,transcriber's notes3 7#a7 ,numbers following letters 7without space7 like ,c#b were originally printed in subscript4 ,letter subscripts are preceded by an underscore1 like ,cn4 7#b7 ,characters following a carat 77 were printed in superscript4 7#c7 ,side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective paragraphs4 7#d7 ,macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not inserted4 7#e7 root stands for the root symbol2 alpha1 beta1 etc4 for greek letters4 7#f7 ,the following typographical errors have been corrected3 ,,author ,,list3 ,w4 ,l4 ,f4 ,walter ,lynwood ,fleming1 ,m4,a41 ,ph4,d4 ',m4,a4' amended from ',a4,m4'4 ,,article ,,francs-,,tireurs3 444 and prevented him from gaining information1 and that their soldierly qualities improved with experience4 'improved' amended from 'inproved'4 ,,article ,,franklin1 ,,sir ,,john3 444 7which1 as ,franklin discovered1 was erroneously placed four degrees of latitude too much to the north7 444 'degrees' amended from 'degress'4 ,,article ,,franklin1 ,,sir ,,john3 ,the alternative course permitted ,franklin by his instructions had been attempted but not pursued1 and in the autumn of #ahdf he had followed that route which was specially commended to him4 'instructions' amended from 'intructions'4 ,,article ,,frauenburg3 ,frauenburg was founded in #abhg and received the rights of a town in #acaj4 ',frauenburg' amended from ',frauenberg'4 ,,article ,,freeman1 ,,edward ,,augustus3 ,historical and religious sentiment combined with his detestation of all that was tyrannical to inspire him with hatred of the ,turk and sympathy with the smaller and subject nationalities of eastern ,europe4 'detestation' amended from 'destestation'4 ,,article ,,freemasonry3 ,elias ,ashmole 7who according to his diary was made a ,free ,mason of ,warrington with ,colonel ,henry ,mainwaring1 seven brethern being named as in attendance at the lodge 444 'brethern' amended from 'brethen'4 ,,article ,,french ,,language3 444 perd 7perdit7 and perde 7perdat7 being generally distinguished as per and perd1 and before a vowel as pert and perd4 'distinguished' amended from 'ditinguished'4 ,,article ,,french ,,language3 ,in ,early ,old ,french 7as in ,provencal7 there are two main declensions1 the masculine and the feminine2 with a few exceptions the former distinguishes nominative and accusative in both numbers1 the latter in neither4 'distinguishes' amended from 'ditinguishes'4 ,,the ,,encyclopaedia ,,britannica ,,eleventh ,,edition ,,first edition1 published in three volumes1 #agfh-agga4 ,,second ten #aggg-aghd4 ,,third eighteen #aghh-agig4 ,,fourth twenty #ahja-ahaj4 ,,fifth twenty #ahae-ahag4 ,,sixth twenty #ahbc-ahbd4 ,,seventh twenty-one #ahcj-ahdb4 ,,eighth twenty-two #ahec-ahfj4 ,,ninth twenty-five #ahge-ahhi4 ,,tenth ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes1 #aijb-aijc4 ,,eleventh published in twenty-nine volumes1 #aiaj-aiaa4 ,,copyright in all countries subscribing to the ,bern ,convention by ,,the ,,chancellor1 ,,masters ,,and ,,scholars of the ,,university ,,of ,,cambridge ,all rights reserved ,,the ,,encyclopaedia ,,britannica ,a ,,dictionary ,,of ,,arts1 ,,sciences1 ,,literature ,,and ,,general ,,information ,,eleventh ,,edition ,,volume ,,xi ,,franciscans to ,,gibson ,new ,york ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 ,inc4 #cdb ,madison ,avenue ,copyright1 in the ,united ,states of ,america1 #aiaj1 by ,the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica ,company4 ,,volume ,,xi1 ,,slice ,i ,franciscans to ,french ,language ,,articles ,,in ,,this ,,slice3 ,,franciscans ,,frederick ,i4 7king of ,prussia7 ,,franck ,,frederick ,,ii4 7king of ,prussia7 ,,franck1 ,,cesar ,,frederick ,,iii4 7king of ,prussia7 ,,franck1 ,,sebastian ,,frederick ,,iii4 7king of ,sicily7 ,,francke1 ,,august ,,hermann ,,frederick ,i4 7elector of ,brandenburg7 ,,francken ,,frederick ,i4 7elector of the ,rhine7 ,,franco-,,german ,,war ,,frederick ,,ii4 7elector of the ,rhine7 ,,francois ,,de ,,neufchateau1 ,,louis ,,frederick ,,iii4 7elector of the ,rhine7 ,,franconia ,,frederick ,,iv4 7elector of the ,rhine7 ,,francs-,,archers ,,frederick ,v4 7elector of the ,rhine7 ,,francs-,,tireurs ,,frederick ,i4 7duke of ,saxony7 ,,franeker ,,frederick ,,ii4 7duke of ,saxony7 ,,frank1 ,,jakob ,,frederick ,,iii4 7elector of ,saxony7 ,,frank-,,almoign ,,frederick 7,maryland1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,frankel1 ,,zecharias ,,frederick ,,augustus ,i4 ,,frankenberg ,,frederick ,,augustus ,,ii4 ,,frankenhausen ,,frederick ,,charles 7,,karl ,,nikolaus7 ,,frankenstein ,,frederick ,,henry ,,frankenthal ,,frederick ,,louis ,,frankenwald ,,frederick ,,william ,i4 ,,frankfort 7,indiana1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,frederick ,,william ,,ii4 ,,frankfort 7,kentucky1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,frederick ,,william ,,iii4 ,,frankfort-,,on-,,main ,,frederick ,,william ,,iv4 ,,frankfort-,,on-,,oder ,,frederick ,,william 7of ,brandenburg7 ,,frankincense ,,frederick-,,lemaitre1 ,,antoine ,,prosper ,,franking ,,fredericksburg ,,frankl1 ,,ludwig ,,august ,,fredericton ,,frankland1 ,,sir ,,edward ,,fredonia ,,franklin1 ,,benjamin ,,fredrikshald ,,franklin1 ,,sir ,,john ,,fredrikstad ,,franklin1 ,,william ,,buel ,,free ,,baptists ,,franklin 7district of ,canada7 ,,freebench ,,franklin 7,massachusetts1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,free ,,church ,,federation ,,franklin 7,new ,hampshire1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,free ,,church ,,of ,,england ,,franklin 7,pennsylvania1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,free ,,church ,,of ,,scotland ,,franklin 7,tennessee1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,freedmen',s ,,bureau ,,franklin 7freeman7 ,,freehold 7,new ,jersey1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,franklinite ,,freehold 7law7 ,,frank-,,marriage ,,freeland ,,frankpledge ,,freeman1 ,,edward ,,augustus ,,franks1 ,,sir ,,augustus ,,wollaston ,,freeman ,,franks ,,freemasonry ,,franz1 ,,robert ,,freeport ,,franzen1 ,,frans ,,mikael ,,free ,,ports ,,franzensbad ,,free ,,reed ,,vibrator ,,franz ,,josef ,,land ,,freesia ,,franzos1 ,,karl ,,emil ,,free ,,soil ,,party ,,frascati ,,free-,,stone ,,fraser1 ,,alexander ,,campbell ,,freetown ,,fraser1 ,,james ,,free ,,trade ,,fraser1 ,,james ,,baillie ,,fregellae ,,fraser1 ,,sir ,,william ,,augustus ,,freiberg ,,fraser 7river7 ,,freiburg ,,fraserburgh ,,freiburg ,,im ,,breisgau ,,fraserville ,,freidank ,,frater ,,freienwalde ,,fraternities1 ,,college ,,freieslebenite ,,fraticelli ,,freight ,,fraud ,,freiligrath1 ,,ferdinand ,,frauenburg ,,freind1 ,,john ,,frauenfeld ,,freinsheim1 ,,johann ,,frauenlob ,,freire1 ,,francisco ,,jose ,,fraunce1 ,,abraham ,f,r,e,i,s,c,h,ue,t,z ,,fraunhofer1 ,,joseph ,,von ,,freising ,,fraustadt ,,frejus ,,frayssinous1 ,,denis ,,antoine ,,luc ,,frelinghuysen1 ,,frederick ,,theodore ,,frechette1 ,,louis ,,honore ,,fremantle ,,fredegond ,,fremiet1 ,,emmanuel ,,frederic1 ,,harold ,,fremont1 ,,john ,,charles ,,fredericia ,,fremont 7,nebraska1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,frederick 7name7 ,,fremont 7,ohio1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,frederick ,i4 7,roman emperor7 ,,fremy1 ,,edmond ,,frederick ,,ii4 7,roman emperor7 ,,french1 ,,daniel ,,chester ,,frederick ,,iii4 7,roman emperor7 ,,french1 ,,nicholas ,,frederick ,,iii4 7,german king7 ,,french ,,congo ,,frederick ,,ii4 7king of ,denmark7 ,,french ,,guinea ,,frederick ,,iii4 7king of ,denmark7 ,,french ,,language ,,frederick ,,viii4 7king of ,denmark7 ,,initials ,,used ,,in ,,volume ,,xi4 ,,to ,,identify ,,individual ,,contributors1#a ,,with ,,the ,,headings ,,of ,,the ,,articles ,,in ,,this ,,volume ,,so ,,signed4 ,a4 ,b4 ,r4 ,,alfred ,,barton ,,rendle1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,,sc41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,keeper1 ,department of ,botany1 ,british ,museum4 ,author of ,text ,book on ,classification of ,flowering ,plants2 c4 ,fruit4 ,a4 ,b4 ,w4 ,k4 ,,sir ,,alexander ,,blackie ,,william ,,kennedy1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,emeritus ,professor of ,engineering1 ,university ,college1 ,london4 ,consulting ,engineer to ,board of ,ordnance4 ,friction4 ,a4 ,ca4 ,,arthur ,,cayley1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,see the biographical article1 ,,cayley1 ,,arthur4 ,gauss4 ,a4 ,e4 ,h4 ,l4 ,,augustus ,,edward ,,hough ,,love1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,,sc41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,sedleian ,professor of ,natural ,philosophy in the ,university of ,oxford4 ,hon4 ,fellow of ,queen's ,college2 formerly ,fellow of ,st ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,secretary to the ,london ,mathematical ,society4 ,function3 ,functions of ,real ,variables4 ,a4 ,e4 ,s4 ,,arthur ,,everett ,,shipley1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,,sc41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,master of ,christ's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,reader in ,zoology1 ,cambridge ,university4 ,joint-editor of the ,cambridge ,natural ,history4 ,gastrotricha4 ,a4 ,ge4 ,,sir ,,archibald ,,geikie1 ,,ll4,d4 ,see the biographical article1 ,,geikie1 ,,sir ,a4 ,geology4 ,a4 ,go499 ,,rev4 ,,alexander ,,gordon1 ,,ma4 ,lecturer on ,church ,history in the ,university of ,manchester4 ,franck1 ,sebastian2 ,gallars4 ,a4 ,g4 ,b499 ,,hon4 ,,archibald ,,graeme ,,bell1 ,m4,,inst4,c4,e4 ,director of ,public ,works and ,inspector of ,mines1 ,trinidad4 ,member of ,executive and ,legislative ,councils1 ,inst4,c4,e4 ,georgetown1 ,british ,guiana4 ,a4 ,g4 ,d4 ,,arthur ,,george ,,doughty1 ,c4,m4,g41 ,m4,a41 ,,litt4,d41 ,f4,r41 ,,hist4,s4 ,dominion ,archivist of ,canada4 ,member of the ,geographical ,board of ,canada4 ,author of ,the ,cradle of ,new ,france2 c4 ,joint-editor of ,documents relating to the ,constitutional ,history of ,canada4 ,frontenac et ,palluau4 ,a4 ,h4 ,sm4 ,,arthur ,,hamilton ,,smith1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,keeper of the ,department of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities in the ,british ,museum4 ,member of the ,imperial ,german ,archaeological ,institute4 ,author of ,catalogue of ,greek ,sculpture in the ,british ,museum2 c4 ,gem3 ,,ii4 7in part74 ,a4 ,m499 ,,rev4 ,,allen ,,menzies1 ,d4,d4 ,professor of ,divinity and ,biblical ,criticism1 ,university of ,st ,andrews4 ,author of ,history of ,religion2 c4 ,editor of ,review of ,theology and ,philosophy4 ,free ,church of ,scotland 7in part74 ,a4 ,m4 ,c4 ,,agnes ,,mary ,,clerke4 ,see the biographical article1 ,,clerke1 ,,agnes ,m4 ,galileo4 ,a4 ,n4 ,,alfred ,,newton1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,see the biographical article1 ,,newton1 ,,alfred4 ,frigate-,bird2 ,gadwall2 ,gannet2 ,gare ,fowl4 ,a4 ,n4 ,b4 ,,alfred ,,neave ,,brayshaw1 ,,ll4,b4 ,author of ,bible ,notes on the ,hebrew ,prophets4 ,friends1 ,society of4 ,a4 ,n4 ,w4 ,,alfred ,,north ,,whitehead1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,,sc41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,fellow and ,lecturer in ,mathematics1 ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,author of ,a ,treatise on ,universal ,algebra2 c4 ,geometry3 ,,vi4 7in part7 and ,,vii4 ,a4 ,r4 ,c4 ,,alexander ,,ross ,,clarke1 ,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,colonel1 ,royal ,engineers4 ,royal ,medallist1 ,royal ,society1 #ahhg4 ,in charge of the trigonometrical operations of the ,ordnance ,survey1 #ahed-ahha4 ,geodesy 7in part74 ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,,alexander ,,stuart ,,murray1 ,,ll4,d4 ,see the biographical article1 ,,murray1 ,,alexander ,,stuart4 ,gem3 ,,ii4 7in part74 ,a4 ,w4 ,h499 ,,arthur ,,william ,,holland4 ,formerly ,scholar of ,st ,john's ,college1 ,oxford4 ,bacon ,scholar of ,gray's ,inn1 #aijj4 ,frederick ,,ii41 ,roman ,emperor2 ,french ,revolution3 ,republican ,calendar2 ,germany3 ,history 7in part7 and ,bibliography4 ,a4 ,w4 ,w4 ,,adolphus ,,william ,,ward1 ,,litt4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,see the biographical article1 ,,ward1 ,a4 ,w4 ,garrick1 ,david 7in part74 ,b4 ,a4 ,w4 ,r4 ,,hon4 ,,bertrand ,,arthur ,,william ,,russell1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,formerly ,fellow of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,author of ,foundations of ,geometry2 ,principles of ,mathematics2 c4 ,geometry3 ,,vi4 7in part74 ,b4 ,s4 ,p4 ,,bertha ,,surtees ,,philpotts1 ,m4,a4 7,dublin74 ,formerly ,librarian of ,girton ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,germany3 ,archaeology4 ,c4 ,b499 ,,charles ,,bemont1 ,,litt4,d4 7,oxon474 ,see the biographical article1 ,bemont1 ,c4 ,fustel ,de ,coulanges2 ,gascony4 ,c4 ,d4 ,w4 ,,hon4 ,,carroll ,,davidson ,,wright4 ,see the biographical article1 ,,wright1 ,,hon4 ,,carroll ,,davidson4 ,friendly ,societies3 ,united ,states4 ,c4 ,e499 ,,charles ,,everitt1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,c4,s41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,sometime ,scholar of ,magdalen ,college1 ,oxford4 ,geometry3 ,history4 ,c4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,charles ,,francis ,,atkinson4 ,formerly ,scholar of ,queen's ,college1 ,oxford4 ,captain1 #ast ,city of ,london 7,royal ,fusiliers74 ,author of ,the ,wilderness and ,cold ,harbour4 ,franco-,german ,war 7in part72 ,french ,revolutionary ,wars3 ,military ,operations2 ,germany3 ,army2 ,gibraltar3 ,history4 ,c4 ,h4 ,ha4 ,,carlton ,,huntley ,,hayes1 ,m4,a41 ,,ph4,d4 ,assistant ,professor of ,history in ,columbia ,university1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,member of the ,american ,historical ,association4 ,gelasius ,,ii4 ,c4 ,k4 ,s4 ,,clement ,,king ,,shorter4 ,editor of ,the ,sphere4 ,author of ,sixty ,years of ,victorian ,literature2 ,immortal ,memories2 ,the ,brontes1 ,life and ,letters2 c4 ,gaskell1 ,elizabeth4 ,c4 ,mi4 ,,chedomille ,,mijatovich4 ,senator of the ,kingdom of ,servia4 ,envoy ,extraordinary and ,minister ,plenipotentiary of the ,king of ,servia to the ,court of ,st ,james's1 #ahie-aijj and #aijb-aijc4 ,garashanin4 ,c4 ,m4 ,k4 ,,sir ,,charles ,,malcolm ,,kennedy1 ,k4,c4,m4,g41 ,c4,b4 7#ahca-aijh74 ,head of ,commercial ,department1 ,foreign ,office1 #ahgb-ahic4 ,lecturer on ,international ,law1 ,university ,college1 ,bristol4 ,commissioner in the ,levant1 #ahgj-ahga1 at ,paris1 #ahgb-ahhf4 ,plenipotentiary1 ,treaty of the ,hague1 #ahhb4 ,editor of ,kennedy's ,ethnological and ,linguistic ,essays2 ,diplomacy and ,international ,law4 ,free ,ports4 ,c4 ,pf4 ,,christian ,,pfister1 ,d4-,,es4-,l4 ,professor at the ,sorbonne1 ,paris4 ,chevalier of the ,legion of ,honour4 ,author of ,etudes sur le regne de ,robert le ,pieux2 ,le ,duche merovingien d',alsace et la legende de ,sainte-,odile4 ,franks2 ,fredegond2 ,germanic ,laws1 ,early4 ,c4 ,r4 ,b4 ,,charles ,,raymond ,,beazley1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,,litt41 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 ,f4,r4,,hist4,s4 ,professor of ,modern ,history in the ,university of ,birmingham4 ,formerly ,fellow of ,merton ,college1 ,oxford1 and ,university ,lecturer in the ,history of ,geography4 ,lothian ,prizeman1 ,oxford1 #ahhi4 ,lowell ,lecturer1 ,boston1 #aijh4 ,author of ,henry the ,navigator2 ,the ,dawn of ,modern ,geography2 c4 ,gerard of ,cremona4 ,c4 ,r4 ,c4 ,,claude ,,regnier ,,conder1 ,,ll4,d4 ,colonel1 ,royal ,engineers4 ,formerly in command of ,survey of ,palestine4 ,author of ,the ,city of ,jerusalem2 ,the ,bible and the ,east2 ,the ,hittites and their ,language2 c4 ,galilee 7in part72 ,galilee1 ,sea of 7in part74 ,c4 ,t499 ,,rev4 ,,charles ,,taylor1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 7#ahdj-aijh74 ,formerly ,master of ,st ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,vice-,chancellor1 ,cambridge ,university1 #ahhg-ahhh4 ,author of ,geometrical ,conies2 c4 ,geometrical ,continuity4 ,c4 ,we4 ,,cecil ,,weatherly4 ,formerly ,scholar of ,queen's ,college1 ,oxford4 ,barrister-at-,law4 ,gate4 ,c4 ,w4 ,w4 ,,sir ,,charles ,,william ,,wilson1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,k4,c4,m4,g41 ,f4,r4,s4 7#ahcf-aijg74 ,major-,general1 ,royal ,engineers4 ,secretary to the ,north ,american ,boundary ,commission1 #aheh-ahfb4 ,british ,commissioner on the ,servian ,boundary ,commission4 ,director-,general of the ,ordnance ,survey1 #ahhf-ahid4 ,director-,general of ,military ,education1 #ahie-ahih4 ,author of ,from ,korti to ,khartoum2 ,life of ,lord ,clive2 c4 ,galilee1 ,sea of 7in part74 ,d4 ,c4 ,,dugald ,,clerk1 ,m4,,inst4,c4,e41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,director of the ,national ,gas ,engine ,co41 ,ltd4 ,inventor of the ,clerk ,cycle ,gas ,engine4 ,gas ,engine4 ,d4 ,f4 ,t4 ,,donald ,,francis ,,tovey4 ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford4 ,author of ,essays in ,musical ,analysis1 comprising ,the ,classical ,concerto1 ,the ,goldberg ,variations1 and analyses of many other classical works4 ,fugue4 ,d4 ,h4 ,,david ,,hannay4 ,formerly ,british ,vice-consul at ,barcelona4 ,author of ,short ,history of ,royal ,navy1 #abag-afhh2 ,life of ,emilio ,castelar2 c4 ,french ,revolutionary ,wars3 ,naval ,operations4 ,e4 ,br4 ,,ernest ,,barker1 ,m4,a4 ,fellow of1 and ,lecturer in ,modern ,history at1 ,st ,john's ,college1 ,oxford4 ,formerly ,fellow and ,tutor of ,merton ,college4 ,craven ,scholar1 #ahie4 ,fulk1 ,king of ,jerusalem4 ,e4 ,b4 ,el4 ,,edwin ,,bailey ,,elliott1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,waynflete ,professor of ,pure ,mathematics1 and ,fellow of ,magdalen ,college1 ,oxford4 ,formerly ,fellow of ,queen's ,college1 ,oxford4 ,president of ,london ,mathematical ,society1 #ahif-ahih4 ,author of ,algebra of ,quantics2 c4 ,geometry1 ,,iv4 ,e4 ,c4 ,b4 ,,right ,,rev4 ,,edward ,,cuthbert ,,butler2 ,o4,s4,b41 ,d4,,litt4 7,dublin74 ,abbot of ,downside ,abbey1 ,bath4 ,author of ,the ,lausiac ,history of ,palladius in ,cambridge ,texts and ,studies4 ,franciscans2 ,friar4 ,e4 ,e4 ,,lady ,,eastlake4 ,see the biographical article1 ,,eastlake1 ,,sir ,c4 ,l4 ,gibson1 ,john4 ,e4 ,g4 ,,edmund ,,gosse1 ,,ll4,d4 ,see the biographical article1 ,,gosse1 ,,edmund4 ,fryxell2 ,garland1 ,john4 ,e4 ,j4 ,d4 ,,edward ,,joseph ,,dent1 ,m4,a41 ,,mus4,,bac4 ,formerly ,fellow of ,king's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,galuppi4 ,e4 ,o499 ,,edmund ,,owen1 ,m4,b41 ,f4,r4,c4,s41 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,,sc4 ,consulting ,surgeon to ,st ,mary's ,hospital1 ,london1 and to the ,children's ,hospital1 ,great ,ormond ,street2 late ,examiner in ,surgery at the ,universities of ,cambridge1 ,durham and ,london4 ,author of ,a ,manual of ,anatomy for ,senior ,students4 ,gastric ,ulcer4 ,e4 ,pr4 ,,edgar ,,prestage4 ,special ,lecturer in ,portuguese ,literature in the ,university of ,manchester4 ,commendador ,portuguese ,order of ,s4 ,thiago4 ,corresponding ,member of ,lisbon ,royal ,academy of ,sciences and ,lisbon ,geographical ,society2 c4 ,garcao2 ,garrett1 ,e4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,sir ,,edward ,,william ,,brabrook1 ,c4,b41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,barrister-at-,law1 ,lincoln's ,inn4 ,chief ,registrar of ,friendly ,societies1 #ahia-aijd4 ,author of ,building ,societies2 ,provident ,societies and ,industrial ,welfare2 ,institutions of ,thrift2 c4 ,friendly ,societies4 ,f4 ,c4 ,c4 ,,frederick ,,cornwallis ,,conybeare1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,,th4 7,geissen74 ,fellow of the ,british ,academy4 ,formerly ,fellow of ,university ,college1 ,oxford4 ,author of ,the ,ancient ,armenian ,texts of ,aristotle2 ,myth1 ,magic and ,morals2 c4 ,funeral ,rites4 ,f4 ,c4 ,m4 ,,francis ,,charles ,,montague1 ,m4,a4 ,astor ,professor of ,european ,history1 ,university ,college1 ,london4 ,formerly ,fellow of ,oriel ,college1 ,oxford4 ,author of ,limits of ,individual ,liberty2 chapters in ,cambridge ,modern ,history2 c4 ,french ,revolution4 ,f4 ,f499 ,,sir ,,james ,,fortescue-,,flannery1 ,,bart41 ,m4,p41 ,m4,,inst4,c4,e4 ,ex-,president of the ,institute of ,marine ,engineers4 ,m4,p4 for the ,maldon ,division of ,essex1 #aiaj4 ,m4,p4 for the ,shipley ,division of ,yorkshire1 #ahie-aijf4 ,fuel3 ,liquid4 ,f4 ,g4 ,m4 ,b4 ,,frederick ,,george ,,meeson ,,beck1 ,m4,a4 ,fellow and ,lecturer in ,classics1 ,clare ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,germany3 ,ethnography and ,early ,history4 ,f4 ,h4 ,b4 ,,francis ,,henry ,,butler1 ,m4,a4 ,worcester ,college1 ,oxford4 ,associate of ,royal ,school of ,mines4 ,frankincense2 ,galls4 ,f4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,francis ,,john ,,haverfield1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,camden ,professor of ,ancient ,history in the ,university of ,oxford4 ,fellow of ,brasenose ,college4 ,fellow of the ,british ,academy4 ,formerly ,censor1 ,student1 ,tutor and ,librarian of ,christ ,church1 ,oxford4 ,ford's ,lecturer1 #aijf-aijg4 ,author of ,monographs on ,roman ,history1 especially ,roman ,britain2 c4 ,gaul4 ,f4 ,n4 ,m4 ,,colonel ,,frederic ,,natusch ,,maude1 ,c4,b4 ,lecturer in ,military ,history1 ,manchester ,university4 ,author of ,war and the ,world's ,policy2 ,the ,leipzig ,campaign2 ,the ,jena ,campaign4 ,franco-,german ,war 7in part74 ,f4 ,r4 ,c4 ,,frank ,r4 ,,cana4 ,author of ,south ,africa from the ,great ,trek to the ,union4 ,french ,congo2 ,german ,east ,africa2 ,german ,south-,west ,africa4 ,f4 ,r4 ,h4 ,,friedrich ,,robert ,,helmert1 ,,ph4,d41 ,d4,,ing4 ,professor of ,geodesy1 ,university of ,berlin4 ,geodesy 7in part74 ,f4 ,s4 ,,francis ,,storr4 ,editor of the ,journal of ,education1 ,london4 ,officer d',academie 7,paris74 ,games1 ,classical4 ,f4 ,w4 ,r499 ,,frederick ,,william ,,rudler1 ,i4,s4,o41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,curator and ,librarian of the ,museum of ,practical ,geology1 ,london1 #ahgi-aijb4 ,president of the ,geologists' ,association1 #ahhg-ahhi4 ,garnet2 ,gem3 ,i4 ,g4 ,e4 ,,rev4 ,,george ,,edmundson1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,,hist4,s4 ,formerly ,fellow and ,tutor of ,brasenose ,college1 ,oxford4 ,ford's ,lecturer1 #aiji4 ,gelderland 7,duchy74 ,g4 ,l4 ,,georg ,,lunge4 ,see the biographical article4 ,,lunge1 ,g4 ,fuel3 ,gaseous2 ,gas3 ,manufacture1 ,,ii4 ,g4 ,sa4 ,,george ,,saintsbury1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d4 ,see the biographical article1 ,,saintsbury1 ,g4 ,french ,literature2 ,gautier4 ,g4 ,w4 ,t4 ,,rev4 ,,griffiths ,,wheeler ,,thatcher1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,d4 ,warden of ,camden ,college1 ,sydney1 ,n4,s4,w4 ,formerly ,tutor in ,hebrew and ,old ,testament ,history at ,mansfield ,college1 ,oxford4 ,ghazali4 ,h4 ,b4 ,,hilary ,,bauermann1 ,f4,g4,s4 7d4 #aiji74 ,formerly ,lecturer on ,metallurgy at the ,ordnance ,college1 ,woolwich4 ,author of ,a ,treatise on the ,metallurgy of ,iron4 ,fuel3 ,solid4 ,h4 ,b4 ,w4 ,,horace ,,bolingbroke ,,woodward1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,late ,assistant ,director1 ,geological ,survey of ,england and ,wales4 ,wollaston ,medallist1 ,geological ,society4 ,author of ,the ,history of the ,geological ,society of ,london2 c4 ,gaudry4 ,h4 ,ch4 ,,hugh ,,chisholm1 ,m4,a4 ,formerly ,scholar of ,corpus ,christi ,college1 ,oxford4 ,editor of the #aath edition of the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica2 ,co-editor of the #ajth edition4 ,gambetta2 ,garnett1 ,richard2 ,george ,,iv4 7in part74 ,h4 ,c4 ,l4 ,,hon4 ,,henry ,,cabot ,,lodge4 ,see the biographical article1 ,,lodge1 ,,henry ,,cabot4 ,gallatin4 ,h4 ,f4 ,ba4 ,,henry ,,frederick ,,baker1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,,sc41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,fellow and ,lecturer of ,st ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,cayley ,lecturer in ,mathematics in the ,university4 ,author of ,abel's ,theorem and the ,allied ,theory2 c4 ,function3 ,functions of ,complex ,variables4 ,h4 ,l4 ,c4 ,,hugh ,,longbourne ,,callendar1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,,ll4,d4 ,professor of ,physics1 ,royal ,college of ,science1 ,london4 ,formerly ,professor of ,physics in ,mac,gill ,college1 ,montreal1 and in ,university ,college1 ,london4 ,fusion4 ,h4 ,m499 ,,hugh ,,mitchell4 ,barrister-at-,law1 ,inner ,temple4 ,gibraltar 7in part74 ,h4 ,m4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,marshall ,,ward1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,,sc41 ,f4,r4,s4 7d4 #aije74 ,formerly ,professor of ,botany1 ,cambridge4 ,president of the ,british ,mycological ,society4 ,author of ,timber and ,some of its ,diseases2 ,the ,oak2 ,sach's ,lectures on the ,physiology of ,plants2 ,diseases in ,plants2 c4 ,fungi 7in part74 ,h4 ,n4 ,,henry ,,nicol4 ,french ,language 7in part74 ,h4 ,r4 ,m4 ,,hugh ,,robert ,,mill1 ,d4,,sc41 ,,ll4,d4 ,director of ,british ,rainfall ,organization4 ,editor of ,british ,rainfall4 ,formerly ,president of the ,royal ,meteorological ,society4 ,hon4 ,member of ,vienna ,geographical ,society4 ,hon4 ,corresponding ,member of ,geographical ,societies of ,paris1 ,berlin1 ,budapest1 ,st ,petersburg1 ,amsterdam1 c4 ,author of ,the ,realm of ,nature2 ,the ,international ,geography2 c4 ,geography4 ,h4 ,w4 ,c4 ,d4 ,,henry ,,william ,,carless ,,davis1 ,m4,a4 ,fellow and ,tutor of ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford4 ,fellow of ,all ,souls ,college1 ,oxford1 #ahie-aijb4 ,author of ,england under the ,normans and ,angevins2 ,charlemagne4 ,geoffrey1 ,archbishop of ,york2 ,geoffrey of ,monmouth2 ,gerard2 ,gervase of ,canterbury2 ,gervase of ,tilbury4 ,h4 ,w4 ,s4 ,h4 ,,wickham ,,steed4 ,correspondent of ,the ,times at ,rome 7#ahig-aijb7 and ,vienna4 ,garibaldi4 ,i4 ,a4 ,,israel ,,abrahams1 ,m4,a4 ,reader in ,talmudic and ,rabbinic ,literature in the ,university of ,cambridge4 ,formerly ,president1 ,jewish ,historical ,society of ,england4 ,author of ,a ,short ,history of ,jewish ,literature2 ,jewish ,life in the ,middle ,ages2 ,judaism2 c4 ,frank1 ,jakob2 ,frankel1 ,zecharias2 ,frankl1 ,ludwig ,a42 ,friedmann1 ,meir2 ,gaon2 ,geiger 7in part72 ,gersonides4 ,j4 ,a4 ,f4 ,,john ,,ambrose ,,fleming1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,,sc41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,pender ,professor of ,electrical ,engineering in the ,university of ,london4 ,fellow of ,university ,college1 ,london4 ,formerly ,fellow of ,st ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge1 and ,lecturer on ,applied ,mechanics in the ,university4 ,author of ,magnets and ,electric ,currents4 ,galvanometer4 ,j4 ,a4 ,h4 ,,john ,,allen ,,howe1 ,b4,,sc4 ,curator and ,librarian of the ,museum of ,practical ,geology1 ,london4 ,author of ,the ,geology of ,building ,stones4 ,fuller's ,earth4 ,j4 ,b4 ,b4 ,,john ,,bagnall ,,bury1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,see the biographical article1 ,,bury1 ,j4 ,b4 ,gibbon1 ,edward4 ,j4 ,b4 ,mc,m4 ,,john ,,bach ,,mcmaster1 ,,ll4,d4 ,professor of ,american ,history in the ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,author of ,a ,history of the ,people of the ,united ,states2 c4 ,garfield1 ,james ,abram4 ,j4 ,ga4 ,,james ,,gairdner1 ,,ll4,d41 ,c4,b4 ,see the biographical article1 ,,gairdner1 ,j4 ,gardiner1 ,stephen4 ,j4 ,g4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,john ,,george ,,clark ,,anderson1 ,m4,a4 ,censor and ,tutor of ,christ ,church1 ,oxford4 ,formerly ,fellow of ,lincoln ,college2 ,craven ,fellow1 ,oxford1 #ahif4 ,conington ,prizeman1 #ahic4 ,galatia4 ,j4 ,g4 ,r4 ,,john ,,george ,,robertson1 ,m4,a41 ,,ph4,d4 ,professor of ,german1 ,university of ,london4 ,author of ,history of ,german ,literature2 ,schiller after a ,century2 c4 ,freiligrath2 ,german ,literature4 ,j4 ,hn4 ,,justus ,,hashagen1 ,,ph4,d4 ,privat-dozent in ,medieval and ,modern ,history1 ,university of ,bonn4 ,author of ,das ,rheinland und die franzoesische ,herrschaft4 ,frederick ,augustus ,i4 and ,,ii42 ,frederick ,william ,i4 ,j4 ,h4 ,gr4 ,,john ,,hilton ,,grace1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,lecturer in ,mathematics at ,peterhouse and ,pembroke ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,fellow of ,peterhouse4 ,geometry1 ,v4 ,j4 ,h4 ,h4 ,,john ,,henry ,,hessels1 ,m4,a4 ,author of ,gutenberg3 an ,historical ,investigation4 ,fust4 ,j4 ,h4 ,r4 ,,john ,,horace ,,round1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 7,edin474 ,author of ,feudal ,england2 ,studies in ,peerage and ,family ,history2 ,peerage and ,pedigree2 c4 ,geoffrey ,de ,montbray4 ,j4 ,hl4 ,r4 ,,john ,,holland ,,rose1 ,m4,a41 ,,litt4,d4 ,christ's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,lecturer on ,modern ,history to the ,cambridge ,university ,local ,lectures ,syndicate4 ,author of ,life of ,napoleon ,i42 ,napoleonic ,studies2 ,the ,development of the ,european ,nations2 ,the ,life of ,pitt2 c4 ,gardane4 ,j4 ,mt4 ,,james ,,moffatt1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d4 ,jowett ,lecturer1 ,london1 #aijg4 ,author of ,historical ,new ,testament2 c4 ,galatians1 ,epistle to the4 ,j4 ,p4-,b4 ,,james ,,george ,,joseph ,,penderel-,,brodhurst4 ,editor of the ,guardian 7,london74 ,furniture4 ,j4 ,si4 ,,james ,,sime1 ,m4,a4 7#ahdc-ahie74 ,author of ,a ,history of ,germany2 c4 ,frederick the ,great 7in part74 ,j4 ,s4 ,bl4 ,,john ,,sutherland ,,black1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 ,assistant ,editor #ith edition ,encyclopaedia ,britannica4 ,joint-editor of the ,encyclopaedia ,biblica4 ,free ,church of ,scotland 7in part74 ,j4 ,s4 ,f4 ,,john ,,smith ,,flett1 ,d4,,sc41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,petrographer to the ,geological ,survey4 ,formerly ,lecturer on ,petrology in ,edinburgh ,university4 ,neill ,medallist of the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh4 ,bigsby ,medallist of the ,geological ,society of ,london4 ,fulgurite2 ,gabbro4 ,j4 ,t4 ,be4 ,,john ,t4 ,,bealby4 ,joint-author of ,stanford's ,europe4 ,formerly ,editor of the ,scottish ,geographical ,magazine4 ,translator of ,sven ,hedin's ,through ,asia1 ,central ,asia and ,tibet2 c4 ,georgia 7,russia71 7in part74 ,j4 ,t4 ,c4 ,,joseph ,,thomas ,,cunningham1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,z4,s4 ,lecturer on ,zoology at the ,south-,western ,polytechnic1 ,london4 ,formerly ,fellow of ,university ,college1 ,oxford4 ,assistant ,professor of ,natural ,history in the ,university of ,edinburgh4 ,naturalist to the ,marine ,biological ,association4 ,gastropoda4 ,j4 ,v4 ,b4 ,,james ,,vernon ,,bartlet1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d4 7,st4 ,andrews74 ,professor of ,church ,history1 ,mansfield ,college1 ,oxford4 ,author of ,the ,apostolic ,age2 c4 ,frommel4 ,j4 ,ws4 ,,john ,,weathers1 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,lecturer on ,horticulture to the ,middlesex ,county ,council4 ,author of ,practical ,guide to ,garden ,plants2 ,french ,market ,gardening2 c4 ,fruit and ,flower ,farming 7in part74 ,j4 ,w4 ,he4 ,,james ,,wycliffe ,,headlam1 ,m4,a4 ,staff ,inspector of ,secondary ,schools under the ,board of ,education4 ,formerly ,fellow of ,king's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,professor of ,greek and ,ancient ,history at ,queen's ,college1 ,london4 ,author of ,bismarck and the ,foundation of the ,german ,empire2 c4 ,frederick ,,iii4 of ,prussia2 ,germany3 ,history 7in part74 ,k4 ,s4 ,,kathleen ,,schlesinger4 ,author of ,the ,instruments of the ,orchestra2 c4 ,editor of the ,portfolio of ,musical ,archaeology4 ,free ,reed ,vibrator2 ,geige4 ,l4 ,d4 ,,louis ,,duchesne4 ,see the biographical article1 ,,duchesne1 ,l4 ,m4 ,o4 ,gelasius ,i4 ,l4 ,h499 ,,louis ,,halphen1 ,d4-,,es4-,l4 ,principal of the course of the ,faculty of ,letters in the ,university of ,bordeaux4 ,author of ,le ,comte d',anjou au ,,xie siecle2 ,recueil des actes angevines2 c4 ,fulk ,nerra2 ,geoffrey1 ,count of ,anjou2 ,geoffrey ,plantaganet4 ,l4 ,j4 ,s4 ,,leonard ,,james ,,spencer1 ,m4,a4 ,assistant in ,department of ,mineralogy1 ,british ,museum4 ,formerly ,scholar of ,sidney ,sussex ,college1 ,cambridge1 and ,harkness ,scholar4 ,editor of the ,mineralogical ,magazine4 ,galena4 ,l4 ,v4 ,,linda ,,mary ,,villari4 ,see the biographical article1 ,,villari1 ,,pasquale4 ,frederick ,,iii4 ,king of ,sicily4 ,m4 ,g4 ,,moses ,,gaster1 ,,ph4,d4 ,chief ,rabbi of the ,sephardic communities of ,england4 ,vice-,president1 ,zionist ,congress1 #ahih1 #ahii1 #aijj4 ,ilchester ,lecturer at ,oxford on ,slavonic and ,byzantine ,literature1 #ahhf and #ahia4 ,president1 ,folk-lore ,society of ,england4 ,vice-,president1 ,anglo-,jewish ,association4 ,author of ,history of ,rumanian ,popular ,literature2 ,a ,new ,hebrew ,fragment of ,ben-,sira2 ,the ,hebrew ,version of the ,secretum ,secretorum of ,aristotle4 ,ghica4 ,m4 ,n4 ,t4 ,,marcus ,,niebuhr ,,tod1 ,m4,a4 ,fellow and ,tutor of ,oriel ,college1 ,oxford4 ,university ,lecturer in ,epigraphy4 ,joint-author of ,catalogue of the ,sparta ,museum4 ,gerousia4 ,o4 ,ba4 ,,oswald ,,barron1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,editor of ,the ,ancestor1 #aijb-aije4 ,hon4 ,genealogist to ,standing ,council of the ,honourable ,society of the ,baronetage4 ,genealogy3 ,modern4 ,o4 ,h4 ,,olaus ,,magnus ,,friedrich ,,henrici1 ,,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,professor of ,mechanics and ,mathematics in the ,central ,technical ,college of the ,city and ,guilds of ,london ,institute4 ,author of ,vectors and ,rotors2 ,congruent ,figures2 c4 ,geometry1 ,i41 ,,ii41 and ,,iii4 ,p4 ,a4 ,,paul ,,daniel ,,alphandery4 ,professor of the ,history of ,dogma1 ,ecole pratique des hautes etudes1 ,sorbonne1 ,paris4 ,author of ,les ,idees morales chez les heterodoxes latines au debut du ,,xiiie siecle4 ,fraticelli4 ,p4 ,a4 ,a4 ,,philip ,a4 ,,ashworth1 ,m4,a41 ,,doc4,,juris4 ,new ,college1 ,oxford4 ,barrister-at-,law4 ,translator of ,h4 ,r4 von ,gneist's ,history of the ,english ,constitution4 ,germany3 ,geography4 ,p4 ,gi4 ,,peter ,,giles1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d41 ,,litt4,d4 ,fellow and ,classical ,lecturer of ,emmanuel ,college1 ,cambridge1 and ,university ,reader in ,comparative ,philology4 ,formerly ,secretary of the ,cambridge ,philological ,society4 ,author of ,manual of ,comparative ,philology2 c4 ,g4 ,p4 ,la4 ,,philip ,,lake1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,lecturer on ,physical and ,regional ,geography in ,cambridge ,university4 ,formerly of the ,geological ,survey of ,india4 ,author of ,monograph of ,british ,cambrian ,trilobites4 ,translator and editor of ,kayser's ,comparative ,geology4 ,germany3 ,geology4 ,p4 ,m4 ,,paul ,,meyer4 ,see the biographical article1 ,,meyer1 ,m4 ,p4 ,h4 ,french ,language 7in part74 ,r4 ,ad4 ,,robert ,,adamson1 ,,ll4,d4 ,see the biographical article4 ,,adamson1 ,,robert4 ,gassendi 7in part74 ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,,robert ,,alexander ,,stewart ,,macalister1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,st ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,director of ,excavations for the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,gadara2 ,galilee 7in part72 ,galilee1 ,sea of 7in part72 ,gerasa2 ,gerizim2 ,gezer2 ,gibeon4 ,r4 ,ca4 ,,robert ,,carruthers1 ,,ll4,d4 7#agii-ahgh74 ,editor of the ,inverness ,courier1 #ahbh-ahgh4 ,part-editor of ,chambers's ,cyclopaedia of ,english ,literature2 ,lecturer at the ,philosophical ,institution1 ,edinburgh4 ,author of ,history of ,huntingdon2 ,life of ,pope4 ,garrick1 ,david 7in part74 ,r4 ,h4 ,q4 ,,rev4 ,,robert ,,hebert ,,quick1 ,m4,a41 7#ahca-ahia74 ,formerly ,lecturer on ,education1 ,university of ,cambridge4 ,author of ,essays on ,educational ,reformers4 ,froebel4 ,r4 ,l499 ,,richard ,,lydekker1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,z4,s41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,member of the ,staff of the ,geological ,survey of ,india1 #ahgd-ahhb4 ,author of ,catalogues of ,fossil ,mammals1 ,reptiles and ,birds in ,british ,museum2 ,the ,deer of all ,lands2 c4 ,galago2 ,galeopithecus2 ,ganodonta2 ,gelada2 ,gibbon4 ,r4 ,n4 ,b4 ,,robert ,,nisbet ,,bain 7d4 #aiji74 ,assistant ,librarian1 ,british ,museum1 #ahhc-aiji4 ,author of ,scandinavia1 the ,political ,history of ,denmark1 ,norway and ,sweden1 #aeac-aijj2 ,the ,first ,romanovs1 #afac to #agbe2 ,slavonic ,europe1 the ,political ,history of ,poland and ,russia from #adfi to #agif2 c4 ,frederick ,,ii4 and ,,iii4 of ,denmark and ,norway2 ,gedymin4 ,r4 ,pr4 ,,robert ,,priebsch1 ,,ph4,d4 ,professor of ,german ,philology1 ,university of ,london4 ,author of ,deutsche ,handschriften in ,england2 c4 ,german ,language4 ,r4 ,p4 ,s4 ,r4 ,,phene ,,spiers1 ,f4,s4,a41 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a4 ,formerly ,master of the ,architectural ,school1 ,royal ,academy1 ,london4 ,past ,president of ,architectural ,association4 ,associate and ,fellow of ,king's ,college1 ,london4 ,corresponding ,member of the ,institute of ,france4 ,editor of ,fergusson's ,history of ,architecture4 ,author of ,architecture3 ,east and ,west2 c4 ,garnier1 ,j4 ,r4 ,we4 ,,richard ,,webster1 ,m4,a4 7,princeton74 ,formerly ,fellow in ,classics1 ,princeton ,university4 ,editor of ,the ,elegies of ,maximianus2 c4 ,franklin1 ,benjamin4 ,s4 ,a4 ,c4 ,,stanley ,,arthur ,,cook1 ,m4,a4 ,editor for ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,lecturer in ,hebrew and ,syriac1 and formerly ,fellow1 ,gonville and ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,examiner in ,hebrew and ,aramaic1 ,london ,university1 #aijd-aijh4 ,council of ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 #aijd-aije4 ,author of ,glossary of ,aramaic ,inscriptions2 ,the ,laws of ,moses and the ,code of ,hammurabi2 ,critical ,notes on ,old ,testament ,history2 ,religion of ,ancient ,palestine1 c4 ,genealogy3 ,biblical2 ,genesis4 ,st4 ,c4 ,,viscount ,,st ,,cyres4 ,see the biographical article1 ,,iddesleigh1 #a,,st ,,earl ,,of4 ,gallicanism4 ,s4 ,r4 ,g4 ,,samuel ,,rawson ,,gardiner1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,see the biographical article1 ,,gardiner1 ,s4 ,r4 ,george ,i41 ,,ii41 ,,iii42 ,george ,,iv4 7in part74 ,t4 ,as4 ,,thomas ,,ashby1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,,litt4 7,oxon474 ,director of ,british ,school of ,archaeology at ,rome4 ,formerly ,scholar at ,christ ,church1 ,oxford4 ,craven ,fellow1 #ahig1 ,conington ,prizeman1 #aijf4 ,member of the ,imperial ,german ,archaeological ,institute4 ,frascati ,fregellae2 ,frascati2 ,fregellae2 ,fucino1,lago ,di2 ,fulginiae2 ,fusaro1 ,lago2 ,gabii2 ,gaeta2 ,gallipoli 7,italy72 ,gela2 ,genoa4 ,t4 ,ba4 ,,sir ,,thomas ,,barclay1 ,m4,p4 ,member of the ,institute of ,international ,law4 ,member of the ,supreme ,council of the ,congo ,free ,state4 ,officer of the ,legion of ,honour4 ,author of ,problems of ,international ,practice and ,diplomacy2 c4 ,m4,p4 for ,blackburn1 #aiaj4 ,geneva ,convention4 ,t4 ,c4 ,h4 ,,thomas ,,callan ,,hodson4 ,registrar1 ,east ,london ,college1 ,university of ,london4 ,late ,indian ,civil ,service4 ,author of ,the ,metheis2 c4 ,genna4 ,t4 ,e4 ,h4 ,,thomas ,,erskine ,,holland1 ,k4,c41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d4 ,fellow of ,all ,souls ,college1 ,oxford4 ,professor of ,international ,law and ,diplomacy in the ,university of ,oxford1 #ahgd-aiaj4 ,fellow of the ,british ,academy4 ,bencher of ,lincoln's ,inn4 ,author of ,studies in ,international ,law2 ,the ,elements of ,jurisprudence2 ,alberici ,gentilis de jure belli2 ,the ,laws of ,war on ,land2 ,neutral ,duties in a ,maritime ,war2 c4 ,gentili4 ,t4 ,g4 ,s4 ,,thomas ,,gaskell ,,shearman 7d4 #aijj74 ,author of ,the ,single ,tax2 ,natural ,taxation2 ,distribution of ,wealth2 c4 ,george1 ,henry4 ,t4 ,h4 ,h499 ,,colonel ,,sir ,,thomas ,,hungerford ,,holdich1 ,k4,c4,m4,g41 ,k4,c4,i4,e41 ,d4,,sc4 ,superintendent ,frontier ,surveys1 ,india1 #ahib-ahih4 ,gold ,medallist1 ,r4,g4,s4 7,london71 #ahhg4 ,author of ,the ,indian ,borderland2 ,the ,countries of the ,king's ,award2 ,india2 ,tibet2 c4 ,ganges4 ,t4 ,m4 ,l4 ,,rev4 ,,thomas ,,martin ,,lindsay1 ,d4,d4 ,principal and ,professor of ,church ,history1 ,united ,free ,church ,college1 ,glasgow4 ,author of ,life of ,luther2 c4 ,gerson 7in part74 ,v4 ,b4 ,l4 ,,vivian ,,byam ,,lewes1 ,f4,i4,c41 ,f4,c4,s4 ,professor of ,chemistry1 ,royal ,naval ,college1 ,greenwich4 ,chief ,superintending ,gas ,examiner to ,city of ,london4 ,gas3 ,manufacture1 ,i4 ,v4 ,h4 ,b4 ,,vernon ,,herbert ,,blackman1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,,sc4 ,professor of ,botany in the ,university of ,leeds4 ,formerly ,fellow of ,st ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,fungi 7in part74 ,w4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,,rev4 ,,william ,,augustus ,,brevoort ,,coolidge1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 ,,ph4,d4 7,bern74 ,fellow of ,magdalen ,college1 ,oxford4 ,professor of ,english ,history1 ,st ,david's ,college1 ,lampeter1 #ahhj-ahha4 ,author of ,guide du ,haut ,dauphine2 ,the ,range of the ,toedi2 ,guide to ,grindelwald2 ,guide to ,switzerland2 ,the ,alps in ,nature and in ,history2 c4 ,editor of ,the ,alpine ,journal1 #ahhj-ahha2 c4 ,frauenfeld2 ,frejus2 ,fribourg2 ,gap2 ,garda1 ,lake of2 ,gemmi ,pass2 ,geneva2 ,geneva1 ,lake of4 ,w4 ,a4 ,p4 ,,walter ,,alison ,,phillips1 ,m4,a4 ,formerly ,exhibitioner of ,merton ,college and ,senior ,scholar of ,st ,john's ,college1 ,oxford4 ,author of ,modern ,europe2 c4 ,frederick ,,ii4 of ,prussia 7in part72 ,gentleman2 ,gentz1 ,friedrich2 ,germany3 ,history 7in part7 ,w4 ,ba4 ,,william ,,bacher1 ,,ph4,d4 ,professor of ,biblical ,science at the ,rabbinical ,seminary1 ,budapest4 ,gamaliel4 ,w4 ,be4 ,,sir ,,walter ,,besant4 ,see the biographical article1 ,,besant1 ,,sir ,w4 ,froissart4 ,w4 ,c4 ,,sir ,,william ,,crookes1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,see the biographical article1 ,,crookes1 ,,sir ,,william4 ,gem1 ,artificial4 ,w4 ,cu4 ,,the ,,ven4 ,,william ,,cunningham1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d4 ,archdeacon of ,ely4 ,birkbeck ,lecturer in ,ecclesiastical ,history1 ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,fellow of the ,british ,academy4 ,fellow of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,author of ,growth of ,english ,industry and ,commerce2 c4 ,free ,trade4 ,w4 ,e4 ,d4 ,,william ,,ernest ,,dalby1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,,inst4,c4,e41 ,m4,i4,m4,e4 ,professor of ,civil and ,mechanical ,engineering at the ,city and ,guilds of ,london ,institute ,central ,technical ,college1 ,south ,kensington4 ,formerly ,university ,demonstrator in the ,engineering ,department of ,cambridge ,university4 ,author of ,the ,balancing of ,engines2 ,valves and ,valve ,gear ,mechanism2 c4 ,friction 7in part74 ,w4 ,fr4 ,,william ,,fream1 ,,ll4,d4 7d4 #aijf74 ,formerly ,lecturer on ,agricultural ,entomology1 ,university of ,edinburgh1 and ,agricultural ,correspondent of ,the ,times4 ,fruit and ,flower ,farming 7in part74 ,w4 ,f4 ,c4 ,,william ,,feilden ,,craies1 ,m4,a4 ,barrister-at-,law1 ,inner ,temple4 ,lecturer on ,criminal ,law1 ,king's ,college1 ,london4 ,editor of ,archbold's ,criminal ,pleading 7#bcrd edition74 ,game ,laws2 ,gaming and ,wagering4 ,w4 ,hu4 ,,rev4 ,,william ,,hunt1 ,m4,a41 ,,litt4,d4 ,president of the ,royal ,historical ,society #aije-aiji4 ,author of ,history of ,english ,church1 #eig-ajff2 ,the ,church of ,england in the ,middle ,ages2 ,political ,history of ,england1 #agfj-ahja2 c4 ,freeman1 ,edward ,a42 ,froude2 ,gardiner1 ,samuel ,rawson4 ,w4 ,j4 ,h499 ,,william ,,james ,,hughan4 ,past ,s4,g4,d4 of the ,grand ,lodge of ,england4 ,author of ,origin of the ,english ,rite of ,freemasonry4 ,freemasonry4 ,w4 ,l4 ,f4 ,,walter ,,lynwood ,,fleming1 ,m4,a41 ,,ph4,d4 ,professor of ,history in ,louisiana ,state ,university4 ,author of ,documentary ,history of ,reconstruction2 c4 ,freedmen's ,bureau4 ,w4 ,l4 ,g4 ,,william ,,lawson ,,grant1 ,m4,a4 ,professor of ,colonial ,history1 ,queen's ,university1 ,kingston1 ,canada4 ,formerly ,beit ,lecturer in ,colonial ,history1 ,oxford ,university4 ,editor of ,acts of the ,privy ,council 7,canadian ,series74 ,gait1 ,sir ,alexander ,t4 ,w4 ,m4 ,r4 ,,william ,,michael ,,rossetti4 ,see the biographical article1 ,,rossetti1 ,,dante ,g4 ,fuseli2 ,gaddi2 ,gainsborough2 ,ghirlandajo1 ,domenico2 ,ghirlandajo1 ,ridolfo4 ,w4 ,r4 ,b499 ,,william ,,raimond ,,baird1 ,,ll4,d4 ,author of ,manual of ,american ,college ,fraternities2 c4 ,editor of ,the ,beta ,theta ,pi4 ,fraternities1 ,college4 ,w4 ,s4 ,p4 ,,walter ,,sutherland ,,parker4 ,deputy ,chairman1 ,fur ,section1 ,london ,chamber of ,commerce4 ,fur4 ,,principal ,,unsigned ,,articles ,franz ,josef ,land4 ,galicia4 ,geraniaceae4 ,free ,church ,federation4 ,galway4 ,geranium4 ,french ,guinea4 ,gambia4 ,german ,baptist ,brethren4 ,french ,west ,africa4 ,gawain4 ,german ,catholics4 ,friedland4 ,gelatin4 ,gettysburg4 ,frisian ,islands4 ,genius4 ,geyser4 ,frisians4 ,gentian4 ,ghazni4 ,fronde1 ,the4 ,gentianaceae4 ,ghent4 ,fuero4 ,george1 ,saint4 ,ghor4 ,furnace4 ,george ,junior ,republic4 ,giant4 ,galapagos ,islands4 ,georgia 7,u4,s4,a474 ,,footnote3 #a ,a complete list1 showing all individual contributors1 appears in the final volume4 ,,encyclopaedia ,,britannica ,,eleventh ,,edition ,,volume ,,xi ,,franciscans 7otherwise called ,friars ,minor1 or ,minorites2 also the ,seraphic ,order2 and in ,england ,grey ,friars1 from the colour of the habit1 which1 however1 is now brown rather than grey71 a religious order founded by ,st ,francis of ,assisi 7q4v474 ,it was in #abjf that ,st ,francis left his father's house and devoted himself to a life of poverty and to the service of the poor1 the sick and the lepers2 and in #abji that he felt the call to add preaching to his other ministrations1 and to lead a life in the closest imitation of ,christ's life4 ,within a few weeks disciples began to join themselves to him2 the condition was that they should dispose of all their possessions4 ,when their number was twelve ,francis led the little flock to ,rome to obtain the pope's sanction for their undertaking4 ,innocent ,,iii4 received them kindly1 but with some misgivings as to the feasibility of the proposed manner of life2 these difficulties were overcome1 and the pope accorded a provisional approval by word of mouth3 they were to become clerics and to elect a superior4 ,francis was elected and made a promise of obedience to the pope1 and the others promised obedience to ,francis4 ,this formal inauguration of the institute was in #abji or 7as seems more probable7 #abaj4 ,francis and his associates were first known as ,penitents of ,assisi1 and then ,francis chose the title of ,minors4 ,on their return to ,assisi they obtained from the ,benedictine abbey on ,mount ,subasio the use of the little chapel of ,st ,mary of the ,angels1 called the ,portiuncula1 in the plain below ,assisi1 which became the cradle and headquarters of the order4 ,around the ,portiuncula they built themselves huts of branches and twigs1 but they had no fixed abode2 they wandered in pairs over the country1 dressed in the ordinary clothes of the peasants1 working in the fields to earn their daily bread1 sleeping in barns or in the hedgerows or in the porches of the churches1 mixing with the labourers and the poor1 with the lepers and the outcasts1 ever joyous--the joculatores or jongleurs of ,god--ever carrying out their mission of preaching to the lowly and to the wretched religion and repentance and the kingdom of ,god4 ,the key-note of the movement was the imitation of the public life of ,christ1 especially the poverty of ,christ4 ,francis and his disciples were to aim at possessing nothing1 absolutely nothing1 so far as was compatible with life2 they were to earn their bread from day to day by the work of their hands1 and only when they could not do so were they to beg2 they were to make no provision for the morrow1 lay by no store1 accumulate no capital1 possess no land2 their clothes should be the poorest and their dwellings the meanest2 they were forbidden to receive or to handle money4 ,on the other hand they were bound only to the fast observed in those days by pious ,christians1 and were allowed to eat meat--the rule said they should eat whatever was set before them2 no austerities were imposed1 beyond those inseparable from the manner of life they lived4 ,thus the institute in its original conception was quite different from the monastic institute1 ,benedictine or ,canon ,regular4 ,it was a confraternity rather than an order1 and there was no formal novitiate1 no organization4 ,but the number of brothers increased with extraordinary rapidity1 and the field of work soon extended itself beyond the neighbourhood of ,assisi and even beyond ,umbria--within three or four years there were settlements in ,perugia1 ,cortona1 ,pisa1 ,florence and elsewhere1 and missions to the ,saracens and ,moors were attempted by ,francis himself4 ,about #abag ,franciscan missions set out for ,germany1 ,france1 ,spain1 ,hungary and the ,holy ,land2 and in #abai a number of provinces were formed1 each governed by a provincial minister4 ,these developments1 whereby the little band of ,umbrian apostles had grown into an institute spread all over ,europe and even penetrating to the ,east1 and numbering thousands of members1 rendered impossible the continuance of the original free organization whereby ,francis's word and example were the sufficient practical rule of life for all3 it was necessary as a condition of efficiency and even of existence and permanence that some kind of organization should be provided4 ,from an early date yearly meetings or chapters had been held at the ,portiuncula1 at first attended by the whole body of friars2 but as the institute extended this became unworkable1 and after #abai the chapter consisted only of the officials1 provincial ministers and others4 ,during ,francis's absence in the ,east 7#abai-abbj7 a deliberate movement was initiated by the two vicars whom he had left in charge of the order1 towards assimilating it to the monastic orders4 ,francis hurried back1 bringing with him ,elias of ,cortona1 the provincial minister of ,syria1 and immediately summoned an extraordinary general chapter 7,september #abbj74 ,before it met he had an interview on the situation with ,cardinal ,hugolino of ,ostia 7afterwards ,gregory ,,ix471 the great friend and supporter of both ,francis and ,dominic1 and he went to ,honorius ,,iii4 at ,orvieto and begged that ,hugolino should be appointed the official protector of the order4 ,the request was granted1 and a bull was issued formally approving the order of ,friars ,minor1 and decreeing that before admission every one must pass a year's novitiate1 and that after profession it was not lawful to leave the order4 ,by this bull the ,friars ,minor were constituted an order in the technical sense of the word4 ,when the chapter assembled1 ,francis1 no doubt from a genuine feeling that he was not able to govern a great world-wide order1 practically abdicated the post of minister-general by appointing a vicar1 and the policy of turning the ,friars ,minor into a great religious order was consistently pursued1 especially by ,elias1 who a year later became ,francis's vicar4 ,st ,francis's attitude towards this change is of primary importance for the interpretation of ,franciscan history4 ,there can be little doubt that his affections never altered from his first love1 and that he looked back regretfully on the ,umbrian idyll that had passed away2 on the other hand1 there seems to be no reason for doubting that he saw that the methods of the early days were now no longer possible1 and that he acquiesced in the inevitable4 ,this seems to be ,professor ,goetz's view1 who holds that ,sabatier's picture of ,francis's agonized sadness at witnessing the destruction of his great creation going on under his eyes1 has no counterpart in fact1 and who rejects the view that the changes were forced on ,francis against his better judgment by ,hugolino and ,elias 7see ,note on ,sources at end of article ,,francis ,,of ,,assisi2 also ,,elias ,,of ,,cortona72 ,goetz holds that the only conflict was the inevitable one between an unrealizable ideal and its practical working among average men4 ,but there does seem to be evidence that ,francis deplored tendencies towards a departure from the severe simplicity of life and from the strict observance of poverty which he considered the ground-idea of his institute4 ,in the final redaction of his ,rule made in #abbc and in his ,testament1 made after it1 he again clearly asserts his mind on these subjects1 especially on poverty2 and in the ,testament he forbids any glosses in the interpretation of the ,rule1 declaring that it is to be taken simply as it stands4 ,sabatier's view as to the difference between the ,first ,rule and that of #abbc is part of his general theory1 and is1 to say the least1 a grave exaggeration4 ,no doubt the ,first ,rule1 which is fully four times as long1 gives a better picture of ,st ,francis's mind and character2 the later ,rule has been formed from the earlier by the elimination of the frequent scripture texts and the edificatory element2 but the greater portion of it stood almost verbally in the earlier4 ,on ,francis's death in #abbf the government of the order rested in the hands of ,elias until the chapter of #abbg4 ,at this chapter ,elias was not elected minister-general2 the building of the great basilica and monastery at ,assisi was so manifest a violation of ,st ,francis's ideas and precepts that it produced a reaction1 and ,john ,parenti became ,st ,francis's first successor4 ,he held fast to ,st ,francis's ideas1 but was not a strong man4 ,at the chapter of #abcj a discussion arose concerning the binding force of ,st ,francis's ,testament1 and the interpretation of certain portions of the ,rule1 especially concerning poverty1 and it was determined to submit the questions to ,pope ,gregory ,,ix41 who had been ,st ,francis's friend and had helped in the final redaction of the ,rule4 ,he issued a bull1 ,quo elongati1 which declared that as the ,testament had not received the sanction of the general chapter it was not binding on the order1 and also allowed trustees to hold and administer money for the order4 ,john ,parenti and those who wished to maintain ,st ,francis's institute intact were greatly disturbed by these relaxations2 but a majority of the chapter of #abcb1 by a sort of coup d'etat1 proclaimed ,elias minister-general1 and ,john retired1 though in those days the office was for life4 ,under ,elias the order entered on a period of extraordinary extension and prosperity3 the number of friars in all parts of the world increased wonderfully1 new provinces were formed1 new missions to the heathen organized1 the ,franciscans entered the universities and vied with the ,dominicans as teachers of theology and canon law1 and as a body they became influential in church and state4 ,with all this side of ,elias's policy the great bulk of the order sympathized2 but his rule was despotic and tyrannical and his private life was lax--at least according to any ,franciscan standard1 for no charge of grave irregularity was ever brought against him4 ,and so a widespread movement against his government arose1 the backbone of which was the university element at ,paris and ,oxford1 and at a dramatic scene in a chapter held in the presence of ,gregory ,,ix4 ,elias was deposed 7#abci74 ,the story of these first years after ,st ,francis's death is best told by ,ed4 ,lempp1 ,frere ,elie de ,cortone 7#aija7 7but see the warning at the end of the article ,,elias ,,of ,,cortona74 ,at this time the ,franciscans were divided into three parties3 there were the ,zealots1 or ,spirituals1 who called for a literal observance of ,st ,francis's ,rule and ,testament2 they deplored all the developments since #abai1 and protested against turning the institute into an order1 the frequentation of the universities and the pursuit of learning2 in a word1 they wished to restore the life to what it had been during the first few years--the hermitages and the huts of twigs1 and the care of the lepers and the nomadic preaching4 ,the ,zealots were few in number but of great consequence from the fact that to them belonged most of the first disciples and the most intimate companions of ,st ,francis4 ,they had been grievously persecuted under ,elias--,br4 ,leo and others had been scourged1 several had been imprisoned1 one while trying to escape was accidentally killed1 and ,br4 ,bernard1 the first disciple1 passed a year in hiding in the forests and mountains hunted like a wild beast4 ,at the other extreme was a party of relaxation1 that abandoned any serious effort to practise ,franciscan poverty and simplicity of life4 ,between these two stood the great middle party of moderates1 who desired indeed that the ,franciscans should be really poor and simple in their manner of life1 and really pious1 but on the other hand approved of the development of the ,order on the lines of other orders1 of the acquisition of influence1 of the cultivation of theology and other sciences1 and of the frequenting of the universities4 ,the questions of principle at issue in these controversies is reasonably and clearly stated1 from the modern ,capuchin standpoint1 in the ,introductory ,essay to ,the ,friars and how they came to ,england1 by ,fr4 ,cuthbert 7#aijc74 ,the moderate party was by far the largest1 and embraced nearly all the friars of ,france1 ,england and ,germany4 ,it was the ,moderates and not the ,zealots that brought about ,elias's deposition1 and the next general ministers belonged to this party4 ,further relaxations of the law of poverty1 however1 caused a reaction1 and ,john of ,parma1 one of the ,zealots1 became minister-general1 #abdg-abeg4 ,under him the more extreme of the ,zealots took up and exaggerated the theories of the ,eternal ,gospel of the ,calabrian ,cistercian abbot ,joachim of ,fiore 7,floris72 some of their writings were condemned as heretical1 and ,john of ,parma1 who was implicated in these apocalyptic tendencies1 had to resign4 ,he was succeeded by ,st ,bonaventura 7#abeg-abgd71 one of the best type of the middle party4 ,he was a man of high character1 a theologian1 a mystic1 a holy man and a strong ruler4 ,he set himself with determination to effect a working compromise1 and proceeded with firmness against the extremists on both sides4 ,but controversy and recrimination and persecution had stiffened the more ardent among the ,zealots into obstinate fanatics--some of them threw themselves into a movement that may best be briefly described as a recrudescence of ,montanism 7see ,emile ,gebhart's ,italie mystique1 #ahii1 cc4 v4 and vi471 and developed into a number of sects1 some on the fringe of ,catholic ,christianity and others beyond its pale4 ,but the majority of the ,zealot party1 or ,spirituals1 did not go so far1 and adopted as the principle of ,franciscan poverty the formula a poor and scanty use 7usus pauper et tenuis7 of earthly goods1 as opposed to the moderate use advocated by the less strict party4 ,the question thus posed came before the ,council of ,vienne1 #acab1 and was determined1 on the whole1 decidedly in favour of the stricter view4 ,some of the ,french ,zealots were not satisfied and formed a semi-schismatical body in ,provence2 twenty-five of them were tried before the ,inquisition1 and four were burned alive at ,marseilles as obstinate heretics1 #acah4 ,after this the schism in the ,order subsided4 ,but the disintegrating forces produced by the ,great ,schism and by the other disorders of the #adth century caused among the ,franciscans the same relaxations and corruptions1 and also the same reactions and reform movements1 as among the other orders4 ,the chief of these reforms was that of the ,observants1 which began at ,foligno about #acgj4 ,the ,observant reform was on the basis of the poor and scanty use of worldly goods1 but it was organized as an order and its members freely pursued theological studies2 thus it did not represent the position of the original ,zealot party1 nor was it the continuation of it4 ,the ,observant reform spread widely throughout ,italy and into ,france1 ,spain and ,germany4 ,the great promoters of the movement were ,st ,bernardine of ,siena and ,st ,john ,capistran4 ,the council of ,constance1 #adae1 allowed the ,french ,observant friaries to be ruled by a vicar of their own1 under the minister-general1 and the same privilege was soon accorded to other countries4 ,by the end of the middle ages the ,observants had some #adjj houses divided into #ej provinces4 ,this movement produced a half-reform among the ,conventuals or friars of the mitigated observance2 it also called forth a number of lesser imitations or congregations of strict observance4 ,after many attempts had been made to bring about a working union among the many observances1 in #aeag ,leo ,x4 divided the ,franciscan order into two distinct and independent bodies1 each with its own minister-general1 its own provinces and provincials and its own general chapter3 7#a7 ,the ,conventuals1 who were authorized to use the various papal dispensations in regard to the observance of poverty1 and were allowed to possess property and fixed income1 corporately1 like the monastic orders2 7#b7 ,the ,observants1 who were bound to as close an observance of ,st ,francis's ,rule in regard to poverty and all else as was practically possible4 ,at this time a great number of the ,conventuals went over to the ,observants1 who have ever since been by far the more numerous and influential branch of the order4 ,among the ,observants in the course of the sixteenth century arose various reforms1 each striving to approach more and more nearly to ,st ,francis's ideal2 the chief of these reforms were the ,alcantarines in ,spain 7,st ,peter of ,alcantara1 ,st ,teresa's friend1 d4 #aefb71 the ,riformati in ,italy and the ,recollects in ,france3 all of these were semi-independent congregations4 ,the ,capuchins 7q4v471 established c4 #aebe1 who claim to be the reform which approaches nearest in its conception to the original type1 became a distinct order of ,franciscans in #afai4 ,finally ,leo ,,xiii4 grouped the ,franciscans into three bodies or orders--the ,conventuals2 the ,observants1 embracing all branches of the strict observance1 except the ,capuchins2 and the ,capuchins--which together constitute the ,first ,order4 ,for the ,second ,order1 or the nuns1 see ,,clara1 ,,st1 and ,,clares1 ,,poor2 and for the ,third ,order see ,,tertiaries4 ,many of the ,tertiaries live a fully monastic life in community under the usual vows1 and are formed into ,congregations of ,regular ,tertiaries1 both men and women4 ,they have been and are still very numerous1 and give themselves up to education1 to the care of the sick and of orphans and to good works of all kinds4 ,no order has had so stormy an internal history as the ,franciscans2 yet in spite of all the troubles and dissensions and strivings that have marred ,franciscan history1 the ,friars ,minor of every kind have in each age faithfully and zealously carried on ,st ,francis's great work of ministering to the spiritual needs of the poor4 ,always recruited in large measure from among the poor1 they have ever been the order of the poor1 and in their preaching and missions and ministrations they have ever laid themselves out to meet the needs of the poor4 ,another great work of the ,franciscans throughout the whole course of their history has been their missions to the ,mahommedans1 both in western ,asia and in ,north ,africa1 and to the heathens in ,china1 ,japan and ,india1 and ,north and ,south ,america2 a great number of the friars were martyred4 ,the news of the martyrdom of five of his friars in ,morocco was one of the joys of ,st ,francis's closing years4 ,many of these missions exist to this day4 ,in the ,universities1 too1 the ,franciscans made themselves felt alongside of the ,dominicans1 and created a rival school of theology1 wherein1 as contrasted with the ,aristotelianism of the ,dominican school1 the ,platonism of the early ,christian doctors has been perpetuated4 ,the ,franciscans came to ,england in #abbd and immediately made foundations in ,canterbury1 ,london and ,oxford2 by the middle of the century there were fifty friaries and over #abjj friars in ,england2 at the ,dissolution there were some #ff ,franciscan friaries1 whereof some six belonged to the ,observants 7for list see ,catholic ,dictionary and ,f4 ,a4 ,gasquet's ,english ,monastic ,life1 #aijd74 ,though nearly all the ,english houses belonged to what has been called the middle party1 as a matter of fact they practised great poverty1 and the commissioners of ,henry ,,viii4 often remark that the ,franciscan ,friary was the poorest of the religious houses of a town4 ,the ,english province was one of the most remarkable in the order1 especially in intellectual achievement2 it produced ,friar ,roger ,bacon1 and1 with the single exception of ,st ,bonaventure1 all the greatest doctors of the ,franciscan theological school--,alexander ,hales1 ,duns ,scotus and ,occam4 ,the ,franciscans have always been the most numerous by far of the religious orders2 it is estimated that about the period of the ,reformation the ,friars ,minor must have numbered nearly #ajj1jjj4 ,at the present day the statistics are roughly 7including lay-brothers73 ,observants1 #ae1jjj1 ,conventuals1 #aejj2 to these should be added #iejj ,capuchins1 making the total number of ,franciscan friars about #bf1jjj4 ,there are various houses of ,observants and ,capuchins in ,england and ,ireland2 and the old ,irish ,conventuals survived the penal times and still exist4 ,there have been four ,franciscan popes3 ,nicholas ,,iv4 7#abhh-abib71 ,sixtus ,,iv4 7#adga-adhd71 ,sixtus ,v4 7#aehe-aeij71 ,clement ,,xiv4 7#agfi-aggd72 the three last were ,conventuals4 ,the great source for ,franciscan history is ,wadding's ,annales2 it has been many times continued1 and now extends in #be vols4 fol4 to the year #afbb4 ,the story is also told by ,helyot1 ,hist4 des ordres religieux 7#agad71 vol4 vii4 ,abridgments1 with references to recent literature1 will be found in ,max ,heimbucher1 ,orden und ,kongregationen 7#ahif71 i4 ,sec4,sec4 #cg-ea2 in ,wetzer und ,welte1 ,kirchenlexicon 7#bnd ed471 articles ,armut 7,,iii471 ,franciscaner orden 7this article contains the best account of the inner history and the polity of the order up to #ahhf72 in ,herzog1 ,realencyklopaedie 7#crd ed471 articles ,franz von ,assisi 7fullest references to literature up to #ahii71 ,fraticellen4 ,of modern critical studies on ,franciscan origins1 ,k4 ,mueller's ,anfaenge des ,minoritenordens und der ,bussbruderschaften 7#ahhe71 and various articles by ,f4 ,ehrle in ,archiv fuer ,litteratur- und ,kirchengeschichte des ,mittelalters and ,zeitschrift fuer ,katholische ,theologie1 deserve special mention4 ,eccleston's charming chronicle of ,the ,coming of the ,friars ,minor into ,england has been translated into ,english by the ,capuchin ,fr4 ,cuthbert1 who has prefixed an ,introductory ,essay giving by far the best account in ,english of the ,spirit and ,genius of the ,franciscan ,friars 7,the ,friars and how they came to ,england1 #aijc74 ,fuller information on the ,english ,franciscans will be found in ,a4 ,g4 ,little's ,grey ,friars in ,oxford 7,oxford ,hist4 ,soc41 #ahib74 7,e4 ,c4 ,b47 ,,franck4 ,the name of ,franck has been given indiscriminately but improperly to painters of the school of ,antwerp who belong to the families of ,francken 7q4v47 and ,vrancx 7q4v474 ,one artist truly entitled to be called ,franck is ,gabriel1 who entered the gild of ,antwerp in #afje1 became its president in #afcf and died in #afci4 ,but his works cannot now be traced4 ,,franck1 ,,cesar 7#ahbb-ahij71 ,french musical composer1 a ,belgian by birth1 who came of ,german stock1 was born at ,liege on the #ajth of ,december #ahbb4 ,though one of the most remarkable of modern composers1 ,cesar ,franck laboured for many years in comparative obscurity4 ,after some preliminary studies at ,liege he came to ,paris in #ahcg and entered the conservatoire4 ,he at once obtained the first prize for piano1 transposing a fugue at sight to the astonishment of the professors1 for he was only fifteen4 ,he won the prize for the organ in #ahda1 after which he settled down in the ,french capital as teacher of the piano4 ,his earliest compositions date from this period1 and include four trios for piano and strings1 besides several piano pieces4 ,ruth1 a biblical cantata was produced with success at the ,conservatoire in #ahdf4 ,an opera entitled ,le ,valet de ferme was written about this time1 but has never been performed4 ,for many years ,franck led a retired life1 devoting himself to teaching and to his duties as organist1 first at ,saint-,jean-,saint-,francois1 then at ,ste ,clotilde1 where he acquired a great reputation as an improviser4 ,he also wrote a mass1 heard in #ahfa1 and a quantity of motets1 organ pieces and other works of a religious character4 ,franck was appointed professor of the organ at the ,paris conservatoire1 in succession to ,benoist1 his old master1 in #ahgb1 and the following year he was naturalized a ,frenchman4 ,until then he was esteemed as a clever and conscientious musician1 but he was now about to prove his title to something more4 ,a revival of his early oratorio1 ,ruth1 had brought his name again before the public1 and this was followed by the production of ,redemption1 a work for solo1 chorus and orchestra1 given under the direction of ,m4 ,colonne on the #ajth of ,april #ahgc4 ,the unconventionality of the music rather disconcerted the general public1 but the work nevertheless made its mark1 and ,franck became the central figure of an enthusiastic circle of pupils and adherents whose devotion atoned for the comparative indifference of the masses4 ,his creative power now manifested itself in a series of works of varied kinds1 and the name of ,franck began gradually to emerge from its obscurity4 ,the following is an enumeration of his subsequent compositions3 ,rebecca 7#ahha71 a biblical idyll for solo1 chorus and orchestra2 ,les ,beatitudes1 an oratorio composed between #ahgj and #ahhj1 perhaps his greatest work2 the symphonic poems1 ,les ,eolides 7#ahgf71 ,le ,chasseur maudit 7#ahhc71 ,les ,djinns 7#ahhd71 for piano and orchestra2 ,psyche 7#ahhh71 for orchestra and chorus2 symphonic variations for piano and orchestra 7#ahhe72 symphony in ,d 7#ahhi72 quintet for piano and strings 7#ahhj72 sonata for piano and violin 7#ahhf72 string quartet 7#ahhi72 prelude1 choral and fugue for piano 7#ahhd72 prelude1 aria and finale for piano 7#ahhi72 various songs1 notably ,la ,procession and ,les ,cloches du ,soir4 ,franck also composed two four-act operas1 ,hulda and ,ghiselle1 both of which were produced at ,monte ,carlo after his death1 which took place in ,paris on the #hth of ,november #ahij4 ,the second of these was left by the master in an unfinished state1 and the instrumentation was completed by several of his pupils4 ,cesar ,franck's influence on younger ,french composers has been very great4 ,yet his music is ,german in character rather than ,french4 ,a more sincere1 modest1 self-respecting composer probably never existed4 ,in the centre of the brilliant ,french capital he was able to lead a laborious existence consecrated to his threefold career of organist1 teacher and composer4 ,he never sought to gain the suffrages of the public by unworthy concessions1 but kept straight on his path1 ever mindful of an ideal to be reached and never swerving therefrom4 ,a statue was erected to the memory of ,cesar ,franck in ,paris on the #bbnd of ,october #aijd1 the occasion producing a panegyric from ,alfred ,bruneau1 in which he speaks of the composer's works as cathedrals in sound4 ,,franck1 or ,,frank latinized ,,francus1 ,,sebastian 7c4 #adii-;c4 #aedc71 ,german freethinker1 was born about #adii at ,donauwoerth1 whence he constantly styled himself ,franck von ,woerd4 ,he entered the university of ,ingoldstadt 7,march #bf1 #aeae71 and proceeded thence to the ,dominican ,college1 incorporated with the university1 at ,heidelberg4 ,here he met his subsequent antagonists1 ,bucer and ,frecht1 with whom he seems to have attended the ,augsburg conference 7,october #aeah7 at which ,luther declared himself a true son of the ,church4 ,he afterwards reckoned the ,leipzig disputation 7,june-,july #aeai7 and the burning of the papal bull 7,december #aebj7 as the beginning of the ,reformation4 ,having taken priest's orders1 he held in #aebd a cure in the neighbourhood of ,augsburg1 but soon 7#aebe7 went over to the ,reformed party at ,nuremberg and became preacher at ,gustenfelden4 ,his first work 7finished ,september #aebg7 was a ,german translation with additions 7#aebh7 of the first part of the ,diallage1 or ,conciliatio locorum ,scripturae1 directed against ,sacramentarians and ,anabaptists by ,andrew ,althamer1 then deacon of ,st ,sebald's at ,nuremberg4 ,on the #agth of ,march #aebh he married ,ottilie ,beham1 a gifted lady1 whose brothers1 pupils of ,albrecht ,duerer1 had got into trouble through ,anabaptist leanings4 ,in the same year he wrote a very popular treatise against drunkenness4 ,in #aebi he produced a free version 7,klagbrief der armen ,duerftigen in ,england7 of the famous ,supplycacyon of the ,beggers1 written abroad 7#aebh87 by ,simon ,fish4 ,franck1 in his preface1 says the original was in ,english2 elsewhere he says it was in ,latin2 the theory that his ,german was really the original is unwarrantable4 ,advance in his religious ideas led him to seek the freer atmosphere of ,strassburg in the autumn of #aebi4 ,to his translation 7#aecj7 of a ,latin ,chronicle and ,description of ,turkey1 by a ,transylvanian captive1 which had been prefaced by ,luther1 he added an appendix holding up the ,turks as in many respects an example to ,christians1 and presenting1 in lieu of the restrictions of ,lutheran1 ,zwinglian and ,anabaptist sects1 the vision of an invisible spiritual church1 universal in its scope4 ,to this ideal he remained faithful4 ,at ,strassburg began his intimacy with ,caspar ,schwenkfeld1 a congenial spirit4 ,here1 too1 he published1 in #aeca1 his most important work1 the ,chronica1 ,zeitbuch und ,geschichtsbibel1 largely a compilation on the basis of the ,nuremberg ,chronicle 7#adic71 and in its treatment of social and religious questions connected with the ,reformation1 exhibiting a strong sympathy with heretics1 and an unexampled fairness to all kinds of freedom in opinion4 ,it is too much to call him the first of ,german historians2 he is a forerunner of ,gottfried ,arnold1 with more vigour and directness of purpose4 ,driven from ,strassburg by the authorities1 after a short imprisonment in ,december #aeca1 he tried to make a living in #aecb as a soapboiler at ,esslingen1 removing in #aecc for a better market to ,ulm1 where 7,october #bh1 #aecd7 he was admitted as a burgess4 ,his ,weltbuch1 a supplement to his ,chronica1 was printed at ,tuebingen in #aecd2 the publication1 in the same year1 of his ,paradoxa at ,ulm brought him into trouble with the authorities4 ,an order for his banishment was withdrawn on his promise to submit future works for censure4 ,not interpreting this as applying to works printed outside ,ulm1 he published in #aech at ,augsburg his ,guldin ,arch 7with pagan parallels to ,christian sentiments7 and at ,frankfort his ,germaniae chronicon1 with the result that he had to leave ,ulm in ,january #aeci4 ,he seems henceforth to have had no settled abode4 ,at ,basel he found work as a printer1 and here1 probably1 it was that he died in the winter of #aedb-aedc4 ,he had published in #aeci his ,kriegbuechlein des ,friedens 7pseudonymous71 his ,schrifftliche und ganz gruendliche ,auslegung des #fd ,psalms1 and his ,das verbuetschierte mit sieben ,siegeln verschlossene ,buch 7a biblical index1 exhibiting the dissonance of ,scripture72 in #aeda his ,spruchwoerter 7a collection of proverbs1 several times reprinted with variations72 in #aedb a new edition of his ,paradoxa2 and some smaller works4 ,franck combined the humanist's passion for freedom with the mystic's devotion to the religion of the spirit4 ,his breadth of human sympathy led him to positions which the comparative study of religions has made familiar1 but for which his age was unprepared4 ,luther contemptuously dismissed him as a devil's mouth4 ,pastor ,frecht of ,nuremberg pursued him with bitter zeal4 ,but his courage did not fail him1 and in his last year1 in a public ,latin letter1 he exhorted his friend ,john ,campanus to maintain freedom of thought in face of the charge of heresy4 ,see ,hegler1 in ,hauck's ,realencyklopaedie 7#ahii72 ,c4 ,a4 ,hase1 ,sebastian ,franck von ,woerd 7#ahfi72 ,j4 ,f4 ,smith1 in ,theological ,review 7,april #ahgd72 ,e4 ,tausch1 ,sebastian ,franck von ,donauwoerth und seine ,lehrer 7#ahic74 7,a4 ,go4997 ,,francke1 ,,august ,,hermann 7#affc-agbg71 ,german ,protestant divine1 was born on the #bbnd of ,march #affc at ,luebeck4 ,he was educated at the gymnasium in ,gotha1 and afterwards at the universities of ,erfurt1 ,kiel1 where he came under the influence of the pietist ,christian ,kortholt 7#afcc-afid71 and ,leipzig4 ,during his student career he made a special study of ,hebrew and ,greek2 and in order to learn ,hebrew more thoroughly1 he for some time put himself under the instructions of ,rabbi ,ezra ,edzardi at ,hamburg4 ,he graduated at ,leipzig1 where in #afhe he became a ,privatdozent4 ,a year later1 by the help of his friend ,p4 ,anton1 and with the approval and encouragement of ,p4 ,j4 ,spener1 he founded the ,collegium ,philobiblicum1 at which a number of graduates were accustomed to meet for the systematic study of the ,bible1 philologically and practically4 ,he next passed some months at ,lueneburg as assistant or curate to the learned superintendent1 ,c4 ,h4 ,sandhagen 7#afci-afig71 and there his religious life was remarkably quickened and deepened4 ,on leaving ,lueneburg he spent some time in ,hamburg1 where he became a teacher in a private school1 and made the acquaintance of ,nikolaus ,lange 7#afei-agbj74 ,after a long visit to ,spener1 who was at that time a court preacher in ,dresden1 he returned to ,leipzig in the spring of #afhi1 and began to give ,bible lectures of an exegetical and practical kind1 at the same time resuming the ,collegium ,philobiblicum of earlier days4 ,he soon became popular as a lecturer2 but the peculiarities of his teaching almost immediately aroused a violent opposition on the part of the university authorities2 and before the end of the year he was interdicted from lecturing on the ground of his alleged pietism4 ,thus it was that ,francke's name first came to be publicly associated with that of ,spener1 and with pietism4 ,prohibited from lecturing in ,leipzig1 ,francke in #afij found work at ,erfurt as deacon of one of the city churches4 ,here his evangelistic fervour attracted multitudes to his preaching1 including ,roman ,catholics1 but at the same time excited the anger of his opponents2 and the result of their opposition was that after a ministry of fifteen months he was commanded by the civil authorities 7#bgth of ,september #afia7 to leave ,erfurt within forty-eight hours4 ,the same year witnessed the expulsion of ,spener from ,dresden4 ,in ,december1 through ,spener's influence1 ,francke accepted an invitation to fill the chair of ,greek and oriental languages in the new university of ,halle1 which was at that time being organized by the elector ,frederick ,,iii4 of ,brandenburg2 and at the same time1 the chair having no salary attached to it1 he was appointed pastor of ,glaucha in the immediate neighbourhood of the town4 ,he afterwards became professor of theology4 ,here1 for the next thirty-six years1 until his death on the #hth of ,june #agbg1 he continued to discharge the twofold office of pastor and professor with rare energy and success4 ,at the very outset of his labours he had been profoundly impressed with a sense of his responsibility towards the numerous outcast children who were growing up around him in ignorance and crime4 ,after a number of tentative plans1 he resolved in #afie to institute what is often called a ragged school1 supported by public charity4 ,a single room was at first sufficient1 but within a year it was found necessary to purchase a house1 to which another was added in #afig4 ,in #afih there were #ajj orphans under his charge to be clothed and fed1 besides #ejj children who were taught as day scholars4 ,the schools grew in importance and are still known as the ,francke'sche ,stiftungen4 ,the education given was strictly religious4 ,hebrew was included1 while the ,greek and ,latin classics were neglected2 the ,homilies of ,macarius took the place of ,thucydides4 ,the same principle was consistently applied in his university teaching4 ,even as professor of ,greek he had given great prominence in his lectures to the study of the ,scriptures2 but he found a much more congenial sphere when1 in #afih1 he was appointed to the chair of theology4 ,yet his first courses of lectures in that department were readings and expositions of the ,old and ,new ,testament2 and to this1 as also to hermeneutics1 he always attached special importance1 believing that for theology a sound exegesis was the one indispensable requisite4 ,theologus nascitur in scripturis1 he used to say2 but during his occupancy of the theological chair he lectured at various times upon other branches of theology also4 ,amongst his colleagues were ,paul ,anton 7#affa-agcj71 ,joachim ,j4 ,breithaupt 7#afeh-agcb7 and ,joachim ,lange 7#afgj-agdd71--men like-minded with himself4 ,through their influence upon the students1 ,halle became a centre from which pietism 7q4v47 became very widely diffused over ,germany4 ,his principal contributions to theological literature were3 ,manuductio ad lectionem ,scripturae ,sacrae 7#afic72 ,praelectiones hermeneuticae 7#agag72 ,commentatio de scopo librorum ,veteris et ,novi ,testamenti 7#agbd72 and ,lectiones paraeneticae 7#agbf-agcf74 ,the ,manuductio was translated into ,english in #ahac1 under the title ,a ,guide to the ,reading and ,study of the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,an account of his orphanage1 entitled ,segensvolle ,fussstapfen1 c4 7#agji71 which subsequently passed through several editions1 has also been partially translated1 under the title ,the ,footsteps of ,divine ,providence3 or1 ,the bountiful ,hand of ,heaven defraying the ,expenses of ,faith4 ,see ,h4 ,e4 ,f4 ,guericke's ,a4 ,h4 ,francke 7#ahbg71 which has been translated into ,english 7,the ,life of ,a4 ,h4 ,francke1 #ahcg72 ,gustave ,kramer's ,beitraege zur ,geschichte ,a4 ,h4 ,francke's 7#ahfa71 and ,neue ,beitraege 7#ahge72 ,a4 ,stein1 ,a4 ,h4 ,francke 7#crd ed41 #ahid72 article in ,herzog-,hauck's ,realencyklopaedie 7ed4 #ahii72 ,knuth1 ,die ,francke'schen ,stiftungen 7#bnd ed41 #aijc74 ,,francken4 ,eleven painters of this family cultivated their art in ,antwerp during the #afth and #agth centuries4 ,several of these were related to each other1 whilst many bore the same ,christian name in succession4 ,hence unavoidable confusion in the subsequent classification of paintings not widely differing in style or execution4 ,when ,franz ,francken the first found a rival in ,franz ,francken the second1 he described himself as the elder1 in contradistinction to his son1 who signed himself the younger4 ,but when ,franz the second was threatened with competition from ,franz the third1 he took the name of the elder1 whilst ,franz the third adopted that of ,franz the younger4 ,it is possible1 though not by any means easy1 to sift the works of these artists4 ,the eldest of the ,franckens1 ,nicholas of ,herenthals1 died at ,antwerp in #aeif1 with nothing but the reputation of having been a painter4 ,none of his works remain4 ,he bequeathed his art to three children4 ,jerom ,francken1 the eldest son1 after leaving his father's house1 studied under ,franz ,floris1 whom he afterwards served as an assistant1 and wandered1 about #aefj1 to ,paris4 ,in #aeff he was one of the masters employed to decorate the palace of ,fontainebleau1 and in #aegd he obtained the appointment of court painter from ,henry ,,iii41 who had just returned from ,poland and visited ,titian at ,venice4 ,in #afjc1 when ,van ,mander wrote his biography of ,flemish artists1 ,jerom ,francken was still in ,paris living in the then aristocratic ,faubourg ,st ,germain4 ,among his earliest works we should distinguish a ,nativity in the ,dresden museum1 executed in co-operation with ,franz ,floris4 ,another of his important pieces is the ,abdication of ,charles ,v4 in the ,amsterdam museum4 ,equally interesting is a ,portrait of a ,falconer1 dated #aeeh1 in the ,brunswick gallery4 ,in style these pieces all recall ,franz ,floris4 ,franz1 the second son of ,nicholas of ,herenthals1 is to be kept in memory as ,franz ,francken the first4 ,he was born about #aedd1 matriculated at ,antwerp in #aefg1 and died there in #afaf4 ,he1 too1 studied under ,floris1 and never settled abroad1 or lost the hard and gaudy style which he inherited from his master4 ,several of his pictures are in the museum of ,antwerp2 one dated #aeig in the ,dresden museum represents ,christ on the ,road to ,golgotha1 and is signed by him as ,d4 o 7,den ouden7 ,f4 ,franck4 ,ambrose1 the third son of ,nicholas of ,herenthals1 has bequeathed to us more specimens of his skill than ,jerom or ,franz the first4 ,he first started as a partner with ,jerom at ,fontainebleau1 then he returned to ,antwerp1 where he passed for his gild in #aegc1 and he lived at ,antwerp till #afah4 ,his best works are the ,miracle of the ,loaves and ,fishes and the ,martyrdom of ,st ,crispin1 both large and ambitious compositions in the ,antwerp museum4 ,in both these pieces a fair amount of power is displayed1 but marred by want of atmosphere and shadow or by hardness of line and gaudiness of tone4 ,there is not a trace in the three painters named of the influence of the revival which took place under the lead of ,rubens4 ,franz ,francken the first trained three sons to his profession1 the eldest of whom1 though he practised as a master of gild at ,antwerp from #afjj to #afaj1 left no visible trace of his labours behind4 ,jerom the second took service with his uncle ,ambrose4 ,he was born in #aegh1 passed for his gild in #afjg1 and in #afbj produced that curious picture of ,horatius ,cocles defending the ,sublician ,bridge which still hangs in the ,antwerp museum4 ,the third son of ,franz ,francken the first is ,franz ,francken the second1 who signed himself in pictures till #afaf the younger1 from #afcj till his death the elder ,f4 ,francken4 ,these pictures are usually of a small size1 and are found in considerable numbers in continental collections4 ,franz ,francken the second was born in #aeha4 ,in #afje he entered the gild1 of which he subsequently became the president1 and in #afdb he died4 ,his earliest composition is the ,crucifixion in the ,belvedere at ,vienna1 dated #afjf4 ,his latest compositions as the younger ,f4 ,francken are the ,adoration of the ,virgin 7#afaf7 in the gallery of ,amsterdam1 and the ,woman taken in ,adultery 7#afbh7 in ,dresden4 ,from #afaf to #afcj many of his pieces are signed ,f4 ,francken2 then come the ,seven ,works of ,charity 7#afcj7 at ,munich1 signed the elder ,f4 ,f41 the ,prodigal ,son 7#afcc7 at the ,louvre1 and other almost countless examples4 ,it is in ,f4 ,francken the second's style that we first have evidence of the struggle which necessarily arose when the old customs1 hardened by ,van ,orley and ,floris1 or ,breughel and ,de ,vos1 were swept away by ,rubens4 ,but ,f4 ,francken the second1 as before observed1 always clung to small surfaces2 and though he gained some of the freedom of the moderns1 he lost but little of the dryness or gaudiness of the earlier ,italo-,flemish revivalists4 ,f4 ,francken the third1 the last of his name who deserves to be recorded1 passed in the ,antwerp gild in #afci and died at ,antwerp in #affg4 ,his practice was chiefly confined to adding figures to the architectural or landscape pieces of other artists4 ,as ,franz ,pourbus sometimes put in the portrait figures for ,franz ,francken the second1 so ,franz ,francken the third often introduced the necessary personages into the works of ,pieter ,neefs the younger 7museums of ,st ,petersburg1 ,dresden and the ,hague74 ,in a ,moses striking the ,rock1 dated #afed1 of the ,augsburg gallery1 this last of the ,franckens signs ,d4 o 7,den ouden7 ,f4 ,franck4 ,in the pictures of this artist we most clearly discern the effects of ,rubens's example4 ,,franco-,,german ,,war 7#ahgj-ahga74 ,the victories of ,prussia in #ahff over the ,austrians and their ,german allies 7see ,,seven ,,weeks' ,,war7 rendered it evident to the statesmen and soldiers of ,france that a struggle between the two nations could only be a question of time4 ,army reforms were at once undertaken1 and measures were initiated in ,france to place the armament and equipment of the troops on a level with the requirements of the times4 ,the chassepot1 a new breech-loading rifle1 immensely superior to the ,prussian needle-gun1 was issued2 the artillery trains were thoroughly overhauled1 and a new machine-gun1 the mitrailleuse1 from which much was expected1 introduced4 ,wide schemes of reorganization 7due mainly to ,marshal ,niel7 were set in motion1 and1 since these required time to mature1 recourse was had to foreign alliances in the hope of delaying the impending rupture4 ,in the first week of ,june #ahgj1 ,general ,lebrun1 as a confidential agent of the emperor ,napoleon ,,iii41 was sent to ,vienna to concert a plan of joint operations with ,austria against ,prussia4 ,italy was also to be included in the alliance1 and it was agreed that in case of hostilities the ,french armies should concentrate in northern ,bavaria1 where the ,austrians and ,italians were to join them1 and the whole immense army thus formed should march via ,jena on ,berlin4 ,to what extent ,austria and ,italy committed themselves to this scheme remains uncertain1 but that the emperor ,napoleon believed in their bona fides is beyond doubt4 ,whether the plan was betrayed to ,prussia is also uncertain1 and almost immaterial1 for ,moltke's plans were based on an accurate estimate of the time it would take ,austria to mobilize and on the effect of a series of victories on ,french soil4 ,at any rate ,moltke was not taken into ,bismarck's confidence in the affair of ,ems in ,july #ahgj1 and it is to be presumed that the chancellor had already satisfied himself that the schemes of operations prepared by the chief of the ,general ,staff fully provided against all eventualities4 ,these schemes were founded on ,clausewitz's view of the objects to be pursued in a war against ,france--in the first place the defeat of the ,french field armies and in the second the occupation of ,paris4 ,on these lines plans for the strategic deployment of the ,prussian army were prepared by the ,general ,staff and kept up to date year by year as fresh circumstances 7e4g4 the co-operation of the minor ,german armies7 arose and new means of communication came into existence4 ,the campaign was actually opened on a revise of #ahfh-ahfi1 to which was added1 on the #fth of ,may #ahgj1 a secret memorandum for the ,general ,staff4 ,strategic deployment of the ,german armies4 ,under the ,german organization then existing the preliminary to all active operations was of necessity full and complete mobilization4 ,then followed transport by road and rail to the line selected for the strategic deployment1 and it was essential that no part of these operations should be disturbed by action on the part of the enemy4 ,but no such delay imposed itself of necessity upon the ,french1 and a vigorous offensive was so much in harmony with their traditions that the ,german plan had to be framed so as to meet such emergencies4 ,on the whole1 ,moltke concluded that the enemy could not undertake this offensive before the eighth day after mobilization4 ,at that date about five ,french army corps 7#aej1jjj men7 could be collected near ,metz1 and two corps 7#gj1jjj7 near ,strassburg2 and as it was six days' march from ,metz to the ,rhine1 no serious attack could be delivered before the fourteenth day1 by which day it could be met by superior forces near ,kirchheimbolanden4 ,since1 however1 the transport of the bulk of the ,prussian forces could not begin till the ninth day1 their ultimate line of detrainment need not be fixed until the ,french plans were disclosed1 and1 as it was important to strike at the earliest moment possible1 the deployment was provisionally fixed to be beyond the ,rhine on the line ,wittlich-,neunkirchen-,landau4 ,of the thirteen ,north ,german corps three had to be left behind to guard the eastern frontier and the coast1 one other1 the ,,viii41 was practically on the ground already and could concentrate by road1 and the remaining nine were distributed to the nine through railway lines available4 ,these ten corps were grouped in three armies1 and as the ,french might violate ,belgian neutrality or endeavour to break into southern ,germany1 two corps 7,prussian ,guard and ,saxon ,,xii4 corps7 were temporarily held back at a central position around ,mainz1 whence they could move rapidly up or down the ,rhine valley4 ,if ,belgian neutrality remained unmolested1 the reserve would join the ,,iii4 army on the left wing1 giving it a two to one superiority over its adversary2 all three armies would then wheel to the right and combine in an effort to force the ,french army into a decisive battle on the ,saar on or about the twenty-third day4 ,as in this wheel the army on the right formed the pivot and was required only to stand fast1 two corps only were allotted to it2 two corps for the present formed the ,,iii4 army1 and the remaining five were assigned to the ,,ii4 army in the centre4 ,when 7#afth-#agth ,july7 the ,south ,german states decided to throw in their lot with the rest1 their three corps were allotted to the ,,iii4 army1 the ,guards and ,saxons to the ,,ii4 army1 whilst the three corps originally left behind were finally distributed one to each army1 so that up to the investment of ,metz the order of battle was as follows3 ,headquarters3 ,the king of ,prussia 7,general v4 ,moltke1 chief of staff74 ,i4 ,army3 _/ 7,i4 corps1 v4 ,manteuffel7 ,general v4 ,steinmetz ,,vii4 v4 ,zastrow 7,c4 of ,s41 v4 ,sperling7 ,,viii4 v4 ,goeben 7#ast7 and #crd cavalry divisions ,total #he1jjj _/ ,guard ,pr4 ,august of ,wuerttemberg 7,,ii4 corps1 v4 ,fransecky7 ,,iii4 v4 ,alvensleben ,,ii4 ,,ii4 ,army3 ,,iv4 v4 ,alvensleben ,i4 ,prince ,frederick ,charles ,,ix4 v4 ,manstein 7,c4 of ,s41 v4 ,stiehle7 ,x4 v4 ,voigts-,rhetz ,,xii4 7,saxons7 crown prince of ,saxony #eth and #fth cavalry divisions ,total #baj1jjj _/ ,v4 corps1 v4 ,kirchbach 7,,vi47 v4 ,tuempling ,,xi4 v4 ,bose ,,iii4 ,army3 ,i4 ,bavarian1 v4 der ,tann crown prince of ,prussia ,,ii4 v4 ,hartmann 7,c4 of ,s41 v4 ,blumenthal7 ,wuerttemberg div4 v4 ,werder ,baden div4 _/ 7#bnd7 and #dth cavalry divisions ,total #ahj1jjj ------- ,grand ,total #dge1jjj 7,the units within brackets were those at first retained in ,germany47 ,positions of the ,french forces4 ,on the ,french side no such plan of operations was in existence when on the night of the #aeth of ,july ,krieg mobil was telegraphed all over ,prussia4 ,an outline scheme had indeed been prepared as a basis for agreement with ,austria and ,italy1 but practically no details were fixed1 and the troops were without transport and supplies4 ,nevertheless1 since speed was the essence of the contract1 the troops were hurried up without waiting for their reserves1 and delivered1 as ,moltke had foreseen1 just where the lie of the railways and convenience of temporary supply dictated1 and the ,prussian ,intelligence ,department was able to inform ,moltke on the #bbnd of ,july 7seventh day of mobilization7 that the ,french stood from right to left in the following order1 on or near the frontier3 #ast corps ,marshal ,mac,mahon1 duke of ,magenta1 ,strassburg #eth corps ,general de ,failly1 ,saargemuend and ,bitche #bnd corps ,general ,frossard1 ,st ,avold #dth corps ,general de ,ladmirault1 ,thionville ,with1 behind them3 #crd corps ,marshal ,bazaine1 ,metz ,guard ,general ,bourbaki1 ,nancy #fth corps ,marshal ,canrobert1 ,chalons #gth corps ,general ,felix ,douay1 ,belfort ,if therefore they began a forward movement on the #bcrd 7eighth day7 the case foreseen by ,moltke had arisen1 and it became necessary to detrain the ,,ii4 army upon the ,rhine4 ,without waiting for further confirmation of this intelligence1 ,moltke1 with the consent of the king1 altered the arrangements accordingly1 a decision which1 though foreseen1 exercised the gravest influence on the course of events4 ,as it happened this decision was premature1 for the ,french could not yet move4 ,supply trains had to be organized by requisition from the inhabitants1 and even arms and ammunition procured for such reserves as had succeeded in joining4 ,nevertheless1 by almost superhuman exertions on the part of the railways and administrative services1 all essential deficiencies were made good1 and by the #bhth of ,july 7#acth day7 the troops had received all that was absolutely indispensable and might well have been led against the enemy1 who1 thanks to ,moltke's premature action1 were for the moment at a very serious disadvantage4 ,but the ,french generals were unequal to their responsibilities4 ,it is now clear that1 had the great ,napoleon and his marshals been in command1 they would have made light of the want of cooking pots1 cholera belts1 c41 and1 by a series of rapid marches1 would have concentrated odds of at least three to one upon the heads of the ,prussian columns as they struggled through the defiles of the ,hardt1 and won a victory whose political results might well have proved decisive4 ,to meet this pressing danger1 which came to his knowledge during the course of the #bith1 ,moltke sent a confidential staff officer1 ,colonel v4 ,verdy du ,vernois1 to the ,,iii4 army to impress upon the crown prince the necessity of an immediate advance to distract the enemy's attention from the ,i4 and ,,ii4 armies2 but1 like the ,french generals1 the crown prince pleaded that he could not move until his trains were complete4 ,fortunately for the ,germans1 the ,french intelligence service not only failed to inform the staff of this extraordinary opportunity1 but it allowed itself to be hypnotized by the most amazing rumours4 ,in imagination they saw armies of #ajj1jjj men behind every forest1 and1 to guard against these dangers1 the ,french troops were marched and counter-marched along the frontiers in the vain hope of discovering an ideal defensive position which should afford full scope to the power of their new weapons4 ,as these delays were exerting a most unfavourable effect on public opinion not only in ,france but throughout ,europe1 the emperor decided on the #ast of ,august to initiate a movement towards the ,saar1 chiefly as a guarantee of good faith to the ,austrians and ,italians4 ,on this day the ,french corps held the following positions from right to left3 #ast corps ,hagenau #bnd corps ,forbach #crd corps ,st ,avold #dth corps ,bouzonville #eth corps ,bitche #fth corps ,chalons #gth corps ,belfort and ,colmar ,guard near ,metz ,action of ,saarbruecken4 ,the ,french #bnd corps was directed to advance on the following morning direct on ,saarbruecken1 supported on the flanks by two divisions from the #eth and #crd corps4 ,the order was duly carried out1 and the ,prussians 7one battalion1 two squadrons and a battery71 seeing the overwhelming numbers opposed to them1 fell back fighting and vanished to the northward1 having given a very excellent example of steadiness and discipline to their enemy4#a ,the latter contented themselves by occupying ,saarbruecken and its suburb ,st ,johann1 and here1 as far as the troops were concerned1 the incident closed4 ,its effect1 however1 proved far-reaching4 ,the ,prussian staff could not conceive that nothing lay behind this display of five whole divisions1 and immediately took steps to meet the expected danger4 ,in their excitement1 although they had announced the beginning of the action to the king's headquarters at ,mainz1 they forgot to notify the close and its results1 so that ,moltke was not in possession of the facts till noon on the #crd of ,august4 ,meanwhile1 ,steinmetz1 left without instructions and fearing for the safety of the ,,ii4 army1 the heads of whose columns were still in the defiles of the ,hardt1 moved the ,i4 army from the neighbourhood of ,merzig obliquely to his left front1 so as to strike the flank of the ,french army if it continued its march towards ,kaiserslautern1 in which direction it appeared to be heading4 ,moltke1 ,prince ,frederick ,charles and ,steinmetz4 ,whilst this order was in process of execution1 ,moltke1 aware that the ,,ii4 army was behind time in its march1 issued instructions to ,steinmetz for the #dth of ,august which entailed a withdrawal to the rear1 the idea being that both armies should1 if the ,french advanced1 fight a defensive battle in a selected position farther back4 ,steinmetz obeyed1 though bitterly resenting the idea of retreat4 ,this movement1 further1 drew his left across the roads reserved for the right column of the ,,ii4 army1 and on receipt of a peremptory order from ,prince ,frederick ,charles to evacuate the road1 ,steinmetz telegraphed for instructions direct to the king1 over ,moltke's head4 ,in reply he received a telegram from ,moltke1 ordering him to clear the road at once1 and couched in terms which he considered as a severe reprimand4 ,an explanatory letter1 meant to soften the rebuke1 was delayed in transmission and did not reach him till too late to modify the orders he had already issued4 ,it must be remembered that ,steinmetz at the front was in a better position to judge the apparent situation than was ,moltke at ,mainz1 and that all through the day of the #eth of ,august he had received intelligence indicating a change of attitude in the ,french army4 ,battle of ,spicheren4 ,the news of the ,german victory at ,weissenburg on the #dth 7see below7 had in fact completely paralysed the ,french headquarters1 and orders were issued by them during the course of the #eth to concentrate the whole army of the ,rhine on the selected position of ,cadenbronn4 ,as a preliminary1 ,frossard's corps withdrew from ,saarbruecken and began to entrench a position on the ,spicheren heights1 #cjjj yds4 to the southward4 ,steinmetz1 therefore1 being quite unaware of the scheme for a great battle on the ,saar about the #abth of ,august1 felt that the situation would best be met1 and the letter of his instructions strictly obeyed1 by moving his whole command forward to the line of the ,saar1 and orders to this effect were issued on the evening of the #eth4 ,in pursuance of these orders1 the advance guard of the #adth division 7,lieutenant ,general von ,kameke7 reached ,saarbruecken about #i ,a4,m4 on the #fth1 where the ,germans found to their amazement that the bridges were intact4 ,to secure this advantage was the obvious duty of the commander on the spot1 and he at once ordered his troops to occupy a line of low heights beyond the town to serve as a bridge-head4 ,as the leading troops deployed on the heights ,frossard's guns on the ,spicheren ,plateau opened fire1 and the advanced guard battery replied4 ,the sound of these guns unchained the whole fighting instinct carefully developed by a long course of ,prussian manoeuvre training4 ,everywhere1 generals and troops hurried towards the cannon thunder4 ,kameke1 even more in the dark than ,steinmetz as to ,moltke's intentions and the strength of his adversaries1 attacked at once1 precisely as he would have done at manoeuvres1 and in half an hour his men were committed beyond recall4 ,as each fresh unit reached the field it was hurried into action where its services were most needed1 and each fresh general as he arrived took a new view of the combat and issued new orders4 ,on the other side1 ,frossard1 knowing the strength of his position1 called on his neighbours for support1 and determined to hold his ground4 ,victory seemed certain4 ,there were sufficient troops within easy reach to have ensured a crushing numerical superiority4 ,but the other generals had not been trained to mutual support1 and thought only of their own immediate security1 and their staffs were too inexperienced to act upon even good intentions2 and1 finding himself in the course of the afternoon left to his own devices1 ,frossard began gradually to withdraw1 even before the pressure of the #acth ,german division on his left flank 7about #h ,p4,m47 compelled his retirement4 ,when darkness ended the battle the ,prussians were scarcely aware of their victory4 ,steinmetz1 who had reached the field about #f ,p4,m41 rode back to his headquarters without issuing any orders1 while the troops bivouacked where they stood1 the units of three army corps being mixed up in almost inextricable confusion4 ,but whereas out of #db1ijj ,prussians with #abj guns1 who in the morning lay within striking distance of the enemy1 no fewer than #bg1jjj1 with #gh guns were actually engaged2 of the ,french1 out of #fd1jjj with #baj guns only #bd1jjj with #ij guns took part in the action4 ,action of ,weissenburg4 ,meanwhile on the ,german left wing the ,,iii4 army had begun its advance4 ,early on the #dth of ,august it crossed the frontier and fell upon a ,french detachment under ,abel ,douay1 which had been placed near ,weissenburg1 partly to cover the ,pigeonnier pass1 but principally to consume the supplies accumulated in the little dismantled fortress1 as these could not easily be moved4 ,against this force of under #djjj men of all arms1 the ,germans brought into action successively portions of three corps1 in all over #be1jjj men with #ij guns4 ,after six hours' fighting1 in which the ,germans lost some #aejj men1 the gallant remnant of the ,french withdrew deliberately and in good order1 notwithstanding the death of their leader at the critical moment4 ,the ,germans were so elated by their victory over the enemy1 whose strength they naturally overestimated1 that they forgot to send cavalry in pursuit1 and thus entirely lost touch with the enemy4 ,next day the advance was resumed1 the two ,bavarian corps moving via ,mattstall through the foothills of the ,vosges1 the ,v4 corps on their left towards ,preuschdorf1 and the ,,xi4 farther to the left again1 through the wooded plain of the ,rhine valley4 ,the #dth cavalry division scouted in advance1 and army headquarters moved to ,sulz4 ,about noon the advanced patrols discovered ,mac,mahon's corps in position on the left bank of the ,sauer 7see ,w,oe,r,t,h3 ,battle of74 ,as his army was dispersed over a wide area1 the crown prince determined to devote the #fth to concentrating the troops1 and1 probably to avoid alarming the enemy1 ordered the cavalry to stand fast4 ,at night the outposts of the ,i4 ,bavarians and ,v4 corps on the ,sauer saw the fires of the ,french encampment and heard the noise of railway traffic1 and rightly conjectured the approach of reinforcements4 ,mac,mahon had in fact determined to stand in the very formidable position he had selected1 and he counted on receiving support both from the #gth corps 7two divisions of which were being railed up from ,colmar7 and from the #eth corps1 which lay around ,bitche4 ,it was also quite possible1 and the soundest strategy1 to withdraw the bulk of the troops then facing the ,german ,i4 and ,,ii4 armies to his support1 and these would reach him by the #hth4 ,he was therefore justified in accepting battle1 though it was to his interest to delay it as long as possible4 ,battle of ,woerth4 ,at dawn on the #fth of ,august the commander of the ,v4 corps outposts noticed certain movements in the ,french lines1 and to clear up the situation brought his guns into action4 ,as at ,spicheren1 the sound of the guns set the whole machinery of battle in motion4 ,the ,french artillery immediately accepted the ,prussian challenge4 ,the ,i4 ,bavarians1 having been ordered to be ready to move if they heard artillery fire1 immediately advanced against the ,french left1 encountering presently such a stubborn resistance that parts of their line began to give way4 ,the ,prussians of the ,v4 corps felt that they could not abandon their allies1 and von ,kirchbach1 calling on the ,,xi4 corps for support1 attacked with the troops at hand4 ,when the crown prince tried to break off the fight it was too late4 ,both sides were feeding troops into the firing line1 as and where they could lay hands on them4 ,up to #b ,p4,m4 the ,french fairly held their own1 but shortly afterwards their right yielded to the overwhelming pressure of the ,,xi4 corps1 and by #c4cj it was in full retreat4 ,the centre held on for another hour1 but in its turn was compelled to yield1 and by #d4cj all organized resistance was at an end4 ,the debris of the ,french army was hotly pursued by the ,german divisional squadrons towards ,reichshofen1 where serious panic showed itself4 ,when at this stage the supports sent by de ,failly from ,bitche came on the ground they saw the hopelessness of intervention1 and retired whence they had come4 ,fortunately for the ,french1 the ,german #dth cavalry division1 on which the pursuit should have devolved1 had been forgotten by the ,german staff1 and did not reach the front before darkness fell4 ,out of a total of #hb1jjj within reach of the battlefield1 the ,germans succeeded in bringing into action #gg1ejj4 ,the ,french1 who might have had #ej1jjj on the field1 deployed only #cg1jjj1 and these suffered a collective loss of no less than #bj1ajj2 some regiments losing up to #ij and still retaining some semblance of discipline and order4 ,under cover of darkness the remnants of the ,french army escaped4 ,when at length the #dth cavalry division had succeeded in forcing a way through the confusion of the battlefield1 all touch with the enemy had been lost1 and being without firearms the troopers were checked by the ,french stragglers in the woods and the villages1 and thus failed to establish the true line of retreat of the ,french4 ,ultimately the latter1 having gained the railway near ,luneville1 disappeared from the ,german front altogether1 and all trace of them was lost until they were discovered1 about the #bfth of ,august1 forming part of the army of ,chalons1 whither they had been conveyed by rail via ,paris4 ,this is a remarkable example of the strategical value of railways to an army operating in its own country4 ,in the absence of all resistance1 the ,,iii4 army now proceeded to carry out the original programme of marches laid down in ,moltke's memorandum of the #fth of ,may1 and marching on a broad front through a fertile district it reached the line of the ,moselle in excellent order about the #agth of ,august1 where it halted to await the result of the great battle of ,gravelotte-,st ,privat4 ,movements on the ,saar4 ,we return now to the ,i4 army at ,saarbruecken4 ,its position on the morning of the #gth of ,august gave cause for the gravest anxiety4 ,at daylight a dense fog lay over the country1 and through the mist sounds of heavy firing came from the direction of ,forbach1 where ,french stragglers had rallied during the night4 ,the confusion on the battlefield was appalling1 and the troops in no condition to go forward4 ,except the #crd1 #eth and #fth cavalry divisions no closed troops were within a day's march2 hence ,steinmetz decided to spend the day in reorganizing his infantry1 under cover of his available cavalry4 ,but the ,german cavalry and staff were quite new to their task4 ,the #fth cavalry division1 which had bivouacked on the battlefield1 sent on only one brigade towards ,forbach1 retaining the remainder in reserve4 ,the #eth1 thinking that the #fth had already undertaken all that was necessary1 withdrew behind the ,saar1 and the #crd1 also behind the ,saar1 reported that the country in its front was unsuited to cavalry movements1 and only sent out a few officers' patrols4 ,these were well led1 but were too few in number1 and their reports were consequently unconvincing4 ,in the course of the day ,steinmetz became very uneasy1 and ultimately he decided to concentrate his army by retiring the ,,vii4 and ,,viii4 corps behind the river on to the ,i4 7which had arrived near ,saarlouis71 thus clearing the ,saarbruecken-,metz road for the use of the ,,ii4 army4 ,but at this moment ,prince ,frederick ,charles suddenly modified his views4 ,during the #fth of ,august his scouts had reported considerable ,french forces near ,bitche 7these were the #eth1 de ,failly's corps71 and early in the morning of the #gth he received a telegram from ,moltke informing him that ,mac,mahon's beaten army was retreating on the same place 7the troops observed were in fact those which had marched to ,mac,mahon's assistance74 ,the prince forthwith deflected the march of the ,guards1 ,,iv4 and ,x4 corps1 towards ,rohrbach1 whilst the ,,ix4 and ,,xii4 closed up to supporting distance behind them4 ,thus1 as ,steinmetz moved away to the west and north1 ,frederick ,charles was diverging to the south and east1 and a great gap was opening in the very centre of the ,german front4 ,this was closed only by the ,,iii4 corps1 still on the battle-field1 and by portions of the ,x4 near ,saargemuend1#b whilst within striking distance lay #acj1jjj ,french troops1 prevented only by the incapacity of their chiefs from delivering a decisive counter-stroke4 ,fortunately for the ,prussians1 ,moltke at ,mainz took a different view4 ,receiving absolutely no intelligence from the front during the #gth1 he telegraphed orders to the ,i4 and ,,ii4 armies 7#aj4be ,p4,m47 to halt on the #hth1 and impressed on ,steinmetz the necessity of employing his cavalry to clear up the situation4 ,the ,i4 army had already begun the marches ordered by ,steinmetz4 ,it was now led back practically to its old bivouacs amongst the unburied dead4 ,prince ,frederick ,charles only conformed to ,moltke's order with the ,,iii4 and ,x4 corps2 the remainder executed their concentration towards the south and east4 ,during the night of the #gth of ,august ,moltke decided that the ,french army must be in retreat towards the ,moselle and forthwith busied himself with the preparation of fresh tables of march for the two armies1 his object being to swing up the left wing to outflank the enemy from the south4 ,this work1 and the transfer of headquarters to ,homburg1 needed time1 hence no fresh orders were issued to either army1 and neither commander would incur the responsibility of moving without any4 ,the ,i4 army therefore spent a fourth night in bivouac on the battlefield4 ,but ,constantin von ,alvensleben1 commanding the ,,iii4 corps1 a man of very different stamp from his colleagues1 hearing at first hand that the ,french had evacuated ,st ,avold1 set his corps in motion early in the morning of the #ajth ,august down the ,st ,avold-,metz road1 reached ,st ,avold and obtained conclusive evidence that the ,french were retreating4 ,advance to the ,moselle4 ,during the #ith the orders for the advance to the ,moselle were issued4 ,these were based1 not on an exact knowledge of where the ,french army actually stood1 but on the opinion ,moltke had formed as to where it ought to have been on military grounds solely1 overlooking the fact that the ,french staff were not free to form military decisions but were compelled to bow to political expediency4 ,actually on the #gth of ,august the emperor had decided to attack the ,germans on the #hth with the whole ,rhine ,army1 but this decision was upset by alarmist reports from the beaten army of ,mac,mahon4 ,he then decided to retreat to the ,moselle1 as ,moltke had foreseen1 and there to draw to himself the remnants of ,mac,mahon's army 7now near ,luneville74 ,at the same time he assigned the executive command over the whole ,rhine ,army to ,marshal ,bazaine4 ,this retreat was begun during the course of the #hth and #ith of ,august2 but on the night of the #ith urgent telegrams from ,paris induced the emperor to suspend the movement1 and during the #ajth the whole army took up a strong position on the ,french ,nied4 ,meanwhile the ,,ii4 ,german army had received its orders to march in a line of army corps on a broad front in the general direction of ,pont-a-,mousson1 well to the south of ,metz4 ,the ,i4 army was to follow by short marches in echelon on the right2 only the ,,iii4 corps was directed on ,falkenberg1 a day's march farther towards ,metz along the ,st ,avold-,metz road4 ,the movement was begun on the #ajth1 and towards evening the ,french army was located on the right front of the ,,iii4 corps4 ,this entirely upset ,moltke's hypothesis1 and called for a complete modification of his plans1 as the ,,iii4 corps alone could not be expected to resist the impact of ,bazaine's five corps4 ,the ,,iii4 corps therefore received orders to stand fast for the moment1 and the remainder of the ,,ii4 army was instructed to wheel to the right and concentrate for a great battle to the east of ,metz on the #afth or #agth4 ,before1 however1 these orders had been received the sudden retreat of the ,french completely changed the situation4 ,the ,germans therefore continued their movement towards the ,moselle4 ,on the #acth the ,french took up a fresh position #e m4 to the east of ,metz1 where they were located by the cavalry and the advanced guards of the ,i4 army4 ,battle of ,colombey-,borny4 ,again ,moltke ordered the ,i4 army to observe and hold the enemy1 whilst the ,,ii4 was to swing round to the north4 ,the cavalry was to scout beyond the ,moselle and intercept all communication with the heart of ,france 7see ,metz74 ,by this time the whole ,german army had imbibed the idea that the ,french were in full retreat and endeavouring to evade a decisive struggle4 ,when therefore during the morning of the #adth their outposts observed signs of retreat in the ,french position1 their impatience could no longer be restrained2 as at ,woerth and ,spicheren1 an outpost commander brought up his guns1 and at the sound of their fire1 every unit within reach spontaneously got under arms 7battle of ,colombey-,borny74 ,in a short time1 with or without orders1 the ,i41 ,,vii41 ,,viii4 and ,,ix4 corps were in full march to the battle-field4 ,but the ,french too turned back to fight1 and an obstinate engagement ensued1 at the close of which the ,germans barely held the ground and the ,french withdrew under cover of the ,metz forts4 ,still1 though the fighting had been indecisive1 the conviction of victory remained with the ,germans1 and the idea of a ,french retreat became an obsession4 ,to this idea ,moltke gave expression in his orders issued early on the #aeth1 in which he laid down that the fruits of the victory of the previous evening could only be reaped by a vigorous pursuit towards the passages of the ,meuse1 where it was hoped the ,french might yet be overtaken4 ,this order1 however1 did not allow for the hopeless inability of the ,french staff to regulate the movement of congested masses of men1 horses and vehicles1 such as were now accumulated in the streets and environs of ,metz4 ,whilst ,bazaine had come to no definite decision whether to stand and fight or continue to retreat1 and was merely drifting under the impressions of the moment1 the ,prussian leaders1 in particular ,prince ,frederick ,charles1 saw in imagination the ,french columns in rapid orderly movement towards the west1 and calculated that at best they could not be overtaken short of ,verdun4 ,in this order of ideas the whole of the ,,ii4 army1 followed on its right rear by two-thirds of the ,i4 army 7the ,i4 corps being detached to observe the eastern side of the fortress71 were pushed on towards the ,moselle1 the cavalry far in advance towards the ,meuse1 whilst only the #eth cavalry division was ordered to scout towards the ,metz-,verdun road1 and even that was disseminated over far too wide an area4 ,later in the day 7#aeth7 ,frederick ,charles sent orders to the ,,iii4 corps1 which was on the right flank of his long line of columns and approaching the ,moselle at ,corny and ,noveant1 to march via ,gorze to ,mars-la-,tour on the ,metz-,verdun road2 to the ,x4 corps1 strung out along the road from ,thiaucourt to ,pont-a-,mousson1 to move to ,jarny2 and for the remainder to push on westward to seize the ,meuse crossings4 ,no definite information as to the ,french army reached him in time to modify these instructions4 ,meanwhile the #eth 7,rheinbaben's7 cavalry division1 at about #c ,p4,m4 in the afternoon1 had come into contact with the ,french cavalry in the vicinity of ,mars-la-,tour1 and gleaned intelligence enough to show that no ,french infantry had as yet reached ,rezonville4 ,the commander of the ,x4 corps at ,thiaucourt1 informed of this1 became anxious for the security of his flank during the next day's march and decided to push out a strong flanking detachment under von ,caprivi1 to support von ,rheinbaben and maintain touch with the ,,iii4 corps marching on his right rear4 ,battle of ,vionville-,mars-la-,tour4 ,von ,alvensleben1 to whom the #fth cavalry division had meanwhile been assigned1 seems to have received no local intelligence whatsoever2 and at daybreak on the #afth he began his march in two columns1 the #fth division on ,mars-la-,tour1 the #eth towards the ,rezonville-,vionville plateau4 ,and shortly after #i4ae ,a4,m4 he suddenly discovered the truth4 ,the entire ,french army lay on his right flank1 and his nearest supports were almost a day's march distant4 ,in this crisis he made up his mind at once to attack with every available man1 and to continue to attack1 in the conviction that his audacity would serve to conceal his weakness4 ,all day long1 therefore1 the ,brandenburgers of the ,,iii4 corps1 supported ultimately by the ,x4 corps and part of the ,,ix41 attacked again and again4 ,the enemy was thrice their strength1 but very differently led1 and made no adequate use of his superiority 7battle of ,vionville-,mars-la ,tour74 ,the #agth of ,august4 ,meanwhile ,prince ,frederick ,charles1 at ,pont-a-,mousson1 was still confident in the ,french retreat to the ,meuse1 and had even issued orders for the #agth on that assumption4 ,firing had been heard since #i4ae ,a4,m41 and about noon ,alvensleben's first report had reached him1 but it was not till after #b that he realized the situation4 ,then1 mounting his horse1 he covered the #ae m4 to ,flavigny over crowded and difficult roads within the hour1 and on his arrival abundantly atoned for his strategic errors by his unconquerable determination and tactical skill4 ,when darkness put a stop to the fighting1 he considered the position4 ,cancelling all previous orders1 he called all troops within reach to the battle-field and resigned himself to wait for them4 ,the situation was indeed critical4 ,the whole ,french army of five corps1 only half of which had been engaged1 lay in front of him4 ,his own army lay scattered over an area of #cj m4 by #bj1 and only some #bj1jjj fresh troops--of the ,,ix4 corps--could reach the field during the forenoon of the #agth4 ,he did not then know that ,moltke had already intervened and had ordered the ,,vii41 ,,viii4 and ,,ii4 corps#c to his assistance4 ,daylight revealed the extreme exhaustion of both men and horses4 ,the men lay around in hopeless confusion amongst the killed and wounded1 each where sleep had overtaken him1 and thus the extent of the actual losses1 heavy enough1 could not be estimated4 ,across the valley1 bugle sounds revealed the ,french already alert1 and presently a long line of skirmishers approached the ,prussian position4 ,but they halted just beyond rifle range1 and it was soon evident that they were only intended to cover a further withdrawal4 ,presently came the welcome intelligence that the reinforcements were well on their way4 ,about noon the king and ,moltke drove up to the ground1 and there was an animated discussion as to what the ,french would do next4 ,aware of their withdrawal from his immediate front1 ,prince ,frederick ,charles reverted to his previous idea and insisted that they were in full retreat towards the north1 and that their entrenchments near ,point du ,jour and ,st ,hubert 7see map in article ,,metz7 were at most a rearguard position4 ,moltke was inclined to the same view1 but considered the alternative possibility of a withdrawal towards ,metz1 and about #b ,p4,m4 orders were issued to meet these divergent opinions4 ,the whole army was to be drawn up at #f ,a4,m4 on the #ahth in an echelon facing north1 so as to be ready for action in either direction4 ,the king and ,moltke then drove to ,pont-a-,mousson1 and the troops bivouacked in a state of readiness4 ,the rest of the #agth was spent in restoring order in the shattered ,,iii4 and ,x4 corps1 and by nightfall both corps were reported fit for action4 ,strangely enough1 there were no organized cavalry reconnaissances1 and no intelligence of importance was collected during the night of the #agth-#ahth4 ,early on the #ahth the troops began to move into position in the following order from left to right3 ,,xii4 7,saxons71 ,guards1 ,,ix41 ,,viii4 and ,,vii4 ,the ,x4 and ,,iii4 were retained in reserve4 ,battle of ,gravelotte-,saint ,privat4 ,the idea of the ,french retreat was still uppermost in the prince's mind1 and the whole army therefore moved north4 ,but between #aj and #aa ,a4,m4 part of the truth--viz4 that the ,french had their backs to ,metz and stood in battle order from ,st ,hubert northwards--became evident1 and the ,,ii4 army1 pivoting on the ,i41 wheeled to the right and moved eastward4 ,suddenly the ,,ix4 corps fell right on the centre of the ,french line 7,amanvillers71 and a most desperate encounter began1 superior control1 as before1 ceasing after the guns had opened fire4 ,prince ,frederick ,charles1 however1 a little farther north1 again asserted his tactical ability1 and about #g ,p4,m4 he brought into position no less than five army corps for the final attack4 ,the sudden collapse of ,french resistance1 due to the frontal attack of the ,guards 7,st ,privat7 and the turning movement of the ,saxons 7,roncourt71 rendered the use of this mass unnecessary1 but the resolution to use it was there4 ,on the ,german right 7,i4 army71 about ,gravelotte1 all superior leading ceased quite early in the afternoon1 and at night the ,french still showed an unbroken front4 ,until midnight1 when the prince's victory was reported1 the suspense at headquarters was terrible4 ,the ,i4 army was exhausted1 no steps had been taken to ensure support from the ,,iii4 army1 and the ,,iv4 corps 7,,ii4 army7 lay inactive #cj m4 away4 ,bazaine in ,metz4 ,this seems a fitting place to discuss the much-disputed point of ,bazaine's conduct in allowing himself to be driven back into ,metz when fortune had thrown into his hands the great opportunity of the #afth and #agth of ,august4 ,he had been appointed to command on the #ajth1 but the presence of the emperor1 who only left the front early on the #afth1 and their dislike of ,bazaine1 exercised a disturbing influence on the headquarters staff officers4 ,during the retreat to ,metz the marshal had satisfied himself as to the inability of his corps commanders to handle their troops1 and also as to the ill-will of the staff4 ,in the circumstances he felt that a battle in the open field could only end in disaster2 and1 since it was proved that the ,germans could outmarch him1 his army was sure to be overtaken and annihilated if he ventured beyond the shelter of the fortress4 ,but near ,metz he could at least inflict very severe punishment on his assailants1 and in any case his presence in ,metz would neutralize a far superior force of the enemy for weeks or months4 ,what use the ,french government might choose to make of the breathing space thus secured was their business1 not his2 and subsequent events showed that1 had they not forced ,mac,mahon's hand1 the existence of the latter's nucleus army of trained troops might have prevented the investment of ,paris4 ,bazaine was condemned by court-martial after the war1 but if the case were reheard to-day it is certain that no charge of treachery could be sustained4 ,on the ,german side the victory at ,st ,privat was at once followed up by the headquarters4 ,early on the #aith the investment of ,bazaine's army in ,metz was commenced4 ,a new army1 the ,army of the ,meuse 7often called the ,,iv471 was as soon as possible formed of all troops not required for the maintenance of the investment1 and marched off under the command of the crown prince of ,saxony to discover and destroy the remainder of the ,french field army1 which at this moment was known to be at ,chalons4 ,campaign of ,sedan4 ,the operations which led to the capture of ,mac,mahon's army in ,sedan call for little explanation4 ,given seven corps1 each capable of averaging #ae m4 a day for a week in succession1 opposed to four corps only1 shaken by defeat and unable as a whole to cover more than #e m4 a day1 the result could hardly be doubtful4 ,but ,moltke's method of conducting operations left his opponent many openings which could only be closed by excessive demands on the marching power of the men4 ,trusting only to his cavalry screen to secure information1 he was always without any definite fixed point about which to manoeuvre1 for whilst the reports of the screen and orders based thereon were being transmitted1 the enemy was free to move1 and generally their movements were dictated by political expediency1 not by calculable military motives4 ,thus whilst the ,german army1 on a front of nearly #ej m41 was marching due west on ,paris1 ,mac,mahon1 under political pressure1 was moving parallel to them1 but on a northerly route1 to attempt the relief of ,metz4 ,so unexpected was this move and so uncertain the information which called attention to it1 that ,moltke did not venture to change at once the direction of march of the whole army1 but he directed the ,army of the ,meuse northward on ,damvillers and ordered ,prince ,frederick ,charles to detach two corps from the forces investing ,metz to reinforce it4 ,for the moment1 therefore1 ,mac,mahon's move had succeeded1 and the opportunity existed for ,bazaine to break out4 ,but at the critical moment the hopeless want of real efficiency in ,mac,mahon's army compelled the latter so to delay his advance that it became evident to the ,germans that there was no longer any necessity for the ,,iii4 army to maintain the direction towards ,paris1 and that the probable point of contact between the ,meuse army and the ,french lay nearer to the right wing of the ,,iii4 army than to ,prince ,frederick ,charles's investing force before ,metz4 ,the detachment from the ,,ii4 army was therefore countermanded1 and the whole ,,iii4 army changed front to the north1 while the ,meuse army headed the ,french off from the east4 ,the latter came into contact with the head of the ,french columns1 during the #bith1 about ,nouart1 and on the #cjth at ,buzancy 7battle of ,beaumont72 and the ,french1 yielding to the force of numbers combined with superior moral1 were driven north-westward upon ,sedan 7q4v471 right across the front of the ,,iii4 army1 which was now rapidly coming up from the south4 ,during the #cast the retreat practically became a rout1 and the morning of the #ast of ,september found the ,french crowded around the little fortress of ,sedan1 with only one line of retreat to the north-west still open4 ,by #aa ,a4,m4 the ,,xi4 corps 7,,iii4 army7 had already closed that line1 and about noon the ,saxons 7,army of the ,meuse7 moving round between the town and the ,belgian frontier joined hands with the ,,xi41 and the circle of investment was complete4 ,the battle of ,sedan was closed about #d4ae ,p4,m4 by the hoisting of the white flag4 ,terms were agreed upon during the night1 and the whole ,french army1 with the emperor1 passed into captivity4 7,f4 ,n4 ,m47 ,later operations4 ,thus in five weeks one of the ,french field armies was imprisoned in ,metz1 the other destroyed1 and the ,germans were free to march upon ,paris4 ,this seemed easy4 ,there could be no organized opposition to their progress1#d and ,paris1 if not so defenceless as in #ahad1 was more populous4 ,starvation was the best method of attacking an overcrowded fortress1 and the ,parisians were not thought to be proof against the deprivation of their accustomed luxuries4 ,even ,moltke hoped that by the end of ,october he would be shooting hares at ,creisau1 and with this confidence the ,german ,,iii4 and ,,iv4 armies left the vicinity of ,sedan on the #dth of ,september4 ,the march called for no more than good staff arrangements1 and the two armies arrived before ,paris a fortnight later and gradually encircled the place--the ,,iii4 army on the south1 the ,,iv4 on the north side--in the last days of ,september4 ,headquarters were established at ,versailles4 ,meanwhile the ,third ,empire had fallen1 giving place on the #dth of ,september to a republican ,government of ,national ,defence1 which made its appeal to1 and evoked1 the spirit of #agib4 ,henceforward the ,french nation1 which had left the conduct of the war to the regular army and had been little more than an excited spectator1 took the burden upon itself4 ,the regular army1 indeed1 still contained more than #ejj1jjj men 7chiefly recruits and reservists71 and #ej1jjj sailors1 marines1 douaniers1 c41 were also available4 ,but the ,garde ,mobile1 framed by ,marshal ,niel in #ahfh1 doubled this figure1 and the addition of the ,garde ,nationale1 called into existence on the #aeth of ,september1 and including all able-bodied men of from #ca to #fj years of age1 more than trebled it4 ,the ,german staff had of course to reckon on the ,garde ,mobile1 and did so beforehand1 but they wholly underestimated both its effective members and its willingness1 while1 possessing themselves a system in which all the military elements of the ,german nation stood close behind the troops of the active army1 they ignored the potentialities of the ,garde ,nationale4 ,meanwhile1 both as a contrast to the events that centred on ,paris and because in point of time they were decided for the most part in the weeks immediately following ,sedan1 we must briefly allude to the sieges conducted by the ,germans--,paris 7q4v471 ,metz 7q4v47 and ,belfort 7q4v47 excepted4 ,old and ruined as many of them were1 the ,french fortresses possessed considerable importance in the eyes of the ,germans4 ,strassburg1 in particular1 the key of ,alsace1 the standing menace to ,south ,germany and the most conspicuous of the spoils of ,louis ,,xiv4's ,raubkriege1 was an obvious target4 ,operations were begun on the #ith of ,august1 three days after ,woerth1 ,general v4 ,werder's corps 7,baden troops and ,prussian ,landwehr7 making the siege4 ,the ,french commandant1 ,general ,uhrich1 surrendered after a stubborn resistance on the #bhth of ,september4 ,of the smaller fortresses many1 being practically unarmed and without garrisons1 capitulated at once4 ,toul1 defended by ,major ,huck with #bjjj mobiles1 resisted for forty days1 and drew upon itself the efforts of #ac1jjj men and #ajj guns4 ,verdun1 commanded by ,general ,guerin de ,waldersbach1 held out till after the fall of ,metz4 ,some of the fortresses lying to the north of the ,prussian line of advance on ,paris1 e4g4 ,mezieres1 resisted up to ,january #ahga1 though of course this was very largely due to the diminution of pressure caused by the appearance of new ,french field armies in ,october4 ,on the #ith of ,september a strange incident took place at the surrender of ,laon4 ,a powder magazine was blown up by the soldiers in charge and #cjj ,french and a few ,german soldiers were killed by the explosion4 ,but as the ,germans advanced1 their lines of communication were thoroughly organized1 and the belt of country between ,paris and the ,prussian frontier subdued and garrisoned4 ,most of these fortresses were small town enceintes1 dating from ,vauban's time1 and open1 under the new conditions of warfare1 to concentric bombardment from positions formerly out of range1 upon which the besieger could place as many guns as he chose to employ4 ,in addition they were usually deficient in armament and stores and garrisoned by newly-raised troops4 ,belfort1 where the defenders strained every nerve to keep the besiegers out of bombarding range1 and ,paris formed the only exceptions to this general rule4 ,the ,defense ,nationale4 ,the policy of the new ,french government was defined by ,jules ,favre on the #fth of ,september4 ,it is for the king of ,prussia1 who has declared that he is making war on the ,empire and not on ,france1 to stay his hand2 we shall not cede an inch of our territory or a stone of our fortresses4 ,these proud words1 so often ridiculed as empty bombast1 were the prelude of a national effort which re-established ,france in the eyes of ,europe as a great power1 even though provinces and fortresses were ceded in the peace that that effort proved unable to avert4 ,they were translated into action by ,leon ,gambetta1 who escaped from ,paris in a balloon on the #gth of ,october1 and established the headquarters of the defence at ,tours1 where already the ,delegation of the central government--which had decided to remain in ,paris--had concentrated the machinery of government4 ,thenceforward ,gambetta and his principal assistant de ,freycinet directed the whole war in the open country1 co-ordinating it1 as best they could with the precarious means of communication at their disposal1 with ,trochu's military operations in and round the capital4 ,his critics--,gambetta's personality was such as to ensure him numerous enemies among the higher civil and military officials1 over whom1 in the interests of ,la ,patrie1 he rode rough-shod--have acknowledged the fact1 which is patent enough in any case1 that nothing but ,gambetta's driving energy enabled ,france in a few weeks to create and to equip twelve army corps1 representing thirty-six divisions 7#fjj1jjj rifles and #adjj guns71 after all her organized regular field troops had been destroyed or neutralized4 ,but it is claimed that by undue interference with the generals at the front1 by presuming to dictate their plans of campaign1 and by forcing them to act when the troops were unready1 ,gambetta and de ,freycinet nullified the efforts of themselves and the rest of the nation and subjected ,france to a humiliating treaty of peace4 ,we cannot here discuss the justice or injustice of such a general condemnation1 or even whether in individual instances ,gambetta trespassed too far into the special domain of the soldier4 ,but even the brief narrative given below must at least suggest to the reader the existence amongst the generals and higher officials of a dead weight of passive resistance to the ,delegation's orders1 of unnecessary distrust of the qualities of the improvised troops1 and above all of the utter fear of responsibility that twenty years of literal obedience had bred4 ,the closest study of the war cannot lead to any other conclusion than this1 that whether or not ,gambetta as a strategist took the right course in general or in particular cases1 no one else would have taken any course whatever4 ,on the approach of the enemy ,paris hastened its preparations for defence to the utmost1 while in the provinces1 out of reach of the ,german cavalry1 new army corps were rapidly organized out of the few constituted regular units not involved in the previous catastrophes1 the depot troops and the mobile national guard4 ,the first-fruits of these efforts were seen in ,beauce1 where early in ,october important masses of ,french troops prepared not only to bar the further progress of the invader but actually to relieve ,paris4 ,the so-called fog of war--the armed inhabitants1 francs-tireurs1 sedentary national guard and volunteers--prevented the ,german cavalry from venturing far out from the infantry camps around ,paris1 and behind this screen the new #aeth army corps assembled on the ,loire4 ,but an untimely demonstration of force alarmed the ,germans1 all of whom1 from ,moltke downwards1 had hitherto disbelieved in the existence of the ,french new formations1 and the still unready #aeth corps found itself the target of an expedition of the ,i4 ,bavarian corps1 which drove the defenders out of ,orleans after a sharp struggle1 while at the same time another expedition swept the western part of ,beauce1 sacked ,chateaudun as a punishment for its brave defence1 and returned via ,chartres1 which was occupied4 ,after these events the ,french forces disappeared from ,german eyes for some weeks4 ,d',aurelle de ,paladines1 the commander of the ,army of the ,loire 7#aeth and #afth corps71 improvised a camp of instruction at ,salbris in ,sologne1 several marches out of reach1 and subjected his raw troops to a stern regime of drill and discipline4 ,at the same time an ,army of the ,west began to gather on the side of ,le ,mans4 ,this army was almost imaginary1 yet rumours of its existence and numbers led the ,german commanders into the gravest errors1 for they soon came to suspect that the main army lay on that side and not on the ,loire1 and this mistaken impression governed the ,german dispositions up to the very eve of the decisive events around ,orleans in ,december4 ,thus when at last ,d',aurelle took the offensive from ,tours 7whither he had transported his forces1 now #ajj1jjj strong7 against the position of the ,i4 ,bavarian corps near ,orleans1 he found his task easy4 ,the ,bavarians1 outnumbered and unsupported1 were defeated with heavy losses in the battle of ,coulmiers 7,november #i71 and1 had it not been for the inexperience1 want of combination1 and other technical weaknesses of the ,french1 they would have been annihilated4 ,what the results of such a victory as ,coulmiers might have been1 had it been won by a fully organized1 smoothly working army of the same strength1 it is difficult to overestimate4 ,as it was1 the retirement of the ,bavarians rang the alarm bell all along the line of the ,german positions1 and that was all4 ,then once again1 instead of following up its success1 the ,french army disappeared from view4 ,the victory had emboldened the fog of war to make renewed efforts1 and resistance to the pressure of the ,german cavalry grew day by day4 ,the ,bavarians were reinforced by two ,prussian divisions and by all available cavalry commands1 and constituted as an army detachment under the grand-duke ,friedrich ,franz of ,mecklenburg-,schwerin to deal with the ,army of the ,loire1 the strength of which was far from being accurately known4 ,meantime the capitulation of ,metz on the #bhth of ,october had set free the veterans of ,prince ,frederick ,charles1 the best troops in the ,german army1 for field operations4 ,the latter were at first misdirected to the upper ,seine1 and yet another opportunity arose for the ,french to raise the siege of ,paris4 ,but ,d',aurelle utilized the time he had gained in strengthening the army and in imparting drill and discipline to the new units which gathered round the original nucleus of the #aeth and #afth corps4 ,all this was1 however1 unknown and even unsuspected at the ,german headquarters1 and the invaders1 feeling the approaching crisis1 became more than uneasy as to their prospects of maintaining the siege of ,paris4 ,the ,orleans campaign4 ,at this moment1 in the middle of ,november1 the general situation was as follows3 the ,german ,,iii4 and ,meuse armies1 investing ,paris1 had had to throw off important detachments to protect the enterprise1 which they had undertaken on the assumption that no further field armies of the enemy were to be encountered4 ,the maintenance of their communications with ,germany1 relatively unimportant when the struggle took place in the circumstances of field warfare1 had become supremely necessary1 now that the army had come to a standstill and undertaken a great siege1 which required heavy guns and constant replenishment of ammunition and stores4 ,the rapidity of the ,german invasion had left no time for the proper organization and full garrisoning of these communications1 which were now threatened1 not merely by the ,army of the ,loire1 but by other forces assembling on the area protected by ,langres and ,belfort4 ,the latter1 under ,general ,cambriels1 were held in check and no more by the ,baden troops and reserve units 7,,xiv4 ,german corps7 under ,general ,werder1 and eventually without arousing attention they were able to send #dj1jjj men to the ,army of the ,loire4 ,this army1 still around ,orleans1 thus came to number perhaps #aej1jjj men1 and opposed to it1 about the #adth of ,november1 the ,germans had only the ,army ,detachment of about #dj1jjj1 the ,,ii4 army being still distant4 ,it was under these conditions that the famous ,orleans campaign took place4 ,after many vicissitudes of fortune1 and with many misunderstandings between ,prince ,frederick ,charles1 ,moltke and the grand-duke1 the ,germans were ultimately victorious1 thanks principally to the brilliant fighting of the ,x4 corps at ,beaune-la-,rolande 7#bhth of ,november71 which was followed by the battle of ,loigny-,poupry on the #bnd of ,december and the second capture of ,orleans after heavy fighting on the #dth of ,december4 ,the result of the capture of ,orleans was the severance of the two wings of the ,french army1 henceforward commanded respectively by ,chanzy and ,bourbaki4 ,the latter fell back at once and hastily1 though not closely pursued1 to ,bourges4 ,but ,chanzy1 opposing the ,detachment between ,beaugency and the ,forest of ,marchenoir1 was of sterner metal1 and in the five days' general engagement around ,beaugency 7,december #g-aa7 the ,germans gained little or no real advantage4 ,indeed their solitary material success1 the capture of ,beaugency1 was due chiefly to the fact that the ,french there were subjected to conflicting orders from the military and the governmental authorities4 ,chanzy then abandoned little but the field of battle1 and on the grand-duke's representations ,prince ,frederick ,charles1 leaving a mere screen to impose upon ,bourbaki 7who allowed himself to be deceived and remained inactive71 hurried thither with the ,,ii4 army4 ,after that ,chanzy was rapidly driven north-westward1 though always presenting a stubborn front4 ,the ,delegation left ,tours and betook itself to ,bordeaux1 whence it directed the government for the rest of the war4 ,but all this continuous marching and fighting1 and the growing severity of the weather1 compelled ,prince ,frederick ,charles to call a halt for a few days4 ,about the #aith of ,december1 therefore1 the ,germans 7,,ii4 army and ,detachment7 were closed up in the region of ,chartres1 ,orleans1 ,auxerre and ,fontainebleau1 ,chanzy along the river ,sarthe about ,le ,mans and ,bourbaki still passive towards ,bourges4 ,during this1 as during other halts1 the ,french government and its generals occupied themselves with fresh plans of campaign1 the former with an eager desire for results1 the latter 7,chanzy excepted7 with many misgivings4 ,ultimately1 and fatally1 it was decided that ,bourbaki1 whom nothing could move towards ,orleans1 should depart for the south-east1 with a view to relieving ,belfort and striking perpendicularly against the long line of the ,germans' communications4 ,this movement1 bold to the point of extreme rashness judged by any theoretical rules of strategy1 seems to have been suggested by de ,freycinet4 ,as the execution of it fell actually into incapable hands1 it is difficult to judge what would have been the result had a ,chanzy or a ,faidherbe been in command of the ,french4 ,at any rate it was vicious in so far as immediate advantages were sacrificed to hopes of ultimate success which ,gambetta and de ,freycinet did wrong to base on ,bourbaki's powers of generalship4 ,late in ,december1 for good or evil1 ,bourbaki marched off into ,franche-,comte and ceased to be a factor in the ,loire campaign4 ,a mere calculation of time and space sufficed to show the ,german headquarters that the moment had arrived to demolish the stubborn ,chanzy4 ,le ,mans4 ,prince ,frederick ,charles resumed the interrupted offensive1 pushing westward with four corps and four cavalry divisions which converged on ,le ,mans4 ,there on the #ajth1 #aath and #abth of ,january #ahga a stubbornly contested battle ended with the retreat of the ,french1 who owed their defeat solely to the misbehaviour of the ,breton mobiles4 ,these1 after deserting their post on the battlefield at a mere threat of the enemy's infantry1 fled in disorder and infected with their terrors the men in the reserve camps of instruction1 which broke up in turn4 ,but ,chanzy1 resolute as ever1 drew off his field army intact towards ,laval1 where a freshly raised corps joined him4 ,the prince's army was far too exhausted to deliver another effective blow1 and the main body of it gradually drew back into better quarters1 while the grand duke departed for the north to aid in opposing ,faidherbe4 ,some idea of the strain to which the invaders had been subjected may be gathered from the fact that army corps1 originally #cj1jjj strong1 were in some cases reduced to #aj1jjj and even fewer bayonets4 ,and at this moment ,bourbaki was at the head of #abj1jjj men6 ,indeed1 so threatening seemed the situation on the ,loire1 though the ,french south of that river between ,gien and ,blois were mere isolated brigades1 that the prince hurried back from ,le ,mans to ,orleans to take personal command4 ,a fresh ,french corps1 bearing the number #be1 and being the twenty-first actually raised during the war1 appeared in the field towards ,blois4 ,chanzy was again at the head of #aef1jjj men4 ,he was about to take the offensive against the #dj1jjj ,germans left near ,le ,mans when to his bitter disappointment he received the news of the armistice4 ,we have still ,france1 he had said to his staff1 undeterred by the news of the capitulation of ,paris1 but now he had to submit1 for even if his improvised army was still cheerful1 there were many significant tokens that the people at large had sunk into apathy and hoped to avoid worse terms of peace by discontinuing the contest at once4 ,so ended the critical period of the ,defense nationale4 ,it may be taken to have lasted from the day of ,coulmiers to the last day of ,le ,mans1 and its central point was the battle of ,beaune-la-,rolande4 ,its characteristics were1 on the ,german side1 inadequacy of the system of strategy practised1 which became palpable as soon as the organs of reconnaissance met with serious resistance1 misjudgment of and indeed contempt for the fighting powers of new formations1 and the rise of a spirit of ferocity in the man in the ranks1 born of his resentment at the continuance of the war and the ceaseless sniping of the franc-tireur's rifle and the peasant's shot-gun4 ,on the ,french side the continual efforts of the statesmen to stimulate the generals to decisive efforts1 coupled with actual suggestions as to the plans of the campaign to be followed 7in default1 be it said1 of the generals themselves producing such plans71 and the professional soldiers' distrust of half-trained troops1 acted and reacted upon one another in such a way as to neutralize the powerful1 if disconnected and erratic1 forces that the war and the ,republic had unchained4 ,as for the soldiers themselves1 their most conspicuous qualities were their uncomplaining endurance of fatigues and wet bivouacs1 and in action their capacity for a single great effort and no more4 ,but they were unreliable in the hands of the veteran regular general1 because they were heterogeneous in recruiting1 and unequal in experience and military qualities1 and the ,french staff in those days was wholly incapable of moving masses of troops with the rapidity demanded by the enemy's methods of war1 so that on the whole it is difficult to know whether to wonder more at their missing success or at their so nearly achieving it4 ,the decision1 as we have said1 was fought out on the ,loire and the ,sarthe4 ,nevertheless the glorious story of the ,defense nationale includes two other important campaigns--that of ,faidherbe in the north and that of ,bourbaki in the east4 ,faidherbe's campaign4 ,in the north the organization of the new formations was begun by ,dr ,testelin and ,general ,farre4 ,bourbaki held the command for a short time in ,november before proceeding to ,tours1 but the active command in field operations came into the hands of ,faidherbe1 a general whose natural powers1 so far from being cramped by years of peace routine and court repression1 had been developed by a career of pioneer warfare and colonial administration4 ,general ,farre was his capable chief of staff4 ,troops were raised from fugitives from ,metz and ,sedan1 as well as from depot troops and the ,garde ,mobile1 and several minor successes were won by the national troops in the ,seine valley1 for here1 as on the side of the ,loire1 mere detachments of the investing army round ,paris were almost powerless4 ,but the capitulation of ,metz came too soon for the full development of these sources of military strength1 and the ,german ,i4 army under ,manteuffel1 released from duty at ,metz1 marched north-eastward1 capturing the minor fortresses on its way4 ,before ,faidherbe assumed command1 ,farre had fought several severe actions near ,amiens1 but1 greatly outnumbered1 had been defeated and forced to retire behind the ,somme4 ,another ,french general1 ,briand1 had also engaged the enemy without success near ,rouen4 ,faidherbe assumed the command on the #crd of ,december1 and promptly moved forward4 ,a general engagement on the little river ,hallue 7,december #bc71 east-north-east of ,amiens1 was fought with no decisive results1 but ,faidherbe1 feeling that his troops were only capable of winning victories in the first rush1 drew them off on the #bdth4 ,his next effort1 at ,bapaume 7,january #b-c1 #ahga71 was more successful1 but its effects were counterbalanced by the surrender of the fortress of ,peronne 7,january #i7 and the consequent establishment of the ,germans on the line of the ,somme4 ,meanwhile the ,rouen troops had been contained by a strong ,german detachment1 and there was no further chance of succouring ,paris from the north4 ,but ,faidherbe1 like ,chanzy1 was far from despair1 and in spite of the deficiencies of his troops in equipment 7#ej1jjj pairs of shoes1 supplied by ,english contractors1 proved to have paper soles71 he risked a third great battle at ,st ,quentin 7,january #ai74 ,this time he was severely defeated1 though his loss in killed and wounded was about equal to that of the ,germans1 who were commanded by ,goeben4 ,still the attempt of the ,germans to surround him failed and he drew off his forces with his artillery and trains unharmed4 ,the ,germans1 who had been greatly impressed by the solidity of his army1 did not pursue him far1 and ,faidherbe was preparing for a fresh effort when he received orders to suspend hostilities4 ,the last episode is ,bourbaki's campaign in the east1 with its mournful close at ,pontarlier4 ,before the crisis of the last week of ,november1 the ,french forces under ,general ,cremer1 ,cambriels' successor1 had been so far successful in minor enterprises that1 as mentioned above1 the right wing of the ,loire army1 severed from the left by the battle of ,orleans and subsequently held inactive at ,bourges and ,nevers1 was ordered to ,franche ,comte to take the offensive against the ,,xiv4 corps and other ,german troops there1 to relieve ,belfort and to strike a blow across the invaders' line of communications4 ,but there were many delays in execution4 ,the staff work1 which was at no time satisfactory in the ,french armies of #ahgj1 was complicated by the snow1 the bad state of the roads1 and the mountainous nature of the country1 and ,bourbaki1 a brave general of division in action1 but irresolute and pretentious as a commander in chief1 was not the man to cope with the situation4 ,only the furious courage and patient endurance of hardships of the rank and file1 and the good qualities of some of the generals1 such as ,clinchant1 ,cremer and ,billot1 and junior staff officers such as ,major ,brugere 7afterwards generalissimo of the ,french army71 secured what success was attained4 ,the campaign in the ,east4 ,werder1 the ,german commander1 warned of the imposing concentration of the ,french1 evacuated ,dijon and ,dole just in time to avoid the blow and rapidly drew together his forces behind the ,ognon above ,vesoul4 ,a furious attack on one of his divisions at ,villersexel 7,january #i7 cost him #bjjj prisoners as well as his killed and wounded1 and ,bourbaki1 heading for ,belfort1 was actually nearer to the fortress than the ,germans4 ,but at the crisis more time was wasted1 ,werder 7who had almost lost hope of maintaining himself and had received both encouragement and stringent instructions to do so7 slipped in front of the ,french1 and took up a long weak line of defence on the river ,lisaine1 almost within cannon shot of ,belfort4 ,the cumbrous ,french army moved up and attacked him there with #aej1jjj against #fj1jjj 7,january #ae-ag1 #ahga74 ,it was at last repulsed1 thanks chiefly to ,bourbaki's inability to handle his forces1 and1 to the bitter disappointment of officers and men alike1 he ordered a retreat1 leaving ,belfort to its fate4 ,ere this1 so urgent was the necessity of assisting ,werder1 ,manteuffel had been placed at the head of a new ,army of the ,south4 ,bringing two corps from the ,i4 army opposing ,faidherbe and calling up a third from the armies around ,paris1 and a fourth from the ,,ii4 army1 ,manteuffel hurried southward by ,langres to the ,saone4 ,then1 hearing of ,werder's victory on the ,lisaine1 he deflected the march so as to cut off ,bourbaki's retreat1 drawing off the left flank guard of the latter 7commanded with much eclat and little real effect by ,garibaldi7 by a sharp feint attack on ,dijon4 ,the pressure of ,werder in front and ,manteuffel in flank gradually forced the now thoroughly disheartened ,french forces towards the ,swiss frontier1 and ,bourbaki1 realizing at once the ruin of his army and his own incapacity to re-establish its efficiency1 shot himself1 though not fatally1 on the #bfth of ,january4 ,clinchant1 his successor1 acted promptly enough to remove the immediate danger1 but on the #bith he was informed of the armistice without at the same time being told that ,belfort and the eastern theatre of war had been on ,jules ,favre's demand expressly excepted from its operation4#e ,thus the ,french1 the leaders distracted by doubts and the worn-out soldiers fully aware that the war was practically over1 stood still1 while ,manteuffel completed his preparations for hemming them in4 ,on the #ast of ,february ,general ,clinchant led his troops into ,switzerland1 where they were disarmed1 interned and well cared for by the authorities of the neutral state4 ,the rearguard fought a last action with the advancing ,germans before passing the frontier4 ,on the #afth1 by order of the ,french government1 ,belfort capitulated1 but it was not until the #aath of ,march that the ,germans took possession of ,bitche1 the little fortress on the ,vosges1 where in the early days of the war de ,failly had illustrated so signally the want of concerted action and the neglect of opportunities which had throughout proved the bane of the ,french armies4 ,the losses of the ,germans during the whole war were #bh1jjj dead and #aja1jjj wounded and disabled1 those of the ,french1 #aef1jjj dead 7#ag1jjj of whom died1 of sickness and wounds1 as prisoners in ,german hands7 and #adc1jjj wounded and disabled4 #gbj1jjj men surrendered to the ,germans or to the authorities of neutral states1 and at the close of the war there were still #bej1jjj troops on foot1 with further resources not immediately available to the number of #bhj1jjj more4 ,in this connexion1 and as evidence of the respective numerical yields of the ,german system working normally and of the ,french improvised for the emergency1 we quote from ,berndt 7,zahl im ,kriege7 the following comparative figures3-- ,end of ,july ,french #bej1jjj1 ,germans #chd1jjj under arms4 ,middle of ,november #fjj1jjj #dbe1jjj ,after the surrender of ,paris and the disarmament of ,bourbaki's army #ecd1jjj #hce1jjj ,the date of the armistice was the #bhth of ,january1 and that of the ratification of the treaty of ,frankfurt the #bcrd of ,may #ahga4 ,,bibliography4--,the literature of the war is ever increasing in volume1 and the following list only includes a very short selection made amongst the most important works4 ,general4--,german official history1 ,der deutsch-franzoesische ,krieg 7,berlin1 #ahgb-ahha2 ,english and ,french translations72 monographs of the ,german general staff 7,kriegsgesch4 ,einzelschriften72 ,moltke1 ,gesch4 des deutsch-franzoes4 ,krieges 7,berlin1 #ahia2 ,english translation7 and ,gesammelte ,schriften des ,g4 ,f4 ,m4 ,grafen v4 ,moltke 7,berlin1 #aijj- 72 ,french official history1 ,la ,guerre de #ahgj-ahga 7,paris1 #aijb- 7 7the fullest and most accurate account72 ,p4 ,lehautcourt 7,general ,palat71 ,hist4 de la guerre de #ahgj-ahga 7,paris1 #aija-aijg72 v4 ,verdy du ,vernois1 ,studien ueber den ,krieg 444 auf ,grundlage #ahgj-ahga 7,berlin1 #ahib-ahif72 ,g4 ,cardinal von ,widdern1 ,kritische ,tage #ahgj-ahga 7,french translation1 ,journees critiques74 ,events preceding the war are dealt with in v4 ,bernhardi1 ,zwischen zwei ,kriegen2 ,baron ,stoffel1 ,rapports militaires #ahff-ahgj 7,paris1 #ahga2 ,english translation72 ,g4 ,lehmann1 ,die ,mobilmachung #ahgj-ahga 7,berlin1 #aije74 ,for the war in ,lorraine3 ,prince ,kraft of ,hohenlohe-,ingelfingen1 ,briefe ueber ,strategie 7,english translation1 ,letters on ,strategy72 ,f4 ,foch1 ,conduite de la guerre1 pt4 ii42 ,h4 ,bonnal1 ,manoeuvre de ,saint ,privat 7,paris1 #aijd-aijf72 ,maistre1 ,spicheren 7,paris1 #aijh72 v4 ,schell1 ,die ,operationen der ,i4 ,armee unter ,gen4 von ,steinmetz 7,berlin1 #ahgb2 ,english translation72 ,f4 ,hoenig1 ,taktik der ,zukunft 7,english translation71 and #bd ,stunden ,moltke'schen ,strategie 7,berlin1 #ahib2 ,english and ,french translations74 ,for the war in ,alsace and ,champagne3 ,h4 ,kunz1 ,schlacht von ,woerth 7,berlin1 #ahia71 and later works by the same author2 ,h4 ,bonnal1 ,froeschweiler 7,paris1 #ahii72 ,hahnke1 ,die ,operationen des ,,iii4 ,armee bis ,sedan 7,berlin1 #ahgc2 ,french translation74 ,for the war in the ,provinces3 v4 der ,goltz1 ,leon ,gambetta und seine ,armeen 7,berlin1 #ahgg72 ,die ,operationen der ,,ii4 ,armee an die ,loire 7,berlin1 #ahge72 ,die sieben ,tage von ,le ,mans 7,berlin1 #ahgc72 ,kunz1 ,die ,zusammensetzung der franzoes4 ,provinzialheeren2 de ,freycinet1 ,la ,guerre en province 7,paris1 #ahga72 ,l4 ,a4 ,hale1 ,the ,people's ,war 7,london1 #aijd72 ,hoenig1 ,volkskrieg an die ,loire 7,berlin1 #ahib72 ,blume1 ,operationen v4 ,sedan bis zum ,ende d4 ,kriegs 7,berlin1 #ahgb2 ,english translation72 v4 ,schell1 ,die ,operationen der ,i4 ,armee unter ,gen4 v4 ,goeben 7,berlin1 #ahgc2 ,english translation72 ,count ,wartensleben1 ,feldzug der ,nordarmee unter ,gen4 v4 ,manteuffel 7,berlin1 #ahgb71 ,operationen der ,sudarmee 7,berlin1 #ahgb2 ,english translation72 ,faidherbe1 ,campagne de l'armee du nord 7,paris1 #ahgb74 ,for the sieges3 ,frobenius1 ,kriegsgesch4 ,beispiele d4 ,festungskriegs aus d4 deutsch4-franz4 ,kg4 7,berlin1 #ahii-aijj72 ,goetze1 ,taetigkeit der deutschen ,ingenieuren 7,berlin1 #ahga2 ,english translation74 ,the most useful bibliography is that of ,general ,palat 7,p4 ,lehautcourt74 7,c4 ,f4 ,a47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,this was the celebrated bapteme de feu of the prince imperial4 #b ,the ,,ii4 corps had not yet arrived from ,germany4 #c ,of the ,i4 army the ,i4 corps was retained on the east side of ,metz4 ,the ,,ii4 corps belonged to the ,,ii4 army1 but had not yet reached the front4 #d ,the #acth corps 7,vinoy71 which had followed ,mac,mahon's army at some distance1 was not involved in the catastrophe of ,sedan1 and by good luck as well as good management evaded the ,german pursuit and returned safely to ,paris4 #e ,jules ,favre1 it appears1 neglected to inform ,gambetta of the exception4 ,,francois ,,de ,,neufchateau1 ,,nicolas ,,louis1 ,,count 7#agej-ahbh71 ,french statesman and poet1 was born at ,saffais near ,rozieres in ,lorraine on the #agth of ,april #agej1 the son of a school-teacher4 ,he studied at the ,jesuit college of ,neufchateau in the ,vosges1 and at the age of fourteen published a volume of poetry which obtained the approbation of ,rousseau and of ,voltaire4 ,neufchateau conferred on him its name1 and he was elected member of some of the principal academies of ,france4 ,in #aghc he was named procureur-general to the council of ,santo ,domingo4 ,he had previously been engaged on a translation of ,ariosto1 which he finished before his return to ,france five years afterwards1 but it perished during the shipwreck which occurred during his voyage home4 ,after the ,revolution he was elected deputy suppleant to the ,national ,assembly1 was charged with the organization of the ,department of the ,vosges1 and was elected later to the ,legislative ,assembly1 of which he first became secretary and then president4 ,in #agic he was imprisoned on account of the political sentiments1 in reality very innocent1 of his drama ,pamela ou la vertu recompensee 7,theatre de la ,nation1 #ast ,august #agic71 but was set free a few days afterwards at the revolution of the #ith ,thermidor4 ,in #agig he became minister of the interior1 in which office he distinguished himself by the thoroughness of his administration in all departments4 ,it is to him that ,france owes its system of inland navigation4 ,he inaugurated the museum of the ,louvre1 and was one of the promoters of the first universal exhibition of industrial products4 ,from #ahjd to #ahjf he was president of the ,senate1 and in that capacity the duty devolved upon him of soliciting ,napoleon to assume the title of emperor4 ,in #ahjh he received the dignity of count4 ,retiring from public life in #ahad1 he occupied himself chiefly in the study of agriculture1 until his death on the #ajth of ,january #ahbh4 ,francois de ,neufchateau had very multifarious accomplishments1 and interested himself in a great variety of subjects1 but his fame rests chiefly on what he did as a statesman for the encouragement and development of the industries of ,france4 ,his maturer poetical productions did not fulfil the promise of those of his early years1 for though some of his verses have a superficial elegance1 his poetry generally lacks force and originality4 ,he had considerable qualifications as a grammarian and critic1 as is witnessed by his editions of the ,provinciales and ,pensees of ,pascal 7,paris1 #ahbb and #ahbf7 and ,gil ,blas 7,paris1 #ahbj74 ,his principal poetical works are ,poesies diverses 7#agfe72 ,ode sur les parlements 7#agga72 ,nouveaux ,contes moraux 7#agha72 ,les ,vosges 7#agif72 ,fables et contes 7#ahad72 and ,les ,tropes1 ou les figures de mots 7#ahag74 ,he was also the author of a large number of works on agriculture4 ,see ,recueil des lettres1 circulaires1 discours et autres actes publics emanes du ,cte4 ,francois pendant ses deux exercices du ministere de l'interieur 7,paris1 ,an4 vii4-viii41 #b vols472 ,notice biographique sur ,m4 le comte ,francois de ,neufchateau 7#ahbh71 by ,a4 ,f4 de ,sillery2 ,h4 ,bonnelier1 ,memoires sur ,francois de ,neufchateau 7,paris1 #ahbi72 ,j4 ,lamoureux1 ,notice historique et litteraire sur la vie et les ecrits de ,francois de ,neufchateau 7,paris1 #ahdc72 ,e4 ,meaume1 ,etude historique et biographique sur les ,lorrains revolutionnaires3 ,palissot1 ,gregoire1 ,francois de ,neufchateau 7,nancy1 #ahhb72 ,ch4 ,simian1 ,francois de ,neufchateau et les expositions 7,paris1 #ahhi74 ,,franconia 7,ger4 ,franken71 the name of one of the stem-duchies of medieval ,germany4 ,it stretched along the valley of the ,main from the ,rhine to ,bohemia1 and was bounded on the north by ,saxony and ,thuringia1 and on the south by ,swabia and ,bavaria4 ,it also included a district around ,mainz1 ,spires and ,worms1 on the left bank of the ,rhine4 ,the word ,franconia1 first used in a ,latin charter of #ajec1 was applied like the words ,france1 ,francia and ,franken1 to a portion of the land occupied by the ,franks4 ,about the close of the #eth century this territory was conquered by ,clovis1 king of the ,salian ,franks1 was afterwards incorporated with the kingdom of ,austrasia1 and at a later period came under the rule of ,charlemagne4 ,after the treaty of ,verdun in #hdc it became the centre of the ,east ,frankish or ,german kingdom1 and in theory remained so for a long period1 and was for a time the most important of the duchies which arose on the ruins of the ,carolingian empire4 ,the land was divided into counties1 or gauen1 which were ruled by counts1 prominent among whom were members of the families of ,conradine and ,babenberg1 by whose feuds it was frequently devastated4 ,conrad1 a member of the former family1 who took the title of duke in ,franconia about the year #ijj1 was chosen ,german king in #iaa as the representative of the foremost of the ,german races4 ,conrad handed over the chief authority in ,franconia to his brother ,eberhard1 who remained on good terms with ,conrad's successor ,henry ,i4 the ,fowler1 but rose against the succeeding king1 ,otto the ,great1 and was killed in battle in #ici1 when his territories were divided4 ,the influence of ,franconia began to decline under the kings of the ,saxon house4 ,it lacked political unity1 had no opportunities for extension1 and soon became divided into ,rhenish ,franconia 7,francia rhenensis1 ,ger4 ,rheinfranken7 and ,eastern ,franconia 7,francia orientalis1 ,ger4 ,ostfranken74 ,the most influential family in ,rhenish ,franconia was that of the ,salians1 the head of which early in the #ajth century was ,conrad the ,red1 duke of ,lorraine1 and son-in-law of ,otto the ,great4 ,this ,conrad1 his son ,otto and his grandson ,conrad are sometimes called dukes of ,franconia1 and in #ajbd his great-grandson ,conrad1 also duke of ,franconia1 was elected ,german king as ,conrad ,,ii4 and founded the line of ,franconian or ,salian emperors4 ,rhenish ,franconia gradually became a land of free towns and lesser nobles1 and under the earlier ,franconian emperors sections passed to the count palatine of the ,rhine1 the archbishop of ,mainz1 the bishops of ,worms and ,spires and other clerical and lay nobles2 and the name ,franconia1 or ,francia orientalis as it was then called1 was confined to the eastern portion of the duchy4 ,clerical authority was becoming predominant in this region4 ,a series of charters dating from #hbb to #ajbe had granted considerable powers to the bishops of ,wuerzburg1 who1 by the time of the emperor ,henry ,,ii41 possessed judicial authority over the whole of eastern ,franconia4 ,the duchy was nominally retained by the emperors in their own hands until #aaae1 when the emperor ,henry ,v41 wishing to curb the episcopal influence in this neighbourhood1 appointed his nephew ,conrad of ,hohenstaufen as duke of ,franconia4 ,conrad's son ,frederick took the title of duke of ,rothenburg instead of duke of ,franconia1 but in #aaif1 on the death of ,conrad of ,hohenstaufen1 son of the emperor ,frederick ,i41 the title fell into disuse4 ,meanwhile the bishop of ,wuerzburg had regained his former power in the duchy1 and this was confirmed in #aafh by the emperor ,frederick ,i4 ,the title remained in abeyance until the early years of the #aeth century1 when it was assumed by ,john ,,ii41 bishop of ,wuerzburg1 and retained by his successors until the bishopric was secularized in #ahjb4 ,the greater part of the lands were united with ,bavaria1 and the name ,franconia again fell into abeyance4 ,it was revived in #ahcg1 when ,louis ,i41 king of ,bavaria1 gave to three northern portions of his kingdom the names of ,upper1 ,middle and ,lower ,franconia4 ,in #afcc ,bernhard1 duke of ,saxe-,weimar1 hoping to create a principality for himself out of the ecclesiastical lands1 had taken the title of duke of ,franconia1 but his hopes were destroyed by his defeat at ,noerdlingen in #afcd4 ,when ,germany was divided into circles by the emperor ,maximilian ,i4 in #aejj1 the name ,franconia was given to that circle which included the eastern part of the old duchy4 ,the lands formerly comprised in the duchy of ,franconia are now divided between the kingdoms of ,bavaria and ,wuerttemberg1 the grand-duchies of ,baden and ,hesse1 and the ,prussian province of ,hesse-,nassau4 ,see ,j4 ,g4 ab ,eckhart1 ,commentarii de rebus ,franciae orientalis et episcopatus ,wirceburgensis 7,wuerzburg1 #agbi72 ,f4 ,stein1 ,geschichte ,frankens 7,schweinfurt1 #ahhe-ahhf72 ,t4 ,henner1 ,die herzogliche ,gewalt der ,bischoefe von ,wuerzburg 7,wuerzburg1 #ahgd74 ,,francs-,,archers4 ,the institution of the francs-archers was the first attempt at the formation of regular infantry in ,france4 ,they were created by the ordinance of ,montils-les-,tours on the #bhth of ,august #addh1 which prescribed that in each parish an archer should be chosen from among the most apt in the use of arms2 this archer to be exempt from the taille and certain obligations1 to practise shooting with the bow on ,sundays and feast-days1 and to hold himself ready to march fully equipped at the first signal4 ,under ,charles ,,vii4 the francs-archers distinguished themselves in numerous battles with the ,english1 and assisted the king to drive them from ,france4 ,during the succeeding reigns the institution languished1 and finally disappeared in the middle of the #afth century4 ,the francs-archers were also called francs-taupins4 ,see ,daniel1 ,histoire de la milice francaise 7#agba72 and ,e4 ,boutaric1 ,institutions militaires de la ,france avant les armees permanentes 7#ahfc74 ,,francs-,,tireurs 7,free-,shooters71 irregular troops1 almost exclusively infantry1 employed by the ,french in the war of #ahgj-ahga4 ,they were originally rifle clubs or unofficial military societies formed in the east of ,france at the time of the ,luxemburg crisis of #ahfg4 ,the members were chiefly concerned with the practice of rifle-shooting1 and were expected in war to act as light troops4 ,as under the then system of conscription the greater part of the nation's military energy was allowed to run to waste1 the francs-tireurs were not only popular1 but efficient workers in their sphere of action4 ,as they wore no uniforms1 were armed with the best existing rifles and elected their own officers1 the government made repeated attempts to bring the societies1 which were at once a valuable asset to the armed strength of ,france and a possible menace to internal order1 under military discipline4 ,this was strenuously resisted by the societies1 to their sorrow as it turned out1 for the ,germans treated captured francs-tireurs as irresponsible non-combatants found with arms in their hands and usually exacted the death penalty4 ,in ,july #ahgj1 at the outbreak of the war1 the societies were brought under the control of the minister of war and organized for field service1 but it was not until the #dth of ,november--by which time the levee en masse was in force--that they were placed under the orders of the generals in the field4 ,after that they were sometimes organized in large bodies and incorporated in the mass of the armies1 but more usually they continued to work in small bands1 blowing up culverts on the invaders' lines of communication1 cutting off small reconnoitring parties1 surprising small posts1 c4 ,it is now acknowledged1 even by the ,germans1 that though the francs-tireurs did relatively little active mischief1 they paralysed large detachments of the enemy1 contested every step of his advance 7as in the ,loire campaign71 and prevented him from gaining information1 and that their soldierly qualities improved with experience4 ,their most celebrated feats were the blowing up of the ,moselle railway bridge at ,fontenoy on the #bbnd of ,january #ahga 7see ,les ,chasseurs des ,vosges by ,lieut4-,colonel ,st ,etienne1 ,toul1 #aijf71 and the heroic defence of ,chateaudun by ,lipowski's ,paris corps and the francs-tireurs of ,cannes and ,nantes 7,october #ah1 #ahgj74 ,it cannot be denied that the original members of the rifle clubs were joined by many bad characters1 but the patriotism of the majority was unquestionable1 for little mercy was shown by the ,germans to those francs-tireurs who fell into their hands4 ,the severity of the ,german reprisals is itself the best testimony to the fear and anxiety inspired by the presence of active bands of francs-tireurs on the flanks and in rear of the invaders4 ,,franeker1 a town in the province of ,friesland1 ,holland1 #e m4 ,e4 of ,harlingen on the railway and canal to ,leeuwarden4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #gahg4 ,it was at one time a favourite residence of the ,frisian nobility1 many of whom had their castles here1 and it possessed a celebrated university1 founded by the ,frisian estates in #aehe4 ,this was suppressed by ,napoleon ,i4 in #ahaa1 and the endowments were diverted four years later to the support of an athenaeum1 and afterwards of a gymnasium1 with which a physiological cabinet and a botanical garden are connected4 ,franeker also possesses a town hall 7#aeia71 which contains a planetarium1 made by one ,eise ,eisinga in #aggd-ahha4 ,the fine observatory was founded about #aghj4 ,the church of ,st ,martin 7#adbj7 contains several fine tombs of the #aeth-#agth centuries4 ,the industries of the town include silk-weaving1 woollen-spinning1 shipbuilding and pottery-making4 ,it is also a considerable market for agricultural produce4 ,,frank1 ,,jakob 7#agbf-agia71 a ,jewish theologian1 who founded in ,poland1 in the middle of the #ahth century1 a sect which emanated from ,judaism but ended by merging with ,christianity4 ,the sect was the outcome of the ,messianic mysticism of ,sabbetai ,zebi4 ,it was an antinomian movement in which the authority of the ,jewish law was held to be superseded by personal freedom4 ,the ,jewish authorities1 alarmed at the moral laxity which resulted from the emotional rites of the ,frankists1 did their utmost to suppress the sect4 ,but the latter1 posing as an anti-,talmudic protest in behalf of a spiritual religion1 won a certain amount of public sympathy4 ,there was1 however1 no deep sincerity in the tenets of the ,frankists1 for though in #agei they were baptized en masse1 amid much pomp1 the ,church soon became convinced that ,frank was not a genuine convert4 ,he was imprisoned on a charge of heresy1 but on his release in #agfc the empress ,maria ,theresa patronized him1 regarding him as a propagandist of ,christianity among the ,jews4 ,he thenceforth lived in state as baron of ,offenbach1 and on his death 7#agia7 his daughter ,eva succeeded him as head of the sect4 ,the ,frankists gradually merged in the general ,christian body1 the movement leaving no permanent trace in the synagogue4 7,i4 ,a47 ,,frank-,,almoign 7libera eleemosyna1 free alms71 in the ,english law of real property1 a species of spiritual tenure1 whereby a religious corporation1 aggregate or sole1 holds lands of the donor to them and their successors for ever4 ,it was a tenure dating from ,saxon times1 held not on the ordinary feudal conditions1 but discharged of all services except the trinoda necessitas4 ,but they which hold in frank-almoign are bound of right before ,god to make orisons1 prayers1 masses and other divine services for the souls of their grantor or feoffor1 and for the souls of their heirs which are dead1 and for the prosperity and good life and good health of their heirs which are alive4 ,and therefore they shall do no fealty to their lord1 because that this divine service is better for them before ,god than any doing of fealty 7,litt4 s4 #ace74 ,it was the tenure by which the greater number of the monasteries and religious houses held their lands2 it was expressly exempted from the statute #ab ,car4 ,,ii4 c4 #bd 7#affj71 by which the other ancient tenures were abolished1 and it is the tenure by which the parochial clergy and many ecclesiastical and eleemosynary foundations hold their lands at the present day4 ,as a form of donation1 however1 it came to an end by the passing of the statute ,quia ,emptores1 for by that statute no new tenure of frank-almoign could be created1 except by the crown4 ,see ,pollock and ,maitland1 ,history of ,english ,law1 where the history of frank-almoign is given at length4 ,,frankel1 ,,zecharias 7#ahja-ahge71 ,jewish theologian1 one of the founders of the ,breslau school of historical ,judaism4 ,this school attempts to harmonize critical treatment of the documents of religion with fidelity to traditional beliefs and observances4 ,for a time at least1 the compromise succeeded in staying the disintegrating effects of the liberal movement in ,judaism4 ,frankel was the author of several valuable works1 among them ,septuagint ,studies1 an ,introduction to the ,mishnah 7#ahei71 and a similar work on the ,palestinian ,talmud 7#ahgj74 ,he also edited the ,monatsschrift1 devoted to ,jewish learning on modern lines4 ,but his chief claim to fame rests on his headship of the ,breslau ,seminary4 ,this was founded in #ahed for the training of rabbis who should combine their rabbinic studies with secular courses at the university4 ,the whole character of the rabbinate has been modified under the influence of this1 the first seminary of the kind4 7,i4 ,a47 ,,frankenberg1 a manufacturing town of ,germany1 in the kingdom of ,saxony1 on the ,zschopau1 #g m4 ,n4,e4 of ,chemnitz1 on the railway ,niederwiesa-,rosswein4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #ac1cjc4 ,the principal buildings are the large ,evangelical parish church1 restored in #ahgd-ahge1 and the town-hall4 ,its industries include ,i extensive woollen1 cotton and silk weaving1 dyeing1 the manufacture of brushes1 furniture and cigars1 iron-founding and machine building4 ,it is well provided with schools1 including one of weaving4 ,,frankenhausen1 a town of ,germany1 in the principality of ,schwarzburg-,rudolstadt1 on an artificial arm of the ,wipper1 a tributary of the ,saale1 #cf m4 ,n4,n4,e4 of ,gotha4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #fecd4 ,it consists of an old and a new town1 the latter mostly rebuilt since a destructive fire in #ahcc1 and has an old chateau of the princes of ,schwarzburg1 three ,protestant churches1 a seminary for teachers1 a hospital and a modern town-hall4 ,its industries include the manufacture of sugar1 cigars and buttons1 and there are brine springs1 with baths1 in the vicinity4 ,at ,frankenhausen a battle was fought on the #aeth of ,may #aebe1 in which the insurgent peasants under ,thomas ,muenzer were defeated by the allied princes of ,saxony and ,hesse4 ,,frankenstein1 a town of ,germany1 in the ,prussian province of ,silesia1 on the ,pausebach1 #ce m4 ,s4 by ,w4 of ,breslau4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #ghij4 ,it is still surrounded by its medieval walls1 has two ,evangelical and three ,roman ,catholic churches1 among the latter the parish church with a curious overhanging tower1 and a monastery4 ,the industries include the manufacture of artificial manures1 bricks1 beer and straw hats4 ,there are also mills for grinding the magnesite found in the neighbourhood4 ,,frankenthal1 a town of ,germany1 in the ,bavarian ,palatinate1 on the ,isenach1 connected with the ,rhine by a canal #c m4 in length1 #f m4 ,n4,w4 from ,mannheim1 and on the railways ,neunkirchen-,worms and ,frankenthal-,grosskarlbach4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #ah1aia4 ,it has two ,evangelical and a ,roman ,catholic church1 a fine medieval town-hall1 two interesting old gates1 remains of its former environing walls1 several public monuments1 including one to the veterans of the ,napoleonic wars1 and a museum4 ,its industries include the manufacture of machinery1 casks1 corks1 soap1 dolls and furniture1 iron-founding and bell-founding--the famous ,kaiserglocke of the ,cologne cathedral was cast here4 ,frankenthal was formerly famous for its porcelain factory1 established here in #agee by ,paul ,anton ,hannong of ,strassburg1 who sold it in #agfb to the elector palatine ,charles ,theodore4 ,its fame is mainly due to the modellers ,konrad ,link 7#agcb-ahjb7 and ,johann ,peter ,melchior 7d4 #agif7 7who worked at ,frankenthal between #aggi and #agic74 ,the best products of this factory are figures and groups representing contemporary life1 or allegorical subjects in the rococo taste of the period1 and they are surpassed only by those of the more famous factory at ,meissen4 ,in #agie the factory was sold to ,peter von ,reccum1 who removed it to ,gruenstadt4 ,frankenthal 7,franconodal7 is mentioned as a village in the #hth century4 ,a house of ,augustinian canons established here in #aaai by ,erkenbert1 chamberlain of ,worms1 was suppressed in #aefb by the elector palatine ,frederick ,,iii41 who gave its possessions to ,protestant refugees from the ,netherlands4 ,in #aegg this colony received town rights from the elector ,john ,casimir1 whose successor fortified the place4 ,from #afbc until #afeb1 save for two years1 it was occupied by the ,spaniards1 and in #afhh-afhi it was stormed and burned by the ,french1 the fortifications being razed4 ,in #afig it was reconstituted as a town1 and under the elector ,charles ,theodore it became the capital of the ,palatinate4 ,from #agih to #ahad it was incorporated in the ,french department of ,mont ,tonnerre4 ,see ,wille1 ,stadt u4 ,festung ,frankenthal waehrend des dreissigjaehrigen ,krieges 7,heidelberg1 #ahgg72 ,hildenbrand1 ,gesch4 der ,stadt ,frankenthal 7#ahic74 ,for the porcelain see ,heuser1 ,frankenthaler ,gruppen und ,figuren 7,spires1 #ahii74 ,,frankenwald1 a mountainous district of ,germany1 forming the geological connexion between the ,fichtelgebirge and the ,thuringian ,forest4 ,it is a broad well-wooded plateau1 running for about #cj m4 in a north-westerly direction1 descending gently on the north and eastern sides towards the ,saale1 but more precipitously to the ,bavarian plain in the west1 and attaining its highest elevation in the ,kieferle near ,steinheid 7#bijj ft474 ,along the centre lies the watershed between the basins of the ,main and the ,saale1 belonging to the systems of the ,rhine and ,elbe respectively4 ,the principal tributaries of the ,main from the ,frankenwald are the ,rodach and ,hasslach1 and of the ,saale1 the ,selbitz4 ,see ,h4 ,schmid1 ,fuehrer durch den ,frankenwald 7,bamberg1 #ahid72 ,meyer1 ,thueringen und der ,frankenwald 7#aeth ed41 ,leipzig1 #aijj71 and ,guembel1 ,geognostische ,beschreibung des ,fichtelgebirges mit dem ,frankenwald 7,gotha1 #ahgi74 ,,frankfort1 a city and the county-seat of ,clinton county1 ,indiana1 ,u4,s4,a41 #dj m4 ,n4,w4 of ,indianapolis4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #eiai2 7#aijj7 #gajj 7#add foreign-born72 7#aiaj7 #hfcd4 ,frankfort is served by the ,chicago1 ,indianapolis ,louisville1 the ,lake ,erie ,western1 the ,vandalia1 and the ,toledo1 ,st ,louis ,western railways1 and by the ,indianapolis ,north-,western ,traction ,interurban railway 7electric74 ,the city is a division point on the ,toledo1 ,st ,louis ,western railway1 which has large shops here4 ,frankfort is a trade centre for an agricultural and lumbering region2 among its manufactures are handles1 agricultural implements and foundry products4 ,the first settlement in the neighbourhood was made in #ahbf2 in #ahcj the town was founded1 and in #ahge it was chartered as a city4 ,the city limits were considerably extended immediately after #aijj4 ,,frankfort1 the capital city of ,kentucky1 ,u4,s4,a41 and the county-seat of ,franklin county1 on the ,kentucky river1 about #ee m4 ,e4 of ,louisville4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #ghib2 7#aijj7 #idhg1 of whom #ccaf were negroes2 7#aiaj census7 #aj1dfe4 ,the city is served by the ,chesapeake ,ohio1 the ,louisville ,nashville1 and the ,frankfort ,cincinnati railways1 by the ,central ,kentucky ,traction ,co4 7electric71 and by steamboat lines to ,cincinnati1 ,louisville and other river ports4 ,it is built among picturesque hills on both sides of the river1 and is in the midst of the famous ,kentucky blue grass region and of a rich lumber-producing region4 ,the most prominent building is the ,capitol1 about #djj ft4 long and #ahe ft4 wide1 built of granite and white limestone in the ,italian ,renaissance style1 with #gj large ,ionic columns1 and a dome #bje ft4 above the terrace line1 supported by #bd other columns4 ,the ,capitol was built in #aije-aijg at a cost of more than #b1jjj1jjj2 in it are housed the state library and the library of the ,kentucky ,state ,historical ,society4 ,at ,frankfort1 also1 are the state arsenal1 the state penitentiary and the state home for feeble-minded children1 and just outside the city limits is the state coloured normal school4 ,the old capitol 7first occupied in #ahbi7 is still standing4 ,in ,franklin cemetery rest the remains of ,daniel ,boone and of ,theodore ,o',hara 7#ahbj-ahfg71 a lawyer1 soldier1 journalist and poet1 who served in the ,u4,s4 army in #ahdf-ahdh during the ,mexican ,war1 took part in filibustering expeditions to ,cuba1 served in the ,confederate army1 and is best known as the author of ,the ,bivouac of the ,dead1 a poem written for the burial in ,frankfort of some soldiers who had lost their lives at ,buena ,vista4 ,here also are the graves of ,richard ,m4 ,johnson1 vice-president of the ,united ,states in #ahcg-ahda1 and the sculptor ,joel ,t4 ,hart 7#ahaj-ahgg74 ,the city has a considerable trade with the surrounding country1 in which large quantities of tobacco and hemp are produced2 its manufactures include lumber1 brooms1 chairs1 shoes1 hemp twine1 canned vegetables and glass bottles4 ,the total value of the city's factory product in #aije was #a1gdg1cch1 being #ca4f more than in #aijj4 ,frankfort 7said to have been named after ,stephen ,frank1 one of an early pioneer party ambushed here by ,indians7 was founded in #aghf by ,general ,james ,wilkinson1 then deeply interested in trade with the ,spanish at ,new ,orleans1 and in the midst of his ,spanish intrigues4 ,in #agib the city was made the capital of the state4 ,in #ahfb1 during the famous campaign in ,kentucky of ,general ,braxton ,bragg 7,confederate7 and ,general ,d4 ,c4 ,buell 7,federal71 ,frankfort was occupied for a short time by ,bragg1 who1 just before being forced out by ,buell1 took part in the inauguration of ,richard ,j4 ,hawes1 chosen governor by the ,confederates of the state4 ,hawes1 however1 never discharged the duties of his office4 ,during the bitter contest for the governorship in #aijj between ,william ,goebel 7,democrat7 and ,william ,s4 ,taylor 7,republican71 each of whom claimed the election1 ,goebel was assassinated at ,frankfort4 7,see also ,,kentucky47 ,frankfort received a city charter in #ahci4 ,,frankfort-,,on-,,main 7,ger4 ,frankfurt am ,main71 a city of ,germany1 in the ,prussian province of ,hesse-,nassau1 principally on the right bank of the ,main1 #bd m4 above its confluence with the ,rhine at ,mainz1 and #af m4 ,n4 from ,darmstadt4 ,always a place of great trading importance1 long the place of election for the ,german kings1 and until #ahff1 together with ,hamburg1 ,bremen and ,luebeck1 one of the four free cities of ,germany1 it still retains its position as one of the leading commercial centres of the ,german empire4 ,its situation in the broad and fertile valley of the ,main1 the northern horizon formed by the soft outlines of the ,taunus range1 is one of great natural beauty1 the surrounding country being richly clad with orchard and forest4 ,frankfort is one of the most interesting1 as it is also one of the wealthiest1 of ,german cities4 ,apart from its commercial importance1 its position1 close to the fashionable watering-places of ,homburg1 ,nauheim and ,wiesbaden1 has rendered it cosmopolitan in the best sense of the term4 ,the various stages in the development of the city are clearly indicated in its general plan and the surviving names of many of its streets4 ,the line of the original #abth century walls and moat is marked by the streets of which the names end in -graben1 from the ,hirschgraben on the ,w4 to the ,wollgraben on the ,e4 ,the space enclosed by these and by the river on the ,s4 is known as the old town 7,altstadt74 ,the so-called new town 7,neustadt71 added in #accc1 extends to the ,anlagen1 the beautiful gardens and promenades laid out 7#ahjf-ahab7 on the site of the #agth century fortifications1 of which they faithfully preserve the general ground plan4 ,of the medieval fortifications the picturesque ,eschenheimer ,tor1 a round tower #aee ft4 high1 dating from #adjj to #adbh1 the ,rententurm 7#adef7 on the ,main and the ,kuhhirtenturm 7c4 #adij7 in ,sachsenhausen1 are the sole remains4 ,since the demolition of the fortifications the city has greatly expanded4 ,sachsenhausen on the south bank of the river1 formerly the seat of a commandery of the ,teutonic ,order 7by treaty with ,austria in #ahdb all property and rights of the order in ,frankfort territory were sold to the city1 except the church and house71 is now a quarter of the city4 ,in other directions also the expansion has been rapid2 the village of ,bornheim was incorporated in ,frankfort in #ahgg1 the former ,hessian town of ,bockenheim in #ahie1 and the suburbs of ,niederrad1 ,oberrad and ,seckbach in #aijj4 ,the main development of the city has been to the north of the river1 which is crossed by numerous bridges and flanked by fine quays and promenades4 ,the ,altstadt1 though several broad streets have been opened through it1 still preserves many of its narrow alleys and other medieval features4 ,the ,judengasse 7,ghetto71 down to #ahjf the sole ,jews' quarter1 has been pulled down1 with the exception of the ancestral house of the ,rothschild family--,no4 #adh--which has been restored and retains its ancient facade4 ,as the ,altstadt is mainly occupied by artisans and petty tradesmen1 so the ,neustadt is the principal business quarter of the city1 containing the chief public buildings and the principal hotels4 ,the main arteries of the city are the ,zeil1 a broad street running from the ,friedberger ,anlage to the ,rossmarkt and thence continued1 by the ,kaiserstrasse1 through the fine new quarter built after #ahgb1 to the magnificent principal railway station2 and the ,steinweg and ,goethestrasse1 which lead by the ,bockenheimer ,tor to the ,bockenheimer ,landstrasse1 a broad boulevard intersecting the fashionable residential suburb to the ,n4,w4 ,churches4--,the principal ecclesiastical building in ,frankfort is the cathedral 7,dom74 ,built of red sandstone1 with a massive tower terminating in a richly ornamented cupola and #cjj ft4 in height1 it is the most conspicuous object in the city4 ,this building1 in which the ,roman emperors were formerly elected and1 since #aefb1 crowned1 was founded in #heb by ,king ,louis the ,german1 and was later known as the ,salvator ,kirche4 ,after its reconstruction 7#abce-abci71 it was dedicated to ,st ,bartholomew4 ,from this period date the nave and the side aisles2 the choir was completed in #acae-acch and the long transepts in #acdf-aced4 ,the cloisters were rebuilt in #acdh-addg1 and the electoral chapel1 on the south of the choir1 was completed in #acee4 ,the tower was begun in #adae1 but remained unfinished4 ,on the #aeth of ,august #ahfg the tower and roof were destroyed by fire and considerable damage was done to the rest of the edifice4 ,the restoration was immediately taken in hand1 and the whole work was finished in #ahha1 including the completion of the tower1 according to the plans of the #aeth century architect1 ,hans von ,ingelheim4 ,in the interior is the tomb of the ,german king ,guenther of ,schwarzburg1 who died in ,frankfort in #acdi1 and that of ,rudolph1 the last knight of ,sachsenhausen1 who died in #acga4 ,among the other ,roman ,catholic churches are the ,leonhardskirche1 the ,liebfrauenkirche 7church of ,our ,lady7 and the ,deutschordenskirche 7#adth century7 in ,sachsenhausen4 ,the ,leonhardskirche 7restored in #ahhb7 was begun in #abai1 it is said on the site of the palace of ,charlemagne4 ,it was originally a three-aisled basilica1 but is now a five-aisled ,hallenkirche2 the choir was added in #acad4 ,it has two ,romanesque towers4 ,the ,liebfrauenkirche is first mentioned in #acad as a collegiate church2 the nave was consecrated in #acdj4 ,the choir was added in #aejf-aeji and the whole church thoroughly restored in the second half of the #ahth century1 when the tower was built 7#aggj74 ,of the ,protestant churches the oldest is the ,nikolaikirche1 which dates from the #acth century2 the fine cast-iron spire erected in #ahdc had to be taken down in #aija4 ,the ,paulskirche1 the principal ,evangelical 7,lutheran7 church1 built between #aghf and #ahcc1 is a red sandstone edifice of no architectural pretensions1 but interesting as the seat of the national parliament of #ahdh-ahdi4 ,the ,katharinenkirche1 built #afgh-afha on the site of an older building1 is famous in ,frankfort history as the place where the first ,protestant sermon was preached in #aebb4 ,among the more noteworthy of the newer ,protestant churches are the ,peterskirche 7#ahib-ahie7 in the ,north ,german ,renaissance style1 with a tower #bef ft4 high1 standing north from the ,zeil1 the ,christuskirche 7#ahhc7 and the ,lutherkirche 7#ahhi-ahic74 ,an ,english church1 in ,early ,english ,gothic style1 situated adjacent to the ,bockenheimer ,landstrasse1 was completed and consecrated in #aijf4 ,of the five synagogues1 the chief 7or ,hauptsynagoge71 lying in the ,boernestrasse1 is an attractive building of red sandstone in the ,moorish-,byzantine style4 ,public ,buildings4--,of the secular buildings in ,frankfort1 the ,roemer1 for almost five hundred years the ,rathaus 7town hall7 of the city1 is of prime historical interest4 ,it lies on the ,roemerberg1 a square flanked by curious medieval houses4 ,it is first mentioned in #acbb1 was bought with the adjacent hostelry in #adje by the city and rearranged as a town hall1 and has since1 from time to time1 been enlarged by the purchase of adjoining patrician houses1 forming a complex of buildings of various styles and dates surmounted by a clock tower4 ,the facade was rebuilt 7#ahif-ahih7 in late ,gothic style4 ,it was here1 in the ,wahlzimmer 7or election-chamber7 that the electors or their plenipotentiaries chose the ,german kings1 and here in the ,kaisersaal 7emperors' hall7 that the coronation festival was held1 at which the new king or emperor dined with the electors after having shown himself from the balcony to the people4 ,the ,kaisersaal retained its antique appearance until #ahdc1 when1 as also again in #aijd1 it was restored and redecorated2 it is now furnished with a series of modern paintings representing the ,german kings and ,roman emperors from ,charlemagne to ,francis ,,ii41 in all fifty-two1 and a statue of the first ,german emperor1 ,william ,i4 ,new municipal buildings adjoining the ,roemer on the north side were erected in #aijj-aijc in ,german ,renaissance style1 with a handsome tower #bbj ft4 high2 beneath it is a public wine-cellar1 and on the first storey a grand municipal hall4 ,the palace of the princes of ,thurn and ,taxis in the ,eschenheimer ,gasse was built 7#agcb-agda7 from the designs of ,robert de ,cotte1 chief architect to ,louis ,,xiv4 of ,france4 ,from #ahjf to #ahaj it was the residence of ,karl von ,dalberg1 prince-primate of the ,confederation of the ,rhine1 with whose dominions ,frankfort had been incorporated by ,napoleon4 ,from #ahaf to #ahff it was the seat of the ,german federal diet4 ,it is now annexed to the principal post office 7built #ahib-ahid71 which lies close to it on the ,zeil4 ,the ,saalhof1 built on the site of the palace erected by ,louis the ,pious in #hbb1 overlooking the ,main1 has a chapel of the #abth century1 the substructure dating from ,carolingian times4 ,this is the oldest building in ,frankfort4 ,the facade of the ,saalhof in the ,saalgasse dates from #afjd1 the southern wing with the two gables from #agae to #agag4 ,of numerous other medieval buildings may be mentioned the ,leinwandhaus 7linendrapers' hall71 a #aeth century building reconstructed in #ahib as a municipal museum4 ,in the ,grosser ,hirschgraben is the ,goethehaus1 a #afth century building which came into the possession of the ,goethe family in #agcc4 ,here ,goethe lived from his birth in #agdi until #agge4 ,in #ahfc the house was acquired by the ,freies deutsche ,hochstift and was opened to the public4 ,it has been restored1 from ,goethe's account of it in ,dichtung und ,wahrheit1 as nearly as possible to its condition in the poet's day1 and is now connected with a ,goethemuseum 7#ahig71 with archives and a library of #be1jjj volumes representative of the ,goethe period of ,german literature4 ,literary and ,scientific ,institutions4--,few cities of the same size as ,frankfort are so richly endowed with literary1 scientific and artistic institutions1 or possess so many handsome buildings appropriated to their service4 ,the opera-house1 erected near the ,bockenheimer ,tor in #ahgc-ahhj1 is a magnificent edifice in the style of the ,italian ,renaissance and ranks among the finest theatres in ,europe4 ,there are also a theatre 7,schauspielhaus7 in modern ,renaissance style 7#ahii-aijb71 devoted especially to drama1 a splendid concert hall 7,saalbau71 opened in #ahfa1 and numerous minor places of theatrical entertainment4 ,the public picture gallery in the ,saalhof possesses works by ,hans ,holbein1 ,gruenewald1 ,van ,dyck1 ,teniers1 ,van der ,neer1 ,hans von ,kulmbach1 ,lucas ,cranach and other masters4 ,the ,staedel ,art ,institute 7,staedel'sches ,kunstinstitut7 in ,sachsenhausen1 founded by the banker ,j4 ,f4 ,staedel in #ahaf1 contains a picture gallery and a cabinet of engravings extremely rich in works of ,german art4 ,the municipal library1 with #cjj1jjj volumes1 boasts among its rarer treasures a ,gutenberg ,bible printed at ,mainz between #adej and #adee1 another on parchment dated #adfb1 the ,institutiones ,justiniani 7,mainz1 #adfh71 the ,theuerdank1 with woodcuts by ,hans ,schaeufelein1 and numerous valuable autographs4 ,it also contains a fine collection of coins4 ,the ,bethmann ,museum owes its celebrity principally to ,dannecker's ,ariadne1 but it also possesses the original plaster model of ,thorwaldsen's ,entrance of ,alexander the ,great into ,babylon4 ,there may also be mentioned the ,industrial ,art ,exhibition of the ,polytechnic ,association and two conservatories of music4 ,among the scientific institutions the first place belongs to the ,senckenberg'sches naturhistorische ,museum1 containing valuable collections of birds and shells4 ,next must be mentioned the ,kunstgewerbe 7museum of arts and crafts7 and the ,musical ,museum1 with valuable ,,mss4 and portraits4 ,besides the municipal library 7,stadtbibliothek7 mentioned above there are three others of importance1 the ,rothschild1 the ,senckenberg and the ,jewish library 7with a well-appointed reading-room74 ,there are numerous high-grade schools1 musical and other learned societies and excellent hospitals4 ,the last include the large municipal infirmary and the ,senckenberg'sches ,stift1 a hospital and almshouses founded by a doctor1 ,johann ,c4 ,senckenberg 7d4 #aggb74 ,the ,royal ,institute for experimental therapeutics 7,koenigl4 ,institut fuer experimentelle ,therapie71 moved to ,frankfort in #ahii1 attracts numerous foreign students1 and is especially concerned with the study of bacteriology and serums4 ,bridges4--,seven bridges 7of which two are railway7 cross the ,main4 ,the most interesting of these is the ,alte ,mainbruecke1 a red sandstone structure of fourteen arches1 #hae ft4 long1 dating from the #adth century4 ,on it are a mill1 a statue of ,charlemagne and an iron crucifix surmounted by a gilded cock4 ,the latter commemorates1 according to tradition1 the fowl which was the first living being to cross the bridge and thus fell a prey to the devil1 who in hope of a nobler victim had sold his assistance to the architect4 ,antiquaries1 however1 assert that it probably marks the spot where criminals were in olden times flung into the river4 ,other bridges are the ,obermainbruecke of five iron arches1 opened in #ahgh2 an iron foot 7suspension7 bridge1 the ,untermainbruecke2 the ,wilhelmsbruecke1 a fine structure1 which from #ahdi to #ahij served as a railway bridge and was then opened as a road bridge2 and two new iron bridges at ,gutleuthof and ,niederrad 7below the city71 which carry the railway traffic from the south to the north bank of the ,main1 where all lines converge in a central station of the ,prussian state railways4 ,this station1 which was built in #ahhc-ahhh and has replaced the three stations belonging to private companies1 which formerly stood in juxtaposition on the ,anlagen 7or promenades7 near the ,mainzer ,tor1 lies some half-mile to the west4 ,the intervening ground upon which the railway lines and buildings stood was sold for building sites1 the sum obtained being more than sufficient to cover the cost of the majestic central terminus 7the third largest in the world71 which1 in addition to spacious and handsome halls for passenger accommodation1 has three glass-covered spans of #ahj ft4 width each4 ,yet the exigencies of traffic demand further extensions1 and another large station was in #aiji in process of construction at the east end of the city1 devised to receive the local traffic of lines running eastward1 while a through station for the north to south traffic was projected on a site farther west of the central terminus4 ,frankfort lies at the junction of lines of railway connecting it directly with all the important cities of south and central ,germany4 ,here cross and unite the lines from ,berlin to ,basel1 from ,cologne to ,wuerzburg and ,vienna1 from ,hamburg and ,cassel1 and from ,dresden and ,leipzig to ,france and ,switzerland4 ,the river ,main has been dredged so as to afford heavy barge traffic with the towns of the upper ,main and with the ,rhine1 and cargo boats load and unload alongside its busy quays4 ,a well-devised system of electric tramways provides for local communication within the city and with the outlying suburbs4 ,trade1 ,commerce and ,industries4--,frankfort has always been more of a commercial than an industrial town1 and though of late years it has somewhat lost its pre-eminent position as a banking centre it has counterbalanced the loss in increased industrial development4 ,the suburbs of ,sachsenhausen and ,bockenheim have particularly developed considerable industrial activity1 especially in publishing and printing1 brewing and the manufacture of quinine4 ,other sources of employment are the cutting of hair for making hats1 the production of fancy goods1 type1 machinery1 soap and perfumery1 ready-made clothing1 chemicals1 electro-technical apparatus1 jewelry and metal wares4 ,market gardening is extensively carried on in the neighbourhood and cider largely manufactured4 ,there are two great fairs held in the town1--the ,ostermesse1 or spring fair1 and the ,herbstmesse1 or autumn fair4 ,the former1 which was the original nucleus of all the commercial prosperity of the city1 begins on the second ,wednesday before ,easter2 and the latter on the second ,wednesday before the #hth of ,september4 ,they last three weeks1 and the last day save one1 called the ,nickelchestag1 is distinguished by the influx of people from the neighbouring country4 ,the trade in leather is of great and growing importance4 ,a horse fair has been held twice a year since #ahfb under the patronage of the agricultural society2 and the wool market was reinstituted in #ahgb by the ,german ,trade ,society 7,deutscher ,handelsverein74 ,frankfort has long been famous as one of the principal banking centres of ,europe1 and is now only second to ,berlin1 in this respect1 among ,german cities1 and it is remarkable for the large business that is done in government stock4 ,in the #agth century the town was the seat of a great book-trade2 but it has long been distanced in this department by ,leipzig4 ,the ,frankfurter ,journal was founded in #afae1 the ,postzeitung in #afaf1 the ,neue ,frankfurter ,zeitung in #ahei1 and the ,frankfurter ,presse in #ahff4 ,of memorial monuments the largest and most elaborate in ,frankfort is that erected in #aheh in honour of the early ,german printers4 ,it was modelled by ,ed4 von der ,launitz and executed by ,herr von ,kreis4 ,the statues of ,gutenberg1 ,fust and ,schoeffer form a group on the top2 an ornamented frieze presents medallions of a number of famous printers2 below these are figures representing the towns of ,mainz1 ,strassburg1 ,venice and ,frankfort2 and on the corners of the pedestal are allegorical statues of theology1 poetry1 science and industry4 ,the statue of ,goethe 7#ahdd7 in the ,goetheplatz is by ,ludwig von ,schwanthaler4 ,the ,schiller statue1 erected in #ahfc1 is the work of a ,frankfort artist1 ,johann ,dielmann4 ,a monument in the ,bockenheim ,anlage1 dated #ahcg1 preserves the memory of ,guiollett1 the burgomaster1 to whom the town is mainly indebted for the beautiful promenades which occupy the site of the old fortifications2 and similar monuments have been reared to ,senckenberg 7#ahfc71 ,schopenhauer1 ,klemens ,brentano the poet and ,samuel ,thomas ,soemmerring 7#agee-ahcj71 the anatomist and inventor of an electric telegraph4 ,in the ,opernplatz is an equestrian statue of the emperor ,wilhelm ,i4 by ,buscher4 ,cemeteries4--,the new cemetery 7opened in #ahbh7 contains the graves of ,arthur ,schopenhauer and ,feuerbach1 of ,passavant the biographer of ,raphael1 ,ballenberger the artist1 ,hessemer the architect1 ,soemmerring1 and ,johann ,friedrich ,boehmer the historian4 ,the ,bethmann vault attracts attention by three bas-reliefs from the chisel of ,thorwaldsen2 and the ,reichenbach mausoleum is a vast pile designed by ,hessemer at the command of ,william ,,ii4 of ,hesse1 and adorned with sculptures by ,zwerger and von der ,lausitz4 ,in the ,jewish section1 which is walled off from the rest of the burying-ground1 the most remarkable tombs are those of the ,rothschild family4 ,parks4--,in addition to the park in the south-western district1 ,frankfort possesses two delightful pleasure grounds1 which attract large numbers of visitors1 the ,palmengarten in the west and the zoological garden in the east of the city4 ,the former is remarkable for the collection of palms purchased in #ahfh from the deposed duke ,adolph of ,nassau4 ,government4--,the present municipal constitution of the city dates from #ahfg and presents some points of difference from the ordinary ,prussian system4 ,bismarck was desirous of giving the city1 in view of its former freedom1 a more liberal constitution than is usual in ordinary cases4 ,formerly fifty-four representatives were elected1 but provision was made 7in the constitution7 for increasing the number1 and they at present number sixty-four1 elected for six years4 ,every two years a third of the number retire1 but they are eligible for re-election4 ,these sixty-four representatives elect twenty town-councillors1 ten of whom receive a salary and ten do not4 ,the chief burgomaster 7,oberbuergermeister7 is nominated by the emperor for twelve years1 and the second burgomaster must receive the emperor's approval4 ,since #ahhe the city has been supplied with water of excellent quality from the ,stadtwald1 ,goldstein and ,hinkelstein1 and the favourable sanitary condition of the town is seen in the low death rate4 ,population4--,the population of ,frankfort has steadily increased since the beginning of the #aith century2 it amounted in #ahag to #da1deh2 7#ahdj7 #ee1bfi2 7#ahfd7 #gg1cgb2 7#ahga7 #ei1bfe2 7#ahge7 #ajc1acf2 7#ahij7 #agi1ihe2 and 7#aije71 including the incorporated suburban districts1 #ccd1iea1 of whom #age1iji were ,protestants1 #hh1deg ,roman ,catholics and #ba1igd ,jews4 ,history4--,excavations around the cathedral have incontestably proved that ,frankfort-on-,main 7,trajectum ad ,moenum7 was a settlement in ,roman times and was probably founded in the #ast century of the ,christian era4 ,it may thus be accounted one of the earliest ,german--the so-called ,roman--towns4 ,numerous places in the valley of the ,main are mentioned in chronicles anterior to the time that ,frankfort is first noticed4 ,disregarding popular tradition1 which connects the origin of the town with a legend that ,charlemagne1 when retreating before the ,saxons1 was safely conducted across the river by a doe1 it may be asserted that the first genuine historical notice of the town occurs in #gic1 when ,einhard1 ,charlemagne's biographer1 tells us that he spent the winter in the villa ,frankonovurd4 ,next year there is mention more than once of a royal palace here1 and the early importance of the place is indicated by the fact that in this year it was chosen as the seat of the ecclesiastical council by which image-worship was condemned4 ,the name ,frankfort is also found in several official documents of ,charlemagne's reign2 and from the notices that occur in the early chronicles and charters it would appear that the place was the most populous at least of the numerous villages of the ,main district4 ,during the ,carolingian period it was the seat of no fewer than #af imperial councils or colloquies4 ,the town was probably at first built on an island in the river4 ,it was originally governed by the royal officer or actor dominicus1 and down even to the close of the ,empire it remained a purely imperial or royal town4 ,it gradually acquired various privileges1 and by the close of the #adth century the only mark of dependence was the payment of a yearly tax4 ,louis the ,pious dwelt more frequently at ,frankfort than his father ,charlemagne had done1 and about #hbc he built himself a new palace1 the basis of the later ,saalhof4 ,in #hbb and #hbc two great diets were held in the palace1 and at the former there were present deputies from the eastern ,slavs1 the ,avars and the ,normans4 ,the place continued to be a favourite residence with ,louis the ,german1 who died there in #hgf1 and was the capital of the ,east ,frankish kingdom4 ,by the rest of the ,carolingian kings it was less frequently visited1 and this neglect was naturally greater during the period of the ,saxon and ,salic emperors from #iai to #aacg4 ,diets1 however1 were held in the town in #iea1 #ajae1 #ajfi and #aaji1 and councils in #ajjj and #ajjf4 ,from a privilege of ,henry ,,iv41 in #ajgd1 granting the city of ,worms freedom from tax in their trade with several royal cities1 it appears that ,frankfort was even then a place of some commercial importance4 ,under the ,hohenstaufens many brilliant diets were held within its walls4 ,that of #aadg saw1 also1 the first election of a ,german king at ,frankfort1 in the person of ,henry1 son of ,conrad ,,iii4 ,but as the father outlived the son1 it was ,frederick ,i41 ,barbarossa1 who was actually the first reigning king to be elected here 7in #aaeb74 ,with the beginning of the #acth century the municipal constitution appears to have taken definite shape4 ,the chief official was the royal bailiff 7,schultheiss71 who is first mentioned in #aaic1 and whose powers were subsequently enlarged by the abolition1 in #abai1 of the office of the royal ,vogt or advocatus4 ,about this time a body of ,schoeffen 7scabini1 jurats71 fourteen in number1 was formed to assist in the control of municipal affairs1 and with their appointment the first step was taken towards civic representative government4 ,soon1 however1 the activity of the ,schoeffen became specifically confined to the determination of legal disputes1 and in their place a new body 7,collegium7 of counsellors--,ratmannen--also fourteen in number1 was appointed for the general administration of local matters4 ,in #acaa1 the two burgomasters1 now chiefs of the municipality1 take the place of the royal ,schultheiss4 ,in the #acth century1 the ,frankfort ,fair1 which is first mentioned in #aaej1 and the origin of which must have been long anterior to that date1 is referred to as being largely frequented4 ,no fewer than #aj new churches were erected in the years from #abbj to #abgj4 ,it was about the same period1 probably in #abdj1 that the ,jews first settled in the town4 ,in the contest which ,louis the ,bavarian maintained with the papacy ,frankfort sided with the emperor1 and it was consequently placed under an interdict for #bj years from #acbi to #acdi4 ,on ,louis' death it refused to accept the papal conditions of pardon1 and only yielded to ,charles ,,iv41 the papal nominee1 when ,guenther of ,schwarzburg thought it more prudent to abdicate in his favour4 ,charles granted the city a full amnesty1 and confirmed its liberties and privileges4 ,by the famous ,golden ,bull of #acef ,frankfort was declared the seat of the imperial elections1 and it still preserves an official contemporaneous copy of the original document as the most precious of the eight imperial bulls in its possession4 ,from the date of the bull to the close of the ,empire ,frankfort retained the position of ,wahlstadt1 and only five of the two-and-twenty monarchs who ruled during that period were elected elsewhere4 ,in #achh-achi ,frankfort assisted the ,south ,german towns in their wars with the princes and nobles 7the ,staedtekrieg71 and in a consequent battle with the troops of the ,palatinate1 the town banner was lost and carried to ,kronberg1 where it was long preserved as a trophy4 ,on peace being concluded in #acia1 the town had to pay #ab1efb florins1 and this brought it into great financial difficulties4 ,in the course of the next #ej years debt was contracted to the amount of #abf1ggb florins4 ,the diet at ,worms in #adie chose ,frankfort as the seat of the newly instituted imperial chamber1 or ,reichskammergericht1 and it was not till #aebg that the chamber was removed to ,spires4 ,at the ,reformation ,frankfort heartily joined the ,protestant party1 and in consequence it was hardly treated both by the emperor ,charles ,v4 and by the archbishop of ,mainz4 ,it refused to subscribe the ,augsburg ,recess1 but at the same time it was not till #aecf that it was persuaded to join the ,league of ,schmalkalden4 ,on the failure of this confederation it opened its gates to the imperial general ,bueren on the #bith of ,december #aedf1 although he had passed by the city1 which he considered too strong for the forces under his command4 ,the emperor was merciful enough to leave it in possession of its privileges1 but he inflicted a fine of #hj1jjj gold gulden1 and until ,october #aedg the citizens had to endure the presence of from #hjjj to #aj1jjj soldiers4 ,this resulted in a pestilence which not only lessened the population1 but threatened to give the death-blow to the great annual fairs2 and at the close of the war it was found that it had cost the city no less than #bbh1ica gulden4 ,in #aeeb ,frankfort was invested for three weeks by ,maurice of ,saxony1 who was still in arms against the emperor ,charles ,v41 but it continued to hold out till peace was concluded between the principal combatants4 ,between #afab and #afaf occurred the great ,fettmilch insurrection1 perhaps the most remarkable episode in the internal history of ,frankfort4 ,the magistracy had been acquiring more and more the character of an oligarchy2 all power was practically in the hands of a few closely-related families2 and the gravest peculation and malversation took place without hindrance4 ,the ordinary citizens were roused to assert their rights1 and they found a leader in ,vincenz ,fettmilch1 who carried the contest to dangerous excesses1 but lacked ability to bring it to a successful issue4 ,an imperial commission was ultimately appointed1 and the three principal culprits and several of their associates were executed in #afaf4 ,it was not till #ahja that the last mouldering head of the ,fettmilch company dropped unnoticed from the ,rententurm1 the old tower near the bridge4 ,in the words of ,dr ,kriegk1 ,geschichte von ,frankfurt1 7#ahga71 the insurrection completely destroyed the political power of the gilds1 gave new strength to the supremacy of the patriciate1 and brought no further advantage to the rest of the citizens than a few improvements in the organization and administration of the magistracy4 ,the ,jews1 who had been attacked by the popular party1 were solemnly reinstated by imperial command in all their previous privileges1 and received full compensation for their losses4 ,during the ,thirty ,years' ,war ,frankfort did not escape4 ,in #afca ,gustavus ,adolphus garrisoned it with #fjj men1 who remained in possession till they were expelled four years later by the imperial general ,lamboy4 ,in #agib the citizens had to pay #b1jjj1jjj gulden to the ,french general ,custine2 and in #agif ,kleber exacted #h1jjj1jjj francs4 ,the independence of ,frankfort was brought to an end in #ahjf1 on the formation of the ,confederation of the ,rhine2 and in #ahaj it was made the capital of the grand-duchy of ,frankfort1 which had an area of #cbae sq4 m4 with #cjb1ajj inhabitants1 and was divided into the four districts of ,frankfort1 ,aschaffenburg1 ,fulda and ,hanau4 ,on the reconstitution of ,germany in #ahae it again became a free city1 and in the following year it was declared the seat of the ,german ,confederation4 ,in ,april #ahcc occurred what is known as the ,frankfort ,insurrection 7,frankfurter ,attentat71 in which a number of insurgents led by ,georg ,bunsen attempted to break up the diet4 ,the city joined the ,german ,zollverein in #ahcf4 ,during the revolutionary period of #ahdh the people of ,frankfort1 where the united ,german parliament held its sessions1 took a chief part in political movements1 and the streets of the town were more than once the scene of conflict4 ,in the war of #ahff they were on the ,austrian side4 ,on the #afth of ,july the ,prussian troops1 under ,general ,vogel von ,falkenstein1 entered the town1 and on the #ahth of ,october it was formally incorporated with the ,prussian state4 ,a fine of #f1jjj1jjj florins was exacted4 ,in #ahga the treaty which concluded the ,franco-,german ,war was signed in the ,swan ,hotel by ,prince ,bismarck and ,jules ,favre1 and it is consequently known as the peace of ,frankfort4 ,,authorities4--,f4 ,rittweger1 ,frankfurt im ,jahre #ahdh 7#ahih72 ,r4 ,jung1 ,das historische ,archiv der ,stadt ,frankfurt 7#ahig72 ,a4 ,horne1 ,geschichte von ,frankfurt 7#dth ed41 #aijc72 ,h4 ,grotefend1 ,quellen zur ,frankfuerter ,geschichte 7,frankfort1 #ahhd-ahhh72 ,j4 ,c4 von ,fichard1 ,die ,entstehung der ,reichsstadt ,frankfurt 7,frankfort1 #ahai72 ,g4 ,l4 ,kriegk1 ,geschichte von ,frankfurt 7,frankfort1 #ahga72 ,j4 ,f4 ,boehmer1 ,urkundenbuch der ,reichsstadt ,frankfurt 7new ed41 #aija72 ,b4 ,weber1 ,zur ,reformationsgeschichte der freien ,reichsstadt ,frankfurt 7#ahie72 ,o4 ,speyer1 ,die ,frankfurter ,revolution #afab-afaf 7#ahhc72 and ,l4 ,woerl1 ,guide to ,frankfort 7,leipzig1 #ahih74 ,,frankfort-,,on-,,oder1 a town of ,germany1 in the ,prussian province of ,brandenburg1 #ej m4 ,s4,e4 from ,berlin on the main line of railway to ,breslau and at the junction of lines to ,cuestrin1 ,posen and ,grossenhain4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #fd1idc4 ,the town proper lies on the left bank of the river ,oder and is connected by a stone bridge 7replacing the old historical wooden structure7 #ijj ft4 long1 with the suburb of ,damm4 ,the town is agreeably situated and has broad and handsome streets1 among them the ,linden1 a spacious avenue4 ,above1 on the western side1 and partly lying on the site of the old ramparts1 is the residential quarter1 consisting mainly of villas and commanding a fine prospect of the ,oder valley4 ,between this suburb and the town lies the park1 in which is a monument to the poet ,ewald ,christian von ,kleist1 who died here of wounds received in the battle of ,kunersdorf4 ,among the more important public buildings must be noticed the ,evangelical ,marienkirche 7,oberkirche71 a handsome brick edifice of the #acth century with five aisles1 the ,roman ,catholic church1 the ,rathhaus dating from #afjg1 and bearing on its southern gable the device of a member of the ,hanseatic ,league1 the government offices and the theatre4 ,the university of ,frankfort1 founded in #aejf by ,joachim ,i41 elector of ,brandenburg1 was removed to ,breslau in #ahaa1 and the academical buildings are now occupied by a school4 ,to compensate it for the loss of its university1 ,frankfort-on-,oder was long the seat of the court of appeal for the province1 but of this it was deprived in #ahgi4 ,there are several handsome public monuments1 notably that to ,duke ,leopold of ,brunswick1 who was drowned in the ,oder while attempting to save life1 on the #bgth of ,april #aghe4 ,the town has a large garrison1 consisting of nearly all arms4 ,its industries are considerable1 including the manufacture of machinery1 metal ware1 chemicals1 paper1 leather and sugar4 ,situated on the high road from ,berlin to ,silesia1 and having an extensive system of water communication by means of the ,oder and its canals to the ,vistula and the ,elbe1 and being an important railway centre1 it has a lively export trade1 which is further fostered by its three annual fairs1 held respectively at ,reminiscere 7the second ,sunday in ,lent71 ,st ,margaret's day and at ,martinmas4 ,in the neighbourhood are extensive coal fields4 ,frankfort-on-the-,oder owes its origin and name to a settlement of ,franconian merchants here1 in the #acth century1 on land conquered by the margrave of ,brandenburg from the ,wends4 ,in #abec it was raised to the rank of a town by the margrave ,john ,i4 and borrowed from ,berlin the ,magdeburg civic constitution4 ,in #acgi it received from ,king ,sigismund1 then margrave of ,brandenburg1 the right to free navigation of the ,oder2 and from #acfh to about #adej it belonged to the ,hanseatic ,league4 ,the university1 which is referred to above1 was opened by the elector ,joachim ,i4 in #aejf1 was removed in #aeaf to ,kottbus and restored again to ,frankfort in #aeci1 at which date the ,reformation was introduced4 ,it was dispersed during the ,thirty ,years' ,war and again restored by the ,great ,elector1 but finally transferred to ,breslau in #ahaa4 ,frankfort has suffered much from the vicissitudes of war4 ,in the #aeth century it successfully withstood sieges by the ,hussites 7#adbi and #adcb71 by the ,poles 7#adej7 and by the duke of ,sagan 7#adgg74 ,in the ,thirty ,years' ,war it was successively taken by ,gustavus ,adolphus 7#afca71 by ,wallenstein 7#afcc71 by the elector of ,brandenburg 7#afcd71 and again by the ,swedes1 who held it from #afdj to #afdd4 ,during the ,seven ,years' ,war it was taken by the ,russians 7#agei74 ,in #ahab it was occupied by the ,french1 who remained till ,march #ahac1 when the ,russians marched in4 ,see ,k4 ,r4 ,hausen1 ,geschichte der ,universitaet und ,stadt ,frankfurt 7#ahjf71 and ,bieder und ,gurnik1 ,bilder aus der ,geschichte der ,stadt ,frankfurt-an-der-,oder 7#ahih74 ,,frankincense1#a or ,,olibanum#b 7,gr4 ,greek3 libanotos1 later ,greek3 thyos2 ,lat41 tus or thus2 ,heb41 lebonah2#c ,ar41 luban2#d ,turk41 ghyunluk2 ,hind41 ganda-birosa#e71 a gum-resin obtained from certain species of trees of the genus ,boswellia1 and natural order ,burseraceae4 ,the members of the genus are possessed of the following characters3--,bark often papyraceous2 leaves deciduous1 compound1 alternate and imparipinnate1 with leaflets serrate or entire2 flowers in racemes or panicles1 white1 green1 yellowish or pink1 having a small persistent1 #e-;dentate calyx1 #e petals1 #aj stamens1 a sessile #c to #e-;chambered ovary1 a long style1 and a #c-lobed stigma2 fruit trigonal or pentagonal2 and seed compressed4 ,sir ,george ,birdwood 7,trans4 ,lin4 ,soc4 xxvii41 #ahga7 distinguishes five species of ,boswellia3 7,a7 ,b4 thurifera1 ,colebr4 7,b4 glabra and ,b4 serrata1 ,roxb471 indigenous to the mountainous tracts of central ,india and the ,coromandel coast1 and ,b4 papyrifera 7,ploesslea floribunda1 ,endl47 of ,abyssinia1 which1 though both thuriferous1 are not known to yield any of the olibanum of commerce2 and 7,b7 ,b4 ,frereana 7see ,,elemi1 vol4 x4 p4 #bei71 ,b4 ,bhua-,dajiana1 and ,b4 ,carterii1 the ,yegaar1 ,mohr ,add1 and ,mohr ,madow of the ,somali country1 in ,east ,africa1 the last species including a variety1 the ,maghrayt d',sheehaz of ,hadramaut1 ,arabia1 all of which are sources of true frankincense or olibanum4 ,the trees on the ,somali coast are described by ,captain ,g4 ,b4 ,kempthorne as growing1 without soil1 out of polished marble rocks1 to which they are attached by a thick oval mass of substance resembling a mixture of lime and mortar3 the purer the marble the finer appears to be the growth of the tree4 ,the young trees1 he states1 furnish the most valuable gum1 the older yielding merely a clear glutinous fluid resembling copal varnish4#f ,to obtain the frankincense a deep incision is made in the trunk of the tree1 and below it a narrow strip of bark #e in4 in length is peeled off4 ,when the milk-like juice 7spuma pinguis1 ,pliny7 which exudes has hardened by exposure to the atmosphere1 the incision is deepened4 ,in about three months the resin has attained the required degree of consistency4 ,the season for gathering lasts from ,may until the first rains in ,september4 ,the large clear globules are scraped off into baskets1 and the inferior quality that has run down the tree is collected separately4 ,the coast of south ,arabia is yearly visited by parties of ,somalis1 who pay the ,arabs for the privilege of collecting frankincense4#g ,in the interior of the country about the plain of ,dhofar1#h during the south-west monsoon1 frankincense and other gums are gathered by the ,beni ,gurrah ,bedouins1 and might be obtained by them in much larger quantities2 their lawlessness1 however1 and the lack of a safe place of exchange or sale are obstacles to the development of trade4 7,see ,c4 ,y4 ,ward1 ,the ,gulf of ,aden ,pilot1 p4 #aag1 #ahfc47 ,much as formerly in the region of ,sakhalites in ,arabia 7the tract between ,ras ,makalla and ,ras ,agab71#i described by ,arrian1 so now on the sea-coast of the ,somali country1 the frankincense when collected is stored in heaps at various stations4 ,thence1 packed in sheep- and goat-skins1 in quantities of #bj to #dj lb41 it is carried on camels to ,berbera1 for shipment either to ,aden1 ,makalla and other ,arabian ports1 or directly to ,bombay4#aj ,at ,bombay1 like gum-acacia1 it is assorted1 and is then packed for re-exportation to ,europe1 ,china and elsewhere4#aa ,arrian relates that it was an import of ,barbarike on the ,sinthus 7,indus74 ,the idea held by several writers1 including ,niebuhr1 that frankincense was a product of ,india1 would seem to have originated in a confusion of that drug with benzoin and other odoriferous substances1 and also in the sale of imported frankincense with the native products of ,india4 ,the gum resin of ,boswellia thurifera was described by ,colebrooke 7in ,asiatick ,researches1 ix4 #cha71 and after him by ,dr ,j4 ,fleming 7,ib4 xi4 #aeh71 as true frankincense1 or olibanum2 from this1 however1 it differs in its softness1 and tendency to melt into a mass#ab 7,birdwood1 loc4 cit41 p4 #adf74 ,it is sold in the village bazaars of ,khandeish in ,india under the name of ,dup-,salai1 i4e4 incense of the ,salai tree2 and according to ,mr ,f4 ,porter ,smith1 ,m4,b4 7,contrib4 towards the ,mat4 ,med4 and ,nat4 ,hist1 of ,china1 p4 #afb1 ,shanghai1 #ahga71 is used as incense in ,china4 ,the last authority also mentions olibanum as a reputed natural product of ,china4 ,bernhard von ,breydenbach1#ac ,ausonius1 ,florus and others1 arguing1 it would seem1 from its ,hebrew and ,greek names1 concluded that olibanum came from ,mount ,lebanon2 and ,chardin 7,voyage en ,perse1 c41 #agaa7 makes the statement that the frankincense tree grows in the mountains of ,persia1 particularly ,caramania4 ,frankincense1 or olibanum1 occurs in commerce in semi-opaque1 round1 ovate or oblong tears or irregular lumps1 which are covered externally with a white dust1 the result of their friction against one another4 ,it has an amorphous internal structure1 a dull fracture2 is of a yellow to yellowish-brown hue1 the purer varieties being almost colourless1 or possessing a greenish tinge1 and has a somewhat bitter aromatic taste1 and a balsamic odour1 which is developed by heating4 ,immersed in alcohol it becomes opaque1 and with water it yields an emulsion4 ,it contains about #gb of resin soluble in alcohol 7,kurbatow72 a large proportion of gum soluble in water1 and apparently identical with gum arabic2 and a small quantity of a colourless inflammable essential oil1 one of the constituents of which is the body oliben1 ,c#aj;,h#af4 ,frankincense burns with a bright white flame1 leaving an ash consisting mainly of calcium carbonate1 the remainder being calcium phosphate1 and the sulphate1 chloride and carbonate of potassium 7,braconnot74#ad ,good frankincense1 ,pliny tells us1 is recognized by its whiteness1 size1 brittleness and ready inflammability4 ,that which occurs in globular drops is1 he says1 termed male frankincense2 the most esteemed1 he further remarks1 is in breast-shaped drops1 formed each by the union of two tears4#ae ,the best frankincense1 as we learn from ,arrian1#af was formerly exported from the neighbourhood of ,cape ,elephant in ,africa 7the modern ,ras ,fiel72 and ,a4 von ,kremer1 in his description of the commerce of the ,red ,sea 7,aegypten1 c41 p4 #ahe1 ii4 ,theil1 ,leipzig1 #ahfc71 observes that the ,african frankincense1 called by the ,arabs asli1 is of twice the value of the ,arabian luban4 ,captain ,s4 ,b4 ,miles 7loc4 cit41 p4 #fd7 states that the best kind of frankincense1 known to the ,somali as bedwi or sheheri1 comes from the trees ,mohr ,add and ,mohr ,madow 7vide supra71 and from a taller species of ,boswellia1 the ,boido1 and is sent to ,bombay for exportation to ,europe2 and that an inferior mayeti1 the produce of the ,yegaar1 is exported chiefly to ,jeddah and ,yemen ports4#ag ,the latter may possibly be what ,niebuhr alludes to as ,indian frankincense4#ah ,garcias da ,horta1 in asserting the ,arabian origin of the drug1 remarks that the term ,indian is often applied by the ,arabs to a dark-coloured variety4#ai ,according to ,pliny 7,nat4 ,hist4 xiv4 #a2 cf4 ,ovid1 ,fasti i4 #ccg sq471 frankincense was not sacrificially employed in ,trojan times4 ,it was used by the ancient ,egyptians in their religious rites1 but1 as ,herodotus tells us 7ii4 #hf71 not in embalming4 ,it constituted a fourth part of the ,jewish incense of the sanctuary 7,ex4 xxx4 #cd71 and is frequently mentioned in the ,pentateuch4 ,with other spices it was stored in a great chamber of the house of ,god at ,jerusalem 7#a ,chron4 ix4 #bi1 ,neh4 xiii4 #e-i74 ,on the sacrificial use and import of frankincense and similar substances see ,,incense4 ,in the ,red ,sea regions frankincense is valued not only for its sweet odour when burnt1 but as a masticatory2 and blazing lumps of it are not infrequently used for illumination instead of oil lamps4 ,its fumes are an excellent insectifuge4 ,as a medicine it was in former times in high repute4 ,pliny 7,nat4 ,hist4 xxv4 #hb7 mentions it as an antidote to hemlock4 ,avicenna 7ed4 ,plempii1 lib4 ii4 p4 #afa1 ,lovanii1 #afeh1 fol47 recommends it for tumours1 ulcers of the head and ears1 affections of the breast1 vomiting1 dysentery and fevers4 ,in the ,east frankincense has been found efficacious as an external application in carbuncles1 blind boils and gangrenous sores1 and as an internal agent is given in gonorrhoea4 ,in ,china it was an old internal remedy for leprosy and struma1 and is accredited with stimulant1 tonic1 sedative1 astringent and vulnerary properties4 ,it is not used in modern medicine1 being destitute of any special virtues4 7,see ,waring1 ,pharm4 of ,india1 p4 #ddc1 c42 and ,f4 ,porter ,smith1 op4 cit41 p4 #afb47 ,common frankincense or thus1 ,abietis resina1 is the term applied to a resin which exudes from fissures in the bark of the ,norway spruce fir1 ,abies excelsa1 ,d4,c42 when melted in hot water and strained it constitutes ,burgundy pitch1 ,pix abietina4 ,the concreted turpentine obtained in the ,united ,states by making incisions in the trunk of a species of pine1 ,pinus australis1 is also so designated4 ,it is commercially known as scrape1 and is similar to the ,french galipot or barras4 ,common frankincense is an ingredient in some ointments and plasters1 and on account of its pleasant odour when burned has been used in incense as a substitute for olibanum4 7,see ,flueckiger and ,hanbury1 ,pharmacographia47 ,the black frankincense oil of the ,turks is stated by ,hanbury 7,science ,papers1 p4 #adb1 #ahgf7 to be liquid storax4 7,f4 ,h4 ,b47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,stephen ,skinner1 ,m4,d4 7,etymologicon linguae ,anglicanae1 ,lond41 #afga71 gives the derivation3 ,frankincense1 ,thus1 q4d4 ,incensum 7i4e4 ,thus ,libere7 seu ,liberaliter1 ut in sacris officiis par est1 adolendum4 #b ,sic olibanum dixere pro thure ex ,graeco ,greek3 o libanos 7,salmasius1 ,c4 ,s4 ,plinianae exercitationes1 t4 ii4 p4 #ibf1 b4 ,f41 ,traj4 ad ,rhen41 #afhi fol474 ,so also ,fuchs 7,op4 didact4 pars4 ii4 p4 #db1 #afjd fol471 ,officinis non sine risu eruditorum1 ,graeco articulo adjecto1 ,olibanus vocatur4 ,the term olibano was used in ecclesiastical ,latin as early as the pontificate of ,benedict ,,ix41 in the #aath century4 7,see ,ferd4 ,ughellus1 ,italia sacra1 tom4 i4 #ajh1 ,d41 ,ven41 #agag fol47 #c ,so designated from its whiteness 7,j4 ,g4 ,stuckius1 ,sacror4 et sacrific4 gent4 descrip41 p4 #gi1 ,lugd4 ,bat41 #afie1 fol42 ,kitto1 ,cycl4 ,bibl4 ,lit4 ii4 p4 #hjf1 #ahgj72 cf4 ,laben1 the ,somali name for cream 7,r4 ,f4 ,burton1 ,first ,footsteps in ,e4 ,africa1 p4 #agh1 #ahef74 #d ,written ,louan by ,garcias da ,horta 7,aromat4 et simpl4 medicament4 hist41 ,c4 ,clusii ,atrebatis ,exoticorum lib4 sept41 p4 #aeg1 #afje1 fol471 and stated to have been derived by the ,arabs from the ,greek name1 the term less commonly used by them being ,conder3 cf4 ,sanskrit ,kunda4 ,according to ,colebrooke 7in ,asiatick ,res4 ix4 p4 #cgi1 #ahjg71 the ,hindu writers on ,materia ,medica use for the resin of ,boswellia thurifera the designation ,cunduru4 #e ,a term applied also to the resinous exudation of ,pinus longifolia 7see ,dr ,e4 ,j4 ,waring1 ,pharmacopoeia of ,india1 p4 #eb1 ,lond41 #ahfh74 #f ,see ,appendix1 vol4 i4 p4 #dai of ,sir ,w4 ,c4 ,harris's ,highland of ,aethiopia 7#bnd ed41 ,lond41 #ahdd72 and ,trans4 ,bombay ,geog4 ,soc4 xiii4 7#aheg71 p4 #acf4 #g ,cruttenden1 ,trans4 ,bombay ,geog4 ,soc4 vii4 7#ahdf71 p4 #aba2 ,s4 ,b4 ,miles1 ,j4 ,geog4 ,soc4 7#ahgb74 #h ,or ,dhafar4 ,the incense of ,dofar is alluded to by ,camoens1 ,os ,lusiadas1 x4 #bja4 #i ,h4 ,j4 ,carter1 ,comparative ,geog4 of the ,south-,east ,coast of ,arabia1 in ,j4 ,bombay ,branch of ,r4 ,asiatic ,soc4 iii4 7,jan4 #ahea71 p4 #bif2 and ,mueller1 ,geog4 ,graeci ,minores1 i4 p4 #bgh 7,paris1 #ahee74 #aj ,j4 ,vaughan1 ,pharm4 ,journ4 xii4 7#ahec7 pp4 #bbg-bbi2 and ,ward1 op4 cit4 p4 #ig4 #aa ,pereira1 ,elem4 of ,mat4 ,med4 ii4 pt4 #b1 p4 #chj 7#dth ed41 #ahdg74 #ab ,boswellia thurifera1 444 says ,waring 7,pharm4 of ,india1 p4 #eb71 has been thought to yield ,east ,indian olibanum1 but there is no reliable evidence of its so doing4 #ac ,libanus igitur est mons redolentie summe aromaticitatis4 nam ibi herbe odorifere crescunt4 ibi etiam arbores thurifere coalescunt quarum gummi electum olibanum a medicis nuncupatur4--,perigrinatio1 p4 #ec 7#aejb1 fol474 #ad ,see1 on the chemistry of frankincense1 ,braconnot1 ,ann4 de chimie1 lxviii4 7#ahjh7 pp4 #fj-fi2 ,johnston1 ,phil4 ,trans4 7#ahci71 pp4 #cja-cje2 ,j4 ,stenhouse1 ,ann4 der ,chem4 und ,pharm4 xxxv4 7#ahdj7 p4 #cjf2 and ,a4 ,kurbatow1 ,zeitsch4 fuer ,chem4 7#ahga71 p4 #bja4 #ae ,praecipua autem gratia est mammoso1 cum haerente lacryma priore consecuta alia miscuit se 7,nat4 ,hist4 xii4 #cb74 ,one of the ,chinese names for frankincense1 ,ju-hiang1 milk-perfume1 is explained by the ,pen ,ts'au 7xxxiv4 #de71 a ,chinese work1 as being derived from the nipple-like form of its drops4 7,see ,e4 ,bretschneider1 ,on the ,knowledge possessed by the ,ancient ,chinese of the ,arabs1 c41 p4 #ai1 ,lond41 #ahga47 #af ,the ,voyage of ,nearchus1 loc4 cit4 #ag ,vaughan 7,pharm4 ,journ4 xii4 #ahec7 speaks of the ,arabian ,luban1 commonly called ,morbat or ,shaharree ,luban1 as realizing higher prices in the market than any of the qualities exported from ,africa4 ,the incense of ,esher1 i4e4 ,shihr or ,shehr1 is mentioned by ,marco ,polo1 as also by ,barbosa4 7,see ,yule1 op4 cit4 ii4 p4 #cgg47 ,j4 ,raymond ,wellsted 7,travels to the ,city of the ,caliphs1 p4 #agc1 ,lond41 #ahdj7 distinguishes two kinds of frankincense--,meaty1 selling at #d per cwt41 and an inferior article fetching #bj less4 #ah ,es scheint1 dass selber die ,araber ihr eignes ,raeuchwerk nicht hoch schaetzen2 denn die ,vornehmen in ,jemen brauchen gemeiniglich indianisches ,raeuchwerk1 ja eine grosse ,menge ,mastix von der ,insel ,scio 7,beschreibung von ,arabien1 p4 #adc1 ,kopenh41 #aggb74 #ai ,de ,arabibus minus mirum1 qui nigricantem colorem1 quo ,thus ,indicum praeditum esse vult ,dioscorides lib4 i4 c4 #gj1 ,indum plerumque vocent1 ut ex ,myrobalano nigro quem ,indum appellant1 patet 7op4 sup4 cit4 p4 #aeg74 ,,franking1 a term used for the right of sending letters or postal packages free 7,fr4 franc7 of charge4 ,the privilege was claimed by the ,house of ,commons in #affj in a ,bill for erecting and establishing a ,post ,office1 their demand being that all letters addressed to or sent by members during the session should be carried free4 ,the clause embodying this claim was struck out by the ,lords1 but with the proviso in the ,act as passed for the free carriage of all letters to and from the king and the great officers of state1 and also the single inland letters of the members of that present parliament during that session only4 ,it seems1 however1 that the practice was tolerated until #agfd1 when by an act dealing with postage it was legalized1 every peer and each member of the ,house of ,commons being allowed to send free ten letters a day1 not exceeding an ounce in weight1 to any part of the ,united ,kingdom1 and to receive fifteen4 ,the act did not restrict the privilege to letters either actually written by or to the member1 and thus the right was very easily abused1 members sending and receiving letters for friends1 all that was necessary being the signature of the peer or ,m4,p4 in the corner of the envelope4 ,wholesale franking grew usual1 and ,m4,p4's supplied their friends with envelopes already signed to be used at any time4 ,in #ahcg the scandal had become so great that stricter regulations came into force4 ,the franker had to write the full address1 to which he had to add his name1 the post-town and the day of the month2 the letter had to be posted on the day written or the following day at the latest1 and in a post-town not more than #bj m4 from the place where the peer or ,m4,p4 was then living4 ,on the #ajth of ,january #ahdj parliamentary franking was abolished on the introduction of the uniform penny rate4 ,in the ,united ,states the franking privilege was first granted in ,january #aggf to the soldiers engaged in the ,american ,war of ,independence4 ,the right was gradually extended till it included nearly all officials and members of the public service4 ,by special acts the privilege was bestowed on presidents and their widows4 ,by an act of the #crd of ,march #ahde1 franking was limited to the president1 vice-president1 members and delegates in ,congress and postmasters1 other officers being required to keep quarterly accounts of postage and pay it from their contingent funds4 ,in #ahea free exchange of newspapers was re-established4 ,by an act of the #crd of ,march #ahfc the privilege was granted the president and his private secretary1 the vice-president1 chiefs of executive departments1 such heads of bureaus and chief clerks as might be designated by the postmaster-general for official letters only2 senators and representatives in ,congress for all correspondence1 senders of petitions to either branch of the legislature1 and to publishers of newspapers for their exchanges4 ,there was a limit as to weight4 ,members of ,congress could also frank1 in matters concerning the federal department of agriculture1 seeds1 roots and cuttings1 the weight to be fixed by the postmaster-general4 ,this act remained in force till the #cast of ,january #ahgc1 when franking was abolished4 ,since #ahge1 by sundry acts1 franking for official correspondence1 government publications1 seeds1 c41 has been allowed to congressmen1 ex-congressmen 7for #i months after the close of their term71 congressmen-elect and other government officials4 ,by special acts of #ahha1 #ahhf1 #aijb1 #aiji1 respectively1 the franking privilege was granted to the widows of ,presidents ,garfield1 ,grant1 ,mc,kinley and ,cleveland4 ,,frankl1 ,,ludwig ,,august 7#ahaj-ahid71 ,austrian poet4 ,he took part in the revolution of #ahdh1 and his poems on liberty had considerable vogue4 ,his lyrics are among his best work4 ,he was secretary of the ,jewish community in ,vienna1 and did a lasting service to education by his visit to the ,orient in #ahef4 ,he founded the first modern ,jewish school 7the ,von ,laemmel ,schule7 in ,jerusalem4 ,his brilliant volumes ,nach ,jerusalem describing his eastern tour have been translated into ,english1 as is the case with many of his poems4 ,his collected poems appeared in three volumes in #ahhj4 7,i4 ,a47 ,,frankland1 ,,sir ,,edward 7#ahbe-ahii71 ,english chemist1 was born at ,churchtown1 near ,lancaster1 on the #ahth of ,january #ahbe4 ,after attending the grammar school at ,lancaster he spent six years as an apprentice to a druggist in that town4 ,in #ahde he went to ,london and entered ,lyon ,playfair's laboratory1 subsequently working under ,r4 ,w4 ,bunsen at ,marburg4 ,in #ahdg he was appointed science-master at ,queenwood school1 ,hampshire1 where he first met ,j4 ,tyndall1 and in #ahea first professor of chemistry at ,owens ,college1 ,manchester4 ,returning to ,london six years later he became lecturer in chemistry at ,st ,bartholomew's hospital1 and in #ahfc professor of chemistry at the ,royal ,institution4 ,from an early age he engaged in original research with great success4 ,analytical problems1 such as the isolation of certain organic radicals1 attracted his attention to begin with1 but he soon turned to synthetical studies1 and he was only about twenty-five years of age when an investigation1 doubtless suggested by the work of his master1 ,bunsen1 on cacodyl1 yielded the interesting discovery of the organo-metallic compounds4 ,the theoretical deductions which he drew from the consideration of these bodies were even more interesting and important than the bodies themselves4 ,perceiving a molecular isonomy between them and the inorganic compounds of the metals from which they may be formed1 he saw their true molecular type in the oxygen1 sulphur or chlorine compounds of those metals1 from which he held them to be derived by the substitution of an organic group for the oxygen1 sulphur1 c4 ,in this way they enabled him to overthrow the theory of conjugate compounds1 and they further led him in #aheb to publish the conception that the atoms of each elementary substance have a definite saturation capacity1 so that they can only combine with a certain limited number of the atoms of other elements4 ,the theory of valency thus founded has dominated the subsequent development of chemical doctrine1 and forms the groundwork upon which the fabric of modern structural chemistry reposes4 ,in applied chemistry ,frankland's great work was in connexion with water-supply4 ,appointed a member of the second royal commission on the pollution of rivers in #ahfh1 he was provided by the government with a completely-equipped laboratory1 in which1 for a period of six years1 he carried on the inquiries necessary for the purposes of that body1 and was thus the means of bringing to light an enormous amount of valuable information respecting the contamination of rivers by sewage1 trade-refuse1 c41 and the purification of water for domestic use4 ,in #ahfe1 when he succeeded ,a4 ,w4 von ,hofmann at the ,school of ,mines1 he undertook the duty of making monthly reports to the registrar-general on the character of the water supplied to ,london1 and these he continued down to the end of his life4 ,at one time he was an unsparing critic of its quality1 but in later years he became strongly convinced of its general excellence and wholesomeness4 ,his analyses were both chemical and bacteriological1 and his dissatisfaction with the processes in vogue for the former at the time of his appointment caused him to spend two years in devising new and more accurate methods4 ,in #ahei he passed a night on the very top of ,mont ,blanc in company with ,john ,tyndall4 ,one of the purposes of the expedition was to discover whether the rate of combustion of a candle varies with the density of the atmosphere in which it is burnt1 a question which was answered in the negative4 ,other observations made by ,frankland at the time formed the starting-point of a series of experiments which yielded far-reaching results4 ,he noticed that at the summit the candle gave a very poor light1 and was thereby led to investigate the effect produced on luminous flames by varying the pressure of the atmosphere in which they are burning4 ,he found that pressure increases luminosity1 so that hydrogen1 for example1 the flame of which in normal circumstances gives no light1 burns with a luminous flame under a pressure of ten or twenty atmospheres1 and the inference he drew was that the presence of solid particles is not the only factor that determines the light-giving power of a flame4 ,further1 he showed that the spectrum of a dense ignited gas resembles that of an incandescent liquid or solid1 and he traced a gradual change in the spectrum of an incandescent gas under increasing pressure1 the sharp lines observable when it is extremely attenuated broadening out to nebulous bands as the pressure rises1 till they merge in the continuous spectrum as the gas approaches a density comparable with that of the liquid state4 ,an application of these results to solar physics in conjunction with ,sir ,norman ,lockyer led to the view that at least the external layers of the sun cannot consist of matter in the liquid or solid forms1 but must be composed of gases or vapours4 ,frankland and ,lockyer were also the discoverers of helium4 ,in #ahfh they noticed in the solar spectrum a bright yellow line which did not correspond to any substance then known1 and which they therefore attributed to the then hypothetical element1 helium4 ,sir ,edward ,frankland1 who was made a ,k4,c4,b4 in #ahig1 died on the #ith of ,august #ahii while on a holiday at ,golaa1 ,gudbrandsdalen1 ,norway4 ,a memorial lecture delivered by ,professor ,h4 ,e4 ,armstrong before the ,london ,chemical ,society on the #cast of ,october #aija contained many personal details of ,frankland's life1 together with a full discussion of his scientific work2 and a volume of ,autobiographical ,sketches was printed for private circulation in #aijb4 ,his original papers1 down to #ahgg1 were collected and published in that year as ,experimental ,researches in ,pure1 ,applied and ,physical ,chemistry4 ,,franklin1 ,,benjamin 7#agjf-agij71 ,american diplomat1 statesman and scientist1 was born on the #agth of ,january #agjf in a house in ,milk ,street1 opposite the ,old ,south church1 ,boston1 ,massachusetts4 ,he was the tenth son of ,josiah ,franklin1 and the eighth child and youngest son of ten children borne by ,abiah ,folger1 his father's second wife4 ,the elder ,franklin was born at ,ecton in ,northamptonshire1 ,england1 where the strongly ,protestant ,franklin family may be traced back for nearly four centuries4 ,he had married young and had migrated from ,banbury to ,boston1 ,massachusetts1 in #afhe4 ,benjamin could not remember when he did not know how to read1 and when eight years old he was sent to the ,boston grammar school1 being destined by his father for the church as a tithe of his sons4 ,he spent a year there and a year in a school for writing and arithmetic1 and then at the age of ten he was taken from school to assist his father in the business of a tallow-chandler and soapboiler4 ,in his thirteenth year he was apprenticed to his half-brother ,james1 who was establishing himself in the printing business1 and who in #agba started the ,new ,england ,courant1 one of the earliest newspapers in ,america4 ,benjamin's tastes had at first been for the sea rather than the pulpit2 now they inclined rather to intellectual than to other pleasures4 ,at an early age he had made himself familiar with ,the ,pilgrim's ,progress1 with ,locke1 ,on the ,human ,understanding1 and with a volume of ,the ,spectator4 ,thanks to his father's excellent advice1 he gave up writing doggerel verse 7much of which had been printed by his brother and sold on the streets7 and turned to prose composition4 ,his success in reproducing articles he had read in ,the ,spectator led him to write an article for his brother's paper1 which he slipped under the door of the printing shop with no name attached1 and which was printed and attracted some attention4 ,after repeated successes of the same sort ,benjamin threw off his disguise and contributed regularly to the ,courant4 ,when1 after various journalistic indiscretions1 ,james ,franklin in #agbb was forbidden to publish the ,courant1 it appeared with ,benjamin's name as that of the publisher and was received with much favour1 chiefly because of the cleverness of his articles signed ,dr ,janus1 which1 like those previously signed ,mistress ,silence ,dogood1 gave promise of ,poor ,richard4 ,but ,benjamin's management of the paper1 and particularly his free-thinking1 displeased the authorities2 the relations of the two brothers gradually grew unfriendly1 possibly1 as ,benjamin thought1 because of his brother's jealousy of his superior ability2 and ,benjamin determined to quit his brother's employ and to leave ,new ,england4 ,he made his way first to ,new ,york ,city1 and then 7,october #agbc7 to ,philadelphia1 where he got employment with a printer named ,samuel ,keimer4#a ,a rapid composer and a workman full of resource1 ,franklin was soon recognized as the master spirit of the shop4 ,sir ,william ,keith 7#afhj-agdi71 governor of the province1 urged him to start in business for himself1 and when ,franklin had unsuccessfully appealed to his father for the means to do so1 ,keith promised to furnish him with what he needed for the equipment of a new printing office and sent him to ,england to buy the materials4 ,keith had repeatedly promised to send a letter of credit by the ship on which ,franklin sailed1 but when the ,channel was reached and the ship's mails were examined no such letter was found4 ,franklin reached ,london in ,december #agbd1 and found employment first at ,palmer's1 a famous printing house in ,bartholomew ,close1 and afterwards at ,watts's ,printing ,house4 ,at ,palmer's he had set up a second edition of ,wollaston's ,religion of ,nature ,delineated4 ,to refute this book and to prove that there could be no such thing as religion1 he wrote and printed a small pamphlet1 ,a ,dissertation on ,liberty and ,necessity1 ,pleasure and ,pain1 which brought him some curious acquaintances1 and of which he soon became thoroughly ashamed4 ,after a year and a half in ,london1 ,franklin was persuaded by a friend named ,denham1 a ,quaker merchant1 to return with him to ,america and engage in mercantile business2 he accordingly gave up printing1 but a few days before sailing he received a tempting offer to remain and give lessons in swimming--his feats as a swimmer having given him considerable reputation--and he says that he might have consented had the overtures been sooner made4 ,he reached ,philadelphia in ,october #agbf1 but a few months later ,denham died1 and ,franklin was induced by large wages to return to his old employer ,keimer2 with ,keimer he quarrelled repeatedly1 thinking himself ill used and kept only to train apprentices until they could in some degree take his place4 ,in #agbh ,franklin and ,hugh ,meredith1 a fellow-worker at ,keimer's1 set up in business for themselves2 the capital being furnished by ,meredith's father4 ,in #agcj the partnership was dissolved1 and ,franklin1 through the financial assistance of two friends1 secured the sole management of the printing house4 ,in ,september #agbi he bought at a merely nominal price ,the ,pennsylvania ,gazette1 a weekly newspaper which ,keimer had started nine months before to defeat a similar project of ,franklin's1 and which ,franklin conducted until #agfe4 ,franklin's superior management of the paper1 his new type1 some spirited remarks on the controversy between the ,massachusetts assembly and ,governor ,burnet1 brought his paper into immediate notice1 and his success both as a printer and as a journalist was assured and complete4 ,in #agca he established in ,philadelphia one of the earliest circulating libraries in ,america 7often said to have been the earliest71 and in #agcb he published the first of his ,almanacks1 under the pseudonym of ,richard ,saunders4 ,these ,poor ,richard's ,almanacks were issued for the next twenty-five years with remarkable success1 the annual sale averaging #aj1jjj copies1 and far exceeding the sale of any other publication in the colonies4 ,beginning in #agcc ,franklin taught himself enough ,french1 ,italian1 ,spanish and ,latin to read these languages with some ease4 ,in #agcf he was chosen clerk of the ,general ,assembly1 and served in this capacity until #agea4 ,in #agcg he had been appointed postmaster at ,philadelphia1 and about the same time he organized the first police force and fire company in the colonies2 in #agdi1 after he had written ,proposals ,relating to the ,education of ,youth in ,pensilvania1 he and twenty-three other citizens of ,philadelphia formed themselves into an association for the purpose of establishing an academy1 which was opened in #agea1 was chartered in #agec1 and eventually became the ,university of ,pennsylvania2 in #agbg he organized a debating club1 the ,junto1 in ,philadelphia1 and later he was one of the founders of the ,american ,philosophical ,society 7#agdc2 incorporated #aghj72 he took the lead in the organization of a militia force1 and in the paving of the city streets1 improved the method of street lighting1 and assisted in the founding of a city hospital 7#agea72 in brief1 he gave the impulse to nearly every measure or project for the welfare and prosperity of ,philadelphia undertaken in his day4 ,in #agea he became a member of the ,general ,assembly of ,pennsylvania1 in which he served for thirteen years4 ,in #agec he and ,william ,hunter were put in charge of the post service of the colonies1 which he brought in the next ten years to a high state of efficiency and made a financial success2 this position he held until #aggd4 ,he visited nearly every post office in the colonies and increased the mail service between ,new ,york and ,philadelphia from once to three times a week in summer1 and from twice a month to once a week in winter4 ,when war with ,france appeared imminent in #aged1 ,franklin was sent to the ,albany ,convention1 where he submitted his plan for colonial union 7see ,,albany1 ,n4,y474 ,when the home government sent over ,general ,edward ,braddock#b with two regiments of ,british troops1 ,franklin undertook to secure the requisite number of horses and waggons for the march against ,ft4 ,duquesne1 and became personally responsible for payment to the ,pennsylvanians who furnished them4 ,notwithstanding the alarm occasioned by ,braddock's defeat1 the old quarrel between the proprietors of ,pennsylvania and the assembly prevented any adequate preparations for defence2 with incredible meanness the proprietors had instructed their governors to approve no act for levying the necessary taxes1 unless the vast estates of the proprietors were by the same act exempted4 ,so great was the confidence in ,franklin in this emergency that early in #agef the governor of ,pennsylvania placed him in charge of the north-western frontier of the province1 with power to raise troops1 issue commissions and erect blockhouses2 and ,franklin remained in the wilderness for over a month1 superintending the building of forts and watching the ,indians4 ,in ,february #ageg the assembly1 finding the proprietary obstinately persisted in manacling their deputies with instructions inconsistent not only with the privileges of the people1 but with the service of the crown1 resolv'd to petition the king against them1 and appointed ,franklin as their agent to present the petition4 ,he arrived in ,london on the #bgth of ,july #ageg1 and shortly afterwards1 when1 at a conference with ,earl ,granville1 president of the council1 the latter declared that the ,king is the legislator of the colonies1 ,franklin in reply declared that the laws of the colonies were to be made by their assemblies1 to be passed upon by the king1 and when once approved were no longer subject to repeal or amendment by the crown4 ,as the assemblies1 said he1 could not make permanent laws without the king's consent1 neither could he make a law for them without theirs4 ,this opposition of views distinctly raised the issue between the home government and the colonies4 ,as to the proprietors ,franklin succeeded in #agfj in securing an understanding that the assembly should pass an act exempting from taxation the unsurveyed waste lands of the ,penn estate1 the surveyed waste lands being assessed at the usual rate for other property of that description4 ,thus the proprietors finally acknowledged the right of the assembly to tax their estates4 ,the success of ,franklin's first foreign mission was1 therefore1 substantial and satisfactory4 ,during this sojourn of five years in ,england he had made many valuable friends outside of court and political circles1 among whom ,hume1 ,robertson and ,adam ,smith were conspicuous4 ,in #agei1 for his literary and more particularly his scientific attainments1 he received the freedom of the city of ,edinburgh and the degree of doctor of laws from the university of ,st ,andrews4 ,he had been made a ,master of ,arts at ,harvard and at ,yale in #agec1 and at the college of ,william and ,mary in #agef2 and in #agfb he received the degree of ,d4,c4,l4 at ,oxford4 ,while in ,england he had made active use of his remarkable talent for pamphleteering4 ,in the clamour for peace following the death of ,george ,,ii4 7#beth of ,october #agfj71 he was for a vigorous prosecution of the war with ,france2 he had written what purported to be a chapter from an old book written by a ,spanish ,jesuit1 ,on the ,meanes of ,disposing the ,enemie to ,peace1 which had a great effect2 and in the spring of #agfj there had been published a more elaborate paper written by ,franklin with the assistance of ,richard ,jackson1 agent of ,massachusetts and ,connecticut in ,london1 entitled ,the ,interest of ,great ,britain ,considered with ,regard to ,her ,colonies1 and the ,acquisitions of ,canada and ,guadeloupe 7#agfj74 ,this pamphlet answered the argument that it would be unsafe to keep ,canada because of the added strength that would thus be given to any possible movement for independence in the ,english colonies1 by urging that so long as ,canada remained ,french there could be no safety for the ,english colonies in ,north ,america1 nor any permanent peace in ,europe4 ,tradition reports that this pamphlet had considerable weight in determining the ministry to retain ,canada4 ,franklin sailed again for ,america in ,august #agfb1 hoping to be able to settle down in quiet and devote the remainder of his life to experiments in physics4 ,this quiet was interrupted1 however1 by the ,paxton ,massacre 7,dec4 #ad1 #agfc7--the slaughter of a score of ,indians 7children1 women and old men7 at ,lancaster1 ,pennsylvania1 by some young rowdies from the town of ,paxton1 who then marched upon ,philadelphia to kill a few ,christian ,indians there4 ,franklin1 appealed to by the governor1 raised a troop sufficient to frighten away the ,paxton boys1 and for the moment there seemed a possibility of an understanding between ,franklin and the proprietors4 ,but the question of taxing the estates of the proprietors came up in a new form1 and a petition from the assembly was drawn by ,franklin1 requesting the king to resume the government of ,pennsylvania4 ,in the autumn election of #agfd the influence of the proprietors was exerted against ,franklin1 and by an adverse majority of #be votes in #djjj he failed to be re-elected to the assembly4 ,the new assembly sent ,franklin again to ,england as its special agent to take charge of another petition for a change of government1 which1 however1 came to nothing4 ,matters of much greater consequence soon demanded ,franklin's attention4 ,early in #agfd ,lord ,grenville had informed the ,london agents of the ,american colonies that he proposed to lay a portion of the burden left by the war with ,france upon the shoulders of the colonists by means of a stamp duty1 unless some other tax equally productive and less inconvenient were proposed4 ,the natural objection of the colonies1 as voiced1 for example1 by the assembly of ,pennsylvania1 was that it was a cruel thing to tax colonies already taxed beyond their strength1 and surrounded by enemies and exposed to constant expenditures for defence1 and that it was an indignity that they should be taxed by a parliament in which they were not represented2 at the same time the ,pennsylvania assembly recognized it as their duty to grant aid to the crown1 according to their abilities1 whenever required of them in the usual manner4 ,to prevent the introduction of the ,stamp ,act1 which he characterized as the mother of mischief1 ,franklin used every effort1 but the bill was easily passed1 and it was thought that the colonists would soon be reconciled to it4 ,because he1 too1 thought so1 and because he recommended ,john ,hughes1 a merchant of ,philadelphia1 for the office of distributor of stamps1 ,franklin himself was denounced--he was even accused of having planned the ,stamp ,act--and his family in ,philadelphia was in danger of being mobbed4 ,of ,franklin's examination1 in ,february #agff1 by the ,house in ,committee of the ,whole1 as to the effects of the ,stamp ,act1 ,burke said that the scene reminded him of a master examined by a parcel of schoolboys1 and ,george ,whitefield said3 ,dr ,franklin has gained immortal honour by his behaviour at the bar of the ,house4 ,his answer was always found equal to the questioner4 ,he stood unappalled1 gave pleasure to his friends and did honour to his country4#c ,franklin compared the position of the colonies to that of ,scotland in the days before the union1 and in the same year 7#agff7 audaciously urged a similar union with the colonies before it was too late4 ,the knowledge of colonial affairs gained from ,franklin's testimony1 probably more than all other causes combined1 determined the immediate repeal of the ,stamp ,act4 ,for ,franklin this was a great triumph1 and the news of it filled the colonists with delight and restored him to their confidence and affection4 ,another bill 7the ,declaratory ,act71 however1 was almost immediately passed by the king's party1 asserting absolute supremacy of parliament over the colonies1 and in the succeeding parliament1 by the ,townshend ,acts of #agfg1 duties were imposed on paper1 paints and glass imported by the colonists2 a tax was imposed on tea also4 ,the imposition of these taxes was bitterly resented in the colonies1 where it quickly crystallized public opinion round the principle of ,no taxation without representation4 ,in spite of the opposition in the colonies to the ,declaratory ,act1 the ,townshend ,acts and the tea tax1 ,franklin continued to assure the ,british ministry and the ,british public of the loyalty of the colonists4 ,he tried to find some middle ground of reconciliation1 and kept up his quiet work of informing ,england as to the opinions and conditions of the colonies1 and of moderating the attitude of the colonies toward the home government2 so that1 as he said1 he was accused in ,america of being too much an ,englishman1 and in ,england of being too much an ,american4 ,he was agent now1 not only of ,pennsylvania1 but also of ,new ,jersey1 of ,georgia and of ,massachusetts4 ,hillsborough1 who became secretary of state for the colonies in #agfh1 refused to recognize ,franklin as agent of ,massachusetts1 because the governor of ,massachusetts had not approved the appointment1 which was by resolution of the assembly4 ,franklin contended that the governor1 as a mere agent of the king1 could have nothing to do with the assembly's appointment of its agent to the king2 that the ,king1 and not the ,king1 ,lords1 and ,commons collectively1 is their sovereign2 and that the ,king1 with their respective ,parliaments1 is their only legislator4 ,franklin's influence helped to oust ,hillsborough1 and ,dartmouth1 whose name ,franklin suggested1 was made secretary ,in #aggb and promptly recognized ,franklin as the agent of ,massachusetts4 ,in #aggc there appeared in the ,public ,advertiser one of ,franklin's cleverest hoaxes1 ,an ,edict of the ,king of ,prussia1 proclaiming that the island of ,britain was a colony of ,prussia1 having been settled by ,angles and ,saxons1 having been protected by ,prussia1 having been defended by ,prussia against ,france in the war just past1 and never having been definitely freed from ,prussia's rule2 and that1 therefore1 ,great ,britain should now submit to certain taxes laid by ,prussia--the taxes being identical with those laid upon the ,american colonies by ,great ,britain4 ,in the same year occurred the famous episode of the ,hutchinson ,letters4 ,these were written by ,thomas ,hutchinson1 ,governor of ,massachusetts1 ,andrew ,oliver 7#agjf-aggd71 his lieutenant-governor1 and others to ,william ,whately1 a member of ,parliament1 and private secretary to ,george ,grenville1 suggesting an increase of the power of the governor at the expense of the assembly1 an abridgement of what are called ,english liberties1 and other measures more extreme than those undertaken by the government4 ,the correspondence was shown to ,franklin by a mysterious member of parliament to back up the contention that the quartering of troops in ,boston was suggested1 not by the ,british ministry1 but by ,americans and ,bostonians4 ,upon his promise not to publish the letters ,franklin received permission to send them to ,massachusetts1 where they were much passed about and were printed1 and they were soon republished in ,english newspapers4 ,the ,massachusetts assembly on receiving the letters resolved to petition the crown for the removal of both ,hutchinson and ,oliver4 ,the petition was refused and was condemned as scandalous1 and ,franklin1 who took upon himself the responsibility for the publication of the letters1 in the hearing before the privy council at the ,cockpit on the #bith of ,january #aggd was insulted and was called a thief by ,alexander ,wedderburn 7the solicitor-general1 who appeared for ,hutchinson and ,oliver71 and was removed from his position as head of the post office in the ,american colonies4 ,satisfied that his usefulness in ,england was at an end1 ,franklin entrusted his agencies to the care of ,arthur ,lee1 and on the #bast of ,march #agge again set sail for ,philadelphia4 ,during the last years of his stay in ,england there had been repeated attempts to win him 7probably with an under-secretaryship7 to the ,british service1 and in these same years he had done a great work for the colonies by gaining friends for them among the opposition1 and by impressing ,france with his ability and the excellence of his case4 ,upon reaching ,america1 he heard of the fighting at ,lexington and ,concord1 and with the news of an actual outbreak of hostilities his feeling toward ,england seems to have changed completely4 ,he was no longer a peacemaker1 but an ardent war-maker4 ,on the #fth of ,may1 the day after his arrival in ,philadelphia1 he was elected by the assembly of ,pennsylvania a delegate to the ,continental ,congress in ,philadelphia4 ,in ,october he was elected a member of the ,pennsylvania assembly1 but1 as members of this body were still required to take an oath of allegiance to the crown1 he refused to serve4 ,in the ,congress he served on as many as ten committees1 and upon the organization of a continental postal system1 he was made postmaster-general1 a position he held for one year1 when 7in #aggf7 he was succeeded by his son-in-law1 ,richard ,bache1 who had been his deputy4 ,with ,benjamin ,harrison1 ,john ,dickinson1 ,thomas ,johnson and ,john ,jay he was appointed in ,november #agge to a committee to carry on a secret correspondence with the friends of ,america in ,great ,britain1 ,ireland and other parts of the world4 ,he planned an appeal to the king of ,france for aid1 and wrote the instructions of ,silas ,deane who was to convey it4 ,in ,april #aggf he went to ,montreal with ,charles ,carroll1 ,samuel ,chase and ,john ,carroll1 as a member of the commission which conferred with ,general ,arnold1 and attempted without success to gain the co-operation of ,canada4 ,immediately after his return from ,montreal he was a member of the committee of five appointed to draw up the ,declaration of ,independence1 but he took no actual part himself in drafting that instrument1 aside from suggesting the change or insertion of a few words in ,jefferson's draft4 ,from ,july #af to ,september #bh he acted as president of the ,constitutional ,convention of ,pennsylvania4 ,with ,john ,adams and ,edward ,rutledge he was selected by ,congress to discuss with ,admiral ,howe 7,september #aggf1 at ,staten ,island7 the terms of peace proposed by ,howe1 who had arrived in ,new ,york harbour in ,july #aggf1 and who had been an intimate friend of ,franklin2 but the discussion was fruitless1 as the ,american commissioners refused to treat back of this step of independency4 ,on the #bfth of ,september in the same year ,franklin was chosen as commissioner to ,france to join ,arthur ,lee1 who was in ,london1 and ,silas ,deane1 who had arrived in ,france in ,june #aggf4 ,he collected all the money he could command1 between ,l#cjjj and ,l#djjj1 lent it to ,congress before he set sail1 and arrived at ,paris on the #bbnd of ,december4 ,he found quarters at ,passy1#d then a suburb of ,paris1 in a house belonging to ,le ,ray de ,chaumont1 an active friend of the ,american cause1 who had influential relations with the court1 and through whom he was enabled to be in the fullest communication with the ,french government without compromising it in the eyes of ,great ,britain4 ,at the time of ,franklin's arrival in ,paris he was already one of the most talked about men in the world4 ,he was a member of every important learned society in ,europe2 he was a member1 and one of the managers1 of the ,royal ,society1 and was one of eight foreign members of the ,royal ,academy of ,sciences in ,paris4 ,three editions of his scientific works had already appeared in ,paris1 and a new edition had recently appeared in ,london4 ,to all these advantages he added a political purpose--the dismemberment of the ,british empire--which was entirely congenial to every citizen of ,france4 ,franklin's reputation1 wrote ,john ,adams with characteristic extravagance1 was more universal than that of ,leibnitz or ,newton1 ,frederick or ,voltaire2 and his character more esteemed and beloved than all of them4444 ,if a collection could be made of all the gazettes of ,europe1 for the latter half of the #ahth century1 a greater number of panegyrical paragraphs upon le grand ,franklin would appear1 it is believed1 than upon any other man that ever lived4 ,franklin's appearance in the ,french salons1 even before he began to negotiate1 says ,friedrich ,christoph ,schlosser1 was an event of great importance to the whole of ,europe4444 ,his dress1 the simplicity of his external appearance1 the friendly meekness of the old man1 and the apparent humility of the ,quaker1 procured for ,freedom a mass of votaries among the court circles who used to be alarmed at its coarseness and unsophisticated truths4 ,such was the number of portraits1#e busts and medallions of him in circulation before he left ,paris that he would have been recognized from them by any adult citizen in any part of the civilized world4 ,franklin's position in ,france was a difficult one from the start1 because of the delicacy of the task of getting ,french aid at a time when ,france was unready openly to take sides against ,great ,britain4 ,but on the #fth of ,february #aggh1 after the news of the defeat and surrender of ,burgoyne had reached ,europe1 a treaty of alliance and a treaty of amity and commerce between ,france and the ,united ,states were signed at ,paris by ,franklin1 ,deane and ,lee4 ,on the #bhth of ,october this commission was discharged and ,franklin was appointed sole plenipotentiary to the ,french court4 ,lee1 from the beginning of the mission to ,paris1 seems to have been possessed of a mania of jealousy toward ,franklin1 or of misunderstanding of his acts1 and he tried to undermine his influence with the ,continental ,congress4 ,john ,adams1 when he succeeded ,deane 7recalled from ,paris through ,lee's machinations7 joined in the chorus of fault-finding against ,franklin1 dilated upon his social habits1 his personal slothfulness and his complete lack of business-like system2 but ,adams soon came to see that1 although careless of details1 ,franklin was doing what no other man could have done1 and he ceased his harsher criticism4 ,even greater than his diplomatic difficulties were ,franklin's financial straits4 ,drafts were being drawn on him by all the ,american agents in ,europe1 and by the ,continental ,congress at home4 ,acting as ,american naval agent for the many successful privateers who harried the ,english ,channel1 and for whom he skilfully got every bit of assistance possible1 open and covert1 from the ,french government1 he was continually called upon for funds in these ventures4 ,of the vessels to be sent to ,paris with ,american cargoes which were to be sold for the liquidation of ,french loans to the colonies made through ,beaumarchais1 few arrived2 those that did come did not cover ,beaumarchais's advances1 and hardly a vessel came from ,america without word of fresh drafts on ,franklin4 ,after bold and repeated overtures for an exchange of prisoners--an important matter1 both because the ,american frigates had no place in which to stow away their prisoners1 and because of the maltreatment of ,american captives in such prisons as ,dartmoor--exchanges began at the end of ,march #aggi1 although there were annoying delays1 and immediately after ,november #agha there was a long break in the agreement2 and the ,americans discharged from ,english prisons were constantly in need of money4 ,franklin1 besides1 was constantly called upon to meet the indebtedness of ,lee and of ,ralph ,izard 7#agdb-ahjd71 and of ,john ,jay1 who in ,madrid was being drawn on by the ,american ,congress4 ,in spite of the poor condition in ,europe of the credit of the struggling colonies1 and of the fact that ,france was almost bankrupt 7and in the later years was at war71 and although ,necker strenuously resisted the making of any loans to the colonies1 ,france1 largely because of ,franklin's appeals1 expended1 by loan or gift to the colonies1 or in sustenance of the ,french arms in ,america1 a sum estimated at #fj1jjj1jjj4 ,in #agha ,franklin1 with ,john ,adams1 ,john ,jay1 ,jefferson1 who remained in ,america1 and ,henry ,laurens1 then a prisoner in ,england1 was appointed on a commission to make peace with ,great ,britain4 ,in the spring of #aghb ,franklin had been informally negotiating with ,shelburne1 secretary of state for the home department1 through the medium of ,richard ,oswald1 a ,scotch merchant1 and had suggested that ,england should cede ,canada to the ,united ,states in return for the recognition of loyalist claims by the states4 ,when the formal negotiations began ,franklin held closely to the instructions of ,congress to its commissioners1 that they should maintain confidential relations with the ,french ministers and that they were to undertake nothing in the negotiations for peace or truce without their knowledge and concurrence1 and were ultimately to be governed by their advice and opinion4 ,jay and ,adams disagreed with him on this point1 believing that ,france intended to curtail the territorial aspirations of the ,americans for her own benefit and for that of her ally1 ,spain4 ,at last1 after the ,british government had authorized its agents to treat with the commissioners as representatives of an independent power1 thus recognizing ,american independence before the treaty was made1 ,franklin acquiesced in the policy of ,jay4 ,the preliminary treaty was signed by the commissioners on the #cjth of ,november #aghb1 the final treaty on the #crd of ,september #aghc4 ,franklin had repeatedly petitioned ,congress for his recall1 but his letters were unanswered or his appeals refused until the #gth of ,march #aghe1 when ,congress resolved that he be allowed to return to ,america2 on the #ajth of ,march ,thomas ,jefferson1 who had joined him in ,august of the year before1 was appointed to his place4 ,jefferson1 when asked if he replaced ,franklin1 replied1 ,no one can replace him1 sir2 ,i am only his successor4 ,before ,franklin left ,paris on the #abth of ,july #aghe he had made commercial treaties with ,sweden 7#aghc7 and ,prussia 7#aghe2 signed after ,franklin's departure by ,jefferson and ,john ,adams74 ,franklin arrived in ,philadelphia on the #acth of ,september1 disembarking at the same wharf as when he had first entered the city4 ,he was immediately elected a member of the municipal council of ,philadelphia1 becoming its chairman2 and was chosen president of the ,supreme ,executive ,council 7the chief executive officer7 of ,pennsylvania1 and was re-elected in #aghf and #aghg1 serving from ,october #aghe to ,october #aghh4 ,in ,may #aghg he was elected a delegate to the ,convention which drew up the ,federal ,constitution1 this body thus having a member upon whom all could agree as chairman1 should ,washington be absent4 ,he opposed over-centralization of government and favoured the ,connecticut ,compromise1 and after the work of the ,convention was done used his influence to secure the adoption of the ,constitution4#f ,as president of the ,pennsylvania ,society for ,promoting the ,abolition of ,slavery1 ,franklin signed a petition to ,congress 7#abth ,february #agij7 for immediate abolition of slavery1 and six weeks later in his most brilliant manner parodied the attack on the petition made by ,james ,jackson 7#ageg-ahjf7 of ,georgia1 taking off ,jackson's quotations of ,scripture with pretended texts from the ,koran cited by a member of the ,divan of ,algiers in opposition to a petition asking for the prohibition of holding ,christians in slavery4 ,these were his last public acts4 ,his last days were marked by a fine serenity and calm2 he died in his own house in ,philadelphia on the #agth of ,april #agij1 the immediate cause being an abscess in the lungs4 ,he was buried with his wife in the graveyard 7,fifth and ,arch ,streets7 of ,christ ,church1 ,philadelphia4 ,physically ,franklin was large1 about #e ft4 #aj in4 tall1 with a well-rounded1 powerful figure2 he inherited an excellent constitution from his parents--,i never knew1 says he1 either my father or mother to have any sickness but that of which they dy'd1 he at #hi1 and she at #he years of age--but injured it somewhat by excesses2 in early life he had severe attacks of pleurisy1 from one of which1 in #agbg1 it was not expected that he would recover1 and in his later years he was the victim of stone and gout4 ,when he was sixteen he became a vegetarian for a time1 rather to save money for books than for any other reason1 and he always preached moderation in eating1 though he was less consistent in his practice in this particular than as regards moderate drinking4 ,he was always enthusiastically fond of swimming1 and was a great believer in fresh air1 taking a cold air bath regularly in the morning1 when he sat naked in his bedroom beguiling himself with a book or with writing for a half-hour or more4 ,he insisted that fresh1 cold air was not the cause of colds1 and preached zealously the gospel of ventilation4 ,he was a charming talker1 with a gay humour and a quiet sarcasm and a telling use of anecdote for argument4 ,henri ,martin1 the ,french historian1 speaks of him as of a mind altogether ,french in its grace and elasticity4 ,in #agcj he married ,deborah ,read1 in whose father's house he had lived when he had first come to ,philadelphia1 to whom he had been engaged before his first departure from ,philadelphia for ,london1 and who in his absence had married a ne'er-do-well1 one ,rogers1 who had deserted her4 ,the marriage to ,franklin is presumed to have been a common law marriage1 for there was no proof that ,miss ,read's former husband was dead1 nor that1 as was suspected1 a former wife1 alive when ,rogers married ,miss ,read1 was still alive1 and that therefore his marriage to ,deborah was void4 ,his ,debby1 or his dear child1 as ,franklin usually addressed her in his letters1 received into the family1 soon after her marriage1 ,franklin's illegitimate son1 ,william ,franklin 7#agbi-ahac71g with whom she afterwards quarrelled1 and whose mother1 tradition says1 was ,barbara1 a servant in the ,franklin household4 ,another illegitimate child became the wife of ,john ,foxcroft of ,philadelphia4 ,deborah1 who was as much dispos'd to industry and frugality as her husband1 was illiterate and shared none of her husband's tastes for literature and science2 her dread of an ocean voyage kept her in ,philadelphia during ,franklin's missions to ,england1 and she died in #aggd1 while ,franklin was in ,london4 ,she bore him two children1 one a son1 ,francis ,folger1 whom ,i have seldom since seen equal'd in everything1 and whom to this day thirty-six years after the child's death ,i cannot think of without a sigh1 who died 7#agcf7 when four years old of small-pox1 not having been inoculated2 the other was ,sarah 7#agdd-ahjh71 who married ,richard ,bache 7#agcg-ahaa71 ,franklin's successor in #aggf-aghb as postmaster-general4 ,franklin's gallant relations with women after his wife's death were probably innocent enough4 ,best known of his ,french amies were ,mme ,helvetius1 widow of the philosopher1 and the young ,mme ,brillon1 who corrected her ,papa's ,french and tried to bring him safely into the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,with him in ,france were his grandsons1 ,william ,temple ,franklin1 ,william ,franklin's natural son1 who acted as private secretary to his grandfather1 and ,benjamin ,franklin ,bache 7#agfi-agih71 ,sarah's son1 whom he sent to ,geneva to be educated1 for whom he later asked public office of ,washington1 and who became editor of the ,aurora1 one of the leading journals in the ,republican attacks on ,washington4 ,franklin early rebelled against ,new ,england ,puritanism and spent his ,sundays in reading and in study instead of attending church4 ,his free-thinking ran its extreme course at the time of his publication in ,london of ,a ,dissertation on ,liberty and ,necessity1 ,pleasure and ,pain 7#agbe71 which he recognized as one of the great errata of his life4 ,he later called himself a deist1 or theist1 not discriminating between the terms4 ,to his favourite sister he wrote3 ,there are some things in your ,new ,england doctrine and worship which ,i do not agree with2 but ,i do not therefore condemn them1 or desire to shake your belief or practice of them4 ,such was his general attitude4 ,he did not believe in the divinity of ,christ1 but thought his system of morals and his religion1 as he left them to us1 the best the world ever saw1 or is like to see4 ,his intense practical-mindedness drew him away from religion1 but drove him to a morality of his own 7the art of virtue1 he called it71 based on thirteen virtues each accompanied by a short precept2 the virtues were ,temperance1 ,silence1 ,order1 ,resolution1 ,frugality1 ,industry1 ,sincerity1 ,justice1 ,moderation1 ,cleanliness1 ,tranquility1 ,chastity and ,humility1 the precept accompanying the last-named virtue being ,imitate ,jesus and ,socrates4 ,he made a business-like little notebook1 ruled off spaces for the thirteen virtues and the seven days of the week1 determined to give a week's strict attention to each of the virtues successively 444 going thro' a course compleate in thirteen weeks and four courses in a year1 marking for each day a record of his adherence to each of the precepts4 ,and conceiving ,god to be the fountain of wisdom1 he thought it right and necessary to solicit ,his assistance for obtaining it1 and drew up the following prayer for daily use3 ,o powerful ,goodness6 bountiful ,father6 merciful ,guide6 ,increase in me that wisdom which discovers my truest interest4 ,strengthen my resolution to perform what that wisdom dictates4 ,accept my kind offices to ,thy other children1 as the only return in my power for ,thy continual favours to me4 ,he was by no means prone to overmuch introspection1 his great interest in the conduct of others being shown in the wise maxims of ,poor ,richard1 which were possibly too utilitarian but were wonderfully successful in instructing ,american morals4 ,his ,art of ,virtue on which he worked for years was never completed or published in any form4 ,benjamin ,franklin1 ,printer1 was ,franklin's own favourite description of himself4 ,he was an excellent compositor and pressman2 his workmanship1 clear impressions1 black ink and comparative freedom from errata did much to get him the public printing in ,pennsylvania and ,new ,jersey1 and the printing of the paper money#h and other public matters in ,delaware4 ,the first book with his imprint is ,the ,psalms of ,david ,imitated in the ,language of the ,new ,testament and apply'd to the ,christian ,state and ,worship4 ,by ,i4 ,watts 4441 ,philadelphia3 ,printed by ,b4 ,f4 and ,h4 ,m4 for ,thomas ,godfrey1 and ,sold at his ,shop1 #agbi4 ,the first novel printed in ,america was ,franklin's reprint in #agdd of ,pamela2 and the first ,american translation from the classics which was printed in ,america was a version by ,james ,logan 7#afgd-agea7 of ,cato's ,moral ,distichs 7#agce74 ,in #agdd he published another translation of ,logan's1 ,cicero ,on ,old ,age1 which ,franklin thought typographically the finest book he had ever printed4 ,in #agcc he had established a press in ,charleston1 ,south ,carolina1 and soon after did the same in ,lancaster1 ,pa41 in ,new ,haven1 ,conn41 in ,new ,york1 in ,antigua1 in ,kingston1 ,jamaica1 and in other places4 ,personally he had little connexion with the ,philadelphia printing office after #agdh1 when ,david ,hall became his partner and took charge of it4 ,but in #agec he was eagerly engaged in having several of his improvements incorporated in a new press1 and more than twenty years after was actively interested in ,john ,walter's scheme of logography4 ,in ,france he had a private press in his house in ,passy1 on which he printed bagatelles4 ,franklin's work as a publisher is for the most part closely connected with his work in issuing the ,gazette and ,poor ,richard's ,almanack 7a summary of the proverbs from which appeared in the number for #ageh1 and has often been reprinted--under such titles as ,father ,abraham's ,speech1 and ,the ,way to ,wealth74#i ,of much of ,franklin's work as an author something has already been said4 ,judged as literature1 the first place belongs to his ,autobiography1 which unquestionably ranks among the few great autobiographies ever written4 ,his style in its simplicity1 facility and clearness owed something to ,de ,foe1 something to ,cotton ,mather1 something to ,plutarch1 more to ,bunyan and to his early attempts to reproduce the manner of the third volume of the ,spectator2 and not the least to his own careful study of word usage4 ,from ,xenophon's ,memorabilia he learned when a boy the ,socratic method of argument4 ,swift he resembled in the occasional broadness of his humour1 in his brilliantly successful use of sarcasm and irony1#aj and in his mastery of the hoax4 ,balzac said of him that he invented the lightning-rod1 the hoax 7'le canard'7 and the republic4 ,among his more famous hoaxes were the ,edict of the ,king of ,prussia 7#aggc71 already described2 the fictitious supplement to the ,boston ,chronicle1 printed on his private press at ,passy in #aghb1 and containing a letter with an invoice of eight packs of #ied cured1 dried1 hooped and painted scalps of rebels1 men1 women and children1 taken by ,indians in the ,british employ2 and another fictitious ,letter from the ,count de ,schaumberg to the ,baron ,hohendorf commanding the ,hessian ,troops in ,america 7#aggg7--the count's only anxiety is that not enough men will be killed to bring him in moneys he needs1 and he urges his officer in command in ,america to prolong the war 444 for ,i have made arrangements for a grand ,italian opera1 and ,i do not wish to be obliged to give it up4#aa ,closely related to ,franklin's political pamphlets are his writings on economics1 which1 though undertaken with a political or practical purpose and not in a purely scientific spirit1 rank him as the first ,american economist4 ,he wrote in #agbi ,a ,modest ,enquiry into the ,nature and ,necessity of a ,paper ,currency1 which argued that a plentiful currency will make rates of interest low and will promote immigration and home manufactures1 and which did much to secure the further issue of paper money in ,pennsylvania4 ,after the ,british ,act of #agej forbidding the erection or the operating of iron or steel mills in the colonies1 ,franklin wrote ,observations concerning the ,increase of ,mankind and the ,peopling of ,countries 7#agea72 its thesis was that manufactures come to be common only with a high degree of social development and with great density of population1 and that ,great ,britain need not1 therefore1 fear the industrial competition of the colonies1 but it is better known for the estimate 7adopted by ,adam ,smith7 that the population of the colonies would double every quarter-century2 and for the likeness to ,malthus's#ab preventive check of its statement3 ,the greater the common fashionable expense of any rank of people the more cautious they are of marriage4 ,his ,positions to be examined concerning ,national ,wealth 7#agfi7 shows that he was greatly influenced by the ,french physiocrats after his visit to ,france in #agfg4 ,his ,wail of a ,protected ,manufacturer voices a protest against protection as raising the cost of living2 and he held that free trade was based on a natural right4 ,he knew ,kames1 ,hume and ,adam ,smith1 and corresponded with ,mirabeau1 the friend of ,man4 ,some of the more important of his economic theses1 as summarized by ,w4 ,a4 ,wetzel1 are3 that money as coin may have more than its bullion value2 that natural interest is determined by the rent of land valued at the sum of money loaned--an anticipation of ,turgot2 that high wages are not inconsistent with a large foreign trade2 that the value of an article is determined by the amount of labour necessary to produce the food consumed in making the article2 that manufactures are advantageous but agriculture only is truly productive2 and that when practicable 7as he did not think it practicable at the end of the ,war of ,independence7 state revenue should be raised by direct tax4 ,franklin as a scientist#ac and as an inventor has been decried by experts as an amateur and a dabbler2 but it should be remembered that it was always his hope to retire from public life and devote himself to science4 ,in the ,american ,philosophical ,society 7founded #agdc7 scientific subjects were much discussed4 ,franklin wrote a paper on the causes of earthquakes for his ,gazette of the #aeth of ,december #agcg2 and he eagerly collected material to uphold his theory that waterspouts and whirlwinds resulted from the same causes4 ,in #agdc1 from the circumstance that an eclipse not visible in ,philadelphia because of a storm had been observed in ,boston1 where the storm although north-easterly did not occur until an hour after the eclipse1 he surmised that storms move against the wind along the ,atlantic coast4 ,in the year before 7#agdb7 he had planned the ,pennsylvania fire-place1 better known as the ,franklin stove1 which saved fuel1 heated all the room1 and had the same principle as the hot-air furnace2 the stove was never patented by ,franklin1 but was described in his pamphlet dated #agdd4 ,he was much engaged at the same time in remedying smoking chimneys1 and as late as #aghe wrote to ,jan ,ingenhousz1 physician to the emperor of ,austria1 on chimneys and draughts2 smoking street lamps he remedied by a simple contrivance4 ,the study of electricity he took up in #agdf when he first saw a ,leyden jar1 in the manipulation of which he became expert and which he improved by the use of granulated lead in the place of water for the interior armatures2 he recognized that condensation is due to the dielectric and not to the metal coatings4 ,a note in his diary1 dated the #gth of ,november #agdi1 shows that he had then conjectured that thunder and lightning were electrical manifestations2 in the same year he planned the lightning-rod 7long known as ,franklin's rod71 which he described and recommended to the public in #agec1 when the ,copley medal of the ,royal ,society was awarded him for his discoveries4 ,the famous experiment with the kite1 proving lightning an electrical phenomenon1 was performed by ,franklin in ,june #ageb4 ,he overthrew entirely the friction theory of electricity and conceived the idea of plus and minus charges 7#agec72 he thought the sea the source of electricity4 ,on light ,franklin wrote to ,david ,rittenhouse in ,june #aghd2 the sum of his own conjectures was that the corpuscular theory of ,newton was wrong1 and that light was due to the vibration of an elastic aether4 ,he studied with some care the temperature of the ,gulf ,stream4 ,in navigation he suggested many new contrivances1 such as water-tight compartments1 floating anchors to lay a ship to in a storm1 and dishes that would not upset during a gale2 and beginning in #ageg made repeated experiments with oil on stormy waters4 ,as a mathematician he devised various elaborate magic squares and novel magic circles1 of which he speaks apologetically1 because they are of no practical use4 ,always much interested in agriculture1 he made an especial effort 7like ,robert ,r4 ,livingston7 to promote the use of plaster of ,paris as a fertiliser4 ,he took a prominent part in aeronautic experiments during his stay in ,france4 ,he made an excellent clock1 which because of a slight improvement introduced by ,james ,ferguson in #ageg was long known as ,ferguson's clock4 ,in medicine ,franklin was considered important enough to be elected to the ,royal ,medical ,society of ,paris in #aggg1 and an honorary member of the ,medical ,society of ,london in #aghg4 ,in #aghd he was on the committee which investigated ,mesmer1 and the report is a document of lasting scientific value4 ,franklin's advocacy of vegetarianism1 of sparing and simple diet1 and of temperance in the use of liquors1 and of proper ventilation has already been referred to4 ,his most direct contribution to medicine was the invention for his own use of bifocal eyeglasses4 ,a summary of so versatile a genius is impossible4 ,his services to ,america in ,england and ,france rank him as one of the heroes of the ,american ,war of ,independence and as the greatest of ,american diplomats4 ,almost the only ,american scientist of his day1 he displayed remarkably deep as well as remarkably varied abilities in science and deserved the honours enthusiastically given him by the savants of ,europe4 ,,bibliography4--,franklin's works were not collected in his own lifetime1 and he made no effort to publish his writings4 ,experiments and ,observations on ,electricity 7,london1 #agfi7 was translated into ,french by ,barbeu ,dubourg 7,paris1 #aggc72 ,vaughan attempted a more complete edition1 ,political1 ,miscellaneous and ,philosophical ,pieces 7,london1 #aggi72 an edition in three volumes appeared after ,franklin's death 7,london1 #ahjf72 what seemed the authentic ,works1 as it was under the care of ,temple ,franklin1 was published at ,london 7#f vols41 #ahag-ahai2 #c vols41 #ahah7 and with some additional matter at ,philadelphia 7#f vols41 #ahah74 ,sparks's edition 7#aj vols41 ,boston1 #ahcf-ahdb2 revised1 ,philadelphia1 #aheh7 also contained fresh matter2 and there are further additions in the edition of ,john ,bigelow 7,philadelphia1 #ahhg-ahhh2 #eth ed41 #aije7 and in that by ,albert ,henry ,smyth 7#aj vols41 ,new ,york1 #aije-aijg74 ,there are important ,frankliniana1 about #ac1jjj papers1 in the possession of the ,american ,philosophical ,society1 to which they were conveyed by the son of ,temple ,franklin's executor1 ,george ,fox4 ,other papers which had been left to ,fox lay for years in barrels in a stable garret2 they were finally cleared out1 their owner1 ,mary ,fox1 intending to send them to a paper mill4 ,one barrel went to the mill4 ,the others1 it was found1 contained papers belonging to ,franklin1 and this important collection was bought and presented to the university of ,pennsylvania4 ,the valuable ,frankliniana collected by ,henry ,stevens were purchased by ,congress in #ahhe4 ,these ,,ms4 collections were first carefully gone over for the edition of the ,works by ,a4 ,h4 ,smyth4 ,franklin's ,autobiography was begun in #agga as a private chronicle for his son1 ,governor ,william ,franklin2 the papers1 bringing the story of his father's life down to #agcj1 were lost by the governor during the ,war of ,independence1 and in #aghc came into the possession of ,abel ,james1 who restored them to ,franklin and urged him to complete the sketch4 ,he wrote a little in #aghd1 more in #aghh1 when he furnished a copy to his friend le ,veillard1 and a little more in #agij4 ,the original manuscript was long in the possession of ,temple ,franklin1 who spent years rearranging the matter in it and making over into politer ,english his grandfather's plain-spokenness4 ,so long was the publication delayed that it was generally believed that ,temple ,franklin had sold all the papers to the ,british government2 a ,french version1 ,memoires de la vie privee 7,paris1 #agia71 was retranslated into ,english twice in #agic 7,london71 and from one of these versions 7by ,robinson7 still another ,french version was made 7,paris1 #agih74 ,temple ,franklin1 deciding to print1 got from le ,veillard the copy sent to him in #aghh 7sending in return the original with autograph alterations and the final addition71 and from the copy published 7,london1 #ahag7 an edition supposed to be authentic and complete4 ,the complete autograph of the biography1 acquired by ,john ,bigelow in #ahfg from its ,french owners1 upon collation with ,temple ,franklin's edition showed that the latter contained #abjj emasculations and that it omitted entirely what had been written in #agij4 ,bigelow published the complete ,autobiography with additions from ,franklin's correspondence and other writings in #ahfh2 a second edition 7#c vols41 ,philadelphia1 #ahhh7 was published under the title1 ,the ,life of ,benjamin ,franklin1 ,written by ,himself4 ,in addition to the ,autobiography see ,james ,parton1 ,life and ,times of ,benjamin ,franklin 7#b vols41 ,new ,york1 #ahfd72 ,john ,t4 ,morse1 ,jr41 ,benjamin ,franklin 7,boston1 #ahhi1 in the ,american ,statesmen series72 ,j4 ,b4 ,mc,master1 ,benjamin ,franklin as a ,man of ,letters 7,boston1 #ahhg1 in ,american ,men of ,letters series72 ,paul ,l4 ,ford1 ,the ,many-,sided ,franklin 7,new ,york1 #ahii7 and ,franklin ,bibliography 7,brooklyn1 #ahhi72 ,e4 ,e4 ,hale and ,e4 ,e4 ,hale1 ,jr41 ,franklin in ,france 7#b vols41 ,boston1 #ahhh72 ,j4 ,h4 ,a4 ,doniol1 ,histoire de la participation de la ,france a l'etablissement des ,etats-,unis d',amerique 7,paris1 #f vols41 #ahhf-aijj72 ,s4 ,g4 ,fisher1 ,the ,true ,benjamin ,franklin 7,philadelphia1 #ahii72 ,e4 ,robins1 ,benjamin ,franklin 7,new ,york1 #ahih1 in the ,american ,men of ,energy series72 ,w4 ,a4 ,wetzel1 ,benjamin ,franklin as an ,economist1 ,no4 #i1 in series #ac of ,johns ,hopkins ,studies in ,historical and ,political ,science2 and the prefaces and biographical matter in ,a4 ,h4 ,smyth's edition of the ,works 7,new ,york1 #aj vols41 #aije-aijg74 7,r4 ,we47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,keimer and his sister had come the year before from ,london1 where he had learned his trade2 both were ardent members of the fanatic band of ,french prophets4 ,he proposed founding a new sect with the help of ,franklin1 who after leaving his shop ridiculed him for his long square beard and for keeping the seventh day4 ,keimer settled in the ,barbadoes about #agcj2 and in #agca began to publish at ,bridgetown the semi-weekly ,barbadoes ,gazette4 ,selections from it called ,caribbeana 7#agda7 and ,a ,brand ,plucked from the ,burning1 ,exemplified in the ,unparalleled ,case of ,samuel ,keimer 7#agah7 are from his pen4 ,he died about #agch4 #b ,the meeting between ,franklin1 the type of the shrewd1 cool provincial1 and ,braddock1 a blustering1 blundering1 drinking ,british soldier1 is dramatically portrayed by ,thackeray in the #ith chapter of ,the ,virginians4 #c ,many questions 7about #bj of the first #be7 were put by his friends to draw out what he wished to be known4 #d ,the house is familiar from the drawing of it by ,victor ,hugo4 #e ,many of these portraits bore inscriptions1 the most famous of which was ,turgot's line1 ,eripuit fulmen coelo sceptrumque tyrannis4 #f ,notably in a pamphlet comparing the ,jews and the ,anti-,federalists4 #g ,william ,franklin served on the ,canadian frontier with ,pennsylvania troops1 becoming captain in #agej2 was in the post-office in #aged-agef2 went to ,england with his father in #ageh2 was admitted to legal practice in #ageh2 in #agfc1 recommended by ,lord ,fairfax1 became governor of ,new ,jersey2 he left the ,whig for the ,tory party2 and in the ,war of ,independence was a faithful loyalist1 much to the pain and regret of his father1 who1 however1 was reconciled to him in part in #aghd4 ,he was held as a prisoner from #aggf until exchanged in #aggh2 and lived four years in ,new ,york1 and during the remainder of his life in ,england with an annual pension of ,l#hjj from the crown4 #h ,for the prevention of counterfeiting continental paper money ,franklin long afterwards suggested the use on the different denominations of different leaves1 having noted the infinite variety of leaf venation4 #i ,seventy-five editions of it have been printed in ,english1 fifty-six in ,french1 eleven in ,german and nine in ,italian4 ,it has been translated into ,spanish1 ,danish1 ,swedish1 ,welsh1 ,polish1 ,gaelic1 ,russian1 ,bohemian1 ,dutch1 ,catalan1 ,chinese1 modern ,greek and phonetic writing4 ,it has been printed at least four hundred times1 and is to-day as popular as ever4--,p4 ,l4 ,ford1 in ,the ,many-,sided ,franklin 7#ahii74 #aj ,both ,swift and ,franklin made sport of the typical astrologer almanack-maker4 #aa ,another hoax was ,franklin's parable against religious persecution thrown into ,scriptural form and quoted by him as the fifty-first chapter of ,genesis4 ,in a paper on a ,proposed ,new ,version of the ,bible he paraphrased a few verses of the first chapter of ,job1 making them a satiric attack on royal government2 but the version may well rank with these hoaxes1 and even modern writers have been taken in by it1 regarding it as a serious proposal for a modernized version and decrying it as poor taste4 ,matthew ,arnold1 for example1 declared this an instance in which ,franklin was lacking in his imperturbable common sense2 and ,j4 ,b4 ,mc,master1 though devoting several pages to its discussion1 very ingenuously declares it beneath criticism4 #ab ,malthus quoted ,franklin in his first edition1 but it was not until the second that he introduced the theory of the preventive check4 ,franklin noted the phenomenon with disapproval in his advocacy of increased population2 ,malthus with approval in his search for means to decrease population4 #ac ,the title of philosopher as used in ,franklin's lifetime referred neither in ,england nor in ,france to him as author of moral maxims1 but to him as a scientist--a natural philosopher4 ,,franklin1 ,,sir ,,john 7#aghf-ahdg71 ,english rear-admiral and explorer1 was born at ,spilsby1 ,lincolnshire1 on the #afth of ,april #aghf4 ,his family was descended from a line of free-holders or franklins from whom some centuries earlier they had derived their surname2 but the small family estate was sold by his father1 who went into business4 ,john1 who was the fifth and youngest son and ninth child1 was destined for the church4 ,at the age of ten he was sent to school at ,st ,ives1 and soon afterwards was transferred to ,louth grammar school1 which he attended for two years4 ,about this time his imagination was deeply impressed by a holiday walk of #ab m4 which he made with a companion to look at the sea1 and he determined to be a sailor4 ,in the hope of dispelling this fancy his father sent him on a trial voyage to ,lisbon in a merchantman2 but it being found on his return that his wishes were unchanged he was entered as a midshipman on board the ,polyphemus1 and shortly afterwards took part in her in the hard-fought battle of ,copenhagen 7#bnd of ,april #ahja74 ,two months later he joined the ,investigator1 a discovery-ship commanded by his cousin ,captain ,matthew ,flinders1 and under the training of that able scientific officer was employed in the exploration and mapping of the coasts of ,australia1 where he acquired a correctness of astronomical observation and a skill in surveying which proved of eminent utility in his future career4 ,he was on board the ,porpoise when that ship and the ,cato were wrecked 7#ahth of ,august #ahjc7 on a coral reef off the coast of ,australia1 and after this misfortune proceeded to ,china4 ,thence he obtained a passage to ,england in the ,earl ,camden1 ,east ,indiaman1 commanded by ,captain 7afterwards ,sir7 ,nathaniel ,dance1 and performed the duty of signal midshipman in the famous action of the #aeth of ,february #ahjd when ,captain ,dance repulsed a strong ,french squadron led by the redoubtable ,admiral ,linois4 ,on reaching ,england he joined the ,bellerophon1 #gd1 and was in charge of the signals on board that ship during the battle of ,trafalgar4 ,two years later he joined the ,bedford1 attaining the rank of lieutenant the year after1 and served in her on the ,brazil station 7whither the ,bedford went as part of the convoy which escorted the royal family of ,portugal to ,rio de ,janeiro in #ahjh71 in the blockade of ,flushing1 and finally in the disastrous expedition against ,new ,orleans 7#ahad71 in which campaign he displayed such zeal and intelligence as to merit special mention in despatches4 ,on peace being established1 ,franklin turned his attention once more to the scientific branch of his profession1 and sedulously extended his knowledge of surveying4 ,in #ahah the discovery of a ,north-,west ,passage to the ,pacific became again1 after a long interval1 an object of national interest1 and ,lieutenant ,franklin was given the command of the ,trent in the ,arctic expedition1 under the orders of ,captain ,buchan in the ,dorothea4 ,during a heavy storm the ,dorothea was so much damaged by the pack-ice that her reaching ,england became doubtful1 and1 much to the chagrin of young ,franklin1 the ,trent was compelled to convoy her home instead of being allowed to prosecute the voyage alone4 ,this voyage1 however1 had brought ,franklin into personal intercourse with the leading scientific men of ,london1 and they were not slow in ascertaining his peculiar fitness for the command of such an enterprise4 ,to calmness in danger1 promptness and fertility of resource1 and excellent seamanship1 he added an ardent desire to promote science for its own sake1 together with a love of truth that led him to do full justice to the merits of his subordinate officers1 without wishing to claim their discoveries as a captain's right4 ,furthermore1 he possessed a cheerful buoyancy of mind1 sustained by deep religious principle1 which was not depressed in the most gloomy times4 ,it was therefore with full confidence in his ability and exertions that1 in #ahai1 he was placed in command of an expedition appointed to proceed overland from the ,hudson ,bay to the shores of the ,arctic ,sea1 and to determine the trendings of that coast eastward of the ,coppermine river4 ,at this period the northern coast of the ,american continent was known at two isolated points only1--this1 the mouth of the ,coppermine river 7which1 as ,franklin discovered1 was erroneously placed four degrees of latitude too much to the north71 and the mouth of the ,mackenzie far to the west of it4 ,lieutenant ,franklin and his party1 consisting of ,dr ,richardson1 ,midshipmen ,george ,back and ,richard ,hood1 and a few ordinary boatmen1 arrived at the depot of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company at the end of ,august #ahai1 and making an autumnal journey of #gjj m4 spent the first winter on the ,saskatchewan4 ,owing to the supplies which had been promised by the ,north-,west and ,hudson's ,bay ,companies not being forthcoming the following year1 it was not until the summer of #ahba that the ,coppermine was ascended to its mouth1 and a considerable extent of sea-coast to the eastward surveyed4 ,the return journey led over the region known as the ,barren ,ground1 and was marked by the most terrible sufferings and privations and the tragic death of ,lieutenant ,hood4 ,the survivors of the expedition reached ,york ,factory in the month of ,june #ahbb1 having accomplished altogether #eeej m4 of travel4 ,while engaged on this service ,franklin was promoted to the rank of commander 7#ast of ,january #ahba71 and upon his return to ,england at the end of #ahbb he obtained the post rank of captain and was elected a fellow of the ,royal ,society4 ,the narrative of this expedition was published in the following year and became at once a classic of travel1 and soon after he married ,eleanor1 the youngest daughter of ,william ,porden1 an eminent architect4 ,early in #ahbe he was entrusted with the command of a second overland expedition1 and upon the earnest entreaty of his dying wife1 who encouraged him to place his duty to his country before his love for her1 he set sail without waiting to witness her end4 ,accompanied as before by ,dr 7afterwards ,sir7 ,john ,richardson and ,lieutenant 7afterwards ,sir7 ,george ,back1 he descended the ,mackenzie river in the season of #ahbf and traced the ,north ,american coast as far as #adi deg4 #cg' ,w4 long41 whilst ,richardson at the head of a separate party connected the mouths of the ,coppermine and ,mackenzie rivers4 ,thus between the years #ahai and #ahbg he had added #abjj m4 of coast-line to the ,american continent1 or one-third of the whole distance from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific4 ,these exertions were fully appreciated at home and abroad4 ,he was knighted in #ahbi1 received the honorary degree of ,d4,c4,l4 from the university of ,oxford1 was awarded the gold medal of the ,geographical ,society of ,paris1 and was elected corresponding member of the ,paris ,academy of ,sciences4 ,the results of these expeditions are described by ,franklin and ,dr ,richardson in two magnificent works published in #ahbd-ahbi4 ,in #ahbh he married his second wife1 ,jane1 second daughter of ,john ,griffin4 ,his next official employment was on the ,mediterranean station1 in command of the ,rainbow1 and his ship soon became proverbial in the squadron for the happiness and comfort of her officers and crew4 ,as an acknowledgment of the essential service which he rendered off ,patras in the ,greek ,war of ,independence1 he received the cross of the ,redeemer of ,greece from ,king ,otto1 and after his return to ,england he was created knight commander of the ,guelphic order of ,hanover4 ,in #ahcf he accepted the lieutenant-governorship of ,van ,diemen's ,land 7now ,tasmania71 and held that post till the end of #ahdc4 ,his government was marked by several events of much interest1 one of his most popular measures being the opening of the doors of the legislative council to the public4 ,he also founded a college1 endowing it largely from his private funds1 and in #ahch established a scientific society at ,hobart ,town 7now called the ,royal ,society of ,tasmania71 the meetings of which were held in ,government ,house and its papers printed at his expense4 ,in his time also the colony of ,victoria was founded by settlers from ,tasmania2 and towards its close1 transportation to ,new ,south ,wales having been abolished1 the convicts from every part of the ,british empire were sent to ,tasmania4 ,on an increase of the lieutenant-governor's salary being voted by the colonial legislature1 ,sir ,john declined to derive any advantage from it personally1 while he secured the augmentation to his successors4 ,he welcomed eagerly the various expeditions for exploration and surveying which visited ,hobart ,town1 conspicuous among these1 and of especial interest to himself1 being the ,french and ,english ,antarctic expeditions of ,dumont d',urville and ,sir ,james ,c4 ,ross--the latter commanding the ,erebus and ,terror1 with which ,franklin's own name was afterwards to be so pathetically connected4 ,a magnetic observatory fixed at ,hobart ,town1 as a dependency of the central establishment under ,colonel ,sabine1 was also an object of deep interest up to the moment of his leaving the colony4 ,that his unflinching efforts for the social and political advancement of the colony were appreciated was abundantly proved by the affection and respect shown him by every section of the community on his departure2 and several years afterwards the colonists showed their remembrance of his virtues and services by sending ,lady ,franklin a subscription of ,l#agjj in aid of her efforts for the search and relief of her husband1 and later still by a unanimous vote of the legislature for the erection of a statue in honour of him at ,hobart ,town4 ,sir ,john found on reaching ,england that there was about to be a renewal of polar research1 and that the confidence of the admiralty in him was undiminished1 as was shown by his being offered the command of an expedition for the discovery of a ,north-,west ,passage to the ,pacific4 ,this offer he accepted4 ,the prestige of ,arctic service and of his former experiences attracted a crowd of volunteers of all classes1 from whom were selected a body of officers conspicuous for talent and energy4 ,captain ,crozier1 who was second in command1 had been three voyages with ,sir ,edward ,parry1 and had commanded the ,terror in ,ross's ,antarctic expedition4 ,captain ,fitzjames1 who was commander on board the ,erebus1 had been five times gazetted for brilliant conduct in the operations of the first ,china war1 and in a letter which he wrote from ,greenland has bequeathed some good-natured but masterly sketches of his brother officers and messmates on this expedition4 ,thus supported1 with crews carefully chosen 7some of whom had been engaged in the whaling service71 victualled for three years1 and furnished with every appliance then known1 ,franklin's expedition1 consisting of the ,erebus and ,terror 7#abi officers and men71 with a transport ship to convey additional stores as far as ,disco in ,greenland1 sailed from ,greenhithe on the #aith of ,may #ahde4 ,the letters which ,franklin despatched from ,greenland were couched in language of cheerful anticipation of success1 while those received from his officers expressed their glowing hope1 their admiration of the seamanlike qualities of their commander1 and the happiness they had in serving under him4 ,the ships were last seen by a whaler near the entrance of ,lancaster ,sound1 on the #bfth of ,july1 and the deep gloom which settled down upon their subsequent movements was not finally raised till fourteen years later4 ,franklin's instructions were framed in conjunction with ,sir ,john ,barrow and upon his own suggestions4 ,the experience of ,parry had established the navigability of ,lancaster ,sound 7leading westwards out of ,baffin ,bay71 whilst ,franklin's own surveys had long before satisfied him that a navigable passage existed along the north coast of ,america from the ,fish river to ,bering ,strait4 ,he was therefore directed to push through ,lancaster ,sound and its continuation1 ,barrow ,strait1 without loss of time1 until he reached the portion of land on which ,cape ,walker is situated1 or about long4 #ih deg4 ,w41 and from that point to pursue a course southward towards the ,american coast4 ,an explicit prohibition was given against a westerly course beyond the longitude of #ih deg4 ,w41 but he was allowed the single alternative of previously examining ,wellington ,channel 7which leads out of ,barrow ,strait7 for a northward route1 if the navigation here were open4 ,in #ahdg1 though there was no real public anxiety as to the fate of the expedition1 preparations began to be made for the possible necessity of sending relief4 ,as time passed1 however1 and no tidings reached ,england1 the search began in earnest1 and from #ahdh onwards expedition after expedition was despatched in quest of the missing explorers4 ,the work of these expeditions forms a story of achievement which has no parallel in maritime annals1 and resulted in the discovery and exploration of thousands of miles of new land within the grim ,arctic regions1 the development of the system of sledge travelling1 and the discovery of a second ,north-,west ,passage in #ahej 7see ,polar ,regions74 ,here it is only necessary to mention the results so far as the search for ,franklin was concerned4 ,in this great national undertaking ,lady ,franklin's exertions were unwearied1 and she exhausted her private funds in sending out auxiliary vessels to quarters not comprised in the public search1 and by her pathetic appeals roused the sympathy of the whole civilized world4 ,the first traces of the missing ships1 consisting of a few scattered articles1 besides three graves1 were discovered at ,franklin's winter quarters 7#ahde-ahdf7 on ,beechey ,island1 by ,captain 7afterwards ,sir7 ,erasmus ,ommanney of the ,assistance1 in ,august #ahea1 and were brought home by the ,prince ,albert1 which had been fitted out by ,lady ,franklin4 ,no further tidings were obtained until the spring of #ahed1 when ,dr ,john ,rae1 then conducting a sledging expedition of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company from ,repulse ,bay1 was told by the ,eskimo that 7as was inferred7 in #ahej white men1 to the number of about forty1 had been seen dragging a boat southward along the west shore of ,king ,william's ,island1 and that later in the same season the bodies of the whole party were found by the natives at a point a short distance to the north-west of ,back's ,great ,fish river1 where they had perished from the united effects of cold and famine4 ,the latter statement was afterwards disproved by the discovery of skeletons upon the presumed line of route2 but indisputable proof was given that the ,eskimo had communicated with members of the missing expedition1 by the various articles obtained from them and brought home by ,dr ,rae4 ,in consequence of the information obtained by ,dr ,rae1 a party in canoes1 under ,messrs ,anderson and ,stewart1 was sent by government down the ,great ,fish river in #ahee1 and succeeded in obtaining from the ,eskimo at the mouth of the river a considerable number of articles which had evidently belonged to the ,franklin expedition2 while others were picked up on ,montreal ,island a day's march to the northward4 ,it was clear1 therefore1 that a party from the ,erebus and ,terror had endeavoured to reach the settlements of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company by the ,fish river route1 and that in making a southerly course it had been arrested within the channel into which the ,great ,fish river empties itself4 ,the admiralty now decided to take no further steps to determine the exact fate of the expedition1 and granted to ,dr ,rae the reward of ,l#aj1jjj which had been offered in #ahdi to whosoever should first succeed in obtaining authentic news of the missing men4 ,it was therefore reserved for the latest effort of ,lady ,franklin to develop1 not only the fate of her husband's expedition but also the steps of its progress up to the very verge of success1 mingled indeed with almost unprecedented disaster4 ,with all her available means1 and aided1 as she had been before1 by the subscriptions of sympathizing friends1 she purchased and fitted out the little yacht ,fox1 which sailed from ,aberdeen in ,july #aheg4 ,the command was accepted by ,captain 7afterwards ,sir7 ,leopold ,m',clintock1 whose high reputation had been won in three of the government expeditions sent out in search of ,franklin4 ,having been compelled to pass the first winter in ,baffin ,bay1 it was not till the autumn of #aheh that the ,fox passed down ,prince ,regent's ,inlet1 and put into winter quarters at ,port ,kennedy at the eastern end of ,bellot ,strait1 between ,north ,somerset and ,boothia ,felix4 ,in the spring of #ahei three sledging parties went out1 ,captain 7afterwards ,sir7 ,allen ,young to examine ,prince of ,wales ,island1 ,lieutenant 7afterwards ,captain7 ,hobson the north and west coasts of ,king ,william's ,island1 and ,m',clintock the east and south coasts of the latter1 the west coast of ,boothia1 and the region about the mouth of ,great ,fish river4 ,this splendid and exhaustive search added #hjj m4 of new coast-line to the knowledge of the ,arctic regions1 and brought to light the course and fate of the expedition4 ,from the ,eskimo in ,boothia many relics were obtained1 and reports as to the fate of the ships and men2 and on the west and south coast of ,king ,william's ,island were discovered skeletons and remains of articles that told a terrible tale of disaster4 ,above all1 in a cairn at ,point ,victory a precious record was discovered by ,lieutenant ,hobson that briefly told the history of the expedition up to ,april #be1 #ahdh1 three years after it set out full of hope4 ,in #ahde-ahdf the ,erebus and ,terror wintered at ,beechey ,island on the ,s4,w4 coast of ,north ,devon1 in lat4 #gd deg4 #dc' #bh ,n41 long4 #ia deg4 #ci' #ae ,w41 after having ascended ,wellington ,channel to lat4 #gg deg4 and returned by the west side of ,cornwallis ,island4 ,this statement was signed by ,graham ,gore1 lieutenant1 and ,charles ,f4 des ,voeux1 mate1 and bore date ,may #bh1 #ahdg4 ,these two officers and six men1 it was further told1 left the ships on ,may #bd1 #ahdg 7no doubt for an exploring journey71 at which time all was well4 ,such an amount of successful work has seldom been accomplished by an ,arctic expedition within any one season4 ,the alternative course permitted ,franklin by his instructions had been attempted but not pursued1 and in the autumn of #ahdf he had followed that route which was specially commended to him4 ,but after successfully navigating ,peel and ,franklin ,straits on his way southward1 his progress had been suddenly and finally arrested by the obstruction of heavy 7palaeocrystic7 ice1 which presses down from the north-west through ,m',clintock ,channel 7not then known to exist7 upon ,king ,william's ,island4 ,it must be remembered that in the chart which ,franklin carried ,king ,william's ,island was laid down as a part of the mainland of ,boothia1 and he therefore could pursue his way only down its western coast4 ,upon the margin of the printed admiralty form on which this brief record was written was an addendum dated the #beth of ,april #ahdh1 which extinguished all further hopes of a successful termination of this grand enterprise4 ,the facts are best conveyed in the terse and expressive words in which they were written1 and are therefore given verbatim3 ,april #beth1 #ahdh4 ,h4,m4 ,ships ',terror' and ',erebus' were deserted on #bbnd ,april1 five leagues ,n4,n4,w4 of this1 having been beset since #abth ,september #ahdf4 ,the officers and crews1 consisting of #aje souls under the command of ,captain ,f4 ,r4 ,m4 ,crozier1 landed in lat4 #fi deg4 #cg' #db ,n41 long4 #ih deg4 #da' ,w4 ,this paper was found by ,lieut4 ,irving 444 where it had been deposited by the late ,commander ,gore in ,june #ahdg4 ,sir ,john ,franklin died on the #aath ,june #ahdg2 and the total loss by deaths in the expedition has been to this date #i officers and #ae men4 ,the handwriting is that of ,captain ,fitzjames1 to whose signature is appended that of ,captain ,crozier1 who also adds the words of chief importance1 namely1 that they would start on to-morrow #bfth ,april #ahdh for ,back's ,fish river4 ,a briefer record has never been told of so tragic a story4 ,all the party had without doubt been greatly reduced through want of sufficient food1 and the injurious effects of three winters in these regions4 ,they had attempted to drag with them two boats1 besides heavily laden sledges1 and doubtless had soon been compelled to abandon much of their burden1 and leave one boat on the shore of ,king ,william's ,island1 where it was found by ,m',clintock1 near the middle of the west coast1 containing two skeletons4 ,the route adopted was the shortest possible1 but their strength and supplies had failed1 and at that season of the year the snow-covered land afforded no subsistence4 ,an old ,eskimo woman stated that these heroic men fell down and died as they walked1 and1 as ,sir ,john ,richardson has well said1 they forged the last link of the ,north-,west ,passage with their lives4 ,from all that can be gathered1 one of the ships must have been crushed in the ice and sunk in deep water1 and the other1 stranded on the shore of ,king ,william's ,island1 lay there for years1 forming a mine of wealth for the neighbouring ,eskimo4 ,this is all we know of the fate of ,franklin and his brave men4 ,his memory is cherished as one of the most conspicuous of the naval heroes of ,britain1 and as one of the most successful and daring of her explorers4 ,he is certainly entitled to the honour of being the first discoverer of the ,north-,west ,passage2 the point reached by the ships having brought him to within a few miles of the known waters of ,america1 and on the monument erected to him by his country1 in ,waterloo ,place1 ,london1 this honour is justly awarded to him and his companions1--a fact which was also affirmed by the president of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 when presenting their gold medal to ,lady ,franklin in #ahfj4 ,on the #bfth of ,october #aheb ,franklin had been promoted to the rank of rear-admiral4 ,he left an only daughter by his first marriage4 ,lady ,franklin died in #ahge at the age of eighty-three1 and a fortnight after her death a fine monument was unveiled in ,westminster ,abbey1 commemorating the heroic deeds and fate of ,sir ,john ,franklin1 and the inseparable connexion of ,lady ,franklin's name with the fame of her husband4 ,most of the relics brought home by ,m',clintock were presented by ,lady ,franklin to the ,united ,service ,museum1 while those given by ,dr ,rae to the admiralty are deposited in ,greenwich hospital4 ,in #ahfd-ahfi the ,american explorer ,captain ,hall made two journeys in endeavouring to trace the remnant of ,franklin's party1 bringing back a number of additional relics and some information confirmatory of that given by ,m',clintock1 and in #ahgh ,lieutenant ,f4 ,schwatka of the ,united ,states army and a companion made a final land search1 but although accomplishing a remarkable record of travel discovered nothing which threw any fresh light on the history of the expedition4 ,see ,h4 ,d4 ,traill1 ,life of ,sir ,john ,franklin 7#ahif74 ,,franklin1 ,,william ,,buel 7#ahbc-aijc71 ,federal general in the ,american ,civil ,war1 was born at ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 on the #bgth of ,february #ahbc4 ,he graduated at ,west ,point1 at the head of his class1 in #ahdc1 was commissioned in the ,engineer ,corps1 ,u4,s4,a41 and served with distinction in the ,mexican ,war1 receiving the brevet of first lieutenant for his good conduct at ,buena ,vista1 in which action he was on the staff of ,general ,taylor4 ,after the war he was engaged in miscellaneous engineering work1 becoming a first lieutenant in #ahec and a captain in #aheg4 ,soon after the outbreak of the ,civil ,war in #ahfa he was made colonel of a regular infantry regiment1 and a few days later brigadier-general of volunteers4 ,he led a brigade in the first battle of ,bull ,run1 and on the organization by ,mc,clellan of the ,army of the ,potomac he received a divisional command4 ,he commanded first a division and then the ,,vi4 ,corps in the operations before ,richmond in #ahfb1 earning the brevet of brigadier-general in the ,u4,s4 ,army2 was promoted major-general1 ,u4,s4,v41 in ,july #ahfb2 commanded the ,,vi4 corps at ,south ,mountain and ,antietam2 and at ,fredericksburg commanded the ,left ,grand ,division of two corps 7,i4 and ,,vi474 ,his part in the last battle led to charges of disobedience and negligence being preferred against him by the commanding general1 ,general ,a4 ,e4 ,burnside1 on which the congressional committee on the conduct of the war reported unfavourably to ,franklin1 largely1 it seems1 because ,burnside's orders to ,franklin were not put in evidence4 ,burnside had issued on the #bcrd of ,january #ahfc an order relieving ,franklin from duty1 and ,franklin's only other service in the war was as commander of the ,,xix4 corps in the abortive ,red ,river ,expedition of #ahfd4 ,in this expedition he received a severe wound at the action of ,sabine ,cross ,roads 7,april #h1 #ahfd71 in consequence of which he took no further active part in the war4 ,he served for a time on the retiring board1 and was captured by the ,confederates on the #aath of ,july #ahfd1 but escaped the same night4 ,in #ahfe he was brevetted major-general in the regular army1 and in #ahff he was retired4 ,after the war ,general ,franklin was vice-president of the ,colt's ,patent ,firearms ,manufacturing ,company1 was president of the commission to lay out ,long ,island ,city1 ,n4,y4 7#ahga-ahgb71 of the commission on the building of the ,connecticut state house 7#ahgb-ahgc71 and1 from #ahhj to #ahii1 of the board of managers of the national home for disabled volunteer soldiers2 as a commissioner of the ,united ,states to the ,paris ,exposition of #ahhi he was made a grand officer of the ,legion of ,honour2 and he was for a time a director of the ,panama railway4 ,he died at ,hartford1 ,connecticut1 on the #hth of ,march #aijc4 ,he wrote a pamphlet1 ,the ,gatling ,gun for ,service ,ashore and ,afloat 7#ahgd74 ,see ,a ,reply of ,major-,general ,william ,b4 ,franklin to the ,report of the ,joint ,committee of ,congress on the ,conduct of the ,war 7,new ,york1 #ahfc2 #bnd ed41 #ahfg71 and ,jacob ,l4 ,greene1 ,gen4 ,w4 ,b4 ,franklin and the ,operations of the ,left ,wing at the ,battle of ,fredericksburg 7,hartford1 #aijj74 ,,franklin1 an organized district of ,canada1 extending from the ,arctic ,circle to the ,north ,pole4 ,it was formed by order-in-council on the #bnd of ,october #ahie1 and includes numerous islands and peninsulas1 such as ,banks1 ,prince ,albert1 ,victoria1 ,wollaston1 ,king ,edward and ,baffin ,land1 ,melville1 ,bathurst1 ,prince of ,wales and ,cockburn ,islands4 ,of these1 ,baffin ,land alone extends south of the ,arctic ,circle4 ,the area is estimated at #ejj1jjj sq4 m41 but the inhabitants consist of a few ,indians1 ,eskimo and fur-traders4 ,musk-oxen1 polar bears1 foxes and other valuable fur-bearing animals are found in large numbers4 ,the district is named after ,sir ,john ,franklin4 ,,franklin1 a township of ,norfolk county1 ,massachusetts1 ,u4,s4,a41 with an area of #bi sq4 m4 of rolling surface4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #ejag1 of whom #abej were foreign-born2 7#aije1 state census7 #ebdd2 7#aiaj census7 #efda4 ,the principal village1 also named ,franklin1 is about #bg m4 ,s4,w4 of ,boston1 and is served by the ,new ,york1 ,new ,haven ,hartford railway4 ,franklin has a public library 7housed in the ,ray memorial building and containing #ggjj volumes in #aiaj7 and is the seat of ,dean ,academy 7,universalist2 founded in #ahfe71 a secondary school for boys and girls4 ,straw goods1 felt1 cotton and woollen goods1 pianos and printing presses are manufactured here4 ,the township was incorporated in #aggh1 previous to which it was a part of ,wrentham 7#afgc74 ,it was the first of the many places in the ,united ,states named in honour of ,benjamin ,franklin 7who later contributed books for the public library74 ,horace ,mann was born here4 ,,franklin1 a city of ,merrimack county1 ,new ,hampshire1 ,u4,s4,a41 at the confluence of the ,pemigewasset and ,winnepesaukee rivers to form the ,merrimac2 about #ie m4 ,n4,n4,w4 of ,boston4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #djhe2 7#aijj7 #ehdf 7#acbc foreign-born72 7#aiaj7 #facb2 area1 about #ad4d sq4 m4 ,franklin is served by the ,concord ,division of the ,boston ,maine railway1 with a branch to ,bristol 7#ac m4 ,n4,w47 and another connecting at ,tilton 7about #e m4 ,e47 with the ,white ,mountains ,division4 ,it contains the villages of ,franklin1 ,franklin ,falls1 ,webster ,place and ,lake ,city1 the last a summer resort4 ,the rivers furnish good water power1 which is used in the manufacture of a variety of commodities1 including foundry products1 paper and pulp1 woollen goods1 hosiery1 saws1 needles and knitting machines4 ,the water-works are owned and operated by the municipality4 ,here1 in what was then a part of the town of ,salisbury1 ,daniel ,webster was born1 and on the ,webster farm is the ,new ,hampshire orphans' home1 established in #ahga4 ,the town of ,franklin was formed in #ahbh by the union of portions of ,salisbury1 ,sanbornton1 ,andover and ,northfield4 ,the earliest settlement within its limits was made in #agdh in the portion taken from ,salisbury4 ,franklin was incorporated as a city in #ahie4 ,,franklin1 a city and the county-seat of ,venango county1 ,pennsylvania1 ,u4,s4,a41 at the confluence of ,french ,creek and ,allegheny river1 about #ee m4 ,s4 by ,e4 of ,erie1 in the ,n4,w4 part of the state4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #fbba2 7#aijj7 #gcag 7#dhi being foreign-born72 7#aiaj7 #igfg4 ,franklin is served by the ,erie1 the ,pennsylvania1 the ,lake ,shore ,michigan ,southern1 and the ,franklin ,clearfield railways4 ,its streets are broad and well paved and shaded1 and there are two public parks1 a public library and many handsome residences4 ,franklin is the centre of the chief oil region of the state1 and from it great quantities of refined oil are shipped4 ,natural gas also abounds4 ,the city's manufacture include oil-well supplies1 boilers1 engines1 steel castings1 iron goods1 lumber1 bricks1 asbestos goods1 manifolding paper and flour4 ,on the site of the present city the ,french built in #aged a fortification1 ,fort ,machault1 which after the capture of ,fort ,duquesne by the ,english was a rallying place for ,indians allied with the ,french4 ,in #agei the ,french abandoned and completely destroyed the fort2 and in the following year the ,english built in the vicinity ,fort ,venango1 which was captured by the ,indians in #agfc during the ,conspiracy of ,pontiac1 the whole garrison being massacred4 ,in #aghg the ,united ,states built ,fort ,franklin 7about #a m4 above the mouth of ,french ,creek7 as a protection against the ,indians2 in #agif the troops were removed to a strongly built and well-fortified wooden building1 known as ,old ,garrison1 at the mouth of ,french ,creek1 and in #ahjc they were permanently withdrawn from the neighbourhood4 ,franklin was laid out as a town in #agie1 was incorporated as a borough in #ahbh1 and was chartered as a city in #ahfh4 ,most of its growth dates from the discovery of oil in #ahfj4 ,,franklin1 a town and the county-seat of ,williamson county1 ,tennessee1 ,u4,s4,a41 in the central part of the state1 on the ,harpeth river1 and about #bj m4 ,s4,w4 of ,nashville4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #bahj2 7#aiaj7 #bibd4 ,franklin is served by the ,louisville ,nashville railway4 ,it is the seat of the ,tennessee ,female ,college and the ,battle ,ground ,academy1 and its chief objects of interest are the battle-ground1 the ,confederate cemetery and the ,confederate monument4 ,during the ,civil ,war ,franklin was the scene of a minor engagement on the #ajth of ,april #ahfc1 and of a battle1 celebrated as one of the most desperately fought of the war1 which took place on the #cjth of ,november #ahfd4 ,the ,union general ,schofield1 who was slowly withdrawing to ,nashville before the advance of ,general ,j4 ,b4 ,hood's army1 which he was ordered to hold in check in order to give ,thomas time to prepare for battle 7see ,,american ,,civil ,,war1 ,sec4 #cb71 was unable immediately to cross the ,harpeth river and was compelled to entrench his forces south of the town until his wagon trains and artillery could be sent over the stream by means of two small bridges4 ,in the afternoon ,schofield's outposts and advanced lines were attacked by the ,confederates in full strength1 and instead of withdrawing as ordered they made a determined stand4 ,thus the assailants1 carrying the advanced works by storm1 rushed upon the main defences on the heels of the broken advanced guard1 and a general engagement was brought on which lasted from #c4cj until nine o'clock in the evening4 ,against1 it is said1 thirteen separate assaults1 all delivered with exceptional fury1 ,schofield managed to hold his position1 and shortly before midnight he withdrew across the river in good order4 ,the engagement was indecisive in its results1 but the ,union commander's purpose1 to hold ,hood momentarily in check1 was gained1 and ,hood's effort to crush ,schofield was unavailing4 ,the losses were very heavy2 ,hood's effective forces in the engagement numbered about #bg1jjj1 ,schofield's about #bh1jjj2 the ,confederate losses 7excluding cavalry7 were about #fejj1 excluding the slightly wounded2 six general officers were killed 7including ,major-,general ,p4 ,r4 ,cleburne1 a brave ,irishman who had been a corporal in the ,british army71 six wounded1 and one captured2 the ,union losses 7excluding cavalry7 were #bcbf4 ,in two of the ,confederate brigades all the general and field officers were killed or wounded4 ,see ,j4 ,d4 ,cox1 ,the ,battle of ,franklin 7,new ,york1 #ahig74 ,,franklin1 a word derived from the ,late ,lat4 francus1 free1 and meaning primarily a freeman4 ,subsequently it was used in ,england to denote a land-holder who was of free but not of noble birth4 ,some of the older ,english writers occasionally use it to mean a liberal host4 ,the ,latin form of the word is franchilanus4 ,,franklinite1 a member of the spinel group of minerals1 consisting of oxides of iron1 manganese and zinc in varying proportions1 7,fe1 ,zn1 ,mn77,fe1 ,mn7#b',o#d4 ,it occurs as large octahedral crystals often with rounded edges1 and as granular masses4 ,the colour is iron-black and the lustre metallic2 hardness #f1 specific gravity #e4b4 ,it thus resembles magnetite in external characters1 but is readily distinguished from this by the fact that it is only slightly magnetic4 ,it is found in considerable amount1 associated with zinc minerals 7zincite and willemite7 in crystalline limestone1 at ,franklin ,furnace1 ,new ,jersey1 where it is mined as an ore of zinc 7containing #e to #bj of the metal72 after the extraction of the zinc1 the residue is used in the manufacture of spiegeleisen 7the mineral containing #ae to #bj of manganese oxides74 ,associated with franklinite at ,franklin ,furnace1 and found also at some other localities1 is another member of the spinel group1 namely1 gahnite or zinc-spinel1 which is a zinc aluminate1 ,zn,al#b,o#d1 with a little of the zinc replaced by iron and manganese4 ,,frank-,,marriage 7liberum maritagium71 in real property law1 a species of estate tail1 now obsolete4 ,when a man was seized of land in fee simple1 and gave it to a daughter on marriage1 the daughter and her husband were termed the donees in frank-marriage1 because they held the land granted to them and the heirs of their two bodies free from all manner of service1 except fealty1 to the donor or his heirs until the fourth degree of consanguinity from the donor was passed4 ,this right of a freeholder so to give away his land at will was first recognized in the reign of ,henry ,,ii41 and became up to the reign of ,elizabeth the most usual kind of settlement4 ,,frankpledge 7,lat4 francum plegium71 an early ,english institution1 consisting 7as defined by ,stubbs7 of an association for mutual security whose members1 according to ,hallam1 were perpetual bail for each other4 ,the custom whereby the ,inhabitants of a district were responsible for any crime or injury committed by one of their number is old and widespread2 it prevailed in ,england before the ,norman ,conquest1 and is an outcome of the earlier principle whereby this responsibility rested on kinship4 ,thus a law of ,edgar 7d4 #ige7 says and let every man so order that he have a borh 7or surety71 and let the borh then bring and hold him to every justice2 and if any one then do wrong and run away1 let the borh bear that which he ought to bear2 and a law of ,canute about #ajcj says and that every one be brought into a hundred and in borh1 and let the borh hold and lead him to every plea4 ,about this time these societies1 each having its headman1 were called frithborhs1 or peace-borhs1 and the ,normans translated the ,anglo-,saxon word by frankpledge4 ,but the history of the frankpledge proper begins not earlier than the time of the ,norman ,conquest4 ,the laws1 which although called the laws of ,edward the ,confessor were not drawn up until about #aacj1 contain a clause about frithborhs which decrees that in every place societies of ten men shall be formed for mutual security and reparation4 ,and before this date ,william the ,conqueror had ordered that every one who wishes to be regarded as free must be in a pledge1 and that the pledge must hold and bring him to justice if he commits any offence2 and the laws of ,henry ,i4 ordered every person of substance over twelve years of age to be enrolled in a frankpledge4 ,this association of ten1 or as it often was at a later date of twelve men1 was also called a tithing1 or decima1 and in the north of ,england was known as tenmanne tale4 ,the view of frankpledge 7visus franciplegii71 or the duty of ascertaining that the law with regard to frankpledges was complied with1 was in the hands of the sheriffs1 who held an itinerant court called the sheriff's tourn for this and other purposes4 ,this court was held twice a year1 but in #abag it was ordered that the view of frankpledge should only be taken once--at ,michaelmas4 ,introduced at or before the time of ,henry ,i41 the view was regulated by the ,assize of ,clarendon of #aaff and by ,magna ,carta as reissued in #abag4 ,although the former of these lays stress upon the fact that the sheriff's supervisory powers are universal many men did not attend his tourn4 ,some lords of manors and of hundreds held a court of their own for view of frankpledge1 and in the #acth century it may be fairly said of all the franchises1 the royal rights in private hands1 view of frankpledge is perhaps the commonest4 ,at the end of the same century the court for the view of frankpledge was generally known as the court leet1 and was usually a manorial court in private hands4 ,however1 the principle of the frankpledge was still enforced4 ,thus ,bracton says every male of the age of twelve years1 be he free be he serf1 ought to be in frankpledge1 but he allows for certain exceptions4 ,as the word frankpledge denotes1 these societies were originally concerned only with freemen2 but the unfree were afterwards admitted1 and during the #acth century the frankpledges were composed chiefly of villains4 ,from petitions presented to parliament in #acgf it seems that the view of frankpledge was in active operation at this time1 but it soon began to fall into disuse1 and its complete decay coincides with the new ideas of government introduced by the ,tudors4 ,in a formal fashion courts leet for the view of frankpledge were held in the time of the jurist ,selden1 and a few of these have survived until the present day4 ,sir ,f4 ,palgrave has asserted that the view of frankpledge was unknown in that part of the country which had been included in the kingdom of ,northumbria4 ,this statement is open to question1 but it is highly probable that the system was not so deeply rooted in this part of ,england as elsewhere4 ,the machinery of the frankpledge was probably used by ,henry ,,ii4 when he introduced the jury of presentment2 and commenting on this connexion ,f4 ,w4 ,maitland says the duty of producing one's neighbour to answer accusations 7the duty of the frankpledges7 could well be converted into the duty of telling tales against him4 ,the system of frankpledge prevailed in some ,english boroughs4 ,sometimes a court for view of frankpledge1 called in some places a mickleton1 whereat the mayor or the bailiffs presided1 was held for the whole borough2 in other cases the borough was divided into wards1 or into leets1 each of which had its separate court4 ,see ,pollock and ,maitland1 ,history of ,english ,law 7#ahie72 ,g4 ,waitz1 ,deutsche ,verfassungsgeschichte1 ,band i4 7#ahhj72 and ,w4 ,stubbs1 ,constitutional ,history1 vol4 i4 7#ahig74 ,,franks1 ,,sir ,,augustus ,,wollaston 7#ahbf-ahig71 ,english antiquary1 was born on the #bjth of ,march #ahbf1 and was educated at ,eton and at ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,he early showed inclination for antiquarian pursuits1 and in #ahea was appointed assistant in the ,antiquities ,department of the ,british ,museum4 ,here1 and as director of the ,society of ,antiquaries1 an appointment he received in #aheh1 he made himself the first authority in ,england upon medieval antiquities of all descriptions1 upon porcelain1 glass1 the manufactures of savage nations1 and in general upon all ,oriental curiosities and works of art later than the ,classical period4 ,in #ahff the ,british and medieval antiquities1 with the ethnographical collections1 were formed into a distinct department under his superintendence2 and the ,christy collection of ethnography in ,victoria ,street1 ,london1 prior to its amalgamation with the ,british ,museum collections1 was also under his care4 ,he became vice-president and ultimately president of the ,society of ,antiquaries1 and in #ahgh declined the principal librarianship of the museum4 ,he retired on his seventieth birthday1 #ahif1 and died on the #bast of ,may #ahig4 ,his ample fortune was largely devoted to the collection of ceramics and precious objects of medieval art1 most of which became the property of the nation1 either by donation in his lifetime or by bequest at his death4 ,although chiefly a medieval antiquary1 ,franks was also an authority on classical art1 especially ,roman remains in ,britain3 he was also greatly interested in book-marks and playing-cards1 of both of which he formed important collections4 ,he edited ,kemble's ,horae ,ferales1 and wrote numerous memoirs on archaeological subjects4 ,perhaps his most important work of this class is the catalogue of his own collection of porcelain4 ,,franks4 ,the name ,franks seems to have been given in the #dth century to a group of ,germanic peoples dwelling north of the ,main and reaching as far as the shores of the ,north ,sea2 south of the ,main was the home of the ,alamanni4 ,the names of some of these tribes have come down to us4 ,on the ,tabula ,peutingeriana appear the ,chamavi qui et ,pranci1 which should doubtless read qui et ,franci2 these ,chamavi apparently dwelt between the ,yssel and the ,ems4 ,later1 we find them a little farther south1 on the banks of the ,rhine1 in the district called ,hamalant1 and it is their customs which were brought together in the #ith century in the document known as the ,lex ,francorum ,chamavorum4 ,after the ,chamavi we may mention the ,attuarii or ,chattuarii1 who are referred to by ,ammianus ,marcellinus 7xx4 #aj1 #b73 ,rheno exinde transmisso1 regionem pervasit 7,julianus7 ,francorum quos ,atthuarios vocant4 ,later1 the pagus ,attuariorum corresponds to the district of ,emmerich and ,xanten4 ,it should be noted that this name occurs again in the middle ages in ,burgundy1 not far from ,dijon2 in all probability a detachment of this people had settled in that spot in the #eth or #fth century4 ,the ,bructeri1 ,ampsivarii and ,chatti may also be classed among the ,frankish tribes4 ,they are mentioned in a celebrated passage of ,sulpicius ,alexander1 which is cited by ,gregory of ,tours 7,historia ,francorum1 ii4 #i74 ,sulpicius shows the general ,arbogast1 a barbarian in the service of ,rome1 seeking to take vengeance on the ,franks 7#cib73 ,collecto exercitu1 transgressus ,rhenum1 ,bricteros ripae proximos1 pagum etiam quem ,chamavi incolunt depopulatus est1 nullo unquam occursante1 nisi quod pauci ex ,ampsivariis et ,catthis ,marcomere duce in ulterioribus collium jugis apparuere4 ,it is evidently this ,marcomeres1 the chief of these tribes1 who is regarded by later historians as the father of the legendary ,faramund 7,pharamund7 although in fact ,marcomeres has nothing to do with the ,salian ,franks4 ,the earliest mention in history of the name ,franks is the entry on the ,tabula ,peutingeriana1 at least if we assume that the term et ,franci is not a later emendation4 ,the earliest occurrence of the name in any author is in the ,vita ,aureliani of ,vopiscus 7ch4 vii474 ,when1 in #bda1 ,aurelian1 who was then only a tribune1 had just defeated some ,franks in the neighbourhood of ,mainz and was marching against the ,persians1 his troops sang the following refrain3 ,mille ,sarmatas1 mille ,francos1 semel et semel occidimus2 ,mille ,persas1 quaerimus4 ,all these ,germanic tribes1 which were known from the #crd century onwards by the generic name of ,franks1 doubtless spoke a similar dialect and were governed by customs which must scarcely have differed from one another2 but this was all they had in common4 ,each tribe was politically independent2 they formed no confederations4 ,sometimes two or three tribes joined forces to wage a war2 but1 the struggle over1 the bond was broken1 and each tribe resumed its isolated life4 ,waitz holds with some show of probability that the ,franks represent the ancient ,istaevones of ,tacitus1 the ,alamanni and the ,saxons representing the ,herminones and the ,ingaevones4 ,of all these ,frankish tribes one especially was to become prominent1 the tribe of the ,salians4 ,they are mentioned for the first time in #ceh1 by ,ammianus ,marcellinus 7xvii4 #h1 #c71 who says that the ,caesar ,julian petit primos omnium ,francos1 videlicet eos quos consuetudo ,salios appellavit4 ,as to the origin of the name1 it was long held to be derived from the river ,yssel or ,saal4 ,it is more probable1 however1 that it arose from the fact that the ,salians for a long period occupied the shores of the salt sea4#a ,the ,salians inhabited the sea-coast1 whereas the ,ripuarians dwelt on the banks of the river ,rhine4 ,the ,salians1 at the time when they are mentioned by ,ammianus1 occupied ,toxandria1 i4e4 the region south of the ,meuse1 between that river and the ,scheldt4 ,julian defeated them completely1 but allowed them to remain in ,toxandria1 not1 as of old1 as conquerors1 but as foederati of the ,romans4 ,they perhaps paid tribute1 and they certainly furnished ,rome with soldiers2 ,salii seniores and ,salii juniores are mentioned in the ,notitia dignitatum1 and ,salii appear among the auxilia palatina4 ,at the end of the #dth century and at the beginning of the #eth1 when the ,roman legions withdrew from the banks of the ,rhine1 the ,salians installed themselves in the district as an independent people4 ,the place-names became entirely ,germanic2 the ,latin language disappeared2 and the ,christian religion suffered a check1 for the ,franks were to a man pagans4 ,the ,salians were subdivided into a certain number of tribes1 each tribe placing at its head a king1 distinguished by his long hair and chosen from the most noble family 7,historia ,francorum1 ii4 #i74 ,the most ancient of these kings1 reigning over the principal tribe1 who is known to us is ,chlodio4#b ,according to ,gregory of ,tours ,chlodio dwelt at a place called ,dispargum1 which it is impossible to identify4 ,towards #dca he crossed the great ,roman road from ,bavay to ,cologne1 which was protected by numerous forts and had long arrested the invasions of the barbarians4 ,he then invaded the territory of ,arras1 but was severely defeated at ,hesdin-le-,vieux by ,aetius1 the commander of the ,roman army in ,gaul4 ,chlodio1 however1 soon took his revenge4 ,he explored the region of ,cambrai1 seized that town1 and occupied all the country as far as the ,somme4 ,at this time ,tournai became the capital of the ,salian ,franks4 ,after ,chlodio a certain ,meroveus 7,merowech7 was king of the ,salian ,franks4 ,we do not know if he was the son of ,chlodio2 ,gregory of ,tours simply says that he belonged to ,chlodio's stock--de hujus stirpe quidam ,merovechum regem fuisse adserunt1--and then only gives the fact at second hand4 ,perhaps the remarks of the ,byzantine historian ,priscus may refer to ,meroveus4 ,a king of the ,franks having died1 his two sons disputed the power4 ,the elder journeyed into ,pannonia to obtain support from ,attila2 the younger betook himself to the imperial court at ,rome4 ,i have seen him1 writes ,priscus2 he was still very young1 and we all remarked his fair hair which fell upon his shoulders4 ,aetius welcomed him warmly and sent him back a friend and foederatus4 ,in any case1 eventually1 ,franks fought 7#dea7 in the ,roman ranks at the great battle of ,mauriac 7the ,catalaunian ,fields71 which arrested the progress of ,attila into ,gaul2 and in the ,vita ,lupi1 which1 though undoubtedly of later date1 is a recension of an earlier document1 the name of ,meroveus appears among the combatants4 ,towards #deg ,meroveus was succeeded by his son ,childeric4 ,at first ,childeric was a faithful foederatus of the ,romans1 fighting for them against the ,visigoths and the ,saxons south of the ,loire2 but he soon sought to make himself independent and to extend his conquests4 ,he died in #dha and was succeeded by his son ,clovis1 who conquered the whole of ,gaul with the exception of the kingdom of ,burgundy and ,provence4 ,clovis made his authority recognized over the other ,salian tribes 7whose kings dwelt at ,cambrai and other cities71 and put an end to the domination of the ,ripuarian ,franks4 ,these ,ripuarians must have comprised a certain number of ,frankish tribes1 such as the ,ampsivarii and the ,bructeri4 ,they settled in the #eth century in compact masses on the left bank of the ,rhine1 but their progress was slow4 ,it was not until the ,christian writer ,salvian 7who was born about #djj7 had already reached a fairly advanced age that they were able to seize ,cologne4 ,the town1 however1 was recaptured and was not definitely in their possession until #dfc4 ,the ,ripuarians subsequently occupied all the country from ,cologne to ,trier4 ,aix-la-,chapelle1 ,bonn and ,zuelpich were their principal centres1 and they even advanced southward as far as ,metz1 which appears to have resisted their attacks4 ,the ,roman civilization and the ,latin language disappeared from the countries which they occupied2 indeed it seems that the actual boundaries of the ,german and ,french languages nearly coincide with those of their dominion4 ,in their southward progress the ,ripuarians encountered the ,alamanni1 who1 already masters of ,alsace1 were endeavouring to extend their conquests in all directions4 ,there were numerous battles between the ,ripuarians and the ,alamanni2 and the memory of one fought at ,zuelpich has come down to us4 ,in this battle ,sigebert1 the king of the ,ripuarians1 was wounded in the knee and limped during the remainder of his life--hence his surname ,claudus 7the ,lame74 ,the ,ripuarians long remained allies of ,clovis1 ,sigebert's son ,chloderic fighting under the king of the ,salian ,franks at ,vouille in #ejg4 ,clovis1 however1 persuaded ,chloderic to assassinate his father1 and then posed as ,sigebert's avenger1 with the result that ,chloderic was himself assassinated and the ,ripuarians raised ,clovis on the shield and chose him as king4 ,thus the ,salian ,franks united under their rule all the ,franks on the left bank of the ,rhine4 ,during the reigns of ,clovis's sons they again turned their eyes on ,germany1 and imposed their suzerainty upon the ,franks on the right bank4 ,this country1 north of the ,main and the first residence of the ,franks1 then received the name of ,francia ,orientalis1 and became the origin of one of the duchies into which ,germany was divided in the #ajth century--the duchy of ,franconia 7,franken74 ,the ,franks were redoubtable warriors1 and were generally of great stature4 ,their fair or red hair was brought forward from the crown of the head towards the forehead1 leaving the nape of the neck uncovered2 they shaved the face except the upper lip4 ,they wore fairly close breeches reaching to the knee and a tunic fastened by brooches4 ,round the waist over the tunic was worn a leathern girdle having a broad iron buckle damascened with silver4 ,from the girdle hung the single-edged missile axe or francisca1 the scramasax or short knife1 a poniard and such articles of toilet as scissors1 a comb 7of wood or bone71 c4 ,the ,franks also used a weapon called the framea 7an iron lance set firmly in a wooden shaft71 and bows and arrows4 ,they protected themselves in battle with a large wooden or wicker shield1 the centre of which was ornamented with an iron boss 7umbo74 ,frankish arms and armour have been found in the cemeteries which abound throughout northern ,france1 the warriors being buried fully armed4 ,see ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,rechtsalterthuemer 7,goettingen1 #ahbh72 ,k4 ,muellenhoff1 ,deutsche ,altertumskunde 7,berlin1 #ahhc-aijj72 ,e4 von ,wietersheim1 ,geschichte der ,voelkerwanderung1 #bnd ed41 ed4 by ,f4 ,dahn 7,leipzig1 #ahhj-ahha72 ,g4 ,waitz1 ,deutsche ,verfassungsgeschichte1 vol4 i4 7#dth ed4 revised by ,zeumer72 ,r4 ,schroeder1 ,die ,ausbreitung der salischen ,franken1 in ,forschungen zur deutschen ,geschichte1 vol4 xix42 ,k4 ,lamprecht1 ,fraenkische ,wanderungen und ,ansiedelungen 7,aix-la-,chapelle1 #ahhb72 ,w4 ,schultz1 ,deutsche ,geschichte von der ,urzeit bis zu den ,karolingern1 vol4 ii4 7,stuttgart1 #ahif72 ,fustel de ,coulanges1 ,histoire des institutions politiques de l'ancienne ,france--l'invasion germanique 7,paris1 #ahia74 ,also the articles ,,salic ,,law and ,,germanic ,,laws1 ,,early4 7,c4 ,pf47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,their legends are connected with the sea1 the name ,meroveus signifying sea-born4 #b ,the chronicler ,fredegarius and the author of the ,liber historiae ,francorum make ,sunno and ,marcomeres his predecessors1 but in reality they were chiefs of other ,frankish tribes4 ,the author of the ,liber also claims that ,chlodio was the son of ,pharamund1 but this personage is quite legendary4 ,in the ,chronicon of ,fredegarius it is already affirmed that the ,franks are descended from the ,trojans4 ,,franz1 ,,robert 7#ahae-ahib71 ,german composer1 was born at ,halle on the #bhth of ,june #ahae4 ,one of the most gifted of ,german song writers1 he suffered in early life1 as many musicians have suffered1 from the hostility of his parents to a musical career4 ,he was twenty years old when1 his father's animosity conquered1 he was allowed to live in ,dessau to study organ-playing under ,schneider4 ,the two years of dry study under that famous teacher were advantageous chiefly in making him uncommonly intimate with the works of ,bach and ,handel1 his knowledge of which he showed in his editions of the ,matthaeus ,passion1 ,magnificat1 ten cantatas1 and of the ,messiah and ,l',allegro1 though some of these editions have long been a subject of controversy among musicians4 ,in #ahdc he published his first book of songs1 which ultimately was followed by some fifty more books1 containing in all about #bej songs4 ,at ,halle1 ,franz filled various public offices1 including those of organist to the city1 conductor of the ,sing-akademie and of the ,symphony concerts1 and he was also a royal music-director and master of the music at the university4 ,the first book of songs was warmly praised by ,schumann and ,liszt1 the latter of whom wrote a lengthy review of it in ,schumann's paper1 ,die neue ,zeitschrift1 which later was published separately4 ,deafness had begun to make itself apparent as early as #ahda1 and ,franz suffered also from a nervous disorder1 which in #ahfh compelled him to resign his offices4 ,his future was then provided for by ,liszt1 ,dr ,joachim1 ,frau ,magnus and others1 who gave him the receipts of a concert tour1 amounting to some #ajj1jjj marks4 ,franz died on the #bdth of ,october #ahib4 ,on his seventieth birthday he published his first and only pianoforte piece4 ,it is easy to find here and there among his songs gems that are hardly less brilliant than the best of ,schumann's4 ,certainly no musician was ever more thoughtful and more painstaking4 ,in addition to songs he wrote a setting for double choir of the #aagth ,psalm1 and a four-part ,kyrie2 he also edited ,astorga's ,stabat ,mater and ,durante's ,magnificat4 ,,franzen1 ,,frans ,,mikael 7#aggb-ahdg71 ,swedish poet1 was born at ,uleaborg in ,finland on the #ith of ,february #aggb4 ,at thirteen he entered the university of ,abo1 where he attended the lectures of ,h4 ,g4 ,porthan 7#agci-ahjd71 a pioneer in the study of ,finnish history and legend4 ,he graduated in #aghi1 and became eloquentiae docens in #agib4 ,three years later he started on a tour through ,denmark1 ,germany1 ,france and ,england1 returning in #agif to accept the office of university librarian at ,abo4 ,in #ahja he became professor of history and ethics1 and in #ahjh was elected a member of the ,swedish ,academy4 ,on the cession of ,finland to ,russia1 ,franzen removed to ,sweden1 where he was successively appointed parish priest of ,kumla in the diocese of ,strengnaes 7#ahaj71 minister of the ,clara ,church in ,stockholm 7#ahbd7 and bishop of ,hernoesand 7#ahca74 ,he died at ,saebra parsonage on the #adth of ,august #ahdg4 ,from the autumn of #agic1 when his ,till en ung ,flicka and ,menniskans anlete were inserted by ,kellgren in the ,stockholmspost1 ,franzen grew in popular favour by means of many minor poems of singular simplicity and truth1 as ,till ,selma1 ,den gamle knekten1 ,riddar ,st ,goeran1 ,de ,sma blommorna1 ,modren vid vaggan1 ,nyarsmorgonen and ,stjernhimmelen4 ,his songs ,goda gosse glaset toem1 ,soerj ej den gryende dagen foerut1 ,champagnevinet and ,bevaeringssang were widely sung1 and in #agig he won the prize of the ,swedish ,academy by his ,sang oefver grefve ,filip ,creutz4 ,henceforth his muse1 touched with the academic spirit1 grew more reflective and didactic4 ,his longer works1 as ,emili eller en afton i ,lappland1 and the epics ,svante ,sture eller moetet vid ,alvastra1 ,kolumbus eller ,amerikas upptaeckt and ,gustaf ,adolf i ,tyskland 7the last two incomplete71 though rich in beauties of detail1 are far inferior to his shorter pieces4 ,the poetical works of ,franzen are collected under the title ,skaldestycken 7#g vols41 #ahbd-ahfa72 new ed41 ,samlade dikter1 with a biography by ,a4 ,a4 ,grafstroem 7#ahfg-ahfi72 also a selection 7,valda dikter7 in #b vols4 7#ahga74 ,his prose writings1 ,om svenska drottningar 7,abo1 #agih2 ,oerebro1 #ahbc71 ,skrifter i obunden stil1 vol4 i4 7#ahce71 ,predikningar 7#e vols41 #ahda-ahde7 and ,minnesteckningar1 prepared for the ,academy 7#c vols41 #ahdh-ahfj71 are marked by faithful portraiture and purity of style4 ,see ,b4 ,e4 ,malmstroem1 in the ,handlingar of the ,swedish ,academy 7#aheb1 new series #ahhg71 vol4 ii42 ,s4 ,a4 ,hollander1 ,minne af ,f4 ,m4 ,franzen 7,oerebro1 #ahfh72 ,f4 ,cygnaeus1 ,teckningar ur ,f4 ,m4 ,franzens lefnad 7,helsingfors1 #ahgb72 and ,gustaf ,ljunggren1 ,svenska vitterhetens haefder efter ,gustaf ,,iii4's doed1 vol4 ii4 7#ahgf74 ,,franzensbad1 or ,,kaiser-,,franzensbad1 a town and watering-place of ,bohemia1 ,austria1 #aeb m4 ,w4,n4,w4 of ,prague by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #bccj4 ,it is situated at an altitude of about #aejj ft4 between the spurs of the ,fichtelgebirge1 the ,boehmerwald and the ,erzgebirge1 and lies #d m4 ,n4,w4 of ,eger4 ,it possesses a large kursaal1 several bathing establishments1 a hospital for poor patients and several parks4 ,there are altogether #ab mineral springs with saline1 alkaline and ferruginous waters1 of which the oldest and most important is the ,franzensquelle4 ,one of the springs gives off carbonic acid gas and another contains a considerable proportion of lithia salts4 ,the waters1 which have an average temperature between #ej4b deg4 ,f4 and #ed4e deg4 ,f41 are used both internally and externally1 and are efficacious in cases of anaemia1 nervous disorders1 sexual diseases1 specially for women1 and heart diseases4 ,franzensbad is frequently resorted to as an after-cure by patients from ,carlsbad and ,marienbad4 ,another important part of the cure is the so-called moor or mud-baths1 prepared from the peat of the ,franzensbad marsh1 which is very rich in mineral substances1 like sulphates of iron1 of soda and of potash1 organic acids1 salt1 c4 ,the first information about the springs dates from the #afth century1 and an analysis of the waters was made in #aefe4 ,they were first used for bathing purposes in #agjg4 ,but the foundation of ,franzensbad as a watering-place really dates from #agic1 when ,dr ,adler built here the first ,kurhaus1 and the place received its name after the emperor ,francis ,i4 ,see ,dr ,loimann1 ,franzensbad 7#crd ed41 ,vienna1 #aijj74 ,,franz ,,josef ,,land1 an arctic archipelago lying ,e4 of ,spitsbergen and ,n4 of ,novaya ,zemlya1 extending northward from about #hj deg4 to #hb deg4 ,n41 and between #db deg4 and #fd deg4 ,e4 ,it is described as a lofty glacier-covered land1 reaching an extreme elevation of about #bdjj ft4 ,the glaciers front1 with a perpendicular ice-wall1 a shore of debris on which a few low plants are found to grow--poppies1 mosses and the like4 ,the islands are volcanic1 the main geological formation being ,tertiary or ,jurassic basalt1 which occasionally protrudes through the ice-cap in high isolated blocks near the shore4 ,a connecting island-chain between ,franz ,josef ,land and ,spitzbergen is probable4 ,the bear and fox are the only land mammals2 insects are rare2 but the avifauna is of interest1 and the ,jackson expedition distinguished several new species4 ,august ,petermann expressed the opinion that ,baffin may have sighted the west of ,franz ,josef ,land in #afad1 but the first actual discovery is due to ,julius ,payer1 a lieutenant in the ,austrian army1 who was associated with ,weyprecht in the second polar expedition fitted out by ,count ,wilczek on the ship ,tegetthof in #ahgb4 ,on the #acth of ,august #ahgc1 the ,tegetthof being then beset1 high land was seen to the north-west4 ,later in the season ,payer led expeditions to ,hochstetter and ,wilczek islands1 and after a second winter in the ice-bound ship1 a difficult journey was made northward through ,austria ,sound1 which was reported to separate two large masses of land1 ,wilczek ,land on the east from ,zichy ,land on the west1 to ,cape ,fligely1 in #hb deg4 #e' ,n41 where ,rawlinson ,sound branched away to the north-east4 ,cape ,fligely was the highest latitude attained by ,payer1 and remained the highest attained in the ,old ,world till #ahie4 ,payer reported that from ,cape ,fligely land 7,rudolf ,land7 stretched north-east to a cape 7,cape ,sherard ,osborn71 and mountain ranges were visible to the north1 indicating lands beyond the #hcrd parallel1 to which the names ,king ,oscar ,land and ,petermann ,land were given4 ,in #ahgi ,de ,bruyne sighted high land in the ,franz ,josef ,land region1 but otherwise it remained untouched until ,leigh ,smith1 in the yacht ,eira1 explored the whole southern coast from #db deg4 to #ed deg4 ,e4 in #ahha and #ahhb1 discovering many islands and sounds1 and ascertaining that the coast of ,alexandra ,land1 in the extreme west1 trended to north-west and north4 ,after ,leigh ,smith came another pause1 and no further mention is made of ,franz ,josef ,land till #ahid4 ,in that year ,mr ,alfred ,harmsworth 7afterwards ,lord ,northcliffe7 fitted out an expedition in the ship ,windward under the leadership of ,mr ,f4 ,g4 ,jackson1 with the object of establishing a permanent base from which systematic exploration should be carried on for successive years and1 if practicable1 a journey should be made to the ,pole4 ,mr ,jackson and his party landed at ,elmwood 7which was named from ,lord ,northcliffe's seat in the ,isle of ,thanet71 near ,cape ,flora1 at the western extremity of ,northbrook ,island1 on the #gth of ,september4 ,after a preliminary reconnaissance to the north1 which afterwards turned out to be vitally important1 the summer of #ahie was spent in exploring the coast to the north-west by a boating expedition4 ,this expedition visited many of the points seen by ,leigh ,smith1 and discovered land1 which it has been suggested may be the ,gillies ,land reported by the ,dutch captain ,gillies in #agjg4 ,in #ahif the ,jackson-,harmsworth expedition worked northwards through an archipelago for about #gj m4 and reached ,cape ,richthofen1 a promontory #gjj ft4 high1 whence an expanse of open water was seen to the northward1 which received the name of ,queen ,victoria ,sea4 ,to the west1 on the opposite side of a wide opening which was called the ,british ,channel1 appeared glacier-covered land1 and an island lay to the northward4 ,the island was probably the ,king ,oscar ,land of ,payer4 ,to north and north-east was the land which had been visited in the reconnaissance of the previous year1 but beyond it a water-sky appeared in the supposed position of ,petermann ,land4 ,thus ,zichy ,land itself was resolved into a group of islands1 and the outlying land sighted by ,payer was found to be islands also4 ,meanwhile ,nansen1 on his southward journey1 had approached ,franz ,josef ,land from the north-east1 finding only sea at the north end of ,wilczek ,land1 and seeing nothing of ,payer's ,rawlinson ,sound1 or of the north end of ,austria ,sound4 ,nansen wintered near ,cape ,norway1 only a few miles from the spot reached by ,jackson in #ahie4 ,he had finally proved that a deep oceanic basin lies to the north4 ,on the #agth of ,june #ahif the dramatic meeting of ,jackson and ,nansen took place1 and in the same year the ,windward revisited ,elmwood and brought ,nansen home1 the work of the ,jackson-,harmsworth expedition being continued for another year4 ,as the non-existence of land to the north had been proved1 the attempt to penetrate northwards was abandoned1 and the last season was devoted to a survey and scientific examination of the archipelago1 especially to the west2 this was carried out by ,messrs ,jackson1 ,armitage1 ,r4 ,koettlitz1 ,h4 ,fisher and ,w4 ,s4 ,bruce4 ,further light was thrown on the relations of ,franz ,josef ,land and ,spitsbergen during #ahig by the discoveries of ,captain ,robertson of ,dundee1 and ,wyche's ,land was circumnavigated by ,mr ,arnold ,pike and ,sir ,savile ,crossley4 ,the latter voyage was repeated in the following year by a ,german expedition under ,dr ,th4 ,lerner and ,captain ,ruediger4 ,in ,august #ahih an expedition under ,mr ,walter ,wellman1 an ,american1 landed at ,cape ,tegetthof4 ,beginning a northward journey with sledges at the end of the winter1 ,wellman met with an accident which compelled him to return1 but not before some exploration had been accomplished1 and the eastern extension of the archipelago fairly well defined4 ,in ,june #ahii ,h4,r4,h4 the duke of ,abruzzi started from ,christiania in his yacht1 the ,stella ,polare1 to make the first attempt to force a ship into the newly discovered ocean north of ,franz ,josef ,land4 ,the ,stella ,polare succeeded in making her way through the ,british ,channel to ,crown ,prince ,rudolf ,land1 and wintered in ,teplitz ,bay1 in #ha deg4 #cc' ,n4 lat4 ,the ship was nearly wrecked in the autumn1 and the party had to spend most of the winter on shore1 the duke of ,abruzzi suffering severely from frost-bite4 ,in ,march #aijj a sledge party of thirteen1 under ,captain ,cagni1 started northwards4 ,they found no trace of ,petermann ,land1 but with great difficulty crossed the ice to #hf deg4 #cc' ,n4 lat41 #bj m4 beyond ,nansen's farthest1 and #bdj m4 from the ,pole4 ,the party1 with the exception of three1 returned to the ship after an absence of #ajd days1 and the ,stella ,polare returned to ,tromsoe in ,september #aijj4 ,in #aija-aijb the ,baldwin-,ziegler expedition also attempted a northward journey from ,franz ,josef ,land4 ,see ,geographical ,journal1 vol4 xi41 ,february #ahih2 ,f4 ,g4 ,jackson1 ,a ,thousand ,days in the ,arctic 7#ahii74 ,,franzos1 ,,karl ,,emil 7#ahdh-aijd71 ,german novelist1 was born of ,jewish parentage on the #beth of ,october #ahdh in ,russian ,podolia1 and spent his early years at ,czortkow in ,galicia4 ,his father1 a district physician1 died early1 and the boy1 after attending the gymnasium of ,czernowitz1 was obliged to teach in order to support himself and prepare for academic study4 ,he studied law at the universities of ,vienna and ,graz1 but after passing the examination for employment in the state judicial service abandoned this career and1 becoming a journalist1 travelled extensively in south-east ,europe1 and visited ,asia ,minor and ,egypt4 ,in #ahgg he returned to ,vienna1 where from #ahhd to #ahhf he edited the ,neue illustrierte ,zeitung4 ,in #ahhg he removed to ,berlin and founded the fortnightly review ,deutsche ,dichtung4 ,franzos died on the #bhth of ,january #aijd4 ,his earliest collections of stories and sketches1 ,aus ,halb-,asien1 ,land und ,leute des oestlichen ,europas 7#ahgf7 and ,die ,juden von ,barnow 7#ahgg7 depict graphically the life and manners of the races of south-eastern ,europe4 ,among other of his works may be mentioned the short stories1 ,junge ,liebe 7#ahgh71 ,stille ,geschichten 7#ahhj71 and the novels ,moschko von ,parma 7#ahhj71 ,ein ,kampf ums ,recht 7#ahhb71 ,der ,praesident 7#ahhd71 ,judith ,trachtenberg 7#ahij71 ,der ,wahrheitsucher 7#ahid74 ,,frascati1 a town and episcopal see of ,italy1 in the province of ,rome1 #ae m4 ,s4,e4 of ,rome by rail1 and also reached by electric tramway via ,grottaferrata4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #hdec4 ,the town is situated #ajef ft4 above the sea-level1 on the ,n4 slopes of the outer crater ring of the ,alban ,hills1 and commands a very fine view of the ,campagna of ,rome4 ,the cathedral contains a memorial tablet to ,charles ,edward1 the ,young ,pretender1 whose body for some while rested here2 his brother1 ,henry1 ,cardinal ,york1 owned a villa at ,frascati4 ,the villas of the ,roman nobility1 with their beautiful gardens and fountains1 are the chief attraction of ,frascati4 ,the earliest in date is the ,villa ,falconieri1 planned by ,cardinal ,ruffini before #aeej2 the most important of the rest are the ,villa ,torlonia 7formerly ,conti71 ,lancelotti 7formerly ,piccolomini71 ,ruffinella 7now belonging to ,prince ,lancellotti71 ,aldobrandini1 ,borghese and ,mondragone 7now a ,jesuit school74 ,the surrounding country1 covered with remains of ancient villas1 is fertile and noted for its wine4 ,frascati seems to have arisen on the site of a very large ancient villa1 which1 under ,domitian at any rate1 belonged to the imperial house about the #ith century in which period we find in the ,liber ,pontificalis the names of four churches in ,frascata4 ,the medieval stronghold of the counts of ,tusculum 7q4v471 which occupied the site of the ancient city1 was dismantled by the ,romans in #aaia1 and the inhabitants put to the sword or mutilated4 ,many of the fugitives naturally took refuge in ,frascati4 ,the see of ,tusculum had1 however1 always had its cathedral church in ,frascati4 ,for the greater part of the middle ages ,frascati belonged to the papacy4 ,see ,g4 ,tomassetti1 ,la ,via ,latina nel medio evo 7,rome1 #ahhf71 #agj seq42 ,t4 ,ashby in ,papers of the ,british ,school at ,rome1 iv4 7,london1 #aijg74 7,t4 ,as47 ,,fraser1 ,,alexander ,,campbell 7#ahai- 71 ,scottish philosopher1 was born at ,ardchattan1 ,argyllshire1 on the #crd of ,september #ahai4 ,he was educated at ,glasgow and ,edinburgh1 where1 from #ahdf to #ahef1 he was professor of ,logic at ,new ,college4 ,he edited the ,north ,british ,review from #ahej to #aheg1 and in #ahef1 having previously been a ,free ,church minister1 he succeeded ,sir ,william ,hamilton as professor of ,logic and ,metaphysics at ,edinburgh ,university4 ,in #ahei he became dean of the faculty of arts4 ,he devoted himself to the study of ,english philosophers1 especially ,berkeley1 and published a ,collected ,edition of the ,works of ,bishop ,berkeley with ,annotations1 c4 7#ahga2 enlarged #aija71 a ,biography of ,berkeley 7#ahha71 an ,annotated ,edition of ,locke's ,essay 7#ahid71 the ,philosophy of ,theism 7#ahif7 and the ,biography of ,thomas ,reid 7#ahih74 ,he contributed the article on ,john ,locke to the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica4 ,in #aijd he published an autobiography entitled ,biographia philosophica1 in which he sketched the progress of his intellectual development4 ,from this work and from his ,gifford lectures we learn objectively what had previously been inferred from his critical works4 ,after a childhood spent in an austerity which stigmatized as unholy even the novels of ,sir ,walter ,scott1 he began his college career at the age of fourteen at a time when ,christopher ,north and ,dr ,ritchie were lecturing on ,moral ,philosophy and ,logic4 ,his first philosophical advance was stimulated by ,thomas ,brown's ,cause and ,effect1 which introduced him to the problems which were to occupy his thought4 ,from this point he fell into the scepticism of ,hume4 ,in #ahcf ,sir ,william ,hamilton was appointed to the chair of ,logic and ,metaphysics1 and ,fraser became his pupil4 ,he himself says1 ,i owe more to ,hamilton than to any other influence4 ,it was about this time also that he began his study of ,berkeley and ,coleridge1 and deserted his early phenomenalism for the conception of a spiritual will as the universal cause4 ,in the ,biographia this ,theistic faith appears in its full development 7see the concluding chapter71 and is especially important as perhaps the nearest approach to ,kantian ethics made by original ,english philosophy4 ,apart from the philosophical interest of the ,biographia1 the work contains valuable pictures of the ,land of ,lorne and ,argyllshire society in the early #aith century1 of university life in ,glasgow and ,edinburgh1 and a history of the ,north ,british ,review4 ,,fraser1 ,,james 7#ahah-ahhe71 ,english bishop1 was born at ,prestbury1 in ,gloucestershire1 on the #ahth of ,august #ahah1 and was educated at ,bridgnorth1 ,shrewsbury1 and ,lincoln ,college1 ,oxford4 ,in #ahci he was ,ireland scholar1 and took a first class4 ,in #ahdj he gained an ,oriel fellowship1 and was for some time tutor of the college1 but did not take orders until #ahdf4 ,he was successively vicar of ,cholderton1 in ,wiltshire1 and rector of ,ufton ,nervet1 in ,berkshire2 but his subsequent importance was largely due to ,w4 ,k4 ,hamilton1 bishop of ,salisbury1 who recommended him as an assistant commissioner of education4 ,his report on the educational condition of thirteen poor-law unions1 made in ,may #ahei1 was described by ,thomas ,hughes as a superb1 almost a unique piece of work4 ,in #ahfe he was commissioned to report on the state of education in the ,united ,states and ,canada1 and his able performance of this task brought him an offer of the bishopric of ,calcutta1 which he declined1 but in ,january #ahgj he accepted the see of ,manchester4 ,the task before him was an arduous one1 for although his predecessor1 ,james ,prince ,lee1 had consecrated no fewer than #acj churches1 the enormous population was still greatly in advance of the ecclesiastical machinery4 ,fraser worked with the utmost energy1 and did even more for the church by the liberality and geniality which earned him the title of the bishop of all denominations4 ,he was prominent in secular as well as religious works1 interesting himself in every movement that promoted health1 morality1 or education2 and especially serviceable as the friendly1 unofficious counsellor of all classes4 ,his theology was that of a liberal high-churchman1 and his sympathies were broad4 ,in convocation he seconded a motion for the disuse of the ,athanasian ,creed1 and in the ,house of ,lords he voted for the abolition of university tests4 ,he died suddenly on the #bbnd of ,october #ahhe4 ,a biography by ,thomas ,hughes was published in #ahhg1 and an account of his ,lancashire life by ,j4 ,w4 ,diggle 7#ahhi71 who also edited #b vols4 of ,university and ,parochial ,sermons 7#ahhg74 ,,fraser1 ,,james ,,baillie 7#aghc-ahef71 ,scottish traveller and author1 was born at ,reelick in the county of ,inverness on the #aath of ,june #aghc4 ,he was the eldest of the four sons of ,edward ,satchell ,fraser of ,reelick1 all of whom found their way to the ,east1 and gave proof of their ability4 ,in early life he went to the ,west ,indies and thence to ,india4 ,in #ahae he made a tour of exploration in the ,himalayas1 accompanied by his brother ,william 7d4 #ahce74 ,when ,reza ,kuli ,mirza and ,nejeff ,kuli ,mirza1 the exiled ,persian princes1 visited ,england1 he was appointed to look after them during their stay1 and on their return he accompanied them as far as ,constantinople4 ,he was afterwards sent to ,persia on a diplomatic mission by ,lord ,glenelg1 and effected a most remarkable journey on horseback through ,asia ,minor to ,teheran4 ,his health1 however1 was impaired by the exposure4 ,in #ahbc he married a daughter of ,alexander ,fraser ,tytler1 ,lord ,woodhouselee1 a sister of the historian ,patrick ,fraser ,tytler4 ,he died at ,reelick in ,january #ahef4 ,fraser is said to have displayed great skill in water-colours1 and several of his drawings have been engraved2 and the astronomical observations which he took during some of his journeys did considerable service to the cartography of ,asia4 ,the works by which he attained his literary reputation were accounts of his travels and fictitious tales illustrative of ,eastern life4 ,in both he employed a vigorous and impassioned style1 which was on the whole wonderfully effective in spite of minor faults in taste and flaws in structure4 ,fraser's earliest writings are3 ,journal of a ,tour through ,part of the ,himala ,mountains and to the ,sources of the ,jumna and the ,ganges 7#ahbj72 ,a ,narrative of a ,journey into ,khorasan in the ,years #ahba and #ahbb1 including some ,account of the ,countries to the ,north-,east of ,persia 7#ahbe72 and ,travels and ,adventures in the ,persian ,provinces on the ,southern ,banks of the ,caspian ,sea 7#ahbf74 ,his romances include ,the ,kuzzilbash1 a ,tale of ,khorasan 7#ahbh71 and its sequel1 ,the ,persian ,adventurer 7#ahcj72 ,allee ,neemroo 7#ahdb72 and ,the ,dark ,falcon 7#ahdd74 ,he also wrote ,an ,historical and ,descriptive ,account of ,persia 7#ahcd72 ,a ,winter's ,journey 7,tatar7 from ,constantinople to ,teheran 7#ahch72 ,travels in ,koordistan1 ,mesopotamia1 c4 7#ahdj72 ,mesopotamia and ,assyria 7#ahdb72 and ,military ,memoirs of ,col4 ,james ,skinner 7#ahea74 ,,fraser1 ,,sir ,,william ,,augustus1 ,bart4 7#ahbf-ahih71 ,english politician1 author and collector1 was born on the #ajth of ,february #ahbf1 the son of ,sir ,james ,john ,fraser1 #crd baronet1 a colonel of the #gth ,hussars1 who had served on ,wellington's staff at ,waterloo4 ,he was educated at ,eton and at ,christ ,church1 ,oxford1 entered the #ast ,life ,guards in #ahdg1 but retired with a captain's rank in #aheb4 ,he then set about entering parliament1 and the ups and downs of his political career were rather remarkable4 ,he was returned for ,barnstaple in #aheb1 but the election was declared void on account of bribery1 and the constituency was disfranchised for two years4 ,at the election of #aheg ,sir ,william1 who had meantime been defeated at ,harwich1 was again returned at ,barnstaple4 ,he was1 however1 defeated in #ahei1 but was elected in #ahfc at ,ludlow4 ,this seat he held for only two years1 when he was again defeated and did not re-enter parliament until #ahgd1 when be was returned for ,kidderminster1 a constituency he represented for six years1 when he retired4 ,he was a familiar figure at the ,carlton ,club1 always ready with a copious collection of anecdotes of ,wellington1 ,disraeli and ,napoleon ,,iii4 ,he died on the #agth of ,august #ahih4 ,he was an assiduous collector of relics2 and his library was sold for some ,l#bj1jjj4 ,his own books comprise ,words on ,wellington 7#ahhi71 ,disraeli and his ,day 7#ahia71 ,hic et ,ubique 7#ahic71 ,napoleon ,,iii4 7#ahif7 and the ,waterloo ,ball 7#ahig74 ,,fraser1 the chief river of ,british ,columbia1 ,canada1 rising in two branches among the ,rocky ,mountains near #eb deg4 #de' ,n41 #aah deg4 #cj' ,w4 ,length #gdj m4 ,it first flows ,n4,w4 for about #afj m41 then rounds the head of the ,cariboo ,mountains1 and flows directly ,s4 for over #djj m4 to ,hope1 where it again turns abruptly and flows ,w4 for #hj m41 falling into the ,gulf of ,georgia at ,new ,westminster4 ,after the junction of the two forks near its northern extremity1 the first important tributary on its southern course is the ,stuart1 draining ,lakes ,stuart1 ,fraser and ,francois4 ,one hundred miles lower down the ,quesnel1 draining a large lake of the same name1 flows in from the east at a town also so named4 ,farther on the ,fraser receives from the west the ,chilcotin1 and at ,lytton1 about #ahj m4 from the sea1 the ,thompson1 its largest tributary1 flows in from the east1 draining a series of mountain lakes1 and receiving at ,kamloops the ,north ,thompson1 which flows through deep and impassable canyons4 ,below ,hope the ,lillooet flows in from the north4 ,the ,fraser is a typical mountain stream1 rapid and impetuous through all its length1 and like most of its tributaries is in many parts not navigable even by canoes4 ,on its southern course between ,lytton and ,yale1 while bursting its way through the ,coast ,range1 it flows through majestic canyons1 which1 like those of the ,thompson1 were the scene of many tragedies during the days of the gold-rush to the ,cariboo district4 ,at ,yale1 about #hj m4 from its mouth1 it becomes navigable1 though its course is still very rapid4 ,in the ,cariboo district1 comprised within the great bend of the river1 near ,tete ,jaune ,cache1 are many valuable gold deposits4 ,with its tributaries the ,fraser drains the whole province from #ed deg4 to #di deg4 ,n41 except the extreme south-eastern corner1 which is within the basin of the ,columbia and its tributary the ,kootenay4 ,,fraserburgh1 a police burgh and seaport1 on the ,n4 coast of ,aberdeenshire1 ,scotland4 ,pop4 7#ahia71 #gdff2 7#aija71 #iaje4 ,it is situated #dga_/d m4 by rail ,n4 of ,aberdeen1 from which there is a branch line1 of which it is the terminus1 of the ,great ,north of ,scotland railway4 ,it takes its name from ,sir ,alexander ,fraser1 the ancestor of ,lord ,saltoun1 whose seat1 ,philorth ,house1 lies #b m4 to the south4 ,sir ,alexander obtained for it in #afac a charter as a burgh of royalty1 and also in #aeib a charter for the founding of a university4 ,this latter project1 however1 was not carried out1 and all that remains of the building intended for the college is a three-storeyed tower4 ,the old castle of the ,frasers on ,kinnaird ,head now contains a lighthouse1 and close by is the ,wine ,tower1 with a cave below4 ,the town cross is a fine structure standing upon a huge hexagon1 surmounted by a stone pillar #ab ft4 high1 ornamented by the royal and ,fraser arms4 ,the port is one of the leading stations of the herring fishery in the north of ,scotland and the head of a fishery district4 ,during the herring season 7,june to ,september7 the population is increased by upwards of #aj1jjj persons4 ,the fleet numbers more than #gjj boats1 and the annual value of the catch exceeds ,l#bjj1jjj4 ,the harbour1 originally constructed as a refuge for ,british ships of war1 is one of the best on the east coast1 and has been improved by the widening of the piers and the extension of the breakwaters4 ,it has an area of upwards of eight acres1 is easy of access1 and affords anchorage for vessels of every size4 ,,fraserville 7formerly ,riviere du ,loup en ,bas71 a town and watering-place in ,temiscouata county1 ,quebec1 ,canada1 #ajg m4 7by water7 north-east of ,quebec1 on the south shore of the ,st ,lawrence river1 and at the mouth of the ,riviere du ,loup1 at the junction of the ,intercolonial and ,temiscouata railways4 ,it contains a convent1 boys' college1 hospital1 several mills1 and is a favourite summer resort on account of the angling and shooting1 and the magnificent scenery4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #defi4 ,,frater1 ,,frater ,,house or ,,fratery1 a term in architecture for the hall where the members of a monastery or friary met for meals or refreshment4 ,the word is by origin the same as refectory4 ,the older forms1 such as freitur1 fraytor and the like1 show the word to be an adaptation of the ,o4 ,fr4 fraitour1 a shortened form of refraitour1 from the ,med4 ,lat4 rejectorium4 ,the word has been confused with frater1 a brother or friar1 and hence sometimes confined in meaning to the dining-hall of a friary1 while refectory is used of a monastery4 ,,fraternities1 ,,college1 a class of student societies peculiar to the colleges and universities of the ,united ,states and ,canada1 with certain common characteristics1 and mostly named from two or three letters of the ,greek alphabet2 hence they are frequently called ,greek ,letter ,societies4 ,they are organized on the lodge system1 and each fraternity comprises a number of affiliated lodges of which only one of any one fraternity is connected with the same institution4 ,the lodges1 called chapters1 in memory of the convocations of monks of medieval times1 are usually designated by ,greek letters also4 ,they are nominally secret1 with one exception 7,delta ,upsilon74 ,each chapter admits members from the lowest or freshman class1 and of course loses its members as the students depart from college1 consequently each chapter has in it at the same time members of all the four college classes and frequently those pursuing postgraduate studies4 ,where the attendance at a college is large the material from which fraternity members may be drawn is correspondingly abundant1 and in some of the large colleges 7e4g4 at ,cornell ,university and the ,university of ,michigan7 there are chapters of over twenty fraternities4 ,all the fraternities aim to be select and to pick their members from the mass of incoming students4 ,where1 however1 the material to select from is not abundant and the rival fraternities are numerous1 care in selection is impossible1 and the chapters at any one college are apt to secure much the same general type of men4 ,many of the fraternities have1 however1 on account of a persistent selection of men of about the same tastes at different colleges1 acquired a distinct character and individuality2 for instance1 ,alpha ,delta ,phi is literary4 ,the first of these fraternities was the ,phi ,beta ,kappa1 founded at the ,college of ,william and ,mary at ,williamsburg1 ,virginia1 in #aggf4 ,it was a little social club of five students3 ,john ,heath1 ,richard ,booker1 ,thomas ,smith1 ,armistead ,smith and ,john ,jones4 ,its badge was a square silver medal displaying the ,greek letters of its name and a few symbols4 ,in #aggi it authorized ,elisha ,parmelee1 one of its members1 to establish meetings or chapters at ,yale and ,harvard1 these chapters being authorized to establish subordinate branches in their respective states4 ,in #agha the ,college of ,william and ,mary was closed1 its buildings being occupied in turn by the ,british1 ,french and ,american troops1 and the society ceased to exist4 ,the two branches1 however1 were established--that at ,yale in #aghj and that at ,harvard in #agha4 ,chapters were established at ,dartmouth in #aghg1 at ,union in #ahag1 at ,bowdoin in #ahbd and at ,brown in #ahcj4 ,this society changed its character in #ahbf and became non-secret and purely honorary in character1 admitting to membership a certain proportion of the scholars of highest standing in each class 7only in classical courses1 usually and with few exceptions only in graduating classes74 ,more recent honorary societies of similar character among schools of science and engineering are ,sigma ,xi and ,tau ,beta ,pi4 ,in #ahbe1 at ,union ,college1 ,kappa ,alpha was organized1 copying in style of badge1 membership restrictions and the like1 its predecessor4 ,in #ahbg two other similar societies1 ,sigma ,phi and ,delta ,phi1 were founded at the same place4 ,in #ahca ,sigma ,phi placed a branch at ,hamilton ,college and in #ahcb ,alpha ,delta ,phi originated there4 ,in #ahcc ,psi ,upsilon1 a fourth society1 was organized at ,union4 ,in #ahce ,alpha ,delta ,phi placed a chapter at ,miami ,university1 and in #ahci ,beta ,theta ,pi originated there1 and so the system spread4 ,these fraternities1 it will be observed1 were all undergraduate societies among the male students4 ,in #aiaj the total number of men's general fraternities was #cb1 with #ajfh living chapters1 and owning property worth many millions of dollars4 ,in #ahfd ,theta ,xi1 the first professional fraternity restricting its membership to students intending to engage in the same profession1 was organized4 ,there were in #aiaj about #ej of these organizations with some #djj chapters4 ,in addition there are about #ajj local societies or chapters acting as independent units4 ,some of the older of these1 such as ,kappa ,kappa ,kappa at ,dartmouth1 ,,ika at ,trinity1 ,phi ,nu ,theta at ,wesleyan and ,delta ,psi at ,vermont1 are permanent in character1 but the majority of them are purely temporary1 designed to maintain an organization until the society becomes a chapter of one of the general fraternities4 ,in #ahgj the first women's society or sorority1 the ,kappa ,alpha ,theta1 was organized at ,de ,pauw ,university4 ,there were in #aiaj1 #ag general sororities with some #cjj active chapters4 ,it is no exaggeration to say that these apparently insignificant organizations of irresponsible students have modified the college life of ,america and have had a wide influence4 ,members join in the impressionable years of their youth2 they retain for their organizations a peculiar loyalty and affection1 and freely contribute with money and influence to their advancement4 ,almost universally the members of any particular chapter 7or part of them7 live together in a lodge or chapter house4 ,the men's fraternities own hundreds of houses and rent as many more4 ,the fraternities form a little aristocracy within the college community4 ,sometimes the line of separation is invisible1 sometimes sharply marked4 ,sometimes this condition militates against the college discipline and sometimes it assists it4 ,conflicts not infrequently occur between the fraternity and non-fraternity element in a college4 ,it can readily be understood how young men living together in the intimate relationship of daily contact in the same house1 having much the same tastes1 culture and aspirations would form among themselves enduring friendships4 ,in addition each fraternity has a reputation to maintain1 and this engenders an esprit du corps which at times places loyalty to fraternity interests above loyalty to college interest or the real advantage of the individual4 ,at commencements and upon other occasions the former members of the chapters return to their chapter houses and help to foster the pride and loyalty of the undergraduates4 ,the chapter houses are commonly owned by corporations made up of the alumni4 ,this brings the undergraduates into contact with men of mature age and often of national fame1 who treat their membership as a serious privilege4 ,the development of this collegiate aristocracy has led to jealousy and bitter animosity among those not selected for membership4 ,some of the states1 notably ,south ,carolina and ,arkansas1 have by legislation1 either abolished the fraternities at state-controlled institutions or seriously limited the privileges of their members4 ,the constitutionality of such legislation has never been tested4 ,litigation has occasionally arisen out of attempts on the part of college authorities to prohibit the fraternities at their several institutions4 ,this1 it has been held1 may lawfully be done at a college maintained by private endowment but not at an institution supported by public funds4 ,in the latter case all classes of the public are equally entitled to the same educational privileges and members of the fraternities may not be discriminated against4 ,the fraternities are admirably organized4 ,the usual system comprises a legislative body made up of delegates from the different chapters and an executive or administrative body elected by the delegates4 ,few of the fraternities have any judiciary4 ,none is needed4 ,the financial systems are sound1 and the conventions of delegates meet in various parts of the ,united ,states1 several hundred in number1 spend thousands of dollars in travel and entertainment1 and attract much public attention4 ,most of the fraternities have an inspection system by which chapters are periodically visited and kept up to a certain level of excellence4 ,the leading fraternities publish journals usually from four to eight times during the college year4 ,the earliest of these was the ,beta ,theta ,pi1 first issued in #ahgb4 ,all publish catalogues of their members and the most prosperous have issued histories4 ,they also publish song books1 music and many ephemeral and local publications4 ,the alumni of the fraternities are organized into clubs or associations having headquarters at centres of population4 ,these organizations are somewhat loose1 but nevertheless are capable of much exertion and influence should occasion arise4 ,the college fraternity system has no parallel among the students of colleges outside of ,america4 ,one of the curious things about it1 however1 is that while it is practically uniform throughout the ,united ,states1 at the three prominent universities of ,harvard1 ,yale and ,princeton it differs in many respects from its character elsewhere4 ,at ,harvard1 although there are chapters of a few of the fraternities1 their influence is insignificant1 their place being taken by a group of local societies1 some of them class organizations4 ,at ,yale1 the regular system of fraternities obtains in the engineering or technical department 7the ,sheffield ,scientific ,school71 but in the classical department the fraternity chapters are called junior societies1 because they limit their membership to the three upper classes and allow the juniors each year practically to control the chapter affairs4 ,certain senior societies1 of which the oldest is the ,skull and ,bones1 which are inter-fraternity societies admitting freely members of the fraternities1 are more prominent at ,yale than the fraternities themselves4 ,princeton has two 7secret7 literary and fraternal societies1 the ,american ,whig and the ,cliosophic1 and various local social clubs1 with no relationship to organizations in other colleges and not having ,greek letter names4 ,at a few universities 7for instance1 ,michigan1 ,cornell and ,virginia71 senior societies or other inter-fraternity societies exert great influence and have modified the strength of the fraternity system4 ,of late years1 numerous societies bearing ,greek names and imitating the externals of the college fraternities have sprung up in the high schools and academies of the country1 but have excited the earnest and apparently united opposition of the authorities of such schools4 ,see ,william ,raimond ,baird1 ,american ,college ,fraternities 7#fth ed41 ,new ,york1 #aije72 ,albert ,c4 ,stevens1 ,cyclopedia of ,fraternities 7,paterson1 ,n4 ,j41 #ahii72 ,henry ,d4 ,sheldon1 ,student ,life and ,customs 7,new ,york1 #aija72 ,homer ,l4 ,patterson1 ,patterson's ,college and ,school ,directory 7,chicago1 #aijd72 ,h4 ,k4 ,kellogg1 ,college ,secret ,societies 7,chicago1 #ahgd72 ,albert ,p4 ,jacobs1 ,greek ,letter ,societies 7,detroit1 #ahgi74 7,w4 ,r4 ,b4997 ,,fraticelli 7plural diminutive of ,ital4 frate1 brother71 the name given during the #acth1 #adth and #aeth centuries to a number of religious groups in ,italy1 differing widely from each other1 but all derived more or less directly from the ,franciscan movement4 ,fra ,salimbene says in his ,chronicle 7,parma ed41 p4 #ajh73 ,all who wished to found a new rule borrowed something from the ,franciscan order1 the sandals or the habit4 ,as early as #abch ,gregory ,,ix41 in his bull ,quoniam abundavit iniquitas1 condemned and denounced as forgers 7tanquam falsarios7 all who begged or preached in a habit resembling that of the mendicant orders1 and this condemnation was repeated by him or his successors4 ,the term ,fraticelli was used contemptuously to denote1 not any particular sect1 but the members of orders formed on the fringe of the church4 ,thus ,giovanni ,villani1 speaking of the heretic ,dolcino1 says in his ,chronicle 7bk4 viii4 ch4 #hd73 ,he is not a brother of an ordered rule1 but a fraticello without an order4 ,similarly1 ,john ,,xxii41 in his bull ,sancta ,romana et ,universalis ,ecclesia 7#bhth of ,december #acag71 condemns vaguely those profanae multitudinis viri commonly called ,fraticelli1 or ,brethren of the ,poor ,life1 or ,bizocchi1 or ,beguines1 or by all manner of other names4 ,some historians1 in their zeal for rigid classification1 have regarded the ,fraticelli as a distinct sect1 and have attempted to discover its dogmas and its founder4 ,some of the contemporaries of these religious groups fell into the same error1 and in this way the vague term ,fraticelli has sometimes been applied to the disciples of ,armanno ,pongilupo of ,ferrara 7d4 #abfi71 who was undoubtedly a ,cathar1 and to the followers of ,gerard ,segarelli and ,dolcino1 who were always known among themselves as ,apostolic ,brethren 7,apostolici74 ,furthermore1 it seems absurd to classify both the ,dolcinists and the ,spiritual ,franciscans as ,fraticelli1 since1 as has been pointed out by ,ehrle 7,arch4 f4 ,lit4 u4 ,kirchengesch4 des ,mittelalters1 ii4 #ajg1 c471 ,angelo of ,clarino1 in his ,de septem tribulationibus1 written to the glory of the ,spirituals1 does not scruple to stigmatize the ,dolcinists as disciples of the devil4 ,it is equally absurd to include in the same category the ignorant ,bizocchi and ,segarellists and such learned disciples of ,michael of ,cesena and ,louis of ,bavaria as ,william of ,occam and ,bonagratia of ,bergamo1 who have often been placed under this comprehensive rubric4 ,the name ,fraticelli may more justly be applied to the most exalted fraction of ,franciscanism4 ,in #acbb some prisoners declared to the inquisitor ,bernard ,gui at ,toulouse that the ,franciscan order was divided into three sections--the ,conventuals1 who were allowed to retain their real and personal property2 the ,spirituals or ,beguines1 who were at that time the objects of persecution2 and the ,fraticelli of ,sicily1 whose leader was ,henry of ,ceva 7see ,gui's ,practica ,inquisitionis1 v474 ,it is this fraction of the order which ,john ,,xxii4 condemned in his bull ,gloriosam ,ecclesiam 7#bcrd of ,january #acah71 but without calling them ,fraticelli4 ,henry of ,ceva had taken refuge in ,sicily at the time of ,pope ,boniface ,,viii4's persecution of the ,spirituals1 and thanks to the good offices of ,frederick of ,sicily1 a little colony of ,franciscans who rejected all property had soon established itself in the island4 ,under ,pope ,clement ,v41 and more especially under ,pope ,john ,,xxii41 fresh ,spirituals joined them2 and this group of exalted and isolated ascetics soon began to regard itself as the sole legitimate order of the ,minorites and then as the sole ,catholic ,church4 ,after being excommunicated as schismatics and rebels1 founders of a superstitious sect1 and propagators of false and pestiferous doctrines1 they proceeded to elect a general 7for ,michael of ,cesena had disavowed them7 and then a pope called ,celestine 7,l4 ,wadding1 ,annales1 at date #acac74 ,the rebels continued to carry on an active propaganda4 ,in ,tuscany particularly the ,inquisition made persistent efforts to suppress them2 ,florence afflicted them with severe laws1 but failed to rouse the populace against them4 ,the papacy dreaded their social even more than their dogmatic influence4 ,at first in ,sicily and afterwards throughout ,italy the ,ghibellines gave them a warm welcome2 the rigorists and the malcontents who had either left the church or were on the point of leaving it1 were attracted by these communities of needy rebels2 and the tribune ,rienzi was at one time disposed to join them4 ,to overcome these ascetics it was necessary to have recourse to other ascetics1 and from the outset the reformed ,franciscans1 or ,franciscans of the ,strict ,observance1 under the direction of their first leaders1 ,paoluccio da ,trinci 7d4 #acij71 ,giovanni ,stronconi 7d4 #adje71 and ,st ,bernardine of ,siena1 had been at great pains to restore the ,fraticelli to orthodoxy4 ,these early efforts1 however1 had little success4 ,alarmed by the number of the sectaries and the extent of their influence1 ,pope ,martin ,v41 who had encouraged the ,observants1 and particularly ,bernardine of ,siena1 fulminated two bulls 7#adah and #adba7 against the heretics1 and entrusted different legates with the task of hunting them down4 ,these measures failing1 he decided1 in #adbf1 to appoint two ,observants as inquisitors without territorial limitation to make a special crusade against the heresy of the ,fraticelli4 ,these two inquisitors1 who pursued their duties under three popes 7,martin ,v41 ,eugenius ,,iv4 and ,nicholas ,v47 were ,giovanni da ,capistrano and ,giacomo della ,marca4 ,the latter's valuable ,dialogus contra ,fraticellos 7,baluze and ,mansi1 ,miscellanea1 iv4 #eie-faj7 gives an account of the doctrines of these heretics and of the activity of the two inquisitors1 and shows that the ,fraticelli not only constituted a distinct church but a distinct society4 ,they had a pope called ,rinaldo1 who was elected in #adbi and was succeeded by a brother named ,gabriel4 ,this supreme head of their church they styled bishop of ,philadelphia1 ,philadelphia being the mystic name of their community2 under him were bishops1 e4g4 the bishops of ,florence1 ,venice1 c42 and1 furthermore1 a member of the community named ,guglielmo ,majoretto bore the title of ,emperor of the ,christians4 ,this organization1 at least in so far as concerns the heretical church1 had already been observed among the ,fraticelli in ,sicily1 and in #adbc the general council of ,siena affirmed with horror that at ,peniscola there was an heretical pope surrounded with a college of cardinals who made no attempt at concealment4 ,from #adbf to #addi the ,fraticelli were unremittingly pursued1 imprisoned and burned4 ,the sect gradually died out after losing the protection of the common people1 whose sympathy was now transferred to the austere ,observants and their miracle-worker ,capistrano4 ,from #adff to #adga there were sporadic burnings of ,fraticelli1 and in #adga ,tommaso di ,scarlino was sent to ,piombino and the littoral of ,tuscany to track out some ,fraticelli who had been discovered in those parts4 ,after that date the name disappears from history4 ,see ,f4 ,ehrle1 ,die ,spiritualen1 ihr ,verhaeltnis zum ,franziskanerorden und zu den ,fraticellen and ,zur ,vorgeschichte des ,concils von ,vienne1 in ,archiv fuer ,literatur- und ,kirchengeschichte des ,mittelalters1 vols4 i41 ii41 iii42 ,wetzer and ,welte1 ,kirchenlexikon1 s4v4 ,fraticellen2 ,h4 ,c4 ,lea1 ,history of the ,inquisition of the ,middle ,ages1 iii4 #abi-ahj 7,london1 #ahhh74 7,p4 ,a47 ,,fraud 7,lat4 fraus1 deceit71 in its widest sense1 a term which has never been exhaustively defined by an ,english court of law1 and for legal purposes probably cannot usefully be defined4 ,but as denoting a cause of action for which damages can be recovered in civil proceedings it now has a clear and settled meaning4 ,in actions in which damages are claimed for fraud1 the difficulties and obscurities which commonly arise are due rather to the complexity of modern commerce and the ingenuity of modern swindlers than to any uncertainty or technicality in the modern law4 ,to succeed in such an action1 the person aggrieved must first prove a representation of fact1 made either by words1 by writing or by conduct1 which is in fact untrue4 ,mere concealment is not actionable unless it amounts not only to suppressio veri1 but to suggestio falsi4 ,an expression of opinion or of intention is not enough1 unless it can be shown that the opinion was not really held1 or that the intention was not really entertained1 in which case it must be borne in mind1 to use the phrase of ,lord ,bowen1 that the state of a man's mind is as much a matter of fact as the state of his digestion4 ,next1 it must be proved that the representation was made without any honest belief in its truth1 that is1 either with actual knowledge of its falsity or with a reckless disregard whether it is true or false4 ,it was finally established1 after much controversy1 in the case of ,derry v4 ,peek in #ahhi1 that a merely negligent misstatement is not actionable4 ,further1 the person aggrieved must prove that the offender made the representation with the intention that he should act on it1 though not necessarily directly to him1 and that he did in fact act in reliance on it4 ,lastly1 the complainant must prove that1 as the direct consequence1 he has suffered actual damage capable of pecuniary measurement4 ,as soon as the case of ,derry v4 ,peek had established1 as the general rule of law1 that a merely negligent misstatement is not actionable1 a statutory exception was made to the rule in the case of directors and promoters of companies who publish prospectuses and similar documents4 ,by the ,directors' ,liability ,act #ahij1 such persons are liable for damage caused by untrue statements in such documents1 unless they can prove that they had reasonable grounds for believing the statements to be true4 ,it is also to be observed that1 though damages cannot be recovered in an action for a misrepresentation made with an honest belief in its truth1 still any person induced to enter into a contract by a misrepresentation1 whether fraudulent or innocent1 is entitled to avoid the contract and to obtain a declaration that it is not binding upon him4 ,this is in accordance with the rule of equity1 which since the ,judicature ,act prevails in all the courts4 ,whether the representation is fraudulent or innocent1 the contract is not void1 but voidable4 ,the party misled must exercise his option to avoid the contract without delay1 and before it has become impossible to restore the other party to the position in which he stood before the contract was made4 ,if he is too late1 he can only rely on his claim for damages1 and in order to assert this claim it is necessary to prove that the misrepresentation was fraudulent4 ,fraud1 in its wider sense of dishonest dealing1 though not a distinct cause of action1 is often material as preventing the acquisition of a right1 for which good faith is a necessary condition4 ,also a combination or conspiracy by two or more persons to defraud gives rise to liabilities not very clearly or completely defined4 ,,frauenburg1 a town of ,germany1 in the kingdom of ,prussia1 on the ,frische ,haff1 at the mouth of the ,bande1 #da m4 ,s4,w4 from ,koenigsberg on the railway to ,elbing4 ,pop4 #bejj4 ,the cathedral 7founded #acbi71 with six towers1 stands on a commanding eminence adjoining the town and surrounded by castellated walls and bastions4 ,this is known as ,dom-,frauenburg1 and is the seat of the ,roman ,catholic bishop of ,ermeland4 ,within the cathedral is a monument to the astronomer ,copernicus bearing the inscription ,astronomo celeberrimo1 cujus nomen et gloria utrumque implevit orbem4 ,there is a small port with inconsiderable trade4 ,frauenburg was founded in #abhg and received the rights of a town in #acaj4 ,,frauenfeld1 the capital of the ,swiss canton of ,thurgau1 #bg m4 by rail ,n4,e4 of ,zuerich or #ada_/b m4 ,w4 of ,romanshorn4 ,it is built on the ,murg stream a little above its junction with the ,thur4 ,it is a prosperous commercial town1 being situated at the meeting point of several routes1 while it possesses several industrial establishments1 chiefly concerned with different branches of the iron trade4 ,in #aijj its population 7including the neighbouring villages7 was #ggfa1 mainly ,german-speaking1 while there were #eefc ,protestants to #bahh ,romanists4 ,frauenfeld is the artillery depot for ,north-,east ,switzerland4 ,the upper town is the older part1 and centres round the castle1 of which the tower dates from the #ajth century1 though the rest is of a later period4 ,both stood on land belonging to the abbot of ,reichenau1 who1 with the count of ,kyburg1 founded the town1 which is first mentioned in #abee4 ,the abbot retained all manorial rights till #ahjc1 while the political powers of the ,kyburgers 7who were the protectors of ,reichenau7 passed to the ,habsburgs in #abgc1 and were seized by the ,swiss in #adfj with the rest of the ,thurgau4 ,in #agab the town succeeded ,baden in ,aargau as the meeting-place of the ,federal ,diet1 and continued to be the capital of the ,confederation till its transformation in #agih4 ,in #agii it was successively occupied by the ,austrians and the ,french4 ,the old ,capuchin convent 7#aeia-ahdh7 is now occupied as a vicarage by the ,romanist priest4 7,w4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c47 ,,frauenlob1 the name by which ,,heinrich ,,von ,,meissen1 a ,german poet of the #acth century1 is generally known4 ,he seems to have acquired the sobriquet because in a famous ,liederstreit with his rival ,regenbogen he defended the use of the word ,frau 7i4e4 frouwe1 lady7 instead of ,weib 7wip woman74 ,frauenlob was born about #abej of a humble burgher family4 ,his youth was spent in straitened circumstances1 but he gradually acquired a reputation as a singer at the various courts of the ,german princes4 ,in #abgh we find him with ,rudolph ,i4 in the ,marchfeld1 in #abhf he was at ,prague at the knighting of ,wenceslaus 7,wenzel7 ,,ii41 and in #acaa he was present at a knightly festival celebrated by ,waldemar of ,brandenburg before ,rostock4 ,after this he settled in ,mainz1 and there according to the popular account1 founded the first school of ,meistersingers 7q4v474 ,he died in #acah1 and was buried in the cloisters of the cathedral at ,mainz4 ,his grave is still marked by a copy made in #aghc of the original tombstone of #acah2 and in #ahdb a monument by ,schwanthaler was erected in the cloisters4 ,frauenlob's poems make a great display of learning2 he delights in far-fetched metaphors1 and his versification abounds in tricks of form and rhyme4 ,frauenlob's poetry was edited by ,l4 ,ettmueller in #ahdc2 a selection will be found in ,k4 ,bartsch1 ,deutsche ,liederdichter des #ab4 bis #ad4 ,jahrhunderts 7#crd ed41 #ahic74 ,an ,english translation of ,frauenlob's ,cantica canticorum1 by ,a4 ,e4 ,kroeger1 with notes1 appeared in #ahgg at ,st ,louis1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,see ,a4 ,boerkel1 ,frauenlob 7#bnd ed41 #ahha74 ,,fraunce1 ,,abraham 7c4 #aeeh-afcc71 ,english poet1 a native of ,shropshire1 was born between #aeeh and #aefj4 ,his name was registered as a pupil of ,shrewsbury ,school in ,january #aega_/b1 and he joined ,st ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge1 in #aegf1 becoming a fellow in #aehj_/ha4 ,his ,latin comedy of ,victoria1 dedicated to ,sidney1 was probably written at ,cambridge1 where he remained until he had taken his ,m4,a4 degree in #aehc4 ,he was called to the bar at ,gray's ,inn in #aehh1 and then apparently practised as a barrister in the court of the ,welsh marches4 ,after the death of his patron ,sir ,philip ,sidney1 ,fraunce was protected by ,sidney's sister ,mary1 countess of ,pembroke4 ,his last work was published in #aeib1 and we have no further knowledge of him until #afcc1 when he is said to have written an ,epithalamium in honour of the marriage of ,lady ,magdalen ,egerton1 #gth daughter of the earl of ,bridgwater1 whose service he may possibly have entered4 ,his works are3 ,the ,lamentations of ,amintas for the death of ,phyllis 7#aehg71 a version in ,english hexameters of his friend's1 ,thomas ,watson's1 ,latin ,amyntas2 ,the ,lawiers ,logike1 exemplifying the praecepts of ,logike by the practise of the common ,lawe 7#aehh72 ,arcadian ,rhetorike 7#aehh72 ,abrahami ,fransi ,insignium1 ,armorum 444 explicatio 7#aehh72 ,the ,countess of ,pembroke's ,yvychurch 7#aeia_/b71 containing a translation of ,tasso's ,aminta1 a reprint of his earlier version of ,watson1 ,the ,lamentation of ,corydon for the love of ,alexis 7,virgil1 eclogue ii471 a short translation from ,heliodorus1 and1 in the third part 7#aeib7 ,aminta's ,dale1 a collection of conceited tales supposed to be related by the nymphs of ,ivychurch2 ,the ,countess of ,pembroke's ,emanuell 7#aeia72 ,the ,third ,part of the ,countess of ,pembroke's ,ivychurch1 entituled ,aminta's ,dale 7#aeib74 ,his ,arcadian ,rhetorike owes much to earlier critical treatises1 but has a special interest from its references to ,spenser1 and ,fraunce quotes from the ,faerie ,queene a year before the publication of the first books4 ,in ,colin ,clout's come home again1 ,spenser speaks of ,fraunce as ,corydon1 on account of his translations of ,virgil's second eclogue4 ,his poems are written in classical metres1 and he was regarded by his contemporaries as the best exponent of ,gabriel ,harvey's theory4 ,even ,thomas ,nashe had a good word for sweete ,master ,france4 ,the ,countess of ,pembroke's ,emanuell1 hexameters on the nativity and passion of ,christ1 with versions of some psalms1 were reprinted by ,dr ,a4 ,b4 ,grosart in the third volume of his ,miscellanies of the ,fuller ,worthies ,library 7#ahgb74 ,joseph ,hunter in his ,chorus ,vatum stated that five of ,fraunce's songs were included in ,sidney's ,astrophel and ,stella1 but it is probable that these should be attributed not to ,fraunce1 but to ,thomas ,campion4 ,see a life prefixed to the transcription of a ,,ms4 ,latin comedy by ,fraunce1 ,victoria1 by ,professor ,g4 ,c4 ,moore ,smith1 published in ,bang's ,materialien zur ,kunde des alteren englischen ,dramas1 vol4 xiv41 #aijf4 ,,fraunhofer1 ,,joseph ,,von 7#aghg-ahbf71 ,german optician and physicist1 was born at ,straubing in ,bavaria on the #fth of ,march #aghg1 the son of a glazier who died in #agih4 ,he was apprenticed in #agii to ,weichselberger1 a glass-polisher and looking-glass maker4 ,on the #bast of ,july #ahja he nearly lost his life by the fall of the house in which he lodged1 and the elector of ,bavaria1 ,maximilian ,joseph1 who was present at his extrication from the ruins1 gave him #ah ducats4 ,with a portion of this sum he obtained release from the last six months of his apprenticeship1 and with the rest he purchased a glass-polishing machine4 ,he now employed himself in making optical glasses1 and in engraving on metal1 devoting his spare time to the perusal of works on mathematics and optics4 ,in #ahjf he obtained the place of optician in the mathematical institute which in #ahjd had been founded at ,munich by ,joseph von ,utzschneider1 ,g4 ,reichenbach and ,j4 ,liebherr2 and in #ahjg arrangements were made by ,utzschneider for his instruction by ,pierre ,louis ,guinand1 a skilled optician1 in the fabrication of flint and crown glass1 in which he soon became an adept 7see ,r4 ,wolf1 ,gesch4 der ,wissensch4 in ,deutschl4 bd4 xvi4 p4 #ehf74 ,with ,reichenbach and ,utzschneider1 ,fraunhofer established in #ahji an optical institute at ,benedictbeuern1 near ,munich1 of which he in #ahah became sole manager4 ,the institute was in #ahai removed to ,munich1 and on ,fraunhofer's death came under the direction of ,g4 ,merz4 ,amongst the earliest mechanical contrivances of ,fraunhofer was a machine for polishing mathematically uniform spherical surfaces4 ,he was the inventor of the stage-micrometer1 and of a form of heliometer2 and in #ahaf he succeeded in constructing for the microscope achromatic glasses of long focus1 consisting of a single lens1 the constituent glasses of which were in juxtaposition1 but not cemented together4 ,the great reflecting telescope at ,dorpat was manufactured by him1 and so great was the skill he attained in the making of lenses for achromatic telescopes that1 in a letter to ,sir ,david ,brewster1 he expressed his willingness to furnish an achromatic glass of #ah in4 diameter4 ,fraunhofer is especially known for the researches1 published in the ,denkschriften der ,muenchener ,akademie for #ahad-ahae1 by which he laid the foundation of solar and stellar chemistry4 ,the dark lines of the spectrum of sunlight1 earliest noted by ,dr ,w4 ,h4 ,wollaston 7,phil4 ,trans41 #ahjb1 p4 #cgh71 were independently discovered1 and1 by means of the telescope of a theodolite1 between which and a distant slit admitting the light a prism was interposed1 were for the first time carefully observed by ,fraunhofer1 and have on that account been designated ,fraunhofer's lines4 ,he constructed a map of as many as #egf of these lines1 the principal of which he denoted by the letters of the alphabet from ,a to ,g2 and by ascertaining their refractive indices he determined that their relative positions are constant1 whether in spectra produced by the direct rays of the sun1 or by the reflected light of the moon and planets4 ,the spectra of the stars he obtained by using1 outside the object-glass of his telescope1 a large prism1 through which the light passed to be brought to a focus in front of the eye-piece4 ,he showed that in the spectra of the fixed stars many of the dark lines were different from those of the solar spectrum1 whilst other well-known solar lines were wanting2 and he concluded that it was not by any action of the terrestrial atmosphere upon the light passing through it that the lines were produced4 ,he further expressed the belief that the dark lines ,d of the solar spectrum coincide with the bright lines of the sodium flame4 ,he was also the inventor of the diffraction grating4 ,in #ahbc he was appointed conservator of the physical cabinet at ,munich1 and in the following year he received from the king of ,bavaria the civil order of merit4 ,he died at ,munich on the #gth of ,june #ahbf1 and was buried near ,reichenbach1 whose decease had taken place eight years previously4 ,on his tomb is the inscription ,approximavit sidera4 ,see ,j4 von ,utzschneider1 ,kurzer ,umriss der ,lebensgeschichte des ,herrn ,dr ,j4 von ,fraunhofer 7,munich1 #ahbf72 and ,g4 ,merz1 ,das ,leben und ,wirken ,fraunhofers 7,landshut1 #ahfe74 ,,fraustadt 7,polish1 ,wszowa71 a town of ,germany1 in the ,prussian province of ,posen1 in a flat sandy country dotted with windmills1 #ej m4 ,s4,s4,w4 of ,posen1 on the railway ,lissa-,sagan4 ,pop4 7including a garrison7 #gejj4 ,it has three ,evangelical and two ,roman ,catholic churches1 a classical school and a teachers' seminary2 the manufactures include woollen and cotton goods1 hats1 morocco leather and gloves1 and there is a considerable trade in corn1 cattle and wool4 ,fraustadt was founded by ,silesians in #acdh1 and afterwards belonged to the principality of ,glogau4 ,near the town the ,swedes under ,charles ,,xii4 defeated the ,saxons on the #acth of ,february #agjf4 ,,frayssinous1 ,,denis ,,antoine ,,luc1 ,,comte ,,de 7#agfe-ahda71 ,french prelate and statesman1 distinguished as an orator and as a controversial writer1 was born of humble parentage at ,curieres1 in the department of ,aveyron1 on the #ith of ,may #agfe4 ,he owes his reputation mainly to the lectures on dogmatic theology1 known as the conferences of ,saint ,sulpice1 delivered in the church of ,saint ,sulpice1 ,paris1 from #ahjc to #ahji1 to which admiring crowds were attracted by his lucid exposition and by his graceful oratory4 ,the freedom of his language in #ahji1 when ,napoleon had arrested the pope and declared the annexation of ,rome to ,france1 led to a prohibition of his lectures2 and the dispersion of the congregation of ,saint ,sulpice in #ahaa was followed by his temporary retirement from the capital4 ,he returned with the ,bourbons1 and resumed his lectures in #ahad2 but the events of the ,hundred ,days again compelled him to withdraw into private life1 from which he did not emerge until ,february #ahaf4 ,as court preacher and almoner to ,louis ,,xviii41 he now entered upon the period of his greatest public activity and influence4 ,in connexion with the controversy raised by the signing of the reactionary concordat of #ahag1 he published in #ahah a treatise entitled ,vrais ,principes de l'eglise ,gallicane sur la puissance ecclesiastique1 which though unfavourably criticized by ,lamennais1 was received with favour by the civil and ecclesiastical authorities4 ,the consecration of ,frayssinous as bishop of ,hermopolis in partibus1 his election to the ,french ,academy1 and his appointment to the grand-mastership of the university1 followed in rapid succession4 ,in #ahbd1 on the accession of ,charles ,x41 he became minister of public instruction and of ecclesiastical affairs under the administration of ,villele2 and about the same time he was created a peer of ,france with the title of count4 ,his term of office was chiefly marked by the recall of the ,jesuits4 ,in #ahbe he published his lectures under the title ,defense du christianisme4 ,the work passed through #ae editions within #ah years1 and was translated into several ,european languages4 ,in #ahbh he1 along with his colleagues in the ,villele ministry1 was compelled to resign office1 and the subsequent revolution of ,july #ahcj led to his retirement to ,rome4 ,shortly afterwards he became tutor to the duke of ,bordeaux 7,comte de ,chambord7 at ,prague1 where he continued to live until #ahch4 ,he died at ,st ,geniez on the #abth of ,december #ahda4 ,see ,bertrand1 ,bibl4 ,sulpicienne 7t4 ii4 #ace sq42 iii4 #bec7 for bibliography1 and ,g4 ,a4 ,henrion 7,paris1 #b vols41 #ahdd7 for biography4 ,,frechette1 ,,louis ,,honore 7#ahci-aijh71 ,french-,canadian poet1 was born at ,levis1 ,quebec1 on the #afth of ,november #ahci1 the son of a contractor4 ,he was educated in his native province1 and called to the ,canadian bar in #ahfd4 ,he started the ,journal de ,levis1 and his revolutionary doctrines compelled him to leave ,canada for the ,united ,states4 ,after some years spent in journalism at ,chicago1 he was in #ahgd elected as the ,liberal candidate to represent ,levis in the ,canadian parliament4 ,at the elections of #ahgh and #ahhb he was defeated1 and thereafter confined himself to literature4 ,he edited ,la ,patrie and other ,french papers in the ,dominion2 and in #ahhi was appointed clerk of the ,quebec legislative council4 ,he was long a warm advocate of the political union of ,canada and the ,united ,states1 but in later life became less ardent1 and in #ahig accepted the honour of ,c4,m4,g4 from ,queen ,victoria4 ,he was president of the ,royal ,society of ,canada1 and of the ,canadian ,society of ,arts1 and received numerous honorary degrees4 ,his works include3 ,mes ,loisirs 7#ahfc72 ,la ,voix d'un exile 7#ahfg71 a satire against the ,canadian government2 ,pele-mele 7#ahgg72 ,les ,fleurs boreales1 and ,les ,oiseaux de neige 7#ahhj71 crowned by the ,french academy2 ,la ,legende d'un peuple 7#ahhg72 two historical dramas1 ,papineau 7#ahhj7 and ,felix ,poutre 7#ahhj72 ,la ,noel au ,canada 7#aijj71 and several prose works and translations4 ,an exponent of local ,french sentiment1 he won the title of the ,canadian ,laureate4 ,he died on the #ast of ,june #aijh4 ,,fredegond 7,fredigundis7 7d4 #eig71 ,frankish queen4 ,originally a serving-woman1 she inspired the ,frankish king1 ,chilperic ,i41 with a violent passion4 ,at her instigation he repudiated his first wife ,audovera1 and strangled his second1 ,galswintha1 ,queen ,brunhilda's sister4 ,a few days after this murder ,chilperic married ,fredegond 7#efg74 ,this woman exercised a most pernicious influence over him4 ,she forced him into war against ,austrasia1 in the course of which she procured the assassination of the victorious king ,sigebert 7#ege72 she carried on a malignant struggle against ,chilperic's sons by his first wife1 ,theodebert1 ,merwich and ,clovis1 who all died tragic deaths2 and she persistently endeavoured to secure the throne for her own children4 ,her first son ,thierry1 however1 to whom ,bishop ,ragnemod of ,paris stood godfather1 died soon after birth1 and ,fredegond tortured a number of women whom she accused of having bewitched the child4 ,her second son also died in infancy4 ,finally1 she gave birth to a child who afterwards became king as ,clotaire ,,ii4 ,shortly after the birth of this third son1 ,chilperic himself perished in mysterious circumstances 7#ehd74 ,fredegond has been accused of complicity in his murder1 but with little show of probability1 since in her husband she lost her principal supporter4 ,henceforth ,fredegond did all in her power to gain the kingdom for her child4 ,taking refuge at the church of ,notre ,dame at ,paris1 she appealed to ,king ,guntram of ,burgundy1 who took ,clotaire under his protection and defended him against his other nephew1 ,childebert ,,ii41 king of ,austrasia4 ,from that time until her death ,fredegond governed the western kingdom4 ,she endeavoured to prevent the alliance between ,king ,guntram and ,childebert1 which was cemented by the pact of ,andelot2 and made several attempts to assassinate ,childebert by sending against him hired bravoes armed with poisoned scramasaxes 7heavy single-edged knives74 ,after the death of ,childebert in #eie she resolved to augment the kingdom of ,neustria at the expense of ,austrasia1 and to this end seized some cities near ,paris and defeated ,theudebert at the battle of ,laffaux1 near ,soissons4 ,her triumph1 however1 was short-lived1 as she died quietly in her bed in #eig soon after her victory4 ,see ,v4 ,n4 ,augustin ,thierry1 ,recits des temps merovingiens 7,brussels1 #ahdj72 ,ulysse ,chevalier1 ,bio-bibliographie 7#bnd ed471 s4v4 ,fredegonde4 7,c4 ,pf47 ,,frederic1 ,,harold 7#ahef-ahih71 ,anglo-,american novelist1 was born on the #aith of ,august #ahef at ,utica1 ,n4,y41 was educated there1 and took to journalism4 ,he went to live in ,england as ,london correspondent of the ,new ,york ,times in #ahhd1 and was soon recognized for his ability both as a writer and as a talker4 ,he wrote several clever early stories1 but it was not till he published ,illumination 7#ahif71 followed by ,gloria ,mundi 7#ahih71 that his remarkable gifts as a novelist were fully realized4 ,he died in ,england on the #aith of ,october #ahih4 ,,fredericia 7,,friedericia71 a seaport of ,denmark1 near the ,s4,e4 corner of ,jutland1 on the west shore of the ,little ,belt opposite the island of ,fuenen4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ab1gad4 ,it has railway communication with both south and north1 and a steam ferry connects with ,middelfart1 a seaside resort and railway station on ,fuenen4 ,there is a considerable shipping trade1 and the industries comprise the manufacture of tobacco1 salt and chicory1 and of cotton goods and hats4 ,a small fort was erected on the site of ,fredericia by ,christian ,,iv4 of ,denmark1 and his successor1 ,frederick ,,iii41 determined about #afej to make it a powerful fortress4 ,free exercise of religion was offered to all who should settle in the new town1 which at first bore the name of ,frederiksodde1 and only received its present designation in #affd4 ,in #afeg it was taken by storm by the ,swedish general ,wrangel1 and in #afei1 after the fortress had been dismantled1 it was occupied by ,frederick ,william of ,brandenburg4 ,it was not till #agji-agaj that the works were again put in a state of defence4 ,in #ahdh no attempt was made by the ,danes to oppose the ,prussians1 who entered on the #bnd of ,may1 and maintained their position against the ,danish gunboats4 ,during the armistice of #ahdh-ahdi the fortress was strengthened1 and soon afterwards it stood a siege of two months1 which was brought to a glorious close by a successful sortie on the #fth of ,july #ahdi4 ,in memory of the victory several monuments have been erected in the town and its vicinity1 of which the most noticeable are the bronze statue of the ,danish ,land ,soldier by ,bissen 7one of ,thorvaldsen's pupils71 and the great barrow over #ejj ,danes in the cemetery of the ,holy ,trinity ,church1 with a bas-relief by the same sculptor4 ,on the outbreak of the war of #ahfd1 the fortress was again strengthened by new works and an entrenched camp2 but the ,danes suddenly evacuated it on the #bhth of ,april after a siege of six weeks4 ,the ,austro-,prussian army partly destroyed the fortifications1 and kept possession of the town till the conclusion of peace4 ,,frederick 7,mod4 ,ger4 ,friedrich2 ,ital4 ,federigo2 ,fr4 ,frederic and ,federic2 ,m4,h4,g4 ,friderich2 ,o4,h4,g4 ,fridurih1 king or lord of peace1 from ,o4,h4,g4 fridu1 ,a4,s4 frith1 peace1 and rih rich1 a ruler1 for derivation of which see ,,henry71 a ,christian name borne by many ,european sovereigns and princes1 the more important of whom are given below in the following order3--7#a7 ,roman emperors and ,german kings2 7#b7 other kings in the alphabetical order of their states2 7#c7 other reigning princes in the same order4 ,,frederick ,i4 7c4 #aabc-aaij71 ,roman emperor1 surnamed ,barbarossa by the ,italians1 was the son of ,frederick ,,ii4 of ,hohenstaufen1 duke of ,swabia1 and ,judith1 daughter of ,henry ,,ix4 the ,black1 duke of ,bavaria4 ,the precise date and place of his birth1 together with details of his early life1 are wanting2 but in #aadc he assisted his maternal uncle1 ,count ,welf ,,vi41 in his attempts to conquer ,bavaria1 and by his conduct in several local feuds earned the reputation of a brave and skilful warrior4 ,when his father died in #aadg ,frederick became duke of ,swabia1 and immediately afterwards accompanied his uncle1 the ,german king ,conrad ,,iii41 on his disastrous crusade1 during which he greatly distinguished himself and won the complete confidence of the king4 ,abandoning the cause of the ,welfs1 he fought for ,conrad against them1 and in #aaeb the dying king advised the princes to choose ,frederick as his successor to the exclusion of his own young son4 ,energetically pressing his candidature1 he was chosen ,german king at ,frankfort on the #dth or #eth of ,march #aaeb1 and crowned at ,aix-la-,chapelle on the #ith of the same month1 owing his election partly to his personal qualities1 and partly to the fact that he united in himself the blood of the rival families of ,welf and ,waiblingen4 ,the new king was anxious to restore the ,empire to the position it had occupied under ,charlemagne and ,otto the ,great1 and saw clearly that the restoration of order in ,germany was a necessary preliminary to the enforcement of the imperial rights in ,italy4 ,issuing a general order for peace1 he was prodigal in his concessions to the nobles4 ,count ,welf was made duke of ,spoleto and margrave of ,tuscany2 ,berthold ,,vi41 duke of ,zaehringen1 was entrusted with extensive rights in ,burgundy2 and the king's nephew1 ,frederick1 received the duchy of ,swabia4 ,abroad ,frederick decided a quarrel for the ,danish throne in favour of ,svend1 or ,peter as he is sometimes called1 who did homage for his kingdom1 and negotiations were begun with the ,east ,roman emperor1 ,manuel ,comnenus4 ,it was probably about this time that the king obtained a divorce from his wife ,adela1 daughter of ,dietpold1 margrave of ,vohburg and ,cham1 on the ground of consanguinity1 and made a vain effort to obtain a bride from the court of ,constantinople4 ,on his accession ,frederick had communicated the news of his election to ,pope ,eugenius ,,iii41 but neglected to ask for the papal confirmation4 ,in spite of this omission1 however1 and of some trouble arising from a double election to the archbishopric of ,magdeburg1 a treaty was concluded between king and pope at ,constance in ,march #aaec1 by which ,frederick promised in return for his coronation to make no peace with ,roger ,i4 king of ,sicily1 or with the rebellious ,romans1 without the consent of ,eugenius1 and generally to help and defend the papacy4 ,the journey to ,italy made by the king in #aaed was the precursor of five other expeditions which engaged his main energies for thirty years1 during which the subjugation of the peninsula was the central and abiding aim of his policy4 ,meeting the new pope1 ,adrian ,,iv41 near ,nepi1 ,frederick at first refused to hold his stirrup2 but after some negotiations he consented and received the kiss of peace1 which was followed by his coronation as emperor at ,rome on the #ahth of ,june #aaee4 ,as his slender forces were inadequate to encounter the fierce hostility which he aroused1 he left ,italy in the autumn of #aaee to prepare for a new and more formidable campaign4 ,disorder was again rampant in ,germany1 especially in ,bavaria1 but general peace was restored by ,frederick's vigorous measures4 ,bavaria was transferred from ,henry ,,ii4 ,jasomirgott1 margrave of ,austria1 to ,henry the ,lion1 duke of ,saxony2 and the former was pacified by the erection of his margraviate into a duchy1 while ,frederick's step-brother ,conrad was invested with the ,palatinate of the ,rhine4 ,on the #ith of ,june #aaef the king was married at ,wuerzburg to ,beatrix1 daughter and heiress of the dead count of ,upper ,burgundy1 ,renaud ,,iii41 when ,upper ,burgundy or ,franche ,comte1 as it is sometimes called1 was added to his possessions4 ,an expedition into ,poland reduced ,duke ,boleslaus ,,iv4 to an abject submission1 after which ,frederick received the homage of the ,burgundian nobles at a diet held at ,besancon in ,october #aaeg1 which was marked by a quarrel between pope and emperor4 ,a ,swedish archbishop1 returning from ,rome1 had been seized by robbers1 and as ,frederick had not punished the offenders ,adrian sent two legates to remonstrate4 ,the papal letter when translated referred to the imperial crown as a benefice conferred by the pope1 and its reading aroused great indignation4 ,the emperor had to protect the legates from the fury of the nobles2 and afterwards issued a manifesto to his subjects declaring that he held the ,empire from ,god alone1 to which ,adrian replied that he had used the ambiguous word beneficia as meaning benefits1 and not in its feudal sense4 ,in ,june #aaeh ,frederick set out upon his second ,italian expedition1 which was signalized by the establishment of imperial officers called podestas in the cities of northern ,italy1 the revolt and capture of ,milan1 and the beginning of the long struggle with pope ,alexander ,,iii41 who excommunicated the emperor on the #bnd of ,march #aafj4 ,during this visit ,frederick summoned the doctors of ,bologna to the diet held near ,roncaglia in ,november #aaeh1 and as a result of their inquiries into the rights belonging to the kingdom of ,italy he obtained a large amount of wealth4 ,returning to ,germany towards the close of #aafb1 ,frederick prevented a conflict between ,henry the ,lion1 duke of ,saxony1 and a number of neighbouring princes1 and severely punished the citizens of ,mainz for their rebellion against ,archbishop ,arnold4 ,a further visit to ,italy in #aafc saw his plans for the conquest of ,sicily checked by the formation of a powerful league against him1 brought together mainly by the exactions of the podestas and the enforcement of the rights declared by the doctors of ,bologna4 ,frederick had supported an anti-pope ,victor ,,iv4 against ,alexander1 and on ,victor's death in #aafc a new anti-pope called ,paschal ,,iii4 was chosen to succeed him4 ,having tried in vain to secure the general recognition of ,victor and ,paschal in ,europe1 the emperor held a diet at ,wuerzburg in ,may #aafe2 and by taking an oath1 followed by many of the clergy and nobles1 to remain true to ,paschal and his successors1 brought about a schism in the ,german church4 ,a temporary alliance with ,henry ,,ii41 king of ,england1 the magnificent celebration of the canonization of ,charlemagne at ,aix-la-,chapelle1 and the restoration of peace in the ,rhineland1 occupied ,frederick's attention until ,october #aaff1 when he made his fourth journey to ,italy4 ,having captured ,ancona1 he marched to ,rome1 stormed the ,leonine city1 and procured the enthronement of ,paschal1 and the coronation of his wife ,beatrix2 but his victorious career was stopped by the sudden outbreak of a pestilence which destroyed the ,german army and drove the emperor as a fugitive to ,germany1 where he remained for the ensuing six years4 ,henry the ,lion was again saved from a threatening combination2 conflicting claims to various bishoprics were decided2 and the imperial authority was asserted over ,bohemia1 ,poland and ,hungary4 ,friendly relations were entered into with the emperor ,manuel1 and attempts made to come to a better understanding with ,henry ,,ii41 king of ,england1 and ,louis ,,vii41 king of ,france4 ,in #aagd1 when ,frederick made his fifth expedition to ,italy1 the ,lombard league had been formed1 and the fortress of ,alessandria raised to check his progress4 ,the campaign was a complete failure4 ,the refusal of ,henry the ,lion to bring help into ,italy was followed by the defeat of the emperor at ,legnano on the #bith of ,may #aagf1 when he was wounded and believed to be dead4 ,reaching ,pavia1 he began negotiations for peace with ,alexander1 which ripened into the treaty of ,venice in ,august #aagg1 and at the same time a truce with the ,lombard league was arranged for six years4 ,frederick1 loosed from the papal ban1 recognized ,alexander as the rightful pope1 and in ,july #aagg knelt before him and kissed his feet4 ,the possession of the vast estates left by ,matilda1 marchioness of ,tuscany1 and claimed by both pope and emperor1 was to be decided by arbitration1 and in ,october #aagh the emperor was again in ,germany4 ,various small feuds were suppressed2 ,henry the ,lion was deprived of his duchy1 which was dismembered1 and sent into exile2 a treaty was made with the ,lombard league at ,constance in ,june #aahc2 and most important of all1 ,frederick's son ,henry was betrothed in #aahd to ,constance1 daughter of ,roger ,i41 king of ,sicily1 and aunt and heiress of the reigning king1 ,william ,,ii4 ,this betrothal1 which threatened to unite ,sicily with the ,empire1 made it difficult for ,frederick1 when during his last ,italian expedition in #aahd he met ,pope ,lucius ,,iii4 at ,verona1 to establish friendly relations with the papacy4 ,further causes of trouble arose1 moreover1 and when the potentates separated the question of ,matilda's estates was undecided2 and ,lucius had refused to crown ,henry or to recognize the ,german clergy who had been ordained during the schism4 ,frederick then formed an alliance with ,milan1 where the citizens witnessed a great festival on the #bgth of ,january #aahf4 ,the emperor1 who had been crowned king of ,burgundy1 or ,arles1 at ,arles on the #cjth of ,july #aagh1 had this ceremony repeated2 while his son ,henry was crowned king of ,italy and married to ,constance1 who was crowned queen of ,germany4 ,the quarrel with the papacy was continued with the new pope ,urban ,,iii41 and open warfare was begun4 ,but ,frederick was soon recalled to ,germany by the news of a revolt raised by ,philip of ,heinsberg1 archbishop of ,cologne1 in alliance with the pope4 ,the ,german clergy remained loyal to the emperor1 and hostilities were checked by the death of ,urban and the election of a new pope as ,gregory ,,viii41 who adopted a more friendly policy towards the emperor4 ,in #aahh ,philip submitted1 and immediately afterwards ,frederick took the cross in order to stop the victorious career of ,saladin1 who had just taken ,jerusalem4 ,after extensive preparations he left ,regensburg in ,may #aahi at the head of a splendid army1 and having overcome the hostility of the ,east ,roman emperor ,isaac ,angelus1 marched into ,asia ,minor4 ,on the #ajth of ,june #aaij ,frederick was either bathing or crossing the river ,calycadnus 7,geuksu71 near ,seleucia 7,selefke7 in ,cilicia1 when he was carried away by the stream and drowned4 ,the place of his burial is unknown1 and the legend which says he still sits in a cavern in the ,kyffhaeuser mountain in ,thuringia waiting until the need of his country shall call him1 is now thought to refer1 at least in its earlier form1 to his grandson1 the emperor ,frederick ,,ii4 ,he left by his wife1 ,beatrix1 five sons1 of whom the eldest afterwards became emperor as ,henry ,,vi4 ,frederick's reign1 on the whole1 was a happy and prosperous time for ,germany4 ,he encouraged the growth of towns1 easily suppressed the few risings against his authority1 and took strong and successful measures to establish order4 ,even after the severe reverses which he experienced in ,italy1 his position in ,germany was never seriously weakened2 and in #aaha1 when1 almost without striking a blow1 he deprived ,henry the ,lion of his duchy1 he seemed stronger than ever4 ,this power rested upon his earnest and commanding personality1 and also upon the support which he received from the ,german church1 the possession of a valuable private domain1 and the care with which he exacted feudal dues from his dependents4 ,frederick ,i4 is said to have taken ,charlemagne as his model2 but the contest in which he engaged was entirely different both in character and results from that in which his great predecessor achieved such a wonderful temporary success4 ,though ,frederick failed to subdue the republics1 the failure can scarcely be said to reflect either on his prudence as a statesman or his skill as a general1 for his ascendancy was finally overthrown rather by the ravages of pestilence than by the might of human arms4 ,in ,germany his resolute will and sagacious administration subdued or disarmed all discontent1 and he not only succeeded in welding the various rival interests into a unity of devotion to himself against which papal intrigues were comparatively powerless1 but won for the empire a prestige such as it had not possessed since the time of ,otto the ,great4 ,the wide contrast between his ,german and ,italian rule is strikingly exemplified in the fact that1 while he endeavoured to overthrow the republics in ,italy1 he held in check the power of the nobles in ,germany1 by conferring municipal franchises and independent rights on the principal cities4 ,even in ,italy1 though his general course of action was warped by wrong prepossessions1 he in many instances manifested exceptional practical sagacity in dealing with immediate difficulties and emergencies4 ,possessing frank and open manners1 untiring and unresting energy1 and a prowess which found its native element in difficulty and danger1 he seemed the embodiment of the chivalrous and warlike spirit of his age1 and was the model of all the qualities which then won highest admiration4 ,stern and ambitious he certainly was1 but his aims can scarcely be said to have exceeded his prerogatives as emperor2 and though he had sometimes recourse when in straits to expedients almost diabolically ingenious in their cruelty1 yet his general conduct was marked by a clemency which in that age was exceptional4 ,his quarrel with the papacy was an inherited conflict1 not reflecting at all on his religious faith1 but the inevitable consequence of inconsistent theories of government1 which had been created and could be dissipated only by a long series of events4 ,his interference in the quarrels of the republics was not only quite justifiable from the relation in which he stood to them1 but seemed absolutely necessary4 ,from the beginning1 however1 he treated the ,italians1 as indeed was only natural1 less as rebellious subjects than as conquered aliens2 and it must be admitted that in regard to them the only effective portion of his procedure was1 not his energetic measures of repression nor his brilliant victories1 but1 after the battle of ,legnano1 his quiet and cheerful acceptance of the inevitable1 and the consequent complete change in his policy1 by which if he did not obtain the great object of his ambition1 he at least did much to render innoxious for the ,empire his previous mistakes4 ,in appearance ,frederick was a man of well-proportioned1 medium stature1 with flowing yellow hair and a reddish beard4 ,he delighted in hunting and the reading of history1 was zealous in his attention to public business1 and his private life was unimpeachable4 ,carlyle's tribute to him is interesting3 ,no king so furnished out with apparatus and arena1 with personal faculty to rule and scene to do it in1 has appeared elsewhere4 ,a magnificent1 magnanimous man2 holding the reins of the world1 not quite in the imaginary sense2 scourging anarchy down1 and urging noble effort up1 really on a grand scale4 ,a terror to evil-doers and a praise to well-doers in this world1 probably beyond what was ever seen since4 ,the principal contemporary authority for the earlier part of the reign of ,frederick is the ,gesta ,friderici imperatoris1 mainly the work of ,otto1 bishop of ,freising4 ,this is continued from #aaef to #aafj by ,rahewin1 a canon of ,freising1 and from #aafj to #aagj by an anonymous author4 ,the various annals and chronicles of the period1 among which may be mentioned the ,chronica regia ,coloniensis and the ,annales ,magdeburgenses1 are also important4 ,other authorities for the different periods in ,frederick's reign are ,tageno of ,passau1 ,descriptio expeditionis asiaticae ,friderici ,i42 ,burchard1 ,historia ,friderici imperatoris magni2 ,godfrey of ,viterbo1 ,carmen de gestis ,friderici ,i41 which are all found in the ,monumenta ,germaniae historica4 ,scriptores 7,hanover and ,berlin1 #ahbf-ahib72 ,otto ,morena of ,lodi1 ,historia rerum ,laudensium1 continued by his son1 ,acerbus1 also in the ,monumenta2 ,ansbert1 ,historia de expeditione ,friderici1 #aahg-aaif1 published in the ,fontes rerum ,austriacarum4 ,scriptores 7,vienna1 #ahee fol474 ,many valuable documents are found in the ,monumenta ,germaniae selecta1 ,band iv41 edited by ,m4 ,doeberl 7,munich1 #ahhi-ahij74 ,the best modern authorities are ,j4 ,jastrow1 ,deutsche ,geschichte im ,zeitalter der ,hohenstaufen 7,berlin1 #ahic72 ,w4 von ,giesebrecht1 ,geschichte der deutschen ,kaiserzeit1 ,band iv4 7,brunswick1 #ahgg72 ,h4 von ,buenau1 ,leben und ,thaten ,friedrichs ,i4 7,leipzig1 #ahgb72 ,h4 ,prutz1 ,kaiser ,friedrich ,i4 7,dantzig1 #ahga-ahgd72 ,c4 ,peters1 ,die ,wahl ,kaiser ,friedrichs ,i4 in the ,forschungen zur deutschen ,geschichte1 ,band xx4 7,goettingen1 #ahfb-ahhf72 ,w4 ,gundlach1 ,barbarossalieder 7,innsbruck1 #ahii74 ,for a complete bibliography see ,dahlmann-,waitz1 ,quellenkunde der deutschen ,geschichte 7,goettingen1 #ahid71 and ,u4 ,chevalier1 ,repertoire des sources historiques du moyen age1 tome iii4 7,paris1 #aijd74 ,,frederick ,,ii4 7#aaid-abej71 ,roman emperor1 king of ,sicily and ,jerusalem1 was the son of the emperor ,henry ,,vi4 and ,constance1 daughter of ,roger ,i41 king of ,sicily1 and therefore grandson of the emperor ,frederick ,i4 and a member of the ,hohenstaufen family4 ,born at ,jesi near ,ancona on the #bfth of ,december #aaid1 he was baptized by the name of ,frederick ,roger1 chosen ,german king at ,frankfort in #aaif1 and after his father's death crowned king of ,sicily at ,palermo on the #agth of ,may #aaih4 ,his mother1 who assumed the government1 died in ,november #aaih1 leaving ,pope ,innocent ,,iii4 as regent of ,sicily and guardian of her son4 ,the young king passed his early years amid the terrible anarchy in his island kingdom1 which ,innocent was powerless to check2 but his education was not neglected1 and his character and habits were formed by contact with men of varied nationalities and interests1 while the darker traits of his nature were developed in the atmosphere of lawlessness in which he lived4 ,in #abjh he was declared of age1 and soon afterwards ,innocent arranged a marriage1 which was celebrated the following year1 between him and ,constance1 daughter of ,alphonso ,,ii4 king of ,aragon1 and widow of ,emerich or ,imre1 king of ,hungary4 ,the dissatisfaction felt in ,germany with the emperor ,otto ,,iv4 came to a climax in ,september #abaa1 when a number of influential princes met at ,nuremberg1 declared ,otto deposed1 and invited ,frederick to come and occupy the vacant throne4 ,in spite of the reluctance of his wife1 and the opposition of the ,sicilian nobles1 he accepted the invitation2 and having recognized the papal supremacy over ,sicily1 and procured the coronation of his son ,henry as its king1 reached ,germany after an adventurous journey in the autumn of #abab4 ,this step was taken with the approval of the pope1 who was anxious to strike a blow at ,otto ,,iv4 ,frederick was welcomed in ,swabia1 and the renown of the ,hohenstaufen name and a liberal distribution of promises made his progress easy4 ,having arranged a treaty against ,otto with ,louis1 son of ,philip ,augustus1 king of ,france1 whom he met at ,vaucouleurs1 he was chosen ,german king a second time at ,frankfort on the #eth of ,december #abab1 and crowned four days later at ,mainz4 ,anxious to retain the support of the pope1 ,frederick promulgated a bull at ,eger on the #abth of ,july #abac1 by which he renounced all lands claimed by the pope since the death of the emperor ,henry ,,vi4 in #aaig1 gave up the right of spoils and all interference in episcopal elections1 and acknowledged the right of appeal to ,rome4 ,he again affirmed the papal supremacy over ,sicily1 and promised to root out heresy in ,germany4 ,the victory of his ,french allies at ,bouvines on the #bgth of ,july #abad greatly strengthened his position1 and a large part of the ,rhineland having fallen into his power1 he was crowned ,german king at ,aix-la-,chapelle on the #beth of ,july #abae4 ,his cause continued to prosper1 fresh supporters gathered round his standard1 and in ,may #abah the death of ,otto freed him from his rival and left him undisputed ruler of ,germany4 ,a further attempt to allay the pope's apprehension lest ,sicily should be united with the ,empire had been made early in #abaf1 when ,frederick1 in a letter to ,innocent1 promised after his own coronation as emperor to recognize his son ,henry as king of ,sicily1 and to place him under the suzerainty of ,rome4 ,henry nevertheless was brought to ,germany and chosen ,german king at ,frankfort in ,april #abbj1 though ,frederick assured the new pope1 ,honorius ,,iii41 that this step had been taken without his consent4 ,the truth1 however1 seems to be that he had taken great trouble to secure this election1 and for the purpose had won the support of the spiritual princes by extensive concessions4 ,in ,august #abbj ,frederick set out for ,italy1 and was crowned emperor at ,rome on the #bbnd of ,november #abbj2 after which he repeated the undertaking he had entered into at ,aix-la-,chapelle in #abae to go on crusade1 and made lavish promises to the ,church4 ,the clergy were freed from taxation and from lay jurisdiction1 the ban of the ,empire was to follow the ban of the ,church1 and heretics were to be severely punished4 ,neglecting his promise to lead a crusade1 ,frederick was occupied until #abbe in restoring order in ,sicily4 ,the island was seething with disorder1 but by stern and sometimes cruel measures the emperor suppressed the anarchy of the barons1 curbed the power of the cities1 and subdued the rebellious ,saracens1 many of whom1 transferred to the mainland and settled at ,nocera1 afterwards rendered him valuable military service4 ,meanwhile the crusade was postponed again and again2 until under a threat of excommunication1 after the fall of ,damietta in #abba1 ,frederick definitely undertook by a treaty made at ,san ,germano in #abbe to set out in ,august #abbg or to submit to this penalty4 ,his own interests turned more strongly to the ,east1 when on the #ith of ,november #abbe1 after having been a widower since #abbb1 he married ,iolande 7,yolande or ,isabella71 daughter of ,john1 count of ,brienne1 titular king of ,jerusalem4 ,john appears to have expected that this alliance would restore him to his kingdom1 but his hopes were dashed to the ground when ,frederick himself assumed the title of king of ,jerusalem4 ,the emperor's next step was an attempt to restore the imperial authority in northern ,italy1 and for the purpose a diet was called at ,cremona4 ,but the cities1 watchful and suspicious1 renewed the ,lombard league and took up a hostile attitude4 ,frederick's reply was to annul the treaty of ,constance and place the cities under the imperial ban2 but he was forced by lack of military strength to accept the mediation of ,pope ,honorius and the maintenance of the status quo4 ,after these events1 which occurred early in #abbg1 preparations for the crusade were pressed on1 and the emperor sailed from ,brindisi on the #hth of ,september4 ,a pestilence1 however1 which attacked his forces compelled him to land in ,italy three days later1 and on the #bith of the same month he was excommunicated by the new pope1 ,gregory ,,ix4 ,the greater part of the succeeding year was spent by pope and emperor in a violent quarrel4 ,alarmed at the increase in his opponent's power1 ,gregory denounced him in a public letter1 to which ,frederick replied in a clever document addressed to the princes of ,europe4 ,the reading of this manifesto1 drawing attention to the absolute power claimed by the popes1 was received in ,rome with such evidences of approval that ,gregory was compelled to fly to ,viterbo4 ,having lost his wife ,isabella on the #hth of ,may #abbh1 ,frederick again set sail for ,palestine1 where he met with considerable success1 the result of diplomatic rather than of military skill4 ,by a treaty made in ,february #abbi he secured possession of ,jerusalem1 ,bethlehem1 ,nazareth and the surrounding neighbourhood4 ,entering ,jerusalem1 he crowned himself king of that city on the #ahth of ,march #abbi4 ,these successes had been won in spite of the hostility of ,gregory1 which deprived ,frederick of the assistance of many members of the military orders and of the clergy of ,palestine4 ,but although the emperor's possessions on the ,italian mainland had been attacked in his absence by the papal troops and their allies1 ,gregory's efforts had failed to arouse serious opposition in ,germany and ,sicily2 so that when ,frederick returned unexpectedly to ,italy in ,june #abbi he had no difficulty in driving back his enemies1 and compelling the pope to sue for peace4 ,the result was the treaty of ,san ,germano1 arranged in ,july #abcj1 by which the emperor1 loosed from the ban1 promised to respect the papal territory1 and to allow freedom of election and other privileges to the ,sicilian clergy4 ,frederick was next engaged in completing the pacification of ,sicily4 ,in #abca a series of laws were published at ,melfi which destroyed the ascendancy of the feudal nobles4 ,royal officials were appointed for administrative purposes1 large estates were recovered for the crown1 and fortresses were destroyed1 while the church was placed under the royal jurisdiction and all gifts to it were prohibited4 ,at the same time certain privileges of self-government were granted to the towns1 representatives from which were summoned to sit in the diet4 ,in short1 by means of a centralized system of government1 the king established an almost absolute monarchical power4 ,in ,germany1 on the other hand1 an entirely different policy was pursued4 ,the concessions granted by ,frederick in #abbj1 together with the ,privilege of ,worms1 dated the #ast of ,may #abca1 made the ,german princes virtually independent4 ,all jurisdiction over their lands was vested in them1 no new mints or toll-centres were to be erected on their domains1 and the imperial authority was restricted to a small and dwindling area4 ,a fierce attack was also made on the rights of the cities4 ,compelled to restore all their lands1 their jurisdiction was bounded by their city-walls2 they were forbidden to receive the dependents of the princes2 all trade gilds were declared abolished2 and all official appointments made without the consent of the archbishop or bishop were annulled4 ,a further attack on the ,lombard cities at the diet of ,ravenna in #abca was answered by a renewal of their league1 and was soon connected with unrest in ,germany4 ,about #abca a breach took place between ,frederick and his elder son ,henry1 who appears to have opposed the ,privilege of ,worms and to have favoured the towns against the princes4 ,after refusing to travel to ,italy1 ,henry changed his mind and submitted to his father at ,aquileia in #abcb2 and a temporary peace was made with the ,lombard cities in ,june #abcc4 ,but on his return to ,germany ,henry again raised the standard of revolt1 and made a league with the ,lombards in ,december #abcd4 ,frederick1 meanwhile1 having helped ,pope ,gregory against the rebellious ,romans and having secured the friendship of ,france and ,england1 appeared in ,germany early in #abce and put down this rising without difficulty4 ,henry was imprisoned1 but his associates were treated leniently4 ,in ,august #abce a splendid diet was held at ,mainz1 during which the marriage of the emperor with ,isabella 7#abad-abda71 daughter of ,john1 king of ,england1 was celebrated4 ,a general peace 7,landfrieden71 which became the basis of all such peaces in the future1 was sworn to2 a new office1 that of imperial justiciar1 was created1 and a permanent judicial record was first instituted4 ,otto of ,brunswick1 grandson of ,henry the ,lion1 duke of ,saxony1 was made duke of ,brunswick-,lueneburg2 and war was declared against the ,lombards4 ,frederick was now at the height of his power4 ,his second son1 ,conrad1 was invested with the duchy of ,swabia1 and the claim of ,wenceslaus1 king of ,bohemia1 to some lands which had belonged to the ,german king ,philip was bought off4 ,the attitude of ,frederick ,,ii4 7the ,quarrelsome71 duke of ,austria1 had been considered by the emperor so suspicious that during a visit paid by ,frederick to ,italy a war against him was begun4 ,compelled to return by the ill-fortune which attended this campaign1 the emperor took command of his troops1 seized ,austria1 ,styria and ,carinthia1 and declared these territories to be immediately dependent on the ,empire4 ,in ,january #abcg he secured the election of his son ,conrad as ,german king at ,vienna2 and in ,september went to ,italy to prosecute the war which had broken out with the ,lombards in the preceding year4 ,pope ,gregory attempted to mediate1 but the cities refused to accept the insulting terms offered by ,frederick4 ,the emperor gained a great victory over their forces at ,cortenuova in ,november #abcg2 but though he met with some further successes1 his failure to take ,brescia in ,october #abch1 together with the changed attitude of ,gregory1 turned the fortune of war4 ,the pope had become alarmed when the emperor brought about a marriage between the heiress of ,sardinia1 ,adelasia1 and his natural son ,enzio1 who afterwards assumed the title of king of ,sardinia4 ,but as his warnings had been disregarded1 he issued a document after the emperor's retreat from ,brescia1 teeming with complaints against ,frederick1 and followed it up by an open alliance with the ,lombards1 and by the excommunication of the emperor on the #bjth of ,march #abci4 ,a violent war of words ensued4 ,frederick1 accused of heresy1 blasphemy and other crimes1 called upon all kings and princes to unite against the pope1 who on his side made vigorous efforts to arouse opposition in ,germany1 where his emissaries1 a crowd of wandering friars1 were actively preaching rebellion4 ,it was1 however1 impossible to find an anti-king4 ,in ,italy1 ,spoleto and ,ancona were declared part of the imperial dominions1 and ,rome itself1 faithful on this occasion to the pope1 was threatened4 ,a number of ecclesiastics proceeding to a council called by ,gregory were captured by ,enzio at the sea-fight of ,meloria1 and the emperor was about to undertake the siege of ,rome1 when the pope died 7,august #abda74 ,germany was at this time menaced by the ,mongols2 but ,frederick contented himself with issuing directions for a campaign against them1 until in #abdb he was able to pay a short visit to ,germany1 where he gained some support from the towns by grants of extensive privileges4 ,the successor of ,gregory was ,pope ,celestine ,,ix4 ,but this pontiff died soon after his election2 and after a delay of eighteen months1 during which ,frederick marched against ,rome on two occasions and devastated the lands of his opponents1 one of his partisans1 ,sinibaldo ,fiesco1 was chosen pope1 and took the name of ,innocent ,,iv4 ,negotiations for peace were begun1 but the relations of the ,lombard cities to the ,empire could not be adjusted1 and when the emperor began again to ravage the papal territories ,innocent fled to ,lyons4 ,hither he summoned a general council1 which met in ,june #abde2 but although ,frederick sent his justiciar1 ,thaddeus of ,suessa1 to represent him1 and expressed his willingness to treat1 sentence of excommunication and deposition was pronounced against him4 ,once more an interchange of recriminations began1 charged with all the violent hyperbole characteristic of the controversial style of the age4 ,accused of violating treaties1 breaking oaths1 persecuting the church and abetting heresy1 ,frederick replied by an open letter rebutting these charges1 and in equally unmeasured terms denounced the arrogance and want of faith of the clergy from the pope downwards4 ,the source of all the evil was1 he declared1 the excessive wealth of the church1 which1 in retaliation for the sentence of excommunication1 he threatened to confiscate4 ,in vain the mediation of the saintly king of ,france1 ,louis ,,ix41 was invoked4 ,innocent surpassed his predecessors in the ferocity and unscrupulousness of his attacks on the emperor 7see ,,innocent ,,iv474 ,war soon became general in ,germany and ,italy4 ,henry ,raspe1 landgrave of ,thuringia1 was chosen ,german king in opposition to ,frederick in ,may #abdf1 but neither he nor his successor1 ,william ,,ii41 count of ,holland1 was successful in driving the ,hohenstaufen from ,germany4 ,in ,italy1 during the emperor's absence1 his cause had been upheld by ,enzio and by the ferocious ,eccelino da ,romano4 ,in #abdf a formidable conspiracy of the discontented ,apulian barons against the emperor's power and life1 fomented by papal emissaries1 was discovered and crushed with ruthless cruelty4 ,the emperor's power seemed more firmly established than ever1 when suddenly the news reached him that ,parma1 a stronghold of the imperial authority in the north1 had been surprised1 while the garrison was off its guard1 by the ,guelphs4 ,to recover the city was a matter of prime importance1 and in #abdg ,frederick concentrated his forces round it1 building over against it a wooden town which1 in anticipation of the success that astrologers had predicted1 he named ,vittoria4 ,the siege1 however1 was protracted1 and finally1 in ,february #abdh1 during the absence of the emperor on a hunting expedition1 was brought to an end by a sudden sortie of the men of ,parma1 who stormed the imperial camp4 ,the disaster was complete4 ,the emperor's forces were destroyed or scattered2 the treasury1 with the imperial insignia1 together with ,frederick's harem and some of the most trusted of his ministers1 fell into the hands of the victors4 ,thaddeus of ,suessa was hacked to pieces by the mob2 the imperial crown was placed in mockery on the head of a hunch-backed beggar1 who was carried back in triumph into the city4 ,frederick struggled hard to retrieve his fortunes1 and for a while with success4 ,but his old confidence had left him2 he had grown moody and suspicious1 and his temper gave a ready handle to his enemies4 ,pier della ,vigna1 accused of treasonable designs1 was disgraced2 and the once all-powerful favourite and minister1 blinded now and in rags1 was dragged in the emperor's train1 as a warning to traitors1 till in despair he dashed out his brains4 ,then1 in ,may #abdh1 came the tidings of ,enzio's capture by the ,bolognese1 and of his hopeless imprisonment1 the captors refusing all offers of ransom4 ,this disaster to his favourite son broke the emperor's spirit4 ,he retired to southern ,italy1 and after a short illness died at ,fiorentino on the #acth of ,december #abej1 after having been loosed from the ban by the archbishop of ,palermo4 ,he was buried in the cathedral of that city1 where his splendid tomb may still be seen4 ,by his will he appointed his son ,conrad to succeed him in ,germany and ,sicily1 and ,henry1 his son by ,isabella of ,england1 to be king of ,jerusalem or ,arles1 neither of which kingdoms1 however1 he obtained4 ,frederick left several illegitimate children3 ,enzio has already been referred to2 ,frederick1 who was made the imperial vicar in ,tuscany2 and ,manfred1 his son by the beloved ,bianca ,lancia or ,lanzia1 who was legitimatized just before his father's death1 and was appointed by his will prince of ,tarento and regent of ,sicily4 ,the character of ,frederick is one of extraordinary interest and versatility1 and contemporary opinion is expressed in the words stupor mundi et immutator mirabilis4 ,licentious and luxurious in his manners1 cultured and catholic in his tastes1 he united in his person the most diverse qualities4 ,his ,sicilian court was a centre of intellectual activity4 ,michael ,scott1 the translator of some treatises of ,aristotle and of the commentaries of ,averroes1 ,leonard of ,pisa1 who introduced ,arabic numerals and algebra to the ,west1 and other scholars1 ,jewish and ,mahommedan as well as ,christian1 were welcome at his court4 ,frederick himself had a knowledge of six languages1 was acquainted with mathematics1 philosophy and natural history1 and took an interest in medicine and architecture4 ,in #abbd he founded the university of ,naples1 and he was a liberal patron of the medical school at ,salerno4 ,he formed a menagerie of strange animals1 and wrote a treatise on falconry 7,de arte venandi cum avibus7 which is remarkable for its accurate observation of the habits of birds4#a ,it was at his court1 too1 that--as ,dante points out--,italian poetry had its birth4 ,pier della ,vigna there wrote the first sonnet1 and ,italian lyrics by ,frederick himself are preserved to us4 ,his wives were kept secluded in oriental fashion2 a harem was maintained at ,lucera1 and eunuchs were a prominent feature of his household4 ,his religious ideas have been the subject of much controversy4 ,the theory of ,m4 ,huillard-,breholles that he wished to unite to the functions of emperor those of a spiritual pontiff1 and aspired to be the founder of a new religion1 is insufficiently supported by evidence to be credible4 ,although at times he persecuted heretics with great cruelty1 he tolerated ,mahommedans and ,jews1 and both acts appear rather to have been the outcome of political considerations than of religious belief4 ,his jests1 which were used by his enemies as a charge against him1 seem to have originated in religious indifference1 or perhaps in a spirit of inquiry which anticipated the ideas of a later age4 ,frederick's rule in ,germany and ,italy was a failure1 but this fact may be accounted for by the conditions of the time and the inevitable conflict with the papacy4 ,in ,germany the enactments of #abbj and #abca contributed to the disintegration of the ,empire and the fall of the ,hohenstaufen1 while conflicting interests made the government of ,italy a problem of exceptional difficulty4 ,in ,sicily ,frederick was more successful4 ,he quelled disorder1 and under his rule the island was prosperous and contented4 ,his ideas of government were those of an absolute monarch1 and he probably wished to surround himself with some of the pomp which had encircled the older emperors of ,rome4 ,his chief claim to fame1 perhaps1 is as a lawgiver4 ,the code of laws which he gave to ,sicily in #abca bears the impress of his personality1 and has been described as the fullest and most adequate body of legislation promulgated by any western ruler since ,charlemagne4 ,without being a great soldier1 ,frederick was not unskilful in warfare1 but was better acquainted with the arts of diplomacy4 ,in person he is said to have been red1 bald and short-sighted1 but with good features and a pleasing countenance4 ,it was seriously believed in ,germany for about a century after his death that ,frederick was still alive1 and many impostors attempted to personate him4 ,a legend1 afterwards transferred to ,frederick ,barbarossa1 told how he sat in a cavern in the ,kyffhaeusser before a stone table through which his beard had grown1 waiting for the time for him to awake and restore to the ,empire the golden age of peace4 ,the contemporary documents relating to the reign of ,frederick ,,ii4 are very numerous4 ,among the most important are3 ,richard of ,san ,germano1 ,chronica regni ,siciliae2 ,annales ,placentini1 ,gibellini2 ,albert of ,stade1 ,annales2 ,matthew ,paris1 ,historia major ,angliae2 ,burchard1 ,chronicon ,urspergense4 ,all these are in the ,monumenta ,germaniae historica4 ,scriptores 7,hanover and ,berlin1 #ahbf-ahib74 ,the ,rerum ,italicarum scriptores1 edited by ,l4 ,a4 ,muratori 7,milan1 #agbc-agea71 contains ,annales ,mediolanenses2 ,nicholas of ,jamsilla1 ,historia de rebus gestis ,friderici ,,ii41 and ,vita ,gregorii ,,ix4 pontificis4 ,there are also the ,epistolarum libri of ,peter della ,vigna1 edited by ,j4 ,r4 ,iselin 7,basel1 #agdj72 and ,salimbene of ,parma's ,chronik1 published at ,parma 7#aheg74 ,many of the documents concerning the history of the time are found in the ,historia diplomatica ,friderici ,,ii41 edited by ,m4 ,huillard-,breholles 7,paris1 #aheb-ahfa72 ,acta imperii selecta4 ,urkunden deutscher ,koenige und ,kaiser1 edited by ,j4 ,f4 ,boehmer and ,j4 ,ficker 7,innsbruck1 #ahgj72 ,acta imperii inedita seculi ,,xiii4 ,urkunden und ,briefe zur ,geschichte des ,kaiserreichs und des ,koenigreichs ,sicilien1 edited by ,e4 ,winkelmann 7,innsbruck1 #ahhj72 ,epistolae saeculi ,,xiii4 selecta e regestis pontificum ,romanorum1 edited by ,c4 ,rodenberg1 tome i4 7,berlin1 #ahhc72 ,p4 ,pressutti1 ,regesta ,honorii papae ,,iii4 7,rome1 #ahhh72 ,l4 ,auvray1 ,les ,registres de ,gregoire ,,ix4 7,paris1 #ahij74 ,the best modern authorities are ,w4 von ,giesebrecht1 ,geschichte der deutschen ,kaiserzeit1 ,band v4 7,leipzig1 #ahhh72 ,j4 ,jastrow1 ,deutsche ,geschichte im ,zeitalter der ,hohenstaufen 7,berlin1 #ahic72 ,f4 ,w4 ,schirrmacher1 ,kaiser ,friedrich der ,zweite 7,goettingen1 #ahei-ahfe72 ,beitraege zur ,geschichte ,kaiser ,friedrichs ,,ii4 in the ,forschungen zur deutschen ,geschichte1 ,band xi4 7,goettingen1 #ahfb-ahhf71 and ,die letzten ,hohenstaufen 7,goettingen1 #ahga72 ,e4 ,winkelmann1 ,geschichte ,kaiser ,friedrichs ,,ii und seiner ,reiche 7,berlin1 #ahfe7 and ,kaiser ,friedrich ,,ii4 7,leipzig1 #ahhi72 ,g4 ,blondel1 ,etude sur la politique de l'empereur ,frederic ,,ii4 en ,allemagne 7,paris1 #ahib72 ,m4 ,halbe1 ,friedrich ,,ii4 und der paepstliche ,stuhl 7,berlin1 #ahhh72 ,r4 ,roehricht1 ,die ,kreuzfahrt des ,kaisers ,friedrich ,,ii4 7,berlin1 #ahgd72 ,c4 ,koehler1 ,das ,verhaeltnis ,kaiser ,friedrichs ,,ii4 zu den ,paepsten seiner ,zeit 7,breslau1 #ahhh72 ,j4 ,feiten1 ,papst ,gregor ,,ix4 7,freiburg1 #ahhf72 ,c4 ,rodenberg1 ,innocenz ,,iv4 und das ,koenigreich ,sicilien 7,halle1 #ahib72 ,k4 ,lamprecht1 ,deutsche ,geschichte1 ,band iii4 7,berlin1 #ahia72 ,m4 ,huillard-,breholles1 ,vie et correspondance de ,pierre de la ,vigne 7,paris1 #ahfe72 ,a4 del ,vecchio1 ,la legislazione de ,federico ,,ii 7,turin1 #ahgd72 and ,k4 ,hampe1 ,kaiser ,friedrich ,,ii4 7,munich1 #ahii74 7,a4 ,w4 ,h4997 ,,footnote3 #a ,first printed at ,augsburg in #aeif2 a ,german edition was published at ,berlin in #ahif4 ,,frederick ,,iii4 7#adae-adic71 ,roman emperor1--as ,frederick ,,iv41 ,german king1 and as ,frederick ,v41 archduke of ,austria1--son of ,ernest of ,habsburg1 duke of ,styria and ,carinthia1 was born at ,innsbruck on the #bast of ,september #adae4 ,after his father's death in #adbd he passed his time at the court of his uncle and guardian1 ,frederick ,,iv41 count of ,tirol4 ,in #adce1 together with his brother1 ,albert the ,prodigal1 he undertook the government of ,styria and ,carinthia1 but the peace of these lands was disturbed by constant feuds between the brothers1 which lasted until ,albert's death in #adfc4 ,in #adci the deaths of the ,german king ,albert ,,ii4 and of ,frederick of ,tirol left ,frederick the senior member of the ,habsburg family1 and guardian of ,sigismund1 count of ,tirol4 ,in the following year he also became guardian of ,ladislaus1 the posthumous son of ,albert ,,ii41 and heir to ,bohemia1 ,hungary and ,austria1 but these responsibilities brought only trouble and humiliation in their train4 ,on the #bnd of ,february #addj ,frederick was chosen ,german king at ,frankfort1 but1 owing to his absence from ,germany1 the coronation was delayed until the #agth of ,june #addb1 when it took place at ,aix-la-,chapelle4 ,disregarding the neutral attitude of the ,german electors towards the papal schism1 and acting under the influence of ,aeneas ,sylvius ,piccolomini1 afterwards ,pope ,pius ,,ii41 ,frederick in #adde made a secret treaty with ,pope ,eugenius ,,iv4 ,this developed into the ,concordat of ,vienna1 signed in #addh with the succeeding pope1 ,nicholas ,v41 by which the king1 in return for a sum of money and a promise of the imperial crown1 pledged the obedience of the ,german people to ,rome1 and so checked for a time the rising tide of liberty in the ,german church4 ,taking up the quarrel between the ,habsburgs and the ,swiss cantons1 ,frederick invited the ,armagnacs to attack his enemies1 but after meeting with a stubborn resistance at ,st ,jacob on the #bfth of ,august #addd1 these allies proved faithless1 and the king soon lost every vestige of authority in ,switzerland4 ,in #adea ,frederick1 disregarding the revolts in ,austria and ,hungary1 travelled to ,rome1 where1 on the #afth of ,march #adeb1 his marriage with ,leonora1 daughter of ,edward1 king of ,portugal1 was celebrated1 and three days later he was crowned emperor by pope ,nicholas4 ,on his return he found ,germany seething with indignation4 ,his capitulation to the pope was not forgotten2 his refusal to attend the diets1 and his apathy in the face of ,turkish aggressions1 constituted a serious danger2 and plans for his deposition failed only because the electors could not unite upon a rival king4 ,in #adeg ,ladislaus1 king of ,hungary and ,bohemia1 and archduke of ,austria1 died2 ,frederick failed to secure either kingdom1 but obtained lower ,austria1 from which1 however1 he was soon driven by his brother ,albert1 who occupied ,vienna4 ,on ,albert's death in #adfc the emperor united upper and lower ,austria under his rule1 but these possessions were constantly ravaged by ,george ,podebrad1 king of ,bohemia1 and by ,matthias ,corvinus1 king of ,hungary4 ,a visit to ,rome in #adfh to discuss measures against the ,turks with ,pope ,paul ,,ii4 had no result1 and in #adgj ,frederick began negotiations for a marriage between his son ,maximilian and ,mary1 daughter and heiress of ,charles the ,bold1 duke of ,burgundy4 ,the emperor met the duke at ,treves in #adgc1 when ,frederick1 disliking to bestow the title of king upon ,charles1 left the city secretly1 but brought about the marriage after the duke's death in #adgg4 ,again attacked by ,matthias1 the emperor was driven from ,vienna1 and soon handed over the government of his lands to ,maximilian1 whose election as king of the ,romans he vainly opposed in #adhf4 ,frederick then retired to ,linz1 where he passed his time in the study of botany1 alchemy and astronomy1 until his death on the #aith of ,august #adic4 ,frederick was a listless and incapable ruler1 lacking alike the qualities of the soldier and of the diplomatist1 but possessing a certain cleverness in evading difficulties4 ,with a fine presence1 he had many excellent personal qualities1 is spoken of as mild and just1 and had a real love of learning4 ,he had a great belief in the future greatness of his family1 to which he contributed largely by arranging the marriage of ,maximilian with ,mary of ,burgundy1 and delighted to inscribe his books and other articles of value with the letters ,a4,e4,i4,o4,u4 7,austriae est imperare orbi universo2 or in ,german1 ,alles ,erdreich ist ,oesterreich unterthan74 ,his personality counts for very little in ,german history4 ,one chronicler says3 ,he was a useless emperor1 and the nation during his long reign forgot that she had a king4 ,his tomb1 a magnificent work in red and white marble1 is in the cathedral of ,st ,stephen at ,vienna4 ,see ,aeneas ,sylvius ,piccolomini1 ,de rebus et gestis ,friderici ,,iii4 7trans4 ,th4 ,ilgen1 ,leipzig1 #ahhi72 ,j4 ,chmel1 ,geschichte ,kaiser ,friedrichs ,,iv4 und seines ,sohnes ,maximilians ,i4 7,hamburg1 #ahdj72 ,a4 ,bachmann1 ,deutsche ,reichsgeschichte im ,zeitalter ,friedrichs ,,iii4 und ,maximilians ,i4 7,leipzig1 #ahhd72 ,a4 ,huber1 ,geschichte ,oesterreichs 7,gotha1 #ahhe-ahib72 and ,e4 ,m4 ,fuerst von ,lichnowsky1 ,geschichte des ,hauses ,habsburg 7,vienna1 #ahcf-ahdd74 ,,frederick ,,iii4 7c4 #abhf-accj71 surnamed the ,fair1 ,german king and duke of ,austria1 was the second son of the ,german king1 ,albert ,i41 and consequently a member of the ,habsburg family4 ,in #abih1 when his father was chosen ,german king1 ,frederick was invested with some of the family lands1 and in #acjf1 when his elder brother ,rudolph became king of ,bohemia1 he succeeded to the duchy of ,austria4 ,in #acjg ,rudolph died1 and ,frederick sought to obtain the ,bohemian throne2 but an expedition into that country was a failure1 and his father's murder in ,may #acjh deprived him of considerable support4 ,he was equally unsuccessful in his efforts to procure the ,german crown at this time1 and the relations between the new king1 ,henry ,,vii41 and the ,habsburgs were far from friendly4 ,frederick asked not only to be confirmed in the possession of ,austria1 but to be invested with ,moravia1 a demand to which ,henry refused to accede2 but an arrangement was subsequently made by which the duke agreed to renounce ,moravia in return for a payment of #ej1jjj marks4 ,frederick then became involved in a quarrel with his cousin ,louis ,,iv41 duke of ,upper ,bavaria 7afterwards the emperor ,louis ,,iv471 over the guardianship of ,henry ,,ii41 duke of ,lower ,bavaria4 ,hostilities broke out1 and on the #ith of ,november #acac he was defeated by ,louis at the battle of ,gammelsdorf and compelled to renounce his claim4 ,meanwhile the emperor ,henry ,,vii4 had died in ,italy1 and a stubborn contest ensued for the vacant throne4 ,after a long delay ,frederick was chosen ,german king at ,frankfort by a minority of the electors on the #aith of ,october #acad1 while a majority elected ,louis of ,bavaria4 ,six days later ,frederick was crowned at ,bonn by the archbishop of ,cologne1 and war broke out at once between the rivals4 ,during this contest1 which was carried on in a desultory fashion1 ,frederick drew his chief strength from southern and eastern ,germany1 and was supported by the full power of the ,habsburgs4 ,the defeat of his brother ,leopold by the ,swiss at ,morgarten in ,november #acae was a heavy blow to him1 but he prolonged the struggle for seven years4 ,on the #bhth of ,september #acbb a decisive battle was fought at ,muehldorf2 ,frederick was defeated and sent as a prisoner to ,trausnitz4 ,here he was retained until three years later a series of events induced ,louis to come to terms4 ,by the treaty of ,trausnitz1 signed on the #acth of ,march #acbe1 ,frederick acknowledged the kingship of ,louis in return for freedom1 and promised to return to captivity unless he could induce his brother ,leopold to make a similar acknowledgment4 ,as ,leopold refused to take this step1 ,frederick1 although released from his oath by ,pope ,john ,,xxii41 travelled back to ,bavaria1 where he was treated by ,louis rather as a friend than as a prisoner4 ,a suggestion was then made that the kings should rule jointly1 but as this plan aroused some opposition it was agreed that ,frederick should govern ,germany while ,louis went to ,italy for the imperial crown4 ,but this arrangement did not prove generally acceptable1 and the death of ,leopold in #acbf deprived ,frederick of a powerful supporter4 ,in these circumstances he returned to ,austria broken down in mind and body1 and on the #acth of ,january #accj he died at ,gutenstein1 and was buried at ,mauerbach1 whence his remains were removed in #aghc to the cathedral of ,st ,stephen at ,vienna4 ,he married ,elizabeth1 daughter of ,james ,i41 king of ,aragon1 and left two daughters4 ,his voluntary return into captivity is used by ,schiller in his poem ,deutsche ,treue1 and by ,j4 ,l4 ,uhland in the drama ,ludwig der ,bayer4 ,the authorities for the life of ,frederick are found in the ,fontes rerum ,germanicarum1 ,band i41 edited by ,j4 ,f4 ,boehmer 7,stuttgart1 #ahdc-ahfh71 and in the ,fontes rerum ,austriacarum1 part i4 7,vienna1 #ahee74 ,modern works which may be consulted are3 ,e4 ,m4 ,fuerst von ,lichnowsky1 ,geschichte des ,hauses ,habsburg 7,vienna1 #ahcf-ahdd72 ,th4 ,lindner1 ,deutsche ,geschichte unter den ,habsburgern und ,luxemburgern 7,stuttgart1 #ahhh-ahic74 ,r4 ,doebner1 ,die ,auseinandersetzung zwischen ,ludwig ,,iv4 dem ,bayer und ,friedrich dem ,schoenen von ,oesterreich 7,goettingen1 #ahge72 ,f4 ,kurz1 ,oesterreich unter ,koenig ,friedrich dem ,schoenen 7,linz1 #ahah72 ,f4 ,krones1 ,handbuch der ,geschichte ,oesterreichs 7,berlin1 #ahgf-ahgi72 ,h4 ,schrohe1 ,der ,kampf der ,gegenkoenige ,ludwig und ,friedrich 7,berlin1 #aijb72 ,w4 ,friedensburg1 ,ludwig ,,iv4 der ,bayer und ,friedrich von ,oesterreich 7,goettingen1 #ahgg72 ,b4 ,gebhardt1 ,handbuch der deutschen ,geschichte 7,berlin1 #aija74 ,,frederick ,,ii4 7#aecd-aehh71 king of ,denmark and ,norway1 son of ,christian ,,iii41 was born at ,hadersleben on the #ast of ,july #aecd4 ,his mother1 ,dorothea of ,saxe-,lauenburg1 was the elder sister of ,catherine1 the first wife of ,gustavus ,vasa and the mother of ,eric ,,xiv4 ,the two little cousins1 born the same year1 were destined to be lifelong rivals4 ,at the age of two ,frederick was proclaimed successor to the throne at the ,rigsdag of ,copenhagen 7,october #cjth1 #aecf71 and homage was done to him at ,oslo for ,norway in #aedh4 ,the choice of his governor1 the patriotic historiographer ,hans ,svaning1 was so far fortunate that it ensured the devotion of the future king of ,denmark to everything ,danish2 but ,svaning was a poor pedagogue1 and the wild and wayward lad suffered all his life from the defects of his early training4 ,frederick's youthful1 innocent attachment to the daughter of his former tutor1 ,anna ,hardenberg1 indisposed him towards matrimony at the beginning of his reign 7#aeeh74 ,after the hands of ,elizabeth of ,england1 ,mary of ,scotland and ,renata of ,lorraine had successively been sought for him1 the council of state grew anxious about the succession1 but he finally married his cousin1 ,sophia of ,mecklenburg1 on the #bjth of ,july #aegb4 ,the reign of ,frederick ,,ii4 falls into two well-defined divisions3 7#a7 a period of war1 #aeei-aegj2 and 7#b7 a period of peace1 #aegj-aehh4 ,the period of war began with the ,ditmarsh expedition1 when the independent peasant-republic of the ,ditmarshers of ,west ,holstein1 which had stoutly maintained its independence for centuries against the counts of ,holstein and the ,danish kings1 was subdued by a ,dano-,holstein army of #bj1jjj men in #aeei1 ,frederick and his uncles ,john and ,adolphus1 dukes of ,holstein1 dividing the land between them4 ,equally triumphant was ,frederick in his war with ,sweden1 though here the contest was much more severe1 lasting as it did for seven years2 whence it is generally described in northern history as the ,scandinavian ,seven ,years' ,war4 ,the tension which had prevailed between the two kingdoms during the last years of ,gustavus ,vasa reached breaking point on the accession of ,gustavus's eldest son ,eric ,,xiv4 ,there were many causes of quarrel between the two ambitious young monarchs1 but the detention at ,copenhagen in #aefc of a splendid matrimonial embassy on its way to ,germany1 to negotiate a match between ,eric and ,christina of ,hesse1 which ,king ,frederick for political reasons was determined to prevent1 precipitated hostilities4 ,during the war1 which was marked by extraordinary ferocity throughout1 the ,danes were generally victorious on land owing to the genius of ,daniel ,rantzau1 but at sea the ,swedes were almost uniformly triumphant4 ,by #aegj the strife had degenerated into a barbarous devastation of border provinces2 and in ,july of the same year both countries accepted the mediation of the ,emperor1 and peace was finally concluded at ,stettin on ,dec4 #ac1 #aegj4 ,during the course of this ,seven ,years' ,war ,frederick ,,ii4 had narrowly escaped the fate of his deposed cousin ,eric ,,xiv4 ,the war was very unpopular in ,denmark1 and the closing of the ,sound against foreign shipping1 in order to starve out ,sweden1 had exasperated the maritime powers and all the ,baltic states4 ,on ,new ,year's ,day #aegj ,frederick's difficulties seemed so overwhelming that he threatened to abdicate2 but the peace of ,stettin came in time to reconcile all parties1 and though ,frederick had now to relinquish his ambitious dream of re-establishing the ,union of ,kalmar1 he had at least succeeded in maintaining the supremacy of ,denmark in the north4 ,after the peace ,frederick's policy became still more imperial4 ,he aspired to the dominion of all the seas which washed the ,scandinavian coasts1 and before he died he succeeded in suppressing the pirates who so long had haunted the ,baltic and the ,german ,ocean4 ,he also erected the stately fortress of ,kronborg1 to guard the narrow channel of the ,sound4 ,frederick possessed the truly royal gift of discovering and employing great men1 irrespective of personal preferences and even of personal injuries4 ,with infinite tact and admirable self-denial he gave free scope to ministers whose superiority in their various departments he frankly recognized1 rarely interfering personally unless absolutely called upon to do so4 ,his influence1 always great1 was increased by his genial and unaffected manners as a host4 ,he is also remarkable as one of the few kings of the house of ,oldenburg who had no illicit liaison4 ,he died at ,antvorskov on the #dth of ,april #aehh4 ,no other ,danish king was ever so beloved by his people4 ,see ,lund 7,troels71 ,danmarks og ,norges ,historie i ,slutningen af det ,,xvi4 ,aarh4 7,copenhagen1 #ahgi72 ,danmarks ,riges ,historie 7,copenhagen1 #ahig-aije71 vol4 #c2 ,robert ,nisbet ,bain1 ,scandinavia1 cap4 #d 7,cambridge1 #aije74 7,r4 ,n4 ,b47 ,,frederick ,,iii4 7#afji-afgj71 king of ,denmark and ,norway1 son of ,christian ,,iv4 and ,anne ,catherine of ,brandenburg1 was born on the #ahth of ,march #afji at ,hadersleben4 ,his position as a younger son profoundly influenced his future career4 ,in his youth and early manhood there was no prospect of his ascending the ,danish throne1 and he consequently became the instrument of his father's schemes of aggrandizement in ,germany4 ,while still a lad he became successively bishop of ,bremen1 bishop of ,verden and coadjutor of ,halberstadt1 while at the age of eighteen he was the chief commandant of the fortress of ,stade4 ,thus from an early age he had considerable experience as an administrator1 while his general education was very careful and thorough4 ,he had always a pronounced liking for literary and scientific studies4 ,on the #ast of ,october #afdc ,frederick wedded ,sophia ,amelia of ,brunswick ,lueneburg1 whose energetic1 passionate and ambitious character was profoundly to affect not only ,frederick's destiny but the destiny of ,denmark4 ,during the disastrous ,swedish ,war of #afdc-afde ,frederick was appointed generalissimo of the duchies by his father1 but the laurels he won were scanty1 chiefly owing to his quarrels with the ,earl-,marshal ,anders ,bille1 who commanded the ,danish forces4 ,this was ,frederick's first collision with the ,danish nobility1 who ever afterwards regarded him with extreme distrust4 ,the death of his elder brother ,christian in ,june #afdg first opened to him the prospect of succeeding to the ,danish throne1 but the question was still unsettled when ,christian ,,iv4 died on the #bhth of ,february #afdh4 ,not till the #fth of ,july in the same year did ,frederick ,,iii4 receive the homage of his subjects1 and only after he had signed a ,haandfaestning or charter1 by which the already diminished royal prerogative was still further curtailed4 ,it had been doubtful at first whether he would be allowed to inherit his ancestral throne at all2 but ,frederick removed the last scruples of the ,rigsraad by unhesitatingly accepting the conditions imposed upon him4 ,the new monarch was a reserved1 enigmatical prince1 who seldom laughed1 spoke little and wrote less--a striking contrast to ,christian ,,iv4 ,but if he lacked the brilliant qualities of his impulsive1 jovial father1 he possessed in a high degree the compensating virtues of moderation1 sobriety and self-control4 ,but with all his good qualities ,frederick was not the man to take a clear view of the political horizon1 or even to recognize his own and his country's limitations4 ,he rightly regarded the accession of ,charles ,x4 of ,sweden 7,june #fth1 #afed7 as a source of danger to ,denmark4 ,he felt that temperament and policy would combine to make ,charles an aggressive warrior-king3 the only uncertainty was in which direction he would turn his arms first4 ,charles's invasion of ,poland 7,july #afed7 came as a distinct relief to the ,danes1 though even the ,polish ,war was full of latent peril to ,denmark4 ,frederick was resolved upon a rupture with ,sweden at the first convenient opportunity4 ,the ,rigsdag which assembled on the #bcrd of ,february #afeg willingly granted considerable subsidies for mobilization and other military expenses2 on the #aeth of ,april ,frederick ,,iii4 desired1 and on the #bcrd of ,april he received1 the assent of the majority of the ,rigsraad to attack ,sweden's ,german provinces2 in the beginning of ,may the still pending negotiations with that power were broken off1 and on the #ast of ,june ,frederick signed the manifesto justifying a war which was never formally declared4 ,the ,swedish king traversed all the plans of his enemies by his passage of the frozen ,belts1 in ,january and ,february #afeh 7see ,,charles ,x4 of ,sweden74 ,the effect of this unheard-of achievement on the ,danish government was crushing4 ,frederick ,,iii4 at once sued for peace2 and1 yielding to the persuasions of the ,english and ,french ministers1 ,charles finally agreed to be content with mutilating instead of annihilating the ,danish monarchy 7treaties of ,taastrup1 ,february #ahth1 and of ,roskilde1 ,february #bfth1 #afeh74 ,the conclusion of peace was followed by a remarkable episode4 ,frederick expressed the desire to make the personal acquaintance of his conqueror2 and ,charles ,x4 consented to be his guest for three days 7,march #c-e7 at the castle of ,fredriksborg4 ,splendid banquets lasting far into the night1 private and intimate conversations between the princes who had only just emerged from a mortal struggle1 seemed to point to nothing but peace and friendship in the future4 ,but ,charles's insatiable lust for conquest1 and his ineradicable suspicion of ,denmark1 induced him1 on the #agth of ,july1 without any reasonable cause1 without a declaration of war1 in defiance of all international equity1 to endeavour to despatch an inconvenient neighbour4 ,terror was the first feeling produced at ,copenhagen by the landing of the main ,swedish army at ,korsoer in ,zealand4 ,none had anticipated the possibility of such a sudden and brutal attack1 and every one knew that the ,danish capital was very inadequately fortified and garrisoned4 ,fortunately ,frederick had never been deficient in courage4 ,i will die in my nest were the memorable words with which he rebuked those counsellors who advised him to seek safety in flight4 ,on the #hth of ,august representatives from every class in the capital urged the necessity of a vigorous resistance2 and the citizens of ,copenhagen1 headed by the great burgomaster ,hans ,nansen 7q4v471 protested their unshakable loyalty to the king1 and their determination to defend ,copenhagen to the uttermost4 ,the ,danes had only three days' warning of the approaching danger2 and the vast and dilapidated line of defence had at first but #bjjj regular defenders4 ,but the government and the people displayed a memorable and exemplary energy1 under the constant supervision of the king1 the queen1 and burgomaster ,nansen4 ,by the beginning of ,september all the breaches were repaired1 the walls bristled with cannon1 and #gjjj men were under arms4 ,so strong was the city by this time that ,charles ,x41 abandoning his original intention of carrying the place by assault1 began a regular siege2 but this also he was forced to abandon when1 on the #bith of ,october1 an auxiliary ,dutch fleet1 after reinforcing and reprovisioning the garrison1 defeated1 in conjunction with the ,danish fleet1 the ,swedish navy of #dd liners in the ,sound4 ,thus the ,danish capital had saved the ,danish monarchy4 ,but it was ,frederick ,,iii4 who profited most by his spirited defence of the common interests of the country and the dynasty4 ,the traditional loyalty of the ,danish middle classes was transformed into a boundless enthusiasm for the king personally1 and for a brief period ,frederick found himself the most popular man in his kingdom4 ,he made use of his popularity by realizing the dream of a lifetime and converting an elective into an absolute monarchy by the ,revolution of #affj 7see ,,denmark3 ,history74 ,frederick ,,iii4 died on the #fth of ,february #afgj at the castle of ,copenhagen4 ,see ,r4 ,nisbet ,bain1 ,scandinavia1 caps4 ix4 and x4 7,cambridge1 #aije74 7,r4 ,n4 ,b47 ,,frederick ,,viii4 7#ahdc- 71 king of ,denmark1 eldest son of ,king ,christian ,,ix41 was born at ,copenhagen on the #crd of ,june #ahdc4 ,as crown prince of ,denmark he took part in the war of #ahfd against ,austria and ,prussia1 and subsequently assisted his father in the duties of government1 becoming king on ,christian's death in ,january #aijf4 ,in #ahfi ,frederick married ,louise 7b4 #ahea71 daughter of ,charles ,,xv41 king of ,sweden1 by whom he had a family of four sons and four daughters4 ,his eldest son ,christian1 crown prince of ,denmark 7b4 #ahgj71 was married in #ahih to ,alexandrina 7b4 #ahgi71 daughter of ,frederick ,francis ,,iii41 grand-duke of ,mecklenburg-,schwerin2 and his second son1 ,charles 7b4 #ahgb71 who married his cousin ,maud1 daughter of ,edward ,,vii4 of ,great ,britain1 became king of ,norway as ,haakon ,,vii4 in #aije4 ,,frederick ,i4 7#afeg-agac71 king of ,prussia1 and 7as ,frederick ,,iii47 elector of ,brandenburg1 was the second son of the great elector1 ,frederick ,william1 by his first marriage with ,louise ,henriette1 daughter of ,frederick ,henry of ,orange4 ,born at ,koenigsberg on the #aath of ,july #afeg1 he was educated and greatly influenced by ,eberhard ,danckelmann1 and became heir to the throne of ,brandenburg through the death of his elder brother1 ,charles ,emil1 in #afgd4 ,he appears to have taken some part in public business before the death of his father2 and the court at ,berlin was soon disturbed by quarrels between the young prince and his stepmother1 ,dorothea of ,holstein-,gluecksburg4 ,in #afhf ,dorothea persuaded her husband to bequeath outlying portions of his lands to her four sons2 and ,frederick1 fearing he would be poisoned1 left ,brandenburg determined to prevent any diminution of his inheritance4 ,by promising to restore ,schwiebus to ,silesia after his accession he won the support of the emperor ,leopold ,i42 but eventually he gained his end in a peaceable fashion4 ,having become elector of ,brandenburg in ,may #afhh1 he came to terms with his half-brothers and their mother4 ,in return for a sum of money these princes renounced their rights under their father's will1 and the new elector thus secured the whole of ,frederick ,william's territories4 ,after much delay and grumbling he fulfilled his bargain with ,leopold and gave up ,schwiebus in #afie4 ,at home and abroad ,frederick continued the policy of the great elector4 ,he helped ,william of ,orange to make his descent on ,england2 added various places1 including the principality of ,neuchatel1 to his lands2 and exercised some influence on the course of ,european politics by placing his large and efficient army at the disposal of the emperor and his allies 7see ,,brandenburg74 ,he was present in person at the siege of ,bonn in #afhi1 but was not often in command of his troops4 ,the elector was very fond of pomp1 and1 striving to model his court upon that of ,louis ,,xiv41 he directed his main energies towards obtaining for himself the title of king4 ,in spite of the assistance he had given to the emperor his efforts met with no success for some years2 but towards #agjj ,leopold1 faced with the prospect of a new struggle with ,france1 was inclined to view the idea more favourably4 ,having insisted upon various conditions1 prominent among them being military aid for the approaching war1 he gave the imperial sanction to ,frederick's request in ,november #agjj2 whereupon the elector1 hurrying at once to ,koenigsberg1 crowned himself with great ceremony king of ,prussia on the #ahth of ,january #agja4 ,according to his promise the king sent help to the emperor2 and during the ,war of the ,spanish ,succession the troops of ,brandenburg-,prussia rendered great assistance to the allies1 fighting with distinction at ,blenheim and elsewhere4 ,frederick1 who was deformed through an injury to his spine1 died on the #beth of ,february #agac4 ,by his extravagance the king exhausted the treasure amassed by his father1 burdened his country with heavy taxes1 and reduced its finances to chaos4 ,his constant obligations to the emperor drained ,brandenburg of money which might have been employed more profitably at home1 and prevented her sovereign from interfering in the politics of northern ,europe4 ,frederick1 however1 was not an unpopular ruler1 and by making ,prussia into a kingdom he undoubtedly advanced it several stages towards its future greatness4 ,he founded the university of ,halle1 and the ,academy of ,sciences at ,berlin2 welcomed and protected ,protestant refugees from ,france and elsewhere2 and lavished money on the erection of public buildings4 ,the king was married three times4 ,his second wife1 ,sophie ,charlotte 7#affh-agje71 sister of the ,english king ,george ,i41 was the friend of ,leibnitz and one of the most cultured princesses of the age2 she bore him his only son1 his successor1 ,king ,frederick ,william ,i4 ,see ,w4 ,hahn1 ,friedrich ,i41 ,koenig in ,preussen 7,berlin1 #ahgf72 ,j4 ,g4 ,droysen1 ,geschichte der preussischen ,politik1 ,band iv4 7,leipzig1 #ahgb72 ,e4 ,heyck1 ,friedrich ,i4 und die ,begruendung des preussischen ,koenigtums 7,bielefeld1 #aija73 ,c4 ,graf von ,dohna1 ,memoires originaux sur le regne et la cour de ,frederic ,ier 7,berlin1 #ahhc72 ,aus dem ,briefwechsel ,koenig ,friedrichs ,i4 von ,preussen und seiner ,familie 7,berlin1 #aija72 and ,t4 ,carlyle1 ,history of ,frederick the ,great1 vol4 i4 7,london1 #ahgb74 ,,frederick ,,ii41 known as the ,great 7#agab-aghf71 king of ,prussia1 born on the #bdth of ,january #agab1 was the eldest son of ,frederick ,william ,i4 ,he was brought up with extreme rigour1 his father devising a scheme of education which was intended to make him a hardy soldier1 and prescribing for him every detail of his conduct4 ,so great was ,frederick ,william's horror of everything which did not seem to him practical1 that he strictly excluded ,latin from the list of his son's studies4 ,frederick1 however1 had free and generous impulses which could not be restrained by the sternest system4 ,encouraged by his mother1 and under the influence of his governess ,madame de ,roucoulle1 and of his first tutor ,duhan1 a ,french refugee1 he acquired an excellent knowledge of ,french and a taste for literature and music4 ,he even received secret lessons in ,latin1 which his father invested with all the charms of forbidden fruit4 ,as he grew up he became extremely dissatisfied with the dull and monotonous life he was compelled to lead2 and his discontent was heartily shared by his sister1 ,wilhelmina1 a bright and intelligent young princess for whom ,frederick had a warm affection4 ,frederick ,william1 seeing his son apparently absorbed in frivolous and effeminate amusements1 gradually conceived for him an intense dislike1 which had its share in causing him to break off the negotiations for a double marriage between the prince of ,wales and ,wilhelmina1 and the princess ,amelia1 daughter of ,george ,,ii41 and ,frederick2 for ,frederick had been so indiscreet as to carry on a separate correspondence with the ,english court and to vow that he would marry ,amelia or no one4 ,frederick ,william's hatred of his son1 openly avowed1 displayed itself in violent outbursts and public insults1 and so harsh was his treatment that ,frederick frequently thought of running away and taking refuge at the ,english court4 ,he at last resolved to do so during a journey which he made with the king to south ,germany in #agcj1 when he was eighteen years of age4 ,he was helped by his two friends1 ,lieutenant ,katte and ,lieutenant ,keith2 but by the imprudence of the former the secret was found out4 ,frederick was placed under arrest1 deprived of his rank as crown prince1 tried by court-martial1 and imprisoned in the fortress of ,cuestrin4 ,warned by ,frederick1 ,keith escaped2 but ,katte delayed his flight too long1 and a court-martial decided that he should be punished with two years' fortress arrest4 ,but the king was determined by a terrible example to wake ,frederick once for all to a consciousness of the heavy responsibility of his position4 ,he changed the sentence on ,katte to one of death and ordered the execution to take place in ,frederick's presence1 himself arranging its every detail2 ,frederick's own fate would depend upon the effect of this terrible object-lesson and the response he should make to the exhortations of the chaplain sent to reason with him4 ,on the morning of the #gth of ,november ,katte was beheaded before ,frederick's window1 after the crown prince had asked his pardon and received the answer that there was nothing to forgive4 ,on ,frederick himself lay the terror of death1 and the chaplain was able to send to the king a favourable report of his orthodoxy and his changed disposition4 ,frederick ,william1 whose temper was by no means so ruthlessly ,spartan as tradition has painted it1was overjoyed1 and commissioned the clergyman to receive from the prince an oath of filial obedience1 and in exchange for this proof of his intention to improve in real earnest his arrest was to be lightened1 pending the earning of a full pardon4 ,the whole town shall be his prison1 wrote the king2 ,i will give him employment1 from morning to night1 in the departments of war1 and agriculture1 and of the government4 ,he shall work at financial matters1 receive accounts1 read minutes and make extracts4444 ,but if he kicks or rears again1 he shall forfeit the succession to the crown1 and even1 according to circumstances1 life itself4 ,for about fifteen months ,frederick lived in ,custrin1 busy according to the royal programme with the details of the ,prussian administrative system4 ,he was very careful not to kick or rear1 and his good conduct earned him a further stage in the restoration to favour4 ,during this period of probation he had been deprived of his status as a soldier and refused the right to wear uniform1 while officers and soldiers were forbidden to give him the military salute2 in #agcb he was made colonel in command of the regiment at ,neuruppin4 ,in the following year he married1 in obedience to the king's orders1 the princess ,elizabeth ,christina1 daughter of the duke of ,brunswick-,bevern4 ,he was given the estate of ,rheinsberg in the neighbourhood of ,neuruppin1 and there he lived until he succeeded to the throne4 ,these years were perhaps the happiest of his life4 ,he discharged his duties with so much spirit and so conscientiously that he ultimately gained the esteem of ,frederick ,william1 who no longer feared that he would leave the crown to one unworthy of wearing it4 ,at the same time the crown prince was able to indulge to the full his personal tastes4 ,he carried on a lively correspondence with ,voltaire and other ,french men of letters1 and was a diligent student of philosophy1 history and poetry4 ,two of his best-known works were written at this time--,considerations sur l'etat present du corps politique de l',europe and his ,anti-,macchiavel4 ,in the former he calls attention to the growing strength of ,austria and ,france1 and insists on the necessity of some third power1 by which he clearly means ,prussia1 counterbalancing their excessive influence4 ,the second treatise1 which was issued by ,voltaire in ,hague in #agdj1 contains a generous exposition of some of the favourite ideas of the #ahth-century philosophers respecting the duties of sovereigns1 which may be summed up in the famous sentence3 the prince is not the absolute master1 but only the first servant of his people4 ,on the #cast of ,may #agdj he became king4 ,he maintained all the forms of government established by his father1 but ruled in a far more enlightened spirit2 he tolerated every form of religious opinion1 abolished the use of torture1 was most careful to secure an exact and impartial administration of justice1 and1 while keeping the reins of government strictly in his own hands1 allowed every one with a genuine grievance free access to his presence4 ,the ,potsdam regiment of giants was disbanded1 but the real interests of the army were carefully studied1 for ,frederick realized that the two pillars of the ,prussian state were sound finances and a strong army4 ,on the #bjth of ,october #agdj the emperor ,charles ,,vi4 died4 ,frederick at once began to make extensive military preparations1 and it was soon clear to all the world that he intended to enter upon some serious enterprise4 ,he had made up his mind to assert the ancient claim of the house of ,brandenburg to the three ,silesian duchies1 which the ,austrian rulers of ,bohemia had ever denied1 but the ,hohenzollerns had never abandoned4 ,projects for the assertion of this claim by force of arms had been formed by more than one of ,frederick's predecessors1 and the extinction of the male line of the house of ,habsburg may well have seemed to him a unique opportunity for realizing an ambition traditional in his family4 ,for this resolution he is often abused still by historians1 and at the time he had the approval of hardly any one out of ,prussia4 ,he himself1 writing of the scheme in his ,memoires1 laid no claim to lofty motives1 but candidly confessed that it was a means of acquiring reputation and of increasing the power of the state4 ,he firmly believed1 however1 in the lawfulness of his claims2 and although his father had recognized the ,pragmatic ,sanction1 whereby the hereditary dominions of ,charles ,,vi4 were to descend to his daughter1 ,maria ,theresa1 ,frederick insisted that this sanction could refer only to lands which rightfully belonged to the house of ,austria4 ,he could also urge that1 as ,charles ,,vi4 had not fulfilled the engagements by which ,frederick ,william's recognition of the ,pragmatic ,sanction had been secured1 ,prussia was freed from her obligation4 ,frederick sent an ambassador to ,vienna1 offering1 in the event of his rights in ,silesia being conceded1 to aid ,maria ,theresa against her enemies4 ,the queen of ,hungary1 who regarded the proposal as that of a mere robber1 haughtily declined2 whereupon ,frederick immediately invaded ,silesia with an army of #cj1jjj men4 ,his first victory was gained at ,mollwitz on the #ajth of ,april #agda4 ,under the impression1 in consequence of a furious charge of ,austrian cavalry1 that the battle was lost1 he rode rapidly away at an early stage of the struggle--a mistake which gave rise for a time to the groundless idea that he lacked personal courage4 ,a second ,prussian victory was gained at ,chotusitz1 near ,caslau1 on the #agth ,may #agdb2 by this time ,frederick was master of all the fortified places of ,silesia4 ,maria ,theresa1 in the heat of her struggle with ,france and the elector of ,bavaria1 now ,charles ,,vii41 and pressed by ,england to rid herself of ,frederick1 concluded with him1 on the #aath of ,june #agdb1 the peace of ,breslau1 conceding to ,prussia1 ,upper and ,lower ,silesia as far as the ,oppa1 together with the county of ,glatz4 ,frederick made good use of the next two years1 fortifying his new territory1 and repairing the evils inflicted upon it by the war4 ,by the death of the prince of ,east ,friesland without heirs1 he also gained possession of that country 7#agdd74 ,he knew well that ,maria ,theresa would not1 if she could help it1 allow him to remain in ,silesia2 accordingly1 in #agdd1 alarmed by her victories1 he arrived at a secret understanding with ,france1 and pledged himself1 with ,hesse-,cassel and the palatinate1 to maintain the imperial rights of ,charles ,,vii41 and to defend his hereditary ,bavarian lands4 ,frederick began the second ,silesian ,war by entering ,bohemia in ,august #agdd and taking ,prague4 ,by this brilliant but rash venture he put himself in great danger1 and soon had to retreat2 but in #agde he gained the battles of ,hohenfriedberg1 ,soor and ,hennersdorf2 and ,leopold of ,dessau 7,der alte ,dessauer7 won for him the victory of ,kesselsdorf in ,saxony4 ,the latter victory was decisive1 and the peace of ,dresden 7,december #be1 #agde7 assured to ,frederick a second time the possession of ,silesia4 7,see ,,austrian ,,succession1 ,,war ,,of ,,the47 ,frederick had thus1 at the age of thirty-three1 raised himself to a great position in ,europe1 and henceforth he was the most conspicuous sovereign of his time4 ,he was a thoroughly absolute ruler1 his so-called ministers being mere clerks whose business was to give effect to his will4 ,to use his own famous phrase1 however1 he regarded himself as but the first servant of the state2 and during the next eleven years he proved that the words expressed his inmost conviction and feeling4 ,all kinds of questions were submitted to him1 important and unimportant2 and he is frequently censured for having troubled himself so much with mere details4 ,but in so far as these details related to expenditure he was fully justified1 for it was absolutely essential for him to have a large army1 and with a small state this was impossible unless he carefully prevented unnecessary outlay4 ,being a keen judge of character1 he filled the public offices with faithful1 capable1 energetic men1 who were kept up to a high standard of duty by the consciousness that their work might at any time come under his strict supervision4 ,the ,academy of ,sciences1 which had fallen into contempt during his father's reign1 he restored1 infusing into it vigorous life2 and he did more to promote elementary education than any of his predecessors4 ,he did much too for the economic development of ,prussia1 especially for agriculture2 he established colonies1 peopling them with immigrants1 extended the canal system1 drained and diked the great marshes of the ,oderbruch1 turning them into rich pasturage1 encouraged the planting of fruit trees and of root crops2 and1 though in accordance with his ideas of discipline he maintained serfdom1 he did much to lighten the burdens of the peasants4 ,all kinds of manufacture1 too1 particularly that of silk1 owed much to his encouragement4 ,to the army he gave unremitting attention1 reviewing it at regular intervals1 and sternly punishing negligence on the part of the officers4 ,its numbers were raised to #afj1jjj men1 while fortresses and magazines were always kept in a state of readiness for war4 ,the influence of the king's example was felt far beyond the limits of his immediate circle4 ,the nation was proud of his genius1 and displayed something of his energy in all departments of life4 ,lessing1 who as a youth of twenty came to ,berlin in #agdi1 composed enthusiastic odes in his honour1 and ,gleim1 the ,halberstadt poet1 wrote of him as of a kind of demi-god4 ,these may be taken as fair illustrations of the popular feeling long before the ,seven ,years' ,war4 ,he despised ,german as the language of boors1 although it is remarkable that at a later period1 in a ,french essay on ,german literature1 he predicted for it a great future4 ,he habitually wrote and spoke ,french1 and had a strong ambition to rank as a distinguished ,french author4 ,nobody can now read his verses1 but his prose writings have a certain calm simplicity and dignity1 without1 however1 giving evidence of the splendid mental qualities which he revealed in practical life4 ,to this period belong his ,memoires pour servir a l'histoire de ,brandebourg and his poem ,l',art de la guerre4 ,the latter1 judged as literature1 is intolerably dull2 but the former is valuable1 throwing as it does considerable light on his personal sympathies as well as on the motives of important epochs in his career4 ,he continued to correspond with ,french writers1 and induced a number of them to settle in ,berlin1 ,maupertuis being president of the ,academy4 ,in #ageb ,voltaire1 who had repeatedly visited him1 came at ,frederick's urgent entreaty1 and received a truly royal welcome4 ,the famous ,hirsch trial1 and ,voltaire's vanity and caprice1 greatly lowered him in the esteem of the king1 who1 on his side1 irritated his guest by often requiring him to correct bad verses1 and by making him the object of rude banter4 ,the publication of ,doctor ,akakia1 which brought down upon the president of the ,academy a storm of ridicule1 finally alienated ,frederick2 while ,voltaire's wrongs culminated in the famous arrest at ,frankfort1 the most disagreeable elements of which were due to the misunderstanding of an order by a subordinate official4 ,the king lived as much as possible in a retired mansion1 to which he gave the name of ,sanssouci--not the palace so called1 which was built after the ,seven ,years' ,war1 and was never a favourite residence4 ,he rose regularly in summer at five1 in winter at six1 devoting himself to public business till about eleven4 ,during part of this time1 after coffee1 he would aid his reflections by playing on the flute1 of which he was passionately fond1 being a really skilful performer4 ,at eleven came parade1 and an hour afterwards1 punctually1 dinner1 which continued till two1 or later1 if conversation happened to be particularly attractive4 ,after dinner he glanced through and signed cabinet orders written in accordance with his morning instructions1 often adding marginal notes and postscripts1 many of which were in a caustic tone4 ,these disposed of1 he amused himself for a couple of hours with literary work2 between six and seven he would converse with his friends or listen to his reader 7a post held for some time by ,la ,mettrie72 at seven there was a concert2 and at half-past eight he sat down to supper1 which might go on till midnight4 ,he liked good eating and drinking1 although even here the cost was sharply looked after1 the expenses of his kitchen mounting to no higher figure than ,l#ahjj a year4 ,at supper he was always surrounded by a number of his most intimate friends1 mainly ,frenchmen2 and he insisted on the conversation being perfectly free4 ,his wit1 however1 was often cruel1 and any one who responded with too much spirit was soon made to feel that the licence of talk was to be complete only on one side4 ,at ,frederick's court ladies were seldom seen1 a circumstance that gave occasion to much scandal for which there seems to have been no foundation4 ,the queen he visited only on rare occasions4 ,she had been forced upon him by his father1 and he had never loved her2 but he always treated her with marked respect1 and provided her with a generous income1 half of which she gave away in charity4 ,although without charm1 she was a woman of many noble qualities2 and1 like her husband1 she wrote ,french books1 some of which attracted a certain attention in their day4 ,she survived him by eleven years1 dying in #agig4 ,maria ,theresa had never given up hope that she would recover ,silesia2 and as all the neighbouring sovereigns were bitterly jealous of ,frederick1 and somewhat afraid of him1 she had no difficulty in inducing several of them to form a scheme for his ruin4 ,russia and ,saxony entered into it heartily1 and ,france1 laying aside her ancient enmity towards ,austria1 joined the empress against the common object of dislike4 ,frederick1 meanwhile1 had turned towards ,england1 which saw in him a possible ally of great importance against the ,french4 ,a convention between ,prussia and ,great ,britain was signed in ,january #agef1 and it proved of incalculable value to both countries1 leading as it did to a close alliance during the administration of ,pitt4 ,through the treachery of a clerk in the ,saxon foreign office ,frederick was made aware of the future which was being prepared for him4 ,seeing the importance of taking the initiative1 and if possible1 of securing ,saxony1 he suddenly1 on the #bdth of ,august #agef1 crossed the frontier of that country1 and shut in the ,saxon army between ,pirna and ,koenigstein1 ultimately compelling it1 after a victory gained over the ,austrians at ,lobositz1 to surrender4 ,thus began the ,seven ,years' ,war1 in which1 supported by ,england1 ,brunswick and ,hesse-,cassel1 he had for a long time to oppose ,austria1 ,france1 ,russia1 ,saxony and ,sweden4 ,virtually the whole ,continent was in arms against a small state which1 a few years before1 had been regarded by most men as beneath serious notice4 ,but it happened that this small state was led by a man of high military genius1 capable of infusing into others his own undaunted spirit1 while his subjects had learned both from him and his predecessors habits of patience1 perseverance and discipline4 ,in #ageg1 after defeating the ,austrians at ,prague1 he was himself defeated by them at ,kolin2 and by the shameful convention of ,closter-,seven1 he was freely exposed to the attack of the ,french4 ,in ,november #ageg1 however1 when ,europe looked upon him as ruined1 he rid himself of the ,french by his splendid victory over them at ,rossbach1 and in about a month afterwards1 by the still more splendid victory at ,leuthen1 he drove the ,austrians from ,silesia4 ,from this time the ,french were kept well employed in the west by ,prince ,ferdinand of ,brunswick1 who defeated them at ,crefeld in #ageh1 and at ,minden in #agei4 ,in the former year ,frederick triumphed1 at a heavy cost1 over the ,russians at ,zorndorf2 and although1 through lack of his usual foresight1 he lost the battle of ,hochkirch1 he prevented the ,austrians from deriving any real advantage from their triumph1 ,silesia still remaining in his hands at the end of the year4 ,the battle of ,kunersdorf1 fought on the #abth of ,august #agei1 was the most disastrous to him in the course of the war4 ,he had here to contend both with the ,russians and the ,austrians2 and although at first he had some success1 his army was in the end completely broken4 ,all is lost save the royal family1 he wrote to his minister ,friesenstein2 the consequences of this battle will be worse than the battle itself4 ,i shall not survive the ruin of the ,fatherland4 ,adieu for ever6 ,but he soon recovered from his despair1 and in #agfj gained the important victories of ,liegnitz and ,torgau4 ,he had now1 however1 to act on the defensive1 and fortunately for him1 the ,russians1 on the death of the empress ,elizabeth1 not only withdrew in #agfb from the compact against him1 but for a time became his allies4 ,on the #bith of ,october of that year he gained his last victory over the ,austrians at ,freiberg4 ,europe was by that time sick of war1 every power being more or less exhausted4 ,the result was that1 on the #aeth of ,february #agfc1 a few days after the conclusion of the peace of ,paris1 the treaty of ,hubertusburg was signed1 ,austria confirming ,prussia in the possession of ,silesia4 7,see ,,seven ,,years' ,,war47 ,it would be difficult to overrate the importance of the contribution thus made by ,frederick to the politics of ,europe4 ,prussia was now universally recognized as one of the great powers of the ,continent1 and she definitely took her place in ,germany as the rival of ,austria4 ,from this time it was inevitable that there should be a final struggle between the two nations for predominance1 and that the smaller ,german states should group themselves around one or the other4 ,frederick himself acquired both in ,germany and ,europe the indefinable influence which springs from the recognition of great gifts that have been proved by great deeds4 ,his first care after the war was1 as far as possible1 to enable the country to recover from the terrific blows by which it had been almost destroyed2 and he was never1 either before or after1 seen to better advantage than in the measures he adopted for this end4 ,although his resources had been so completely drained that he had been forced to melt the silver in his palaces and to debase the coinage1 his energy soon brought back the national prosperity4 ,pomerania and ,neumark were freed from taxation for two years1 ,silesia for six months4 ,many nobles whose lands had been wasted received corn for seed2 his war horses were within a few months to be found on farms all over ,prussia2 and money was freely spent in the re-erection of houses which had been destroyed4 ,the coinage was gradually restored to its proper value1 and trade received a favourable impulse by the foundation of the ,bank of ,berlin4 ,all these matters were carefully looked into by ,frederick himself1 who1 while acting as generously as his circumstances would allow1 insisted on everything being done in the most efficient manner at the least possible cost4 ,unfortunately1 he adopted the ,french ideas of excise1 and the ,french methods of imposing and collecting taxes--a system known as the ,regie4 ,this system secured for him a large revenue1 but it led to a vast amount of petty tyranny1 which was all the more intolerable because it was carried out by ,french officials4 ,it was continued to the end of ,frederick's reign1 and nothing did so much to injure his otherwise immense popularity4 ,he was quite aware of the discontent the system excited1 and the good-nature with which he tolerated the criticisms directed against it and him is illustrated by a well-known incident4 ,riding along the ,jaeger ,strasse one day1 he saw a crowd of people4 ,see what it is1 he said to the groom who was attending him4 ,they have something posted up about your ,majesty1 said the groom1 returning4 ,frederick1 riding forward1 saw a caricature of himself3 ,king in very melancholy guise1 says ,preuss 7as translated by ,carlyle71 seated on a stool1 a coffee-mill between his knees1 diligently grinding with the one hand1 and with the other picking up any bean that might have fallen4 ',hang it lower1' said the king1 beckoning his groom with a wave of the finger2 'lower1 that they may not have to hurt their necks about it4' ,no sooner were the words spoken1 which spread instantly1 than there rose from the whole crowd one universal huzzah of joy4 ,they tore the caricature into a thousand pieces1 and rolled after the king with loud ',lebe ,hoch1 our ,frederick for ever1' as he rode slowly away4 ,there are scores of anecdotes about ,frederick1 but not many so well authenticated as this4 ,there was nothing about which ,frederick took so much trouble as the proper administration of justice4 ,he disliked the formalities of the law1 and in one instance1 the miller ,arnold case1 in connexion with which he thought injustice had been done to a poor man1 he dismissed the judges1 condemned them to a year's fortress arrest1 and compelled them to make good out of their own pockets the loss sustained by their supposed victim--not a wise proceeding1 but one springing from a generous motive4 ,he once defined himself as l'avocat du pauvre1 and few things gave him more pleasure than the famous answer of the miller whose windmill stood on ground which was wanted for the king's garden4 ,the miller sturdily refused to sell it4 ,not at any price8 said the king's agent2 could not the king take it from you for nothing1 if he chose8 ,have we not the ,kammergericht at ,berlin8 was the answer1 which became a popular saying in ,germany4 ,soon after he came to the throne ,frederick began to make preparations for a new code4 ,in #agdg appeared the ,codex ,fridericianus1 by which the ,prussian judicial body was established4 ,but a greater monument of ,frederick's interest in legal reform was the ,allgemeines preussisches ,landrecht1 completed by the grand chancellor ,count ,johann ,h4 ,c4 von ,carmer 7#agba-ahja7 on the basis of the ,project des ,corporis ,juris ,fridericiani1 completed in the year #agdi-agea by the eminent jurist ,samuel von ,cocceji 7#afgi-agee74 ,the ,landrecht1 a work of vast labour and erudition1 combines the two systems of ,german and ,roman law supplemented by the law of nature2 it was the first ,german code1 but only came into force in #agid1 after ,frederick's death4 ,looking ahead after the ,seven ,years' ,war1 ,frederick saw no means of securing himself so effectually as by cultivating the goodwill of ,russia4 ,in #agfd he accordingly concluded a treaty of alliance with the empress ,catherine for eight years4 ,six years afterwards1 unfortunately for his fame1 he joined in the first partition of ,poland1 by which he received ,polish ,prussia1 without ,danzig and ,thorn1 and ,great ,poland as far as the river ,netze4 ,prussia was then for the first time made continuous with ,brandenburg and ,pomerania4 ,the emperor ,joseph ,,ii4 greatly admired ,frederick1 and visited him at ,neisse1 in ,silesia1 in #agfi1 a visit which ,frederick returned1 in ,moravia1 in the following year4 ,the young emperor was frank and cordial2 ,frederick was more cautious1 for he detected under the respectful manner of ,joseph a keen ambition that might one day become dangerous to ,prussia4 ,ever after these interviews a portrait of the emperor hung conspicuously in the rooms in which ,frederick lived1 a circumstance on which some one remarked4 ,ah yes1 said ,frederick1 ,i am obliged to keep that young gentleman in my eye4 ,nothing came of these suspicions till #aggg1 when1 after the death of ,maximilian ,joseph1 elector of ,bavaria1 without children1 the emperor took possession of the greater part of his lands4 ,the elector palatine1 who lawfully inherited ,bavaria1 came to an arrangement1 which was not admitted by his heir1 ,charles1 duke of ,zweibruecken4 ,under these circumstances the latter appealed to ,frederick1 who1 resolved that ,austria should gain no unnecessary advantage1 took his part1 and brought pressure to bear upon the emperor4 ,ultimately1 greatly against his will1 ,frederick felt compelled to draw the sword1 and in ,july #aggh crossed the ,bohemian frontier at the head of a powerful army4 ,no general engagement was fought1 and after a great many delays the treaty of ,teschen was signed on the #acth of ,may #aggi4 ,austria received the circle of ,burgau1 and consented that the king of ,prussia should take the ,franconian principalities4 ,frederick never abandoned his jealousy of ,austria1 whose ambition he regarded as the chief danger against which ,europe had to guard4 ,he seems to have had no suspicion that evil days were coming in ,france4 ,it was ,austria which had given trouble in his time2 and if her pride were curbed1 he fancied that ,prussia at least would be safe4 ,hence one of the last important acts of his life was to form1 in #aghe1 a league of princes 7the ,fuerstenbund7 for the defence of the imperial constitution1 believed to be imperilled by ,joseph's restless activity4 ,the league came to an end after ,frederick's death2 but it is of considerable historical interest1 as the first open attempt of ,prussia to take the lead in ,germany4 ,frederick's chief trust was always in his treasury and his army4 ,by continual economy he left in the former the immense sum of #gj million thalers2 the latter1 at the time of his death1 numbered #bjj1jjj men1 disciplined with all the strictness to which he had throughout life accustomed his troops4 ,he died at ,sanssouci on the #agth of ,august #aghf2 his death being hastened by exposure to a storm of rain1 stoically borne1 during a military review4 ,he passed away on the eve of tremendous events1 which for a time obscured his fame2 but now that he can be impartially estimated1 he is seen to have been in many respects one of the greatest figures in modern history4 ,he was rather below the middle size1 in youth inclined to stoutness1 lean in old age1 but of vigorous and active habits4 ,an expression of keen intelligence lighted up his features1 and his large1 sparkling grey eyes darted penetrating glances at every one who approached him4 ,in his later years an old blue uniform with red facings was his usual dress1 and on his breast was generally some ,spanish snuff1 of which he consumed large quantities4 ,he shared many of the chief intellectual tendencies of his age1 having no feeling for the highest aspirations of human nature1 but submitting all things to a searching critical analysis4 ,of ,christianity he always spoke in the mocking tone of the enlightened philosophers1 regarding it as the invention of priests2 but it is noteworthy that after the ,seven ,years' ,war1 the trials of which steadied his character1 he sought to strengthen the church for the sake of its elevating moral influence4 ,in his judgments of mankind he often talked as a misanthrope4 ,he was once conversing with ,sulzer1 who was a school inspector1 about education4 ,sulzer expressed the opinion that education had of late years greatly improved4 ,in former times1 your ,majesty1 he said1 the notion being that mankind were naturally inclined to evil1 a system of severity prevailed in schools2 but now1 when we recognize that the inborn inclination of men is rather to good than to evil1 schoolmasters have adopted a more generous procedure4 ,ah1 my dear ,sulzer1 replied the king1 you don't know this damned race 7,ach1 mein lieber ,sulzer1 er kennt nicht diese verdammte ,race74 ,this fearful saying unquestionably expressed a frequent mood of ,frederick's2 and he sometimes acted with great harshness1 and seemed to take a malicious pleasure in tormenting his acquaintances4 ,yet he was capable of genuine attachments4 ,he was beautifully loyal to his mother and his sister ,wilhelmina2 his letters to the duchess of ,gotha are full of a certain tender reverence2 the two ,keiths found him a devoted friend4 ,but the true evidence that beneath his misanthropical moods there was an enduring sentiment of humanity is afforded by the spirit in which he exercised his kingly functions4 ,taking his reign as a whole1 it must be said that he looked upon his power rather as a trust than as a source of personal advantage2 and the trust was faithfully discharged according to the best lights of his day4 ,he has often been condemned for doing nothing to encourage ,german literature2 and it is true that he was supremely indifferent to it4 ,before he died a tide of intellectual life was rising all about him2 yet he failed to recognize it1 declined to give ,lessing even the small post of royal librarian1 and thought ,goetz von ,berlichingen a vulgar imitation of vulgar ,english models4 ,but when his taste was formed1 ,german literature did not exist2 the choice was between ,racine and ,voltaire on the one hand and ,gottsched and ,gellert on the other4 ,he survived into the era of ,kant1 ,goethe and ,schiller1 but he was not of it1 and it would have been unreasonable to expect that he should in old age pass beyond the limits of his own epoch4 ,as ,germans now generally admit1 it was better that he let their literature alone1 since1 left to itself1 it became a thoroughly independent product4 ,indirectly he powerfully promoted it by deepening the national life from which it sprang4 ,at a time when there was no real bond of cohesion between the different states1 he stirred among them a common enthusiasm2 and in making ,prussia great he laid the foundation of a genuinely united empire4 ,,bibliographical ,,note4--,the main sources for the biography of ,frederick the ,great are his own works1 which1 in the words of ,leopold von ,ranke1 deal with the politics and wars of the period with the greatest possible objectivity1 i4e4 truthfulness1 and form an imperishable monument of his life and opinions4 ,a magnificent edition of ,frederick's complete works was issued 7#ahdf-aheg71 at the instance of ,frederick ,william ,,iv41 under the supervision of the historian ,johann ,d4 ,e4 ,preuss 7#aghe-ahfh74 ,it is in thirty volumes1 of which six contain verse1 seven are historical1 two philosophical1 and three military1 twelve being made up of correspondence4 ,so long as the various state archives remained largely inaccessible historians relied upon this as their chief authority4 ,among works belonging to this period may be mentioned ,thomas ,carlyle1 ,history of ,frederick ,,ii4 of ,prussia 7#f vols41 ,london1 #aheh-ahfe72 ,j4 ,g4 ,droysen1 ,friedrich der ,grosse 7#b vols41 ,leipzig1 #ahgd-ahgf1 forming part ,v4 of his ,geschichte der preussischen ,politik72 ,ranke1 ,friedrich ,,ii41 ,koenig von ,preussen 7,werke1 vols4 li4 and lii474 ,a great stimulus to the study of ,frederick's history has since been given by the publication of collections of documents preserved in various archives4 ,of these the most important is the great official edition of ,frederick's political correspondence 7,berlin1 #ahgi71 of which the thirty-first vol4 appeared in #aijf4 ,of later works1 based on modern research1 may be mentioned ,r4 ,koser1 ,koenig ,friedrich der ,grosse1 ,bd4 #b 7,stuttgart1 #ahic and #aijc2 #crd ed41 #aije72 ,bourdeau1 ,le ,grand ,frederic 7#b vols41 ,paris1 #aijj-aijb72 ,l4 ,paul-,dubois1 ,frederic le ,grand1 d'apres sa correspondance politique 7,paris1 #aijc72 ,w4 ,f4 ,reddaway1 ,frederick the ,great and the ,rise of ,prussia 7,london1 #aijd74 ,of the numerous special studies may be noticed ,e4 ,zeller1 ,friedrich der ,grosse als ,philosoph 7,berlin1 #ahhf72 ,h4 ,pigge1 ,die ,staatstheorie ,friedrichs des ,grossen 7,muenster1 #aijd72 ,t4 von ,bernhardi1 ,friedrich der ,grosse als ,feldherr 7#b vols41 ,berlin1 #ahha72 ,ernest ,lavisse1 ,la ,jeunesse du ,grand ,frederic 7,paris1 #ahia1 #crd ed41 #ahii2 ,eng4 transl41 ,london1 #ahia72 ,r4 ,brode1 ,friedrich der ,grosse und der ,konflikt mit seinem ,vater 7,leipzig1 #aijd72 ,w4 von ,bremen1 ,friedrich der ,grosse 7,bd4 ii4 of ,erzieher des preussischen ,heeres1 ,berlin1 #aije72 ,g4 ,winter1 ,friedrich der ,grosse 7#c vols4 in ,geisteshelden series1 ,berlin1 #aijf72 ,dreissig ,jahre am ,hofe ,friedrichs des ,grossen4 ,aus den ,tagebuechern des ,reichsgrafen ,ahasuerus ,heinrich von ,lehndorff1 ,kammerherrn der ,koenigin ,elisabett ,christine von ,preussen 7,gotha1 #aijg74 ,the great work on the wars of ,frederick is that issued by the ,prussian ,general ,staff3 ,die ,kriege ,friedrichs des ,grossen 7#ab vols4 in three parts1 ,berlin1 #ahij-aijd74 ,for a full list of other works see ,dahlmann-,waitz1 ,quellenkunde 7,leipzig1 #aijf74 7,j4 ,si42 ,w4 ,a4 ,p474 ,,frederick ,,iii4 7#ahca-ahhh71 king of ,prussia and ,german emperor1 was born at ,potsdam on the #ahth of ,october #ahca1 being the eldest son of ,prince ,william of ,prussia1 afterwards first ,german emperor1 and the princess ,augusta4 ,he was carefully educated1 and in #ahdi-ahej studied at the university of ,bonn4 ,the next years were spent in military duties and in travels1 in which he was accompanied by ,moltke4 ,in #ahea he visited ,england on the occasion of the ,great ,exhibition1 and in #ahee became engaged to ,victoria1 princess royal of ,great ,britain1 to whom he was married in ,london on the #beth of ,january #aheh4 ,on the death of his uncle in #ahfa and the accession of his father1 ,prince ,frederick ,william1 as he was then always called1 became crown prince of ,prussia4 ,his education1 the influence of his mother1 and perhaps still more that of his wife's father1 the ,prince ,consort1 had made him a strong ,liberal1 and he was much distressed at the course of events in ,prussia after the appointment of ,bismarck as minister4 ,he was urged by the ,liberals to put himself into open opposition to the government2 this he refused to do1 but he remonstrated privately with the king4 ,in ,june #ahfc1 however1 he publicly dissociated himself from the press ordinances which had just been published4 ,he ceased to attend meetings of the council of state1 and was much away from ,berlin4 ,the opposition of the crown prince to the ministers was increased during the following year1 for he was a warm friend of the prince of ,augustenburg1 whose claims to ,schleswig-,holstein ,bismarck refused to support4 ,during the war with ,denmark he had his first military experience1 being attached to the staff of ,marshal von ,wrangel2 he performed valuable service in arranging the difficulties caused by the disputes between the field marshal and the other officers1 and was eventually given a control over him4 ,after the war he continued to support the prince of ,augustenburg and was strongly opposed to the war with ,austria4 ,during the campaign of #ahff he received the command of an army consisting of four army corps2 he was assisted by ,general von ,blumenthal1 as chief of the staff1 but took a very active part in directing the difficult operations by which his army fought its way through the mountains from ,silesia to ,bohemia1 fighting four engagements in three days1 and showed that he possessed genuine military capacity4 ,in the decisive battle of ,koeniggraetz the arrival of his army on the field of battle1 after a march of nearly #bj m41 secured the victory4 ,during the negotiations which ended the war he gave valuable assistance by persuading the king to accept ,bismarck's policy as regards peace with ,austria4 ,from this time he was very anxious to see the king of ,prussia unite the whole of ,germany1 with the title of emperor1 and was impatient of the caution with which ,bismarck proceeded4 ,in #ahfi he paid a visit to ,italy1 and in the same year was present at the opening of the ,suez ,canal2 on his way he visited the ,holy ,land4 ,he played a conspicuous part in the year #ahgj-ahga1 being appointed to command the armies of the ,southern ,states1 ,general ,blumenthal again being his chief of the staff2 his troops won the victory of ,woerth1 took an important part in the battle of ,sedan1 and later in the siege of ,paris4 ,the popularity he won was of political service in preparing the way for the union of ,north and ,south ,germany1 and he was the foremost advocate of the imperial idea at the ,prussian court4 ,during the years that followed1 little opportunity for political activity was open to him4 ,he and the crown princess took a great interest in art and industry1 especially in the royal museums2 and the excavations conducted at ,olympia and ,pergamon with such great results were chiefly due to him4 ,the crown princess was a keen advocate of the higher education of women1 and it was owing to her exertions that the ,victoria ,lyceum at ,berlin 7which was named after her7 was founded4 ,in #ahgh1 when the emperor was incapacitated by the shot of an assassin1 the prince acted for some months as regent4 ,his palace was the centre of all that was best in the literary and learned society of the capital4 ,he publicly expressed his disapproval of the attacks on the ,jews in #ahgh2 and the coalition of ,liberal parties founded in #ahhd was popularly known as the crown prince's party1 but he scrupulously refrained from any act that might embarrass his father's government4 ,for many reasons the accession of the prince was looked forward to with great hope by a large part of the nation4 ,unfortunately he was attacked by cancer in the throat2 he spent the winter of #ahhg-ahhh at ,san ,remo2 in ,january #ahhh the operation of tracheotomy had to be performed4 ,on the death of his father1 which took place on the #ith of ,march1 he at once journeyed to ,berlin2 but his days were numbered1 and he came to the throne only to die4 ,in these circumstances his accession could not have the political importance which would otherwise have attached to it1 though it was disfigured by a vicious outburst of party passion in which the names of the emperor and the empress were constantly misused4 ,while the ,liberals hoped the emperor would use his power for some signal declaration of policy1 the adherents of ,bismarck did not scruple to make bitter attacks on the empress4 ,the emperor's most important act was a severe reprimand addressed to ,herr von ,puttkamer1 the reactionary minister of the interior1 which caused his resignation2 in the distribution of honours he chose many who belonged to classes and parties hitherto excluded from court favour4 ,a serious difference of opinion with the chancellor regarding the proposal for a marriage between ,prince ,alexander of ,battenberg and the princess ,victoria of ,prussia was arranged by the intervention of ,queen ,victoria1 who visited ,berlin to see her dying son-in-law4 ,he expired at ,potsdam on the #aeth of ,june #ahhh1 after a reign of ninety-nine days4 ,after the emperor's death ,professor ,geffcken1 a personal friend1 published in the ,deutsche ,rundschau extracts from the diary of the crown prince containing passages which illustrated his differences with ,bismarck during the war of #ahgj4 ,the object was to injure ,bismarck's reputation1 and a very unseemly dispute ensued4 ,bismarck at first1 in a letter addressed to the new emperor1 denied the authenticity of the extracts on the ground that they were unworthy of the crown prince4 ,geffcken was then arrested and imprisoned4 ,he had undoubtedly shown that he was an injudicious friend1 for the diary proved that the prince1 in his enthusiasm for ,german unity1 had allowed himself to consider projects which would have seriously compromised the relations of ,prussia and ,bavaria4 ,the treatment of the crown prince's illness also gave rise to an acrimonious controversy4 ,it arose from the fact that as early as ,may #ahhg the ,german physicians recognized the presence of cancer in the throat1 but ,sir ,morell ,mackenzie1 the ,english specialist who was also consulted1 disputed the correctness of this diagnosis1 and advised that the operation for removal of the larynx1 which they had recommended1 should not be undertaken4 ,his advice was followed1 and the differences between the medical men were made the occasion for a considerable display of national and political animosity4 ,the empress ,,victoria1 who1 after the death of her husband1 was known as the empress ,frederick1 died on the #eth of ,august #aija at the castle of ,friedrichskron1 ,cronberg1 near ,homburg v4 d4 ,h41 where she spent her last years4 ,of the emperor's children two1 ,prince ,sigismund 7#ahfd-ahff7 and ,prince ,waldemar 7#ahfi-ahgi71 died in childhood4 ,he left two sons1 ,william1 his successor as emperor1 and ,henry1 who adopted a naval career4 ,of his daughters1 the princess ,charlotte was married to ,bernard1 hereditary prince of ,meiningen2 the princess ,victoria to ,prince ,adolf of ,schaumburg-,lippe2 the princess ,sophie to the duke of ,sparta1 crown prince of ,greece2 and the princess ,margaretha to ,prince ,friedrich ,karl of ,hesse4 ,,authorities4--,m4 von ,poschinger1 ,kaiser ,friedrich 7#c vols41 ,berlin1 #ahih-aijj74 ,adapted into ,english by ,sidney ,whitman1 ,life of the ,emperor ,frederick 7#aija74 ,see also ,bismarck1 ,reflections and ,reminiscences2 ,rennell ,rodd1 ,frederick1 ,crown ,prince and ,emperor 7#ahhh72 ,gustav ,freytag1 ,der ,kronprinz und die deutsche ,kaiserkrone 7#ahhi2 ,english translation1 #ahij72 ,otto ,richter1 ,kaiser ,friedrich ,,iii4 7#bnd ed41 ,berlin1 #aijc74 ,for his illness1 the official publications1 published both in ,english and ,german3 ,die ,krankheit ,kaiser ,friedrichs ,,iii4 7,berlin1 #ahhh71 and ,morell ,mackenzie1 ,the ,fatal ,illness of ,frederick the ,noble 7#ahhh74 ,most of the copies of the ,deutsche ,rundschau containing the extracts from the crown prince's diary were confiscated1 but there is an ,english edition1 published in #ahhi4 7,j4 ,w4 ,he47 ,,frederick ,,iii4 7#abgb-accg71 king of ,sicily1 third son of ,king ,peter of ,aragon and ,sicily1 and of ,constance1 daughter of ,manfred4 ,peter died in #abhe1 leaving ,aragon to his eldest son ,alphonso1 and ,sicily to his second son ,james4 ,when ,alphonso died in #abia ,james became king of ,aragon1 and left his brother ,frederick as regent of ,sicily4 ,the war between the ,angevins and the ,aragonese for the possession of ,sicily was still in progress1 and although the ,aragonese were successful in ,italy1 ,james's position in ,spain became very insecure to internal troubles and ,french attacks4 ,peace negotiations were begun with ,charles ,,ii4 of ,anjou1 but were interrupted by the successive deaths of two popes2 at last under the auspices of ,boniface ,,viii4 ,james concluded a shameful treaty1 by which1 in exchange for being left undisturbed in ,aragon and promised possession of ,sardinia and ,corsica1 he gave up ,sicily to the ,church1 for whom it was to be held by the ,angevins 7#abie74 ,the ,sicilians refused to be made over once more to the hated ,french whom they had expelled in #abhb1 and found a national leader in the regent ,frederick4 ,in vain the pope tried to bribe him with promises and dignities2 he was determined to stand by his subjects1 and was crowned king by the nobles at ,palermo in #abif4 ,young1 brave and handsome1 he won the love and devotion of his people1 and guided them through the long years of storm and stress with wisdom and ability4 ,although the second ,frederick of ,sicily1 he called himself third1 being the third son of ,king ,peter4 ,he reformed the administration and extended the powers of the ,sicilian parliament1 which was composed of the barons1 the prelates and the representatives of the towns4 ,his refusal to comply with the pope's injunctions led to a renewal of the war4 ,frederick landed in ,calabria1 where he seized several towns1 encouraged revolt in ,naples1 negotiated with the ,ghibellines of ,tuscany and ,lombardy1 and assisted the house of ,colonna against ,pope ,boniface4 ,in the meanwhile ,james1 who received many favours from the ,church1 married his sister ,yolanda to ,robert1 the third son of ,charles ,,ii4 ,unfortunately for ,frederick1 a part of the ,aragonese nobles of ,sicily favoured ,king ,james1 and both ,john of ,procida and ,ruggiero di ,lauria1 the heroes of the war of the ,vespers1 went over to the ,angevins1 and the latter completely defeated the ,sicilian fleet off ,cape ,orlando4 ,charles's sons ,robert and ,philip landed in ,sicily1 but after capturing ,catania were defeated by ,frederick1 ,philip being taken prisoner 7#abii71 while several ,calabrian towns were captured by the ,sicilians4 ,for two years more the fighting continued with varying success1 until ,charles of ,valois1 who had been sent by ,boniface to invade ,sicily1 was forced to sue for peace1 his army being decimated by the plague1 and in ,august #acjb the treaty of ,caltabellotta was signed1 by which ,frederick was recognized king of ,trinacria 7the name ,sicily was not to be used7 for his lifetime1 and was to marry ,eleonora1 the daughter of ,charles ,,ii42 at his death the kingdom was to revert to the ,angevins 7this clause was inserted chiefly to save ,charles's face71 and his children would receive compensation elsewhere4 ,boniface tried to induce ,king ,charles to break the treaty1 but the latter was only too anxious for peace1 and finally in ,may #acjc the pope ratified it1 ,frederick agreeing to pay him a tribute4 ,for a few years ,sicily enjoyed peace1 and the kingdom was reorganized4 ,but on the descent of the emperor ,henry ,,vii41 ,frederick entered into an alliance with him1 and in violation of the pact of ,caltabellotta made war on the ,angevins again 7#acac7 and captured ,reggio4 ,he set sail for ,tuscany to cooperate with the emperor1 but on the latter's death 7#acad7 he returned to ,sicily4 ,robert1 who had succeeded ,charles ,,ii4 in #acji1 made several raids into the island1 which suffered much material injury4 ,a truce was concluded in #acag1 but as the ,sicilians helped the north ,italian ,ghibellines in the attack on ,genoa1 and ,frederick seized some ,church revenues for military purposes1 the pope 7,john ,,xxii47 excommunicated him and placed the island under an interdict 7#acba7 which lasted until #acce4 ,an ,angevin fleet and army1 under ,robert's son ,charles1 was defeated at ,palermo by ,giovanni da ,chiaramonte in #acbe1 and in #acbf and #acbg there were further ,angevin raids on the island1 until the descent into ,italy of the emperor ,louis the ,bavarian distracted their attention4 ,the election of ,pope ,benedict ,,xii4 7#accd71 who was friendly to ,frederick1 promised a respite2 but after fruitless negotiations the war broke out once more1 and ,chiaramonte went over to ,robert1 owing to a private feud4 ,in #accg ,frederick died at ,paternione1 and in spite of the peace of ,caltabellotta his son ,peter succeeded4 ,frederick's great merit was that during his reign the ,aragonese dynasty became thoroughly national and helped to weld the ,sicilians into a united people4 ,,bibliography4--,g4 ,m4 ,mira1 ,bibliografia ,siciliana 7,palermo1 #ahge72 of the contemporary authorities ,n4 ,speciale's ,historia ,sicula 7in ,muratori's ,script4 rer4 ital4 x47 is the most important2 for the first years of ,frederick's reign see ,m4 ,amari1 ,la ,guerra del ,vespro ,siciliano 7,florence1 #ahgf71 and ,f4 ,lanzani1 ,storia dei ,comuni italiani 7,milan1 #ahhb72 for the latter years ,c4 ,cipolla1 ,storia delle signorie italiane 7,milan1 #ahha72 also ,testa1 ,vita di ,federigo di ,sicilia4 7,l4 ,v47 ,,frederick ,i4 7c4 #acga-addj71 elector of ,brandenburg1 founder of the greatness of the ,house of ,hohenzollern1 was a son of ,frederick ,v41 burgrave of ,nuremberg1 and first came into prominence by saving the life of ,sigismund1 king of ,hungary1 at the battle of ,nicopolis in #acif4 ,in #acig he became burgrave of ,nuremberg1 and after his father's death in #acih he shared ,ansbach1 ,bayreuth1 and the smaller possessions of the family1 with his only brother ,john1 but became sole ruler after his brother's death in #adbj4 ,loyal at first to ,king ,wenceslaus1 the king's neglect of ,germany drove ,frederick to take part in his deposition in #adjj1 and in the election of ,rupert ,,iii41 count palatine of the ,rhine1 whom he accompanied to ,italy in the following year4 ,in #adja he married ,elizabeth1 or ,elsa1 daughter of ,frederick1 duke of ,bavaria-,landshut 7d4 #acic71 and after spending some time in family and other feuds1 took service again with ,king ,sigismund in #adji1 whom he assisted in his struggle with the ,hungarian rebels4 ,the double election to the ,german throne in #adaj first brought ,frederick into relation with ,brandenburg4 ,sigismund1 anxious to obtain another vote in the electoral college1 appointed ,frederick to exercise the ,brandenburg vote on his behalf1 and it was largely through his efforts that ,sigismund was chosen ,german king4 ,frederick then passed some time as administrator of ,brandenburg1 where he restored a certain degree of order1 and was formally invested with the electorate and margraviate by ,sigismund at ,constance on the #ahth of ,april #adag 7see ,,brandenburg74 ,he took part in the war against the ,hussites1 but became estranged from ,sigismund when in #adbc the king invested ,frederick of ,wettin1 margrave of ,meissen1 with the vacant electoral duchy of ,saxe-,wittenberg4 ,in #adbg he sold his rights as burgrave to the town of ,nuremberg1 and he was a prominent member of the band of electors who sought to impose reforms upon ,sigismund4 ,after having been an unsuccessful candidate for the ,german throne in #adch1 ,frederick was chosen king of ,bohemia in #addj1 but declined the proffered honour4 ,he took part in the election of ,frederick ,,iii4 as ,german king in #addj1 and died at ,radolzburg on the #bast of ,september in the same year4 ,in #aijb a bronze statue was erected to his memory at ,friesack1 and there is also a marble one of the elector in the ,siegesallee at ,berlin4 ,see ,a4 ,f4 ,riedel1 ,zehn ,jahre aus der ,geschichte der ,ahnherren des preussischen ,koenigshauses 7,berlin1 #ahea72 ,e4 ,brandenburg1 ,koenig ,sigmund und ,kurfuerst ,friedrich ,i4 von ,brandenburg 7,berlin1 #ahia72 and ,o4 ,franklin1 ,die deutsche ,politik ,friedrichs ,i4 ,kurfuersten von ,brandenburg 7,berlin1 #ahea74 ,,frederick ,i4 7#adbe-adgf71 elector palatine of the ,rhine1 surnamed the ,victorious1 and called by his enemies wicked ,fritz1 second son of the elector palatine ,louis ,,iii41 was born on the #ast of ,august #adbe4 ,he inherited a part of the ,palatinate on his father's death in #adci1 but soon surrendered this inheritance to his elder brother1 the elector ,louis ,,iv4 ,on his brother's death in #addi1 however1 he became guardian of the young elector ,philip1 and ruler of the land4 ,in #adea he persuaded the nobles to recognize him as elector1 on condition that ,philip should be his successor1 a scheme which was disliked by the emperor ,frederick ,,iii4 ,the elector was successful in various wars with neighbouring rulers1 and was a leading member of the band of princes who formed plans to secure a more efficient government for ,germany1 and even discussed the deposition of ,frederick ,,iii4 ,frederick himself was mentioned as a candidate for the ,german throne1 but the jealousies of the princes prevented any decisive action1 and soon became so acute that in #adei they began to fight among themselves4 ,in alliance with ,louis ,,ix41 duke of ,bavaria-,landshut1 ,frederick gained several victories during the struggle1 and in #adfb won a decisive battle at ,seckenheim over ,ulrich ,v41 count of ,wuerttemberg4 ,in #adgb the elector married ,clara ,tott1 or ,dett1 the daughter of an ,augsburg citizen1 and by her he had two sons1 ,frederick1 who died during his father's lifetime1 and ,louis 7d4 #aebd71 who founded the line of the counts of ,loewenstein4 ,he died at ,heidelberg on the #abth of ,december #adgf1 and was succeeded1 according to the compact1 by his nephew ,philip4 ,frederick was a cultured prince1 and1 in spite of his warlike career1 a wise and intelligent ruler4 ,he added largely to the area of the ,palatinate1 and did not neglect to further its internal prosperity4 ,see ,n4 ,feeser1 ,friedrich der ,siegreiche1 ,kurfuerst von der ,pfalz 7,neuburg1 #ahhj72 ,c4 ,j4 ,kremer1 ,geschichte des ,kurfuersten ,friedrichs ,i4 von der ,pfalz 7,leipzig1 #agfe72 and ,k4 ,menzel1 ,kurfuerst ,friedrich der ,siegreiche von der ,pfalz 7,munich1 #ahfa74 ,,frederick ,,ii4 7#adhb-aeef71 surnamed the ,wise1 elector palatine of the ,rhine1 fourth son of the elector ,philip1 was bom on the #ith of ,december #adhb4 ,of an active and adventurous temperament1 he fought under the emperor ,maximilian ,i4 in #aejh1 and afterwards served the ,habsburgs loyally in other ways4 ,he worked to secure the election of ,charles1 afterwards the emperor ,charles ,v41 as the successor of ,maximilian in #aeai2 fought in two campaigns against the ,turks2 and being disappointed in his hope of obtaining the hand of one of the emperor's sisters1 married in #aece ,dorothea 7d4 #aehj71 daughter of ,christian ,,ii41 who had been driven from the ,danish throne4 ,the ,habsburgs promised their aid in securing this crown for ,frederick1 but1 like many previous promises made to him1 this came to nothing4 ,having spent his time in various parts of ,europe1 and incurred heavy debts on account of his expensive tastes1 ,frederick became elector palatine by the death of his brother1 ,louis ,v41 in ,march #aedd4 ,with regard to the religious troubles of ,germany1 he took up at first the role of a mediator1 but in #aede he joined the league of ,schmalkalden1 and in #aedf broke definitely with the older faith4 ,he gave a little assistance to the league in its war with ,charles1 but soon submitted to the emperor1 accepted the ,interim issued from ,augsburg in ,may #aedh1 and afterwards acted in harmony with ,charles4 ,the elector died on the #bfth of ,february #aeef1 and as he left no children was succeeded by his nephew1 ,otto ,henry 7#aejb-aeei74 ,he was a great benefactor to the university of ,heidelberg4 ,frederick's life1 ,annales de vita et rebus gestis ,friderici ,,ii4 electoris palatini 7,frankfort1 #afbd71 was written by his secretary ,hubert ,thomas ,leodius2 this has been translated into ,german by ,e4 von ,buelow 7,breslau1 #ahdi74 ,see also ,rott1 ,friedrich ,,ii4 von der ,pfalz und die ,reformation 7,heidelberg1 #aijd74 ,,frederick ,,iii4 7#aeae-aegf71 called the ,pious1 elector palatine of the ,rhine1 eldest son of ,john ,,ii41 count palatine of ,simmern1 was born at ,simmern on the #adth of ,february #aeae4 ,in #aecg he married ,maria 7d4 #aefg71 daughter of ,casimir1 prince of ,bayreuth1 and in #aedf1 mainly as a result of this union1 adopted the reformed doctrines1 which had already made considerable progress in the ,palatinate4 ,he lived in comparative obscurity and poverty until #aeeg1 when he became count palatine of ,simmern by his father's death1 succeeding his kinsman1 ,otto ,henry 7#aejb-aeei71 as elector palatine two years later4 ,although inclined to the views of ,calvin rather than to those of ,luther1 the new elector showed great anxiety to unite the ,protestants2 but when these efforts failed1 and the breach between the followers of the two reformers became wider1 he definitely adopted ,calvinism4 ,this form of faith was quickly established in the ,palatinate2 in its interests the ,heidelberg ,catechism was drawn up in #aefc2 and ,catholics and ,lutherans were persecuted alike1 while the churches were denuded of all their ornaments4 ,the ,lutheran princes wished to root out ,calvinism in the ,palatinate1 but were not willing to exclude the elector from the benefits of the religious peace of ,augsburg1 which were confined to the adherents of the confession of ,augsburg1 and the matter came before the diet in #aeff4 ,boldly defending his position1 ,frederick refused to give way an inch1 and as the ,lutherans were unwilling to proceed to extremities the emperor ,maximilian ,,ii4 could only warn him to mend his ways4 ,the elector was an ardent supporter of the ,protestants abroad1 whom1 rather than the ,german ,lutherans1 he regarded as his co-religionists4 ,he aided the ,huguenots in ,france and the insurgents in the ,netherlands with men and money2 one of his sons1 ,john ,casimir 7#aedc-aeib71 took a prominent part in the ,french wars of religion1 while another1 ,christopher1 was killed in #aegd fighting for the ,dutch at ,mooker ,heath4 ,in his later years ,frederick failed in his efforts to prevent the election of a member of the ,habsburg family as ,roman king1 to secure the abrogation of the ecclesiastical reservation clause in the peace of ,augsburg1 or to obtain security for ,protestants in the territories of the spiritual princes4 ,he was assiduous in caring for the material1 moral and educational welfare of his electorate1 and was a benefactor to the university of ,heidelberg4 ,the elector died at ,heidelberg on the #bfth of ,october #aegf1 and was succeeded by his elder surviving son1 ,louis 7#aeci-aehc71 who had offended his father by adopting ,lutheranism4 ,see ,a4 ,kluckhohn1 ,friedrich der ,fromme 7,noerdlingen1 #ahgg-ahgi72 and ,briefe ,friedrichs des ,frommen1 edited by ,kluckhohn 7,brunswick1 #ahfh-ahgb74 ,,frederick ,,iv4 7#aegd-afaj71 elector palatine of the ,rhine1 only surviving son of the elector ,louis ,,vi41 was born at ,amberg on the #eth of ,march #aegd4 ,his father died in ,october #aehc1 when the young elector came under the guardianship of his uncle ,john ,casimir1 an ardent ,calvinist1 who1 in spite of the wishes of the late elector1 a ,lutheran1 had his nephew educated in his own form of faith4 ,in ,january #aeib1 on the death of ,john ,casimir1 ,frederick undertook the government of the ,palatinate1 and continued the policy of his uncle1 hostility to the ,catholic ,church and the ,habsburgs1 and co-operation with foreign ,protestants4 ,he was often in communication with ,henry of ,navarre1 afterwards ,henry ,,iv4 of ,france1 and like him was unremitting in his efforts to conclude a league among the ,german ,protestants1 while he sought to weaken the ,habsburgs by refusing aid for the ,turkish ,war4 ,after many delays and disappointments the ,union of ,evangelical ,estates was actually formed in ,may #afjh1 under the leadership of the elector1 and he took a prominent part in directing the operations of the union until his death1 which occurred on the #aith of ,september #afaj4 ,frederick was very extravagant1 and liked to surround himself with pomp and luxury4 ,he married in #aeic ,louise1 daughter of ,william the ,silent1 prince of ,orange1 and was succeeded by ,frederick1 the elder of his two sons4 ,see ,m4 ,ritter1 ,geschichte der deutschen ,union 7,schaffhausen1 #ahfg-ahgc72 and ,l4 ,haeusser1 ,geschichte der rheinischen ,pfalz 7,heidelberg1 #ahef74 ,,frederick ,v4 7#aeif-afcb71 elector palatine of the ,rhine and king of ,bohemia1 son of the elector ,frederick ,,iv4 by his wife1 ,louisa ,juliana1 daughter of ,william the ,silent1 prince of ,orange1 was born at ,amberg on the #bfth of ,august #aeif4 ,he became elector on his father's death in ,september #afaj1 and was under the guardianship of his kinsman1 ,john ,,ii41 count palatine of ,zweibruecken 7d4 #afce71 until he was declared of age in ,july #afad4 ,having received a good education1 ,frederick had married ,elizabeth1 daughter of the ,english king ,james ,i41 in ,february #afac1 and was the recognized head of the ,evangelical ,union founded by his father to protect the interests of the ,protestants4 ,in #afai he stepped into a larger arena4 ,before this date the estates of ,bohemia1 ,protestant in sympathy and dissatisfied with the rule of the ,habsburgs1 had been in frequent communication with the elector palatine1 and in ,august #afai1 a few months after the death of the emperor ,matthias1 they declared his successor1 ,ferdinand1 afterwards the emperor ,ferdinand ,,ii41 deposed1 and chose ,frederick as their king4 ,after some hesitation the elector yielded to the entreaties of ,christian ,i41 prince of ,anhalt 7#aefh-afcj71 and other sanguine supporters1 and was crowned king of ,bohemia at ,prague on the #dth of ,november #afai4 ,by this time the emperor ,ferdinand was able to take the aggressive1 while ,frederick1 disappointed at receiving no assistance either from ,england or from the ,union1 had few soldiers and little money4 ,consequently on the #hth of ,november1 four days after his coronation1 his forces were easily routed by the imperial army under ,tilly at the ,white ,hill1 near ,prague1 and his short reign in ,bohemia ended abruptly4 ,soon afterwards the ,palatinate was overrun by the ,spaniards and ,bavarians1 and after a futile attempt to dislodge them1 ,frederick1 called in derision the ,winter ,king1 sought refuge in the ,netherlands4 ,having been placed under the imperial ban his electorate was given in #afbc to ,maximilian ,i4 of ,bavaria1 who also received the electoral dignity4 ,the remainder of ,frederick's life was spent in comparative obscurity1 although his restoration was a constant subject of discussion among ,european diplomatists4 ,he died at ,mainz on the #bith of ,november #afcb1 having had a large family1 among his children being ,charles ,louis 7#afag-afhj71 who regained the ,palatinate at the peace of ,westphalia in #afdh1 and ,sophia1 who married ,ernest ,augustus1 afterwards elector of ,hanover1 and was the mother of ,george ,i41 king of ,great ,britain4 ,his third son was ,prince ,rupert1 the hero of the ,english civil war1 and another son was ,prince ,maurice 7#afbj-afeb71 who also assisted his uncle ,charles ,i4 during the civil war4 ,having sailed with ,rupert to the ,west ,indies1 ,maurice was lost at sea in ,september #afeb4 ,in addition to the numerous works which treat of the outbreak of the ,thirty ,years' ,war see ,a4 ,gindely1 ,friedrich ,v4 von der ,pfalz 7,prague1 #ahhd72 ,j4 ,krebs1 ,die ,politik der evangelischen ,union im ,jahre #afah 7,breslau1 #ahij-aija72 ,m4 ,ritter1 ,friedrich ,v41 in the ,allgemeine deutsche ,biographie1 ,band vii4 7,leipzig1 #ahgh72 and ,deutsche ,lieder auf den ,winterkoenig1 edited by ,r4 ,wolkan 7,prague1 #ahii74 ,,frederick ,i4 7#acfi-adbh71 surnamed the ,warlike1 elector and duke of ,saxony1 was the eldest son of ,frederick the ,stern1 count of ,osterland1 and ,catherine1 daughter and heiress of ,henry ,,viii41 count of ,coburg4 ,he was born at ,altenburg on the #bith of ,march #acfi1 and was a member of the family of ,wettin4 ,when his father died in #acha some trouble arose over the family possessions1 and in the following year an arrangement was made by which ,frederick and his brothers shared ,meissen and ,thuringia with their uncles ,balthasar and ,william4 ,frederick's brother ,george died in #adjb1 and his uncle ,william in #adjg4 ,a further dispute then arose1 but in #adaj a treaty was made at ,naumburg1 when ,frederick and his brother ,william added the northern part of ,meissen to their lands2 and in #adbe the death of ,william left ,frederick sole ruler4 ,in the ,german town war of #achh he assisted ,frederick ,v4 of ,hohenzollern1 burgrave of ,nuremberg1 and in #acia did the same for the ,teutonic ,order against ,ladislaus ,v41 king of ,poland and prince of ,lithuania4 ,he supported ,rupert ,,iii41 elector palatine of the ,rhine1 in his struggle with ,king ,wenceslaus for the ,german throne1 probably because ,wenceslaus refused to fulfil a promise to give him his sister ,anna in marriage4 ,the danger to ,germany from the ,hussites induced ,frederick to ally himself with the ,german and ,bohemian king ,sigismund2 and he took a leading part in the war against them1 during the earlier years of which he met with considerable success4 ,in the prosecution of this enterprise ,frederick spent large sums of money1 for which he received various places in ,bohemia and elsewhere in pledge from ,sigismund1 who further rewarded him in ,january #adbc with the vacant electoral duchy of ,saxe-,wittenberg2 and ,frederick's formal investiture followed at ,ofen on the #ast of ,august #adbe4 ,thus spurred to renewed efforts against the ,hussites1 the elector was endeavouring to rouse the ,german princes to aid him in prosecuting this war when the ,saxon army was almost annihilated at ,aussig on the #afth of ,august #adbf4 ,returning to ,saxony1 ,frederick died at ,altenburg on the #dth of ,january #adbh1 and was buried in the cathedral at ,meissen4 ,in #adjb he married ,catherine of ,brunswick1 by whom he left four sons and two daughters4 ,in #adji1 in conjunction with his brother ,william1 he founded the university of ,leipzig1 for the benefit of ,german students who had just left the university of ,prague4 ,frederick's importance as an historical figure arises from his having obtained the electorate of ,saxe-,wittenberg for the house of ,wettin1 and transformed the margraviate of ,meissen into the territory which afterwards became the kingdom of ,saxony4 ,in addition to the king of ,saxony1 the sovereigns of ,england and of the ,belgians are his direct descendants4 ,there is a life of ,frederick by ,g4 ,spalatin in the ,scriptores rerum ,germanicarum praecipue ,saxonicarum1 ,band ii41 edited by ,j4 ,b4 ,mencke 7,leipzig1 #agbh-agcj74 ,see also ,c4 ,w4 ,boettiger and ,th4 ,flathe1 ,geschichte des ,kurstaates und ,koenigreichs ,sachsen 7,gotha1 #ahfg-ahgc72 and ,j4 ,g4 ,horn1 ,lebens- und ,heldengeschichte ,friedrichs des ,streitbaren 7,leipzig1 #agcc74 ,,frederick ,,ii4 7#adaa-adfd71 called the ,mild1 elector and duke of ,saxony1 eldest son of the elector ,frederick ,i41 was born on the #bbnd of ,august #adaa4 ,he succeeded his father as elector in #adbh1 but shared the family lands with his three brothers1 and was at once engaged in defending ,saxony against the attacks of the ,hussites4 ,freed from these enemies about #adcb1 and turning his attention to increasing his possessions1 he obtained the burgraviate of ,meissen in #adci1 and some part of ,lower ,lusatia after a struggle with ,brandenburg about the same time4 ,in #adch it was decided that ,frederick1 and not his rival1 ,bernard ,,iv41 duke of ,saxe-,lauenburg1 was entitled to exercise the ,saxon electoral vote at the elections for the ,german throne2 and the elector then aided ,albert ,,ii4 to secure this dignity1 performing a similar service for his own brother-in-law1 ,frederick1 afterwards the emperor ,frederick ,,iii41 two years later4 ,family affairs1 meanwhile1 occupied ,frederick's attention4 ,one brother1 ,henry1 having died in #adce1 and another1 ,sigismund 7d4 #adfc71 having entered the church and become bishop of ,wuerzburg1 ,frederick and his brother ,william 7d4 #adhb7 were the heirs of their childless cousin1 ,frederick the ,peaceful1 who ruled ,thuringia and other parts of the lands of the ,wettins4 ,on his death in #addj the brothers divided ,frederick's territory1 but this arrangement was not satisfactory1 and war broke out between them in #addf4 ,both combatants obtained extraneous aid1 but after a desolating struggle peace was made in ,january #adea1 when ,william received ,thuringia1 and ,frederick ,altenburg and other districts4 ,the remainder of the elector's reign was uneventful1 and he died at ,leipzig on the #gth of ,september #adfd4 ,by his wife1 ,margaret 7d4 #adhf71 daughter of ,ernest1 duke of ,styria1 he left two sons and four daughters4 ,in ,july #adee occurred the celebrated ,prinzenraub1 the attempt of a knight named ,kunz von ,kaufungen 7d4 #adee7 to abduct ,frederick's two sons1 ,ernest and ,albert4 ,having carried them off from ,altenburg1 ,kunz was making his way to ,bohemia when the plot was accidentally discovered and the princes restored4 ,see ,w4 ,schaefer1 ,der ,montag vor ,kiliani 7#ahee72 ,j4 ,gersdorf1 ,einige ,aktenstuecke zur ,geschichte des saechsischen ,prinzenraubes 7#ahee72 and ,t4 ,carlyle1 ,critical and ,miscellaneous ,essays1 vol4 iv4 7,london1 #ahii74 ,,frederick ,,iii4 7#adfc-aebe71 called the ,wise1 elector of ,saxony1 eldest son of ,ernest1 elector of ,saxony1 and ,elizabeth1 daughter of ,albert1 duke of ,bavaria-,munich 7d4 #aejh71 was born at ,torgau1 and succeeded his father as elector in #adhf4 ,retaining the government of ,saxony in his own hands1 he shared the other possessions of his family with his brother ,john1 called the ,stedfast 7#adfh-aecb74 ,frederick was among the princes who pressed the need of reform upon the ,german king ,maximilian ,i4 in #adie1 and in #aejj he became president of the newly-formed council of regency 7,reichsregiment74 ,he took a genuine interest in learning2 was a friend of ,georg ,spalatin2 and in #aejb founded the university of ,wittenberg1 where he appointed ,luther and ,melanchthon to professorships4 ,in #adic he had gone as a pilgrim to ,jerusalem1 and had been made a knight of the ,holy ,sepulchre2 but1 although he remained throughout life an adherent of the older faith1 he seems to have been drawn into sympathy with the reformers1 probably through his connexion with the university of ,wittenberg4 ,in #aebj he refused to put into execution the papal bull which ordered ,luther's writings to be burned and the reformer to be put under restraint or sent to ,rome2 and in #aeba1 after ,luther had been placed under the imperial ban by the diet at ,worms1 the elector caused him to be conveyed to his castle at the ,wartburg1 and afterwards protected him while he attacked the enemies of the ,reformation4 ,in #aeai1 ,frederick1 who alone among the electors refused to be bribed by the rival candidates for the imperial throne1 declined to be a candidate for this high dignity himself1 and assisted to secure the election of ,charles ,v4 ,he died unmarried at ,langau1 near ,annaberg1 on the #eth of ,may #aebe4 ,see ,g4 ,spalatin1 ,das ,leben und die ,zeitgeschichte ,friedrichs des ,weisen1 edited by ,c4 ,g4 ,neudecker and ,l4 ,preller 7,jena1 #ahea72 ,m4 ,m4 ,tutzschmann1 ,friedrich der ,weise1 ,kurfuerst von ,sachsen 7,grimma1 #ahdh72 and ,t4 ,kolde1 ,friedrich der ,weise und die ,anfaenge der ,reformation 7,erlangen1 #ahha74 ,,frederick1 a city and the county-seat of ,frederick county1 ,maryland1 ,u4,s4,a41 on ,carroll's ,creek1 a tributary of the ,monocacy1 #fa m4 by rail ,w4 by ,n4 from ,baltimore and #de m4 ,n4,w4 from ,washington4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #haic2 7#aijj7 #ibif1 of whom #aece were negroes2 7#aiaj census7 #aj1daa4 ,it is served by the ,baltimore ,ohio and the ,northern ,central railways1 and by two interurban electric lines4 ,immediately surrounding it is the rich farming land of the ,monocacy valley1 but from a distance it appears to be completely shut in by picturesque hills and mountains2 to the ,e41 the ,linga ore ,hills2 to the ,w41 ,catoctin ,mountain2 and to the ,s41 ,sugar ,loaf ,mountain4 ,it is built for the most part of brick and stone4 ,frederick is the seat of the ,maryland school for the deaf and dumb and of the ,woman's ,college of ,frederick 7#ahic2 formerly the ,frederick ,female ,seminary1 opened in #ahdc71 which in #aijg-aijh had #bab students1 #aba of whom were in the ,conservatory of ,music4 ,francis ,scott ,key and ,roger ,brooke ,taney were buried here1 and a beautiful monument erected to the memory of ,key stands at the entrance to ,mount ,olivet cemetery4 ,frederick has a considerable agricultural trade and is an important manufacturing centre1 its industries including the canning of fruits and vegetables1 and the manufacture of flour1 bricks1 brushes1 leather goods and hosiery4 ,the total value of the factory product in #aije was #a1icg1iba1 being #cd4g more than in #aijj4 ,the municipality owns and operates its water-works and electric-lighting plant4 ,frederick1 so named in honour of ,frederick ,calvert1 son and afterward successor of ,charles1 ,lord ,baltimore1 was settled by ,germans in #agcc1 and was laid out as a town in #agde1 but was not incorporated until #ahag4 ,here in #agee ,general ,braddock prepared for his disastrous expedition against the ,french at ,fort ,duquesne 7,pittsburg74 ,during the ,civil ,war the city was occupied on different occasions by ,unionists and ,confederates1 and was made famous by ,whittier's poem ,barbara ,frietchie4 ,,frederick ,,augustus ,i4 7#agej-ahbg71 king of ,saxony1 son of the elector ,frederick ,christian1 was born at ,dresden on the #bcrd of ,december #agej4 ,he succeeded his father under the guardianship of ,prince ,xavier in #agfc1 and was declared of age in #agfh4 ,in the following year 7,january #ag1 #agfi7 he married ,princess ,maria ,amelia1 daughter of ,duke ,frederick of ,zweibruecken1 by whom he had only one child1 ,princess ,augusta 7born ,june #ba1 #aghb74 ,one of his chief aims was the reduction of taxes and imposts and of the army4 ,he was always extremely methodical and conscientious1 and a good example to all his officials1 whence his surname the ,just4 ,on account of the claims of his mother on the inheritance of her brother1 the elector of ,bavaria1 he sided with ,frederick the ,great in the short ,bavarian succession war of #aggh against ,austria4 ,at the peace of ,teschen1 which concluded the war1 he received #f million florins1 which he employed partly in regaining those parts of his kingdom which had been lost1 and partly in favour of his relatives4 ,in #aghe he joined the league of ,german princes 7,deutscher ,fuerstenbund7 formed by ,prussia1 but without prejudice to his neutrality4 ,thus he remained neutral during the quarrel between ,austria and ,prussia in #agij4 ,in the following year he declined the crown of ,poland4 ,he refused to join the league against ,france 7,february #g1 #agib71 but when war was declared his duty to the ,empire necessitated his taking part in it4 ,even after the peace of ,basel 7,april #e1 #agie7 he continued the war4 ,but when the ,french army1 during the following year1 advanced into the heart of ,germany1 he was compelled by ,general ,jourdan to retreat 7,august #ac1 #agif74 ,he maintained his neutrality during the war between ,france and ,austria in #ahje1 but in the following year he joined ,prussia against ,france4 ,after the disastrous battle of ,jena he concluded a treaty of peace with ,napoleon at ,posen 7,december #aa1 #ahjf71 and1 assuming the title of king1 he joined the ,confederation of the ,rhine4 ,but he did not alter the constitution and administration of his new kingdom4 ,after the peace of ,tilsit 7,july #i1 #ahjg7 he was created by ,napoleon grand-duke of ,warsaw1 but his sovereignty of ,poland was little more than nominal4 ,there was a kind of friendship between ,frederick ,augustus and ,napoleon4 ,in #ahji ,frederick ,augustus fought with him against ,austria4 ,on several occasions 7#ahjg1 #ahab1 #ahac7 ,napoleon was entertained at ,dresden1 and when1 on his return from his disastrous ,russian campaign1 he passed through ,saxony by ,dresden 7,december #af1 #ahab71 ,frederick ,augustus remained true to his friend and ally4 ,it was only during ,april #ahac that he made overtures to ,austria1 but he soon afterwards returned to the side of the ,french4 ,he returned to ,dresden on the #ajth of ,may and was present at the terrible battle of ,august #bf and #bg1 in which ,napoleon's army and his own were defeated4 ,he fell into the hands of the ,allies after their entry into ,leipzig on the #aith of ,october #ahac2 and1 although he regained his freedom after the congress of ,vienna1 he was compelled to give up the northern part--three-fifths--of his kingdom to ,prussia 7,may #ba1 #ahad74 ,he entered ,dresden on the #gth of ,july1 and was enthusiastically welcomed by his people4 ,the remainder of his life was spent in repairing the damages caused by the ,napoleonic wars1 in developing the agricultural1 commercial and industrial resources of his kingdom1 reforming the administration of justice1 establishing hospitals and other charitable institutions1 encouraging art and science and promoting education4 ,he had a special interest in botany1 and originated the beautiful park at ,pillnitz4 ,his reign throughout was characterized by justice1 probity1 moderation and prudence4 ,he died on the #eth of ,may #ahbg4 ,,bibliography4--,the earlier lives1 by ,c4 ,e4 ,weisse 7#ahaa71 ,a4 ,l4 ,herrmann 7#ahbg71 ,poelitz 7#ahcj71 are mere panegyrics4 ,on the other side see ,flathe in ,allgemeine deutsche ,biographie1 and ,boettiger-,flathe1 ,history of ,saxony 7#bnd ed41 #ahfg ff471 vols4 ii4 and iii42 ,a4 ,bonnefons1 ,un ,allie de ,napoleon1 ,frederic ,auguste1 premier roi de ,saxe 444 7,paris1 #aijb72 ,fritz ,friedrich1 ,politik ,sachsens #ahja-ahjc 7#ahih72 ,p4 ,ruehlmann1 ,oeffentliche ,meinung 444 #ahjf-ahac 7#aijb74 ,there are many pamphlets bearing on the ,saxon question and on ,frederick ,augustus during the years #ahad and #ahae4 7,j4 ,hn47 ,,frederick ,,augustus ,,ii4 7#agig-ahed71 king of ,saxony1 eldest son of ,prince ,maximilian and of ,caroline ,maria ,theresa of ,parma1 was born on the #ahth of ,may #agig4 ,the unsettled times in which his youth was passed necessitated his frequent change of residence1 but care was nevertheless taken that his education should not be interrupted1 and he also acquired1 through his journeys in foreign states 7,switzerland #ahah1 ,montenegro #ahch1 ,england and ,scotland #ahdd7 and his intercourse with men of eminence1 a special taste for art and for natural science4 ,he was himself a good landscape-painter and had a fine collection of engravings on copper4 ,he was twice married--in #ahai 7,october #g7 to the duchess ,caroline1 fourth daughter of the emperor ,francis ,i4 of ,austria 7d4 ,may #bb1 #ahcb71 and in #ahcc 7,april #d7 to ,maria1 daughter of ,maximilian ,i4 of ,bavaria4 ,there were no children of either marriage4 ,during the government of his uncles 7,frederick ,augustus ,i4 and ,anthony7 he took no part in the administration of the country1 though he was the sole heir to the crown4 ,in #ahcj a rising in ,dresden led to his being named joint regent of the kingdom along with ,king ,anthony on the #acth of ,september2 and in this position his popularity and his wise and liberal reforms 7for instance1 in arranging public audiences7 speedily quelled all discontent4 ,on the #fth of ,june #ahcf he succeeded his uncle4 ,though he administered the affairs of his kingdom with enlightened liberality ,saxony did not escape the political storms which broke upon ,germany in #ahdh4 ,he elected ,liberal ministers1 and he was at first in favour of the programme of ,german unity put forward at ,frankfort1 but he refused to acknowledge the democratic constitution of the ,german parliament4 ,this attitude led to the insurrection at ,dresden in ,may #ahdi1 which was suppressed by the help of ,prussian troops4 ,from that time onward his reign was tranquil and prosperous4 ,later ,count ,beust1 leader of the ,austrian and feudal party in ,saxony1 became his principal minister and guided his policy on most occasions4 ,his death occurred accidentally through the upsetting of his carriage near ,brennbuehel1 between ,imst and ,wenns in ,tirol 7,august #i1 #ahed74 ,frederick ,augustus devoted his leisure hours chiefly to the study of botany4 ,he made botanical excursions into different countries1 and ,flora ,marienbadensis1 oder ,pflanzen und ,gebirgsarten1 gesammelt und beschrieben1 written by him1 was published at ,prague by ,kedler1 #ahcg4 ,see ,boettiger-,flathe1 ,history of ,saxony1 vol4 iii42 ,r4 ,freiherr von ,friesen1 ,erinnerungen 7#b vols41 ,dresden1 #ahha72 ,f4 ,f4 ,graf von ,beust1 ,aus drei-viertel ,jahrhunderten 7#b vols41 #ahhg72 ,flathe1 in ,allg4 deutsche ,biogr4 7,j4 ,hn47 ,,frederick ,,charles 7,,friedrich ,,karl ,,nikolaus71 ,,prince 7#ahbh-ahhe71 ,prussian general field marshal1 son of ,prince ,charles of ,prussia and grandson of ,king ,frederick ,william ,,iii41 was born in ,berlin on the #bjth of ,march #ahbh4 ,he was educated for the army1 which he entered on his tenth birthday as second lieutenant in the #adth ,foot ,guards4 ,he became first lieutenant in #ahdd1 and in #ahdf entered the university of ,bonn1 where he stayed for two years1 being accompanied throughout by ,major von ,roon1 afterwards the famous war minister4 ,in #ahdh he became a company commander in his regiment1 and soon afterwards served in the ,schleswig-,holstein ,war on the staff of ,marshal von ,wrangel1 being present at the battle of ,schleswig 7,april #bc1 #ahdh74 ,later in #ahdh he became ,rittmeister in the ,garde du ,corps cavalry regiment1 and in #ahdi major in the ,guard ,hussars4 ,in this year the prince took part in the campaign against the ,baden insurgents1 and was wounded at the action of ,wiesenthal while leading a desperate charge against entrenched infantry4 ,after this experience the wild courage of his youth gave place to the unshakable resolution which afterwards characterized the prince's generalship4 ,in #aheb he became colonel1 and in #ahed major-general and commander of a cavalry brigade4 ,in this capacity he was brought closely in touch with ,general von ,reyher1 the chief of the general staff1 and with ,moltke4 ,he married1 in the same year1 ,princess ,marie ,anne of ,anhalt4 ,in #aheg he became commander of the #ast ,guard ,infantry division1 but very shortly afterwards1 on account of disputes concerned with the training methods then in force1 he resigned the appointment4 ,in #aheh he visited ,france1 where he minutely investigated the state of the ,french army1 but it was not long before he was recalled1 for in #ahei1 in consequence of the ,franco-,austrian ,war1 ,prussia mobilized her forces1 and ,frederick ,charles was made a divisional commander in the ,,ii4 army corps4 ,in this post he was given the liberty of action which had previously been denied to him4 ,about this time 7#ahfj7 the prince gave a lecture to the officers of his command on the ,french army and its methods1 the substance of which 7,eine militaerische ,denkschrift von ,p4,f4,k41 ,frankfort on ,main1 #ahfj7 was circulated more widely than the author intended1 and in the ,french translation gave rise to much indignation in ,france4 ,in #ahfa ,frederick ,charles became general of cavalry4 ,he was then commander of the ,,iii4 7,brandenburg7 army corps4 ,this post he held from #ahfj to #ahgj1 except during the campaigns of #ahfd and #ahff1 and in it he displayed his real qualities as a troop leader4 ,his self-imposed task was to raise the military spirit of his troops to the highest possible level1 and ten years of his continuous and thorough training brought the ,,iii4 corps to a pitch of real efficiency which the ,guard corps alone1 in virtue of its special recruiting powers1 slightly surpassed4 ,prince ,frederick ,charles' work was tested to the full when von ,alvensleben and the ,,iii4 corps engaged the whole ,french army on the #afth of ,august #ahgj4 ,in #ahfd the prince once more fought against the ,danes under his old leader ,papa ,wrangel4 ,the ,prussian contingent under ,frederick ,charles formed a corps of the allied army1 and half of it was drawn from the ,,iii4 corps4 ,after the storming of the ,dueppel lines the prince succeeded ,wrangel in the supreme command1 with ,lieutenant-,general ,freiherr von ,moltke as his chief of staff4 ,these two great soldiers then planned and brilliantly carried out the capture of the island of ,alsen1 after which the war came to an end4 ,in #ahfj came the ,seven ,weeks' ,war with ,austria4 ,prince ,frederick ,charles was appointed to command the ,i4 ,army1 which he led through the mountains into ,bohemia1 driving before him the ,austrians and ,saxons to the upper ,elbe1 where on the #crd of ,july took place the decisive battle of ,koeniggraetz or ,sadowa4 ,this was brought on by the initiative of the leader of the ,i4 ,army1 which had to bear the brunt of the fighting until the advance of the ,,ii4 ,army turned the ,austrian flank4 ,after the peace he returned to the ,,iii4 army corps1 which he finally left1 in ,july #ahgj1 when appointed to command the ,,ii4 ,german ,army in the war with ,france4 ,in the early days of the advance the prince's ruthless energy led to much friction between the ,i4 and ,,ii4 ,armies 7see ,,franco-,,german ,,war71 while his strategical mistakes seriously embarrassed the great headquarters staff4 ,the advance of the ,,ii4 ,army beyond the ,saar to the ,moselle and from that river to the ,meuse displayed more energy than careful strategy1 but herein at least the ,red ,prince 7as he was called from the colour of his favourite hussar uniform7 was in thorough sympathy with the king's headquarters on the one hand and the feelings of the troops on the other4 ,then came the discovery that the ,french were not in front1 but to the right rear of the ,,ii4 ,army 7,august #af74 ,alvensleben with the ,,iii4 corps held the ,french to their ground at ,vionville while the prince hurried together his scattered forces4 ,he himself directed with superb tactical skill the last efforts of the ,germans at ,vionville1 and the victory of ,st ,privat on the #ahth was due to his leadership 7see ,,metz71 which shone all the more by contrast with the failures of the ,i4 ,army at ,gravelotte4 ,the prince was left in command of the forces which blockaded ,bazaine in ,metz1 and received the surrender of that place and of the last remaining field army of the enemy4 ,he was promoted at once to the rank of general field marshal1 and shortly afterwards the ,,ii4 ,army was despatched to aid in crushing the newly organized army of the ,french republic on the ,loire4 ,here again he retrieved strategical errors by energy and tactical skill1 and his work was in the end crowned by the victory of ,le ,mans on the #abth of ,january #ahga4 ,of all the subordinate leaders on the ,german side none enjoyed a greater and a better deserved reputation than the ,red ,prince4 ,he now became inspector-general of the #crd army inspection1 and a little later inspector of cavalry1 and in the latter post he was largely instrumental in bringing the ,german cavalry to the degree of perfection in manoeuvre and general training which it gradually attained in the years after the war4 ,he never ceased to improve his own soldierly qualities by further study and by the conduct of manoevres on a large scale4 ,his sternness of character kept him aloof from the court and from his own family1 and he spent his leisure months chiefly on his various country estates4 ,in #ahgb and in #ahhb he travelled in the ,mediterranean and the ,near ,east4 ,he died on the #aeth of ,june #ahhe at ,klein-,glienicke near ,berlin1 and was buried at the adjacent church of ,nikolskoe4 ,his third daughter1 ,princess ,louise ,margareta1 was married1 in ,march #ahgi1 to the duke of ,connaught4 ,,frederick ,,henry 7#aehd-afdg71 prince of ,orange1 the youngest child of ,william the ,silent1 was born at ,delft about six months before his father's assassination on the #bith of ,january #aehd4 ,his mother1 ,louise de ,coligny1 was daughter of the famous ,huguenot leader1 ,admiral de ,coligny1 and was the fourth wife of ,william the ,silent4 ,the boy was trained to arms by his elder brother1 ,maurice of ,nassau1 one of the first generals of his age4 ,on the death of ,maurice in #afbe1 ,frederick ,henry succeeded him in his paternal dignities and estates1 and also in the stadtholderates of the five provinces of ,holland1 ,zeeland1 ,utrecht1 ,overysel and ,gelderland1 and in the important posts of captain and admiral-general of the ,union4 ,frederick ,henry proved himself scarcely inferior to his brother as a general1 and a far more capable statesman and politician4 ,during twenty-two years he remained at the head of affairs in the ,united ,provinces1 and in his time the power of the stadtholderate reached its highest point4 ,the ,period of ,frederick ,henry1 as it is usually styled by ,dutch writers1 is generally accounted the golden age of the republic4 ,it was marked by great military and naval triumphs1 by world-wide maritime and commercial expansion1 and by a wonderful outburst of activity in the domains of art and literature4 ,the chief military exploits of ,frederick ,henry were the sieges and captures of ,hertogenbosch in #afbi1 of ,maastricht in #afcb1 of ,breda in #afcg1 of ,sas van ,ghent in #afdd1 and of ,hulst in #afde4 ,during the greater part of his administration the alliance with ,france against ,spain had been the pivot of ,frederick ,henry's foreign policy1 but in his last years he sacrificed the ,french alliance for the sake of concluding a separate peace with ,spain1 by which the ,united ,provinces obtained from that power all the advantages for which they had for eighty years been contending4 ,frederick ,henry died on the #adth of ,march #afdg1 and was buried with great pomp beside his father and brother at ,delft4 ,the treaty of ,muenster1 ending the long struggle between the ,dutch and the ,spaniards1 was not actually signed until the #cjth of ,january #afdh1 the illness and death of the stadtholder having caused a delay in the negotiations4 ,frederick ,henry was married in #afbe to ,amalia von ,solms1 and left one son1 ,william ,,ii4 of ,orange1 and four daughters4 ,frederick ,henry left an account of his campaigns in his ,memoires de ,frederic ,henri 7,amsterdam1 #agdc74 ,see ,cambridge ,mod4 ,hist4 vol4 iv4 chap4 #bd1 and the bibliography on p4 #ica4 ,,frederick ,,louis 7#agjg-agea71 prince of ,wales1 eldest son of ,george ,,ii41 was born at ,hanover on the #bjth of ,january #agjg4 ,after his grandfather1 ,george ,i41 became king of ,great ,britain and ,ireland in #agad1 ,frederick was known as duke of ,gloucester#a and made a knight of the ,garter1 having previously been betrothed to ,wilhelmina ,sophia ,dorothea 7#agji-ageh71 daughter of ,frederick ,william ,i41 king of ,prussia1 and sister of ,frederick the ,great4 ,although he was anxious to marry this lady1 the match was rendered impossible by the dislike of ,george ,,ii4 and ,frederick ,william for each other4 ,soon after his father became king in #agbg ,frederick took up his residence in ,england and in #agbi was created prince of ,wales2 but the relations between ,george ,,ii4 and his son were very unfriendly1 and there existed between them the jealousy which ,stubbs calls the incurable bane of royalty4 ,the faults were not all on one side4 ,the prince's character was not attractive1 and the king refused to make him an adequate allowance4 ,in #agce ,frederick wrote1 or inspired the writing of1 the ,histoire du prince ,titi1 a book containing offensive caricatures of both king and queen2 and losing no opportunity of irritating his father1 he made1 says ,lecky1 his court the special centre of opposition to the government1 and he exerted all his influence for the ruin of ,walpole4 ,after a marriage between the prince and ,lady ,diana ,spencer1 afterwards the wife of ,john1 #dth duke of ,bedford1 had been frustrated by ,walpole1 ,frederick was married in ,april #agcf to ,augusta 7#agai-aggb71 daughter of ,frederick ,,ii41 duke of ,saxe-,gotha1 a union which was welcomed by his parents1 but which led to further trouble between father and son4 ,george proposed to allow the prince ,l#ej1jjj a year2 but this sum was regarded as insufficient by the latter1 whose appeal to parliament was unsuccessful4 ,after the birth of his first child1 ,augusta1 in #agcg1 ,frederick was ordered by the king to quit ,st ,james' ,palace1 and the foreign ambassadors were requested to refrain from visiting him4 ,the relations between the two were now worse than before4 ,in #agde ,george ,,ii4 refused to allow his son to command the ,british army against the ,jacobites4 ,on the #bjth of ,march #agea the prince died in ,london1 and was buried in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,he left five sons and two daughters4 ,the sons were ,george 7afterwards ,king ,george ,,iii471 ,edward ,augustus1 duke of ,york and ,albany 7#agci-agfg71 ,william ,henry1 duke of ,gloucester and ,edinburgh 7#agdc-ahje71 ,henry ,frederick1 duke of ,cumberland 7#agde-agij71 and ,frederick ,william 7#agej-agfe72 the daughters were ,augusta 7#agcg-ahac71 wife of ,charles ,william ,ferdinand1 duke of ,brunswick1 and ,caroline ,matilda 7#agea-agge71 wife of ,christian ,,vii41 king of ,denmark4 ,see ,lord ,hervey of ,ickworth1 ,memoirs of the ,reign of ,george ,,ii41 edited by ,j4 ,w4 ,croker 7,london1 #ahhd72 ,horace ,walpole1 ,memoirs of the ,reign of ,george ,,ii4 7,london1 #ahdg72 and ,sir ,n4 ,w4 ,wraxall1 ,memoirs1 edited by ,h4 ,b4 ,wheatley1 vol4 i4 7,london1 #ahhd74 ,,footnote3 #a ,frederick was never actually created duke of ,gloucester1 and when he was raised to the peerage in #agcf it was as duke of ,edinburgh only4 ,see ,g4 ,e4 ,c7okayne71 ,complete ,peerage1 sub ,gloucester4 ,,frederick ,,william ,i4 7#afhh-agdj71 king of ,prussia1 son of ,frederick ,i4 by his second marriage was born on the #aeth of ,august #afhh4 ,he spent a considerable time in early youth at the court of his grandfather1 the elector ,ernest ,augustus of ,hanover4 ,on his return to ,berlin he was placed under ,general von ,dohna and ,count ,finkenstein1 who trained him to the energetic and regular habits which ever afterwards characterized him4 ,he was soon imbued with a passion for military life1 and this was deepened by acquaintance with the duke of ,marlborough 7#agji71 ,prince ,eugene1 whom he visited during the siege of ,tournai1 and ,prince ,leopold of ,anhalt 7the ,old ,dessauer74 ,in nearly every respect he was the opposite of his father1 having frugal1 simple tastes1 a passionate temper and a determined will4 ,throughout his life he was always the protector of the church and of religion4 ,but he detested religious quarrels and was very tolerant towards his ,catholic subjects1 except the ,jesuits4 ,his life was simple and puritanical1 being founded on the teaching of the ,bible4 ,he was1 however1 fond of hunting and somewhat given to drinking4 ,he intensely disliked the ,french1 and highly disapproved of the imitation of their manners by his father and his court4 ,when he came to the throne 7,february #be1 #agac7 his first act was to dismiss from the palace every unnecessary official and to regulate the royal household on principles of the strictest parsimony4 ,the greater part of the beautiful furniture was sold4 ,his importance for ,prussia is twofold3 in internal politics he laid down principles which continued to be followed long after his death4 ,this was a province peculiarly suited to his genius2 he was one of the greatest administrators who have ever worn the ,prussian crown4 ,his foreign policy was less successful1 though under his rule the kingdom acquired some extension of territory4 ,thus at the peace of ,utrecht 7,april #aa1 #agac71 after the ,war of the ,spanish ,succession1 he acquired the greater part of the duchy of ,gelderland4 ,by the treaty of ,schwedt1 concluded with ,russia on the #fth of ,october1 he was assured of an important influence in the solution of the ,baltic question1 which during the long absence of ,charles ,,xii4 had become burning2 and ,swedish ,pomerania1 as far as the ,peene1 was occupied by ,prussia4 ,but ,charles ,,xii4 on his return turned against the king1 though without success1 for the ,pomeranian campaign of #agae ended in favour of ,prussia 7fall of ,stralsund1 ,december #bb74 ,this enabled ,frederick ,william ,i4 to maintain a more independent attitude towards the tsar2 he refused1 for example1 to provide him with troops for a campaign 7in ,schonen7 against the ,swedes4 ,when on the #bhth of ,may #agah1 in view of the disturbances in ,mecklenburg1 he signed at ,havelberg the alliance with ,russia1 he confined himself to taking up a defensive attitude1 and1 on the other hand1 on the #adth of ,august #agai he also entered into relations with his former enemies1 ,england and ,hanover4 ,and so1 by the treaty of ,stockholm 7,february #a1 #agbj71 ,frederick ,william succeeded in obtaining the consent of ,sweden to the cession of that part of ,pomerania which he had occupied 7,usedom1 ,wollin1 ,stettin1 ,hither ,pomerania1 east of the ,peene7 in return for a payment of #b1jjj1jjj thalers4 ,while ,frederick ,william ,i4 succeeded in carrying his wishes into effect in this direction1 he was unable to realize another project which he had much at heart1 namely1 the ,prussian succession to the ,lower ,rhine duchies of ,juelich and ,berg4 ,the treaty concluded in #agbe at ,vienna between the emperor and ,spain brought the whole of this question up again1 for both sides had pledged themselves to support the ,palatinate-,sulzbach succession 7in the event of the ,palatinate-,neuberg line becoming extinct74 ,frederick ,william turned for help to the western powers1 ,england and ,france1 and secured it by the treaty of alliance signed at ,herrenhausen on the #crd of ,september #agbe 7,league of ,hanover74 ,but since the western powers soon sought to use the military strength of ,prussia for their own ends1 ,frederick again turned towards the east1 strengthened above all his relations with ,russia1 which had continued to be good1 and finally1 by the treaty of ,wuesterhausen 7,october #ab1 #agbf2 ratified at ,berlin1 ,december #bc1 #agbh71 even allied himself with his former adversary1 the court of ,vienna2 though this treaty only imperfectly safeguarded ,prussian interests1 inasmuch as ,frederick ,william consented to renounce his claims to ,juelich4 ,but as in the following years the ,european situation became more and more favourable to the house of ,habsburg1 the latter began to try to withdraw part of the concessions which it had made to ,frederick ,william4 ,as early as #agbh ,duesseldorf1 the capital1 was excluded from the guarantee of ,berg4 ,nevertheless1 in the ,war of the ,polish ,succession against ,france 7#agcd-agce71 ,frederick ,william remained faithful to the emperor's cause1 and sent an auxiliary force of #aj1jjj men4 ,the peace of ,vienna1 which terminated the war1 led to a reconciliation between ,france and ,austria1 and so to a further estrangement between ,frederick ,william and the emperor4 ,moreover1 in #agch the western powers1 together with the emperor1 insisted in identical notes on the recognition of the emperor's right to decide the question of the succession in the ,lower ,rhine duchies4 ,a breach with the emperor was now inevitable1 and this explains why in a last treaty 7,april #e1 #agci7 ,frederick ,william obtained from ,france a guarantee of a part1 at least1 of ,berg 7excluding ,duesseldorf74 ,but ,frederick ,william's failures in foreign policy were more than compensated for by his splendid services in the internal administration of ,prussia4 ,he saw the necessity of rigid economy not only in his private life but in the whole administration of the state4 ,during his reign ,prussia obtained for the first time a centralized and uniform financial administration4 ,it was the king himself who composed and wrote in the year #agbb the famous instruction for the general directory 7,generaldirektorium7 of war1 finance and domains4 ,when he died the income of the state was about seven million thalers 7,l#a1jej1jjj74 ,the consequence was that he paid off the debts incurred by his father1 and left to his successor a well filled treasury4 ,in the administration of the domains he made three innovations3 7#a7 the private estates of the king were turned into domains of the crown 7,august #ac1 #agac72 7#b7 the freeing of the serfs on the royal domains 7,march #bb1 #agai72 7#c7 the conversion of the hereditary lease into a short-term lease on the basis of productiveness4 ,his industrial policy was inspired by the mercantile spirit4 ,on this account he forbade the importation of foreign manufactures and the export of raw materials from home1 a policy which had a very good effect on the growth of ,prussian industries4 ,the work of internal colonization he carried on with especial zeal4 ,most notable of all was his retablissement of ,east ,prussia1 to which he devoted six million thalers 7c4 ,l#ijj1jjj74 ,his policy in respect of the towns was motived largely by fiscal considerations1 but at the same time he tried also to improve their municipal administration2 for example1 in the matter of buildings1 of the letting of domain lands and of the collection of the excise in towns4 ,frederick ,william had many opponents among the nobles because he pressed on the abolition of the old feudal rights1 introduced in ,east ,prussia and ,lithuania a general land tax 7the ,generalhufenschoss71 and finally in #agci attacked in a special edict the ,legen1 i4e4 the expropriation of the peasant proprietors4 ,he did nothing for the higher learning1 and even banished the philosopher ,christian ,wolff at forty-eight hours' notice on pain of the halter1 for teaching1 as he believed1 fatalist doctrines4 ,afterwards he modified his judgment in favour of ,wolff1 and even1 in #agci1 recommended the study of his works4 ,he established many village schools1 which he often visited in person2 and after the year #agag 7,october #bc7 all ,prussian parents were obliged to send their children to school 7,schulzwang74 ,he was the especial friend of the ,franckische ,stiftungen at ,halle on the ,saale4 ,under him the people flourished2 and although it stood in awe of his vehement spirit it respected him for his firmness1 his honesty of purpose and his love of justice4 ,he was devoted also to his army1 the number of which he raised from #ch1jjj to #hc1ejj1 so that under him ,prussia became the third military power in the world1 coming next after ,russia and ,france4 ,there was not a more thoroughly drilled or better appointed force4 ,the ,potsdam guard1 made up of giants collected from all parts of ,europe1 sometimes kidnapped1 was a sort of toy with which he amused himself4 ,the reviewing of his troops was his chief pleasure4 ,but he was also fond of meeting his friends in the evening in what he called his ,tobacco-,college1 where amid clouds of tobacco smoke he not only discussed affairs of state but heard the newest guard-room jokes4 ,he died on the #cast of ,may #agdj1 leaving behind him his widow1 ,sophia ,dorothea of ,hanover1 whom he had married on the #bfth of ,november #agjf4 ,his son was ,frederick the ,great1 who was the opposite of ,frederick ,william4 ,this opposition became so strong in #agcj that the crown prince fled from the court1 and was later arrested and brought before a court-martial4 ,a reconciliation was brought about1 at first gradually4 ,in later years the relations between father and son came to be of the best 7see ,,frederick ,,ii41 king of ,prussia74 ,,bibliography4--,d4 ,fassmann1 ,leben und ,thaten ,friedrich ,wilhelms 7#b vols41 ,hamburg and ,breslau1 #agce1 #agda72 ,f4 ,foerster1 ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,i4 7#c vols41 ,potsdam1 #ahcd and #ahce72 ,c4 v4 ,noorden1 ,historische ,vortraege 7,leipzig1 #ahhd72 ,o4 ,krauske1 ,vom ,hofe ,friedrich ,wilhelms ,i41 ,hohenzollernjahrbuch1 v4 7#aijb72 ,r4 ,koser1 ,friedrich der ,grosse als ,kronprinz 7#bnd ed41 ,stuttgart1 #aija72 ,w4 ,oncken1 ,sir ,charles ,hotham und ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,i4 im ,jahre #agcj1 ,forschungen zur brandenburgischen ,geschichte1 vol4 vii4 et seq42 ,j4 ,g4 ,droysen in the ,allgemeine deutsche ,biographie1 vii4 7#ahgh71 and in ,geschichte der preussischen ,politik1 section iv41 vols4 ii4-iv4 7#bnd ed41 #ahfh et seq472 ,l4 v4 ,ranke1 ,zwoelf ,buecher preussischer ,geschichte 7#ahgd et seq472 ,stenzel1 ,geschichte des preussischen ,staates1 iii4 7#ahda72 ,f4 ,holke1 ,strafrechtspflege unter ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,i41 ,beitraege zur brandenburgischen ,rechtsgeschichte1 iii4 7#ahid72 ,v4 ,loewe1 ,allodifikation der ,leben unter ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,i41 ,forschungen zur brandenburgischen ,geschichte1 xi42 ,g4 ,schmoller1 ,epochen der preuss4 ,finanzpolitik1 ,umrisse und ,untersuchungen 7,leipzig1 #ahih71 ,innere ,verwaltung unter ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,i41 ,preuss4 ,jahrbuecher1 xxvi41 ,staedtewesen unter ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,i41 ,zeitschrift fuer preussische ,geschichte1 x4 et seq42 ,b4 ,reuter1 ,koenig ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,i4 und das ,general-,direktorium1 ibid4 xii42 ,v4 ,loewe1 ,zur ,grundungsgeschichte des ,general-,direktoriums1 ,forschungen1 c41 xiii42 ,r4 ,stadelmann1 ,preussens ,koenige in ihrer ,taetigkeit fuer die ,landeskultur1 vol4 i4 ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,i4 7#ahgh72 ,m4 ,beheim-,schwarzbach1 ,hohenzollern'sche ,kolonizationen 7,leipzig1 #ahgd72 ,w4 ,naude1 ,die merkantilistische ,wirtschaftspolitik ,friedrich ,wilhelms ,i41 ,historische ,zeitschrift1 xc42 ,m4 ,lehmann1 ,werbung1 c41 im ,heere ,friedrich ,wilhelms ,i41 ibid4 lxvii42 ,isaacson1 ,erbpachtsystem in der preussischen ,domaenenverwaltung1 ,zeitschrift fuer preuss4 ,gesch4 xi4 ,cf4 also ,hohenzollernjahrbuch1 viii4 7#aije71 for particulars of his education and death2 letters to ,prince ,leopold of ,anhalt-,dessau in the ,acta ,borussica 7#aije74 ,english readers will find a picturesque account of him in ,thomas ,carlyle's ,frederick the ,great4 7,j4 ,hn47 ,,frederick ,,william ,,ii4 7#agdd-agig71 king of ,prussia1 son of ,augustus ,william1 second son of ,king ,frederick ,william ,i4 and of ,louise ,amalie of ,brunswick1 sister of the wife of ,frederick the ,great1 was born at ,berlin on the #beth of ,september #agdd1 and became heir to the throne on his father's death in #ageg4 ,the boy was of an easy-going and pleasure-loving disposition1 averse from sustained effort of any kind1 and sensual by nature4 ,his marriage with ,elisabeth ,christine1 daughter of ,duke ,charles of ,brunswick1 contracted in #agfe1 was dissolved in #agfi1 and he soon afterwards married ,frederika ,louisa1 daughter of the landgrave ,louis ,,ix4 of ,hesse-,darmstadt4 ,although he had a numerous family by his wife1 he was completely under the influence of his mistress1 ,wilhelmine ,enke1 afterwards created ,countess ,lichtenau1 a woman of strong intellect and much ambition4 ,he was a man of singularly handsome presence1 not without mental qualities of a high order2 he was devoted to the arts--,beethoven and ,mozart enjoyed his patronage and his private orchestra had a ,european reputation4 ,but an artistic temperament was hardly that required of a king of ,prussia on the eve of the ,revolution2 and ,frederick the ,great1 who had employed him in various services--notably in an abortive confidential mission to the court of ,russia in #aghj--openly expressed his misgivings as to the character of the prince and his surroundings4 ,the misgivings were justified by the event4 ,frederick ,william's accession to the throne 7,august #ag1 #aghf7 was1 indeed1 followed by a series of measures for lightening the burdens of the people1 reforming the oppressive ,french system of tax-collecting introduced by ,frederick1 and encouraging trade by the diminution of customs dues and the making of roads and canals4 ,this gave the new king much popularity with the mass of the people2 while the educated classes were pleased by his removal of ,frederick's ban on the ,german language by the admission of ,german writers to the ,prussian ,academy1 and by the active encouragement given to schools and universities4 ,but these reforms were vitiated in their source4 ,in #agha ,frederick ,william1 then prince of ,prussia1 inclined1 like many sensual natures1 to mysticism1 had joined the ,rosicrucians1 and had fallen under the influence of ,johann ,christof ,woellner 7#agcb-ahjj71 and by him the royal policy was inspired4 ,woellner1 whom ,frederick the ,great had described as a treacherous and intriguing priest1 had started life as a poor tutor in the family of ,general von ,itzenplitz1 a noble of the mark of ,brandenburg1 had1 after the general's death and to the scandal of king and nobility1 married the general's daughter1 and with his mother-in-law's assistance settled down on a small estate4 ,by his practical experiments and by his writings he gained a considerable reputation as an economist2 but his ambition was not content with this1 and he sought to extend his influence by joining first the ,freemasons and afterwards 7#aggi7 the ,rosicrucians4 ,woellner1 with his impressive personality and easy if superficial eloquence1 was just the man to lead a movement of this kind4 ,under his influence the order spread rapidly1 and he soon found himself the supreme director 7,oberhauptdirektor7 of some #bf circles1 which included in their membership princes1 officers and high officials4 ,as a ,rosicrucian ,woellner dabbled in alchemy and other mystic arts1 but he also affected to be zealous for ,christian orthodoxy1 imperilled by ,frederick ,,ii4's patronage of enlightenment1 and a few months before ,frederick's death wrote to his friend the ,rosicrucian ,johann ,rudolph von ,bischoffswerder 7#agda-ahjc7 that his highest ambition was to be placed at the head of the religious department of the state as an unworthy instrument in the hand of ,ormesus 7the prince of ,prussia's ,rosicrucian name7 for the purpose of saving millions of souls from perdition and bringing back the whole country to the faith of ,jesus ,christ4 ,such was the man whom ,frederick ,william ,,ii41 immediately after his accession1 called to his counsels4 ,on the #bfth of ,august #aghf he was appointed privy councillor for finance 7,geheimer ,oberfinanzrath71 and on the #bnd of ,october was ennobled4 ,though not in name1 in fact he was prime minister2 in all internal affairs it was he who decided2 and the fiscal and economic reforms of the new reign were the application of his theories4 ,bischoffswerder1 too1 still a simple major1 was called into the king's counsels2 by #aghi he was already an adjutant-general4 ,these were the two men who enmeshed the king in a web of ,rosicrucian mystery and intrigue1 which hampered whatever healthy development of his policy might have been possible1 and led ultimately to disaster4 ,the opposition to ,woellner was1 indeed1 at the outset strong enough to prevent his being entrusted with the department of religion2 but this too in time was overcome1 and on the #crd of ,july #aghh he was appointed active privy councillor of state and of justice and head of the spiritual department for ,lutheran and ,catholic affairs4 ,war was at once declared on what--to use a later term--we may call the modernists4 ,the king1 so long as ,woellner was content to condone his immorality 7which ,bischoffswerder1 to do him justice1 condemned71 was eager to help the orthodox crusade4 ,on the #ith of ,july was issued the famous religious edict1 which forbade ,evangelical ministers to teach anything not contained in the letter of their official books1 proclaimed the necessity of protecting the ,christian religion against the enlighteners 7,aufklaerer71 and placed educational establishments under the supervision of the orthodox clergy4 ,on the #ahth of ,december a new censorship law was issued1 to secure the orthodoxy of all published books2 and finally1 in #agia1 a sort of ,protestant ,inquisition was established at ,berlin 7,immediat-,examinations-commission7 to watch over all ecclesiastical and scholastic appointments4 ,in his zeal for orthodoxy1 indeed1 ,frederick ,william outstripped his minister2 he even blamed ,woellner's idleness and vanity for the inevitable failure of the attempt to regulate opinion from above1 and in #agid deprived him of one of his secular offices in order that he might have more time to devote himself to the things of ,god2 in edict after edict the king continued to the end of his reign to make regulations in order to maintain in his states a true and active ,christianity1 as the path to genuine fear of ,god4 ,the effects of this policy of blind obscurantism far outweighed any good that resulted from the king's well-meant efforts at economic and financial reform2 and even this reform was but spasmodic and partial1 and awoke ultimately more discontent than it allayed4 ,but far more fateful for ,prussia was the king's attitude towards the army and foreign policy4 ,the army was the very foundation of the ,prussian state1 a truth which both ,frederick ,william ,i4 and the great ,frederick had fully realized2 the army had been their first care1 and its efficiency had been maintained by their constant personal supervision4 ,frederick ,william1 who had no taste for military matters1 put his authority as ,war-,lord into commission under a supreme college of war 7,oberkriegs-,collegium7 under the duke of ,brunswick and ,general von ,moellendorf4 ,it was the beginning of the process that ended in #ahjf at ,jena4 ,in the circumstances ,frederick ,william's intervention in ,european affairs was not likely to prove of benefit to ,prussia4 ,the ,dutch campaign of #aghg1 entered on for purely family reasons1 was indeed successful2 but ,prussia received not even the cost of her intervention4 ,an attempt to intervene in the war of ,russia and ,austria against ,turkey failed of its object2 ,prussia did not succeed in obtaining any concessions of territory from the alarms of the ,allies1 and the dismissal of ,hertzberg in #agia marked the final abandonment of the anti-,austrian tradition of ,frederick the ,great4 ,for1 meanwhile1 the ,french ,revolution had entered upon alarming phases1 and in ,august #agia ,frederick ,william1 at the meeting at ,pillnitz1 arranged with the emperor ,leopold to join in supporting the cause of ,louis ,,xvi4 ,but neither the king's character1 nor the confusion of the ,prussian finances due to his extravagance1 gave promise of any effective action4 ,a formal alliance was indeed signed on the #gth of ,february #agib1 and ,frederick ,william took part personally in the campaigns of #agib and #agic4 ,he was hampered1 however1 by want of funds1 and his counsels were distracted by the affairs of ,poland1 which promised a richer booty than was likely to be gained by the anti-revolutionary crusade into ,france4 ,a subsidy treaty with the sea powers 7,april #ai1 #agid7 filled his coffers2 but the insurrection in ,poland that followed the partition of #agic1 and the threat of the isolated intervention of ,russia1 hurried him into the separate treaty of ,basel with the ,french ,republic 7,april #e1 #agie71 which was regarded by the great monarchies as a betrayal1 and left ,prussia morally isolated in ,europe on the eve of the titanic struggle between the monarchical principle and the new political creed of the ,revolution4 ,prussia had paid a heavy price for the territories acquired at the expense of ,poland in #agic and #agie1 and when1 on the #afth of ,november #agig1 ,frederick ,william died1 he left the state in bankruptcy and confusion1 the army decayed and the monarchy discredited4 ,frederick ,william ,,ii4 was twice married3 7#a7 in #agfe to ,elizabeth of ,brunswick 7d4 #ahda71 by whom he had a daughter1 ,frederika1 afterwards duchess of ,york1 and from whom he was divorced in #agfi2 7#b7 in #agfi to ,frederika ,louisa of ,hesse-,darmstadt1 by whom he had four sons1 ,frederick ,william ,,iii41 ,louis 7d4 #agif71 ,henry and ,william1 and two daughters1 ,wilhelmina1 wife of ,william of ,orange1 afterwards ,william ,i41 king of the ,netherlands1 and ,augusta1 wife of ,william ,,ii41 elector of ,hesse4 ,besides his relations with his maitresse en titre1 the countess ,lichtenau1 the king--who was a frank polygamist--contracted two marriages of the left hand with ,fraeulein von ,voss and the countess ,doenhoff4 ,see article by von ,hartmann in ,allgem4 deutsche ,biog4 7,leipzig1 #ahgh72 ,stadelmann1 ,preussens ,koenige in ihrer ,taetigkeit fuer die ,landeskultur1 vol4 iii4 ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,,ii4 7,leipzig1 #ahhe72 ,paulig1 ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,,ii41 sein ,privatleben u4 seine ,regierung 7,frankfurt-an-der-,oder1 #ahif74 ,,frederick ,,william ,,iii4 7#aggj-ahdj71 king of ,prussia1 eldest son of ,king ,frederick ,william ,,ii41 was born at ,potsdam on the #crd of ,august #aggj4 ,his father1 then prince of ,prussia1 was out of favour with ,frederick the ,great and entirely under the influence of his mistress2 and the boy1 handed over to tutors appointed by the king1 lived a solitary and repressed life which tended to increase the innate weakness of his character4 ,but though his natural defects of intellect and will-power were not improved by the pedantic tutoring to which he was submitted1 he grew up pious1 honest and well-meaning2 and had fate cast him in any but the most stormy times of his country's history he might well have left the reputation of a model king4 ,as a soldier he received the usual training of a ,prussian prince1 obtained his lieutenancy in #aghd1 became a colonel commanding in #agij1 and took part in the campaigns of #agib-id4 ,in #agic he married ,louise1 daughter of ,prince ,charles of ,mecklenburg-,strelitz1 whom he had met and fallen in love with at ,frankfort 7see ,,louise1 queen of ,prussia74 ,he succeeded to the throne on the #afth of ,november #agig and at once gave earnest of his good intentions by cutting down the expenses of the royal establishment1 dismissing his father's ministers1 and reforming the most oppressive abuses of the late reign4 ,unfortunately1 however1 he had all the ,hohenzollern tenacity of personal power without the ,hohenzollern genius for using it4 ,too distrustful to delegate his responsibility to his ministers1 he was too infirm of will to strike out and follow a consistent course for himself4 ,the results of this infirmity of purpose are written large on the history of ,prussia from the treaty of ,luneville in #ahja to the downfall that followed the campaign of ,jena in #ahjf4 ,by the treaty of ,tilsit 7,july #ith1 #ahjg7 ,frederick ,william had to surrender half his dominions1 and what remained to him was exhausted by ,french exactions and liable at any moment to be crushed out of existence by some new whim of ,napoleon4 ,in the dark years that followed it was the indomitable courage of ,queen ,louise that helped the weak king not to despair of the state4 ,she seconded the reforming efforts of ,stein and the work of ,scharnhorst and ,gneisenau in reorganizing the army1 by which the resurrection of ,prussia became a possibility4 ,when ,stein was dismissed at the instance of ,napoleon1 ,hardenberg succeeded him as chancellor 7,june #ahaj74 ,in the following month ,queen ,louise died1 and the king was left alone to deal with circumstances of ever-increasing difficulty4 ,he was forced to join ,napoleon in the war against ,russia2 and even when the disastrous campaign of #ahab had for the time broken the ,french power1 it was not his own resolution1 but the loyal disloyalty of ,general ,york in concluding with ,russia the convention of ,tauroggen that forced him into line with the patriotic fervour of his people4 ,once committed to the ,russian alliance1 however1 he became the faithful henchman of the emperor ,alexander1 whose fascinating personality exercised over him to the last a singular power1 and began that influence of ,russia at the court of ,berlin which was to last till ,frederick ,william ,,iv4's supposed ,liberalism was to shatter the cordiality of the entente4 ,that during and after the settlement of #ahae ,frederick ,william played a very secondary part in ,european affairs is explicable as well by his character as by the absorbing character of the internal problems of ,prussia4 ,he was one of the original co-signatories of the ,holy ,alliance1 though1 in common with most1 he signed it with reluctance2 and in the counsels of the ,grand ,alliance he allowed himself to be practically subordinated to ,alexander and later to ,metternich4 ,in a ruler of his character it is not surprising that the ,revolution and its developments had produced an unconquerable suspicion of constitutional principles and methods1 which the ,liberal agitations in ,germany tended to increase4 ,at the various congresses1 from ,aix-la-,chapelle 7#ahah7 to ,verona 7#ahbb71 therefore1 he showed himself heartily in sympathy with the repressive policy formulated in the ,troppau ,protocol4 ,the promise of a constitution1 which in the excitement of the ,war of ,liberation he had made to his people1 remained unfulfilled partly owing to this mental attitude1 partly1 however1 to the all but insuperable difficulties in the way of its execution4 ,but though reluctant to play the part of a constitutional king1 ,frederick ,william maintained to the full the traditional character of first servant of the state4 ,though he chastised ,liberal professors and turbulent students1 it was in the spirit of a benevolent ,landesvater2 and he laboured assiduously at the enormous task of administrative reconstruction necessitated by the problem of welding the heterogeneous elements of the new ,prussian kingdom into a united whole4 ,he was sincerely religious2 but his well-meant efforts to unite the ,lutheran and ,reformed ,churches1 in celebration of the tercentenary of the ,reformation 7#ahag71 revealed the limits of his paternal power2 eleven years passed in vain attempts to devise common formulae2 a stubborn ,lutheran minority had to be coerced by military force1 the confiscation of their churches and the imprisonment or exile of their pastors2 not till #ahcd was outward union secured on the basis of common worship but separate symbols1 the opponents of the measure being forbidden to form communities of their own4 ,with the ,roman ,church1 too1 the king came into conflict on the vexed question of mixed marriages1 a conflict in which the ,vatican gained an easy victory 7see ,,bunsen1 ,c4 ,c4 ,j41 ,,baron ,,von74 ,the revolutions of #ahcj strengthened ,frederick ,william in his reactionary tendencies2 the question of the constitution was indefinitely shelved2 and in #ahca ,prussian troops concentrated on the frontier helped the task of the ,russians in reducing the military rising in ,poland4 ,yet1 in spite of all1 ,frederick ,william was beloved by his subjects1 who valued him for the simplicity of his manners1 the goodness of his heart and the memories of the dark days after #ahjf4 ,he died on the #gth of ,june #ahdj4 ,in #ahbd he had contracted a morganatic marriage with the countess ,auguste von ,harrach1 whom he created ,princess von ,liegnitz4 ,he wrote ,luther in ,bezug auf die ,kirchenagenda von #ahbb und #ahbc 7,berlin1 #ahbg71 ,reminiszenzen aus der ,kampagne #agib in ,frankreich1 and ,journal meiner ,brigade in der ,kampagne am ,rhein #agic4 ,the correspondence 7,briefwechsel7 of ,king ,frederick ,william ,,iii4 and ,queen ,louise with the emperor ,alexander ,i4 has been published 7,leipzig1 #aijj7 and also that between the king and queen 7ib4 #aijc71 both edited by ,p4 ,bailleu4 ,see ,w4 ,hahn1 ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,,iii4 und ,luise 7#crd ed41 ,leipzig1 #ahgg72 ,m4 ,w4 ,duncker1 ,aus der ,zeit ,friedrichs des ,grossen und ,friedrich ,wilhelms ,,iii4 7,leipzig1 #ahgf72 ,bishop ,r4 ,f4 ,eylert1 ,charakterzuege aus dem ,leben des ,koenigs von ,preussen ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,,iii4 7#c vols41 ,magdeburg1 #ahdc-ahdf74 ,,frederick ,,william ,,iv4 7#agie-ahfa71 king of ,prussia1 eldest son of ,frederick ,william ,,iii41 was born on the #aeth of ,october #agie4 ,from his first tutor1 ,johann ,delbrueck1 he imbibed a love of culture and art1 and possibly also the dash of ,liberalism which formed an element of his complex habit of mind4 ,but after a time ,delbrueck1 suspected of inspiring his charge with a dislike of the ,prussian military caste and even of belonging to a political secret society1 was dismissed1 his place being taken by the pastor and historian ,friedrich ,ancillon1 while a military governor was also appointed4 ,by ,ancillon he was grounded in religion1 in history and political science1 his natural taste for the antique and the picturesque making it easy for his tutor to impress upon him his own hatred of the ,revolution and its principles4 ,this hatred was confirmed by the sufferings of his country and family in the terrible years after #ahjf1 and his first experience of active soldiering was in the campaigns that ended in the occupation of ,paris by the ,allies in #ahad4 ,in action his reckless bravery had earned him rebuke1 and in ,paris he was remarked for the exact performance of his military duties1 though he found time to whet his appetite for art in the matchless collections gathered by ,napoleon as the spoil of all ,europe4 ,on his return to ,berlin he studied art under the sculptor ,christian ,daniel ,rauch and the painter and architect ,karl ,friedrich ,schinkel 7#agha-ahda71 proving himself in the end a good draughtsman1 a born architect and an excellent landscape gardener4 ,at the same time he was being tutored in law by ,savigny and in finance by a series of distinguished masters4 ,in #ahbc he married the princess ,elizabeth of ,bavaria1 who adopted the ,lutheran creed4 ,the union1 though childless1 was very happy4 ,a long tour in ,italy in #ahbh was the beginning of his intimacy with ,bunsen and did much to develop his knowledge of art and love of antiquity4 ,on his accession to the throne in #ahdj much was expected of a prince so variously gifted and of so amiable a temper1 and his first acts did not belie popular hopes4 ,he reversed the unfortunate ecclesiastical policy of his father1 allowing a wide liberty of dissent1 and releasing the imprisoned archbishop of ,cologne2 he modified the strictness of the press censorship2 above all he undertook1 in the presence of the deputations of the provincial diets assembled to greet him on his accession1 to carry out the long-deferred project of creating a central constitution1 which he admitted to be required alike by the royal promises1 the needs of the country and the temper of the times4 ,the story of the evolution of the ,prussian parliament belongs to the history of ,prussia4 ,here it must suffice to notice ,frederick ,william's personal share in the question1 which was determined by his general attitude of mind4 ,he was an idealist2 but his idealism was of a type the exact reverse of that which the ,revolution in arms had sought to impose upon ,europe4 ,the idea of the sovereignty of the people was to him utterly abhorrent1 and even any delegation of sovereign power on his own part would have seemed a betrayal of a ,god-given trust4 ,i will never1 he declared1 allow to come between ,almighty ,god and this country a blotted parchment1 to rule us with paragraphs1 and to replace the ancient1 sacred bond of loyalty4 ,his vision of the ideal state was that of a patriarchial monarchy1 surrounded and advised by the traditional estates of the realm--nobles1 peasants1 burghers--and cemented by the bonds of evangelical religion2 but in which there should be no question of the sovereign power being vested in any other hands than those of the king by divine right4 ,in ,prussia1 with its traditional loyalty and its old-world caste divisions1 he believed that such a conception could be realized1 and he took up an attitude half-way between those who would have rejected the proposal for a central diet altogether as a dangerous thin end of the wedge1 and those who would have approximated it more to the modern conception of a parliament4 ,with a charter1 or a representative system based on population1 he would have nothing to do4 ,the united diet which was opened on the #crd of ,february #ahdg was no more than a congregation of the diets instituted by ,frederick ,william ,,iii4 in the eight provinces of ,prussia4 ,unrepresentative though it was--for the industrial working-classes had no share in it--it at once gave voice to the demand for a constitutional system4 ,this demand gained overwhelmingly in force with the revolutionary outbreaks of #ahdh4 ,to ,frederick ,william these came as a complete surprise1 and1 rudely awakened from his medieval dreamings1 he even allowed himself to be carried away for a while by the popular tide4 ,the loyalty of the ,prussian army remained inviolate2 but the king was too tender-hearted to use military force against his beloved ,berliners1 and when the victory of the populace was thus assured his impressionable temper yielded to the general enthusiasm4 ,he paraded the streets of ,berlin wrapped in a scarf of the ,german black and gold1 symbol of his intention to be the leader of the united ,germany2 and he even wrote to the indignant tsar in praise of the glorious ,german revolution4 ,the change of sentiment was1 however1 apparent rather than real4 ,the shadow of venerable institutions1 past or passing1 still darkened his counsels4 ,the united ,germany which he was prepared to champion was not the democratic state which the theorists of the ,frankfort national parliament were evolving on paper with interminable debate1 but the old ,holy ,roman ,empire1 the heritage of the house of ,habsburg1 of which he was prepared to constitute himself the guardian so long as its lawful possessors should not have mastered the forces of disorder by which they were held captive4 ,finally1 when ,austria had been excluded from the new empire1 he replied to the parliamentary deputation that came to offer him the imperial crown that he might have accepted it had it been freely offered to him by the ,german princes1 but that he would never stoop to pick up a crown out of the gutter4 ,whatever may be thought of the manner of this refusal1 or of its immediate motives1 it was in itself wise1 for the ,german empire would have lost immeasurably had it been the cause rather than the result of the inevitable struggle with ,austria1 and ,bismarck was probably right when he said that1 to weld the heterogeneous elements of ,germany into a united whole1 what was needed was1 not speeches and resolutions1 but a policy of blood and iron4 ,in any case ,frederick ,william1 uneasy enough as a constitutional king1 would have been impossible as a constitutional emperor4 ,as it was1 his refusal to play this part gave the deathblow to the parliament and to all hope of the immediate creation of a united ,germany4 ,for ,frederick ,william the position of leader of ,germany now meant the employment of the military force of ,prussia to crush the scattered elements of revolution that survived the collapse of the national movement4 ,his establishment of the northern confederacy was a reversion to the traditional policy of ,prussia in opposition to ,austria1 which1 after the emperor ,nicholas had crushed the insurrection in ,hungary1 was once more free to assert her claims to dominance in ,germany4 ,but ,prussia was not ripe for a struggle with ,austria1 even had ,frederick ,william found it in his conscience to turn his arms against his ancient ally1 and the result was the humiliating convention of ,olmuetz 7,november #bith1 #ahej71 by which ,prussia agreed to surrender her separatist plans and to restore the old constitution of the confederation4 ,yet ,frederick ,william had so far profited by the lessons of #ahdh that he consented to establish 7#ahej7 a national parliament1 though with a restricted franchise and limited powers4 ,the ,house of ,lords 7,herrenhaus7 justified the king's insistence in calling it into being by its support of ,bismarck against the more popular ,house during the next reign4 ,in religious matters ,frederick ,william was also largely swayed by his love for the ancient and picturesque4 ,in concert with his friend ,bunsen he laboured to bring about a rapprochement between the ,lutheran and ,anglican churches1 the first-fruits of which was the establishment of the ,jerusalem bishopric under the joint patronage of ,great ,britain and ,prussia2 but the only result of his efforts was to precipitate the secession of ,j4 ,h4 ,newman and his followers to the ,church of ,rome4 ,in general it may be said that ,frederick ,william1 in spite of his talents and his wide knowledge1 lived in a dream-land of his own1 out of touch with actuality4 ,the style of his letters reveals a mind enthusiastic and ill-balanced4 ,in the summer of #aheg he had a stroke of paralysis1 and a second in ,october4 ,from this time1 with the exception of brief intervals1 his mind was completely clouded1 and the duties of government were undertaken by his brother ,william 7afterwards emperor71 who on the #gth of ,october #aheh was formally recognized as regent4 ,frederick ,william died on the #bnd of ,january #ahfa4 ,selections from the correspondence 7,briefwechsel7 of ,frederick ,william ,,iv4 and ,bunsen were edited by ,ranke 7,leipzig1 #ahgc72 his proclamations1 speeches1 c41 from the #fth of ,march #ahdh to the #cast of ,may #ahea have been published 7,berlin1 #ahea72 also his correspondence with ,bettina von ,arnim1 ,bettina von ,arnim und ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,,iv41 ungedruckte ,briefe und ,aktenstuecke1 ed4 ,l4 ,geiger 7,frankfort-on-,main1 #aijb74 ,see ,l4 von ,ranke1 ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,,iv41 ,koenig von ,preussen 7works #ea1 #eb also in ,allgem4 deutsche ,biog4 vol4 vii471 especially for the king's education and the inner history of the debates leading up to the united diet of #ahdg2 ,h4 von ,petersdorff1 ,koenig ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,,iv4 7,stuttgart1 #aijj72 ,f4 ,rachfahl1 ,deutschland1 ,koenig ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,,iv4 und die ,berliner ,maerzrevolution 7,halle1 #aija72 ,h4 von ,poschinger 7ed471 ,unter ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,,iv4 ,denkwuerdigkeiten des ,ministers ,otto ,frhr4 von ,manteuffel1 #ahdh-aheh 7#c vols41 ,berlin1 #aijj-aija72 and ,preussens auswaertige ,politik1 #ahej-aheh 7#c vols41 ib41 #aijb71 documents selected from those left by ,manteuffel2 ,e4 ,friedberg1 ,die ,grundlagen der preussischen ,kirchenpolitik unter ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,,iv4 7,leipzig1 #ahhb74 ,,frederick ,,william 7#afbj-afhh71 elector of ,brandenburg1 usually called the ,great ,elector1 was born in ,berlin on the #afth of ,february #afbj4 ,his father was the elector ,george ,william1 and his mother was ,elizabeth ,charlotte1 daughter of ,frederick ,,iv41 elector palatine of the ,rhine4 ,owing to the disorders which were prevalent in ,brandenburg he passed part of his youth in the ,netherlands1 studying at the university of ,leiden and learning something of war and statecraft under ,frederick ,henry1 prince of ,orange4 ,during his boyhood a marriage had been suggested between him and ,christina1 afterwards queen of ,sweden2 but although the idea was revived during the peace negotiations between ,sweden and ,brandenburg1 it came to nothing1 and in #afdf he married ,louise ,henriette 7d4 #affg71 daughter of ,frederick ,henry of ,orange1 a lady whose counsel was very helpful to him and who seconded his efforts for the welfare of his country4 ,having become ruler of ,brandenburg and ,prussia by his father's death in ,december #afdj1 ,frederick ,william set to work at once to repair the extensive damage wrought during the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 still in progress4 ,after some difficulty he secured his investiture as duke of ,prussia from ,wladislaus1 king of ,poland1 in ,october #afda1 but was not equally successful in crushing the independent tendencies of the estates of ,cleves4 ,it was in ,brandenburg1 however1 that he showed his supreme skill as a diplomatist and administrator4 ,his disorderly troops were replaced by an efficient and disciplined force2 his patience and perseverance freed his dominions from the ,swedish soldiers2 and the restoration of law and order was followed by a revival of trade and an increase of material prosperity4 ,after a tedious struggle he succeeded in centralizing the administration1 and controlling and increasing the revenue1 while no department of public life escaped his sedulous care 7see ,,brandenburg74 ,the area of his dominions was largely increased at the peace of ,westphalia in #afdh1 and this treaty and the treaty of ,oliva in #affj alike added to his power and prestige4 ,by a clever but unscrupulous use of his intermediate position between ,sweden and ,poland he procured his recognition as independent duke of ,prussia from both powers1 and eventually succeeded in crushing the stubborn and lengthened opposition which was offered to his authority by the estates of the duchy 7see ,,prussia74 ,after two checks he made his position respected in ,cleves1 and in #afff his title to ,cleves1 ,juelich and ,ravensberg was definitely recognized4 ,his efforts1 however1 to annex the western part of the duchy of ,pomerania1 which he had conquered from the ,swedes1 failed owing to the insistence of ,louis ,,xiv4 at the treaty of ,st ,germain-en-,laye in #afgi1 and he was unable to obtain the ,silesian duchies of ,liegnitz1 ,brieg and ,wohlau from the emperor ,leopold ,i4 after they had been left without a ruler in #afge4 ,frederick ,william played an important part in ,european politics4 ,although found once or twice on the side of ,france1 he was generally loyal to the interests of the empire and the ,habsburgs1 probably because his political acumen scented danger to ,brandenburg from the aggressive policy of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,he was a ,protestant in religion1 but he supported ,protestant interests abroad on political rather than on religious grounds1 and sought1 but without much success1 to strengthen ,brandenburg by allaying the fierce hostility between ,lutherans and ,calvinists4 ,his success in founding and organizing the army of ,brandenburg-,prussia was amply demonstrated by the great victory which he gained over the ,swedes at ,fehrbellin in ,june #afge1 and by the eagerness with which foreign powers sought his support4 ,he was also the founder of the ,prussian navy4 ,the elector assisted trade in every possible way4 ,he made the canal which still bears his name between the ,oder and the ,spree2 established a trading company2 and founded colonies on the west coast of ,africa4 ,he encouraged ,flemings to settle in ,brandenburg1 and both before and after the revocation of the edict of ,nantes in #afhe welcomed large numbers of ,huguenots1 who added greatly to the welfare of the country4 ,education was not neglected2 and if in this direction some of his plans were abortive1 it was from lack of means and opportunity rather than effort and inclination4 ,it is difficult to overestimate the services of the great elector to ,brandenburg and ,prussia4 ,they can only be properly appreciated by those who compare the condition of his country in #afdj with its condition in #afhh4 ,both actually and relatively its importance had increased enormously2 poverty had given place to comparative wealth1 and anarchy to a system of government which afterwards made ,prussia the most centralized state in ,europe4 ,he had scant sympathy with local privileges1 and in fighting them his conduct was doubtless despotic4 ,his aim was to make himself an absolute ruler1 as he regarded this as the best guarantee for the internal and external welfare of the state4 ,the great elector died at ,potsdam from dropsy on the #ith of ,may #afhh1 and was succeeded by his eldest surviving son1 ,frederick4 ,his personal appearance was imposing1 and although he was absolutely without scruples when working for the interests of ,brandenburg1 he did not lack a sense of justice and generosity4 ,at all events he deserves the eulogy passed upon him by ,frederick the ,great1 ,messieurs2 celui-ci a fait de grandes choses4 ,his second wife1 whom he married in #affh1 was ,dorothea 7d4 #afhi71 daughter of ,philip1 duke of ,holstein-,gluecksburg1 and widow of ,christian ,louis1 duke of ,brunswick-,lueneburg2 she bore him four sons and three daughters4 ,his concluding years were troubled by differences between his wife and her step-son1 ,frederick2 and influenced by ,dorothea he bequeathed portions of ,brandenburg to her four sons1 a bequest which was annulled under his successor4 ,see ,s4 de ,pufendorf1 ,de rebus gestis ,friderici ,wilhelmi ,magni 7,leipzig and ,berlin1 #agcc72 ,l4 von ,orlich1 ,friedrich ,wilhelm der grosse ,kurfuerst 7,berlin1 #ahcf72 ,k4 ,h4 ,s4 ,roedenbeck1 ,zur ,geschichte ,friedrich ,wilhelms des grossen ,kurfuersten 7,berlin1 #ahea72 ,b4 ,erdmannsdoerffer1 ,der grosse ,kurfuerst 7,leipzig1 #ahgi72 ,j4 ,g4 ,droysen1 ,geschichte der preussischen ,politik 7,berlin1 #ahee-ahhf72 ,m4 ,philippson1 ,der grosse ,kurfuerst 7,berlin1 #ahig-aijc72 ,e4 ,heyck1 ,der grosse ,kurfuerst 7,bielefeld1 #aijb72 ,spahn1 ,der grosse ,kurfuerst 7,mainz1 #aijb72 ,h4 ,landwehr1 ,die ,kirchenpolitik des grossen ,kurfuersten 7,berlin1 #ahid72 ,h4 ,prutz1 ,aus des grossen ,kurfuersten letzten ,jahren 7,berlin1 #ahig74 ,also ,urkunden und ,aktenstuecke zur ,geschichte des ,kurfuersten ,friedrich ,wilhelm von ,brandenburg 7,berlin1 #ahfd-aijb72 ,t4 ,carlyle1 ,history of ,frederick the ,great1 vol4 i4 7,london1 #aheh72 and ,a4 ,waddington1 ,le ,grand ,electeur et ,louis ,,xiv 7,paris1 #aije74 ,,frederick-,,lemaitre1 ,,antoine ,,louis ,,prosper 7#ahjj-ahgf7 ,french actor1 the son of an architect1 was born at ,havre on the #bhth of ,july #ahjj4 ,he spent two years at the ,conservatoire1 and made his first appearance at a variety performance in one of the basement restaurants at the ,palais ,royal4 ,at the ,ambigu on the #abth of ,july #ahbc he played the part of ,robert ,macaire in ,l',auberge des ,adrets4 ,the melodrama was played seriously on the first night and was received with little favour1 but it was changed on the second night to burlesque1 and thanks to him had a great success4 ,all ,paris came to see it1 and from that day he was famous4 ,he created a number of parts that added to his popularity1 especially ,cardillac1 ,cagliostro and ,cartouche4 ,his success in the last led to an engagement at the ,porte ,st ,martin1 where in #ahbg he produced ,trente ans1 ou la vie d'un joueur1 in which his vivid acting made a profound impression4 ,afterwards at the ,odeon and other theatres he passed from one success to another1 until he put the final touch to his reputation as an artist by creating the part of ,ruy ,blas in ,victor ,hugo's play4 ,on his return to the ,porte ,st ,martin he created the title-role in ,balzac's ,vautrin1 which was forbidden a second presentation1 on account1 it is said1 of the resemblance of the actor's wig to the well-known toupet worn by ,louis ,philippe4 ,his last appearance was at this theatre in #ahgc as the old ,jew in ,marie ,tudor1 and he died at ,paris on the #bfth of ,january #ahgf4 ,,fredericksburg1 a city of ,spottsylvania county1 ,virginia1 ,u4,s4,a41 on the ,rappahannock river1 at the head of tide-water navigation1 about #fj m4 ,n4 of ,richmond and about #ee m4 ,s4,s4,w4 of ,washington4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #debh2 7#aijj7 #ejfh 7#afba negroes72 7#aiaj7 #ehgd4 ,it is served by the ,potomac1 ,fredericksburg ,piedmont1 and the ,richmond1 ,fredericksburg ,potomac railways1 and by several coasting steamship lines4 ,the city is built on a series of terraces between the river and hills of considerable height4 ,the river is here spanned by iron bridges1 and just above the city is a dam #ijj ft4 long and #ah ft4 high4 ,by means of this dam and a canal good water-power is furnished1 and the city's manufactures include flour1 leather1 shoes1 woollens1 silks1 wagons1 agricultural implements and excelsior 7fine wood-shavings for packing or stuffing74 ,the water-works1 gas and electric-lighting plants are owned and operated by the municipality4 ,at ,fredericksburg are ,fredericksburg ,college 7founded in #ahic2 co-educational71 which includes the ,kenmore school for girls and the ,saunders memorial school for boys 7both preparatory72 a ,confederate and a ,national cemetery 7the latter on ,marye's ,heights71 a monument 7erected in #aijf7 to ,general ,hugh ,mercer 7c4 #agbj-aggg71 whose home for several years was here and who fell in the battle of ,princeton2 and a monument to the memory of ,washington's mother1 who died here in #aghi and whose home is still standing4 ,other buildings of interest are the old ,rising ,sun ,hotel1 a popular resort during ,washington's time1 and ,kenmore1 the home of ,colonel ,fielding ,lewis1 who married a sister of ,washington4 ,the city was named in honour of ,frederick1 father of ,george ,,iii41 and was incorporated in #agbg1 long after its first settlement2 in #ahga it was re-chartered by act of the ,general ,assembly of ,virginia4 ,the battle of ,fredericksburg in the ,american ,civil ,war was fought on the #acth of ,december #ahfb between the ,union forces 7,army of the ,potomac7 under ,major-,general ,a4 ,e4 ,burnside and the ,confederates 7,army of ,northern ,virginia7 under ,general ,r4 ,e4 ,lee4 ,in the middle of ,november1 ,burnside1 newly appointed to command the ,army of the ,potomac1 had manoeuvred from the neighbourhood of ,warrenton with a view to beginning an offensive move from ,fredericksburg and1 as a preliminary1 to seizing a foothold beyond the ,rappahannock at or near that place4 ,on arriving near ,falmouth1 however1 he found that the means of crossing that he had asked for had not been forwarded from ,washington1 and he sat down to wait for them1 while1 on the other side1 the ,confederate army gradually assembled south of the ,rappahannock in a strong position with the left on the river above ,fredericksburg and the right near ,hamilton's ,crossing on the ,richmond railway4 ,on the #ajth of ,december ,burnside1 having by now received his pontoons1 prepared to cross the river and to attack the ,confederate entrenched position on the heights beyond the town4 ,the respective forces were ,union #abb1jjj1 ,confederate #gi1jjj4 ,major-,general ,e4 ,v4 ,sumner1 commanding the ,federal right wing 7,,ii4 and ,,ix4 corps71 was to cross at ,fredericksburg1 ,major-,general ,w4 ,b4 ,franklin with the left 7,i4 and ,,vi4 corps7 some miles below1 while the centre 7,,iii4 and ,v4 corps7 under ,major-,general ,joseph ,hooker was to connect the two attacks and to reinforce either at need4 ,the ,union artillery took position along the heights of the north bank to cover the crossing1 and no opposition was encountered opposite ,franklin's command1 which formed up on the other side during the #aath and #abth4 ,opposite ,sumner1 however1 the ,confederate riflemen1 hidden in the gardens and houses of ,fredericksburg1 caused much trouble and considerable losses to the ,union pioneers1 and a forlorn hope of volunteers from the infantry had to be rowed across under fire before the enemy's skirmishers could be dislodged4 ,sumner's two corps crossed on the #abth4 ,the battle took place next morning4 ,controversy has raged round ,burnside's plan of action and in particular round his orders to ,franklin1 as to which it can only be said that whatever chance of success there was in so formidable an undertaking as attacking the well-posted enemy was thrown away through misunderstandings1 and that nothing but misunderstandings could be expected from the vague and bewildering orders issued by the general in command4 ,the actual battle can be described in a few words4 ,jackson held the right of ,lee's line1 ,longstreet the left1 both entrenched4 ,franklin1 tied by his instructions1 attacked with one division only1 which a little later he supported by two more 7,i4 corps1 ,major-,general ,j4 ,f4 ,reynolds7 out of eight or nine available4 ,his left flank was harassed by the ,confederate horse artillery under the young and brilliant ,captain ,john ,pelham1 and after breaking the first line of ,stonewall ,jackson's corps the assailants were in the end driven back with heavy losses4 ,on the other flank1 where part of ,longstreet's corps held the low ridge opposite ,fredericksburg called ,marye's ,heights1 ,burnside ordered in the ,,ii4 corps under ,major-,general ,d4 ,n4 ,couch about #aa ,a4,m41 and thenceforward division after division1 on a front of little more than #hjj yds41 was sent forward to assault with the bayonet4 ,the ,stone ,wall along the foot of ,marye's was lined with every rifle of ,longstreet's corps that could find room to fire1 and above them the ,confederate guns fired heavily on the assailants1 whose artillery1 on the height beyond the river1 was too far off to assist them4 ,not a man of the ,federals reached the wall1 though the bravest were killed a few paces from it1 and ,sumner's and most of ,hooker's brigades were broken one after the other as often as they tried to assault4 ,at night the wrecks of the right wing were withdrawn4 ,burnside proposed next day to lead the ,,ix4 corps1 which he had formerly commanded1 in one mass to the assault of the ,stone ,wall1 but his subordinates dissuaded him1 and on the night of the #aeth the ,army of the ,potomac withdrew to its camps about ,falmouth4 ,the losses of the ,federals were #ab1fej men1 those of the ,confederates #dbjj1 little more than a third of which fell on ,longstreet's corps4 ,see ,f4 ,w4 ,palfrey1 ,antietam and ,fredericksburg 7,new ,york1 #ahha72 ,g4 ,w4 ,redway1 ,fredericksburg 7,london1 #aijf72 and ,g4 ,f4 ,r4 ,henderson1 ,fredericksburg 7,london1 #ahhi74 ,,fredericton1 a city and port of entry of ,new ,brunswick1 ,canada1 capital of the province1 situated on the ,st ,john river1 #hd m4 from its mouth1 and on the ,canadian ,pacific railway4 ,it stands on a plain bounded on one side by the river1 which is here #c_/d m4 broad1 and on the other by a range of hills which almost encircle the town4 ,it is regularly built with long and straight streets1 and contains the parliament buildings1 government house1 the ,anglican cathedral1 the provincial university and several other educational establishments4 ,fredericton is the chief commercial centre in the interior of the province1 and has also a large trade in lumber4 ,its industries include canneries1 tanneries and wooden ware factories4 ,the river is navigable for large steamers up to the city1 and above it by vessels of lighter draught4 ,two bridges1 passenger and railway1 unite the city with the towns of ,st ,marye's and ,gibson on the east side of the river1 at its junction with the ,nashwaak4 ,the city was founded in #aghe by ,sir ,guy ,carleton1 and made the capital of the province1 in spite of the jealousy of ,st ,john1 on account of its superior strategical position4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #gaag4 ,,fredonia1 a village of ,chautauqua county1 ,new ,york1 ,u4,s4,a41 about #de m4 ,s4,w4 of ,buffalo1 and #c m4 from ,lake ,erie4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #dabg2 7#aije1 state census7 #eadh2 7#aiaj census7 #ebhe4 ,fredonia is served by the ,dunkirk1 ,allegheny ,valley ,pittsburg railway1 which connects at ,dunkirk1 #c m4 to the ,n41 with the ,erie1 the ,lake ,shore ,michigan ,southern1 the ,new ,york1 ,chicago ,st ,louis1 and the ,pennsylvania railways2 and by electric railway to ,erie1 ,buffalo and ,dunkirk4 ,it is the seat of a ,state ,normal ,school4 ,the ,darwin ,r4 ,barker public library contained #igjj volumes in #aijh4 ,fredonia is situated in the grape-growing region of western ,new ,york1 is an important shipping point for grapes1 and has large grape-vine and general nurseries4 ,the making of wine and of unfermented grape-juice are important industries of the village4 ,among other manufactures are canned goods1 coal dealers' supplies1 and patent medicines4 ,the first settlement here was made in #ahjd1 and the place was called ,canandaway until #ahag1 when the present name was adopted4 ,the village was incorporated in #ahbi4 ,fredonia was one of the first places in the ,united ,states1 if not the first1 to make use of natural gas for public purposes4 ,within the village limits1 near a creek1 whose waters showed the presence of gas1 a well was sunk in #ahba1 and the supply of gas thus tapped was sufficient to light the streets of the village4 ,another well was sunk within the village limits in #aheh4 ,about #aije natural gas was again obtained by deep drilling near ,fredonia and came into general use for heat1 light and power4 ,in the ,fredonia ,baptist church on the #adth of ,december #ahgc a ,woman's ,temperance ,union was organized1 and from this is sometimes dated the beginning of the ,woman's ,christian ,temperance ,union movement4 ,,fredrikshald 7,,frederickshald1 ,,friederichshall71 a seaport and garrison town of ,norway1 in ,smaalenene amt 7county71 #he m4 by rail ,s4 by ,e4 of ,christiania4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #aa1idh4 ,it is picturesquely situated on both banks of the ,tistedal river at its outflow to the ,ide fjord1 surrounded by several rocky eminences4 ,the chief of these is occupied by the famous fortress ,fredriksten1 protected on three sides by precipices1 founded by ,frederick ,,iii4 7#affa71 and mainly showing1 in its present form1 the works of ,frederick ,v4 7#agff7 and ,christian ,,vii4 7#ahjh74 ,between it and the smaller ,gyldenloeve fort a monument marks the spot where ,charles ,,xii4 was shot in the trenches while besieging the town 7#agah74 ,the siege1 which was then raised1 is further commemorated by a monument to the brave defence of the brothers ,peter and ,hans ,kolbjoernsen4 ,fredrikshald is close to the ,swedish frontier1 and had previously 7#affj7 withstood invasion1 after which its name was changed from ,halden to the present form in #affe in honour of ,frederick ,,iii4 ,the town was almost totally destroyed by fire in #agei and #ahbf4 ,the castle surrendered to the ,swedish crown prince ,bernadotte in #ahad1 and its capture was speedily followed by the conquest of the kingdom and its union with ,sweden4 ,fredrikshald is one of the principal ports of the kingdom for the export of timber4 ,marble of very fine quality and grain is extensively quarried and exported for architectural ornamentation and for furniture-making4 ,wood-pulp is also exported4 ,the industries embrace granite quarries1 wood-pulp factories1 and factories for sugar1 tobacco1 curtains1 travelling-bags1 boots1 c4 ,there are railway communications with ,gothenburg and all parts of ,sweden and regular coastal and steamer services4 ,,fredrikstad 7,,frederikstad71 a seaport and manufacturing town of ,norway in ,smaalenene amt 7county71 #eh m4 ,s4 by ,e4 of ,christiania by the ,christiania-,gothenburg railway4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #ad1eec4 ,it lies at the mouth and on the eastern shore of ,christiania fjord1 occupying both banks of the great river ,glommen1 which1 descending from the richly-wooded district of ,oesterdal1 floats down vast quantities of timber4 ,the new town on the right bank is therefore a centre of the timber export trade1 this place being the principal port in ,norway for the export of pit-props1 planed boards1 and other varieties of timber4 ,there is also a great industry in the making of red bricks1 owing to the expansion of ,christiania1 ,gothenburg and other towns4 ,granite is quarried and exported4 ,besides the large number of saw and planing mills1 there are shipbuilding yards1 engine and boiler works1 cotton and woollen mills1 and factories for acetic acid and naphtha4 ,the harbour1 which can be entered by vessels drawing #ad ft41 is kept open in winter by an ice-breaker4 ,in the vicinity is the island ,hankoe1 the most fashionable ,norwegian seaside resort4 ,the old town on the left bank was founded by ,frederick ,,ii4 in #aefg4 ,it was for a long time strongly fortified1 and in #agaf ,charles ,,xii4 of ,sweden made a vain attempt to capture it4 ,,free ,,baptists1 formerly called 7but no longer officially7 ,,freewill ,,baptists1 an ,american denomination holding anti-paedobaptist and anti-,calvinistic doctrines1 and practically identical in creed with the ,general ,baptists of ,great ,britain4 ,many of the early ,baptist churches in ,rhode ,island and throughout the ,south were believers in general redemption 7hence called general ,baptists72 and there was a largely attended conference of this ,arminian branch of the church at ,newport in #agbi4 ,but the denomination known as ,free-willers had its rise in #aggi-aghj1 when anti-,calvinists in ,loudon1 ,barrington and ,canterbury1 ,new ,hampshire1 seceded and were organized by ,benjamin ,randall 7#agdi-ahjh71 a native of ,new ,hampshire4 ,randall was an itinerant missionary1 who had been preaching for two years before his ordination in #aghj2 in the same year he was censured for heterodox teaching4 ,the work of the church suffered a relapse after his death1 and a movement to join the ,freewill ,baptists with the ,christians1 who were led by ,elias ,smith 7#agfi-ahdf7 and had been bitterly opposed by ,randall1 was nearly successful4 ,between #ahbj and #ahcj the denomination made considerable progress1 especially in ,new ,england and the ,middle ,west4 ,the ,freewill ,baptists were joined in #ahda by many open-communion ,baptists--those in the ,carolinas who did not join the larger body distinguishing themselves by the name of ,original ,freewill ,baptists--and soon afterwards by some of the ,general ,baptists of ,north ,carolina and some of the ,six ,principle ,baptists of ,rhode ,island 7who had added the laying on of hands to the ,five ,principles hitherto held72 and the abbreviation of the denominational name to ,free ,baptists suggests their liberal policy--indeed open communion is the main if not the only hindrance to union with the regular ,baptist ,church4 ,colleges founded by the denomination1 all co-educational1 are3 ,hillsdale ,college1 opened at ,spring ,harbor as ,michigan ,central ,college in #ahdd1 and established at ,hillsdale1 ,michigan1 in #ahee2 ,bates ,college1 ,lewiston1 ,maine1 #ahfc1 now non-sectarian2 ,rio ,grande ,college1 ,rio ,grande1 ,ohio1 #ahgf2 and ,parker ,college1 ,winnebago ,city1 ,minnesota1 opened in #ahhh4 ,at the close of #aiji there were #abid ministers1 #acjc churches1 and #gc1ecf members of the denomination in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,morning ,star of ,boston1 established in #ahbf1 is the most prominent journal published by the church4 ,in ,british ,north ,america1 according to a ,canadian census bulletin of #aijb1 there were1 in #aija1 #bd1bbi ,free ,baptists1 of whom #ae1ejb were inhabitants of ,new ,brunswick1 #hcee of ,nova ,scotia1 #bdf of ,ontario1 and #hg of ,quebec4 ,the ,united ,societies of ,free ,baptist ,young ,people1 an international organization founded in #ahhh1 had in #aijg about #ae1jjj members4 ,at the close of #aijg the ,original ,freewill ,baptists had #abj ministers1 #afg churches1 and #ab1jjj members1 practically all in the ,carolinas4 ,see ,i4 ,d4 ,stewart1 ,history of the ,free ,will ,baptists 7,dover1 ,n4 ,h41 #ahfb7 for #aghj-ahcj1 and his edition of the ,minutes of the ,general ,conference of the ,free ,will ,baptist ,connection 7,boston1 #ahhg72 ,james ,b4 ,taylor1 ,the ,centennial ,record of the ,free ,will ,baptists 7,dover1 #ahha72 ,john ,buzzell1 ,memoir of ,elder ,benjamin ,randall 7,parsonfield1 ,maine1 #ahbg72 and ,p4 ,richardson1 ,randall and the ,free ,will ,baptists1 in ,the ,christian ,review1 vol4 xxiii4 7,baltimore1 #aheh74 ,,freebench1 in ,english law1 the interest which a widow has in the copyhold lands of her husband1 corresponding to dower in the case of freeholds4 ,it depends upon the custom of the manor1 but as a general rule the widow takes a third for her life of the lands of which her husband dies seised1 but it may be an estate greater or less than a third4 ,if the husband surrenders his copyhold and the surrenderee is admitted1 or if he contracts for a sale1 it will defeat the widow's freebench4 ,as freebench is regarded as a continuation of the husband's estate1 the widow does not 7except by special custom7 require to be admitted4 ,,free ,,church ,,federation1 a voluntary association of ,british ,nonconformist churches for co-operation in religious1 social and civil work4 ,it was the outcome of a unifying tendency displayed during the latter part of the #aith century4 ,about #ahij the proposal that there should be a ,nonconformist ,church ,congress analogous to the ,anglican ,church ,congress was seriously considered1 and the first was held in ,manchester on the #gth of ,november #ahib4 ,in the following year it was resolved that the basis of representation should be neither personal 7as in the ,anglican ,church ,congress7 nor denominational1 but territorial4 ,england and ,wales have since been completely covered with a network of local councils1 each of which elects its due proportion of representatives to the national gathering4 ,this territorial arrangement eliminated all sectarian distinctions1 and also the possibility of committing the different churches as such to any particular policy4 ,the representatives of the local councils attend not as denominationalists but as ,evangelical ,free ,churchmen4 ,the name of the organization was changed from ,congress to ,national ,council as soon as the assembly ceased to be a fortuitous concourse of atoms1 and consisted of duly appointed representatives from the local councils of every part of ,england4 ,the local councils consist of representatives of the ,congregational and ,baptist ,churches1 the ,methodist ,churches1 the ,presbyterian ,church of ,england1 the ,free ,episcopal ,churches1 the ,society of ,friends1 and such other ,evangelical ,churches as the ,national ,council may at any time admit4 ,the constitution states the following as the objects of the ,national ,council3 7a7 ,to facilitate fraternal intercourse and co-operation among the ,evangelical ,free ,churches2 7b7 to assist in the organization of local councils2 7c7 to encourage devotional fellowship and mutual counsel concerning the spiritual life and religious activities of the ,churches2 7d7 to advocate the ,new ,testament doctrine of the ,church1 and to defend the rights of the associated ,churches2 7e7 to promote the application of the law of ,christ in every relation of human life4 ,although the objects of the ,free ,church councils are thus in their nature and spirit religious rather than political1 there are occasions on which action is taken on great national affairs4 ,thus a thorough-going opposition was offered to the ,education ,act of #aijb1 and whole-hearted support accorded to candidates at the general election of #aijf who pledged themselves to altering that measure4 ,a striking feature of the movement is the adoption of the parochial system for the purpose of local work4 ,each of the associated churches is requested to look after a parish1 not of course with any attempt to exclude other churches1 but as having a special responsibility for those in that area who are not already connected with some existing church4 ,throughout the ,united ,kingdom local councils are formed into federations1 some fifty in number1 which are intermediate between them and the national council4 ,the local councils do what is possible to prevent overlapping and excessive competition between the churches4 ,they also combine the forces of the local churches for evangelistic and general devotional work1 open-air services1 efforts on behalf of ,sunday observance1 and the prevention of gambling4 ,services are arranged in connexion with workhouses1 hospitals and other public institutions4 ,social work of a varied character forms a large part of the operations of the local councils1 and the ,free ,church ,girls' ,guild has a function similar to that of the ,anglican ,girls' ,friendly ,society4 ,the national council engages in mission work on a large scale1 and a considerable number of periodicals1 hymn-books for special occasions1 and works of different kinds explaining the history and ideals of the ,evangelical ,free ,churches have been published4 ,the churches represented in the ,national ,council have #iiff ministers1 #ee1hbh local preachers1 #djg1iia ,sunday-school teachers1 #c1daf1cgg ,sunday scholars1 #b1agh1bba communicants1 and sitting accommodation for #h1eee1dfj4 ,a remarkable manifestation of this unprecedented reunion was the fact that a committee of the associated churches prepared and published a catechism expressing the positive and fundamental agreement of all the ,evangelical ,free ,churches on the essential doctrines of ,christianity 7see ,the ,contemporary ,review1 ,january #ahii74 ,the catechism represents substantially the creed of not less than #hj1jjj1jjj ,protestants4 ,it has been widely circulated throughout ,great ,britain1 the ,british ,colonies and the ,united ,states of ,america1 and has also been translated into ,welsh1 ,french and ,italian4 ,the movement has spread to all parts of ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 ,south ,africa1 ,jamaica1 the ,united ,states of ,america and ,india4 ,it is perhaps necessary to add that it differs essentially from the ,evangelical ,alliance1 inasmuch as its unit is not an individual1 private ,christian1 but a definitely organized and visible ,church4 ,the essential doctrine of the movement is a particular doctrine of churchmanship which1 as explained in the catechism1 regards the ,lord ,jesus ,christ as the sole and ,divine ,head of every branch of the ,holy ,catholic ,church throughout the world4 ,for this reason those who do not accept the deity of ,christ are necessarily excluded from the national council and its local constituent councils4 ,,free ,,church ,,of ,,england1 a ,protestant episcopal church essentially one with the established church of ,england1 but free to go into any parish1 to use a revised edition of the ,book of ,common ,prayer1 to associate the laity with the clergy in the government and work of the church1 and to hold communion with ,christians of other denominations4 ,it was founded in #ahdd in opposition to the ,tractarian movement1 and embodies the distinctively evangelical elements of the ,reformation4 ,it preserves and maintains to the letter all that is ,protestant and evangelical in the liturgy and services of the ,anglican church1 while its free constitution and revised formularies meet the needs of members of that communion who resent sacerdotal and ritualistic tendencies4 ,there are two dioceses 7northern and southern7 each with a bishop1 about #cj churches and ministers1 and about #acjj members4 ,,free ,,church ,,of ,,scotland4 ,in one sense the ,free ,church of ,scotland dated its existence from the ,disruption of #ahdc1 in another it claimed to be the rightful representative of the ,national ,church of ,scotland 7see ,,scotland1 ,,church ,,of7 as it was reformed in #aefj4a ,in the ecclesiastical history of ,scotland the ,free ,churchman sees three great reforming periods4 ,in his view these deserve to be called reforming on many accounts1 but most especially because in them the independence of the church1 her inherent scriptural right to exercise a spiritual jurisdiction in which she is responsible to her ,divine ,head alone1 was both earnestly asserted and practically maintained4 ,the first reformation extended from #aefj1 when the church freely held her first ,general ,assembly1 and of her own authority acted on the ,first ,book of ,discipline1 to #aeib1 when her ,presbyterian order was finally and fully ratified by the parliament4 ,the second period began in #afch1 when1 after #bj years of suspended animation1 the ,assembly once more shook off ,episcopacy1 and terminated in #afdi1 when the parliament of ,scotland confirmed the church in her liberties in a larger and ampler sense than before4 ,the third period began in #ahcd1 when the ,assembly made use of what the church believed to be her rights in passing the ,veto and ,chapel ,acts4 ,it culminated in the ,disruption of #ahdc4 ,the fact that the ,church1 as led first by ,john ,knox and afterwards by ,andrew ,melville1 claimed an inherent right to exercise a spiritual jurisdiction is notorious4 ,more apt to be overlooked is the comparative freedom with which that right was actually used by the church irrespective of state recognition4 ,that recognition was not given until after the queen's resignation in #aefg2b but1 for several years before it came1 the church had been holding her ,assemblies and settling all questions of discipline1 worship1 and administration as they arose1 in accordance with the first book of polity or discipline which had been drawn up in #aefj4 ,further1 in #aeha she1 of her own motion1 adopted a second book of a similar character1 in which she expressly claimed an independent and exclusive jurisdiction or power in all matters ecclesiastical1 which flows directly from ,god and the ,mediator ,jesus ,christ1 and is spiritual1 not having a temporal head on earth1 but only ,christ1 the only king and governor of his church2 and this claim1 though directly negatived in #aehd by the ,black ,acts1 which included an ,act of ,supremacy over estates spiritual and temporal1 continued to be asserted by the ,assemblies1 until at last it also was practically allowed in the act of #aeib4c ,this legislation of #aeib1 however1 did not long remain in force4 ,an act of parliament in #afjf1 which reponed1 restored and reintegrated the estate of bishops to their ancient dignities1 prerogatives and privileges1 was followed by several acts of various subservient assemblies1 which1 culminating in that of #afah1 practically amounted to a complete surrender of jurisdiction by the church itself4 ,for twenty years no ,assemblies whatever were held4 ,this interval must necessarily be regarded from the ,presbyterian point of view as having been one of very deep depression4 ,but a second reformation1 characterized by great energy and vigour1 began in #afch4 ,the proceedings of the ,assembly of that year1 afterwards tardily and reluctantly acquiesced in by the state1 finally issued in the acts of parliament of #afdi1 by which the ,westminster standards were ratified1 lay-patronage was abolished1 and the coronation oath itself framed in accordance with the principles of ,presbyterian church government4 ,another period of intense reaction soon set in4 ,no ,assemblies were permitted by ,cromwell after #afec2 and1 soon after the ,restoration1 ,presbytery was temporarily overthrown by a series of rescissory acts4 ,nor was the ,revolution ,settlement of #afij so entirely favourable to the freedom of the church as the legislation of #afdi had been4 ,prelacy was abolished1 and various obnoxious statutes were repealed1 but the acts rescissory were not cancelled2 presbyterianism was re-established1 but the statutory recognition of the ,confession of ,faith took no notice of certain qualifications under which that document had originally been approved by the ,assembly of #afdg2d the old rights of patrons were again discontinued1 but the large powers which had been conferred on congregations by the act of #afdi were not wholly restored4 ,nevertheless the great principle of a distinct ecclesiastical jurisdiction1 embodied in the ,confession of ,faith1 was accepted without reservation1 and a ,presbyterian polity effectively confirmed both then and at the ratification of the treaty of ,union4 ,this settlement1 however1 did not long subsist unimpaired4 ,in #agab the act of ,queen ,anne1 restoring patronage to its ancient footing1 was passed in spite of the earnest remonstrances of the ,scottish people4 ,for many years afterwards 7until #aghd7 the ,assembly continued to instruct each succeeding commission to make application to the king and the parliament for redress of the grievance4 ,but meanwhile a new phase of ,scottish ecclesiastical politics commonly known as ,moderatism had been inaugurated1 during the prevalence of which the church became even more indifferent than the lay patrons themselves to the rights of her congregations with regard to the calling of ministers4 ,from the ,free ,church point of view1 the period from which the secessions under ,ebenezer ,erskine and ,thomas ,gillespie are dated was also characterized by numerous other abuses on the ,church's part which amounted to a practical surrender of the most important and distinctive principles of her ancient ,presbyterian polity4#e ,towards the beginning of the present century there were many circumstances1 both within and without the church1 which conspired to bring about an evangelical and popular reaction against this reign of ,moderatism4 ,the result was a protracted struggle1 which is commonly referred to as the ,ten ,years' ,conflict1 and which has been aptly described as the last battle in the long war which for nearly #cjj years had been waged within the church itself1 between the friends and the foes of the doctrine of an exclusive ecclesiastical jurisdiction4 ,that final struggle may be said to have begun with the passing in #ahcd of the ,veto ,act1 by which it was declared to be a fundamental law of the church that no pastor should be intruded on a congregation contrary to the will of the people1#f and by which it was provided that the simple dissent of a majority of heads of families in a parish should be enough to warrant a presbytery in rejecting a presentee4 ,the question of the legality of this measure soon came to be tried in the civil courts2 and it was ultimately answered in a sense unfavourable to the church by the decision 7#ahch7 of the court of session in the ,auchterarder case1 to the effect that a presbytery had no right to reject a presentee simply because the parishioners protested against his settlement1 but was bound to disregard the veto 7see ,,chalmers1 ,,thomas74 ,this decision elicited from the ,assembly of that year a new declaration of the doctrine of the spiritual independence of the church4 ,the exclusive jurisdiction of the civil courts in regard to the civil rights and emoluments secured by law to the church and the ministers thereof was acknowledged without qualification2 and continued implicit obedience to their decisions with reference to these rights and emoluments was pledged4 ,at the same time it was insisted on that1 as is declared in the ,confession of ,faith of this ,national ,established ,church1 'the ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 as ,king and ,head of the church1 hath therein appointed a government in the hand of church officers distinct from the civil magistrate'2 and that in all matters touching the doctrine1 discipline and government of the church her judicatories possess an exclusive jurisdiction1 founded on the ,word of ,god1 which power ecclesiastical 7in the words of the ,second ,book of ,discipline7 flows immediately from ,god and the ,mediator the ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 and is spiritual1 not having a temporal head on earth1 but only ,christ1 the only spiritual ,king and ,governor of ,his ,kirk4 ,and it was resolved to assert1 and at all hazards defend1 this spiritual jurisdiction1 and firmly to enforce obedience to the same upon the office-bearers and members of the church4 ,the decision of the court of session having been confirmed by the ,house of ,lords early in #ahci1 it was decided in the ,assembly of that year that the church1 while acquiescing in the loss of the temporalities at ,auchterarder1 should reaffirm the principle of non-intrusion as an integral part of the constitution of the ,reformed ,church of ,scotland1 and that a committee should be appointed to confer with the government with a view to the prevention1 if possible1 of any further collision between the civil and ecclesiastical authorities4 ,while the conference with the government had no better result than an unsuccessful attempt at compromise by means of ,lord ,aberdeen's ,bill1 which embodied the principle of a dissent with reasons1 still graver complications were arising out of the ,marnoch and other cases4#g ,in the circumstances it was resolved by the ,assembly of #ahdb to transmit to the queen1 by the hands of the lord high commissioner1 a claim1 declaration1 and protest1 complaining of the encroachments of the court of session1#h and also an address praying for the abolition of patronage4 ,the home secretary's answer 7received in ,january #ahdc7 gave no hope of redress4 ,meanwhile the position of the evangelical party had been further hampered by the decision of the court of session declaring the ministers of chapels of ease to be unqualified to sit in any church court4 ,a final appeal to parliament by petition was made in ,march #ahdc1 when1 by a majority of #ace 7#baa against #gf71 the ,house of ,commons declined to attempt any redress of the grievances of the ,scottish ,church4#i ,at the first session of the following ,general ,assembly 7#ahth ,may #ahdc7 the reply of the non-intrusion party was made in a protest1 signed by upwards of #bjj commissioners1 to the effect that since1 in their opinion1 the recent decisions of the civil courts1 and the still more recent sanction of these decisions by the legislature1 had made it impossible at that time to hold a free ,assembly of the church as by law established1 they therefore protest that it shall be lawful for us1 and such other commissioners as may concur with us1 to withdraw to a separate place of meeting1 for the purpose of taking steps for ourselves and all who adhere to us--maintaining with us the ,confession of ,faith and standards of the ,church of ,scotland as heretofore understood--for separating in an orderly way from the ,establishment1 and thereupon adopting such measures as may be competent to us1 in humble dependence on ,god's grace and the aid of ,his ,holy ,spirit1 for the advancement of ,his glory1 the extension of the gospel of our ,lord and ,saviour1 and the administration of the affairs of ,christ's house according to ,his holy word4 ,the reading of this document was followed by the withdrawal of the entire non-intrusion party to another place of meeting1 where the first ,assembly of the ,free ,church was constituted1 with ,dr ,thomas ,chalmers as moderator4 ,this ,assembly sat from the #ahth to the #cjth of ,may1 and transacted a large amount of important business4 ,on ,tuesday the #bcrd1 #cifaj ministers and professors publicly adhibited their names to the ,act of ,separation and deed of demission by which they renounced all claim to the benefices they had held in connexion with the ,establishment1 declaring them to be vacant1 and consenting to their being dealt with as such4 ,by this impressive proceeding the signatories voluntarily surrendered an annual income amounting to fully ,l#ajj1jjj4 ,the first care of the voluntarily disestablished church was to provide incomes for her clergy and places of worship for her people4 ,as early as #ahda indeed the leading principle of a sustentation fund for the support of the ministry had been announced by ,dr ,robert ,smith ,candlish2 and at ,convocation1 a private unofficial meeting of the members of the evangelical or non-intrusion party held in ,november #ahdb1 ,dr ,chalmers was prepared with a carefully matured scheme according to which each congregation should do its part in sustaining the whole1 and the whole should sustain each congregation4 ,between ,november #ahdb and ,may #ahdc1 #fdg associations had been formed2 and at the first ,assembly it was announced that upwards of ,l#ag1jjj had already been contributed4 ,at the close of the first financial year 7#ahdc-ahdd7 it was reported that the fund had exceeded ,l#fa1jjj4 ,it was participated in by #ehc ministers2 and #dgj drew the full equal dividend of ,l#aje4 ,each successive year showed a steady increase in the gross amount of the fund2 but owing to an almost equally rapid increase of the number of new ministerial charges participating in its benefits1 the stipend payable to each minister did not for many years reach the sum of ,l#aej which had been aimed at as a minimum4 ,thus in #ahdd-ahde the fund had risen to ,l#gf1ahj1 but the ministers had also increased to #fbg1 and the equal dividend therefore was only ,l#abb4 ,during the first ten years the annual income averaged ,l#hd1jeg2 during the next decade ,l#ajh1fdc2 and during the third ,l#acj1bdf4 ,the minimum of ,l#aej was reached at last in #ahfh2 and subsequently the balance remaining after that minimum had been provided was treated as a surplus fund1 and distributed among those ministers whose congregations have contributed at certain specified rates per member4 ,in #ahgh the total amount received for this fund was upwards of ,l#agg1jjj2 in this #ajge ministers participated4 ,the full equal dividend of ,l#aeg was paid to #gff ministers2 and additional grants of ,l#cf and ,l#ah were paid out of the surplus fund to #fcb and #abi ministers respectively4 ,to provide for the erection of the buildings which1 it was foreseen1 would be necessary1 a general building fund1 in which all should share alike1 was also organized1 and local building funds were as far as possible established in each parish1 with the result that at the first ,assembly a sum of ,l#ajd1ggf was reported as already available4 ,by ,may #ahdd a further sum of ,l#abc1jfj had been collected1 and #dgj churches were reported as completed or nearly so4 ,in the following year ,l#aca1gcg was raised and #fj additional churches were built4 ,at the end of four years considerably more than #gjj churches had been provided4 ,during the winter session #ahdc-ahdd the divinity students who had joined the ,free ,church continued their studies under ,dr ,chalmers and ,dr ,david ,welsh 7#agic-ahde72 and at the ,assembly of #ahdd arrangements were made for the erection of suitable collegiate buildings4 ,the ,new ,college1 ,edinburgh1 was built in #ahdg at a cost of ,l#df1ejf2 and divinity halls were subsequently set up also in ,glasgow and ,aberdeen4 ,in #ahgh there were #ac professors of theology1 with an aggregate of #bcj students1--the numbers at ,edinburgh1 ,glasgow and ,aberdeen respectively being #abi1 #fi and #cb4 ,a somewhat unforeseen result of the ,disruption was the necessity for a duplicate system of elementary schools4 ,at the #ahdc ,assembly it was for the first time announced by ,dr ,welsh that schools to a certain extent must be opened to afford a suitable sphere of occupation for parochial and still more for private teachers of schools1 who are threatened with deprivation of their present office on account of their opinions upon the church question4 ,the suggestion was taken up with very great energy1 with the result that in ,may #ahde1 #bhj schools had been set up1 while in ,may #ahdg this number had risen to #eac1 with an attendance of upwards of #dd1jjj scholars4 ,in #ahfi it was stated in an authoritative document laid before members of parliament that at that time there were connected with and supported by the ,free ,church #eih schools 7including two normal schools71 with #fcc teachers and #fd1aae scholars4 ,the school buildings had been erected at a cost of ,l#bbj1jjj1 of which the committee of privy council had contributed ,l#ce1jjj1 while the remainder had been raised by voluntary effort4 ,annual payments made to teachers1 c41 as at #ahfi1 amounted to ,l#af1jjj4 ,in accordance with certain provisions of the ,education ,act of #ahgb most of the schools of the ,free ,church were voluntarily transferred1 without compensation1 to the local school boards4 ,the normal schools are now transferred to the state4 ,it has been seen already that during the period of the ,ten ,years' ,conflict the non-intrusion party strenuously denied that in any one respect it was departing from acknowledged principles of the ,national ,church4 ,it continued to do so after the ,disruption4 ,in #ahdf1 however1 it was found to have become necessary1 in consequence of the late change in the outward condition of the church1 to amend the questions and formula to be used at the licensing of probationers and the ordination of office-bearers4 ,these were amended accordingly2 and at the same time it was declared that1 while the church firmly maintains the same scriptural principles as to the duties of nations and their rulers in reference to true religion and the ,church of ,christ for which she has hitherto contended1 she disclaims intolerant or persecuting principles1 and does not regard her ,confession of ,faith1 or any portion thereof when fairly interpreted1 as favouring intolerance or persecution1 or consider that her office-bearers by subscribing it profess any principles inconsistent with liberty of conscience and the right of private judgment4 ,the main difference between the formula of the ,free ,church and that of the ,established ,church 7as at the year #aijj7 was that the former referred to the ,confession of ,faith simply as approven by ,general ,assemblies of this ,church1 while the latter described it as approven by the ,general ,assemblies of this ,national ,church1 and ratified by law in the year #afij1 and frequently confirmed by divers ,acts of ,parliament since that time4 ,the former inserted an additional clause1--,i also approve of the general principles respecting the jurisdiction of the church1 and her subjection to ,christ as her only ,head1 which are contained in the ,claim of ,right and in the ,protest referred to in the questions already put to me2 and also added the words which are here distinguished by italics1--,and ,i promise that through the grace of ,god ,i shall firmly and constantly adhere to the same1 and to the utmost of my power shall in my station assert1 maintain1 and defend the said doctrine1 worship1 discipline and government of this church by kirk-sessions1 presbyteries1 provincial synods1 and general assemblies1 together with the liberty and exclusive jurisdiction thereof2 and that ,i shall1 in my practice1 conform myself to the said worship and submit to the said discipline and government1 and exclusive jurisdiction1 and not endeavour directly or indirectly the prejudice or subversion of the same4 ,in the year #ahea an act and declaration anent the publication of the subordinate standards and other authoritative documents of the ,free ,church of ,scotland was passed1 in which the historical fact is recalled that the ,church of ,scotland had formally consented to adopt the ,confession of ,faith1 catechisms1 directory of public worship1 and form of church government agreed upon by the ,westminster ,assembly2 and it is declared that these several formularies1 as ratified1 with certain explanations1 by divers ,acts of ,assembly in the years #afde1 #afdf1 and particularly in #afdg1 this church continues till this day to acknowledge as her subordinate standards of doctrine1 worship and government4#aa ,in #aheh circumstances arose which1 in the opinion of many1 seemed fitted to demonstrate to the ,free ,church that her freedom was an illusion1 and that all her sacrifices had been made in vain4 ,john ,macmillan1 minister of ,cardross1 accused of immorality1 had been tried and found guilty by the ,free ,presbytery of ,dumbarton4 ,appeal having been taken to the synod1 an attempt was there made to revive one particular charge1 of which he had been finally acquitted by the presbytery2 and this attempt was successful in the ,general ,assembly4 ,that ultimate court of review did not confine itself to the points appealed1 but went into the merits of the whole case as it had originally come before the presbytery4 ,the result was a sentence of suspension4 ,macmillan1 believing that the ,assembly had acted with some irregularity1 applied to the court of session for an interdict against the execution of that sentence2 and for this act he was summoned to the bar of the ,assembly to say whether or not it was the case that he had thus appealed4 ,having answered in the affirmative1 he was deposed on the spot4 ,forthwith he raised a new action 7his previous application for an interdict had been refused7 concluding for reduction of the spiritual sentence of deposition and for substantial damages4 ,the defences lodged by the ,free ,church were to the effect that the civil courts had no right to review and reduce spiritual sentences1 or to decide whether the ,general ,assembly of the ,free ,church had acted irregularly or not4 ,judgments adverse to the defenders were delivered on these points2 and appeals were taken to the ,house of ,lords4 ,but before the case could be heard there1 the lord president took an opportunity in the court of session to point out to the pursuer that1 inasmuch as the particular ,general ,assembly against which the action was brought had ceased to exist1 it could not therefore be made in any circumstances to pay damages1 and that the action of reduction of the spiritual sentence1 being only auxiliary to the claim of damages1 ought therefore to be dismissed4 ,he further pointed out that ,macmillan might obtain redress in another way1 should he be able to prove malice against individuals4 ,very soon after this deliverance of the lord president1 the case as it had stood against the ,free ,church was withdrawn1 and ,macmillan gave notice of an action of a wholly different kind4 ,but this last was not persevered in4 ,the appeals which had been taken to the ,house of ,lords were1 in these circumstances1 also departed from by the ,free ,church4 ,the case did not advance sufficiently to show how far the courts of law would be prepared to go in the direction of recognizing voluntary tribunals and a kind of secondary exclusive jurisdiction founded on contract4#ab ,but1 whether recognized or not1 the church for her part continued to believe that she had an inherent spiritual jurisdiction1 and remained unmoved in her determination to act in accordance with that resolution notwithstanding of whatsoever trouble or persecution may arise4#ac ,in #ahfc a motion was made and unanimously carried in the ,free ,church ,assembly for the appointment of a committee to confer with a corresponding committee of the ,united ,presbyterian ,synod1 and with the representatives of such other disestablished churches as might be willing to meet and deliberate with a view to an incorporating union4 ,formal negotiations between the representatives of these two churches were begun shortly afterwards1 which resulted in a report laid before the following ,assembly4 ,from this document it appeared that the committees of the two churches were not at one on the question as to the relation of the civil magistrate to the church4 ,while on the part of the ,free ,church it was maintained that he may lawfully acknowledge1 as being in accordance with the ,word of ,god1 the creed and jurisdiction of the church1 and that it is his duty1 when necessary and expedient1 to employ the national resources in aid of the church1 provided always that in doing so1 while reserving to himself full control over the temporalities which are his own gift1 he abstain from all authoritative interference in the internal government of the church1 it was declared by the committee of the ,united ,presbyterian ,church that1 inasmuch as the civil magistrate has no authority in spiritual things1 and as the employment of force in such matters is opposed to the spirit and precepts of ,christianity1 it is not within his province to legislate as to what is true in religion1 to prescribe a creed or form of worship to his subjects1 or to endow the church from national resources4 ,in other words1 while the ,free ,church maintained that in certain circumstances it was lawful and even incumbent on the magistrate to endow the church and on the church to accept his endowment1 the ,united ,presbyterians maintained that in no case was this lawful either for the one party or for the other4 ,thus in a very short time it had been made perfectly evident that a union between the two bodies1 if accomplished at all1 could only be brought about on the understanding that the question as to the lawfulness of state endowments should be an open one4 ,the ,free ,church ,assembly1 by increasing majorities1 manifested a readiness for union1 even although unanimity had not been attained on that theoretical point4 ,but there was a minority which did not sympathize in this readiness1 and after ten years of fruitless effort it was in #ahgc found to be expedient that the idea of union with the ,united ,presbyterians should for the time be abandoned4 ,other negotiations1 however1 which had been entered upon with the ,reformed ,presbyterian ,church at a somewhat later date proved more successful2 and a majority of the ministers of that church with their congregations were united with the ,free ,church in #ahgf4 7,j4 ,s4 ,bl47 ,in the last quarter of the #aith century the ,free ,church continued to be the most active1 theologically1 of the ,scottish ,churches4 ,the ,college chairs were almost uniformly filled by advanced critics or theologians1 inspired more or less by ,professor ,a4 ,b4 ,davidson4 ,dr ,a4 ,b4 ,bruce1 author of ,the ,training of the ,twelve1 c41 was appointed to the chair of apologetics and ,new ,testament exegesis in the ,glasgow ,college in #ahge2 ,henry ,drummond 7author of ,natural ,law in the ,spiritual ,world1 c47 was made lecturer in natural science in the same college in #ahgg and became professor in #ahhd2 and ,dr ,george ,adam ,smith 7author of ,the ,twelve ,prophets1 c47 was called to the ,hebrew chair in #ahib4 ,attempts were made between #ahij and #ahie to bring all these professors except ,davidson 7similar attacks were also made on ,dr ,marcus ,dods1 afterwards principal of the ,new ,college1 ,edinburgh7 to the bar of the ,assembly for unsound teaching or writing2 but in every case these were abortive1 the ,assembly never taking any step beyond warning the accused that their primary duty was to teach and defend the church's faith as embodied in the confession4 ,in #ahib the ,free ,church1 following the example of the ,united ,presbyterian ,church and the ,church of ,scotland 7#ahhi71 passed a ,declaratory ,act relaxing the stringency of subscription to the confession1 with the result that a small number of ministers and congregations1 mostly in the ,highlands1 severed their connexion with the church and formed the ,free ,presbyterian ,church of ,scotland1 on strictly and straitly orthodox lines4 ,in #aijg this body had twenty congregations and twelve ministers4 ,the ,free ,church always regarded herself as a ,national ,church1 and during this period she sought actively to be true to that character by providing church ordinances for the increasing population of ,scotland and applying herself to the new problems of non-church-going1 and of the changing habits of the people4 ,her ,assembly's committee on religion and morals worked toward the same ends as the similar organization of the ,established ,church1 and in her1 as in the other churches1 the standard of parochial and congregational activity was raised and new methods of operation devised4 ,she passed legislation on the difficult problem of ridding the church of inefficient ministers4 ,the use of instrumental music was sanctioned in ,free ,churches during this period4 ,an association was formed in #ahia to promote the ends of edification1 order and reverence in the public services of the church1 and published in #ahih ,a ,new ,directory for ,public ,worship which does not provide set forms of prayer1 but directions as to the matter of prayer in the various services4 ,the ,free ,church took a large share in the study of hymnology and church music1 which led to the production of ,the ,church ,hymnary4 ,from #ahhe to #ahie much of the energy of all the ,presbyterian churches was absorbed by the disestablishment agitation4 ,in the former year the ,free ,church1 having almost entirely shed the establishment principle on which it was founded1 began to rival the ,united ,presbyterian ,church in its resolutions calling for the disestablishment of the ,church of ,scotland4 ,in spite of the offers of the ,establishment ,assembly to confer with the dissenting churches about union1 the assaults upon its status waxed in vigour1 till in #ahic the ,free ,church hailed the result of the general election as a verdict of the constituencies in favour of disestablishment1 and insisted upon the government of the day taking up ,sir ,charles ,cameron's bill4 ,during the last four or five years of the century the ,free and ,united ,presbyterian churches1 which after the failure of their union negotiations in #ahgc had been connected together by a ,mutual ,eligibility ,act enabling a congregation of one church to call a minister from the other1 devoted their energy to the arrangement of an incorporating union4 ,the ,synod of the ,united ,presbyterian ,church resolved in #ahif to take steps towards union1 and in the following year the ,free ,assembly responded by appointing a committee to confer with a committee of the other church4 ,the joint committee discovered a remarkable and happy agreement between the doctrinal standards1 rules and methods of the two bodies1 and with very little concessions on either side a common constitution and common questions and formula for the admission of ministers and office-bearers were arranged4 ,a minority1 always growing smaller1 of the ,free ,church ,assembly1 protested against the proposed union1 and threatened if it were carried through to test its legality in the courts4 ,to meet this opposition1 the suggestion is understood to have been made that an act of parliament should be applied for to legalize the union2 but this was not done1 and the union was carried through on the understanding that the question of the lawfulness of church establishments should be an open one4 ,the supreme courts of the churches met for the last time in their respective places of meeting on the #cjth of ,october #aijj1 and on the following day the joint meeting took place at which the union was completed1 and the ,united ,free ,church of ,scotland 7q4v47 entered on its career4 ,the protesting and dissenting minority at once claimed to be the ,free ,church4 ,they met outside the ,free ,assembly ,hall on the #cast of ,october1 and1 failing to gain admission to it1 withdrew to another hall1 where they elected ,mr ,colin ,bannatyne their moderator and held the remaining sittings of the ,assembly4 ,it was reported that between #af1jjj and #ag1jjj names had been received of persons adhering to the anti-unionist principle4 ,at the ,assembly of #aija it was stated that the ,free ,church had twenty-five ministers and at least sixty-three congregations4 ,the character of the church is indicated by the fact that its office-bearers were the faithful survivors of the decreasing minority of the ,old ,free ,church1 which had protested against the disestablishment resolutions1 against the relaxation of subscription1 against toleration of the teaching of the ,glasgow professors1 and against the use in worship of organs or of human hymns4 ,her congregations were mostly in the ,gaelic-speaking districts of ,scotland4 ,she was confronted with a very arduous undertaking2 her congregations grew in number1 but were far from each other and there were not nearly enough ministers4 ,the ,highlands were filled1 by the ,union1 with exasperation and dispeace which could not soon subside4 ,the church met with no sympathy or assistance at the hands of the ,united ,free ,church1 and her work was conducted at first under considerable hardships1 nor was her position one to appeal to the general popular sentiment of ,scotland4 ,but the little church continued her course with indomitable courage and without any compromise of principle4 ,the ,declaratory ,act of #ahib was repealed after a consultation of presbyteries1 and the old principles as to worship were declared4 ,a professor was obliged to withdraw a book he had written1 in which the results of criticism1 with regard to the ,synoptic ,gospels1 had been accepted and applied4 ,the desire of the ,church of ,scotland to obtain relaxation of her formula was declared to make union with her impossible4 ,along with this unbending attitude1 signs of material growth were not wanting4 ,the revenue of the church increased2 the grant from the sustentation fund was in #aija only ,l#ge1 but from #aijc onwards it was ,l#afg4 ,the decision of the ,house of ,lords in #aijd did not bring the trials of the ,free ,church to an end4 ,in the absence of any arrangement with the ,united ,free ,church1 she could only gain possession of the property declared to belong to her by an application in each particular case to the ,court of ,session1 and a series of law-suits began which were trying to all parties4 ,in the year #aije the ,free ,church ,assembly met in the historic ,free ,church ,assembly ,hall1 but it did not meet there again4 ,having been left by the awards of the commission without any station in the foreign mission field1 the ,free ,church resolved to start a foreign mission of her own4 ,the urgent task confronting the church was that of supplying ordinances to her congregations4 ,the latter numbered #bjj in #aijg1 and the church had as yet only #gd ordained ministers1 so that many of the manses allocated to her by the commissioners were not yet occupied1 and catechists and elders were called to conduct services where possible4 ,the gallant stand this little church had made for principles which were no longer represented by any ,presbyterian church outside the establishment attracted to her much interest and many hopes that she might be successful in her endeavours to do something for the religious life of ,scotland4 ,see ,,scotland1 ,,church ,,of1 for bibliography and statistics4 7,a4 ,m4997 ,,footnotes3 #a ,it is her being free1 not her being established1 that constitutes the real historical and hereditary identity of the ,reformed ,national ,church of ,scotland4 ,see ,act and ,declaration1 c41 of ,free ,assembly1 #ahea4 #b ,in the act ,anent the true and holy ,kirk1 and of those that are declared not to be of the same4 ,this act was supplemented by that of #aegi1 ,anent the ,jurisdiction of the ,kirk4 #c ,the ,second ,book of ,discipline was not formally recognized in that act2 but all former acts against the jurisdiction and discipline of the true ,kirk as the same is used and exercised within the realm were abolished2 and all liberties1 privileges1 immunities and freedoms whatsoever previously granted were ratified and approved4 #d ,the most important of these had reference to the full right of a constituted church to the enjoyment of an absolutely unrestricted freedom in convening ,assemblies4 ,this very point on one occasion at least threatened to be the cause of serious misunderstandings between ,william and the people of ,scotland4 ,the difficulties were happily smoothed1 however1 by the wisdom and tact of ,william ,carstares4 #e ,see ,act and ,declaration of ,free ,assembly1 #ahea4 #f ,this principle had been asserted even by an ,assembly so late as that of #agcf1 and had been invariably presupposed in the call1 which had never ceased to be regarded as an indispensable prerequisite for the settlement of a minister4 #g ,according to the ,free ,church ,protest of #ahdc it was in these cases decided 7#a7 that the courts of the church were liable to be compelled to intrude ministers on reclaiming congregations2 7#b7 that the civil courts had power to interfere with and interdict the preaching of the gospel and administration of ordinances as authorized and enjoined by the church2 7#c7 that the civil courts had power to suspend spiritual censures pronounced by the courts of the church1 and to interdict their execution as to spiritual effects1 functions and privileges2 7#d7 that deposed ministers1 and probationers deprived of their licence1 could be restored by the mandate of the civil courts to the spiritual office and status of which the church courts had deprived them2 7#e7 that the right of membership in ecclesiastical courts could be determined by the civil courts2 7#f7 that the civil courts had power to supersede the majority of a church court of the ,establishment in regard to the exercise of its spiritual functions as a church court1 and to authorize the minority to exercise the said functions in opposition to the court itself and to the superior judicatories of the church2 7#g7 that processes of ecclesiastical discipline could be arrested by the civil courts2 and 7#h7 that without the sanction of the civil courts no increased provision could be made for the spiritual care of a parish1 although such provision left all civil rights and patrimonial interests untouched4 #h ,the narrative and argument of this elaborate and able document cannot be reproduced here4 ,in substance it is a claim as of right on behalf of the church and of the nation and people of ,scotland that the church shall freely possess and enjoy her liberties1 government1 discipline1 rights and privileges according to law1 and that she shall be protected therein from the foresaid unconstitutional and illegal encroachments of the said court of session1 and her people secured in their ,christian and constitutional rights and liberties4 ,this claim is followed by the declaration that the ,assembly cannot intrude ministers on reclaiming congregations1 or carry on the government of ,christ's church subject to the coercion of the court of session2 and by the protest that all acts of the parliament of ,great ,britain passed without the consent of the ,scottish church and nation1 in alteration or derogation of the government1 discipline1 rights and privileges of the church1 as also all sentences of courts in contravention of said government1 discipline1 rights and privileges1 are and shall be in themselves void and null1 and of no legal force or effect4 #i ,the ,scottish members voted with the minority in the proportion of #be to #ab4 #aj ,the number ultimately rose to #dgd4 #aa ,by this formal recognition of the qualifications to the ,confession of ,faith made in #afdg the scruples of the majority of the ,associate ,synod of ,original ,seceders were removed1 and #bg ministers1 along with a considerable number of their people1 joined the ,free ,church in the following year4 #ab ,see ,taylor ,innes1 ,law of ,creeds in ,scotland1 p4 #beh seq4 #ac ,the language of ,dr ,buchanan1 for example1 in #ahfj was 7mutatis mutandis7 the same as that which he had employed in #ahch in moving the ,independence resolution already referred to4 ,,freedmen',s ,,bureau 7officially the ,,bureau ,,of ,,freedmen1 ,,refugees ,,and ,,abandoned ,,lands71 a bureau created in the ,united ,states war department by an act of ,congress1 #crd of ,march #ahfe1 to last one year1 but continued until #ahgb by later acts passed over the president's veto4 ,its establishment was due partly to the fear entertained by the ,north that the ,southerners if left to deal with the blacks would attempt to re-establish some form of slavery1 partly to the necessity for extending relief to needy negroes and whites in the lately conquered ,south1 and partly to the need of creating some commission or bureau to take charge of lands confiscated in the ,south4 ,during the ,civil ,war a million negroes fell into the hands of the ,federals and had to be cared for4 ,able-bodied blacks were enlisted in the army1 and the women1 children and old men were settled in large camps on confiscated ,southern property1 where they were cared for alternately by the war department and by the treasury department until the organization of the ,freedmen's ,bureau4 ,at the head of the bureau was a commissioner1 ,general ,o4 ,o4 ,howard1 and under him in each ,southern state was an assistant commissioner with a corps of local superintendents1 agents and inspectors4 ,the officials had the broadest possible authority in all matters that concerned the blacks4 ,the work of the bureau may be classified as follows3 7#a7 distributing rations and medical supplies among the blacks2 7#b7 establishing schools for them and aiding benevolent societies to establish schools and churches2 7#c7 regulating labour and contracts2 7#d7 taking charge of confiscated lands2 and 7#e7 administering justice in cases in which blacks were concerned4 ,for several years the ex-slaves were under the almost absolute control of the bureau4 ,whether this control had a good or bad effect is still disputed1 the ,southern whites and many ,northerners holding that the results of the bureau's work were distinctly bad1 while others hold that much good resulted from its work4 ,there is now no doubt1 however1 that while most of the higher officials of the bureau were good men1 the subordinate agents were generally without character or judgment and that their interference between the races caused permanent discord4 ,much necessary relief work was done1 but demoralization was also caused by it1 and later the institution was used by its officials as a means of securing negro votes4 ,in educating the blacks the bureau made some progress1 but the instruction imparted by the missionary teachers resulted in giving the ex-slaves notions of liberty and racial equality that led to much trouble1 finally resulting in the hostility of the whites to negro education4 ,the secession of the blacks from the white churches was aided and encouraged by the bureau4 ,the whole field of labour and contracts was covered by minute regulations1 which1 good in theory1 were absurd in practice1 and which failed altogether1 but not until labour had been disorganized for several years4 ,the administration of justice by the bureau agents amounted simply to a ceaseless persecution of the whites who had dealings with the blacks1 and bloody conflicts sometimes resulted4 ,the law creating the bureau provided for the division of the confiscated property among the negroes1 and though carried out only in parts of ,south ,carolina1 ,florida and ,georgia1 it caused the negroes to believe that they were to be cared for at the expense of their former masters4 ,this belief made them subject to swindling schemes perpetrated by certain bureau agents and others who promised to secure lands for them4 ,when negro suffrage was imposed by ,congress upon the ,southern ,states1 the bureau aided the ,union ,league 7q4v47 in organizing the blacks into a political party opposed to the whites4 ,a large majority of the bureau officials secured office through their control of the blacks4 ,the failure of the bureau system and its discontinuance in the midst of reconstruction without harm to the blacks1 and the intense hostility of the ,southern whites to the institution caused by the irritating conduct of bureau officials1 are indications that the institution was not well conceived nor wisely administered4 ,see ,p4 ,s4 ,pierce1 ,the ,freedmen's ,bureau 7,iowa ,city1 #aijd72 ,report of the ,joint ,committee on ,reconstruction 7,washington1 #ahff72 ,w4 ,l4 ,fleming 7ed471 ,documents relating to ,reconstruction 7,cleveland1 ,o41 #aijf72 ,w4 ,l4 ,fleming1 ,civil ,war and ,reconstruction in ,alabama 7,new ,york1 #aije72 and ,james ,w4 ,garner1 ,reconstruction in ,mississippi 7,new ,york1 #aija74 7,w4 ,l4 ,f47 ,,freehold1 a town and the county-seat of ,monmouth county1 ,new ,jersey1 ,u4,s4,a41 in the township of ,freehold1 about #be m4 ,e4 by ,n4 of ,trenton4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #bicb2 7#aijj7 #bicd1 of whom #bae were foreign-born and #abf were negroes2 7#aije7 #cjfd2 7#aiaj7 #cbcc4 ,freehold is served by the ,pennsylvania and the ,central of ,new ,jersey railways4 ,it is the trade centre of one of the most productive agricultural districts of the state and has various manufactures1 including carriages1 carpets and rugs1 files1 shirts1 underwear1 and canned beans and peas4 ,the town is the seat of two boarding schools for boys3 the ,freehold ,military ,school and the ,new ,jersey ,military ,academy 7chartered1 #aijj2 founded in #ahdd as the ,freehold ,institute74 ,one of the residences in the town dates from #agee4 ,a settlement was made in the township about #afej1 and the township was incorporated in #afic4 ,in #agae the town was founded and was made the county-seat2 it was long commonly known 7from the county7 as ,monmouth ,court-,house1 but afterwards took 7from the township7 the name ,freehold1 and in #ahfi it was incorporated as the ,town of ,freehold4 ,an important battle of the ,war of ,independence1 known as the battle of ,monmouth1 was fought near the court-house on the #bhth of ,june #aggh4 ,a short distance ,n4,w4 of the court-house is a park in which there is a monument1 unveiled on the #acth of ,november #ahhd in commemoration of the battle2 the base is of ,quincy granite and the shaft is of ,concord granite4 ,surmounting the shaft is a statue representing ,liberty ,triumphant 7the height to the top of which is about #ajj ft474 ,the monument is adorned with five bronze reliefs1 designed and modelled by ,james ,e4 ,kelly 7b4 #ahee72 one of these reliefs represents ,molly ,pitcher 7d4 #ahcb71 a national heroine1 who1 when her husband 7,john ,c4 ,hays71 an artillerist1 was rendered insensible during the battle1 served the gun in his place and prevented its capture by the ,british4#a ,joel ,parker 7#ahaf-ahhh71 governor of ,new ,jersey in #ahfc-ahff and #ahgb-ahge1 was long a resident of ,freehold1 and the erection of the monument was largely due to his efforts4 ,a bronze tablet on a boulder in front of the present court-house1 commemorating the old court-house1 used as a hospital in the battle of ,monmouth1 was unveiled in #aijg4 ,freehold was the birthplace and home of ,dr ,thomas ,henderson 7#agdc-ahbd71 a ,whig or ,patriot leader in ,new ,jersey1 an officer in the ,war of ,independence1 and a member of the ,continental ,congress in #aggi-aghj and of the national ,house of ,representatives in #agie-agig4 ,the name ,freehold was first used of a ,presbyterian church established about #afib by ,scottish exiles who came to ,east ,jersey in #afhb-afhe and built what was called the ,old ,scots' ,church near the present railway station of ,wickatunk in ,marlboro' township1 ,monmouth county4 ,in this church1 in ,december #agjf1 ,john ,boyd 7d4 #agji7 was ordained--the first recorded ,presbyterian ordination in ,america4 ,the church was the first regularly constituted ,presbyterian church4 ,no trace of the building now remains in the burying-ground where ,boyd was interred1 and where the ,presbyterian ,synod of ,new ,jersey in #aijj raised a granite monument to his memory2 his tombstone is preserved by the ,presbyterian ,historical ,society in ,philadelphia4 ,john ,tennent 7#agjf-agcb7 became pastor of the ,freehold church in #agcj1 when a new church was built by the ,old ,scots congregation on ,white ,hill in the present township of ,manalapan 7then a part of ,freehold township71 near the railway station and village called ,tennent2 his brother ,william 7#agje-aggg71 whose trance1 in which he thought he saw the glories of heaven1 was a matter of much discussion in his time1 was pastor in #agcc-aggg4 ,in #agea-agec the present ,old ,tennent ,church1 then called the ,freehold ,church1 was erected on 7or near7 the same site as the building of #agcj2 in it ,whitefield preached and in the older building ,david ,brainerd and his ,indian converts met4 ,in #ahei this church 7whose corporate name is ,the ,first ,presbyterian ,church of the ,county of ,monmouth7 adopted the name of ,tennent1 partly to distinguish it from the ,presbyterian church organized at ,monmouth ,court-,house 7now ,freehold7 in #ahch4 ,see ,frank ,r4 ,symmes1 ,history of the ,old ,tennent ,church 7#bnd ed41 ,cranbury1 ,new ,jersey1 #aijd74 ,,footnote3 #a ,her maiden name was ,mary ,ludwig4 ,molly ,pitcher was a nickname given to her by the soldiers in reference to her carrying water to soldiers overcome by heat in the battle of ,monmouth4 ,she married ,hays in #agfi2 ,hays died soon after the war1 and later she married one ,george ,mc,cauley4 ,she lived for more than forty years at ,carlisle1 ,penn41 where a monument was erected to her memory in #ahgf4 ,,freehold1 in the ,english law of real property1 an estate in land1 not being less than an estate for life4 ,an estate for a term of years1 no matter how long1 was considered inferior in dignity to an estate for life1 and unworthy of a freeman 7see ,,estate74 ,some time before the reign of ,henry ,,ii41 but apparently not so early as ,domesday1 the expression liberum tenementum was introduced to designate land held by a freeman by a free tenure4 ,thus freehold tenure is the sum of the rights and duties which constitute the relation of a free tenant to his lord4#a ,in this sense freehold is distinguished from copyhold1 which is a tenure having its origin in the relation of lord and villein 7see ,,copyhold74 ,freehold is also distinguished from leasehold1 which is an estate for a fixed number of years only4 ,by analogy the interest of a person who holds an office for life is sometimes said to be a freehold interest4 ,the term customary freeholds is applied to a kind of copyhold tenure in the north of ,england1 viz4 tenure by copy of court-roll1 but not1 as in other cases1 expressed to be at the will of the lord4 ,,footnote3 #a ,digby's ,history of the ,law of ,real ,property4 ,,freeland1 a borough of ,luzerne county1 ,pennsylvania1 ,u4,s4,a41 about #bj m4 ,s4 of ,wilkes-,barre1 in the ,e4 part of the state4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #agcj2 7#aijj7 #ebed 7#acci foreign-born1 many being ,slavs72 7#aiaj7 #faig4 ,freeland is served by the ,lehigh ,valley railway and by electric railway to ,upper ,lehigh 7#a m4 distant1 served by the ,central ,railroad of ,new ,jersey7 and to other neighbouring places4 ,the borough is built on ,broad ,mountain1 nearly #bjjj ft4 above sea-level1 and the chief industry is the mining of coal at the numerous surrounding collieries4 ,freeland is the seat of the ,mining and ,mechanical ,institute of the ,anthracite ,region1 chartered in #ahid1 modelled after the ,german ,steigerschulen1 with elementary and secondary departments and a night school for workmen4 ,the borough has foundries and machine shops of considerable importance1 and manufactures silk1 overalls1 beer and hames4 ,freeland was first settled about #ahdb1 was laid out in #ahgj1 and was incorporated in #ahgf4 ,,freeman1 ,,edward ,,augustus 7#ahbc-ahib71 ,english historian1 was born at ,harborne1 ,staffordshire1 on the #bnd of ,august #ahbc4 ,he lost both his parents in infancy1 was brought up by a grandmother1 and was educated at private schools and by a private tutor4 ,he was a studious and precocious boy1 more interested in religious matters1 history and foreign politics than in boyish things4 ,he obtained a scholarship at ,trinity ,college1 ,oxford1 and a second class in the degree examination1 and was elected fellow of his college 7#ahde74 ,while at ,oxford he was much influenced by the ,high ,church movement1 and thought seriously of taking orders1 but abandoned the idea4 ,he married a daughter of his former tutor1 the ,rev4 ,r4 ,gutch1 in #ahdg1 and entered on a life of study4 ,ecclesiastical architecture attracted him strongly4 ,he visited many churches and began a practice1 which he pursued throughout his life1 of making drawings of buildings on the spot and afterwards tracing them over in ink4 ,his first book1 save for his share in a volume of ,english verse1 was a ,history of ,architecture 7#ahdi74 ,though he had not then seen any buildings outside ,england1 it contains a good sketch of the development of the art4 ,it is full of youthful enthusiasm and is written in florid language4 ,after some changes of residence he bought a house called ,somerleaze1 near ,wells1 ,somerset1 and settled there in #ahfj4 ,freeman's life was one of strenuous literary work4 ,he wrote many books1 and countless articles for reviews1 newspapers and other publications1 and was a constant contributor to the ,saturday ,review until #ahgh1 when he ceased to write for it for political reasons4 ,his ,saturday ,review articles corrected many errors and raised the level of historical knowledge among the educated classes1 but as a reviewer he was apt to forget that a book may have blemishes and yet be praiseworthy4 ,for some years he was an active county magistrate4 ,he was deeply interested in politics1 was a follower of ,mr ,gladstone1 and approved the ,home ,rule ,bill of #ahhf1 but objected to the later proposal to retain the ,irish members at ,westminster4 ,to be returned to ,parliament was one of his few ambitions1 and in #ahfh he unsuccessfully contested ,mid-,somerset4 ,foreign rather than domestic politics had the first place with him4 ,historical and religious sentiment combined with his detestation of all that was tyrannical to inspire him with hatred of the ,turk and sympathy with the smaller and subject nationalities of eastern ,europe4 ,he took a prominent part in the agitation which followed the ,bulgarian atrocities2 his speeches were intemperate1 and he was accused of uttering the words ,perish ,india6 at a public meeting in #ahgf4 ,this1 however1 was a misrepresentation of his words4 ,he was made a knight commander of the order of the ,saviour by the king of ,greece1 and also received an order from the prince of ,montenegro4 ,freeman advanced the study of history in ,england in two special directions1 by insistence on the unity of history1 and by teaching the importance and right use of original authorities4 ,history is not1 he urges1 to be divided by a middle wall of partition into ancient and modern1 nor broken into fragments as though the history of each nation stood apart4 ,it is more than a collection of narratives2 it is a science1 the science of man in his political character4 ,the historical student1 then1 cannot afford to be indifferent to any part of the record of man's political being2 but as his abilities for study are limited1 he will1 while reckoning all history to be within his range1 have his own special range within which he will master every detail 7,rede ,lecture74 ,freeman's range included ,greek1 ,roman and the earlier part of ,english history1 together with some portions of foreign medieval history1 and he had a scholarly though general knowledge of the rest of the history of the ,european world4 ,he regarded the abiding life of ,rome as the central truth of ,european history1 the bond of its unity1 and he undertook his ,history of ,sicily 7#ahia-ahid7 partly because it illustrated this unity4 ,further1 he urges that all historical study is valueless which does not take in a knowledge of original authorities1 and he teaches both by example and precept what authorities should be thus described1 and how they are to be weighed and used4 ,he did not use manuscript authorities1 and for most of his work he had no need to do so4 ,the authorities which he needed were already in print1 and his books would not have been better if he had disinterred a few more facts from unprinted sources4 ,his reputation as a historian will chiefly rest on his ,history of the ,norman ,conquest 7#ahfg-ahgf71 his longest completed book4 ,in common with his works generally1 it is distinguished by exhaustiveness of treatment and research1 critical ability1 a remarkable degree of accuracy1 and a certain insight into the past which he gained from his practical experience of men and institutions4 ,he is almost exclusively a political historian4 ,his saying that history is past politics and politics are present history is significant of this limitation of his work1 which left on one side subjects of the deepest interest in a nation's life4 ,in dealing with constitutional matters he sometimes attaches too much weight to words and formal aspects4 ,this gives certain of his arguments an air of pedantry1 and seems to lead him to find evidences of continuity in institutions which in reality and spirit were different from what they once had been4 ,as a rule his estimates of character are remarkably able4 ,it is true that he is sometimes swayed by prejudice1 but this is the common lot of great historians2 they cannot altogether avoid sharing in the feelings of the past1 for they live in it1 and ,freeman did so to an extraordinary degree4 ,yet if he judges too favourably the leaders of the national party in ,england on the eve of the ,norman ,conquest1 that is a small matter to set against the insight which he exhibits in writing of ,aratus1 ,sulla1 ,nicias1 ,william the ,conqueror1 ,thomas of ,canterbury1 ,frederick the ,second and many more4 ,in width of view1 thoroughness of investigation and honesty of purpose he is unsurpassed by any historian4 ,he never conceals nor wilfully misrepresents anything1 and he reckoned no labour too great which might help him to draw a truthful picture of the past4 ,when a place had any important connexion with his work he invariably visited it4 ,he travelled much1 always to gain knowledge1 and generally to complete his historical equipment4 ,his collected articles and essays on places of historical interest are perhaps the most pleasing of his writings1 but they deal exclusively with historical associations and architectural features4 ,the quantity of work which he turned out is enormous1 for the fifteen large volumes which contain his ,norman ,conquest1 his unfinished ,history of ,sicily1 his ,william ,rufus 7#ahhb71 and his ,essays 7#ahgb-ahgi71 and the crowd of his smaller books1 are matched in amount by his uncollected contributions to periodicals4 ,in respect of matter his historical work is uniformly excellent4 ,in respect of form and style the case is different4 ,though his sentences themselves are not wordy1 he is extremely diffuse in treatment1 habitually repeating an idea in successive sentences of much the same import4 ,while this habit was doubtless aggravated by the amount of his journalistic work1 it seems originally to have sprung from what may be called a professorial spirit1 which occasionally appears in the tone of his remarks4 ,he was anxious to make sure that his readers would understand his exact meaning1 and to guard them against all possible misconceptions4 ,his lengthy explanations are the more grievous because he insists on the same points in several of his books4 ,his prolixity was increased by his unwillingness1 when writing without prescribed limits1 to leave out any detail1 however unimportant4 ,his passion for details not only swelled his volumes to a portentous size1 but was fatal to artistic construction4 ,the length of his books has hindered their usefulness4 ,they were written for the public at large1 but few save professed students1 who can admire and value his exhaustiveness1 will read the many hundreds of pages which he devotes to a short period of history4 ,in some of his smaller books1 however1 he shows great powers of condensation and arrangement1 and writes tersely enough4 ,his style is correct1 lucid and virile1 but generally nothing more1 and his endeavour to use as far as possible only words of ,teutonic origin limited his vocabulary and makes his sentences somewhat monotonous4 ,while ,froude often strayed away from his authorities1 ,freeman kept his authorities always before his eyes1 and his narrative is here and there little more than a translation of their words4 ,accordingly1 while it has nothing of ,froude's carelessness and inaccuracy1 it has nothing of his charm of style4 ,yet now and again he rises to the level of some heroic event1 and parts of his chapter on the ,campaign of ,hastings and of his record of the wars of ,syracuse and ,athens1 his reflections on the visit of ,basil the ,second to the church of the ,virgin on the ,acropolis1 and some other passages in his books1 are fine pieces of eloquent writing4 ,the high quality of ,freeman's work was acknowledged by all competent judges4 ,he was made ,d4,c4,l4 of ,oxford and ,,ll4,d4 of ,cambridge honoris causa1 and when he visited the ,united ,states on a lecturing tour was warmly received at various places of learning4 ,he served on the royal commission on ecclesiastical courts appointed in #ahha4 ,in #ahhd he was appointed regius professor of modern history at ,oxford4 ,his lectures were thinly attended1 for he did not care to adapt them to the requirements of the university examinations1 and he was not perhaps well fitted to teach young men4 ,but he exercised a wholesome influence over the more earnest students of history among the resident graduates4 ,from #ahhf he was forced by ill-health to spend much of his time abroad1 and he died of smallpox at ,alicante on the #afth of ,march #ahib1 while on a tour in ,spain4 ,freeman had a strongly marked personality4 ,though impatient in temper and occasionally rude1 he was tender-hearted and generous4 ,his rudeness to strangers was partly caused by shyness and partly by a childlike inability to conceal his feelings4 ,eminently truthful1 he could not understand that some verbal insincerities are necessary to social life4 ,he had a peculiar faculty for friendship1 and his friends always found him sympathetic and affectionate4 ,in their society he would talk well and showed a keen sense of humour4 ,he considered it his duty to expose careless and ignorant writers1 and certainly enjoyed doing so4 ,he worked hard and methodically1 often had several pieces of work in hand1 and kept a daily record of the time which he devoted to each of them4 ,his tastes were curiously limited4 ,no art interested him except architecture1 which he studied throughout his life2 and he cared little for literature which was not either historical or political4 ,in later life he ceased to hold the theological opinions of his youth1 but remained a devout churchman4 ,see ,w4 ,r4 ,w4 ,stephens1 ,life and ,letters of ,e4 ,a4 ,freeman 7,london1 #ahie72 ,frederic ,harrison1 ,tennyson1 ,ruskin1 ,mill and other ,literary ,estimates 7,london1 #ahii72 ,james ,bryce1 ,e4 ,a4 ,freeman1 ,eng4 ,hist4 ,rev41 ,july #ahib4 7,w4 ,hu47 ,,freeman1 primarily one who is free1 as opposed to a slave or serf 7see ,,feudalism2 ,,slavery74 ,the term is more specifically applied to one who possesses the freedom of a city1 borough or company4 ,before the passing of the ,municipal ,corporations ,act #ahce1 each ,english borough admitted freemen according to its own peculiar custom and by-laws4 ,the rights and privileges of a freeman1 though varying in different boroughs1 generally included the right to vote at a parliamentary election of the borough1 and exemption from all tolls and dues4 ,the act of #ahce respected existing usages1 and every person who was then an admitted freeman remained one1 retaining at the same time all his former rights and privileges4 ,the admission of freemen is now regulated by the ,municipal ,corporations ,act #ahhb4 ,by section #bja of that act the term freeman includes any person of the class whose rights and interests were reserved by the act of #ahce under the name either of freemen or of burgesses4 ,by section #bjb no person can be admitted a freeman by gift or by purchase2 that is1 only birth1 servitude or marriage are qualifications4 ,the ,honorary ,freedom of ,boroughs ,act #ahhe1 however1 makes an exception1 as by that act the council of every borough may from time to time admit persons of distinction to be honorary freemen of the borough4 ,the town clerk of every borough keeps a list1 which is called the freeman's roll1 and when any person claims to be admitted a freeman in respect of birth1 servitude or marriage1 the mayor examines the claim1 and if it is established the claimant's name is enrolled by the town clerk4 ,a person may become a freeman or freewoman of one of the ,london livery companies by 7#a7 apprenticeship or servitude2 7#b7 patrimony2 7#c7 redemption2 7#d7 gift4 ,this last is purely honorary4 ,the most usual form of acquiring freedom was by serving apprenticeship to a freeman1 free both of a company and of the city of ,london4 ,by an act of common council of #ahcf apprenticeship was permitted to freemen of the city who had not taken up the freedom of a company4 ,by an act of common council of #ahhi the term of service was reduced from seven years to four years4 ,freedom by patrimony is always granted to children of a person who has been duly admitted to the freedom4 ,freedom by redemption or purchase requires the payment of certain entrance fees1 which vary with the standing of the company4 ,in the ,grocers' ,company freedom by redemption does not exist1 and in such companies as still have a trade1 e4g4 the ,apothecaries and ,stationers1 it is limited to members of the trade4 ,see ,w4 ,c4 ,hazlitt1 ,the ,livery ,companies of the ,city of ,london 7#ahib74 ,,freemasonry4 ,according to an old ,charge delivered to initiates1 ,freemasonry is declared to be an ancient and honourable institution3 ancient no doubt it is1 as having subsisted from time immemorial2 and honourable it must be acknowledged to be1 as by a natural tendency it conduces to make those so who are obedient to its precepts 444 to so high an eminence has its credit been advanced that in every age ,monarchs themselves have been promoters of the art1 have not thought it derogatory from their dignity to exchange the sceptre for the trowel1 have patronised our mysteries and joined in our ,assemblies4 ,for many years the craft has been conducted without respect to clime1 colour1 caste or creed4 ,history4--,the precise origin of the society has yet to be ascertained1 but is not likely to be1 as the early records are lost2 there is1 however1 ample evidence remaining to justify the claim for its antiquity and its honourable character4 ,much has been written as to its eventful past1 based upon actual records1 but still more which has served only to amuse or repel inquirers1 and led not a few to believe that the fraternity has no trustworthy history4 ,an unfavourable opinion of the historians of the craft generally may fairly have been held during the #ahth and early in the #aith centuries1 but happily since the middle of the latter century quite a different principle has animated those brethren who have sought to make the facts of masonic history known to the brotherhood1 as well as worth the study of students in general4 ,the idea that it would require an investigator to be a member of the mystic tie in order to qualify as a reader of masonic history has been exploded4 ,the evidences collected concerning the institution during the last five hundred years1 or more1 may now be examined and tested in the most severe manner by literary and critical experts 7whether opposed or favourable to the body71 who cannot fail to accept the claims made as to its great antiquity and continuity1 as the lineal descendant of those craftsmen who raised the cathedrals and other great ,english buildings during the middle ages4 ,it is only needful to refer to the old works on freemasonry1 and to compare them with the accepted histories of the present time1 to be assured that such strictures as above are more than justified4 ,the premier work on the subject was published in ,london in #agbc1 the ,rev4 ,james ,anderson being the author of the historical portion1 introductory to the first ,book of ,constitutions of the original ,grand ,lodge of ,england4 ,dr ,anderson gravely states that ,grand ,master ,moses often marshalled the ,israelites into a regular and general lodge1 whilst in the wilderness4444 ,king ,solomon was ,grand ,master of the lodge at ,jerusalem4#a444 ,nebuchadnezzar became the ,grand ,master ,mason1 c41 devoting many more pages to similar absurdities1 but dismisses the important modern innovation 7#agaf-agag7 of a ,grand ,lodge with a few lines noteworthy for their brief and indefinite character4 ,in #agch a second edition was issued1 dedicated to the prince of ,wales 7a ,master ,mason and master of a lodge71 and was the work of the same brother 7as respects the historical part71 the additions being mainly on the same lines as the former volume1 only1 if possible1 still more ridiculous and extravagant2 e4g4 ,cyrus constituted ,jerubbabel provincial grand master in ,judah2 ,charles ,martel was the ,right ,worshipful ,grand ,master of ,france1 and ,edward ,i4 being deeply engaged in wars left the craft to the care of several successive grand masters 7duly enumerated74 ,such loose statements may now pass unheeded1 but unfortunately they do not exhaust the objections to ,dr ,anderson's method of writing history4 ,the excerpt concerning ,st ,alban 7apparently made from ,coles's ,ancient ,constitutions1 #agbh-agbi7 has the unwarranted additional title of ,grand ,master conferred on that saint1 and the extract concerning ,king ,a,ethelstan and ,prince ,edwin from the ,old ,,ms4 ,charges 7given in the first edition7 contains still more unauthorized modern terms1 with the year added of #ibf2 thus misleading most seriously those who accept the volume as trustworthy1 because written by the accredited historian of the ,grand ,lodge1 ,junior ,grand ,warden in #agbc4 ,these examples hardly increase our confidence in the author's accuracy when ,dr ,anderson comes to treat of the origin of the premier ,grand ,lodge2 but he is our only informant as to that important event1 and if his version of the occurrence is declined1 we are absolutely without any information4 ,in considering the early history of ,freemasonry1 from a purely matter-of-fact standpoint1 it will be well to settle as a necessary preliminary what the term did and does now include or mean1 and how far back the inquiry should be conducted1 as well as on what lines4 ,if the view of the subject herein taken be correct1 it will be useless to load the investigation by devoting considerable space to a consideration of the laws and customs of still older societies which may have been utilized and imitated by the fraternity1 but which in no sense can be accepted as the actual forbears of the present society of ,free and ,accepted ,masons4 ,they were predecessors1 or possibly prototypes1 but not near relatives or progenitors of the ,freemasons4#b ,the ,mother ,grand ,lodge of the world is that of ,england1 which was inaugurated in the metropolis on ,st ,john ,baptist's day #agag by four or more old lodges1 three of which still flourish4 ,there were other lodges also in ,london and the country at the time1 but whether they were invited to the meeting is not now known4 ,probably not1 as existing records of the period preserve a sphinx-like silence thereon4 ,likewise there were many scores of lodges at work in ,scotland1 and undoubtedly in ,ireland the craft was widely patronized4 ,whatever the ceremonies may have been which were then known as ,freemasonry in ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 they were practically alike1 and the venerable ,old ,charges or ,,ms4 constitutions1 dating back several centuries1 were rightly held by them as the title-deeds of their masonic inheritance4 ,it was a bold thing to do1 thus to start a governing body for the fraternity quite different in many respects to all preceding organizations1 and to brand as irregular all lodges which declined to accept such authority2 but the very originality and audacity of its promoters appears to have led to its success1 and it was not long before most of the lodges of the pre-,grand-,lodge era joined and accepted constitution by warrant of the ,grand ,master4 ,not only so1 but ,ireland quickly followed the lead1 so early as #agbe there being a ,grand ,lodge for that country which must have been formed even still earlier1 and probably by lodges started before any were authorized in the ,english counties4 ,in ,scotland the change was not made until #agcf1 many lodges even then holding aloof from such an organization4 ,indeed1 out of some hundred lodges known to have been active then1 only thirty-three responded and agreed to fall into line1 though several joined later2 some1 however1 kept separate down to the end of the #aith century1 while others never united4 ,many of these lodges have records of the #agth century though not then newly formed2 one in particular1 the oldest 7the ,lodge of ,edinburgh1 ,no4 #a71 possesses minutes so far back as the year #aeii4 ,it is important to bear in mind that all the regular lodges throughout the world1 and likewise all the ,grand ,lodges1 directly or indirectly1 have sprung from one or other of the three governing bodies named2 ,ireland and ,scotland following the example set by their masonic mother of ,england in having ,grand ,lodges of their own4 ,it is not proved how the latter two became acquainted with ,freemasonry as a secret society1 guided more or less by the operative ,,ms4 ,constitutions or ,charges common to the three bodies1 not met with elsewhere2 but the credit of a ,grand ,lodge being established to control the lodges belongs to ,england4 ,it may be a startling declaration1 but it is well authenticated1 that there is no other ,freemasonry1 as the term is now understood1 than what which has been so derived4 ,in other words1 the lodges and ,grand ,lodges in both hemispheres trace their origin and authority back to ,england for working what are known as the ,three ,degrees1 controlled by regular ,grand ,lodges4 ,that being so1 a history of modern ,freemasonry1 the direct offspring of the ,british parents aforesaid1 should first of all establish the descent of the three ,grand ,lodges from the ,freemasonry of earlier days2 such continuity1 of five centuries or more1 being a sine qua non of antiquity and regularity4 ,it will be found that from the early part of the #ahth century back to the #afth century existing records testify to the assemblies of lodges1 mainly operative1 but partly speculative1 in ,great ,britain1 whose guiding stars and common heritage were the ,old ,charges1 and that when their actual minutes and transactions cease to be traced by reason of their loss1 these same ,,ms4 ,constitutions furnish testimony of the still older working of such combinations of freemasons or masons1 without the assistance1 countenance or authority of any other masonic body2 consequently such documents still preserved1 of the #adth and later centuries 7numbering about seventy1 mostly in form of rolls71 with the existing lodge minutes referred to of the #afth century1 down to the establishment of the premier ,grand ,lodge in #agag1 prove the continuity of the society4 ,indeed so universally has this claim been admitted1 that in popular usage the term ,freemason is only now applied to those who belong to this particular fraternity1 that of mason being applicable to one who follows that trade1 or honourable calling1 as a builder4 ,there is no evidence that during this long period any other organization of any kind1 religious1 philosophical1 mystical or otherwise1 materially or even slightly influenced the customs of the fraternity1 though they may have done so2 but so far as is known the lodges were of much the same character throughout1 and consisted really of operatives 7who enjoyed practically a monopoly for some time of the trade as masons or freemasons71 and1 in part1 of speculatives1 i4e4 noblemen1 gentlemen and men of other trades1 who were admitted as honorary members4 ,assuming then that the freemasons of the present day are the sole inheritors of the system arranged at the so-called ,revival of #agag1 which was a development from an operative body to one partly speculative1 and that1 so far back as the ,,ms4 ,records extend and furnish any light1 they must have worked in ,lodges in secret throughout the period noted1 a history of ,freemasonry should be mainly devoted to giving particulars1 as far as possible1 of the lodges1 their traditions1 customs and laws1 based upon actual documents which can be tested and verified by members and non-members alike4 ,it has been the rule to treat1 more or less fully1 of the influence exerted on the fraternity by the ,ancient ,mysteries1 the ,essenes1 ,roman ,colleges1 ,culdees1 ,hermeticism1 ,fehm-,gerichte et hoc genus omne1 especially the ,steinmetzen1 the ,craft ,gilds and the ,companionage of ,france1 c42 but in view of the separate and independent character of the freemasons1 it appears to be quite unnecessary1 and the time so employed would be better devoted to a more thorough search after additional evidences of the activity of the craft1 especially during the crucial period overlapping the second decade of the #ahth century1 so as to discover information as to the transmitted secrets of the medieval masons1 which1 after all1 may simply have been what ,gaspard ,monge felicitously entitles ,descriptive ,geometry1 or the ,art and ,science of ,masonic ,symbolism4 ,the rules and regulations of the masons were embodied in what are known as the ,old ,charges2 the senior known copy being the ,regius ,,ms4 7,british ,museum ,bibl4 ,reg4 #ag ,a1 i471 which1 however1 is not so exclusively devoted to masonry as the later copies4 ,david ,casley1 in his catalogue of the ,,mss4 in the ,king's ,library 7#agcd71 unfortunately styled the little gem ,a ,poem of ,moral ,duties2 and owing to this misdescription its true character was not recognized until the year #ahci1 and then by a non-mason 7,mr ,halliwell-,phillipps71 who had it reproduced in #ahdj and brought out an improved edition in #ahdd4 ,its date has been approximately fixed at #acij by ,casley and other authorities4 ,the curious legend of the craft1 therein made known1 deals first of all with the number of unemployed in early days and the necessity of finding work1 that they myght gete here lyvynge therby4 ,euclid was consulted1 and recommended the onest craft of good masonry1 and the genesis of the society is found yn ,egypte lande4 ,by a rapid transition1 but mony erys afterwarde1 we are told that the ,craft com ynto ,england yn tyme of good kynge ,adelstonus 7,a,ethelstan7 day1 who called an assembly of the masons1 when fifteen articles and as many more points were agreed to for the government of the craft1 each being duly described4 ,each brother was instructed that-- ,he must love wel ,god1 and holy ,churche algate ,and hys mayster also1 that he ys wythe4 ,the thrydde poynt must be severle4 ,with the prentes knowe hyt wele1 ,hys mayster cownsel he kepe and close1 ,and hys felows by hys goode purpose2 ,the prevetyse of the chamber telle he no mon1 ,ny yn the logge whatsever they done1 ,whatsever thou heryst1 or syste hem do1 ,telle hyt no mon1 whersever thou go4 ,the rules generally1 besides referring to trade regulations1 are as a whole suggestive of the ,ten ,commandments in an extended form1 winding up with the legend of the ,ars quatuor coronatorum1 as an incentive to a faithful discharge of the numerous obligations4 ,a second part introduces a more lengthy account of the origin of masonry1 in which ,noah's flood and the ,tower of ,babylon are mentioned as well as the great skill of ,euclid1 who-- ,through hye grace of ,crist yn heven1 ,he commensed yn the syens seven2 ,the seven sciences are duly named and explained4 ,the compiler apparently was a priest1 line #fbi reading ,and1 when ye gospel me rede schal1 thus also accounting for the many religious injunctions in the ,,ms42 the last hundred lines are evidently based upon ,urbanitatis 7,cott4 ,,ms4 ,caligula ,a #aa1 fol4 #hh7 and ,instructions for a ,parish ,priest 7,cott4 ,,ms4 ,claudius ,a #aa1 fol4 #bg71 instructions such as lads and even men would need who were ignorant of the customs of polite society1 correct deportment at church and in the presence of their social superiors4 ,the recital of the legend of the ,quatuor ,coronati has been held by ,herr ,findel in his ,history of ,freemasonry 7,allgemeine ,geschichte der ,freimaurerei1 #ahfb2 ,english editions1 #ahff-ahfi7 to prove that ,british ,freemasonry was derived from ,germany1 but without any justification1 the legend being met with in ,england centuries prior to the date of the ,regius ,,ms41 and long prior to its incorporation in masonic legends on the ,continent4 ,the next ,,ms41 in order1 is known as the ,cooke 7,ad4 ,,ms4 #bc1aih1 ,british ,museum71 because ,matthew ,cooke published a fair reproduction of the document in #ahfa2 and it is deemed by competent paleographers to date from the first part of the #aeth century4 ,there are two versions of the ,old ,charges in this little book1 purchased for the ,british ,museum in #ahei4 ,the compiler was probably a mason and familiar with several copies of these ,,ms4 ,constitutions1 two of which he utilizes and comments upon2 he quotes from a ,,ms4 copy of the ,policronicon the manner in which a written account of the sciences was preserved in the two historic stones at the time of the ,flood1 and generally makes known the traditions of the society as well as the laws which were to govern the members4 ,its introduction into ,england through ,egypt is noted 7where the ,children of ,israel lernyd ye craft of ,masonry71 also the lande of behest 7,jerusalem7 and the ,temple of ,solomon 7who confirmed ye chargys yt ,david his ,fadir had made74 ,then masonry in ,france is interestingly described2 and ,st ,alban and ,a,ethelstane with his yongest sone 7the ,edwin of the later ,,mss47 became the chosen mediums subsequently1 as with the other ,charges1 portions of the ,old ,testament are often cited in order to convey a correct idea to the neophyte1 who is to hear the document read1 as to these sciences which are declared to be free in themselves 7fre in hem selfe74 ,of all crafts followed by man in this world ,masonry hathe the moste notabilite1 as confirmed by ,elders that were bi for us of masons who had these chargys wryten1 and as is write and taught in ye boke of our charges4 ,until quite recently no representative or survival of this particular version had been traced1 but in #ahij one was discovered of #afhg 7since known as the ,william ,watson ,,ms474 ,of some seventy copies of these old scrolls which have been unearthed1 by far the greater proportion have been made public since #ahfj4 ,they have all much in common1 though often curious differences are to be detected2 are of ,english origin1 no matter where used2 and when complete1 as they mostly are1 whether of the #afth or subsequent centuries1 are noteworthy for an invocation or prayer which begins the recital3-- ,the mighte of the ffather of heaven ,and the wysedome of the glorious ,sonne through the grace and the goodnes of the holly ghoste yt been three p'sons and one ,god be with us at or beginning and give us grace so to gou'ne us here in or lyving that wee maye come to his blisse that nevr shall have ending4--,amen4 7,grand ,lodge ,,ms4 ,no4 #a1 ,a4,d4 #aehc47 ,they are chiefly of the #agth century and nearly all located in ,england2 particulars may be found in ,hughan's ,old ,charges of the ,british ,freemasons 7#ahgb1 #ahie and supplement #aijf74c ,the chief scrolls1 with some others1 have been reproduced in facsimile in six volumes of the ,quatuor ,coronatorum ,antigrapha2 and the collection in ,yorkshire has been published separately1 either in the ,west ,yorkshire ,reprints or the ,ancient ,york ,masonic ,rolls4 ,several have been transcribed and issued in other works4 ,these scrolls give considerable information as to the traditions and customs of the craft1 together with the regulations for its government1 and were required to be read to apprentices long after the peculiar rules ceased to be acted upon1 each lodge apparently having one or more copies kept for the purpose4 ,the old ,lodge of ,aberdeen ordered in #afgj that the ,charge was to be read at ye entering of everie entered prenteise2 another at ,alnwick in #agja provided-- ,noe ,mason shall take any apprentice but he must ,enter him and give him his ,charge1 within one whole year after2 and still another at ,swallwell 7now ,no4 #dh ,gateshead7 demanded that the ,apprentices shall have their ,charge given at the time of ,registering1 or within thirty days after2 the minutes inserting such entries accordingly even so late as #aged1 nearly twenty years after the lodge had cast in its lot with the ,grand ,lodge of ,england4 ,their ,christian character is further emphasized by the ,first ,charge that you shall be true men to ,god and the holy ,church2 the ,york ,,ms4 ,no4 #f beseeches the brethren at every meeting and assembly they pray heartily for all ,christians2 the ,melrose ,,ms4 ,no4 #b 7#afgd7 mentions ,merchants and all other ,christian men1 and the ,aberdeen ,,ms4 7#afgj7 terms the invocation ,a ,prayer before the ,meeting4 ,until the ,grand ,lodge era1 ,freemasonry was thus wholly ,christian4 ,the ,york ,,ms4 ,no4 #d of #afic contains a singular error in the admonitory lines3-- ,the n one of the elders takeing the ,booke and that hee or shee that is to be made mason1 shall lay their hands thereon and the charge shall be given4 ,this particular reading was cited by ,hughan in #ahga1 but was considered doubtful2 ,findel1#d however1 confirmed it1 on his visit to ,york under the guidance of the celebrated masonic student the late ,rev4 ,a4 ,f4 ,a4 ,woodford4 ,the mistake was due possibly to the transcriber1 who had an older roll before him1 confusing they1 sometimes written the1 with she1 or reading that portion1 which is often in ,latin1 as ille vel illa1 instead of ille vel illi4 ,in some of the ,codices1 about the middle of the #agth century and later1 ,new ,articles are inserted1 such as would be suitable for an organization similar to the ,masons' ,company of ,london1 which had one1 at least1 of the ,old ,charges in its possession according to inventories of #affe and #afgf2 and likewise in #agbb1 termed ,the ,book of the ,constitutions of the ,accepted ,masons4 ,save its mention 7,book wrote on parchment7 by ,sir ,francis ,palgrave in the ,edinburgh ,review 7,april #ahci7 as being in existence not long since1 this valuable document has been lost sight of for many years4 ,that there were signs and other secrets preserved and used by the brethren throughout this mainly operative period may be gathered from discreet references in these old ,,mss4 ,the ,institutions in parchment 7#bbnd of ,november #afif7 of the ,dumfries ,kilwinning ,lodge 7,no4 #ec1 ,scotland7 contain a copy of the oath taken when any man should be made3-- ,these ,charges which we now reherse to you and all others ye secrets and misterys belonging to free masons you shall faithfully and truly keep1 together with ye ,counsell of ye assembly or lodge1 or any other lodge1 or brother1 or fellow4 ,then after ye oath taken and the book kissed 7i4e4 the ,bible7 the precepts are read1 the first being3-- ,you shall be true men to ,god and his holy ,church1 and that you do not countenance or maintaine any eror1 faction1 schism or herisey1 in ye church to ye best of your understanding4 7,history of ,no4 #ec1 by ,james ,smith47 ,the ,grand ,lodge ,,ms4 ,no4 #b provides that ,you shall keepe secret ye obscure and intricate pts4 of ye science1 not disclosinge them to any but such as study and use ye same4 ,the ,harleian ,,ms4 ,no4 #bjed 7,brit4 ,mus47 is still more explicit1 termed ,the ffree ,masons ,orders and ,constitutions1 and is in the handwriting of ,randle ,holme 7author of the ,academie of ,armory1 #afhh71 who was a member of a lodge in ,cheshire4 ,following the ,,ms4 ,constitutions1 in the same handwriting1 about #afej1 is a scrap of paper with the obligation3-- ,there is sevrall words and signes of a free ,mason to be revailed to yu wch as yu will answr4 before ,god at the ,great and terrible day of judgmt4 yu keep secret and not to revaile the same to any in the heares of any p'son1 but to the ,mrs and fellows of the ,society of ,free ,masons1 so helpe me ,god1 c4 7,w4 ,h4 ,rylands1 ,mas4 ,mag41 #ahhb47 ,it is not yet settled who were the actual designers or architects of the grand old ,english cathedrals4 ,credit has been claimed for church dignitaries1 to the exclusion more or less of the master masons1 to whom presumably of right the distinction belonged4 ,in early days the title architect is not met with1 unless the term ,ingenator had that meaning1 which is doubtful4 ,as to this interesting question1 and as to the subject of building generally1 an historical account of ,master and ,free ,masons 7,discourses upon ,architecture in ,england1 by the ,rev4 ,james ,dallaway1 #ahcc71 and ,notes on the ,superintendents of ,english ,buildings in the ,middle ,ages 7by ,wyatt ,papworth1 #ahhg71 should be consulted4 ,both writers were non-masons4 ,the former observes3 ,the honour due to the original founders of these edifices is almost invariably transferred to the ecclesiastics under whose patronage they rose1 rather than to the skill and design of the master mason1 or professional architect1 because the only historians were monks4444 ,they were probably not so well versed in geometrical science as the master masons1 for mathematics formed a part of monastic learning in a very limited degree4 ,in the ,journal of ,proceedings ,r4,i4,b4,a4 vol4 iv4 7#ahhg71 a skilful critic 7,w4 ,h4 ,white7 declares that ,papworth1 in that valuable collection of facts1 has contrived to annihilate all the professional idols of the century1 setting up in their place nothing except the master mason4 ,the brotherhood of ,bridge-builders1#e that travelled far and wide to build bridges1 and the travelling bodies of ,freemasons1#f he believes never existed2 nor was ,william of ,wykeham the designer of the colleges attributed to him4 ,it seems well-nigh impossible to disprove the statements made by ,papworth1 because they are all so well grounded on attested facts2 and the attempt to connect the ,abbey of ,cluny1 or men trained at ,cluny1 with the original or preliminary designs of the great buildings erected during the middle ages1 at least during the #abth and #acth centuries1 is also a failure4 ,the whole question is ably and fully treated in the ,history of ,freemasonry by ,robert ,freke ,gould 7#ahhf-ahhg71 particularly in chapter vi4 on ,medieval ,operative ,masonry1 and in his ,concise ,history 7#aijc74 ,the lodge is often met with1 either as the tabulatum domicialem 7#abjj1 at ,st ,alban's ,abbey7 or actually so named in the ,fabric ,rolls of ,york ,minster 7#acgj71 ye loge being situated close to the fane in course of erection2 it was used as a place in which the stones were prepared in private for the structure1 as well as occupied at meal-time1 c4 ,each mason was required to swere upon ye boke yt he sall trewly ande bysyli at his power hold and kepe holy all ye poyntes of yis forsayde ordinance 7,ordinacio ,cementanorum74 ,as to the term free-mason1 from the #adth century1 it is held by some authorities that it described simply those men who worked freestone1 but there is abundant evidence to prove that1 whatever may have been intended at first1 free-mason soon had a much wider signification1 the prefix free being also employed by carpenters 7#afff71 sewers 7#aeth century1 tailors at ,exeter7 and others1 presumably to indicate they were free to follow their trades in certain localities4 ,on this point ,mr ,gould well observes3 ,the class of persons from whom the ,freemasons of ,warrington 7#afdf71 ,staffordshire 7#afhf71 ,chester1 ,york1 ,london and their congeners in the #agth century derived the descriptive title1 which became the inheritance of the ,grand ,lodge of ,england1 were free men1 and masons of ,gilds or ,companies 7,history1 vol4 ii4 p4 #afj74 ,dr ,brentano may also be cited3 ,wherever the ,craft ,guilds were legally acknowledged1 we find foremost1 that the right to exercise their craft1 and sell their manufactures1 depended upon the freedom of their city 7,development of ,guilds1 c41 p4 #fe74 ,in like manner1 the privilege of working as a mason was not conferred before candidates had been made free4 ,the regular free-masons would not work with men1 even if they had a knowledge of their trade1 if unfree1 but styled them ,cowans1 a course justified by the king's ,maister of ,work1 ,william ,schaw1 whose ,statutis and ,ordinanceis 7#bhth ,december #aeih7 required that ,na maister or fellow of craft ressaue any cowanis to wirk in his societie or companye1 nor send nane of his servants to wirk wt4 cowanis1 under the pane of twentie pounds4 ,gradually1 however1 the rule was relaxed1 in time such monopoly practically ceased1 and the word cowan is only known in connexion with speculative ,freemasonry4 ,sir ,walter ,scott1 as a member of ,lodge ,st ,david 7,no4 #cf71 was familiar with the word and used it in ,rob ,roy4 ,in #agjg a cowan was described in the minutes of ,mother ,lodge ,kilwinning1 as a mason without the word1 thus one who was not a free mason 7,history of the ,lodge of ,edinburgh ,no4 #a1 by ,d4 ,murray ,lyon1 #aijj74 ,in the ,new ,english ,dictionary 7,oxford1 vol4 iv41 #ahig7 under ,freemason it is noted that three views have been propounded3--7#a7 ,the suggestion that free-mason stands for free-stone-mason would appear unworthy of attention1 but for the curious fact that the earliest known instances of any similar appellation are mestre mason de franche peer 7,act #be ,edw4 ,,iii41 #acej71 and sculptores lapidum liberorum1 alleged to occur in a document of #abag2 the coincidence1 however1 seems to be merely accidental4 7#b7 ,the view most generally held is that freemasons were those who were free of the masons' guild4 ,against this explanation many forcible objections have been brought by ,mr ,g4 ,w4 ,speth1 who suggests 7#c7 that the itinerant masons were called free because they claimed exemption from the control of the local guilds of the towns in which they temporarily settled4 7#d7 ,perhaps the best hypothesis is that the term refers to the medieval practice of emancipating skilled artisans1 in order that they might be able to travel and render their services wherever any great building was in process of construction4 ,the late secretary of the ,quatuor ,coronati ,lodge 7,no4 #bjgf1 ,london7 has thus had his view sanctioned by the highest tribunal in the ,republic of ,letters so far as ,philology is concerned 7,dr ,w4 ,j4 ,chetwode ,crawley in ,ars ,quatuor ,coronatorum1 #ahih74 ,still it cannot be denied that members of lodges in the #afth and following centuries exercised the privilege of making free masons and denied the freedom of working to cowans 7also called un-freemen7 who had not been so made free2 the ,masownys of the luge being the only ones recognized as freemasons4 ,as to the prefix being derived from the word frere1 a sufficient answer is the fact that frequent reference is made to ,brother freemasons1 so that no ground for that supposition exists 7cf4 articles by ,mr ,gould in the ,freemason for ,september #ahih on ,free and ,freemasonry74 ,there are numerous indications of masonic activity in the ,british lodges of the #agth century1 especially in ,scotland2 the existing records1 however1 of the southern part of the ,united ,kingdom1 though few1 are of importance1 some only having been made known in recent years4 ,these concern the ,masons' ,company of ,london1 whose valuable minutes and other documents are ably described and commented upon by ,edward ,conder1 jr41 in his ,hole ,crafte and ,fellowship of ,masons 7#ahid71 the author then being the ,master of that ancient company4 ,it was incorporated in #afgg by ,charles ,,ii41 who graciously met the wishes of the members1 but as a company the information that is to be found in the ,corporation ,records at ,guildhall proves very clearly that in #acgf the ,masons' ,company existed and was represented in the court of common council4 ,the title then favoured was ,masons1 the entry of the term ,freemasons being crossed out4 ,herbert erroneously overlooked the correction1 and stated in his ,history of the ,twelve ,great ,livery ,companies 7vol4 i47 that the ,freemasons returned two1 and the ,masons four members1 but subsequently amalgamated2 whereas the revised entry was for the ,masons only4 ,the ,company obtained a grant of arms in #adgb 7#abth year ,hen4 ,,viii471 one of the first of the kind1 being thus described3--,a feld of ,sablys ,a ,cheveron silver grailed thre ,castellis of the same garnysshed wt4 dores and wyndows of the feld in the ,cheveron or ,cumpas of ,black of ,blak2 it is the authority 7if any7 for all later armorial bearings having a chevron and castles1 assumed by other masonic organizations4 ,this precious document was only discovered in #ahga1 having been missing for a long time1 thus doubtless accounting for the erroneous representations met with1 not having the correct blazon to follow4 ,the oldest masonic motto known is ,god is our ,guide on ,kerwin's tomb in ,st ,helen's church1 ,bishopgate1 of #aeid2 that of ,in the ,lord is all our trust not being traced until the next century4 ,supporters consisting of two doric columns are mentioned in #afhh by ,randle ,holme1 but the ,grand ,lodge of ,england in the following century used ,beavers as operative builders4 ,its first motto was ,in the beginning was the ,word 7in ,greek71 exchanged a few years onward for ,relief and ,truth1 the rival ,grand ,lodge 7,atholl ,masons7 selecting ,holiness to the ,lord 7in ,hebrew71 and the final selection at the ,union of ,december #ahac being ,audi ,vide ,tace4 ,mr ,conder's discovery of a lodge of ,accepted ,masons being held under the wing of the ,company was a great surprise1 dating as the records do from #afbj to #afba 7the earliest of the kind yet traced in ,england71 when seven were made masons1 all of whom were free of the ,company before1 three being of the ,livery2 the entry commencing ,att the making masons4 ,the meetings were entitled the ,acception1 and the members of the lodge were called ,accepted ,masons1 being those so accepted and initiated1 the term never otherwise being met with in the ,records4 ,an additional fee had to be paid by a member of the ,company to join the ,acception1 and any not belonging thereto were mulct in twice the sum2 though even then such acceptance did not qualify for membership of the superior body2 the fees for the ,acception being ,l#a and ,l#b respectively4 ,in #afch-afci1 when ,nicholas ,stone entered the lodge 7he was ,master of the ,company #afcb-afcc7 the banquet cost a considerable sum1 showing that the number of brethren present must have been large4 ,elias ,ashmole 7who according to his diary was made a ,free ,mason of ,warrington with ,colonel ,henry ,mainwaring1 seven brethern being named as in attendance at the lodge1 #afth of ,october #afdf7 states that he received a summons to appear at a ,lodge to be held next day at ,masons' ,hall1 ,london4 ,accordingly on the #aath of ,march #afhb he attended and saw six gentlemen admitted into the ,fellowship of ,free ,masons1 of whom three only belonged to the ,company2 the ,master1 however1 ,mr ,thomas ,wise1 the two wardens and six others being present on the occasion as members in their dual capacity4 ,ashmole adds3 ,we all dyned at the ,halfe ,moone ,tavern in ,cheapside at a noble dinner prepaired at the charge of the new-accepted ,masons4 ,it is almost certain that there was not an operative mason present at the ,lodge held in #afdf1 and at the one which met in #afhb there was a strong representation of the speculative branch4 ,before the year #afed the ,company was known as that of the ,freemasons for some time1 but after then the old title of ,masons was reverted to1 the terms ,acception and ,accepted belonging to the speculative ,lodge1 which1 however1 in all probability either became independent or ceased to work soon after #afhb4 ,it is very interesting to note that subsequently 7but never before7 the longer designation is met with of ,free and ,accepted ,masons1 and is thus a combination of operative and speculative usage4 ,mr ,conder is of opinion that in the ,records there is no evidence of any particular ceremony attending the position of ,master ,mason1 possibly it consisted of administering a different oath from the one taken by the apprentices on being entered4 ,there is much to favour this supposition1 and it may provide the key to the vexata quaestio as to the plurality of degrees prior to the ,grand ,lodge era4 ,the fellow-crafts were recruited from those apprentices who had served their time and had their essay 7or sufficient trial of their skill7 duly passed2 they and the ,masters1 by the ,schaw ,statutes of #aeih1 being only admitted in the presence of sex ,maisteris and twa enterit prenteissis4 ,as a rule a master mason meant one who was master of his trade1 i4e4 duly qualified2 but it sometimes described employers as distinct from journeymen ,freemasons2 being also a compliment conferred on honorary members during the #agth century in particular4 ,in ,dr ,plot's ,history of ,staffordshire 7#afhf7 is a remarkable account of the ,society of ,freemasons1 which1 being by an unfriendly critic1 is all the more valuable4 ,he states that the custom had spread more or less all over the nation2 persons of the most eminent quality did not disdain to enter the ,fellowship2 they had a large parchment volum containing the ,history and ,rules of the ,craft of ,masonry2 ,st ,amphibal1 ,st ,alban1 ,king ,athelstan and ,edwin are mentioned1 and these charges and manners were after perusal approved by ,king ,hen4 #f and his council1 both as to ,masters and ,fellows of this right ,worshipfull craft4 ,it is but fair to add that notwithstanding the service he rendered the ,society by his lengthy description1 that credulous historian remarks of its history that there is nothing he ever met with more false or incoherent4 ,the author of the ,academie of ,armory1 previously noted1 knew better what he was writing about in that work of #afhh in which he declares3 ,i cannot but ,honor the ,fellowship of the ,masons because of its ,antiquity2 and the more1 as being a member of that ,society1 called ,free ,masons ,mr ,rylands states that in ,harl4 ,,ms4 #eiee is a collection of the engraved plates for a second volume of this important work1 one being devoted to the ,arms of the ,society1 the columns1 as supporters1 having globes thereon1 from which possibly are derived the two pillars1 with such ornaments or additions seen in lodge rooms at a later period4 ,in the same year ,a ,tripos or ,speech delivered at a commencement in the ,university of ,dublin held there ,july #aa1 #afhh1 by ,john ,jones1 then ,a4,b41 afterwards ,d4,d41 contained notable evidence concerning ,freemasonry in ,dublin4 ,the ,tripos was included in ,sir ,walter ,scott's edition of ,dean ,swift's works 7#ahad71 but as ,dr ,chetwode ,crawley points out1 though noticed by the ,rev4 ,dr ,george ,oliver 7the voluminous ,masonic author71 he failed to realize its historical importance4 ,the satirical and withal amusing speech was partly translated from the ,latin by ,dr ,crawley for his scholarly introduction to the ,masonic ,reprints1 c41 by ,henry ,sadler4 ,the point seems to be that ,ridley 7reputed to have been an informer against priests under the barbarous penal laws7 was1 or ought to have been1 hanged2 that his carcase1 anatomized and stuffed1 stood in the library2 and that frath scoundrellus discovered on his remains the ,freemasons' ,mark4 ,the importance of the references to the craft in ,ireland is simply owing to the year in which they were made1 as illustrative of the influence of the ,society at that time1 of which records are lacking4 ,it is primarily to ,scotland1 however1 that we have to look for such numerous particulars of the activity of the fraternity from #aeii to the establishment of its ,grand ,lodge in #agcf1 for an excellent account of which we are indebted to ,lyon1 the ,scottish masonic historian4 ,as early as #afjj 7#hth of ,june7 the attendance of ,john ,boswell1 ,esq41 the laird of ,auchinleck1 is entered in the minutes of the ,lodge of ,edinburgh2 he attested the record and added his mark1 as did the other members2 so it was not his first appearance4 ,many noblemen and other gentlemen joined this ancient atelier1 notably ,lord ,alexander1 ,sir ,anthony ,alexander and ,sir ,alexander ,strachan in #afcd1 the king's ,master of ,work 7,herrie ,alexander7 in #afch1 ,general ,alexander ,hamilton in #afdj1 ,dr ,hamilton in #afdg1 and many other prominent and distinguished men later2 ,james ,neilsone1 ,master ,sklaitter to ,his ,majestie1 who was entered and past in the ,lodge of ,linlithgow1 being elected a joining member1 #bnd ,march #afed4 ,quarter-,master ,general ,robert ,moray 7or ,murray7 was initiated by members of the ,lodge of ,edinburgh1 at ,newcastle on the #bjth of ,may #afda1 while the ,scottish army was in occupation4 ,on due report to their ,alma ,mater such reception was allowed1 the occurrence having been considered the first of its kind in ,england until the ancient ,records of the ,masons' ,company were published4 ,the minute-books of a number of ,scottish ,lodges1 which are still on the register1 go back to the #agth century1 and abundantly confirm the frequent admission of speculatives as members and officers1 especially those of the venerable ,mother ,lodge ,kilwinning1 of which the earl of ,cassillis was the deacon in #afgb1 who was succeeded by ,sir ,alexander ,cunningham1 and the earl of ,eglinton1 who like the first of the trio was but an apprentice4 ,there were three ,head ,lodges according to the ,scottish ,code of #aeii1 ,edinburgh being the first and principall1 ,kilwinning the secund1 and ,stirling the third ludge4 ,the ,aberdeen ,lodge 7,no4 #a tris7 has records preserved from #afgj1 in which year what is known as the ,mark ,book begins1 containing the oldest existing roll of members1 numbering #di1 all of whom have their marks registered1 save two1 though only ten were operatives4 ,the names of the earls of ,finlater1 ,erroll and ,dunfermline1 ,lord ,forbes1 several ministers and professional men are on the list1 which was written by a glazier1 all of whom had been enlightened as to the benefit of the measson word1 and inserted in order as they were made fellow craft4 ,the ,charter 7,old ,charges7 had to be read at the entering of everie prenteise1 and the officers included a master and two wardens4 ,the lodge at ,melrose 7,no4 #a bis7 with records back to #afgd did not join the ,grand ,lodge until #ahia1 and was the last of those working 7possibly centuries before that body was formed7 to accept the modern system of government4 ,of the many noteworthy lodges mention should be made of that of ,canongate ,kilwinning ,no4 #b1 ,edinburgh1 the first of the numerous pendicles of ,mother ,lodge ,kilwinning1 ,no4 #j1 ,ayrshire1 started in #afgg2 and of the ,journeymen ,no #h1 formed in #agjg1 which was a secession from the ,lodge of ,edinburgh2 the ,fellow ,crafts or ,journeymen not being satisfied with their treatment by the ,freemen ,masters of the ,incorporation of ,masons1 c4 ,this action led to a trial before the ,lords of ,council and ,session1 when finally a ,decreet ,arbitral was subscribed to by both parties1 and the junior organization was permitted to give the mason word as it is called in a separate lodge4 ,the presbytery of ,kelso#g in #afeb sustained the action of the ,rev4 ,james ,ainslie in becoming a ,freemason1 declaring that there is neither sinne nor scandale in that word 7i4e4 the ,mason ,word71 which is often alluded to but never revealed in the old records already referred to4#h ,one ,scottish family may be cited in illustration of the continuous working of ,freemasonry1 whose membership is enshrined in the records of the ancient ,lodge of ,scoon and ,perth ,no4 #c and others4 ,a venerable document1 lovingly cared for by ,no4 #c1 bears date #afeh1 and recites how ,john ,mylne came to ,perth from the ,north ,countrie1 and was the king's ,master ,mason and ,w4,m4 of the ,lodge1 his successor being his son1 who entered ,king ,james the sixt as ffreman measone and fellow craft2 his third son ,john was a member of ,lodge ,no4 #a and ,master ,mason to ,charles ,i41 #afca-afcf1 and his eldest son was a deacon of ,no4 #a eleven times during thirty years4 ,to him was apprenticed his nephew1 who was warden in #affc-affd and deacon several times4 ,william ,mylne was a warden in #afie1 ,thomas 7eldest son7 was ,master in #agce1 and took part in the formation of the ,grand ,lodge of ,scotland4 ,others of the family continued to join the ,lodge ,no4 #a1 until ,robert1 the last of the ,mylnes as ,freemasons1 was initiated in #aged1 died in #ahaa1 and was buried in ,st ,paul's cathedral1 having been ,surveyor to that ,edifice for fifty years1 and the last of the masonic ,mylnes for five generations4 ,the ,st ,john's ,lodge1 ,glasgow 7,no4 #c bis71 has some valuable old records and a ,charter ,chest with the words carved thereon ,god save the ,king and ,masons ,craft1 #afhd4 ,loyalty and ,charity are the watchwords of the ,society4 ,the ,craft ,gilds 7,corps d',etat7 of ,france1 and their progeny the ,companionage1 have been fully described by ,mr ,gould1 and the ,steinmetzen of ,germany would require too detailed notice if we were to particularize its rules1 customs and general character1 from about the #abth century onward4 ,much as there was in common between the ,stonemasons of ,germany and the ,freemasons of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 it must be conceded that the two societies never united and were all through this long period wholly separate and independent2 a knowledge of ,freemasonry and authority to hold lodges in ,germany being derived from the ,grand ,lodge of ,england during the first half of the #ahth century4 ,the theory of the derivation of the ,freemasons from the ,steinmetzen was first propounded in #aggi by the abbe ,grandidier1 and has been maintained by more modern writers1 such as ,fallou1 ,heideloff and ,schneider1 but a thorough examination of their statements has resulted in such an origin being generally discredited4 ,whether the ,steinmetzen had secret signs of recognition or not1 is not quite clear1 but that the ,freemasons had1 for centuries1 cannot be doubted1 though precisely what they were may be open to question1 and also what portions of the existing ceremonies are reminiscent of the craft anterior to the ,revival of #agag4 ,messrs ,speth and ,gould favour the notion that there were two distinct and separate degrees prior to the third decade of the #ahth century 7,ars ,q4,c41 #ahih and #aijc71 while other authorities have either supported the ,one degree theory1 or consider there is not sufficient evidence to warrant a decision4 ,recent discoveries1 however1 tend in favour of the first view noted1 such as the ,trinity ,college ,,ms41 ,dublin 7,free ,masonry1 ,feb4 #agaa71 and the invaluable#i ,chetwode ,crawley ,,ms4 7,grand ,lodge ,library1 ,dublin72 the second being read in connexion with the ,haughfoot ,lodge ,records1 beginning #agjb 7,hist1 of ,freemasonry1 by ,w4 ,f4 ,vernon1 #ahic74 ,two of the most remarkable lodges at work during the period of transition 7#agag-agbc71 out of the many then existing in ,england1 assembled at ,alnwick and at ,york4 ,the origin of the first noted is not known1 but there are minutes of the meetings from #agjc1 the ,rules are of #agja1 signed by quite a number of members1 and a transcript of the ,old ,charges begins the volume4 ,in #agjh-agji a minute provided for a masonic procession1 at which the brethren were to walk with their aprons on and ,comon ,square4 ,the ,lodge consisted mainly of operative free ,brothers1 and continued for many years1 a code of by-laws being published in #agfc1 but it never united with the ,grand ,lodge1 giving up the struggle for existence a few years further on4 ,the other lodge1 the most noteworthy of all the ,english predecessors of the ,grand ,lodge of ,england1 was long held at ,york1 the ,mecca of ,english ,freemasons4#aj ,its origin is unknown1 but there are traces of its existence at an early date1 and possibly it was a survival of the ,minster ,lodge of the #adth century4 ,assuming that the ,york ,,ms4 ,no4 #d of #afic was the property of the lodge in that year 7which ,roll was presented by ,george ,walker of ,wetherby in #aggg71 the entry which concludes that ,scroll is most suggestive1 as it gives ,the names of the ,lodge 7members7 and the ,lodge ,ward7en74 ,its influence most probably may be also noted at ,scarborough1 where ,a private ,lodge was held on the #ajth of ,july #agje1 at which the president ,william ,thompson1 ,esq41 and severall others brethren ffree ,masons were present1 and six gentlemen 7named7 were then admitted into the said ffraternity4 ,these particulars are endorsed on the ,scarborough ,,ms4 of the ,old ,charges1 now owned by the ,grand ,lodge of ,canada at ,toronto4 ,a narrow folio manuscript ,book beginning #gth ,march #agje-agjf1 which was quoted from in #aggh1 has long been missing1 which is much to be regretted1 as possibly it gave particulars of the lodge which assembled at ,bradford1 ,yorkshire1 when #ah ,gentlemen of the first families in that neighbourhood were made ,masons4 ,there is1 however1 another roll of records from #agab to #agcj happily preserved of this ,ancient ,honble4 ,society and ,fraternity of ,free ,masons1 sometimes styled ,company or ,society of ,free and ,accepted ,masons4 ,not to be behind the ,london fratres1 the ,york brethren formed a ,grand ,lodge on the #bgth of ,december #agbe 7the ,grand ,lodge of all ,england was its modest title71 and was flourishing for years1 receiving into their company many county men of great influence4 ,some twenty years later there was a brief period of somnolence1 but in #agfa a revival took place1 with ,francis ,drake1 the historian1 as ,grand ,master1 ten lodges being chartered in ,yorkshire1 ,cheshire and ,lancashire1 #agfb-agij1 and a ,grand ,lodge of ,england1 south of the ,trent1 in #aggi1 at ,london1 which warranted two lodges4 ,before the century ended all these collapsed or joined the ,grand ,lodge of ,england1 so there was not a single representative of ,york ,masonry left on the advent of the next century4 ,the premier ,grand ,lodge of ,england soon began to constitute new ,lodges in the metropolis1 and to reconstitute old ones that applied for recognition1 one of the earliest of #agbj-agba being still on the ,roll as ,no4 #f1 thus having kept company ever since with the three time immemorial ,lodges1 ,nos4 #b1 #d and #ab4 ,applications for constitution kept coming in1 the provinces being represented from #agbc to #agbd1 before which time it is likely the ,grand ,lodge of ,ireland#aa had been started1 about which the most valuable ,caementaria ,hibernica by ,dr ,chetwode ,crawley may be consulted with absolute confidence4 ,provincial ,grand ,lodges were formed to ease the authorities at headquarters1 and1 as the society spread1 also for the ,continent1 and gradually throughout the civilized globe4 ,owing to the custom prevailing before the #ahth century1 a few brethren were competent to form lodges on their own initiative anywhere1 and hence the registers of the ,british ,grand ,lodges are not always indicative of the first appearance of the craft abroad4 ,in ,north ,america#ab lodges were held before what is known as the first regular lodge was formed at ,boston1 ,mass41 in #agcc1 and probably in ,canada#ac likewise4 ,the same remark applies to ,denmark1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,holland1 ,italy1 ,portugal1 ,russia1 ,spain1 ,sweden and other countries4 ,of the many scores of military lodges1 the first warrant was granted by ,ireland in #agcb4 ,to no other body of ,freemasons has the craft been so indebted for its prosperity in early days as to their military brethren4 ,there were rivals to the ,grand ,lodge of ,england during the #ahth century1 one of considerable magnitude being known as the ,ancients or ,atholl ,masons1 formed in #agea1 but in ,december #ahac a junction was effected1 and from that time the prosperity of the ,united ,grand ,lodge of ,england1 with few exceptions1 has been extraordinary4 ,nothing but a volume to itself could possibly describe the main features of the ,english ,craft from #agag1 when ,anthony ,sayer was elected the first ,grand ,master of a brilliant galaxy of rulers4 ,the first nobleman to undertake that office was the duke of ,montagu in #agba1 the natural philosopher ,j4 ,t4 ,desaguliers being his immediate predecessor1 who has been credited 7and also the ,rev4 ,james ,anderson7 with the honour of starting the premier ,grand ,lodge2 but like the fable of ,sir ,christopher ,wren having been ,grand ,master1 evidence is entirely lacking4 ,irish and ,scottish peers share with those of ,england the distinction of presiding over the ,grand ,lodge1 and from #aghb to #ahac their ,royal ,highnesses the duke of ,cumberland1 the prince of ,wales1 or the duke of ,sussex occupied the masonic throne4 ,from #agec to #ahac the rival ,grand ,lodge had been busy1 but ultimately a desire for a united body prevailed1 and under the ancient ,grand ,master1 ,h4,r4,h4 the duke of ,kent1 it was decided to amalgamate with the original ruling organization1 ,h4,r4,h4 the duke of ,sussex becoming the ,grand ,master of the ,united ,grand ,lodge4 ,on the decease of the prince in #ahdc the earl of ,zetland succeeded1 followed by the marquess of ,ripon in #ahgd1 on whose resignation ,h4,r4,h4 the prince of ,wales became the ,grand ,master4 ,soon after succeeding to the throne1 ,king ,edward ,,vii4 ceased to govern the ,english craft1 and was succeeded by ,h4,r4,h4 the duke of ,connaught4 ,from #agcg to #aijg some sixteen ,english princes of the royal blood joined the brotherhood4 ,from #agbc to #ahac the number of lodges enrolled in ,england amounted to #afbf1 and from #ahad to the end of ,december #aiji as many as #cceb were warranted1 making a grand total of #digh1 of which the last then granted was numbered #cahe4 ,there were in #aiji still #bhgf on the register1 notwithstanding the many vacancies created by the foundation of new ,grand ,lodges in the colonies and elsewhere4#ad ,distribution and ,organization4--,the advantage of the cosmopolitan basis of the fraternity generally 7though some ,grand ,lodges still preserve the original ,christian foundation7 has been conspicuously manifested and appreciated in ,india and other countries where the votaries of numerous religious systems congregate2 but the unalterable basis of a belief in the ,great ,architect of the ,universe remains1 for without such a recognition there can be no ,freemasonry1 and it is now1 as it always has been1 entirely free from party politics4 ,the charities of the ,society in ,england1 ,ireland and ,scotland are extensive and well organized1 their united cost per day not being less than ,l#ejj1 and with those of other ,grand ,lodges throughout the world must amount to a very large sum1 there being over two millions of ,freemasons4 ,the vast increase of late years1 both of lodges and members1 however1 calls for renewed vigilance and extra care in selecting candidates1 that numbers may not be a source of weakness instead of strength4 ,in its internal organization1 the working of ,freemasonry involves an elaborate system of symbolic ritual1#ae as carried out at meetings of the various lodges1 uniformity as to essentials being the rule4 ,the members are classified in numerous degrees1 of which the first three are ,entered ,apprentice1 ,fellow ,craft and ,master ,mason1 each class of which1 after initiation1 can only be attained after passing a prescribed ordeal or examination1 as a test of proficiency1 corresponding to the essays of the operative period4 ,the lodges have their own by-laws for guidance1 subject to the ,book of ,constitutions of their ,grand ,lodge1 and the regulations of the provincial or district ,grand ,lodge if located in counties or held abroad4 ,it is to be regretted that on the continent of ,europe ,freemasonry has sometimes developed on different lines from that of the ,mother ,grand ,lodge and ,anglo-,saxon ,grand ,lodges generally1 and through its political and anti-religious tendencies has come into contact or conflict with the state authorities#af or the ,roman ,catholic church4 ,the ,grand ,orient of ,france 7but not the ,supreme ,council #cco1 and its ,grand ,lodge7 is an example of this retrograde movement1 by its elimination of the paragraph referring to a belief in the ,great ,architect of the ,universe from its ,statuts et reglements generaux4 ,this deplorable action has led to the withdrawal of all regular ,grand ,lodges from association with that body1 and such separation must continue until a return is made to the ancient and inviolable landmark of the society1 which makes it impossible for an atheist either to join or continue a member of the fraternity4 ,the ,grand ,lodge of ,england constituted its first lodge in ,paris in the year #agcb1 but one was formed still earlier on the continent at ,gibraltar #agbh-agbi4 ,others were also opened in ,germany #agcc1 ,portugal #agce1 ,holland #agce1 ,switzerland #agdj1 ,denmark #agde1 ,italy #agfc1 ,belgium #agfe1 ,russia #agga1 and ,sweden #aggc4 ,in most of these countries ,grand ,lodges were subsequently created and continue to this date1 save that in ,austria 7not ,hungary7 and ,russia no masonic lodges have for some time been permitted to assemble4 ,there is a union of ,grand ,lodges of ,germany1 and an annual ,diet is held for the transaction of business affecting the several masonic organizations in that country1 which works well4 ,h4,r4,h4 ,prince ,frederick ,leopold was in #aiji ,protector1 or the ,wisest ,master 7,vicarius ,salomonis74 ,king ,gustav ,v4 was the ,grand ,master cross of the freemasons in ,sweden1 and the sovereign of the ,order of ,charles ,,xiii41 the only one of the kind confined to members of the fraternity4 ,lodges were constituted in ,india from #agcj 7,calcutta71 #ageb 7,madras71 and #ageh 7,bombay72 in ,jamaica #agdb1 ,antigua #agch1 and ,st ,christopher #agci2 soon after which period the ,grand ,lodges of ,england1 ,ireland and ,scotland had representatives at work throughout the civilized world4 ,in no part1 however1 outside ,great ,britain has the craft flourished so much as in the ,united ,states of ,america1 where the first regular lodge 7i4e4 according to the new regime7 was opened in #agcc at ,boston1 ,mass4 ,undoubtedly lodges had been meeting still earlier1 one of which was held at ,philadelphia1 ,penna41 with records from #agca1 which blossomed into a ,grand ,lodge1 but no authority has yet been traced for its proceedings1 save that which may be termed time immemorial right1 which was enjoyed by all lodges and brethren who were at work prior to the ,grand ,lodge era 7#agaf-agag7 or who declined to recognize the autocratic proceedings of the premier ,grand ,lodge of ,england1 just as the brethren did in the city of ,york4 ,a deputation was granted to ,daniel ,coxe1 ,esq4 of ,new ,jersey1 by the duke of ,norfolk1 ,grand ,master1 #eth of ,june #agcj1 as ,prov4 ,grand ,master of the ,provinces of ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey and ,pensilvania1 but there is no evidence that he ever constituted any lodges or exercised any masonic authority in virtue thereof4 ,henry ,price as ,prov4 ,grand ,master of ,new ,england1 and his lodge1 which was opened on the #cast of ,august #agcc1 in the city of ,boston1 so far as is known1 began regular ,freemasonry in the ,united ,states1 and the older and independent organization was soon afterwards regularized4 ,benjamin ,franklin 7an ,initiate of the lodge of ,philadelphia7 printed and published the ,book of ,constitutions1 #agbc 7of ,london1 ,england71 in the ,city of ,brotherly ,love in #agcd1 being the oldest masonic work in ,america4 ,english and ,scottish ,grand ,lodges were soon after petitioned to grant warrants to hold lodges1 and by the end of the #ahth century several ,grand ,lodges were formed1 the ,craft becoming very popular1 partly no doubt by reason of so many prominent men joining the fraternity1 of whom the chief was ,george ,washington1 initiated in a ,scottish lodge at ,fredericksburg1 ,virginia1 in #ageb-agec4 ,in #aijg there were fifty ,grand ,lodges assembling in the ,united ,states1 with considerably over a million members4 ,in ,canada in #aiji there were eight ,grand ,lodges1 having about #fd1jjj members4 ,freemasonry in the ,dominion is believed to date from #agdj4 ,the ,grand ,lodges are all of comparatively recent organization1 the oldest and largest1 with #dj1jjj members1 being for ,ontario2 those of ,manitoba1 ,nova ,scotia and ,quebec numbering about #ejjj each4 ,there are some seven ,grand ,lodges in ,australia2 ,south ,australia coming first as a sovereign body1 followed closely by ,new ,south ,wales and ,victoria 7of #ahhd-ahhi constitution71 the whole of the lodges in the ,commonwealth probably having fully #ej1jjj members on the registers4 ,there are many additional degrees which may be taken or not 7being quite optional71 and dependent on a favourable ballot2 the difficulty1 however1 of obtaining admission increases as progress is made1 the numbers accepted decreasing rapidly with each advancement4 ,the chief of these are arranged in separate classes and are governed either by the ,grand ,chapter of the ,royal ,arch1 the ,mark ,grand ,lodge1 the ,great ,priory of ,knights ,templars or the ,ancient and ,accepted ,rite1 these being mutually complementary and intimately connected as respects ,england1 and more or less so in ,ireland1 ,scotland1 ,north ,america and wherever worked on a similar basis2 the countries of the continent of ,europe have also their own ,hautes ,grades4 7,w4 ,j4 ,h49974 ,,footnotes3 #a ,if history be no ancient ,fable ,free ,masons came from ,tower of ,babel4 7,the ,freemasons2 an ,hudibrastic poem1 ,london1 #agbc47 #b ,the ,early ,history and ,antiquities of ,freemasonry and ,medieval ,builders1 by ,mr ,g4 ,f4 ,fort 7,u4,s4,a471 and the ,cathedral ,builders3 ,the ,magestri ,comacini1 by ,leader ,scott 7the late ,mrs ,baxter71 take rather a different view on this point and ably present their arguments4 ,the ,rev4 ,c4 ,kingsley in ,roman and ,teuton writes of the ,comacini1 ,perhaps the original germ of the great society of ,freemasons4 #c ,the service rendered by ,dr ,w4 ,begemann 7,germany7 in his ,attempt to ,classify the ,old ,charges of the ,british ,masons 7vol4 #a ,trans4 of the ,quatuor ,coronati ,lodge1 ,london7 has been very great1 and the researches of the ,rev4 ,a4 ,f4 ,a4 ,woodford and ,g4 ,w4 ,speth have also been of the utmost consequence4 #d ,findel claims that his ,treatise on the society was the cause which first impelled ,england to the study of masonic history and ushered in the intellectual movement which resulted in the writings of ,bros4 ,hughan1 ,lyon1 ,gould and others4 ,great credit was due to the late ,german author for his important work1 but before its advent the ,rev4 ,a4 ,f4 ,a4 ,woodford1 ,d4 ,murray ,lyon and others in ,great ,britain were diligent masonic students on similar lines4 #e ,it is not considered necessary to refer at length to the ,fratres ,pontis1 or other imaginary bodies of freemasons1 as such questions may well be left to the curious and interested student4 #f ,no distinct trace of the general employment of large migratory bands of masons1 going from place to place as a guild1 or company1 or brotherhood 7,prof4 ,t4 ,hayter-,lewis1 ,brit4 ,arch4 ,assoc41 #ahhi74 #g ,the ,associate ,synod which met at ,edinburgh1 ,march #agee1 just a century later1 took quite an opposite view1 deciding to depose from office any of their brethren who would not give up their masonic membership 7,scots ,mag41 #agee1 p4 #aeh74 ,papal ,bulls have also been issued against the craft1 the first being in #agch2 but neither interdicts nor anathemata have any influence with the fraternity1 and fall quite harmless4 #h ,we have the ,mason ,word and second sight1 ,things for to come we can fortell aright4 7,the ,muses ,threnodie1 by ,h4 ,adamson1 ,edin41 #afch47 #i ,the ,chetwode ,crawley ,,ms41 by ,w4 ,j4 ,hughan 7,ars4 ,q4,c41 #aijd74 #aj ,the ,york ,grand ,lodge1 by ,messrs4 ,hughan and ,whytehead 7,ars ,q4,c41 #aijj71 and ,masonic ,sketches and ,reprints 7#ahga71 by the former4 #aa ,the celebrated ,lady ,freemason1 the ,hon4 ,mrs ,aldworth 7nee ,miss ,st ,leger1 daughter of ,lord ,doneraile71 was initiated in ,ireland1 but at a much earlier date than popularly supposed2 certainly not later than #agac1 when the venturesome lady was twenty4 ,all early accounts of the occurrence must be received with caution1 as there are no contemporary records of the event4 #ab ,history of ,freemasonry1 by ,dr ,a4 ,g4 ,mackey 7,new ,york1 #ahih71 and the ,history of the ,fraternity ,publishing ,company1 ,boston1 ,mass41 give very full particulars as to the ,united ,states4 #ac ,see ,history of ,freemasonry in ,canada 7,toronto1 #ahii71 by ,j4 ,ross ,robertson4 #ad ,the ,masonic ,records #agag-ahid1 by ,john ,lane1 and the excellent ,masonic ,yearbook1 published annually by the ,grand ,lodge of ,england1 are the two standard works on ,lodge enumeration1 localization and nomenclature4 ,for particulars of the ,grand ,lodges1 and especially that of ,england1 ,gould's ,history is most useful and trustworthy2 and for an original contribution to the history of the rival ,grand ,lodge or ,atholl ,masons1 ,sadler's ,masonic ,facts and ,fictions4 #ae ,a peculiar system of ,morality1 veiled in ,allegory and illustrated by ,symbols 7old definition of ,freemasonry74 #af ,the ,british ,house of ,commons in #agii and #ahag1 in acts of parliament1 specifically recognized the laudable character of the society and provided for its continuance on definite lines4 ,,freeport1 a city and the county-seat of ,stephenson county1 ,illinois1 in the ,n4,w4 part of the state1 on the ,pecatonica river1 #cj m4 from its mouth and about #ajj m4 ,n4,w4 of ,chicago4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #aj1ahi2 7#aijj7 #ac1beh1 of whom #bbfd were foreign-born2 7#aiaj census7 #ag1efg4 ,the city is served by the ,chicago ,north-,western1 the ,chicago1 ,milwaukee ,st ,paul1 and the ,illinois ,central railways1 and by the ,rockford ,interurban electric railway4 ,the ,illinois ,central connects at ,south ,freeport1 about #c m4 ,s4 of ,freeport1 with the ,chicago ,great ,western railway4 ,among ,freeport's manufactures are foundry and machine shop products1 carriages1 hardware specialties1 patent medicines1 windmills1 engines1 incubators1 organs1 beer and shoes4 ,the ,illinois ,central has large railway repair shops here4 ,the total value of the city's factory product in #aije was #c1aji1cjb1 an increase of #ad4h since #aijj4 ,in the surrounding country cereals are grown1 and swine and poultry are raised4 ,dairying is an important industry also4 ,the city has a ,carnegie library 7#aija74 ,in the ,court ,house ,square is a monument1 #hj ft4 high1 in memory of the soldiers who died in the ,civil ,war4 ,at the corner of ,douglas ,avenue and ,mechanic ,street a granite boulder commemorates the famous debate between ,abraham ,lincoln and ,stephen ,a4 ,douglas1 held in ,freeport on the #bgth of ,august #aheh4 ,in that debate ,lincoln emphasized the differences between himself and the radical anti-slavery men1 and in answer to one of ,lincoln's questions ,douglas declared that the people of a territory1 through unfriendly laws or denial of legislative protection1 could exclude slavery1 and that it matters not what way the ,supreme ,court may hereafter decide on the abstract question whether slavery may or may not go into a territory under the ,constitution4 ,this1 the so-called ,freeport doctrine1 greatly weakened ,douglas in the presidential election of #ahfj4 ,freeport was settled in #ahce1 was laid out and named ,winneshiek in #ahcf1 and in #ahcg under its present name was made the county-seat of ,stephenson county4 ,it was incorporated as a town in #ahej and chartered as a city in #ahee4 ,,free ,,ports1 a term1 strictly speaking1 given to localities where no customs duties are levied1 and where no customs supervision exists4 ,in these ports 7subject to payment for specific services rendered1 wharfage1 storage1 c41 and to the observance of local police and sanitary regulations7 ships load and unload1 cargoes are deposited and handled1 industries are exercised1 manufactures are carried on1 goods are bought and sold1 without any action on the part of fiscal authorities4 ,ports are likewise designated free where a space or zone exists within which commercial operations are conducted without payment of import or export duty1 and without active interference on the part of customs authorities4 ,the ,french and ,german designations for these two descriptions of ports are--for the former ,la ,ville franche1 ,freihafen2 for the latter ,le ,port franc1 ,freibezirk or ,freilager4 ,the ,english phrase free port applies to both4#a ,the leading conditions under which free ports in ,europe derived their origin were as follows3--7#a7 ,when public order became re-established during the middle ages1 trading centres were gradually formed4 ,marts for the exchange and purchase of goods arose in different localities4 ,many ,italian settlements1 constituting free zones1 were established in the ,levant4 ,the ,hanseatic towns arose in the #abth century4 ,great fairs became recognized--the ,leipzig charter was granted in #abfh4 ,these localities were free as regards customs duties1 although dues of the nature of octroi charges were often levied4 7#b7 ,until the #aith century ,european states were numerous1 and often of small size4 ,accordingly uniform customs tariffs of wide application did not exist4 ,uniform rates of duty were fixed ,in ,england by the ,subsidy ,act of #affj4 ,in ,france1 before the ,revolution 7besides the free ports71 ,alsace and the ,lorraine ,bishoprics were in trade matters treated as foreign countries4 ,the unification of the ,german customs tariff began in #ahcd with the ,steuerverein and the ,zollverein4 ,the ,spanish fiscal system did not include the ,basque provinces until about #ahej4 ,the uniform ,italian tariff dates from #ahfa4 ,thus until very recent times on the ,continent free ports were compatible with the fiscal policy and practice of different countries4 7#c7 ,along the ,mediterranean coast1 up to the #aith century1 convenient shelter was needed from corsairs4 ,in other continental countries the prevalent colonial and mercantile policy sought to create trans-oceanic trade4 ,free ports were advantageous from all these points of view4 ,in following the history of these harbours in ,europe1 it is to be observed that in ,great ,britain free ports have never existed4 ,in #aeeb it was contemplated to place ,hull and ,southampton on this footing1 but the design was abandoned4 ,subsequently the bonding and not the free port system was adopted in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,austria-,hungary4--,fiume and ,trieste were respectively free ports during the periods #agbb-ahic and #agai-ahic4 ,belgium4--,the emperor ,joseph ,,ii4 during his visit to the ,austrian ,netherlands in ,june #agha endeavoured to create a direct trade between that country and ,india4 ,ostend was made a free port1 and large bonding facilities were afforded at ,bruges1 ,brussels1 ,ghent and ,louvain4 ,in #agif1 however1 the revolutionary government abolished the ,ostend privileges4 ,denmark4--,in ,november #ahid an area of about #aej acres at ,copenhagen was opened as a free port1 and great facilities are afforded for shipping and commercial operations in order that the ,baltic trade may centre there4 ,france4--,marseilles was a free port in the middle ages1 and so was ,dunkirk when it formed part of ,flanders4 ,in #affi these privileges were confirmed1 and extended to ,bayonne4 ,in #aghd there was a fresh confirmation1 and ,lorient and ,st ,jean de ,luz were included in the ordonnance4 ,the ,national ,assembly in #agij maintained this policy1 and created free ports in the ,french ,west ,indies4 ,in #agie1 however1 all such privileges were abolished1 but large bonding facilities were allowed at ,marseilles to favour the ,levant trade4 ,the government of ,louis ,,xviii4 in #ahad restored1 and in #ahga again revoked1 the free port privileges of ,marseilles4 ,there are now no free ports in ,france or in ,french possessions2 the bonding system is in force4 ,germany4--,bremen1 ,hamburg and ,luebeck were reconstituted free towns and ports under the treaties of #ahad-ahae4 ,certain minor ports1 and several landing-stages on the ,rhine and the ,neckar1 were also designated free4 ,as the ,zollverein policy became accepted throughout ,germany1 previous privileges were gradually lessened1 and since #ahhh only ,hamburg remains a free port4 ,there an area of about #bejj acres is exempt from customs duties and control1 and is largely used for shipping and commercial purposes4 ,bremerhaven has a similar area of nearly #gjj acres4 ,brake1 ,bremen1 ,cuxhaven1 ,emden1 ,geestemuende1 ,neufahrwasser and ,stettin possess ,freibezirke areas1 portions of the larger port4 ,heligoland is outside the ,zollverein--practically a foreign country4 ,in ,italy free ports were numerous and important1 and possessed privileges which varied at different dates4 ,they were--,ancona1 during the period #afif-ahfh2 ,brindisi1 #ahde-ahfb2 ,leghorn 7in the #agth and #ahth centuries a very important ,mediterranean harbour71 #afge-ahfg2 ,messina1 #afie-ahgi2 ,senigallia1 #ahba-ahfh1 during the month of the local fair4 ,venice possessed warehouses1 equivalent to bonded stores1 for ,german and ,turkish trade during the ,republic1 and was a free port #ahea-ahgc4 ,genoa was a free port in the time of the ,republic and under the ,french ,empire1 and was continued as such by the treaties of #ahad-ahae4 ,the free port was1 however1 changed into a deposito franco by a law passed in #ahfe1 and only storing privileges now remain4 ,rumania4--,braila1 ,galatz and ,kustenji were free ports 7for a period of about forty years7 up to #ahhc1 when bonded warehouses were established by the ,rumanian government4 ,sulina remains free4 ,russia4--,archangel was a free port1 at least for ,english goods1 from #aeec to #afdh4 ,during this period ,english products were admitted into ,russia via ,archangel without any customs payment for internal consumption1 and also in transit to ,persia4 ,the tsar ,alexis revoked this grant on the execution of ,charles ,i4 ,free ports were opened in #ahie at ,kola1 in ,russian ,lapland4 ,dalny1 adjoining ,port ,arthur1 was a free port during the ,russian occupation2 and ,japan after the war decided to renew this privilege as soon as practicable4 ,the number of free ports outside ,europe has also lessened4 ,the administrative policy of ,european countries has been gradually adopted in other parts of the world1 and customs duties have become almost universal1 conjoined with bonding and transhipment facilities4 ,in ,british colonies and possessions1 under an act of parliament passed in #agff1 and repealed in #ahfg1 two ports in ,dominica and four in ,jamaica were free1 ,malacca1 ,penang and ,singapore have been free ports since #ahbd1 ,hong-,kong since #ahdb1 and ,weihaiwei since it was leased to ,great ,britain in #ahih4 ,zanzibar was a free port during #ahib-ahii4 ,aden1 ,gibraltar1 ,st ,helena and ,st ,thomas 7,west ,indies7 are sometimes designated free ports4 ,a few duties are1 however1 levied1 which are really octroi rather than customs charges4 ,these places are mainly stations for coaling and awaiting orders4 ,some harbours in the ,netherlands ,east ,indies were free ports between #ahbi and #ahii2 but these privileges were withdrawn by laws passed in #ahih-ahii1 in order to establish uniformity of customs administration4 ,harbours where custom houses are not maintained will be practically closed to foreign trade1 though the governor-general may in special circumstances vary the application of the new regulations4 ,macao has been a free port since #ahde4 ,portugal has no other harbour of this character4 ,the ,american ,republics have adopted the bonding system4 ,in #ahif a free wharf was opened at ,new ,orleans in imitation of the recent ,european plan4 ,livingstone 7,guatemala7 was a free port during the period #ahhb-ahhh4 ,the privileges enjoyed under the old free port system benefited the towns and districts where they existed2 and their abolition has been1 locally1 injurious4 ,these places were1 however1 foreign to their own country1 and their inland intercourse was restricted by the duties levied on their products1 and by the precautions adopted to prevent evasion of these charges4 ,with fiscal usages involving preferential and deferential treatment of goods and places1 the drawbacks thus arising did not attract serious attention4 ,under the limited means of communication within and beyond the country1 in former times1 these conveniences were not much felt4 ,but when finance departments became more completely organized1 the free port system fell out of favour with fiscal authorities3 it afforded opportunities for smuggling1 and impeded uniformity of action and practice4 ,it became1 in fact1 out of harmony with the administrative and financial policy of later times4 ,bonding and entrepot facilities1 on a scale commensurate with local needs1 now satisfy trade requirements4 ,in countries where high customs duties are levied1 and where fiscal regulations are minute and rigid1 if an extension of foreign trade is desired1 and the competition which it involves is a national aim1 special facilities must be granted for this purpose4 ,in these circumstances a free zone sufficiently large to admit of commercial operations and transhipments on a scale which will fulfil these conditions 7watched but not interfered with by the customs7 becomes indispensable4 ,the ,german government have1 as we have seen1 maintained a free zone of this nature at ,hamburg4 ,and when the free port at ,copenhagen was opened1 counter measures were adopted at ,danzig and ,stettin4 ,an agitation has arisen in ,france to provide at certain ports free zones similar to those at ,copenhagen and ,hamburg1 and to open free ports in ,french possessions4 ,a bill to this effect was submitted to the chamber of deputies on the #abth of ,april #aije4 ,colonial free ports1 such as ,hong-,kong and ,singapore1 do not interfere with the uniformity of the home customs and excise policy4 ,these two harbours in particular have become great shipping resorts and distributing centres4 ,the policy which led to their establishment as free ports has certainly promoted ,british commercial interests4 ,see the ,parliamentary ,paper on ,continental ,free ,ports1 #aijd4 7,c4 ,m4 ,k47 ,,footnote3 #a ,in ,china at the present time 7#aijb7 certain ports are designated free and open4 ,this phrase means that the ports in question are 7#a7 open to foreign trade1 and 7#b7 that vessels engaged in oversea voyages may freely resort there4 ,exemption from payment of customs duties is not implied1 which is a matter distinct from the permission granted under treaty engagements to foreign vessels to carry cargoes to and from the treaty ports4 ,,free ,,reed ,,vibrator 7,fr4 anche libre1 ,ger4 durchschlagende ,zunge1 ,ital4 ancia or lingua libera71 in musical instruments1 a thin metal tongue fixed at one end and vibrating freely either in surrounding space1 as in the accordion and concertina1 or enclosed in a pipe or channel1 as in certain reed stops of the organ or in the harmonium4 ,the enclosed reed1 in its typical and theoretical form1 is fixed over an aperture of the same shape but just large enough to allow it to swing freely backwards and forwards1 alternately opening and closing the aperture1 when driven by a current of compressed air4 ,we have to deal with air under three different conditions in considering the phenomenon of the sound produced by free reeds4 7#a7 ,the stationary column or stratum in pipe or channel containing the reed1 which is normally at rest4 7#b7 ,the wind or current of air fed from the bellows with a variable velocity and pressure1 which is broken up into periodic air puffs as its entrance into pipe or channel is alternately checked or allowed by the vibrator4 7#c7 ,the disturbed condition of ,no4 #a when acted upon by the metal vibrator and by ,no #b1 whereby the air within the pipe is forced into alternate pulses of condensation and rarefaction4 ,the free reed is therefore not the tone-producer but only the exciting agent1 that is to say1 the sound is not produced by the communication of the free reed's vibrations to the surrounding air1#a as in the case of a vibrating string1 but by the series of air puffs punctuated by infinitesimal pauses1 which it produces by alternately opening and almost closing the aperture4#b ,a musical sound is thus produced the pitch of which depends on the length and thickness of the metal tongue2 the greater the length1 the slower the vibrations and the lower the pitch1 while on the contrary1 the thicker the reed near the shoulder at the fixed end1 the higher the pitch4 ,it must be borne in mind that the periodic vibrations of the reed determine the pitch of the sound solely by the frequency per second they impose upon the pulses of rarefaction and condensation within the pipe4 ,illustration3 ,from ,j4 ,b4 ,biot1 ,traite de physique experimentale4 ,,fig4 #a4--;,grenie's organ pipe fitted with free-reed vibrator4 ,a1 ,tuning wire4 ,d1 ,free reed4 ,r1 ,reed-box4 ,b1 ,c1 ,feed pipe with conical foot4 ,t1 ,part of resonating pipe1 the upper end with cap and vent hole being shown separately at the side4 ,the most valuable characteristic of the free reed is its power of producing all the delicate gradations of tone between forte and piano by virtue of a law of acoustics governing the vibration of free reeds1 whereby increased pressure of wind produces a proportional increase in the volume of tone4 ,the pitch of any sound depends upon the frequency of the sound-waves1 that is1 the number per second which reach the ear2 the fullness of sound depends upon the amplitude of the waves1 or1 more strictly speaking1 of the swing of the transmitting particles of the medium--greater pressure in the air current 7,no4 #b above7 which sets the vibrator in motion producing amplitude of vibration in the air within the receptacle 7,no4 #c above7 serving as resonating medium4 ,the sound produced by the free reed itself is weak and requires to be reinforced by means of an additional stationary column or stratum of air4 ,free reed instruments are therefore classified according to the nature of the resonant medium provided3--7#a7 ,free reeds vibrating in pipes1 such as the reed stops of church organs on the continent of ,europe 7in ,england the reed pipes are generally provided with beating reeds1 see ,,reed ,,instruments and ,,clarinet74 7#b7 ,free reeds vibrating in reed compartments and reinforced by air chambers of various shapes and sizes as in the harmonium 7q4v474 7#c7 ,instruments like the accordion and concertina having the free reed set in vibration through a valve1 but having no reinforcing medium4 ,the arrangement of the free reed in an organ pipe is simple1 and does not differ greatly from that of the beating reed shown in fig4 #b for the purpose of comparison4 ,the reed-box1 a rectangular wooden pipe1 is closed at the bottom and covered on one face with a thin plate of copper having a rectangular slit over which is fixed the thin metal vibrating tongue or reed as described above4 ,the reed-box1 itself open at the top1 is enclosed in a feed pipe having a conical foot pierced with a small hole through which the air current is forced by the action of the bellows4 ,the impact of the incoming compressed air against the reed tongue sets it swinging through the slit1 thus causing a disturbance or series of pulsations within the reed-box4 ,the air then finds an escape through the resonating medium of a pipe fitting over the reed-box and terminating in an inverted cone covered with a cap in the top of which is pierced a small hole or vent4 ,the quality of tone of free reeds is due to the tendency of air set in periodic pulsations to divide into aliquot vibrations or loops1 producing the phenomenon known as harmonic overtones or upper partials1 which may1 in the highly composite clang of free reeds1 be discerned as far as the #afth or #bjth of the series4 ,the more intermittent and interrupted the air current becomes1 the greater the number of the upper partials produced4#c ,the power of the overtones and their relation to the fundamental note depend greatly upon the form of the tongue1 its position and the amount of the clearance left as it swings through the aperture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,organ pipe fitted with beating reed4 ,,al1 ,beating reed4 ,r1 ,reed box4 ,ff1 ,tuning wire4 ,,tv1 ,feed pipe4 ,,vv1 ,conical foot4 ,s1 ,hole through which compressed air is fed4 ,free reeds not associated with resonating media as in the concertina are peculiarly rich in harmonics1 but as the higher harmonics lie very close together1 disagreeable dissonances and a harsh tone result4 ,the resonating pipe or chamber when suitably accommodated to the reed greatly modifies the tone by reinforcing the harmonics proper to itself1 the others sinking into comparative insignificance4 ,in order to produce a full rich tone1 a resonator should be chosen whose deepest note coincides with the fundamental tone of the reed4 ,the other upper partials will also be reinforced thereby1 but to a less degree the higher the harmonics4#d ,for the history of the application of the free reed to keyboard instruments see ,,harmonium4 7,k4 ,s47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,see ,h4 ,helmholtz1 ,die ,lehre von den ,tonempfindungen 7,brunswick1 #ahgg71 p4 #aff4 #b ,see also ,ernst ,heinrich and ,wilhelm ,weber1 ,wellenlehre 7,leipzig1 #ahbe71 where a particularly lucid explanation of the phenomenon is given1 pp4 #ebf-ecj4 #c ,see ,helmholtz1 op4 cit4 p4 #afg4 #d ,these phenomena are clearly explained at greater length by ,sedley ,taylor in ,sound and ,music 7,london1 #ahif71 pp4 #acd-aec and pp4 #gd-hf4 ,see also ,friedrich ,zamminer1 ,die ,musik und die musikalischen ,instrumente1 c4 7,giessen1 #ahee71 p4 #bfa4 ,,freesia1 in botany1 a genus of plants belonging to the ,iris family 7,iridaceae71 and containing a single species1 ,f4 refracta1 native at the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,the plants grow from a corm 7a solid bulb1 as in ,gladiolus7 which sends up a tuft of long narrow leaves and a slightly branched stem bearing a few leaves and loose one-sided spikes of fragrant narrowly funnel-shaped flowers4 ,several varieties are known in cultivation1 differing in the colour of the flower1 which is white1 cream or yellow4 ,they form pretty greenhouse plants which are readily increased from seed4 ,they are extensively grown for the market in ,guernsey1 ,england and ,america4 ,by potting successively throughout the autumn a supply of flowers is obtained through winter and spring4 ,some very fine large-flowered varieties1 including rose-coloured ones1 are now being raised by various growers in ,england1 and are a great improvement on the older forms4 ,,free ,,soil ,,party1 a political party in the ,united ,states1 which was organized in #ahdg-ahdh to oppose the extension of slavery into the ,territories4 ,it was a combination of the political abolitionists--many of whom had formerly been identified with the more radical ,liberty party--the anti-slavery ,whigs1 and the faction of the ,democratic party in the state of ,new ,york1 called ,barnburners1 who favoured the prohibition of slavery1 in accordance with the ,wilmot ,proviso 7see ,,wilmot1 ,,david71 in the territory acquired from ,mexico4 ,the party was prominent in the presidential campaigns of #ahdh and #aheb4 ,at the national convention held in ,buffalo1 ,n4,y41 on the #ith and #ajth of ,august #ahdh1 they secured the nomination to the presidency of ex-,president ,martin ,van ,buren1 who had failed to secure nomination by the ,democrats in #ahdd because of his opposition to the annexation of ,texas1 and of ,charles ,francis ,adams1 of ,massachusetts1 for the vice-presidency1 taking as their platform a ,declaration that ,congress1 having no more power to make a slave than to make a king1 was bound to restrict slavery to the slave states1 and concluding1 we inscribe on our banner ',free ,soil1 ,free ,speech1 ,free ,labor and ,free ,man1' and under it we will fight on and fight ever1 until a triumphant victory shall reward our exertions4 ,the ,liberty party had previously1 in ,november #ahdg1 nominated ,john ,p4 ,hale and ,leicester ,king as president and vice-president respectively1 but in the spring of #ahdh it withdrew its candidates and joined the free soil movement4 ,representatives of eighteen states1 including ,delaware1 ,maryland and ,virginia1 attended the ,buffalo convention4 ,in the ensuing presidential election ,van ,buren and ,adams received a popular vote of #bia1bfc1 of which #abj1eaj were cast in ,new ,york4 ,they received no electoral votes1 all these being divided between the ,whig candidate1 ,zachary ,taylor1 who was elected1 and the ,democratic candidate1 ,lewis ,cass4 ,the free soilers1 however1 succeeded in sending to the thirty-first ,congress two senators and fourteen representatives1 who by their ability exercised an influence out of proportion to their number4 ,between #ahdh and #aheb the ,barnburners and the ,hunkers1 their opponents1 became partially reunited1 the former returning to the ,democratic ranks1 and thus greatly weakening the ,free ,soilers4 ,the party held its national convention at ,pittsburg1 ,pennsylvania1 on the #aath of ,august #aheb1 delegates being present from all the free states1 and from ,delaware1 ,maryland1 ,virginia and ,kentucky2 and ,john ,p4 ,hale1 of ,new ,hampshire1 and ,george ,w4 ,julian of ,indiana1 were nominated for the presidency and the vice-presidency respectively1 on a platform which declared slavery a sin against ,god and a crime against man1 denounced the ,compromise ,measures of #ahej1 the fugitive slave law in particular1 and again opposed the extension of slavery in the ,territories4 ,these candidates1 however1 received no electoral votes and a popular vote of only #aef1adi1 of which but #be1cbi were polled in ,new ,york4 ,by #ahef they abandoned their separate organization and joined the movement which resulted in the formation of the powerful ,republican party 7q4v471 of which the ,free ,soil party was the legitimate precursor4 ,,free-,,stone 7a translation of the ,o4 ,fr4 franche pere or pierre1 i4e4 stone of good quality2 the modern ,french equivalent is pierre de taille1 and ,ital4 pietra molle71 stone used in architecture for mouldings1 tracery and other work required to be worked with the chisel4 ,the oolitic stones are generally so called1 although in some countries soft sandstones are used2 in some churches an indurated chalk called clunch is employed for internal lining and for carving4 ,,freetown1 capital of the ,british colony of ,sierra ,leone1 ,west ,africa1 on the south side of the ,sierra ,leone estuary1 about #e m4 from the cape of that name1 in #h deg4 #bi' ,n41 #ac deg4 #aj' ,w4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #cd1dfc4 ,about #ejj of the inhabitants are ,europeans4 ,freetown is picturesquely situated on a plain1 closed in behind by a succession of wooded hills1 the ,sierra ,leone1 rising to a height of #agjj ft4 ,as nearly every house is surrounded by a courtyard or garden1 the town covers an unusually large area for the number of its inhabitants4 ,it possesses few buildings of architectural merit4 ,the principal are the governor's residence and government offices1 the barracks1 the cathedral1 the missionary institutions1 the fruit market1 ,wilberforce ,hall1 courts of justice1 the railway station and the grammar school4 ,several of these institutions are built on the slopes of the hills1 and on the highest point1 ,sugar ,loaf ,mountain1 is a sanatorium4 ,the botanic gardens form a pleasant and favourite place of resort4 ,the roads are wide but badly kept4 ,horses do not live1 and all wheeled traffic is done by manual labour--hammocks and sedan-chairs are the customary means of locomotion4 ,notwithstanding that ,freetown possesses an abundant and pure water-supply1 drawn from the adjacent hills1 it is enervating and unhealthy1 and it was particularly to the capital1 often spoken of as ,sierra ,leone1 that the designation ,white ,man's ,grave applied4 ,since the beginning of the #bjth century strenuous efforts have been made to improve the sanitary condition by a new system of drainage1 a better water service1 the filling up of marshes wherein the malarial mosquito breeds1 and in other directions4 ,a light railway #f m4 long1 opened in #aijd1 has been built to ,hill ,station 7#ijj ft4 high71 where1 on a healthy site1 are the residences of the government officials and of other ,europeans4 ,as a consequence the public health has improved1 the highest death-rate in the years #aija-aijg being #bi4f per #ajjj4 ,the town is governed by a municipality 7created in #ahic7 with a mayor and councillors1 the large majority being elective4 ,freetown was the first place in ,british ,west ,africa granted local self-government4 ,both commercially and strategically ,freetown is a place of importance4 ,its harbour affords ample accommodation for the largest fleets1 it is a coaling station for the ,british navy1 the headquarters of the ,british military forces in ,west ,africa1 the sea terminus of the railway to the rich oil-palm regions of ,mendiland1 and a port of call for all steamers serving ,west ,africa4 ,its inhabitants are noted for their skill as traders2 the town itself produces nothing in the way of exports4 ,in consequence of the character of the original settlement 7see ,,sierra ,,leone71 #ge of the inhabitants are descended from non-indigenous ,negro races4 ,as many as #aej different tribes are represented in the ,sierra ,leonis of to-day4 ,their semi-,europeanization is largely the result of missionary endeavour4 ,the only language of the lower class is pidgin-,english--quite incomprehensible to the newcomer from ,great ,britain1--but a large proportion of the inhabitants are highly educated men who excel as lawyers1 clergymen1 clerks and traders4 ,many members of the upper1 that is1 the best-educated1 class have filled official positions of great responsibility4 ,the most noted citizens are ,bishop ,crowther and ,sir ,samuel ,lewis1 chief justice of ,sierra ,leone #ahhb-ahid4 ,both were full-blooded ,africans4 ,the ,kru-men form a distinct section of the community1 living in a separate quarter and preserving their tribal customs4 ,since #ahfa-ahfb there has been an independent ,episcopal ,native ,church2 but the ,church ,missionary ,society1 which in #ahjd sent out the first missionaries to ,sierra ,leone1 still maintains various agencies4 ,furah ,bay ,college1 built by the society on the site of ,general ,charles ,turner's estate 7#aa_/b m4 ,e4 of ,freetown71 and opened in #ahbh with six pupils1 one of whom was ,bishop ,crowther1 was affiliated in #ahgf to ,durham ,university and has a high-class curriculum4 ,the ,wesleyans have a high school1 a theological college1 and other educative agencies4 ,the ,moslems1 who are among the most law-abiding and intelligent citizens of ,freetown1 have several state-aided primary schools4 ,,free ,,trade1 an expression which has now come to be appropriated to the economic policy of encouraging the greatest possible commercial intercourse1 unrestricted by protective duties 7see ,,protection71 between any one country and its neighbours4 ,this policy was originally advocated in ,france1 and it has had its adherents in many countries1 but ,great ,britain stands alone among the great commercial nations of the world in having adopted it systematically from #ahdf onwards as the fundamental principle of her economic policy4 ,in the economic literature of earlier periods1 it may be noted that the term free trade is employed in senses which have no relation to modern usage4 ,the term conveyed no suggestion of unrestricted trade or national liberty when it first appeared in controversial pamphlets2#a it stood for a freedom conferred and maintained by authority--like that of a free town4 ,the merchants desired to have good regulations for trade so that they might be free from the disabilities imposed upon them by foreign princes or unscrupulous fellow-subjects4 ,after #afdj the term seems to have been commonly current in a different sense4 ,when the practice which had been handed down from the middle ages--of organizing the trade with particular countries by means of privileged companies1 which professed to regulate the trade according to the state of the market so as to secure its steady development in the interest of producers and traders--was seriously called in question under the ,stuarts and at the ,revolution1 the interlopers and opponents of the companies insisted on the advantages of a ,free ,trade2 they meant by this that the various branches of commerce should not be confined to particular persons or limited in amount1 but should be thrown open to be pursued by any ,englishman in the way he thought most profitable himself4#b ,again1 in the latter half of the #ahth century1 till ,pitt's financial reforms#c were brought into operation1 the ,english customs duties on wine and brandy were excessive2 and those who carried on a remunerative business by evading these duties were known as ,fair ,traders or ,free ,traders4#d ,since #ahdf the term free trade has been popularly used1 in ,england1 to designate the policy of ,cobden 7q4v47 and others who advocated the abolition of the tax on imported corn 7see ,,corn ,,laws72 this is the only one of the specialized senses of the term which is at all likely to be confused with the economic doctrine4 ,the ,anti-,corn ,law movement was1 as a matter of fact1 a special application of the economic principle2 but serious mistakes have arisen from the blunder of confusing the part with the whole1 and treating the remission of one particular duty as if it were the essential element of a policy in which it was only an incident4 ,w4 ,e4 ,gladstone1 in discussing the effect of improvements in locomotion on ,british trade1 showed what a large proportion of the stimulus to commerce during the #aith century was to be credited to what he called the liberalizing legislation of the free-trade movement in the wide sense in which he used the term4 ,i rank the introduction of cheap postage for letters1 documents1 patterns and printed matter1 and the abolition of all taxes on printed matter1 in the category of ,free ,trade ,legislation4 ,not only thought in general1 but every communication1 and every publication1 relating to matters of business1 was thus set free4 ,these great measures1 then1 may well take their place beside the abolition of prohibitions and protective duties1 the simplifying of revenue laws1 and the repeal of the ,navigation ,act1 as forming together the great code of industrial emancipation4 ,under this code1 our race1 restored to freedom in mind and hand1 and braced by the powerful stimulus of open competition with the world1 has upon the whole surpassed itself and every other1 and has won for itself a commercial primacy more evident1 more comprehensive1 and more solid than it had at any previous time possessed4#e ,in this large sense free trade may be almost interpreted as the combination of the doctrines of the division of labour and of laissez-faire in regard to the world as a whole4 ,the division of labour between different countries of the world--so that each concentrates its energies in supplying that for the production of which it is best fitted--appears to offer the greatest possibility of production2 but this result cannot be secured unless trade and industry are treated as the primary elements in the welfare of each community1 and political considerations are not allowed to hamper them4 ,stated in its simplest form1 the principle which underlies the doctrine of free trade is almost a truism2 it is directly deducible from the very notion of exchange 7q4v474 ,adam ,smith and his successors have demonstrated that in every case of voluntary exchange each party gains something that is of greater value-in-use to him than that with which he parts1 and that consequently in every exchange1 either between individuals or between nations1 both parties are the gainers4 ,hence it necessarily follows that1 since both parties gain through exchanging1 the more facilities there are for exchange the greater will be the advantage to every individual all round4#f ,there is no difficulty in translating this principle into the terms of actual life1 and stating the conditions in which it holds good absolutely4 ,if1 at any given moment1 the mass of goods in the world were distributed among the consumers with the minimum of restriction on interchange1 each competitor would obtain the largest possible share of the things he procures in the world's market4 ,but the argument is less conclusive when the element of time is taken into account2 what is true of each moment separately is not necessarily true of any period in which the conditions of production1 or the requirements of communities1 may possibly change4 ,each individual is likely to act with reference to his own future1 but it may often be wise for the statesman to look far ahead1 beyond the existing generation4#g ,owing to the neglect of this element of time1 and the allowance which must be made for it1 the reasoning as to the advantages of free trade1 which is perfectly sound in regard to the distribution of goods already in existence1 may become sophistical1#h if it is put forward as affording a complete demonstration of the benefits of free trade as a regular policy4 ,after all1 human society is very complex1 and any attempt to deal with its problems off-hand by appealing to a simple principle raises the suspicion that some important factor may have been left out of account4 ,when there is such mistaken simplification1 the reasoning may seem to have complete certainty1 and yet it fails to produce conviction1 because it does not profess to deal with the problem in all its aspects4 ,when we concentrate attention on the phenomena of exchange1 we are viewing society as a mechanism in which each acts under known laws and is impelled by one particular force--that of self-interest2 now1 society is1 no doubt1 in this sense a mechanism1 but it is also an organism1#i and it is only for very short periods1 and in a very limited way1 that we can venture to neglect its organic character without running the risk of falling into serious mistakes4 ,the doctrine of free trade maintains that in order to secure the greatest possible mass of goods in the world as a whole1 and the greatest possibility of immediate comfort for the consumer1 it is expedient that there should be no restriction on the exchange of goods and services either between individuals or communities4 ,the controversies in regard to this doctrine have not turned on its certainty as a hypothetical principle1 but on the legitimacy of the arguments based upon it4 ,it certainly supplies a principle in the light of which all proposed trade regulations should be criticized4 ,it gives us a basis for examining and estimating the expense at which any particular piece of trade restriction is carried out2 but thus used1 the principle does not necessarily condemn the expenditure2 the game may be worth the candle or it may not1 but at least it is well that we should know how fast the candle is being burnt4 ,it was in this critical spirit that ,adam ,smith examined the various restrictions and encouragements to trade which were in vogue in his day2 he proved of each in turn that it was expensive1 but he showed that he was conscious that the final decision could not be taken from this standpoint1 since he recognized in regard to the ,navigation ,acts that defence is more than opulence4#aj ,in more recent times1 the same sort of attitude was taken by ,henry ,sidgwick1#aa who criticizes various protective expedients in turn1 in the light of free trade1 but does not treat it as conveying an authoritative decision on their merits4 ,but other exponents of the doctrine have not been content to employ it in this fashion4 ,they urge it in a more positive manner1 and insist that free trade pure and simple is the foundation on which the economic life of the community ought to be based4 ,by men who advocate it in this way1 free trade is set forward as an ideal which it is a duty to realize1 and those who hold aloof from it or oppose it have been held up to scorn as if they were almost guilty of a crime4#ab ,the development of the material resources of the world is undoubtedly an important element in the welfare of mankind2 it is an aim which is common to the whole race1 and may be looked upon as contributing to the greatest happiness of the greatest number4 ,competition in the open market seems to secure that each consumer shall obtain the best possible terms2 and again1 since all men are consumers whether they produce or not1 or whatever they produce1 the greatest measure of comforts for each seems likely to be attainable on these lines4 ,for those who are frankly cosmopolitan1 and who regard material prosperity as at all events the prime object at which public policy should aim1 the free-trade doctrine is readily transformed1 from a mere principle of criticism1 till it comes to be regarded as the harbinger of a possible ,utopia4 ,it was in this fashion that it was put forward by ,french economists and proved attractive to some leading ,american statesmen in the #ahth century4 ,turgot regarded the colonial systems of the ,european countries as at once unfair to their dependencies and dangerous to the peace of the world4 ,it will be a wise and happy thing for the nation which shall be the first to modify its policy according to the new conditions1 and be content to regard its colonies as if they were allied provinces and not subjects of the mother country4 ,it will be a wise and happy thing for the nation which is the first to be convinced that the secret of success1 so far as commercial policy is concerned1 consists in employing all its land in the manner most profitable for the proprietary1 all the hands in the manner most advantageous to the workman personally1 that is to say1 in the manner in which each would employ them1 if we could let him be simply directed by his own interest1 and that all the rest of the mercantile policy is vanity and vexation of spirit4 ,when the entire separation of ,america shall have forced the whole world to recognize this truth and purged the ,european nations of commercial jealousy there will be one great cause of war less in the world4#ac ,pitt1 under the influence of ,adam ,smith1 was prepared to admit the ,united ,states to the benefit of trade with the ,west ,indian ,colonies2 and ,jefferson1 accepting the principles of his ,french teachers1 would 7in contradistinction to ,alexander ,hamilton7 have been willing to see his country renounce the attempt to develop manufactures of her own4#ad ,it seemed as if a long step might be taken towards realizing the free-trade ideal for the ,anglo-,saxon race2 but ,british shipowners insisted on the retention of their privileges1 and the propitious moment passed away with the failure of the negotiations of #aghc4ae ,free trade ceased to be regarded as a gospel1 even in ,france1 till the ideal was revived in the writings of ,bastiat1 and helped to mould the enthusiasm of ,richard ,cobden4#af ,through his zealous advocacy1 the doctrine secured converts in almost every part of the world2 though it was only in ,great ,britain that a great majority of the citizens became so far satisfied with it that they adopted it as the foundation of the economic policy of the country4 ,it is not difficult to account for the conversion of ,great ,britain to this doctrine2 in the special circumstances of the first half of the #aith century it was to the interest of the most vigorous factors in the economic life of the country to secure the greatest possible freedom for commercial intercourse4 ,great ,britain had1 through her shipping1 access to all the markets of the world2 she had obtained such a lead in the application of machinery to manufactures that she had a practical monopoly in textile manufactures and in the hardware trades2 by removing every restriction1 she could push her advantage to its farthest extent1 and not only undersell native manufactures in other lands1 but secure food1 and the raw materials for her manufactures1 on the cheapest possible terms4 ,free trade thus seemed to offer the means of placing an increasing distance between ,britain and her rivals1 and of rendering the industrial monopoly which she had attained impregnable4 ,the capitalist employer had superseded the landowner as the mainstay of the resources and revenue of the realm1 and insisted that the prosperity of manufactures was the primary interest of the community as a whole4 ,the expectation1 that a thoroughgoing policy of free trade would not only favour an increase of employment1 but also the cheapening of food1 could only have been roused in a country which was obliged to import a considerable amount of corn4 ,the exceptional weakness1 as well as the exceptional strength1 of ,great ,britain1 among ,european countries1 made it seem desirable to adopt the principle of unrestricted commercial intercourse1 not merely in the tentative fashion in which it had been put in operation by ,huskisson1 but in the thoroughgoing fashion in which it at last commended itself to the minds of ,peel and ,gladstone4 ,the ,manchester men saw clearly where their interest lay2 and the fashionable political economy was ready to demonstrate that in pursuing their own interest they were conferring the benefit of cheap clothing on all the most poverty-stricken races of mankind4 ,it seemed probable1 in the 'forties and early 'fifties1 that other countries would take a similar view of their own interests and would follow the example which ,great ,britain had set4#ag ,that they have not done so1 is partly due to the fact that none of them had such a direct1 or such a widely diffused1 interest in increased commercial intercourse as existed in ,great ,britain2 but their reluctance has been partly the result of the criticism to which the free-trade doctrine has been subjected4 ,the principles expressed in the writings of ,friedrich ,list have taken such firm hold1 both in ,america and in ,germany1 that these countries have preferred to follow on the lines by which ,great ,britain successfully built up her industrial prosperity in the #agth and #ahth century1 rather than on those by which they have seen her striving to maintain it since #ahdf4 ,free trade was attractive as an ideal1 because it appeared to offer the greatest production of goods to the world as a whole1 and the largest share of material goods to each consumer2 it is cosmopolitan1 and it treats consumption1 and the interest of the consumer1 as such1 as the end to be considered4 ,hence it lies open to objections which are partly political and partly economic4 ,as cosmopolitan1 free-trade doctrine is apt to be indifferent to national tradition and aspiration4 ,in so far indeed as patriotism is a mere aesthetic sentiment1 it may be tolerated1 but in so far as it implies a genuine wish and intention to preserve and defend the national habits and character to the exclusion of alien elements1 the cosmopolitan mind will condemn it as narrow and mischievous4 ,in the first half of the #aith century there were many men who believed that national ambitions and jealousies of every kind were essentially dynastic1 and that if monarchies were abolished there would be fewer occasions of war1 so that the expenses of the business of government would be enormously curtailed4 ,for ,cobden and his contemporaries it was natural to regard the national administrative institutions as maintained for the benefit of the classes and without much advantage to the masses4 ,but in point of fact1 modern times have shown the existence in democracies of a patriotic sentiment which is both exclusive and aggressive2 and the burden of armaments has steadily increased4 ,it was by means of a civil war that the ,united ,states attained to a consciousness of national life2 while such later symptoms as the recent interpretations of the ,monroe doctrine1 or the war with ,spain1 have proved that the citizens of that democratic country cannot be regarded as destitute of self-aggrandizing national ambition4 ,in ,germany the growth of militarism and nationalism have gone on side by side under constitutional government1 and certainly in harmony with predominant public opinion4 ,neither of these communities is willing to sink its individual conception of progress in those of the world at large2 each is jealous of the intrusion of alien elements which cannot be reconciled with its own political and social system4 ,and a similar recrudescence of patriotic feeling has been observable in other countries1 such as ,norway and ,hungary3 the growth of national sentiment is shown1 not only in the attempts to revive and popularize the use of a national language1 but still more decidedly in the determination to have a real control over the economic life of the country4 ,it is here that the new patriotism comes into direct conflict with the political principles of free trade as advocated by ,bastiat and ,cobden2 for them the important point was that countries1 by becoming dependent on one another1 would be prevented from engaging in hostilities4 ,the new nations are determined that they will not allow other countries to have such control over their economic condition1 as to be able to exercise a powerful influence on their political life4 ,each is determined to be the master in his own house1 and each has rejected free trade because of the cosmopolitanism which it involves4 ,economically1 free trade lays stress on consumption as the chief criterion of prosperity4 ,it is1 of course1 true that goods are produced with the object of being consumed1 and it is plausible to insist on taking this test2 but it is also true that consumption and production are mutually interdependent1 and that in some ways production is the more important of the two4 ,consumption looks to the present1 and the disposal of actual goods2 production looks to the future1 and the conditions under which goods can continue to be regularly provided and thus become available for consumption in the long run4 ,as regards the prosperity of the community in the future it is important that goods should be consumed in such a fashion as to secure that they shall be replaced or increased before they are used up2 it is the amount of production rather than the amount of consumption that demands consideration1 and gives indication of growth or of decadence4 ,in these circumstances there is much to be said for looking at the economic life of a country from the point of view which free-traders have abandoned or ignore4 ,it is not on the possibilities of consumption in the present1 but on the prospects of production in the future1 that the continued wealth of the community depends2 and this principle is the only one which conforms to the modern conception of the essential requirements of sociological science in its wider aspect 7see ,,sociology74 ,this is most obviously true in regard to countries of which the resources are very imperfectly developed4 ,if their policy is directed to securing the greatest possible comfort for each consumer in the present1 it is certain that progress will be slow2 the planting of industries for which the country has an advantage may be a tedious process2 and in order to stimulate national efficiency temporary protection--involving what is otherwise unnecessary immediate cost to the consumer--may seem to be abundantly justified4 ,such a free trader as ,john ,stuart ,mill himself admits that a case may be made out for treating infant industries as exceptions2#ah and if this exception be admitted it is likely to establish a precedent4 ,after all1 the various countries of the world are all in different stages of development2 some are old and some are new2 and even the old countries differ greatly in the progress they have made in distinct arts4 ,the introduction of machinery has everywhere changed the conditions of production1 so that some countries have lost and others have gained a special advantage4 ,most of the countries of the world are convinced that the wisest economy is to attend to the husbanding of their resources of every kind1 and to direct their policy not merely with a view to consumption in the present1 but rather with regard to the possibilities of increased production in the future4 ,this deliberate rejection of the doctrine of free trade between nations1 both in its political and economic aspects1 has not interfered1 however1 with the steady progress of free commercial intercourse within the boundaries of a single though composite political community4 ,internal free trade1 though the name was not then current in this sense1 was one of the burning questions in ,england in the #agth century2 it was perhaps as important a factor as puritanism in the fall of ,charles ,i4 ,internal free trade was secured in ,france in the #ahth century2 thanks to ,hamilton1#ai it was embodied in the constitution of the ,united ,states2 it was introduced into ,germany by ,bismarck2 and was firmly established in the ,dominion of ,canada and the ,commonwealth of ,australia4 ,it became in consequence1 where practicable1 a part of the modern federal idea as usually interpreted4 ,there are thus great areas1 externally self-protecting1 where free trade1 as between internal divisions1 has been introduced with little1 if any1 political difficulty1 and with considerable economic advantage4 ,these cases are sometimes quoted as justifying the expectation that the same principle is likely to be adopted sooner or later in regard to external trading relations4 ,there is some reason1 however1 for raising the question whether free trade has been equally successful1 not only in its economic1 but in its social results1 in all the large political communities where it has been introduced4 ,in a region like the ,united ,states of ,america1 it is probably seen at its best2 there is an immense variety of different products throughout that great zone of the continent1 so that the mutual co-operation of the various parts is most beneficial1 while the standard of habit and comfort is so far uniform#bj throughout the whole region1 and the facilities for the change of employment are so many1 that there is little injurious competition between different districts4 ,in the ,british empire the conditions are reversed2 but though the great self-governing colonies have withdrawn from the circle1 in the hope of building up their own economic life in their own way1 free trade is still maintained over a very large part of the ,british empire4 ,throughout this area1 there are very varied physical conditions2 there is also an extraordinary variety of races1 each with its own habits1 and own standard of comfort2 and in these circumstances it may be doubted whether the free competition1 involved in free trade1 is really altogether wholesome4 ,within this sphere the ideal of ,bastiat and his followers is being realized4 ,england1 as a great manufacturing country1 has more than held her own2 ,india and ,ireland are supplied with manufactured goods by ,england1 and in each case the population is forced to look to the soil for its means of support1 and for purchasing power4 ,in each case the preference for tillage1 as an occupation1 has rendered it comparatively easy to keep the people on the land2 but there is some reason to believe that the law of diminishing returns is already making itself felt1 at all events in ,india1 and is forcing the people into deeper poverty4#ba ,it may be doubtful in the case of ,ireland how far the superiority of ,england in industrial pursuits has prevented the development of manufactures2 the progress in the last decades of the #ahth century was too short-lived to be conclusive2 but there is at least a strong impression in many quarters that the industries of ,ireland might have flourished if they had had better opportunities allowed them4#bb ,in the case of ,india we know that the hereditary artistic skill1 which had been built up in bygone generations1 has been stamped out4 ,it seems possible that the modern unrest in ,india1 and the discontent in ,ireland1 may be connected with the economic conditions in these countries1 on which free trade has been imposed without their consent4 ,so far the population which subsists on the cheaper food1 and has the lower standard of life1 has been the sufferer2 but the mischief might operate in another fashion4 ,the self-governing colonies at all events feel that competition in the same market between races with different standards of comfort has infinite possibilities of mischief4 ,it is easy to conjure up conditions under which the standard of comfort of wage-earners in ,england would be seriously threatened4 ,since the #ith edition of the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica was published it has become clear that the free-trade doctrines of ,bastiat and ,cobden have not been gaining ground in the world at large1 and at the opening of the #bjth century it could hardly be said with confidence that the question was finally settled so far as ,england was concerned4 ,as to whether the interests of ,great ,britain still demanded that she should continue on the line she adopted in the exceptional conditions of the middle of the #aith century1 expert opinion was conspicuously divided2#bc but there remained no longer the old enthusiasm for free trade as the harbinger of an ,utopia4 ,the old principles of the bourgeois manufacturers had been taken up by the proletariat and shaped to suit themselves4 ,socialism1 like free trade1 is cosmopolitan in its aims1 and is indifferent to patriotism and hostile to militarism4 ,socialism1 like free trade1 insists on material welfare as the primary object to be aimed at in any policy1 and1 like free trade1 socialism tests welfare by reference to possibilities of consumption4 ,in one respect there is a difference2 throughout ,cobden's attack on the governing classes there are signs of his jealousy of the superior status of the landed gentry1 but socialism has a somewhat wider range of view and demands equality of opportunity with the capitalist as well4 ,,bibliography4--,reference has already been made to the principal works which deal critically with the free-trade policy4 ,professor ,fawcett's ,free ,trade is a good exposition of free-trade principles2 so also is ,professor ,bastable's ,commerce of ,nations4 ,among authors who have restated the principles with special reference to the revived controversy on the subject may be mentioned ,professor ,w4 ,smart1 ,the ,return to ,protection1 being a ,restatement of the ,case for ,free ,trade 7#bnd ed41 #aijf71 and ,a4 ,c4 ,pigou1 ,protective and ,preferential ,import ,duties 7#aijf74 7,w4 ,cu47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,e4 ,misselden1 ,free ,trade or the ,meanes to make ,trade ,flourish 7#afbb71 p4 #fh2 ,g4 ,malynes1 ,the ,maintenance of ,free ,trade 7#afbb71 p4 #aje4 #b ,h4 ,parker1 ,of a ,free ,trade 7#afdh71 p4 #h4 #c 7#aghg71 #bg ,geo4 ,,iii4 c4 #ac4 #d ,sir ,walter ,scott1 ,guy ,mannering1 chapter v4 #e ,gladstone1 ,free ,trade1 ,railways and ,commerce1 in ,nineteenth ,century 7,feb4 #ahhj71 vol4 vii4 p4 #cgj4 #f ,parker states a similar argument in the form in which it suited the special problem of his day4 ,if merchandise be good for the commonweal1 then the more common it is made1 the more open it is laid1 the more good it will convey to us4 ,op4 cit4 #bj4 #g ,schmoller1 ,grundriss der allgemeinen ,volkswirtschaftslehre 7#aijd71 ii4 #fjg4 #h ,byles1 ,sophisms of ,free ,trade2 ,l4 ,s4 ,amery1 ,fundamental ,fallacies of ,free ,trade1 #ac4 #i ,w4 ,cunningham1 ,rise and ,decline of the ,free ,trade ,movement1 ,,pp4 #e-aa4 #aj ,wealth of ,nations1 book iv4 chap4 ii4 #aa ,principles of ,political ,economy1 #dhe4 #ab ,j4 ,morley1 ,life of ,cobden1 i4 #bcj4 #ac ,memoire1 #f ,april #aggf1 in ,oeuvres1 viii4 #dfj4 #ad ,jefferson1 ,notes on ,virginia1 #bge4 ,see also the articles on ,,jefferson and ,,hamilton1 ,,alexander4 #ae ,one incidental effect of the failure to secure free trade was that the ,african slave trade1 with ,west ,indies as a depot for supplying the ,american market1 ceased to be remunerative1 and the opposition to the abolition of the trade was very much weaker than it would otherwise have been2 see ,hochstetter1 ,die wirtschaftlichen und politischen ,motive fuer die ,abschaffung des britischen ,sklavenhandels1 in ,schmoller1 ,staats und ,sozialwissenschaftliche ,forschungen1 xxv4 i4 #cg4 #af ,j4 ,welsford1 ,cobden's ,foreign ,teacher1 in ,national ,review 7,december #aije74 #ag ,compatriot ,club ,lectures 7#aije71 p4 #cjf4 #ah ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,principles of ,political ,economy1 book v4 chapter x4 ,sec4 #a4 #ai ,f4 ,s4 ,oliver1 ,alexander ,hamilton1 #adb4 #bj ,the standard is1 of course1 lower among the negroes and mean whites in the ,south than in the ,north and ,west4 #ba ,f4 ,beauclerk1 ,free ,trade in ,india1 in ,economic ,review 7,july #aijg71 xvii4 #bhd4 #bb ,a4 ,e4 ,murray1 ,history of the ,commercial and ,financial ,relations between ,england and ,ireland1 #bid4 #bc ,for the tariff reform movement in ,english politics see the article on ,,chamberlain1 ,j4 ,among continental writers ,g4 ,schmoller 7,grundriss der allgemeinen ,volkswirtschaftslehre1 ii4 #fda7 and ,a4 ,wagner 7,preface to ,m4 ,schwab's ,chamberlains ,handelspolitik7 pronounce in favour of a change1 as ,fuchs did by anticipation4 ,schulze-,gaevernitz 7,britischer ,imperialismus und englischer ,freihandel71 ,aubry 7,etude critique de la politique commerciale de l',angleterre a l'egard de ses colonies71 and ,blondel 7,la politique ,protectionniste en ,angleterre un nouveau danger pour la ,france7 are against it4 ,,fregellae1 an ancient town of ,latium adiectum1 situated on the ,via ,latina1 #aa m4 ,w4,n4,w4 of ,aquinum1 near the left branch of the ,liris4 ,it is said to have belonged in early times to the ,opici or ,oscans1 and later to the ,volscians4 ,it was apparently destroyed by the ,samnites a little before #ccj ,b4,c41 in which year the people of ,fabrateria ,vetus 7mod4 ,ceccano7 besought the help of ,rome against them1 and in #cbh ,b4,c4 a ,latin colony was established there4 ,the place was taken in #cbj ,b4,c4 by the ,samnites1 but re-established by the ,romans in #cac ,b4,c4 ,it continued henceforward to be faithful to ,rome2 by breaking the bridges over the ,liris it interposed an obstacle to the advance of ,hannibal on ,rome in #bab ,b4,c41 and it was a native of ,fregellae who headed the deputation of the non-revolting colonies in #bji ,b4,c4 ,it appears to have been a very important and flourishing place owing to its command of the crossing of the ,liris1 and to its position in a fertile territory1 and it was here that1 after the rejection of the proposals of ,m4 ,fulvius ,flaccus for the extension of ,roman burgess-rights in #abe ,b4,c41 a revolt against ,rome broke out4 ,it was captured by treachery in the same year and destroyed2 but its place was taken in the following year by the colony of ,fabrateria ,nova1 #c m4 to the ,s4,e4 on the opposite bank of the ,liris1 while a post station ,fregellanum 7mod4 ,ceprano7 is mentioned in the itineraries2 ,fregellae itself1 however1 continued to exist as a village even under the empire4 ,the site is clearly traceable about #a_/b m4 ,e4 of ,ceprano1 but the remains of the city are scanty4 ,see ,g4 ,colasanti1 ,fregellae1 storia e topografia 7#aijf74 7,t4 ,as47 ,,freiberg1 or ,,freyberg1 a town of ,germany in the kingdom of ,saxony1 on the ,muenzbach1 near its confluence with the ,mulde1 #ai m4 ,s4,w4 of ,dresden on the railway to ,chemnitz1 with a branch to ,nossen4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #cj1hif4 ,its situation1 on the rugged northern slope of the ,erzgebirge1 is somewhat bleak and uninviting1 but the town is generally well built and makes a prosperous impression4 ,a part of its ancient walls still remains2 the other portions have been converted into public walks and gardens4 ,freiberg is the seat of the general administration of the mines throughout the kingdom1 and its celebrated mining academy 7,bergakademie71 founded in #agfe1 is frequented by students from all parts of the world4 ,connected with it are extensive collections of minerals and models1 a library of #ej1jjj volumes1 and laboratories for chemistry1 metallurgy and assaying4 ,among its distinguished scholars it reckons ,abraham ,gottlob ,werner 7#agej-ahag71 who was also a professor there1 and ,alexander von ,humboldt4 ,freiberg has extensive manufactures of gold and silver lace1 woollen cloths1 linen and cotton goods1 iron1 copper and brass wares1 gunpowder and white-lead4 ,it has also several large breweries4 ,in the immediate vicinity are its famous silver and lead mines1 thirty in number1 and of which the principal ones passed into the property of the state in #ahhf4 ,the castle of ,freudenstein or ,freistein1 as rebuilt by the elector ,augustus in #aegb1 is situated in one of the suburbs and is now used as a military magazine4 ,in its grounds a monument was erected to ,werner in #ahea4 ,the cathedral1 rebuilt in late ,gothic style after its destruction by fire in #adhd and restored in #ahic1 was founded in the #abth century4 ,of the original church a magnificent ,german ,romanesque doorway1 known as the ,golden ,gate 7,goldene ,pforte71 survives4 ,the church contains numerous monuments1 among others one to ,prince ,maurice of ,saxony4 ,adjoining the cathedral is the mausoleum 7,begraebniskapelle71 built in #aeid in the ,italian ,renaissance style1 in which are buried the remains of ,henry the ,pious and his successors down to ,john ,george ,,iv41 who died in #afid4 ,of the other four ,protestant churches the most noteworthy is the ,peterskirche which1 with its three towers1 is a conspicuous object on the highest point of the town4 ,among the other public buildings are the old town-hall1 dating from the #aeth century1 the antiquarian museum1 and the natural history museum4 ,there are a classical and modern1 a commercial and an agricultural school1 and numerous charitable institutions4 ,freiberg owes its origin to the discovery of its silver mines 7c4 #aafc74 ,the town1 with the castle of ,freudenstein1 was built by ,otto the ,rich1 margrave of ,meissen1 in #aage1 and its name1 which first appears in #abba1 is derived from the extensive mining franchises granted to it about that time4 ,in all the partitions of the territories of the ,saxon house of ,wettin1 from the latter part of the #acth century onward1 ,freiberg always remained common property1 and it was not till #adhe 7the mines not till #aecg7 that it was definitively assigned to the ,albertine line4 ,the ,reformation was introduced into ,freiberg in #aecf by ,henry the ,pious1 who resided here4 ,the town suffered severely during the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 and again during the ,french occupation from #ahjf to #ahad1 during which time it had to support an army of #gjj1jjj men and find forage for #bjj1jjj horses4 ,see ,h4 ,gerlach1 ,kleine ,chronik von ,freiberg 7#bnd ed41 ,freiberg1 #ahih72 ,h4 ,ermisch1 ,das ,freiberger ,stadtrecht 7,leipzig1 #ahhi72 ,ermisch and ,o4 ,posse1 ,urkundenbuch der ,stadt ,freiberg1 in ,codex diplom4 ,sax4 reg4 7#c vols41 ,leipzig1 #ahhc-ahia72 ,freibergs ,berg- und ,huettenwesen1 published by the ,bergmaennischer ,verein 7,freiberg1 #ahhc72 ,ledebur1 ,ueber die ,bedeutung der ,freiberger ,bergakademie 7ib4 #aijc72 ,steche1 ,bau- und ,kunstdenkmaeler der ,amtshauptmannschaft ,freiberg 7,dresden1 #ahhd74 ,,freiburg1 a town of ,germany in ,prussian ,silesia1 on the ,polsnitz1 #ce m4 ,s4,w4 of ,breslau1 on the railway to ,halbstadt4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #iiag4 ,it has an ,evangelical and ,roman ,catholic church1 and its industries include watch-making1 linen-weaving and distilling4 ,in the neighbourhood are the old and modern castles of the ,fuerstenstein family1 whence the town is sometimes distinguished as ,freiburg unter dem ,fuerstenstein4 ,at ,freiburg1 on the #bbnd of ,july #agfb1 the ,prussians defended themselves successfully against the superior forces of the ,austrians4 ,,freiburg ,,im ,,breisgau1 an archiepiscopal see and city of ,germany in the grand duchy of ,baden1 #ab m4 ,e4 of the ,rhine1 beautifully situated on the ,dreisam at the foot of the ,schlossberg1 one of the heights of the ,black ,forest range1 on the railway between ,basel and ,mannheim1 #dj m4 ,n4 of the former city4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #gf1bhe4 ,the town is for the most part well built1 having several wide and handsome streets and a number of spacious squares4 ,it is kept clean and cool by the waters of the river1 which flow through the streets in open channels2 and its old fortifications have been replaced by public walks1 and1 what is more unusual1 by vineyards4 ,it possesses a famous university1 the ,ludovica ,albertina1 founded by ,albert ,,vi41 archduke of ,austria1 in #adeg1 and attended by about #bjjj students4 ,the library contains upwards of #bej1jjj volumes and #fjj ,,mss41 and among the other auxiliary establishments are an anatomical hall and museum and botanical gardens4 ,the ,freiburg minster is considered one of the finest of all the ,gothic churches of ,germany1 being remarkable alike for the symmetry of its proportions1 for the taste of its decorations1 and for the fact that it may more correctly be said to be finished than almost any other building of the kind4 ,the period of its erection probably lies for the most part between #aabb and #abeb2 but the choir was not built till #aeac4 ,the tower1 which rises above the western entrance1 is #chf ft4 in height1 and it presents a skilful transition from a square base into an octagonal superstructure1 which in its turn is surmounted by a pyramidal spire of the most exquisite open work in stone4 ,in the interior of the church are some beautiful stained glass windows1 both ancient and modern1 the tombstones of several of the dukes of ,zaehringen1 statues of archbishops of ,freiburg1 and paintings by ,holbein and by ,hans ,baldung 7c4 #adgj-aede71 commonly called ,gruen4 ,among the other noteworthy buildings of ,freiburg are the palaces of the grand duke and the archbishop1 the old town-hall1 the theatre1 the ,kaufhaus or merchants' hall1 a #afth-century building with a handsome facade1 the church of ,st ,martin1 with a graceful spire restored #ahhj-ahha1 the new town-hall1 completed #aija1 in ,renaissance style1 and the ,protestant church1 formerly the church of the abbey of ,thennenbach1 removed hither in #ahci4 ,in the centre of the fish-market square is a fountain surmounted by a statue of ,duke ,berthold ,,iii4 of ,zaehringen2 in the ,franziskaner ,platz there is a monument to ,berthold ,schwarz1 the traditional discoverer here1 in #abei1 of gunpowder2 the ,rotteck ,platz takes its name from the monument of ,karl ,wenzeslaus von ,rotteck 7#agge-ahdj71 the historian1 which formerly stood on the site of the ,schwarz statue2 and in ,kaiser ,wilhelm ,strasse a bronze statue was erected in #ahgf to the memory of ,herder1 who in the early part of the #aith century founded in ,freiburg an institute for draughtsmen1 engravers and lithographers1 and carried on a famous bookselling business4 ,on the ,schlossberg above the town there are massive ruins of two castles destroyed by the ,french in #agdd2 and about #b m4 to the ,n4,e4 stands the castle of ,zaehringen1 the original seat of the famous family of the counts of that name4 ,situated on the ancient road which runs by the ,hoellenpass between the valleys of the ,danube and the ,rhine1 ,freiburg early acquired commercial importance1 and it is still the principal centre of the trade of the ,black ,forest4 ,it manufactures buttons1 chemicals1 starch1 leather1 tobacco1 silk thread1 paper1 and hempen goods1 as well as beer and wine4 ,freiburg is of uncertain foundation4 ,in #aabj it became a free town1 with privileges similar to those of ,cologne2 but in #abai it fell into the hands of a branch of the family of ,urach4 ,after it had vainly attempted to throw off the yoke by force of arms1 it purchased its freedom in #acff2 but1 unable to reimburse the creditors who had advanced the money1 it was1 in #acfh1 obliged to recognize the supremacy of the house of ,hapsburg4 ,in the #agth and #ahth centuries it played a considerable part as a fortified town4 ,it was captured by the ,swedes in #afcb1 #afcd and #afch2 and in #afdd it was seized by the ,bavarians1 who shortly after1 under ,general ,mercy1 defeated in the neighbourhood the ,french forces under ,enghien and ,turenne4 ,the ,french were in possession from #afgg to #afig1 and again in #agac-agad and #agdd2 and when they left the place in #agdh1 at the peace of ,aix-la-,chapelle1 they dismantled the fortifications4 ,the ,baden insurgents gained a victory at ,freiburg in #ahdh1 and the revolutionary government took refuge in the town in ,june #ahdi1 but in the following ,july the ,prussian forces took possession and occupied it until #ahea4 ,since #ahba ,freiburg has been the seat of an archbishop with jurisdiction over the sees of ,mainz1 ,rottenberg and ,limburg4 ,see ,schreiber1 ,geschichte und ,beschreibung des ,muensters zu ,freiburg 7#ahbj and #ahbe72 ,geschichte der ,stadt und ,universitaet ,freiburgs 7#aheg-ahei72 ,der ,schlossberg bei ,freiburg 7#ahfj72 and ,albert1 ,die ,geschichtsschreibung der ,stadt ,freiburg 7#aijb74 ,battles of ,freiburg1 #crd1 #eth and #ajth of ,august #afdd4--;,during the ,thirty ,years' ,war the neighbourhood of ,freiburg was the scene of a series of engagements between the ,french under ,louis de ,bourbon1 due d',enghien 7afterwards called the great ,conde71 and ,henri de la ,tour d',auvergne1 vicomte de ,turenne1 and the ,bavarians and ,austrians commanded by ,franz1 ,freiherr von ,mercy4 ,at the close of the campaign of #afdc the ,french ,army of ,weimar1 having been defeated and driven into ,alsace by the ,bavarians1 had there been reorganized under the command of ,turenne1 then a young general of thirty-two and newly promoted to the marshalate4 ,in ,may #afdd he opened the campaign by recrossing the ,rhine and raiding the enemy's posts as far as ,ueberlingen on the lake of ,constance and ,donaueschingen on the ,danube4 ,the ,french then fell back with their booty and prisoners to ,breisach1 a strong garrison being left in ,freiburg4 ,the ,bavarian commander1 however1 revenged himself by besieging ,freiburg 7,june #bgth71 and ,turenne's first attempt to relieve the place failed4 ,during ,july1 as the siege progressed1 the ,french government sent the duc d',enghien1 who was ten years younger still than ,turenne1 but had just gained his great victory of ,rocroy1 to take over the command4 ,enghien brought with him a veteran army1 called the ,army of ,france1 ,turenne remaining in command of the ,army of ,weimar4 ,the armies met at ,breisach on the #bnd of ,august1 by which date ,freiburg had surrendered4 ,at this point most commanders of the time would have decided not to fight1 but to manoeuvre ,mercy away from ,freiburg2 ,enghien1 however1 was a fighting general1 and ,mercy's entrenched lines at ,freiburg seemed to him a target rather than an obstacle4 ,a few hours after his arrival1 therefore1 without waiting for the rearmost troops of his columns1 he set the combining armies in motion for ,krozingen1 a village on what was then the main road between ,breisach and ,freiburg4 ,the total force immediately available numbered only #af1jjj combatants4 ,enghien and ,turenne had arranged that the ,army of ,france was to move direct upon ,freiburg by ,wolfenweiter1 while the ,army of ,weimar was to make its way by hillside tracks to ,wittnau and thence to attack the rear of ,mercy's lines while ,enghien assaulted them in front4 ,turenne's march 7,august #crd1 #afdd7 was slow and painful1 as had been anticipated1 and late in the afternoon1 on passing ,wittnau1 he encountered the enemy4 ,the ,weimarians carried the outer lines of defence without much difficulty1 but as they pressed on towards ,merzhausen the resistance became more and more serious4 ,turenne's force was little more than #fjjj1 and these were wearied with a long day of marching and fighting on the steep and wooded hillsides of the ,black ,forest4 ,thus the turning movement came to a standstill far short of ,uffingen1 the village on ,mercy's line of retreat that ,turenne was to have seized1 nor was a flank attack possible against ,mercy's main line1 from which he was separated by the crest of the ,schoenberg4 ,meanwhile1 ,enghien's army had at the prearranged hour 7#d ,p4,m47 attacked ,mercy's position on the ,ebringen spur4 ,a steep slope1 vineyards1 low stone walls and abatis had all to be surmounted1 under a galling fire from the ,bavarian musketeers1 before the ,army of ,france found itself1 breathless and in disorder1 in front of the actual entrenchments of the crest4 ,a first attack failed1 as did an attempt to find an unguarded path round the shoulder of the ,schoenberg4 ,the situation was grave in the extreme1 but ,enghien resolved on ,turenne's account to renew the attack1 although only a quarter of his original force was still capable of making an effort4 ,he himself and all the young nobles of his staff dismounted and led the infantry forward again1 the prince threw his baton into the enemy's lines for the soldiers to retrieve1 and in the end1 after a bitter struggle1 the ,bavarians1 whose reserves had been taken away to oppose ,turenne in the ,merzhausen defile1 abandoned the entrenchments and disappeared into the woods of the adjoining spur4 ,enghien hurriedly re-formed his troops1 fearing at every moment to be hurled down the hill by a counter-stroke2 but none came4 ,the ,french bivouacked in the rain1 ,turenne making his way across the mountain to confer with the prince1 and meanwhile ,mercy quietly drew off his army in the dark to a new set of entrenchments on the ridge on which stood the ,loretto ,chapel4 ,on the #dth of ,august the ,army of ,france and the ,army of ,weimar met at ,merzhausen1 the rearmost troops of the ,army of ,france came in1 and the whole was arranged by the major-generals in the plain facing the ,loretto ridge4 ,this position was attacked on the #eth4 ,enghien had designed his battle even more carefully than before1 but as the result of a series of accidents the two ,french armies attacked prematurely and straight to their front1 one brigade after another1 and though at one moment ,enghien1 sword in hand1 broke the line of defence with his last intact reserve1 a brilliant counterstroke1 led by ,mercy's brother ,kaspar 7who was killed71 drove out the assailants4 ,it is said that ,enghien lost half his men on this day and ,mercy one-third of his1 so severe was the battle4 ,but the result could not be gainsaid2 it was for the ,french a complete and costly failure4 ,for three days after this the armies lay in position without fighting1 the ,french well supplied with provisions and comforts from ,breisach1 the ,bavarians suffering somewhat severely from want of food1 and especially forage1 as all their supplies had to be hauled from ,villingen over the rough roads of the ,black ,forest4 ,enghien then decided to make use of the ,glotter ,tal to interrupt altogether this already unsatisfactory line of supply1 and thus to force the ,bavarians either to attack him at a serious disadvantage1 or to retreat across the hills with the loss of their artillery and baggage and the disintegration of their army by famine and desertion4 ,with this object1 the ,army of ,weimar was drawn off on the morning of the #ith of ,august and marched round by ,betzenhausen and ,lehen to ,langen ,denzling4 ,the infantry of the ,army of ,france1 then the trains1 followed1 while ,enghien with his own cavalry faced ,freiburg and the ,loretto position4 ,illustration3 ,map-,battle of ,freiburg4 ,before dawn on the #ajth the advance guard of ,turenne's army was ascending the ,glotter ,tal4 ,but ,mercy had divined his adversary's plan1 and leaving a garrison to hold ,freiburg1 the ,bavarian army had made a night march on the #i_/ajth to the ,abbey of ,st ,peter1 whence on the morning of the #ajth ,mercy fell back to ,graben1 his nearest magazine in the mountains4 ,turenne's advanced guard appeared from the ,glotter ,tal only to find a stubborn rearguard of cavalry in front of the abbey4 ,a sharp action began1 but ,mercy hearing the drums and fifes of the ,french infantry in the ,glotter ,tal broke it off and continued his retreat in good order4 ,enghien thus obtained little material result from his manoeuvre4 ,only two guns and such of ,mercy's wagons that were unable to keep up fell into the hands of the ,french4 ,enghien and ,turenne did not continue the chase farther than ,graben1 and ,mercy fell back unmolested to ,rothenburg on the ,tauber4 ,the moral results of this sanguinary fighting were1 however1 important and perhaps justified the sacrifice of so many valuable soldiers4 ,enghien's pertinacity had not achieved a decision with the sword1 but ,mercy had been so severely punished that he was unable to interfere with his opponent's new plan of campaign4 ,this1 which was carried out by the united armies and by reinforcements from ,france1 while ,turenne's cavalry screened them by bold demonstrations on the ,tauber1 led to nothing less than the conquest of the ,rhine ,valley from ,basel to ,coblenz1 a task which was achieved so rapidly that the ,army of ,france and its victorious young leader were free to return to ,france in two months from the time of their appearance in ,turenne's quarters at ,breisach4 ,,freidank 7,,vridanc71 the name by which a ,middle ,high ,german didactic poet of the early #acth century is known4 ,it has been disputed whether the word1 which is equivalent to free-thought1 is to be regarded as the poet's real name or only as a pseudonym2 the latter is probably the case4 ,little is known of ,freidank's life4 ,he accompanied ,frederick ,,ii4 on his crusade to the ,holy ,land1 where1 in the years #abbh-abbi1 a portion at least of his work was composed2 and it is said that on his tomb 7if indeed it was not the tomb of another ,freidank7 at ,treviso there was inscribed1 with allusion to the character of his style1 he always spoke and never sang4 ,wilhelm ,grimm originated the hypothesis that ,freidank was to be identified with ,walther von der ,vogelweide2 but this is no longer tenable4 ,freidank's work bears the name of ,bescheidenheit1 i4e4 practical wisdom1 correct judgment1 and consists of a collection of proverbs1 pithy sayings1 and moral and satirical reflections1 arranged under general heads4 ,its popularity till the end of the #afth century is shown by the great number of ,,mss4 extant4 ,sebastian ,brant published the ,bescheidenheit in a modified form in #aejh4 ,wilhelm ,grimm's edition appeared in #ahcd 7#bnd ed4 #ahfj71 ,h4 ,f4 ,bezzenberger's in #ahgb4 ,a later edition is by ,f4 ,sandvoss 7#ahgg74 ,the old ,latin translation1 ,fridangi ,discretio1 was printed by ,c4 ,lemcke in #ahfh2 and there are two translations into modern ,german1 ,a4 ,bacmeister's 7#ahfa7 and ,k4 ,simrock's 7#ahfg74 ,see also ,f4 ,pfeiffer1 ,ueber ,freidank 7,zur deutschen ,literaturgeschichte1 #ahee71 and ,h4 ,paul1 ,ueber die urspruengliche ,anordnung von ,freidanks ,bescheidenheit 7#ahgj74 ,,freienwalde1 a town of ,germany1 in the kingdom of ,prussia1 on the ,oder1 #bh m4 ,n4,e4 of ,berlin1 on the ,frankfort-,angermuende railway4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #giie4 ,it has a small palace1 built by the ,great ,elector1 an ,evangelical and a ,roman ,catholic church1 and manufactures of furniture1 machinery1 c4 ,the neighbouring forests and its medicinal springs make it a favourite summer resort of the inhabitants of ,berlin4 ,a new tower commands a fine view of the ,oderbruch 7see ,,oder74 ,freienwalde1 which must be distinguished from the smaller town of the same name in ,pomerania1 first appears as a town in #acfd4 ,,freieslebenite1 a rare mineral consisting of sulphantimonite of silver and lead1 7,pb1 ,ag#b7e,sb#d,s#aa4 ,the monoclinic crystals are prismatic in habit1 with deeply striated prism and dome faces4 ,the colour is steel-grey1 and the lustre metallic2 hardness #ba_/b1 specific gravity #f4b4 ,it occurs with argentite1 chalybite and galena in the silver veins of the ,himmelsfuerst mine at ,freiberg1 ,saxony1 where it has been known since #agbj4 ,the species was named after ,j4 ,k4 ,freiesleben1 who had earlier called it ,schilf-,glaserz4 ,other localities are ,hiendelaencina near ,guadalajara in ,spain1 ,kapnik-,banya in ,hungary1 and ,guanajuato in ,mexico4 ,a species separated from freieslebenite by ,v4 von ,zepharovich in #ahga1 because of differences in crystalline form1 is known as diaphorite 7from ,greek3 diaphora1 difference72 it is very similar to freieslebenite in appearance and has perhaps the same chemical composition 7or possibly ,ag#b,pb,sb#b,s#e71 but is orthorhombic in crystallization4 ,a third mineral also very similar to freieslebenite in appearance is the orthorhombic andorite1 ,ag,pb,sb#c,s#f1 which is mined as a silver ore at ,oruro in ,bolivia4 ,,freight1 7pronounced like weight2 derived from the ,dutch vracht or vrecht1 in ,fr4 fret1 the ,eng4 fraught being the same word1 and formerly used for the same thing1 but now only as an adjective laden71 the lading or cargo of a ship1 and the hire paid for their transport 7see ,,affreightment72 from the original sense of water-transport of goods the word has also come to be used for land-transit 7particularly in ,america1 by railroad71 and by analogy for any load or burden4 ,,freiligrath1 ,,ferdinand 7#ahaj-ahgf71 ,german poet1 was born at ,detmold on the #agth of ,june #ahaj4 ,he was educated at the gymnasium of his native town1 and in his sixteenth year was sent to ,soest1 with a view to preparing him for a commercial career4 ,here he had also time and opportunity to acquire a taste for ,french and ,english literature4 ,the years from #ahca to #ahcf he spent in a bank at ,amsterdam1 and #ahcg to #ahci in a business house at ,barmen4 ,in #ahch his ,gedichte appeared and met with such extraordinary success that he gave up the idea of a commercial life and resolved to devote himself entirely to literature4 ,his repudiation of the political poetry of #ahda and its revolutionary ideals attracted the attention of the king of ,prussia1 ,frederick ,william ,,iv41 who1 in #ahdb1 granted him a pension of #cjj talers a year4 ,he married1 and1 to be near his friend ,emanuel ,geibel1 settled at ,st ,goar4 ,before long1 however1 ,freiligrath was himself carried away by the rising tide of liberalism4 ,in the poem ,ein ,glaubensbekenntnis 7#ahdd7 he openly avowed his sympathy with the political movement led by his old adversary1 ,georg ,herwegh2 the day1 he declared1 of his own poetic trifling with ,romantic themes was over2 ,romanticism itself was dead4 ,he laid down his pension1 and1 to avoid the inevitable political persecution1 took refuge in ,switzerland4 ,as a sequel to the ,glaubensbekenntnis he published ,ca ira6 7#ahdf71 which strained still further his relations with the ,german authorities4 ,he fled to ,london1 where he resumed the commercial life he had broken off seven years before4 ,when the ,revolution of #ahdh broke out1 it seemed to ,freiligrath1 as to all the liberal thinkers of the time1 the dawn of an era of political freedom2 and1 as may be seen from the poems in his collection of ,politische und soziale ,gedichte 7#ahdi-ahea71 he welcomed it with unbounded enthusiasm4 ,he returned to ,germany and settled in ,duesseldorf2 but it was not long before he had again called down upon himself the ill-will of the ruling powers by a poem1 ,die ,toten an die ,lebenden 7#ahdh74 ,he was arrested on a charge of lese-majeste1 but the prosecution ended in his acquittal4 ,new difficulties arose2 his association with the democratic movement rendered him an object of constant suspicion1 and in #ahea he judged it more prudent to go back to ,london1 where he remained until #ahfh4 ,in that year he returned to ,germany1 settling first in ,stuttgart and in #ahge in the neighbouring town of ,cannstatt1 where he died on the #ahth of ,march #ahgf4 ,as a poet1 ,freiligrath was the most gifted member of the ,german revolutionary group4 ,coming at the very close of the ,romantic age1 his own purely lyric poetry re-echoes for the most part the familiar thoughts and imagery of his ,romantic predecessors2 but at an early age he had been attracted by the work of ,french contemporary poets1 and he reinvigorated the ,german lyric by grafting upon it the orientalism of ,victor ,hugo4 ,in this reconciliation of ,french and ,german romanticism lay ,freiligrath's significance for the development of the lyric in ,germany4 ,his remarkable power of assimilating foreign literatures is also to be seen in his translations of ,english and ,scottish ballads1 of the poetry of ,burns1 ,mrs ,hemans1 ,longfellow and ,tennyson 7,englische ,gedichte aus neuerer ,zeit1 #ahdf2 ,the ,rose1 ,thistle and ,shamrock1 #ahec1 #fth ed4 #ahhg72 he also translated ,shakespeare's ,cymbeline1 ,winter's ,tale and ,venus and ,adonis1 as well as ,longfellow's ,hiawatha 7#aheg74 ,freiligrath is most original in his revolutionary poetry4 ,his poems of this class suffer1 it is true1 under the disadvantage of all political poetry--purely temporary interest and the unavoidable admixture of much that has no claim to be called poetry at all--but the agitator ,freiligrath1 when he is at his best1 displays a vigour and strength1 a power of direct and cogent poetic expression1 not to be found in any other political singer of the age4 ,freiligrath's ,gedichte have passed through some fifty editions1 and his ,gesammelte ,dichtungen1 first published in #ahgj1 have reached a sixth edition 7#ahih74 ,nachgelassenes 7including a translation of ,byron's ,mazeppa7 was published in #ahhc4 ,a selection of ,freiligrath's best-known poems in ,english translation was edited by his daughter1 ,mrs ,freiligrath-,kroeker1 in #ahfi2 also ,songs of a ,revolutionary ,epoch were translated by ,j4 ,l4 ,joynes in #ahhh4 ,cp4 ,e4 ,schmidt-,weissenfels1 ,f4 ,freiligrath1 eine ,biographie 7#ahgf72 ,w4 ,buchner1 ,f4 ,freiligrath1 ein ,dichterleben in ,briefen 7#b vols41 #ahha72 ,g4 ,freiligrath1 ,erinnerungen an ,f4 ,freiligrath 7#ahhi72 ,p4 ,besson1 ,freiligrath 7,paris1 #ahii72 ,k4 ,richter1 ,freiligrath als ,uebersetzer 7#ahii74 7,j4 ,g4 ,r47 ,,freind1 ,,john 7#afge-agbh71 ,english physician1 younger brother of ,robert ,freind 7#affg-agea71 headmaster of ,westminster school1 was born in #afge at ,croton in ,northamptonshire4 ,he made great progress in classical knowledge under ,richard ,busby at ,westminster1 and at ,christ ,church1 ,oxford1 under ,dean ,aldrich1 and while still very young1 produced1 along with ,peter ,foulkes1 an excellent edition of the speeches of ,aeschines and ,demosthenes on the affair of ,ctesiphon4 ,after this he began the study of medicine1 and having proved his scientific attainments by various treatises was appointed a lecturer on chemistry at ,oxford in #agjd4 ,in the following year he accompanied the ,english army1 under the earl of ,peterborough1 into ,spain1 and on returning home in #agjg1 wrote an account of the expedition1 which attained great popularity4 ,two years later he published his ,prelectiones chimicae1 which he dedicated to ,sir ,isaac ,newton4 ,shortly after his return in #agac from ,flanders1 whither he had accompanied the ,british troops1 he took up his residence in ,london1 where he soon obtained a great reputation as a physician4 ,in #agaf he became fellow of the college of physicians1 of which he was chosen one of the censors in #agah1 and ,harveian orator in #agbj4 ,in #agbb he entered parliament as member for ,launceston in ,cornwall1 but1 being suspected of favouring the cause of the exiled ,stuarts1 he spent half of that year in the ,tower4 ,during his imprisonment he conceived the plan of his most important work1 ,the ,history of ,physic1 of which the first part appeared in #agbe1 and the second in the following year4 ,in the latter year he was appointed physician to ,queen ,caroline1 an office which he held till his death on the #bfth of ,july #agbh4 ,a complete edition of his ,latin works1 with a ,latin translation of the ,history of ,physic1 edited by ,dr ,john ,wigan1 was published in ,london in #agcb4 ,,freinsheim ,,freinshemius1 ,,johann 7#afjh-affj71 ,german classical scholar and critic1 was born at ,ulm on the #afth of ,november #afjh4 ,after studying at the universities of ,marburg1 ,giessen and ,strassburg1 he visited ,france1 where he remained for three years4 ,he returned to ,strassburg in #afcg1 and in #afdb was appointed professor of eloquence at ,upsala4 ,in #afdg he was summoned by ,queen ,christina to ,stockholm as court librarian and historiographer4 ,in #afej he resumed his professorship at ,upsala1 but early in the following year he was obliged to resign on account of ill-health4 ,in #afef he became honorary professor at ,heidelberg1 and died on the #cast of ,august #affj4 ,freinsheim's literary activity was chiefly devoted to the ,roman historians4 ,he first introduced the division into chapters and paragraphs1 and by means of carefully compiled indexes illustrated the lexical peculiarities of each author4 ,he is best known for his famous supplements to ,quintus ,curtius and ,livy1 containing the missing books written by himself4 ,he also published critical editions of ,curtius and ,florus4 ,,freire1 ,,francisco ,,jose 7#agai-aggc71 ,portuguese historian and philologist1 was born at ,lisbon on the #crd of ,january #agai4 ,he belonged to the monastic society of ,st ,philip ,neri1 and was a zealous member of the literary association known as the ,academy of ,arcadians1 in connexion with which he adopted the pseudonym of ,candido ,lusitano4 ,he contributed much to the improvement of the style of ,portuguese prose literature1 but his endeavour to effect a reformation in the national poetry by a translation of ,horace's ,ars poetica was less successful4 ,the work in which he set forth his opinions regarding the vicious taste pervading the current ,portuguese prose literature is entitled ,maximas sobre a ,arte ,oratoria 7#agde7 and is preceded by a chronological table forming almost a social and physical history of ,portugal4 ,his best known work1 however1 is his ,vida do ,infante ,d4 ,henrique 7#ageh71 which has given him a place in the first rank of ,portuguese historians1 and has been translated into ,french 7,paris1 #agha74 ,he also wrote a poetical dictionary 7,diccionario poetico7 and a translation of ,racine's ,athalie 7#agfb71 and his ,reflexions sur la langue portugaise was published in #ahdb by the ,lisbon society for the promotion of useful knowledge4 ,he died at ,mafra on the #eth of ,july #aggc4 ,f,r,e,i,s,c,h,ue,t,z1 in ,german folklore1 a marksman who by a compact with the devil has obtained a certain number of bullets destined to hit without fail whatever object he wishes4 ,as the legend is usually told1 six of the ,freikugeln or free bullets are thus subservient to the marksman's will1 but the seventh is at the absolute disposal of the devil himself4 ,various methods were adopted in order to procure possession of the marvellous missiles4 ,according to one the marksman1 instead of swallowing the sacramental host1 kept it and fixed it on a tree1 shot at it and caused it to bleed great drops of blood1 gathered the drops on a piece of cloth and reduced the whole to ashes1 and then with these ashes added the requisite virtue to the lead of which his bullets were made4 ,various vegetable or animal substances had the reputation of serving the same purpose4 ,stories about the ,freischuetz were especially common in ,germany during the #adth1 #aeth and #afth centuries2 but the first time that the legend was turned to literary profit is said to have been by ,apel in the ,gespensterbuch or ,book of ,ghosts4 ,it formed the subject of ,weber's opera ,der ,freischuetz 7#ahba71 the libretto of which was written by ,friedrich ,kind1 who had suggested ,apel's story as an excellent theme for the composer4 ,the name by which the ,freischuetz is known in ,french is ,robin des ,bois4 ,see ,kind1 ,freyschuetzbuch 7,leipzig1 #ahdc72 ,revue des deux mondes 7,february #ahee72 ,graesse1 ,die ,quelle des ,freischuetz 7,dresden1 #ahge74 ,,freising1 a town of ,germany1 in the kingdom of ,bavaria1 on the ,isar1 #af m4 by rail ,n4,n4,e4 of ,munich4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #ac1ech4 ,among its eight ,roman ,catholic churches the most remarkable is the cathedral1 which dates from about #aafj and is famous for its curious crypt4 ,noteworthy also are the old palace of the bishops1 now a clerical seminary1 the theological lyceum and the town-hall4 ,there are several schools in the town1 and there is a statue to the chronicler1 ,otto of ,freising1 who was bishop here from #aach to #aaeh4 ,freising has manufactures of agricultural machinery and of porcelain1 while printing and brewing are carried on4 ,near the town is the site of the ,benedictine abbey of ,weihenstephan1 which existed from #gbe to #ahjc4 ,this is now a model farm and brewery4 ,freising is a very ancient town and is said to have been founded by the ,romans4 ,after being destroyed by the ,hungarians in #iee it was fortified by the emperor ,otto ,,ii4 in #igf and by ,duke ,welf of ,bavaria in #ajhb4 ,a bishopric was established here in #gbd by ,st ,corbinianus1 whose brother ,erimbert was consecrated second bishop by ,st ,boniface in #gci4 ,later on the bishops acquired considerable territorial power and in the #agth century became princes of the ,empire4 ,in #ahjb the see was secularized1 the bulk of its territories being assigned to ,bavaria and the rest to ,salzburg1 of which ,freising had been a suffragan bishopric4 ,in #ahag an archbishopric was established at ,freising1 but in the following year it was transferred to ,munich4 ,the occupant of the see is now called archbishop of ,munich and ,freising4 ,see ,c4 ,meichelbeck1 ,historiae ,frisingensis 7,augsburg1 #agbd-agbi1 new and enlarged edition #ahed74 ,,frejus1 a town in the department of the ,var in ,s4,e4 ,france4 ,pop4 7#aijf7 #cdcj4 ,it is #bha_/b m4 ,s4,e4 of ,draguignan 7the chief town of the department71 and #bba_/b m4 ,s4,w4 of ,cannes by rail4 ,it is only important on account of the fine ,roman remains that it contains1 for it is now a mile from the sea1 its harbour having been silted up by the deposits of the ,argens river4 ,since the #dth century it has been a bishop's see1 which is in the ecclesiastical province of ,aix en ,provence4 ,in modern times the neighbouring fishing village at ,st ,raphael 7#ba_/b m4 by rail ,s4,e41 and on the seashore7 has become a town of #dhfe inhabitants 7in #aija72 in #agii ,napoleon disembarked there1 on his return from ,egypt1 and reembarked for ,elba in #ahad1 while nowadays it is much frequented as a health resort1 as is also ,valescure 7#b m4 ,n4,w4 on the heights above74 ,the cathedral church in part dates from the #abth century1 but only small portions of the old medieval episcopal palace are now visible1 as it was rebuilt about #ahbc4 ,the ramparts of the old town can still be traced for a long distance1 and there are fragments of two moles1 of the theatre and of a gate4 ,the amphitheatre1 which seated #ab1jjj spectators1 is in a better state of preservation4 ,the ruins of the great aqueduct which brought the waters of the ,siagnole1 an affluent of the ,siagne1 to the town1 can still be traced for a distance of nearly #ai m4 ,the original hamlet was the capital of the tribe of the ,oxybii1 while the town of ,forum ,julii was founded on its site by ,julius ,caesar in order to secure to the ,romans a harbour independent of that of ,marseilles4 ,the buildings of which ruins exist were mostly built by ,caesar or by ,augustus1 and show that it was an important naval station and arsenal4 ,but the town suffered much at the hands of the ,arabs1 of ,barbary pirates1 and of its inhabitants1 who constructed many of their dwellings out of the ruined ,roman buildings4 ,the ancient harbour 7really but a portion of the lagoons1 which had been deepened7 is now completely silted up4 ,even in early times a canal had to be kept open by perpetual digging1 while about #agjj this was closed1 and now a sandy and partly cultivated waste extends between the town and the seashore4 ,see ,j4 ,a4 ,aubenas1 ,histoire de ,frejus 7,frejus1 #ahha72 ,ch4 ,lentheric1 ,la ,provence ,maritime ancienne et moderne 7,paris1 #ahhj71 chap4 vii4 7,w4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c47 ,,frelinghuysen1 ,,frederick ,,theodore 7#ahag-ahhe71 ,american lawyer and statesman1 of ,dutch descent1 was born at ,millstone1 ,new ,jersey1 on the #dth of ,august #ahag4 ,his grandfather1 ,frederick ,frelinghuysen 7#agec-ahjd71 was an eminent lawyer1 one of the framers of the first ,new ,jersey constitution1 a soldier in the ,war of ,independence1 and a member 7#aggh-aggi and #aghb-aghc7 of the ,continental ,congress from ,new ,jersey1 and in #agic-agif of the ,united ,states senate2 and his uncle1 ,theodore 7#aghg-ahfb71 was attorney-general of ,new ,jersey from #ahag to #ahbi1 was a ,united ,states senator from ,new ,jersey in #ahbi-ahce1 was the ,whig candidate for vice-president on the ,clay ticket in #ahdd1 and was chancellor of the university of ,new ,york in #ahci-ahej and president of ,rutgers ,college in #ahej-ahfb4 ,frederick ,theodore1 left an orphan at the age of three1 was adopted by his uncle1 graduated at ,rutgers in #ahcf1 and studied law in ,newark with his uncle1 to whose practice he succeeded in #ahci1 soon after his admission to the bar4 ,he became attorney for the ,central ,railroad of ,new ,jersey1 the ,morris ,canal and ,banking ,company1 and other corporations1 and from #ahfa to #ahfg was attorney-general of ,new ,jersey4 ,in #ahfa he was a delegate to the peace congress at ,washington1 and in #ahff was appointed by the governor of ,new ,jersey1 as a ,republican1 to fill a vacancy in the ,united ,states senate4 ,in the winter of #ahfg he was elected to fill the unexpired term1 but a ,democratic majority in the legislature prevented his re-election in #ahfi4 ,in #ahgj he was nominated by ,president ,grant1 and confirmed by the senate1 as ,united ,states minister to ,england to succeed ,john ,lothrop ,motley1 but declined the mission4 ,from #ahga to #ahgg he was again a member of the ,united ,states senate1 in which he was prominent in debate and in committee work1 and was chairman of the committee on foreign affairs during the ,alabama ,claims negotiations4 ,he was a strong opponent of the reconstruction measures of ,president ,johnson1 for whose conviction he voted 7on most of the specific charges7 in the impeachment trial4 ,he was a member of the joint committee which drew up and reported 7#ahgg7 the ,electoral ,commission ,bill1 and subsequently served as a member of the commission4 ,on the #abth of ,december #ahha he was appointed secretary of state by ,president ,arthur to succeed ,james ,g4 ,blaine1 and served until the inauguration of ,president ,cleveland in #ahhe4 ,retiring1 with his health impaired by overwork1 to his home in ,newark1 he died there on the #bjth of ,may1 less than three months after relinquishing the cares of office4 ,,fremantle1 a seaport of ,swan county1 ,western ,australia1 at the mouth of the ,swan river1 #ab m4 by rail ,s4,w4 of ,perth4 ,it is the terminus of the ,eastern railway1 and is a town of some industrial activity1 shipbuilding1 soap-boiling1 saw-milling1 smelting1 iron-founding1 furniture-making1 flour-milling1 brewing and tanning being its chief industries4 ,the harbour1 by the construction of two long moles and the blasting away of the rocks at the bar1 has been rendered secure4 ,the ,english1 ,french and ,german mail steamers call at the port4 ,fremantle became a municipality in #ahga2 but there are now three separate municipalities--,fremantle1 with a population in #aija of #ad1gjd2 ,fremantle ,east 7#bdid72 and ,fremantle ,north 7#cbdf74 ,at ,rottnest ,island1 off the harbour1 there are government salt-works and a residence of the governor1 also penal and reformatory establishments4 ,,fremiet1 ,,emmanuel 7#ahbd- 71 ,french sculptor1 born in ,paris1 was a nephew and pupil of ,rude2 he chiefly devoted himself to animal sculpture and to equestrian statues in armour4 ,his earliest work was in scientific lithography 7osteology71 and for a while he served in times of adversity in the gruesome office of painter to the ,morgue4 ,in #ahdc he sent to the ,salon a study of a ,gazelle1 and after that date was very prolific in his works4 ,his ,wounded ,bear and ,wounded ,dog were produced in #ahej1 and the ,luxembourg ,museum at once secured this striking example of his work4 ,from #ahee to #ahei ,fremiet was engaged on a series of military statuettes for ,napoleon ,,iii4 ,he produced his equestrian statue of ,napoleon ,i4 in #ahfh1 and of ,louis d',orleans in #ahfi 7at the ,chateau de ,pierrefonds7 and in #ahgd the first equestrian statue of ,joan of ,arc1 erected in the ,place des ,pyramides1 ,paris2 this he afterwards 7#ahhi7 replaced with another and still finer version4 ,in the meanwhile he had exhibited his masterly ,gorilla and ,woman which won him a medal of honour at the ,salon of #ahhg4 ,of the same character1 and even more remarkable1 is his ,ourang-,outangs and ,borneo ,savage of #ahie1 a commission from the ,paris ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,fremiet also executed the statue of ,st ,michael for the summit of the spire of the ,eglise ,st ,michel1 and the equestrian statue of ,velasquez for the ,jardin de l',infante at the ,louvre4 ,he became a member of the ,academie des ,beaux-,arts in #ahib1 and succeeded ,barye as professor of animal drawing at the ,natural ,history ,museum of ,paris4 ,,fremont1 ,,john ,,charles 7#ahac-ahij71 ,american explorer1 soldier and political leader1 was born in ,savannah1 ,georgia1 on the #bast of ,january #ahac4 ,his father1 a native of ,france1 died when the boy was in his sixth year1 and his mother1 a member of an aristocratic ,virginia family1 then removed to ,charleston1 ,south ,carolina4 ,in #ahbh1 after a year's special preparation1 young ,fremont entered the junior class of the college of ,charleston1 and here displayed marked ability1 especially in mathematics2 but his irregular attendance and disregard of college discipline led to his expulsion from the institution1 which1 however1 conferred upon him a degree in #ahcf4 ,in #ahcc he was appointed teacher of mathematics on board the sloop of war ,natchez1 and was so engaged during a cruise along the ,south ,american coast which was continued for about two and a half years4 ,soon after returning to ,charleston he was appointed professor of mathematics in the ,united ,states navy1 but he chose instead to serve as assistant engineer of a survey undertaken chiefly for the purpose of finding a pass through the mountains for a proposed railway from ,charleston to ,cincinnati4 ,in ,july #ahch he was appointed second lieutenant of ,topographical ,engineers in the ,united ,states army1 and for the next three years he was assistant to the ,french explorer1 ,jean ,nicholas ,nicollet 7#aghf-ahdc71 employed by the war department to survey and map a large part of the country lying between the upper waters of the ,mississippi and ,missouri rivers4 ,in #ahda ,fremont surveyed1 for the government1 the lower course of the ,des ,moines river4 ,in the same year he married ,jessie1 the daughter of ,senator ,thomas ,h4 ,benton of ,missouri1 and it was in no small measure through ,benton's influence with the government that ,fremont was enabled to accomplish within the next few years the exploration of much of the territory between the ,mississippi ,valley and the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,when the claim of the ,united ,states to the ,oregon territory was being strengthened by occupation1 ,fremont was sent1 at his urgent request1 to explore the frontier beyond the ,missouri river1 and especially the ,rocky ,mountains in the vicinity of the ,south ,pass1 through which the ,american immigrants travelled4 ,within four months 7#ahdb7 he surveyed the ,pass and ascended to the summit of the highest of the ,wind ,river ,mountains1 since known as ,fremont's ,peak1 and the interest aroused by his descriptions was such that in the next year he was sent on a second expedition to complete the survey across the continent along the line of travel from ,missouri to the mouth of the ,columbia river4 ,this time he not only carried out his instructions but1 by further explorations together with interesting descriptions1 dispelled general ignorance with respect to the main features of the country ,w4 of the ,rocky ,mountains3 the ,great ,salt ,lake1 the ,great ,basin1 the ,sierra ,nevada ,mountains1 and the fertile river basins of the ,mexican province of ,california4 ,his report of this expedition upon his return to ,washington1 ,d4,c41 in #ahdd1 aroused much solicitude for ,california1 which1 it was feared1 might1 in the event of war then threatening between the ,united ,states and ,mexico1 be seized by ,great ,britain4 ,in the spring of #ahde ,fremont was despatched on a third expedition for the professed purposes of further exploring the ,great ,basin and the ,pacific ,coast1 and of discovering the easiest lines of communication between them1 as well as for the secret purpose of assisting the ,united ,states1 in case of war with ,mexico1 to gain possession of ,california4 ,he and his party of sixty-two arrived there in ,january #ahdf4 ,owing to the number of ,american immigrants who had settled in ,california1 the ,mexican authorities there became suspicious and hostile1 and ordered ,fremont out of the province4 ,instead of obeying he pitched his camp near the summit of a mountain overlooking ,monterey1 fortified his position1 and raised the ,united ,states flag4 ,a few days later he was proceeding toward the ,oregon border when new instructions from ,washington caused him to retrace his steps and1 perhaps1 to consider plans for provoking war4 ,the extent of his responsibility for the events that ensued is not wholly clear1 and has been the subject of much controversy2 his defenders have asserted that he was not responsible for the seizure of ,sonoma or for the so-called ,bear-,flag ,war2 and that he played a creditable part throughout4 7,for an opposite view see ,,california47 ,commodore ,john ,d4 ,sloat1 after seizing ,monterey1 transferred his command to ,commodore ,robert ,field ,stockton 7#agie-ahff71 who made ,fremont major of a battalion2 and by ,january #ahdg ,stockton and ,fremont completed the conquest of ,california4 ,in the meantime ,general ,stephen ,watts ,kearny 7#agid-ahdh7 had been sent by the ,government to conquer it and to establish a government4 ,this created a conflict of authority between ,stockton and ,kearny1 both of whom were ,fremont's superior officers4 ,stockton1 ignoring ,kearny1 commissioned ,fremont military commandant and governor4 ,but ,kearny's authority being confirmed about the #ast of ,april1 ,fremont1 for repeated acts of disobedience1 was sent under arrest to ,washington1 where he was tried by court-martial1 found guilty 7,january #ahdg7 of mutiny1 disobedience and conduct prejudicial to military discipline1 and sentenced to dismissal from the service4 ,president ,polk approved of the verdict except as to mutiny1 but remitted the penalty1 whereupon ,fremont resigned4 ,with the mountain-traversed region he had been exploring acquired by the ,united ,states1 ,fremont was eager for a railway from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific1 and in ,october #ahdh he set out at his own and ,senator ,benton's expense to find passes for such a railway along a line westward from the headwaters of the ,rio ,grande4 ,but he had not gone far when he was led astray by a guide1 and after the loss of his entire outfit and several of his men1 and intense suffering of the survivors from cold and hunger1 he turned southward through the valley of the ,rio ,grande and then westward through the valley of the ,gila into southern ,california4 ,late in the year #ahec1 however1 he returned to the place where the guide had led him astray1 found passes through the mountains to the westward between latitudes #cg deg4 and #ch deg4 ,n41 and arrived in ,san ,francisco early in ,may #ahed4 ,from the conclusion of his fourth expedition until ,march #ahee1 when he removed to ,new ,york city1 he lived in ,california1 and in ,december #ahdi was elected one of the first two ,united ,states senators from the new state4 ,but as he drew the short term1 he served only from the #ajth of ,september #ahej to the #crd of ,march #ahea4 ,although a candidate for re-election1 he was defeated by the pro-slavery party4 ,his opposition to slavery1 however1 together with his popularity--won by the successes1 hardships and dangers of his exploring expeditions1 and by his part in the conquest of ,california--led to his nomination1 largely on the ground of availability1 for the presidency in #ahef by the ,republicans 7this being their first presidential campaign71 and by the ,national ,americans or ,know-,nothings4 ,in the ensuing election he was defeated by ,james ,buchanan by #agd to #aad electoral votes4 ,soon after the ,civil ,war began1 ,fremont was appointed major-general and placed in command of the western department with headquarters at ,st ,louis1 but his lack of judgment and of administrative ability soon became apparent1 the affairs of his department fell into disorder1 and ,fremont seems to have been easily duped by dishonest contractors whom he trusted4 ,on the #cjth of ,august #ahfa he issued a proclamation in which he declared the property of ,missourians in rebellion confiscated and their slaves emancipated4 ,for this he was applauded by the radical ,republicans1 but his action was contrary to an act of congress of the #fth of ,august and to the policy of the ,administration4 ,on the #aath of ,september ,president ,lincoln1 who regarded the action as premature and who saw that it might alienate ,kentucky and other border states1 whose adherence he was trying to secure1 annulled these declarations4 ,impelled by serious charges against ,fremont1 the president sent ,montgomery ,blair1 the postmaster-general1 and ,montgomery ,c4 ,meigs1 the quartermaster-general1 to investigate the department2 they reported that ,fremont's management was extravagant and inefficient2 and in ,november he was removed4 ,out of consideration for the ,radicals1 however1 ,fremont was placed in command of the ,mountain ,department of ,virginia1 ,kentucky and ,tennessee4 ,in the spring and summer of #ahfb he co-operated with ,general ,n4 ,p4 ,banks against ,stonewall ,jackson in the ,shenandoah ,valley1 but showed little ability as a commander1 was defeated by ,general ,ewell at ,cross ,keys1 and when his troops were united with those of ,generals ,banks and ,mc,dowell to form the ,army of ,virginia1 of which ,general ,john ,pope was placed in command1 ,fremont declined to serve under ,pope1 whom he outranked1 and retired from active service4 ,on the #cast of ,may #ahfd he was nominated for the presidency by a radical faction of the ,republican party1 opposed to ,president ,lincoln1 but his following was so small that on the #bast of ,september he withdrew from the contest4 ,from #ahgh to #ahha he was governor of the territory of ,arizona1 and in the last year of his life he was appointed by act of congress a major-general and placed on the retired list4 ,he died in ,new ,york on the #acth of ,july #ahij4 ,see ,j4 ,c4 ,fremont1 ,report of the ,exploring ,expedition to the ,rocky ,mountains1 #ahdb1 and to ,oregon and ,north ,california1 #ahdc-ahdd 7,washington1 #ahde72 ,fremont's ,memoirs of my ,life 7,new ,york1 #ahhg72 and ,j4 ,bigelow1 ,memoirs of the ,life and ,public ,services of ,john ,c4 ,fremont 7,new ,york1 #ahef74 ,,fremont1 a city and the county-seat of ,dodge county1 ,nebraska1 ,u4,s4,a41 about #cg m4 ,n4,w4 of ,omaha1 on the ,n4 bank of the ,platte river1 which here abounds in picturesque bluffs and wooded islands4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #fgdg2 7#aijj7 #gbda 7#acjc foreign-born72 7#aiaj7 #hgah4 ,it is on the main line of the ,union ,pacific railway1 on a branch of the ,chicago1 ,burlington ,quincy system1 and on the main western line of the ,chicago ,north-,western railway1 several branches of which 7including the formerly independent ,fremont1 ,elkhorn ,missouri ,valley and the ,sioux ,city ,pacific7 converge here4 ,the city has an attractive situation and is beautifully shaded4 ,it has a public library and is the seat of the ,fremont ,college1 ,commercial ,institute and ,school of ,pharmacy 7#ahge71 a private institution4 ,there is considerable local trade with the rich farming country of the ,platte and ,elkhorn valleys2 and the wholesale grain interests are especially important4 ,among the manufactures are flour1 carriages1 saddlery1 canned vegetables1 furniture1 incubators and beer4 ,the city owns and operates its electric-lighting plant and water-works4 ,fremont was founded in #ahef1 and became the county-seat in #ahfj4 ,it was chartered as a city 7second-class7 in #ahga1 and became a city of the first class in #aija4 ,,fremont1 a city and the county-seat of ,sandusky county1 ,ohio1 ,u4,s4,a41 on the ,sandusky river1 #cj m4 ,s4,e4 of ,toledo4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #gada2 7#aijj7 #hdci1 of whom #ajgd were foreign-born2 7#aiaj census7 #iici4 ,fremont is served by the ,lake ,shore ,michigan ,southern1 the ,lake ,shore ,electric1 the ,lake ,erie ,western1 and the ,wheeling ,lake ,erie railways4 ,the river is navigable to this point4 ,spiegel ,grove1 the former residence of ,rutherford ,b4 ,hayes1 is of interest1 and the city has a public library 7#ahgc7 and parks1 in large measure the gifts of his uncle1 ,sardis ,birchard4 ,fremont is situated in a good agricultural region2 oil and natural gas abound in the vicinity2 and the city has various manufactures1 including boilers1 electro-carbons1 cutlery1 bricks1 agricultural implements1 stoves and ranges1 safety razors1 carriage irons1 sash1 doors1 blinds1 furniture1 beet sugar1 canned vegetables1 malt extract1 garters and suspenders4 ,the total factory product was valued at #b1hcc1che in #aije1 an increase of #bc4d over that of #aijj4 ,fremont is on the site of a favourite abode of the ,indians1 and a trading post was at times maintained here2 but the place is best known in history as the site of ,fort ,stephenson1 erected during the ,war of #ahab1 and on the #bnd of ,august #ahac gallantly and successfully defended by ,major ,george ,croghan 7#agia-ahdi71 with #afj men1 against about #ajjj ,british and ,indians under ,brigadier-,general ,henry ,a4 ,proctor4 ,in #aijf ,croghan's remains were re-interred on the site of the old fort4 ,until #ahdi1 when the present name was adopted in honour of ,j4 ,c4 ,fremont1 the place was known as ,lower ,sandusky2 it was incorporated as a village in #ahbi and was first chartered as a city in #ahfg4 ,,fremy1 ,,edmond 7#ahad-ahid71 ,french chemist1 was born at ,versailles on the #bith of ,february #ahad4 ,entering ,gay-,lussac's laboratory in #ahca1 he became preparateur at the ,ecole ,polytechnique in #ahcd and at the ,college de ,france in #ahcg4 ,his next post was that of repetiteur at the ,ecole ,polytechnique1 where in #ahdf he was appointed professor1 and in #ahej he succeeded ,gay-,lussac in the chair of chemistry at the ,museum d',histoire ,naturelle1 of which he was director1 in succession to ,m4 ,e4 ,chevreul1 from #ahgi to #ahia4 ,he died at ,paris on the #crd of ,february #ahid4 ,his work included investigations of osmic acid1 of the ferrates1 stannates1 plumbates1 c41 and of ozone1 attempts to obtain free fluorine by the electrolysis of fused fluorides1 and the discovery of anhydrous hydrofluoric acid and of a series of acides sulphazotes1 the precise nature of which long remained a matter of discussion4 ,he also studied the colouring matters of leaves and flowers1 the composition of bone1 cerebral matter and other animal substances1 and the processes of fermentation1 in regard to the nature of which he was an opponent of ,pasteur's views4 ,keenly alive to the importance of the technical applications of chemistry1 he devoted special attention as a teacher to the training of industrial chemists4 ,in this field he contributed to our knowledge of the manufacture of iron and steel1 sulphuric acid1 glass and paper1 and in particular worked at the saponification of fats with sulphuric acid and the utilization of palmitic acid for candle-making4 ,in the later years of his life he applied himself to the problem of obtaining alumina in the crystalline form1 and succeeded in making rubies identical with the natural gem not merely in chemical composition but also in physical properties4 ,,french1 ,,daniel ,,chester 7#ahej- 71 ,american sculptor1 was born at ,exeter1 ,new ,hampshire1 on the #bjth of ,april #ahej1 the son of ,henry ,flagg ,french1 a lawyer1 who for a time was assistant-secretary of the ,united ,states treasury4 ,after a year at the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology1 ,french spent a month in the studio of ,john ,q4 ,a4 ,ward1 then began to work on commissions1 and at the age of twenty-three received from the town of ,concord1 ,massachusetts1 an order for his well-known statue ,the ,minute ,man1 which was unveiled 7,april #ai1 #ahge7 on the centenary of the battle of ,concord4 ,previously ,french had gone to ,florence1 ,italy1 where he spent a year with ,thomas ,ball4 ,french's best-known work is ,death ,staying the ,hand of the ,sculptor1 a memorial for the tomb of the sculptor ,martin ,milmore1 in the ,forest ,hills cemetery1 ,boston2 this received a medal of honour at ,paris1 in #aijj4 ,among his other works are3 a monument to ,john ,boyle ,o',reilly1 ,boston2 ,gen4 ,cass1 ,national ,hall of ,statuary1 ,washington2 ,dr ,gallaudet and his ,first ,deaf-,mute ,pupil1 ,washington2 the colossal ,statue of the ,republic1 for the ,columbian ,exposition at ,chicago2 statues of ,rufus ,choate 7,boston71 ,john ,harvard 7,cambridge1 ,mass471 and ,thomas ,starr ,king 7,san ,francisco1 ,california71 a memorial to the architect ,richard ,m4 ,hunt1 in ,fifth ,avenue1 opposite the ,lenox library1 ,new ,york1 and a large ,alma ,mater1 near the approach to ,columbia ,university1 ,new ,york4 ,in collaboration with ,edward ,c4 ,potter he modelled the ,washington1 presented to ,france by the ,daughters of the ,american ,revolution2 the ,general ,grant in ,fairmount ,park1 ,philadelphia1 and the ,general ,joseph ,hooker in ,boston4 ,french became a member of the ,national ,academy of ,design 7#aija71 the ,national ,sculpture ,society1 the ,architectural ,league1 and the ,accademia di ,san ,luca1 of ,rome4 ,,french1 ,,nicholas 7#afjd-afgh71 bishop of ,ferns1 was an ,irish political pamphleteer1 who was born at ,wexford4 ,he was educated at ,louvain1 and returning to ,ireland became a priest at ,wexford1 and before #afdf was appointed bishop of ,ferns4 ,having taken a prominent part in the political disturbances of this period1 ,french deemed it prudent to leave ,ireland in #afea1 and the remainder of his life was passed on the continent of ,europe4 ,he acted as coadjutor to the archbishops of ,santiago de ,compostella and ,paris1 and to the bishop of ,ghent1 and died at ,ghent on the #bcrd of ,august #afgh4 ,in #afgf he published his attack on ,james ,butler1 marquess of ,ormonde1 entitled ,the ,unkinde ,desertor of ,loyall ,men and ,true ,frinds1 and shortly afterwards ,the ,bleeding ,iphigenia4 ,the most important of his other pamphlets is the ,narrative of the ,earl of ,clarendon's ,settlement and ,sale of ,ireland 7,louvain1 #affh74 ,the ,historical ,works of ,bishop ,french1 comprising the three pamphlets already mentioned and some letters1 were published by ,s4 ,h4 ,bindon at ,dublin in #ahdf4 ,see ,t4 ,d4 ,mc,gee1 ,irish ,writers of the #agth ,century 7,dublin1 #ahdf72 ,sir ,j4 ,t4 ,gilbert1 ,contemporary ,history of ,affairs in ,ireland1 #afda-afeb 7,dublin1 #ahgi-ahhj72 and ,t4 ,carte1 ,life of ,james1 ,duke of ,ormond 7new ed41 ,oxford1 #ahea74 ,,french ,,congo1 the general name of the ,french possessions in equatorial ,africa4 ,they have an area estimated at #gjj1jjj sq4 m41 with a population1 also estimated1 of #f1jjj1jjj to #aj1jjj1jjj4 ,the whites numbered 7#aijf7 #abgh1 of whom #ejb were officials4 ,french ,congo1 officially renamed ,,french ,,equatorial ,,africa in #aiaj1 comprises--7#a7 the ,gabun ,colony1 7#b7 the ,middle ,congo ,colony1 7#c7 the ,ubangi-,shari ,circumscription1 7#d7 the ,chad ,circumscription4 ,the two last-named divisions form the ,ubangi-,shari-,chad ,colony4 ,the present article treats of ,french ,congo as a unit4 ,it is of highly irregular shape4 ,it is bounded ,w4 by the ,atlantic1 ,n4 by the 7,spanish7 ,muni ,river ,settlements1 the ,german colony of ,cameroon and the ,sahara1 ,e4 by the ,anglo-,egyptian ,sudan1 and ,s4 by ,belgian ,congo and the ,portuguese territory of ,kabinda4 ,in the greater part of its length the southern frontier is the middle course of the ,congo and the ,ubangi and ,mbomu1 the chief northern affluents of that stream1 but in the south-west the frontier keeps north of the ,congo river1 whose navigable lower course is partitioned between ,belgium and ,portugal4 ,the coast line1 some #fjj m4 long1 extends from #e deg4 ,s4 to #a deg4 ,n4 ,the northern frontier1 starting inland from the ,muni estuary1 after skirting the ,spanish settlements follows a line drawn a little north of #b deg4 ,n4 and extending east to #af deg4 ,e4 ,north of this line the country is part of ,cameroon1 ,german territory extending so far inland from the ,gulf of ,guinea as to approach within #acj m4 of the ,ubangi4 ,from the intersection of the lines named1 at which point ,french ,congo is at its narrowest1 the frontier runs north and then east until the ,shari is reached in #aj deg4 #dj' ,n4 ,the ,shari then forms the frontier up to ,lake ,chad1 where ,french ,congo joins the ,saharan regions of ,french ,west ,africa4 ,the eastern frontier1 separating the colony from the ,anglo-,egyptian ,sudan1 is the water-parting between the ,nile and the ,congo4 ,the ,mahommedan sultanates of ,wadai and ,bagirmi occupy much of the northern part of ,french ,congo 7see ,,wadai and ,,bagirmi74 ,physical ,features4--,the coast line1 beginning in the north at ,corisco ,bay1 is shortly afterwards somewhat deeply indented by the estuary of the ,gabun1 south of which the shore runs in a nearly straight line until the delta of the ,ogowe is reached1 where ,cape ,lopez projects ,n4,w4 ,from this point the coast trends uniformly ,s4,e4 without presenting any striking features1 though the ,bay of ,mayumba1 the roadstead of ,loango1 and the ,pointe ,noire may be mentioned4 ,a large proportion of the coast region is occupied by primeval forest1 with trees rising to a height of #aej and #bjj ft41 but there is a considerable variety of scenery--open lagoons1 mangrove swamps1 scattered clusters of trees1 park-like reaches1 dense walls of tangled underwood along the rivers1 prairies of tall grass and patches of cultivation4 ,behind the coast region is a ridge which rises from #cjjj to #dejj ft41 called the ,crystal ,mountains1 then a plateau with an elevation varying from #aejj to #bhjj ft41 cleft with deep river-valleys1 the walls of which are friable1 almost vertical1 and in some places #gfj ft4 high4 ,illustration3 ,map of ,french ,congo4 ,the coast rivers flowing into the ,atlantic cross four terraces4 ,on the higher portion of the plateau their course is over bare sand2 on the second terrace1 from #abjj to #bjjj ft4 high1 it is over wide grassy tracts2 then1 for some #ajj m41 the rivers pass through virgin forest1 and1 lastly1 they cross the shore region1 which is about #aj m4 broad4 ,the rivers which fall directly into the ,atlantic are generally unnavigable4 ,the most important1 the ,ogowe 7q4v471 is1 however1 navigable from its mouth to ,n',jole1 a distance of #bce m4 ,rivers to the south of the ,ogowe are the ,nyanga1 #abj m4 long1 and the ,kwilu4 ,the latter1 #cbj m4 in length1 is formed by the ,kiasi and the ,luete2 it has a very winding course1 flowing by turns from north to south1 from east to west1 from south to north-west and from north to south-west4 ,it is encumbered with rocks and eddies1 and is navigable only over #ch m41 and for five months in the year4 ,the mouth is #aajj ft4 wide4 ,the ,muni river1 the northernmost in the colony1 is obstructed by cataracts in its passage through the escarpment to the coast4 ,nearly all the upper basin of the ,shari 7q4v47 as well as the right bank of the lower river is within ,french ,congo4 ,the greater part of the country belongs1 however1 to the drainage area of the ,congo river4 ,in addition to the northern banks of the ,mbomu and ,ubangi1 #ccj m4 of the north shore of the ,congo itself are in the ,french protectorate as well as numerous subsidiary streams4 ,for some #ajj m4 however1 the right bank of the ,sanga1 the most important of these subsidiary streams1 is in ,german territory 7see ,,congo74 ,geology4--,three main divisions are recognized in the ,french ,congo3--7#a7 the littoral zone1 covered with alluvium and superficial deposits and underlain by ,tertiary and ,cretaceous rocks2 7#b7 the mountain zone of the ,crystal ,mountains1 composed of granite1 metamorphic and ancient sediments2 7#c7 the plateau of the northern portion of the ,congo basin1 occupied by ,karroo sandstones4 ,the core of the ,crystal ,mountains consists of granite and schists4 ,infolded with them1 and on the flanks1 are three rock systems ascribed to the ,silurian1 ,devonian and ,carboniferous4 ,these are unfossiliferous1 but fossils of ,devonian age occur on the ,congo 7see ,,congo ,,free ,,state74 ,granite covers wide areas north-west of the ,crystal ,mountains4 ,the plateau sandstones lie horizontally and consist of a lower red sandstone group and an upper white sandstone group4 ,they have not yielded fossils4 ,limestones of ,lower ,cretaceous age1 with ,schloenbachia inflata1 occur north of the ,gabun and in the ,ogowe basin4 ,marls and limestones with fossils of an ,eocene facies overlie the ,cretaceous rocks on the ,gabun4 ,a superficial iron-cemented sand1 erroneously termed laterite1 covers large areas in the littoral zone1 on the flanks of the mountains and on the high plateau4 ,climate4--,the whole of the country being in the equatorial region1 the climate is everywhere very hot and dangerous for ,europeans4 ,on the coast four seasons are distinguished3 the dry season 7#aeth of ,may to #aeth of ,september71 the rainy season 7#aeth of ,september to #aeth of ,january71 then a second dry season 7#aeth of ,january to #ast of ,march71 and a second rainy season 7#ast of ,march to #aeth of ,may74 ,the rainfall at ,libreville is about #if in4 a year4 ,flora and ,fauna4--,the elephant1 the hippopotamus1 the crocodile and several kinds of apes--including the chimpanzee and the rare gorilla--are the most noteworthy larger animals2 the birds are various and beautiful--grey parrots1 shrikes1 fly-catchers1 rhinoceros birds1 weaver birds 7often in large colonies on the palm-trees71 ice-birds1 from the ,cecyle ,sharpii to the dwarfish ,alcedo cristata1 butterfly finches1 and helmet-birds 7,turacus giganteus71 as well as more familiar types4 ,snakes are extremely common4 ,the curious climbing-fish1 which frequents the mangroves1 the ,protopterus or lung-fish1 which lies in the mud in a state of lethargy during the dry season1 the strange and poisonous ,tetrodon guttifer1 and the herring-like ,pellona africana1 often caught in great shoals--are the more remarkable of the fishes4 ,oysters are got in abundance from the lagoons1 and the huge ,cardisoma armatum or heart-crab is fattened for table4 ,fireflies1 mosquitoes and sandflies are among the most familiar forms of insect life4 ,a kind of ant builds very striking bent-house or umbrella-shaped nests rising on the tree trunks one above the other4 ,among the more characteristic forms of vegetation are baobabs1 silk-cotton trees1 screw-pines and palms--especially ,hyphaene guineensis 7a fan-palm71 ,raphia 7the wine-palm71 and ,elaeis guineensis 7the oil-palm74 ,anonaceous plants 7notably ,anona senegalensis71 and the pallabanda1 an olive-myrtle-like tree1 are common in the prairies2 the papyrus shoots up to a height of #bj ft4 along the rivers2 the banks are fringed by the cottony ,hibiscus tiliaceus1 ipomaeas and fragrant jasmines2 and the thickets are bound together in one inextricable mass by lianas of many kinds4 ,in the upper ,shari region1 and that of the ,kotto tributary of the ,ubangi1 are species of the coffee tree1 one species attaining a height of over #fj ft4 ,its bean resembles that of ,abyssinian coffee of medium quality4 ,among the fruit trees are the mango and the papaw1 the orange and the lemon4 ,negro-pepper 7a variety of capsicum7 and ginger grow wild4 ,inhabitants and ,chief ,towns4--,a census1 necessarily imperfect1 taken in #aijf showed a total population1 exclusive of ,wadai1 of #c1feb1jjj1 divided in districts as follows3--,gabun1 #cgf1jjj2 ,middle ,congo1 #bei1jjj2 ,ubangi-,shari1 #b1acj1jjj2 ,chad1 #hhe1jjj4 ,the country is peopled by diverse negro races1 and1 in the regions bordering ,lake ,chad and in ,wadai1 by ,fula1 ,hausa1 ,arabs and semi-,arab tribes4 ,among the best-known tribes living in ,french ,congo are the ,fang 7,fans71 the ,bakalai1 the ,batekes and the ,zandeh or ,niam-,niam4 ,several of the tribes are cannibals and among many of them the fetish worship characteristic of the ,west ,african negroes prevails4 ,their civilization is of a low order4 ,in the northern regions the majority of the inhabitants are ,mahommedans1 and it is only in those districts that organized and powerful states exist4 ,elsewhere the authority of a chief or king extends1 ordinarily1 little beyond the village in which he lives4 7,an account of the chief tribes is given under their names47 ,the ,european inhabitants are chiefly of ,french nationality1 and are for the most part traders1 officials and missionaries4 ,the chief towns are ,libreville 7capital of the ,gabun colony7 with #cjjj inhabitants2 ,brazzaville1 on the ,congo on the north side of ,stanley ,pool 7opposite the ,belgian capital of ,leopoldville71 the seat of the governor-general2 ,franceville1 on the upper ,ogowe2 ,loango1 an important seaport in #d deg4 #ci' ,s42 ,n',jole1 a busy trading centre on the lower ,ogowe2 ,chekna1 capital of ,bagirmi1 which forms part of the ,chad territory2 ,abeshr1 the capital of ,wadai1 ,bangi on the ,ubangi river1 the administrative capital of the ,ubangi-,shari-,chad colony4 ,kunde1 ,lame and ,binder are native trading centres near the ,cameroon frontier4 ,communications4--,the rivers are the chief means of internal communication4 ,access to the greater part of the colony is obtained by ocean steamers to ,matadi on the lower ,congo1 and thence round the falls by the ,congo railway to ,stanley ,pool4 ,from ,brazzaville on ,stanley ,pool there is #fhj m4 of uninterrupted steam navigation ,n4,e4 into the heart of ,africa1 #ccj m4 being on the ,congo and #cej m4 on the ,ubangi4 ,the farthest point reached is ,zongo1 where rapids block the river1 but beyond that port there are several navigable stretches of the ,ubangi1 and for small vessels access to the ,nile is possible by means of the ,bahr-el-,ghazal tributaries4 ,the ,sanga1 which joins the ,congo1 #bgj m4 above ,brazzaville1 can be navigated by steamers for #cej m41 i4e4 up to and beyond the ,s4,e4 frontier of the ,german colony of ,cameroon4 ,the ,shari is also navigable for a considerable distance and by means of its affluent1 the ,logone1 connects with the ,benue and ,niger1 affording a waterway between the ,gulf of ,guinea and ,lake ,chad4 ,stores for government posts in the ,chad territory are forwarded by this route4 ,there is1 however1 no connecting link between the coast rivers--,gabun1 ,ogowe and ,kwilu and the ,congo system4 ,a railway1 about #ejj m4 long1 from the ,gabun to the ,sanga is projected and the surveys for the purpose made4 ,another route surveyed for a railway is that from ,loango to ,brazzaville4 ,a narrow-gauge line1 #ge m4 long1 from ,brazzaville to ,mindule in the cataracts region was begun in ,november #aijh1 the first railway to be built in ,french ,congo4 ,the district served by the line is rich in copper and other minerals4 ,from ,wadai a caravan route across the ,sahara leads to ,bengazi on the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,telegraph lines connect ,loango with ,brazzaville and ,libreville1 there is telegraphic communication with ,europe by submarine cable1 and steamship communication between ,loango and ,libreville and ,marseilles1 ,bordeaux1 ,liverpool and ,hamburg4 ,trade and ,agriculture4--,the chief wealth of the colony consists in the products of its forests and in ivory4 ,the natives1 in addition to manioc1 their principal food1 cultivate bananas1 ground nuts and tobacco4 ,on plantations owned by ,europeans coffee1 cocoa and vanilla are grown4 ,european vegetables are raised easily4 ,gold1 iron and copper are found4 ,copper ores have been exported from ,mindule since #aije4 ,the chief exports are rubber and ivory1 next in importance coming palm nuts and palm oil1 ebony and other woods1 coffee1 cocoa and copal4 ,the imports are mainly cotton and metal goods1 spirits and foodstuffs4 ,in the ,gabun and in the basin of the ,ogowe the ,french customs tariff1 with some modifications1 prevails1 but in the ,congo basin1 that is1 in the greater part of the country1 by virtue of international agreements1 no discrimination can be made between ,french and other merchandise1 whilst customs duties must not exceed #aj ad valorem4#a ,in the ,shari basin and in ,wadai the ,anglo-,french declaration of ,march #ahii accorded for thirty years equal treatment to ,british and ,french goods4 ,the value of the trade rose in the ten years #ahif-aije from ,l#cfj1jjj to ,l#hej1jjj1 imports and exports being nearly equal4 ,the bulk of the export trade is with ,great ,britain1 which takes most of the rubber1 ,france coming second and ,germany third4 ,the imports are in about equal proportions from ,france and foreign countries4 ,land ,tenure4 ,the ,concessions ,regime4--,land held by the natives is governed by tribal law1 but the state only recognizes native ownership in land actually occupied by the aborigines4 ,the greater part of the country is considered a state domain4 ,land held by ,europeans is subject to the ,civil ,code of ,france except such estates as have been registered under the terms of a decree of the #bhth of ,march #ahii1 when1 registration having been effected1 the title to the land is guaranteed by the state4 ,nearly the whole of the colony has been divided since #ahii into large estates held by limited liability companies to whom has been granted the sole right of exploiting the land leased to them4 ,the companies holding concessions numbered in #aijd about forty1 with a combined capital of over ,l#b1jjj1jjj1 whilst the concessions varied in size from #dbe sq4 m4 to #ed1jjj sq4 m4 ,one effect of the granting of concessions was the rapid decline in the business of non-concessionaire traders1 of whom the most important were ,liverpool merchants established in the ,gabun before the advent of the ,french4 ,as by the ,act of ,berlin of #ahhe1 to which all the ,european powers were signatories1 equality of treatment in commercial affairs was guaranteed to all nations in the ,congo basin1 protests were raised against the terms of the concessions4 ,the reply was that the critics confused the exercise of the right of proprietorship with the act of commerce1 and that in no country was the landowner who farmed his land and sold the produce regarded as a merchant4 ,various decisions by the judges of the colony during #aijb and #aijc and by the ,french cour de cassation in #aije confirmed that contention4 ,the action of the companies was1 however1 in most cases1 neither beneficial to the country nor financially successful1 whilst the native cultivators resented the prohibition of their trading direct with their former customers4 ,the case of the ,liverpool traders was taken up by the ,british government and it was agreed that the dispute should be settled by arbitration4 ,in ,september #aijh the ,french government issued a decree reorganizing and rendering more stringent the control exercised by the local authorities over the concession companies1 especially in matters concerning the rights of natives and the liberty of commerce4 ,de ,brazza's treaties4 ,history4--,the ,gabun was visited in the #aeth century by the ,portuguese explorers1 and it became one of the chief seats of the slave trade4 ,it was not1 however1 till well on in the #aith century that ,europeans made any more permanent settlement than was absolutely necessary for the maintenance of their commerce4 ,in #ahci ,captain 7afterwards ,admiral7 ,bouet-,willaumez obtained for ,france the right of residence on the left bank1 and in #ahdb he secured better positions on the right bank4 ,the primary object of the ,french settlement was to secure a port wherein men-of-war could revictual4 ,the chief establishment1 ,libreville1 was founded in #ahdi1 with negroes taken from a slave ship4 ,the settlement in time acquired importance as a trading port4 ,in #ahfg the troops numbered about #ajjj1 and the civil population about #ejjj1 while the official reports about the same date claimed for the whole colony an area of #hjjj sq4 m4 and a population of #ahf1jjj4 ,cape ,lopez had been ceded to ,france in #ahfb1 and the colony's coast-line extended1 nominally1 to a length of #bjj m4 ,in consequence of the war with ,germany the colony was practically abandoned in #ahga1 the establishment at ,libreville being maintained as a coaling depot merely4 ,in #ahge1 however1 ,france again turned her attention to the ,gabun estuary1 the hinterland of which had already been partly explored4 ,paul du ,chaillu penetrated 7#ahee-ahei and #ahfc-ahfe7 to the south of the ,ogowe2 ,walker1 an ,english merchant1 explored the ,ngunye1 an affluent of the ,ogowe1 in #ahff4 ,in #ahgb-ahgc ,alfred ,marche1 a ,french naturalist1 and the marquis de ,compiegne#b explored a portion of the ,ogowe basin1 but it was not until the expedition of #ahge-ahgh that the country east of the ,ogowe was reached4 ,this expedition was led by ,savorgnan de ,brazza 7q4v471 who was accompanied by ,dr ,noel ,eugene ,ballay1 and1 for part of the time1 by ,marche4 ,de ,brazza's expedition1 which was compelled to remain for many months at several places1 ascended the ,ogowe over #djj m41 and beyond the basin of that stream discovered the ,alima1 which was1 though the explorers were ignorant of the fact1 a tributary of the ,congo4 ,from the ,alima1 de ,brazza and ,ballay turned north and finally reached the ,gabun in ,november #ahgh1 the journey being less fruitful in results than the time it occupied would indicate4 ,returning to ,europe1 de ,brazza learned that ,h4 ,m4 ,stanley had revealed the mystery of the ,congo1 and in his next journey1 begun ,december #ahgi1 the ,french traveller undertook to find a way to the ,congo above the rapids via the ,ogowe4 ,in this he was successful1 and in ,september #ahhj reached ,stanley ,pool1 on the north side of which ,brazzaville was subsequently founded4 ,returning to the ,gabun by the lower ,congo1 de ,brazza met ,stanley4 ,both explorers were nominally in the service of the ,international ,african ,association 7see ,,congo ,,free ,,state71 but de ,brazza in reality acted solely in the interests of ,france and concluded treaties with ,makoko1 king of the ,batekes1 and other chieftains1 placing very large areas under the protection of that country4 ,the conflicting claims of the ,association 7which became the ,congo ,free ,state7 and ,france were adjusted by a convention signed in ,february #ahhe4c ,in the meantime de ,brazza and ,ballay had more fully explored the country behind the coast regions of ,gabun and ,loango1 the last-named seaport being occupied by ,france in #ahhc4 ,the conclusion of agreements with ,germany 7,december #ahhe and ,february-,march #ahid7 and with ,portugal 7,may #ahhf7 secured ,france in the possession of the western portion of the colony as it now exists1 whilst an arrangement with the ,congo ,free ,state in #ahhg settled difficulties which had arisen in the ,ubangi district4 ,the advance towards the ,nile3 ,fashoda4 ,the extension of ,french influence northward towards ,lake ,chad and eastward to the verge of the basin of the ,nile followed1 though not without involving the country in serious disputes with the other ,european powers possessing rights in those regions4 ,by creating the posts of ,bangi 7#ahij71 ,wesso and ,abiras 7#ahia71 ,france strengthened her hold over the ,ubangi and the ,sanga4 ,but at the same time the ,congo ,free ,state passed the parallel of #d deg4 ,n4--which1 after the compromise of #ahhg1 ,france had regarded as the southern boundary of her possessions--and1 occupying the sultanate of ,bangasso 7north of the ,ubangi river71 pushed on as far as #i deg4 ,n4 ,the dispute which ensued was only settled in #ahid and after the signature of the convention between ,great ,britain and the ,congo ,state of the #abth of ,may of that year1 against which both the ,german and the ,french governments protested1 the last named because it erected a barrier against the extension of ,french territory to the ,nile valley4 ,by a compromise of the #adth of ,august the boundary was definitely drawn and1 in accordance with this pact1 which put the frontier back to about #d deg4 ,n41 ,france from #ahie to #ahig took possession of the upper ,ubangi1 with ,bangasso1 ,rafai and ,zemio4 ,then began the ,french encroachment on the ,bahr-el-,ghazal2 the ,marchand expedition1 despatched to the support of ,victor ,liotard1 the lieutenant-governor of the upper ,ubangi1 reached ,tambura in ,july #ahig and ,fashoda in ,july #ahih4 ,a dispute with ,great ,britain arose1 and it was decided that the expedition should evacuate ,fashoda4 ,the declaration of the #bast of ,march #ahii finally terminated the dispute1 fixing the eastern frontier of the ,french colony as already stated4 ,thus1 after the ,franco-,spanish treaty of ,june #aijj settling the limits of the ,spanish territory on the coast1 the boundaries of the ,french ,congo on all its frontiers were determined in broad outline4 ,the ,congo-,cameroon frontier was precisely defined by another ,franco-,german agreement in ,april #aijh1 following a detailed survey made by joint commissioners in #aije and #aijf4 ,for a comprehensive description of these international rivalries see ,,africa1 ,sec4 #e1 and for the conquest of the ,chad regions see ,,bagirmi and ,,rabah ,,zobeir4 ,in the other portions of the colony ,french rule was accepted by the natives1 for the most part1 peaceably4 ,for the relations of ,france with ,wadai see that article4 ,following the acquisitions for ,france of de ,brazza1 the ancient ,gabun colony was joined to the ,congo territories4 ,from #ahhf to #ahhi ,gabun was1 however1 separately administered4 ,by decree of the #aath of ,december #ahhh the whole of the ,french possessions were created one colony under the style of ,congo francais1 with various subdivisions2 they were placed under a commissioner-general 7de ,brazza7 having his residence at ,brazzaville4 ,this arrangement proved detrimental to the economic development of the ,gabun settlements1 which being outside the limits of the free trade conventional basin of the ,congo 7see ,,africa1 ,sec4 #e7 enjoyed a separate tariff4 ,by decree of the #bith of ,december #aijc 7which became operative in ,july #aijd7 ,congo francais was divided into four parts as named in the opening paragraph4 ,the first commissioner-general under the new scheme was ,emile ,gentil1 the explorer of the ,shari and ,chad4 ,in #aije de ,brazza was sent out from ,france to investigate charges of cruelty and maladministration brought against officials of the colony1 several of which proved well founded4 ,de ,brazza died at ,dakar when on his way home4 ,the ,french government1 after considering the report he had drawn up1 decided to retain ,gentil as commissioner-general1 making however 7decree of #aeth of ,february #aijf7 various changes in administration with a view to protect the natives and control the concession companies4 ,gentil1 who devoted the next two years to the reorganization of the finances of the country and the development of its commerce1 resigned his post in ,february #aijh4 ,he was succeeded by ,m4 ,merlin1 whose title was changed 7,june #aijh7 to that of governor-general4 ,administration and ,revenue4--,the governor-general has control over the whole of ,french ,congo1 but does not directly administer any part of it1 the separate colonies being under lieutenant-governors4 ,the ,gabun colony includes the ,gabun estuary and the whole of the coast-line of ,french ,congo1 together with the basin of the ,ogowe river4 ,the inland frontier is so drawn as to include all the hinterland not within the ,congo free-trade zone 7the ,chad district excepted74 ,the ,middle ,congo has for its western frontier the ,gabun colony and ,cameroon1 and extends inland to the easterly bend of the ,ubangi river2 the two circumscriptions extend east and north of the ,middle ,congo4 ,there is a general budget for the whole of ,french ,congo2 each colony has also a separate budget and administrative autonomy4 ,as in other ,french colonies the legislative power is in the ,french chambers only1 but in the absence of specific legislation presidential decrees have the force of law4 ,a judicial service independent of the executive exists1 but the district administrators also exercise judicial functions4 ,education is in the hands of the missionaries1 upwards of #ej schools being established by #aiji4 ,the military force maintained consists of natives officered by ,europeans4 ,revenue is derived from taxes on land1 rent paid by concession companies1 a capitation or hut tax on natives1 and customs receipts1 supplemented by a subvention from ,france4 ,in addition to defraying the military expenses1 about ,l#ajj1jjj a year1 a grant of ,l#bh1jjj yearly was made up to #aijf by the ,french chambers towards the civil expenses4 ,in #aijg the budget of the ,congo balanced at about ,l#bej1jjj without the aid of this subvention4 ,in #aiji the chambers sanctioned a loan for the colony of ,l#hdj1jjj1 guaranteed by ,france and to be applied to the establishment of administrative stations and public works4 ,,bibliography4--,fernand ,rouget1 ,l',expansion coloniale au ,congo francais 7,paris1 #aijf71 a valuable monograph1 with bibliography and maps2 ,a4 ,chevalier1 ,l',afrique centrale francaise 7,paris1 #aijg74 ,for special studies see ,lacroix1 ,resultats mineralogiques et zoologiques des recentes explorations de l',afrique occidentale francaise et de la region du ,tchad 7,paris1 #aije72 ,m4 ,barrat1 ,sur la geologie du ,congo francais 7,paris1 #ahie71 and ,ann4 des mines1 ser4 q4 t4 vii4 7#ahie72 ,j4 ,cornet1 ,les ,formations post-primaires du bassin du ,congo1 ,ann4 soc1 geol4 belg4 vol4 xxi4 7#ahie74 ,the ,paris ,bulletin du ,museum for #aijc and #aijd contains papers on the zoology of the country4 ,for flora see numerous papers by ,a4 ,chevalier in ,comptes rendus de l'academie des sciences 7#aijb-aijd71 and the ,journal d'agriculture pratique des pays chauds 7#aija1 c474 ,for history1 besides ,rouget's book1 see ,j4 ,ancel1 ,etude historique4 ,la formation de la colonie du ,congo francais1 #ahdc-ahhb1 containing an annotated bibliography1 in ,bull4 ,com4 l',afrique francaise1 vol4 xii4 7#aijb72 the works cited under ,,brazza2 and ,e4 ,gentil1 ,la ,chute de l'empire de ,rabah 7,paris1 #aijb74 ,of earlier books of travels the most valuable are3--,paul du ,chaillu1 ,explorations and ,adventures in ,equatorial ,africa 7,london1 #ahfa72 ,a ,journey to ,ashonga ,land 7,london1 #ahfg72 and ,sir ,r4 ,burton1 ,two ,trips to ,gorilla ,land 7,london1 #ahgf74 ,of later works see ,mary ,h4 ,kingsley1 ,travels in ,west ,africa 7,london1 #ahig72 ,a4 ,b4 de ,mezieres1 ,rapport de mission sur le ,haut ,oubangui1 le ,m',bomou et le ,bahr-el-,ghazal 7,paris1 #aijc72 and ,c4 ,maistre1 ,a travers l',afrique centrale du ,congo au ,niger1 #ahib-ahic 7,paris1 #ahie74 ,for the story of the concession companies see ,e4 ,d4 ,morel1 ,the ,british ,case in ,french ,congo 7,london1 #aijc74 7,f4 ,r4 ,c47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,berlin ,act of #ahhe2 ,brussels conference of #ahij 7see ,,africa3 ,history74 #b ,louis ,eugene ,henri ,dupont1 marquis de ,compiegne 7#ahdf-ahgg71 on his return from the ,west coast replaced ,georg ,schweinfurth at ,cairo as president of the geographical commission4 ,arising out of this circumstance de ,compiegne was killed in a duel by a ,german named ,mayer4 #c ,a ,franco-,belgian agreement of the #bcrd of ,dec4 #aijh defined precisely the frontier in the lower ,congo4 ,bamu ,island in ,stanley ,pool was recognized as ,french4 ,,french ,,guinea1 a ,french colony in ,west ,africa1 formerly known as ,rivieres du ,sud4 ,it is bounded ,w4 by the ,atlantic1 ,n4 by ,portuguese ,guinea and ,senegal1 ,e4 by ,upper ,senegal and the ,ivory ,coast1 and ,s4 by ,liberia and ,sierra ,leone4 ,with a sea-board running ,n4,n4,w4 and ,s4,s4,e4 from #aj deg4 #ej' ,n4 to #i deg4 #b' ,n41 a distance1 without reckoning the indentations1 of #agj m41 the colony extends eastward #dej m4 in a straight line and attains a maximum width ,n4 to ,s4 of nearly #cjj m41 covering fully #ajj1jjj sq4 m41 and containing a population estimated at #b1jjj1jjj to #b1ejj1jjj4 ,physical ,features4--,though in one or two places rocky headlands jut into the sea1 the coast is in general sandy1 low1 and much broken by rivers and deep estuaries1 dotted with swampy islands1 giving it the appearance of a vast delta4 ,in about #i deg4 #cj' ,n41 off the promontory of ,konakry1 lie the ,los ,islands 7q4v471 forming part of the colony4 ,the coast plain1 formed of alluvial deposits1 is succeeded about #cj m4 inland by a line of cliffs1 the ,susu ,hills1 which form the first step in the terrace-like formation of the interior1 culminating in the massif of ,futa ,jallon1 composed chiefly of ,archean and granite rocks4 ,while the coast lands are either densely forested or covered with savannas or park-like country1 the ,futa ,jallon tableland is mainly covered with short herbage4 ,this tableland1 the hydrographic centre of ,west ,africa1 is most elevated in its southern parts1 where heights of #ejjj ft4 are found4 ,near the ,sierra ,leone frontier this high land is continued westward to within #bj m4 of the sea1 where ,mount ,kakulima rises over #ccjj ft4 ,east and south of ,futa ,jallon the country slopes to the basin of the upper ,niger1 the greater part of which is included in ,french ,guinea4 ,the southern frontier is formed by the escarpments which separate the ,niger basin from those of the coast rivers of ,liberia4 ,besides the ,niger1 ,gambia and ,senegal1 all separately noticed1 a large number of streams running direct to the ,atlantic rise in ,futa ,jallon4 ,among them are the ,great and ,little ,scarcies1 whose lower courses are in ,sierra ,leone1 and the ,rio ,grande which enters the sea in ,portuguese ,guinea4 ,those whose courses are entirely in ,french ,guinea include the ,cogon 7or ,componi71 the ,rio ,nunez1 the ,fatalla 7which reaches the sea through an estuary named ,rio ,pongo71 the ,konkure1 whose estuary is named ,rio ,bramaya1 the ,forekaria and the ,melakori4 ,the ,cogon1 ,fatallah and ,konkure are all large rivers which descend from the plateaus through deep1 narrow valleys in rapids and cataracts1 and are only navigable for a few miles from their mouth4 ,climate4--,the climate of the coast district is hot1 moist and unhealthy1 with a season of heavy rain lasting from ,may to ,november1 during which time variable winds1 calms and tornadoes succeed one another4 ,the mean temperature in the dry season1 when the harmattan is frequent1 is #fb deg4 ,fahr41 in the wet season #hf deg44 ,throughout the year the humidity of the air is very great4 ,there is much rain in the ,futa ,jallon highlands1 but the ,niger basin is somewhat drier4 ,in that region and in the highlands the climate is fairly healthy for ,europeans and the heat somewhat less than on the coast4 ,flora and ,fauna4--,the seashore and the river banks are lined with mangroves1 but the most important tree of the coast belt is the oil-palm4 ,the dense forests also contain many varieties of lianas or rubber vines1 huge bombax and bamboos4 ,gum-producing and kola trees are abundant1 and there are many fruit trees1 the orange and citron growing well in the ,susu and ,futa ,jallon districts4 ,the cotton and coffee plants are indigenous2 banana plantations surround the villages4 ,the baobab and the karite 7shea butter tree7 are found only in the ,niger districts4 ,the fauna is not so varied as was formerly the case1 large game having been to a great extent driven out of the coast regions4 ,the elephant is rare save in the ,niger regions4 ,the lion is now only found in the northern parts of ,futa ,jallon2 panthers1 leopards1 hyenas and wild cats are more common and the civet is found4 ,hippopotamus1 otter and the wild boar are numerous2 a species of wild ox of small size with black horns and very agile is also found4 ,the forests contain many kinds of monkeys1 including huge chimpanzees2 antelope are widespread but rather rare4 ,serpents are very common1 both venomous and non-venomous2 the pythons attain a great size4 ,fights between these huge serpents and the crocodiles which infest all the rivers are said to be not uncommon4 ,turtles are abundant along the coasts and in the ,los ,islands4 ,oysters are found in large numbers in the estuaries and fixed to the submerged parts of the mangroves4 ,freshwater oysters1 which attain a large size1 are also found in the rivers1 particularly in the ,niger4 ,fish are abundant1 one large-headed species1 in the ,susu tongue called khokon1 is so numerous as to have given its name to a province1 ,kokunia4 ,birds are very numerous2 they include various eagles1 several kinds of heron1 the egret1 the marabout1 the crane and the pelican2 turacos or plantain-eaters1 are common1 as are other brilliantly plumaged birds4 ,green and grey parrots1 ravens1 swallows and magpies are also common4 ,inhabitants4--,on the banks of the ,cogon dwell the ,tendas and ,iolas1 primitive ,negro tribes allied to those of ,portuguese ,guinea 7q4v474 ,all other inhabitants of ,french ,guinea are regarded as comparatively late arrivals from the interior who have displaced the aborigines4#a ,among the earliest of the new comers are the ,baga1 the ,nalu1 the ,landuman and the ,timni1 regarded as typical ,negroes 7q4v474 ,this migration southward appears to have taken place before the #agth century4 ,to-day the ,baga occupy the coast land between the ,cogon and the ,rio ,pongo1 and the ,landuman the country immediately behind that of the ,baga4 ,the other tribes named are but sparsely represented in ,french ,guinea1 the coast region south of the ,nunez and all the interior up to ,futa ,jallon being occupied by the ,susu1 a tribe belonging to the great ,mandingan race1 which forced its way seaward about the beginning of the #ahth century and pressed back the ,timni into ,sierra ,leone4 ,futa ,jallon is peopled principally by ,fula 7q4v471 and the rest of the country by ,malinke and other tribes of ,mandingo 7q4v474 ,the ,mandingo1 the ,fula and the ,susu are ,mahommedans1 though the ,susu retain many of their ancient rites and beliefs--those associated with spirit worship and fetish1 still the religion of the ,baga and other tribes4 ,in the north-west part of ,futa ,jallon are found remnants of the aborigines1 such as the ,tiapi1 ,koniagui and the ,bassari1 all typical ,negro tribes4 ,the white inhabitants number a few hundreds only and are mainly ,french4 ,many of the coast peoples show1 however1 distinct traces of white blood1 the result chiefly of the former presence of ,european slave traders4 ,thus at the ,rio ,pongo there are numerous mulattos4 ,south of that river the coast tribes speak largely pidgin ,english4 ,towns4--,the principal towns are ,konakry the capital1 ,boke1 on the ,rio ,nunez1 ,dubreka1 on the coast1 a little north of ,konakry1 ,benty1 on the ,melakori1 ,timbo and ,labe1 the chief towns of ,futa ,jallon1 ,heremakono and ,kindia1 on the main road to the ,niger1 ,kurussa and ,siguiri1 on a navigable stretch of that river1 and ,bissandugu1 formerly ,samory's capital1 an important military station east of the ,niger4 ,konakry1 in #i deg4 #cj' ,n41 #ac deg4 #df' ,w41 population about #bj1jjj1 is the one port of entry on the coast4 ,it is built on the little island of ,tombo which lies off the promontory of ,konakry1 the town being joined to the mainland by an iron bridge4 ,during the administration of ,noel ,ballay 7#ahdh-aijb71 governor of the colony #ahij-aijj1 ,konakry was transformed from a place of small importance to one of the chief ports on the west coast of ,africa and a serious rival to ,freetown1 ,sierra ,leone4 ,it has since grown considerably1 and is provided with wharves and docks and a jetty #ajff ft4 long4 ,there is an ample supply of good water1 and a large public garden in the centre of the town4 ,in front of ,government ,house is a statue of ,m4 ,ballay4 ,konakry is a port of call for ,french1 ,british and ,german steamship companies1 and is in telegraphic communication with ,europe4 ,it is the starting-point of a railway to the ,niger 7see below74 ,the retail trade is in the hands of ,syrians4 ,the town is governed by a municipality4 ,products and ,industry4--,french ,guinea possesses a fertile soil1 and is rich in tropical produce4 ,the chief products are rubber1 brought from the interior1 and palm oil and palm kernels1 obtained in the coast regions4 ,cotton is cultivated in the ,niger basin4 ,gum copal1 ground-nuts and sesame are largely cultivated1 partly for export4 ,among minor products are coffee1 wax and ivory4 ,large herds of cattle and flocks of sheep are raised in ,futa ,jallon2 these are sent in considerable numbers to ,sierra ,leone1 ,liberia and ,french ,congo4 ,the trade in hides is also of considerable value4 ,the chief grain raised is millet1 the staple food of the people4 ,the rubber is mainly exported to ,england1 the palm products to ,germany1 and the ground-nuts to ,france4 ,the principal imports are cotton goods1 of which #hj come from ,great ,britain1 rice1 kola nuts1 chiefly from ,liberia1 spirits1 tobacco1 building material1 and arms and ammunition1 chiefly trade guns4 ,the average annual value of the trade for the period #aijj-aijg was about ,l#a1bej1jjj1 the annual export of rubber alone being worth ,l#djj1jjj or more4 ,the great bulk of the trade of the colony is with ,france and ,great ,britain1 the last-named country taking about #de of the total2 ,germany comes third4 ,since ,april #aije a surtax of #g has been imposed on all goods of other than ,french origin4 ,communications4--,the railway from ,konakry to the ,niger at ,kurussa1 by the route chosen a distance of #cdb m41 was begun in #aijj1 and from #aijb has been built directly by the colony4 ,the first section to ,kindia1 #ic m41 was opened in #aijd4 ,the second section1 to near ,timbo in ,futa ,jallon1 was completed in #aijg1 and the rails reached ,kurussa in #aiaj4 ,from ,kurussa the ,niger is navigable at high water all the way to ,bamako in ,upper ,senegal1 whence there is communication by rail and river with ,st ,louis and ,timbuktu4 ,besides the railway there is an excellent road1 about #cij m4 long1 from ,konakry to ,kurussa1 the road in its lower part being close to the ,sierra ,leone frontier1 with the object of diverting trade from that ,british colony4 ,several other main roads have been built by the ,french1 and there is a very complete telegraphic system1 the lines having been connected with those of ,senegal in #ahii4 ,history4--,this part of the ,guinea coast was made known by the ,portuguese voyagers of the #aeth century4 ,in consequence1 largely1 of the dangers attending its navigation1 it was not visited by the ,european traders of the #afth-#ahth centuries so frequently as other regions north and east1 but in the ,rio ,pongo1 at ,matakong 7a diminutive island near the mouth of the ,forekaria71 and elsewhere1 slave traders established themselves1 and ruins of the strongholds they built1 and defended with cannon1 still exist4 ,when driven from other parts of ,guinea the slavers made this difficult and little known coast one of their last resorts1 and many barracoons were built in the late years of the #ahth century4 ,it was not until after the restoration of ,goree to her at the close of the ,napoleonic wars that ,france evinced any marked interest in this region4 ,at that time the ,british1 from their bases at the ,gambia and ,sierra ,leone1 were devoting considerable attention to these ,rivieres du ,sud 7i4e4 south of ,senegal7 and also to ,futa ,jallon4 ,rene ,caillie1 who started his journey to ,timbuktu from ,boke in #ahbg1 did much to quicken ,french interest in the district1 and from #ahch onward ,french naval officers1 ,bouet-,willaumez and his successors1 made detailed studies of the coast4 ,about the time that the ,british government became wearied of its efforts to open up the interior of ,west ,africa1 ,general ,faidherbe was appointed governor of ,senegal 7#ahed71 and under his direction vigorous efforts were made to consolidate ,french influence4 ,already in #ahdh treaty relations had been entered into with the ,nalu1 and between that date and #ahfe treaties of protectorate were signed with several of the coast tribes4 ,during #ahgf-ahhj new treaties were concluded with the chief tribes1 and in #ahha the almany 7or emir7 of ,futa ,jallon placed his country under ,french protection1 the ,french thus effectually preventing the junction1 behind the coast lands1 of the ,british colonies of the ,gambia and ,sierra ,leone4 ,the right of ,france to the littoral as far south as the basin of the ,melakori was recognized by ,great ,britain in #ahhb2 ,germany 7which had made some attempt to acquire a protectorate at ,konakry7 abandoned its claims in #ahhe1 while in #ahhf the northern frontier was settled in agreement with ,portugal1 which had ancient settlements in the same region 7see ,,portuguese ,,guinea74 ,in #ahii the limits of the colony were extended1 on the dismemberment of the ,french ,sudan1 to include the upper ,niger districts4 ,in #aijd the ,los ,islands were ceded by ,great ,britain to ,france1 in part return for the abandonment of ,french fishing rights in ,newfoundland waters4 7,see also ,,senegal3 ,history47 ,french ,guinea was made a colony independent of ,senegal in #ahia1 but in #ahie came under the supreme authority of the newly constituted governor-generalship of ,french ,west ,africa4 ,guinea has a considerable measure of autonomy and a separate budget4 ,it is administered by a lieutenant-governor1 assisted by a nominated council4 ,revenue is raised principally from customs and a capitation tax1 which has replaced a hut tax4 ,the local budget for #aijg balanced at ,l#bje1jjj4 ,over the greater part of the country the native princes retain their sovereignty under the superintendence of ,french officials4 ,the development of agriculture and education are objects of special solicitude to the ,french authorities4 ,in general the natives are friendly towards their white masters4 ,see ,m4 ,famechon1 ,notice sur la ,guinee francaise 7,paris1 #aijj72 ,j4 ,chautard1 ,etude geophysique et geologique sur le ,fouta-,djallon 7,paris1 #aije72 ,andre ,arcin1 ,la ,guinee francaise 7,paris1 #aijf71 a valuable monograph2 ,j4 ,machat1 ,les ,rivieres du ,sud et la ,fouta-,diallon 7,paris1 #aijf71 another valuable work1 containing exhaustive bibliographies4 ,consult also ,f4 ,rouget1 ,la ,guinee 7,paris1 #aijh71 an official publication1 the annual ,reports on ,french ,west ,africa1 published by the ,british ,foreign ,office1 and the ,carte de la ,guinee francaise by ,a4 ,meunier in #d sheets on the scale #a3ejj1jjj 7,paris1 #aijb74 ,,footnote3 #a ,numerous remains of a stone age have been discovered1 both on the coast and in the hinterland4 ,see ,l4 ,desplagnes1 ,l',archeologie prehistorique en ,guinee francaise1 in ,bull4 ,soc4 ,geog4 ,comm4 de ,bordeaux1 ,march #aijg1 and the authorities there cited4 ,,french ,,language4 ,i4 ,geography4--,french is the general name of the north-north-western group of ,romanic dialects1 the modern ,latin of northern ,gaul 7carried by emigration to some places--as lower ,canada--out of ,france74 ,in a restricted sense it is that variety of the ,parisian dialect which is spoken by the educated1 and is the general literary language of ,france4 ,the region in which the native language is termed ,french consists of the northern half of ,france 7including ,lorraine7 and parts of ,belgium and ,switzerland2 its boundaries on the west are the ,atlantic ,ocean and the ,celtic dialects of ,brittany2 on the north-west and north1 the ,english ,channel2 on the north-east and east the ,teutonic dialects of ,belgium1 ,germany and ,switzerland4 ,in the south-east and south the boundary is to a great extent conventional and ill-defined1 there being originally no linguistic break between the southern ,french dialects and the northern ,provencal dialects of southern ,france1 north-western ,italy and south-western ,switzerland4 ,it is formed partly by spaces of intermediate dialects 7some of whose features are ,french1 others ,provencal71 partly by spaces of mixed dialects resulting from the invasion of the space by more northern and more southern settlers1 partly by lines where the intermediate dialects have been suppressed by more northern 7,french7 and more southern 7,provencal7 dialects without these having mixed4 ,starting in the west at the mouth of the ,gironde1 the boundary runs nearly north soon after passing ,bordeaux2 a little north of ,angouleme it turns to the east1 and runs in this direction into ,switzerland to the north of ,geneva4 ,,ii4 ,external ,history4--7a7 ,political4--,by the ,roman conquests the language of ,rome was spread over the greater part of southern and western ,europe1 and gradually supplanted the native tongues4 ,the language introduced was at first nearly uniform over the whole empire1 ,latin provincialisms and many more or less general features of the older vulgar language being suppressed by the preponderating influence of the educated speech of the capital4 ,as legions became stationary1 as colonies were formed1 and as the natives adopted the language of their conquerors1 this language split up into local dialects1 the distinguishing features of which are due1 as far as can be ascertained 7except1 to some extent1 as to the vocabulary71 not to speakers of different nationalities misspeaking ,latin1 each with the peculiarities of his native language1 but to the fact that linguistic changes1 which are ever occurring1 are not perfectly uniform over a large area1 however homogeneous the speakers4 ,as ,gaul was not conquered by ,caesar till the middle of the first century before our era1 its ,latin cannot have begun to differ from that of ,rome till after that date2 but the artificial retention of classical ,latin as the literary and official language after the popular spoken language had diverged from it1 often renders the chronology of the earlier periods of the ,romanic languages obscure4 ,it is1 however1 certain that the popular ,latin of ,gaul had become differentiated from that of central ,italy before the ,teutonic conquest of ,gaul1 which was not completed till the latter half of the #eth century2 the invaders gradually adopted the language of their more civilized subjects1 which remained unaffected1 except in its vocabulary4 ,probably by this time it had diverged so widely from the artificially preserved literary language that it could no longer be regarded merely as mispronounced ,latin2 the ,latin documents of the next following centuries contain many clearly popular words and forms1 and the literary and popular languages are distinguished as latina and romana4 ,the term gallica1 at first denoting the native ,celtic language of ,gaul1 is found applied to its supplanter before the end of the #ith century1 and survives in the ,breton gallek1 the regular term for ,french4 ,after the ,franks in ,gaul had abandoned their native ,teutonic language1 the term francisca1 by which this was denoted1 came to be applied to the ,romanic one they adopted1 and1 under the form francaise1 remains its native name to this day2 but this name was confined to the ,romanic of northern ,gaul1 which makes it probable that this1 at the time of the adoption of the name francisca1 had become distinct from the ,romanic of southern ,gaul4 ,francisca is the ,teutonic adjective frankisk1 which occurs in ,old ,english in the form frencise2 this word1 with its umlauted e from a with following i1 survives under the form ,french1 which1 though purely ,teutonic in origin and form1 has long been exclusively applied to the ,romanic language and inhabitants of ,gaul4 ,the ,german name franzose1 with its accent on1 and o in1 the second syllable1 comes from francois1 a native ,french form older than francais1 but later than the ,early ,old ,french franceis4 ,the ,scandinavian settlers on the north-west coast of ,france early in the #ajth century quickly lost their native speech1 which left no trace except in some contributions to the vocabulary of the language they adopted4 ,the main feature since is the growth of the political supremacy of ,paris1 carrying with it that of its dialect2 in #aeci ,francis ,i4 ordered that all public documents should be in ,french 7of ,paris71 which then became the official language of the whole kingdom1 though it is still foreign to nearly half its population4 ,the conquest of ,england in #ajff by ,william1 duke of ,normandy1 introduced into ,england1 as the language of the rulers and 7for a time7 most of the writers1 the dialects spoken in ,normandy 7see also ,,anglo-,,norman ,,literature74 ,confined in their native country to definite areas1 these dialects1 following their speakers1 became mixed in ,england1 so that their forms were used to some extent indifferently2 and the constant communication with ,normandy maintained during several reigns introduced also later forms of continental ,norman4 ,as the conquerors learned the language of the conquered1 and as the more cultured of the latter learned that of the former1 the ,norman of ,england 7including that of the ,english-speaking ,lowlands of ,scotland7 became anglicized2 instead of following the changes of the ,norman of ,france1 it followed those of ,english4 ,the accession in #aaed of ,henry ,,ii4 of ,anjou disturbed the ,norman character of ,anglo-,french1 and the loss of ,normandy under ,john in #abjd gave full play to the literary importance of the ,french of ,paris1 many of whose forms afterwards penetrated to ,england4 ,at the same time ,english1 with a large ,french addition to its vocabulary1 was steadily recovering its supremacy1 and is officially employed 7for the first time since the ,conquest7 in the ,proclamation of ,henry ,,iii41 #abeh4 ,the semi-artificial result of this mixture of ,french of different dialects and of different periods1 more or less anglicized according to the date or education of the speaker or writer1 is generally termed the ,anglo-,norman dialect2 but the term is misleading for a great part of its existence1 because while the ,french of ,normandy was not a single dialect1 the later ,french of ,england came from other ,french provinces besides ,normandy1 and being to a considerable extent in artificial conditions1 was checked in the natural development implied by the term dialect4 ,the disuse of ,anglo-,french as a natural language is evidenced by ,english being substituted for it in legal proceedings in #acfb1 and in schools in #achg2 but law reports were written in it up to about #afjj1 and1 converted into modern literary ,french1 it remains in official use for giving the royal assent to bills of parliament4 7b7 ,literary4--,doubtless because the popular ,latin of northern ,gaul changed more rapidly than that of any other part of the empire1 ,french was1 of all the ,romanic dialects1 the first to be recognized as a distinct language1 and the first to be used in literature2 and though the oldest specimen now extant is probably not the first1 it is considerably earlier than any existing documents of the allied languages4 ,in #hac the council of ,tours ordered certain homilies to be translated into ,rustic ,roman or into ,german2 and in #hdb ,louis the ,german1 ,charles the ,bald1 and their armies confirmed their engagements by taking oaths in both languages at ,strassburg4 ,these have been preserved to us by the historian ,nithard 7who died in #hec72 and though1 in consequence of the only existing manuscript 7at ,paris7 being more than a century later than the time of the author1 certain alterations have occurred in the text of the ,french oaths1 they present more archaic forms 7probably of ,north-,eastern ,french7 than any other document4 ,the next memorials are a short poem1 probably ,north-,eastern1 on ,st ,eulalia1 preserved in a manuscript of the #ajth century at ,valenciennes1 and some autograph fragments 7also at ,valenciennes7 of a homily on the prophet ,jonah1 in mixed ,latin and ,eastern ,french1 of the same period4 ,to the same century belong a poem on ,christ's ,passion1 apparently in a mixed 7not intermediate7 language of ,french and ,provencal1 and one1 probably in ,south-,eastern ,french1 on ,st ,leger2 both are preserved1 in different handwritings1 in a ,,ms4 at ,clermont-,ferrand1 whose scribes have introduced many ,provencal forms4 ,after the middle of the #aath century literary remains are comparatively numerous2 the chief early representative of the main dialects are the following1 some of them preserved in several ,,mss41 the earliest of which1 however 7the only ones here mentioned71 are in several cases a generation or two later than the works themselves4 ,in ,western ,french are a verse life of ,st ,alexius 7,alexis71 probably ,norman1 in an ,anglo-,norman ,,ms4 at ,hildesheim2 the epic poem of ,roland1 possibly also ,norman1 in an ,a4-,n4 ,,ms4 at ,oxford2 a ,norman verbal translation of the ,psalms1 in an ,a4-,n4 ,,ms4 also at ,oxford2 another later one1 from a different ,latin version1 in an ,a4-,n4 ,,ms4 at ,cambridge2 a ,norman translation of the ,four ,books of ,kings1 in a probably ,a4-,n4 ,,ms4 at ,paris4 ,the earliest work in the ,parisian dialect is probably the ,travels of ,charlemagne1 preserved in a late ,anglo-,norman ,,ms4 with much altered forms4 ,in ,eastern ,french1 of rather later date1 there are translations of the ,dialogues of ,pope ,gregory1 in a ,,ms4 at ,paris1 containing also fragments of ,gregory's ,moralities1 and 7still later7 of some ,sermons of ,st ,bernard1 in a ,,ms4 also in ,paris4 ,from the end of the #abth century literary and official documents1 often including local charters1 abound in almost every dialect1 until the growing influence of ,paris caused its language to supersede in writing the other local ones4 ,this influence1 occasionally apparent about the end of the #abth century1 was overpowering in the #aeth1 when authors1 though often displaying provincialisms1 almost all wrote in the dialect of the capital2 the last dialect to lose its literary independence was the ,north-,eastern1 which1 being the ,romanic language of ,flanders1 had a political life of its own1 and 7modified by ,parisian7 was used in literature after #adjj4 ,,iii4 ,internal ,history4--,though much has been done in recent years1 in the scientific investigation of the sounds1 inflexions1 and syntax of the older stages and dialects of ,french1 much still remains to be done1 and it must suffice here to give a sketch1 mainly of the dialects which were imported into ,england by the ,normans--in which ,english readers will probably take most interest1 and especially of the features which explain the forms of ,english words of ,french origin4 ,dates and places are only approximations1 and many statements are liable to be modified by further researches4 ,the primitive ,latin forms given are often not classical ,latin words1 but derivatives from these2 and reference is generally made to the ,middle ,english 7,chaucerian7 pronunciation of ,english words1 not the modern4 7a7 ,vocabulary4--,the fundamental part of the vocabulary of ,french is the ,latin imported into ,gaul1 the ,french words being simply the ,latin words themselves1 with the natural changes undergone by all living speech1 or derivatives formed at various dates4 ,comparatively few words were introduced from the ,celtic language of the native inhabitants 7bec1 lieue from the ,celtic words given by ,latin writers as beccus1 leuca71 but the number adopted from the language of the ,teutonic conquerors of ,gaul is large 7guerre werra2 laid laidh2 choisir kausjan74 ,the words were imported at different periods of the ,teutonic supremacy1 and consequently show chronological differences in their sounds 7hair hatan2 francais frankisk2 ecrevisse krebiz2 echine skina74 ,small separate importations of ,teutonic words resulted from the ,scandinavian settlement in ,france1 and the commercial intercourse with the ,low ,german nations on the ,north ,sea 7friper ,norse hripa2 chaloupe ,dutch sloop2 est ,old ,english east74 ,in the meantime1 as ,latin 7with considerable alterations in pronunciation1 vocabulary1 c47 continued in literary1 official and ecclesiastical use1 the popular language borrowed from time to time various more or less altered classical ,latin words2 and when the popular language came to be used in literature1 especially in that of the church1 these importations largely increased 7virginitet ,eulalia virginitatem2 imagena ,alexis imaginem--the popular forms would probably have been vergedet1 emain74 ,at the ,renaissance they became very abundant1 and have continued since1 stifling to some extent the developmental power of the language4 ,imported words1 whether ,teutonic1 classical ,latin or other1 often receive some modification at their importation1 and always take part in all subsequent natural phonetic changes in the language 7,early ,old ,french adversarie1 ,modern ,french adversaire74 ,those ,french words which appear to contradict the phonetic laws were mostly introduced into the language after the taking place 7in words already existing in the language7 of the changes formulated by the laws in question2 compare the late imported laique with the inherited lai1 both from ,latin laicum4 ,in this and many other cases the language possesses two forms of the same ,latin word1 one descended from it1 the other borrowed 7meuble and mobile from mobilem74 ,some ,oriental and other foreign words were brought in by the crusaders 7amiral from amir72 in the #afth century1 wars1 royal marriages and literature caused a large number of ,italian words 7soldat soldato2 brave bravo2 caresser carezzare7 to be introduced1 and many ,spanish ones 7alcove alcoba2 habler hablar74 ,a few words have been furnished by ,provencal 7abeille1 cadenas71 and several have been adopted from other dialects into the ,french of ,paris 7esquiver ,norman or ,picard for the ,paris-,french eschiver74 ,german has contributed a few 7blocus blochus2 choucroute surkrut72 and recently a considerable number have been imported from ,england 7drain1 confortable1 flirter74 ,in ,old ,french1 new words are freely formed by derivation1 and to a less extent by composition2 in ,modern ,french1 borrowing from ,latin or other foreign languages is the more usual course4 ,of the ,french words now obsolete some have disappeared because the things they express are obsolete2 others have been replaced by words of native formation1 and many have been superseded by foreign words generally of literary origin2 of those which survive1 many have undergone considerable alterations in meaning4 ,a large number of ,old ,french words and meanings1 now extinct in the language of ,paris1 were introduced into ,english after the ,norman ,conquest2 and though some have perished1 many have survived--strife from ,old ,french estrif 7,teutonic strit72 quaint from cointe 7cognitum72 remember from remembrer 7rememorare72 chaplet 7garland7 from chapelet 7,modern ,french chaplet of beads72 appointment 7rendezvous7 from appointement 7now salary74 ,many also survive in other ,french dialects4 7b7 ,dialects4--,the history of the ,french language from the period of its earliest extant literary memorials is that of the dialects composing it4 ,but as the popular notion of a dialect as the speech of a definite area1 possessing certain peculiarities confined to and extending throughout that area1 is far from correct1 it will be advisable to drop the misleading divisions into ,norman dialect1 ,picard dialect and the like1 and take instead each important feature in the chronological order 7as far as can be ascertained7 of its development1 pointing out roughly the area in which it exists1 and its present state4 ,the local terms used are intentionally vague1 and it does not1 for instance1 at all follow that because ,eastern and ,western are used to denote the localities of more than one dialectal feature1 the boundary line between the two divisions is the same in each case4 ,it is1 indeed1 because dialectal differences as they arise do not follow the same boundary lines 7much less the political divisions of provinces71 but cross one another to any extent1 that to speak of the dialect of a large area as an individual whole1 unless that area is cut off by physical or alien linguistic boundaries1 creates only confusion4 ,thus the ,central ,french of ,paris1 the ancestor of classical ,modern ,french1 agrees with a more southern form of ,romanic 7,limousin1 ,auvergne1 ,forez1 ,lyonnais1 ,dauphine7 in having ts1 not tsh1 for ,latin k 7c7 before i and e2 tsh1 not k1 for k 7c7 before a2 and with the whole ,south in having gu1 not w1 for ,teutonic w2 while it belongs to the ,east in having oi for earlier ei2 and to the ,west in having e1 not ei1 for ,latin a2 and i1 not ei1 from ,latin e i4 ,it may be well to denote that ,southern ,french does not correspond to southern ,france1 whose native language is ,provencal4 ,modern ,french means ordinary educated ,parisian ,french4 7e7 ,phonology4--,the history of the sounds of a language is1 to a considerable extent1 that of its inflections1 which1 no less than the body of a word1 are composed of sounds4 ,this fact1 and the fact that unconscious changes are much more reducible to law than conscious ones1 render the phonology of a language by far the surest and widest foundation for its dialectology1 the importance of the sound-changes in this respect depending1 not on their prominence1 but on the earliness of their date4 ,for several centuries after the divergence between spoken and written ,latin1 the history of these changes has to be determined mainly by reasoning1 aided by a little direct evidence in the misspellings of inscriptions the semi-popular forms in glossaries1 and the warnings of ,latin grammarians against vulgarities4 ,with the rise of ,romanic literature the materials for tracing the changes become abundant1 though as they do not give us the sounds themselves1 but only their written representations1 much difficulty1 and some uncertainty1 often attach to deciphering the evidence4 ,fortunately1 early ,romanic orthography1 that of ,old ,french included 7for which see next section71 was phonetic1 as ,italian orthography still is2 the alphabet was imperfect1 as many new sounds had to be represented which were not provided for in the ,roman alphabet from which it arose1 but writers aimed at representing the sounds they uttered1 not at using a fixed combination of letters for each word1 however they pronounced it4 ,the characteristics of ,french as distinguished from the allied languages and from ,latin1 and the relations of its sounds1 inflections and syntax to those of the last-named language1 belong to the general subject of the ,romanic languages4 ,it will be well1 however1 to mention here some of the features in which it agrees with the closely related ,provencal1 and some in which it differs4 ,as to the latter1 it has already been pointed out that the two languages glide insensibly into one another1 there being a belt of dialects which possess some of the features of each4 ,french and ,provencal of the #ajth century--the earliest date at which documents exist in both--agree to a great extent in the treatment of ,latin final consonants and the vowels preceding them1 a matter of great importance for inflections 7numerous ,french examples occur in this section71 7#a7 ,they reject all vowels1 except a1 of ,latin final 7unaccented7 syllables1 unless preceded by certain consonant combinations or followed by nt 7here1 as elsewhere1 certain exceptions cannot be noticed72 7#b7 they do not reject a similarly situated2 7#c7 they reject final 7unaccented7 m2 7#d7 they retain final s4 ,french and ,northern ,provencal also agree in changing ,latin ue from a labio-guttural to a labio-palatal vowel2 the modern sound 7,german ue7 of the accented vowel of ,french lune1 ,provencal luna1 contrasting with that in ,italian and ,spanish luna1 appears to have existed before the earliest extant documents4 ,the final vowel laws generally apply to the unaccented vowel preceding the accented syllable1 if it is preceded by another syllable1 and followed by a single consonant--matin 7matutinum71 dortoir 7dormitorium71 with vowel dropped2 canevas 7cannabaceum71 armedure1 later armeure1 now armure 7armaturam71 with e schwa1 as explained below4 ,on the other hand1 ,french differs from ,provencal3 7#a7 in uniformly preserving 7in ,early ,old ,french7 ,latin final t1 which is generally rejected in ,provencal--,french aimet 7,latin amat71 ,provencal ama2 aiment 7amant71 ,prov4 aman2 7#b7 in always rejecting1 absorbing or consonantizing the vowel of the last syllable but one1 if unaccented2 in such words as angele 7often spelt angle71 the e after the g only serves to show its soft sound--,french veintre 7now vaincre1 ,latin vincere71 ,prov4 vencer1 with accent on first syllable2 ,french esclandre 7scandalum71 ,prov4 escandol2 ,french olie 7dissyllabic1 i y consonant1 now huile71 ,prov4 oli 7oleum72 7#c7 in changing accented a not in position into ai before nasals and gutturals and not after a palatal1 and elsewhere into e 7,west ,french7 or ei 7,east ,french71 which develops an i before it when preceded by a palatal--,french main 7,latin manum71 ,prov4 man2 aigre 7acrem71 agre2 ele 7alam71 ,east ,french eile1 ,prov4 ala2 meitie 7medietatem71 ,east ,french moitieit1 ,prov4 meitat2 7#d7 in changing a in unaccented final syllables into the vowel schwa1 intermediate to a and e2 this vowel is written a in one or two of the older documents1 elsewhere e--,french aime 7,latin ama71 ,prov4 ama2 aimes 7amas71 ,prov4 amas2 aimet 7amat71 ,prov4 ama2 7#e7 in changing original au into o--,french or 7aurum71 ,prov4 aur2 rober 7,teutonic raubon71 ,prov4 raubar2 7#f7 in changing general ,romanic e1 from accented e and i not in position1 into ei--,french veine 7venam71 ,prov4 vena2 peil 7pilum71 ,prov4 pel4 ,as some of the dialectal differences were in existence at the date of the earliest extant documents1 and as the existing materials1 till the latter half of the #aath century1 are scanty and of uncertain locality1 the chronological order 7here adopted7 of the earlier sound-changes is only tentative4 7#a7 ,northern ,french has tsh 7written c or ch7 for ,latin k 7c7 and t before palatal vowels1 where ,central and ,southern ,french have ts 7written c or z7--,north ,norman and ,picard chire 7ceram71 brach 7brachium71 plache 7plateam72 ,parisian1 ,south ,norman1 c41 cire1 braz1 place4 ,before the close of the ,early ,old ,french period 7#abth century7 ts loses its initial consonant1 and the same happened to tsh a century or two later2 with this change the old distinction is maintained--,modern ,guernsey and ,picard chire1 ,modern ,picard plache 7in ordinary ,modern ,french spelling72 usual ,french cire1 place4 ,english1 having borrowed from ,north and ,south ,norman 7and later ,parisian71 has instances of both tsh and s1 the former in comparatively small number--chisel 7,modern ,french ciseau 787 caesellum71 escutcheon 7ecusson1 scutionem72 city 7cite1 civitatem71 place4 7#b7 ,initial ,teutonic w is retained in the north-east and along the north coast2 elsewhere1 as in the other ,romance languages1 g was prefixed--,picard1 c41 warde 7,teutonic warda71 werre 7werra72 ,parisian1 c41 guarde1 guerre4 ,in the #abth century the u or w of gu dropped1 giving the ,modern ,french garde1 guerre 7with gu g72 w remains in ,picard and ,walloon1 but in ,north ,normandy it becomes v--,modern ,guernsey vason1 ,walloon wazon1 ,modern ,french gazon 7,teutonic wason74 ,english has both forms1 sometimes in words originally the same--wage and gage 7,modern ,french gage1 ,teutonic wadi72 warden and guardian 7gardien1 warding74 7#c7 ,latin b after accented a in the imperfect of the first conjugation1 which becomes v in ,eastern ,french1 in ,western ,french further changes to w1 and forms the diphthong ou with the preceding vowel--,norman amowe 7amabam71 portout 7portabat72 ,burgundian ameve1 portevet4 -eve is still retained in some places1 but generally the imperfect of the first conjugation is assimilated to that of the others--amoit1 like avoit 7habebat74 7#d7 ,the palatalization of every then existing k and g 7hard7 when followed by a1 i or e1 after having caused the development of i before the e 7,east ,french ei7 derived from a not in position1 is abandoned in the north1 the consonants returning to ordinary k or g1 while in the centre and south they are assibilated to tsh or dzh--,north ,norman and ,picard cachier 7captiare71 kier 7carum71 cose 7causam71 eskiver 7,teutonic skiuhan71 wiket 7,teutonic wikittum71 gal 7gallum71 gardin 7from ,teutonic gard72 ,south ,norman and ,parisian chacier1 chier1 chose1 eschiver1 guichet1 jal1 jardin4 ,probably in the #adth century the initial consonant of tsh1 dzh disappeared1 giving the modern ,french chasser1 jardin with ch sh and j zh2 but tsh is retained in ,walloon1 and dzh in ,lorraine4 ,the ,northern forms survive--,modern ,guernsey cachier1 gardin2 ,picard cacher1 gardin4 ,english possesses numerous examples of both forms1 sometimes in related words--catch and chase2 wicket1 eschew2 garden1 jaundice 7jaunisse1 from galbanum74 7#e7 ,for ,latin accented a not in position ,western ,french usually has e1 ,eastern ,french ei1 both of which take an i before them when a palatal precedes--,norman and ,parisian per 7parem71 oiez 7audiatis72 ,lorraine peir1 oieis4 ,in the #agth and #ahth centuries close e changed to open e1 except when final or before a silent consonant--amer 7amarum7 now having e1 aimer 7amare7 retaining e4 ,english shows the ,western close e--peer 7,modern ,french pair1 ,old ,french per71 chief 7chef1 caput72 ,middle ,high ,german the ,eastern ei--lameir 7,modern ,french l'amer1 l'aimer1 la mer ,latin mare74 7#f7 ,latin accented e not in position1 when it came to be followed in ,old ,french by i unites with this to form i in the ,western dialects1 while the ,eastern have the diphthongs ei--,picard1 ,norman and ,parisian pire 7pejor71 piz 7pectus72 ,burgundian peire1 peiz4 ,the distinction is still preserved--,modern ,french pire1 pis2 ,modern ,burgundian peire1 pei4 ,english words show always i--price 7prix1 pretium7 spite 7depit1 despectum74 7#g7 ,the nasalization of vowels followed by a nasal consonant did not take place simultaneously with all the vowels4 ,a and e before n 7guttural n1 as in sing71 n 7palatal n71 n and m were nasal in the #aath century1 such words as tant 7tantum7 and gent 7gentem7 forming in the ,alexis assonances to themselves1 distinct from the assonances with a and e before non-nasal consonants4 ,in the ,roland umbre 7ombre1 umbram7 and culchet 7couche1 collocat71 fier 7ferum7 and chiens 7canes71 dit 7dictum7 and vint 7venit71 ceinte 7cinctam7 and veie 7voie1 viam71 brun 7,teutonic brun7 and fut 7fuit7 assonate freely1 though o 7u7 before nasals shows a tendency to separation4 ,the nasalization of i and u 7 ,modern ,french u7 did not take place till the #afth century2 and in all cases the loss of the following nasal consonant is quite modern1 the older pronunciation of tant1 ombre being tant1 ombrschwa1 not as now ta1 obrh4 ,the nasalization took place whether the nasal consonant was or was not followed by a vowel1 femme 7feminam71 honneur 7honorem7 being pronounced with nasal vowels m the first syllable till after the #afth century1 as indicated by the doubling of the nasal consonant in the spelling and by the phonetic change 7in femme and other words7 next to be mentioned4 ,english generally has au 7now often reduced to a7 for ,old ,french a--vaunt 7vanter1 vanitare71 tawny 7tanne 787 ,celtic74 7#h7 ,the assimilation of e 7nasal e7 to a 7nasal a7 did not begin till the middle of the #aath century1 and is not yet universal1 in ,france1 though generally a century later4 ,in the ,alexis nasal a 7as in tant7 is never confounded with nasal e 7as in gent7 in the assonances1 though the copyist 7a century later7 often writes a for nasal e in unaccented syllables1 as in amfant 7enfant1 infantem72 in the ,roland there are several cases of mixture in the assonances1 gent1 for instance1 occurring in ant stanzas1 tant in ent ones4 ,english has several words with a for e before nasals--rank 7rang1 ,old ,french renc1 ,teutonic hringa71 pansy 7pensee1 pensatam72 but the majority show e--enter 7entrer1 intrare71 fleam 7flamme1 ,old ,french fleme1 phlebotomum74 ,the distinction is still preserved in the ,norman of ,guernsey1 where an and en1 though both nasal1 have different sounds--lanchier 7lancer1 lanceare71 but mentrie 7,old ,french menterie1 from mentiri74 7#i7 ,the loss of s1 or rather z1 before voiced consonants began early1 s being often omitted or wrongly inserted in #abth century ,,mss4--,earliest ,old ,french masle 7masculum71 sisdre 7siceram72 ,modern ,french male1 cidre4 ,in ,english it has everywhere disappeared--male1 cider2 except in two words1 where it appears1 as occasionally in ,old ,french1 as d--meddle 7meler1 misculare71 medlar 7neflier1 ,old ,french also meslier1 mespilarium74 ,the loss of s before voiceless consonants 7except f7 is about two centuries later1 and it is not universal even in ,parisian--,early ,old ,french feste 7festam71 escuier 7scutarium72 ,modern ,french fete1 ecuyer1 but esperer 7sperare74 ,in the north-east s before t is still retained--,walloon chestai 7chateau1 castellum71 fiess 7fete74 ,english shows s regularly--feast1 esquire4 7#aj7 ,medial dh 7soft th1 as in then71 and final th from ,latin t or d between vowels1 do not begin to disappear till the latter half of the #aath century4 ,in native ,french ,,mss4 dh is generally written d1 and th written t2 but the ,german scribe of the ,oaths writes adjudha 7adjutam71 cadhuna 7,greek kata and unam72 and the ,english one of the ,alexis cuntretha 7contratam71 lothet 7laudatum71 and that of the ,cambridge ,psalter heriteth 7hereditatem74 ,medial dh often drops even in the last-named ,,mss41 and soon disappears2 the same is true for final th in ,western ,french--,modern ,french contree1 loue4 ,but in ,eastern ,french final th1 to which ,latin t between vowels had probably been reduced through d and dh1 appears in the #abth century and later as t1 rhyming on ordinary ,french final t--,picard and ,burgundian pechiet 7peccatum7 apeleit 7appellatum74 ,in ,western ,french some final ths were saved by being changed to f--,modern ,french soif 7sitim71 moeuf 7obsolete1 modum74 ,english has one or two instances of final th1 none of medial dh--faith 7foi1 fidem72 ,middle ,english carite 7charite1 caritatem71 druteth 7,old ,french dru1 ,teutonic drud72 generally the consonant is lost--country1 charity4 ,middle ,high ,german shows the ,eastern ,french final consonant--moraliteit 7moralite1 moralitatem74 7#aa7 ,t from ,latin final t1 if in an ,old ,french unaccented syllable1 begins to disappear in the ,roland1 where sometimes aimet 7amat71 sometimes aime1 is required by the metre1 and soon drops in all dialects4 ,the ,modern ,french t of aime-t-il and similar forms is an analogical insertion from such forms as dort-il 7dormit71 where the t has always existed4 7#ab7 ,the change of the diphthong ai to ei and afterwards to ee 7the doubling indicates length7 had not taken place in the earliest ,french documents1 words with ai assonating only on words with a2 in the ,roland such assonances occur1 but those of ai on e are more frequent--faire 7facere7 assonating on parastre 7patraster7 and on estes 7estis72 and the ,,ms4 7half a century later than the poem7 occasionally has ei and e for ai--recleimet 7reclamat71 desfere 7disfacere71 the latter agreeing with the ,modern ,french sound4 ,before nasals 7as in laine lanam7 and ie 7as in paye pacatum71 ai remained a diphthong up to the #afth century1 being apparently ei1 whose fate in this situation it has followed4 ,english shows ai regularly before nasals and when final1 and in a few other words--vain 7vain1 vanum71 pay 7payer1 pacare71 wait 7guetter1 ,teutonic wahten72 but before most consonants it has usually ee--peace 7pais1 pacum71 feat 7fait1 factum74 7#ac7 ,the loss or transposition of i 7 y-consonant7 following the consonant ending an accented syllable begins in the #abth century--,early ,old ,french glorie 7gloriam71 estudie 7studium71 olie 7oleum72 ,modern ,french gloire1 etude1 huile4 ,english sometimes shows the earlier form--glory1 study2 sometimes the later--dower 7douaire1 ,early ,old ,french doarie1 dotarium71 oil 7huile74 7#ad7 ,the vocalization of l preceded by a vowel and followed by a consonant becomes frequent at the end of the #abth century2 when preceded by open e1 an a developed before the l while this was a consonant--#aath century salse 7salsa71 beltet 7bellitatem71 solder 7solidare72 ,modern ,french sauce1 beaute1 souder4 ,in ,parisian1 final el followed the fate of el before a consonant1 becoming the triphthong eau1 but in ,norman the vocalization did not take place1 and the l was afterwards rejected--,modern ,french ruisseau1 ,modern ,guernsey russe 7rivicellum74 ,english words of ,french origin sometimes show l before a consonant1 but the general form is u--scald 7echauder1 excalidare71 ,walter 7,gautier1 ,teutonic ,waldhari72 sauce1 beauty1 soder4 ,final el is kept--veal 7veau1 vitellum71 seal 7sceau1 sigillum74 7#ae7 ,in the east and centre ei changes to oi1 while the older sound is retained in the north-west and west--,norman estreit 7etroit1 strictum71 preie 7proie1 praedam71 #abth century ,picard1 ,parisian1 c41 estroit1 proie4 ,but the earliest 7#ajth century7 specimens of the latter group of dialects have ei--pleier 7ployer1 plicare7 ,eulalia1 mettreiet 7mettrait1 mittere habebat7 ,jonah4 ,parisian oi1 whether from ei or from ,old ,french oi1 oi1 became in the #aeth century ue 7spellings with oue or oe are not uncommon--mirouer for miroir1 miratorium71 and in the following1 in certain words1 e1 now written ai--francais1 connaitre1 from francois 7franceis1 franciscum71 conoistre 7conuistre1 cognoscere72 where it did not undergo the latter change it is now ua or wa--roi 7rei1 regem71 croix 7cruis1 crucem74 ,before nasals and palatal l1 ei 7now e7 was kept--veine 7vena71 veille 7vigila71 and it everywhere survives unlabialized in ,modern ,norman--,guernsey etelle 7etoile1 stella7 with e1 ser 7soir1 serum7 with e4 ,english shows generally ei 7or ai7 for original ei--strait 7estreit71 prey 7preie72 but in several words the later ,parisian oi--coy 7coi1 qvietum71 loyal 7loyal1 legalem74 7#af7 ,the splitting of the vowel-sound from accented ,latin o or u not in position1 represented in ,old ,french by o and u indifferently1 into u1 o 7before nasals71 and eu 7the latter at first a diphthong1 now ,german oe71 is unknown to ,western ,french till the #abth century1 and is not general in the east4 ,the sound in #aath century ,norman was much nearer to u 7,modern ,french ou7 than to o 7,modern ,french o71 as the words borrowed by ,english show uu 7at first written u1 afterwards ou or ow71 never oo2 but was probably not quite u1 as ,modern ,norman shows the same splitting of the sound as ,parisian4 ,examples are--,early ,old ,french espose or espuse 7sponsam71 nom or num 7nomen71 flor or flur 7florem72 ,modern ,french epouse1 nom1 fleur2 ,modern ,guernsey goule 7gueule1 gulam71 nom1 flleur4 ,modern ,picard also shows u1 which is the regular sound before r--flour2 but ,modern ,burgundian often keeps the original ,old ,french o--vo 7vous1 vos74 ,english shows almost always uu--spouse1 noun1 flower 7,early ,middle ,english spuse1 nun1 flur72 but nephew with eu 7neveu1 nepotem74 7#ag7 ,the loss of the u 7or w7 of qu dates from the end of the #abth century--,old ,french quart 7qvartum71 quitier 7qvietare7 with qu kw1 ,modern ,french quart1 quitter with qu k4 ,in ,walloon the w is preserved--couar 7quart71 cuitter2 as is the case in ,english--quart1 quit4 ,the w of gw seems to have been lost rather earlier1 ,english having simple g--gage 7gage1 older guage1 ,teutonic wadi71 guise 7guise1 ,teutonic wisa74 7#ah7 ,the change of the diphthong ou to uu did not take place till after the #abth century1 such words as ,anjou 7,andegavum7 assonating in the ,roland on fort 7fortem72 and did not occur in ,picardy1 where ou became au caus from older cous1 cols 7cous1 collos7 coinciding with caus from calz 7chauds1 calidos74 ,english keeps ou distinct from uu--vault for vaut 7,modern ,french voute1 volvitam71 soder 7souder1 solidare74 7#ai7 ,the change of the diphthong ie to simple e is specially ,anglo-,norman1 in ,old ,french of the ,continent these sounds never rhyme1 in that of ,england they constantly do1 and ,english words show1 with rare exceptions1 the simple vowel--fierce 7,old ,french fiers1 ferus71 chief 7chief1 caput71 with ie ee2 but pannier 7panier1 panarium74 ,at the beginning of the modern period1 ,parisian dropped the i of ie when preceded by ch or j--chef1 abreger 7,old ,french abregier1 abbreviare72 elsewhere 7except in verbs7 ie is retained--fier 7ferum71 pitie 7pietatem74 ,modern ,guernsey retains ie after ch--ap'rchier 7approcher1 adpropeare747#bj7 ,some of the ,modern ,french changes have found their places under older ones2 those remaining to be noticed are so recent that ,english examples of the older forms are superfluous4 ,in the #afth century the diphthong au changed to ao and then to o1 its present sound1 rendering1 for instance1 maux 7,old ,french mals1 malos7 identical with mots 7muttos74 ,the au of eau underwent the same change1 but its e was still sounded as schwa 7the e of que72 in the next century this was dropped1 making veaux 7,old ,french veels1 vitellos7 identical with vaux 7vals1 valles74 7#ba7 ,a more general and very important change began much earlier than the last2 this is the loss of many final consonants4 ,in ,early ,old ,french every consonant was pronounced as written2 by degrees many of them disappeared when followed by another consonant1 whether in the same word 7in which case they were generally omitted in writing7 or in a following one4 ,this was the state of things in the #afth century2 those final consonants which are usually silent in ,modern ,french were still sounded1 if before a vowel or at the end of a sentence or a line of poetry1 but generally not elsewhere4 ,thus a large number of ,french words had two forms2 the ,old ,french fort appeared as for 7though still written fort7 before a consonant1 fort elsewhere4 ,at a later period final consonants were lost 7with certain exceptions7 when the word stood at the end of a sentence or of a line of poetry2 but they are generally kept when followed by a word beginning with a vowel4 7#bb7 ,a still later change is the general loss of the vowel 7written e7 of unaccented final syllables2 this vowel preserved in the #afth century the sound schwa1 which it had in ,early ,old ,french4 ,in later ,anglo-,norman final schwa 7like every other sound7 was treated exactly as the same sound in ,middle ,english2 that is1 it came to be omitted or retained at pleasure1 and in the #aeth century disappeared4 ,in ,old ,french the loss of final schwa is confined to a few words and forms2 the #ajth century saveiet 7sapebat for sapiebat7 became in the #aath saveit1 and ore 7ad horam71 ele 7illam7 develop the abbreviated or1 el4 ,in the #aeth century schwa before a vowel generally disappears--mur1 ,old ,french meur 7maturum72 and in the #afth1 though still written1 schwa after an unaccented vowel1 and in the syllable ent after a vowel1 does the same--vraiment1 ,old ,french vraiement 7veraca mente72 avoient two syllables1 as now 7avaient71 in ,old ,french three syllables 7as habebant74 ,these phenomena occur much earlier in the anglicized ,french of ,england--#acth century aveynt 7,old ,french aveient74 ,but the universal loss of final e1 which has clipped a syllable from half the ,french vocabulary1 did not take place till the #ahth century1 after the general loss of final consonants2 fort and forte1 distinguished at the end of a sentence or line in the #afth century as fort and fortschwa1 remain distinguished1 but as for and fort4 ,the metre of poetry is still constructed on the obsolete pronunciation1 which is even revived in singing2 dites1 la jeune belle1 actually four syllables 7dit1 la zhoen bel71 is considered as seven1 fitted with music accordingly1 and sung to fit the music 7ditschwa1 la zhoena belschwa74 7#bc7 ,in ,old ,french1 as in the other ,romanic languages1 the stress 7force1 accent7 is on the syllable which was accented in ,latin2 compare the treatment of the accented and unaccented vowels in latro amas1 giving lere1 aime1 and in latronem1 amatis1 giving laron1 amez1 the accented vowels being those which rhyme or assonate4 ,at present1 stress in ,french is much less marked than in ,english1 ,german or ,italian1 and is to a certain extent variable2 which is partly the reason why most native ,french scholars find no difficulty in maintaining that the stress in living ,modern ,french is on the same syllable as in ,old ,french4 ,the fact that stress in the ,french of to-day is independent of length 7quantity7 and pitch 7tone7 largely aids the confusion2 for though the final and originally accented syllable 7not counting the silent e as a syllable7 is now generally pronounced with less force1 it very often has a long vowel with raised pitch4 ,in actual pronunciation the chief stress is usually on the first syllable 7counting according to the sounds1 not the spelling71 but in many polysyllables it is on the last but one2 thus in caution the accented 7strong7 syllable cau1 in occasion it is ca4 ,poetry is still written according to the original place of the stress2 the rhyme-syllables of larron1 aimez are still ron and mez1 which when set to music receive an accented 7strong7 note1 and are sung accordingly1 though in speech the la and ai generally have the principal stress4 ,in reading poetry1 as distinguished from singing1 the modern pronunciation is used1 both as to the loss of the final schwa and the displacement of the stress1 the result being that the theoretical metre in which the poetry is written disappears4 7#bd7 ,in certain cases accented vowels were lengthened in ,old ,french1 as before a lost s2 this was indicated in the #afth century by a circumflex--bete1 ,old ,french beste 7bestiam71 ame1 ,old ,french anme 7anima74 ,the same occurred in the plural of many nouns1 where a consonant was lost before the s of the flection2 thus singular coc with short vowel1 plural cos with long4 ,the plural cos1 though spelt cogs instead of co 7 koo71 is still sometimes to be heard1 but1 like other similar ones1 is generally refashioned after the singular1 becoming kok4 ,in present ,french1 except where a difference of quality has resulted1 as in cote 7,old ,french coste1 costam7 with o and cotte 7,old ,french cote71 with o1 short and long vowels generally run together1 quantity being now variable and uncertain2 but at the beginning of this century the ,early ,modern distinctions appear to have been generally preserved4 7d7 ,orthography4--,the history of ,french spelling is based on that of ,french sounds2 as already stated1 the former 7apart from a few ,latinisms in the earliest documents7 for several centuries faithfully followed the latter4 ,when the popular ,latin of ,gaul was first written1 its sounds were represented by the letters of the ,roman alphabet2 but these were employed1 not in the values they had in the time of ,caesar1 but in those they had acquired in consequence of the phonetic changes that had meantime taken place4 ,thus1 as the ,latin sound u had become o 7close o7 and u had become y 7,french u1 ,german ue71 the letter u was used sometimes to denote the sound o1 sometimes the sound y2 as ,latin k 7written c7 had become tsh or ts1 according to dialect1 before e and i1 c was used to represent those sounds as well as that of k4 ,the chief features of early ,french orthography 7apart from the specialities of individual ,,mss41 especially the earliest7 are therefore these3--c stood for k and tsh or ts2 d for d and dh 7soft th72 e for e1 e1 and schwa2 g for g and dzh2 h was often written in words of ,latin origin where not sounded2 i 7j7 stood for i1 y consonant1 and dzh2 o for o 7,anglo-,norman u7 and o2 s for s and z2 t for t and th2 u 7v7 for o 7,anglo-,norman u71 y and v2 y 7rare7 for i2 z for dz and ts4 ,some new sounds had also to be provided for3 where tsh had to be distinguished from non-final ts1 ch--at first1 as in ,italian1 denoting k before i and e 7chi ki from qvi7--was used for it2 palatal l was represented by ill1 which when final usually lost one l1 and after i dropped its i2 palatal n by gn1 ng or ngn1 to which i was often prefixed2 and the new letter w1 originally uu 7vv71 and sometimes representing merely uv or vu1 was employed for the consonant-sound still denoted by it in ,english4 ,all combinations of vowel-letters represented diphthongs2 thus ai denoted a followed by i1 ou either ou or ou1 ui either oi 7,anglo-,norman ui7 or yi1 and similarly with the others--ei1 eu1 oi1 iu1 ie1 ue 7and oe71 and the triphthong ieu4 ,silent letters1 except initial h in ,latin words1 are very rare2 though ,,mss4 copied from older ones often retain letters whose sounds1 though existing in the language of the author1 had disappeared from that of the more modern scribe4 ,the subsequent changes in orthography are due mainly to changes of sound1 and find their explanation in the phonology4 ,thus1 as ,old ,french progresses1 s1 having become silent before voiced consonants1 indicates only the length of the preceding vowel2 e before nasals1 from the change of e 7nasal e7 to a 7nasal a71 represents a2 c1 from the change of ts to s1 represents s2 qu and gu1 from the loss of the w of kw and gw1 represent k and g 7hard72 ai1 from the change of ai to e1 represents e2 ou1 from the change of ou and ou to u1 represents u2 ch and g1 from the change of tsh and dzh to sh and zh1 represent sh and zh2 eu and ue1 originally representing diphthongs1 represent oe 7,german oe72 z1 from the change of ts and dz to s and z1 represents s and z4 ,the new values of some of these letters were applied to words not originally spelt with them3 ,old ,french k before i and e was replaced by qu 7evesque1 eveske1 ,latin episcopum72 ,old ,french u and o for o1 after this sound had split into eu and u1 were replaced in the latter case by ou 7rous1 for ros or rus1 ,latin russum72 s was accidentally inserted to mark a long vowel 7pasle1 pale1 ,latin pallidum72 eu replaced ue and oe 7neuf1 nuef1 ,latin novum and novem72 z replaced s after e 7nez1 nes1 nasum74 ,the use of x for final s is due to an orthographical mistake2 the ,,ms4 contraction of us being something like x was at last confused with it 7iex for ieus1 oculos71 and1 its meaning being forgotten1 u was inserted before the x 7yeux7 which thus meant no more than s1 and was used for it after other vowels 7voix for vois1 vocem74 ,as literature came to be extensively cultivated1 traditional as distinct from phonetic spelling began to be influential2 and in the #adth century1 the close of the ,old ,french period1 this influence1 though not overpowering1 was strong--stronger than in ,england at that time4 ,about the same period there arose etymological as distinct from traditional spelling4 ,this practice1 the alteration of traditional spelling by the insertion or substitution of letters which occurred 7or were supposed to occur7 in the ,latin 7or supposed ,latin7 originals of the ,french words1 became very prevalent in the three following centuries1 when such forms as debvoir 7debere7 for devoir1 faulx 7falsum7 for faus1 autheur 7auctorem1 supposed to be authorem7 for auteur1 poids 7supposed to be from pondus1 really from pensum7 for pois1 were the rule4 ,but besides the etymological1 there was a phonetic school of spelling 7,ramus1 in #aefb1 for instance1 writes eime1 eimates--with e e1 e e1 and e schwa--for aimai1 aimastes71 which1 though unsuccessful on the whole1 had some effect in correcting the excesses of the other1 so that in the #agth century most of these inserted letters began to drop2 of those which remain1 some 7flegme for flemme or fleume1 ,latin phlegma7 have corrupted the pronunciation4 ,some important reforms--as the dropping of silent s1 and its replacement by a circumflex over the vowel when this was long2 the frequent distinction of close and open e by acute and grave accents2 the restriction of i and u to the vowel sound1 of j and v to the consonant2 and the introduction from ,spain of the cedilla to distinguish c s from c k before a1 u and o--are due to the #afth century4 ,the replacement of oi1 where it had assumed the value e1 by ai1 did not begin till the last century1 and was not the rule till the present one4 ,indeed1 since the #afth century the changes in ,french spelling have been small1 compared with the changes of the sounds2 final consonants and final e 7unaccented7 are still written1 though the sounds they represent have disappeared4 ,still1 a marked effort towards the simplification of ,french orthography was made in the third edition of the ,dictionary of the ,french ,academy 7#agdj71 practically the work of the ,abbe d',olivet4 ,while in the first 7#afid7 and second 7#agah7 editions of this dictionary words were overburdened with silent letters1 supposed to represent better the etymology1 in the third edition the spelling of about #ejjj words 7out of about #ah1jjj7 was altered and made more in conformity with the pronunciation4 ,so1 for instance1 c was dropped in beinfaicteur and object1 c in scavoir1 d in advocat1 s in accroistre1 albastre1 aspre and bastard1 e in the past part4 creu1 deu1 veu1 and in such words as alleure1 souilleure2 y was replaced by i in cecy1 celuy1 gay1 joye1 c4 ,but those changes were not made systematically1 and many pedantic spellings were left untouched1 while many inconsistencies still remain in the present orthography 7siffler and persifler1 souffler and boursoufler1 c74 ,the consequence of those efforts in contrary directions is that ,french orthography is now quite as traditional and unphonetic as ,english1 and gives an even falser notion than this of the actual state of the language it is supposed to represent4 ,many of the features of ,old ,french orthography1 early and late1 are preserved in ,english orthography2 to it we owe the use of c for s 7,old ,english c k only71 of j 7i7 for dzh1 of v 7u7 for v 7in ,old ,english written f71 and probably of ch for tsh4 ,the ,english w is purely ,french1 the ,old ,english letter being the runic 4 ,when ,french was introduced into ,england1 kw had not lost its w1 and the ,french qu1 with that value1 replaced the ,old ,english c 7queen for cen74 ,in ,norman1 ,old ,french o had become very like u1 and in ,england went entirely into it2 o1 which was one of its ,french signs1 thus came to be often used for u in ,english 7come for cume74 ,u1 having often in ,old ,french its ,modern ,french value1 was so used in ,england1 and replaced the ,old ,english y 7busy for bysi1 ,middle ,english brud for bryd71 and y was often used for i 7day for dai74 ,in the #acth century1 when ou had come to represent u in ,france1 it was borrowed by ,english1 and used for the long sound of that vowel 7sour for sur72 and gu1 which had come to mean simply g 7hard71 was occasionally used to represent the sound g before i and e 7guess for gesse74 ,some of the ,early ,modern etymological spellings were imitated in ,england2 fleam and autour were replaced by phlegm and authour1 the latter spelling having corrupted the pronunciation4 7e7 ,inflections4--,in the earliest ,old ,french extant1 the influence of analogy1 especially in verbal forms1 is very marked when these are compared with ,latin 7thus the present participles of all conjugations take ant1 the ending of the first1 ,latin antem71 and becomes stronger as the language progresses4 ,such isolated inflectional changes as saveit into savoit1 which are cases of regular phonetic changes1 are not noticed here4 7i47 ,verbs4--7#a7 ,in the oldest ,french texts the ,latin pluperfect 7with the sense of the perfect7 occasionally occurs--avret 7habuerat71 roveret 7rogaverat72 it disappears before the #abth century4 7#b7 ,the u of the ending of the #ast pers4 plur4 mus drops in ,old ,french1 except in the perfect1 where its presence 7as schwa7 is not yet satisfactorily explained--amoms 7amamus1 influenced by sumus71 but amames 7amavimus74 ,in ,picard the atonic ending mes is extended to all tenses1 giving amomes1 c4 7#c7 ,in the present indicative1 #bnd person plur41 the ending ez of the first conjugation 7,latin atis7 extends1 even in the earliest documents1 to all verbs--avez1 recevez1 oez 7habetis1 recipitis1 auditis7 like amez 7amatis72 such forms as dites1 faites 7dicitis1 facitis7 being exceptional archaisms4 ,this levelling of the conjugation does not appear at such an early time in the future 7formed from the infinitive and from habetis reduced to etis72 in the ,roland both forms occur1 portereiz 7portare habetis7 assonating on rei 7roi1 regem71 and the younger porterez on citet 7cite1 civitatem71 but about the end of the #acth century the older form -eiz1 -oiz1 is dropped1 and -ez becomes gradually the uniform ending for this #bnd person of the plural in the future tense4 7#d7 ,in ,eastern ,french the #ast plur41 when preceded by i1 has e1 not o1 before the nasal1 while ,western ,french has u 7or o71 as in the present2 posciomes 7posseamus7 in the ,jonah homily makes it probable that the latter is the older form--,picard aviemes1 ,burgundian aviens1 ,norman aviums 7habebamus74 7#e7 ,the subjunctive of the first conjugation has at first in the singular no final e1 in accordance with the final vowel laws--plur1 plurs1 plurt 7plorem1 plores1 ploret74 ,the forms are gradually assimilated to those of the other conjugations1 which1 deriving from ,latin am1 as1 at1 have e1 es1 e7t72 ,modern ,french pleure1 pleures1 pleure1 like perde1 perdes1 perde 7perdam1 perdas1 perdat74 7#f7 ,in ,old ,french the present subjunctive and the #ast sing4 pres4 ind4 generally show the influence of the i or e of the ,latin iam1 eam1 io1 eo--,old ,french muire or moerge 7moriat for moriatur71 tiegne or tienge 7teneat71 muir or moerc 7morio for morior71 tieng or tienc 7teneo74 ,by degrees these forms are levelled under the other present forms--,modern ,french meure and meurs following meurt 7morit for moritur71 tienne and tiens following tient 7tenet74 ,a few of the older forms remain--the vowel of aie 7habeam7 and ai 7habeo7 contrasting with that of a 7habet74 7#g7 ,a levelling of which instances occur in the #aath century1 but which is not yet complete1 is that of the accented and unaccented stem-syllables of verbs4 ,in ,old ,french many verb-stems with shifting accent vary in accordance with phonetic laws--parler 7parabolare71 amer 7amare7 have in the present indicative parol 7parabolo71 paroles 7parabolas71 parolet 7parabolat71 parlums 7parabolamus71 parlez 7parabolatis71 parolent 7parabolant72 aim 7amo71 aimes 7amas71 aimet 7amat71 amums 7amamus71 amez 7amatis71 aiment 7amant74 ,in the first case the unaccented1 in the second the accented form has prevailed--,modern ,french parle1 parler2 aime1 aimer4 ,in several verbs1 as tenir 7tenere71 the distinction is retained--tiens1 tiens1 tient1 tenons1 tenez1 tiennent4 7#h7 ,in ,old ,french1 as stated above1 ie instead of e from a occurs after a palatal 7which1 if a consonant1 often split into i with a dental72 the diphthong thus appears in several forms of many verbs of the #ast conjugation--preier 7 prei-ier1 precare71 vengier 7vindicare71 laissier 7laxare71 aidier 7adjutare74 ,at the close of the ,old ,french period1 those verbs in which the stem ends in a dental replace ie by the e of other verbs--,old ,french laissier1 aidier1 laissiez 7laxatis71 aidiez 7adjutatis72 ,modern ,french laisser1 aider1 laissez1 aidez1 by analogy of aimer1 aimez4 ,the older forms generally remain in ,picard--laissier1 aidier4 7#i7 ,the addition of e to the #ast sing4 pres4 ind4 of all verbs of the first conjugation is rare before the #acth century1 but is usual in the #aeth2 it is probably due to the analogy of the third person--,old ,french chant 7canto71 aim 7amo72 ,modern ,french chante1 aime4 7#aj7 ,in the #acth century s is occasionally added to the #ast pers4 sing41 except those ending in e 7 schwa7 and ai1 and to the #bnd sing4 of imperatives2 at the close of the #afth century this becomes the rule1 and extends to imperfects and conditionals in oie after the loss of their e4 ,it appears to be due to the influence of the #bnd pers4 sing4--,old ,french vend 7vendo and vende71 vendoie 7vendebam71 parti 7partivi71 ting 7tenui72 ,modern ,french vends1 vendais1 partis1 tins2 and donne 7dona7 in certain cases becomes donnes4 7#aa7 ,the #ast and #bnd plur4 of the pres4 subj41 which in ,old ,french were generally similar to those of the indicative1 gradually take an i before them1 which is the rule after the #afth century--,old ,french perdons 7perdamus71 perdez 7perdatis72 ,modern ,french perdions1 perdiez1 apparently by analogy of the imp4 ind4 7#ab7 ,the loss in ,late ,old ,french of final s1 t1 c41 when preceding another consonant1 caused many words to have in reality 7though often concealed by orthography7 double forms of inflection--one without termination1 the other with4 ,thus in the #afth century the #bnd sing4 pres4 ind4 dors 7dormis7 and the #crd dort 7dormit7 were distinguished as dorz and dort when before a vowel1 as dors and dort at the end of a sentence or line of poetry1 but ran together as dor when followed by a consonant4 ,still later1 the loss of the final consonant when not followed by a vowel further reduced the cases in which the forms were distinguished1 so that the actual ,french conjugation is considerably simpler than is shown by the customary spellings1 except when1 in consequence of an immediately following vowel1 the old terminations occasionally appear4 ,even here the antiquity is to a considerable extent artificial or delusive1 some of the insertions being due to analogy1 and the popular language often omitting the traditional consonant or inserting a different one4 7#ac7 ,the subsequent general loss of e schwa in unaccented final syllables has still further reduced the inflections1 but not the distinctive forms--perd 7perdit7 and perde 7perdat7 being generally distinguished as per and perd1 and before a vowel as pert and perd4 7ii47 ,substantives4--7#a7 ,in ,early ,old ,french 7as in ,provencal7 there are two main declensions1 the masculine and the feminine2 with a few exceptions the former distinguishes nominative and accusative in both numbers1 the latter in neither4 ,the nom4 and acc4 sing1 and acc4 plur4 mas4 correspond to those of the ,latin #bnd or #crd declension1 the nom4 plur4 to that of the #bnd declension4 ,the sing1 fem4 corresponds to the nom4 and acc4 of the ,latin #ast declension1 or to the acc4 of the #crd2 the plur4 fem4 to the acc4 of the #ast declension1 or to the nom4 and acc4 of the #crd4 ,thus masc4 tors 7taurus71 lere 7latro72 tor 7taurum71 laron 7latronem72 tor 7tauri71 laron 7latroni for -nes72 tors 7tauros71 larons 7latrones72 but fem4 only ele 7ala and alam71 flor 7florem72 eles 7alas71 flors 7flores nom4 and acc474 ,about the end of the #aath century feminines not ending in e schwa take1 by analogy of the masculines1 s in the nom4 sing41 thus distinguishing nom4 flors from acc4 flor4 ,a century later1 masculines without s in the nom4 sing4 take this consonant by analogy of the other masculines1 giving leres as nom4 similar to tors4 ,in ,anglo-,norman the accusative forms very early begin to replace the nominative1 and soon supersede them1 the language following the tendency of contemporaneous ,english4 ,in continental ,french the declension-system was preserved much longer1 and did not break up till the #adth century1 though acc4 forms are occasionally substituted for nom4 7rarely nom4 for acc47 before that date4 ,it must be noticed1 however1 that in the current language the reduction of the declension to one case 7generally the accusative7 per number appears much earlier than in the language of literature proper and poetry2 ,froissart1 for instance1 c4 #adjj1 in his poetical works is much more careful of the declension than in his ,chronicles4 ,in the #aeth century the modern system of one case is fully established2 the form kept is almost always the accusative 7sing4 without s1 plural with s71 but in a few words1 such as fils 7filius71 soeur 7soror71 pastre 7pastor71 and in proper names such as ,georges1 ,gilles1 c41 often used as vocative 7therefore with the form of nom472 the nom4 survives in the sing4 ,occasionally both forms exist1 in different senses--sire 7senior7 and seigneur 7seniorem71 on 7homo7 and homme 7hominem74 7#b7 ,latin neuters are generally masculine in ,old ,french1 and inflected according to their analogy1 as ciels 7caelus for caelum nom471 ciel 7caelum acc471 ciel 7caeli for caela nom471 ciels 7caelos for caela acc472 but in some cases the form of the ,latin neuter is preserved1 as in cors1 now corps1 ,lat4 corpus2 tens1 now temps1 ,lat4 tempus4 ,many neuters lose their singular form and treat the plural as a feminine singular1 as in the related languages--merveille 7mirabilia71 feuille 7folia74 ,but in a few words the neuter plural termination is used1 as in ,italian1 in its primitive sense--carre 7carra1 which exists as well as carri71 paire 7,lat4 paria72 ,modern ,french chars1 paires4 7#c7 ,in ,old ,french the inflectional s often causes phonetic changes in the stem2 thus palatal l before s takes t after it1 and becomes dental l1 which afterwards changes to u or drops--fil 7filium and filii7 with palatal l1 filz 7filius and filios71 afterwards fiz1 with z ts 7preserved in ,english ,fitz71 and then fis1 as now 7spelt fils74 ,many consonants before s1 as the t of fiz1 disappear1 and l is vocalized--vif 7vivum71 mal 7malum71 nominative sing4 and acc4 plur4 vis1 maus 7earlier mals74 ,these forms of the plural are retained in the #afth century1 though often etymologically spelt with the consonant of the singular1 as in vifs1 pronounced vis2 but in ,late ,modern ,french many of them disappear1 vifs1 with f sounded as in the singular1 being the plural of vif1 bals 7formerly baux7 that of bal4 ,in many words1 as chant 7cantus7 and champs 7campos7 with silent t and p 7,old ,french chans in both cases71 maux 7,old ,french mals1 sing4 mal71 yeux 7oculos1 ,old ,french oelz1 sing4 oeil7 the old change in the stem is kept4 ,sometimes1 as in cieux 7caelos7 and ciels1 the old traditional and the modern analogical forms coexist1 with different meanings4 7#d7 ,the modern loss of final s 7except when kept as z before a vowel7 has seriously modified the ,french declension1 the singulars fort 7for7 and forte 7fort7 being generally undistinguishable from their plurals forts and fortes4 ,the subsequent loss of schwa in finals has not affected the relation between sing4 and plur4 forms2 but with the frequent recoining of the plural forms on the singular present ,modern ,french has very often no distinction between sing4 and plur41 except before a vowel4 ,such plurals as maux have always been distinct from their singular mal2 in those whose singular ends in s there never was any distinction1 ,old ,french laz 7now spelt lacs7 corresponding to laqveus1 laqveum1 laqvei and laqveos4 7iii47 ,adjectives4--7#a7 ,the terminations of the cases and numbers of adjectives are the same as those of substantives1 and are treated in the preceding paragraph4 ,the feminine generally takes no e if the masc4 has none1 and if there is no distinction in ,latin--fem4 sing4 fort 7fortem71 grant 7grandem71 fem4 plur4 forz 7fortes71 granz 7grandes71 like the acc4 masc4 ,certain adjectives of this class1 and among them all the adjectives formed with the ,latin suffix -ensis1 take regularly1 even in the oldest ,french1 the feminine ending e1 in ,provencal a 7courtois1 fem4 courtoise2 commun1 fem4 commune74 ,to these must not be added dous 7,mod4 ,fr4 dolz1 dous71 fem4 douce1 which probably comes from a ,low ,latin dulcius1 dulcia4 ,in the #aath century some other feminines1 originally without e1 begin in ,norman to take this termination--grande 7in a feminine assonance in the ,alexis71 plur4 grandes2 but other dialects generally preserve the original form till the #adth century4 ,in the #afth century the e is general in the feminine1 and is now universal1 except in a few expressions--grand'mere 7with erroneous apostrophe1 grandem1 matrem71 lettres royaux 7literas regales71 and most adverbs from adjectives in -ant1 -ent--couramment 7currante for -ente mente71 sciemment 7sciente mente74 7#b7 ,several adjectives have in ,modern ,french replaced the masc4 by the feminine--,old ,french masc4 roit 7rigidum71 fem4 roide 7rigidam72 ,modern ,french roide for both genders4 7#c7 ,in ,old ,french several ,latin simple comparatives are preserved--maiur 7majorem71 nom4 maire 7major72 graignur 7grandiorem71 nom4 graindre 7grandior72 only a few of these now survive--pire 7pejor71 meilleur 7meliorem71 with their adverbial neuters pis 7pejus71 mieux 7melius74 ,the few simple superlatives found in ,old ,french1 as merme 7minimum71 pesme 7pessimus71 proisme 7proximum71 haltisme 7altissimum71 this last one being clearly a literary word1 are now extinct1 and1 when they existed1 had hardly the meaning of a superlative4 7#d7 ,the modern loss of many final consonants when not before vowels1 and the subsequent loss of final schwa1 have greatly affected the distinction between the masc4 and fem4 of adjectives--fort and forte are still distinguished as for and fort1 but amer 7amarum7 and amere 7amaram71 with their plurals amers and ameres1 have run together4 7f7 ,derivation4--,most of the ,old ,french prefixes and suffixes are descendants of ,latin ones1 but a few are ,teutonic 7ard hard71 and some are later borrowings from ,latin 7arie1 afterwards aire1 from arium74 ,in ,modern ,french many old affixes are hardly used for forming new words2 the inherited ier 7arium7 is yielding to the borrowed aire1 the popular contre 7contra7 to the learned anti 7,greek71 and the native ee 7atam7 to the ,italian ade4 ,the suffixes of many words have been assimilated to more common ones2 thus sengler 7singularem7 is now sanglier4 7g7 ,syntax4--,old ,french syntax1 gradually changing from the #ajth to the #adth century1 has a character of its own1 distinct from that of ,modern ,french2 though when compared with ,latin syntax it appears decidedly modern4 7#a7 ,the general formal distinction between nominative and accusative is the chief feature which causes ,french syntax to resemble that of ,latin and differ from that of the modern language2 and as the distinction had to be replaced by a comparatively fixed word-order1 a serious loss of freedom ensued4 ,if the forms are modernized while the word-order is kept1 the ,old ,french l'archevesque ne puet flechir li reis ,henris 7,latin archiepiscopum non potest flectere rex ,henricus7 assumes a totally different meaning--l'archeveque ne peut flechir le roi ,henri4 7#b7 ,the replacement of the nominative form of nouns by the accusative is itself a syntactical feature1 though treated above under inflection4 ,a more modern instance is exhibited by the personal pronouns1 which1 when not immediately the subject of a verb1 occasionally take even in ,old ,french1 and regularly in the #afth century1 the accusative form2 the ,old ,french je qui sui 7ego qvi sum7 becomes moi qui suis1 though the older usage survives in the legal phrase je soussigne4444 7#c7 ,the definite article is now required in many cases where ,old ,french dispenses with it--jo cunquis ,engleterre1 suffrir mort 7as ,modern ,french avoir faim72 ,modern ,french l',angleterre1 la mort4 7#d7 ,old ,french had distinct pronouns for this and that--cest 7ecce istum7 and cel 7ecce illium71 with their cases4 ,both exist in the #afth century1 but the present language employs cet as adjective1 cel as substantive1 in both meanings1 marking the old distinction by affixing the adverbs ci and la--cet homme-ci1 cet homme-la2 celui-ci1 celui-la4 7#e7 ,in ,old ,french1 the verbal terminations being clear1 the subject pronoun is usually not expressed--si ferai 7sic facere habeo71 est durs 7durus est71 que feras 7quid facere habes78 ,in the #afth century the use of the pronoun is general1 and is now universal1 except in one or two impersonal phrases1 as n'importe1 peu s'en faut4 7#f7 ,the present participle in ,old ,french in its uninflected form coincided with the gerund 7amant amantem and amando71 and in the modern language has been replaced by the latter1 except where it has become adjectival2 the ,old ,french complaingnans leur dolours 7,latin plangentes7 is now plaignant leurs douleurs 7,latin plangendo74 ,the now extinct use of estre with the participle present for the simple verb is not uncommon in ,old ,french down to the #afth century--sont disanz 7sunt dicentes7 ,modern ,french ils disent 7as ,english they are saying74 7#g7 ,in present ,modern ,french the preterite participle when used with avoir to form verb-tenses is invariable1 except when the object precedes 7an exception now vanishing in the conversational language7--j'ai ecrit les lettres1 les lettres que j'ai ecrites4 ,in ,old ,french down to the #afth century1 formal concord was more common 7though by no means necessary71 partly because the object preceded the participle much oftener than now--ad la culur muee 7habet colorem mutatam71 ad faite sa venjance1 les turs ad rendues4 7#h7 ,the sentences just quoted will serve as specimens of the freedom of ,old ,french word-order--the object standing either before verb and participle1 between them1 or after both4 ,the predicative adjective can stand before or after the verb--halt sunt li pui 7,latin podia71 e tenebrus e grant4 7#i7 ,in ,old ,french ne 7,early ,old ,french nen1 ,latin non7 suffices for the negation without pas 7passum71 point 7punctum7 or mie 7micam1 now obsolete71 though these are frequently used--jo ne sui lis sire 7je ne suis pas ton seigneur71 autre feme nen ara 7il n'aura pas autre femme74 ,in principal sentences ,modern ,french uses ne by itself only in certain cases--je ne puis marcher1 je n'ai rien4 ,the slight weight as a negation usually attached to ne has caused several originally positive words to take a negative meaning--rien 7,latin rem7 now meaning nothing as well as something4 7#aj7 ,in ,old ,french interrogation was expressed with substantives as with pronouns by putting them after the verb--est ,saul entre les prophetes8 ,in ,modern ,french the pronominal inversion 7the substantive being prefixed7 or a verbal periphrasis must be used--,saul est-il8 or est-ce que ,saul est8 7h7 ,summary4--,looking at the internal history of the ,french language as a whole1 there is no such strongly marked division as exists between ,old and ,middle ,english1 or even between ,middle and ,modern ,english4 ,some of the most important changes are quite modern1 and are concealed by the traditional orthography2 but1 even making allowance for this1 the difference between ,french of the #aath century and that of the #bjth is less than that between ,english of the same dates4 ,the most important change in itself and for its effects is probably that which is usually made the division between ,old and ,modern ,french1 the loss of the formal distinction between nominative and accusative2 next to this are perhaps the gradual loss of many final consonants1 the still recent loss of the vowel of unaccented final syllables1 and the extension of analogy in conjugation and declension4 ,in its construction ,old ,french is distinguished by a freedom strongly contrasting with the strictness of the modern language1 and bears1 as might be expected1 a much stronger resemblance than the latter to the other ,romanic dialects4 ,in many features1 indeed1 both positive and negative1 ,modern ,french forms a class by itself1 distinct in character from the other modern representatives of ,latin4 ,,iv4 ,,bibliography4--,the few works which treat of ,french philology as a whole are now in many respects antiquated1 and the important discoveries of recent years1 which have revolutionized our ideas of ,old ,french phonology and dialectology1 are scattered in various editions1 periodicals1 and separate treatises4 ,for many things ,diez's ,grammatik der romanischen ,sprachen 7#dth edition--a reprint of the #crd--,bonn1 #ahgf-ahgg2 ,french translation1 ,paris1 #ahgb-ahge7 is still very valuable2 ,burguy's ,grammaire de la ,langue d',oil 7#bnd edition--a reprint of the #ast--,berlin1 #ahfi-ahgj7 is useful only as a collection of examples4 ,schwan's ,grammatik des ,altfranzoesischen1 as revised by ,behrens in the #crd edition 7,leipzig1 #ahih2 ,french translation1 ,leipzig and ,paris1 #aijj71 is by far the best old ,french grammar we possess4 ,for the history of ,french language in general see ,f4 ,brunot1 ,histoire de la langue francaise des origines a #aijj 7,paris1 #aije1 #aijf1 c474 ,for the history of spelling1 ,a4 ,f4 ,didot1 ,observations sur l'orthographe ou ortografie francaise suivies d'une histoire de la reforme orthographique depuis le ,,xve siecle jusqu'a nos jours 7#bnd ed41 ,paris1 #ahfh74 ,for the history of ,french sounds3 ,ch4 ,thurot1 ,de la prononciation francaise depuis le commencement du ,,xvie siecle1 d'apres les temoignages des grammairiens 7#b vols41 ,paris1 #ahha-ahhc74 ,for the history of syntax1 apart from various grammatical works of a general character1 much is to be gathered from ,ad4 ,tobler's ,vermischte ,beitraege zur franzoesischen ,grammatik 7#c parts1 #ahhf1 #ahid1 #ahii1 parts i4 and ii4 in second editions1 #aijb1 #aijf74 ,g4 ,paris's edition of ,la ,vie de ,s4 ,alexis 7,paris1 #ahgb7 was the pioneer of1 and retains an important place among1 the recent original works on ,old ,french4 ,darmesteter and ,hatzfeld's ,le ,seizieme ,siecle 7,paris1 #ahgh7 contains the first good account of ,early ,modern ,french4 ,littre's ,dictionnaire de la langue francaise 7#d vols41 ,paris1 #ahfc-ahfi1 and a ,supplement1 #ahgg72 and ,hatzfeld1 ,darmesteter and ,thomas1 ,dict4 general de la langue francaise1 more condensed 7#b vols41 ,paris1 #ahhh-aijj71 contain much useful and often original information about the etymology and history of ,french words4 ,for the etymology of many ,french 7and also ,provencal7 words1 reference must be made to ,ant4 ,thomas's ,essais de philologie francaise 7,paris1 #ahig7 and ,nouveaux essais de philologie francaise 7,paris1 #aijd74 ,but there is no ,french dictionary properly historical4 ,a ,dictionnaire historique de la langue francaise was begun by the ,academie francaise 7#d vols41 #ahei-ahid71 but it was1 from the first1 antiquated4 ,it contains only one letter 7,a7 and has not been continued4 ,the leading periodicals now in existence are the ,romania 7,paris71 founded 7in #ahgb7 and edited by ,p4 ,meyer and ,g4 ,paris 7with ,ant4 ,thomas since the death of ,g4 ,paris in #aijc71 and the ,zeitschrift fuer romanische ,philologie 7,halle71 founded 7in #ahgg7 and edited by ,g4 ,groeber4 ,to these reference should be made for information as to the very numerous articles1 treatises and editions by the many and often distinguished scholars who1 especially in ,france and ,germany1 now prosecute the scientific study of the language4 ,it may be well to mention that1 ,old ,french phonology especially being complicated1 and as yet incompletely investigated1 these publications1 the views in which are of various degrees of value1 require not mere acquiescent reading1 but critical study4 ,the dialects of ,france in their present state 7patois7 are now being scientifically investigated4 ,the special works on the subject 7dictionaries1 grammars1 c47 cannot be fully indicated here2 we must limit ourselves to the mention of ,behren's ,bibliographie des patois gallo-romans 7#bnd ed41 revised ,berlin1 #ahic71 and of ,gillieron and ,edmont's ,atlas linguistique de la ,france 7#aijb et seq471 a huge publication planned to contain about #ahjj maps4 7,h4 ,n42 ,p4 ,m47