the ear and to weave a pleasing story2  
but let those who wish to purify men's  
minds1 to retain honour in their        
dealings1 and to imprint on their minds 
gratitude for kindnesses1 let them speak
 in sober earnest and act with all their
 strength2 unless you imagine1          
perchance1 that by such flippant and    
mythical talk1 and such old wives'      
reasoning1 it is possible for us to     
prevent that most ruinous consummation1 

the repudiation of benefits4  ,v4       
,however1 while ,i pass over what is    
futile and irrelevant ,i must point out 
that the first thing which we have to   
learn is1 what we owe in return for a   
benefit received4 ,one man says that he 
owes the money which he has received1   
another that he owes a consulship1 a    
priesthood1 a province1 and so on4      
,these1 however1 are but the outward    
signs of kindnesses1 not the kindnesses 
themselves4 ,a benefit is not to be felt
 and handled1 it is a thing which exists
 only in the mind4 ,there is a great    
difference between the subject-matter of
 a benefit1 and the benefit itself4     
,wherefore neither gold1 nor silver1 nor
 any of those things which are most     
highly esteemed1 are benefits1 but the  
benefit lies in the goodwill of him who 
gives them4 ,the ignorant take notice   
only of that which comes before their   
eyes1 and which can be owned and passed 
from hand to hand1 while they disregard 
that which gives these things their     

value4 ,the things which we hold in our 
hands1 which we see with our eyes1 and  
which our avarice hugs1 are transitory1 
they may be taken from us by ill luck or
 by violence2 but a kindness lasts even 
after the loss of that by means of which
 it was bestowed2 for it is a good deed1
 which no violence can undo4 ,for       
instance1 suppose that ,i ransomed a    
friend from pirates1 but another pirate 
has caught him and thrown him into      
prison4 ,the pirate has not robbed him  
of my benefit1 but has only robbed him  
of the enjoyment of it4 ,or suppose that
 ,i have saved a man's children from a  
shipwreck or a fire1 and that afterwards
 disease or accident has carried them   
off2 even when they are no more1 the    
kindness which was done by means of them
 remains4 ,all those things1 therefore1 
which improperly assume the name of     
benefits1 are means by which kindly     
feeling manifests itself4 ,in other     
cases also1 we find a distinction       
between the visible symbol and the      

matter itself1 as when a general bestows
 collars of gold1 or civic or mural     
crowns upon any one4 ,what value has the
 crown in itself8 or the purple-bordered
 robe8 or the fasces8 or the            
judgment-seat and car of triumph8 ,none 
of these things is in itself an honour1 
but is an emblem of honour4 ,in like    
manner1 that which is seen is not a     
benefit--it is but the trace and mark of
 a benefit4  ,,vi4 ,what1 then1 is a    
benefit8 ,it is the art of doing a      
kindness which both bestows pleasure and
 gains it by bestowing it1 and which    
does its office by natural and          
spontaneous impulse4 ,it is not1        
therefore1 the thing which is done or   
given1 but the spirit in which it is    
done or given1 that must be considered1 
because a benefit exists1 not in that   
which is done or given1 but in the mind 
of the doer or giver4 ,how great the    
distinction between them is1 you may    
perceive from this1 that while a benefit
 is necessarily good1 yet that which is 

done or given is neither good nor bad4  
,the spirit in which they are given can 
exalt small things1 can glorify mean    
ones1 and can discredit great and       
precious ones2 the objects themselves   
which are sought after have a neutral   
nature1 neither good nor bad2 all       
depends upon the direction given them by
 the guiding spirit from which things   
receive their shape4 ,that which is paid
 or handed over is not the benefit      
itself1 just as the honour which we pay 
to the gods lies not in the victims     
themselves1 although they be fat and    
glittering with gold1 ,footnote3        
,alluding to the practice of gilding the
 horns of the victims4 but in the pure  
and holy feelings of the worshippers4   
,thus good men are religious1 though    
their offering be meal and their vessels
 of earthenware2 whilst bad men will not
 escape from their impiety1 though they 
pour the blood of many victims upon the 
altars4  ,,vii4 ,if benefits consisted  
of things1 and not of the wish to       

benefit1 then the more things we        
received the greater the benefit would  
be4 ,but this is not true1 for sometimes
 we feel more gratitude to one who gives
 us trifles nobly1 who1 like ,virgil's  
poor old soldier1 holds himself as rich 
as kings1 if he has given us ever so    
little with a good will a man who       
forgets his own need when he sees mine1 
who has not only a wish but a longing to
 help1 who thinks that he receives a    
benefit when he bestows one1 who gives  
as though he would receive no return1   
receives a repayment as though he had   
originally given nothing1 and who       
watches for and seizes an opportunity of
 being useful4 ,on the other hand1 as ,i
 said before1 those gifts which are     
hardly wrung from the giver1 or which   
drop unheeded from his hands1 claim no  
gratitude from us1 however great they   
may appear and may be4 ,we prize much   
more what comes from a willing hand1    
than what comes from a full one4 ,this  
man has given me but little1 yet more he

 could not afford1 while what that one  
has given is much indeed1 but he        
hesitated1 he put it off1 he grumbled   
when he gave it1 he gave it haughtily1  
or he proclaimed it aloud1 and did it to
 please others1 not to please the person
 to whom he gave it2 he offered it to   
his own pride1 not to me4  ,,viii4 ,as  
the pupils of ,socrates1 each in        
proportion to his means1 gave him large 
presents1 ,aeschines1 a poor pupil1     
said1 ,i can find nothing to give you   
which is worthy of you2 ,i feel my      
poverty in this respect alone4          
,therefore ,i present you with the only 
thing ,i possess1 myself4 ,i pray that  
you may take this my present1 such as it
 is1 in good part1 and may remember that
 the others1 although they gave you     
much1 yet left for themselves more than 
they gave4 ,socrates answered1 ,surely  
you have bestowed a great present upon  
me1 unless perchance you set a small    
value upon yourself4 ,i will accordingly
 take pains to restore you to yourself a

 better man than when ,i received you4  
,by this present ,aeschines outdid      
,alcibiades1 whose mind was as great as 
his ,wealth1 and all the splendour of   
the most wealthy youths of ,athens4     
,,ix4 ,you see how the mind even in the 
straitest circumstances finds the means 
of generosity4 ,aeschines seems to me to
 have said1 ,fortune1 it is in vain that
 you have made me poor2 in spite of this
 ,i will find a worthy present for this 
man4 ,since ,i can give him nothing of  
yours1 ,i will give him something of my 
own4 ,nor need you suppose that he held 
himself cheap2 he made himself his own  
price4 ,by a stroke of genius this youth
 discovered a means of presenting       
,socrates to himself4 ,we must not      
consider how great presents are1 but in 
what spirit they are given4  ,a rich man
 is well spoken of if he is clever      
enough to render himself easy of access 
to men of immoderate ambition1 and      
although he intends to do nothing to    
help them1 yet encourages their         

unconscionable hopes2 but he is thought 
the worse of if he be sharp of tongue1  
sour in appearance1 and displays his    
wealth in an invidious fashion4 ,for men
 respect and yet loathe a fortunate man1
 and hate him for doing what1 if they   
had the chance1 they would do           
themselves4         99       99       99
       99       99       99       99    
,men nowadays no longer secretly1 but   
openly outrage the wives of others1 and 
allow to others access to their own     
wives4 ,a match is thought countrified1 
uncivilized1 in bad style1 and to be    
protested against by all matrons1 if the
 husband should forbid his wife to      
appear in public in a litter1 and to be 
carried about exposed to the gaze of all
 observers4 ,if a man has not made      
himself notorious by a ,,liaison with   
some mistress1 if he does not pay an    
annuity to some one else's wife1 married
 women speak of him as a poor-spirited  
creature1 a man given to low vice1 a    
lover of servant girls4 ,soon adultery  

becomes the most respectable form of    
marriage1 and widowhood and celibacy are
 commonly practised4 ,no one takes a    
wife unless he takes her away from some 
one else4 ,now men vie with one another 
in wasting what they have stolen1 and in
 collecting together what they have     
wasted with the keenest avarice2 they   
become utterly reckless1 scorn poverty  
in others1 fear personal injury more    
than anything else1 break the peace by  
their riots1 and by violence and terror 
domineer over those who are weaker than 
themselves4 ,no wonder that they plunder
 provinces and offer the seat of        
judgment for sale1 knocking it down     
after an auction to the highest bidder1 
since it is the law of nations that you 
may sell what you have bought4  ,x4     
,however1 my enthusiasm has carried me  
further than ,i intended1 the subject   
being an inviting one4 ,let me1 then1   
end by pointing out that the disgrace of
 these crimes does not belong especially
 to our own time4 ,our ancestors before 

us have lamented1 and our children after
 us will lament1 as we do1 the ruin1 of 
morality1 the prevalence of vice1 and   
the gradual deterioration of mankind2   
yet these things are really stationary1 
only moved slightly to and fro like the 
waves which at one time a rising tide   
washes further over the land1 and at    
another an ebbing one restrains within a
 lower water mark4 ,at one time the     
chief vice will be adultery1 and        
licentiousness will exceed all bounds2  
at another time a rage for feasting will
 be in vogue1 and men will waste their  
inheritance in the most shameful of all 
ways1 by the kitchen2 at another1       
excessive care for the body1 and a      
devotion to personal beauty which       
implies ugliness of mind2 at another    
time1 injudiciously granted liberty will
 show itself in wanton recklessness and 
defiance of authority2 sometimes there  
will be a reign of cruelty both in      
public and private1 and the madness of  
the civil wars will come upon us1 which 

destroy all that is holy and inviolable4
 ,sometimes even drunkenness will be    
held in honour1 and it will be a virtue 
to swallow most wine4 ,vices do not lie 
in wait for us in one place alone1 but  
hover around us in changeful forms1     
sometimes even at variance one with     
another1 so that in turn they win and   
lose the field2 yet we shall always be  
obliged to pronounce the same verdict   
upon ourselves1 that we are and always  
were evil1 and1 ,i unwillingly add1 that
 we always shall be4 ,there always will 
be homicides1 tyrants1 thieves1         
adulterers1 ravishers1 sacrilegious1    
traitors3 worse than all these is the   
ungrateful man1 except we consider that 
all these crimes flow from ingratitude1 
without which hardly any great          
wickedness has ever grown to full       
stature4 ,be sure that you guard against
 this as the greatest of crimes in      
yourself1 but pardon it as the least of 
crimes in another4 ,for all the injury  
which you suffer is this3 you have lost 

the subject-matter of a benefit1 not the
 benefit itself1 for you possess        
unimpaired the best part of it1 in that 
you have given it4 ,though we ought to  
be careful to bestow our benefits by    
preference upon those who are likely to 
show us gratitude for them1 yet we must 
sometimes do what we have little hope   
will turn out well1 and bestow benefits 
upon those who we not only think will   
prove ungrateful1 but who we know have  
been so4 ,for instance1 if ,i should be 
able to save a man's children from a    
great danger with no risk to myself1 ,i 
should not hesitate to do so4 ,if a man 
be worthy ,i would defend him even with 
my blood1 and would share his perils2 if
 he be unworthy1 and yet by merely      
crying for help ,i can rescue him from  
robbers1 ,i would without reluctance    
raise the shout which would save a      
fellow-creature4  ,,xi4 ,the next point 
to be defined is1 what kind of benefits 
are to be given1 and in what manner4    
,first let us give what is necessary1   

next what is useful1 and then what is   
pleasant1 provided that they be lasting4
 ,we must begin with what is necessary1 
for those things which support life     
affect the mind very differently from1  
those which adorn and improve it4 ,a man
 may be nice1 and hard to please1 in    
things which he can easily do without1  
of which he can say1 ,take them back2 ,i
 do not want them1 ,i am satisfied with 
what ,i have4 ,sometimes1 we wish not   
only to1 return what we have received1  
but even to throw it away4 ,of necessary
 things1 the first class consists of    
things without which we cannot live2 the
 second1 of things without which we     
ought not to live2 and the third1 of    
things without which we should not care 
to live4 ,the first class are1 to be    
saved from the hands of the enemy1 from 
the anger of tyrants1 from proscription1
 and the various other perils which     
beset human life4 ,by averting any one  
of these1 we shall earn gratitude       
proportionate to the greatness of the   

danger1 for when men think of the       
greatness of the misery from which they 
have been saved1 the terror which they  
have gone through enhances the value of 
our services4 ,yet we ought not to delay
 rescuing any one longer than we are    
obliged1 solely in order to make his    
fears add weight to our services4 ,next 
come those things without which we can  
indeed live1 but in such a manner that  
it would be better to die1 such as      
liberty1 chastity1 or a good conscience4
 ,after these are what we have come to  
hold dear by connexion and relationship 
and long use and custom1 such as our    
wives and children1 our household gods1 
and so on1 to which the mind so firmly  
attaches itself that separation from    
them seems worse than death4  ,after    
these come useful things1 which form a  
very wide and varied class2 in which    
will be money1 not in excess1 but enough
 for living in a moderate style2 public 
office1 and1 for the ambitious1 due     
advancement to higher posts2 for nothing

 can be more useful to a man than to be 
placed in a position in which he can    
benefit himself4 ,all benefits beyond   
these are superfluous1 and are likely to
 spoil those who receive them4 ,in      
giving these we must be careful to make 
them acceptable by giving them at the   
appropriate time1 or by giving things   
which are not common1 but such as few   
people possess1 or at any rate few      
possess in our times2 or again1 by      
giving things in such a manner1 that    
though not naturally valuable1 they     
become so by the time and place at which
 they are given4 ,we must reflect what  
present will produce the most pleasure1 
what will most frequently come under the
 notice of the possessor of it1 so that 
whenever he is with it he may be with us
 also2 and in all cases we must be      
careful not to send useless presents1   
such as hunting weapons to a woman or   
old man1 or books to a rustic1 or nets  
to catch wild animals to a quiet        
literary man4 ,on the other hand1 we    

ought to be careful1 while we wish to   
send what will please1 that we do not   
send what will insultingly remind our   
friends of their failings1 as1 for      
example1 if we send wine to a hard      
drinker or drugs to an invalid1 for a   
present which contains an allusion to   
the shortcomings of the receiver1       
becomes an outrage4  ,,xii4 ,if we have 
a free choice as to what to give1 we    
should above all choose lasting         
presents1 in order that our gift may    
endure as long as possible2 for few are 
so grateful as to think of what they    
have received1 even when they do not see
 it4 ,even the ungrateful remember us by
 our gifts1 when they are always in     
their sight and do not allow themselves 
to be forgotten1 but constantly obtrude 
and stamp upon the mind the memory of   
the giver4 ,as we never ought to remind 
men of what we have given them1 we ought
 all the more to choose presents that   
will be permanent2 for the things       
themselves will prevent the remembrance 

of the giver from fading away4 ,i would 
more willingly give a present of plate  
than of coined money1 and would more    
willingly give statues than clothes or  
other things which are soon worn out4   
,few remain grateful after the present  
is gone3 many more remember their       
presents only while they make use of    
them4 ,if possible1 ,i should like my   
present not to be consumed2 let it      
remain in existence1 let it stick to my 
friend and share his life4 ,no one is so
 foolish as to need to be told not to   
send gladiators or wild beasts to one   
who has just given a public show1 or not
 to send summer clothing in winter time1
 or winter clothing in summer4 ,common  
sense must guide our benefits2 we must  
consider the time and the place1 and the
 character of the receiver1 which are   
the weights in the scale1 which cause   
our gifts to be well or ill received4   
,how far more acceptable a present is1  
if we give a man what he has not1 than  
if we give him what he has plenty of6 if

 we give him what he has long been      
searching for in vain1 rather than what 
he sees everywhere6 ,let us make        
presents of things which are rare and   
scarce rather than costly1 things which 
even a rich man will be glad of1 just as
 common fruits1 such as we tire of after
 a few days1 please us if they have     
ripened before the usual season4 ,people
 will also esteem things which no one   
else has given to them1 or which we have
 given to no one else4  ,,xiii4 ,when   
the conquest of the ,east had flattered 
,alexander of ,macedon into believing   
himself to be more than man1 the people 
of ,corinth sent an embassy to          
congratulate him1 and presented him with
 the franchise of their city4 ,when     
,alexander smiled at this form of       
courtesy1 one of the ambassadors said1  
,we have never enrolled any stranger    
among our citizens except ,hercules and 
yourself4 ,alexander willingly accepted 
the proffered honour1 invited the       
ambassadors to his table1 and showed    

them other courtesies4 ,he did not think
 of who offered the citizenship1 but to 
whom they had granted it2 and being     
altogether the slave of glory1 though he
 knew neither its true nature or its    
limits1 had followed in the footsteps of
 ,hercules and ,bacchus1 and had not    
even stayed his march where they ceased2
 so that he glanced aside from the      
givers of this honour to him with whom  
he shared it1 and fancied that the      
heaven to which his vanity aspired was  
indeed opening before him when he was   
made equal to ,hercules4 ,in what indeed
 did that frantic youth1 whose only     
merit was his lucky audacity1 resemble  
,hercules8 ,hercules conquered nothing  
for himself2 he travelled throughout the
 world1 not coveting for himself but    
liberating the countries which he       
conquered1 an enemy to bad men1 a       
defender of the good1 a peacemaker both 
by sea and land2 whereas the other was  
from his boyhood a brigand and desolator
 of nations1 a pest to his friends and  

enemies alike1 whose greatest joy was to
 be the terror of all mankind1          
forgetting that men fear not only the   
fiercest but also the most cowardly     
animals1 because of their evil and      
venomous nature4  ,,xiv4 ,let us now    
return to our subject4 ,he who bestows a
 benefit without discrimination1 gives  
what pleases no one2 no one considers   
himself to be under any obligation to   
the landlord of a tavern1 or to be the  
guest of any one with whom he dines in  
such company as to be able to say1 ,what
 civility has he shown to me8 no more   
than he has shown to that man1 whom he  
scarcely knows1 or to that other1 who is
 both his personal enemy and a man of   
infamous character4 ,do you suppose that
 he wished to do me any honour8 not so1 
he merely wished to indulge his own vice
 of profusion4 ,if you wish men to be   
grateful for anything1 give it but      
seldom2 no one can bear to receive what 
you give to all the world4 ,yet let no  
one gather from this that ,i wish to    

impose any bonds upon generosity2 let   
her go to what lengths she will1 so that
 she go a steady course1 not at random4 
,it is possible to bestow gifts in such 
a manner that each of those who receive 
them1 although he shares them with many 
others1 may yet feel himself to be      
distinguished from the common herd4 ,let
 each man have some peculiarity about   
his gift which may make him consider    
himself more highly favoured than the   
rest4 ,he may say1 ,i received the same 
present that he did1 but ,i never asked 
for it4 ,i received the same present1   
but mine was given me after a few days1 
whereas he had earned it by long        
service4 ,others have the same present1 
but it was not given to them with the   
same courtesy and gracious words with   
which it was given to me4 ,that man got 
it because he asked for it2 ,i did not  
ask4 ,that man received it as well as   
,i1 but then he could easily return it2 
one has great expectations from a rich  
man1 old and childless1 as he is2       

whereas in giving the same present to me
 he really gave more1 because he gave it
 without the hope of receiving any      
return for it4 ,just as a courtesan     
divides her favours among many men1 so  
that no one of her friends is without   
some proof of her affection1 so let him 
who wishes his benefits to be prized    
consider how he may at the same time    
gratify many men1 and nevertheless give 
each one of them some especial mark of  
favour to distinguish him from the rest4
  ,,xv4 ,i am no advocate of slackness  
in giving benefits3 the more and the    
greater they are1 the more praise they  
will bring to the giver4 ,yet let them  
be given with discretion2 for what is   
given carelessly and recklessly can     
please no one4 ,whoever1 therefore1     
supposes that in giving this advice ,i  
wish to restrict benevolence and to     
confine it to narrower limits1 entirely 
mistakes the object of my warning4 ,what
 virtue do we admire more than          
benevolence8 ,which do we encourage     

more8 ,who ought to applaud it more than
 we ,stoics1 who preach the brotherhood 
of the human race8 ,what then is it8    
,since no impulse of the human mind can 
be approved of1 even though it springs  
from a right feeling1 unless it be made 
into a virtue by discretion1 ,i forbid  
generosity to degenerate into           
extravagance4 ,it is1 indeed1 pleasant  
to receive a benefit with open arms1    
when reason bestows it upon the worthy1 
not when it is flung hither or thither  
thoughtlessly and at random2 this alone 
we care to display and claim as our own4
 ,can you call anything a benefit1 if   
you feel ashamed to mention the person  
who gave it you8 ,how far more grateful 
is a benefit1 how far more deeply does  
it impress itself upon the mind1 never  
to be forgotten1 when we rejoice to     
think not so much of what it is1 as from
 whom we have received it6 ,crispus     
,passienus was wont to say that some    
men's advice was to be preferred to     
their presents1 some men's presents to  

their advice2 and he added as an        
example1 ,i would rather have received  
advice from ,augustus than a present2 ,i
 would rather receive a present from    
,claudius than advice4 ,i1 however1     
think that one ought not to wish for a  
benefit from any man whose judgement is 
worthless4 ,what then8 ,ought we not to 
receive what ,claudius gives8 ,we ought2
 but we ought to regard it as obtained  
from fortune1 which may at any moment   
turn against us4 ,why do we separate    
this which naturally is connected8 ,that
 is not a benefit1 to which the best    
part of a benefit1 that it be bestowed  
with judgment1 is wanting3 a really     
great sum of money1 if it be given      
neither with discernment nor with good  
will1 is no more a benefit than if it   
remained hoarded4 ,there are1 however1  
many things which we ought not to       
reject1 yet for which we cannot feel    
indebted4     ,,book ,,ii4  ,i4   ,let  
us consider1 most excellent ,liberalis1 
what still remains of the earlier part  

of the subject2 in what way a benefit   
should be bestowed4 ,i think that ,i can
 point out the shortest way to this2 let
 us give in the way in which we         
ourselves should like to receive4 ,above
 all we should give willingly1 quickly1 
and without any hesitation2 a benefit   
commands no gratitude if it has hung for
 a long time in the hands of the giver1 
if he seems unwilling to part with it1  
and gives it as though he were being    
robbed of it4 ,even though some delay   
should intervene1 let us by all means in
 our power strive not to seem to have   
been in two minds about giving it at    
all4 ,to hesitate is the next thing to  
refusing to give1 and destroys all claim
 to gratitude4 ,for just as the sweetest
 part of a benefit is the kindly feeling
 of the giver1 it follows that one who  
has by his very delay proved that he    
gives unwillingly1 must be regarded not 
as having given anything1 but as having 
been unable to keep it from an          
importunate suitor4 ,indeed1 many men   

are made generous by want of firmness4  
,the most acceptable benefits are those 
which are waiting for us to take them1  
which are easy to be received1 and offer
 themselves to us1 so that the only     
delay is caused by the modesty of the   
receiver4 ,the best thing of all is to  
anticipate a person's wishes2 the next1 
to follow them2 the former is the better
 course1 to be beforehand with our      
friends by giving them what they want   
before they ask us for it1 for the value
 of a gift is much enhanced by sparing  
an honest man the misery of asking for  
it with confusion and blushes4 ,he who  
gets what he asked for does not get it  
for nothing1 for indeed1 as our austere 
ancestors thought1 nothing is so dear as
 that which is bought by prayers4 ,men  
would be much more modest in their      
petitions to heaven1 if these had to be 
made publicly2 so that even when        
addressing the gods1 before whom we can 
with all honour bend our knees1 we      
prefer to pray silently and within      

ourselves4  ,,ii4 ,it is unpleasant1    
burdensome1 and covers one with shame to
 have to say1 ,give me4 ,you should     
spare your friends1 and those whom you  
wish to make your friends1 from having  
to do this2 however quick he may be1 a  
man gives too late who gives what he has
 been asked for4 ,we ought1 therefore1  
to divine every man's wishes1 and when  
we have discovered them1 to set him free
 from the hard necessity of asking2 you 
may be sure that a benefit which comes  
unasked will be delightful and will not 
be forgotten4 ,if we do not succeed in  
anticipating our friends1 let us at any 
rate cut them short when they ask us for
 anything1 so that we may appear to be  
reminded of what we meant to do1 rather 
than to have been asked to do it4 ,let  
us assent at once1 and by our promptness
 make it appear that we meant to do so  
even before we were solicited4 ,as in   
dealing with sick persons much depends  
upon when food is given1 and plain water
 given at the right moment sometimes    

acts as a remedy1 so a benefit1 however 
slight and commonplace it may be1 if it 
be promptly given without losing a      
moment of time1 gains enormously in     
importance1 and wins our gratitude more 
than a far more valuable present given  
after long waiting and deliberation4    
,one who gives so readily must needs    
give with good will2 he therefore gives 
cheerfully and shows his disposition in 
his countenance4  ,,iii4 ,many who      
bestow immense benefits spoil them by   
their silence or slowness of speech1    
which gives them an air of moroseness1  
as they say yes with a face which seems 
to say no4 ,how much better is it to    
join kind words to kind actions1 and to 
enhance the value of our gifts by a     
civil and gracious commendation of them6
 ,to cure your friend of being slow to  
ask a favour of you1 you may join to    
your gift the familiar rebuke1 ,i am    
angry with you for not having long ago  
let me know what you wanted1 for having 
asked for it so formally1 or for having 

made interest with a third party4 ,i    
congratulate myself that you have been  
pleased to make trial of me2 hereafter1 
if you want anything1 ask for it as your
 right2 however1 for this time ,i pardon
 your want of manners4 ,by so doing you 
will cause him to value your friendship 
more highly than that1 whatever it may  
have been1 which he came to ask of you4 
,the goodness and kindness of a         
benefactor never appears so great as    
when on leaving him one says1 ,i have   
to-day gained much2 ,i am more pleased  
at finding him so kind than if ,i had   
obtained many times more of this1 of    
which ,i was speaking1 by some other    
means2 ,i never can make any adequate   
return to this man for his goodness4    
,,iv4 ,many1 however1 there are who1 by 
harsh words and contemptuous manner1    
make their very kindnesses odious1 for  
by speaking and acting disdainfully they
 make us sorry that they have granted   
our requests4 ,various delays also take 
place after we have obtained a promise2 

and nothing is more heartbreaking than  
to be forced to beg for the very thing  
which you already have been promised4   
,benefits ought to be bestowed at once1 
but from some persons it is easier to   
obtain the promise of them than to get  
them4 ,one man has to be asked to remind
 our benefactor of his purpose2 another1
 to bring it into effect2 and thus a    
single present is worn away in passing  
through many hands1 until hardly any    
gratitude is left for the original      
promiser1 since whoever we are forced to
 solicit after the giving of the promise
 receives some of the gratitude which we
 owe to the giver4 ,take care1          
therefore1 if you wish your gifts to be 
esteemed1 that they reach those to whom 
they are promised entire1 and1 as the   
saying is1 without any deduction4 ,let  
no one intercept them or delay them2 for
 no one can take any share of the       
gratitude due for your gifts without    
robbing you of it4  ,v4 ,nothing is more
 bitter than long uncertainty2 some can 

bear to have their hopes extinguished   
better than to have them deferred4 ,yet 
many men are led by an unworthy vanity  
into this fault of putting off the      
accomplishment of their promises1 merely
 in order to swell the crowd of their   
suitors1 like the ministers of royalty1 
who delight in prolonging the display of
 their own arrogance1 hardly thinking   
themselves possessed of power unless    
they let each man see for a long time   
how powerful they are4 ,they do nothing 
promptly1 or at one sitting2 they are   
indeed swift to do mischief1 but slow to
 do good4 ,be sure that the comic poet  
speaks the most absolute truth in the   
verses3--     ,know you not this8 ,if   
you your gifts delay1     ,you take     
thereby my gratitude away4  ,and the    
following lines1 the expression of      
virtuous pain--a high-spirited man's    
misery1--     ,what thou doest1 do      
quickly2  and3--      ,nothing in the   
world     ,is worth this trouble2 ,i had
 rather you     ,refused it to me now4  

,when the mind begins through weariness 
to hate the promised benefit1 or while  
it is wavering in expectation of it1 how
 can it feel grateful for it8 ,as the   
most refined cruelty is that which      
prolongs the torture1 while to kill the 
victim at once is a kind of mercy1 since
 the extremity of torture brings its own
 end with it--the interval is the worst 
part of the execution--so the shorter   
time a benefit hangs in the balance1 the
 more grateful it is to the receiver4   
,it is possible to look forward with    
anxious disquietude even to good things1
 and1 seeing that most benefits consist 
in a release from some form of misery1 a
 man destroys the value of the benefit  
which he confers1 if he has the power to
 relieve us1 and yet allows us to suffer
 or to lack pleasure longer than we     
need4 ,kindness always eager to do good1
 and one who acts by love naturally acts
 at once2 he who does us good1 but does 
it tardily and with long delays1 does   
not do so from the heart4 ,thus he loses

 two most important things3 time1 and   
the proof of his good will to us2 for a 
lingering consent is but a form of      
denial4  ,,vi4 ,the manner in which     
things are said or done1 my ,liberalis1 
forms a very important part of every    
transaction4 ,we gain much by quickness1
 and lose much by slowness4 ,just as in 
darts1 the strength of the iron head    
remains the same1 but there is an       
immeasureable difference between the    
blow of one hurled with the full swing  
of the arm and one which merely drops   
from the hand1 and the same sword either
 grazes or pierces according as the blow
 is delivered2 so1 in like manner1 that 
which is given is the same1 but the     
manner in which it is given makes the   
difference4 ,how sweet1 how precious is 
a gift1 when he who gives does not      
permit himself to be thanked1 and when  
while he gives he forgets that he has   
given6 ,to reproach a man at the very   
moment that you are doing him a service 
is sheer madness2 it is to mix insult   

with your favours4 ,we ought not to make
 our benefits burdensome1 or to add any 
bitterness to them4 ,even if there be   
some subject upon which you wish to warn
 your friend1 choose some other time for
 doing so4  ,,vii4 ,fabius ,verrucosus  
used to compare a benefit bestowed by a 
harsh man in an offensive manner to a   
gritty loaf of bread1 which a hungry man
 is obliged to receive1 but which is    
painful to eat4 ,when ,marius ,nepos of 
the praetorian guard asked ,tiberius    
,caesar for help to pay his debts1      
,tiberius asked him for a list of his   
creditors2 this is calling a meeting of 
creditors1 not paying debts4 ,when the  
list was made out1 ,tiberius wrote to   
,nepos telling him that he had ordered  
the money to be paid1 and adding some   
offensive reproaches4 ,the result of    
this was that ,nepos owed no debts1 yet 
received no kindness2 ,tiberius1 indeed1
 relieved him from his creditors1 but   
laid him under no obligation4 ,tiberius1
 however1 had some design in doing so2  

,i imagine he did not wish more of his  
friends to come to him with the same    
request4 ,his mode of proceeding was1   
perhaps1 successful in restraining men's
 extravagant desires by shame1 but he   
who wishes to confer benefits must      
follow quite a different path4 ,in all  
ways you should make your benefit as    
acceptable as possible by presenting it 
in the most attractive form2 but the    
method of ,tiberius is not to confer    
benefits1 but to reproach4  ,,viii4     
,moreover1 if incidentally ,i should say
 what ,i think of this part of the      
subject1 ,i do not consider that it is  
becoming even to an emperor to give     
merely in order to cover a man with     
shame4 ,and yet1 we are told1 ,tiberius 
did not even by this means attain his   
object2 for after this a good many      
persons were found to make the same     
request4 ,he ordered all of them to     
explain the reasons of their            
indebtedness before the senate1 and when
 they did so1 granted them certain      

definite sums of money4 ,this is not an 
act of generosity1 but a reprimand4 ,you
 may call it a subsidy1 or an imperial  
contribution2 it is not a benefit1 for  
the receiver cannot think of it without 
shame4 ,i was summoned before a judge1  
and had to be tried at bar before ,i    
obtained what ,i asked for4  ,,ix4      
,accordingly1 all writers on ethical    
philosophy tell us that some benefits   
ought to be given in secret1 others in  
public4 ,those things which it is       
glorious to receive1 such as military   
decorations or public offices1 and      
whatever else gains in value the more   
widely it is known1 should be conferred 
in public2 on the other hand1 when they 
do not promote a man or add to his      
social standing1 but help him when in   
weakness1 in want1 or in disgrace1 they 
should be given silently1 and so as to  
be known only to those who profit by    
them4  ,x4 ,sometimes even the person   
who is assisted must be deceived1 in    
order that he may receive our bounty    

without knowing the source from whence  
it flows4 ,it is said that ,arcesilaus  
had a friend who was poor1 but concealed
 his poverty2 who was ill1 yet tried to 
hide his disorder1 and who had not money
 for the necessary expenses of          
existence4 ,without his knowledge1      
,arcesilaus placed a bag of money under 
his pillow1 in order that this victim of
 false shame might rather seem to find  
what he wanted than to receive4 ,what1  
say you1 ought he not to know from whom 
he received it8 ,yes2 let him not know  
it at first1 if it be essential to your 
kindness that he should not2 afterwards 
,i will do so much for him1 and give him
 so much that he will perceive who was  
the giver of the former benefit2 or1    
better still1 let him not know that he  
has received any thing1 provided ,i know
 that ,i have given it4 ,this1 you say1 
is to get too little return for one's   
goodness4 ,true1 if it be an investment 
of which you are thinking2 but if a     
gift1 it should be given in the way     

which will be of most service to the    
receiver4 ,you should be satisfied with 
the approval of your own conscience2 if 
not1 you do not really delight in doing 
good1 but in being seen to do good4 ,for
 all that1 say you1 ,i wish him to know 
it4 ,is it a debtor that you seek for8  
,for all that1 ,i wish him to know it4  
,what6 though it be more useful1 more   
creditable1 more pleasant for him not to
 know his benefactor1 will you not      
consent to stand aside8 ,i wish him to  
know4 ,so1 then1 you would not save a   
man's life in the dark8 ,i do not deny  
that1 whenever the matter admits of it1 
one ought to take into consideration the
 pleasure which we receive from the joy 
of the receiver of our kindness2 but if 
he ought to have help and is ashamed to 
receive it--if what we bestow upon him  
pains him unless it be concealed--,i    
forbear to make my benefits public4 ,why
 should ,i not refrain from hinting at  
my having given him anything1 when the  
first and most essential rule is1 never 

to reproach a man with what you have    
done for him1 and not even to remind him
 of it4 ,the rule for the giver and     
receiver of a benefit is1 that the one  
should straightway forget that he has   
given1 the other should never forget    
that he has received it4  ,,xi4 ,a      
constant reference to one's own services
 wounds our friend's feelings4 ,like the
 man who was saved from the proscription
 under the triumvirate by one of        
,caesar's friends1 and afterwards found 
it impossible to endure his preserver's 
arrogance1 they wish to cry1 ,give me   
back to ,caesar4 ,how long will you go  
on saying1 ,i saved you1 ,i snatched you
 from the jaws of death8 ,this is indeed
 life1 if ,i remember it by my own will1
 but death if ,i remember it at yours2  
,i owe you nothing1 if you saved me     
merely in order to have some one to     
point at4 ,how long do you mean to lead 
me about8 how long do you mean to forbid
 me to forget my adventure8 ,if ,i had  
been a defeated enemy1 ,i should have   

been led in triumph but once4 ,we ought 
not to speak of the benefits which we   
have conferred2 to remind men of them is
 to ask them to return them4 ,we should 
not obtrude them1 or recall the memory  
of them2 you should only remind a man of
 what you have given him by giving him  
something else4 ,we ought not even to   
tell others of our good deeds4 ,he who  
confers a benefit should be silent1 it  
should be told by the receiver2 for     
otherwise you may receive the retort    
which was made to one who was everywhere
 boasting of the benefit which he had   
conferred3 ,you will not deny1 said his 
victim1 that you have received a return 
for it8 ,when8 asked he4 ,often1 said   
the other1 and in many places1 that is1 
wherever and whenever you have told the 
story4 ,what need is there for you to   
speak1 and to take the place which      
belongs to another8 ,there is a man who 
can tell the story in a way much more to
 your credit1 and thus you will gain    
glory for not telling it your self4 ,you

 would think me ungrateful if1 through  
your own silence1 no one is to know of  
your benefit4 ,so far from doing this1  
even if any one tells the story in our  
presence1 we ought to make answer1 ,he  
does indeed deserve much more than this1
 and ,i am aware that ,i have not       
hitherto done any great things for him1 
although ,i wish to do so4 ,this should 
not be said jokingly1 nor yet with that 
air by which some persons repel those   
whom they especially wish to attract4   
,in addition to this1 we ought to act   
with the greatest politeness towards    
such persons4 ,if the farmer ceases his 
labours after he has put in the seed1 he
 will lose what he has sown2 it is only 
by great pains that seeds are brought to
 yield a crop2 no plant will bear fruit 
unless it be tended with equal care from
 first to last1 and the same rule is    
true of benefits4 ,can any benefits be  
greater than those which children       
receive from their parents8 ,yet these  
benefits are useless if they be deserted

 while young1 if the pious care of the  
parents does not for a long time watch  
over the gift which they have bestowed4 
,so it is with other benefits2 unless   
you help them1 you will lose them2 to   
give is not enough1 you must foster what
 you have given4 ,if you wish those whom
 you lay under an obligation to be      
grateful to you1 you must not merely    
confer benefits upon them1 but you must 
also love them4 ,above all1 as ,i said  
before1 spare their ears2 you will weary
 them if you remind them of your        
goodness1 if you reproach them with it  
you will make them hate you4 ,pride     
ought above all things to be avoided    
when you confer a benefit4 ,what need   
have you for disdainful airs1 or        
swelling phrases8 the act itself will   
exalt you4 ,let us shun vain boasting3  
let us be silent1 and let our deeds     
speak for us4 ,a benefit conferred with 
haughtiness not only wins no gratitude1 
but causes dislike4  ,,xii4 ,gaius      
,caesar granted ,pompeius ,pennus his   

life1 that is1 if not to take away life 
be to grant it2 then1 when ,pompeius was
 set free and returning thanks to him1  
he stretched out his left foot to be    
kissed4 ,those who excuse this action1  
and say that it was not done through    
arrogance1 say that he wished to show   
him a gilded1 nay a golden slipper      
studded with pearls4 ,well1 say they1   
what disgrace can there be in a man of  
consular rank kissing gold and pearls1  
and what part of ,caesar's whole body   
was it less pollution to kiss8 ,so1     
then1 that man1 the object of whose life
 was to change a free state into a      
,persian despotism1 was not satisfied   
when a senator1 an aged man1 a man who  
had filled the highest offices in the   
state1 prostrated himself before him in 
the presence of all the nobles1 just as 
the vanquished prostrate themselves     
before their conqueror6 ,he discovered a
 place below his knees down to which he 
might thrust liberty4 ,what is this but 
trampling upon the commonwealth1 and    

that1 too1 with the left foot1 though   
you may say that this point does not    
signify8 ,it was not a sufficiently foul
 and frantic outrage for the emperor to 
sit at the trial of a consular for his  
life wearing slippers1 he must needs    
push his shoes into a senator's face4   
,,xiii4 ,o pride1 the silliest fault of 
great good fortune6 how pleasant it is  
to take nothing from thee6 how dost thou
 turn all benefits into outrages6 how   
dost thou delight in all excess6 how ill
 all things become thee6 ,the higher    
thou risest the lower thou art1 and     
provest that the good things by which   
thou art so puffed up profit thee not2  
thou spoilest all that thou givest4 ,it 
is worth while to inquire why it is that
 pride thus swaggers and changes the    
form and appearance of her countenance1 
so that she prefers a mask to her own   
face4 ,it is pleasant to receive gifts  
when they are conferred in a kindly and 
gentle manner1 when a superior in giving
 them does not exalt himself over me1   

but shows as much good feeling as       
possible1 placing himself on a level    
with me1 giving without parade1 and     
choosing a time when ,i am glad of his  
help1 rather than waiting till ,i am in 
the bitterest need4 ,the only way by    
which you can prevail upon proud men not
 to spoil their gifts by their arrogance
 is by proving to them that benefits do 
not appear greater because they are     
bestowed with great pomp and            
circumstance2 that no one will think    
them greater men for so doing1 and that 
excessive pride is a mere delusion which
 leads men to hate even what they ought 
to love4  ,,xiv4 ,there are some things 
which injure those who receive them1    
things which it is not a benefit to give
 but to withhold2 we should therefore   
consider the usefulness of our gift     
rather than the wish of the petitioner  
to receive it2 for we often long for    
hurtful things1 and are unable to       
discern how ruinous they are1 because   
our judgment is biassed by our feelings2

 when1 however1 the longing is past1    
when that frenzied impulse which masters
 our good sense has passed away1 we     
abhor those who have given us hurtful   
gifts4 ,as we refuse cold water to the  
sick1 or swords to the grief-stricken or
 remorseful1 and take from the insane   
whatever they might in their delirium   
use to their own destruction1 so must we
 persist in refusing to give anything   
whatever that is hurtful1 although our  
friends earnestly and humbly1 nay1      
sometimes even most piteously beg for   
it4 ,we ought to look at the end of our 
benefits as well as the beginning1 and  
not merely to give what men are glad to 
receive1 but what they will hereafter be
 glad to have received4 ,there are many 
who say1 ,i know that this will do him  
no good1 but what am ,i to do8 he begs  
for it1 ,i cannot withstand his         
entreaties4 ,let him see to it2 he will 
blame himself1 not me4 ,not so3 you he  
will blame1 and deservedly2 when he     
comes to his right mind1 when the frenzy

 which now excites him has left him1 how
 can he help hating the man who has     
assisted him to harm and to endanger    
himself8 ,it is a cruel kindness to     
allow one's self to be won over into    
granting that which injures those who   
beg for it4 ,just as it is the noblest  
of acts to save men from harm against   
their will1 so it is but hatred1 under  
the mask of civility1 to grant what is  
harmful to those who ask for it4 ,let us
 confer benefits of such a kind1 that   
the more they are made use of the better
 they please1 and which never can turn  
into injuries4 ,i never will give money 
to a man if ,i know that he will pay it 
to an adulteress1 nor will ,i be found  
in connexion with any wicked act or     
plan2 if possible1 ,i will restrain men 
from crime2 if not1 at least ,i will    
never assist them in it4 ,whether my    
friend be driven into doing wrong by    
anger1 or seduced from the path of      
safety by the heat of ambition1 he shall
 never gain the means of doing mischief 

except from himself1 nor will ,i enable 
him one day to say1 ,he ruined me out of
 love for me4 ,our friends often give us
 what our enemies wish us to receive2 we
 are driven by the unseasonable fondness
 of the former into the ruin which the  
latter hope will befall us4 ,yet1 often 
as it is the case1 what can be more     
shameful than that there should be no   
difference between a benefit and hatred8
  ,,xv4 ,let us never bestow gifts which
 may recoil upon us to our shame4 ,as   
the sum total of friendship consists in 
making our friends equal to ourselves1  
we ought to consider the interests of   
both parties2 ,i must give to him that  
wants1 yet so that ,i do not want       
myself2 ,i must help him who is         
perishing1 yet so that ,i do not perish 
myself1 unless by so doing ,i can save a
 great man or a great cause4 ,i must    
give no benefit which it would disgrace 
me to ask for4 ,i ought not to make a   
small benefit appear a great one1 nor   
allow great benefits to be regarded as  

small2 for although it destroys all     
feeling of gratitude to treat what you  
give like a creditor1 yet you do not    
reproach a man1 but merely set off your 
gift to the best advantage by letting   
him know what it is worth4 ,every man   
must consider what his resources and    
powers are1 so that we may not give     
either more or less than we are able4   
,we must also consider the character and
 position of the person to whom we give1
 for some men are too great to give     
small gifts1 while others are too small 
to receive great ones4 ,compare1        
therefore1 the character both of the    
giver and the receiver1 and weigh that  
which you give between the two1 taking  
care that what is given be neither too  
burdensome nor too trivial for the one  
to give1 nor yet such as the receiver   
will either treat with disdain as too   
small1 or think too great for him to    
deal with4  ,,xvi4 ,alexander1 who was  
of unsound mind1 and always full of     
magnificent ideas1 presented somebody   

with a city4 ,when the man to whom he   
gave it had reflected upon the scope of 
his own powers1 he wished to avoid the  
jealousy which so great a present would 
excite1 saying that the gift did not    
suit a man of his position4 ,i do not   
ask1 replied ,alexander1 what is        
becoming for you to receive1 but what is
 becoming for me to give4 ,this seems a 
spirited and kingly speech1 yet really  
it is a most foolish one4 ,nothing is by
 itself a becoming gift for any one3 all
 depends upon who gives it1 to whom he  
gives it1 when1 for what reason1 where1 
and so forth1 without which details it  
is impossible to argue about it4        
,inflated creature6 if it did not become
 him to receive this gift1 it could not 
become thee to give it4 ,there should be
 a proportion between men's characters  
and the offices which they fill2 and as 
virtue in all cases should be our       
measure1 he who gives too much acts as  
wrongly as he who gives too little4     
,even granting that fortune has raised  

you so high1 that1 where other men give 
cups1 you give cities 7which it would   
show a greater mind in you not to take  
than to take and squander71 still there 
must be some of your friends who are not
 strong enough to put a city in their   
pockets4  ,,xvii4 ,a certain cynic asked
 ,antigonus for a talent4 ,antigonus    
answered that this was too much for a   
cynic to ask for4 ,after this rebuff he 
asked for a penny4 ,antigonus answered  
that this was too little for a king to  
give4 ,this kind of hair-splitting 7you 
say7 is contemptible3 he found the means
 of giving neither4 ,in the matter of   
the penny he thought of the king1 in    
that of the talent he thought of the    
cynic1 whereas with respect to the cynic
 it would have been right to receive the
 penny1 with respect to the king it     
would have been right to give the       
talent4 ,though there may be things     
which are too great for a cynic to      
receive1 yet nothing is so small1 that  
it does not become a gracious king to   

bestow it4 ,if you ask me1 ,i applaud   
,antigonus2 for it is not to be endured 
that a man who despises money should ask
 for it4 ,your cynic has publicly       
proclaimed his hatred of money1 and     
assumed the character of one who        
despises it3 let him act up to his      
professions4 ,it is most inconsistent   
for him to earn money by glorifying his 
poverty4 ,i wish to use ,chrysippus's   
simile of the game of ball1 in which the
 ball must certainly fall by the fault  
either of the thrower or of the catcher2
 it only holds its course when it passes
 between the hands of two persons who   
each throw it and catch it suitably4 ,it
 is necessary1 however1 for a good      
player to send the ball in one way to a 
comrade at a long distance1 and in      
another to one at a short distance4 ,so 
it is with a benefit3 unless it be      
suitable both for the giver and the     
receiver1 it will neither leave the one 
nor reach the other as it ought4 ,if we 
have to do with a practised and skilled 

player1 we shall throw the ball more    
recklessly1 for however it may come1    
that quick and agile hand will send it  
back again2 if we are playing with an   
unskilled novice1 we shall not throw it 
so hard1 but far more gently1 guiding it
 straight into his very hands1 and we   
shall run to meet it when it returns to 
us4 ,this is just what we ought to do in
 conferring benefits2 let us teach some 
men how to do so1 and be satisfied if   
they attempt it1 if they have the       
courage and the will to do so4 ,for the 
most part1 however1 we make men         
ungrateful1 and encourage them1 to be   
so1 as if our benefits were only great  
when we cannot receive any gratitude for
 them2 just as some spiteful            
ball-players purposely put out their    
companion1 of course to the ruin of the 
game1 which cannot be carried on without
 entire agreement ,many men are of so   
depraved a nature that they had rather  
lose the presents which they make than  
be thought to have received a return for

 them1 because they are proud1 and like 
to lay people under obligations3 yet how
 much better and more kindly would it be
 if they tried to enable the others also
 to perform their parts1 if they        
encouraged them in returning gratitude1 
put the best construction upon all their
 acts1 received one who wished to thank 
them just as cordially as if he came to 
repay what he had received1 and easily  
lent themselves to the belief that those
 whom they have laid under an obligation
 wish to repay it4 ,we blame usurers    
equally when they press harshly for     
payment1 and when they delay and make   
difficulties about taking back the money
 which they have lent2 in the same way1 
it is just as right that a benefit      
should be returned1 as it is wrong to   
ask any one to return it4 ,the best man 
is he who gives readily1 never asks for 
any return1 and is delighted when the   
return is made1 because1 having really  
and truly forgotten what he gave1 he    
receives it as though it were a present4

  ,,xviii4 ,some men not only give1 but 
even receive benefit haughtily1 a       
mistake into which we ought not to fall3
 for now let us cross over to the other 
side of the subject1 and consider how   
men should behave when they receive     
benefits4 ,every function which is      
performed by two persons makes equal    
demands upon both3 after you have       
considered what a father ought to be1   
you will perceive that there remains an 
equal task1 that of considering what a  
son ought to be3 a husband has certain  
duties1 but those of a wife are no less 
important4 ,each of these give and take 
equally1 and each require a similar rule
 of life1 which1 as ,hecaton observes1  
is hard to follow3 indeed1 it is        
difficult for us to attain to virtue1 or
 even to anything that comes near       
virtue3 for we ought not only to act    
virtuously but to do so upon principle4 
,we ought to follow this guide          
throughout our lives1 and to do         
everything great and small according to 

its dictates3 according as virtue       
prompts us we ought both to give and to 
receive4 ,now she will declare at the   
outset that we ought not to receive     
benefits from every man4 ,from whom1    
then1 ought we to receive them8 ,to     
answer you briefly1 ,i should say1 from 
those to whom we have given them4 ,let  
us consider whether we ought not to be  
even more careful in choosing to whom we
 should owe than to whom we should give4
 ,for even supposing that no            
unpleasantness should result 7and very  
much always does71 still it is a great  
misery to be indebted to a man to whom  
you do not wish to be under an          
obligation2 whereas it is most          
delightful to receive a benefit from one
 whom you can love even after he has    
wronged you1 and when the pleasure which
 you feel in his friendship is justified
 by the grounds on which it is based4   
,nothing is more wretched for a modest  
and honourable man than to feel it to be
 his duty to love one whom it does not  

please him to love4 ,i must constantly  
remind you that ,i do not speak of wise 
men1 who take pleasure in everything    
that is their duty1 who have their      
feelings under command1 and are able to 
lay down whatever law they please to    
themselves and keep it1 but that ,i     
speak of imperfect beings struggling to 
follow the right path1 who often have   
trouble in bending their passions to    
their will4 ,i must therefore choose the
 man from whom ,i will accept a benefit2
 indeed1 ,i ought to be more careful in 
the choice of my creditor for a benefit 
than for money2 for ,i have only to pay 
the latter as much as ,i received of    
him1 land when ,i have paid it ,i am    
free from all obligation2 but to the    
other ,i must both repay more1 and even 
when ,i have repaid his kindness we     
remain connected1 for when ,i have paid 
my debt ,i ought again to renew it1     
while our friendship endures unbroken4  
,thus1 as ,i ought not to make an       
unworthy man my friend1 so ,i ought not 

to admit an unworthy man into that most 
holy bond of gratitude for benefits1    
from which friendship arises4 ,you      
reply1 ,i cannot always say ',no'3      
sometimes ,i must receive a benefit even
 against my will4 ,suppose ,i were given
 something by a cruel and easily        
offended tyrant1 who would take it as an
 affront if his bounty were slighted8 am
 ,i not to accept it8 ,suppose it were  
offered by a pirate1 or a brigand1 or a 
king of the temper of a pirate or       
brigand4 ,what ought ,i to do8 ,such a  
man is not a worthy object for me to owe
 a benefit to4 ,when ,i say that you    
ought to choose1 ,i except vis major and
 fear1 which destroy all power of       
choice4 ,if you are free1 if it lies    
with you to decide whether you will or  
not1 then you will turn over in your own
 mind whether you will take a gift from 
a man or not2 but if your position makes
 it impossible for you to choose1 then  
be assured that you do not receive a    
gift1 you merely obey orders4 ,no one   

incurs any obligation by receiving what 
it was not in his power to refuse2 if   
you want to know whether ,i wish to take
 it1 arrange matters so that ,i have the
 power of saying ',no4' ,yet suppose he 
gave you your life4 ,it does not matter 
what the gift was1 unless it be given   
and received with good will3 you are not
 my preserver because you have saved my 
life4 ,poison sometimes acts as a       
medicine1 yet it is not on that account 
regarded as wholesome4 ,some things     
benefit us but put us under no          
obligation3 for instance a man who      
intended to kill a tyrant1 cut with his 
sword a tumour from which he suffered3  
yet the tyrant did not show him         
gratitude because by wounding him he had
 healed a disease which surgeons had    
feared to meddle with4  ,,xix4 ,you see 
that the actual thing itself is not of  
much importance1 because it is not      
regarded as a benefit at all1 if you do 
good when you intended to do evil2 in   
such a case the benefit is done by      

chance1 the man did harm4 ,i have seen a
 lion in the amphitheatre1 who          
recognized one of the men who fought    
with wild beasts1 who once had been his 
keeper1 and protected him against the   
attacks of the other animals4 ,are we1  
then1 to say that this assistance of the
 brute was a benefit8 ,by no means1     
because it did not intend to do it1 and 
did not do it with kindly intentions4   
,you may class the lion and your tyrant 
together3 each of them saved a man's    
life1 yet neither conferred a benefit4  
,because it is not a benefit to be      
forced to receive one1 neither is it a  
benefit to be under an obligation to a  
man to whom we do not wish to be        
indebted4 ,you must first give me       
personal freedom of decision1 and then  
your benefit4  ,,xx4 ,the question has  
been raised1 whether ,marcus ,brutus    
ought to have received his life from the
 hands of ,julius ,caesar1 who1 he had  
decided1 ought to be put to death4  ,as 
to the grounds upon which he put him to 

death1 ,i shall discuss them elsewhere2 
for to my mind1 though he was in other  
respects a great man1 in this he seems  
to have been entirely wrong1 and not to 
have followed the maxims of the ,stoic  
philosophy4 ,he must either have feared 
the name of ,king1 although a state     
thrives best under a good king1 or he   
must have hoped that liberty could exist
 in a state where some had so much to   
gain by reigning1 and others had so much
 to gain by becoming slaves4 ,or1 again1
 he must have supposed that it would be 
possible to restore the ancient         
constitution after all the ancient      
manners had been lost1 and that citizens
 could continue to possess equal rights1
 or laws remain inviolate1 in a state in
 which he had seen so many thousands of 
men fighting to decide1 not whether they
 should be slaves or free1 but which    
master they should serve4 ,how forgetful
 he seems to have been1 both of human   
nature and of the history of his own    
country1 in supposing that when one     

despot was destroyed another of the same
 temper would not take his place1       
though1 after so many kings had perished
 by lightning and the sword1 a ,tarquin 
was found to reign6 ,yet ,brutus did    
right in receiving his life from        
,caesar1 though he was not bound thereby
 to regard ,caesar as his father1 since 
it was by a wrong that ,caesar had come 
to be in a position to bestow this      
benefit4 ,a man does not save your life 
who does not kill you2 nor does he      
confer a benefit1 but merely gives you  
your discharge4 ,the 'discharge' alluded
 to is that which was granted to the    
beaten one of a pair of gladiators1 when
 their duel was not to the death4       
,,xxi4 ,it seems to offer more          
opportunity for debate to consider what 
a captive ought to do1 if a man of      
abominable vices offers him the price of
 his ransom8 ,shall ,i permit myself to 
be saved by a wretch8 ,when safe1 what  
recompense can ,i make to him8 ,am ,i to
 live with an infamous person8 ,yet1 am 

,i not to live with my preserver8 ,i    
will tell you my opinion4 ,i would      
accept money1 even from such a person1  
if it were to save my life2 yet ,i would
 only accept it as a loan1 not as a     
benefit4 ,i would repay him the money1  
and if ,i were ever able to preserve him
 from danger ,i would do so4 ,as for    
friendship1 which can only exist between
 equals1 ,i would not condescend to be  
such a man's friend2 nor would ,i regard
 him as my preserver1 but merely as a   
money-lender1 to whom ,i am only bound  
to repay what ,i borrowed from him4  ,a 
man may be a worthy person for me to    
receive a benefit from1 but it will hurt
 him to give it4 ,for this reason ,i    
will not receive it1 because he is ready
 to help me to his own prejudice1 or    
even danger4 ,suppose that he is willing
 to plead for me in court1 but by so    
doing will make the king his enemy4 ,i  
should be his enemy1 if1 when he is     
willing to risk himself for me1 if ,i   
were not to risk myself without him1    

which moreover is easier for me to do4  
,as an instance of this1 ,hecaton calls 
the case of ,arcesilaus silly1 and not  
to the purpose4 ,arcesilaus1 he says1   
refused to receive a large sum of money 
which was offered to him by a son1 lest 
the son should offend his penurious     
father4 ,what did he do deserving of    
praise1 in not receiving stolen goods1  
in choosing not to receive them1 instead
 of returning them8 ,what proof of      
self-restraint is there in refusing to  
receive another man's property4 ,if you 
want an instance of magnanimity1 take   
the case of ,julius ,graecinus1 whom    
,caius ,caesar put to death merely on   
the ground that he was a better man than
 it suited a tyrant for anyone to be4   
,this man1 when he was receiving        
subscriptions from many of his friends  
to cover his expenses in exhibiting     
public games1 would not receive a large 
sum which was sent him by ,fabius       
,persicus2 and when he was blamed for   
rejecting it by those who think more of 

what is given than of who gives it1 he  
answered1 ,am ,i to accept a present    
from a man when ,i would not accept his 
offer to drink a glass of wine with him8
  ,when a consular named ,rebilius1 a   
man of equally bad character1 sent a yet
 larger sum to ,graecinus1 and pressed  
him to receive it4 ,i must beg1 answered
 he1 that you will excuse me4 ,i did not
 take money from ,persicus either4      
,ought we to call this receiving        
presents1 or rather taking one's pick of
 the senate8  ,,xxii4 ,when we have     
decided to accept1 let us accept with   
cheerfulness1 showing pleasure1 and     
letting the giver see it1 so that he may
 at once receive some return for his    
goodness3 for as it is a good reason for
 rejoicing to see our friend happy1 it  
is a better one to have made him so4    
,let us1 therefore1 show how acceptable 
a gift is by loudly expressing our      
gratitude for it2 and let us do so1 not 
only in the hearing of the giver1 but   
everywhere4 ,he who receives a benefit  

with gratitude1 repays the first        
instalment of it4  ,,xxiii4 ,there are  
some1 who only like to receive benefits 
privately3 they dislike having any      
witnesses and confidants4 ,such men1 we 
may believe1 have no good intentions4   
,as a giver is justified in dwelling    
upon those qualities of his gift which  
will please the receiver1 so a man1 when
 he receives1 should do so publicly2 you
 should not take from a man what you are
 ashamed to owe him4 ,some return thanks
 to one stealthily1 in a corner1 in a   
whisper4 ,this is not modesty1 but a    
kind of denying of the debt3 it is the  
part of an ungrateful man not to express
 his gratitude before witnesses4 ,some  
object to any accounts being kept       
between them and their benefactors1 and 
wish no brokers to be employed or       
witnesses to be called1 but merely to   
give their own signature to a receipt4  
,those men do the like1 who take care to
 let as few persons as possible know of 
the benefits which they have received4  

,they fear to receive them in public1 in
 order that their success may be        
attributed rather to their own talents  
than to the help of others3 they are    
very seldom to be found in attendance   
upon those to whom they owe their lives 
and their fortunes1 and thus1 while     
avoiding the imputation of servility1   
they incur that of ingratitude4  ,,xxiv4
 ,some men speak in the most offensive  
terms of those to whom they owe most4   
,there are men whom it is safer to      
affront than to serve1 for their dislike
 leads them to assume the airs of       
persons who are not indebted to us3     
although nothing more is expected of    
them than that they should remember what
 they owe us1 refreshing their memory   
from time to time1 because no one can be
 grateful who forgets a kindness1 and he
 who remembers it1 by so doing proves   
his gratitude4 ,we ought neither to     
receive benefits with a fastidious air1 
nor yet with a slavish humility3 for if 
a man does not care for a benefit when  

it is freshly bestowed--a time at which 
all presents please us most--what will  
he do when its first charms have gone   
off8 ,others receive with an air of     
disdain1 as much as to say4 ,i do not   
want it2 but as you wish it so very     
much1 ,i will allow you to give it to   
me4 ,others take benefits languidly1 and
 leave the giver in doubt as to whether 
they know that they have received them2 
others barely open their lips in thanks1
 and would be less offensive if they    
said nothing4 ,one ought to proportion  
one's thanks to the importance of the   
benefit received1 and to use the        
phrases1 ,you have laid more of us than 
you think under an obligation1 for      
everyone likes to find his good actions 
extend further than he expected4 ,you do
 not know what it is that you have done 
for me2 but you ought to know how much  
more important it is than you imagine4  
,it is in itself an expression of       
gratitude to speak of one's self as     
overwhelmed by kindness2 or ,i shall    

never be able to thank you sufficiently2
 but1 at any rate1 ,i will never cease  
to express everywhere my inability to   
thank you4  ,,xxv4 ,by nothing did      
,furnius gain greater credit with       
,augustus1 and make it easy for him to  
obtain anything else for which he might 
ask1 than by merely saying1 when at his 
request ,augustus pardoned his father   
for having taken ,antonius's side1 ,one 
wrong alone ,i have received at your    
hands1 ,caesar2 you have forced me to   
live and to die owing you a greater debt
 of gratitude than ,i can ever repay4   
,what can prove gratitude so well as    
that a man should never be satisfied1   
should never even entertain the hope of 
making any adequate return for what he  
has received8 ,by these and similar     
expressions we must try not to conceal  
our gratitude1 but to display it as     
clearly as possible4 ,no words need be  
used2 if we only feel as we ought1 our  
thankfulness will be shown in our       
countenances4 ,he who intends to be     

grateful1 let him think how he shall    
repay a kindness while he is receiving  
it4 ,chrysippus says that such a man    
must watch for his opportunity1 and     
spring forward whenever it offers1 like 
one who has been entered for a race1 and
 who stands at the starting-point       
waiting for the barriers to be thrown   
open2 and even then he must use great   
exertions and great swiftness to catch  
the other1 who has a start of him4      
,,xxvi4 ,we must now consider what is   
the main cause of ingratitude4 ,it is   
caused by excessive self-esteem1 by that
 fault innate in all mortals1 of taking 
a partial view of ourselves and our own 
acts1 by greed1 or by jealousy4  ,let us
 begin with the first of these4 ,every  
one is prejudiced in his own favour1    
from which it follows that he believes  
himself to have earned all that he      
receives1 regards it as payment for his 
services1 and does not think that he has
 been appraised at a valuation          
sufficiently near his own4 ,he has given

 me this1 says he1 but how late1 after  
how much toil8 how much more might ,i   
have earned if ,i had attached myself to
 ,so and so1 or to ,so and so8 ,i did   
not expect this2 ,i have been treated   
like one of the herd2 did he really     
think that ,i only deserved so little8  
why1 it would have been less insulting  
to have passed me over altogether4      
,,xxvii4 ,the augur ,cnaeus ,lentulus1  
who1 before his freedmen reduced him to 
poverty1 was one of the richest of men1 
who saw himself in possession of a      
fortune of four hundred millions--,i say
 advisedly1 saw1 for he never did more  
than see it--was as barren and          
contemptible in intellect as he was in  
spirit4 ,though very avaricious1 yet he 
was so poor a speaker that he found it  
easier to give men coins than words4    
,this man1 who owed all his prosperity  
to the late ,emperor ,augustus1 to whom 
he had brought only poverty1 encumbered 
with a noble name1 when he had risen to 
be the chief man in ,rome1 both in      

wealth and influence1 used sometimes to 
complain that ,augustus had interrupted 
his legal studies1 observing that he had
 not received anything like what he had 
lost by giving up the study of          
eloquence4 ,yet the truth was that      
,augustus1 besides loading him with     
other gifts1 had set him free from the  
necessity of making himself ridiculous  
by labouring at a profession in which he
 never could succeed4  ,greed does not  
permit any one to be grateful2 for what 
is given is never equal to its base     
desires1 and the more we receive the    
more we covet1 for avarice is much more 
eager when it has to deal with great    
accumulations of wealth1 just as the    
power of a flame is enormously greater  
in proportion to the size of the        
conflagration from which it springs4    
,ambition in like manner suffers no man 
to rest satisfied with that measure of  
public honours1 to gain which was once  
the limit of his wildest hope2 no one is
 thankful for becoming tribune1 but     

grumbles at not being at once promoted  
to the post of praetor2 nor is he       
grateful for this if the consulship does
 not follow2 and even this does not     
satisfy him if he be consul but once4   
,his greed ever stretches itself out    
further1 and he does not understand the 
greatness of his success because he     
always looks forward to the point at    
which he aims1 and never back towards   
that from which he started4  ,,xxviii4  
,a more violent and distressing vice    
than any of these is jealousy which     
disturbs us by suggesting comparisons4  
,he gave me this1 but he gave more to   
that man1 and he gave it to him before  
me2 after which he sympathises with no  
one1 but pushes his own claims to the   
prejudice of every one else4 ,how much  
more straightforward and modest is it to
 make the most of what we have received1
 knowing that no man is valued so highly
 by any one else as by his own1 self6 ,i
 ought to have received more1 but it was
 not easy for him to give more2 he was  

obliged to distribute his liberality    
among many persons4 ,this is only the   
beginning2 let me be contented1 and by  
my gratitude encourage him to show me   
more favour2 he has not done as much as 
he ought1 but he will do so the more    
frequently2 he certainly preferred that 
man to me1 but he has preferred me      
before many others2 that man is not my  
equal either in virtue or in services1  
but he has some charm of his own3 by    
complaining ,i shall not make myself    
deserve to receive more1 but shall      
become unworthy of what ,i have         
received4 ,more has been given to those 
most villainous men than has been given 
to me2 well1 what is that to the        
purpose8 how seldom does ,fortune show  
judgment in her choice8 ,we complain    
every day of the success of bad men2    
very often the hail passes over the     
estates of the greatest villains and    
strikes down the crops of the best of   
men2 every man has to take his chance1  
in friendship as well as in everything  

else4 ,there is no benefit so great that
 spitefulness can pick no holes in it1  
none so paltry that it cannot be made   
more of by friendly interpretation4 ,we 
shall never want a subject for complaint
 if we look at benefits on their wrong  
side4  ,,xxix4 ,see how unjustly the    
gifts of heaven are valued even by some 
who profess themselves philosophers1 who
 complain that we are not as big as     
elephants1 as swift as stags1 as light  
as birds1 as strong as bulls2 that the  
skins of seals are stronger1 of hinds   
prettier1 of bears thicker1 of beavers  
softer than ours2 that dogs excel us in 
delicacy of scent1 eagles in keenness of
 sight1 crows in length of days1 and    
many beasts in ease of swimming4 ,and   
although nature itself does not allow   
some qualities1 as for example strength 
and swiftness1 to be combined in the    
same person1 yet they call it a         
monstrous thing that men are not        
compounded of different and inconsistent
 good qualities1 and call the gods      

neglectful of us because we have not    
been given health which even our vices  
cannot destroy1 or knowledge of the     
future4 ,they scarcely refrain from     
rising to such a pitch of impudence as  
to hate nature because we are below the 
gods1 and not on an equality with them4 
,how much better is it to turn to the   
contemplation of so many great          
blessings1 and to be thankful that the  
gods have been pleased to give us a     
place second only to themselves in this 
most beautiful abode1 and that they have
 appointed us to be the lords of the    
earth6 ,can any one compare us with the 
animals over whom we rule8 ,nothing has 
been denied us except what could not    
have been granted4 ,in like manner1 thou
 that takest an unfair view of the lot  
of mankind1 think what blessings our    
,father has bestowed upon us1 how far   
more powerful animals than ourselves we 
have broken to harness1 how we catch    
those which are far swifter1 how nothing
 that has life is placed beyond the     

reach of our weapons6 ,we have received 
so many excellencies1 so many crafts1   
above all our mind1 which can pierce at 
once whatever it is directed against1   
which is swifter than the stars in their
 courses1 for it arrives before them at 
the place which they will reach after   
many ages2 and besides this1 so many    
fruits of the earth1 so much treasure1  
such masses of various things piled one 
upon another4 ,you may go through the   
whole order of nature1 and since you    
find no entire creature which you would 
prefer to be1 you may choose from each1 
the special qualities which you would   
like to be given to yourself2 then1 if  
you rightly appreciate the partiality of
 nature for you1 you cannot but confess 
yourself to be her spoiled child4 ,so it
 is2 the immortal gods have unto this   
day always held us most dear1 and have  
bestowed upon us the greatest possible  
honour1 a place nearest to themselves4  
,we have indeed received great things1  
yet not too great4  ,,xxx4 ,i have      

thought it necessary1 my friend         
,liberalis1 to state these facts1 both  
because when speaking of small benefits 
one ought to make some mention of the   
greatest1 and because also this         
shameless and hateful vice 7of          
ingratitude71 starting with these1      
transfers itself from them to all the   
rest4 ,if a man scorn these1 the        
greatest of all benefits1 to whom will  
he feel gratitude1 what gift will he    
regard as valuable or deserving to be   
returned3 to whom will he be grateful   
for his safety or his life1 if he denies
 that he has received from the gods that
 existence which he begs from them      
daily8 ,he1 therefore1 who teaches men  
to be grateful1 pleads the cause not    
only of men1 but even of the gods1 for  
though they1 being placed above all     
desires1 cannot be in want of anything1 
yet we can nevertheless offer them our  
gratitude4  ,no one is justified in     
seeking an excuse for ingratitude in his
 own weakness or poverty1 or in saying1 

,what am ,i to do1 and how8 ,when can ,i
 repay my debt to my superiors the lords
 of heaven and earth8 ,avaricious as you
 are1 it is easy for you to give them   
thanks1 without expense2 lazy though you
 be1 you can do it without labour4 ,at  
the same instant at which you received  
your debt towards them1 if you wish to  
repay it1 you have done as much as any  
one can do1 for he returns a benefit who
 receives it with good will4  ,,xxxi4   
,this paradox of the ,stoic philosophy1 
that he returns a benefit who receives  
it with good will1 is1 in my opinion1   
either far from admirable1 or else it is
 incredible4 ,for if we look at         
everything merely from the point of view
 of our intentions1 every man has done  
as much as he chose to do2 and since    
filial piety1 good faith1 justice1 and  
in short every virtue is complete within
 itself1 a man may be grateful in       
intention even though he may not be able
 to lift a hand to prove his gratitude4 
,whenever a man obtains what he aimed   

at1 he receives the fruit of his labour4
 ,when a man bestows a benefit1 at what 
does he aim8 clearly to be of service   
and afford pleasure to him upon whom he 
bestows it4 ,if he does what he wishes1 
if his purpose reaches me and fills us  
each with joy1 he has gained his object4
 ,he does not wish anything to be given 
to him in return1 or else it becomes an 
exchange of commodities1 not a bestowal 
of benefits4 ,a man steers well who     
reaches the port for which he started3 a
 dart hurled by a steady hand performs  
its duty if it hits the mark2 one who   
bestows a benefit wishes it to be       
received with gratitude2 he gets what he
 wanted if it be well received4 ,but1   
you say1 he hoped for some profit also4 
,then it was not a benefit1 the property
 of which is to think nothing of any    
repayment4 ,i receive what was given me 
in the same spirit in which it was      
given3 then ,i have repaid it4 ,if this 
be not true1 then this best of deeds has
 this worst of conditions attached to   

it1 that it depends entirely upon       
fortune whether ,i am grateful or not1  
for if my fortune is adverse ,i can make
 no repayment4 ,the intention is enough4
 ,what then8 am ,i not to do whatever ,i
 may be able to repay it1 and ought ,i  
not ever to be on the watch for an      
opportunity of filling the bosom        
,footnote3 ,sinus1 the fold of the toga 
over the breast1 used as a pocket by the
 ,romans4 ,the great ,french actor      
,talma1 when dressed for the first time 
in correct classical costume1           
indignantly asked where he was to put   
his snuff-box4 of him from whom ,i have 
received any kindness8 ,true2 but a     
benefit is in an evil plight if we      
cannot be grateful for it even when we  
are empty-handed4  ,,xxxii4 ,a man1 it  
is argued1 who has received a benefit1  
however gratefully he may have received 
it1 has not yet accomplished all his    
duty1 for there remains the part of     
repayment2 just as in playing at ball it
 is something to catch the ball cleverly

 and carefully1 but a man is not called 
a good player unless he can handily and 
quickly send back the ball which he has 
caught4 ,this analogy is imperfect2 and 
why8 ,because to do this creditably     
depends upon the movement and activity  
of the body1 and not upon the mind3 and 
an act of which we judge entirely by the
 eye1 ought to be all clearly displayed4
 ,but if a man caught the ball as he    
ought to do1 ,i should not call him a   
bad player for not returning it1 if his 
delay in returning it was not caused by 
his own fault4 ,yet1 say you1 although  
the player is not wanting in skill1     
because he did one part of his duty1 and
 was able to do the other part1 yet in  
such a case the game is imperfect1 for  
its perfection lies in sending the ball 
backwards and forwards4 ,i am unwilling 
to expose this fallacy further2 let us  
think that it is the game1 not the      
player that is imperfect3 so likewise in
 the subject which we are discussing1   
the thing which is given lacks          

something1 because another equal thing  
ought to be returned for it1 but the    
mind of the giver lacks nothing1 because
 it has found another mind equal to     
itself1 and as far as intentions go1 has
 effected what it wished4  ,,xxxiii4 ,a 
man bestows a benefit upon me3 ,i       
receive it just as he wished it to be   
received3 then he gets at once what he  
wanted1 and the only thing which he     
wanted1 and therefore ,i have proved    
myself grateful4 ,after this it remains 
for me to enjoy my own resources1 with  
the addition of an advantage conferred  
upon me by one whom ,i have obliged2    
this advantage is not the remainder of  
an imperfect service1 but an addition to
 a perfected service4 ,footnote3        
,nothing is wanted to make a benefit1   
conferred from good motives1 perfect3 if
 it is returned1 the gratitude is to be 
counted as net profit4 ,for example1    
,phidias makes a statue4 ,now the       
product of an art is one thing1 and that
 of a trade is another4 ,it is the      

business of the art to make the thing   
which he wished to make1 and that of the
 trade to make it with a profit4        
,phidias has completed his work1 even   
though he does not sell it4 ,the        
product1 therefore1 of his work is      
threefold3 there is the consciousness of
 having made it1 which he receives when 
his work is completed2 there is the fame
 which he receives2 and thirdly1 the    
advantage which he obtains by it1 in    
influence1 or by selling it1 or         
otherwise4 ,in like manner the first    
fruit of a benefit is the consciousness 
of it1 which we feel when we have       
bestowed it upon the person whom we     
chose2 secondly and thirdly there is the
 credit which we gain by doing so1 and  
there are those things which we may     
receive in exchange for it4 ,so when a  
benefit has been graciously received1   
the giver has already received          
gratitude1 but has not yet received     
recompense for it3 that which we owe in 
return is therefore something apart from

 the benefit itself1 for we have paid   
for the benefit itself when we accept it
 in a grateful spirit4  ,,xxxiv4 ,what1 
say you1 can a man repay a benefit1     
though he does nothing8 ,he has taken   
the first step1 he has offered you a    
good thing with good feeling1 and1 which
 is the characteristic of friendship1   
has placed you both on the same footing4
 ,in the next place1 a benefit is not   
repaid in the same manner as a loan3 you
 have no reason for expecting me to     
offer you any payment2 the account      
between us depends upon the feelings    
alone4 ,what ,i say will not appear     
difficult1 although it may not at first 
accord with your ideas1 if you will do  
me the favour to remember that there are
 more things than there are words to    
express them4 ,there is an enormous mass
 of things without names1 which we do   
not speak of under distinctive names of 
their own1 but by the names of other    
things transferred to them4 ,we speak of
 our own foot1 of the foot of a couch1  

of a sail1 or of a poem2 we apply the   
word 'dog' to a hound1 a fish1 and a    
star4 ,because we have not enough words 
to assign a separate name to each thing1
 we borrow a name whenever we want one4 
,bravery is the virtue which rightly    
despises danger1 or the science of      
repelling1 sustaining1 or inviting      
dangers3 yet we call a brave man a      
gladiator1 and we use the same word for 
a good-for-nothing slave1 who is led by 
rashness to defy death4 ,economy is the 
science of avoiding unnecessary         
expenditure1 or the art of using one's  
income with moderation3 yet we call a   
man of mean and narrow mind1 most       
economical1 although there is an        
immeasurable distance between moderation
 and meanness4 ,these things are        
naturally distinct1 yet the poverty of  
our language compels us to call both    
these men economical1 just as he who    
views slight accidents with rational    
contempt1 and he who without reason runs
 into danger are alike called brave4    

,thus a benefit is both a beneficent    
action1 and also is that which is       
bestowed by that action1 such as money1 
a house1 an office in the state3 there  
is but one name for them both1 though   
their force and power are widely        
different4  ,,xxxv4 ,wherefore1 give me 
your attention1 and you will soon       
perceive that ,i say nothing to which   
you can object4 ,that benefit which     
consists of the action is repaid when we
 receive it graciously2 that other1     
which consists of something material1 we
 have not then repaid1 but we hope to do
 so4 ,the debt of goodwill has been     
discharged by a return of goodwill2 the 
material debt demands a material return4
 ,thus1 although we may declare that he 
who has received a benefit with         
good-will has returned the favour1 yet  
we counsel him to return to the giver   
something of the same kind as that which
 he has received4 ,some part of what we 
have said departs from the conventional 
line of thought1 and then rejoins it by 

another path4 ,we declare that a wise   
man cannot receive an injury2 yet1 if a 
man hits him with his fist1 that man    
will be found guilty of doing him an    
injury4 ,we declare that a fool can     
possess nothing2 yet if a man stole     
anything from a fool1 we should find    
that man guilty of theft4 ,we declare   
that all men are mad1 yet we do not dose
 all men with hellebore2 but we put into
 the hands of these very persons1 whom  
we call madmen1 both the right of voting
 and of pronouncing judgment4           
,similarly1 we say that a man who has   
received a benefit with good-will has   
returned the favour1 yet we leave him in
 debt nevertheless--bound to repay it   
even though he has repaid it4 ,this is  
not to disown benefits1 but is an       
encouragement to us neither to fear to  
receive benefits1 nor to faint under the
 too great burden of them4 ,good things 
have been given to me2 ,i have been     
preserved from starving2 ,i have been   
saved from the misery of abject poverty2

 my life1 and what is dearer than life1 
my liberty1 has been preserved4 ,how    
shall ,i be able to repay these favours8
 ,when will the day come upon which ,i  
can prove my gratitude to him8 ,when a  
man speaks thus1 the day has already    
come4 ,receive a benefit1 embrace it1   
rejoice1 not that you have received it1 
but that you have to owe it and return  
it2 then you will never be in peril of  
the great sin of being rendered         
ungrateful by mischance4 ,i will not    
enumerate any difficulties to you1 lest 
you should despair1 and faint at the    
prospect of a long and laborious        
servitude4 ,i do not refer you to the   
future2 do it with what means you have  
at hand4 ,you never will be grateful    
unless you are so straightway4 ,what1   
then1 will you do8 ,you need not take up
 arms1 yet perhaps you may have to do   
so2 you need not cross the seas1 yet it 
may be that you will pay your debt1 even
 when the wind threatens to blow a gale4
 ,do you wish to return the benefit8    

,then receive it graciously2 you have   
then returned the favour--not1 indeed1  
so that you can think yourself to have  
repaid it1 but so that you can owe it   
with a quieter conscience4     ,,book   
,,iii4  ,i4   ,not to return gratitude  
for benefits1 my ,a,ebutius ,liberalis1 
is both base in itself1 and is thought  
base by all men2 wherefore even         
ungrateful men complain of ingratitude1 
and yet what all condemn is at the same 
time rooted in all2 and so far do men   
sometimes run into the other extreme    
that some of them become our bitterest  
enemies1 not merely after receiving     
benefits from us1 but because they have 
received them4 ,i cannot deny that some 
do this out of sheer badness of nature2 
but more do so because lapse of time    
destroys their remembrance1 for time    
gradually effaces what they felt vividly
 at the moment4 ,i remember having had  
an argument with you about this class of
 persons1 whom you wished to call       
forgetful rather than ungrateful1 as if 

that which caused a man to be ungrateful
 was any excuse for his being so1 or as 
if the fact of this happening to a man  
prevented his being ungrateful1 when we 
know that it only happens to ungrateful 
men4 ,there are many classes of the     
ungrateful1 as there are of thieves or  
of homicides1 who all have the same     
fault1 though there is a great variety  
in its various forms4 ,the man is       
ungrateful who denies that he has       
received a benefit2 who pretends that he
 has not received it2 who does not      
return it4 ,the most ungrateful man of  
all is he who forgets it4 ,the others1  
though they do not repay it1 yet feel   
their debt1 and possess some traces of  
worth1 though obstructed by their bad   
conscience4 ,they may by some means and 
at some time be brought to show their   
gratitude1 if1 for instance1 they be    
pricked by shame1 if they conceive some 
noble ambition such as occasionally     
rises even in the breasts of the wicked1
 if some easy opportunity of doing so   

offers2 but the man from whom all       
recollection of the benefit has passed  
away can never become grateful4 ,which  
of the two do you call the worse--he who
 is ungrateful for kindness1 or he who  
does not even remember it8 ,the eyes    
which fear to look at the light are     
diseased1 but those which cannot see it 
are blind4 ,it is filial impiety not to 
love one's parents1 but not to recognise
 them is madness4  ,,ii4 ,who is so     
ungrateful as he who has so completely  
laid aside and cast away that which     
ought to be in the forefront of his mind
 and ever before him1 that he knows it  
not8 ,it is clear that if forgetfulness 
of a benefit steals over a man1 he      
cannot have often thought about repaying
 it4  ,in short1 repayment requires     
gratitude1 time1 opportunity1 and the   
help of fortune2 whereas1 he who        
remembers a benefit is grateful for it1 
and that too without expenditure4 ,since
 gratitude demands neither labour1      
wealth1 nor good fortune1 he who fails  

to render it has no excuse behind which 
to shelter himself2 for he who places a 
benefit so far away that it is out of   
his sight1 never could have meant to be 
grateful for it4 ,just as those tools   
which are kept in use1 and are daily    
touched by the hand1 are never in danger
 of growing rusty1 while those which are
 not brought before our eyes1 and lie as
 if superfluous1 not being required for 
common use1 collect dirt by the mere    
lapse of time1 so likewise that which   
our thoughts frequently turn over and   
renew never passes from our memory1     
which only loses those things to which  
it seldom directs its eyes4  ,,iii4     
,besides this1 there are other causes   
which at times erase the greatest       
services from our minds4 ,the first and 
most powerful of these is that1 being   
always intent upon new objects of       
desire1 we think1 not of what we have1  
but of what we are striving to obtain4  
,those whose mind is fixed entirely upon
 what they hope to gain1 regard with    

contempt all that is their own already4 
,it follows that since men's eagerness  
for something new makes them undervalue 
whatever they have received1 they do not
 esteem those from whom they have       
received it4 ,as long as we are         
satisfied with the position we have     
gained1 we love our benefactor1 we look 
up to him1 and declare that we owe our  
position entirely to him2 then we begin 
to entertain other aspirations1 and     
hurry forward to attain them after the  
manner of human beings1 who when they   
have gained much always covet more2     
straightway all that we used to regard  
as benefits slip from our memory1 and we
 no longer consider the advantages which
 we enjoy over others1 but only the     
insolent prosperity of those who have   
outstripped us4 ,now no one can at the  
same time be both jealous and grateful1 
because those who are jealous are       
querulous and sad1 while the grateful   
are joyous4 ,in the next place1 since   
none of us think of any time but the    

present1 and but few turn back their    
thoughts to the past1 it results that we
 forget our teachers1 and all the       
benefits which we have obtained from    
them1 because we have altogether left   
our childhood behind us3 thus1 all that 
was done for us in our youth perishes   
unremembered1 because our youth itself  
is never reviewed4 ,what has been is    
regarded by every one1 not only as past1
 but as gone2 and for the same reason1  
our memory is weak for what is about to 
happen in the future4  ,,iv4 ,here ,i   
must do ,epicurus the justice to say    
that he constantly complains of our     
ingratitude for past benefits1 because  
we cannot bring back again1 or count    
among our present pleasures1 those good 
things which we have received long ago1 
although no pleasures can be more       
undeniable than those which cannot be   
taken from us4 ,present good is not yet 
altogether complete1 some mischance may 
interrupt it2 the future is in suspense1
 and uncertain2 but what is past is laid

 up in safety4 ,how can any man feel    
gratitude for benefits1 if he skips     
through his whole life entirely         
engrossed with the present and the      
future8 ,it is remembrance that mates   
men grateful2 and the more men hope1 the
 less they remember4  ,v4 ,in the same  
way1 my ,liberalis1 as some things      
remain in our memory as soon as they are
 learned1 while to know others it is not
 enough to have learned them1 for our   
knowledge slips away from us unless it  
be kept up--,i allude to geometry and   
astronomy1 and such other sciences as   
are ,hard to remember because of their  
intricacy--so the greatness of some     
benefits prevents their being forgotten1
 while others1 individually less1 though
 many more in number1 and bestowed at   
different times1 pass from our minds1   
because1 as ,i have stated above1 we do 
not constantly think about them1 and do 
not willingly recognize how much we owe 
to each of our benefactors4 ,listen to  
the words of those who ask for favours4 

,there is not one of them who does not  
declare that his remembrance will be    
eternal1 who does not vow himself your  
devoted servant and slave1 or find1 if  
he can1 some even greater expression of 
humility with which to pledge himself4  
,after a brief space of time these same 
men avoid their former expressions1     
thinking them abject1 and scarcely      
befitting free-born men2 afterwards they
 arrive at the same point to which1 as  
,i suppose1 the worst and most          
ungrateful of men come--that is1 they   
forget4 ,so little does forgetfulness   
excuse ingratitude1 that even the       
remembrance of a benefit may leave us   
ungrateful4  ,,vi4 ,the question has    
been raised1 whether this most odious   
vice ought to go unpunished2 and whether
 the law commonly made use of in the    
schools1 by which we can proceed against
 a man for ingratitude1 ought to be     
adopted by the ,state also1 since all   
men agree that it is just4 ,why not8 you
 may say1 seeing that even cities cast  

in each other's teeth the services which
 they have performed to one another1 and
 demand from the children some return   
for benefits conferred upon their       
fathers8 ,on the other hand1 our        
ancestors1 who were most admirable men1 
made demands upon their enemies alone1  
and both gave and lost their benefits   
with magnanimity4 ,with the exception of
 ,macedonia1 no nation has ever         
established an action at law for        
ingratitude4 ,and this is a strong      
argument against its being established1 
because all agree in blaming crime2 and 
homicide1 poisoning1 parricide1 and     
sacrilege are visited with different    
penalties in different countries1 but   
everywhere with some penalty2 whereas   
this most common vice is nowhere        
punished1 though it is everywhere       
blamed4 ,we do not acquit it2 but as it 
would be most difficult to reckon       
accurately the penalty for so varying a 
matter1 we condemn it only to be hated1 
and place it upon the list of those     

crimes which we refer for judgment to   
the gods4  ,,vii4 ,many arguments occur 
to me which prove that this vice ought  
not to come under the action of the law4
 ,first of all1 the best part of a      
benefit is lost if the benefit can be   
sued for at law1 as in the case of a    
loan1 or of letting and hiring4 ,indeed1
 the finest part of a benefit is that we
 have given it without considering      
whether we shall lose it or not1 that we
 have left all this to the free choice  
of him who receives it3 if ,i call him  
before a judge1 it begins to be not a   
benefit1 but a loan4 ,next1 though it is
 a most honourable thing to show        
gratitude1 it ceases to be honourable if
 it be forced1 for in that case no one  
will praise a grateful man any more than
 he praises him who restores the money  
which was deposited in his keeping1 or  
who pays what he borrowed without the   
intervention of a judge4 ,we should     
therefore spoil the two finest things in
 human life1--a grateful man and a      

beneficent man2 for what is there       
admirable in one who does not give but  
merely lends a benefit1 or in one who   
repays it1 not because he wishes1 but   
because he is forced to do so8 ,there is
 no credit in being grateful1 unless it 
is safe to be ungrateful4 ,besides this1
 all the courts would hardly be enough  
for the action of this one law4 ,who    
would not plead under it8 ,who would not
 be pleaded against8 for every one      
exalts his own merits1 every one        
magnifies even the smallest matters     
which he has bestowed upon another4     
,besides this1 those things which form  
the subject of a judicial inquiry can be
 distinctly defined1 and cannot afford  
unlimited licence to the judge2         
wherefore a good cause is in a better   
position if it before a judge than      
before an arbitrator1 because the words 
of the law tie down a judge and define  
certain limits beyond which he may not  
pass1 whereas the conscience of an      
arbitrator is free and not fettered by  

any rules1 so that he can either give or
 take away1 and can arrange his         
decision1 not according to the precepts 
of law and justice1 but just as his own 
kindly feeling or compassion may prompt 
him4 ,an action for ingratitude would   
not bind a judge1 but would place him in
 the position of an autocrat4 ,it cannot
 be known what or how great a benefit   
is2 all that would be really important  
would be1 how indulgently the judge     
might interpret it4 ,no law defines an  
ungrateful person1 often1 indeed1 one   
who repays what he has received is      
ungrateful1 and one who has not returned
 it is grateful4 ,even an unpractised   
judge can give his vote upon some       
matters2 for instance1 when the thing to
 be determined is whether something has 
or has not been done1 when a dispute is 
terminated by the parties giving written
 bonds1 or when the casting up of       
accounts decides between the disputants4
 ,when1 however1 motives have to be     
guessed at1 when matters upon which     

wisdom alone can decide1 are brought    
into court1 they cannot be tried by a   
judge taken at random from the list of  
select judges1 ,footnote3 ,see ,smith's 
,dict4 of ,antiq41 s4 v whom property   
and the inheritance of an equestrian    
fortune ,footnote3 #djj1jjj sesterces   
has placed upon the roll4  ,,viii4      
,ingratitude1 therefore1 is not only    
matter unfit to be brought into court1  
but no judge could be found fit to try  
it2 and this you will not be surprised  
at1 if you examine the difficulties of  
any one who should attempt to prosecute 
a man upon such a charge4 ,one man may  
have given a large sum of money1 but he 
is rich and would not feel it2 another  
may have given it at the cost of his    
entire inheritance4 ,the sum given is   
the same in each case1 but the benefit  
conferred is not the same4 ,add another 
instance3 suppose that to redeem a      
debtor from slavery one man paid money  
from his own private means1 while       
another man paid the same sum1 but had  

to borrow it or beg for it1 and allow   
himself to be laid under a great        
obligation to some one2 would you rank  
the man who so easily bestowed his      
benefit on an equality with him who was 
obliged to receive a benefit himself    
before he could bestow it8 ,some        
benefits are great1 not because of their
 amount1 but because of the time at     
which they are bestowed2 it is a benefit
 to give an estate whose fertility can  
bring down the price of corn1 and it is 
a benefit to give a loaf of bread in    
time of famine2 it is a benefit to give 
provinces through which flow vast       
navigable rivers1 and it is a benefit1  
when men are parched with thirst1 and   
can scarcely draw breath through their  
dry throats1 to show them a spring of   
water4 ,who will compare these cases    
with one another1 or weigh one against  
the other8 ,it is hard to give a        
decision when it is not the thing given1
 but its meaning1 which has to be       
considered2 though what is given is the 

same1 yet if it be given under different
 circumstances it has a different value4
 ,a man may have bestowed a benefit upon
 me1 but unwillingly2 he may have       
complained of having given it2 he may   
have looked at me with greater          
haughtiness than he was wont to do2 he  
may have been so slow in giving it1 that
 he would have done me a greater service
 if he had promptly refused it4 ,how    
could a judge estimate the value of     
these things1 when words1 hesitation1 or
 looks can destroy all their claim to   
gratitude8  ,,ix4 ,what1 again1 could he
 do1 seeing that some things are called 
benefits because they are unduly        
coveted1 whilst others are not benefits 
at all1 according to this common        
valuation1 yet are of even greater      
value1 though not so showy8 ,you call it
 a benefit to cause a man to be adopted 
as a member of a powerful city1 to get  
him enrolled among the knights1 or to   
defend one who is being tried for his   
life3 what do you say of him who gives  

useful advice8 of him who holds you back
 when you would rush into crime8 of him 
who strikes the sword from the hands of 
the suicide8 of him who by his power of 
consolation brings back to the duties of
 life one who was plunged in grief1 and 
eager to follow those whom he had lost8 
of him who sits at the bedside of the   
sick man1 and who1 when health and      
recovery depend upon seizing the right  
moment1 administers food in due season1 
stimulates the failing veins with wine1 
or calls in the physician to the dying  
man8 ,who can estimate the value of such
 services as these8 who can bid us weigh
 dissimilar benefits one with another8  
,i gave you a house1 says one4 ,yes1 but
 ,i forewarned you that your own house  
would come down upon your head4 ,i gave 
you an estate1 says he4 ,true1 but ,i   
gave a plank to you when shipwrecked4 ,i
 fought for you and received wounds for 
you1 says another4 ,but ,i saved your   
life by keeping silence4 ,since a       
benefit is both given and returned      

differently by different people1 it is  
hard to make them balance4  ,x4 ,besides
 this1 no day is appointed for repayment
 of a benefit1 as there is for borrowed 
money2 consequently he who has not yet  
repaid a benefit may do so hereafter3   
for tell me1 pray1 within what time a   
man is to be declared ungrateful8 ,the  
greatest benefits cannot be proved by   
evidence2 they often lurk in the silent 
consciousness of two men only2 are we to
 introduce the rule of not bestowing    
benefits without witnesses8 ,next1 what 
punishment are we to appoint for the    
ungrateful8 is there to be one only for 
all1 though the benefits which they have
 received are different8 or should the  
punishment be varying1 greater or less  
according to the benefit which each has 
received8 ,are our valuations to be     
restricted to pecuniary fines8 what are 
we to do1 seeing that in some cases the 
benefit conferred is life1 and things   
dearer than life8 ,what punishment is to
 be assigned to ingratitude for these8  

,one less than the benefit8 ,that would 
be unjust4 ,one equal to it2 death8     
,what could be more inhuman than to     
cause benefits to result in cruelty8    
,,xi4 ,it may be argued1 ,parents have  
certain privileges3 these are regarded  
as exempt from the action of ordinary   
rules1 and so also ought to be the case 
with other beneficent persons4 ,nay2    
mankind has assigned a peculiar sanctity
 to the position of parents1 because it 
was advantageous that children should be
 reared1 and people had to be tempted   
into undergoing the toil of doing so1   
because the issue of their experiment   
was doubtful4 ,one cannot say to them1  
as one does to others who bestow        
benefits1 ,choose the man to whom you   
give3 you must only blame yourself if   
you are deceived2 help the deserving4   
,in rearing children nothing depends    
upon the judgment of those who rear     
them2 it is a matter of hope3 in order1 
therefore1 that people may be more      
willing to embark upon this lottery1 it 

was right that they should be given a   
certain authority2 and since it is      
useful for youth to be governed1 we have
 placed their parents in the position of
 domestic magistrates1 under whose      
guardianship their lives may be ruled4  
,moreover1 the position of parents      
differs from that of other benefactors1 
for their having given formerly to their
 children does not stand in the way of  
their giving now and hereafter2 and     
also1 there is no fear of their falsely 
asserting that they have given3 with    
others one has to inquire not only      
whether they have received1 but whether 
they have given2 but the good deeds of  
parents are placed beyond doubt4 ,in the
 next place1 one benefit bestowed by    
parents is the same for all1 and might  
be counted once for all2 while the      
others which they bestow are of various 
kinds1 unlike one to another1 differing 
from one another by the widest possible 
intervals2 they can therefore come under
 no regular rule1 since it would be more

 just to leave them all unrewarded than 
to give the same reward to all4  ,,xii4 
,some benefits cost much to the givers1 
some are of much value to the receivers 
but cost the givers nothing4 ,some are  
bestowed upon friends1 others on        
strangers3 now although that which is   
given be the same1 yet it becomes more  
when it is given to one with whom you   
are beginning to be acquainted through  
the benefits which you have previously  
conferred upon him4 ,one man may give us
 help1 another distinctions1 a third    
consolation4 ,you may find one who      
thinks nothing pleasanter or more       
important than to have some one to save 
him from distress2 you may again find   
one who would rather be helped to great 
place than to security2 while some      
consider themselves more indebted to    
those who save their lives than to those
 who save their honour4 ,each of these  
services will be held more or less      
important1 according as the disposition 
of our judge inclines to one or the     

other of them4 ,besides this1 ,i choose 
my creditors for myself1 whereas ,i     
often receive benefits from those from  
whom ,i would not1 and sometimes ,i am  
laid under an obligation without my     
knowledge4 ,what will you do in such a  
case8 ,when a man has received a benefit
 unknown to himself1 and which1 had he  
known of it1 he would have refused to   
receive1 will you call him ungrateful if
 he does not repay it1 however he may   
have received it8 ,suppose that some one
 has bestowed a benefit upon me1 and    
that the same man has afterwards done me
 some wrong2 am ,i to be bound by his   
one bounty to endure with patience any  
wrong that he may do me1 or will it be  
the same as if ,i had repaid it1 because
 he himself has by the subsequent wrong 
cancelled his own benefit8 ,how1 in that
 case1 would you decide which was the   
greater2 the present which the man has  
received1 or the injury which has been  
done him8 ,time would fail me if ,i     
attempted to discuss all the            

difficulties which would arise4  ,,xiii4
 ,it may be argued that we render men   
less willing to confer benefits by not  
supporting the claim of those which have
 been bestowed to meet with gratitude1  
and by not punishing those who repudiate
 them4 ,but you would find1 on the other
 hand1 that men would be far less       
willing to receive benefits1 if by so   
doing they were likely to incur the     
danger of having to plead their cause in
 court1 and having more difficulty in   
proving their integrity4 ,this          
legislation would also render us less   
willing to give3 for no one is willing  
to give to those who are unwilling to   
receive1 but one who is urged to acts of
 kindness by his own good nature and by 
the beauty of charity1 will give all the
 more freely to those who need make no  
return unless they choose4 ,it impairs  
the credit of doing a service1 if in    
doing it we are carefully protected from
 loss4  ,,xiv4 ,benefits1 then1 will be 
fewer1 but more genuine3 well1 what harm

 is there in restricting people from    
giving recklessly8 ,even those who would
 have no legislation upon the subject   
follow this rule1 that we ought to be   
somewhat careful in giving1 and in      
choosing those upon whom we bestow      
favours4 ,reflect over and over again to
 whom you are giving3 you will have no  
remedy at law1 no means of enforcing    
repayment4 ,you are mistaken if you     
suppose that the judge will assist you3 
no law will make full restitution to    
you1 you must look only to the honour of
 the receiver4 ,thus only can benefits  
retain their influence1 and thus only   
are they admirable3 you dishonour them  
if you make them the grounds of         
litigation1 ,pay what you owe is a most 
just proverb2 and one which carries with
 it the sanction of all nations2 but in 
dealing with benefits it is most        
shameful4 ,pay6 ,how is a man to pay who
 owes his life1 his position1 his       
safety1 or his reason to another8 ,none 
of the greatest benefits can be repaid4 

,yet1 it is said1 you ought to give in  
return for them something of equal      
value4 ,this is just what ,i have been  
saying1 that the grandeur of the act is 
ruined if we make our benefits          
commercial transactions4 ,we ought hot  
to encourage ourselves in avarice1 in   
discontent1 or in quarrels2 the human   
mind is prone enough to these by nature4
 ,as far as we are able1 let us check   
it1 and cut off the opportunities for   
which it seeks4  ,,xv4 ,would that we   
could indeed persuade men to receive    
back money which they have lent from    
those debtors only who are willing to   
pay6 would that no agreement ever bound 
the buyer to the seller1 and that their 
interests were not protected by sealed  
covenants and agreements1 but rather by 
honour and a sense of justice6 ,however1
 men prefer what is needful to what is  
truly best1 and choose rather to force  
their creditors to keep faith with them 
than to trust that they will do so4     
,witnesses are called on both sides2 the

 one1 by calling in brokers1 makes      
several names appear in his accounts as 
his debtors instead of one2 the other is
 not content with the legal forms of    
question and answer unless he holds the 
other party by the hand4 ,what a        
shameful admission of the dishonesty and
 wickedness of mankind6 men trust more  
to our signet-rings than to our         
intentions4 ,for what are these         
respectable men summoned8 for what do   
they impress their seals8 it is in order
 that the borrower may not deny that he 
has received what he has received4 ,you 
regard these men1 ,i suppose1 as above  
bribes1 as maintainers of the truth3    
well1 these very men will not be        
entrusted with money except on the same 
terms4 ,would it not1 then1 be more     
honourable to be deceived by some than  
to suspect all men of dishonesty8 ,to   
fill up the measure of avarice one thing
 only is lacking1 that we should bestow 
no benefit without a surety4 ,to help1  
to be of service1 is the part of a      

generous and noble mind2 he who gives   
acts like a god1 he who demands         
repayment acts like a money-lender4 ,why
 then1 by trying to protect the rights  
of the former class1 should we reduce   
them to the level of the basest of      
mankind8  ,,xvi4 ,more men1 our opponent
 argues1 will be ungrateful1 if no legal
 remedy exists against ingratitude4     
,nay1 fewer1 because then benefits will 
be bestowed with more discrimination1   
,in the next place1 it is not advisable 
that it should be publicly known how    
many ungrateful men there are3 for the  
number of sinners will do away with the 
disgrace of the sin1 and a reproach     
which applies to all men will cease to  
be dishonourable4 ,is any woman ashamed 
of being divorced1 now that some noble  
ladies reckon the years of their lives1 
not by the number of the consuls1 but by
 that of their husbands1 now that they  
leave their homes in order to marry     
others1 and marry only in order to be   
divorced8 ,divorce was only dreaded as  

long as it was unusual2 now that no     
gazette appears without it1 women learn 
to do what they hear so much about4 ,can
 any one feel ashamed of adultery1 now  
that things have come to such a pass    
that no woman keeps a husband at all    
unless it be to pique her lover8        
,chastity merely implies ugliness4      
,where will you find any woman so       
abject1 so repulsive1 as to be satisfied
 with a single pair of lovers1 without  
having a different one for each hour of 
the day2 nor is the day long enough for 
all of them1 unless she has taken her   
airing in the grounds of one1 and passes
 the night with another4 ,a woman is    
frumpish and old-fashioned if she does  
not know that adultery with one paramour
 is nick-named marriage4 ,just as all   
shame at these vices has disappeared    
since the vice itself became so widely  
spread1 so if you made the ungrateful   
begin to count their own numbers1 you   
would both make them more numerous1 and 
enable them to be ungrateful with       

greater impunity4  ,,xvii4 ,what then8  
shall the ungrateful man go unpunished8 
,what then1 ,i answer1 shall we punish  
the undutiful1 the malicious1 the       
avaricious1 the headstrong1 and the     
cruel8 ,do you imagine that those things
 which are loathed are not punished1 or 
do you suppose that any punishment is   
greater than the hate of all men8 ,it is
 a punishment not to dare receive a     
benefit from anyone1 not to dare to     
bestow one1 to be1 or to fancy that you 
are a mark for all men's eyes1 and to   
lose all appreciation of so excellent   
and pleasant a matter4 ,do you call a   
man unhappy who has lost his sight1 or  
whose hearing has been impaired by      
disease1 and do you not call him        
wretched who has lost the power of      
feeling benefits8 ,he fears the gods1   
the witnesses of all ingratitude2 he is 
tortured by the thought of the benefit  
which he has misapplied1 and1 in fine1  
he is sufficiently punished by this     
great penalty1 that1 as ,i said before1 

he cannot enjoy the fruits of this most 
delightful act4 ,on the other hand1 he  
who takes pleasure in receiving a       
benefit1 enjoys an unvarying and        
continuous happiness1 which he derives  
from consideration1 not of the thing    
given1 but of the intention of the      
giver4 ,a benefit gives perpetual joy to
 a grateful man1 but pleases an         
ungrateful one only for a moment4 ,can  
the lives of such men be compared1      
seeing that the one is sad and          
gloomy--as it is natural that a denier  
of his debts and a defrauder should be1 
a man who does not give his parents1 his
 nurses1 or his teachers the honour     
which is their due--while the other is  
joyous1 cheerful1 on the watch for an   
opportunity of proving his gratitude1   
and gaining much pleasure from this     
frame of mind itself8 ,such a man has no
 wish to become bankrupt1 but only to   
make the fullest and most copious return
 for benefits1 and that not only to     
parents and friends1 but also to more   

humble persons2 for even if he receives 
a benefit from his own slave1 he does   
not consider from whom he receives it1  
but what he receives4  ,,xviii4 ,it has1
 however1 been doubted by ,hecaton and  
some other writers1 whether a slave can 
bestow a benefit upon his master4 ,some 
distinguish between benefits1 duties1   
and services1 calling those things      
benefits which are bestowed by a        
stranger--that is1 by one who could     
discontinue them without blame--while   
duties are performed by our children1   
our wives1 and those whom relationship  
prompts and orders to afford us help2   
and1 thirdly1 services are performed by 
slaves1 whose position is such that     
nothing which they do for their master  
can give them any claim upon him4444    
,besides this1 he who affirms that a    
slave does not sometimes confer a       
benefit upon his master is ignorant of  
the rights of man2 for the question is1 
not what the station in life of the     
giver may be1 but what his intentions   

are4 ,the path of virtue is closed to no
 one1 it lies open to all2 it admits and
 invites all1 whether they be free-born 
men1 slaves or freed-men1 kings or      
exiles2 it requires no qualifications of
 family or of property1 it is satisfied 
with a mere man4 ,what1 indeed1 should  
we have to trust to for defence against 
sudden misfortunes1 what could--a noble 
mind promise to itself to keep unshaken1
 if virtue could be lost together with  
prosperity8 ,if a slave cannot confer a 
benefit upon his master1 then no subject
 can confer a benefit upon his king1 and
 no soldier upon his general2 for so    
long as the man is subject to supreme   
authority1 the form of authority can    
make no difference4 ,if main force1 or  
the fear of death and torture1 can      
prevent a slave from gaining any title  
to his master's gratitude1 they will    
also prevent the subjects of a king1 or 
the soldiers of a general from doing so1
 for the same things may happen to      
either of these classes of men1 though  

under different names4  ,yet men do     
bestow benefits upon their kings and    
their generals2 therefore slaves can    
bestow benefits upon their masters4 ,a  
slave can be just1 brave1 magnanimous2  
he can therefore bestow a benefit1 for  
this is also the part of a virtuous man4
 ,so true is it that slaves can bestow  
benefits upon their masters1 that the   
masters have often owed their lives to  
them4  ,,xix4 ,there is no doubt that a 
slave can bestow a benefit upon anyone2 
why1 then1 not upon his master8         
,because1 it is argued1 he cannot become
 his master's creditor if he gives him  
money4 ,if this be not so1 he daily lays
 his master under an obligation to him2 
he attends him when on a journey1 he    
nurses him when sick1 he works most     
laboriously at the cultivation of his   
estate2 yet all these1 which would be   
called benefits if done for us by anyone
 else1 are merely called service when   
done by a slave4 ,a benefit is that     
which some one bestows who has the      

option of withholding it3--now a slave  
has no power to refuse1 so that he does 
not afford us his help1 but obeys our   
orders1 and cannot boast of having done 
what he could not leave undone4 ,even   
under these conditions ,i shall win the 
day1 and will place a slave in such     
positions1 that for many purposes he    
will be free2 in the meanwhile1 tell me1
 if ,i give you an instance of a slave  
fighting for his master's safety without
 regard to himself1 pierced through with
 wounds1 yet spending the last drops of 
his blood1 and gaining time for his     
master to escape by the sacrifice of his
 life1 will you say that this man did   
not bestow a benefit upon his master    
because he was a slave8 ,if ,i give an  
instance of one who could not be bribed 
to betray his master's secrets by any of
 the offers of a tyrant1 who was not    
terrified by any threats1 nor           
overpowered by any tortures1 but who1 as
 far as he was able1 placed his         
questioners upon a wrong scent1 and1    

paid for his loyalty with his life2 will
 you say that this man did not confer a 
benefit upon his master because he was a
 slave8 ,consider1 rather1 whether an   
example of virtue in a slave be not all 
the greater because it is rarer than in 
free men1 and whether it be not all the 
more gratifying that1 although to be    
commanded is odious1 and all submission 
to authority is irksome1 yet in some    
particular cases love for a master has  
been more powerful than men's general   
dislike to servitude4 ,a benefit does   
not1 therefore1 cease to be a benefit   
because it is bestowed by a slave1 but  
is all the greater on that account1     
because not even slavery could restrain 
him from bestowing it4  ,,xx4 ,it is a  
mistake to imagine that slavery pervades
 a man's whole being2 the better part of
 him is exempt from it3 the body indeed 
is subjected and in the power of a      
master1 but the mind is independent1 and
 indeed is so free and wild1 that it    
cannot be restrained even by this prison

 of the body1 wherein it is confined1   
from following its own impulses1 dealing
 with gigantic designs1 and soaring into
 the infinite1 accompanied by all the   
host of heaven4 ,it is1 therefore1 only 
the body which misfortune hands over to 
a master1 and which he buys and sells2  
this inward part cannot be transferred  
as a chattel4 ,whatever comes from this1
 is free2 indeed1 we are not allowed to 
order all things to be done1 nor are    
slaves compelled to obey us in all      
things2 they will not carry out         
treasonable orders1 or lend their hands 
to an act of crime4  ,,xxi4 ,there are  
some things which the law neither       
enjoins nor forbids2 it is in these that
 a slave finds the means of bestowing   
benefits4 ,as long as we only receive   
what is generally demanded from a slave1
 that is mere service2 when more is     
given than a slave need afford us1 it is
 a benefit2 as soon as what he does     
begins to partake of the affection of a 
friend1 it can no longer be called      

service4 ,there are certain things with 
which a master is bound to provide his  
slave1 such as food and clothing2 no one
 calls this a benefit2 but supposing    
that he indulges his slave1 educates him
 above his station1 teaches him arts    
which free-born men learn1 that is a    
benefit4 ,the converse is true in the   
case of the slave2 anything which goes  
beyond the rules of a slave's duty1     
which is done of his own free will1 and 
not in obedience to orders1 is a        
benefit1 provided it be of sufficient   
importance to be called by such a name  
if bestowed by any other person4        
,,xxii4 ,it has pleased ,chrysippus to  
define a slave as a hireling for life4  
,just as a hireling bestows a benefit   
when he does more than he engaged       
himself to do1 so when a slave's love   
for his master raises him above his     
condition and urges him to do something 
noble--something which would be a credit
 even to men more fortunate by birth--he
 surpasses the hopes of his master1 and 

is a benefit found in the house4 ,do you
 think it is just that we should be     
angry with our slaves when they do less 
than their duty1 and that we should not 
be grateful to them when they do more8  
,do you wish to know when their service 
is not a benefit8 ,when the question can
 be asked1 ,what if he had refused to do
 it8 ,when he does that which he might  
have refused to do1 we must praise his  
good will4 ,benefits and wrongs are     
opposites2 a slave can bestow a benefit 
upon his master1 if he can receive a    
wrong from his master4 ,now an official 
has been appointed to hear complaints of
 the wrongs done by masters to their    
slaves1 whose duty it is to restrain    
cruelty and lust1 or avarice in         
providing them with the necessaries of  
life4 ,what follows1 then8 ,is it the   
master who receives a benefit from his  
slave8 nay1 rather1 it is one man who   
receives it from another4 ,lastly1 he   
did all that lay in his power2 he       
bestowed a benefit upon his master2 it  

lies in your power to receive or not to 
receive it from a slave4 ,yet who is so 
exalted1 that fortune may not make him  
need the aid even of the lowliest8      
,,xxiii4 ,i shall now quote a number of 
instances of benefits1 not all alike1   
some even contradictory4 ,some slaves   
have given their master life1 some      
death2 have saved him when perishing1   
or1 as if that were not enough1 have    
saved him by their own death2 others    
have helped their master to die1 some   
have saved his life by stratagem4       
,claudius ,quadrigarius tells us in the 
eighteenth book of his ,annals1 that    
when ,grumentum was being besieged1 and 
had been reduced to the greatest        
straits1 two slaves deserted to the     
enemy1 and did valuable service4        
,afterwards1 when the city was taken1   
and the victors were rushing wildly in  
every direction1 they ran before every  
one else along the streets1 which they  
well knew1 to the house in which they   
had been slaves1 and drove their        

mistress before them2 when they were    
asked who she might be1 they answered   
that she was their mistress1 and a most 
cruel one1 and that they were leading   
her away for punishment4 ,they led her  
outside the walls1 and concealed her    
with the greatest care until the        
fighting was over2 then1 as the         
soldiery1 satisfied with the sack of the
 city1 quickly resumed the manners of   
,romans1 they also returned to their own
 countrymen1 and themselves restored    
their mistress to them4 ,she manumitted 
each of them on the spot1 and was not   
ashamed to receive her life from men    
over whom she had held the power of life
 and death4 ,she might1 indeed1         
especially congratulate herself upon    
this2 for had she been saved otherwise1 
she would merely have received a common 
and hackneyed piece of kindness1        
whereas1 by being saved as she was1 she 
became a glorious legend1 and an example
 to two cities4 ,in the confusion of the
 captured city1 when every one was      

thinking only of his own safety1 all    
deserted her except these deserters2 but
 they1 that they might prove what had   
been their intentions in effecting that 
desertion1 deserted again from the      
victors to the captive1 wearing the     
masks of unnatural murderers4  ,they    
thought--and this was the greatest part 
of the service which they rendered--they
 were content to seem to have murdered  
their mistress1 if thereby their        
mistress might be saved from murder4    
,believe me1 it is the mark of no       
slavish soul to purchase a noble deed by
 the semblance of crime4  ,when         
,vettius1 the praetor of the ,marsi1 was
 being led into the presence of the     
,roman general1 his slave snatched a    
sword from the soldier who was dragging 
him along1 and first slew his master4   
,then he said1 ,it is now time for me to
 look to myself2 ,i have already set my 
master free1 and with these words       
transfixed himself with one blow4 ,can  
you tell me of anyone who saved his     

master more gloriously8  ,,xxiv4 ,when  
,caesar was besieging ,corfinium1       
,domitius1 who was shut up in the city1 
ordered a slave of his own1 who was also
 a physician1 to give him poison4       
,observing the man's hesitation1 he     
said1 ,why do you delay1 as though the  
whole business was in your power8 ,i ask
 for death with arms in my hands4 ,then 
the slave assented1 and gave him a      
harmless drug to drink4 ,when ,domitius 
fell asleep after drinking this1 the    
slave went to his son1 and said1 ,give  
orders for my being kept in custody     
until you learn from the result whether 
,i have given your father poison or no4 
,domitius lived1 and ,caesar saved his  
life2 but his slave had saved it before4
  ,,xxv4 ,during the civil war1 a slave 
hid his master1 who had been proscribed1
 put on his rings and clothes1 met the  
soldiers who were searching for him1    
and1 after declaring that he would not  
stoop to entreat them not to carry out  
their orders1 offered his neck to their 

swords4 ,what a noble spirit it shows in
 a slave to have been willing to die for
 his master1 at a time when few were    
faithful enough to wish their master to 
live6 to be found kind when the state   
was cruel1 faithful when it was         
treacherous6 to be eager for the reward 
of fidelity1 though it was death1 at a  
time when such rich rewards were offered
 for treachery6  ,,xxvi4 ,i will not    
pass over the instances which our own   
age affords4 ,in the reign of ,tiberius 
,caesar1 there was a common and almost  
universal frenzy for informing1 which   
was more ruinous to the citizens of     
,rome than the whole civil war2 the talk
 of drunkards1 the frankness of jesters1
 was alike reported to the government2  
nothing was safe2 every opportunity of  
ferocious punishment was seized1 and men
 no longer waited to hear the fate of   
accused persons1 since it was always the
 same4 ,one ,paulus1 of the ,praetorian 
guard1 was at an entertainment1 wearing 
a portrait of ,tiberius ,caesar engraved

 in relief upon a gem4 ,it would be     
absurd for me to beat about the bush for
 some delicate way of explaining that he
 took up a chamber-pot1 an action which 
was at once noticed by ,maro1 one of the
 most notorious informers of that time1 
and the slave of the man who was about  
to fall into the trap1 who drew the ring
 from the finger of his drunken master4 
,when ,maro called the guests to witness
 that ,paulus had dishonoured the       
portrait of the emperor1 and was already
 drawing up an act of accusation1 the   
slave showed the ring upon his own      
finger4 ,such a man no more deserves to 
be called a slave1 than ,maro deserved  
to be called a guest4  ,,xxvii4 ,in the 
reign of ,augustus men's own words were 
not yet able to ruin them1 yet they     
sometimes brought them into trouble4 ,a 
senator named ,rufus1 while at dinner1  
expressed a hope that ,caesar would not 
return safe from a journey for which he 
was preparing1 and added that all bulls 
and calves wished the same thing4 ,some 

of those present carefully noted these  
words4 ,at daybreak1 the slave who had  
stood at his feet during the dinner1    
told him what he had said in his cups1  
and urged him to be the first to go to  
,caesar1 and denounce himself4 ,rufus   
followed this advice1 met ,caesar as he 
was going down to the forum1 and1       
swearing that he was out of his mind the
 day before1 prayed that what he had    
said might fall upon his own head and   
that of his children2 he then begged    
,caesar pardon him1 and to take him back
 into favour4 ,when ,caesar said that he
 would do so1 he added1 ,no one will    
believe that you have taken me back into
 favour unless you make me a present of 
something2 and he asked for and obtained
 a sum of money so large1 that it would 
have been a gift not to be slighted even
 if bestowed by an unoffended prince4   
,caesar added3 ,in future ,i will take  
care never to quarrel with you1 for my  
own sake4 ,caesar acted honourably in   
pardoning him1 and in being liberal as  

well as forgiving2 no one can hear this 
anecdote without praising ,caesar1 but  
he must praise the slave first4 ,you    
need not wait for me to tell you that   
the slave who did his master this       
service was set free2 yet his master did
 not do this for nothing1 for ,caesar   
had already paid him the price of the   
slave's liberty4  ,,xxviii4 ,after so   
many instances1 can we doubt that a     
master may sometimes receive a benefit  
from a slave8 ,why need the person of   
the giver detract from the thing which  
he gives8 why should not the gift add   
rather to the glory of the giver4 ,all  
men descend from the same original      
stock2 no one is better born than       
another1 except in so far as his        
disposition is nobler and better suited 
for the performance of good actions4    
,those who display portraits of their   
ancestors in their halls1 and set up in 
the entrance to their houses the        
pedigree of their family drawn out at   
length1 with many complicated collateral

 branches1 are they not notorious rather
 than noble8 ,the universe is the one   
parent of all1 whether they trace their 
descent from this primary source through
 a glorious or a mean line of ancestors4
 ,be not deceived when men who are      
reckoning up their genealogy1 wherever  
an illustrious name is wanting1 foist in
 that of a god in its place4 ,you need  
despise no one1 even though he bears a  
commonplace name1 and owes little to    
fortune4 ,whether your immediate        
ancestors were freedmen1 or slaves1 or  
foreigners1 pluck up your spirits       
boldly1 and leap over any intervening   
disgraces of your pedigree2 at its      
source1 a noble origin awaits you4 ,why 
should our pride inflate us to such a   
degree that we think it beneath us to   
receive benefits from slaves1 and think 
only of their position1 forgetting their
 good deeds8 ,you1 the slave of lust1 of
 gluttony1 of a harlot1 nay1 who are    
owned as a joint chattel by harlots1 can
 you call anyone else a slave8 ,call a  

man a slave8 why1 ,i pray you1 whither  
are you being hurried by those bearers  
who carry your litter8 whither are these
 men with their smart military-looking  
cloaks carrying you8 is it not to the   
door of some door-keeper1 or to the     
gardens of some one who has not even a  
subordinate office8 and then you1 who   
regard the salute of another man's slave
 as a benefit1 declare that you cannot  
receive a benefit from your own slave4  
,what inconsistency is this8 ,at the    
same time you despise and fawn upon     
slaves1 you are haughty and violent at  
home1 while out of doors you are meek1  
and as much despised as you despise your
 slaves2 for none abase themselves lower
 than those who unconscionably give     
themselves airs1 nor are anymore        
prepared to trample upon others than    
those who have learned how to offer     
insults by having endured them4  ,,xxix4
 ,i felt it my duty to say this1 in     
order to crush the arrogance of men who 
are themselves at the mercy of fortune1 

and to claim the right of bestowing a   
benefit for slaves1 in order that ,i may
 claim it also for sons4 ,the question  
arises1 whether children can ever bestow
 upon their parents greater benefits    
than those which they have received from
 them4  ,it is granted that many sons   
become greater and more powerful than   
their parents1 and also that they are   
better men4 ,if this be true1 they may  
give better gifts to their fathers than 
they have received from them1 seeing    
that their fortune and their good nature
 are alike greater than that of their   
father4 ,whatever a father receives from
 his son1 our opponent will urge1 must  
in any case be lees than what the son   
received from him1 because the son owes 
to his father the very power of giving4 
,therefore the father can never be      
surpassed in the bestowal of benefits1  
because the benefit which surpasses his 
own is really his4 ,i answer1 that some 
things derive their first origin from   
others1 yet are greater than those      

others2 and a thing may be greater than 
that from which it took its rise1       
although without that thing to start    
from it never could have grown so great4
 ,all things greatly outgrow their      
beginnings4 ,seeds are the causes of all
 things1 and yet are the smallest part  
of the things which they produce4 ,look 
at the ,rhine1 or the ,euphrates1 or any
 other famous rivers2 how small they    
are1 if you only view them at the place 
from whence they take their rise8 they  
gain all that makes them terrible and   
renowned as they flow along4 ,look at   
the trees which are tallest if you      
consider their height1 and the broadest 
if you look at their thickness and the  
spread of their branches2 compared with 
all this1 how small a part of them is   
contained in the slender fibres of the  
root8 ,yet take away their roots1 and no
 more groves will arise1 nor great      
mountains be clothed with trees4        
,temples and cities are supported by    
their foundations2 yet what is built as 

the foundation of the entire building   
lies out of sight4 ,so it is in other   
matters2 the subsequent greatness of a  
thing ever eclipses its origin4 ,i could
 never have obtained anything without   
having previously received the boon of  
existence from my parents2 yet it does  
not follow from this that whatever ,i   
obtain is less than that without which  
,i could not obtain it4 ,if my nurse had
 not fed me when ,i was a child1 ,i     
should not have been able to conduct any
 of those enterprises which ,i now carry
 on1 both with my head and with my hand1
 nor should ,i ever have obtained the   
fame which is due to my labours both in 
peace and war2 would you on that account
 argue that the services of a nurse were
 more valuable than the most important  
undertakings8 ,yet is not the nurse as  
important as the father1 since without  
the benefits which ,i have received from
 each of them alike1 ,i should have been
 alike unable to effect anything8 ,if ,i
 owe all that ,i now can do to my       

original beginning1 ,i cannot regard my 
father or my grandfather as being this  
original beginning2 there always will be
 a spring further back1 from which the  
spring next below is derived4 ,yet no   
one will argue that ,i owe more to      
unknown and forgotten ancestors than to 
my father2 though really ,i do owe them 
more1 if ,i owe it to my ancestors that 
my father begat me4  ,,xxx4 ,whatever ,i
 have bestowed upon my father1 says my  
opponent1 however great it may be1 yet  
is less valuable than what my father has
 bestowed upon me1 because if he had not
 begotten me1 it never could have       
existed at all4 ,by this mode of        
reasoning1 if a man has healed my father
 when ill1 and at the point of death1 ,i
 shall not be able to bestow anything   
upon him equivalent to what ,i have     
received from him2 for had my father not
 been healed1 he could not have begotten
 me4 ,yet think whether it be not nearer
 the truth to regard all that ,i can do1
 and all that ,i have done1 as mine1 due

 to my own powers and my own will8      
,consider what the fact of my birth is  
in itself2 you will see that it is a    
small matter1 the outcome of which is   
dubious1 and that it may lead equally to
 good or to evil2 no doubt it is the    
first step to everything1 but because it
 is the first1 it is not on that account
 more important than all the others4    
,suppose that ,i have saved my father's 
life1 raised him to the highest honours1
 and made him the chief man in his city1
 that ,i have not merely made him       
illustrious by my own deeds1 but have   
furnished him himself with an           
opportunity of performing great         
exploits1 which is at once important1   
easy1 and safe1 as well as glorious2    
that ,i have loaded him with            
appointments1 wealth1 and all that      
attracts men's minds2 still1 even when  
,i surpass all others1 ,i am inferior to
 him4 ,now if you say1 ,you owe to your 
father the power of doing all this1 ,i  
shall answer1 ,quite true1 if to do all 

this it is only necessary to be born2   
but if life is merely an unimportant    
factor in the art of living well1 and if
 you have bestowed upon me only that    
which ,i have in common with wild beasts
 and the smallest1 and some of the      
foulest of creatures1 do not claim for  
yourself what did not come into being in
 consequence of the benefits which you  
bestowed1 even though it could not have 
come into being without them4  ,,xxxi4  
,suppose1 father1 that ,i have saved    
your life1 in return for the life which 
,i received from you3 in this case also 
,i have outdone your benefit1 because ,i
 have given life to one who understands 
what ,i have done1 and because ,i       
understood what ,i was doing1 since ,i  
gave you your life not for the sake of1 
or by the means of my own pleasure2 for 
just as it is less terrible to die      
before one has time to fear death1 so it
 is a much greater boon to preserve     
one's life than to receive it4 ,i have  
given life to one who will at once enjoy

 it1 you gave it to one who knew not if 
he should ever live2 ,i have given life 
to one who was in fear of death1 your   
gift of life merely enables me to die2  
,i have given you a life complete1      
perfect2 you begat me without           
intelligence1 a burden upon others4 ,do 
you wish to know how far from a benefit 
it was to give life under such          
conditions8 ,you should have exposed me 
as a child1 for you did me a wrong in   
begetting me4 ,what do ,i gather from   
this8 ,that the cohabitation of a father
 and mother is the very least of        
benefits to their child1 unless in      
addition this beginning of kindnesses be
 followed up by others1 and confirmed by
 other services4 ,it is not a good thing
 to live1 but to live well4 ,but1 say   
you1 ,i do live well4 ,true1 but ,i     
might have lived ill2 so that your part 
in me is merely this1 that ,i live4 ,if 
you claim merit to yourself for giving  
me mere life1 bare and helpless1 and    
boast of it as a great boon1 reflect    

that this you claim merit for giving me 
is a boon which ,i possess in common    
with flies and worms4 ,in the next      
place1 if ,i say no more than that ,i   
have applied myself to honourable       
pursuits1 and have guided the course of 
my life along the path of rectitude1    
then you have received more from your   
benefit than you gave2 for you gave me  
to myself ignorant and unlearned1 and ,i
 have returned to you a son such as you 
would wish to have begotten4  ,,xxxii4  
,my father supported me4 ,if ,i repay   
this kindness1 ,i give him more than ,i 
received1 because he has the pleasure1  
not only of being supported1 but of     
being supported by a son1 and receives  
more delight from my filial devotion    
than from the food itself1 whereas the  
food which he used to give me merely    
affected my body4 ,what8 if any man     
rises so high as to become famous among 
nations for his eloquence1 his justice1 
or his military skill1 if much of the   
splendour of his renown is shed upon his

 father also1 and by its clear light    
dispels the obscurity of his birth1 does
 not such a man confer an inestimable   
benefit upon his parents8 ,would anyone 
have heard of ,aristo and ,gryllus      
except through ,xenophon and ,plato1    
their sons8 ,socrates keeps alive the   
memory of ,sophroniscus4 ,it would take 
long to recount the other men whose     
names survive for no other reason than  
that the admirable qualities of their   
sons have handed them down to posterity4
 ,did the father of ,marcus ,agrippa1 of
 whom nothing was known1 even after     
,agrippa became famous1 confer the      
greater benefit upon his son1 or was    
that greater which ,agrippa conferred   
upon his father when he gained the      
glory1 unique in the annals of war1 of a
 naval crown1 and when he raised so many
 vast buildings in ,rome1 which not only
 surpassed all former grandeur1 but have
 been surpassed by none since8 ,did     
,octavius confer a greater benefit upon 
his son1 or the ,emperor ,augustus upon 

his father1 obscured as he was by the   
intervention of an adoptive father8     
,what joy would he have experienced1 if1
 after the putting down of the civil    
war1 he had seen his son ruling the     
state in peace and security8 ,he would  
not have recognized the good which he   
had himself bestowed1 and would hardly  
have believed1 when he looked back upon 
himself1 that so great a man could have 
been born in his house4 ,why should ,i  
go on to speak of others who would now  
be forgotten1 if the glory of their sons
 had not raised them from obscurity1 and
 kept them in the light until this day8 
,in the next place1 as we are not       
considering what son may have given back
 to his father greater benefits than he 
received from him1 but whether a son can
 give back greater benefits1 even if the
 examples which ,i have quoted are not  
sufficient1 and such benefits do not    
outweigh the benefits bestowed by the   
parents1 if no age has produced4 an     
actual example1 still it is not in the  

nature of things impossible4 ,though no 
solitary act can outweigh the deserts of
 a parent1 yet many such acts combined  
by one son may do so4  ,,xxxiii4        
,scipio1 while under seventeen years of 
age1 rode among the enemy in battle1 and
 saved his father's life4 ,was it not   
enough1 that in order to reach his      
father he despised so many dangers when 
they were pressing hardest upon the     
greatest generals1 that he1 a novice in 
his first battle1 made his way through  
so many obstacles1 over the bodies of so
 many veteran soldiers1 and showed      
strength and courage beyond his years8  
,add to this1 that he also defended his 
father in court1 and saved him from a   
plot of his powerful enemies1 that he   
heaped upon him a second and a third    
consulship and other posts which were   
coveted even by consulars1 that when his
 father was poor he bestowed upon him   
the plunder which he took by military   
licence1 and that he made him rich with 
the spoils of the enemy1 which is the   

greatest honour of a soldier4 ,if even  
this did not repay his debt1 add to it  
that he caused him to be constantly     
employed in the government of provinces 
and in special commands1 add1 that after
 he had destroyed the greatest cities1  
and became without a rival either in the
 east or in the west1 the acknowledged  
protector and second founder of the     
,roman ,empire1 he bestowed upon one who
 was already of noble birth the higher  
title of the father of ,scipio2 can we  
doubt that the commonplace benefit of   
his birth was outdone by his exemplary  
conduct1 and by the valour which was at 
once the glory and the protection of his
 country8 ,next1 if this be not enough1 
suppose that a son were to rescue his   
father from the torture1 or to undergo  
it in his stead4 ,you can suppose the   
benefits returned by the son as great as
 you please1 whereas the gift he        
received from his father was of one sort
 only1 was easily performed1 and was a  
pleasure to the giver2 that he must     

necessarily have given the same thing to
 many others1 even to some to whom he   
knows not that he has given it1 that he 
had a partner in doing so1 and that he  
had in view the law1 patriotism1 the    
rewards bestowed upon fathers of        
families by the state1 the maintenance  
of his house and family3 everything     
rather than him to whom he was giving   
life4 ,what8 supposing that any one were
 to learn philosophy and teach it to his
 father1 could it be any longer disputed
 that the son had given him something   
greater than he had received from him1  
having returned to his father a happy   
life1 whereas he had received from him  
merely life8  ,,xxxiv4 ,but1 says our   
opponent1 whatever you do1 whatever you 
are able to give to your father1 is part
 of his benefit bestowed upon you4 ,so  
it is the benefit of my teacher that ,i 
have become proficient in liberal       
studies2 yet we pass on from those who  
taught them to us1 at any rate from     
those who taught us the alphabet2 and   

although no one can learn anything      
without them1 yet it does not follow    
that whatsoever success one subsequently
 obtains1 one is still inferior to those
 teachers4 ,there is a great difference 
between the beginning of a thing and its
 final development2 the beginning is not
 equal to the thing at its greatest1    
merely upon the ground that1 without the
 beginning1 it could never have become  
so great4  ,,xxxv4 ,it is now time for  
me to bring forth something1 so to      
speak1 from my own mint4 ,so long as    
there is something better than the      
benefit which a man bestows1 he may be  
outdone4 ,a father gives life to his    
son2 there is something better than     
life2 therefore a father may be outdone1
 because there is something better than 
the benefit which he has bestowed4      
,still further1 he who has given any one
 his life1 if he be more than once saved
 from peril of death by him1 has        
received a greater benefit than he      
bestowed4 ,now1 a father has given life 

to his son3 if1 therefore1 he be more   
than once saved from peril by his son1  
he can receive a greater benefit than he
 gave4 ,a benefit becomes greater to the
 receiver in proportion to his need of  
it4 ,now he who is alive needs life more
 than he who has not been born1 seeing  
that such a one can have no need at all2
 consequently a father1 if his life is  
saved by his son1 receives a greater    
benefit than his son received from him  
by being born4 ,it is said1 ,the        
benefits conferred by fathers cannot be 
outdone by those returned by their sons4
 ,why8 ,because the son received life   
from his father1 and had he not received
 it1 he could not have returned any     
benefits at all4 ,a father has this in  
common with all those who have given any
 men their lives2 it is impossible that 
these men could repay the debt if they  
had not received their life4 ,then ,i   
suppose one cannot overpay one's debt to
 a physician1 for a physician gives life
 as well as a father2 or to a sailor who

 has saved us when shipwrecked8 ,yet the
 benefits bestowed by these and by all  
the others who give us life in whatever 
fashion1 can be outdone3 consequently   
those of our fathers can be outdone4 ,if
 any one bestows upon me a benefit which
 requires the help of benefits from many
 other persons1 whereas ,i give him what
 requires no one to help it out1 ,i have
 given more than ,i have received2 now a
 father gave to his son a life which1   
without many accessories to preserve it1
 would perish2 whereas a son1 if he     
gives life to his father1 gives him a   
life which requires no assistance to    
make it lasting2 therefore the father   
who receives life from his son1 receives
 a greater benefit than he himself      
bestowed upon his son4  ,,xxxvi4 ,these 
considerations do not destroy the       
respect due to parents1 or make their   
children behave worse to them1 nay1     
better2 for virtue is naturally         
ambitious1 and wishes to outstrip those 
who are before it4 ,filial piety will be

 all the more eager1 if1 in returning a 
father's benefits1 it can hope to outdo 
them2 nor will this be against the will 
or the pleasure of the father1 since in 
many contests it is to our advantage to 
be outdone4 ,how does this contest      
become so desirable8 ,how comes it to be
 such happiness to parents that they    
should confess themselves outdone by the
 benefits bestowed by their children8   
,unless we decide the matter thus1 we   
give children an excuse1 and make them  
less eager to repay their debt1 whereas 
we ought to spur them on1 saying1 ,noble
 youths1 give your attention to this6   
,you are invited to contend in an       
honourable strife between parents and   
children1 as to which party has received
 more than it has given4 ,your fathers  
have not necessarily won the day because
 they are first in the field3 only take 
courage1 as befits you1 and do not give 
up the contest2 you will conquer if you 
wish to do so4 ,in this honourable      
warfare you will have no lack of leaders

 who will encourage you to perform deeds
 like their own1 and bid you follow in  
their footsteps upon a path by which    
victory has often before now been won   
over parents4  ,,xxxvii4 ,a,eneas       
conquered his father in well doing1 for 
he himself had been but a light and a   
safe burden for him when he was a child1
 yet he bore his father1 when heavy with
 age1 through the midst of the enemy's  
lines and the crash of the city which   
was falling around him1 albeit the      
devout old man1 who bore the sacred     
images and the household gods in his    
hands1 pressed him with more than his   
own weight2 nevertheless 7what cannot   
filial piety accomplish67 ,a,eneas bore 
him safe through the blazing city1 and  
placed him in safety1 to be worshipped  
as one of the founders of the ,roman    
,empire4 ,those ,sicilian youths outdid 
their parents whom they bore away safe1 
when ,aetna1 roused to unusual fury1    
poured fire over cities and fields      
throughout a great part of the island4  

,it is believed that the fires parted1  
and that the flames retired on either   
side1 so as to leave a passage for these
 youths to pass through1 who certainly  
deserved to perform their daring task in
 safety4 ,antigonus outdid his father   
when1 after having conquered the enemy  
in a great battle1 he transferred the   
fruits of it to him1 and handed over to 
him the empire of ,cyprus4 ,this is true
 kingship1 to choose not to be a king   
when you might4 ,manlius conquered his  
father1 imperious ,footnote3 ,there is  
an allusion to the surname of both the  
father and the son1 ,imperiosus given   
them on account of their severity4      
though he was1 when1 in spite of his    
having previously been banished for a   
time by his father on1 account of his   
dulness and stupidity as a boy1 he came 
to an interview which he had demanded   
with the tribune of the people1 who had 
filed an action against his father4 ,the
 tribune had granted him the interview1 
hoping that he would betray his hated   

father1 and believed that he had earned 
the gratitude of the youth1 having1     
amongst other matters1 reproached old   
,manlius with sending him into exile1   
treating it as a very serious           
accusation2 but the youth1 having caught
 him alone1 drew a sword which he had   
hidden in his robe1 and said1 ,unless   
you swear to give up your suit against  
my father1 ,i will run you through with 
this sword4 ,it is in your power to     
decide how my father shall be freed from
 his prosecutor4 ,the tribune swore1 and
 kept his oath2 he related the reason of
 his abandonment of his action to an    
assembly at the ,rostra4 ,no other man  
was ever permitted to put down a tribune
 with impunity4  ,,xxxviii4 ,there are  
instances without number of men who have
 saved their parents from danger1 have  
raised them from the lowest to the      
highest station1 and1 taking them from  
the nameless mass of the lower classes1 
have given them a name glorious         
throughout all ages4 ,by no force of    

words1 by no power of genius1 can one   
rightly express how desirable1 how      
admirable1 how never to be erased from  
human memory it is to be able to say1 ,i
 obeyed my parents1 ,i gave way to them1
 ,i was submissive to their authority   
whether it was just1 or unjust and      
harsh2 the only point in which ,i       
resisted them was1 not to be conquered  
by them in benefits4 ,continue this     
struggle1 ,i beg of you1 and even though
 weary1 yet re-form your ranks4 ,happy  
are they who conquer1 happy they who are
 conquered4 ,what can be more glorious  
than the youth who can say to           
himself--it would not be right to say it
 to another--,i have conquered my father
 with benefits8 ,what is more fortunate 
than that old man who declares          
everywhere to everyone that he has been 
conquered in benefits by his son8 ,what1
 again1 is more blissful than to be     
overcome in such a contest8     ,,book  
,,iv4  ,i4   ,of all the matters which  
we have discussed1 ,aebutius ,liberalis1

 there is none more essential1 or which1
 as ,sallust says1 ought to be stated   
with more care than that which is now   
before us3 whether the bestowal of      
benefits and the return of gratitude for
 them are desirable objects in          
themselves4 ,some men are found who act 
honourably from commercial motives1 and 
who do not care for unrewarded virtue1  
though it can confer no glory if it     
brings any profit4 ,what can be more    
base than for a man to consider what it 
costs him to be a good man1 when virtue 
neither allures by gain nor deters by   
loss1 and is so far from bribing any one
 with hopes and promises1 that on the   
other hand she bids them spend money    
upon herself1 and often consists in     
voluntary gifts8 ,we must go to her1    
trampling what is merely useful under   
our feet3 whithersoever she may call us 
or send us we must go1 without any      
regard for our private fortunes1        
sometimes without sparing even our own  
blood1 nor must we ever refuse to obey  

any of her commands4 ,what shall ,i     
gain1 says my opponent1 if ,i do this   
bravely and gratefully8 ,you will gain  
the doing of it--the deed itself is your
 gain4 ,nothing beyond this is promised4
 ,if any advantage chances to accrue to 
you1 count it as something extra4 ,the  
reward of honourable dealings lies in   
themselves4 ,if honour is to be sought  
after for itself1 since a benefit is    
honourable1 it follows that because both
 of these are of the same nature1 their 
conditions must also be the same4 ,now  
it has frequently and satisfactorily    
been proved1 that honour ought to be    
sought after for itself alone4  ,,ii4   
,in this part of the subject we oppose  
the ,epicureans1 an effeminate and      
dreamy sect who philosophize in their   
own paradise1 amongst whom virtue is the
 handmaid of pleasures1 obeys them1 is  
subject to them1 and regards them as    
superior to itself4 ,you say1 there is  
no pleasure without virtue4 ,but        
wherefore is it superior to virtue8 ,do 

you imagine that the matter in dispute  
between them is merely one of           
precedence8 ,nay1 it is virtue itself   
and its powers which are in question4   
,it cannot be virtue if it can follow2  
the place of virtue is first1 she ought 
to lead1 to command1 to stand in the    
highest rank2 you bid her look for a cue
 to follow4 ,what1 asks our opponent1   
does that matter to you8 ,i also declare
 that happiness is impossible without   
virtue4 ,without virtue ,i disapprove of
 and condemn the very pleasures which ,i
 pursue1 and to which ,i have           
surrendered myself4 ,the only matter in 
dispute is this1 whether virtue be the  
cause of the highest good1 or whether it
 be itself the highest good4 ,do you    
suppose1 though this be the only point  
in question1 that it is a mere matter of
 precedence8 ,it is a confusion and     
obvious blindness to prefer the last to 
the first4 ,i am not angry at virtue    
being placed below pleasure1 but at her 
being mixed up at all with pleasure1    

which she despises1 whose enemy she is1 
and from which she separates herself as 
far as possible1 being more at home with
 labour and sorrow1 which are manly     
troubles1 than with your womanish good  
things4  ,,iii4 ,it was necessary to    
insert this argument1 my ,liberalis1    
because it is the part of virtue to     
bestow those benefits which we are now  
discussing1 and it is most disgraceful  
to bestow benefits for any other purpose
 than that they should be free gifts4   
,if we give with the hope of receiving a
 return1 we should give to the richest  
men1 not to the most deserving3 whereas 
we prefer a virtuous poor man to an     
unmannerly rich one4 ,that is not a     
benefit1 which takes into consideration 
the fortune of the receiver4 ,moreover1 
if our only motive for benefiting others
 was our own advantage1 those who could 
most easily distribute benefits1 such as
 rich and powerful men1 or kings1 and   
persons who do not stand in need of the 
help of others1 ought never to do so at 

all2 the gods would not bestow upon us  
the countless blessings which they pour 
upon us unceasingly by night and by day1
 for their own nature suffices them in  
all respects1 and renders them complete1
 safe1 and beyond the reach of harm2    
they will1 therefore1 never bestow a    
benefit upon any one1 if self and self  
interest be the only cause for the      
bestowal of benefits4 ,to take thought1 
not where your benefit will be best     
bestowed1 but where it may be most      
profitably placed at interest1 from     
whence you will most easily get it back1
 is not bestowal of benefits1 but usury4
 ,now the gods have nothing to do with  
usury2 it follows1 therefore1 that they 
cannot be liberal2 for if the only      
reason for giving is the advantage of   
the giver1 since ,god cannot hope to    
receive any advantages from us1 there is
 no cause why ,god should give anything4
  ,,iv4 ,i know what answer may be made 
to this4 ,true2 therefore ,god does not 
bestow benefits1 but1 free from care and

 unmindful of us1 ,he turns away from   
our world and either does something     
else1 or else does nothing1 which       
,epicurus thought the greatest possible 
happiness1 and ,he is not affected      
either by benefits or by injuries4 ,the 
man who says this cannot surely hear the
 voices of worshippers1 and of those who
 all around him are raising their hands 
to heaven and praying for the success   
both of their private affairs and those 
of the state2 which certainly would not 
be the case1 all men would not agree in 
this madness of appealing to deaf and   
helpless gods1 unless we knew that their
 benefits are sometimes bestowed upon us
 unasked1 sometimes in answer to our    
prayers1 and that they give us both     
great and seasonable gifts1 which shield
 us from the most terrible dangers4 ,who
 is there so poor1 so uncared for1 born 
to sorrow by so unkind a fate1 as never 
to have felt the vast generosity of the 
,gods8 ,look even at those who complain 
and are discontented with their lot2 you

 will find that they are not altogether 
without a share in the bounty of heaven1
 that there is no one upon whom         
something has not been shed from that   
most gracious fount4 ,is the gift which 
is bestowed upon all alike1 at their    
birth1 not enough8 ,however unequally   
the blessings of after life may be dealt
 out to us1 did nature give us too      
little when she gave us herself8  ,v4   
,it is said1 ,god does not bestow       
benefits4 ,whence1 then1 comes all that 
you possess1 that you give or refuse to 
give1 that you hoard or steal8 whence   
come these innumerable delights of our  
eyes1 our ears1 and our minds8 whence   
the plenty which provides us even with  
luxury--for it is not our bare          
necessities alone against which         
provision is made2 we are loved so much 
as actually to be pampered--whence so   
many trees bearing various fruits1 so   
many wholesome herbs1 so many different 
sorts of food distributed throughout the
 year1 so that even the slothful may    

find sustenance in the chance produce of
 the earth8 ,then1 too1 whence come the 
living creatures of all kinds1 some     
inhabiting the dry land1 others the     
waters1 others alighting from the sky1  
that every part of nature may pay us    
some tribute2 the rivers which encircle 
our meadows with most beauteous bends1  
the others which afford a passage to    
merchant fleets as they flow on1 wide   
and navigable1 some of which in summer  
time are subject to extraordinary       
overflowings in order that lands lying  
parched under a glowing sun may suddenly
 be watered by the rush of a midsummer  
torrent8  ,what of the fountains of     
medicinal waters8 ,what of the bursting 
forth of warm waters upon the seashore  
itself8 ,shall ,i    ,tell of the seas  
round ,italy that flow1    ,which laves 
her shore above1 and which below2    ,or
 of her lakes1 unrivalled ,larius1 thee1
    ,or thee1 ,benacus1 roaring like a  
sea8  ,,vi4 ,if any one gave you a few  
acres1 you would say that you had       

received a benefit2 can you deny that   
the boundless extent of the earth is a  
benefit8 ,if any one gave you money1 and
 filled your chest1 since you think that
 so important1 you would call that a    
benefit4 ,god has buried countless mines
 in the earth1 has poured out from the  
earth countless rivers1 rolling sands of
 gold2 ,he has concealed in every place 
huge masses of silver1 copper and iron1 
and has bestowed upon you the means of  
discovering them1 placing upon the      
surface of the earth signs of the       
treasures hidden below2 and yet do you  
say that you have received no benefit8  
,if a house were given you1 bright with 
marble1 its roof beautifully painted    
with colours and gilding1 you would call
 it no small benefit4 ,god has built for
 you a huge mansion that fears no fire  
or ruin1 in which you see no flimsy     
veneers1 thinner than the very saw with 
which they are cut1 but vast blocks of  
most precious stone1 all composed of    
those various and different substances  

whose paltriest fragments you admire so 
much2 he has built a roof which glitters
 in one fashion by day1 and in another  
by night2 and yet do you say that you   
have received no benefit8 ,when you so  
greatly prize what you possess1 do you  
act the part of an ungrateful man1 and  
think that there is no one to whom you  
are indebted for them8 ,whence comes the
 breath which you draw8 the light by    
which you arrange and perform all the   
actions of your life8 the blood by whose
 circulation your vital warmth is       
maintained8 those meats which excite    
your palate by their delicate flavour   
after your hunger is appeased8 those    
provocatives which rouse you when       
wearied with pleasure8 that repose in   
which you are rotting and mouldering8   
,will you not1 if you are grateful1     
say--    ',tis to a god that this repose
 ,i owe1    ,for him ,i worship1 as a   
god below4    ,oft on his altar shall my
 firstlings bleed1    ,see1 by his      
bounty here with rustic reed    ,i play 

the airs ,i love the livelong day1      
,the while my oxen round about me stray4
  ,the true ,god is he who has placed1  
not a few oxen1 but all the herds on    
their pastures throughout the world2 who
 furnishes food to the flocks wherever  
they wander2 who has ordained the       
alternation of summer and winter        
pasturage1 and has taught us not merely 
to play upon a reed1 and to reduce to   
some order a rustic and artless song1   
but who has invented so many arts and   
varieties of voice1 so many notes to    
make music1 some with our own breath1   
some with instruments4 ,you cannot call 
our inventions our own any more than you
 call our growth our own1 or the various
 bodily functions which correspond to   
each stage of our lives2 at one time    
comes the loss of childhood's teeth1 at 
another1 when our age is advancing and  
growing into robuster manhood1 puberty  
and the last wisdom-tooth marks the end 
of our youth4 ,we have implanted in us  
the seeds of all ages1 of all arts1 and 

,god our master brings forth our        
intellects from obscurity4  ,,vii4      
,nature1 says my opponent1 gives me all 
this4 ,do you not perceive when you say 
this that you merely speak of ,god under
 another name8 for what is nature but   
,god and divine reason1 which pervades  
the universe and all its parts8 ,you may
 address the author of our world by as  
many different titles as you please2 you
 may rightly call him ,jupiter1 ,best   
and ,greatest1 and the ,thunderer1 or   
the ,stayer1 so called1 not because1 as 
the historians tell us1 he stayed the   
flight of the ,roman army in answer to  
the prayer of ,romulus1 but because all 
things continue in their stay through   
his goodness4 ,if you were to call this 
same personage ,fate1 you would not lie2
 for since fate is nothing more than a  
connected chain of causes1 he is the    
first cause of all upon which all the   
rest depend4 ,you will also be right in 
applying to him any names that you      
please which express supernatural       

strength and power3 he may have as many 
titles as he has attributes4  ,,viii4   
,our school regards him as ,father      
,liber1 and ,hercules1 and ,mercurius3  
he is ,father ,liber because he is the  
parent of all1 who first discovered the 
power of seed1 and our being led by     
pleasure to plant it2 he is ,hercules1  
because his might is unconquered1 and   
when it is wearied after completing its 
labours1 will retire into fire2 he is   
,mercurius1 because in him is reasoning1
 and numbers1 and system1 and knowledge4
 ,whither-soever you turn yourself you  
will see him meeting you3 nothing is    
void of him1 he himself fills his own   
work4 ,therefore1 most ungrateful of    
mortals1 it is in vain that you declare 
yourself indebted1 not to ,god1 but to  
nature1 because there can be no ,god    
without nature1 nor any nature without  
,god2 they are both the same thing1     
differing only in their functions4 ,if  
you were to say that you owe to ,annaeus
 or to ,lucius what you received from   

,seneca1 you would not change your      
creditor1 but only his name1 because he 
remains the same man whether you use his
 first1 second1 or third name4 ,so      
whether you speak of nature1 fate1 or   
fortune1 these are all names of the same
 ,god1 using his power in different     
ways4 ,so likewise justice1 honesty1    
discretion1 courage1 frugality1 are all 
the good qualities of one and the same  
mind2 if you are pleased with any one of
 these1 you are pleased with that mind4 
,,ix4 ,however1 not to drift aside into 
a distinct controversy1 ,god bestows    
upon us very many and very great        
benefits without hope of receiving any  
return2 since he does not require any   
offering from us1 and we are not capable
 of bestowing anything upon him3        
wherefore1 a benefit is desirable in    
itself4 ,in it the advantage of the     
receiver is all that is taken into      
consideration3 we study this without    
regarding our own interests4 ,yet1      
argues our opponent1 you say that we    

ought to choose with care the persons   
upon whom we bestow benefits1 because   
neither do husbandmen sow seed in the   
sand3 now if this be true1 we follow our
 own interest in bestowing benefits1    
just as much as in ploughing and sowing3
 for sowing is not desirable in itself4 
,besides this you inquire where and how 
you ought to bestow a benefit1 which    
would not need to be done if the        
bestowal of a benefit was desirable in  
itself3 because in whatever place and   
whatever manner it might be bestowed1 it
 still would be a benefit4 ,we seek to  
do honourable acts1 solely because they 
are honourable2 yet even though we need 
think of nothing else1 we consider to   
whom we shall do them1 and when1 and    
how2 for in these points the act has its
 being4 ,in like manner1 when ,i choose 
upon whom ,i shall bestow a benefit1 and
 when ,i aim at making it a benefit2    
because if it were bestowed upon a base 
person1 it could neither be a benefit   
nor an honourable action4  ,x4 ,to      

restore what has been entrusted to one  
is desirable in itself2 yet ,i shall not
 always restore it1 nor shall ,i do so  
in any place or at any time you please4 
,sometimes it makes no difference       
whether ,i deny that ,i have received   
it1 or return it openly4 ,i shall       
consider the interests of the person to 
whom ,i am to return it1 and shall deny 
that ,i have received a deposit1 which  
would injure him if returned4 ,i shall  
act in the same manner in bestowing a   
benefit3 ,i shall consider when to give 
it1 to whom1 in what manner1 and on what
 grounds4 ,nothing ought to be done     
without a reason3 a benefit is not truly
 so1 if it be bestowed without a reason1
 since reason accompanies all honorable 
action4 ,how often do we hear men       
reproaching themselves for some         
thoughtless gift1 and saying1 ,i had    
rather have thrown it away than have    
given it to him6 ,what is thoughtlessly 
given away is lost in the most          
discreditable manner1 and it is much    

worse to have bestowed a benefit badly  
than to have received no return for it2 
that we receive no return is the fault  
of another2 that we did not choose upon 
whom we should bestow it1 is our own4   
,in choosing a fit person1 ,i shall not1
 as you expect1 pay the least attention 
to whether ,i am likely to get any      
return from him1 for ,i choose one who  
will be grateful1 not one who will      
return my goodness1 and it often happens
 that the man who makes no return is    
grateful1 while he who returns a benefit
 is ungrateful for it4 ,i value men by  
their hearts alone1 and1 therefore1 ,i  
shall pass over a rich man if he be     
unworthy1 and give to a good man though 
he be poor2 for he will be grateful     
however destitute he may be1 since      
whatever he may lose1 his heart will    
still be left him4  ,,xi4 ,i do not fish
 for gain1 for pleasure1 or for credit1 
by bestowing benefits3 satisfied in     
doing so with pleasing one man alone1 ,i
 shall give in order to do my duty4     

,duty1 however1 leaves one some choice2 
do you ask me1 how ,i am to choose8 ,i  
shall choose an honest1 plain1 man1 with
 a good memory1 and grateful for        
kindness2 one who keeps his hands off   
other men's goods1 yet does not greedily
 hold to his own1 and who is kind to    
others2 when ,i have chosen such a man1 
,i shall have acted to my mind1 although
 fortune may have bestowed upon him no  
means of returning my kindness4 ,if my  
own advantage and mean calculation made 
me liberal1 if ,i did no one any service
 except in order that he might in turn  
do a service to me1 ,i should never     
bestow a benefit upon one who was       
setting out for distant and foreign     
countries1 never to return2 ,i should   
not bestow a benefit upon one who was so
 ill as to be past hope of recovery1 nor
 should ,i do so when ,i myself was     
failing1 because ,i should not live long
 enough to receive any return4 ,yet1    
that you may know that to do good is    
desirable in itself1 we afford help to  

strangers who put into our harbour only 
to leave it straightway2 we give a ship 
and fit it out for a shipwrecked        
stranger to sail back in to his own     
country4 ,he leaves us hardly knowing   
who it was who saved him1 and1 as he    
will never return to our presence1 he   
hands over his debt of gratitude to the 
gods1 and beseeches them to fulfil it   
for him3 in the meanwhile we rejoice in 
the barren knowledge that we have done a
 good action4 ,what8 when we stand upon 
the extreme verge of life1 and make our 
wills1 do we not assign to others       
benefits from which we ourselves shall  
receive no advantage8 ,how much time we 
waste1 how long we consider in secret   
how much property we are to leave1 and  
to whom6 ,what then8 does it make any   
difference to us to whom we leave our   
property1 seeing that we cannot expect  
any return from any one8 ,yet we never  
give anything with more care1 we never  
take such pains in deciding upon our    
verdict1 as when1 without any views of  

personal advantage1 we think only of    
what is honourable1 for we are bad      
judges of our duty as long as our view  
of it is distorted by hope and fear1 and
 that most indolent of vices1 pleasure3 
but when death has shut off all these1  
and brought us as incorrupt judges to   
pronounce sentence1 we seek for the most
 worthy men to leave our property to1   
and we never take more scrupulous care  
than in deciding what is to be done with
 what does not concern us4 ,yet1 by     
,hercules1 then there steals over us a  
great satisfaction as we think1 ,i shall
 make this man richer1 and by bestowing 
wealth upon that man ,i shall add lustre
 to his high position4 ,indeed1 if we   
never give without expecting some       
return1 we must all die without making  
our wills4  ,,xii4 ,it may be said1 ,you
 define a benefit as a loan which cannot
 be repaid3 now a loan is not a         
desirable thing in itself4 ,when we     
speak of a loan1 we make use of a       
figure1 or comparison1 just as we speak 

of law as2 the standard of right and    
wrong1 although a standard is not a     
thing to be desired for its own sake4 ,i
 have adopted this phrase in order to   
illustrate my subject3 when ,i speak of 
a loan1 ,i must be understood to mean   
something resembling a loan4 ,do you    
wish to know how it differs from one8 ,i
 add the words which cannot be repaid1  
whereas every loan both can and ought to
 be repaid4 ,it is so far from being    
right to bestow a benefit for one's own 
advantage1 that often1 as ,i have       
explained1 it is one's duty to bestow it
 when it involves one's own loss and    
risk3 for instance1 if ,i assist a man  
when beset by robbers1 so that he gets  
away from them safely1 or help some     
victim of power1 and bring upon myself  
the party spite of a body of influential
 men1 very1 probably incurring myself   
the same disgrace from which ,i saved   
him1 although ,i might have taken the   
other side1 and looked on with safety at
 struggles with which ,i have nothing to

 do3 if ,i were to give bail for one who
 has been condemned1 and when my        
friend's goods were advertised for sale 
,i were to give a bond to the effect    
that ,i would make restitution to the   
creditors1 if1 in order to save a       
proscribed person ,i myself run the risk
 of being proscribed4 ,no one1 when     
about to buy a villa at ,tusculum or    
,tibur1 for a summer retreat1 because of
 the health of the locality1 considers  
how many years' purchase he gives for   
it2 this must be looked to by the man   
who makes a profit by it4 ,the same is  
true with benefits2 when you ask what   
return ,i get for them1 ,i answer1 the  
consciousness of a good action4 ,what   
return does one get for benefits8 ,pray 
tell me what return one gets for        
righteousness1 innocence1 magnanimity1  
chastity1 temperance8 ,if you wish for  
anything beyond these virtues1 you do   
not wish for the virtues themselves4    
,for what does the order of the universe
 bring round the seasons8 for what does 

the sun make the day now longer and now 
shorter8 all these things are benefits1 
for they take place for our good4 ,as it
 is the duty of the universe to maintain
 the round of the seasons1 as it is the 
duty of the sun to vary the points of   
his rising and setting1 and to do all   
these things by which we profit1 without
 any reward1 so is it the duty of man1  
amongst other things1 to bestow         
benefits4 ,wherefore then does he give8 
,he gives for fear that he should not   
give1 lest he might lose an opportunity 
of doing a good action4  ,,xiii4 ,you   
,epicureans take pleasure in making a   
study of dull torpidity1 in seeking for 
a repose which differs little from sound
 sleep1 in lurking beneath the thickest 
shade1 in amusing with the feeblest     
possible trains of thought that sluggish
 condition of your languid minds which  
you term tranquil contemplation1 and in 
stuffing with food and drink1 in the    
recesses of your gardens1 your bodies   
which are pallid with want of exercise2 

we ,stoics1 on the other hand1 take     
pleasure in bestowing benefits1 even    
though they cost us labour1 provided    
that they lighten the labours of others2
 though they lead us into danger1       
provided that they save others1 though  
they straiten our means1 if they        
alleviate the poverty and distresses of 
others4 ,what difference does it make to
 me whether ,i receive benefits or not8 
even if ,i receive them1 it is still my 
duty to bestow them4 ,a benefit has in  
view the advantage of him upon whom we  
bestow it1 not our own2 otherwise we    
merely bestow it upon ourselves4 ,many  
things1 therefore1 which are of the     
greatest possible use to others lose all
 claim to gratitude by being paid for4  
,merchants are of use to cities1        
physicians to invalids1 dealers to      
slaves2 yet all these have no claim to  
the gratitude of those whom they        
benefit1 because they seek their own    
advantage through that of others4 ,that 
which is bestowed with a view to profit 

is not a benefit4 ,i will give this in  
order that ,i may get a return for it is
 the language of a broker4  ,,xiv4 ,i   
should not call a woman modest1 if she  
rebuffed her lover in order to increase 
his passion1 or because she feared the  
law or her husband2 as ,ovid says3      
,she that denies1 because she does not  
dare    ,to yield1 in spirit grants her 
lover's prayer4  ,indeed1 the woman who 
owes her chastity1 not to her own       
virtue1 but to fear1 may rightly be     
classed as a sinner4 ,in the same       
manner1 he who merely gave in order that
 he might receive1 cannot be said to    
have given4 ,pray1 do we bestow benefits
 upon animals when we feed them for our 
use or for our table8 do we bestow      
benefits upon trees when we tend them   
that they may not suffer from drought or
 from hardness of ground8 ,no one is    
moved by righteousness and goodness of  
heart to cultivate an estate1 or to do  
any act in which the reward is something
 apart from the act itself2 but he is   

moved to bestow benefits1 not by low and
 grasping motives1 but by a kind and    
generous mind1 which even after it has  
given is willing to give again1 to renew
 its former bounties by fresh ones1     
which thinks only of how much good it   
can do the man to whom it gives2 whereas
 to do any one a service because it is  
our interest to do so is a mean action1 
which deserves no praise1 no credit4    
,what grandeur is there in loving       
oneself1 sparing oneself1 gaining profit
 for oneself8 ,the true love of giving  
calls us away from all this1 forcibly   
leads us to put up with loss1 and       
foregoes its own interest1 deriving its 
greatest pleasure from the mere act of  
doing good4  ,,xv4 ,can we doubt that   
the converse of a benefit is an injury8 
,as the infliction of injuries is a     
thing to be avoided1 so is the bestowal 
of benefits to be desired for its own   
sake4 ,in the former1 the disgrace of   
crime outweighs all the advantages which
 incite us to commit it2 while we are   

urged to the latter course by the       
appearance of honour1 in itself a       
powerful incentive to action1 which     
attends it4  ,i should not lie if ,i    
were to affirm that every one takes     
pleasure in the benefits which he has   
bestowed1 that everyone loves best to   
see the man whom he has most largely    
benefited4 ,who does not thinks that to 
have bestowed one benefit is a reason   
for bestowing a second8 and would this  
be so1 if the act of giving did not     
itself give us pleasure8 ,how often you 
may hear a man say1 ,i cannot bear to   
desert one whose life ,i have preserved1
 whom ,i have saved from danger4 ,true1 
he asks me to plead his cause against   
men of great influence4 ,i do not wish  
to do so1 yet what am ,i to do8 ,i have 
already helped him once1 nay twice4 ,do 
you not perceive how very powerful this 
instinct must be1 if it leads us to     
bestow benefits first because it is     
right to do so1 and afterwards because  
we have already bestowed somewhat8      

,though at the outset a man may have had
 no claim upon us1 we yet continue to   
give to him because we have already     
given to him4 ,so untrue is it that we  
are urged to bestow benefits by our own 
interest1 that even when our benefits   
prove failures we continue to nurse them
 and encourage them out of sheer love of
 benefiting1 which has a natural        
weakness even for what has been         
ill-bestowed1 like that which we feel   
for our vicious children4  ,,xvi4 ,these
 same adversaries of ours admit that    
they are grateful1 yet not because it is
 honourable1 but because it is          
profitable to be so4 ,this can be proved
 to be untrue all the more easily1      
because it can be established by the    
same arguments by which we have         
established that to bestow a benefit is 
desirable for its own sake4 ,all our    
arguments start from this settled point1
 that honour is pursued for no reason   
except because it is honour4 ,now1 who  
will venture to raise the question      

whether it be honourable to be grateful8
 who does not loathe the ungrateful man1
 useless as he is even to himself8 ,how 
do you feel when any one is spoken of as
 being ungrateful for great benefits    
conferred upon him by a friend8 ,is it  
as though he had done something base1 or
 had merely neglected to do something   
useful and likely to be profitable to   
himself8 ,i imagine that you think him a
 bad man1 and one who deserves          
punishment1 not one who needs a         
guardian2 and this would not be the     
case1 unless gratitude were desirable in
 itself and honourable4 ,other          
qualities1 it may be1 manifest their    
importance less clearly1 and require an 
explanation to prove whether they be    
honourable or no2 this is openly proved 
to be so in the sight of all1 and is too
 beautiful for anything to obscure or   
dim its glory4 ,what is more            
praiseworthy1 upon what are all men more
 universally agreed1 than to return     
gratitude for good offices8  ,,xvii4    

,pray tell me1 what is it that urges us 
to do so8 ,is it profit8 ,why1 unless a 
man despises profit1 he is not grateful4
 ,is it ambition8 why1 what is there to 
boast of in having paid what you owe8   
,is it fear8 ,the ungrateful man feels  
none1 for against this one crime we have
 provided no law1 as though nature had  
taken sufficient precautions against it4
 ,just as there is no law which bids    
parents love and indulge their children1
 seeing that it is superfluous to force 
us into the path which we naturally     
take1 just as no one needs to be urged  
to love himself1 since self-love begins 
to act upon him as soon as he is born1  
so there is no law bidding us to seek   
that which is honourable in itself2 for 
such things please us by their very     
nature1 and so attractive is virtue that
 the disposition even of bad men leads  
them to approve of good rather than of  
evil4 ,who is there who does not wish to
 appear beneficent1 who does not even   
when steeped in crime and wrong-doing   

strive after the appearance of goodness1
 does not put some show of justice upon 
even his most intemperate acts1 and     
endeavour to seem to have conferred a   
benefit even upon those whom he has     
injured8 ,consequently1 men allow       
themselves to be thanked by those whom  
they have ruined1 and pretend to be good
 and generous1 because they cannot prove
 themselves so2 and this they never     
would do were it not that a love of     
honour for its own sake forces them to  
seek a reputation quite at variance with
 their real character1 and to conceal   
their baseness1 a quality whose fruits  
we covet1 though we regard it itself    
with dislike and shame4 ,no one has ever
 so far rebelled against the laws of    
nature and put off human feeling as to  
act basely for mere amusement4 ,ask any 
of those who live by robbery whether he 
would not rather obtain what he steals  
and plunders by honest means2 the man   
whose trade is highway robbery and the  
murder of travellers would rather find  

his booty than take it by force2 you    
will find no one who would not prefer to
 enjoy the fruits of wickedness without 
acting wickedly4 ,nature bestows upon us
 all this immense advantage1 that the   
light of virtue shines into the minds of
 all alike2 even those who do not follow
 her1 behold her4  ,,xviii4 ,a proof    
that gratitude is desirable for itself  
lies in the fact that ingratitude is to 
be avoided for itself1 because no vice  
more powerfully rends asunder and       
destroys the union of the human race4   
,to what do we trust for safety1 if not 
in mutual good offices one to another8  
,it is by the interchange of benefits   
alone that we gain some measure of      
protection for our lives1 and of safety 
against sudden disasters4 ,taken singly1
 what should we be8 a prey and quarry   
for wild beasts1 a luscious and easy    
banquet2 for while all other animals    
have sufficient strength to protect     
themselves1 and those which are born to 
a wandering solitary life are armed1 man

 is covered by a soft skin1 has no      
powerful teeth or claws with which to   
terrify other creatures1 but weak and   
naked by himself is made strong by      
union4  ,god has bestowed upon him two  
gifts1 reason and union1 which raise him
 from weakness to the highest power2 and
 so he1 who if taken alone would be     
inferior to every other creature1       
possesses supreme dominion4 ,union has  
given him sovereignty over all animals2 
union has enabled a being born upon the 
earth to assume power over a foreign    
element1 and bids him be lord of the sea
 also2 it is union which has checked the
 inroads of disease1 provided supports  
for our old age1 and given us relief    
from pain2 it is union which makes us   
strong1 and to which we look for        
protection against the caprices of      
fortune4 ,take away union1 and you will 
rend asunder the association by which   
the human race preserves its existence2 
yet you will take it away if you succeed
 in proving that ingratitude is not to  

be avoided for itself1 but because      
something is to be feared for it2 for   
how many are there who can with safety  
be ungrateful8 ,in fine1 ,i call every  
man ungrateful who is merely made       
grateful by fear4  ,,xix4 ,no sane man  
fears the gods2 for it is madness to    
fear what is beneficial1 and no man     
loves those whom he fears4 ,you1        
,epicurus1 ended by making ,god unarmed2
 you stripped him of all weapons1 of all
 power1 and1 lest anyone should fear    
him1 you banished him out of the world4 
,there is no reason why you should fear 
this being1 cut off as he is1 and       
separated from the sight and touch of   
mortals by a vast and impassable wall2  
he has no power either of rewarding or  
of injuring us2 he dwells alone half-way
 between our heaven and that of another 
world1 without the society either of    
animals1 of men1 or of matter1 avoiding 
the crash of worlds as they fall in     
ruins above and around him1 but neither 
hearing our prayers nor interested in   

us4 ,yet you wish to seem to worship    
this being just as a father1 with a     
mind1 ,i suppose1 full of gratitude2 or1
 if you do not wish to seem grateful1   
why should you worship him1 since you   
have received no benefit from him1 but  
have been put together entirely at      
random and by chance by those atoms and 
mites of yours8 ,i worship him1 you     
answer1 because of his glorious majesty 
and his unique nature4 ,granting that   
you do this1 you clearly do it without  
the attraction of any reward1 or any    
hope2 there is therefore something which
 is desirable for itself1 whose own     
worth attracts you1 that is1 honour4    
,now what is more honourable than       
gratitude8 the means of practising this 
virtue are as extensive as life itself4 
,,xx4 ,yet1 argues he1 there is also a  
certain amount of profit inherent in    
this virtue4 ,in what virtue is there   
not8 ,but that which we speak of as     
desirable for itself is such1 that      
although it may possess some attendant  

advantages1 yet it would be desirable   
even if stripped of all these4 ,it is   
profitable to be grateful2 yet ,i will  
be grateful even though it harm me4     
,what is the aim of the grateful man8 is
 it that his gratitude may win for him  
more friends and more benefits8 ,what   
then8 ,if a man is likely to meet with  
affronts by showing his gratitude1 if he
 knows that far from gaining anything by
 it1 he must lose much even of what he  
has already acquired1 will he not       
cheerfully act to his own disadvantage8 
,that man is ungrateful who1 in         
returning a kindness1 looks forward to a
 second gift--who hopes while he repays4
 ,i call him ungrateful who sits at the 
bedside of a sick man because he is     
about to make a will1 when he is at     
leisure to think of inheritances and    
legacies4 ,though he may do everything  
which a good and dutiful friend ought to
 do1 yet1 if any hope of gain be        
floating in his mind1 he is a mere      
legacy-hunter1 and is angling for an    

inheritance4 ,like the birds which feed 
upon carcases1 which come close to      
animals weakened by disease1 and watch  
till they fall1 so these men are        
attracted by death and hover around a   
corpse4  ,,xxi4 ,a grateful mind is     
attracted only by a sense of the beauty 
of its purpose4 ,do you wish to know    
this to be so1 and that it is not bribed
 by ideas of profit8 ,there are two     
classes of grateful men3 a man is called
 grateful who has made some return for  
what he received2 this man may very     
possibly display himself in this        
character1 he has something to boast of1
 to refer to4 ,we also call a man       
grateful who receives a benefit with    
goodwill1 and owes it to his benefactor 
with goodwill2 yet this man's gratitude 
lies concealed within his own mind4     
,what profit can accrue to him from this
 latent feeling8 yet this man1 even     
though he is not able to do anything    
more than this1 is grateful2 he loves   
his benefactor1 he feels his debt to    

him1 he longs to repay his kindness2    
whatever else you may find wanting1     
there is nothing wanting in the man4 ,he
 is like a workman who has not the tools
 necessary for the practice of his      
craft1 or like a trained singer whose   
voice cannot be heard through the noise 
of those who interrupt him4 ,i wish to  
repay a kindness3 after this there still
 remains something for me to do1 not in 
order that ,i may become grateful1 but  
that ,i may discharge my debt2 for1 in  
many cases1 he who returns a kindness is
 ungrateful for it1 and he who does not 
return it is grateful4 ,like all other  
virtues1 the whole value of gratitude   
lies in the spirit in which it is done2 
so1 if this man's purpose be loyal1 any 
shortcomings on his part are due not to 
himself1 but to fortune4 ,a man who is  
silent may1 nevertheless1 be eloquent2  
his hands may be folded or even bound1  
and he may yet be strong2 just as a     
pilot is a pilot even when upon dry     
land1 because his knowledge is complete1

 and there is nothing wanting to it1    
though there may be obstacles which     
prevent his making use of it4 ,in the   
same way1 a man is grateful who only    
wishes to be so1 and who has no one but 
himself who can bear witness to his     
frame of mind4 ,i will go even further  
than this3 a man sometimes is grateful  
when he appears to be ungrateful1 when  
ill-judging report has declared him to  
be so4 ,such a man can look to nothing  
but his own conscience1 which can please
 him even when overwhelmed by calumny1  
which contradicts the mob and common    
rumour1 relies only upon itself1 and    
though it beholds a vast crowd of the   
other way of thinking opposed to it1    
does not count heads1 but wins by its   
own vote alone4 ,should it see its own  
good faith meet with the punishment due 
to treachery1 it will not descend from  
its pedestal1 and will remain superior  
to its punishment4 ,i have1 it says1    
what ,i wished1 what ,i strove for4 ,i  
do not regret it1 nor shall ,i do so2   

nor shall fortune1 however unjust she   
may be1 ever hear me say1 ',what did ,i 
want8 ,what now is the use of having    
meant well8' ,a good conscience is of   
value on the rack1 or in the fire2      
though fire be applied to each of our   
limbs1 gradually encircle our living    
bodies1 and burst our heart1 yet if our 
heart be filled with a good conscience1 
it will rejoice in the fire which will  
make its good faith shine before the    
world4  ,,xxii4 ,now let that question  
also which has been already stated be   
again brought forward2 ,why is it that  
we should wish to be grateful when we   
are dying1 that we should carefully     
weigh the various services rendered us  
by different individuals1 and carefully 
review our whole life1 that we may not  
seem to have forgotten any kindness8    
,nothing then remains for us to hope    
for2 yet when on the very threshold1 we 
wish to depart from human life as full  
of gratitude as possible4 ,there is in  
truth an immense reward for this thing  

merely in doing it1 and what is         
honourable has great power to attract   
men's minds1 which are overwhelmed by   
its beauty and carried off their        
balance1 enchanted by its brilliancy and
 splendour4 ,yet1 argues our adversary1 
from it many advantages take their rise1
 and good men obtain a safer life and   
love1 and the good opinion of the better
 class1 while their days are spent in   
greater security when accompanied by    
innocence and gratitude4  ,indeed1      
nature would have been most unjust had  
she rendered this great blessing        
miserable1 uncertain1 and fruitless4    
,but consider this point1 whether you   
would make your way to that virtue1 to  
which it is generally safe and easy to  
attain1 even though the path lay over   
rocks and precipices1 and were beset    
with fierce beasts and venomous         
serpents4 ,a virtue is none the less to 
be desired for its own sake1 because it 
has some adventitious profit connected  
with it3 indeed1 in most cases the      

noblest virtues are accompanied by many 
extraneous advantages1 but it is the    
virtues that lead the way1 and these    
merely follow in their train4  ,,xxiii4 
,can we doubt that the climate of this  
abode of the human race is regulated by 
the motion of the sun and moon in their 
orbits8 that our bodies are sustained1  
the hard earth loosened1 excessive      
moisture reduced1 and the surly bonds of
 winter broken by the heat of the one1  
and that crops are brought to ripeness  
by the effectual all-pervading warmth of
 the other8 that the fertility of the   
human race corresponds to the courses of
 the moon8 that the sun by its          
revolution marks out the year1 and that 
the moon1 moving in a smaller orbit1    
marks out the months8 ,yet1 setting     
aside all this1 would not the sun be a  
sight worthy to be contemplated and     
worshipped1 if he did no more than rise 
and set8 would not the moon be worth    
looking at1 even if it passed uselessly 
through the heavens8 ,whose attention is

 not arrested by the universe itself1   
when by night it pours forth its fires  
and glitters with innumerable stars8    
,who1 while he admires them1 thinks of  
their being of use to him8 ,look at that
 great company gliding over our heads1  
how they conceal their swift motion     
under the semblance of a fixed and      
immovable work4 ,how much takes place in
 that night which you make use of merely
 to mark and count your days6 ,what a   
mass of events is being prepared in that
 silence6 ,what a chain of destiny their
 unerring path is forming6 ,those which 
you imagine to be merely strewn about   
for ornament are really one and all at  
work4 ,nor is there any ground for your 
belief that only seven stars revolve1   
and that the rest remain still3 we      
understand the orbits of a few1 but     
countless divinities1 further removed   
from our sight1 come and go2 while the  
greater part of those whom our sight    
reaches move in a mysterious manner and 
by an unknown path4  ,,xxiv4 ,what then8

 would you not be captivated by the     
sight of such a stupendous work1 even   
though it did not cover you1 protect    
you1 cherish you1 bring you into        
existence and penetrate you with its    
spirit8 ,though these heavenly bodies   
are of the very first importance to us1 
and are1 indeed1 essential to our life1 
yet we can think of nothing but their   
glorious majesty1 and similarly all     
virtue1 especially that of gratitude1   
though it confers great advantages upon 
us1 does not wish to be loved for that  
reason2 it has something more in it than
 this1 and he who merely reckons it     
among useful things does not perfectly  
comprehend it4 ,a man1 you say1 is      
grateful because it is to his advantage 
to be so4 ,if this be the case1 then his
 advantage will be the measure of his   
gratitude4 ,virtue will not admit a     
covetous lover2 men must approach her   
with open purse4 ,the ungrateful man    
thinks1 ,i did wish to be grateful1 but 
,i fear the expense and danger and      

insults to which ,i should expose       
myself3 ,i will rather consult my own   
interest4 ,men cannot be rendered       
grateful and ungrateful by the same line
 of reasoning3 their actions are as     
distinct as their purposes4 ,the one is 
ungrateful1 although it is wrong1       
because it is his interest2 the other is
 grateful1 although it is not his       
interest1 because it is right4  ,,xxv4  
,it is our aim to live in harmony with  
the scheme of the universe1 and to      
follow the example of the gods4 ,yet in 
all their acts the gods have no object  
in view other than the act itself1      
unless you suppose that they obtain a   
reward for their work in the smoke of   
burnt sacrifices and the scent of       
incense4 ,see what great things they do 
every day1 how much they divide amongst 
us1 with how great crops they fill the  
earth1 how they move the seas with      
convenient winds to carry us to all     
shores1 how by the fall of sudden       
showers they soften the ground1 renew   

the dried-up springs of fountains1 and  
call them into new life by unseen       
supplies of water4 ,all this they do    
without reward1 without any advantage   
accruing to themselves4 ,let our line of
 conduct1 if it would not depart from   
its model1 preserve this direction1 and 
let us not act honourably because we are
 hired to do so4 ,we ought to feel      
ashamed that any benefit should have a  
price3 we pay nothing for the gods4     
,,xxvi4 ,if1 our adversary may say1 you 
wish to imitate the gods1 then bestow   
benefits upon the ungrateful as well as 
the grateful2 for the sun rises upon the
 wicked as well as the good1 the seas   
are open even to pirates4 ,by this      
question he really asks whether a good  
man would bestow a benefit upon an      
ungrateful person1 knowing him to be    
ungrateful4 ,allow me here to introduce 
a short explanation1 that we may not be 
taken in by a deceitful question4       
,understand that according to the system
 of the ,stoics there are two classes of

 ungrateful persons4 ,one man is        
ungrateful because he is a fool2 a fool 
is a bad man2 a man who is bad possesses
 every vice3 therefore he is ungrateful4
 ,in the same way we speak of all bad   
men as dissolute1 avaricious1 luxurious1
 and spiteful1 not because each man has 
all these vices in any great or         
remarkable degree1 but because he might 
have them2 they are in him1 even though 
they be not seen4 ,the second form of   
ungrateful person is he who is commonly 
meant by the term1 one who is inclined  
by nature to this vice4 ,in the case of 
him who has the vice of ingratitude just
 as he has every other1 a wise man will 
bestow a benefit1 because if he sets    
aside all such men there will be no one 
left for him to bestow it on4 ,as for   
the ungrateful man who habitually       
misapplies benefits and acts so by      
choice1 he will no more bestow a benefit
 upon him than he would lend money to a 
spendthrift1 or place a deposit in the  
hands of one who had already often      

refused to many persons to give up the  
property with which they had entrusted  
him4  ,,xxvii4 ,we call some men timid  
because they are fools3 in this they are
 like the bad men who are steeped in all
 vices without distinction4 ,strictly   
speaking1 we call those persons timid   
who are alarmed even at unmeaning       
noises4 ,a fool possesses all vices1 but
 he is not equally inclined by nature to
 all2 one is prone to avarice1 another  
to luxury1 and another to insolence4    
,those persons1 therefore1 are mistaken1
 who ask the ,stoics1 ,what do you say1 
then8 is ,achilles timid8 ,aristides1   
who received a name for justice1 is he  
unjust8 ,fabius1 who 'by delays         
retrieved the day1' is he rash8 ,does   
,decius fear death8 ,is ,mucius a       
traitor8 ,camillus a betrayer8 ,we do   
not mean that all vices are inherent in 
all men in the same way in which some   
especial ones are noticeable in certain 
men1 but we declare that the bad man and
 the fool possess all vices2 we do not  

even acquit them of fear when they are  
rash1 or of avarice when they are       
extravagant4 ,just as a man has all his 
senses1 yet all men have not on that    
account as keen a sight as ,lynceus1 so 
a man that is a fool has not all vices  
in so active and vigorous a form as some
 persons have spine of them1 yet he has 
them all4 ,all vices exist in all of    
them1 yet all are not prominent in each 
individual4 ,one man is naturally prone 
to avarice1 another is the slave of     
wine1 a third of lust2 or1 if not yet   
enslaved by these passions1 he is so    
fashioned by nature that this is the    
direction in which his character would  
probably lead him4 ,therefore1 to return
 to my original proposition1 every bad  
man is ungrateful1 because he has the   
seeds of every villainy in him2 but he  
alone is rightly so called who is       
naturally inclined to this vice4 ,upon  
such a person as this1 therefore1 ,i    
shall not bestow a benefit4 ,one who    
betrothed his daughter to an            

ill-tempered man from whom many women   
had sought a divorce1 would be held to  
have neglected her interests2 a man     
would be thought a bad father if he     
entrusted the care of his patrimony to  
one who had lost his own family estate1 
and it would be the act of a madman to  
make a will naming as the guardian of   
one's son a man who had already         
defrauded other wards4 ,so will that man
 be said to bestow benefits as badly as 
possible1 who chooses ungrateful        
persons1 in whose hands they will       
perish4  ,,xxviii4 ,the gods1 it may be 
said1 bestow much1 even upon the        
ungrateful4 ,but what they bestow they  
had prepared for the good1 and the bad  
have their share as well1 because they  
cannot be separated4 ,it is better to   
benefit the bad as well1 for the sake of
 benefiting the good1 than to stint the 
good for fear of benefiting the bad4    
,therefore the gods have created all    
that you speak of1 the day1 the sun1 the
 alternations of winter and summer1 the 

transitions through spring and autumn   
from one extreme to the other1 showers1 
drinking fountains1 and regularly       
blowing winds for the use of all alike2 
they could not except individuals from  
the enjoyment of them4 ,a king bestows  
honours upon those who deserve them1 but
 he gives largesse to the undeserving as
 well4 ,the thief1 the bearer of false  
witness1 and the adulterer1 alike       
receive the public grant of corn1 and   
all are placed on the register without  
any examination as to character2 good   
and bad men share alike in all the other
 privileges which a man receives1       
because he is a citizen1 not because he 
is a good man4 ,god likewise has        
bestowed certain gifts upon the entire  
human race1 from which no one is shut   
out4 ,indeed1 it could not be arranged  
that the wind which was fair for good   
men should be foul for bad ones1 while  
it is for the good of all men that the  
seas should be open for traffic and the 
kingdom of mankind be enlarged2 nor     

could any law be appointed for the      
showers1 so that they should not fall   
upon the fields of wicked and evil men4 
,some things are given to all alike3    
cities are founded for good and bad men 
alike2 works of genius reach1 by        
publication1 even unworthy men2 medicine
 points out the means of health even to 
the wicked2 no one has checked the      
making up of wholesome remedies for fear
 that the undeserving should be healed4 
,you must seek for examination and      
preference of individuals in such things
 as are bestowed separately upon those  
who are thought to deserve them2 not in 
these1 which admit the mob to share them
 without distinction4 ,there is a great 
difference between not shutting a man   
out and choosing him4 ,even a thief     
receives justice2 even murderers enjoy  
the blessings of peace2 even those who  
have plundered others can recover their 
own property2 assassins and private     
bravoes are defended against the common 
enemy by the city wall2 the laws protect

 even those who have sinned most deeply 
against them4 ,there are some things    
which no man could obtain unless they   
were given to all2 you need not1        
therefore1 cavil about those matters in 
which all mankind is invited to share4  
,as for things which men receive or not 
at my discretion1 ,i shall not bestow   
them upon one whom ,i know to be        
ungrateful4  ,,xxix4 ,shall we1 then1   
argues he1 not give our advice to an    
ungrateful man when he is at a loss1 or 
refuse him a drink of water when he is  
thirsty1 or not show him the path when  
he has lost his way8 or would you do him
 these services and yet not give him    
anything8 ,here ,i will draw a          
distinction1 or at any rate endeavour to
 do so4 ,a benefit is a useful service1 
yet all useful service is not a benefit2
 for some are so trifling as not to     
claim the title of benefits4 ,to produce
 a benefit two conditions must concur4  
,first1 the importance of the thing     
given2 for some things fall short of the

 dignity of a benefit4 ,who ever called 
a hunch of bread a benefit1 or a        
farthing dole tossed to a beggar1 or the
 means of lighting a fire8 yet sometimes
 these are of more value than the most  
costly benefits2 still their cheapness  
detracts from their value even when1 by 
the exigency of time1 they are rendered 
essential4 ,the next condition1 which is
 the most important of all1 must        
necessarily be present1 namely1 that ,i 
should confer the benefit for the sake  
of him whom ,i wish to receive it1 that 
,i should judge him worthy of it1 bestow
 it of my own free will1 and receive    
pleasure from my own gift1 none of which
 conditions are present in the cases of 
which we have just now spoken2 for we do
 not bestow such things as those upon   
these who are worthy of them1 but we    
give them carelessly1 as trifles1 and do
 not give them so much to a man as to   
humanity4  ,,xxx4 ,i shall not deny that
 sometimes ,i would give even to the    
unworthy1 out of respect for others2 as1

 for instance1 in competition for public
 offices1 some of the basest of men are 
preferred on account of their noble     
birth1 to industrious men of no family1 
and that for good reasons2 for the      
memory of great virtues is sacred1 and  
more men will take pleasure in being    
good1 if the respect felt for good men  
does not cease with their lives4 ,what  
made ,cicero's son a consul1 except his 
father8 ,what lately brought ,cinna     
,footnote3 ,see ,seneca on ,clemency1   
book i41 ch4 ix4 out of the camp of the 
enemy and raised him to the consulate8  
,what made ,sextus ,pompeius and the    
other ,pompeii consuls1 unless it was   
the greatness of one man1 who once was  
raised so high that1 by his very fall1  
he sufficiently exalted all his         
relatives4 ,what lately made ,fabius    
,persicus a member of more than one     
college of priests1 though even         
profligates avoided his kiss8 ,was it   
not ,verrucosus1 and ,allobrogicus1 and 
the three hundred who to serve their    

country blocked the invader's path with 
the force of a single family8 ,it is our
 duty to respect the virtuous1 not only 
when present with us1 but also when     
removed from our sight3 as they have    
made it their study not to bestow their 
benefits upon one age alone1 but to     
leave them existing after they          
themselves have passed away1 so let us  
not confine our gratitude to a single   
age4 ,if a man has begotten great men1  
he deserves to receive benefits1        
whatever he himself may be3 he has given
 us worthy men4 ,if a man descends from 
glorious ancestors1 whatever he himself 
may be1 let him find refuge under the   
shadow of his ancestry4 ,as mean places 
are lighted up by the rays of the sun1  
so let the degenerate shine in the light
 of their forefathers4  ,,xxxi4 ,in this
 place1 my ,liberalis1 ,i wish to speak 
in defence of the gods4 ,we sometimes   
say1 ,what could ,providence mean by    
placing an ,arrhidaeus upon the throne8 
,do you suppose that the crown was given

 to ,arrhidaeus8 nay1 it was given to   
his father and his brother4 ,why did    
,heaven bestow the empire of the world  
upon ,caius ,caesar1 the most           
bloodthirsty of mankind1 who was wont to
 order blood to be shed in his presence 
as freely as if he wished to drink of   
it8 ,why1 do you suppose that it was    
given to him8 ,it was given to his      
father1 ,germanicus1 to his grandfather1
 his great grandfather1 and to others   
before them1 no less illustrious men1   
though they lived as private citizens on
 a footing of equality with others4     
,why1 when you yourself were making     
,mamercus ,scaurus consul1 were you     
ignorant of his vices8 did he himself   
conceal them8 did he wish to appear     
decent8  ,did you admit a man who was so
 openly filthy to the fasces and the    
tribunal8 ,yes1 it was because you were 
thinking of the great old ,scaurus1 the 
chief of the ,senate1 and were unwilling
 that his descendant should be despised4
  ,,xxxii4 ,it is probable that the gods

 act in the same manner1 that they show 
greater indulgence to some for the sake 
of their parents and their ancestry1 and
 to others for the sake of their        
children and grandchildren1 and a long  
line of descendants beyond them2 for    
they know the whole course of their     
works1 and have constant access to the  
knowledge of all that shall hereafter   
pass through their hands4 ,these things 
come upon us from the unknown future1   
and the gods have foreseen and are      
familiar with the events by which we are
 startled4 ,let these men1 says         
,providence1 be kings1 because their    
ancestors were good kings1 because they 
regarded righteousness and temperance as
 the highest rule of life1 because they 
did not devote the state to themselves1 
but devoted themselves to the state4    
,let these others reign1 because some   
one of their ancestors before them was a
 good man1 who bore a soul superior to  
fortune1 who preferred to be conquered  
rather than to conquer in civil strife1 

because it was more to the advantage of 
the state4 ,footnote3 ,gertz1 ,stud4    
,crit1 p4 #aei1 note4 ,it was not       
possible to make a sufficient return to 
him for this during so long a time2 let 
this other1 therefore1 out of regard for
 him1 be chief of the people1 not       
because he knows how1 or is capable1 but
 because the other has earned it for    
him4 ,this man is misshapen1 loathsome  
to look upon1 and will disgrace the     
insignia of his office4 ,men will       
presently blame me1 calling me blind and
 reckless1 not knowing upon whom ,i am  
conferring what ought to be given to the
 greatest and noblest of men2 but ,i    
know that1 in giving this dignity to one
 man1 ,i am paying an old debt to       
another4 ,how should the men of to-day  
know that ancient hero1 who so          
resolutely avoided the glory which      
pressed upon him1 who went into danger  
with the same look which other men wear 
when they have escaped from danger1 who 
never regarded his own interest as apart

 from that of the commonwealth8 ,where1 
you ask1 or who is he8 whence does he   
come8 ,you know him not2 it lies with me
 to balance the debit and credit account
 in such cases as these2 ,i know how    
much ,i owe to each man2 ,i repay some  
after a long interval1 others           
beforehand1 according as my             
opportunities and the exigencies of my  
social system permit4 ,i shall1         
therefore1 sometimes bestow somewhat    
upon an ungrateful man1 though not for  
his own sake4  ,,xxxiii4 ,what1 argues  
he1 if you do not know whether your man 
be ungrateful or grateful--will you wait
 until you know1 or will you not lose   
the opportunity of bestowing a benefit8 
,to wait is a long business--for1 as    
,plato says1 it is hard to form an      
opinion about the human mind1--not to   
wait1 is rash4 ,to this objector we     
shall answer1 that we never should wait 
for absolute knowledge of the whole     
case1 since the discovery of truth is an
 arduous task1 but should proceed in the

 direction in which truth appeared to   
direct us4 ,all our actions proceed in  
this direction3 it is thus that we sow  
seed1 that we sail upon the sea1 that we
 serve in the army1 marry1 and bring up 
children4 ,the result of all these      
actions is uncertain1 so we take that   
course from which we believe that good  
results may be hoped for4 ,who can      
guarantee a harvest to the sower1 a     
harbour to the sailor1 victory to the   
soldier1 a modest wife to the husband1  
dutiful children to the father8 ,we     
proceed in the way in which reason1 not 
absolute truth1 directs us4 ,wait1 do   
nothing that will not turn out well1    
form no opinion until you have searched 
but the truth1 and your life will pass  
in absolute in action4 ,since it is only
 the appearance of truth1 not truth     
itself1 which leads me hither or        
thither1 ,i shall confer benefits upon  
the man who apparently will be grateful4
  ,,xxxiv4 ,many circumstances1 argues  
he1 may arise which may enable a bad man

 to steal into the place of a good one1 
or may cause a good man to be disliked  
as though he were a bad one2 for        
appearances1 to which we trust1 are     
deceptive4 ,who denies it8 ,yet ,i can  
find nothing else by which to guide my  
opinion4 ,i must follow these tracks in 
my search after truth1 for ,i have none 
more trustworthy than these2 ,i will    
take pains to weigh the value of these  
with all possible care1 and will not    
hastily give my assent to them4 ,for    
instance1 in a battle1 it may happen    
that my hand may be deceived by some    
mistake into turning my weapon against  
my comrade1 and sparing my enemy as     
though he were on my side2 but this will
 not often take place1 and will not take
 place through any fault of mine1 for my
 object is to strike the enemy1 and     
defend my countryman4 ,if ,i know a man 
to be ungrateful1 ,i shall not bestow a 
benefit upon him4 ,but the man has      
passed himself off as a good man by some
 trick1 and has imposed upon me4 ,well1 

this is not at all the fault of the     
giver1 who gave under the impression    
that his friend was grateful4 ,suppose1 
asks he1 that you were to promise to    
bestow a benefit1 and afterwards were to
 learn that your man was ungrateful1    
would you bestow it or not8 ,if you do1 
you do wrong knowingly1 for you give to 
one to whom you ought not2 if you       
refuse1 you do wrong likewise1 for you  
do not give to him to whom you promised 
to give4 ,this case upsets your         
consistency1 and that proud assurance of
 yours that the wise man never regrets  
his actions1 or amends what he has done1
 or alters his plans4 ,the wise man     
never changes his plans while the       
conditions under which he formed them   
remain the same2 therefore1 he never    
feels regret1 because at the time       
nothing better than what he did could   
have been done1 nor could any better    
decision have been arrived at than that 
which was made2 yet he begins everything
 with the saving clause1 ,if nothing    

shall occur to the contrary4 ,this is   
the reason why we say that all goes well
 with him1 and that nothing happens     
contrary to his expectation1 because he 
bears in mind the possibility of        
something happening to prevent the      
realization of his projects4 ,it is an  
imprudent confidence to trust that      
fortune will be on our side4 ,the wise  
man considers both sides3 he knows how  
great is the power of errors1 how       
uncertain human affairs are1 how many   
obstacles there are to the success of   
plans4 ,without committing himself1 he  
awaits the doubtful and capricious issue
 of events1 and weighs certainty of     
purpose against uncertainty of result4  
,here also1 however1 he is protected by 
that saving clause1 without which he    
decides upon nothing1 and begins        
nothing4  ,,xxxv4 ,when ,i promise to   
bestow a benefit1 ,i promise it1 unless 
something occurs which makes it my duty 
not to do so4 ,what if1 for example1 my 
country orders me to give to her what ,i

 had promised to my friend8 or if a law 
be passed forbidding any one to do what 
,i had promised to do for him8 ,suppose 
that ,i have promised you my daughter in
 marriage1 that then you turn out to be 
a foreigner1 and that ,i have no right  
of intermarriage with foreigners2 in    
this case1 the law1 by which ,i am      
forbidden to fulfil my promise1 forms my
 defence4 ,i shall be treacherous1 and  
hear myself blamed for inconsistency1   
only if ,i do not fulfil1 my promise    
when all conditions remain the same as  
when ,i made it2 otherwise1 any change  
makes me free to reconsider the entire  
case1 and absolves me from my promise4  
,i may have promised to plead a cause2  
afterwards it appears that this cause is
 designed to form a precedent for an    
attack upon my father4 ,i may have      
promised to leave my country1 and travel
 abroad2 then news comes that the road  
is beset with robbers4 ,i was going to  
an appointment at some particular place2
 but my son's illness1 or my wife's     

confinement1 prevented me4 ,all         
conditions must be the same as they were
 when ,i made the promise1 if you mean  
to hold me bound in honour to fulfil it4
 ,now what greater change can take place
 than that ,i should discover you to be 
a bad and ungrateful man8 ,i shall      
refuse to an unworthy man that which ,i 
had intended to give him supposing him  
to be worthy1 and ,i shall also have    
reason to be angry with him for the     
trick which he has put upon me4         
,,xxxvi4 ,i shall nevertheless look into
 the matter1 and consider what the value
 of the thing promised may be4 ,if it be
 trifling1 ,i shall give it1 not because
 you are worthy of it1 but because ,i   
promised it1 and ,i shall not give it as
 a present1 but merely in order to make 
good my words and give myself a twitch  
of the ear4 ,i will punish my own       
rashness in promising by the loss of    
what ,i gave4 ,see how grieved you are2 
mind you take more care what you say in 
future4 ,as the saying is1 ,i will take 

tongue money from you4 ,if the matter be
 important1 ,i will not1 as ,maecenas   
said1 let ten million sesterces reproach
 me4 ,i will weigh the two sides of the 
question one against the other3 there is
 something in abiding by what you have  
promised2 on the other hand1 there is a 
great deal in not bestowing a benefit   
upon one who is unworthy of it4 ,now1   
how great is this benefit8 ,if it is a  
trifling one1 let us wink and let it    
pass2 but if it will cause me much loss 
or much shame to give it1 ,i had rather 
excuse myself once for refusing it than 
have to do so ever after for giving it4 
,the whole point1 ,i repeat1 depends    
upon how much the thing given is worth3 
let the terms of my promise be          
appraised4 ,not only shall ,i refuse to 
give what ,i may have promised rashly1  
but ,i shall also demand back again what
 ,i may have wrongly bestowed3 a man    
must be mad who keeps a promise made    
under a mistake4  ,,xxxvii4 ,philip1    
king of the ,macedonians1 had a hardy   

soldier whose services he had found     
useful in many campaigns4 ,from time to 
time he made this man presents of part  
of the plunder as the reward of his     
valour1 and used to excite his greedy   
spirit by his frequent gifts4 ,this man 
was cast by shipwreck upon the estate of
 a certain ,macedonian1 who as soon as  
he heard the news hastened to him1      
restored his breath1 removed him to his 
own farmhouse1 gave up his own bed to   
him1 nursed him out of his weakened and 
half-dead condition1 took care of him at
 his own expense for thirty days1       
restored him to health and gave him a   
sum of money for his journey1 as the man
 kept constantly saying1 ,if only ,i can
 see my chief1 ,i will repay your       
kindness4 ,he told ,philip of his       
shipwreck1 said nothing about the help  
which he had received1 and at once      
demanded that a certain man's estate    
should be given to him4 ,the man was a  
friend of his3 it was that very man by  
whom he had been rescued and restored to

 health4 ,sometimes1 especially in time 
of war1 kings bestow many gifts with    
their eyes shut4 ,one just man cannot   
deal with such a mass of armed          
selfishness4 ,it is not possible for any
 one to be at the same time a good man  
and a good general4 ,how are so many    
thousands of insatiable men to be       
satiated8 ,what would they have1 if     
every man had his own8 ,thus ,philip    
reasoned with himself while he ordered  
the man to be put in possession of the  
property which he asked for4 ,however1  
the other1 when driven out of his       
estate1 did not1 like a peasant1 endure 
his wrongs in silence1 thankful that he 
himself was not given away also1 but    
sent a sharp and outspoken letter to    
,philip1 who1 on reading it1 was so much
 enraged that he straightway ordered    
,pausanias to restore the property to   
its former owner1 and to brand that     
wickedest of soldiers1 that most        
ungrateful of guests1 that greediest of 
shipwrecked men1 with letters bearing   

witness to his ingratitude4 ,he1 indeed1
 deserved to have the letters not merely
 branded but carved in his flesh1 for   
having reduced his host to the condition
 in which he himself had been when he   
lay naked and shipwrecked upon the      
beach2 still1 let us see within what    
limits one ought to keep in punishing   
him4 ,of course what he had so          
villainously seized ought to be taken   
from him4 ,but who would be affected by 
the spectacle of his punishment8 ,the   
crime which he had committed would      
prevent his being pitied even by any    
humane person4  ,,xxxviii4 ,will ,philip
 then give you a thing because he has   
promised to give it1 even though he     
ought not to do so1 even though he will 
commit a wrong by doing so1 nay1 a      
crime1 even though by this one act he   
will make it impossible for shipwrecked 
men to reach the shore8 ,there is no    
inconsistency in giving up an intention 
which we have discovered to be wrong and
 have condemned as wrong2 we ought      

candidly to admit1 ,i thought that it   
was something different2 ,i have been   
deceived4 ,it is mere pride and folly to
 persist1 what ,i once have said1 be it 
what it may1 shall remain unaltered and 
settled4 ,there is no disgrace in       
altering one's plans according to       
circumstances4 ,now1 if ,philip had left
 this man in possession of that seashore
 which he obtained by his shipwreck1    
would he not have practically pronounced
 sentence of banishment against all     
unfortunates for the future8 ,rather1   
says ,philip1 do thou carry upon thy    
forehead of brass those letters1 that   
they may be impressed upon the eyes of  
all throughout my kingdom4 ,go1 let men 
see how sacred a thing is the table of  
hospitality2 show them your face1 that  
upon it they may read the decree which  
prevents its being a capital crime to   
give refuge to the unfortunate under    
one's roof4 ,the order will be more     
certainly respected by this means than  
if ,i had inscribed it upon tablets of  

brass4  ,,xxxix4 ,why then1 argues our  
adversary1 did your ,stoic philosopher  
,zeno1 when he had promised a loan of   
five hundred denarii to some person1    
whom he afterwards discovered to be of  
doubtful character1 persist in lending  
it1 because of his promise1 though his  
friends dissuaded him from doing so8 ,in
 the first place a loan is on a         
different footing to a benefit4 ,even   
when we have lent money to an           
undesirable person we can recall it2 ,i 
can demand payment upon a certain day1  
and if he becomes bankrupt1 ,i can      
obtain my share of his property2 but a  
benefit is lost utterly and instantly4  
,besides1 the one is the act of a bad   
man1 the other that of a bad father of a
 family4 ,in the next place1 if the sum 
had been a larger one1 not even ,zeno   
would have persisted in lending it4 ,it 
was five hundred denarii2 the sort of   
sum of which one says1 ,may he spend it 
in sickness1 and it was worth paying so 
much to avoid breaking his promise4 ,i  

shall go out to supper1 even though the 
weather be cold1 because ,i have        
promised to go2 but ,i shall not if snow
 be falling4 ,i shall leave my bed to go
 to a betrothal feast1 although ,i may  
be suffering from indigestion2 but ,i   
shall not do so if ,i am feverish4 ,i   
will become bail for you1 because ,i    
promised2 but not if you wish me to     
become bail in some transaction of      
uncertain issue1 if you expose me to    
forfeiting my money to the state4 ,there
 runs through all these cases1 ,i argue1
 an implied exception2 if ,i am able1   
provided it is right for me to do so1 if
 these things be so and so4 ,make the   
position the same when you ask me to    
fulfil my promise1 as it was when ,i    
gave it1 and it will be mere fickleness 
to disappoint you2 but if something new 
has taken place in the meanwhile1 why   
should you wonder at my intentions being
 changed when the conditions under which
 ,i gave the promise are changed8 ,put  
everything back as it was1 and ,i shall 

be the same as ,i was4 ,we enter into   
recognizances to appear1 yet if we fail 
to do so an action will not in all cases
 lie against us1 for we are excused for 
making default if forced to do so by a  
power which we cannot resist4  ,,xl4    
,you may take the same answer to the    
question as to whether we ought in all  
cases to show gratitude for kindness1   
and whether a benefit ought in all cases
 to be repaid4 ,it is my duty to show a 
grateful mind1 but in some cases my own 
poverty1 in others the prosperity of the
 friend to whom ,i owe some return1 will
 not permit me to give it4 ,what1 for   
instance1 am ,i1 a poor man1 to give to 
a king or a rich man in return for his  
kindness1 especially as some men regard 
it as a wrong to have their benefits    
repaid1 and are wont to pile one benefit
 upon another8 ,in dealing with such    
persons1 what more can ,i do than wish  
to repay them8 ,yet ,i ought not to     
refuse to receive a new benefit1 because
 ,i have not repaid the former one4 ,i  

shall take it as freely as it is given1 
and will offer myself to my friend as a 
wide field for the exercise of his good 
nature3 he who is unwilling to receive  
new benefits must be dissatisfied with  
what he has already received4 ,do you   
say1 ,i shall not be able to return     
them8 ,what is that to the purpose8 ,i  
am willing enough to do so if           
opportunity or means were given me4 ,he 
gave it to me1 of course1 having both   
opportunity and means3 is he a good man 
or a bad one8 if he is a good man1 ,i   
have a good case against him1 and ,i    
will not plead if he be a bad one4      
,neither do ,i think it right to insist 
on making repayment1 even though it be  
against the will of those whom we repay1
 and to press it upon them however      
reluctant they may be2 it is not        
repayment to force an unwilling man to  
resume what you were once willing to    
take4 ,some people1 if any trifling     
present be sent to them1 afterwards send
 back something else for no particular  

reason1 and then declare that they are  
under no obligation2 to send something  
back at once1 and balance one present by
 another1 is the next thing to refusing 
to receive it4 ,on some occasions ,i    
shall not return a benefit1 even though 
,i be able to do so4 ,when8 ,when by so 
doing ,i shall myself lose more than he 
will gain1 or if he would not notice any
 advantage to himself in receiving that 
which it would be a great loss to me to 
return4 ,the man who is always eager to 
repay under all circumstances1 has not  
the feeling of a grateful man1 but of a 
debtor2 and1 to put it shortly1 he who  
is too eager to repay1 is unwilling to  
be in his friend's debt2 he who is      
unwilling1 and yet is in his friend's   
debt1 is ungrateful4     ,,book ,v4  ,i4
   ,in the preceding books ,i seem to   
have accomplished the object which ,i   
proposed to myself1 since in them ,i    
have discussed how a benefit ought to be
 bestowed1 and how it ought to be       
received4 ,these are the limits of this 

action2 when ,i dwell upon it further ,i
 am not obeying the orders1 but the     
caprices of my subject which ought to be
 followed whither it leads1 not whither 
it allures us to wander2 for now and    
then something will arise1 which1       
although it is all but unconnected with 
the subject1 instead of being a         
necessary part of it1 still thrills the 
mind with a certain charm4 ,however1    
since you wish it to be so1 let us go   
on1 after having completed our          
discussion of the heads of the subject  
itself1 to investigate those matters    
which1 if you wish for truth1 ,i must   
call adjacent to it1 not actually       
connected with it2 to examine which     
carefully is not one worth one's while1 
and yet is not labour in vain4 ,no      
praise1 however1 which ,i can give to   
benefits does justice to you1 ,aebutius 
,liberalis1 a man of excellent          
disposition and naturally inclined to   
bestow them4 ,never have ,i seen any one
 esteem even the most trifling services 

more kindly2 indeed1 your good-nature   
goes so far as to regard whatever       
benefit is bestowed upon anyone as      
bestowed upon yourself2 you are prepared
 to pay even what is owed by the        
ungrateful1 that no one may regret      
having bestowed benefits4 ,you yourself 
are so far from any boastfulness1 you   
are so eager at once to free those whom 
you serve from any feeling of obligation
 to you1 that you like1 when giving     
anything to any one1 to seem not so much
 to be giving a present as returning    
one2 and therefore what you give in this
 manner will all the more fully he      
repaid to you3 for1 as a rule1 benefits 
come to one who does not demand         
repayment of them2 and just as glory    
follows those who avoid it1 so men      
receive a more plentiful harvest in     
return for benefits bestowed upon those 
who had it in their power to be         
ungrateful4 ,with you there is no reason
 why those who have received benefits   
from you should not ask for fresh ones2 

nor would you refuse to bestow others1  
to overlook and conceal what you have   
given1 and to add to it more and greater
 gifts1 since it is the aim of all the  
best men and the noblest dispositions to
 bear with an ungrateful man until you  
make him grateful4 ,be not deceived in  
pursuing this plan2 vice1 if you do not 
too soon begin to hate it1 will yield to
 virtue4  ,,ii4 ,thus it is that you are
 especially pleased with what you think 
the grandly-sounding phrase1 ,it is     
disgraceful to be worsted in a contest  
of benefits4 ,whether this be true or   
not deserves to be investigated1 and it 
means something quite different from    
what you imagine2 for it is never       
disgraceful to be worsted in any        
honourable contest1 provided that you do
 not throw down your arms1 and that even
 when conquered you wish to conquer4    
,all men do not strive for a good object
 with the same strength1 resources1 and 
good fortune1 upon which depend at all  
events the issues of the most admirable 

projects1 though we ought to praise the 
will itself which makes an effort in the
 right direction4 ,even though another  
passes it by with swifter pace1 yet the 
palm of victory does not1 as in         
publicly-exhibited races1 declare which 
is the better man2 though even in the   
games chance frequently brings an       
inferior man to the front4 ,as far as   
loyalty of feeling goes1 which each man 
wishes to be possessed in the fullest   
measure on his own side1 if one of the  
two be the more powerful1 if he have at 
his disposal all the resources which he 
wishes to use1 and be favoured by       
fortune in his most ambitious efforts1  
while the other1 although equally       
willing1 can only return less than he   
receives1 or perhaps can make no return 
at all1 but still wishes to do so and is
 entirely devoted to this object2 then  
the latter is no more conquered than he 
who dies in arms1 whom the enemy found  
it easier to slay than to turn back4 ,to
 be conquered1 which you consider       

disgraceful1 cannot happen to a good    
man2 for he will never surrender1 never 
give up the contest1 to the last day of 
his life he will stand prepared and in  
that posture he will die1 testifying    
that though he has received much1 yet   
that he had the will to repay as much as
 he had received4  ,,iii4 ,the          
,lacedaemonians forbid their young men  
to contend in the pancratium1 or with   
the caestus1 in which games the defeated
 party has to acknowledge himself       
beaten4 ,the winner of a race is he who 
first reaches the goal2 he outstrips the
 others in swiftness1 but not in        
courage4 ,the wrestler who has been     
thrown three times loses the palm of    
victory1 but does not yield it up4      
,since the ,lacedaemonians thought it of
 great importance that their countrymen 
should be invincible1 they kept them    
away from those contests in which       
victory is assigned1 not by the judge1  
or by the issue of the contest itself1  
but by the voice of the vanquished      

begging the victor to spare him as he   
falls4 ,this attribute of never being   
conquered1 which they so jealously guard
 among their citizens1 can be attained  
by all men through virtue and goodwill1 
because even when all else is           
vanquished1 the mind remains            
unconquered4 ,for this cause no one     
speaks of the three hundred ,fabii as   
conquered1 but slaughtered4 ,regulus was
 taken captive by the ,carthaginians1   
not conquered2 and so were all other men
 who have not yielded in spirit when    
overwhelmed by the strength and weight  
of angry fortune4  ,so is it with       
benefits4 ,a man may have received more 
than he gave1 more valuable ones1 more  
frequently bestowed2 yet is he not      
vanquished4 ,it may be that1 if you     
compare the benefits with one another1  
those which he has received will        
outweigh those which he has bestowed2   
but if you compare the giver and the    
receiver1 whose intentions also ought to
 be considered apart1 neither will prove

 the victor4 ,it often happens that even
 when one combatant is pierced with many
 wounds1 while the other is only        
slightly injured1 yet they are said to  
have fought a drawn battle1 although the
 former may appear to be the worse man4 
,,iv4 ,no one1 therefore1 can be        
conquered in a contest of benefits1 if  
he knows how to owe a debt1 if he wishes
 to make a return for what he has       
received1 and raises himself to the same
 level with his friend in spirit1 though
 he cannot do so in material gifts4 ,as 
long as he remains in this temper of    
mind1 as long as he has the wish to     
declare by proofs that he has a grateful
 mind1 what difference does it make upon
 which side we can count the greater    
number of presents8 ,you are able to    
give much2 ,i can do nothing but        
receive4 ,fortune abides with you1      
goodwill alone with me2 yet ,i am as    
much on an equality with you as naked or
 lightly armed men are with a large body
 armed to the teeth4 ,no one1 therefore1

 is worsted by benefits1 because each   
man's gratitude is to be measured by his
 will4 ,if it be disgraceful to be      
worsted in a contest of benefits1 you   
ought not to receive a benefit from very
 powerful men whose kindness you cannot 
return1 ,i mean such as princes and     
kings1 whom fortune has placed in such a
 station that they can give away much1  
and can only receive very little and    
quite inadequate returns for what they  
give4 ,i have spoken of kings and       
princes1 who alone can cause works to be
 accomplished1 and whose superlative    
power depends upon the obedience and    
services of inferiors2 but some there   
are1 free from all earthly lusts1 who   
are scarcely affected by any human      
objects of desire1 upon whom fortune    
herself could bestow nothing4 ,i must be
 worsted in a contest of benefits with  
,socrates1 or with ,diogenes1 who walked
 naked through the treasures of         
,macedonia1 treading the king's wealth  
under his feet4 ,in good sooth1 he must 

then rightly have seemed1 both to       
himself and to all others whose eyes    
were keen enough to perceive the real   
truth1 to be superior even to him at    
whose feet all the world lay4 ,he was   
far more powerful1 far richer even than 
,alexander1 who then possessed          
everything2 for there was more that     
,diogenes could refuse to receive than  
that ,alexander was able to give4  ,v4  
,it is not disgraceful to be worsted by 
these men1 for ,i am not the less brave 
because you pit me against an           
invulnerable enemy1 nor does fire not   
burn because you throw into it something
 over which flames have no power1 nor   
does iron lose its power of cutting1    
though you may wish to cut up a stone   
which is hard1 impervious to blows1 and 
of such a nature that hard tools are    
blunted upon it4 ,i give you the same   
answer about gratitude4 ,a man is not   
disgracefully worsted in a contest of   
benefits if he lays himself under an    
obligation to such persons as these1    

whose enormous wealth or admirable      
virtue shut out all possibility of their
 benefits being returned4 ,as a rule we 
are worsted by our parents2 for while we
 have them with us1 we regard them as   
severe1 and do not understand what they 
do for us4 ,when our age begins to bring
 us a little sense1 and we gradually    
perceive that they deserve our love for 
those very things which used to prevent 
our loving them1 their advice1 their    
punishments1 and the careful watch which
 they used to keep over our youthful    
recklessness1 they are taken from us4   
,few live to reap any real fruit from   
children2 most men feel their sons only 
as a burden4 ,yet there is no disgrace  
in being worsted by one's parent in     
bestowing benefits2 how should there be1
 seeing that there is no disgrace in    
being worsted by anyone4 ,we are equal  
to some men1 and yet not equal2 equal in
 intention1 which is all that they care 
for1 which is all that we promise to be1
 but unequal in fortune4 ,and if fortune

 prevents any one from repaying a       
kindness1 he need not1 therefore1 blush1
 as though he were vanquished2 there is 
no disgrace in failing to reach your    
object1 provided you attempt to reach   
it4 ,it often is necessary1 that before 
making any return for the benefits which
 we have received1 we should ask for new
 ones2 yet1 if so1 we shall not refrain 
from asking for them1 nor shall we do so
 as though disgraced by so doing1       
because1 even if we do not repay the    
debt1 we shall owe it2 because1 even if 
something from without befalls us to    
prevent our repaying it1 it will not be 
our fault if we are not grateful4 ,we   
can neither be conquered in intention1  
nor can we be disgraced by yielding to  
what is beyond our strength to contend  
with4  ,,vi4 ,alexander1 the king of the
 ,macedonians1 used to boast that he had
 never been worsted by anybody in a     
contest of benefits4 ,if so1 it was no  
reason why1 in the fulness of his pride1
 he should despise the ,macedonians1    

,greeks1 ,carians1 ,persians1 and other 
tribes of whom his army was composed1   
nor need he imagine that it was this    
that gave him an empire reaching from a 
corner of ,thrace to the shore of the   
unknown sea4 ,socrates could make the   
same boast1 and so could ,diogenes1 by  
whom ,alexander was certainly surpassed2
 for was he not surpassed on the day    
when1 swelling as he was beyond the     
limits of merely human pride1 he beheld 
one to whom he could give nothing1 from 
whom he could take nothing8 ,king       
,archelaus invited ,socrates to come to 
him4 ,socrates is reported to have      
answered that he should be sorry to go  
to one who would bestow benefits upon   
him1 since he should not be able to make
 him an adequate return for them4 ,in   
the first place1 ,socrates was at       
liberty not to receive them2 next1      
,socrates himself would have been the   
first to bestow a benefit1 for he would 
have come when invited1 and would have  
given to ,archelaus that for which      

,archelaus could have made no return to 
,socrates4 ,even if ,archelaus were to  
give ,socrates gold and silver1 if he   
learned in return for them to despise   
gold and silver1 would not ,socrates be 
able to repay ,archelaus8 ,could        
,socrates receive from him as much value
 as he gave1 in displaying to him a man 
skilled in the knowledge of life and of 
death1 comprehending the true purpose of
 each8 ,suppose that he had found this  
king1 as it were1 groping his way in the
 clear sunlight1 and had taught him the 
secrets of nature1 of which he was so   
ignorant1 that when there was an eclipse
 of the sun1 he up his palace1 and      
shaved his son's head1 ,footnote3 ,gertz
 very reasonably conjectures that he    
shaved his own head which reading would 
require a very trifling alteration of   
the text4 which men are wont to do in   
times of mourning and distress4 ,what a 
benefit it would have been if he had    
dragged the terror-stricken king out of 
his hiding-place1 and bidden him be of  

good cheer1 saying1 ,this is not a      
disappearance of the sun1 but a         
conjunction of two heavenly bodies2 for 
the moon1 which proceeds along a lower  
path1 has placed her disk beneath the   
sun1 and hidden it by the interposition 
of her own mass4 ,sometimes she only    
hides a small portion of the sun's disk1
 because she only grazes it in passing2 
sometimes she hides more1 by placing    
more of herself before it2 and sometimes
 she shuts it out from our sight        
altogether1 if she passes in an exactly 
even course between the sun and the     
earth4 ,soon1 however1 their own swift  
motion will draw these two bodies apart2
 soon the earth will receive back again 
the light of day4 ,and this system will 
continue throughout centuries1 having   
certain days1 known beforehand1 upon    
which the sun cannot display all rays1  
because of the intervention of the moon4
 ,wait only for a short time2 he will   
soon emerge1 he will soon leave that    
seeming cloud1 and freely shed abroad   

his light without any hindrances4 ,could
 ,socrates not have made an adequate    
return to ,archelaus1 if he had taught  
him to reign8 as though ,socrates would 
not benefit him sufficiently1 merely by 
enabling him to bestow a benefit upon   
,socrates4 ,why1 then1 did ,socrates say
 this8 ,being a joker and a speaker in  
parables--a man who turned all1         
especially the great1 into ridicule--he 
preferred giving him a satirical        
refusal1 rather than an obstinate or    
haughty one1 and therefore said that he 
did not wish to receive benefits from   
one to whom he could not return as much 
as he received4 ,he feared1 perhaps1    
that he might be forced to receive      
something which he did not wish1 he     
feared that it might be something unfit 
for ,socrates to receive4 ,some one may 
say1 ,he ought to have said that he did 
not wish to go4 ,but by so doing he     
would have excited against himself the  
anger of an arrogant king1 who wished   
everything connected with himself to be 

highly valued4 ,it makes no difference  
to a king whether you be unwilling to   
give anything to him or to accept       
anything from him2 he is equally        
incensed at either rebuff1 and to be    
treated with disdain is more bitter to a
 proud spirit than not to be feared4 ,do
 you wish to know what ,socrates really 
meant8 ,he1 whose freedom of speech     
could not be borne even by a free state1
 was not willing of his own choice to   
become a slave4  ,,vii4 ,i think that we
 have sufficiently discussed this part  
of the subject1 whether it be           
disgraceful to be worsted in a contest  
of benefits4 ,whoever asks this question
 must know that men are not wont to     
bestow benefits upon themselves1 for    
evidently it could not be disgraceful to
 be worsted by oneself4 ,yet some of the
 ,stoics debate this question1 whether  
any one can confer a benefit upon       
himself1 and whether one ought to return
 one's own kindness to oneself4 ,this   
discussion has been raised in           

consequence of our habit of saying1 ,i  
am thankful to myself1 ,i can complain  
of no one but myself1 ,i am angry with  
myself1 ,i will punish myself1 ,i hate  
myself1 and many other phrases of the   
same sort1 in which one speaks of       
oneself as one would of some other      
person4 ,if1 they argue1 ,i can injure  
myself1 why should ,i not be able also  
to bestow a benefit upon myself8        
,besides this1 why are those things not 
called benefits when ,i bestow them upon
 myself which would be called benefits  
if ,i bestowed them upon another8 ,if to
 receive a certain thing from another   
would lay me under an obligation to him1
 how is it that if ,i give it to myself1
 ,i do not contract an obligation to    
myself8 why should ,i be ungrateful to  
my own self1 which is no less           
disgraceful than it is to be mean to    
oneself1 or hard and cruel to oneself1  
or neglectful of oneself8 ,the procurer 
is equally odious whether he prostitutes
 others or himself4 ,we blame a         

flatterer1 and one who imitates another 
man's mode of speech1 or is prepared to 
give praise whether it be deserved or   
not2 we ought equally to blame one who  
humours himself and looks up to himself1
 and so to speak is his own flatterer4  
,vices are not only hateful when        
outwardly practised1 but also when they 
are repressed within the mind4 ,whom    
would you admire more than he who       
governs himself and has himself under   
command8 ,it is easier to rule savage   
nations1 impatient of foreign control1  
than to restrain one's own mind and keep
 it under one's own control4 ,plato1 it 
is argued1 was grateful to ,socrates for
 having been taught by him2 why should  
not ,socrates be grateful to himself for
 having taught himself8 ,marcus ,cato   
said1 ,borrow from yourself whatever you
 lack2 why1 then1 if ,i can lend myself 
anything1 should ,i be unable to give   
myself anything8 ,the instances in which
 usage divides us into two persons are  
innumerable2 we are wont to say1 ,let me

 converse with myself1 and1 ,i will give
 myself a twitch of the ear2 ,footnote3 
,see book iv4 ch4 xxxvi4 and if it be   
true that one can do so1 then a man     
ought to be grateful to himself1 just as
 he is angry with himself2 as he blames 
himself1 ,,so he ought to praise        
himself2 since he can impoverish        
himself1 he can also enrich himself4    
,injuries and benefits are the converse 
of one another3 if we say of a man1 'he 
has done himself an injury1' we can also
 say 'he has bestowed upon himself a    
benefit8'  ,,viii4 ,it is natural that a
 man should first incur an obligation1  
and then that he should return gratitude
 for it2 a debtor cannot exist without a
 creditor1 any more than a husband      
without a wife1 or a son without a      
father2 someone must give in order that 
some one may receive4 ,just as no one   
carries himself1 although he moves his  
body and transports it from place to    
place2 as no one1 though he may have    
made a speech in his own defence1 is    

said to have stood by himself1 or erects
 a statue to himself as his own patron2 
as no sick man1 when by his own care he 
has regained his health1 asks himself   
for a fee2 so in no transaction1 even   
when a man does what is useful to       
himself1 need he return thanks to       
himself1 because there is no one to whom
 he can return them4 ,though ,i grant   
that a man can bestow a benefit upon    
himself1 yet at the same time that he   
gives it1 he also receives it2 though ,i
 grant that a man may receive a benefit 
from himself1 yet he receives it at the 
same time that he gives it4 ,the        
exchange takes place within doors1 as   
they say1 and the transfer is made at   
once1 as though the debt were a         
fictitious one2 for he who gives is not 
a different person to he who receives1  
but one and the same4 ,the word to owe  
has no meaning except as between two    
persons2 how then can it apply to one   
man who incurs an obligation1 and by the
 same act frees himself from it8 ,in a  

disk or a ball there is no top or       
bottom1 no beginning or end1 because the
 relation of the parts is changed when  
it moves1 what was behind coming before1
 and what went down on one side coming  
up on the other1 so that all the parts1 
in whatever direction they may move1    
come back to the same position4 ,imagine
 that the same thing takes place in a   
man2 into however many pieces you may   
divide him1 he remains one4 ,if he      
strikes himself1 he has no one to call  
to account for the insult2 if he binds  
himself and locks himself up1 he cannot 
demand damages2 if he bestows a benefit 
upon himself1 he straightway returns it 
to the giver4 ,it is said that there is 
no waste in nature1 because everything  
which is taken from nature returns to   
her again1 and nothing can perish1      
because it cannot fall out of nature1   
but goes round again to the point from  
whence it started4 ,you ask1 ,what      
connection has this illustration with   
the subject8 ,i will tell you4 ,imagine 

yourself to be ungrateful1 the benefit  
bestowed upon you is not lost1 he who   
gave it has it2 suppose that you are    
unwilling to receive it1 it still       
belongs to you before it is returned4   
,you cannot lose anything1 because what 
you take away from yourself1 you        
nevertheless gain yourself4 ,the matter 
revolves in a circle within yourself2 by
 receiving you give1 by giving you      
receive4  ,,ix4 ,it is our duty1 argues 
our adversary1 to bestow benefits upon  
ourselves1 therefore we ought also to be
 grateful to ourselves4 ,the original   
axiom1 upon which the inference depends1
 is untrue1 for no one bestows benefits 
upon himself1 but obeys the dictates of 
his nature1 which disposes him to       
affection for himself1 and which makes  
him take the greatest pains to avoid    
hurtful things1 and to follow after     
those things which are profitable to    
him4 ,consequently1 the man who gives to
 himself is not generous1 nor is he who 
pardons himself forgiving1 nor is he who

 is touched by his own misfortunes      
tender-hearted2 it is natural to do     
those things to oneself which when done 
to others become generosity1 clemency1  
and tenderness of heart4 ,a benefit is a
 voluntary act1 but to do good to       
oneself is an instinctive one4 ,the more
 benefits a man bestows1 the more       
beneficent he is1 yet who ever was      
praised for having been of service to   
himself8 or for having rescued himself  
from brigands8 ,no one bestows a benefit
 upon himself any more than he bestows  
hospitality upon himself2 no one gives  
himself anything1 any more than he lends
 himself anything4 ,if each man bestows 
benefits upon himself1 is always        
bestowing them1 and bestows them without
 any cessation1 then it is impossible   
for him to make any calculation of the  
number of his benefits2 when then can he
 show his gratitude1 seeing that by the 
very act of doing so he would bestow a  
benefit8 for what distinction can you   
draw between giving himself a benefit or

 receiving a benefit for himself1 when  
the whole transaction takes place in the
 mind of the same man8 ,suppose that ,i 
have freed myself from danger1 then ,i  
have bestowed a benefit upon myself2    
suppose ,i free myself a second time1 by
 so doing do ,i bestow or repay a       
benefit8 ,in the next place1 even if ,i 
grant the primary axiom1 that we can    
bestow benefits upon ourselves1 ,i do   
not admit that which follows2 for even  
if we can do so1 we ought not to do so4 
,wherefore8 ,because we receive a return
 for them at once4 ,it is right for me  
to receive a benefit1 then to lie under 
an obligation1 then to repay it2 now    
here there is no time for remaining     
under an obligation1 because we receive 
the return without any delay4 ,no one   
really gives except to another1 no one  
owes except to another1 no one repays   
except to another4 ,an act which always 
requires two persons cannot take place  
within the mind of one4  ,x4 ,a benefit 
means the affording of something useful1

 and the word ,,affording implies other 
persons4 ,would not a man be thought mad
 if he said that he had sold something  
to himself1 because selling means       
alienation1 and the transferring of a   
thing and of one's rights in that thing 
to another person8 ,yet giving1 like    
selling anything1 consists in making it 
pass away from you1 handing over what   
you yourself once owned into the keeping
 of some one else4  ,if this be so1 no  
one ever gave himself a benefit1 because
 no one gives to himself2 if not1 two   
opposites coalesce1 so that it becomes  
the same thing to give and to receive4  
,yet there is a great difference between
 giving and receiving2 how should there 
not be1 seeing that these words are the 
converse of one another8 ,still1 if any 
one can give himself a benefit1 there   
can be no difference between giving and 
receiving4 ,i said a little before that 
some words apply only to other persons1 
and are so constituted that their whole 
meaning lies apart from ourselves2 for  

instance1 ,i am a brother1 but a brother
 of some other man1 for no one is his   
own brother2 ,i am an equal1 but equal  
to somebody else1 for who is equal to   
himself8 ,a thing which is compared to  
another thing is unintelligible without 
that other thing2 a thing which is      
joined to something else does not exist 
apart from it2 so that which is given   
does not exist without the other person1
 nor can a benefit have any existence   
without another person4 ,this is clear  
from the very phrase which describes it1
 'to do good1' yet no one does good to  
himself1 any more than he favours       
himself or is on his own side4 ,i might 
enlarge further upon this subject and   
give many examples4 ,why should benefits
 not be included among those acts which 
require two persons to perform them8    
,many honourable1 most admirable and    
highly virtuous acts cannot take place  
without a second person4 ,fidelity is   
praised and held to be one of the chief 
blessings known among men1 yet was any  

one ever on that account said to have   
kept faith with himself8  ,,xi4 ,i come 
now to the last part of this subject4   
,the man who returns a kindness ought to
 expend something1 just as he who repays
 expends money2 but the man who returns 
a kindness to himself expends nothing1  
just as he who receives a benefit from  
himself gains nothing4 ,a benefit and   
gratitude for it must pass to and fro   
between two persons2 their interchange  
cannot take place within one man4 ,he   
who returns a kindness does good in his 
turn to him from whom he has received   
something2 but the man who returns his  
own kindness1 to whom does he do good8  
,to himself8 ,is there any one who does 
not regard the returning of a kindness1 
and the bestowal of a benefit1 as       
distinct acts8 ',he who returns a       
kindness to himself does good to        
himself4' ,was any man ever unwilling to
 do this1 even though he were           
ungrateful8 nay1 who ever was ungrateful
 from any other motive than this8 ,if1  

it is argued1 we are right in thanking  
ourselves1 we ought to return our own   
kindness2 yet we say1 ,i am thankful to 
myself for having refused to marry that 
woman1 or for having refused to join a  
partnership with that man4 ,when we     
speak thus1 we are really praising      
ourselves1 and make use of the language 
of those who return thanks to approve   
our own acts4 ,a benefit is something   
which1 when given1 may or may not be    
returned4 ,now1 he who gives a benefit  
to himself must needs receive what he   
gives2 therefore1 this is not a benefit4
 ,a benefit is received at one time1 and
 is returned at another2 7but when a man
 bestows a benefit upon himself1 he both
 receives it and returns it at the same 
time74 ,in a benefit1 too1 what we      
commend and admire is1 that a man has   
for the time being forgotten his own    
interests1 in order that he may do good 
to another2 that he has deprived himself
 of something1 in order to bestow it    
upon another4 ,now1 he who bestows a    

benefit upon himself does not do this4  
,the bestowal of a benefit is an act of 
companionship--it wins some man's       
friendship1 and lays some man under an  
obligation2 but to bestow it upon       
oneself is no act of companionship--it  
wins no man's friendship1 lays no man   
under an obligation1 raises no man's    
hopes1 or leads him to say1 ,this man   
must be courted2 he bestowed a benefit  
upon that person1 perhaps he will bestow
 one upon me also4 ,a benefit is a thing
 which one gives not for one's own sake1
 but for the sake of him to whom it is  
given2 but he who bestows a benefit upon
 himself1 does so for his own sake2     
therefore1 it is not a benefit4  ,,xii4 
,now ,i seem to you not to have made    
good what ,i said at the beginning of   
this book4 ,you say that ,i am far from 
doing what is worth any one's while2    
nay1 that in real fact ,i have thrown   
away all my trouble4 ,wait1 and soon you
 will be able to say this more truly1   
for ,i shall lead you into covert       

lurking-places1 from which when you have
 escaped1 you will have gained nothing  
except that you will have freed yourself
 from difficulties with which you need  
never have hampered yourself4 ,what is  
the use of laboriously untying knots    
which you yourself have tied1 in order  
that you might untie them8 ,yet1 just as
 some knots are tied in fun and for     
amusement1 so that a tyro may find      
difficulty in untying them1 which knots 
he who tied them can loose without any  
trouble1 because he knows the joinings  
and the difficulties of them1 and these 
nevertheless afford us some pleasure1   
because they test the sharpness of our  
wits1 and engross1 our attention2 so    
also these questions1 which seem subtle 
and tricky1 prevent our intellects      
becoming careless and lazy1 for they    
ought at one time to have a field given 
them to level1 in order that they may   
wander about it1 and at another to have 
some dark and rough passage thrown in   
their way for them to creep through1 and

 make their way with caution4 ,it is    
said by our opponent that no one is     
ungrateful2 and this is supported by the
 following arguments3 ,a benefit is that
 which does good2 but1 as you ,stoics   
say1 no one can do good to a bad man2   
therefore1 a bad man does not receive a 
benefit4 7,if he does not receive it1 he
 need not return it2 therefore1 no bad  
man is ungrateful47 ,furthermore1 a     
benefit is an honourable and commendable
 thing4 ,no honourable or commendable   
thing can find any place with a bad man2
 therefore1 neither can a benefit4 ,if  
he cannot receive one1 he need not repay
 one2 therefore1 he does not become     
ungrateful4 ,moreover1 as you say1 a    
good man does everything rightly2 if he 
does everything rightly1 he cannot be   
ungrateful4 ,a good man returns a       
benefit1 a bad man does not receive one4
 ,if this be so1 no man1 good or bad1   
can be ungrateful4 ,therefore1 there is 
no such thing in nature as an ungrateful
 man3 the word is meaningless4 ,we      

,stoics have only one kind of good1 that
 which is honourable4 ,this cannot come 
to a bad man1 for he would cease to be  
bad if virtue entered into him2 but as  
long as he is bad1 no one can bestow a  
benefit upon him1 because good and bad  
are contraries1 and cannot exist        
together4 ,therefore1 no one can do good
 to such a man1 because whatever he     
receives is corrupted by his vicious way
 of using it4 ,just as the stomach1 when
 disordered by disease and secreting    
bile1 changes all the food which it     
receives1 and turns every kind of       
sustenance into a source of pain1 so    
whatever you entrust to an ill-regulated
 mind becomes to it a burden1 an        
annoyance1 and a source of misery4 ,thus
 the most prosperous and the richest men
 have the most trouble2 and the more    
property they have to perplex them1 the 
less likely they are to find out what   
they really are4 ,nothing1 therefore1   
can reach bad men which would do them   
good2 nay1 nothing which would not do   

them harm4 ,they change whatever falls  
to their lot into their own evil nature2
 and things which elsewhere would1 if   
given to better men1 be both beautiful  
and profitable1 are ruinous to them4    
,they cannot1 therefore1 bestow         
benefits1 because no one can give what  
he does not possess1 and1 therefore1    
they lack the pleasure of doing good to 
others4  ,,xiii4 ,but1 though this be   
so1 yet even a bad man can receive some 
things which resemble benefits1 and he  
will be ungrateful if he does not return
 them4 ,there are good things belonging 
to the mind1 to the body1 and to        
fortune4 ,a fool or a bad man is        
debarred from the first--those1 that is1
 of the mind2 but he is admitted to a   
share in the two latter1 and1 if he does
 not return them1 he is ungrateful4 ,nor
 does this follow from our 7,stoic7     
system alone the ,peripatetics1 also1   
who widely extend the boundaries of     
human happiness1 declare that trifling  
benefits reach bad men1 and that he who 

does not return them is ungrateful4 ,we 
therefore do not agree that things which
 do not tend to improve the mind should 
be called benefits1 yet do not deny that
 these things are convenient and        
desirable4 ,such things as these a bad  
man may bestow upon a good man1 or may  
receive from him--such1 for example1 as 
money1 clothes1 public office1 or life2 
and1 if he makes no return for these1 he
 will come under the denomination of    
ungrateful4 ,but how can you call a man 
ungrateful for not returning that which 
you say is not a benefit8 ,some things1 
on account of their similarity1 are     
included under the same designation1    
although they do not really deserve it4 
,thus we speak of a silver or golden    
box2 ,the original word is 'pyx1' which 
means a box made of box-wood4 thus we   
call a man illiterate1 although he may  
not be utterly ignorant1 but only not   
acquainted with the higher branches of  
literature2 thus1 seeing a badly-dressed
 ragged man we say that we have seen a  

naked man4 ,these things of which we    
spoke are not benefits1 but they possess
 the appearance of benefits4 ,then1 just
 as they are quasi-benefits1 so your man
 is quasi-ungrateful1 not really        
ungrateful4 ,this is untrue1 because    
both he who gives and he who receives   
them speaks of them as benefits2 so he  
who fails to return the semblance of a  
real benefit is as much an ungrateful   
man as he who mixes a sleeping draught1 
believing it to be poison1 is a         
poisoner4  ,,xiv4 ,cleanthes speaks more
 impetuously than this4 ,granted1 says  
he1 that what he received was not a     
benefit1 yet he is ungrateful1 because  
he would not have returned a benefit if 
he had received one4 ,so he who carries 
deadly weapons and has intentions of    
robbing and murdering1 is a brigand even
 before he has dipped his hands in      
blood2 his wickedness consists and is   
shown in action1 but does not begin     
thereby4 ,men are punished for          
sacrilege1 although no one's hands can  

reach to the gods4 ,how1 asks our       
opponent1 can any one be ungrateful to a
 bad man1 since a bad man cannot bestow 
a benefit8 ,in the same way1 ,i answer1 
because that which he received was not a
 benefit1 but was called one2 if any one
 receives from a bad man any of those   
things which are valued by the ignorant1
 and of which bad men often possess     
great store1 it becomes his duty to make
 a return in the same kind1 and to give 
back as though they were truly good     
those things which he received as though
 they were truly good4 ,a man is said to
 be in debt1 whether he owes gold pieces
 or leather marked with a state stamp1  
such as the ,lacedaemonians used1 which 
passes for coined money4 ,pay your debts
 in that kind in which you incurred     
them4 ,you have nothing to do with the  
definition of benefits1 or with the     
question whether so great and noble a   
name ought to be degraded by applying it
 to such vulgar and mean matters as     
these1 nor do we seek for truth that we 

may use it to the disadvantage of       
others2 do you adjust your minds to the 
semblance of truth1 and while you are   
learning what is really honourable1     
respect everything to which the name of 
honour is applied4  ,,xv4 ,in the same  
way1 argues our adversary1 that your    
school proves that no one is ungrateful1
 you afterwards prove that all men are  
ungrateful4 ,for1 as you say1 all fools 
are bad men2 he who has one vice has all
 vices2 all men are both fools and bad  
men2 therefore all men are ungrateful4  
,well1 what then8 ,are they not8 ,is not
 this the universal reproach of the     
human race8 is there not a general      
complaint that benefits are thrown away1
 and that there are very few men who do 
not requite their benefactors with the  
basest ingratitude8 ,nor need you       
suppose that what we say is merely the  
grumbling of men who think every act    
wicked and depraved which falls short of
 an ideal standard of righteousness4    
,listen6 ,i know not who it is who      

speaks1 yet the voice with which he     
condemns mankind proceeds1 not from the 
schools of philosophers1 but from the   
midst of the crowd3    ,host is not safe
 from guest2    ,father-in-law from son2
 but seldom love    ,exists 'twixt      
brothers2 wives long to destroy         
,their husbands2 husbands long to slay  
their wives4  ,this goes even further3  
according to this1 crimes take the place
 of benefits1 and men do not shrink from
 shedding the blood of those for whom   
they ought to shed their own2 we requite
 benefits by steel and poison4 ,we call 
laying violent hands upon our own       
country1 and putting down its resistance
 by the fasces of its own lictors1      
gaining power and great place2 every man
 thinks himself to be in a mean and     
degraded position if he has not raised  
himself above the constitution2 the     
armies which are received from the state
 are turned against her1 and a general  
now says to his men1 ,fight against your
 wives1 fight against your children1    

march in arms against your altars1 your 
hearths and homes6 ,yes1 ,footnote3 ,i  
believe1 in spite of ,gertz1 that this  
is part of the speech of the ,roman     
general1 and that the conjecture of     
,muretus1 without the command of the    
senate1 gives better sense4 you1 who    
even when about to triumph ought not to 
enter the city at the command of the    
senate1 and who have often1 when        
bringing home a victorious army1 been   
given an audience outside the walls1 you
 now1 after slaughtering your           
countrymen1 stained with the blood of   
your kindred1 march into the city with  
standards erect4 ,let liberty1 say you1 
be silent amidst the ensigns of war1 and
 now that wars are driven far away and  
no ground for terror remains1 let that  
people which conquered and civilized all
 nations be beleaguered within its own  
walls1 and shudder at the sight of its  
own eagles4  ,,xvi4 ,coriolanus was     
ungrateful1 and became dutiful late1 and
 after repenting of his crime2 he did   

indeed lay down his arms1 but only in   
the midst of his unnatural warfare4     
,catilina was ungrateful2 he was not    
satisfied with taking his country       
captive without overturning it1 without 
despatching the hosts of the ,allobroges
 against it1 without bringing an enemy  
from beyond the ,alps to glut his old   
inborn hatred1 and to offer ,roman      
generals as sacrifices which had been   
long owing to the tombs of the ,gaulish 
dead4 ,caius ,marius was ungrateful1    
when1 after being raised from the ranks 
to the consulship1 he felt that he would
 not have wreaked his vengeance upon    
fortune1 and would sink to his original 
obscurity1 unless he slaughtered ,romans
 as freely as he had slaughtered the    
,cimbri1 and not merely gave the signal1
 but was himself the signal for civil   
disasters and butcheries4 ,lucius ,sulla
 was ungrateful1 for he saved his       
country by using remedies worse than the
 perils with which it was threatened1   
when he marched through human blood all 

the way from the citadel of ,praeneste  
to the ,colline ,gate1 fought more      
battles and caused more slaughter       
afterwards within the city1 and most    
cruelly after the victory was won1 most 
wickedly after quarter had been promised
 them1 drove two legions into a corner  
and put them to the sword1 and1 great   
gods6 invented a proscription by which  
he who slew a ,roman citizen received   
indemnity1 a sum of money1 everything   
but a civic crown6 ,cnaeus ,pompeius was
 ungrateful1 for the return which he    
made to his country for three           
consulships1 three triumphs1 and the    
innumerable public offices into most of 
which he thrust himself when under age1 
was to lead others also to lay hands    
upon her under the pretext of thus      
rendering his own power less odious2 as 
though what no one ought to do became   
right if more than one person did it4   
,whilst he was coveting extraordinary   
commands1 arranging the provinces so as 
to have his own choice of them1 and     

dividing the whole state with a third   
person1 ,footnote3 ,crassus4 in such a  
manner as to leave two-thirds of it in  
the possession of his own family1       
,footnote3 ,pompey was married to       
,caesar's daughter4 ,cf4 ,virg41 ,aen41 
vi41 #hca1 sq41 and ,lucan's beautiful  
verses1 ,phars41 i41 #aad4 he reduced   
the ,roman people to such a condition   
that they could only save themselves by 
submitting to slavery4 ,the foe and     
conqueror ,footnote3 ,seneca is careful 
to avoid the mention of ,caesar's name1 
which might have given offence to the   
emperors under whom he lived1 who used  
the name as a title4 of ,pompeius was   
himself ungrateful2 he brought war from 
,gaul and ,germany to ,rome1 and he1 the
 friend of the populace1 the champion of
 the commons1 pitched his camp in the   
,circus ,flaminus1 nearer to the city   
than ,porsena's camp had been4 ,he did1 
indeed1 use the cruel privileges of     
victory with moderation2 as was said at 
the time1 he protected his countrymen1  

and put to death no man who was not in  
arms4 ,yet what credit is there in this8
 ,others used their arms more cruelly1  
but flung them away when glutted with   
blood1 while he1 though he soon sheathed
 the sword1 never laid it aside4        
,antonius was ungrateful to his         
dictator1 who he declared was rightly   
slain1 and whose murderers he allowed to
 depart to their commands in the        
provinces2 as for his country1 after it 
had been torn to pieces by so many      
proscriptions1 invasions1 and civil     
wars1 he intended to subject it to      
kings1 not even of ,roman birth1 and to 
force that very state to pay tribute to 
eunuchs1 ,footnote3 ,the allusion is to 
,antonius's connection with ,cleopatra4 
,cf4 ,virg4 ,aen41 viii41 #fhh4 which   
had itself restored sovereign rights1   
autonomy1 and immunities1 to the        
,achaeans1 the ,rhodians1 and the people
 of many other famous cities4  ,,xvii4  
,the day would not be long enough for me
 to enumerate those who have pushed     

their ingratitude so far as to ruin     
their native land4 ,it would be as vast 
a task to mention how often the state   
has been ungrateful to its best and most
 devoted lovers1 although it has done no
 less wrong than it has suffered4 ,it   
sent ,camillus and ,scipio into exile2  
even after the death of ,catiline it    
exiled ,cicero1 destroyed his house1    
plundered his property1 and did         
everything which ,catiline would have   
done if victorious2 ,rutilius found his 
virtue rewarded with a hiding-place in  
,asia2 to ,cato the ,roman people       
refused the praetorship1 and persisted  
in refusing the consulship4 ,we are     
ungrateful in public matters2 and if    
every man asks himself1 you will find   
that there is no one who has not some   
private ingratitude to complain of4 ,yet
 it is impossible that all men should   
complain1 unless all were deserving of  
complaint1 therefore all men are        
ungrateful4 ,are they ungrateful alone8 
nay1 they are also all covetous1 all    

spiteful1 and all cowardly1 especially  
those who appear daring2 and1 besides   
this1 all men fawn upon the great1 and  
all are impious4 ,yet you need not be   
angry with them2 pardon them1 for they  
are all mad4 ,i do not wish to recall   
you to what is not proved1 or to say1   
,see how ungrateful is youth6 what young
 man1 even if of innocent life1 does not
 long for his father's death8 even if   
moderate in his desires1 does not look  
forward to it8 even if dutiful1 does not
 think about it8 ,how few there are who 
fear the death even of the best of      
wives1 who do not even calculate the    
probabilities of it4 ,pray1 what        
litigant1 after having been successfully
 defended1 retains any remembrance of so
 great a benefit for more than a few    
days8 ,all agree that no one dies       
without complaining4 ,who on his last   
day dares to say1    ,i've lived1 ,i've 
done the task which ,fortune set me4    
,who does not leave the world with      
reluctance1 and with lamentations8 ,yet 

it is the part of an ungrateful man not 
to be satisfied with the past4 ,your    
days will always be few if you count    
them4 ,reflect that length of time is   
not the greatest of blessings2 make the 
best of your time1 however short it may 
be2 even if the day of your death be    
postponed1 your happiness will not be   
increased1 for life is merely made      
longer1 not pleasanter1 by delay4 ,how  
much better is it to be thankful for the
 pleasures which one has received1 not  
to reckon up the years of others1 but to
 set a high value upon one's own1 and   
score them to one's credit1 saying1 ,god
 thought me worthy of this2 ,i am       
satisfied with it2 he might have given  
me more1 but this1 too1 is a benefit4   
,let us be grateful towards both gods   
and men1 grateful to those who have     
given us anything1 and grateful even to 
those who have given anything to our    
relatives4  ,,xviii4 ,you render me     
liable to an infinite debt of gratitude1
 says our opponent1 when you say 'even  

to those who have given any thing to our
 relations1' so fix some limit4 ,he who 
bestows a benefit upon the son1         
according to you1 bestows it likewise   
upon the father3 this is the first      
question ,i wish to raise4 ,in the next 
place ,i should like to have a clear    
definition of whether a benefit1 if it  
be bestowed upon your friend's father as
 well as upon himself1 is bestowed also 
upon his brother8 or upon his uncle8 or 
his grandfather8 or his wife and his    
father-in-law8 tell me where ,i am to   
stop1 how far ,i am to follow out the   
pedigree of the family8  ,,seneca4 ,if  
,i cultivate your land1 ,i bestow a     
benefit upon you2 if ,i extinguish your 
house when burning1 or prop it so as to 
save it from falling1 ,i shall bestow a 
benefit upon you2 if ,i heal your slave1
 ,i shall charge it to you2 if ,i save  
your son's life1 will you not thereby   
receive a benefit from me8  ,,xix4 ,,the
 ,,adversary4 ,your instances are not to
 the purpose1 for he who cultivates my  

land1 does not benefit the land1 but me2
 he who props my house so that it does  
not fall1 does this service to me1 for  
the house itself is without feeling1 and
 as it has none1 it is ,i who am        
indebted to him2 and he who cultivates  
my land does so because he wishes to    
oblige me1 not to oblige the land4 ,i   
should say the same of a slave2 he is a 
chattel owned by me2 he is saved for my 
advantage1 therefore ,i am indebted for 
him4 ,my son is himself capable of      
receiving a benefit2 so it is he who    
receives it2 ,i am gratified at a       
benefit which comes so near to myself1  
but am not laid under any obligation4   
,,se4 ,still ,i should like you1 who say
 that you are under no obligation1 to   
answer me this4 ,the good health1 the   
happiness1 and the inheritance of a son 
are connected with his father2 his      
father will be more happy if he keeps   
his son safe1 and more unhappy if he    
loses him4 ,what follows1 then8 when a  
man is made happier by me and is freed  

from the greatest danger of unhappiness1
 does he not receive a benefit8  ,,ad4  
,no1 because there are some things which
 are bestowed upon others1 and yet flow 
from them so as to reach ourselves2 yet 
we must ask the person upon whom it was 
bestowed for repayment2 as for example1 
money must be sought from the man to    
whom it was lent1 although it may1 by   
some means1 have come into my hands4    
,there is no benefit whose advantages do
 not extend to the receiver's nearest   
friends1 and sometimes even to those    
less intimately connected with him2 yet 
we do not enquire whither the benefit   
has proceeded from him to whom it was   
first given1 but where it was first     
placed4 ,you must demand repayment from 
the defendant himself personally4  ,,se4
 ,well1 but ,i pray you1 do you not say1
 you have preserved my son for me2 had  
he perished1 ,i could not have survived 
him8 ,do you not owe a benefit for the  
life of one whose safety you value above
 your own8 ,moreover1 should ,i save    

your son's life1 you would fall down    
before my knees1 and would pay vows to  
heaven as though you yourself had been  
saved2 you would say1 ,it makes no      
difference whether you have saved mine  
or me2 you have saved us both1 yet me   
more than him4 ,why do you say this1 if 
you do not receive a benefit8  ,a4,d4   
,because1 if my son were to contract a  
loan1 ,i should pay his creditor1 yet ,i
 should not1 therefore1 be indebted to  
him2 or if my son were taken in         
adultery1 ,i should blush1 yet ,i should
 not1 therefore1 be an adulterer4 ,i say
 that ,i am under an obligation to you  
for saving my son1 not because ,i really
 am1 but because ,i am willing to       
constitute myself your debtor of my own 
free will4 ,on the other hand ,i have   
derived from his safety the greatest    
possible pleasure and advantage1 and ,i 
have escaped that most dreadful blow1   
the loss of my child4 ,true1 but we are 
not now discussing whether you have done
 me any good or not1 but whether you    

have bestowed a benefit upon me2 for    
animals1 stones1 and herbs can do one   
good1 but do not bestow benefits1 which 
can only be given by one who wishes well
 to the receiver4 ,now you do not wish  
well to the father1 but only to the son2
 and sometimes you do not even know the 
father4 ,so when you have said1 ,have ,i
 not bestowed a benefit upon the father 
by saving the son8 you ought to meet    
this with1 ,have ,i1 then1 bestowed a   
benefit upon a father whom ,i do not    
know1 whom ,i never thought of8 ,and    
what will you say when1 as is sometimes 
the case1 you hate the father1 and yet  
save his son8 ,can you be thought to    
have bestowed a benefit upon one whom   
you hated most bitterly while you were  
bestowing it8  ,however1 if ,i were to  
lay aside the bickering of dialogue1 and
 answer you as a lawyer1 ,i should say  
that you ought to consider the intention
 of the giver1 you must regard his      
benefit as bestowed upon the person upon
 whom he meant to bestow it4 ,if he did 

it in honour of the father1 then the    
father received the benefit2 if he      
thought only of the son1 then the father
 is not laid under any obligation3 by   
the benefit which was conferred upon the
 son1 even though the father derives    
pleasure from it4 ,should he1 however1  
have an opportunity1 he will himself    
wish to give you something1 yet not as  
though he were forced to repay a debt1  
but rather as if he had grounds for     
beginning an exchange of favours4 ,no   
return for a benefit ought to be        
demanded from the father of the         
receiver2 if he does you any kindness in
 return for it1 he should be regarded   
as1 a righteous man1 but not as a       
grateful one4 ,for there is no end to   
it2 if ,i bestow a benefit on the       
receiver's father1 do ,i likewise bestow
 it upon his mother1 his grandfather1   
his maternal uncle1 his children1       
relations1 friends1 slaves1 and country8
 ,where1 then1 does a benefit begin to  
stop8 for there follows it this endless 

chain of people1 to whom it is hard to  
assign bounds1 because they join it by  
degrees1 and are always creeping on     
towards it4  ,,xx4 ,a common question   
is1 ,two brothers are at variance4 ,if  
,i save the life of one1 do ,i confer a 
benefit upon the other1 who will be     
sorry that his hated brother did not    
perish8 ,there can be no doubt that it  
is a benefit to do good to a man1 even  
against that man's will1 just as he1 who
 against his own will does a man good1  
does not bestow a benefit upon him4 ,do 
you1 asks our adversary1 call that by   
which he is displeased and hurt a       
benefit8 ,yes2 many benefits have a     
harsh and forbidding appearance1 such as
 cutting or burning to cure disease1 or 
confining with chains4 ,we must not     
consider whether a man is grieved at    
receiving a benefit1 but whether he     
ought to rejoice3 a coin is not bad     
because it is refused by a savage who is
 unacquainted with its proper stamp4 ,a 
man receives a benefit even though he   

hates what is done1 provided that it    
does him good1 and that the giver       
bestowed it in order to do him good4 ,it
 makes no difference if he receives a   
good thing in a bad spirit4 ,consider   
the converse of this4 ,suppose that a   
man hates his brother1 though it is to  
his advantage to have a brother1 and ,i 
kill this brother1 this is not a        
benefit1 though he may say that it is1  
and be glad of it4 ,our most artful     
enemies are those whom we thank for the 
wrongs which they do us4  ,i understand2
 a thing which does good is a benefit1 a
 thing which does harm is not a benefit4
 ,now ,i will suggest to you an act     
which neither does good nor harm1 and   
yet is a benefit4 ,suppose that ,i find 
the corpse of some one's father in a    
wilderness1 and bury it1 then ,i        
certainly have done him no good1 for    
what difference could it make to him in 
what manner his body decayed8 ,nor have 
,i done any good to his son1 for what   
advantage does he gain by my act8 ,i    

will tell you what he gains4 ,he has by 
my means performed a solemn and         
necessary rite2 ,i have performed a     
service for his father which he would   
have wished1 nay1 which it would have   
been his duty to have performed himself4
 ,yet this act is not a benefit1 if ,i  
merely yielded to those feelings of pity
 and kindliness which would make me bury
 any corpse whatever1 but only if ,i    
recognized this body1 and buried it1    
with the thought in my mind that ,i was 
doing this service to the son2 but1 by  
merely throwing earth over a dead       
stranger1 ,i lay no one under an        
obligation for an act performed on      
general principles of humanity4  ,it may
 be asked1 ,why are you so careful in   
inquiring upon whom you bestow benefits1
 as though some day you meant to demand 
repayment of them8 ,some say that       
repayment should never be demanded2 and 
they give the following reasons4 ,an    
unworthy man will not repay the benefit 
which he has received1 even if it be    

demanded of him1 while a worthy man will
 do so of his own accord4 ,consequently1
 if you have bestowed it upon a good    
man1 wait2 do not outrage him by asking 
him for it1 as though of his own accord 
he never would repay it4 ,if you have   
bestowed it upon a bad man1 suffer for  
it1 but do not spoil your benefit by    
turning it into a loan4 ,moreover the   
law1 by not authorizing you1 forbids    
you1 by implication1 to demand the      
repayment of a benefit4 ,all this is    
nonsense4 ,as long as ,i am in no       
pressing need1 as long as ,i am not     
forced by poverty1 ,i will lose my      
benefits rather than ask for repayment2 
but if the lives of my children were at 
stake1 if my wife were in danger1 if my 
regard for the welfare of my country and
 for my own liberty were to force me to 
adopt a course which ,i disliked1 ,i    
should overcome my delicacy1 and openly 
declare that ,i had done all that ,i    
could to avoid the necessity of         
receiving help from an ungrateful man2  

the necessity of obtaining repayment of 
one's benefit will in the end overcome  
one's delicacy about asking for it4 ,in 
the next place1 when ,i bestow a benefit
 upon a good man1 ,i do so with the     
intention of never demanding repayment1 
except in case of absolute necessity4   
,,xxi4 ,but1 argues he1 by not          
authorizing you1 the law forbids you to 
exact repayment4 ,there are many things 
which are not enforced by any law or    
process1 but which the conventions of   
society1 which are stronger than any    
law1 compel us to observe4 ,there is no 
law forbidding us to divulge our        
friend's secrets2 there is no law which 
bids us keep faith even with an enemy2  
pray what law is there which binds us to
 stand by what we have promised8 ,there 
is none4 ,nevertheless ,i should        
remonstrate with one who did not keep a 
secret1 and ,i should be indignant with 
one who pledged his word and broke it4  
,but1 he argues1 you are turning a      
benefit into a loan4 ,by no means1 for  

,i do not insist upon repayment1 but    
only demand it2 nay1 ,i do not even     
demand it1 but remind my friend of it4  
,even the direst need will not bring me 
to apply for help to one with whom ,i   
should have to undergo a long struggle4 
,if there be any one so ungrateful that 
it is not sufficient to remind him of   
his debt1 ,i should pass him over1 and  
think that he did not deserve to be made
 grateful by force4 ,a money-lender does
 not demand repayment from his debtors  
if he knows they have become bankrupt1  
and1 to their shame1 have nothing but   
shame left to lose2 and ,i1 like him1   
should pass over those who are openly   
and obstinately ungrateful1 and would   
demand repayment only from those who    
were likely to give it me1 not from     
those from whom ,i should have to extort
 it by force4  ,,xxii4 ,there are many  
who cannot deny that they have received 
a benefit1 yet cannot return it--men who
 are not good enough to be termed       
grateful1 nor yet bad enough to be      

termed ungrateful2 but who are dull and 
sluggish1 backward debtors1 though not  
defaulters4 ,such men as these ,i should
 not ask for repayment1 but forcibly    
remind them of it1 and1 from a state of 
indifference1 bring them back to their  
duty4 ,they would at once reply1        
,forgive me2 ,i did not know1 by        
,hercules1 that you missed this1 or ,i  
would have offered it of my own accord1 
,i beg that you will not think me       
ungrateful2 ,i remember your goodness to
 me4 ,why need ,i hesitate to make such 
men as these better to themselves and to
 me8 ,i would prevent any one from doing
 wrong1 if ,i were able2 much more would
 ,i prevent a friend1 both lest he      
should do wrong1 and lest he should do  
wrong to me in particular4 ,i bestow a  
second benefit upon him by not          
permitting him to be ungrateful2 and ,i 
should not reproach him harshly with    
what ,i had done for him1 but should    
speak as gently as ,i could4 ,in order  
to afford him an opportunity of         

returning my kindness1 ,i should refresh
 his remembrance of it1 and ask for a   
benefit2 he would understand that ,i was
 asking for repayment4 ,sometimes ,i    
would make use of somewhat severe       
language1 if ,i had any hope that by it 
he might be amended2 though ,i would not
 irritate a hopelessly ungrateful man1  
for fear that ,i might turn him into an 
enemy4 ,if we spare the ungrateful even 
the affront of reminding them of their  
conduct1 we shall render them' more     
backward in returning benefits2 and     
although some might be cured of their   
evil ways1 and be made into good men1 if
 their consciences were stung by        
remorse1 yet we shall allow them to     
perish for want of a word of warning1   
with which a father sometimes corrects  
his son1 a wife brings back to herself  
an erring husband1 or a man stimulates  
the wavering fidelity of his friend4    
,,xxiii4 ,to awaken some men1 it is only
 necessary to stir them1 not to strike  
them2 in like manner1 with some men1 the

 feeling of honour about returning a    
benefit is not extinct1 but slumbering4 
,let us rouse it4 ,do not1 they will    
say1 make the kindness you have done me 
into a wrong3 for it is a wrong1 if you 
do not demand some return from me1 and  
so make me ungrateful4 ,what if ,i do   
not know what sort of repayment you wish
 for8 if ,i am so occupied by business1 
and my attention is so much diverted to 
other subjects that ,i have not been    
able to watch for an opportunity of     
serving you8 ,point out to me what ,i   
can do for you1 what you wish me to do4 
,why do you despair1 before making a    
trial of me8 ,why are you in such haste 
to lose both your benefit and your      
friend8 ,how can you tell whether ,i do 
not wish1 or whether ,i do not know how 
to repay you3 whether it be in intention
 or in opportunity that ,i am wanting8  
,make a trial of me4 ,i would therefore 
remind him of what ,i had done1 without 
bitterness1 not in public1 or in a      
reproachful manner1 but so that he may  

think that he himself has remembered it 
rather than that it has been recalled to
 him4  ,,xxiv4 ,one of ,julius ,caesar's
 veterans was once pleading before him  
against his neighbours1 and the cause   
was going against him4 ,do you remember1
 general1 said he1 that in ,spain you   
dislocated your ankle near the river    
,sucro ,footnote3 ,xucar8 ,when ,caesar 
said that he remembered it1 he          
continued1 ,do you remember that when1  
during the excessive heat1 you wished to
 rest under a tree which afforded very  
little shade1 as the ground in which    
that solitary tree grew was rough and   
rocky1 one of your comrades spread his  
cloak under you8 ,caesar answered1 ,of  
course1 ,i remember2 indeed1 ,i was     
perishing with thirst2 and since was    
unable to walk to the nearest spring1 ,i
 would have crawled thither on my hands 
and knees1 had not my comrade1 a brave  
and active man1 brought me water in his 
helmet4 ,could you1 then1 my general1   
recognize that man or that helmet8      

,caesar replied that he could not       
remember the helmet1 but that he could  
remember the man well2 and he added1 ,i 
fancy in anger at being led away to this
 old story in the midst of a judicial   
enquiry1 ,at any rate1 you are not he4  
,i do not blame you1 ,caesar1 answered  
the man1 for not recognizing me2 for    
when this took place1 ,i was unwounded2 
but afterwards1 at the battle of ,munda1
 my eye was struck out1 and the bones of
 my skull crushed4 ,nor would you       
recognize that helmet if you saw it1 for
 it was split by a ,spanish sword4      
,caesar would not permit this man to be 
troubled with lawsuits1 and presented   
his old soldier with the fields through 
which a village right of way had given  
rise to the dispute4  ,,xxv4 ,in this   
case1 what ought he to have done8       
,because his commander's memory was     
confused by a multitude of incidents1   
and because his position as the leader  
of vast armies did not permit him to    
notice individual soldiers1 ought the   

man not to have asked for a return for  
the benefit which he had conferred8 ,to 
act as he did is not so much to ask for 
a return as to take it when it lies in a
 convenient position ready for us1      
although we have to stretch out our     
hands in order to receive it4 ,i shall  
therefore ask for the return of a       
benefit1 whenever ,i am either reduced  
to great straits1 or where by doing so  
,i shall act to the advantage of him    
from whom ,i ask it4 ,tiberius ,caesar1 
when some one addressed him with the    
words1 ,do you remember44448 answered1  
before the man could mention any further
 proofs of former acquaintance1 ,i do   
not remember what ,i was4 ,why should it
 not be forbidden to demand of this man 
repayment of former favours8 ,he had a  
motive for forgetting them3 he denied   
all knowledge of his friends and        
comrades1 and wished men only to see1 to
 think1 and to speak of him as emperor4 
,he regarded his old friend as an       
impertinent meddler4  ,we ought to be   

even more careful to choose a favorable 
opportunity when we ask for a benefit to
 be repaid to us than when we ask for   
one to be bestowed upon us4 ,we must be 
temperate in our language1 so that the  
grateful may not take offence1 or the   
ungrateful pretend to do so4 ,if we     
lived among wise men1 it would be our   
duty to wait in silence until our       
benefits were returned4 ,yet even to    
wise men it would be better to give some
 hint of what our position required4 ,we
 ask for help even from the gods        
themselves1 from whose knowledge nothing
 is hid1 although our prayers cannot    
alter their intentions towards us1 but  
can only recall them to their minds4    
,homer's priest1 ,il4 i4 #ci sqq4 ,i    
say1 recounts even to the gods his      
duteous conduct and his pious care of   
their altars4 ,the second best form of  
virtue is to be willing and able to take
 advice4,hes4 ,op4 #bia4 ,a horse who is
 docile and prompt to obey can be guided
 hither and thither by the slightest    

movement of the reins4 ,very few men are
 led by their own reason3 those who come
 next to the best are those who return  
to the right path in consequence of     
advice2 and these we must not deprive of
 their guide4 ,when our eyes are covered
 they still possess sight2 but it is the
 light of day which1 when admitted to   
them1 summons them to perform their     
duty3 tools lie idle1 unless the workman
 uses them to take part in his work4    
,similarly men's minds contain a good   
feeling1 which1 however1 lies torpid1   
either through luxury and disuse1 or    
through ignorance of its duties4 ,this  
we ought to render useful1 and not to   
get into a passion with it1 and leave it
 in its wrong doing1 but bear with it   
patiently1 just as schoolmasters bear   
patiently with the blunders of forgetful
 scholars2 for as by the prompting of a 
word or two their memory is often       
recalled to the text of the speech which
 they have to repeat1 so men's goodwill 
can be brought to return kindness by    

reminding them of it4     ,,book ,,vi4  
,i4   ,there are some things1 my most   
excellent ,liberalis1 which lie         
completely outside of our actual life1  
and which we only inquire into in order 
to exercise our intellects1 while others
 both give us pleasure while we are     
discovering them1 and are of use when   
discovered4 ,i will place all these in  
your hands2 you1 at your own discretion1
 may order them either to be            
investigated thoroughly1 or to be       
reserved1 and be used as agreeable      
interludes4 ,something will be gained   
even by those which you dismiss at once1
 for it is advantageous even to know    
what subjects are not worth learning4 ,i
 shall be guided1 therefore1 by your    
face3 according to its expression1 ,i   
shall deal with some questions at       
greater length1 and drive others out of 
court1 and put an end to them at once4  
,,ii4 ,it is a question whether a       
benefit can be taken away from one by   
force4 ,some say that it cannot1 because

 it is not a thing1 but an act4 ,a gift 
is not the same as the act of giving1   
any more than a sailor is the same as   
the act of sailing4 ,a sick man and a   
disease are not the same thing1 although
 no one can be ill without disease2 and1
 similarly1 a benefit itself is one     
thing1 and what any of us receive       
through a benefit is another4 ,the      
benefit itself is incorporeal1 and never
 becomes invalid2 but its subject-matter
 changes owners1 and passes from hand to
 hand4 ,so1 when you take away from     
anyone what you have given him1 you take
 away the subject-matter only of the    
benefit1 not the benefit itself4 ,nature
 herself cannot recall what she has     
given4 ,she may cease to bestow         
benefits1 but cannot take them away3 a  
man who dies1 yet has lived2 a man who  
becomes blind1 nevertheless has seen4   
,she can cut off her blessings from us  
in the future1 but she cannot prevent   
our having enjoyed them in the past4 ,we
 are frequently not able to enjoy a     

benefit for long1 but the benefit is not
 thereby destroyed4 ,let ,nature        
struggle as hard as she please1 she     
cannot give herself retrospective       
action4 ,a man may lose his house1 his  
money1 his property--everything to which
 the name of benefit can be given--yet  
the benefit itself will remain firm and 
unmoved2 no power can prevent his       
benefactor's having bestowed them1 or   
his having received them4  ,,iii4 ,i    
think that a fine passage in ,rabirius's
 poem1 where ,m4 ,antonius1 seeing his  
fortune deserting him1 nothing left him 
except the privilege of dying1 and even 
that only on condition that he used it  
promptly1 exclaims1    ,what ,i have    
given1 that ,i now possess6  ,how much  
he might have possessed1 had he chosen6 
,these are riches to be depended upon1  
which through all the turmoil of human  
life will remain steadfast2 and the     
greater they are1 the less envy they    
will attract4 ,why are you sparing of   
your property1 as though it were your   

own8 ,you are but the manager of it4    
,all those treasures1 which make you    
swell with pride1 and soar above mere   
mortals1 till you forget the weakness of
 your nature2 all that which you lock up
 in iron-grated treasuries1 and guard in
 arms1 which you win from other men with
 their lives1 and defend at the risk of 
your own2 for which you launch fleets to
 dye the sea with blood1 and shake the  
walls of cities1 not knowing what arrows
 fortune may be preparing for you behind
 your back2 to gain which you have so   
often violated all the ties of          
relationship1 of friendship1 and of     
colleagueship1 till the whole world lies
 crushed between the two combatants3 all
 these are not yours2 they are a kind of
 deposit1 which is on the point of      
passing into other hands3 your enemies1 
or your heirs1 who are little better1   
will seize upon them4 ,how1 do you ask1 
can you make them your own8 ,by giving  
them away4 ,do1 then1 what is best for  
your own interests1 and gain a sure     

enjoyment of them1 which cannot be taken
 from you1 making them at once more     
certainly yours1 and more honorable to  
you4 ,that which you esteem so highly1  
that by which you think that you are    
made rich and powerful1 owns but the    
shabby title of house1 slave1 or money2 
but when you have given it away1 it     
becomes a benefit4  ,,iv4 ,you admit1   
says our adversary1 that we sometimes   
are under no obligation to him from whom
 we have received a benefit4 ,in that   
case it has been taken by force4 ,nay1  
there are many things which would cause 
us to cease to feel gratitude for a     
benefit1 not because the benefit has    
been taken from me1 but because it has  
been spoiled4 ,suppose that a man has   
defended me in a lawsuit1 but has       
forcibly outraged my wife2 he has not   
taken away the benefit which he         
conferred upon me1 but by balancing it  
with an equivalent wrong1 he has set me 
free from my debt2 indeed1 if he has    
injured me more than he had previously  

benefited me1 he not only puts an end to
 my gratitude1 but makes me free to     
revenge myself upon him1 and to complain
 of him1 when the wrong outweighs the   
benefit2 in such a case the benefit is  
not taken away1 but is overcome4 ,why1  
are not some fathers so cruel and so    
wicked that it is right and proper for  
their sons to turn away from them1 and  
disown them8 ,yet1 pray1 have they taken
 away the life which they gave8 ,no1 but
 their unnatural conduct in later years 
has destroyed all the gratitude which   
was due to them for their original      
benefit4 ,in these cases it is not a    
benefit itself1 but the gratitude owing 
for a benefit which is taken away1 and  
the result is1 not that one does not    
possess the benefit1 but that one is not
 laid under any obligation by it4 ,it is
 as though a man were to lend me money1 
and then burn my house down2 the        
advantage of the loan is balanced by the
 damage which he has caused3 ,i do not  
repay him1 and yet ,i am not in his     

debt4 ,in like manner any one who may   
have acted kindly and generously to me1 
and who afterwards has shown himself    
haughty1 insulting1 and cruel1 places me
 in just the same position as though ,i 
never had received anything from him3 he
 has murdered his own benefits4 ,though 
the lease may remain in force1 still a  
man does not continue to be a tenant if 
his landlord tramples down his crops1 or
 cuts down his orchard2 their contract  
is at an end1 not because the landlord  
has received the rent which was agreed  
upon1 but because he has made it        
impossible that he should receive it4   
,so1 too1 a creditor often has to pay   
money to his debtor1 should he have     
taken more property from him in other   
transactions than he claims as having   
lent him4 ,the judge does not sit merely
 to decide between debtor and creditor1 
when he says1 ,you did lend the man     
money2 but then1 what followed8 ,you    
have driven away his cattle1 you have   
murdered his slave1 you have in your    

possession plate which you have not paid
 for4 ,after valuing what each has      
received1 ,i order you1 who came to this
 court as a creditor1 to leave it as a  
debtor4 ,in like manner a balance is    
struck between benefits and injuries4   
,in many cases1 ,i repeat1 a benefit is 
not taken away from him who receives it1
 and yet it lays him under no           
obligation1 if the giver has repented of
 giving it1 called himself unhappy      
because he gave it1 sighed or made a wry
 face while he gave it2 if he thought   
that he was throwing it away rather than
 giving it1 if he gave it to please     
himself1 or to please any one except me1
 the receiver2 if he persistently makes 
himself offensive by boasting of what he
 has done1 if he brags of his gift      
everywhere1 and makes it a misery to me1
 then indeed the benefit remains in my  
hands1 but ,i owe him nothing for it1   
just as sums of money to which a        
creditor has no legal right are owed to 
him1 but cannot be claimed by him4  ,v4 

,though you have bestowed a benefit upon
 me1 yet you have since done me a wrong2
 the benefit demanded gratitude1 the    
wrong required vengeance3 the result is 
that ,i do not owe you gratitude1 nor do
 you owe me compensation--each is       
cancelled by the other4 ,when we say1 ,i
 returned him his benefit1 we do not    
mean that we restored to him the very   
thing which we had received1 but        
something else in its place4 ,to return 
is to give back one thing instead of    
another1 because1 of course1 in all     
repayment it is not the thing itself1   
but its equivalent which is returned4   
,we are said to have returned money even
 though we count out gold pieces instead
 of silver ones1 or even if no money    
passes between us1 but the transaction  
be effected verbally by the assignment  
of a debt4  ,i think ,i see you say1    
,you are wasting your time2 of what use 
is it to me to know whether what ,i do  
not owe to another still remains in my  
hands or not8 ,these are like the       

ingenious subtleties of the lawyers1 who
 declare that one cannot acquire an     
inheritance by prescription1 but can    
only acquire those things of which the  
inheritance consists1 as though there   
were any difference between the heritage
 and the things of which it consists4   
,rather decide this point for me1 which 
may be of use4 ,if the same man confers 
a benefit upon me1 and afterwards does  
me a wrong1 is it my duty to return the 
benefit to him1 and nevertheless to     
avenge myself upon him1 having1 as it   
were1 two distinct accounts open with   
him1 or to mix them both together1 and  
do nothing1 leaving the benefit to be   
wiped out by the injury1 the injury by  
the benefit8 ,i see that the former     
course is adopted by the law of the     
land2 you know best what the law may be 
among you ,stoic philosophers in such a 
case4 ,i suppose that you keep the      
action which ,i bring against another   
distinct from that which he ,strings    
against me1 and the two processes are   

not merged into one8 ,for instance1 if a
 man entrusts me with money1 and        
afterwards robs me1 ,i shall bring an   
action against him for theft1 and he    
will bring one against me for unlawfully
 detaining his property8  ,,vi4 ,the    
cases which you have mentioned1 my      
,liberalis1 come under well-established 
laws1 which it is necessary for us to   
follow4 ,one law cannot be merged in    
another3 each one proceeds its own way4 
,there is a particular action which     
deals with deposits just as there is one
 which deals with theft4 ,a benefit is  
subject to no law2 it depends upon my   
own arbitration4 ,i am at liberty to    
contrast the amount of good or harm     
which any one may have done me1 and then
 to decide which of us is indebted to   
the other4 ,in legal processes we       
ourselves have no power1 we must go     
whither they lead us2 in the case of a  
benefit the supreme power is mine1 ,i   
pronounce sentence4 ,consequently ,i do 
not separate or distinguish between     

benefits and wrongs1 but send them      
before the same judge4 ,unless ,i did   
so1 you would bid me love and hate1 give
 thanks and make complaints at the same 
time1 which human nature does not admit 
of4 ,i would rather compare the benefit 
and the injury with one another1 and see
 whether there were any balance in my   
favour4 ,if anybody puts lines of other 
writing upon my manuscript he conceals1 
though he does not take away1 the       
letters which were there before1 and in 
like manner a wrong coming after a      
benefit does not allow it to be seen4   
,,vii4 ,your face1 by which ,i have     
agreed to be guided1 now becomes        
wrinkled with frowns1 as though ,i were 
straying too widely from the subject4   
,you seem to say to me3   ,why steer to 
seaward8   ,hither bend thy course1     
,hug close the shore444  ,i do hug it as
 close as possible4 ,so now1 if you     
think that we have dwelt sufficiently   
upon this point1 let us proceed to the  
consideration of the next--that is1     

whether we are at all indebted to any   
one who does us good without wishing to 
do so4 ,i might have expressed this more
 clearly1 if it were not right that the 
question should be somewhat obscurely   
stated1 in order that by the distinction
 immediately following it may be shown  
that we mean to investigate the case    
both of him who does us good against his
 will1 and that of him who does us good 
without knowing it4 ,that a man who does
 us good by acting under compulsion does
 not thereby lay us under any           
obligation1 is so clear1 that no words  
are needed to prove it4 ,both this      
question1 and any other of the like     
character which may be raised1 can      
easily be settled if in each case we    
bear in mind that1 for anything to be a 
benefit1 it must reach us in the first  
place through some thought1 and secondly
 through the thought of a friend and    
well-wisher4 ,therefore we do not feel  
any gratitude towards rivers1 albeit    
they may bear large ships1 afford an    

ample and unvarying stream for the      
conveyance of merchandise1 or flow      
beauteously and full of fish through    
fertile fields4 ,no one conceives       
himself to be indebted for a benefit to 
the ,nile1 any more than he would owe it
 a grudge if its waters flooded his     
fields to excess1 and retired more      
slowly than usual2 the wind does not    
bestow benefits1 gentle and favorable   
though it may be1 nor does wholesome and
 useful food2 for he who would bestow a 
benefit upon me1 must not only do me    
good1 but must wish to do so4 ,no       
obligation can therefore be incurred    
towards dumb animals2 yet how many men  
have been saved from peril by the       
swiftness of a horse6--nor yet towards  
trees--yet how many sufferers from      
summer heat have been sheltered by the  
thick foliage of a tree6 ,what          
difference can it make1 whether ,i have 
profited by the act of one who did not  
know that he was doing me good1 or one  
who could not know it1 when in each case

 the will to do me good was wanting8    
,you might as well bid me be grateful to
 a ship1 a carriage1 or a lance for     
saving me from danger1 as bid me be     
grateful to a man who may have done me  
good by chance1 but with no more        
intention of doing me good than those   
things could have4  ,,viii4 ,some men   
may receive benefits without knowing it1
 but no man can bestow them without     
knowing it4 ,many sick persons have been
 cured by chance circumstances1 which do
 not therefore become specific remedies2
 as1 for instance1 one man was restored 
to health by falling into a river during
 very cold weather1 as another was set  
free from a quartan fever by means of a 
flogging1 because the sudden terror     
turned his attention into a new channel1
 so that the dangerous hours passed     
unnoticed4 ,yet none of these are       
remedies1 even though they may have been
 successful2 and in like manner some men
 do us good1 though they are            
unwilling--indeed1 because they are     

unwilling to do so--yet we need not feel
 grateful to them as though we had      
received a benefit from them1 because   
fortune has changed the evil which they 
intended into good4 ,do you suppose that
 ,i am indebted to a man who strikes my 
enemy with a blow which he aimed at me1 
who would have injured me had he not    
missed his mark8 ,it often happens that 
by openly perjuring himself a man makes 
even trustworthy witnesses disbelieved1 
and renders his intended victim an      
object of compassion1 as though he were 
being ruined by a conspiracy4 ,some have
 been saved by the very power which was 
exerted to crush them1 and judges who   
would have condemned a man by law1 have 
refused to condemn him by favour4 ,yet  
they did not confer a benefit upon the  
accused1 although they rendered him a   
service1 because we must consider at    
what the dart was aimed1 not what it    
hits1 and a benefit is distinguished    
from an injury not by its result1 but by
 the spirit in which it was meant4 ,by  

contradicting himself1 by irritating the
 judge by his arrogance1 or by rashly   
allowing his whole case to depend upon  
the testimony of one witness1 my        
opponent may have saved my cause4 ,i do 
not consider whether his mistakes       
benefited me or not1 for he wished me   
ill4  ,,ix4 ,in order that ,i may be    
grateful1 ,i must wish to do what my    
benefactor must have wished in order    
that he might bestow a benefit4 ,can    
anything be more unjust than to bear a  
grudge against a person who may have    
trodden upon one's foot in a crowd1 or  
splashed one1 or pushed one the way     
which one did not wish to go8 ,yet it   
was by his act that we were injured1 and
 we only refrain from complaining of    
him1 because he did not know what he was
 doing4 ,the same reason makes it       
possible for men to do us good without  
conferring benefits upon us1 or to harm 
us without doing us wrong1 because it is
 intention which distinguishes our      
friends from our enemies4 ,how many have

 been saved from service in the army by 
sickness6 ,some men have been saved from
 sharing the fall of their house1 by    
being brought up upon their             
recognizances to a court of law by their
 enemies2 some have been saved by       
ship-wreck from falling into the hands  
of pirates2 yet we do not feel grateful 
to such things1 because chance has no   
feeling of the service it renders1 nor  
are we grateful to our enemy1 though his
 lawsuit1 while it harassed and detained
 us1 still saved our lives4 ,nothing can
 be a benefit which does not proceed    
from good will1 and which is not meant  
as such by the giver4 ,if any one does  
me a service1 without knowing it1 ,i am 
under no obligation to him2 should he do
 so1 meaning to injure me1 ,i shall     
imitate his conduct4  ,x4 ,let us turn  
our attention to the first of these4    
,can you desire me to do anything to    
express my gratitude to a man who did   
nothing in order to confer a benefit    
upon me8 ,passing on to the next1 do you

 wish me to show my gratitude to such a 
man1 and of my own will to return to him
 what ,i received from him against his  
will8 ,what am ,i to say of the third1  
he who1 meaning to do an injury1        
blunders into bestowing a benefit8 ,that
 you should have wished to confer a     
benefit upon me is not sufficient to    
render me grateful2 but that you should 
have wished not to do so is enough to   
set me free from any obligation to you4 
,a mere wish does not constitute a      
benefit2 and just as the best and       
heartiest wish is not a benefit when    
fortune prevents its being carried into 
effect1 neither is what fortune bestows 
upon us a benefit1 unless good wishes   
preceded it4 ,in order to lay me under  
an obligation1 you must not merely do me
 a service1 but you must do so          
intentionally4  ,,xi4 ,cleanthes makes  
use of the following example3--,i sent1 
says he1 two slaves to look for ,plato  
and bring him to me from the ,academy4  
,one of them searched through the whole 

of the colonnade1 and every other place 
in which he thought that he was likely  
to be found1 and returned home alike    
weary and unsuccessful2 the other sat   
down among the audience of a mountebank 
close by1 and1 while amusing himself in 
the society of other slaves like a      
careless vagabond as he was1 found      
,plato1 without seeking for him1 as he  
happened to pass that way4 ,we ought1   
says he1 to praise that slave who1 as   
far as lay in his power1 did what he was
 ordered1 and we ought to punish the    
other whose laziness turned out so      
fortunate4 ,it is goodwill alone which  
does one real service2 let us then      
consider under what conditions it lays  
us under obligations4 ,it is not enough 
to wish a man well1 without doing him   
good2 nor is it enough to do him good   
without wishing him well4 ,suppose that 
some one wished to give me a present1   
but did not give it2 ,i have his good   
will1 but ,i do not have his benefit1   
which consists of subject matter and    

goodwill together4 ,i owe nothing to one
 who wished to lend me money but did not
 do so1 and in like manner ,i shall be  
the friend of one who wished but was not
 able to bestow a benefit upon me1 but  
,i shall not be under any obligation to 
him4 ,i also shall wish to bestow       
something upon him1 even as he did upon 
me2 but if fortune be more favorable to 
me than to him1 and ,i succeed in       
bestowing something upon him1 my doing  
so will be a benefit bestowed upon him1 
not a repayment out of gratitude for    
what he did for me4 ,it will become his 
duty to be grateful to me2 ,i shall have
 begun the interchange of benefits2 the 
series must be counted from my act4     
,,xii4 ,i already understand what you   
wish to ask2 there is no need for you to
 say anything1 your countenance speaks  
for you4 ,if any one does us good for   
his own sake1 are we1 you ask1 under an 
obligation to him8 ,i often hear you    
complain that there are some things     
which men make use of themselves1 but   

which they put down to the account of   
others4 ,i will tell you1 my ,liberalis2
 but first let me distinguish between   
the two parts of your question1 and     
separate what is fair from what is      
unfair4 ,it makes a great difference    
whether any one bestows a benefit upon  
us for his own sake1 or whether he does 
so partly for his own sake and partly   
for ours4 ,he who looks only to his own 
interests1 and who does us good because 
he cannot otherwise make a profit for   
himself1 seems to me to be like the     
farmer who provides winter and summer   
fodder for his flocks1 or like the man  
who feeds up the captives whom he has   
bought in order that they may fetch a   
better price in the slave market1 or who
 crams and curry-combs fat oxen for     
sale2 or like the keeper of a school of 
arms1 who takes great pains in          
exercising and equipping his gladiators4
 ,as ,cleanthes says1 there is a great  
difference between benefits and trade4  
,,xiii4 ,on the other hand1 ,i am not so

 unjust as to feel no gratitude to a    
man1 because1 while helping me1 he      
helped himself also2 for ,i do not      
insist upon his consulting my interests 
to the exclusion of his own--nay1 ,i    
should prefer that the benefit which ,i 
receive may be of even greater advantage
 to the giver1 provided that he thought 
of us both when giving it1 and meant to 
divide it between me and himself4 ,even 
should he possess the larger portion of 
it1 still1 if he admits me to a share1  
if he meant it for both of us1 ,i am not
 only unjust but ungrateful1 if ,i do   
not rejoice in what has benefited me    
benefiting him also4 ,it is the essence 
of spitefulness to say that nothing can 
be a benefit which does not cause some  
inconvenience to the giver4  ,as for him
 who bestows a benefit for his own sake1
 ,i should say to him1 ,you have made   
use of me1 and how can you say that you 
have bestowed a benefit upon me1 rather 
than ,i upon you8 ,suppose1 answers he1 
that ,i cannot obtain a public office   

except by ransoming ten citizens out of 
a great number of captives1 will you owe
 me nothing for setting you free from   
slavery and bondage8 ,yet ,i shall do so
 for my own sake4 ,to this ,i should    
answer1 ,you do this partly for my sake1
 partly for your own4 ,it is for your   
own sake that you ransom captives1 but  
it is for my sake that you ransom me2   
for to serve your purpose it would be   
enough for you to ransom any one4 ,i am 
therefore your debtor1 not for ransoming
 me but for choosing me1 since you might
 have attained the same result by       
ransoming some one else instead of me4  
,you divide the advantages of the act   
between yourself and me1 and you confer 
upon me a benefit by which both of us   
profit4 ,what you do entirely for my    
sake is1 that you choose me in          
preference to others4 ,if therefore you 
were to be made praetor for ransoming   
ten captives1 and there were only ten of
 us captives1 none of us would be under 
any obligation to you1 because there is 

nothing for which you can ask any one of
 us to give you credit apart from your  
own advantage4 ,i do not regard a       
benefit jealously and wish it to be     
given to myself alone1 but ,i wish to   
have a share in it4  ,,xiv4 ,well1 then1
 says he1 suppose that ,i were to order 
all your names to be put into a         
ballot-box1 and that your name was drawn
 among those who were to be ransomed1   
would you owe me nothing8 ,yes1 ,i      
should owe you something1 but very      
little3 how little1 ,i will explain to  
you4 ,by so doing you do something for  
my sake1 in that you grant me the chance
 of being ransomed2 ,i owe to fortune   
that my name was drawn1 all ,i owe to   
you is that my name could be drawn4 ,you
 have given me the means of obtaining   
your benefit4 ,for the greater part of  
that benefit ,i am indebted to fortune2 
that ,i could be so indebted1 ,i owe to 
you4  ,i shall take no notice whatever  
of those whose benefits are bestowed in 
a mercenary spirit1 who do not consider 

to whom1 but upon what terms they give1 
whose benefits are entirely selfish4    
,suppose that some one sells me corn2 ,i
 cannot live unless ,i buy it2 yet ,i do
 not owe my life to him because ,i have 
bought it4 ,i do not consider how       
essential it was to me1 and that ,i     
could not live without it2 but how      
little thanks are due for it1 since ,i  
could not have had it without paying for
 it1 and since the merchant who imported
 it did not consider how much good he   
would do me1 but how much he would gain 
for himself1 ,i owe nothing for what ,i 
have bought and paid for4  ,,xv4        
,according to this reasoning1 says my   
opponent1 you would say that you owe    
nothing to a physician beyond his paltry
 fee1 nor to your teacher1 because you  
have paid him some money2 yet these     
persons are all held very dear1 and are 
very much respected4 ,in answer to this 
,i should urge that some things are of  
greater value than the price which we   
pay for them4 ,you buy of a physician   

life and good health1 the value of which
 cannot be estimated in money2 from a   
teacher of the liberal sciences you buy 
the education of a gentleman and mental 
culture2 therefore you pay these persons
 the price1 not of what they give us1   
but of their trouble in giving it2 you  
pay them for devoting their attention to
 us1 for disregarding their own affairs 
to attend to us3 they receive the price1
 not of their services1 but of the      
expenditure of their time4 ,yet this may
 be more truly stated in another way1   
which ,i will at once lay before you1   
having first pointed out how the above  
may be confuted4 ,our adversary would   
say1 ,if some things are of greater     
value than the price which we pay for   
them1 then1 though you may have bought  
them1 you still owe me something more   
for them4 ,i answer1 in the first place1
 what does their real value matter1     
since the buyer and seller have settled 
the price between them8 ,next1 ,i did   
not buy it at it's own price1 but at    

yours4 ,it is1 you say1 worth more than 
its sale price4 ,true1 but it cannot be 
sold for more4 ,the price of everything 
varies according to circumstances2 after
 you have well praised your wares1 they 
are worth only the highest price at     
which you can sell them2 a man who buys 
things cheap is not on that account     
under any obligation to the seller4 ,in 
the next place1 even if they are worth  
more1 there is no generosity in your    
letting them go for less1 since the     
price is settled by custom and the rate 
of the market1 not by the uses and      
powers of the merchandise4 ,what would  
you state to be the proper payment of a 
man who crosses the seas1 holding a true
 course through the midst of the waves  
after the land has sunk out of sight1   
who foresees coming storms1 and         
suddenly1 when no one expects danger1   
orders sails to be furled1 yards to be  
lowered1 and the crew to stand at their 
posts ready to meet the fury of the     
unexpected gale8 and yet the price of   

such great skill is fully paid for by   
the passage money4 ,at what sum can you 
estimate the value of a lodging in a    
wilderness1 of a shelter in the rain1 of
 a bath or fire in cold weather8 ,yet ,i
 know on what terms ,i shall be supplied
 with these when ,i enter an inn4 ,how  
much the man does for us who props our  
house when it is about to fall1 and who1
 with a skill beyond belief1 suspends in
 the air a block of building which has  
begun to crack at the foundation2 yet we
 can contract for underpinning at a     
fixed and cheap rate4 ,the city wall    
keeps us safe from our enemies1 and from
 sudden inroads of brigands2 yet it is1 
well known how much a day a smith would 
earn for erecting towers and            
scaffoldings ,footnote3 ,see            
,viollet-le-,duc's ,dictionnaire        
d',architecture1 articles ,architecture 
,militaire and ,hourds1 for the probable
 meaning of ,propugnacula4to provide for
 the public safety4  ,,xvi4 ,i might go 
on for ever collecting instances to     

prove that valuable things are sold at a
 low price4 ,what then8 why is it that  
,i owe something extra both to my       
physician and to my teacher1 and that ,i
 do not acquit myself of all obligation 
to them by paying them their fee8 ,it is
 because they pass from physicians and  
teachers into friends1 and lay us under 
obligations1 not by the skill which they
 sell to us1 but by kindly and familiar 
good will4 ,if my physician does no more
 than feel my pulse and class me among  
those whom he sees in his daily rounds1 
pointing out what ,i ought to do or to  
avoid without any personal interest1    
then ,i owe him no more than his fee1   
because he views me with the eye not of 
a friend1 but of a commander4 ,footnote3
 ,i read ,nbn tamquam amicus videt sed  
tamquam imperator4 ,neither have ,i any 
reason for loving my teacher1 if he has 
regarded me merely as one of the mass of
 his scholars1 and has not thought me   
worthy of taking especial pains with by 
myself1 if he has never fixed his       

attention upon me1 and if when he       
discharged his knowledge on the public1 
,i might be said rather to have picked  
it up than to have learnt it from him4  
,what then is our reason for owing them 
much8 ,it is1 not that what they have   
sold us is worth more than we paid for  
it1 but that they have given something  
to us personally4 ,suppose that my      
physician has spent more consideration  
upon my case than was professionally    
necessary2 that it was for me1 not for  
his own credit1 that he feared3 that he 
was not satisfied with pointing out     
remedies1 but himself applied them1 that
 he sat by my bedside among my anxious  
friends1 and came to see me at the      
crises of my disorder2 that no service  
was too troublesome or too disgusting   
for him to perform2 that he did not hear
 my groans unmoved2 that among the      
numbers who called for him ,i was his   
favourite case2 and that he gave the    
others only so much time as his care of 
my health permitted him3 ,i should feel 

obliged to such a man not as to a       
physician1 but as to a friend4 ,suppose 
again that my teacher endured labour and
 weariness in instructing me2 that he   
taught me something more than is taught 
by all masters alike2 that he roused my 
better feelings by his encouragement1   
and that at one time he would raise my  
spirits by praise1 and at another warn  
me to shake off slothfulness3 that he   
laid his hand1 as it were1 upon my      
latent and torpid powers of intellect   
and drew them out into the light of day2
 that he did not stingily dole out to me
 what he knew1 in order that he might be
 wanted for a longer time1 but was      
eager1 if possible1 to pour all his     
learning into me2 then ,i am ungrateful1
 if ,i do not love him as much as ,i    
love my nearest relatives and my dearest
 friends4  ,,xvii4 ,we give something   
additional even to those who teach the  
meanest trades1 if their efforts appear 
to be extraordinary2 we bestow a        
gratuity upon pilots1 upon workmen who  

deal with the commonest materials and   
hire themselves out by the day4 ,in the 
noblest arts1 however1 those which      
either preserve or beautify our lives1 a
 man would be ungrateful who thinks he  
owes the artist no more than he         
bargained for4 ,besides this1 the       
teaching of such learning as we have    
spoken of blends mind with mind2 now    
when this takes place1 both in the case 
of the physician and of the teacher the 
price of his work is paid1 but that of  
his mind remains owing4  ,,xviii4 ,plato
 once crossed a river1 and as the       
ferryman did not ask him for anything1  
he supposed that he had let him pass    
free out of respect1 and said that the  
ferryman had laid ,plato under an       
obligation4 ,shortly afterwards1 seeing 
the ferryman take one person after      
another across the river with the same  
pains1 and without charging anything1   
,plato declared that the ferryman had   
not laid him under an obligation4 ,if   
you wish me to be grateful for what you 

give1 you must not merely give it to me1
 but show that you mean it specially for
 me2 you cannot make any claim upon one 
for having given him what you fling away
 broad-cast among the crowd4 ,what then8
 shall ,i owe you nothing for it8       
,nothing1 as an individual2 ,i will pay1
 when the rest of mankind do1 what ,i   
owe no more than they4  ,,xix4 ,do you  
say1 inquires my opponent1 that he who  
carries me gratis in a boat across the  
river ,po1 does not bestow any benefit  
upon me8 ,i do4 ,he does me some good1  
but he does not bestow a benefit upon   
me2 for he does it for his own sake1 or 
at any rate not for mine2 in short1 he  
himself does not imagine that he is     
bestowing a benefit upon me1 but does it
 for the credit of the ,state1 or of the
 neighbourhood1 or of himself1 and      
expects some return for doing so1       
different from what he would receive    
from individual passengers4 ,well1 asks 
my opponent1 if the emperor were to     
grant the franchise to all the ,gauls1  

or exemption1 from taxes to all the     
,spaniards1 would each individual of    
them owe him nothing on that account8   
,of course he would3 but he would be    
indebted to him1 not as having          
personally received a benefit intended  
for himself alone1 but as a partaker in 
one conferred upon his nation4 ,he would
 argue1 ,the emperor had no thought of  
me at the time when he benefited us all2
 he did not care to give me the         
franchise separately1 he did not fix his
 attention upon me2 why then should ,i  
be grateful to one who did not have me  
in his mind when he was thinking of     
doing what he did8 ,in answer to this1  
,i say that when he thought of doing    
good to all the ,gauls1 he thought of   
doing good to me also1 for ,i was a     
,gaul1 and he included me under my      
national1 if not under my personal      
appellation4 ,in like manner1 ,i should 
feel grateful to him1 not as for a      
personal1 but for a general benefit2    
being only one of the people1 ,i should 

regard the debt of gratitude as         
incurred1 not by myself1 but by my      
country1 and should not pay it myself1  
but only contribute my share towards    
doing so4 ,i do not call a man my       
creditor because he has lent money to my
 country1 nor should ,i include that    
money in a schedule of my debts were ,i 
either a candidate for a public office1 
or a defendant in the courts2 yet ,i    
would pay my share towards extinguishing
 such a debt4 ,similarly1 ,i deny that  
,i am laid under an obligation by a gift
 bestowed upon my entire nation1 because
 although the giver gave it to me1 yet  
he did not do so for my sake1 but gave  
it without knowing whether he was giving
 it to me or not3 nevertheless ,i should
 feel that ,i owed something for the    
gift1 because it did reach me1 though   
not directly4 ,to lay me under an       
obligation1 a thing must be done for my 
sake alone4  ,,xx4 ,according to this1  
argues our opponent1 you are under no   
obligation to the sun or the moon2 for  

they do not move for your sake alone4   
,no1 but since they move with the object
 of preserving the balance of the       
universe1 they move for my sake also1   
seeing that ,i am a fraction of the     
universe4 ,besides1 our position and    
theirs is not the same1 for he who does 
me good in order that he may by my means
 do good to himself1 does not bestow a  
benefit upon me1 because he merely makes
 use of me as an instrument for his own 
advantage2 whereas the sun and the moon1
 even if they do us good for their own  
sakes1 still cannot do good to us in    
order that by our means they may do good
 to themselves1 for what is there which 
we can bestow upon them8  ,,xxi4 ,i     
should be sure1 replies he1 that the sun
 and the moon wished to do us good1 if  
they were able to refuse to do so2 but  
they cannot help moving as they do4 ,in 
short1 let them stop and discontinue    
their work4  ,see now1 in how many ways 
this argument may be refuted4 ,one who  
cannot refuse to do a thing may         

nevertheless wish to do it2 indeed there
 is no greater proof of a fixed desire  
to do anything1 than not to be able to  
alter one's determination4 ,a good man  
cannot leave undone what he does3 for   
unless he does it he will not be a good 
man4 ,is a good man1 then1 not able to  
bestow a benefit1 because he does what  
he ought to do1 and is not able not to  
do what he ought to do8 ,besides this1  
it makes a great difference whether you 
say1 ,he is not able not to do this1    
because he is forced to do it1 or ,he is
 not able to wish not to do it2 for1 if 
he could not help doing it1 then ,i am  
not indebted for it to him1 but to the  
person who forced him to do it2 if he   
could not help wishing for it because he
 had nothing better to wish for1 then it
 is he who forces himself to do it1 and 
in this case the debt which as acting   
under compulsion he could not claim1 is 
due to him as compelling himself4  ,let 
the sun and moon cease to wish to       
benefit us1 says our adversary4 ,i      

answer1 ,remember what has been said4   
,who can be so crazy as to refuse the   
name of free-will to that which has no  
danger of ceasing to act1 and of        
adopting the opposite course1 since1 on 
the contrary1 he whose will is fixed for
 ever1 must be thought to wish more     
earnestly than any one else4 ,surely if 
he1 who may at any moment change his    
mind1 can be said to wish1 we must not  
deny the existence of will in a being   
whose nature does not admit of change of
 mind4  ,,xxii4 ,well1 says he let them 
stop1 if it be possible4 ,what you say  
is this3--,let all those heavenly       
bodies1 placed as they are at vast      
distances from each other1 and arranged 
to preserve the balance of the universe1
 leave their appointed posts3 let sudden
 confusion arise1 so that constellations
 may collide with constellations1 that  
the established harmony of all things   
may be destroyed and the works of ,god  
be shaken into ruin2 let the whole frame
 of the rapidly moving heavenly bodies  

abandon in mid career those movements   
which we were assured would endure for  
ages1 and let those which now by their  
regular advance and retreat keep the    
world at a moderate temperature1 be     
instantly consumed by fire1 so that     
instead of the infinite variety of the  
seasons all may be reduced to one       
uniform condition2 let fire rage        
everywhere1 followed by dull night1 and 
let the bottomless abyss swallow up all 
the gods4 ,is it worth while to destroy 
all this merely in order to refute you8 
,even though you do not wish it1 they do
 you good1 and they wheel in their      
courses for your sake1 though their     
motion may be due to some earlier and   
more important cause4  ,,xxiii4 ,besides
 this1 the gods act under no external   
constraint1 but their own will is a law 
to them for all time4 ,they have        
established an order which is not to be 
changed1 and consequently it is         
impossible that they should appear to be
 likely to do anything against their    

will1 since they wish to continue doing 
whatever they cannot cease from doing1  
and they never regret their original    
decision1 ,no doubt it is impossible for
 them to stop short1 or to desert to the
 other side1 but it is so for no other  
reason than that their own force holds  
them to their purpose4 ,it is from no   
weakness that they persevere2 no1 they  
have no mind to leave the best course1  
and by this it is fated that they should
 proceed4 ,when1 at the time of the     
original creation1 they arranged the    
entire universe1 they paid attention to 
us as well as to the rest1 and took     
thought about the human race2 and for   
this reason we cannot suppose that it is
 merely for their own pleasure that they
 move in their orbits and display their 
work since we also are a part of that   
work4 ,we are1 therefore2 under an      
obligation to the sun and moon and the  
rest of the heavenly host1 because1     
although they may rise in order to      
bestow more important benefits than     

those which we receive from them1 yet   
they do bestow these upon us as they    
pass on their way to greater things4    
,besides this1 they assist us of set    
purpose1 and1 therefore1 lay us under an
 obligation1 because we do not in their 
case stumble by chance upon a benefit   
bestowed by one who knew not what he was
 doing1 but they knew that we should    
receive from them the advantages which  
we do2 so that1 though they may have    
some higher aim1 though the result of   
their movements may be something of     
greater importance than the preservation
 of the human race1 yet from the        
beginning thought has been directed to  
our comforts1 and the scheme of the     
world has been arranged in a fashion    
which proves that our interests were    
neither their least nor last concern4   
,it is our duty to show filial love for 
our parents1 although many of them had  
no thought of children when they        
married4 ,not so with the gods3 they    
cannot but have known what they were    

doing when they furnished mankind with  
food and comforts4 ,those for whose     
advantage so much was created1 could not
 have been created without design4      
,nature conceived the idea of us before 
she formed us1 and1 indeed1 we are no   
such trifling piece of work as could    
have fallen from her hands unheeded4    
,see how great privileges she has       
bestowed upon us1 how far beyond the    
human race the empire of mankind        
extends2 consider how widely she allows 
us to roam1 not having restricted us to 
the land alone1 but permitted us to     
traverse every part of herself2         
consider1 too1 the audacity of our      
intellect1 the only one which knows of  
the gods or seeks for them1 and how we  
can raise our mind high above the earth1
 and commune with those divine          
influences3 you will perceive that man  
is not a hurriedly put together1 or an  
unstudied piece of work4 ,among her     
noblest products nature has none of     
which she can boast more than man1 and  

assuredly no other which can comprehend 
her boast4 ,what madness is this1 to    
call the gods in question for their     
bounty8 ,if a man declares that he has  
received nothing when he is receiving   
all the while1 and from those who will  
always be giving without ever receiving 
anything in return1 how will he be      
grateful to those whose kindness cannot 
be returned without expense8 and how    
great a mistake is it not to be thankful
 to a giver1 because he is good even to 
him who disowns him1 or to use the fact 
of his bounty being poured upon us in an
 uninterrupted stream1 as an argument to
 prove that he cannot help bestowing it4
 ,suppose that such men as these say1 ,i
 do not want it1 ,let him keep it to    
himself1 ,who asks him for it8 and so   
forth1 with all the other speeches of   
insolent minds3 still1 he whose bounty  
reaches you1 although you say that it   
does not1 lays you under an obligation  
nevertheless2 indeed1 perhaps the       
greatest part of the benefit which he   

bestows is that he is ready to give even
 when you are complaining against him4  
,,xxiv4 ,do you not see how parents     
force children during their infancy to  
undergo what is useful for their health8
 ,though the children cry and struggle1 
they swathe them and bind their limbs   
straight lest premature liberty should  
make them grow crooked1 afterwards      
instill into them a liberal education1  
threatening those who are unwilling to  
learn1 and finally1 if spirited young   
men do not conduct themselves frugally1 
modestly1 and respectably1 they compel  
them to do so4 ,force and harsh measures
 are used even to youths who have grown 
up and are their own masters1 if they1  
either from fear or from insolence1     
refuse to take what is good for them4   
,thus the greatest benefits that we     
receive1 we receive either without      
knowing it1 or against our will1 from   
our parents4  ,,xxv4 ,those persons who 
are ungrateful and repudiate benefits1  
not because they do not wish to receive 

them1 but in order that they may not be 
laid under an obligation for them1 are  
like those who fall into the opposite   
extreme1 and are over grateful1 who pray
 that some trouble or misfortune may    
befall their benefactors to give them an
 opportunity of proving how gratefully  
they remember the benefit which they    
have received4 ,it is a question whether
 they are right1 and show a truly       
dutiful feeling2 their state of mind is 
morbid1 like that of frantic lovers who 
long for their mistress to be exiled1   
that they may accompany her when she    
leaves her country forsaken by all her  
friends1 or that she may be poor in     
order that she may the more need what   
they give her1 or who long that she may 
be ill in order that they may sit by her
 bedside1 and who1 in short1 out of     
sheer love form the same wishes as her  
enemies would wish for her4 ,thus the   
results of hatred and of frantic love   
are very nearly the same2 and these     
lovers are very like those who hope that

 their friends may meet with            
difficulties which they may remove1 and 
who thus do a wrong that they may bestow
 a benefit1 whereas it would have been  
much better for them to do nothing1 than
 by a crime to gain an opportunity of   
doing good service4 ,what should we say 
of a pilot who prayed to the gods for   
dreadful storms and tempests1 in order  
that danger might make his skill more   
highly esteemed8 what of a general who  
should pray that a vast number of the   
enemy surround his camp1 fill the       
ditches by a sudden charge1 tear down   
the rampart round his panic-stricken    
army1 and plant its hostile standards at
 the very gates1 in order that he might 
gain more glory by restoring his broken 
ranks and shattered fortunes8 ,all such 
men confer their benefits upon us by    
odious means1 for they beg the gods to  
harm those whom they mean to help1 and  
wish them to be struck down before they 
raise them up2 it is a cruel feeling1   
brought about by a distorted sense of   

gratitude1 to wish evil to befall one   
whom one is bound in honour to succour4 
,,xxvi4 ,my wish1 argues our opponent1  
does him no harm1 because when ,i wish  
for the danger ,i wish for the rescue at
 the same time4 ,what you mean by this  
is not that you do no wrong1 but that   
you do less than if you wished that the 
danger might befall him1 without wishing
 for the rescue4 ,it is wicked to throw 
a man into the water in order that you  
may pull him out1 to throw him down that
 you may raise him up1 or to shut him up
 that you may release him4 ,you do not  
bestow a benefit upon a man by ceasing  
to wrong him1 nor can it ever be a piece
 of good service to anyone to remove    
from him a burden which you yourself    
imposed on him4 ,true1 you may cure the 
hurt which you inflict1 but ,i had      
rather that you did not hurt me at all4 
,you may gain my gratitude by curing me 
because ,i am wounded1 but not by       
wounding me in order that you may cure  
me3 no man likes scars except as        

compared with wounds1 which he is glad  
to see thus healed1 though he had rather
 not have received them4 ,it would be   
cruel to wish such things to befall one 
from whom you had never received a      
kindness2 how much more cruel is it to  
wish that they may befall one in whose  
debt you are4  ,,xxvii4 ,i pray1 replies
 he1 at the same time1 that ,i may be   
able to help him4 ,in the first place1  
if ,i stop you short in the middle of   
your prayer1 it shows at once that you  
are ungrateful3 ,i have not yet heard   
what you wish to do for him2 ,i have    
heard what you wish him to suffer4 ,you 
pray that anxiety and fear and even     
worse evil than this may come upon him4 
,you desire that he may need aid3 this  
is to his disadvantage2 you desire that 
he may need your aid3 this is to your   
advantage4 ,you do not wish to help him1
 but to be set free from your obligation
 to him3 for when you are eager to repay
 your debt in such a way as this1 you   
merely wish to be set free from the     

debt1 not to repay it4 ,so the only part
 of your wish that could be thought     
honourable proves to be the base and    
ungrateful feeling of unwillingness to  
lie under an obligation3 for what you   
wish for is1 not that you may have an   
opportunity of repaying his kindness1   
but that he may be forced to beg you to 
do him a kindness4 ,you make yourself   
the superior1 and you wickedly degrade  
beneath your feet the man who has done  
you good service4 ,how much better would
 it be to remain in his debt in an      
honourable and friendly manner1 than to 
seek to discharge the debt by these evil
 means6 ,you would be less to blame if  
you denied that you had received it1 for
 your benefactor would then lose nothing
 more than what he gave you1 whereas now
 you wish him to be rendered inferior to
 you1 and brought by the loss of his    
property and social position into a     
condition below his own benefits4 ,do   
you think yourself grateful8 ,just utter
 your wishes in the hearing of him to   

whom you wish to do good4 ,do you call  
that a prayer for his welfare1 which can
 be divided between his friend and his  
enemy1 which1 if the last part were     
omitted1 you would not doubt was        
pronounced1 by one who opposed and hated
 him8 ,enemies in war have sometimes    
wished to capture certain towns in order
 to spare them1 or to conquer certain   
persons in order to pardon1 them1 yet   
these were the wishes of enemies1 and   
what was the kindest part of them began 
by cruelty4 ,finally1 what sort of      
prayers do you think those can be which 
he1 on whose behalf they are made1 hopes
 more earnestly than any one else may   
not be granted8 ,in hoping that the gods
 may injure a man1 and that you may help
 him1 you deal most dishonourably with  
him1 and you do not treat the gods      
themselves fairly1 for you give them the
 odious part to play1 and reserve the   
generous one for yourself3 the gods must
 do him wrong in order that you may do  
him a service4 ,if you were to suborn an

 informer to accuse a man1 and          
afterwards withdrew him1 if you engaged 
a man in a law suit and afterwards gave 
it up1 no one would hesitate to call you
 a villain3 what difference does it     
make1 whether you attempt to do this by 
chicanery or by prayer1 unless it be    
that by prayer you raise up more        
powerful enemies to him than by the     
other means8 ,you cannot say ,why1 what 
harm do ,i do him8 your prayer is either
 futile or harmful1 indeed it is harmful
 even though nothing comes of it4 ,you  
do your friend wrong by wishing him     
harm3 you must thank the gods that you  
do him no harm4 ,the fact of your       
wishing it is enough3 we ought to be    
just as angry with you as if you had    
effected it4  ,,xxviii4 ,if1 argues our 
adversary1 my prayers had any efficacy1 
they would also have been efficacious to
 save him from danger4 ,in the first    
place1 ,i reply1 the danger into which  
you wish me to fall is certain1 the help
 which ,i should receive is uncertain4  

,or call them both certain2 it is that  
which injures me that comes first4      
,besides1 ,,you understand the terms of 
your wish2 ,i shall be tossed by the    
storm without being sure that ,i have a 
haven of rest at hand4  ,think what     
torture it must have been to me1 even if
 ,i receive your help1 to have stood in 
need of it3 if ,i escape safely1 to have
 trembled for myself2 if ,i be          
acquitted1 to have had to plead my      
cause4 ,to escape from fear1 however    
great it may be1 can never be so        
pleasant as to live in sound            
unassailable safety4 ,pray that you may 
return my kindnesses when ,i need their 
return1 but do not pray that ,i may need
 them4 ,you would have done what you    
prayed for1 had it been in your power4  
,,xxix4 ,how far more honourable would a
 prayer of this sort be3 ,i pray that he
 may remain in such a position as that  
he may always bestow benefits and never 
need them3 may he be attended by the    
means of giving and helping1 of which he

 makes such a bountiful use2 may he     
never want benefits to bestow1 or be    
sorry for any which he has bestowed2 may
 his nature1 fitted as it is for acts of
 pity1 goodness1 and clemency1 be       
stimulated and brought out by numbers of
 grateful persons1 whom ,i trust he will
 find without needing to make trial of  
their gratitude2 may he refuse to be    
reconciled to no one1 and may no one    
require to be reconciled to him3 may    
fortune so uniformly continue to favour 
him that no one may be able to return   
his kindness in any way except by       
feeling grateful to him4  ,how far more 
proper are such prayers as these1 which 
do not put you off to some distant      
opportunity1 but express your gratitude 
at once8 ,what is there to prevent your 
returning your benefactor's kindness1   
even while he is in prosperity8 ,how    
many ways are there by which we can     
repay what we owe even to the           
affluent--for instance1 by honest       
advice1 by constant intercourse1 by     

courteous conversation1 pleasing him    
without flattering him1 by listening    
attentively to any subject which he may 
wish to discuss1 by keeping safe any    
secret that he may impart to us1 and by 
social intercourse4 ,there is no one so 
highly placed by fortune as not to want 
a friend all the more because he wants  
nothing4  ,,xxx4 ,the other is a        
melancholy opportunity1 and one which we
 ought always to pray may be kept far   
from us3 must the gods be angry with a  
man in order that you may prove your    
gratitude to him8 ,do you not perceive  
that you are doing wrong1 from the very 
fact that those to whom you are         
ungrateful fare better8 ,call up before 
your mind dungeons1 chains1             
wretchedness1 slavery1 war1 poverty3    
these are the opportunities for which   
you pray2 if any one has any dealings   
with you1 it is by means of these that  
you square your account4 ,why not rather
 wish that he to whom you owe most may  
be powerful and happy8 for1 as ,i have  

just said1 what is there to prevent your
 returning the kindness even of those   
who enjoy the greatest prosperity8 to do
 which1 ample and various opportunities 
will present themselves to you1 ,what6  
do you not know that a debt can be paid 
even to a rich man8 ,nor will ,i trouble
 you with many instances of what you may
 do4 ,though a man's riches and         
prosperity may prevent your making him  
any other repayment1 ,i will show you   
what the highest in the land stand in   
need of1 what is wanting to those who   
possess everything4 ,they want a man to 
speak the truth1 to save them from the  
organized mass of falsehood by which    
they are beset1 which so bewilders them 
with lies that the habit of hearing only
 what is pleasant instead of what is    
true1 prevents their knowing what truth 
really is4 ,do you not see how such     
persons are driven to ruin by the want  
of candour among their friends1 whose   
loyalty has degenerated into slavish    
obsequiousness8 ,no one1 when giving    

them his advice1 tells them what he     
really thinks1 but each vies with the   
other in flattery2 and while the man's  
friends make it their only object to see
 who can most pleasantly deceive him1 he
 himself is ignorant of his real powers1
 and1 believing himself to be as great a
 man as he is told that he is1 plunges  
the ,state in useless wars1 which bring 
disasters upon it1 breaks off a useful  
and necessary peace1 and1 through a     
passion of anger which no one checks1   
spills the blood of numbers of people1  
and at last sheds his own4 ,such persons
 assert what has never been investigated
 as certain facts1 consider that to     
modify their opinion is as dishonourable
 as to be conquered1 believe that       
institutions which are just flickering  
out of existence will last for ever1    
and1 thus overturn great ,states1 to the
 destruction of themselves and all who  
are connected with them4 ,living as they
 do in a fool's paradise1 resplendent   
with unreal and short-lived advantages1 

they forget that1 as soon as they put it
 out of their power to hear the truth1  
there is no limit to the misfortunes    
which they may expect4  ,,xxxi4 ,when   
,xerxes declared war against ,greece1   
all his courtiers encouraged his        
boastful temper1 which forgot how       
unsubstantial his grounds for confidence
 were4 ,one declared that the ,greeks   
would not endure to hear the news of the
 declaration of war1 and would take to  
flight at the first rumour of his       
approach2 another1 that with such a vast
 army ,greece could not only be         
conquered1 but utterly overwhelmed1 and 
that it was rather to be feared that    
they would find the ,greek cities empty 
and abandoned1 and that the panic flight
 of the enemy would leave them only vast
 deserts1 where no use could be made of 
their enormous forces4 ,another told him
 that the world was hardly large enough 
to contain him1 that the seas were too  
narrow for his fleets1 the camps would  
not take in his armies1 the plains were 

not wide enough to deploy his cavalry   
in1 and that the sky itself was scarcely
 large enough to enable all his troops  
to hurl their darts at once4 ,while much
 boasting of this sort was going on     
around him1 raising his already         
overweening self-confidence to a frantic
 pitch1 ,demaratus1 the ,lacedaemonian1 
alone told him that the disorganized and
 unwieldy multitude in which he trusted1
 was in itself a danger to its chief1   
because it possessed only weight without
 strength2 for an army which is too     
large cannot be governed1 and one which 
cannot be governed1 cannot long exist4  
,the ,lacedaemonians1 said he1 will meet
 you upon the first mountain in ,greece1
 and will give you a taste of their     
quality4 ,all these thousands of nations
 of yours will be held in check by three
 hundred men3 they will stand firm at   
their posts1 they will defend the passes
 entrusted to them with their weapons1  
and block them up with their bodies3 all
 ,asia will not force them to give way2 

few as they are1 they will stop all this
 terrible invasion1 attempted though it 
be by nearly the whole human race4      
,though the laws of nature may give way 
to you1 and enable you to pass from     
,europe to ,asia1 yet you will stop     
short in a bypath2 consider what your   
losses will be afterwards1 when you have
 reckoned up the price which you have to
 pay for the pass of ,thermopylae2 when 
you learn that your march can be stayed1
 you will discover that you may be put  
to flight4 ,the ,greeks will yield up   
many parts of their country to you1 as  
if they were swept out of them by the   
first terrible rush of a mountain       
torrent2 afterwards they will rise      
against you from all quarters and will  
crush you by means of your own strength4
 ,what people say1 that your warlike    
preparations are too great to be        
contained in the countries which you    
intend to attack1 is quite true2 but    
this is to our disadvantage4 ,greece    
will conquer you for this very reason1  

that she cannot contain you2 you cannot 
make use of the whole of your force4    
,besides this1 you will not be able to  
do what is essential to victory--that   
is1 to meet the manoeuvres of the enemy 
at once1 to support your own men if they
 give way1 or to confirm and strengthen 
them when their ranks are wavering2 long
 before you know it1 you will be        
defeated4 ,moreover1 you should not     
think that because your army is so large
 that its own chief does not know its   
numbers1 it is therefore irresistible2  
there is nothing so great that it cannot
 perish2 nay1 without any other cause1  
its own excessive size may prove its    
ruin4 ,what ,demaratus predicted came to
 pass4 ,he whose power gods and men     
obeyed1 and who swept away all that     
opposed him1 was bidden to halt by three
 hundred men1 and the ,persians1        
defeated in every part of ,greece1      
learned how great a difference there is 
between a mob and an army4 ,thus it came
 to pass that ,xerxes1 who suffered more

 from the shame of his failure than from
 the losses which he sustained1 thanked 
,demaratus for having been the only man 
who told him the truth1 and permitted   
him to ask what boon he pleased4 ,he    
asked to be allowed to drive a chariot  
into ,sardis1 the largest city in ,asia1
 wearing a tiara erect upon his head1 a 
privilege which was enjoyed by kings    
alone4 ,he deserved his reward before he
 asked for it1 but how wretched must the
 nation have been1 in which there was no
 one who would speak the truth to the   
king except one man who did not speak it
 to himself4  ,,xxxii4 ,the late        
,emperor ,augustus banished his         
daughter1 whose conduct went beyond the 
shame of ordinary immodesty1 and made   
public the scandals of the imperial     
house4  ,led away by his passion1 he    
divulged all these crimes which1 as     
emperor1 he ought to have kept secret   
with as much care as he punished them1  
because the shame of some deeds asperses
 even him who avenges them4 ,afterwards1

 when by lapse of time shame took the   
place of anger in his mind1 he lamented 
that he had not kept silence about      
matters which he had not learned until  
it was disgraceful to speak of them1 and
 often used to exclaim1 ,none of these  
things would have happened to me1 if    
either ,agrippa or ,maecenas had lived6 
,so hard was it for the master of so    
many thousands of men to repair the loss
 of two4 ,when his legions were         
slaughtered1 new ones were at once      
enrolled2 when his fleet was wrecked1   
within a few days another was afloat2   
when the public buildings were consumed 
by fire1 finer ones arose in their      
stead2 but the places of ,agrippa and   
,maecenas remained unfilled throughout  
his life4 ,what am ,i to imagine8 that  
there were not any men like these1 who  
could take their place1 or that it was  
the fault of ,augustus himself1 who     
preferred mourning for them to seeking  
for their likes8 ,we have no reason for 
supposing that it was the habit of      

,agrippa or ,maecenas to speak the truth
 to him2 indeed1 if they had lived they 
would have been as great dissemblers as 
the rest4 ,it is one of the habits of   
kings to insult their present servants  
by praising those whom they have lost1  
and to attribute the virtue of truthful 
speaking to those from whom there is no 
further risk of hearing it4  ,,xxxiii4  
,however1 to return to my subject1 you  
see how easy it is to return the        
kindness of the prosperous1 and even of 
those who occupy the highest places of  
all mankind4 ,tell them1 not what they  
wish to hear1 but what they will wish   
that they always had heard2 though their
 ears be stopped by flatteries1 yet     
sometimes truth may penetrate them2 give
 them useful advice4 ,do you ask what   
service you can render to a prosperous  
man8 ,teach him not to rely upon his    
prosperity1 and to understand that it   
ought to be supported by the hands of   
many trusty friends4 ,will you not have 
done much for him1 if you take away his 

foolish belief that his influence will  
endure for ever1 and teach him that what
 we gain by chance passes away soon1 and
 at a quicker rate than it came2 that we
 cannot fall by the same stages by which
 we rose to the height of good fortune1 
but that frequently between it and ruin 
there is but one step8 ,you do not know 
how great is the value of friendship1 if
 you do not understand how much you give
 to him to whom you give a friend1 a    
commodity which is scarce not only in   
men's houses1 but in whole centuries1   
and which is nowhere scarcer than in the
 places where it is thought to be most  
plentiful4 ,pray1 do you suppose that   
those books of names1 which your        
nomenclator ,footnote3 ,the nomenclator 
was a slave who attended his master in  
canvassing and on similar occasions1 for
 the purpose of telling him the names of
 whom he met in the street4 can hardly  
carry or remember1 are those of friends8
 ,it is not your friends who crowd to   
knock at your door1 and who are admitted

 to your greater or lesser levees4      
,,xxxiv4 ,to divide one's friends into  
classes is an old trick of kings and    
their imitators2 it shows great         
arrogance to think that to touch or to  
pass one's threshold can be a valuable  
privilege1 or to grant as an honour that
 you should sit nearer one's front door 
than others1 or enter house before them1
 although within the house there are    
many more doors1 which shut out even    
those who have been admitted so far4    
,with us ,gaius ,gracchus1 and shortly  
after him ,livius ,drusus1 were the     
first to keep themselves apart from the 
mass of their adherents1 and to admit   
some to their privacy1 some to their    
more select1 and others to their general
 receptions4 ,these men consequently had
 friends of the first and second rank1  
and so on1 but in none had they true    
friends4 ,can you apply the name of     
friend to one who is admitted in his    
regular order to pay his respects to    
you8 or can you expect perfect loyalty  

from one who is forced to slip into your
 presence through a grudgingly-opened   
door8 ,how can a man arrive at using    
bold freedom of speech with you1 if he  
is only allowed in his proper turn to   
make use of the common phrase1 ,hail to 
you1 which is used by perfect strangers8
 ,whenever you go to any of these great 
men1 whose levees interest the whole    
city1 though you find all the streets   
beset with throngs of people1 and the   
passers-by hardly able to make their way
 through the crowd1 you may be sure that
 you have come to a place where there   
are many men1 but no friends of their   
patron4 ,we must not seek our friends in
 our entrance hall1 but in our own      
breast2 it is there that he ought to be 
received1 there retained1 and hoarded up
 in our minds4 ,teach this1 and you will
 have repaid your debt of gratitude4    
,,xxxv4 ,if you are useful to your      
friend only when he is in distress1 and 
are superfluous when all goes well with 
him1 you form a mean estimate of your   

own value4 ,as you can bear yourself    
wisely both in doubtful1 in prosperous1 
and in adverse circumstances1 by showing
 prudence in doubtful cases1 courage in 
misfortune1 and self-restraint in good  
fortune1 so in all circumstances you can
 make yourself useful to your friend4   
,do not desert him in adversity1 but do 
not wish that it may befall him3 the    
various incidents of human life will    
afford you many opportunities of proving
 your loyalty to him without wishing him
 evil4 ,he who prays that another may   
become rich1 in order that he may share 
his riches1 really has a view to his own
 advantage1 although his prayers are    
ostensibly offered in behalf of his     
friend2 and similarly he who wishes that
 his friend may get into some trouble   
from which his own friendly assistance  
may extricate him--a most ungrateful    
wish--prefers himself to his friend1 and
 thinks it worthwhile that his friend   
should be unhappy1 in order that he may 
prove his gratitude4 ,this very wish    

makes him ungrateful1 for he wishes to  
rid himself of his gratitude as though  
it were a heavy burden4 ,in returning a 
kindness it makes a great difference    
whether you are eager to bestow a       
benefit1 or merely to free yourself from
 a debt4 ,he who wishes to return a     
benefit will study his friend's         
interests1 and will hope that a suitable
 occasion will arise2 he who only wishes
 to free himself from an obligation will
 be eager to do so by any means         
whatever1 which shows very bad feeling4 
,do you say1 we may be asked1 that      
eagerness to repay kindness belongs to a
 morbid feeling of gratitude8 ,i cannot 
explain my meaning more clearly than by 
repeating what ,i have already said4    
,you do not want to repay1 but to escape
 from the benefit which you have        
received4 ,you seem to say1 ,when shall 
,i get free from this obligation8 ,i    
must strive by any means in my power to 
extinguish my debt to him4 ,you would be
 thought to be far from grateful1 if you

 wished to pay a debt to him with his   
own money2 yet this wish of yours is    
even more unjust2 for you invoke curses 
upon him1 and call down terrible        
imprecations upon the head of one who   
ought to be held sacred by you4 ,no one1
 ,i suppose1 would have any doubt of    
your wickedness if you were openly to   
pray that he might suffer poverty1      
captivity1 hunger1 or fear2 yet what is 
the difference between openly praying   
for some of these things1 and silently  
wishing for them8 for you do wish for   
some of these4 ,go1 and enjoy your      
belief that this is gratitude1 to do    
what not even an ungrateful man would   
do1 supposing he confined himself to    
repudiating the benefit1 and did not go 
so far as to hate his benefactor4       
,,xxxvi4 ,who would call ,aeneas pious1 
if he wished that his native city might 
be captured1 in order that he might save
 his father from captivity8 ,who would  
point to the ,sicilian youths as good   
examples for his children1 if they had  

prayed that ,aetna might flame with     
unusual heat and pour forth a vast mass 
of fire in order to afford them an      
opportunity of displaying their filial  
affection by rescuing their parents from
 the midst of the conflagration8 ,rome  
owes ,scipio nothing if he kept the     
,punic ,war alive in order that he might
 have the glory of finishing it2 she    
owes nothing to the ,decii if they      
prayed for public disasters1 to give    
themselves an opportunity of displaying 
their brave self-devotion4 ,it is the   
greatest scandal for a physician to make
 work for himself2 and many who have    
aggravated the diseases of their        
patients that they may have the greater 
credit for curing them1 have either     
failed to cure them1 at all or have done
 so at the cost of the most terrible    
suffering to their victims4  ,,xxxvii4  
,it is said 7at any rate ,hecaton tells 
us7 that when ,callistratus with many   
others was driven into exile by his     
factious and licentiously free country1 

some one prayed that such trouble might 
befall the ,athenians that they would be
 forced to recall the exiles1 on hearing
 which1 he prayed that ,god might forbid
 his return upon such terms4 ,when some 
one tried to console our own countryman1
 ,rutilius1 for his exile1 pointing out 
that civil war was at hand1 and that all
 exiles would soon be restored to ,rome1
 he answered with even greater spirit1  
,what harm have ,i done you1 that you   
should wish that ,i may return to my    
country more unhappily than ,i quit it8 
,my wish is1 that my country should     
blush at my being banished1 rather than 
that she should mourn at my having      
returned4 ,an exile1 of which every one 
is more ashamed than the sufferer1 is   
not exile at all4 ,these two persons1   
who did not wish to be restored to their
 homes at the cost of a public disaster1
 but preferred that two should suffer   
unjustly than that all should suffer    
alike1 are thought to have acted like   
good citizens2 and in like manner it    

does not accord with the character of a 
grateful man1 to wish that his          
benefactor may fall into troubles which 
he may dispel2 because1 even though he  
may mean well to him1 yet he wishes him 
evil4 ,to put out a fire which you      
yourself have lighted1 will not even    
gain acquittal for you1 let alone       
credit4  ,,xxxviii4 ,in some states an  
evil wish was regarded as a crime4 ,it  
is certain that at ,athens ,demades     
obtained a verdict against one who sold 
furniture for funerals1 by proving that 
he had prayed for great gains1 which he 
could not obtain without the death of   
many persons4 ,yet it is a stock        
question whether he was rightly found   
guilty4 ,perhaps he prayed1 not that he 
might sell his wares to many persons1   
but that he might sell them dear1 or    
that he might procure what he was going 
to sell1 cheaply4 ,since his business   
consisted of buying and selling1 why    
should you consider his prayer to apply 
to one branch of it only1 although he   

made profit from both8 ,besides this1   
you might find every one of his trade   
guilty1 for they all wish1 that is1     
secretly pray1 as he did4 ,you might1   
moreover1 find a great part of the human
 race guilty1 for who is there who does 
not profit by his neighbour's wants8 ,a 
soldier1 if he wishes for glory1 must   
wish for war2 the farmer profits by corn
 being dear2 a large number of litigants
 raises the price of forensic eloquence2
 physicians make money by a sickly      
season2 dealers in luxuries are made    
rich by the effeminacy of youth2 suppose
 that no storms and no conflagrations   
injured our dwellings1 the builder's    
trade would be at a standstill4 ,the    
prayer of one man was detected1 but it  
was just like the prayers of all other  
men4 ,do you imagine that ,arruntius and
 ,haterius1 and all other professional  
legacy-hunters do not put up the same   
prayers as undertakers and              
grave-diggers8 though the latter know   
not whose death it is that they wish    

for1 while the former wish for the death
 of their dearest friends1 from whom1 on
 account of their intimacy1 they have   
most hopes of inheriting a fortune4 ,no 
one's life does the undertaker any harm1
 whereas these men starve if their      
friends are long about dying2 they do   
not1 therefore1 merely wish for their   
deaths in order that they may receive   
what they have earned by a disgraceful  
servitude1 but in order that they may be
 set free from a heavy tax4 ,there can1 
therefore1 be no doubt that such persons
 repeat with even greater earnestness   
the prayer for which the undertaker was 
condemned1 for whoever is likely to     
profit such men by dying1 does them an  
injury by living4 ,yet the wishes of all
 these are alike well known and         
unpunished4 ,lastly1 let every man      
examine his own self1 let him look into 
the secret thoughts of his heart and    
consider what it is that he silently    
hopes for2 how many of his prayers he   
would blush to acknowledge1 even to     

himself2 how few there are which we     
could repeat in the presence of         
witnesses6  ,,xxxix4 ,yet we must not   
condemn every thing which we find worthy
 of blame1 as1 for instance1 this wish  
about our friends which we have been    
discussing1 arises from a misdirected   
feeling of affection1 and falls into the
 very error which it strives to avoid1  
for the man is ungrateful at the very   
time when he hurries to prove his       
gratitude4 ,he prays aloud1 ,may he fall
 into my power1 may he need my          
influence1 may not be able to be safe   
and respectable without my aid1 may he  
be so unfortunate that whatever return  
,i make to him may be regarded as a     
benefit4 ,to the gods alone he adds1    
,may domestic treasons encompass him1   
which can be quelled by me alone2 may   
some powerful and virulent enemy1 some  
excited and armed mob1 assail him2 may  
he be set upon by a creditor or an      
informer4  ,,xl4 ,see1 how just you are2
 you would never have wished any of     

these misfortunes to befall him1 if he  
had not bestowed a benefit upon you4    
,not to speak of the graver guilt which 
you incur by returning evil for good1   
you distinctly do wrong in not waiting  
for the fitting time for each action1   
for it is as wrong to anticipate this as
 it is not to take it when it comes4 ,a 
benefit ought not always to be accepted1
 and ought not in all cases to be       
returned4 ,if you were to return it to  
me against my will1 you would be        
ungrateful1 how much more ungrateful are
 you1 if you force me to wish for it8   
,wait patiently2 why are you unwilling  
to let my bounty abide with you8 ,why do
 you chafe at being laid under an       
obligation8 why1 as though you were     
dealing with a harsh usurer1 are you in 
such a hurry to sign and seal an        
equivalent bond8 ,why do you wish me to 
get into trouble8 ,why do you call upon 
the gods to ruin me8 ,if this is your   
way of returning a kindness1 what would 
you do if you were exacting repayment of

 a debt8  ,,xli4 ,above all1 therefore1 
my ,liberalis1 let us learn to live     
calmly under an obligation to others1   
and watch for opportunities of repaying 
our debt without manufacturing them4    
,let us remember that this anxiety to   
seize the first opportunity of setting  
ourselves free shows ingratitude2 for no
 one repays with good will that which he
 is unwilling to owe1 and his eagerness 
to get it out of his hands shows that he
 regards it as a burden rather than as a
 favour4 ,how much better and more      
righteous is it to bear in mind what we 
owe to our friends1 and to offer        
repayment1 not to obtrude it1 nor to    
think ourselves too much indebted2      
because a benefit is a common bond which
 connects two persons4 ,say ,i do not   
delay to repay your kindness to me2 ,i  
hope that you will accept my gratitude  
cheerfully4 ,if irresistible fate hangs 
over either of us1 and destiny rules    
either that you must receive your       
benefit back again1 or that ,i must     

receive a second benefit1 why then1 of  
us two1 let him give that was wont to   
give4 ,i am ready to receive it4        
',tis not the part of ,turnus to delay4 
,that is the spirit which ,i shall show 
whenever the time comes2 in the         
meanwhile the gods shall be my          
witnesses4  ,,xlii4 ,i have noted in    
you1 my ,liberalis1 and as it were      
touched with my hand a feeling of fussy 
anxiety not to be behindhand in doing   
what is your duty4 ,this anxiety is not 
suitable to a grateful mind1 which1 on  
the contrary1 produces the utmost       
confidence in oneself1 and which drives 
away all trouble by the consciousness of
 real affection towards one's           
benefactor4 ,to say ,take back what you 
gave me1 is no less a reproach than to  
say ,you are in my debt4 ,let this be   
the first privilege of a benefit1 that  
he who bestowed it may choose the time  
when he will have it returned4 ,but ,i  
fear that men may speak ill of me4 ,you 
do wrong if you are grateful only for   

the sake of your reputation1 and not to 
satisfy your conscience4 ,you have in   
this matter two judges1 your benefactor1
 whom you ought not1 and yourself1 whom 
you cannot deceive4 ,but1 say you1 if no
 occasion of repayment offers1 am ,i    
always to remain in his debt8 ,yes2 but 
you should do so openly1 and willingly1 
and should view with great pleasure what
 he has entrusted to you4 ,if you are   
vexed at not having yet returned a      
benefit1 you must be sorry that you ever
 received it2 but if he deserved that   
you should receive a benefit from him1  
why should he not deserve that you      
should long remain in his debt8         
,,xliii4 ,those persons are much        
mistaken who regard it as a proof of a  
great mind to make offers to give1 and  
to fill many men's pockets and houses   
with their presents1 for sometimes these
 are due not to a great mind1 but to a  
great fortune2 they do not know how far 
more great and more difficult it        
sometimes is to receive than to lavish  

gifts4 ,i must disparage neither act2 it
 is as proper to a noble heart to owe as
 to receive1 for both are of equal value
 when done virtuously2 indeed1 to owe is
 the more difficult1 because it requires
 more pains to keep a thing safe than to
 give it away4 ,we ought not therefore  
to be in a hurry to repay1 nor need we  
seek to do so out of due season1 for to 
hasten to make repayment at the wrong   
time is as bad as to be slow to do so at
 the right time4 ,my benefactor has     
entrusted his bounty to me3 ,i ought not
 to have any fears either on his behalf 
or on my own4 ,he has a sufficient      
security2 he cannot lose it except he   
loses me--nay1 not even if he loses me4 
,i have returned thanks to him for      
it--that is1 ,i have requited him4 ,he  
who thinks too much about repaying a    
benefit must suppose that his friend    
thinks too much about receiving         
repayment4 ,make no difficulty about    
either course4 ,if he wishes to receive 
his benefit back again1 let us return it

 cheerfully2 if he prefers to leave it  
in our hands1 why should we dig up his  
treasure8 why should we decline to be   
its guardians8 he deserves to be allowed
 to do whichever he pleases4 ,as for    
fame and reputation1 let us regard them 
as matters which ought to accompany1 but
 which ought not to direct our actions4 
,,book ,,vii4  ,i4    ,be of good cheer1
 my ,liberalis3    ,our port is close1  
and ,i will not delay1    ,nor by       
digressions wander from the way4  ,this 
book collects together all that has been
 omitted1 and in it1 having exhausted my
 subject1 ,i shall consider not what ,i 
am to say1 but what there is which ,i   
have not yet said4 ,if there be anything
 superfluous in it1 ,i pray you take it 
in good part1 since it is for you that  
it is superfluous4 ,had ,i wished to set
 off my work to the best advantage1 ,i  
ought to have added to it by degrees1   
and to have kept for the last that part 
which would be eagerly perused even by a
 sated reader4 ,however1 instead of     

this1 ,i have collected together all    
that was essential in the beginning2 ,i 
am now collecting together whatever then
 escaped me2 nor1 by ,hercules1 if you  
ask me1 do ,i think that1 after the     
rules which govern our conduct have been
 stated1 it is very much to the purpose 
to discuss the other questions which    
have been raised more for the exercise  
of our intellects than for the health of
 our minds4 ,the cynic ,demetrius1 who  
in my opinion was a great man even if   
compared with the greatest philosophers1
 had an admirable saying about this1    
that one gained more by having a few    
wise precepts ready and in common use   
than by learning many without having    
them at hand4 ,the best wrestler1 he    
would say1 is not he who has learned    
thoroughly all the tricks and twists of 
the art1 which are seldom met with in   
actual wrestling1 but he who has well   
and carefully trained himself in one or 
two of them1 and watches keenly for an  
opportunity of practising them4 ,it does

 not matter how many of them he knows1  
if he knows enough to give him the      
victory2 and so in this subject of ours 
there are many points of interest1 but  
few of importance4 ,you need not know   
what is the system of the ocean tides1  
why each seventh year leaves its mark   
upon the human body1 why the more       
distant parts of a long portico do not  
keep their true proportion1 but seem to 
approach one another until at last the  
spaces between the columns disappear1   
how it can be that twins are conceived  
separately1 though they are born        
together1 whether both result from one1 
or each from a separate act1 why those  
whose birth was the same should have    
such different fates in life1 and dwell 
at the greatest possible distance from  
one another1 although they were born    
touching one another2 it will not do you
 much harm to pass over matters which we
 are not permitted to know1 and which we
 should not profit by knowing4 ,truths  
so obscure may be neglected with        

impunity4 ,footnote3 ,the old saying1   
',truth lurks deep in a well 7or        
abyss74' ,nor can we complain that      
nature deals hardly with us1 for there  
is nothing which is hard to discover    
except those things by which we gain    
nothing beyond the credit of having     
discovered them2 whatever things tend to
 make us better or happier are either   
obvious or easily discovered4 ,your mind
 can rise superior to the accidents of  
life1 if it can raise itself above fears
 and not greedily covet boundless       
wealth1 but has learned to seek for     
riches within itself2 if it has cast out
 the fear of men and gods1 and has      
learned that it has not much to fear    
from man1 and nothing to fear from ,god2
 if by scorning all those things which  
make life miserable while they adorn it1
 the mind can soar to such a height as  
to see clearly that death cannot be the 
beginning of any trouble1 though it is  
the end of many2 if it can dedicate     
itself to righteousness and think any   

path easy which leads to it2 if1 being a
 gregarious creature1 and born for the  
common good1 it regards the world as the
 universal home1 if it keeps its        
conscience clear towards ,god and lives 
always as though in public1 fearing     
itself more than other men1 then it     
avoids all storms1 it stands on firm    
ground in fair daylight1 and has brought
 to perfection its knowledge of all that
 is useful and essential4 ,all that     
remains serves merely to amuse our      
leisure2 yet1 when once anchored in     
safety1 the mind may consider these     
matters also1 though it can derive no   
strength1 but only culture from their   
discussion4  ,,ii4 ,the above are the   
rules which my friend ,demetrius bids   
him who would make progress in          
philosophy to clutch with both hands1   
never to let go1 but to cling to them1  
and make them a part of himself1 and by 
daily meditation upon them to bring     
himself into such a state of mind1 that 
these wholesome maxims occur to him of  

their own accord1 that wherever he may  
be1 they may straightway be ready for   
use when required1 and that the         
criterion of right and wrong may present
 itself to him without delay4 ,let him  
know that nothing is evil except what is
 base1 and nothing good except what is  
honourable3 let him guide his life by   
this rule3 let him both act and expect  
others to act in accordance with this   
law1 and let him regard those whose     
minds are steeped in indolence1 and who 
are given up to lust and gluttony1 as   
the most pitiable of mankind1 no matter 
how splendid their fortunes may be4 ,let
 him say to himself1 ,pleasure is       
uncertain1 short1 apt to pall upon us1  
and the more eagerly we indulge in it1  
the sooner we bring on a reaction of    
feeling against it2 we must necessarily 
afterwards blush for it1 or be sorry for
 it1 there is nothing grand about it1   
nothing worthy of man's nature1 little  
lower as it is than that of the gods2   
pleasure is a low act1 brought about by 

the agency of our inferior and baser    
members1 and shameful in its result4    
,true pleasure1 worthy of a human being 
and of a man1 is1 not to stuff or swell 
his body with food and drink1 nor to    
excite lusts which are least hurtful    
when they are most quiet1 but to be free
 from all forms of mental disturbance1  
both those which arise from men's       
ambitious struggles with one another1   
and those which come from on high and   
are more difficult to deal with1 which  
flow from our taking the traditional    
view of the gods1 and estimating them by
 the analogy of our own vices4 ,this    
equable1 secure1 uncloying pleasure is  
enjoyed by the man now described2 a man 
skilled1 so to say1 in the laws of gods 
and men alike4 ,such a man enjoys the   
present without anxiety for the future3 
for he who depends upon what is         
uncertain can rely confidently upon     
nothing4 ,thus he is free from all those
 great troubles which unhinge the mind1 
he neither hopes for1 nor covets        

anything1 and engages in no uncertain   
adventures1 being satisfied with what he
 has4 ,do not suppose that he is        
satisfied with a little2 for everything 
is his1 and that not in the sense in    
which all was ,alexander's1 who1 though 
he reached the shore of the ,red ,sea1  
yet wanted more territory than that     
through which he had come4 ,he did not  
even own those countries which he held  
or had conquered1 while ,onesicritus1   
whom he had sent on before him to       
discover new countries1 was wandering   
about the ocean and engaging in war in  
unknown seas4 ,is it clear that he who  
pushed his armies beyond the bounds of  
the universe1 who with reckless greed   
dashed headlong into a boundless and    
unexplored sea1 must in reality have    
been full of wants8 ,it matters not how 
many kingdoms he may have seized or     
given away1 or how great a part of the  
world may pay him tribute2 such a man   
must be in need of as much as he        
desires4  ,,iii4 ,this was not the vice 

of ,alexander alone1 who followed with a
 fortunate audacity in the footsteps of 
,bacchus and ,hercules1 but it is common
 to all those whose covetousness is     
whetted rather than appeased by good    
fortune4 ,look at ,cyrus and ,cambyses  
and all the royal house of ,persia3 can 
you find one among them who thought his 
empire large enough1 or was not at the  
last gasp still aspiring after further  
conquests8 ,we need not wonder at this1 
for whatever is obtained by covetousness
 is simply swallowed up and lost1 nor   
does it matter how much is poured into  
its insatiable maw4 ,only the wise man  
possesses everything without having to  
struggle to retain it2 he alone does not
 need to send ambassadors across the    
seas1 measure out camps upon hostile    
shores1 place garrisons in commanding   
forts1 or manoeuvre legions and         
squadrons of cavalry4 ,like the immortal
 gods1 who govern their realm without   
recourse to arms1 and from their serene 
and lofty heights protect their own1 so 

the wise man fulfils his duties1 however
 far-reaching they may be1 without      
disorder1 and looks down upon the whole 
human race1 because he himself is the   
greatest and most powerful member       
thereof4 ,you may laugh at him1 but if  
you in your mind survey the east and the
 west1 reaching even to the regions     
separated from us by vast wildernesses1 
if you think of all the creatures of the
 earth1 all the riches which the bounty 
of nature lavishes1 it shows a great    
spirit to be able to say1 as though you 
were a god1 ,all these are mine4 ,thus  
it is that he covets nothing1 for there 
is nothing which is not contained in    
everything1 and everything is his4      
,,iv4 ,this1 say you1 is the very thing 
that ,i wanted6 ,i have caught you6 ,i  
shall be glad to see how you will       
extricate yourself from the toils into  
which you have fallen of your own       
accord4 ,tell me1 if the wise man       
possesses everything1 how can one give  
anything to a wise man8 for even what   

you give him is his already4 ,it is     
impossible1 therefore1 to bestow a      
benefit upon a wise man1 if whatever is 
given him comes from his own store2 yet 
you ,stoics declare that it is possible 
to give to a wise man4 ,i make the same 
inquiry about friends as well3 for you  
say that friends own everything in      
common1 and if so1 no one can give      
anything to his friend1 for he gives    
what his friend owned already in common 
with himself4  ,there is nothing to     
prevent a thing belonging to a wise man1
 and yet being the property of its legal
 owner4 ,according to law everything in 
a state belongs to the king1 yet all    
that property over which the king has   
rights of possession is parcelled out   
among individual owners1 and each       
separate thing belongs to somebody3 and 
so one can give the king a house1 a     
slave1 or a sum of money without being  
said to give him what was his already2  
for the king has rights over all these  
things1 while each citizen has the      

ownership of them4 ,we speak of the     
country of the ,athenians1 or of the    
,campanians1 though the inhabitants     
divide them amongst themselves into     
separate estates2 the whole region      
belongs to one state or another1 but    
each part of it belongs to its own      
individual proprietor2 so that we are   
able to give our lands to the state1    
although they are reckoned as belonging 
to the state1 because we and the state  
own them in different ways4 ,can there  
be any doubt that all the private       
savings of a slave belong to his master 
as well as he himself8 yet he makes his 
master presents4 ,the slave does not    
therefore possess nothing1 because if   
his master chose he might possess       
nothing2 nor does what he gives of his  
own free will cease to be a present1    
because it might have been wrung from   
him against his will4 ,as for how we are
 to prove that the wise man possesses   
all things1 we shall see afterwards2 for
 the present we are both agreed to      

regard this as true2 we must gather     
together something to answer the        
question before us1 which is1 how any   
means remain of acting generously       
towards one who already possesses all   
things8 ,all things that a son has      
belong to his father1 yet who does not  
know that in spite of this a son can    
make presents to his father8 ,all things
 belong to the gods2 yet we make        
presents and bestow alms even upon the  
gods4 ,what ,i have is not necessarily  
not mine because it belongs to you2 for 
the same thing may belong both to me and
 to you4  ,he to whom courtezans belong1
 argues our adversary1 must be a        
procurer3 now courtezans are included in
 all things1 therefore courtezans belong
 to the wise man4 ,but he to whom       
courtezans belong is a procurer2        
therefore the wise man is a procurer4   
,yes6 by the same reasoning1 our        
opponents would forbid him to buy       
anything1 arguing1 ,no man buys his own 
property4 ,now all things are the       

property of the wise man2 therefore the 
wise man buys nothing4 ,by the same     
reasoning they object to his borrowing1 
because no one pays interest for the use
 of his own money4 ,they raise endless  
quibbles1 although they perfectly well  
understand what we say4  ,v4 ,for1 when 
,i say that the wise man possesses      
everything1 ,i mean that he does so     
without thereby impairing each man's    
individual rights in his own property1  
in the same way as in a country ruled by
 a good king1 everything belongs to the 
king1 by the right of his authority1 and
 to the people by their several rights  
of ownership4 ,this ,i shall prove in   
its proper place2 in the mean time it is
 a sufficient answer to the question to 
declare that ,i am able to give to the  
wise man that which is in one way mine1 
and in another way his4 ,nor is it      
strange that ,i should be able to give  
anything to one who possesses           
everything4 ,suppose ,i have hired a    
house from you3 some part of that house 

is mine1 some is yours2 the house itself
 is yours1 the use of your house belongs
 to me4 ,crops may ripen upon your land1
 but you cannot touch them against the  
will of your tenant2 and if corn be     
dear1 or at famine price1 you will      
,in vain another's mighty store behold1 
grown upon your land1 lying upon your   
land1 and to be deposited in your own   
barns4 ,though you be the landlord1 you 
must not enter my hired house1 nor may  
you take away your own slave from me if 
,i have contracted for his services2    
nay1 if ,i hire a carriage from you1 ,i 
bestow a benefit by allowing you to take
 your seat in it1 although it is your   
own4 ,you see1 therefore1 that it is    
possible for a man to receive a present 
by accepting what is his own4  ,,vi4 ,in
 all the cases which ,i have mentioned1 
each party is the owner of the same     
thing4 ,how is this8 ,it is because the 
one owns the thing1 the other owns the  
use of the thing4 ,we speak of the books
 of ,cicero4 ,dorus1 the bookseller1    

calls these same books his own2 the one 
claims them because he wrote them1 the  
other because he bought them2 so that   
they may quite correctly be spoken of as
 belonging to either of the two1 for    
they do belong to each1 though in a     
different manner4 ,thus ,titus ,livius  
may receive as a present1 or may buy his
 own books from ,dorus4 ,although the   
wise man possesses everything1 yet ,i   
can give him what ,i individually       
possess2 for though1 king-like1 he in   
his mind possesses everything1 yet the  
ownership of all things is divided among
 various individuals1 so that he can    
both receive a present and owe one2 can 
buy1 or hire things4 ,everything belongs
 to ,caesar2 yet he has no private      
property beyond his own privy purse2 as 
,emperor all things are his1 but nothing
 is his own except what he inherits4 ,it
 is possible1 without treason1 to       
discuss what is and what is not his2 for
 even what the court may decide not to  
be his1 from another point of view is   

his4 ,in the same way the wise man in   
his mind possesses everything1 in actual
 right and ownership he possesses only  
his own property4  ,,vii4 ,bion is able 
to prove by argument at one time that   
everyone is sacrilegious1 at another    
that no one is4 ,when he is in a mood   
for casting all men down the ,tarpeian  
rock1 he says1 ,whosoever touches that  
which belongs to the gods1 and consumes 
it or converts it to his own uses1 is   
sacrilegious2 but all things belong to  
the gods1 so that whatever thing any one
 touches belongs to them to whom all    
belongs2 whoever1 therefore1 touches    
anything is sacrilegious4 ,again1 when  
he bids men break open temples and      
pillage the ,capitol without fear of the
 wrath of heaven1 he declares that no   
one can be sacrilegious2 because1       
whatever a man takes away1 he takes from
 one place which belongs to the gods    
into another place which belongs to the 
gods4 ,the answer to this is that all   
places do indeed belong to the gods1 but

 all are not consecrated to them1 and   
that sacrilege can only be done in      
places solemnly dedicated to heaven4    
,thus1 also1 the whole world is a temple
 of the immortal gods1 and1 indeed1 the 
only one worthy of their greatness and  
splendour1 and yet there is a           
distinction between things sacred and   
profane2 all things which it is lawful  
to do under the sky and the stars are   
not lawful to do within consecrated     
walls4 ,the sacrilegious man cannot do  
,god any harm1 for ,he is placed beyond 
his reach by ,his divine nature2 yet he 
is punished because he seems to have    
done ,him harm3 his punishment is       
demanded by our feeling on the matter1  
and even by his own4 ,in the same way1  
therefore1 as he who carries off any    
sacred things is regarded as            
sacrilegious1 although that which he    
stole is nevertheless within the limits 
of the world1 so it is possible to steal
 from a wise man3 for in that case it   
will be some1 not of that universe which

 he possesses1 but some of those things 
of which he is the acknowledged owner1  
and which are severally his own         
property1 which will be stolen from him4
 ,the former of these possessions he    
will recognize as his own1 the latter he
 will be unwilling1 even if he be able  
to possess2 he will say1 as that ,roman 
commander said1 when1 to reward his     
courage and good service to the state1  
he was assigned as much land as he could
 inclose in one day's ploughing4 ,you do
 not1 said he1 want a citizen who wants 
more than is enough for one citizen4 ,do
 you not think that it required a much  
greater man to refuse this reward than  
to earn it8 for many have taken away the
 landmarks of other men's property1 but 
no one sets up limits to his own4       
,,viii4 ,when1 then1 we consider that   
the mind of the truly wise man has power
 over all things and pervades all       
things1 we cannot help declaring that   
everything is his1 although1 in the     
estimation of our common law1 it may    

chance that he may be rated as          
possessing no property whatever4 ,it    
makes a great difference whether we     
estimate what he owns by the greatness  
of his mind1 or by the public register4 
,he would pray to be delivered from that
 possession of everything of which you  
speak4 ,i will not remind you of        
,socrates1 ,chrysippus1 ,zeno1 and other
 great men1 all the greater1 however1   
because envy prevents no one from       
praising the ancients4 ,but a short time
 ago ,i mentioned ,demetrius1 who seems 
to have been placed by nature in our    
times that he might prove that we could 
neither corrupt him nor be corrected by 
him2 a man of consummate wisdom1 though 
he himself disclaimed it1 constant to   
the principles which he professed1 of an
 eloquence worthy to deal with the      
mightiest subjects1 scorning mere       
prettinesses and verbal niceties1 but   
expressing with infinite spirit1 the    
ideas which inspired it4 ,i doubt not   
that he was endowed by divine providence

 with so pure a life and such power of  
speech in order that our age might      
neither be without a model nor a        
reproach4 ,had some god wished to give  
all our wealth to ,demetrius on the     
fixed condition that he should not be   
permitted to give it away1 ,i am sure   
that he would have refused to accept it1
 and would have said1  ,,ix4 ,i do not  
intend to fasten upon my back a burden  
like this1 of which ,i never can rid    
myself1 nor do ,i1 nimble and lightly   
equipped as ,i am1 mean to hinder my    
progress by plunging into the deep      
morass of business transactions4 ,why do
 you offer to me what is the bane of all
 nations8 ,i would not accept it even if
 ,i meant to give it away1 for ,i see   
many things which it would not become me
 to give4 ,i should like to place before
 my eyes the things which fascinate both
 kings and peoples1 ,i wish to behold   
the price of your blood and your lives4 
,first bring before me the trophies of  
,luxury1 exhibiting them as you please1 

either in succession1 or1 which is      
better1 in one mass4 ,i see the shell of
 the tortoise1 a foul and slothful      
brute1 bought for immense sums and      
ornamented with the most elaborate care1
 the contrast of colours which is       
admired in it being obtained by the use 
of dyes resembling the natural tints4 ,i
 see tables and pieces of wood valued at
 the price of a senator's estate1 which 
are all the more precious1 the more     
knots the tree has been twisted into by 
disease4 ,i see crystal vessels1 whose  
price is enhanced by their fragility1   
for among the ignorant the risk of      
losing things increases their value     
instead of lowering it1 as it ought4 ,i 
see murrhine cups1 for luxury would be  
too cheap if men did not drink to one   
another out of hollow gems the wine to  
be afterwards thrown up again4 ,i see   
more than one large pearl placed in each
 ear2 for now our ears are trained to   
carry burdens1 pearls are hung from them
 in pairs1 and each pair has other      

single ones fastened above it4 ,this    
womanish folly is not exaggerated enough
 for the men of our time1 unless they   
hang two or three estates upon each ear4
 ,i see ladies' silk dresses1 if those  
deserve to be called dresses which can  
neither cover their body or their shame2
 when wearing which1 they can scarcely  
with a good conscience1 swear that they 
are not naked4 ,these are imported at a 
vast expense from nations unknown even  
to trade1 in order that our matrons may 
show as much of their persons in public 
as they do to their lovers in private4  
,x4 ,what are you doing1 ,avarice8 see  
how many things there are whose price   
exceeds that of your beloved gold3 all  
those which ,i have mentioned are more  
highly esteemed and valued4 ,i now wish 
to review your wealth1 those plates of  
gold and silver which dazzle our        
covetousness4 ,by ,hercules1 the very   
earth1 while she brings forth upon the  
surface every thing that is of use to   
us1 has buried these1 sunk them deep1   

and rests upon them with her whole      
weight1 regarding them as pernicious    
substances1 and likely to prove the ruin
 of mankind if brought into the light of
 day4 ,i see that iron is brought out of
 the same dark pits as gold and silver1 
in order that we may lack neither the   
means nor the reward of murder4 ,thus   
far we have dealt with actual           
substances2 but some forms of wealth    
deceive our eyes and minds alike4 ,i see
 there letters of credit1 promissory    
notes1 and bonds1 empty phantoms of     
property1 ghosts of sick ,avarice1 with 
which she deceives our minds1 which     
delight in unreal fancies2 for what are 
these things1 and what are interest1 and
 account books1 and usury1 except the   
names of unnatural developments of human
 covetousness8 ,i might complain of     
nature for not having hidden gold and   
silver deeper1 for not having laid over 
it a weight too heavy to be removed3 but
 what are your documents1 your sale of  
time1 your blood-sucking twelve per     

cent4 interest8 these are evils which we
 owe to our own will1 which flow merely 
from our perverted habit1 having nothing
 about them which can be seen or        
handled1 mere dreams of empty avarice4  
,wretched is he who can take pleasure in
 the size of the audit book of his      
estate1 in great tracts of land         
cultivated by slaves in chains1 in huge 
flocks and herds which require provinces
 and kingdoms for their pasture ground1 
in a household of servants1 more in     
number than some of the most warlike    
nations1 or in a private house whose    
extent surpasses that of a large city6  
,after he has carefully reviewed all his
 wealth1 in what it is invested1 and on 
what it is spent1 and has rendered      
himself proud by the thoughts of it1 let
 him compare what he has with what he   
wants3 he becomes a poor man at once4   
,let me go3 restore me to those riches  
of mine4 ,i know the kingdom of wisdom1 
which is great and stable3 ,i possess   
every thing1 and in such a manner that  

it belongs to all men nevertheless4     
,,xi4 ,when1 therefore1 ,gaius ,caesar  
offered him two hundred thousand        
sesterces1 he laughingly refused it1    
thinking it unworthy of himself to boast
 of having refused so small a sum4 ,ye  
gods and goddesses1 what a mean mind    
must the emperor have had1 if he hoped  
either to honour or to corrupt him4 ,i  
must here repeat a proof of his         
magnanimity4 ,i have heard that when he 
was expressing his wonder at the folly  
of ,gaius at supposing that he could be 
influenced by such a bribe1 he said1 ,if
 he meant to tempt me1 he ought to have 
tried to do so by offering his entire   
kingdom4  ,,xii4 ,it is possible1 then1 
to give something to the wise man1      
although all things belong to the wise  
man4 ,similarly1 though we declare that 
friends have all things in common1 it is
 nevertheless possible to give something
 to a friend3 for ,i have not everything
 in common with a friend in the same    
manner as with a partner1 where one part

 belongs to him1 and another to me1 but 
rather as a father and a mother possess 
their children in common when they have 
two1 not each parent possessing one     
child1 but each possessing both4 ,first 
of all ,i will prove that any chance    
would-be partner of mine has nothing in 
common with me3 and why8 ,because this  
community of goods can only exist       
between wise men1 who are alone capable 
of friendship3 other men can neither be 
friends nor partners one to another4 ,in
 the next place1 things may be owned in 
common in various ways4 ,the knights'   
seats in the theatre belong to all the  
,roman knights2 yet of these the seat   
which ,i occupy becomes my own1 and if  
,i yield it up to any one1 although ,i  
only yield him a thing which we own in  
common1 still ,i appear to have given   
him something4 ,some things belong to   
certain persons under particular        
conditions4 ,i have a place among the   
knights1 not to sell1 or to let1 or to  
dwell in1 but simply to see the         

spectacle from1 wherefore ,i do not tell
 an untruth when ,i say that ,i have a  
place among the knights' seats4 ,yet if1
 when ,i come into the theatre1 the     
knights' seats are full1 ,i both have a 
seat there by right1 because ,i have the
 privilege of sitting there1 and ,i have
 not a seat there1 because my seat is   
occupied by those who share my right to 
those places4 ,suppose that the same    
thing takes place between friends2      
whatever our friend possesses1 is common
 to us1 but is the property of him who  
owns it2 ,i cannot make use of it       
against his will4 ,you are laughing at  
me1 say you2 if what belongs to my      
friend is mine1 ,i am able to sell it4  
,you are not able2 for you are not able 
to sell your place among the knights'   
seats1 and yet they are in common       
between you and the other knights4      
,consequently1 the fact that you cannot 
sell a thing1 or consume it1 or exchange
 it for the better or the worse does not
 prove that it is not yours2 for that   

which is yours under certain conditions 
is yours nevertheless4  ,,xiii4 ,i have 
received1 but certainly not less4 ,not  
to detain you longer than is necessary1 
a benefit can be no more than a benefit2
 but the means employed to convey       
benefits may be both greater and more   
numerous4 ,i mean those things by which 
kindness expresses and gives vent to    
itself1 like lovers1 whose many kisses  
and close embraces do not increase their
 love but give it play4  ,,xiv4 ,the    
next question which arises has been     
thoroughly threshed out in the former   
books1 so here it shall only be touched 
on shortly2 for the arguments which have
 been used for other cases can be       
transferred to it4  ,the question is1   
whether one who has done everything in  
his power to return a benefit1 has      
returned it4 ,you may know1 says our    
adversary1 that he has not returned it1 
because he did everything in his power  
to return it2 it is evident1 therefore1 
that he did not not do that which he did

 not have an opportunity of doing4 ,a   
man who searches everywhere for his     
creditor without finding him does not   
thereby pay him what he owes4 ,some are 
in such a position that it is their duty
 to effect something material2 in the   
case of others to have done all in their
 power to effect it is as good as       
effecting it4 ,if a physician has done  
all in his power to heal his patient he 
has performed his duty2 an advocate who 
employs his whole powers of eloquence on
 his client's behalf1 performs his duty 
even though his client be convicted2 the
 generalship even of a beaten commander 
is praised if he has prudently1         
laboriously1 and courageously exercised 
his functions4 ,your friend has done all
 in his power to return your kindness1  
but your good fortune stood in his way2 
no adversity befell you in which he     
could prove the truth of his friendship2
 he could not give you money when you   
were rich1 or nurse you when you were in
 health1 or help you when you were      

succeeding2 yet he repaid your kindness1
 even though you did not receive a      
benefit from him4 ,moreover1 this man1  
being always eager1 and on the watch for
 an opportunity of doing this1 as he has
 expended much anxiety and much trouble 
upon it1 has really done more than he   
who quickly had an opportunity of       
repaying your kindness4 ,the case of a  
debtor is not the same1 for it is not   
enough for him to have tried to find the
 money unless he pays it2 in his case a 
harsh creditor stands over him who will 
not let a single day pass without       
charging him interest2 in yours there is
 a most kind friend1 who seeing you     
busy1 troubled1 and anxious would say4  
',dismiss this trouble from thy breast2'
  leave off disturbing yourself2 ,i have
 received from you all that ,i wish2 you
 wrong me1 if you suppose that ,i want  
anything further2 you have fully repaid 
me in intention4  ,tell me1 says our    
adversary1 if he had repaid the benefit 
you would say that he had returned your 

kindness3 is1 then1 he who repays it in 
the same position as he who does not    
repay it8  ,on the other hand1 consider 
this3 if he had forgotten the benefit   
which he had received1 if he had not    
even attempted to be grateful1 you would
 say that he had not returned the       
kindness2 but this man has laboured day 
and night to the neglect of all his     
other duties in his devoted care to let 
no opportunity of proving his gratitude 
escape him2 is then he who took no pains
 to return a kindness to be classed with
 this man who never ceased to take      
pains8 you are unjust1 if you require a 
material payment from me when you see   
that ,i am not wanting in intention4    
,,xv4 ,in short1 suppose that when you  
are taken captive1 ,i have borrowed     
money1 made over my property as security
 to my creditor1 that ,i have sailed in 
a stormy winter season along coasts     
swarming with pirates1 that ,i have     
braved all the perils which necessarily 
attend a voyage even on a peaceful sea1 

that ,i have wandered through all       
wildernesses seeking for those men whom 
all others flee from1 and that when ,i  
have at length reached the pirates1     
someone else has already ransomed you3  
will you say that ,i have not returned  
your kindness8 ,even if during this     
voyage ,i have lost by shipwreck the    
money that ,i had raised to save you1   
even if ,i myself have fallen into the  
prison from which ,i sought to release  
you1 will you say that ,i have not      
returned your kindness8 ,no1 by         
,hercules6 the ,athenians call          
,harmodius and ,aristogiton1            
tyrannicides2 the hand of ,mucius which 
he left on the enemy's altar was        
equivalent to the death of ,porsena1 and
 valour struggling against fortune is   
always illustrious1 even if it falls    
short of accomplishing its design4 ,he  
who watches each opportunity as it      
passes1 and tries to avail himself of   
one after another1 does more to show his
 gratitude than he whom the first       

opportunity enabled to be grateful      
without any trouble whatever4 ,but1 says
 our adversary1 he gave you two things1 
material help and kindly feeling2 you1  
therefore1 owe him two4 ,you might      
justly say this to one who returns your 
kindly feeling without troubling himself
 further2 this man is really in your    
debt2 but you cannot say so of one who  
wishes to repay you1 who struggles and  
leaves no stone unturned to do so2 for1 
as far as in him lies1 he repays you in 
both kinds2 in the next place1 counting 
is not always a true test1 sometimes one
 thing is equivalent to two2            
consequently so intense and ardent a    
wish to repay takes the place of a      
material repayment4 ,indeed1 if a       
feeling of gratitude has no value in    
repaying a kindness without giving      
something material1 then no one can be  
grateful to the gods1 whom we can repay 
by gratitude alone4 ,we cannot1 says our
 adversary1 give the gods anything else4
 ,well1 but if ,i am not able to give   

this man1 whose kindness ,i am bound to 
return1 anything beside my gratitude1   
why should that which is all that ,i can
 bestow on a god be insufficient to     
prove my gratitude towards a man8       
,,xvi4 ,if1 however1 you ask me what ,i 
really think1 and wish me to give a     
definite answer1 ,i should say that the 
one party ought to consider his benefit 
to have been returned1 while the other  
ought to feel that he has not returned  
it2 the one should release his friend   
from the debt1 the other should hold    
himself bound to pay it2 the one should 
say1 ,i have received2 the other should 
answer1 ,i owe4 ,in our whole           
investigation1 we ought to look entirely
 to the public good2 we ought to prevent
 the ungrateful having any excuses in   
which they can take refuge1 and under   
cover of which they can disown their    
debts4 ,i have done all in my power1 say
 you4 ,well1 keep on doing so still4 ,do
 you suppose that our ancestors were so 
foolish1 as not to understand that it is

 most unjust that the man who has wasted
 the money which he received from his   
creditor on debauchery1 or gambling1    
should be classed with one who has lost 
his own property as well as that of     
others in a fire1 by robbery1 or some   
sadder mischance8 ,they would take no   
excuse1 that men might understand that  
they were always bound to keep their    
word2 it was thought better that even a 
good excuse should not be accepted from 
a few persons1 than that all men should 
be led to try to make excuses4 ,you say 
that you have done all in your power to 
repay your debt2 this ought to be enough
 for your friend1 but not enough for    
you4 ,he to whom you owe a kindness1 is 
unworthy of gratitude if he lets all    
your anxious care and trouble to repay  
it go for nothing2 and so1 too1 if your 
friend takes your good will as a        
repayment1 you are ungrateful if you are
 not all the more eager to feel the     
obligation of the debt which he has     
forgiven you4 ,do not snap up his       

receipt1 or call witnesses to prove it2 
rather seek opportunities for repaying  
not less than before2 repay the one man 
because he asks for repayment1 the other
 because he forgives you your debt2 the 
one because he is good1 the other       
because he is bad4 ,you1 need not1      
therefore1 think that you have anything 
to do with the question whether a man be
 bound to repay the benefit which he has
 received from a wise man1 if that man  
has ceased to be wise and has turned    
into a bad man4 ,you would return a     
deposit which you had received from a   
wise man2 you would return a loan even  
to a bad man2 what grounds have you for 
not returning a benefit also8 ,because  
he has changed1 ought he to change you8 
,what8 if you had received anything from
 a man when healthy1 would you not      
return it to him when he was sick1      
though we always are more bound to treat
 our friends with more kindness when    
they are ailing8 ,so1 too1 this man is  
sick in his mind2 we ought to help him1 

and bear with him2 folly is a disease of
 the mind4  ,,xvii4 ,i think here we    
ought to make a distinction1 in order to
 render this point more intelligible4   
,benefits are of two kinds3 one1 the    
perfect and true benefit1 which can only
 be bestowed by one wise man upon       
another2 the other1 the common vulgar   
form which ignorant men like ourselves  
interchange4 ,with regard to the latter1
 there is no doubt that it is my duty to
 repay it whether my friend turns out to
 be a murderer1 a thief1 or an          
adulterer4 ,crimes have laws to punish  
them2 criminals are better reformed by  
judges than by ingratitude2 a man ought 
not to make you bad by being so himself4
 ,i will fling a benefit back to a bad  
man1 ,i will return it to a good man2 ,i
 do so to the latter1 because ,i owe it 
to him2 to the former1 that ,i may not  
be in his debt4  ,,xviii4 ,with regard  
to the other class of benefit1 the      
question arises whether if ,i was not   
able to take it without being a wise    

man1 ,i am able to return it1 except to 
a wise man4 ,for suppose ,i do return it
 to him1 he cannot receive it1 he is not
 any longer able to receive such a      
thing1 he has lost the knowledge of how 
to use it4 ,you would not bid me throw  
back ,footnote3 i4e4 in the game of     
ball4 a ball to a man who has lost his  
hand2 it is folly to give any one what  
he cannot receive4 ,if ,i am to begin to
 reply to the last argument1 ,i say that
 ,i should not give him what he is      
unable to take2 but ,i would return it1 
even though he is not able to receive   
it4 ,i cannot lay him under an          
obligation unless he takes my bounty2   
but by returning it ,i can free myself  
from my obligations to him4 ,you say1 he
 will not be able to use it4 ,let him   
see to that2 the fault will lie with    
him1 not with me4  ,,xix4 ,to return a  
thing1 says our adversary1 is to hand it
 over to one who can receive it4 ,why1  
if you owed some wine to any man1 and he
 bade you pour it into a net or a sieve1

 would you say that you had returned it8
 or would you be willing to return it in
 such a way that in the act of returning
 it was lost between you8 ,to return is 
to give that which you owe back to its  
owner when he wishes for it4 ,it is not 
my duty to perform more than this2 that 
he should possess what he has received  
from me is a matter for further         
consideration2 ,i do not owe him the    
safe-keeping of his property1 but the   
honourable payment of my debt1 and it is
 much better that he should not have it1
 than that ,i should not return it to   
him4 ,i would repay my creditor1 even   
though he would at once take what ,i    
paid him to the market2 even if he      
deputed an adulteress to receive the    
money from me1 ,i would pay it to her2  
even if he were to pour the coins which 
he receives into a loose fold of his    
cloak1 ,i would pay it4 ,it is my       
business to return it to him1 not to    
keep it and save it for him after ,i    
have returned it2 ,i am bound to take   

care of his bounty when ,i have received
 it1 but not when ,i have returned it to
 him4 ,while it remains with me1 it must
 be kept safe2 but when he asks for it  
again ,i must give it to him1 even      
though it slips out of his hands as he  
takes it4 ,i will repay a good man when 
it is convenient2 ,i will repay a bad   
man when he asks me to do so4  ,you     
cannot1 argues our adversary1 return him
 a benefit of the same kind as that     
which you received2 for you received it 
from a wise man1 and you are returning  
it to a fool4 ,do ,i not return to him  
such a benefit1 as he is now able to    
receive8 ,it is not my fault if ,i      
return it to him worse than ,i received 
it1 the fault lies with him1 and so1    
unless he regains his former wisdom1 ,i 
shall return it in such a form as he in 
his fallen condition is able to receive4
 ,but what1 asks he1 if he become not   
only bad1 but savage and ferocious1 like
 ,apollodorus or ,phalaris1 would you   
return even to such a man as this a     

benefit which you had received from him8
 ,i answer1 ,nature does not admit of so
 great a change in a wise man4 ,men do  
not change from the best to the worst2  
even in becoming bad1 he would          
necessarily retain some traces of       
goodness2 virtue is never so utterly    
quenched as not to imprint on the mind  
marks which no degradation can efface4  
,if wild animals bred in captivity      
escape into the woods1 they still retain
 something of their original tameness1  
and are as remote from the gentlest in  
the one extreme as they are in the other
 from those which have always been wild1
 and have never endured to be touched by
 man's hand4 ,no one who has ever       
applied himself to philosophy ever      
becomes completely wicked2 his mind     
becomes so deeply coloured with it1 that
 its tints can never be entirely spoiled
 and blackened4 ,in the next place1 ,i  
ask whether this man of yours be        
ferocious merely in intent1 or whether  
he breaks out into actual outrages upon 

mankind8 ,you have instanced the tyrants
 ,apollodorus and ,phalaris2 if the bad 
man restrains their evil likeness within
 himself1 why should ,i not return his  
benefit to him1 in order to set myself  
free from any further dealings with him8
 ,if1 however1 he not only delights in  
human blood1 but feeds upon it2 if he   
exercises his insatiable cruelty in the 
torture of persons of all ages1 and his 
fury is not prompted by anger1 but by a 
sort of delight in cruelty1 if he cuts  
the throats of children before the eyes 
of their parents2 if1 not satisfied with
 merely killing his victims1 he tortures
 them1 and not only burns but actually  
roasts them2 if his castle is always wet
 with freshly shed blood2 then it is not
 enough not to return his benefits4 ,all
 connexion between me and such a man has
 been broken off by his destruction of  
the bonds of human society4 ,if he had  
bestowed something upon me1 but were to 
invade my native country1 he would have 
lost all claim to my gratitude1 and it  

would be counted a crime to make him any
 return2 if he does not attack my       
country1 but is the scourge of his own2 
if he has nothing to do with my nation1 
but torments and cuts to pieces his own1
 then in the same manner such depravity1
 though it does not render him my       
personal enemy1 yet renders him hateful 
to me1 and the duty which ,i owe to the 
human race is anterior to and more      
important than that which ,i owe to him 
as an individual4  ,,xx4 ,however1      
although this be so1 and although ,i am 
freed from all obligation towards him1  
from the moment when1 by outraging all  
laws1 he rendered it impossible for any 
man to do him a wrong1 nevertheless1 ,i 
think ,i ought to make the following    
distinction in dealing with him4 ,if my 
repayment of his benefit will neither   
increase nor maintain his powers of     
doing mischief to mankind1 and is of    
such a character that ,i can return it  
to him without disadvantage to the      
public1 ,i would return it3 for         

instance1 ,i would save the life of his 
infant child2 for what harm can this    
benefit do to any of those who suffer   
from his cruelty8 ,but ,i would not     
furnish him with money to pay his       
bodyguard4 ,if he wishes for marbles1 or
 fine clothes1 the trappings of his     
luxury will harm no one2 but with       
soldiers and arms ,i would not furnish  
him4 ,if he demands1 as a great boon1   
actors and courtesans and such things as
 will soften his savage nature1 ,i would
 willingly bestow them upon him4 ,i     
would not furnish him with triremes and 
brass-beaked ships of war1 but ,i would 
send him fast sailing and               
luxuriously-fitted vessels1 and all the 
toys of kings who take their pleasure on
 the sea4 ,if his health was altogether 
despaired of1 ,i would by the same act  
bestow a benefit on all men and return  
one to him2 seeing that for such        
characters death is the only remedy1 and
 that he who never will return to       
himself1 had best leave himself4        

,however1 such wickedness as this is    
uncommon1 and is always regarded as a   
portent1 as when the earth opens1 or    
when fires break forth from caves under 
the sea2 so let us leave it1 and speak  
of those vices which we can hate without
 shuddering at them4 ,as for the        
ordinary bad man1 whom ,i can find in   
the marketplace of any town1 who is     
feared only by individuals1 ,i would    
return to him a benefit which ,i had    
received from him4 ,it is not right that
 ,i should profit by his wickedness2 let
 me return what is not mine to its      
owner4 ,whether he be good or bad makes 
no difference2 but ,i would consider the
 matter most carefully1 if ,i were not  
returning but bestowing it4  ,,xxi4     
,this point requires to be illustrated  
by a story4 ,a certain ,pythagoraean    
bought a fine pair of shoes from a      
shoemaker2 and as they were an expensive
 piece of work1 he did not pay ready    
money for them4 ,some time afterwards he
 came to the shop to pay for them1 and  

after he had long been knocking at the  
closed door1 some one said to him1 ,why 
do you waste your time8 ,the shoemaker  
whom you seek has been carried out of   
his house and buried2 this is a grief to
 us who lose our friends for ever1 but  
by no means so to you1 who know that he 
will be born again1 jeering at the      
,pythagoraean4 ,upon this our           
philosopher not unwillingly carried his 
three or four denarii home again1       
shaking them every now and then2        
afterwards1 blaming himself for the     
pleasure which he had secretly felt at  
not paying his debt1 and perceiving that
 he enjoyed having made this trifling   
gain1 he returned to the shop1 and      
saying1 the man lives for you1 pay him  
what you owe1 he passed four denarii    
into the shop through the crack of the  
closed door1 and let them fall inside1  
punishing himself for his unconscionable
 greediness that he might not form the  
habit of appropriating that which is not
 his own4  ,,xxii4 ,if you owe anything1

 seek for some one to whom you may repay
 it1 and if no one demands it1 dun your 
own self2 whether the man be good or bad
 is no concern of yours2 repay him1 and 
then blame him4 ,you have forgotten1 how
 your several duties are divided3 it is 
right for him to forget it1 but we have 
bidden you bear it in mind4 ,when1      
however1 we say that he who bestows a   
benefit ought to forget it1 it is a     
mistake to suppose that we rob him of   
all recollection of the business1 though
 it is most creditable to him2 some of  
our precepts are stated over strictly in
 order to reduce them to their true     
proportions4 ,when we say that he ought 
not to remember it1 we mean he ought not
 to speak publicly1 or boast of it      
offensively4 ,there are some1 who1 when 
they have bestowed a benefit1 tell it in
 all societies1 talk of it when sober1  
cannot be silent about it when drunk1   
force it upon strangers1 and communicate
 it to friends2 it is to quell this     
excessive and reproachful consciousness 

that we bid him who gave it forget it1  
and by commanding him to do this1 which 
is more than he is able1 encourage him  
to keep silence4  ,,xxiii4 ,when you    
distrust those whom you order to do     
anything1 you ought to command them to  
do more than enough in order that they  
may do what is enough4 ,the purpose of  
all exaggeration is to arrive at the    
truth by falsehood4 ,consequently1 he   
who spoke of horses as being3    ,whiter
 than snows and swifter than the winds1 
said what could not possibly be in order
 that they might be thought to be as    
much so as possible4 ,and he who said3  
,more firm than crags1 more headlong    
than the stream1  did not suppose that  
he should make any one believe that a   
man could ever be as firm as a crag4    
,exaggeration never hopes all its daring
 flights to be believed1 but affirms    
what is incredible1 that thereby it may 
convey what is credible4 ,when we say1  
let the man who has bestowed a benefit1 
forget it1 what we mean is1 let him be  

as though he had forgotten it2 let not  
his remembrance of it appear or be seen4
 ,when we say that repayment of a       
benefit ought not to be demanded1 we do 
not utterly forbid its being demanded2  
for repayment must often be extorted    
from bad men1 and even good men require 
to be reminded of it4 ,am ,i not to     
point out a means of repayment to one   
who does not perceive it8 ,am ,i not to 
explain my wants to one does not know   
them8 ,why should he 7if a bad man7 have
 the excuse1 or 7if a good man7 have the
 sorrow of not knowing them8 ,men ought 
sometimes to be reminded of their debts1
 though with modesty1 not in the tone of
 one demanding a legal right4  ,,xxiv4  
,socrates once said in the hearing of   
his friends3 ,i would have bought a     
cloak1 if ,i had had the money for it4  
,he asked no one for money1 but he      
reminded them all to give it4 ,there was
 a rivalry between them1 as to who      
should give it2 and how should there not
 be8 ,was it not a small thing which    

,socrates received8 ,yes1 but it was a  
great thing to be the man from whom     
,socrates received it4 ,could he blame  
them more gently8 ,i would1 said he1    
have bought a cloak if ,i had had the   
money for it4 ,after this1 however eager
 any one was to give1 he gave too late2 
for he had already been wanting in his  
duty to ,socrates4 ,because some men    
harshly demand repayment of debts1 we   
forbid it1 not in order that it may     
never be done1 but that it may be done  
sparingly4  ,,xxv4 ,aristippus once1    
when enjoying a perfume1 said3 ,bad luck
 to those effeminate persons who have   
brought so nice a thing into disrepute4 
,we also may say1 ,bad luck to those    
base extortioners who pester us for a   
fourfold return of their benefits1 and  
have brought into disrepute so nice a   
thing as reminding our friends of their 
duty4 ,i shall nevertheless make use of 
this right of friendship1 and ,i shall  
demand the return of a benefit from any 
man from whom ,i would not have scrupled

 to ask for one1 such a man as would    
regard the power of returning a benefit 
as equivalent to receiving a second one4
 ,never1 not even when complaining of   
him1 would ,i say1    ,a wretch forlorn 
upon the shore he lay1    ,his ship1 his
 comrades1 all were swept away2    ,fool
 that ,i was1 ,i pitied his despair1    
,and even gave him of my realm a share4 
,this is not to remind1 but to reproach2
 this is to make one's benefits odious  
to enable him1 or even to make him wish 
to be ungrateful4 ,it is enough1 and    
more than enough1 to remind him of it   
gently and familiarly3    ,if aught of  
mine hath e'er deserved thy thanks4  ,to
 this his answer would be1 ,of course   
you have deserved my thanks2 you took me
 up1 'a wretch forlorn upon the shore4' 
,,xxvi4 ,but1 says our adversary1       
suppose that we gain nothing by this2   
suppose that he pretends that he has    
forgotten it1 what ought ,i to do8 ,you 
now ask a very necessary question1 and  
one which fitly concludes this branch of

 the subject1 how1 namely1 one ought to 
bear with the ungrateful4 ,i answer1    
calmly1 gently1 magnanimously4 ,never   
let any one's discourtesy1              
forgetfulness1 or ingratitude1 enrage   
you so much that you do not feel any    
pleasure at having bestowed a benefit   
upon him2 never let your wrongs drive   
you into saying1 ,i wish ,i had not done
 it4 ,you ought to take pleasure even in
 the ill-success of your benefit2 he    
will always be sorry for it1 even though
 you are not even now sorry for it4 ,you
 ought not to be indignant1 as if       
something strange had happened2 you     
ought rather to be surprised if it had  
not happened4 ,some are prevented by    
difficulties1 some by expense1 and some 
by danger from returning your bounty2   
some are hindered by a false shame1     
because by returning it1 they would     
confess that they had received it2 with 
others ignorance of their duty1         
indolence1 or excess of business1 stands
 in the way4 ,reflect upon the          

insatiability of men's desires4 ,you    
need not be surprised if no one repays  
you in a world in which no one ever     
gains enough4 ,what man is there of so  
firm and trustworthy a mind that you can
 safely invest your benefits in him8    
,one man is crazed with lust1 another is
 the slave of his belly1 another gives  
his whole soul to gain1 caring nothing  
for the means by which he amasses it2   
some men's minds are disturbed by envy1 
some blinded by ambition till they are  
ready to fling themselves on the sword's
 point4 ,in addition to this1 one must  
reckon sluggishness of mind and old age2
 and also the opposites of these1       
restlessness and disturbance of mind1   
also excessive self-esteem and pride in 
the very things for which a man ought to
 be despised4 ,i need not mention       
obstinate persistence in wrong-doing1 or
 frivolity which cannot remain constant 
to one point2 besides all this1 there is
 headlong rashness1 there is timidity   
which never gives us trustworthy        

counsel1 and the numberless errors with 
which we struggle1 the rashness of the  
most cowardly1 the quarrels of our best 
friends1 and that most common evil of   
trusting in what is most uncertain1 and 
of undervaluing1 when we have obtained  
it1 that which we once never hoped to   
possess4 ,amidst all these restless     
passions1 how can you hope to find a    
thing so full of rest as good faith8    
,,xxvii4 ,if a true picture of our life 
were to rise before your mental vision1 
you would1 ,i think1 behold a scene like
 that of a town just taken by storm1    
where decency and righteousness were no 
longer regarded1 and no advice is heard 
but that of force1 as if universal      
confusion were the word of command4     
,neither fire nor sword are spared2     
crime is unpunished by the laws2 even   
religion1 which saves the lives of      
suppliants in the very midst of armed   
enemies1 does not check those who are   
rushing to secure plunder4 ,some men rob
 private houses1 some public buildings2 

all places1 sacred or profane1 are alike
 stripped2 some burst their way in1     
others climb over2 some open a wider    
path for themselves by overthrowing the 
walls that keep them out1 and make their
 way to their booty over ruins2 some    
ravage without murdering1 others        
brandish spoils dripping with their     
owner's blood2 everyone carries off his 
neighbours' goods4 ,in this greedy      
struggle of the human race surely you   
forget the common lot of all mankind1 if
 you seek among these robbers for one   
who will return what he has got4 ,if you
 are indignant at men being ungrateful1 
you ought also to be indignant at their 
being luxurious1 avaricious and lustful2
 you might as well be indignant with    
sick men for being ugly1 or with old men
 for being pale4 ,it is1 indeed1 a      
serious vice1 it is not to be borne1 and
 sets men at variance with one another2 
nay1 it rends and destroys that union by
 which alone our human weakness can be  
supported2 yet it is so absolutely      

universal1 that even those who complain 
of it most are not themselves free from 
it4  ,,xxviii4 ,consider within         
yourself1 whether you have always shown 
gratitude to those to whom you owe it1  
whether no one's kindness has ever been 
wasted upon you1 whether you constantly 
bear in mind all the benefits which you 
have received4 ,you will find that those
 which you received as a boy were       
forgotten before you became a man2 that 
those bestowed upon you as a young man  
slipped from your memory when you became
 an old one4 ,some we have lost1 some we
 have thrown away1 some have by degrees 
passed out of our sight1 to some we have
 wilfully shut our eyes4 ,if ,i am to   
make excuses for your weakness1 ,i must 
say in the first place that human memory
 is a frail vessel1 and is not large    
enough to contain the mass of things    
placed in it2 the more it receives1 the 
more it must necessarily lose2 the      
oldest things in it give way to the     
newest4 ,thus it comes to pass that your

 nurse has hardly any influence with    
you1 because the lapse of time has set  
the kindness which you received from her
 at so great a distance2 thus it is that
 you no longer look upon your teacher   
with respect2 and that now when you are 
busy about your candidature for the     
consulate or the priesthood1 you forget 
those who supported you in your election
 to the quaestorship4 ,if you carefully 
examine yourself1 perhaps you will find 
the vice of which you complain in your  
own bosom2 you are wrong in being angry 
with a universal failing1 and foolish   
also1 for it is your own as well2 you   
must pardon others1 that you may        
yourself be acquitted4 ,you will make   
your friend a better man by bearing with
 him1 you will in all cases make him a  
worse one by reproaching him4 ,you can  
have no reason for rendering him        
shameless2 let him preserve any remnants
 of modesty which he may have4 ,too loud
 reproaches have often dispelled a      
modesty which might have borne good     

fruit4 ,no man fears to be that which   
all men see that he is2 when his fault  
is made public1 he loses his sense of   
shame4  ,,xxix4 ,you say1 ,i have lost  
the benefit which ,i bestowed4 ,yet do  
we say that we have lost what we        
consecrate to heaven1 and a benefit well
 bestowed1 even though we get an ill    
return for it1 is to be reckoned among  
things consecrated4 ,our friend is not  
such a man as we hoped he was2 still1   
let us1 unlike him1 remain the same as  
we were4 ,the loss did not take place   
when he proved himself so2 his          
ingratitude cannot be made public       
without reflecting some shame upon us1  
since to complain of the loss of a      
benefit is a sign that it was not well  
bestowed4 ,as far as we are able we     
ought to plead with ourselves on his    
behalf3 ,perhaps he was not able to     
return it1 perhaps he did not know of   
it1 perhaps he will still do so4 ,a wise
 and forbearing creditor prevents the   
loss of some debts by encouraging his   

debtor and giving him time4 ,we ought to
 do the same1 we ought to deal tenderly 
with a weakly sense of honour4  ,,xxx4  
,i have lost1 say you1 the benefit which
 ,i bestowed4 ,you are a fool1 and do   
not understand when your loss took      
place2 you have indeed lost it1 but you 
did so when you gave it1 the fact has   
only now come to light4 ,even in the    
case of those benefits which appear to  
be lost1 gentleness will do much good2  
the wounds of the mind ought to be      
handled as tenderly as those of the     
body4 ,the string1 which might be       
disentangled by patience1 is often      
broken by a rough pull4 ,what is the use
 of abuse1 or of complaints8 why do you 
overwhelm him with reproaches8 why do   
you set him free from his obligation8   
even if he be ungrateful he owes you    
nothing after this4 ,what sense is there
 in exasperating a man on whom you have 
conferred great favours1 so as out of a 
doubtful friend to make a certain enemy1
 and one1 too1 who will seek to support 

his own cause by defaming you1 or to    
make men say1 ,i do not know what the   
reason is that he cannot endure a man to
 whom he owes so much2 there must be    
something in the background8 ,any man   
can asperse1 even if he does not        
permanently stain the reputation of his 
betters by complaining of them2 nor will
 any one be satisfied with imputing     
small crimes to them1 when it is only by
 the enormity of his falsehood that he  
can hope to be believed4  ,,xxxi4 ,what 
a much better way is that by which the  
semblance of friendship1 and1 indeed1 if
 the other regains to his right mind1   
friendship itself is preserved6 ,bad men
 are overcome by unwearying goodness1   
nor does any one receive kindness in so 
harsh and hostile a spirit as not to    
love good men even while he does them   
wrong1 when they lay him under the      
additional obligation of requiring no   
return for their kindness4 ,reflect1    
then1 upon this3 you say1 ,my kindness  
has met with no return1 what am ,i to   

do8 ,i ought to imitate the gods1 those 
noblest disposers of all events1 who    
begin to bestow their benefits on those 
who know them not1 and persist in       
bestowing them on those who are         
ungrateful for them4 ,some reproach them
 with neglect of us1 some with injustice
 towards us2 others place them outside  
of their own world1 in sloth and        
indifference1 without light1 and without
 any functions2 others declare that the 
sun itself1 to whom we owe the division 
of our times of labour and of rest1 by  
whose means we are saved from being     
plunged in the darkness of eternal      
night2 who1 by his circuit1 orders the  
seasons of the year1 gives strength to  
our bodies1 brings forth our crops and  
ripens our fruits1 is merely a mass of  
stone1 or a fortuitous collection of    
fiery particles1 or anything rather than
 a god4 ,yet1 nevertheless1 like the    
kindest of parents1 who only smile at   
the spiteful words of their children1   
the gods do not cease to heap benefits  

upon those who doubt from what source   
their benefits are derived1 but continue
 impartially distributing their bounty  
among all the peoples and nations of the
 earth4 ,possessing only the power of   
doing good1 they moisten the land with  
seasonable showers1 they put the seas in
 movement by the winds1 they mark time  
by the course of the constellations1    
they temper the extremes of heat and    
cold1 of summer and winter1 by breathing
 a milder air upon us2 and they         
graciously and serenely bear with the   
faults of our erring spirits4 ,let us   
follow their example2 let us give1 even 
if much be given to no purpose1 let us1 
in spite of this1 give to others2 nay1  
even to those upon whom our bounty has  
been wasted4 ,no one is prevented by the
 fall of a house from building another2 
when one home has been destroyed by     
fire1 we lay the foundations of another 
before the site has had time to cool2 we
 rebuild ruined cities more than once   
upon the same spots1 so untiring are our

 hopes of success4 ,men would undertake 
no works either on land or sea if they  
were not willing to try again what they 
have failed in once4  ,,xxxii4 ,suppose 
a man is ungrateful1 he does not injure 
me1 but himself2 ,i had the enjoyment of
 my benefit when ,i bestowed it upon    
him4 ,because he is ungrateful1 ,i shall
 not be slower to give but more careful2
 what ,i have lost with him1 ,i shall   
receive back from others4 ,but ,i will  
bestow a second benefit upon this man   
himself1 and will overcome him even as a
 good husbandman overcomes the sterility
 of the soil by care and culture2 if ,i 
do not do so my benefit is lost to me1  
and he is lost to mankind4 ,it is no    
proof of a great mind to give and to    
throw away one's bounty2 the true test  
of a great mind is to throw away one's  
bounty and still to give4