,,transcrib]',s ,,note3 ,spell+ ma9ta9$ z closely z possible to ! orig9al docum5t1 :ile obvi\s typos h be5 correct$4 ,emda%es 9 orig9al text = negative temp]atures *ang$ to m9us signs to /&>dize temp]atures4 ,,climatic ,,*anges ,,_! ,,nature ,,& ,,causes ,,publi%$ ,,on ,,! ,,f\ndation ,,e/abli%$ ,,9 ,,memory ,,( ,,!odore ,l4 ,,glasg[ ,,o!r ,,books ,,by ,,! ,,same ,,au?ors ,,ellswor? ,,hunt+ton ,a4 ,f\r books %[+ ! developm5t ( k z to ,hi/orical ,pulsations ( ,climate4 ,! ,pulse ( ,asia4 ,bo/on1 #aijg4 ,explorations 9 ,turke/an4 ,exp$ition ( #aijc4 ,wa%+ton1 #aije4 ,pale/9e & ,its ,trans=mation4 ,bo/on1 #aiaa4 ,! ,climatic ,factor1 z ,illu/rat$ 9 ,arid ,am]ica4 ,wa%+ton1 #aiad4 ,b4 ,two books illu/rat+ ! effect ( climate on man4 ,civilization & ,climate4 ,new ,hav51 #aiae4 ,_w ,p[] & ,evolution4 ,new ,hav51 #aiai4 ,c4 ,f\r books illu/rat+ ! g5]al pr9ciples ( ,geography4 ,asia3 ,a ,geography ,read]4 ,*icago1 #aiab4 ,! ,r$ ,man's ,cont95t4 ,new ,hav51 #aiai4 ,pr9ciples ( ,human ,geography 7) ,s4 ,w4 ,cu%+74 ,new ,york1 #aibj4 ,bus9ess ,geography 7) ,f4 ,e4 ,williams74 ,new ,york1 #aibb4 ,d4 ,a companion to ! pres5t volume4 ,e>? & ,sun3 ,an ,hypo!sis ( ,wea!r & ,sunspots4 ,new ,hav54 ,9 press4 ,,/eph5 ,,s>g5t ,,vi%] ,geography1 ,geology & ,biology ( ,s\!rn ,dakota4 ,v]milion1 #aiab4 ,! ,biology ( ,nor?we/]n ,s\? ,dakota4 ,v]milion1 #aiad4 ,! ,geography ( ,s\? ,dakota4 ,v]milion1 #aiah4 ,h&book ( ! ,geology ( ,indiana 7) o!rs74 ,indianapolis1 #aibb4 ,hurricanes ( ,au/ralia & ! ,s\? ,pacific4 ,melb\rne1 #aibb4 ,,climatic ,,*anges ,,_! ,,nature ,,& ,,causes ,,by ,,ellswor? ,,hunt+ton ,rese>* ,associate 9 ,geography 9 ,yale ,univ]sity ,,& ,,/eph5 ,,s>g5t ,,vi%] ,associate ,pr(essor ( ,geology 9 ,indiana ,univ]sity ,illu/ration ,,new ,,hav5 ,,yale ,,univ]sity ,,press ,,london3 ,,humphrey ,,mil=d3 ,,ox=d ,,univ]sity ,,press ,,mdccccxxii ,,copyright #aibb ,,by ,,yale ,,univ]sity ,,press ,publi%$ #aibb4 ,,! ,,!odore ,l4 ,,glasg[ ,,memorial ,,publication ,,fund ,! pres5t volume is ! fif? "w publi%$ by ! ,yale ,univ]sity ,press on ! ,!odore ,l4 ,glasg[ ,memorial ,publication ,fund4 ,?is f\ndation 0 e/abli%$ ,septemb] #ag1 #aiah1 by an anonym\s gift to ,yale ,univ]sity 9 memory ( ,flight ,sub-,lieut5ant ,!odore ,l4 ,glasg[1 ,r4,n4 ,he 0 born 9 ,montreal1 ,canada1 & 0 educat$ at ! ,univ]sity ( ,toronto ,s*ools & at ! ,royal ,milit>y ,college1 ,k+/on4 ,9 ,augu/1 #aiaf1 he ent]$ ! ,royal ,naval ,air ,s]vice & 9 ,july1 #aiag1 w5t to ,france ) ! ,t5? ,squadron atta*$ to ! ,tw5ty-second ,w+ ( ! ,royal ,fly+ ,corps4 ,a mon? lat]1 ,augu/ #ai1 #aiag1 he 0 kill$ 9 action on ! ,ypres front4 ,,to ,,?omas ,,*r[d] ,,*amb]l9 ,,( ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,*icago ,,^: ,,cle> ,,& ,,ma/]ly ,,discussion ,,( ,,! ,,great ,,problems ,,( ,,t]re/rial ,,evolution ,,has ,,be5 ,,"o ,,( ,,! ,,mo/ ,,inspir+ ,,factors ,,9 ,,! ,,writ+ ,,( ,,?is ,,book ,!re is a toy1 :i* ,i h he>d1 & ,i w\ld n h x giv5 ov]1 b wait$ ^u a little4 ,!y say x is obs]v$ 9 ! ,l[ ,c\ntries 7,i "k n 9 :at "p71 t e five & ?irty ye>s ! same k9d & suit ( ye>s & wea!rs comes ab\t aga92 z great fro/s1 great wet1 great dr\ghts1 w>m w9t]s1 summ]s ) little heat1 & ! l1 & !y call x ! prime2 x is a ?+ ,i d ! r m5tion1 because1 comput+ backw>ds1 ,i h f\nd "s concurr5ce4 ,,francis ,,bacon ,,preface ,unity is p]haps ! keynote ( mod]n sci5ce4 ,?is means unity 9 "t1 = ! pres5t is b ! outgr[? ( ! pa/1 & ! future ( ! pres5t4 ,x means unity ( process1 = !re seems to be no %>p divid+ l9e betwe5 organic & inorganic1 physical & m5tal1 m5tal & spiritual4 ,& ! unity ( mod]n sci5ce means also a gr[+ t5d5cy t[>d cooep]ation1 s t by work+ toge!r sci5ti/s discov] mu* t w\ld else h rema9$ hid4 ,?is book illu/rates ! mod]n tr5d t[>d unity 9 all ( ^! ways4 ,fir/1 x is a companion volume to ,e>? & ,sun4 ,t volume is a discussion ( ! causes ( wea!r1 b a consid]ation ( ! wea!r ( ! pres5t almo/ inevitably leads to a /udy ( ! climate ( ! pa/4 ,h5ce ! two books 7 writt5 orig9ally z "o1 & 7 only sep>at$ f consid]ations ( conv5i5ce4 ,second1 ! unity ( nature is s great t :5 a subject su* z climatic *anges is consid]$1 x is almo/ impossible to avoid o!r subjects1 su* z ! movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,h5ce ?is book n only discusses climatic *anges1 b consid]s ! causes ( e>?quakes & attempts to %[ h[ climatic *anges may be relat$ to great geological revolutions 9 ! =m1 location1 & altitude ( ! l&s4 ,?us ! book has a direct be>+ on all ! ma9 physical factors :i* h mold$ ! evolution ( organic life1 includ+ man4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 ?is volume illu/rates ! unity ( mod]n sci5ce because x is preem95tly a cooep]ative product4 ,n only h ! two au?ors %>$ 9 its production1 b sev]al ( ! ,yale ,faculty h also cooep]at$4 ,f ! geological /&po9t1 ,pr(essor ,*>les ,s*u*]t has read ! entire manuscript 9 its f9al =m z well z p>ts at v>i\s /ages4 ,he has help$ n only by criticisms1 sugge/ions1 & facts1 b by p>agraphs ready = ! pr9t]4 ,9 ! same way 9 ! doma9 ( physics1 ,pr(essor ,leigh ,page has repeat$ly tak5 "t to assi/1 & ei!r 9 writ+ or by ^w ( m\? has contribut$ _m pages4 ,9 a/ronomy1 ! same cordial cooep]ation has come ) equal read9ess f ,pr(essor ,frank ,s*les+]4 ,pr(essors ,s*u*]t1 ,s*les+]1 & ,page h contribut$ s mat]ially t !y are almo/ co-au?ors ( ! volume4 ,9 ma!matics1 ,pr(essor ,erne/ ,w4 ,br[n has be5 simil>ly helpful1 hav+ read & criticis$ ! entire book4 ,9 c]ta9 *emical problems1 ,pr(essor ,h>ry ,w4 ,foote has be5 our ma9 reliance4 ,! advice & sugge/ions ( ^! m5 h frequ5tly prev5t$ errors1 & h aga9 & aga9 />t$ new & pr(itable l9es ( ?\ght4 ,if we h made mi/akes1 x has be5 because we h n pr(it$ suffici5tly by _! cooep]ation4 ,if ! ma9 hypo!sis ( ?is book proves s\nd1 x is l>gely because x has be5 built up 9 con/ant consultation ) m5 :o look at ! problem f diff]5t po9ts ( vision4 ,our appreciation ( _! g5]\s & un/9t$ cooep]ation is mu* deep] ?an w\ld appe> f ?is brief p>agraph4 ,outside ! ,yale ,faculty we h receiv$ equally cordial assi/ance4 ,pr(essor ,t4 ,c4 ,*amb]l9 ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,*icago1 to :om1 ) 8 p]mission1 we take great pleasure 9 d$icat+ ?is volume1 has read ! entire pro( & has made _m helpful sugge/ions4 ,we _c speak too w>mly ( our appreciation n only ( ?is1 b ( ! way 8 "w has s]v$ = ye>s z an inspiration 9 ! prelim9>y "w ( ga!r+ data = ?is volume4 ,pr(essor ,h>l[ ,%apley ( ,h>v>d ,univ]sity has contribut$ mat]ially to ! *apt] on ! sun & its j\rney ?r\gh space2 ,pr(essor ,&rew ,e4 ,d\glass ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,arizona has put at our disposal "s ( 8 unpubli%$ results2 ,pr(essors ,s4 ,b4 ,woodwor? & ,reg9ald ,a4 ,daly1 & ,mr4 ,rob]t ,w4 ,sayles ( ,h>v>d1 & ,pr(essor ,h5ry ,f4 ,reid ( ,johns ,hopk9s h sugge/$ new facts & s\rces ( in=mation2 ,pr(essor ,e4 ,r4 ,cum+s ( ,indiana ,univ]sity has critically read ! entire pro(2 conv]sations ) ,pr(essor ,john ,p4 ,buwalda ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia :ile he 0 tea*+ at ,yale make him ano!r real contributor2 & ,mr4 ,wayl& ,williams has contribut$ ! int]e/+ quotation f ,bacon on page x ( ?is book4 ,miss ,edi? ,s4 ,russell has tak5 great pa9s 9 prep>+ ! manuscript & 9 sugge/+ _m *anges t make = cle>ness4 ,_m o!rs h also help$1 b x is impossible to make due ackn[l$gm5t because su* contributions h become s ?or\ghly a "p ( ! m5tal backgr\nd ( ! book t _! s\rce is no long] di/9ct 9 ! m9ds ( ! au?ors4 ,! division ( labor betwe5 ! two au?ors has n foll[$ any set rules4 ,bo? h _h a h& 9 all p>ts ( ! book4 ,! ma9 draft ( ,*apt]s ,,vii1 ,,viii1 ,,ix1 ,,xi1 & ,,xiii 0 writt5 by ! junior au?or2 8 contributions are also especially num]\s 9 ,*apt]s ,x & ,,xv2 ! re/ ( ! book 0 writt5 orig9ally by ! s5ior au?or4 ,,cont5ts ,,page ,i4 ,! ,uni=mity ( ,climate #a ,,ii4 ,! ,v>iability ( ,climate #af ,,iii4 ,hypo!ses ( ,climatic ,*ange #cc ,,iv4 ,! ,sol> ,cyclonic ,hypo!sis #ea ,v4 ,! ,climate ( ,hi/ory #fd ,,vi4 ,! ,climatic ,/ress ( ! ,f\rte5? ,c5tury #ih ,,vii4 ,glaciation ,accord+ to ! ,sol> ,cyclonic ,hypo!sis #aaj ,,viii4 ,"s ,problems ( ,glacial ,p]iods #acj ,,ix4 ,! ,orig9 ( ,loess #aee ,x4 ,causes ( ,mild ,geological ,climates #aff ,,xi4 ,t]re/rial ,causes ( ,climatic ,*anges #ahh ,,xii4 ,po/-,glacial ,cru/al ,movem5ts & ,climatic ,*anges #bae ,,xiii4 ,! ,*ang+ ,composition ( ,oceans & ,atmosph]e #bbc ,,xiv4 ,! ,effect ( ,o!r ,bodies on ! ,sun #bdb ,,xv4 ,! ,sun's ,j\rney ?r\gh ,space #bfd ,,xvi4 ,! ,e>?'s ,cru/ & ! ,sun #bhe ,,li/ ,,( ,,illu/rations ,,page ,fig4 #a4 ,climatic *anges & m\nta9 build+ #be ,fig4 #b4 ,/orm9ess at sunspot maxima vs4 m9ima #ed ,fig4 #c4 ,relative ra9fall at times ( increas+ & decreas+ sunspots #eh1 #ei ,fig4 #d4 ,*anges ( climate 9 ,cali=nia & 9 we/]n & c5tral ,asia #ge ,fig4 #e4 ,*anges 9 ,cali=nia climate = #bjjj ye>s1 z measur$ by gr[? ( ,sequoia trees #gg ,fig4 #f4 ,di/ribution ( ,plei/oc5e ice %eets #abc ,fig4 #g4 ,p]mian geography & glaciation #ade ,fig4 #h4 ,effect ( dim9ution ( /orms on movem5t ( wat] #age ,fig4 #i4 ,cretace\s ,paleogeography #bja ,fig4 #aj4 ,climatic *anges ( #adj1jjj ye>s z inf]r$ f ! />s #bgi ,fig4 #aa4 ,sunspot curve %[+ cycles1 #agej to #aibj #bhc ,fig4 #ab4 ,seasonal di/ribution ( e>?quakes #bii ,fig4 #ac4 ,w&]+ ( ! pole f #ahij to #ahih #cjc ,,tables ,,page #a4 ,! ,geological ,"t ,table #e #b4 ,types ( ,climatic ,sequ5ce #af #c4 ,correlation ,coeffici5ts betwe5 ,ra9fall & ,gr[? ( ,sequoias 9 ,cali=nia #hj #d4 ,correlation ,coeffici5ts betwe5 ,ra9fall ,records 9 ,cali=nia & ,j]usalem #hd #e4 ,!oretical ,probability ( ,/ell> ,approa*es #bfj #f4 ,?irty-,eight ,/>s ,hav+ ,l>ge/ ,kn[n ,p>allaxes #bgf1 #bgg #g4 ,de/ructive ,e>?quakes f #ahjj to #ahii ,comp>$ ) ,sunspots #bhi #h4 ,seasonal ,m>* ( ,e>?quakes #bie #i4 ,deflection ( ,pa? ( ,pole ,comp>$ ) ,e>?quakes #cje #aj4 ,e>?quakes 9 #aijc to #aijh ,comp>$ ) ,dep>tures ( ! ,project$ ,curve ( ! ,e>?'s ,axis f ! ,eul]ian ,position #cjf ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,uni=mity ,,( ,,climate ,! role ( climate 9 ! life ( today sugge/s its importance 9 ! pa/ & 9 ! future4 ,no human be+ c escape f ! fact t 8 food1 clo?+1 %elt]1 recreation1 occupation1 heal?1 & en]gy are all pr(\ndly influ5c$ by 8 climatic surr\nd+s4 ,a *ange ( season br+s 9 its tra9 "s alt]ation 9 practically e phase ( human activity4 ,animals are influ5c$ by climate ev5 m ?an man1 = !y h n develop$ artificial means ( protect+ !mselves4 ,ev5 s h>dy a creature z ! dog becomes notably diff]5t ) a *ange ( climate4 ,! ?ick-hair$ husky ( ! ,eskimos has outw>dly little 9 common ) ! small & almo/ hairless can9es t grovel "u foot 9 ,mexico4 ,plants are ev5 m s5sitive ?an animals & m54 ,sc>cely a s+le species c fl\ri% p]man5tly 9 regions :i* diff] m ?an #bj deg4,c4 9 av]age ye>ly temp]ature1 & = mo/ ! limit ( successful gr[? is #aj deg44#a ,s f> z we yet "k e liv+ species ( plant & animal1 includ+ man1 ?rives be/ "u def9ite & limit$ conditions ( temp]ature1 humidity1 & sun%9e1 & ( ! composition & movem5t ( ! atmosph]e or wat] 9 :i* x lives4 ,any dep>ture beyond ! limits means less5$ effici5cy1 & 9 ! long run a l[] rate ( reproduction & a t5d5cy t[>d *anges 9 specific *>act]i/ics4 ,any great dep>ture means suff]+ or dea? = ! individual & de/ruction = ! species4 ,s9ce climate has s pr(\nd an influ5ce on life today1 x has presumably be5 equally pot5t at o!r times4 ,!re=e few sci5tific que/ions are m important ?an h[ & :y ! e>?'s climate has v>i$ 9 ! pa/1 & :at *anges x is likely to und]go 9 ! future4 ,?is book sets =? :at appe> to be ! *ief reasons = climatic v>iations dur+ hi/oric & geologic times4 ,x assumes t causes :i* c n[ be obs]v$ 9 op]ation1 z expla9$ 9 a companion volume entitl$ ,e>? & ,sun1 & 9 su* books z ,humphreys' ,physics ( ! ,air1 %\ld be c>efully /udi$ be=e less obvi\s causes are appeal$ to4 ,x also assumes t ^! same causes w cont9ue to op]ate1 & are ! basis ( all valid pr$ictions z to ! wea!r or climate ( ! future4 ,9 our analysis ( climatic v>iations1 we may well beg9 by inquir+ h[ ! e>?'s climate has v>i$ dur+ geological hi/ory4 ,su* an inquiry discloses ?ree great t5d5cies1 :i* to ! sup]ficial view seem contradictory4 ,all1 h[ev]1 h a simil> effect 9 provid+ conditions "u :i* organic evolution is able to make progress4 ,! fir/ t5d5cy is t[>d uni=mity1 a uni=mity s pron\nc$ & ( su* va/ duration z to /agg] ! imag9ation4 ,sup]pos$ ^u ?is !re seems to be a t5d5cy t[>d complexity4 ,dur+ ! great] "p ( geological hi/ory ! e>?'s climate appe>s to h be5 relatively monoton\s1 bo? f place to place & f season to season2 b s9ce ! ,mioc5e ! rule has be5 div]sity & complexity1 a condition highly favorable to organic evolution4 ,f9ally1 ! uni=mity ( ! va/ eons ( ! pa/ & ! t5d5cy t[>d complexity are brok5 by pulsatory *anges1 fir/ 9 "o direction & !n 9 ano!r4 ,to our limit$ human vision "s ( ! *anges1 su* z glacial p]iods1 seem to be waves ( enorm\s proportions1 b comp>$ ) ! possibilities ( ! univ]se !y are m]ely z ! ripples made by a summ] zephyr4 ,! uni=mity ( ! e>?'s climate ?r\gh\t ! va/ /ret*es ( geological "t c be/ be realiz$ by comp>+ ! range ( temp]ature on ! e>? dur+ t p]iod ) ! possible range z %[n 9 ! entire sol> sy/em4 ,z may be se5 9 ,table #a1 ! geological record op5s ) ! ,ar*eozoic era1 or ,age ( ,unicellul> ,life1 z x is sometimes call$1 = ! prec$+ cosmic "t has left no record t c yet be read4 ,practically no geologi/s n[ believe t ! beg9n+ ( ! ,ar*eozoic 0 less ?an "o hundr$ million ye>s ago2 & s9ce ! discov]y ( ! peculi> prop]ties ( radium _m ( ! be/ /ud5ts d n hesitate to say a billion or a billion & a half4#b ,ev5 9 ! ,ar*eozoic ! rocks te/ify to a climate seem+ly n greatly diff]5t f t ( ! av]age ( geologic "t4 ,! e>?'s surface 0 !n app>5tly cool en\gh s t x 0 cov]$ ) oceans & w>m en\gh s t ! wat] teem$ ) microscopic life4 ,! air mu/ h be5 *>g$ ) wat] vapor & ) c>bon dioxide1 = o!rwise !re seems to be no possible way ( expla9+ ! =mation ( mud/ones & s&/ones1 lime/ones ( va/ ?ickness1 c>bonace\s %ales1 graphites1 & iron ores4#c ,al?\gh ! ,ar*eozoic has yield$ no g5]ally admitt$ fossils1 yet :at seem to be massive algae & sponges h be5 f\nd 9 ,canada4 ,on ! o!r h&1 abundant life is believ$ to h be5 pres5t 9 ! oceans1 = by no o!r kn[n means w\ld x be possible to take f ! air ! va/ quantities ( c>bon t n[ =m c>bonace\s %ales & graphite4 ,9 ! next geologic era1 ! ,prot]ozoic1 ! rese>*es ( ,walcott h %[n t besides ! m>9e algae !re mu/ h be5 _m o!r k9ds ( life4 ,! ,prot]ozoic fossils ?us f> discov]$ include n only microscopic radiol>ians su* z /ill =m ! r$ ooze ( ! deepe/ ocean floors1 b ! mu* m significant tubes ( annelids or worms4 ,! pres5ce ( ! annelids1 :i* are relatively high 9 ! scale ( organization1 is g5]ally tak5 to mean t m l[ly =ms ( animals su* z coel5t]ates & probably ev5 ! mollusca & primitive ar?ropods mu/ already h be5 evolv$4 ,t !re 7 _m k9ds ( m>9e inv]tebrates liv+ 9 ! lat] ,prot]ozoic is indicat$ by ! highly v>i$ life & m especially ! trilobites f\nd 9 ! olde/ ,cambrian /rata ( ! next succe$+ p]iod4 ,9 fact ! ,cambrian has sponges1 primitive corals1 a great v>iety ( bra*iopods1 ! beg9n+s ( ga/ropods1 a wond]ful array ( trilobites1 & o!r l[ly =ms ( ar?ropods4 ,s9ce1 "u ! po/ulate ( evolution1 ! life ( t "t =ms an unbrok5 sequ5ce ) t ( ! pres5t1 & s9ce _m ( ! e>ly =ms diff] only 9 m9or details f ^? ( today1 we inf] t ! climate !n 0 n v diff]5t f t ( today4 ,! same l9e ( reason+ leads to ! conclusion t ev5 9 ! middle ( ! ,prot]ozoic1 :5 multicellul> m>9e animals mu/ already h be5 common1 ! climate ( ! e>? _h already = an enorm\s p]iod be5 su* t all ! l[] types ( oceanic inv]tebrates _h already evolv$4 ,,table #a ,,! ,,geological ,,"t ,,table#d ,,cosmic ,,"t ,,=mative ,,era4 ,bir? & gr[? ( ! e>?4 ,beg9n+s ( ! atmosph]e1 hydrosph]e1 cont95tal plat=ms1 oceanic bas9s1 & possibly ( life4 ,no kn[n geological record4 ,,geologic ,,"t ,,ar*eozoic ,,era4 ,orig9 ( simple/ life4 ,,prot]ozoic ,,era4 ,age ( inv]tebrate orig9s4 ,an e>ly & a late ice age1 ) "o or m additional ones indicat$4 ,,paleozoic ,,era4 ,age ( primitive v]tebrate dom9ance4 ,cambrian ,p]iod4 ,fir/ abundance ( m>9e animals & dom9ance ( trilobites4 ,ordovician ,p]iod4 ,fir/ kn[n fre%-wat] fi%es4 ,silurian ,p]iod4 ,fir/ kn[n l& plants4 ,devonian ,p]iod4 ,fir/ kn[n amphibians4 ,table ,m\nta9 ice age4 ,mississippian ,p]iod4 ,rise ( m>9e fi%es 7%>ks74 ,p5nsylvanian ,p]iod4 ,rise ( insects & fir/ p]iod ( m>k$ coal accumulation4 ,p]mian ,p]iod4 ,rise ( reptiles4 ,ano!r great ice age4 ,,mesozoic ,,era4 ,age ( reptile dom9ance4 ,triassic ,p]iod4 ,rise ( d9osaurs4 ,! p]iod closes ) a cool climate4 ,jurassic ,p]iod4 ,rise ( birds & fly+ reptiles4 ,coman*ean ,p]iod4 ,rise ( fl[]+ plants & high] insects4 ,cretace\s ,p]iod4 ,rise ( ar*aic or primitive mammalia4 ,,c5ozoic ,,era4 ,age ( mammal dom9ance4 ,e>ly ,c5ozoic or ,eoc5e & ,oligoc5e "t4 ,rise ( high] mammals4 ,glaci]s 9 e>ly ,eoc5e ( ! ,l>amide ,m\nta9s4 ,late ,c5ozoic or ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e "t4 ,trans=mation ( ape l animals into man4 ,glacial or ,plei/oc5e "t4 ,la/ great ice age4 ,,pres5t ,,"t ,,psy*ozoic ,,era4 ,age ( man or age ( reason4 ,includes ! pres5t or ,rec5t "t1 e/imat$ to be probably less ?an #cj1jjj ye>s4 ,moreov]1 !y c\ld live 9 mo/ latitudes1 = ! indirect evid5ces ( life 9 ! ,ar*eozoic & ,prot]ozoic rocks are widely di/ribut$4 ,?us x appe>s t at an almo/ incr$ibly e>ly p]iod1 p]haps _m hundr$ million ye>s ago1 ! e>?'s climate diff]$ only a little f t ( ! pres5t4 ,! extreme limits ( temp]ature beyond :i* ! climate ( geological times _c h dep>t$ c be approximately det]m9$4 ,today ! w>me/ p>ts ( ! ocean h an av]age temp]ature ( ab\t #cj deg4,c4 on ! surface4 ,only a few =ms ( life live :]e ! av]age temp]ature is mu* high] ?an ?is4 ,9 des]ts1 to be sure1 "s highly organiz$ plants & animals c = a %ort "t endure a temp]ature z high z #ge deg4,c4 7#afg deg4,f474 ,9 c]ta9 hot spr+s1 "s ( ! l[e/ unicellul> plant =ms exi/ 9 wat] :i* is only a little bel[ ! boil+ po9t4 ,m complex =ms1 h[ev]1 su* z sponges1 worms1 & all ! high] plants & animals1 seem to be unable to live ei!r 9 wat] or air :]e ! temp]ature av]ages above #de deg4,c4 7#aac deg4,f47 = any great l5g? ( "t & x is d\btful :e!r !y c ?rive p]man5tly ev5 at t temp]ature4 ,! obvi\s unity ( life = hundr$s ( millions ( ye>s & its pres5ce at all times 9 middle latitudes s f> z we c tell seem to indicate t s9ce ! beg9n+ ( m>9e life ! temp]ature ( ! oceans _c h av]ag$ mu* above #ej deg4,c4 ev5 9 ! w>me/ portions4 ,?is is putt+ ! limit too high r ?an too l[1 b ev5 s ! w>me/ p>ts ( ! e>? c sc>cely h av]ag$ mu* m ?an #bj deg4 w>m] ?an at pres5t4 ,turn+ to ! o!r extreme1 we may inquire h[ mu* cold] ?an n[ ! e>?'s surface may h be5 s9ce life fir/ appe>$4 ,prot]ozoic fossils h be5 f\nd 9 places :]e ! pres5t av]age temp]ature approa*es #j deg4,c4 ,if ^? places %\ld be cold] ?an n[ by #cj deg4,c41 or m1 ! drop 9 temp]ature at ! equator w\ld almo/ c]ta9ly be /ill great]1 & ! seas ev]y:]e w\ld be p]man5tly froz54 ,?us life w\ld be impossible4 ,s9ce ! contra/s betwe5 summ] & w9t]1 & betwe5 ! poles & ! equator seem g5]ally to h be5 less 9 ! pa/ ?an at pres5t1 ! range ?r\gh :i* ! mean temp]ature ( ! e>? z a :ole c\ld v>y )\t utt]ly de/roy+ life 0 app>5tly less ?an w\ld n[ be ! case4 ,^! consid]ations make x fairly c]ta9 t = at lea/ sev]al hundr$ million ye>s ! av]age temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface has nev] v>i$ m ?an p]haps #cj deg4,c4 above or bel[ ! pres5t level4 ,ev5 ?is range ( #fj deg4,c4 7#ajh deg4,f47 may be d\ble or triple ! range t has actually occurr$4 ,t ! temp]ature has n pass$ beyond c]ta9 n>r[ limits1 :atev] _! exact degree1 is cle> f ! fact t if x _h done s1 all ! high] =ms ( life w\ld h be5 de/roy$4 ,c]ta9 ( ! l[e/ unicellul> =ms might inde$ h p]si/$1 = :5 dormant !y c /& great extremes ( dry heat & ( cold = a long "t4 ,ev5 s1 evolution w\ld h _h to beg9 almo/ anew4 ,! supposition t su* a ?+ has happ5$ is unt5able1 = !re is no h9t ( any complete break 9 ! record ( life dur+ geological times1--no sudd5 disappe>ance ( ! high] organisms foll[$ by a long p]iod ) no signs ( life o!r ?an indirect evid5ce su* z occurs 9 ! ,ar*eozoic4 ,a *ange ( #fj deg4,c4 or ev5 ( #bj deg4 9 ! av]age temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface may seem l>ge :5 view$ f ! limit$ /&po9t ( t]re/rial exp]i5ce4 ,view$1 h[ev]1 f ! /&po9t ( cosmic evolution1 or ev5 ( ! sol> sy/em1 x seems a m]e trifle4 ,consid] ! possibilities4 ,! temp]ature ( empty space is ! absolute z]o1 or -#bgc deg4,c4 ,to ?is temp]ature all matt] mu/ fall1 provid$ x exi/s long en\gh & is n appreciably heat$ by collisions or by radiation4 ,at ! o!r extreme lies ! temp]ature ( ! />s4 ,z />s g1 our sun is only mod]ately hot1 b ! temp]ature ( its surface is calculat$ to be ne>ly #gjjj deg4,c41 :ile ?\s&s ( miles 9 ! int]ior x may rise to #bj1jjj deg4 or #ajj1jjj deg4 or "s o!r equally unkn[able & incompreh5sible figure4 ,betwe5 ! limits ( ! absolute z]o on ! "o h&1 & ! int]ior ( a sun or /> on ! o!r1 !re is almo/ e conceivable possibility ( temp]ature4 ,today ! e>?'s surface av]ages n f> f #ad deg4,c41 or #bhg deg4 above ! absolute z]o4 ,t[>d ! int]ior1 ! temp]ature 9 m9es & deep wells rises ab\t #a deg4,c4 = e #ajj met]s4 ,at ?is rate x w\ld be ov] #ejj deg4,c4 at a dep? ( t5 miles1 & ov] #ejjj deg4 at #ajj miles4 ,let u conf9e ourselves to surface temp]atures1 :i* are all t conc]n u 9 discuss+ climate4 ,x has be5 calculat$ by ,poynt+#e t if a small sph]e absorb$ & re-radiat$ all ! heat t fell ^u x1 its temp]ature at ! di/ance ( ,m]cury f ! sun w\ld av]age ab\t #baj deg4,c42 at ! di/ance ( ,v5us1 #he deg42 ! e>? #bg deg42 ,m>s -#cj deg42 ,neptune -#bai deg44 ,a planet mu* ne>] ! sun ?an is ,m]cury might be heat$ to a temp]ature ( a ?\s&1 or ev5 sev]al ?\s&1 degrees1 :ile "o beyond ,neptune w\ld rema9 almo/ at absolute z]o4 ,x is well )9 ! range ( possibility t ! temp]ature ( a planet's surface %\ld be any:]e f ne> -#bgc deg4,c4 up to p]haps #ejjj deg4,c4 or m1 al?\gh ! probability ( l[ temp]ature is mu* great] ?an ( high4 ,?us ?r\gh\t ! :ole va/ range ( possibilities ext5d+ to p]haps #aj1jjj deg41 ! e>? claims only #fj deg4 at mo/1 or less ?an #a p] c5t4 ,?is may be rem>kable1 b :at is f> m rem>kable is t ! e>?'s range ( #fj deg4 includes :at seem to be ! two mo/ critical ( all possible temp]atures1 namely1 ! freez+ po9t ( wat]1 #j deg4,c41 & ! temp]ature :]e wat] c dissolve an am\nt ( c>bon dioxide equal to its own volume4 ,! mo/ rem>kable fact ( all is t ! e>? has pres]v$ its temp]ature )9 ^! n>r[ limits = a hundr$ million ye>s1 or p]*ance a ?\s& million4 ,to appreciate ! extraord9>y significance ( ?is la/ fact1 x is necess>y to realize h[ extremely critical are ! temp]atures f ab\t #j deg4 to #dj deg4,c41 & h[ difficult x is to f9d any good reason = a relatively uni=m temp]ature ?r\gh hundr$s ( millions ( ye>s4 ,s9ce ! dawn ( geological "t ! e>?'s temp]ature has app>5tly always includ$ ! range f ab\t ! freez+ po9t ( wat] up to ab\t ! po9t :]e protoplasm beg9s to dis9tegrate4 ,h5d]son1 9 ,! ,fitness ( ! ,environm5t1 rightly says t wat] is ! mo/ famili> & ! mo/ important ( all ?+s4 ,9 _m respects wat] & c>bon dioxide =m ! mo/ unique pair ( sub/ances 9 ! :ole realm ( *emi/ry4 ,wat] has a great] t5d5cy ?an any o!r kn[n sub/ance to rema9 )9 c]ta9 n>r[ly def9$ limits ( temp]ature4 ,n only does x h a high specific heat1 s t mu* heat is ne$$ to raise its temp]ature1 b on freez+ x gives up m heat ?an any sub/ance except ammonia1 :ile none ( ! common liquids approa* x 9 ! am\nt ( additional heat requir$ = conv]sion into vapor aft] ! temp]ature ( vaporization has be5 rea*$4 ,aga91 wat] sub/ance1 z ! physici/s call all =ms ( ,h#b,o1 is unique 9 t x n only contracts on melt+1 b cont9ues to contract until a temp]ature sev]al degrees above its melt+ po9t is rea*$4 ,t fact has a va/ importance 9 help+ to keep ! e>?'s surface at a uni=m temp]ature4 ,if wat] 7 l mo/ liquids1 ! bottoms ( all ! oceans & ev5 ! entire body ( wat] 9 mo/ cases w\ld be p]man5tly froz54 ,aga91 z a solv5t !re is lit]ally no?+ to comp>e ) wat]4 ,z ,h5d]son#f puts x3 ,ne>ly ! :ole sci5ce ( *emi/ry has be5 built up ar\nd wat] & aque\s solution4 ,"o ( ! mo/ significant evid5ces ( ?is is ! v>iety ( elem5ts ^: pres5ce c be detect$ 9 sea wat]4 ,accord+ to ,h5d]son !y include hydrog51 oxyg51 nitrog51 c>bon1 *lor9e1 sodium1 magnesium1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 :i* are easily detect$2 & also ars5ic1 caesium1 gold1 li?ium1 rubidium1 b>ium1 lead1 boron1 fluor9e1 iron1 iod9e1 brom9e1 potassium1 cobalt1 copp]1 manganese1 nickel1 silv]1 silicon1 z9c1 alum9ium1 calcium1 & /rontium4 ,yet 9 spite ( its m>vel\s p[] ( solution1 wat] is *emically r in]t & relatively /able4 ,x dissolves all ^! elem5ts & ?\s&s ( _! comp\nds1 b /ill rema9s wat] & c easily be sep>at$ & purifi$4 ,ano!r unique prop]ty ( wat] is its p[] ( ioniz+ dissolv$ sub/ances1 a prop]ty :i* makes x possible to produce electric curr5ts 9 batt]ies4 ,?is leads to an almo/ inf9ite array ( electro-*emical reactions :i* play an almo/ dom9ant role 9 ! processes ( life4 ,f9ally1 no common liquid except m]cury equals wat] 9 its p[] ( capill>ity4 ,?is fact is ( enorm\s mom5t 9 biology1 mo/ obvi\sly 9 respect to ! soil4 ,al?\gh c>bon dioxide is f> less famili> ?an wat]1 x is almo/ z important4 ,^! two simple sub/ances1 says ,h5d]son1 are ! common s\rce ( e "o ( ! complicat$ sub/ances :i* are produc$ by liv+ be+s1 & !y are ! common end products ( ! we>+ away ( all ! con/itu5ts ( protoplasm1 & ( ! de/ruction ( ^? mat]ials :i* yield en]gy to ! body4 ,"o ( ! rem>kable physical prop]ties ( c>bon dioxide is its degree ( solubility 9 wat]4 ,?is quality v>ies enorm\sly 9 diff]5t sub/ances4 ,= example1 at ord9>y pressures & temp]atures1 wat] c absorb only ab\t #e p] c5t ( its own volume ( oxyg51 :ile x c take up ab\t #acjj times its own volume ( ammonia4 ,n[ = c>bon dioxide1 unlike mo/ gases1 ! volume t c be absorb$ by wat] is ne>ly ! same z ! volume ( ! wat]4 ,! volumes v>y1 h[ev]1 accord+ to temp]ature1 be+ absolutely ! same at a temp]ature ( ab\t #ae deg4,c4 or #ei deg4,f41 :i* is close to ! ideal temp]ature = man's physical heal? & practically ! same z ! mean temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface :5 all seasons are av]ag$ toge!r4 ,h5ce1 :5 wat] is 9 contact ) air1 & equilibrium has be5 e/abli%$1 ! am\nt ( free c>bonic acid 9 a giv5 volume ( wat] is almo/ exactly equal to ! am\nt 9 ! adjac5t air4 ,unlike oxyg51 hydrog51 & nitrog51 c>bonic acid ent]s wat] freely2 unlike sulphur\s oxide & ammonia1 x escapes freely f wat]4 ,?us ! wat]s c nev] wa% c>bonic acid completely out ( ! air1 nor c ! air keep x f ! wat]s4 ,x is ! "o sub/ance :i* ?us1 9 consid]able quantities relative to its total am\nt1 ev]y:]e accompanies wat]4 ,9 e>?1 air1 fire1 & wat] alike ^! two sub/ances are always associat$4 ,accord+ly1 if wat] be ! fir/ prim>y con/itu5t ( ! environm5t1 c>bonic acid is inevitably ! second1--because ( its solubility possess+ an equal mobility ) wat]1 because ( ! res]voir ( ! atmosph]e nev] to be deplet$ by *emical action 9 ! oceans1 lakes1 & /reams4 ,9 tru?1 s close is ! association betwe5 ^! two sub/ances t x is sc>cely correct logically to sep>ate !m at all2 toge!r !y make up ! real environm5t & !y nev] "p company4#g ,! complem5t>y qualities ( c>bon dioxide & wat] are ( supreme importance because ^! two are ! only kn[n sub/ances :i* are able to =m a va/ s]ies ( complex comp\nds ) highly v>y+ *emical =mulae4 ,no o!r kn[n comp\nds c give (f or take on atoms )\t be+ resolv$ back into _! elem5ts4 ,no o!rs c ?us *ange _! =m freely )\t los+ _! id5tity4 ,?is p[] ( *ange )\t de/ruction is ! fundam5tal *emical *>act]i/ic ( life1 = life dem&s complexity1 *ange1 & gr[?4 ,9 ord] t wat] & c>bon dioxide may comb9e to =m ! comp\nds on :i* life is bas$1 ! wat] mu/ be 9 ! liquid =m1 x mu/ be able to dissolve c>bon dioxide freely1 & ! temp]ature mu/ n be high en\gh to break up ! highly complex & delicate comp\nds z soon z !y are =m$4 ,9 o!r words1 ! temp]ature mu/ be above freez+1 :ile x mu/ n rise high] ?an "s r indef9ite po9t betwe5 #ej deg4,c4 & ! boil+ po9t1 :]e all wat] f9ally turns into vapor4 ,9 ! :ole range ( temp]ature1 s f> z we "k1 !re is no o!r int]val :]e any su* complex reactions take place4 ,! temp]ature ( ! e>? = hundr$s ( millions ( ye>s has rema9$ firmly fix$ )9 ^! limits4 ,! a/oni%+ quality ( ! e>?'s uni=mity ( temp]ature becomes /ill m app>5t :5 we consid] ! orig9 ( ! sun's heat4 ,:at t orig9 is /ill rema9s a "q ( dispute4 ,! old ideas ( a burn+ sun1 or ( "o t is simply los+ an orig9al supply ( heat d]iv$ f "s accid5t1 su* z collision ) ano!r body1 7 long ago ab&on$4 ,! impact ( a con/ant supply ( meteors af=ds an almo/ equally unsatisfactory explanation4 ,m\lton#h /ates t if ! sun 7 /ruck by en\gh meteorites to keep up its heat1 ! e>? w\ld almo/ c]ta9ly be /ruck by en\gh s t x w\ld receive ab\t half ( #a p] c5t z mu* heat f !m z f ! sun4 ,?is is millions ( times m heat ?an is n[ receiv$ f meteors4 ,if ! sun owes its heat to ! impact ( l>g] bodies at long] int]vals1 ! geological record %\ld %[ a s]ies ( int]ruptions f> m dra/ic ?an is actually ! case4 ,x has also be5 suppos$ t ! sun owes its heat to contraction4 ,if a gase\s body contracts x becomes w>m]4 ,f9ally1 h[ev]1 x mu/ become s d5se t its rate ( contraction dim9i%es & ! process ceases4 ,"u ! sun's pres5t condition ( size & d5sity a radial contraction ( #abj feet p] ye> w\ld be en\gh to supply all ! en]gy n[ radiat$ by t body4 ,?is seems l a hopeful s\rce ( en]gy1 b ,kelv9 calculat$ t tw5ty million ye>s ago x 0 ineffective & t5 million ye>s h5ce x w be equally s4 ,moreov]1 if ?is is ! s\rce ( heat1 ! am\nt ( radiation f ! sun w\ld h to v>y enorm\sly4 ,tw5ty million ye>s ago ! sun w\ld h ext5d$ ne>ly to ! e>?'s orbit & w\ld h be5 s t5u\s t x w\ld h emitt$ no m heat ?an "s ( ! nebulae 9 space4 ,"s millions ( ye>s lat]1 :5 ! sun's radius 0 twice z great z at pres5t1 t body w\ld h emitt$ only "o-f\r? z mu* heat z n[1 :i* w\ld mean t on ! e>?'s surface ! !oretical temp]ature w\ld h be5 #bjj deg4 bel[ ! pres5t level4 ,?is is utt]ly out ( accord ) ! uni=mity ( climate %[n by ! geological record4 ,9 ! future1 if ! sun's contraction is ! only s\rce ( heat1 ! sun c supply ! pres5t am\nt = only t5 million ye>s1 :i* w\ld mean a *ange utt]ly unlike any?+ ( :i* ! geological record holds ev5 ! fa9te/ h9t4#i ,altoge!r ! problem ( h[ ! sun c h rema9$ s uni=m & h[ ! e>?'s atmosph]e & o!r conditions c also h rema9$ s uni=m ?r\gh\t hundr$s ( millions ( ye>s is "o ( ! mo/ puzzl+ 9 ! :ole realm ( nature4 ,if appeal is tak5 to radioactivity & ! break+ up ( uranium into radium & helium1 conditions c be po/ulat$ :i* w give ! requir$ am\nt ( en]gy4 ,su* is also ! case if x be suppos$ t !re is "s unkn[n process :i* may induce an atomic *ange l radioactivity 9 bodies :i* are n[ suppos$ to be /able elem5ts4 ,9 ei!r case1 h[ev]1 !re is z yet no satisfactory explanation ( ! uni=mity ( ! e>?'s climate4 ,a hundr$ million or a ?\s& million ye>s ago ! temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface 0 v mu* ! same z n[4 ,! e>? _h !n presumably ceas$ to emit any great am\nt ( heat1 if we may judge f ! fact t its surface 0 cool en\gh s t great ice %eets c\ld accumulate on l[ l&s )9 #dj deg4 ( ! equator4 ,! atmosph]e 0 app>5tly almo/ l t ( today1 & 0 almo/ c]ta9ly n diff]5t en\gh to make up = any great div]g5ce ( ! sun f its pres5t condition4 ,we _c escape ! /up5d\s fact t 9 ^? remote times ! sun mu/ h be5 ess5tially ! same z n[1 or else t "s utt]ly unkn[n factor is at "w4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,w4 ,a4 ,set*ell3 ,! ,temp]ature ,int]val 9 ! ,geographical ,di/ribution ( ,m>9e ,algae2 ,sci5ce1 ,vol4 #eb1 #aibj1 p4 #ahg4 ,footnote #b3 ,j4 ,b>rell3 ,rhy?ms & ! ,measurem5ts ( ,geologic ,"t2 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,am41 ,vol4 #bh1 ,dec41 #aiag1 pp4 #gde-ijd4 ,footnote #c3 ,pirsson & ,s*u*]t3 ,textbook ( ,geology1 #aiae1 pp4 #ech-eej4 ,footnote #d3 ,f ,*>les ,s*u*]t 9 ,! ,evolution ( ! ,e>? & ,its ,inhabitants3 ,edit$ by ,r4 ,s4 ,lull1 ,new ,hav51 #aiah1 b ) revisions by ,pr(essor ,s*u*]t4 ,footnote #e3 ,j4 ,h4 ,poynt+3 ,radiation 9 ! ,sol> ,sy/em2 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,a1 #aijc1 #bjb1 p4 #ebe4 ,footnote #f3 ,l4 ,j4 ,h5d]son3 ,! ,fitness ( ! ,environm5t1 #aiac4 ,footnote #g3 ,h5d]son3 loc4 cit41 p4 #ach4 ,footnote #h3 ,f4 ,r4 ,m\lton3 ,introduction to ,a/ronomy1 #aiaf4 ,footnote #i3 ,m\lton3 loc4 cit4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,v>iability ,,( ,,climate ,! v>iability ( ! e>?'s climate is almo/ z extraord9>y z its uni=mity4 ,?is v>iability is made up p>tly ( a long1 sl[ t5d5cy 9 "o direction & p>tly ( innum]able cycles ( e conceivable duration f days1 or ev5 h\rs1 up to millions ( ye>s4 ,p]haps ! easie/ way to grasp ! full complexity ( ! matt] is to put ! *ief types ( climatic sequ5ce 9 ! =m ( a table4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,table #b ,,types ,,( ,,climatic ,,sequ5ce #a4 ,cosmic uni=mity4 #g4 ,brueckn] p]iods4 #b4 ,secul> progression4 #h4 ,sunspot cycles4 #c4 ,geologic oscillations4 #i4 ,seasonal alt]nations4 #d4 ,glacial fluctuations4 #aj4 ,pleionian migrations4 #e4 ,orbital precessions4 #aa4 ,cyclonic vacillations4 #f4 ,hi/orical pulsations4 #ab4 ,daily vibrations4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,9 assign+ names to ! v>i\s types an attempt has be5 made to indicate some?+ ( ! nature ( ! sequ5ce s f> z duration1 p]iodicity1 & g5]al t5d5cies are conc]n$4 ,n ev5 ! ri* ,engli% language ( ! tw5tie? c5tury1 h[ev]1 furni%es words ) en\gh %ades ( mean+ to express all t is desir$4 ,moreov]1 except 9 degree1 !re is no %>p di/9ction betwe5 "s ( ! relat$ types1 su* z glacial fluctuations & hi/oric pulsations4 ,yet1 tak5 z a :ole1 ! table br+s out ! great contra/ betwe5 two absolutely div]se extremes4 ,at ! "o end lies well-nigh et]nal uni=mity1 or an extremely sl[ progress 9 "o direction ?r\gh\t c\ntless ages2 at ! o!r1 rapid & regul> vibrations f day to day1 or else irregul> & seem+ly unsy/ematic vacillations due to cyclonic /orms1 bo? ( :i* types are repeat$ millions ( times dur+ ev5 a s+le glacial fluctuation4 ,! mean+ ( cosmic uni=mity has be5 expla9$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]4 ,its relation to ! o!r types ( climatic sequ5ces seems to be t x sets %>ply def9$ limits beyond :i* no *anges ( any k9d h ev] gone s9ce life1 z we "k x1 fir/ began4 ,secul> progression1 on ! o!r h&1 means t 9 spite ( all mann] ( v>iations1 n[ ?is way & !n ! o!r1 ! normal climate ( ! e>?1 if !re is su* a ?+1 has on ! :ole probably *ang$ a little1 p]haps becom+ m complex4 ,aft] ea* p]iod ( cont95tal uplift & glaciation--= su* are preem95tly ! times ( complexity--x is d\btful :e!r ! e>? has ev] return$ to q its =m] degree ( monotony4 ,today ! e>? has swung away f ! great div]sity ( ! glacial p]iod4 ,yet we /ill h contra/s ( :at seem to u great magnitude4 ,9 l[ depressions1 su* z ,turfan 9 ! c5tral des]ts ( ,eurasia1 ! !rmomet] sometimes ranges f #j deg4,f4 9 ! morn+ to #fj deg4 9 ! %ade at noon4 ,on a cl\dy day 9 ! ,amazon =e/ close to ! sea%ore1 on ! contr>y1 ! temp]ature = mon?s may rise to #he deg4 by day & s9k no l[] ?an #ge deg4 at night4 ,! reasons = ! secul> progression ( ! e>?'s climate appe> to be intimately connect$ ) ^? :i* h caus$ ! next1 &1 9 _m respects1 m important type ( climatic sequ5ce1 :i* consi/s ( geological oscillations4 ,bo? ! progression & ! oscillations seem to dep5d l>gely on ?ree purely t]re/rial factors3 fir/1 ! condition ( ! e>?'s int]ior1 includ+ bo? int]nal heat & contraction2 second1 ! sal9ity & movem5t ( ! ocean2 & ?ird1 ! composition & am\nt ( ! atmosph]e4 ,to beg9 ) ! e>?'s int]ior--its loss ( heat appe>s to be an almo/ negligible factor 9 expla9+ ei!r secul> progression or geologic oscillation4 ,accord+ to bo? ! nebul> & ! planetesimal hypo!ses1 ! e>?'s cru/ appe>s to be cold] n[ ?an x 0 hundr$s or ?\s&s ( millions ( ye>s ago4 ,! emission ( int]nal heat1 h[ev]1 _h probably ceas$ to be ( mu* climatic significance ne> ! beg9n+ ( ! geological record1 = 9 s\!rn ,canada glaciation occurr$ v e>ly 9 ! ,prot]ozoic era4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! contraction ( ! e>? has produc$ rem>kable effects ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( geological "t4 ,x has less5$ ! e>?'s circumf]5ce by a ?\s& miles or m1 z appe>s f ! way 9 :i* ! rocks h be5 fold$ & ?ru/ bodily ov] "o ano!r4 ,accord+ to ! laws ( dynamics ?is mu/ h increas$ ! spe$ ( ! e>?'s rotation1 ?us %ort5+ ! day1 & also hav+ ! m important effect ( increas+ ! bulge at ! equator4 ,on ! o!r h&1 rec5t inve/igations indicate t tidal ret>dation has probably dim9i%$ ! e>?'s rate ( rotation m ?an seem$ probable a few ye>s ago1 ?us l5g!n+ ! day & dim9i%+ ! bulge at ! equator4 ,?us two oppos+ =ces h be5 at "w1 "o caus+ accel]ation & "o ret>dation4 ,_! comb9$ effect may h be5 a factor 9 caus+ secul> progression ( climate4 ,x almo/ c]ta9ly 0 ( mu* importance 9 caus+ pron\nc$ oscillations fir/ "o way & !n ! o!r4 ,?is matt]1 toge!r ) mo/ ( ^? t\*$ 9 ^! fir/ *apt]s1 w be exp&$ 9 lat] p>ts ( ! book4 ,on ! :ole ! t5d5cy appe>s to h be5 to create climatic div]sity 9 place ( uni=mity4 ,! increas+ sal9ity ( ! oceans may h be5 ano!r factor 9 produc+ secul> progression1 al?\gh ( slight importance 9 respect to oscillations4 ,:ile ! oceans 7 /ill gr[+ 9 volume1 x is g5]ally assum$ t !y mu/ h be5 almo/ fre% = a va/ p]iod1 al?\gh ,*amb]l9 ?9ks t ! *ange 9 sal9ity has be5 mu* less ?an is usually suppos$4 ,s f> z ! e>ly oceans 7 fre%] ?an ^? ( today1 _! deep-sea circulation mu/ h be5 less hamp]$ ?an n[ by ! heavy sal9e wat] :i* is produc$ by evaporation 9 w>m regions4 ,al?\gh ?is sal9e wat] is w>m1 its weight causes x to desc5d1 in/ead ( mov+ polew>d 9 a surface curr5t2 ?is desc5t sl[s up ! rise ( ! cold wat] :i* has mov$ along 9 ! dep?s ( ! ocean f high latitudes1 & ?us *ecks ! g5]al oceanic circulation4 ,if ! anci5t oceans 7 fre%] & h5ce _h a fre] circulation ?an n[1 a m rapid int]*ange ( pol> & equatorial wat] presumably t5d$ to equalize ! climate ( all latitudes4 ,aga91 al?\gh ! e>?'s atmosph]e has probably *ang$ f> less dur+ geological times ?an 0 =m]ly suppos$1 its composition has d\btless v>i$4 ,! total volume ( nitrog5 has probably increas$1 = t gas is s in]t t :5 x once becomes a "p ( ! air x is almo/ sure to /ay !re4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! proportions ( oxyg51 c>bon dioxide1 & wat] vapor mu/ h fluctuat$4 ,oxyg5 is tak5 out con/antly by animals & by all ! processes ( rock wea!r+1 b on ! o!r h& ! supply is increas$ :5 plants break up new c>bon dioxide d]iv$ f volcanoes4 ,z = ! c>bon dioxide1 x appe>s probable t 9 spite ( ! increas$ supply furni%$ by volcanoes ! great am\nts ( c>bon :i* h gradually be5 lock$ up 9 coal & lime/one h appreciably deplet$ ! atmosph]e4 ,wat] vapor also may be less abundant n[ ?an 9 ! pa/1 = ! pres5ce ( c>bon dioxide raises ! temp]ature a little & !reby enables ! air to hold m moi/ure4 ,:5 ! area ( ! oceans has dim9i%$1 & ?is has recurr$ v (t51 ?is likewise w\ld t5d to r$uce ! wat] vapor4 ,moreov]1 ev5 a v slight dim9ution 9 ! am\nt ( heat giv5 (f by ! e>?1 or a decrease 9 evaporation because ( high] sal9ity 9 ! oceans1 w\ld t5d 9 ! same direction4 ,n[ c>bon dioxide & wat] vapor bo? h a /rong blanket+ effect :]eby heat is prev5t$ f leav+ ! e>?4 ,!re=e1 ! probable r$uction 9 ! c>bon dioxide & wat] vapor ( ! e>?'s atmosph]e has app>5tly t5d$ to r$uce ! climatic monotony & create div]sity & complexity4 ,h5ce1 9 spite ( _m rev]sals1 ! g5]al t5d5cy ( *anges1 n only 9 ! e>?'s int]ior & 9 ! oceans1 b also 9 ! atmosph]e1 appe>s to be a secul> progression f a relatively monoton\s climate 9 :i* ! evolution ( high] organic =ms w\ld sc>cely be rapid to an extremely div]se & complex climate highly favorable to progressive evolution4 ,! importance ( ^! purely t]re/rial ag5cies mu/ n be lo/ sight ( :5 we come to discuss o!r ag5cies outside ! e>?4 ,9 ,table #b ! next type ( climatic sequ5ce is geologic oscillation4 ,?is means sl[ sw+s t la/ millions ( ye>s4 ,at "o extreme ( su* an oscillation ! climate all ov] ! _w is relatively monoton\s2 x returns1 z x 71 t[>d ! primeval conditions at ! beg9n+ ( ! secul> progression4 ,at su* times magnolias1 sequoias1 figs1 tree f]ns1 & _m o!r types ( subtropical plants grew f> nor? 9 places l ,gre5l&1 z is well kn[n f _! fossil rema9s ( middle ,c5ozoic "t1 = example4 ,at ^! same times1 & also at _m o!rs be=e su* high types ( plants _h evolv$1 reef-mak+ corals ?rove 9 great abundance 9 seas :i* cov]$ :at is n[ ,wiscons91 ,mi*igan1 ,ont>io1 & o!r equally cool regions4 ,today ^! regions h an av]age temp]ature ( only ab\t #gj deg4,f4 9 ! w>me/ mon?1 & av]age well bel[ freez+ 9 w9t]4 ,no reef-mak+ corals c n[ live :]e ! temp]ature av]ages bel[ #fh deg4,f4 ,! resemblance ( ! anci5t corals to ^? ( today makes x highly probable t !y 7 equally s5sitive to l[ temp]ature4 ,?us1 9 ! mild portions ( a geologic oscillation ! climate seems to h be5 s equable & uni=m t _m plants & animals c\ld live #aejj & at o!r times ev5 #djjj miles f>!r f ! equator ?an n[4 ,at su* times ! l&s 9 middle & high latitudes 7 l[ & small1 & ! oceans ext5d$ widely ov] ! cont95tal plat=ms4 ,?us unhamp]$ ocean curr5ts _h an opportunity to c>ry ! heat ( l[ latitudes f> t[>d ! poles4 ,"u su* conditions1 especially if ! conception ( ! great subequatorial cont95t ( ,gondwana l& is correct1 ! trade w9ds & ! we/]lies mu/ h be5 /rong] & /eadi] ?an n[4 ,?is w\ld n only enable ! we/]lies1 :i* are really s\?we/]lies1 to c>ry m heat ?an n[ to high latitudes1 b w\ld /ill fur!r /r5g!n ! ocean curr5ts4 ,at ! same "t1 ! air presumably conta9$ an abundance ( wat] vapor d]iv$ f ! broad oceans1 & an abundance ( atmosph]ic c>bon dioxide inh]it$ f a prec$+ "t :5 volcanoes contribut$ mu* c>bon dioxide to ! air4 ,^! two con/itu5ts ( ! atmosph]e may h ex]cis$ a pron\nc$ blanket+ effect :]eby ! heat ( ! e>? ) its long wave l5g?s 0 kept 91 al?\gh ! en]gy ( ! sun ) its %ort] wave l5g?s 0 n m>k$ly kept out4 ,?us ev]y?+ may h comb9$ to produce mild conditions 9 high latitudes1 & to dim9i% ! contra/ betwe5 equator & pole1 & betwe5 summ] & w9t]4 ,su* conditions p]haps c>ry 9 !mselves ! se$s ( decay4 ,at any rate :ile ! l&s lie quiet dur+ a p]iod ( mild climate great /ra9s mu/ accumulate 9 ! cru/ because ( ! e>?'s contraction & tidal ret>dation4 ,at ! same "t ! great abundance ( plants ^u ! l[ly+ pla9s ) _! mild climates1 & ! m>9e creatures ^u ! broad cont95tal plat=ms1 deplete ! atmosph]ic c>bon dioxide4 ,"p ( ?is is lock$ up z coal & "p z lime/one d]iv$ f m>9e plants z well z animals4 ,!n some?+ happ5s s t ! /ra9s & /resses ( ! cru/ are releas$4 ,! sea floors s9k2 ! cont95ts become relatively high & l>ge2 m\nta9 ranges are =m$2 & ! =m] pla9s & em]g5t portions ( ! cont95tal plat=ms are erod$ into hills & valleys4 ,! l>ge size ( ! cont95ts t5ds to create des]ts & o!r types ( climatic div]sity2 ! pres5ce ( m\nta9 ranges *ecks ! free fl[ ( w9ds & also creates div]sity2 ! ocean curr5ts are likewise *eck$1 alt]$1 & div]t$ s t ! fl[ ( heat f l[ to high latitudes is dim9i%$4 ,at ! same "t evaporation f ! ocean dim9i%es s t a decrease 9 wat] vapor comb9es ) ! previ\s depletion ( c>bon dioxide to r$uce ! blanket+ effect ( ! atmosph]e4 ,?us ^u p]iods ( mild monotony !re sup]v5e p]iods ( complexity1 div]sity1 & sev]ity4 ,turn to ,table #a & see h[ a glacial climate aga9 & aga9 succe$s a "t :5 relative mildness prevail$ almo/ ev]y:]e4 ,or exam9e ,fig4 #a & notice h[ ! l9es repres5t+ temp]atures g up & d[n4 ,9 ! figure ,s*u*]t makes x cle> t :5 ! l&s h be5 l>ge & m\nta9-mak+ has be5 important1 z %[n by ! high p>ts ( ! l[] %ad$ area1 ! climate has be5 sev]e1 z %[n by ! desc5t ( ! sn[ l9e1 ! upp] %ad$ area4 ,9 ! diagram ! climatic oscillations appe> %ort1 b ?is is m]ely because !y h be5 cr[d$ toge!r1 especially 9 ! left h& or e>ly "p4 ,!re an in* 9 l5g? may repres5t a hundr$ million ye>s4 ,ev5 at ! "r-h& end an in* is equival5t to sev]al million ye>s4 ,! sev]e "p ( a climatic oscillation1 z well z ! mild "p1 w be %[n 9 lat] *apt]s to be> 9 itself c]ta9 probable se$s ( decay4 ,:ile ! l&s are be+ uplift$1 volcanic activity is likely to be vigor\s & to add c>bon dioxide to ! air4 ,lat]1 z ! m\nta9s are worn d[n by ! _m ag5cies ( wat]1 w9d1 ice1 & *emical decay1 al?\gh mu* c>bon dioxide is lock$ up by ! c>bonation ( ! rocks1 ! c>bon lock$ up 9 ! coal is set free & increases ! c>bon dioxide ( ! air4 ,at ! same "t ! cont95ts settle sl[ly d[nw>d1 = ! e>?'s cru/ ?\gh rigid z /eel is nev]!less slightly visc\s & w fl[ if subject$ to suffici5tly great & endur+ pressure4 ,! area f :i* evaporation c take place is !reby increas$ because ( ! spread ( ! oceans ov] ! cont95ts1 & wat] vapor jo9s ) ! c>bon dioxide to blanket ! e>? & ?us t5ds to keep x uni=mly w>m4 ,moreov]1 ! dim9ution ( ! l&s frees ! ocean curr5ts f re/ra9t & p]mits !m to fl[ m freely f l[ latitudes to high4 ,?us 9 ! c\rse ( millions ( ye>s !re is a return t[>d monotony4 ,ultimately1 h[ev]1 new /resses accumulate 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 & ! way is prep>$ = ano!r great oscillation4 ,p]haps ! sett+ free ( ! /resses takes place simply because ! /ra9 at la/ becomes irresi/ible4 ,x is also possible1 z we %all see1 t an ext]nal ag5cy sometimes adds to ! /ra9 & !reby det]m9es ! "t at :i* a new oscillation %all beg94 ,9 ,table #b ! types ( climatic sequ5ces :i* foll[ geologic oscillations are glacial fluctuations1 orbital precessions & hi/orical pulsations4 ,glacial fluctuations & hi/orical pulsations appe> to be ( ! same type1 except z to sev]ity & duration1 & h5ce may be consid]$ toge!r4 ,!y w be treat$ briefly "h because ! !ories z to _! causes are outl9$ 9 ! next two *apt]s4 ,oddly en\gh1 al?\gh ! hi/oric pulsations lie mu* clos] to u ?an d ! glacial fluctuations1 !y 7 n discov]$ until two or ?ree g5]ations lat]1 & are /ill mu* less kn[n4 ,! mo/ important feature ( bo? sequ5ces is ! sw+ f a glacial to an int]-glacial epo* or f ! arsis or acc5tuat$ "p ( an hi/orical pulsation to ! !sis or unacc5t$ "p4 ,9 a glacial epo* or 9 ! arsis ( an hi/oric pulsation1 /orms are usually abundant & sev]e1 ! mean temp]ature is l[] ?an usual1 sn[ accumulates 9 high latitudes or ^u l(ty m\nta9s4 ,= example1 9 ! la/ su* p]iod dur+ ! f\rte5? c5tury1 great floods & dr\ghts occurr$ alt]nately ar\nd ! ,nor? ,sea2 x 0 sev]al times possible to cross ! ,baltic ,sea f ,g]many to ,sw$5 on ! ice1 & ! ice ( ,gre5l& advanc$ s mu* t %ore ice caus$ ! ,norsem5 to *ange _! sail+ r\te betwe5 ,icel& & ! ,norse colonies 9 s\!rn ,gre5l&4 ,at ! same "t 9 l[ latitudes & 9 p>ts ( ! cont95tal int]ior !re is a t5d5cy t[>d dim9i%$ ra9fall & ev5 t[>d aridity & ! =mation ( des]ts4 ,9 ,yucatan1 = example1 a dim9ution 9 tropical ra9fall 9 ! f\rte5? c5tury seems to h giv5 ! ,mayas a la/ opportunity = a revival ( _! decay+ civilization4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,climatic *anges & m\nta9 build+4 7,aft] ,s*u*]t1 9 ,! ,evolution ( ! ,e>? & ,its ,inhabitants1 edit$ by ,r4 ,s4 ,lull47 ,diagram %[+ ! times & probable ext5t ( ! m or less m>k$ climate *anges 9 ! geologic hi/ory ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & ( its elevation into *a9s ( m\nta9s4 ,among ! climatic sequ5ces1 glacial fluctuations are p]haps ( ! mo/ vital import f ! /&po9t ( organic evolution2 f ! /&po9t ( human hi/ory ! same is true ( climatic pulsations4 ,glacial epo*s h repeat$ly wip$ out ?\s&s ^u ?\s&s ( species & play$ a "p 9 ! orig9 ( entirely new types ( plants & animals4 ,?is is be/ se5 :5 ! life ( ! ,p5nsylvanian is contra/$ ) t ( ! ,p]mian4 ,an hi/oric pulsation may wipe out an entire civilization & p]mit a new "o to gr[ up ) a radically diff]5t "*4 ,h5ce x is n /range t ! causes ( su* climatic ph5om5a h be5 discuss$ ) extraord9>y vigor4 ,9 few realms ( sci5ce has !re be5 a m impos+ or m int]e/+ array ( !ories4 ,9 ?is book we %all consid] ! m important ( ^! !ories4 ,a new sol> or cyclonic hypo!sis & ! hypo!sis ( *anges 9 ! =m & altitude ( ! l& w receive ! mo/ att5tion1 b ! o!r *ief hypo!ses are outl9$ 9 ! next *apt]1 & are frequ5tly ref]r$ to ?r\gh\t ! volume4 ,betwe5 glacial fluctuations & hi/orical pulsations 9 duration1 b probably less sev]e ?an ei!r1 come orbital precessions4 ,^! /& 9 a gr\p by !mselves & are m ak9 to seasonal alt]nations ?an to any o!r type ( climatic sequ5ce4 ,!y mu/ h occurr$ ) absolute regul>ity ev] s9ce ! e>? began to revolve ar\nd ! sun 9 its pres5t elliptical orbit4 ,s9ce ! orbit is elliptical & s9ce ! sun is 9 "o ( ! two foci ( ! ellipse1 ! e>?'s di/ance f ! sun v>ies4 ,at pres5t ! e>? is ne>e/ ! sun 9 ! nor!rn w9t]4 ,h5ce ! rigor ( w9t] 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e is mitigat$1 :ile t ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e is increas$4 ,9 ab\t t5 ?\s& ye>s ?is condition w be rev]s$1 & 9 ano!r t5 ?\s& ! pres5t conditions w return once m4 ,su* climatic precessions1 z we may "h call !m1 mu/ h occurr$ unnumb]$ times 9 ! pa/1 b !y d n appe> to h be5 l>ge en\gh to leave 9 ! fossils ( ! rocks any traces t c be di/+ui%$ f ^? ( o!r climatic sequ5ces4 ,we come n[ to ,brueckn] p]iods & sunspot cycles4 ,! ,brueckn] p]iods h a l5g? ( ab\t ?irty-?ree ye>s4 ,_! exi/5ce 0 sugge/$ at lea/ z long ago z ! days ( ,sir ,francis ,bacon1 ^: /atem5t ab\t !m is quot$ on ! flyleaf ( ?is book4 ,!y h s9ce be5 detect$ by a c>eful /udy ( ! records ( ! "t ( h>ve/1 v9tage1 ! op5+ ( riv]s to navigation1 & ! rise or fall ( lakes l ! ,caspian ,sea4 ,9 8 book on ,klimas*wankung5 seit #agjj1 ,brueckn] has collect$ an uncommonly int]e/+ assortm5t ( facts z to ! climate ( ,europe = m ?an two c5turies4 ,m rec5tly1 by a /udy ( ! rate ( gr[? ( trees1 ,d\glass1 9 8 book on ,climatic ,cycles & ,tree ,gr[?1 has c>ri$ ! subject /ill fur!r4 ,9 g5]al ! nature ( ! #cc-ye> p]iods seems to be id5tical ) t ( ! #aa- or #ab- ye> sunspot cycle1 on ! "o h&1 & ( hi/oric pulsations on ! o!r4 ,= a c5tury obs]v]s h not$ t ! v>iations 9 ! wea!r :i* ev]yone notices f ye> to ye> seem to h "s relation to sunspots4 ,= g5]ations1 h[ev]1 ! relation%ip 0 discuss$ )\t lead+ to any def9ite conclusion4 ,! tr\ble 0 t ! same *ange 0 suppos$ to take place 9 all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,h5ce1 :5 e sort ( *ange 0 f\nd some:]e at any giv5 sunspot /age1 x seem$ z ?\gh !re c\ld n be a relation%ip4 ,( late ye>s1 h[ev]1 ! matt] has become fairly cle>4 ,! *ief conclusions are1 fir/1 t :5 sunspots are num]\s ! av]age temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface is l[] ?an normal4 ,?is does n mean t all p>ts are cool]1 = :ile c]ta9 l>ge areas gr[ cool1 o!rs ( less ext5t become w>m at times ( _m sunspots4 ,second1 at times ( _m sunspots /orms are m abundant ?an usual1 b are also conf9$ some:at closely to c]ta9 limit$ tracks s t else:]e a dim9ution ( /orm9ess may be not$4 ,?is :ole "q is discuss$ s fully 9 ,e>? & ,sun t x ne$ n deta9 u fur!r 9 ?is prelim9>y view ( ! :ole problem ( climate4 ,suffice x to say t a /udy ( ! sunspot cycle leads to ! conclusion t x furni%es a clue to _m ( ! unsolv$ problems ( ! climate ( ! pa/1 z well z a key to pr$iction ( ! future4 ,pass+ by ! seasonal alt]nations :i* are fully expla9$ z ! result ( ! revolution ( ! e>? ar\nd ! sun1 we may m]ely po9t out t1 l ! daily vibrations :i* br+ ,table #b to a close1 !y emphasize ! out/&+ fact t ! ma9 control ( t]re/rial climate is ! am\nt ( en]gy receiv$ f ! sun4 ,?is same pr9ciple is illu/rat$ by pleionian migrations4 ,! t]m pleion comes f a ,greek ^w mean+ m4 ,x 0 tak5 by ,arct[ski to designate areas or p]iods :]e !re is an excess ( "s climatic elem5t1 su* z atmosph]ic pressure1 ra9fall1 or temp]ature4 ,ev5 if ! effect ( ! seasons is elim9at$1 x appe>s t ! c\rse ( ^! v>i\s elem5ts does n run smoo?ly4 ,z ev]yone kn[s1 a p]iod l ! autumn ( #aibj 9 ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates may be unusually w>m1 :ile a succe$+ p]iod may be unseasonably cool4 ,^! dep>tures f ! normal %[ a c]ta9 r\gh p]iodicity4 ,= example1 !re is evid5ce ( a p]iod ( ab\t tw5ty-sev5 days1 correspond+ to ! sun's rotation & =m]ly suppos$ to be due to ! moon's revolution :i* occupies almo/ ! same l5g? ( "t4 ,/ill o!r p]iods appe> to h an av]age duration ( ab\t ?ree mon?s & ( betwe5 two & ?ree ye>s4 ,two rem>kable discov]ies h rec5tly be5 made 9 respect to su* pleions4 ,"o is t a giv5 type ( *ange usually occurs simultane\sly 9 a numb] ( well-def9$ b widely sep>at$ c5t]s1 :ile a *ange ( an opposite "* arises 9 ano!r equally well-def9$1 b q diff]5t1 set ( c5t]s4 ,9 g5]al1 areas ( high pressure h "o type ( *ange & areas ( l[ pressure ! o!r type4 ,s sy/ematic are ^! relation%ips & s completely d !y h>monize 9 widely sep>at$ p>ts ( ! e>?1 t x seems c]ta9 t !y mu/ be due to "s outside cause1 :i* 9 all probability c be only ! sun4 ,! second discov]y is t pleions1 :5 once =m$1 travel irregul>ly along ! e>?'s surface4 ,_! pa?s h n yet be5 work$ out 9 detail1 b a g5]al migration seems well e/abli%$4 ,because ( ?is1 x is probable t if unusually w>m wea!r prevails 9 "o "p ( a cont95t at a giv5 "t1 ! !rmo-pleion1 or excess ( heat1 w n vani% b w gradually move away 9 "s p>ticul> direction4 ,if we knew ! pa? t x w\ld foll[ we might pr$ict ! g5]al temp]ature along its c\rse = "s mon?s 9 advance4 ,! pa?s are (t5 irregul>1 & ! pleions frequ5tly %[ a t5d5cy to break up or sudd5ly revive4 ,probably ?is t5d5cy is due to v>iations 9 ! sun4 ,:5 ! sun is highly v>iable1 ! pleions are num]\s & /rong1 & extremes ( wea!r are frequ5t4 ,tak5 z a :ole ! pleions (f] "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ & hopeful fields n only = ! /ud5t ( ! causes ( climatic v>iations1 b = ! man :o is int]e/$ 9 ! practical "q ( long-range wea!r =eca/s4 ,l _m o!r climatic ph5om5a !y seem to repres5t ! comb9$ effect ( conditions 9 ! sun & ^u ! e>? itself4 ,! la/ ( ! climatic sequ5ces :i* require explanation is ! cyclonic vacillations4 ,^! are famili> to ev]yone1 = !y are ! *anges ( wea!r :i* occur at int]vals ( a few days1 or a week or two1 at all seasons1 9 l>ge p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,europe1 ,japan1 & "s ( ! o!r progressive p>ts ( ! e>?4 ,!y d n1 h[ev]1 occur ) great frequ5cy 9 equatorial regions1 des]ts1 & _m o!r regions4 ,up to ! end ( ! la/ c5tury1 x 0 g5]ally suppos$ t cyclonic /orms 7 purely t]re/rial 9 orig94 ,)\t any adequate inve/igation x 0 assum$ t all irregul>ities 9 ! planet>y circulation ( ! w9ds arise f an irregul> di/ribution ( heat due to conditions )9 or ^u ! e>? itself4 ,^! irregul>ities 7 suppos$ to produce cyclonic /orms 9 c]ta9 limit$ belts1 b n 9 mo/ p>ts ( ! _w4 ,today ?is view is be+ rapidly modifi$4 ,und\bt$ly1 ! irregul>ities due to purely t]re/rial conditions are "o ( ! *ief contributory causes ( /orms1 b x beg9s to appe> t sol> v>iations also play a "p4 ,x has be5 f\nd1 = example1 t n only ! mean temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface v>ies 9 h>mony ) ! sunspot cycle1 b t ! frequ5cy & sev]ity ( /orms v>y 9 ! same way4 ,moreov]1 x has be5 demon/rat$ t ! sun's radiation is n con/ant1 b is subject to innum]able v>iations4 ,?is does n mean t ! sun's g5]al temp]ature v>ies1 b m]ely t at "s times heat$ gases are eject$ rapidly to high levels s t a sudd5 wave ( en]gy /rikes ! e>?4 ,?us1 ! pres5t t5d5cy is to believe t ! cyclonic v>iations1 ! *anges ( wea!r :i* come & g 9 su* a haphaz>d1 irresponsible way1 are p>tly due to causes p]ta9+ to ! e>? itself & p>tly to ! sun4 ,f ?is rapid survey ( ! types ( climatic sequ5ces1 x is evid5t t !y may be divid$ into f\r great gr\ps4 ,fir/ comes cosmic uni=mity1 "o ( ! mo/ m>vel\s & incompreh5sible ( all kn[n facts4 ,we simply h no explanation :i* is 9 any respect adequate4 ,next come secul> progression & geologic oscillations1 two types ( *ange :i* seem to be due ma9ly to purely t]re/rial causes1 t is1 to *anges 9 ! l&s1 ! oceans1 & ! air4 ,! g5]al t5d5cy ( ^! *anges is t[>d complexity & div]sity1 ?us produc+ progression1 b !y are subject to frequ5t rev]sals :i* give rise to oscillations la/+ millions ( ye>s4 ,! processes by :i* ! oscillations take place are fully discuss$ 9 ?is book4 ,nev]!less1 because !y are fairly well und]/ood1 !y are def]r$ until aft] ! ?ird gr\p ( sequ5ces has be5 discuss$4 ,?is gr\p includes glacial fluctuations1 hi/oric pulsations1 ,brueckn] p]iods1 sunspot cycles1 pleionian migrations1 & cyclonic vacillations4 ,! out/&+ fact 9 reg>d to all ( ^! is t :ile !y are greatly modifi$ by purely t]re/rial conditions1 !y seem to owe _! orig9 to v>iations 9 ! sun4 ,!y =m ! *ief subject ( ,e>? & ,sun & 9 _! l>g] phases are ! mo/ important topic ( ?is book also4 ,! la/ gr\p ( sequ5ces includes orbital precessions1 seasonal alt]nations1 & daily v>iations4 ,^! may be reg>d$ z purely sol> 9 orig94 ,yet _! influ5ce1 l t ( ea* ( ! o!r gr\ps1 is mu* modifi$ by ! e>?'s own conditions4 ,our ma9 problem is to sep>ate & expla9 ! two great elem5ts 9 climatic *anges1--! effects ( ! sun1 on ! "o h&1 & ( ! e>? on ! o!r4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,hypo!ses ,,( ,,climatic ,,*ange ,! next /ep 9 our /udy ( climate is to review ! ma9 hypo!ses z to ! causes ( glaciation4 ,^! hypo!ses apply also to o!r types ( climatic *anges4 ,we %all conc5trate on glacial p]iods1 h[ev]1 n only because !y are ! mo/ dramatic & well-kn[n types ( *ange1 b because !y h be5 m discuss$ ?an any o!r & h also _h great influ5ce on evolution4 ,moreov]1 !y /& ne> ! middle ( ! types ( climatic sequ5ces1 & an und]/&+ ( !m does mu* to expla9 ! o!rs4 ,9 review+ ! v>i\s !ories we %all n attempt to cov] all ! gr\nd1 b %all m]ely /ate ! ma9 ideas ( ! few !ories :i* h _h an important influ5ce ^u sci5tific ?\ght4 ,! conditions :i* any satisfactory climatic hypo!sis mu/ satisfy are briefly z foll[s3 7#a7 ,due weight mu/ be giv5 to ! fact t *anges ( climate are almo/ c]ta9ly due to ! comb9$ effect ( a v>iety ( causes1 bo? t]re/rial & sol> or cosmic4 7#b7 ,att5tion mu/ also be paid to bo? sides 9 ! long controv]sy z to :e!r glaciation is due prim>ily to a dim9ution 9 ! e>?'s supply ( heat or to a r$i/ribution ( ! heat ?r\gh *anges 9 atmosph]ic & oceanic circulation4 ,at pres5t ! great majority ( au?orities are on ! side ( a dim9ution ( heat1 b ! o!r view also des]ves /udy4 7#c7 ,a satisfactory hypo!sis mu/ expla9 ! frequ5t syn*ronism betwe5 two great types ( ph5om5a2 fir/1 movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ :]eby cont95ts are uplift$ & m\nta9s upheav$2 &1 second1 great *anges ( climate :i* are usually m>k$ by relatively rapid oscillations f "o extreme to ano!r4 7#d7 ,no hypo!sis c f9d acceptance unless x satisfies ! some:at exact+ requirem5ts ( ! geological record1 ) its frequ5t b irregul> repetition ( long1 mild p]iods1 relatively cool or int]m$iate p]iods l ! pres5t1 & glacial p]iods ( m or less sev]ity & p]haps accompany+ ! m or less widespread uplift+ ( cont95ts4 ,at lea/ dur+ ! lat] glacial p]iods ! hypo!sis mu/ expla9 num]\s climatic epo*s & /ages sup]pos$ ^u a s+le g5]al p]iod ( cont95tal upheaval4 ,moreov]1 al?\gh hi/orical geology dem&s cycles ( v>i$ duration & magnitude1 x does n furni% evid5ce ( any rigid p]iodicity caus+ ! cycles to be uni=m 9 l5g? or int5sity4 7#e7 ,mo/ important ( all1 a satisfactory explanation ( climatic *anges & cru/al de=mation mu/ take acc\nt ( all ! ag5cies :i* are n[ caus+ simil> ph5om5a4 ,:e!r any o!r ag5cies %\ld be consid]$ is op5 to "q1 al?\gh ! relative importance ( exi/+ ag5cies may h v>i$4 ,i4 ,croll's ,ecc5tricity ,!ory4 ,"o ( ! mo/ +5i\s & mo/ c>efully elaborat$ sci5tific hypo!ses is ,croll's#aj precessional hypo!sis z to ! effect ( ! e>?'s own motions4 ,s well 0 ?is work$ out t x 0 widely accept$ = a "t & /ill f9ds a place 9 popul> b unsci5tific books1 su* z ,wells' ,outl9e ( ,hi/ory1 & ev5 9 sci5tific works l ,wright's ,quat]n>y ,ice ,age4 ,! gi/ ( ! hypo!sis has already be5 giv5 9 connection ) ! type ( climatic sequ5ce kn[n z orbital precessions4 ,! e>? is #ic million miles away f ! sun 9 ,janu>y & #ig million 9 ,july4 ,! e>?'s axis precesses1 h[ev]1 j z does t ( a sp9n+ top4 ,h5ce arises :at is kn[n z ! precession ( ! equ9oxes1 t is1 a /eady *ange 9 ! season at :i* ! e>? is 9 p]ihelion1 or ne>e/ to ! sun4 ,9 ! c\rse ( #ba1jjj ye>s ! "t ( p]ihelion v>ies f e>ly 9 ,janu>y ?r\gh ! entire twelve mon?s & back to ,janu>y4 ,moreov]1 ! e>?'s orbit is slightly m elliptical at c]ta9 p]iods ?an at o!rs1 = ! planets sometimes become bun*$ s t !y all pull ! e>? 9 "o direction4 ,h5ce1 once 9 ab\t "o hundr$ ?\s& ye>s ! effect ( ! elliptical %ape ( ! e>?'s orbit is at a maximum4 ,croll argu$ t ^! a/ronomical *anges mu/ alt] ! e>?'s climate1 especially by _! effect on w9ds & ocean curr5ts4 ,8 elaborate argum5t conta9s a va/ am\nt ( valuable mat]ial4 ,lat] inve/igation1 h[ev]1 seems to h prov5 ! inadequacy ( 8 hypo!sis4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! suppos$ cause does n seem ne>ly suffici5t to produce ! obs]v$ results4 ,second1 ,croll's hypo!sis dem&s t glaciation 9 ! nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]e take place alt]nately4 ,a con/antly gr[+ collection ( facts1 h[ev]1 indicates t glaciation does n occur 9 ! two hemisph]es alt]nately1 b at ! same "t4 ,?ird1 ! hypo!sis calls = ! con/ant & frequ5t repetition ( glaciation at absolutely regul> int]vals4 ,! geological record %[s no su* regul>ity1 = sometimes sev]al glacial epo*s foll[ 9 relatively close succession at irregul> int]vals ( p]haps fifty to two hundr$ ?\s& ye>s1 & ?us =m a glacial p]iod2 & !n = millions ( ye>s !re are none4 ,f\r?1 ! ecc5tricity hypo!sis provides no adequate explanation = ! glacial /ages or subepo*s1 ! hi/oric pulsations1 & ! o!r small] climatic v>iations :i* are sup]pos$ ^u glacial epo*s & ^u "o ano!r 9 bewild]+ confusion4 ,9 spite ( ^! objections1 !re c be little "q t ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit & ! precession ( ! equ9oxes ) ! result+ *ange 9 ! season ( p]ihelion mu/ h "s climatic effect4 ,h5ce ,croll's !ory des]ves a p]man5t ?\gh m9or place 9 any full discussion ( ! causes ( climatic *anges4 ,,ii4 ,! ,c>bon ,dioxide ,!ory4 ,at ab\t ! "t t ! ecc5tricity !ory 0 be+ relegat$ to a m9or ni*e1 a new !ory 0 be+ develop$ :i* soon ex]t$ a pr(\nd influ5ce ^u geological ?\ght4 ,*amb]l91#aa adopt+ an idea sugge/$ by ,tyndall1 fir$ ! imag9ation ( geologi/s by 8 skillful exposition ( ! "p play$ by c>bon dioxide 9 caus+ climatic *anges4 ,today ?is !ory is probably m widely accept$ ?an any o!r4 ,we h already se5 t ! am\nt ( c>bon dioxide gas 9 ! atmosph]e has a decid$ climatic importance4 ,moreov]1 !re c be little d\bt t ! am\nt ( t gas 9 ! atmosph]e v>ies f age to age 9 response to ! ext5t to :i* x is set free by volcanoes1 consum$ by plants1 comb9$ ) rocks 9 ! process ( wea!r+1 dissolv$ 9 ! ocean or lock$ up 9 ! =m ( coal & lime/one4 ,! ma9 "q is :e!r su* v>iations c produce *anges s rapid z glacial epo*s & hi/orical pulsations4 ,abundant evid5ce seems to %[ t ! degree to :i* ! air c be w>m$ by c>bon dioxide is %>ply limit$4 ,humphreys1 9 8 excell5t book on ! ,physics ( ! ,air1 calculates t a lay] ( c>bon dioxide =ty c5timet]s ?ick has practically z mu* blanket+ effect z a lay] indef9itely ?ick]4 ,9 o!r words1 =ty c5timet]s ( c>bon dioxide1 :ile hav+ no appreciable effect on sunlight com+ t[>d ! e>?1 w\ld filt] out & ?us reta9 9 ! atmosph]e all ! outgo+ t]re/rial heat t c>bon dioxide is capable ( absorb+4 ,add+ m w\ld be l add+ ano!r filt] :5 ! "o 9 op]ation has already done all t t p>ticul> k9d ( filt] is capable ( do+4 ,accord+ to ,humphreys' calculations1 a d\bl+ ( ! c>bon dioxide 9 ! air w\ld 9 itself raise ! av]age temp]ature ab\t #a4c deg4,c4 & fur!r c>bon dioxide w\ld h practically no effect4 ,r$uc+ ! pres5t supply by half w\ld r$uce ! temp]ature by ess5tially ! same am\nt4 ,! effect mu/ be great]1 h[ev]1 ?an w\ld appe> f ! figures giv5 above1 = any *ange 9 temp]ature has an effect on ! am\nt ( wat] vapor1 :i* 9 turn causes fur!r *anges ( temp]ature4 ,moreov]1 z ,*amb]l9 po9ts out1 x is n cle> :e!r ,humphreys all[s = ! fact t :5 ! #dj c5timet]s ( ,,co#b ne>e/ ! e>? has be5 heat$ by t]re/rial radiation1 x 9 turn radiates half its heat outw>d & half inw>d4 ,! outw>d half is all absorb$ 9 ! next lay] ( c>bon dioxide1 & s on4 ,! process is mu* m complex ?an ?is1 b ! end result is t ev5 ! la/ increm5t ( ,,co#b1 t is1 ! out]mo/ portions 9 ! upp] atmosph]e1 mu/ app>5tly absorb an inf9itesimally small am\nt ( heat4 ,?is fact1 plus ! effect ( wat] vapor1 w\ld seem to indicate t a d\bl+ or halv+ ( ! am\nt ( ,,co#b1 w\ld h an effect ( m ?an #a4c deg4,c4 ,a *ange ( ev5 #b deg4,c4 above or bel[ ! pres5t level ( ! e>?'s mean temp]ature w\ld be ( v appreciable climatic significance1 = x is commonly believ$ t dur+ ! height ( ! glacial p]iod ! mean temp]ature 0 only #e deg4 to #h deg4,c4 l[] ?an n[4 ,nev]!less1 v>iations 9 atmosph]ic c>bon dioxide d n necess>ily seem compet5t to produce ! relatively rapid climatic fluctuations ( glacial epo*s & hi/oric pulsations z di/+ui%$ f ! long] sw+s ( glacial p]iods & geological eras4 ,9 ,*amb]l9's view1 z 9 ours1 ! elevation ( ! l&1 ! modification ( ! curr5ts ( ! air & ( ! ocean1 & all t goes ) elevation z a topographic ag5cy con/itute a prim>y cause ( climatic *anges4 ,a special effect ( ?is is ! removal ( c>bon dioxide f ! air by ! enhanc$ processes ( wea!r+4 ,?is1 z he c>efully /ates1 is a v sl[ process1 & _c ( itself lead to any?+ s sudd5 z ! oncom+ ( glaciation4 ,b "h comes ,*amb]l9's mo/ di/9ctive contribution to ! subject1 namely1 ! hypo!sis t *anges 9 atmosph]ic temp]ature aris+ f v>iations 9 atmosph]ic c>bon dioxide are able to cause a rev]sal ( ! deep-sea oceanic circulation4 ,accord+ to ,*amb]l9's view1 ! ord9>y oceanic circulation ( ! great] "p ( geological "t 0 ! rev]se ( ! pres5t circulation4 ,w>m wat] desc5d$ to ! ocean dep?s 9 l[ latitudes1 kept its heat :ile creep+ sl[ly polew>d1 & rose 9 high latitudes produc+ ! w>m climate :i* enabl$ corals1 = example1 to gr[ 9 high latitudes4 ,*amb]l9 holds ?is op9ion l>gely because !re seems to him to be no o!r reasonable way to acc\nt = ! enorm\sly long w>m p]iods :5 heat-lov+ =ms ( life liv$ 9 :at are n[ pol> regions ( ice & sn[4 ,he expla9s ?is rev]s$ circulation by suppos+ t an abundance ( atmosph]ic c>bon dioxide1 toge!r ) a broad di/ribution ( ! oceans1 made ! atmosph]e s w>m t ! evaporation 9 l[ latitudes 0 f> m rapid ?an n[4 ,h5ce ! surface wat] ( ! ocean became a relatively conc5trat$ br9e4 ,su* a br9e is heavy & t5ds to s9k1 !reby sett+ up an oceanic circulation ! rev]se ( t :i* n[ prevails4 ,at pres5t ! pol> wat]s s9k because !y are cold & h5ce contract4 ,moreov]1 :5 !y freeze a c]ta9 am\nt ( salt leaves ! ice & !reby increases ! sal9ity ( ! surr\nd+ wat]4 ,?us ! pol> wat] s9ks to ! dep?s ( ! ocean1 its place is tak5 by w>m] & light] wat] f l[ latitudes :i* moves polew>d along ! surface1 & at ! same "t ! cold wat] ( ! ocean dep?s is =c$ equatorw>d bel[ ! surface4 ,b if ! equatorial wat]s 7 s conc5trat$ t a /eady supply ( highly sal9e wat] kept desc5d+ to l[ levels1 ! direction ( ! circulation w\ld h to be rev]s$4 ,! "t :5 ?is w\ld occur w\ld dep5d ^u ! delicate balance betwe5 ! d[nw>d t5d5cies ( ! cold pol> wat] & ( ! w>m sal9e equatorial wat]4 ,suppose t :ile su* a rev]s$ circulation prevail$1 ! atmosph]ic ,,co#b %\ld be deplet$1 & ! air cool$ s mu* t ! conc5tration ( ! equatorial wat]s by evaporation 0 no long] suffici5t to cause !m to s9k4 ,a rev]sal w\ld take place1 ! pres5t type ( circulation w\ld be inaugurat$1 & ! :ole e>? w\ld suff] a *ill because ! surface ( ! ocean w\ld become cool4 ,! cool surface-wat] w\ld absorb c>bon dioxide fa/] ?an ! previ\s w>m wat] _h done1 = heat drives (f gases f wat]4 ,?is w\ld ha/5 ! cool+ ( ! atmosph]e /ill m1 n only directly b by dim9i%+ ! supply ( atmosph]ic moi/ure4 ,! result w\ld be glaciation4 ,b ultimately ! cold wat]s ( ! high] latitudes w\ld absorb all ! c>bon dioxide !y c\ld hold1 ! sl[ equatorw>d creep w\ld at l5g? p]mit ! cold wat] to rise to ! surface 9 l[ latitudes4 ,!re ! w>m? ( ! equatorial sun & ! deplet$ supply ( c>bon dioxide 9 ! air w\ld comb9e to cause ! wat] to give up its c>bon dioxide once m4 ,if ! atmosph]e _h be5 suffici5tly deplet$ by t "t1 ! ris+ wat]s 9 l[ latitudes might give up m c>bon dioxide ?an ! cold pol> wat]s absorb$4 ,?us ! atmosph]ic supply w\ld increase1 ! air w\ld aga9 gr[ w>m1 & a t5d5cy t[>d deglaciation1 or t[>d an int]-glacial condition w\ld arise4 ,at su* times ! oceanic circulation is n suppos$ to h be5 rev]s$1 b m]ely to h be5 *eck$ & made sl[] by ! increas+ w>m?4 ,?us int]-glacial conditions l ^? ( today1 or ev5 consid]ably w>m]1 are suppos$ to h be5 produc$ ) ! pres5t type ( circulation4 ,! emission ( c>bon dioxide 9 l[ latitudes c\ld n p]man5tly exce$ ! absorption 9 high latitudes4 ,aft] ! pres5t type ( circulation 0 f9ally e/abli%$1 :i* might take t5s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s1 ! two w\ld gradually become equal4 ,!n ! conditions :i* orig9ally caus$ ! oceanic circulation to be rev]s$ w\ld aga9 de/roy ! balance2 ! atmosph]ic c>bon dioxide w\ld be deplet$2 ! air w\ld gr[ cool]2 & ! cycle ( glaciation w\ld be repeat$4 ,ea* cycle w\ld be %ort] ?an ! la/1 = n only w\ld ! sw+s dim9i% l ^? ( a p5dulum1 b ! ag5cies t 7 caus+ ! ma9 depletion ( ! atmosph]ic c>bon dioxide w\ld dim9i% 9 int5sity4 ,f9ally z ! l&s became l[] ?r\gh erosion & subm]g5ce1 & z ! processes ( wea!r+ became correspond+ly sl[1 ! air w\ld gradually be able to accumulate c>bon dioxide2 ! temp]ature w\ld increase2 & at l5g? ! oceanic circulation w\ld be rev]s$ aga94 ,:5 ! w>m sal9e wat]s ( l[ latitudes f9ally began to s9k & to set up a fl[ ( w>m wat] polew>d 9 ! dep?s ( ! ocean1 a glacial p]iod w\ld def9itely come to an end4 ,?is hypo!sis has be5 s skillfully elaborat$1 & conta9s s _m important elem5ts t "o c sc>cely /udy x )\t pr(\nd admiration4 ,we believe t x is ( ! utmo/ value z a /ep t[>d ! tru?1 & especially because x emphasizes ! great function ( oceanic circulation4 ,nev]!less1 we are unable to accept x 9 full = sev]al reasons1 :i* may "h be /at$ v briefly4 ,mo/ ( !m w be discuss$ fully 9 lat] pages4 7#a7 ,:ile a rev]sal ( ! deep-sea circulation w\ld und\bt$ly be ( great climatic importance & w\ld produce a w>m climate 9 high latitudes1 we see no direct evid5ce ( su* a rev]sal4 ,x is equally true t !re is no conclusive evid5ce aga9/ x1 & ! possibility ( a rev]sal mu/ n be ov]look$4 ,!re seem1 h[ev]1 to be o!r modifications ( atmosph]ic & oceanic circulation :i* are able to produce ! obs]v$ results4 7#b7 ,!re is mu*1 & we believe conclusive1 evid5ce t a m]e l[]+ ( temp]ature w\ld n produce glaciation4 ,:at seems to be ne$$ is *anges 9 atmosph]ic circulation & 9 precipitation4 ,! c>bon dioxide hypo!sis has n be5 ne>ly s fully develop$ on ! meteorological side z 9 o!r respects4 7#c7 ,! c>bon dioxide hypo!sis seems to dem& t ! oceans %\ld h be5 almo/ z sal9e z n[ 9 ! ,prot]ozoic era at ! "t ( ! fir/ kn[n glaciation4 ,*amb]l9 holds t su* 0 ! case1 b ! con/ant supply ( sal9e mat]ial br\ght to ! ocean by riv]s & ! relatively small deposition ( su* mat]ial on ! sea floor seem to indicate t ! e>ly oceans mu/ h be5 mu* fre%] ?an ^? ( today4 7#d7 ,! c>bon dioxide hypo!sis does n attempt to expla9 m9or climatic fluctuations su* z po/-glacial /ages & hi/oric pulsations1 b ^! appe> to be ( ! same nature z glacial epo*s1 diff]+ only 9 degree4 7#e7 ,ano!r reason = hesitation 9 accept+ ! c>bon dioxide hypo!sis z a full explanation ( glacial fluctuations is ! highly complex & non-obs]vational "* ( ! explanation ( ! alt]nation ( glacial & int]-glacial epo*s & ( _! con/antly decreas+ l5g?4 7#f7 ,mo/ important ( all1 a /udy ( ! v>iations ( wea!r & ( climate z !y are disclos$ by pres5t records & by ! hi/oric pa/ sugge/s t !re are n[ 9 action c]ta9 o!r causes :i* are compet5t to expla9 glaciation )\t rec\rse to a process ^: action is beyond ! realm ( obs]vation4 ,^! consid]ations lead to ! conclusion t ! c>bon dioxide hypo!sis & ! rev]sal ( ! oceanic circulation %\ld be reg>d$ z a t5tative r ?an a f9al explanation ( glaciation4 ,nev]!less1 ! action ( c>bon dioxide seems to be an important factor 9 produc+ ! long] oscillations ( climate f "o geological era to ano!r4 ,x probably plays a consid]able "p 9 prep>+ ! way = glacial p]iods & 9 mak+ x possible = o!r factors to produce ! m rapid *anges :i* h s deeply influ5c$ organic evolution4 ,,iii4 ,! ,=m ( ! ,l&4 ,ano!r great cause ( climatic *ange consi/s ( a gr\p ( connect$ ph5om5a dep5d5t ^u movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,z to ! climatic pot5cy ( *anges 9 ! l&s !re is practical agreem5t among /ud5ts ( climatology & glaciation4 ,t ! height & ext5t ( ! cont95ts1 ! location1 size1 & ori5tation ( m\nta9 ranges1 & ! op5+ & clos+ ( oceanic gateways at places l ,panama1 & ! consequ5t div]sion ( oceanic curr5ts1 ex]t a pr(\nd effect ^u climate c sc>cely be que/ion$4 ,su* *anges may be introduc$ rapidly1 b _! disappe>ance is usually sl[ comp>$ ) ! rapid pulsations to :i* climate has be5 subject dur+ hi/oric times & dur+ /ages ( glacial retreat & advance1 or ev5 9 comp>ison ) ! epo*s into :i* ! ,plei/oc5e1 ,p]mian1 & p]haps e>li] glacial p]iods h be5 divid$4 ,h5ce1 :ile cru/al movem5ts appe> to be m important ?an ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit or ! am\nt ( c>bon dioxide 9 ! air1 !y d n satisfactorily expla9 glacial fluctuations1 hi/oric pulsations1 & especially ! pres5t little cycles ( climatic *ange4 ,all ^! *anges involve a relatively rapid sw+ f "o extreme to ano!r1 :ile an upheaval ( a cont95t1 :i* is at be/ a sl[ geologic process1 app>5tly _c be undone = a long1 long "t4 ,h5ce su* an upheaval1 if act+ alone1 w\ld lead to a relatively long-liv$ climate ( a some:at extreme type4 ,x w\ld help to expla9 ! long sw+s1 or geologic oscillations betwe5 a mild & uni=m climate at "o extreme1 & a complex & v>i$ climate at ! o!r1 b x w\ld n expla9 ! rapid climatic pulsations :i* are closely associat$ ) great movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,x might prep>e ! way = !m1 b c\ld n cause !m4 ,t ?is conclusion is true is borne out by ! fact t va/ m\nta9 ranges1 l ^? at ! close ( ! ,jurassic & ,cretace\s1 are upheav$ )\t br++ on glacial climates4 ,moreov]1 ! m>k$ ,p]mian ice age foll[s long aft] ! bir? ( ! ,h]cynian ,m\nta9s & be=e ! rise ( o!rs ( lat] ,p]mian orig94 ,,iv4 ,! ,volcanic ,hypo!sis4 ,9 ! se>* = "s cause ( climatic *ange :i* is highly effici5t & yet able to v>y rapidly & indep5d5tly1 ,abbot1 ,f[le1 ,humphreys1 & o!rs1#ab h conclud$ t volcanic eruptions are ! miss+ ag5cy4 ,9 ,physics ( ! ,air1 ,humphreys gives a c>eful /udy ( ! effect ( volcanic du/ ^u t]re/rial temp]ature4 ,he beg9s ) a ma!matical inve/igation ( ! size ( du/ p>ticles1 & _! quantity aft] c]ta9 eruptions4 ,he demon/rates t ! p[] ( su* p>ticles to deflect light ( %ort wave-l5g?s com+ f ! sun is p]haps ?irty times m ?an _! p[] to reta9 ! heat radiat$ 9 long waves f ! e>?4 ,h5ce x is e/imat$ t if a ,krakatoa 7 to bel* =? du/ e ye> or two1 ! du/ veil might cause a r$uction ( ab\t #f deg4,c4 9 ! e>?'s surface temp]ature4 ,z 9 e su* complicat$ problem1 "s ( ! au?or's assumptions are op5 to "q1 b ?is t\*es _! quantitative & n _! qualitative value4 ,x seems c]ta9 t if volcanic explosions 7 frequ5t en\gh & viol5t en\gh1 ! temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface w\ld be consid]ably l[]$4 ,actual obs]vation supports ?is !oretical conclusion4 ,humphreys ga!rs toge!r & amplifies all t he & ,abbot & ,f[le h previ\sly said z to obs]vations ( ! sun's !rmal radiation by means ( ! pyrheliomet]4 ,?is summ+ up ( ! relations betwe5 ! heat receiv$ f ! sun1 & ! occurr5ce ( explosive volcanic eruptions leaves little room = d\bt t at frequ5t int]vals dur+ ! la/ c5tury & a half a slight l[]+ ( t]re/rial temp]ature has actually occurr$ aft] great eruptions4 ,nev]!less1 x does n ju/ify ,humphreys' f9al conclusion t ph5om5a )9 ! e>? itself suffice to modify its own climate1 444 t ^! & ^! alone h actually caus$ great *anges "t & aga9 9 ! geologic pa/4 ,humphreys sees s cle>ly ! importance ( ! purely t]re/rial po9t ( view t he unconsci\sly slights ! cosmic /&po9t & ignores ! important sol> facts :i* he himself adduces else:]e at consid]able l5g?4 ,9 addition to ?is ! degree to :i* ! temp]ature ( ! e>? z a :ole is influ5c$ by volcanic eruptions is by no means s cle> z is ! fact t !re is "s influ5ce4 ,arct[ski1#ac = example1 has prep>$ num]\s curves %[+ ! m>* ( temp]ature mon? aft] mon? = _m ye>s4 ,dur+ ! p]iod f #aiji to #aiac1 :i* includes ! great eruption ( ,katmai 9 ,alaska1 l[ temp]ature is f\nd to h prevail$ at ! "t ( ! eruption1 b1 z ,arct[ski puts x1 on ! basis ( ! curves = #aej /ations 9 all p>ts ( ! _w3 ,! supposition t ^! abnormally l[ temp]atures 7 due to ! veil ( volcanic du/ produc$ by ! ,katmai eruption ( ,june #f1 #aiab1 is completely out ( ! "q4 ,if t _h be5 ! case1 temp]ature w\ld h decreas$ f t date on1 :]eas x 0 decreas+ = m ?an a ye> be=e t date4 ,koepp51#ad 9 8 compreh5sive /udy ( temp]ature = a hundr$ ye>s1 also pres5ts a /rong argum5t aga9/ ! idea t volcanic eruptions h an important place 9 det]m9+ ! pres5t temp]ature ( ! e>?4 ,a volcanic eruption is a sudd5 occurr5ce4 ,:atev] effect is produc$ by du/ ?r[n into ! air mu/ occur )9 a few mon?s1 or z soon z ! du/ has _h an opportunity to be waft$ to ! region 9 "q4 ,:5 ! du/ arrives1 !re w be a rapid drop ?r\gh ! few degrees ( temp]ature :i* ! du/ is suppos$ to be able to acc\nt =1 & !reaft] a sl[ rise ( temp]ature4 ,if volcanic eruptions actually caus$ a frequ5t l[]+ ( t]re/rial temp]ature 9 ! hundr$ ye>s /udi$ by ,koepp51 !re %\ld be m cases :]e ! annual temp]ature is decid$ly bel[ ! normal ?an :]e x %[s a l>ge dep>ture 9 ! opposite direction4 ,! contr>y is actually ! case4 ,a /ill m important argum5t is ! fact t ! e>? is n[ 9 an int]m$iate condition ( climate4 ,?r\gh\t mo/ ( geologic "t1 z we %all see aga9 & aga91 ! climate ( ! e>? has be5 mild] ?an n[4 ,regions l ,gre5l& h n be5 ! seat ( glaci]s1 b h be5 ! home ( types ( plants :i* n[ ?rive 9 relatively l[ latitudes4 ,9 o!r words1 ! e>? is today only "p way f a glacial epo* to :at may be call$ ! normal1 mild climate ( ! e>?--a climate 9 :i* ! contra/ f zone to zone 0 mu* less ?an n[1 & ! l[] air av]ag$ w>m]4 ,h5ce x seems impossible to avoid ! conclusion t ! cause ( glaciation is /ill op]at+ ) consid]able al?\gh dim9i%$ effici5cy4 ,b volcanic du/ is obvi\sly n op]at+ to any appreciable ext5t at pres5t1 = ! upp] air is almo/ free f du/ a l>ge "p ( ! "t4 ,aga91 z ,*amb]l9 sugge/s1 let x be suppos$ t a ,krakatoan eruption e two ye>s w\ld produce a glacial p]iod4 ,unless ! mo/ exp]i5c$ field work]s on ! glacial =mations are q 9 error1 ! v>i\s glacial epo*s ( ! ,plei/oc5e glacial p]iod _h a jo9t duration ( at lea/ #aej1jjj ye>s & p]haps twice z mu*4 ,t w\ld require #ge1jjj ,krakatoan eruptions4 ,b :]e are ! pits & cones ( su* eruptions8 ,!re has n be5 "t to erode !m away s9ce ! ,plei/oc5e glaciation4 ,_! b$s ( volcanic a% w\ld presumably be z volum9\s z ! glacial b$s1 b !re d n seem to be accumulations ( any su* size4 ,ev5 ?\gh ! same volcano suff]$ repeat$ explosions1 x seems impossible to f9d suffici5t fre% volcanic debris4 ,moreov]1 ! volcanic hypo!sis has n yet (f]$ any me*anism = sy/ematic glacial v>iations4 ,h5ce1 :ile ! hypo!sis is important1 we mu/ se>* fur!r = ! full explanation ( glacial fluctuations1 hi/oric pulsations1 & ! e>?'s pres5t quasi-glacial climate4 ,v4 ,! ,hypo!sis ( ,pol> ,w&]+4 ,ano!r hypo!sis1 :i* has "s adh]5ts1 especially among geologi/s1 holds t ! position ( ! e>?'s axis has %ift$ repeat$ly dur+ geological times1 ?us caus+ glaciation 9 regions :i* are n n[ pol>4 ,a/rophysici/s1 h[ev]1 are q sure t no ag5cy c\ld radically *ange ! relation betwe5 ! e>? & its axis )\t likewise alt]+ ! orbits ( ! planets to a degree t w\ld be easily recogniz$4 ,moreov]1 ! di/ribution ( ! c5t]s ( glaciation bo? 9 ! ,p]mian & ,plei/oc5e p]iods does n seem to con=m to ?is hypo!sis4 ,,vi4 ,! ,!rmal ,sol> ,hypo!sis4 ,! only o!r explanations ( ! climatic *anges ( glacial & hi/oric times :i* n[ seem to h mu* /&+ are two di/9ct & almo/ antagoni/ic sol> hypo!ses4 ,"o is ! idea t *anges 9 ! e>?'s climate are due to v>iations 9 ! heat emitt$ by ! sun & h5ce 9 ! temp]ature ( ! e>?4 ,! o!r is ! entirely diff]5t idea t climatic *anges arise f sol> conditions :i* cause a r$i/ribution ( ! e>?'s atmosph]ic pressure & h5ce produce *anges 9 w9ds1 ocean curr5ts1 & especially /orms4 ,?is second1 or cyclonic1 hypo!sis is ! subject ( a book entitl$ ,e>? & ,sun1 :i* is to be publi%$ z a companion to ! pres5t volume4 ,x w be outl9$ 9 ! next *apt]4 ,! o!r1 or !rmal1 hypo!sis may be dismiss$ briefly4 ,unque/ionably a p]man5t *ange 9 ! am\nt ( heat emitt$ by ! sun w\ld p]man5tly alt] ! e>?'s climate4 ,!re is absolutely no evid5ce1 h[ev]1 ( any su* *ange dur+ geologic "t4 ,! evid5ce z to ! e>?'s cosmic uni=mity & z to secul> progression is all aga9/ x4 ,suppose t = ?irty or =ty ?\s& ye>s ! sun cool$ (f en\gh s t ! e>? 0 z cool z dur+ a glacial epo*4 ,z glaciation is soon succe$$ by a mild climate1 "s ag5cy w\ld !n be ne$$ to raise ! sun's temp]ature4 ,! impact ( a %[] ( meteorites might accompli% ?is1 b t w\ld mean a v sudd5 heat+1 su* z !re is no evid5ce ( 9 geological hi/ory4 ,9 fact1 !re is f> m evid5ce ( sudd5 cool+ ?an ( sudd5 heat+4 ,moreov]1 x is f> beyond ! b\nds ( probability t su* an impact %\ld be repeat$ aga9 & aga9 ) j su* =ce z to br+ ! climate back almo/ to :]e x />t$ & yet to all[ = ! slight *anges :i* cause secul> progression4 ,ano!r & equally cog5t objection to ! !rmal =m ( sol> hypo!sis is /at$ by ,humphreys z foll[s3 ,a *ange ( ! sol> con/ant obvi\sly alt]s all surface temp]atures by a r\ghly con/ant p]c5tage4 ,h5ce a decrease ( ! heat f ! sun w\ld 9 g5]al cause a decrease ( ! int]zonal temp]ature gradi5ts2 & ?is 9 turn a less vigor\s atmosph]ic circulation1 & a less copi\s ra9 or sn[fall--exactly ! rev]se ( ! condition1 namely1 abundant precipitation1 mo/ favorable to ext5sive glaciation4 ,?is br+s u to ! end ( ! ma9 hypo!ses z to climatic *anges1 aside f ! sol> cyclonic hypo!sis :i* w be discuss$ 9 ! next *apt]4 ,x appe>s t v>iations 9 ! position ( ! e>? at p]ihelion h a real ?\gh slight influ5ce 9 caus+ cycles ) a l5g? ( ab\t #ba1jjj ye>s4 ,*anges 9 ! c>bon dioxide ( ! air probably h a m important b extremely sl[ influ5ce ^u geologic oscillations4 ,v>iations 9 ! size1 %ape1 & height ( ! cont95ts are con/antly caus+ all mann] ( climatic complications1 b d n cause rapid fluctuations & pulsations4 ,! eruption ( volcanic du/ appe>s occasionally to l[] ! temp]ature1 b its pot5cy to expla9 ! complex climatic *anges record$ 9 ! rocks has probably be5 exagg]at$4 ,f9ally1 al?\gh m9or *anges 9 ! am\nt ( heat giv5 out by ! sun occur con/antly & h be5 demon/rat$ to h a climatic effect1 !re is no evid5ce t su* *anges are ! ma9 cause ( ! climatic ph5om5a :i* we are try+ to expla94 ,nev]!less1 9 connection ) o!r sol> *anges !y may be ( high importance4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #aj3 ,james ,croll3 ,climate & ,"t1 #ahgf4 ,footnote #aa3 ,t4 ,c4 ,*amb]l93 ,an attempt to frame a work+ hypo!sis ( ! cause ( glacial p]iods on an atmosph]ic basis2 ,j\r4 ,geol41 ,vol4 ,,vii1 #ahii1 pp4 #ede-ehd1 #ffg-fhe1 #geg-ghg4 ,t4 ,c4 ,*amb]l9 & ,r4 ,d4 ,salisbury3 ,geology1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 #aijf1 pp4 #ic-ajf1 #fee-fgg1 & ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #dcb-ddf4 ,s4 ,arrh5ius 7,kosmis*e ,physik1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 #aijc1 p4 #ejc7 c>ri$ out "s inve/igations on c>bon dioxide :i* h _h a pron\nc$ effect on lat] conclusions4 ,f4 ,fre* adopt$ ,arrh5ius' idea & develop$ x 9 a pap] entitl$ ,ueb] die ,klima-,a5d]ung5 d] ,geologis*5 ,v]gang5heit4 ,compte ,r5du1 ,t5? 7,mexico7 ,congr4 ,geol4 ,int]n41 #aijg 7#aijh71 pp4 #bii-cbe4 ,! exact orig9 ( ! c>bon dioxide !ory has be5 /at$ s v>i\sly t x seems wor? :ile to give ! exact facts4 ,prompt$ by ! sugge/ion1 ( ,tyndall t glaciation might be due to depletion ( atmosph]ic c>bon dioxide1 ,*amb]l9 work$ up ! ess5tials ( 8 e>ly views be=e he saw any publication f ,arrh5ius1 to :om ! idea has (t5 be5 attribut$4 ,9 #ahie or e>li] ,*amb]l9 began to give ! c>bon dioxide hypo!sis to 8 /ud5ts & to discuss x be=e local sci5tific bodies4 ,9 #ahig he prep>$ a pap] on ,a ,gr\p ( ,hypo!ses ,be>+ on ,climatic ,*anges1 ,j\r4 ,geol41 ,vol4 ,v 7#ahig71 to be read at ! meet+ ( ! ,briti% ,association at ,toronto1 bas+ 8 conclusions on ,tyndall's det]m9ation ( ! compet5cy ( c>bon dioxide z an absorb] ( heat radiat$ f ! e>?4 ,he _h ess5tially complet$ ?is :5 a pap] by ,arrh5ius1 ,on ! influ5ce ( c>bonic acid 9 ! air ^u ! temp]ature ( ! gr\nd1 ,phil4 ,mag41 #ahif1 pp4 #bcg-bgf1 fir/ came to 8 att5tion4 ,*amb]l9 !n *ang$ 8 cons]vative1 t5tative /atem5t ( ! functions ( c>bon dioxide to a m sweep+ "o bas$ on ,arrh5ius' v def9ite quantitative d$uctions f ,langley's exp]im5ts4 ,bo? ,langley & ,arrh5ius 7 !n 9 ! asc5dancy ( _! reputations & seem+ly high] au?orities c\ld sc>cely h be5 *os51 nor a f9] comb9ation ?an exp]im5t & physico-ma!matical developm5t4 ,arrh5ius' d$uctions 7 lat] prov$ to h be5 ov]/ra9$1 :ile ,langley's int]pretation & ev5 8 obs]vations 7 *all5g$4 ,*amb]l9's late/ views are m l 8 e>li] & m cons]vative /atem5t4 ,footnote #ab3 ,c4 ,g4 ,abbot & ,f4 ,e4 ,f[le3 ,volcanoes & ,climate2 ,smi?s4 ,misc4 ,coll41 ,vol4 #fj1 #aiac1 #bd pp4 ,w4 ,j4 ,humphreys3 ,volcanic du/ & o!r factors 9 ! production ( climatic & _! possible relation to ice ages2 ,bull4 ,m\nt ,wea!r ,obs]vatory1 ,vol4 #f1 ,"p #a1 #aiac1 #bf pp4 ,also1 ,physics ( ! ,air1 #aibj4 ,footnote #ac3 ,h4 ,arct[ski3 ,! ,pleonian ,cycle ( ,climatic ,fluctuations2 ,am4 ,j\r4 ,sci41 ,vol4 #db1 #aiaf1 pp4 #bg-cc4 ,see also ,annals ( ! ,new ,york ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 ,vol4 #bd1 #aiad4 ,footnote #ad3 ,w4 ,koepp53 ,ueb] mehrjaehrige ,p]iod5 d] ,witt]ung ins besond]e uez] die ,,ii-jaehrige ,p]iode d] ,temp]atur4 ,also1 ,lufttemp]atur5 ,sonn5flecke und ,vulcanausbrue*e2 ,meteorologis*e ,zeits*rift1 ,vol4 #g1 #aiad1 pp4 #cje-cbh4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,sol> ,,cyclonic ,,hypo!sis ,! progress ( sci5ce is made up ( a va/ succession ( hypo!ses4 ,! majority die 9 e>ly infancy4 ,a few live & are = a "t widely accept$4 ,!n "s new hypo!sis ei!r de/roys !m completely or %[s t1 :ile !y conta9 elem5ts ( tru?1 !y are n ! :ole tru?4 ,9 ! previ\s *apt] we h discuss$ a gr\p ( hypo!ses ( ?is k9d1 & h tri$ to po9t out fairly _! degree ( tru? s f> z x c yet be det]m9$4 ,9 ?is *apt] we %all outl9e /ill ano!r hypo!sis1 ! relation ( :i* to pres5t climatic conditions has be5 fully develop$ 9 ,e>? & ,sun2 :ile its relation to ! pa/ w be expla9$ 9 ! pres5t volume4 ,?is hypo!sis is n suppos$ to sup]s$e ! o!rs1 = s f> z !y are true !y _c be sup]s$$4 ,x m]ely seems to expla9 "s ( ! _m conditions :i* ! o!r hypo!ses app>5tly fail to expla94 ,to suppose t x w suff] a fate m glori\s ?an its pr$ecessors w\ld be presumptu\s4 ,! be/ t c be hop$ is t aft] x has be5 prun$1 enri*$1 & modifi$1 x may take its place among ! /eps :i* f9ally lead to ! goal ( tru?4 ,9 ?is *apt] ! new hypo!sis w be sket*$ 9 broad outl9e 9 ord] t 9 ! re/ ( ?is book ! read] may appreciate ! be>+ ( all t is said4 ,details ( pro( & me?ods ( "w w be omitt$1 s9ce !y are giv5 9 ,e>? & ,sun4 ,= ! sake ( brevity & cle>ness ! ma9 conclusions w be /at$ )\t ! qualifications & exceptions :i* are fully expla9$ 9 t volume4 ,"h x w be necess>y to pass quickly ov] po9ts :i* dep>t radically f accept$ ideas1 & :i* !re=e mu/ ar\se s]i\s "q 9 ! m9ds ( ?\ghtful read]s4 ,t1 h[ev]1 is a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! attempt :i* ?is book makes to put ! problem ( climate 9 su* =m t ! argum5t c be foll[$ by ?\ghtful /ud5ts 9 any bran* ( k & n m]ely by speciali/s4 ,!re=e1 ! speciali/ c m]ely be ask$ to )hold judgm5t until he has read all ! evid5ce z giv5 9 ,e>? & ,sun1 & !n to condemn only ^? p>ts t are wrong & n ! :ole argum5t4 ,)\t fur!r explanation let u turn to our ma9 problem4 ,9 ! realm ( climatology ! mo/ important discov]y ( ! la/ g5]ation is t v>iations 9 ! wea!r dep5d on v>iations 9 ! activity ( ! sun's atmosph]e4 ,! "w ( ! great a/ronom]1 ,newcomb1 & t ( ! great climatologi/1 ,koepp51 h %[n beyond "q t ! temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface v>ies 9 h>mony ) v>iations 9 ! numb] & area ( sunspots4#ae ,! "w ( ,abbot has %[n t ! am\nt ( heat radiat$ f ! sun also v>ies1 & t 9 g5]al ! v>iations correspond ) ^? ( ! sunspots1 al?\gh !re are exceptions1 especially :5 ! spots are fewe/4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 !re at once arises a puzzl+ p>adox4 ,! e>? c]ta9ly owes its w>m? to ! sun4 ,yet :5 ! sun emits ! mo/ en]gy1 t is1 :5 sunspots are mo/ num]\s1 ! e>?'s surface is coole/4 ,d\btless ! e>? receives m heat ?an usual at su* times1 & ! upp] air may be w>m] ?an usual4 ,"h we ref] only to ! air at ! e>?'s surface4 ,ano!r l>ge gr\p ( inve/igators h %[n t atmosph]ic pressure also v>ies 9 h>mony ) ! numb] ( sunspots4 ,"s p>ts ( ! e>?'s surface h "o k9d ( v>iation at times ( _m sunspots & o!r p>ts ! rev]se4 ,^! diff]5ces are sy/ematic & dep5d l>gely on :e!r ! region 9 "q happ5s to h high atmosph]ic pressure or l[4 ,! net result is t :5 sunspots are num]\s ! e>?'s /orm9ess increases1 & ! atmosph]e is ?r[n into commotion4 ,?is int]f]es ) ! /able planet>y w9ds1 su* z ! trades ( l[ latitudes & ! prevail+ we/]lies ( high] latitudes4 ,in/ead ( ^! regul> w9ds & ! fair wea!r :i* !y br+1 !re is a t5d5cy t[>d frequ5t tropical hurricanes 9 ! l[] latitudes & t[>d m frequ5t & sev]e /orms ( ! ord9>y type 9 ! latitudes :]e ! _w's mo/ progressive nations n[ live4 ,) ! *ange 9 /orm9ess !re naturally goes a *ange 9 ra9fall4 ,n all p>ts ( ! _w1 h[ev]1 h increas$ /orm9ess & m abundant ra9fall :5 sunspots are num]\s4 ,"s p>ts *ange 9 ! opposite way4 ,?us :5 ! sun's atmosph]e is p>ticul>ly di/urb$1 ! contra/s betwe5 diff]5t p>ts ( ! e>?'s surface are increas$4 ,= example1 ! nor!rn ,unit$ ,/ates & s\!rn ,canada become m /ormy & ra9y1 z appe>s 9 ,fig4 #b1 & ! same is true ( ! ,s\?we/ & along ! s\? ,atlantic coa/4 ,9 a cresc5t-%ap$ c5tral area1 h[ev]1 ext5d+ f ,wyom+ ?r\gh ,miss\ri to ,nova ,scotia1 ! numb] ( /orms & ! am\nt ( ra9fall decrease4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,/orm9ess at sunspot maxima vs4 m9ima4 7,aft] ,kullm]47 ,bas$ on n9e ye>s' ne>e/ sunspot m9ima & n9e ye>s' ne>e/ sunspot maxima 9 ! ?ree sunspot cycles f #ahhh to #aiah4 ,heavy %ad+ indicates excess ( /orm9ess :5 sunspots are num]\s4 ,figures indicate av]age ye>ly numb] ( /orms by :i* ye>s ( maximum sunspots exce$ ^? ( m9imum sunspots4 ,! two controll+ factors ( any climate are ! temp]ature & ! atmosph]ic pressure1 = !y det]m9e ! w9ds1 ! /orms1 & ?us ! ra9fall4 ,a /udy ( ! temp]ature seems to %[ t ! peculi> p>adox ( a hot sun & a cool e>? is due l>gely to ! increas$ /orm9ess dur+ times ( _m sunspots4 ,! e>?'s surface is heat$ by ! rays ( ! sun1 b mo/ ( ! rays d n 9 !mselves heat ! air z !y pass ?r\gh x4 ,! air gets its heat l>gely f ! heat absorb$ by ! wat] vapor :i* is intimately m+l$ ) its l[] portions1 or f ! long heat waves s5t out by ! e>? aft] x has be5 w>m$ by ! sun4 ,! fa/] ! air moves along ! e>?'s surface ! less x becomes heat$1 & ! m heat x takes away4 ,?is s\nds l a contradiction1 b n to anyone :o has tri$ to heat a /ove 9 ! op5 air4 ,if ! air is /ill1 ! /ove rapidly becomes w>m & s does ! air ar\nd x4 ,if ! w9d is bl[+1 ! cool air delays ! heat+ ( ! /ove & prev5ts ! surface f ev] becom+ z hot z x w\ld o!rwise4 ,t seems to be :at happ5s on a l>ge scale :5 sunspots are num]\s4 ,! sun actually s5ds to ! e>? m en]gy ?an usual1 b ! air moves ) su* unusual rapidity t x actually cools ! e>?'s surface a trifle by c>ry+ ! extra heat to high levels :]e x is lo/ into space4 ,!re has be5 mu* discussion z to :y /orms are num]\s :5 ! sun's atmosph]e is di/urb$4 ,_m inve/igators h suppos$ x 0 due entirely & directly to ! heat+ ( ! e>?'s surface by ! sun4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 ne$s modification = sev]al reasons4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 rec5t inve/igations %[ t 9 a great _m cases *anges 9 b>ometric pressure prec$e *anges 9 temp]ature & app>5tly cause !m by alt]+ ! w9ds & produc+ /orms4 ,?is is ! opposite ( :at w\ld happ5 if ! effect ( sol> heat ^u ! e>?'s surface 7 ! only ag5cy4 ,9 ! second place1 if /orms 7 due exclusively to v>iations 9 ! ord9>y sol> radiation :i* comes to ! e>? z light & is conv]t$ into heat1 ! sol> effect ought to be mo/ pron\nc$ :5 ! c5t] ( ! sun's visible disk is mo/ di/urb$4 ,z a matt] ( fact ! /orm9ess is notably greate/ :5 ! edges ( ! sol> disk are mo/ di/urb$4 ,^! facts & o!rs lead to ! conclusion t "s ag5cy o!r ?an heat mu/ also play "s "p 9 produc+ /orm9ess4 ,! se>* = ?is auxili>y ag5cy raises _m difficult que/ions :i* _c yet be answ]$4 ,on ! :ole ! weight ( evid5ce sugge/s t electrical ph5om5a ( "s k9d are involv$1 al?\gh v>iations 9 ! am\nt ( ultra-violet light may also be important4 ,_m inve/igators h %[n t ! sun emits electrons4 ,hale has prov$ t ! sun1 l ! e>?1 is magnetiz$4 ,sunspots also h magnetic fields ! /r5g? ( :i* is (t5 fifty times z great z t ( ! sun z a :ole4 ,if electrons are s5t to ! e>?1 !y mu/ move 9 curv$ pa?s1 = !y are deflect$ by ! sun's magnetic field & aga9 by ! e>?'s magnetic field4 ,! sol> deflection may cause _! effects to be greate/ :5 ! spots are ne> ! sun's m>g92 ! t]re/rial deflection may cause conc5tration 9 b&s r\ghly conc5tric ) ! magnetic poles ( ! e>?4 ,^! conditions correspond ) ! kn[n facts4 ,f>!r ?an ?is we _c yet g4 ,! calculations ( ,humphreys seem to indicate t ! direct electrical effect ( ! sun's electrons ^u atmosph]ic pressure is too small to be ( appreciable significance 9 int5sify+ /orms4 ,on ! o!r h& ! peculi> way 9 :i* activity ^u ! m>g9s ( ! sun appe>s to be correlat$ n only ) atmosph]ic electricity1 b ) b>ometric pressure1 seems to be equally /rong evid5ce 9 ! o!r direction4 ,possibly ! sun's electrons & its electrical waves produce indirect effects by be+ conv]t$ into heat1 or by caus+ ! =mation ( ozone & ! cond5sation ( wat] vapor 9 ! upp] air4 ,any "o ( ^! processes w\ld raise ! temp]ature ( ! upp] air1 = ! ozone & ! wat] vapor w\ld be =m$ !re & w\ld t5d to act z a blanket to hold 9 ! e>?'s heat4 ,b any su* *ange 9 ! temp]ature ( ! upp] air w\ld influ5ce ! l[] air ?r\gh *anges 9 b>ometric pressure4 ,^! consid]ations are giv5 "h because ! ?\ghtful read] is likely to inquire h[ sol> activity c influ5ce /orm9ess4 ,moreov]1 at ! end ( ?is book we %all take up c]ta9 speculative que/ions 9 :i* an electrical hypo!sis w be employ$4 ,= ! ma9 portions ( ?is book x makes no diff]5ce h[ ! sun's v>iations influ5ce ! e>?'s atmosph]e4 ,! only ess5tial po9t is t :5 ! sol> atmosph]e is active ! /orm9ess ( ! e>? increases1 & t is a matt] ( direct obs]vation4 ,let u n[ inquire into ! relation betwe5 ! small cyclonic vacillations ( ! wea!r & ! types ( climatic *anges kn[n z hi/oric pulsations & glacial fluctuations4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ results ( rec5t inve/igations is ! evid5ce t sunspot cycles on a small scale pres5t almo/ ! same ph5om5a z d hi/oric pulsations & glacial fluctuations4 ,= in/ance1 :5 sunspots are num]\s1 /orm9ess increases m>k$ly 9 a belt ne> ! nor!rn bord] ( ! area ( greate/ /orm9ess1 t is1 9 s\!rn ,canada & !nce across ! ,atlantic to ! ,nor? ,sea & ,sc&9avia4 7,see ,figs4 #b & #c47 ,correspond+ ) ?is is ! fact t ! evid5ce z to climatic pulsations 9 hi/oric times indicates t regions along ?is pa?1 = in/ance ,gre5l&1 ! ,nor? ,sea region1 & s\!rn ,sc&9avia1 7 visit$ by especially frequ5t & sev]e /orms at ! climax ( ea* pulsation4 ,moreov]1 ! greate/ accumulations ( ice 9 ! glacial p]iod 7 on ! polew>d bord] ( ! g5]al regions :]e n[ ! /orms appe> to increase mo/ at times ( sol> activity4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c;,a4 ,relative ra9fall at times ( increas+ & decreas+ sunspots4 ,heavy %ad+1 m ra9 ) increas+ spots4 ,light %ad+1 m ra9 ) decreas+ spots4 ,no data = un%ad$ areas4 ,figures indicate p]c5tages ( ! av]age ra9fall by :i* ! ra9fall dur+ p]iods ( increas+ spots exce$s or falls %ort ( ra9fall dur+ p]iods ( decreas+ spots4 ,! excess or defici5cy is /at$ 9 p]c5tages ( ! av]age4 ,ra9fall data f ,walk]3 ,sunspots & ,ra9fall4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c;,b4 ,relative ra9fall at times ( increas+ & decreas+ sunspots4 ,heavy %ad+1 m ra9 ) increas+ spots4 ,light %ad+1 m ra9 ) decreas+ spots4 ,no data = un%ad$ areas4 ,figures indicate p]c5tages ( ! av]age ra9fall by :i* ! ra9fall dur+ p]iods ( increas+ spots exce$s or falls %ort ( ra9fall dur+ p]iods ( decreas+ spots4 ,! excess or defici5cy is /at$ 9 p]c5tages ( ! av]age4 ,ra9fall data f ,walk]3 ,sunspots & ,ra9fall4 ,ev5 m cle> is ! evid5ce f o!r regions :]e /orms increase at times ( _m sunspots4 ,"o su* region includes ! s\?we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 :ile ano!r is ! ,m$it]ranean region & ! semi-arid or des]t p>ts ( ,asia f>!r ea/4 ,9 ^! regions innum]able ru9s & o!r l9es ( evid5ce %[ t at ! climax ( ea* climatic pulsation !re 0 m /orm9ess & ra9fall ?an at pres5t1 j z !re n[ is :5 ! sun is mo/ active4 ,9 /ill e>li] times1 :ile ice 0 accumulat+ f>!r nor?1 ! bas9s ( ^! semi-arid regions 7 fill$ ) lakes ^: /r&s /ill rema9 to tell ! tale ( mu*-increas$ ra9fall & presumable /orm9ess4 ,if we g back /ill fur!r 9 geological times to ! ,p]mian glaciation1 ! areas :]e ice accumulat$ mo/ abundantly appe> to be ! regions :]e tropical hurricanes produce ! greate/ ra9fall & ! greate/ l[]+ ( temp]ature at times ( _m sunspots4 ,f ^! & _m o!r l9es ( evid5ce x seems probable t hi/oric pulsations & glacial fluctuations are no?+ m ?an sunspot cycles on a l>ge scale4 ,x is "o ( ! fundam5tal rules ( sci5ce to reason f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n1 f ! ne> to ! f>1 f ! pres5t to ! pa/4 ,h5ce x seems advisable to inve/igate :e!r any ( ! climatic ph5om5a ( ! pa/ may h aris5 f an int5sification ( ! sol> conditions :i* n[ appe> to give rise to simil> ph5om5a on a small scale4 ,! re/ ( ?is *apt] w be devot$ to a resume ( c]ta9 t5tative conclusions :i* h no be>+ on ! ma9 "p ( ?is book1 b :i* apply to ! clos+ *apt]s4 ,!re we %all inquire into ! p]iodicity ( ! climatic ph5om5a ( geological times1 & %all ask :e!r !re is any reason to suppose t ! sun's activity has exhibit$ simil> p]iodicity4 ,?is leads to an inve/igation ( ! possible causes ( di/urbances 9 ! sun's atmosph]e4 ,x is g5]ally assum$ t sunspots1 sol> prom95ces1 ! bright cl\ds kn[n z faculae1 & o!r ph5om5a d5ot+ a p]turb$ /ate ( ! sol> atmosph]e1 are due to "s cause )9 ! sun4 ,yet ! limitation ( ^! ph5om5a1 especially ! sunspots1 to re/rict$ latitudes1 z has be5 %[n 9 ,e>? & ,sun1 does n seem to be 9 h>mony ) an int]nal sol> orig91 ev5 ?\gh a b&$ arrangem5t may be normal = a rotat+ globe4 ,! fairly regul> p]iodicity ( ! sunspots seems equally out ( h>mony ) an int]nal orig94 ,aga91 ! sol> atmosph]e has two k9ds ( circulation1 "o ! s-call$ rice gra9s1 & ! o!r ! spots & _! att5dant ph5om5a4 ,n[ ! rice gra9s pres5t ! appe>ance t w\ld be expect$ 9 an atmosph]ic circulation aris+ f ! loss ( heat by ! out] "p ( a gase\s body l ! sun4 ,= ^! reasons & o!rs num]\s good ?9k]s f ,wolf to ,s*u/] h held t sunspots owe _! p]iodicity to causes outside ! sun4 ,! only possible cause seems to be ! planets1 act+ ei!r ?r\gh gravitation1 ?r\gh =ces ( an electrical orig91 or ?r\gh "s o!r ag5cy4 ,v>i\s new inve/igations :i* are describ$ 9 ,e>? & ,sun support ?is conclusion4 ,! *ief difficulty 9 accept+ x hi!rto has be5 t al?\gh ,jupit]1 because ( its size1 w\ld be expect$ to dom9ate ! sunspot cycle1 its p]iod ( #aa4hf ye>s has n be5 detect$4 ,! sunspot cycle has appe>$ to av]age #aa4b ye>s 9 l5g?1 & has be5 call$ ! #aa-ye> cycle4 ,nev]!less1 a new analysis ( ! sunspot data %[s t :5 att5tion is conc5trat$ ^u ! major maxima1 :i* are lea/ subject to ret>dation or accel]ation by o!r causes1 a p]iodicity closely approa*+ t ( ,jupit] is evid5t4 ,moreov]1 :5 ! effects ( ,jupit]1 ,saturn1 & ! o!r planets are comb9$1 !y produce a highly v>iable curve :i* has an extraord9>y resemblance to ! sunspot curve4 ,! me?od by :i* ! planets influ5ce ! sun's atmosph]e is /ill op5 to "q4 ,x may be ?r\gh tides1 ?r\gh ! direct effect ( gravitation1 ?r\gh electro-magnetic =ces1 or 9 "s o!r way4 ,:i*ev] x may be1 ! result may p]haps be slight diff]5ces ( atmosph]ic pressure ^u ! sun4 ,su* diff]5ces may set 9 motion slight :irl+ movem5ts analog\s to t]re/rial /orms1 & ^! presumably ga!r mom5tum f ! sun's own en]gy4 ,s9ce ! planet>y influ5ces v>y 9 /r5g? because ( ! cont9u\s *ange 9 ! relative di/ances & positions ( ! planets1 ! sun's atmosph]e appe>s to be sway$ by cyclonic di/urbances ( v>y+ degrees ( sev]ity4 ,! cyclonic di/urbances kn[n z sunspots h be5 prov$ by ,hale to become m highly electrifi$ z !y increase 9 int5sity4 ,at ! same "t hot gases presumably well up f ! l[] p>ts ( ! sol> atmosph]e & !reby cause ! sun to emit m heat4 ,?us by "o means or ano!r1 ! e>?'s atmosph]e appe>s to be set 9 commotion & cycles ( climate are inaugurat$4 ,if ! prec$+ reason+ is correct1 any di/urbance ( ! sol> atmosph]e mu/ h an effect ^u ! e>?'s climate4 ,if ! di/urbance 7 great en\gh & ( ! "r nature x might produce a glacial epo*4 ,! planets are by no means ! only bodies :i* act ^u ! sun1 = t body su/a9s a con/antly *ang+ relation to millions ( o!r cele/ial bodies ( all sizes up to va/ univ]ses1 & at all sorts ( di/ances4 ,if ! sun & ano!r /> %\ld approa* ne> en\gh to "o ano!r1 x is c]ta9 t ! sol> atmosph]e w\ld be di/urb$ mu* m ?an at pres5t4 ,"h we mu/ leave ! cyclonic hypo!sis ( climate & mu/ ref] ! read] once m to ,e>? & ,sun = full] details4 ,9 ! re/ ( ?is book we %all discuss ! nature ( ! climatic *anges ( pa/ times & %all inquire into _! relation to ! v>i\s climatic hypo!ses m5tion$ 9 ! la/ two *apt]s4 ,!n we %all inquire into ! possibility t ! sol> sy/em has ev] be5 ne> en\gh to any ( ! />s to cause appreciable di/urbances ( ! sol> atmosph]e4 ,we %all complete our /udy by inve/igat+ ! vex$ "q ( :y movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/1 su* z ! uplift+ ( cont95ts & m\nta9 *a9s1 h g5]ally occurr$ at ! same "t z great climatic fluctuations4 ,?is w\ld n be s surpris+ 7 x n t ! climatic ph5om5a appe> to h consi/$ ( highly complex cycles :ile ! uplift has be5 a relatively /eady movem5t 9 "o direction4 ,we %all f9d "s evid5ce t ! sol> di/urbances :i* seem to cause climatic *anges also h a relation to movem5ts ( ! cru/4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ae3 ,! s-call$ sunspot numb]s to :i* ref]5ce is made aga9 & aga9 9 ?is book are bas$ on a sy/em devis$ by ,wolf & revis$ by ,a4 ,wolf]4 ,! numb] & size ( ! spots are bo? tak5 into acc\nt4 ,! numb]s f #agdi to #aijj may be f\nd 9 ! ,mon?ly ,wea!r ,review = ,april1 #aijb1 & f #aija to #aiah 9 ! same j\rnal = #aibj4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,climate ,,( ,,hi/ory#af ,we are n[ prep>$ to consid] ! climate ( ! pa/4 ,! fir/ p]iod to claim att5tion is ! few ?\s& ye>s cov]$ by writt5 hi/ory4 ,/rangely en\gh1 ! conditions dur+ ?is "t are kn[n ) less accuracy ?an are ^? ( geological p]iods hundr$s ( times m remote4 ,yet if pron\nc$ *anges h occurr$ s9ce ! days ( ! anci5t ,babylonians & s9ce ! la/ ( ! po/-glacial /ages1 !y are ( great importance n only because ( _! possible hi/oric effects1 b because !y bridge ! gap betwe5 ! little v>iations ( climate :i* are obs]vable dur+ a s+le lifetime & ! great *anges kn[n z glacial epo*s4 ,only by bridg+ ! gap c we det]m9e :e!r !re is any g5etic relation betwe5 ! great *anges & ! small4 ,a full discussion ( ! climate ( hi/oric times is n "h advisable1 = x has be5 consid]$ 9 detail 9 num]\s o!r publications4#ag ,our mo/ pr(itable c\rse w\ld seem to be to consid] fir/ ! g5]al tr5d ( op9ion & !n to take up ! *ief objections to ea* ( ! ma9 hypo!ses4 ,9 ! hot debate ov] ?is problem dur+ rec5t decades ! ideas ( geograph]s seem to h gone ?r\gh mu* ! same metamorphosis z h ^? ( geologi/s 9 reg>d to ! climate ( f> e>li] times4 ,z e geologi/ well kn[s1 at ! dawn ( geology p believ$ 9 climatic uni=mity--t is1 x 0 suppos$ t s9ce ! completion ( an orig9al creative act !re _h be5 no important *anges4 ,?is view quickly disappe>$ & 0 sup]s$$ by ! hypo!sis ( progressive cool+ & dry+1 an hypo!sis :i* _h mu* to d ) ! developm5t ( ! nebul> hypo!sis1 & :i* has 9 turn be5 greatly /r5g!n$ by t hypo!sis4 ,! discov]y ( evid5ce ( widespread cont95tal glaciation1 h[ev]1 necessitat$ a modification ( ?is view1 & succe$+ ye>s h br\ght to light a con/antly increas+ numb] ( glacial1 or at lea/ cool1 p]iods di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t almo/ ! :ole ( geological "t4 ,moreov]1 ea* ye>1 almo/1 br+s new evid5ce ( ! great complexity ( glacial p]iods1 epo*s1 & /ages4 ,?us1 = _m decades1 geologi/s h m & m be5 l$ to believe t 9 spite ( surpris+ uni=mity1 :5 view$ 9 comp>ison ) ! cosmic possibilities1 ! climate ( ! pa/ has be5 highly un/able f ! viewpo9t ( organic evolution1 & its *anges h be5 ( all degrees ( int5sity4 ,geograph]s h lately be5 debat+ ! reality ( hi/oric *anges ( climate 9 ! same way 9 :i* geologi/s debat$ ! reality ( glacial epo*s & /ages4 ,sev]al hypo!ses pres5t !mselves b ^! may all be gr\p$ "u ?ree head+s2 namely1 ! hypo!ses ( 7#a7 progressive desiccation1 7#b7 climatic uni=mity1 & 7#c7 pulsations4 ,! hypo!sis ( progressive desiccation has be5 widely advocat$4 ,9 _m ( ! dri] portions ( ! _w1 especially betwe5 #cj deg4 & #dj deg4 f ! equator1 & preem95tly 9 we/]n & c5tral ,asia & 9 ! s\?we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 almo/ innum]able facts seem to indicate t two or ?ree ?\s& ye>s ago ! climate 0 di/9ctly moi/] ?an at pres5t4 ,! evid5ce includes old lake /r&s1 ! traces ( desiccat$ spr+s1 roads 9 places n[ too dry = c>avans1 o!r roads :i* make det\rs ar\nd dry lake b$s :]e no lakes n[ exi/1 & fragm5ts ( dead =e/s ext5d+ ov] hundr$s ( squ>e miles :]e trees _c n[ gr[ = lack ( wat]4 ,/ill /rong] evid5ce is furni%$ by anci5t ru9s1 hundr$s ( :i* are locat$ 9 places :i* are n[ s dry t only ! m]e/ fraction ( ! =m] inhabitants c\ld f9d wat]4 ,! ru9s ( ,palmyra1 9 ! ,syrian ,des]t1 %[ t x mu/ once h be5 a city l mod]n ,damascus1 ) "o or two hundr$ ?\s& inhabitants1 b its wat] supply n[ suffices = only "o or two ?\s&4 ,all attempts to increase ! wat] supply h _h only a slight effect & ! wat] is notori\sly sulphur\s1 :]eas 9 ! =m] days1 :5 x 0 abundant1 x 0 r5[n$ = its excell5ce4 ,hundr$s ( pages might be devot$ to describ+ simil> ru9s4 ,"s ( !m are ev5 m rem>kable = _! dryness ?an is ,niya1 a site 9 ! ,t>im ,des]t ( ,*9ese ,turke/an4 ,yet !re ! evid5ce ( desiccation )9 #bjjj ye>s is s /rong t ev5 s c>eful & cons]vative a man z ,hann1#ah pron\nces x ueb]zeug5d4 ,a s+le quotation f scores t might be us$ w illu/rate ! conclusions ( "s ( ! mo/ c>eful ar*aeologi/s4#ai ,among ! regions :i* 7 once popul\s & highly civiliz$1 b :i* are n[ des]t & des]t$1 !re are few :i* 7 m closely connect$ ) ! beg9n+s ( our own civilization ?an ! des]t p>ts ( ,syria & nor!rn ,arabia4 ,x is only ( rec5t ye>s t ! va/ ext5t & great importance ( ?is lo/ civilization has be5 fully recogniz$ & t attempts h be5 made to r$uce ! ext5t ( ! unexplor$ area & to discov] h[ mu* ( ! t]ritory :i* has long be5 kn[n z des]t 0 =m]ly habitable & inhabit$4 ,! results ( ! explorations ( ! la/ tw5ty ye>s h be5 mo/ a/oni%+ 9 ?is reg>d4 ,x has be5 f\nd t practically all ( ! wide area ly+ betwe5 ! coa/ range ( ! ea/]n ,m$it]ranean & ! ,euphrates1 appe>+ ^u ! maps z ! ,syrian ,des]t1 an area embrac+ some:at m ?an #bj1jjj squ>e miles1 0 m ?ickly populat$ ?an any area ( simil> dim5sions 9 ,engl& or 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is today if "o excludes ! imm$iate vic9ity ( ! l>ge mod]n cities4 ,x has also be5 discov]$ t an enorm\s des]t tract ly+ to ! ea/ ( ,pale/9e1 /ret*+ ea/w>d & s\?w>d into ! c\ntry :i* we "k z ,arabia1 0 also a d5sely populat$ c\ntry4 ,h[ f> ^! settl$ regions ext5d$ 9 antiquity is /ill unkn[n1 b ! mo/ di/ant explorations 9 ^! directions h fail$ to rea* ! end ( ru9s & o!r signs ( =m] occupation4 ,! travel] :o has cross$ ! settl$1 & m or less popul\s1 coa/ range ( nor!rn ,syria & desc5d$ into ! n>r[ f]tile valley ( ! ,orontes1 enc\nt]s 9 any f>!r j\rney t[>d ! ea/ an irregul> range ( lime/one hills ly+ nor? & s\? & /ret*+ to ! nor!a/ almo/ halfway to ! ,euphrates4 ,^! hills are ab\t #b1ejj feet high1 ris+ 9 occasional peaks f #c1jjj to #c1ejj feet above sea level4 ,!y are gray & unreliev$ by any visible vegetation4 ,on asc5d+ into ! hills ! travel] is a/oni%$ to f9d at e turn remnants ( ! "w ( m5's h&s1 pav$ roads1 walls :i* divid$ fields1 t]race walls ( massive /ructure4 ,pres5tly he comes ^u a small des]t$ & p>tly ru9$ t[n compos$ ( build+s l>ge & small con/ruct$ ( beautifully wr\ght blocks ( lime/one1 all ris+ out ( ! b>r5 rock :i* =ms ! ribs ( ! hills4 ,if he m\nts an em95ce 9 ! vic9ity1 he w be /ill fur!r a/oni%$ to behold simil> ru9s ly+ 9 all directions4 ,he may c\nt t5 or fifte5 or tw5ty1 accord+ to ! comm&+ position ( 8 look\t4 ,f a di/ance x is (t5 difficult to believe t ^! are n inhabit$ places2 b clos] inspection reveals t ! g5tle h& ( "t or ! rude t\* ( e>?quake has be5 laid ^u e build+4 ,"s ( ! t[ns are bett] pres]v$ ?an o!rs2 "s build+s are q p]fect b = _! wood5 ro(s :i* "t has remov$1 o!rs /& 9 picturesque ru9s1 :ile o!rs /ill are level ) ! gr\nd4 ,on a f>-(f hilltop /&s ! ru9 ( a pagan temple1 & cr[n+ "s l(ty ridge lie ! ru9s ( a great ,*ri/ian mona/]y4 ,mile aft] mile ( ?is b>r5 gray c\ntry may be trav]s$ )\t enc\nt]+ a s+le human be+4 ,day aft] day may be sp5t 9 travel+ f "o ru9$ t[n to ano!r )\t see+ any gre5 ?+ save a t]eb9? tree or two /&+ among ! ru9s1 :i* h s5t _! roots d[n into e>? /ill pres]v$ 9 ! f\ndations ( "s anci5t build+4 ,no soil is visible any:]e except 9 a few pockets 9 ! rock f :i* x c\ld n be wa%$ by ! torr5tial ra9s ( ! wet season2 yet e ru9 is surr\nd$ ) ! rema9s ( presses = ! mak+ ( oil & w9e4 ,only "o oasis has be5 discov]$ 9 ^! high plateaus4 ,pass+ ea/w>d f ?is range ( hills1 "o desc5ds into a g5tly roll+ c\ntry t /ret*es miles away t[>d ! ,euphrates4 ,at ! ea/]n foot ( ! hills "o f9ds oneself 9 a totally diff]5t c\ntry1 at fir/ q f]tile & dott$ ) frequ5t villages ( flat-ro($ h\ses4 ,"h practically all ! rema9s ( anci5t times h be5 de/roy$ ?r\gh ages ( build+ & rebuild+4 ,beyond ?is n>r[ f]tile /rip ! soil gr[s dri] & m b>r51 until pres5tly ano!r k9d ( des]t is rea*$1 an undulat+ wa/e ( dead soil4 ,few walls or t[]s or ar*es rise to break ! monotony ( ! unbrok5 l&scape2 b ! c>eful explor] w f9d on clos] exam9ation t ?is region 0 m ?ickly populat$ 9 antiquity ev5 ?an ! hill c\ntry to ! we/4 ,e unev5ness ( ! surface m>ks ! site ( a t[n1 "s ( !m cities ( consid]able ext5t4 ,we may draw c]ta9 v def9ite conclusions z to ! =m] conditions ( ! c\ntry itself4 ,!re 0 soil ^u ! nor!rn hills :]e none n[ exi/s1 = ! build+s n[ %[ unf9i%$ f\ndation c\rses :i* 7 n int5d$ to be se52 ! soil 9 depressions )\t outlets is deep] ?an x =m]ly 02 !re are hundr$s ( olive & w9e presses 9 localities :]e no tree or v9e c\ld n[ f9d foot+2 & !re are hillsides ) ru9$ t]race walls ris+ "o above ! o!r ) no sign ( e>? ne> !m4 ,!re 0 also a l>ge natural wat] supply4 ,9 ! nor? z well z 9 ! s\? we f9d ! dry b$s ( riv]s1 /reams1 & brooks ) s& & pebbles & well-worn rocks b no wat] 9 !m f "o ye>'s end to ! o!r4 ,we f9d bridges ov] ^! dry /reams & crudely made wa%+ bo>ds along _! banks directly bel[ des]t$ t[ns4 ,_m ( ! bridges span ! b$s ( /reams t seldom or nev] h wat] 9 !m & give cle> evid5ce ( ! great climatic *anges t h tak5 place4 ,!re are well heads & well h\ses1 & inscriptions ref]r+ to spr+s2 b nei!r wells nor spr+s exi/ today except 9 ! r>e/ in/ances4 ,_m ( ! h\ses _h _! rock-hewn ci/]ns1 nev] l>ge en\gh to h suppli$ wat] = m ?an a brief p]iod1 & correspond+ to ! ci/]ns :i* mo/ ( our rec5t =efa!rs _h :i* 7 = conv5i5ce r ?an = dep5d5ce4 ,"s ( ! t[ns 9 s\!rn ,syria 7 provid$ ) l>ge public res]voirs1 b ^! are n l>ge en\gh to h suppli$ wat] to _! orig9al populations4 ,! high plateaus 7 ( c\rse )\t irrigation2 b !re are no signs1 ev5 9 ! l[] flatt] c\ntry1 t irrigation 0 ev] practic$2 & canals = ?is purpose c\ld n h completely disappe>$4 ,!re 7 =e/s 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity1 =e/s produc+ timb]s ( great l5g? & ?ickness2 = 9 ! nor? & nor!a/ practically all ! build+s _h wood5 ro(s1 wood5 int]m$iate floors1 & o!r features ( wood4 ,co/ly build+s1 su* z temples & *ur*es1 employ$ l>ge wood5 beams2 b wood 0 us$ 9 mu* l>g] quantities 9 private dwell+s1 %ops1 /ables1 & b>ns4 ,if wood _h n be5 pl5tiful & *eap--:i* means gr[n ne> by--! build]s w\ld h adopt$ ! build+ me?ods ( _! neighbors 9 ! s\?1 :o us$ v little wood & develop$ ! mo/ p]fect type ( li?ic ar*itecture ! _w has ev] se54 ,& "h !re exi/s a /range anomaly3 ,nor!rn ,syria1 :]e s mu* wood 0 employ$ 9 antiquity1 is absolutely treeless n[2 :ile 9 ! m\nta9s ( s\!rn ,syria1 :]e wood mu/ h be5 sc>ce 9 antiquity to h =c$ ^u ! inhabitants an almo/ exclusive use ( /one1 !re are /ill groves ( scrub oak & p9e1 & travel]s ( half a c5tury ago report$ l>ge =e/s ( *e/nut trees4#bj ,x is p]fectly app>5t t l>ge p>ts ( ,syria once _h soil & =e/s & spr+s & riv]s1 :ile x has none ( ^! n[1 & t x _h a mu* l>g] & bett] di/ribut$ ra9fall 9 anci5t times ?an x has n[4 ,pr(essor ,butl]'s c>eful "w is especially int]e/+ because ( its contra/ to ! loose /atem5ts ( ^? :o believe 9 climatic uni=mity4 ,s f> z ,i am aw>e1 no oppon5t ( ! hypo!sis ( climatic *anges has ev] ev5 attempt$ to %[ by c>eful /ati/ical analysis t ! anci5t wat] supply ( su* ru9s 0 no great] ?an t ( ! pres5t4 ,! mo/ t has be5 done is to sugge/ t !re may h be5 s\rces ( wat] :i* are n[ unkn[n4 ,( c\rse1 ?is might be true 9 a s+le in/ance1 b x c\ld sc>cely be ! case 9 _m hundr$s or ?\s&s ( ru9s4 ,al?\gh ! argum5ts 9 favor ( a *ange ( climate dur+ ! la/ two ?\s& ye>s seem too /rong to be ignor$1 _! v /r5g? seems to h be5 a s\rce ( error4 ,a l>ge numb] ( p h jump$ to ! conclusion t ! *ange :i* appe>s to h occurr$ 9 c]ta9 regions occurr$ ev]y:]e1 & t x consi/$ ( a gradual desiccation4 ,_m obs]v]s1 q z c>eful z ^? :o believe 9 progressive desiccation1 po9t to evid5ces ( aridity 9 pa/ times 9 ! v regions :]e ! o!rs f9d pro( ( moi/ure4 ,lakes su* z ! ,caspian ,sea fell to su* a l[ level t p>ts ( _! pres5t floors 7 expos$ & 7 us$ z sites = build+s ^: ru9s are /ill extant4 ,else:]e1 = in/ance 9 ! ,tian-,%an ,m\nta9s1 irrigation dit*es are f\nd 9 places :]e irrigation nev] seems to be necess>y at pres5t4 ,9 ,syria & ,nor? ,africa dur+ ! e>ly c5turies ( ! ,*ri/ian era ! ,romans %[$ unp>allel$ activity 9 build+ great aqu$ucts & 9 wat]+ l& :i* !n app>5tly ne$$ wat] almo/ z mu* z x does today4 ,evid5ce ( ?is sort is abundant & is z conv9c+ z is ! evid5ce ( moi/] conditions 9 ! pa/4 ,x is admirably set =?1 = example1 9 ! compreh5sive & ably writt5 monograph ( ,leit] on ! climate ( ,nor? ,africa4#ba ,! evid5ce cit$ !re & else:]e has l$ _m au?ors /rongly to advocate ! hypo!sis ( climatic uni=mity4 ,!y h done exactly z h ! advocates ( progressive *ange1 & h ext5d$ _! conclusions ov] ! :ole _w & ov] ! :ole ( hi/oric times4 ,! hypo!ses ( climatic uni=mity & ( progressive *ange bo? seem to be bas$ on reliable evid5ce4 ,!y may seem to be diametrically oppos$ to "o ano!r1 b ?is is only :5 !re is a failure to gr\p ! v>i\s l9es ( evid5ce accord+ to _! dates1 & accord+ to ! types ( climate 9 :i* !y happ5 to be locat$4 ,:5 ! facts are prop]ly gr\p$ 9 bo? "t & space1 x appe>s t evid5ce ( moi/ conditions 9 ! hi/oric ,m$it]ranean l&s is f\nd dur+ c]ta9 p]iods2 = in/ance1 f\r or five hundr$ ye>s be=e ,*ri/1 at ! "t ( ,*ri/1 & #ajjj ,a4 ,d4 ,! o!r k9d ( evid5ce1 on ! contr>y1 culm9ates at o!r epo*s1 su* z ab\t #abjj ,b4 ,c4 & 9 ! sev5? & ?irte5? c5turies aft] ,*ri/4 ,x is also f\nd dur+ ! int]val f ! culm9ation ( a moi/ epo* to ! culm9ation ( a dry "o1 = at su* times ! climate 0 gr[+ dri] & ! p 7 "u /ress4 ,?is 0 seem+ly ! case dur+ ! p]iod f ! second to ! f\r? c5turies ( our era4 ,nor? ,africa & ,syria mu/ !n h be5 di/9ctly bett] wat]$ ?an at pres5t1 z appe>s f ,butl]'s vivid description2 b !y 7 gradually becom+ dri]1 & ! natural effect on a vigor\s1 compet5t p l ! ,romans 0 to cause !m to con/ruct num]\s eng9e]+ works to provide ! necess>y wat]4 ,! consid]ations :i* h j be5 set =? h l$ to a ?ird hypo!sis1 t ( pulsatory climatic *anges4 ,accord+ to ?is1 ! e>?'s climate is n /able1 nor does x *ange uni=mly 9 "o direction4 ,x appe>s to fluctuate back & =? n only 9 ! little waves :i* we see f ye> to ye> or decade to decade1 b 9 mu* l>g] waves1 :i* take hundr$s ( ye>s or ev5 a ?\s&4 ,^! 9 turn seem to m]ge into & be impos$ on ! great] waves :i* =m glacial /ages1 glacial epo*s1 & glacial p]iods4 ,at ! pres5t "t !re seems to be no way ( det]m9+ :e!r ! g5]al t5d5cy is t[>d aridity or t[>d glaciation4 ,! sev5? c5tury ( our era 0 app>5tly ! drie/ "t dur+ ! hi/oric p]iod--di/9ctly dri] ?an ! pres5t--b ! ?irte5? c5tury 0 almo/ equally dry1 & ! twelf? or ?irte5? be=e ,*ri/ may h be5 v dry4 ,! be/ te/ ( an hypo!sis is actual measurem5ts4 ,9 ! case ( ! pulsatory hypo!sis we are =tunately able to apply ?is te/ by means ( trees4 ,! gr[? ( vegetation dep5ds on _m factors--soil1 exposure1 w9d1 sun1 temp]ature1 ra91 & s =?4 ,9 a dry region ! mo/ critical factor 9 det]m9+ h[ a tree's gr[? %all v>y f ye> to ye> is ! supply ( moi/ure dur+ ! few mon?s ( mo/ rapid gr[?4#bb ,! "w ( ,d\glass#bc & o!rs has %[n t 9 ,arizona & ,cali=nia ! ?ickness ( ! annual r+s af=ds a reliable indication ( ! am\nt ( moi/ure available dur+ ! p]iod ( gr[?4 ,?is is especially true :5 ! gr[? ( sev]al ye>s is tak5 z ! unit & is comp>$ ) ! gr[? ( a simil> numb] ( ye>s be=e or aft]4 ,:]e a long s]ies ( ye>s is us$1 x is necess>y to make corrections to elim9ate ! effects ( age1 b ?is c be done by ma!matical me?ods ( consid]able accuracy4 ,x is difficult to det]m9e :e!r ! climate at ! beg9n+ & end ( a tree's life 0 ! same1 b x is easily possible to det]m9e :e!r !re h be5 pulsations :ile ! tree 0 mak+ its gr[?4 ,if a l>ge numb] ( trees f v>i\s p>ts ( a giv5 di/rict all =m$ ?ick r+s at a c]ta9 p]iod & !n =m$ ?9 ones = a hundr$ ye>s1 aft] :i* ! r+s aga9 become ?ick1 we seem to be safe 9 conclud+ t ! trees h liv$ ?r\gh a long1 dry p]iod4 ,! full reasons = ?is belief & details z to ! me?ods ( e/imat+ climate f tree gr[? are giv5 9 ,! ,climatic ,factor4 ,! results set =? 9 t volume may be summ>iz$ z foll[s3 ,dur+ ! ye>s #aiaa & #aiab1 "u ! auspices ( ! ,c>negie ,in/itution ( ,wa%+ton1 measurem5ts 7 made ( ! ?ickness ( ! r+s ( gr[? on ! /umps ( ab\t #dej sequoia trees 9 ,cali=nia4 ,^! trees v>i$ 9 age f #bej to ne>ly #cbej ye>s4 ,! great majority 7 ov] #ajjj ye>s ( age1 sev5ty-n9e 7 ov] #bjjj ye>s1 & ?ree ov] #cjjj4 ,ev5 :]e only a few trees are available ! record is surpris+ly reliable1 except :]e occasional accid5ts occur4 ,:]e ! numb] approximates #ajj1 accid5tal v>iations are l>gely elim9at$ & we may accept ! record ) consid]able confid5ce4 ,accord+ly1 we may say t 9 ,cali=nia we h a fairly accurate record ( ! climate = #bjjj ye>s & an approximate record = #ajjj ye>s m4 ,! f9al results ( ! measurem5ts ( ! ,cali=nia trees are %[n 9 ,fig4 #d1 :]e ! climatic v>iations = #cjjj ye>s 9 ,cali=nia are indicat$ by ! solid l9e4 ,! high p>ts ( ! l9e indicate ra9y conditions1 ! l[ p>ts1 dry4 ,an exam9ation ( ?is curve %[s t dur+ #cjjj ye>s !re h app>5tly be5 climatic v>iations m important ?an any :i* h tak5 place dur+ ! pa/ c5tury4 ,9 ord] to br+ out ! details m cle>ly1 ! m reliable "p ( ! ,cali=nia curve1 f #ajj ,b4 ,c4 to ! pres5t "t1 has be5 reproduc$ 9 ,fig4 #e4 ,?is is id5tical ) ! correspond+ "p ( ,fig4 #d1 except t ! v]tical scale is ?ree times z great4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,*anges ( climate 9 ,cali=nia 7solid l9e7 & 9 we/]n & c5tral ,asia 7dott$ l9e74 ,note4 ,! curves ( ,figs4 #d & #e are reproduc$ z publi%$ 9 ,! ,sol> ,hypo!sis 9 #aiad4 ,lat] "w1 h[ev]1 has indicat$ t 9 ! ,asiatic curve ! da% l9es1 :i* 7 t5tatively ins]t$ 9 #aiad1 are probably m ne>ly correct ?an ! dott$ l9es4 ,/ill fur!r evid5ce indicates t ! ,asiatic curve is ne>ly l t ( ,cali=nia 9 its ma9 features4 ,! curve ( tree gr[? 9 ,cali=nia seems to be a true repres5tation ( ! g5]al features ( climatic pulsations 9 ! ,m$it]ranean region4 ,?is conclusion 0 orig9ally bas$ on ! resemblance betwe5 ! solid l9e ( ,fig4 #d1 repres5t+ tree gr[?1 & ! dott$ l9e repres5t+ *anges ( climate 9 ! ea/]n ,m$it]ranean region z inf]r$ f ! /udy ( ru9s & ( hi/ory be=e any "w on ?is subject _h be5 done 9 ,am]ica4#bd ,! dott$ l9e is "h reproduc$ = its hi/orical significance z a /age 9 ! /udy ( climatic *anges4 ,if x 7 to be r$rawn today on ! basis ( ! k acquir$ 9 ! la/ twelve ye>s1 x w\ld be mu* m l ! tree curve4 ,= example1 ! p]iod ( aridity sugge/$ by ! dip ( ! dott$ l9e ab\t #cjj ,a4 ,d4 0 bas$ l>gely on ,pr(essor ,butl]'s data z to ! paucity ( inscriptions & ru9s dat+ f t p]iod 9 ,syria4 ,9 ! rec5t article1 f :i* a long quotation has be5 giv51 he %[s t lat] "w proves t !re is no su* paucity4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x has acc5tuat$ ! m>k$ & sudd5 decay 9 civilization & population :i* occurr$ %ortly aft] #fjj ,a4 ,d4 ,he rea*$ ! same conclusion to :i* ! pres5t au?ors _h come on :olly diff]5t gr\nds1 namely1 t ! dip 9 ! dott$ l9e ab\t #cjj ,a4 ,d4 is n w>rant$1 :]eas ! dip ab\t #fcj ,a4 ,d4 is extremely important4 ,9 simil> fa%ion ! "w ( ,/e9#be 9 c5tral ,asia makes x cle> t ! contra/ betwe5 ! wat] supply ab\t #bjj ,b4,c4 & 9 ! prec$+ & foll[+ c5turies 0 great] ?an 0 suppos$ on ! basis ( ! scanty evid5ce available :5 ! dott$ l9e ( ,fig4 #d 0 drawn 9 #aiaj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,*anges 9 ,cali=nia climate = #bjjj ye>s1 z measur$ by gr[? ( ,sequoia trees4 ,fig4 #e is ! same z ! lat] portion ( ,fig4 #d1 except t ! v]tical scale has be5 magnifi$ ?reefold4 ,x seems probable t ! dott$ l9e at ! "r is m ne>ly correct ?an ! solid l9e4 ,dur+ ! ?irty ye>s s9ce ! end ( ! curve ! g5]al t5d5cy appe>s 9 g5]al to h be5 some:at upw>d4 ,s9ce ! curve ( ! ,cali=nia trees is ! only cont9u\s & detail$ record yet available = ! climate ( ! la/ ?ree ?\s& ye>s1 x des]ves mo/ c>eful /udy4 ,x is especially necess>y to det]m9e ! degree ( accuracy ) :i* ! gr[? ( ! trees repres5ts 7#a7 ! local ra9fall & 7#b7 ! ra9fall ( remote regions su* z ,pale/9e4 ,p]haps ! be/ way to det]m9e ^! matt]s is ! /&>d ma!matical me?od ( correlation coeffici5ts4 ,if two ph5om5a v>y 9 p]fect unison1 z 9 ! case ( ! turn+ ( ! :eels & ! progress ( an automobile :5 ! brakes are n appli$1 ! correlation coeffici5t is #a4jj1 be+ positive :5 ! automobile goes =w>d & negative :5 x goes backw>d4 ,if !re is no relation betwe5 two ph5om5a1 z 9 ! case ( ! numb] ( miles run by a giv5 automobile ea* ye> & ! numb] ( *ick5s hat*$ 9 ! same p]iod1 ! coeffici5t is z]o4 ,a p>tial relation%ip :]e o!r factors ent] into ! matt] is repres5t$ by a coeffici5t betwe5 z]o & "o1 z 9 ! case ( ! movem5t ( ! automobile & ! consumption ( gasol9e4 ,9 ?is case ! relation is v obvi\s1 b is modifi$ by o!r factors1 includ+ ! r\ghness & grade ( ! road1 ! am\nt ( traffic1 ! numb] ( /ops1 ! skill ( ! driv]1 ! condition & load ( ! automobile1 & ! /ate ( ! wea!r4 ,su* p>tial relation%ips are ! k9d = :i* correlation coeffici5ts are mo/ useful1 = ! size ( ! coeffici5ts %[s ! relative importance ( ! v>i\s factors4 ,a correlation coeffici5t f\r times ! probable error1 :i* c always be det]m9$ by a =mula well kn[n to ma!maticians1 is g5]ally consid]$ to af=d evid5ce ( "s k9d ( relation betwe5 two ph5om5a4 ,:5 ! ratio betwe5 coeffici5t & error rises to six1 ! relation%ip is reg>d$ z /rong4 ,few p w\ld "q t !re is a connection betwe5 tree gr[? & ra9fall1 especially 9 a climate ) a long summ] dry season l t ( ,cali=nia4 ,b ! gr[? ( ! trees also dep5ds on _! position1 ! am\nt ( %ad+1 ! temp]ature1 insect pe/s1 blights1 ! w9d ) its t5d5cy to break ! bran*es1 & a numb] ( o!r factors4 ,moreov]1 :ile ra9 commonly favors gr[?1 great extremes are relatively less helpful ?an m mod]ate am\nts4 ,aga91 ! roots ( a tree may tap su* deep s\rces ( wat] t nei!r dr\ght nor excessive ra9 produces mu* effect = sev]al ye>s4 ,h5ce 9 comp>+ ! gr[? ( ! huge sequoias ) ! ra9fall we %\ld expect a correlation coeffici5t high en\gh to be conv9c+1 b decid$ly bel[ #a4jj4 ,un=tunately !re is no record ( ! ra9fall :]e ! sequoias gr[1 ! ne>e/ long record be+ t ( ,sacram5to1 ne>ly #bjj miles to ! nor?we/ & close to sea level in/ead ( at an altitude ( ab\t #fjjj feet4 ,apply+ ! me?od ( correlation coeffici5ts to ! annual ra9fall ( ,sacram5to & ! gr[? ( ! sequoias f #ahfc to #aiaj1 we obta9 ! results %[n 9 ,table #c4 ,! trees ( ,section ,a ( ! table grew 9 mod]ately dry locations al?\gh ! soil 0 fairly deep1 a condition :i* seems to be ess5tial to sequoias4 ,9 ?is case1 z 9 all ! o!rs1 ! ra9fall is reckon$ f ,july to ,june1 :i* practically means f ,octob] to ,may1 s9ce !re is almo/ no summ] ra94 ,?us ! tree gr[? 9 #ahfa is comp>$ ) ! ra9fall ( ! prec$+ ra9y season1 #ahfj-ahfa1 or ( sev]al prec$+ ra9y seasons z ! table indicates4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,table #c ,,correlation ,,coeffici5ts ,,betwe5 ,,ra9fall ,,& ,,gr[? ,,( ,,sequoias ,,9 ,,cali=nia#bf 7r7 ,correlation coeffici5t 7e7 ,probable error 7r_/e7 ,ratio ( coeffici5t to probable error ,a4 ,,sacram5to ,,ra9fall ,,& ,,gr[? ,,( #ah ,,sequoias ,,9 ,,dry ,,locations1 #ahfa-aiaj 7r7 7e7 7r_/e7 ------ ------ ----- #a ye> ( ra9fall -#j4jei -#j4jif #j4f #b ye>s ( ra9fall #j4bhh -#j4jij #c4b #c ye>s ( ra9fall #j4egj -#j4jff #h4g #d ye>s ( ra9fall #j4dgj -#j4jgf #f4b ,b4 ,,sacram5to ,,ra9fall ,,& ,,gr[? ,,( #aab ,,sequoias ,,mo/ly ,,9 ,,moi/ ,,locations1 #ahfa-aiaj #c ye>s ( ra9fall #j4cdj -#j4jhg #c4i #d ye>s ( ra9fall #j4cga -#j4jhd #d4e #e ye>s ( ra9fall #j4cih -#j4jhb #d4i #f ye>s ( ra9fall #j4dah -#j4jgi #e4c #g ye>s ( ra9fall #j4dga -#j4jgf #f4b #h ye>s ( ra9fall 7#j4ebj7 -#j4jga #g4c #i ye>s ( ra9fall #j4ege -#j4jfe #h4h #aj ye>s ( ra9fall #j4egg -#j4jfe #h4h ,c4 ,,sacram5to ,,ra9fall ,,& ,,gr[? ,,( #hj ,,sequoias ,,9 ,,moi/ ,,locations1 #ahfa-aiaj #aj ye>s ( ra9fall #j4fje -#j4jfb #i4h ,d4 ,,annual ,,sequoia ,,gr[? ,,& ,,ra9fall ,,( ,,prec$+ #e ,,ye>s ,,at ,,/ations ,,on ,,s\!rn ,,pacific ,,railroad #a ,ye>s #b ,altitude 7feet7 #c ,ra9fall 7in*es7 #d ,approximate di/ance f sequoias 7miles7 #a #b #c #d 7r7 7e7 7r_/e7 --------- ---- ----- --- ------ ------ --------- ,sacram5to1 #ahfa-aiaj #gj #ai4dj #bjj #j4cih -#j4jha #d4i ,colfax1 #ahga-aiji #bdjj #dh4id #bjj #j4abb -#j4aac #a4a ,summit1 #ahga-aiji #gjjj #dh4jg #bjj #j4adh -#j4aac #a4c ,truckee1 #ahga-aiji #ehjj #bg4ab #bjj #j4cjj -#j4aje #b4i ,boca1 #ahga-aiji #eejj #bj4cd #bjj #j4fjd -#j4jgf #h4j ,w9nemucca1 #ahga-aiji #dcjj #h4fe #cjj #j4dib -#j4jhi #e4e ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,9 ! fir/ l9e ( ,section ,a a correlation coeffici5t ( only -#j4jef1 :i* is sc>cely six-t5?s ( ! probable error1 means t !re is no appreciable relation betwe5 ! ra9fall ( a giv5 season & ! gr[? dur+ ! foll[+ spr+ & summ]4 ,! roots ( ! sequoias probably p5etrate s deeply t ! ra9 & melt$ sn[ ( ! spr+ mon?s d n s9k d[n rapidly en\gh to influ5ce ! trees be=e ! gr[+ season comes to an end4 ,! precipitation ( two prec$+ seasons1 h[ev]1 has "s effect on ! trees1 z appe>s 9 ! second l9e ( ,section ,a1 :]e ! correlation coeffici5t is #j4bhh1 or #c4b times ! probable error4 ,:5 ! ra9fall ( ?ree seasons is tak5 into acc\nt ! coeffici5t rises to #j4egj1 or #h4g times ! probable error1 :ile ) f\r ye>s ( ra9fall ! coeffici5t beg9s to fall (f4 ,?us ! gr[? ( ^! eighte5 sequoias on relatively dry slopes appe>s to h dep5d$ *iefly on ! ra9fall ( ! second & ?ird prec$+ ra9y seasons4 ,! gr[? 9 #aijj1 = example1 dep5d$ l>gely on ! ra9fall 9 ! ra9y seasons ( #ahig-ahih & #ahih-ahii4 ,section ,b ( ! table %[s t ) #aab trees1 gr[+ *iefly 9 moi/ depressions :]e ! wat] supply is at a maximum1 ! correlation betwe5 gr[? & ra9fall1 #j4egg = t5 ye>s' ra9fall1 is ev5 high] ?an ) ! dry trees4 ,! seepage ( ! und]gr\nd wat] is s sl[ t n until f\r ye>s' ra9fall is tak5 into acc\nt is ! correlation coeffici5t m ?an f\r times ! probable error4 ,:5 only ! trees gr[+ 9 moi/ locations are employ$1 ! coeffici5t betwe5 tree gr[? & ! ra9fall = t5 ye>s rises to ! high figure ( #j4fje1 or #i4h times ! probable error1 z appe>s 9 ,section ,c4 ,^! figures1 z well z _m o!rs n "h publi%$1 make x cle> t ! curve ( sequoia gr[? f #ahfa to #aiaj af=ds a fairly close indication ( ! ra9fall at ,sacram5to1 provid$ all[ance be made = a delay ( ?ree to t5 ye>s due to ! fact t ! moi/ure 9 ! soil gradually seeps d[n ! m\nta9-sides & only rea*es ! sequoias aft] a consid]able int]val4 ,if a ra9fall record 7 available = ! place :]e ! trees actually gr[1 ! relation%ip w\ld probably be /ill clos]4 ,! record at ,fresno1 = example1 be>s out ?is conclusion s f> z x goes4 ,b z ,fresno lies at a l[ altitude & its ra9fall is ( ess5tially ! ,sacram5to type1 its %ort record is ( less value ?an t ( ,sacram5to4 ,! only ra9fall records among ! ,si]ras at high levels1 :]e ! ra9fall & temp]ature are approximately l ^? ( ! sequoia region1 are f\nd along ! ma9 l9e ( ! ,s\!rn ,pacific railroad4 ,?is runs f ,oakl& nor!a/w>d sev5ty miles across ! op5 pla9 to ,sacram5to1 !n ano!r sev5ty miles1 z ! cr[ flies1 ?r\gh ,colfax & ov] a high pass 9 ! ,si]ras at ,summit1 next tw5ty miles or s d[n ?r\gh ,truckee to ,boca1 on ! edge ( ! inl& bas9 ( ,nevada1 & on nor!a/w>d ano!r #afj miles to ,w9nemucca1 :]e x turns ea/ t[>d ,ogd5 & ,salt ,lake ,city4 ,section ,d ( ,table #c %[s ! correlation coeffici5ts betwe5 ! ra9fall along ! railroad & ! gr[? ( ! sequoias4 ,at ,sacram5to1 :i* lies fairly op5 to w9ds f ! ,pacific & ?us repres5ts ! g5]al climate ( c5tral ,cali=nia1 ! coeffici5t is ne>ly five times ! probable error1 ?us indicat+ a real relation to sequoia gr[?4 ,!n among ! foo?ills ( ! ,si]ras at ,colfax1 ! coeffici5t drops till x is sc>cely l>g] ?an ! probable error4 ,x rises rapidly1 h[ev]1 z "o advances among ! m\nta9s1 until at ,boca x atta9s ! high figure ( #j4fjd or eight times ! probable error1 & cont9ues high 9 ! dry area f>!r ea/4 ,9 o!r words ! gr[? ( ! sequoias is a good indication ( ! ra9fall :]e ! trees gr[ & 9 ! dry region f>!r ea/4 ,9 ord] to det]m9e ! degree to :i* ! sequoia record repres5ts ! ra9fall ( o!r regions1 let u select ,j]usalem = comp>ison4 ,! reasons = ?is selection are t ,j]usalem furni%es ! only available record t satisfies ! foll[+ necess>y conditions3 7#a7 its record is long en\gh to be important2 7#b7 x is locat$ fairly ne> ! latitude ( ! sequoias1 #cb deg4,n v]sus #cg deg4,n2 7#c7 x is locat$ 9 a simil> type ( climate ) w9t] ra9s & a long dry summ]2 7#d7 x lies well above sea level 7#bejj feet7 & some:at back f ! seacoa/1 ?us approximat+ al?\gh by no means duplicat+ ! condition ( ! sequoias2 & 7#e7 x lies 9 a region :]e ! evid5ce ( climatic *anges dur+ hi/oric times is /ronge/4 ,! ideal place = comp>ison w\ld be ! valley 9 :i* gr[ ! c$>s ( ,lebanon4 ,^? trees resemble ! sequoias to an extraord9>y degree1 n only 9 _! location1 b 9 _! great age4 ,"s day x w be mo/ int]e/+ to comp>e ! gr[? ( ^! two fam\s gr\ps ( old trees4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,table #d ,,correlation ,,coeffici5ts ,,betwe5 ,,ra9fall ,,records ,,9 ,,cali=nia ,,& ,,j]usalem 7r7 ,correlation coeffici5t 7e7 ,probable error 7r_/e7 ,ratio ( coeffici5t to probable error ,a4 ,,j]usalem ,,ra9fall ,,= #c ,,ye>s ,,& ,,v>i\s ,,gr\ps ,,( ,,sequoias#bg 7r7 7e7 7r_/e7 ------ ----- --------- #aa trees measur$ by ,d\glass #j4dec -#j4jgh #e4h #hj trees1 moi/ locations1 ,gr\ps ,,ia1 ,,iia1 ,,iiia1 ,,va #j4ejj -#j4jgc #f4h #aja trees1 #fi 9 moi/ locations1 #cb 9 dry1 ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii #j4faf -#j4jfa #aj4a #aab trees1 #hj 9 moi/ locations1 #cb 9 dry1 ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii1 ,v #j4fge -#j4jec #ab4g ,b4 ,,ra9fall ,,at ,,j]usalem ,,& ,,at ,,/ations ,,9 ,,cali=nia ,,& ,,nevada #a ,altitude 7feet7 #b ,ye>s -- #c ye>s -- -- #e ye>s -- #a #b 7r7 7r_/e7 7r7 7r_/e7 ---- --------- ------ ------- ------ ------- ,sacram5to1 #gj #ahfa-aiaj #j4chf #d4g #j4ceb #d4b ,colfax1 #bdjj #ahga-aiji #j4caa #c4a #j4cjh #c4j ,summit1 #gjjj #ahga-aiji #j4jii #j4i #j4bdh #b4c ,truckee1 #ehjj #ahga-aiji #j4bbi #b4b #j4ccg #c4c ,a,boca1 #eejj #ahga-aiji #j4dhb #f4d #j4fag #h4f ,w9nemucca1 #dcjj #ahga-aiji #j4bce #b4b #j4bfj #b4d ,san ,b]n>d9o1 #ajej #ahga-aiji #j4bge #b4g #j4agg #a4h ,c4 ,,ra9fall ,,= #c ,,ye>s ,,at ,,cali=nia ,,& ,,nevada ,,/ations1 #ahga-aiji 7r7 7r_/e7 ------ ------- ,sacram5to & ,san ,b]n>d9o #j4ffc #aj4g ,san ,b]n>d9o & ,w9nemucca #j4bia #b4h ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,! correlation coeffici5ts = ! sequoia gr[? & ! ra9fall at ,j]usalem are giv5 9 ,section ,a1 ,table #d4 ,!y are s high & s consi/5t t !y sc>cely leave room = d\bt t :]e a hundr$ or m sequoias are employ$1 z 9 ,fig4 #e1 _! curve ( gr[? af=ds a good indication ( ! fluctuations ( climate 9 we/]n ,asia4 ,! high coeffici5t = ! elev5 trees measur$ by ,d\glass sugge/s t :]e ! numb] ( trees falls z l[ z t51 z 9 ! "p ( ,fig4 #d f #gaj to #hdj ,b4 ,c41 ! relation betwe5 tree gr[? & ra9fall is /ill close ev5 :5 only "o ye>'s gr[? is consid]$4 ,:]e ! unit is t5 ye>s ( gr[?1 z 9 ,figs4 #d & #e1 ! accuracy ( ! tree curve z a measure ( ra9fall is mu* great] ?an :5 a s+le ye> is us$ z 9 ,table #d4 ,:5 ! unit is rais$ to ?irty ye>s1 z 9 ! smoo!d "p ( ,fig4 #d previ\s to #bdj ,b4 ,c41 ev5 f\r trees1 z f #ifj to #ajgj1 probably give a fair approximation to ! g5]al *anges 9 ra9fall1 :ile a s+le tree prior to #aaaj ,b4 ,c4 gives a r\gh indication4 ,table #d %[s a peculi> feature 9 ! fact t ! correlations ( ,section ,a betwe5 tree gr[? & ! ra9fall ( ,j]usalem are decid$ly high] ?an ^? betwe5 ! ra9fall 9 ! two regions4 ,only at ,sacram5to & ,boca are ! ra9fall coeffici5ts high en\gh to be conclusive4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n surpris+1 = ev5 betwe5 ,sacram5to & ,san ,b]n>d9o1 only #djj miles ap>t1 ! correlation coeffici5t = ! ra9fall by ?ree-ye> p]iods is only #aj4g times ! probable error1 z appe>s 9 ,section ,c ( ,table #d1 :ile betwe5 ,san ,b]n>d9o & ,w9nemucca #ejj miles away1 ! correspond+ figure drops to #b4h4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t 9 "s respects ! gr[? ( ! sequoias is a mu* bett] record ( ra9fall ?an are ! records kept by man4 ,! human record is bas$ on ! am\nt ( wat] caught by a little gauge a few in*es 9 diamet]4 ,e gu/ ( w9d detracts f ! accuracy ( ! record2 a mile away ! ra9fall may be d\ble :at x is at ! gauge4 ,ea* sequoia1 on ! o!r h&1 draws its moi/ure f an area ?\s&s ( times z l>ge z a ra9 gauge4 ,moreov]1 ! trees on :i* ,figs4 #d & #e are bas$ 7 scatt]$ ov] an area fifty miles long & sev]al hundr$ squ>e miles 9 ext5t4 ,h5ce !y repres5t ! summation ( ! ra9fall ov] an area millions ( times z l>ge z t ( a ra9 gauge4 ,?is fact & ! l>ge correlation coeffici5ts betwe5 sequoia gr[? & ,j]usalem ra9fall %\ld be consid]$ 9 connection ) ! fact t all ! coeffici5ts betwe5 ! ra9fall ( ,cali=nia & ,nevada & t ( ,j]usalem are positive4 ,if full records ( ! complete ra9fall ( ,cali=nia & ,nevada on ! "o h& & ( ! ea/]n ,m$it]ranean region on ! o!r 7 available = a long p]iod1 !y w\ld probably agree closely4 ,j h[ widely ! sequoias c be us$ z a measure ( ! climate ( ! pa/ is n yet c]ta94 ,9 "s regions1 z w %ortly be expla9$1 ! climatic *anges seem to h be5 ( an opposite "* f ^? ( ,cali=nia4 ,9 o!rs ! ,cali=nian or ea/]n ,m$it]ranean type ( *ange seems sometimes to prevail b is n always evid5t4 ,= example1 at ,malta ! ra9fall today %[s a di/9ct relation to t ( ,j]usalem & to ! gr[? ( ! sequoias4 ,b ! correlation coeffici5t betwe5 ! ra9fall ( eight-ye> p]iods at ,naples1 a little f>!r nor?1 & ! gr[? ( ! sequoias at ! end ( ! p]iods is -#j4acb1 or only #a4d times ! probable error & mu* too small to be significant4 ,?is is 9 h>mony ) ! fact t al?\gh ,naples has summ] dr\ghts1 !y are n s pron\nc$ z 9 ,cali=nia & ,pale/9e1 & ! preval5ce ( /orms is mu* great]4 ,j]usalem receives only #h p] c5t ( its ra9 9 ! sev5 mon?s f ,april to ,octob]1 & ,sacram5to #ac1 :ile ,malta receives #ca p] c5t & ,naples #dc4 ,nev]!less1 !re is "s evid5ce t 9 ! pa/ ! climatic fluctuations ( s\!rn ,italy foll[$ ne>ly ! same c\rse z ^? ( ,cali=nia & ,pale/9e4 ,?is app>5t discrepancy seems to be expla9$ by our previ\s conclusion t *anges ( climate are due l>gely to a %ift+ ( /orm tracks4 ,:5 sunspots are num]\s ! /orms :i* n[ prevail 9 nor!rn ,italy seem to be %ift$ s\?w>d & trav]se ! ,m$it]ranean to ,pale/9e j z simil> /orms are %ift$ s\?w>d 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,?is p]haps acc\nts = ! agreem5t betwe5 ! sequoia curve & ! agricultural & social hi/ory ( ,rome f ab\t #djj ,b4 ,c4 to #ajj ,a4 ,d41 z expla9$ 9 ,_w ,p[] & ,evolution4 ,= our pres5t purposes1 h[ev]1 ! ma9 po9t is t s9ce ra9fall records h be5 kept ! fluctuations ( climate indicat$ by ! gr[? ( ! sequoias h agre$ closely ) fluctuations 9 ! ra9fall ( ! ea/]n ,m$it]ranean region4 ,presumably ! same 0 true 9 ! pa/4 ,9 t case1 ! sequoia curve n only is a good indication ( climatic *anges or pulsations 9 regions ( simil> climate1 b may s]ve z a guide to co9cid5t b diff]5t *anges 9 regions ( o!r types4 ,an enorm\s body ( o!r evid5ce po9ts to ! same conclusion4 ,x indicates t :ile ! av]age climate ( ! pres5t is dri] ?an t ( ! pa/ 9 regions hav+ ! ,m$it]ranean type ( w9t] ra9s & summ] dr\ghts1 !re h be5 pron\nc$ pulsations dur+ hi/oric times s t at c]ta9 times !re has actually be5 great] aridity ?an at pres5t4 ,?is conclusion is s important t x seems advisable to exam9e ! only important argum5ts t h be5 rais$ aga9/ x1 especially aga9/ ! idea t ! g5]al ra9fall ( ! ea/]n ,m$it]ranean 0 great] 9 ! hi/oric pa/ ?an at pres5t4 ,! fir/ objection is ! unque/ionable fact t dr\ghts & fam9es h occurr$ at p]iods :i* seem on o!r evid5ce to h be5 moi/] ?an ! pres5t4 ,?is argum5t has be5 mu* us$1 b x seems to h little =ce4 ,if ! ra9fall ( a giv5 region av]ages ?irty in*es & v>ies f fifte5 to =ty-five1 a fam9e w ensue if ! ra9fall drops = a few ye>s to ! l[] limit & does n rise mu* above tw5ty = a few ye>s4 ,if ! climate ( ! place *anges dur+ ! c\rse ( c5turies1 s t ! ra9fall av]ages only tw5ty in*es1 & ranges f sev5 to ?irty-five1 fam9e w aga9 ensue if ! ra9fall rema9s ne> t5 in*es = a few ye>s4 ,! ravages ( ! fir/ fam9e might be z bad z ^? ( ! second4 ,!y might ev5 be worse1 because :5 ! ra9fall is l>g] ! population is likely to be great] & ! di/ress due to sc>city ( food w\ld affect a l>g] numb] ( p4 ,h5ce hi/oric records ( fam9es & dr\ghts d n indicate t ! climate 0 ei!r dri] or moi/] ?an at pres5t4 ,!y m]ely %[ t at ! "t 9 "q ! climate 0 dri] ?an ! normal = t p>ticul> p]iod4 ,! second objection is t des]ts exi/$ 9 ! pa/ mu* z at pres5t4 ,?is is n a real objection1 h[ev]1 =1 z we %all see m fully1 "s p>ts ( ! _w suff] "o k9d ( *ange & o!rs q ! opposite4 ,moreov]1 des]ts h always exi/$1 & :5 we talk ( a *ange 9 _! climate we m]ely mean t _! b\nd>ies h %ift$4 ,a concrete example ( ! mi/ak5 use ( anci5t dryness z pro( ( climatic uni=mity is illu/rat$ by ! m>* ( ,alex&] f ,india to ,mesopotamia4 ,h$9 gives an excell5t pres5tation ( ! case 9 ! second volume ( 8 ,ov]l& to ,india4 ,he %[s conclusively t ,alex&]'s army suff]$ t]ribly f lack ( wat] & provisions4 ,?is c]ta9ly proves t ! climate 0 dry1 b x by no means indicates t !re has be5 no *ange f ! pa/ to ! pres5t4 ,we d n "k :e!r ,alex&]'s m>* took place dur+ an especially dry or an especially wet ye>4 ,9 a des]t region l ,makran1 9 s\!rn ,p]sia & ,belu*i/an1 :]e ! *ief difficulties occurr$1 ! ra9fall v>ies greatly f ye> to ye>4 ,we h no records f ,makran1 b ! conditions !re are closely simil> to ^? ( s\!rn ,arizona & ,new ,mexico4 ,9 #ahhe & #aije ! ra9fall = five /ations 9 t region 0 z foll[s3 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,mean ra9fall dur+ p]iod #ahhe #aije s9ce obs]vations began ,yuma1 ,arizona1 #b4gb #aa4da #c4ac ,pho5ix1 ,arizona1 #c4gg #ai4gc #g4bg ,tucson1 ,arizona1 #e4bf #bd4ag #aa4ff ,lordsburg1 ,new ,mexico1 #c4ii #ai4ej #h4fb ,el ,paso1 ,texas 7on ,new ,mexico bord]71 #g4ca #ag4hj #i4jf ---- ----- ----- ,av]age1 #d4fa #ah4eb #g4ie ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,^! /ations are di/ribut$ ov] an area ne>ly #ejj miles ea/ & we/4 ,manife/ly a travel] :o sp5t ! ye> #ahhe 9 t region w\ld h _h mu* m difficulty 9 f9d+ wat] & =age ?an "o :o travel$ 9 ! same places 9 #aije4 ,dur+ #ahhe ! ra9fall 0 #db p] c5t less ?an ! av]age1 & dur+ #aije x 0 #acd p] c5t m ?an ! av]age4 ,let u suppose1 = ! sake ( argum5t1 t ! av]age ra9fall ( s\!a/]n ,p]sia is six in*es today & 0 t5 in*es 9 ! days ( ,alex&]4 ,if ! ra9fall f ye> to ye> v>i$ z mu* 9 ! pa/ 9 ,p]sia z x does n[ 9 ,new ,mexico & ,arizona1 ! ra9fall dur+ an anci5t dry ye>1 correspond+ 9 "* to #ahhe1 w\ld h be5 ab\t #e4ge in*es4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if we suppose t ! ra9fall !n av]ag$ less ?an at pres5t1--let u say f\r in*es1--a wet ye> correspond+ to #aije 9 ! ,am]ican des]ts might h _h a ra9fall ( ab\t t5 in*es4 ,?is be+ ! case1 x is cle> t our e/imate ( :at ,alex&]'s m>* %[s z to climate mu/ dep5d l>gely on :e!r #cbe ,b4 ,c4 0 a wet ye> or a dry ye>4 ,inasmu* z we "k no?+ ab\t ?is1 we mu/ fall back on ! fact t a l>ge army accompli%$ a j\rney 9 a place :]e today ev5 a small c>avan usually f9ds great difficulty 9 procur+ =age & wat]4 ,moreov]1 elephants 7 tak5 #ahj miles across :at is n[ an almo/ wat]less des]t1 & yet ! old hi/orians make no comm5t on su* a feat :i* today w\ld be practically impossible4 ,^! ?+s seem m 9 h>mony ) a *ange ( climate ?an ) uni=mity4 ,nev]!less1 x is n safe to place mu* reliance on !m except :5 !y are tak5 9 conjunction ) o!r evid5ce1 su* z ! num]\s ru9s1 :i* %[ t ,makran 0 once f> m d5sely populat$ ?an n[ seems possible4 ,tak5 by itself1 su* incid5ts z ,alex&]'s m>* _c safely be us$ ei!r z an argum5t = or aga9/ *anges ( climate4 ,! ?ird & /ronge/ objection to any hypo!sis ( climatic *anges dur+ hi/oric times is bas$ on vegetation4 ,! :ole "q is admirably set =? by ,j4 ,w4 ,gregory1#bh :o gives n only 8 own results1 b ^? ( ! able/ s*ol>s :o h prec$$ him4 ,8 conclusions are important because !y repres5t "o ( ! few cases :]e a def9ite /ati/ical attempt has be5 made to prove ! exact condition ( ! climate ( ! pa/4 ,aft] /at+ v>i\s less important reasons = believ+ t ! climate ( ,pale/9e has n *ang$1 he discusses vegetation4 ,! foll[+ quotation indicates 8 l9e ( ?\ght4 ,a s5t5ce ne> ! beg9n+ is italiciz$ 9 ord] to call att5tion to ! importance :i* ,gregory & o!rs lay on ?is p>ticul> k9d ( evid5ce3 ,"s m c]ta9 te/ is necess>y ?an ! g5]al conclusions :i* c be bas$ ^u ! hi/orical & geographical evid5ce ( ! ,bible4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( ra9 gauge & !rmometric records1 ! mo/ precise te/ ( climate is giv5 by ! vegetation2 & =tunately ! palm af=ds a v delicate te/ ( ! pa/ climate ( ,pale/9e & ! ea/]n ,m$it]ranean4444 ,! date palm has ?ree limits ( gr[? :i* are det]m9$ by temp]ature2 ?us x does n rea* full maturity or produce ripe fruit ( good quality bel[ ! mean annual temp]ature ( #fi deg4,f4 ,! iso!rmal ( #fi deg4 crosses s\!rn ,alg]ia ne> ,biskra2 x t\*es ! nor!rn coa/s ( ,cyr5aica ne> ,d]na & passes ,egypt ne> ! m\? ( ! ,nile1 & !n b5ds nor?w>d along ! coa/ l&s ( ,pale/9e4 ,to ! nor? ( ?is l9e ! date palm gr[s & produces fruit1 :i* only rip5s occasionally1 & its quality det]iorates z ! temp]ature falls bel[ #fi deg44 ,betwe5 ! iso!rms ( #fh deg4 & #fd deg41 limits :i* include nor!rn ,alg]ia1 mo/ ( ,sicily1 ,malta1 ! s\!rn p>ts ( ,greece & nor!rn ,syria1 ! dates produc$ are s unripe t !y are n edible4 ,9 ! next cool] zone1 nor? ( ! iso!rm ( #fb deg41 :i* ent]s ,europe 9 s\?we/]n ,portugal1 passes ?r\gh ,s>d9ia1 ent]s ,italy ne> ,naples1 crosses nor!rn ,greece & ,asia ,m9or to ! ea/ ( ,smyrna1 ! date palm is gr[n only = its foliage1 s9ce x does n fruit4 ,h5ce at ,b5ghazi1 on ! nor? ,african coa/1 ! date palm is f]tile1 b produces fruit ( poor quality4 ,9 ,sicily & at ,algi]s ! fruit rip5s occasionally & at ,rome & ,nice ! palm is gr[n only z an ornam5tal tree4 ,! date palm !re=e af=ds a te/ ( v>iations 9 mean annual temp]ature ( ?ree grades betwe5 #fb deg4 & #fi deg44 ,?is te/ %[s t ! mean annual temp]ature ( ,pale/9e has n alt]$ s9ce ,old ,te/am5t times4 ,! palm tree n[ gr[s dates on ! coa/ ( ,pale/9e & 9 ! deep depression ar\nd ! ,dead ,sea1 b x does n produce fruit on ! highl&s ( ,judea4 ,its di/ribution 9 anci5t times1 z f> z we c judge f ! ,bible1 0 exactly ! same4 ,x grew at ,j]i*o1 ! city ( palm trees 7,deut4 xxxiv3 #c & #b ,*ron4 xxviii3 #ae71 & at ,eng$i1 on ! we/]n %ore ( ! ,dead ,sea 7#b ,*ron4 xx3 #b2 ,sira* xxiv3 #ad72 & ?\gh ! palm does n /ill live at ,j]i*o--! la/ app>5tly di$ 9 #ahch--;its disappe>ance mu/ be due to neglect1 = ! only climatic *ange t w\ld expla9 x w\ld be an increase 9 cold or moi/ure4 ,9 old5 times ! date palm c]ta9ly grew on ! highl&s ( ,pale/9e2 b app>5tly x nev] produc$ fruit !re1 = ! ,bible ref]5ces to ! palm are to its beauty & erect gr[?3 ,! righte\s %all fl\ri% l ! palm 7,ps4 xcii3 #ab72 ,!y are upright z ! palm tree 7,j]4 x3 #e72 ,?y /ature is l to a palm tree 7,cant4 vii3 #g74 ,x is us$ z a symbol ( victory 7,rev4 vii3 #i71 b nev] prais$ z a s\rce ( food4 ,dates are n once ref]r$ to 9 ! text ( ! ,bible1 b accord+ to ! m>g9al notes ! ^w translat$ honey 9 #b ,*ron4 xxxi3 #e may mean dates4444 ,x appe>s1 !re=e1 t ! date palm _h ess5tially ! same di/ribution 9 ,pale/9e 9 ,old ,te/am5t times z x has n[2 & h5ce we may inf] t ! mean temp]ature 0 !n ! same z n[4 ,if ! climate _h be5 moi/] & cool]1 ! date c\ld n h fl\ri%$ at ,j]i*o4 ,if x _h be5 w>m]1 ! palms w\ld h gr[n freely at high] levels & ,j]i*o w\ld n h held its di/9ction z ! city ( palm trees4#bi ,9 ! ma9 ,gregory's conclusions seem to be well gr\nd$1 al?\gh ev5 accord+ to 8 data a *ange ( #b deg4 or #c deg4 9 mean temp]ature w\ld be p]fectly feasible4 ,x w be notic$1 h[ev]1 t !y apply to temp]ature & n to ra9fall4 ,!y m]ely prove t two ?\s& ye>s ago ! mean temp]ature ( ,pale/9e & ! neighbor+ regions 0 n appreciably diff]5t f :at x is today4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is 9 no s5se out ( h>mony ) ! hypo!sis ( climatic pulsations4 ,/ud5ts ( glaciation believe t dur+ ! la/ glacial epo* ! mean temp]ature ( ! e>? z a :ole 0 only #e deg4 or #f deg4,c4 l[] ?an at pres5t4 ,if ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! climate ( today & ( ! "t ( ,*ri/ is a t5? z great z ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! climate ( today & t :i* prevail$ at ! culm9ation ( ! la/ glacial epo*1 ! *ange 9 two ?\s& ye>s has be5 ( l>ge dim5sions4 ,yet ?is w\ld require a rise ( only half a degree ,c5tigrade 9 ! mean temp]ature ( ,pale/9e4 ,manife/ly1 s slight a *ange w\ld sc>cely be detectable 9 ! vegetation4 ,! slightness ( *anges 9 mean temp]ature z comp>$ ) *anges 9 ra9fall may be judg$ f a comp>ison ( wet & dry ye>s 9 v>i\s regions4 ,= example1 at ,b]l9 betwe5 #ahff & #aije ! t5 mo/ ra9y ye>s _h an av]age precipitation ( #fgj mm4 & a mean temp]ature ( #i4ae deg4,c4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! t5 ye>s ( lea/ ra9fall _h an av]age ( #dhc mm4 & a mean temp]ature ( #i4ce deg44 ,9 o!r words1 a diff]5ce ( #acg mm41 or #ci p] c5t1 9 ra9fall 0 accompani$ by a diff]5ce ( only #j4b deg4,c4 9 temp]ature4 ,su* contra/s betwe5 ! v>iability ( mean ra9fall & mean temp]ature are obs]vable n only :5 individual ye>s are select$1 b :5 mu* long] p]iods are tak54 ,= in/ance1 9 ! we/]n ,gulf region ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! two inl& /ations ( ,vicksburg1 ,mississippi1 & ,%reveport1 ,l\isiana1 & ! two m>itime /ations ( ,new ,orleans1 ,l\isiana1 & ,galve/on1 ,texas1 lie at ! m>g9s ( an area ab\t #djj miles long4 ,dur+ ! t5 ye>s f #ahge to #ahhd _! ra9fall av]ag$ #ei4d in*es1#cj :ile dur+ ! t5 ye>s f #ahij to #ahii x av]ag$ only #db4d in*es4 ,ev5 9 a region s well wat]$ z ! ,gulf ,/ates1 su* a *ange--#dj p] c5t m 9 ! fir/ decade ?an 9 ! second--is important1 & 9 dri] regions x w\ld h a great effect on habitability4 ,yet 9 spite ( ! magnitude ( ! *ange ! mean temp]ature 0 n appreciably diff]5t1 ! av]age = ! f\r /ations be+ #fg4cf deg4,f4 dur+ ! m ra9y decade & #ff4id deg4,f4 dur+ ! less ra9y decade--a diff]5ce ( only #j4db deg4,f4 ,x is wor? notic+ t 9 ?is case ! wett] p]iod 0 also ! w>m]1 :]eas 9 ,b]l9 x 0 ! cool]4 ,?is is probably because a l>ge "p ( ! moi/ure ( ! ,gulf ,/ates is br\ght by w9ds hav+ a s\!rly compon5t4 ,simil> relation%ips are app>5t 9 o!r places4 ,we select ,j]usalem because we h be5 discuss+ ,pale/9e4 ,at ! "t ( writ+1 ! data available 9 ! ,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal ( ! ,pale/9e ,exploration ,fund cov] ! ye>s f #ahhb-ahii & #aijc-aiji4 ,among ^! tw5ty-five ye>s ! ?irte5 :i* _h mo/ ra9 _h an av]age ( #cd4a in*es & a temp]ature ( #fb4jd deg4,f4 ,! twelve ) lea/ ra9 _h #bd4d in*es & a temp]ature ( #fb4dd deg44 ,a diff]5ce ( #dj p] c5t 9 ra9fall 0 accompani$ by a diff]5ce ( only #j4d deg4,f4 9 temp]ature4 ,! facts set =? 9 ! prec$+ p>agraphs seem to %[ t ext5sive *anges 9 precipitation & /orm9ess c take place )\t appreciable *anges ( mean temp]ature4 ,if su* *ang$ conditions c p]si/ = t5 ye>s1 z 9 "o ( our examples1 !re is no logical reason :y !y _c p]si/ = a hundr$ or a ?\s&4 ,! evid5ce ( *anges 9 climate dur+ ! hi/oric p]iod seems to sugge/ *anges 9 precipitation mu* m ?an 9 temp]ature4 ,h5ce ! /ronge/ ( all ! argum5ts aga9/ hi/oric *anges ( climate seems to be ( relatively little weight1 & ! pulsatory hypo!sis seems to be 9 accord ) all ! kn[n facts4 ,be=e ! true nature ( climatic *anges1 :e!r hi/oric or geologic1 c be rightly und]/ood1 ano!r po9t ne$s emphasis4 ,:5 ! pulsatory hypo!sis 0 fir/ fram$1 x fell into ! same error z ! hypo!ses ( uni=mity & ( progressive *ange--t is1 ! assumption 0 made t ! :ole _w is ei!r gr[+ dri] or moi/] ) ea* pulsation4 ,a /udy ( ! ru9s ( ,yucatan1 9 #aiab1 & ( ,guatemala1 9 #aiac1 z is expla9$ 9 ,! ,climatic ,factor1 has l$ to ! conclusion t ! climate ( ^? regions has *ang$ 9 ! opposite way f ! *anges :i* appe> to h tak5 place 9 ! des]t regions f>!r s\?4 ,^! ,maya ru9s 9 ,c5tral ,am]ica are 9 _m cases locat$ 9 regions ( su* heavy ra9fall1 su* d5se =e/s1 & su* malignant fev]s t habitation is n[ practically impossible4 ,! l& _c be cultivat$ except 9 especially favorable places4 ,! p are t]ribly weak5$ by disease & are among ! l[e/ 9 ,c5tral ,am]ica4 ,only a hundr$ miles f ! unheal?ful =e/s we f9d heal?ful areas1 su* z ! coa/s ( ,yucatan & ! plateau ( ,guatemala4 ,"h ! va/ majority ( ! population is ga!r$1 ! l>ge t[ns are locat$1 & ! only progressive p are f\nd4 ,nev]!less1 9 ! pa/ ! region ( ! =e/s 0 ! home ( by f> ! mo/ progressive p :o are ev] kn[n to h liv$ 9 ,am]ica previ\s to ! days ( ,columbus4 ,!y alone br\ght to high p]fection ! art ( sculpture2 !y 7 ! only ,am]ican p :o inv5t$ ! art ( writ+4 ,x seems sc>cely cr$ible t su* a p w\ld h liv$ 9 ! wor/ possible habitat :5 f> m favor$ regions 7 close at h&4 ,!re=e x seems z if ! climate ( ea/]n ,guatemala & ,yucatan mu/ h be5 relatively dry at "s pa/ "t4 ,! ,maya *ronology & traditions indicate t ?is 0 probably at ! same "t :5 moi/] conditions app>5tly prevail$ 9 ! sub>id or des]t portions ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,asia4 ,fig4 #c %[s t today at times ( _m sunspots !re is a simil> opposition betwe5 a t5d5cy t[>d /orm9ess & ra9 9 subtropical regions & t[>d aridity 9 l[ latitudes ne> ! heat equator4 ,?us our f9al conclusion is t dur+ hi/oric times !re h be5 pulsatory *anges ( climate4 ,^! *anges h be5 ( ! same type 9 regions hav+ simil> k9ds ( climate1 b ( diff]5t & sometimes opposite types 9 places hav+ div]se climates4 ,z to ! cause ( ! pulsations1 !y _c h be5 due to ! precession ( ! equ9oxes nor app>5tly to any alli$ a/ronomical cause1 = ! "t int]vals are too %ort & too irregul>4 ,!y _c h be5 due to *anges 9 ! p]c5tage ( c>bon dioxide 9 ! atmosph]e1 = n ev5 ! /ronge/ believ]s 9 ! climatic efficacy ( t gas hold t its am\nt c\ld fluctuate 9 any su* viol5t way z w\ld be necess>y to expla9 ! pulsations %[n 9 ! ,cali=nia curve ( tree gr[?4 ,volcanic activity seems m probable z at lea/ a p>tial cause1 & x w\ld be wor? :ile to inve/igate ! matt] m fully4 ,nev]!less1 x c app>5tly be only a m9or cause4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! ma9 effect ( a cl\d ( du/ is to alt] ! temp]ature1 b ,gregory's summ>y ( ! palm & ! v9e %[s t v>iations 9 temp]ature are app>5tly ( v slight importance dur+ hi/oric times4 ,aga91 ru9s on ! bottoms ( enclos$ salt lakes1 old bea*es n[ "u ! wat]1 & signs ( irrigation dit*es :]e none are n[ ne$$ indicate a climate dri] ?an ! pres5t4 ,volcanic du/1 h[ev]1 _c acc\nt = su* a condition1 = at pres5t ! air seems to be practically free f su* du/ = long p]iods4 ,?us we n[ exp]i5ce ! greate/ extreme :i* ! volcanic hypo!sis p]mits 9 "o direction1 b !re h be5 great] extremes 9 ! same direction4 ,! !rmal sol> hypo!sis is likewise unable to expla9 ! obs]v$ ph5om5a1 = nei!r x nor ! volcanic hypo!sis (f]s any explanation ( :y ! climate v>ies 9 "o way 9 ,m$it]ranean climates & 9 an opposite way 9 regions ne> ! heat equator4 ,?is leaves ! cyclonic hypo!sis4 ,x seems to fit ! facts1 = v>iations 9 cyclonic /orms cause "s regions to be moi/] & o!rs dri] ?an usual4 ,at ! same "t ! v>iations 9 temp]ature are slight1 & are app>5tly diff]5t 9 diff]5t regions1 "s places gr[+ w>m :5 o!rs gr[ cool4 ,9 ! next *apt] we %all /udy ?is matt] m fully1 = x c be/ be appreciat$ by exam9+ ! c\rse ( ev5ts 9 a specific c5tury4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #af3 ,mu* ( ?is *apt] is tak5 f ,! ,sol> ,hypo!sis ( ,climatic ,*anges2 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,am41 ,vol4 #be1 #aiad4 ,footnote #ag3 ,ellswor? ,hunt+ton3 ,explorations 9 ,turke/an1 #aije2 ,! ,pulse ( ,asia1 #aijg2 ,pale/9e & ,its ,trans=mation1 #aiaa2 ,! ,climatic ,factor1 #aiae2 ,_w ,p[] & ,evolution1 #aiai4 ,footnote #ah3 ,j4 ,hann3 ,klimatologie1 ,vol4 #a1 #aijh1 p4 #ceb4 ,footnote #ai3 ,h4 ,c4 ,butl]3 ,des]t ,syria1 ! ,l& ( a ,lo/ ,civilization2 ,geographical ,review1 ,feb41 #aibj1 pp4 #gg-ajh4 ,footnote #bj3 ,?is is due to ! fact t :]e ^! =e/s occur1 9 ,gilead = example1 ! m\nta9s to ! we/ break d[n1 s t ! we/ w9ds ) wat] f ! ,m$it]ranean are able to rea* ! inn] range )\t hav+ lo/ all _! wat]4 ,x is "o ( ! mis=tunes ( ,syria t its m\nta9s g5]ally rise s close to ! sea t !y %ut (f ra9fall f ! int]ior & cause ! ra9 to fall on slopes too /eep = easy cultivation4 ,footnote #ba3 ,h4 ,leit]3 ,die ,frage d] ,klima&]ung wah]5d ges*i*tli*] ,zeit 9 ,nordafrika4 ,abh&l4 ,k4 ,k4 ,geographis*5 ,gesells*aft1 ,wi51 #aiji1 p4 #adc4 ,footnote #bb3 ,a mo/ c>eful & conv9c+ /udy ( ?is problem is embodi$ 9 an article by ,j4 ,w4 ,smi?3 ,! ,effects ( ,wea!r ^u ! ,yield ( ,corn2 ,mon?ly ,wea!r ,review1 ,vol4 #db1 #aiad1 pp4 #gh-ib4 ,on ! basis ( ! yield ( corn 9 ,ohio = #fj ye>s & 9 o!r /ates = %ort] p]iods1 he %[s t ! ra9fall ( ,july has almo/ z mu* influ5ce on ! crop z has ! ra9fall ( all o!r mon?s comb9$4 ,see 8 ,agricultural ,meteorology1 ,new ,york1 #aibj4 ,footnote #bc3 ,see *apt] by ,a4 ,e4 ,d\glass 9 ,! ,climatic ,factor2 & 8 book on ,climatic ,cycles & ,tree-,gr[?2 ,c>negie ,in/41 #aiai4 ,also article by ,m4 ,n4 ,/ew>t3 ,! ,relation ( ,precipitation to ,tree ,gr[?1 9 ! ,mon?ly ,wea!r ,review1 ,vol4 #da1 #aiac4 ,footnote #bd3 ,! dott$ l9e is tak5 f ,pale/9e & ,its ,trans=mation1 pp4 #cbg & #djc4 ,footnote #be3 ,m4 ,a4 ,/e93 ,ru9s ( ,des]t ,ca?ay1 ,london1 #aiab4 ,footnote #bf3 ,9 ! prep>ation & int]pretation ( ?is table ! help ( ,mr4 ,g4 ,b4 ,cressey is gratefully ackn[l$g$4 ,footnote #bg3 ,= ! tree data us$ 9 ^! comp>isons1 see ,! ,climatic ,factor ,p4 #cbh1 & ,a4 ,e4 ,d\glass3 ,climatic ,cycles & ,tree ,gr[?1 p4 #abc4 ,footnote ,a3 ,"o ye> int]polat$4 ,footnote #bh3 ,j4 ,w4 ,gregory3 ,is ! ,e>? ,dry+ ,up8 ,geog4 ,j\r41 ,vol4 #dc1 #aiad1 pp4 #adh-agb & #bic-cah4 ,footnote #bi3 ,geog4 ,j\r41 ,vol4 #dc1 pp4 #aei-afa4 ,footnote #cj3 ,see ,a4 ,j4 ,h5ry3 ,secul> ,v>iation ( ,precipitation 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 ,bull4 ,am4 ,geog4 ,soc41 ,vol4 #df1 #aiad1 pp4 #aib-bja4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,climatic ,,/ress ,,( ,,! ,,f\rte5? ,,c5tury ,9 ord] to give concret5ess to our picture ( ! climatic pulsations ( hi/oric times let u take a specific p]iod & see h[ its *anges ( climate 7 di/ribut$ ov] ! globe & h[ !y are relat$ to ! little *anges :i* n[ take place 9 ! sunspot cycle4 ,we w take ! f\rte5? c5tury ( ! ,*ri/ian era1 especially ! fir/ half4 ,?is p]iod is *os5 because x is ! la/ & h5ce ! be/ kn[n ( ! times :5 ! climate ( ! e>? seems to h tak5 a consid]able sw+ t[>d ! conditions :i* n[ prevail :5 ! sun is mo/ active1 & :i*1 if int5sifi$1 w\ld app>5tly lead to glaciation4 ,x has already be5 discuss$ 9 ,_w ,p[] & ,evolution1 b its importance & ! fact t new evid5ce is con/antly com+ to light w>rant a full] discussion4 ,to beg9 ) ,europe2 accord+ to ! c>eful acc\nt ( ,pett]sson#ca ! f\rte5? c5tury %[s a record ( extreme climatic v>iations4 ,9 ! cold w9t]s ! riv]s ,rh9e1 ,danube1 ,?ames1 & ,po 7 froz5 = weeks & mon?s4 ,on ^! cold w9t]s !re foll[$ viol5t floods1 s t ! riv]s m5tion$ inundat$ _! valleys4 ,su* floods are record$ 9 #ee summ]s 9 ! #ad? c5tury4 ,!re is1 ( c\rse1 no?+ a/oni%+ 9 ! fact t ! inundations ( ! great riv]s ( ,europe 7 m deva/at+ #fjj to #gjj ye>s ago ?an 9 our days1 :5 ! fl[ ( ! riv]s has be5 regulat$ by canals1 locks1 etc42 b /ill ! inundations 9 ! #ac? & #ad? c5turies mu/ h surpass$ ev]y?+ ( t k9d :i* has occurr$ s9ce !n4 ,9 #acdb ! wat]s ( ! ,rh9e rose s high t !y inundat$ ! city ( ,may5ce & ! ,ca!dral usque ad c+ulum hom9is4 ,! walls ( ,cologne 7 flood$ s t !y c\ld be pass$ by boats 9 ,july4 ,?is occurr$ also 9 #acgd 9 ! mid/ ( ! mon? ( ,febru>y1 :i* is ( c\rse an unusual season = disa/]s ( ! k9d4 ,aga9 9 o!r ye>s ! dr\ght 0 s int5se t ! same riv]s1 ! ,danube1 ,rh9e1 & o!rs1 ne>ly dri$ up1 & ! ,rh9e c\ld be =d$ at ,cologne4 ,?is happ5$ at lea/ twice 9 ! same c5tury4 ,!re is "o exceptional summ] ( su* evil record t c5turies aft]w>ds x 0 spok5 ( z ! old hot summ] ( #aceg4 ,pett]sson goes on to speak ( two oceanic ph5om5a on :i* ! old *ronicles lay great] /ress ?an on all o!rs3 ,! fir/ is ! great /orm-floods on ! coa/ ( ! ,nor? ,sea & ! ,baltic1 :i* occurr$ s frequ5tly t n less ?an n9ete5 floods ( a de/ructiv5ess unp>allel$ 9 lat] times are record$ f ! #ad? c5tury4 ,! coa/l9e ( ! ,nor? ,sea 0 completely alt]$ by ^! floods4 ,?us on ,janu>y #af1 #acjj1 half ( ! isl& ,heligol& & _m o!r isl&s 7 engulf$ by ! sea4 ,! same fate ov]took ! isl& ( ,borkum1 torn into sev]al isl&s by ! /orm-flood ( ,janu>y #af1 :i* rem\ld$ ! ,frisian ,isl&s into _! pres5t %ape1 :5 also ,w5d+/adt1 on ! isl& ( ,sylt1 & ,?iryu p>i%es 7 engulf$4 ,?is flood is kn[n "u ! "n ( ! great man-dr[n+4 ,! coa/s ( ! ,baltic also 7 expos$ to /orm-floods ( unp>allel$ viol5ce4 ,on ,novemb] #a1 #acjd1 ! isl& ( ,rud5 0 torn asund] f ,rug5 by ! =ce ( ! waves4 ,"t does n all[ me to dwell ^u individual disa/]s ( ?is k9d1 b x w be well to note t ( ! n9ete5 great floods on record eighte5 occurr$ 9 ! cold season betwe5 ! autumnal & v]nal equ9oxes4 ,! second rem>kable ph5om5on m5tion$ by ! *ronicles is ! freez+ ( ! entire ,baltic1 :i* occurr$ _m times dur+ ! cold w9t]s ( ^! c5turies4 ,on su* occasions x 0 possible to travel ) c>riages ov] ! ice f ,sw$5 to ,bornholm & f ,d5m>k to ! ,g]man coa/ 7,lubeck71 & 9 "s cases ev5 f ,gotl& to ! coa/ ( ,e/l&4 ,norl9d#cb says t ! only au!ntic acc\nts ( ! complete freez+ ( ! ,baltic 9 ! neighborhood ( ! ,kattegat are 9 ! ye>s #abif1 #acjf1 #acbc1 & #adjh4 ,( ^! #abif is mu* ! mo/ unc]ta91 :ile #acbc 0 ! colde/ ye> ev] record$1 z appe>s f ! fact t horses & sleighs cross$ regul>ly f ,sw$5 to ,g]many on ! ice4 ,n only c5tral ,europe & ! %ores ( ! ,nor? ,sea 7 m>k$ by climatic /ress dur+ ! f\rte5? c5tury1 b ,sc&9avia also suff]$4 ,z ,pett]sson puts x3 ,on exam9+ ! hi/oric 7data7 f ! la/ c5turies ( ! ,middle ,ages1 ,dr4 ,bull ( ,*ri/iania has come to ! conclusion t ! decay ( ! ,norwegian k+dom 0 n s mu* a consequ5ce ( ! political conditions at t "t1 z ( ! frequ5t failures ( ! h>ve/ s t corn :eat = bread _h to be import$ f ,luebeck1 ,ro/ock1 ,wism> & s =?4 ,! ,hansa ,union und]took ! importation & obta9$ political p[] by its economic influ5ce4 ,! ,norwegian l&-own]s 7 =c$ to l[] _! r5ts4 ,! population decreas$ & became impov]i%$4 ,! rev5ue sank #fj to #gj p] c5t4 ,ev5 ! income f ,*ur* prop]ty decreas$4 ,9 #acfg corn 0 import$ f ,luebeck to a value ( "o-half million kron]4 ,! trade balance incl9$ to ! disadvantage ( ,norway ^: sole article ( export at t "t 0 dri$ fi%4 7,! production ( fi% increas$ enorm\sly 9 ! ,baltic regions (f s\? ,sw$5 because ( ! same *anges :i* 7 influ5c+ ! l&s1 b ?is did n b5efit ,norway47 ,dr4 ,bull draws a comp>ison ) ! conditions describ$ 9 ! ,sagas :5 ,nordl& at ! ,arctic ,circle produc$ en\gh corn to fe$ ! inhabitants ( ! c\ntry4 ,at ! "t ( ,asbjo]n ,selsbane ! *iefta9s 9 ,trondh5aes /ill f>!r nor? 9 latitude #fi deg4 grew s mu* corn t !y did n ne$ to g s\?w>d to buy corn unless ?ree successive ye>s ( de>? _h occurr$4 ,! prov9ce ( ,trondheim export$ :eat to ,icel& & s =?4 ,probably ! turbul5t political /ate ( ,sc&9avia at ! end ( ! ,middle ,ages 0 9 a great measure due to unfavorable climatic conditions1 :i* l[]$ ! /&>d ( life1 & n entirely to misgov]nm5t & political /rife z has hi!rto be5 tak5 = grant$4 ,dur+ ?is same un=tunate fir/ half ( ! f\rte5? c5tury ,engl& also suff]$ f conditions :i*1 if suffici5tly int5sifi$1 might be ^? ( a glacial p]iod4 ,accord+ to ,?orwald ,rog]s#cc ! sev]e/ fam9e ev] exp]i5c$ 9 ,engl& 0 t ( #acae-acaf1 & ! next wor/ 0 9 #acba4 ,9 fact1 f #acjh to #acbb great sc>city ( food prevail$ mo/ ( ! "t4 ,o!r fam9es ( less sev]ity occurr$ 9 #acea & #acfi4 ,! same cause 0 at "w 9 all ^! cases1 says ,rog]s1 incessant ra91 & cold1 /ormy summ]s4 ,x is said t ! inclem5cy ( ! seasons affect$ ! cattle1 & t numb]s p]i%$ f disease & want4 ,aft] ! bad h>ve/ ( #acae ! price ( :eat1 :i* 0 already high1 rose rapidly1 & 9 ,may1 #acaf1 0 ab\t five times ! av]age4 ,= a ye> or m !reaft] x rema9$ at ?ree or f\r times ! ord9>y level4 ,! sev]ity ( ! fam9e may be judg$ f ! fact t previ\s to ! ,great ,w> ! mo/ notable sc>city ( :eat 9 mod]n ,engl& & ! highe/ relative price 0 9 ,decemb]1 #ahjj4 ,at t "t :eat co/ ne>ly ?ree times ! usual am\nt1 in/ead ( five z 9 #acaf4 ,dur+ ! fam9e ( ! e>ly f\rte5? c5tury x is said t p 7 r$uc$ to subsi/ ^u roots1 ^u horses & dogs1 & /ories are told ( ev5 m t]rible acts by reason ( ! extreme fam9e4 ,! numb] ( dea?s 0 s great t ! price ( labor suff]$ a p]man5t rise ( at lea/ #aj p] c5t4 ,!re simply 7 n p en\gh left among ! peasants to d ! "w dem&$ by ! m prosp]\s class :o _h n suff]$ s mu*4 ,aft] ! fam9e came dr\ght4 ,! ye> #acbe appe>s to h be5 peculi>ly dry1 & #acca1 #acdd1 #acfb1 #acgd1 & #acgg 7 also dry4 ,9 g5]al ^! conditions d little h>m 9 ,engl&4 ,!y are ( int]e/ *iefly z %[+ h[ excessive ra9 & dr\ght are apt to succe$ "o ano!r4 ,^! facts reg>d+ nor!rn & c5tral ,europe dur+ ! f\rte5? c5tury are p>ticul>ly significant :5 comp>$ ) ! conclusions :i* we h drawn 9 ,e>? & ,sun f ! gr[? ( trees 9 ,g]many & f ! di/ribution ( /orms4 ,a c>eful /udy ( all ! facts %[s t we are deal+ ) two di/9ct types ( ph5om5a4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! climate ( c5tral ,europe seems to h be5 peculi>ly cont95tal dur+ ! f\rte5? c5tury4 ,! w9t]s 7 s cold t ! riv]s froze1 & ! summ]s 7 s wet t !re 7 floods e o!r ye> or (t5]4 ,?is seems to be m]ely an int5sification ( ! conditions :i* prevail at ! pres5t "t dur+ p]iods ( _m sunspots1 z indicat$ by ! gr[? ( trees at ,eb]swalde 9 ,g]many & by ! numb] ( /orms 9 w9t] z comp>$ ) summ]4 ,! preval5ce ( dr\ghts1 especially 9 ! spr+1 is also n inconsi/5t ) ! exi/5ce ( floods at o!r seasons1 = "o ( ! *ief *>act]i/ics ( a cont95tal climate is t ! v>iations f "o season to ano!r are m m>k$ ?an 9 oceanic climates4 ,ev5 ! summ] dr\ghts are typically cont95tal1 = :5 cont95tal conditions prevail1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! same season 9 diff]5t ye>s is extreme1 z is well illu/rat$ 9 ,kansas4 ,x mu/ always be rememb]$ t :at causes fam9e is n s mu* absolute dryness z a tempor>y dim9ution ( ! ra9fall4 ,! second type ( ph5om5a is peculi>ly oceanic 9 "*4 ,x consi/s ( two p>ts1 bo? ( :i* are precisely :at w\ld be expect$ if a highly cont95tal climate prevail$ ov] ! l&4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 at c]ta9 times ! cold area ( high pressure1 :i* is ! pr$om9at+ *>act]i/ic ( a cont95t dur+ ! w9t]1 app>5tly spread out ov] ! neighbor+ oceans4 ,"u su* conditions an inl& sea1 su* z ! ,baltic1 w\ld be froz51 s t horses c\ld cross ! ice ev5 9 ! ,f> ,we/4 ,9 ! second place1 because ( ! unusually high pressure ov] ! cont95t1 ! b>ometric gradi5ts app>5tly became int5sifi$4 ,h5ce at ! m>g9 ( ! cont95tal high-pressure area ! w9ds 7 unusually /rong & ! /orms ( correspond+ sev]ity4 ,"s ( ^! /orms may h pass$ entirely along oceanic tracks1 :ile o!rs invad$ ! bord]s ( ! l&1 & gave rise to ! floods & to ! we>+ away ( ! coa/ describ$ by ,pett]sson4 ,turn+ n[ to ! ea/ ( ,europe1 ,brueckn]'s#cd /udy ( ! ,caspian ,sea %[s t t region z well z we/]n ,europe 0 subject to great climatic vicissitudes 9 ! fir/ half ( ! f\rte5? c5tury4 ,9 #acjf-acjg ! ,caspian ,sea1 aft] ris+ rapidly = sev]al ye>s1 /ood ?irty-sev5 feet above ! pres5t level & x probably rose /ill high] dur+ ! succe$+ decades4 ,at lea/ x rema9$ at a high level1 = ,hamdulla1 ! ,p]sian1 tells u t 9 #acbe a place call$ ,aboskun 0 "u wat]4#ce ,/ill fur!r ea/ ! inl& lake ( ,lop ,nor also rose at ab\t ?is "t4 ,accord+ to a ,*9ese acc\nt ! ,dragon ,t[n on ! %ore ( ,lop ,nor 0 de/roy$ by a flood4 ,f ,himley's translation x appe>s t ! level ( ! lake rose s z to ov]:elm ! city completely4 ,?is w\ld necessitate ! expansion ( ! lake to a po9t eighty miles ea/ ( ,lulan1 & fully fifty f ! pres5t ea/]n end ( ! ,k>a ,ko%un m>%4 ,! wat] w\ld h to rise ne>ly1 or q1 to a /r& :i* is n[ cle>ly visible at a height ( twelve feet above ! mod]n lake or m>%4 ,9 ,india ! f\rte5? c5tury 0 *>act]iz$ by :at appe>s to h be5 ! mo/ disa/r\s dr\ght 9 all hi/ory4 ,app>5tly ! decrease 9 ra9fall "h 0 z /rik+ z ! increase 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,no /ati/ics are available b we are told t 9 ! great fam9e :i* began 9 #acdd ev5 ! ,mogul emp]or 0 unable to obta9 ! necess>ies ( life = 8 h\sehold4 ,no ra9 wor? m5tion+ fell = ye>s4 ,9 "s places ! fam9e la/$ ?ree or f\r ye>s1 & 9 "s twelve1 & entire cities 7 left )\t an inhabitant4 ,9 a lat] fam9e1 #agfi-aggj1 :i* occurr$ 9 ,b5gal %ortly aft] ! f\ndation ( ,briti% rule 9 ,india1 b :ile ! native (ficials 7 /ill 9 p[]1 a ?ird ( ! population1 or t5 out ( ?irty millions1 p]i%$4 ,! fam9e 9 ! fir/ half ( ! f\rte5? c5tury seems to h be5 f> worse4 ,^! ,indian fam9es 7 app>5tly due to weak summ] monsoons caus$ presumably by ! failure ( c5tral ,asia to w>m up z mu* z usual4 ,! heavi] sn[fall1 & ! great] cl\d9ess ( ! summ] !re1 :i* probably accompani$ increas$ /orm9ess1 may h be5 ! reason4 ,! ,new ,_w z well z ! ,old appe>s to h be5 9 a /ate ( climatic /ress dur+ ! fir/ half ( ! f\rte5? c5tury4 ,accord+ to ,pett]sson1 ,gre5l& furni%es an example ( ?is4 ,at fir/ ! inhabitants ( t nor?l& 7 fairly prosp]\s & 7 able to approa* f ,icel& )\t mu* h9drance f ! ice4 ,today ! ,nor? ,atlantic ,ocean nor!a/ ( ,icel& is full ( drift ice mu* ( ! "t4 ,! bord] ( ! ice v>ies f season to season1 b 9 g5]al x ext5ds we/w>d f ,icel& n f> f ! ,arctic circle & !n foll[s ! coa/ ( ,gre5l& s\?w>d to ,cape ,f>ewell at ! s\!rn tip & ar\nd to ! we/]n side = fifty miles or m4 ,except "u exceptional circum/ances a %ip _c approa* ! coa/ until well nor?w>d on ! comp>atively ice-free we/ coa/4 ,9 ! old ,sagas1 h[ev]1 no?+ is said ( ice 9 ?is region4 ,! r\te f ,icel& to ,gre5l& is c>efully describ$4 ,9 ! e>lie/ times x w5t f ,icel& a trifle nor? ( we/ s z to approa* ! coa/ ( ,gre5l& aft] z %ort an ocean passage z possible4 ,!n x w5t d[n ! coa/ 9 a region :]e approa* is n[ practically impossible because ( ! ice4 ,at t "t ?is coa/ 0 icy close to ! %ore1 b !re is no sign t navigation 0 r5d]$ difficult z is n[ ! case4 ,today no navigator w\ld ?9k ( keep+ close inl&4 ,! old r\te also w5t nor? ( ! isl& on :i* ,cape ,f>ewell is locat$1 al?\gh ! n>r[ *annel betwe5 ! isl& & ! ma9l& is n[ s block$ ) ice t no mod]n vessel has ev] p5etrat$ x4 ,by ! ?irte5? c5tury1 h[ev]1 !re appe>s to h be5 a *ange4 ,9 ! ,kungaspegel or ,k+s' ,mirror1 writt5 at t "t1 navigators are w>n$ n to make ! ea/ coa/ too soon on acc\nt ( ice1 b no new r\te is recomm5d$ 9 ! neighborhood ( ,cape ,f>ewell or else:]e4 ,f9ally1 h[ev]1 at ! end ( ! f\rte5? c5tury1 ne>ly #aej ye>s aft] ! ,kungaspegel1 ! old sail+ r\te 0 ab&on$1 & %ips f ,icel& sail$ directly s\?we/ to avoid ! ice4 ,z ,pett]sson says3 444 ,at ! end ( ! ?irte5? & ! beg9n+ ( ! f\rte5? c5tury ! ,european civilization 9 ,gre5l& 0 wip$ out by an invasion ( ! aborig9al population4 ,! coloni/s 9 ! ,ve/]bygd 7 driv5 f _! homes & probably migrat$ to ,am]ica leav+ beh9d _! cattle 9 ! fields4 ,s !y 7 f\nd by ,iv> ,b>dsson1 /ew>d to ! ,bi%op ( ,g>d>1 9 8 (ficial j\rney ?i!r 9 #acdb4 ,! ,eskimo invasion mu/ n be reg>d$ z a common raid4 ,x 0 ! transmigration ( a p1 & l o!r big movem5ts ( ?is k9d 0 impell$ by alt]$ conditions ( nature1 9 ?is case ! alt]ations ( climate caus$ by or :i* caus$8 ! advance ( ! ice4 ,= _! hunt+ & fi%+ ! ,eskimos require an at lea/ p>tially op5 arctic sea4 ,! seal1 _! pr9cipal prey1 _c live :]e ! surface ( ! sea is entirely froz5 ov]4 ,! cause ( ! favorable conditions 9 ! ,vik+-age 01 accord+ to my hypo!sis1 t ! ice !n melt$ at a high] latitude 9 ! arctic seas4 ,! ,eskimos !n liv$ fur!r nor? 9 ,gre5l& & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,:5 ! climate det]iorat$ & ! sea :i* gave !m _! liv+ 0 clos$ by ice ! ,eskimos _h to f9d a m suitable neighborhood4 ,?is !y f\nd 9 ! l& coloniz$ by ! ,norsem5 :om !y attack$ & f9ally annihilat$4 ,f9ally1 f> to ! s\? 9 ,yucatan ! anci5t ,maya civilization made its la/ flick]+ ef=t at ab\t ?is "t4 ,n mu* is kn[n ( ?is b 9 e>li] p]iods ! hi/ory ( ! ,mayas seems to h agre$ q closely ) ! fluctuations 9 climate4#cf ,among ! ,mayas1 z we h se51 relatively dry p]iods 7 ! times ( greate/ progress4 ,let u turn n[ to ,fig4 #c once m & comp>e ! climatic conditions ( ! f\rte5? c5tury ) ^? ( p]iods ( increas+ ra9fall4 ,s\!rn ,engl&1 ,irel&1 & ,sc&9avia1 :]e ! crops 7 ru9$ by ext5sive ra9 & /orms 9 summ]1 are places :]e /orm9ess & ra9fall n[ increase :5 sunspots are num]\s4 ,c5tral ,europe & ! coa/s ( ! ,nor? ,sea1 :]e flood & dr\ght alt]nat$1 are regions :i* n[ h relatively less ra9 :5 sunspots increase ?an :5 !y dim9i%4 ,h[ev]1 z appe>s f ! trees measur$ by ,d\glass1 ! w9t]s become m cont95tal & h5ce cool]1 ?us correspond+ to ! cold w9t]s ( ! f\rte5? c5tury :5 p walk$ on ! ice f ,sc&9avia to ,d5m>k4 ,:5 su* high pressure prevails 9 ! w9t]1 ! total ra9fall is dim9i%$1 b nev]!less ! /orms are m sev]e ?an usual1 especially 9 ! spr+4 ,9 s\!a/]n ,europe1 ! "p ( ! area :5ce ! ,caspian d]ives its wat]1 appe>s to h less ra9fall dur+ times ( increas+ sunspots ?an :5 sunspots are few1 b 9 an equally l>ge area to ! s\?1 :]e ! m\nta9s are high] & ! run-(f ( ! ra9 is m rapid1 ! rev]se is ! case4 ,?is seems to mean t a slight dim9ution 9 ! wat] p\r$ 9 by ! ,volga w\ld be m ?an comp5sat$ by ! wat] d]iv$ f ,p]sia & f ! ,oxus & ,jax>tes riv]s1 :i* 9 ! f\rte5? c5tury appe> to h fill$ ! ,sea ( ,aral & ov]fl[$ 9 a l>ge /ream to ! ,caspian4 ,/ill f>!r ea/ 9 c5tral ,asia1 s f> z ! records g1 mo/ ( ! c\ntry receives m ra9 :5 sunspots are _m ?an :5 !y are few1 :i* w\ld agree ) :at happ5$ :5 ! ,dragon ,t[n 0 inundat$4 ,9 ,india1 on ! contr>y1 !re is a l>ge area :]e ! ra9fall dim9i%es at times ( _m sunspots1 ?us agree+ ) ! t]rible fam9e f :i* ! ,moguls suff]$ s sev]ely4 ,9 ! we/]n hemisph]e1 ,gre5l&1 ,arizona1 & ,cali=nia are all p>ts ( ! area :]e ! ra9 increases ) _m sunspots1 :ile ,yucatan seems to lie 9 an area ( ! opposite type4 ,?us all ! evid5ce seems to %[ t at times ( climatic /ress1 su* z ! f\rte5? c5tury1 ! conditions are ess5tially ! same z ^? :i* n[ prevail at times ( increas+ sunspots4 ,z to ! numb] ( sunspots1 !re is little evid5ce previ\s to ab\t #agej4 ,yet t little is bo? int]e/+ & important4 ,al?\gh sunspots h be5 obs]v$ ) c>e 9 ,europe only a little m ?an ?ree c5turies1 ! ,*9ese h records :i* g back ne>ly to ! beg9n+ ( ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,( c\rse ! records are f> f p]fect1 = ! "w 0 done by individuals & n by any great organization :i* cont9u$ ! same me?ods f g5]ation to g5]ation4 ,! m]e fact t a good obs]v] happ5$ to use 8 smok$ glass to advantage may cause a p>ticul> p]iod to appe> to h an unusual numb] ( spots4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! fact t su* an obs]v] f9ds spots at "s times & n at o!rs t5ds to give a valuable *eck on 8 results1 z does ! comp>ison ( "o obs]v]'s "w ) t ( ano!r4 ,h5ce1 9 spite ( _m & obvi\s defects1 mo/ /ud5ts ( ! problem agree t ! ,*9ese record possesses mu* value1 & t = a ?\s& ye>s or m x gives a fairly true idea ( ! g5]al aspect ( ! sun4 ,9 ! ,*9ese records ! ye>s ) _m spots fall 9 gr\ps1 z w\ld be expect$1 & are sometimes sep>at$ by long int]vals4 ,c]ta9 c5turies appe> to h be5 m>k$ by unusual spott$ness4 ,! mo/ conspicu\s ( ^! is ! f\rte5?1 :5 ! ye>s #acgj to #ache 7 p>ticul>ly notewor?y1 = spots l>ge en\gh to be visible to ! nak$ eye cov]$ ! sun mu* ( ! "t4 ,h5ce ,wolf1#cg :o has made an exhau/ive /udy ( ! matt]1 concludes t !re 0 an absolute maximum ( spots ab\t #acgb4 ,:ile ?is date is av[$ly op5 to "q1 ! great abundance ( sunspots at t "t makes x probable t x _c be f> wrong4 ,if ?is is s1 x seems t ! great climatic di/urbances ( :i* we h se5 evid5ce 9 ! f\rte5? c5tury occurr$ at a "t :5 sunspots 7 increas+1 or at lea/ :5 sol> activity 0 "u "s pr(\ndly di/urb+ influ5ce4 ,?us ! evid5ce seems to %[ n m]ely t ! climate ( hi/oric times has be5 subject to important pulsations1 b t ^? pulsations 7 magnifications ( ! little climatic *anges :i* n[ take place 9 sunspot cycles4 ,! pa/ & ! pres5t are app>5tly a unit except z to ! int5sity ( ! *anges4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ca3 ,o4 ,pett]sson3 ,! connection betwe5 hydrographical & meteorological ph5om5a2 ,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,meteorological ,society1 ,vol4 #ch1 pp4 #agd-age4 ,footnote #cb3 ,a4 ,norl9d3 ,e9ige ,bem]kung5 ueb] das ,klima d] hi/oris*5 ,zeit neb/ e9em ,v]zei*nis mittelaltli*] ,witt]ungs ers*e9ung52 ,lunds ,univ4 ,arsskrift1 ,n4 ,f41 ,vol4 #aj1 #aiad1 #ec pp4 ,footnote #cc3 ,?orwald ,rog]s3 ,a ,hi/ory ( ,agriculture & ,prices 9 ,engl&4 ,footnote #cd3 ,e4 ,brueckn]3 ,klimas*wankung5 seit #agjj1 ,vi5na1 #ahia4 ,footnote #ce3 ,= a full discussion ( ! *anges 9 ! ,caspian ,sea1 see ,! ,pulse ( ,asia1 pp4 #cbi-ceh4 ,footnote #cf3 ,s4 ,q4 ,morley3 ,! ,inscriptions at ,copan2 ,c>negie ,in/4 ( ,wa%41 ,no4 #bai1 #aibj4 ,ellswor? ,hunt+ton3 ,! ,r$ ,man's ,cont95t1 #aiai4 ,footnote #cg3 ,see summ>y ( ,wolf's "w ) additional in=mation by ,h4 ,fritz2 ,zu]i* ,vi]teljahrs*rift1 ,vol4 #ch1 #ahic1 pp4 #gg-ajg4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,glaciation ,,accord+ ,,to ,,! ,,sol>-,,cyclonic ,,hypo!sis#ch ,! rem>kable ph5om5a ( glacial p]iods af=d p]haps ! be/ available te/ to :i* any climatic hypo!sis c be subject$4 ,9 ?is *apt] & ! two t foll[1 we %all apply ?is te/4 ,s9ce mu* m is kn[n ab\t ! rec5t ,great ,ice ,age1 or ,plei/oc5e glaciation1 ?an ab\t ! m anci5t glaciations1 ! problems ( ! ,plei/oc5e w receive especial att5tion4 ,9 ! pres5t *apt] ! oncom+ ( glaciation & ! subsequ5t disappe>ance ( ! ice w be outl9$ 9 ! light ( :at w\ld be expect$ accord+ to ! sol>-cyclonic hypo!sis4 ,!n 9 ! next *apt] sev]al problems ( especial climatic significance w be consid]$1 su* z ! localization ( ice %eets1 ! succession ( sev]e glacial & mild int]-glacial epo*s1 ! sudd5 comm5cem5t ( glaciation & ! peculi> v>iations 9 ! height ( ! sn[ l9e4 ,o!r topics to be consid]$ are ! occurr5ce ( pluvial or ra9y climates 9 non-glaciat$ regions1 & glaciation ne> sea level 9 subtropical latitudes dur+ ! ,p]mian & ,prot]ozoic4 ,!n 9 ,*apt] ,,ix we %all consid] ! developm5t & di/ribution ( ! rem>kable deposits ( w9d-bl[n mat]ial kn[n z loess4 ,facts n consid]$ at ! "t ( fram+ an hypo!sis are especially significant 9 te/+ x4 ,9 ?is p>ticul> case1 ! cyclonic hypo!sis 0 fram$ to expla9 ! hi/oric *anges ( climate reveal$ by a /udy ( ru9s1 tree r+s1 & ! t]races ( /reams & lakes1 )\t special ?\ght ( glaciation or o!r geologic *anges4 ,inde$1 ! hypo!sis _h rea*$ ne>ly its pres5t =m be=e mu* att5tion 0 giv5 to geological phases ( ! problem4 ,nev]!less1 x appe>s to meet ev5 ?is sev]e te/4 ,accord+ to ! sol>-cyclonic hypo!sis1 ! ,plei/oc5e glacial p]iod 0 inaugurat$ at a "t :5 c]ta9 t]re/rial conditions t5d$ to make ! e>? especially favorable = glaciation4 ,h[ ^! conditions arose w be consid]$ lat]4 ,"h x is en\gh to /ate :at !y 74 ,*ief among !m 0 ! fact t ! cont95ts /ood unusually high & 7 unusually l>ge4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 0 n ! prim>y cause ( glaciation1 = _m ( ! areas :i* 7 soon to be glaciat$ 7 little above sea level4 ,= example1 x seems cle> t ,new ,engl& /ood less ?an a ?\s& feet high] ?an n[4 ,inde$1 ,salisbury#ci e/imates t ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica 9 g5]al /ood n m ?an a few hundr$ feet high] ?an n[1 & ,w4 ,b4 ,wright#dj rea*es ! same conclusion 9 respect to ! ,briti% ,isles4 ,nev]!less1 widespread l&s1 ev5 if !y are n all high1 lead to climatic conditions :i* favor glaciation4 ,= example1 enl>g$ cont95ts cause l[ temp]ature 9 high latitudes because !y int]f]e ) ! ocean curr5ts t c>ry heat polew>ds4 ,su* cont95ts also cause relatively cold w9t]s1 = l&s cool mu* soon] ?an does ! ocean4 ,ano!r result is a dim9ution ( wat] vapor1 n only because cold air _c hold mu* vapor1 b also because ! oceanic area f :i* evaporation takes place is r$uc$ by ! em]g5ce ( ! cont95ts4 ,aga91 :5 ! cont95ts are ext5sive ! am\nt ( c>bonic acid gas 9 ! atmosph]e probably decreases1 = ! augm5t$ erosion due to uplift exposes mu* igne\s rock to ! air1 & wea!r+ consumes ! atmosph]ic c>bon dioxide4 ,:5 ! supply ( wat] vapor & ( atmosph]ic c>bon dioxide is small1 an extreme type ( climate usually prevails4 ,! comb9$ result ( all ^! conditions is t cont95tal em]g5ce causes ! climate to be some:at cool & to be m>k$ by relatively great contra/s f season to season & f latitude to latitude4 ,:5 ! t]re/rial conditions ?us p]mitt$ glaciation1 unusual sol> activity is suppos$ to h greatly increas$ ! numb] & sev]ity ( /orms & to h alt]$ _! location1 j z n[ happ5s at times ( _m sunspots4 ,if su* a *ange 9 /orm9ess _h occurr$ :5 t]re/rial conditions 7 unfavorable = glaciation1 z1 = example1 :5 ! l&s 7 l[ & !re 7 widespread epicont95tal seas 9 middle & high latitudes1 glaciation might n h result$4 ,9 ! ,plei/oc5e1 h[ev]1 t]re/rial conditions p]mitt$ glaciation1 & !re=e ! suppos$ increase 9 /orm9ess caus$ great ice %eets4 ,! conditions :i* prevail at times ( increas$ /orm9ess h be5 discuss$ 9 detail 9 ,e>? & ,sun4 ,^? :i* app>5tly br\ght on glaciation seem to h act$ z foll[s3 ,9 ! fir/ place ! /orm9ess l[]$ ! temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface 9 sev]al ways4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! 0 ! rapid upw>d convection 9 ! c5t]s ( cyclonic /orms :]eby abundant heat 0 c>ri$ to high levels :]e mo/ ( x 0 radiat$ away into space4 ,! m>k$ increase 9 ! numb] ( tropical cyclones :i* accompanies increas$ sol> activity 0 probably important 9 ?is respect4 ,su* cyclones c>ry va/ quantities ( heat & moi/ure out ( ! tropics4 ,! moi/ure1 to be sure1 lib]ates heat ^u cond5s+1 b z cond5sation occurs above ! e>?'s surface1 mu* ( ! heat escapes into space4 ,ano!r reason = l[ temp]ature 0 t "u ! influ5ce ( ! suppos$ly num]\s /orms ( ,plei/oc5e times evaporation ov] ! oceans mu/ h increas$4 ,?is is l>gely because ! velocity ( ! w9ds is relatively great :5 /orms are /rong & su* w9ds are p[]ful ag5ts ( evaporation4 ,b evaporation requires heat1 & h5ce ! /rong w9ds l[] ! temp]ature4,b ,! second great condition :i* enabl$ increas$ /orm9ess to br+ on glaciation 0 ! location ( ! /orm tracks4 ,kullm]'s maps1 z illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #b1 sugge/ t a great increase 9 sol> activity1 su* z is po/ulat$ 9 ! ,plei/oc5e1 might %ift ! ma9 /orm track polew>d ev5 m ?an x is %ift$ by ! mild] sol> *anges dur+ ! twelve-ye> sunspot cycle4 ,if ?is is s1 ! ma9 track w\ld t5d to cross ,nor? ,am]ica ?r\gh ! middle ( ,canada in/ead ( ne> ! s\!rn bord]4 ,?us !re w\ld be an increase 9 precipitation 9 ab\t ! latitude ( ! ,keewat9 & ,labradorean c5t]s ( glaciation4 ,f :at is kn[n ( /orm tracks 9 ,europe1 ! ma9 increase 9 ! int5sity ( /orms w\ld probably c5t] 9 ,sc&9avia4 ,fig4 #c 9 ,*apt] ,v be>s ?is out4 ,t figure1 x w be recall$1 %[s :at happ5s to precipitation :5 sol> activity is increas+4 ,a high rate ( precipitation is especially m>k$ 9 ! boreal /orm track1 t is1 9 ! nor!rn ,unit$ ,/ates1 s\!rn ,canada1 & nor?we/]n ,europe4 ,ano!r important condition 9 br++ on glaciation w\ld be ! fact t :5 /orms are num]\s ! total precipitation appe>s to increase 9 spite ( ! slightly l[] temp]ature4 ,?is is l>gely because ( ! great] evaporation4 ,! excessive evaporation arises p>tly f ! rapidity ( ! w9ds1 z already /at$1 & p>tly f ! fact t 9 areas :]e ! air is cle> ! sun w\ld presumably be able to act m effectively ?an n[4 ,x w\ld d s because at times ( abundant sunspots ! sun 9 our own day has a high] sol> con/ant ?an at times ( mild] activity4 ,our :ole hypo!sis is bas$ on ! supposition t :at n[ happ5s at times ( _m sunspots 0 int5sifi$ 9 glacial p]iods4 ,a f\r? condition :i* w\ld cause glaciation to result f great sol> activity w\ld be ! fact t ! portion ( ! ye>ly precipitation fall+ z sn[ w\ld increase1 :ile ! proportion ( ra9 w\ld dim9i% 9 ! ma9 /orm track4 ,?is w\ld arise p>tly because ! /orms w\ld be locat$ f>!r nor? ?an n[1 & p>tly because ( ! dim9ution 9 temp]ature due to ! increas$ convection4 ,! sn[ 9 itself w\ld /ill fur!r l[] ! temp]ature1 = sn[ is an excell5t reflector ( sunlight4 ,! increas$ cl\d9ess :i* w\ld accompany ! m abundant /orms w\ld also cause an unusually great reflection ( ! sunlight & /ill fur!r l[] ! temp]ature4 ,?us at times ( _m sunspots a /rong t5d5cy t[>d ! accumulation ( sn[ w\ld arise f ! rapid convection & consequ5t l[ temp]ature1 f ! nor!rn location ( /orms1 f ! increas$ evaporation & precipitation1 f ! l>g] p]c5tage ( sn[y r ?an ra9y precipitation1 & f ! great loss ( heat due to reflection f cl\ds & sn[4 ,if ev5ts at ! beg9n+ ( ! la/ glacial p]iod took place 9 accordance ) ! cyclonic hypo!sis1 z outl9$ above1 "o ( ! inevitable results w\ld be ! production ( sn[fields4 ,! places :]e sn[ w\ld accumulate 9 special quantities w\ld be c5tral ,canada1 ! ,labrador plateau1 & ,sc&9avia1 z well z c]ta9 m\nta9 regions4 ,z soon z a sn[field became some:at ext5sive1 x w\ld beg9 to produce /rik+ climatic alt]ations 9 addition to ^? to :i* x ow$ its orig94#da ,= example1 )9 a sn[field ! summ]s rema9 relatively cold4 ,h5ce su* a field is likely to be an area ( high pressure at all seasons4 ,! fact t ! sn[field is always a place ( relatively high pressure results 9 outbl[+ surface w9ds except :5 ^! are tempor>ily ov]come by ! passage ( /rong cyclonic /orms4 ,! /orms1 h[ev]1 t5d to be conc5trat$ ne> ! m>g9s ( ! ice ?r\gh\t ! ye> in/ead ( foll[+ diff]5t pa?s 9 ea* ( ! f\r seasons4 ,?is is p>tly because cyclonic l[s always avoid places ( high pressure & are ?us pu%$ out ( ! areas :]e p]man5t sn[ has accumulat$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 at times ( _m sunspots1 z ,kullm] has %[n1 ! ma9 /orm track t5ds to be drawn polew>d1 p]haps by electrical conditions4 ,h5ce :5 a sn[field is pres5t 9 ! nor?1 ! l[s1 in/ead ( migrat+ mu* f>!r nor? 9 summ] ?an 9 w9t]1 z !y n[ d1 w\ld m]ely cr[d on to ! sn[field a little f>!r 9 summ] ?an 9 w9t]4 ,?us ! heavy precipitation :i* is usual 9 humid climates ne> ! c5t]s ( l[s w\ld take place ne> ! advanc+ m>g9 ( ! sn[field & cause ! field to exp& /ill f>!r s\?w>d4 ,! t5d5cy t[>d ! accumulation ( sn[ on ! m>g9s ( ! sn[fields w\ld be int5sifi$ n only by ! actual /orms !mselves1 b by o!r conditions4 ,= example1 ! coldness ( ! sn[ w\ld t5d to cause prompt cond5sation ( ! moi/ure br\ght by ! w9ds t bl[ t[>d ! /orm c5t]s f l[ latitudes4 ,aga91 9 spite ( ! g5]al dryness ( ! air ov] a sn[field1 ! l[] air conta9s "s moi/ure due to evaporation f ! sn[ by day dur+ ! cle> sunny wea!r ( anti-cyclones or highs4 ,:]e ?is is suffici5t1 ! cold surface ( ! sn[fields t5ds to produce a froz5 fog :5ev] ! sn[field is cool$ by radiation1 z happ5s at night & dur+ ! passage ( highs4 ,su* a froz5 fog is an effective reflector ( sol> radiation4 ,moreov]1 because ice has only half ! specific heat ( wat]1 & is mu* m transp>5t to heat1 su* a radiation fog compos$ ( ice cry/als is a mu* less effective reta9] ( heat ?an cl\ds or fog made ( unfroz5 wat] p>ticles4 ,%all[ fogs ( ?is type are describ$ by sev]al pol> exp$itions4 ,!y cle>ly ret>d ! melt+ ( ! sn[ & ?us help ! icefield to gr[4 ,= all ^! reasons1 s long z /orm9ess rema9$ great1 ! ,plei/oc5e sn[fields1 accord+ to ! sol> hypo!sis1 mu/ h deep5$ & exp&$4 ,9 due "t "s ( ! sn[ 0 conv]t$ into glacial ice4 ,:5 t occurr$1 ! gr[? ( ! sn[field z well z ( ! ice cap mu/ h be5 accel]at$ by glacial movem5t4 ,"u su* circum/ances1 z ! ice cr[d$ s\?w>d t[>d ! s\rce ( ! moi/ure by :i* x grew1 ! area ( high pressure produc$ by its l[ temp]ature w\ld exp&4 ,?is w\ld =ce ! /orm track s\?w>d 9 spite ( ! contr>y t5d5cy due to ! sun4 ,:5 ! ice %eet _h become v ext5sive1 ! track w\ld be cr[d$ relatively ne> to ! nor!rn m>g9 ( ! trade-w9d belt4 ,inde$1 ! ,plei/oc5e ice %eets1 at ! "t ( _! maximum ext5sion1 rea*$ almo/ z f> s\? z ! latitude n[ m>k+ ! nor!rn limit ( ! trade-w9d belt 9 summ]4 ,z ! /orm track ) its frequ5t l[ pressure & ! subtropical belt ) its high pressure 7 =c$ ne>] & ne>] toge!r1 ! b>ometric gradi5t betwe5 ! two presumably became great]1 w9ds became /rong]1 & ! /orms m int5se4 ,?is zonal cr[d+ w\ld be ( special importance 9 summ]1 at :i* "t x w\ld also be mo/ pron\nc$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! /orms w\ld be cr[d$ f> ^u ! ice cap :i* w\ld !n be protect$ f ! sun by a cov] ( fog & cl\d m fully ?an at any o!r season4 ,fur!rmore1 ! close approa* ( ! trade-w9d belt to ! /orm belt w\ld result 9 a great increase 9 ! am\nt ( moi/ure drawn f ! belt ( evaporation :i* ! trade w9ds dom9ate4 ,9 ! trade-w9d belt1 cle> skies & high temp]ature make evaporation especially rapid4 ,inde$1 9 spite ( ! va/ des]ts x is probable t m ?an ?ree-f\r?s ( ! total evaporation n[ tak+ place on ! e>? occurs 9 ! belt ( trades1 an area :i* includes ab\t "o-half ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,! ag5cy :i* c\ld produce ?is increas$ draw+ nor?w>d ( moi/ure f ! trade-w9d belt w\ld be ! w9ds bl[+ into ! l[s4 ,accord+ to ! cyclonic hypo!sis1 _m ( ^! l[s w\ld be s /rong t !y w\ld tempor>ily break d[n ! subtropical belt ( high pressure :i* n[ usually prevails betwe5 ! trades & ! zone ( we/]ly w9ds4 ,?is belt is ev5 n[ (t5 brok5 by tropical cyclones4 ,if ! /orms ( m nor!rly regions tempor>ily de/roy$ ! subtropical high-pressure belt1 ev5 ?\gh !y /ill rema9$ on its nor!rn side1 !y w\ld div]t "p ( ! trade w9ds4 ,h5ce ! air :i* n[ is c>ri$ obliquely equatorw>d by ^? w9ds w\ld be c>ri$ spirally nor?w>d into ! cyclonic l[s4 ,precipitation 9 ! /orm track on ! m>g9 ( ! relatively cold ice %eet w\ld ?us be mu* increas$1 = mo/ w9ds f l[ latitudes c>ry abundant moi/ure4 ,su* a div]sion ( moi/ure f l[ latitudes probably expla9s ! defici5cy ( precipitation along ! heat equator at times ( sol> activity1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #c4 ,tak5 z a :ole1 ! summ] conditions1 accord+ to ! cyclonic hypo!sis1 w\ld be su* t increas$ evaporation 9 l[ latitudes w\ld cooep]ate ) increas$ /orm9ess1 cl\d9ess1 & fog 9 high] latitudes to pres]ve & increase ! accumulation ( ice ^u ! bord]s ( ! ice %eet4 ,! great] ! /orm9ess1 ! m ?is w\ld be true & ! m ! ice %eet w\ld be able to hold its own aga9/ melt+ 9 summ]4 ,su* a comb9ation ( precipitation & ( protection f ! sun is especially important if an ice %eet is to gr[4 ,! meteorologi/ ne$s no geologic evid5ce t ! /orm track 0 %ov$ equatorw>d by ! gr[? ( ! ice %eet1 = he obs]ves a simil> %ift+ :5ev] a w9t]'s sn[ cap occupies "p ( ! normal /orm tract4 ,! geologi/1 h[ev]1 may welcome geologic evid5ce t su* an extreme %ift ( ! /orm track actually occurr$ dur+ ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,h>m]1 9 #aija1 fir/ po9t$ out ! evid5ce :i* 0 repeat$ ) approval by ,wright ( ! ,irel& ,geological ,survey 9 #aiad4db ,accord+ to ^! au?orities1 num]\s b\ld]s ( a di/9ctive *alk 7 deposit$ by ,plei/oc5e iceb]gs along ! coa/ ( ,irel&4 ,_! di/ribution %[s t at ! "t ( maximum glaciation ! /rong w9ds along ! s\? coa/ ( ,irel& 7 f ! nor!a/ :ile today !y are f ! s\?we/4 ,su* a rev]sal c\ld app>5tly be produc$ only by a s\?w>d %ift ( ! c5t] ( ! ma9 /orm track f its pres5t position 9 nor!rn ,irel&1 ,scotl&1 & ,norway to a position across nor!rn ,france1 c5tral ,g]many1 & middle ,russia4 ,?is w\ld mean t :ile n[ ! c5t]s ( ! l[s commonly move nor!a/w>d a %ort di/ance nor? ( s\!rn ,irel&1 !y =m]ly mov$ ea/w>d a %ort di/ance s\? ( ,irel&4 ,x w be recall$ t 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e ! w9ds spiral into a l[ c\nt]-clockwise & t !y are /ronge/ ne> ! c5t]4 ,:5 ! c5t]s pass n f> nor? ( a giv5 po9t1 ! /rong w9ds !re=e bl[ f ! we/ or s\?we/1 :ile :5 ! c5t]s pass j s\? ( t po9t1 ! /rong w9ds come f ! ea/ or nor!a/4 ,9 addition to ! consequ5ces ( ! cr[d+ ( ! /orm track t[>d ! trade-w9d belt1 sev]al o!r conditions presumably op]at$ to favor ! gr[? ( ! ice %eet4 ,= example1 ! l[]+ ( ! sea level by ! removal ( wat] to =m ! sn[fields & glaci]s int]f]$ ) w>m curr5ts4 ,x also increas$ ! rate ( erosion1 = x 0 equival5t to an uplift ( all ! l&4 ,"o consequ5ce ( erosion & wea!r+ 0 presumably a dim9ution ( ! c>bon dioxide 9 ! atmosph]e1 = al?\gh ! ice cov]$ p]haps a t5? ( ! l&s & int]f]$ ) c>bonation to t ext5t1 ! removal ( l>ge quantities ( soil by accel]at$ erosion on ! o!r n9e-t5?s p]haps m ?an c\nt]balanc$ ! protective effect ( ! ice4 ,at ! same "t1 ! g5]al l[]+ ( ! temp]ature ( ! ocean z well z ! l&s increas$ ! ocean's capacity = c>bon dioxide & ?us facilitat$ absorption4 ,at a temp]ature ( #ej deg4,f4 wat] absorbs #cb p] c5t m c>bon dioxide ?an at #fh deg44 ,! high waves produc$ by ! sev]e /orms mu/ h _h a simil> effect on a small scale4 ,?us ! p]c5tage ( c>bon dioxide 9 ! atmosph]e 0 presumably dim9i%$4 ,( less significance ?an ^! *anges 9 ! l&s & ! air1 b p]haps n negligible1 0 ! increas$ sal9ity ( ! ocean :i* accompani$ ! removal ( wat] to =m sn[1 & ! increase ( ! dissolv$ m9]al load ( ! rejuv5at$ /reams4 ,increas$ sal9ity sl[s up ! deep-sea circulation1 z we %all see 9 a lat] *apt]4 ,?is increases ! contra/s f zone to zone4 ,at times ( great sol> activity ! ag5cies m5tion$ above w\ld app>5tly cooep]ate to cause an advance ( ice %eets into l[] latitudes4 ,! degree ( sol> activity w\ld h mu* to d ) ! f9al ext5t ( ! ice %eets4 ,nev]!less1 c]ta9 t]re/rial conditions w\ld t5d to set limits beyond :i* ! ice w\ld n greatly advance unless ! /orm9ess 7 extraord9>ily sev]e4 ,! mo/ obvi\s ( ^! conditions is ! location ( oceans & ( des]ts or semi-arid regions4 ,! s\?we/w>d advance ( ! ,european ice %eet & ! s\!a/w>d advance ( ! ,labradorean %eet 9 ,am]ica 7 /opp$ by ! ,atlantic4 ,! semi-aridity ( ! ,great ,pla9s1 produc$ by _! position 9 ! lee ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 /opp$ ! advance ( ! ,keewat9 ice %eet t[>d ! s\?we/4 ,! advance ( ! ,european ice %eet s\!a/ seems to h be5 /opp$ = simil> reasons4 ,! cessation ( ! advance w\ld be br\ght ab\t 9 su* an area n alone by ! light precipitation & abundant sun%9e1 b by ! dryness ( ! air1 & also by ! p[] ( du/ to absorb ! sun's heat4 ,mu* du/ w\ld presumably be drawn 9 f ! dry regions by pass+ cyclonic /orms & w\ld be scatt]$ ov] ! ice4 ,! advance ( ! ice is also sl[$ up by a rugg$ topography1 z among ! ,appala*ians 9 nor!rn ,p5nsylvania4 ,su* a topography besides oppos+ a physical ob/ruction to ! movem5t ( ! ice provides b>e s\?-fac+ slopes :i* ! sun w>ms effectively4 ,su* w>m slopes are unfavorable to glacial advance4 ,! rugg$ topography 0 p]haps q z effective z ! altitude ( ! ,appala*ians 9 caus+ ! conspicu\s nor?w>d d5t 9 ! glacial m>g9 9 ,p5nsylvania4 ,:]e glaci]s lie 9 m\nta9 valleys ! advance beyond a c]ta9 po9t is (t5 int]f]$ ) by ! deploym5t ( ! ice at ! m\?s ( gorges4 ,evaporation & melt+ are m rapid :]e a glaci] is broad & ?9 ?an :]e x is n>r[ & ?ick1 z 9 a gorge4 ,aga91 :]e ! topography or ! location ( oceans or dry areas causes ! glacial lobes to be long & n>r[1 ! elongation ( ! lobe is app>5tly *eck$ 9 sev]al ways4 ,t[>d ! end ( ! lobe1 melt+ & evaporation increase rapidly because ! planet>y we/]ly w9ds are m likely to ov]come ! glacial w9ds & sweep across a long1 n>r[ lobe ?an across a broad "o4 ,z !y cross ! lobe1 !y accel]ate evaporation1 & probably less5 cl\d9ess1 ) a consequ5t augm5tation ( melt+4 ,moreov]1 al?\gh l[s r>ely cross a broad ice %eet1 !y d cross a n>r[ lobe4 ,= example1 ,nans5 records t /rong l[s occasionally cross ! n>r[ s\!rn "p ( ! ,gre5l& ice %eet4 ,! long] ! lobe1 ! m likely x is t l[s w cross x1 in/ead ( foll[+ its m>g94 ,l[s :i* cross a lobe d n yield s mu* sn[ to ! tip z d ^? :i* foll[ ! m>g94 ,h5ce elongation is ret>d$ & f9ally /opp$ ev5 )\t a *ange 9 ! e>?'s g5]al climate4 ,because ( ^! v>i\s reasons ! advances ( ! ice dur+ ! sev]al epo*s ( a glacial p]iod might be approximately equal1 ev5 if ! durations ( ! p]iods ( /orm9ess & l[ temp]ature 7 diff]5t4 ,inde$1 !y might be sub-equal1 ev5 if ! p]iods diff]$ 9 int5sity z well z l5g?4 ,diff]5ces 9 ! p]iods w\ld app>5tly be manife/$ less 9 ! ext5t ( ! ice ?an 9 ! dep? ( glacial erosion & 9 ! ?ickness ( ! t]m9al mora9es1 outwa% pla9s1 & o!r glacial or glacio-fluvial =mations4 ,hav+ complet$ ! consid]ation ( ! conditions lead+ to ! advance ( ! ice1 let u n[ consid] ! condition ( ,nor? ,am]ica at ! "t ( maximum glaciation4#dc ,ov] an area ( ne>ly f\r million squ>e miles1 occupy+ practically all ! nor!rn half ( ! cont95t & "p ( ! s\!rn half1 z appe>s 9 ,fig4 #f1 ! surface 0 a monoton\s & almo/ level pla9 ( ice cov]$ ) sn[4 ,:5 view$ f a high altitude1 all p>ts except ! m>g9s mu/ h pres5t$ a uni=mly :ite & sp>kl+ appe>ance4 ,along ! m>g9s1 h[ev]1 except to ! nor?1 ! :it5ess 0 irregul>1 = ! view mu/ h includ$ n only fre% sn[1 b mov+ cl\ds & dirty sn[ or ice4 ,along ! bord]s :]e melt+ 0 9 progress !re 0 presumably m or less spott$ness due to mora9al mat]ial or glacial debris br\ght to ! surface by ice %e>age & wa/age4 ,along ! dry s\?we/]n bord] x is also possible t !re 7 num]\s d>k spots due to du/ bl[n onto ! ice by ! w9d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,di/ribution ( ,plei/oc5e ice %eets4 7,aft] ,s*u*]t47 ,! great :ite %eet ) its ragg$ bord] 0 r\ghly circul> 9 =m1 ) its c5t] 9 c5tral ,canada4 ,yet !re 7 _m dep>tures f a p]fectly circul> =m4 ,"s 7 due to ! oceans1 =1 except 9 nor!rn ,alaska1 ! ice ext5d$ into ! ocean all ! way f ,new ,j]sey ar\nd by ! nor? to ,wa%+ton4 ,on ! s\?1 topographic conditions made ! m>g9 dep>t f a simple arc4 ,f ,new ,j]sey to ,ohio x swung nor?w>d4 ,9 ! ,mississippi ,valley x rea*$ f> s\?2 inde$ mo/ ( ! broad w$ge betwe5 ! ,ohio & ! ,miss\ri riv]s 0 occupi$ by ice4 ,f latitude #cg deg4 ne> ! junction ( ! ,miss\ri & ! ,mississippi1 h[ev]1 ! ice m>g9 ext5d$ almo/ due nor? along ! ,miss\ri to c5tral ,nor? ,dakota4 ,x !n /ret*$ we/w>d to ! ,rockies4 ,f>!r we/ l[l& glaciation 0 abundant z f> s\? z we/]n ,wa%+ton4 ,9 ! ,rockies1 ! ,cascades1 & ! ,si]ra ,nevadas glaciation 0 common z f> s\? z ,colorado & s\!rn ,cali=nia1 respectively1 & sn[fields 7 d\btless ext5sive en\gh to make ^! ranges ribbons ( :ite4 ,betwe5 ^! l(ty ranges lay a great unglaciat$ region1 b ev5 9 ! ,great ,bas9 itself1 9 spite ( its pres5t aridity1 c]ta9 ranges c>ri$ glaci]s1 :ile great lakes exp&$ widely4 ,9 ?is va/ field ( sn[ ! glacial ice sl[ly crept outw>d1 possibly at an av]age spe$ ( half a foot a day1 b v>y+ f almo/ no?+ 9 w9t] at ! nor?1 to sev]al feet a day 9 summ] at ! s\?4#dd ,! =ce :i* caus$ ! movem5t 0 ! pres5ce ( ! ice pil$ up n f> f ! m>g9s4 ,almo/ c]ta9ly1 h[ev]1 !re 0 no great dome f ! c5t] 9 ,canada outw>d1 z "s e>ly writ]s assum$4 ,su* a dome w\ld require t ! ice be _m ?\s&s ( feet ?ick ne> its c5t]4 ,?is is impossible because ( ! fact t ice is m volum9\s ?an wat] 7ab\t #i p] c5t ne> ! freez+ po9t74 ,h5ce :5 subject$ to suffici5t pressure x *anges to ! liquid =m4 ,z friction & int]nal heat t5d to keep ! bottom ( a glaci] w>m1 ev5 9 cold regions1 ! probabilities are t only "u v special conditions 0 a cont95tal ice %eet mu* ?ick] ?an ab\t #bejj feet4 ,9 ,ant>ctica1 :]e ! temp]ature is mu* l[] ?an 0 probably atta9$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! ice %eet is ne>ly level1 sev]al exp$itions hav+ travel$ hundr$s ( miles ) practically no *ange 9 altitude4 ,9 ,%ackleton's trip almo/ to ! ,s\? ,pole1 he enc\nt]$ a g5]al rise ( #cjjj feet 9 #abjj miles4 ,m\nta9s1 h[ev]1 project$ ?r\gh ! ice ev5 ne> ! pole & ! geologi/s conclude t ! ice is n v ?ick ev5 at ! _w's colde/ po9t1 ! ,s\? ,pole4 ,along ! m>g9 ( ! ice !re 7 two sorts ( movem5t1 mu* m rapid ?an ! sl[ creep ( ! ice4 ,"o 0 produc$ by ! outw>d drift ( sn[ c>ri$ by ! outbl[+ dry w9ds & ! o!r & m important 0 due to ! passage ( cyclonic /orms4 ,along ! bord] ( ! ice %eet1 except at ! nor?1 /orm presumably closely foll[$ /orm4 ,_! movem5t1 we judge1 0 relatively sl[ until ne> ! s\!rn end ( ! ,mississippi lobe1 b :5 ?is po9t 0 pass$ !y mov$ mu* m rapidly1 = !n !y c\ld g t[>d in/ead ( away f ! f> nor!rn pa? :i* ! sun prescribes :5 sol> activity is great4 ,! /orms br\ght mu* sn[ to ! icefield1 p]haps sometimes 9 favor$ places z mu* z ! hundr$ feet a ye> :i* is record$ = "s w9t]s 9 ! ,si]ras at pres5t4 ,ev5 ! unglaciat$ int]montane ,great ,bas9 presumably receiv$ consid]able precipitation1 p]haps twice z mu* z its pres5t scanty supply4 ,! ra9fall 0 en\gh to support _m lakes1 "o ( :i* 0 t5 times z l>ge z ,great ,salt ,lake2 & grass 0 d\btless abundant ^u _m slopes :i* are n[ dry & b>r54 ,! relatively heavy precipitation 9 ! ,great ,bas9 0 probably due prim>ily to ! increas$ numb] ( /orms1 b may also h be5 mu* influ5c$ by _! sl[ ea/w>d movem5t4 ,! l[s presumably mov$ sl[ly 9 t g5]al region n only because !y 7 ret>d$ & turn$ f _! normal pa? by ! cold ice to ! ea/1 b because dur+ ! summ] ! area betwe5 ! ,si]ra sn[fields on ! we/ & ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 & ,mississippi ,valley sn[fields on ! ea/ 0 relatively w>m4 ,h5ce x 0 normally a place ( l[ pressure & !re=e ( inbl[+ w9ds4 ,sl[-mov+ l[s are mu* m effective ?an fa/-mov+ ones 9 draw+ moi/ure nor?we/w>d f ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 = !y give ! moi/ure m "t to move spirally fir/ nor!a/1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! normal s\?we/]ly w9ds1 !n nor?we/ & f9ally s\?we/ z x approa*es ! /orm c5t]4 ,9 ! case ( ! pres5t l[s1 be=e mu* moi/ure-lad5 air c describe su* a circuit1 fir/ ea/w>d & !n we/w>d1 ! /orm c5t] has ne>ly always mov$ ea/w>d across ! ,rockies & ev5 across ! ,great ,pla9s4 ,a result ( ?is is ! regul> decrease 9 precipitation nor?w>d1 nor?we/w>d1 & we/w>d f ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,along ! "p ( ! glacial m>g9s :]e = m ?an #cjjj miles ! ,nor? ,am]ican ice ent]$ ! ,atlantic & ! ,pacific oceans1 myriads ( great blocks broke (f & float$ away z /ately iceb]gs1 to scatt] b\ld]s f> ov] ! ocean floor & to melt 9 w>m] climes4 ,:]e ! m>g9 lay ^u ! l&s num]\s /reams issu$ f b5ea? ! ice1 milk-:ite ) rock fl\r1 & built up great outwa% pla9s & valley tra9s ( gravel & s&4 ,"h & !re1 j beyond ! ice1 m>g9al lakes ( /range %apes occupi$ valleys :i* _h be5 damm$ by ! advanc+ ice4 ,9 _m ( !m ! wat] level rose until x rea*$ "s l[ po9t 9 ! divide & !n ov]fl[$1 =m+ rapids & wat]falls4 ,inde$1 _m ( ! wat]falls ( ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada 7 =m$ 9 j ?is way & n a few /reams n[ occupy c\rses ?r\gh ridges in/ead ( p>allel to !m1 z 9 pre-glacial times4 ,9 ! zone to ! s\? ( ! cont95tal ice %eet1 ! plant & animal life ( boreal1 cool temp]ate1 & w>m temp]ate regions comm+l$ curi\sly4 ,hea!r & ,arctic will[ cr[d$ out elm & oak2 musk ox1 hairy mammo?1 & m>mot conte/$ ) de]1 *ipmunk1 & skunk = a *ance to live4 ,ne> ! ice on slopes expos$ to ! cold glacial gales1 ! immigrant boreal species 7 dom9ant1 b n f> away 9 m protect$ areas ! species t _h =m]ly liv$ !re held _! own4 ,9 ,europe dur+ ! la/ two advances ( ! great ice %eet ! caveman also /ruggl$ ) fi]ce animals & a fi]c] climate to ma9ta9 life 9 an area ^: habitability _h long be5 decreas+4 ,! next /ep 9 our hi/ory ( glaciation is to outl9e ! disappe>ance ( ! ice %eets4 ,:5 a decrease 9 sol> activity produc$ a correspond+ decrease 9 /orm9ess1 sev]al influ5ces presumably comb9$ to cause ! disappe>ance ( ! ice4 ,mo/ ( _! results are ! rev]se ( ^? :i* br\ght on glaciation4 ,a few special aspects1 h[ev]1 "s ( :i* h be5 discuss$ 9 ,e>? & ,sun1 ought to be br\ght to m9d4 ,a dim9ution 9 /orm9ess less5s upw>d convection1 w9d velocity1 & evaporation1 & ^! *anges1 if !y occurr$1 mu/ h unit$ to raise ! temp]ature ( ! l[] air by r$uc+ ! escape ( heat4 ,aga9 a decrease 9 ! numb] & int5sity ( tropical cyclones presumably less5$ ! am\nt ( moi/ure c>ri$ into mid-latitudes1 & ?us dim9i%$ ! precipitation4 ,! dim9ution ( sn[fall on ! ice %eets :5 /orm9ess dim9i%$ 0 probably highly important4 ,! am\nt ( precipitation on ! %eets 0 presumably less5$ /ill fur!r by *anges 9 ! /orm9ess ( middle latitudes4 ,:5 /orm9ess dim9i%es1 ! l[s foll[ a less def9ite pa?1 z ,kullm]'s maps %[1 & on ! av]age a m s\!rly pa?4 ,?us1 in/ead ( all ! l[s contribut+ sn[ to ! ice %eet1 a l>ge fraction ( ! relatively few rema9+ l[s w\ld br+ ra9 to areas s\? ( ! ice %eet4 ,z /orm9ess decreas$1 ! trades & we/]lies probably became /eadi]1 & ?us c>ri$ to high latitudes m w>m wat] ?an :5 (t5 int]rupt$ by /orms4 ,/eadi] s\?we/]ly w9ds mu/ h produc$ a great] movem5t ( atmosph]ic z well z oceanic heat to high latitudes4 ,! w>m+ due to ^! two causes 0 probably ! *ief reason = ! disappe>ance ( ! ,european ice %eet & ( ^? on ! ,pacific coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! two great] ,am]ican ice %eets1 h[ev]1 & ! glaci]s else:]e 9 ! lee ( high m\nta9 ranges1 probably disappe>$ *iefly because ( less5$ precipitation4 ,if !re 7 no cyclonic /orms to draw moi/ure nor?w>d f ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 mo/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica ea/ ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 b>ri] w\ld be arid4 ,!re=e a dim9ution ( /orm9ess w\ld be p>ticul>ly effective 9 caus+ ! disappe>ance ( ice %eets 9 ^! regions4 ,t evaporation 0 an especially important factor 9 caus+ ! ice f ! ,keewat9 c5t] to disappe>1 is sugge/$ by ! relatively small am\nt ( wat]-sort$ mat]ial 9 its drift4 ,9 ,s\? ,dakota1 = example1 less ?an #aj p] c5t ( ! drift is /ratifi$4#de ,on ! o!r h&1 ,salisbury e/imates t p]haps a ?ird ( ! ,labradorean drift 9 ea/]n ,wiscons9 is crudely /ratifi$1 ab\t half ( t 9 ,new ,j]sey1 & m ?an half ( ! drift 9 we/]n ,europe4 ,:5 ! sun's activity began to dim9i%1 all ^! conditions1 z well z sev]al o!rs1 w\ld cooep]ate to cause ! ice %eets to disappe>4 ,/ep by /ep ) _! disappe>ance1 ! amelioration ( ! climate w\ld progress s long z ! p]iod ( sol> inactivity cont9u$ & /orms 7 r>e4 ,if ! inactivity cont9u$ long en\gh1 x w\ld result 9 a fairly mild climate 9 high latitudes1 ?\gh s long z ! cont95ts 7 em]g5t ?is mildness w\ld n be ( ! extreme type4 ,! inauguration ( ano!r cycle ( increas$ di/urbance ( ! sun1 ) a m>k$ increase 9 /orm9ess1 w\ld inaugurate ano!r glacial epo*4 ,?us a succession ( glacial & int]-glacial epo*s might cont9ue s long z ! sun 0 repeat$ly di/urb$4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ch3 ,?is *apt] is an amplification & revision ( ! sket* ( ! glacial p]iod conta9$ 9 ,! ,sol> ,hypo!sis ( ,climatic ,*anges2 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,am41 ,vol4 #be1 #aiad4 ,footnote #ci3 ,r4 ,d4 ,salisbury3 ,physical ,geography ( ! ,plei/oc5e1 9 ,outl9es ( ,geologic ,hi/ory1 by ,willis1 ,salisbury1 & o!rs1 #aiaj1 p4 #bfe4 ,footnote #dj3 ,! ,quat]n>y ,ice ,age1 #aiad1 p4 #cfd4 ,footnote ,b3 ,= full] discussion ( climatic controls see ,s4 ,s4 ,vi%]3 ,sev5ty ,laws ( ,climate1 ,annals ,assoc4 ,am4 ,geograph]s1 #aibb4 ,footnote #da3 ,_m ( ^! alt]ations are impli$ or discuss$ 9 ! foll[+ pap]s3 #a4 ,f4 ,w4 ,h>m]3 ,influ5ce ( ,w9ds ^u ! ,climate ( ! ,plei/oc5e2 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4 ,soc41 ,vol4 #eg1 #aija1 p4 #dje4 #b4 ,c4 ,e4 ,p4 ,brooks3 ,meteorological ,conditions ( an ,ice ,%eet2 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,royal ,meteorol4 ,soc41 ,vol4 #dj1 #aiad1 pp4 #ec-gj1 & ,! ,evolution ( ,climate 9 ,nor?we/ ,europe2 op4 cit41 ,vol4 #dg1 #aiba1 pp4 #agc-aid4 #c4 ,w4 ,h4 ,hobbs3 ,! ,role ( ! ,glacial ,anticyclone 9 ! ,air ,circulation ( ! ,globe2 ,proc4 ,am4 ,phil4 ,soc41 ,vol4 #ed1 #aiae1 pp4 #ahe-bbe4 ,footnote #db3 ,w4 ,b4 ,wright3 ,! ,quat]n>y ,ice ,age1 #aiad1 p4 #ajj4 ,footnote #dc3 ,! description ( ! di/ribution ( ! ice %eet is bas$ on ,t4 ,c4 ,*amb]l9's wall map ( ,nor? ,am]ica at ! maximum ( glaciation1 #aiac4 ,footnote #dd3 ,*amb]l9 & ,salisbury3 ,geology1 #aijf1 ,vol4 #c1 & ,w4 ,h4 ,hobbs3 ,*>act]i/ics ( ,exi/+ ,glaci]s1 #aiaa4 ,footnote #de3 ,s4 ,s4 ,vi%]3 ,! ,geography ( ,s\? ,dakota2 ,s4 ,d4 ,geol4 ,surv41 #aiah4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,"s ,,problems ,,( ,,glacial ,,p]iods ,hav+ outl9$ 9 g5]al t]ms ! com+ ( ! ice %eets & _! disappe>ance1 we are n[ ready to discuss c]ta9 problems ( compell+ climatic int]e/4 ,! discussion w be gr\p$ "u five heads3 7,i7 ! localization ( glaciation2 7,,ii7 ! sudd5 com+ ( glaciation2 7,,iii7 peculi> v>iations 9 ! height ( ! sn[ l9e & ( glaciation2 7,,iv7 lakes & o!r evid5ces ( humidity 9 unglaciat$ regions dur+ ! glacial epo*s2 7,v7 glaciation at sea level & 9 l[ latitudes 9 ! ,p]mian & ,prot]ozoic eras4 ,! discussion ( p]haps ! mo/ difficult ( all climatic problems ( glaciation1 t ( ! succession ( cold glacial & mild int]-glacial epo*s1 has be5 po/pon$ to ! next to ! f9al *apt] ( ?is book4 ,x _c be prop]ly consid]$ until we take up ! hi/ory ( sol> di/urbances4 ,i4 ,! fir/ problem1 ! localization ( ! ice %eets1 arises f ! fact t 9 bo? ! ,plei/oc5e & ! ,p]mian p]iods glaciation 0 rem>kably limit$4 ,9 nei!r p]iod 7 all p>ts ( high latitudes glaciat$2 yet 9 bo? cases glaciation occurr$ 9 l>ge regions 9 l[] latitudes4 ,_m explanations ( ?is localization h be5 (f]$1 b mo/ are entirely inadequate4 ,ev5 hypo!ses ) some?+ ( prov5 wor?1 su* z ^? ( v>iations 9 volcanic du/ & 9 atmosph]ic c>bon dioxide1 fail to acc\nt = localization4 ,! cyclonic =m ( ! sol> hypo!sis1 h[ev]1 seems to af=d a satisfactory explanation4 ,! di/ribution ( ! ice 9 ! la/ glacial p]iod is well kn[n1 & is %[n 9 ,fig4 #f4 ,f\r-fif?s ( ! ice-cov]$ area1 :i* 0 eight million squ>e miles1 m or less1 0 ne> ! bord]s ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic 9 ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica & nor?we/]n ,europe4 ,! ice spread out f two great c5t]s 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! ,labradorean ea/ ( ,hudson ,bay1 & ! ,keewat9 we/ ( ! bay4 ,!re 7 also _m glaci]s 9 ! we/]n m\nta9s1 especially 9 ,canada1 :ile subord9ate c5t]s occurr$ 9 ,newf\ndl&1 ! ,adirondacks1 & ! ,:ite ,m\nta9s4 ,! ma9 ice %eet at its maximum ext5sion rea*$ z f> s\? z latitude #ci deg4 9 ,kansas & ,k5tucky1 & #cg deg4 9 ,ill9ois4 ,huge b\ld]s 7 transf]r$ m ?an "o ?\s& miles f _! s\rce 9 ,canada4 ,! nor?w>d ext5sion 0 some:at less4 ,inde$1 ! nor!rn m>g9 ( ! cont95t 0 app>5tly relatively little glaciat$ & mu* ( ,alaska unglaciat$4 ,:y %\ld nor!rn ,k5tucky be glaciat$ :5 nor!rn ,alaska 0 n8 ,9 ,europe ! *ief c5t] f :i* ! cont95tal glaci] mov$ 0 ! ,sc&9avian highl&s4 ,x pu%$ across ! depression n[ occupi$ by ! ,baltic to s\!rn ,russia & across ! ,nor? ,sea depression to ,engl& & ,belgium4 ,! ,alps =m$ a c5t] ( consid]able importance1 & !re 7 m9or c5t]s 9 ,scotl&1 ,irel&1 ! ,pyr5ees1 ,ap5n9es1 ,caucasus1 & ,urals4 ,9 ,asia num]\s ranges also conta9$ l>ge glaci]s1 b practically all ! glaciation 0 ( ! alp9e type & v little ( ! va/ nor!rn l[l& 0 cov]$ ) ice4 ,9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e glaciation at l[ latitudes 0 less /rik+ ?an 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,mo/ ( ! increase 9 ! areas ( ice 0 conf9$ to m\nta9s :i* today receive heavy precipitation & /ill conta9 small glaci]s4 ,inde$1 except = relatively slight glaciation 9 ! ,au/ralian ,alps & 9 ,tasmania1 mo/ ( ! ,plei/oc5e glaciation 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e 0 m]ely an ext5sion ( exi/+ glaci]s1 su* z ^? ( s\? ,*ile1 ,new ,zeal&1 & ! ,&es4 ,nev]!less1 fairly ext5sive glaciation exi/$ mu* ne>] ! equator ?an is n[ ! case4 ,9 consid]+ ! localization ( ,plei/oc5e glaciation1 ?ree ma9 factors mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt1 namely1 temp]ature1 topography1 & precipitation4 ,! abs5ce ( glaciation 9 l>ge p>ts ( ! ,arctic regions ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ( ,asia makes x c]ta9 t l[ temp]ature 0 n ! controll+ factor4 ,aside f ,ant>ctica1 ! colde/ place 9 ! _w is nor!a/]n ,sib]ia4 ,!re = sev5 mon?s ! av]age temp]ature is bel[ #j deg4,c41 :ile ! mean = ! :ole ye> is bel[ -#aj deg4,c4 ,if ! temp]ature dur+ a glacial p]iod av]ag$ #f deg4,c4 l[] ?an n[1 z is commonly suppos$1 ?is "p ( ,sib]ia w\ld h _h a temp]ature bel[ freez+ = at lea/ n9e mon?s out ( ! twelve ev5 if !re 7 no sn[field to keep ! summ]s cold4 ,yet ev5 "u su* conditions no glaciation occurr$1 al?\gh 9 o!r places1 su* z p>ts ( ,canada & nor?we/]n ,europe1 int5se glaciation occurr$ :]e ! mean temp]ature is mu* high]4 ,! topography ( ! l&s app>5tly _h mu* m influ5ce ^u ! localization ( glaciation ?an did temp]ature4 ,its effect1 h[ev]1 0 always to cause glaciation exactly :]e x w\ld be expect$ & n 9 unexpect$ places z actually occurr$4 ,= example1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica ! we/]n side ( ! ,canadian ,rockies suff]$ int5se glaciation1 = !re precipitation 0 heavy because ! we/]ly w9ds f ! ,pacific are =c$ to give up _! moi/ure z !y rise4 ,9 ! same way ! we/]n side ( ! ,si]ra ,nevadas 0 mu* m heavily glaciat$ ?an ! ea/]n side4 ,9 simil> fa%ion ! w9dw>d slopes ( ! ,alps1 ! ,caucasus1 ! ,himalayas1 & _m o!r m\nta9 ranges suff]$ ext5sive glaciation4 ,l[ temp]ature does n seem to h be5 ! cause ( ?is glaciation1 = 9 t case x is h>d to see :y bo? sides ( ! v>i\s ranges did n %[ an equal p]c5tage ( increase 9 ! size ( _! icefields4 ,f :at has be5 said z to temp]ature & topography1 x is evid5t t v>iations 9 precipitation h _h mu* m to d ) glaciation ?an h v>iations 9 temp]ature4 ,9 ! ,arctic l[l&s & on ! leew>d side ( m\nta9s1 ! slight developm5t ( glaciation appe>s to h be5 due to sc>city ( precipitation4 ,on ! w9dw>d side ( m\nta9s1 on ! o!r h&1 a notable increase 9 precipitation seems to h l$ to abundant glaciation4 ,su* an increase 9 precipitation mu/ be dep5d5t on increas$ evaporation & ?is c\ld arise ei!r f relatively high temp]ature or /rong w9ds4 ,s9ce ! temp]ature 9 ! glacial p]iod 0 l[] ?an n[1 we seem =c$ to attribute ! increas$ precipitation to a /r5g!n+ ( ! w9ds4 ,if ! we/]ly w9ds f ! ,pacific %\ld increase 9 /r5g? & waft m moi/ure to ! we/]n side ( ! ,canadian ,rockies1 or if simil> w9ds increas$ ! sn[fall on ! upp] slopes ( ! ,alps or ! ,tian-,%an ,m\nta9s1 ! glaci]s w\ld ext5d l[] ?an n[ )\t any *ange 9 temp]ature4 ,al?\gh ! incompet5ce ( l[ temp]ature to cause glaciation1 & ! relative unimportance ( ! m\nta9s 9 nor!a/]n ,canada & nor?we/]n ,europe ?r[ mo/ glacial hypo!ses out ( c\rt1 !y are 9 h>mony ) ! cyclonic hypo!sis4 ,! answ] ( t hypo!sis to ! problem ( ! localization ( ice %eets seems to be f\nd 9 c]ta9 maps ( /orm9ess & ra9fall 9 relation to sol> activity4 ,9 ,fig4 #b a m>k$ belt ( increas$ /orm9ess at times ( _m sunspots is se5 9 s\!rn ,canada4 ,a comp>ison ( ?is ) a s]ies ( maps giv5 9 ,e>? & ,sun %[s t ! /ormy belt t5ds to migrate nor?w>d 9 h>mony ) an increase 9 ! activity ( ! sun's atmosph]e4 ,if ! sun 7 suffici5tly active ! belt ( maximum /orm9ess w\ld app>5tly pass ?r\gh ! ,keewat9 & ,labradorean c5t]s ( glaciation in/ead ( well to ! s\? ( !m1 z at pres5t4 ,x w\ld presumably cross ano!r c5t] 9 ,gre5l&1 & !n w\ld trav]se ! f\r? ( ! great c5t]s ( ,plei/oc5e glaciation 9 ,sc&9avia4 ,x w\ld n succe$ 9 trav]s+ nor!rn ,asia1 h[ev]1 any m ?an x does n[1 because ( ! great high-pressure area :i* develops !re 9 w9t]4 ,:5 ! ice %eets exp&$ f ! ma9 c5t]s ( glaciation1 ! belt ( /orms w\ld be pu%$ s\?w>d & outw>d4 ,?us x might give rise to m9or c5t]s ( glaci]s su* z ! ,patrician betwe5 ,hudson ,bay & ,lake ,sup]ior1 or ! c5t]s 9 ,irel&1 ,cornwall1 ,wales1 & ! nor!rn ,ural ,m\nta9s4 ,z ! ma9 ice %eets advanc$1 h[ev]1 ! m9or c5t]s w\ld be ov]ridd5 & ! entire mass ( ice w\ld be m]g$ into "o va/ expanse 9 ! ,atlantic portion ( ea* ( ! two cont95ts4 ,9 ?is connection x may be well to consid] briefly ! mo/ rec5t hypo!sis z to ! gr[? & h5ce ! localization ( glaciation4 ,9 #aiaa & m fully 9 #aiae1 ,hobbs1#df advanc$ ! anti-cyclonic hypo!sis ( ! orig9 ( ice %eets4 ,?is hypo!sis has ! great m]it ( focus+ att5tion ^u ! fact t ice %eets are pron\nc$ anti-cyclonic regions ( high pressure4 ,?is is prov$ by ! /rong outbl[+ w9ds :i* prevail along _! m>g9s4 ,su* w9ds mu/1 ( c\rse1 be balanc$ by inw>d-mov+ w9ds at high levels4 ,abundant obs]vations prove t su* is ! case4 ,= example1 balloons s5t up by ,b>k[ ne> ! m>g9 ( ! ,ant>ctic ice %eet reveal ! occurr5ce ( inbl[+ w9ds1 al?\gh !y r>ely occur bel[ a height ( #ijjj met]s4 ,! abundant data ga!r$ by ,gu]va9 on ! coa/ ( ,gre5l& indicate t outbl[+ w9ds prevail up to a height ( ab\t #djjj met]s4 ,at t height inbl[+ w9ds comm5ce & increase 9 frequ5cy until at an altitude ( ov] #ejjj met]s !y become m common ?an outbl[+ w9ds4 ,x %\ld be not$1 h[ev]1 t 9 bo? ,ant>ctica & ,gre5l&1 al?\gh ! w9ds at an elevation ( less ?an a ?\s& met]s g5]ally bl[ outw>d1 !re are frequ5t & decid$ dep>tures f ?is rule1 s t v>iable w9ds are q commonly m5tion$ 9 ! reports ( exp$itions & balloon s\nd+s4 ,! und\bt$ anti-cyclonic conditions :i* ,hobbs ?us calls to ! att5tion ( sci5ti/s seem to him to necessitate a peculi> me*anism 9 ord] to produce ! sn[ :i* fe$s ! glaci]s4 ,he assumes t ! w9ds :i* bl[ t[>d ! c5t]s ( ! ice %eets at high levels c>ry ! necess>y moi/ure by :i* ! glaci]s gr[4 ,:5 ! air desc5ds 9 ! c5t]s ( ! highs1 x is suppos$ to be *ill$ on rea*+ ! surface ( ! ice1 & h5ce to give up its moi/ure 9 ! =m ( m9ute cry/als4 ,?is conclusion is d\btful = sev]al reasons4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ,hobbs does n seem to appreciate ! importance ( ! v>iable w9ds :i* he quotes ,arctic & ,ant>ctic explor]s z describ+ q frequ5tly on ! edges ( ! ice %eets4 ,!y are "o ( _m signs t cyclonic /orms are fairly frequ5t on ! bord]s ( ! ice ?\gh n 9 its int]ior4 ,?us !re is a di/9ct & suffici5t =m ( precipitation actually at "w ne> ! m>g9 ( ! ice1 or exactly :]e ! ?ickness ( ! ice %eet w\ld lead u to expect4 ,ano!r consid]ation :i* ?r[s grave d\bt on ! anti-cyclonic hypo!sis ( ice %eets is ! small am\nt ( moi/ure possible 9 ! highs because ( _! l[ temp]ature4 ,suppose1 = ! sake ( argum5t1 t ! temp]ature 9 ! middle ( an ice %eet av]ages #bj deg4,f4 ,?is is probably mu* high] ?an ! actual fact & !re=e unduly favorable to ! anti-cyclonic hypo!sis4 ,suppose also t ! decrease 9 temp]ature f ! e>?'s surface upw>d proce$s at ! rate ( #a deg4,f4 = ea* #cjj feet1 :i* is #ej p] c5t less ?an ! actual rate = air ) only a slight am\nt ( moi/ure1 su* z is f\nd 9 cold regions4 ,!n at a height ( #aj1jjj feet1 :]e ! inbl[+ w9ds beg9 to be felt1 ! temp]ature w\ld be -#bj deg4,f4 ,at t temp]ature ! air is able to hold approximately #j4aff gra9 ( moi/ure p] cubic foot :5 fully saturat$4 ,?is is an exce$+ly small am\nt ( moi/ure & ev5 if x 7 all precipitat$ c\ld sc>cely build a glaci]4 ,h[ev]1 x app>5tly w\ld n be precipitat$ because :5 su* air desc5ds 9 ! c5t] ( ! anti-cyclone x is w>m$ adiabatically1 t is1 by compression4 ,on rea*+ ! surface x w\ld h a temp]ature ( #bj deg4 & w\ld be able to hold #j4hih gra9 ( wat] vapor p] cubic foot2 9 o!r words1 x w\ld h a relative humidity ( ab\t #ah p] c5t4 ,"u no reasonable assumption does ! upp] air at ! c5t] ( an ice %eet appe> to rea* ! surface ) a relative humidity ( m ?an #bj or #be p] c5t4 ,su* air _c give up moi/ure4 ,on ! contr>y1 x absorbs x & t5ds to dim9i% r ?an increase ! ?ickness ( ! %eet ( ice & sn[4 ,b aft] ! surplus heat ga9$ by desc5t has be5 lo/ by radiation1 conduction1 & evaporation1 ! air may become sup]-saturat$ ) ! moi/ure pick$ up :ile w>m4 ,hobbs reports t explor]s 9 ,ant>ctica & ,gre5l& h frequ5tly obs]v$ cond5sation on _! clo?+4 ,if su* moi/ure is n d]iv$ directly f ! m5's own bodies1 x is app>5tly pick$ up f ! ice %eet by ! desc5d+ air1 & n add$ to ! ice %eet by air f al(t4 ,! relation ( all ?is to ! localization ( ice %eets is ?is4 ,if ,hobbs' anti-cyclonic hypo!sis ( glacial gr[? is correct1 x w\ld appe> t ice %eets %\ld gr[ up :]e ! temp]ature is l[e/ & ! high-pressure areas mo/ p]si/5t2 = in/ance1 9 nor!rn ,sib]ia4 ,x w\ld also appe> t s f> z ! topography p]mitt$1 ! ice %eets ought to move out uni=mly 9 all directions2 h5ce ! ice %eet ought to be z prom95t to ! nor? ( ! ,keewat9 & ,labradorean c5t]s z to ! s\?1 :i* is by no means ! case4 ,aga91 9 m\nta9\s regions1 su* z ! glacial areas ( ,alaska & ,*ile1 ! glaciation ought n to be conf9$ to ! w9dw>d slope ( ! m\nta9s s closely z is actually ! fact4 ,9 ea* ( ^! cases ! glaciat$ region 0 l>ge en\gh s t !re 0 probably a true anti-cyclonic area comp>able ) t n[ prevail+ ov] s\!rn ,gre5l&4 ,9 bo? places ! correlation betwe5 glaciation & m\nta9 ranges seems mu* too close to support ! anti-cyclonic hypo!sis1 = ! inbl[+ w9ds :i* on t hypo!sis br+ ! moi/ure are %[n by obs]vation to occur at heights f> great] ?an t ( all b ! l(tie/ ranges4 ,,ii4 ,! sudd5 com+ ( glaciation is ano!r problem :i* has be5 a /umbl+-block 9 ! way ( e glacial hypo!sis4 ,9 8 ,climates ( ,geologic ,times1 ,s*u*]t /ates t ! fossils give almo/ no w>n+ ( an approa*+ cata/rophe4 ,if glaciation 7 solely due to uplift1 or o!r t]re/rial *anges aside f vulcanism1 ,s*u*]t holds t x w\ld h come sl[ly & ! /ages prec$+ glaciation w\ld h affect$ life suffici5tly to be record$ 9 ! rocks4 ,he consid]s t ! sudd5ness ( ! com+ ( glaciation is "o ( ! /ronge/ argum5ts aga9/ ! c>bon dioxide hypo!sis ( glaciation4 ,accord+ to ! cyclonic hypo!sis1 h[ev]1 ! sudd5ness ( ! oncom+ ( glaciation is m]ely :at w\ld be expect$ on ! basis ( :at happ5s today4 ,*anges 9 ! sun occur sudd5ly4 ,! sunspot cycle is only elev5 or twelve ye>s long1 & ev5 ?is %ort p]iod ( activity is inaugurat$ m sudd5ly ?an x decl9es4 ,aga9 ! climatic record d]iv$ f ! gr[? ( trees1 z giv5 9 ,figs4 #d & #e1 also %[s t m>k$ *anges 9 climate are initiat$ m rapidly ?an !y disappe>4 ,9 ?is connection1 h[ev]1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t sol> activity may arise 9 v>i\s ways1 z w appe> m fully lat]4 ,"u c]ta9 conditions /orm9ess may increase & decrease sl[ly4 ,,iii4 ,! height ( ! sn[ l9e & ( glaciation furni%es ano!r means ( te/+ glacial hypo!ses4 ,x is well e/abli%$ t 9 times ( glaciation ! sn[ l9e 0 depress$ ev]y:]e1 b lea/ ne> ! equator4 ,= example1 accord+ to ,p5ck1 p]man5t sn[ ext5d$ #djjj feet l[] ?an n[ 9 ! ,alps1 :]eas x /ood only #aejj feet bel[ ! pres5t level ne> ! equator 9 ,v5ezuela4 ,?is unequal depression is n readily acc\nt$ = by any hypo!sis dep5d+ solely ^u ! l[]+ ( temp]ature4 ,by ! c>bon dioxide & ! volcanic du/ hypo!ses1 ! temp]ature presumably 0 l[]$ almo/ equally 9 all latitudes1 b a little m at ! equator ?an else:]e4 ,if glaciation 7 due to a tempor>y less5+ ( ! radiation receiv$ f ! sun1 su* z is dem&$ by ! !rmal sol> hypo!sis1 & by ! long] p]iods ( ,croll's hypo!sis1 ! l[]+ w\ld be di/9ctly greate/ at ! equator4 ,?us1 accord+ to all ^! hypo!ses1 ! sn[ l9e %\ld h be5 depress$ mo/ at ! equator1 in/ead ( lea/4 ,! cyclonic hypo!sis expla9s ! less] depression ( ! sn[ l9e at ! equator z due to a dim9ution ( precipitation4 ,! effectiv5ess ( precipitation 9 ?is respect is illu/rat$ by ! pres5t great diff]5ce 9 ! height ( ! sn[ l9e on ! humid & dry sides ( m\nta9s4 ,on ! wet ea/]n side ( ! ,&es ne> ! equator1 ! sn[ l9e lies at #af1jjj feet2 on ! dry we/]n side1 at #ah1ejj feet4 ,aga91 al?\gh ! humid side ( ! ,himalayas lies t[>d ! s\?1 ! sn[ l9e has a level ( #ae1jjj feet1 :ile f>!r nor?1 on ! dry side1 x is #af1gjj feet4#dg ,! fact t ! sn[ l9e is l[] ne> ! m>g9 ( ! ,alps ?an t[>d ! c5t] po9ts 9 ! same direction4 ,! be>+ ( all ?is on ! glacial p]iod may be judg$ by look+ aga9 at ,fig4 #c 9 ,*apt] ,v4 ,?is %[s t at times ( sunspot activity & h5ce ( augm5t$ /orm9ess1 ! precipitation dim9i%es ne> ! heat equator1 t is1 :]e ! av]age temp]ature = ! :ole ye> is highe/4 ,at pres5t ! great size ( ! nor!rn cont95ts & _! consequ5t high temp]ature 9 summ]1 cause ! heat equator to lie nor? ( ! real equator1 except :]e ,au/ralia draws x to ! s\?w>d4#dh ,:5 l>ge p>ts ( ! nor!rn cont95ts 7 cov]$ ) ice1 h[ev]1 ! heat equator & ! true equator 7 probably mu* clos] ?an n[1 = ! cont95ts c\ld n become s hot4 ,if s1 ! dim9ution 9 equatorial precipitation1 :i* accompanies increas$ /orm9ess ?r\gh\t ! _w z a :ole1 w\ld take place m ne>ly along ! true equator ?an appe>s 9 ,fig4 #c4 ,h5ce s f> z precipitation alone is conc]n$1 we %\ld actually expect t ! sn[ l9e ne> ! equator w\ld rise a little dur+ glacial p]iods4 ,ano!r factor1 h[ev]1 mu/ be consid]$4 ,koepp5's data1 x w be rememb]$1 %[ t at times ( sol> activity ! e>?'s temp]ature falls m at ! equator ?an 9 high] latitudes4 ,if ?is effect 7 magnifi$ x w\ld l[] ! sn[ l9e4 ,! actual position ( ! sn[ l9e at ! equator dur+ glacial p]iods ?us appe>s to be ! comb9$ effect ( dim9i%$ precipitation1 :i* w\ld raise ! l9e1 & ( l[] temp]ature1 :i* w\ld br+ x d[n4 ,be=e leav+ ?is subject x may be well to recall t ! relative less5+ ( precipitation 9 equatorial latitudes dur+ ! glacial epo*s 0 probably caus$ by ! div]sion ( moi/ure f ! trade-w9d belt4 ,?is div]sion 0 presumably due to ! great numb] ( tropical cyclones & to ! fact t ! cyclonic /orms ( middle latitudes also drew mu* moi/ure f ! trade-w9d belt 9 summ] :5 ! nor!rn position ( ! sun drew t belt ne> ! /orm track :i* 0 =c$ to rema9 s\? ( ! ice %eet4 ,su* div]sion ( moi/ure out ( ! trade-w9d belt mu/ dim9i% ! am\nt ( wat] vapor t is c>ri$ by ! trades to equatorial regions2 h5ce x w\ld less5 precipitation 9 ! belt ( s-call$ equatorial calms1 :i* lies along ! heat equator r ?an along ! geographical equator4 ,ano!r phase ( ! v]tical di/ribution ( glaciation has be5 ! subject ( consid]able discussion4 ,9 ! ,alps & 9 _m o!r m\nta9s ! glaciation ( ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod appe>s to h _h its upp] limit no high] ?an today4 ,?is has be5 v>i\sly int]pret$4 ,x seems1 h[ev]1 to be adequately expla9$ z due to decreas$ precipitation at high altitudes dur+ ! cold p]iods4 ,?is is 9 spite ( ! fact t precipitation 9 g5]al increas$ ) increas$ /orm9ess4 ,! l[ temp]ature ( glacial times presumably induc$ cond5sation at l[] altitudes ?an n[1 & mo/ ( ! precipitation occurr$ ^u ! l[] slopes ( ! m\nta9s1 contribut+ to ! l[] glaci]s1 :ile little ( x fell ^u ! highe/ glaci]s4 ,above a mod]ate altitude 9 all l(ty m\nta9s ! decrease 9 ! am\nt ( precipitation is rapid4 ,9 mo/ cases ! decrease beg9s at a height ( less ?an #cjjj feet above ! base ( ! ma9 slope1 provid$ ! slope is /eep4 ,! cold] ! air1 ! l[] ! altitude at :i* ?is occurs4 ,= example1 x is mu* l[] 9 w9t] ?an 9 summ]4 ,inde$1 ! high] altitudes 9 ! ,alps are sunny 9 w9t] ev5 :]e !re are abundant cl\ds l[] d[n4 ,,iv4 ,! pres5ce ( ext5sive lakes & o!r evid5ces ( a pluvial climate dur+ glacial p]iods 9 non-glaciat$ regions :i* are normally dry is ano!r ( ! facts :i* mo/ glacial hypo!ses fail to expla9 satisfactorily4 ,beyond ! ice %eets _m regions appe> to h enjoy$ an unusually heavy precipitation dur+ ! glacial epo*s4 ,! evid5ce ( ?is is abundant1 includ+ num]\s ab&on$ /r& l9es ( salt lakes & an abundance ( co>se mat]ial 9 deltas & flood pla9s4 ,j4 ,d4 ,:itney1#di 9 an int]e/+ b neglect$ volume1 0 "o ( ! fir/ to m>%al ! evid5ce ( ?is sort4 ,m rec5tly ,free#ej has amplifi$ ?is4 ,accord+ to him 9 ! ,great ,bas9 region ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates sixty-two bas9s ei!r conta9 unmi/akable evid5ce ( lakes1 or belong to "o ( ! ?ree great lake gr\ps nam$ bel[4 ,two ( ^!1 ! ,lake ,lahontan & ! ,lake ,bonneville gr\ps1 comprise tw5ty-n9e pres5t bas9s1 :ile ! ?ird1 ! ,ow5s-,se>les *a91 conta9$ at lea/ five l>ge lakes1 ! l[e/ be+ 9 ,dea? ,valley4 ,9 we/]n & c5tral ,asia a f> great] s]ies ( salt lakes is f\nd & mo/ ( ^! are surr\nd$ by /r&s at high levels4 ,_m ( ^! are describ$ 9 ,explorations 9 ,turke/an1 ,! ,pulse ( ,asia1 & ,pale/9e & ,its ,trans=mation4 ,!re has be5 a good deal ( debate z to :e!r ^! lakes actually date f ! glacial p]iod1 z is claim$ by ,c4 ,e4 ,p4 ,brooks1 = example1 or f "s o!r p]iod4 ,! evid5ce1 h[ev]1 seems to be conv9c+ t ! lakes exp&$ :5 ! ice also exp&$4 ,accord+ to ! old] glacial hypo!ses ! l[] temp]ature :i* is po/ulat$ z ! cause ( glaciation w\ld almo/ c]ta9ly mean less evaporation ov] ! oceans & h5ce less precipitation dur+ glacial p]iods4 ,to c\nt]act ?is ! only way 9 :i* ! level ( ! lakes c\ld be rais$ w\ld be because ! l[] temp]ature w\ld cause less evaporation f _! surfaces4 ,x seems q impossible1 h[ev]1 t ! l[]+ ( temp]ature1 :i* is commonly tak5 to h be5 n m ?an #aj deg4,c41 c\ld c\nt]act ! less5$ precipitation & also cause an enorm\s expansion ( mo/ ( ! lakes4 ,= example1 anci5t ,lake ,bonneville 0 m ?an t5 times z l>ge z its mod]n remnant1 ,great ,salt ,lake1 & its av]age dep? m ?an =ty times z great4#ea ,_m small lakes 9 ! ,old ,_w exp&$ /ill m4#eb ,= example1 9 ea/]n ,p]sia _m bas9s :i* n[ conta9 no lake :atev] are floor$ ) va/ deposits ( lacu/r9e salt & are surr\nd$ by old lake bluffs & bea*es4 ,9 nor!rn ,africa simil> conditions prevail4#ec ,o!r1 b less obvi\s1 evid5ce ( m abundant ra9fall 9 regions t are n[ dry is f\nd 9 ?ick /rata ( gravel1 s&1 & f9e silt 9 ! alluvial deposits ( flood pla9s & deltas4#ed ,! cyclonic hypo!sis supposes t increas$ /orm9ess acc\nts = pluvial climates 9 regions t are n[ dry j z x acc\nts = glaciation 9 ! regions ( ! ice %eets4 ,figs4 #b & #c1 x w be rememb]$1 illu/rate :at happ5s :5 ! sun is active4 ,sol> activity is accompani$ by an increase 9 /orm9ess 9 ! s\?we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates 9 exactly ! region :]e elevat$ /r&s ( dim9i%$ salt lakes are mo/ num]\s4 ,9 ,fig4 #c1 ! same condition is se5 9 ! region ( salt lakes 9 ! ,old ,_w4 ,judg+ by ^! maps1 :i* illu/rate :at has happ5$ s9ce c>eful meteorological records 7 kept1 an increase 9 sol> activity is accompani$ by increas$ ra9fall 9 l>ge p>ts ( :at are n[ semi-arid & des]t regions4 ,su* precipitation w\ld at once cause ! level ( ! lakes to rise4 ,lat]1 :5 ice %eets _h develop$ 9 ,europe & ,am]ica1 ! high-pressure areas ?us caus$ might =ce ! ma9 /orm belt s f> s\? t x w\ld lie ov] ^! same arid regions4 ,! increase 9 tropical hurricanes at times ( abundant sunspots may also h a be>+ on ! climate ( regions t are n[ arid4 ,dur+ ! glacial p]iod "s ( ! hurricanes probably swept f> ov] ! l&s4 ,! num]\s tropical cyclones ( ,au/ralia1 = example1 are ! *ief s\rce ( precipitation = t cont95t4#ee ,"s ( ! /rong] cyclones locally yield m ra9 9 a day or two ?an o!r s\rces yield 9 a ye>4 ,v4 ,! occurr5ce ( widespread glaciation ne> ! tropics dur+ ! ,p]mian1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #g1 has giv5 rise to mu* discussion4 ,! rec5t discov]y ( glaciation 9 latitudes z l[ z #cj deg4 9 ! ,prot]ozoic is correspond+ly significant4 ,9 all cases ! occurr5ce ( glaciation 9 l[ & middle latitudes is probably due to ! same g5]al causes4 ,d\btless ! position & altitude ( ! m\nta9s _h some?+ to d ) ! matt]4 ,yet tak5 by itself ?is seems insuffici5t4 ,today ! l(tie/ range 9 ! _w1 ! ,himalayas1 is almo/ unglaciat$1 al?\gh its s\!rn slope may seem at fir/ ?\ght to be almo/ ideally locat$ 9 ?is respect4 ,"s p>ts rise ov] #bj1jjj feet & c]ta9 l[] slopes receive #djj in*es ( ra9 p] ye>4 ,! small size ( ! ,himalayan glaci]s 9 spite ( ^! favorable conditions is app>5tly due l>gely to ! seasonal "* ( ! monsoon w9ds4 ,! /rong outbl[+ monsoons ( w9t] cause ab\t half ! ye> to be v dry ) cle> skies & dry w9ds f ! int]ior ( ,asia4 ,9 all l[ latitudes ! sun rides high 9 ! heav5s at midday1 ev5 9 w9t]1 & ?us melts sn[ fairly effectively 9 cle> wea!r4 ,?is is highly unfavorable to glaciation4 ,! inbl[+ s\!rn monsoons br+ all _! moi/ure 9 midsumm] at j ! "t :5 x is lea/ effective 9 produc+ sn[4 ,conditions simil> to ^? n[ prevail+ 9 ! ,himalayas mu/ accompany any great uplift ( ! l&s :i* produces high m\nta9s & l>ge cont95ts 9 subtropical & middle latitudes4 ,h5ce1 uplift alone _c acc\nt = ext5sive glaciation 9 subtropical latitudes dur+ ! ,p]mian & ,prot]ozoic4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,p]mian geography & glaciation4 7,aft] ,s*u*]t47 ,! assumption ( a great g5]al l[]+ ( temp]ature is also n adequate to expla9 glaciation 9 subtropical latitudes4 ,9 ! fir/ place ?is w\ld require a l[]+ ( _m degrees1--f> m ?an 9 ! ,plei/oc5e glacial p]iod4 ,! m>9e fossils ( ! ,p]mian1 h[ev]1 d n indicate any su* condition4 ,9 ! second place1 if ! l&s 7 widespread z !y appe> to h be5 9 ! ,p]mian1 a g5]al l[]+ ( temp]ature w\ld dim9i% r ?an increase ! pres5t slight effici5cy ( ! monsoons 9 produc+ glaciation4 ,monsoons dep5d ^u ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! temp]atures ( l& & wat]4 ,if ! g5]al temp]ature 7 l[]$1 ! r$uction w\ld be mu* less pron\nc$ on ! oceans ?an on ! l&s1 = wat] t5ds to pres]ve a uni=m temp]ature1 n only because ( its mobility1 b because ( ! l>ge am\nt ( heat giv5 out :5 freez+ takes place1 or consum$ 9 evaporation4 ,h5ce ! g5]al l[]+ ( temp]ature w\ld make ! contra/ betwe5 cont95ts & oceans less ?an at pres5t 9 summ]1 = ! l& temp]ature w\ld be br\ght t[>d t ( ! ocean4 ,?is w\ld dim9i% ! /r5g? ( ! inbl[+ summ] monsoons & ?us cut (f "p ( ! supply ( moi/ure4 ,evid5ce t ?is actually happ5$ 9 ! cold f\rte5? c5tury has already be5 giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 w9t] ! l&s w\ld be mu* cold] ?an n[ & ! oceans only a little cold]1 s t ! dry outbl[+ monsoons ( ! cold season w\ld increase 9 /r5g? & w\ld also la/ long] ?an at pres5t4 ,9 addition to all ?is1 ! m]e fact ( l[ temp]ature w\ld mean a g5]al r$uction 9 ! am\nt ( wat] vapor 9 ! air4 ,?us1 f almo/ e po9t ( view a m]e l[]+ ( temp]ature seems to be rul$ out z a cause ( ,p]mian glaciation4 ,moreov]1 if ! ,p]mian or ,prot]ozoic glacial p]iods 7 s cold t ! l&s above latitude #cj deg4 7 sn[-cov]$ mo/ ( ! "t1 ! normal surface w9ds 9 subtropical latitudes w\ld be l>gely equatorw>d1 j z ! w9t] monsoons n[ are4 ,h5ce little or no moi/ure w\ld be available to fe$ ! sn[fields :i* give rise to ! glaci]s4 ,x has be5 assum$ by ,m>sd5 ,manson & o!rs t increas$ g5]al cl\d9ess w\ld acc\nt = ! subtropical glaciation ( ! ,p]mian & ,prot]ozoic4 ,grant+ = ! mom5t t !re c\ld be univ]sal p]si/5t cl\d9ess1 ?is w\ld n prev5t or c\nt]act ! outbl[+ anti-cyclonic w9ds s *>act]i/ic ( great sn[fields4 ,!re=e1 "u ! hypo!sis ( g5]al cl\d9ess !re w\ld be no supply ( moi/ure to cause glaciation 9 l[ latitudes4 ,inde$1 p]si/5t cl\d9ess 9 all high] latitudes w\ld app>5tly deprive ! ,himalayas ( mo/ ( _! pres5t moi/ure1 = ! int]ior ( ,asia w\ld n become hot 9 summ] & no inbl[+ monsoons w\ld develop4 ,9 fact1 w9ds ( all k9ds w\ld seem+ly be sc>ce1 = !y arise almo/ :olly f contra/s ( temp]ature & h5ce ( atmosph]ic pressure4 ,! only way to get w9ds & h5ce precipitation w\ld be to invoke "s o!r ag5cy1 su* z cyclonic /orms1 b t w\ld be a dep>ture f ! supposition t glaciation arose f cl\d9ess4 ,let u n[ inquire h[ ! cyclonic hypo!sis acc\nts = glaciation 9 l[ latitudes4 ,we w fir/ consid] ! t]re/rial conditions 9 ! e>ly ,p]mian1 ! la/ p]iod ( glaciation 9 su* latitudes4 ,geologi/s are almo/ univ]sally agre$ t ! l&s 7 exceptionally ext5sive & also high1 especially 9 l[ latitudes4 ,"o evid5ce ( ?is is ! pres5ce ( abundant conglom]ates compos$ ( great b\ld]s4 ,x is also probable t ! c>bon dioxide 9 ! air dur+ ! e>ly ,p]mian _h be5 r$uc$ to a m9imum by ! extraord9>y am\nt ( coal =m$ dur+ ! prec$+ p]iod4 ,?is w\ld t5d to produce l[ temp]ature & ?us make ! conditions favorable = glaciation z soon z an acc5tuation ( sol> activity caus$ unusual /orm9ess4 ,if ! /orm9ess became extreme :5 t]re/rial conditions 7 ?us univ]sally favorable to glaciation1 x w\ld presumably produce glaciation 9 l[ latitudes4 ,num]\s & int5se tropical cyclones w\ld c>ry a va/ am\nt ( moi/ure out ( ! tropics1 j z n[ happ5s :5 ! sun is active1 b on a f> l>g] scale4 ,! moi/ure w\ld be precipitat$ on ! equatorw>d slopes ( ! subtropical m\nta9 ranges4 ,at high elevations ?is precipitation w\ld be 9 ! =m ( sn[ ev5 9 summ]4 ,tropical cyclones1 h[ev]1 z is %[n 9 ,e>? & ,sun1 occur 9 ! autumn & w9t] z well z 9 summ]4 ,= example1 9 ! ,bay ( ,b5gal ! numb] record$ 9 ,octob] is fifty1 ! l>ge/ = any mon?2 :ile 9 ,novemb] x is ?irty-f\r1 & ,decemb] f\rte5 z comp>$ ) an av]age ( =ty-two = ! mon?s ( ,july to ,septemb]4 ,f ,janu>y to ,m>*1 :5 sunspot numb]s av]ag$ m ?an =ty1 ! numb] ( tropical hurricanes 0 #adc p] c5t great] ?an :5 ! sunspot numb]s av]ag$ bel[ =ty4 ,dur+ ! mon?s f ,april to ,june1 :i* also w\ld be times ( consid]able sn[y precipitation1 tropical hurricanes av]ag$ #eh p] c5t m num]\s ) sunspot numb]s above =ty ?an ) numb]s bel[ =ty1 :ile f ,july to ,septemb] ! diff]5ce am\nt$ to #bc p] c5t4 ,ev5 at ?is season "s sn[ falls on ! high] slopes1 :ile ! increas$ cl\d9ess due to num]\s /orms also t5ds to pres]ve ! sn[4 ,?us a great increase 9 ! frequ5cy ( sunspots is accompani$ by increas$ int5sity ( tropical hurricanes1 especially 9 ! cool] autumn & spr+ mon?s1 & results n only 9 a great] accumulation ( sn[ b 9 a decrease 9 ! melt+ ( ! sn[ because ( m abundant cl\ds4 ,at su* times z ! ,p]mian1 ! g5]al l[ temp]ature due to rapid convection & to ! sc>city ( c>bon dioxide presumably jo9$ ) ! ext5sion ( ! l&s 9 produc+ great high-pressure areas ov] ! l&s 9 middle latitudes dur+ ! w9t]s1 & ?us caus$ ! m nor!rn1 or mid-latitude type ( cyclonic /orms to be %ift$ to ! equatorw>d side ( ! cont95ts at t season4 ,?is w\ld cause an increase ( precipitation 9 w9t] z well z dur+ ! mon?s :5 tropical hurricanes ab\nd4 ,_m o!r circum/ances w\ld cooep]ate to produce a simil> result4 ,= example1 ! g5]al l[ temp]ature w\ld cause ! sea to be cov]$ ) ice 9 l[] latitudes ?an n[1 & w\ld help to create high-pressure areas 9 middle latitudes1 ?us driv+ ! /orms f> s\?4 ,if ! sea wat] 7 fre%] ?an n[1 z x probably 0 to a notable ext5t 9 ! ,prot]ozoic & p]haps to "s slight ext5t 9 ! ,p]mian1 ! high] freez+ po9t w\ld also fur!r ! ext5sion ( ! ice & help to keep ! /orms away f high latitudes4 ,if to ?is !re is add$ a di/ribution ( l& & sea su* t ! volume ( ! w>m ocean curr5ts fl[+ f l[ to high latitudes 0 dim9i%$1 z appe>s to h be5 ! case1 !re seems to be no difficulty 9 expla9+ ! subtropical location ( ! ma9 glaciation 9 bo? ! ,p]mian & ! ,prot]ozoic4 ,an increase ( /orm9ess seems to be ! key to ! :ole situation4 ,"o o!r possibility may be m5tion$1 al?\gh little /ress %\ld be laid on x4 ,9 ,e>? & ,sun x has be5 %[n t ! ma9 /orm track 9 bo? ! nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]es is n conc5tric ) ! geographical poles4 ,bo? tracks are r\ghly conc5tric ) ! correspond+ magnetic poles1 a fact :i* may be important 9 connection ) ! hypo!sis ( an electrical effect ( ! sun ^u t]re/rial /orm9ess4 ,! magnetic poles are kn[n to w&] consid]ably4 ,su* w&]+ gives rise to v>iations 9 ! direction ( ! magnetic ne$le f ye> to ye>4 ,9 #ahae ! compass 9 ,engl& po9t$ #bd-a_/b deg4 ,w4 ( ,n4 & 9 #aijf #ag deg4 #de' ,w4 ,su* a v>iation seems to mean a *ange ( _m miles 9 ! location ( ! nor? magnetic pole4 ,c]ta9 *anges 9 ! daily m>* ( electromagnetic ph5om5a ov] ! oceans h l$ ,bau] & 8 associates to sugge/ t ! magnetic poles may ev5 be subject to a slight daily movem5t 9 response to ! *anges 9 ! relative positions ( ! e>? & sun4 ,?us !re seems to be a possibility t a pron\nc$ *ange 9 ! location ( ! magnetic pole 9 ,p]mian times1 = example1 may h _h "s connection ) a %ift+ 9 ! location ( ! belt ( /orms4 ,x mu/ be cle>ly und]/ood t !re is z yet no evid5ce ( any su* *ange1 & ! matt] is introduc$ m]ely to call att5tion to a possible l9e ( inve/igation4 ,any hypo!sis ( ,p]mian & ,prot]ozoic glaciation mu/ expla9 n only ! glaciation ( l[ latitudes b ! lack ( glaciation & ! accumulation ( r$ des]t b$s 9 high latitudes4 ,! facts already pres5t$ seem to expla9 ?is4 ,glaciation c\ld n occur ext5sively 9 high latitudes p>tly because dur+ mo/ ( ! ye> ! air 0 too cold to hold mu* moi/ure1 b /ill m because ! w9ds = ! mo/ "p mu/ h bl[n outw>d f ! cold nor!rn areas & ! cyclonic /orm belt 0 pu%$ out ( high latitudes4 ,because ( ^! conditions precipitation 0 app>5tly limit$ to a relatively small numb] ( /orms dur+ ! summ]4 ,h5ce great des]t areas mu/ h prevail$ at high latitudes4 ,great aridity n[ prevails nor? ( ! ,himalayas & relat$ ranges1 & r$ b$s are accumulat+ 9 ! c5t]s ( ! great des]ts1 su* z ^? ( ! ,t>im ,bas9 & ! ,transcaspian4 ,! r$ness is n due to ! orig9al "* ( ! rock1 b to int5se oxidation1 z appe>s f ! fact t along ! edges ( ! des]t & :]ev] occasional floods c>ry s$im5t f> out into ! mid/ ( ! s&1 ! mat]ial has ! ord9>y br[ni% %ades4 ,z soon z "o goes out into ! places :]e ! s& has be5 expos$ to ! air = a long "t1 h[ev]1 x becomes p9k1 & !n r$4 ,su* conditions may h giv5 rise to ! high degree ( oxidation 9 ! fam\s ,p]mian r$ b$s4 ,if ! air ( ! e>ly ,p]mian conta9$ an unusual p]c5tage ( oxyg5 because ( ! release ( t gas by ! great plant b$s :i* =m$ coal 9 ! prec$+ era1 z ,*amb]l9 has ?\ght probable1 ! t5d5cy to produce r$ b$s w\ld be /ill fur!r increas$4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$1 h[ev]1 t ^! conditions w\ld absolutely limit glaciation to subtropical latitudes4 ,! pres5ce ( e>ly ,p]mian glaciation 9 ,nor? ,am]ica at ,bo/on & 9 ,alaska & 9 ! ,falkl& ,isl&s ( ! ,s\? ,atlantic ,ocean proves t at lea/ locally !re 0 suffici5t moi/ure to =m glaci]s ne> ! coa/ 9 relatively high latitudes4 ,! possibility ( ?is w\ld dep5d entirely ^u ! =m ( ! l&s & ! consequ5t c\rse ( ocean curr5ts4 ,ev5 9 ^? high latitudes cyclonic /orms w\ld occur unless !y 7 kept out by conditions ( pressure su* z h be5 describ$ above4 ,! m>9e faunas ( ,p]mian age 9 high latitudes h be5 int]pret$ z indicat+ mild oceanic temp]atures4 ,?is is a po9t :i* requires fur!r inve/igation4 ,w>m oceans dur+ times ( slight sol> activity are a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! cyclonic hypo!sis1 z w appe> lat]4 ,! pres5t cold oceans seem to be ! expectable result ( ! ,plei/oc5e glaciation & ( ! pres5t relatively di/urb$ condition ( ! sun4 ,if a sudd5 di/urbance ?rew ! sol> atmosph]e into viol5t commotion )9 a few ?\s& ye>s dur+ ,p]mian times1 glaciation might occur z describ$ above1 :ile ! oceans 7 /ill w>m4 ,9 fact _! w>m? w\ld increase evaporation :ile ! viol5t cyclonic /orms & high w9ds w\ld cause heavy ra9 & keep ! air cool by con/antly rais+ x to high levels :]e x w\ld rapidly radiate its heat into space4 ,nev]!less x is n yet possible to det]m9e h[ w>m ! oceans 7 at ! actual "t ( ! ,p]mian glaciation4 ,"s faunas =m]ly report$ z ,p]mian are n[ kn[n to be consid]ably old]4 ,moreov]1 o!rs ( und\bt$ ,p]mian age are probably n /rictly contemporane\s ) ! glaciation4 ,s f> back 9 ! geological record x is v d\btful :e!r we c date fossils )9 ! limits ( say #ajj1jjj ye>s4 ,yet a diff]5ce ( #ajj1jjj ye>s w\ld be m ?an en\gh to all[ ! fossils to h liv$ ei!r be=e or aft] ! glaciation1 or 9 an int]-glacial epo*4 ,"o su* epo* is kn[n to h occurr$ & n9e o!rs are sugge/$ by ! int]-/ratification ( glacial till & m>9e s$im5ts 9 ea/]n ,au/ralia4 ,! w>m curr5ts :i* w\ld fl[ polew>d 9 int]-glacial epo*s mu/ h favor$ a prompt re9troduction ( m>9e faunas driv5 out dur+ times ( glaciation4 ,tak5 all & all1 ! ,p]mian glaciation seems to be acc\nt$ = by ! cyclonic hypo!sis q z well z does ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,9 bo? ^! cases1 z well z 9 ! v>i\s pulsations ( hi/oric times1 x seems to be necess>y m]ely to magnify :at is happ5+ today 9 ord] to reproduce ! conditions :i* prevail$ 9 ! pa/4 ,if ! conditions :i* n[ prevail at times ( sunspot m9ima 7 magnifi$1 !y w\ld give ! mild conditions ( int]-glacial epo*s & simil> p]iods4 ,if ! conditions :i* n[ prevail at times ( sunspot maxima are magnifi$ a little !y seem to produce p]iods ( climatic /ress su* z ^? ( ! f\rte5? c5tury4 ,if !y are magnifi$ /ill m ! result is app>5tly glacial epo*s l ^? ( ! ,plei/oc5e1 & if !y are magnifi$ to a /ill great] ext5t1 ! result is ,p]mian or ,prot]ozoic glaciation4 ,o!r factors mu/ inde$ be favorable1 = climatic *anges are highly complex & are unque/ionably due to a comb9ation ( circum/ances4 ,! po9t :i* is *iefly emphasiz$ 9 ?is book is t among ^? sev]al circum/ances1 *anges 9 cyclonic /orms due app>5tly to activity ( ! sun's atmosph]e mu/ always be reckon$4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #df3 ,w4 ,h4 ,hobbs3 ,*>act]i/ics ( ,exi/+ ,glaci]s1 #aiaa4 ,! ,role ( ! ,glacial ,anticyclones 9 ! ,air ,circulation ( ! ,globe2 ,proc4 ,am4 ,phil4 ,soc41 ,vol4 #ed1 #aiae1 pp4 #ahe-bbe4 ,footnote #dg3 ,r4 ,d4 ,salisbury3 ,physiography1 #aiai4 ,footnote #dh3 ,griffi? ,taylor3 ,au/ralian ,meteorology1 #aibj1 p4 #bhc4 ,footnote #di3 ,j4 ,d4 ,:itney3 ,climatic ,*anges ( ! ,lat] ,geological ,times1 #ahhb4 ,footnote #ej3 ,e4 ,e4 ,free3 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ( ,agriculture1 ,bull4 #ed1 #aiad4 ,mr4 ,free has prep>$ a summ>y ( ?is ,bullet9 :i* appe>s 9 ,! ,sol> ,hypo!sis1 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,sec4 ( ,am41 ,vol4 #be1 pp4 #eei-efb4 ,footnote #ea3 ,g4 ,k4 ,gilb]t3 ,lake ,bonneville2 ,monograph #a1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,footnote #eb3 ,c4 ,e4 ,p4 ,brooks3 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,royal ,meteorol4 ,soc41 #aiad1 pp4 #fc-ff4 ,footnote #ec3 ,h4 ,j4 ,l4 ,beadnell3 ,a4 ,egyptian ,oasis1 ,london1 #aiji4 ,ellswor? ,hunt+ton3 ,! ,libyan ,oasis ( ,kh>ga2 ,bull4 ,am4 ,geog4 ,soc41 ,vol4 #db1 ,sept41 #aiaj1 pp4 #fda-ffa4 ,footnote #ed3 ,s4 ,s4 ,vi%]3 ,! ,bajada ( ! ,tucson ,bolson ( ,s\!rn ,arizona2 ,sci5ce1 ,n4 ,s41 ,m>4 #bc1 #aiac4 ,ellswor? ,hunt+ton3 ,! ,bas9s ( ,ea/]n ,p]sia & ,sei/an1 9 ,explorations 9 ,turke/an4 ,footnote #ee3 ,griffi? ,taylor3 ,au/ralian ,meteorology1 #aibj1 p4 #ahi4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,! ,,orig9 ,,( ,,loess ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable =mations associat$ ) glacial deposits consi/s ( va/ %eets ( ! f9e-gra9$1 yell[i%1 w9d-bl[n mat]ial call$ loess4 ,some:at peculi> climatic conditions evid5tly prevail$ :5 x 0 =m$4 ,at pres5t simil> deposits are be+ laid d[n only ne> ! leew>d m>g9 ( great des]ts4 ,! fam\s loess deposits ( ,*9a 9 ! lee ( ! ,des]t ( ,gobi are examples4 ,dur+ ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod1 h[ev]1 loess accumulat$ 9 a broad zone along ! m>g9 ( ! ice %eet at its maximum ext5t4 ,9 ! ,old ,_w x ext5d$ f ,france across ,g]many & ?r\gh ! ,black ,e>? region ( ,russia into ,sib]ia4 ,9 ! ,new ,_w a /ill l>g] area is loess-cov]$4 ,9 ! ,mississippi ,valley1 t5s ( ?\s&s ( squ>e miles are mantl$ by a lay] exce$+ tw5ty feet 9 ?ickness & 9 _m places approa*+ a hundr$ feet4 ,nei!r ! ,nor? ,am]ican nor ! ,european deposits are associat$ ) a des]t4 ,inde$1 loess is lack+ 9 ! we/]n & dri] p>ts ( ! great pla9s & is be/ develop$ 9 ! well-wat]$ /ates ( ,i[a1 ,ill9ois1 & ,miss\ri4 ,"p ( ! loess ov]lies ! non-glacial mat]ials ( ! great c5tral pla91 b ! nor!rn portions ov]lie ! drift deposits ( ! fir/ ?ree glaciations4 ,a few traces ( loess are associat$ ) ! ,kansan & ,ill9oian1 ! second & ?ird glaciations1 b mo/ ( ! ,am]ica loess appe>s to h be5 =m$ at approximately ! "t ( ! ,i[an or f\r? glaciation1 :ile only a little ov]lies ! drift %eets ( ! ,wiscons9 age4 ,! loess is ?icke/ ne> ! m>g9 ( ! ,i[an till %eet & ?9s progressively bo? nor? & s\?4 ,! ?9n+ s\?w>d is abrupt along ! /ream divides1 b v gradual along ! l>g] valleys4 ,inde$1 loess is abundant along ! bluffs ( ! ,mississippi1 especially ! ea/ bluff1 almo/ to ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4#ef ,x is n[ g5]ally agre$ t all typical loess is w9d bl[n4 ,!re is /ill mu* "q1 h[ev]1 z to its "t ( orig91 & ?us indirectly z to its climatic implications4 ,sev]al ,am]ican & ,european /ud5ts h ?\ght t ! loess dates f int]-glacial times4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,p5ck has conclud$ t ! loess 0 =m$ %ortly be=e ! comm5cem5t ( ! glacial epo*s2 :ile _m ,am]ican geologi/s hold t ! loess accumulat$ :ile ! ice %eets 7 at approximately _! maximum size4 ,w4 ,j4 ,mc,gee1 ,*amb]l9 & ,salisbury1 ,keyes1 & o!rs lean t[>d ?is view4 ,9 ?is *apt] ! hypo!sis is advanc$ t x 0 =m$ at ! "o o!r possible "t1 namely1 imm$iately foll[+ ! retreat ( ! ice4 ,^! f\r hypo!ses z to ! "t ( orig9 ( loess imply ! foll[+ diff]5ces 9 its climatic relations4 ,if loess 0 =m$ dur+ typical int]-glacial epo*s1 or t[>d ! close ( su* epo*s1 pr(\nd g5]al aridity mu/ seem+ly h prevail$ 9 ord] to kill (f ! vegetation & ?us enable ! w9d to pick up suffici5t du/4 ,if ! loess 0 =m$ dur+ times ( extreme glaciation :5 ! glaci]s 7 supply+ l>ge quantities ( f9e mat]ial to outfl[+ /reams1 less aridity w\ld be requir$1 b !re mu/ h be5 %>p contra/s betwe5 wet seasons 9 summ] :5 ! sn[ 0 melt+ & dry seasons 9 w9t] :5 ! /orms 7 =c$ f> s\? by ! glacial high pressure4 ,alt]nate floods & dr\ghts w\ld ?us affect broad areas along ! /reams4 ,h5ce arises ! hypo!sis t ! w9d obta9$ ! loess f ! flood pla9s ( /reams at times ( maximum glaciation4 ,if ! loess 0 =m$ dur+ ! rapid retreat ( ! ice1 alt]nate summ] floods & w9t] dr\ghts w\ld /ill prevail1 b mu* mat]ial c\ld also be obta9$ by ! w9ds n only f flood pla9s1 b also f ! deposits expos$ by ! melt+ ( ! ice & n yet cov]$ by vegetation4 ,! evid5ce = & aga9/ ! sev]al hypo!ses may be /at$ briefly4 ,9 support ( ! hypo!sis ( ! int]-glacial orig9 ( loess1 ,%imek & o!rs /ate t ! glacial drift :i* lies b5ea? ! loess commonly gives evid5ce t "s "t elaps$ betwe5 ! disappe>ance ( ! ice & ! deposition ( ! loess4 ,= example1 abundant %ells ( l& snails 9 ! loess are n ( ! sort n[ f\nd 9 cold] regions1 b resemble ^? f\nd 9 ! dri] regions4 ,x is probable t if !y repres5t$ a glacial epo* !y w\ld be depaup]at$ by ! cold z are ! snails ( f> nor!rn regions4 ,! gravel pavem5t discuss$ bel[ seems to be /rong evid5ce ( erosion betwe5 ! retreat ( ! ice & ! deposition ( ! loess4 ,turn+ to ! second hypo!sis1 namely1 t ! loess accumulat$ ne> ! close ( ! int]-glacial epo* r ?an 9 ! mid/ ( x1 we may foll[ ,p5ck4 ,! mammalian fossils seem to him to prove t ! loess 0 =m$ :ile boreal animals occupi$ ! region1 = !y include rema9s ( ! hairy mammo?1 woolly rh9oc]os1 & re9de]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! typical int]-glacial b$s n f> away yield rema9s ( species *>act]i/ic ( mild] climates1 su* z ! elephant1 ! small] rh9oc]os1 & ! de]4 ,9 connection ) ^! facts x %\ld be not$ t occasional rema9s ( tundra vegetation & ( trees are f\nd b5ea? ! loess1 :ile 9 ! loess itself c]ta9 /eppe animals1 su* z ! common goph] or sp]maphyl1 are f\nd4 ,p5ck int]prets ?is z indicat+ a progressive desiccation culm9at+ j be=e ! oncom+ ( ! next ice %eet4 ,! evid5ce advanc$ 9 favor ( ! hypo!sis t ! loess 0 =m$ :5 glaciation 0 ne> its maximum includes ! fact t if ! loess does n repres5t ! outwa% f ! ,i[an ice1 !re is little else t does1 & presumably !re mu/ h be5 outwa%4 ,also ! di/ribution ( loess along ! m>g9s ( /reams sugge/s t mu* ( ! mat]ial came f ! flood pla9s ( ov]load$ /reams fl[+ f ! melt+ ice4 ,al?\gh !re are "s po9ts 9 favor ( ! hypo!sis t ! loess orig9at$ 7#a7 9 /rictly int]-glacial times1 7#b7 at ! end ( int]-glacial epo*s1 & 7#c7 at times ( full glaciation1 ea* hypo!sis is mu* weak5$ by evid5ce t supports ! o!rs4 ,! evid5ce ( boreal animals seems to disprove ! hypo!sis t ! loess 0 =m$ 9 ! middle ( a mild int]-glacial epo*4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,p5ck's hypo!sis z to loess at ! end ( int]-glacial times fails to acc\nt = c]ta9 *>act]i/ics ( ! l[e/ "p ( ! loess deposits & ( ! und]ly+ topography4 ,in/ead ( normal valleys & consequ5t prompt dra9age su* z ought to h develop$ be=e ! end ( a long int]-glacial epo*1 ! surface on :i* ! loess lies %[s _m undra9$ depressions4 ,"s ( ^! c be se5 9 expos$ banks1 :ile _m m are inf]r$ f ! pres5ce ( %ells ( pond snails "h & !re 9 ! ov]ly+ loess4 ,! pond snails presumably liv$ 9 %all[ pools occupy+ depressions 9 ! unev5 surface left by ! ice4 ,ano!r reason = que/ion+ :e!r ! loess 0 =m$ at ! end ( an int]-glacial epo* is t ?is hypo!sis does n provide a reasonable orig9 = ! mat]ial :i* composes ! loess4 ,ne> ! ,alps :]e ! loess deposits are small & :]e glaci]s probably p]si/$ 9 ! int]-glacial epo*s & ?us suppli$ flood pla9 mat]ial 9 l>ge quantities1 ?is does n appe> important4 ,9 ! broad upp] ,mississippi ,bas91 h[ev]1 & also 9 ! ,black ,e>? region ( ,russia !re seems to be no way to get ! l>ge body ( mat]ial compos+ ! loess except by assum+ ! exi/5ce ( great des]ts to w9dw>d4 ,b !re seems to be little or no evid5ce ( su* des]ts :]e !y c\ld be effective4 ,! m9]alogical "* ( ! loess ( ,i[an age proves t ! mat]ial came f granitic rocks1 su* z =m$ a l>ge "p ( ! drift4 ,! ne>e/ ext5sive outcrops ( granite are 9 ! s\?we/]n "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ne>ly a ?\s& miles f ,i[a & ,ill9ois4 ,b ! loess is ?icke/ ne> ! ice m>g9 & ?9s t[>d ! s\?we/ & 9 o!r directions1 :]eas if its s\rce 7 ! s\?we/]n des]t1 its maximum ?ickness w\ld probably be ne> ! m>g9 ( ! des]t4 ,! evid5ce cit$ above seems inconsi/5t n only ) ! hypo!sis t ! loess 0 =m$ at ! end ( an int]-glacial epo*1 b also ) ! idea t x orig9at$ at times ( maximum glaciation ei!r f riv]-borne s$im5ts or f any o!r s\rce4 ,a fur!r & m conv9c+ reason = ?is la/ conclusion is ! probability & almo/ ! c]ta9ty t :5 ! ice advanc$1 its front lay close to areas :]e ! vegetation 0 n mu* ?9n] ?an t :i* today prevails "u simil> climatic conditions4 ,if ! av]age temp]ature ( glacial maxima 0 only #f deg4,c4 l[] ?an t ( today1 ! conditions j beyond ! ice front :5 x 0 9 ! loess region f s\!rn ,ill9ois to ,m9nesota w\ld h be5 l ^? n[ prevail+ 9 ,canada f ,new ,brunswick to ,w9nipeg4 ,! vegetation !re is q diff]5t f ! grassy1 semi-arid vegetation ( :i* evid5ce is f\nd 9 ! loess4 ,! roots & /alks ( su* grassy vegetation are g5]ally agre$ to h help$ produce ! column> /ructure :i* enables ! loess to /& ) almo/ v]tical surfaces4 ,we are n[ ready to consid] ! probability t loess accumulat$ ma9ly dur+ ! retreat ( ! ice4 ,su* a retreat expos$ a zone ( drift to ! outfl[+ glacial w9ds4 ,mo/ glacial hypo!ses1 su* z t ( uplift1 or deplet$ c>bon dioxide1 call = a gradual retreat ( ! ice sc>cely fa/] ?an ! vegetation c\ld advance into ! ab&on$ area4 ,"u ! sol>-cyclonic hypo!sis1 on ! o!r h&1 ! climatic *anges may h be5 sudd5 & h5ce ! retreat ( ! ice may h be5 mu* m rapid ?an ! advance ( vegetation4 ,n[ w9d-bl[n mat]ials are d]iv$ f places :]e vegetation is scanty4 ,scanty vegetation on good soil1 x is true1 is usually due to aridity1 b may also result because ! "t s9ce ! soil 0 expos$ to ! air has n be5 long en\gh = ! soil to be suffici5tly wea!r$ to support vegetation4 ,ev5 :5 wea!r+ has _h full opportunity1 z :5 s& b>s1 mud flats1 & flood pla9s are expos$1 vegetation takes root only sl[ly4 ,moreov]1 /orms & viol5t w9ds may prev5t ! spread ( vegetation1 z is se5 on s&y bea*es ev5 9 di/9ctly humid regions l ,new ,j]sey & ,d5m>k4 ,?us x appe>s t unless ! retreat ( ! ice 7 z sl[ z ! advance ( vegetation1 a b>r5 area ( m or less wid? mu/ h bord]$ ! retreat+ ice & =m$ an ideal s\rce ( loess4 ,sev]al o!r l9es ( evid5ce seem+ly support ! conclusion t ! loess 0 =m$ dur+ ! retreat ( ! ice4 ,= example1 ,%imek1 :o has made almo/ a lifelong /udy ( ! ,i[an loess1 emphasizes ! fact t !re is (t5 an accumulation ( /ones & pebbles at its base4 ,?is sugge/s t ! und]ly+ till 0 erod$ be=e ! loess 0 deposit$ ^u x4 ,! fir/ reaction ( mo/ /ud5ts is to assume t ( c\rse ?is 0 due to runn+ wat]4 ,t is possible 9 _m cases1 b by no means 9 all4 ,s widespread a %eet ( gravel c\ld n be deposit$ by /reams )\t de/roy+ ! irregul> bas9s & holl[s ( :i* we h se5 evid5ce :]e ! loess lies on glacial deposits4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! w9d is compet5t to produce a simil> gravel pavem5t )\t di/urb+ ! old topography4 ,des]t pavem5ts are a notable feature 9 mo/ des]ts4 ,on ! edges ( an ice %eet1 z ,hobbs has made u realize1 ! commone/ w9ds are outw>d4 ,!y (t5 atta9 a velocity ( eighty miles an h\r 9 ,ant>ctica & ,gre5l&4 ,su* w9ds1 h[ev]1 usually decl9e rapidly 9 velocity only a few score miles f ! ice4 ,?us _! effect w\ld be to produce rapid erosion ( ! fre%ly b>$ surface ne> ! retreat+ ice4 ,! pebbles w\ld be left beh9d z a pavem5t1 :ile s& & !n loess w\ld be deposit$ f>!r f ! ice :]e ! w9ds 7 weak] & :]e vegetation 0 beg9n+ to take root4 ,su* a decrease 9 w9d velocity may expla9 ! occasional v]tical gradation f gravel ?r\gh s& to co>se loess & !n to normal f9e loess4 ,z ! ice %eet retreat$ ! w9d 9 any giv5 place w\ld gradually become less viol5t4 ,z ! ice cont9u$ to retreat ! area :]e loess 0 deposit$ w\ld foll[ at a di/ance1 & ?us ea* "p ( ! gravel pavem5t w\ld 9 turn be cov]$ ) ! loess4 ,! hypo!sis t loess is deposit$ :ile ! ice is retreat+ is 9 accord ) _m o!r l9es ( evid5ce4 ,= example1 x accords ) ! boreal "* ( ! mammal rema9s z describ$ above4 ,aga91 ! advance ( vegetation into ! b>r5 zone along ! front ( ! ice w\ld be delay$ by ! /rong outbl[+ w9ds4 ,! common pione] plants dep5d l>gely on ! w9d = ! di/ribution ( _! se$s1 b ! glacial w9ds w\ld c>ry !m away f ! ice r ?an t[>d x4 ,! glacial w9ds disc\rage ! advance ( vegetation 9 ano!r way1 = !y are dry+ w9ds1 z are almo/ all w9ds bl[+ f a cold] to a w>m] region4 ,! fact t rema9s ( trees sometimes occur at ! bottom ( ! loess probably means t ! deposition ( loess ext5d$ into ! =e/s :i* almo/ c]ta9ly p]si/$ n f> f ! ice4 ,?is seems m likely ?an t a p]iod ( sev]e aridity be=e ! advance ( ! ice kill$ ! trees & made a /eppe or des]t4 ,p5ck's *ief argum5t 9 favor ( ! =mation ( loess be=e ! advance ( ! ice r ?an aft]1 is t s9ce loess is lack+ ^u ! y\nge/ drift %eet 9 ,europe x mu/ h be5 =m$ be=e r ?an aft] ! la/ or ,wu]m advance ( ! ice4 ,?is breaks d[n on two c\nts4 ,fir/1 on ! correspond+ 7,wiscons97 drift %eet 9 ,am]ica1 loess is pres5t1--9 small quantities to be sure1 b unmi/akably pres5t4 ,second1 !re is no reason to assume t conditions 7 id5tical at ea* advance & retreat ( ! ice4 ,inde$1 ! fact t 9 ,europe1 z 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ne>ly all ! loess 0 =m$ at "o "t1 & only a little is associat$ ) ! o!r ice advances1 po9ts cle>ly aga9/ ,p5ck's fundam5tal assumption t ! accumulation ( loess 0 due to ! approa* ( a cold climate4 ,hav+ se5 t ! loess 0 probably =m$ dur+ ! retreat ( ! ice1 we are n[ ready to inquire :at conditions ! cyclonic hypo!sis w\ld po/ulate 9 ! loess areas dur+ ! v>i\s /ages ( a glacial cycle4 ,fig4 #b1 9 ,*apt] ,,iv1 gives ! be/ idea ( :at w\ld app>5tly happ5 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 & ev5ts 9 ,europe w\ld presumably be simil>4 ,dur+ ! n9e maximum ye>s on :i* ,fig4 #b is bas$ ! sunspot numb]s av]ag$ sev5ty1 :ile dur+ ! n9e m9imum ye>s !y av]ag$ less ?an five4 ,x seems fair to suppose t ! maximum ye>s repres5t ! av]age conditions :i* prevail$ 9 ! pa/ at times :5 ! sun 0 9 a m$ian /age betwe5 ! full activity :i* l$ to glaciation & ! mild activity ( ! m9imum ye>s :i* appe> to repres5t int]-glacial conditions4 ,?is w\ld mean t :5 a glacial p]iod 0 approa*+1 b be=e an ice %eet _h accumulat$ to any great ext5t1 a cresc5t-%ap$ /rip f ,montana ?r\gh ,ill9ois to ,ma9e w\ld suff] a dim9ution 9 /orm9ess rang+ up to #fj p] c5t z comp>$ ) int]-glacial conditions4 ,?is is 9 /rong contra/ ) an increase 9 /orm9ess am\nt+ to #ge or ev5 #ajj p] c5t bo? 9 ! boreal /orm belt 9 ,canada & 9 ! subtropical belt 9 ! ,s\?we/4 ,su* a decrease 9 /orm9ess 9 ! c5tral ,unit$ ,/ates w\ld app>5tly be mo/ noticeable 9 summ]1 z is %[n 9 ,e>? & ,sun4 ,h5ce x w\ld h a maximum effect 9 produc+ aridity4 ,?is w\ld favor ! =mation ( loess1 b x is d\btful :e!r ! aridity w\ld become extreme en\gh to expla9 su* va/ deposits z are f\nd ?r\gh\t l>ge p>ts ( ! ,mississippi ,bas94 ,t w\ld dem& t hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( squ>e miles %\ld become almo/ absolute des]t1 & x is n probable t any su* ?+ occurr$4 ,nev]!less1 accord+ to ! cyclonic hypo!sis ! p]iod imm$iately be=e ! adv5t ( ! ice w\ld be relatively dry 9 ! c5tral ,unit$ ,/ates1 & to t ext5t favorable to ! "w ( ! w9d4 ,z ! climatic conditions became m sev]e & ! ice %eet exp&$1 ! dryness & lack ( /orms w\ld app>5tly dim9i%4 ,! reason1 z has be5 expla9$1 w\ld be ! gradual pu%+ ( ! /orms s\?w>d by ! high-pressure area :i* w\ld develop ov] ! ice %eet4 ,?us at ! height ( a glacial epo* !re w\ld app>5tly be great /orm9ess 9 ! area :]e ! loess is f\nd1 especially 9 summ]4 ,h5ce ! cyclonic hypo!sis does n accord ) ! idea ( great deposition ( loess at ! "t ( maximum glaciation4 ,f9ally we come to ! "t :5 ! ice 0 retreat+4 ,we h already se5 t n only ! riv] flood pla9s1 b also va/ areas ( fre% glacial deposits w\ld be expos$ to ! w9ds1 & w\ld rema9 )\t vegetation = a long "t4 ,at t v "t ! retreat ( ! ice %eet w\ld t5d to p]mit ! /orms to foll[ pa?s det]m9$ by ! degree ( sol> activity1 9 place ( ! f> s\!rly pa?s to :i* ! high atmosph]ic pressure ov] ! exp&$ ice %eet _h previ\sly =c$ !m4 ,9 o!r words1 ! conditions %[n 9 ,fig4 #b w\ld t5d to reappe> :5 ! sun's activity 0 dim9i%+ & ! ice %eet 0 retreat+1 j z !y _h appe>$ :5 ! sun 0 becom+ m active & ! ice %eet 0 advanc+4 ,?is "t1 h[ev]1 ! semi-arid conditions aris+ f ! sc>city ( /orms w\ld prevail 9 a region ( glacial deposits & widely spread+ riv] deposits1 few or none ( :i* w\ld be cov]$ ) vegetation4 ,! conditions w\ld be almo/ ideal = eolian erosion & = ! transportation ( loess by ! w9d to areas a little m remote f ! ice :]e grassy vegetation _h made a />t4 ,! cyclonic hypo!sis also seems to (f] a satisfactory explanation ( v>iations 9 ! am\nt ( loess associat$ ) ! sev]al glacial epo*s4 ,x attributes ^! to diff]5ces 9 ! rate ( disappe>ance ( ! ice1 :i* 9 turn v>i$ ) ! rate ( decl9e ( sol> activity & /orm9ess4 ,?is is suppos$ to be ! reason :y ! ,i[an loess deposits are mu* m ext5sive ?an ^? ( ! o!r epo*s1 = ! ,i[an ice %eet presumably accompli%$ "p ( its retreat mu* m sudd5ly ?an ! o!r ice %eets4#eg ,! m sudd5 ! retreat1 ! great] ! b>r5 area :]e ! w9ds c\ld ga!r f9e bits ( du/4 ,tempor>y readvances may also h be5 s di/ribut$ & ( su* int5sity t !y frequ5tly acc5tuat$ ! condition %[n 9 ,fig4 #b1 ?us mak+ ! c5tral ,unit$ ,/ates dry soon aft] ! exposure ( great am\nts ( glacial debris4 ,! clos5ess ) :i* ! cyclonic hypo!sis accords ) ! facts z to ! loess is "o ( ! pleasant surprises ( ! hypo!sis4 ,! fir/ draft ( ,fig4 #b & ! fir/ outl9es ( ! hypo!sis 7 fram$ )\t ?\ght ( ! loess4 ,yet s f> z c n[ be se51 bo? agree closely ) ! conditions ( loess =mation4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ef3 ,*amb]l9 & ,salisbury3 ,geology1 #aijf1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #dje-dab4 ,footnote #eg3 ,x may h retreat$ soon aft] rea*+ its maximum4 ,if s1 ! g5]al lack ( ?ick t]m9al mora9es w\ld be expla9$4 ,see page #abb4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,causes ,,( ,,mild ,,geological ,,climates ,9 discussions ( climate1 z ( mo/ subjects1 a peculi> psy*ological ph5om5on is obs]vable4 ,ev]yone sees ! necessity ( expla9+ conditions diff]5t f ^? t n[ exi/1 b few realize t pres5t conditions may be abnormal1 & t !y ne$ explanation j z mu* z d o!rs4 ,because ( ?is t5d5cy glaciation has be5 discuss$ ) ! greate/ fullness1 :ile !re has be5 mu* neglect n only ( ! p]iods :5 ! climate ( ! e>? resembl$ t ( ! pres5t1 b also ( ! va/ly long] p]iods :5 x 0 ev5 mild] ?an n[4 ,h[ important ! p]iods ( mild climate h be5 9 geological times may be judg$ f ! relative l5g? ( glacial comp>$ ) int]-glacial epo*s1 & /ill m f ! f> great] relative l5g? ( ! mild p>ts ( p]iods & eras :5 comp>$ ) ! sev]e p>ts4 ,rec5t e/imates by ,r4 ,t4 ,*amb]l9#eh indicate t accord+ to ! cons5sus ( op9ion among geologi/s ! av]age int]-glacial epo* dur+ ! ,plei/oc5e 0 ab\t five times z long z ! av]age glacial epo*1 :ile ! :ole ( a giv5 glacial epo* av]ag$ five times z long z ! p]iod :5 ! ice 0 at a maximum4 ,climatic p]iods f> mild]1 long]1 & m monoton\s ?an any int]-glacial epo* appe> repeat$ly dur+ ! c\rse ( geological hi/ory4 ,our task 9 ?is *apt] is to expla9 !m4 ,kn[lton#ei has done geology a great s]vice by collect+ ! evid5ce z to ! mild type ( climate :i* has aga9 & aga9 prevail$ 9 ! pa/4 ,he lays special /ress on botanical evid5ce s9ce t p]ta9s to ! v>iable atmosph]e ( ! l&s1 & h5ce furni%es a bett] guide ?an does ! evid5ce ( animals t liv$ 9 ! relatively un*ang+ wat] ( ! oceans4 ,! nature ( ! evid5ce has already be5 indicat$ 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ?is book4 ,x includes palms1 tree f]ns1 & a ho/ ( o!r plants :i* once grew 9 regions :i* are n[ mu* too cold to support !m4 ,) ?is mu/ be plac$ ! abundant reef-build+ corals & o!r w>m?-lov+ m>9e creatures 9 latitudes n[ mu* too cold = !m4 ,( a piece ) ?is are ! conditions ( int]-glacial epo*s 9 ,europe1 = example1 :5 elephants & hippopotamuses1 z well z _m species ( plants f l[ latitudes1 7 abundant4 ,^! conditions indicate n only t ! climate 0 w>m] ?an n[1 b t ! contra/ f season to season 0 mu* less4 ,inde$1 ,kn[lton goes s f> z to say t relative uni=mity1 mildness1 & comp>ative equability ( climate1 accompani$ by high humidity1 h prevail$ ov] ! great] "p ( ! e>?1 ext5d+ to1 or into1 pol> circles1 dur+ ! great] "p ( geologic "t--s9ce1 at lea/1 ! ,middle ,paleozoic4 ,?is is ! regul>1 ! ord9>y1 ! normal condition4 444 ,by _m x is ?\ght t "o ( ! /ronge/ argum5ts aga9/ a gradually cool+ globe & a humid1 non-zonally dispos$ climate 9 ! ages be=e ! ,plei/oc5e is ! discov]y ( evid5ces ( glacial action practically ?r\gh\t ! entire geologic column4 ,h>dly less ?an a doz5 ( ^! are n[ kn[n1 rang+ 9 age f ,huronian to ,eoc5e4 ,x seems to be a v g5]al assumption by ^? :o hold ?is view t ^! evid5ces ( glacial activities are to be class$ z ice ages1 l>gely comp>able 9 effect & ext5t to ! ,plei/oc5e refrig]ation1 b z a matt] ( fact only ?ree are app>5tly ( a magnitude to w>rant su* designation4 ,^! are ! ,huronian glaciation1 t ( ! ',p]mo-,c>bonif]\s1' & t ( ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,! o!rs1 s f> z available data g1 appe> to be expla9able z m or less local manife/ations t _h no widespread effect on1 = in/ance1 ocean temp]atures1 di/ribution ( life1 et cet]a4 ,!y might well h be5 ( ! type ( ord9>y m\nta9 glaci]s1 due entirely to local elevation & precipitation4 444 ,if ! sun _h be5 ! pr9cipal s\rce ( heat 9 pre-,plei/oc5e "t1 t]re/rial temp]atures w\ld ( necessity h be5 dispos$ 9 zones1 :]eas ! :ole tr5d ( ?is pap] has be5 ! pres5tation ( pro( t ^! temp]atures 7 di/9ctly non-zonal4 ,!re=e x seems to foll[ t ! sun--at lea/ ! pres5t small-angle sun--c\ld n h be5 ! sole or ev5 ! pr9cipal s\rce ( heat t w>m$ ! e>ly oceans4 ,kn[lton is s /rongly impress$ by ! widespread fossil floras t usually occur 9 ! middle p>ts ( ! geological p]iods1 t z ,s*u*]t#c puts x1 he neglects ! evid5ce ( o!r k9ds4 ,9 ! middle ( ! p]iods & eras ! expansion ( ! w>m oceans ov] ! cont95ts 0 greate/1 :ile ! l&s 7 small & h5ce _h m or less insul> climates ( ! oceanic type4 ,at su* times1 ! m>9e fauna agrees ) ! flora 9 indicat+ a mild climate4 ,l>ge colony-=m+ =am9if]a1 /ony corals1 %ell$ cephalopods1 ga/ropods & ?ick-%ell$ bivalves1 g5]ally ! cem5t$ =ms1 7 common 9 ! ,f> ,nor? & ev5 9 ! ,arctic4 ,?is occurr$ 9 ! ,silurian1 ,devonian1 ,p5nsylvanian1 & ,jurassic p]iods1 yet at o!r times1 su* z ! ,cretace\s & ,eoc5e1 su* =ms 7 v greatly r$uc$ 9 v>iety 9 ! nor!rn regions or else :olly abs5t4 ,^! ?+s1 z ,s*u*]t#fj says1 c only mean t ,kn[lton is "r :5 he /ates t climatic zon+ su* z we h _h s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! ,plei/oc5e did n obta9 9 ! geologic ages prior to ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,x does n mean1 h[ev]1 t !re 0 a non-zonal arrangem5t & t ! temp]ature ( ! oceans 0 ev]y:]e ! same & )\t widespread effect on ! di/ribution ( life4 ,/ud5ts ( paleontology hold t z f> back z we c g 9 ! /udy ( plants1 !re are evid5ces ( seasons & ( relatively cool climates 9 high latitudes4 ,! cycads1 = in/ance1 are "o ( ! types mo/ (t5 us$ z evid5ce ( a w>m climate4 ,yet ,wiel&1#fa :o has made a lifelong /udy ( ^! plants1 says t _m ( !m might well gr[ 9 temp]ate to cool climates4 ,until f> m is le>n$ ab\t !m !y %\ld at lea/ be held z valueless z indices ( tropic climates4 ,! inf]5ce is t ei!r !y or _! close relatives _h ! capacity to live 9 e clime4 ,!re is also a suspicion t /udy ( ! associat$ f]ns may compel revision ( ! long-accept$ view ( ! univ]sality ( tropic climates ?r\gh\t ! ,mesozoic4 ,na?or/ is quot$ by ,wiel& z say+1 ,i ?9k 444 t dur+ ! "t :5 ! ,g+kophytes & ,cycadophytes dom9at$1 _m ( !m mu/ h adapt$ !mselves = liv+ 9 cold climates also4 ,( ?is ,i h n ! lea/ d\bt4 ,ano!r important l9e ( evid5ce :i* ,kn[lton & o!rs h cit$ z a pro( ( ! non-zonal arrangem5t ( climate 9 ! pa/1 is ! va/ r$ b$s :i* are f\nd 9 ! ,prot]ozoic1 late ,silurian1 ,devonian1 ,p]mian1 & ,triassic1 & 9 "s ,t]ti>y =mations4 ,^! are believ$ to resemble lat]ite1 a r$ & highly oxidiz$ soil :i* is f\nd 9 great abundance 9 equatorial regions4 ,kn[lton does n attempt to %[ t ! r$ b$s pres5t equatorial *>act]i/ics 9 o!r respects1 b bases 8 conclusion on ! /atem5t t r$ b$s are n be+ =m$ at ! pres5t "t 9 any des]t region4 ,?is is c]ta9ly an error4 ,z has already be5 said1 9 bo? ! ,transcaspian & ,takla ,makan des]ts1 ! color ( ! s& regul>ly *anges f br[n on ! bord]s to pale r$ f> out 9 ! des]t4 ,kuzzil ,kum1 or ,r$ ,s&1 is ! native "n4 ,! s&s 9 ! c5t] ( ! des]t app>5tly 7 orig9ally wa%$ d[n f ! same m\nta9s z ^? on ! bord]s1 & "t has turn$ !m r$4 ,s9ce ! same condition is report$ f ! ,arabian ,des]t1 x seems t r$ness is *>act]i/ic ( "s ( ! _w's greate/ des]ts4 ,moreov]1 b$s ( salt & gypsum are regul>ly f\nd 9 r$ b$s1 & !y c sc>cely orig9ate except 9 des]ts1 or 9 %all[ almo/ l&lock$ bays on ! coa/s ( des]ts1 z appe>s to h happ5$ 9 ! ,silurian :]e m>9e fossils are f\nd int]b$d$ ) gypsum4 ,aga91 ,kn[lton says t r$ b$s _c indicate des]ts because ! plants f\nd 9 !m are n p9*$ or depaup]ate1 nor d !y indicate x]ophytic adaptations4 ,moreov]1 v consid]able deposits ( coal are f\nd 9 r$ b$s 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w1 :i* implies ! pres5ce ( swamps b little above sea-level4 ,/ud5ts ( des]t botany are likely to d\bt ! =ce ( ^! consid]ations4 ,z ,mac,dougal#fb has %[n1 ! v>iety ( plants 9 des]ts is great] ?an 9 moi/ regions4 ,n only d x]ophytic des]t species prevail1 b halophytes are pres5t 9 ! salty areas1 & hygrophytes 9 ! wet swampy areas1 :ile ord9>y mesophytes prevail along ! wat] c\rses & are wa%$ d[n f ! m\nta9s4 ,! ord9>y plants1 n ! x]ophytes1 are ! ones t are *iefly pres]v$ s9ce !y occur 9 mo/ abundance ne> /reams :]e deposition is tak+ place4 ,s f> z swamps are conc]n$1 few are ( l>g] size ?an ^? ( ,sei/an 9 ,p]sia1 ,lop ,nor 9 ,*9ese ,turke/an1 & c]ta9 o!rs 9 ! mid/ ( ! ,asiatic des]ts4 ,/reams fl[+ f ! m\nta9s into des]ts are almo/ sure to =m l>ge swamps1 su* z ^? along ! ,t>im ,riv] 9 c5tral ,asia4 ,lake ,*ad 9 ,africa is ano!r example4 ,9 x1 too1 re$s are v num]\s4 ,putt+ toge!r ! evid5ce on bo? sides 9 ?is disput$ "q1 x appe>s t ?r\gh\t mo/ ( geological "t !re is "s evid5ce ( a zonal arrangem5t ( climate4 ,! evid5ce takes ! =m ( traces ( cool climates1 ( seasons1 & ( des]ts4 ,nev]!less1 !re is also /rong evid5ce t ^! conditions 7 9 g5]al less int5se ?an at pres5t & t times ( relatively w>m1 moi/ climate )\t great seasonal extremes h prevail$ v widely dur+ p]iods mu* long] ?an ^? :5 a zonal arrangem5t z m>k$ z t ( today prevail$4 ,z ,s*u*]t#fc puts x3 ,today ! v>iation on l& betwe5 ! tropics & ! poles is r\ghly betwe5 #aaj deg4 & -#fj deg4,f41 9 ! oceans betwe5 #he deg4 & #ca deg4,f4 ,9 ! geologic pa/ ! temp]ature ( ! oceans = ! great] p>ts ( ! p]iods probably 0 mo/ (t5 betwe5 #he deg4 & #ee deg4,f41 :ile on l& x may h v>i$ betwe5 #ij deg4 & #j deg4,f4 ,at r>e int]vals ! extremes 7 und\bt$ly z great z !y are today4 ,! conclusion is !re=e t at all times ! e>? _h temp]ature zones1 v>y+ betwe5 ! pres5t-day int5sity & times :i* 7 almo/ )\t su* belts1 & at ^! latt] times ! great] "p ( ! e>? _h an almo/ uni=mly mild climate1 )\t w9t]s4 ,x is ^! mild climates :i* we mu/ n[ attempt to expla94 ,?is leads u to inquire :at w\ld happ5 to ! climate ( ! e>? z a :ole if ! conditions :i* n[ prevail at times ( few sunspots 7 to become int5sifi$4 ,t !y c\ld become greatly int5sifi$ seems highly probable1 = !re is good reason to ?9k t aside f ! sunspot cycle ! sun's atmosph]e is 9 a di/urb$ condition4 ,! prom95ces :i* sometimes %oot out hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( miles seem to be good evid5ce ( ?is4 ,suppose t ! sun's atmosph]e %\ld become v quiet4 ,?is w\ld app>5tly mean t cyclonic /orms w\ld be mu* less num]\s & less sev]e ?an dur+ ! pres5t times ( sunspot m9ima4 ,! /orms w\ld also app>5tly foll[ pa?s 9 middle latitudes some:at z !y d n[ :5 sunspots are fewe/4 ,! fir/ effect ( su* a condition1 if we c judge f :at happ5s at pres5t1 w\ld be a rise 9 ! g5]al temp]ature ( ! e>?1 because less heat w\ld be c>ri$ al(t by /orms4 ,today1 z is %[n 9 ,e>? & ,sun1 a diff]5ce ( p]haps #aj p] c5t 9 ! av]age /orm9ess dur+ p]iods ( sunspot maxima & m9ima is correlat$ ) a diff]5ce ( #c deg4,c4 9 ! temp]ature at ! e>?'s surface4 ,?is includes n only an actual l[]+ ( #j4f deg4,c4 at times ( sunspot maxima1 b ! ov]com+ ( ! effect ( increas$ insolation at su* times1 an effect :i* ,abbot calculates z ab\t #b4e deg4,c4 ,if ! /orm9ess 7 to be r$uc$ to "o-half or "o-qu>t] its pres5t am\nt at sunspot m9ima1 n only w\ld ! loss ( heat by upw>d convection 9 /orms be dim9i%$1 b ! area cov]$ by cl\ds w\ld dim9i% s t ! sun w\ld h m *ance to w>m ! l[] air4 ,h5ce ! av]age rise ( temp]ature might am\nt to z mu* at #e deg4 or #aj deg4,c4 ,ano!r effect ( ! decrease 9 /orm9ess w\ld be to make ! s-call$ we/]ly w9ds1 :i* are *iefly s\?we/]ly 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e & nor?we/]ly 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 m /rong & /eady ?an at pres5t4 ,!y w\ld n cont9ually suff] int]ruption by cyclonic w9ds f o!r directions1 z is n[ ! case1 & w\ld h a regul>ity l t ( ! trades4 ,?is conclusion is /rongly re5=c$ 9 a pap] by ,clayton#fd :i* came to h& aft] ?is *apt] _h be5 complet$4 ,f 8 /udies ( ! sol> con/ant & ! temp]ature ( ! e>? :i* are describ$ 9 ,e>? & ,sun1 he rea*es ! foll[+ conclusion3 ,! results ( ^! rese>*es h l$ me to believe3 #a4 ,t if !re 7 no v>iation 9 sol> radiation ! atmosph]ic motions w\ld e/abli% a /able sy/em ) ex*anges ( air betwe5 equator & pole & betwe5 ocean & l&1 9 :i* ! only v>iations w\ld be daily & annual *anges set 9 op]ation by ! relative motions ( ! e>? & sun4 #b4 ,! exi/+ abnormal *anges1 :i* we call wea!r1 h _! orig9s *iefly1 if n entirely1 9 ! v>iations ( sol> radiation4 ,if cyclonic /orms & wea!r 7 l>gely elim9at$ & if ! planet>y sy/em ( w9ds ) its /eady trades & s\?we/]lies became ev]y:]e dom9ant1 ! regul>ity & volume ( ! polew>d-fl[+ curr5ts1 su* z ! ,gulf ,/ream & ! ,atlantic ,drift 9 "o ocean1 & ! ,japanese ,curr5t 9 ano!r1 w\ld be greatly increas$4 ,h[ important ?is is may be judg$ f ! "w ( ,hell&-,hans5 & ,nans54#fe ,^! au?ors f9d t ) ! passage ( ea* cyclonic /orm !re is a *ange 9 ! temp]ature ( ! surface wat] ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,w9ds at "r angles to ! c\rse ( ! ,drift drive ! wat] fir/ 9 "o direction & !n 9 ! o!r b d n advance x 9 its c\rse4 ,w9ds ) an ea/]ly compon5t1 on ! o!r h&1 n only *eck ! ,drift b rev]se x1 driv+ ! w>m wat] back t[>d ! s\?we/ & all[+ cold wat] to well up 9 its /ead4 ,! driv+ =ce 9 ! ,atlantic ,drift is m]ely ! excess ( ! w9ds ) a we/]ly compon5t ov] ^? ) an ea/]ly compon5t4 ,suppose t ! numb]s 9 ,fig4 #h repres5t ! /r5g? ( ! w9ds 9 a c]ta9 "p ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic or ,nor? ,pacific1 t is1 ! total numb] ( miles mov$ by ! air p] ye>4 ,9 quadrant ,a ( ! left-h& "p all ! w9ds move f a m or less s\?we/]ly direction & produce a total movem5t ( ! air am\nt+ to ?irty units p] ye>4 ,^? com+ f po9ts betwe5 nor? & we/ move tw5ty-five units2 ^? betwe5 nor? & ea/1 tw5ty units2 & ^? betwe5 ea/ & s\?1 tw5ty-five units4 ,s9ce ! movem5t ( ! w9ds 9 quadrants ,b & ,d is ! same1 ^! w9ds h no effect 9 produc+ curr5ts4 ,!y m]ely move ! wat] back & =?1 & ?us give x "t to lose :atev] heat x has br\ght f m s\!rly latitudes4 ,on ! o!r h&1 s9ce ! ea/]ly w9ds 9 quadrant ,c d n :olly *eck ! curr5ts caus$ by ! we/]ly w9ds ( quadrant ,a1 ! effective =ce ( ! we/]ly w9ds am\nts to t51 or ! diff]5ce betwe5 a =ce ( ?irty 9 quadrant ,a & ( tw5ty 9 quadrant ,c4 ,h5ce ! wat] is mov$ =w>d t[>d ! nor!a/1 z %[n by ! ?ick "p ( arr[ ,a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,effect ( dim9ution ( /orms on movem5t ( wat]4 ,n[ suppose t cyclonic /orms %\ld be greatly r$uc$ 9 numb] s t 9 ! zone ( prevail+ we/]lies !y 7 sc>cely m num]\s ?an tropical hurricanes n[ are 9 ! trade-w9d belt4 ,!n ! m or less s\?we/]ly w9ds 9 quadrant ,a' 9 ! "r-h& "p ( ,fig4 #h w\ld n only become m frequ5t b w\ld be /rong] ?an at pres5t4 ,! total movem5t f t qu>t] might rise to sixty units1 z indicat$ 9 ! figure4 ,9 quadrants ,b' & ,d' ! movem5t w\ld fall to fifte5 & 9 quadrant ,c' to t54 ,b' & ,d' w\ld balance "o ano!r z be=e4 ,! movem5t 9 ,a'1 h[ev]1 w\ld exce$ t 9 ,c' by fifty in/ead ( t54 ,9 o!r words1 ! curr5t-mak+ =ce w\ld become five times z great z n[4 ,! actual effect w\ld be increas$ /ill m1 = ! w9ds f ! s\?we/ w\ld be /rong] z well z /eadi] if !re 7 no /orms4 ,a /rong w9d :i* causes :itecaps has mu* m p[] to drive ! wat] =w>d ?an a weak] w9d :i* does n cause :itecaps4 ,9 a wave )\t a :itecap ! wat] returns to practically ! orig9al po9t aft] complet+ a circle b5ea? ! surface4 ,9 a wave ) a :itecap1 h[ev]1 ! cap moves =w>d4 ,any increase 9 velocity beyond ! rate at :i* :itecaps are =m$ has a great influ5ce ^u ! am\nt ( wat] :i* is bl[n =w>d4 ,sev]al times z mu* wat] is drift$ =w>d by a p]si/5t w9d ( tw5ty miles an h\r z by a t5-mile w9d4#ff ,9 ?is connection a sugge/ion :i* is elaborat$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xiii may be m5tion$4 ,at pres5t ! sal9ity ( ! oceans *ecks ! g5]al deep-sea circulation & !reby increases ! contra/s f zone to zone4 ,9 ! pa/1 h[ev]1 ! ocean mu/ h be5 fre%] ?an n[4 ,h5ce ! circulation 0 presumably less imp$$1 & ! transf] ( heat f l[ latitudes to high 0 facilitat$4 ,consid] n[ ! magnitude ( ! probable effect ( a dim9ution 9 /orms4 ,today (f ! coa/ ( ,norway 9 latitude #fe deg4,n4 & longitude #aj deg4,e41 ! mean temp]ature 9 ,janu>y is #b deg4,c4 & 9 ,july #ab deg4,c4 ,?is repres5ts a plus anomaly ( ab\t #bb deg4 9 ,janu>y & #b deg4 9 ,july2 t is1 ! ,norwegian coa/ is w>m] ?an ! normal = its latitude by ^! am\nts4 ,suppose t 9 "s pa/ "t ! pres5t di/ribution ( l&s & seas prevail$1 b ,norway 0 a l[l& :]e ext5sive deposits c\ld accumulate 9 great flood pla9s4 ,suppose1 also1 t ! sun's atmosph]e 0 s inactive t few cyclonic /orms occurr$1 /eady w9ds f ! we/-s\?we/ prevail$1 & /rong1 un9t]rupt$ ocean curr5ts br\ght f ! ,c>ibbean ,sea & ,gulf ( ,mexico mu* great] supplies ( w>m wat] ?an at pres5t4 ,! ,norwegian w9t]s w\ld !n be w>m] ?an n[ n only because ( ! g5]al increase 9 temp]ature :i* ! e>? regul>ly exp]i5ces at sunspot m9ima1 b because ! curr5ts w\ld acc5tuate ?is condition4 ,9 summ] simil> conditions w\ld prevail except t ! w>m+ effect ( ! w9ds & curr5ts w\ld presumably be less ?an 9 w9t]1 b ?is might be m ?an balanc$ by ! increas$ heat ( ! sun dur+ ! long summ] days1 = /orms & cl\ds w\ld be r>e4 ,if su* conditions rais$ ! w9t] temp]ature only #h deg4,c4 & ! summ] temp]ature #d deg4,c41 ! climate w\ld be z w>m z t ( ! nor!rn isl& ( ,new ,zeal& 7latitude #ce deg4-#dc deg4,s474 ,! flora ( t "p ( ,new ,zeal& is subtropical & includes n only p9es & bee*es1 b palms & tree f]ns4 ,a climate sc>cely w>m] ?an t ( ,new ,zeal& w\ld fo/] a flora l t :i* exi/$ 9 f> nor!rn latitudes dur+ "s ( ! mild] geological p]iods4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! g5]al temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface 7 rais$ #e deg4 because ( ! sc>city ( /orms1 if ! curr5ts 7 /rong en\gh s t !y increas$ ! pres5t anomaly by #ej p] c5t1 & if m p]si/5t sun%9e 9 summ] rais$ ! temp]ature at t season ab\t #d deg4,c41 ! ,janu>y temp]ature w\ld be #ah deg4,c4 & ! ,july temp]ature #bb deg4,c4 ,^! figures p]haps make summ] & w9t] m ne>ly alike ?an 0 ev] really ! case 9 su* latitudes4 ,nev]!less1 !y %[ t a dim9ution ( /orms & a consequ5t /r5g!n+ & /eady+ ( ! s\?we/]lies might easily raise ! temp]ature ( ! ,norwegian coa/ s high t corals c\ld fl\ri% )9 ! ,arctic ,circle4 ,ano!r factor w\ld cooep]ate 9 produc+ mild temp]atures 9 high latitudes dur+ ! w9t]1 namely1 ! fogs :i* w\ld presumably accumulate4 ,x is well kn[n t :5 saturat$ air f a w>m ocean is bl[n ov] ! l&s 9 w9t]1 z happ5s s (t5 9 ! ,briti% ,isl&s & ar\nd ! ,nor? ,sea1 fog is =m$4 ,! effect ( su* a fog is inde$ to %ut out ! sun's radiation1 b 9 high latitudes dur+ ! w9t] :5 ! sun is l[1 ?is is ( little importance4 ,ano!r effect is to reta9 ! heat ( ! e>? itself4 ,:5 a con/ant supply ( w>m wat] is be+ br\ght f l[ latitudes ?is blanket+ ( ! heat by ! fog becomes ( great importance4 ,9 ! pa/1 :5ev] cyclonic /orms 7 weak & we/]ly w9ds 7 correspond+ly /rong1 w9t] fogs 9 high latitudes mu/ h be5 mu* m widespread & p]si/5t ?an n[4 ,! be>+ ( fogs on vegetation is ano!r int]e/+ po9t4 ,if a region 9 high latitudes is con/antly protect$ by fog 9 w9t]1 x c support types ( vegetation *>act]i/ic ( fairly l[ latitudes1 = plants are (t5] kill$ by dry cold ?an by moi/ cold4 ,inde$1 excessive evaporation f ! plant induc$ by dry cold :5 ! evaporat$ wat] _c be rapidly replac$ by ! movem5t ( sap is a *ief reason :y l>ge plants are w9t]kill$4 ,! gr[+ ( transplant$ palms on ! coa/ ( s\?we/]n ,irel&1 9 spite ( its location 9 latitude #ej deg4,n41 is possible only because ( ! great fogg9ess 9 w9t] due to ! m>9e climate4 ,! fogs prev5t ! escape ( heat & w>d (f kill+ fro/s4 ,! tree f]ns 9 latitude #df deg4,s4 9 ,new ,zeal&1 already ref]r$ to1 are (t5 simil>ly protect$ 9 w9t]4 ,!re=e1 ! relative frequ5cy ( fogs 9 high latitudes :5 /orms 7 at a m9imum w\ld app>5tly t5d n m]ely to produce mild w9t]s b to promote tropical vegetation4 ,! /rong /eady trades & s\?we/]lies :i* w\ld prevail at times ( slight sol> activity1 accord+ to our hypo!sis1 w\ld h a pron\nc$ effect on ! wat] ( ! deep seas z well z ^u t ( ! surface4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! deep-sea circulation w\ld be ha/5$4 ,= conv5i5ce let u speak ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,9 ! pa/1 :5ev] ! s\?we/]ly w9ds 7 /eadi] ?an n[1 z 0 probably ! case :5 cyclonic /orms 7 relatively r>e1 m surface wat] ?an at pres5t 0 presumably driv5 f l[ latitudes & c>ri$ to high latitudes4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 means t a great] volume ( wat] _h to fl[ back t[>d ! equator 9 ! l[] p>ts ( ! ocean1 or else z a cool surface curr5t4 ,! /eady s\?we/]ly w9ds1 h[ev]1 w\ld int]f]e ) s\?-fl[+ surface curr5ts1 ?us compell+ ! pol> wat]s to f9d _! way equatorw>d b5ea? ! surface4 ,9 l[ latitudes ! pol> wat]s w\ld rise & _! t5d5cy w\ld be to l[] ! temp]ature4 ,h5ce /eadi] we/]lies w\ld make = less5$ latitud9al contra/s 9 climate n only by driv+ m w>m wat] polew>d b by caus+ m pol> wat] to rea* l[ latitudes4 ,at ?is po9t a second important consid]ation mu/ be fac$4 ,n only w\ld ! deep-sea circulation be ha/5$1 b ! ocean dep?s might be w>m$4 ,! deep p>ts ( ! ocean are today cold because !y receive _! wat] f high latitudes :]e x s9ks because ( l[ temp]ature4 ,suppose1 h[ev]1 t a dim9ution 9 /orm9ess comb9$ ) o!r conditions %\ld p]mit corals to gr[ 9 latitude #gj deg4,n4 ,! ocean temp]ature w\ld !n h to av]age sc>cely l[] ?an #bj deg4,c4 & ev5 9 ! colde/ mon? ! wat] c\ld sc>cely fall bel[ ab\t #ae deg4,c4 ,"u su* conditions1 if ! pol> ocean 7 freely connect$ ) ! re/ ( ! oceans1 no "p ( x w\ld probably h a temp]ature mu* bel[ #aj deg4,c41 = !re w\ld be no su* ?+ z ice caps & sn[fields to reflect ! scanty sunlight & radiate into space :at little heat !re 04 ,on ! contr>y1 dur+ ! w9t] an almo/ con/ant /ate ( d5se fogg9ess w\ld prevail4 ,s great w\ld be ! blanket+ effect ( ?is t a m9imum mon?ly temp]ature ( #aj deg4,c4 = ! colde/ "p ( ! ocean may p]haps be too l[ = a "t :5 corals ?riv$ 9 latitude #gj deg44 ,! temp]ature ( ! ocean dep?s _c p]man5tly rema9 l[] ?an t ( ! colde/ p>ts ( ! surface4 ,tempor>ily ?is might inde$ happ5 :5 a sol> *ange fir/ r$uc$ ! /orm9ess & /r5g!n$ ! we/]lies & ! surface curr5ts4 ,gradually1 h[ev]1 ! p]si/5t deep-sea circulation w\ld br+ up ! cold] wat] 9 l[ latitudes & c>ry d[nw>d ! wat] ( m$ium temp]ature at ! colde/ "p ( ! surface4 ,?us 9 "t ! :ole body ( ! ocean w\ld become w>m4 ,! heat :i* at pres5t is c>ri$ away f ! e>?'s surface 9 /orms w\ld sl[ly accumulate 9 ! oceans4 ,z ! process w5t on1 all p>ts ( ! ocean's surface w\ld become w>m]1 = equatorial latitudes w\ld be less & less cool$ by cold wat] f bel[1 :ile ! wat] bl[n f l[ latitudes to high w\ld be correspond+ly w>m]4 ,! w>m+ ( ! ocean w\ld come to an end only ) ! atta9m5t ( a /ate ( equilibrium 9 :i* ! loss ( heat by radiation & evaporation f ! ocean's surface equal$ ! loss :i* "u o!r circum/ances w\ld arise f ! rise ( w>m air 9 cyclonic /orms4 ,:5 once ! oceans 7 w>m$1 !y w\ld =m an extremely /rong cons]vative =ce t5d+ to pres]ve an equable climate 9 all latitudes & at all seasons4 ,accord+ to ! sol> cyclonic hypo!sis su* conditions ought to h prevail$ ?r\gh\t mo/ ( geological "t4 ,only aft] a /rong & prolong$ sol> di/urbance ) its consequ5t /orm9ess w\ld conditions l ^? ( today be expect$4 ,9 ?is connection ano!r possibility may be m5tion$4 ,x is commonly assum$ t ! e>?'s axis is held /eadily 9 "o direction by ! fact t ! rotat+ e>? is a great gyroscope4 ,hav+ be5 tilt$ to a c]ta9 position1 p]haps by "s extrane\s =ce1 ! axis is suppos$ to ma9ta9 t position until "s o!r =ce int]v5es4 ,cordeiro1#fg h[ev]1 ma9ta9s t ?is is true only ( an absolutely rigid gyroscope4 ,he believes t x is ma!matically demon/rable t if an ela/ic gyroscope be gradually tilt$ by "s extrane\s =ce1 & if t =ce !n ceases to act1 ! gyroscope z a :ole w oscillate back & =?4 ,! e>? appe>s to be slightly ela/ic4 ,cordeiro !re=e applies 8 =mulae to x1 on ! foll[+ assumptions3 7#a7 ,t ! orig9al position ( ! axis 0 ne>ly v]tical to ! plane ( ! ecliptic 9 :i* ! e>? revolves ar\nd ! sun2 7#b7 t at c]ta9 times ! incl9ation has be5 ev5 great] ?an n[2 & 7#c7 t ! position ( ! axis ) ref]5ce to ! e>? has n *ang$ to any great ext5t1 t is1 ! e>?'s poles h rema9$ ess5tially /ation>y ) ref]5ce to ! e>?1 al?\gh ! :ole e>? has be5 gyroscopically tilt$ back & =? repeat$ly4 ,) a v]tical axis ! daylight & d>kness 9 all p>ts ( ! e>? w\ld be ( equal duration1 be+ always twelve h\rs4 ,!re w\ld be no seasons1 & ! climate w\ld approa* ! av]age condition n[ exp]i5c$ at ! two equ9oxes4 ,on ! :ole ! climate ( high latitudes w\ld give ! impression ( be+ mild] ?an n[1 = !re w\ld be less opportunity = ! accumulation ( sn[ & ice ) _! /rong cool+ effect4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! axis 7 tilt$ m ?an n[1 ! w9t] nights w\ld be long] & ! w9t]s m sev]e ?an at pres5t1 & !re w\ld be a t5d5cy t[>d glaciation4 ,?us ,cordeiro acc\nts = alt]nat+ mild & glacial epo*s4 ,! entire sw+ f ! v]tical position to ! maximum incl9ation & back to ! v]tical may la/ millions ( ye>s dep5d+ on ! e>?'s degree ( ela/icity4 ,! sw+ beyond ! v]tical position 9 ! o!r direction w\ld be equally prolong$4 ,s9ce ! axis is n[ suppos$ to be mu* ne>] its maximum ?an its m9imum degree ( tilt+1 ! duration ( epo*s hav+ a climate m sev]e ?an t ( ! pres5t w\ld be relatively %ort1 :ile ! mild epo*s w\ld be long4 ,cordeiro's hypo!sis has be5 almo/ completely ignor$4 ,"o reason is t 8 treatm5t ( geological facts1 & especially 8 me?od ( rid+ r\gh-%od ov] widely accept$ conclusions1 has n comm5d$ 8 "w to geologi/s4 ,!re=e !y h n deem$ x wor? :ile to urge ma!maticians to te/ ! assumptions & me?ods by :i* he rea*$ 8 results4 ,x is p]haps unfair to te/ ,cordeiro by geology1 = he lays no claim to be+ a geologi/4 ,9 ma!matics he labors "u ! disadvantage ( hav+ work$ outside ! usual pr(essional *annels1 s t 8 "w does n seem to h be5 subject$ to suffici5tly critical analysis4 ,)\t express+ any op9ion z to ! value ( ,cordeiro's results we feel t ! subject ( ! e>?'s gyroscopic motion & ( a possible secul> *ange 9 ! direction ( ! axis des]ves inve/igation = two *ief reasons4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 evid5ces ( seasonal *anges & ( seasonal uni=mity seem to occur m or less alt]nately 9 ! geological record4 ,second1 ! rem>kable discov]ies ( ,g>n] & ,all>d#fh %[ t ! duration ( daylight has a pron\nc$ effect ^u ! reproduction ( plants4 ,we h ref]r$ repeat$ly to ! tree f]ns1 corals1 & o!r =ms ( life :i* n[ live 9 relatively l[ latitudes & :i* _c endure /rong seasonal contra/s1 b :i* once liv$ f> to ! nor?4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,sayles1#fi = example1 f9ds t microscopical exam9ation ( ! b&+ ( anci5t %ales & slates indicates di/9ct seasonal b&+ l t ( rec5t ,plei/oc5e clays or ( ! ,squantum slate =m$ dur+ or ne> ! ,p]mian glacial p]iod4 ,su* seasonal b&+ is f\nd 9 rocks ( v>i\s ages3 7a7 ,huronian1 9 cobalt %ales previ\sly report$ by ,coleman2 7b7 late ,prot]ozoic or e>ly ,cambrian 9 ,hiwassee slate2 7c7 l[] ,cambrian1 9 ,georgian slates ( ,v]mont2 7d7 l[] ,ordovician1 9 ,georgia 7,rockm>t slate71 ,t5nessee 7,a!ns %ale71 ,v]mont 7slates71 & ,quebec 7,beekmant[n =mation72 & 7e7 ,p]mian 9 ,massa*usetts 7,squantum slate74 ,h[ f> ! p]iods dur+ :i* su* evid5ce ( seasons 0 record$ really alt]nat$ ) mild p]iods1 :5 tropical species liv$ 9 high latitudes & ! contra/ ( seasons 0 almo/ or :olly lack+1 we h z yet no means ( kn[+4 ,if p]iods *>act]iz$ by m>k$ seasonal *anges %\ld be f\nd to h alt]nat$ ) ^? :5 ! seasons 7 ( little importance1 ! fact w\ld be ( great geological significance4 ,! discov]ies ( ,g>n] & ,all>d z to ! effect ( light on reproduction began ) a peculi> tobacco plant :i* appe>$ 9 "s exp]im5ts at ,wa%+ton4 ,! plant grew to unusual size1 & seem$ to promise a valuable new v>iety4 ,x =m$ no se$s1 h[ev]1 be=e ! approa* ( cold wea!r4 ,x 0 !re=e remov$ to a gre5h\se :]e x fl[]$ & produc$ se$4 ,9 succe$+ ye>s ! fl[]+ 0 likewise delay$ till e>ly w9t]1 b f9ally x 0 discov]$ t if small plants 7 />t$ 9 ! gre5h\se 9 ! e>ly fall !y fl[]$ at ! same "t z ! l>ge ones4 ,exp]im5ts soon demon/rat$ t ! "t ( fl[]+ dep5ds l>gely ^u ! l5g? ( ! daily p]iod :5 ! plants are expos$ to light4 ,! same is true ( _m o!r plants1 & !re is great v>iety 9 ! conditions :i* lead to fl[]+4 ,"s plants1 su* z wit* hazel1 appe> to be /imulat$ to bloom by v %ort days1 :ile o!rs1 su* z ev5+ primrose1 appe> to require relatively long days4 ,s s5sitive are plants 9 ?is respect t ,g>n] & ,all>d1 by *ang+ ! l5g? ( ! p]iod ( light1 h caus$ a fl[]bud 9 its e>ly /ages n only to /op develop+ b to return once m to a vegetative %oot4 ,common iris1 :i* fl[]s 9 ,may & ,june1 w n blossom "u ord9>y conditions :5 gr[n 9 ! gre5h\se 9 w9t]1 ev5 "u ! same temp]ature conditions t prevail 9 e>ly summ]4 ,aga91 "o v>iety ( soy beans w regul>ly beg9 to fl[] 9 ,june ( ea* ye>1 a second v>iety 9 ,july1 & a ?ird 9 ,augu/1 :5 all are plant$ on ! same date4 ,!re are no temp]ature diff]5ces dur+ ! summ] mon?s :i* c\ld expla9 ^! diff]5ces 9 "t ( fl[]+2 &1 s9ce int]nal causes alone _c be accept$ z furni%+ a satisfactory explanation1 "s ext]nal factor o!r ?an temp]ature mu/ be responsible4 ,! ord9>y v>ieties ( cosmos regul>ly fl[] 9 ! fall 9 nor!rn latitudes if !y are plant$ 9 ! spr+ or summ]4 ,if gr[n 9 a w>m gre5h\se dur+ ! w9t] mon?s ! plants also fl[] readily1 s t ! cool] wea!r ( fall is n a necess>y condition4 ,if successive plant+s ( cosmos are made 9 ! gre5h\se dur+ ! late w9t] & e>ly spr+ mon?s1 ma9ta9+ a uni=m temp]ature ?r\gh\t1 ! plant+s made aft] a c]ta9 date w fail to blossom promptly1 b1 on ! contr>y1 w cont9ue to gr[ till ! foll[+ fall1 ?us fl[]+ at ! usual season = ?is species4 ,?is curi\s rev]sal ( behavior ) advance ( ! season _c be attribut$ to *ange 9 temp]ature4 ,"s o!r factor is responsible = ! failure ( cosmos to blossom dur+ ! summ] mon?s4 ,9 ?is respect ! behavior ( cosmos is j ! opposite ( t obs]v$ 9 iris4 ,c]ta9 v>ieties ( soy beans *ange _! behavior 9 a peculi> mann] ) advance ( ! summ] season4 ,! v>iety kn[n z ,biloxi1 = example1 :5 plant$ e>ly 9 ! spr+ 9 ! latitude ( ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c41 cont9ues to gr[ ?r\gh\t ! summ]1 fl[]+ 9 ,septemb]4 ,! plants ma9ta9 gr[? )\t fl[]+ = fifte5 to eighte5 weeks1 atta9+ a height ( five feet or m4 ,z ! dates ( successive plant+s are mov$ =w>d ?r\gh ! mon?s ( ,june & ,july1 h[ev] !re is a m>k$ t5d5cy = ! plants to cut %ort ! p]iod ( gr[? :i* prec$es fl[]+4 ,?is means1 ( c\rse1 t !re is a t5d5cy to fl[] at approximately ! same "t ( ye> reg>dless ( ! date ( plant+4 ,z a necess>y consequ5ce1 ! size ( ! plants at ! "t ( fl[]+ is r$uc$ 9 proportion to ! delay 9 plant+4 ,! be>+ ( ?is on geological problems lies 9 a qu]y :i* x raises z to ! ability ( a g5us or family ( plants to adapt itself to days ( v diff]5t l5g? f ^? to :i* x is wont$4 ,c\ld tree f]ns1 g9kgos1 cycads1 & o!r plants ^: usual range ( location nev] subjects !m to daylight = m ?an p]haps f\rte5 h\rs or less ?an t51 ?rive & reproduce !mselves if subject$ to p]iods ( daylight rang+ all ! way f no?+ up to ab\t tw5ty-f\r h\rs8 ,no answ] to ?is is yet possible1 b ! "q raises mo/ int]e/+ opportunities ( inve/igation4 ,if ,cordeiro is "r z to ! e>?'s ela/ic gyroscopic motion1 !re may h be5 c]ta9 p]iods :5 a v]tical or almo/ v]tical axis p]mitt$ ! days to be ( almo/ equal l5g? at all seasons 9 all latitudes4 ,if su* an abs5ce ( seasons occurr$ :5 ! l&s 7 l[1 :5 ! oceans 7 ext5sive & widely op5 t[>d ! poles1 & :5 /orms 7 relatively inactive1 ! result might be great mildness ( climate su* z appe>s sometimes to h prevail$ 9 ! middle ( geological eras4 ,suppose on ! o!r h& t ! axis %\ld be tilt$ m ?an n[1 & t ! l&s %\ld be widely em]g5t & ! /orm belt highly active 9 l[ latitudes1 p]haps because ( ! activity ( ! sun4 ,! conditions might be favorable = glaciation at latitudes z l[ z ^? :]e ! ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s ice %eets appe> to h c5t]$4 ,! possibilities ?us sugge/$ by ,cordeiro's hypo!sis are s int]e/+ t ! gyroscopic motion ( ! e>? ought to be inve/igat$ m ?or\ghly4 ,ev5 if no su* gyroscopic motion takes place1 h[ev]1 ! o!r causes ( mild climate discuss$ 9 ?is *apt] may be en\gh to expla9 all ! obs]v$ ph5om5a4 ,_m important biological consequ5ces might be drawn f ?is /udy ( mild geological climates1 b ?is book is n ! place = !m4 ,9 ! fir/ *apt] we saw t "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable features ( ! climate ( ! e>? is its wond]ful uni=mity ?r\gh hundr$s ( millions ( ye>s4 ,z we come d[n ?r\gh ! vi/a ( ye>s ! mild geological p]iods appe> to repres5t a return z ne>ly z possible to ?is /&>d condition ( uni=mity4 ,c]ta9 *anges ( ! e>? itself1 z we %all see 9 ! next *apt]1 may 9 ! long run t5d slightly to *ange ! exact conditions ( ?is climatic /&>d1 z we might p]haps call x4 ,yet !y act s sl[ly t _! effect dur+ hundr$s ( millions ( ye>s is /ill op5 to "q4 ,at mo/ !y seem m]ely to h produc$ a slight increase 9 div]sity f season to season & f zone to zone4 ,! normal climate appe>s /ill to be ( a mild] type ?an t :i* happ5s to prevail at pres5t4 ,"s sol> condition1 ^: possible nature w be discuss$ lat]1 seems ev5 n[ to cause ! numb] ( cyclonic /orms to be great] ?an normal4 ,h5ce ! e>?'s climate /ill %[s some?+ ( ! great div]sity ( seasons & ( zones :i* is s m>k$ a *>act]i/ic ( glacial epo*s4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #eh3 ,roll9 ,t4 ,*amb]l93 ,p]sonal ,communication4 ,footnote #ei3 ,f4 ,h4 ,kn[lton3 ,evolution ( ,geologic ,climates2 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,am41 ,vol4 #cj1 #aiai1 pp4 #dii-eff4 ,footnote #fj3 ,*as4 ,s*u*]t3 ,review ( ,kn[lton's ,evolution ( ,geological ,climates1 9 ,am4 ,j\r4 ,sci41 #aiba4 ,footnote #fa3 ,g4 ,r4 ,wiel&3 ,di/ribution & ,relation%ips ( ! ,cycadeoids2 ,am4 ,j\r4 ,bot41 ,vol4 #g1 #aibj1 pp4 #abe-ade4 ,footnote #fb3 ,d4 ,t4 ,mac,dougal3 ,botanical ,features ( ,nor? ,am]ican ,des]ts2 ,c>negie ,in/it4 ( ,wa%41 ,no4 #ii1 #aijh4 ,footnote #fc3 ,loc4 cit4 ,footnote #fd3 ,h4 ,h4 ,clayton3 ,v>iation 9 ,sol> ,radiation & ! ,wea!r2 ,smi?s4 ,misc4 ,coll41 ,vol4 #ga1 ,no4 #c1 ,wa%+ton1 #aibj4 ,footnote #fe3 ,b4 ,hell& ,hans5 & ,f4 ,nans53 ,temp]ature ,v>iations 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic ,ocean & 9 ! ,atmosph]e2 ,misc4 ,coll41 ,smi?s4 ,in/41 ,vol4 #gj1 ,no4 #d1 ,wa%+ton1 #aibj4 ,footnote #ff3 ,! climatic significance ( ocean curr5ts is well discuss$ 9 ,croll's ,climate & ,"t1 #ahge1 & 8 ,climate & ,cosmogony1 #ahhi4 ,footnote #fg3 ,f4 ,j4 ,b4 ,cordeiro3 ,! ,gyroscope1 #aiac4 ,footnote #fh3 ,w4 ,w4 ,g>n] & ,h4 ,a4 ,all>d3 ,fl[]+ & ,fruition ( ,plants z ,controll$ by ,l5g? ( ,day2 ,ye>book ,dept4 ,agri41 #aibj1 pp4 #cgg-djj4 ,footnote #fi3 ,report ( ,committee on ,s$im5tation1 ,national ,rese>* ,c\ncil1 ,april1 #aibb4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,t]re/rial ,,causes ,,( ,,climatic ,,*anges ,! major portion ( ?is book has be5 conc]n$ ) ! explanation ( ! m abrupt & extreme *anges ( climate4 ,?is *apt] & ! next consid] two o!r sorts ( climatic *anges1 ! slight secul> progression dur+ ! hundr$s ( millions ( ye>s ( record$ e>? hi/ory1 & especially ! long sl[ geologic oscillations ( millions or t5s ( millions ( ye>s4 ,x is g5]ally agre$ among geologi/s t ! progressive *ange has t5d$ t[>d great] extremes ( climate2 t is1 great] seasonal contra/s1 & great] contra/s f place to place & f zone to zone4#gj ,! sl[ cyclic *anges h be5 ^? t favor$ widespread glaciation at "o extreme ne> ! ends ( geologic p]iods & eras1 & mild temp]atures ev5 9 subpol> regions at ! o!r extreme dur+ ! m$ial portions ( ! p]iods4 ,z has be5 po9t$ out 9 an e>li] *apt]1 x has (t5 be5 assum$ t all climatic *anges are due to t]re/rial causes4 ,we h se51 h[ev]1 t !re is /rong evid5ce t sol> v>iations play a l>ge "p 9 modify+ ! e>?'s climate4 ,we h also se5 t no kn[n t]re/rial ag5cy appe>s to be able to produce ! abrupt *anges not$ 9 rec5t ye>s1 ! long] cycles ( hi/orical times1 or geological *anges ( ! %ort] type1 su* z glaciation4 ,nev]!less1 t]re/rial *anges d\btless h assi/$ 9 produc+ bo? ! progressive *ange & ! sl[ cyclic *anges record$ 9 ! rocks1 & x is ! purpose ( ?is *apt] & ! two t foll[ to consid] :at t]re/rial *anges h tak5 place & ! probable effect ( su* *anges4 ,! t]re/rial *anges t h a climatic significance are num]\s4 ,"s1 su* z v>iations 9 ! am\nt ( volcanic du/ 9 ! high] air1 h be5 consid]$ 9 an e>li] *apt]4 ,o!rs are too imp]fectly kn[n to w>rant discussion1 & 9 addition !re are presumably o!rs :i* are entirely unkn[n4 ,d\btless "s ( ^! little kn[n or unkn[n *anges h be5 ( importance 9 modify+ climate4 ,= example1 ! climatic influ5ce ( vegetation1 animals1 & man may be appreciable4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 we %all conf9e ourselves to purely physical causes1 :i* w be treat$ 9 ! foll[+ ord]3 ,fir/1 ^? conc]n$ ) ! solid p>ts ( ! e>?1 namely3 7,i7 am\nt ( l&2 7,,ii7 di/ribution ( l&2 7,,iii7 height ( l&2 7,,iv7 lava fl[s2 & 7,v7 int]nal heat4 ,second1 ^? :i* arise f ! sal9ity ( oceans1 & ?ird1 ^? dep5d+ on ! composition & am\nt ( atmosph]e4 ,! t]re/rial *ange :i* appe>s indirectly to h caus$ ! greate/ *ange 9 climate is ! contraction ( ! e>?4 ,! problem ( contraction is highly complex & is z yet only imp]fectly und]/ood4 ,s9ce only its results & n its processes influ5ce climate1 ! foll[+ section z f> z page #aif is n necess>y to ! g5]al read]4 ,x is ins]t$ 9 ord] to expla9 :y we assume t !re h be5 oscillations betwe5 c]ta9 types ( di/ribution ( ! l&s4 ,! ext5t ( ! e>?'s contraction may be judg$ f ! %r9kage indicat$ by ! %ort5+ ( ! rock =mations 9 fold$ m\nta9s su* z ! ,alps1 ,juras1 ,appala*ians1 & ,caucasus4 ,geologi/s are cont9ually discov]+ new evid5ce ( ?ru/ faults ( great magnitude :]e masses ( rock are ?ru/ bodily ov] o!r rocks1 sometimes = _m miles4 ,!re=e1 ! e/imates ( ! am\nt ( %r9kage bas$ on ! measurem5ts ( folds & faults ne$ con/ant revision upw>d4 ,nev]!less1 !y h already rea*$ a consid]able figure4 ,= example1 9 #aiai1 ,pr(essor ,a4 ,heim e/imat$ ! %ort5+ ( ! m]idian pass+ ?r\gh ! mod]n ,alps & ! anci5t ,h]cynian & ,cal$onian m\nta9s z fully a ?\s& miles 9 ,europe1 & ov] five hundr$ miles = ! re/ ( ?is m]idian4#ga ,?is is a radial %ort5+ ( ab\t #bej miles4 ,possibly ! %r9kage has be5 ev5 great] ?an ?is4 ,*amb]l9#gb has comp>$ ! d5sity ( ! e>?1 moon1 ,m>s1 & ,v5us ) "o ano!r1 & f\nd x probable t ! radial %r9kage ( ! e>? may be z mu* z #egj miles4 ,?is result is n s diff]5t f ,heim's z appe>s at fir/ sight1 = ,heim made no all[ance = unrecogniz$ ?ru/ faults & = ! contraction incid5t to metamorphism4 ,moreov]1 ,heim did n include %r9kage dur+ ! fir/ half ( geological "t be=e ! above-m5tion$ m\nta9 sy/ems 7 upheav$4 ,accord+ to a well-e/abli%$ law ( physics1 contraction ( a rotat+ body results 9 m rapid rotation & great] c5trifugal =ce4 ,^! conditions mu/ increase ! e>?'s equatorial bulge & !reby cause *anges 9 ! di/ribution ( l& & wat]4 ,oppos$ to ! re>rangem5t ( ! l& due to increas$ rotation caus$ by contraction1 !re has presumably be5 ano!r re>rangem5t due to tidal ret>dation ( ! e>?'s rotation & a consequ5t less5+ ( ! equatorial bulge4 ,g4 ,h4 ,d>w9 long ago d$uc$ a relatively l>ge ret>dation due to lun> tides4 ,a few ye>s ago ,w4 ,d4 ,mac,millan1 on o!r assumptions1 d$uc$ only a negligible ret>dation4 ,/ill m rec5tly ,taylor#gc has /udi$ ! tides ( ! ,iri% ,sea1 & 8 "w has l$ ,jeffreys#gd & ,br[n#ge to conclude t !re has be5 consid]able ret>dation1 p]haps en\gh1 accord+ to ,br[n1 to equal ! accel]ation due to ! e>?'s contraction4 ,f a prolong$ & exhau/ive /udy ( ! motions ( ! moon ,br[n concludes t tidal friction or "s o!r cause is n[ l5g!n+ ! day at ! rate ( "o second p] ?\s& ye>s1 or an h\r 9 almo/ f\r million ye>s if ! pres5t rate cont9ues4 ,he makes x cle> t ! ret>dation due to tides w\ld n correspond 9 po9t ( "t ) ! accel]ation due to contraction4 ,! ret>dation w\ld occur sl[ly1 & w\ld take place *iefly dur+ ! long quiet p]iods ( geologic hi/ory1 :ile ! accel]ation w\ld occur rapidly at times ( dia/rophic de=mation4 ,z a consequ5ce1 ! equatorial bulge w\ld alt]nately be r$uc$ at a sl[ rate1 & !n some:at sudd5ly augm5t$4 ,! less rigid any "p ( ! e>? is1 ! m quickly x responds to ! =ces :i* lead to bulg+ or :i* t5d to less5 ! bulge4 ,s9ce wat] is m fluid ?an l&1 ! contraction ( ! e>? & ! tidal ret>dation presumably t5d alt]nately to increase & decrease ! am\nt ( wat] ne> ! equator m ?an ! am\nt ( l&4 ,?us1 ?r\gh\t geological hi/ory we %\ld look = cyclic *anges 9 ! relative area ( ! l&s )9 ! tropics & simil> *anges ( opposite phase 9 high] latitudes4 ,! ext5t ( ! *ange w\ld dep5d ^u 7a7 ! am\nt ( alt]ation 9 ! spe$ ( rotation1 & 7b7 ! ext5t ( l[ l& 9 l[ latitudes & ( %all[ sea 9 high latitudes4 ,accord+ to ,sli*t]'s tables1 if ! e>? %\ld rotate 9 tw5ty-?ree h\rs in/ead ( tw5ty-f\r1 ! great ,amazon l[l& w\ld be subm]g$ by ! infl[ ( oceanic wat]1 :ile wide areas 9 ,hudson ,bay1 ! ,nor? ,sea1 & o!r nor!rn regions1 w\ld become l& because ! ocean wat] w\ld fl[ away f !m4#gf ,foll[+ ! prompt equatorw>d movem5t ( wat] :i* w\ld occur z ! spe$ ( rotation increas$1 !re mu/ also be a gradual movem5t or creepage ( ! solid rocks t[>d ! equator1 t is1 a bulg+ ( ! ocean floor & ( ! l&s 9 l[ latitudes1 ) a consequ5t em]g5ce ( ! l&s !re & a relative rise ( sea level 9 high] latitudes4 ,tidal ret>dation w\ld h a simil> effect4 ,suess#gg has describ$ widespread elevat$ /r& l9es 9 ! tropics :i* he int]prets z indicat+ a relatively sudd5 *ange 9 sea level1 ?\gh he does n sugge/ a cause ( ! *ange4 ,h[ev]1 9 speak+ ( rec5t geological times1 ,suess reports t a movem5t m rec5t ?an ! old /r&s 0 an accumulation ( wat] t[>d ! equator1 a dim9ution t[>d ! poles1 & 7x appe>s7 z ?\gh ?is la/ movem5t 7 only "o ( ! _m oscillations :i* succe$ ea* o!r ) ! same t5d5cy1 i4e41 ) a positive excess at ! equator1 a negative excess at ! poles4 7,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #eea47 ,?is creepage ( ! rocks equatorw>d seem+ly might favor ! gr[? ( m\nta9s 9 tropical & subtropical regions1 because x is highly improbable t ! increase 9 ! bulge w\ld g on 9 all longitudes ) p]fect uni=mity4 ,:]e x w5t on mo/ rapidly m\nta9s w\ld arise4 ,t su* irregul>ity ( movem5t has actually occurr$ is sugge/$ n only by ! fact t _m ,c5ozoic & old] m\nta9 ranges ext5d ea/ & we/1 b by ! fur!r fact t ^! include "s ( our greate/ ranges1 _m ( :i* are 9 fairly l[ latitudes4 ,! ,himalayas1 ! ,javanese ranges1 & ! half-subm]g$ ,c>ibbean *a9s are examples4 ,su* m\nta9s sugge/ a ?ru/ 9 a nor? & s\? direction :i* is j :at w\ld happ5 if ! solid mass ( ! e>? 7 creep+ fir/ equatorw>d & !n polew>d4 ,a fact :i* is 9 accord ) ! idea ( a p]iodic increase 9 ! oceans 9 l[ latitudes because ( r5ew$ bulg+ at ! equator is ! exposure 9 mod]ately high latitudes ( ! greate/ ext5t ( anci5t rocks4 ,?is seems to mean t 9 l[ latitudes ! frequ5t deep5+ ( ! oceans has caus$ ! old rocks to be l>gely cov]$ by s$im5ts1 :ile ! old l&s 9 high] latitudes h be5 left m fully expos$ to erosion4 ,ano!r sugge/ion ( su* p]iodic equatorw>d movem5ts ( ! ocean wat] is f\nd 9 ! report$ contra/ betwe5 ! relative /ability ) :i* ! nor!rn "p ( ,nor? ,am]ica has rema9$ slightly above sea level except at times ( widespread subm]g5ce1 :ile ! s\!rn p>ts h suff]$ repeat$ subm]g5ce alt]nat+ ) great em]g5ce4#gh ,fur!rmore1 al?\gh ! nor!rn "p ( ,nor? ,am]ica has be5 g5]ally expos$ to erosion s9ce ! ,prot]ozoic1 x has suppli$ mu* less s$im5t ?an h ! m s\!rn l& areas4#gi ,?is app>5tly means t mu* ( ,canada has /ood relatively l[1 :ile repeat$ & pr(\nd uplift alt]nat+ ) depression has occurr$ 9 subtropical latitudes1 app>5tly 9 adju/m5t to *anges 9 ! e>?'s spe$ ( rotation4 ,! uplifts g5]ally foll[$ ! times ( subm]g5ce due to equatorw>d movem5t ( ! wat]1 ?\gh ! buckl+ ( ! cru/ :i* accompanies %r9kage d\btless caus$ "s ( ! subm]g5ce4 ,! evid5ce t nor!rn ,nor? ,am]ica /ood relatively l[ ?r\gh\t mu* ( geological "t dep5ds n only on ! fact t little s$im5t came to ! s\? f ! nor?1 b also on ! fact t at times ( especially widespread epicont95tal seas1 ! subm]g5ce 0 initiat$ at ! nor?4#hj ,?is is especially true = ,ordovician1 ,silurian1 ,devonian1 & ,jurassic times 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,g5]al subm]g5ce ( ?is k9d is suppos$ to be due *iefly to ! ov]fl[+ ( ! ocean :5 its level is sl[ly rais$ by ! deposition ( s$im5t d]iv$ f ! erosion ( :at once 7 cont95tal highl&s b lat] are p5epla9s4 ,! fact t su* subm]g5ce began 9 high latitudes1 h[ev]1 seems to ne$ a fur!r explanation4 ,! bulg+ ( ! rock sph]e at ! equator & ! consequ5t displacem5t ( "s ( ! wat] 9 l[ latitudes w\ld furni% su* an explanation1 z w\ld also a decrease 9 ! spe$ ( rotation induc$ by tidal ret>dation1 if t ret>dation 7 great en\gh & rapid en\gh to be geologically effective4 ,! climatic effects ( ! e>?'s contraction1 :i* we %all %ortly discuss1 are greatly complicat$ by ! fact t contraction has tak5 place irregul>ly4 ,su* irregul>ity has occurr$ 9 spite ( ! fact t ! processes :i* cause contraction h probably gone on q /eadily ?r\gh\t geological hi/ory4 ,^! processes include ! *emical reorganization ( ! m9]als ( ! cru/1 a process :i* is illu/rat$ by ! metamorphism ( s$im5t>y rocks into cry/all9e =ms4 ,! escape ( gases ?r\gh volcanic action or o!rwise has be5 ano!r important process4 ,al?\gh ! processes :i* cause contraction probably g on /eadily1 _! effect1 z ,*amb]l9#ha & o!rs h po9t$ out1 is probably delay$ by in]tia4 ,?us ! settl+ ( ! cru/ or its movem5t on a l>ge scale is delay$4 ,p]haps ! delay cont9ues until ! /resses become s great t ( !mselves !y ov]come ! in]tia1 or possibly "s outside ag5cy1 ^: nature we %all consid] lat]1 re5=ces ! /resses & gives ! slight impulse :i* is en\gh to release !m & all[ ! e>?'s cru/ to settle into a new /ate ( equilibrium4 ,:5 contraction proce$s actively1 ! ocean segm5ts1 be+ l>ge/ & heavie/1 are likely to settle mo/1 result+ 9 a deep5+ ( ! oceans & an em]g5ce ( ! l&s4 ,foll[+ ea* consid]able contraction !re w\ld be an increase 9 ! spe$ ( rotation4 ,! repeat$ contractions ) consequ5t gr[? ( ! equatorial bulge w\ld alt]nate ) long quiet p]iods dur+ :i* tidal ret>dation w\ld aga9 decrease ! spe$ ( rotation & h5ce less5 ! bulge4 ,! result w\ld be repeat$ *anges ( di/ribution ( l& & wat]1 ) consequ5t *anges 9 climate4 ,i4 ,we %all n[ consid] ! climatic effect ( ! repeat$ *anges 9 ! relative am\nts ( l& & wat] :i* appe> to h result$ f ! e>?'s contraction & f *anges 9 its spe$ ( rotation4 ,dur+ _m geologic epo*s a l>g] portion ( ! e>? 0 cov]$ ) wat] ?an at pres5t4 ,= example1 dur+ at lea/ twelve out ( ab\t tw5ty epo*s1 ,nor? ,am]ica has suff]$ ext5sive inundations1#hb & 9 g5]al ! ext5sive subm]g5ce ( ,europe1 ! o!r area well kn[n geologically1 has co9cid$ ) t ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,at o!r times1 ! ocean has be5 less ext5sive ?an n[1 z = example dur+ ! rec5t glacial p]iod1 & probably dur+ sev]al ( ! glacial p]iods ( e>li] date4 ,ea* ( ! num]\s *anges 9 ! relative ext5t ( ! l&s mu/ h result$ 9 a modification ( climate4#hc ,?is modification w\ld occur *iefly because wat] becomes w>m f> m sl[ly ?an l&1 & cools (f f> m sl[ly4 ,an increase 9 ! l&s w\ld cause *anges 9 sev]al climatic conditions4 7a7 ,! range ( temp]ature betwe5 day & night & betwe5 summ] & w9t] w\ld increase1 = l&s become w>m] by day & 9 summ] ?an d oceans1 & cool] at night & 9 w9t]4 ,! high] summ] temp]ature :5 ! l&s are widespread is due *iefly to ! fact t ! l&1 if n sn[-cov]$1 absorbs m ( ! sun's radiant en]gy ?an does ! ocean1 = its reflect+ p[] is l[4 ,! l[] w9t] temp]ature :5 l&s are widespread occurs n only because !y cool (f rapidly b because ! r$uc$ oceans _c give !m s mu* heat4 ,moreov]1 ! l>g] ! l&1 ! m g5]ally d ! w9ds bl[ outw>d f x 9 w9t] & ?us prev5t ! ocean heat f be+ c>ri$ inl&4 ,s long z ! ocean is n froz5 9 high latitudes1 x is g5]ally ! *ief s\rce ( heat 9 w9t]1 = ! nights are sev]al mon?s long ne> ! poles1 & ev5 :5 ! sun does %9e its angle is s l[ t reflection f ! sn[ is v great4 ,fur!rmore1 al?\gh on ! av]age !re is m reflection f wat] ?an f l&1 ! opposite is true 9 high latitudes 9 w9t] :5 ! l& is sn[-cov]$ :ile ! ocean is relatively d>k & is r\gh5$ by ! waves4 ,ano!r factor 9 caus+ l>ge l&s to h extremely l[ temp]ature 9 w9t] is ! fact t 9 proportion to _! size !y are less protect$ by fog & cl\d ?an are small] areas4 ,! belt ( cl\d & fog :i* is usually =m$ :5 ! w9d bl[s f ! ocean to ! relatively cold l& is re/rict$ to ! coa/al zone4 ,?us ! l>g] ! l&1 ! small] ! fraction 9 :i* loss ( heat by radiation is r$uc$ by cl\ds & fogs4 ,h5ce an increase 9 ! l& area is accompani$ by an increase 9 ! contra/s 9 temp]ature betwe5 l& & wat]4 7b7 ,! contra/s 9 temp]ature ?us produc$ mu/ cause simil> contra/s 9 atmosph]ic pressure1 & h5ce /rong] b>ometric gradi5ts4 7c7 ,! /rong gradi5ts w\ld mean /rong w9ds1 fl[+ f l& to sea or f sea to l&4 7d7 ,local convection w\ld also be /r5g!n$ 9 h>mony ) ! expansion ( ! l&s1 = ! m rapid heat+ ( l& ?an ( wat] favors active convection4 7e7 ,z ! ext5t ( ! ocean dim9i%$1 !re w\ld normally be a decrease 9 ! am\nt ( wat] vapor = ?ree reasons3 7#a7 ,evaporation f ! ocean is ! great s\rce ( wat] vapor4 ,o!r conditions be+ equal1 ! small] ! ocean becomes1 ! less ! evaporation4 7#b7 ,! am\nt ( wat] vapor 9 ! air dim9i%es z convection increases1 s9ce upw>d convection is a *ief me?od by :i* cond5sation & precipitation are produc$1 & wat] vapor remov$ f ! atmosph]e4 7#c7 ,nocturnal cool+ suffici5t to produce dew & fro/ is v mu* m common ^u l& ?an ^u ! ocean4 ,! =mation ( dew & fro/ dim9i%es ! am\nt ( wat] vapor at lea/ tempor>ily4 7f7 ,any dim9ution 9 wat] vapor produc$ 9 ^! ways1 or o!rwise1 is significant because wat] vapor is ! mo/ ess5tial "p ( ! atmosph]e s f> z regulation ( temp]ature is conc]n$4 ,x t5ds to keep ! days f becom+ hot or ! nights cold4 ,!re=e any decrease 9 wat] vapor w\ld increase ! diurnal & seasonal range ( temp]ature1 mak+ ! climate m extreme & sev]e4 ,?us a p]iodic increase 9 ! area ( ! cont95ts w\ld cle>ly make = p]iodic increas$ climatic contra/s1 ) great extremes1 a type ( climatic *ange :i* has recurr$ aga9 & aga94 ,inde$1 ea* great glaciation accompani$ or foll[$ ext5sive em]g5ce ( ! l&s4#hd ,:e!r or n !re has be5 a progressive increase f era to era 9 ! area ( ! l&s is unc]ta94 ,good au?orities disagree widely4 ,!re is no d\bt1 h[ev]1 t at pres5t ! l&s are m ext5sive ?an at mo/ times 9 ! pa/1 ?\gh small]1 p]haps1 ?an at c]ta9 p]iods4 ,! wide expanse ( l&s helps expla9 ! prom95ce ( seasons at pres5t z comp>$ ) ! pa/4 ,,ii4 ,! contraction ( ! e>?1 z we h se51 has produc$ great *anges 9 ! di/ribution z well z 9 ! ext5t ( l& & wat]4 ,l>ge p>ts ( ! pres5t cont95ts h be5 cov]$ repeat$ly by ! sea1 & ext5sive areas n[ cov]$ ) wat] h be5 l&4 ,9 rec5t geological times1 t is1 dur+ ! ,plioc5e & ,plei/oc5e1 mu* ( ! pres5t cont95tal %elf1 ! zone less ?an #fjj feet bel[ sea level1 0 l&4 ,if ! :ole %elf _h be5 expos$1 ! l&s w\ld h be5 great] ?an at pres5t by an area l>g] ?an ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,:5 ! l&s 7 mo/ elevat$1 or a little e>li]1 ,nor? ,am]ica 0 probably connect$ ) ,asia & almo/ ) ,europe4 ,asia 9 turn 0 app>5tly connect$ ) ! l>g] ,ea/ ,indian isl&s4 ,9 mu* e>li] times l& occupi$ regions :]e n[ ! ocean is fairly deep4 ,gr\ps ( isl&s1 su* z ! ,ea/ ,indies & ,malaysia & p]haps ! ,we/ ,indies1 7 unit$ into widespread+ l& masses4 ,figs4 #g & #i1 illu/rat+ ! paleography ( ! ,p]mian & ! ,cretace\s p]iods1 respectively1 indicate a l& di/ribution radically diff]5t f t ( today4 ,s f> z appe>s f ! scatt]$ facts ( geological hi/ory1 ! *anges 9 ! di/ribution ( l& seem to h be5 m>k$ by ! foll[+ *>act]i/ics3 7#a7 ,accompany+ ! diff]5tiation ( cont95tal & oceanic segm5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/1 ! oceans h become some:at deep]1 & _! bas9s p]haps l>g]1 :ile ! cont95ts1 on ! av]age1 h be5 m elevat$ & less subject to subm]g5ce4 ,h5ce !re h be5 less radical dep>tures f ! pres5t di/ribution dur+ ! relatively rec5t ,c5ozoic era ?an 9 ! anci5t ,paleozoic because ! subm]g5ce ( cont95tal areas has become less g5]al & less frequ5t4 ,= example1 ! la/ ext5sive epeiric or int]ior sea 9 ,nor? ,am]ica 0 9 ! ,cretace\s1 at lea/ t5 million ye>s ago1 & accord+ to ,b>rell p]haps fifty million1 :ile 9 ,europe1 accord+ to de ,lapp>5t1#he a small] %>e ( ! pres5t cont95t has be5 subm]g$ s9ce ! ,cretace\s ?an be=e4 ,inde$1 z 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! subm]g5ce has decreas$ on ! av]age s9ce ! ,paleozoic era4 7#b7 ,! *anges 9 di/ribution ( l& :i* h tak5 place dur+ e>? hi/ory h be5 cyclic4 ,repeat$ly1 at ! close ( ea* ( ! score or s ( geologic p]iods1 ! cont95ts em]g$ m or less1 :ile at ! close ( ! gr\ps ( p]iods kn[n z eras1 ! l&s 7 especially l>ge & em]g5t4 ,aft] ea* em]g5ce1 a gradual encroa*m5t ( ! sea took place1 & t[>d ! close ( sev]al ( ! e>li] p]iods1 ! sea appe>s to h cov]$ a l>ge fraction ( ! pres5t l& areas4 7#c7 ,on ! :ole1 ! am\nt ( l& 9 ! middle & high latitudes ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e appe>s to h increas$ dur+ geologic "t4 ,su* an increase does n require a gr[? ( ! cont95ts1 h[ev]1 9 ! broad] s5se ( ! t]m1 b m]ely t a small] fraction ( ! cont95t & its %elf %\ld be subm]g$4 7#d7 ,9 tropical latitudes1 on ! o!r h&1 ! ext5t ( ! l&s seems to h decreas$1 app>5tly by ! gr[? ( ! ocean bas9s4 ,s\? ,am]ica & ,africa are ?\ght by _m /ud5ts to h be5 connect$1 & ,africa 0 unit$ ) ,india via ,madagasc>1 z is sugge/$ 9 ,fig4 #i4 ,! mo/ radical cyclic z well z ! mo/ radical progressive *anges 9 l& di/ribution also seem to h tak5 place 9 tropical regions4#hf ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,cretace\s ,paleogeography4 7,aft] ,s*u*]t47 ,al?\gh !re is mu* evid5ce ( p]iodic increase ( ! sea 9 equatorial latitudes & ( l& 9 high latitudes1 x has rema9$ = ! zooelogi/ ,metcalf to pres5t a v pretty bit ( evid5ce t at c]ta9 times subm]g5ce along ! equator co9cid$ ) em]g5ce 9 high latitudes1 & vice v]sa4 ,c]ta9 fre% wat] frogs :i* c>ry ! same int]nal p>asite are conf9$ to two widely sep>at$ areas 9 tropical & s\? temp]ate ,am]ica & 9 ,au/ralia4 ,! extreme improbability t bo? ! frogs & ! p>asites c\ld h orig9at$ indep5d5tly 9 two unconnect$ areas & c\ld h develop$ by conv]g5t evolution s t !y are almo/ id5tical 9 ! two cont95ts makes x almo/ c]ta9 t !re mu/ h be5 a l& connection betwe5 ,s\? ,am]ica & ,au/ralia1 presumably by way ( ,ant>ctica4 ,! facts z to ! p>asites seem also to prove t :ile ! l& connection exi/$ !re 0 a sea across ,s\? ,am]ica 9 equatorial latitudes4 ,! p>asite infe/s n only ! frogs b ! ,am]ican toads kn[n z ,bufo4 ,n[ ,bufo orig9at$ nor? ( ! equator 9 ,am]ica & diff]s f ! frogs :i* orig9at$ 9 s\!rn ,s\? ,am]ica 9 n be+ f\nd 9 ,au/ralia4 ,?is raises ! "q ( h[ ! frogs c\ld g to ,au/ralia via ,ant>ctica c>ry+ ! p>asite ) !m1 :ile ! toads c\ld n g4 ,metcalf's answ] is t ! toads 7 cut (f f ! s\!rn "p ( ,s\? ,am]ica by an equatorial sea until aft] ! ,ant>ctic connection betwe5 ! ,old ,_w & ! ,new 0 sev]$4 ,z ,patagonia let g ( ,ant>ctica by subsid5ce ( ! int]v5+ l& area1 !re 0 a probable concomitant rise ( l& ?r\gh :at is n[ middle ,s\? ,am]ica & ! nor!rn & s\!rn portions ( ?is cont95t came toge!r4#hg ,^! v>i\s *anges 9 ! e>?'s cru/ h giv5 rise to c]ta9 specific types ( di/ribution ( ! l&s1 :i* w n[ be consid]$4 ,we %all inquire :at climatic conditions w\ld arise f *anges 9 7a7 ! cont9uity ( ! l&s f nor? to s\?1 7b7 ! am\nt ( l& 9 tropical latitudes1 & 7c7 ! am\nt ( l& 9 middle & high latitudes4 7a7 ,at pres5t ! we/w>d drift ( w>m wat]s1 set 9 motion by ! trade w9ds1 is int]rupt$ by l& masses & turn$ polew>d1 produc+ ! important ,gulf ,/ream ,drift & ,japan ,curr5t 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 & correspond+1 ?\gh less important1 curr5ts 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,dur+ ! pa/1 q diff]5t sets ( ocean curr5ts d\btless h exi/$ 9 response to a diff]5t di/ribution ( l&4 ,repeat$ly1 9 ! mid-,cretace\s 7,fig4 #i7 & sev]al o!r p]iods1 ! pres5t ,am]ican b>ri] to ! we/w>d mov+ tropical curr5t 0 brok5 9 ,c5tral ,am]ica4 ,ev5 if ! suppos$ cont95t ( ,gondwana ,l& ext5d$ f ,africa to ,s\? ,am]ica 9 equatorial latitudes1 /rong curr5ts mu/ /ill h fl[$ we/w>d along its nor!rn %ore "u ! impulse ( ! peculi>ly /rong trade w9ds :i* ! equatorial l& w\ld create4 ,nev]!less at su* times relatively little w>m tropical wat] presumably ent]$ ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 = x escap$ into ! ,pacific4 ,at sev]al o!r times1 su* z ! late ,ordovician & mid-,devonian1 :5 ! i/hmian b>ri] exi/$1 x probably turn$ an important curr5t nor?w>d into :at is n[ ! ,mississippi ,bas9 in/ead ( into ! ,atlantic4 ,!re x trav]s$ an epeiric1 or mid-cont95tal sea op5 to bo? nor? & s\?4 ,h5ce its effectiv5ess 9 w>m+ ,arctic regions mu/ h be5 q diff]5t f t ( ! pres5t ,gulf ,/ream4 7b7 ,we w next consid] ! influ5ces ( *anges 9 ! am\nt ( equatorial & tropical l&4 ,z su* l&s are mu* hott] ?an ! correspond+ seas1 ! int5sity & wid? ( ! equatorial belt ( l[ pressure mu/ be great :5 !y are ext5sive4 ,h5ce ! trade w9ds mu/ h be5 /rong] ?an n[ :5ev] tropical l&s 7 m ext5sive ?an at pres5t4 ,?is is because ! trades are produc$ by ! convection due to excessive heat along ! heat equator4 ,!re ! air exp&s upw>d & fl[s polew>d at high altitudes4 ,! trade w9d consi/s ( air mov+ t[>d ! heat equator to take ! place ( ! air :i* !re rises4 ,:5 ! l&s 9 l[ latitudes 7 wide ! trade w9ds mu/ also h dom9at$ a wide belt4 ,! great] wid? ( ! trade-w9d belt today ov] ,africa ?an ov] ! ,atlantic illu/rates ! matt]4 ,! belt mu/ h be5 /ill wid] :5 ,gondwana ,l& 0 l>ge1 z x is believ$ to h be5 dur+ ! ,paleozoic era & ! e>ly ,mesozoic4 ,an increase 9 ! wid? ( ! equatorial belt ( l[ pressure "u ! influ5ce ( broad tropical l&s w\ld be accompani$ n only by /rong] & m widespread trade w9ds1 b by a correspond+ /r5g!n+ ( ! subtropical belts ( high pressure4 ,! *ief reason w\ld be ! great] expansion ( ! air 9 ! equatorial l[ pressure belt & ! consequ5t m abundant outfl[ ( air at high altitudes 9 ! =m ( anti-trades or w9ds return+ polew>d above ! trades4 ,su* w9ds w\ld pile up ! air 9 ! region ( ! high-pressure belt4 ,moreov]1 s9ce ! m]idians conv]ge z "o proce$s away f ! equator1 ! air ( ! polew>d-mov+ anti-trades t5ds to be cr[d$ z x rea*es high] latitudes1 ?us increas+ ! pressure4 ,unless !re 7 a correspond+ increase 9 tropical cyclones1 "o ( ! mo/ prom95t results ( ! /r5g!n$ trades & ! int5sifi$ subtropical high-pressure belt at times ( broad l&s 9 l[ latitudes w\ld be great des]ts4 ,x w be recall$ t ! trade-w9d l[l&s & ! extra-tropical belt ( highs are ! great des]t belts at pres5t4 ,! trade-w9d l[l&s are des]t because air mov+ into w>m] latitudes takes up wat] except :]e x is cool$ by ris+ on m\nta9-sides4 ,! belt ( highs is arid because !re1 too1 air is be+ w>m$1 b 9 ?is case by desc5d+ f al(t4 ,aga91 if ! atmosph]ic pressure 9 ! subtropical belt %\ld be int5sifi$1 ! w9ds fl[+ polew>d f ?is belt w\ld necess>ily become /rong]4 ,^! w\ld beg9 z s\?we/]lies 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e & nor?we/]lies 9 ! s\!rn4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt] we h se5 t su* w9ds1 especially :5 cyclonic /orms are few & mild1 are a p[]ful ag5t 9 transf]r+ subtropical heat polew>d4 ,if ! /r5g? ( ! we/]lies 7 increas$ because ( broad l&s 9 l[ latitudes1 _! efficacy 9 transf]r+ heat w\ld be correspond+ly augm5t$4 ,x is ?us evid5t t any *ange 9 ! ext5t ( tropical l&s dur+ ! geologic pa/ mu/ h _h important climatic consequ5ces 9 *ang+ ! velocity ( ! atmosph]ic circulation & 9 alt]+ ! transf] ( heat f l[ latitudes to high4 ,:5 ! equatorial & tropical l&s 7 broad ! w9ds & curr5ts mu/ h be5 /rong1 mu* heat mu/ h be5 c>ri$ away f l[ latitudes1 & ! contra/ betwe5 l[ & high latitudes mu/ h be5 relatively slight4 ,z we h already rem>k$1 lead+ paleogeograph]s believe t *anges 9 ! ext5t ( ! l&s h be5 especially m>k$ 9 l[ latitudes1 & t on ! av]age !re has be5 a decrease 9 ! ext5t ( l& )9 ! tropics4 ,gondwana ,l& is ! greate/ illu/ration ( ?is4 ,9 ! same way1 on ! num]\s paleogeographic maps ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 mo/ paleogeograph]s h %[n fairly ext5sive l&s s\? ( ! latitude ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates dur+ mo/ ( ! geologic epo*s4#hh 7c7 ,!re is evid5ce t dur+ geologic hi/ory ! area ( ! l&s 9 middle & high latitudes1 z well z 9 l[ latitudes1 has *ang$ radically4 ,an increase 9 su* l&s w\ld cause ! w9t]s to gr[ cold]4 ,?is w\ld be p>tly because ( ! loss ( heat by radiation into ! cold dry air ov] ! cont95ts 9 w9t]1 & p>tly because ( increas$ reflection f sn[ & fro/1 :i* ga!r mu* m widely ^u ! l& ?an ^u ! ocean4 ,fur!rmore1 9 w9t] :5 ! cont95ts are relatively cold1 !re is a /rong t5d5cy = w9ds to bl[ out f ! cont95t t[>d ! ocean4 ,! l>g] ! l& ! /rong] ?is t5d5cy4 ,9 ,asia x gives rise to /rong w9t] monsoons4 ,! effect ( su* w9ds is illu/rat$ by ! way 9 :i* ! we/]lies prev5t ! ,gulf ,/ream f w>m+ ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates 9 w9t]4 ,! ,gulf ,/ream w>ms nor?we/]n ,europe mu* m ?an ! ,unit$ ,/ates because1 9 ,europe1 ! prevail+ w9ds are on%ore4 ,ano!r effect ( an increase 9 ! area ( ! l&s 9 middle & high latitudes w\ld be to int]pose b>ri]s to oceanic circulation & ?us l[] ! temp]ature ( pol> regions4 ,?is w\ld n mean glaciation 9 high latitudes1 h[ev]1 ev5 :5 ! l&s 7 widespread z 9 ! ,mesozoic & e>ly ,t]ti>y4 ,/ud5ts ( glaciology are m & m ?or\ghly conv9c$ t glaciation dep5ds on ! availability ( moi/ure ev5 m ?an ^u l[ temp]ature4 ,9 conclusion x may be not$ t ea* ( ! sev]al climatic influ5ces ( increas$ l& area 9 ! high latitudes w\ld t5d to increase ! contra/s betwe5 l& & sea1 betwe5 w9t] & summ]1 & betwe5 l[ latitudes & high4 ,9 o!r words1 s f> z ! effect ^u high latitudes !mselves is conc]n$1 an expansion ( ! l&s !re w\ld t5d 9 ! same direction z a dim9ution 9 l[ latitudes4 ,9 s f> z ! g5]al tr5d ( geological evolution has be5 t[>d m l& 9 high latitudes & less 9 l[1 x w\ld help to produce a progressive increase 9 climatic div]sity su* z is fa9tly indicat$ 9 ! rock /rata4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! oscillations 9 ! di/ribution ( ! l&s1 ( :i* geology af=ds s mu* evid5ce1 mu/ c]ta9ly h play$ an important "p 9 produc+ ! p]iodic *anges ( climate :i* ! e>? has und]gone4 ,,iii4 ,?r\gh\t geological hi/ory !re is abundant evid5ce t ! process ( contraction has l$ to m>k$ diff]5ces n only 9 ! di/ribution & area ( ! l&s1 b 9 _! height4 ,on ! :ole ! l&s h presumably increas$ 9 height s9ce ! ,prot]ozoic1 some:at 9 proportion to ! increas$ diff]5tiation ( cont95ts & oceans4#hi ,if !re has be5 su* an increase1 ! contra/ betwe5 ! climate ( ocean & l& mu/ h be5 acc5tuat$1 = highl&s h a great] diurnal & seasonal range ( temp]ature ?an d l[l&s4 ,! ocean has v little range ( ei!r sort4 ,! l>ge range at high altitudes is due *iefly to ! small quantity ( wat] vapor1 = ?is decl9es /eadily ) increas$ altitude4 ,a dim9ution 9 ! d5sity ( ! o!r con/itu5ts ( ! air also decreases ! blanket+ effect ( ! atmosph]e4 ,9 con=mity ) ! great seasonal range 9 temp]ature at times :5 ! l&s /& high1 ! direction ( ! w9d w\ld be alt]$4 ,:5 ! l&s are notably w>m] ?an ! oceans1 ! w9ds commonly fl[ f l& to sea1 & :5 ! cont95ts are mu* cold] ?an ! oceans1 ! direction is rev]s$4 ,! monsoons ( ,asia are examples4 ,/rong seasonal w9ds di/urb ! normal planet>y circulation ( ! trade w9ds 9 l[ latitudes & ( ! we/]lies 9 middle latitudes4 ,!y also int]f]e ) ! ocean curr5ts set 9 motion by ! planet>y w9ds4 ,! net result is to h9d] ! transf] ( heat f l[ latitudes to high1 & ?us to increase ! contra/s betwe5 ! zones4 ,local z well z zonal contra/s are also int5sifi$4 ,! high] ! l&1 ! great]1 relatively speak+1 are ! cl\d9ess & precipitation on seaw>d slopes1 & ! dri] ! int]ior4 ,inde$1 mo/ highl&s are arid4 ,h5ry's#ij rec5t /udy ( ! v]tical di/ribution ( ra9fall on m\nta9-sides indicates t a decrease sets 9 at ab\t #cejj feet 9 ! tropics & only a little high] 9 mid-latitudes4 ,9 addition to ! ma9 effects ^u atmosph]ic circulation & precipitation1 ea* ( ! _m upheavals ( ! l&s mu/ h be5 accompani$ by _m m9or conditions :i* t5d$ t[>d div]sity4 ,= example1 ! /reams 7 rejuv5at$1 & in/ead ( me&]+ p]haps ov] va/ flood pla9s !y intr5*$ _! *annels & 9 _m cases dug deep gorges4 ,! wat] table 0 l[]$1 soil 0 remov$ f consid]able areas1 ! b>e rock 0 expos$1 & ! type ( dom9ant vegetation alt]$ 9 _m places4 ,an almo/ b>r5 ridge may repres5t all t rema9s ( :at 0 once a va/ =e/$ flood pla94 ,?us1 increas$ elevation ( ! l& produces contra/$ conditions ( slope1 vegetation1 availability ( gr\nd wat]1 exposure to w9d & s =?1 & ^! unite 9 div]sify+ climate4 ,:]e m\nta9s are =m$1 /rong contra/s are sure to occur4 ,! w9dw>d slopes may be v ra9y1 :ile neighbor+ leew>d slopes are p>*$ by a dry foehn w9d4 ,at ! same "t ! tops may be sn[-cov]$4 ,increas$ local contra/s 9 climatic conditions are kn[n to influ5ce ! int5sity ( cyclonic /orms1#ia & ^! affect ! climatic conditions ( all middle & high latitudes1 if n ( ! entire e>?4 ,! pa?s foll[$ by cyclonic /orms are also alt]$ by increas$ contra/ betwe5 l& & wat]4 ,:5 ! cont95ts are notably cold] ?an ! neighbor+ oceans1 high atmosph]ic pressure develops on ! l&s & int]f]es ) ! passage ( l[s1 :i* are !re=e ei!r deflect$ ar\nd ! cont95t or =c$ to move sl[ly4 ,! di/ribution ( l(ty m\nta9s has an ev5 m /rik+ climatic effect ?an ! g5]al uplift ( a region4 ,9 ,prot]ozoic times !re 0 a great range 9 ! ,lake ,sup]ior region2 9 ! late ,devonian ! ,acadian m\nta9s ( ,new ,engl& & ! ,m>itime ,prov9ces ( ,canada possibly atta9$ a height equal to ! pres5t ,rockies4 ,subsequ5tly1 9 ! late ,paleozoic a significant range /ood :]e ! ,oua*itas n[ are4 ,accompany+ ! uplift ( ea* ( ^! ranges1 & all o!rs1 ! climate ( ! surr\nd+ area1 especially to leew>d1 mu/ h be5 alt]$ greatly4 ,_m ext5sive salt deposits f\nd n[ 9 fairly humid regions1 = example1 ! ,p5nsylvanian & ,p]mian deposits ( ,kansas & ,oklahoma1 7 probably laid d[n 9 times ( local aridity due to ! cutt+ (f ( moi/ure-be>+ w9ds by ! m\nta9s ( ,llanoria 9 ,l\isiana & ,texas4 ,h5ce su* deposits d n necess>ily indicate p]iods ( widespread & pr(\nd aridity4 ,:5 ! causes ( anci5t glaciation 7 fir/ consid]$ by geologi/s1 ab\t ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 x 0 usually assum$ t ! glaciat$ areas _h be5 elevat$ to great heights1 & ?us r5d]$ cold en\gh to p]mit ! accumulation ( glaci]s4 ,! _m glaci]s occurr+ 9 ! ,alps ( c5tral ,europe :]e glaciology arose d\btless sugge/$ ?is explanation4 ,h[ev]1 x is n[ kn[n t mo/ ( ! anci5t glaciation 0 n ( ! alp9e type1 & !re is adequate pro( t ! glacial p]iods _c be expla9$ z due directly & solely to uplift4 ,nev]!less1 upheavals ( ! l&s are among ! mo/ important factors 9 controll+ climate1 & v>iations 9 ! height ( ! l&s h d\btless assi/$ 9 produc+ climate oscillations1 especially ^? ( long duration4 ,moreov]1 ! progressive increase 9 ! height ( ! l&s has presumably play$ a "p 9 fo/]+ local & zonal div]sity 9 contra/ ) ! relative uni=mity ( e>li] geological times4 ,,iv4 ,! contraction ( ! e>? has be5 accompani$ by volcanic activity z well z by *anges 9 ! ext5t1 di/ribution1 & altitude ( ! l&s4 ,! probable "p play$ by volcanic du/ z a contributory factor 9 produc+ %ort sudd5 climatic v>iations has already be5 discuss$4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r ?\gh probably less important respect 9 :i* volcanic activity may h _h at lea/ a slight climatic significance4 ,! olde/ kn[n rocks1 ^? ( ! ,ar*ean era1 conta9 s mu* igne\s matt] t _m /ud5ts h assum$ t !y %[ t ! entire e>? 0 once liquid4 ,x is n[ consid]$ t !y m]ely indicate igne\s activity ( great magnitude4 ,9 ! lat] "p ( ,prot]ozoic "t1 dur+ ! second qu>t] ( ! e>?'s hi/ory accord+ to ,s*u*]t's e/imate1 !re 7 aga9 va/ outfl[+s ( lava4 ,9 ! ,lake ,sup]ior di/rict1 = example1 a ?ickness ( m ?an a mile accumulat$ ov] a l>ge area1 & lavas are common 9 _m areas :]e rocks ( ?is age are kn[n4 ,! next qu>t] ( ! e>?'s hi/ory elaps$ )\t any correspond+ly great outfl[s s f> z is kn[n1 ?\gh sev]al less] ones occurr$4 ,t[>d ! end ( ! la/ qu>t]1 & h5ce q rec5tly f ! geological /&po9t1 ano!r p]iod ( outfl[s1 p]haps z notewor?y z t ( ! ,prot]ozoic1 occurr$ 9 ! ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y4 ,! climatic effects ( su* ext5sive lava fl[s w\ld be ess5tially z foll[s3 ,9 ! fir/ place s long z ! lavas 7 hot !y w\ld set up a local sy/em ( convection ) infl[+ w9ds4 ,?is w\ld int]f]e at lea/ a little ) ! g5]al w9ds ( ! area4 ,aga91 :]e ! lava fl[$ out into wat]1 or :]e ra9 fell ^u hot lava1 !re w\ld be rapid evaporation :i* w\ld increase ! ra9fall4 ,!n aft] ! lava _h cool$1 x w\ld /ill influ5ce climate a trifle 9 s f> z its color 0 notably d>k] or light] ?an t ( ! av]age surface4 ,d>k surfaces absorb sol> heat & become relatively w>m :5 ! sun %9es ^u !m4 ,d>k objects likewise radiate heat m rapidly ?an light-color$ objects4 ,h5ce !y cool m rapidly at night1 & 9 ! w9t]4 ,z mo/ lavas are relatively d>k !y increase ! av]age diurnal range ( temp]ature4 ,h5ce ev5 aft] !y are cool !y increase ! climatic div]sity ( ! l&4 ,! am\nt ( heat giv5 to ! atmosph]e by an ext5sive lava fl[1 ?\gh l>ge accord+ to human /&>ds1 is small comp>$ ) ! am\nt receiv$ f ! sun by a l area1 except dur+ ! fir/ few weeks or mon?s be=e ! lava has =m$ a ?ick cru/4 ,fur!rmore1 probably only a small fraction ( any l>ge s]ies ( fl[s occurr$ 9 a giv5 c5tury or mill5nium4 ,moreov]1 ev5 ! l>ge/ lava fl[s cov]$ an area ( only a few hundr$?s ( "o p] c5t ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,nev]!less1 ! conditions :i* modify climate are s complicat$ t x w\ld be ra% to /ate t ?is am\nt ( additional heat has be5 ( no climatic significance4 ,l ! prov]bial /raw t broke ! camel's back1 ! *anges x w\ld surely produce 9 local convection1 atmosph]ic pressure1 & ! direction ( ! w9d may h help$ to %ift ! pa?s ( /orms & to produce o!r complications :i* 7 ( appreciable climatic significance4 ,v4 ,! la/ po9t :i* we %all consid] 9 connection ) ! effect ( ! e>?'s int]ior ^u climate is int]nal heat4 ,! heat giv5 (f by lavas is m]ely a small "p ( t :i* is emitt$ by ! e>? z a :ole4 ,9 ! e>lie/ "p ( geological hi/ory en\gh heat may h escap$ f ! int]ior ( ! e>? to ex]t a pr(\nd influ5ce on ! climate4 ,kn[lton1#ib z we h se51 has rec5tly built up an elaborate !ory on ?is assumption4 ,at pres5t1 h[ev]1 accurate measurem5ts %[ t ! escape ( heat is s slight t x has no appreciable influ5ce except 9 a few volcanic areas4 ,x is e/imat$ to raise ! av]age temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface less ?an #j4a deg4,c4#ic ,9 ord] to contribute en\gh heat to raise ! surface temp]ature #a deg4,c41 ! temp]ature gradi5t f ! int]ior ( ! e>? to ! surface w\ld ne$ to be t5 times z great z n[1 = ! rate ( conduction v>ies directly ) ! gradi5t4 ,if ! gradi5t 7 t5 times z great z n[1 ! rocks at a dep? ( two & "o-half miles w\ld be s hot z to be almo/ liquid accord+ to ,b>rell's#id e/imates4 ,! ?ick /rata ( unmetamorphos$ ,paleozoic rocks indicate t su* high temp]atures h n prevail$ at su* slight dep?s s9ce ! ,prot]ozoic4 ,fur!rmore1 ! fact t ! climate 0 cold en\gh to p]mit glaciation e>ly 9 ! ,prot]ozoic era & at f "o to ?ree o!r times be=e ! op5+ ( ! ,paleozoic sugge/s t ! rate ( escape ( heat 0 n rapid ev5 9 ! fir/ half ( ! e>?'s record$ hi/ory4 ,yet ev5 if ! g5]al escape ( heat has nev] be5 l>ge s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! bett]-kn[n "p ( geological hi/ory1 x 0 presumably great] 9 e>ly times ?an at pres5t4 ,if !re actually has be5 an appreciable decrease 9 ! am\nt ( heat giv5 out by ! e>?'s int]ior1 its effects w\ld agree ) ! obs]v$ conditions ( ! geological record4 ,x w\ld help to expla9 ! relative mildness ( zonal1 seasonal1 & local contra/s ( climate 9 e>ly geological times1 b x w\ld n help to expla9 ! long oscillations f era to era :i* appe> to h be5 ( mu* great] importance4 ,^? oscillations1 s f> z we c yet judge1 may h be5 due 9 "p to sol> *anges1 b 9 l>ge measure !y seem to be expla9$ by v>iations 9 ! ext5t1 di/ribution1 & altitude ( ! l&s4 ,su* v>iations appe> to be ! inevitable result ( ! e>?'s contraction4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #gj3 ,*as4 ,s*u*]t3 ,! ,e>?'s ,*ang+ ,surface & ,climate dur+ ,geologic ,"t2 9 ,lull3 ,! ,evolution ( ! ,e>? & ,its ,inhabitants1 #aiah1 p4 #ee4 ,footnote #ga3 ,quot$ by ,j4 ,cornet3 ,c\rs de ,geologie1 #aibj1 p4 #ccj4 ,footnote #gb3 ,t4 ,c4 ,*amb]l93 ,! ,ord] ( ,magnitude ( ! ,%r9kage ( ! ,e>?2 ,j\r4 ,geol41 ,vol4 #bh1 #aibj1 pp4 #a-ag1 #abf-aeg4 ,footnote #gc3 ,g4 ,i4 ,taylor3 ,philosophical ,transactions1 ,a4 #bbj1 #aiai1 pp4 #a-cc2 ,mon?ly ,notices ,royal ,a/ron4 ,soc41 ,jan41 #aibj1 ,vol4 #hj1 p4 #cjh4 ,footnote #gd3 ,j4 ,jeffreys3 ,mon?ly ,notices ,royal ,a/ron4 ,soc41 ,jan41 #aibj1 ,vol4 #hj1 p4 #cji4 ,footnote #ge3 ,e4 ,w4 ,br[n3 p]sonal communication4 ,footnote #gf3 ,c4 ,s4 ,sli*t]3 ,! ,rotational ,p]iod ( a ,het]og5e\s ,sph]oid2 9 ,contributions to ! ,fundam5tal ,problems ( ,geology1 by ,t4 ,c4 ,*amb]l91 et al41 ,c>negie ,in/4 ( ,wa%41 ,no4 #ajg1 #aiji4 ,footnote #gg3 ,e4 ,suess3 ,! ,face ( ! ,e>?1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #eec1 #aija4 ,footnote #gh3 ,*as4 ,s*u*]t3 ,! ,e>?'s ,*ang+ ,surface & ,climate2 9 ,lull3 ,! ,evolution ( ! ,e>? & ,its ,inhabitants1 #aiah1 p4 #gh4 ,footnote #gi3 ,j4 ,b>r53 ,rhy?ms & ! ,measurem5t ( ,geologic ,"t2 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,am41 ,vol4 #bh1 #aiag1 p4 #hch4 ,footnote #hj3 ,*as4 ,s*u*]t3 loc4 cit41 p4 #gh4 ,footnote #ha3 ,t4 ,c4 ,*amb]l93 ,dia/rophism1 ! ,ultimate ,basis ( ,correlation2 ,j\r4 ,geol41 ,vol4 #af1 #aiji2 ,*as4 ,s*u*]t3 loc4 cit4 ,footnote #hb3 ,pirsson-,s*u*]t3 ,textbook ( ,geology1 #aiae1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ihb2 ,*as4 ,s*u*]t3 ,paleogeography ( ,nor? ,am]ica2 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,am41 ,vol4 #bj1 pp4 #dbg-fjf2 ref]5ce on p4 #dii4 ,footnote #hc3 ,! g5]al subject ( ! climatic significance ( cont95tality is discuss$ by ,c4 ,e4 ,p4 ,brooks3 cont95tality & ,temp]ature2 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,royal ,meteorol4 ,soc41 ,april1 #aiag1 & ,oct41 #aiah4 ,footnote #hd3 ,*as4 ,s*u*]t3 ,climates ( ,geologic ,"t2 9 ,! ,climatic ,factor2 ,c>negie ,in/itution1 #aiad1 p4 #bhf4 ,footnote #he3 ,a4 de ,lapp>5t3 ,traite de ,geologie1 #aijf4 ,footnote #hf3 ,*as4 ,s*u*]t3 ,hi/orical ,geology1 #aiae1 p4 #dfd4 ,footnote #hg3 ,m4 ,m4 ,metcalf3 ,^u an important me?od ( /udy+ problems ( relation%ip & ( geographical di/ribution2 ,proce$+s ,national ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 ,vol4 #f1 ,july1 #aibj1 pp4 #dcb-dcc4 ,footnote #hh3 ,*as4 ,s*u*]t3 ,paleogeography ( ,nor? ,am]ica2 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,am41 ,vol4 #bj1 #aiaj2 & ,willis1 ,salisbury1 & o!rs3 ,outl9es ( ,geologic ,hi/ory1 #aiaj4 ,footnote #hi3 ,*as4 ,s*u*]t3 ,! ,e>?'s ,*ang+ ,surface & ,climate2 9 ,lull3 ,! ,evolution ( ! ,e>? & ,its ,inhabitants1 #aiah1 p4 #ej4 ,footnote #ij3 ,a4 ,j4 ,h5ry3 ,! ,decrease ( ,precipitation ) ,altitude2 ,mon?ly ,wea!r ,review1 ,vol4 #dg1 #aiai1 pp4 #cc-da4 ,footnote #ia3 ,*as4 ,f4 ,brooks3 ,mon?ly ,wea!r ,review1 ,vol4 #df1 #aiah1 p4 #eaa2 & also ,a4 ,j4 ,h5ry & o!rs3 ,wea!r ,=eca/+ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 #aiac4 ,footnote #ib3 ,f4 ,h4 ,kn[lton3 ,evolution ( ,geologic ,climates2 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,am41 ,vol4 #cj1 ,dec41 #aiai1 pp4 #dii-eff4 ,footnote #ic3 ,talb]t1 quot$ by ,i4 ,b[man3 ,=e/ ,physiography1 #aiaa1 p4 #fc4 ,footnote #id3 ,j4 ,b>rell3 ,rhy?ms & ! ,measurem5t ( ,geologic ,"t2 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,am41 ,vol4 #bh1 #aiag1 pp4 #gde-ijd4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,po/-,,glacial ,,cru/al ,,movem5ts ,,& ,,climatic ,,*anges ,an int]e/+ practical application ( "s ( ! prec$+ g5]alizations is f\nd 9 an attempt by ,c4 ,e4 ,p4 ,brooks#ie to int]pret po/-glacial climatic *anges almo/ entirely 9 t]ms ( cru/al movem5t4 ,we believe t he c>ries ! matt] mu* too f>1 b 8 discussion is wor?y ( r full recapitulation1 n only = its !oretical value b because x gives a good summ>y ( po/-glacial *anges4 ,8 climatic table = nor?we/ ,europe z repr9t$ f ! annual report ( ! ,smi?sonian ,in/itution = #aiag1 p4 #cff1 is z foll[s3 ,phase ,climate ,date #a4 ,! ,la/ ,great ,arctic climate4 #cj1jjj-ah1jjj ,b4 ,c4 ,glaciation4 #b4 ,! ,retreat ( ! ,sev]e cont95tal #ah1jjj-fjjj ,b4 ,c4 ,glaci]s4 climate4 #c4 ,! ,cont95tal ,phase4 ,cont95tal climate4 #fjjj-djjj ,b4 ,c4 #d4 ,! ,m>itime ,phase4 ,w>m & moi/4 #djjj-cjjj ,b4 ,c4 #e4 ,! ,lat] ,=e/ ,phase4 ,w>m & dry4 #cjjj-ahjj ,b4 ,c4 #f4 ,! ,peat-,bog ,phase4 ,cool] & moi/]4 #ahjj ,b4 ,c4-#cjj ,a4 ,d4 #g4 ,! ,rec5t ,phase4 ,becom+ dri]4 #cjj ,a4 ,d4- ,brooks bases 8 *ronology l>gely on ,de ,ge]'s measurem5ts ( ! annual lay]s ( clay 9 lake bottoms b makes mu* use ( o!r evid5ce4 ,accord+ to ,brooks ! la/ glacial epo* la/$ r\ghly f #cj1jjj to #ah1jjj ,b4 ,c41 b ?is includes a slight amelioration ( climate foll[$ by a readvance ( ! ice1 kn[n z ! ,buhl /age4 ,dur+ ! "t ( maximum glaciation ! ,briti% ,isles /ood tw5ty or ?irty feet high] ?an n[ & ,sc&9avia 0 consid]ably m elevat$4 ,! au?or believes t ?is caus$ a fall ( #a deg4,c4 9 ! temp]ature ( ! ,briti% ,isles & ( #b deg4,c4 9 ,sc&9avia4 ,by an +5i\s ?\gh n :olly conv9c+ me?od ( calculation he concludes t ?is l[]+ ( temp]ature1 aid$ by an increase 9 ! area ( ! l&s1 suffic$ to />t an ice %eet 9 ,sc&9avia4 ,! relatively small area ( ice cool$ ! air & gave rise to an area ( high b>ometric pressure4 ,?is 9 turn is suppos$ to h caus$ fur!r expansion ( ! ice & to h l$ to full-fl$g$ glaciation4 ,ab\t #ah1jjj ,b4 ,c4 ! retreat ( ! ice began 9 good e>ne/4 ,ev5 ?\gh no evid5ce has yet be5 f\nd1 ,brooks believes !re mu/ h be5 a *ange 9 ! di/ribution ( l& & sea to acc\nt = ! dim9ution ( ! ice4 ,! ensu+ mill5niums =m$ ! ,magdal5ian p]iod 9 human hi/ory1 ! la/ /age ( ! ,paleoli?ic1 :5 man liv$ 9 caves & re9de] 7 abundant 9 c5tral ,europe4#if ,at fir/ ! ice retreat$ v sl[ly & !re 7 p]iods :5 = scores ( ye>s ! ice edge rema9$ /ation>y or ev5 readvanc$4 ,ab\t #aj1jjj ,b4 ,c4 ! edge ( ! ice lay along ! s\!rn coa/ ( ,sw$54 ,dur+ ! next #bjjj ye>s x )drew m rapidly to ab\t #ei deg4,n4 ,!n came ! ,f5nosc&ian pause1 or ,gs*nitz /age1 :5 = ab\t #bjj ye>s ! ice edge rema9$ 9 "o position1 =m+ a great mora9e4 ,brooks sugge/s t ?is pause ab\t #hjjj ,b4 ,c4 0 due to ! clos+ ( ! connection betwe5 ! ,atlantic ,ocean & ! ,baltic ,sea & ! syn*ron\s op5+ ( a connection betwe5 ! ,baltic & ! ,:ite ,seas1 :]eby cold ,arctic wat]s replac$ ! w>m] ,atlantic wat]s4 ,he notes1 h[ev]1 t ab\t #gejj ,b4 ,c4 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic 0 probably ne>ly #a deg4 great] ?an at pres5t4 ,?is he calculates to h caus$ ! climate ( ,g]many & ,sw$5 to be #a deg4,f4 cold] ?an at pres5t 9 w9t] & #a deg4,f4 w>m] 9 summ]4 ,! next climatic /age 0 m>k$ by a rise ( temp]ature till ab\t #fjjj ,b4 ,c4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod ! ice at fir/ retreat$1 presumably because ! climate 0 ameliorat+1 al?\gh no cause ( su* amelioration is assign$4 ,at l5g? ! ice lay f> en\gh nor? to all[ a connection betwe5 ! ,baltic & ! ,atlantic by way ( ,lakes ,w5] & ,wett] 9 s\!rn ,sw$54 ,?is is suppos$ to h w>m$ ! ,baltic ,sea & to h caus$ ! climate to become di/9ctly mild]4 ,next ! l& rose once m s t ! ,baltic 0 sep>at$ f ! ,atlantic & 0 conv]t$ into ! ,ancylus lake ( fre% wat]4 ,! s\?we/ ,baltic region !n /ood #djj feet high] ?an n[4 ,! result 0 ! ,daun /age1 ab\t #ejjj ,b4 ,c41 :5 ! ice halt$ or p]haps readvanc$ a little1 its front be+ !n ne> ,ragunda 9 ab\t latitude #fc deg44 ,:y su* an elevation did n cause r5ew$ glaciation in/ead ( m]ely ! slight ,daun pause1 ,brooks does n expla91 al?\gh 8 calculations z to ! effect ( a slight elevation ( ! l& dur+ ! ma9 p]iod ( glaciation f #cj1jjj to #ah1jjj ,b4 ,c4 w\ld seem to dem& a m>k$ readvance4 ,aft] #ejjj ,b4 ,c4 !re ensu$ a p]iod :5 ! climate1 al?\gh /ill di/9ctly cont95tal1 0 relatively mild4 ,! w9t]s1 to be sure1 7 /ill cold b ! summ]s 7 increas+ly w>m4 ,9 ,sw$51 = example1 ! types ( vegetation indicate t ! summ] temp]ature 0 #g deg4,f4 high] ?an n[4 ,/orms1 ,brooks assumes1 7 comp>atively r>e except on ! out] fr+e ( ,great ,brita94 ,!re !y 7 suffici5tly abundant s t 9 ! ,nor?we/ !y gave rise to ! fir/ ,peat-,bog p]iod1 dur+ :i* swamps replac$ =e/s ( bir* & p9e4 ,s\!rn & ea/]n ,engl&1 h[ev]1 probably _h a dry cont95tal climate4 ,ev5 9 nor?we/ ,norway /orms 7 r>e z is indicat$ by rema9s ( =e/s on isl&s n[ b>r5 because ( ! /rong w9ds & fi]ce /orms4 ,f>!r ea/ mo/ p>ts ( c5tral & nor!rn ,europe 7 relatively dry4 ,?is 0 ! e>ly ,neoli?ic p]iod :5 man advanc$ f ! use ( unpoli%$ to poli%$ /one implem5ts4 ,n f> f #djjj ,b4 ,c4 ! p]iod ( cont95tal climate 0 replac$ by a comp>atively moi/ m>itime climate4 ,brooks believes t ?is 0 because subm]g5ce op5$ ! m\? ( ! ,baltic & caus$ ! fre% ,ancylus lake to give place to ! s-call$ ,litor9a sea4 ,! temp]ature 9 ,sw$5 av]ag$ ab\t #c deg4,f4 high] ?an at pres5t & 9 s\?we/]n ,norway #b deg44 ,m important ?an ?is 0 ! small annual range ( temp]ature due to ! fact t ! summ]s 7 cool :ile ! w9t]s 7 mild4 ,because ( ! pres5ce ( a l>ge expanse ( wat] 9 ! ,baltic region1 /orms1 z our au?or /ates1 !n cross$ ,great ,brita9 & foll[$ ! ,baltic depression1 c>ry+ ! moi/ure f> inl&4 ,9 spite ( ! additional moi/ure ?us available ! sn[ l9e 9 s\!rn ,norway 0 high] ?an n[4 ,at ?is po9t ,brooks turns to o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,he /ates t n f> f #djjj ,b4 ,c41 a subm]g5ce ( ! l&s1 r>ely am\nt+ to m ?an tw5ty-five feet1 took place n only 9 ! ,baltic region b 9 ,irel&1 ,icel&1 ,spitzb]g51 & o!r p>ts ( ! ,arctic ,ocean1 z well z 9 ! ,:ite ,sea1 ,gre5l&1 & ! ea/]n "p ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,evid5ces ( a mild climate are f\nd 9 all ^? places4 ,simil> evid5ce ( a mild w>m climate is f\nd 9 ,ea/ ,africa1 ,ea/ ,au/ralia1 ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 & ,ant>ctica4 ,! dates are n e/abli%$ ) c]ta9ty b !y at lea/ fall 9 ! p]iod imm$iately prec$+ ! pres5t epo*4 ,9 explanation ( ^! conditions ,brooks assumes a univ]sal *ange ( sea level4 ,he sugge/s ) "s hesitation t ?is may h be5 due to "o ( ,pett]sson's p]iods ( maximum tide-g5]at+ =ce4 ,accord+ to ,pett]sson ! v>y+ positions ( ! moon1 e>?1 & sun cause ! tides to v>y 9 cycles ( ab\t #i1 #ij1 & #ahjj ye>s1 ?\gh ! l5g? ( ! p]iods is n con/ant4 ,:5 tides are high !re is great movem5t ( ocean wat]s & h5ce a great mixture ( ! wat] at diff]5t latitudes4 ,?is is suppos$ to cause an amelioration ( climate4 ,! p]iods ( maximum & m9imum tide-g5]at+ =ce are z foll[s3 ,maxima #cejj ,b4 ,c4--------#bajj ,b4 ,c4--------#cej ,b4 ,c4-------,a4 ,d4 #adcd ,m9ima ---------#bhjj ,b4 ,c4--------#abjj ,b4 ,c4-------,a4 ,d4 #ecj--------- ,brooks ?9ks t ! big trees 9 ,cali=nia & ! ,norse sagas & ,g]manic my?s indicate a r\gh agreem5t ( climatic ph5om5a ) ,pett]sson's la/ ?ree dates1 :ile ! mild climate ( #djjj ,b4 ,c4 may really belong to #cejj ,b4 ,c4 ,he gives no evid5ce confirm+ ,pett]sson's view at ! o!r ?ree dates4 ,to return to ,brooks' sket* ( ! relation ( climatic pulsations to ! altitude ( ! l&s1 by #cjjj ,b4 ,c41 t is1 t[>d ! close ( ! ,neoli?ic p]iod1 fur!r elevation is suppos$ to h tak5 place ov] ! c5tral latitudes ( we/]n ,europe4 ,s\!rn ,brita91 :i* _h rema9$ con/antly above its pres5t level ev] s9ce #cj1jjj ,b4 ,c41 0 p]haps n9ety feet high] ?an n[4 ,irel& 0 some:at enl>g$ by elevation1 ! ,/raits ( ,dov] 7 almo/ clos$1 & p>ts ( ! pres5t ,nor? ,sea 7 l&4 ,to ^! conditions ,brooks ascribes ! preval5ce ( a dry cont95tal climate4 ,! /orms %ift$ nor?w>d once m1 ! w9ds 7 mild1 z seems to be prov$ by rema9s ( trees 9 expos$ places2 & =e/s replac$ fields ( peat & hea? 9 ,brita9 & ,g]many4 ,! summ]s 7 p]haps w>m] ?an n[ b ! w9t]s 7 sev]e4 ,! relatively dry climate prevail$ z f> we/ z ,irel&4 ,= example1 9 ,drumkel9 ,bog 9 ,donegal ,c\nty a cord$ oak road & a two-/ory log cab9 appe> to belong to ?is "t4 ,f\rte5 feet ( bog lie bel[ ! floor & tw5ty-six above4 ,?is p]iod1 p]haps #cjjj-bjjj ,b4 ,c41 0 ! leg5d>y h]oic age ( ,irel& :5 ! vig\r ( ! ,iri% rea*$ a level n s9ce atta9$4 ,?is1 z ,brooks po9ts out1 may h be5 a result ( ! relatively dry climate1 = today ! extreme moi/ure ( ,irel& seems to be a di/9ct h&icap4 ,9 ,sc&9avia1 civilization1 or at lea/ ! /age ( relative progress1 0 also high at ?is "t4 ,by #afjj ,b4 ,c4 ! l& _h assum$ ne>ly its pres5t level 9 ! ,briti% ,isles & ! s\!rn ,baltic region1 :ile nor!rn ,sc&9avia /ill /ood l[] ?an n[4 ,! climate ( ,brita9 & ,g]many 0 s humid t !re 0 an ext5sive =mation ( peat ev5 on high gr\nd n be=e cov]$4 ,?is moi/ /age seems to h la/$ almo/ to ! "t ( ,*ri/1 & may h be5 ! reason :y ! ,romans describ$ ,brita9 z peculi>ly wet & damp4 ,at ?is po9t ,brooks aga9 dep>ts f nor?we/ ,europe to a wid] field3 ,x is possible t we h to attribute ?is damp p]iod 9 ,nor?we/ ,europe to "s m g5]al cause1 = ,ellswor? ,hunt+ton's curves ( tree-gr[? 9 ,cali=nia & climate 9 ,we/]n ,asia bo? %[ moi/] conditions f ab\t #ajjj ,b4 ,c4 to ,a4 ,d4 #bjj1 & ! same au?or believes t ! ,m$it]ranean l&s _h a heavi] ra9fall ab\t #ejj ,b4 ,c4 to ,a4 ,d4 #bjj4 ,x seems t ! phase 0 m>k$ by a g5]al increase ( ! /orm9ess ( ! temp]ate regions ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e at lea/1 ) a maximum betwe5 ,irel& & ,nor? ,g]many1 indicat+ probably t ! ,baltic aga9 became ! fav\rite track ( depressions f ! ,atlantic4 ,brooks ends 8 pap] ) a brief resume ( glacial *anges 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 b z ! means ( dat+ ev5ts are unreliable ! degree ( syn*ronism ) ,europe is n cle>4 ,he sums up 8 conclusions z foll[s3 ,on ! :ole x appe>s t ?\gh !re is a g5]al simil>ity 9 ! climatic hi/ory ( ! two sides ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 ! *anges are n really contemporane\s1 & su* relation%ip z appe>s is due ma9ly to ! natural simil>ity 9 ! geographical hi/ory ( two regions bo? recov]+ f an ,ice ,age1 & only v p>tially to _w-wide pulsations ( climate4 ,additional evid5ce on ?is head w be available :5 ,b>on de ,ge] publi%es ! results ( 8 rec5t inve/igations ( ! seasonal glacial clays ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 especially if1 z he hopes1 he is able to correlate ! b&+ ( ^! clays ) ! gr[?-r+s ( ! big trees4 ,:5 we turn to ! nor?we/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 ?is is br\ght out v m>k$ly4 ,= 9 ,yukon & ,alaska ! ,ice ,age 0 a v mild affair comp>$ ) its sev]ity 9 ea/]n ,am]ica & ,sc&9avia4 ,z ! l& _h n a heavy ice-load to recov] f1 !re 7 no complicat$ geographical *anges4 ,also1 !re 7 no fluctuations ( climate1 b simply a gradual passage to pres5t conditions4 ,! latt] circum/ance especially seems to %[ t ! emphasis laid on geographical r ?an a/ronomical factors ( great climatic *anges is n misplac$4 ,brooks' pa9/ak+ discussion ( po/-glacial climatic *anges is ( great value because ( ! l>ge body ( mat]ial :i* he has s c>efully wr\ght toge!r4 ,8 /rong belief 9 ! importance ( *anges 9 ! level ( ! l&s des]ves s]i\s consid]ation4 ,x is difficult1 h[ev]1 to accept 8 f9al conclusion t su* *anges are ! ma9 factors 9 rec5t climatic *anges4 ,x is almo/ impossible1 = example1 to believe t movem5ts ( ! l& c\ld produce almo/ ! same s]ies ( climatic *anges 9 ,europe1 ,c5tral ,asia1 ! we/]n & ea/]n p>ts ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,yet su* *anges appe> to h occurr$ dur+ & s9ce ! glacial p]iod4 ,aga9 !re is no evid5ce :atev] t movem5ts ( ! l& h any?+ to d ) ! hi/oric cycles ( climate or ) ! cycles ( wea!r 9 our own day1 :i* seem to be ! same z glacial cycles on a small scale4 ,also1 z ,dr4 ,simpson po9ts out 9 discuss+ ,brooks' pap]1 !re appe>s no solution along ^! l9es ( ! problem connect$ ) ri* vegetation 9 bo? pol> circles & ! ice-age :i* produc$ ! ice-%eet at sea-level 9 ,nor!rn ,india4 ,nev]!less1 we may well believe t ,brooks is "r 9 hold+ t *anges 9 ! relative level & relative area ( l& & sea h _h important local effects4 ,:ile !y are only "o ( ! factors involv$ 9 climatic *anges1 !y are c]ta9ly "o t mu/ con/antly be kept 9 m9d4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ie3 ,c4 ,e4 ,p4 ,brooks3 ,! ,evolution ( ,climate 9 ,nor?we/ ,europe4 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,royal ,meteorol4 ,soc41 ,vol4 #dg1 #aiba1 pp4 #agc-aid4 ,footnote #if3 ,h4 ,f4 ,osborn3 ,m5 ( ! ,old ,/one ,age1 ,n4 ,y41 #aiae2 ,j4 ,m4 ,tyl]3 ,! ,new ,/one ,age 9 ,nor?we/]n ,europe1 ,n4 ,y41 #aibj4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,! ,,*ang+ ,,composition ,,( ,,oceans ,,& ,,atmosph]e ,hav+ discuss$ ! climatic effect ( movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ dur+ ! c\rse ( geological "t1 we are n[ ready to consid] ! correspond+ effects due to *anges 9 ! movable envelopes--! oceans & ! atmosph]e4 ,v>iations 9 ! composition ( sea wat] & ( air & 9 ! am\nt ( air mu/ almo/ c]ta9ly h occurr$1 & mu/ h produc$ at lea/ slight climatic consequ5ces4 ,x %\ld be po9t$ out at once t su* v>iations appe> to be f> less important climatically ?an d movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ & *anges 9 ! activity ( ! sun4 ,moreov]1 9 mo/ cases1 !y are n rev]sible z are ! cru/al & sol> ph5om5a4 ,h5ce1 :ile mo/ ( !m appe> to h be5 unimportant s f> z climatic oscillations & fluctuations are conc]n$1 !y seem+ly h aid$ 9 produc+ ! slight secul> progression to :i* we h s (t5 ref]r$4 ,!re is g5]al agreem5t among geologi/s t ! ocean has become increas+ly sal9e ?r\gh\t ! ages4 ,inde$1 calculations ( ! rate ( accumulation ( salt h be5 a favorite me?od ( arriv+ at e/imates ( ! age ( ! ocean1 & h5ce ( ! e>lie/ m>9e s$im5ts4 ,s f> z kn[n1 h[ev]1 no geologi/ or climatologi/ has discuss$ ! probable climatic effects ( increas$ sal9ity4 ,yet x seems cle> t an increase 9 sal9ity mu/ h a slight effect ^u climate4 ,sal9ity affects climate 9 f\r ways3 7#a7 ,x appreciably influ5ces ! rate ( evaporation2 7#b7 x alt]s ! freez+ po9t2 7#c7 x produces c]ta9 indirect effects ?r\gh *anges 9 ! absorption ( c>bon dioxide2 & 7#d7 x has an effect on oceanic circulation4 7#a7 ,accord+ to ! exp]im5ts ( ,mazelle & ,okada1 z report$ by ,kruemmel1#ig evaporation f ord9>y sea wat] is f #i to #cj p] c5t less rapid ?an f fre% wat] "u simil> conditions4 ,! v>iation f #i to #cj p] c5t f\nd 9 ! exp]im5ts dep5ds1 p]haps1 ^u ! w9d velocity4 ,:5 salt wat] is /agnant1 rapid evaporation t5ds to result 9 ! developm5t ( a film ( salt on ! top ( ! wat]1 especially :]e x is %elt]$ f ! w9d4 ,su* a film necess>ily r$uces evaporation4 ,h5ce ! relatively l[ sal9ity ( ! oceans 9 ! pa/ probably _h a t5d5cy to increase ! am\nt ( wat] vapor 9 ! air4 ,ev5 a little wat] vapor augm5ts slightly ! blanket+ effect ( ! air & to t ext5t dim9i%es ! diurnal & seasonal range ( temp]ature & ! contra/ f zone to zone4 7#b7 ,increas$ sal9ity means a l[] freez+ temp]ature ( ! oceans & h5ce w\ld h an effect dur+ cold p]iods su* z ! pres5t & ! ,plei/oc5e ice age4 ,x w\ld n1 h[ev]1 be ( importance dur+ ! long w>m p]iods :i* =m mo/ ( geologic "t4 ,a sal9ity ( ab\t #c4e p] c5t at pres5t l[]s ! freez+ po9t ( ! ocean r\ghly #b deg4,c4 bel[ t ( fre% wat]4 ,if ! ocean 7 fre% & our w9t]s z cold z n[1 all ! h>bors ( ,new ,engl& & ! ,middle ,atlantic ,/ates w\ld be iceb\nd4 ,! ,baltic ,sea w\ld also be froz5 ea* w9t]1 & ev5 ! ea/]n h>bors ( ! ,briti% ,isles w\ld be frequ5tly lock$ 9 ice4 ,at high latitudes ! area ( p]man5tly froz5 oceans w\ld be mu* enl>g$4 ,! effect ( su* a condition ^u m>9e life 9 high latitudes w\ld be l t ( a *ange to a w>m] climate4 ,x w\ld protect ! life on ! cont95tal %elf f ! sev]e batt]+ ( w9t] /orms4 ,x w\ld also less5 ! sev]ity ( ! w9t] temp]ature 9 ! wat] = :5 wat] freezes x gives up mu* lat5t heat1--eighty calories p] cubic c5timet]4 ,"p ( ?is raises ! temp]ature ( ! und]ly+ wat]4 ,! expansion ( ! ice ne> nor!rn %ores w\ld influ5ce ! life ( ! l&s q diff]5tly f t ( ! oceans4 ,x w\ld act l an addition ( l& to ! cont95ts & w\ld1 !re=e1 increase ! atmosph]ic contra/s f zone to zone & f cont95tal int]ior to ocean4 ,9 summ] ! ice ^u ! sea w\ld t5d to keep ! coa/al l&s cool1 v mu* z happ5s n[ ne> ! ,arctic ,ocean1 :]e ! ice floes h a great effect ?r\gh _! reflection ( light & _! absorption ( heat 9 melt+4 ,9 w9t] ! virtual enl>gem5t ( ! cont95ts by ! addition ( an ice fr+e w\ld decrease ! sn[fall ^u ! l&s4 ,/ill m important w\ld be ! effect 9 int5sify+ ! anti-cyclonic conditions :i* normally prevail 9 w9t] n only ov] cont95ts b ov] ice-cov]$ oceans4 ,h5ce ! outbl[+ cold w9ds w\ld he /r5g!n$4#ih ,! net effect ( all ^! conditions w\ld app>5tly be a dim9ution ( sn[fall 9 high latitudes ^u ! l&s ev5 ?\gh ! summ] sn[fall ^u ! ocean & ! coa/s may h increas$4 ,?is condition may h be5 "o reason :y widespread glaciation does n appe> to h prevail$ 9 high latitudes dur+ ! ,prot]ozoic & ,p]mian glaciations1 ev5 ?\gh x occurr$ f>!r s\?4 ,if ! ocean dur+ ^? e>ly glacial epo*s 7 ice-cov]$ d[n to middle latitudes1 a lack ( ext5sive glaciation 9 high latitudes w\ld be no m surpris+ ?an is ! lack ( ,plei/oc5e glaciation 9 ! nor!rn p>ts ( ,alaska & ,asia4 ,great ice %eets are impossible )\t a l>ge supply ( moi/ure4 7#c7 ,among ! indirect effects ( sal9ity "o ( ! *ief appe>s to be t ! l[ sal9ity ( ! wat] 9 ! pa/ & ! great] ease ) :i* x froze presumably all[$ ! temp]ature ( ! entire ocean to be slightly high] ?an n[4 ,?is is because ice s]ves z a blanket & h9d]s ! radiation ( heat f ! und]ly+ wat]4 ,! temp]ature ( ! ocean has a climatic significance n only directly1 b indirectly ?r\gh its influ5ce on ! am\nt ( c>bon dioxide held by ! oceans4 ,a *ange ( ev5 #a deg4,c4 f ! pres5t mean temp]ature ( #b deg4,c4 w\ld alt] ! ability ( ! entire ocean to absorb c>bon dioxide by ab\t #d p] c5t4 ,?is1 accord+ to ,f4 ,w4 ,cl>ke1#ii is because ! oceans conta9 f eighte5 to tw5ty-sev5 times z mu* c>bon dioxide z ! air :5 only ! free c>bon dioxide is consid]$1 & ab\t sev5ty times z mu* accord+ to ,johnson & ,williamson#ajj :5 ! p>tially comb9$ c>bon dioxide is also consid]$4 ,moreov]1 ! capacity ( wat] = c>bon dioxide v>ies %>ply ) ! temp]ature4#aja ,h5ce a rise 9 temp]ature ( only #a deg4,c4 w\ld !oretically cause ! oceans to give up f #cj to #bhj times z mu* c>bon dioxide z ! air n[ holds4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is on ! unf\nd$ assumption t ! oceans are completely saturat$4 ,! important po9t is m]ely t a slight *ange 9 ocean temp]ature w\ld cause a disproportionately l>ge *ange 9 ! am\nt ( c>bon dioxide 9 ! air ) all t ?is implies 9 respect to blanket+ ! e>?1 & ?us alt]+ temp]ature4 7#d7 ,ano!r & p]haps ! mo/ important effect ( sal9ity ^u climate dep5ds ^u ! rapidity ( ! deep-sea circulation4 ,! circulation is induc$ by diff]5ces ( temp]ature1 b its spe$ is affect$ at lea/ slightly by sal9ity4 ,! v]tical circulation is n[ dom9at$ by cold wat] f subpol> latitudes4 ,except 9 clos$ seas l ! ,m$it]ranean ! l[] portions ( ! ocean are ne> ! freez+ po9t4 ,?is is because cold wat] s9ks 9 high latitudes by reason ( its sup]ior d5sity1 & !n creeps to l[ latitudes4 ,!re x f9ally rises & replaces ei!r ! wat] driv5 polew>d by ! w9ds1 or t :i* has evaporat$ f ! ,surface4#ajb ,dur+ pa/ ages1 :5 ! sea wat] 0 less salty1 ! circulation 0 presumably m rapid ?an n[4 ,?is 0 because1 9 tropical regions1 ! rise ( cold wat] is h9d]$ by ! s9k+ ( w>m surface wat] :i* is relatively d5se because evaporation has remov$ "p ( ! wat] & caus$ an accumulation ( salt4 ,accord+ to ,kruemmel & ,mill1#ajc ! surface sal9ity ( ! subtropical belt ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic commonly exce$s #c4g p] c5t & sometimes rea*es #c4gg p] c5t1 :]eas ! und]ly+ wat]s h a sal9ity ( less ?an #c4e p] c5t & locally z little z #c4dd p] c5t4 ,! o!r oceans are slightly less sal9e ?an ! ,nor? ,atlantic at all dep?s1 b ! v]tical sal9ity gradi5ts along ! tropics are simil>4 ,accord+ to ! ,smi?sonian ,physical ,tables1 ! diff]5ce 9 sal9ity betwe5 ! surface wat] & t ly+ bel[ is equival5t to a diff]5ce ( 4#jjc 9 d5sity1 :]e ! d5sity ( fre% wat] is tak5 z #a4jjj4 ,s9ce ! decrease 9 d5sity produc$ by w>m+ wat] f ! temp]ature ( its greate/ d5sity 7#d deg4,c47 to ! highe/ temp]atures :i* ev] prevail 9 ! ocean 7#cj deg4,c4 or #hf deg4,f47 is only 4#jjd1 ! m sal9e surface wat]s ( ! dry tropics are at mo/ times almo/ z d5se z ! less sal9e b cold] wat]s b5ea? ! surface1 :i* h come f high] latitudes4 ,dur+ days ( especially great evaporation1 h[ev]1 ! mo/ sal9e portions ( ! surface wat]s 9 ! dry tropics are d5s] ?an ! und]ly+ wat]s & !re=e s9k1 & produce a tempor>y local /agnation 9 ! g5]al circulation4 ,su* a s9k+ ( ! w>m surface wat]s is report$ by ,kruemmel1 :o detect$ x by means ( ! rise 9 temp]ature :i* x produces at consid]able dep?s4 ,if su* a h9drance to ! circulation did n exi/1 ! velocity ( ! deep-sea movem5ts w\ld be great]4 ,if 9 e>li] times a m rapid circulation occurr$1 l[ latitudes mu/ h be5 cool$ m ?an n[ by ! rise ( cold wat]s4 ,at ! same "t high] latitudes 7 presumably w>m$ by a great] fl[ ( w>m wat] f tropical regions because less ( ! surface heat sank 9 l[ latitudes4 ,su* conditions w\ld t5d to less5 ! climatic contra/ betwe5 ! diff]5t latitudes4 ,h5ce1 9 s f> z ! rate ( deep-sea circulation dep5ds ^u sal9ity1 ! sl[ly increas+ am\nt ( salt 9 ! oceans mu/ h t5d$ to increase ! contra/s betwe5 l[ & high latitudes4 ,?us = sev]al reasons1 ! increase ( sal9ity dur+ geologic hi/ory seems to des]ve a place among ! m9or ag5cies :i* help to expla9 ! app>5t t5d5cy t[>d a secul> progression ( climate 9 ! direction ( great] contra/s betwe5 tropical & subpol> latitudes4 ,*anges 9 ! composition & am\nt ( ! atmosph]e h presumably _h a climatic importance great] ?an t ( *anges 9 ! sal9ity ( ! oceans4 ,! atmosph]ic *anges may h be5 ei!r progressive or cyclic1 or bo?4 ,9 e>ly times1 accord+ to ! nebul> hypo!sis1 ! atmosph]e 0 mu* m d5se ?an n[ & conta9$ a l>g] p]c5tage ( c]ta9 con/itu5ts1 notably c>bon dioxide & wat]4 ,! planetesimal hypo!sis1 on ! o!r h&1 po/ulates an increase 9 ! d5sity ( ! atmosph]e1 = accord+ to ?is hypo!sis ! d5sity ( ! atmosph]e dep5ds ^u ! p[] ( ! e>? to hold gases1 & ?is p[] increases z ! e>? gr[s bigg] ) ! infall ( mat]ial f )\t4#ajd ,:i*ev] hypo!sis may be correct1 x seems probable t :5 life fir/ appe>$ on ! l& ! atmosph]e resembl$ t ( today 9 c]ta9 fundam5tal respects4 ,x conta9$ ! elem5ts ess5tial to life1 & its blanket+ effect 0 su* z to ma9ta9 temp]atures n greatly diff]5t f ^? ( ! pres5t4 ,! evid5ce ( ?is dep5ds l>gely ^u ! n>r[ limits ( temp]ature )9 :i* ! activities ( mod]n life are possible1 & ^u ! cumulative evid5ce t anci5t life 0 ess5tially simil> to ! types n[ liv+4 ,! resemblance betwe5 "s ( ! olde/ =ms & ^? ( today is /rik+4 ,= example1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,s*u*]t3#aje ,_m ( ! liv+ g5]a ( =e/ trees _h _! orig9 9 ! ,cretace\s1 & ! giant sequoias ( ,cali=nia g back to ! ,triassic1 :ile ,g9kgo is kn[n 9 ! ,p]mian4 ,"s ( ! fre%-wat] molluscs c]ta9ly 7 liv+ 9 ! e>ly p]iods ( ! ,mesozoic1 & ! lung-fi% ( today 7,c]atodus7 is kn[n z f> back z ! ,triassic & is n v unlike o!r lung-fi%es ( ! ,devonian4 ,! high] v]tebrates & insects1 on ! o!r h&1 are v s5sitive to _! environm5t1 & !re=e d n ext5d back g5]ically beyond ! ,c5ozoic1 & only 9 a few in/ances ev5 z f> z ! ,oligoc5e4 ,( m>9e inv]tebrates ! /ory is v diff]5t1 = x is well kn[n t ! horse%oe crab 7,limulus7 liv$ 9 ! ,upp] ,jurassic1 & ,nautilus 9 ! ,triassic1 ) =ms 9 ! ,devonian n f> remov$ f ?is g5us4 ,/ill long]-rang+ g5]a occur among ! bra*iopods1 = liv+ ,l+ula & ,crania h specific repres5tatives z f> back z ! e>ly ,ordovician4 ,among liv+ =am9if]s1 ,lag5a1 ,globig]9a1 & ,nodos>ia are kn[n 9 ! lat] ,cambrian or e>ly ,ordovician4 ,9 ! ,middle ,cambrian ne> ,field1 ,briti% ,columbia1 ,walcott has f\nd a mo/ v>i$ array ( inv]tebrates among :i* are cru/aceans n f> remov$ f liv+ =ms4 ,zooelogi/s :o see ^! wond]ful fossils are at once /ruck ) _! mod]nity & ! little *ange t has tak5 place 9 c]ta9 /ocks s9ce t f> remote "t4 ,back ( ! ,paleozoic1 little c be said ( life f ! g5]ic /&po9t1 s9ce s few fossils h be5 recov]$1 b :at is at h& sugge/s t ! m>9e environm5t 0 simil> to t ( today4 ,at pres5t1 z we h repeat$ly se51 little gr[? takes place ei!r among animals or plants at temp]atures bel[ #j deg4,c4 or above #dj deg4,c41 & = mo/ species ! limit+ temp]atures are ab\t #aj deg4 & #cj deg44 ,! ma9t5ance ( s n>r[ a scale ( temp]ature is a function ( ! atmosph]e1 z well z ( ! sun4 ,)\t an atmosph]e1 ! temp]ature by day w\ld m\nt fatally :]ev] ! sun rides high 9 ! sky4 ,by night x w\ld fall ev]y:]e to a temp]ature approa*+ absolute z]o1 t is -#bgc deg4,c4 ,"s su* temp]ature prevails a few miles above ! e>?'s surface1 beyond ! effective atmosph]e4 ,inde$1 ev5 if ! atmosph]e 7 almo/ z x is n[1 b only lack$ "o ( ! m9or con/itu5ts1 a con/itu5t :i* is (t5 actually ignor$ 9 /atem5ts ( ! composition ( ! air1 life w\ld be impossible4 ,tyndall concludes t if wat] vapor 7 entirely remov$ f ! atmosph]e = a s+le day & night1 all life--except t :i* is dormant 9 ! =m ( se$s1 eggs1 or spores--w\ld be ext]m9at$4 ,"p w\ld be kill$ by ! high temp]ature develop$ by day :5 ! sun 0 high1 & "p1 by ! cold night4 ,! te/imony ( anci5t glaciation z to ! slight diff]5ce 9 ! climate & !re=e 9 ! atmosph]e ( e>ly & late geological times is almo/ z cle> z t ( life4 ,j z life proves t ! e>? c nev] h be5 extremely cold dur+ hundr$s ( millions ( ye>s1 s glaciation 9 mod]ately l[ latitudes ne> ! dawn ( e>? hi/ory & at sev]al lat] times1 proves t ! e>? 0 n p>ticul>ly hot ev5 9 ^? e>ly days4 ,! g5tle progressive *ange ( climate :i* is record$ 9 ! rocks appe>s to h be5 only 9 slight measure a *ange 9 ! mean temp]ature ( ! e>? z a :ole1 & almo/ entirely a *ange 9 ! di/ribution ( temp]ature f place to place & season to season4 ,h5ce x seems probable t nei!r ! e>?'s own emission ( heat1 nor ! supply ( sol> heat1 nor ! p[] ( ! atmosph]e to reta9 heat c h be5 mu* great] a few hundr$ million ye>s ago ?an n[4 ,x is inde$ possible t ^! ?ree factors may h v>i$ 9 su* a way t any v>iation 9 "o has be5 (fset by v>iations ( ! o!rs 9 ! opposite direction4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is s highly improbable t x seems advisable to assume t all ?ree h rema9$ relatively con/ant4 ,?is conclusion toge!r ) a realization ( ! climatic significance ( c>bon dioxide has =c$ mo/ ( ! adh]5ts ( ! nebul> hypo!sis to ab&on _! assumption t c>bon dioxide1 ! heavie/ gas 9 ! air1 0 v abundant until tak5 out by coal-=m+ plants or comb9$ ) ! calcium oxide ( igne\s rocks to =m ! lime/one secret$ by animals4 ,9 ! same way ! pres5ce ( sun cracks 9 s$im5t>y rocks ( all ages sugge/s t ! air _c h conta9$ va/ quantities ( wat] vapor su* z h be5 assum$ by ,kn[lton & o!rs 9 ord] to acc\nt = ! =m] lack ( %>p climatic contra/ betwe5 ! zones4 ,su* a l>ge am\nt ( wat] vapor w\ld almo/ c]ta9ly be accompani$ by well-nigh univ]sal & cont9ual cl\d9ess s t !re w\ld be little *ance = ! pools on ! e>?'s wat]-soak$ surface to dry up4 ,fur!rmore1 !re is only "o way 9 :i* su* cl\d9ess c\ld be ma9ta9$ & t is by keep+ ! air at an almo/ con/ant temp]ature night & day4 ,?is w\ld require t ! *ief s\rce ( w>m? be ! int]ior ( ! e>?1 a condition :i* ! ,prot]ozoic1 ,p]mian1 & o!r widespread glaciations seem to disprove4 ,?us !re appe>s to be /rong evid5ce aga9/ ! radical *anges 9 ! atmosph]e :i* are sometimes po/ulat$4 ,yet "s *anges mu/ h tak5 place1 & ev5 m9or *anges w\ld be accompani$ by "s sort ( climatic effect4 ,! *anges w\ld take ! =m ( ei!r an increase or a decrease 9 ! atmosph]e z a :ole1 or 9 its con/itu5t elem5ts4 ,! *ief means by :i* ! atmosph]e has increas$ appe> to be z foll[s3 7a7 ,by contributions f ! int]ior ( ! e>? via volcanoes & spr+s & by ! wea!r+ ( igne\s rocks ) ! consequ5t release ( _! enclos$ gases2#ajf 7b7 by ! escape ( "s ( ! abundant gases :i* ! ocean holds 9 solution2 7c7 by ! arrival on ! e>? ( gases f space1 ei!r enclos$ 9 meteors or z free-fly+ molecules2 7d7 by ! release ( gases f organic comp\nds by oxidation1 or by exhalation f animals & plants4 ,on ! o!r h&1 "o or ano!r ( ! con/itu5ts ( ! atmosph]e has presumably decreas$ 7a7 by be+ lock$ up 9 newly =m$ rocks or organic comp\nds2 7b7 by be+ dissolv$ 9 ! ocean2 7c7 by ! escape ( molecules into space2 & 7d7 by ! cond5sation ( wat] vapor4 ,! comb9$ effect ( ! v>i\s means ( increase & decrease dep5ds p>tly on ! am\nt ( ea* con/itu5t receiv$ f ! e>?'s int]ior or f space1 & p>tly on ! fact t ! ag5cies :i* t5d to deplete ! atmosph]e are highly selective 9 _! action4 ,our k ( h[ l>ge a quantity ( new gases ! air has receiv$ is v scanty1 b judg+ by pres5t conditions ! g5]al t5d5cy is t[>d a sl[ increase *iefly because ( meteorites1 volcanic action1 & ! "w ( deep-seat$ spr+s4 ,z to decrease1 ! case is cle>]4 ,?is is because ! *emically active gases1 oxyg51 ,,co#b1 & wat] vapor1 t5d to be lock$ up 9 ! rocks1 :ile ! *emically in]t gases1 nitrog5 & argon1 %[ almo/ no su* t5d5cy4 ,?\gh oxyg5 is by f> ! mo/ abundant elem5t 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 mak+ up m ?an #ej p] c5t ( ! total1 x =ms only ab\t "o-fif? ( ! air4 ,nitrog51 on ! o!r h&1 is v r>e 9 ! rocks1 b makes up ne>ly f\r-fif?s ( ! air4 ,x w\ld1 !re=e1 seem probable t ?r\gh\t ! e>?'s hi/ory1 !re has be5 a progressive increase 9 ! am\nt ( atmosph]ic nitrog51 & presumably a some:at correspond+ increase 9 ! mass ( ! air4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is n cle> :at *anges h occurr$ 9 ! am\nt ( atmosph]ic oxyg54 ,x may h increas$ some:at or p]haps ev5 notably4 ,nev]!less1 because ( ! great] increase 9 nitrog51 x may =m no great] p]c5tage ( ! air n[ ?an 9 ! di/ant pa/4 ,z to ! absolute am\nts ( oxyg51 ,b>rell#ajg ?\ght t atmosph]ic oxyg5 began to be pres5t only aft] plants _h appe>$4 ,x w be recall$ t plants absorb c>bon dioxide & sep>ate ! c>bon f ! oxyg51 us+ ! c>bon 9 _! tissues & sett+ free ! oxyg54 ,z evid5ce ( a paucity ( oxyg5 9 ! air 9 e>ly ,prot]ozoic times1 ,b>rell cites ! fact t ! s$im5t>y rocks ( t remote "t commonly are some:at greyi% or gre5i%-grey wackes1 or o!r types1 indicat+ incomplete oxidation4 ,he admits1 h[ev]1 t ! /up5d\s ?icknesses ( r$ s&/ones1 qu>tzite1 & hematitic iron ores ( ! lat] ,prot]ozoic prove t by t date !re 0 an abundance ( atmosph]ic oxyg54 ,if s1 ! *ange f paucity to abundance mu/ h occurr$ be=e fossils 7 num]\s en\gh to give mu* clue to climate4 ,h[ev]1 ,b>rell's evid5ce z to a =m] paucity ( atmosph]ic oxyg5 is n altoge!r conv9c+4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x does n seem ju/ifiable to assume t !re c\ld be no oxyg5 until plants appe>$ to break d[n ! c>bon dioxide1 = "s oxyg5 is contribut$ by volcanoes1#ajh & lightn+ decomposes wat] into its elem5ts4 ,"p ( ! hydrog5 ?us set free escapes into space1 = ! e>?'s gravitative =ce does n appe> great en\gh to hold ?is lighte/ ( gases1 b ! oxyg5 rema9s4 ,?us electrolysis ( wat] results 9 ! accumulation ( oxyg54 ,9 ! second place1 !re is no pro( t ! anci5t greywackes are n deoxidiz$ s$im5ts4 ,light color$ rock =mations d n necess>ily indicate a paucity ( atmosph]ic oxyg51 = su* rocks are abundant ev5 9 rec5t times4 ,= example1 ! ,t]ti>y =mations are *>act]i/ically light color$1 a result1 h[ev]1 ( deoxidation4 ,f9ally1 ! fact t s$im5t>y rocks1 irrespective ( _! age1 conta9 an av]age ( ab\t #a4e p] c5t m oxyg5 ?an d igne\s rocks1#aji sugge/s t oxyg5 0 pres5t 9 ! air 9 quantity ev5 :5 ! e>lie/ %ales & s&/ones 7 =m$1 = atmosph]ic oxyg5 seems to be ! probable s\rce ( ! extra oxyg5 !y conta94 ,! =mation ( ^! p>ticul> s$im5t>y rocks by wea!r+ ( igne\s rocks involves only a little c>bon dioxide & wat]4 ,al?\gh x seems probable t oxyg5 0 pres5t 9 ! atmosph]e ev5 at ! beg9n+ ( ! geological record1 x may h be5 f> less abundant !n ?an n[4 ,x may h be5 remov$ f ! atmosph]e by animals or by ! oxidation ( ! rocks almo/ z rapidly z x 0 add$ by volcanoes1 plants1 & o!r ag5cies4 ,aft] ?is *apt] 0 9 type1 ,/4 ,john,c ann\nc$ 8 int]e/+ discov]y t oxyg5 is app>5tly lack+ 9 ! atmosph]e ( ,v5us4 ,he consid]s t ?is proves t ,v5us has no life4 ,fur!rmore he concludes t s active an elem5t z oxyg5 _c be abundant 9 ! atmosph]e ( a planet unless plants cont9ually supply l>ge quantities by break+ d[n c>bon dioxide4 ,b ev5 if ! e>? has exp]i5c$ a notable increase 9 atmosph]ic oxyg5 s9ce ! appe>ance ( life1 ?is does n necess>ily involve important climatic *anges except ^? due to increas$ atmosph]ic d5sity4 ,?is is because oxyg5 has v little effect ^u ! passage ( light or heat1 be+ transp>5t to all b a few wave l5g?s4 ,^? absorb$ are *iefly 9 ! ultra violet4 ,! di/9ct possibility t oxyg5 has increas$ 9 am\nt1 makes x ! m likely t !re has be5 an increase 9 ! total atmosph]e1 = ! oxyg5 w\ld supplem5t ! increase 9 ! relatively in]t nitrog5 & argon1 :i* has presumably tak5 place4 ,! climatic effects ( an increase 9 ! atmosph]e include1 9 ! fir/ place1 an increas$ scatt]+ ( light z x approa*es ! e>?4 ,nitrog51 argon1 & oxyg5 all scatt] ! %ort waves ( light & ?us int]f]e ) _! rea*+ ! e>?4 ,abbot & ,f[le1#aaj :o h c>efully /udi$ ! matt]1 believe t at pres5t ! scatt]+ is quantitatively important 9 less5+ insolation4 ,h5ce our suppos$ g5]al increase 9 ! volume ( ! air dur+ "p ( geological times w\ld t5d to r$uce ! am\nt ( sol> en]gy rea*+ ! e>?'s surface4 ,on ! o!r h&1 nitrog5 & argon d n appe> to absorb ! long wave l5g?s kn[n z heat1 & oxyg5 absorbs s little z to be almo/ a non-absorb]4 ,!re=e ! r$uc$ p5etration ( ! air by sol> radiation due to ! scatt]+ ( light w\ld app>5tly n be neutraliz$ by any direct increase 9 ! blanket+ effect ( ! atmosph]e1 & ! temp]ature ne> ! e>?'s surface w\ld be slightly l[]$ by a ?ick] atmosph]e4 ,?is w\ld dim9i% ! am\nt ( wat] vapor :i* w\ld be held 9 ! air1 & !reby l[] ! temp]ature a trifle m4 ,9 ! second place1 ! high] atmosph]ic pressure :i* w\ld result f ! addition ( gases to ! air w\ld cause a less5+ ( ! rate ( evaporation1 = t rate decl9es z pressure increases4 ,decreas$ evaporation w\ld presumably /ill fur!r dim9i% ! vapor cont5t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,?is w\ld mean a great] daily & seasonal range ( temp]ature1 z is v obvi\s :5 we comp>e cle> wea!r ) cl\dy4 ,cl\dy nights are relatively w>m :ile cle> nights are cool1 because wat] vapor is an almo/ p]fect absorb] ( radiant heat1 & !re is en\gh ( x 9 ! air on moi/ nights to int]f]e greatly ) ! escape ( ! heat accumulat$ dur+ ! day4 ,!re=e1 if atmosph]ic moi/ure 7 =m]ly mu* m abundant ?an n[1 ! temp]ature mu/ h be5 mu* m uni=m4 ,! t5d5cy t[>d climatic sev]ity z "t w5t on w\ld be /ill fur!r increas$ by ! cool+ :i* w\ld result f ! increas$ w9d velocity discuss$ bel[2 = cool+ by convection increases ) ! velocity ( ! w9d1 z does cool+ by conduction4 ,any p]si/5t l[]+ ( ! g5]al temp]ature ( ! air w\ld affect n only its ability to hold wat] vapor1 b w\ld produce a less5+ 9 ! am\nt ( atmosph]ic c>bon dioxide1 = ! cold] ! ocean becomes ! m c>bon dioxide x c hold 9 solution4 ,:5 ! oceanic temp]ature falls1 "p ( ! atmosph]ic c>bon dioxide is dissolv$ 9 ! ocean4 ,?is m9or con/itu5t ( ! air is important because al?\gh x =ms only #j4jjc p] c5t ( ! e>?'s atmosph]e1 ,abbot & ,f[le's#aaa calculations indicate t x absorbs ov] #aj p] c5t ( ! heat radiat$ outw>d f ! e>?4 ,h5ce v>iations 9 ! am\nt ( c>bon dioxide may h caus$ an appreciable v>iation 9 temp]ature & ?us 9 o!r climatic conditions4 ,humphreys1 z we h se51 has calculat$ t a d\bl+ ( ! c>bon dioxide 9 ! air w\ld directly raise ! e>?'s temp]ature to ! ext5t ( #a4c deg4,c41 & a halv+ w\ld l[] x a l am\nt4 ,! indirect results ( su* an increase or decrease might be great] ?an ! direct results1 = ! *ange 9 temp]ature due to v>iations 9 c>bon dioxide w\ld alt] ! capacity ( ! air to hold moi/ure4 ,two conditions w\ld especially help 9 ?is respect2 fir/1 *anges 9 nocturnal cool+1 & second1 *anges 9 local convection4 ,! pres5ce ( c>bon dioxide dim9i%es nocturnal cool+ because x absorbs ! heat radiat$ by ! e>?1 & re-radiates "p ( x back aga94 ,h5ce ) increas$ c>bon dioxide & ) ! consequ5t w>m] nights !re w\ld be less nocturnal cond5sation ( wat] vapor to =m dew & fro/4 ,local convection is influ5c$ by c>bon dioxide because ?is gas less5s ! temp]ature gradi5t4 ,9 g5]al1 ! less ! gradi5t1 t is1 ! less ! contra/ betwe5 ! temp]ature at ! surface & high] up1 ! less convection takes place4 ,?is is illu/rat$ by ! seasonal v>iation 9 convection4 ,9 summ]1 :5 ! gradi5t is /eepe/1 convection rea*es its maximum4 ,x w be recall$ t :5 air rises x is cool$ by expansion1 & if x asc5ds f> ! moi/ure is soon cond5s$ & precipitat$4 ,inde$1 local convection is consid]$ by ,c4 ,p4 ,day to be ! *ief ag5cy :i* keeps ! l[] air f be+ cont9ually saturat$ ) moi/ure4 ,! pres5ce ( c>bon dioxide less5s convection because x increases ! absorption ( heat 9 ! zone above ! level 9 :i* wat] vapor is abundant1 ?us w>m+ ^! high] lay]s4 ,! l[] air may n be w>m$ correspond+ly by an increase 9 c>bon dioxide if ,abbot & ,f[le are "r 9 /at+ t ne> ! e>?'s surface !re is en\gh wat] vapor to absorb practically all ! wave l5g?s :i* c>bon dioxide is capable ( absorb+4 ,h5ce c>bon dioxide is *iefly effective at heights to :i* ! l[ temp]ature prev5ts wat] vapor f asc5d+4 ,c>bon dioxide is also effective 9 cold w9t]s & 9 high latitudes :5 ev5 ! l[] air is too cold to conta9 mu* wat] vapor4 ,moreov]1 c>bon dioxide1 by alt]+ ! am\nt ( atmosph]ic wat] vapor1 ex]ts an indirect z well z a direct effect ^u temp]ature4 ,o!r effects ( ! increase 9 air pressure :i* we are "h assum+ dur+ at lea/ ! e>ly "p ( geological times are correspond+ *anges 9 b>ometric contra/s1 9 ! /r5g? ( w9ds1 & 9 ! mass ( air c>ri$ by ! w9ds along ! e>?'s surface4 ,! increase 9 ! mass ( ! air w\ld re5=ce ! great] velocity ( ! w9ds 9 _! action z erod+ & transport+ ag5cies4 ,because ( ! great] weight ( ! air1 ! w9ds w\ld be capable ( pick+ up m du/ & ( c>ry+ x f>!r & high]2 :ile ! increas$ atmosph]ic friction w\ld keep x al(t a long] "t4 ,! significance ( du/ at high levels & its relation to sol> radiation h already be5 discuss$ 9 connection ) volcanoes4 ,x w be recall$ t on ! av]age x l[]s ! surface temp]ature4 ,at l[] levels1 s9ce du/ absorbs heat quickly & gives x out quickly1 its pres5ce raises ! temp]ature ( ! air by day & l[]s x by night4 ,h5ce an increase 9 du/9ess t5ds t[>d great] extremes4 ,f all ^! consid]ations x appe>s t if ! atmosph]e has actually evolv$ accord+ to ! supposition :i* is "h t5tatively ent]ta9$1 ! g5]al t5d5cy ( ! resultant climatic *anges mu/ h be5 p>tly t[>d long geological oscillations & p>tly t[>d a g5]al ?\gh v slight increase 9 climatic sev]ity & 9 ! contra/s betwe5 ! zones4 ,?is seems to agree ) ! geological record1 al?\gh ! fact t we are liv+ 9 an age ( relative climatic sev]ity may lead u a/ray4 ,! significant fact ab\t ! :ole matt] is t ! ?ree great types ( t]re/rial ag5cies1 namely1 ^? ( ! e>?'s int]ior1 ^? ( ! oceans1 & ^? ( ! air1 all seem to h suff]$ *anges :i* lead to sl[ v>iations ( climate4 ,_m rev]sals h d\btless tak5 place1 & ! geologic oscillations ?us induc$ are presumably ( mu* great] importance ?an ! progressive *ange1 yet s f> z we c tell ! purely t]re/rial *anges ?r\gh\t ! hundr$s ( millions ( ye>s ( geological "t h t5d$ t[>d complexity & t[>d increas$ contra/s f cont95t to ocean1 f latitude to latitude1 f season to season1 & f day to night4 ,?r\gh\t geological hi/ory ! sl[ & almo/ imp]ceptible diff]5tiation ( ! e>?'s surface has be5 "o ( ! mo/ notewor?y ( all *anges4 ,x has be5 oppos$ by ! extraord9>y cons]vatism ( ! univ]se :i* causes ! av]age temp]ature today to be s l t ( hundr$s ( millions ( ye>s ago t _m types ( life are almo/ id5tical4 ,nev]!less1 ! diff]5tiation has gone on4 ,(t51 to be sure1 x has presumably be5 completely mask$ by ! di/urbances ( ! sol> atmosph]e :i* appe> to h be5 ! cause ( ! %>p]1 %ort] climatic pulsations4 ,b reg>dless ( cosmic cons]vatism & ( sol> impulses t[>d *ange1 ! sl[ diff]5tiation ( ! e>?'s surface has app>5tly giv5 to ! _w ( today mu* ( ! geographical complexity :i* is s /imulat+ a factor 9 organic evolution4 ,su* complexity--su* div]sity f place to place--appe>s to be l>gely acc\nt$ = by purely t]re/rial causes4 ,x may be reg>d$ z ! great t]re/rial contribution to ! climatic environm5t :i* guides ! developm5t ( life4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ig3 ,encyclopa$ia ,britannica1 #aa? edition3 article ,ocean4 ,footnote #ih3 ,c4 ,e4 ,p4 ,brooks3 ,! ,meteorological ,conditions ( an ,ice %eet & ,_! ,be>+ on ! ,desiccation ( ! ,globe2 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,royal ,meteorol4 ,soc41 ,vol4 #dj1 #aiad1 pp4 #ec-gj4 ,footnote #ii3 ,data ( ,geo*emi/ry1 ,f\r? ,ed41 #aibj2 ,bull4 ,no4 #fie1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,quot$ by ,s*u*]t 9 ,! ,evolution ( ! ,e>?4 ,footnote #aja3 ,smi?sonian ,physical ,tables1 ,six? ,revision1 #aiad1 p4 #adb4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,*amb]l91 9 a v sugge/ive article ,on a possible rev]sal ( oceanic circulation 7,j\r4 ( ,geol41 ,vol4 #ad1 pp4 #cfc-cgc1 #aijf71 discusses ! probable climatic consequ5ces ( a rev]sal 9 ! direction ( deep-sea circulation4 ,x is n :olly beyond ! b\nds ( possibility t1 9 ! c\rse ( ages ! increas+ dra9age ( salt f ! l&s n only by nature b by man's activities 9 agriculture & dra9age1 may ultimately cause su* a rev]sal by increas+ ! ocean's sal9ity until ! m sal9e tropical portion is heavi] ?an ! cool] b fre%] subpol> wat]s4 ,if t %\ld happ51 ,gre5l&1 ,ant>ctica1 & ! nor!rn %ores ( ,am]ica & ,asia w\ld be w>m$ by ! tropical heat :i* _h be5 transf]r$ polew>d b5ea? ! surface ( ! ocean1 )\t loss en r\te4 ,subpol> regions1 "u su* a condition ( rev]s$ deep-sea circulation1 might h a mild climate4 ,inde$1 !y might be among ! _w's mo/ favorable regions climatically4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,encyclopa$ia ,britannica3 article ,ocean4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,*amb]l9 & ,salisbury3 ,geology1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #a-acb1 #aijf2 & ,t4 ,c4 ,*amb]l93 ,! ,orig9 ( ! ,e>?1 #aiaf4 ,footnote #aje3 ,p]sonal communication4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,r4 ,t4 ,*amb]l93 ,gases 9 ,rocks1 ,c>negie ,in/4 ( ,wa%41 ,no4 #ajf1 #aijh4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,j4 ,b>rell3 ,! ,orig9 ( ! ,e>?1 9 ,evolution ( ! ,e>? & ,its ,inhabitants1 #aiah1 p4 #dd1 & m fully 9 an unpubli%$ manuscript4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,f4 ,w4 ,cl>ke3 ,data ( ,geo*emi/ry1 ,f\r? ,ed41 #aibj1 ,bull4 ,no4 #fie1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 p4 #bef4 ,footnote #aji3 ,f4 ,w4 ,cl>ke3 loc4 cit41 pp4 #bg-cd et al4 ,footnote ,c3 ,*as4 ,e4 ,/4 ,john3 ,sci5ce ,s]vice ,press ,reports f ! ,mt4 ,wilson ,obs]vatory1 ,may1 #aibb4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,abbot & ,f[le3 ,annals ,a/rophysical ,obs]vatory2 ,smi?s4 ,in/41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 #aijh1 p4 #afc4 ,f4 ,e4 ,f[le3 ,atmosph]ic ,scatt]+ ( ,light2 ,misc4 ,coll4 ,smi?s4 ,in/41 ,vol4 #fi1 #aiah4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,abbot & ,f[le3 loc4 cit41 p4 #agb4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,! ,,effect ,,( ,,o!r ,,bodies ,,on ,,! ,,sun ,if sol> activity is really an important factor 9 caus+ climatic *anges1 x behooves u to subject ! sun to ! same k9d ( inquiry to :i* we h subject$ ! e>?4 ,we h inquir$ into ! nature ( ! *anges ?r\gh :i* ! e>?'s cru/1 ! oceans1 & ! atmosph]e h influ5c$ ! climate ( geological times4 ,x has n be5 necess>y1 h[ev]1 to /udy ! orig9 ( ! e>?1 nor to trace its e>li] /ages4 ,our /udy ( ! geological record beg9s only :5 ! e>? _h atta9$ practically its pres5t mass1 ess5tially its pres5t %ape1 & a climate s simil> to t ( today t life z we "k x 0 possible4 ,9 o!r words1 ! e>? _h pass$ ! /ages ( infancy1 *ildhood1 y\?1 & e>ly maturity1 & _h rea*$ full maturity4 ,z x /ill seems to be indef9itely f> f old age1 we inf] t dur+ geological times its relative *anges h be5 no great] ?an ^? :i* a man exp]i5ces betwe5 ! ages ( p]haps tw5ty-five & =ty4 ,simil> reason+ applies ) equal or great] =ce to ! sun4 ,because ( its va/ size x presumably passes ?r\gh its /ages ( developm5t mu* m sl[ly ?an ! e>?4 ,9 ! fir/ *apt] ( ?is book we saw t ! e>?'s relative uni=mity ( climate = hundr$s ( millions ( ye>s seems to imply a simil> uni=mity 9 sol> activity4 ,?is accords ) a rec5t t5d5cy among a/ronom]s :o are m & m recogniz+ t ! />s & ! sol> sy/em possess an extraord9>y degree ( cons]vatism4 ,*anges t once 7 suppos$ to take place 9 ?\s&s ( ye>s are n[ ?\ght to h requir$ millions4 ,h5ce 9 ?is *apt] we %all assume t ?r\gh\t geological times ! condition ( ! sun has be5 almo/ z at pres5t4 ,x may h be5 some:at l>g]1 or diff]5t 9 o!r ways1 b x 0 ess5tially a hot1 gase\s body su* z we see today & x gave out ess5tially ! same am\nt ( en]gy4 ,?is assumption w affect ! g5]al validity ( :at foll[s only if x dep>ts widely f ! tru?4 ,) ?is assumption1 !n1 let u inquire into ! degree to :i* ! sun's atmosph]e has probably be5 di/urb$ ?r\gh\t geological times4 ,9 ,e>? & ,sun1 z already expla9$1 a detail$ /udy has l$ to ! conclusion t cyclonic /orms are influ5c$ by ! electrical action ( ! sun4 ,su* action appe>s to be mo/ int5se 9 sunspots1 b app>5tly p]ta9s also to o!r di/urb$ areas 9 ! sun's atmosph]e4 ,a /udy ( sunspots sugge/s t _! true p]iodicity is almo/ if n exactly id5tical ) t ( ! orbital revolution ( ,jupit]1 #aa4h ye>s4 ,o!r inve/igations %[ num]\s rem>kable co9cid5ces betwe5 sunspots & ! orbital revolution ( ! o!r planets1 includ+ especially ,saturn & ,m]cury4 ,?is seems to indicate t !re is "s tru? 9 ! hypo!sis t sunspots & o!r relat$ di/urbances ( ! sol> atmosph]e owe _! p]iodicity to ! v>y+ effects ( ! planets z !y approa* & rec$e f ! sun 9 _! ecc5tric orbits & z !y comb9e or oppose _! effects accord+ to _! relative positions4 ,?is does n mean t ! en]gy ( ! sol> di/urbances is suppos$ to come f ! planets1 b m]ely t _! v>iations act l ! turn+ ( a swit* to det]m9e :5 & h[ viol5tly ! int]nal =ces ( ! sun %all ?r[ ! sol> atmosph]e into commotion4 ,?is hypo!sis is by no means new1 = 9 "o =m or ano!r x has be5 advocat$ by ,wolf]1 ,birkel&1 ,e4 ,w4 ,br[n1 ,s*u/]1 ,arct[ski1 & o!rs4 ,! ag5cy ?r\gh :i* ! planets influ5ce ! sol> atmosph]e is n yet cle>4 ,! sugge/$ ag5cies are ! direct pull ( gravitation1 ! tidal effect ( ! planets1 & an electro-magnetic effect4 ,9 ,e>? & ,sun ! conclusion is rea*$ t ! fir/ two are out ( ! "q1 a conclusion 9 :i* ,e4 ,w4 ,br[n acquiesces4 ,unless "s unkn[n cause is appeal$ to1 ?is leaves an electro-magnetic hypo!sis z ! only "o :i* has a reasonable f\ndation4 ,s*u/] incl9es to ?is view4 ,! conclusions set =? 9 ,e>? & ,sun z to ! electrical nature ( ! sun's influ5ce on ! e>? po9t some:at 9 ! same direction4 ,h5ce 9 ?is *apt] we %all inquire :at w\ld happ5 to ! sun1 & h5ce to ! e>?1 on _! j\rney ?r\gh space1 if ! sol> atmosph]e is actually subject to di/urbance by ! electrical or o!r effects ( o!r heav5ly bodies4 ,x ne$ h>dly be po9t$ out t we are "h v5tur+ into highly speculative gr\nd1 & t ! v]ity or falsity ( ! conclusions rea*$ 9 ?is *apt] has no?+ to d ) ! validity ( ! reason+ 9 previ\s *apt]s4 ,^? *apt]s are bas$ on ! assumption t t]re/rial causes ( climatic *anges are supplem5t$ by sol> di/urbances :i* produce _! effect p>tly ?r\gh v>iations 9 temp]ature b also ?r\gh v>iations 9 ! int5sity & pa?s ( cyclonic /orms4 ,! pres5t *apt] seeks to %$ "s light on ! possible causes & sequ5ce ( sol> di/urbances4 ,let u beg9 by scann+ ! available evid5ce z to sol> di/urbances previ\s to ! "t :5 accurate sunspot records are available4 ,two r sl5d] bits ( evid5ce po9t to cycles ( sol> activity la/+ hundr$s ( ye>s4 ,"o ( ^! has already be5 discuss$ 9 ,*apt] ,,vi1 :]e ! climatic /ress ( ! f\rte5? c5tury 0 describ$4 ,at t "t sunspots are kn[n to h be5 unusually num]\s1 & !re 7 great climatic extremes4 ,lakes ov]fl[$ 9 ,c5tral ,asia2 /orms1 dr\ghts1 floods1 & cold w9t]s 7 unusually sev]e 9 ,europe2 ! ,caspian ,sea rose ) great rapidity2 ! trees ( ,cali=nia grew ) a vigor unkn[n = c5turies2 ! mo/ t]rible ( record$ fam9es occurr$ 9 ,engl& & ,india2 ! ,eskimos 7 probably driv5 s\? by increas+ sn[9ess 9 ,gre5l&2 & ! ,mayas ( ,yucatan appe> to h made _! la/ weak attempt at a revival ( civilization "u ! /imulus ( great] /orm9ess & less con/ant ra9fall4 ,! second bit ( evid5ce is f\nd 9 rec5t exhau/ive /udies ( p]iodicities by ,turn]#aab & o!r a/ronom]s4 ,!y h s\ght e possible natural occurr5ce = :i* a num]ical record is available = a long p]iod4 ,! mo/ valuable records appe> to be ^? ( tree gr[?1 ,nile floods1 ,*9ese e>?quakes1 & sunspots4 ,turn] rea*es ! conclusion t all f\r types ( ph5om5a %[ ! same p]iodicity1 namely1 cycles ) an av]age l5g? ( ab\t #bfj to #bhj ye>s4 ,he sugge/s t if ?is is true1 ! cycles 9 tree gr[? & 9 floods1 bo? ( :i* are climatic1 are probably due to a non-t]re/rial cause4 ,! fact t ! sunspots %[ simil> cycles sugge/s t ! sun's v>iations are ! cause4 ,^! two bits ( evid5ce are f> too slight to =m ! f\ndation ( any !ory z to *anges 9 sol> activity 9 ! geological pa/4 ,nev]!less x may be helpful to set =? c]ta9 possibilities z a /imulus to fur!r rese>*4 ,= example1 x has be5 sugge/$ t meteoric bodies may h fall5 into ! sun & caus$ x sudd5ly to fl>e up1 z x 74 ,?is is n impossible1 al?\gh x does n appe> to h tak5 place s9ce m5 became advanc$ en\gh to make c>eful obs]vations4 ,moreov]1 ! meteorites :i* n[ fall on ! e>? are extremely small1 ! av]age size be+ comput$ z no l>g] ?an a gra9 ( :eat4 ,! l>ge/ ev] f\nd on ! e>?'s surface1 at ,bacubirito 9 ,mexico1 weighs only ab\t fifty tons1 :ile )9 ! rocks ! evid5ces ( meteorites are extremely scanty & insignificant4 ,if meteorites _h fall5 into ! sun (t5 en\gh & ( suffici5t size to cause glacial fluctuations & hi/oric pulsations ( climate1 x seems highly probable t ! e>? w\ld %[ mu* m evid5ce ( hav+ be5 simil>ly di/urb$4 ,& ev5 if ! sun %\ld be bomb>d$ by l>ge meteors ! result w\ld probably n be sudd5 cold p]iods1 :i* are ! mo/ notable ph5om5a ( ! e>?'s climatic hi/ory1 b sudd5 w>m p]iods foll[$ by sl[ cool+4 ,nev]!less1 ! di/urbance ( ! sun by collision ) meteoric matt] c by no means be exclud$ z a possible cause ( climatic v>iations4 ,alli$ to ! prec$+ hypo!sis is ,%apley's#aac nebul> hypo!sis4 ,at frequ5t int]vals1 av]ag+ ab\t once a ye> dur+ ! la/ ?irty ye>s1 a/ronom]s h discov]$ :at are kn[n z novae4 ,^! are />s :i* 7 previ\sly fa9t or ev5 invisible1 b :i* fla% sudd5ly into brilliancy4 ,(t5 _! light-giv+ p[] rises sev5 or eight magnitudes--a ?\s&-fold4 ,9 addition to ! spectacul> novae !re are num]\s irregul> v>iables ^: brilliancy *anges 9 e ratio f a few p] c5t up to sev]al magnitudes4 ,mo/ ( !m are locat$ 9 ! vic9ity ( nebulae1 z is also ! case ) novae4 ,?is1 z well z o!r facts1 makes x probable t all ^! />s are friction v>iables1 z ,%apley calls !m4 ,app>5tly z !y pass ?r\gh ! nebulae !y come 9 contact ) its highly diffuse matt] & !reby become bright mu* z ! e>? w\ld become bright if its atmosph]e 7 fill$ ) millions ( almo/ inf9itesimally small meteorites4 ,a /> may also lose brilliancy if nebul\s matt] int]v5es betwe5 x & ! obs]v]4 ,if our sun has be5 subject$ to any ( ^! *anges "s sort ( climatic effect mu/ h be5 produc$4 ,9 a p]sonal communication ,%apley amplifies ! nebul> climatic hypo!sis z foll[s3 ,)9 #gjj light ye>s ( ! sun 9 _m directions 7,taurus1 ,cygnus1 ,ophiu*us1 ,scorpio7 are great diffuse cl\ds ( nebulosity1 "s bright1 mo/ ( !m d>k4 ,! probability t />s mov+ 9 ! g5]al region ( su* cl\ds w enc\nt] ?is mat]ial is v high1 = ! cl\ds fill enorm\s volumes ( space1--e4g41 probably m ?an a hundr$ ?\s& cubic light ye>s 9 ! ,orion region1 & are presumably compos$ ( r>efi$ gases or ( du/ p>ticles4 ,probably ?r\gh\t all our "p ( space su* nebulosity exi/s 7x is all ar\nd u1 we are sure71 b only 9 c]ta9 regions is x d5se en\gh to affect conspicu\sly ! />s involv$ 9 x4 ,if a /> mov+ at high velocity %\ld collide ) a d5se "p ( su* a nebul\s cl\d1 we %\ld probably h a typical nova4 ,if ! relative velocity ( nebul\s mat]ial & /> 7 l[ or mod]ate1 or if ! mat]ial 7 r>e1 we %\ld n expect a conspicu\s effect on ! />'s light4 ,9 ! nebul\s region ( ,orion1 :i* is probably ( unusually high d5sity1 !re are ab\t #ajj kn[n />s1 v>y+ betwe5 #bj & #hj ( _! total light--all ( !m irregul>ly--"s sl[ly1 "s sudd5ly4 ,app>5tly !y are friction v>iables4 ,"s ( ! v>iables sudd5ly lose #dj ( _! light z if blanket$ by nebul\s matt]4 ,9 ! ,trifid ,nebula !re are v>iables l ^? ( ,orion1 9 ,messi] #h also1 & probably _m ( ! #ajj or s ar\nd ! ,rho ,ophiu*i region belong to ?is k9d4 ,i believe t our sun c\ld n h be5 a typical nova1 at lea/ n s9ce ! ,ar*eozoic1 t is = p]haps a billion ye>s4 ,i believe we h 9 geological climates f9al pro( ( ?is1 because an increase 9 ! am\nt ( sol> radiation by #ajjj times z 9 ! typical nova1 w\ld c]ta9ly punctuate emphatically ! life cycle on ! e>?1 ev5 if ! cause ( ! nova w\ld n at ! same "t elim9ate ! small] planets4 ,b ! sun may h be5 "o ( ^! m9iature novae or friction v>iables2 & ,i believe x v probable t its w&]+s ?r\gh ?is "p ( space c\ld n long leave its mean temp]ature unaffect$ to ! am\nt ( a few p] c5t4 ,"o reason we h n _h ?is proposal insi/$ ^u be=e is t ! data back ( x are mo/ly new--! ,orion v>iables h be5 only rec5tly discov]$ & /udi$1 ! di/ribution & cont5t ( ! d>k nebulae are h>dly z yet g5]ally kn[n4 ,?is int]e/+ hypo!sis _c be ha/ily dismiss$4 ,if ! sun %\ld pass ?r\gh a nebula x seems inevitable t !re w\ld be at lea/ slight climatic effects & p]haps cata/rophic effects ?r\gh ! action ( ! gase\s matt] n only on ! sun b on ! e>?'s own atmosph]e4 ,z an explanation ( ! g5]al climatic conditions ( ! pa/1 h[ev]1 ,%apley po9ts out t ! hypo!sis has ! objection ( be+ vague1 & t nebulosity %\ld n be reg>d$ z m ?an a possible factor4 ,"o ( ! *ief difficulties seems to be ! enorm\sly wide di/ribution ( z yet undiscov]$ nebul\s matt] :i* mu/ be assum$ if any l>ge %>e ( ! e>?'s repeat$ climatic *anges is to be ascrib$ to su* matt]4 ,if su* matt] is actually abundant 9 space1 x is h>d to see h[ any b ! ne>e/ />s w\ld be visible4 ,ano!r objection is t !re is no kn[n nebulosity ne> at h& ) :i* to connect ! climatic vicissitudes ( ! la/ glacial p]iod4 ,moreov]1 ! kn[n nebulae are s mu* less num]\s ?an />s t ! *ances t ! sun w enc\nt] "o ( !m are extremely slight4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n an objection1 = ,%apley po9ts out t dur+ geological times ! sun c nev] h v>i$ z mu* z d ! novae1 or ev5 z mo/ ( ! friction v>iables4 ,?us ! hypo!sis /&s z "o t is wor? inve/igat+1 b t _c be f9ally reject$ or accept$ until x is made m def9ite & until m in=mation is available4 ,ano!r sugge/$ cause ( sol> v>iations is ! relatively sudd5 contraction ( ! sun su* z t :i* sometimes occurs on ! e>? :5 cont95ts are uplift$ & m\nta9s upheav$4 ,x seems improbable t ?is c\ld h occurr$ 9 a gase\s body l ! sun4 ,lack+1 z x does1 any solid cru/ :i* resi/s a *ange ( =m1 ! sun probably %r9ks /eadily4 ,h5ce any climatic effects ?us produc$ mu/ be extremely gradual & mu/ t5d /eadily 9 "o direction = millions ( ye>s4 ,/ill ano!r sugge/ion is t ! tidal action ( ! />s & o!r bodies :i* may *ance to approa* ! sun's pa? may cause di/urbances ( ! sol> atmosph]e4 ,! va/ kaleidoscope ( space is nev] quiet4 ,! sun1 ! />s1 & all ! o!r heav5ly bodies are mov+1 (t5 ) enorm\s spe$4 ,h5ce ! effect ( gravitation ^u ! sun mu/ v>y con/antly & irregul>ly1 z befits ! geological requirem5ts4 ,9 ! case ( ! planets1 h[ev]1 ! tidal effect does n seem compet5t to produce ! movem5ts ( ! sol> atmosph]e :i* appe> to be conc]n$ 9 ! inception ( sunspots4 ,moreov]1 !re is only ! mo/ remote probability t a /> & ! sun w approa* ne> en\gh to "o ano!r to produce a pron\nc$ gravitational di/urbance 9 ! sol> atmosph]e4 ,= in/ance1 if x be assum$ t *anges 9 ,jupit]'s tidal effect on ! sun are ! ma9 factor 9 regulat+ ! pres5t diff]5ce betwe5 sunspot maxima & sunspot m9ima1 ! *ances t a /> or "s non-lum9\s body ( simil> mass w approa* ne> en\gh to /imulate sol> activity & !reby br+ on glaciation are only "o 9 twelve billion ye>s1 z w be expla9$ bel[4 ,?is seems to make a gravitational hypo!sis impossible4 ,ano!r possible cause ( sol> di/urbances is t ! />s 9 _! flight ?r\gh space may ex]t an electrical influ5ce :i* upsets ! equilibrium ( ! sol> atmosph]e4 ,at fir/ ?\ght ?is seems ev5 m impossible ?an a gravitational effect4 ,electro/atic effects1 h[ev]1 diff] greatly f ^? ( tides4 ,!y v>y z ! diamet] ( a body in/ead ( z its mass2 _! diff]5tials also v>y inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance in/ead ( z ! cube4 ,electro/atic effects also increase z ! f\r? p[] ( ! temp]ature or at lea/ w\ld d s if !y foll[$ ! law ( black bodies2 !y are /imulat$ by ! approa* ( "o body to ano!r2 & !y are cumulative1 = if ions arrive f space !y mu/ accumulate until ! body to :i* !y h come beg9s to dis*>ge !m4 ,h5ce1 on ! basis ( assumptions su* z ^? us$ 9 ! prec$+ p>agraph1 ! *ances ( an electrical di/urbance ( ! sol> atmosph]e suffici5t to cause glaciation on ! e>? may be z high z "o 9 tw5ty or ?irty million ye>s4 ,?is seems to put an electrical hypo!sis )9 ! b\nds ( possibility4 ,fur!r ?an t we _c n[ g4 ,!re may be o!r hypo!ses :i* fit ! facts mu* bett]1 b none seems yet to h be5 sugge/$4 ,9 ! re/ ( ?is *apt] ! tidal & electrical hypo!ses ( /ell> action on ! sun w be tak5 up 9 detail4 ,! tidal hypo!sis is consid]$ because 9 discussions ( ! effect ( ! planets x has hi!rto held almo/ ! entire field4 ,! electrical hypo!sis w be consid]$ because x appe>s to be ! be/ yet sugge/$1 al?\gh x /ill seems d\btful :e!r electrical effects c be ( appreciable importance ov] su* va/ di/ances z are inevitably involv$4 ,! discussion ( bo? hypo!ses w necess>ily be some:at te*nical1 & w appeal to ! a/ronom] m ?an to ! layman4 ,x does n =m a necess>y "p ( ?is book1 = x has no be>+ on our ma9 !sis ( ! effect ( ! sun on ! e>?4 ,x is giv5 "h because ultimately ! "q ( *anges 9 sol> activity dur+ geological times mu/ be fac$4 ,9 ! a/ronomical portion ( ! foll[+ discussion we %all foll[ ,jeans#aad 9 8 admirable attempt at a ma!matical analysis ( ! motions ( ! univ]se4 ,jeans divides ! heav5ly bodies into five ma9 types4 7#a7 ,spiral nebulae1 :i* are ?\ght by "s a/ronom]s to be sy/ems l our own 9 ! mak+1 & by o!rs to be indep5d5t univ]ses ly+ at va/ di/ances beyond ! limits ( our ,galactic univ]se1 z x is call$ f ! ,galaxy or ,milky ,way4 7#b7 ,nebulae ( a small] type1 call$ planet>y4 ,^! lie )9 ! ,galactic portion ( ! univ]se & seem to be e>ly /ages ( :at may "s day be />s or sol> sy/ems4 7#c7 ,b9>y or multiple />s1 :i* are extraord9>ily num]\s4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ! heav5s !y =m #ej or ev5 #fj p] c5t ( ! />s & 9 ! galaxy z a :ole !y seem to =m fully "o ?ird4 7#d7 ,/> clu/]s4 ,^! consi/ ( ab\t a hundr$ gr\ps ( />s 9 ea* ( :i* ! />s move toge!r 9 ! same direction ) approximately ! same velocity4 ,^!1 l ! spiral nebulae1 are ?\ght by "s a/ronom]s to lie outside ! limits ( ! galaxy1 b ?is is f> f c]ta94 7#e7 ,! sol> sy/em4 ,accord+ to ,jeans ?is seems to be unique4 ,x does n fit into ! g5]al ma!matical !ory by :i* he expla9s spiral nebulae1 planet>y nebulae1 b9>y />s1 & /> clu/]s4 ,x seems to dem& a special explanation1 su* z is furni%$ by tidal disruption due to ! passage ( ! sun close to ano!r />4 ,! "p ( ,jeans' "w :i* specially conc]ns u is 8 /udy ( ! probability t "s o!r /> w approa* ! sun closely en\gh to h an appreciable gravitative or electrical effect1 & ?us cause di/urbances 9 ! sol> atmosph]e4 ,( c\rse bo? ! /> & ! sun are mov+1 b to avoid circumlocution we %all speak ( su* mutual approa*es simply z approa*es ( ! sun4 ,= our pres5t purpose ! mo/ fundam5tal fact may be summ$ up 9 a quotation f ,jeans 9 :i* he says t mo/ />s %[ evid5ce ( hav+ exp]i5c$ consid]able di/urbance by o!r sy/ems2 !re is no reason :y our sol> sy/em %\ld be expect$ to h escap$ ! common fate4 ,jeans gives a c>eful calculation f :i* x is possible to d]ive "s idea ( ! probability ( any giv5 degree ( approa* ( ! sun & "s o!r />4 ,( c\rse all su* calculations mu/ be bas$ on c]ta9 assumptions4 ,! assumptions made by ,jeans are su* z to make ! probability ( close approa*es z great z possible4 ,= example1 he all[s only #efj million ye>s = ! entire evolution ( ! sun1 :]eas "s a/ronom]s & geologi/s w\ld put ! figure t5 or m times z high4 ,nev]!less1 ,jeans' assumptions at lea/ %[ ! ord] ( magnitude :i* we may expect on ! basis ( reasonable a/ronomical conclusions4 ,accord+ to ! planet>y hypo!sis ( sunspots1 ! diff]5ce 9 ! effect ( ,jupit] :5 x is ne>e/ & f>!/ f ! sun is ! ma9 factor 9 />t+ ! sunspot cycle & h5ce ! correspond+ t]re/rial cycle4 ,! climatic diff]5ce betwe5 sunspot maxima & m9ima1 z measur$ by temp]ature1 app>5tly am\nts to at lea/ a tw5tie? & p]haps a t5? ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! climate ( ! la/ glacial epo* & ! pres5t4 ,we may suppose1 !n1 t a body :i* introduc$ a gravitative or electrical factor tw5ty times z great z ! diff]5ce 9 ,jupit]'s effect at its maximum & m9imum di/ances f ! sun w\ld cause a glacial epo* if ! effect la/$ long en\gh4 ,( c\rse ! o!r planets comb9e _! effects ) t ( ,jupit]1 b = ! sake ( simplicity we w leave ! o!rs out ( acc\nt4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ,jupit]'s maximum & m9imum tidal effect on ! sun am\nts to #bi p] c5t ( ! planet's av]age effect4 ,! correspond+ diff]5ce1 accord+ to ! electrical hypo!sis1 is ab\t #ai p] c5t1 = electro/atic action v>ies z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance in/ead ( z ! cube4 ,let u assume t a body ex]t+ f\r times ,jupit]'s pres5t tidal effect & plac$ at ! av]age di/ance ( ,jupit] f ! sun w\ld di/urb ! sun's atmosph]e tw5ty times z mu* z ! pres5t diff]5ce betwe5 sunspot maxima & m9ima1 & ?us1 p]haps1 cause a glacial p]iod on ! e>?4 ,on ! basis ( ?is assumption our fir/ problem is to e/imate ! frequ5cy ) :i* a />1 visible or d>k1 is likely to approa* ne> en\gh to ! sun to produce a tidal effect f\r times t ( ,jupit]4 ,! numb] ( visible />s is kn[n or at lea/ well e/imat$4 ,z to d>k />s1 :i* h gr[n cool1 ,arrh5ius believ$ t !y are a hundr$ times z num]\s z bright />s2 few a/ronom]s believe t !re are less ?an ?ree or f\r times z _m4 ,dr4 ,%apley ( ! ,h>v>d ,obs]vatory /ates t a new inve/igation ( ! matt] sugge/s t eight or t5 is probably a maximum figure4 ,let u assume t n9e is correct4 ,! av]age visible />1 s f> z measur$1 has a mass ab\t twice t ( ! sun1 or ab\t #bajj times t ( ,jupit]4 ,! di/ances ( ! />s h be5 measur$ 9 hundr$s ( cases & ?us we c e/imate h[ _m />s1 bo? visible & invisible1 are on an av]age conta9$ 9 a giv5 volume ( space4 ,on ?is basis ,jeans e/imates t !re is only "o *ance 9 ?irty billion ye>s t a visible /> w approa* )9 #b4h times ! di/ance ( ,neptune f ! sun1 t is1 )9 ab\t eight billion miles4 ,if we include ! invisible />s ! *ances become "o 9 ?ree billion ye>s4 ,9 ord] to produce f\r times ! tidal effect ( ,jupit]1 h[ev]1 ! av]age /> w\ld h to approa* )9 ab\t f\r billion miles ( ! sun1 & ! *ances ( t are only "o 9 twelve billion ye>s4 ,! di/urb+ /> w\ld be only #dj p] c5t f>!r f ! sun ?an ,neptune1 & w\ld almo/ pass )9 ! sol> sy/em4 ,ev5 ?\gh ,jeans holds t ! frequ5cy ( ! mutual approa* ( ! sun & a /> 0 probably mu* great] 9 ! di/ant pa/ ?an at pres5t1 ! figures j giv5 l5d little support to ! tidal hypo!sis4 ,9 fact1 !y app>5tly ?r[ x out ( c\rt4 ,x w be rememb]$ t ,jeans has made assumptions :i* give z high a frequ5cy ( /ell> enc\nt]s z is consi/5t ) ! a/ronomical facts4 ,we h assum$ n9e d>k />s = e bright "o1 :i* may be a lib]al e/imate4 ,also1 al?\gh we h assum$ t a di/urbance ( ! sun's atmosph]e suffici5t to cause a glacial p]iod w\ld arise f a tidal effect only tw5ty times z great z ! diff]5ce 9 ,jupit]'s effect :5 ne>e/ ! sun & f>!/ away1 9 our computations ?is has actually be5 r$uc$ to ?irte54 ,) all ^! favorable assumptions ! *ances ( a /ell> approa* ( ! sort "h describ$ are n[ only "o 9 twelve billion ye>s4 ,yet )9 a hundr$ million ye>s1 accord+ to _m e/imates ( geological "t1 & almo/ c]ta9ly )9 a billion1 !re h be5 at lea/ half a doz5 glaciations4 ,our use ( ,jeans' data int]poses ano!r & equally insup]able difficulty to any tidal hypo!sis4 ,f\r billion miles is a v %ort di/ance 9 ! eyes ( an a/ronom]4 ,at t di/ance a /> twice ! size ( ! sun w\ld attract ! out] planets m /rongly ?an ! sun itself1 & might capture !m4 ,if a /> %\ld come )9 f\r billion miles ( ! sun1 its effect 9 di/ort+ ! orbits ( all ! planets w\ld be great4 ,if ?is _h happ5$ (t5 en\gh to cause all ! glaciations kn[n to geologi/s1 ! planet>y orbits w\ld be /rongly elliptical in/ead ( almo/ circul>4 ,! consid]ation "h advanc$ militate s /rongly aga9/ ! tidal hypo!sis ( sol> di/urbances t x seems sc>cely wor? :ile to consid] x fur!r4 ,let u turn n[ to ! electrical hypo!sis4 ,"h ! conditions are fundam5tally diff]5t f ^? ( ! tidal hypo!sis4 ,9 ! fir/ place ! electro/atic effect ( a body has no?+ to d ) its mass1 b dep5ds on ! area ( its surface2 t is1 x v>ies z ! squ>e ( ! radius4 ,second1 ! emission ( electrons v>ies expon5tially4 ,if hot gl[+ />s foll[ ! same law z black bodies at l[] temp]atures1 ! emission ( electrons1 l ! emission ( o!r k9ds ( en]gy1 v>ies z ! f\r? p[] ( ! absolute temp]ature4 ,9 o!r words1 suppose !re are two black bodies1 o!rwise alike1 b "o ) a temp]ature ( #bg deg4 ,c4 or #cjj deg4 on ! absolute scale1 & ! o!r ) #fjj deg4 on ! absolute scale4 ,! temp]ature ( "o is twice z high z t ( ! o!r1 b ! electro/atic effect w be sixte5 times z great4#aae ,?ird1 ! numb] ( electrons t rea* a giv5 body v>ies inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance1 in/ead ( z ! cube :i* is ! case ) tide-mak+ =ces4 ,9 ord] to use ^! ?ree pr9ciples 9 calculat+ ! effect ( ! />s we mu/ "k ! diamet]s1 di/ances1 temp]ature1 & numb] ( ! />s4 ,! di/ances & numb] may safely be tak5 z giv5 by ,jeans 9 ! calculations already cit$4 ,z to ! diamet]s1 ! measurem5ts ( ! />s ?us f> made indicate t ! av]age mass is ab\t twice t ( ! sun4 ,! av]age d5sity1 z d$uc$ by ,%apley#aaf f ! movem5ts ( d\ble />s1 is ab\t "o-eigh? ! sol> d5sity4 ,?is w\ld give an av]age diamet] ab\t two & a half times t ( ! sun4 ,= ! d>k />s1 we %all assume = conv5i5ce t !y are t5 times z num]\s z ! bright ones4 ,we %all also assume t _! diamet] is half t ( ! sun1 = be+ cool !y mu/ be relatively d5se1 & t _! temp]ature is ! same z t :i* we %all assume = ,jupit]4 ,z to ,jupit] we %all cont9ue our =m] assumption t a body ) f\r times ! effectiv5ess ( t planet1 :i* "h means ) twice z great a radius1 w\ld di/urb ! sun en\gh to cause glaciation4 ,x w\ld produce ab\t tw5ty times ! electro/atic effect :i* n[ appe>s to be associat$ ) ! diff]5ce 9 ,jupit]'s effect at maximum & m9imum4 ,! temp]ature ( ,jupit] mu/ also be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,! planet is suppos$ to be hot because its d5sity is l[1 be+ only ab\t #a4be t ( wat]4 ,nev]!less1 x is probably n lum9\s1 = z ,m\lton#aag puts x1 %ad[s ^u x are black & its moons %[ no sign ( illum9ation except f ! sun4 ,h5ce a temp]ature ( ab\t #fjj deg4,c41 or approximately #ijj deg4 on ! absolute scale1 seems to be ! highe/ t c reasonably be assign$ to ! cold out] lay] :5ce electrons are emitt$4 ,z to ! temp]ature ( ! sun1 we %all adopt ! common e/imate ( ab\t #fcjj deg4,c4 on ! absolute scale4 ,! o!r />s w be tak5 z av]ag+ ! same1 al?\gh ( c\rse !y v>y greatly4 ,:5 ,jeans' me?od ( calculat+ ! probability ( a mutual approa* ( ! sun & a /> is appli$ to ! assumptions giv5 above1 ! results are z %[n 9 ,table #e4 ,on t basis ! d>k />s seem to be ( negligible importance s f> z ! electrical hypo!sis is conc]n$4 ,ev5 ?\gh !y may be t5 times z num]\s z ! bright ones !re appe>s to be only "o *ance 9 #acj billion ye>s t "o ( !m w approa* ! sun closely en\gh to cause ! assum$ di/urbance ( ! sol> atmosph]e4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if all ! visible />s 7 ! size ( ! sun1 & z hot z t body1 _! electrical effect w\ld be f\rfold t ( our assum$ d>k /> because ( _! size1 & #bdja times z great because ( _! temp]ature1 or approximately #aj1jjj times z great4 ,"u su* conditions ! !oretical *ance ( an approa* t w\ld cause glaciation is "o 9 #acj million ye>s4 ,if ! av]age visible /> is some:at cool] ?an ! sun & has a radius ab\t two & "o-half times z great1 z appe>s to be ! fact1 ! *ances rise to "o 9 ?irty-eight million ye>s4 ,a slight & :olly reasonable *ange 9 our assumptions w\ld r$uce ?is la/ figure to only five or t5 million4 ,= in/ance1 ! e>?'s mean temp]ature dur+ ! glacial p]iod has be5 assum$ z #aj deg4,c4 l[] ?an n[1 b ! diff]5ce may h be5 only #f deg44 ,aga91 ! temp]ature ( ! out] atmosph]e ( ,jupit] :]e ! electrons are %ot out may be only #ejj deg4 or #gjj deg4 absolute1 in/ead ( #ijj deg44 ,or ! diamet] ( ! av]age /> may be five or t5 times t ( ! sun1 in/ead ( only two & "o-half times z great4 ,all ?is1 h[ev]1 may = ! pres5t be disreg>d$4 ,! ess5tial po9t is t ev5 :5 ! assumptions err on ! side ( cons]vatism1 ! results are ( an ord] ( magnitude :i* puts ! electrical hypo!sis )9 ! b\nds ( possibility1 :]eas simil> assumptions put ! tidal hypo!sis1 ) its s+le approa* 9 twelve billion ye>s1 f> beyond ^? limits4 ,! figures = ,betelgeuse 9 ,table #e are int]e/+4 ,at a meet+ ( ! ,am]ican ,association = ! ,advancem5t ( ,sci5ce 9 ,decemb]1 #aibj1 ,mi*elson report$ t by measurem5ts ( ! int]f]5ce ( light com+ f ! two sides ( t bright /> 9 ,orion1 ! obs]v]s at ,m\nt ,wilson _h confirm$ ! rec5t e/imates ( ?ree o!r au?orities t ! />'s diamet] is ab\t #bah million miles1 or #bej times t ( ! sun4 ,if o!r />s s mu* surpass ! e/imates ( only a decade or two ago1 ! av]age diamet] ( all ! visible />s mu/ be _m times t ( ! sun4 ,! l[ figure = ,betelgeuse 9 section ,d ( ! table means t if all ! />s 7 z l>ge z ,betelgeuse1 sev]al might (t5 be ne> en\gh to cause pr(\nd di/urbances ( ! sol> atmosph]e4 ,nev]!less1 because ( ! l[ temp]ature ( ! giant r$ />s ( ! ,betelgeuse type1 ! di/ance at :i* "o ( !m w\ld produce a giv5 electrical effect is only ab\t five times ! di/ance at :i* our assum$ av]age /> w\ld produce ! same effect4 ,?is1 to be sure1 is on ! assumption t ! radiation ( en]gy f inc&esc5t bodies v>ies accord+ to temp]ature 9 ! same ratio z ! radiation f black bodies4 ,ev5 if ?is assumption dep>ts some:at f ! tru?1 x /ill seems almo/ c]ta9 t ! l[] temp]ature ( ! r$ comp>$ ) ! high temp]ature ( ! :ite />s mu/ to a consid]able degree r$uce ! diff]5ce 9 electrical effect :i* w\ld o!rwise arise f _! size4 ,,table #e ,,!oretical ,,probability ,,( ,,/ell> ,,approa*es ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #a #b #c #d ,av]age ,d>k ,/>s ,sun ,/> ,betelgeuse ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,a4 ,approximate radius 9 miles #dcj1jjj #hfj1jjj #b1aej1jjjbah1jjj1jjj ,b4 ,assum$ temp]ature above absolute z]o4 #ijj deg4 ,c4 #fcjj deg4 ,c4 #edjj deg4 ,c4 #caej deg4 ,c4 ,c4 ,approximate !oretical di/ance at :i* /> w\ld cause sol> di/urbance great en\gh to cause glaciation 7billions#aah ( miles74 #a4b #abj #bbj #cbjj ,d4 ,av]age int]val betwe5 approa*es close en\gh to cause glaciation if all />s #acj1jjj1jjj1jjj 7 ( giv5 #aai type4 ,ye>s4 #acj1jjj1jjjch1jjj1jjj #gjj1jjj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,?us f> 9 our attempt to e/imate ! di/ance at :i* a /> might di/urb ! sun en\gh to cause glaciation on ! e>?1 we h consid]$ only ! />'s size & temp]ature4 ,no acc\nt has be5 tak5 ( ! degree to :i* its atmosph]e is di/urb$4 ,yet 9 ! case ( ! sun ?is seems to be "o ( ! mo/ important factors4 ,! magnetic field ( sunspots is sometimes #ej or #ajj times z /rong z t ( ! sun 9 g5]al4 ,! /r5g? ( ! magnetic field appe>s to dep5d on ! /r5g? ( ! electrical curr5ts 9 ! sol> atmosph]e4 ,b ! int5sity ( ! sunspots &1 by inf]5ce1 ( ! electrical curr5ts1 may dep5d on ! electrical action ( ,jupit] & ! o!r planets4 ,if we apply a simil> l9e ( reason+ to ! />s1 we are at once l$ to "q :e!r ! electrical activity ( d\ble />s may n be enorm\sly great] ?an t ( isolat$ />s l ! sun4 ,if ?is l9e ( reason+ is correct1 ! atmosph]e ( e d\ble /> mu/ be 9 a /ate ( commotion va/ly great] ?an t ( ! sun's atmosph]e ev5 :5 x is mo/ di/urb$4 ,= example1 suppose ! sun 7 accompani$ by a companion ( equal size at a di/ance ( "o million miles1 :i* w\ld make x mu* l _m kn[n d\ble />s4 ,suppose also t 9 accordance ) ! g5]al laws ( physics ! electrical effect ( ! two suns ^u "o ano!r is proportional to ! f\r? p[] ( ! temp]ature1 ! squ>e ( ! radius1 & ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance4 ,!n ! effect ( ea* sun ^u ! o!r w\ld be sixty billion 7#f x #ajaj7 times z great z ! pres5t electrical effect ( ,jupit] ^u ! sun4 ,j :at ?is w\ld mean z to ! net effect ( a pair ( su* suns ^u ! electrical pot5tial ( o!r bodies at a di/ance we c only conjecture4 ,! out/&+ fact is t ! electrical conditions ( a d\ble /> mu/ be radically diff]5t & va/ly m int5se ?an ^? ( a s+le /> l ! sun4 ,?is conclusion c>ries weighty consequ5ces4 ,at pres5t tw5ty or m />s are kn[n to be locat$ )9 ab\t #ajj trillion miles ( ! sun 7five p>secs1 z ! a/ronom]s say71 or #af4e light ye>s4 ,accord+ to ! assumptions employ$ 9 ,table #e an av]age s+le /> w\ld influ5ce ! sun en\gh to cause glaciation if x came )9 approximately #bjj billion miles4 ,if ! /> 7 d\ble1 h[ev]1 x might h an electrical capacity enorm\sly great] ?an t ( ! sun4 ,!n x w\ld be able to cause glaciation at a correspond+ly great di/ance4 ,today ,alpha ,c5tauri1 ! ne>e/ kn[n /> ab\t tw5ty-five trillion miles1 or #d4c light ye>s f ! sun1 & ,sirius1 ! brighte/ /> 9 ! heav5s1 is ab\t fifty trillion miles away1 or #h4e light ye>s4 ,if ^! />s 7 s+le & _h a diamet] ?ree times t ( ! sun1 & if !y 7 ( ! same temp]ature z has be5 assum$ = ,betelgeuse1 :i* is ab\t fifty times z f> away z ,alpha ,c5tauri1 ! relative effects ( ! ?ree />s ^u ! sun w\ld be1 approximately1 ,betelgeuse #gjj1 ,alpha ,c5tauri #bej1 ,sirius #a4 ,b ,alpha ,c5tauri is triple & ,sirius d\ble1 & bo? are mu* hott] ?an ,betelgeuse4 ,h5ce ,alpha ,c5tauri & ev5 ,sirius may be f> m effective ?an ,betelgeuse4 ,! two ma9 compon5ts ( ,alpha ,c5tauri are sep>at$ by an av]age di/ance ( ab\t #b1bjj1jjj1jjj miles1 or some:at less ?an t ( ,neptune f ! sun4 ,a ?ird & f> fa9t] />1 "o ( ! fa9te/ yet measur$1 revolves ar\nd !m at a great di/ance4 ,9 mass & brightness ! two ma9 compon5ts are ab\t l ! sun1 & we w assume t ! same is true ( _! radius4 ,!n1 accord+ to ! assumptions made above1 _! effect 9 di/urb+ "o ano!r electrically w\ld be ab\t #aj1jjj times ! total effect ( ,jupit] ^u ! sun1 or #bejj times ! effect t we h assum$ to be necess>y to produce a glacial p]iod4 ,we h already se5 9 ,table #e t1 accord+ to our assumptions1 a s+le /> l ! sun w\ld h to approa* )9 #abj billion miles ( ! sol> sy/em1 or )9 #b p] c5t ( a light ye>1 9 ord] to cause glaciation4 ,by a simil> process ( reason+ x appe>s t if ! mutual electrical excitation ( ! two ma9 p>ts ( ,alpha ,c5tauri1 reg>dless ( ! ?ird "p1 is proportional to ! app>5t excitation ( ! sun by ,jupit]1 ,alpha ,c5tauri w\ld be #ejjj times z effective z ! sun4 ,9 o!r words1 if x came )9 #h1ejj1jjj1jjj1jjj miles ( ! sun1 or #a4d light ye>s1 x w\ld s *ange ! electrical conditions z to produce a glacial epo*4 ,9 t case ,alpha ,c5tauri is n[ s ne> t x introduces a di/urb+ effect equal to ab\t "o-six? ( ! effect ne$$ to cause glaciation on ! e>?4 ,sirius & p]haps o!rs ( ! ne>] & bright] or l>g] />s may also create appreciable di/urbances 9 ! electrical condition ( ! sun's atmosph]e1 & may h done s to a mu* great] degree 9 ! pa/1 or be de/9$ to d s 9 ! future4 ,?us an electrical hypo!sis ( sol> di/urbances seems to indicate t ! position ( ! sun 9 respect to o!r />s may be a factor ( great importance 9 det]m9+ ! e>?'s climate4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #aab3 ,h4 ,h4 ,turn]3 ,on a ,long ,p]iod 9 ,*9ese ,e>?quake ,records2 ,mon4 ,n4 ,royal ,a/ron4 ,soc41 ,vol4 #gi1 #aiai1 pp4 #eca-eci2 ,vol4 #hj1 #aibj1 pp4 #fag-fai2 ,long ,p]iod ,t]ms 9 ! ,gr[? ( ,trees2 idem1 pp4#gic-hjh4 ,footnote #aac3 ,h>l[ ,%apley3 ,note on a ,possible ,factor 9 ,geologic ,climates2 ,j\r4 ,geol41 ,vol4 #bi1 ,no4 #d1 ,may1 #aiba2 ,novae & ,v>iable ,/>s1 ,pub4 ,a/ron4 ,soc4 ,pac41 ,no4 #aid1 ,aug41 #aiba4 ,footnote #aad3 ,j4 ,h4 ,jeans3 ,problems ( ,cosmogony & ,/ell> ,dynamics1 ,cambridge1 #aiai4 ,footnote #aae3 ,?is fact is s important & at ! same "t s surpris+ to ! layman1 t a quotation f ,! ,electron ,!ory ( ,matt] by ,o4 ,w4 ,ri*>dson1 #aiad1 pp4 #cbf & #ccd is "h add$4 ,x is a v famili> fact t :5 mat]ial bodies are heat$ !y emit electromagnetic radiations1 9 ! =m ( !rmal1 lum9\s1 & act9ic rays1 9 appreciable quantities4 ,su* an effect is a natural consequ5ce ( ! electron & k9etic !ories ( matt]4 ,on ! k9etic !ory1 temp]ature is a measure ( ! viol5ce ( ! motion ( ! ultimate p>ticles2 & we h se5 t on ! electron !ory1 electromagnetic radiation is a consequ5ce ( _! accel]ation4 ,! calculation ( ?is emission f ! /&po9t ( ! electron !ory alone is a v complex problem :i* takes u deeply into ! /ructure ( matt] & :i* has probably n yet be5 satisfactorily resolv$4 ,=tunately1 we c f9d out a great deal ab\t ^! ph5om5a by ! application ( g5]al pr9ciples l ! cons]vation ( en]gy & ! second law ( !rmodynamics )\t consid]+ special assumptions ab\t ! ultimate con/itution ( matt]4 ,x is to be borne 9 m9d t ! emission "u consid]ation occurs at all temp]atures al?\gh x is m m>k$ ! high] ! temp]ature4444 ,! en]gy p] unit volume1 9 vacuo1 ( ! radiation 9 equilibrium 9 an enclosure at ! absolute temp]ature1 ,t1 is equal to a univ]sal con/ant1 ,a1 multipli$ by ! f\r? p[] ( ! absolute temp]ature4 ,s9ce ! int5sity ( ! radiation is equal to ! en]gy p] unit volume multipli$ by ! velocity ( light1 x foll[s t ! =m] mu/ also be proportional to ! f\r? p[] ( ! absolute temp]ature4 ,moreov]1 if ,e is ! total emission f unit area ( a p]fectly black body1 we see f p4 #ccj t ,e,a',t#d1 :]e ,a' is a new univ]sal con/ant4 ,?is result is usually kn[n z ,/efan's ,law4 ,x 0 sugge/$ by ,/efan 9 ! inaccurate =m t ! total radiant en]gy ( emission f bodies v>ies z ! f\r? p[] ( ! absolute temp]ature1 z a g5]alization f ! results ( exp]im5ts4 ,! cr$it = %[+ t x is a consequ5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( radiation pressure comb9$ ) ! pr9ciples ( !rmodynamics is due to ,b>toli & ,boltzmann4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,quot$ by ,m\lton 9 8 ,introduction to ,a/ronomy4 ,footnote #aag3 ,introduction to ,a/ronomy4 ,footnote #aah3 ,! t]m billions1 "h & else:]e1 is us$ 9 ! ,am]ican s5se1 #aji4 ,footnote #aai3 ,! assum$ numb] ( />s "h is t5 times z great z 9 ! o!r p>ts ( ?is l9e4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,! ,,sun',s ,,j\rney ,,?r\gh ,,space ,hav+ ga9$ "s idea ( ! nature ( ! electrical hypo!sis ( sol> di/urbances & ( ! possible effect ( o!r bodies ^u ! sun's atmosph]e1 let u n[ comp>e ! a/ronomical data ) ^? ( geology4 ,let u take up five *ief po9ts = :i* ! geologi/ dem&s an explanation1 & :i* any hypo!sis mu/ meet if x is to be p]man5tly accept$4 ,^! are 7#a7 ! irregul> int]vals at :i* glacial p]iods occur2 7#b7 ! division ( glacial p]iods into epo*s sep>at$ sometimes by hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s2 7#c7 ! l5g? ( glacial p]iods & epo*s2 7#d7 ! occurr5ce ( glacial /ages & hi/oric pulsations 9 ! =m ( small climatic waves sup]pos$ ^u ! l>g] waves ( glacial epo*s2 7#e7 ! occurr5ce ( climatic conditions mu* mild] ?an ^? ( today1 n only 9 ! middle portion ( ! great geological eras1 b ev5 9 "s ( ! rec5t int]-glacial epo*s4 #a4 ,! irregul> duration ( ! int]val f "o glacial epo* to ano!r corresponds ) ! irregul> di/ribution ( ! />s4 ,if glaciation is indirectly due to /ell> influ5ces1 ! epo*s might fall close toge!r1 or might be f> ap>t4 ,if ! av]age int]val 7 t5 million ye>s1 "o int]val might be ?irty million or m & ! next only "o or two hundr$ ?\s&4 ,accord+ to ,s*u*]t1 ! kn[n p]iods ( glacial or semi-glacial climate h be5 approximately z foll[s3 ,,li/ ,,( ,,glacial ,,p]iods #a4 ,ar*eozoic4 7#a_/d ( geological "t or p]haps mu* m7 ,no kn[n glacial p]iods4 #b4 ,prot]ozoic4 7#a_/d ( geological "t7 a4 ,olde/ kn[n glacial p]iod ne> base ( ,prot]ozoic 9 ,canada4 ,evid5ce widely di/ribut$4 b4 ,indian glacial p]iod2 "t unkn[n4 c4 ,african glacial p]iod2 "t unkn[n4 d4 ,glaciation ne> end ( ,prot]ozoic 9 ,au/ralia1 ,norway1 & ,*9a4 #c4 ,paleozoic4 7#a_/d ( geological "t7 a4 ,late ,ordovician7874 ,local 9 ,arctic ,norway4 b4 ,silurian4 ,local 9 ,alaska4 c4 ,e>ly ,devonian4 ,local 9 ,s\? ,africa4 d4 ,e>ly ,p]mian4 ,_w-wide & v sev]e4 #d4 ,mesozoic & ,c5ozoic4 7#a_/d ( geological "t7 a-b4 ,none def9itely det]m9$ dur+ ,mesozoic1 al?\gh !re appe>s to h be5 p]iods ( cool+ 7a7 9 ! late ,triassic1 & 7b7 9 ! late ,cretacic1 ) at lea/ local glaciation 9 e>ly ,eoc5e4 c4 ,sev]e glacial p]iod dur+ ,plei/oc5e4 ,?is table sugge/s an int]e/+ inquiry4 ,dur+ ! la/ few decades !re has be5 great int]e/ 9 anci5t glaciation & geologi/s h c>efully exam9$ rocks ( all ages = signs ( glacial deposits4 ,9 spite ( ! l>ge p>ts ( ! e>? :i* are cov]$ ) deposits belong+ to ! ,mesozoic & ,c5ozoic1 :i* =m ! la/ qu>t] ( geological "t1 ! only signs ( actual glaciation are ^? ( ! great ,plei/oc5e p]iod & a few local occurr5ces at ! end ( ! ,mesozoic or beg9n+ ( ! ,c5ozoic4 ,late 9 ! ,triassic & e>ly 9 ! ,jurassic1 ! climate appe>s to h be5 rigor\s1 al?\gh no tillites h be5 f\nd to demon/rate glaciation4 ,9 ! prec$+ qu>t]1 t is1 ! ,paleozoic1 ! ,p]mian glaciation 0 m sev]e ?an t ( ! ,plei/oc5e1 & ! ,devonian ?an t ( ! ,eoc5e1 :ile ! ,ordovician evid5ces ( l[ temp]ature are /rong] ?an ^? at ! end ( ! ,triassic4 ,9 view ( ! fact t rocks ( ,paleozoic age cov] mu* small] areas ?an d ^? ( lat] age1 ! ?ree ,paleozoic glaciations seem to indicate a relative frequ5cy ( glaciation4 ,go+ back to ! ,prot]ozoic1 x is a/oni%+ to f9d t evid5ce ( two highly develop$ glacial p]iods1 & possibly f\r1 has be5 discov]$4 ,s9ce ! ,indian & ! ,african glaciations ( ,prot]ozoic times are z yet undat$1 we _c be sure t !y are n ( ! same date z ! o!rs4 ,nev]!less1 ev5 two is a surpris+ numb]1 = n only are mo/ ,prot]ozoic rocks s metamorphos$ t possible evid5ces ( glacial orig9 are de/roy$1 b rocks ( t age occupy f> small] areas ?an ei!r ^? ( ,paleozoic or1 /ill m1 ,mesozoic & ,c5ozoic age4 ,?us ! record ( ! la/ ?ree-qu>t]s ( geological "t sugge/s t if rocks ( all ages 7 z abundant & z easily /udi$ z ^? ( ! lat] p]iods1 ! frequ5cy ( glacial p]iods w\ld be f\nd to increase z "o goes backw>d t[>d ! beg9n+s ( ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,?is is int]e/+1 = ,jeans holds t ! *ances t ! />s w\ld approa* "o ano!r 7 probably great] 9 ! pa/ ?an at pres5t4 ,?is conclusion is bas$ on ! assumption t our univ]se is l ! spiral nebulae 9 :i* ! orbits ( ! v>i\s memb]s are ne>ly circul> dur+ ! y\ng] /ages4 ,jeans consid]s x c]ta9 t 9 su* cases ! orbits w gradually become l>g] & m elliptical because ( ! attraction ( "o body = ano!r4 ,?us z "t goes on ! />s w be m widely di/ribut$ & ! *ances ( approa* w dim9i%4 ,if ?is is correct1 ! agreem5t betwe5 a/ronomical !ory & geological conclusions sugge/s t ! two are at lea/ n 9 opposition4 ,! fir/ qu>t] ( geological "t z well z ! la/ ?ree mu/ be consid]$ 9 ?is connection4 ,dur+ ! ,ar*eozoic1 no evid5ce ( glaciation has yet be5 discov]$4 ,?is sugge/s t ! geological facts disprove ! a/ronomical !ory4 ,b our k ( e>ly geological times is extremely limit$1 s limit$ t lack ( evid5ce ( glaciation 9 ! ,ar*eozoic may h no significance4 ,ar*eozoic rocks h be5 /udi$ m9utely ov] a v small p]c5tage ( ! e>?'s l& surface4 ,moreov]1 !y are highly metamorphos$ s t1 ev5 if glacial tills exi/$1 x w\ld be h>d to recognize !m4 ,?ird1 accord+ to bo? ! nebul> & ! planetesimal hypo!ses1 x seems possible t dur+ ! e>lie/ /ages ( geological hi/ory ! e>?'s int]ior 0 some:at w>m] ?an n[1 & ! surface may h be5 w>m$ m ?an at pres5t by conduction1 by lava fl[s1 & by ! fall ( meteorites4 ,if ! e>? dur+ ! ,ar*eozoic p]iod emitt$ en\gh heat to raise its surface temp]ature a few degrees1 ! heat w\ld n prev5t ! developm5t ( l[ =ms ( life b might effectively prev5t all glaciation4 ,?is does n mean t x w\ld prev5t *anges ( climate1 b m]ely *anges s extreme t _! record w\ld be pres]v$ by means ( ice4 ,x w be mo/ int]e/+ to see :e!r future inve/igations 9 geology & a/ronomy indicate ei!r a semi-uni=m di/ribution ( glacial p]iods ?r\gh\t ! pa/1 or a m or less regul> decrease 9 frequ5cy f e>ly times d[n to ! pres5t4 #b4 ,! ,plei/oc5e glacial p]iod 0 divid$ into at lea/ f\r epo*s1 :ile 9 ! ,p]mian at lea/ "o int]-glacial epo* seems c]ta91 & 9 "s places ! alt]nation betwe5 glacial & non-glacial b$s sugge/s no less ?an n9e4 ,9 ! o!r glaciations ! evid5ce is n yet cle>4 ,! "q ( p]iodicity is s important t x ov]?r[s mo/ glacial hypo!ses4 ,inde$1 _h _! au?ors kn[n ! facts z e/abli%$ 9 rec5t ye>s1 mo/ ( ! hypo!ses w\ld nev] h be5 advanc$4 ,! c>bon dioxide hypo!sis is ! only "o :i* 0 fram$ ) geologically rapid climatic alt]nations 9 m9d4 ,x c]ta9ly expla9s ! facts ( p]iodicity bett] ?an does any ( its pr$ecessors1 b ev5 s x does n acc\nt = ! intimate way 9 :i* v>iations ( all degrees f ^? ( ! wea!r up to glacial epo*s seem to grade into "o ano!r4 ,accord+ to our /ell> hypo!sis1 occasional gr\ps ( glacial epo*s w\ld be expect$ to occur close toge!r & to =m long glacial p]iods4 ,?is is because _m ( ! />s belong to gr\ps or clu/]s 9 :i* ! />s move 9 p>allel pa?s4 ,a good example is ! clu/] 9 ! ,hyades1 :]e ,boss has /udi$ ?irty-n9e />s ) special c>e4#abj ,! />s are gr\p$ ab\t a c5t] ab\t #acj light ye>s f ! sun4 ,! />s !mselves are scatt]$ ov] an area ab\t ?irty light ye>s 9 diamet]4 ,!y av]age ab\t ! same di/ance ap>t z d ^? ne> ! sun1 b t[>d ! c5t] ( ! gr\p !y are some:at clos] toge!r4 ,! :ole ?irty-n9e sweep =w>d 9 ess5tially p>allel pa?s4 ,boss e/imates t #hjj1jjj ye>s ago ! clu/] 0 only half z f> f ! sun z at pres5t1 b probably t 0 z ne> z x has be5 dur+ rec5t geological times4 ,all ( ! ?irty-n9e />s ( ?is clu/]1 z ,m\lton#aba puts x1 are mu* great] 9 light-giv+ p[] ?an ! sun4 ,! lum9osities ( ev5 ! five smalle/ are f five to t5 times t ( ! sun1 :ile ! l>ge/ are "o hundr$ times great] 9 light-giv+ p[] ?an our own lum9>y4 ,_! masses are probably mu* great] ?an t ( ! sun4 ,if ! sun 7 to pass ?r\gh su* a clu/]1 fir/ "o /> & !n ano!r might come s ne> z to cause a pr(\nd di/urbance 9 ! sun's atmosph]e4 #c4 ,ano!r important po9t ^u :i* a glacial hypo!sis may come to grief is ! l5g? ( ! p]iods or r ( ! epo*s :i* compose ! p]iods4 ,dur+ ! la/ or ,plei/oc5e glacial p]iod ! evid5ce 9 ,am]ica & ,europe indicates t ! int]-glacial epo*s v>i$ 9 l5g? & t ! lat] ones 7 %ort] ?an ! e>li]4 ,*amb]l9 & ,salisbury1 f a comp>ison ( v>i\s au?orities1 e/imate t ! int]vals f "o glacial epo* to ano!r =m a decl9+ s]ies1 :i* may be r\ghly express$ z foll[s3 #af-h-d-b-a1 :]e unity is ! int]val f ! climax ( ! late ,wiscons91 or la/ glacial epo*1 to ! pres5t4 ,mo/ au?orities e/imate ! culm9ation ( ! late ,wiscons9 glaciation z tw5ty or ?irty ?\s& ye>s ago4 ,p5ck e/imates ! l5g? ( ! la/ int]-glacial p]iod z #fj1jjj ye>s & ! prec$+ "o z #bdj1jjj4abb ,r4 ,t4 ,*amb]l91 z already /at$1 f9ds t ! cons5sus ( op9ion is t int]-glacial epo*s h av]ag$ five times z long z glacial epo*s4 ,! actual duration ( ! v>i\s glaciations probably did n v>y 9 s great a ratio z did ! int]vals f "o glaciation to ano!r4 ,! ma9 po9t1 h[ev]1 is ! irregul>ity ( ! v>i\s p]iods4 ,! relation ( ! /ell> electrical hypo!sis to ! l5g? ( glacial epo*s may be e/imat$ f column ,c1 9 ,table #e4 ,!re we see t ! di/ances at :i* a /> might possibly di/urb ! sun en\gh to cause glaciation range all ! way f #abj billion miles 9 ! case ( a small /> l ! sun1 to #cbjj billion 9 ! case ( ,betelgeuse1 :ile = d\ble />s ! figure may rise a hundr$ times high]4 ,f ?is we c calculate h[ long x w\ld take a /> to pass f a po9t :]e its influ5ce w\ld fir/ am\nt to a qu>t] ( ! assum$ maximum to a simil> po9t on ! o!r side ( ! sun4 ,9 mak+ ^! calculations we w assume t ! relative rate at :i* ! /> & ! sun approa* ea* o!r is ab\t tw5ty-two miles p] second1 or #gjj million miles p] ye>1 :i* is ! av]age rate ( motion ( all ! kn[n />s4 ,accord+ to ! di/ances 9 ,table #e ?is gives a range f ab\t #ejj ye>s up to ab\t #aj1jjj1 :i* might rise to a million 9 ! case ( d\ble />s4 ,( c\rse ! "t might be relatively %ort if ! sun & a rapidly mov+ /> 7 approa*+ "o ano!r almo/ directly1 or extremely long if ! sun & ! /> 7 mov+ 9 almo/ ! same direction & at some:at simil> rates1--a condition m common ?an ! o!r4 ,"h1 z 9 s _m o!r cases1 ! ess5tial po9t is t ! figures :i* we ?us obta9 seem to be ( ! "r ord] ( magnitude4 #d4 ,po/-glacial climatic /ages are s well kn[n t 9 ,europe !y h def9ite names4 ,_! sequ5ce has already be5 discuss$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xii4 ,fossils f\nd 9 ! peat bogs ( ,d5m>k & ,sc&9avia1 = example1 prove t s9ce ! f9al disappe>ance ( ! cont95tal ice cap at ! close ( ! ,wiscons9 !re has be5 at lea/ "o p]iod :5 ! climate ( ,europe 0 di/9ctly mild] ?an n[4 ,directly ov]ly+ ! %eets ( glacial drift laid d[n by ! ice !re is a flora correspond+ to t ( ! pres5t tundras4 ,next come rema9s ( a =e/ vegetation dom9at$ by bir*es & popl>s1 %[+ t ! climate 0 gr[+ a little w>m]4 ,?ird1 !re foll[ evid5ces ( a /ill m favorable climate 9 ! =m ( a =e/ dom9at$ by p9es2 f\r?1 "o :]e oak pr$om9ates2 & fif?1 a flora simil> to t ( ! ,black ,=e/ ( ,g]many1 indicat+ t 9 ,sc&9avia ! temp]ature 0 !n decid$ly high] ?an today4 ,?is fif? flora has retreat$ s\?w>d once m1 hav+ be5 driv5 back to its pres5t latitude by a slight recurr5ce ( a cool /ormy climate4#abc ,9 c5tral ,asia evid5ce ( po/-glacial /ages is f\nd n only 9 five di/9ct mora9es b 9 a correspond+ s]ies ( elevat$ /r&s surr\nd+ salt lakes & ( riv] t]races 9 non-glaciat$ arid regions4#abd ,9 hi/oric z well z prehi/oric times1 z we h already se51 !re h be5 climatic fluctuations4 ,= in/ance1 ! twelf? or ?irte5? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 appe>s to h be5 almo/ z mild z n[1 z does ! sev5? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,on ! o!r h& ab\t #ajjj ,b4 ,c41 at ! "t ( ,*ri/1 & 9 ! f\rte5? c5tury !re 7 times ( relative sev]ity4 ,?us x appe>s t bo? on a l>ge & on a small scale pulsations ( climate are ! rule4 ,any hypo!sis ( climatic *anges mu/ satisfy ! p]iods ( ^! pulsations4 ,^! conditions furni% a problem :i* makes difficulty = almo/ all hypo!ses ( climatic *ange4 ,accord+ to ! pres5t hypo!sis1 e>? movem5ts su* z are discuss$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xii may cooep]ate ) two a/ronomical factors4 ,"o is ! con/ant *ange 9 ! positions ( ! />s1 a *ange :i* we h already call$ kaleidoscopic1 & ! o!r is ! fact t a l>ge proportion ( ! />s are d\ble or multiple4 ,:5 "o /> 9 a gr\p approa*es ! sun closely en\gh to cause a great sol> di/urbance1 num]\s o!rs may approa* or rec$e & h a m9or effect4 ,?us1 :5ev] ! sun is ne> gr\ps ( />s we %\ld expect t ! e>? w\ld %[ _m m9or climatic pulsations & /ages :i* might or might n be connect$ ) glaciation4 ,! hi/oric pulsations %[n 9 ! curve ( tree gr[? 9 ,cali=nia1 ,fig4 #d1 are ! sort ( *anges t w\ld be expect$ if movem5ts ( ! />s h an effect on ! sol> atmosph]e4 ,n only are fully a ?ird ( all ! visible />s d\ble1 z we h already se51 b at lea/ a t5? ( ^! are kn[n to be triple or multiple4 ,9 _m ( ! d\ble />s ! two bodies are close toge!r & revolve s rapidly t :atev] p]iodicity !y might create 9 ! sun's atmosph]e w\ld be v %ort4 ,9 ! triplets1 h[ev]1 ! ?ird /> is ord9>ily at lea/ t5 times z f> f ! o!r two z !y are f ea* o!r1 & its p]iod ( rotation sometimes runs into hundr$s or ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,an actual multiple /> 9 ! con/ellation ,pol>is w s]ve z an example4 ,! ma9 /> is believ$ by ,jeans to consi/ ( two p>ts :i* are almo/ 9 contact & :irl ar\nd ea* o!r ) extraord9>y spe$ 9 f\r days4 ,if ?is is true !y mu/ keep ea* o!r's atmosph]es 9 a /ate ( int5se commotion4 ,mu* f>!r away a ?ird /> revolves ar\nd ?is pair 9 twelve ye>s4 ,at a mu* great] di/ance a f\r? /> revolves ar\nd ! common c5t] ( gravity ( itself & ! o!r ?ree 9 a p]iod :i* may be #bj1jjj ye>s4 ,/ill m complicat$ cases probably exi/4 ,suppose su* a sy/em 7 to trav]se a pa? :]e x w\ld ex]t a p]ceptible influ5ce on ! sun = ?irty or =ty ?\s& ye>s4 ,! v>y+ movem5ts ( its memb]s w\ld produce an intricate s]ies ( cycles :i* might %[ all sorts ( major & m9or v>iations 9 l5g? & int5sity4 ,?us ! v>i$ & irregul> /ages ( glaciation & ! pulsations ( hi/oric times might be acc\nt$ = on ! hypo!sis ( ! proximity ( ! sun to a multiple />1 z well z on t ( ! less pron\nc$ approa* & recession ( a numb] ( />s4 ,9 addition to all ?is1 an almo/ inf9itely complex s]ies ( climatic *anges ( long & %ort duration might arise if ! sun pass$ ?r\gh a nebula4 #e4 ,we h se5 9 ,*apt] ,,viii t ! contra/ betwe5 ! some:at sev]e climate ( ! pres5t & ! g5]ally mild climate ( ! pa/ is "o ( ! great geological problems4 ,! glacial p]iod is n a ?+ ( ! di/ant pa/4 ,geologi/s g5]ally recognize t x is /ill ) u4 ,gre5l& & ,ant>ctica are bo? %r\d$ 9 ice %eets 9 latitudes :]e fossil floras prove t at o!r p]iods ! climate 0 z mild z 9 ,engl& or ev5 ,new ,zeal&4 ,! pres5t glaciat$ regions1 be x not$1 are on ! pol> bord]s ( ! _w's two mo/ /ormy oceanic areas1 j :]e ice w\ld be expect$ to la/ longe/ accord+ to ! sol> cyclonic hypo!sis4 ,9 contra/ ) ! semi-glacial conditions ( ! pres5t1 ! la/ int]-glacial epo* 0 s mild t n only m5 b elephants & hippopotamuses fl\ri%$ 9 c5tral ,europe1 :ile at e>li] times 9 ! middle ( long eras1 su* z ! ,paleozoic & ,mesozoic1 corals1 cycads1 & tree f]ns fl\ri%$ )9 ! ,arctic circle4 ,if ! electro-/ell> hypo!sis ( sol> di/urbances proves well f\nd$1 x may expla9 ^! peculi>ities4 ,p]iods ( mild climate w\ld repres5t a return ( ! sun & ! e>? to _! normal conditions ( quiet4 ,at su* times ! atmosph]e ( ! sun is assum$ to be little di/urb$ by sunspots1 faculae1 prom95ces1 & o!r alli$ evid5ces ( movem5ts2 & ! rice-gra9 /ructure is p]haps ! mo/ prom95t ( ! sol> m>k+s4 ,! e>? at su* times is suppos$ to be correspond+ly free f cyclonic /orms4 ,its w9ds are !n l>gely ( ! purely planet>y type1 su* z trade w9ds & we/]lies4 ,its ra9fall also is l>gely planet>y r ?an cyclonic4 ,x falls 9 places su* z ! heat equator :]e ! air rises "u ! influ5ce ( heat1 or on ! w9dw>d slopes ( m\nta9s1 or 9 regions :]e w>m w9ds bl[ f ! ocean ov] cold l&s4 ,accord+ to ! electro-/ell> hypo!sis1 ! conditions :i* prevail$ dur+ hundr$s ( millions ( ye>s ( mild climate mean m]ely t ! sol> sy/em 0 !n 9 p>ts ( ! heav5s :]e />s--especially d\ble />s--7 r>e or small1 & electrical di/urbances correspond+ly weak4 ,today1 on ! o!r h&1 ! sun is fairly ne> a numb] ( />s1 _m ( :i* are l>ge d\bles4 ,h5ce x is suppos$ to be di/urb$1 al?\gh n s mu* z at ! height ( ! la/ glacial epo*4 ,aft] ! prec$+ p>ts ( ?is book _h be5 writt51 ! assi/ance ( ,dr4 ,s*les+] made x possible to te/ ! electro-/ell> hypo!sis by comp>+ actual a/ronomical dates ) ! dates ( climatic or sol> ph5om5a4 ,9 ord] to make ?is possible1 ,dr4 ,s*les+] & 8 assi/ants h prep>$ ,table #f1 giv+ ! position1 magnitude1 & motions ( ! ?irty-eight ne>e/ />s1 & especially ! date at :i* ea* 0 ne>e/ ! sun4 ,9 column #aj :]e ! dates are giv51 a m9us sign indicates ! pa/ & a plus sign ! future4 ,dr4 ,%apley has k9dly add$ column #ab1 giv+ ! absolute magnitudes ( ! />s1 t ( ! sun be+ #d4h1 & column #ac1 %[+ _! lum9osity or absolute radiation1 t ( ! sun be+ unity4 ,f9ally1 column #ad %[s ! effective radiation receiv$ by ! sun f ea* /> :5 ! /> is at a m9imum di/ance4 ,unity 9 ?is case is ! effect ( a /> l ! sun at a di/ance ( "o light ye>4 ,x is well kn[n t radiation ( all k9ds1 includ+ light1 heat1 & electrical emissions1 v>ies 9 direct proportion to ! expos$ surface1 t is1 z ! squ>e ( ! radius ( a sph]e1 & inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance4 ,f black bodies1 z we h se51 ! total radiation v>ies z ! f\r? p[] ( ! absolute temp]ature4 ,x is n c]ta9 t ei!r light or electrical emissions f inc&esc5t bodies v>y 9 q ?is same proportion1 nor is x yet c]ta9 :e!r lum9\s & electrical emissions v>y exactly toge!r4 ,nev]!less !y are closely relat$4 ,s9ce ! light com+ f ea* /> is accurately measur$1 :ile no in=mation is available z to electrical emissions1 we h foll[$ ,dr4 ,%apley's sugge/ion & us$ ! lum9osity ( ! />s z ! be/ available measure ( total radiation4 ,?is is presumably an approximate measure ( electrical activity1 provid$ "s all[ance be made = di/urbances by outside bodies su* z companion />s4 ,h5ce ! inclusion ( column #ad4 ,,table #f ,,?irty-,,eight ,,/>s ,,hav+ ,,l>ge/ ,,kn[n ,,p>allaxes ,/> ,code #a ,groombr4 #cd #b ,greek3 e ,cassiop4 #c #d ,greek3 k ,tucanae #e ,greek3 t ,ceti #f ,greek3 d#b ,eridani #g ,greek3 e ,eridani #h #dj7j7b ,eridani #i ,cordoba ,z4 #bdc #aj ,weisse #eib #aa ,greek3 a ,c4 ,maj4 7,sirius7 #ab ,greek3 a ,c4 ,m94 7,procyon7 #ac ,f$or5ko #adeg-h #ad ,groombr4 #afah #ae ,weisse #bcd #af ,lal&e #baahe #ag ,lal&e #babeh #ah #ai ,lal&e #becgb #bj ,greek3 a ,c5tauri #ba ,greek3 x ,bootes #bb ,lal&e #bgagc #bc ,weisse #abei #bd ,lacaille #gaid #be ,greek3 b #daf #bf ,argel -#j4agdae-f #bg ,b>n>d's /> #bh #gjp ,ophiu*i #bi ,greek3 ,s #bcih #cj ,greek3 s ,draconis #ca ,greek3 a ,aquilae 7,altair7 #cb #fa ,cygni #cc ,lacaille #hgfj #cd ,greek3 e ,indi #ce ,krueg] #fj #cf ,lacaille #iceb #cg ,lal&e #dffej #ch ,c4 ,g4 ,a4 #cbdaf 7 ,d\ble />47 7#a7 7#b7 7#c7 7#d7 7#e7 7#f7 ,"r ,decl9ation ,visual ,spectrum ,prop] ,radial ,/> ,asc5sion ,greek3 d ,mag4 m ,motion ,velocity code ,greek3 a #aijj km4 p] #aijj sec4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #a #j;h #abm4#g #dc deg4#bg' #h4a ,ma #b4hi #c #b #dc 4#j #eg #ag #c4f ,f#h #a 4#bd #aj #c #dc 4#i #d #ee #ab4c ,f#j #c 4#ja 44444 #d #a #ab 4#d -#fi #bd #e4j ,f#h 4#ci #ab #e #ci 4#d -#af #bh #c4f ,k#j #a 4#ib - #af ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #f #c #ae 4#i -#dc #bg #d4c ,g#e #c 4#af #hg #g #bh 4#b - #i #dh #c4h ,k#j 4#ig #af #h #d #aj 4#g - #g #di #d4e ,g#e #d 4#jh - #db #i #e #g 4#g -#dd #ei #i4b ,k#b #h 4#ge #bdb #aj #bf 4#d - #c #db #h4h ,k#b #b 4#bb 44444 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #aa #f #dj 4#g -#af #ce -#a4f ,a#j #a 4#cb - #h #ab #g #cd 4#a #e #bi #j4e ,f#e #a 4#bd - #d #ac #i #g 4#f #ec #g #g4i 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---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #ca #de 4#i #h #cf #a4b ,a#e 4#ff - #cc #cb #ba #b 4#d #ch #ae #e4f ,k#e #e 4#bj - #fd #cc #aa 4#d -#ci #ae #f4f ,g #c 4#ec #ac #cd #ee 4#g -#eg #ab #d4h ,k#e #d 4#gj - #ci #ce #bb #bd 4#d #eg #ab #i4b 444 4#hg 44444 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #cf #ei 4#d -#cf #bf #g4a ,k #f 4#ij #ab #cg #bc #dd 4#j #a #eb #h4g ,ma #a 4#ci 44444 #ch #ei 4#e -#cg #ea #h4b ,g #f 4#je #bf 7#g7 7#i7 7#aa7 7#ac7 7#ad7 ,pres5t ,m9imum ,magnitude ,lum9osity ,effective ,p>allax ,di/ance at ,m94 ,di/4 radiation ,greek3 p ,light ,yrs4 at m9imum 7#h7 7#aj7 7#ab7 di/ance ,/> ,maximum ,"t ( ,absolute f sun ,code ,p>allax ,m9imum ,magnitude ,di/ance ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #a 4#bh 4#bh #aa4f -#djjj #h4a #aj4c #j4jjfc #j4jjjjea #b 4#ah 4#ai #ag4a -#dgjjj #c4e #d4i #j4ia #j4jjcaaj #c 4#bd 4444 4444 444444 4444 #ad4b #j4jjjag 44444444 #d 4#af 4#bc #ad4b -#bfdjjj #d4b #f4j #j4cc #j4jjafaj #e 4#cb 4#cg #h4h #dfjjj #c4c #f4a #j4cj #j4jjchdj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #f 4#af 4#bb #ad4h -#ccjjj #c4f #e4c #j4fc #j4jjbifj #g 4#ca 4#df #g4a -#ajfjjj #c4j #f4c #j4be #j4jjdigj #h 4#ba 4#bc #ad4b #aijjj #d4c #f4a #j4cj #j4jjadgj #i 4#cb 4#fh #d4h -#ajjjj #g4f #aa4g #j4jjag #j4jjjjgd #aj 4#ag 4444 4444 444444 4444 #i4i #j4jji 44444444 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #aa 4#cg 4#da #h4j #fejjj -#a4h #a4b #bg4ej #j4dbijjj #ab 4#ca 4#cb #aj4b #cdjjj #j4e #c4j #e4be #j4jeacjj #ac 4#af 4#af #bj4d -#bdjjj #g4i #h4i #j4jbc #j4jjjjee #ad 4#ah 4#bc #ad4b #fijjj #f4c #h4a #j4jdh #j4jjjbch #ae 4#ai 4444 4444 444444 4444 #aj4d #j4jjeg 44444444 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #af 4#da 4#gf #d4c #bjjjj #f4b #aj4g #j4jjdd #j4jjjbch #ag 4#ai 4#bb #ad4h -#bjjjj #h4b #i4i #j4jji #j4jjjjda #ah 4#cd 4444 4444 444444 4444 #ad4g #j4jjjaa 44444444 #ai 4#ai 4444 4444 444444 4444 #i4i #j4jji 44444444 #bj 4#gf #a4jc #c4b -#bhjjj -#j4e #d4f #a4bj #j4aagejj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #ba 4#ag 4#bb #ad4h -#eihjjj #d4j #e4h #j4dj #j4jjahae #bb 4#ah 4#ai #ag4a -#cfjjj #e4f #g4a #j4ab #j4jjjdab #bc 4#ah 4444 4444 444444 4444 #i4g #j4jaa 44444444 #bd 4#ai 4444 4444 444444 4444 #g4a #j4ab 44444444 #be 4#ag 4#ag #ai4b #bajjj #e4g #g4a #j4ab #j4jjjcbi ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #bf 4#bb 4444 4444 444444 4444 #aj4h #j4jjd 44444444 #bg 4#ec 4#gj #d4g #ajjjj #i4a #ac4c #j4jjbe #j4jjjaad #bh 4#ai 4444 4444 444444 4444 #e4g #j4dd 44444444 #bi 4#bi 4444 4444 444444 4444 #aa4a #j4jjcj 44444444 #cj 4#bj 4#bc #ad4b -#dijjj #d4e #f4c #j4be #j4jjabch ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #ca 4#ba 4#ea #f4d #aagjjj -#j4g #b4h #f4cj #j4aecfjj #cb 4#cj 4#ch #h4f #aijjj #e4a #h4j #j4jec #j4jjjgae #cc 4#be 4#bf #ab4f -#aajjj #f4f #h4f #j4jcj #j4jjjahi #cd 4#bh 4#ca #aj4e #agjjj #d4f #g4j #j4ac #j4jjabcj #ce 4#bf 4444 4444 4444444 4444 #aa4c #j4jjbe 44444444 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #cf 4#bi 4#bi #aa4b -#cjjj #g4a #i4d #j4jad #j4jjjaaa #cg 4#ag 4444 4444 4444444 4444 #i4i #j4jji 44444444 #ch 4#bb 4#bb #ad4h -#gjjj #h4b #i4i #j4jji #j4jjjjda ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,on ! basis ( column #ad & ( ! movem5ts & di/ances ( ! />s z giv5 9 ! o!r columns ,fig4 #aj has be5 prep>$4 ,?is gives an e/imate ( ! approximate electrical en]gy receiv$ by ! sun f ! ne>e/ />s = #gj1jjj ye>s be=e & aft] ! pres5t4 ,x is bas$ on ! tw5ty-six />s = :i* complete data are available 9 ,table #f4 ,! inclusion ( ! o!r twelve w\ld n alt] ! =m ( ! curve1 = ev5 ! l>ge/ ( !m w\ld n *ange any "p by m ?an ab\t half ( #a p] c5t1 if z mu*4 ,nor w\ld ! curve be visibly alt]$ by ! omission ( all except f\r ( ! tw5ty-six />s actually us$4 ,! f\r t are important1 & _! relative lum9osity :5 ne>e/ ! sun1 are ,sirius #dbi1jjj1 ,altair #aec1jjj1 ,alpha ,c5tauri #aag1ejj1 & ,procyon #ea1cjj4 ,! figure = ! next /> is only #digj1 :ile = ?is /> comb9$ ) ! o!r tw5ty-"o t are unimportant x is only #bd1hej4 ,figure #aj is n c>ri$ m ?an #gj1jjj ye>s into ! pa/ or into ! future because ! />s ne> ! sun at m remote times are n includ$ among ! ?irty-eight hav+ ! l>ge/ kn[n p>allaxes4 ,t is1 !y h ei!r mov$ away or are n yet ne> en\gh to be includ$4 ,inde$1 z ,dr4 ,s*les+] /rongly emphasizes1 !re may be swiftly mov+1 bright or gigantic />s :i* are n[ q f> away1 b ^: inclusion w\ld alt] ,fig4 #aj ev5 )9 ! limits ( ! #adj1jjj ye>s !re %[n4 ,x is almo/ c]ta91 h[ev]1 t ! mo/ t ^! w\ld d w\ld be to raise1 b n oblit]ate1 ! m9ima on ei!r side ( ! ma9 maximum4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,climatic *anges ( #adj1jjj ye>s z inf]r$ f ! />s4 ,9 prep>+ ,fig4 #aj x has be5 necess>y to make all[ance = d\ble />s4 ,pass+ by ! tw5ty-two unimportant />s1 x appe>s t ! companion ( ,sirius is eight or t5 magnitudes small] ?an t />1 :ile ! companions ( ,procyon & ,altair are five or m magnitudes small] ?an _! bright comrades4 ,?is means t ! lum9osity ( ! fa9t compon5ts is at mo/ only #a p] c5t ( t ( _! bright companions & 9 ! case ( ,sirius n a hundr$? ( #a p] c5t4 ,h5ce _! inclusion w\ld h no visible effect on ,fig4 #aj4 ,9 ,alpha ,c5tauri1 on ! o!r h&1 ! two compon5ts are ( almo/ ! same magnitude4 ,= ?is reason ! effective radiation ( t /> z giv5 9 column #ad is d\bl$ 9 ,fig4 #aj1 :ile = ano!r reason x is rais$ /ill m4 ,! o!r reason is t if our inf]5ces z to ! electrical effect ( ! sun on ! e>? & ( ! planets on ! sun are correct1 d\ble />s1 z we h se51 mu/ be mu* m effective electrically ?an s+le />s4 ,by ! same reason+ two bright />s close toge!r mu/ excite "o ano!r mu* m ?an a bright /> & a v fa9t "o1 ev5 if ! di/ances 9 bo? cases are ! same4 ,s1 too1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 a triple /> mu/ be m excit$ electrically ?an a d\ble />4 ,h5ce 9 prep>+ ,fig4 #aj all d\ble />s receive d\ble weight & ea* "p ( ,alpha ,c5tauri receives an additional #ej p] c5t because bo? p>ts are bright & because !y h a ?ird companion to help 9 excit+ !m4 ,accord+ to ! electro-/ell> hypo!sis1 ,alpha ,c5tauri is m important climatically ?an any o!r /> 9 ! heav5s n only because x is triple & bright1 b because x is ! ne>e/ ( all />s1 & moves fairly rapidly4 ,sirius & ,procyon move sl[ly 9 respect to ! sun1 only ab\t elev5 & eight kilomet]s p] second respectively1 & _! di/ances at m9imum are fairly l>ge1 t is1 #h & #aj4b light ye>s4 ,h5ce _! effect on ! sun *anges sl[ly4 ,altair moves fa/]1 ab\t tw5ty-six kilomet]s p] second1 & its m9imum di/ance is #f4d light ye>s1 s t its effect *anges fairly rapidly4 ,alpha ,c5tauri moves ab\t tw5ty-f\r kilomet]s p] second1 & its m9imum di/ance is only #c4b light ye>s4 ,h5ce its effect *anges v rapidly1 ! *ange 9 its app>5t lum9osity z se5 f ! sun am\nt+ at maximum to ab\t #cj p] c5t 9 #aj1jjj ye>s aga9/ #ad p] c5t = ,altair1 #d = ,sirius1 & #b = ,procyon4 ,! va/ majority ( ! />s *ange s mu* m sl[ly ?an ev5 ,procyon t _! effect is almo/ uni=m4 ,all ! />s at a di/ance ( m ?an p]haps tw5ty or ?irty light ye>s may be reg>d$ z s5d+ to ! sun a practically un*ang+ am\nt ( radiation4 ,x is ! bright />s )9 ?is limit :i* are important1 & _! importance increases ) _! proximity1 _! spe$ ( motion1 & ! brightness & numb] ( _! companions4 ,h5ce ,alpha ,c5tauri causes ! ma9 maximum 9 ,fig4 #aj1 :ile ,sirius1 ,altair1 & ,procyon comb9e to cause a g5]al rise ( ! curve f ! pa/ to ! future4 ,let u n[ int]pret ,fig4 #aj geologically4 ,! l[ position ( ! curve fifty to sev5ty ?\s& ye>s ago sugge/s a mild int]-glacial climate di/9ctly less sev]e ?an t ( ! pres5t4 ,geologi/s say t su* 0 ! case4 ,! curve sugge/s a glacial epo* culm9at+ ab\t #bh1jjj ye>s ago4 ,! be/ au?orities put ! climax ( ! la/ glacial epo* betwe5 tw5ty-five & ?irty ?\s& ye>s ago4 ,! curve %[s an amelioration ( climate s9ce t "t1 al?\gh x sugge/s t !re is /ill consid]able sev]ity4 ,! retreat ( ! ice f ,nor? ,am]ica & ,europe1 & its p]si/5ce 9 ,gre5l& & ,ant>ctica agree ) ?is4 ,& ! curve indicates t ! *ange ( climate is /ill p]si/+1 a conclusion 9 h>mony ) ! evid5ce z to hi/oric *anges4 ,if ,alpha ,c5tauri is really s important1 ! effect ( its v>iations1 provid$ x has any1 ought p]haps to be evid5t 9 ! sun4 ,! activity ( ! />'s atmosph]e presumably v>ies1 = ! orbits ( ! two compon5ts h an ecc5tricity ( #j4ea4 ,h5ce dur+ _! p]iod ( revolution1 #ha4b ye>s1 ! di/ance betwe5 !m ranges f #a1ajj1jjj1jjj to #c1cjj1jjj1jjj miles4 ,!y 7 at a m9imum di/ance 9 #achh1 #adei1 #aeej1 #afca1 #agac1 #agid1 #ahge1 & w be aga9 9 #aief4 ,9 ,fig4 #aa1 %[+ sunspot v>iations1 x is noticeable t ! ye>s #agid & #ahge come j at ! ends ( p]iods ( unusual sol> activity1 z indicat$ by ! heavy horizontal l9e4 ,a simil> p]iod ( great activity seems to h begun ab\t #aiad4 ,if its duration equals ! av]age ( its two pr$ecessors1 x w end ab\t #aiej4 ,back 9 ! f\rte5? c5tury a p]iod ( excessive sol> activity1 :i* has already be5 describ$1 culm9at$ f #acgj to #ache1 or j be=e ! two p>ts ( ,alpha ,c5tauri 7 at a m9imum di/ance4 ,?us 9 ?ree & p]haps f\r cases ! sun has be5 unusually active dur+ a "t :5 ! two p>ts ( ! /> 7 mo/ rapidly approa*+ ea* o!r & :5 _! atmosph]es 7 presumably mo/ di/urb$ & _! electrical emanations /ronge/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,sunspot curve %[+ cycles1 #agej to #aibj4 ,note4 ,! a/]isks indicate two absolute m9ima ( sunspots 9 #ahaj & #aiac1 & ! middle ye>s 7#aghj & #ahed7 ( two p]iods :5 ! sunspot maxima nev] fell bel[ #ie4 ,if ,alpha ,c5tauri has an effect on ! sun's atmosph]e1 ! end ( ano!r su* p]iod w\ld be expect$ n f> f #aieg4 ,! fact t ,alpha ,c5tauri1 ! /> :i* w\ld be expect$ mo/ /rongly to influ5ce ! sun1 & h5ce ! e>?1 0 ne>e/ ! sun at ! climax ( ! la/ glacial epo*1 & t today ! sol> atmosph]e is mo/ active :5 ! /> is presumably mo/ di/urb$ may be ( no significance4 ,x is giv5 = :at x is wor?4 ,its importance lies n 9 ! fact t x proves any?+ b t no contradiction is f\nd :5 we te/ ! electro-/ell> hypo!sis by facts :i* 7 n ?\ght ( :5 ! hypo!sis 0 fram$4 ,a va/ am\nt ( a/ronomical "w is /ill ne$$ be=e ! matt] c be br\ght to any def9ite conclusion4 ,9 case ! hypo!sis /&s firm1 x may be possible to use ! />s z a help 9 det]m9+ ! exact *ronology ( ! lat] "p ( geological times4 ,if ! hypo!sis is disprov$1 x w m]ely leave ! "q ( sol> v>iations :]e x is today4 ,x w n influ5ce ! ma9 conclusions ( ?is book z to ! causes & nature ( climatic *anges4 ,its value lies 9 ! fact t x calls att5tion to new l9es ( rese>*4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #abj3 ,lewis ,boss3 ,conv]g5t ( a ,mov+ ,clu/] 9 ,taurus2 ,a/ronom4 ,j\r41 ,vol4 #bf1 ,no4 #d1 #aijh1 pp4 #ca-cf4 ,footnote #aba3 ,f4 ,r4 ,m\lton3 9 ,introduction to ,a/ronomy1 #aiaf4 ,footnote #abb3 ,a4 ,p5ck3 ,die ,alp5 im ,eiszeitalt]1 ,leipzig1 #aiji4 ,footnote #abc3 ,r4 ,d4 ,salisbury3 ,physical ,geography ( ! ,plei/oc5e1 9 ,outl9es ( ,geologic ,hi/ory1 by ,willis & ,salisbury1 #aiaj1 pp4 #bgc-bgd4 ,footnote #abd3 ,davis1 ,pumpelly1 & ,hunt+ton3 ,explorations 9 ,turke/an1 ,c>negie ,in/4 ( ,wa%41 ,no4 #bf1 #aije4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica ! /ages h be5 ! subject ( int5sive /udies on ! "p ( ,taylor1 ,lev]ett1 ,gold?wait1 & _m o!rs4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,! ,,e>?',s ,,cru/ ,,& ,,! ,,sun ,al?\gh ! problems ( ?is book may lead f> afield1 !y ultimately br+ u back to ! e>? & to ! pres5t4 ,sev]al times 9 ! prec$+ pages !re has be5 m5tion ( ! fact t p]iods ( extreme climatic fluctuations are closely associat$ ) great movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ :]eby m\nta9s are uplift$ & cont95ts upheav$4 ,9 attempt+ to expla9 ?is association ! g5]al t5d5cy has be5 to look l>gely at ! pa/ in/ead ( ! pres5t4 ,h5ce x has be5 almo/ impossible to *oose among ?ree possibilities1 all beset ) difficulties4 ,fir/1 ! movem5ts ( ! cru/ may h caus$ ! climatic fluctuations2 second1 climatic *anges may cause cru/al movem5ts2 & ?ird1 v>iations 9 sol> activity or 9 "s o!r outside ag5cy may give rise to bo? types ( t]re/rial ph5om5a4 ,! idea t movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ are ! ma9 cause ( geological *anges ( climate is becom+ increas+ly unt5able z ! complexity & rapidity ( climatic *anges become m cle>1 especially dur+ po/-glacial times4 ,x implies t ! e>?'s surface moves up & d[n ) a spe$ & facility :i* appe> to be out ( ! "q4 ,if volcanic activity be invok$ ! problem becomes no cle>]4 ,ev5 if volcanic du/ %\ld fill ! air frequ5tly & completely1 nei!r its pres5ce nor abs5ce w\ld produce su* peculi> features z ! localization ( glaci]s1 ! di/ribution ( loess1 & ! mild climate ( mo/ p>ts ( geological "t4 ,nev]!less1 because ( ! great difficulties pres5t$ by ! o!r two possibilities _m geologi/s /ill hold t directly or indirectly ! great] climatic *anges h be5 ma9ly due to movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ & to ! reaction ( ! cru/al movem5ts on ! atmosph]e4 ,! possibility t climatic *anges are 9 !mselves a cause ( movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ seems s improbable t no "o appe>s to h inve/igat$ x ) any s]i\sness4 ,nev]!less1 x is wor? :ile to raise ! "q :e!r climatic extremes may cooep]ate ) o!r ag5cies 9 sett+ ! "t :5 ! e>?'s cru/ %all be de=m$4 ,z to ! ?ird possibility1 x is p]fectly logical to ascribe bo? climatic *anges & cru/al de=mation to "s outside ag5cy1 sol> or o!rwise1 b hi!rto !re has be5 s little evid5ce on ?is po9t t su* an ascription has m]ely begg$ ! "q4 ,if heav5ly bodies %\ld approa* ! e>? closely en\gh s t _! gravitational /resses caus$ cru/al de=mation1 all life w\ld presumably be de/roy$4 ,z to ! sun1 !re has hi!rto be5 no conclusive evid5ce t x is relat$ to cru/al movem5ts1 al?\gh v>i\s writ]s h made sugge/ions along ?is l9e4 ,9 ?is *apt] we %all c>ry ^! sugge/ions fur!r & %all see t !y are at lea/ wor?y ( /udy4 ,z a prelim9>y to ?is /udy x may be well to note t ! co9cid5ce betwe5 movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ & climatic *anges is n s absolute z is sometimes suppos$4 ,= example1 ! pr(\nd cru/al *anges at ! end ( ! ,mesozoic 7 n accompani$ by widespread glaciation s f> z is yet kn[n1 al?\gh ! temp]ature appe>s to h be5 l[]$4 ,nor 0 ! viol5t volcanic & dia/rophic activity 9 ! ,mioc5e associat$ ) extreme climates4 ,inde$1 !re appe>s to h be5 little contra/ f zone to zone1 = figs1 bread fruit trees1 tree f]ns1 & o!r plants ( l[ latitudes grew 9 ,gre5l&4 ,nev]!less1 bo? at ! end ( ! ,mesozoic & 9 ! ,mioc5e ! climate may possibly h be5 sev]e = a "t1 al?\gh ! record is lo/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,kirk's rec5t discov]y ( glacial till 9 ,alaska betwe5 b$s c>ry+ an und\bt$ ,middle ,silurian fauna indicates glaciation at a "t :5 !re 0 little movem5t ( ! cru/ s f> z yet appe>s4#abe ,?us we conclude t :ile climatic *anges & cru/al movem5ts usually occur toge!r1 !y may occur sep>ately4 ,accord+ to ! sol>-cyclonic hypo!sis su* a condition is to be expect$4 ,if ! sun 7 especially active :5 ! t]re/rial conditions prohibit$ glaciation1 *anges ( climate w\ld /ill occur1 b !y w\ld be mild] ?an "u o!r circum/ances1 & w\ld leave little record 9 ! rocks4 ,or !re might be glaciation 9 high latitudes1 su* z t ( s\!rn ,alaska 9 ! ,middle ,silurian1 & none else:]e4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! sun 0 s inactive t no great /orm9ess occurr$1 ! upheaval ( cont95ts & ! build+ ( m\nta9s might g on )\t ! =mation ( ice %eets1 z app>5tly happ5$ at ! end ( ! ,mesozoic4 ,! lack ( absolute co9cid5ce betwe5 glaciation & p]iods ( widespread em]g5ce ( ! l&s is evid5t ev5 today1 = !re is no reason to suppose t ! l&s are notably l[] or less ext5sive n[ ?an !y 7 dur+ ! ,plei/oc5e glaciation4 ,9 fact1 !re is mu* evid5ce t _m areas h ris5 s9ce t "t4 ,yet glaciation is n[ f> less ext5sive ?an 9 ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,any attempt to expla9 ?is diff]5ce on ! basis ( t]re/rial *anges is extremely difficult1 = ! %ape & altitude ( cont95ts & m\nta9s h n *ang$ mu* 9 tw5ty or ?irty ?\s& ye>s4 ,yet ! pres5t mod]ately mild epo*1 l ! puzzl+ int]-glacial epo*s ( e>li] times1 is easily explicable on ! assumption t ! sun's atmosph]e may sometimes v>y 9 h>mony ) cru/al activity1 b does n necess>ily d s at all times4 ,turn+ n[ to ! ma9 problem ( h[ climatic *anges may be connect$ ) movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/1 let u foll[ our usual me?od & exam9e :at is happ5+ today4 ,let u fir/ inquire :e!r e>?quakes1 :i* are "o ( ! *ief evid5ces t cru/al movem5ts are actually tak+ place 9 our own times1 %[ any connection ) sunspots4 ,9 ord] to te/ ?is1 we h comp>$ ,milne's ,catalogue ( ,de/ructive ,e>?quakes f #ahjj to #ahii1 ) ,wolf's sunspot numb]s = ! same p]iod mon? by mon?4 ,! e>?quake catalogue1 z its compil] describes x1 is an attempt to give a li/ ( e>?quakes :i* h ann\nc$ *anges ( geological importance 9 ! e>?'s cru/2 movem5ts :i* h probably result$ 9 ! creation or ! ext5sion ( a l9e ( fault1 ! vibrations accompany+ :i* c\ld1 ) prop] in/rum5ts1 h be5 record$ ov] a cont95t or ! :ole surface ( our _w4 ,small e>?quakes h be5 exclud$1 :ile ! numb] ( l>ge e>?quakes bo? = anci5t & mod]n times has be5 ext5d$4 ,z an illu/ration ( exclusion1 ,i may m5tion t betwe5 #ahjj & #ahjh1 :i* are ye>s tak5 at r&om1 ,i f9d 9 ,mallet's catalogue #djg entries4 ,only ?irty-sev5 ( ^!1 :i* 7 accompani$ by /ructural damage1 h be5 reta9$4 ,o!r catalogues su* z ^? ( ,p]ry & ,fu*s h be5 treat$ simil>ly4#abf ,if ! e>?quakes 9 su* a c>efully select$ li/ be> a di/9ct relation to sunspots1 x is at lea/ possible & p]haps probable t a simil> relation may exi/ betwe5 sol> activity & geological *anges 9 ! e>?'s cru/4 ,! result ( ! comp>ison ( e>?quakes & sunspots is %[n 9 ,table #g4 ,! fir/ column gives ! sunspot numb]s2 ! second1 ! numb] ( mon?s t _h ! respective spot numb]s dur+ ! c5tury f #ahjj to #ahii4 ,column ,c %[s ! total numb] ( e>?quakes dur+ ! mon?s hav+ any p>ticul> degree ( spott$ness2 :ile ,d1 :i* is ! significant column1 gives ! av]age numb] ( de/ructive e>?quakes p] mon? "u ea* ( ! six conditions ( sol> spott$ness4 ,! regul>ity ( column ,d is s great z to make x almo/ c]ta9 t we are "h deal+ ) a real relation%ip4 ,column ,f1 :i* %[s ! av]age numb] ( e>?quakes 9 ! mon? succe$+ any giv5 condition ( ! sun1 is /ill m regul> except = ! la/ entry4 ,,table #g ,,de/ructive ,,e>?quakes ,,f #ahjj ,,to #ahii ,,comp>$ ,,) ,,sunspots ,a3 ,sunspot numb]s ,b3 ,numb] ( mon?s p] ,wolf's ,table ,c3 ,numb] ( e>?quakes ,d3 ,av]age numb] ( e>?quakes p] mon? ,e3 ,numb] ( e>?quakes 9 succe$+ mon? ,f3 ,av]age numb] ( e>?quakes 9 succe$+ mon? ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f #j-ae #cdd #ebb #a4eb #eab #a4di #ae-cj #aid #cjf #a4eh #caj #a4fj #cj-ej #bcg #dcc #a4hc #dci #a4he #ej-gj #aie #djb #b4jf #cij #b4jj #gj-ajj #ace #bhf #b4ab #caj #b4cj ov] #ajj #ie #bah #b4cj #age #a4hd ,! *ance t six numb]s tak5 at r&om w arrange !mselves 9 any giv5 ord] is "o 9 #gbj4 ,9 o!r words1 !re is "o *ance 9 #gbj t ! regul>ity ( column ,d is accid5tal4 ,b column ,f is z regul> z column ,d except = ! la/ entry4 ,if columns ,d & ,e 7 indep5d5t !re w\ld be "o *ance 9 ab\t #ejj1jjj t ! six numb]s 9 bo? columns w\ld fall 9 ! same ord]1 & "o *ance 9 #ad1djj t five numb]s 9 ea* w\ld fall 9 ! same ord]4 ,b ! two columns are some:at relat$1 = al?\gh ! aft]-%ocks ( a great e>?quake are nev] includ$ 9 ,milne's table1 a _w-%ak+ e>?quake 9 "o region dur+ a giv5 mon? probably creates conditions t favor simil> e>?quakes else:]e dur+ ! next mon?4 ,h5ce ! probability t we are deal+ ) a purely accid5tal arrangem5t 9 ,table #g is less ?an "o 9 #ad1djj & great] ?an "o 9 #ejj1jjj4 ,x may be "o 9 #bj1jjj or #ajj1jjj4 ,9 any ev5t x is s slight t !re is high probability t directly or indirectly sunspots & e>?quakes are someh[ connect$4 ,9 asc]ta9+ ! relation betwe5 sunspots & e>?quakes x w\ld be well if we c\ld employ ! /rict me?od ( correlation coeffici5ts4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is impossible = ! entire c5tury1 = ! record is by no means homog5e\s4 ,! e>li] decades are repres5t$ by only ab\t "o-f\r? z _m e>?quakes z ! lat] ones1 a condition :i* is presumably due to lack ( in=mation4 ,?is makes no diff]5ce ) ! me?od employ$ 9 ,table #g1 s9ce ye>s ) _m & few sunspots are di/ribut$ almo/ equally ?r\gh\t ! entire n9ete5? c5tury1 b x r5d]s ! me?od ( correlation coeffici5ts inapplicable4 ,dur+ ! p]iod f #ahej onw>d ! record is mu* m ne>ly homog5e\s1 ?\gh n completely s4 ,ev5 9 ^! lat] decades1 h[ev]1 all[ance mu/ be made = ! fact t !re are m e>?quakes 9 w9t] ?an 9 summ]1 ! av]age numb] p] mon? = ! fifty ye>s be+ z foll[s3 ,jan4 #b4h ,may #b4d ,sept4 #b4e ,feb4 #b4d ,june #b4c ,oct4 #b4f ,m>4 #b4e ,july #b4d ,nov4 #b4g ,apr4 #b4d ,aug4 #b4d ,dec4 #b4h ,! correlation coeffici5t betwe5 ! dep>tures f ^! mon?ly av]ages & ! correspond+ dep>tures f ! mon?ly av]ages ( ! sunspots = ! same p]iod1 #ahej-ahii1 are z foll[s3 ,sunspots & e>?quakes ( same mon?3 #j4jdb1 or #a4e times ! probable error4 ,sunspots ( a giv5 mon? & e>?quakes ( t mon? & ! next3 #j4jhd1 or #c4a times ! probable error4 ,sunspots ( ?ree consecutive mon?s & e>?quakes ( ?ree consecutive mon?s all[+ a lag ( "o mon?1 i4e41 sunspots ( ,janu>y1 ,febru>y1 & ,m>* comp>$ ) e>?quakes ( ,febru>y1 ,m>*1 & ,april2 sunspots ( ,febru>y1 ,m>*1 & ,april ) e>?quakes ( ,m>*1 ,april1 & ,may1 etc42 #j4aab1 or #d4a times ! probable error4 ,^! coeffici5ts are all small1 b ! numb] ( individual cases1 #fjj mon?s1 is s l>ge t ! probable error is greatly r$uc$1 be+ only -#j4jbg or -#j4jbh4 ,moreov]1 ! nature ( our data is su* t ev5 if !re is a /rong connection betwe5 sol> *anges & e>? movem5ts1 we %\ld n expect a l>ge correlation coeffici5t4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 z already m5tion$1 ! e>?quake data are n /rictly homog5e\s4 ,second1 an av]age ( ab\t two & "o-half /rong e>?quakes p] mon? is at be/ only a mo/ imp]fect indication ( ! actual movem5t ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,?ird1 ! sunspots are only a p>tial & imp]fect measure ( ! activity ( ! sun's atmosph]e4 ,f\r?1 ! relation betwe5 sol> activity & e>?quakes is almo/ c]ta9ly indirect4 ,9 view ( all ^! conditions1 ! regul>ity ( ,table #g & ! fact t ! mo/ important correlation coeffici5t rises to m ?an f\r times ! probable error makes x almo/ c]ta9 t ! sol> & t]re/rial ph5om5a are really connect$4 ,we are n[ confront$ by ! p]plex+ "q ( h[ ?is connection c take place4 ,?us f> only ?ree possibilities pres5t !mselves1 & ea* is op5 to objections4 ,! *ief ag5cies conc]n$ 9 ^! ?ree possibilities are heat1 electricity1 & atmosph]ic pressure4 ,heat may be dismiss$ v briefly4 ,we h se5 t ! e>?'s surface becomes relatively cool :5 ! sun is active4 ,!oretically ev5 ! slighte/ *ange 9 ! temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface mu/ influ5ce ! !rmal gradi5t f> into ! int]ior & h5ce cause a *ange ( volume :i* might cause movem5ts ( ! cru/4 ,practically ! heat ( ! surface ceases to be ( appreciable importance at a dep? ( p]haps tw5ty feet1 & ev5 at t dep? x does n act quickly en\gh to cause ! relatively prompt response :i* seems to be *>act]i/ic ( e>?quakes 9 respect to ! sun4 ,! second possibility is bas$ on ! relation%ip betwe5 sol> & t]re/rial electricity4 ,:5 ! sun is active ! e>?'s atmosph]ic electrical pot5tial is subject to slight v>iations4 ,x is well kn[n t :5 two oppos+ po9ts ( an ioniz$ solution are oppositely *>g$ electrically1 a curr5t passes ?r\gh ! liquid & sets up electrolysis :]eby !re is a segregation ( mat]ials1 & a consequ5t *ange 9 ! volume ( ! p>ts ne> ! respective electrical poles4 ,! same process takes place1 al?\gh less freely1 9 a hot mass su* z =ms ! int]ior ( ! e>?4 ,! "q arises :e!r int]nal electrical curr5ts may n pass betwe5 ! two oppositely *>g$ poles ( ! e>?1 or ev5 betwe5 ! great cont95tal masses & ! regions ( heavi] rock :i* und]lie ! oceans4 ,c\ld ?is lead to electrolysis1 h5ce to diff]5tiation 9 volume1 & ?us to movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/8 ,c\ld ! results v>y 9 h>mony ) ! sun8 ,b[ie#abg has %[n t num]\s measurem5ts ( ! /r5g? & direction ( ! e>?'s gravitative pull are explicable only on ! assumption t ! upheaval ( a cont95t or a m\nta9 range is due 9 "p n m]ely to pressure1 or ev5 to fl[age ( ! rocks b5ea? ! cru/1 b also to an actual *ange 9 volume :]eby ! rocks b5ea? ! cont95t atta9 relatively great volume & ^? "u ! oceans a small volume 9 proportion to _! weight4 ,! qu]y arises :e!r ?is *ange ( volume may be relat$ to electrical curr5ts at "s dep? bel[ ! e>?'s surface4 ,! objections to ?is hypo!sis are num]\s4 ,fir/1 !re is little evid5ce ( electrolytic diff]5tiation 9 ! rocks4 ,second1 ! out] "p ( ! e>?'s cru/ is a v poor conductor s t x is d\btful :e!r ev5 a high degree ( electrification ( ! surface w\ld h mu* effect on ! int]ior4 ,?ird1 electrolysis due to any su* mild causes z we h "h po/ulat$ mu/ be an extremely sl[ process1 too sl[1 presumably1 to h any appreciable result )9 a mon? or two4 ,o!r objections jo9 ) ^! ?ree 9 mak+ x seem improbable t ! sun's electrical activity has any direct effect ^u movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,! ?ird1 or meteorological hypo!sis1 :i* makes b>ometric pressure ! ma9 int]m$i>y betwe5 sol> activity & e>?quakes1 seems at fir/ sight almo/ z improbable z ! !rmal & electrical hypo!ses4 ,nev]!less1 x has a c]ta9 degree ( obs]vational support ( a k9d :i* is :olly lack+ 9 ! o!r two cases4 ,among ! ext5sive writ+s on ! p]iodicity ( e>?quakes "o ma9 fact /&s out ) great di/9ctness3 e>?quakes v>y 9 numb] accord+ to ! season4 ,?is fact has already be5 %[n incid5tally 9 ! table ( e>?quake frequ5cy by mon?s4 ,if all[ance is made = ! fact t ,febru>y is a %ort mon?1 !re is a regul> decrease 9 ! frequ5cy ( sev]e e>?quakes f ,decemb] & ,janu>y to ,june4 ,s9ce mo/ ( ,milne's e>?quakes occurr$ 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 ?is means t sev]e e>?quakes occur 9 w9t] ab\t #bj p] c5t (t5] ?an 9 summ]4 ,! mo/ ?or\gh inve/igation ( ?is subject seems to h be5 t ( ,davisson4#abh ,8 results h be5 work$ ov] & amplifi$ by ,knott1#abi :o has te/$ !m by ,s*u/]'s exact ma!matical me?ods4 ,8 results are giv5 9 ,table #h4acj ,"h ! nor!rn hemisph]e is plac$ fir/2 !n come ! ,ea/ ,indies & ! ,malay ,ar*ipelago ly+ close to ! equator2 & f9ally ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e practically all ! maxima come 9 ! w9t]1 = ! mon? ( ,decemb] appe>s 9 fifte5 cases out ( ! tw5ty-five 9 column ,d1 :ile ,janu>y1 ,febru>y1 or ,novemb] appe>s 9 six o!rs4 ,x is also noticeable t 9 sixte5 cases out ( tw5ty-five ! ratio ( ! actual to ! expect$ amplitude 9 column ,g is f\r or m1 s t a real relation%ip is indicat$1 :ile ! ratio falls bel[ ?ree only 9 ,japan & ,zante4 ,! equatorial data1 unlike ^? ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 are indef9ite1 = 9 ! ,ea/ ,indies no mon? %[s a m>k$ maximum & ! expect$ amplitude exce$s ! actual amplitude4 ,ev5 9 ! ,malay ,ar*ipelago1 :i* %[s a maximum 9 ,may1 ! ratio ( actual to expect$ amplitude is only #b4f4 ,turn+ to ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 ! w9t] mon?s ( t hemisph]e are z /rongly m>k$ by a maximum z are ! w9t] mon?s ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,july or ,augu/ appe>s 9 five out ( six cases4 ,"h ! ratio betwe5 ! actual & expect$ amplitudes is n s great z 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,nev]!less1 x is practically f\r 9 ,*ile1 & exce$s five 9 ,p]u & ,bolivia1 & 9 ! data = ! entire s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,,table #h ,,seasonal ,,m>* ,,( ,,e>?quakes ,,aft] ,,davisson ,,& ,,knott ,a3 ,region ,b3 ,limit+ ,dates ,c3 ,numb] ( ,%ocks ,d3 ,maximum ,mon? ,e3 ,amplitude ,f3 ,expect$ ,amplitude ,g3 ,ratio ( ,actual to ,expect$ ,amplitude ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,nor!rn ,hemisph]e #bbc-ahej #ehgi ,dec4 #j4aaj #j4jbc #d4h ,nor!rn ,hemisph]e #ahfe-ahhd #hacc ,dec4 #j4bij #j4jbj #ad4e ,europe #ahfe-ahhd #edii ,dec4 #j4cej #j4jbd #ad4f ,europe #cjf-ahdc #aifa ,dec4 #j4bbj #j4jdj #e4e ,s\!a/ ,europe #ahei-ahhg #cdgj ,dec4 #j4baj #j4jcj #g4j ,vesuvius ,di/rict #ahfe-ahhc #eac ,dec4 #j4bej #j4jgh #c4b ,italy3 ,old ,tromometre #ahgb-ahhg #fagcb ,dec4 #j4dij #j4jjg #gj4j ,old ,tromometre #ahgf-ahhg #chedf ,dec4 #j4dfj #j4jji #di4e ,normal ,tromometre #ahgf-ahhg #chedf ,dec4 #j4dij #j4jji #eb4h ,balkan1 etc4 #ahfe-ahhd #fbd ,dec4 #j4bgj #j4jga #c4h ,hung>y1 etc4 #ahfe-ahhd #chd ,dec4 #j4caj #j4jij #c4d ,italy #ahfe-ahhc #bcej ,dec47,sept47#j4adj #j4jcg #c4h ,grecian ,ar*ip4 #ahei-ahha #cegh ,dec4-,jan4 #j4afd #j4jcj #e4e ,au/ria #ahfe-ahhd #dfa ,jan4 #j4cgj #j4jhc #d4d ,switz]l&1 etc4 #ahfe-ahhc #ebd ,jan4 #j4efj #j4jgg #g4c ,asia #ahfe-ahhd #deh ,feb4 #j4ccj #j4jhc #d4j ,nor? ,am]ica #ahfe-ahhd #eeb ,nov4 #j4cej #j4jge #d4g ,cali=nia #ahej-ahhf #idi ,oct4 #j4cjj #j4jeh #e4b ,japan #ahgh-ahha #bdf ,dec4 #j4dfj #j4aac #d4a ,japan #ahgb-ahhj #cfg ,dec4-,jan4 #j4bef #j4jic #b4h ,japan #ahgf-ahia #aajd ,feb4 #j4aij #j4jec #c4f ,japan #ahhe-ahhi #biig ,oct4 #j4jhj #j4jcb #b4e ,zante #ahbe-ahfc #acbf ,aug4 #j4ajj #j4jdi #b4j ,italy1 ,nor? #ahfe-ahhc #aeac ,sept47,nov47 #j4baj #j4jdf #d4f ( ,naples ,ea/ ,indies #ahgc-ahha #eae ,aug41 ,oct41 #j4jga8 #j4jgh #j4i or ,dec48 ,malay ,ar*ip4 #ahfe-ahhd #eih ,may #j4aij #j4jgb #b4f ,new ,zeal& #ahfi-ahgi #ehe ,aug4-,sept4 #j4bjc #j4jgc #b4h ,*ile #ahgc-ahha #bab ,july #j4dhj #j4abb #c4i ,s\!rn ,hemisph]e #ahfe-ahhd #gea ,july #j4cgj #j4jfe #e4g ,new ,zeal& #ahfh-ahij #fda ,m>*1 ,may #j4jej #j4jgj #j4g ,*ile #ahfe-ahhc8 #caf ,july1 ,dec4 #j4bgj #j4ajj #b4g ,p]u1 ,bolivia #ahfe-ahhd #cej ,july #j4dhj #j4jie #e4a ,! :ole relation%ip betwe5 e>?quakes & ! seasons 9 ! nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]es is summ$ up 9 ,fig4 #ab tak5 f ,knott4 ,! nor!rn hemisph]e %[s a regul> dim9ution 9 e>?quake frequ5cy f ,decemb] until ,june1 & an increase ! re/ ( ! ye>4 ,9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e ! c\rse ( ev5ts is ! same s f> z summ] & w9t] are conc]n$1 = ,augu/ ) its maximum comes 9 w9t]1 :ile ,febru>y ) its m9imum comes 9 summ]4 ,9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e ! w9t] mon? ( greate/ seismic activity has ov] #ajj p] c5t m e>?quakes ?an ! summ] mon? ( lea/ activity4 ,9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e ?is diff]5ce is ab\t #hj p] c5t1 b ?is small] figure occurs p>tly because ! nor!rn data include c]ta9 int]e/+ & significant regions l ,japan & ,*9a :]e ! usual conditions are rev]s$4#aca ,if equatorial regions 7 includ$ 9 ,fig4 #ab1 !y w\ld give an almo/ /raight l9e4 ,! connection betwe5 e>?quakes & ! seasons is s /rong t almo/ no /ud5ts ( seismology "q x1 al?\gh !y d n agree z to its cause4 ,a meteorological hypo!sis seems to be ! only logical explanation4#acb ,:]ev] suffici5t data are available1 e>?quakes appe> to be mo/ num]\s :5 climatic conditions cause ! e>?'s surface to be mo/ heavily load$ or to *ange its load mo/ rapidly4 ,! ma9 factor 9 ! load+ is app>5tly atmosph]ic pressure4 ,?is acts 9 two ways4 ,fir/1 :5 ! cont95ts become cold 9 w9t] ! pressure increases4 ,on an av]age ! air at sea level presses ^u ! e>?'s surface at ! rate ( #ad4g p\nds p] squ>e in*1 or ov] a ton p] squ>e foot1 & only a little %ort ( ?irty million tons p] squ>e mile4 ,an av]age diff]5ce ( "o in* betwe5 ! atmosph]ic pressure ( summ] & w9t] ov] t5 million squ>e miles ( ! cont95t ( ,asia1 = example1 means t ! cont95t's load 9 w9t] is ab\t t5 million million tons heavi] ?an 9 summ]4 ,second1 ! *anges 9 atmosph]ic pressure due to ! passage ( /orms are relatively %>p & sudd54 ,h5ce !y are probably m effective ?an ! v>iations 9 ! load f season to season4 ,?is is sugge/$ by ! rapidity ) :i* ! t]re/rial response seems to foll[ ! suppos$ sol> cause ( e>?quakes4 ,x is also sugge/$ by ! fact t viol5t /orms are frequ5tly foll[$ by viol5t e>?quakes4 ,e>?quake wea!r1 z ,dr4 ,s*les+] sugge/s1 is a common phrase 9 ! typhoon region ( ,japan1 ,*9a1 & ! ,ea/ ,indies4 ,dur+ tropical hurricanes a *ange ( pressure am\nt+ to half an in* 9 two h\rs is common4 ,on ,septemb] #bb1 #ahhe1 at ,false ,po9t ,ligh?\se on ! ,bay ( ,b5gal1 ! b>omet] fell ab\t an in* 9 six h\rs1 !n ne>ly an in* & a half 9 n mu* ov] two h\rs1 & f9ally rose fully two in*es inside ( two h\rs4 ,a drop ( two in*es 9 b>ometric pressure means t a load ( ab\t two million tons is remov$ f ea* squ>e mile ( l&2 ! correspond+ rise ( pressure means ! addition ( a simil> load4 ,su* a /orm1 & to a less degree e o!r /orm1 /rikes a bl[ ^u ! e>?'s surface1 fir/ by remov+ millions ( tons ( pressure & !n by putt+ !m on aga94#acc ,su* /orms1 z we h se51 are mu* m frequ5t & sev]e :5 sunspots are num]\s ?an at o!r times4 ,moreov]1 z ,ve$]#acd long ago %[$1 "o ( ! mo/ notewor?y evid5ces ( a connection betwe5 sunspots & ! wea!r is a sudd5 increase ( pressure 9 c]ta9 widely sep>at$ high pressure areas4 ,9 mo/ p>ts ( ! _w w9t] is n only ! season ( highe/ pressure & ( mo/ frequ5t *anges ( ,ve$]'s type1 b also ( sev]e/ /orms4 ,h5ce a meteorological hypo!sis w\ld lead to ! expectation t e>?quakes w\ld occur m frequ5tly 9 w9t] ?an 9 summ]4 ,on ! ,*9ese coa/1 h[ev]1 & also on ! oceanic side ( ,japan1 z well z 9 "s m tropical regions1 ! *ief /orms come 9 summ] 9 ! =m ( typhoons4 ,^! are ! places :]e e>?quakes also are mo/ abundant 9 summ]4 ,?us1 :]ev] we turn1 /orms & ! relat$ b>ometric *anges seem to be mo/ frequ5t & sev]e at ! v times :5 e>?quakes are also mo/ frequ5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,seasonal di/ribution ( e>?quakes4 7,aft] ,davisson & ,knott47 solid l9e ---- ,nor!rn ,hemisph]e4 da%$ l9e 4444 ,s\!rn ,hemisph]e4 ,o!r meteorological factors1 su* z ra91 sn[1 w9ds1 & curr5ts1 probably h "s effect on e>?quakes ?r\gh _! ability to load ! e>?'s cru/4 ,! com+ ( vegetation may also help4 ,^! ag5cies1 h[ev]1 appe> to be ( small importance comp>$ ) ! /orms4 ,9 high latitudes & 9 regions ( abundant /orm9ess mo/ ( ^! factors g5]ally comb9e ) b>ometric pressure to produce frequ5t *anges 9 ! load ( ! e>?'s cru/1 especially 9 w9t]4 ,9 l[ latitudes1 on ! o!r h&1 !re are few sev]e /orms1 & relatively little contra/ 9 pressure & vegetation f season to season2 !re is no sn[2 & ! am\nt ( gr\nd wat] *anges little4 ,) ?is goes ! tw(old fact t !re is no m>k$ seasonal di/ribution ( e>?quakes1 & t except 9 c]ta9 local volcanic areas1 e>?quakes appe> to be r>e4 ,9 proportion to ! areas conc]n$1 = example1 !re is little evid5ce ( e>?quakes 9 equatorial ,africa & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,! "q ( ! reality ( ! connection betwe5 meteorological conditions & cru/al movem5ts is s important t e possible te/ %\ld be appli$4 ,at ! sugge/ion ( ,pr(essor ,s*les+] we h look$ up a v +5i\s l9e ( inquiry4 ,dur+ ! la/ decades ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 a long s]ies ( extremely accurate obs]vations ( latitude disclos$ a fact :i* _h previ\sly be5 suspect$ b n demon/rat$1 namely1 t ! e>? wabbles a little ab\t its axis4 ,! axis itself always po9ts 9 ! same direction1 & s9ce ! e>? slides irregul>ly ar\nd x ! latitude ( all p>ts ( ! e>? keeps *ang+4 ,*&l] has %[n t ! wabbl+ ?us induc$ consi/s ( two p>ts4 ,! fir/ is a movem5t 9 a circle ) a radius ( ab\t fifte5 feet :i* is describ$ 9 approximately #dcj days4 ,?is s-call$ ,eul]ian movem5t is a normal gyroscopic motion l ! sl[ gyration ( a sp9n+ top4 ,?is dep5ds on purely a/ronomical causes1 & no t]re/rial cause c /op x or elim9ate x4 ,! p]iod appe>s to be con/ant1 b !re are c]ta9 puzzl+ irregul>ities4 ,! usual amplitude ( ?is movem5t1 z ,s*les+]#ace puts x1 is ab\t #j4bg1 b twice 9 rec5t ye>s x has jump$ to #j4dj4 ,su* a *ange c\ld be acc\nt$ = by suppos+ t ! e>? _h receiv$ a sev]e bl[ or a s]ies ( mild] bl[s t5d+ 9 ! same direction4 ,^! bl[s1 :i* 7 orig9ally sugge/$ by ,helm]t are mo/ int]e/+ 9 view ( our sugge/ion z to ! bl[s /ruck by /orms4 ,! second movem5t ( ! pole has a p]iod ( a ye>1 & is r\ghly an ellipse ^: longe/ radius is f\rte5 feet & ! %orte/1 f\r feet2 or1 to put x te*nically1 !re is an annual t]m ) a maximum amplitude ( ab\t #j4bj4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 v>ies irregul>ly4 ,! result is t ! pole seems to w&] ov] ! e>?'s surface 9 ! spiral fa%ion illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #ac4 ,x 0 e>ly sugge/$ t ?is peculi> w&]+ ( ! pole 9 an annual p]iod mu/ be due to meteorological causes4 ,jeffreys#acf has inve/igat$ ! matt] exhau/ively4 ,he assumes c]ta9 reasonable values = ! weight ( air add$ or subtract$ f diff]5t p>ts ( ! e>?'s surface accord+ to ! seasons4 ,he also consid]s ! effect ( precipitation1 vegetation1 & pol> ice1 & ( v>iations ( temp]ature & atmosph]ic pressure 9 _! relation to movem5ts ( ! ocean4 ,!n he proce$s to comp>e all ^! ) ! actual w&]+ ( ! pole f #aijg to #aiac4 ,:ile x is z yet too e>ly to say t any special movem5t ( ! pole 0 due to ! specific meteorological conditions ( any p>ticul> ye>1 ,jeffreys' "w makes x cle> t meteorological causes1 especially atmosph]ic pressure1 are suffici5t to cause ! obs]v$ irregul> w&]+s4 ,slight w&]+s may arise f v>i\s o!r s\rces su* z movem5ts ( ! rocks :5 geological faults occur or ! ru% ( a great wave due to a subm>9e e>?quake4 ,s f> z kn[n1 h[ev]1 all ^! o!r ag5cies cause insignificant displacem5ts comp>$ ) ^? aris+ f movem5ts ( ! air4 ,?is fact c\pl$ ) ! ma!matical c]ta9ty t meteorological ph5om5a mu/ produce "s w&]+ ( ! pole1 has caus$ mo/ a/ronom]s to accept ,jeffreys' conclusion4 ,if we foll[ _! example we are l$ to conclude t *anges 9 atmosph]ic pressure & 9 ! o!r meteorological conditions /rike bl[s :i* sometimes %ift ! e>? sev]al feet f its normal position 9 respect to ! axis4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,w&]+ ( ! pole f #ahij to #ahih4 7,aft] ,m\lton47 ,if ! =ego+ reason+ is correct1 ! great & especially ! sudd5 dep>tures f ! smoo? gyroscopic circle describ$ by ! pole 9 ! ,eul]ian motion w\ld be expect$ to occur at ab\t ! same "t z unusual e>?quake activity4 ,?is br+s u to an int]e/+ inquiry c>ri$ out by ,milne#acg & amplifi$ by ,knott4#ach ,tak+ ,albre*t's repres5tation ( ! irregul> spiral-l motion ( ! pole1 z giv5 9 ,fig4 #ac1 !y %[ t !re is a prepond]ance ( sev]e e>?quakes at times :5 ! direction ( motion ( ! e>? 9 ref]5ce to its axis dep>ts f ! smoo? ,eul]ian curve4 ,a summ>y ( _! results is giv5 9 ,table #i4 ,! table indicates t dur+ ! p]iod f #ahib to #aije !re 7 n9e diff]5t times :5 ! curve ( ,fig4 #ac *ang$ its direction or 0 deflect$ by less ?an #aj deg4 dur+ a t5? ( a ye>4 ,9 o!r words1 dur+ ^? p]iods x did n curve z mu* z x ought accord+ to ! ,eul]ian movem5t4 ,at su* times !re 7 #agi _w-%ak+ e>?quakes1 or an av]age ( ab\t #ai4i p] t5? ( a ye>4 ,accord+ to ! o!r l9es ( ,table #i1 9 ?irty-two cases ! deflection dur+ a t5? ( a ye> 0 betwe5 #aj deg4 & #be deg41 :ile 9 fifty-six cases x 0 f #be deg4 to #dj deg44 ,dur+ ^! p]iods ! curve rema9$ close to ! ,eul]ian pa? & ! _w-%ak+ e>?quakes av]ag$ only #h4b & #ab4i4 ,!n1 :5 ! deflection 0 high1 t is1 :5 meteorological conditions ?rew ! e>? f> out ( its ,eul]ian c\rse1 ! e>?quakes 7 aga9 num]\s1 ! numb] ris+ to #bc4d :5 ! deflection am\nt$ to m ?an #ee deg44 ,,table #i ,,deflection ,,( ,,pa? ,,( ,,pole ,,comp>$ ,,) ,,e>?quakes ,no4 ( ,no4 ( ,av]age ,no4 ,deflection ,deflections ,e>?quakes ( ,e>?quakes #j-aj deg4 #i #agi #ai4i #aj-be deg4 #cb #bfc #h4b #be-dj deg4 #ef #gbb #ab4i #dj-ee deg4 #ai #cff #ai4c ov] #ee deg4 #g #afd #bc4d ,9 ord] to te/ ?is conclusion 9 ano!r way we h foll[$ a sugge/ion ( ,pr(essor ,s*les+]4 ,"u 8 advice ! ,eul]ian motion has be5 elim9at$ & a new s]ies ( e>?quake records has be5 comp>$ ) ! rema9+ motions ( ! poles :i* presumably arise l>gely f meteorological causes4 ,= ?is purpose use has be5 made ( ! v full records ( e>?quakes publi%$ "u ! auspices ( ! ,int]national ,seismological ,commission = ! ye>s #aijc to #aijh1 ! only ye>s = :i* !y are available4 ,^! include e kn[n %ock ( e description :i* 0 ei!r record$ by seismographs or by direct obs]vation 9 any "p ( ! _w4 ,ea* %ock is giv5 ! same weight1 no matt] :at its viol5ce or h[ closely x foll[s ano!r4 ,! angle ( deflection has be5 measur$ z ,milne measur$ x1 b s9ce ! ,eul]ian motion is elim9at$1 our z]o is approximately ! normal condition :i* w\ld prevail if !re 7 no meteorological complications4 ,divid+ ! deflections into six equal gr\ps accord+ to ! size ( ! angle1 we get ! result %[n 9 ,table #aj4 ,,table #aj ,,e>?quakes ,,9 #aijc-aijh ,,comp>$ ,,) ,,dep>tures ,,( ,,! ,,project$ ,,curve ,,( ,,! ,,e>?',s ,,axis ,,f ,,! ,,eul]ian ,,position ,av]age angle ( deflection ,av]age daily numb] 7#aj p]iods ( #a_/aj ye> ea*7 ( e>?quakes -#aj4e deg4 #h4ca #aa4e deg4 #h4ce #be4h deg4 #h4bc #dj4b deg4 #h4ad #ed4g deg4 #h4hf #ij4c deg4 #aa4ha ,"h :]e "s tw5ty ?\s& e>?quakes are employ$ ! result agrees closely ) t ( ,milne = a diff]5t s]ies ( ye>s & = a mu* small] numb] ( e>?quakes4 ,s long z ! pa? ( ! pole dep>ts less ?an ab\t #de deg4 f ! smoo? gyroscopic ,eul]ian pa?1 ! numb] ( e>?quakes is almo/ con/ant1 ab\t eight & a qu>t] p] day4 ,:5 ! angle becomes l>ge1 h[ev]1 ! numb] increases by ne>ly #ej p] c5t4 ,?us ! "w ( ,milne1 ,knott1 & ,jeffreys is confirm$ by a new inve/igation4 ,app>5tly e>?quakes & cru/al movem5ts are someh[ relat$ to sudd5 *anges 9 ! load impos$ on ! e>?'s cru/ by meteorological conditions4 ,?is conclusion is q z surpris+ to ! au?ors z to ! read]--p]haps m s4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ?is inve/igation we _h no fai? :atev] 9 any important relation betwe5 climate & e>?quakes4 ,at its end we are incl9$ to believe t ! relation is close & important4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$1 h[ev]1 t meteorological conditions are ! cause ( e>?quakes & ( movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,ev5 ?\gh ! load t ! climatic ag5cies c impose ^u ! e>?'s cru/ runs into millions ( tons p] squ>e mile1 x is a trifle comp>$ ) :at ! cru/ is able to support4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a great diff]5ce betwe5 ! cause & ! occasion ( a ph5om5on4 ,suppose t a ?ick %eet ( glass is plac$ "u an increas+ /ra94 ,if ! /ra9 is appli$ sl[ly en\gh1 ev5 s rigid a mat]ial z glass w ultimately b5d r ?an break4 ,b suppose t :ile ! t5sion is high ! glass is tapp$4 ,a g5tle tap may be foll[$ by a t9y crack4 ,a s]ies ( little taps may be ! signal = small cracks to spread 9 e direction4 ,a few slightly h>d] taps may cause ! :ole %eet to break sudd5ly into _m pieces4 ,yet ev5 ! h>de/ tap may be ! m]e/ trifle comp>$ ) ! /rong =ce :i* is keep+ ! glass 9 a /ate ( /ra9 & :i* w\ld ultimately b5d x if giv5 "t4 ,! e>? z a :ole appe>s to /& betwe5 /eel & glass 9 rigidity4 ,x is a matt] ( common obs]vation t rocks /& high 9 ?is respect & 9 ! consequ5t difficulty ) :i* !y c be b5t )\t break+4 ,because ( ! e>?'s contraction ! cru/ endures a con/ant /ra91 :i* mu/ gradually become enorm\s4 ,?is /ra9 is increas$ by ! fact t s$im5t is transf]r$ f ! l&s to ! bord]s ( ! sea & !re =ms areas ( ?ick accumulation4 ,f ?is has aris5 ! doctr9e ( iso/asy1 or ( ! equalization ( cru/al pressure4 ,an important illu/ration ( ?is is ! oceanw>d & equatorial creep :i* has be5 describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xi4 ,!re we saw t :5 ! l&s h once be5 rais$ to high levels or :5 a %ort5+ ( ! e>?'s axis by contraction has increas$ ! oceanic bulge at ! equator1 or :5 ! rev]se has happ5$ because ( tidal ret>dation1 ! out] "p ( ! e>? appe>s to creep sl[ly back t[>d a position ( p]fect iso/atic adju/m5t4 ,if ! sun _h no influ5ce ^u ! e>?1 ei!r direct or indirect1 iso/asy & o!r t]re/rial processes might flex ! e>?'s cru/ s gradually t *anges 9 ! =m & height ( ! l&s w\ld always take place sl[ly1 ev5 f ! geological po9t ( view4 ,?us erosion w\ld usually be able to remove ! rocks z rapidly z !y 7 dom$ above ! g5]al level4 ,if ?is happ5$1 m\nta9s w\ld be r>e or unkn[n1 & h5ce climatic contra/s w\ld be f> less m>k$ ?an is actually ! case on our e>? :]e cru/al movem5ts h repeat$ly be5 rapid en\gh to produce m\nta9s4 ,nature's me?ods r>ely all[ s gradual an adju/m5t to ! =ces ( iso/asy4 ,:ile ! cru/ is "u a /ra91 n only because ( contraction1 b because ( *anges 9 its load ?r\gh ! transf]5ce ( s$im5ts & ! sl[ increase or decrease 9 ! bulge at ! equator1 ! atmosph]e m or less p]si/5tly c>ries on ! tapp+ process4 ,! viol5ce ( t process v>ies greatly1 & ! v>iations dep5d l>gely on ! sev]ity ( ! climatic contra/s4 ,if ! ma9 outl9es ( ! cyclonic hypo!sis are reliable1 "o ( ! fir/ effects ( a di/urbance ( ! sun's atmosph]e is increas$ /orm9ess ^u ! e>?4 ,?is is accompani$ by increas$ int5sity 9 almo/ e meteorological process4 ,! mo/ important effect1 h[ev]1 s f> z ! e>?'s cru/ is conc]n$ w\ld app>5tly be ! rapid & int5se *anges ( atmosph]ic pressure :i* w\ld arise f ! swift passage ( "o sev]e /orm aft] ano!r4 ,ea* /orm w\ld be a little tap on ! t5sely /ra9$ cru/4 ,any s+le tap might be ( little consequ5ce1 ev5 ?\gh x involv$ a *ange ( a billion tons 9 ! pressure on an area no l>g] ?an ! /ate ( ,rhode ,isl&4 ,yet a rapid & irregul> succession ( su* taps might possibly cause ! cru/ to crack1 & f9ally to collapse 9 response to /resses aris+ f ! %r9kage ( ! e>?4 ,ano!r & p]haps m important effect ( v>iations 9 /orm9ess & especially 9 ! location ( ! /ormy areas w\ld be an accel]ation ( erosion 9 "s places & a ret>dation else:]e4 ,a great increase 9 ra9fall may almo/ d5ude ! slopes ( soil1 :ile a dim9ution to ! po9t :]e mu* ( ! vegetation dies (f has a simil> effect4 ,if su* *anges %\ld take place rapidly1 great ?icknesses ( s$im5t might be conc5trat$ 9 c]ta9 areas 9 a %ort "t1 ?us di/urb+ ! iso/atic adju/m5t ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,?is might set up a /ate ( /ra9 :i* w\ld ultimately h to be reliev$1 ?us p]haps initiat+ pr(\nd cru/al movem5ts4 ,*anges 9 ! load ( ! e>?'s cru/ due to erosion & ! deposition ( s$im5t1 no matt] h[ rapid !y may be f ! geological /&po9t1 are sl[ comp>$ ) ^? due to *anges 9 b>ometric pressure4 ,a drop ( an in* 9 b>ometric pressure is equival5t to ! removal ( ab\t five in*es ( solid rock4 ,ev5 "u ! mo/ favorable circum/ances1 ! removal ( an av]age dep? ( five in*es ( rock or its equival5t 9 soil ov] millions ( squ>e miles w\ld probably take sev]al hundr$ ye>s1 :ile ! removal ( a simil> load ( air might occur 9 half a day or ev5 a few h\rs4 ,?us ! erosion & deposition due to climatic v>iations presumably play _! "p 9 cru/al de=mation *iefly by produc+ cru/al /resses1 :ile ! /orms1 z x 71 /rike %>p1 sudd5 bl[s4 ,suppose n[ t a prolong$ p]iod ( _w-wide mild climate1 su* z is describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,x1 %\ld p]mit an enorm\s accumulation ( /resses due to contraction & tidal ret>dation4 ,suppose t !n a sudd5 *ange ( climate %\ld produce a rapid %ift+ ( ! deep soil t _h accumulat$ on ! l&s1 ) a correspond+ localization & increase 9 /ra9s4 ,suppose also t frequ5t & sev]e /orms play _! "p1 :e!r great or small1 by produc+ an int5sive tapp+ ( ! cru/4 ,9 su* a case ! ultimate collapse w\ld be correspond+ly great1 z w\ld be evid5t 9 ! succe$+ geological epo*4 ,! sea floor might s9k l[]1 ! cont95ts might be elevat$1 & m\nta9 ranges might be %ov$ up along l9es ( special weakness4 ,?is is ! /ory ( ! geological p]iod z kn[n to hi/orical geology4 ,! =ce t causes su* movem5ts w\ld be ! pull ( gravity ^u ! cru/ surr\nd+ ! e>?'s %r9k+ int]ior4 ,nev]!less climatic *anges might occasionally set ! date :5 ! gravitative pull w\ld f9ally ov]come in]tia1 & ?us u%] 9 ! cru/al movem5ts t close old geologic p]iods & inaugurate new ones4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 c\ld occur only if ! cru/ 7 "u suffici5t /ra94 ,z ,lawson#aci says 9 8 discussion ( ! ela/ic reb\nd !ory1 ! sudd5 %ifts ( ! cru/ :i* seem to be ! und]ly+ cause ( e>?quakes c occur only aft] ! accumulation ( /ra9 to a limit & 444 ?is accumulation involves a sl[ creep ( ! region affect$4 ,9 ! long p]iods betwe5 great e>?quakes ! en]gy necess>y = su* %ocks is be+ /or$ up 9 ! rocks z ela/ic compression4 ,if a p]iod ( int5se /orm9ess %\ld occur :5 ! e>? z a :ole 0 9 su* a /ate ( /ra91 ! sudd5 release ( ! /ra9s might lead to t]re/rial *anges :i* w\ld alt] ! climate /ill fur!r1 mak+ x m extreme1 & p]haps p]mitt+ ! /orm9ess due to ! sol> di/urbances to br+ ab\t glaciation4 ,at ! same "t if volcanic activity %\ld increase x w\ld add its quota to ! t5d5cy t[>d glaciation4 ,nev]!less1 x might easily happ5 t a v consid]able am\nt ( cru/al movem5t w\ld take place )\t caus+ a cont95tal ice %eet or ev5 a m>k$ alp9e ice %eet4 ,or aga91 if ! /ra9s 9 ! e>?'s cru/ _h already be5 l>gely releas$ ?r\gh o!r ag5cies be=e ! /ormy p]iod began1 ! climate might become sev]e en\gh to cause glaciation 9 high latitudes )\t lead+ to any v m>k$ movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/1 z app>5tly happ5$ 9 ! ,mid-,silurian p]iod4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #abe3 ,e4 ,kirk3 ,paleozoic ,glaciation 9 ,alaska2 ,am4 ,j\r4 ,sci41 #aiah1 p4 #eaa4 ,footnote #abf3 ,j4 ,milne3 ,catalogue ( ,de/ructive ,e>?quakes2 ,rep4 ,brit4 ,asso4 ,adv4 ,sci41 #aiaa4 ,footnote #abg3 ,wm4 ,b[ie3 ,lecture be=e ! ,geological ,club ( ,yale ,univ]sity4 ,see ,am4 ,j\r4 ,sci41 #aiba4 ,footnote #abh3 ,*as4 ,davisson3 ,on ! ,annual & ,semi-annual ,seismic ,p]iods2 ,roy4 ,soc4 ( ,london1 ,philosophical ,transactions1 ,vol4 #ahd1 #ahic1 #aajg ff4 ,footnote #abi3 ,c4 ,g4 ,knott3 ,! ,physics ( ,e>?quake ,ph5om5a1 ,ox=d1 #aijh4 ,footnote #acj3 ,9 ,table #h ! fir/ column indicates ! region2 ! second1 ! dates2 & ! ?ird1 ! numb] ( %ocks4 ,! f\r? column gives ! mon? 9 :i* ! annual maximum occurs :5 ! crude figures are smoo!d by ! use ( ov]lapp+ six-mon?ly means4 ,9 o!r words1 ! av]age = ea* successive six mon?s has be5 plac$ 9 ! middle ( ! p]iod4 ,?us ! av]age ( ,janu>y to ,june1 inclusive1 is plac$ betwe5 ,m>* & ,april1 t = ,febru>y to ,july betwe5 ,april & ,may1 & s on4 ,?is me?od elim9ates ! m9or fluctuations & also all p]iodicities hav+ a duration ( less ?an a ye>4 ,if !re 7 no annual p]iodicity ! smoo?+ w\ld result 9 practically ! same figure = ea* mon?4 ,! column m>k$ ,amplitude gives ! range f ! highe/ mon? to ! l[e/ divid$ by ! numb] ( e>?quakes & !n correct$ accord+ to ,s*u/]'s me?od :i* is well kn[n to ma!maticians1 b :i* is s confus+ to ! layman t x w n be describ$4 ,next1 9 ! column m>k$ ,expect$ ,amplitude1 we h ! amplitude t w\ld be expect$ if a s]ies ( numb]s correspond+ to ! e>?quake numb]s & hav+ a simil> range 7 arrang$ 9 accid5tal ord] ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,?is also is calculat$ by ,s*u/]'s me?od 9 :i* ! expect$ amplitude is equal to ! squ>e root ( pi divid$ by ! numb] ( %ocks4 ,:5 ! actual amplitude is f\r or m times ! expect$ amplitude1 ! probability t !re is a real p]iodicity 9 ! obs]v$ ph5om5a becomes s great t we may reg>d x z practically c]ta94 ,if !re is no p]iodicity ! two are equal4 ,! la/ column gives ! numb] ( times by :i* ! actual exce$s ! expect$ amplitude1 & ?us is a measure ( ! probability t e>?quakes v>y sy/ematically 9 a p]iod ( a ye>4 ,footnote #aca3 ,n4 ,f4 ,drake3 ,de/ructive ,e>?quakes 9 ,*9a2 ,bull4 ,seism4 ,soc4 ,am41 ,vol4 #b1 #aiab1 pp4 #dj-ia1 #abd-acc4 ,footnote #acb3 ,! only o!r explanation t seems to h any /&+ is ! psy*ological hypo!sis ( ,montessus de ,ballore z giv5 9 ,les ,tremblem5ts de ,t]re4 ,he attributes ! app>5t seasonal v>iation 9 e>?quakes to ! fact t 9 w9t] p are )9 doors1 & h5ce notice movem5ts ( ! e>? mu* m ?an 9 summ] :5 !y are out ( doors4 ,!re is a simil> diff]5ce betwe5 p's habits 9 high latitudes & l[4 ,und\bt$ly ?is does h a m>k$ effect ^u ! degree to :i* m9or e>?quake %ocks are notic$4 ,nev]!less1 de ,ballore's cont5tion1 z well z any o!r psy*ological explanation1 is completely upset by two facts3 ,fir/1 in/rum5tal records %[ ! same seasonal di/ribution z d records bas$ on direct obs]vation1 & in/rum5ts c]ta9ly are n influ5c$ by ! seasons4 ,second1 9 "s places1 notably ,*9a1 z ,drake has %[n1 ! summ] r ?an ! w9t] is v decid$ly ! "t :5 e>?quakes are mo/ frequ5t4 ,footnote #acc3 ,a comp>ison ( tropical hurricanes ) e>?quakes is int]e/+4 ,tak+ all ! hurricanes record$ 9 ,augu/1 ,septemb]1 & ,octob]1 f #ahhj to #ahii1 & ! correspond+ e>?quakes 9 ,milne's catalogue1 ! correlation coeffici5t betwe5 hurricanes & e>?quakes is #j4bcf1 ) a probable error ( -#j4jhb1 ! mon? be+ us$ z ! unit4 ,?is is n a l>ge correlation1 yet :5 x is rememb]$ t ! hurricanes repres5t only a small "p ( ! atmosph]ic di/urbances 9 any giv5 mon?1 x sugge/s t ) full] data ! correlation might be l>ge4 ,footnote #acd3 ,ellswor? ,hunt+ton3 ,! ,geographic ,"w ( ,dr4 ,m4 ,a4 ,ve$]2 ,geog4 ,rev41 ,vol4 #c1 ,m>* & ,april1 #aiag1 ,nos4 #c & #d4 ,footnote #ace3 ,frank ,s*les+]3 ,v>iations ( ,latitude2 ,_! ,be>+ ^u ,our ,k ( ! ,int]ior ( ! ,e>?2 ,proc4 ,am4 ,phil4 ,soc41 ,vol4 #ed1 #aiae1 pp4 #cea-ceh4 ,also ,smi?sonian ,report = #aiaf1 pp4 #bdh-bed4 ,footnote #acf3 ,h>old ,jeffreys3 ,causes ,contributory to ! ,annual ,v>iations ( ,latitude2 ,mon?ly ,notices1 ,royal ,a/ronomical ,soc41 ,vol4 #gf1 #aiaf1 pp4 #dii-ebe4 ,footnote #acg3 ,john ,milne3 ,briti% ,association ,reports = #aijc & #aijf4 ,footnote #ach3 ,c4 ,g4 ,knott3 ,! ,physics ( ,e>?quake ,ph5om5a1 ,ox=d1 #aijh4 ,footnote #aci3 ,a4 ,c4 ,lawson3 ,! ,mobility ( ! ,coa/ ,ranges ( ,cali=nia2 ,univ4 ( ,calif4 ,pub41 ,geology1 ,vol4 #ab1 ,no4 #g1 pp4 #dca-dgc4 ,,conclusion ,"h we mu/ br+ ?is /udy ( ! e>?'s evolution to a close4 ,its fundam5tal pr9ciple has be5 t ! pres5t1 if rightly und]/ood1 af=ds a full key to ! pa/4 ,) ?is z a guide we h t\*$ on _m hypo!ses1 "s ess5tial & "s uness5tial to ! g5]al l9e ( ?\ght4 ,! fir/ ma9 hypo!sis is t ! e>?'s pres5t climatic v>iations are correlat$ ) *anges 9 ! sol> atmosph]e4 ,?is is ! keynote ( ! :ole book4 ,x is s well e/abli%$1 h[ev]1 t x ranks z a !ory r ?an z an hypo!sis4 ,next comes ! hypo!sis t v>iations 9 ! sol> atmosph]e influ5ce ! e>?'s climate *iefly by caus+ v>iations n only 9 temp]ature b also 9 atmosph]ic pressure & ?us 9 /orm9ess1 w9d1 & ra9fall4 ,?is1 too1 is "o ( ! ess5tial f\ndations on :i* ! re/ ( ! book is built1 b ?\gh ?is cyclonic hypo!sis is /ill a matt] ( discussion1 x seems to be bas$ on /rong evid5ce4 ,^! two hypo!ses might lead u a/ray 7 !y n balanc$ by ano!r4 ,?is o!r is t _m climatic conditions are due to purely t]re/rial causes1 su* z ! =m & altitude ( ! l&s1 ! degree to :i* ! cont95ts are unit$1 ! movem5t ( ocean curr5ts1 ! activity ( volcanoes1 & ! composition ( ! atmosph]e & ! ocean4 ,only by comb9+ ! sol> & ! t]re/rial c ! tru? be p]ceiv$4 ,f9ally1 ! la/ ma9 hypo!sis ( ?is book holds t if ! climatic conditions :i* n[ prevail at times ( sol> activity 7 magnifi$ suffici5tly & if !y occurr$ 9 conjunction ) c]ta9 important t]re/rial conditions ( :i* !re is good evid5ce1 !y w\ld produce mo/ ( ! notable ph5om5a ( glacial p]iods4 ,= example1 !y w\ld expla9 su* puzzl+ conditions z ! localization & p]iodicity ( glaciation1 ! =mation ( loess1 & ! occurr5ce ( glaciation 9 l[ latitudes dur+ ,p]mian & ,prot]ozoic times4 ,! conv]se ( ?is is t if ! conditions :i* n[ prevail at times :5 ! sun is relatively inactive %\ld be int5sifi$1 t is1 if ! sun's atmosph]e %\ld become calm] ?an n[1 & if ! prop] t]re/rial conditions ( topographic =m & atmosph]ic composition %\ld prevail1 !re w\ld arise ! mild climatic conditions :i* appe> to h prevail$ dur+ ! great] "p ( geological "t4 ,9 %ort1 !re seems ?us f> to be no phase ( ! climate ( ! pa/ :i* is n 9 h>mony ) an hypo!sis :i* comb9es into a s+le unit ! ?ree ma9 hypo!ses ( ?is book1 sol>1 cyclonic1 & t]re/rial4 ,outside ! ma9 l9e ( ?\ght lie sev]al o!r hypo!ses4 ,sev]al ( ^!1 z well z "s ( ! ma9 hypo!ses1 are discuss$ *iefly 9 ,e>? & ,sun1 b z !y are giv5 a practical application 9 ?is book !y des]ve a place 9 ?is f9al summ>y4 ,ea* ( ^! second>y hypo!ses is 9 its way important4 ,yet any or all may prove untrue )\t alt]+ our ma9 conclusions4 ,?is po9t _c be too /rongly emphasiz$1 = !re is always dang] t diff]5ces ( op9ion z to m9or hypo!ses & ev5 z to details may div]t att5tion f ! ma9 po9t4 ,among ! non-ess5tial hypo!ses is ! idea t ! sun's atmosph]e influ5ces t ( ! e>? electrically z well z !rmally4 ,?is idea is /ill s new t x has only j ent]$ ! /age ( active discussion1 & naturally ! weight ( op9ion is aga9/ x4 ,al?\gh n necess>y to ! ma9 purpose ( ?is book1 x plays a m9or role 9 ! *apt] deal+ ) ! relation ( ! sun to o!r a/ronomical bodies4 ,x also has a vital be>+ on ! fur!r advance ( ! sci5ce ( meteorology & ! art ( wea!r =eca/+4 ,ano!r second>y hypo!sis holds t sunspots are set 9 motion by ! planets4 ,:e!r ! effect is gravitational or m probably electrical1 or p]haps ( "s o!r sort1 does n conc]n u at pres5t1 al?\gh ! weight ( evid5ce seems to po9t t[>d electronic emissions4 ,?is "q1 l t ( ! relative p>ts play$ by heat & electricity 9 t]re/rial climatic *anges1 c be set aside = ! mom5t4 ,:at does conc]n u is a ?ird hypo!sis1 namely1 t if ! planets really det]m9e ! p]iodicity ( sunspots1 ev5 ?\gh n supply+ ! en]gy1 ! sun 9 its flight ?r\gh space mu/ h be5 repeat$ly & m /rongly influ5c$ 9 ! same way by _m o!r heav5ly bodies4 ,9 t case1 climatic *anges l ^? ( ! pres5t1 b sometimes greatly magnifi$1 h presumably aris5 because ( ! con/antly *ang+ position ( ! sol> sy/em 9 respect to o!r p>ts ( ! univ]se4 ,f9ally1 ! f\r? ( our second>y hypo!ses po/ulates t at pres5t ! date ( movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ is (t5 det]m9$ by ! fact t /orms & o!r meteorological conditions keep *ang+ ! load ^u fir/ "o "p ( ! e>?'s surface & !n ^u ano!r4 ,?us /resses t h accumulat$ 9 ! e>?'s iso/atic %ell dur+ ! prec$+ mon?s are releas$4 ,9 some:at ! same way epo*s ( extreme /orm9ess & rapid erosion 9 ! pa/ may possibly h set ! date = great movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,?is hypo!sis1 l ! o!r ?ree 9 our second>y or non-ess5tial gr\p1 is /ill s new t only ! fir/ /eps h be5 tak5 9 te/+ x4 ,yet x seems to des]ve c>eful /udy4 ,9 te/+ all ! hypo!ses "h discuss$1 prim>y & second>y alike1 ! fir/ necessity is a f> great] am\nt ( quantitative "w4 ,9 ?is book !re has be5 a con/ant attempt to subject e hypo!sis to ! te/ ( /ati/ical facts ( obs]vation4 ,nev]!less1 we h be5 break+ s mu* new gr\nd t 9 _m cases exact facts are n yet available1 :ile 9 o!rs !y c be prop]ly inve/igat$ only by speciali/s 9 physics1 a/ronomy1 or ma!matics4 ,9 mo/ cases ! next great /ep is to asc]ta9 :e!r ! =ces "h call$ ^u are actually great en\gh to produce ! obs]v$ results4 ,ev5 ?\gh !y act only z a means ( releas+ ! f> great] =ces due to ! contraction ( ! e>? & ! sun1 !y ne$ to be rigidly te/$ z to _! ability to play ev5 ?is m9or role4 ,/ill ano!r l9e ( /udy t cries al\d = rese>* is a full] comp>ison betwe5 e>?quakes on ! "o h& & meteorological conditions & ! w&]+ ( ! poles on ! o!r4 ,f9ally1 an extremely int]e/+ & hopeful que/ is ! det]m9ation ( ! positions & movem5ts ( additional />s & o!r cele/ial bodies1 ! fa9t & invisible z well z ! bright1 9 ord] to asc]ta9 ! probable magnitude ( _! influ5ce ^u ! sun & ?us ^u ! e>? at v>i\s times 9 ! pa/ & 9 ! future4 ,p]haps we are ev5 n[ approa*+ "s /> t w "s day give rise to a p]iod ( climatic /ress l t ( ! f\rte5? c5tury1 or possibly to a glacial epo*4 ,or p]haps ! v>iations 9 o!rs ( ! ne>] />s z well z ,alpha ,c5tauri may %[ a close relation to *anges 9 ! sun4 ,?r\gh\t ?is volume we h endeavor$ to discov] new tru? conc]n+ ! physical environm5t t has mold$ ! evolution ( all life4 ,we h se5 h[ delicate is ! balance among ! =ces ( nature1 ev5 ?\gh !y be ( ! mo/ /up5d\s magnitude4 ,we h se5 t a di/urbance ( ?is balance 9 "o ( ! heav5ly bodies may lead to pr(\nd *anges 9 ano!r f> away4 ,yet dur+ ! billion ye>s1 m or less1 ( :i* we h k1 !re appe>s nev] to h be5 a complete cataclysm involv+ ! de/ruction ( all life4 ,"o /> aft] ano!r1 if our hypo!sis is correct1 has approa*$ ! sol> sy/em closely en\gh to set ! atmosph]e ( ! sun 9 su* commotion t great *anges ( climate h occurr$ ^u ! e>?4 ,yet nev] has ! sol> sy/em pass$ s close to any o!r body or *ang$ 9 any o!r way suffici5tly to blot out all liv+ ?+s4 ,! effect ( climatic *anges has always be5 to alt] ! environm5t & !re=e to de/roy "p ( ! life ( a giv5 "t1 b ) ?is !re has inv>iably gone a /imulus to o!r organic types4 ,new adaptations h occurr$1 new l9es ( evolution>y progress h be5 initiat$1 & ! net result has be5 great] organic div]sity & ri*ness4 ,tempor>ily a great *ange ( climate may seem to ret>d evolution1 b only = a mom5t z ! geologi/ c\nts "t4 ,!n x becomes evid5t t ! m>* ( progress has actually be5 m rapid ?an usual4 ,?us ! ma9 p]iods ( climatic /ress are ! mo/ conspicu\s mile/ones ^u ! upw>d pa? t[>d m v>i$ adaptation4 ,! end ( ea* su* p]iod ( /ress has f\nd ! life ( ! _w ne>] to ! high m5tality :i* rea*es out to ! utmo/ limits ( space1 ( "t1 & ( ?\ght 9 ! se>* = "s explanation ( ! mean+ ( ! univ]se4 ,ea* approa* ( ! sun to o!r bodies1 if su* be ! cause ( ! major climatic *anges1 has br\ght ! organic _w "o /ep ne>] to ! solution ( ! greate/ ( all problems1--! problem ( :e!r !re is a psy*ic goal beyond ! m5tal goal t[>d :i* we are mov+ ) ev] accel]at+ spe$4 ,?r\gh\t ! va/ eons ( geological "t ! adju/m5t ( =ce to =ce1 ( "o body ( matt] to ano!r1 & ( ! physical environm5t to ! organic response has be5 s delicate1 & has t5d$ s /eadily t[>d ! "o ma9 l9e ( m5tal progress t !re seems to be a purpose 9 x all4 ,if ! cosmic uni=mity ( climate cont9ues to prevail & if ! uni=mity is v>i$ by *anges z /imulat+ z ^? ( ! pa/1 ! imag9ation c sc>cely picture ! wond]s ( ! future4 ,9 ! c\rse ( millions or ev5 billions ( ye>s ! developm5t ( m9d1 & p]haps ( s\l1 may excel t ( today z f> z ! highe/ kn[n type ( m5tality excels ! primitive plasma f :i* all life appe>s to h aris54 ,,index 99 ,indicates illu/rations4 ,abbot1 ,c4 ,g41 cit$1 #de1 #eb1 #bcg1 #bch1 #bci4 ,aboskun1 #ajd4 ,africa1 e>?quakes1 #cja2 ,ea/1 see ,ea/ ,africa2 lakes1 #adc2 ,nor?1 see ,nor? ,africa4 ,african glaciation1 #bff4 ,air1 see ,atmosph]e4 ,alaska1 glacial till 91 #bhg2 ,ice ,age 91 #bba4 ,albre*t1 cit$1 #cjd4 ,alex&]1 m>* (1 #hh f4 ,all>d1 ,h4 ,a41 cit$1 #ahc1 #ahd4 ,alpha ,c5tauri1 companion (1 #bhj2 di/ance f sun1 #bfb2 lum9osity1 #bgh2 spe$ (1 #bha2 v>iations1 #bhb4 ,alps1 loess 91 #aei2 precipitation 91 #ada2 sn[ level 91 #aci4 ,altair1 companion (1 #bhj2 lum9osity1 #bgh2 spe$ (1 #bha4 ,amazon =e/1 temp]ature1 #ag4 ,ancylus lake1 #bag4 ,&es1 sn[ l9e1 #aci4 ,animals1 climate &1 #a4 ,ant>ctica1 mild climate1 #bai2 ?ickness ( ice 91 #abe2 w9ds1 #ace1 #afa4 ,anti-cyclonic hypo!sis1 #ace ff4 ,appala*ians1 effect on ice %eet1 #aba4 ,arabia1 civilization 91 #fg4 ,aral1 ,sea (1 #ajh4 ,ar*ean rocks1 #baa4 ,ar*eozoic1 #c f42 climate (1 #bfg4 ,arctic ,ocean1 subm]g5ce1 #bai4 ,arct[ski1 ,h41 cit$1 #bi1 #df1 #bdd4 ,argon1 increase (1 #bcf4 ,arizona1 ra9fall1 #hi1 #ajh2 trees measur$ 91 #gc4 ,arrh5ius1 ,s41 cit$1 #cf1 #bed4 ,arsis1 ( pulsation1 #bd4 ,asbjo]n ,selsbane1 corn (1 #aja4 ,asia1 atmosph]ic pressure1 #bih2 c5tral1 *anges ( climate1 99#ge2 c5tral1 po/-glacial climate1 #bga2 climate1 #ff2 glaciation 91 #aca2 /orm9ess 91 #fj2 we/]n1 climate 91 #hd f4 ,atlantic ,ocean1 /orm9ess1 #eg4 ,atmosph]e1 *anges1 #ai f41 #bbi2 composition (1 #bbc-bda2 effect on temp]ature1 #bca4 ,atmosph]ic circulation1 glaciation &1 #db4 ,atmosph]ic electricity1 sol> relations (1 #ef4 ,atmosph]ic pressure1 e>?quakes &1 #bih2 evaporation &1 #bcg2 increase 91 #bci2 r$i/ribution (1 #di2 v>iation1 #ec4 ,au/ralia1 ,ea/1 mild climate1 #bai2 precipitation1 #add4 ,axis1 e>?'s1 #dh2 wabbl+ (1 #cja4 ,bacon1 ,sir ,francis1 cit$1 #bg4 ,bacubirito1 meteor at1 #bdf4 ,baltic ,sea1 z lake1 #bag2 freez+ (1 #ajj2 ice1 #bf2 /orm-floods1 #ii2 subm]g5ce1 #bai4 ,b>dsson1 ,iv>1 #ajf4 ,b>k[1 cit$1 #ace4 ,b>ometric pressure1 sol> relations (1 #ef4 ,b>rell1 ,j41 cit$1 #c1 #bjj1 #bac1 #bcd4 ,b>toli1 ,a4 ,g41 cit$1 #beg4 ,bau]1 ,l4 ,a41 cit$1 #aej4 ,bea*es1 "u wat]1 #ig4 ,beadnell1 ,h4 ,j4 ,l41 cit$1 #adc4 ,belu*i/an1 ra9fall1 #hi4 ,b5gal1 ,bay (1 cyclones 91 #adi4 ,b5gal1 fam9e 91 #ajd f4 ,b]l91 ra9fall & temp]ature1 #ic4 ,betelgeuse1 #bei f42 di/ance f sun1 #bfb4 ,bible1 climatic evid5ce 91 #ia f42 palms 91 #ib4 ,b9>y />s1 #beb4 ,birkel&1 ,k41 cit$1 #bdd4 ,black ,e>? region1 loess 91 #aei4 ,boca1 ,cal41 correlation coeffici5ts1 #hc1 #he4 ,boltzmann1 ,l41 cit$1 #beg4 ,bonneville1 ,lake1 #adb1 #adc4 ,borkum1 /orm-flood 91 #ii4 ,boss1 ,l4 cit$1 #bfh1 #bfi4 ,botanical evid5ce ( mild climates1 #afg ff4 ,b\ld]s1 on ,iri% coa/1 #aai4 ,b[ie1 ,w41 cit$1 #bic4 ,b[man1 ,i41 cit$1 #bac4 ,brita91 =e/s1 #bbj2 level ( l&1 #bbj4 ,briti% ,isles1 height ( l&1 #aaa2 temp]ature1 #baf4 ,brooks1 ,c4 ,e4 ,p41 cit$1 #aae1 #adc1 #aif1 #bae1 #bbe4 ,brooks1 ,c4 ,f41 cit$1 #bji4 ,br[n1 ,e4 ,w41 cit$1 #aia1 #bdd4 ,brueckn]1 ,e41 cit$1 #bg4 ,brueckn] p]iods1 #bg f4 ,bufo1 habitat (1 #bjb4 ,buhl /age1 #baf4 ,bull1 ,dr41 cit$1 #ajj1 #aja4 ,butl]1 ,h4 ,c41 cit$1 #ff1 #fg ff41 #gj1 #gf4 ,cali=nia1 *anges ( climate1 99#ge2 correlations ( ra9fall1 #hf2 measurem5ts ( sequoias 91 #gc1 #gd ff42 ra9fall1 #ajh4 ,cambrian p]iod1 #d f4 ,canada1 /orm9ess1 #ec f41 #eg2 /orm tracks 91 #aac4 ,cape ,f>ewell1 %ore ice at1 #aje4 ,c>bon dioxide1 erosion &1 #aai f42 f volcanoes1 #bc2 hypo!sis1 #aci2 importance (1 #i1 #aa f42 9 ,p]mian1 #adh2 9 atmosph]e1 #bj1 #if1 #bch2 9 ocean1 #bbf2 nebul> hypo!sis &1 #bcb2 !ory ( glaciation1 #cf ff4 ,c>ibbean m\nta9s1 orig9 (1 #aic4 ,c>negie ,in/itution ( ,wa%+ton1 #gd4 ,caspian ,sea1 climatic /ress1 #ajd2 ra9fall1 #ajg f42 rise & fall1 #bg2 ru9s 91 #ga4 ,c5ozoic1 climate1 #bff2 fossils1 #ba4 ,c5tral ,am]ica1 ,maya ru9s1 #ie4 ,*ad1 ,lake1 swamps (1 #aga4 ,*amb]l91 ,r4 ,t41 cit$1 #aff1 #bcc1 #bfi4 ,*amb]l91 ,t4 ,c41 cit$1 #ai1 #cf1 #ch1 #ci1 #db f41 #dh1 #abb1 #abe1 #aeb1 #aef1 #aij1 #aie1 #bbg1 #bfi4 ,*&l]1 ,s4 ,c41 cit$1 #cja4 ,*9ese e>?quakes1 p]iodicity (1 #bde4 ,*9ese1 sunspot obs]vations1 #ajh f4 ,*9ese ,turke/an1 desiccation 91 #ff4 ,*ronology1 glacial1 #bae4 ,cl>ke1 ,f4 ,w41 cit$1 #bbf1 #bce4 ,clayton1 ,h4 ,h41 cit$1 #agc f4 ,climate1 effect ( contraction1 #ahi ff42 affect ( sal9ity1 #bbd2 9 hi/ory1 #fd-ig2 uni=mity1 #a-ae2 v>iability1 #af-cb4 ,climates1 mild1 causes (1 #aff-ahg2 mild1 p]iods (1 #bgd4 ,climatic *anges1 & cru/al movem5ts1 #bhe ff42 hypo!ses (1 #cc-ej2 m\nta9-build+ &1 99#be2 po/-glacial cru/al movem5ts &1 #bae-bbb2 t]re/rial causes (1 #ahh-bad4 ,climatic sequ5ce1 #af f4 ,climatic /ages1 po/-glacial1 #bgj4 ,climatic /ress1 9 f\rte5? c5tury1 #ih-aji4 ,climatic uni=mity1 hypo!sis (1 #fe1 #ga f4 ,climatic zon+1 #afi4 ,cl\d9ess1 glaciation &1 #aad1 #adg4 ,cl\ds1 z protection1 #aig4 ,colfax1 ,cal41 correlation coeffici5ts1 #hc4 ,cologne1 flood at1 #ii4 ,compass1 v>iations1 #aej4 ,cont95tal climate1 v>iations1 #ajc4 ,cont95ts1 effect on climate1 #aaa f4 ,contraction1 effect on climate1 #ahi ff41 #aii1 #bjg2 effect on l&s1 #bjg2 heat ( sun &1 #ac f42 irregul>1 #aie2 ( ! e>?1 #ah2 ( ! sun1 #bdi2 /resses caus$ by1 #caj4 ,convection1 c>bon dioxide &1 #bci4 ,corals1 9 high latitudes1 #ba1 #ci1 #afg1 #agh4 ,cordeiro1 ,f4 ,j4 ,b41 cit$1 #aha1 #ahc1 #ahf4 ,correlation coeffici5ts1 e>?quakes & sunspots1 #bia2 ,j]usalem ra9fall & sequoia gr[?1 #hc ff42 ra9fall & tree gr[?1 #gi ff4 ,cosmos1 effect ( light1 #ahe4 ,cressey1 ,g4 ,b41 cit$1 #hj4 ,cretace\s1 lava1 #baa2 m\nta9 ranges1 #dd2 paleogeography1 99#bja2 subm]g5ce ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 #bjj4 ,croll1 ,j41 cit$1 #cd ff41 #agf4 ,croll's hypo!sis1 sn[ l9e1 #aci4 ,cru/1 climate & movem5ts (1 #fc1 #bhg1 #caj2 movem5ts (1 #dc2 /ra9s 91 #bb4 ,curr5ts & planet>y w9ds1 #agd4 ,cycads1 #afi4 ,cyclonic hypo!sis1 #ig2 loess &1 #afc2 ,p]mian glaciation &1 #adh2 sn[ l9e1 #aci4 ,cyclonic /orms1 9 glacial epo*s1 #adj f42 sol> electricity &1 #bdc 7see ,/orms1 ,/orm9ess74 ,cyclonic vacillations1 #cj f42 nature (1 #eg ff4 ,daily vibrations1 #bh f4 ,danube1 froz51 #ih4 ,d>w91 ,g4 ,h41 cit$1 #aia4 ,daun /age1 #bag4 ,davis1 ,w4 ,m41 cit$1 #bga4 ,davisson1 ,c41 cit$1 #bid1 #bie1 #bii4 ,day1 ,c4 ,p41 cit$1 #bci4 ,day1 l5g? (1 #ah1 #aia4 ,dead ,sea1 palms ne>1 #ib4 ,dea? ,valley1 #adb4 ,de ,ballore1 ,m41 cit$1 #big1 #bih4 ,deep-sea circulation1 rapidity1 #bbg2 sal9ity &1 #agf2 sol> activity &1 #agi4 ,de ,ge]1 ,s41 cit$1 #bae1 #bba4 ,de ,lapp>5t1 ,a41 cit$1 #bjj4 ,d5m>k1 fossils1 #bga4 ,des]t pavem5ts1 #afa4 ,des]ts1 abundant flora (1 #aga2 & pulsations !ory1 #hh ff42 r$ b$s (1 #agj4 ,devonian1 climate1 #bff2 m\nta9s1 #bji4 ,dog1 climate &1 #a4 ,donegal ,c\nty1 ,irel&1 #bbj4 ,d\ble />s1 #bgb1 #bhj2 electrical effect (1 #bfa4 ,d\glass1 ,a4 ,e41 cit$1 #bh1 #gc1 #gd f41 #hd1 #he1 #ajg4 ,dragon ,t[n1 de/ruction (1 #ajd1 #ajh4 ,drake1 ,n4 ,f41 cit$1 #big1 #bih4 ,dr\ghts1 & pulsations !ory1 #hg f42 9 ,engl&1 #ajb2 9 ,india1 #ajd f4 ,drumkel9 ,bog1 ,irel&1 log cab9 91 #bbj4 ,du/1 at high levels1 #bdj4 ,e>?1 cru/ ( & ! sun1 #bhe-cag2 int]nal heat1 #bab2 nature ( mild climate1 #bgd2 position ( axis1 #aha2 rigidity (1 #cjg2 temp]ature gradi5t1 #bac2 temp]ature ( surface1 #h4 ,e>?quakes1 & seasons1 #bid1 #big2 & sunspots1 #bhh f42 & tropical hurricanes1 #cjj2 & w&]+ ( pole1 #cjd f42 cause (1 #cjg2 comp>$ ) dep>tures f ,eul]ian position1 #cjf2 seasonal di/ribution (1 #bii2 seasonal m>*1 #bie4 ,e>?quake wea!r1 #bih4 ,ea/ ,africa1 mild climate1 #bai4 ,ea/ ,indies1 e>?quakes (1 #bif4 ,eb]swalde1 tree gr[? at1 #ajb f4 ,ecliptic1 obliquity (1 #bag4 ,electrical curr5ts1 9 sol> atmosph]e1 #bfa4 ,electrical emissions1 v>iation (1 #bge4 ,electrical hypo!sis1 #aej1 #bej f41 #bef ff4 ,electrical ph5om5a1 /orm9ess &1 #ef4 ,electricity1 & e>?quakes1 #bib2 sol>1 #bdc4 ,electro-magnetic hypo!sis1 #bdd4 ,electrons1 sol>1 #ef2 v>iation (1 #bef4 ,electro-/ell> hypo!sis1 #bgd4 ,elevation1 climatic *anges &1 #ci4 ,eng$i1 palms 91 #ib4 ,engl&1 climatic /ress1 #aja f42 /orm9ess & ra9fall1 #ajg4 ,eoc5e1 climate1 #bff4 ,equ9oxes1 precession (1 #if4 ,erosion1 /orm9ess &1 #cji4 ,eskimo1 9 ,gre5l&1 #ajf4 ,eul]ian movem5t1 #cja1 #cjd4 ,euphrates1 #fg4 ,europe1 climatic /ress1 #ih ff41 #ajb f42 climatic table1 #bae2 glaciation 91 #aca2 ice %eet1 #aba2 inundations ( riv]s1 #ii2 po/-glacial climate1 #bga2 ra9fall1 #ajg2 subm]g5ce1 #aif1 #bjj4 ,evaporation1 & glaciation1 #aab1 #aad2 atmosph]ic pressure &1 #bcg2 f plants1 #agi2 importance1 #abi2 9 trade-w9d belt1 #aag2 rapidity (1 #bbd4 ,ev5+ primrose1 effect ( light1 #ahd4 ,evolution1 climate &1 #bj2 geographical complexity &1 #bda2 glaciation &1 #cc2 ( ! e>?1 #caa4 ,faculae1 cause (1 #fa4 ,false ,po9t ,ligh?\se1 b>ometric pressure at1 #bii4 ,fam9e1 cause (1 #ajc2 9 ,engl&1 #aja f42 9 ,india1 #ajd f42 pulsations !ory &1 #hg f4 ,faunas1 & mild climates1 #afh f42 9 ,p]mian1 #aeb f4 ,f5nosc&ian pause1 #baf4 ,fl[]+1 light &1 #ahd4 ,fog1 & glaciation1 #aaf2 z protection1 #aig2 temp]ature &1 #agh4 ,=e/s1 climate &1 #ff4 ,=m ( ! l&1 #dc ff4 ,fossil floras1 & mild climates1 #afh2 9 ,ant>ctica1 #bgc2 9 ,gre5l&1 #bgc4 ,fossils1 #afi1 #bcj2 & loess1 #aeh2 ,ar*eozoic1 #c f42 ,c5ozoic1 #ba2 dat+ (1 #aec2 glaciation &1 #ach2 9 peat bogs1 #bga2 mild climate1 #afg2 ,prot]ozoic1 #d1 #f f4 ,f\rte5? c5tury1 climatic /ress 91 #ih-aji4 ,f[le1 ,f4 ,e41 cit$1 #de1 #bcg1 #bch1 #bci4 ,fre*1 ,f41 cit$1 #cf4 ,free1 ,e4 ,e41 cit$1 #adb4 ,freez+1 sal9ity &1 #bbd4 ,fresno1 ra9fall record1 #hb4 ,friction v>iables1 #bdg4 ,frisian ,isl&s1 /orm-flood1 #ii4 ,fritz1 ,h41 cit$1 #aji4 ,frogs1 di/ribution (1 #bjb4 ,fu*s1 cit$1 #bhi4 ,galaxy1 #beb4 ,galve/on1 ,tex41 ra9fall & temp]ature1 #id4 ,g>n]1 ,w4 ,w41 cit$1 #ahc1 #ahd4 ,gasses1 9 air1 #bcc4 ,geograph]s1 & climatic *anges1 #fe ff4 ,geological "t table1 99#e4 ,geologic oscillations1 #ah f41 #ba ff41 #ahh1 #bdj4 ,geologi/s1 *anges 9 ideas (1 #fd f4 ,g]manic my?s1 #bai4 ,g]many1 =e/s1 #bbj2 gr[? ( trees 91 #ajb2 /orms 91 #ajb4 ,gilb]t1 ,g4 ,k41 cit$1 #adc4 ,glacial epo*s1 causes (1 #bfh2 dates (1 #baf2 int]vals betwe51 #bfd f42 l5g? (1 #aff f4 ,glacial fluctuations1 #bd ff42 nature (1 #eg ff4 ,glacial p]iod1 at pres5t1 #bgb2 ice 91 #eg f42 l5g? (1 #bfi2 li/1 #bfe2 temp]ature1 #ch4 ,glaciation1 & loess1 #aee f42 & movem5t ( cru/1 #bhg2 conditions favorable =1 #aaa2 ext5t (1 #abd2 hypo!ses (1 #cc ff42 9 s\!rn ,canada1 #ah2 localization (1 #acj ff42 ,p]mian1 99#ade2 sol>-cyclonic hypo!sis (1 #aaj-abi2 sudd5ness (1 #ach2 upp] limit (1 #ada4 ,gold?wait1 ,j4 ,w41 cit$1 #bga4 ,gondwana l&1 #ba1 #bjd4 ,gravitation1 effect on sun1 #bej2 pull (1 #bdd4 ,great ,bas91 9 glacial p]iod1 #abf2 salt lakes 91 #adb4 ,great ,ice ,age1 see ,plei/oc5e4 ,great ,pla9s1 effect on ice %eet1 #abj4 ,gre5l&1 climatic /ress1 #aje ff42 ice1 #bf2 ra9fall1 #ajh2 /orm9ess1 #eg2 subm]g5ce1 #bai2 vegetation1 #ba1 #cg1 #bhg2 w9ds1 #ace1 #afa4 ,gregory1 ,j4 ,w41 cit$1 #ij ff41 #ig4 ,gs*nitz /age1 #baf4 ,guatemala1 ru9s 91 #ie4 ,gu]va91 cit$1 #ace4 ,gyroscope1 e>? z1 #aha4 ,hale1 ,g4 ,e41 cit$1 #ef1 #fb4 ,hamdulla1 cit$1 #ajd4 ,hann1 ,j41 cit$1 #ff4 ,hansa ,union1 op]ations (1 #ajj4 ,h>m]1 ,f4 ,w41 cit$1 #aae1 #aai4 ,heat1 & e>?quakes1 #bib2 e>?'s int]nal1 #ah4 ,h$91 ,s41 cit$1 #hh4 ,heim1 ,a41 cit$1 #aij4 ,heligol&1 flood 91 #ii4 ,hell&-,hans51 ,b41 cit$1 #agd4 ,helm]t1 ,f4 ,r41 cit$1 #cjb4 ,h5d]son1 ,l4 ,j41 cit$1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab4 ,h5ry1 ,a4 ,j41 cit$1 #id1 #bjh4 ,h]cynian ,m\nta9s1 #de4 ,high pressure & glaciation1 #aae1 #ace4 ,himalayas1 glaciation1 #add2 orig9 (1 #aic2 sn[ l9e1 #aci4 ,himley1 cit$1 #ajd4 ,hi/oric pulsations1 #bd f42 nature (1 #eg ff4 ,hi/ory1 climate (1 #fd-ig2 climatic pulsations &1 #bf4 ,hobbs1 ,w4 ,h41 cit$1 #aae1 #abe1 #ace1 #afa4 ,hot spr+s1 temp]ature (1 #f4 ,humphreys1 ,w4 ,j41 cit$1 #b1 #cg f41 #de1 #df1 #ej1 #ef1 #bch4 ,hurricanes1 9 arid regions1 #add2 sunspots &1 #ec4 ,hyades1 clu/] 91 #bfh4 ,ice1 accumulations1 #eg f42 advances (1 #abb2 di/ribution (1 #aca2 drift1 #aje4 ,ice %eets1 disappe>ance1 #abh2 limits1 #abj2 localization1 #acj ff42 rate ( retreat1 #afe2 ?ickness1 #abe4 ,icel&1 subm]g5ce1 #bai4 ,i[an ice %eet1 rapid retreat1 #afe4 ,i[an loess1 #aeh4 ,india1 dr\ght1 #ajd f42 fam9e1 #ajd f42 ra9fall1 #ajh4 ,indian glaciation1 #bff4 ,int]-glacial epo*1 ,p]mian1 #aec4 ,int]nal heat ( e>?1 #bab4 ,irel&1 ,drumkel9 ,bog1 #bbj2 9 glacial p]iod1 #aai2 level ( l&1 #bbj2 /orm9ess & ra9fall1 #ajg2 subm]g5ce1 #bai4 ,iri% ,sea1 tides1 #aia4 ,irrigation dit*es1 ab&on$1 #ig4 ,iso/asy1 #cjg ff4 ,italy1 s\!rn1 climate (1 #hf f4 ,japan1 e>?quakes (1 #bif4 ,javanese m\nta9s1 orig9 (1 #aic4 ,jax>tes1 #ajh4 ,jeans1 ,j4 ,h41 cit$1 #bea1 #beb1 #bec1 #bff1 #bgb4 ,jeffreys1 ,h41 cit$1 #cjb1 #cjc1 #cjf4 ,jeffreys1 ,j41 cit$1 #aia4 ,j]i*o1 palms 91 #ib4 ,j]usalem1 ra9fall1 #hf2 ra9fall & temp]ature1 #id2 ra9fall 91 & sequoia gr[?1 #hc ff4 ,johnson1 cit$1 #bbf4 ,judea1 palms 91 #ib4 ,jupit]1 & sunspots1 #bdc2 effect (1 #bec2 p]iodicity (1 #fa f42 temp]ature (1 #beh2 tidal effect (1 #bej4 ,jurassic1 climate1 #bff2 m\nta9 ranges1 #dd4 ,kansas1 v>iations ( seasons1 #ajc4 ,k>a ,ko%un m>%1 ,lop ,nor1 #ajd4 ,keewat9 c5t]1 #aac2 evaporation 91 #abi4 ,keewat9 ice %eet1 #aba4 ,kelv91 ,"l1 cit$1 #ac f4 ,keyes1 ,c4 ,r41 cit$1 #aef4 ,kirk1 ,e41 cit$1 #bhg4 ,knott1 ,c4 ,g41 cit$1 #bid1 #bie1 #big1 #bii1 #cjd1 #cjf4 ,kn[lton1 ,f4 ,h41 cit$ #afg1 #afi1 #agj1 #bab1 #bcb4 ,koepp51 ,w41 #dg1 #eb1 #adj4 ,krakatoa1 glaciation &1 #dh2 volcanic hypo!sis &1 #de4 ,kruemmel1 ,o41 cit$1 #bbd1 #bbh4 ,kullm]1 ,c4 ,j41 cit$1 #aac1 #aae1 #abh2 map ( /orm9ess1 99#ed4 ,kungaspegel1 sea r\tes describ$1 #ajf4 ,labor1 price 9 ,engl&1 #ajb4 ,labradorean c5t] ( glaciation1 #aac4 ,lahontan1 ,lake1 #adb4 ,lake /r&s1 see ,/r&s4 ,lake ,sup]ior1 lava1 #baa4 ,lakes1 dur+ glacial p]iods1 #ada f42 9 semi-arid regions1 #fj2 ( ,great ,bas91 #abf2 ru9s 91 #ig4 ,l&1 & wat]1 climatic effect (1 #aif ff42 di/ribution (1 #bjj1 =m (1 #dc ff42 range ( temp]ature &1 #aif4 ,lavas1 climatic effect (1 #baa4 ,lawson1 ,a4 ,c41 cit$1 #caj4 ,lebanon1 c$>s (1 #hc4 ,leit]1 ,h41 cit$1 #ga4 ,lev]ett1 ,f41 cit$1 #bga4 ,life1 atmosph]e &1 #bbi f42 *emical *>act]i/ic (1 #ab2 effect ( sal9ity1 #bbe2 ( glacial p]iod1 #abg2 p]si/5ce ( =ms1 #bcj4 ,light1 effect ( atmosph]e on1 #bcf2 effect on plants1 #ahd ff42 ultra-violet1 /orm9ess &1 #ef2 v>iation (1 #bge4 ,litor9a sea1 #bah4 ,loess1 date (1 #aef ff42 orig9 (1 #aee1 #afe4 ,lop ,nor1 rise (1 #ajd2 swamps1 #aga4 ,l[s1 & glacial lobes1 #abb2 movem5ts (1 #abf2 see ,/orms & ,cyclones4 ,lulan1 #ajd4 ,lull1 ,r4 ,s41 cit$1 #e1 #ahh4 ,mac,dougal1 ,d4 ,t41 cit$1 #aga4 ,mc,gee1 ,w4 ,j41 cit$1 #aef4 ,macmillan1 ,w4 ,d41 cit$1 #aia4 ,magdal5ian p]iod1 #baf4 ,magnetic fields ( sunspots1 #ef4 ,magnetic poles1 relation to /orm tracks1 #aej4 ,makran1 climate1 #hi2 ra9fall1 #hi4 ,malay ,ar*ipelago1 e>?quakes (1 #bif4 ,mallet1 ,r41 cit$1 #bhh4 ,malta1 ra9fall1 #hf4 ,manson1 ,m41 cit$1 #adg4 ,mayas1 civilization1 #bf2 ru9s1 #ie4 ,may5ce1 flood at1 #ii4 ,mazelle1 ,e41 cit$1 #bbd4 ,m$it]ranean1 climate (1 #gb2 ra9fall records1 #hf2 /orm9ess 91 #fj4 ,m]cury1 & sunspots1 #bdc4 ,mesozoic1 climate1 #bff2 cru/al *anges1 #bhf2 em]g5ce ( l&s1 #bhg4 ,messi]1 #h2 v>iables1 #bdh4 ,metcalf1 ,m4 ,m41 cit$1 #bjb4 ,meteorological factors & e>?quakes1 #cjj f4 ,meteorological hypo!sis ( cru/al movem5ts1 #bid4 ,meteors1 & sun's heat1 #ac1 #bdf4 ,mi*elson1 ,a4 ,a41 cit$1 #bei4 ,middle ,silurian1 fauna 9 ,alaska1 #bhg4 ,mild climates1 see ,climates1 mild4 ,milky ,way1 #beb4 ,mill1 ,h4 ,r41 cit$1 #bbh4 ,milne1 ,j41 cit$1 #bhh1 #bij1 #bid1 #cjd1 #cjf4 ,mioc5e1 cru/al *anges1 #bhg4 ,mississippi ,bas91 loess 91 #aei4 ,mogul emp]or1 & fam9e1 #ajd4 ,monsoons1 "* (1 #adf2 direction (1 #bjh2 ,indian fam9es &1 #aje4 ,m\lton1 ,f4 ,r41 cit$1 #ac1 #beh1 #bfi4 ,m\nta9 build+1 climatic *anges &1 99#be4 ,m\nta9s1 fold+ (1 #aij2 ra9fall1 on1 #bjh4 ,multiple />s1 #beb4 ,nans51 ,f41 cit$1 #abb1 #agd4 ,naples1 ra9fall1 #hf4 ,na?or/1 cit$1 #afi4 ,nebulae1 #bdg4 ,nebul> hypo!sis1 #bcb1 #bfg4 ,neoli?ic p]iod1 #bah4 ,nevada1 correlations ( ra9fall1 #hf4 ,new ,engl&1 height ( l&1 #aaa4 ,new ,mexico1 ra9fall1 #hi4 ,new ,orleans1 ,la41 ra9fall & temp]ature1 #id4 ,new ,zeal&1 climate1 #agg2 tree f]ns1 #agi4 ,newcomb1 ,s41 cit$1 #eb4 ,nile floods1 p]iodicity 91 #bde4 ,nitrog51 9 atmosph]e1 #ai4 ,niya1 ,*9ese ,turke/an1 desiccation at1 #ff4 ,nocturnal cool+1 *anges 91 #bch f4 ,norl9d1 ,a41 cit$1 #ajj4 ,norsem51 r\te to ,gre5l&1 #bf4 ,norse sagas1 #bai4 ,nor? ,africa1 climate (1 #ga2 ,roman aqu$ucts 91 #ga4 ,nor? ,am]ica1 at maximum glaciation1 #abb ff42 em]g5ce ( l&s1 #aic2 glaciation 91 #aca2 height ( l&1 #aaa2 int]ior sea 91 #bjj2 inundations1 #aif2 loess 91 #aee2 subm]g5ce ( l&s1 #ai1 #ba4 ,nor? ,atlantic ,ocean1 sal9ity1 #bbh4 ,nor? ,sea1 climatic /ress1 #ih ff42 floods ar\nd1 #bf1 #ii2 ra9fall1 #ajg2 /orm9ess1 #eg4 ,nor!rn hemisph]e1 e>?quakes (1 #bid4 ,norway1 decay1 #ajj2 temp]ature1 #agg4 ,novae1 #bdg4 ,oceanic circulation1 c>bon dioxide &1 #ci ff4 ,oceanic climate1 *>act]i/ics1 #ajc4 ,oceanic curr5ts1 div]sion1 #dd2 influ5ce ( l& di/ribution1 #bjc4 ,oceans1 age (1 #bbc2 composition (1 #bbc-bda2 deep5+ (1 #aii2 sal9ity1 #ai1 #bbc2 temp]ature1 #f1 #aeb1 #ahj1 #bbf4 ,okada1 ,t41 cit$1 #bbd4 ,old ,te/am5t1 temp]ature1 #ib4 ,orbital precessions1 #bg4 ,ordovician1 climate1 #bff4 ,organic evolution1 glacial fluctuations &1 #bf4 ,orion1 nebulosity ne>1 #bdg2 />s ne>1 #bdh4 ,orontes1 #fg4 ,osborn1 ,h4 ,f41 cit$1 #baf4 ,ow5s-,se>les1 lakes1 #adb4 ,oxus1 #ajh4 ,oxyg51 9 atmosph]e1 #bj1 #bcd2 9 ,p]mian1 #aeb4 ,ozone1 cause (1 #ef4 ,paleoli?ic1 #baf4 ,paleozoic1 climate1 #bff2 m\nta9s 91 #bji4 ,pale/9e1 *ange ( climate1 #ia f4 ,palms1 climatic *ange &1 #ia f42 9 ,irel&1 #agi4 ,palmyra1 ru9s (1 #ff4 ,p>allaxes ( />s1 #bgf f4 ,patrician c5t]1 #acd4 ,peat-bog p]iod1 fir/1 #bah4 ,p5ck1 ,a41 cit$1 #aci1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #bfi4 ,p5nsylvanian1 life (1 #bf4 ,p]iodicities1 #bde f4 ,p]iodicity1 ( climatic ph5om5a1 #fj f42 ( glaciation1 #bfh2 ( sunspots1 #bdc4 ,p]mian1 climate1 #bff2 di/ribution ( glaciation1 #aeb2 glaciation1 #fj1 #add1 99#ade1 #bbf2 glaciation & m\nta9s1 #de2 life (1 #bf2 r$ b$s1 #aea2 temp]ature1 #adf f4 ,p]ry1 cit$1 #bhi4 ,p]sia1 lakes1 #adc2 ra9fall1 #hi4 ,pett]sson1 ,o41 cit$1 #ih ff41 #ajj f41 #ajc1 #ajf1 #bai4 ,pirsson1 ,l4 ,v41 cit$1 #c1 #aif4 ,planet>y hypo!sis1 #bec1 #bfg4 ,planet>y nebulae1 #beb4 ,planets1 & sunspots1 #bdc2 effect ( /> on1 #bee2 sunspot cycle &1 #fb2 temp]atures1 #h f4 ,plants1 climate &1 #a f42 effect ( light1 #ahd ff4 ,pleion1 def9$1 #bi4 ,pleionian migrations1 #bi f4 ,plei/oc5e1 climate1 #bff2 duration (1 #dh2 glaciation1 #aaj ff42 ice %eets1 99#abc4 ,pluvial climate1 causes (1 #adc2 dur+ glacial p]iods1 #ada4 ,po1 froz51 #ih4 ,pol>is1 #bgb4 ,pol> w&]+1 hypo!sis (1 #dh f4 ,pole & e>?quakes1 #cje4 ,po/-glacial cru/al movem5ts & climatic *anges1 #bae-bbb4 ,poynt+1 ,j4 ,h41 cit$1 #h4 ,precessional hypo!sis1 #cd f4 ,precipitation1 & glaciation1 #aad1 #acc2 dur+ glacial p]iod1 #aah2 sn[ l9e &1 #aci2 temp]ature &1 #id4 ,procyon1 companion (1 #bhj2 lum9osity1 #bgh2 spe$ (1 #bha4 ,progressive *ange1 #bda4 ,progressive desiccation1 hypo!sis (1 #fe ff4 ,prot]ozoic1 #d f42 fossils1 #f f42 glaciation1 #ah1 #add1 #bbf1 #bff2 lava1 #baa2 m\nta9s 91 #bji2 oceanic sal9ity1 #db f42 oxyg5 9 air1 #bcd2 r$ b$s1 #aea2 temp]ature1 #adf f4 ,pulsations1 hypo!sis (1 #fe1 #gb ff4 ,pulsatory climatic *anges1 #gb ff4 ,pulsatory hypo!sis1 #bgb4 ,pumpelly1 ,r41 cit$1 #bga4 ,radiation1 v>iation (1 #bge4 ,radioactivity1 heat ( sun &1 #ad f4 ,ra9fall1 *anges 91 #ic f42 glaciation &1 #ej2 sunspots &1 #ec1 99#eh1 #ei2 tree gr[? &1 #gi4 ,r$ b$s1 #aea1 #agj4 ,rh9e1 flood1 #ii2 froz51 #ih4 ,rho ,ophiu*i1 v>iables1 #bdh4 ,rice gra9s1 #fa4 ,ri*>dson1 ,o4 ,w41 cit$1 #bef4 ,rigidity1 ( e>?1 #cjg4 ,roads1 climate &1 #ff4 ,rog]s1 ,?orwald1 cit$1 #aja4 ,romans1 aqu$uct (1 #ga4 ,rome1 hi/ory (1 #hg4 ,rotation1 ( e>?1 #ah f4 ,rud51 /orm-flood1 #ii4 ,rug51 /orm-flood1 #ii4 ,ru9s1 z climatic evid5ce1 #ff2 ra9fall &1 #fj4 ,sacram5to1 correlation coeffici5ts1 #hb f41 #he2 ra9fall1 #hf2 ra9fall record1 #gi4 ,sagas1 cit$1 #aje f4 ,/4 ,john1 ,c4 ,e41 cit$1 #bcf4 ,sal9ity1 deep-sea circulation &1 #agf2 effect on climate1 #bbd2 9 ,nor? ,atlantic1 #bbh2 ocean temp]ature &1 #bbf2 ( ocean1 #ai1 #abj4 ,salisbury1 ,r4 ,d41 cit$1 #aaa1 #abe1 #abi1 #aci1 #aef1 #bjf1 #bfi1 #bga4 ,salt1 9 ocean1 #bbc4 ,san ,b]n>d9o1 correlation ( ra9fall1 #he4 ,saturn1 & sunspots1 #bdc2 sunspot cycle &1 #fb4 ,sayles1 ,r4 ,w41 cit$1 #ahc4 ,sc&9avia1 climatic /ress1 #ajj f42 fossils1 #bga2 po/-glacial climate1 #bga2 ra9fall1 #ajg2 /orm9ess1 #eg1 #ajg2 temp]ature1 #baf4 ,sc&9avian c5t] ( glaciation1 #aac4 ,s*les+]1 ,f41 cit$1 #bge1 #bgh1 #bih1 #cja1 #cje4 ,s*u*]t1 ,c41 cit$1 #c1 #e1 #bc1 99#be1 99#abc1 #ach1 99#ade1 #afh1 #afi1 #agb1 #ahh1 #aic1 #aif1 #aih1 #bjj1 99#bja1 #bjf1 #baa1 #bcj1 #bfe4 ,s*u/]1 ,a41 cit$1 #fa1 #bdd1 #bid1 #bif4 ,sculpture1 ,maya1 #if4 ,sea level & glaciation1 #aai4 ,seasonal alt]nations1 #bh f4 ,seasonal b&+1 #ahc f4 ,seasonal *anges1 geological1 #ahc4 ,seasons1 & e>?quakes1 #bid1 #bie1 #big1 #bii2 evid5ces (1 #afi4 ,secul> progression1 #ag ff41 #ahh4 ,sei/an1 swamps1 #aga4 ,sequoias1 measurem5ts (1 #gd ff42 ra9fall record1 #gi4 ,set*ell1 ,w4 ,a41 cit$1 #a4 ,%ackleton1 ,e41 cit$1 #abe4 ,%apley1 ,h41 cit$1 #bdf1 #bdg1 #bed1 #bef1 #bge4 ,%imek1 ,e41 cit$1 #aeg1 #afa4 ,%reveport1 ,la41 ra9fall & temp]ature1 #ic f4 ,%r9kage ( ! e>?1 #aij4 ,sib]ia1 & glaciation1 #acb4 ,si]ras1 ra9fall records1 #hb4 ,simpson1 ,g4 ,c41 cit$1 #bbb4 ,sirius1 companion (1 #bhj2 di/ance f sun1 #bfb2 lum9osity1 #bgh2 spe$ (1 #bha4 ,sli*t]1 ,c4 ,s41 cit$1 #aib4 ,smi?1 ,j4 ,w41 cit$1 #gc4 ,sn[fall1 glaciation &1 #ej1 #aad4 ,sn[field1 climatic effects (1 #aae4 ,sn[ l9e1 height (1 #ach2 9 ,&es1 #aci2 9 ,himalayas1 #aci4 ,sol> activity1 cycles (1 #bde2 deep-sea circulation &1 #agi2 ice &1 #acd4 ,sol> con/ant1 #aad4 ,sol>-cyclonic hypo!sis1 #ea-fc1 #bhg2 glaciation &1 #aaj-abi4 ,sol> prom95ces1 cause (1 #fa4 ,sol> sy/em1 #beb2 cons]vation (1 #bdc2 proximity to />s1 #fc4 ,sol> v>iations1 /orms &1 #ca4 ,s\? ,am]ica1 e>?quakes1 #cja4 ,s\? ,pole1 ?ickness ( ice at1 #abe4 ,s\!rn hemisph]e1 e>?quakes1 #bif2 glaciation 91 #aca f4 ,s\!rn ,pacific railroad1 ra9fall records along1 #hb4 ,soy beans1 effect ( light1 #ahe f4 ,space1 sun's j\rney ?r\gh1 #bfd-bhd4 ,spiral nebulae1 #bea f42 univ]se (1 #bfg4 ,spitzb]g51 subm]g5ce1 #bai4 ,spr+s1 climate &1 #ff4 ,/>s1 approa* to sun1 #bec2 b9>y1 #beb2 clu/]s1 #beb1 #bfh2 effect on sol> atmosph]e1 #fc2 d>k1 #bed2 p>allaxes (1 #bgf f42 tidal action (1 #bdi4 ,/efan's ,law1 #beg4 ,/e91 ,m4 ,a41 cit$1 #gh4 ,/ell> approa*es1 probability (1 #bfj4 ,/orm belt 9 arid regions1 #add4 ,/orm-floods1 9 f\rte5? c5tury1 #ii4 ,/orm9ess1 & erosion1 #cji2 & ice1 #acd2 effect on glaciation1 #aab2 sunspots &1 #afc2 temp]ature &1 #id1 #agc4 ,/orms1 bl[s (1 #cjj1 #cjb2 increase1 #fj2 movem5t (1 #abe f42 movem5t ( wat] &1 99#age2 orig9 (1 #cj f42 sunspots &1 #bh1 #ec2 see ,cyclones & ,l[s4 ,/orm tracks1 dur+ glacial p]iod1 #aag2 location1 #aac2 relation to magnetic poles1 #aej2 %ift+ (1 #aai4 ,/r&s1 climate &1 #ff2 9 semi-arid regions1 #fj2 ( salt lakes1 #adb4 ,suess1 ,e41 cit$1 #aib4 ,sun1 & ! e>?'s cru/1 #bhe-cag2 approa* to />1 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#acb1 #aci2 gradi5t ( e>?1 #bac2 ( ocean1 #ahj2 9 ,norway1 #agg2 9 ,p]mian1 #adf f42 9 ,prot]ozoic1 #adf f42 limits1 #f ff42 precipitation &1 #id2 range (1 #c1 #h2 sol> activity &1 #adj2 /orm9ess &1 #id1 #aab1 #agc2 sunspots &1 #bh1 #agc2 volcanic eruptions &1 #df2 zones1 #agb4 ,t]re/ial causes ( climatic *anges1 #ahh-bad4 ,t]ti>y1 lava1 #baa4 ,?ames1 froz51 #ih4 ,!rmal sol> hypo!sis1 #di f41 #ig4 ,!rmo-pleion1 movem5ts (1 #cj4 ,!sis1 ( pulsations1 #bd4 ,?iryu1 /orm-flood1 #ii4 ,tian-,%an ,m\nta9s1 irrigation 91 #ga4 ,tidal action ( />s1 #bdi4 ,tidal effect1 ( ,jupit]1 #bec2 ( planets1 #bdd4 ,tidal hypo!sis1 #bea4 ,tidal ret>dation1 effect on l& & sea1 #aia2 rotation ( e>? &1 #ah f42 /ress caus$ by1 #caj4 ,tides1 cycles (1 #bai4 ,"t1 geological1 see ,geological "t4 ,toads1 di/ribution (1 #bjb4 ,tobacco plant1 effect ( light1 #ahd4 ,topography1 & glaciation1 #acb4 ,transcaspian ,bas91 r$ b$s1 #aea4 ,tree f]ns1 9 ,new ,zeal&1 #agi4 ,tree gr[?1 p]iodicity 91 #bde2 ra9fall &1 #gi4 ,trees1 9 ,cali=nia1 #bai2 measurem5t (1 #gc ff4 ,triassic1 climate1 #bff4 ,trifid ,nebula1 v>iables1 #bdh4 ,trondheim1 :eat 91 #aja4 ,trondh5aes1 corn 91 #aja4 ,tropical cyclones1 9 glacial epo*s1 #adj f42 occurr5ce1 #adh2 sol> activity &1 #aac4 ,tropical hurricanes1 e>?quakes &1 #cjj2 sunspots &1 #adi4 ,turfan1 temp]ature1 #ag4 ,turn]1 ,h4 ,h41 cit$1 #bde4 ,tyl]1 ,j4 ,m41 cit$1 #baf4 ,tyndall1 ,j41 cit$1 #cf1 #cg4 ,typhoon region1 e>?quake wea!r1 #bih4 ,typhoons1 occurr5ce1 #cjj4 ,unit$ ,/ates1 ra9fall & temp]ature 9 ,gulf region1 #ic f42 salt lakes 91 #adb2 s\?we/]n1 climate1 #ff2 /orm9ess1 #ec f41 #fj4 ,v>iables1 #bdg4 ,ve$]1 ,m4 ,a41 cit$1 #cjj4 ,vegetation1 !ory ( pulsations &1 #ij4 ,v5us1 atmosph]e (1 #bcf4 ,ve/]bygd1 invasion (1 #ajf4 ,vicksburg1 ,miss41 ra9fall & temp]ature1 #ic f4 ,volcanic activity1 climate &1 #baj2 movem5t ( ! e>?'s cru/ &1 #bhe2 times ( uplift+ l&s &1 #bc4 ,volcanic du/1 climatic *anges &1 #ig4 ,volcanic hypo!sis1 climatic *ange &1 #de ff42 sn[ l9e1 #aci4 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,zonal cr[d+1 #aag4 ,,pr9t$ ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,( ,,am]ica