,! ,/ud5t's ,elem5ts ( ,geology ,by ,,sir ,,*>les ,,lyell1 ,,b>t41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,au?or ,,( 8,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,geology10 8,,! ,,antiquity ,,( ,,man10 ,,etc4 ,!cosmilia annul>is ,,) ,,m ,,?an #fjj ,,illu/rations ,,on ,,wood4 ,,new ,,york ,,h>p] ,,bro!rs1 ,,publi%]s #ahgh ,t]ti>y or ,ca9ozoic1 ,second>y or ,mesozoic1 ,prim>y or ,paleozoic ,,cont5ts4 ,,preface ,*apt] ,i--,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,classes ,,( ,,rocks4 ,geology def9$4 -- ,successive ,=mation ( ! ,e>?'s ,cru/4 -- ,classification ( ,rocks accord+ to _! ,orig9 & ,age4 -- ,aque\s ,rocks4 -- ,_! ,/ratification & imb$d$ ,fossils4 -- ,volcanic ,rocks1 ) & )\t ,cones & ,crat]s4 -- ,plutonic ,rocks1 & _! ,relation to ! ,volcanic4 -- ,metamorphic ,rocks1 & _! probable ,orig94 -- ,! t]m ,primitive1 :y errone\sly appli$ to ! ,cry/all9e ,=mations4 -- ,lead+ ,division ( ! ,"w4 ,*apt] ,,ii--,,aque\s ,,rocks--,,_! ,,composition ,,& ,,=ms ,,( ,,/ratification4 ,m9]al ,composition ( ,/rata4 -- ,silice\s ,rocks4 -- ,argillace\s4 -- ,calc>e\s4 -- ,gypsum4 -- ,=ms ( ,/ratification4 -- ,orig9al ,horizontality4 -- ,?9n+ out4 -- ,diagonal ,arrangem5t4 -- ,ripple-m>k4 ,*apt] ,,iii--,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,fossils ,,9 ,,/rata--,,fre%-,,wat] ,,& ,,m>9e4 ,successive ,deposition indicat$ by ,fossils4 -- ,lime/ones =m$ ( ,corals & ,%ells4 -- ,pro(s ( gradual ,increase ( ,/rata d]iv$ f ,fossils4 -- ,s]pula atta*$ to ,spatangus4 -- ,wood bor$ by ,t]$9a4 -- ,tripoli =m$ ( ,infusoria4 -- ,*alk d]iv$ pr9cipally f ,organic ,bodies4 -- ,di/9ction ( ,fre%-wat] f ,m>9e ,=mations4 -- ,g5]a ( ,fre%-wat] & ,l& ,%ells4 -- ,rules = recognis+ ,m>9e ,te/acea4 -- ,gyrogonite & ,*>a4 -- ,fre%-wat] ,fi%es4 -- ,alt]nation ( ,m>9e & ,fre%-wat] ,deposits4 -- ,lym-,fiord4 ,*apt] ,,iv--,,consolidation ,,( ,,/rata ,,& ,,petrifaction ,,( ,,fossils4 ,*emical & ,me*anical ,deposits4 -- ,cem5t+ toge!r ( ,p>ticles4 -- ,h>d5+ by ,exposure to ,air4 -- ,concretion>y ,nodules4 -- ,consolidat+ ,effects ( ,pressure4 -- ,m9]alization ( ,organic ,rema9s4 -- ,impressions & ,ca/s3 h[ =m$4 -- ,fossil ,wood4 -- ,gopp]t's ,exp]im5ts4 -- ,precipitation ( ,/ony ,matt] mo/ rapid :]e ,putrefaction is go+ on4 -- ,s\rces ( ,lime & ,silex 9 ,solution4 ,*apt] ,v--,,elevation ,,( ,,/rata ,,above ,,! ,,sea4--,,horizontal ,,& ,,incl9$ ,,/ratification4 ,:y ! ,position ( ,m>9e ,/rata1 above ! ,level ( ! ,sea1 %\ld be ref]r$ to ! ris+ up ( ! ,l&1 n to ! go+ d[n ( ! ,sea4 -- ,/rata ( ,deep-sea & ,%all[-wat] ,orig9 alt]nate4 -- ,also ,m>9e & ,fre%-wat] ,b$s & old ,l& ,surfaces4 -- ,v]tical1 incl9$1 & fold$ ,/rata4 -- ,anticl9al & ,syncl9al ,curves4 -- ,!ories to expla9 ,lat]al ,movem5ts4 -- ,creeps 9 ,coal-m9es4 -- ,dip & ,/rike4 -- ,/ructure ( ! ,jura4 -- ,v>i\s ,=ms ( ,outcrop4 -- ,syncl9al ,/rata =m+ ,ridges4 -- ,connection ( ,fracture & ,flexure ( ,rocks4 -- ,inv]t$ ,/rata4 -- ,faults describ$4 -- ,sup]ficial ,signs ( ! same oblit]at$ by ,d5udation4 -- ,great ,faults ! ,result ( repeat$ ,movem5ts4 -- ,arrangem5t & ,direction ( p>allel ,folds ( ,/rata4 -- ,uncon=mability4 -- ,ov]lapp+ ,/rata4 ,*apt] ,,vi--,,d5udation4 ,d5udation def9$4 -- ,its ,am\nt m ?an equal to ! entire ,mass ( ,/ratifi$ ,deposits 9 ! ,e>?'s ,cru/4 -- subarial ,d5udation4 -- ,action ( ! ,w9d4 -- ,action ( ,runn+ ,wat]4 -- ,alluvium def9$4 -- ,diff]5t ,ages ( ,alluvium4 -- ,d5ud+ ,p[] ( ,riv]s affect$ by ,rise or ,fall ( ,l&4 -- ,littoral ,d5udation4 -- ,inl& ,sea-,cliffs4 -- ,esc>pm5ts4 -- ,subm>9e ,d5udation4 -- ,dogg]-bank4 -- ,newf\ndl& ,bank4 -- ,d5ud+ ,p[] ( ! ,ocean dur+ ,em]g5ce ( ,l&4 ,*apt] ,,vii--,,jo9t ,,action ,,( ,,d5udation1 ,,upheaval1 ,,& ,,subsid5ce ,,9 ,,remodell+ ,,! ,,e>?',s ,,cru/4 ,h[ we obta9 an ,insight at ! ,surface1 ( ! ,arrangem5t ( ,rocks at great ,dep?s4 -- ,:y ! ,height ( ! successive ,/rata 9 a giv5 ,region is s disproportionate to _! ,?ickness4 -- ,computation ( ! av]age annual ,am\nt ( subarial ,d5udation4 -- ,antagonism ( ,volcanic ,=ce to ! ,levell+ ,p[] ( runn+ ,wat]4 -- ,h[ f> ! ,transf] ( ,s$im5t f ! ,l& to a neighb\r+ ,sea-bottom may affect ,subt]ranean ,movem5ts4 -- ,p]man5ce ( ,cont95tal & ,oceanic ,areas4 ,*apt] ,,viii--,,*ronological ,,classification ,,( ,,rocks4 ,aque\s1 ,plutonic1 volcanic1 & metamorphic ,rocks consid]$ *ronologically4 -- ,t]ms ,prim>y1 ,second>y1 & ,t]ti>y2 ,palozoic1 ,mesozoic1 & ,ca9ozoic expla9$4 -- ,on ! diff]5t ,ages ( ! aque\s ,rocks4 -- ,?ree pr9cipal ,te/s ( relative ,age3 ,sup]position1 ,m9]al ,"*1 & ,fossils4 -- ,*ange ( ,m9]al ,"* & ,fossils 9 ! same cont9u\s ,=mation4 -- ,pro(s t di/9ct ,species ( ,animals & ,plants h liv$ at successive ,p]iods4 -- ,di/9ct ,prov9ces ( indig5\s ,species4 -- ,great ,ext5t ( s+le ,prov9ces4 -- ,simil> ,laws prevail$ at successive ,geological ,p]iods4 -- ,relative ,importance ( m9]al & palontological ,*>act]s4 -- ,te/ ( ,age by includ$ ,fragm5ts4 -- ,frequ5t ,abs5ce ( ,/rata ( int]v5+ ,p]iods4 -- ,tabul> ,views ( fossilif]\s ,/rata4 ,*apt] ,,ix--,,classification ,,( ,,t]ti>y ,,=mations4 ,ord] ( ,succession ( ,s$im5t>y ,=mations4 -- ,frequ5t ,uncon=mability ( ,/rata4 -- ,imp]fection ( ! ,record4 -- ,defectiv5ess ( ! ,monum5ts great] 9 ,proportion to _! ,antiquity4 -- ,reasons = /udy+ ! new] ,gr\ps fir/4 -- ,nom5clature ( ,=mations4 -- ,deta*$ ,t]ti>y ,=mations scatt]$ ov] ,europe4 -- ,value ( ! ,%ell-be>+ ,mollusca 9 ,classification4 -- ,classification ( ,t]ti>y ,/rata4 -- ,eoc5e1 ,mioc5e1 & ,plioc5e ,t]ms expla9$4 ,*apt] ,x--,,rec5t ,,& ,,po/-,,plioc5e ,,p]iods4 ,rec5t & ,po/-plioc5e ,p]iods4 -- ,t]ms def9$4 -- ,=mations ( ! ,rec5t ,p]iod4 -- ,mod]n littoral ,deposits conta9+ ,works ( ,art ne> ,naples4 -- ,dani% ,peat & ,%ell-m\nds4 -- ,swiss ,lake-dwell+s4 -- ,p]iods ( ,/one1 ,bronze1 & ,iron4 -- ,po/-plioc5e ,=mations4 -- ,coexi/5ce ( ,man ) ext9ct ,mammalia4 -- ,re9de] ,p]iod ( ,s\? ( ,france4 -- ,alluvial ,deposits ( ,paleoli?ic ,age4 -- ,high] & ,l[]-level ,valley-gravels4 -- ,loess or ,inundation-mud ( ! ,nile1 ,rh9e1 etc4 -- ,orig9 ( ,cav]ns4 -- ,rema9s ( ,man & ext9ct ,quadrup$s 9 ,cav]n ,deposits4 -- ,cave ( ,kirkdale4 -- ,au/ralian ,cave-breccias4 -- ,geographical ,relation%ip ( ! ,prov9ces ( liv+ ,v]tebrata & ^? ( ext9ct ,po/-plioc5e ,species4 -- ,ext9ct /ru?i\s ,birds ( ,new ,zeal&4 -- ,climate ( ! ,po/-plioc5e ,p]iod4 -- ,comp>ative ,longevity ( ,species 9 ! ,mammalia & ,te/acea4 -- ,tee? ( ,rec5t & ,po/-plioc5e ,mammalia4 ,*apt] ,,xi--,,po/-,,plioc5e ,,p]iod1 cont9u$4--,,glacial ,,conditions4 ,geographical ,di/ribution1 ,=m1 & ,*>act]s ( ,glacial ,drift4 -- ,fundam5tal ,rocks1 poli%$1 groov$1 & scrat*$4 -- ,abrad+ & /riat+ ,action ( ,glaci]s4 -- ,mora9es1 ,erratic ,blocks1 & 8,ro*es ,m\tonnees04 -- ,alp9e ,blocks on ! ,jura4 -- ,cont95tal ,ice ( ,gre5l&4 -- ,anci5t ,c5tres ( ! ,disp]sion ( ,erratics4 -- ,transportation ( ,drift by float+ ,iceb]gs4 -- ,b$ ( ! ,sea furr[$ & poli%$ by ! runn+ agr\nd ( float+ ,ice-isl&s4 ,*apt] ,,xii--,,po/-,,plioc5e ,,p]iod1 cont9u$4--,,glacial ,,conditions1 conclud$4 ,glaciation ( ,sc&9avia & ,russia4 -- ,glaciation ( ,scotl&4 -- ,mammo? 9 ,scot* ,till4 -- ,m>9e ,%ells 9 ,scot* ,glacial ,drift4 -- ,_! ,arctic ,"*4 -- ,r>ity ( ,organic ,rema9s 9 ,glacial ,deposits4 -- ,contort$ ,/rata 9 ,drift4 -- ,glaciation ( ,wales1 ,engl&1 & ,irel&4 -- ,m>9e ,%ells ( ,moel ,tryfa54 -- ,erratics ne> ,*i*e/]4 -- ,glacial ,=mations ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 -- ,_m ,species ( ,te/acea & ,quadrup$s surviv$ ! ,glacial ,cold4 -- ,connection ( ! ,pr$om9ance ( ,lakes ) ,glacial ,action4 -- ,action ( ,ice 9 prev5t+ ! silt+ up ( ,lake-bas9s4 -- ,abs5ce ( ,lakes 9 ! ,caucasus4 -- ,equatorial ,lakes ( ,africa4 ,*apt] ,,xiii--,,plioc5e ,,p]iod4 ,glacial ,=mations ( ,plioc5e ,age4 -- ,bridl+ton ,b$s4 -- ,glacial ,drifts ( ,irel&4 -- ,drift ( ,norfolk ,cliffs4 -- ,crom] ,=e/-b$4 -- ,aldeby & ,*illes=d ,b$s4 -- ,norwi* ,crag4 -- ,old] ,plioc5e ,/rata4 -- ,r$ ,crag ( ,suffolk4 -- ,coprolitic ,b$ ( ,r$ ,crag4 -- ,:ite or ,corall9e ,crag4 -- ,relative ,age1 ,orig91 & ,climate ( ! ,crag ,deposits4 -- ,antw]p ,crag4 -- ,new] ,plioc5e ,/rata ( ,sicily4 -- ,new] ,plioc5e ,/rata ( ! ,upp] ,val d',arno4 -- ,old] ,plioc5e ( ,italy4 -- ,subap5n9e ,/rata4 -- ,old] ,plioc5e ,flora ( ,italy4 ,*apt] ,,xiv--,,mioc5e ,,p]iod4--,,upp] ,,mioc5e4 ,upp] ,mioc5e ,/rata ( ,france4 -- ,faluns ( ,t\ra9e4 -- ,tropical ,climate impli$ by ,te/acea4 -- ,proportion ( rec5t ,species ( ,%ells4 -- faluns m anci5t ?an ! ,suffolk ,crag4 -- ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ,bordeaux & ! ,s\? ( ,france4 -- ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ,o5+51 9 ,switz]l&4 -- ,plants ( ! ,upp] ,fre%-wat] ,molasse4 -- ,fossil ,fruit & ,fl[]s z well z ,leaves4 -- ,insects ( ! ,upp] ,molasse4 -- ,middle or ,m>9e ,molasse ( ,switz]l&4 -- ,upp] ,mioc5e ,b$s ( ! ,bold]b]g1 9 ,belgium4 -- ,vi5na ,bas94 -- ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ,italy & ,greece4 -- ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ,india2 ,siwalik ,hills4 -- ,old] ,plioc5e & ,mioc5e ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,*apt] ,,xv--,,l[] ,,mioc5e4 ,l[] ,mioc5e ,/rata ( ,france4 -- ,l9e betwe5 ,mioc5e & ,eoc5e4 -- ,lacu/r9e ,/rata ( ,auv]gne4 -- ,fossil ,mammalia ( ! ,limagne d',auv]gne4 -- ,l[] ,molasse ( ,switz]l&4 -- ,d5se ,conglom]ates & ,pro(s ( ,subsid5ce4 -- ,flora ( ! ,l[] ,molasse4 -- ,am]ican ,"* ( ! ,flora4 -- ,!ory ( a ,mioc5e ,atlantis4 -- ,l[] ,mioc5e ( ,belgium4 -- ,rupelian ,clay ( ,h]msdorf ne> ,b]l94 -- ,may5ce ,bas94 -- ,l[] ,mioc5e ( ,croatia4 -- ,oligoc5e ,/rata ( ,beyri*4 -- ,l[] ,mioc5e ( ,italy4 -- ,l[] ,mioc5e ( ,engl&4 -- ,hemp/ead ,b$s4 -- ,bovey ,tracey ,lignites 9 ,devon%ire4 -- ,isle ( ,mull ,leaf-,b$s4 -- ,arctic ,mioc5e ,flora4 -- ,disco ,isl&4 -- ,l[] ,mioc5e ( ,unit$ ,/ates4 -- ,fossils ( ,nebraska4 ,*apt] ,,xvi--,,eoc5e ,,=mations4 ,eoc5e ,areas ( ,nor? ( ,europe4 -- ,table ( ,engli% & ,fr5* ,eoc5e ,/rata4 -- ,upp] ,eoc5e ( ,engl&4 -- ,bembridge ,b$s4 -- ,osborne or ,/4 ,hel5's ,b$s4 -- ,headon ,s]ies4 -- ,fossils ( ! ,b>ton ,s&s & ,clays4 -- ,middle ,eoc5e ( ,engl&4 -- ,%ells1 ,nummulites1 ,fi% & ,reptiles ( ! ,brackle%am ,b$s & ,bag%ot ,s&s4 -- ,plants ( ,alum ,bay & ,b\rnem\?4 -- ,l[] ,eoc5e ( ,engl&4 -- ,london ,clay ,fossils4 -- ,woolwi* & ,read+ ,b$s =m]ly call$ 8,pla/ic ,clay04 -- ,fluviatile ,b$s und]ly+ ,deep-sea ,/rata4 -- ,?anet ,s&s4 -- ,upp] ,eoc5e ,/rata ( ,france4 -- ,gypse\s ,s]ies ( ,montm>tre & ,ext9ct ,quadrup$s4 -- ,fossil ,footpr9ts 9 ,p>is ,gypsum4 -- ,imp]fection ( ! ,record4 -- ,calcaire ,silicieux4 -- ,gres de ,beau*amp4 -- ,calcaire ,grossi]4 -- ,miliolite ,lime/one4 -- ,soissonnais ,s&s4 -- ,l[] ,eoc5e ( ,france4 -- ,nummulitic ,=mations ( ,europe1 ,africa1 & ,asia4 -- ,eoc5e ,/rata 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 -- ,gigantic ,cetacean4 ,*apt] ,,xvii--,,upp] ,,cretace\s ,,gr\p4 ,lapse ( ,"t betwe5 ,cretace\s & ,eoc5e ,p]iods4 -- ,table ( successive ,cretace\s ,=mations4 -- ,mae/ri*t ,b$s4 -- ,pisolitic ,lime/one ( ,france4 -- ,*alk ( ,faxoe4 -- ,geographical ,ext5t & ,orig9 ( ! ,:ite ,*alk4 -- ,*alky ,matt] n[ =m+ 9 ! ,b$ ( ! ,atlantic4 -- ,m>k$ ,diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,cretace\s & exi/+ ,fauna4 -- ,*alk-fl9ts4 -- ,pot-/ones ( ,hor/ead4 -- ,vitre\s ,sponges 9 ! ,*alk4 -- ,isolat$ ,blocks ( ,=eign ,rocks 9 ! ,:ite ,*alk suppos$ to be ice-borne4 -- ,di/9ctness ( ,m9]al ,"* 9 contemporane\s ,rocks ( ! ,cretace\s ,epo*4 -- ,fossils ( ! ,:ite ,*alk4 -- ,l[] ,:ite ,*alk )\t ,fl9ts4 -- ,*alk ,m>l & its ,fossils4 -- ,*loritic ,s]ies or ,upp] ,gre5s&4 -- ,coprolite ,b$ ne> ,cambridge4 -- ,fossils ( ! ,*loritic ,s]ies4 -- ,gault4 -- ,connection betwe5 ,upp] & ,l[] ,cretace\s ,/rata4 -- ,blackd[n ,b$s4 -- ,flora ( ! ,upp] ,cretace\s ,p]iod4 -- ,hippurite ,lime/one4 -- ,cretace\s ,rocks 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,*apt] ,,xviii--,,l[] ,,cretace\s ,,or ,,neocomian ,,=mation4 ,classification ( m>9e & fre%-wat] ,/rata4 -- ,upp] ,neocomian4 -- ,folke/one & ,hy! ,b$s4 -- ,a!rfield ,clay4 -- ,simil>ity ( ,conditions caus+ ,reappe>ance ( ,species aft] %ort ,int]vals4 -- ,upp] ,speeton ,clay4 -- ,middle ,neocomian4 -- ,tealby ,s]ies4 -- ,middle ,speeton ,clay4 -- ,l[] ,neocomian4 -- ,l[] ,speeton ,clay4 -- ,weald5 ,=mation4 -- ,fre%-wat] ,"* ( ! ,weald54 -- ,weald ,clay4 -- ,ha/+s ,s&s4 -- ,punfield ,b$s ( ,purbeck1 ,dorset%ire4 -- ,fossil ,%ells & ,fi% ( ! ,weald54 -- ,area ( ! ,weald54 -- ,flora ( ! ,weald54 ,*apt] ,,xix--,,jurassic ,,gr\p4--,,purbeck ,,b$s ,,& ,,oolite4 ,! ,purbeck ,b$s a ,memb] ( ! ,jurassic ,gr\p4 -- ,subdivisions ( t ,gr\p4 -- ,physical ,geography ( ! ,oolite 9 ,engl& & ,france4 -- ,upp] ,oolite4 -- ,purbeck ,b$s4 -- ,new ,g5]a ( fossil ,mammalia 9 ! ,middle ,purbeck ( ,dorset%ire4 -- ,dirt-b$ or anci5t ,soil4 -- ,fossils ( ! ,purbeck ,b$s4 -- ,portl& ,/one & ,fossils4 -- ,kimm]idge ,clay4 -- ,li?ographic ,/one ( ,sol5h(54 -- ,ar*opt]yx4 -- ,middle ,oolite4 -- ,coral ,rag4 -- ,n]9a ,lime/one4 -- ,ox=d ,clay1 ,ammonites & ,belemnites4 -- ,kell[ay ,rock4 -- ,l[]1 or ,ba?1 ,oolite4 -- ,great ,plants ( ! ,oolite4 -- ,oolite & ,brad=d ,clay4 -- ,/onesfield ,slate4 -- ,fossil ,mammalia4 -- ,full]'s ,e>?4 -- ,inf]ior ,oolite & ,fossils4 -- ,nor?ampton%ire ,slates4 -- ,york%ire ,oolitic ,coal-field4 -- ,brora ,coal4 -- ,palontological ,relations ( ! sev]al ,subdivisions ( ! ,oolitic gr\p4 ,*apt] ,,xx--,,jurassic ,,gr\p1 ,,cont9u$4--,,lias4 ,m9]al ,"* ( ,lias4 -- ,num]\s successive ,zones 9 ! ,lias1 m>k$ by di/9ct ,fossils1 )\t ,uncon=mity 9 ! ,/ratification1 or ,*ange 9 ! ,m9]al ,"* ( ! ,deposits4 -- ,gryphite ,lime/one4 -- ,%ells ( ! ,lias4 -- ,fi% ( ! ,lias4 -- ,reptiles ( ! ,lias4 -- ,i*?yosaur & ,plesiosaur4 -- ,m>9e ,reptile ( ! ,galapagos ,isl&s4 -- ,sudd5 ,de/ruction & ,burial ( ,fossil ,animals 9 ,lias4 -- ,fluvio-m>9e ,b$s 9 ,gl\ce/]%ire1 & ,insect ,lime/one4 -- ,fossil ,plants4 -- ,! orig9 ( ! ,oolite & ,lias1 & ( alt]nat+ ,calc>e\s & ,argillace\s ,=mations4 ,*apt] ,,xxi--,,trias1 ,,or ,,new ,,r$ ,,s&/one ,,gr\p4 ,b$s ( ,passage betwe5 ! ,lias & ,trias1 ,rhtic ,b$s4 -- ,triassic ,mammif]4 -- ,triple ,division ( ! ,trias4 -- ,keup]1 or ,upp] ,trias ( ,engl&4 -- ,reptiles ( ! ,upp] ,trias4 -- ,foot-pr9ts 9 ! ,bunt] =mation 9 ,engl&4 -- ,dolomitic ,conglom]ate ( ,bri/ol4 -- ,orig9 ( ,r$ ,s&/one & ,rock-salt4 -- ,precipitation ( ,salt f inl& ,lakes & ,lagoons4 -- ,trias ( ,g]many4 -- ,keup]4 -- ,/4 ,cassian & ,hall/adt ,b$s4 -- ,peculi>ity ( _! ,fauna4 -- ,mus*elkalk & its ,fossils4 -- ,trias ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 -- ,fossil ,foot-pr9ts ( ,birds & ,reptiles 9 ! ,valley ( ! ,connecticut4 -- ,triassic ,mammif] ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a4 -- ,triassic ,coal-field ( ,ri*mond1 ,virg9ia4 -- ,l[ ,grade ( e>ly ,mammals fav\rable to ! ,!ory ( ,progressive ,developm5t4 ,*apt] ,,xxii--,,p]mian ,,or ,,magnesian ,,lime/one ,,gr\p4 ,l9e ( ,sep>ation betwe5 ,mesozoic & ,palozoic ,rocks4 -- ,di/9ctness ( ,triassic & ,p]mian ,fossils4 -- ,t]m ,p]mian4 -- ,?ickness ( calc>e\s & s$im5t>y ,rocks 9 ,nor? ( ,engl&4 -- ,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[] ,p]mian4 -- ,m>9e ,%ells & ,corals ( ! ,engli% ,magnesian ,lime/one4 -- ,reptiles & ,fi% ( ,p]mian ,m>l-slate4 -- ,foot-pr9ts ( ,reptiles4 -- ,angul> ,breccias 9 ,l[] ,p]mian4 -- ,p]mian ,rocks ( ! ,cont95t4 -- ,ze*/e9 & ,ro?lieg5des ( ,?ur+ia4 -- ,p]mian ,flora4 -- ,its g5]ic ,aff9ity to ! ,c>bonif]\s4 ,*apt] ,,xxiii--,,! ,,coal ,,or ,,c>bonif]\s ,,gr\p4 ,pr9cipal ,subdivisions ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,gr\p4 -- ,diff]5t ,?ickness ( ! s$im5t>y & calc>e\s ,memb]s 9 ,scotl& & ! ,s\? ( ,engl&4 -- ,coal-measures4 -- ,t]re/rial ,nature ( ! ,gr[? ( ,coal4 -- ,erect fossil ,trees4 -- ,unit+ ( _m ,coal-seams into "o ?ick ,b$4 -- ,purity ( ! ,coal expla9$4 -- ,conv]sion ( ,coal into ,an?racite4 -- ,orig9 ( ,clay-iron/one4 -- ,m>9e & bracki%-wat] ,/rata 9 ,coal4 -- ,fossil ,insects4 -- ,batra*ian ,reptiles4 -- ,labyr9?odont ,foot-pr9ts 9 ,coal-measures4 -- ,nova ,scotia ,coal-measures ) successive ,gr[?s ( erect fossil ,trees4 -- ,simil>ity ( ,am]ican & ,european ,coal4 -- ,air-brea!rs ( ! ,am]ican ,coal4 -- ,*anges ( ,condition ( ,l& & ,sea indicat$ by ! ,c>bonif]\s ,/rata ( ,nova ,scotia4 ,*apt] ,,xxiv--,,flora ,,& ,,fauna ,,( ,,! ,,c>bonif]\s ,,p]iod4 ,vegetation ( ! ,coal ,p]iod4 -- ,f]ns1 ,lycopodiace1 ,equisetace1 ,sigill>i1 ,/igm>i1 ,conif]4 -- ,angiosp]ms4 -- ,climate ( ! ,coal ,p]iod4 -- ,m\nta9 ,lime/one4 -- ,m>9e ,fauna ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod4 -- ,corals4 -- ,bryozoa1 ,cr9oidea4 -- ,mollusca4 -- ,great ,numb] ( fossil ,fi%4 -- ,=am9if]a4 ,*apt] ,,xxv--,,devonian ,,or ,,old ,,r$ ,,s&/one ,,gr\p4 ,classification ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one 9 ,scotl& & 9 ,devon%ire4 -- ,upp] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one 9 ,scotl&1 ) ,fi% & ,plants4 -- ,middle ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 -- ,classification ( ! ,i*?yolites ( ! ,old ,r$1 & _! ,relation to ,liv+ ,types4 -- ,l[] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 ) ,cephalaspis & ,pt]ygotus4 -- ,m>9e or ,devonian ,type ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 -- ,table ( ,devonian ,s]ies4 -- ,upp] ,devonian ,rocks & ,fossils4 -- ,middle4 -- ,l[]4 -- ,eifel ,lime/one ( ,g]many4 -- ,devonian ( ,russia4 -- ,devonian ,/rata ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada4 -- ,devonian ,plants & ,insects ( ,canada4 ,*apt] ,,xxvi--,,silurian ,,gr\p4 ,classification ( ! ,silurian ,rocks4 -- ,ludl[ ,=mation & ,fossils4 -- ,bone-b$ ( ! ,upp] ,ludl[4 -- ,l[] ,ludl[ ,%ales ) ,p5tam]us4 -- ,olde/ kn[n ,rema9s ( fossil ,fi%4 -- ,table ( ! progressive ,discov]y ( ,v]tebrata 9 old] ,rocks4 -- ,w5lock ,=mation1 ,corals1 ,cy/ideans & ,trilobites4 -- ,ll&ov]y ,gr\p or ,b$s ( ,passage4 -- ,l[] ,silurian ,rocks4 -- ,c>adoc & ,bala ,b$s4 -- ,bra*iopoda4 -- ,trilobites4 -- ,cy/ide4 -- ,graptolites4 -- ,ll&eilo ,flags4 -- ,ar5ig or ,/ip]-/ones ,gr\p4 -- ,=eign ,silurian ,equival5ts 9 ,europe4 -- ,silurian ,/rata ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 -- ,canadian ,equival5ts4 -- ,am\nt ( specific ,agreem5t ( ,fossils ) ^? ( ,europe4 ,*apt] ,,xxvii--,,cambrian ,,& ,,laur5tian ,,gr\ps4 ,classification ( ! ,cambrian ,gr\p1 & its ,equival5t 9 ,bohemia4 -- ,upp] ,cambrian ,rocks4 -- ,tremadoc ,slates & _! ,fossils4 -- ,l+ula ,flags4 -- ,l[] ,cambrian ,rocks4 -- ,m5evian ,b$s4 -- ,longmynd ,gr\p4 -- ,h>le* ,grits ) l>ge ,trilobites4 -- ,llanb]is ,slates4 -- ,cambrian ,rocks ( ,bohemia4 -- ,primordial ,zone ( ,b>r&e4 -- ,metamorphosis ( ,trilobites4 -- ,cambrian ,rocks ( ,sw$5 & ,norway4 -- ,cambrian ,rocks ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada4 -- ,potsdam ,s&/one4 -- ,huronian ,s]ies4 -- ,laur5tian ,gr\p1 upp] & l[]4 -- ,eozoon ,canad5se1 olde/ kn[n ,fossil4 -- ,fundam5tal ,gneiss ( ,scotl&4 ,*apt] ,,xxviii--,,volcanic ,,rocks4 ,ext]nal ,=m1 ,/ructure1 & ,orig9 ( ,volcanic ,m\nta9s4 -- ,cones & ,crat]s4 -- ,hypo!sis ( 8,elevation ,crat]s0 consid]$4 -- ,trap ,rocks4 -- ,"n :5ce d]iv$4 -- ,m9]als mo/ abundant 9 ,volcanic ,rocks4 -- ,table ( ! ,analysis ( ,m9]als 9 ! ,volcanic & ,hypog5e ,rocks4 -- ,simil> ,m9]als 9 ,meteorites4 -- ,!ory ( ,isomorphism4 -- ,basaltic ,rocks4 -- ,tra*ytic ,rocks4 -- ,special ,=ms ( ,/ructure4 -- ,! column> & globul> ,=ms4 -- ,trap ,dikes & ,ve9s4 -- ,alt]ation ( ,rocks by volcanic ,dikes4 -- ,conv]sion ( ,*alk into ,m>ble4 -- ,intrusion ( ,trap betwe5 ,/rata4 -- ,relation ( trappean ,rocks to ! ,products ( active ,volcanoes4 ,*apt] ,,xxix--,,on ,,! ,,ages ,,( ,,volcanic ,,rocks4 ,te/s ( relative ,age ( ,volcanic ,rocks4 -- ,:y anci5t & mod]n ,rocks _c be id5tical4 -- ,te/s by ,sup]position & intrusion4 -- ,te/ by ,alt]ation ( ,rocks 9 ,contact4 -- ,te/ by ,organic ,rema9s4 -- ,te/ ( ,age by ,m9]al ,"*4 -- ,te/ by ,includ$ ,fragm5ts4 -- ,rec5t & ,po/-plioc5e volcanic ,rocks4 -- ,vesuvius1 ,auv]gne1 ,puy de ,come1 & ,puy de ,p>i\4 -- ,new] ,plioc5e volcanic ,rocks4 -- ,cyclopean ,isles1 ,etna1 ,dikes ( ,palagonia1 ,madeira4 -- ,old] ,plioc5e volcanic ,rocks4 -- ,italy4 -- ,plioc5e ,volcanoes ( ! ,eifel4 -- ,trass4 ,*apt] ,,xxx--,,age ,,( ,,volcanic ,,rocks--,,cont9u$4 ,volcanic ,rocks ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e ,p]iod4 -- ,madeira4 -- ,gr& ,can>y4 -- ,azores4 -- ,l[] ,mioc5e ,volcanic ,rocks4 -- ,isle ( ,mull4 -- ,/affa & ,antrim4 -- ,! ,eifel4 -- ,upp] & ,l[] ,mioc5e ,volcanic ,rocks ( ,auv]gne4 -- ,hill ( ,g]govia4 -- ,eoc5e ,volcanic ,rocks ( ,monte ,bolca4 -- ,trap ( ,cretace\s ,p]iod4 -- ,oolitic ,p]iod4 -- ,triassic ,p]iod4 -- ,p]mian ,p]iod4 -- ,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod4 -- ,erect ,trees buri$ 9 ,volcanic ,a% 9 ! ,isl& ( ,arran4 -- ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ,p]iod4 -- ,silurian ,p]iod4 -- ,cambrian ,p]iod4 -- ,laur5tian ,volcanic ,rocks4 ,*apt] ,,xxxi--,,plutonic ,,rocks4 ,g5]al ,aspect ( ,plutonic ,rocks4 -- ,granite & its ,v>ieties4 -- ,decompos+ into ,sph]ical ,masses4 -- ,rude column> ,/ructure4 -- ,graphic ,granite4 -- ,mutual ,p5etration ( ,cry/als ( ,qu>tz & ,feldsp>4 -- ,glass ,cavities 9 ,qu>tz ( ,granite4 -- ,porphyritic1 talcose1 & sy5itic ,granite4 -- ,s*orlrock & ,eurite4 -- ,sy5ite4 -- ,connection ( ! ,granites & ,sy5ites ) ! ,volcanic ,rocks4 -- ,analogy 9 ,composition ( ,tra*yte & ,granite4 -- ,granite ,ve9s 9 ,gl5 ,tilt1 ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 & ,cornwall4 -- ,metallif]\s ,ve9s 9 ,/rata ne> _! ,junction ) ,granite4 -- ,qu>tz ,ve9s4 -- ,exposure ( ,plutonic ,rocks at ! surface due to ,d5udation4 ,*apt] ,,xxxii--,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,ages ,,( ,,! ,,plutonic ,,rocks4 ,difficulty 9 asc]ta9+ ! precise ,age ( a ,plutonic ,rock4 -- ,te/ ( ,age by ,relative ,position4 -- ,te/ by ,intrusion & ,alt]ation4 -- ,te/ by ,m9]al ,composition4 -- ,te/ by includ$ ,fragm5ts4 -- ,rec5t & ,plioc5e ,plutonic ,rocks1 :y invisible4 -- ,mioc5e ,sy5ite ( ! ,isle ( ,skye4 -- ,eoc5e ,plutonic ,rocks 9 ! ,&es4 -- ,granite alt]+ ,cretace\s ,rocks4 -- ,granite alt]+ ,lias 9 ! ,alps & 9 ,skye4 -- ,granite ( ,d>tmoor alt]+ ,c>bonif]\s ,/rata4 -- ,granite ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ,p]iod4 -- ,sy5ite alt]+ ,silurian ,/rata 9 ,norway4 -- ,bl5d+ ( ! same ) ,gneiss4 -- ,mo/ anci5t ,plutonic ,rocks4 -- ,granite protrud$ 9 a solid ,=m4 ,*apt] ,,xxxiii--,,metamorphic ,,rocks4 ,g5]al ,"* ( ,metamorphic ,rocks4 -- ,gneiss4 -- ,hornbl5de-s*i/4 -- ,s]p5t9e4 -- ,mica-s*i/4 -- ,clay-slate4 -- ,qu>tzite4 -- ,*lorite-s*i/4 -- ,metamorphic ,lime/one4 -- ,orig9 ( ! metamorphic ,/rata4 -- ,_! ,/ratification4 -- ,fossilif]\s ,/rata ne> intrusive ,masses ( ,granite conv]t$ into ,rocks id5tical ) diff]5t ,memb]s ( ! metamorphic ,s]ies4 -- ,argum5ts h5ce d]iv$ z to ! ,nature ( ,plutonic ,action4 -- ,hydro!rmal ,action1 or ! ,influ5ce ( ,/eam & ,gases 9 produc+ ,metamorphism4 -- ,objections to ! metamorphic ,!ory consid]$4 ,*apt] ,,xxxiv--,,metamorphic ,,rocks--cont9u$4 ,def9ition ( slaty ,cleavage & ,jo9ts4 -- ,suppos$ ,causes ( ^! ,/ructures4 -- ,cry/all9e ,!ory ( ,cleavage4 -- ,me*anical ,!ory ( ,cleavage4 -- ,cond5sation & ,elongation ( slate ,rocks by lat]al ,pressure4 -- ,lam9ation ( "s volcanic ,rocks due to ,motion4 -- ,:e!r ! ,foliation ( ! cry/all9e ,s*i/s be usually p>allel ) ! orig9al ,planes ( ,/ratification4 -- ,examples 9 ,norway & ,scotl&4 -- ,causes ( ,irregul>ity 9 ! ,planes ( ,foliation4 ,*apt] ,,xxxv--,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,ages ,,( ,,! ,,metamorphic ,,rocks4 ,difficulty ( asc]ta9+ ! ,age ( metamorphic ,/rata4 -- ,metamorphic ,/rata ( ,eoc5e date 9 ! ,alps ( ,switz]l& & ,savoy4 -- ,lime/one & ,%ale ( ,c>r>a4 -- ,metamorphic ,/rata ( old] date ?an ! ,silurian & ,cambrian ,rocks4 -- ,ord] ( ,succession 9 metamorphic ,rocks4 -- ,uni=mity ( m9]al ,"*4 -- ,suppos$ ,azoic ,p]iod4 -- ,connection betwe5 ! ,abs5ce ( ,organic ,rema9s & ! ,sc>city ( calc>e\s ,matt] 9 metamorphic ,rocks4 ,*apt] ,,xxxvi--,,m9]al ,,ve9s4 ,diff]5t ,k9ds ( m9]al ,ve9s4 -- ,ord9>y metallif]\s ,ve9s or ,lodes4 -- ,_! frequ5t ,co9cid5ce ) ,faults4 -- ,pro(s t !y orig9at$ 9 ,fissures 9 solid ,rock4 -- ,ve9s %ift+ o!r ,ve9s4 -- ,poli%+ ( _! ,walls or 8,slick5 sides04 -- ,%ells & ,pebbles 9 ,lodes4 -- ,evid5ce ( ! successive ,enl>gem5t & ,reop5+ ( ve9s4 -- ,examples 9 ,cornwall & 9 ,auv]gne4 -- ,dim5sions ( ,ve9s4 -- ,:y "s alt]nately swell out & contract4 -- ,fill+ ( ,lodes by ,sublimation f bel[4 -- ,suppos$ relative ,age ( ! preci\s ,metals4 -- ,copp] & lead ,ve9s 9 ,irel& old] ?an ,corni% ,t94 -- ,lead ,ve9 9 ,lias1 ,glamorgan%ire4 -- ,gold 9 ,russia1 ,cali=nia1 & ,au/ralia4 -- ,connection ( hot ,spr+s & m9]al ,ve9s4 ,,index ,,preface4 ,,! ,,la/ or six? ,,edition ( my 8,elem5ts ( ,geology0 0 already out ( pr9t be=e ! end ( #ahfh1 9 :i* ye> ,i br\ght out ! t5? edition ( my 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology40 ,9 writ+ ! la/-m5tion$ "w ,i _h be5 call$ ^u to pass 9 review almo/ all ! lead+ po9ts ( speculation & controv]sy to :i* ! rapid advance ( ! sci5ce _h giv5 rise1 & :5 ,i propos$ to br+ out a new edition ( ! 8,elem5ts0 ,i 0 /rongly urg$ by my fri5ds n to repeat ^! !oretical discussions1 b to conf9e myself 9 ! new treatise to ^? p>ts ( ! 8,elem5ts0 :i* 7 mo/ indisp5sable to a beg9n]4 ,?is 0 to rev]t1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 to ! orig9al plan ( ! fir/ edition2 b ,i f\nd1 aft] omitt+ a great numb] ( subjects1 t ! necessity ( br++ up to ! day ^? :i* rema9$1 & adv]t+1 h[ev] briefly1 to new discov]ies1 made x mo/ difficult to conf9e ! propos$ abridgm5t )9 mod]ate limits4 ,"s *apt]s _h to be entirely reca/1 "s additional illu/rations to be introduc$1 & figures ( "s organic rema9s to be replac$ by new ones f specim5s m p]fect ?an ^? :i* _h be5 at my comm& on =m] occasions4 ,by ^! *anges ! "w assum$ a =m s diff]5t f ! six? edition ( ! 8,elem5ts10 t ,i resolv$ to give x a new title & call x ! 8,/ud5t's ,elem5ts ( ,geology40 ,9 execut+ ?is task ,i h f\nd x v difficult to meet ! requirem5ts ( ^? :o are entirely ignorant ( ! sci5ce4 ,x is only ! adept :o has already ov]come ! fir/ /eps z an obs]v]1 & is famili> ) _m ( ! te*nical t]ms1 :o c pr(it by a brief & concise manual4 ,beg9n]s wi% = a %ort & *eap book 9 :i* !y may f9d a full explanation ( ! lead+ facts & pr9ciples ( ,geology4 ,_! wants1 ,i fe>1 some:at resemble ^? ( ! old woman 9 ,new ,engl&1 :o ask$ a booksell] to supply h] ) 8! *eape/ ,bible 9 ! l>ge/ possible pr9t40 ,b not)/&+ ! difficulty ( reconcil+ brevity ) ! copi\sness ( illu/ration dem&$ by ^? :o h n yet ma/]$ ! rudim5ts ( ! sci5ce1 ,i h endeav\r$ to abridge ! "w 9 ! mann] above h9t$ at1 s z to place x )9 ! rea* ( _m to :om x 0 be=e inaccessible4 ,,*>les ,,lyell4 #gc ,,h>ley ,,/reet1 ,,london1 ,decemb]1 #ahgj4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,classes ,,( ,,rocks4 ,geology def9$4 -- ,successive ,=mation ( ! ,e>?'s ,cru/4 -- ,classification ( ,rocks accord+ to _! ,orig9 & ,age4 -- ,aque\s ,rocks4 -- ,_! ,/ratification & imb$d$ ,fossils4 -- ,volcanic ,rocks1 ) & )\t ,cones & ,crat]s4 -- ,plutonic ,rocks1 & _! ,relation to ! ,volcanic4 -- ,metamorphic ,rocks1 & _! probable ,orig94 -- ,! t]m ,primitive1 :y errone\sly appli$ to ! ,cry/all9e ,=mations4 -- ,lead+ ,division ( ! ,"w4 ,( :at mat]ials is ! e>? compos$1 & 9 :at mann] are ^! mat]ials arrang$8 ,^! are ! fir/ inquiries ) :i* ,geology is occupi$1 a sci5ce :i* d]ives its "n f ! ,greek ge1 ! e>?1 & logos1 a disc\rse4 ,previ\sly to exp]i5ce we might h imag9$ t inve/igations ( ?is k9d w\ld relate exclusively to ! m9]al k+dom1 & to ! v>i\s rocks1 soils1 & metals1 :i* occur ^u ! surface ( ! e>?1 or at v>i\s dep?s b5ea? x4 ,b1 9 pursu+ su* rese>*es1 we soon f9d ourselves l$ on to consid] ! successive *anges :i* h tak5 place 9 ! =m] /ate ( ! e>?'s surface & int]ior1 & ! causes :i* h giv5 rise to ^! *anges2 &1 :at is /ill m s+ul> & unexpect$1 we soon become engag$ 9 rese>*es into ! hi/ory ( ! animate creation1 or ( ! v>i\s tribes ( animals & plants :i* h1 at diff]5t p]iods ( ! pa/1 inhabit$ ! globe4 ,all are aw>e t ! solid p>ts ( ! e>? consi/ ( di/9ct sub/ances1 su* z clay1 *alk1 s&1 lime/one1 coal1 slate1 granite1 & ! l2 b previ\sly to obs]vation x is commonly imag9$ t all ^! _h rema9$ f ! fir/ 9 ! /ate 9 :i* we n[ see !m--t !y 7 creat$ 9 _! pres5t =m1 & 9 _! pres5t position4 ,! geologi/ soon comes to a diff]5t conclusion1 discov]+ pro(s t ! ext]nal p>ts ( ! e>? 7 n all produc$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ?+s 9 ! /ate 9 :i* we n[ behold !m1 nor 9 an in/ant ( "t4 ,on ! contr>y1 he c %[ t !y h acquir$ _! actual configuration & condition gradually1 "u a great v>iety ( circum/ances1 & at successive p]iods1 dur+ ea* ( :i* di/9ct races ( liv+ be+s h fl\ri%$ on ! l& & 9 ! wat]s1 ! rema9s ( ^! creatures /ill ly+ buri$ 9 ! cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,by ! 8e>?'s cru/10 is meant t small portion ( ! ext]ior ( our planet :i* is accessible to human obs]vation4 ,x comprises n m]ely all ( :i* ! /ructure is laid op5 9 m\nta9 precipices1 or 9 cliffs ov]hang+ a riv] or ! sea1 or :atev] ! m9] may reveal 9 artificial excavations2 b ! :ole ( t out] cov]+ ( ! planet on :i* we are enabl$ to reason by obs]vations made at or ne> ! surface4 ,^! reason+s may ext5d to a dep? ( sev]al miles1 p]haps t5 miles2 & ev5 !n x may be said1 t su* a ?ickness is no m ?an #a_/djj "p ( ! di/ance f ! surface to ! c5tre4 ,! rem>k is j3 b al?\gh ! dim5sions ( su* a cru/ are1 9 tru?1 insignificant :5 comp>$ to ! entire globe1 yet !y are va/1 & ( magnific5t ext5t 9 relation to man1 & to ! organic be+s :i* p our globe4 ,ref]r+ to ?is /&>d ( magnitude1 ! geologi/ may admire ! ample limits ( 8 doma91 & admit1 at ! same "t1 t n only ! ext]ior ( ! planet1 b ! entire e>?1 is b an atom 9 ! mid/ ( ! c\ntless worlds survey$ by ! a/ronom]4 ,! mat]ials ( ?is cru/ are n ?r[n toge!r confus$ly2 b di/9ct m9]al masses1 call$ rocks1 are f\nd to occupy def9ite spaces1 & to exhibit a c]ta9 ord] ( arrangem5t4 ,! t]m rock is appli$ indiff]5tly by geologi/s to all ^! sub/ances1 :e!r !y be s(t or /ony1 = clay & s& are includ$ 9 ! t]m1 & "s h ev5 br\ght peat "u ?is d5om9ation4 ,our old writ]s endeav\r$ to avoid (f]+ su* viol5ce to our language1 by speak+ ( ! compon5t mat]ials ( ! e>? z consi/+ ( rocks & soils4 ,b !re is (t5 s ins5sible a passage f a s(t & incoh]5t /ate to t ( /one1 t geologi/s ( all c\ntries h f\nd x indisp5sable to h "o te*nical t]m to include bo?1 & 9 ?is s5se we f9d ro*e appli$ 9 ,fr5*1 rocca 9 ,italian1 & fels>t 9 ,g]man4 ,! beg9n]1 h[ev]1 mu/ con/antly be> 9 m9d t ! t]m rock by no means implies t a m9]al mass is 9 an indurat$ or /ony condition4 ,! mo/ natural & conv5i5t mode ( classify+ ! v>i\s rocks :i* compose ! e>?'s cru/1 is to ref]1 9 ! fir/ place1 to _! orig91 & 9 ! second to _! relative age4 ,i %all !re=e beg9 by endeav\r+ briefly to expla9 to ! /ud5t h[ all rocks may be divid$ into f\r great classes by ref]5ce to _! diff]5t orig91 or1 9 o!r words1 by ref]5ce to ! diff]5t circum/ances & causes by :i* !y h be5 produc$4 ,! fir/ two divisions1 :i* w at once be und]/ood z natural1 are ! aque\s & volcanic1 or ! products ( wat]y & ^? ( igne\s action at or ne> ! surface4 ,aque\s ,rocks4--,! aque\s rocks1 sometimes call$ ! s$im5t>y1 or fossilif]\s1 cov] a l>g] "p ( ! e>?'s surface ?an any o!rs4 ,!y consi/ *iefly ( me*anical deposits 7pebbles1 s&1 & mud71 b are p>tly ( *emical & "s ( !m ( organic orig91 especially ! lime/ones4 ,^! rocks are /ratifi$1 or divid$ into di/9ct lay]s1 or /rata4 ,! t]m /ratum means simply a b$1 or any ?+ spread out or /rew$ ov] a giv5 surface2 & we inf] t ^! /rata h be5 g5]ally spread out by ! action ( wat]1 f :at we daily see tak+ place ne> ! m\?s ( riv]s1 or on ! l& dur+ tempor>y inundations4 ,=1 :5ev] a runn+ /ream *>g$ ) mud or s&1 has its velocity *eck$1 z :5 x ent]s a lake or sea1 or ov]fl[s a pla91 ! s$im5t1 previ\sly held 9 susp5sion by ! motion ( ! wat]1 s9ks1 by its own gravity to ! bottom4 ,9 ?is mann] lay]s ( mud & s& are ?r[n d[n "o ^u ano!r4 ,if we dra9 a lake :i* has be5 f$ by a small /ream1 we frequ5tly f9d at ! bottom a s]ies ( deposits1 dispos$ ) consid]able regul>ity1 "o above ! o!r2 ! upp]mo/1 p]haps1 may be a /ratum ( peat1 next bel[ a m d5se & solid v>iety ( ! same mat]ial2 /ill l[] a b$ ( %ell-m>l1 alt]nat+ ) peat or s&1 & !n o!r b$s ( m>l1 divid$ by lay]s ( clay4 ,n[1 if a second pit be sunk ?r\gh ! same cont9u\s lacu/r9e =mation at "s di/ance f ! fir/1 ne>ly ! same s]ies ( b$s is commonly met )1 yet ) slight v>iations2 "s1 = example1 ( ! lay]s ( s&1 clay1 or m>l1 may be want+1 "o or m ( !m hav+ ?9n$ out & giv5 place to o!rs1 or sometimes "o ( ! masses fir/ exam9$ is obs]v$ to increase 9 ?ickness to ! exclusion ( o!r b$s4 ,! t]m =mation1 :i* ,i h us$ 9 ! above explanation1 expresses 9 geology any assemblage ( rocks :i* h "s "* 9 common1 :e!r ( orig91 age1 or composition4 ,?us we speak ( /ratifi$ & un/ratifi$1 fre%-wat] & m>9e1 aque\s & volcanic1 anci5t & mod]n1 metallif]\s & non-metallif]\s =mations4 ,9 ! e/u>ies ( l>ge riv]s1 su* z ! ,ganges & ! ,mississippi1 we may obs]ve1 at l[ wat]1 ph5om5a analog\s to ^? ( ! dra9$ lakes above m5tion$1 b on a gr&] scale1 & ext5d+ ov] areas sev]al hundr$ miles 9 l5g? & bread?4 ,:5 ! p]iodical inundations subside1 ! riv] holl[s out a *annel to ! dep? ( _m y>ds ?r\gh horizontal b$s ( clay & s&1 ! ends ( :i* are se5 expos$ 9 p]p5dicul> cliffs4 ,^! b$s v>y 9 _! m9]al composition1 or col\r1 or 9 ! f95ess or co>s5ess ( _! p>ticles1 & "s ( !m are occasionally *>act]is$ by conta9+ drift-wood4 ,at ! junction ( ! riv] & ! sea1 especially 9 lagoons ne>ly sep>at$ by s&-b>s f ! ocean1 deposits are (t5 =m$ 9 :i* bracki% & salt-wat] %ells are includ$4 ,9 ,egypt1 :]e ! ,nile is always add+ to its delta by fill+ up "p ( ! ,m$it]ranean ) mud1 ! newly deposit$ s$im5t is /ratifi$1 ! ?9 lay] ?r[n d[n 9 "o season diff]+ slightly 9 col\r f t ( a previ\s ye>1 & be+ sep>able f x1 z has be5 obs]v$ 9 excavations at ,cairo & o!r places4#a ,:5 b$s ( s&1 clay1 & m>l1 conta9+ %ells & vegetable matt]1 are f\nd arrang$ 9 a simil> mann] 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?1 we ascribe to !m a simil> orig92 & ! m we exam9e _! *>act]s 9 m9ute detail1 ! m exact d we f9d ! resemblance4 ,?us1 = example1 at v>i\s heights & dep?s 9 ! e>?1 & (t5 f> f seas1 lakes1 & riv]s1 we meet ) lay]s ( r\nd$ pebbles compos$ ( fl9t1 lime/one1 granite1 or o!r rocks1 resembl+ ! %+les ( a sea-bea* or ! gravel 9 a torr5t's b$4 ,su* lay]s ( pebbles frequ5tly alt]nate ) o!rs =m$ ( s& or f9e s$im5t1 j z we may see 9 ! *annel ( a riv] desc5d+ f hills bord]+ a coa/1 :]e ! curr5t sweeps d[n at "o season co>se s& & gravel1 :ile at ano!r1 :5 ! wat]s are l[ & less rapid1 f9e mud & s& alone are c>ri$ seaw>d4#b ,if a /ratifi$ arrangem5t1 & ! r\nd$ =m ( pebbles1 are alone suffici5t to lead u to ! conclusion t c]ta9 rocks orig9at$ "u wat]1 ?is op9ion is f>!r confirm$ by ! di/9ct & indep5d5t evid5ce ( fossils1 s abundantly includ$ 9 ! e>?'s cru/4 ,by a fossil is meant any body1 or ! traces ( ! exi/5ce ( any body1 :e!r animal or vegetable1 :i* has be5 buri$ 9 ! e>? by natural causes4 ,n[ ! rema9s ( animals1 especially ( aquatic species1 are f\nd almo/ ev]y:]e imb$d$ 9 /ratifi$ rocks1 & sometimes1 9 ! case ( lime/one1 !y are 9 su* abundance z to con/itute ! entire mass ( ! rock itself4 ,%ells & corals are ! mo/ frequ5t1 & ) !m are (t5 associat$ ! bones & tee? ( fi%es1 fragm5ts ( wood1 impressions ( leaves1 & o!r organic sub/ances4 ,fossil %ells1 ( =ms su* z n[ ab\nd 9 ! sea1 are met ) f> inl&1 bo? ne> ! surface1 & at great dep?s bel[ x4 ,!y occur at all heights above ! level ( ! ocean1 hav+ be5 obs]v$ at elevations ( m ?an #hjjj feet 9 ! ,pyr5ees1 #aj1jjj 9 ! ,alps1 #ac1jjj 9 ! ,&es1 & above #ah1jjj feet 9 ! ,himalaya4#c ,^! %ells belong mo/ly to m>9e te/acea1 b 9 "s places exclusively to =ms *>act]i/ic ( lakes & riv]s4 ,h5ce x is conclud$ t "s anci5t /rata 7 deposit$ at ! bottom ( ! sea1 & o!rs 9 lakes & e/u>ies4 ,we h n[ po9t$ out "o great class ( rocks1 :i*1 h[ev] !y may v>y 9 m9]al composition1 col\r1 gra91 or o!r *>act]s1 ext]nal & int]nal1 may nev]!less be gr\p$ toge!r z hav+ a common orig94 ,!y h all be5 =m$ "u wat]1 9 ! same mann] z mod]n accumulations ( s&1 mud1 %+le1 banks ( %ells1 reefs ( coral1 & ! l1 & are all *>act]is$ by /ratification or fossils1 or by bo?4 ,volcanic ,rocks4--,! division ( rocks :i* we may next consid] are ! volcanic1 or ^? :i* h be5 produc$ at or ne> ! surface :e!r 9 anci5t or mod]n times1 n by wat]1 b by ! action ( fire or subt]ranean heat4 ,^! rocks are = ! mo/ "p un/ratifi$1 & are devoid ( fossils4 ,!y are m p>tially di/ribut$ ?an aque\s =mations1 at lea/ 9 respect to horizontal ext5sion4 ,among ^? p>ts ( ,europe :]e !y exhibit *>act]s n to be mi/ak51 ,i may m5tion n only ,sicily & ! c\ntry r\nd ,naples1 b ,auv]gne1 ,velay1 & ,viv>ais1 n[ ! dep>tm5ts ( ,puy de ,dome1 ,haute ,loire1 & ,ard*e1 t[>ds ! c5tre & s\? ( ,france1 9 :i* are sev]al hundr$ conical hills hav+ ! =ms ( mod]n volcanoes1 ) crat]s m or less p]fect on _m ( _! summits4 ,^! cones are compos$ moreov] ( lava1 s&1 & a%es1 simil> to ^? ( active volcanoes4 ,/reams ( lava may sometimes be trac$ f ! cones into ! adjo9+ valleys1 :]e !y h *ok$ up ! anci5t *annels ( riv]s ) solid rock1 9 ! same mann] z "s mod]n fl[s ( lava 9 ,icel& h be5 kn[n to d1 ! riv]s ei!r fl[+ b5ea? or cutt+ out a n>r[ passage on "o side ( ! lava4 ,al?\gh none ( ^! ,fr5* volcanoes h be5 9 activity )9 ! p]iod ( hi/ory or tradition1 _! =ms are (t5 v p]fect4 ,"s1 h[ev]1 h be5 comp>$ to ! m]e skeletons ( volcanoes1 ! ra9s & torr5ts hav+ wa%$ _! sides1 & remov$ all ! loose s& & scori1 leav+ only ! h>d] & m solid mat]ials4 ,by ?is erosion1 & by e>?quakes1 _! int]nal /ructure has occasionally be5 laid op5 to view1 9 fissures & rav9es2 & we !n behold n only _m successive b$s & masses ( por\s lava1 s&1 & scori1 b also p]p5dicul> walls1 or dikes1 z !y are call$1 ( volcanic rock1 :i* h bur/ ?r\gh ! o!r mat]ials4 ,su* dikes are also obs]v$ 9 ! /ructure ( ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 & o!r active volcanoes4 ,!y h be5 =m$ by ! p\r+ ( melt$ matt]1 :e!r f above or bel[1 into op5 fissures1 & !y commonly trav]se deposits ( volcanic tuff1 a sub/ance produc$ by ! %[]+ d[n f ! air1 or incumb5t wat]s1 ( s& & c9d]s1 fir/ %ot up f ! int]ior ( ! e>? by ! explosions ( volcanic gases4 ,besides ! p>ts ( ,france above allud$ to1 !re are o!r c\ntries1 z ! nor? ( ,spa91 ! s\? ( ,sicily1 ! ,tuscan t]ritory ( ,italy1 ! l[] ,rh5i% prov9ces1 & ,hung>y1 :]e sp5t volcanoes may be se51 /ill pres]v+ 9 _m cases a conical =m1 & hav+ crat]s & (t5 lava-/reams connect$ ) !m4 ,!re are also o!r rocks 9 ,engl&1 ,scotl&1 ,irel&1 & almo/ e c\ntry 9 ,europe1 :i* we inf] to be ( igne\s orig91 al?\gh !y d n =m hills ) cones & crat]s4 ,?us1 = example1 we feel assur$ t ! rock ( ,/affa1 & t ( ! ,giant's ,causeway1 call$ basalt1 is volcanic1 because x agrees 9 its column> /ructure & m9]al composition ) /reams ( lava :i* we "k to h fl[$ f ! crat]s ( volcanoes4 ,we f9d also simil> basaltic & o!r igne\s rocks associat$ ) b$s ( tuff 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 & =m+ dikes1 su* z h be5 spok5 (2 & "s ( ! /rata ?r\gh :i* ^! dikes cut are occasionally alt]$ at ! po9t ( contact1 z if !y _h be5 expos$ to ! int5se heat ( melt$ matt]4 ,! abs5ce ( cones & crat]s1 & long n>r[ /reams ( sup]ficial lava1 9 ,engl& & _m o!r c\ntries1 is pr9cipally to be attribut$ to ! eruptions hav+ be5 subm>9e1 j z a consid]able proportion ( volcanoes 9 our own times bur/ out b5ea? ! sea4 ,b ?is "q mu/ be enl>g$ ^u m fully 9 ! *apt]s on ,igne\s ,rocks1 9 :i* x w also be %[n1 t z diff]5t s$im5t>y =mations1 conta9+ ea* _! *>act]i/ic fossils1 h be5 deposit$ at successive p]iods1 s also volcanic s& & scori h be5 ?r[n out1 & lavas h fl[$ ov] ! l& or b$ ( ! sea1 at _m diff]5t epo*s1 or h be5 inject$ into fissures2 s t ! igne\s z well z ! aque\s rocks may be class$ z a *ronological s]ies ( monum5ts1 ?r[+ light on a succession ( ev5ts 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,plutonic ,rocks 7,granite1 etc74--,we h n[ po9t$ out ! exi/5ce ( two di/9ct ord]s ( m9]al masses1 ! aque\s & ! volcanic3 b if we exam9e a l>ge portion ( a cont95t1 especially if x conta9 )9 x a l(ty m\nta9 range1 we r>ely fail to discov] two o!r classes ( rocks1 v di/9ct f ei!r ( ^? above allud$ to1 & :i* we c nei!r assimilate to deposits su* z are n[ accumulat$ 9 lakes or seas1 nor to ^? g5]at$ by ord9>y volcanic action4 ,! memb]s ( bo? ^! divisions ( rocks agree 9 be+ highly cry/all9e & de/itute ( organic rema9s4 ,! rocks ( "o division h be5 call$ ,plutonic1 compreh5d+ all ! granites & c]ta9 porphyries1 :i* are ne>ly alli$ 9 "s ( _! *>act]s to volcanic =mations4 ,! memb]s ( ! o!r class are /ratifi$ & (t5 slaty1 & h be5 call$ by "s ! cry/all9e s*i/s1 9 :i* gr\p are includ$ gneiss1 micace\s-s*i/ 7or mica-slate71 hornbl5de-s*i/1 /atu>y m>ble1 ! f9] k9ds ( ro(+ slate1 & o!r rocks aft]w>ds to be describ$4 ,z x is admitt$ t no?+ /rictly analog\s to ^! cry/all9e productions c n[ be se5 9 ! progress ( =mation on ! e>?'s surface1 x w naturally be ask$1 on :at data we c f9d a place = !m 9 a sy/em ( classification f\nd$ on ! orig9 ( rocks4 ,i _c1 9 reply to ?is "q1 pret5d to give ! /ud5t1 9 a few words1 an intelligible acc\nt ( ! long *a9 ( facts & reason+s f :i* geologi/s h be5 l$ to inf] ! nature ( ! rocks 9 "q4 ,! result1 h[ev]1 may be briefly /at$4 ,all ! v>i\s k9ds ( granites :i* con/itute ! ,plutonic family are suppos$ to be ( igne\s or aqueo-igne\s orig91 & to h be5 =m$ "u great pressure1 at a consid]able dep? 9 ! e>?1 or sometimes1 p]haps1 "u a c]ta9 weight ( incumb5t ocean4 ,l ! lava ( volcanoes1 !y h be5 melt$1 & aft]w>ds cool$ & cry/allis$1 b ) extreme sl[ness1 & "u conditions v diff]5t f ^? ( bodies cool+ 9 ! op5 air4 ,h5ce !y diff] f ! volcanic rocks1 n only by _! m cry/all9e texture1 b also by ! abs5ce ( tuffs & breccias1 :i* are ! products ( eruptions at ! e>?'s surface1 or b5ea? seas ( inconsid]able dep?4 ,!y diff] also by ! abs5ce ( pores or cellul> cavities1 to :i* ! expansion ( ! entangl$ gases gives rise 9 ord9>y lava4 ,metamorphic1 or ,/ratifi$ ,cry/all9e ,rocks4--,! f\r? & la/ great division ( rocks are ! cry/all9e /rata & slates1 or s*i/s1 call$ gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 clay-slate1 *lorite-s*i/1 m>ble1 & ! l1 ! orig9 ( :i* is m d\btful ?an t ( ! o!r ?ree classes4 ,!y conta9 no pebbles1 or s&1 or scori1 or angul> pieces ( imb$d$ /one1 & no traces ( organic bodies1 & !y are (t5 z cry/all9e z granite1 yet are divid$ into b$s1 correspond+ 9 =m & arrangem5t to ^? ( s$im5t>y =mations1 & are !re=e said to be /ratifi$4 ,! b$s sometimes consi/ ( an alt]nation ( sub/ances v>y+ 9 col\r1 composition1 & ?ickness1 precisely z we see 9 /ratifi$ fossilif]\s deposits4 ,accord+ to ! ,huttonian !ory1 :i* ,i adopt z ! mo/ probable1 & :i* w be aft]w>ds m fully expla9$1 ! mat]ials ( ^! /rata 7 orig9ally deposit$ f wat] 9 ! usual =m ( s$im5t1 b !y 7 subsequ5tly s alt]$ by subt]ranean heat1 z to assume a new texture4 ,x is demon/rable1 9 "s cases at lea/1 t su* a complete conv]sion has actually tak5 place1 fossilif]\s /rata hav+ ex*ang$ an e>?y = a highly cry/all9e texture = a di/ance ( a qu>t] ( a mile f _! contact ) granite4 ,9 "s cases1 d>k lime/ones1 replete ) %ells & corals1 h be5 turn$ into :ite /atu>y m>ble2 & h>d clays1 conta9+ vegetable or o!r rema9s1 into slates call$ mica-s*i/ or hornbl5de-s*i/1 e ve/ige ( ! organic bodies hav+ be5 oblit]at$4 ,al?\gh we are 9 a great degree ignorant ( ! precise nature ( ! influ5ce ex]t$ 9 ^! cases1 yet x evid5tly be>s "s analogy to t :i* volcanic heat & gases are kn[n to produce2 & ! action may be conv5i5tly call$ ,plutonic1 because x appe>s to h be5 develop$ 9 ^? regions :]e ,plutonic rocks are g5]at$1 & "u simil> circum/ances ( pressure & dep? 9 ! e>?4 ,int5sely heat$ wat] or /eam p]meat+ /ratifi$ masses "u great pressure h no d\bt play$ _! "p 9 produc+ ! cry/all9e texture & o!r *anges1 & x is cle> t ! trans=m+ influ5ce has (t5 p]vad$ entire m\nta9 masses ( /rata4 ,9 accordance ) ! hypo!sis above allud$ to1 ,i propos$ 9 ! fir/ edition ( ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology 7#ahcc7 ! t]m 8,metamorphic0 = ! alt]$ /rata1 a t]m d]iv$ f meta1 trans1 & morphe1 =ma4 ,h5ce !re are f\r great classes ( rocks consid]$ 9 ref]5ce to _! orig9--! aque\s1 ! volcanic1 ! ,plutonic1 & ! metamorphic4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ?is "w x w be %[n t portions ( ea* ( ^! f\r di/9ct classes h orig9at$ at _m successive p]iods4 ,!y h all be5 produc$ contemporane\sly1 & may ev5 n[ be 9 ! progress ( =mation on a l>ge scale4 ,x is n true1 z 0 =m]ly suppos$1 t all granites1 toge!r ) ! cry/all9e or metamorphic /rata1 7 fir/ =m$1 & !re=e entitl$ to be call$ 8primitive10 & t ! aque\s & volcanic rocks 7 aft]w>ds sup]impos$1 & %\ld1 !re=e1 rank z second>y 9 ! ord] ( "t4 ,?is idea 0 adopt$ 9 ! infancy ( ! sci5ce1 :5 all =mations1 :e!r /ratifi$ or un/ratifi$1 e>?y or cry/all9e1 ) or )\t fossils1 7 alike reg>d$ z ( aque\s orig94 ,at t p]iod x 0 naturally argu$ t ! f\ndation mu/ be old] ?an ! sup]/ructure2 b x 0 aft]w>ds discov]$ t ?is op9ion 0 by no means 9 e in/ance a legitimate d$uction f facts2 = ! inf]ior p>ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ h (t5 be5 modifi$1 & ev5 entirely *ang$1 by ! influ5ce ( volcanic & o!r subt]ranean causes1 :ile sup]impos$ =mations h n be5 9 ! slighte/ degree alt]$4 ,9 o!r words1 ! de/roy+ & r5ovat+ processes h giv5 bir? to new rocks bel[1 :ile ^? above1 :e!r cry/all9e or fossilif]\s1 h rema9$ 9 _! anci5t condition4 ,ev5 9 cities1 su* z ,v5ice & ,am/]dam1 x _c be laid d[n z univ]sally true t ! upp] p>ts ( ea* edifice1 :e!r ( brick or m>ble1 are m mod]n ?an ! f\ndations on :i* !y re/1 = ^! (t5 consi/ ( wood5 piles1 :i* may h rott$ & be5 replac$ "o aft] ! o!r1 )\t ! lea/ injury to ! build+s above2 mean:ile1 ^! may h requir$ sc>cely any repair1 & may h be5 con/antly inhabit$4 ,s x is ) ! habitable surface ( our globe1 9 its relation to l>ge masses ( rock imm$iately bel[2 x may cont9ue ! same = ages1 :ile subjac5t mat]ials1 at a great dep?1 are pass+ f a solid to a fluid /ate1 & !n reconsolidat+1 s z to acquire a new texture4 ,z all ! cry/all9e rocks may1 9 "s respects1 be view$ z belong+ to "o great family1 :e!r !y be /ratifi$ or un/ratifi$1 metamorphic or ,plutonic1 x w (t5 be conv5i5t to speak ( !m by "o common "n4 ,x be+ n[ asc]ta9$1 z above /at$1 t !y are ( v diff]5t ages1 sometimes new] ?an ! /rata call$ second>y1 ! t]ms primitive & prim>y :i* 7 =m]ly us$ = ! :ole mu/ be ab&on$1 z !y w\ld imply a manife/ contradiction4 ,x is indisp5sable1 !re=e1 to f9d a new "n1 "o :i* mu/ n be ( *ronological import1 & mu/ express1 on ! "o h&1 "s peculi>ity equally attributable to granite & gneiss 7to ! ,plutonic z well z ! alt]$ rocks71 &1 on ! o!r1 mu/ h ref]5ce to *>act]s 9 :i* ^? rocks diff]1 bo? f ! volcanic & f ! unalt]$ s$im5t>y /rata4 ,i propos$ 9 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology 7fir/ edition1 vol4 iii7 ! t]m 8hypog5e0 = ?is purpose1 d]iv$ f upo1 "u1 & g9omai1 to be1 or to be born2 a ^w imply+ ! !ory t granite1 gneiss1 & ! o!r cry/all9e =mations are alike ne!r=m$ rocks1 or rocks :i* h n assum$ _! pres5t =m & /ructure at ! surface4 ,!y occupy ! l[e/ place 9 ! ord] ( sup]position4 ,ev5 9 regions su* z ! ,alps1 :]e "s masses ( granite & gneiss c be %[n to be ( comp>atively mod]n date1 belong+1 = example1 to ! p]iod h]eaft] to be describ$ z t]ti>y1 !y are /ill und]ly+ rocks4 ,!y nev] repose on ! volcanic or trappean =mations1 nor on /rata conta9+ organic rema9s4 ,!y are hypog5e1 z 8be+ "u0 all ! re/4 ,f :at has n[ be5 said1 ! read] w und]/& t ea* ( ! f\r great classes ( rocks may be /udi$ "u two di/9ct po9ts ( view2 fir/1 !y may be /udi$ simply z m9]al masses d]iv+ _! orig9 f p>ticul> causes1 & hav+ a c]ta9 composition1 =m1 & position 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 or o!r *>act]s bo? positive & negative1 su* z ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( organic rema9s4 ,9 ! second place1 ! rocks ( ea* class may be view$ z a gr& *ronological s]ies ( monum5ts1 atte/+ a succession ( ev5ts 9 ! =m] hi/ory ( ! globe & its liv+ inhabitants4 ,i %all accord+ly proce$ to treat ( ea* family ( rocks2 fir/1 9 ref]5ce to ^? *>act]s :i* are n *ronological1 & !n 9 p>ticul> relation to ! sev]al p]iods :5 !y 7 =m$4 #a ,see ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 by ! ,au?or1 ,index1 8,nile10 8,riv]s10 etc4 #b ,see p4 #dd1 ,fig4 #g4 #c ,col4 ,r4 ,j4 ,/ra*ey f\nd oolitic fossils #ah1djj feet high 9 ! ,himalaya4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,aque\s ,,rocks4--,,_! ,,composition ,,& ,,=ms ,,( ,,/ratification4 ,m9]al ,composition ( ,/rata4 -- ,silice\s ,rocks4 -- ,argillace\s4 -- ,calc>e\s4 -- ,gypsum4 -- ,=ms ( ,/ratification4 -- ,orig9al ,horizontality4 -- ,?9n+ out4 -- ,diagonal ,arrangem5t4 -- ,ripple-m>k4 ,9 pursuance ( ! arrangem5t expla9$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 we %all beg9 by exam9+ ! aque\s or s$im5t>y rocks1 :i* are = ! mo/ "p di/9ctly /ratifi$1 & conta9 fossils4 ,we may fir/ /udy !m ) ref]5ce to _! m9]al composition1 ext]nal appe>ance1 position1 mode ( orig91 organic cont5ts1 & o!r *>act]s :i* belong to !m z aque\s =mations1 indep5d5tly ( _! age1 & we may aft]w>ds consid] !m *ronologically or ) ref]5ce to ! successive geological p]iods :5 !y orig9at$4 ,i h already giv5 an outl9e ( ! data :i* l$ to ! belief t ! /ratifi$ & fossilif]\s rocks 7 orig9ally deposit$ "u wat]2 b1 be=e ent]+ into a m detail$ inve/igation1 x w be desirable to say some?+ ( ! ord9>y mat]ials ( :i* su* /rata are compos$4 ,^! may be said to belong pr9cipally to ?ree divisions1 ! silice\s1 ! argillace\s1 & ! calc>e\s1 :i* are =m$ respectively ( fl9t1 clay1 & c>bonate ( lime4 ,( ^!1 ! silice\s are *iefly made up ( s& or fl9ty gra9s2 ! argillace\s1 or clayey1 ( a mixture ( silice\s matt] ) a c]ta9 proportion1 ab\t a f\r? 9 weight1 ( alum9\s e>?2 &1 la/ly1 ! calc>e\s rocks1 or lime/ones1 ( c>bonic acid & lime4 ,silice\s & ,ar5ace\s ,rocks4--,to speak fir/ ( ! s&y division3 b$s ( loose s& are frequ5tly met )1 ( :i* ! gra9s consi/ entirely ( silex1 :i* t]m compreh5ds all purely silice\s m9]als1 z qu>tz & common fl9t4 ,qu>tz is silex 9 its pure/ =m4 ,fl9t usually conta9s "s admixture ( alum9a & oxide ( iron4 ,! silice\s gra9s 9 s& are usually r\nd$1 z if by ! action ( runn+ wat]4 ,s&/one is an aggregate ( su* gra9s1 :i* (t5 coh]e toge!r )\t any visible cem5t1 b m commonly are b\nd toge!r by a slight quantity ( silice\s or calc>e\s matt]1 or by oxide ( iron or clay4 ,pure silice\s rocks may be kn[n by n eff]vesc+ :5 a drop ( nitric1 sulphuric or o!r acid is appli$ to !m1 or by ! gra9s n be+ readily scrat*$ or brok5 by ord9>y pressure4 ,9 nature !re is e int]m$iate gradation1 f p]fectly loose s& to ! h>de/ s&/one4 ,9 micace\s s&/ones mica is v abundant2 & ! ?9 silv]y plates into :i* t m9]al divides are (t5 arrang$ 9 lay]s p>allel to ! planes ( /ratification1 giv+ a slaty or lam9at$ texture to ! rock4 ,:5 s&/one is co>se-gra9$1 x is usually call$ grit4 ,if ! gra9s are r\nd$1 & l>ge en\gh to be call$ pebbles1 x becomes a conglom]ate or pudd+-/one1 :i* may consi/ ( pieces ( "o or ( _m diff]5t k9ds ( rock4 ,a conglom]ate1 !re=e1 is simply gravel b\nd toge!r by cem5t4 ,argillace\s ,rocks4--,clay1 /rictly speak+1 is a mixture ( silex or fl9t ) a l>ge proportion1 usually ab\t "o f\r?1 ( alum9a1 or argil2 b 9 common language1 any e>? :i* possesses suffici5t ductility1 :5 knead$ up ) wat]1 to be fa%ion$ l pa/e by ! h&1 or by ! pott]'s la!1 is call$ a clay2 & su* clays v>y greatly 9 _! composition1 & are1 9 g5]al1 no?+ m ?an mud d]iv$ f ! decomposition or we>+ d[n ( rocks4 ,! pure/ clay f\nd 9 nature is porcela9 clay1 or kaol91 :i* results f ! decomposition ( a rock compos$ ( feldsp> & qu>tz1 & x is almo/ always mix$ ) qu>tz4 ,! kaol9 ( ,*9a consi/s ( #gaae p>ts ( silex1 #aehf ( alum9e1 #aib ( lime1 & #fgc ( wat]2#a b o!r porcela9 clays diff] mat]ially1 t ( ,cornwall be+ compos$1 accord+ to ,boase1 ( ne>ly equal p>ts ( silica & alum9e1 ) #a p] c5t ( magnesia4#b ,%ale has also ! prop]ty1 l clay1 ( becom+ pla/ic 9 wat]3 x is a m solid =m ( clay1 or argillace\s matt]1 cond5s$ by pressure4 ,x always divides into lam9 m or less regul>4 ,"o g5]al "* ( all argillace\s rocks is to give out a peculi>1 e>?y od\r :5 brea!d ^u1 :i* is a te/ ( ! pres5ce ( alum9e1 al?\gh x does n belong to pure alum9e1 b1 app>5tly1 to ! comb9ation ( t sub/ance ) oxide ( iron4#c ,calc>e\s ,rocks4--,?is division compreh5ds ^? rocks :i*1 l *alk1 are compos$ *iefly ( lime & c>bonic acid4 ,%ells & corals are also =m$ ( ! same elem5ts1 ) ! addition ( animal matt]4 ,to obta9 pure lime x is necess>y to calc9e ^! calc>e\s sub/ances1 t is to say1 to expose !m to heat ( suffici5t int5sity to drive (f ! c>bonic acid1 & o!r volatile matt]4 ,:ite *alk is sometimes pure c>bonate ( lime2 & ?is rock1 al?\gh usually 9 a s(t & e>?y /ate1 is occasionally suffici5tly solid to be us$ = build+1 & ev5 passes into a compact /one1 or a /one ( :i* ! sep>ate p>ts are s m9ute z n to be di/+ui%able f ea* o!r by ! nak$ eye4 ,_m lime/ones are made up entirely ( m9ute fragm5ts ( %ells & coral1 or ( calc>e\s s& cem5t$ toge!r4 ,^! la/ might be call$ 8calc>e\s s&/ones20 b t t]m is m prop]ly appli$ to a rock 9 :i* ! gra9s are p>tly calc>e\s & p>tly silice\s1 or to qu>tzose s&/ones1 hav+ a cem5t ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,! v>iety ( lime/one call$ oolite is compos$ ( num]\s small egg-l gra9s1 resembl+ ! roe ( a fi%1 ea* ( :i* has usually a small fragm5t ( s& z a nucleus1 ar\nd :i* conc5tric lay]s ( calc>e\s matt] h accumulat$4 ,any lime/one :i* is suffici5tly h>d to take a f9e poli% is call$ m>ble4 ,_m ( ^! are fossilif]\s2 b /atu>y m>ble1 :i* is also call$ sac*>oid lime/one1 z hav+ a texture resembl+ t ( loaf-sug>1 is devoid ( fossils1 & is 9 _m cases a memb] ( ! metamorphic s]ies4 ,silice\s lime/one is an intimate mixture ( c>bonate ( lime & fl9t1 & is h>d] 9 proportion z ! fl9ty matt] pr$om9ates4 ,! pres5ce ( c>bonate ( lime 9 a rock may be asc]ta9$ by apply+ to ! surface a small drop ( dilut$ sulphuric1 nitric1 or muriatic acid1 or /rong v9eg>2 = ! lime1 hav+ a great] *emical aff9ity = any "o ( ^! acids ?an = ! c>bonic1 unites imm$iately ) !m to =m new comp\nds1 !reby becom+ a sulphate1 nitrate or muriate ( lime4 ,! c>bonic acid1 :5 ?us lib]at$ f its union ) ! lime1 escapes 9 a gase\s =m1 & fro?s up or eff]vesces z x makes its way 9 small bubbles ?r\gh ! drop ( liquid4 ,?is eff]vesc5ce is brisk or feeble 9 proportion z ! lime/one is pure or impure1 or1 9 o!r words1 accord+ to ! quantity ( =eign matt] mix$ ) ! c>bonate ( lime4 ,)\t ! aid ( ?is te/1 ! mo/ exp]i5c$ eye _c always detect ! pres5ce ( c>bonate ( lime 9 rocks4 ,! above-m5tion$ ?ree classes ( rocks1 ! silice\s1 argillace\s1 & calc>e\s1 pass cont9ually into ea* o!r1 & r>ely occur 9 a p]fectly sep>ate & pure =m4 ,?us x is an exception to ! g5]al rule to meet ) a lime/one z pure z ord9>y :ite *alk1 or ) clay z alum9\s z t us$ 9 ,cornwall = porcela91 or ) s& s entirely compos$ ( silice\s gra9s z ! :ite s& ( ,alum ,bay1 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight1 employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( glass1 or s&/one s pure z ! grit ( ,fonta9ebleau1 us$ = pavem5t 9 ,france4 ,m commonly we f9d s& & clay1 or clay & m>l1 int]mix$ 9 ! same mass4 ,:5 ! s& & clay are ea* 9 consid]able quantity1 ! mixture is call$ loam4 ,if !re is mu* calc>e\s matt] 9 clay x is call$ m>l2 b ?is t]m has un=tunately be5 us$ s vaguely1 z (t5 to be v ambigu\s4 ,x has be5 appli$ to sub/ances 9 :i* !re is no lime2 z1 to t r$ loam usually call$ r$ m>l 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ,engl&4 ,agriculturi/s 7 9 ! habit ( call+ any soil a m>l :i*1 l true m>l1 fell to pieces readily on exposure to ! air4 ,h5ce arose ! confusion ( us+ ?is "n = soils :i*1 consi/+ ( loam1 7 easily work$ by ! pl\gh1 ?\gh devoid ( lime4 ,m>l slate be>s ! same relation to m>l :i* %ale be>s to clay1 be+ a calc>e\s %ale4 ,x is v abundant 9 "s c\ntries1 z 9 ! ,swiss ,alps4 ,argillace\s or m>ly lime/one is also ( common occurr5ce4 ,!re are few o!r k9ds ( rock :i* ent] s l>gely into ! composition ( s$im5t>y /rata z to make x necess>y to dwell "h on _! *>act]s4 ,i may1 h[ev]1 m5tion two o!rs--magnesian lime/one or dolomite1 & gypsum4 ,magnesian lime/one is compos$ ( c>bonate ( lime & c>bonate ( magnesia2 ! proportion ( ! latt] am\nt+ 9 "s cases to ne>ly "o half4 ,x eff]vesces mu* m sl[ly & feebly ) acids ?an common lime/one4 ,9 ,engl& ?is rock is g5]ally ( a yell[i% col\r2 b x v>ies greatly 9 m9]alogical "*1 pass+ f an e>?y /ate to a :ite compact /one ( great h>dness4 ,dolomite1 s common 9 _m p>ts ( ,g]many & ,france1 is also a v>iety ( magnesian lime/one1 usually ( a granul> texture4 ,gypsum is a rock compos$ ( sulphuric acid1 lime1 & wat]4 ,x is usually a s(t :iti%-yell[ rock1 ) a texture resembl+ t ( loaf-sug>1 b sometimes x is entirely compos$ ( l5ticul> cry/als4 ,x is insoluble 9 acids1 & does n eff]vesce l *alk & dolomite1 because x does n conta9 c>bonic acid gas1 or fix$ air1 ! lime be+ already comb9$ ) sulphuric acid1 = :i* x has a /rong] aff9ity ?an = any o!r4 ,anhydr\s gypsum is a r>e v>iety1 into :i* wat] does n ent] z a compon5t "p4 ,gypse\s m>l is a mixture ( gypsum & m>l4 ,alaba/] is a granul> & compact v>iety ( gypsum f\nd 9 masses l>ge en\gh to be us$ 9 sculpture & ar*itecture4 ,x is sometimes a pure sn[-:ite sub/ance1 z t ( ,volt]ra 9 ,tuscany1 well kn[n z be+ c>v$ = works ( art 9 ,flor5ce & ,leghorn4 ,x is a s(t] /one ?an m>ble1 & m easily wr\ght4 ,=ms ( ,/ratification4--,a s]ies ( /rata sometimes consi/s ( "o ( ! above rocks1 sometimes ( two or m 9 alt]nat+ b$s4 ,?us1 9 ! coal di/ricts ( ,engl&1 = example1 we (t5 pass ?r\gh sev]al b$s ( s&/one1 "s ( f9]1 o!rs ( co>s] gra91 "s :ite1 o!rs ( a d>k col\r1 & bel[ ^!1 lay]s ( %ale & s&/one or b$s ( %ale1 divisible into leaf-l lam91 & conta9+ beautiful impressions ( plants4 ,!n aga9 we meet ) b$s ( pure & impure coal1 alt]nat+ ) %ales & s&/ones1 & und]nea? ! :ole1 p]haps1 are calc>e\s /rata1 or b$s ( lime/one1 fill$ ) corals & m>9e %ells1 ea* b$ di/+ui%able f ano!r by c]ta9 fossils1 or by ! abundance ( p>ticul> species ( %ells or zoophytes4 ,?is alt]nation ( diff]5t k9ds ( rock produces ! mo/ di/9ct /ratification2 & we (t5 f9d b$s ( lime/one & m>l1 conglom]ate & s&/one1 s& & clay1 recurr+ aga9 & aga91 9 ne>ly regul> ord]1 ?r\gh\t a s]ies ( _m hundr$ /rata4 ,! causes :i* may produce ^! ph5om5a are v>i\s1 & h be5 fully discuss$ 9 my treatise on ! mod]n *anges ( ! e>?'s surface4#d ,x is !re se5 t riv]s fl[+ into lakes & seas are *>g$ ) s$im5t1 v>y+ 9 quantity1 composition1 col\r1 & gra9 accord+ to ! seasons2 ! wat]s are sometimes flood$ & rapid1 at o!r p]iods l[ & feeble2 diff]5t tribut>ies1 also1 dra9+ peculi> c\ntries & soils1 & !re=e *>g$ ) peculi> s$im5t1 are swoll5 at di/9ct p]iods4 ,x 0 also %[n t ! waves ( ! sea & curr5ts und]m9e ! cliffs dur+ w9try /orms1 & sweep away ! mat]ials into ! deep1 aft] :i* a season ( tranquillity succe$s1 :5 no?+ b ! f9e/ mud is spread by ! movem5ts ( ! ocean ov] ! same subm>9e area4 ,x is n ! object ( ! pres5t "w to give a description ( ^! op]ations1 repeat$ z !y are1 ye> aft] ye>1 & c5tury aft] c5tury2 b ,i may sugge/ an explanation ( ! mann] 9 :i* "s micace\s s&/ones h orig9at$1 namely1 ^? 9 :i* we see innum]able ?9 lay]s ( mica divid+ lay]s ( f9e qu>tzose s&4 ,i obs]v$ ! same arrangem5t ( mat]ials 9 rec5t mud deposit$ 9 ! e/u>y ( ,l>o*e ,/4 ,b]n>d 9 ,brittany1 at ! m\? ( ! ,loire4 ,! surr\nd+ rocks are ( gneiss1 :i*1 by its wa/e1 supplies ! mud3 :5 ?is dries at l[ wat]1 x is f\nd to consi/ ( br[n lam9at$ clay1 divid$ by ?9 seams ( mica4 ,! sep>ation ( ! mica 9 ?is case1 or 9 t ( micace\s s&/ones1 may be ?us und]/ood4 ,if we take a h&ful ( qu>tzose s&1 mix$ ) mica1 & ?r[ x into a cle> runn+ /ream1 we see ! mat]ials imm$iately sort$ by ! wat]1 ! gra9s ( qu>tz fall+ almo/ directly to ! bottom1 :ile ! plates ( mica take a mu* long] "t to rea* ! bottom1 & are c>ri$ f>!r d[n ! /ream4 ,at ! fir/ in/ant ! wat] is turbid1 b imm$iately aft] ! flat surfaces ( ! plates ( mica are se5 all alone1 reflect+ a silv]y light1 z !y desc5d sl[ly1 to =m a di/9ct micace\s lam9a4 ,! mica is ! heavi] m9]al ( ! two2 b x rema9s a long] "t susp5d$ 9 ! fluid1 ow+ to its great] ext5t ( surface4 ,x is easy1 !re=e1 to p]ceive t :]e su* mud is act$ ^u by a riv] or tidal curr5t1 ! ?9 plates ( mica w be c>ri$ f>!r1 & n deposit$ 9 ! same places z ! gra9s ( qu>tz2 & s9ce ! =ce & velocity ( ! /ream v>ies f "t to "t1 lay]s ( mica or ( s& w be ?r[n d[n successively on ! same area4 ,orig9al ,horizontality4--,x is said g5]ally t ! upp] & "u surfaces ( /rata1 or ! 8planes ( /ratification10 are p>allel4 ,al?\gh ?is is n /rictly true1 !y make an approa* to p>allelism1 = ! same reason t s$im5t is usually deposit$ at fir/ 9 ne>ly horizontal lay]s4 ,su* an arrangem5t c by no means be attribut$ to an orig9al ev5ness or horizontality 9 ! b$ ( ! sea3 = x is asc]ta9$ t 9 ^? places :]e no matt] has be5 rec5tly deposit$1 ! bottom ( ! ocean is (t5 z unev5 z t ( ! dry l&1 hav+ 9 l mann] its hills1 valleys1 & rav9es4 ,yet if ! sea %\ld g d[n1 or be remov$ f ne> ! m\? ( a l>ge riv] :]e a delta has be5 =m+1 we %\ld see ext5sive pla9s ( mud & s& laid dry1 :i*1 to ! eye1 w\ld appe> p]fectly level1 al?\gh1 9 reality1 !y w\ld slope g5tly f ! l& t[>ds ! sea4 ,?is t5d5cy 9 newly-=m$ /rata to assume a horizontal position arises pr9cipally f ! motion ( ! wat]1 :i* =ces along p>ticles ( s& or mud at ! bottom1 & causes !m to settle 9 holl[s or depressions :]e !y are less expos$ to ! =ce ( a curr5t ?an :5 !y are re/+ on elevat$ po9ts4 ,! velocity ( ! curr5t & ! motion ( ! sup]ficial waves dim9i% f ! surface d[nw>d1 & are lea/ 9 ^? depressions :]e ! wat] is deepe/4 ,a good illu/ration ( ! pr9ciple "h allud$ to may be sometimes se5 9 ! neighb\rhood ( a volcano1 :5 a section1 :e!r natural or artificial1 has laid op5 to view a succession ( v>i\s-col\r$ lay]s ( s& & a%es1 :i* h fall5 9 %[]s ^u unev5 gr\nd4 ,?us let ,a ,b 7,fig4 #a7 be two ridges1 ) an int]v5+ valley4 ,^! orig9al inequalities ( ! surface h be5 gradually effac$ by b$s ( s& & a%es c1 d1 e1 ! surface at e be+ q level4 ,x w be se5 t1 al?\gh ! mat]ials ( ! fir/ lay]s h accommodat$ !mselves 9 a great degree to ! %ape ( ! gr\nd ,a ,b1 yet ea* b$ is ?icke/ at ! bottom4 ,at fir/ a great _m p>ticles w\ld be c>ri$ by _! own gravity d[n ! /eep sides ( ,a & ,b1 & o!rs w\ld aft]w>ds be bl[n by ! w9d z !y fell (f ! ridges1 & w\ld settle 9 ! holl[1 :i* w\ld ?us become m & m effac$ z ! /rata accumulat$ f c to e4 ,n[1 wat] 9 motion c ex]t ?is levell+ p[] on simil> mat]ials m easily ?an air1 = almo/ all /ones lose 9 wat] m ?an a ?ird ( ! weight :i* !y h 9 air1 ! specific gravity ( rocks be+ 9 g5]al z #b :5 comp>$ to t ( wat]1 :i* is e/imat$ at #a4 ,b ! buoyancy ( s& or mud w\ld be /ill great] 9 ! sea1 z ! d5sity ( salt-wat] exce$s t ( fre%4 ,fig4 #b4 ,section ( /rata ( s&tone1 grit1 & congolm]ate4 ,yet1 h[ev] uni=m & horizontal may be ! surface ( new deposits 9 g5]al1 !re are /ill _m di/urb+ causes1 su* z eddies 9 ! wat]1 & curr5ts mov+ fir/ 9 "o & !n 9 ano!r direction1 :i* frequ5tly cause irregul>ities4 ,we may sometimes foll[ a b$ ( lime/one1 %ale1 or s&/one1 = a di/ance ( _m hundr$ y>ds cont9u\sly2 b we g5]ally f9d at l5g? t ea* individual /ratum ?9s out1 & all[s ! b$s :i* 7 previ\sly above & bel[ x to meet4 ,if ! mat]ials are co>se1 z 9 grits & conglom]ates1 ! same b$s c r>ely be trac$ _m y>ds )\t v>y+ 9 size1 & (t5 com+ to an end abruptly4 7,see ,fig4 #b47 ,fig4 #c3 ,section ( s& at ,s&y ,hill1 ne> ,biggleswade1 ,b$=d%ire4 ,diagonal or ,cross ,/ratification4--,!re is also ano!r ph5om5on ( frequ5t occurr5ce4 ,we f9d a s]ies ( l>g] /rata1 ea* ( :i* is compos$ ( a numb] ( m9or lay]s plac$ obliquely to ! g5]al planes ( /ratification4 ,to ?is diagonal arrangem5t ! "n ( 8false or cross b$d+0 has be5 giv54 ,?us 9 ! section 7,fig4 #c7 we see sev5 or eight l>ge b$s ( loose s&1 yell[ & br[n1 & ! l9es a1 b1 c m>k "s ( ! pr9cipal planes ( /ratification1 :i* are ne>ly horizontal4 ,b ! great] "p ( ! subord9ate lam9 d n con=m to ^! planes1 b h (t5 a /eep slope1 ! incl9ation be+ sometimes t[>ds opposite po9ts ( ! compass4 ,:5 ! s& is loose & incoh]5t1 z 9 ! case "h repres5t$1 ! deviation f p>allelism ( ! slant+ lam9 _c possibly be acc\nt$ = by any re>rangem5t ( ! p>ticles acquir$ dur+ ! consolidation ( ! rock4 ,9 :at mann]1 !n1 c su* irregul>ities be due to orig9al deposition8 ,we mu/ suppose t at ! bottom ( ! sea1 z well z 9 ! b$s ( riv]s1 ! motions ( waves1 curr5ts1 & eddies (t5 cause mud1 s&1 & gravel to be ?r[n d[n 9 heaps on p>ticul> spots1 in/ead ( be+ spread out uni=mly ov] a wide area4 ,sometimes1 :5 banks are ?us =m$1 curr5ts may cut passages ?r\gh !m1 j z a riv] =ms its b$4 ,fig4 #d;,fig4 #e ,suppose ! bank ,a 7,fig4 #d7 to be ?us =m$ ) a /eep slop+ side1 &1 ! wat] be+ 9 a tranquil /ate1 ! lay] ( s$im5t ,no4 #a is ?r[n d[n ^u x1 con=m+ ne>ly to its surface4 ,aft]w>ds ! o!r lay]s1 #b1 #c1 #d1 may be deposit$ 9 succession1 s t ! bank ,b ,c ,d is =m$4 ,if ! curr5t !n increases 9 velocity1 x may cut away ! upp] portion ( ?is mass d[n to ! dott$ l9e e1 & deposit ! mat]ials ?us remov$ f>!r on1 s z to =m ! lay]s #e1 #f1 #g1 #h4 ,we h n[ ! bank ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e 7,fig4 #e71 ( :i* ! surface is almo/ level1 & on :i* ! ne>ly horizontal lay]s1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 may !n accumulate4 ,x 0 %[n 9 ,fig4 #c t ! diagonal lay]s ( successive /rata may sometimes h an opposite slope4 ,?is is well se5 9 "s cliffs ( loose s& on ! ,suffolk coa/4 ,a portion ( "o ( ^! is repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #f1 :]e ! lay]s1 ( :i* !re are ab\t six 9 ! ?ickness ( an in*1 are compos$ ( qu>tzose gra9s4 ,?is arrangem5t may h be5 due to ! alt]$ direction ( ! tides & curr5ts 9 ! same place4 ,fig4 #f3 ,cliff betwe5 ,mism] & ,dunwi*4 ,fig4 #g3 ,section f ,monte ,calvo to ! sea by ! valley ( ! ,magnan1 ne> ,nice4 ,! description above giv5 ( ! slant+ position ( ! m9or lay]s con/itut+ a s+le /ratum is 9 c]ta9 cases applicable on a mu* gr&] scale to masses sev]al hundr$ feet ?ick1 & _m miles 9 ext5t4 ,a f9e example may be se5 at ! base ( ! ,m>itime ,alps ne> ,nice4 ,! m\nta9s "h t]m9ate abruptly 9 ! sea1 s t a dep? ( "o hundr$ fa?oms is (t5 f\nd )9 a /one's ?r[ ( ! bea*1 & sometimes a dep? ( #cjjj feet )9 half a mile4 ,b at c]ta9 po9ts1 /rata ( s&1 m>l1 or conglom]ate int]v5e betwe5 ! %ore & ! m\nta9s1 z 9 ! section 7,fig4 #g71 :]e a va/ succession ( slant+ b$s ( gravel & s& may be trac$ f ! sea to ,monte ,calvo1 a di/ance ( no less ?an n9e miles 9 a /raight l9e4 ,! dip ( ^! b$s is rem>kably uni=m1 be+ always s\?w>d or t[>ds ! ,m$it]ranean1 at an angle ( ab\t #be4 ,!y are expos$ to view 9 ne>ly v]tical precipices1 v>y+ f #bjj to #fjj feet 9 height1 :i* b\nd ! valley ?r\gh :i* ! riv] ,magnan fl[s4 ,al?\gh1 9 a g5]al view1 ! /rata appe> to be p>allel & uni=m1 !y are nev]!less f\nd1 :5 exam9$ closely1 to be w$ge-%ap$1 & to ?9 out :5 foll[$ = a few hundr$ feet or y>ds1 s t we may suppose !m to h be5 ?r[n d[n orig9ally ^u ! side ( a /eep bank :]e a riv] or ,alp9e torr5t dis*>g$ itself into a deep & tranquil sea1 & =m$ a delta1 :i* advanc$ gradually f ! base ( ,monte ,calvo to a di/ance ( n9e miles f ! orig9al %ore4 ,if subsequ5tly ?is "p ( ! ,alps & b$ ( ! sea 7 rais$ #gjj feet1 ! delta may h em]g$1 a deep *annel may !n h be5 cut ?r\gh x by ! riv]1 & ! coa/ may at ! same "t h acquir$ its pres5t configuration4 ,x is well kn[n t ! torr5ts & /reams :i* n[ desc5d f ! ,alp9e declivities to ! %ore1 br+ d[n annually1 :5 ! sn[ melts1 va/ quantities ( %+le & s&1 & !n1 z !y subside1 f9e mud1 :ile 9 summ] !y are ne>ly or entirely dry2 s t x may be safely assum$ t deposits l ^? ( ! valley ( ! ,magnan1 consi/+ ( co>se gravel alt]nat+ ) f9e s$im5t1 are /ill 9 progress at _m po9ts1 z1 = in/ance1 at ! m\? ( ! ,v>4 ,!y mu/ advance ^u ! ,m$it]ranean 9 ! =m ( great %oals t]m9at+ 9 a /eep talus2 su* be+ ! orig9al mode ( accumulation ( all co>se mat]ials convey$ into deep wat]1 especially :]e !y are compos$ 9 great "p ( pebbles1 :i* _c be transport$ to indef9ite di/ances by curr5ts ( mod]ate velocity4 ,by inatt5tion to facts & inf]5ces ( ?is k9d1 a v exagg]at$ e/imate has sometimes be5 made ( ! suppos$ dep? ( ! anci5t ocean4 ,!re c be no d\bt1 = example1 t ! /rata a1 ,fig4 #g1 or ^? ne>e/ to ,monte ,calvo1 are old] ?an ^? indicat$ by b1 & ^! aga9 7 =m$ be=e c2 b ! v]tical dep? ( gravel & s& 9 any "o place _c be prov$ to am\nt ev5 to #ajjj feet1 al?\gh x may p]haps be mu* great]1 yet probably nev] exce$+ at any po9t #cjjj or #djjj feet4 ,b 7 we to assume t all ! /rata 7 once horizontal1 & t _! pres5t dip or incl9ation 0 due to subsequ5t movem5ts1 we %\ld !n be =c$ to conclude t a sea sev]al miles deep _h be5 fill$ up ) alt]nate lay]s ( mud & pebbles ?r[n d[n "o ^u ano!r4 ,9 ! locality n[ "u consid]ation1 situat$ a few miles to ! we/ ( ,nice1 !re are _m geological data1 ! details ( :i* _c be giv5 9 ?is place1 all lead+ to ! op9ion t1 :5 ! deposit ( ! ,magnan 0 =m$1 ! %ape & outl9e ( ! ,alp9e declivities & ! %ore greatly resembl$ :at we n[ behold at _m po9ts 9 ! neighb\rhood4 ,t ! b$s a1 b1 c1 d are ( comp>atively mod]n date is prov$ by ?is fact1 t 9 seams ( loamy m>l int]v5+ betwe5 ! pebbly b$s are fossil %ells1 half ( :i* belong to species n[ liv+ 9 ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,fig4 #h3 ,slab ( ripple-m>k$ 7,new ,r$7 s&/one f ,*e%ire4 ,ripple-m>k4--,! ripple-m>k1 s common on ! surface ( s&/ones ( all ages 7see ,fig4 #h71 & :i* is s (t5 se5 on ! sea-%ore at l[ tide1 seems to orig9ate 9 ! drift+ ( mat]ials along ! bottom ( ! wat]1 9 a mann] v simil> to t :i* may expla9 ! incl9$ lay]s above describ$4 ,?is ripple is n entirely conf9$ to ! bea* betwe5 high & l[ wat] m>k1 b is also produc$ on s&s :i* are con/antly cov]$ by wat]4 ,simil> undulat+ ridges & furr[s may also be sometimes se5 on ! surface ( drift sn[ & bl[n s&4 ,! ripple-m>k is usually an indication ( a sea-bea*1 or ( wat] f six to t5 feet deep1 = ! agitation caus$ by waves ev5 dur+ /orms ext5ds to a v slight dep?4 ,to ?is rule1 h[ev]1 !re are "s exceptions1 & rec5t ripple-m>ks h be5 obs]v$ at ! dep? ( #fj or #gj feet4 ,x has also be5 asc]ta9$ t curr5ts or l>ge bodies ( wat] 9 motion may di/urb mud & s& at ! dep? ( #cjj or ev5 #dej feet4#e ,bea* ripple1 h[ev]1 may usually be di/+ui%$ f curr5t ripple by frequ5t *anges 9 its direction4 ,9 a slab ( s&/one1 n m ?an an in* ?ick1 ! furr[s or ridges ( an anci5t ripple may (t5 be se5 9 sev]al successive lam9 to run t[>ds diff]5t po9ts ( ! compass4 #a ,w4 ,phillips1 ,m9]alogy1 p4#cc4 #b ,phil4 ,mag41 vol4 x1 #ahcg4 #c ,see ,w4 ,phillips's ,m9]alogy1 8,alum9e40 #d ,consult ,index to ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 8,/ratification10 8,curr5ts10 8,deltas10 8,wat]10 etc4 #e ,d>w91 ,volcanic ,isl&s1 p4 #acd4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,fossils ,,9 ,,/rata4--,,fre%-,,wat] ,,& ,,m>9e ,,fossils4 ,successive ,deposition indicat$ by ,fossils4 -- ,lime/ones =m$ ( ,corals & ,%ells4 -- ,pro(s ( gradual ,increase ( ,/rata d]iv$ f ,fossils4 -- ,s]pula atta*$ to ,spatangus4 -- ,wood bor$ by ,t]$9a4 -- ,tripoli =m$ ( ,infusoria4 -- ,*alk d]iv$ pr9cipally f ,organic ,bodies4 -- ,di/9ction ( ,fre%-wat] f ,m>9e ,=mations4 -- ,g5]a ( ,fre%-wat] & ,l& ,%ells4 -- ,rules = recognis+ ,m>9e ,te/acea4 -- ,gyrogonite & ,*>a4 -- ,fre%-wat] ,fi%es4 -- ,alt]nation ( ,m>9e & ,fre%-wat] ,deposits4 -- ,lym-,fiord4 ,hav+ 9 ! la/ *apt] consid]$ ! =ms ( /ratification s f> z !y are det]m9$ by ! arrangem5t ( inorganic matt]1 we may n[ turn our att5tion to ! mann] 9 :i* organic rema9s are di/ribut$ ?r\gh /ratifi$ deposits4 ,we %\ld (t5 be unable to detect any signs ( /ratification or ( successive deposition1 if p>ticul> k9ds ( fossils did n occur "h & !re at c]ta9 dep?s 9 ! mass4 ,at "o level1 = example1 univalve %ells ( "s "o or m species pr$om9ate2 at ano!r1 bivalve %ells2 & at a ?ird1 corals2 :ile 9 "s =mations we f9d lay]s ( vegetable matt]1 commonly d]iv$ f l& plants1 sep>at+ /rata4 ,x may appe> inconceivable to a beg9n] h[ m\nta9s1 sev]al ?\s& feet ?ick1 c h become full ( fossils f top to bottom2 b ! difficulty is remov$1 :5 he reflects on ! orig9 ( /ratification1 z expla9$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 & all[s suffici5t "t = ! accumulation ( s$im5t4 ,he mu/ nev] lose sight ( ! fact t1 dur+ ! process ( deposition1 ea* sep>ate lay] 0 once ! upp]mo/1 & imm$iately 9 contact ) ! wat] 9 :i* aquatic animals liv$4 ,ea* /ratum1 9 fact1 h[ev] f> x may n[ lie b5ea? ! surface1 0 once 9 ! /ate ( %+le1 or loose s& or s(t mud at ! bottom ( ! sea1 9 :i* %ells & o!r bodies easily became envelop$4 ,rate ( ,deposition indicat$ by ,fossils4--,by att5d+ to ! nature ( ^! rema9s1 we are (t5 enabl$ to det]m9e :e!r ! deposition 0 sl[ or rapid1 :e!r x took place 9 a deep or %all[ sea1 ne> ! %ore or f> f l&1 & :e!r ! wat] 0 salt1 bracki%1 or fre%4 ,"s lime/ones consi/ almo/ exclusively ( corals1 & 9 _m cases x is evid5t t ! pres5t position ( ea* fossil zoophyte has be5 det]m9$ by ! mann] 9 :i* x grew orig9ally4 ,! axis ( ! coral1 = example1 if its natural gr[? is erect1 /ill rema9s at "r angles to ! plane ( /ratification4 ,if ! /ratum be n[ horizontal1 ! r\nd sph]ical heads ( c]ta9 species cont9ue upp]mo/1 & _! po9ts ( atta*m5t are direct$ d[nw>d4 ,?is arrangem5t is sometimes repeat$ ?r\gh\t a great succession ( /rata4 ,f :at we "k ( ! gr[? ( simil> zoophytes 9 mod]n reefs1 we inf] t ! rate ( increase 0 extremely sl[1 & "s ( ! fossils mu/ h fl\ri%$ = ages l =e/-trees1 be=e !y atta9$ s l>ge a size4 ,dur+ ^! ages1 ! wat] mu/ h be5 cle> & transp>5t1 = su* corals _c live 9 turbid wat]4 ,fossil ,gryph1 cov]$ bo? on ! outside & inside ) fossil s]pul4 ,9 l mann]1 :5 we see ?\s&s ( full-gr[n %ells disp]s$ ev]y:]e ?r\gh\t a long s]ies ( /rata1 we _c d\bt t "t 0 requir$ = ! multiplication ( successive g5]ations2 & ! evid5ce ( sl[ accumulation is r5d]$ m /rik+ f ! pro(s1 s (t5 discov]$1 ( fossil bodies hav+ la9 = a "t on ! floor ( ! ocean aft] dea? be=e !y 7 imb$d$ 9 s$im5t4 ,no?+1 = example1 is m common ?an to see fossil oy/]s 9 clay1 ) ,s]pul1 or b>nacles 7acorn-%ells71 or corals1 & o!r creatures1 atta*$ to ! inside ( ! valves1 s t ! mollusk 0 c]ta9ly n buri$ 9 argillace\s mud ! mom5t x di$4 ,!re mu/ h be5 an int]val dur+ :i* x 0 /ill surr\nd$ ) cle> wat]1 :5 ! creatures ^: rema9s n[ adh]e to x grew f an embryonic to a mature /ate4 ,atta*$ %ells :i* are m]ely ext]nal1 l "s ( ! ,s]pul 7a7 9 ,fig4 #i1 may (t5 h gr[n ^u an oy/] or o!r %ell :ile ! animal )9 0 /ill liv+2 b if !y are f\nd on ! inside1 x c\ld only happ5 aft] ! dea? ( ! inhabitant ( ! %ell :i* af=ds ! support4 ,?us1 9 ,fig4 #i1 x w be se5 t two ,s]pul h gr[n on ! int]ior1 "o ( !m exactly on ! place :]e ! adductor muscle ( ! ,grypha 7a k9d ( oy/]7 0 fix$4 ,fig4 #aj3 ,s]pula atta*$ to a fossil4 ,fig4 #aa3 ,rec5t ,spatangus ) sp9es remov$ f "o side4 ,"s fossil %ells1 ev5 if simply atta*$ to ! outside ( o!rs1 be> full te/imony to ! conclusion above allud$ to1 namely1 t an int]val elaps$ betwe5 ! dea? ( ! creature to ^: %ell !y adh]e1 & ! burial ( ! same 9 mud or s&4 ,! sea-ur*9s1 or ,e*9i1 s abundant 9 :ite *alk1 af=d a good illu/ration4 ,x is well kn[n t ^! animals1 :5 liv+1 are inv>iably cov]$ ) sp9es support$ by r[s ( tub]cles4 ,^! la/ are only se5 aft] ! dea? ( ! sea-ur*91 :5 ! sp9es h dropp$ (f4 ,9 ,fig4 #aa a liv+ species ( ,spatangus1 common on our coa/1 is repres5t$ ) "o half ( its %ell /ripp$ ( ! sp9es4 ,9 ,fig4 #aj a fossil ( a simil> & alli$ g5us f ! :ite *alk ( ,engl& %[s ! nak$ surface :i* ! individuals ( ?is family exhibit :5 d5ud$ ( _! bri/les4 ,! full-gr[n ,s]pula1 !re=e1 :i* n[ adh]es ext]nally1 c\ld n h begun to gr[ till ! ,micra/] _h di$1 & ! sp9es became deta*$4 ,fig4 #ab3 ,anan*ytes f ! *alk4 ,n[ ! s]ies ( ev5ts "h atte/$ by a s+le fossil may be c>ri$ a /ep f>!r4 ,?us1 = example1 we (t5 meet ) a sea-ur*9 7,anan*ytes7 9 ! *alk 7see ,fig4 #ab7 :i* has fix$ to x ! l[] valve ( a ,crania1 a g5us ( bivalve mollusca4 ,! upp] valve 7b1 ,fig4 #ab7 is almo/ inv>iably want+1 ?\gh occasionally f\nd 9 a p]fect /ate ( pres]vation 9 :ite *alk at "s di/ance4 ,9 ?is case1 we see cle>ly t ! sea-ur*9 fir/ liv$ f y\? to age1 !n di$ & lo/ its sp9es1 :i* 7 c>ri$ away4 ,!n ! "y ,crania adh]$ to ! b>$ %ell1 grew & p]i%$ 9 its turn2 aft] :i* ! upp] valve 0 sep>at$ f ! l[] be=e ! ,anan*ytes became envelop$ 9 *alky mud4 ,fig4 #ac3 ,fossil wood bor$ by ,t]$9a4 ,fig4 #ad3 ,rec5t wood bor$ by ,t]$o4 ,x may be well to m5tion "o m illu/ration ( ! mann] 9 :i* s+le fossils may sometimes ?r[ light on a =m] /ate ( ?+s1 bo? 9 ! b$ ( ! ocean & on "s adjo9+ l&4 ,we meet ) _m fragm5ts ( wood bor$ by %ip-worms at v>i\s dep?s 9 ! clay on :i* ,london is built4 ,entire bran*es & /ems ( trees1 sev]al feet 9 l5g?1 are sometimes f\nd drill$ all ov] by ! holes ( ^! bor]s1 ! tubes & %ells ( ! mollusk /ill rema9+ 9 ! cyl9drical holl[s4 ,9 ,fig4 #ad1 e1 a repres5tation is giv5 ( a piece ( rec5t wood pi]c$ by ! ,t]$o navalis1 or common %ip-worm1 :i* de/roys wood5 piles & %ips4 ,:5 ! cyl9drical tube d has be5 extract$ f ! wood1 ! valves are se5 at ! l>g] or ant]ior extremity1 z %[n at c4 ,9 l mann]1 a piece ( fossil wood 7a1 ,fig4 #ac7 has be5 p]=at$ by a k9dr$ b ext9ct g5us1 ! ,t]$9a ( ,lam>ck4 ,! calc>e\s tube ( ?is mollusk 0 unit$ &1 z x 71 sold]$ on to ! valves ( ! %ell 7b71 :i* !re=e _c be deta*$ f ! tube1 l ! valves ( ! rec5t ,t]$o4 ,! wood 9 ?is fossil specim5 is n[ conv]t$ into a /ony mass1 a mixture ( clay & lime2 b x mu/ once h be5 buoyant & float+ 9 ! sea1 :5 ! ,t]$9 liv$ ^u1 & p]=at$ x4 ,aga91 be=e ! infant colony settl$ ^u ! drift wood1 "p ( a tree mu/ h be5 float$ d[n to ! sea by a riv]1 uproot$1 p]haps1 by a flood1 or torn (f & ca/ into ! waves by ! w9d3 & ?us our ?\ghts are c>ri$ back to a prior p]iod1 :5 ! tree grew = ye>s on dry l&1 enjoy+ a fit soil & climate4 ,/rata ( ,organic ,orig94--,x has be5 already rem>k$ t !re are rocks 9 ! int]ior ( cont95ts1 at v>i\s dep?s 9 ! e>?1 & at great heights above ! sea1 almo/ entirely made up ( ! rema9s ( zoophytes & te/acea4 ,su* masses may be comp>$ to mod]n oy/]-b$s & coral-reefs2 &1 l !m1 ! rate ( increase mu/ h be5 extremely gradual4 ,b !re are a v>iety ( /one deposits 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 n[ prov$ to h be5 d]iv$ f plants & animals ( :i* ! organic orig9 0 n suspect$ until ( late ye>s1 ev5 by naturali/s4 ,great surprise 0 !re=e creat$ "s ye>s s9ce by ! discov]y ( ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g1 ( ,b]l91 t a c]ta9 k9d ( silice\s /one1 call$ tripoli1 0 entirely compos$ ( millions ( ! rema9s ( organic be+s1 :i* 7 =m]ly ref]r$ to microscopic ,infusoria1 b :i* are n[ admitt$ to be plants4 ,!y ab\nd 9 rivulets1 lakes1 & ponds 9 ,engl& & o!r c\ntries1 & are t]m$ ,diatomace by ^? naturali/s :o believe 9 _! vegetable orig94 ,! subject allud$ to has long be5 well-kn[n 9 ! arts1 "u ! "n ( infusorial e>? or m\nta9 meal1 & is us$ 9 ! =m ( p[d] = poli%+ /ones & metals4 ,x has be5 procur$1 among o!r places1 f ! mud ( a lake at ,dolgelly1 9 ,nor? ,wales1 & f ,bil91 9 ,bohemia1 9 :i* latt] place a s+le /ratum1 ext5d+ ov] a wide area1 is no less ?an f\rte5 feet ?ick4 ,?is /one1 :5 exam9$ ) a p[]ful microscope1 is f\nd to consi/ ( ! silice\s plates or fru/ules ( ! above-figur$ ,diatomace1 unit$ toge!r )\t any visible cem5t4 ,x is difficult to convey an idea ( _! extreme m9ut5ess2 b ,ehr5b]g e/imates t 9 ! ,bil9 tripoli !re are #da1jjj millions ( individuals ( ! ,gaillonella di/ans 7see ,fig4 #af7 9 e cubic in* 7:i* weighs ab\t #bbj gra9s71 or ab\t #ahg millions 9 a s+le gra94 ,at e /roke1 !re=e1 t we make ) ?is poli%+ p[d]1 sev]al millions1 p]haps t5s ( millions1 ( p]fect fossils are cru%$ to atoms4 ,figs #ae & #af3 ,gaillonella2 ,fig4 #ag3 ,bacill>ia p>odoxa ,a well-kn[n sub/ance1 call$ bog-iron ore1 (t5 met ) 9 peat-mosses1 has (t5 be5 %[n by ,ehr5b]g to consi/ ( innum]able articulat$ ?reads1 ( a yell[ o*re col\r1 compos$ ( silica1 argillace\s matt]1 & p]oxide ( iron4 ,^! ?reads are ! cases ( a m9ute microscopic body1 call$ ,gaillonella f]rug9ea 7,fig4 #ae71 associat$ ) ! silice\s fru/ules ( o!r fre%-wat] alg4 ,lay]s ( ?is iron ore occurr+ 9 ,scot* peat bogs are (t5 call$ 8! pan10 & are sometimes ( economical value4 ,x is cle> mu* "t mu/ h be5 requir$ = ! accumulation ( /rata to :i* c\ntless g5]ations ( ,diatomace h contribut$ _! rema9s2 & ^! discov]ies lead u naturally to suspect t o!r deposits1 ( :i* ! mat]ials h be5 suppos$ to be inorganic1 may 9 reality be compos$ *iefly ( microscopic organic bodies4 ,t ?is is ! case ) ! :ite *alk1 has (t5 be5 imag9$1 & is n[ prov$ to be ! fact4 ,x has1 moreov]1 be5 lately discov]$ t ! *amb]s into :i* ^! ,=am9if]a are divid$ are actually (t5 fill$ ) ?\s&s ( well-pres]v$ organic bodies1 :i* ab\nd 9 e m9ute gra9 ( *alk1 & are especially app>5t 9 ! :ite coat+ ( fl9ts1 (t5 accompani$ by innum]able ne$le-%ap$ spicul ( sponges 7see ,*apt] ,,xvii74 8,! du/ we tread ^u 0 once alive60--,,byron4 ,h[ fa9t an idea does ?is exclamation ( ! poet convey ( ! real wond]s ( nature6 = "h we discov] pro(s t ! calc>e\s & silice\s du/ ( :i* hills are compos$ has n only be5 once alive1 b almo/ e p>ticle1 albeit invisible to ! nak$ eye1 /ill reta9s ! organic /ructure :i*1 at p]iods ( "t incalculably remote1 0 impress$ ^u x by ! p[]s ( life4 ,fre%-wat] & ,m>9e ,fossils4--,/rata1 :e!r deposit$ 9 salt or fre% wat]1 h ! same =ms2 b ! imb$d$ fossils are v diff]5t 9 ! two cases1 because ! aquatic animals :i* frequ5t lakes & riv]s are di/9ct f ^? inhabit+ ! sea4 ,9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,isle ( ,wight =mations ( m>l & lime/one1 m ?an #ej feet ?ick occur1 9 :i* ! %ells are ( ext9ct species4 ,yet we recognise _! fre%-wat] orig91 because !y are ( ! same g5]a z ^? n[ ab\nd+ 9 ponds1 lakes1 & riv]s1 ei!r 9 our own c\ntry or 9 w>m] latitudes4 ,9 _m p>ts ( ,france--9 ,auv]gne1 = example--/rata occur ( lime/one1 m>l1 & s&/one hundr$s ( feet ?ick1 :i* conta9 exclusively fre%-wat] & l& %ells1 toge!r ) ! rema9s ( t]re/rial quadrup$s4 ,! numb] ( l&-%ells scatt]$ ?r\gh "s ( ^! fre%-wat] deposits is exce$+ly great2 & !re are di/ricts 9 ,g]many :]e ! rocks sc>cely conta9 any o!r fossils except snail-%ells 7helices72 z1 = in/ance1 ! lime/one on ! left bank ( ! ,rh9e1 betwe5 ,may5ce & ,worms1 at ,opp5heim1 ,f9dheim1 ,bud5heim1 & o!r places4 ,9 ord] to acc\nt = ?is ph5om5on1 ! geologi/ has only to exam9e ! small deltas ( torr5ts :i* ent] ! ,swiss lakes :5 ! wat]s are l[1 su* z ! newly-=m$ pla9 :]e ! ,k&] ent]s ! ,lake ( ,?un4 ,he !re sees s& & mud /rewn ov] ) innum]able dead l&-%ells1 :i* h be5 br\ght d[n f ! valleys 9 ! ,alps 9 ! prec$+ spr+1 dur+ ! melt+ ( ! sn[s4 ,aga91 if we se>* ! s&s on ! bord]s ( ! ,rh9e1 9 ! l[] "p ( its c\rse1 we f9d c\ntless l&-%ells mix$ ) o!rs ( species belong+ to lakes1 /agnant pools1 & m>%es4 ,^! individuals h be5 wa%$ away f ! alluvial pla9s ( ! great riv] & its tribut>ies1 "s f m\nta9\s regions1 o!rs f ! l[ c\ntry4 ,al?\gh fre%-wat] =mations are (t5 ( great ?ickness1 yet !y are usually v limit$ 9 area :5 comp>$ to m>9e deposits1 j z lakes & e/u>ies are ( small dim5sions 9 comp>ison ) seas4 ,! abs5ce ( _m fossil =ms usually met ) 9 m>9e /rata1 af=ds a useful negative indication ( ! fre%-wat] orig9 ( a =mation4 ,= example1 !re are no sea-ur*9s1 no corals1 no *amb]$ %ells1 su* z ! nautilus1 nor microscopic ,=am9if]a 9 lacu/r9e or fluviatile deposits4 ,9 di/+ui%+ ! latt] f =mations accumulat$ 9 ! sea1 we are *iefly guid$ by ! =ms ( ! mollusca4 ,9 a fre%-wat] deposit1 ! numb] ( individual %ells is (t5 z great z 9 a m>9e /ratum1 if n great]2 b !re is a small] v>iety ( species & g5]a4 ,?is might be anticipat$ f ! fact t ! g5]a & species ( rec5t fre%-wat] & l& %ells are few :5 contra/$ ) ! m>9e4 ,?us1 ! g5]a ( true mollusca accord+ to ,woodw>d's sy/em1 exclud+ ^? altoge!r ext9ct & ^? )\t %ells1 am\nt to #ddf 9 numb]1 ( :i* ! t]re/rial & fre%-wat] g5]a sc>cely =m m ?an a fif?4#a ,fig4 #ah3 ,cyr5a obovata4 ,fig4 #ai3 ,cyr5a flum9atis4 ,fig4 #bj3 ,anodonta ,cordi]ii4 ,fig4 #ba3 ,anodonta latim>g9ata4 ,fig4 #bb3 ,unio littoralis4 ,almo/ all bivalve %ells1 or ^? ( acephal\s mollusca1 are m>9e1 ab\t sixte5 only out ( #adj g5]a be+ fre%-wat]4 ,among ^! la/1 ! f\r mo/ common =ms1 bo? rec5t & fossil1 are ,cyclas1 ,cyr5a1 ,unio1 & ,anodonta 7see ,figures72 ! two fir/ & two la/ ( :i* are s ne>ly alli$ z to pass into ea* o!r4 ,fig4 #bc3 ,grypha incurva4 ,lam>ck divid$ ! bivalve mollusca into ! ,dimy>y1 or ^? hav+ two l>ge muscul> impressions 9 ea* valve1 z a b 9 ! ,cyclas1 ,fig4 #ah1 & ,unio1 ,fig4 #bb1 & ! ,monomy>y1 su* z ! oy/] & scallop1 9 :i* !re is only "o ( ^! impressions1 z is se5 9 ,fig4 #bc4 ,n[1 z none ( ^! la/1 or ! unimuscul> bivalves1 are fre%-wat]1#b we may at once presume a deposit conta9+ any ( !m to be m>9e4 ,fig4 #bd3 ,planorbis enomphalus4 ,fig4 #be3 ,limna longiscala4 ,fig4 #bf3 ,pauld9a l5ta4 ,fig4 #bg3 ,succ9ea amphibia4 ,fig4 #bh3 ,ancylus velletia4 ,fig4 #bi3 ,valvata pisc9alis4 ,fig4 #cj3 ,physa hypnorum4 ,fig4 #ca3 ,auricula4 ,fig4 #cb3 ,melania inqu9ata4 ,fig4 #cc3 ,physa column>is4 ,fig4 #cd3 ,melanopsis bucc9oidea4 ,fig4 #ce3 ,n]it9a globulud4 ,fig4 #cf3 ,n]ita granulosa4 ,! univalve %ells mo/ *>act]i/ic ( fre%-wat] deposits are1 ,planorbis1 ,limna1 & ,palud9a4 7,see ,figures47 ,b to ^! are occasionally add$ ,physa1 ,succ9ea1 ,ancylus1 ,valvata1 ,melanopsis1 ,melania1 ,potamides1 & ,n]it9a 7see ,figures71 ! f\r la/ be+ usually f\nd 9 e/u>ies4 ,fig4 #cg3 ,potamides c9ctus4 ,"s naturali/s include ,n]it9a 7,fig4 #ce7 & ! m>9e ,n]ita 7,fig4 #cf7 9 ! same g5us1 x be+ sc>cely possible to di/+ui% ! two by good g5]ic *>act]s4 ,b1 z a g5]al rule1 ! fluviatile species are small]1 smoo!r1 & m globul> ?an ! m>9e2 & !y h nev]1 l ! ,n]it1 ! inn] m>g9 ( ! out] lip too!d or cr5ulat$4 7,see ,fig4 #cf47 ,! ,potamides inhabit ! m\?s ( riv]s 9 w>m latitudes1 & are di/+ui%able f ! m>9e ,c]i?ia by _! orbicul> & multispiral op]cula4 ,! g5us ,auricula 7,fig4 #ca7 is amphibi\s1 frequ5t+ swamps & m>%es )9 ! influ5ce ( ! tide4 ,! t]re/rial %ells are all univalves4 ,! mo/ important g5]a among ^!1 bo? 9 a rec5t & fossil /ate1 are ,helix 7,fig4 #ch71 ,cyclo/oma 7,fig4 #ci71 ,pupa 7,fig4 #dj71 ,clausilia 7,fig4 #da71 ,bulimus 7,fig4 #db71 ,gl&9a & ,a*at9a4 ,fig4 #ch3 ,helix ,turom5sis4 ,fig4 #ci3 ,cyclo/oma elegans4 ,fig4 #dj3 ,pupa trid5s4 ,fig4 #da3 ,clausilia bid5s4 ,fig4 #db3 ,bulimus lubricus4 ,ampull>ia 7,fig4 #dc7 is ano!r g5us ( %ells inhabit+ riv]s & ponds 9 hot c\ntries4 ,_m fossil species =m]ly ref]r$ to ?is g5us1 & :i* h be5 met ) *iefly 9 m>9e =mations1 are n[ consid]$ by con*ologi/s to belong to ,natica & o!r m>9e g5]a4 ,fig4 #dc3 ,ampull>ia glauca4 ,all univalve %ells ( l& & fre%-wat] species1 ) ! exception ( ,melanopsis 7,fig4 #cd71 & ,a*at9a1 :i* has a slight ind5tation1 h entire m\?s2 & ?is circum/ance may (t5 s]ve z a conv5i5t rule = di/+ui%+ fre%-wat] f m>9e /rata2 s9ce1 if any univalves occur ( :i* ! m\?s are n entire1 we may presume t ! =mation is m>9e4 ,! ap]ture is said to be entire 9 su* %ells z ! fre%-wat] ,ampull>ia & ! l&-%ells 7,figs #ch-db71 :5 its outl9e is n int]rupt$ by an ind5tation or not*1 su* z t se5 at b 9 ,ancill>ia 7,fig4 #de72 or is n prolong$ into a canal1 z t se5 at a 9 ,pleurotoma 7,fig4 #dd74 ,fig4 #dd3 ,pleurotoma exorta4 ,fig4 #de3 ,ancill>ia subulata4 ,! m\?s ( a l>ge proportion ( ! m>9e univalves h ^! not*es or canals1 & almo/ all species are c>nivor\s2 :]eas ne>ly all te/acea hav+ entire m\?s are plant-eat]s1 :e!r ! species be m>9e1 fre%-wat]1 or t]re/rial4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o g5us :i* af=ds an occasional exception to "o ( ! above rules4 ,! ,potamides 7,fig4 #cg71 a subg5us ( ,c]i?ium1 al?\gh provid$ ) a %ort canal1 comprises "s species :i* inhabit salt1 o!rs bracki%1 & o!rs fre%-wat]1 & !y are said to be all plant-eat]s4 ,among ! fossils v common 9 fre%-wat] deposits are ! %ells ( ,cypris1 a m9ute bivalve cru/ace\s animal4#c ,_m m9ute liv+ species ( ?is g5us sw>m 9 lakes & /agnant pools 9 ,great ,brita92 b _! %ells are n1 if consid]$ sep>ately1 conclusive z to ! fre%-wat] orig9 ( a deposit1 because ! majority ( species 9 ano!r k9dr$ g5us ( ! same ord]1 ! ,cy!r9a ( ,lam>ck1 inhabit salt-wat]2 &1 al?\gh ! animal diff]s slightly1 ! %ell is sc>cely di/+ui%able f t ( ! ,cypris4 ,fre%-wat] ,fossil ,plants4--,! se$-vessels & /ems ( ,*>a1 a g5us ( aquatic plants1 are v frequ5t 9 fre%-wat] /rata4 ,^! se$-vessels 7 call$1 be=e _! true nature 0 kn[n1 gyrogonites1 & 7 suppos$ to be =am9if]\s %ells4 7,see ,fig4 #df1 a47 ,! ,*> inhabit ! bottom ( lakes & ponds1 & fl\ri% mo/ly :]e ! wat] is *>g$ ) c>bonate ( lime4 ,_! se$-vessels are cov]$ ) a v t\gh integum5t1 capable ( resi/+ decomposition2 to :i* circum/ance we may attribute _! abundance 9 a fossil /ate4 ,! annex$ figure 7,fig4 #dg7 repres5ts a bran* ( "o ( _m new species f\nd by ,pr(essor ,amici 9 ! lakes ( ,nor!rn ,italy4 ,! se$-vessel 9 ?is plant is m globul> ?an 9 ! ,briti% ,*>17 & !re=e m ne>ly resembles 9 =m ! ext9ct fossil species f\nd 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 & o!r c\ntries4 ,! /ems1 z well z ! se$-vessels1 ( ^! plants occur bo? 9 mod]n %ell-m>l & 9 anci5t fre%-wat] =mations4 ,!y are g5]ally compos$ ( a l>ge c5tral tube surr\nd$ by small] ones2 ! :ole /em be+ divid$ at c]ta9 int]vals by transv]se p>titions or jo9ts4 7,see b1 ,fig4 #df47 ,fig4 #df3 ,*>a m$icag9ula4 ,fig4 #dg3 ,*>a ela/ica4 ,x is n uncommon to meet ) lay]s ( vegetable matt]1 impressions ( leaves1 & bran*es ( trees1 9 /rata conta9+ fre%-wat] %ells2 & we also f9d occasionally ! tee? & bones ( l& quadrup$s1 ( species n[ unkn[n4 ,! mann] 9 :i* su* rema9s are occasionally c>ri$ by riv]s into lakes1 especially dur+ floods1 has be5 fully treat$ ( 9 ! 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology40 ,fre%-wat] & ,m>9e ,fi%4--,! rema9s ( fi% are occasionally useful 9 det]m9+ ! fre%-wat] orig9 ( /rata4 ,c]ta9 g5]a1 su* z c>p1 p]*1 pike1 & loa* 7,cypr9us1 ,p]ca1 ,esox1 & ,cobitis71 z also ,lebias1 be+ peculi> to fre%-wat]4 ,o!r g5]a conta9 "s fre%-wat] & "s m>9e species1 z ,cottus1 ,mugil1 & ,anguilla1 or eel4 ,! re/ are ei!r common to riv]s & ! sea1 z ! salmon2 or are exclusively *>act]i/ic ( salt-wat]4 ,! above obs]vations respect+ fossil fi%es are applicable only to ! m mod]n or t]ti>y deposits2 = 9 ! m anci5t rocks ! =ms dep>t s widely f ^? ( exi/+ fi%es1 t x is v difficult1 at lea/ 9 ! pres5t /ate ( sci5ce1 to d]ive any positive in=mation f i*?yolites respect+ ! elem5t 9 :i* /rata 7 deposit$4 ,! alt]nation ( m>9e & fre%-wat] =mations1 bo? on a small & l>ge scale1 are facts well asc]ta9$ 9 geology4 ,:5 x occurs on a small scale1 x may h aris5 f ! alt]nate occupation ( c]ta9 spaces by riv]-wat] & ! sea2 = 9 ! flood season ! riv] =ces back ! ocean & fre%5s x ov] a l>ge area1 deposit+ at ! same "t its s$im5t2 aft] :i* ! salt-wat] aga9 returns1 &1 on resum+ its =m] place1 br+s ) x s&1 mud1 & m>9e %ells4 ,!re are also lagoons at ! m\? ( _m riv]s1 z ! ,nile & ,mississippi1 :i* are divid$ (f by b>s ( s& f ! sea1 & :i* are fill$ ) salt & fre% wat] by turns4 ,!y (t5 communicate exclusively ) ! riv] = mon?s1 ye>s1 or ev5 c5turies2 & !n a brea* be+ made 9 ! b> ( s&1 !y are = long p]iods fill$ ) salt-wat]4 ,lym-,fiord4--,! ,lym-,fiord 9 ,jutl& (f]s an excell5t illu/ration ( analog\s *anges2 =1 9 ! c\rse ( ! la/ ?\s& ye>s1 ! we/]n extremity ( ?is long fri?1 :i* is #abj miles 9 l5g?1 includ+ its w9d+s1 has be5 f\r times fre% & f\r times salt1 a b> ( s& betwe5 x & ! ocean hav+ be5 (t5 =m$ & remov$4 ,! la/ irruption ( salt wat] happ5$ 9 #ahbd1 :5 ! ,nor? ,sea ent]$1 kill+ all ! fre%-wat] %ells1 fi%1 & plants2 & f t "t to ! pres5t1 ! sea-we$ ,fucus vesiculosus1 toge!r ) oy/]s & o!r m>9e mollusca1 h succe$$ ! ,cyclas1 ,lymna1 ,palud9a1 & ,*>4#d ,b *anges l ^! 9 ! ,lym-,fiord1 & ^? be=e m5tion$ z occurr+ at ! m\?s ( great riv]s1 w only acc\nt = "s cases ( m>9e deposits ( p>tial ext5t re/+ on fre%-wat] /rata4 ,:5 we f9d1 z 9 ! s\?-ea/ ( ,engl& 7,*apt] ,,xviii71 a great s]ies ( fre%-wat] b$s1 #ajjj feet 9 ?ickness1 re/+ ^u m>9e =mations & aga9 cov]$ by o!r rocks1 su* z ! ,cretace\s1 m ?an #ajjj feet ?ick1 & ( deep-sea orig91 we %all f9d x necess>y to seek = a diff]5t explanation ( ! ph5om5a4 #a ,see ,woodw>d's ,manual ( ,mollusca1 #ahef4 #b ,! fre%-wat] ,mull]ia1 :5 "y1 =ms a s+le exception to ! rule1 z x !n has two muscul> impressions1 b x has only "o 9 ! adult /ate4 #c ,= figures ( fossil species ( ,purbeck1 see ,*apt] ,,xix #d ,see ,pr9ciples1 ,index1 8,lym-,fiord40 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,consolidation ,,( ,,/rata ,,& ,,petrifaction ,,( ,,fossils4 ,*emical & ,me*anical ,deposits4 -- ,cem5t+ toge!r ( ,p>ticles4 -- ,h>d5+ by ,exposure to ,air4 -- ,concretion>y ,nodules4 -- ,consolidat+ ,effects ( ,pressure4 -- ,m9]alization ( ,organic ,rema9s4 -- ,impressions & ,ca/s3 h[ =m$4 -- ,fossil ,wood4 -- ,gopp]t's ,exp]im5ts4 -- ,precipitation ( ,/ony ,matt] mo/ rapid :]e ,putrefaction is go+ on4 -- ,s\rces ( ,lime & ,silex 9 ,solution4 ,hav+ spok5 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s ( ! *>act]s ( s$im5t>y =mations1 bo? z dep5d5t on ! deposition ( inorganic matt] & ! di/ribution ( fossils1 ,i may next treat ( ! consolidation ( /ratifi$ rocks1 & ! petrifaction ( imb$d$ organic rema9s4 ,*emical & ,me*anical ,deposits4-- ,a di/9ction has be5 made by geologi/s betwe5 deposits ( a me*anical1 & ^? ( a *emical1 orig94 ,by ! "n me*anical are designat$ b$s ( mud1 s&1 or pebbles produc$ by ! action ( runn+ wat]1 also accumulations ( /ones & scori ?r[n out by a volcano1 :i* h fall5 into _! pres5t place by ! =ce ( gravitation4 ,b ! matt] :i* =ms a *emical deposit has n be5 me*anically susp5d$ 9 wat]1 b 9 a /ate ( solution until sep>at$ by *emical action4 ,9 ?is mann] c>bonate ( lime is occasionally precipitat$ ^u ! bottom ( lakes 9 a solid =m1 z may be well se5 9 _m p>ts ( ,italy1 :]e m9]al spr+s ab\nd1 & :]e ! calc>e\s /one1 call$ trav]t91 is deposit$4 ,9 ^! spr+s ! lime is usually held 9 solution by an excess ( c>bonic acid1 or by heat if x be a hot spr+1 until ! wat]1 on issu+ f ! e>?1 cools or loses "p ( its acid4 ,! calc>e\s matt] !n falls d[n 9 a solid /ate1 incru/+ %ells1 fragm5ts ( wood & leaves1 & b9d+ !m toge!r4 ,t simil> trav]t9 is =m$ at "s po9ts 9 ! b$ ( ! sea :]e calc>e\s spr+s issue _c be d\bt$1 b z a g5]al rule ! quantity ( lime1 accord+ to ,bis*(f1 spread ?r\gh ! wat]s ( ! ocean is v small1 ! free c>bonic acid gas 9 ! same wat]s be+ five times z mu* z is necess>y to keep ! lime 9 a fluid /ate4 ,c>bonate ( lime1 !re=e1 c r>ely be precipitat$ at ! bottom ( ! sea by *emical action alone1 b mu/ be produc$ by vital ag5cy z 9 ! case ( coral reefs4 ,9 su* reefs1 l>ge masses ( lime/one are =m$ by ! /ony skeletons ( zoophytes2 & ^!1 toge!r ) %ells1 become cem5t$ toge!r by c>bonate ( lime1 "p ( :i* is probably furni%$ to ! sea-wat] by ! decomposition ( dead corals4 ,ev5 %ells1 ( :i* ! animals are /ill liv+ on ^! reefs1 are v commonly f\nd to be incru/$ ov] ) a h>d coat+ ( lime/one4 ,if s& & pebbles are c>ri$ by a riv] into ! sea1 & ^! are b\nd toge!r imm$iately by c>bonate ( lime1 ! deposit may be describ$ z ( a mix$ orig91 p>tly *emical1 & p>tly me*anical4 ,n[1 ! rem>ks already made 9 ,*apt] ,,ii1 on ! orig9al horizontality ( /rata are /rictly applicable to me*anical deposits1 & only p>tially to ^? ( a mix$ nature4 ,su* z are purely *emical may be =m$ on a v /eep slope1 or may ev5 incru/ ! v]tical walls ( a fissure1 & be ( equal ?ickness ?r\gh\t2 b su* deposits are ( small ext5t1 & = ! mo/ "p conf9$ to ve9-/ones4 ,consolidation ( ,/rata4--,x is *iefly 9 ! case ( calc>e\s rocks t solidification takes place at ! "t ( deposition4 ,b !re are _m deposits 9 :i* a cem5t+ process comes into op]ation long aft]w>ds4 ,we may sometimes obs]ve1 :]e ! wat] ( f]rug9\s or calc>e\s spr+s has fl[$ ?r\gh a b$ ( s& or gravel1 t iron or c>bonate ( lime has be5 deposit$ 9 ! int]/ices betwe5 ! gra9s or pebbles1 s t 9 c]ta9 places ! :ole has be5 b\nd toge!r into a /one1 ! same set ( /rata rema9+ 9 o!r p>ts loose & incoh]5t4 ,pro(s ( a simil> cem5t+ action are se5 9 a rock at ,kell[ay1 9 ,wilt%ire4 ,a peculi> b& ( s&y /rata belong+ to ! gr\p call$ ,oolite by geologi/s may be trac$ ?r\gh sev]al c\nties1 ! s& be+ = ! mo/ "p loose & unconsolidat$1 b becom+ /ony ne> ,kell[ay4 ,9 ?is di/rict !re are num]\s fossil %ells :i* h decompos$1 hav+ = ! mo/ "p left only _! ca/s4 ,! calc>e\s matt] h5ce d]iv$ has evid5tly s]v$1 at "s =m] p]iod1 z a cem5t to ! silice\s gra9s ( s&1 & ?us a solid s&/one has be5 produc$4 ,if we take fragm5ts ( _m o!r argillace\s grits1 reta9+ ! ca/s ( %ells1 & plunge !m into dilute muriatic or o!r acid1 we see !m imm$iately *ang$ into common s& & mud2 ! cem5t ( lime1 d]iv$ f ! %ells1 hav+ be5 dissolv$ by ! acid4 ,traces ( impressions & ca/s are (t5 extremely fa9t4 ,9 "s loose s&s ( rec5t date we meet ) %ells 9 s advanc$ a /age ( decomposition z to crumble into p[d] :5 t\*$4 ,x is cle> t wat] p]colat+ su* /rata may soon remove ! calc>e\s matt] ( ! %ell2 & unless circum/ances cause ! c>bonate ( lime to be aga9 deposit$1 ! gra9s ( s& w n be cem5t$ toge!r2 9 :i* case no memorial ( ! fossil w rema94 ,9 :at mann] silex & c>bonate ( lime may become widely diffus$ 9 small quantities ?r\gh ! wat]s :i* p]meate ! e>?'s cru/ w be spok5 ( pres5tly1 :5 ! petrifaction ( fossil bodies is consid]$2 b ,i may rem>k "h t su* wat]s are always pass+ 9 ! case ( !rmal spr+s f hott] to cold] p>ts ( ! int]ior ( ! e>?2 &1 z (t5 z ! temp]ature ( ! solv5t is l[]$1 m9]al matt] has a t5d5cy to sep>ate f x & solidify4 ,?us a /ony cem5t is (t5 suppli$ to s&1 pebbles1 or any fragm5t>y mixture4 ,9 "s conglom]ates1 l ! pudd+-/one ( ,h]t=d%ire 7a ,l[] ,eoc5e deposit71 pebbles ( fl9t & gra9s ( s& are unit$ by a silice\s cem5t s firmly1 t if a block be fractur$1 ! r5t passes z readily ?r\gh ! pebbles z ?r\gh ! cem5t4 ,x is probable t _m /rata became solid at ! "t :5 !y em]g$ f ! wat]s 9 :i* !y 7 deposit$1 & :5 !y fir/ =m$ a "p ( ! dry l&4 ,a well-kn[n fact seems to confirm ?is idea3 by f> ! great] numb] ( ! /ones us$ = build+ & road-mak+ are mu* s(t] :5 fir/ tak5 f ! qu>ry ?an aft] !y h be5 long expos$ to ! air2 & ^!1 :5 once dri$1 may aft]w>ds be imm]s$ = any l5g? ( "t 9 wat] )\t becom+ s(t aga94 ,h5ce x is f\nd desirable to %ape ! /ones :i* are to be us$ 9 ar*itecture :ile !y are yet s(t & wet1 & :ile !y conta9 _! 8qu>ry-wat]10 z x is call$2 also to break up /one int5d$ = roads :5 s(t1 & !n leave x to dry 9 ! air = mon?s t x may h>d54 ,su* induration may p]haps be acc\nt$ = by suppos+ ! wat]1 :i* p5etrates ! m9ute/ pores ( rocks1 to deposit1 on evaporation1 c>bonate ( lime1 iron1 silex1 & o!r m9]als previ\sly held 9 solution1 & !reby to fill up ! pores p>tially4 ,^! p>ticles1 on cry/allis+1 w\ld n only be !mselves depriv$ ( fre$om ( motion1 b w\ld also b9d toge!r o!r portions ( ! rock :i* be=e 7 loosely aggregat$4 ,on ! same pr9ciple wet s& & mud become z h>d z /one :5 froz52 because "o +r$i5t ( ! mass1 namely1 ! wat]1 has cry/allis$1 s z to hold firmly toge!r all ! sep>ate p>ticles ( :i* ! loose mud & s& 7 compos$4 ,dr4 ,mac,culloch m5tions a s&/one 9 ,skye1 :i* may be m\ld$ l d\gh :5 fir/ f\nd2 & "s simple m9]als1 :i* are rigid & z h>d z glass 9 our cab9ets1 are (t5 flexible & s(t 9 _! native b$s3 ?is is ! case ) asbe/os1 sahlite1 tremolite1 & *alc$ony1 & x is report$ also to happ5 9 ! case ( ! b]yl4#a ,! m>l rec5tly deposit$ at ! bottom ( ,lake ,sup]ior1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 is s(t1 & (t5 fill$ ) fre%-wat] %ells2 b if a piece be tak5 up & dri$1 x becomes s h>d t x c only be brok5 by a sm>t bl[ ( ! hamm]4 ,if ! lake1 !re=e1 0 dra9$1 su* a deposit w\ld be f\nd to consi/ ( /rata ( m>l/one1 l t obs]v$ 9 _m anci5t ,european =mations1 &1 l !m1 conta9+ fre%-wat] %ells4 ,fig4 #dh3 ,calc>e\s nodules 9 ,lias4 ,concretion>y ,/ructure4--,x is probable t "s ( ! het]og5e\s mat]ials :i* riv]s transport to ! sea may at once set "u wat]1 l ! artificial mixture call$ pozzolana1 :i* consi/s ( f9e volcanic s& *>g$ ) ab\t tw5ty p] c5t ( oxide ( iron1 & ! addition ( a small quantity ( lime4 ,?is sub/ance h>d5s1 & becomes a solid /one 9 wat]1 & 0 us$ by ! ,romans 9 con/ruct+ ! f\ndations ( build+s 9 ! sea4 ,consolidation 9 su* cases is br\ght ab\t by ! action ( *emical aff9ity on f9ely comm9ut$ matt] previ\sly susp5d$ 9 wat]4 ,aft] deposition simil> p>ticles seem (t5 to ex]t a mutual attraction on ea* o!r1 & congregate toge!r 9 p>ticul> spots1 =m+ lumps1 nodules1 & concretions4 ,?us 9 _m argillace\s deposits !re are calc>e\s balls1 or sph]ical concretions1 rang$ 9 lay]s p>allel to ! g5]al /ratification2 an arrangem5t :i* took place aft] ! %ale or m>l _h be5 ?r[n d[n 9 successive lam92 = ^! lam9 are (t5 traceable ?r\gh ! concretions1 rema9+ p>allel to ^? ( ! surr\nd+ unconsolidat$ rock4 7,see ,fig4 #dh47 ,su* nodules ( lime/one h (t5 a %ell or o!r =eign body 9 ! c5tre4 ,among ! mo/ rem>kable examples ( concretion>y /ructure are ^? describ$ by ,pr(essor ,s$gwick z ab\nd+ 9 ! magnesian lime/one ( ! nor? ( ,engl&4 ,! sph]ical balls are ( v>i\s sizes1 f t ( a pea to a diamet] ( sev]al feet1 & !y h bo? a conc5tric & radiat$ /ructure1 :ile at ! same "t ! lam9 ( orig9al deposition pass un9t]rupt$ly ?r\gh !m4 ,9 "s cliffs ?is lime/one resembles a great irregul> pile ( cannon-balls4 ,"s ( ! globul> masses h _! c5tre 9 "o /ratum1 :ile a portion ( _! ext]ior passes ?r\gh to ! /ratum above or bel[4 ,?us ! l>g] sph]oid 9 ! section 7,fig4 #di7 passes f ! /ratum b upw>d into a4 ,9 ?is in/ance we mu/ suppose ! deposition ( a s]ies ( m9or lay]s1 fir/ =m+ ! /ratum b1 & aft]w>ds ! incumb5t /ratum a2 !n a movem5t ( ! p>ticles took place1 & ! c>bonates ( lime & magnesia sep>at$ f ! m impure & mix$ matt] =m+ ! /ill unconsolidat$ p>ts ( ! /ratum4 ,cry/allisation1 beg9n+ at ! c5tre1 mu/ h gone on =m+ conc5tric coats ar\nd ! orig9al nucleus )\t int]f]+ ) ! lam9at$ /ructure ( ! rock4 ,fig4 #di3 ,sph]oidal concretions 9 magnesian lime/one4 ,fig4 #ej3 ,section ?r\gh /rata ( grit4 ,:5 ! p>ticles ( rocks h be5 ?us re>rang$ by *emical =ces1 x is sometimes difficult or impossible to asc]ta9 :e!r c]ta9 l9es ( division are due to orig9al deposition or to ! subsequ5t aggregation ( sev]al p>ticles4 ,?us suppose ?ree /rata ( grit1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 are *>g$ unequally ) calc>e\s matt]1 & t ,b is ! mo/ calc>e\s4 ,if consolidation takes place 9 ,b1 ! concretion>y action may spread upw>d into a "p ( ,a1 :]e ! c>bonate ( lime is m abundant ?an 9 ! re/2 s t a mass1 d e f1 =m+ a portion ( ! sup]ior /ratum1 becomes unit$ ) ,b into "o solid mass ( /one4 ,! orig9al l9e ( division1 d e1 be+ ?us effac$1 ! l9e d f w\ld g5]ally be consid]$ z ! surface ( ! b$ ,b1 ?\gh n /rictly a true plane ( /ratification4 ,pressure & ,heat4--,:5 s& & mud s9k to ! bottom ( a deep sea1 ! p>ticles are n press$ d[n by ! enorm\s weight ( ! incumb5t ocean2 = ! wat]1 :i* becomes m+l$ ) ! s& & mud1 resi/s pressure ) a =ce equal to t ( ! column ( fluid above4 ,! same happ5s 9 reg>d to organic rema9s :i* are fill$ ) wat] "u great pressure z !y s9k1 o!rwise !y w\ld be imm$iately cru%$ to pieces & flatt5$4 ,nev]!less1 if ! mat]ials ( a /ratum rema9 9 a yield+ /ate1 & d n set or solidify1 !y w be gradually squeez$ d[n by ! weight ( o!r mat]ials successively heap$ ^u !m1 j z s(t clay or loose s& on :i* a h\se is built may give way4 ,by su* d[nw>d pressure p>ticles ( clay1 s&1 & m>l may become pack$ into a small] space1 & be made to coh]e toge!r p]man5tly4 ,analog\s effects ( cond5sation may arise :5 ! solid p>ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ are =c$ 9 v>i\s directions by ^? me*anical movem5ts h]eaft] to be describ$1 by :i* /rata h be5 b5t1 brok51 & rais$ above ! level ( ! sea4 ,rocks ( m yield+ mat]ials mu/ (t5 h be5 =c$ aga9/ o!rs previ\sly consolidat$1 & may ?us by compression h acquir$ a new /ructure4 ,a rec5t discov]y may help u to compreh5d h[ f9e s$im5t d]iv$ f ! detritus ( rocks may be solidifi$ by m]e pressure4 ,! graphite or 8black lead0 ( comm]ce hav+ become v sc>ce1 ,mr4 ,brock$on contriv$ a me?od by :i* ! du/ ( ! pur] portions ( ! m9]al f\nd 9 ,borr[dale might be recompos$ into a mass z d5se & compact z native graphite4 ,! p[d] ( graphite is fir/ c>efully prep>$ & fre$ f air1 & plac$ "u a p[]ful press on a /rong /eel die1 ) air-tight fitt+s4 ,x is !n /ruck sev]al bl[s1 ea* ( a p[] ( #ajjj tons2 aft] :i* op]ation ! p[d] is s p]fectly solidifi$ t x c be cut = p5cils1 & exhibits :5 brok5 ! same texture z native graphite4 ,b ! action ( heat at v>i\s dep?s 9 ! e>? is probably ! mo/ p[]ful ( all causes 9 h>d5+ s$im5t>y /rata4 ,to ?is subject ,i %all ref] aga9 :5 treat+ ( ! metamorphic rocks1 & ( ! slaty & jo9t$ /ructure4 ,m9]alisation ( ,organic ,rema9s4--,! *anges :i* fossil organic bodies h und]gone s9ce !y 7 fir/ imb$d$ 9 rocks1 ?r[ mu* light on ! consolidation ( /rata4 ,fossil %ells 9 "s mod]n deposits h be5 sc>cely alt]$ 9 ! c\rse ( c5turies1 hav+ simply lo/ a "p ( _! animal matt]4 ,b 9 o!r cases ! %ell has disappe>$1 & left an impression only ( its ext]ior1 or1 secondly1 a ca/ ( its int]ior =m1 or1 ?irdly1 a ca/ ( ! %ell itself1 ! orig9al matt] ( :i* has be5 remov$4 ,^! diff]5t =ms ( fossilisation may easily be und]/ood if we exam9e ! mud rec5tly ?r[n out f a pond or canal 9 :i* !re are %ells4 ,if ! mud be argillace\s1 x acquires consi/5cy on dry+1 & on break+ op5 a portion ( x we f9d t ea* %ell has left impressions ( its ext]nal =m4 ,if we !n remove ! %ell itself1 we f9d )9 a solid nucleus ( clay1 hav+ ! =m ( ! int]ior ( ! %ell4 ,?is =m is (t5 v diff]5t f t ( ! out] %ell4 ,?us a ca/ su* z a1 ,fig4 #ea1 commonly call$ a fossil screw1 w\ld nev] be suspect$ by an inexp]i5c$ con*ologi/ to be ! int]nal %ape ( ! fossil univalve1 b1 ,fig4 #ea4 ,nor %\ld we h imag9$ at fir/ sight t ! %ell a & ! ca/ b1 ,fig4 #eb1 belong to "o & ! same fossil4 ,! read] w obs]ve1 9 ! la/-m5tion$ figure 7b1 ,fig4 #eb71 t an empty space %ad$ d>k1 :i* ! %ell itself once occupi$1 n[ int]v5es betwe5 ! envelop+ /one & ! ca/ ( ! smoo? int]ior ( ! :orls4 ,9 su* cases ! %ell has be5 dissolv$ & ! compon5t p>ticles remov$ by wat] p]colat+ ! rock4 ,if ! nucleus 7 tak5 out1 a holl[ m\ld w\ld rema91 on :i* ! ext]nal =m ( ! %ell ) its tub]cles & /ri1 z se5 9 a1 ,fig4 #eb1 w\ld be se5 emboss$4 ,n[ if ! space allud$ to betwe5 ! nucleus & ! impression1 in/ead ( be+ left empty1 has be5 fill$ up ) calc>e\s sp>1 fl9t1 pyrites1 or o!r m9]al1 we !n obta9 f ! m\ld an exact ca/ bo? ( ! ext]nal & int]nal =m ( ! orig9al %ell4 ,9 ?is mann] silicifi$ ca/s ( %ells h be5 =m$2 & if ! mud or s& ( ! nucleus happ5 to be incoh]5t1 or soluble 9 acid1 we c !n procure 9 fl9t an empty %ell1 :i* 9 %ape is ! exact c\nt]p>t ( ! orig9al4 ,?is ca/ may be comp>$ to a bronze /atue1 repres5t+ m]ely ! sup]ficial =m1 & n ! int]nal organisation2 b !re is ano!r description ( petrifaction by no means uncommon1 & ( a mu* m wond]ful k9d1 :i* may be comp>$ to c]ta9 anatomical models 9 wax1 :]e n only ! outw>d =ms & features1 b ! n]ves1 blood-vessels1 & o!r int]nal organs are also %[n4 ,?us we f9d corals1 orig9ally calc>e\s1 9 :i* n only ! g5]al %ape1 b also ! m9ute & complicat$ int]nal organisation is reta9$ 9 fl9t4 ,fig4 #ea3 ,phasianella ,h$d+ton5sis4 ,fig4 #eb3 ,pleurotom>ia ,anglica4 ,fig4 #ec3 ,section ( a tree f ! coal-measures4 ,su* a process ( petrifaction is /ill m rem>kably exhibit$ 9 fossil wood1 9 :i* we (t5 p]ceive n only ! r+s ( annual gr[?1 b all ! m9ute vessels & m$ull>y rays4 ,_m ( ! m9ute cells & fibres ( plants1 & ev5 ^? spiral vessels :i* 9 ! liv+ vegetable c only be discov]$ by ! microscope1 are pres]v$4 ,among _m in/ances1 ,i may m5tion a fossil tree1 sev5ty-two feet 9 l5g?1 f\nd at ,gos=?1 ne> ,newca/le1 9 s&/one /rata associat$ ) coal4 ,by cutt+ a transv]se slice s ?9 z to transmit light1 & magnify+ x ab\t fifty-five times1 ! texture1 z se5 9 ,fig4 #ec1 is exhibit$4 ,a texture equally m9ute & complicat$ has be5 obs]v$ 9 ! wood ( l>ge trunks ( fossil trees f\nd 9 ! ,craiglei? qu>ry ne> ,ed9burgh1 :]e ! /one 0 n 9 ! slighte/ degree silice\s1 b consi/$ *iefly ( c>bonate ( lime1 ) oxide ( iron1 alum9a1 & c>bon4 ,! p>allel r[s ( vessels "h se5 are ! r+s ( annual gr[?1 b 9 "o "p !y are imp]fectly pres]v$1 ! wood hav+ probably decay$ be=e ! m9]alis+ matt] _h p5etrat$ to t portion ( ! tree4 ,9 attempt+ to expla9 ! process ( petrifaction 9 su* cases1 we may fir/ assume t /rata are v g5]ally p]meat$ by wat] *>g$ ) m9ute portions ( calc>e\s1 silice\s1 & o!r e>?s 9 solution4 ,9 :at mann] !y become s impregnat$ w be aft]w>ds consid]$4 ,if an organic sub/ance is expos$ 9 ! op5 air to ! action ( ! sun & ra91 x w 9 "t putrefy1 or be dissolv$ into its compon5t elem5ts1 consi/+ usually ( oxyg51 hydrog51 nitrog51 & c>bon4 ,^! w readily be absorb$ by ! atmosph]e or be wa%$ away by ra91 s t all ve/iges ( ! dead animal or plant disappe>4 ,b if ! same sub/ances be subm]g$ 9 wat]1 !y decompose m gradually2 & if buri$ 9 e>?1 /ill m sl[ly2 z 9 ! famili> example ( wood5 piles or o!r buri$ timb]4 ,n[1 if z fa/ z ea* p>ticle is set free by putrefaction 9 a fluid or gase\s /ate1 a p>ticle equally m9ute ( c>bonate ( lime1 fl9t1 or o!r m9]al1 is at h& ready to be precipitat$1 we may imag9e ?is inorganic matt] to take ! place j be=e left unoccupi$ by ! organic molecule4 ,9 ?is mann] a ca/ ( ! int]ior ( c]ta9 vessels may fir/ be tak51 & aft]w>ds ! m solid walls ( ! same may decay & suff] a l transmutation4 ,yet :5 ! :ole is lapidifi$1 x may n =m "o homog5e\s mass ( /one or metal4 ,"s ( ! orig9al ligne\s1 osse\s1 or o!r organic elem5ts may rema9 m+l$ 9 c]ta9 p>ts1 or ! lapidify+ sub/ance itself may be diff]5tly col\r$ at diff]5t times1 or s cry/allis$ z to reflect light diff]5tly1 & ?us ! texture ( ! orig9al body may be fai?fully exhibit$4 ,! /ud5t may p]haps ask :e!r1 on *emical pr9ciples1 we h any gr\nd to expect t m9]al matt] w be ?r[n d[n precisely 9 ^? spots :]e organic decomposition is 9 progress8 ,! foll[+ curi\s exp]im5ts may s]ve to illu/rate ?is po9t3 ,pr(essor ,gopp]t ( ,breslau1 ) a view ( imitat+ ! natural process ( petrifaction1 /eep$ a v>iety ( animal & vegetable sub/ances 9 wat]s1 "s hold+ silice\s1 o!rs calc>e\s1 o!rs metallic matt] 9 solution4 ,he f\nd t 9 ! p]iod ( a few weeks1 or sometimes ev5 days1 ! organic bodies ?us imm]s$ 7 m9]alis$ to a c]ta9 ext5t4 ,?us1 = example1 ?9 v]tical slices ( deal1 tak5 f ! ,scot* fir 7,p9us sylve/ris71 7 imm]s$ 9 a mod]ately /rong solution ( sulphate ( iron4 ,:5 !y _h be5 ?or\ghly soak$ 9 ! liquid = sev]al days !y 7 dri$ & expos$ to a r$-heat until ! vegetable matt] 0 burnt up & no?+ rema9$ b an oxide ( iron1 :i* 0 f\nd to h tak5 ! =m ( ! deal s exactly t ca/s ev5 ( ! dott$ vessels peculi> to ?is family ( plants 7 di/9ctly visible "u ! microscope4 ,! late ,dr4 ,turn] obs]ves1 t :5 m9]al matt] is 9 a 8nasc5t /ate10 t is to say1 j lib]at$ f a previ\s /ate ( *emical comb9ation1 x is mo/ ready to unite ) o!r matt]1 & =m a new *emical comp\nd4 ,probably ! p>ticles or atoms j set free are ( extreme m9ut5ess1 & !re=e move m freely1 & are m ready to obey any impulse ( *emical aff9ity4 ,:atev] be ! cause1 x cle>ly foll[s1 z be=e /at$1 t :]e organic matt] newly imb$d$ 9 s$im5t is decompos+1 !re w *emical *anges take place mo/ actively4 ,an analysis 0 lately made ( ! wat] :i* 0 fl[+ (f f ! ri* mud deposit$ by ! ,hooghly ,riv] 9 ! ,delta ( ! ,ganges aft] ! annual inundation4 ,?is wat] 0 f\nd to be highly *>g$ ) c>bonic acid hold+ lime 9 solution4#b ,n[ if newly-deposit$ mud is ?us prov$ to be p]meat$ by m9]al matt] 9 a /ate ( solution1 x is n difficult to p]ceive t decompos+ organic bodies1 naturally imb$d$ 9 s$im5t1 may z readily become petrifi$ z ! sub/ances artificially imm]s$ by ,pr(essor ,gopp]t 9 v>i\s fluid mixtures4 ,x is well kn[n t ! wat]s ( all spr+s are m or less *>g$ ) e>?y1 alkal9e1 or metallic +r$i5ts d]iv$ f ! rocks & m9]al ve9s ?r\gh :i* !y p]colate4 ,silex is especially abundant 9 hot spr+s1 & c>bonate ( lime is almo/ always pres5t 9 great] or less quantity4 ,! mat]ials = ! petrifaction ( organic rema9s are1 !re=e1 usually at h& 9 a /ate ( *emical solution :]ev] organic rema9s are imb$d$ 9 new /rata4 #a ,dr4 ,mac,culloch1 ,sy/4 ( ,geol41 vol4 i1 p4 #abc4 #b ,pidd+ton1 ,asiat4 ,rese>*41 vol4 xviii1 p4 #bbf4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,elevation ,,( ,,/rata ,,above ,,! ,,sea4--,,horizontal ,,& ,,incl9$ ,,/ratification4 ,:y ! ,position ( ,m>9e ,/rata1 above ! ,level ( ! ,sea1 %\ld be ref]r$ to ! ris+ up ( ! ,l&1 n to ! go+ d[n ( ! ,sea4 -- ,/rata ( ,deep-sea & ,%all[-wat] ,orig9 alt]nate4 -- ,also ,m>9e & ,fre%-wat] ,b$s & old ,l& ,surfaces4 -- ,v]tical1 incl9$1 & fold$ ,/rata4 -- ,anticl9al & ,syncl9al ,curves4 -- ,!ories to expla9 ,lat]al ,movem5ts4 -- ,creeps 9 ,coal-m9es4 -- ,dip & ,/rike4 -- ,/ructure ( ! ,jura4 -- ,v>i\s ,=ms ( ,outcrop4 -- ,syncl9al ,/rata =m+ ,ridges4 -- ,connection ( ,fracture & ,flexure ( ,rocks4 -- ,inv]t$ ,/rata4 -- ,faults describ$4 -- ,sup]ficial ,signs ( ! same oblit]at$ by ,d5udation4 -- ,great ,faults ! ,result ( repeat$ ,movem5ts4 -- ,arrangem5t & ,direction ( p>allel ,folds ( ,/rata4 -- ,uncon=mability4 -- ,ov]lapp+ ,/rata4 ,l& has be5 rais$1 n ! ,sea l[]$4--,x has be5 already /at$ t ! aque\s rocks conta9+ m>9e fossils ext5d ov] wide cont95tal tracts1 & are se5 9 m\nta9 *a9s ris+ to great heights above ! level ( ! sea 7p4 #bi74 ,h5ce x foll[s1 t :at is n[ dry l& 0 once "u wat]4 ,b if we admit ?is conclusion1 we mu/ imag9e1 ei!r t !re has be5 a g5]al l[]+ ( ! wat]s ( ! ocean1 or t ! solid rocks1 once cov]$ by wat]1 h be5 rais$ up bodily out ( ! sea1 & h ?us become dry l&4 ,! e>li] geologi/s1 f9d+ !mselves r$uc$ to ?is alt]native1 embrac$ ! =m] op9ion1 assum+ t ! ocean 0 orig9ally univ]sal1 & _h gradually sunk d[n to its actual level1 s t ! pres5t isl&s & cont95ts 7 left dry4 ,x seem$ to !m f> easi] to conceive t ! wat] _h gone d[n1 ?an t solid l& _h ris5 upw>d into its pres5t position4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 impossible to inv5t any satisfactory hypo!sis to expla9 ! disappe>ance ( s enorm\s a body ( wat] ?r\gh\t ! globe1 x be+ necess>y to inf] t ! ocean _h once /ood at :atev] height m>9e %ells might be detect$4 ,x moreov] appe>$ cle>1 z ! sci5ce ( geology advanc$1 t c]ta9 spaces on ! globe _h be5 alt]nately sea1 !n l&1 !n e/u>y1 !n sea aga91 &1 la/ly1 once m habitable l&1 hav+ rema9$ 9 ea* ( ^! /ates = consid]able p]iods4 ,9 ord] to acc\nt = su* ph5om5a )\t admitt+ any movem5t ( ! l& itself1 we are requir$ to imag9e sev]al retreats & returns ( ! ocean2 & ev5 !n our !ory applies m]ely to cases :]e ! m>9e /rata compos+ ! dry l& are horizontal1 leav+ unexpla9$ ^? m common in/ances :]e /rata are incl9$1 curv$1 or plac$ on _! edges1 & evid5tly n 9 ! position 9 :i* !y 7 fir/ deposit$4 ,geologi/s1 !re=e1 7 at la/ compell$ to h rec\rse to ! doctr9e t ! solid l& has be5 repeat$ly mov$ upw>d or d[nw>d1 s z p]man5tly to *ange its position relatively to ! sea4 ,!re are sev]al di/9ct gr\nds = pref]r+ ?is conclusion4 ,fir/1 x w acc\nt equally = ! position ( ^? elevat$ masses ( m>9e orig9 9 :i* ! /ratification rema9s horizontal1 & = ^? 9 :i* ! /rata are di/urb$1 brok51 incl9$1 or v]tical4 ,secondly1 x is consi/5t ) human exp]i5ce t l& %\ld rise gradually 9 "s places & be depress$ 9 o!rs4 ,su* *anges h actually occurr$ 9 our own days1 & are n[ 9 progress1 hav+ be5 accompani$ 9 "s cases by viol5t convulsions1 :ile 9 o!rs !y h proce$$ s ins5sibly z to h be5 asc]ta9able only by ! mo/ c>eful sci5tific obs]vations1 made at consid]able int]vals ( "t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re is no evid5ce f human exp]i5ce ( a ris+ or l[]+ ( ! sea's level 9 any region1 & ! ocean _c be rais$ or depress$ 9 "o place )\t its level be+ *ang$ all ov] ! globe4 ,^! prelim9>y rem>ks w prep>e ! read] to und]/& ! great !oretical int]e/ atta*$ to all facts connect$ ) ! position ( /rata1 :e!r horizontal or incl9$1 curv$ or v]tical4 ,n[ ! fir/ & mo/ simple appe>ance is :]e /rata ( m>9e orig9 occur above ! level ( ! sea 9 horizontal position4 ,su* are ! /rata :i* we meet ) 9 ! s\? ( ,sicily1 fill$ ) %ells = ! mo/ "p ( ! same species z ^? n[ liv+ 9 ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,"s ( ^! rocks rise to ! height ( m ?an #bjjj feet above ! sea4 ,o!r m\nta9 masses might be m5tion$1 compos$ ( horizontal /rata ( high antiquity1 :i* conta9 fossil rema9s ( animals :olly dissimil> f any n[ kn[n to exi/4 ,9 ! s\? ( ,sw$51 = example1 ne> ,lake ,w5]1 ! b$s ( "s ( ! olde/ fossilif]\s deposits1 call$ ,silurian & ,cambrian by geologi/s1 occur 9 z level a position z if !y _h rec5tly =m$ "p ( ! delta ( a great riv]1 & be5 left dry on ! retir+ ( ! annual floods4 ,aque\s rocks ( equal antiquity ext5d = hundr$s ( miles ov] ! lake-di/rict ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & exhibit 9 l mann] a /ratification ne>ly undi/urb$4 ,! ,table ,m\nta9 at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope is ano!r example ( highly elevat$ yet p]fectly horizontal /rata1 no less ?an #cejj feet 9 ?ickness1 & consi/+ ( s&/one ( v anci5t date4 ,in/ead ( imag9+ t su* fossilif]\s rocks 7 always at _! pres5t level1 & t ! sea 0 once high en\gh to cov] !m1 we suppose !m to h con/itut$ ! anci5t b$ ( ! ocean1 & to h be5 aft]w>ds uplift$ to _! pres5t height4 ,?is idea1 h[ev] />tl+ x may at fir/ appe>1 is q 9 accordance1 z be=e /at$1 ) ! analogy ( *anges n[ go+ on 9 c]ta9 regions ( ! globe4 ,?us1 9 p>ts ( ,sw$51 & ! %ores & isl&s ( ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia1 pro(s h be5 obta9$ t ! l& is exp]i5c+1 & has exp]i5c$ = c5turies1 a sl[ upheav+ movem5t4#a ,x appe>s f ! obs]vations ( ,mr4 ,d>w9 & o!rs1 t v ext5sive regions ( ! cont95t ( ,s\? ,am]ica h be5 und]go+ sl[ & gradual upheaval1 by :i* ! level pla9s ( ,patagonia1 cov]$ ) rec5t m>9e %ells1 & ! ,pampas ( ,bu5os ,ayres1 h be5 rais$ above ! level ( ! sea4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! gradual s9k+ ( ! we/ coa/ ( ,gre5l&1 = ! space ( m ?an #fjj miles f nor? to s\?1 dur+ ! la/ f\r c5turies1 has be5 e/abli%$ by ! obs]vations ( a ,dani% naturali/1 ,dr4 ,p+el4 ,& :ile ^! pro(s ( cont95tal elevation & subsid5ce1 by sl[ & ins5sible movem5ts1 h be5 rec5tly br\ght to light1 ! evid5ce has be5 daily /r5g!n$ ( cont9u$ *anges ( level effect$ by viol5t convulsions 9 c\ntries :]e e>?quakes are frequ5t4 ,!re ! rocks are r5t f "t to "t1 & heav$ up or ?r[n d[n sev]al feet at once1 & di/urb$ 9 su* a mann] z to %[ h[ entirely ! orig9al position ( /rata may be modifi$ 9 ! c\rse ( c5turies4 ,mr4 ,d>w9 has also inf]r$ t1 9 ^? seas :]e circul> coral isl&s & b>ri] reefs ab\nd1 !re is a sl[ & cont9u$ s9k+ ( ! subm>9e m\nta9s on :i* ! masses ( coral are bas$2 :ile !re are o!r areas ( ! ,s\? ,sea :]e ! l& is on ! rise1 & :]e coral has be5 upheav$ f> above ! sea-level4 ,alt]nations ( ,m>9e & ,fre%-wat] ,/rata4--,x has be5 %[n 9 ! ?ird *apt] t !re is su* a diff]5cebetwe5 l&1 fre%-wat]1 & m>9e fossils z to enable ! geologi/ to det]m9e :e!r p>ticul> gr\ps ( /rata 7 =m$ at ! bottom ( ! ocean or 9 e/u>ies1 riv]s1 or lakes4 ,if surprise 0 at fir/ creat$ by ! discov]y ( m>9e corals & %ells at ! height ( sev]al miles above ! sea-level1 ! imag9ation 0 aft]w>ds n less />tl$ by obs]v+ t 9 ! successive /rata compos+ ! e>?'s cru/1 especially if _! total ?ickness am\nt$ to ?\s&s ( feet1 !y compris$ 9 "s p>ts =mations ( %all[-sea z well z ( deep-sea orig92 also b$s ( bracki% or ev5 ( purely fre%-wat] =mation1 z well z vegetable matt] or coal accumulat$ on anci5t l&4 ,9 ^! cases we z frequ5tly f9d fre%-wat] b$s bel[ a m>9e set or %all[-wat] "u ^? ( deep-sea orig9 z ! rev]se4 ,?us1 if we bore an artesian well bel[ ,london1 we pass ?r\gh a m>9e clay1 & !re rea*1 at ! dep? ( sev]al hundr$ feet1 a %all[-wat] & fluviatile s&1 b5ea? :i* comes ! :ite *alk orig9ally =m$ 9 a deep sea4 ,or if we bore v]tically ?r\gh ! *alk ( ! ,nor? ,d[ns1 we come1 aft] trav]s+ m>9e *alky /rata1 ^u a fre%-wat] =mation _m hundr$s ( feet ?ick1 call$ ! ,weald51 su* z is se5 9 ,k5t & ,surrey1 :i* is kn[n 9 its turn to re/ on purely m>9e b$s4 ,9 l mann]1 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,great ,brita9 we s9k v]tical %afts ?r\gh m>9e deposits ( great ?ickness1 & come ^u coal :i* 0 =m$ by ! gr[? ( plants on an anci5t l&-surface sometimes hundr$s ( squ>e miles 9 ext5t4 ,v]tical1 ,incl9$1 & ,curv$ ,/rata4--,x has be5 /at$ t m>9e /rata ( diff]5t ages are sometimes f\nd at a consid]able height above ! sea1 yet reta9+ _! orig9al horizontality2 b ?is /ate ( ?+s is q exceptional4 ,z a g5]al rule1 /rata are incl9$ or b5t 9 su* a mann] z to imply t _! orig9al position has be5 alt]$4 ,fig4 #ed3 ,v]tical conglom]ate & s&/one4 ,! mo/ unequivocal evid5ce ( su* a *ange is af=d$ by _! /&+ up v]tically1 %[+ _! edges1 :i* is by no means a r>e ph5om5on1 especially 9 m\nta9\s c\ntries4 ,?us we f9d 9 ,scotl&1 on ! s\!rn skirts ( ! ,grampians1 b$s ( pudd+-/one alt]nat+ ) ?9 lay]s ( f9e s&1 all plac$ v]tically to ! horizon4 ,:5 ,saussure fir/ obs]v$ c]ta9 conglom]ates 9 a simil> position 9 ! ,swiss ,alps1 he rem>k$ t ! pebbles1 be+ = ! mo/ "p ( an oval %ape1 _h _! long] axes p>allel to ! planes ( /ratification 7see ,fig4 #ed on prec$+ page74 ,f ?is he inf]r$ t su* /rata mu/1 at fir/1 h be5 horizontal1 ea* oval pebble hav+ settl$ at ! bottom ( ! wat]1 ) its flatt] side p>allel to ! horizon1 = ! same reason t an egg w n /& on ei!r end if unsupport$4 ,"s few1 inde$1 ( ! r\nd$ /ones 9 a conglom]ate occasionally af=d an exception to ! above rule1 = ! same reason t 9 a riv]'s b$1 or on a %+le bea*1 "s pebbles re/ on _! ends or edges2 ^! hav+ be5 %ov$ aga9/ or betwe5 o!r /ones by a wave or curr5t1 s z to assume ?is position4 ,anticl9al & ,syncl9al ,curves4--,v]tical /rata1 :5 !y c be trac$ cont9u\sly upw>d or d[nw>d = "s dep?1 are almo/ inv>iably se5 to be p>ts ( great curves1 :i* may h a diamet] ( a few y>ds1 or ( sev]al miles4 ,i %all fir/ describe two curves ( consid]able regul>ity1 :i* occur 9 ,=f>%ire1 ext5d+ ov] a c\ntry tw5ty miles 9 bread?1 f ! foot ( ! ,grampians to ! sea ne> ,arbroa?4 ,fig4 #ee3 ,section ( ,=f>%ire1 f ,n4,w4 to ,s4,e4 ,! mass ( /rata "h %[n may be #bjjj feet 9 ?ickness1 consi/+ ( r$ & :ite s&/one1 & v>i\s col\r$ %ales1 ! b$s be+ di/+ui%able into f\r pr9cipal gr\ps1 namely1 ,no4 #a1 r$ m>l or %ale2 ,no4 #b1 r$ s&/one1 us$ = build+2 ,no4 #c1 conglom]ate2 & ,no4 #d1 grey pav+-/one1 & tile-/one1 ) gre5 & r$di% %ale1 conta9+ peculi> organic rema9s4 ,a glance at ! section w %[ t ea* ( ! =mations #b1 #c1 #d are repeat$ ?rice at ! surface1 twice ) a s\!rly1 & once ) a nor!rly incl9ation or dip1 & ! b$s 9 ,no4 #a1 :i* are ne>ly horizontal1 are /ill br\ght up twice by a slight curvature to ! surface1 once on ea* side ( ,a4 ,beg9n+ at ! nor?-we/ extremity1 ! tile-/ones & conglom]ates1 ,no4 #d & ,no4 #c1 are v]tical1 & !y g5]ally =m a ridge p>allel to ! s\!rn skirts ( ! ,grampians4 ,! sup]ior /rata1 ,nos4 #b & #a1 become less & less incl9$ on desc5d+ to ! valley ( ,/ra?more1 :]e ! /rata1 hav+ a concave b5d1 are said by geologi/s to lie 9 a 8tr\gh0 or8bas940 ,?r\gh ! c5tre ( ?is valley runs an imag9>y l9e ,a1 call$ te*nically a 8syncl9al l9e10 :]e ! b$s1 :i* are tilt$ 9 opposite directions1 may be suppos$ to meet4 ,x is mo/ important = ! obs]v] to m>k su* l9es1 = he w p]ceive by ! diagram t1 9 travell+ f ! nor? to ! c5tre ( ! bas91 he is always pass+ f old] to new] b$s2 :]eas1 aft] cross+ ! l9e ,a1 & pursu+ 8 c\rse 9 ! same s\!rly direction1 he is cont9ually leav+ ! new]1 & advanc+ ^u old] /rata4 ,all ! deposits :i* he _h be=e exam9$ beg9 !n to recur 9 rev]s$ ord]1 until he arrives at ! c5tral axis ( ! ,sidlaw hills1 :]e ! /rata are se5 to =m an ar*1 or saddle1 hav+ an anticl9al l9e1 ,b1 9 ! c5tre4 ,on pass+ ?is l9e1 & cont9u+ t[>ds ! ,s4,e41 ! =mations #d1 #c1 & #b1 are aga9 repeat$1 9 ! same relative ord] ( sup]position1 b ) a s\!rly dip4 ,at ,:it5ess 7see ,fig4 #ee7 x w be se5 t ! incl9$ /rata are cov]$ by a new] deposit1 a1 9 horizontal b$s4 ,^! are compos$ ( r$ conglom]ate & s&1 & are new] ?an any ( ! gr\ps1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 be=e describ$1 & re/ uncon=mably ^u /rata ( ! s&/one gr\p1 ,no4 #b4 ,an example ( curv$ /rata1 9 :i* ! b5ds or convolutions ( ! rock are %>p] & f> m num]\s )9 an equal space1 has be5 well describ$ by ,sir ,james ,hall4#b ,x occurs ne> ,/4 ,abb's ,head1 on ! ea/ coa/ ( ,scotl&1 :]e ! rocks consi/ pr9cipally ( a blui% slate1 hav+ frequ5tly a ripple-m>k$ surface4 ,! undulations ( ! b$s rea* f ! top to ! bottom ( cliffs f #bjj to #cjj feet 9 height1 & !re are sixte5 di/9ct b5d+s 9 ! c\rse ( ab\t six miles1 ! curvatures be+ alt]nately concave & convex upw>d4 ,fold+ by ,lat]al ,movem5t4--,an exp]im5t 0 made by ,sir ,james ,hall1 ) a view ( illu/rat+ ! mann] 9 :i* su* /rata1 assum+ !m to h be5 orig9ally horizontal1 may h be5 =c$ into _! pres5t position4 ,a set ( lay]s ( clay 7 plac$ "u a weight1 & _! opposite ends press$ t[>ds ea* o!r ) su* =ce z to cause !m to approa* m ne>ly toge!r4 ,on ! removal ( ! weight1 ! lay]s ( clay 7 f\nd to be curv$ & fold$1 s z to be> a m9iature resemblance to ! /rata 9 ! cliffs4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 be> 9 m9d t 9 ! natural section or sea-cliff we only see ! fold+s imp]fectly1 "o "p be+ invisible b5ea? ! sea1 & ! o!r1 or upp] portion1 be+ suppos$ to h be5 c>ri$ away by d5udation1 or t action ( wat] :i* w be expla9$ 9 ! next *apt]4 ,! d>k l9es 9 ! plan 7,fig4 #eg7 repres5t :at is actually se5 ( ! /rata 9 ! l9e ( cliff allud$ to2 ! fa9t] l9es1 t portion :i* is conceal$ b5ea? ! sea-level1 z also t :i* is suppos$ to h once exi/$ above ! pres5t surface4 ,fig4 #ef3 ,curv$ /rata ( slate ne> ,/4 ,abb's ,head1 ,b]wick%ire4 ,fig4 #eg ,we may /ill m easily illu/rate ! effects :i* a lat]al ?ru/ might produce on flexible /rata1 by plac+ sev]al pieces ( diff]5tly col\r$ clo?s ^u a table1 & :5 !y are spread out horizontally1 cov] !m ) a book4 ,!n apply o!r books to ea* end1 & =ce !m t[>ds ea* o!r4 ,! fold+ ( ! clo?s 7see ,fig4 #eh7 w imitate ^? ( ! b5t /rata2 ! incumb5t book be+ slightly lift$ up1 & no long] t\*+ ! two volumes on :i* x re/$ be=e1 because x is support$ by ! tops ( ! anticl9al ridges =m$ by ! curv$ clo?s4 ,9 l mann] !re c be no d\bt t ! squeez$ /rata1 al?\gh lat]ally cond5s$ & m closely pack$1 are yet elongat$ & made to rise upw>d1 9 a direction p]p5dicul> to ! pressure4 ,fig4 #eh ,:e!r ! analog\s flexures 9 /ratifi$ rocks h really be5 due to simil> sideway movem5ts is a "q :i* we c n decide by ref]5ce to our own obs]vation4 ,our inability to expla9 ! nature ( ! process is1 p]haps1 n simply ow+ to ! inaccessibility ( ! subt]ranean regions :]e ! me*anical =ce is ex]t$1 b to ! extreme sl[ness ( ! movem5t4 ,! *anges may sometimes be due to v>iation 9 ! temp]ature ( m\nta9 masses ( rock caus+ !m1 :ile /ill solid1 to exp& or contract2 or melt+ !m1 & !n aga9 cool+ !m & all[+ !m to cry/allise4 ,if su* be ! case1 we h sc>cely m reason to expect to witness ! op]ation ( ! process )9 ! limit$ p]iods ( our sci5tific obs]vation ?an to see ! swell+ ( ! roots ( a tree1 by :i*1 9 ! c\rse ( ye>s1 a wall ( solid masonry may be lift$ up1 r5t or ?r[n d[n4 ,9 bo? in/ances ! =ce may be irresi/ible1 b ?\gh adequate1 x ne$ n be visible by u1 provid$ ! "t requir$ = its developm5t be v great4 ,! lat]al pressure aris+ f ! unequal expansion ( rocks by heat may cause "o mass ly+ 9 ! same horizontal plane gradually to occupy a l>g] space1 s z to press ^u ano!r rock1 :i*1 if flexible1 may be squeez$ into a b5t & fold$ =m4 ,x w also appe>1 :5 ! volcanic & granitic rocks are describ$1 t "s ( !m h1 :5 melt$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?'s cru/1 be5 inject$ =cibly into fissures1 & aft] ! solidification ( su* intrud$ matt]1 o!r sets ( r5ts1 cross+ ! fir/1 h be5 =m$ & 9 _! turn fill$ by melt$ rock4 ,su* repeat$ injections imply a /ret*+1 & (t5 upheaval1 ( ! :ole mass4 ,we also "k1 especially by ! /udy ( regions liable to e>?quakes1 t !re are causes at "w 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>? capable ( produc+ a s9k+ 9 ( ! gr\nd1 sometimes v local1 b (t5 ext5d+ ov] a wide area4 ,! cont9uance ( su* a d[nw>d movem5t1 especially if p>tial & conf9$ to l9e> areas1 may produce regul> folds 9 ! /rata4 ,creeps 9 ,coal-m9es4--,! 8creeps10 z !y are call$ 9 coal-m9es1 af=d an excell5t illu/ration ( ?is fact4--,fir/1 x may be /at$ g5]ally1 t ! excavation ( coal at a consid]able dep? causes ! mass ( ov]ly+ /rata to s9k d[n bodily1 ev5 :5 props are left to support ! ro( ( ! m9e4 8,9 ,york%ire10 says ,mr4 ,buddle1 8?ree di/9ct subsid5ces 7 p]ceptible at ! surface1 aft] ! cle>+ out ( ?ree seams ( coal bel[1 & innum]able v]tical cracks 7 caus$ 9 ! incumb5t mass ( s&/one & %ale :i* ?us settl$ d[n40#c ,! exact am\nt ( depression 9 ^! cases c only be accurately measur$ :]e wat] accumulates on ! surface1 or a railway trav]ses a coal-field4 ,:5 a b$ ( coal is work$ out1 pill>s or rectangul> masses ( coal are left at int]vals z props to support ! ro(1 & protect ! colli]s4 ,?us 9 ,fig4 #ei1 repres5t+ a section at ,walls5d1 ,newca/le1 ! gall]ies :i* h be5 excavat$ are repres5t$ by ! :ite spaces a1 b1 :ile ! adjo9+ d>k portions are p>ts ( ! orig9al coal seam left z props1 b$s ( s&y clay or %ale con/itut+ ! floor ( ! m9e4 ,:5 ! props h be5 r$uc$ 9 size1 !y are press$ d[n by ! weight ( ov]ly+ rocks 7no less ?an #fcj feet ?ick7 ^u ! %ale bel[1 :i* is !reby squeez$ & =c$ up into ! op5 spaces4 ,n[ x might h be5 expect$ t1 in/ead ( ! floor ris+ up1 ! ceil+ w\ld s9k d[n1 & ?is effect1 call$ a 8?ru/10 does1 9 fact1 take place :]e ! pavem5t is m solid ?an ! ro(4 ,b x usually happ5s1 9 coal-m9es1 t ! ro( is compos$ ( h>d %ale1 or occasionally ( s&/one1 m unyield+ ?an ! f\ndation1 :i* (t5 consi/s ( clay4 ,ev5 :]e ! argillace\s sub/rata are h>d at fir/1 !y soon become s(t5$ & r$uc$ to a pla/ic /ate :5 expos$ to ! contact ( air & wat] 9 ! floor ( a m9e4 ,fig4 #ei3 ,section ( c>bonif]\s /rata at ,walls5d %[+ #8creeps'4 ,! fir/ symptom ( a 8creep10 says ,mr4 ,buddle1 is a slight curvature at ! bottom ( ea* gall]y1 z at a1 ,fig4 #ei3 !n ! pavem5t1 cont9u+ to rise1 beg9s to op5 ) a longitud9al crack1 z at b2 !n ! po9ts ( ! fractur$ ridge rea* ! ro(1 z at c2 &1 la/ly1 ! uprais$ b$s close up ! :ole gall]y1 & ! brok5 portions ( ! ridge are reunit$ & flatt5$ at ! top1 exhibit+ ! flexure se5 at d4 ,mean:ile ! coal 9 ! props has become cru%$ & crack$ by pressure4 ,x is also f\nd t bel[ ! creeps a1 b1 c1 d1 an inf]ior /ratum1 call$ ! 8metal coal10 :i* is #c feet ?ick1 has be5 fractur$ at ! po9ts e1 f1 g1 h1 & has ris51 s z to prove t ! upw>d movem5t1 caus$ by ! work+ out ( ! 8ma9 coal10 has be5 propagat$ ?r\gh a ?ickness ( #ed feet ( argillace\s b$s1 :i* int]v5e betwe5 ! two coal-seams4 ,?is same displacem5t has also be5 trac$ d[nw>d m ?an #aej feet bel[ ! metal coal1 b x gr[s cont9ually less & less until x becomes imp]ceptible4 ,no "p ( ! process above describ$ is m des]v+ ( our notice ?an ! sl[ness ) :i* ! *ange 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! b$s is br\ght ab\t4 ,days1 mon?s1 or ev5 ye>s1 w sometimes elapse betwe5 ! fir/ b5d+ ( ! pavem5t & ! "t ( its rea*+ ! ro(4 ,:]e ! movem5t has be5 mo/ rapid1 ! curvature ( ! b$s is mo/ regul>1 & ! reunion ( ! fractur$ ends mo/ complete2 :]eas ! signs ( displacem5t or viol5ce are greate/ 9 ^? creeps :i* h requir$ mon?s or ye>s = _! entire accompli%m5t4 ,h5ce we may conclude t simil> *anges may h be5 wr\ght on a l>g] scale 9 ! e>?'s cru/ by p>tial & gradual subsid5ces1 especially :]e ! gr\nd has be5 und]m9$ ?r\gh\t long p]iods ( "t2 & we mu/ be on our gu>d aga9/ inf]r+ sudd5 viol5ce1 simply because ! di/ortion ( ! b$s is excessive4 ,eng9e]s are famili> ) ! fact t :5 !y raise ! level ( a railway by heap+ /one or gravel on a f\ndation ( m>%1 quicks&1 or o!r yield+ =mation1 ! new m\nd (t5 s9ks = a "t z fa/ z !y attempt to elevate x2 :5 !y h p]sev]$ s z to ov]come ?is difficulty1 !y frequ5tly f9d t "s ( ! adjo9+ flexible gr\nd has ris5 up 9 "o or m p>allel ar*es or folds1 %[+ t ! v]tical pressure ( ! s9k+ mat]ials has giv5 rise to a lat]al fold+ movem5t4 ,9 l mann]1 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?1 ! solid p>ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ may sometimes1 z be=e m5tion$1 be made to exp& by heat1 or may be press$ by ! =ce ( /eam aga9/ flexible /rata load$ ) a great weight ( incumb5t rocks4 ,9 ?is case ! yield+ mass1 squeez$1 b unable to ov]come ! resi/ance :i* x meets ) 9 a v]tical direction1 may be gradually reliev$ by lat]al fold+4 ,fig4 #fj ,dip & ,/rike4--,9 describ+ ! mann] 9 :i* /rata dep>t f _! orig9al horizontality1 "s te*nical t]ms1 su* z 8dip0 & 8/rike10 8anticl9al0 & 8syncl9al0 l9e or axis1 are us$ by geologi/s4 ,i %all n[ proce$ to expla9 "s ( ^! to ! /ud5t4 ,if a /ratum or b$ ( rock1 in/ead ( be+ q level1 be incl9$ to "o side1 x is said to dip2 ! po9t ( ! compass to :i* x is incl9$ is call$ ! po9t ( dip1 & ! degree ( deviation f a level or horizontal l9e is call$ ! am\nt ( dip1 or ! angle ( dip4 ,?us1 9 ! annex$ diagram 7,fig4 #fj71 a s]ies ( /rata are incl9$1 & !y dip to ! nor? at an angle ( =ty-five degrees4 ,! /rike1 or l9e ( be>+1 is ! prolongation or ext5sion ( ! /rata 9 a direction at "r angles to ! dip2 & h5ce x is sometimes call$ ! direction ( ! /rata4 ,?us1 9 ! above in/ance ( /rata dipp+ to ! nor?1 _! /rike mu/ necess>ily be ea/ & we/4 ,we h borr[$ ! ^w f ! ,g]man geologi/s1 /rei*5 signify+ to ext5d1 to h a c]ta9 direction4 ,dip & /rike may be aptly illu/rat$ by a r[ ( h\ses runn+ ea/ & we/1 ! long ridge ( ! ro( repres5t+ ! /rike ( ! /ratum ( slates1 :i* dip on "o side to ! nor?1 & on ! o!r to ! s\?4 ,a /ratum :i* is horizontal1 or q level 9 all directions1 has nei!r dip nor /rike4 ,x is always important = ! geologi/1 :o is endeav\r+ to compreh5d ! /ructure ( a c\ntry1 to le>n h[ ! b$s dip 9 e "p ( ! di/rict2 b x requires "s practice to avoid be+ occasionally deceiv$1 bo? z to ! po9t ( dip & ! am\nt ( x4 ,fig4 #fa3 ,app>5t horizontality ( incl9$ /rata4 ,if ! upp] surface ( a h>d /ony /ratum be uncov]$1 :e!r artificially 9 a qu>ry1 or by waves at ! foot ( a cliff1 x is easy to det]m9e t[>ds :at po9t ( ! compass ! slope is /eepe/1 or 9 :at direction wat] w\ld fl[ if p\r$ ^u x4 ,?is is ! true dip4 ,b ! edges ( highly incl9$ /rata may give rise to p]fectly horizontal l9es 9 ! face ( a v]tical cliff1 if ! obs]v] see ! /rata 9 ! l9e ( ! /rike1 ! dip be+ inw>d f ! face ( ! cliff4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we come to a break 9 ! cliff1 :i* exhibits a section exactly at "r angles to ! l9e ( ! /rike1 we are !n able to asc]ta9 ! true dip4 ,9 ! draw+ 7,fig4 #fa71 we may suppose a headl&1 "o side ( :i* faces to ! nor?1 :]e ! b$s w\ld appe> p]fectly horizontal to a p]son 9 ! boat2 :ile 9 ! o!r side fac+ ! we/1 ! true dip w\ld be se5 by ! p]son on %ore to be at an angle ( #dj4 ,if1 !re=e1 our obs]vations are conf9$ to a v]tical precipice fac+ 9 "o direction1 we mu/ endeav\r to f9d a l$ge or portion ( ! plane ( "o ( ! b$s project+ beyond ! o!rs1 9 ord] to asc]ta9 ! true dip4 ,fig4 #fb3 ,two h&s us$ to det]m9e ! incl9ation ( /rata4 ,if n provid$ ) a cl9omet]1 a mo/ useful in/rum5t1 :5 x is ( consequ5ce to det]m9e ) precision ! incl9ation ( ! /rata1 ! obs]v] may measure ! angle )9 a few degrees by /&+ exactly opposite to a cliff :]e ! true dip is exhibit$1 hold+ ! h&s imm$iately be=e ! eyes1 & plac+ ! f+]s ( "o 9 a p]p5dicul>1 & ( ! o!r 9 a horizontal position1 z 9 ,fig4 #fb4 ,x is ?us easy to discov] :e!r ! l9es ( ! incl9$ b$s bisect ! angle ( #ij1 =m$ by ! meet+ ( ! h&s1 s z to give an angle ( #de1 or :e!r x w\ld divide ! space into two equal or unequal portions4 ,y h only to *ange h&s to get ! l9e ( dip on ! upp] side ( ! horizontal h&4 ,fig4 #fc3 ,section illu/rat+ ! /ructure ( ! ,swiss ,jura4 ,x has be5 already se51 9 describ+ ! curv$ /rata on ! ea/ coa/ ( ,scotl&1 9 ,=f>%ire & ,b]wick%ire1 t a s]ies ( concave & convex b5d+s are occasionally repeat$ sev]al times4 ,^! usually =m "p ( a s]ies ( p>allel waves ( /rata1 :i* are prolong$ 9 ! same direction1 ?r\gh\t a consid]able ext5t ( c\ntry4 ,?us1 = example1 9 ! ,swiss ,jura1 t l(ty *a9 ( m\nta9s has be5 prov$ to consi/ ( _m p>allel ridges1 ) int]v5+ longitud9al valleys1 z 9 ,fig4 #fc1 ! ridges be+ =m$ by curv$ fossilif]\s /rata1 ( :i* ! nature & dip are occasionally display$ 9 deep transv]se gorges1 call$ 8cluses10 caus$ by fractures at "r angles to ! direction ( ! *a94#d ,n[ let u suppose ^! ridges & p>allel valleys to run nor? & s\?1 we %\ld !n say t ! /rike ( ! b$s is nor? & s\?1 & ! dip ea/ & we/4 ,l9es drawn along ! summits ( ! ridges1 ,a1 ,b1 w\ld be anticl9al l9es1 & "o foll[+ ! bottom ( ! adjo9+ valleys a syncl9al l9e4 ,fig4 #fd3 ,gr\nd-plan ( ! d5ud$ ridge ,c1 ,fig4 #fc4 ,fig4 #fe3 ,transv]se section4 ,outcrop ( ,/rata4--,x w be obs]v$ t "s ( ^! ridges1 ,a1 ,b1 are unbrok5 on ! summit1 :]eas "o ( !m1 ,c1 has be5 fractur$ along ! l9e ( /rike1 & a portion ( x c>ri$ away by d5udation1 s t ! ridges ( ! b$s 9 ! =mations a1 b1 c come out to ! day1 or1 z ! m9]s say1 crop out1 on ! sides ( a valley4 ,! gr\nd-plan ( su* a d5ud$ ridge z ,c1 z giv5 9 a geological map1 may be express$ by ! diagram1 ,fig4 #fd1 & ! cross-section ( ! same by ,fig4 #fe4 ,! l9e ,d ,e1 ,fig4 #fd1 is ! anticl9al l9e1 on ea* side ( :i* ! dip is 9 opposite directions1 z express$ by ! arr[s4 ,! em]g5ce ( /rata at ! surface is call$ by m9]s _! outcrop1 or basset4 ,if1 in/ead ( be+ fold$ into p>allel ridges1 ! b$s =m a boss or dome-%ap$ protub]ance1 & if we suppose ! summit ( ! dome c>ri$ (f1 ! gr\nd-plan w\ld exhibit ! edges ( ! /rata =m+ a succession ( circles1 or ellipses1 r\nd a common c5tre4 ,^! circles are ! l9es ( /rike1 & ! dip be+ always at "r angles is incl9$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! circuit to e po9t ( ! compass1 con/itut+ :at is t]m$ a qu-quv]sal dip--t is1 turn+ e way4 ,!re are endless v>iations 9 ! figures describ$ by ! basset-edges ( ! /rata1 accord+ to ! diff]5t incl9ation ( ! b$s1 & ! mode 9 :i* !y happ5 to h be5 d5ud$4 ,"o ( ! simple/ rules1 ) :i* e geologi/ %\ld be acqua9t$1 relates to ! ,v-l =m ( ! b$s z !y crop out 9 an ord9>y valley4 ,fir/1 if ! /rata be horizontal1 ! ,v-l =m w be also on a level1 & ! newe/ /rata w appe> at ! greate/ heights4 ,fig4 #ff3 ,slope ( valley #dj1 dip ( /rata #bj4 ,fig4 #fg3 ,slope ( valley #bj1 dip ( /rata #ej4 ,fig4 #fh3 ,slope ( valley #bj1 dip ( /rata #bj1 9 opposite directions4 ,secondly1 if ! b$s be incl9$ & int]sect$ by a valley slop+ 9 ! same direction1 & ! dip ( ! b$s be less /eep ?an ! slope ( ! valley1 !n ! ,v's1 z !y are (t5 t]m$ by m9]s1 w po9t upw>d 7see ,fig4 #ff71 ^? =m$ by ! new] b$s appe>+ 9 a sup]ior position1 & ext5d+ highe/ up ! valley1 z ,a is se5 above ,b4 ,?irdly1 if ! dip ( ! b$s be /eep] ?an ! slope ( ! valley1 !n ! ,v's w po9t d[nw>d 7see ,fig4 #fg71 & ^? =m$ ( ! old] b$s w n[ appe> upp]mo/1 z ,b appe>s above ,a4 ,f\r?ly1 9 e case :]e ! /rata dip 9 a contr>y direction to ! slope ( ! valley1 :atev] be ! angle ( incl9ation1 ! new] b$s w appe> ! highe/1 z 9 ! fir/ & second cases4 ,?is is %[n by ! draw+ 7,fig4 #fh71 :i* exhibits /rata ris+ at an angle ( #bj1 & cross$ by a valley1 :i* decl9es 9 an opposite direction at #bj4 ,^! rules may (t5 be ( great practical utility2 = ! diff]5t degrees ( dip occurr+ 9 ! two cases repres5t$ 9 ,figs4 #ff & #fg may occasionally be enc\nt]$ 9 foll[+ ! same l9e ( flexure at po9ts a few miles di/ant f ea* o!r4 ,a m9] unacqua9t$ ) ! rule1 :o _h fir/ explor$ ! valley ,fig4 #ff1 may h sunk a v]tical %aft bel[ ! coal-seam ,a1 until he rea*$ ! inf]ior b$1 ,b4 ,he might !n pass to ! valley1 ,fig4 #fg1 & discov]+ !re also ! outcrop ( two coal-seams1 might beg9 8 work+s 9 ! upp]mo/ 9 ! expectation ( com+ d[n to ! o!r b$ ,a1 :i* w\ld be obs]v$ cropp+ out l[] d[n ! valley4 ,b a glance at ! section w demon/rate ! futility ( su* hopes4#e ,section ( c>bonif]\s rocks ( ,lanca%ire4 ,section ( c>bonif]\s rocks ( ,lanca%ire4 7,e4 ,hull4#f7 ,syncl9al ,/rata =m+ ,ridges4--,al?\gh 9 _m cases an anticl9al axis =ms a ridge1 & a syncl9al axis a valley1 z 9 ,a ,b1 ,fig4 #fc1 yet ?is c by no means be laid d[n z a g5]al rule1 z ! b$s v (t5 slope inw>d f ei!r side ( a m\nta91 z at a1 b1 ,fig4 #fi1 :ile 9 ! int]v5+ valley1 c1 !y slope upw>d1 =m+ an ar*4 ,x w\ld be natural to expect ! fracture ( solid rocks to take place *iefly :]e ! b5d+ ( ! /rata has be5 %>pe/1 & su* r5d+ may produce rav9es giv+ access to runn+ wat] & expos+ ! surface to atmosph]ic wa/e4 ,! entire abs5ce1 h[ev]1 ( su* cracks at po9ts :]e ! /ra9 mu/ h be5 greate/1 z at a1 ,fig4 #fc1 is (t5 v rem>kable1 & n always easy ( explanation4 ,we mu/ imag9e t _m /rata ( lime/one1 *]t1 & o!r rocks :i* are n[ brittle1 7 pliant :5 b5t into _! pres5t position4 ,!y may h ow$ _! flexibility 9 "p to ! fluid matt] :i* !y conta9$ 9 _! m9ute pores1 z be=e describ$ p4 #fb & 9 "p to ! p]meation ( sea-wat] :ile !y 7 yet subm]g$4 ,fig4 #gj3 ,/rata ( *]t1 grit1 & m>l1 ne> ,/4 ,jean de ,luz4 ,at ! we/]n extremity ( ! ,pyr5ees1 great curvatures ( ! /rata are se5 9 ! sea-cliffs1 :]e ! rocks consi/ ( m>l1 grit1 & *]t4 ,at c]ta9 po9ts1 z at a1 ,fig4 #gj1 "s ( ! b5d+s ( ! fl9ty *]t are s %>p t specim5s might be brok5 (f well fitt$ to s]ve z ridge-tiles on ! ro( ( a h\se4 ,al?\gh ?is *]t c\ld n h be5 brittle z n[1 :5 fir/ fold$ into ?is %ape1 x pres5ts1 nev]!less1 "h & !re1 at ! po9ts ( greate/ flexure1 small cracks1 :i* %[ t x 0 solid1 & n :olly incapable ( break+ at ! p]iod ( its displacem5t4 ,! num]\s r5ts allud$ to are n empty1 b fill$ ) *alc$ony & qu>tz4 ,fig4 #ga3 ,b5t & undulat+ gypse\s m>l4 ,betwe5 ,san ,cat]9a & ,ca/rogiovanni1 9 ,sicily1 b5t & undulat+ gypse\s m>ls occur1 ) "h & !re ?9 b$s ( solid gypsum int]/ratifi$4 ,sometimes ^! solid lay]s h be5 brok5 into deta*$ fragm5ts1 /ill pres]v+ _! %>p edges 7g1 g1 ,fig4 #ga71 :ile ! cont9uity ( ! m pliable & ductile m>ls1 m1 m1 has n be5 int]rupt$4 ,fig4 #gb3 ,fold$ /rata4 ,we h already expla9$1 ,fig4 #fi1 t /ratifi$ rocks h usually _! /rata b5t into p>allel folds =m+ anticl9al & syncl9al axes1 a gr\p ( sev]al ( ^! folds hav+ (t5 be5 subject$ to a common movem5t1 & hav+ acquir$ a uni=m /rike or direction4 ,9 "s di/urb$ regions ^! folds h be5 d\bl$ back ^u !mselves 9 su* a mann] t x is (t5 difficult = an exp]i5c$ geologi/ to det]m9e correctly ! relative age ( ! b$s by sup]position4 ,?us1 if we meet ) ! /rata se5 9 ! section1 ,fig4 #gb1 we %\ld naturally suppose t !re 7 twelve di/9ct b$s1 or sets ( b$s1 ,no4 #a be+ ! newe/1 & ,no4 #ab ! olde/ ( ! s]ies4 ,b ?is section may p]haps exhibit m]ely six b$s1 :i* h be5 fold$ 9 ! mann] se5 9 ,fig4 #gc1 s t ea* ( !m is twice repeat$1 ! position ( "o half be+ rev]s$1 & "p ( ,no4 #a1 orig9ally ! upp]mo/1 hav+ n[ become ! l[e/ ( ! s]ies4 ,fig4 #gc ,^! ph5om5a are obs]vable on a magnific5t scale 9 c]ta9 regions 9 ,switz]l&1 9 precipices (t5 m ?an #bjjj feet 9 p]p5dicul> height1 & !re are flexures n inf]ior 9 dim5sions 9 ! ,pyr5ees4 ,! upp] "p ( ! curves se5 9 ?is diagram1 ,fig4 #gc1 & express$ 9 fa9t] l9es1 has be5 remov$ by :at is call$ d5udation1 to be aft]w>ds expla9$4 ,fractures ( ! ,/rata & ,faults4--,num]\s r5ts may (t5 be se5 9 rocks :i* appe> to h be5 simply brok51 ! fractur$ p>ts /ill rema9+ 9 contact2 b we (t5 f9d a fissure1 sev]al in*es or y>ds wide1 int]v5+ betwe5 ! disunit$ portions4 ,^! fissures are usually fill$ ) f9e e>? & s&1 or ) angul> fragm5ts ( /one1 evid5tly d]iv$ f ! fracture ( ! contigu\s rocks4 ,! face ( ea* wall ( ! fissure is (t5 beautifully poli%$1 z if glaz$1 /riat$1 or scor$ ) p>allel furr[s & ridges1 su* z w\ld be produc$ by ! cont9u$ rubb+ toge!r ( surfaces ( unequal h>dness4 ,^! poli%$ surfaces are call$ by m9]s 8slick5sides40 ,x is suppos$ t ! l9es ( ! /ri indicate ! direction 9 :i* ! rocks 7 mov$4 ,dur+ "o ( ! m9or e>?quakes 9 ,*ili1 9 #ahdj1 ! brick walls ( a build+ 7 r5t v]tically 9 sev]al places1 & made to vibrate = sev]al m9utes dur+ ea* %ock1 aft] :i* !y rema9$ un9jur$1 & )\t any op5+1 al?\gh ! l9e ( ea* crack 0 /ill visible4 ,:5 all movem5t _h ceas$1 !re 7 se5 on ! floor ( ! h\se1 at ! bottom ( ea* r5t1 small heaps ( f9e brick-du/1 evid5tly produc$ by trituration4 ,x is n uncommon to f9d ! mass ( rock on "o side ( a fissure ?r[n up above or d[n bel[ ! mass ) :i* x 0 once 9 contact on ! o!r side4 8,?is mode ( displacem5t is call$ a fault1 %ift1 slip1 or ?r[40 8,! m9]10 says ,playfair1 describ+ a fault1 8is (t5 p]plex$1 9 8 subt]ranean j\rney1 by a d]angem5t 9 ! /rata1 :i* *anges at once all ^? l9es & be>+s :i* _h hi!rto direct$ 8 c\rse4 ,:5 8 m9e rea*es a c]ta9 plane1 :i* is sometimes p]p5dicul>1 z 9 ,a ,b1 ,fig4 #gd1 sometimes oblique to ! horizon 7z 9 ,c ,d1 ibid471 he f9ds ! b$s ( rock brok5 asund]1 ^? on ! "o side ( ! plane hav+ *ang$ _! place1 by slid+ 9 a p>ticul> direction along ! face ( ! o!rs4 ,9 ?is motion !y h sometimes pres]v$ _! p>allelism1 z 9 ,fig4 #gd1 s t ! /rata on ea* side ( faults ,a ,b1 ,c ,d1 cont9ue p>allel to "o ano!r2 9 o!r cases1 ! /rata on ea* side are incl9$1 z 9 a1 b1 c1 d 7,fig4 #ge71 ?\gh _! id5tity is /ill to be recognis$ by _! possess+ ! same ?ickness & ! same int]nal *>act]s40#g ,fig4 #gd3 ,faults4 ,fig4 #ge3 ,e ,f1 fault or fissure fill$ ) rubbi%1 on ea* side ( :i* ! %ift$ /rata are n p>allel4 ,9 ,coalbrook ,dale1 says ,mr4 ,pre/wi*#h1 deposits ( s&/one1 %ale1 & coal1 sev]al ?\s& feet ?ick1 & occupy+ an area ( _m miles1 h be5 %iv]$ into fragm5ts1 & ! brok5 remnants h be5 plac$ 9 v discordant positions1 (t5 at levels diff]+ sev]al hundr$ feet f ea* o!r4 ,! sides ( ! faults1 :5 p]p5dicul>1 are commonly sev]al y>ds ap>t1 & are sometimes z mu* z #ej y>ds asund]1 ! int]val be+ fill$ ) brok5 dbris ( ! /rata4 ,9 foll[+ ! c\rse ( ! same fault x is sometimes f\nd to produce 9 diff]5t places v unequal *anges ( level1 ! am\nt ( %ift be+ 9 "o place #cjj1 & 9 ano!r #gjj feet1 :i* arises f ! union ( two or m faults4 ,9 o!r words1 ! disjo9t$ /rata h 9 c]ta9 di/ricts be5 subject$ to r5ew$ movem5ts1 :i* !y h n suff]$ else:]e4 ,we may occasionally see exact c\nt]p>ts ( ^! slips1 on a small scale1 9 pits ( loose s& & gravel1 _m ( :i* h d\btless be5 caus$ by ! dry+ & %r9k+ ( argillace\s & o!r b$s1 slight subsid5ces hav+ tak5 place f failure ( support4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 ev5 ^! small slips may h be5 produc$ dur+ e>?quakes2 = l& has be5 mov$1 & its level1 relatively to ! sea1 consid]ably alt]$1 )9 ! p]iod :5 mu* ( ! alluvial s& & gravel n[ cov]+ ! surface ( cont95ts 0 deposit$4 ,i h already /at$ t a geologi/ mu/ be on 8 gu>d1 9 a region ( di/urb$ /rata1 aga9/ inf]r+ repeat$ alt]nations ( rocks1 :51 9 fact1 ! same /rata1 once cont9u\s1 h be5 b5t r\nd s z to recur 9 ! same section1 & ) ! same dip4 ,a simil> mi/ake has (t5 be5 occasion$ by a s]ies ( faults4 ,fig4 #gf3 ,app>5t alt]nations ( /rata caus$ by v]tical faults4 ,if1 = example1 ! d>k l9e ,a ,h 7,fig4 #gf7 repres5t ! surface ( a c\ntry on :i* ! /rata a1 b1 c frequ5tly crop out1 an obs]v] :o is proce$+ f ,h to ,a might at fir/ imag9e t at e /ep he 0 approa*+ new /rata1 :]eas ! repetition ( ! same b$s has be5 caus$ by v]tical faults1 or d[n?r[s4 ,?us1 suppose ! orig9al mass1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 to h be5 a set ( uni=mly incl9$ /rata1 & t ! diff]5t masses "u ,e ,f1 ,f ,g1 & ,g ,d sank d[n successively1 s z to leave vacant ! spaces m>k$ 9 ! diagram by dott$ l9es1 & to occupy ^? m>k$ by ! cont9u\s l9es1 !n let d5udation take place along ! l9e ,a ,h1 s t ! protrud+ masses indicat$ by ! fa9t] l9es are swept away--a m9]1 :o has n discov]$ ! faults1 f9d+ ! mass a1 :i* we w suppose to be a b$ ( coal f\r times repeat$1 might hope to f9d f\r b$s1 workable to an indef9ite dep?1 b fir/1 on arriv+ at ! fault ,g1 he is /opp$ sudd5ly 9 8 work+s1 = he comes p>tly ^u ! %ale b1 & p>tly on ! s&/one c2 ! same result awaits him at ! fault ,f1 & on rea*+ ,e he is aga9 /opp$ by a wall compos$ ( ! rock d4 ,! v diff]5t levels at :i* ! sep>at$ p>ts ( ! same /rata are f\nd on ! diff]5t sides ( ! fissure1 9 "s faults1 is truly a/oni%+4 ,"o ( ! mo/ celebrat$ 9 ,engl& is t call$ ! 8n9ety-fa?om dike10 9 ! coal-field ( ,newca/le4 ,?is "n has be5 giv5 to x1 because ! same b$s are n9ety fa?oms 7#edj feet7 l[] on ! nor!rn ?an !y are on ! s\!rn side4 ,! fissure has be5 fill$ by a body ( s&1 :i* is n[ 9 ! /ate ( s&/one1 & is call$ ! dike1 :i* is sometimes v n>r[1 b 9 o!r places m ?an tw5ty y>ds wide4#i ,! walls ( ! fissure are scor$ by grooves1 su* z w\ld h be5 produc$ if ! brok5 ends ( ! rock _h be5 rubb$ along ! plane ( ! fault4#aj ,9 ! ,tyn$ale & ,crav5 faults1 9 ! nor? ( ,engl&1 ! v]tical displacem5t is /ill great]1 & ! fracture has ext5d$ 9 a horizontal direction = a di/ance ( ?irty miles or m4 ,great ,faults ! ,result ( ,repeat$ ,movem5ts4--,x mu/ n1 h[ev]1 be suppos$ t faults g5]ally consi/ ( s+le l9e> r5ts2 !re are usually a numb] ( faults spr++ (f f ! ma9 "o1 & sometimes a long /rip ( c\ntry seems brok5 up into fragm5ts by sets ( p>allel & connect+ transv]se faults4 ,(t5times a great l9e ( fault has be5 repeat$1 or ! movem5ts h be5 cont9u$ ?r\gh successive p]iods1 s t1 new] deposits hav+ cov]$ ! old l9e ( displacem5t1 ! /rata bo? new] & old] h giv5 way along ! old l9e ( fracture4 ,"s geologi/s h consid]$ x necess>y to imag9e t ! upw>d or d[nw>d movem5t 9 ^! cases 0 accompli%$ at a s+le /roke1 & n by a s]ies ( sudd5 b int]rupt$ movem5ts4 ,!y appe> to h d]iv$ ?is idea f a notion t ! groov$ walls h m]ely be5 rubb$ 9 "o direction1 :i* is f> f be+ a con/ant ph5om5on4 ,n only are "s sets ( /ri n p>allel to o!rs1 b ! clay & rubbi% betwe5 ! walls1 :5 squeez$ or rubb$1 h be5 /reak$ 9 diff]5t directions1 ! grooves :i* ! h>d] m9]als h impress$ on ! s(t] be+ frequ5tly curv$ & irregul>4 ,fig4 #gg3 ,faults & d5ud$ coal-/rata1 ,a%by de la ,z\*4 ,! usual abs5ce ( protrud+ masses ( rock =m+ precipices or ridges along ! l9es ( great faults has already be5 allud$ to 9 expla9+ ,fig4 #gf1 p4 #hi1 & ! same rem>kable fact is well exemplifi$ 9 e coal-field :i* has be5 ext5sively work$4 ,x is 9 su* di/ricts t ! =m] relation ( ! b$s :i* h be5 %ift$ is det]m9able ) great accuracy4 ,?us 9 ! coal-field ( ,a%by de la ,z\*1 9 ,leice/]%ire 7see ,fig4 #gg71 a fault occurs1 on "o side ( :i* ! coal-b$s a1 b1 c1 d mu/ once h ris5 to ! height ( #ejj feet above ! correspond+ b$s on ! o!r side4 ,b ! uplift$ /rata d n /& up #ejj feet above ! g5]al surface2 on ! contr>y1 ! outl9e ( ! c\ntry1 z express$ by ! l9e z z1 is uni=mly undulat+1 )\t any break1 & ! mass indicat$ by ! dott$ outl9e mu/ h be5 wa%$ away4#aa ,! /ud5t may ref] to ,mr4 ,hull's measurem5t ( faults1 obs]v$ 9 ! ,lanca%ire coal-field1 :]e ! v]tical displacem5t has am\nt$ to ?\s&s ( feet1 & yet :]e all ! sup]ficial inequalities :i* mu/ h result$ f su* movem5ts h be5 oblit]at$ by subsequ5t d5udation4 ,9 ! same memoir pro(s are af=d$ ( !re hav+ be5 two p]iods ( v]tical movem5t 9 ! same fault--"o1 = example1 be=e1 & ano!r aft]1 ! ,triassic epo*4#ab ,! %ift+ ( ! b$s by faults is (t5 intimately connect$ ) ^? same fold+s :i* con/itute ! anticl9al & syncl9al axes be=e allud$ to1 & !re is no d\bt t ! subt]ranean causes ( bo? =ms ( di/urbance are to a great ext5t ! same4 ,a fault 9 ,virg9ia1 believ$ to imply a displacem5t ( sev]al ?\s& feet1 has be5 trac$ = m ?an eighty miles 9 ! same direction z ! fold+s ( ! ,appala*ian *a94#ac ,an hypo!sis :i* attributes su* a *ange ( position to a succession ( movem5ts1 is f> pref]able to any !ory :i* assumes ea* fault to h be5 accompli%$ by a s+le upca/ or d[n?r[ ( sev]al ?\s& feet4 ,= we "k t !re are op]ations n[ 9 progress1 at great dep?s 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?1 by :i* bo? l>ge & small tracts ( gr\nd are made to rise above & s9k bel[ _! =m] level1 "s sl[ly & ins5sibly1 o!rs sudd5ly & by />ts1 a few feet or y>ds at a "t2 :]eas !re are no gr\nds = believ+ t1 dur+ ! la/ #cjjj ye>s at lea/1 any regions h be5 ei!r upheav$ or depress$1 at a s+le /roke1 to ! am\nt ( sev]al hundr$1 mu* less sev]al ?\s& feet4 ,x is c]ta9ly n easy to und]/& h[ 9 ! subt]ranean regions "o mass ( solid rock %\ld h be5 fold$ up by a cont9u$ s]ies ( movem5ts1 :ile ano!r mass 9 contact1 or only sep>at$ by a l9e ( fissure1 has rema9$ /ation>y or has p]haps subsid$4 ,b e volcano1 by ! int]mitt5t action ( ! /eam1 gases1 & lava evolv$ dur+ an eruption1 helps u to =m "s idea ( ! mann] 9 :i* su* op]ations take place4 ,= eruptions are repeat$ at unc]ta9 int]vals ?r\gh\t ! :ole or a l>ge "p ( a geological p]iod1 "s ( ! surr\nd+ & contigu\s di/ricts rema9+ q undi/urb$4 ,& 9 mo/ ( ! in/ances ) :i* we are be/ acqua9t$ ! emission ( lava1 scoria1 & /eam is accompani$ by ! uplift+ ( ! solid cru/4 ,?us 9 ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 ! ,madeiras1 ! ,can>y ,isl&s1 & ! ,azores !re is evid5ce ( m>9e deposits ( rec5t & t]ti>y date hav+ be5 elevat$ to ! height ( a ?\s& feet1 & sometimes m1 s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! volcanic explosions4 ,!re is1 moreov]1 a g5]al t5d5cy 9 contemporane\s volcanic v5ts to affect a l9e> arrangem5t1 ext5d+ 9 "s in/ances1 z 9 ! ,&es or ! ,indian ,ar*ipelago1 to di/ances equall+ half ! circumf]5ce ( ! globe4 ,:]e volcanic heat1 !re=e1 op]ates at su* a dep? z n to obta9 v5t at ! surface1 9 ! =m ( an eruption1 x may nev]!less be conceiv$ to give rise to upheavals1 fold+s1 & faults 9 c]ta9 l9e> tracts4 ,& m>9e d5udation1 to be treat$ ( 9 ! next *apt]1 w help u to und]/& :y t :i* %\ld be ! protrud+ portion ( ! fault$ rocks is miss+ at ! surface4 ,arrangem5t & ,direction ( ,p>allel ,folds ( ,/rata4--,! possible causes ( ! fold+ ( /rata by lat]al movem5ts h be5 consid]$ 9 a =m] "p ( ?is *apt]4 ,no ,european *a9 ( m\nta9s af=ds s rem>kable an illu/ration ( ! p]si/5cy ( su* flexures = a great di/ance z ! ,appala*ians be=e allud$ to1 & none has be5 /udi$ & describ$ by _m good obs]v]s ) m accuracy4 ,! *a9 ext5ds f nor? to s\?1 or r ,n4,n4,e4 to ,s4,s4,w41 = ne>ly #aejj miles1 ) a bread? ( #ej miles1 ?r\gh\t :i* ! ,palozoic /rata h be5 s b5t z to =m a s]ies ( p>allel anticl9al & syncl9al ridges & tr\ghs1 compris+ usually ?ree or f\r pr9cipal & _m small] plications1 "s ( !m =m+ broad & g5tle ar*es1 o!rs n>r[] & /eep] ones1 :ile "s1 :]e ! b5d+ has be5 greate/1 h ! position ( _! b$s inv]t$1 z be=e %[n 9 ,fig4 #gc1 p4 #hg4 ,! /rike ( ! p>allel ridges1 aft] cont9u+ 9 a /raight l9e = _m hundr$ miles1 is !n f\nd to v>y = a m limit$ di/ance z mu* z #cj1 ! folds :eel+ r\nd toge!r 9 ! new direction & cont9u+ to be p>allel1 z if !y _h all obey$ ! same movem5t4 ,! date ( ! movem5ts by :i* ! great flexures 7 br\ght ab\t mu/1 ( c\rse1 be subsequ5t to ! =mation ( ! upp]mo/ "p ( ! coal or ! newe/ ( ! b5t rocks1 b ! di/urbance mu/ h ceas$ be=e ! ,triassic /rata 7 deposit$ on ! d5ud$ edges ( ! fold$ b$s4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! num]\s p>allel folds1 all simultane\sly =m$1 assume a new direction common to ! :ole ( !m1 & sometimes v>y+ at an angle ( #cj f ! normal /rike ( ! *a91 %[s :at deviation f an o!rwise uni=m /rike ( ! b$s may be exp]i5c$ :5 ! geographical area ?r\gh :i* !y are trac$ is on s va/ a scale4 ,! di/urbances 9 ! case "h adv]t$ to occurr$ betwe5 ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod & t ( ! ,trias1 & ?is int]val is s va/ t !y may h occupi$ a great lapse ( "t1 dur+ :i* _! p>allelism 0 always pres]v$4 ,b1 z a rule1 :]ev] aft] a long geological int]val ! recurr5ce ( lat]al movem5ts gives rise to a new set ( folds1 ! /rike ( ^! la/ is diff]5t4 ,?us1 = example1 ,mr4 ,hull has po9t$ out t ?ree pr9cipal l9es ( di/urbance1 all lat] ?an ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 h affect$ ! /ratifi$ rocks ( ,lanca%ire4 ,! fir/ ( ^!1 hav+ an ,e4,n4,e4 direction1 took place at ! close ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,! next1 runn+ nor? & s\?1 at ! close ( ! ,p]mian1 & ! ?ird1 hav+ a ,n4,n4,w4 direction1 at ! close ( ! ,jurassic p]iod4#ad ,fig4 #gh3 ,uncon=mable junction ( old r$ s&/one & ,silurian s*i/ at ! ,sicc> ,po9t1 ne> ,/4 ,abb's ,head1 ,b]wick%ire4 ,uncon=mability ( ,/rata4-- ,/rata are said to be uncon=mable :5 "o s]ies is s plac$ ov] ano!r t ! planes ( ! sup]ior repose on ! edges ( ! inf]ior 7see ,fig4 #gh74 ,9 ?is case x is evid5t t a p]iod _h elaps$ betwe5 ! production ( ! two sets ( /rata1 & t1 dur+ ?is int]val1 ! old] s]ies _h be5 tilt$ & di/urb$4 ,aft]w>ds ! upp] s]ies 0 ?r[n d[n 9 horizontal /rata ^u x4 ,if ^! sup]ior b$s1 d1 d1 ,fig4 #gh1 are also incl9$1 x is pla9 t ! l[] /rata a1 a1 h be5 twice displac$2 fir/1 be=e ! deposition ( ! new] b$s1 d1 d1 & a second "t :5 ^! same /rata 7 uprais$ out ( ! sea1 & ?r[n slightly out ( ! horizontal position4 ,fig4 #gi3 ,junction ( uncon=mable /rata ne> ,mons1 9 ,belgium4 ,x (t5 happ5s t 9 ! int]val betwe5 ! deposition ( two sets ( uncon=mable /rata1 ! inf]ior rock has n only be5 d5ud$1 b drill$ by p]=at+ %ells4 ,?us1 = example1 at ,autreppe & ,gusigny1 ne> ,mons1 b$s ( an anci5t 7prim>y or palozoic7 lime/one1 highly incl9$1 & (t5 b5t1 are cov]$ ) horizontal /rata ( gre5i% & :iti% m>ls ( ! ,cretace\s =mation4 ,! l[e/1 & !re=e ! olde/1 b$ ( ! horizontal s]ies is usually ! s& & conglom]ate1 a1 9 :i* are r\nd$ fragm5ts ( /one1 f an in* to two feet 9 diamet]4 ,^! fragm5ts h (t5 adh]+ %ells atta*$ to !m1 & h be5 bor$ by p]=at+ mollusca4 ,! solid surface ( ! inf]ior lime/one has also be5 bor$1 s z to exhibit cyl9drical & pe>-%ap$ cavities1 z at c1 ! "w ( saxicav\s mollusca2 & _m r5ts1 z at b1 :i* desc5d sev]al feet or y>ds into ! lime/one1 h be5 fill$ ) s& & %ells1 simil> to ^? 9 ! /ratum a4 ,ov]lapp+ ,/rata4--,/rata are said to ov]lap :5 an upp] b$ ext5ds beyond ! limits ( a l[] "o4 ,?is may be produc$ 9 v>i\s ways2 z1 = example1 :5 alt]ations ( physical geography cause ! arms ( a riv] or *annels ( dis*>ge to v>y1 s t s$im5t br\ght d[n is deposit$ ov] a wid] area ?an be=e1 or :5 ! sea-bottom has be5 rais$ up & aga9 depress$ )\t di/urb+ ! horizontal position ( ! /rata4 ,9 ?is case ! new] /rata may re/ = ! mo/ "p con=mably on ! old]1 b1 ext5d+ f>!r1 pass ov] _! edges4 ,e int]m$iate /ate betwe5 uncon=mable & ov]-lapp+ b$s may occur1 because !re may be e gradation betwe5 a slight d]angem5t ( position1 & a consid]able di/urbance & d5udation ( ! old] =mation be=e ! new] b$s come on4 #a ,see 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 #ahfg1 p4 #cad4 #b ,ed94 ,trans41 vol4 vii1 pl4 #c4 #c ,proce$+s ( ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 iii1 p4 #adh4 #d ,?urmann1 8,essai sur les ,s\lvem5s ,jurassiques de ,porr5truy10 ,p>is1 #ahcb4 #e ,i am indebt$ to ! k9dness ( ,t4 ,sop)1 ,esq41 = ?ree models :i* ,i h copi$ 9 ! above diagrams2 b ! beg9n] may f9d x by no means easy to und]/& su* copies1 al?\gh1 if he 7 to exam9e & h&le ! orig9als1 turn+ !m ab\t 9 diff]5t ways1 he w\ld at once compreh5d _! mean+1 z well z ! import ( o!rs f> m complicat$1 :i* ! same eng9e] has con/ruct$ to illu/rate faults4 #f ,edw>d ,hull1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xxiv1 p4 #cbd1 #ahfh4 #g ,playfair1 ,illu/4 ( ,hutt4 ,!ory1 #db4 #h ,geol4 ,trans41 second s]ies4 vol4 v1 p4 #deb4 #i ,conybe>e & ,phillips ,outl9es1 etc41 p4 #cgf4 #aj ,phillips1 ,geology1 ,l>dn]'s ,cyclop41 p4 #da4 #aa ,see ,mammatt's ,geological ,facts1 etc41 p4 #ij & plate4 #ab ,hull1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xxiv1 p4 #cah1 #ahfh4 #ac ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s1 ,geol4 ( ,p5nsylvania1 p4 #hig4 #ad ,edw>d ,hull1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xxiv1 p4 #cbc4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,d5udation ,d5udation def9$4 -- ,its ,am\nt m ?an equal to ! entire ,mass ( ,/ratifi$ ,deposits 9 ! ,e>?'s ,cru/4 -- ,subarial ,d5udation4 -- ,action ( ! ,w9d4 -- ,action ( ,runn+ ,wat]4 -- ,alluvium def9$4 -- ,diff]5t ,ages ( ,alluvium4 -- ,d5ud+ ,p[] ( ,riv]s affect$ by ,rise or ,fall ( ,l&4 -- ,littoral ,d5udation4 -- ,inl& ,sea-,cliffs4 -- ,esc>pm5ts4 -- ,subm>9e ,d5udation4 -- ,dogg]-bank4 -- ,newf\ndl& ,bank4 -- ,d5ud+ ,p[] ( ! ,ocean dur+ ,em]g5ce ( ,l&4 ,d5udation1 :i* has be5 occasionally spok5 ( 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s1 is ! removal ( solid matt] by wat] 9 motion1 :e!r ( riv]s or ( ! waves & curr5ts ( ! sea1 & ! consequ5t lay+ b>e ( "s inf]ior rock4 ,?is op]ation has ex]t$ an influ5ce on ! /ructure ( ! e>?'s cru/ z univ]sal & important z s$im5t>y deposition itself2 = d5udation is ! necess>y antec$5t ( ! production ( all new /rata ( me*anical orig94 ,! =mation ( e new deposit by ! transport ( s$im5t & pebbles necess>ily implies t !re has be51 some:]e else1 a gr9d+ d[n ( rock into r\nd$ fragm5ts1 s&1 or mud1 equal 9 quantity to ! new /rata4 ,all deposition1 !re=e1 except 9 ! case ( a %[] ( volcanic a%es1 & ! outfl[ ( lava1 & ! gr[? ( c]ta9 organic =mations1 is ! sign ( sup]ficial wa/e go+ on contemporane\sly1 & to an equal am\nt1 else:]e4 ,! ga9 at "o po9t is no m ?an suffici5t to balance ! loss at "s o!r4 ,"h a lake has gr[n %all[]1 !re a rav9e has be5 deep5$4 ,"h ! dep? ( ! sea has be5 augm5t$ by ! removal ( a s&bank dur+ a /orm1 !re its bottom has be5 rais$ & %all[$ by ! accumulation 9 its b$ ( ! same s& transport$ f ! bank4 ,:5 we see a /one build+1 we "k t some:]e1 f> or ne>1 a qu>ry has be5 op5$4 ,! c\rses ( /one 9 ! build+ may be comp>$ to successive /rata1 ! qu>ry to a rav9e or valley :i* has suff]$ d5udation4 ,z ! /rata1 l ! c\rses ( hewn /one1 h be5 laid "o ^u ano!r gradually1 s ! excavation bo? ( ! valley & qu>ry h be5 gradual4 ,to pursue ! comp>ison /ill f>!r1 ! sup]ficial heaps ( mud1 s&1 & gravel1 usually call$ alluvium1 may be lik5$ to ! rubbi% ( a qu>ry :i* has be5 reject$ z useless by ! workm51 or has fall5 ^u ! road betwe5 ! qu>ry & ! build+1 s z to lie scatt]$ at r&om ov] ! gr\nd4 ,b we occasionally f9d 9 a conglom]ate l>ge r\nd$ pebbles ( an old] conglom]ate1 :i* _h previ\sly be5 d]iv$ f a v>iety ( diff]5t rocks4 ,9 su* cases we are rem9d$ t1 ! same mat]ials hav+ be5 us$ ov] & ov] aga91 x is n en\gh to affirm t ! entire mass ( /ratifi$ deposits 9 ! e>?'s cru/ af=ds a monum5t & measure ( ! d5udation :i* has tak5 place1 = 9 tru? ! quantity ( matt] n[ extant 9 ! =m ( /ratifi$ rock repres5ts b a fraction ( ! mat]ial remov$ by wat] & r$eposit$ 9 pa/ ages4 ,subarial ,d5udation4--,d5udation may be divid$ into subarial1 or ! action ( w9d1 ra91 & riv]s2 & subm>9e1 or t effect$ by ! waves ( ! sea1 & its tides & curr5ts4 ,) ! op]ation ( ! fir/ ( ^! we are be/ acqua9t$1 & x may be well to give x our fir/ att5tion4 ,action ( ! ,w9d4--,9 des]t regions :]e no ra9 falls1 or :]e1 z 9 p>ts ( ! ,sah>a1 ! soil is s salt z to be )\t any cov]+ ( vegetation1 cl\ds ( du/ & s& atte/ ! p[] ( ! w9d to cause ! %ift+ ( ! unconsolidat$ or dis9tegrat$ rock4 ,9 exam9+ volcanic c\ntries ,i h be5 mu* /ruck ) ! great sup]ficial *anges br\ght ab\t by ?is p[] 9 ! c\rse ( c5turies4 ,! highe/ peak ( ,madeira is ab\t #fjej feet above ! sea1 & consi/s ( ! skeleton ( a volcanic cone n[ #bej feet high1 ! b$s ( :i* once dipp$ f a c5tre 9 all directions at an angle ( m ?an #cj4 ,! summit is =m$ ( a dike ( basalt ) mu* oliv9e1 fifte5 feet wide1 app>5tly ! rema9s ( a column ( lava :i* once rose to ! crat]4 ,ne>ly all ! scori ( ! upp] "p ( ! cone h be5 swept away1 ^? portions only rema9+ :i* 7 h>d5$ by ! contact or proximity ( ! dike4 ,:ile ,i 0 myself on ?is peak on ,janu>y #be1 #ahed1 ,i saw ! w9d1 ?\gh x 0 n /ormy wea!r1 remov+ s& & du/ d]iv$ f ! decompos+ scori4 ,!re _h be5 fro/ 9 ! night1 & "s ice 0 /ill se5 9 ! crevices ( ! rock4 ,on ! highe/ plat=m ( ! ,gr& ,can>y1 at an elevation ( #fjjj feet1 !re is a cyl9drical column ( h>d lava1 f :i* ! s(t] matt] has be5 c>ri$ away2 & o!r simil> remnants ( ! dikes ( cones ( eruption atte/ ! d5ud+ p[] ( ! w9d at po9ts :]e runn+ wat] c\ld nev] h ex]t$ any influ5ce4 ,! wa/e effect$ by w9d aid$ by fro/ & sn[1 may n be trifl+1 ev5 9 a s+le w9t]1 & :5 multipli$ by c5turies may become indef9itely great4 ,fig4 #hj3 ,section ?r\gh sev]al erod$ =mations4 ,action ( ,runn+ ,wat]4--,!re are diff]5t classes ( ph5om5a :i* atte/ 9 a mo/ /rik+ mann] ! va/ spaces left vacant by ! erosive p[] ( wat]4 ,i may allude1 fir/1 to ^? valleys on bo? sides ( :i* ! same /rata are se5 foll[+ ea* o!r 9 ! same ord]1 & hav+ ! same m9]al composition & fossil cont5ts4 ,we may obs]ve1 = example1 sev]al =mations1 z ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 9 ! diagram 7,fig4 #hj73 ,no4 #a1 conglom]ate1 ,no4 #b1 clay1 ,no4 #c1 grit1 & ,no4 #d1 lime/one1 ea* repeat$ 9 a s]ies ( hills sep>at$ by valleys v>y+ 9 dep?4 ,:5 we exam9e ! subord9ate p>ts ( ^! f\r =mations1 we f9d1 9 l mann]1 di/9ct b$s 9 ea*1 correspond+1 on ! opposite sides ( ! valleys1 bo? 9 composition & ord] ( position4 ,no "o c d\bt t ! /rata 7 orig9ally cont9u\s1 & t "s cause has swept away ! portions :i* once connect$ ! :ole s]ies4 ,a torr5t on ! side ( a m\nta9 produces simil> int]ruptions2 & :5 we make artificial cuts 9 l[]+ roads1 we expose1 9 l mann]1 correspond+ b$s on ei!r side4 ,b 9 nature1 ^! appe>ances occur 9 m\nta9s sev]al ?\s& feet high1 & sep>at$ by int]vals ( _m miles or leagues 9 ext5t4 ,9 ! 8,memoirs ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,great ,brita90 7vol4 i71 ,pr(essor ,ramsay has %[n t ! miss+ b$s1 remov$ f ! summit ( ! ,m5dips1 mu/ h be5 ne>ly a mile 9 ?ickness2 & he has po9t$ out consid]able areas 9 ,s\? ,wales & "s ( ! adjac5t c\nties ( ,engl&1 :]e a s]ies ( prim>y 7or palozoic7 /rata1 no less ?an #aa1jjj feet 9 ?ickness1 h be5 /ripp$ (f4 ,all ^! mat]ials h ( c\rse be5 transport$ to new regions1 & h ent]$ into ! composition ( m mod]n =mations4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is %[n by obs]vations 9 ! same 8,survey10 t ! ,palozoic /rata are f #bj1jjj to #cj1jjj feet ?ick4 ,x is cle> t su* rocks1 =m$ ( mud & s&1 n[ = ! mo/ "p consolidat$1 are ! monum5ts ( d5ud+ op]ations1 :i* took place on a gr& scale at a v remote p]iod 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,=1 :atev] has be5 giv5 to "o area mu/ always h be5 borr[$ f ano!r2 a tru? :i*1 obvi\s z x may seem :5 ?us /at$1 mu/ be repeat$ly impress$ on ! /ud5t's m9d1 because 9 _m geological speculations x is tak5 = grant$ t ! ext]nal cru/ ( ! e>? has be5 always gr[+ ?ick] 9 consequ5ce ( ! accumulation1 p]iod aft] p]iod1 ( s$im5t>y matt]1 z if ! new /rata 7 n always produc$ at ! exp5se ( pre-exi/+ rocks1 /ratifi$ or un/ratifi$4 ,by duly reflect+ on ! fact t all deposits ( me*anical orig9 imply ! transportation f "s o!r region1 :e!r contigu\s or remote1 ( an equal am\nt ( solid matt]1 we p]ceive t ! /ony ext]ior ( ! planet mu/ always h gr[n ?9n] 9 "o place1 :5ev]1 by accessions ( new /rata1 x 0 acquir+ ?ickness 9 ano!r4 ,x is well kn[n t g5]ally at ! m\?s ( l>ge riv]s1 deltas are =m+ & ! l& is encroa*+ ^u ! sea2 ^! deltas are monum5ts ( rec5t d5udation & deposition2 & x is obvi\s t if ! mud1 s&1 & gravel 7 tak5 f !m & re/or$ to ! cont95ts !y w\ld fill up a l>ge "p ( ! gullies & valleys :i* are due to ! excavat+ & transport+ p[] ( torr5ts & riv]s4 ,alluvium4--,betwe5 ! sup]ficial cov]+ ( vegetable m\ld & ! subjac5t rock !re usually int]v5es 9 e di/rict a deposit ( loose gravel1 s&1 & mud1 to :i* :5 x occurs 9 valleys ! "n ( alluvium has be5 popul>ly appli$4 ,! t]m is d]iv$ f alluvio1 an inundation1 or alluo1 to wa%1 because ! pebbles & s& commonly resemble ^? ( a riv]'s b$ or ! mud & gravel wa%$ ov] l[ l&s by a flood4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ^? *anges 9 physical geography :i* may take place dur+ ! gradual em]g5ce ( ! bottom ( ! sea & its conv]sion into dry l&1 any spot may ei!r h be5 a sunk5 reef1 or a bay1 or e/u>y1 or sea-%ore1 or ! b$ ( a riv]4 ,! dra9age1 moreov]1 may h be5 d]ang$ aga9 & aga9 by e>?quakes1 dur+ :i* tempor>y lakes are caus$ by l&slips1 & p>tial deluges occasion$ by ! bur/+ ( ! b>ri]s ( su* lakes4 ,= ?is reason x w\ld be unreasonable to hope t we %\ld ev] be able to acc\nt = all ! alluvial ph5om5a ( ea* p>ticul> c\ntry1 see+ t ! causes ( _! orig9 are s v>i\s4 ,besides1 ! la/ op]ations ( wat] h a t5d5cy to di/urb & conf\nd toge!r all pre-exi/+ alluviums4 ,h5ce we are always 9 dang] ( reg>d+ z ! "w ( a s+le era1 & ! effect ( "o cause1 :at has 9 reality be5 ! result ( a v>iety ( di/9ct ag5ts1 dur+ a long succession ( geological epo*s4 ,mu* useful in/ruction may !re=e be ga9$ f ! exploration ( a c\ntry l ,auv]gne1 :]e ! sup]ficial gravel ( v diff]5t eras happ5s to h be5 pres]v$ & kept sep>ate by %eets ( lava1 :i* 7 p\r$ out "o aft] ! o!r at p]iods :5 ! d5udation1 & probably ! upheaval1 ( rocks 7 9 progress4 ,t region _h already acquir$ 9 "s degree its pres5t configuration be=e any volcanoes 7 9 activity1 & be=e any igne\s matt] 0 sup]impos$ ^u ! granitic & fossilif]\s =mations4 ,! pebbles !re=e 9 ! old] gravels are exclusively con/itut$ ( granite & o!r aborig9al rocks2 & aft]w>ds1 :5 volcanic v5ts bur/ =? into eruption1 ^? e>li] alluviums 7 cov]$ by /reams ( lava1 :i* protect$ !m f int]mixture ) gravel ( subsequ5t date4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ages1 a new sy/em ( valleys 0 excavat$1 s t ! riv]s ran at l[] levels ?an ^? at :i* ! fir/ alluviums & %eets ( lava 7 =m$4 ,:51 !re=e1 fre% eruptions gave rise to new lava1 ! melt$ matt] 0 p\r$ out ov] l[] gr\nds2 & ! gravel ( ^! pla9s diff]$ f ! fir/ or upl& alluvium1 by conta9+ 9 x r\nd$ fragm5ts ( v>i\s volcanic rocks1 & (t5 fossil bones belong+ to species ( l& animals diff]5t f ^? :i* _h previ\sly fl\ri%$ 9 ! same c\ntry & be5 buri$ 9 old] gravels4 ,fig4 #ha3 ,lavas ( ,auv]gne re/+ on alluviums ( diff]5t ages4 ,! annex$ draw+ 7,fig4 #ha7 w expla9 ! diff]5t heights at :i* b$s ( lava & gravel1 ea* di/9ct f ! o!r 9 composition & age1 are obs]v$1 "s on ! flat tops ( hills1 #gjj or #hjj feet high1 o!rs on ! slope ( ! same hills1 & ! newe/ ( all 9 ! *annel ( ! exi/+ riv] :]e !re is usually gravel alone1 al?\gh 9 "s cases a n>r[ /rip ( solid lava %>es ! bottom ( ! valley ) ! riv]4 ,! proportion ( ext9ct species ( quadrup$s is m num]\s 9 ! fossil rema9s ( ! gravel ,no4 #a ?an 9 t indicat$ z ,no4 #b2 & 9 ,no4 #c !y agree m closely1 sometimes entirely1 ) ^? ( ! exi/+ fauna4 ,! usual abs5ce or r>ity ( organic rema9s 9 b$s ( loose gravel & s& is p>tly ow+ to ! friction :i* orig9ally gr\nd d[n ! rocks into small fragm5ts1 & p>tly to ! por\s nature ( alluvium1 :i* all[s ! free p]colation ?r\gh x ( ra9-wat]1 & promotes ! decomposition & removal ( fossil rema9s4 ,! loose transport$ matt] on ! surface ( a l>ge "p ( ! l& n[ exi/+ 9 ! temp]ate & arctic regions ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 mu/ be reg>d$ z be+ 9 a some:at exceptional /ate1 9 consequ5ce ( ! important "p :i* ice has play$ 9 comp>atively mod]n geological times4 ,?is subject w be m specially allud$ to :5 we describe1 9 ! elev5? *apt]1 ! deposits call$ 8glacial40 ,d5ud+ ,p[] ( ,riv]s affect$ by ,rise or ,fall ( ,l&4--,x has long be5 a matt] ( common obs]vation t mo/ riv]s are n[ cutt+ _! *annels ?r\gh alluvial deposits ( great] dep? & ext5t ?an c\ld ev] h be5 =m$ by ! pres5t /reams4 ,f ?is fact x has be5 inf]r$ t riv]s 9 g5]al h gr[n small]1 or become less liable to be flood$ ?an =m]ly4 ,x may be true t 9 ! hi/ory ( almo/ e c\ntry ! riv]s h be5 bo? l>g] & small] ?an !y are at ! pres5t mom5t4 ,= ! ra9fall 9 p>ticul> regions v>ies accord+ to climate & physical geography1 & is especially gov]n$ by ! elevation ( ! l& above ! sea1 or its di/ance f x & o!r conditions equally fluctuat+ 9 ! c\rse ( "t4 ,b ! ph5om5on allud$ to may sometimes be acc\nt$ = by oscillations 9 ! level ( ! l&1 exp]i5c$ s9ce ! exi/+ valleys orig9at$1 ev5 :]e no m>k$ dim9ution 9 ! quantity ( ra9 & 9 ! size ( ! riv]s has occurr$4 ,we "k t _m l>ge areas ( l& are ris+ & o!rs s9k+1 & unless x c\ld be assum$ t bo? ! upw>d & d[nw>d movem5ts are ev]y:]e uni=m1 _m ( ! exi/+ hydrographical bas9s ought to h ! appe>ance ( hav+ be5 tempor>y lakes fir/ fill$ ) fluviatile /rata & !n p>tially re-excavat$4 ,suppose1 = example1 "p ( a cont95t1 compris+ )9 x a l>ge hydrographical bas9 l t ( ! ,mississippi1 to subside sev]al in*es or feet 9 a c5tury1 z ! we/ coa/ ( ,gre5l&1 ext5d+ #fjj miles nor? & s\?1 has be5 s9k+ = ?ree or f\r c5turies1 betwe5 ! latitudes #fj & #fi ,n4#a ,x w r>ely happ5 t ! rate ( subsid5ce w be ev]y:]e equal1 & 9 _m cases ! am\nt ( depression 9 ! int]ior w regul>ly exce$ t ( ! region ne>] ! sea4 ,:5ev] ?is happ5s1 ! fall ( ! wat]s fl[+ f ! upl& c\ntry w be dim9i%$1 & ea* tribut>y /ream w h less p[] to c>ry its s& & s$im5t into ! ma9 riv]1 & ! ma9 riv] less p[] to convey its annual burd5 ( transport$ matt] to ! sea4 ,all ! riv]s1 !re=e1 w proce$ to fill up p>tially _! anci5t *annels1 &1 dur+ frequ5t inundations1 w raise _! alluvial pla9s by new deposits4 ,if !n ! same area ( l& be aga9 upheav$ to its =m] height1 ! fall1 & consequ5tly ! velocity1 ( e riv] w beg9 to augm5t4 ,ea* ( !m w be less giv5 to ov]fl[ its alluvial pla92 & _! p[] ( c>ry+ e>?y matt] seaw>d1 & ( sc\r+ out & deep5+ _! *annels1 w be su/a9$ till1 aft] a lapse ( _m ?\s& ye>s1 ea* ( !m has erod$ a new *annel or valley ?r\gh a fluviatile =mation ( comp>atively mod]n date4 ,! surface ( :at 0 once ! riv]-pla9 at ! p]iod ( greate/ depression1 w !n rema9 fr++ ! valley-sides 9 ! =m ( a t]race app>5tly flat1 b 9 reality slop+ d[n ) ! g5]al incl9ation ( ! riv]4 ,ev]y:]e ?is t]race w pres5t cliffs ( gravel & s&1 fac+ ! riv]4 ,t su* a s]ies ( movem5ts has actually tak5 place 9 ! ma9 valley ( ! ,mississippi & 9 its tribut>y valleys dur+ oscillations ( level1 ,i h endeav\r$ to %[ 9 my description ( t c\ntry2#b & ! fre%-wat] %ells ( exi/+ species & bones ( l& quadrup$s1 p>tly ( ext9ct races1 pres]v$ 9 ! t]races ( fluviatile orig91 atte/ ! exclusion ( ! sea dur+ ! :ole process ( fill+ up & p>tial re-excavation4 ,littoral ,d5udation4--,"p ( ! action ( ! waves betwe5 high & l[ wat]m>k mu/ be includ$ 9 subarial d5udation1 m especially z ! und]m9+ ( cliffs by ! waves is facilitat$ by l&-spr+s1 & ^! (t5 lead to ! slid+ d[n ( great masses ( l& into ! sea4 ,along our coa/s we f9d num]\s subm]g$ =e/s1 only visible at l[ wat]1 hav+ ! trunks ( ! trees erect & _! roots atta*$ to !m & /ill spread+ ?r\gh ! anci5t soil z :5 !y 7 liv+4 ,!y occur 9 too _m places1 & sometimes at too great a dep?1 to be expla9$ by a m]e *ange 9 ! level ( ! tides1 al?\gh z ! coa/s wa/e away & alt] 9 %ape1 ! height to :i* ! tides rise & fall is always v>y+1 & ! level ( high tide at any giv5 po9t may1 9 ! c\rse ( _m ages1 diff] by sev]al feet or ev5 fa?oms4 ,x is ?is fluctuation 9 ! height ( ! tides1 & ! erosion & de/ruction ( ! sea-coa/ by ! waves1 t makes x exce$+ly difficult = u 9 a few c5turies1 or ev5 p]haps 9 a few ?\s& ye>s1 to det]m9e :e!r !re is a *ange by subt]ranean movem5t 9 ! relative level ( sea & l&4 ,we (t5 behold1 z on ! coa/s ( ,devon%ire & ,pembroke%ire1 facts :i* appe> to lead to opposite conclusions4 ,9 "o place a rais$ bea* ) m>9e littoral %ells1 & 9 ano!r imm$iately adjo9+ a subm]g$ =e/4 ,^! ph5om5a indicate oscillations ( level1 & z ! movem5ts are v gradual1 !y mu/ give repeat$ opportunities to ! break]s to d5ude ! l& :i* is ?us aga9 & aga9 expos$ to _! fury1 al?\gh x is evid5t t ! subm]g5ce is sometimes effect$ 9 su* a mann] z to all[ ! trees :i* bord] ! coa/ n to be c>ri$ away4 ,inl& ,sea-cliffs4--,9 c\ntries :]e h>d lime/one rocks ab\nd1 inl& cliffs h (t5 reta9$ fai?fully = ages ! *>act]s :i* !y acquir$ :5 !y con/itut$ ! b\nd>y ( l& & sea4 ,?us1 9 ! ,morea1 no less ?an ?ree or ev5 f\r ranges ( cliffs are well-pres]v$1 ris+ "o above ! o!r at diff]5t di/ances f ! actual %ore1 ! summit ( ! highe/ & olde/ occasionally atta9+ #ajjj feet 9 elevation4 ,a consolidat$ bea* ) m>9e %ells is usually f\nd at ! base ( ea* cliff1 & a l9e ( littoral cav]ns4 ,^! ranges ( cliff probably imply pauses 9 ! process ( upheaval :5 ! waves & curr5ts _h "t to und]m9e & cle> away consid]able masses ( rock4 ,b ! beg9n] %\ld be w>n$ n to expect to f9d evid5ce ( ! =m] soj\rn ( ! sea on all ^? l&s :i* we are nev]!less sure h be5 subm]g$ at p]iods comp>atively mod]n2 = not)/&+ ! endur+ nature ( ! m>ks left by littoral action on "s rocks1 especially lime/ones1 we c by no means detect sea-bea*es & inl& cliffs ev]y:]e4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y are1 ^u ! :ole1 extremely p>tial1 & are (t5 entirely want+ 9 di/ricts compos$ ( argillace\s & s&y =mations1 :i* mu/1 nev]!less1 h be5 upheav$ at ! same "t1 & by ! same int]mitt5t movem5ts1 z ! adjo9+ h>d] rocks4 ,esc>pm5ts4--,besides ! inl& cliffs above allud$ to :i* m>k ! anci5t limits ( ! sea1 !re are o!r abrupt t]m9ations ( rocks ( v>i\s k9ds :i* resemble sea-cliffs1 b :i* h 9 reality be5 due to subarial d5udation4 ,^! h be5 call$ 8esc>pm5ts10 a t]m :i* x is useful to conf9e to ! outcrop ( p>ticul> =mations hav+ a sc>p$ outl9e1 z di/9ct f cliffs due to m>9e action4 ,i =m]ly suppos$ t ! /eep l9e ( cliff-l slopes se5 along ! outcrop ( ! *alk1 :5 we foll[ ! edge ( ! ,nor? or ,s\? ,d[ns1 0 due to m>9e action2 b ,pr(essor ,ramsay has %[n#c t ! pres5t outl9e ( ! physical geography is m 9 fav\r ( ! idea ( ! esc>pm5ts hav+ be5 due to gradual wa/e s9ce ! rocks 7 expos$ 9 ! atmosph]e to ! action ( ra9 & riv]s4 ,mr4 ,:ittak] has giv5 a good summ>y ( ! gr\nds = ascrib+ ^! app>5t sea-cliffs to wa/e 9 ! op5 air4 #a4 ,!re is an abs5ce ( all signs ( anci5t sea-bea*es or littoral deposits at ! base ( ! esc>pm5t4 #b4 ,great inequality is obs]v$ 9 ! level ( ! base l9e4 #c4 ,! esc>pm5ts d n int]sect1 l sea-cliffs1 a s]ies ( di/9ct rocks1 b are always conf9$ to ! b\nd>y-l9e ( ! same =mation4 #d4 ,!re are sometimes diff]5t contigu\s & p>allel esc>pm5ts--^?1 = example1 ( ! gre5s& & *alk--:i* are s ne> ea* o!r1 & occasionally s simil> 9 altitude1 t we _c imag9e any exi/+ ar*ipelago if conv]t$ into dry l& to pres5t a l outl9e4 ,! above !ory is by no means inconsi/5t ) ! op9ion t ! limits ( ! outcrop ( ! *alk & gre5s& :i* ! esc>pm5ts n[ foll[1 7 orig9ally det]m9$ by m>9e d5udation4 ,:5 ! s\?-ea/ ( ,engl& la/ em]g$ f b5ea? ! level ( ! sea1 x 0 act$ ^u1 no d\bt1 by ! tide1 waves1 & curr5ts1 & ! *alk w\ld =m f ! fir/ a mass project+ above ! m de/ructible clay call$ ,gault4 ,/ill ! pres5t esc>pm5ts s mu* resembl+ sea-cliffs h no d\bt1 = reasons above /at$1 d]iv$ _! mo/ *>act]i/ic features subsequ5tly to em]g5ce f subarial wa/e by ra9 & riv]s4 ,subm>9e ,d5udation4--,:5 we attempt to e/imate ! am\nt ( subm>9e d5udation1 we become s5sible ( ! disadvantage "u :i* we lab\r f our habitual incapacity ( obs]v+ ! action ( m>9e curr5ts on ! b$ ( ! sea4 ,we "k t ! agitation ( ! waves1 ev5 dur+ /orms1 dim9i%es at a rapid rate1 s z to become v insignificant at ! dep? ( a few fa?oms1 & is q imp]ceptible at ! dep? ( ab\t sixte5 fa?oms2 b :5 l>ge bodies ( wat] are transf]r$ by a curr5t f "o "p ( ! ocean to ano!r1 !y are kn[n to ma9ta9 at great dep?s su* a velocity z mu/ enable !m to remove ! f9]1 & sometimes ev5 ! co>s]1 mat]ials ( ! rocks ov] :i* !y fl[4 ,z ! ,mississippi :5 m ?an #aej feet deep c keep op5 its *annel & ev5 c>ry d[n gravel & s& to its delta1 ! surface velocity be+ n m ?an two or ?ree miles an h\r1 s a gigantic curr5t1 l ! ,gulf ,/ream1 equal 9 volume to _m hundr$ ,mississippis1 & hav+ 9 p>ts a surface velocity ( m ?an ?ree miles1 may act z a propell+ & abrad+ p[] at /ill great] dep?s4 ,b ! efficacy ( ! sea z a d5ud+ ag5t1 geologically consid]$1 is n dep5d5t on ! p[] ( curr5ts to pres]ve at great dep?s a velocity suffici5t to remove s& & mud1 because1 ev5 :]e ! deposition or removal ( s$im5t is n 9 progress1 ! dep? ( wat] does n rema9 con/ant ?r\gh\t geological "t4 ,e page ( ! geological record proves to u t ! relative levels ( l& & sea1 & ! position ( ! ocean & ( cont95ts & isl&s1 has be5 always v>y+1 & we may feel sure t "s portions ( ! subm>9e area are n[ ris+ & o!rs s9k+4 ,! =ce ( tidal & o!r curr5ts & ( ! waves dur+ /orms is suffici5t to prev5t ! em]g5ce ( _m l&s1 ev5 ?\gh !y may be und]go+ cont9ual upheaval4 ,x is n an uncommon error to imag9e t ! wa/e ( sea-cliffs af=ds ! measure ( ! am\nt ( m>9e d5udation ( :i* x probably con/itutes an insignificant portion4 ,dogg]-bank4--,t great %oal call$ ! ,dogg]-bank1 ab\t sixty miles ea/ ( ! coa/ ( ,nor?umb]l&1 & occupy+ an area ab\t z l>ge z ,wales1 has n[h]e a dep? ( m ?an n9ety feet1 & 9 its %all[] p>ts is less ?an =ty feet "u wat]4 ,x might contribute t[>ds ! safety ( ! navigation ( our seas to =m an artificial isl&1 & to erect a light-h\se on ?is bank2 b no eng9e] w\ld be ra% en\gh to attempt x1 z he w\ld feel sure t ! ocean 9 ! fir/ heavy gale w\ld sweep x away z readily z x does e tempor>y %oal t accumulates f "t to "t ar\nd a sunk vessel on ! same bank4#d ,no obs]v$ geographical *anges 9 hi/orical times entitle u to assume t :]e upheaval may be 9 progress x proce$s at a rapid rate4 ,?ree or f\r feet r ?an z _m y>ds 9 a c5tury may probably be z mu* z we c reckon ^u 9 our speculations2 & if su* be ! case1 ! cont9uance ( ! upw>d movem5t might easily be c\nt]act$ by ! d5ud+ =ce ( su* curr5ts aid$ by su* waves z1 dur+ a gale1 are kn[n to prevail 9 ! ,g]man ,ocean4 ,:at p>ts ( ! b$ ( ! ocean are /ation>y at pres5t1 & :at areas may be ris+ or s9k+1 is a matt] ( :i* we are v ignorant1 z ! tak+ ( accurate s\nd+s is b ( rec5t date4 ,newf\ndl& ,bank4--,! great bank ( ,newf\ndl& may be comp>$ 9 size to ! :ole ( ,engl&4 ,?is "p ( ! bottom ( ! ,atlantic is surr\nd$ on ?ree sides by a rapidly deep5+ ocean1 ! bank itself be+ f tw5ty to fifty fa?oms 7or f #abj to #cjj feet7 "u wat]4 ,we are unable to det]m9e by ! comp>ison ( diff]5t *>ts made at di/ant p]iods1 :e!r x is und]go+ any *ange ( level1 b if x be gradually ris+ we _c anticipate on t acc\nt t x w become l&1 because ! break]s 9 an op5 sea w\ld ex]cise a prodigi\s =ce ev5 on solid rock br\ght up to )9 a few y>ds ( ! surface4 ,we "k1 = example1 t :5 a new volcanic isl& rose 9 ! ,m$it]ranean 9 #ahca1 ! waves 7 capable 9 a few ye>s ( r$uc+ x to a sunk5 rock4 ,9 ! same way curr5ts :i* fl[ ov] ! ,newf\ndl& bank a great "p ( ! ye> at ! rate ( two miles an h\r1 & are kn[n to reta9 a consid]able velocity to ne> ! bottom1 may c>ry away all loose s& & mud1 & make ! em]g5ce ( ! %oal impossible1 9 spite ( ! accessions ( mud1 s&1 & b\ld]s d]iv$ occasionally f melt+ iceb]gs :i*1 com+ f ! nor!rn glaci]s1 are frequ5tly /r&$ on v>i\s p>ts ( ! bank4 ,!y mu/ (t5 leave at ! bottom l>ge erratic blocks :i* ! m>9e curr5ts may be incapable ( mov+1 b ! same rocky fragm5ts may be made to s9k by ! und]m9+ ( b$s consi/+ ( f9] matt] on :i* ! blocks & gravel repose4 ,9 ?is way gravel & b\ld]s may cont9ue to ov]spread a subm>9e bottom aft] ! latt] has be5 l[]$ = hundr$s ( feet1 ! surface nev] hav+ be5 able to em]ge & become l&4 ,x is by no means improbable t ! annual removal ( an av]age ?ickness ( half an in* ( rock might c\nt]act ! ord9>y upheaval :i* l>ge subm>9e areas are und]go+2 & ! real enigma :i* ! geologi/ has to solve is n ! ext5sive d5udation ( ! :ite *alk or ( our t]ti>y s&s & clays1 b ! fact t su* incoh]5t mat]ials h ev] succe$$ 9 lift+ up _! heads above wat] 9 an op5 sea4 ,:y 7 !y n swept away dur+ /orms into "s adjo9+ abysses1 ! highe/ p>ts ( ea* %oal be+ always plan$ (f d[n to ! dep? ( a few fa?oms8 ,! h>dness & t\ghness ( "s rocks already expos$ to w9dw>d & act+ z breakwat]s may p]haps h assi/$2 nor mu/ we =get ! protection af=d$ by a d5se & unbrok5 cov]+ ( b>nacles1 limpets1 & o!r creatures :i* fl\ri% mo/ betwe5 high & l[ wat] & %elt] "s newly ris5 coa/s f ! waves4 #a ,pr9ciples ( ,geology #g? ed41 p4 #ejf2 #aj? ed41 vol4 ii1 p4 #aif4 #b ,second ,visit to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 vol4 i1 *ap4 xxxiv4 #c ,physical ,geography & ,geology ( ,great ,brita91 p4 #gh1 #ahfd4 #d ,pr9ciples1 #aj? ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #efi4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,jo9t ,,action ,,( ,,d5udation1 ,,upheaval1 ,,& ,,subsid5ce ,,9 ,,remodell+ ,,! ,,e>?',s ,,cru/4 ,h[ we obta9 an ,insight at ! ,surface1 ( ! ,arrangem5t ( ,rocks at great ,dep?s4 -- ,:y ! ,height ( ! successive ,/rata 9 a giv5 ,region is s disproportionate to _! ,?ickness4 -- ,computation ( ! av]age annual ,am\nt ( subarial ,d5udation4 -- ,antagonism ( ,volcanic ,=ce to ! ,levell+ ,p[] ( runn+ ,wat]4 -- ,h[ f> ! ,transf] ( ,s$im5t f ! ,l& to a neighb\r+ ,sea-bottom may affect ,subt]ranean ,movem5ts4 -- ,p]man5ce ( ,cont95tal & ,oceanic ,areas4 ,h[ we obta9 an ,insight at ! ,surface1 ( ! ,arrangem5t ( ,rocks at ,great ,dep?s4-- ,! read] has be5 already in=m$ t1 9 ! /ructure ( ! e>?'s cru/1 we (t5 f9d pro(s ( ! direct sup]position ( m>9e to fre%-wat] /rata1 & also evid5ce ( ! alt]nation ( deep-sea & %all[-wat] =mations4 ,9 ord] to expla9 h[ su* a s]ies ( rocks c\ld be made to =m our pres5t cont95ts & isl&s1 we h n only to assume t !re h be5 alt]nate upw>d & d[nw>d movem5ts ( great v]tical ext5t1 b t ! upheaval 9 ! areas :i* we at pres5t inhabit has1 9 lat] geological times1 suffici5tly pr$om9at$ ov] subsid5ce to cause ^! portions ( ! e>?'s cru/ to be l& in/ead ( sea4 ,! s9k+ d[n ( a delta b5ea? ! sea-level may cause /rata ( fluviatile or ev5 t]re/rial orig91 su* z peat ) trees prop] to m>%es1 to be cov]$ by deposits ( deep-sea orig94 ,!re is also no end to ! ?ickness ( mud & s& :i* may accumulate 9 %all[ wat]1 provid$ t fre% s$im5t is br\ght d[n f ! wa/+ l& at a rate correspond+ to t ( ! s9k+ ( ! b$ ( ! sea4 ,! latt]1 aga91 may sometimes s9k s fa/ t ! e>?y matt]1 be+ int]cept$ 9 "s new l&w>d depression1 may nev] rea* its =m] re/+-place1 :]e1 ! wat] becom+ cle> may fav\r ! gr[? ( %ells & corals1 & calc>e\s rocks ( organic orig9 may ?us be sup]impos$ on me*anical deposits4 ,! succession ( /rata "h allud$ to w\ld be consi/5t ) ! occurr5ce ( gradual d[nw>d & upw>d movem5ts ( ! l& & b$ ( ! sea )\t any di/urbance ( ! horizontality ( ! sev]al =mations4 ,b ! arrangem5t ( rocks compos+ ! e>?'s cru/ diff]s mat]ially f t :i* w\ld result f a m]e s]ies ( v]tical movem5ts4 ,_h ! volcanic =ces be5 conf9$ to su* movem5ts1 & _h ! /ratifi$ rocks be5 fir/ =m$ b5ea? ! sea & !n rais$ above x1 )\t any lat]al compression1 ! geologi/ w\ld nev] h obta9$ an insight into ! monum5ts ( v>i\s ages1 "s ( extremely remote antiquity4 ,:at we h said 9 ,*apt] ,v ( dip & /rike1 ( ! fold+ & inv]sion ( /rata1 ( anticl9al & syncl9al flexures1 & 9 ,*apt] ,,vi ( d5udation at diff]5t p]iods1 :e!r subarial or subm>9e1 mu/ be und]/ood be=e ! /ud5t c compreh5d :at may at fir/ seem to him an anomaly1 b :i* x is 8 bus9ess p>ticul>ly to und]/&4 ,i allude to ! small height above ! level ( ! sea atta9$ by /rata (t5 _m miles 9 ?ickness1 & ab\t ! *ronological succession ( :i*1 9 "o & ! same region1 !re is no d\bt :atev]4 ,_h /ratifi$ rocks 9 g5]al rema9$ horizontal1 ! waves ( ! sea w\ld h be5 enabl$ dur+ oscillations ( level to plane (f entirely ! upp]mo/ b$s z !y rose or sank dur+ ! em]g5ce or subm]g5ce ( ! l&4 ,b ! occurr5ce ( a s]ies ( =mations ( widely diff]5t ages1 all rema9+ horizontal & 9 con=mable /ratification1 is exceptional1 & = ?is reason ! total annihilation ( ! upp]mo/ /rata has r>ely tak5 place4 ,we owe1 inde$1 to ! side way movem5ts ( lat]al compression ^? anticl9al & syncl9al curves ( ! b$s already describ$ 7,fig4 #ee71 :i*1 toge!r ) d5udation1 subarial & subm>9e1 enable u to inve/igate ! /ructure ( ! e>?'s cru/ _m miles bel[ ^? po9ts :i* ! m9] c rea*4 ,i h already %[n 9 ,fig4 #ef1 h[1 at ,/4 ,abb's ,head1 a s]ies ( /rata ( indef9ite ?ickness may become v]tical1 & !n d5ud$1 s t ! edges ( ! b$s alone %all be expos$ to view1 ! altitude ( ! upheav$ ridges be+ r$uc$ to a mod]ate height above ! sea-level2 & x may be obs]v$ t al?\gh ! incumb5t /rata ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one are 9 t place ne>ly horizontal1 yet ^! same new] b$s w 9 o!r places be f\nd s fold$ z to pres5t v]tical /rata1 ! edges ( :i* are abruptly cut (f1 z 9 #b1 #c1 #d on ! "r-h& side ( ! diagram1 ,fig4 #ee4 ,:y ! ,height ( ! ,successive ,/rata 9 a giv5 ,region is s ,disproportionate to _! ,?ickness4--,we _c too di/9ctly be> 9 m9d h[ dep5d5t we are on ! jo9t action ( ! volcanic & aque\s =ces1 ! "o 9 di/urb+ ! orig9al position ( rocks1 & ! o!r 9 de/roy+ l>ge portions ( !m1 = our p[] ( consult+ ! diff]5t pages & volumes ( ^? /ony records ( :i* ! cru/ ( ! globe is compos$4 ,:y1 x may be ask$1 if ! anci5t b$ ( ! sea has be5 9 _m regions uplift$ to ! height ( two or ?ree miles1 & sometimes twice t altitude1 & if x c be prov$ t "s s+le =mations are ( !mselves two or ?ree miles ?ick1 d we s (t5 f9d sev]al important gr\ps re/+ "o ^u ! o!r1 yet atta9+ only ! height ( a few hundr$ feet above ! level ( ! sea8 ,! ,am]ican geologi/s1 aft] c>efully /udy+ ! ,allegh5y or ,appala*ian m\nta9s1 h asc]ta9$ t ! old] fossilif]\s rocks ( t *a9 7f ! ,silurian to ! ,c>bonif]\s inclusive7 are n less ?an #db1jjj feet ?ick1 & if !y 7 n[ sup]impos$ on ea* o!r 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !y 7 ?r[n d[n1 !y ought to equal 9 height ! ,himalayas ) ! ,alps pil$ ^u !m4 ,yet !y r>ely rea* an altitude ( #ejjj feet1 & _! l(tie/ peaks are no m ?an #gjjj feet high4 ,! ,c>bonif]\s /rata =m+ ! highe/ memb] ( ! s]ies1 & conta9+ b$s ( coal1 c be %[n to be ( %all[-wat] orig91 or ev5 sometimes to h orig9at$ 9 swamps 9 ! op5 air4 ,b :at is m surpris+1 ! l[e/ "p ( ?is great ,palozoic s]ies1 in/ead ( hav+ be5 ?r[n d[n at ! bottom ( an abyss m ?an #dj1jjj feet deep1 consi/s ( s$im5t 7! ,potsdam s&/one71 evid5tly spread out on ! bottom ( a %all[ sea1 on :i* ripple-m>k$ s&s 7 occasionally =m$4 ,?is va/ ?ickness ( #dj1jjj feet is n obta9$ by add+ toge!r ! maximum d5sity atta9$ by ea* =mation 9 di/ant p>ts ( ! *a91 b by measur+ ! successive gr\ps z !y are expos$ 9 a v limit$ area1 & :]e ! d5ud$ edges ( ! v]tical /rata =m+ ! p>allel folds allud$ to at page #hg 8crop out0 at ! surface4 ,our att5tion has be5 call$ by ,mr4 ,james ,hall1 ,palontologi/ ( ,new ,york1 to ! fact t ^! ,palozoic rocks ( ! ,appala*ian *a91 :i* are ( su* enorm\s d5sity1 :]e !y are almo/ entirely ( me*anical orig91 ?9 out gradually z !y are trac$ to ! we/w>d1 :]e evid5tly ! contemporane\s seas all[$ organic rocks to be =m$ by corals1 e*9od]ms1 & encr9ites 9 cle>] wat]1 & :]e1 al?\gh ! same successive p]iods are repres5t$1 ! total mass ( /rata f ! ,silurian to ! ,c>bonif]\s1 in/ead ( be+ #dj1jjj is only #djjj feet ?ick4 ,a l ph5om5on is exhibit$ 9 e m\nta9\s c\ntry1 z1 = example1 9 ! ,european ,alps2 b we ne$ n g f>!r ?an ! nor? ( ,engl& = its illu/ration4 ,?us 9 ,lanca%ire & c5tral ,engl& ! ?ickness ( ! ,c>bonif]\s =mation1 includ+ ! ,mill/one ,grit & ,yor$ale b$s1 is comput$ to be m ?an #ah1jjj feet2 to ?is we may add ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 at lea/ #bjjj feet 9 ?ickness1 & ! ov]ly+ ,p]mian & ,triassic =mations1 #cjjj or #djjj feet ?ick4 ,h[ !n does x happ5 t ! l(tie/ hills ( ,york%ire & ,lanca%ire1 in/ead ( be+ #bd1jjj feet high1 nev] rise above #cjjj feet8 ,= "h1 z be=e po9t$ out 9 ! ,allegh5ies1 all ! great ?icknesses are sometimes f\nd 9 close approximation & 9 a region only a few miles 9 diamet]4 ,x is true t ^! same sets ( /rata d n pres]ve _! full =ce :5 foll[$ = indef9ite di/ances4 ,?us ! #ah1jjj feet ( ,c>bonif]\s grits & %ales 9 ,lanca%ire1 be=e allud$ to1 gradually ?9 out1 z ,mr4 ,hull has %[n1 z !y ext5d s\?w>d1 by att5uation or orig9al defici5cy ( s$im5t1 & n 9 consequ5ce ( subsequ5t d5udation1 s t :5 we h foll[$ !m = ab\t #ajj miles into ,leice/]%ire1 !y h dw9dl$ away to a ?ickness ( only #cjjj feet4 ,9 ! same region ! ,c>bonif]\s lime/one atta9s s unusual a ?ickness--namely1 m ?an #djjj feet--z to appe> to comp5sate 9 "s measure = ! defici5cy ( contemporane\s s$im5t>y rock4#a ,x is admitt$ t :5 two =mations are uncon=mable _! fossil rema9s almo/ always diff] consid]ably4 ,! break 9 ! cont9uity ( ! organic =ms seems connect$ ) a great lapse ( "t1 & ! same int]val has all[$ ext5sive di/urbance ( ! /rata1 & removal ( p>ts ( !m by d5udation1 to take place4 ,! m we ext5d our inve/igations ! m num]\s d ! pro(s ( ^! breaks become1 & !y ext5d to ! mo/ anci5t rocks yet discov]$4 ,! olde/ examples yet br\ght to light 9 ! ,briti% ,isles are on ! bord]s ( ,ros%ire & ,su!rl&%ire1 & h be5 well describ$ by ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison1 by :om _! *ronological relations 7 admirably work$ out1 & prov$ to be v diff]5t f ^? :i* previ\s obs]v]s _h imag9$ !m to be4 ,i _h an opportunity 9 ! autumn ( #ahfi ( v]ify+ ! spl5did section giv5 9 ,fig4 #hb by climb+ 9 a few h\rs f ! banks ( ,lo* ,assynt to ! summit ( ! m\nta9 call$ ,que5aig1 #bfgc feet high4 ,! =mations #a1 #b1 #c1 ! ,laur5tian1 ,cambrian1 & ,silurian1 to be expla9$ 9 ,*apt]s ,,xxv & ,,xxvi1 n only occur 9 succession 9 ?is "o m\nta91 b _! uncon=mable junctions are di/9ctly expos$ to view4 ,fig4 #hb3 ,uncon=mable ,palozoic /ata1 ,su!rl&%ire 7,mur*ison74 ,to beg9 ) ! olde/ set ( rocks1 ,no4 #a2 !y consi/ *iefly ( hornbl5dic gneiss1 & 9 ! neighb\r+ ,hebrides =m :ole isl&s1 atta9+ a ?ickness ( ?\s&s ( feet1 al?\gh !y h suff]$ su* contortions & d5udation t !y seldom rise m ?an a few hundr$ feet above ! sea-level4 ,9 discordant /ratification ^u ! edges ( ?is gneiss reposes ,no4 #b1 a gr\p ( conglom]ate & purple s&/one ref]able to ! ,cambrian 7or ,longmynd7 =mation1 :i* c else:]e be %[n to be *>act]is$ by its peculi> organic rema9s4 ,on ?is aga9 re/s ,no4 #c1 a l[] memb] ( ! important gr\p call$ ,silurian1 an outli] ( :i*1 #c1 caps ! summit ( ,que5aig1 atte/+ ! removal by d5udation ( rocks ( ! same age1 :i* once ext5d$ f ! great mass #c to #c4 ,al?\gh ?is rock n[ consi/s ( solid qu>tz1 x is cle> t 9 its orig9al /ate x 0 =m$ ( f9e s&1 p]=at$ by num]\s lob-worms or annelids1 :i* left _! burr[s 9 ! %ape ( tubul> holl[s ,fig4 #efc ( ,ar5icolites71 hundr$s1 nay ?\s&s1 ( :i* ,i saw z ,i asc5d$ ! m\nta94 ,fig4 #hc3 ,diagrammatic section ( ! same gr\ps ne> ,que5aig 7,mur*ison74 ,9 ,que5aig we only behold ?is s+le qu>tzose memb] ( ! ,silurian s]ies1 b 9 ! neighb\r+ c\ntry 7see ,fig4 #hc7 x is se5 to ! ea/w>d to be foll[$ by lime/ones1 #c;a1 & s*i/s1 #c;b1 pres5t+ num]\s folds1 & becom+ m & m metamorphic & cry/all9e1 until at l5g?1 al?\gh v diff]5t 9 age & /rike1 !y mu* resemble 9 appe>ance ! gr\p ,no4 #a4 ,x is v seldom t 9 ! same c\ntry "o cont9u\s =mation1 su* z ! ,silurian1 is1 z 9 ?is case1 m fossilif]\s & less alt]$ by volcanic heat 9 its old] ?an 9 its new] /rata1 & /ill m r>e to f9d an und]ly+ & uncon=mable gr\p l ! ,cambrian reta9+ its orig9al condition ( a conglom]ate & s&/one m p]fectly ?an ! ov]ly+ =mation4 ,"h also we may rem>k 9 reg>d to ! orig9 ( ^! ,cambrian rocks t !y 7 evid5tly produc$ at ! exp5se ( ! und]ly+ ,laur5tian1 = ! r\nd$ pebbles occurr+ 9 !m are id5tical 9 composition & texture ) t cry/all9e gneiss :i* con/itutes ! contort$ b$s ( ! inf]ior =mation ,no4 #a4 ,:5 ! read] has /udi$ ! *apt] on metamorphism1 & has become aw>e h[ mu* modification by heat1 pressure1 & *emical action is requir$ be=e ! conv]sion ( s$im5t>y into cry/all9e /rata c be br\ght ab\t1 he w appreciate ! insight :i* we ?us ga9 into ! date ( ! *anges :i* _h already be5 effect$ 9 ! ,laur5tian rocks long be=e ! ,cambrian pebbles ( qu>tz & gneiss 7 d]iv$ f !m4 ,! ,laur5tian is e/imat$ by ,sir ,william ,logan to am\nt 9 ,canada to #cj1jjj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,z to ! ,cambrian1 x is suppos$ by ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison t ! fragm5t left 9 ,su!rl&%ire is ab\t #cejj feet ?ick1 & 9 ,wales & ! bord]s ( ,%rop%ire ?is =mation may equal #aj1jjj feet1 :ile ! ,silurian /rata ,no4 #c1 difficult z x may be to measure !m 9 _! v>i\s fold+s to ! ea/w>d1 :]e !y h be5 invad$ by intrusive masses ( granite1 are suppos$ _m times to surpass ! ,cambrian 9 volume & d5sity4 ,b al?\gh we are deal+ "h ) /ratifi$ rocks1 ea* ( :i* w\ld be sev]al miles 9 ?ickness1 if !y 7 fully repres5t$1 ! :ole ( !m d n atta9 ! elevation ( a s+le mile above ! level ( ! sea4 ,computation ( ! ,av]age ,annual ,am\nt ( ,subarial ,d5udation4--,! geology ( ! di/rict above allud$ to may assi/ our imag9ation 9 conceiv+ ! ext5t to :i* gr\ps ( anci5t rocks1 ea* ( :i* may 9 _! turn h =m$ cont95ts & oceanic bas9s1 h be5 di/urb$1 fold$1 & d5ud$ ev5 9 ! c\rse ( a few out ( _m ( ^? geological p]iods to :i* our imp]fect records relate4 ,x is n easy = u to ov]e/imate ! effects :i* causes 9 e day action mu/ produce :5 ! multiply+ p[] ( "t is tak5 into acc\nt4 ,attempts 7 made by ,manfr$i 9 #agcf1 & aft]w>ds by ,playfair 9 #ahjb1 to calculate ! "t :i* x w\ld require to enable ! riv]s to deliv] ov] ! :ole ( ! l& into ! bas9 ( ! ocean4 ,! data 7 at fir/ too imp]fect & vague to all[ !m ev5 to approximate to safe conclusions4 ,b 9 our own "t simil> inve/igations h be5 r5ew$ ) m prospect ( success1 ! am\nt br\ght d[n by _m l>ge riv]s to ! sea hav+ be5 m accurately asc]ta9$4 ,mr4 ,alfr$ ,tylor1 9 #ahej1 inf]r$ t ! quantity ( detritus n[ be+ di/ribut$ ov] ! sea-bottom w\ld1 at ! end ( #aj1jjj ye>s1 cause an elevation ( ! sea-level to ! ext5t ( at lea/ ?ree in*es4#b ,subsequ5tly ,mr4 ,croll1 9 #ahfg1 & aga91 ) m exactness1 9 #ahfh1 d$uc$ f ! late/ measurem5t ( ! s$im5t transport$ by ,european & ,am]ican riv]s ! rate ( subarial d5udation to :i* ! surface ( l>ge cont95ts is expos$1 tak+ especially ! hydrographical bas9 ( ! ,mississippi z af=d+ ! be/ available measure ( ! av]age wa/e ( ! l&4 ,! conclusion arriv$ at 9 8 able memoir1#c 0 t ! :ole t]re/rial surface is d5ud$ at ! rate ( "o foot 9 #fjjj ye>s & ?is op9ion 0 simultane\sly en=c$ by 8 fell[-lab\r]1 ,mr4 ,geikie1 :o1 be+ jo9tly engag$ 9 ! same l9e ( inquiry1 publi%$ a lum9\s essay on ! subject 9 #ahfh4 ,! /ud5t1 by ref]r+ to my 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology10#d may see t ,messrs4 ,humphrey & ,abbot1 dur+ _! survey ( ! ,mississippi1 attempt$ to make accurate measurem5ts ( ! proportion ( s$im5t c>ri$ d[n annually to ! sea by t riv]1 includ+ n only ! mud held 9 susp5sion1 b also ! s& & gravel =c$ along ! bottom4 ,x is evid5t t :5 we "k ! dim5sions ( ! area :i* is dra9$1 & ! annual quantity ( e>?y matt] tak5 f x & borne into ! sea1 we c affirm h[ mu* on an av]age has be5 remov$ f ! g5]al surface 9 "o ye>1 & !re seems no dang] ( our ov]rat+ ! mean rate ( wa/e by select+ ! ,mississippi z our example1 = t riv] dra9s a c\ntry equal to m ?an half ! cont95t ( ,europe1 ext5ds ?r\gh tw5ty degrees ( latitude1 & !re=e ?r\gh regions enjoy+ a great v>iety ( climate1 & "s ( its tribut>ies desc5d f m\nta9s ( great height4 ,! ,mississippi is also m likely to af=d u a fair te/ ( ord9>y d5udation1 because1 unlike ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce & its tribut>ies1 !re are no great lakes 9 :i* ! fluviatile s$im5t is ?r[n d[n & arre/$ 9 its way to ! sea4 ,9 /rik+ a g5]al av]age we h to rememb] t !re are l>ge des]ts 9 :i* !re is sc>cely any ra9fall1 & tracts :i* are z ra9less z p>ts ( ,p]u1 & ^! mu/ n be neglect$ z c\nt]balanc+ o!rs1 9 ! tropics1 :]e ! quantity ( ra9 is 9 excess4 ,if !n1 argues ,mr4 ,geikie1 we assume t ! ,mississippi is l[]+ ! surface ( ! great bas9 :i* x dra9s at ! rate ( "o foot 9 #fjjj ye>s1 #aj feet 9 #fj1jjj ye>s1 #ajj feet 9 #fjj1jjj ye>s1 & #ajjj feet 9 #f1jjj1jjj ye>s1 x w\ld n require m ?an ab\t #d1ejj1jjj ye>s to we> away ! :ole ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t if its mean height is correctly e/imat$ by ,humboldt at #gdh feet4 ,& if ! mean height ( all ! l& n[ above ! sea ?r\gh\t ! globe is #ajjj feet1 z "s geograph]s believe1 x w\ld only require six million ye>s to subject a mass ( rock equal 9 volume to ! :ole ( ! l& to ! action ( subarial d5udation4 ,x may be object$ t ! annual wa/e is p>tial1 & n equally d]iv$ f ! g5]al surface ( ! c\ntry1 inasmu* z pla9s1 wat]-%$s1 & level gr\nd at all heights rema9 comp>atively unalt]$2 b ?is1 z ,mr4 ,geikie has well po9t$ out1 does n affect our e/imate ( ! sum total ( d5udation4 ,! am\nt rema9s ! same1 & if we all[ too little = ! loss f ! surface ( table-l&s we only increase ! proportion ( ! loss su/a9$ by ! sides & bottoms ( ! valleys1 & vice v]sa4#e ,antagonism ( ,volcanic ,=ce to ! ,levell+ ,p[] ( ,runn+ ,wat]4--,9 all ^! e/imates x is assum$ t ! entire quantity ( l& above ! sea-level rema9s on an av]age undim9i%$ 9 spite ( annual wa/e4 ,7 x o!rwise ! subarial d5udation w\ld be cont9ually less5$ by ! dim9ution ( ! height & dim5sions ( ! l& expos$ to wa/e4 ,un=tunately we h z yet no accurate data enabl+ u to measure ! action ( t =ce by :i* ! inequalities ( ! surface ( ! e>?'s cru/ may be re/or$1 & ! height ( ! cont95ts & dep? ( ! seas made to cont9ue unimpair$4 ,i /at$ 9 #ahcj 9 ! 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology10#f t runn+ wat] & volcanic action are two antagoni/ic =ces2 ! "o lab\r+ cont9ually to r$uce ! :ole ( ! l& to ! level ( ! sea1 ! o!r to re/ore & ma9ta9 ! inequalities ( ! cru/ on :i* ! v exi/5ce ( isl&s & cont95ts dep5ds4 ,i /at$1 h[ev]1 t :5 we endeav\r to =m "s idea ( ! relation ( ^! de/roy+ & r5ovat+ =ces1 we mu/ always be> 9 m9d t x is n simply by upheaval t subt]ranean movem5ts c c\nt]act ! levell+ =ce ( runn+ wat]4 ,= :]eas ! transportation ( s$im5t f ! l& to ! ocean w\ld raise ! g5]al sea-level1 ! subsid5ce ( ! sea-bottom1 by increas+ its capacity1 w\ld *eck ?is rise & prev5t ! subm]g5ce ( ! l&4 ,i h1 inde$1 endeav\r$ to %[ t unless we assume t !re is1 on ! :ole1 m subsid5ce ?an upheaval1 we mu/ suppose ! diamet] ( ! planet to be always increas+1 by t quantity ( volcanic matt] :i* is annually p\r$ out 9 ! %ape ( lava or a%es1 :e!r on ! l& or 9 ! b$ ( ! sea1 & :i* is d]iv$ f ! int]ior ( ! e>?4 ,! ab/raction ( ?is matt] causes1 no d\bt1 subt]ranean vacuities & a correspond+ giv+ way ( ! surface2 if x 7 n s1 ! av]age d5sity ( p>ts ( ! int]ior w\ld be always less5+ & ! size ( ! planet increas+4#g ,our inability to e/imate ! am\nt or direction ( ! movem5ts due to volcanic p[] by no means r5d]s its efficacy z a l&-pres]v+ =ce 9 pa/ times a m]e matt] ( conjecture4 ,! /ud5t w see 9 ,*apt] ,,xxiv t we h pro(s ( ,c>bonif]\s =e/s hundr$s ( miles 9 ext5t :i* grew on ! l[l&s or deltas ne> ! sea1 & :i* subsid$ & gave place to o!r =e/s1 until 9 "s regions fluviatile & %all[-wat] /rata ) occasional seams ( coal 7 pil$ "o ov] ! o!r1 till !y atta9$ a ?ickness ( _m ?\s& feet4 ,su* accumulations1 obs]v$ 9 ,great ,brita9 & ,am]ica on opposite sides ( ! ,atlantic1 imply ! long-cont9u$ exi/5ce ( l& vegetation1 & ( riv]s dra9+ a =m] cont95t plac$ :]e !re is n[ deep sea4 ,x w be also se5 9 ,*apt] ,,xxv t we h evid5ce ( a ri* t]re/rial flora1 ! ,devonian1 ev5 m anci5t ?an ! ,c>bonif]\s2 :ile on ! o!r h&1 ! lat] ,triassic1 ,oolitic1 ,cretace\s1 & successive ,t]ti>y p]iods h all suppli$ u ) fossil plants1 insects1 or t]re/rial mammalia2 %[+ t1 9 spite ( great oscillations ( level & cont9u$ *anges 9 ! position ( l& & sea1 ! volcanic =ces h ma9ta9$ a due proportion ( dry l&4 ,we may appeal also to fre%-wat] =mations1 su* z ! ,purbeck & ,weald51 to prove t 9 ! ,oolitic & ,neocomian eras !re 7 riv]s dra9+ anci5t l&s 9 ,europe 9 times :5 we "k t o!r spaces1 n[ above wat]1 7 subm]g$4 ,h[ f> ! ,transf] ( ,s$im5t f ! ,l& to a ,neighb\r+ ,sea-bottom may affect ,subt]ranean ,movem5ts4--,little z we und]/& at pres5t ! laws :i* gov]n ! di/ribution ( volcanic heat 9 ! int]ior & cru/ ( ! globe1 by :i* m\nta9 *a9s1 high table-l&s1 & ! abysses ( ! ocean are =m$1 x seems cle> t ?is heat is ! prime mov] on :i* all ! gr&] features 9 ! ext]nal configuration ( ! planet dep5d4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t ! /ripp+ (f by d5udation ( d5se masses f "o "p ( a cont95t & ! deliv]y ( ! same into ! b$ ( ! ocean mu/ h a decid$ effect 9 caus+ *anges ( temp]ature 9 ! e>?'s cru/ bel[1 or1 9 o!r words1 9 caus+ ! subt]ranean iso!rmals to %ift _! position4 ,if ?is be s1 "o "p ( ! cru/ may be made to rise1 & ano!r to s9k1 by ! expansion & contraction ( ! rocks1 ( :i* ! temp]ature is alt]$4 ,i _c1 at pres5t1 discuss ?is subject1 ( :i* ,i h treat$ m fully else:]e1#h b may /ate "h t ,i believe ?is transf] ( s$im5t to play a v subord9ate "p 9 modify+ ^? movem5ts on :i* ! configuration ( ! e>?'s cru/ dep5ds4 ,9 ord] t /rata ( %all[-wat] orig9 %\ld be able to atta9 a ?ickness ( sev]al ?\s& feet1 & s come to ex]t a consid]able d[nw>d pressure1 !re mu/ h be5 fir/ "s indep5d5t & antec$5t causes at "w :i* h giv5 rise to ! incipi5t %all[ receptacle 9 :i* ! s$im5t began to accumulate4 ,! same causes !re cont9u+ to depress ! sea-bottom1 room w\ld be made = fre% accessions ( s$im5t1 & x w\ld only be by a long repetition ( ! deposit+ process t ! new matt] c\ld acquire weight en\gh to affect ! temp]ature ( ! rocks f> bel[1 s z to increase or dim9i% _! volume4 ,p]man5ce ( ,cont95tal & ,oceanic ,areas4--,if ! ?ickness ( m ?an #dj1jjj feet ( s$im5t>y /rata be=e allud$ to 9 ! ,appala*ians proves a prepond]ance ( d[nw>d movem5ts 9 ,palozoic times 9 a di/rict n[ =m+ ! ea/]n bord] ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 x also proves1 z be=e h9t$1 ! cont9u$ exi/5ce & wa/e ( "s neighb\r+ cont95t1 probably =m$ ( ,laur5tian rocks1 & situat$ :]e ! ,atlantic n[ prevails4 ,su* an hypo!sis w\ld be 9 p]fect h>mony ) ! conclusions =c$ ^u u by ! /udy ( ! pres5t configuration ( our cont95ts1 & ! relation ( _! height to ! dep? ( ! oceanic bas9s2 also to ! consid]able elevation & ext5t sometimes rea*$ by drift conta9+ %ells ( rec5t species1 & /ill m by ! fact ( s$im5t>y /rata1 sev]al ?\s& feet ?ick1 z ^? ( c5tral ,sicily1 or su* z flank ! ,alps & ,ap5n9es1 conta9+ fossil ,mollusca sometimes almo/ :olly id5tical ) species /ill liv+4 ,i h rem>k$ else:]e#i t upw>d & d[nw>d movem5ts ( #ajjj feet or m w\ld turn mu* l& into sea & sea into l& 9 ! cont95tal areas & _! bord]s1 :]eas oscillations ( equal magnitude w\ld h no correspond+ effect 9 ! b$ ( ! ocean g5]ally1 believ$ z x is to h a mean dep? ( #ae1jjj feet1 & :i*1 :e!r ?is e/imate be correct or n1 is c]ta9ly ( great pr(undity4 ,subarial d5udation w\ld n ( itself less5 ! area ( ! l&1 b w\ld t5d to fill up ) s$im5t seas ( mod]ate dep? adjo9+ ! coa/4 ,! co>s] matt] falls to ! bottom ne> ! %ore 9 ! fir/ /ill wat] :i* x rea*es1 & :5ev] ! sea-bottom on :i* ?is matt] has be5 ?r[n is slightly elevat$1 x becomes l&1 & an upheaval ( a ?\s& feet causes x to atta9 ! mean elevation ( cont95ts 9 g5]al4 ,suppose1 !re=e1 we _h asc]ta9$ t ! triturat+ p[] ( subarial d5udation might 9 a giv5 "t--9 ?ree1 or six1 or a great] numb] ( millions ( ye>s--pulv]ise a volume ( rock equal 9 dim5sions to all ! pres5t l&1 we might yet f9d1 c\ld we revisit ! e>? at ! end ( su* a p]iod1 t ! cont95ts occupi$ v mu* ! same position :i* !y held be=e2 we %\ld f9d ! riv]s employ$ 9 c>ry+ d[n to ! sea ! v same mud1 s&1 & pebbles ) :i* !y _h be5 *>g$ 9 our own "t1 ! sup]ficial alluvial matt] z well z a great ?ickness ( s$im5t>y /rata w\ld inclose %ells1 all or a great "p ( :i* we %\ld recognise z specifically id5tical ) ^? already kn[n to u z liv+4 ,e geologi/ is aw>e t great z h be5 ! geographical *anges 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,glacial ,p]iod1 !re hav+ be5 subm]g5ce & re-em]g5ce ( l& to ! ext5t ( #ajjj feet v]tically1 & 9 ! temp]ate latitudes great vicissitudes ( climate1 ! m>9e mollusca h n *ang$1 & ! same drift :i* _h be5 c>ri$ d[n to ! sea at ! beg9n+ ( ! p]iod is n[ und]go+ a second transportation 9 ! same direction4 ,z :5 we h measur$ a fraction ( "t 9 an h\r-glass we h only to rev]se ! position ( our *ronomet] & we make ! same s& measure ov] aga9 ! duration ( a second equal p]iod1 s :5 ! volcanic =ce has rem\ld$ ! =m ( a cont95t & ! adjo9+ sea-bottom1 ! same mat]ials are made to d duty a second "t4 ,x is true t at ea* oscillation ( level ! solid rocks compos+ ! orig9al cont95t suff] "s fre% d5udation1 & d n rema9 unimpair$ l ! wood5 & glass framework ( ! h\r-glass1 /ill ! we> & te> suff]$ by ! l>g] area expos$ to subarial d5udation consi/s ei!r ( loose drift or ( s$im5t>y /rata1 :i* 7 ?r[n d[n 9 seas ne> ! l&1 & subsequ5tly uprais$1 ! same cont95ts & oceanic bas9s rema9+ 9 exi/5ce all ! :ile4 ,f all t we "k ( ! extreme sl[ness ( ! upw>d & d[nw>d movem5ts :i* br+ ab\t ev5 slight geographical *anges1 we may inf] t x w\ld require a long succession ( geological p]iods to cause ! subm>9e & supram>9e areas to *ange places1 ev5 if ! asc5d+ movem5ts 9 ! "o region & ! desc5d+ 9 ! o!r 7 cont9u\sly 9 "o direction4 ,b we h only to appeal to ! /ructure ( ! ,alps1 :]e !re are s _m %all[ & deep wat] =mations ( v>i\s ages cr[d$ into a limit$ area1 to conv9ce ourselves t m\nta9 *a9s are ! result ( great oscillations ( level4 ,high l& is n produc$ simply by uni=m upheaval1 b by a pr$om9ance ( elevatory ov] subsid+ movem5ts4 ,:]e ! ocean is extremely deep x is because ! s9k+ ( ! bottom has be5 9 excess1 9 spite ( int]ruptions by upheaval4 ,yet p]si/5t z may be ! lead+ features ( l& & sea on ! globe1 !y are n immutable4 ,"s ( ! f9e/ mud is d\btless c>ri$ to indef9ite di/ances f ! coa/ by m>9e curr5ts1 & we are taught by deep-sea dr$g+s t 9 cle> wat] at dep?s equall+ ! height ( ! ,alps organic be+s may fl\ri%1 & _! spoils sl[ly accumulate on ! bottom4 ,we also occasionally obta9 evid5ce t subm>9e volcanoes are p\r+ out a%es & /reams ( lava 9 mid-ocean z well z on l& 7see ,pr9ciples1 vol4 ii1 p4 #fd71 & t :]ev] m\nta9s l ,etna1 ,vesuvius1 & ! ,can>y ,isl&s are n[ ! site ( eruptions1 !re are signs ( accompany+ upheaval1 by :i* b$s ( a%es full ( rec5t m>9e %ells h be5 uplift$ _m hundr$ feet4 ,we ne$ n be surpris$1 !re=e1 if we le>n f geology t ! cont95ts & oceans 7 n always plac$ :]e !y n[ are1 al?\gh ! imag9ation may well be ov]p[]$ :5 x endeav\rs to contemplate ! quantity ( "t requir$ = su* revolutions4 ,we %all h ga9$ a great /ep if we c approximate to ! numb] ( millions ( ye>s 9 :i* ! av]age aque\s d5udation go+ on ^u ! l& w\ld convey seaw>d a quantity ( matt] equal to ! av]age volume ( our cont95ts1 & ?is might give u a gauge ( ! m9imum ( volcanic =ce necess>y to c\nt]act su* levell+ p[] ( runn+ wat]2 b to discov] a relation betwe5 ^! great ag5cies & ! rate at :i* species ( organic be+s v>y1 is at pres5t :olly beyond ! rea* ( our computation1 ?\gh p]haps x may n prove ev5tually to transc5d ! p[]s ( man4 #a ,hull1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xxiv1 p4 #cbb1 #ahfh4 #b ,tylor1 ,phil4 ,mag41 #d? s]ies1 p4 #bfh1 #ahej4 #c ,croll1 ,phil4 ,mag41 #ahfh1 p4 #cha4 #d ,vol4 i1 p4 #ddb1 #ahfg4 #e ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,glasg[1 vol4 iii1 p4 #afi4 #f #a/ ed41 *ap4 x1 p4 #afg1 #ahcj2 see also #aj? ed41 vol4 i1 *ap4 xv1 p4 #cbg1 #ahfg4 #g ,pr9ciples1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bcg2 also #a/ ed41 p4 #ddg1 #ahcj4 #h ,pr9ciples1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bbi1 #ahfh4 #i ,pr9ciples1 vol4 i1 p4 #bfe1 #ahfg4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,*ronological ,,classification ,,( ,,rocks4 ,aque\s1 ,plutonic1 volcanic1 & metamorphic ,rocks consid]$ *ronologically4 -- ,t]ms ,prim>y1 ,second>y1 & ,t]ti>y2 ,palozoic1 ,mesozoic1 & ,ca9ozoic expla9$4 -- ,on ! diff]5t ,ages ( ! aque\s ,rocks4 -- ,?ree pr9cipal ,te/s ( relative ,age3 ,sup]position1 ,m9]al ,"*1 & ,fossils4 -- ,*ange ( ,m9]al ,"* & ,fossils 9 ! same cont9u\s ,=mation4 -- ,pro(s t di/9ct ,species ( ,animals & ,plants h liv$ at successive ,p]iods4 -- ,di/9ct ,prov9ces ( indig5\s ,species4 -- ,great ,ext5t ( s+le ,prov9ces4 -- ,simil> ,laws prevail$ at successive ,geological ,p]iods4 -- ,relative ,importance ( m9]al & palontological ,*>act]s4 -- ,te/ ( ,age by includ$ ,fragm5ts4 -- ,frequ5t ,abs5ce ( ,/rata ( int]v5+ ,p]iods4 -- ,tabul> ,views ( fossilif]\s ,/rata4 ,*ronology ( ,rocks4-- ,9 ! fir/ *apt] x 0 /at$ t ! f\r great classes ( rocks1 ! aque\s1 ! volcanic1 ! ,plutonic1 & ! metamorphic1 w\ld ea* be consid]$ n only 9 ref]5ce to _! m9]al *>act]s1 & mode ( orig91 b also to _! relative age4 ,9 reg>d to ! aque\s rocks1 we h already se5 t !y are /ratifi$1 t "s are calc>e\s1 o!rs argillace\s or silice\s1 "s made up ( s&1 o!rs ( pebbles2 t "s conta9 fre%-wat]1 o!rs m>9e fossils1 & s =?2 b ! /ud5t has /ill to le>n :i* rocks1 exhibit+ "s or all ( ^! *>act]s1 h orig9at$ at "o p]iod ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 & :i* at ano!r4 ,to det]m9e ?is po9t 9 ref]5ce to ! fossilif]\s =mations is m easy ?an 9 any o!r class1 & x is !re=e ! mo/ conv5i5t & natural me?od to beg9 by e/abli%+ a *ronology = ^! /rata1 & !n to ref] z f> z possible to ! same divisions1 ! sev]al gr\ps ( ,plutonic1 volcanic1 & metamorphic rocks4 ,su* a sy/em ( classification is n only recomm5d$ by its great] cle>ness & facility ( application1 b is also be/ fitt$ to /rike ! imag9ation by br++ into "o view ! contemporane\s revolutions ( ! inorganic & organic creations ( =m] times4 ,= ! s$im5t>y =mations are mo/ readily di/+ui%$ by ! diff]5t species ( fossil animals & plants :i* !y inclose1 & ( :i* "o assemblage aft] ano!r has fl\ri%$ & !n disappe>$ f ! e>? 9 succession4 ,9 ! pres5t "w1 !re=e1 ! f\r great classes ( rocks1 ! aque\s1 ,plutonic1 volcanic1 & metamorphic1 w =m f\r p>allel1 or ne>ly p>allel1 columns 9 "o *ronological table4 ,!y w be consid]$ z f\r sets ( monum5ts relat+ to f\r contemporane\s1 or ne>ly contemporane\s1 s]ies ( ev5ts4 ,i %all endeav\r1 9 a subsequ5t *apt] on ! ,plutonic rocks1 to expla9 ! mann] 9 :i* c]ta9 masses belong+ to ea* ( ! f\r classes ( rocks may h orig9at$ simultane\sly at e geological p]iod1 & h[ ! e>?'s cru/ may h be5 cont9ually remodell$1 above & bel[1 by aque\s & igne\s causes1 f times indef9itely remote4 ,9 ! same mann] z aque\s & fossilif]\s /rata are n[ =m$ 9 c]ta9 seas or lakes1 :ile 9 o!r places volcanic rocks break out at ! surface1 & are connect$ ) res]voirs ( melt$ matt] at va/ dep?s 9 ! b[els ( ! e>?1 s1 at e era ( ! pa/1 fossilif]\s deposits & sup]ficial igne\s rocks 7 9 progress contemporane\sly ) o!rs ( subt]ranean & ,plutonic orig91 & "s s$im5t>y /rata 7 expos$ to heat1 & made to assume a cry/all9e or metamorphic /ructure4 ,x c by no means be tak5 = grant$1 t dur+ all ^! *anges ! solid cru/ ( ! e>? has be5 increas+ 9 ?ickness4 ,x has be5 %[n1 t s f> z aque\s action is conc]n$1 ! ga9 by fre% deposits1 & ! loss by d5udation1 mu/ at ea* p]iod h be5 equal 7see above1 ,*ap4 ,,vi1 p4 #if72 & 9 l mann]1 9 ! inf]ior portion ( ! e>?'s cru/1 ! acquisition ( new cry/all9e rocks1 at ea* successive era1 may m]ely h c\nt]balanc$ ! loss su/a9$ by ! melt+ ( mat]ials previ\sly consolidat$4 ,z to ! relative antiquity ( ! cry/all9e f\ndations ( ! e>?'s cru/1 :5 comp>$ to ! fossilif]\s & volcanic rocks :i* !y support1 ,i h already /at$1 9 ! fir/ *apt]1 t to pron\nce an op9ion on ?is matt] is z difficult z at once to decide :i* ( ! two1 :e!r ! f\ndations or sup]/ructure ( an anci5t city built on wood5 piles may be ! olde/4 ,we h se5 t1 to answ] ?is "q1 we mu/ fir/ be prep>$ to say :e!r ! "w ( decay & re/oration _h gone on mo/ rapidly above or bel[2 :e!r ! av]age duration ( ! piles has exce$$ t ( ! build+s1 or ! contr>y4 ,s also 9 reg>d to ! relative age ( ! sup]ior & inf]ior portions ( ! e>?'s cru/2 we _c haz>d ev5 a conjecture on ?is po9t1 until we "k :e!r1 ^u an av]age1 ! p[] ( wat] above1 or t ( heat bel[1 is mo/ efficaci\s 9 giv+ new =ms to solid matt]4 ,! e>ly geologi/s gave to all ! cry/all9e & non-fossilif]\s rocks ! "n ( ,primitive or ,prim>y1 "u ! idea t !y 7 =m$ ant]ior to ! appe>ance ( life ^u ! e>?1 :ile ! aque\s or fossilif]\s /rata 7 t]m$ ,second>y1 & alluviums or o!r sup]ficial deposits1 ,t]ti>y4 ,! mean+ ( ^! t]ms1 has1 h[ev]1 be5 gradually modifi$ ) advanc+ k1 & !y are n[ us$ to designate ?ree great *ronological divisions "u :i* all geological =mations c be class$1 ea* ( !m be+ *>act]is$ by ! pres5ce ( di/9ctive gr\ps ( organic rema9s r ?an by any me*anical peculi>ities ( ! /rata !mselves4 ,if1 !re=e1 we reta9 ! t]m 8prim>y10 x mu/ n be held to designate a set ( cry/all9e rocks "s ( :i* h be5 prov$ to be ev5 ( ,t]ti>y age1 b mu/ be appli$ to all rocks old] ?an ! second>y =mations4 ,"s geologi/s1 to avoid misappreh5sion1 h introduc$ ! t]m ,palozoic = prim>y1 f palaion1 8anci5t10 & zoon1 8an organic be+10 /ill reta9+ ! t]ms second>y & t]ti>y2 ,mr4 ,phillips1 = ! sake ( uni=mity1 has propos$ ,mesozoic1 = second>y1 f mesos1 8middle10 etc42 & ,ca9ozoic1 = t]ti>y1 f ka9os1 8rec5t10 etc42 b ! t]ms prim>y1 second>y1 & t]ti>y h ! claim ( priority 9 _! fav\r1 & are ( correspond+ value4 ,x may p]haps be sugge/$ t "s metamorphic /rata1 & "s granites1 may be ant]ior 9 date to ! olde/ ( ! prim>y fossilif]\s rocks4 ,?is op9ion is d\btless true1 & w be discuss$ 9 future *apt]s2 b ,i may "h obs]ve1 t :5 we arrange ! f\r classes ( rocks 9 f\r p>allel columns 9 "o table ( *ronology1 x is by no means assum$ t ^! columns are all ( equal l5g?2 "o may beg9 at an e>li] p]iod ?an ! re/1 & ano!r may come d[n to a lat] po9t ( "t1 & we may n be yet acqua9t$ ) ! mo/ anci5t ( ! prim>y fossilif]\s b$s1 or ) ! newe/ ( ! hypog5e4 ,= reasons already /at$1 ,i proce$ fir/ to treat ( ! aque\s or fossilif]\s =mations consid]$ 9 *ronological ord] or 9 relation to ! diff]5t p]iods at :i* !y h be5 deposit$4 ,!re are ?ree pr9cipal te/s by :i* we det]m9e ! age ( a giv5 set ( /rata2 fir/1 sup]position2 secondly1 m9]al "*2 &1 ?irdly1 organic rema9s4 ,"s aid c occasionally be d]iv$ f a f\r? k9d ( pro(1 namely1 ! fact ( "o deposit includ+ 9 x fragm5ts ( a pre-exi/+ rock1 by :i* ! relative ages ( ! two may1 ev5 9 ! abs5ce ( all o!r evid5ce1 be det]m9$4 ,sup]position4--,! fir/ & pr9cipal te/ ( ! age ( "o aque\s deposit1 z comp>$ to ano!r1 is relative position4 ,x has be5 already /at$1 t1 :]e /rata are horizontal1 ! b$ :i* lies upp]mo/ is ! newe/ ( ! :ole1 & t :i* lies at ! bottom ! mo/ anci5t4 ,s1 ( a s]ies ( s$im5t>y =mations1 !y are l volumes ( hi/ory1 9 :i* ea* writ] has record$ ! annals ( 8 own times1 & !n laid d[n ! book1 ) ! la/ writt5 page upp]mo/1 ^u ! volume 9 :i* ! ev5ts ( ! era imm$iately prec$+ 7 commemorat$4 ,9 ?is mann] a l(ty pile ( *ronicles is at l5g? accumulat$2 & !y are s arrang$ z to indicate1 by _! position alone1 ! ord] 9 :i* ! ev5ts record$ 9 !m h occurr$4 ,9 reg>d to ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 h[ev]1 !re are "s regions :]e1 z ! /ud5t has already be5 in=m$1 ! b$s h be5 di/urb$1 & sometimes ext5sively ?r[n ov] & turn$ upside d[n4 7,see p4 #gc1 p4 #hg47 ,b an exp]i5c$ geologi/ c r>ely be deceiv$ by ^! exceptional cases4 ,:5 he f9ds t ! /rata are fractur$1 curv$1 incl9$1 or v]tical1 he kn[s t ! orig9al ord] ( sup]position mu/ be d\btful1 & he !n endeav\rs to f9d sections 9 "s neighb\r+ di/rict :]e ! /rata are horizontal1 or only slightly incl9$4 ,"h1 ! true ord] ( sequ5ce ( ! entire s]ies ( deposits be+ asc]ta9$1 a key is furni%$ = settl+ ! *ronology ( ^? /rata :]e ! displacem5t is extreme4 ,m9]al ,"*4--,! same rocks may (t5 be obs]v$ to reta9 = miles1 or ev5 hundr$s ( miles1 ! same m9]al peculi>ities1 if we foll[ ! planes ( /ratification1 or trace ! b$s1 if !y be undi/urb$1 9 a horizontal direction4 ,b if we pursue !m v]tically1 or 9 any direction transv]se to ! planes ( /ratification1 ?is uni=mity ceases almo/ imm$iately4 ,9 t case we c sc>cely ev] p5etrate a /ratifi$ mass = a few hundr$ y>ds )\t behold+ a succession ( extremely dissimil> rocks1 "s ( f9e1 o!rs ( co>se gra91 "s ( me*anical1 o!rs ( *emical orig92 "s calc>e\s1 o!rs argillace\s1 & o!rs silice\s4 ,^! ph5om5a lead to ! conclusion t riv]s & curr5ts h disp]s$ ! same s$im5t ov] wide areas at "o p]iod1 b at successive p]iods h be5 *>g$1 9 ! same region1 ) v diff]5t k9ds ( matt]4 ,! fir/ obs]v]s 7 s a/oni%$ at ! va/ spaces ov] :i* !y 7 able to foll[ ! same homog5e\s rocks 9 a horizontal direction1 t !y came ha/ily to ! op9ion1 t ! :ole globe _h be5 environ$ by a succession ( di/9ct aque\s =mations1 dispos$ r\nd ! nucleus ( ! planet1 l ! conc5tric coats ( an onion4 ,b1 al?\gh1 9 fact1 "s =mations may be cont9u\s ov] di/ricts z l>ge z half ( ,europe1 or ev5 m1 yet mo/ ( !m ei!r t]m9ate :olly )9 n>r[] limits1 or soon *ange _! li?ological "*4 ,sometimes !y ?9 out gradually1 z if ! supply ( s$im5t _h fail$ 9 t direction1 or !y come abruptly to an end1 z if we _h arriv$ at ! bord]s ( ! anci5t sea or lake :i* s]v$ z _! receptacle4 ,x no less frequ5tly happ5s t !y v>y 9 m9]al aspect & composition1 z we pursue !m horizontally4 ,= example1 we trace a lime/one = a hundr$ miles1 until x becomes m ar5ace\s1 & f9ally passes into s&1 or s&/one4 ,we may !n foll[ ?is s&/one1 already prov$ by its cont9uity to be ( ! same age1 ?r\gh\t ano!r di/rict a hundr$ miles or m 9 l5g?4 ,organic ,rema9s4--,?is "* mu/ be us$ z a crit]ion ( ! age ( a =mation1 or ( ! contemporane\s orig9 ( two deposits 9 di/ant places1 "u v mu* ! same re/rictions z ! te/ ( m9]al composition4 ,fir/1 ! same fossils may be trac$ ov] wide regions1 if we exam9e /rata 9 ! direction ( _! planes1 al?\gh by no means = indef9ite di/ances4 ,secondly1 :ile ! same fossils prevail 9 a p>ticul> set ( /rata = hundr$s ( miles 9 a horizontal direction1 we seldom meet ) ! same rema9s = _m fa?oms1 & v r>ely = sev]al hundr$ y>ds1 9 a v]tical l9e1 or a l9e transv]se to ! /rata4 ,?is fact has n[ be5 v]ifi$ 9 almo/ all p>ts ( ! globe1 & has l$ to a conviction t at successive p]iods ( ! pa/1 ! same area ( l& & wat] has be5 inhabit$ by species ( animals & plants ev5 m di/9ct ?an ^? :i* n[ p ! antipodes1 or :i* n[ co-exi/ 9 ! arctic1 temp]ate1 & tropical zones4 ,x appe>s t f ! remote/ p]iods !re has be5 ev] a com+ 9 ( new organic =ms1 & an ext9ction ( ^? :i* pre-exi/$ on ! e>?2 "s species hav+ endur$ = a long]1 o!rs = a %ort]1 "t2 :ile none h ev] reappe>$ aft] once dy+ out4 ,! law :i* has gov]n$ ! succession ( species1 :e!r we adopt or reject ! !ory ( transmutation1 seems to be express$ 9 ! v]se ( ! poet3-- ,natura il fece1 e poi ruppe la /ampa4 ,,ario/o4 ,nature made him1 & !n broke ! die4 ,& ?is circum/ance x is1 :i* conf]s on fossils _! highe/ value z *ronological te/s1 giv+ to ea* ( !m1 9 ! eyes ( ! geologi/1 t au?ority :i* belongs to contempor>y m$als 9 hi/ory4 ,! same _c be said ( ea* peculi> v>iety ( rock2 = "s ( ^!1 z r$ m>l & r$ s&/one1 = example1 may occur at once at ! top1 bottom1 & middle ( ! entire s$im5t>y s]ies2 exhibit+ 9 ea* position s p]fect an id5tity ( m9]al aspect z to be undi/+ui%able4 ,su* exact repetitions1 h[ev]1 ( ! same mixtures ( s$im5t h n (t5 be5 produc$1 at di/ant p]iods1 9 precisely ! same p>ts ( ! globe2 & ev5 :]e ?is has happ5$1 we are seldom 9 any dang] ( conf\nd+ toge!r ! monum5ts ( remote eras1 :5 we h /udi$ _! imb$d$ fossils & _! relative position4 ,zoological ,prov9ces4--,x 0 rem>k$ t ! same species ( organic rema9s _c be trac$ horizontally1 or 9 ! direction ( ! planes ( /ratifications = indef9ite di/ances4 ,?is might h be5 expect$ f analogy2 = :5 we inquire into ! pres5t di/ribution ( liv+ be+s1 we f9d t ! habitable surface ( ! sea & l& may be divid$ into a consid]able numb] ( di/9ct prov9ces1 ea* peopl$ by a peculi> assemblage ( animals & plants4 ,9 ! 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 ,i h endeav\r$ to po9t out ! ext5t & probable orig9 ( ^! sep>ate divisions2 & x 0 %[n t climate is only "o ( _m causes on :i* !y dep5d1 & t diff]5ce ( longitude z well z latitude is g5]ally accompani$ by a dissimil>ity ( indig5\s species4 ,z diff]5t seas1 !re=e1 & lakes are inhabit$1 at ! same p]iod1 by diff]5t aquatic animals & plants1 & z ! l&s adjo9+ ^! may be peopl$ by di/9ct t]re/rial species1 x foll[s t di/9ct fossils w be imb$d$ 9 contemporane\s deposits4 ,if x 7 o!rwise--if ! same species ab\nd$ 9 e climate1 or 9 e "p ( ! globe :]e1 s f> z we c discov]1 a correspond+ temp]ature & o!r conditions fav\rable to _! exi/5ce are f\nd--! id5tification ( m9]al masses ( ! same age1 by means ( _! includ$ organic cont5ts1 w\ld be a matt] ( /ill great] c]ta9ty4 ,nev]!less1 ! ext5t ( "s s+le zoological prov9ces1 especially ^? ( m>9e animals1 is v great2 & our geological rese>*es h prov$ t ! same laws prevail$ at remote p]iods2 = ! fossils are (t5 id5tical ?r\gh\t wide spaces1 & 9 deta*$ deposits1 consi/+ ( rocks v>y+ entirely 9 _! m9]al nature4 ,! doctr9e "h laid d[n w be m readily und]/ood1 if we reflect on :at is n[ go+ on 9 ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,t entire sea may be consid]$ z "o zoological prov9ce2 = al?\gh c]ta9 species ( te/acea & zoophytes may be v local1 & ea* region has probably "s species peculi> to x1 /ill a consid]able numb] are common to ! :ole ,m$it]ranean4 ,if1 !re=e1 at "s future p]iod1 ! b$ ( ?is inl& sea %\ld be conv]t$ into l&1 ! geologi/ might be enabl$1 by ref]5ce to organic rema9s1 to prove ! contemporane\s orig9 ( v>i\s m9]al masses scatt]$ ov] a space equal 9 area to half ( ,europe4 ,deposits1 = example1 are well kn[n to be n[ 9 progress 9 ?is sea 9 ! deltas ( ! ,po1 ,rhone1 ,nile1 & o!r riv]s1 :i* diff] z greatly f ea* o!r 9 ! nature ( _! s$im5t z does ! composition ( ! m\nta9s :i* _! dra94 ,!re are also o!r qu>t]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 z (f ! coa/ ( ,campania1 or ne> ! base ( ,etna1 9 ,sicily1 or 9 ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago1 :]e ano!r class ( rocks is n[ =m+2 :]e %[]s ( volcanic a%es occasionally fall into ! sea1 & /reams ( lava ov]fl[ its bottom2 & :]e1 9 ! int]vals betwe5 volcanic eruptions1 b$s ( s& & clay are frequ5tly d]iv$ f ! wa/e ( cliffs1 or ! turbid wat]s ( riv]s4 ,lime/ones1 moreov]1 su* z ! ,italian trav]t9s1 are "h & !re precipitat$ f ! wat]s ( m9]al spr+s1 "s ( :i* rise up f ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,9 all ^! deta*$ =mations1 s div]sifi$ 9 _! li?ological *>act]s1 ! rema9s ( ! same %ells1 corals1 cru/acea1 & fi% are becom+ inclos$2 or1 at lea/1 a suffici5t numb] mu/ be common to ! diff]5t localities to enable ! zoologi/ to ref] !m all to "o contemporane\s assemblage ( species4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 comb9ations ( geographical circum/ances :i* cause di/9ct prov9ces ( animals & plants to be sep>at$ f ea* o!r by v n>r[ limits2 & h5ce x mu/ happ5 t /rata w be sometimes =m$ 9 contigu\s regions1 diff]+ widely bo? 9 m9]al cont5ts & organic rema9s4 ,?us1 = example1 ! te/acea1 zoophytes1 & fi% ( ! ,r$ ,sea are1 z a gr\p1 extremely di/9ct f ^? inhabit+ ! adjo9+ p>ts ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 al?\gh ! two seas are sep>at$ only by ! n>r[ i/hmus ( ,suez4 ,calc>e\s =mations h accumulat$ on a great scale 9 ! ,r$ ,sea 9 mod]n times1 & fossil %ells ( exi/+ species are well pres]v$ !re92 & we "k t at ! m\? ( ! ,nile l>ge deposits ( mud are amass$1 includ+ ! rema9s ( ,m$it]ranean species4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t if at "s future p]iod ! b$ ( ! ,r$ ,sea %\ld be laid dry1 ! geologi/ might exp]i5ce great difficulties 9 endeav\r+ to asc]ta9 ! relative age ( ^! =mations1 :i*1 al?\gh dissimil> bo? 9 organic & m9]al *>act]s1 7 ( syn*ron\s orig94 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 we mu/ n =get t ! nor?-we/]n %ores ( ! ,arabian ,gulf1 ! pla9s ( ,egypt1 & ! ,i/hmus ( ,suez1 are all p>ts ( "o prov9ce ( t]re/rial species4 ,small /reams1 !re=e1 occasional l&- floods1 & ^? w9ds :i* drift cl\ds ( s& along ! des]ts1 might c>ry d[n into ! ,r$ ,sea ! same %ells ( fluviatile & l& te/acea :i* ! ,nile is sweep+ into its delta1 toge!r ) "s rema9s ( t]re/rial plants & ! bones ( quadrup$s1 :]eby ! gr\ps ( /rata be=e allud$ to might1 not)/&+ ! discrepancy ( _! m9]al composition & m>9e organic fossils1 be %[n to h belong$ to ! same epo*4 ,yet1 :ile riv]s may ?us c>ry d[n ! same fluviatile & t]re/rial spoils into two or m seas inhabit$ by diff]5t m>9e species1 x w mu* m frequ5tly happ5 t ! coexi/5ce ( t]re/rial species ( di/9ct zoological & botanical prov9ces w be prov$ by ! id5tity ( ! m>9e be+s :i* inhabit$ ! int]v5+ space4 ,?us1 = example1 ! l& quadrup$s & %ells ( ! valley ( ! ,mississippi1 ( c5tral ,am]ica1 & ( ! ,we/ ,india isl&s diff] v consid]ably1 yet _! rema9s are all wa%$ d[n by riv]s fl[+ f ^! ?ree zoological prov9ces into ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ! globe1 at ! pres5t p]iod1 ! l9e ( dem>kation betwe5 di/9ct prov9ces ( animals & plants is n v /rongly m>k$1 especially :]e ! *ange is det]m9$ by temp]ature1 z x is 9 seas ext5d+ f ! temp]ate to ! tropical zone1 or f ! temp]ate to ! arctic regions4 ,"h a gradual passage takes place f "o set ( species to ano!r4 ,9 l mann] ! geologi/1 9 /udy+ p>ticul> =mations ( remote p]iods1 has sometimes be5 able to trace ! gradation f "o anci5t prov9ce to ano!r1 by obs]v+ c>efully ! fossils ( all ! int]m$iate places4 ,8 success 9 ?us acquir+ a k ( ! zoological or botanical geography ( v di/ant eras has be5 ma9ly ow+ to ?is circum/ance1 t ! m9]al "* has no t5d5cy to be affect$ by climate4 ,a l>ge riv] may convey yell[ or r$ mud into "s "p ( ! ocean1 :]e x may be disp]s$ by a curr5t ov] an area sev]al hundr$ leagues 9 l5g?1 s z to pass f ! tropics into ! temp]ate zone4 ,if ! bottom ( ! sea be aft]w>ds uprais$1 ! organic rema9s imb$d$ 9 su* yell[ or r$ /rata may indicate ! diff]5t animals or plants :i* once inhabit$ at ! same "t ! temp]ate & equatorial regions4 ,x may be true1 z a g5]al rule1 t gr\ps ( ! same species ( animals & plants may ext5d ov] wid] areas ?an deposits ( homog5e\s composition2 & if s1 palontological *>act]s w be ( m importance 9 geological classification ?an ! te/ ( m9]al composition2 b x is idle to discuss ! relative value ( ^! te/s1 z ! aid ( bo? is indisp5sable1 & x =tunately happ5s1 t :]e ! "o crit]ion fails1 we c (t5 avail ourselves ( ! o!r4 ,te/ by includ$ ,fragm5ts ( old] ,rocks4--,x 0 /at$1 t pro( may sometimes be obta9$ ( ! relative date ( two =mations by fragm5ts ( an old] rock be+ includ$ 9 a new] "o4 ,?is evid5ce may sometimes be ( great use1 :]e a geologi/ is at a loss to det]m9e ! relative age ( two =mations f want ( cle> sections exhibit+ _! true ord] ( position1 or because ! /rata ( ea* gr\p are v]tical4 ,9 su* cases we sometimes discov] t ! m mod]n rock has be5 9 "p d]iv$ f ! degradation ( ! old]4 ,?us1 = example1 we may f9d *alk 9 "o "p ( a c\ntry1 & 9 ano!r /rata ( clay1 s&1 & pebbles4 ,if "s ( ^! pebbles consi/ ( t peculi> fl9t1 ( :i* lay]s m or less cont9u\s are *>act]i/ic ( ! *alk1 & :i* include fossil %ells1 sponges1 & =am9if]a ( cretace\s species1 we may confid5tly inf] t ! *alk 0 ! olde/ ( ! two =mations4 ,*ronological ,gr\ps4--,! numb] ( gr\ps into :i* ! fossilif]\s /rata may be sep>at$ are m or less num]\s1 accord+ to ! views ( classification :i* diff]5t geologi/s ent]ta92 b :5 we h adopt$ a c]ta9 sy/em ( arrangem5t1 we imm$iately f9d t a few only ( ! entire s]ies ( gr\ps occur "o ^u ! o!r 9 any s+le section or di/rict4 ,! ?9n+ out ( individual /rata 0 be=e describ$ 7p4 #db74;,b let ! diagram 7,fig4 #hd7 repres5t sev5 fossilif]\s gr\ps1 in/ead ( z _m /rata4 ,x w !n be se5 t 9 ! middle all ! sup]impos$ =mations are pres5t2 b 9 consequ5ce ( "s ( !m ?9n+ out1 ,no4 #b & ,no4 #e are abs5t at "o extremity ( ! section1 & ,no4 #d at ! o!r4 ,fig4 #hd3 ,sev5 fossilif]\s gr\ps4 ,9 ano!r diagram 7,fig4 #he71 a real section ( ! geological =mations 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,bri/ol & ! ,m5dip ,hills is pres5t$ to ! read]1 z laid d[n on a true scale by ,pr(essor ,ramsay1 :]e ! new] gr\ps #a1 #b1 #c1 #d re/ uncon=mably on ! =mations #e1 #f1 #g & #h4 ,at ! s\!rn end ( ! l9e ( section we meet ) ! b$s ,no4 #c 7! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one7 re/+ imm$iately on ,nos4 #g & #h1 :ile f>!r nor? z at ,dundry ,hill 9 ,som]set%ire1 we behold eight gr\ps sup]impos$ "o ^u ! o!r1 compris+ all ! /rata f ! inf]ior ,oolite1 ,no4 #a1 to ! coal & c>bonif]\s lime/one4 ,! limit$ horizontal ext5sion ( ! gr\ps #a & #b is ow+ to d5udation1 z ^! =mations end abruptly1 & h left outly+ pat*es to atte/ ! fact ( _! hav+ orig9ally cov]$ a mu* wid] area4 ,section ,s\? ( ,bri/ol4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 to e/abli% a *ronological succession ( fossilif]\s gr\ps1 a geologi/ mu/ beg9 ) a s+le section 9 :i* sev]al sets ( /rata lie "o ^u ! o!r4 ,he mu/ !n trace ^! =mations1 by att5tion to _! m9]al "* & fossils1 cont9u\sly1 z f> z possible1 f ! />t+-po9t4 ,z (t5 z he meets ) new gr\ps1 he mu/ asc]ta9 by sup]position _! age relatively to ^? fir/ exam9$1 & ?us le>n h[ to int]calate !m 9 a tabul> arrangem5t ( ! :ole4 ,by ?is means ! ,g]man1 ,fr5*1 & ,engli% geologi/s h det]m9$ ! succession ( /rata ?r\gh\t a great "p ( ,europe1 & h adopt$ pretty g5]ally ! foll[+ gr\ps1 almo/ all ( :i* h _! repres5tatives 9 ! ,briti% ,isl&s4 ,abridg$ ,g5]al ,table ( ,fossilif]\s ,/rata4 ,,tabul> ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,fossilif]\s ,,/rata1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,ord] ,,( ,,sup]position ,,or ,,*ronological ,,succession ,,( ,,! ,,pr9cipal ,,gr\ps ,,describ$ ,,9 ,,?is ,,"w4 ,,po/-,,t]ti>y ,,examples ,,po/-,,t]ti>y ,,examples ,,po/- ,,t]ti>y #a4 ,,rec5t ,%ells & mammals1 all ( liv+ species4 ,briti% ,clyde m>9e /rata1 ) canoes 7p4 #adf74 ,=eign ,dani% kit*5 midd5s 7p4 #adf74 ,lacu/r9e mud1 ) rema9s ( ,swiss lake-dwell+s 7p4 #adh74 ,m>9e /rata inclos+ ,temple ( ,s]apis1 at ,puzzuoli 7p4 #adf74 #b4 ,,po/- ,,plioc5e4 ,%ells1 rec5t mammalia 9 "p ext9ct4 ,briti% ,loam ( ,brixham cave1 ) fl9t implem5ts & bones ( ext9ct & liv+ quadrup$s 7p4 #aeg7 ,drift ne> ,salisbury1 ) bones ( mammo?1 ,sp]mophilus1 & /one implem5ts 7p4 #afa74 ,glacial drift ( ,scotl&1 ) m>9e %ells & rema9s ( mammo? 7p4 #agf4 ,erratics ( ,pagham & ,selsey ,bill 7p4 #ahb74 ,glacial drift ( ,wales1 ) m>9e fossil %ells1 ab\t #adjj feet high1 on ,moel ,tryfa5 7p4 #aha74 ,=eign ,dordogne caves ( ! re9de] p]iod 7p4 #aej74 ,old] valley-gravels ( ,ami5s1 ) fl9t implem5ts & bones ( ext9ct mammalia 7p4 #aeb74 ,loess ( ,rh9e 7p4 #aed74 ,anci5t ,nile-mud =m+ riv]-t]races 7p4 #aed74 ,loam & breccia ( ,liege cav]ns1 ) human rema9s 7pp4 #aef1 #aeg74 ,au/ralian cave breccias1 ) bones ( ext9ct m>supials 7p4 #aeh74 ,glacial drift ( ,nor!rn ,europe 7p4 #aff1 p4 #agd74 ,,t]ti>y ,,or ,,ca9ozoic ,,plioc5e #c4 ,,new] ,,plioc5e4 ,! %ells almo/ all ( liv+ species4 ,briti% ,bridl+ton b$s1 m>9e ,arctic fauna 7p4 #ahi74 ,glacial b\ld] =mation ( ,norfolk cliffs 7p4 #aij74 ,=e/-b$ ( ,norfolk cliffs1 ) bones ( ,elephas m]idionalis1 etc4 7p4 #aia74 ,*illes=d & ,aldeby b$s1 ) m>9e %ells1 *iefly ,arctic 7p4 #aib74 ,norwi* crag 7p4 #aic74 ,=eign ,ea/]n base ( ,m\nt ,etna1 ) m>9e %ells 7p4 #bjd74 ,sicilian calc>e\s & tuface\s /rata 7p4 #bje1 #bjf74 ,lacu/r9e /rata ( ,upp] ,val d',arno 7p4 #bjg74 ,madeira leaf-b$ & l&-%ells 7p4 #ecb74 #d4 ,,old] ,,plioc5e4 ,ext9ct species ( %ells =m+ a l>ge m9ority4 ,briti% ,r$ crag ( ,suffolk1 m>9e %ells1 "s ( nor!rn =ms 7p4 #aid1 #aie74 ,:ite or corall9e crag ( ,suffolk 7p4 #aig74 ,=eign ,antw]p crag 7p4 #bjd74 ,subap5n9e m>ls & s&s 7p4 #bjh74 ,,examples ,,mioc5e #e4 ,,upp] ,,mioc5e4 ,majority ( ! %ells ext9ct4 ,briti% ,want+4 ,=eign ,faluns ( ,t\ra9e 7p4 #baa74 ,faluns1 prop]1 ( ,bordeaux 7p4 #bad74 ,fre%-wat] /rata ( ,g]s 7p4 #bae74 ,swiss ,o5+5 b$s1 ri* 9 plants & insects 7pp4 #bae-bc74 ,m>9e ,molasse1 ,switz]l& 7p4 #bbc74 ,bold]b]g b$s ( ,belgium 7p4 #bbd74 ,vi5na bas9 7p4 #bbd74 ,b$s ( ! ,sup]ga1 ne> ,tur9 7p4 #bbf74 ,deposit at ,pik]m1 ne> ,a!ns 7p4 #bbf74 ,/rata ( ! ,siwlik hills1 ,india 7p4 #bbf74 ,m>9e /rata ( ! ,atlantic bord] 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7p4 #bbg74 ,volcanic tuff & lime/one ( ,madeira1 ! ,can>ies1 & ! ,azores 774 #f4 ,,l[] ,,mioc5e4 ,ne>ly all ! %ells ext9ct4 ,briti% ,hemp/ead b$s1 m>9e & fre%-wat] /rata 7p4 #bdd74 ,lignites & clays ( ,bovey ,tracey 7p4 #bde74 ,isle ( ,mull leaf-b$1 volcanic tuff 7p4 #bdg74 ,=eign ,calcaire de la ,beauce1 etc4 7p4 #bcj74 ,grs de ,fonta9ebleau 7p4 #bcj74 ,lacu/r9e /rata ( ! ,limagne d',auv]gne1 & ! ,cantal 7p4 #bcc74 ,may5ce bas9 7p4 #bdb74 ,radaboj b$s ( ,croatia 7p4 #bdb74 ,br[n coal ( ,g]many 7p4 #bdd74 ,l[] ,molasse ( ,switz]l&1 fre%-wat] & bracki% 7p4 #bce-i74 ,rupelmonde1 ,kleynspaw51 & ,tongrian b$s ( ,belgium 7p4 #bda1 #bdb74 ,nebraska b$s1 ,unit$ ,/ates 7p4 #bdh74 ,l[] ,mioc5e b$s ( ,italy 7p4 #bdd74 ,mioc5e flora ( ,nor? ,gre5l& 7p4 #bci74 ,,eoc5e #g4 ,,upp] ,,eoc5e4 ,briti% ,bembridge fluvio-m>9e /rata 7p4 #beb74 ,osborne or ,/4 ,hel5's s]ies 7p4 #bee74 ,headon s]ies1 ) m>9e & fre%-wat] %ells 7p4 #bee74 ,b>ton s&s & clays 7p4 #beh74 ,=eign ,gypsum ( ,montm>tre1 fre%-wat] ) ,palo!rium 7p4 #bgj74 ,calcaire silicieux1 or ,trav]t9 infrieur 7p4 #bgc71 ,grs de ,beau*amp1 or ,sables moy5s 7p4 #bgc74 #h4 ,,middle ,,eoc5e4 ,briti% ,brackle%am b$s & ,bag%ot s&s 7p4 #bei74 ,:ite clays ( ,alum ,bay & ,b\rnem\? 7p4 #bfb74 ,=eign ,calcaire grossi]1 miliolitic lime/one 7p4 #bgd74 ,soissonnais s&s1 or ,lits coquilli]s1 ) ,nummulites planulata 7p4 #bge74 ,claiborne b$s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ) ,orbitoides & ,zeuglodon 7p4 #bgi74 ,nummulitic =mation ( ,europe1 ,asia1 etc4 7p4 #bgg74 #i4 ,,l[] ,,eoc5e4 ,briti% ,london clay prop] 7p4 #bfc74 ,woolwi* & ,read+ s]ies1 fluvio-m>9e 7p4 #bfg74 ,?anet s&s 7p4 #bfi74 ,=eign ,argile de ,londres1 ne> ,dunkirk 7p4 #beb74 ,argile pla/ique 7p4 #bgf74 ,sables de ,bra*eux 7p4 #bgf74 ,,second>y ,,or ,,mesozoic4 ,,cretace\s #aj4 ,,upp] ,,cretace\s4 ,briti% ,upp] :ite *alk1 ) fl9ts 7p4 #bij74 ,l[] :ite *alk1 )\t fl9ts 7p4 #bih74 ,*alk m>l 7p4 #bih74 ,*loritic s]ies 7or ,upp] ,gre5s&71 fire-/one ( ,surrey 7p4 #bih74 ,gault 7p4 #cjj74 ,blackd[n b$s 7p4 #cja74 ,,examples ,,cretace\s #aj4 ,,upp] ,,cretace\s4 ,=eign ,maetri*t b$s & ,faxoe *alk 7p4 #bcc74 ,pisolitic lime/one ( ,france 7p4 #bhe74 ,:ite *alk ( ,france1 ,sw$51 & ,russia 7p4 #bhf1 #bhg74 ,plan]-kalk ( ,saxony 7p4 #bic74 ,s&s & clays ( ,aix-la-,*apelle 7p4 #cjb74 ,hippurite lime/one ( ,s\? ( ,france 7p4 #cje74 ,new ,j]sey1 ,u4,s41 s&s & m>ls 7p4 #cjg74 #aa4 ,,l[] ,,cretace\s or ,,neocomian4 ,briti% ,s&s ( ,folke/one1 ,s&gate1 & ,hy! 7p4 #cjh74 ,a!rfield clay1 ) ,p]na mulleti 7p4 #cji74 ,punfield m>9e b$s1 ) ,vic>ya lujana 7p4 #cah74 ,speeton clay ( ,flambor\gh ,head & ,tealby 7p4 #caa74 ,weald clay ( ,surrey1 ,k5t1 & ,sussex1 fre%-wat]1 ) ,cypris 7p4 #cac-e74 ,ha/+s s&s 7p4 #caf-h74 ,=eign ,neocomian ( ,neuf*atel1 & ,hils conglom]ate ( ,nor? ,g]many 7p4 #cab74 ,weald5 b$s ( ,hanov] 7p4 #cai74 ,,oolite #ab4 ,,upp] ,,oolite4 ,briti% ,upp] ,purbeck b$s1 fre%-wat] 7p4 #cbc74 ,middle ,purbeck1 ) num]\s m>supial quadrup$s1 etc4 7p4 #cbd74 ,l[] ,purbeck1 fre%-wat]1 ) int]calat$ dirt-b$ 7p4 #ccj74 ,portl& /one & s&4 7p4 #ccd74 ,kimm]idge clay 7p4 #cce74 ,=eign ,m>nes gryphes virgules ( ,argonne 7p4 #ccf74 ,li?ographic-/one ( ,sol5h(51 ) ,ar*opt]yx 7p4 #ccg74 #ac4 ,,middle ,,oolite4 ,briti% ,coral rag ( ,b]k%ire1 ,wilts1 & ,york%ire 7p4 #cci74 ,ox=d clay1 ) belemnites & ,ammonite 7p4 #cdj74 ,kell[ay rock ( ,wilts & ,york%ire 7p4 #cda74 ,=eign ,n]9an lime/one ( ! ,jura 7p4 #cci74 #ad4 ,,l[] ,,oolite4 ,briti% ,cornbra% & =e/ m>ble 7p4 #cda74 ,great or ,ba? oolite ( ,brad=d 7p4 #cdb74 ,/onesfield slate1 ) m>supials & ,arauc>ia 7p4 #cde74 ,full]'s e>? ( ,ba? 7p4 #cdh74 ,inf]ior oolite 7p4 #cdi74 ,,lias #ae4 ,,lias4 ,upp] ,lias1 argillace\s1 ) ,ammonites /riatulus 7p4 #cec74 ,%ale & lime/one1 ) ,ammonites bifrons 7p4 #cec74 ,middle ,lias or ,m>l/one s]ies1 ) zones conta9+ *>act]i/ic ,ammonites 7p4 #cec74 ,l[] ,lias1 also ) zones *>act]is$ by peculi> ,ammonites 7p4 #cef74 ,,trias #af4 ,,upp] ,,trias4 ,briti% ,rhtic1 ,p5>? or ,avicula contorta b$s 7b$s ( passage7 7p4 #cff74 ,keup] or ,upp] ,new ,r$ s&/one1 etc4 7p4 #cfi74 ,r$ %ales ( ,*e%ire & ,lanca%ire1 ) rock-salt 7p4 #cga74 ,dolomite conglom]ate ( ,bri/ol 7p4 #cgc74 ,=eign ,keup] b$s ( ,g]many 7p4 #cge74 ,/4 ,cassian or ,hall/adt b$s1 ) ri* m>9e fauna 7p4 #cgf74 ,coal-field ( ,ri*mond1 ,virg9ia 7p4 #chb74 ,*a?am coal-field1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a 7p4 #chc74 #ag4 ,,middle ,,trias4 ,briti% ,want+4 ,=eign ,mus*elkalk ( ,g]many 7p4 #cgh74 #ah4 ,,l[] ,,trias4 ,briti% ,bunt] or ,l[] ,new ,r$ s&/one ( ,lanca%ire & ,*e%ire 7p4 #cgb74 ,=eign ,bunt]-s&/e9 ( ,g]many 7p4 #chj74 ,r$ s&/one ( ,connecticut ,valley1 ) footpr9ts ( birds & reptiles 7p4 #cha74 ,,prim>y ,,or ,,pal,,ozoic ,,examples ,,p]mian #ai4 ,,p]mian4 ,briti% ,upp] ,p]mian ( ,/4 ,bees' ,head1 ,cumb]l& 7p4 #chf74 ,middle ,p]mian1 magnesian lime/one1 & m>l-slate ( ,durham & ,york%ire1 ) ,protosaurus 7p4 #chg74 ,l[] ,p]mian s&/ones & breccias ( ,p5ri? & ,dumfries%ire1 int]calat$ 7p4 #cij74 ,=eign ,d>k-col\r$ %ales ( ,?ur+ia 7p4 #cib74 ,ze*/e9 or ,dolomitic lime/one 7p4 #cib74 ,m]gel-s*ief] or ,kupf]-s*ief] 7p4 #cib74 ,ro?lieg5des ( ,?ur+ia1 ) ,ps>onius 7p4 #cib74 ,magnesian lime/ones1 etc41 ( ,russia 7p4 #cic74 ,,c>bonif]\s #bj4 ,,upp] ,,c>bonif]\s4 ,briti% ,coal-measures ( ,s\? ,wales1 ) und]clays inclos+ ,/igm>ia 7p4 #cig74 ,coal-measures ( nor? & c5tral ,engl& 7p4 #cie74 ,mill/one grit 7p4 #cie74 ,yor$ale s]ies ( ,york%ire 7p4 #cie74 ,coal-field ( ,kilk5ny ) ,labyr9?odont 7p4 #djg74 ,=eign ,coal-field ( ,sa>bruck1 ) ,ar*egosaurus 7p4 #djf74 ,c>bonif]\s /rata ( ,s\? ,jogg9s1 ,nova ,scotia 7p4 #dji74 ,p5nsylvania coal-field 7p4 #djc74 #ba4 ,,l[] ,,c>bonif]\s4 ,briti% ,m\nta9 lime/one ( ,wales & ,s\? ( ,engl& 7p4 #dcj74 ,same 9 ,irel& 7p4 #dcgdcg74 ,c>bonif]\s lime/one ( ,scotl& alt]nat+ ) coal-be>+ s&/ones 7p4 #cif74 ,erect trees 9 volcanic a% 9 ! ,isl& ( ,arran 7p4 #edf74 ,=eign ,m\nta9 lime/one ( ,belgium 7p4 #dcf74 ,,devonian or ,,old ,,r$ ,,s&/one #bb4 ,,upp] ,,devonian4 ,briti% ,yell[ s&/one ( ,dura ,d51 ) ,holopty*ius1 etc4 7p4 #ddj72 & ( ,irel& ) ,anodon ,jukesii 7p4 #dda74 ,s&/ones ( ,=f>%ire & ,p]?%ire1 ) ,holopty*ius1 etc4 7p4 #ddb74 ,pilton gr\p ( ,nor? ,devon 7p4 #ddi74 ,pe!rwyn gr\p ( ,cornwall1 ) ,clym5ia & ,cyprid9a 7p4 #dea74 ,=eign ,clym5i5-kalk & ,cyprid95-s*ief] ( ,g]many 7p4 #dej7 #bc4 ,,middle ,,devonian4 ,briti% ,bitum9\s s*i/s ( ,gamrie1 ,cai?ness1 etc41 ) num]\s fi% 7p4 #ddc74 ,ilfracombe b$s ) peculi> trilobites & corals 7p4 #dej74 ,lime/ones ( ,torquay1 ) broad-w+$ ,spirif]s 7p4 #dea74 ,=eign ,eifel lime/one1 ) und]ly+ s*i/s conta9+ ,calceola 7p4 #dec74 ,devonian /rata ( ,russia 7p4 #ded74 #bd4 ,,l[] ,,devonian4 ,briti% ,arbroa? pav+-/ones1 ) ,cephalaspis & ,pt]ygotus 7p4 #ddf74 ,l[] s&/ones ( ,=f>%ire1 ) ,pt]ygotus 7p4 #ddf74 ,s&/ones & slates ( ! ,=el& & ,l9ton 7p4 #ded74 ,=eign ,oriskany s&/one ( ,we/]n ,canada & ,new ,york 7p4 #def74 ,s&/ones ( ,gaspe1 ) ,cephalaspis 7p4 #dee 74 ,,examples ,,silurian #be4 ,,upp] ,,silurian ,briti% ,upp] ,ludl[ =mation1 ,d[nton s&/one1 ) bone-b$ 7p4 #dei74 ,l[] ,ludl[ =mation1 ) olde/ kn[n fi% rema9s 7p4 #dfa74 ,w5lock lime/one & %ale 7p4 #dfe74 ,woolhope lime/one & grit 7p4 #dfg74 ,t>annon %ales 7p4 #dfh74 ,b$s ( passage betwe5 ,upp] & ,l[] ,silurian3 ,upp] ,ll&ov]y1 or ,may-hill s&/one1 ) ,p5tam]us oblongus1 etc4 7p4 #dfh74 ,l[] ,ll&ov]y slates 7p4 #dfi74 ,=eign ,niag>a lime/one1 ) ,calym5e1 ,homalonotus1 etc4 7p4 #dgi74 ,cl9ton gr\p ( ,am]ica1 ) ,p5tam]us oblongus1 etc4 7p4 #dgi74 ,silurian /rata ( ,russia1 ) ,p5tam]us 7p4 #dgg74 #bf4 ,,l[] ,,silurian4 ,briti% ,bala & ,c>adoc b$s 7p4 #dgj74 ,ll&eilo flags 7p4 #dgc74 ,ar5ig or ,/ip]-/ones gr\p 7,l[] ,ll&eilo ( ,mur*ison7 7p4 #dge74 ,=eign ,ungulite or ,obolus grit ( ,russia 7p4 #dgg74 ,tr5ton lime/one1 & o!r ,l[] ,silurian gr\ps ( ,nor? ,am]ica 7p4 #dgi74 ,l[] ,silurian ( ,sw$5 7p4 #dgg74 ,,cambrian #bg4 ,,upp] ,,cambrian4 ,briti% ,tremadoc slates 7p4 #dhc74 ,l+ula flags1 ) ,l+ula ,davisii 7p4 #dhd74 ,=eign 8,primordial0 zone ( ,bohemia 9 "p1 ) trilobites ( ! g5]a ,p>adoxides1 etc4 7p4 #dhg74 ,alum s*i/s ( ,sw$5 & ,norway 7p4 #dhi74 ,potsdam s&/one1 ) ,dikelocephalus & ,obolella 7p4 #dhi74 #bh4 ,,l[] ,,cambrian4 ,briti% ,m5evian b$s ( ,wales1 ) ,p>adoxides ,davidis1 etc4 7p4 #dhd74 ,longmynd gr\p1 compris+ ! ,h>le* grits & ,llanb]is slates 7p4 #dhe74 ,=eign ,l[] portion ( ,b>r&e's 8,primordial0 zone 9 ,bohemia 7p4 #dhf74 ,fucoid s&/ones ( ,sw$5 7p4 #dhi74 ,huronian s]ies ( ,canada8 7p4 #dij74 ,,laur5tian #bi4 ,,upp] ,,laur5tian4 ,briti% ,fundam5tal gneiss ( ! ,hebrides8 7p4 #dic74 ,hyp]/h5e rocks ( ,skye8 7p4 #dia74 ,=eign ,labradorite s]ies nor? ( ! riv] ,/4 ,lawr5ce 9 ,canada 7p4 #dia74 ,adirondack m\nta9s ( ,new ,york 7p4 #dia74 #cj4 ,,l[] ,,laur5tian4 ,briti% ,want+8 ,=eign ,b$s ( gneiss & qu>tzite1 ) int]/ratifi$ lime/ones1 9 "o ( :i*1 #ajjj feet ?ick1 occurs a =am9if]1 ,eozoon ,canad5se1 ! olde/ kn[n fossil 7p4 #dia74 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,classification ,,( ,,t]ti>y ,,=mations4 ,ord] ( ,succession ( ,s$im5t>y ,=mations4 -- ,frequ5t ,uncon=mability ( ,/rata4 -- ,imp]fection ( ! ,record4 -- ,defectiv5ess ( ! ,monum5ts great] 9 ,proportion to _! ,antiquity4 -- ,reasons = /udy+ ! new] ,gr\ps fir/4 -- ,nom5clature ( ,=mations4 -- ,deta*$ ,t]ti>y ,=mations scatt]$ ov] ,europe4 -- ,value ( ! ,%ell-be>+ ,mollusca 9 ,classification4 -- ,classification ( ,t]ti>y ,/rata4 -- ,eoc5e1 ,mioc5e1 & ,plioc5e ,t]ms expla9$4 ,by ref]5ce to ! tables giv5 at ! end ( ! la/ *apt] ! read] w see t :5 ! fossilif]\s rocks are arrang$ *ronologically1 we h fir/ to consid] ! ,po/-t]ti>y & !n ! ,t]ti>y or ,ca9ozoic =mations1 & aft]w>ds to pass on to ^? ( old] date4 ,fig4 #hf3 ,ord] ( ,sup]position ( ,deposits ,ord] ( ,sup]position4--,! diagram 7,fig4 #hf7 w %[ ! ord] ( sup]position ( ^! deposits1 assum+ !m all to be visible 9 "o cont9u\s section4 ,9 nature1 z be=e h9t$ 7p4 #ajg71 we h nev] an opportunity ( see+ ! :ole ( !m s display$ 9 a s+le region2 fir/1 because s$im5t>y deposition is conf9$1 dur+ any "o geological p]iod1 to limit$ areas2 & secondly1 because /rata1 aft] !y h be5 =m$1 are liable to be utt]ly annihilat$ ov] wide areas by d5udation4 ,b :]ev] c]ta9 memb]s ( ! s]ies are pres5t1 !y ov]lie "o ano!r 9 ! ord] indicat$ 9 ! diagram1 ?\gh n always 9 ! exact mann] !re repres5t$1 because "s ( !m repose occasionally 9 uncon=mable /ratification on o!rs4 ,?is mode ( sup]position has be5 already expla9$ 7p4 #id1 p4 #aaa71 :]e ,i po9t$ out t ! discordance :i* implies a consid]able lapse ( "t betwe5 two =mations 9 juxtaposition is almo/ inv>iably accompani$ by a great dissimil>ity 9 ! species ( organic rema9s4 ,frequ5t ,uncon=mability ( ,/rata4--,:]e ! wide/ gaps appe> 9 ! sequ5ce ( ! fossil =ms1 z betwe5 ! ,p]mian & ,triassic rocks1 or betwe5 ! ,cretace\s & ,eoc5e1 examples ( su* uncon=mability are v frequ5t4 ,b !y are also met ) 9 "s "p or o!r ( ! _w at ! junction ( almo/ all ! o!r pr9cipal =mations1 & sometimes ! subord9ate divisions ( any "o ( ! lead+ gr\ps may be f\nd ly+ uncon=mably on ano!r subord9ate memb] ( ! same--! ,upp]1 = example1 on ! ,l[] ,silurian1 or ! sup]ior division ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one on a l[] memb] ( ! same1 & s =?4 ,in/ances ( su* irregul>ities 9 ! mode ( succession ( ! /rata are ! m intelligible ! m we ext5d our survey ( ! fossilif]\s =mations1 = we are cont9ually br++ to light deposits ( int]m$iate date1 :i* h to be int]calat$ betwe5 ^? previ\sly kn[n1 & :i* reveal to u a long s]ies ( ev5ts1 ( :i* antec$5tly to su* discov]ies we _h no k4 ,b :ile uncon=mability inv>iably be>s te/imony to a lapse ( unrepres5t$ "t1 ! con=mability ( two sets ( /rata 9 contact by no means implies t ! new] =mation imm$iately succe$$ ! old] "o4 ,x simply implies t ! anci5t rocks 7 subject$ to no movem5ts ( su* a nature z to tilt1 b5d1 or break !m be=e ! m mod]n =mation 0 sup]impos$4 ,x does n %[ t ! e>?'s cru/ 0 motionless 9 ! region 9 "q1 = !re may h be5 a gradual s9k+ or ris+1 ext5d+ uni=mly ov] a l>ge surface1 & yet1 dur+ su* movem5t1 ! /ratifi$ rocks may h reta9$ _! orig9al horizontality ( position4 ,!re may h be5 a conv]sion ( a wide area f sea into l& & f l& into sea1 & dur+ ^! *anges ( level "s /rata may h be5 sl[ly remov$ by aque\s action1 & aft] ?is new /rata may be sup]impos$1 diff]+ p]haps 9 date by ?\s&s ( ye>s or c5turies1 & yet re/+ con=mably on ! old] set4 ,!re may ev5 be a bl5d+ ( ! mat]ials con/itut+ ! old] deposit ) ^? ( ! new]1 s z to give rise to a passage 9 ! m9]al "* ( ! "o rock into ! o!r z if !re _h be5 no break or int]ruption 9 ! deposit+ process4 ,imp]fection ( ! ,record4--,al?\gh by ! frequ5t discov]y ( new sets ( int]m$iate /rata ! transition f "o type ( organic rema9s to ano!r is becom+ less & less abrupt1 yet ! entire s]ies ( records appe>s to ! geologi/s n[ liv+ f> m fragm5t>y & defective ?an x seem$ to _! pr$ecessors half a c5tury ago4 ,! e>li] inquir]s1 z (t5 z !y enc\nt]$ a break 9 ! regul> sequ5ce ( =mations1 connect$ x !oretically ) a sudd5 & viol5t cata/rophe1 :i* _h put an end to ! regul> c\rse ( ev5ts t _h be5 go+ on un9t]rupt$ly = ages1 annihilat+ at ! same "t all or ne>ly all ! organic be+s :i* _h previ\sly fl\ri%$1 aft] :i*1 ord] be+ re-e/abli%$1 a new s]ies ( ev5ts 0 initiat$4 ,9 proportion z our fai? 9 ^! views gr[s weak]1 & ! ph5om5a ( ! organic or inorganic _w pres5t$ to u by geology seem explicable on ! hypo!sis ( gradual & ins5sible *anges1 v>i$ only by occasional convulsions1 on a scale comp>able to t witness$ 9 hi/orical times2 & 9 proportion z x is ?\ght possible t =m] fluctuations 9 ! organic _w may be due to ! indef9ite modifiability ( species )\t ! necessity ( assum+ new & indep5d5t acts ( creation1 ! numb] & magnitude ( ! gaps :i* /ill rema91 or ! extreme imp]fection ( ! record1 become m & m /rik+1 & :at we possess ( ! anci5t annals ( ! e>?'s hi/ory appe>s z no?+ :5 contra/$ ) t :i* has be5 lo/4 ,:5 we exam9e a l>ge area su* z ,europe1 ! av]age z well z ! extreme height above ! sea atta9$ by ! old] =mations is usually f\nd to exce$ t rea*$ by ! m mod]n ones1 ! prim>y or palaeozoic ris+ high] ?an ! second>y1 & ^! 9 _! turn ?an ! t]ti>y2 :ile 9 ref]5ce to ! ?ree divisions ( ! t]ti>y1 ! l[e/ or ,eoc5e gr\p atta9s a high] summit-level ?an ! ,mioc5e1 & ^! aga9 a great] height ?an ! ,plioc5e =mations4 ,la/ly1 ! po/-t]ti>y deposits1 su*1 at lea/1 z are ( m>9e orig91 are mo/ commonly re/rict$ to mu* m mod]ate elevations above ! sea-level ?an ! t]ti>y /rata4 ,x is also obs]v$ t /rata1 9 proportion z !y are ( new] date1 be> ! ne>e/ resemblance 9 m9]al "* to ^? :i* are n[ 9 ! progress ( =mation 9 seas or lakes1 ! newe/ ( all consi/+ pr9cipally ( s(t mud or loose s&1 9 "s places full ( %ells1 corals1 or o!r organic bodies1 animal or vegetable1 9 o!rs :olly devoid ( su* rema9s4 ,! f>!r we rec$e f ! pres5t "t1 & ! high] ! antiquity ( ! =mations :i* we exam9e1 ! great] are ! *anges :i* ! s$im5t>y deposits h und]gone4 ,"t1 z ,i h expla9$ 9 ,*apt]s ,v1 ,,vi1 & ,,vii1 has multipli$ ! effects ( cond5sation by pressure & cem5tation1 & ! modification produc$ by heat1 fracture1 contortion1 upheaval1 & d5udation4 ,! organic rema9s also h sometimes be5 oblit]at$ entirely1 or ! m9]al matt] ( :i* !y 7 compos$ has be5 remov$ & replac$ by o!r sub/ances4 ,:y new] ,gr\ps %\ld be /udi$ fir/4--,we likewise obs]ve t ! old] ! rocks ! m widely d _! organic rema9s dep>t f ! types ( ! liv+ creation4 ,fir/1 we f9d 9 ! new] t]ti>y rocks a few species :i* no long] exi/1 mix$ ) _m liv+ ones1 & !n1 z we g f>!r back1 _m g5]a & families at pres5t unkn[n make _! appe>ance1 until we come to /rata 9 :i* ! fossil relics ( exi/+ species are n[h]e to be detect$1 except a few ( ! l[e/ =ms ( inv]tebrate1 :ile "s ord]s ( animals & plants :olly unrepres5t$ 9 ! liv+ _w beg9 to be conspicu\s4 ,:5 we /udy1 !re=e1 ! geological records ( ! e>? & its inhabitants1 we f9d1 z 9 human hi/ory1 ! defectiv5ess & obscurity ( ! monum5ts always increas+ ! remot] ! era to :i* we ref]1 & ! difficulty ( det]m9+ ! true *ronological relations ( rocks is m & m enhanc$1 especially :5 we are comp>+ ^? :i* 7 =m$ simultane\sly 9 v di/ant regions ( ! globe4 ,h5ce we advance ) secur] /eps :5 we beg9 ) ! /udy ( ! geological records ( lat] times1 proce$+ f ! new] to ! old]1 or f ! m to ! less kn[n4 ,9 ?us inv]t+ :at might at fir/ seem to be ! m natural ord] ( hi/orical rese>*1 we mu/ be> 9 m9d t ea* ( ! p]iods above enum]at$1 ev5 ! %orte/1 su* z ! ,po/-t]ti>y1 or ! ,plioc5e1 ,mioc5e1 or ,eoc5e1 embrace a succession ( ev5ts ( va/ ext5t1 s t to give a satisfactory acc\nt ( :at we already "k ( any "o ( !m w\ld require _m volumes4 ,:51 !re=e1 we approa* "o ( ! new] gr\ps be=e endeav\r+ to deciph] ! monum5ts ( an old] "o1 x is l endeav\r+ to ma/] ! hi/ory ( our own c\ntry & t ( "s contempor>y nations1 be=e we ent] ^u ,roman ,hi/ory1 or l inve/igat+ ! annals ( ,anci5t ,italy & ,greece be=e we approa* ^? ( ,egypt & ,assyria4 ,nom5clature4--,! orig9 ( ! t]ms ,prim>y & ,second>y1 & ! synonym\s t]ms ,palaeozoic1 & ,mesozoic1 7 expla9$ 9 ,*apt] ,,viii1 p4 #abc4 ,! ,t]ti>y or ,ca9ozoic /rata 7see p4 #abc7 7 s call$ because !y 7 all po/]ior 9 date to ! ,second>y s]ies1 ( :i* la/ ! ,*alk ( ,cretace\s1 ,no4 #i1 ,fig4 #hf1 con/itutes ! newe/ gr\p4 ,! :ole ( !m 7 at fir/ conf\nd$ ) ! sup]ficial alluviums ( ,europe2 & x 0 long be=e _! real ext5t & ?ickness1 & ! v>i\s ages to :i* !y belong1 7 fully recognis$4 ,!y 7 obs]v$ to occur 9 pat*es1 "s ( fre%-wat]1 o!rs ( m>9e orig91 _! geographical area be+ usually small z comp>$ to ! second>y =mations1 & _! position (t5 sugge/+ ! idea ( _! hav+ be5 deposit$ 9 diff]5t bays1 lakes1 e/u>ies1 or inl& seas1 aft] a l>ge portion ( ! space n[ occupi$ by ,europe _h already be5 conv]t$ into dry l&4 ,! fir/ deposits ( ?is class1 ( :i* ! *>act]s 7 accurately det]m9$1 7 ^? occurr+ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,p>is1 describ$ 9 #ahaj by ,,mm4 ,cuvi] & ,brongni>t4 ,!y 7 asc]ta9$ to consi/ ( successive sets ( /rata1 "s ( m>9e1 o!rs ( fre%-wat] orig91 ly+ "o ^u ! o!r4 ,! fossil %ells & corals 7 p]ceiv$ to be almo/ all ( unkn[n species1 & to h 9 g5]al a ne> aff9ity to ^? n[ inhabit+ w>m] seas4 ,! bones & skeletons ( l& animals1 "s ( !m ( l>ge size1 & belong+ to m ?an =ty di/9ct species1 7 exam9$ by ,cuvi]1 & decl>$ by him n to agree specifically1 nor mo/ ( !m ev5 g5]ically1 ) any hi!rto obs]v$ 9 ! liv+ creation4 ,/rata 7 soon aft]w>ds br\ght to light 9 ! vic9ity ( ,london1 & 9 ,hamp%ire1 :i*1 al?\gh dissimil> 9 m9]al composition1 7 ju/ly inf]r$ by ,mr4 ,t4 ,web/] to be ( ! same age z ^? ( ,p>is1 because ! great] numb] ( ! fossil %ells 7 specifically id5tical4 ,= ! same reason1 rocks f\nd on ! ,gironde1 9 ! ,s\? ( ,france1 & at c]ta9 po9ts 9 ! ,nor? ( ,italy1 7 suspect$ to be ( contemporane\s orig94 ,ano!r important discov]y 0 soon aft]w>ds made by ,broc*i 9 ,italy1 :o inve/igat$ ! argillace\s & s&y deposits1 replete ) %ells1 :i* =m a l[ range ( hills1 flank+ ! ,ap5n9es on bo? sides1 f ! pla9s ( ! ,po to ,calabria4 ,^! l[] hills 7 call$ by him ! ,subap5n9es1 & 7 =m$ ( /rata *iefly m>9e1 & new] ?an ^? ( ,p>is & ,london4 ,ano!r t]ti>y gr\p occurr+ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,bordeaux & ,dax1 9 ! ,s\? ( ,france1 0 exam9$ by ,m4 de ,ba/]ot 9 #ahbe1 :o describ$ & figur$ sev]al hundr$ species ( %ells1 :i* diff]$ = ! mo/ "p bo? f ! ,p>isian s]ies & ^? ( ! ,subap5n9e hills4 ,x 0 soon1 !re=e1 suspect$ t ?is fauna might belong to a p]iod int]m$iate betwe5 t ( ! ,p>isian & ,subap5n9e /rata1 & x 0 n long be=e ! evid5ce ( sup]position 0 br\ght to be> 9 support ( ?is op9ion2 = o!r /rata1 contemporane\s ) ^? ( ,bordeaux1 7 obs]v$ 9 "o di/rict 7! ,valley ( ! ,loire71 to ov]lie ! ,p>isian =mation1 & 9 ano!r 79 ,pi$mont7 to und]lie ! ,subap5n9e b$s4 ,! fir/ example ( ^! 0 po9t$ out 9 #ahbi by ,m4 ,desnoy]s1 :o asc]ta9$ t ! s& & m>l ( m>9e orig9 call$ faluns1 ne> ,t\rs1 9 ! bas9 ( ! ,loire1 full ( sea-%ells & corals1 re/$ ^u a lacu/r9e =mation1 :i* con/itutes ! upp]mo/ subdivision ( ! ,p>isian gr\p1 ext5d+ cont9u\sly ?r\gh\t a great table-l& int]v5+ betwe5 ! bas9 ( ! ,se9e & t ( ! ,loire4 ,! o!r example occurs 9 ,italy1 :]e /rata conta9+ _m fossils simil> to ^? ( ,bordeaux 7 obs]v$ by ,bonelli & o!rs 9 ! environs ( ,tur91 subjac5t to /rata belong+ to ! ,subap5n9e gr\p ( ,broc*i4 ,value ( ,te/acean ,fossils 9 ,classification4--,x w be obs]v$ t 9 ! =ego+ allusions to organic rema9s1 ! te/acea or ! %ell-be>+ mollusca are select$ z ! mo/ useful & conv5i5t class = ! purposes ( g5]al classification4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !y are m univ]sally di/ribut$ ?r\gh /rata ( e age ?an any o!r organic bodies4 ,^? families ( fossils :i* are ( r>e & casual occurr5ce are absolutely ( no avail 9 e/abli%+ a *ronological arrangem5t4 ,if we h plants alone 9 "o gr\p ( /rata & ! bones ( mammalia 9 ano!r1 we c draw no conclusion respect+ ! aff9ity or discordance ( ! organic be+s ( ! two epo*s comp>$2 & ! same may be said if we h plants & v]tebrat$ animals 9 "o s]ies & only %ells 9 ano!r4 ,al?\gh corals are m abundant1 9 a fossil /ate1 ?an plants1 reptiles1 or fi%1 !y are /ill r>e :5 contra/$ ) %ells1 because !y are m dep5d5t = _! well-be+ on ! con/ant cle>ness ( ! wat]1 & are1 !re=e1 less likely to be includ$ 9 rocks :i* endure 9 consequ5ce ( _! ?ickness & ! copi\sness ( s$im5t :i* prevail$ :5 !y orig9at$4 ,! utility ( ! te/acea is1 moreov]1 enhanc$ by ! circum/ance t "s =ms are prop] to ! sea1 o!rs to ! l&1 & o!rs to fre% wat]4 ,riv]s sc>cely ev] fail to c>ry d[n into _! deltas "s l&-%ells1 toge!r ) species :i* are at once fluviatile & lacu/r9e4 ,by ?is means we le>n :at t]re/rial1 fre%-wat]1 & m>9e species coexi/$ at p>ticul> eras ( ! pa/3 & hav+ ?us id5tifi$ /rata =m$ 9 seas ) o!rs :i* orig9at$ contemporane\sly 9 inl& lakes1 we are !n enabl$ to advance a /ep f>!r1 & %[ t c]ta9 quadrup$s or aquatic plants1 f\nd fossil 9 lacu/r9e =mations1 inhabit$ ! globe at ! same p]iod :5 c]ta9 fi%1 reptiles1 & zoophytes liv$ 9 ! ocean4 ,among o!r *>act]s ( ! mollusc\s animals1 :i* r5d] !m extremely valuable 9 settl+ *ronological que/ions 9 geology1 may be m5tion$1 fir/1 ! wide geographical range ( _m species2 &1 secondly1 :at is probably a consequ5ce ( ! =m]1 ! great duration ( species 9 ?is class1 = !y appe> to h surpass$ 9 longevity ! great] numb] ( ! mammalia & fi%4 ,_h ea* species inhabit$ a v limit$ space1 x c\ld nev]1 :5 imb$d$ 9 /rata1 h enabl$ ! geologi/ to id5tify deposits at di/ant po9ts2 or _h !y ea* la/$ b = a brief p]iod1 !y c\ld h ?r[n no light on ! connection ( rocks plac$ f> f ea* o!r 9 ! *ronological1 or1 z x is (t5 t]m$1 v]tical s]ies4 ,classification ( ,t]ti>y ,/rata4--,_m au?ors h divid$ ! ,european ,t]ti>y /rata into ?ree gr\ps--l[]1 middle1 & upp]2 ! l[] compris+ ! olde/ =mations ( ,p>is & ,london be=e m5tion$2 ! middle ^? ( ,bordeaux & ,t\ra9e2 & ! upp] all ^? new] ?an ! middle gr\p4 ,9 ! fir/ edition ( ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 ,i divid$ ! :ole ( ! ,t]ti>y =mations into f\r gr\ps1 *>act]is$ by ! p]c5tage ( rec5t %ells :i* !y conta9$4 ,! l[] t]ti>y /rata ( ,london & ,p>is 7 ?\ght by ,m4 ,de%ayes to conta9 only #c p] c5t ( rec5t species1 & 7 t]m$ ,eoc5e4 ,! middle t]ti>y ( ! ,loire & ,gironde _h1 accord+ to ! specific det]m9ations ( ! same con*ologi/1 #ag p] c5t1 & =m$ ! ,mioc5e division4 ,! ,subap5n9e b$s conta9$ #ce to #ej p] c5t1 & 7 t]m$ ,old] ,plioc5e1 :ile /ill m rec5t b$s 9 ,sicily1 :i* _h f #ij to #ie p] c5t ( species id5tical ) ^? n[ liv+1 7 call$ ,new] ,plioc5e4 ,! fir/ ( ! above t]ms1 ,eoc5e1 is d]iv$ f eos1 dawn1 & ca9os1 rec5t1 because ! fossil %ells ( ?is p]iod conta9 an extremely small proportion ( liv+ species1 :i* may be look$ ^u z indicat+ ! dawn ( ! exi/+ /ate ( ! te/ace\s fauna1 no rec5t species hav+ be5 detect$ 9 ! old] or second>y rocks4 ,! t]m ,mioc5e 7f meion1 less1 & ca9os1 rec5t7 is int5d$ to express a m9or proportion ( rec5t species 7( te/acea71 ! t]m ,plioc5e 7f pleion1 m1 & ca9os1 rec5t7 a comp>ative plurality ( ! same4 ,x may assi/ ! memory ( /ud5ts to rem9d !m1 t ! ,mioc5e conta9 a minor proportion1 & ,plioc5e a comp>ative plurality ( rec5t species2 & t ! great] numb] ( rec5t species always implies ! m mod]n orig9 ( ! /rata4 ,x has sometimes be5 object$ to ?is nom5clature t c]ta9 species ( infusoria f\nd 9 ! *alk are /ill exi/+1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ! ,mioc5e & ,old] ,plioc5e deposits (t5 conta9 ! rema9s ( mammalia1 reptiles1 & fi%1 exclusively ( ext9ct species4 ,b ! read] mu/ be> 9 m9d t ! t]ms ,eoc5e1 ,mioc5e1 & ,plioc5e 7 orig9ally inv5t$ ) ref]5ce purely to con*ological data1 & 9 t s5se h always be5 & are /ill us$ by me4 ,s9ce ! ye> #ahcj ! numb] ( kn[n %ells1 bo? rec5t & fossil1 has l>gely increas$1 & _! id5tification has be5 m accurately det]m9$4 ,h5ce "s modifications h be5 requir$ 9 ! classifications f\nd$ on less p]fect mat]ials4 ,! ,eoc5e1 ,mioc5e1 & ,plioc5e p]iods h be5 made to compreh5d c]ta9 sets ( /rata ( :i* ! fossils d n always con=m /rictly 9 ! proportion ( rec5t to ext9ct species ) ! def9itions fir/ giv5 by me1 or :i* are impli$ 9 ! etymology ( ^? t]ms4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,rec5t ,,& ,,po/-,,plioc5e ,,p]iods4 ,rec5t & ,po/-plioc5e ,p]iods4 -- ,t]ms def9$4 -- ,=mations ( ! ,rec5t ,p]iod4 -- ,mod]n littoral ,deposits conta9+ ,works ( ,art ne> ,naples4 -- ,dani% ,peat & ,%ell-m\nds4 -- ,swiss ,lake-dwell+s4 -- ,p]iods ( ,/one1 ,bronze1 & ,iron4 -- ,po/-plioc5e ,=mations4 -- ,coexi/5ce ( ,man ) ext9ct ,mammalia4 -- ,re9de] ,p]iod ( ,s\? ( ,france4 -- ,alluvial ,deposits ( ,paleoli?ic ,age4 -- ,high] & ,l[]-level ,valley-gravels4 -- ,loess or ,inundation-mud ( ! ,nile1 ,rh9e1 etc4 -- ,orig9 ( ,cav]ns4 -- ,rema9s ( ,man & ext9ct ,quadrup$s 9 ,cav]n ,deposits4 -- ,cave ( ,kirkdale4 -- ,au/ralian ,cave-breccias4 -- ,geographical ,relation%ip ( ! ,prov9ces ( liv+ ,v]tebrata & ^? ( ext9ct ,po/-plioc5e ,species4 -- ,ext9ct /ru?i\s ,birds ( ,new ,zeal&4 -- ,climate ( ! ,po/-plioc5e ,p]iod4 -- ,comp>ative ,longevity ( ,species 9 ! ,mammalia & ,te/acea4 -- ,tee? ( ,rec5t & ,po/-plioc5e ,mammalia4 ,we h se5 9 ! la/ *apt] t ! upp]mo/ or newe/ /rata are call$ ,po/-t]ti>y1 z be+ m mod]n ?an ! ,t]ti>y4 ,x w also be obs]v$ t ! ,po/-t]ti>y =mations are divid$ into two subord9ate gr\ps3 ! ,rec5t1 & ,po/-plioc5e4 ,9 ! =m]1 or ! ,rec5t1 ! mammalia z well z ! %ells are id5tical ) species n[ liv+3 :]eas 9 ! ,po/-plioc5e1 ! %ells be+ all ( liv+ =ms1 a "p1 & (t5 a consid]able "p1 ( ! mammalia belong$ to ext9ct species4 ,to ?is nom5clature x may be object$ t ! t]m ,po/-plioc5e %\ld 9 /rictness include all geological monum5ts po/]ior 9 date to ! ,plioc5e2 b :5 ,i h occasion to speak ( ! :ole collectively1 ,i %all call !m ,po/-t]ti>y1 & res]ve ! t]m ,po/-plioc5e = ! old] ,po/-t]ti>y =mations1 :ile ! ,upp] or new] ones w be call$ 8,rec5t40 ,cases w occur :]e x may be sc>cely possible to draw ! b\nd>y l9e betwe5 ! ,rec5t & ,po/-plioc5e deposits2 & we mu/ expect ^! difficulties to increase r ?an dim9i% ) e advance 9 our k1 & 9 proportion z gaps are fill$ up 9 ! s]ies ( records4 ,,rec5t ,,p]iod ,x 0 /at$ 9 ! six? *apt]1 :5 ,i treat$ ( d5udation1 t ! dry l&1 or t "p ( ! e>?'s surface :i* is n cov]$ by ! wat]s ( lakes or seas1 is g5]ally wa/+ away by ! incessant action ( ra9 & riv]s1 & 9 "s cases by ! und]m9+ & remov+ p[] ( waves & tides on ! sea-coa/4 ,b ! rate ( wa/e is v unequal1 s9ce ! level & g5tly slop+ l&s1 :]e !y are protect$ by a cont9u\s cov]+ ( vegetation1 escape ne>ly all we> & te>1 s t !y may rema9 = ages 9 a /ation>y condition1 :ile ! removal ( matt] is con/antly wid5+ & deep5+ ! int]v5+ rav9es & valleys4 ,! mat]ials1 bo? f9e & co>se1 c>ri$ d[n annually by riv]s f ! high] regions to ! l[]1 & deposit$ 9 successive /rata 9 ! bas9s ( seas & lakes1 mu/ be ( enorm\s volume4 ,we are always liable to und]rate _! magnitude1 because ! accumulation ( /rata is go+ on out ( sight4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 causes at "w :i*1 9 ! c\rse ( c5turies1 t5d to r5d] visible ^! mod]n =mations1 :e!r ( m>9e or lacu/r9e orig94 ,= a l>ge portion ( ! e>?'s cru/ is always und]go+ a *ange ( level1 "s areas ris+ & o!rs s9k+ at ! rate ( a few in*es1 or a few feet1 p]haps sometimes y>ds1 9 a c5tury2 s t spaces :i* 7 once subaque\s are gradually conv]t$ into l&1 & o!rs :i* 7 high & dry become subm]g$4 ,9 consequ5ce ( su* movem5ts we f9d 9 c]ta9 regions1 z 9 ,ca%m]e1 = example1 :]e ! m\nta9s are (t5 %ak5 by e>?quakes1 deposits :i* 7 =m$ 9 lakes 9 ! hi/orical p]iod1 b ?r\gh :i* riv]s h n[ cut deep & wide *annels4 ,9 lacu/r9e /rata ?us int]sect$1 works ( art & fre%-wat] %ells are se54 ,9 o!r di/ricts on ! bord]s ( ! sea1 usually at v mod]ate elevations above its level1 rais$ bea*es occur1 or m>9e littoral deposits1 su* z ^? 9 :i*1 on ! bord]s ( ! ,bay ( ,bai1 ne> ,naples1 ! well-kn[n temple ( ,s]apis 0 imb$d$4 ,9 t case ! date ( ! monum5t buri$ 9 ! m>9e /rata is asc]ta9able1 b 9 _m o!r in/ances ! exact age ( ! rema9s ( human workman%ip is unc]ta91 z 9 ! e/u>y ( ! ,clyde at ,glasg[1 :]e _m canoes h be5 exhum$1 ) o!r works ( art1 all assignable to "s "p ( ! ,rec5t ,p]iod4 ,dani% ,peat & ,%ell-m\nds or ,kit*5-midd5s4--,sometimes we obta9 evid5ce1 )\t ! aid ( a *ange ( level1 ( ev5ts :i* took place 9 pre-hi/oric times4 ,! comb9$ lab\rs1 = example1 ( ! antiqu>y1 zoologi/1 & botani/ h br\ght to light _m monum5ts ( ! e>ly inhabitants buri$ 9 peat-mosses 9 ,d5m>k4 ,_! geological age is det]m9$ by ! fact t1 n only ! contemporane\s fre%-wat] & l& %ells1 b all ! quadrup$s1 f\nd 9 ! peat1 agree specifically ) ^? n[ inhabit+ ! same di/ricts1 or :i* are kn[n to h be5 indig5\s 9 ,d5m>k )9 ! memory ( man4 ,9 ! l[] b$s ( peat 7a deposit v>y+ f #bj to #cj feet 9 ?ickness71 weapons ( /one accompany trunks ( ! ,scot* fir1 ,p9us sylve/ris4 ,?is peat may be ref]r$ to t "p ( ! /one p]iod = :i* ,sir ,john ,lubbock propos$ ! "n ( 8,neoli?ic0#a 9 contradi/9ction to a /ill old] era1 t]m$ by him 8,paleoli?ic10 & :i* w be describ$ 9 ! sequel4 ,9 ! high] portions ( ! same ,dani% bogs1 bronze implem5ts are associat$ ) trunks & acorns ( ! common oak4 ,x appe>s t ! p9e has nev] be5 a native ( ,d5m>k 9 hi/orical times1 & x seems to h giv5 place to ! oak ab\t ! "t :5 articles & in/rum5ts ( bronze sup]s$$ ^? ( /one4 ,x also appe>s t1 at a /ill lat] p]iod1 ! oak itself became sc>ce1 & 0 ne>ly supplant$ by ! bee*1 a tree :i* n[ fl\ri%es luxuriantly 9 ,d5m>k4 ,aga91 at ! /ill lat] epo* :5 ! bee*-tree ab\nd$1 tools ( iron 7 introduc$1 & 7 gradually sub/itut$ = ^? ( bronze4 ,on ! coa/s ( ! ,dani% isl&s 9 ! ,baltic1 c]ta9 m\nds1 call$ 9 ^? c\ntries 8,kjkk5-mdd+10 or 8kit*5-midd5s10 occur1 consi/+ *iefly ( ! ca/away %ells ( ! oy/]1 cockle1 p]iw9kle1 & o!r eatable k9ds ( molluscs4 ,! m\nds are f ?ree to t5 feet high1 & f #ajj to #ajjj feet 9 _! longe/ diamet]4 ,!y greatly resemble heaps ( %ells =m$ by ! ,r$ ,indians ( ,nor? ,am]ica along ! ea/]n %ores ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 ! old refuse-heaps1 rec5tly /udi$ by ! ,dani% antiqu>ies & naturali/s ) great skill & dilig5ce1 no implem5ts ( metal h ev] be5 detect$4 ,all ! knives1 hat*ets1 & o!r tools1 are ( /one1 horn1 bone1 or wood4 ,) !m are (t5 int]mix$ fragm5ts ( rude pott]y1 *>coal & c9d]s1 & ! bones ( quadrup$s on :i* ! rude p f$4 ,^! bones belong to wild species /ill liv+ 9 ,europe1 ?\gh "s ( !m1 l ! beav]1 h long be5 extirpat$ 9 ,d5m>k4 ,! only animal :i* !y seem to h dome/icat$ 0 ! dog4 ,z !re is an entire abs5ce ( metallic tools1 ^! refuse-heaps are ref]r$ to ! ,neoli?ic division ( ! age ( /one1 :i* imm$iately prec$$ 9 ,d5m>k ! age ( bronze4 ,x appe>s t a race m advanc$ 9 civilisation1 arm$ ) weapons ( t mix$ metal1 invad$ ,sc&9avia1 & ou/$ ! aborig9es4 ,lacu/r9e ,habitations ( ,switz]l&4--,9 ,switz]l& a diff]5t class ( monum5ts1 illu/rat+ ! successive ages ( /one1 bronze1 & iron1 has be5 ( late ye>s inve/igat$ ) great success1 & especially s9ce #ahed1 9 :i* ye> ,dr4 ,f4 ,kell] explor$ ne> ! %ore at ,meil51 9 ! bottom ( ! lake ( ,zuri*1 ! ru9s ( an old village1 orig9ally built on num]\s wood5 piles1 driv51 at "s unkn[n p]iod1 into ! muddy b$ ( ! lake4 ,s9ce !n a great _m o!r localities1 m ?an a hundr$ & fifty 9 all1 h be5 detect$ ( simil> pile-dwell+s1 situat$ ne> ! bord]s ( ! ,swiss lakes1 at po9ts :]e ! dep? ( wat] does n exce$ #ae feet4#b ,! sup]ficial mud 9 su* cases is fill$ ) v>i\s articles1 _m hundr$s ( !m be+ (t5 dr$g$ up f a v limit$ area4 ,?\s&s ( piles1 decay$ at _! upp] extremities1 are (t5 met ) /ill firmly fix$ 9 ! mud4 ,z ! ages ( /one1 bronze1 & iron m]ely indicate successive /ages ( civilisation1 !y may all h coexi/$ at once 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! globe1 & ev5 9 contigu\s regions1 among nations hav+ little int]c\rse ) ea* o!r4 ,to make out1 !re=e1 a di/9ct *ronological s]ies ( monum5ts is only possible :5 our obs]vations are conf9$ to a limit$ di/rict1 su* z ,switz]l&4 ,! relative antiquity ( ! pile-dwell+s1 :i* belong respectively to ! ages ( /one & bronze1 is cle>ly illu/rat$ by ! associations ( ! tools ) c]ta9 gr\ps ( animal rema9s4 ,:]e ! tools are ( /one1 ! ca/away bones :i* s]v$ = ! food ( ! anci5t p are ^? ( de]1 ! wild bo>1 & wild ox1 :i* ab\nd$ :5 society 0 9 ! hunt] /ate4 ,b ! bones ( ! lat] or bronze epo* 7 *iefly ^? ( ! dome/ic ox1 goat1 & pig1 indicat+ progress 9 civilisation4 ,"s villages ( ! /one age are ( lat] date ?an o!rs1 & exhibit signs ( an improv$ /ate ( ! arts4 ,among _! relics are discov]$ c>bonis$ gra9s ( :eat & b>ley1 & pieces ( bread1 prov+ t ! cultivation ( c]eals _h begun4 ,9 ! same settlem5ts1 also1 clo?1 made ( wov5 flax & /raw1 has be5 detect$4 ,! pott]y ( ! bronze age 9 ,switz]l& is ( a f9] texture1 & m elegant 9 =m1 ?an t ( ! age ( /one4 ,at ,nidau1 on ! lake ( ,bi5ne1 articles ( iron h also be5 discov]$1 s t ?is settlem5t 0 evid5tly n ab&on$ till t metal _h come into use4 ,at ,la ,?ne1 9 ! nor!rn angle ( ! lake ( ,neuf*tel1 a great _m articles ( iron h be5 obta9$1 :i* 9 =m & ornam5tation are entirely diff]5t bo? f ^? ( ! bronze p]iod & f ^? us$ by ! ,romans4 ,gauli% & ,celtic co9s h also be5 f\nd !re by ,,mm4 ,s*wab & ,desor4 ,!y agree 9 "* ) rema9s1 includ+ _m iron swords1 :i* h be5 f\nd at ,tief5au1 ne> ,b]ne1 9 gr\nd suppos$ to h be5 a battle-field2 & _! date appe>s to h be5 ant]ior to ! great ,roman invasion ( ,nor!rn ,europe1 ?\gh p]haps n long be=e t ev5t4#c ,co9s1 :i* sometimes occur 9 deposits ( ! age ( iron1 h nev] yet be5 f\nd 9 =mations ( ! ages ( bronze or /one4 ,! p]iod ( bronze mu/ h be5 "o ( =eign comm]ce1 z t91 :i* ent]s into ?is metallic mixture 9 ! proportion ( ab\t t5 p] c5t to ! copp]1 0 obta9$ by ! anci5ts *iefly f ,cornwall4#d ,v few human bones ( ! bronze p]iod h be5 met ) 9 ! ,dani% peat1 or 9 ! ,swiss lake-dwell+s1 & ?is sc>city is g5]ally attribut$ by ar*ologi/s to ! cu/om ( burn+ ! dead1 :i* prevail$ 9 ! age ( bronze4 ,,po/-,,plioc5e ,,p]iod ,f ! =ego+ obs]vations we may inf] t ! ages ( iron & bronze 9 ,nor!rn & ,c5tral ,europe 7 prec$$ by a /one age1 ! ,neoli?ic1 ref]able to t division ( ! po/-t]ti>y epo* :i* ,i h call$ ,rec5t1 :5 ! mammalia z well z ! o!r organic rema9s accompany+ ! /one implem5ts 7 ( liv+ species4 ,b memorials h ( late be5 br\ght to light ( a /ill old] age ( /one1 = :i*1 z above /at$1 ! "n ,paleoli?ic has be5 propos$1 :5 man 0 contempor>y 9 ,europe ) ! elephant & rh9oc]os1 & v>i\s o!r animals1 ( :i* _m ( ! mo/ conspicu\s h long s9ce di$ out4 ,re9de] ,p]iod 9 ,s\? ( ,france4--,9 ! l>g] numb] ( ! caves ( ,europe1 z = example 9 ^? ( ,engl&1 ,belgium1 ,g]many1 & _m p>ts ( ,france1 ! animal rema9s agree specifically ) ! fauna ( ?is olde/ division ( ! age ( /one1 or t to :i* belongs ! drift ( ,ami5s & ,abbeville pres5tly to be m5tion$1 conta9+ fl9t implem5ts ( a v antique type4 ,b !re are "s caves 9 ! dep>tm5ts ( ,dordogne1 ,aude1 & o!r p>ts ( ! s\? ( ,france1 :i* are believ$ by ,m4 ,l>tet to be ( int]m$iate date betwe5 ! ,paleoli?ic & ,neoli?ic p]iods4 ,to ?is int]m$iate era ,m4 ,l>tet gave1 9 #ahfc1 ! "n ( ! 8re9de] p]iod10 because va/ quantities ( ! bones & horns ( t de] h be5 met ) 9 ! ,fr5* cav]ns4 ,9 "s cases sep>ate plates ( mol>s ( ! mammo?1 & sev]al tee? ( ! great ,iri% de]1 ,c]vus megac]os1 & ( ! cave-lion1 ,felis spela1 h be5 f\nd mix$ up ) cut & c>v$ bones ( re9de]4 ,on "o ( ^! sculptur$ bones 9 ! cave ( ,p]igord1 a rude repres5tation ( ! mammo?1 ) its long curv$ tusks & cov]+ ( wool1 occurs1 :i* is reg>d$ by ,m4 ,l>tet z plac+ beyond all d\bt ! fact t ! e>ly inhabitants ( ^! caves mu/ h se5 ?is species ( elephant /ill liv+ 9 ,france4 ,! pres5ce ( ! m>mot1 z well z ! re9de] & "s o!r nor!rn animals1 9 ^! cav]ns seems to imply a cold] climate ?an t ( ! ,swiss lake-dwell+s1 9 :i* no rema9s ( re9de] h z yet be5 discov]$4 ,! abs5ce ( ?is la/ 9 ! old lacu/r9e habitations ( ,switz]l& is ! m significant1 because 9 a cave 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! lake ( ,g5eva1 namely1 t ( ,mont ,saleve1 bones ( ! re9de] occur ) fl9t implem5ts simil> to ^? ( ! cav]ns ( ,dordogne & ,p]igord4 ,! /ate ( ! arts1 z exemplifi$ by ! in/rum5ts f\nd 9 ^! cav]ns ( ! re9de] p]iod1 is some:at m advanc$ ?an t :i* *>act]ises ! tools ( ! ,ami5s drift1 b is nev]!less m rude ?an t ( ! ,swiss lake-dwell+s4 ,no metallic articles occur1 & ! /one hat*ets are n gr\nd aft] ! fa%ion ( celts2 ! ne$les ( bone are %ap$ 9 a workmanlike /yle1 hav+ _! eyes drill$ ) consummate skill4 ,! =mations above allud$ to1 :i* are z yet b imp]fectly kn[n1 may be class$ z belong+ to ! close ( ! ,paleoli?ic era1 ( ! monum5ts ( :i* ,i am n[ ab\t to treat4 ,alluvial ,deposits ( ! ,paleoli?ic ,age4--,! alluvial & m>9e deposits ( ! ,paleoli?ic age1 ! e>lie/ to :i* any ve/iges ( man h yet be5 trac$ back1 belong to a "t :5 ! physical geography ( ,europe diff]$ 9 a m>k$ degree f t n[ prevail+4 ,9 ! ,neoli?ic p]iod1 ! valleys & riv]s co9cid$ almo/ entirely ) ^? by :i* ! pres5t dra9age ( ! l& is effect$1 & ! peat-mosses 7 ! same z ^? n[ gr[+4 ,! situation ( ! %ell-m\nds & lake-dwell+s above allud$ to is su* z to imply t ! topography ( ! di/ricts :]e !y are obs]v$ has n subsequ5tly und]gone any mat]ial alt]ation4 ,:]eas we no soon] exam9e ! ,po/-plioc5e =mations1 9 :i* ! rema9s ( s _m ext9ct mammalia are f\nd1 ?an we at once p]ceive a m decid$ discrepancy betwe5 ! =m] & pres5t outl9e ( ! surface4 ,s9ce ^? deposits orig9at$1 *anges ( consid]able magnitude h be5 effect$ 9 ! dep? & wid? ( _m valleys1 z also 9 ! direction ( ! sup]ficial & subt]ranean dra9age1 &1 z is manife/ ne> ! sea-coa/1 9 ! relative position ( l& & wat]4 ,9 ,fig4 #hg an ideal section is giv51 illu/rat+ ! diff]5t position :i* ! ,rec5t & ,po/-plioc5e alluvial deposits occupy 9 _m ,european valleys4 ,fig4 #hg3 ,rec5t & ,po/-plioc5e alluvial deposits4 ,! peat1 ,no4 #a1 has be5 =m$ 9 a l[ "p ( ! mod]n alluvial pla91 9 p>ts ( :i* gravel ,no4 #b ( ! rec5t p]iod is se54 ,ov] ?is gravel ! loam or f9e s$im5t #b has 9 _m places be5 deposit$ by ! riv] dur+ floods :i* cov]$ ne>ly ! :ole alluvial pla94 ,no4 #c repres5ts an old] alluvium1 compos$ ( s& & gravel1 =m$ be=e ! valley _h be5 excavat$ to its pres5t dep?4 ,x conta9s ! rema9s ( fluviatile %ells ( liv+ species associat$ ) ! bones ( mammalia1 9 "p ( rec5t1 & 9 "p ( ext9ct species4 ,among ! latt]1 ! mammo? 7,e4 primig5ius7 & ! ,sib]ian rh9oc]os 7,r4 ti*orh9us7 are ! mo/ common 9 ,europe4 ,no4 #c is a remnant ( ! loam or brick-e>? by :i* ,no4 #c 0 ov]spread4 ,no4 #d is a /ill old] & m elevat$ t]race1 simil> 9 its composition & organic rema9s to ,no4 #c1 & cov]$ 9 l mann] ) its inundation-mud1 #d4 ,sometimes ! valley-gravels ( old] date are entirely miss+1 or !re is only "o1 & occasionally !re are m ?an two1 m>k+ z _m successive /ages 9 ! excavation ( ! valley4 ,!y usually occur at heights v>y+ f #aj to #ajj feet1 sometimes on ! "r & sometimes on ! left side ( ! exi/+ riv]-pla91 b r>ely 9 great /r5g? on exactly opposite sides ( ! valley4 ,among ! g5]a ( ext9ct quadrup$s mo/ frequ5tly met ) 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 ,g]many1 & o!r p>ts ( ,europe1 are ! elephant1 rh9oc]os1 hippopotamus1 horse1 great ,iri% de]1 be>1 tig]1 & hyna4 ,9 ! peat1 ,no4 #a 7,fig4 #hg71 & 9 ! m mod]n gravel & silt 7,no4 #b71 works ( art ( ! ages ( iron & bronze1 & ( ! lat] or ,neoli?ic /one p]iod1 already describ$1 are met )4 ,9 ! m anci5t or ,paleoli?ic gravels1 #c & #d1 !re h be5 f\nd ( late ye>s 9 sev]al valleys 9 ,france & ,engl&--z1 = example1 9 ^? ( ! ,se9e & ,somme1 & ( ! ,?ames & ,ouse1 ne> ,b$=d--/one implem5ts ( a rude type1 %[+ t man coexi/$ 9 ^? di/ricts ) ! mammo? & o!r ext9ct quadrup$s ( ! g5]a above enum]at$4 ,9 #ahdg1 ,m4 ,b\*] de ,p]!s obs]v$ 9 an anci5t alluvium at ,abbeville1 9 ,pic>dy1 ! bones ( ext9ct mammalia associat$ 9 su* a mann] ) fl9t implem5ts ( a rude type z to lead him to inf] t bo? ! organic rema9s & ! works ( art 7 ref]able to "o & ! same p]iod4 ,?is inf]5ce 0 soon aft] confirm$ by ,mr4 ,pre/wi*1 :o f\nd 9 #ahei a fl9t tool 9 situ 9 ! same /ratum at ,ami5s t conta9$ ! rema9s ( ext9ct mammalia4 ,! fl9t implem5ts f\nd at ,abbeville & ,ami5s are mo/ ( !m consid]$ to be hat*ets & spe>-heads1 & are diff]5t f ^? commonly call$ 8celts40 ,^! celts1 s (t5 f\nd 9 ! rec5t =mations1 h a m regul> oblong %ape1 ! result ( gr9d+1 by :i* also a %>p edge has be5 giv5 to !m4 ,! ,abbeville tools f\nd 9 gravel at diff]5t levels1 z 9 ,nos4 #c & #d1 ,fig4 #hg1 9 :i* bones ( ! elephant1 rh9oc]os1 & o!r ext9ct mammalia occur1 are always ungr\nd1 hav+ evid5tly be5 br\ght into _! pres5t =m simply by ! *ipp+ (f ( fragm5ts ( fl9t by repeat$ bl[s1 su* z c\ld be giv5 by a /one hamm]4 ,"s ( !m are oval1 o!rs ( a spe>-head$ =m1 no two exactly alike1 & yet ! great] numb] ( ea* k9d are obvi\sly fa%ion$ aft] ! same g5]al patt]n4 ,_! out] surface is (t5 :ite1 ! orig9al black fl9t hav+ be5 discol\r$ & blea*$ by exposure to ! air1 or by ! action ( acids1 z !y lay 9 ! gravel4 ,!y are mo/ commonly /a9$ ( ! same o*re\s col\r z ! fl9ts ( ! gravel 9 :i* !y are imb$d$4 ,occasionally _! antiquity is indicat$ n only by _! col\r b by sup]ficial incru/ations ( c>bonate ( lime1 or by d5drites =m$ ( oxide ( iron & manganese4 ,! edges also ( mo/ ( !m are worn1 sometimes by hav+ be5 us$ z tools1 or sometimes by hav+ be5 roll$ 9 ! old riv]'s b$4 ,!y are met ) n only 9 ! l[]-level gravels1 z 9 ,no4 #c1 ,fig4 #hg1 b also 9 ,no4 #d1 or ! high] gravels1 z at ,/4 ,a*eul1 9 ! suburbs ( ,ami5s1 :]e ! old alluvium lies at an elevation ( ab\t #ajj feet above ! level ( ! riv] ,somme4 ,at bo? levels fluviatile & l&-%ells are met ) 9 ! loam z well z 9 ! gravel1 b !re are no m>9e %ells associat$1 except at ,abbeville1 9 ! l[e/ "p ( ! gravel1 ne> ! sea1 & a few feet only above ! pres5t high-wat] m>k4 ,"h ) fossil %ells ( liv+ species are m+l$ ! bones ( ,elephas primig5ius & ,e4 antiquus1 ,rh9oc]os ti*orh9us1 ,hippopotamus1 ,felis spela1 ,hyna spela1 re9de]1 & _m o!rs1 ! bones accompany+ ! fl9t implem5ts 9 su* a mann] z to %[ t bo? 7 buri$ 9 ! old alluvium at ! same p]iod4 ,ne>ly ! entire skeleton ( a rh9oc]os 0 f\nd at "o po9t1 namely1 9 ! ,m5*ec\rt drift at ,abbeville1 ! bones be+ 9 su* juxtaposition z to %[ t ! c>tilage mu/ h held !m toge!r at ! "t ( _! inhumation4 ,! g5]al abs5ce "h & else:]e ( human bones f gravel & s& 9 :i* fl9t tools are discov]$1 may 9 "s degree be due to ! pres5t limit$ ext5t ( our rese>*es4 ,b x may also be presum$ t :5 a hunt] population1 always scanty 9 numb]s1 rang$ ov] ?is region1 !y 7 too w>y to all[ !mselves to be ov]tak5 by ! floods :i* swept away _m h]bivor\s animals f ! l[ riv]-pla9s :]e !y may h be5 pa/ur+ or sleep+4 ,bea/s ( prey pr[l+ ab\t ! same alluvial flats 9 se>* ( food may also h be5 surpris$ m readily ?an ! human t5ant ( ! same region1 to :om ! signs ( a com+ tempe/ 7 bett] kn[n4 ,inundation-mud ( ,riv]s4--,brick-e>?4--,fluviatile ,loam1 or ,loess4--,z a g5]al rule1 ! fluviatile alluvia ( diff]5t ages 7,nos4 #b1 #c1 #d1 ,fig4 #hg7 are sev]ally made up ( co>se mat]ials 9 _! l[] portions1 & ( f9e silt or loam 9 _! upp] p>ts4 ,= riv]s are con/antly %ift+ _! position 9 ! valley-pla91 encroa*+ gradually on "o bank1 ne> :i* !re is deep wat]1 & des]t+ ! o!r or opposite side1 :]e ! *annel is gr[+ %all[]1 be+ de/9$ ev5tually to be conv]t$ into l&4 ,:]e ! curr5t runs /ronge/1 co>se gravel is swept along1 & :]e its velocity is slack5$1 fir/ s&1 & !n only ! f9e/ mud1 is ?r[n d[n4 ,a ?9 film ( ?is f9e s$im5t is spread1 dur+ floods1 ov] a wide area1 on "o1 or sometimes on bo? sides1 ( ! ma9 /ream1 (t5 rea*+ z f> z ! base ( ! bluffs or high] gr\nds :i* b\nd ! valley4 ,( su* a description are ! well-kn[n annual deposits ( ! ,nile1 to :i* ,egypt owes its f]tility4 ,s ?9 are !y1 t ! aggregate am\nt accumulat$ 9 a c5tury is said r>ely to exce$ five in*es1 al?\gh 9 ! c\rse ( ?\s&s ( ye>s x has atta9$ a va/ ?ickness1 ! bottom n hav+ be5 rea*$ by bor+s ext5d+ to a dep? ( #fj feet t[>ds ! c5tral p>ts ( ! valley4 ,ev]y:]e x consi/s ( ! same homog5e\s mud1 de/itute ( /ratification--! only signs ( successive accumulation be+ :]e ! ,nile has silt$ up its *annel1 or :]e ! bl[n s&s ( ! ,libyan des]t h invad$ ! pla91 & give rise to alt]nate lay]s ( s& & mud4 ,9 ,european riv]-loams we occasionally obs]ve isolat$ pebbles & angul> pieces ( /one :i* h be5 float$ by ice to ! places :]e !y n[ occur2 b no su* co>se mat]ials are met ) 9 ! pla9s ( ,egypt4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ! valley ( ! ,rh9e ! accumulation ( simil> loam1 call$ 9 ,g]many 8loess10 has tak5 place on an enorm\s scale4 ,its col\r is yell[i%-grey1 & v homog5e\s2 & ,pr(essor ,bis*(f has asc]ta9$1 by analysis1 t x agrees 9 composition ) ! mud ( ! ,nile4 ,al?\gh = ! mo/ "p un/ratifi$1 x betrays 9 "s places m>ks ( /ratification1 especially :]e x conta9s calc>e\s concretions1 or 9 its l[] "p :]e x re/s on subjac5t gravel & s& :i* alt]nate ) ea* o!r ne> ! junction4 ,ab\t a six? "p ( ! :ole mass is compos$ ( c>bonate ( lime1 & !re is usually an int]mixture ( f9e qu>tzose & micace\s s&4 ,al?\gh ?is loam ( ! ,rh9e is unsolidifi$1 x usually t]m9ates :]e x has be5 und]m9$ by runn+ wat] 9 a v]tical cliff1 f ! face ( :i* %ells ( t]re/rial1 fre%-wat] & amphibi\s mollusks project 9 relief4 ,^! %ells d n imply ! p]man5t soj\rn ( a body ( fre% wat] on ! spot1 = ! mo/ aquatic ( !m1 ! ,succ9ea1 inhabits m>%es & wet grassy mead[s4 ,! ,succ9ea elongata 7or ,s4 oblongata71 ,fig4 #hh1 is v *>act]i/ic bo? ( ! loess ( ! ,rh9e & ( "s o!r ,european riv]-loams4 ,fig4 #hh3 ,succ9ea elongata2 ,fig4 #hi3 ,pupa muscorum 7,l9n472 ,fig4 #ij3 ,helix hispida 7,l9n47 7plebia74 ,among ! l&-%ells ( ! ,rh5i% loess1 ,helix hispida1 ,fig4 #ij1 & ,pupa muscorum1 ,fig4 #hi1 are v common4 ,bo? ! t]re/rial & aquatic %ells are ( mo/ fragile & delicate /ructure1 & yet !y are almo/ inv>iably p]fect & un9jur$4 ,!y mu/ h be5 brok5 to pieces _h !y be5 swept along by a viol5t inundation4 ,ev5 ! col\r ( "s ( ! l&-%ells1 z t ( ,helix nemoralis1 is occasionally pres]v$4 ,9 p>ts ( ! valley ( ! ,rh9e1 betwe5 ,b+5 & ,basle1 ! fluviatile loam or loess n[ "u consid]ation is sev]al hundr$ feet ?ick1 & conta9s "h & !re ?r\gh\t t ?ickness l& & amphibi\s %ells4 ,z x is se5 9 masses fr++ bo? sides ( ! great pla91 & z occasionally remnants ( x occur 9 ! c5tre ( ! valley1 =m+ hills sev]al hundr$ feet 9 height1 x seems necess>y to suppose1 fir/1 a "t :5 x sl[ly accumulat$2 & secondly1 a lat] p]iod1 :5 l>ge portions ( x 7 remov$1 or :5 ! orig9al valley1 :i* _h be5 p>tially fill$ up ) x1 0 re-excavat$4 ,su* *anges may h be5 br\ght ab\t by a great movem5t ( oscillation1 consi/+ fir/ ( a g5]al depression ( ! l&1 & !n ( a gradual re-elevation ( ! same4 ,! am\nt ( cont95tal depression :i* fir/ took place 9 ! int]ior1 mu/ be imag9$ to h exce$$ t ( ! region ne> ! sea1 9 :i* case ! high] "p ( ! great valley w\ld h its alluvial pla9 gradually rais$ by an accumulation ( s$im5t1 :i* w\ld only cease :5 ! subsid5ce ( ! l& 0 at an end4 ,if ! direction ( ! movem5t 0 !n rev]s$1 &1 dur+ ! re-elevation ( ! cont95t1 ! inl& region ne>e/ ! m\nta9s %\ld rise m rapidly ?an t ne> ! coa/1 ! riv] w\ld acquire a d5ud+ p[] suffici5t to enable x to sweep away gradually ne>ly all ! loam & gravel ) :i* p>ts ( its bas9 _h be5 fill$ up4 ,t]races & hillocks ( mud & s& w\ld !n alone rema9 to atte/ ! v>i\s levels at :i* ! riv] _h ?r[n d[n & aft]w>ds remov$ alluvial matt]4 ,cav]n ,deposits conta9+ ,human ,rema9s & ,bones ( ,ext9ct ,animals4--,9 ,engl&1 & 9 almo/ all c\ntries :]e lime/one rocks ab\nd1 cav]ns are f\nd1 usually consi/+ ( cavities ( l>ge dim5sions1 connect$ toge!r by l[1 n>r[1 & sometimes tortur\s gall]ies or tunnels4 ,^! subt]ranean vaults are usually fill$ 9 "p ) mud1 pebbles1 & breccia1 9 :i* bones occur belong+ to ! same assemblage ( animals z ^? *>act]is+ ! ,po/-plioc5e alluvia above describ$4 ,"s ( ^! bones are ref]able to ext9ct & o!rs to liv+ species1 & !y are occasionally int]m+l$1 z 9 ! valley-gravels1 ) implem5ts ( "o or o!r ( ! great divisions ( ! /one age1 & ^! are n unfrequ5tly accompani$ by human bones1 :i* are mu* m common 9 cav]n deposits ?an 9 valley-alluvium4 ,ea* suite ( cav]ns1 & ! passages by :i* !y communicate ! "o ) ! o!r1 af=d memorials to ! geologi/ ( successive phases ?r\gh :i* !y mu/ h pass$4 ,fir/1 !re 0 a p]iod :5 ! c>bonate ( lime 0 c>ri$ out gradually by spr+s2 secondly1 an era :5 engulf$ riv]s or occasional floods swept organic & inorganic debris into ! subt]ranean holl[s previ\sly =m$2 & ?irdly1 !re 7 su* *anges 9 ! configuration ( ! region z caus$ ! engulf$ riv]s to be turn$ into new *annels1 & spr+s to be dri$ up1 aft] :i* ! cave-mud1 breccia1 gravel1 & fossil bones w\ld be> ! same k9d ( relation to ! exi/+ dra9age ( ! c\ntry z ! old] valley-drifts ) _! ext9ct mammalian rema9s & works ( art be> to ! pres5t riv]s & alluvial pla9s4 ,! qu>ry+ away ( l>ge masses ( ,c>bonif]\s & ,devonian lime/one1 ne> ,liege1 9 ,belgium1 has af=d$ ! geologi/ magnific5t sections ( "s ( ^! cav]ns1 & ! =m] communication ( cavities 9 ! int]ior ( ! rocks ) ! old surface ( ! c\ntry by means ( v]tical or oblique fissures1 has be5 demon/rat$ 9 places :]e x w\ld n o!rwise h be5 suspect$1 s completely h ! upp] extremities ( ^! fissures be5 conceal$ by sup]ficial drift1 :ile _! l[] ends1 :i* ext5d$ into ! ro(s ( ! caves1 are mask$ by /alactitic incru/ations4 ,! orig9 ( ! /alactite is ?us expla9$ by ! em95t *emi/ ,liebig4 ,m\ld or humus1 be+ act$ on by moi/ure & air1 evolves c>bonic acid1 :i* is dissolv$ by ra94 ,! ra9-wat]1 ?us impregnat$1 p]meates ! por\s lime/one1 dissolves a portion ( x1 & aft]w>ds1 :5 ! excess ( c>bonic acid evaporates 9 ! cav]ns1 p>ts ) ! calc>e\s matt]1 & =ms /alactite4 ,ev5 :ile cav]ns are /ill liable to be occasionally flood$ su* calc>e\s incru/ations accumulate1 b x is g5]ally :5 !y are no long] 9 ! l9e ( dra9age t a solid floor ( h>d /alagmite is =m$ on ! bottom4 ,! late ,dr4 ,s*m]l+ exam9$ =ty caves ne> ,liege1 & f\nd 9 all ( !m ! rema9s ( ! same fauna1 compris+ ! mammo?1 ti*orh9e rh9oc]os1 cave-be>1 cave-hyna1 cave-lion1 & _m o!rs1 "s ( ext9ct & "s ( liv+ species1 & 9 all ( !m fl9t implem5ts4 ,9 f\r or five caves only p>ts ( human skeletons 7 met )1 compris+ sometimes skulls ) a few o!r bones1 sometimes ne>ly e "p ( ! skeleton except ! skull4 ,9 "o ( ! caves1 t ( ,engih\l1 :]e ,s*m]l+ _h f\nd ! rema9s ( at lea/ ?ree human individuals1 !y 7 m+l$ 9 su* a mann] ) bones ( ext9ct mammalia1 z to leave no d\bt on 8 m9d 79 #ahcc7 ( man hav+ co-exi/$ ) !m4 ,9 #ahfj1 ,pr(essor ,malaise1 ( ,liege1 explor$ ) me ?is same cave ( ,engih\l1 & b5ea? a h>d floor ( /alagmite we f\nd mud full ( bones ( ext9ct & rec5t animals1 su* z ,s*m]l+ _h describ$1 & my companion1 p]sev]+ 9 8 rese>*es aft] ,i _h return$ to ,engl&1 extract$ f ! same deposit two human l[] jaw-bones reta9+ _! tee?4 ,! skulls f ^! ,belgian cav]ns display no m>k$ deviation f ! normal ,european type ( ! pres5t day4 ,! c>eful inve/igations c>ri$ on by ,dr4 ,falcon]1 ,mr4 ,p5gelly1 & o!rs1 9 ! ,brixham cave ne> ,torquay1 9 #aheh1 demon/rat$ t fl9t knives 7 !re imb$d$ 9 su* a mann] 9 loam und]ly+ a floor ( /alagmite z to prove t man _h be5 an inhabitant ( t region :5 ! cave-be> & o!r memb]s ( ! anci5t po/-plioc5e fauna 7 also 9 exi/5ce4 ,! abs5ce ( gnaw$ bones _h l$ ,dr4 ,s*m]l+ to inf] t none ( ! ,belgian caves :i* he explor$ _h s]v$ z ! d5s ( wild bea/s2 b !re are _m caves 9 ,g]many & ,engl& :i* h c]ta9ly be5 s inhabit$1 especially by ! ext9ct hyna & be>4 ,a f9e example ( a hyna's d5 0 af=d$ by ! cave ( ,kirkdale1 s well describ$ by ! late ,dr4 ,buckl& 9 8 ,reliqui ,diluvian4 ,9 t cave1 above tw5ty-five miles nor?-nor?-ea/ ( ,york1 ! rema9s ( ab\t #cjj hynas1 belong+ to individuals ( e age1 7 detect$4 ,! species 7,hyna spela7 has be5 consid]$ by palontologi/s z ext9ct2 x 0 l>g] ?an ! fi]ce ,hyna crocuta ( ,s\? ,africa1 :i* x closely resembl$1 & ( :i* x is reg>d$ by ,mr4 ,boyd ,dawk9s z a v>iety4 ,dr4 ,buckl&1 aft] c>efully exam9+ ! spot1 prov$ t ! hynas mu/ h liv$ !re2 a fact atte/$ by ! quantity ( _! dung1 :i*1 z 9 ! case ( ! liv+ hyna1 is ( ne>ly ! same composition z bone1 & almo/ z durable4 ,9 ! cave 7 f\nd ! rema9s ( ! ox1 "y elephant1 hippopotamus1 rh9oc]os1 horse1 be>1 wolf1 h>e1 wat]-rat1 & sev]al birds4 ,all ! bones h ! appe>ance ( hav+ be5 brok5 & gnaw$ by ! tee? ( ! hynas2 & !y occur confus$ly mix$ 9 loam or mud1 or disp]s$ ?r\gh a cru/ ( /alagmite :i* cov]s x4 ,9 ^! & _m o!r cases x is suppos$ t portions ( h]bivor\s quadrup$s h be5 dragg$ into cav]ns by bea/s ( prey1 & h s]v$ z _! food--an op9ion q consi/5t ) ! kn[n habits ( ! liv+ hyna4 ,au/ralian ,cave-breccias4--,ossif]\s breccias are n conf9$ to ,europe1 b occur 9 all p>ts ( ! globe2 & ^? discov]$ 9 fissures & cav]ns 9 ,au/ralia correspond closely 9 "* ) :at has be5 call$ ! bony breccia ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 9 :i* ! fragm5ts ( bone & rock are firmly b\nd toge!r by a r$ o*re\s cem5t4 ,fig4 #ia3 ,"p ( a l[] jaw ( ,macropus atlas4 ,"s ( ^! caves 7 exam9$ by ! late ,sir ,t4 ,mit*ell 9 ! ,well+ton ,valley1 ab\t #baj miles we/ ( ,sidney1 on ! riv] ,bell1 "o ( ! pr9cipal s\rces ( ! ,macqu>ie1 & on ! ,macqu>ie itself4 ,! cav]ns (t5 bran* (f 9 diff]5t directions ?r\gh ! rock1 wid5+ & contract+ _! dim5sions1 & ! ro(s & floors are cov]$ ) /alactite4 ,! bones are (t5 brok51 b d n seem to be wat]-worn4 ,9 "s places !y lie imb$d$ 9 loose e>?1 b !y are usually includ$ 9 a breccia4 ,! rema9s belong to m>supial animals4 ,among ! mo/ abundant are ^? ( ! kang>oo1 ( :i* !re are f\r species1 :ile o!rs belong to ! g5]a ,phascolomys1 ! wombat2 ,dasyurus71 ! urs9e opossum2 ,phalangi/a1 ! vulp9e opossum2 & ,hypsiprymnus1 ! kang>oo-rat4 ,fig4 #ib3 ,l[] jaw ( l>ge/ liv+ species ( kang>oo4 ,9 ! fossils above enum]at$1 sev]al species are l>g] ?an ! l>ge/ liv+ ones ( ! same g5]a n[ kn[n 9 ,au/ralia4 ,fig4 #ia ( ! "r side ( a l[] jaw ( a kang>oo 7,macropus atlas1 ,ow57 w at once be se5 to exce$ 9 magnitude ! correspond+ "p ( ! l>ge/ liv+ kang>oo1 :i* is repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #ib4 ,9 bo? ^! specim5s "p ( ! sub/ance ( ! jaw has be5 brok5 op51 s z to %[ ! p]man5t false mol> 7a1 ,fig4 #ia71 conceal$ 9 ! socket4 ,f ! fact ( ?is mol> n hav+ be5 cut1 we le>n t ! individual 0 "y1 & _h n %$ its fir/ tee?4 ,! read] w obs]ve t all ^! ext9ct quadrup$s ( ,au/ralia belong to ! m>supial family1 or1 9 o!r words1 t !y are ref]able to ! same peculi> type ( organisation :i* n[ di/+ui%es ! ,au/ralian mammalia f ^? ( o!r p>ts ( ! globe4 ,?is fact is "o ( _m po9t+ to a g5]al law d$ucible f ! fossil v]tebrate & inv]tebrate animals ( times imm$iately antec$5t to our own1 namely1 t ! pres5t geographical di/ribution ( organic =ms dates back to a p]iod ant]ior to ! orig9 ( exi/+ species2 9 o!r words1 ! limitation ( p>ticul> g5]a or families ( quadrup$s1 mollusca1 etc41 to c]ta9 exi/+ prov9ces ( l& & sea1 began be=e ! l>g] "p ( ! species n[ contempor>y ) man _h be5 introduc$ into ! e>?4 ,pr(essor ,ow51 9 8 excell5t 8,hi/ory ( ,briti% ,fossil ,mammals10 has call$ att5tion to ?is law1 rem>k+ t ! fossil quadrup$s ( ,europe & ,asia diff] f ^? ( ,au/ralia or ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,we d n f9d1 = example1 9 ! ,europo-,asiatic prov9ce fossil kang>oos1 or armadillos1 b ! elephant1 rh9oc]os1 horse1 be>1 hyna1 beav]1 h>e1 mole1 & o!rs1 :i* /ill *>act]ise ! same cont95t4 ,9 l mann]1 9 ! ,pampas ( ,s\? ,am]ica ! skeletons ( ,mega!rium1 ,megalonyx1 ,glyptodon1 ,mylodon1 ,toxodon1 ,macrau*5ia1 & o!r ext9ct =ms1 are analog\s to ! liv+ slo?1 armadillo1 cavy1 capyb>a1 & llama4 ,! fossil quadrumana1 also associat$ ) "s ( ^! =ms 9 ! ,brazilian caves1 belong to ! ,platyrrh9e family ( monkeys1 n[ peculi> to ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,t ! ext9ct fauna ( ,bu5os ,ayres & ,brazil 0 v mod]n has be5 %[n by its relation to deposits ( m>9e %ells1 agree+ ) ^? n[ inhabit+ ! ,atlantic4 ,! law ( geographical relation%ip above allud$ to1 betwe5 ! liv+ v]tebrata ( e great zoological prov9ce & ! fossils ( ! p]iod imm$iately antec$5t1 ev5 :]e ! fossil species are ext9ct1 is by no means conf9$ to ! mammalia4 ,new ,zeal&1 :5 fir/ exam9$ by ,europeans1 0 f\nd to conta9 no indig5\s l& quadrup$s1 no kang>oos1 or opossums1 l ,au/ralia2 b a w+less bird ab\nd$ !re1 ! smalle/ liv+ repres5tative ( ! o/ri* family1 call$ ! ,kiwi by ! natives 7,apt]yx74 ,9 ! fossils ( ! ,po/-plioc5e p]iod 9 ?is same isl&1 !re is ! l abs5ce ( kang>oos1 opossums1 wombats1 & ! re/2 b 9 _! place a prodigi\s numb] ( well-pres]v$ specim5s ( gigantic birds ( ! /ru?i\s ord]1 call$ by ,ow5 ,d9ornis & ,palapt]yx1 :i* are entomb$ 9 sup]ficial deposits4 ,^! g5]a compreh5d$ _m species1 "s ( :i* 7 f\r1 "s sev51 o!rs n9e1 & o!rs elev5 feet 9 height6 ,x seems d\btful :e!r any contempor>y mammalia %>$ ! l& ) ?is population ( gigantic fea!r$ bip$s4 ,mr4 ,d>w91 :5 describ+ ! rec5t & fossil mammalia ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 has dwelt mu* on ! wond]ful relation%ip ( ! ext9ct to ! liv+ types 9 t "p ( ! _w1 inf]r+ f su* geographical ph5om5a t ! exi/+ species are all relat$ to ! ext9ct ones :i* prec$$ !m by a bond ( common desc5t4 ,climate ( ! ,po/-plioc5e ,p]iod4--,! evid5ce z to ! climate ( ,europe dur+ ?is epo* is some:at conflict+4 ,! fluviatile & l&-%ells are all ( exi/+ species1 b _! geographical range has n always be5 ! same z at pres5t4 ,"s1 = example1 :i* !n liv$ 9 ,brita9 are n[ only f\nd 9 ,norway & ,f9l&1 probably imply+ t ! ,po/-plioc5e climate ( ,brita9 0 cold]1 especially 9 ! w9t]4 ,s also ! re9de] & ! musk-ox 7,ovibos mos*atus71 n[ inhabitants ( ! ,arctic regions1 occur fossil 9 ! valleys ( ! ,?ames & ,avon1 & also 9 ,france & ,g]many1 accompani$ 9 mo/ places by ! mammo? & ! woolly rh9oc]os4 ,at ,grays 9 ,essex1 on ! o!r h&1 ano!r species bo? ( elephant & rh9oc]os occurs1 toge!r ) a hippopotamus & ! ,cyr5a flum9alis1 a %ell n[ ext9ct 9 ,europe b /ill an inhabitant ( ! ,nile & "s ,asiatic riv]s4 ,) x occurs ! ,unio littoralis1 n[ liv+ 9 ! ,se9e & ,loire4 ,9 ! valley ( ! ,somme fl9t tools h be5 f\nd associat$ ) ,hippopotamus major & ,cyr5a flum9alis 9 ! l[]-level ,po/-plioc5e gravels2 :ile 9 ! high]-level 7& m anci5t7 gravels simil> tools are m abundant1 & are associat$ ) ! bones ( ! mammo? & o!r ,po/-plioc5e quadrup$s indicative ( a cold] climate4 ,x is possible t we may "h h evid5ce ( summ] & w9t] migrations r ?an ( a g5]al *ange ( temp]ature4 ,in/ead ( imag9+ t ! hippopotamus liv$ all ! ye> r\nd ) ! musk-ox & lemm+1 we may r suppose t ! app>5tly conflict+ evid5ce may be due to ! place ( our obs]vations be+ ne> ! b\nd>y l9e ( a nor!rn & s\!rn fauna1 ei!r ( :i* may h advanc$ or rec$$ dur+ comp>atively slight & tempor>y fluctuations ( climate4 ,!re may !n h be5 a cont9u\s l& communication betwe5 ,engl& & ! ,nor? ( ,sib]ia1 z well z 9 an opposite direction ) ,africa1 !n unit$ to ,s\!rn ,europe4 ,9 drift at ,fi%]ton1 ne> ,salisbury1 ?irty feet above ! riv] ,wiley1 ! ,gre5l& lemm+ & a new species ( ! ,arctic g5us ,sp]mophilus h be5 f\nd1 along ) ! mammo?1 re9de]1 cave-hyna1 & o!r mammalia suit$ to a cold climate4 ,a fl9t implem5t 0 tak5 out f b5ea? ! bones ( ! mammo?4 ,9 a high] & old] deposit 9 ! vic9ity1 fl9t tools l ^? ( ,ami5s h be5 discov]$4 ,ne>ly all ! kn[n ,po/-plioc5e quadrup$s h n[ be5 f\nd accompany+ fl9t knives or hat*ets 9 su* a way z to imply _! coexi/5ce ) man2 & we h ?us ! concurr5t te/imony ( sev]al classes ( geological facts to ! va/ antiquity ( ! human race4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! disappe>ance ( a great v>iety ( species ( wild animals f e "p ( a wide cont95t mu/ h requir$ a va/ p]iod = its accompli%m5t2 yet ?is took place :ile man exi/$ ^u ! e>?1 & 0 complet$ be=e t e>ly p]iod :5 ! ,dani% %ell-m\nds 7 =m$ or ! olde/ ( ! ,swiss lake-dwell+s con/ruct$4 ,secondly1 ! deep5+ & wid5+ ( valleys1 indicat$ by ! position ( ! riv] gravels at v>i\s heights1 implies an am\nt ( *ange ( :i* t :i* has occurr$ dur+ ! hi/orical p]iod =ms a sc>cely p]ceptible "p4 ,?irdly1 ! *ange 9 ! c\rse ( riv]s :i* once fl[$ ?r\gh caves n[ remov$ f any l9e ( dra9age1 & ! =mation ( solid floors ( /alagmite1 mu/ h requir$ a great lapse ( "t4 ,la/ly1 ages mu/ h be5 requir$ to *ange ! climate ( wide regions to su* an ext5t z completely to alt] ! geographical di/ribution ( _m mammalia z well z l& & fre%-wat] %ells4 ,! #cjjj or #djjj ye>s ( ! hi/orical p]iod does n furni% u ) any appreciable measure = calculat+ ! numb] ( c5turies :i* w\ld suffice = su* a s]ies ( *anges1 :i* are by no means ( a local "*1 b h op]at$ ov] a consid]able "p ( ,europe4 ,relative ,longevity ( ,species 9 ! ,mammalia & ,te/acea4--,i call$ att5tion 9 #ahcje to ! fact1 :i* _h n at t "t attract$ notice1 t ! association 9 ! ,po/-plioc5e deposits ( %ells1 exclusively ( liv+ species1 ) _m ext9ct quadrup$s betok5$ a longevity ( species 9 ! te/acea f> exce$+ t 9 ! mammalia4 ,subsequ5t rese>*es seem to %[ t ?is great] duration ( ! same specific =ms 9 ! class mollusca is dep5d5t on a /ill m g5]al law1 namely1 t ! l[] ! grade ( animals1 or ! great] ! simplicity ( _! /ructure1 ! m p]si/5t are !y 9 g5]al 9 _! specific *>act]s ?r\gh\t va/ p]iods ( "t4 ,n only h ! inv]tebrata1 z %[n by geological data1 alt]$ at a less rapid rate ?an ! v]tebrata1 b if we take "o ( ! classes ( ! =m]1 z = example ! mollusca1 we f9d ^? ( m simple /ructure to h v>i$ at a sl[] rate ?an ^? ( a high] & m complex organisation2 ! ,bra*iopoda1 = example1 m sl[ly ?an ! lamellibran*iate bivalves1 :ile ! latt] h be5 m p]si/5t ?an ! univalves1 :e!r ga/]opoda or cephalopoda4 ,9 l mann] ! specific id5tity ( ! *>act]s ( ! =am9if]a1 :i* are among ! l[e/ types ( ! inv]tebrata1 has outla/$ t ( ! mollusca 9 an equally decid$ mann]4 ,tee? ( ,po/-plioc5e ,mammalia4--,to ^? :o h nev] /udi$ comp>ative anatomy1 x may seem sc>cely cr$ible t a s+le bone tak5 f any "p ( ! skeleton may enable a skilful o/eologi/ to di/+ui%1 9 _m cases1 ! g5us1 & sometimes ! species1 ( quadrup$s to :i* x belong$4 ,al?\gh few geologi/s c aspire to su* k1 :i* mu/ be ! result ( long practice & /udy1 !y w nev]!less d]ive great advantage f le>n+1 :at is comp>atively an easy task1 to di/+ui% ! pr9cipal divisions ( ! mammalia by ! =ms & *>act]s ( _! tee?4 ,fig4 #ic3 ,elephas primig5ius 7or ,mammo?7 mol> ( upp] jaw1 "r side4 ,po/-plioc5e2 ,fig4 #id3 ,elephas antiquus1 ,falcon]4 ,p5ultimate mol>4 ,po/-plioc5e & ,plioc5e4 ,figures #ic ?r\gh #aje repres5t ! tee? ( "s ( ! m common species & g5]a f\nd 9 alluvial & cav]n deposits4 ,figs4 #ie to #ajj3 ,tee? ( ext9ct mammalia4 ,figs4 #aja to #aje3 ,tee? ( ext9ct mammalia4 ,on comp>+ ! gr9d+ surfaces ( ! correspond+ mol>s ( ! ?ree species ( elephants1 ,figs4 #ic1 #id1 #ie x w be se5 t ! folds ( enamel are mo/ num]\s 9 ! mammo?1 few] & wid]1 or m op51 9 ,e4 antiquus2 & mo/ op5 & fewe/ 9 ,e4 m]idionalis4 ,x w be also se5 t ! enamel 9 ! mol> ( ! ,rh9oc]os ti*orh9us 7,fig4 #ig71 is mu* ?ick] ?an 9 t ( ! ,rh9oc]os leptorh9us 7,fig4 #if74 #a ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 ,pre-hi/oric ,times1 p4 #c1 #ahfe4 #b ,bullet9 de la ,sociti ,vaudoise des ,sci4 ,nat41 tome vi1 ,lausanne #ahfj2 & ,antiquity ( ,man1 by ! au?or1 *ap4 ii4 #c ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock's ,lecture1 ,royal ,in/itution1 ,feb4 #bg?1 #ahfc4 #d ,diodorus1 v1 #ba1 #bb & ,sir ,h4 ,james ,note on ,block ( ,t9 dr$g$ up 9 ,falm\? ,h>b\r4 ,royal ,in/itution ( ,cornwall1 #ahfc4 #e ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 #a/ ed41 vol4 iii1 p4 #adj4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,po/-,,plioc5e ,,p]iod1 cont9u$--,,glacial ,,conditions4#a ,geographical ,di/ribution1 ,=m1 & ,*>act]s ( ,glacial ,drift4 -- ,fundam5tal ,rocks1 poli%$1 groov$1 & scrat*$4 -- ,abrad+ & /riat+ ,action ( ,glaci]s4 -- ,mora9es1 ,erratic ,blocks1 & 8,ro*es ,m\tonnees40 ,alp9e ,blocks on ! ,jura4 -- ,cont95tal ,ice ( ,gre5l&4 -- ,anci5t ,c5tres ( ! ,disp]sion ( ,erratics4 -- ,transportation ( ,drift by float+ ,iceb]gs4 -- ,b$ ( ! ,sea furr[$ & poli%$ by ! runn+ agr\nd ( float+ ,ice-isl&s4 ,"* & ,di/ribution ( ,glacial ,drift4--,9 speak+ ( ! loose transport$ matt] commonly f\nd on ! surface ( ! l& 9 all p>ts ( ! globe1 ,i allud$ to ! exceptional "* ( :at has be5 call$ ! b\ld] =mation 9 ! temp]ate & ,arctic latitudes ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,! peculi>ity ( its =m 9 ,europe nor? ( ! #ej?1 & 9 ,nor? ,am]ica nor? ( ! #dj? p>allel ( latitude1 is n[ univ]sally attribut$ to ! action ( ice1 & ! diff]5ce ( op9ion respect+ x is n[ *iefly re/rict$ to ! "q :e!r l&-ice or float+ iceb]gs h play$ ! *ief "p 9 its di/ribution4 ,x is want+ 9 ! w>m] & equatorial regions1 & reappe>s :5 we exam9e ! l&s :i* lie s\? ( ! #dj? & #ej? p>allels 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 z1 = example1 9 ,patagonia1 ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 & ,new ,zeal&4 ,x consi/s ( s& & clay1 sometimes /ratifi$1 b (t5 :olly devoid ( /ratification = a dep? ( #ej1 #ajj1 or ev5 a great] numb] ( feet4 ,to ?is un/ratifi$ =m ( ! deposit ! "n ( till has long be5 appli$ 9 ,scotl&4 ,x g5]ally conta9s a mixture ( angul> & r\nd$ fragm5ts ( rock1 "s ( l>ge size1 hav+ occasionally "o or m ( _! sides flatt5$ & smoo!d1 or ev5 highly poli%$4 ,! smoo!d surfaces usually exhibit _m scrat*es p>allel to ea* o!r1 "o set ( :i* (t5 crosses an old] set4 ,! till is almo/ ev]y:]e :olly devoid ( organic rema9s1 except ^? wa%$ into x f old] =mations1 ?\gh 9 "s places x conta9s m>9e %ells1 usually ( nor!rn or ,arctic species1 & frequ5tly 9 a fragm5t>y /ate4 ,! bulk ( ! till has usually be5 d]iv$ f ! gr9d+ d[n into mud ( rocks 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood1 s t x is r$ 9 a region ( ,r$ ,s&/one1 z 9 ,/ra?more 9 ,=f>%ire2 grey or black 9 a di/rict ( coal & bitum9\s %ale1 z ar\nd ,ed9burgh2 & :ite 9 a *alk c\ntry1 z 9 p>ts ( ,norfolk & ,d5m>k4 ,! /ony fragm5ts disp]s$ irregul>ly ?r\gh ! till usually belong1 especially 9 m\nta9\s c\ntries1 to rocks f\nd 9 "s "p ( ! same hydrographical bas92 b !re are regions :]e ! :ole ( ! b\ld] clay has come f a di/ance1 & huge blocks1 or 8erratics10 z !y h be5 call$1 _m feet 9 diamet]1 h n unfrequ5tly travell$ hundr$s ( miles f _! po9t ( dep>ture1 or f ! p>5t rocks f :i* !y h evid5tly be5 deta*$4 ,^! are commonly angul>1 & h (t5 "o or m ( _! sides poli%$ & furr[$4 ,! rock on :i* ! b\ld] =mation reposes1 if x consi/s ( granite1 gneiss1 m>ble1 or o!r h>d /one1 capable ( p]man5tly reta9+ any sup]ficial m>k+s :i* may h be5 impr9t$ ^u x1 is usually smoo!d or poli%$1 l ! erratics above describ$1 & exhibits p>allel /ri & furr[s hav+ a det]m9ate direction4 ,?is direction1 bo? 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 agrees g5]ally 9 a m>k$ mann] ) ! c\rse tak5 by ! erratic blocks 9 ! same di/rict4 ,! b\ld] clay1 :5 x 0 fir/ /udi$1 seem$ 9 _m ( its *>act]s s s+ul> & anomal\s1 t geologi/s despair$ ( ev] be+ able to int]pret ! ph5om5a by ref]5ce to causes n[ 9 action4 ,9 ^? exceptional cases :]e m>9e %ells ( ! same date z ! b\ld] clay 7 f\nd1 ne>ly all ( !m 7 recognis$ z liv+ species--a fact conspir+ ) ! sup]ficial position ( ! drift to indicate a comp>atively mod]n orig94 ,! t]m 8diluvium0 0 = a "t ! mo/ popul> "n ( ! b\ld] =mation1 because x 0 ref]r$ by _m to ! deluge ( ,noah1 :ile o!rs reta9$ ! "n z expressive ( _! op9ion t a s]ies ( diluvial waves rais$ by hurricanes & /orms1 or by e>?quakes1 or by ! sudd5 upheaval ( l& f ! b$ ( ! sea1 _h swept ov] ! cont95ts1 c>ry+ ) !m va/ masses ( mud & heavy /ones1 & =c+ ^! /ones ov] rocky surfaces s z to poli% & impr9t ^u !m long furr[s & /ri4 ,b geologi/s 7 n long 9 see+ t ! b\ld] =mation 0 *>act]i/ic ( high latitudes1 & t on ! :ole ! size & numb] ( erratic blocks increases z we travel t[>ds ! ,arctic regions4 ,!y c\ld n fail to be /ruck ) ! contra/ :i* ! c\ntries bord]+ ! ,baltic pres5t$ :5 comp>$ ) ^? surr\nd+ ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! multitude ( travell$ blocks & /riat$ rocks 9 ! "o region1 & ! abs5ce ( su* appe>ances 9 ! o!r1 7 too obvi\s to be ov]look$4 ,ev5 ! great developm5t ( ! b\ld] =mation1 ) l>ge erratics s f> s\? z ! ,alps1 (f]$ an exception to ! g5]al rule fav\rable to ! hypo!sis t !re 0 "s intimate connection betwe5 x & accumulations ( sn[ & ice4 ,fig4 #ajf3 ,lime/one1 poli%$1 furr[$1 & scrat*$ by ! glaci] ( ,ros5lau 9 ,switz]l&4 ,transport+ & abrad+ ,p[] ( ,glaci]s4--,i h describ$ else:]e 78,pr9ciples0 vol4 i1 *ap4 xvi1 #ahfg7 ! mann] 9 :i* ! sn[ ( ! ,alp9e heights is prev5t$ f accumulat+ indef9itely 9 ?ickness by ! con/ant desc5t ( a l>ge portion ( x by gravitation4 ,becom+ conv]t$ into ice x =ms :at are t]m$ glaci]s1 :i* glide d[n ! pr9cipal valleys4 ,on _! surface are se5 m\nds ( rubbi% or l>ge heaps ( s& & mud1 ) angul> fragm5ts ( rock :i* fall f ! /eep slopes or precipices b\nd+ ! glaci]s4 ,:5 a glaci]1 ?us lad51 desc5ds s f> z to rea* a region ab\t #cejj feet above ! level ( ! sea1 ! w>m? ( ! air is su* t x melts rapidly 9 summ]1 & all ! mud1 s&1 & pieces ( rock are sl[ly deposit$ at its l[] end1 =m+ a confus$ heap ( un/ratifi$ rubbi% call$ a mora9e1 & resembl+ ! till be=e describ$ 7p4 #aff74 ,besides ! blocks ?us c>ri$ d[n on ! top ( ! glaci]1 _m fall ?r\gh fissures 9 ! ice to ! bottom1 :]e "s ( !m become firmly froz5 into ! mass1 & are pu%$ along ! base ( ! glaci]1 abrad+1 poli%+1 & groov+ ! rocky floor bel[1 z a diamond cuts glass1 or z em]y-p[d] poli%es /eel4 ,! /ri :i* are made1 & ! deep grooves :i* are scoop$ out by ?is action1 are rectil9e> & p>allel to an ext5t nev] se5 9 ^? produc$ on loose /ones or rocks1 :]e %+le is hurri$ along by a torr5t1 or by ! waves on a sea-bea*4 ,9 addition to ^! poli%$1 /riat$1 & groov$ surfaces ( rock1 ano!r m>k ( ! =m] action ( a glaci] is ! 8ro*e m\tonnee40 ,project+ em95ces ( rock s call$ h be5 smoo!d & worn into ! %ape ( flatt5$ domes by ! glaci] z x pass$ ov] !m4 ,!y h be5 trac$ 9 ! ,alps to great heights above ! pres5t glaci]s1 & to great horizontal di/ances beyond !m4 ,alp9e ,blocks on ! ,jura4--,! mora9es1 erratics1 poli%$ surfaces1 domes1 & /ri1 above describ$1 are obs]v$ 9 ! great valley ( ,switz]l&1 fifty miles broad2 & almo/ ev]y:]e on ! ,jura1 a *a9 :i* lies to ! nor? ( ?is valley4 ,! av]age height ( ! ,jura is ab\t "o-?ird t ( ! ,alps1 & x is n[ entirely de/itute ( glaci]s2 yet x pres5ts almo/ ev]y:]e simil> mora9es1 & ! same poli%$ & groov$ surfaces4 ,! erratics1 moreov]1 :i* cov] x1 pres5t a ph5om5on :i* has a/oni%$ & p]plex$ ! geologi/ = m ?an half a c5tury4 ,no conclusion c be m inconte/able ?an t ^! angul> blocks ( granite1 gneiss1 & o!r cry/all9e =mations came f ! ,alps1 & t !y h be5 br\ght = a di/ance ( fifty miles & upw>d across "o ( ! wide/ & deepe/ valleys 9 ! _w2 s t !y are n[ lodg$ on a *a9 compos$ ( lime/one & o!r =mations1 altoge!r di/9ct f ^? ( ! ,alps4 ,_! great size & angul>ity1 aft] a j\rney ( s _m leagues1 has ju/ly excit$ wond]2 = hundr$s ( !m are z l>ge z cottages2 & "o 9 p>ticul>1 compos$ ( gneiss1 celebrat$ "u ! "n ( ,pi]re ,bot1 re/s on ! side ( a hill ab\t #ijj feet above ! lake ( ,neuf*tel1 & is no less ?an #dj feet 9 diamet]4 ,9 ! ye> #ahba1 ,m4 ,v5etz fir/ ann\nc$ 8 op9ion t ! ,alp9e glaci]s mu/ =m]ly h ext5d$ f> beyond _! pres5t limits1 & ! pro(s appeal$ to by him 9 confirmation ( ?is doctr9e 7 ackn[l$g$ by all subsequ5t obs]v]s1 & greatly /r5g!n$ by new obs]vations & argum5ts4 ,m4 ,*>p5ti] suppos$ t :5 ! glaci]s ext5d$ cont9u\sly f ! ,alps to ! ,jura1 ! =m] m\nta9s 7 #bjjj or #cjjj feet high] ?an at pres5t4 ,o!r writ]s1 on ! contr>y1 conjectur$ t ! :ole c\ntry _h be5 subm]g$1 & ! mora9es & erratic blocks transport$ on float+ iceb]gs2 b a c>eful /udy ( ! di/ribution ( ! travell$ masses1 & ! total abs5ce ( m>9e %ells f ! old glacial drift ( ,switz]l&1 h entirely disprov$ ?is la/ hypo!sis4 ,9 addition to ! _m evid5ces ( ! action ( ice 9 ! nor!rn p>ts ( ,europe :i* we h already m5tion$1 !re occur "h & !re 9 "s ( ^! c\ntries1 :at are want+ 9 ,switz]l&1 deposits ( m>9e fossil %ells1 :i* exhibit s arctic a "* t !y mu/ h l$ ! geologi/ to inf] ! =m] preval5ce ( a mu* cold] climate1 ev5 _h he n enc\nt]$ s _m accompany+ signs ( ice-action4 ,! same m>9e %ells demon/rate ! subm]g5ce ( l>ge areas 9 ,sc&9avia & ! ,briti% ,isles1 dur+ ! glacial cold4 ,a *>act]i/ic feature ( ! deposits "u consid]ation 9 all ^! c\ntries is ! occurr5ce ( l>ge erratic blocks1 & sometimes ( mora9e matt]1 9 situations remote f l(ty m\nta9s1 & sep>at$ f ! ne>e/ po9ts :]e ! p>5t rocks appe> at ! surface by great int]v5+ valleys1 or arms ( ! sea4 ,we also (t5 obs]ve /ri & furr[s1 z 9 ,norway1 ,sw$51 & ,scotl&1 :i* deviate f ! direction :i* !y ought to foll[ if !y _h be5 connect$ ) ! pres5t l9e ( dra9age1 & !y1 !re=e1 imply ! preval5ce ( a v di/9ct condition ( ?+s at ! "t :5 ! cold 0 mo/ int5se4 ,! actual /ate ( ,nor? ,gre5l& seems to af=d ! be/ explanation ( su* abnormal glacial m>k+s4 ,gre5l& ,cont95tal ,ice4--,gre5l& is a va/ unexplor$ cont95t1 buri$ "u "o cont9u\s & colossal mass ( ice t is always mov+ seaw>d1 a v small "p ( x 9 an ea/]ly direction1 & all ! re/ we/w>d1 or t[>ds ,baff9's ,bay4 ,all ! m9or ridges & valleys are levell$ & conceal$ "u a g5]al cov]+ ( sn[1 b "h & !re "s /eep m\nta9s protrude abruptly f ! icy slope1 & a few sup]ficial l9es ( /ones or mora9es are visible at c]ta9 seasons1 :5 no sn[ has fall5 = _m mon?s1 & :5 evaporation1 promot$ by ! w9d & sun1 has caus$ mu* ( ! upp] sn[ to disappe>4 ,! height ( ?is cont95t is unkn[n1 b x mu/ be v great1 z ! mo/ elevat$ l&s ( ! outskirts1 :i* are describ$ z comp>atively l[1 atta9 altitudes ( #djjj to #fjjj feet4 ,! icy slope gradually l[]s itself t[>ds ! outskirts1 & !n t]m9ates abruptly 9 a mass ab\t #bjjj feet 9 ?ickness1 ! great dis*>ge ( ice tak+ place ?r\gh c]ta9 l>ge fri?s1 :i*1 at _! upp] ends1 are usually ab\t f\r miles across4 ,d[n ^! fri?s ! ice is protrud$ 9 huge masses1 sev]al miles wide1 :i* cont9ue _! c\rse--grat+ along ! rocky bottom l ord9>y glaci]s long aft] !y h rea*$ ! salt wat]4 ,:5 at la/ !y arrive at p>ts ( ,baff9's ,bay deep en\gh to buoy up iceb]gs f #ajjj to #aejj feet 9 v]tical ?ickness1 brok5 masses ( !m float (f1 c>ry+ ) !m on _! surface n only f9e mud & s& b l>ge /ones4 ,^! fragm5ts ( rock are (t5 poli%$ & scor$ on "o or m sides1 & z ! ice melts1 !y drop d[n to ! bottom ( ! sea1 :]e l>ge quantities ( mud are deposit$1 & ?is muddy bottom is inhabit$ by _m mollusca4 ,al?\gh ! direction ( ! ice-/reams 9 ,gre5l& may co9cide 9 ! ma9 ) t :i* sep>ate glaci]s w\ld take if !re 7 no m ice ?an !re is n[ 9 ! ,swiss ,alps1 yet ! /riation ( ! surface ( ! rocks on an ice-clad cont95t w\ld1 on ! :ole1 v>y consid]ably 9 its m9or details f t :i* w\ld be impr9t$ on rocks con/itut+ a region ( sep>ate glaci]s4 ,= :]e !re is a univ]sal cov]+ ( ice !re w be a g5]al outw>d movem5t f ! high] & m c5tral regions t[>ds ! circumf]5ce & l[] c\ntry1 & ?is movem5t w be1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 indep5d5t ( ! m9or inequalities ( hill & valley1 :5 ^! are all r$uc$ to "o level by ! sn[4 ,! mov+ ice may sometimes cross ev5 at "r angles deep n>r[ rav9es1 or ! cre/s ( buri$ ridges1 on :i* la/ x may aft]w>ds seem /range to detect glacial /ri & poli%+ aft] ! liquefaction ( ! sn[ & ice has tak5 place4 ,r9k m5tions t 9 ,nor? ,gre5l& p[]ful spr+s ( clayey wat] escape 9 w9t] f "u ! ice1 :]e x desc5ds to 8! outskirts10 & :]e1 z already /at$1 x is (t5 #bjjj feet ?ick--a fact %[+ h[ mu* gr9d+ action is go+ on ^u ! surface ( ! subjac5t rocks4 ,i also le>n f ,dr4 ,torell t !re are l>ge areas 9 ! outskirts1 n[ no long] cov]$ ) p]man5t sn[ or glaci]s1 :i* exhibit on _! surface unmi/akable signs ( anci5t ice-action1 s t1 va/ z is ! p[] n[ ex]t$ by ice 9 ,gre5l&1 x mu/ once h op]at$ on a /ill gr&] scale4 ,! l&1 ?\gh n[ v elevat$1 may p]haps h be5 =m]ly mu* high]4 ,x is well-kn[n t ! s\? coa/ ( ,gre5l&1 f latitude #fj to ab\t #gj ,n41 has = ! la/ f\r c5turies be5 s9k+ at ! rate ( sev]al feet 9 a c5tury4 ,by ?is means a surface ( rock1 well scor$ & poli%$ by ice1 is n[ sl[ly subsid+ b5ea? ! sea1 & is becom+ /rew$ ov]1 z ! iceb]gs melt1 ) impalpable mud & smoo!d & scrat*$ /ones4 ,x is n precisely kn[n h[ f> nor? ?is d[nw>d movem5t ext5ds4 ,drift c>ri$ by ,iceb]gs4--,an acc\nt 0 giv5 s long ago z ! ye> #ahbb1 by ,scoresby1 ( iceb]gs se5 by him 9 ! ,arctic seas drift+ along 9 latitudes #fi & #gj ,n41 :i* rose above ! surface f #ajj to #bjj feet1 & "s ( :i* measur$ a mile 9 circumf]5ce4 ,_m ( !m 7 load$ ) b$s ( e>? & rock1 ( su* ?ickness t ! weight 0 conjectur$ to be f #ej1jjj to #ajj1jjj tons4 ,a simil> transportation ( rocks is kn[n to be 9 progress 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 :]e b\ld]s includ$ 9 ice are f> m frequ5t ?an 9 ! nor?4 ,"o ( ^! iceb]gs 0 enc\nt]$ 9 #ahci1 9 mid-ocean1 9 ! ant>ctic regions1 _m hundr$ miles f any kn[n l&1 sail+ nor?w>d1 ) a l>ge erratic block firmly froz5 into x4 ,_m ( !m1 c>efully measur$ by ! (fic]s ( ! ,fr5* explor+ exp$ition ( ! ,a/rolabe1 7 betwe5 #ajj & #bbe feet high above wat]1 & f two to five miles 9 l5g?4 ,capta9 d',urville asc]ta9$ "o ( !m :i* he saw float+ 9 ! ,s\!rn ,ocean to be #ac miles long & #ajj feet high1 ) walls p]fectly v]tical4 ,! subm]g$ portions ( su* isl&s mu/1 accord+ to ! weight ( ice relatively to sea-wat]1 be f six to eight times m consid]able ?an ! "p :i* is visible1 s t :5 !y are once fairly set 9 motion1 ! me*anical =ce :i* !y might ex]t aga9/ any ob/acle /&+ 9 _! way w\ld be prodigi\s4 ,we le>n1 !re=e1 f a /udy bo? ( ! arctic & ant>ctic regions1 t a great ext5t ( l& may be entirely cov]$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole ye> by sn[ & ice1 f ! summits ( ! l(tie/ m\nta9s to ! sea-coa/1 & may yet s5d d[n angul> erratics to ! ocean4 ,we may also conclude t su* l& w become 9 ! c\rse ( ages almo/ ev]y:]e scor$ & poli%$ l ! rocks :i* und]lie a glaci]4 ,! dis*>ge ( ice into ! surr\nd+ sea w take place pr9cipally ?r\gh ! ma9 valleys1 al?\gh ^! are hidd5 f our sight4 ,erratic blocks & mora9e matt] w be disp]s$ some:at irregul>ly aft] rea*+ ! sea1 = n only w prevail+ w9ds & m>9e curr5ts gov]n ! di/ribution ( ! drift1 b ! %ape ( ! subm]g$ area w h its influ5ce2 inasmu* z float+ ice1 lad5 ) /ones1 w pass freely ?r\gh deep wat]1 :ile x w run a gr\nd :]e !re are reefs & %all[s4 ,"s iceb]gs 9 ,baff9's ,bay h be5 se5 /r&$ on a bottom #ajjj or ev5 #aejj feet deep4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ages su* a sea-b$ may become d5sely cov]$ ) transport$ matt]1 f :i* "s ( ! adjo9+ great] dep?s may be free4 ,if1 z 9 ,we/ ,gre5l&1 ! l& is sl[ly s9k+1 a l>ge ext5t ( ! bottom ( ! ocean w consi/ ( rock poli%$ & /riat$ by l&-ice1 & !n ov]spread by mud & b\ld]s deta*$ f melt+ b]gs4 ,! mud1 s&1 & b\ld]s ?us let fall 9 /ill wat] mu/ be exactly l ! mora9es ( t]re/rial glaci]s1 devoid ( /ratification & organic rema9s4 ,b occasionally1 on ! out] side ( su* packs ( /r&$ b]gs1 ! waves & curr5ts may cause ! deta*$ e>?y & /ony mat]ials to be sort$ accord+ to size & weight be=e !y rea* ! bottom1 & to acquire a /ratifi$ arrangem5t4 ,i h already allud$ 7p4 #agb7 to ! l>ge quantity ( ice1 conta9+ great blocks ( /one1 :i* is sometimes se5 float+ f> f l&1 9 ! s\!rn or ,ant>ctic seas4 ,aft] ! em]g5ce1 !re=e1 ( su* a subm>9e area1 ! sup]ficial detritus w h no necess>y relation to ! hills1 valleys1 & riv]-pla9s ov] :i* x w be scatt]$4 ,_m a wat]-%$ may int]v5e betwe5 ! />t+-po9t ( ea* erratic or pebble & its f9al re/+-place1 & ! only means ( discov]+ ! c\ntry f :i* x took its dep>ture w consi/ 9 a c>eful comp>ison ( its m9]al or fossil cont5ts ) ^? ( ! p>5t rocks4 #a ,z to ! =m] excess ( cold1 :e!r br\ght ab\t by modifications 9 ! height & di/ribution ( ! l& or by alt]$ a/ronomical conditions1 see ,pr9ciples1 vol4 i1 7#aj? ed41 #ahfg71 *aps4 xii & xiii1 8,vicissitudes ( ,climate40 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,po/-,,plioc5e ,,p]iod1 cont9u$4--,,glacial ,,conditions1 conclud$4 ,glaciation ( ,sc&9avia & ,russia4 -- ,glaciation ( ,scotl&4 -- ,mammo? 9 ,scot* ,till4 -- ,m>9e ,%ells 9 ,scot* ,glacial ,drift4 -- ,_! ,arctic ,"*4 -- ,r>ity ( ,organic ,rema9s 9 ,glacial ,deposits4 -- ,contort$ ,/rata 9 ,drift4 -- ,glaciation ( ,wales1 ,engl&1 & ,irel&4 -- ,m>9e ,%ells ( ,moel ,tryfa54 -- ,erratics ne> ,*i*e/]4 -- ,glacial ,=mations ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 -- ,_m ,species ( ,te/acea & ,quadrup$s surviv$ ! ,glacial ,cold4 -- ,connection ( ! ,pr$om9ance ( ,lakes ) ,glacial ,action4 -- ,action ( ,ice 9 prev5t+ ! silt+ up ( ,lake-bas9s4 -- ,abs5ce ( ,lakes 9 ! ,caucasus4 -- ,equatorial ,lakes ( ,africa4 ,glaciation ( ,sc&9avia & ,russia4--,9 l>ge tracts ( ,norway & ,sw$51 :]e !re h be5 no glaci]s 9 hi/orical times1 ! signs ( ice-action h be5 trac$ z high z #fjjj feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,^! signs consi/ *iefly ( poli%$ & furr[$ rock-surfaces1 ( mora9es & erratic blocks4 ,! direction ( ! erratics1 l t ( ! furr[s1 has usually be5 con=mable to ! c\rse ( ! pr9cipal valleys2 b ! l9es ( bo? sometimes radiate outw>d 9 all directions f ! highe/ l&1 9 a mann] :i* is only explicable by ! hypo!sis above allud$ to ( a g5]al envelope ( cont95tal ice1 l t ( ,gre5l& 7page #agj74 ,"s ( ! f>-transport$ blocks h be5 c>ri$ f ! c5tral p>ts ( ,sc&9avia t[>ds ! ,pol> regions2 o!rs s\?w>d to ,d5m>k2 "s s\?-we/w>d1 to ! coa/ ( ,norfolk 9 ,engl&2 o!rs s\?-ea/w>d1 to ,g]many1 ,pol&1 & ,russia4 ,9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood ( ,upsala1 9 ,sw$51 ,i _h obs]v$1 9 #ahcd1 a ridge ( /ratifi$ s& & gravel1 9 ! mid/ ( :i* occurs a lay] ( m>l1 evid5tly =m$ orig9ally at ! bottom ( ! ,baltic1 by ! sl[ gr[? ( ! mussel1 cockle1 & o!r m>9e %ells ( liv+ species1 int]mix$ ) "s prop] to fre% wat]4 ,! m>9e %ells are all ( dw>fi% size1 l ^? n[ inhabit+ ! bracki% wat]s ( ! ,baltic2 & ! m>l1 9 :i* _m ( !m are imb$d$1 is n[ rais$ m ?an #ajj feet above ! level ( ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia4 ,^u ! top ( ?is ridge repose sev]al huge erratics1 consi/+ ( gneiss = ! mo/ "p unr\nd$1 f n9e to sixte5 feet 9 diamet]1 & :i* mu/ h be5 br\ght into _! pres5t position s9ce ! "t :5 ! neighb\r+ gulf 0 already *>act]is$ by its peculi> fauna4 ,"h1 !re=e1 we h pro( t ! transport ( erratics cont9u$ to take place1 n m]ely :5 ! sea 0 inhabit$ by ! exi/+ te/acea1 b :5 ! nor? ( ,europe _h already assum$ t rem>kable feature ( its physical geography :i* sep>ates ! ,baltic f ! ,nor? ,sea1 & causes ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia to h only "o-f\r? ( ! saltness belong+ to ! ocean4 ,9 ,d5m>k1 also1 rec5t %ells h be5 f\nd 9 /ratifi$ b$s1 closely associat$ ) ! b\ld] clay4 ,glaciation ( ,scotl&4--,mr4 ,t4 ,f4 ,jamieson1 9 #aheh1 adduc$ a great body ( facts to prove t ! ,grampians once s5t d[n glaci]s f ! c5tral regions 9 all directions t[>ds ! sea4 8,! glacial grooves10 he obs]v$1 8radiate outw>d f ! c5tral heights t[>ds all po9ts ( ! compass1 ?\gh !y d n always /rictly con=m to ! actual %ape & cont\r ( ! m9or valleys & ridges40 ,^! facts & o!r *>act]i/ics ( ! ,scot* drift lead u to ! inf]5ce t :5 ! glacial cold fir/ set 91 ,scotl& /ood high] above ! sea ?an at pres5t1 & 0 cov]$ = ! mo/ "p ) sn[ & ice1 z ,gre5l& is n[4 ,?is %eet ( l&-ice slid+ d[n to l[] levels1 gr\nd d[n & poli%$ ! subjac5t rocks1 sweep+ (f ne>ly all sup]ficial deposits ( old] date1 & leav+ only till & b\ld]s 9 _! place4 ,to ?is cont95tal /ate succe$$ a p]iod ( depression & p>tial subm]g5ce4 ,! sea advanc$ ov] ! l[] l&s1 & ,scotl& 0 conv]t$ into an ar*ipelago1 "s m>9e s& ) %ells be+ spread ov] ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,on ?is s& a great mass ( b\ld] clay usually q devoid ( fossils 0 accumulat$4 ,la/ly1 ! l& re-em]g$ f ! wat]1 &1 rea*+ a level some:at above its pres5t height1 became connect$ ) ! cont95t ( ,europe1 glaci]s be+ =m$ once m 9 ! high] regions1 ?\gh ! ice probably nev] rega9$ its =m] ext5sion4#a ,aft] all ^! *anges1 !re 7 "s m9or oscillations 9 ! level ( ! l&1 on :i*1 al?\gh !y h _h important geographical consequ5ces1 sep>at+ ,irel& f ,engl&1 = example1 & ,engl& f ! ,cont95t1 we ne$ n "h enl>ge4 ,mammo? 9 ,scot* ,till4--,almo/ all rema9s ( ! t]re/rial fauna ( ! ,cont95t :i* prec$$ ! p]iod ( subm]g5ce h be5 lo/2 b a few pat*es ( e/u>9e & fre%-wat] =mations escap$ d5udation by subm]g5ce4 ,to ^! belong ! peaty clay f :i* sev]al mammo?s' tusks & horns ( re9de] 7 obta9$ at ,kilmaurs1 9 ,ayr%ire z long ago z #ahaf4 ,mr4 ,bryce 9 #ahfe asc]ta9$ t ! fre%-wat] =mation conta9+ ^! fossils re/s on c>bonif]\s s&/one1 & is cov]$1 fir/ by a b$ ( m>9e s& ) arctic %ells1 & !n ) a great mass ( till ) glaciat$ b\ld]s4#b ,/ill m rec5t explorations 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,kilmaurs h %[n t ! fre%-wat] =mation conta9s ! se$ ( ! pond-we$ ,potamogeton & ! aquatic ,ranunculus2 & ,mr4 ,"y ( ! ,glasg[ ,museum wa%$ ! mud adh]+ to ! re9de] horns ( ,kilmaurs & t :i* fill$ ! cracks ( ! associat$ elephants' tusks1 & detect$ 9 ^! fossils 7:i* _h be5 9 ! ,glasg[ ,museum = half a c5tury7 abundance ( ! same se$s4 ,all d\bts1 !re=e1 z to ! true position ( ! rema9s ( ! mammo?1 a fossil s r>e 9 ,scotl&1 h be5 set at re/1 & x s]ves to prove t "p ( ! anci5t cont95t sank b5ea? ! sea at a p]iod ( great cold1 z ! %ells ( ! ov]ly+ s& atte/4 ,! incumb5t till or b\ld] clay is ab\t #dj feet ?ick1 b x (t5 atta9s mu* great] ?ickness 9 ! same "p ( ,scotl&4 ,figs4 #ajg-aab3 ,nor!rn %ells common 9 ! drift ( ! ,clyde1 9 ,scotl&4 ,m>9e ,%ells ( ,scot* ,drift4--,! greate/ height to :i* m>9e %ells h yet be5 trac$ 9 ?is b\ld] clay is at ,airdie1 9 ,lan>k%ire1 t5 miles ea/ ( ,glasg[1 #ebd feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,at t spot !y 7 f\nd imb$d$ 9 /ratifi$ clays ) till above & bel[ !m4 ,!re appe>s no d\bt t ! ov]ly+ deposit 0 true glacial till1 z "s b\ld]s ( granite 7 obs]v$ 9 x1 :i* mu/ h come f di/ances ( sixty miles at ! lea/4 ,fig4 #aac3 ,l$a truncata2 ,fig4 #aad3 ,tell9a calc>ea1 ,*em4 ,! %ells figur$ 9 ,figs4 #ajg to #aab are only a few out ( a l>ge assemblage ( liv+ species1 :i*1 tak5 z a :ole1 be> te/imony to conditions f> m arctic ?an ^? n[ prevail+ 9 ! ,scotti% seas4 ,b a gr\p ( m>9e %ells1 indicat+ a /ill great] excess ( cold1 has be5 br\ght to light s9ce #ahfj by ! ,rev]5d ,?omas ,br[n1 f glacial drift or clay on ! bord]s ( ! e/u>ies ( ! ,=? & ,tay4 ,?is clay occurs at ,elie1 9 ,fife1 & at ,errol1 9 ,p]?%ire2 & has already af=d$ ab\t #ce %ells1 all ( liv+ species1 & n[ inhabitants ( arctic regions1 su* z ,l$a truncata1 ,tell9a proxima 7see ,figs4 #aac & #aad71 ,pect5 ,grnl&icus1 ,cr5ella lvigata1 ,cr5ella nigra1 & o!rs1 "s ( !m fir/ br\ght by ,capta9 ,sir ,e4 ,p>ry f ! coa/ ( ,melville ,isl&1 latitude #gf ,n4 ,^! 7 all id5tifi$ 9 #ahfc by ,dr4 ,torell1 :o _h j return$ f a survey ( ! seas ar\nd ,spitzb]g51 :]e he _h collect$ no less ?an #aej species ( mollusca1 liv+ *iefly on a bottom ( f9e mud d]iv$ f ! mora9es ( melt+ glaci]s :i* !re protrude into ! sea4 ,he in=m$ me t ! fossil fauna ( ?is ,scot* glacial deposit exhibits n only ! species b also ! peculi> v>ieties ( mollusca n[ *>act]i/ic ( v high latitudes4 ,_! l>ge size implies t !y =m]ly enjoy$ a cold]1 or1 :at 0 to !m a m g5ial climate1 ?an t n[ prevail+ 9 ! latitude :]e ! fossils occur4 ,m>9e %ells h also be5 f\nd 9 ! glacial drift ( ,cai?ness & ,ab]de5%ire at heights ( #bej feet1 & 9 ,banff ( #cej feet1 & /ratifi$ drift cont9u\s ) ! above asc5ds to heights ( #ejj feet4 ,already #ge species are enum]at$ f ,cai?ness1 & ! same numb] f ,ab]de5%ire & ,banff1 & 9 bo? cases all b six are arctic species4 ,i =m]ly sugge/$ t ! abs5ce ( all signs ( organic life 9 ! ,scot* drift might be connect$ ) ! sev]ity ( ! cold1 & also 9 "s places ) ! dep? ( ! sea dur+ ! p]iod ( extreme subm]g5ce2 b my fai? 9 su* an hypo!sis has be5 %ak5 by mod]n inve/igations1 an exub]ance ( life hav+ be5 obs]v$ bo? 9 arctic & ant>ctic seas ( great dep?1 & :]e float+ ice ab\nds4 ,! difficulty1 moreov]1 ( acc\nt+ = ! entire de>? ( m>9e %ells 9 till is remov$ :5 once we h adopt$ ! !ory ( ?is b\ld] clay be+ ! product ( l&-ice4 ,= glaci]s com+ d[n f a cont95tal ice-%eet l t :i* cov]s ,gre5l& may fill fri?s _m hundr$ feet bel[ ! sea-level1 & ev5 invade p>ts ( a bay a ?\s& feet deep1 be=e !y f9d wat] en\gh to float (f _! t]m9al portions 9 ! =m ( iceb]gs4 ,9 su* a case till )\t m>9e %ells may fir/ accumulate1 & !n1 if ! climate becomes w>m] & ! ice melts1 a m>9e deposit may be sup]impos$ on ! till )\t any *ange ( level be+ requir$4 ,ano!r curi\s ph5om5on be>+ on ?is subject 0 /yl$ by ! late ,hugh ,mill] ! 8/riat$ pavem5ts0 ( ! b\ld] clay4 ,:]e portions ( ! till h be5 remov$ by ! sea on ! %ores ( ! ,=?1 or 9 ! int]ior by railway cutt+s1 ! b\ld]s imb$d$ 9 :at rema9s ( ! drift are se5 to h be5 all subject$ to a process ( abrasion & /riation1 ! /ri & furr[s be+ p>allel & p]si/5t across !m all1 exactly z if a glaci] or iceb]g _h pass$ ov] !m & scor$ !m 9 a mann] simil> to t s (t5 und]gone by ! solid rocks bel[ ! glacial drift4 ,x is possible1 z ,mr4 ,geikie conjectures1 t ?is second /riation ( ! b\ld]s may be ref]able to float+ ice4#c ,contort$ ,/rata 9 ,drift4--,9 ,scotl& ! till is (t5 cov]$ ) /ratifi$ gravel1 s&1 & clay1 ! b$s ( :i* are sometimes horizontal & sometimes contort$ = a ?ickness ( sev]al feet4 ,su* contortions are n uncommon 9 ,=f>%ire1 :]e ,i obs]v$ !m1 among o!r places1 9 a v]tical cutt+ made 9 #ahdj ne> ! left bank ( ! ,s\? ,esk1 ea/ ( ! bridge ( ,corta*ie4 ,! convolutions ( ! b$s ( f9e & co>se s&1 gravel1 & loam1 ext5d ?r\gh a ?ickness ( no less ?an #be feet v]tical1 or f b to c1 ,fig4 #aae1 ! horizontal /ratification be+ resum$ v abruptly at a %ort di/ance1 z to ! "r ( f1 g4 ,! ov]ly+ co>se gravel & s&1 a1 is 9 "s places horizontal1 9 o!rs x exhibits cross b$d+1 & does n p>take ( ! di/urbances :i* ! /rata b1 c1 h und]gone4 ,! und]ly+ till is expos$ = a dep? ( ab\t #bj feet2 & we may inf] f sections 9 ! neighb\rhood t x is consid]ably ?ick]4 ,fig4 #ae3 ,section ( contort$ drift ov]ly+ till1 se5 on left bank ( ,s\? ,esk1 ne> ,corta*ie1 9 #ahdj4 ,9 "s cases ,i h se5 fragm5ts ( /ratifi$ clays & s&s1 b5t 9 l mann]1 9 ! middle ( a great mass ( till4 ,mr4 ,trimm] has sugge/$1 9 explanation ( su* ph5om5a1 ! int]calation 9 ! glacial p]iod ( l>ge irregul> masses ( sn[ or ice betwe5 lay]s ( s& & gravel4 ,"s ( ! cliffs ne> ,behr+'s ,/raits1 9 :i* ! rema9s ( elephants occur1 consi/ ( ice mix$ ) mud & /ones2 & ,midd5dorf describes ! occurr5ce 9 ,sib]ia ( masses ( ice1 f\nd at v>i\s dep?s f ! surface aft] digg+ ?r\gh drift4 ,:5ev] ! int]calation ( sn[ & ice ) drift1 :e!r /ratifi$ or un/ratifi$1 has tak5 place1 ! melt+ ( ! ice w cause su* a failure ( support z may give rise to flexures1 & sometimes to ! mo/ complicat$ fold+s4 ,b 9 _m cases ! /rata may h be5 b5t & d]ang$ by ! me*anical pressure ( an advanc+ glaci]1 or by ! sideway ?ru/ ( huge isl&s ( ice runn+ agr\nd aga9/ s&banks2 9 :i* case1 ! position ( ! b$s =m+ ! f\ndation ( ! banks may n be at all di/urb$ by ! %ock4 ,!re are inde$ _m signs 9 ,scotl& ( ! action ( float+ ice1 z might h be5 expect$ :]e pro(s ( subm]g5ce 9 ! ,glacial ,p]iod are n want+4 ,among ^! are ! occurr5ce ( l>ge erratic blocks1 frequ5tly 9 clu/]s at or ne> ! tops ( hills or ridges1 places :i* may h =m$ islets or %all[s 9 ! sea :]e float+ ice w\ld mo/ly gr\nd & dis*>ge its c>go on melt+4 ,glaci]s or l&-ice w\ld1 on ! contr>y1 *iefly dis*>ge _! c>goes at ! bottom ( valleys4 ,traces ( an e>li] & indep5d5t glaciation h also be5 obs]v$ 9 "s regions :]e ! /riation1 app>5tly produc$ by ice proce$+ f ! nor?-we/1 is n explicable by ! radiation ( l&-ice f a c5tral m\nta9\s region4#d ,glaciation ( ,wales & ,engl&4--,! m\nta9s ( ,nor? ,wales 7 recognis$1 9 #ahdb1 by ,dr4 ,buckl&1 z hav+ be5 an indep5d5t c5tre ( ! disp]sion ( erratics--great glaci]s1 long s9ce ext9ct1 hav+ radiat$ f ! ,sn[donian heights 9 ,c>n>von%ire1 ?r\gh sev5 pr9cipal valleys t[>ds z _m po9ts ( ! compass1 c>ry+ ) !m l>ge /ony fragm5ts1 & groov+ ! subjac5t rocks 9 z _m directions4 ,besides ?is evid5ce ( l&-glaci]s1 ,mr4 ,trimm] _h previ\sly1 9 #ahca1 detect$ ! signs ( a great subm]g5ce 9 ,wales 9 ! ,po/-plioc5e p]iod4 ,he _h obs]v$ /ratifi$ drift1 f :i* he obta9$ ab\t a doz5 species ( m>9e %ells1 ne> ! summit ( ,moel ,tryfa51 a hill #adjj feet high1 on ! s\? side ( ! ,m5ai ,/raits4 ,i _h an opportunity ( exam9+ 9 ! summ] ( #ahfc1 toge!r ) ! ,rev]5d ,w4 ,s4 ,symonds1 a long & deep cutt+ made ?r\gh ?is drift by ! ,alex&ra ,m9+ ,company 9 se>* ( slates4 ,at ! top ( ! hill above-m5tion$ we saw a /ratifi$ mass ( incoh]5t s& & gravel #ce feet ?ick1 f :i* no less ?an #ed species ( mollusca1 besides ?ree *>act]i/ic arctic v>ieties--9 all #eg =ms--h be5 obta9$ by ,mr4 ,d>bi%ire4 ,!y belong )\t exception to species /ill liv+ 9 ,briti% or m nor!rn seas2 elev5 ( !m be+ exclusively arctic1 f\r common to ! arctic & ,briti% seas1 & a l>ge proportion ( ! rema9d] hav+ a nor?w>d range1 or1 if f\nd at all 9 ! s\!rn seas ( ,brita91 be+ comp>atively less abundant4 ,9 ! l[e/ b$s ( ! drift 7 l>ge heavy b\ld]s ( f>-transport$ rocks1 glacially poli%$ & scrat*$ on m ?an "o side4 ,und]nea? ! :ole we saw ! edges ( v]tical slates expos$ to view1 :i* "h1 l ! rocks 9 o!r p>ts ( ,wales1 bo? at great] & less elevations1 exhibit b5ea? ! drift unequivocal m>ks ( prolong$ glaciation4 ,! :ole deposit has mu* ! appe>ance ( an accumulation 9 %all[ wat] or on a bea*1 & x probably acquir$ its ?ickness dur+ ! gradual subsid5ce ( ! coa/--an hypo!sis :i* w\ld require u to ascribe to x a high antiquity1 s9ce we mu/ all[ "t1 fir/ = its s9k+1 & !n = its re-elevation4 ,! height rea*$ by ^! fossil %ells on ,moel ,tryfa5 is no less ?an #acjj feet--a mo/ important fact :5 we consid] h[ v few in/ances we h on record beyond ! limits ( ,wales1 :e!r 9 ,europe or ,nor? ,am]ica1 ( m>9e %ells hav+ be5 f\nd 9 glacial drift at half ! height above indicat$4 ,a m>9e mollusc\s fauna1 h[ev]1 agree+ 9 "* ) t ( ,moel ,tryfa51 & compris+ z _m species1 has be5 f\nd 9 drift at ,macclesfield & o!r places 9 c5tral ,engl&1 sometimes rea*+ an elevation ( #abjj feet4 ,pr(essor ,ramsay#e e/imat$ ! probable am\nt ( subm]g5ce dur+ "s "p ( ! glacial p]iod at ab\t #bcjj feet2 = he 0 unable to di/+ui% ! sup]ficial s&s & gravel :i* rea*$ t high elevation f ! drift :i*1 at ,moel ,tryfa5 & at l[] po9ts1 conta9s %ells ( liv+ species4 ,! evid5ce ( ! m>9e orig9 ( ! highe/ drift is no d\bt inconclusive 9 ! abs5ce ( %ells1 s great is ! resemblance ( ! gravel & s& ( a sea bea* & ( a riv]'s b$1 :5 organic rema9s are want+2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 :5 we consid] ! g5]al r>ity ( %ells 9 drift :i* we "k to be ( m>9e orig91 we _c suppose t1 9 ! %elly s&s ( ,moel ,tryfa51 we h hit ^u ! exact upp]mo/ limit ( m>9e deposition1 or1 9 o!r words1 a precise measure ( ! subm]g5ce ( ! l& b5ea? ! sea s9ce ! glacial p]iod4 ,we are gradually obta9+ pro(s ( ! l>g] "p ( ,engl&1 nor? ( a l9e drawn f ! m\? ( ! ,?ames to ! ,bri/ol ,*annel1 hav+ be5 "u ! sea & trav]s$ by float+ ice s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! glacial epo*4 ,among rec5t obs]vations illu/rative ( ?is po9t1 ,i may allude to ! discov]y1 by ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,bateman1 ne> ,blackpool1 9 ,lanca%ire1 fifty miles f ! sea1 & at ! height ( #efh feet above its level1 ( till conta9+ r\nd$ & angul> /ones & m>9e %ells1 su* z ,turritella communis1 ,purpura lapillus1 ,c>dium edule1 & o!rs1 among :i* ,trophon cla?ratum 7,fusus ,bamffius71 ?\gh /ill surviv+ 9 ,nor? ,briti% seas1 indicates a cold climate4 ,erratics ne> ,*i*e/]4--,! mo/ s\!rn memorials ( ice-action & ( a ,po/-plioc5e fauna 9 ,great ,brita9 is on ! coa/ ( ! c\nty ( ,sussex1 ab\t #be miles we/ ( ,brighton1 & #ae s\? ( ,*i*e/]4 ,a m>9e deposit expos$ betwe5 high & l[ tide occurs on bo? sides ( ! promontory call$ ,selsea ,bill1 9 :i* ,mr4 ,godw9-,au/5 f\nd ?irty-eight species ( %ells1 & ! numb] has s9ce be5 rais$ to sev5ty4 ,?is assemblage is int]e/+ because on ! :ole1 :ile all ! species are rec5t1 !y h a some:at m s\!rn aspect ?an ^? ( ! pres5t ,briti% ,*annel4 ,x is true t ab\t =ty ( !m range f ,briti% to high nor!rn latitudes2 b sev]al ( !m1 z1 = example1 ,lutr>ia rugosa & ,pect5 polymorph\s1 :i* are abundant1 are n kn[n at pres5t to range f>!r nor? ?an ! coa/ ( ,portugal1 & seem to indicate a w>m] temp]ature ?an n[ prevails on ! coa/ :]e we f9d !m fossil4 ,:at r5d]s ?is curi\s is ! fact t ! s&y loam 9 :i* !y occur is ov]laid by yell[ clayey gravel ) l>ge erratic blocks :i* mu/ h be5 drift$ into _! pres5t position by ice :5 ! climate _h become mu* cold]4 ,^! transport$ fragm5ts ( granite1 sy5ite1 & gre5/one1 z well z ( ,devonian & ,silurian rocks1 may h come f ! coa/ ( ,norm&y & ,brittany1 & are _m ( !m ( su* l>ge size t we mu/ suppose !m to h be5 drift$ into _! pres5t site by coa/-ice4 ,i measur$ "o ( granite1 at ,pagham1 #ba feet 9 circumf]5ce4 ,9 ! gravel ( ?is drift ) erratics are a few littoral %ells ( liv+ species1 indicat+ an anci5t coa/-l9e4 ,glacial ,=mations ( ,nor? ,am]ica4--,9 ! we/]n hemisph]e1 bo? 9 ,canada & z f> s\? z ! #dj? & ev5 #ch? p>allel ( latitude 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 we meet ) a repetition ( all ! peculi>ities :i* di/+ui% ! ,european b\ld] =mation4 ,fragm5ts ( rock h travell$ = great di/ances1 especially f nor? to s\?3 ! surface ( ! subjac5t rock is smoo!d1 /riat$1 & flut$2 un/ratifi$ mud or till conta9+ b\ld]s is associat$ ) /rata ( loam1 s&1 & clay1 usually devoid ( fossils4 ,:]e %ells are pres5t1 !y are ( species /ill liv+ 9 nor!rn seas1 & n a few ( !m id5tical ) ^? belong+ to ,european drift1 includ+ mo/ ( ^? already giv5 9 ,figs4 #ajg to #aab1 p4 #agf4 ,! fauna also ( ! glacial epo* 9 ,nor? ,am]ica is less ri* 9 species ?an t n[ inhabit+ ! adjac5t sea1 :e!r 9 ! ,gulf ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 or (f ! %ores ( ,ma9e1 or 9 ! ,bay ( ,massa*usetts4 ,! ext5sion on ! ,am]ican cont95t ( ! range ( erratics dur+ ! ,po/-plioc5e p]iod to l[] latitudes ?an !y rea*$ 9 ,europe1 agrees well ) ! pres5t s\?w>d deflection ( ! iso!rmal l9es1 or r ! l9es ( equal w9t] temp]ature4 ,x seems t =m]ly1 z n[1 a m extreme climate & a m abundant supply ( ice prevail$ on ! we/]n side ( ! ,atlantic4 ,ano!r resemblance betwe5 ! di/ribution ( ! drift fossils 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica has yet to be po9t$ out4 ,9 ,canada & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 z 9 ,europe1 ! m>9e %ells are g5]ally conf9$ to v mod]ate elevations above ! sea 7betwe5 #ajj & #gjj feet71 :ile ! erratic blocks & ! groov$ & poli%$ surfaces ( rock ext5d to elevations ( sev]al ?\s& feet4 ,i h already m5tion$ t 9 ,europe sev]al quadrup$s ( liv+1 z well z ext9ct1 species 7 common to pre-glacial & po/-glacial times4 ,9 l mann] !re is reason to suppose t 9 ,nor? ,am]ica mu* ( ! anci5t mammalian fauna1 toge!r ) ne>ly all ! inv]tebrata1 liv$ ?r\gh ! ages ( int5se cold4 ,t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! ,ma/odon giganteus 0 v abundant aft] ! drift p]iod1 is evid5t f ! fact t entire skeletons ( ?is animal are met ) 9 bogs & lacu/r9e deposits occupy+ holl[s 9 ! glacial drift4 ,!y sometimes occur 9 ! bottom ev5 ( small ponds rec5tly dra9$ by ! agriculturi/ = ! sake ( ! %ell-m>l4 ,9 #ahde no less ?an six skeletons ( ! same species ( ,ma/odon 7 f\nd 9 ,w>r5 c\nty1 ,new ,j]sey1 six feet bel[ ! surface1 by a f>m] :o 0 digg+ out ! ri* mud f a small pond :i* he _h dra9$4 ,five ( ^! skeletons 7 ly+ toge!r1 & a l>ge "p ( ! bones crumbl$ to pieces z soon z !y 7 expos$ to ! air4 ,x w\ld be ra%1 h[ev]1 to inf] f su* data t ^! quadrup$s 7 mir$ 9 mod]n times1 unless we use t t]m /rictly 9 a geological s5se4 ,i h %[n t !re is a fluviatile deposit 9 ! valley ( ! ,niag>a1 conta9+ %ells ( ! g5]a ,melania1 ,lymnea1 ,planorbis1 ,velvata1 ,cyclaz1 ,unio1 ,helix1 etc41 all ( rec5t species1 f :i* ! bones ( ! great ,ma/odon h be5 tak5 9 a v p]fect /ate4 ,yet ! :ole excavation ( ! rav9e1 = _m miles bel[ ! ,falls1 has be5 sl[ly effect$ s9ce t fluviatile deposit 0 ?r[n d[n4 ,o!r ext9ct animals accompany ! ,ma/odon giganteus 9 ! po/-glacial deposits ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ?is1 tak5 ) ! fact t s few ( ! mollusca1 ev5 ( ! comm5cem5t ( ! cold p]iod1 diff] f species n[ liv+ is important1 z refut+ ! hypo!sis1 = :i* "s h cont5d$1 t ! int5sity ( ! glacial cold annihilat$ all ! species 9 temp]ate & arctic latitudes4 ,connection ( ! ,pr$om9ance ( ,lakes ) ,glacial ,action4--,x 0 fir/ po9t$ out by ,pr(essor ,ramsay 9 #ahfb1 t lakes are exce$+ly num]\s 9 ^? c\ntries :]e erratics1 /riat$ blocks1 & o!r signs ( ice-action ab\nd2 & t !y are comp>atively r>e 9 tropical & sub-tropical regions4 ,g5]ally 9 c\ntries :]e ! w9t] cold is int5se1 su* z ,canada1 ,sc&9avia1 & ,f9l&1 ev5 ! pla9s & l[l&s are ?ickly /rewn ) innum]able ponds & small lakes1 toge!r ) "s o!rs ( a l>g] size2 :ile 9 m temp]ate regions1 su* z ,great ,brita91 ,c5tral & ,s\!rn ,europe1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ,new ,zeal&1 lake di/ricts occur 9 all su* m\nta9\s tracts z c be prov$ to h be5 glaciat$ 9 times comp>atively mod]n or s9ce ! geographical configuration ( ! surface bore a consid]able resemblance to t n[ prevail+4 ,9 ! same c\ntries1 beyond ! glaciat$ regions1 lakes abruptly cease1 & 9 w>m] & tropical c\ntries are ei!r entirely abs5t1 or consi/1 z 9 equatorial ,africa1 ( l>ge %eets ( wat] unaccompani$ s f> z we yet "k by num]\s small] ponds & t>ns4 ,! s\!rn limits ( ! lake di/ricts ( ! ,nor!rn ,hemisph]e are f\nd at ab\t #dj ,n4 latitude on ! ,am]ican cont95t1 & ab\t #ej 9 ,europe1 or :]e ! ,alps int]v5e f\r degrees f>!r s\?4 ,a l>ge proportion ( ! small] lakes are damm$ up by b>ri]s ( un/ratifi$ drift1 hav+ ! exact "* ( ! mora9es ( glaci]s1 & are t]m$ by geologi/s 8mora9ic10 b "s ( !m are true rock-bas9s1 & w\ld hold wat] ev5 if all ! loose drift n[ re/+ on _! m>g9s 7 remov$4 ,9 a pap] read be=e ! ,geological ,society ( ,london 9 #ahfb1 ,pr(essor ,ramsay ma9ta9$ t ! fir/ =mation ( mo/ exi/+ lakes took place dur+ ! glacial epo*1 & 0 due1 n to elevation or subsid5ce1 b to actual erosion ( _! bas9s by glaci]s4 ,m4 ,mortillet 9 ! same ye> advanc$ ! !ory t aft] ! ,alp9e lake-bas9s _h be5 fill$ up ) loose fluviatile deposits1 !y 7 re-excavat$ by ! great glaci]s :i* pass$ d[n ! valleys at ! "t ( ! greate/ cold1 a doctr9e :i* w\ld attribute to mov+ ice almo/ z great a capacity ( erosion z t :i* assum$ t ! orig9al bas9s 7 scoop$ out ( solid rock by glaci]s4 ,x is impossible to d5y t ! m]e geographical di/ribution ( lakes po9ts to ! intimate connection ( _! orig9 ) ! abundance ( ice dur+ a =m] excess ( cold1 b h[ f> ! erosive action ( mov+ ice has be5 ! sole or ev5 ! pr9cipal cause ( lake-bas9s1 is a "q /ill op5 to discussion4 ,! lakes ( ,switz]l& & ! nor? ( ,italy are "s ( !m tw5ty & ?irty miles 9 l5g?1 & s deep t _! bottoms are 9 "s cases f #ajjj to #bjjj feet b5ea? ! level ( ! sea4 ,x is admitt$ on all h&s t !y 7 once fill$ ) ice1 & z ! exi/+ glaci]s poli% & gr9d d[n1 z be=e /at$1 ! surface ( ! rocks1 we are prep>$ to f9d t e lake-bas9 9 c\ntries once cov]$ by ice %\ld be> ! m>ks ( sup]ficial glaciation1 & also t ! ice dur+ its advance & retreat %\ld h left beh9d x mu* transport$ matt] z well z "s evid5ce ( its hav+ enl>g$ ! pre-exi/+ cavity4 ,b mu* m ?an ?is is dem&$ by ! advocates ( glacial erosion4 ,!y sugge/ t z ! old ext9ct glaci]s 7 sev]al ?\s& feet ?ick1 !y 7 able 9 "s places gradually to scoop out ( ! solid rock cavities tw5ty or ?irty miles 9 l5g?1 & z 9 ! case ( ,lago ,maggiore f a ?\s& to two ?\s& six hundr$ feet bel[ ! previ\s level ( ! riv]-*annel1 & also t ! ice _h ! p[] to remove f ! cavity =m$ by its gr9d+ action all ! mat]ials ( ! miss+ rocks4 ,a con/ant supply1 x is argu$1 ( f9e mud issues f ! t]m9ation ( e glaci] 9 ! /ream :i* is produc$ by ! melt+ ( ! ice1 & ?is result ( friction is exhibit$ bo? dur+ w9t] & summ]1 af=d+ evid5ce ( ! cont9ual deep5+ & wid5+ ( ! valleys ?r\gh :i* glaci]s pass4 ,z ! f9e mud is c>ri$ away by a riv] f ! deep pool :i* is =m$ f ! base ( e cat>act1 s x seems to be imag9$ t lake-bas9s may be gradually empti$ ( ! mud =m$ by abrasion dur+ ! glacial p]iod4 ,i am by no means dispos$ to object to ?is !ory on ! gr\nd ( ! insuffici5cy ( ! "t dur+ :i* ! extreme cold endur$1 b we mu/ c>efully consid] :e!r t same "t is n s va/ z to make x probable t o!r =ces1 besides ! motion ( glaci]s1 mu/ h coop]at$ 9 conv]t+ "s p>ts ( ! anci5t valley c\rses into lake-bas9s4 ,!y :o h =m$ ! mo/ exalt$ conceptions ( ! erosive en]gy ( mov+ ice d n d5y t dur+ ! p]iod t]m$ 8,glacial0 !re h be5 movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ suffici5t to produce oscillations ( level 9 ,europe am\nt+ to #ajjj feet or m 9 bo? directions4 ,m4 ,*>p5ti]1 inde$1 attribut$ "s ( ! pr9cipal *anges ( climate 9 ,switz]l&1 dur+ ! glacial p]iod1 to a depression ( ! c5tral ,alps to ! ext5t ( #cjjj feet1 & ,swiss geologi/s h long be5 accu/om$ to attribute _! lake bas9s1 9 "p1 to ^? convulsions by :i* ! %ape & c\rse ( ! valleys may h be5 modifi$4 ,our exp]i5ce1 9 ! lifetime ( ! pres5t g5]ation1 ( ! *anges ( level witness$ 9 ,new ,zeal& dur+ great e>?quakes is entirely oppos$ to ! notion t ! movem5ts1 :e!r upw>d or d[nw>d1 are uni=m 9 am\nt or direction ?r\gh\t areas ( indef9ite ext5t4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! l& has be5 p]man5tly rais$ 9 "o region sev]al feet or y>ds1 & ! rise has be5 f\nd gradually to die out1 s z to be imp]ceptible at a di/ance ( tw5ty miles1 & 9 "s areas is ev5 ex*ang$ = a simultane\s d[nw>d movem5t ( sev]al feet4 ,b1 x is ask$1 if su* inequality ( movem5t c h contribut$ t[>ds ! production ( lake bas9s1 does x n leave unexpla9$ ! comp>ative r>ity ( lakes 9 tropical & subtropical c\ntries4 ,9 reply to ?is "q x may be obs]v$ t 9 our endeav\r to e/imate ! effects ( subt]ranean movem5ts 9 modify+ ! sup]ficial geography ( a c\ntry we mu/ rememb] t ea* convulsion effects a v slight *ange4 ,if x int]f]es ) ! dra9age1 :e!r by rais+ ! l[] or s9k+ ! high] portion ( a hydrographical bas91 ! upheaval or depression w only am\nt to a few feet at a "t1 & !re may be an int]val ( ye>s or c5turies be=e any fur!r movem5t takes place 9 ! same region4 ,9 ! mean "t an incipi5t lake if produc$ may be fill$ up ) s$im5t1 & ! rec5tly-=m$ b>ri] w !n be cut ?r\gh by ! riv]1 :]eas 9 a c\ntry :]e glacial conditions prevail no su* oblit]ation ( ! tempor>y lake-bas9 w\ld take place2 = h[ev] deep x became by repeat$ s9k+ ( ! upp] or ris+ ( ! l[] extremity1 be+ always fill$ ) ice x might rema91 ?r\gh\t ! great] "p ( its ext5t1 free f s$im5t or drift until ! ice melt$ at ! close ( ! glacial p]iod4 ,"o ( ! mo/ s]i\s objections to ! exclusive orig9 by ice-erosion ( wide & deep lake-bas9s arises f _! caprici\s di/ribution1 z = example 9 ,pi$mont1 bo? to ! ea/w>d & we/w>d ( ,tur91 :]e great lakes are want+1#f al?\gh "s ( ! l>ge/ ext9ct glaci]s desc5d+ f ,mont ,blanc & ,monte ,rosa came d[n f ! ,alps1 leav+ _! gigantic mora9es 9 ! l[ c\ntry4 ,"h1 !re=e1 we might h expect$ to f9d lakes ( ! fir/ magnitude rivall+ ! contigu\s ,lago ,maggiore 9 importance4 ,a /ill m /rik+ illu/ration ( ! same abs5ce ( lakes :]e l>ge glaci]s ab\nd is af=d$ by ! ,caucasus1 a *a9 m ?an #cjj miles long1 & ! l(tie/ peaks ( :i* atta9 heights f #af1jjj to #ah1jjj feet4 ,?is greate/ altitude is rea*$ by ,elbruz1 a m\nta9 9 lat4 #dc ,n4 ?ree degrees s\? ( ,mont ,blanc1 b on ! o!r h& #cjjj feet high]4 ,! pres5t ,caucasian glaci]s are equal or sup]ior 9 dim5sions to ^? ( ,switz]l&1 & l !m give rise occasionally to tempor>y lakes by ob/ruct+ ! c\rse ( riv]s1 & caus+ great floods :5 ! icy b>ri]s give way4 ,mr4 ,fre%field1 a c>eful obs]v]1 writ+ 9 #ahfi1 says3#g 8,a total abs5ce ( lakes on bo? sides ( ! *a9s is ! mo/ m>k$ feature4 ,n only are !re no great subalp9e %eets ( wat]1 l ,como or ,g5eva1 b m\nta9 t>ns1 su* z ! ,daub5 ,see on ! ,gemmi1 or ! ,klon?al ,see ne> ,gl>us1 are equally want+40 ,! same au?or /ates on ! au?ority ( ! em95t ,swiss geologi/1 ,mons4 ,e4 ,favre1 :o also explor$ ! ,caucasus 9 #ahfh1 t mora9es ( great height & huge erratics ( granite & o!r rocks 8ju/ify ! ass]tion t ! pres5t glaci]s ( ! ,caucasus1 l ^? ( ! ,alps1 are only ! %ad[s ( _! =m] selves40 ,x seems safe to assume t ! *a9 ( lakes1 ( :i* ! ,alb]t ,nyanza =ms "o 9 equatorial ,africa1 0 due to causes o!r ?an glacial4 ,yet if we c\ld imag9e a glacial p]iod to visit t region fill+ ! lakes ) ice & scor+ ! rocks :i* =m _! sides & bottoms1 we %\ld be unable to decide h[ mu* ! capacity ( ! bas9s _h be5 enl>g$ & ! surface modifi$ by glacial erosion4 ,! same may be true ( ! ,lago ,maggiore & ,lake ,sup]ior1 al?\gh ! pres5t bas9s ( bo? ( !m af=d abundant sup]ficial m>k+s due to ice-action4 ,b to :atev] comb9ation ( causes we attribute ! great ,alp9e lakes "o ?+ is cle>1 namely1 t !y are1 geologically speak+1 ( mod]n orig94 ,e "o mu/ admit t ! upp] valley ( ! ,rhone has be5 *iefly caus$ by fluviatile d5udation1 & x is obvi\s t ! quantity ( matt] remov$ f t valley previ\s to ! glacial p]iod w\ld h be5 amply suffici5t to fill up ) s$im5t ! bas9 ( ! ,lake ( ,g5eva1 suppos+ x to h be5 9 exi/5ce1 ev5 if its capacity _h be5 _m times great] ?an x is n[4#h ,on ! :ole1 x appe>s to me1 9 accordance ) ! views ( ,pr(essor ,ramsay1 ,m4 ,mortillet1 ,mr4 ,geikie1 & o!rs1 t ! abrad+ action ( ice has =m$ "s m\nta9 t>ns & _m mora9ic lakes2 b :5 x is a "q ( ! orig9 ( l>g] & deep] lakes1 l ^? ( ,switz]l& or ! nor? ( ,italy1 or inl& fre%-wat] seas1 l ^? ( ,canada1 x w probably be f\nd t ice has play$ a subord9ate "p 9 comp>ison ) ^? movem5ts by :i* *anges ( level 9 ! e>?'s cru/ are gradually br\ght ab\t4 #a ,jamieson1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 #ahfj1 vol4 xvi1 p4 #cgj4 #b ,bryce1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xxi1 p4 #bag1 #ahfe4 #c ,geikie1 ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,glasg[1 vol4 i1 "p ii1 p4 #fh1 #ahfc4 #d ,milne ,home1 ,trans4 ,royal ,soc4 ,ed9burgh1 vol4 xxv1 #ahfh-i4 #e ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 #aheb1 vol4 viii1 p4 #cgb4 #f ,antiquity ( ,man1 p4 #cac4 #g ,travels 9 ,c5tral ,caucasus1 #ahfi1 p4 #deb4 #h ,see ,pr9ciples1 vol4 i1 p4 #dbj1 #aj? ed41 #ahfg4 ,,t]ti>y ,,or ,,ca9ozoic ,,p]iod ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,plioc5e ,,p]iod ,glacial ,=mations ( ,plioc5e ,age4 -- ,bridl+ton ,b$s4 -- ,glacial ,drifts ( ,irel&4 -- ,drift ( ,norfolk ,cliffs4 -- ,crom] ,=e/-b$4 -- ,aldeby & ,*illes=d ,b$s4 -- ,norwi* ,crag4 -- ,old] ,plioc5e ,/rata4 -- ,r$ ,crag ( ,suffolk4 -- ,coprolitic ,b$ ( ,r$ ,crag4 -- ,:ite or ,corall9e ,crag4 -- ,relative ,age1 ,orig91 & ,climate ( ! ,crag ,deposits4 -- ,antw]p ,crag4 -- ,new] ,plioc5e ,/rata ( ,sicily4 -- ,new] ,plioc5e ,/rata ( ! ,upp] ,val d',arno4 -- ,old] ,plioc5e ( ,italy4 -- ,subap5n9e ,/rata4 -- ,old] ,plioc5e ,flora ( ,italy4 ,x w be se5 9 ! description giv5 9 ! la/ *apt] ( ! ,po/-plioc5e =mations ( ! ,briti% ,isles t !y comprise a l>ge proportion ( ^? commonly t]m$ glacial1 *>act]is$ by %ells :i*1 al?\gh ref]able to liv+ species1 usually indicate a cold] climate ?an t n[ belong+ to ! latitudes :]e !y occur fossil4 ,b 9 p>ts ( ,engl&1 m especially 9 ,york%ire1 ,norfolk1 & ,suffolk1 !re are sup]ficial =mations ( clay ) glaciat$ b\ld]s1 & ( s& & pebbles1 conta9+ occasional1 ?\gh r>e1 pat*es ( %ells1 9 :i* ! m>9e fauna beg9s to dep>t f t n[ inhabit+ ! neighb\r+ sea1 & comprises "s species ( mollusca n yet kn[n z liv+1 z well z ext9ct v>ieties ( o!rs1 entitl+ u to class !m z ,new] ,plioc5e1 al?\gh belong+ to ! close ( t p]iod & *ronologically on ! v]ge ( ! lat] or ,po/-plioc5e epo*4 ,bridl+ton ,drift4--,to ?is era belongs ! well-kn[n locality ( ,bridl+ton1 ne> ! m\? ( ! ,humb]1 9 ,york%ire1 :]e ab\t sev5ty species or well-m>k$ v>ieties ( %ells h be5 f\nd on ! coa/1 ne> ! sea-level1 9 a b$ ( s& sev]al feet ?ick re/+ on glacial clay ) mu* *alk dbris1 & cov]$ by a deposit ( purple clay ) glaciat$ b\ld]s4 ,m ?an a ?ird ( ! species 9 ?is drift are n[ inhabitants ( arctic regions1 none ( !m ext5d+ s\?w>d to ! ,briti% seas2 :i* is ! m rem>kable z ,bridl+ton is situat$ 9 lat4 #ed nor?4 ,fifte5 species are ,briti% & ,arctic1 a v few belong to ^? species :i* range s\? ( our ,briti% seas4 ,five species or well-m>k$ v>ieties are n kn[n liv+1 namely1 ! v>iety ( ,a/>te borealis 7call$ ,a4 ,)ami72 ,a4 mutabilis2 ! s9i/ral =m ( ,tritonium c>9atum1 ,c>dita analis1 & ,tell9a obliqua1 ,fig4 #abj1 p4 #aid4 ,mr4 ,se>les ,wood also incl9es to consid] ,nucula ,cobboldi1 ,fig4 #aai1 p4 #aid1 n[ abs5t f ! ,european seas & ! ,atlantic1 z specifically di/9ct f a closely-alli$ %ell n[ liv+ 9 ! seas surr\nd+ ,vanc\v]'s ,isl&1 :i* "s con*ologi/s reg>d z a v>iety4 ,tell9a obliqua also approa*es v ne> to a %ell n[ liv+ 9 ,japan4 ,glacial ,drift ( ,irel&4--,m>9e drift conta9+ ! la/-m5tion$ ,nucula & o!r glacial %ells rea*es a height ( f #ajjj to #abjj feet 9 ! c\nty ( ,wex=d1 s\? ( ,dubl94 ,m ?an eighty species h already be5 obta9$ f ?is =mation1 ( :i* two1 ,conovulus pyramidalis & ,nassa mon5sis1 are n kn[n z liv+2 :ile ,turritella incrassata & ,cypra lucida no long] inhabit ! ,briti% seas1 b occur 9 ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! great elevation ( ^! %ells1 & ! /ill great] height to :i* ! surface ( ! rocks 9 ! m\nta9\s regions ( ,irel& h be5 smoo!d & /riat$ by ice-action1 has l$ geologi/s to ! op9ion t t isl&1 l ! great] "p ( ,engl& & ,scotl&1 aft] hav+ be5 unit$ ) ! cont95t ( ,europe1 f :5ce x receiv$ ! plants & animals n[ inhabit+ x1 0 9 great "p subm]g$4 ,! conv]sion ( ?is & o!r p>ts ( ,great ,brita9 into an ar*ipelago 0 foll[$ by a re-elevation ( l& & a second cont95tal p]iod4 ,aft] all ^! *anges ! f9al sep>ation ( ,irel& f ,great ,brita9 took place1 & ?is ev5t has be5 suppos$ to h prec$$ ! op5+ ( ! /raits ( ,dov]4#a ,fig4 #aaf3 ,tell9a bal?ica ,drift ( ,norfolk ,cliffs4--,!re are deposits ( b\ld] clay & till 9 ! ,norfolk cliffs pr9cipally made up ( ! wa/e ( :ite *alk & fl9ts :i*1 9 ! op9ion ( ,mr4 ,se>les ,wood1 jun41 & o!rs1 are old] ?an ! ,bridl+ton drift1 & conta9 a l>g] proportion ( %ells common to ! ,norwi* & ,r$ ,crag1 includ+ a c]ta9 numb] ( ext9ct =ms1 b also ab\nd+ 9 ,tell9a bal?ica 7,t4 solidula1 ,fig4 #aaf71 :i* is f\nd fossil at ,bridl+ton1 & liv+ 9 our ,briti% seas1 b want+ 9 all ! =mations1 ev5 ! newe/1 aft]w>ds to be describ$ z ,crag4 ,z ! great] "p ( ^! drifts are b>r5 ( organic rema9s1 _! classification is at pres5t a matt] ( great unc]ta9ty4 ,!y c n[h]e be s advantage\sly /udi$ z on ! coa/ betwe5 ,happisburgh & ,crom]4 ,"h we may see v]tical cliffs1 sometimes #cjj feet & m 9 height1 expos$ = a di/ance ( fifty miles1 at ! base ( :i* ! *alk ) fl9ts crops out 9 ne>ly horizontal /rata4 ,b$s ( gravel & s& repose on ?is undi/urb$ *alk4 ,!y are (t5 /rangely contort$1 & envelop huge masses or erratics ( *alk ) lay]s ( v]tical fl9t4 ,i measur$ "o ( ^! fragm5ts 9 #ahci at ,%]r+ham1 & f\nd x to be eighty feet 9 its longe/ diamet]4 ,x has be5 s9ce entirely remov$ by ! waves ( ! sea4 ,9 ! floor ( ! *alk b5ea? x ! lay]s ( fl9t 7 horizontal4 ,su* erratics h evid5tly be5 mov$ bodily f _! orig9al site1 probably by ! same glacial action :i* has poli%$ & /riat$ "s ( ! accompany+ granitic & o!r b\ld]s1 occasionally six feet 9 diamet]1 :i* are imb$d$ 9 ! drift4 ,crom] ,=e/-b$4--,int]v5+ betwe5 ^! glacial =mations & ! subjac5t *alk lies :at has be5 call$ ! ,crom] ,=e/-b$4 ,?is buri$ =e/ has be5 trac$ f ,crom] to ne> ,kess+l&1 a di/ance ( m ?an =ty miles1 be+ expos$ at c]ta9 seasons betwe5 high & l[ wat] m>k4 ,x is ! rema9s ( an old l& & e/u>9e deposit1 conta9+ ! subm]g$ /umps ( trees /&+ erect ) _! roots 9 ! anci5t soil4 ,associat$ ) ! /umps & ov]ly+ !m1 are lignite b$s ) fre%-wat] %ells ( rec5t species1 & lam9at$ clay )\t fossils4 ,?r\gh ! lignite & =e/-b$ are scatt]$ cones ( ! ,scot* & spruce firs ) ! se$s ( rec5t plants1 & ! bones ( at lea/ tw5ty species ( t]re/rial mammalia4 ,among ^! are two species ( elephant1 ,e4 m]idionalis1 ,ne/i1 & ,e4 antiquus1 ! =m] f\nd 9 ! ,new] ,plioc5e b$s ( ! ,val d',arno1 ne> ,flor5ce4 ,9 ! same b$ occur ,hippopotamus major1 ,rh9oc]os etruscus1 bo? ( !m also ,val d',arno species1 _m species ( de] consid]$ by ,mr4 ,boyd ,dawk9s to be *>act]i/ic ( w>m] c\ntries1 & also a horse1 beav]1 & field-m\se4 ,half ( ^! mammalia are ext9ct1 & ! re/ /ill survive 9 ,europe4 ,! vegetation tak5 alone does n imply a temp]ature high] ?an t n[ prevail+ 9 ! ,briti% ,isles4 ,!re mu/ h be5 a subsid5ce ( ! =e/ to ! am\nt ( #djj or #ejj feet1 & a re-elevation ( ! same to an equal ext5t 9 ord] to all[ ! anci5t surface ( ! *alk or cov]+ ( soil1 on :i* ! =e/ grew1 to be fir/ cov]$ ) sev]al hundr$ feet ( drift1 & !n upheav$ s t ! trees %\ld rea* _! pres5t level4 ,al?\gh ! relative antiquity ( ! =e/-b$ to ! ov]ly+ glacial till is cle>1 !re is "s diff]5ce ( op9ion z to its relation to ! crag pres5tly to be describ$4 ,fig4 #aag3 ,natica helicoides ,*illes=d & ,aldeby ,b$s4--,x is 9 ! c\nties ( ,norfolk1 ,suffolk1 & ,essex1 t we obta9 our mo/ valuable in=mation respect+ ! ,briti% ,plioc5e /rata1 :e!r new] or old]4 ,!y h obta9$ 9 ^? c\nties ! prov9cial "n ( 8,crag10 appli$ p>ticul>ly to masses ( %elly s& :i* h long be5 us$ 9 agriculture to f]tilise soils defici5t 9 calc>e\s matt]4 ,at ,*illes=d1 betwe5 ,woodbridge & ,aldbor\gh 9 ,suffolk1 & ,aldeby1 ne> ,beccles1 9 ! same c\nty1 !re occur /ratifi$ deposits1 app>5tly old] ?an any ( ! prec$+ drifts ( ,york%ire1 ,norfolk1 & ,suffolk4 ,!y are compos$ at ,*illes=d ( yell[ s&s & clays1 ) mu* mica1 =m+ horizontal b$s ab\t tw5ty feet ?ick4 ,messrs4 ,pre/wi* & ,se>les ,wood1 s5ior1 :o fir/ describ$ ^! b$s1 po9t out t ! %ells indicate on ! :ole a cold] climate ?an ! ,r$ ,crag2 two-?irds ( !m be+ *>act]i/ic ( high latitudes4 ,among ^! are ,c>dium ,grnl&icum1 ,l$a limatula1 ,tritonium c>9atum1 & ,scal>ia ,grnl&ica4 ,9 ! upp] "p ( ! lam9at$ clays a skeleton ( a :ale 0 f\nd associat$ ) ca/s ( ! *>act]i/ic %ells1 ,nucula ,cobboldi & ,tell9a obliqua1 already ref]r$ to z no long] inhabit+ our seas1 & z be+ ext9ct v>ieties if n species4 ,! same %ells occur 9 a p]fect /ate 9 ! l[] "p ( ! =mation4 ,natica helicoides 7,fig4 #aag7 is an example ( a species =m]ly kn[n only z fossil1 b :i* has n[ be5 f\nd liv+ 9 our seas4 ,at ,aldeby1 :]e b$s occur decid$ly simil> 9 m9]al "* z well z fossil rema9s1 ,messrs4 ,cr[foot & ,d[son h n[ obta9$ sixty-six species ( mollusca1 compris+ ! ,*illes=d species & "s o!rs4 ,( ^! ab\t n9e-t5?s are rec5t4 ,!y are 9 a p]fect /ate1 cle>ly indicat+ a cold climate2 z two-?irds ( !m are n[ met ) 9 arctic regions4 ,z a rule1 ! lamellibran*iate molluscs h bo? valves unit$1 & _m ( !m1 su* z ,mya ar5>ia1 /& ) ! siphonal end upw>d1 z :5 9 a liv+ /ate4 ,tell9a bal?ica1 be=e m5tion$ 7,fig4 #aaf7 z s *>act]i/ic ( ! glacial b$s1 includ+ ! drift ( ,bridl+ton1 has n yet be5 f\nd 9 deposits ( ,*illes=d & ,aldeby age1 :e!r at ,sudb\rn1 ,ea/ ,bav5t1 ,hor/ead1 ,colti%all1 ,burgh1 or 9 ! highe/ b$s ov]ly+ ! ,norwi* ,crag prop] at ,bram]ton & ,?orpe4 ,fig4 #aah3 i,ma/odon arv]n5sis1_/i ?ird milk mol>1 left side1 upp] jaw3 gr9d+ surface4 ,norwi* ,crag1 ,po/wick1 also f\nd 9 ,r$ ,crag1 see p4 #aig4 ,norwi* or ,fluvio-m>9e ,crag4--,! b$s above allud$ to ought1 p]haps1 to be reg>d$ z b$s ( passage betwe5 ! glacial =mations & ^? call$ f a prov9cial "n 8,crag10 ! newe/ memb] ( :i* has be5 commonly call$ ! 8,norwi* ,crag40 ,x is *iefly se5 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,norwi*1 & consi/s ( b$s ( incoh]5t s&1 loam1 & gravel1 :i* are expos$ to view on bo? banks ( ! ,y>e1 z at ,bram]ton & ,?orpe4 ,z !y conta9 a mixture ( m>9e1 l&1 & fre%-wat] %ells1 ) bones ( fi% & mammalia1 x is cle> t ^! b$s h be5 accumulat$ at ! bottom ( a sea ne> ! m\? ( a riv]4 ,!y =m pat*es r>ely exce$+ tw5ty feet 9 ?ickness1 re/+ on :ite *alk4 ,at _! junction ) ! *alk !re inv>iably int]v5es a b$ call$ ! 8,/one-b$10 compos$ ( unroll$ *alk-fl9ts1 commonly ( l>ge size1 m+l$ ) ! rema9s ( a l& fauna compris+ ,ma/odon arv]n5sis1 ,elephas m]idionalis1 & an ext9ct species ( de]4 ,! ma/odon1 :i* is a species *>act]i/ic ( ! ,plioc5e /rata ( ,italy & ,france1 is ! mo/ abundant fossil1 & "o n f\nd 9 ! ,crom] =e/ be=e m5tion$4 ,:5 ^! fl9ts1 probably long expos$ 9 ! atmosph]e1 became subm]g$1 !y 7 cov]$ ) b>nacles1 & ! surface ( ! *alk became p]=at$ by ! ,pholas crispata1 ea* fossil %ell /ill rema9+ at ! bottom ( its cyl9drical cavity1 n[ fill$ up ) loose s& f ! incumb5t crag4 ,?is species ( ,pholas /ill exi/s1 & drills ! rocks betwe5 high & l[ wat] on ! ,briti% coa/4 ,! "n ( 8,fluvio-m>9e0 has (t5 be5 giv5 to ?is =mation1 z no less ?an tw5ty species ( l& & fre%-wat] %ells h be5 f\nd 9 x4 ,!y are all ( liv+ species2 at lea/ only "o univalve1 ,palud9a l5ta1 has any1 & t a v d\btful1 claim to be reg>d$ z ext9ct4 ,fig4 #aai3 ,nucula ,cobboldi2 ,fig4 #abj3 ,tell9a obliqua4 ,( ! m>9e %ells1 #abd 9 numb]1 ab\t #ah p] c5t are ext9ct1 accord+ to ! late/ e/imate giv5 me by ,mr4 ,se>les ,wood2 b1 = reasons pres5tly to be m5tion$1 ?is p]c5tage mu/ be only reg>d$ z provisional4 ,x mu/ also be borne 9 m9d t ! proportion ( rec5t %ells w\ld be augm5t$ if ! upp]mo/ b$s at ,bram]ton1 ne> ,norwi*1 :i* belong to ! mo/ mod]n or ,*illes=d division ( ! ,crag1 _h be5 includ$1 z !y 7 =m]ly1 by ,mr4 ,woodw>d & myself1 9 ! ,norwi* s]ies4 ,arctic %ells1 :i* =m$ s l>ge a proportion 9 ! ,*illes=d & ,aldeby b$s1 are m r>e 9 ! ,norwi* ,crag1 ?\gh _m nor!rn species--su* z ,rhyn*onella psittacea1 ,scal>ia ,grnl&ica1 ,a/>te borealis1 ,panopa ,norvegia1 & o!rs--/ill occur4 ,! ,nucula ,cobboldi & ,tell9a obliqua1 ,figs4 #aai & #abj1 be=e m5tion$1 p4 #aid1 are frequ5t 9 ^! b$s1 z are also ,littor9a littorea1 ,c>dium edule1 & ,turritella communis1 ( our seas1 prov+ ! littoral orig9 ( ! b$s4 ,,old] ,,plioc5e ,,/rata4 ,r$ ,crag4--,among ! ,engli% ,plioc5e b$s ! next 9 antiquity is ! ,r$ ,crag1 :i* (t5 re/s imm$iately on ! ,london ,clay1 z 9 ! c\nty ( ,essex1 illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #aba4 ,fig4 #aba3 ,r$ ,crag1 ,london clay & *alk4 ,x is *iefly 9 ! c\nty ( ,suffolk t x is f\nd1 r>ely exce$+ tw5ty feet 9 ?ickness1 & sometimes ov]ly+ ano!r ,plioc5e deposit1 ! ,corall9e ,crag1 to be m5tion$ 9 ! sequel4 ,x has yield$--exclusive ( #be species reg>d$ by ,mr4 ,wood z d]ivative--#bef species ( mollusca1 ( :i* #fe1 or #be p] c5t1 are ext9ct4 ,?us1 ap>t f its ord] ( sup]position1 its great] antiquity ?an ! ,norwi* & glacial b$s1 already describ$1 is prov$ by ! great] dep>ture f ! fauna ( our seas4 ,x may also be obs]v$ t 9 mo/ ( ! deposits ( ?is ,r$ ,crag1 ! nor!rn =ms ( ! ,norwi* ,crag1 & ( su* glacial =mations z ,bridl+ton1 are less num]\s1 :ile ^? hav+ a m s\!rn aspect beg9 to make _! appe>ance4 ,bo? ! qu>tzose s&1 ( :i* x *iefly consi/s1 & ! includ$ %ells1 are mo/ commonly di/+ui%$ by a deep f]rug9\s or o*re\s col\r1 :5ce its "n4 ,! %ells are (t5 roll$1 sometimes comm9ut$1 & ! b$s h mu* ! appe>ance ( hav+ be5 %ift+ s&-banks1 l ^? n[ =m+ on ! ,dogg]-bank1 9 ! sea1 sixty miles ea/ ( ! coa/ ( ,nor?umb]l&4 ,cross /ratification is almo/ always pres5t1 ! planes ( ! /rata be+ sometimes direct$ t[>ds "o po9t ( ! compass1 sometimes to ! opposite1 9 b$s imm$iately ov]ly+4 ,t su* a /ructure is n deceptive or due to any subsequ5t concretion>y re>rangem5t ( p>ticles1 or to m]e b&s ( col\r produc$ by ! iron1 is prov$ by ea* b$ be+ made up ( flat pieces ( %ell :i* lie p>allel to ! planes ( ! small] /rata4 ,x has long be5 suspect$ t ! diff]5t pat*es ( ,r$ ,crag are n all ( ! same age1 al?\gh _! *ronological relation _c be decid$ by sup]position4 ,sep>ate masses are *>act]is$ by %ells specifically di/9ct or greatly v>y+ 9 relative abundance1 9 a mann] imply+ t ! deposits conta9+ !m 7 sep>at$ by int]vals ( "t4 ,at ,butley1 ,tun/all1 ,sudb\rn1 & 9 ! ,r$ ,crag ( ,*illes=d1 ! mollusca appe> to assume _! mo/ mod]n aspect :5 ! climate 0 cold] ?an :5 ! e>lie/ deposits ( ! same p]iod 7 =m$4 ,at ,butley1 ,nucula ,cobboldi1 s common 9 ! ,norwi* & c]ta9 glacial b$s1 is f\nd1 & ,purpura tetragona 7,fig4 #abb7 is v abundant4 ,on ! o!r h&1 at ,walton-on-!-,naze1 9 ,essex1 we seem to h an exhibition ( ! olde/ phase ( ! ,r$ ,crag2 & a w>m] climate seems indicat$1 n only by ! abs5ce ( _m nor!rn =ms1 b also by ! abundance ( "s n[ liv+ 9 ! ,briti% seas & ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,voluta ,lamb]ti 7see ,figs4 #abc & #abd71 an ext9ct =m1 :i* seems to h fl\ri%$ *iefly 9 ! antec$5t ,corall9e ,crag p]iod1 is /ill repres5t$ "h by individuals ( e age4 ,fig4 #abb3 ,purpura tetragona4 ,! rev]s$ :elk 7,fig4 #abe7 is common at ,walton1 :]e ! dextral =m ( t %ell is unkn[n4 ,"h also we f9d mo/ frequ5tly specim5s ( lamellibran*iate molluscs1 ) bo? ! valves unit$1 %[+ t !y belong$ to ?is sea ( ! ,upp] ,crag1 & 7 n wa%$ 9 f an old] b$1 su* z ! ,corall9e1 9 :i* case ! ligam5t w\ld n h held toge!r ! valves 9 /rata s (t5 %[+ signs ( ! boi/]\s action ( ! waves4 ,no less ?an =ty species ( lamellibran*iate molluscs1 ) d\ble valves1 h be5 collect$ by ,mr4 ,bell f ! v>i\s localities ( ! ,r$ ,crag4 ,fig4 #abc3 ,voluta ,lamb]ti2 ,fig4 #abd3 ,voluta ,lamb]ti2 ,fig4 #abe3 ,trophon antiquum4 ,at & ne> ! base ( ! ,r$ ,crag is a loose b$ ( br[n nodules1 fir/ notic$ by ,pr(essor ,h5sl[ z conta9+ a l>ge p]c5tage ( e>?y phosphates4 ,?is b$ ( coprolites 7z x is call$1 because !y 7 orig9ally suppos$ to be ! fces ( animals7 does n always occur at "o level1 b is g5]ally 9 l>ge/ quantity at ! junction ( ! ,crag & ! und]ly+ =mation4 ,9 ?ickness x usually v>ies f six to eighte5 in*es1 & 9 "s r>e cases am\nts to _m feet4 ,x has be5 mu* us$ 9 agriculture = manure1 z n only ! nodules1 b _m ( ! sep>ate bones associat$ ) !m1 are l>gely impregnat$ ) phosphate ( lime1 ( :i* !re is sometimes z mu* z sixty p] c5t4 ,!y are n unfrequ5tly cov]$ ) b>nacles1 %[+ t !y 7 n =m$ z concretions 9 ! /ratum :]e !y n[ lie buri$1 b _h be5 previ\sly consolidat$4 ,! phosphatic nodules (t5 collect fossil crabs & fi%es f ! ,london ,clay1 toge!r ) ! tee? ( gigantic %>ks4 ,9 ! same b$ h be5 f\nd _m e>-bones ( :ales1 & ! tee? ( ,ma/odon arv]n5sis1 ,rh9oc]os ,s*lei]ma*]i1 ,tapirus priscus1 & ,hipp>ion 7a quadrup$ ( ! horse family71 & antl]s ( a /ag1 ,c]vus anoc]os4 ,organic rema9s also ( ! old] *alk & ,lias are met )1 %[+ h[ great 0 ! d5udation ( previ\s =mations dur+ ! ,plioc5e p]iod4 ,z ! old] ,:ite ,crag1 pres5tly to be m5tion$1 conta9s simil> phosphatic nodules ne> its base1 ^? ( ! ,r$ ,crag may be p>tly d]iv$ f ?is s\rce4 ,:ite or ,corall9e ,crag4--,! l[] or ,corall9e ,crag is ( v limit$ ext5t1 rang+ ov] an area ab\t tw5ty miles 9 l5g?1 & ?ree or f\r 9 bread?1 betwe5 ! riv]s ,/\r & ,alde1 9 ,suffolk4 ,x is g5]ally calc>e\s & m>ly--(t5 a mass ( comm9ut$ %ells1 & ! rema9s ( bryozoa#b 7or polyzoa71 pass+ occasionally into a s(t build+-/one4 ,at ,sudb\rn & ,g$grave1 ne> ,or=d1 ?is build+-/one has be5 l>gely qu>ri$4 ,at "s places 9 ! neighb\rhood ! s(t] mass is divid$ by ?9 flags ( h>d lime/one1 & bryozoa plac$ 9 ! upright position 9 :i* !y grew4 ,f ! abundance ( ^! coralloid mollusca ! l[e/ or ,:ite ,crag obta9$ its popul> "n1 b true corals1 z n[ def9$1 or zoan?>ia1 are v r>e 9 ?is =mation4 ,! ,corall9e ,crag r>ely1 if ev]1 atta9s a ?ickness ( ?irty feet 9 any "o section4 ,mr4 ,pre/wi* imag9es t if ! b$s f\nd at diff]5t localities 7 unit$ 9 ! probable ord] ( _! succession1 !y might exce$ eighty feet 9 ?ickness1 b ,mr4 ,se>les ,wood does n believe 9 ! possibility ( e/abli%+ su* a *ronological succession by aid ( ! organic rema9s1 & que/ions :e!r pro( c\ld be obta9$ ( m ?an =ty feet4 ,i 0 unable to come to any satisfactory op9ion on ! subject1 al?\gh at ,or=d1 especially at ,g$grave1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( t place1 ,i saw _m sections 9 pits1 :]e ?is crag is cut ?r\gh4 ,^! pits are s unconnect$1 & ( su* limit$ ext5t1 t no cont9u\s section ( any l5g? c be obta9$1 s t speculations z to ! ?ickness ( ! :ole deposit mu/ be v vague4 ,at ! base ( ! =mation at ,sutton a b$ ( phosphatic nodules1 v simil> to t be=e allud$ to 9 ! ,r$ ,crag1 ) rema9s ( mammalia1 has be5 met )4 ,fig4 #abf3 ,section ne> ,woodbridge1 9 ,suffolk4 ,:5ev] ! ,r$ & ,corall9e ,crag occur 9 ! same di/rict1 ! ,r$ ,crag lies upp]mo/2 & 9 "s cases1 z 9 ! section repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #abf1 :i* ,i _h an opportunity ( see+ expos$ to view 9 #ahci1 x is cle> t ! old] deposit1 or ,corall9e ,crag1 b1 _h suff]$ d5udation1 be=e ! new] =mation1 a1 0 ?r[n d[n ^u x4 ,at ,d !re 0 n only se5 a di/9ct cliff1 eight or t5 feet high1 ( ,corall9e ,crag1 runn+ 9 a direction ,n4,e4 & ,s4,w41 aga9/ :i* ! ,r$ ,crag abuts ) its horizontal lay]s1 b ?is cliff occasionally ov]hangs4 ,! rock compos+ x is drill$ ev]y:]e by ,pholades1 ! holes :i* !y p]=at$ hav+ be5 aft]w>ds fill$ ) s&1 & cov]$ ov] :5 ! new] b$s 7 ?r[n d[n4 ,! old] =mation is %[n by its fossils to h accumulat$ 9 a deep] sea1 & conta9s none ( ^? littoral =ms su* z ! limpet1 ,patella1 f\nd 9 ! ,r$ ,crag4 ,s great an am\nt ( d5udation c\ld sc>cely take place1 9 su* incoh]5t mat]ials1 )\t "s ( ! fossils ( ! inf]ior b$s becom+ mix$ up ) ! ov]ly+ crag1 s t consid]able difficulty mu/ be occasionally exp]i5c$ by ! palontologi/ 9 decid+ :i* species belong sev]ally to ea* gr\p4 ,fig4 #abg3 ,fascicul>ia aurantium1 f ! inf]ior or ,corall9e ,crag1 ,suffolk4 ,fig4 #abh3 ,a/>te ,omalii1 species common to ,upp] & ,l[] ,crag4 ,mr4 ,se>les ,wood e/imates ! total numb] ( m>9e te/ace\s mollusca ( ! ,corall9e ,crag at #cej1 ( :i* #aaj are n kn[n z liv+1 be+ 9 ! proportion ( ?irty-"o p] c5t ext9ct4 ,no less ?an #acj species ( bryozoa h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,corall9e ,crag1 & "s belong to g5]a unkn[n 9 ! liv+ creation1 & ( a v peculi> /ructure2 z1 = example1 t repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #abg1 :i* is "o ( sev]al species hav+ a globul> =m4 ,among ! te/acea ! g5us ,a/>te 7see ,fig4 #abh7 is l>gely repres5t$1 no less ?an f\rte5 species be+ kn[n1 & _m ( ^! be+ ri* 9 individuals4 ,!re is an abs5ce ( g5]a peculi> to hot climates1 su* z ,conus1 ,oliva1 ,fasciol>ia1 ,crassatella1 & o!rs4 ,! abs5ce also ( l>ge c[ries 7,cyprea71 ^? f\nd belong+ exclusively to ! section ,trivia1 is rem>kable4 ,! l>ge volute1 call$ ,voluta ,lamb]ti 7,fig4 #abc1 p4 #aif71 may seem an exception2 b x diff]s 9 =m f ! volutes ( ! torrid zone1 &1 l ! liv+ ,voluta ,magellanica1 mu/ h be5 fitt$ = an extra-tropical climate4 ,fig4 #abi3 ,l+ula ,dumorti]i4 ,fig4 #acj3 ,pyrula reticulata4 ,fig4 #aca3 ,temne*9us excavatus4 ,! occurr5ce ( a species ( ,l+ula at ,sutton 7see ,fig4 #abi7 is wor?y ( rem>k1 z ^! ,bra*iopoda seem n[ conf9$ to m equatorial latitudes2 & ! same may be said /ill m decid$ly ( a species ( ,pyrula1 suppos$ by ,mr4 ,wood to be id5tical ) ,p4 reticulata 7,fig4 #acj71 n[ liv+ 9 ! ,indian ,ocean4 ,a g5us also ( e*9od]ms1 call$ by ,pr(essor ,=bes ,temne*9us 7,fig4 #aca71 occurs 9 ! ,r$ & ,corall9e ,crag ( ,suffolk1 & until lately 0 unkn[n 9 a liv+ /ate1 b x has be5 br\ght to light z an exi/+ =m by ! deep-sea dr$g+s1 bo? ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates survey1 (f ,florida1 at a dep? ( f #ahj to #dhj feet1 & m rec5tly 7#ahfi71 9 ! ,briti% seas1 dur+ ! explorations ( ! 8,porcup9e40 ,climate ( ! ,crag ,deposits4--,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ conclusions d$uc$ f a c>eful comp>ison ( ! %ells ( ! ,briti% ,plioc5e /rata & ! fauna ( our pres5t seas has be5 po9t$ out by ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes4 ,x appe>s t1 dur+ ! ,glacial p]iod1 a p]iod int]m$iate1 z we h se51 betwe5 t ( ! ,crag & our own "t1 _m %ells1 previ\sly e/abli%$ 9 ! temp]ate zone1 retreat$ s\?w>d to avoid an uncong5ial climate1 & !y h be5 f\nd fossil 9 ! ,new] ,plioc5e /rata ( ,sicily1 ,s\!rn ,italy1 & ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago1 :]e !y may h enjoy$1 dur+ ! era ( float+ iceb]gs1 a climate resembl+ t n[ prevail+ 9 high] ,european latitudes4#c ,! ,pr(essor gave a li/ ( fifty %ells :i* inhabit$ ! ,briti% seas :ile ! ,corall9e & ,r$ ,crag 7 =m+1 & :i*1 ?\gh n[ liv+ 9 our seas1 7 want+1 z f> z 0 !n kn[n1 9 ! glacial deposits4 ,"s few ( ^! species h subsequ5tly be5 f\nd 9 ! glacial drift1 b ! g5]al conclusion ( ,=bes rema9s un%ak54 ,! transport ( blocks by ice1 :5 ! ,r$ ,crag 0 be+ deposit$1 appe>s to me evid5t f ! l>ge size ( "s huge1 irregul>1 q unr\nd$ *alk fl9ts1 reta9+ _! :ite coat+1 & #b feet long by #ah in*es broad1 9 b$s work$ = phosphatic nodules at ,foxhall1 f\r miles s\?-ea/ ( ,ipswi*4 ,^! mu/ h be5 tranquilly drift$ to ! spot by float+ ice4 ,mr4 ,pre/wi* also m5tions ! occurr5ce ( a l>ge block ( porphyry 9 ! base ( ! ,corall9e ,crag at ,sutton1 :i* w\ld imply t ! ice-action _h begun 9 our seas ev5 9 ?is old] p]iod4 ,! cold seems to h gone on increas+ f ! "t ( ! ,corall9e to t ( ! ,norwi* ,crag1 & became m & m sev]e1 n p]haps )\t "s oscillations ( temp]ature1 until x rea*$ its maximum 9 :at has be5 call$ ! ,glacial p]iod1 or at ! close ( ! ,new] ,plioc5e1 & 9 ! ,po/-plioc5e p]iods4 ,relation ( ! ,fauna ( ! ,crag to t ( ! rec5t ,seas4--,by f> ! great] numb] ( ! rec5t m>9e species occurr+ 9 ! sev]al ,crag =mations are /ill inhabitants ( ! ,briti% seas2 b ev5 ^! diff] consid]ably 9 _! relative abundance1 "s ( ! commone/ ( ! ,crag %ells be+ n[ extremely sc>ce--z1 = example1 ,bucc9um ,dalei--:ile o!rs1 r>ely met ) 9 a fossil /ate1 are n[ v common1 z ,murex er9aceus & ,c>dium e*9atum4 ,"s ( ! species also1 ! id5tity ( :i* ) ! liv+ w\ld n be disput$ by any con*ologi/1 are nev]!less di/+ui%able z v>ieties1 :e!r by slight deviations 9 =m or a diff]5ce 9 av]age dim5sions4 ,s9ce ,mr4 ,se>les ,wood fir/ describ$ ! m>9e te/acea ( ! ,crags1 ! additions made to t fossil fauna h n be5 consid]able1 :]eas we h made 9 ! same p]iod imm5se progress 9 our k ( ! liv+ te/acea ( ! ,briti% & arctic seas1 & ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,by ?is means ! naturali/ has be5 enabl$ to id5tify ) exi/+ species _m =ms previ\sly suppos$ to be ext9ct4 ,9 ! =?com+ supplem5t to ! invaluable monograph communicat$ by ,mr4 ,wood to ! ,palontographical ,society1 9 :i* he has complet$ 8 figures & descriptions ( ! ,briti% crag %ells ( e age1 li/ w be f\nd ( all ! fossil %ells1 ( :i* a summ>y is giv5 9 ! table1 p4 #bjb4 ,to beg9 ) ! upp]mo/ or ,*illes=d b$s1 x w be se5 t ab\t #i p] c5t only are ext9ct1 or n kn[n z liv+1 :]eas 9 ! ,norwi*1 :i* succe$s 9 ! desc5d+ ord]1 sev5te5 9 a hundr$ are ext9ct4 ,=m]ly1 :5 ! ,norwi* or ,fluvio-m>9e ,crag 0 spok5 (1 bo? ^! =mations 7 includ$ "u ! same head1 = bo? at ,bram]ton & ,?orpe1 ! *ief localities :]e ! ,norwi* ,crag 0 /udi$1 an ov]ly+ deposit occurs ref]able to ! ,*illes=d age4 ,if n[ ! two 7 fus$ toge!r z ( old1 _! %ells w\ld1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,wood1 yield a p]c5tage ( fifte5 9 a hundr$ ( species ext9ct or n kn[n z liv+4 ,,numb] ,,( ,,kn[n ,,species ,,( ,,m>9e ,,te/acea ,,9 ,,! ,,crag4 ,,*illes=d ,,& ,,aldeby ,,b$s ,total numb] ,n kn[n z liv+ ,p]c5tage ( ,%ells n kn[n z liv+ ,bivalves #fa #d #ie ,univalves #cc #e ,bra*iopods #j #j ,,norwi* ,,or ,,fluvio-,,m>9e ,,crag ,bivalves #fa #aj #age ,univalves #fd #ab ,bra*iopods #a #j ,,r$ ,,crag 7,exclusive to _m d]ivative %ells7 ,bivalves #abh #ca #bej ,univalves #abg #cc ,bra*iopods #a #a ,,corall9e ,,crag ,bivalves #afa #dg #cae ,univalves #ahd #fj ,bra*iopods #e #c ,to come next to ! ,r$ ,crag1 ! read] w obs]ve t a p]c5tage ( #be is giv5 ( %ells unkn[n z liv+1 & ?is increases to #ca 9 ! antec$5t ,corall9e ,crag4 ,b ! gap betwe5 ^! two /ages ( our ,plioc5e deposits is really wid] ?an ^! numb]s w\ld indicate1 = sev]al reasons4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! ,corall9e ,crag is m /rictly ! product ( a s+le p]iod1 ! ,r$ ,crag1 z we h se51 consi/+ ( sep>ate & indep5d5t pat*es1 slightly v>y+ 9 age1 ( :i* ! newe/ is probably n mu* ant]ior to ! ,norwi* ,crag4 ,secondly1 !re 0 a great *ange ( conditions1 bo? z to ! dep? ( ! sea & climate1 betwe5 ! p]iods ( ! ,corall9e & ,r$ ,crag1 caus+ ! fauna 9 ea* to diff] f> m widely ?an w\ld appe> f ! above num]ical results4 ,! value ( ! analysis giv5 9 ! above table ( ! %ells ( ! ,r$ & ,corall9e ,crags is 9 no small degree enhanc$ by ! fact t !y 7 all ei!r collect$ by ,mr4 ,wood himself1 or obta9$ by him direct f _! discov]]s1 s t he 0 enabl$ 9 ea* case to te/ _! au!nticity1 & z f> z possible to avoid ^? errors :i* arise f conf\nd+ toge!r %ells belong+ to ! sea ( a new] deposit1 & ^? wa%$ into x f a =mation ( old] date4 ,! dang] ( ?is confusion may be conceiv$ :5 we rememb] t ! numb] ( species reject$ f ! ,r$ ,crag z d]ivative by ,mr4 ,wood is no less ?an #be4 ,"s geologi/s h held t on ! same gr\nds x is necess>y to exclude z spuri\s "s ( ! species f\nd 9 ! ,norwi* ,crag prop]2 b ,mr4 ,wood does n ent]ta9 ?is view1 believ+ t ! spuri\s %ells :i* h sometimes f\nd _! way into ! li/s ( ?is crag h be5 introduc$ by want ( c>e f /rata ( ,r$ ,crag4 ,!re c be no d\bt1 on ! o!r h&1 t con*ologi/s h occasionally reject$ f ! ,r$ & ,norwi* ,crags1 z d]ivative1 %ells :i* really belong$ to ! seas ( ^? p]iods1 because !y 7 ext9ct or unkn[n z liv+1 :i* 9 _! eyes af=d$ suffici5t gr\nd = suspect+ !m to be intrud]s4 ,! d]ivative orig9 ( a species may sometimes be indicat$ by ! extreme sc>city ( ! individuals1 _! col\r1 & worn condition2 :]eas an opposite conclusion may be arriv$ at by ! integrity ( ! %ells1 especially :5 !y are ( delicate & t5d] /ructure1 or _! abundance1 &1 9 ! case ( ! lamellibran*iata1 by _! be+ held toge!r by ! ligam5t1 :i* (t5 happ5s :5 ! %ells h be5 s brok5 t little m ?an ! h+es ( ! two valves are pres]v$4 ,z to ! univalves1 ,i h se5 f a pit ( ,r$ ,crag1 ne> ,woodbridge1 a l>ge individual ( ! ext9ct ,voluta ,lamb]ti1 sev5 in*es 9 l5g?1 ( :i* ! lip1 !n p]fect1 _h 9 =m] /ages ( its gr[? be5 frequ5tly brok51 & z (t5 repair$4 ,x _h evid5tly liv$ 9 ! sea ( ! ,r$ ,crag1 :]e x _h be5 expos$ to r\gh usage1 & su/a9$ injuries l ^? :i* ! rev]s$ :elk1 ,trophon antiquum1 s *>act]i/ic ( ! same =mation1 (t5 exhibits4 ,additional pro(s1 h[ev]1 h lately be5 obta9$ by ,mr4 ,se>les ,wood t ?is %ell _h n di$ out 9 ! era ( ! ,r$ ,crag by ! discov]y ( ! same fossil ne> ,s\?wold1 9 b$s ( ! lat] ,norwi* ,crag4 ,antw]p ,crag4--,/rata ( ! same age z ! ,r$ & ,corall9e ,crag ( ,suffolk h be5 long kn[n 9 ! c\ntry r\nd ,antw]p1 & on ! banks ( ! ,s*eldt1 bel[ t city2 & ! l[e/ division1 or ,black ,crag1 !re f\nd1 is %[n by ! %ells to be some:at m anci5t ?an any ( our ,briti% s]ies1 & probably =ms ! fir/ l9ks ( a d[nw>d passage f ! /rata ( ! ,plioc5e to ^? ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e p]iod4 ,fig4 #acb3 ,murex vag9atus ,new] ,plioc5e ,/rata ( ,sicily4--,at sev]al po9ts nor? ( ,catania1 on ! ea/]n sea-coa/ ( ,sicily--z at ,aci-,ca/ello1 = example1 ,trezza1 & ,nizzeti--m>9e /rata1 associat$ ) volcanic tuffs & basaltic lavas1 are se51 :i* belong to a p]iod :5 ! fir/ igne\s eruptions ( ,m\nt ,etna 7 tak+ place 9 a %all[ bay ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,!y conta9 num]\s fossil %ells1 & out ( #adb species t h be5 collect$ all b elev5 are id5tical ) species n[ liv+4 ,"s few ( ^! elev5 %ells may possibly /ill l+] 9 ! dep?s ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 l ,murex vag9atus1 see ,fig4 #acb4 ,! la/-m5tion$ %ell _h already become r>e :5 ! associat$ m>9e & volcanic /rata above allud$ to 7 =m$4 ,on ! :ole1 ! mod]n "* ( ! te/ace\s fauna "u consid]ation is express$ n only by ! small proportion ( ext9ct species1 b by ! relative numb] ( individuals by :i* mo/ ( ! o!r species are repres5t$1 = ! proportion agrees ) t obs]v$ 9 ! pres5t fauna ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! r>ity ( individuals 9 ! ext9ct species is su* z to imply t !y 7 already on ! po9t ( dy+ out1 hav+ fl\ri%$ *iefly 9 ! e>li] ,plioc5e times1 :5 ! ,subap5n9e /rata 7 9 progress4 ,yet s9ce ! accumulation ( ^! ,new] ,plioc5e s&s & clays1 ! :ole cone ( ,etna1 #aa1jjj feet 9 height & ab\t #ij miles 9 circumf]5ce at its base1 has be5 sl[ly built up2 an op]ation requir+ _m t5s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s = its accompli%m5t1 & to e/imate ! magnitude ( :i* x is necess>y to /udy 9 detail ! int]nal /ructure ( ! m\nta91 & to see ! pro(s ( its d\ble axis1 or ! evid5ce ( ! lavas ( ! pres5t great c5tre ( eruption hav+ gradually ov]:elm$ & envelop$ a m anci5t cone1 situat$ #c miles to ! ea/ ( ! pres5t "o4#d ,x appe>s t :ile ,etna 0 increas+ 9 bulk by a s]ies ( eruptions1 its :ole mass1 compris+ ! f\ndations ( subaque\s orig9 above allud$ to1 0 und]go+ a sl[ upheaval1 by :i* ^? m>9e /rata 7 rais$ to ! height ( #abjj feet above ! sea1 z se5 at ,cat]a1 & p]haps to great] heights1 = we _c trace _! ext5sion we/w>d1 ow+ to ! d5se & cont9u\s cov]+ ( mod]n lava "u :i* !y are buri$4 ,dur+ ! gradual rise ( ^! ,new] ,plioc5e =mations 7consi/+ ( clays1 s&s1 & basalts7 o!r /rata ( ,po/-plioc5e date1 m>9e z well z fluviatile1 accumulat$ r\nd ! base ( ! m\nta91 & ^!1 9 _! turn1 p>took ( ! upw>d movem5t1 s t sev]al inl& cliffs & t]races at l[ levels1 due p>tly to ! action ( ! sea & p>tly to ! riv] ,simeto1 orig9at$ 9 succession4 ,fossil rema9s ( ! elephant1 & o!r ext9ct quadrup$s1 h be5 f\nd 9 ^! ,po/-,plioc5e /rata1 associat$ ) rec5t %ells4 ,!re is probably no "p ( ,europe :]e ! ,new] ,plioc5e =mations ent] s l>gely into ! /ructure ( ! e>?'s cru/1 or rise to su* heights above ! level ( ! sea1 z ,sicily4 ,!y cov] ne>ly half ! isl&1 & ne> its c5tre1 at ,ca/rogiovanni1 rea* an elevation ( #cjjj feet4 ,!y consi/ pr9cipally ( two divisions1 ! upp] calc>e\s & ! l[] argillace\s1 bo? ( :i* may be se5 at ,syracuse1 ,girg5ti1 & ,ca/rogiovanni4 ,accord+ to ,philippi1 to :om we are indebt$ = ! be/ acc\nt ( ! t]ti>y %ells ( ?is isl&1 ?irty-five species out ( "o hundr$ & tw5ty-f\r obta9$ f ! b$s 9 c5tral ,sicily are ext9ct4 ,a geologi/1 accu/om$ to see ne>ly all ! ,new] ,plioc5e =mations 9 ! nor? ( ,europe occupy+ l[ gr\nds & v incoh]5t 9 texture1 is naturally surpris$ to behold =mations ( ! same age s solid & /ony1 ( su* ?ickness1 & atta9+ s great an elevation above ! level ( ! sea4 ,! upp] or calc>e\s memb] ( ?is gr\p 9 ,sicily consi/s 9 "s places ( a yell[i%-:ite /one1 l ! ,calcaire ,grossi] ( ,p>is2 9 o!rs1 ( a rock ne>ly z compact z m>ble4 ,its aggregate ?ickness am\nts sometimes to #gjj or #hjj feet4 ,x usually occurs 9 regul> horizontal b$s1 & is occasionally int]sect$ by deep valleys1 su* z ^? ( ,sort9o & ,p5talica1 9 :i* are num]\s cav]ns4 ,! fossils are 9 e /age ( pres]vation1 f %ells reta9+ portions ( _! animal matt] & col\r to o!rs :i* are m]e ca/s4 ,! lime/one passes d[nw>d into a s&/one & conglom]ate1 bel[ :i* is clay & blue m>l1 f :i* p]fect %ells & corals may be dis5gag$4 ,! clay sometimes alt]nates ) yell[ s&4 ,s\? ( ! pla9 ( ,catania is a region 9 :i* ! t]ti>y b$s are int]mix$ ) volcanic matt]1 :i* has be5 = ! mo/ "p ! product ( subm>9e eruptions4 ,x appe>s t1 :ile ! clay1 s&1 & yell[ lime/one be=e m5tion$ 7 9 c\rse ( deposition at ! bottom ( ! sea1 volcanoes bur/ out b5ea? ! wat]s1 l t ( ,graham ,isl&1 9 #ahca1 & ^! explosions recurr$ aga9 & aga9 at di/ant int]vals ( "t4 ,volcanic a%es & s& 7 %[]$ d[n & spread by ! waves & curr5ts s z to =m /rata ( tuff1 :i* are f\nd int]calat$ betwe5 b$s ( lime/one & clay conta9+ m>9e %ells1 ! ?ickness ( ! :ole mass exce$+ #bjjj feet4 ,! fissures ?r\gh :i* ! lava rose may be se5 9 _m places1 =m+ :at are call$ dikes4 ,fig4 #acc3 ,pect5 jacobu ,no %ell is m conspicu\s 9 ^! ,sicilian /rata ?an ! great scallop1 ,pect5 jacobu 7,fig4 #acc71 n[ s common 9 ! neighb\r+ seas4 ,! m we reflect on ! prepond]at+ numb] ( ?is & o!r rec5t %ells1 ! m we are surpris$ at ! great ?ickness1 solidity1 & height above ! sea ( ! rocky masses 9 :i* !y are entomb$1 & ! va/ am\nt ( geographical *ange :i* has tak5 place s9ce _! orig94 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t1 be=e !y began to em]ge1 ! upp]mo/ /rata ( ! :ole mu/ h be5 deposit$ "u wat]4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 to =m a j conception ( _! antiquity1 we mu/ fir/ exam9e s+ly ! innum]able m9ute p>ts ( :i* ! :ole is made up1 ! successive b$s ( %ells1 corals1 volcanic a%es1 conglom]ates1 & %eets ( lava2 & we mu/ aft]w>ds contemplate ! "t requir$ = ! gradual upheaval ( ! rocks1 & ! excavation ( ! valleys4 ,! hi/orical p]iod seems sc>cely to =m an appreciable unit 9 ?is computation1 = we f9d anci5t ,greek temples1 l ^? ( ,girg5ti 7,agrig5tum71 built ( ! mod]n lime/one ( :i* we are speak+1 & re/+ on a hill compos$ ( ! same2 ! site hav+ rema9$ to all appe>ances unalt]$ s9ce ! ,greeks fir/ colonis$ ! isl&4 ,x foll[s1 f ! mod]n geological date ( ^! rocks1 t ! fauna & flora ( a l>ge "p ( ,sicily are ( high] antiquity ?an ! c\ntry itself4 ,! great] "p ( ! isl& has be5 rais$ above ! sea s9ce ! epo* ( exi/+ species1 & ! animals & plants n[ inhabit+ x mu/ h migrat$ f adjac5t c\ntries1 ) ^: productions ! species are n[ id5tical4 ,! av]age duration ( species w\ld seem to be s great t !y are de/9$ to outlive _m important *anges 9 ! configuration ( ! e>?'s surface1 & h5ce ! necessity = ^? innum]able contrivances by :i* !y are enabl$ to ext5d _! range to new l&s z !y are =m$1 & to escape f ^? :i* s9k b5ea? ! sea4 ,new] ,plioc5e ,/rata ( ! ,upp] ,val ,d'arno4--,:5 we asc5d ! ,arno = ab\t t5 miles above ,flor5ce1 we arrive at a deep n>r[ valley call$ ! ,upp] ,val d',arno1 :i* appe>s once to h be5 a lake1 at a "t :5 ! valley bel[ ,flor5ce 0 an arm ( ! sea4 ,! horizontal lacu/r9e /rata ( ?is upp] bas9 are twelve miles long & two broad4 ,! depression :i* !y fill has be5 excavat$ out ( ,eoc5e & ,cretace\s rocks1 :i* =m ev]y:]e ! sides ( ! valley 9 highly incl9$ /ratification4 ,! ?ickness ( ! m mod]n & uncon=mable b$s is ab\t #gej feet1 ( :i* ! upp] #bjj feet consi/ ( ,new] ,plioc5e /rata1 :ile ! l[] are ,old] ,plioc5e4 ,! new] s]ies are made up ( s&s & a conglom]ate call$ 8sans9o40 ,among ! imb$d$ fossil mammalia are ,ma/odon arv]n5sis1 ,elephas m]idionalis1 ,rh9oc]os etruscus1 ,hippopotamus major1 & rema9s ( ! g5]a be>1 hyna1 & felis1 ne>ly all ( :i* occur 9 ! ,crom] =e/-b$ 7see ,*ap4 #ac1 p4 #aia74 ,9 ! same upp] /rata are f\nd1 accord+ to ,m4 ,gaud91 ! leaves & cones ( ,glypto/robus europu1 a plant closely alli$ to ,g4 het]ophyllus1 n[ inhabit+ ! nor? ( ,*9a & ,japan4 ,?is conif] _h a wide range 9 "t1 hav+ be5 trac$ back to ! ,l[] ,mioc5e /rata ( ,switz]l&1 & be+ common at n+5 9 ! ,upp] ,mioc5e1 z we %all see 9 ! sequel 7p4 #bah74 ,old] ,plioc5e ( ,italy4--,subap5n9e ,/rata4--,! ,ap5n9es1 x is well-kn[n1 are compos$ *iefly ( ,second>y or ,mesozoic rocks1 =m+ a *a9 :i* bran*es (f f ! ,ligurian ,alps & passes d[n ! middle ( ! ,italian p59sula4 ,at ! foot ( ^! m\nta9s1 on ! side bo? ( ! ,adriatic & ! ,m$it]ranean1 are f\nd a s]ies ( t]ti>y /rata1 :i* =m1 = ! mo/ "p1 a l9e ( l[ hills occupy+ ! space betwe5 ! old] *a9 & ! sea4 ,broc*i 0 ! fir/ ,italian geologi/ :o describ$ ?is new] gr\p 9 detail1 giv+ x ! "n ( ! ,subap5n9e4 ,?\gh *iefly compos$ ( ,old] ,plioc5e /rata1 x belongs1 nev]!less1 9 "p1 bo? to old] & new] memb]s ( ! t]ti>y s]ies4 ,! /rata1 = example1 ( ! ,sup]ga1 ne> ,tur91 are ,mioc5e2 ^? ( ,a/i & ,p>ma ,old] ,plioc5e1 z is ! blue m>l ( ,si5na2 :ile ! %ells ( ! incumb5t yell[ s& ( ! same t]ritory approa* m ne>ly to ! rec5t fauna ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 & may be ,new] ,plioc5e4 ,we h se5 t mo/ ( ! fossil %ells ( ! ,old] ,plioc5e /rata ( ,suffolk :i* are ( rec5t species are id5tical ) te/acea n[ liv+ 9 ,briti% seas1 yet "s ( !m belong to ,m$it]ranean species1 & a few ev5 ( ! g5]a are ^? ( w>m] climates4 ,we might !re=e expect1 9 /udy+ ! fossils ( correspond+ age 9 c\ntries bord]+ ! ,m$it]ranean1 to f9d among !m "s species & g5]a ( w>m] latitudes4 ,accord+ly1 9 ! m>ls belong+ to ?is p]iod at ,a/i1 ,p>ma1 ,si5na1 & p>ts ( ! ,tuscan & ,roman t]ritories1 we obs]ve ! g5]a ,conus1 ,cypra1 ,/rombus1 ,pyrula1 ,mitra1 ,fasciol>ia1 ,sig>etus1 ,delph9ula1 ,ancill>ia1 ,oliva1 ,t]ebellum1 ,t]ebra1 ,p]na1 ,plicatula1 & ,corbis1 "s *>act]i/ic ( tropical seas1 o!rs repres5t$ by species m num]\s or ( l>g] size ?an ^? n[ prop] to ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,old] ,plioc5e ,flora ( ,italy4--,i h already allud$ to ! ,new] ,plioc5e deposits ( ! ,upp] ,val d',arno above ,flor5ce1 & /at$ t bel[ ^? s&s & conglom]ates1 conta9+ ! rema9s ( ! ,elephas m]idionalis & o!r associat$ quadrup$s1 lie an old] horizontal & con=mable s]ies ( b$s1 :i* may be class$ z ,old] ,plioc5e4 ,!y consi/ ( blue clays ) "s subord9ate lay]s ( lignite1 & exhibit a ri*] flora ?an ! ov]ly+ ,new] ,plioc5e b$s1 & "o rec$+ f>!r f ! exi/+ vegetation ( ,europe4 ,!y also comprise m species common to ! antec$5t ,mioc5e p]iod4 ,among ! g5]a ( fl[]+ plants1 ,m4 ,gaud9 enum]ates p9e1 oak1 ev]gre5 oak1 plum1 plane1 ald]1 elm1 fig1 laurel1 maple1 walnut1 bir*1 buck?orn1 hickory1 suma*1 s>sap>illa1 sassafras1 c9namon1 ,glypto/robus1 ,taxodium1 ,sequoia1 ,p]sea1 ,oreodaphne 7,fig4 #acd71 ,cassia1 & ,psoralea1 & "s o!rs4 ,?is assemblage ( plants indicates a w>m climate1 b n s subtropical an "o z t ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e p]iod1 :i* w pres5tly be consid]$4 ,fig4 #acd3 ,creodaphne ,he]ii4 ,fig4 #ace3 ,liquidamb> europum1 v>4 trilobatum ,fig4 #acd3 ,creodaphne ,he]ii4 ,leaf#e ,fig4 #ace3 ,liquidamb> europum1 v>4 trilobatum1 ,a4 ,br4 7sometimes f\r-lob$1 & m commonly five-lob$74 a4 ,leaf4 b4 ,"p ( same4 c4 ,fruit4 d4 ,se$ n+54 ,m4 ,gaud91 jo9tly ) ! ,m>quis ,/rozzi1 has ?r[n mu* light on ! botany ( b$s ( ! same age 9 ano!r "p ( ,tuscany1 at a place call$ ,montajone1 betwe5 ! riv]s ,elsa & ,evola1 :]e1 among o!r plants1 is f\nd ! ,oreodaphne ,he]ii1 ,gaud4 7see ,fig4 #acd71 :i* is probably only a v>iety ( ,oreodaphne foet5s1 or ! laurel call$ ! ,til 9 ,madeira1 :]e1 z 9 ! ,can>ies1 x con/itutes a l>ge portion ( ! native woods1 b _c n[ endure ! climate ( ,europe4 ,9 ! fossil specim5s ! same gl&s or protub]ances are pres]v$#f 7see ,fig4 #acd7 z ^? :i* are se5 9 ! axils ( ! prim>y ve9s ( ! leaves 9 ! rec5t ,til4 ,ano!r plant also indicat+ a w>m] climate is ! ,liquidamb> europum1 ,brong4 7see ,fig4 #ace71 a species ne>ly alli$ to ,l4 /yracifluum1 ,l41 :i* fl\ri%es 9 mo/ places 9 ! ,s\!rn ,/ates ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 on ! bord]s ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 #a ,see ,antiquity ( ,man1 *ap4 xiv4 #b ,ehr5b]g propos$ 9 #ahca ! t]m ,bryoz\m1 or 8,moss-animal10 = ! mollusc\s or ascidian =m ( polyp1 *>act]is$ by hav+ two op5+s to ! dige/ive sack1 z 9 ,es*>a1 ,flu/ra1 ,retepora1 & o!r zoophytes popul>ly includ$ 9 ! corals1 b n[ class$ by naturali/s z mollusca4 ,! t]m ,polyz\m1 synonym\s ) ,bryoz\m1 01 x seems1 propos$ 9 #ahcj1 or ! ye> be=e1 by ,mr4 ,j4 ,o4 ,?ompson4 #c ,e4 ,=bes ,mem4 ,geol4 ,survey ( ,gt4 ,brit41 vol4 i1 p4 #chf4 #d ,see a ,memoir on ! ,lavas & ,mode ( ,orig9 ( ,m\nt ,etna by ! ,au?or 9 ,phil4 ,trans41 #aheh4 #e ,feuilles fossiles de la ,toscane4 #f ,contributions la ,flore fossile ,itali5ne4 ,gaud9 & ,/rozzi4 ,plate #aa1 ,fig4 #c4 ,gaud91 p4 #bb4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,mioc5e ,,p]iod--,,upp] ,,mioc5e4 ,upp] ,mioc5e ,/rata ( ,france--,faluns ( ,t\ra9e4 -- ,tropical ,climate impli$ by ,te/acea4 -- ,proportion ( rec5t ,species ( ,%ells4 -- faluns m anci5t ?an ! ,suffolk ,crag4 -- ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ,bordeaux & ! ,s\? ( ,france4 -- ,upp] ,mioc5e ( n+51 9 ,switz]l&4 -- ,plants ( ! ,upp] ,fre%-wat] ,molasse4 -- ,fossil ,fruit & ,fl[]s z well z ,leaves4 -- ,insects ( ! ,upp] ,molasse4 -- ,middle or ,m>9e ,molasse ( ,switz]l&4 -- ,upp] ,mioc5e ,b$s ( ! ,bold]b]g1 9 ,belgium4 -- ,vi5na ,bas94 -- ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ,italy & ,greece4 -- ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ,india2 ,siwalik ,hills4 -- ,old] ,plioc5e & ,mioc5e ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,upp] ,mioc5e ,/rata ( ,france--,faluns ( ,t\ra9e4--,! /rata :i* we meet ) next 9 ! desc5d+ ord] are ^? call$ by _m geologi/s 8,middle ,t]ti>y10 = :i* 9 #ahcc ,i propos$ ! "n ( ,mioc5e1 select+ ! 8faluns0 ( ! valley ( ! ,loire1 9 ,france1 z my example or type4 ,i %all n[ call ^! falunian deposits ,upp] ,mioc5e1 to di/+ui% !m f o!rs to :i* ! "n ( ,l[] ,mioc5e w be giv54 ,no ,briti% /rata h a di/9ct claim to be reg>d$ z ,upp] ,mioc5e1 & z ! ,l[] ,mioc5e are also b feebly repres5t$ 9 ! ,briti% ,isles1 we mu/ ref] to =eign examples 9 illu/ration ( ?is important p]iod 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,! t]m 8faluns0 is giv5 prov9cially by ,fr5* agriculturi/s to %elly s& & m>l spread ov] ! l& 9 ,t\ra9e1 j z simil> %elly deposits 7 =m]ly mu* us$ 9 ,suffolk to f]tilise ! soil1 be=e ! coprolitic or phosphatic nodules came into use4 ,isolat$ masses ( su* faluns occur f ne> ! m\? ( ! ,loire1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,nantes1 to z f> inl& z a di/rict s\? ( ,t\rs4 ,!y are also f\nd at ,pontlevoy1 on ! ,*]1 ab\t sev5ty miles above ! junction ( t riv] ) ! ,loire1 & ?irty miles s\?-ea/ ( ,t\rs4 ,deposits ( ! same age also appe> "u new m9]al conditions ne> ! t[ns ( ,d9an & ,r5nes1 9 ,brittany4 ,i h visit$ all ! localities above enum]at$1 & f\nd ! b$s on ! ,loire to consi/ pr9cipally ( s& & m>l1 9 :i* are %ells & corals1 "s entire1 "s roll$1 & o!rs 9 m9ute fragm5ts4 ,9 c]ta9 di/ricts1 z at ,d\1 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,ma9e & ,loire1 t5 miles s\?-we/ ( ,saumur1 !y =m a s(t build+-/one1 *iefly compos$ ( an aggregate ( brok5 %ells1 bryozoa1 corals1 & e*9od]ms1 unit$ by a calc>e\s cem5t2 ! :ole mass be+ v l ! ,corall9e ,crag ne> ,aldbor\gh1 & ,sudb\rn 9 ,suffolk4 ,! scatt]$ pat*es ( faluns are ( slight ?ickness1 r>ely exce$+ fifty feet2 & betwe5 ! di/rict call$ ,sologne & ! sea !y repose on a great v>iety ( old] rocks2 be+ se5 to re/ successively ^u gneiss1 clay-slate1 v>i\s second>y =mations1 includ+ ! *alk2 &1 la/ly1 ^u ! upp] fre%-wat] lime/one ( ! ,p>isian t]ti>y s]ies1 :i*1 z be=e m5tion$ 7p4 #adb71 /ret*es cont9u\sly f ! bas9 ( ! ,se9e to t ( ! ,loire4 ,fig4 #acf3 ,d9o!rium giganteum4 ,at "s po9ts1 z at ,l\ans1 s\? ( ,t\rs1 ! %ells are /a9$ ( a f]rug9\s col\r1 n unlike t ( ! ,r$ ,crag ( ,suffolk4 ,! species are1 = ! mo/ "p1 m>9e1 b a few ( !m belong to l& & fluviatile g5]a4 ,among ! =m]1 ,helix turon5sis7 7,fig4 #ch7 is ! mo/ abundant4 ,rema9s ( t]re/rial quadrup$s are "h & !re int]mix$1 belong+ to ! g5]a ,d9o!rium 7,fig4 #acf71 ,ma/odon1 ,rh9oc]os1 ,hippopotamus1 ,*ropotamus1 ,di*obune1 ,de]1 & o!rs1 & ^! are accompani$ by cetacea1 su* z ! ,lamant91 ,morse1 ,sea-calf1 & ,dolph91 all ( ext9ct species4 ,! fossil te/acea ( ! faluns ( ! ,loire imply1 accord+ to ! late ,edw>d ,=bes1 t ! b$s 7 =m$ p>tly on ! %ore itself at ! level ( l[ wat]1 & p>tly at v mod]ate dep?s1 n exce$+ t5 fa?oms bel[ t level4 ,! molluscan fauna is1 on ! :ole1 mu* m littoral ?an t ( ! ,plioc5e ,r$ & ,corall9e ,crag ( ,suffolk1 & implies a %all[] sea4 ,x is1 moreov]1 contra/$ ) ! ,suffolk ,crag by ! indications x af=ds ( an extra-,european climate4 ,?us x conta9s sev5 species ( ,cypra1 "s l>g] ?an any exi/+ c[ry ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 sev]al species ( ,oliva1 ,ancill>ia1 ,mitra1 ,t]ebra1 ,pyrula1 ,fasciol>ia1 & ,conus4 ,( ! cones !re are no less ?an eight species1 "s v l>ge1 :]eas ! only ,european cone n[ liv+ is ( dim9utive size4 ,! g5us ,n]ita1 & _m o!rs1 are also repres5t$ by individuals ( a type n[ *>act]i/ic ( equatorial seas1 & :olly unlike any ,m$it]ranean =ms4 ,^! pro(s ( a m elevat$ temp]ature seem to imply ! high] antiquity ( ! faluns z comp>$ ) ! ,suffolk ,crag1 & are 9 p]fect accordance ) ! fact ( ! small] proportion ( te/acea ( rec5t species f\nd 9 ! faluns4 ,out ( #bij species ( %ells1 collect$ by myself 9 #ahdj at ,pontlevoy1 ,l\ans1 ,bosse1 & o!r villages tw5ty miles s\? ( ,t\rs1 & at ,savign1 ab\t fifte5 miles nor?-we/ ( t place1 sev5ty-two only c\ld be id5tifi$ ) rec5t species1 :i* is 9 ! proportion ( tw5ty-five p] c5t4 ,a l>ge numb] ( ! #bij species are common to all ! localities1 ^? peculi> to ea* n be+ m num]\s ?an we might expect to f9d 9 diff]5t bays ( ! same sea4 ,! total numb] ( species ( te/ace\s mollusca f ! faluns 9 my possession is #cjb1 ( :i* =ty-five only1 or f\rte5 p] c5t1 7 f\nd by ,mr4 ,wood to be common to ! ,suffolk ,crag4 ,! numb] ( corals1 includ+ bryozoa & zoan?>ia1 obta9$ by me at ,d\ & o!r localities be=e adv]t$ to1 am\nts to =ty-?ree1 z det]m9$ by ,mr4 ,lonsdale1 ( :i* sev5 7"o ( !m a zoan?>ian7 agree specifically ) ^? ( ! ,suffolk ,crag4 ,"s ( ! g5]a occurr+ fossil 9 ,t\ra9e1 z ! corals ,a/rea & ,d5drophyllia1 & ! bryozoan ,lunulites1 h n be5 f\nd 9 ,european seas nor? ( ! ,m$it]ranean2 nev]!less1 ! zoan?>ia ( ! faluns d n seem to indicate1 on ! :ole1 s w>m a climate z w\ld be inf]r$ f ! %ells4 ,x 0 /at$ t1 on comp>+ ab\t #cjj species ( ,t\ra9e %ells ) ab\t #dej f ! ,suffolk ,crag1 =ty-five only 7 f\nd to be common to bo?1 :i* is 9 ! proportion ( only fifte5 p] c5t4 ,! same small am\nt ( agreem5t is f\nd 9 ! corals also4 ,i =m]ly endeav\r$ to reconcile ?is m>k$ diff]5ce 9 species ) ! suppos$ co-exi/5ce ( ! two faunas1 by imag9+ !m to h sev]ally belong$ to di/9ct zoological prov9ces or two seas1 ! "o op5+ to ! nor? & ! o!r to ! s\?1 ) a b>ri] ( l& betwe5 !m1 l ! ,i/hmus ( ,suez1 n[ sep>at+ ! ,r$ ,sea & ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,b ,i n[ ab&on t idea = sev]al reasons2 among o!rs1 because ,i succe$$ 9 #ahda 9 trac+ ! ,crag fauna s\?w>d 9 ,norm&y to )9 sev5ty miles ( ! ,falunian type1 ne> ,d9an1 yet f\nd t bo? assemblages ( fossils reta9$ _! di/9ctive *>act]s1 %[+ no signs ( any bl5d+ ( species or transition ( climate4 ,! pr9cipal gr\nds1 h[ev]1 = ref]r+ ! ,engli% ,crag to ! old] ,plioc5e & ! ,fr5* faluns to ! ,upp] ,mioc5e epo*s1 consi/ 9 ! pr$om9ance ( fossil %ells 9 ! ,briti% /rata id5tifiable ) species n only /ill liv+1 b :i* are n[ inhabitants ( neighb\r+ seas1 :ile ! accompany+ ext9ct species are ( g5]a su* z *>act]ise ,europe4 ,9 ! faluns1 on ! contr>y1 ! rec5t species are 9 a decid$ m9ority2 & mo/ ( !m are n[ inhabitants ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 ! coa/ ( ,africa1 & ! ,indian ,ocean2 9 a ^w1 less nor!rn 9 "*1 & po9t+ to ! preval5ce ( a w>m] climate4 ,!y indicate a /ate ( ?+s rec$+ f>!r f ! pres5t condition ( ,c5tral ,europe 9 physical geography & climate1 & d\btless1 !re=e1 rec$+ f>!r f our era 9 "t4 ,fig4 #acg3 ,voluta ,lamb]ti4 ,among ! conspicu\s fossils common to ! faluns ( ! ,loire & ! ,suffolk ,crag is a v>iety ( ! ,voluta ,lamb]ti1 a %ell already allud$ to 7,fig4 #abc74 ,! specim5s ( ?is %ell :i* ,i h myself collect$ 9 ,t\ra9e1 or h se5 9 museums1 are ?ick] & heavi] ?an ,briti% individuals ( ! same species1 & %ort] 9 proportion to _! wid?1 & h ! folds on ! columella less oblique1 z repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #acg4 ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ,bordeaux & ! ,s\? ( ,france4--,a great ext5t ( c\ntry betwe5 ! ,pyr5ees & ! ,gironde is ov]spread by t]ti>y deposits ( v>i\s ages1 & *iefly ( ,mioc5e date4 ,"s ( ^!1 ne> ,bordeaux1 co9cide 9 age ) ! faluns ( ,t\ra9e1 already m5tion$1 b _m ( ! species ( %ells are peculi> to ! s\?4 ,! succession ( b$s 9 ! bas9 ( ! ,gironde implies sev]al oscillations ( level by :i* ! same wide area 0 alt]nately conv]t$ into sea & l& & into bracki%-wat] lagoons1 & f9ally into fre%-wat] ponds & lakes4 ,among ! fre%-wat] /rata ( ?is age ne> ! base ( ! ,pyr5ees are m>ls1 lime/ones & s&s1 9 :i* ! em95t comp>ative anatomi/1 ,m4 ,l>tet1 has obta9$ a great numb] ( fossil mammalia common to ! faluns ( ! ,loire & ! ,upp] ,mioc5e b$s ( ,switz]l&1 su* z ,d9o!rium giganteum & ,ma/odon angu/id5s2 also ! bones ( quadrumana1 or ( ! ape & monkey tribe1 :i* 7 discov]$ 9 #ahcg1 ! fir/ ( t ord] ( quadrup$s detect$ 9 ,europe4 ,!y 7 f\nd ne> ,au*1 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,g]s1 9 latitude #dc #ci ,n4 ,ab\t =ty miles we/ ( ,t\l\se4 ,!y 7 ref]r$ by ,,mm4 ,l>tet & ,bla9ville to a g5us closely alli$ to ! ,gibbon1 to :i* !y gave ! "n ( ,pliopi!cus4 ,subsequ5tly1 9 #ahef1 ,m4 ,l>tet describ$ ano!r species ( ! same family ( long-arm$ apes 7,hylobates71 :i* he obta9$ f /rata ( ! same age at ,sa9t-,gaud5s1 9 ! ,haute ,g>onne4 ,! fossil rema9s ( ?is animal consi/$ ( a portion ( a l[] jaw ) tee? & ! %aft ( a hum]us4 ,x is suppos$ to h be5 a tree-climb+ frugivor\s ape1 equall+ man 9 /ature4 ,z ! trunks ( oaks are common 9 ! lignite b$s 9 :i* x lay1 x has receiv$ ! g5]ic "n ( ,dryopi!cus4 ,! angle =m$ by ! asc5d+ ramus ( ! jaw & ! alveol> bord] is less op51 & !re=e m l ! human subject1 ?an 9 ! ,*impanzee1 & :at is /ill m rem>kable1 ! fossil1 a "y b adult individual1 _h all its milk tee? replac$ by ! second set1 :ile its la/ true mol> 7or wisdom-too?7 0 /ill undevelop$1 or only exi/$ z a g]m 9 ! jaw-bone4 ,9 ! mode1 !re=e1 ( ! succession ( its tee? 7:i*1 z 9 all ! old-,_w apes1 exactly agree 9 numb] ) ^? 9 man7 x diff]$ f ! ,gorilla & ,*impanzee1 & correspond$ ) ! human species4 ,upp] ,mioc5e ,b$s ( n+51 9 ,switz]l&4--,! faluns ( ! ,loire fir/ s]v$1 z already /at$ 7p4 #baa71 z ! type ( ! ,mioc5e =mations 9 ,europe4 ,!y yield$ a pl5tiful h>ve/ ( m>9e fossil %ells & corals1 b 7 entirely b>r5 ( plants & insects4 ,9 ,switz]l&1 on ! o!r h&1 deposits ( ! same age h be5 discov]$1 rem>kable = _! botanical & entomological treasures4 ,we are indebt$ to ,pr(essor ,he]1 ( ,zuri*1 = ! description1 re/oration1 & classification ( sev]al hundr$ species & v>ieties ( ^! fossil plants1 ! :ole ( :i* he has illu/rat$ by excell5t figures 9 8 8,flora ,t]ti>ia ,helveti40 ,?is great "w1 & ^? ( ,adolphe ,brongni>t1 ,ung]1 ,gopp]t & o!rs1 %[ t ?is class ( fossils is beg9n+ to play ! same important "p 9 ! classification ( ! t]ti>y /rata conta9+ lignite or br[n coal z an old] flora has long play$ 9 enabl+ u to und]/& ! anci5t coal or c>bonif]\s =mation4 ,no small skepticism has always prevail$ among botani/s z to :e!r ! leaves alone & ! wood ( plants c\ld ev] af=d suffici5t data = det]m9+ ev5 g5]a & families 9 ! vegetable k+dom4 ,9 tru?1 be=e su* rema9s c\ld be r5d]$ available a new sci5ce _h to be creat$4 ,x 0 necess>y to /udy ! outl9es1 n]vation1 & microscopic /ructure ( ! leaves1 ) a degree ( c>e :i* _h nev] be5 call$ = 9 ! classification ( liv+ plants1 :]e ! fl[] & fruit af=d$ *>act]s s mu* m def9ite & satisfactory4 ,z geologi/s1 we _c be too grateful to ^? :o1 in/ead ( despair+ :5 s difficult a task 0 pres5t$ to !m1 or be+ disc\rag$ :5 m5 ( ! highe/ sci5tific atta9m5ts treat$ ! fossil leaves z wor?less1 ent]$ ) full fai? & en?usiasm into ?is new & unexplor$ field4 ,t !y %\ld frequ5tly h fall5 into errors 0 unavoidable1 b x is rem>kable1 especially if we inquire into ! hi/ory ( ,pr(essor ,he]'s rese>*es1 h[ (t5 e>ly conjectures z to ! g5us & family f\nd$ on ! leaves alone 7 aft]w>ds confirm$ :5 full] in=mation 0 obta9$4 ,z examples to be f\nd on comp>+ ,he]'s e>li] & lat] works1 ,i may in/ance ! *e/nut1 elm1 maple1 c9namon1 magnolia1 buckbean or ,m5yan!s1 v9e1 buck?orn 7,rhamnus71 ,&rom$a & ,myrica1 & among ! conif]s ,sequoia & ,taxodium4 ,9 all ^! cases ! plants 7 fir/ recognis$ by _! leaves1 & ! accuracy ( ! det]m9ation 0 aft]w>ds confirm$ :5 ! fruit1 & 9 "s in/ances bo? fruit & fl[]1 7 f\nd atta*$ to ! same /em z ! leaves4 ,b let u suppose t no fruit1 se$1 or fl[] _h ev] be5 met ) 9 a fossil /ate1 we %\ld /ill h be5 indebt$ to ! p]sev]+ lab\rs ( botanical palontologi/s = "o ( ! gr&e/ sci5tific discov]ies = :i* ! pres5t c5tury is rem>kable--namely1 ! pro(s n[ e/abli%$ ( ! preval5ce ( a mild climate & a ri* arboresc5t flora 9 ! arctic regions 9 t ,mioc5e epo* on ! hi/ory ( :i* we are n[ ent]+4 ,x may be useful if ,i endeav\r to give ! read] 9 a few words "s idea ( ! nature ( ! evid5ce ( ^! important conclusions1 to %[ h[ f> !y may be safely bas$ on fossil leaves alone4 ,:5 we beg9 by /udy+ ! fossils ( ! ,new] ,plioc5e deposits1 su* z ^? ( ! ,upp] ,val d',arno1 be=e allud$ to1 we p]ceive t ! fossil foliage agrees almo/ entirely ) ! trees & %rubs ( a mod]n ,european =e/4 ,9 ! plants ( ! ,old] ,plioc5e /rata ( ! same region we obs]ve a l>g] proportion ( species & g5]a :i*1 al?\gh !y may agree ) well-kn[n ,asiatic or o!r =eign types1 are at pres5t want+ 9 ,italy4 ,if we !n exam9e ! ,mioc5e =mations ( ! same c\ntry1 exotic =ms become m abundant1 especially ! palms1 :e!r !y belong to ! ,european or ,am]ican fan-palms1 ,*amrops & ,sabal1 or to ! m tropical family ( ! date-palms or ,phnicites1 :i* la/ are conspicu\s 9 ! ,l[] ,mioc5e b$s ( ,c5tral ,europe4 ,al?\gh we h n f\nd ! fruit or fl[] ( ^! palms 9 a fossil /ate1 ! leaves are s *>act]i/ic t no "o d\bts ! family to :i* !y belong1 or hesitates to accept !m z indications ( a w>m & sub-tropical climate4 ,:5 ! ,mioc5e =mations are trac$ to ! nor?w>d ( ! #ej? degree ( latitude1 ! fossil palms fail u1 b ! great] proportion ( ! leaves1 :e!r id5tical ) ^? ( exi/+ ,european trees or ( =ms n[ unkn[n 9 ,europe1 :i* _h accompani$ ! ,mioc5e palms1 /ill cont9ue to *>act]ise rocks ( ! same age1 until we meet ) !m n only 9 ,icel&1 b 9 ,gre5l&1 9 latitude #gj ,n41 & 9 ,spitzb]g51 latitude #gh #ef1 or )9 ab\t #aa degrees ( ! pole1 & "u circum/ances :i* cle>ly %[ !m to h be5 indig5\s 9 ^? regions1 & n to h be5 drift$ f ! s\? 7see p4 #bdj74 ,n only1 !re=e1 has ! botani/ af=d$ ! geologi/ mu* palontological assi/ance 9 id5tify+ di/9ct t]ti>y =mations 9 di/ant places by 8 p[] ( accurately discrim9at+ ! =ms1 ve9+1 & microscopic /ructure ( leaves or wood1 b1 indep5d5tly ( t exact k d]ivable f ! organs ( fructification1 we are indebt$ to him = "o ( ! mo/ novel1 unexpect$ results ( mod]n sci5tific inquiry4 ,! ,mioc5e =mations ( ,switz]l& h be5 call$ ,molasse1 a t]m d]iv$ f ! ,fr5* mol1 & appli$ to a s(t1 incoh]5t1 gre5i% s&/one1 occupy+ ! c\ntry betwe5 ! ,alps & ! ,jura4 ,?is molasse comprises ?ree divisions1 ( :i* ! middle "o is m>9e1 & be+ closely relat$ by its %ells to ! faluns ( ,t\ra9e1 may be class$ z ,upp] ,mioc5e4 ,! two o!rs are fre%-wat]1 ! upp] ( :i* may be also gr\p$ ) ! faluns1 :ile ! l[] mu/ be ref]r$ to ! ,l[] ,mioc5e1 z def9$ 9 ! next *apt]4 ,upp] ,fre%-wat] ,molasse4--,?is =mation is be/ se5 at n+51 9 ! valley ( ! ,rh9e1 betwe5 ,con/ance & ,s*affhaus51 a locality celebrat$ = hav+ produc$ 9 ! ye> #agjj ! suppos$ human skeleton call$ by ,s*eu*z] 8homo diluvii te/is10 a fossil aft]w>ds demon/rat$ by ,cuvi] to be a reptile1 or aquatic salam&]1 ( l>g] dim5sions ?an ev5 its great liv+ repres5tative1 ! salam&] ( ,japan4 ,! n+5 /rata consi/ ( a s]ies ( m>ls & lime/ones1 _m ( !m ?9ly lam9at$1 & :i* appe> to h sl[ly accumulat$ 9 a lake probably f$ by spr+s hold+ c>bonate ( lime 9 solution4 ,! elliptical area ov] :i* ?is fre%-wat] =mation has be5 trac$ ext5ds1 accord+ to ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison1 = a di/ance ( t5 miles ea/ & we/ f ,b]l+51 on ! "r bank ( ! riv] to ,wang51 & to n+51 ne> ,/e91 on ! left bank4 ,! organic rema9s h be5 *iefly d]iv$ f two qu>ries1 ! l[] ( :i* is ab\t #eej feet above ! level ( ! ,lake ( ,con/ance1 :ile ! upp] qu>ry is #aej feet high]4 ,9 ?is la/1 a section ?irty feet deep displays a great succession ( b$s1 mo/ ( !m splitt+ into slabs & "s into v ?9 lam94 ,tw5ty-"o b$s are enum]at$ by ,pr(essor ,he]1 ! upp]mo/ a blui%-grey m>l sev5 feet ?ick1 ) organic rema9s1 re/+ on a lime/one ) fossil plants1 includ+ leaves ( popl>1 c9namon1 & pond-we$ 7,potamogeton71 toge!r ) "s insects2 :ile 9 ! b$ ,no4 #d1 bel[1 is a bitum9\s rock1 9 :i* ! ,ma/odon tapiroides1 a *>act]i/ic ,upp] ,mioc5e quadrup$1 has be5 met )4 ,! #e? b$1 two or ?ree in*es ?ick1 conta9s fossil fi%1 e4g41 ,leuciscus 7roa*71 & ! l>v ( dragon-flies1 ) plants su* z ! elm 7,ulmus71 & ! aquatic ,*>a4 ,bel[ ?is are o!r plant-b$s2 & !n1 9 ,no4 #i1 ! /one 9 :i* ! great salam&] 7,&rias ,s*eu*z]i7 & "s fi% 7 f\nd4 ,bel[ ?is o!r /rata occur ) fi%1 tortoises1 ! great salam&] be=e allud$ to1 fre%-wat] mussels1 & plants4 ,9 ,no4 #af ! fossil fox ( n+51 ,galecynus n+5sis1 ,ow51 0 obta9$ by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison4 ,to ?is succe$ o!r b$s ) mammalia 7,lagomys71 reptiles1 7,emys71 fi%1 & plants1 su* z walnut1 maple1 & popl>4 ,9 ! #ai? b$ are num]\s fi%1 insects1 & plants1 bel[ :i* are m>ls ( a blue indigo col\r4 ,9 ! l[] qu>ry elev5 b$s are m5tion$1 9 :i*1 z 9 ! upp]1 bo? l& & fre%-wat] plants & _m insects occur4 ,9 ! #f?1 reckon+ f ! top1 _m plants h be5 obta9$1 su* z ,liquidamb>1 ,daphnog5e1 ,podogonium1 & ,ulmus1 toge!r ) tortoises1 besides ! bones & tee? ( a rum9ant quadrup$1 nam$ by ,h4 von ,mey] ,palom]yx em95s4 ,no4 #i is call$ ! insect-b$1 a lay] only a few in*es ?ick1 :i*1 :5 expos$ to ! fro/1 splits into leaves z ?9 z pap]4 ,9 ^! ?9 lam9 plants su* z ,liquidamb>1 ,daphnog5e1 & ,glypto/robus1 occur1 ) innum]able insects 9 a wond]ful /ate ( pres]vation1 usually f\nd s+ly4 ,bel[ ?is is an indigo-blue m>l1 l t at ! bottom ( ! high] qu>ry1 re/+ on yell[ m>l asc]ta9$ to be at lea/ ?irty feet ?ick4 ,fig4 #ach3 ,c9namomum polymorphum4 ,all ! above fossil-be>+ /rata 7 evid5tly =m$ ) extreme sl[ness4 ,al?\gh ! fossilif]\s b$s are1 9 ! aggregate1 no m ?an a few y>ds 9 ?ickness1 & h only be5 exam9$ 9 ! small area compris$ 9 ! two qu>ries j allud$ to1 !y give u an insight into ! /ate ( animal & vegetable life 9 "p ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e p]iod1 su* z no o!r region 9 ! _w has else:]e suppli$4 ,9 ! ye> #ahei1 ,pr(essor ,he] _h already det]m9$ no less ?an #dge species ( plants & m ?an #hjj insects f ^! n+5 b$s4 ,he supposes t a riv] ent]+ a lake float$ into x "s ( ! leaves & l& insects1 toge!r ) ! c>casses ( quadrup$s1 among o!rs a great ,ma/odon4 ,occasionally1 dur+ tempe/s1 twigs & ev5 b\ghs ( trees ) _! leaves 7 torn (f & c>ri$ = "s di/ance s z to rea* ! lake4 ,spr+s1 conta9+ c>bonate ( lime1 seem at "s po9ts to h suppli$ calc>e\s matt] 9 solution1 giv+ orig9 locally to a k9d ( trav]t91 9 :i* organic bodies s9k+ to ! bottom became h]metically seal$ up4 ,! lam91 says ,he]1 :i* imm$iately succe$ ea* o!r 7 n all =m$ at ! same season1 = x c be %[n t1 :5 "s ( !m orig9at$1 c]ta9 plants 7 9 fl[]1 :]eas1 :5 ! next ( ^! lay]s 0 produc$1 ! same plants _h rip5$ _! fruit4 ,?is inf]5ce is confirm$ by indep5d5t pro(s d]iv$ f insects4 ,! pr9cipal insect-b$ is r>ely two in*es ?ick1 & is compos$1 says ,he]1 ( ab\t #bej leaf-l lam91 "s ( :i* 7 deposit$ 9 ! spr+1 :5 ! ,c9namomum polymorphum 7,fig4 #ach7 0 9 fl[]1 o!rs 9 summ]1 :5 w+$ ants 7 num]\s1 & :5 ! popl> & will[ _h matur$ _! se$2 o!rs1 aga91 9 autumn1 :5 ! same ,c9namomum polymorphum 7,fig4 #ach7 0 9 fruit1 z well z ! liquidamb>1 oak1 clematis1 & _m o!r plants4 ,! anci5t lake seems to h _h a belt ( popl>s & will[s r\nd its bord]s1 c\ntless leaves ( :i* 7 imb$d$ 9 mud1 & toge!r ) !m1 at "s po9ts1 a species ( re$1 ,arundo1 :i* 0 v common4 ,"o ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic %rubs is a papilionace\s & legum9\s plant ( an ext9ct g5us1 call$ by ,he] ,podogonium1 ( :i* two species are kn[n4 ,entire twigs h be5 f\nd ) fl[]s1 & always )\t leaves1 z ! fl[]s evid5tly came out1 z 9 ! popl> & will[ tribe1 be=e any leaves made _! appe>ance4 ,o!r specim5s h be5 obta9$ ) ripe fruits accompani$ by leaves1 :i* resemble ^? ( ! tam>9d1 to :i* x 0 evid5tly alli$1 be+ ( ! family ,csalp9e1 n[ prop] to w>m] regions4 ,fig4 #ach3 ,ac] trilobatum4 ,! ,upp] ,mioc5e flora ( n+5 is peculi>ly important1 9 consequ5ce ( ! numb] ( g5]a ( :i* n m]ely ! leaves1 b1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,podogonium j m5tion$1 ! fruit also & ev5 ! fl[] are kn[n4 ,?us !re are n9ete5 species ( maple1 t5 ( :i* h already be5 f\nd ) fruit4 ,al?\gh 9 no "o region ( ! globe d s _m maples n[ fl\ri%1 we ne$ n suspect ,pr(essor ,he] ( hav+ made too _m species 9 ?is g5us :5 we consid] ! mann] 9 :i* he has dealt ) "o ( !m1 ,ac] trilobatum1 ,figs4 #aci & #adj4 ,( ?is plant ! numb] ( m>k$ v>ieties figur$ & nam$ is v great1 & no less ?an ?ree ( !m _h be5 consid]$ z di/9ct species by o!r botani/s1 :ile six ( ! o!rs might h laid claim1 ) ne>ly equal propriety1 to a l di/9ction4 ,! common =m1 call$ ,ac] trilobatum1 ,fig4 #aci1 may be tak5 z a normal repres5tative ( ! n+5 fossil1 & ,fig4 #adj1 z "o ( ! mo/ div]g5t v>ieties1 hav+ almo/ f\r lobes 9 ! leaf in/ead ( ?ree4 ,fig4 #adj3 ,ac] trilobatum4 ,among ! conspicu\s g5]a :i* ab\nd$ 9 ! ,mioc5e p]iod 9 ,europe is ! plane-tree1 ,platanus1 ! fossil species be+ consid]$ by ,he] to come ne>] to ! ,am]ican ,p4 occid5talis ?an to ,p4 ori5talis ( ,greece & ,asia ,m9or4 ,9 "s ( ! fossil specim5s ! male fl[]s are pres]v$4 ,among o!r po9ts ( resemblance ) ! liv+ plane-trees1 z we see !m 9 ! p>ks & squ>es ( ,london1 fossil fragm5ts ( ! trunk are met )1 hav+ pieces ( _! b>k peel+ (f4 ,platanus ac]oides4 ,! v9e ( n+51 ,vitis teutonica1 ,ad4 ,brong1 is ( a ,nor? ,am]ican type4 ,bo? ! leaves & se$s h be5 f\nd at n+51 & bun*es ( compress$ grapes ( ! same species h be5 met ) 9 ! br[n coal ( ,wett]avia 9 ,g]many4 ,no less ?an eight species ( smilax1 a monocotyl$on\s g5us1 occur at n+5 & 9 o!r ,upp] ,mioc5e localities1 ! fl[]s ( "s ( !m1 z well z ! leaves1 be+ pres]v$2 z 9 ! case ( ! v common fossil1 ,s4 sagittif]a1 ,fig4 #adb1 a4 ,leaves ( plants suppos$ to belong to ! ord] ,proteace h be5 obta9$ p>tly f n+5 & p>tly f ! lacu/r9e =mation ( ! same age at ,locle 9 ! ,jura4 ,!y h be5 ref]r$ to ! g5]a ,banksia1 ,grevillea1 ,hakea1 & ,p]soonia4 ,( ,hakea !re is ! impression ( a suppos$ se$-vessel1 ) its *>act]i/ic ?ick /alk & se$s1 b z ! fruit is )\t /ructure1 & has n yet be5 f\nd atta*$ to ! same /em z ! leaf1 ! pro( is incomplete4 ,fig4 #adb3 ,smilax sagittif]a4 ,to :atev] family ! foliage hi!rto reg>d$ z proteace\s by _m able palontologi/s may ev5tually be %[n to belong1 we mu/ be c>eful n to "q _! aff9ity to t ord] ( plants on ^? geographical consid]ations :i* h influ5c$ "s botani/s4 ,! ne>e/ liv+ ,proteace n[ feel ! 9 ,abyss9ia 9 lat4 #bj ,n41 b ! greate/ numb] are conf9$ to ! ,cape & ,au/ralia4 ,! ance/ors1 h[ev]1 ( ! n+5 fossils ought n to be look$ = 9 su* di/ant regions1 b f t ,european l& :i* 9 ,l[] ,mioc5e times bore trees ) simil> foliage1 & ^! _h d\btless an ,eoc5e s\rce1 = cones admitt$ by all botani/s to be proteace\s h be5 met ) 9 "o division ( t old] ,t]ti>y gr\p 7see ,fig4 #bjf74 ,! s\rce ( ^! la/1 aga91 mu/ n be s\ght 9 ! antipodes1 = 9 ! :ite *alk ( ,aix-la-,*apelle leaves l ^? ( ,grevillea & o!r proteace\s g5]a h be5 f\nd 9 abundance1 &1 z we %all see 7p4 #cjd7 9 a mo/ p]fect /ate ( pres]vation4 ,all geologi/s agree t ! di/ribution ( ! ,cretace\s l& & sea _h sc>cely any connection ) ! pres5t geography ( ! globe4 ,fig4 #adc3 ,fruit ( ! fossil & rec5t species ( ,hakea1 a g5us ( ,proteace4 ,9 ! same b$s ) ! suppos$ ,proteace !re occurs at ,locle a fan-palm ( ! ,am]ican type ,sabal 7= g5us see ,fig4 #aea71 a g5us :i* ranges ?r\gh\t ! l[ c\ntry ne> ! sea f ! ,c>ol9as to ,florida & ,l\isiana4 ,among ! ,conif] ( ,upp] ,mioc5e age is f\nd a decidu\s cypress ne>ly alli$ to ! ,taxodium di/i*um ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & a ,glypto/robus 7,fig4 #add71 v l ! ,japanese ,g4 het]ophyllus1 n[ common 9 our %rubb]ies4 ,fig4 #add3 ,glypto/robus ,europu4 ,be=e ! appe>ance ( ,he]'s "w on ! ,mioc5e ,flora ( ,switz]l&1 ,ung] & ,gopp]t _h already po9t$ out ! l>ge proportion ( liv+ ,nor? ,am]ican g5]a :i* di/+ui%$ ! vegetation ( ! ,mioc5e p]iod 9 ,c5tral ,europe4 ,next 9 numb]1 says ,he]1 to ^! ,am]ican =ms at n+5 ! ,european g5]a prepond]ate1 ! ,asiatic rank+ 9 ! ?ird1 ! ,african 9 ! f\r?1 & ! ,au/ralian 9 ! fif? degree4 ,! ,am]ican =ms are m num]\s ?an 9 ! ,italian ,plioc5e flora1 & ! :ole vegetation indicates a w>m] climate ?an ! ,plioc5e1 ?\gh n s high a temp]ature z t ( ! old] or ,l[] ,mioc5e p]iod4 ,! conclusions drawn f ! insects are = ! mo/ "p 9 p]fect h>mony ) ^? d]iv$ f ! plants1 b !y h a some:at less tropical & less ,am]ican aspect1 ! ,s\? ,european types be+ m num]\s4 ,on ! :ole1 ! insect fauna is ri*] ?an t n[ inhabit+ any "p ( ,europe4 ,no less ?an #hdd species are reckon$ by ,he] f ! n+5 b$s alone1 ! numb] ( specim5s :i* he has exam9$ be+ #ejhj4 ,! entire li/ ( ,swiss species f ! ,upp] & ,l[] ,mioc5e toge!r am\nt to #acbb4 ,almo/ all ! liv+ families ( ,coleopt]a are repres5t$1 b1 z we might h anticipat$ f ! prepond]ance ( arboresc5t & ligne\s plants1 ! wood-eat+ beetles play ! mo/ conspicu\s "p1 ! ,bupre/id & o!r long-horn$ beetles be+ p>ticul>ly abundant4 ,! patt]ns & "s rema9s ( ! col\rs bo? ( ,coleopt]a & ,hemipt]a are pres]v$ at n+51 z1 = example 9 ,h>pactor 7,fig4 #ade71 9 :i* ! ant5n1 "o ( ! eyes1 & ! legs & w+s are reta9$4 ,! *>act]s1 inde$1 ( _m ( ! insects are s well def9$ z to incl9e u to believe t if ?is class ( ! inv]tebrata 7 n s r>e & local1 !y might be m useful ?an ev5 ! plants & %ells 9 settl+ *ronological po9ts 9 geology4 ,middle or ,m>9e ,molasse 7,upp] ,mioc5e7 ( ,switz]l&4--,x 0 be=e /at$ t ! ,mioc5e =mation ( ,switz]l& consi/$ (1 fir/1 ! upp] fre%-wat] molasse1 compris+ ! lacu/r9e m>ls ( n+52 secondly1 ! m>9e molasse1 correspond+ 9 age to ! faluns ( ,t\ra9e2 & ?irdly1 ! l[] fre%-wat] molasse4 ,"s ( ! b$s ( ! m>9e or middle s]ies rea* a height ( #bdgj feet above ! sea4 ,a l>ge numb] ( ! %ells are common to ! faluns ( ,t\ra9e1 ! ,vi5na bas91 & o!r ,upp] ,mioc5e localities4 ,! t]re/rial plants play a subord9ate "p 9 ! fossilif]\s b$s1 yet m ?an n9ety ( !m are enum]at$ by ,he] z belong+ to ?is falunian division1 & ( ^! m ?an half are common to subjac5t ,l[] ,mioc5e b$s1 :ile a proportion ( ab\t =ty-five 9 "o hundr$ are common to ! ov]ly+ n+5 flora4 ,tw5ty-six ( ! n9ety-two species are peculi>4 ,fig4 #ade3 ,h>pactor maculipes4 ,fig4 #adf3 ,olica ,dufresnii4 ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ! ,bold]b]g1 9 ,belgium4--,9 a small hill or ridge call$ ! ,bold]b]g1 :i* ,i visit$ 9 #ahea1 situat$ ne> ,hasselt1 ab\t =ty miles ,e4,n4,e4 ( ,brussels1 /rata ( s& & gravel occur1 to :i* ,m4 ,dumont fir/ call$ att5tion z appe>+ to con/itute a nor!rn repres5tative ( ! faluns ( ,t\ra9e4 ,on ! :ole1 !y are v di/9ct 9 _! fossils f ! two upp] divisions ( ! ,antw]p ,crag be=e m5tion$ 7p4 #bjd71 & conta9 %ells ( ! g5]a ,oliva1 ,conus1 ,ancill>ia1 ,pleurotoma1 & ,cancell>ia 9 abundance4 ,! mo/ common %ell is an ,olive 7,fig4 #adf71 call$ by ,ny/ ,oliva ,dufresnii2 & con/itut+1 z ,m4 ,bosquet obs]ves1 a small] & %ort] v>iety ( ! ,bordeaux species4 ,s f> z ! %ells ( ! ,bold]b]g are kn[n1 ! proportion ( rec5t species agrees ) t 9 ! faluns ( ,t\ra9e1 & ! climate mu/ h be5 w>m] ?an t ( ! ,corall9e ,crag ( ,engl&4 ,upp] ,mioc5e ,b$s ( ! ,vi5na ,bas94--,9 ,s\? ,g]many ! g5]al resemblance ( ! %ells ( ! ,vi5na t]ti>y bas9 ) ^? ( ! faluns ( ,t\ra9e has long be5 ackn[l$g$4 ,9 ! late ,dr4 ,hrnes's excell5t "w on ! fossil mollusca ( t =mation1 we see accurate figures ( _m %ells1 cle>ly ( ! same species z ^? f\nd 9 ! falunian s&s ( ,t\ra9e4 ,accord+ to ,pr(essor ,suess1 ! mo/ anci5t & purely m>9e ( ! ,mioc5e /rata 9 ?is bas9 consi/ ( s&s1 conglom]ates1 lime/ones1 & clays1 & !y are incl9$ inw>d1 or f ! bord]s ( ! tr\gh t[>ds ! c5tre1 _! outcropp+ edges ris+ mu* high] ?an ! new] b$s1 :e!r ,mioc5e or ,plioc5e1 :i* ov]lie !m1 & :i* occupy a small] area at an inf]ior elevation above ! sea4 ,m4 ,hornes has describ$ no less ?an #ejj species ( ga/]opods1 ( :i* he id5tifies "o-fif? ) liv+ species ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 ,indian1 or ,african seas1 b ! proportion ( exi/+ species among ! lamellibran*iate bivalves exce$s ?is av]age4 ,among _m univalves agree+ ) ^? ( ,africa on ! ea/]n side ( ! ,atlantic are ,cypra sangu9ol5ta1 ,bucc9um lyratum1 & ,oliva flammulata4 ,9 ! l[e/ m>9e b$s ( ! ,vi5na bas9 ! rema9s ( sev]al mammalia h be5 f\nd1 & among !m a species ( ,d9o!rium1 a ,ma/odon ( ! ,trilophodon family1 a ,rh9oc]os 7alli$ to ,r4 meg>h9us1 ,*ri/ol71 also an animal ( ! hog tribe1 ,li/riodon1 von ,mey]1 & a c>nivor\s animal ( ! can9e family4 ,! ,helix turon5sis 7,fig4 #ch71 ! mo/ common l& %ell ( ! ,fr5* faluns1 accompanies ! above l& animals4 ,9 a high] memb] ( ! ,vi5na ,mioc5e s]ies are f\nd ,d9o!rium giganteum 7,fig4 #acf71 ,ma/odon longiro/ris1 ,rh9oc]os ,s*lei]ma*]i1 ,ac]o!rium incisivum1 & ,hippo!rium gracile1 all ( !m equally *>act]i/ic ( an ,upp] ,mioc5e deposit occurr+ at ,eppel%eim1 9 ,hesse ,d>m/adt2 a locality also rem>kable z hav+ furni%$ 9 latitude #di #ej ,n4 ! bone ( a l>ge ape ( ! ,gibbon k9d1 ! mo/ nor!rly example yet discov]$ ( a quadruman\s animal4 ,fig4 #adg3 ,amphi/eg9a ,hau]9a4 ,m4 ,alcide d',orbigny has %[n t ! =am9if]a ( ! ,vi5na bas9 diff] alike f ! ,eoc5e & ,plioc5e species1 & agree ) ^? ( ! faluns1 s f> z ! latt] are kn[n4 ,among ! ,vi5na =am9if]a1 ! g5us ,amphi/eg9a 7,fig4 #adg7 is v *>act]i/ic1 & is suppos$ by d',ar*iac to take ! same place among ! ,rhizopods ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e era :i* ! ,nummulites occupy 9 ! ,eoc5e p]iod4 ,! flora ( ! ,vi5na bas9 exhibits "s species :i* h a g5]al range ?r\gh ! :ole ,mioc5e p]iod1 su* z ,c9namomum polymorphum 7,fig4 #ach71 & ,c4 ,s*eu*z]i1 also ,plan]a ,ri*>di1 ,mi*41 ,liquidamb> europum 7,fig4 #ace7 ,juglans bil9ica1 ,cassia ambigua1 & ,c4 lignitum4 ,among ! plants common to ! ,upp] ,mioc5e b$s ( n+51 9 ,switz]l&1 are ,platanus ac]oides 7,fig4 #ada71 ,myrica v9dobon5sis1 & o!rs4 ,upp] ,mioc5e ,/rata ( ,italy4--,we are indebt$ to ,signor ,mi*elotti = a valuable "w on ! ,mioc5e %ells ( ,nor!rn ,italy4 ,^? f\nd 9 ! hill call$ ! ,sup]ga1 ne> ,tur91 h long be5 kn[n to correspond 9 age ) ! faluns ( ,t\ra9e1 & !y conta9 s _m species common to ! ,upp] ,mioc5e /rata ( ,bordeaux z to lead to ! conclusion t !re 0 a free communication betwe5 ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,m$it]ranean & ! ,bay ( ,biscay 9 ! ,upp] ,mioc5e p]iod4 ,upp] ,mioc5e ,=mations ( ,greece4--,at ,pik]m1 ne> ,a!ns1 ,,mm4 ,wagn] & ,ro? h describ$ a deposit 9 :i* !y f\nd ! rema9s ( ! g5]a ,ma/odon1 ,d9o!rium1 ,hipp>ion1 two species ( ,giraffe1 ,antelope1 & o!rs1 "s liv+ & "s ext9ct4 ,) !m 7 also associat$ fossil bones ( ! ,semnopi!cus1 %[+ t "h1 z 9 ! s\? ( ,france1 ! quadrumana 7 *>act]i/ic ( ?is p]iod4 ,! :ole fauna atte/s ! =m] ext5sion ( a va/ expanse ( grassy pla9s :]e we h n[ ! brok5 & m\nta9\s c\ntry ( ,greece2 pla9s1 :i* 7 probably unit$ ) ,asia ,m9or1 spread+ ov] ! area :]e ! deep gean ,sea & its num]\s isl&s are n[ situat$4 ,we are indebt$ to ,m4 ,gaudry1 :o visit$ ,pik]m1 = a treatise on ^! fossil bones1 %[+ h[ _m data !y contribute to ! !ory ( a transition f ! mammalia ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e ?r\gh ! ,plioc5e & ,po/-plioc5e =ms to ^? ( liv+ g5]a & species4 ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ,india4 ,siwlik ,hills4--,! ,siwlik ,hills lie at ! s\!rn foot ( ! ,himalayan *a91 ris+ to ! height ( #bjjj & #cjjj feet4 ,betwe5 ! ,jumna & ! ,ganges !y consi/ ( incl9$ /rata ( s&/one1 %+le1 clay1 & m>l4 ,we are indebt$ to ! indefatigable rese>*es ( ,dr4 ,falcon] & ,sir ,proby ,cautley1 cont9u$ = fifte5 ye>s1 = ! discov]y 9 ^! m>ls & s&/ones ( a great v>iety ( fossil mammalia & reptiles1 toge!r ) _m fre%-wat] %ells4 ,out ( fifte5 species ( %ells ( ! g5]a ,palud9a1 ,melania1 ,ampull>ia1 & ,unio1 all are ext9ct or unkn[n species ) ! exception ( f\r1 :i* are /ill inhabitants ( ,indian riv]s4 ,su* a proportion ( liv+ to ext9ct mollusca agrees well ) ! usual "* ( an ,upp] ,mioc5e or ,falunian fauna1 z obs]v$ 9 ,t\ra9e1 or 9 ! bas9 ( ,vi5na & else:]e4 ,! g5]a ( mammalia po9t 9 ! same direction4 ,"o ( !m1 ( ! g5us ,*alico!rium 7or ,anisodon ( ,l>tet71 is a pa*yd]m int]m$iate betwe5 ! ,rh9oc]os & ,anoplo!re1 & *>act]i/ic ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e /rata ( ,eppel%eim1 & ( ! s\? ( ,france4 ,) x occurs also an ext9ct =m ( ,hippopotamus1 call$ ,hexaprotodon1 & a species ( ,hippo!rium & pig1 also two species ( ,ma/odon1 two ( elephant1 & ?ree o!r elephant9e proboscidians2 none ( !m agree+ ) any fossil =ms ( ,europe1 & be+ int]m$iate betwe5 ! g5]a ,elephas & ,ma/odon1 con/itut+ ! sub-g5us ,/egodon ( ,falcon]4 ,) ^! are associat$ a monkey1 alli$ to ! ,semnopi!cus entellus1 n[ liv+ 9 ! ,himalaya1 & _m rum9ants4 ,among ^! la/1 besides ! giraffe1 camel1 antelope1 /ag1 & o!rs1 we f9d a rem>kable new type1 ! ,siva!rium1 l a gigantic f\r-horn$ de]4 ,!re are also new =ms ( c>nivora1 bo? fel9e & can9e1 ! ,ma*airodus among ! =m]1 also hynas1 & a suburs9e =m call$ ! ,hyn>ctos1 & a g5us alli$ to ! ott] 7,enhydriodon71 ( =midable size4 ,! giraffe1 camel1 & a l>ge o/ri* may be cit$ z pro(s t !re 7 =m]ly ext5sive pla9s :]e n[ a /eep *a9 ( hills1 ) deep rav9es1 runs = _m hundr$ miles ea/ & we/4 ,among ! accompany+ reptiles are sev]al crocodiles1 "s ( huge dim5sions1 & "o n di/+ui%able1 says ,dr4 ,falcon]1 f a species n[ liv+ 9 ! ,ganges 7,c4 ,gangeticus72 & !re is /ill ano!r saurian :i* ! same anatomi/ has id5tifi$ ) a species n[ inhabit+ ,india4 ,!re 0 also an ext9ct species ( tortoise ( gigantic proportions 7,colosso*elys ,atlas71 ! curv$ %ell ( :i* 0 twelve feet ?ree in*es long & eight feet 9 diamet]1 ! entire l5g? ( ! animal be+ e/imat$ at eighte5 feet1 & its probable height sev5 feet4 ,num]\s fossils ( ! ,siwlik type h also be5 f\nd 9 ,p]im ,isl&1 9 ! ,gulf ( ,cambay1 & among ^! a species ( ,d9o!rium1 a g5us s *>act]i/ic ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e p]iod 9 ,europe4 ,old] ,plioc5e & ,mioc5e ,=mations 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,betwe5 ! ,alleghany ,m\nta9s1 =m$ ( old] rocks1 & ! ,atlantic1 !re int]v5es1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 a l[ region occupi$ pr9cipally by b$s ( m>l1 clay1 & s&1 consi/+ ( ! cretace\s & t]ti>y =mations1 & *iefly ( ! latt]4 ,! g5]al elevation ( ?is pla9 bord]+ ! ,atlantic does n exce$ #ajj feet1 al?\gh x is sometimes sev]al hundr$ feet high4 ,its wid? 9 ! middle & s\!rn /ates is v commonly f #ajj to #aej miles4 ,x consi/s1 9 ! ,s\?1 z 9 ,georgia1 ,alabama1 & ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 almo/ exclusively ( ,eoc5e deposits2 b 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,m>yl&1 ,virg9ia1 ,delaw>e1 m mod]n /rata pr$om9ate1 ( ! age ( ! ,engli% ,crag & faluns ( ,t\ra9e4#a ,fig4 #adh3 ,fulgur canaliculatus4 ,fig4 #adi3 ,fusus quadrico/atus4 ,9 ! ,virg9ian s&s1 we f9d 9 great abundance a species ( ,a/>te 7,a4 undulata1 ,conrad71 :i* resembles closely1 & may possibly be a v>iety (1 "o ( ! commone/ fossils ( ! ,suffolk ,crag 7,a4 ,omalii72 ! o!r %ells also1 ( ! g5]a ,natica1 ,fissurella1 ,artemis1 ,luc9a1 ,*ama1 ,pectunculus1 & ,pect51 are analag\s to %ells bo? ( ! ,engli% ,crag & ,fr5* faluns1 al?\gh ! species are almo/ all di/9ct4 ,out ( #adg ( ^! ,am]ican fossils ,i c\ld only f9d ?irte5 species common to ,europe1 & ^! occur p>tly 9 ! ,suffolk ,crag1 & p>tly 9 ! faluns ( ,t\ra9e2 b x is an important *>act]i/ic ( ! ,am]ican gr\p1 t x n only conta9s _m peculi> ext9ct =ms1 su* z ,fusus quadrico/atus1 ,say 7see ,fig4 #adi71 & ,v5us tridacnoides1 abundant 9 ^! same =mations1 b also "s %ells :i*1 l ,fulgur c>ica ( ,say & ,f4 canaliculatus 7see ,fig4 #adh71 ,calyptra co/ata1 ,v5us m]c5>ia1 ,lam41 ,modiola gl&ula1 ,tott51 & ,pect5 magellanicus1 ,lam41 are rec5t species1 yet ( =ms n[ conf9$ to ! we/]n side ( ! ,atlantic--a fact imply+ t "s traces ( ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t geographical di/ribution ( mollusca date back to a p]iod z remote z t ( ! ,mioc5e /rata4 ,fig4 #aej3 ,a/rangia l9eata4 ,( t5 species ( corals :i* ,i procur$ on ! banks ( ! ,james ,riv]1 "o agrees g5]ically ) a coral n[ liv+ on ! coa/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,mr4 ,lonsdale reg>d$ ^! corals z indicat+ a temp]ature exce$+ t ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 & ! %ells w\ld lead to simil> conclusions4 ,^? occurr+ on ! ,james ,riv] are 9 ! #cg? degree ( ,n4 latitude1 :ile ! ,fr5* faluns are 9 ! #dg?2 yet ! =ms ( ! ,am]ican fossils w\ld sc>cely imply s w>m a climate z mu/ h prevail$ 9 ,france :5 ! ,mioc5e /rata ( ,t\ra9e orig9at$4 ,among ! rema9s ( fi% 9 ^! po/-eoc5e /rata ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates are sev]al l>ge tee? ( ! %>k family1 n di/+ui%able specifically f fossils ( ! faluns ( ,t\ra9e4 #a ,proce$+s ( ! ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 iv1 pt4 iii1 #ahde1 p4 #edg4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,l[] ,,mioc5e 7,,oligoc5e ,,( ,,beyri*74 ,l[] ,mioc5e ,/rata ( ,france4 -- ,l9e betwe5 ,mioc5e & ,eoc5e4 -- ,lacu/r9e ,/rata ( ,auv]gne4 -- ,fossil mammalia ( ! ,limagne d',auv]gne4 -- ,l[] ,molasse ( ,switz]l&4 -- ,d5se ,conglom]ates & ,pro(s ( ,subsid5ce4 -- ,flora ( ! ,l[] ,molasse4 -- ,am]ican ,"* ( ! ,flora4 -- ,!ory ( a ,mioc5e ,atlantis4 -- ,l[] ,mioc5e ( ,belgium4 -- ,rupelian ,clay ( ,h]msdorf ne> ,b]l94 -- ,may5ce ,bas94 -- ,l[] ,mioc5e ( ,croatia4 -- ,oligoc5e ,/rata ( ,beyri*4 -- ,l[] ,mioc5e ( ,italy4 -- ,l[] ,mioc5e ( ,engl&4 -- ,hemp/ead ,b$s4 -- ,bovey ,tracey ,lignites 9 ,devon%ire4 -- ,isle ( ,mull ,leaf-,b$s4 -- ,arctic ,mioc5e ,flora4 -- ,disco ,isl&4 -- ,l[] ,mioc5e ( ,unit$ ,/ates4 -- ,fossils ( ,nebraska4 ,l9e betwe5 ,mioc5e & ,eoc5e ,=mations4--,! m>9e faluns ( ! valley ( ! ,loire h be5 already describ$ z re/+ 9 "s places on a fre%-wat] t]ti>y lime/one1 fragm5ts ( :i* h be5 brok5 (f & roll$ on ! %ores & 9 ! b$ ( ! ,mioc5e sea4 ,su* pebbles are frequ5t at ,pontlevoy on ! ,*]1 ) holl[s drill$ 9 !m 9 :i* ! p]=at+ m>9e %ells ( ! ,falunian p]iod /ill rema94 ,su* a mode ( sup]position implies an int]val ( "t betwe5 ! orig9 ( ! fre%-wat] lime/one & its subm]g5ce b5ea? ! wat]s ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e sea4 ,! lime/one 9 "q =ms a "p ( ! =mation call$ ! ,calcaire de la ,beauce1 :i* con/itutes a l>ge table-l& betwe5 ! bas9s ( ! ,loire & ! ,se9e4 ,x is associat$ ) m>ls & o!r deposits1 su* z may h be5 =m$ 9 m>%es & %all[ lakes 9 ! newe/ "p ( a great delta4 ,b$s ( fl9t1 cont9u\s or 9 nodules1 accumulat$ 9 ^! lakes1 & aquatic plants call$ ,*>ae1 left _! /ems & se$-vessels imb$d$ bo? 9 ! m>l & fl9t1 toge!r ) fre%-wat] & l& %ells4 ,"s ( ! silice\s rocks ( ?is =mation are us$ ext5sively = mill-/ones4 ,! flat summits or plat=ms ( ! hills r\nd ,p>is1 & l>ge areas 9 ! =e/ ( ,fonta9ebleau1 z well z ! ,plateau de la ,beauce1 already allud$ to1 are *iefly compos$ ( ^! fre%-wat] /rata4 ,next to ^! 9 ! desc5d+ ord] are m>9e s&s & s&/one1 commonly call$ ! ,gres de ,fonta9ebleau1 f :i* a consid]able numb] ( %ells1 v di/9ct f ^? ( ! faluns1 h be5 obta9$ at ,etampes1 s\? ( ,p>is1 & at ,montm>tre & o!r hills 9 ,p>is itself1 or 9 its suburbs4 ,at ! bottom ( ^! s&s a gre5 clay occurs1 conta9+ a small oy/]1 ,o/rea cya?ula1 ,lam41 :i*1 al?\gh ( slight ?ickness1 is spread ov] a wide area4 ,?is clay re/s imm$iately on ! ,p>is gypsum1 or t s]ies ( b$s ( gypsum & gypse\s m>l f :i* ,cuvi] fir/ obta9$ sev]al species ( ,palo!rium & o!r ext9ct mammalia4#a ,at ?is junction ( ! clay & ! gypsum ! majority ( ,fr5* geologi/s h always drawn ! l9e betwe5 ! ,middle & ,l[] ,t]ti>y1 or betwe5 ! ,mioc5e & ,eoc5e =mations1 reg>d+ ! ,fonta9ebleau s&s & ! ,o/rea cya?ula clay z ! base ( ! ,mioc5e1 & ! gypsum1 ) its mammalia1 z ! top ( ! ,eoc5e gr\p4 ,i =m]ly diss5t$ f ?is division1 b ,i n[ f9d t ,i mu/ admit x to be ! only "o :i* w agree ) ! di/ribution ( ! ,mioc5e mammalia1 :ile ev5 ! mollusca ( ! ,fonta9ebleau s&s1 :i* 7 =m]ly suppos$ to pres5t at prepond]ance ( aff9ities to an ,eoc5e fauna1 h s9ce be5 %[n to agree m closely ) ! fossils ( c]ta9 deposits always reg>d$ z ,middle ,t]ti>y at ,may5ce & 9 ,belgium4 ,9 fact1 we are n[ arriv+ at t /age ( progress :5 ! l9e1 :]ev] x be drawn betwe5 ,mioc5e & ,eoc5e1 w be an arbitr>y "o1 or "o ( m]e conv5i5ce1 z ,i %all h an opportunity ( %[+ :5 ! ,upp] ,eoc5e =mations 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight are describ$ 9 ! sixte5? *apt]4 ,l[] ,mioc5e ( ,c5tral ,france4--,lacu/r9e /rata1 belong+1 = ! mo/ "p1 to ! same ,mioc5e sy/em z ! ,calcaire de la ,beauce1 are aga9 met ) f>!r s\? 9 ,auv]gne1 ,cantal1 & ,vlay4 ,!y appe> to be ! monum5ts ( anci5t lakes1 :i*1 l "s ( ^? n[ exi/+ 9 ,switz]l&1 once occupi$ ! depressions 9 a m\nta9\s region1 & h be5 ea* f$ by "o or m riv]s & torr5ts4 ,! c\ntry :]e !y occur is almo/ entirely compos$ ( granite & diff]5t v>ieties ( granitic s*i/1 ) "h & !re a few pat*es ( ,second>y /rata1 mu* dislocat$1 & :i* h suff]$ great d5udation4 ,!re are also "s va/ piles ( volcanic matt]1 ! great] "p ( :i* is new] ?an ! fre%-wat] /rata1 & is sometimes se5 to re/ ^u !m1 :ile a small "p has evid5tly be5 ( contemporane\s orig94 ,( ^! igne\s rocks ,i %all treat m p>ticul>ly 9 ! sequel4 ,! /udy ( ^! regions possesses a peculi> int]e/ v di/9ct 9 k9d f t d]ivable f ! inve/igation ei!r ( ! ,p>isian or ,engli% ,t]ti>y areas4 ,= we are pres5t$ 9 ,auv]gne ) ! evid5ce ( a s]ies ( ev5ts ( a/oni%+ magnitude & gr&eur1 by :i* ! orig9al =m & features ( ! c\ntry h be5 greatly *ang$1 yet nev] s f> oblit]at$ b t !y may /ill1 9 "p at lea/1 be re/or$ 9 imag9ation4 ,great lakes h disappe>$--l(ty m\nta9s h be5 =m$1 by ! reit]at$ emission ( lava1 prec$$ & foll[$ by %[]s ( s& & scori--deep valleys h be5 subsequ5tly furr[$ out ?r\gh masses ( lacu/r9e & volcanic orig9--at a /ill lat] date1 new cones h be5 ?r[n up 9 ^! valleys--new lakes h be5 =m$ by ! damm+ up ( riv]s--& m ?an "o assemblage ( quadrup$s1 birds1 & plants1 ,eoc5e1 ,mioc5e1 & ,plioc5e1 h foll[$ 9 succession2 yet ! region has pres]v$ f fir/ to la/ its geographical id5tity2 & we c /ill recall to our ?\ghts its ext]nal condition & physical /ructure be=e ^! wond]ful vicissitudes began1 or :ile a "p only ( ! :ole _h be5 complet$4 ,!re 0 fir/ a p]iod :5 ! spaci\s lakes1 ( :i* we /ill may trace ! b\nd>ies1 lay at ! foot ( m\nta9s ( mod]ate elevation1 unbrok5 by ! bold peaks & precipices ( ,mont ,dor1 & unadorn$ by ! picturesque outl9e ( ! ,puy de ,dome1 or ( ! volcanic cones & crat]s n[ cov]+ ! granitic plat=m4 ,dur+ ?is e>li] sc5e ( repose deltas 7 sl[ly =m$2 b$s ( m>l & s&1 sev]al hundr$ feet ?ick1 deposit$2 silice\s & calc>e\s rocks precipitat$ f ! wat]s ( m9]al spr+s2 %ells & insects imb$d$1 toge!r ) ! rema9s ( ! crocodile & tortoise1 ! eggs & bones ( wat]-birds1 & ! skeletons ( quadrup$s1 mo/ ( !m ( g5]a & species *>act]i/ic ( ! ,mioc5e p]iod4 ,to ?is tranquil condition ( ! surface succe$$ ! era ( volcanic eruptions1 :5 ! lakes 7 dra9$1 & :5 ! f]tility ( ! m\nta9\s di/rict 0 probably enhanc$ by ! igne\s matt] eject$ f bel[1 & p\r$ d[n ^u ! m /]ile granite4 ,dur+ ^! eruptions1 :i* appe> to h tak5 place t[>ds ! close ( ! ,mioc5e epo*1 & :i* cont9u$ dur+ ! ,plioc5e1 v>i\s assemblages ( quadrup$s successively inhabit$ ! di/rict1 among :i* are f\nd ! g5]a ma/odon1 rh9oc]os1 elephant1 tapir1 hippopotamus1 toge!r ) ! ox1 v>i\s k9ds ( de]1 ! be>1 hyna1 & _m bea/s ( prey :i* rang$ ! =e/ or pa/ur$ on ! pla91 & 7 occasionally ov]tak5 by a fall ( burn+ c9d]s1 or buri$ 9 fl[s ( mud1 su* z accompany volcanic eruptions4 ,la/ly1 ^! quadrup$s became ext9ct1 & gave place 9 _! turn to ! species n[ exi/+4 ,!re are no signs1 dur+ ! :ole "t requir$ = ?is s]ies ( ev5ts1 ( ! sea hav+ int]v5$1 nor ( any d5udation :i* may n h be5 accompli%$ by curr5ts 9 ! diff]5t lakes1 or by riv]s & floods accompany+ repeat$ e>?quakes1 or subt]ranean movem5ts1 dur+ :i* ! levels ( ! di/rict h 9 "s places be5 mat]ially modifi$1 & p]haps ! :ole uprais$ relatively to ! surr\nd+ p>ts ( ,france4 ,auv]gne4--,! mo/ nor!rn ( ! fre%-wat] gr\ps is situat$ 9 ! valley-pla9 ( ! ,alli]1 :i* lies )9 ! dep>tm5t ( ! ,puy de ,dome1 be+ ! tract :i* w5t =m]ly by ! "n ( ! ,limagne d',auv]gne4 ,! av]age bread? ( ?is tract is ab\t tw5ty miles2 & x is = ! mo/ "p compos$ ( ne>ly horizontal /rata ( s&1 s&/one1 calc>e\s m>l1 clay1 & lime/one1 none ( :i* obs]ve a fix$ & inv>iable ord] ( sup]position4 ,! anci5t bord]s ( ! lake :]e9 ! fre%-wat] /rata 7 accumulat$ may g5]ally be trac$ ) precision1 ! granite & o!r anci5t rocks ris+ up boldly f ! level c\ntry4 ,! actual junction1 h[ev]1 ( ! lacu/r9e b$s & ! granite is r>ely se51 z a small valley usually int]v5es betwe5 !m4 ,! fre%-wat] /rata may sometimes be se5 to reta9 _! horizontality )9 a v slight di/ance ( ! bord]-rocks1 :ile 9 "s places !y are incl9$1 & 9 few in/ances v]tical4 ,! pr9cipal divisions into :i* ! lacu/r9e s]ies may be sep>at$ are ! foll[+3--fir/1 ,s&/one1 grit1 & conglom]ate1 includ+ r$ m>l & r$ s&/one2 secondly1 ,gre5 & :ite foliat$ m>ls2 ?irdly1 ,lime/one1 or trav]t91 (t5 oolitic 9 /ructure2 f\r?ly1 ,gypse\s m>ls4 ,! relations ( ^! diff]5t gr\ps _c be le>nt by ! /udy ( any "o section2 & ! geologi/ :o sets out ) ! expectation ( f9d+ a fix$ ord] ( succession may p]haps compla9 t ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! bas9 give contradictory results4 ,! ar5ace\s division1 ! m>ls1 & ! lime/one may all be se5 9 "s places to alt]nate ) ea* o!r2 yet x c by no means be affirm$ t !re is no ord] ( arrangem5t4 ,! s&s1 s&/one1 & conglom]ate con/itute 9 g5]al a littoral gr\p2 ! foliat$ :ite & gre5 m>l1 a contemporane\s c5tral deposit m ?an #gjj feet ?ick1 & ?9ly foliat$1 a "* :i* (t5 arises f ! innum]able ?9 %ells or c>apace valves %$ by ! small cru/acean call$ ,cypris 9 ! anci5t lakes ( ,auv]gne2 & la/ly ! lime/one is = ! mo/ "p subord9ate to ! new] portions ( bo? ! above =mations4 ,x seems t1 :5 ! anci5t lake ( ! ,limagne fir/ began to be fill$ ) s$im5t1 no volcanic action _h yet produc$ lava & scori on any "p ( ! surface ( ,auv]gne4 ,no pebbles1 !re=e1 ( lava 7 transport$ into ! lake--no fragm5ts ( volcanic rocks imb$d$ 9 ! conglom]ate4 ,b at a lat] p]iod1 :5 a consid]able ?ickness ( s&/one & m>l _h accumulat$1 eruptions broke out1 & lava & tuff 7 deposit$1 at "s spots1 alt]nately ) ! lacu/r9e /rata4 ,x is n improbable t cold & !rmal spr+s1 hold+ diff]5t m9]al +r$i5ts 9 solution1 became m num]\s dur+ ! successive convulsions att5d+ ?is developm5t ( volcanic ag5cy1 & ?us deposits ( c>bonate & sulphate ( lime1 silex1 & o!r m9]als 7 produc$4 ,h5ce ^! m9]als pr$om9ate 9 ! upp]mo/ /rata4 ,! subt]ranean movem5ts may !n h cont9u$ until !y alt]$ ! relative levels ( ! c\ntry1 & caus$ ! wat]s ( ! lakes to be dra9$ (f1 & ! fur!r accumulation ( regul> fre%-wat] /rata to cease4 ,l[] ,mioc5e ,mammalia ( ! ,limagne4--,x is sc>cely possible to det]m9e ! age ( ! olde/ "p ( ! fre%-wat] s]ies ( ! ,limagne1 l>ge masses bo? ( ! s&y & m>ly /rata be+ devoid ( fossils4 ,"s ( ! l[e/ b$s may be ( ,upp] ,eoc5e date1 al?\gh1 accord+ to ,m4 ,pomel1 only "o bone ( a ,palo!rium has be5 discov]$ 9 ,auv]gne4 ,b 9 ,vlay1 9 /rata conta9+ "s species ( fossil mammalia common to ! ,limagne1 no less ?an f\r species ( ,palo!re h be5 f\nd by ,m4 ,aym>d1 & "o ( ^! is g5]ally suppos$ to be id5tical ) ,palo!rium magnum1 an und\bt$ ,upp] ,eoc5e fossil1 ( ! ,p>is gypsum1 ! o!r ?ree be+ peculi>4 ,n a few ( ! o!r mammalia ( ! ,limagne belong und\bt$ly to g5]a & species else:]e prop] to ! ,l[] ,mioc5e4 ,?us1 = example1 ! ,ca9o!rium ( ,brav>d1 a g5us n f> remov$ f ! ,anoplo!rium1 is repres5t$ by sev]al species1 "o ( :i*1 z ,i le>n f ,mr4 ,wat]h\se1 agrees ) ,micro!rium ,r5gg]i ( ! ,may5ce bas94 ,9 l mann]1 ! ,amphitragulus elegans ( ,pomel1 an ,auv]gne fossil1 is id5tifi$ by ,wat]h\se ) ,dorca!rium nanum ( ,kaup1 a ,rh5i% species f ,weiss5au1 ne> ,may5ce4 ,a small species1 also1 ( rod5t1 ( ! g5us ,titanomys ( ,h4 von ,mey]1 is common to ! ,l[] ,mioc5e ( ,may5ce & ! ,limagne d',auv]gne1 & !re are _m o!r po9ts ( agreem5t :i* ! discordance ( nom5clature t5ds to conceal4 ,a rem>kable c>nivor\s g5us1 ! ,hynodon ( ,laiz]1 is repres5t$ by m ?an "o species4 ,! same g5us has also be5 f\nd 9 ! ,upp] ,eoc5e m>ls ( ,hordwell ,cliff1 ,hamp%ire1 j bel[ ! level ( ! ,bembridge ,lime/one1 & !re=e a =mation old] ?an ! ,gypsum ( ,p>is4 ,sev]al species ( opossum 7,didelphis7 are met ) 9 ! same /rata ( ! ,limagne4 ,! total numb] ( mammalia enum]at$ by ,m4 ,pomel z app]ta9+ to ! ,l[] ,mioc5e fauna ( ! ,limagne & ,velay falls little %ort ( a hundr$1 & ) !m are associat$ "s l>ge crocodiles & tortoises1 & "s ,ophidian & ,batra*ian reptiles4 ,l[] ,molasse ( ,switz]l&4--,! two upp] divisions ( ! ,swiss ,molasse--! "o fre%-wat]1 ! o!r m>9e--h already be5 describ$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]4 ,i %all n[ proce$ to treat ( ! ?ird division1 :i* is ( ,l[] ,mioc5e age4 ,ne>ly ! :ole ( ?is ,l[] ,molasse is fre%-wat]1 yet "s ( ! inf]ior b$s conta9 a mixture ( m>9e & fluviatile %ells1 ! ,c]i?ium m>g>itaceum1 a well-kn[n ,l[] ,mioc5e fossil1 be+ "o ( ! m>9e species4 ,not)/&+1 !re=e1 t "s ( ^! ,l[] ,mioc5e /rata consi/ ( old %+le-b$s sev]al ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness1 z 9 ! ,rigi1 ne> ,luc]ne1 & 9 ! ,spe]1 ne> ,wes51 m\nta9s #ejjj & #gjjj feet above ! sea1 ! deposition ( ! :ole s]ies mu/ h begun at or bel[ ! sea-level4 ,! conglom]ates1 z might be expect$1 are (t5 v unequal 9 ?ickness1 9 closely adjo9+ di/ricts1 s9ce 9 a littoral =mation accumulations ( pebbles w\ld swell out 9 c]ta9 places :]e riv]s ent]$ ! sea1 & w\ld ?9 out to comp>atively small dim5sions :]e no /reams or only small ones came d[n to ! coa/4 ,= ages1 9 spite ( a gradual depression ( ! l& & adjac5t sea-bottom1 ! riv]s cont9u$ to cov] ! s9k+ area ) _! deltas2 until f9ally1 ! subsid5ce be+ 9 excess1 ! sea ( ! ,middle ,molasse ga9$ ^u ! l&1 & m>9e b$s 7 ?r[n d[n ov] ! d5se mass ( fre%-wat] & bracki%-wat] deposit1 call$ ! ,l[] ,molasse1 :i* _h previ\sly accumulat$4 ,flora ( ! ,l[] ,molasse4--,9 "p ( ! ,swiss ,molasse1 :i* belongs exclusively to ! ,l[] ,mioc5e p]iod1 ! numb] ( plants has be5 e/imat$ at m ?an #ejj species1 some:at exce$+ ^? :i* 7 be=e enum]at$ z occurr+ 9 ! two upp] divisions4 ,! ,swiss ,l[] ,mioc5e may be/ be /udi$ on ! nor!rn bord]s ( ! ,lake ( ,g5eva1 betwe5 ,lausanne & ,vevay1 :]e ! contigu\s villages ( ,monod & ,rivaz are situat$4 ,! /rata !re1 :i* ,i h myself exam9$1 consi/ ( alt]nations ( conglom]ate1 s&/one1 & f9ely lam9at$ m>ls ) fossil plants4 ,a small /ream falls 9 a succession ( cascades ov] ! h>d] b$s ( pudd+-/one1 :i* resi/1 :ile ! s&/one & plant-be>+ %ales & m>ls give way4 ,f ! latt] no less ?an #aic species ( plants h be5 obta9$ by ! ex]tions ( ,,mm4 ,he] & ,gaud91 & !y are consid]$ to af=d a true type ( ! vegetation ( ! ,l[] ,mioc5e =mations ( ,switz]l&--a vegetation dep>t+ f>!r 9 its "* f t n[ fl\ri%+ 9 ,europe ?an any ( ! high] memb]s ( ! s]ies be=e allud$ to1 & yet display+ s mu* aff9ity to ! flora ( n+5 z to make x natural = ! botani/ to ref] ! :ole to "o & ! same ,mioc5e p]iod4 ,!re are1 inde$1 no less ?an #ha species ( ^! ,old] ,mioc5e plants :i* pass up into ! flora ( n+54 ,?is fact is important z be>+ on ! propriety ( class+ ! ,l[] ,molasse ( ,switz]l& z belong+ to ! ,mioc5e r ?an to ! latt] "p ( ! ,eoc5e p]iod4 ,!re are1 inde$1 s _m types among ! fossils1 bo? specific & g5]ic1 :i* h a wide range ?r\gh ! :ole ( ! ,molasse1 t a unity ( "* is !reby /amp$ on ! :ole flora1 9 spite ( ! contra/ betwe5 ! plants ( ! upp]mo/ & l[e/ =mations1 or betwe5 ,o5+5 & ,monod4 ,! pro(s ( a w>m] climate1 & ! excess ( arboresc5t ov] h]bace\s plants1 & ( ev]gre5 trees ov] decidu\s species1 are *>act]s common to ! :ole flora1 b :i* are int5sifi$ z we desc5d to ! inf]ior deposits4 ,ne>ly all ! plants at ,monod are conta9$ 9 ?ree lay]s ( m>l sep>at$ by two ( s(t s&/one4 ,! ?ickness ( ! m>ls is t5 feet1 & vegetable matt] pr$om9ates s mu* 9 "s lay]s z to =m an imp]fect lignite4 ,"o b$ is fill$ ) l>ge leaves ( a species ( fig 7,ficus popul9a71 & ( a hornbeam 7,c>p9us gr&is71 ! /r5g? ( ! w9d hav+ probably be5 great :5 !y 7 bl[n into ! lake2 :]eas ano!r contigu\s lay] conta9s almo/ exclusively small] leaves1 indicat+1 app>5tly1 a dim9i%$ /r5g? 9 ! w9d4 ,"s ( ! upp] b$s at ,monod ab\nd 9 leaves ( ,proteace1 ,cyp]ace1 & f]ns1 :ile 9 "s ( ! l[] ones ,sequoia1 ,c9namomum1 & ,sp>ganium are common4 ,9 "o b$ ( s&/one ! trunk ( a l>ge palm-tree 0 f\nd unaccompani$ by o!r fossils1 & ne> ,vevay1 9 ! same s]ies ( ,l[] ,mioc5e /rata1 ! leaves ( a palm ( ! g5us ,sabal 7,fig4 #aea71 a g5us n[ prop] to ,am]ica1 7 obta9$4 ,fig4 #aea3 ,sabal major ,among o!r g5]a ( ! same class is a ,flabell>ia occurr+ ne> ,lausanne1 & a magnific5t ,phnicites alli$ to ! date palm4 ,:5 ^! plants fl\ri%$ ! climate mu/ h be5 mu* hott] ?an n[4 ,! ,alps 7 no d\bt mu* l[]1 & ! palms n[ f\nd fossil 9 /rata elevat$ #bjjj feet above ! sea grew ne>ly at ! sea-level1 z is demon/rat$ by ! bracki%-wat] "* ( "s ( ! b$s into :i* !y 7 c>ri$ by w9ds or riv]s f ! adjo9+ coa/4 ,9 ! same plant-be>+ deposits ( ! ,l[] ,molasse 9 ,switz]l& leaves h be5 f\nd :i* h be5 ascrib$ to ! ord] ,proteace already spok5 ( z well repres5t$ 9 ! n+5 b$s 7see p4 #bba74 ,! ,proteas & o!r plants ( ?is family n[ fl\ri% at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope2 :ile ! ,banksias1 & a set ( g5]a di/9ct f ^? ( ,africa1 gr[ mo/ luxuriantly 9 ! s\!rn & temp]ate p>ts ( ,au/ralia4 ,!y 7 probably inhabitants1 says ,he]1 ( dry hilly gr\nd1 & ! /iff lea!ry "* ( _! leaves mu/ h be5 fav\rable to _! pres]vation1 all[+ !m to float on a riv] = great di/ances )\t be+ injur$1 & !n to s9k1 :5 wat]-logg$1 to ! bottom4 ,x has be5 object$ t ! fruit ( ! ,proteace is ( s t\gh & endur+ a texture t x ought to h be5 m commonly met )2 b 9 ! fir/ place we mu/ n =get ! num]\s cones f\nd 9 ! ,eoc5e /rata ( ,%eppey1 :i* all admit to be proteace\s & to belong to at lea/ two species 7see p4 #bbb74 ,secondly1 besides ! fruit ( ,hakea be=e m5tion$ 7p4 #bba71 ,he] f\nd associat$ ) fossil leaves1 hav+ ! exact =m & n]vation ( ,banksia1 fruit precisely su* z may h come f a cone ( t plant1 & lately he has receiv$ ano!r simil> fruit f ! ,l[] ,mioc5e /rata ( ,luc]ne4 ,!y may h fall5 out ( a decay$ cone 9 ! same way z (t5 happ5s to ! se$s ( ! spruce fir1 ,p9us abies1 f\nd scatt]$ ov] ! gr\nd 9 our woods4 ,x is a kn[n fact t among ! liv+ ,proteace ! cones are v firmly atta*$ to ! bran*es1 s t ! se$s drop out )\t ! cone itself fall+ to ! gr\nd1 & ?is may p]haps be ! reason :y1 9 "s in/ances 9 :i* fossil se$s h be5 f\nd1 no traces ( ! cone h be5 obs]v$4 ,fig4 #aeb3 ,fruit ( fossil ,banksia & leaf ( ,banksia4 ,fig4 #aec3 ,sequoia ,langsdorfii4 ,among ! ,conif] ! ,sequoia "h figur$ is common at ,rivaz1 & is "o ( ! mo/ univ]sal plants 9 ! ,l[e/ ,mioc5e ( ,switz]l&1 :ile x also *>act]ises ! ,mioc5e ,br[n ,coals ( ,g]many & c]ta9 b$s ( ! ,val d',arno1 :i* ,i h call$ ,old] ,plioc5e1 p4 #bjh4 ,fig4 #aed3 ,la/ra /iriaca4 ,among ! f]ns met ) 9 pr(usion at ,monod is ! ,la/ra /iriaca1 ,ung]1 :i* has a wide range 9 ! ,mioc5e p]iod f /rata ( ! age ( n+5 to ! l[e/ "p ( ! ,swiss ,molasse4 ,9 "s specim5s1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aed1 ! fructification is di/9ctly se54 ,among ! laurels sev]al species ( ,c9namomum are v conspicu\s4 ,besides ! ,c4 polymorphum1 be=e figur$1 p4 #bai1 ano!r species also ranges f ! ,l[] to ! ,upp] ,molasse ( ,switz]l&1 & is v *>act]i/ic ( diff]5t deposits ( ,br[n ,coal 9 ,g]many4 ,x has be5 call$ ,c9namomum ,rossmssl]i by ,he] 7see ,fig4 #aee74 ,! leaves are easily recognis$ z hav+ two side ve9s1 :i* run up un9t]rupt$ly to _! po9t4 ,fig4 #aee3 ,c9namomum ,rossmssl]i4 ,am]ican ,"* ( ! ,flora4--,if we consid] n m]ely ! numb] ( species b ^? plants :i* con/itute ! mass ( ! ,l[] ,mioc5e vegetation1 we f9d ! ,european "p ( ! fossil flora v mu* less prom95t ?an 9 ! n+5 b$s1 :ile ! =egr\nd is occupi$ by ,am]ican =ms1 by ev]gre5 oaks1 maples1 popl>s1 planes1 ,liquidamb>1 ,rob9ia1 ,sequoia1 ,taxodium1 & t]nate-leav$ p9es4 ,!re is also a mu* great] fusion ( ! *>act]s n[ belong+ to di/9ct botanical prov9ces ?an 9 ! ,upp] ,mioc5e flora1 & we %all f9d ?is fusion /ill m /rik+ly exemplifi$ z we g back to ! antec$5t ,eoc5e & ,cretace\s p]iods4 ,pr(essor ,he] has advocat$ ! doctr9e1 fir/ advanc$ by ,ung] to expla9 ! l>ge numb] ( ,am]ican g5]a 9 ! ,mioc5e flora ( ,europe1 t ! pres5t bas9 ( ! ,atlantic 0 occupi$ by l& ov] :i* ! ,mioc5e flora c\ld pass freely4 ,b o!r able botani/s h %[n t x is f> m probable t ! ,am]ican plants came f ! ea/ & n f ! we/1 & in/ead ( rea*+ ,europe by ! %orte/ r\te ov] an imag9>y ,atlantis1 migrat$ 9 an opposite direction1 cross+ ! :ole ( ,asia4 ,arctic ,mioc5e ,flora4--,b :5 we indulge 9 speculations z to ! geographical orig9 ( ! ,mioc5e plants ( ,c5tral ,europe1 we mu/ take into acc\nt ! discov]ies rec5tly made ( a ri* t]re/rial flora hav+ fl\ri%$ 9 ! ,arctic ,regions 9 ! ,mioc5e p]iod f :i* _m species may h migrat$ f a common c5tre s z to rea* ! pres5t cont95ts ( ,europe1 ,asia1 & ,am]ica4 ,pr(essor ,he] has exam9$ ! v>i\s collections ( fossil plants t h be5 obta9$ 9 ,nor? ,gre5l& 7lat4 #gj71 ,icel&1 ,spitzb]g51 & o!r p>ts ( ! ,arctic regions1 & has det]m9$ t !y are ( ,mioc5e age & indicate a temp]ate climate4#b ,includ+ ! collections rec5tly br\ght f ,gre5l& by ,mr4 ,:ymp]1 ! ,arctic ,mioc5e flora n[ comprises #aid species1 & t ( ,gre5l& #acg species1 ( :i* #df1 or exactly "o-?ird1 are id5tical ) plants f\nd 9 ! ,mioc5e b$s ( ,c5tral ,europe4 ,consid]ably m ?an half ! numb] are trees1 :i* is ! m rem>kable s9ce1 at ! pres5t day1 trees d n exi/ 9 any "p ( ,gre5l& ev5 #aj degrees f>!r s\?4 ,m ?an ?irty species ( ,conif] h be5 f\nd1 includ+ sev]al ,sequoias 7alli$ to ! gigantic ,well+tonia ( ,cali=nia71 ) species ( ,?ujopsis & ,salisburia n[ peculi> to ,japan4 ,!re are also bee*es1 oaks1 planes1 popl>s1 maples1 walnuts1 limes1 & ev5 a magnolia1 two cones ( :i* h rec5tly be5 obta9$1 prov+ t ?is spl5did ev]gre5 n only liv$ b rip5$ its fruit )9 ! ,arctic circle4 ,_m ( ! limes1 planes1 & oaks 7 l>ge-leav$ species1 & bo? fl[]s & fruit1 besides imm5se quantities ( leaves1 are 9 _m cases pres]v$4 ,among ! %rubs 7 _m ev]gre5s1 z ,&rom$a1 & two ext9ct g5]a1 ,daphnog5e & ,m',cl9tockia1 ) f9e lea!ry leaves1 toge!r ) hazel1 black?orn1 holly1 logwood1 & haw?orn4 ,a species ( ,zamia 7,zamites7 grew 9 ! swamps1 ) ,potamogeton1 ,sp>ganium1 & ,m5yan!s1 :ile ivy & v9es tw9$ ar\nd ! =e/ trees & broad-leav$ f]ns grew b5ea? _! %ade4 ,ev5 9 ,spitzb]g51 z f> nor? z latitude #gh #ef1 no less ?an n9ety-five species ( fossil plants h be5 obta9$1 includ+ ,taxodium ( two species1 hazel1 popl>1 ald]1 bee*1 plane-tree1 & lime4 ,su* a vigor\s gr[? ( trees )9 #ab degrees ( ! pole1 :]e n[ a dw>f will[ & a few h]bace\s plants =m ! only vegetation1 & :]e ! gr\nd is cov]$ ) almo/ p]petual sn[ & ice1 is truly rem>kable4 ,! id5tity ( s _m ( ! fossils ) ,mioc5e species ( ,c5tral ,europe & ,italy n only proves t ! climate ( ,gre5l& 0 mu* w>m] ?an x is n[1 b also r5d]s x probable t a mu* m uni=m climate prevail$ ov] ! entire nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,?is is also indicat$ by ! :ole "* ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e flora ( ,c5tral ,europe1 :i* does n necessitate a mean temp]ature v mu* great] ?an exi/s at pres5t1 if we suppose su* abs5ce ( w9t] cold z is prop] to insul> climates4 ,pr(essor ,he] believes t ! mean temp]ature ( ,nor? ,gre5l& mu/ h be5 at lea/ #cj degrees high] ?an at pres5t1 :ile an addition ( #aj degrees to ! mean temp]ature ( ,c5tral ,europe w\ld probably be z mu* z 0 requir$4 ,! *ief locality :]e ?is wond]ful flora is pres]v$ is at ,atanek]dluk 9 ,nor? ,gre5l& 7lat4 #gj71 on a hill at an elevation ( ab\t #abjj feet above ! sea4 ,!re is "h a consid]able succession ( s$im5t>y /rata pi]c$ by volcanic rocks4 ,fossil plants occur 9 all ! b$s1 & ! erect trunks z ?ick z a man's body :i* are sometimes f\nd1 toge!r ) ! abundance ( specim5s ( fl[]s & fruit 9 good pres]vation1 suffici5tly prove t ! plants grew :]e !y are n[ f\nd4 ,at ,disco isl& & o!r localities on ! same "p ( ! coa/1 good coal is abundant1 int]/ratifi$ ) b$s ( s&/one1 9 "s ( :i* fossil plants h also be5 f\nd1 simil> to ^? at ,atanek]dluk4 ,fig4 #aef3 ,l$a 7,nucula7 ,de%ayesiana4 ,l[] ,mioc5e1 ,belgium4--,! ,upp] ,mioc5e ,bold]b]g b$s1 m5tion$ 9 p4 #bbd1 re/ on a ,l[] ,mioc5e =mation call$ ! ,rupelian ( ,dumont4 ,?is =mation is be/ se5 at ! villages ( ,rupelmonde & ,boom1 t5 miles s\? ( ,antw]p1 on ! banks ( ! ,s*eldt & ne> ! junction ) x ( a small /ream call$ ! ,rupel4 ,a /iff clay ab\nd+ 9 fossils is ext5sively work$ at ! above localities = mak+ tiles4 ,x atta9s a ?ickness ( ab\t #ajj feet1 & ?\gh v diff]5t 9 age1 mu* resembles 9 m9]al "* ! 8,london clay10 conta9+1 l x1 sept>ia or concretions ( argillace\s lime/one trav]s$ by cracks 9 ! int]ior1 :i* are fill$ ) calc-sp>4 ,! %ells1 ref]able to ab\t =ty species1 h be5 describ$ by ,,mm4 ,ny/ & ,de ,kon9ck4 ,among !m ,l$a 7or ,nucula7 ,de%ayesiana 7see ,fig4 #aef7 is by f> ! mo/ abundant2 a fossil unkn[n z yet 9 ! ,engli% t]ti>y /rata1 b :5 "y mu* resembl+ ,l$a amygdaloides ( ! ,london ,clay prop] 7see ,fig4 #bac74 ,among o!r *>act]i/ic %ells are ,pect5 ,hn+hausii1 & a species ( ,cassid>ia1 & sev]al ( ! g5us ,pleurotoma4 ,n a few ( ^! te/acea agree ) ,engli% ,eoc5e species1 su* z ,acton simulatus1 ,s[b1 ,cancell>ia evulsa1 ,br&]1 ,corbula pisum 7,fig4 #aeg71 & ,nautilus 7,aturia7 ziczac4 ,!y are accompani$ by _m tee? ( %>ks1 z ,lamna contortid5s1 ,ag41 ,oxyrh9axiphodon1 ,ag41 ,c>*>odon angu/id5s 7see ,fig4 #aif71 ,ag41 & o!r fi%1 "s ( !m common to ! ,middle ,eoc5e /rata4 ,kleyn ,spaw5 b$s4--,! succession ( ! ,l[] ,mioc5e /rata ( ,belgium c be be/ /udi$ 9 ! environs ( ,kleyn ,spaw51 a village situat$ ab\t sev5 miles we/ ( ,mae/ri*t1 9 ! old prov9ce ( ,limburg 9 ,belgium4 ,9 t region1 ab\t #bjj species ( te/acea1 m>9e & fre%-wat]1 h be5 obta9$1 ) _m =am9if]a & rema9s ( fi%4 ,9 none ( ! ,belgian ,l[] ,mioc5e /rata c\ld ,i f9d any nummulites2 & ,m4 d',ar*iac _h previ\sly obs]v$ t ^! =am9if]a *>act]ise 8 8,l[] ,t]ti>y ,s]ies10 z contra/$ ) ! ,middle1 & !y !re=e s]ve z a good te/ ( age betwe5 ,eoc5e & ,mioc5e1 at lea/ 9 ,belgium & ! ,nor? ( ,france4#c ,betwe5 ! ,bold]b]g b$s & ! ,rupelian clay !re is a great gap 9 ,belgium1 :i* seems1 accord+ to ,m4 ,beyri*1 to be fill$ up 9 ! ,nor? ( ,g]many by :at he calls ! ,/]nb]g b$s1 & :i*1 _h ,dumont f\nd !m 9 ,belgium1 he might probably h t]m$ ,upp] ,rupelian4 ,l[] ,mioc5e ( ,g]many4--,rupelian ,clay ( ,h]msdorf1 ne> ,b]l94--,pr(essor ,beyri* has describ$ a mass ( clay1 us$ = mak+ tiles1 )9 sev5 miles ( ! gates ( ,b]l91 ne> ! village ( ,h]msdorf1 ris+ up f b5ea? ! s&s ) :i* t c\ntry is *iefly ov]spread4 ,?is clay is m ?an =ty feet ?ick1 ( a d>k blui%-grey col\r1 &1 l t ( ,rupelmonde1 conta9s sept>ia4 ,among o!r %ells1 ! ,l$a ,de%ayesiana1 be=e m5tion$ 7,fig4 #aef71 ab\nds1 toge!r ) _m species ( ,pleurotoma1 ,voluta1 etc41 a c]ta9 proportion ( ! fossils be+ id5tical 9 species ) ^? ( ,rupelmonde4 ,may5ce ,bas94--,an elaborate description has be5 publi%$ by ,dr4 ,f4 ,s&b]g] ( ! ,may5ce t]ti>y area1 :i* occupies a tract f five to twelve miles 9 bread?1 ext5d+ = a great di/ance along ! left bank ( ! ,rh9e f ,may5ce to ! neighb\rhood ( ,manheim1 & :i* is also f\nd to ! ea/1 nor?1 & s\?-we/ ( ,frank=t4 ,m4 ,de ,kon9ck1 ( ,liege1 fir/ po9t$ out to me t ! purely m>9e portion ( ! deposit conta9$ _m species ( %ells common to ! ,kleyn ,spaw5 b$s1 & to ! clay ( ,rupelmonde1 ne> ,antw]p4 ,among ^! he m5tion$ ,cassid>ia depressa1 ,tritonium argutum1 ,br&] 7,t4 fl&ricum1 ,de ,kon9ck71 ,tornatella simulata1 ,aporrhais ,s[byi1 ,l$a ,de%ayesiana 7,fig4 #aef71 ,corbula pisum1 7,fig4 #aeh7 & o!rs4 ,l[] ,mioc5e ,b$s ( ,croatia4--,! ,br[n ,coal ( ,radaboj1 ne> ,angram 9 ,croatia1 n f> f ! bord]s ( ,/yria1 is cov]$1 says ,von ,bu*1 by b$s conta9+ ! m>9e %ells ( ! ,vi5na bas91 or1 9 o!r words1 by ,upp] ,mioc5e or ,falunian /rata4 ,!y appe> to correspond 9 age to ! ,may5ce bas91 or to ! ,rupelian /rata ( ,belgium4 ,!y h yield$ m ?an #bjj species ( fossil plants1 describ$ by ! late ,pr(essor ,ung]4 ,^! plants are well pres]v$ 9 a h>d m>l/one1 & conta9 sev]al palms2 among !m ! ,sabal1 ,fig4 #aea1 p4 #bcg1 & ano!r g5us alli$ to ! date-palm ,phnicites spectabilis4 ,! only abundant plant among ! ,radaboj fossils :i* is *>act]i/ic ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e p]iod is ! ,populus mutabilis1 :]eas no less ?an fifty ( ! ,radaboj species are common to ! m anci5t flora ( ! ,l[] ,molasse ( ,switz]l&4 ,fig4 #aeg3 ,vanessa ,pluto4 ,! insect fauna is v ri*1 &1 l ! plants1 indicates a m tropical climate ?an d ! fossils ( n+5 pres5tly to be m5tion$4 ,!re are t5 species ( ,t]mites1 or :ite ants1 "s ( gigantic size1 & l>ge dragon-flies ) speckl$ w+s1 l ^? ( ! ,s\!rn ,/ates 9 ,nor? ,am]ica2 !re are also gras%opp]s ( consid]able size1 & ev5 ! ,lepidopt]a are n unrepres5t$4 ,9 "o in/ance1 ! patt]n ( a butt]fly's w+ has escap$ oblit]ation 9 ! m>l-/one ( ,radaboj2 & :5 we reflect on ! remot5ess ( ! "t f :i* x has be5 fai?fully transmitt$ to u1 ?is fact may inspire ! read] ) "s confid5ce z to ! reliable nature ( ! *>act]s :i* o!r insects ( a m durable texture1 su* z ! beetles1 may af=d = specific det]m9ation4 ,! ,vanessa above figur$ reta9s1 says ,he]1 "s ( its col\rs1 & corresponds ) ,v4 ,had5a ( ,india4 ,pr(essor ,beyri* has made kn[n to u ! exi/5ce ( a long succession ( m>9e /rata 9 ,nor? ,g]many1 :i* lead by an almo/ gradual transition f b$s ( ,upp] ,mioc5e age to o!rs ( ! age ( ! base ( ! ,l[] ,mioc5e4 ,al?\gh "s ( ! ,g]man lignites call$ ,br[n ,coal belong to ! upp] p>ts ( ?is s]ies1 ! mo/ important ( !m are ( ,l[] ,mioc5e date1 z1 = example1 ^? ( ! ,sieb5gebirge1 ne> ,bonn1 :i* are associat$ ) volcanic rocks4 ,pr(essor ,beyri* conf9es ! t]m 8,mioc5e0 to ^? /rata :i* agree 9 age ) ! faluns ( ,t\ra9e1 & he has propos$ ! t]m 8,oligoc5e0 = ^? old] =mations call$ ,l[] ,mioc5e 9 ?is "w4 ,l[] ,mioc5e ( ,italy4--,9 ! hills ( :i* ! ,sup]ga =ms a "p !re is a great s]ies ( ,t]ti>y /rata :i* pass d[nw>d into ! ,l[] ,mioc5e4 ,ev5 9 ! ,sup]ga itself !re are "s fossil plants :i*1 accord+ to ,he]1 h nev] be5 f\nd 9 ,switz]l& s high z ! m>9e ,molasse1 su* z ,banksia longifolia1 & ,c>p9us gr&is4 ,9 sev]al p>ts ( ! ,ligurian ,ap5n9es1 z at ,dg & ,c>c>e1 ! ,l[] ,mioc5e appe>s1 conta9+ "s nummulites1 & at ,cadibona1 nor? ( ,savona1 fre%-wat] /rata ( ! same age occur1 ) d5se b$s ( lignite inclos+ rema9s ( ! ,an?raco!rium magnum & ,a4 m9imum1 besides o!r mammalia enum]at$ by ,ga/aldi4 ,9 ^! b$s a great numb] ( ! ,l[] ,mioc5e plants ( ,switz]l& h be5 discov]$4 ,l[] ,mioc5e ( ,engl&--,hemp/ead ,b$s4--,we h already /at$ t ! ,upp] ,mioc5e =mation is n[h]e repres5t$ 9 ! ,briti% ,isles2 b /rata ref]able to ! ,l[] ,mioc5e p]iod are f\nd bo? 9 ,engl&1 ,scotl&1 & ,irel&4 ,9 ! ,hamp%ire bas9 ^! occupy a v small sup]ficial area1 hav+ be5 discov]$ by ! late ,edw>d ,=bes at ,hemp/ead ne> ,y>m\?1 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 :]e !y are #agj feet ?ick1 & ri* 9 *>act]i/ic m>9e %ells4 ,!y ov]lie ! upp]mo/ ( an ext5sive s]ies ( ,eoc5e deposits ( m>9e1 bracki%1 & fre%-wat] =mations1 :i* re/ on ! ,*alk & t]m9ate upw>d 9 /rata correspond+ 9 age to ! ,p>is gypsum1 & conta9+ ! same ext9ct g5]a ( quadrup$s1 ,palo!rium1 ,anoplo!rium1 & o!rs :i* ,cuvi] fir/ describ$4 ,! foll[+ is ! succession ( ^! ,l[] ,mioc5e /rata1 mo/ ( !m expos$ 9 a cliff ea/ ( ,y>m\?3 #a4 ,! upp]mo/ or ,corbula b$s1 consi/+ ( m>9e s&s & clays1 conta9 ,voluta ,ra?i]i1 a *>act]i/ic ,l[] ,mioc5e %ell2 ,corbula pisum 7,fig4 #aeh71 a species common to ! ,upp] ,eoc5e clay ( ,b>ton2 ,cyr5a semi/riata 7,fig4 #aei71 sev]al ,c]i?ia1 & o!r %ells peculi> to ?is s]ies4 ,fig4 #aeh3 ,corbula pisum4 ,fig4 #aei3 ,cyr5a semi/riata4 ,fig4 #afj3 ,c]i?ium plicatum4 ,fig4 #afa3 ,c]i?ium elegans4 ,fig4 #afb3 ,rissoa ,*a/elii4 ,fig4 #afc3 ,palud9a l5ta4 #b4 ,next are fre%-wat] & e/u>y m>ls & c>bonace\s clays 9 ! bracki%-wat] portion ( :i* are f\nd abundantly ,c]i?ium plicatum1 ,lam4 7,fig4 #afj71 ,c]i?ium elegans 7,fig4 #afa71 & ,c]i?ium tric9ctum2 also ,rissoa ,*a/elii 7,fig4 #afb71 a v common ,kleyn ,spaw5 %ell1 & :i* occurs 9 ea* ( ! f\r subdivisions ( ! ,hemp/ead s]ies d[n to its base1 :]e x passes into ! ,bembridge b$s4 ,9 ! fre%-wat] portion ( ! same b$s ,palud9a l5ta 7,fig4 #afc7 occurs2 a %ell id5tifi$ by "s con*ologi/s ) a species n[ liv+1 ,p4 unicolor2 also sev]al species ( ,lymneus1 ,planorbis1 & ,unio4 #c4 ,! next s]ies1 or middle fre%-wat] & e/u>y m>ls1 are di/+ui%$ by ! pres5ce ( ,melania fasciata1 ,palud9a l5ta1 & clays ) ,cypris2 ! l[e/ b$ conta9s ,cyr5a semi/riata 7,fig4 #aei71 m+l$ ) ,c]i?ia & a panopa4 #d4 ,! l[] fre%-wat] & e/u>y m>ls conta9 ,melania co/ata1 ,s[]by1 ,melanopsis1 etc4 ,! bottom b$ is c>bonace\s1 & call$ ! 8,black b&10 9 :i* ,rissoa ,*a/elii 7,fig4 #afb71 be=e allud$ to1 is common4 ,?is b$ conta9s a mixture ( ,hemp/ead %ells ) ^? ( ! und]ly+ ,upp] ,eoc5e or ,bembridge s]ies4 ,! mammalia1 among :i* is ,hyopotamus bov9us1 diff]1 s f> z !y are kn[n1 f ^? ( ! ,bembridge b$s4 ,among ! plants1 ,pr(essor ,he] has recognis$ f\r species common to ! lignite ( ,bovey ,tracey1 a ,l[] ,mioc5e =mation pres5tly to be describ$3 namely1 ,sequoia ,c\ttsi1 ,he]2 ,&rom$a reticulata1 ,ett+s42 ,nelumbium 7,nympha7 doris1 ,he]2 & ,c>poli!s ,web/]i1 ,brong4#d ,! se$-vessels ( ,*>a m$icag9ula1 ,brong1 & ,c4 helict]es are *>act]i/ic ( ! ,hemp/ead b$s g5]ally4 ,! ,hyopotamus belongs to ! hog tribe1 or ! same family z ! ,an?raco!rium1 ( :i* sev5 species1 v>y+ 9 size f ! hippopotamus to ! wild bo>1 h be5 f\nd 9 ,italy & o!r "p ( ,europe associat$ ) ! lignites ( ! ,l[] ,mioc5e p]iod4 ,lignites & ,clays ( ,bovey ,tracey1 ,devon%ire4--,surr\nd$ by ! granite & o!r rocks ( ! ,d>tmoor hills 9 ,devon%ire1 is a =mation ( clay1 s&1 & lignite1 long kn[n to geologi/s z ! ,bovey ,coal =mation1 respect+ ! age ( :i*1 until ! ye> #ahfa1 op9ions 7 v unsettl$4 ,?is deposit is situat$ at ,bovey ,tracey1 a village di/ant elev5 miles f ,exet] 9 a s\?-we/1 & ab\t z f> f ,torquay 9 a nor?-we/ direction4 ,! /rata ext5d ov] a pla9 n9e miles long1 & !y consi/ ( ! mat]ials ( decompos$ & worn-d[n granite & vegetable matt]1 & h evid5tly fill$ up an anci5t holl[ or lake-l expansion ( ! valleys ( ! ,bovey & ,teign4 ,! lignite is ( bad quality = economical purposes1 z !re is a great admixture 9 x ( iron pyrites1 & x emits a sulphur\s od\r1 b x has be5 successfully appli$ to ! bak+ ( pott]y1 = :i* "s ( ! f9e clays are well adapt$4 ,mr4 ,p5gelly has confirm$ ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e's op9ion t mu* ( ! upp] portion ( ?is old lacu/r9e =mation has be5 remov$ by d5udation4#e ,at ! surface is a d5se cov]+ ( clay & gravel ) angul> /ones probably ( ! ,po/-plioc5e p]iod1 = 9 ! clay are ?ree species ( will[ & ! dw>f bir*1 ,betula nana1 indicat+ a climate cold] ?an t ( ,devon%ire at ! pres5t day4 ,bel[ ?is are ,l[] ,mioc5e /rata ab\t #cjj feet 9 ?ickness1 9 ! upp] "p ( :i* are tw5ty-six b$s ( lignite1 clay1 & s&1 & at _! base a f]rug9\s qu>tzose s&1 v>y+ 9 ?ickness f two to tw5ty-sev5 feet4 ,bel[ ?is s& are =ty-five b$s ( alt]nat+ lignite & clay4 ,no %ells or bones ( mammalia1 & no insect1 ) ! exception ( "o fragm5t ( a beetle 7,bupre/is72 9 a ^w1 no organic rema9s1 except plants1 h z yet be5 f\nd4 ,^! plants occur 9 f\rte5 ( ! b$s--namely1 9 two ( ! clays1 & ! re/ 9 ! lignites4 ,"o ( ! b$s is a p]fect mat ( ! debris ( a conif]\s tree1 call$ by ,he] ,sequoia ,c\ttsi1 int]mix$ ) leaves ( f]ns4 ,! same ,sequoia 7be=e m5tion$ z a ,hemp/ead fossil1 p4 #bdf7 is spread ?r\gh all p>ts ( ! =mation1 its cones1 & se$s1 & bran*es ( e age be+ pres]v$4 ,x is a species supply+ a l9k betwe5 ,sequoia ,langsdorfii 7see ,fig4 #aec1 p4 #bch7 & ,s4 ,/]nb]gi1 ! widely spread fossil repres5tatives ( ! two liv+ trees ,s4 semp]vir5s & ,s4 gigantea 7or ,well+tonia71 bo? n[ conf9$ to ,cali=nia4 ,ano!r b$ is full ( ! l>ge rhizomes ( f]ns1 :ile two o!rs are ri* 9 dicotyl$on\s leaves4 ,9 all1 ,pr(essor ,he] enum]ates =ty-n9e species ( plants1 tw5ty ( :i* are common to ! ,mioc5e b$s ( ! ,cont95t1 a majority ( !m be+ *>act]i/ic ( ! ,l[] ,mioc5e4 ,! new species1 also ( ,bovey1 are alli$ to plants ( ! old] ,mioc5e deposits ( ,switz]l&1 ,g]many1 & o!r ,cont95tal c\ntries4 ,! grape-/ones ( two species ( v9e occur 9 ! clays1 & leaves ( ! fig & se$s ( a wat]-lily4 ,! oak & laurel h suppli$ _m leaves4 ,( ! triple-n]v$ laurels sev]al are ref]r$ to ,c9namomum4 ,!re are leaves also ( a palm ( :i* ! g5us is n det]m9$4 ,leaves also ( proteace\s =ms1 l "s ( ! ,cont95tal fossils be=e m5tion$1 occur1 & f]ns l ! well-kn[n ,la/ra /iriaca 7,fig4 #aed1 p4 #bch71 display+ at ,bovey1 z 9 ,switz]l&1 its fructification4 ,! crozi]s ( "s ( ! "y f]ns are v p]fect1 & 7 at fir/ mi/ak5 by collectors = %ells ( ! g5us ,planorbis4 ,on ! :ole1 ! vegetation ( ,bovey implies ! exi/5ce ( a sub-tropical climate 9 ,devon%ire1 9 ! ,l[] ,mioc5e p]iod4 ,scotl&3 ,isle ( ,mull4--,9 ! sea-cliffs =m+ ! headl& ( ,ardtun1 on ! we/ coa/ ( ,mull1 9 ! ,hebrides1 sev]al b&s ( t]ti>y /rata conta9+ leaves ( dicotyl$on\s plants 7 discov]$ 9 #ahea by ! ,duke ( ,argyll4#f ,f 8 description x appe>s t !re are ?ree leaf-b$s1 v>y+ 9 ?ickness f #a to #e feet1 :i* are int]/ratifi$ ) volcanic tuff & trap1 ! :ole mass be+ ab\t #acj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,a %eet ( basalt #dj feet ?ick cov]s ! :ole2 & ano!r column> b$ ( ! same rock1 t5 feet ?ick1 is expos$ at ! bottom ( ! cliff4 ,"o ( ! leaf-b$s consi/s ( a compress$ mass ( leaves unaccompani$ by any /ems1 z if !y _h be5 bl[n into a m>% :]e a species ( ,equisetum grew1 ( :i* ! rema9s are pl5tifully imb$d$ 9 clay4 ,x is suppos$ by ! ,duke ( ,argyll t ?is =mation 0 accumulat$ 9 a %all[ lake or m>% 9 ! neighb\rhood ( a volcano1 :i* emitt$ %[]s ( a%es & /reams ( lava4 ,! tuface\s envelope ( ! fossils may h fall5 into ! lake f ! air z volcanic du/1 or h be5 wa%$ d[n into x z mud f ! adjo9+ l&4 ,ev5 )\t ! aid ( organic rema9s we might h decid$ t ! deposit 0 new] ?an ! *alk1 = *alk-fl9ts conta9+ cretace\s fossils 7 detect$ by ! duke 9 ! pr9cipal mass ( volcanic a%es or tuff4#g ,! late ,edw>d ,=bes obs]v$ t "s ( ! plants ( ?is =mation resembl$ ^? ( ,croatia1 describ$ by ,ung]1 & 8 op9ion has be5 confirm$ by ,pr(essor ,he]1 :o f\nd t ! conif] mo/ preval5t 0 ! ,sequoia ,langsdorfii 7,fig4 #aec1 p4 #bch71 also ,corylus gross$5tata1 a ,l[] ,mioc5e species ( ,switz]l& & ( ,m5at 9 ,auv]gne4 ,!re is likewise a plane-tree1 ! leaves ( :i* seem to agree ) ^? ( ,platanus ac]oides 7,fig4 #ada71 & a f]n :i* is z yet peculi> to ,mull1 ,filicites hebridica1 ,=bes4 ,^! int]e/+ discov]ies 9 ,mull l$ geologi/s to suspect t ! basalt ( ,antrim1 9 ,irel&1 & ( ! celebrat$ ,giant's ,causeway1 might be ( ! same age4 ,! volcanic rocks t ov]lie ! *alk1 & "s ( ! /rata associat$ ) & int]/ratifi$ betwe5 masses ( basalt1 conta9 leaves ( dicotyl$on\s plants1 some:at imp]fect1 b resembl+ ! bee*1 oak1 & plane1 & also "s conif] ( ! g5]a p9e & ,sequoia4 ,! g5]al de>? ( /rata 9 ! ,briti% ,isles1 int]m$iate 9 age betwe5 ! =mation ( ! ,eoc5e & ,plioc5e p]iods1 may arise1 says ,pr(essor ,=bes1 f ! ext5t ( dry l& :i* prevail$ 9 t va/ int]val ( "t4 ,if l& pr$om9at$1 ! only monum5ts we are likely ev] to f9d ( ,mioc5e date are ^? ( lacu/r9e & volcanic orig91 su* z ! ,bovey ,coal 9 ,devon%ire1 ! ,ardtun b$s 9 ,mull1 or ! lignites & associat$ basalts 9 ,antrim4 ,l[] ,mioc5e1 ,unit$ /ates3 ,nebraska4--,9 ! t]ritory ( ,nebraska1 on ! ,upp] ,miss\ri1 ne> ! ,platte ,riv]1 lat4 #db ,n41 a t]ti>y =mation occurs1 consi/+ ( :ite lime/one1 m>ls1 & silice\s clay1 describ$ by ,dr4 ,d4 ,dale ,ow51#h 9 :i* _m bones ( ext9ct quadrup$s1 & ( *elonians ( l& or fre%-wat] =ms1 are met )4 ,among ^!1 ,dr4 ,leidy describes a gigantic quadrup$1 call$ by him ,titano!rium1 ne>ly alli$ to ! ,palo!rium1 b l>g] ?an any ( ! species f\nd 9 ! ,p>is gypsum4 ,) ^! are sev]al species ( ! g5us ,oreodon1 ,leidy1 unit+ ! *>act]s ( pa*yd]ms & rum9ants also2 ,eucrotaphus1 ano!r new g5us ( ! same mix$ "*2 two species ( rh9oc]os ( ! sub-g5us ,ac]o!rium1 a ,l[] ,mioc5e =m ( ,europe be=e m5tion$2 two species ( ,ar*o!rium1 a pa*yd]m alli$ to ,*ropotamus & ,hyraco!rium2 also ,pbro!rium1 an ext9ct rum9ant alli$ to ,dorca!rium1 ,kaup2 also ,agrio*o]us1 ( ,leidy1 a rum9ant alli$ to ,m]ycopotamus ( ,falcon] & ,cautley2 &1 la/ly1 a l>ge c>nivor\s animal ( ! g5us ,ma*airodus1 ! mo/ anci5t example ( :i* 9 ,europe occurs 9 ! ,l[] ,mioc5e /rata ( ,auv]gne1 b ( :i* "s species are f\nd 9 ,plioc5e deposits4 ,! turtles are ref]r$ to ! g5us ,te/udo1 b h "s aff9ity to ,emys4 ,on ! :ole1 ! ,nebraska =mation is probably new] ?an ! ,p>is gypsum1 & ref]able to ! ,l[] ,mioc5e p]iod1 z above def9$4 #a ,bullet91 #ahef1 ,j\rn41 vol4 xii1 p4 #gfh4 #b ,he] 8,mioc5e baltis*e ,flora0 & 8,fossil-flora von ,alaska0 #ahfi4 #c ,d',ar*iac ,monogr41 pp4 #gi1 #ajj4 #d ,p5gelly1 preface to ,! ,lignite ,=mation ( ,bovey ,tracey1 p4 xvii1 ,london1 #ahfc4 #e ,philos4 ,trans41 #ahfc4 ,pap] by ,w4 ,p5gelly1 ,f4,r4,s41 & ,dr4 ,oswald ,he]4 #f ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rnal1 #ahea1 p4 #ai4 #g ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rnal1 #ahea1 p4 #ij4 #h ,david ,dale ,ow51 ,geol4 ,survey ( ,wiscons91 etc41 ,philad41 #aheb4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,eoc5e ,,=mations4 ,eoc5e ,areas ( ,nor? ( ,europe4 -- ,table ( ,engli% & ,fr5* ,eoc5e ,/rata4 -- ,upp] ,eoc5e ( ,engl&4 -- ,bembridge ,b$s4 -- ,osborne or ,/4 ,hel5's ,b$s4 -- ,headon ,s]ies4 -- ,fossils ( ! ,b>ton ,s&s & ,clays4 -- ,middle ,eoc5e ( ,engl&4 -- ,%ells1 ,nummulites1 ,fi% & ,reptiles ( ! ,brackle%am ,b$s & ,bag%ot ,s&s4 -- ,plants ( ,alum ,bay & ,b\rnem\?4 -- ,l[] ,eoc5e ( ,engl&4 -- ,london ,clay ,fossils4 -- ,woolwi* & ,read+ ,b$s =m]ly call$ 8,pla/ic ,clay40 ,fluviatile ,b$s und]ly+ ,deep-sea ,/rata4 -- ,?anet ,s&s4 -- ,upp] ,eoc5e ,/rata ( ,france4 -- ,gypse\s ,s]ies ( ,montm>tre & ,ext9ct ,quadrup$s4 -- ,fossil ,footpr9ts 9 ,p>is ,gypsum4 -- ,imp]fection ( ! ,record4 -- ,calcaire ,silicieux4 -- ,gres de ,beau*amp4 -- ,calcaire ,grossi]4 -- ,miliolite ,lime/one4 -- ,soissonnais ,s&s4 -- ,l[] ,eoc5e ( ,france4 -- ,nummulitic ,=mations ( ,europe1 ,africa1 & ,asia4 -- ,eoc5e ,/rata 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 -- ,gigantic ,cetacean4 ,eoc5e ,areas ( ! ,nor? ( ,europe4--,! /rata next 9 ord] 9 ! desc5d+ s]ies are ^? :i* ,i t]m ,eoc5e4 ,fig4 #afd3 ,map ( ! pr9cipal ,eoc5e areas ( ,nor?-we/]n ,europe4 ,9 ! map 7,fig4 #afd7 ! position ( sev]al ,eoc5e areas 9 ! nor? ( ,europe is po9t$ out4 ,:5 ?is map 0 con/ruct$ ,i class$ z ! new] "p ( ! ,eoc5e ^? ,t]ti>y /rata :i* h be5 describ$ 9 ! la/ *apt] z ,l[] ,mioc5e1 & to :i* ,m4 ,beyri* has giv5 ! "n ( ,oligoc5e4 ,none ( ^! occur 9 ! ,london ,bas91 & !y occupy 9 t ( ,hamp%ire1 z we h se5 at p4 #bdd1 too insignificant a sup]ficial area to be notic$ 9 a map on ?is scale4 ,!y fill a l>g] space 9 ! ,p>is ,bas9 betwe5 ! ,se9e & ! ,loire1 & con/itute also "p ( ! nor!rn limits ( ! area ( ! ,ne!rl&s :i* are %ad$ 9 ! map4 ,x is 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,isle ( ,wight t we h ! upp]mo/ b$s ( ! true ,eoc5e be/ exhibit$--namely1 ^? :i* correspond 9 _! fossils ) ! celebrat$ gypsum ( ! ,p>is bas9 be=e allud$ to1 p4 #bca 7see ,table1 p4 #beb74 ,t gypsum has be5 select$ by almo/ all ,cont95tal geologi/s z af=d+ ! be/ l9e ( dem>kation betwe5 ! ,middle & ,l[] ,t]ti>y1 or1 9 o!r words1 betwe5 ! ,l[] ,mioc5e & ,eoc5e =mations4 ,9 ref]5ce to ! ,table ,i may obs]ve1 t ! correlation ( ! ,fr5* & ,engli% subdivisions "h laid d[n is (t5 a matt] ( great d\bt & difficulty1 not)/&+ _! geographical proximity4 ,?is arises f v>i\s circum/ances1 p>tly f ! =m] preval5ce ( m>9e conditions 9 "o bas9 simultane\sly ) fluviatile or lacu/r9e 9 ! o!r1 & sometimes f ! exi/5ce ( l& 9 "o area caus+ a break or abs5ce ( all records dur+ a p]iod :5 deposits may h be5 9 progress 9 ! o!r bas94 ,z be>+ on ?is subject1 x may be /at$ t we h unque/ionable evid5ce ( oscillations ( level %[n by ! sup]position ( salt or bracki%-wat] /rata to fluviatile b$s2 & ^? ( deep-sea orig9 to /rata =m$ 9 %all[ wat]4 ,ev5 if ! upw>d & d[nw>d movem5ts 7 uni=m 9 am\nt & direction1 :i* is v improbable1 _! effect 9 produc+ ! conv]sion ( sea into l& or l& into sea w\ld be diff]5t1 accord+ to ! previ\s %ape & v>y+ elevation ( ! l& & bottom ( ! sea4 ,la/ly1 d5udation1 m>9e & subarial1 has frequ5tly caus$ ! abs5ce ( deposits 9 "o bas9 ( correspond+ age to ^? 9 ! o!r1 & ?is de/ructive ag5cy has be5 m ?an ord9>ily effective on acc\nt ( ! loose & unconsolidat$ nature ( ! s&s & clays4 ,,table ,,( ,,engli% ,,& ,,fr5* ,,eoc5e ,,/rata4 ,,upp] ,,eoc5e ,engli% subdivisions ,fr5* equival5ts ,a4#a4 ,bembridge s]ies1 ,isle ( ,wight1 p4 #beb4 ,a4#a4 ,gypse\s s]ies ( ,montm>tre1 p4 #bgj4 ,a4#b4 ,osborne or ,/4 ,hel5's s]ies1 ,isle ( ,wight1 p4 #bee4 ,a4#b & #c4 ,calcaire siliceux1 or ,trav]t9 ,infrieur1 p4 #bgc4 ,a4#c4 ,headon s]ies1 ,isle ( ,wight1 p4 #bee4 ,a4#d4 ,b>ton s]ies4 ,s&s & clays ( ,b>ton ,cliff1 ,hants1 p4 #beh4 ,a4#d4 ,grs de ,beau*amp1 or ,sables ,moy5s1 p4 #bgc4 ,,middle ,,eoc5e ,b4#a4 ,brackle%am s]ies1 p4 #bei4 ,b4#a4 ,calcaire ,grossi] p4 #bgd ,b4#b4 ,alum ,bay & ,b\rnem\? b$s1 p4 #bei4 ,b4#b4 ,want+ 9 ,france8 ,b4#b4 ,want+ 9 ,engl&8 ,b4#b4 ,soissonnais ,s&s1 or ,lits ,coquilli]s1 p4 #bge ,,l[] ,,eoc5e ,c4#a4 ,london ,clay1 p4 #bfc4 ,c4#a4 ,argile de ,londres1 ,cassel1 ne> ,dunkirk4 ,c4#b4 ,woolwi* & ,read+ s]ies1 p4 #bfg4 ,c4#b4 ,argile pla/ique & lignite1 p4 #bgf ,c4#c4 ,?anet s&s1 p4 #bfi4 ,c4#c4 ,sables de ,bra*eux1 p4 #bgf ,,upp] ,,eoc5e1 ,,engl&4 ,bembridge ,s]ies1 ,a4#a4--,^! b$s are ab\t #abj feet ?ick1 &1 z /at$ 9 p4 #bde1 lie imm$iately "u ! ,hemp/ead b$s1 ne> ,y>m\?1 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight1 be+ con=mable ) ^? ,l[] ,mioc5e /rata4 ,!y consi/ ( m>ls1 clays1 & lime/ones ( fre%-wat]1 bracki%1 & m>9e orig94 ,"s ( ! mo/ abundant %ells1 z ,cyr5a semi/riata v>41 & ,palud9a l5ta1 ,fig4 #afc1 are common to ?is & to ! ov]ly+ ,hemp/ead s]ies2 b ! majority ( ! species are di/9ct4 ,! foll[+ are ! subdivisions describ$ by ! late ,pr(essor ,=bes3 a4 ,upp] m>ls1 di/+ui%$ by ! abundance ( ,melania turritissima1 ,=bes 7,fig4 #afe74 b4 ,l[] m>ls1 *>act]is$ by ,c]i?ium mutabile1 ,cyr5a pul*ra1 etc41 & by ! rema9s ( ,trionyx 7see ,fig4 #aff74 c4 ,gre5 m>ls1 (t5 ab\nd+ 9 a peculi> species ( oy/]1 & accompani$ by ,c]i?ium1 ,mytilus1 ,arca1 nucula1 etc4 d4 ,bembridge lime/ones1 compact cream-col\r$ lime/ones alt]nat+ ) %ales & m>ls1 9 all ( :i* l&-%ells are common1 especially at ,sconce1 ne> ,y>m\?1 z describ$ by ,mr4 ,f4 ,edw>ds4 ,! ,bulimus ellipticus1 ,fig4 #afg1 & ,helix occlusa1 ,fig4 #afh1 are among its be/ kn[n l&-%ells4 ,palud9a orbicul>is1 ,fig4 #afi1 is also ( frequ5t occurr5ce4 ,"o ( ! b&s is fill$ ) a little globul> ,palud9a4 ,among ! fre%-wat] pulmonif]a1 ,lymnea longiscata 7,fig4 #aga7 & ,planorbis discus 7,fig4 #agj7 are ! mo/ g5]ally di/ribut$3 ! latt] repres5ts or takes ! place ( ! ,planorbis euomphalus 7see ,fig4 #age7 ( ! m anci5t ,headon s]ies4 ,*>a tub]culata 7,fig4 #agb7 is ! *>act]i/ic ,bembridge gyrogonite or se$-vessel4 ,fig4 #afe3 ,melania turritissima1 ,fig4 #aff3 ,fragm5t ( ,c>apace ( ,trionyx1 ,fig4 #afg3 ,bulimus ellipticus1 ,fig4 #afh3 ,helix occlusa1 ,fig4 #afi3 ,palud9a orbicul>is1 ,fig4 #agj3 ,planorbis discus1 ,fig4 #aga3 ,lymnea longiscata1 ,fig4 #agb3 ,*>a tub]culata4 ,fig4 #agc3 ,l[] mol> too?4 ,f ?is =mation on ! %ores ( ,:itecliff ,bay1 ,dr4 ,mantell obta9$ a f9e specim5 ( a fan palm1 ,flabell>ia ,lamanonis1 ,brong41 a plant fir/ obta9$ f b$s ( correspond+ age 9 ! suburbs ( ,p>is4 ,! well-kn[n build+-/one ( ,b9/ead1 ne> ,ryde1 a lime/one ) num]\s holl[s caus$ by ,cyr5 :i* h disappe>$ & left ! m\lds ( _! %ells1 belongs to ?is subdivision ( ! ,bembridge s]ies4 ,9 ! same ,b9/ead /one ,mr4 ,pratt & ! ,rev]5d ,d>w9 ,fox fir/ discov]$ ! rema9s ( mammalia *>act]i/ic ( ! gypse\s s]ies ( ,p>is1 z ,palo!rium magnum 7,fig4 #agd71 ,p4 m$ium1 ,p4 m9us1 ,p4 m9imum1 ,p4 curtum1 ,p4 crassum2 also ,anoplo!rium commune 7,fig4 #agc71 ,a4 secund>ium1 ,di*obune c]v9um1 & ,*ropotamus ,cuvi]i4 ,! ,palo!re above allud$ to resembl$ ! liv+ tapir 9 ! =m ( ! head1 & 9 hav+ a %ort proboscis1 b its mol> tee? 7 m l ^? ( ! rh9oc]os4 ,palo!rium magnum 0 ( ! size ( a horse1 ?ree or f\r feet high4 ,! woodcut1 ,fig4 #agd1 is "o ( ! re/orations :i* ,cuvi] attempt$ ( ! outl9e ( ! liv+ animal1 d]iv$ f ! /udy ( ! entire skeleton4 ,z ! v]tical range ( p>ticul> species ( quadrup$s1 s f> z our k ext5ds1 is f> m limit$ ?an t ( ! te/acea1 ! occurr5ce ( s _m species at ,b9/ead1 agree+ ) fossils ( ! ,p>is gypsum1 /r5g!ns ! evid5ce d]iv$ f %ells & plants ( ! syn*ronism ( ! two =mations4 ,fig4 #agd3 ,palo!rium magnum4 ,osborne or ,/4 ,hel5's ,s]ies1 ,a4#b4--,?is gr\p is ( fre% & bracki%-wat] orig91 & v v>iable 9 m9]al "* & ?ickness4 ,ne> ,ryde1 x supplies a free/one mu* us$ = build+1 & call$ by ,pr(essor ,=bes ! ,nettle/one grit4 ,9 "o "p ripple-m>k$ flag/ones occur1 & rocks ) fucoidal m>k+s4 ,! ,osborne b$s are di/+ui%$ by peculi> species ( ,palud9a1 ,melania1 & ,melanopsis1 z also ( ,cypris & ! se$s ( ,*>a4 ,fig4 #age3 ,planorbis euomphalus1 ,fig4 #agf3 ,helix labyr9?ica4 ,headon ,s]ies ,a4#c4--,^! b$s are se5 bo? 9 ,:itecliff ,bay1 ,headon ,hill1 & ,alum ,bay1 or at ! ea/ & we/ extremities ( ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,! upp] & l[] portions are fre%-wat]1 & ! middle ( mix$ orig91 sometimes bracki% & m>9e4 ,ev]y:]e ,planorbis euomphalus1 ,fig4 #age1 *>act]ises ! fre%-wat] deposits1 j z ! alli$ =m1 ,p4 discus1 ,fig4 #agj1 does ! ,bembridge lime/one4 ,! bracki%-wat] b$s conta9 ,potamomya plana1 ,c]i?ium mutabile1 & ,potamides c9ctus 7,fig4 #cg71 & ! m>9e b$s ,v5us 7or ,cy!rea7 incrassata1 a species common to ! ,limburg b$s & ,grs de ,fonta9ebleau1 or ! ,l[] ,mioc5e s]ies4 ,! preval5ce ( salt-wat] rema9s is mo/ conspicu\s 9 "s ( ! c5tral p>ts ( ! =mation4 ,fig4 #agg3 ,n]it9a concava4 ,among ! %ells :i* are widely di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! ,headon s]ies are ,n]it9a concava 7,fig4 #agg71 ,lymnea caudata 7,fig4 #agh71 & ,c]i?ium concavum 7,fig4 #agi74 ,helix labyr9?ica1 ,say 7,fig4 #agf71 a l&-%ell n[ inhabit+ ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 0 discov]$ 9 ?is s]ies by ,mr4 ,se>les ,wood 9 ,hordwell ,cliff4 ,x is also met ) 9 ,headon ,hill1 9 ! same b$s4 ,at ,sconce1 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight1 x occurs 9 ! ,bembridge s]ies1 & af=ds a r>e example ( an ,eoc5e fossil ( a species /ill liv+1 ?\gh1 z usual 9 su* cases1 hav+ no local connection ) ! actual geographical range ( ! species4 ,! l[] & middle portion ( ! ,headon s]ies is also met ) 9 ,hordwell ,cliff 7or ,hordle1 z x is (t5 spelt71 ne> ,lym+ton1 ,hants4 ,among ! %ells :i* ab\nd 9 ?is cliff are ,palud9a l5ta & v>i\s species ( ,lymnea1 ,planorbis1 ,melania1 ,cyclas1 ,unio1 ,potamomya1 ,dreiss5a1 etc4 ,fig4 #agh3 ,lymnea caudata1 ,fig4 #agi3 ,c]i?ium concavum4 ,among ! *elonians we f9d a species ( ,emys1 & no less ?an six species ( ,trionyx2 among ! saurians an alligator & a crocodile2 among ! ophidians two species ( l&-snakes 7,pal]yx1 ,ow572 & among ! fi% ,sir ,p4 ,eg]ton & ,mr4 ,wood h f\nd ! jaws1 tee?1 & h>d %9+ scales ( ! g5us ,lepido/eus1 or bony pike ( ! ,am]ican riv]s4 ,?is same g5us ( fre%-wat] ganoids has also be5 met ) 9 ! ,hemp/ead b$s 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,! bones ( sev]al birds h be5 obta9$ f ,hordwell1 & ! rema9s ( quadrup$s ( ! g5]a ,palo!rium 7,p4 m9us71 ,anoplo!rium1 ,an?raco!rium1 ,di*odon1 ,di*obune1 ,spalacodon1 & ,hynodon4 ,! latt] (f]s1 ,i believe1 ! olde/ kn[n example ( a true c>nivor\s animal 9 ! s]ies ( ,briti% fossils1 al?\gh ,i atta* v little !oretical importance to ! fact1 because h]bivor\s species are ^? mo/ easily met ) 9 a fossil /ate 9 all save cav]n deposits4 ,9 ano!r po9t ( view1 h[ev]1 ?is fauna des]ves notice4 ,its geological position is consid]ably l[] ?an t ( ! ,bembridge or ,montm>tre b$s1 f :i* x diff]s almo/ z mu* 9 species z x does f ! /ill m anci5t fauna ( ! ,l[] ,eoc5e b$s to be m5tion$ 9 ! sequel4 ,x !re=e tea*es u :at a gr& succession ( di/9ct assemblages ( mammalia fl\ri%$ on ! e>? dur+ ! ,eoc5e p]iod4 ,_m ( ! m>9e %ells ( ! bracki%-wat] b$s ( ! above s]ies1 bo? 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight & ,hordwell ,cliff1 are common to ! und]ly+ ,b>ton ,clay3 &1 on ! o!r h&1 !re are "s fre%-wat] %ells1 su* z ,cyr5a obovata1 :i* are common to ! ,bembridge b$s1 not)/&+ ! int]v5tion ( ! ,/4 ,hel5's s]ies4 ,! :ite & gre5 m>ls ( ! ,headon s]ies1 & "s ( ! accompany+ lime/ones1 (t5 resemble ! ,eoc5e /rata ( ,france 9 m9]al "* & col\r 9 s /rik+ a mann] z to sugge/ ! idea t ! s$im5t 0 d]iv$ f ! same region or produc$ contemporane\sly "u v simil> geographical circum/ances4 ,at ,brock5hur/1 ne> ,lyndhur/1 9 ! ,new ,=e/1 m>9e /rata h rec5tly be5 f\nd conta9+ fifty-n9e %ells1 ( :i* _m h be5 describ$ by ,mr4 ,edw>ds4 ,^! b$s re/ on ! ,l[] ,headon1 & are consid]$ z ! equival5t ( ! middle "p ( ! ,headon s]ies1 _m ( ! %ells be+ common to ! bracki%-wat] or ,middle ,headon b$s ( ,colwell & ,:itecliff ,bays1 su* z ,cancell>ia muricata1 ,s[]by1 ,fusus labiatus1 ,s[]by1 etc4 ,9 ^! b$s at ,brock5hur/1 corals1 ably describ$ by ,dr4 ,duncan1 h rec5tly be5 f\nd 9 abundance & p]fection2 see ,fig4 #ahj1 ,sol5a/ra cellulosa4 ,fig4 #ahj3 ,sol5a/ra cellulosa4 ,b>on von ,kn5#a has po9t$ out t no less ?an =ty-six out ( ! fifty-n9e ,brock5hur/ %ells1 or a proportion ( #gh p] c5t1 agree ) species occurr+ 9 ,dumont's ,l[] ,tongrian =mation 9 ,belgium4 ,?is be+ ! case1 we might fairly expect t if we _h a m>9e equival5t ( ! ,bembridge s]ies or ( ! contemporane\s ,p>is gypsum1 we %\ld f9d x to conta9 a /ill great] numb] ( %ells common to ! ,tongrian b$s ( ,belgium1 b ! exact correlation ( ^! fre%-wat] gr\ps ( ,france1 ,belgium1 & ,brita9 has n yet be5 fully made out4 ,x is possible t ! ,tongrian ( ,dumont may be new] ?an ! ,bembridge s]ies1 & !re=e ref]able to ! ,l[] ,mioc5e4 ,if ev] ! :ole s]ies %\ld be complete1 we mu/ be prep>$ to f9d ! m>9e equival5t ( ! ,bembridge b$s1 or ! upp]mo/ ,eoc5e1 pass+ by imp]ceptible %ades into ! inf]ior b$s ( ! ov]ly+ ,mioc5e /rata4 ,among ! fossils f\nd 9 ! ,middle ,headon are ,cy!rea incrassata & ,c]i?ium plicatum 7,fig4 #afj74 ,^! %ells1 especially ! latt]1 are v *>act]i/ic ( ! ,l[] ,mioc5e1 & _! occurr5ce 9 ! ,headon s]ies has be5 cit$ z an objection to ! l9e propos$ to be drawn betwe5 ,mioc5e & ,eoc5e4 ,b if we 7 to atta* importance to su* occasional passages1 we %\ld soon f9d t no l9es ( division c\ld be drawn any:]e1 = 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k ( ! ,t]ti>y s]ies !re w always be species common to b$s above & bel[ our b\nd>y-l9es4 ,fig4 #aha3 ,*ama squamosa4 ,b>ton ,s]ies 7,s&s & ,clays71 ,a4#d ,table--,bo? 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight1 & 9 ,hordwell ,cliff1 ,hants1 ! ,headon b$s1 above-m5tion$1 re/ on :ite s&s usually devoid ( fossils1 & us$ 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight = mak+ glass4 ,9 "o ( ^! s&s ,dr4 ,wright f\nd ,*ama squamosa1 a ,b>ton ,clay %ell1 9 great pl5ty1 & c]ta9 impressions ( m>9e %ells h be5 f\nd 9 s&s suppos$ to be ( ! same age 9 ,:itecliff ,bay4 ,^! s&s h be5 call$ ,upp] ,bag%ot 9 ! maps ( our ,gov]nm5t ,survey1 b ?is id5tification ( a fossilif]\s s]ies 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight ) an unfossilif]\s =mation 9 ! ,london ,bas9 c sc>cely be dep5d$ ^u4 ,! ,b>ton ,clay1 :i* imm$iately und]lies ^! s&s1 is se5 v]tical 9 ,alum ,bay1 ,isle ( ,wight1 & ne>ly horizontal 9 ! cliffs ( ! ma9l& ne> ,lym+ton4 ,?is clay1 toge!r ) ! ,brackle%am b$s1 pres5tly to be describ$1 has be5 t]m$ ,middle ,bag%ot by ! ,survey4 ,9 ,b>ton ,cliff1 :]e x atta9s a ?ickness ( ab\t #cjj feet1 x is ri* 9 m>9e fossils4 ,x 0 =m]ly conf\nd$ ) ! ,london ,clay1 an old] ,eoc5e deposit ( v simil> m9]al "*1 to be m5tion$ 7p4 #bfc71 :i* conta9s _m %ells 9 common1 b n m ?an "o-f\r? ( ! :ole4 ,9 o!r words1 !re are kn[n at pres5t #bdg species 9 ! ,london ,clay & #cba 9 t ( ,b>ton1 & only #gj common to ! two =mations4 ,fifty-six ( ^! h be5 f\nd 9 ! int]m$iate ,brackle%am b$s1 & ! reappe>ance ( ! o!r #ad may imply a return ( simil> conditions1 :e!r ( temp]ature or dep? or ( a muddy argillace\s bottom1 common to ! two p]iods ( ! ,london & ,b>ton ,clays4 ,accord+ to ,m4 ,heb]t1 ! mo/ *>act]i/ic ,b>ton ,clay fossils correspond to ^? ( ! ,gres de ,beau*amp1 or ,sables ,moy5s1 ( ! ,p>is ,bas91 b x also conta9s _m common to ! old] ,calcaire ,grossi]4 ,,%ells ,,( ,,! ,,b>ton ,,clay4 ,c]ta9 =am9if]a call$ ,nummulites beg91 :5 we /udy ! ,t]ti>y =mations 9 a desc5d+ ord]1 to make _! fir/ appe>ance 9 ^! b$s4 ,a small species call$ ,nummulites v>iol>ia1 ,fig4 #aij1 is f\nd bo? on ! ,hamp%ire coa/ & 9 b$s ( ! same age 9 ,:itecliff ,bay1 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,sev]al m>9e %ells1 su* z ,corbula pisum 7,fig4 #aeh71 are common to ! ,b>ton b$s & ! ,hemp/ead or ,l[] ,mioc5e s]ies1 & a /ill great] numb]1 z be=e /at$1 are common to ! ,headon s]ies4 ,fig4 #ahb3 ,mitra scabra1 ,fig4 #ahc3 ,voluta ambigua1 ,fig4 #ahd3 ,typhis pung5s1 ,fig4 #ahe3 ,voluta a?leta1 ,fig4 #ahf3 ,t]ebellum fusi=me1 ,fig4 #ahg3 ,t]ebellum sopita1 ,fig4 #ahh3 ,c>dita sulcata1 ,fig4 #ahi3 ,crassatella sulcata1 ,fig4 #aij3 ,nummulites v>iol>ia4 ,,middle ,,eoc5e1 ,,engl&4 ,brackle%am ,b$s & ,bag%ot ,s&s1 ,b4#a1 ,table--,b5ea? ! ,b>ton ,clay we f9d 9 ! nor? ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 bo? 9 ,alum & ,:itecliff ,bays1 a great s]ies ( v>i\s col\r$ s&s & clays = ! mo/ "p unfossilif]\s1 & probably ( e/u>9e orig94 ,z "s ( ^! b$s conta9 ,c>dita planico/a 7,fig4 #aia7 !y h be5 id5tifi$ ) ! m>9e b$s mu* ri*] 9 fossils se5 9 ! coa/ section 9 ,brackle%am ,bay ne> ,*i*e/] 9 ,sussex1 :]e ! /rata consi/ *iefly ( gre5 clayey s&s ) "s lignite4 ,among ! ,brackle%am fossils besides ! ,c>dita1 ! huge ,c]i?ium giganteum is se51 s conspicu\s 9 ! ,calcaire ,grossi] ( ,p>is1 :]e x is sometimes two feet 9 l5g?4 ,! ,nummulites lvigata 7see ,fig4 #aib71 s *>act]i/ic ( ! l[] b$s ( ! ,calcaire ,grossi] 9 ,france1 :]e x sometimes =ms /ony lay]s1 z ne> ,compigne1 is v common 9 ^! b$s1 toge!r ) ,n4 scabra & ,n4 v>iol>ia4 ,out ( #aic species ( te/acea procur$ f ! ,bag%ot & ,brackle%am b$s 9 ,engl&1 #abf occur 9 ! ,calcaire ,grossi] 9 ,france4 ,x 0 cle>ly1 !re=e1 coeval ) t "p ( ! ,p>isian s]ies m ne>ly ?an ) any o!r4 ,fig4 #aia3 ,c>dita 7,v5]ic>dia7 planico/a1 ,fig4 #aib3 ,nummulites 7,nummul>ia7 lavigata4 ,accord+ to tables compil$ f ! be/ au?orities by ,mr4 ,e!ridge1 ! numb] ( mollusca n[ kn[n f ! ,brackle%am b$s 9 ,great ,brita9 is #cic1 ( :i* no less ?an #bdj are peculi> to ?is subdivision ( ! ,briti% ,eoc5e s]ies1 :ile #gj are common to ! ,old] ,london ,clay1 & #adj to ! ,new] ,b>ton ,clay4 ,! volutes & c[ries ( ?is =mation1 z well z ! lunulites & corals1 fav\r ! idea ( a w>m climate hav+ prevail$1 :i* is borne out by ! discov]y ( a s]p5t1 ,palophis typhu 7see ,fig4 #aic71 exce$+1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,ow51 tw5ty feet 9 l5g?1 & alli$ 9 its o/eology to ! ,boa1 ,py?on1 ,colub]1 & ,hydrus4 ,! compress$ =m & dim9utive size ( c]ta9 caudal v]tebr indicate s mu* analogy ) ,hydrus z to induce ,pr(essor ,ow5 to pron\nce ?is ext9ct ophidian to h be5 m>9e4#b ,among ! companions ( ! sea-snake ( ,brackle%am 0 an ext9ct crocodile 7,gavialis ,dixoni1 ,ow571 & num]\s fi%1 su* z n[ frequ5t ! seas ( w>m latitudes1 z ! ,o/racion ( ! family ,bali/id1 ( :i* a dorsal sp9e is figur$ 7see ,fig4 #aid71 & gigantic rays ( ! g5us ,myliobates 7see ,fig4 #aie74 ,fig4 #aic3 ,palophis typhoeus1 ,ow52 an ,eoc5e sea-s]p5t1 ,fig4 #aid3 ,def5sive sp9e ( ,o/racion4 ,fig4 #aie3 ,d5tal plates ( ,myliobates ,edw>dsi4 ,! tee? ( %>ks also1 ( ! g5]a ,c>*>odon1 ,otodus1 ,lamna1 ,galeoc]do1 & o!rs1 are abundant4 7,see ,figs4 #aif1 #aig1 #aih1 #aii47 ,fig4 #aif3 ,c>*>odon angu/id5s1 ,fig4 #aig3 ,otodus obliquus1 ,fig4 #aih3 ,lamna elegans1 ,fig4 #aii3 ,galcoc]do latid5s4 ,,m>9e ,,%ells ,,( ,,brackle%am ,,b$s4 ,alum ,bay & ,b\rnem\? ,b$s4 7,l[] ,bag%ot ( ,engli% ,survey71 ,b4#b1 ,table--,to t great s]ies ( s&s & clays :i* int]v5e betwe5 ! equival5ts ( ! ,brackle%am ,b$s & ! ,london ,clay or ,l[] ,eoc5e1 our ,gov]nm5t ,survey has giv5 ! "n ( ! ,l[] ,bag%ot s&s1 = !y are suppos$ to agree 9 age ) ! inf]ior unfossilif]\s s&s ( ! c\ntry r\nd ,bag%ot 9 ! ,london ,bas94 ,?is "p ( ! s]ies is f9ely expos$ 9 ! v]tical b$s ( ,alum bay1 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight1 & ea/ & we/ ( ,b\rnem\?1 on ! s\? coa/ ( ,hamp%ire4 ,9 "s ( ! close & :ite compact clays ( ?is locality1 !re are n only dicotyl$on\s leaves1 b num]\s fronds ( f]ns alli$ to ,glei*5ia :i* are well pres]v$ ) _! fruit4 ,fig4 #bjj3 ,pleurotoma att5uata1 ,fig4 #bja3 ,voluta ,selseensis1 ,fig4 #bjb3 ,turritella multisulcata1 ,fig4 #bjc3 ,luc9a s]rata1 ,fig4 #bjd3 ,conus dep]ditus4 ,none ( ! b$s are ( great horizontal ext5t1 & !re is mu* cross-/ratification 9 ! s&s1 & 9 "s places black c>bonace\s seams & lignite4 ,9 ! mid/ ( ^! leaf-b$s 9 ,/udl& ,bay1 ,purbeck %ells ( ! g5us ,unio atte/ ! fre%-wat] orig9 ( ! :ite clay4 ,no less ?an =ty species ( plants are m5tion$ by ,,mm4 de la ,h>pe & ,gaud9 f ?is =mation 9 ,hamp%ire1 among :i* ! ,proteace 7,dry&ra1 etc47 & ! fig tribe are abundant1 z well z ! c9namon & sev]al o!r laur9e1 ) "s papilionace\s plants4 ,on ! :ole1 !y rem9d ! botani/ ( ! types ( subtropical ,india & ,au/ralia4#c ,he] has m5tion$ sev]al species :i* are common to ?is ,alum ,bay flora & t ( ,monte ,bolca1 ne> ,v]ona1 s celebrat$ = its fossil fi%1 & :]e ! /rata conta9 nummulites & o!r ,middle ,eoc5e fossils4 ,he has p>ticul>ly allud$ to ,aralia primig5ia 7( :i* g5us a fruit has s9ce be5 f\nd by ,mr4 ,mit*ell at ,b\rnem\?71 ,daphnog5e ,v]on5sis1 & ,ficus granadilla1 z among ! species common to & *>act]i/ic ( ! ,isle ( ,wight & ,italian ,eoc5e b$s2 & he obs]ves t 9 ! flora ( ?is p]iod ^! =ms ( a temp]ate climate :i* con/itute a m>k$ feature 9 ! ,european ,mioc5e =mations1 su* z ! will[1 popl>1 bir*1 ald]1 elm1 hornbeam1 oak1 fir1 & p9e1 are want+4 ,! ,am]ican types are also abs5t1 or mu* m feebly repres5t$ ?an 9 ! ,mioc5e p]iod1 al?\gh f9e specim5s ( ! fan-palm 7,sabal7 h be5 f\nd 9 ^! ,eoc5e clays at ,/udl&4 ,! numb] ( exotic =ms :i* are common to ! ,eoc5e & ,mioc5e /rata ( ,europe1 l ^? to be allud$ to 9 ! sequel :i* are common to ! ,eoc5e & ,cretace\s fauna1 demon/rate ! remot5ess ( ! times 9 :i* ! geographical di/ribution ( liv+ plants orig9at$4 ,a great majority ( ! ,eoc5e g5]a h disappe>$ f our temp]ate climates1 b n ! :ole ( !m2 & !y mu/ all h ex]t$ "s influ5ce on ! assemblages ( species :i* succe$$ !m4 ,_m ( ^! la/ occurr+ 9 ! ,upp] ,mioc5e are inde$ s closely alli$ to ! flora n[ surviv+ z to make x que/ionable1 ev5 9 ! op9ion ( naturali/s oppos$ to ! doctr9e ( transmutation1 :e!r !y are n g5ealogically relat$ ! "o to ! o!r4 ,,l[] ,,eoc5e ,,=mations1 ,,engl&4 ,london ,clay1 ,c4#a1 ,table--,?is =mation und]lies ! prec$+1 & sometimes atta9s a ?ickness ( #ejj feet4 ,x consi/s ( t5aci\s br[n & blui%-grey clay1 ) lay]s ( concretions call$ sept>ia1 :i* ab\nd *iefly 9 ! br[n clay1 & are obta9$ 9 suffici5t numb]s f sea-cliffs ne> ,h>wi*1 & f %oals (f ! coa/ ( ,essex & ! ,isle ( ,%eppey1 to be us$ = mak+ ,roman cem5t4 ,! total numb] ( ,briti% fossil mollusca kn[n at pres5t 7,janu>y1 #ahgj7 9 ?is =mation are #bed1 ( :i* #aff are peculi>1 or n f\nd 9 o!r ,eoc5e b$s 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! pr9cipal localities ( fossils 9 ! ,london clay are ,highgate ,hill1 ne> ,london1 ! ,isl& ( ,%eppey at ! m\? ( ! ,?ames1 & ,bognor on ! ,sussex coa/4 ,out ( #acc fossil %ells1 ,mr4 ,pre/wi* f\nd only #bj to be common to ! ,calcaire ,grossi] 7f :i* #fjj species h be5 obta9$71 :ile #cc are common to ! 8,lits ,coquilli]s0 7p4 #bge71 9 :i* #bjj species are kn[n 9 ,france4 ,9 ! ,isl& ( ,%eppey ne> ! m\? ( ! ,?ames1 ! ?ickness ( ! ,london ,clay is e/imat$ by ,mr4 ,pre/wi* to be m ?an #ejj feet1 & x is 9 ! upp]mo/ #ej feet t a great numb] ( fossil fruits 7 obta9$1 be+ *iefly f\nd on ! bea* :5 ! sea has wa%$ away ! clay ( ! rapidly wa/+ cliffs4 ,fig4 #bje3 ,nipadites ellipticus4 ,mr4 ,b[]bank1 9 a valuable publication on ^! fossil fruits & se$s1 has describ$ no less ?an ?irte5 fruits ( palms ( ! rec5t type ,nipa1 n[ only f\nd 9 ! ,molucca & ,philipp9e ,isl&s1 & 9 ,b5gal 7see ,fig4 #bje74 ,9 ! delta ( ! ,ganges1 ,dr4 ,hook] obs]v$ ! l>ge nuts ( ,nipa fruticans float+ 9 su* numb]s 9 ! v>i\s arms ( t great riv]1 z to ob/ruct ! paddle-:eels ( /eamboats4 ,^! plants are alli$ to ! cocoanut tribe on ! "o side1 & on ! o!r to ! ,p&anus1 or screw-p9e4 ,!re are also met ) ?ree species ( ,anona1 or cu/>d-apple2 & cucurbitace\s fruits 7( ! g\rd & melon family71 & fruits ( v>i\s species ( ,acacia4 ,besides fir-cones or fruit ( true ,conif] !re are cones ( ,proteace 9 abundance1 & ! celebrat$ botani/ ! late ,rob]t ,br[n po9t$ out ! aff9ity ( ^! to ! ,new ,holl& types ,petrophila & ,isopogon4 ,( ! fir/ !re are ab\t fifty1 & ( ! second ?irty describ$ species n[ liv+ 9 ,au/ralia4 ,ett+%aus5 rem>k$ 9 #ahea t five ( ! fossil species f ,%eppey1 nam$ by ,b[]bank#d 7 specim5s ( ! same fruit 7see ,fig4 #bjf71 9 diff]5t /ates ( pres]vation2 & ,mr4 ,c>ru!rs1 hav+ exam9$ ! orig9al specim5s n[ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 tells me t all ^! cones f ,%eppey may be r$uc$ to two species1 :i* h an und\bt$ aff9ity to ! two exi/+ ,au/ralian g5]a above m5tion$1 al?\gh _! p]fect id5tity 9 /ructure _c be made out4 ,fig4 #bjf3 ,eoc5e ,proteace\s ,fruit 7,petrophiloides ,ri*>dsoni4 ,! contiguity ( l& may be inf]r$ n only f ^! vegetable productions1 b also f ! tee? & bones ( crocodiles & turtles1 s9ce ^! creatures1 z ,dean ,conybe>e rem>k$1 mu/ h resort$ to "s %ore to lay _! eggs4 ,( turtles !re 7 num]\s species ref]r$ to ext9ct g5]a4 ,^! are1 = ! mo/ "p1 n equal 9 size to ! l>ge/ liv+ tropical turtles4 ,a sea-snake1 :i* mu/ h be5 ?irte5 feet long1 ( ! g5us ,palophis be=e m5tion$ 7p4 #bfa7 has also be5 describ$ by ,pr(essor ,ow5 f ,%eppey1 ( a diff]5t species f t ( ,brackle%am1 & call$ ,p4 toliapicus4 ,a true crocodile1 also1 ,crocodilus toliapicus1 & ano!r saurian m ne>ly alli$ to ! gavial1 accompany ! above fossils2 also ! relics ( sev]al birds & quadrup$s4 ,"o ( ^! la/ belongs to ! new g5us ,hyraco!rium ( ,ow51 ( ! hog tribe1 alli$ to ,*ropotamus1 ano!r is a ,lophiodon2 a ?ird a pa*yd]m call$ ,coryphodon eocnus by ,ow51 l>g] ?an any exi/+ tapir4 ,all ^! animals seem to h inhabit$ ! banks ( ! great riv] :i* float$ d[n ! ,%eppey fruits4 ,!y imply ! exi/5ce ( a mammif]\s fauna antec$5t to ! p]iod :5 nummulites fl\ri%$ 9 ,europe & ,asia1 & !re=e be=e ! ,alps1 ,pyr5ees1 & o!r m\nta9-*a9s n[ =m+ ! backbones ( great cont95ts1 7 rais$ f ! deep2 nay1 ev5 be=e a "p ( ! con/itu5t rocky masses n[ ent]+ into ! c5tral ridges ( ^! *a9s _h be5 deposit$ 9 ! sea4 ,! m>9e %ells ( ! ,london ,clay confirm ! inf]5ce d]ivable f ! plants & reptiles 9 fav\r ( a high temp]ature4 ,?us _m species ( ,conus & ,voluta occur1 a l>ge ,cypra1 ,c4 ovi=mis1 a v l>ge ,ro/ell>ia 7,fig4 #bji71 a species ( ,cancell>ia1 six species ( ,nautilus 7,fig4 #baa71 besides o!r ,cephalopoda ( ext9ct g5]a1 "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable ( :i* is ! ,belosepia 7,fig4 #bab74 ,among _m *>act]i/ic bivalve %ells are ,l$a amygdaloides 7,fig4 #bac7 & ,cryptodon angulatum 7,fig4 #bad71 & among ! ,radiata a />-fi%1 ,a/ropect5 7,fig4 #bae47 ,fig4 #bjg3 ,voluta nodosa1 ,fig4 #bjh3 ,phorus ext5sus1 ,fig4 #bji3 ,ro/ell>ia 7,hippocr5es7 ampla1 ,fig4 #baj3 ,nautilus c5tralis1 ,fig4 #baa3 ,aturia ziczac1 ,fig4 #bab3 ,belosepia sepioidea1 ,fig4 #bac3 ,l$a amygdaloides1 ,fig4 #bad3 ,cyptodon 7,ax9us7 angulatum1 ,fig4 #bae3 ,a/ropect5 crispatus4 ,^! fossils are accompani$ by a sword-fi% 7,tetrapt]us priscus1 ,agassiz71 ab\t eight feet long1 & a saw-fi% 7,pri/is bisulcatus1 ,agassiz71 ab\t t5 feet 9 l5g?2 g5]a n[ =eign to ! ,briti% seas4 ,on ! :ole1 ab\t eighty species ( fi% h be5 describ$ by ,m4 ,agassiz f ^! b$s ( ,%eppey1 & !y indicate1 9 8 op9ion1 a w>m climate4 ,9 ! l[] "p ( ! ,london clay at ,kyson1 a few miles ea/ ( ,woodbridge1 ! rema9s ( mammalia h be5 detect$4 ,"s ( ^! h be5 ref]r$ by ,pr(essor ,ow5 to an opossum1 & o!rs to ! g5us ,hyraco!rium4 ,! tee? ( ?is la/-m5tion$ pa*yd]m 7 at fir/1 9 #ahdj1 suppos$ to belong to a monkey1 an op9ion aft]w>ds ab&on$ by ,ow5 :5 m ample mat]ials = comp>ison 7 obta9$4 ,woolwi* & ,read+ ,s]ies1 ,c4#b1 ,table--,?is =mation 0 =m]ly call$ ! ,pla/ic ,clay1 z x agrees ) a simil> clay us$ 9 pott]y :i* occupies ! same position 9 ! ,fr5* s]ies1 & x has be5 us$ = ! l purposes 9 ,engl&4#e ,no =mations c be m dissimil>1 on ! :ole1 9 m9]al "* ?an ! ,eoc5e deposits ( ,engl& & ,p>is2 ^? ( our own isl& be+ almo/ exclusively ( me*anical orig9--accumulations ( mud1 s&1 & pebbles2 :ile 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,p>is we f9d a great succession ( /rata compos$ ( lime/ones1 "s ( !m silice\s1 & ( cry/all9e gypsum & silice\s s&/one1 & sometimes ( pure fl9t us$ = mill/ones4 ,h5ce x is (t5 impossible1 z be=e /at$1 to in/itute an exact comp>ison betwe5 ! v>i\s memb]s ( ! ,engli% & ,fr5* s]ies1 & to settle _! respective ages4 ,b 9 reg>d to ! division :i* we h n[ "u consid]ation1 :e!r we /udy x 9 ! bas9s ( ,london1 ,hamp%ire1 or ,p>is1 we recognise z a g5]al rule ! same m9]al "*1 ! b$s consi/+ ov] a l>ge area ( mottl$ clays & s&1 ) lignite1 & ) "s /rata ( well-roll$ fl9t pebbles1 d]iv$ f ! *alk1 v>y+ 9 size1 b occasionally sev]al in*es 9 diamet]4 ,^! /rata may be se5 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight 9 contact ) ! *alk1 or 9 ! ,london bas91 at ,read+1 ,blackhea?1 & ,woolwi*4 ,9 "s ( ! l[e/ ( !m1 banks ( oy/]s are obs]v$1 consi/+ ( ,o/rea bellovac9a1 s common 9 ,france 9 ! same relative position4 ,9 ^! b$s at ,bromley1 ,dr4 ,buckl& f\nd a l>ge pebble to :i* five full-gr[n oy/]s 7 affix$1 9 su* a mann] z to %[ t !y _h comm5c$ _! fir/ gr[? ^u x1 & rema9$ atta*$ to x ?r\gh life4 ,fig4 #baf3 ,cyr5a cunei=mis1 ,fig4 #bag3 ,melania 7,melanatria7 inqu9ata4 ,9 sev]al places1 z at ,woolwi* on ! ,?ames1 at ,ne:av5 9 ,sussex1 & else:]e1 a mixture ( m>9e & fre%-wat] te/acea di/+ui%es ?is memb] ( ! s]ies4 ,among ! latt]1 ,cyr5a cunei=mis 7see ,fig4 #baf7 & ,melania inqu9ata 7see ,fig4 #bag7 are v common1 z 9 b$s ( correspond+ age 9 ,france4 ,!y cle>ly indicate po9ts :]e riv]s ent]$ ! ,eoc5e sea4 ,usually !re is a mixture ( bracki%1 fre%-wat]1 & m>9e %ells1 & sometimes1 z at ,woolwi*1 pro(s ( ! riv] & ! sea hav+ successively prevail$ on ! same spot4 ,at ,new ,*>lton1 9 ! suburbs ( ,woolwi*1 ,mr4 de la ,condam9e discov]$ 9 #ahdi1 & po9t$ out to me1 a lay] ( s& associat$ ) well-r\nd$ fl9t pebbles 9 :i* num]\s individuals ( ! ,cyr5a tell9ella 7 se5 /&+ endwise ) bo? _! valves unit$1 ! siphonal extremity ( ea* %ell be+ upp]mo/1 z w\ld happ5 if ! mollusks _h di$ 9 _! natural position4 ,i h describ$#f a bank ( s&y mud1 9 ! delta ( ! ,alabama ,riv] at ,mobile1 on ! bord]s ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 :]e 9 #ahdf ,i dug out at l[ tide specim5s ( liv+ species ( ,cyr5a & ( a ,gna?odon1 :i* 7 simil>ly plac$ ) _! %ells erect1 or 9 a po/ure :i* enables ! animal to protrude its siphon upw>d1 & draw 9 or reject wat] at pleasure4 ,! wat] at ,mobile is usually fre%1 b sometimes bracki%4 ,at ,woolwi* a body ( riv]-wat] mu/ h fl[$ p]man5tly into ! sea :]e ! ,cyr5 liv$1 & !y may h be5 kill$ sudd5ly by an influx ( pure salt-wat]1 :i* invad$ ! spot :5 ! riv] 0 l[1 or :5 a subsid5ce ( l& took place4 ,trac$ 9 "o direction1 or ea/w>d t[>ds ,h]ne ,bay1 ! ,woolwi* b$s assume m & m ( a m>9e "*2 :ile 9 an opposite1 or s\?-we/]n direction1 !y become1 z ne> ,*elsea & o!r places1 m fre%-wat]1 & conta9 ,unio1 ,palud9a1 & lay]s ( lignite1 s t ! l& dra9$ by ! anci5t riv] seems cle>ly to h be5 to ! s\?-we/ ( ! pres5t site ( ! metropolis4 ,fluviatile ,b$s und]ly+ ,deep-sea ,/rata4--,be=e ! m9ds ( geologi/s _h become famili> ) ! !ory ( ! gradual s9k+ ( l&1 & its conv]sion into sea at diff]5t p]iods1 & ! consequ5t *ange f %all[ to deep wat]1 ! fluviatile & littoral "* ( ?is inf]ior gr\p appe>$ /range & anomal\s4 ,aft] pass+ ?r\gh hundr$s ( feet ( ,london clay1 prov$ by its fossils to h be5 deposit$ 9 deep salt-wat]1 we arrive at b$s ( fluviatile orig91 & associat$ ) !m masses ( %+le1 atta9+ at ,blackhea?1 ne> ,london1 a ?ickness ( #ej feet4 ,^! %+le banks are probably ( m>9e orig91 b !y indicate ! proximity ( l&1 & ! exi/5ce ( a %ore :]e ! fl9ts ( ! *alk 7 roll$ into s& & pebbles1 & spread ov] a wide space4 ,we h1 !re=e1 fir/1 z be=e /at$ 7p4 #bfh71 evid5ce ( oscillations ( level dur+ ! accumulation ( ! ,woolwi* s]ies1 !n ( a great subm]g5ce1 :i* all[$ a m>9e deposit #ejj ?ick to be laid ov] ! antec$5t b$s ( fre% & bracki% wat] orig94 ,?anet ,s&s1 ,c4#c1 ,table--,! ,woolwi* or pla/ic clay above describ$ may (t5 be se5 9 ! ,hamp%ire bas9 9 actual contact ) ! *alk1 con/itut+ 9 su* places ! l[e/ memb] ( ! ,briti% ,eoc5e s]ies4 ,b at o!r po9ts ano!r =mation ( m>9e orig91 *>act]is$ by a some:at diff]5t assemblage ( organic rema9s1 has be5 %[n by ,mr4 ,pre/wi* to int]v5e betwe5 ! *alk & ! ,woolwi* s]ies4 ,= ^! b$s he has propos$ ! "n ( 8,?anet ,s&s10 because !y are well se5 9 ! ,isle ( ,?anet1 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ,k5t1 & on ! sea-coa/ betwe5 ,h]ne ,bay & ! ,reculv]s1 :]e !y consi/ ( s&s ) a few concretion>y masses ( s&/one1 & conta91 among o!r fossils1 ,pholadomya cuneata1 ,cypr9a morrisii1 ,corbula longiro/ris1 ,scal>ia ,b[]bankii1 etc4 ,! greate/ ?ickness ( ^! b$s is #ij feet4 ,,upp] ,,eoc5e ,,=mations ,,( ,,france4 ,! t]ti>y =mations 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,p>is consi/ ( a s]ies ( m>9e & fre%-wat] /rata1 alt]nat+ ) ea* o!r1 & fill+ up a depression 9 ! *alk4 ,! area :i* !y occupy has be5 call$ ! ,p>is ,bas91 & is ab\t #ahj miles 9 its greate/ l5g? f nor? to s\?1 & ab\t #ij miles 9 bread? f ea/ to we/4 ,,mm4 ,cuvi] & ,brongni>t attempt$1 9 #ahaj1 to di/+ui% five diff]5t gr\ps1 compris+ ?ree fre%-wat] & two m>9e1 :i* 7 suppos$ to imply t ! wat]s ( ! ocean1 & ( riv]s & lakes1 _h be5 by turns admitt$ into & exclud$ f ! same area4 ,inve/igations s9ce made 9 ! ,hamp%ire & ,london bas9s h r t5d$ to confirm ^! views1 at lea/ s f> z to %[ t s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,eoc5e p]iod !re h be5 great movem5ts ( ! b$ ( ! sea1 & ( ! adjo9+ l&s1 & t ! sup]position ( deep-sea to %all[-wat] deposits 7! ,london ,clay1 = example1 to ! ,woolwi* b$s7 c only be expla9$ by ref]r+ to su* movem5ts4 ,x appe>s1 not)/&+1 f ! rese>*es ( ,m4 ,con/ant ,prevo/1 t "s ( ! m9or alt]nations & int]mixtures ( fre%-wat] & m>9e deposits1 9 ! ,p>is bas91 may be acc\nt$ = )\t su* *anges ( level1 by imag9+ bo? to h be5 simultane\sly 9 progress1 9 ! same bay ( ! same sea1 or a gulf into :i* _m riv]s ent]$4 ,gypse\s ,s]ies ( ,montm>tre1 ,a4#a1 ,table--,to enl>ge on ! num]\s subdivisions ( ! ,p>isian /rata w\ld lead me beyond my pres5t limits2 ,i %all !re=e give "s examples only ( ! mo/ important =mations4 ,b5ea? ! ,grs de ,fonta9ebleau1 belong+ to ! ,l[] ,mioc5e p]iod1 z be=e /at$1 we f9d1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,p>is1 a s]ies ( :ite & gre5 m>ls1 ) subord9ate b$s ( gypsum4 ,^! are mo/ l>gely develop$ 9 ! c5tral p>ts ( ! ,p>is bas91 &1 among o!r places1 9 ! hill ( ,montm>tre1 :]e its fossils 7 fir/ /udi$ by ,cuvi]4 ,! gypsum qu>ri$ !re = ! manufacture ( pla/] ( ,p>is occurs z a granul> cry/all9e rock1 &1 toge!r ) ! associat$ m>ls1 conta9s l& & fluviatile %ells1 toge!r ) ! bones & skeletons ( birds & quadrup$s4 ,sev]al l&-plants are also met )1 among :i* are f9e specim5s ( ! fan-palm or palmetto tribe 7,flabell>ia74 ,! rema9s also ( fre%-wat] fi%1 & ( crocodiles & o!r reptiles1 occur 9 ! gypsum4 ,! skeletons ( mammalia are usually isolat$1 (t5 entire1 ! mo/ delicate extremities be+ pres]v$2 z if ! c>casses1 clo!d ) _! fle% & sk91 _h be5 float$ d[n soon aft] dea?1 & :ile !y 7 /ill swoll5 by ! gases g5]at$ by _! fir/ decomposition4 ,! few accompany+ %ells are ( ^? light k9ds :i* frequ5tly float on ! surface ( riv]s1 toge!r ) wood4 ,9 ?is =mation ! relics ( ab\t fifty species ( quadrup$s1 includ+ ! g5]a ,palo!rium 7see ,fig4 #agd71 ,anoplo!rium 7see ,fig4 #bah71 & o!rs1 h be5 f\nd1 all ext9ct1 & ne>ly f\r-fif?s ( !m belong+ to ! ,p]issodactyle or odd-to$ division ( ! ord] ,pa*yd]mata1 :i* n[ conta9s only f\r liv+ g5]a1 namely1 rh9oc]os1 tapir1 horse1 & hyrax4 ,) !m a few c>nivor\s animals are associat$1 among :i* are ! ,hynodon dasyuroides1 a species ( dog1 ,canis ,p>isi5sis1 & a weasel1 ,cynodon ,p>isi5sis4 ,( ! ,rod5tia are f\nd a squirrel2 ( ! ,*eiropt]a1 a bat2 :ile ! ,m>supalia 7an ord] n[ conf9$ to ,am]ica1 ,au/ralia1 & "s contigu\s isl&s7 are repres5t$ by an opossum4 ,( birds1 ab\t t5 species h be5 asc]ta9$1 ! skeletons ( "s ( :i* are entire4 ,none ( !m are ref]able to exi/+ species4#g ,! same rem>k1 accord+ to ,,mm4 ,cuvi] & ,agassiz1 applies bo? to ! reptiles & fi%4 ,among ! la/ are crocodiles & tortoises ( ! g5]a ,emys & ,trionyx4 ,fig4 #bah3 ,xiphodon gracile1 or ,anoplo!rium gracile4 ,! tribe ( l& quadrup$s mo/ abundant 9 ?is =mation is su* z n[ inhabits alluvial pla9s & m>%es1 & ! banks ( riv]s & lakes1 a class mo/ expos$ to suff] by riv] inundations4 ,among ^! 7 sev]al species ( ,palo!rium1 a g5us be=e allud$ to4 ,^! 7 associat$ ) ! ,anoplo!rium1 a tribe int]m$iate betwe5 pa*yd]ms & rum9ants4 ,"o ( ! ?ree divisions ( ?is family 0 call$ by ,cuvi] ,xiphodon4 ,_! =ms 7 sl5d] & elegant1 & "o1 nam$ ,xiphodon gracile 7,fig4 #bah71 0 ab\t ! size ( ! *amois2 & ,cuvi] inf]r$ f ! skeleton t x 0 z light1 graceful1 & agile z ! gazelle4 ,fossil ,footpr9ts4--,!re are ?ree sup]impos$ masses ( gypsum 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,p>is1 sep>at$ by int]v5+ deposits ( lam9at$ m>l4 ,9 ! upp]mo/ ( ! ?ree1 9 ! valley ( ,montmor5cy1 ,m4 ,desnoy]s discov]$ 9 #ahei _m footpr9ts ( animals occurr+ at no less ?an six diff]5t levels4#h ,! gypsum to :i* !y belong v>ies f ?irty to fifty feet 9 ?ickness1 & is t :i* has yield$ to ! naturali/ ! l>ge/ numb] ( bones & skeletons ( mammalia1 birds1 & reptiles4 ,i visit$ ! qu>ries1 soon aft] ! discov]y 0 made kn[n1 ) ,m4 ,desnoy]s1 :o also %[$ me l>ge slabs 9 ! ,museum at ,p>is1 :]e1 on ! upp] planes ( /ratification1 ! ind5t$ foot-m>ks 7 se51 :ile correspond+ ca/s 9 relief appe>$ on ! l[] surfaces ( ! /rata ( gypsum :i* 7 imm$iately sup]impos$4 ,a ?9 film ( m>l1 :i* be=e x 0 dri$ & cond5s$ by pressure mu/ h repres5t$ a mu* ?ick] lay] ( s(t mud1 int]v5$ betwe5 ! b$s ( solid gypsum4 ,on ?is mud ! animals _h trodd51 & made impressions :i* _h p5etrat$ to ! gypse\s mass bel[1 !n evid5tly unconsolidat$4 ,tracks ( ! ,anoplo!rium ) its bisulcate ho(1 & ! trilob$ footpr9ts ( ,palo!rium1 7 se5 ( diff]5t sizes1 correspond+ to ^? ( sev]al species ( ^! g5]a :i* ,cuvi] _h recon/ruct$1 :ile 9 ! same b$s 7 foot-m>ks ( c>nivor\s mammalia4 ,! tracks also ( fluviatile1 lacu/r9e1 & t]re/rial tortoises 7,emys1 ,trionyx1 etc47 7 discov]$1 also ^? ( crocodiles1 iguanas1 geckos1 & great batra*ians1 & ! footpr9ts ( a huge bird1 app>5tly a wad]1 ( ! size ( ! ga/ornis1 to be m5tion$ 9 ! sequel4 ,!re 7 likewise ! impressions ( ! feet ( o!r creatures1 "s ( !m cle>ly di/+ui%able f any ( ! fifty ext9ct types ( mammalia ( :i* ! bones h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,p>is gypsum4 ,! :ole assemblage1 says ,desnoy]s1 indicate ! %ores ( a lake1 or sev]al small lakes communicat+ ) ea* o!r1 on ! bord]s ( :i* _m species ( pa*yd]ms w&]$1 & bea/s ( prey :i* occasionally dev\r$ !m4 ,! too?-m>ks ( ^! la/ _h be5 detect$ by palontologi/s long be=e on ! bones & skulls ( ,paleo!res entomb$ 9 ! gypsum4 ,imp]fection ( ! ,record4--,^! foot-m>ks h reveal$ to u new & unexpect$ pro(s t ! air-brea?+ fauna ( ! ,upp] ,eoc5e p]iod 9 ,europe f> surpass$ 9 ! numb] & v>iety ( its species ! l>ge/ e/imate :i* _h previ\sly be5 =m$ ( x4 ,we may n[ feel sure t ! mammalia1 reptiles1 & birds :i* h left portions ( _! skeletons z memorials ( _! exi/5ce 9 ! solid gypsum con/itut$ b a "p ( ! !n liv+ creation4 ,simil> inf]5ces may be drawn f ! /udy ( ! :ole succession ( geological records4 ,9 ea* di/rict ! monum5ts ( p]iods embrac+ ?\s&s1 & probably 9 "s in/ances hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s1 are totally want+4 ,ev5 9 ! volumes :i* are extant ! great] numb] ( ! pages are miss+ 9 any giv5 region1 & :]e !y are f\nd !y conta9 b few & casual entries ( ! physical ev5ts or liv+ be+s ( ! times to :i* !y relate4 ,x may also be rem>k$ t ! subord9ate =mations met ) 9 two neighb\r+ c\ntries1 su* z ,france & ,engl& 7! m9or ,t]ti>y gr\ps above enum]at$71 commonly class$ z equival5ts & ref]r$ to correspond+ p]iods1 may nev]!less h be5 by no means /rictly co9cid5t 9 date4 ,?\gh call$ contemporane\s1 x is probable t !y 7 (t5 sep>at$ by int]vals ( _m ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,we may comp>e !m to d\ble />s1 :i* appe> s+le to ! nak$ eye because se5 f a va/ di/ance 9 space1 & :i* really belong to "o & ! same /ell> sy/em1 ?\gh occupy+ places 9 space extremely remote if e/imat$ by our ord9>y /&>d ( t]re/rial measurem5ts4 ,calcaire silicieux1 or ,trav]t9 infrieur1 ,a4#b & #c1 ,table--,?is compact silice\s lime/one ext5ds ov] a wide area4 ,x resembles a precipitate f ! wat]s ( m9]al spr+s1 & is (t5 trav]s$ by small empty s9u\s cavities4 ,x is1 = ! mo/ "p1 devoid ( organic rema9s1 b 9 "s places conta9s fre%-wat] & l& species1 & nev] any m>9e fossils4 ,! calcaire siliceux & ! calcaire grossi] usually occupy di/9ct p>ts ( ! ,p>is bas91 ! "o atta9+ its fulle/ developm5t 9 ^? places :]e ! o!r is ( slight ?ickness4 ,!y are describ$ by "s writ]s z alt]nat+ ) ea* o!r t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! bas91 z at ,s]gy & ,osny4 ,! gypsum1 ) its associat$ m>ls be=e describ$1 is 9 greate/ =ce t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! bas91 :]e ! calcaire grossi] & calcaire silicieux are less fully develop$4 ,grs de ,beau*amp1 or ,sables ,moy5s1 ,a4#d1 ,table--,9 "s p>ts ( ! ,p>is bas91 s&s & m>ls1 call$ ! ,grs de ,beau*amp1 or ,sables moy5s1 divide ! gypse\s b$s f ! calcaire grossi] prop]4 ,^! s&s1 9 :i* a small nummulite 7,n4 v>iol>ia7 is v abundant1 conta9 m ?an #cjj species ( m>9e %ells1 _m ( !m peculi>1 b o!rs common to ! next division4 ,,middle ,,eoc5e ,,=mations ,,( ,,france4 ,calcaire ,grossi]1 upp] & middle1 ,b4#a1 ,table--,! upp] division ( ?is gr\p consi/s 9 great "p ( b$s ( compact1 fragile lime/one1 ) "s int]calat$ gre5 m>ls4 ,! %ells 9 "s p>ts are a mixture ( ,c]i?ium1 ,cyclo/oma1 & ,corbula2 9 o!rs ,limnea1 ,c]i?ium1 ,palud9a1 etc4 ,9 ! latt]1 ! bones ( reptiles & mammalia1 ,palo!rium & ,lophiodon1 h be5 f\nd4 ,! middle division1 or calcaire grossi] prop]1 consi/s ( a co>se lime/one1 (t5 pass+ into s&4 ,x conta9s ! great] numb] ( ! fossil %ells :i* *>act]ise ! ,p>is bas94 ,no less ?an #djj di/9ct species h be5 procur$ f a s+le spot ne> ,grignon1 :]e !y are imb$d$ 9 a calc>e\s s&1 *iefly =m$ ( comm9ut$ %ells1 9 :i*1 nev]!less1 individuals 9 a p]fect /ate ( pres]vation1 bo? ( m>9e1 t]re/rial1 & fre%-wat] species1 are m+l$ toge!r4 ,"s ( ! m>9e %ells may h liv$ on ! spot2 b ! ,cyclo/oma & ,limnea1 be+ l& & fre%-wat] %ells1 mu/ h be5 br\ght ?i!r by riv]s & curr5ts1 & ! quantity ( triturat$ %ells implies consid]able movem5t 9 ! wat]s4 ,no?+ is m /rik+ 9 ?is assemblage ( fossil te/acea ?an ! great proportion ( species ref]able to ! g5us ,c]i?ium 7see p4 #bde74 ,!re occur no less ?an #acg species ( ?is g5us 9 ! ,p>is bas91 & almo/ all ( !m 9 ! calcaire grossi]4 ,mo/ ( ! liv+ ,c]i?ia inhabit ! sea ne> ! m\?s ( riv]s1 :]e ! wat]s are bracki%2 s t _! abundance 9 ! m>9e /rata n[ "u consid]ation is 9 h>mony ) ! hypo!sis t ! ,p>is bas9 =m$ a gulf into :i* sev]al riv]s fl[$4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ! calcaire grossi] r\nd ,p>is1 c]ta9 b$s occur ( a /one us$ 9 build+1 & call$ by ! ,fr5* geologi/s 8,miliolite lime/one40 ,x is almo/ entirely made up ( millions ( microscopic %ells1 ( ! size ( m9ute gra9s ( s&1 :i* all belong to ! class ,=am9if]a4 ,examples ( "s ( ^! are giv5 9 ,figs4 #bai to #bba4 ,z ?is miliolitic /one nev] occurs 9 ! ,faluns1 or ,upp] ,mioc5e /rata ( ,brittany & ,t\ra9e1 x (t5 furni%es ! geologi/ ) a useful crit]ion = di/+ui%+ ! deta*$ ,eoc5e & ,upp] ,mioc5e =mations scatt]$ ov] ^? & o!r adjo9+ prov9ces4 ,! discov]y ( ! rema9s ( ,palo!rium & o!r mammalia 9 "s ( ! upp] b$s ( ! calcaire grossi] %[s t ^! l& animals began to exi/ be=e ! deposition ( ! ov]ly+ gypse\s s]ies _h comm5c$4 ,fig4 #bai3 ,calc>9a r>isp9a1 ,fig4 #bbj3 ,spirol9a /5o/oma1 ,fig4 #bba3 ,trilocul9a inflata4 ,l[] ,calcaire grossi]1 or ,glauconie grossi]e1 ,b4#a1 ,table--,! l[] "p ( ! calcaire grossi]1 :i* (t5 conta9s mu* gre5 e>?1 is *>act]is$ at ,auv]s1 ne> ,pontoise1 to ! nor? ( ,p>is1 & /ill m 9 ! environs ( ,compigne1 by ! abundance ( nummulites1 consi/+ *iefly ( ,n4 lvigata1 ,n4 scabra1 & ,n4 ,lam>cki1 :i* con/itute a l>ge proportion ( "s ( ! /ony /rata1 ?\gh ^! same =am9if]a are want+ 9 b$s ( simil> age 9 ! imm$iate environs ( ,p>is4 ,fig4 #bbb3 ,n]ita conoidea4 ,soissonnais s&s1 or ,lits coquilli]s1 ,b4#b1 ,table--,bel[ ! prec$+ =mation1 %elly s&s are se51 ( consid]able ?ickness1 especially at ,cuisse-,lamotte1 ne> ,compigne1 & o!r localities 9 ! ,soissonnais1 ab\t fifty miles ,n4,e4 ( ,p>is1 f :i* ab\t #cjj species ( %ells h be5 obta9$1 _m ( !m common to ! calcaire grossi] & ! ,brackle%am b$s ( ,engl&1 & _m peculi>4 ,! ,nummulites planulata is v abundant1 & ! mo/ *>act]i/ic %ell is ! ,n]ita conoidea1 ,lam41 a fossil :i* has a v wide geographical range2 =1 z ,m4 d',ar*iac rem>ks1 x accompanies ! nummulitic =mation f ,europe to ,india1 hav+ be5 f\nd 9 ,cut*1 ne> ! m\?s ( ! ,indus1 associat$ ) ,nummulites scabra4 ,no less ?an #cc %ells ( ?is gr\p are said to be id5tical ) %ells ( ! ,london clay prop]1 yet1 aft] visit+ ,cuisse-,lamotte & o!r localities ( ! 8,sables infrieurs0 ( ,ar*iac1 ,i agree ) ,mr4 ,pre/wi*1 t ! latt] are probably new] ?an ! ,london clay1 & p]haps old] ?an ! ,brackle%am b$s ( ,engl&4 ,! ,london clay seems to be unrepres5t$ 9 ! ,p>is bas91 unless p>tially s1 by ^! s&s4#i ,,l[] ,,eoc5e ,,=mations ,,( ,,france4 ,argile ,pla/ique1 ,c4#b1 ,table--,at ! base ( ! t]ti>y sy/em 9 ,france are ext5sive deposits ( s&s1 ) occasional b$s ( clay us$ = pott]y1 & call$ 8argile pla/ique40 ,fossil oy/]s 7,o/rea bellovac9a7 ab\nd 9 "s places1 & 9 o!rs !re is a mixture ( fluviatile %ells1 su* z ,cyr5a cunei=mis 7,fig4 #baf71 ,melania inqu9ata 7,fig4 #baf71 & o!rs1 frequ5tly met ) 9 b$s occupy+ ! same position 9 ! ,london ,bas94 ,lay]s ( lignite also accompany ! inf]ior clays & s&s4 ,imm$iately ^u ! *alk at ! bottom ( all ! t]ti>y /rata 9 ,france !re g5]ally is a conglom]ate or breccia ( roll$ & angul> *alk-fl9ts1 cem5t$ by silice\s s&4 ,^! b$s appe> to be ( littoral orig91 & imply ! previ\s em]g5ce ( ! *alk1 & its wa/e by d5udation4 ,9 ! ye> #ahee1 ! tibia & femur ( a l>ge bird equall+ at lea/ ! o/ri* 9 size 7 f\nd at ,meudon1 ne> ,p>is1 at ! base ( ! ,pla/ic clay4 ,?is bird1 to :i* ! "n ( ,ga/ornis ,p>isi5sis has be5 assign$1 appe>s1 f ! ,memoirs ( ,,mm4 ,hb]t1 ,l>tet1 & ,ow51 to belong to an ext9ct g5us4 ,pr(essor ,ow5 ref]s x to ! class ( wad+ l& birds r ?an to an aquatic species4#aj ,t a =mation s mu* explor$ = economical purposes z ! ,argile pla/ique ar\nd ,p>is1 & ! clays & s&s ( correspond+ age ne> ,london1 %\ld nev] h af=d$ any ve/ige ( a fea!r$ bip$ previ\sly to ! ye> #ahee1 %[s :at dilig5t se>* & :at skill 9 o/eological int]pretation are requir$ be=e ! exi/5ce ( birds ( remote ages c be e/abli%$4 ,sables de ,bra*eux1 ,c4#c1 ,table--,! m>9e s&s call$ ! ,sables de ,bra*eux 7a place ne> ,beauvais71 are consid]$ by ,m4 ,hb]t to be old] ?an ! ,lignites & ,pla/ic clay1 & to co9cide 9 age ) ! ,?anet ,s&s ( ,engl&4 ,at ,la ,fre1 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,aisne1 9 a deposit ( ?is age1 a fossil skull has be5 f\nd ( a quadrup$ call$ by ,bla9ville ,arctocyon primvus1 & suppos$ by him to be relat$ bo? to ! be> & to ! ,k9kaj\ 7,c]coleptes74 ,?is creature appe>s to be ! olde/ kn[n t]ti>y mammif]4 ,nummulitic ,=mations ( ,europe1 ,asia1 etc4--,( all ! rocks ( ! ,eoc5e p]iod1 no =mations are ( su* great geographical importance z ! ,upp] & ,middle ,eoc5e1 z above def9$1 assum+ t ! old] t]ti>y =mation1 commonly call$ nummulitic1 is correctly ascrib$ to ?is gr\p4 ,x appe>s t ( m ?an fifty species ( ^! =am9if]a describ$ by ,d',ar*iac1 "o or two species only are f\nd 9 o!r t]ti>y =mations :e!r ( old] or new] date4 ,nummulites int]m$ia1 a ,middle ,eoc5e =m1 asc5ds into ! ,l[] ,mioc5e1 b x seems d\btful :e!r any species desc5ds to ! level ( ! ,london clay1 /ill less to ! ,argile pla/ique or ,woolwi* b$s4 ,sep>ate gr\ps ( /rata are (t5 *>act]is$ by di/9ct species ( nummulite2 ?us ! b$s betwe5 ! l[] ,mioc5e & ! l[] ,eoc5e may be divid$ into ?ree sections1 di/+ui%$ by ?ree diff]5t species ( nummulites1 ,n4 v>iol>ia 9 ! upp]1 ,n4 lvigata 9 ! middle1 & ,n4 planulata 9 ! l[] b$s4 ,! nummulitic lime/one ( ! ,swiss ,alps rises to m ?an #aj1jjj feet above ! level ( ! sea1 & atta9s "h & 9 o!r m\nta9 *a9s a ?ickness ( sev]al ?\s& feet4 ,x may be said to play a f> m conspicu\s "p ?an any o!r t]ti>y gr\p 9 ! solid framework ( ! e>?'s cru/1 :e!r 9 ,europe1 ,asia1 or ,africa4 ,x occurs 9 ,alg]ia & ,morocco1 & has be5 trac$ f ,egypt1 :]e x 0 l>gely qu>ri$ ( old = ! build+ ( ! ,pyramids1 into ,asia ,m9or1 & across ,p]sia by ,bagdad to ! m\?s ( ! ,indus4 ,x has be5 obs]v$ n only 9 ,cut*1 b 9 ! m\nta9 ranges :i* sep>ate ,sc9de f ,p]sia1 & :i* =m ! passes lead+ to ,cab\l2 & x has be5 foll[$ /ill f>!r ea/w>d into ,india1 z f> z ea/]n ,b5gal & ! fronti]s ( ,*9a4 ,dr4 ,t4 ,?ompson f\nd nummulites at an elevation ( no less ?an #af1ejj feet above ! level ( ! sea1 9 ,we/]n ,?ibet4 ,"o ( ! species1 :i* ,i myself f\nd v abundant on ! flanks ( ! ,pyr5ees1 9 a compact cry/all9e m>ble 7,fig4 #bbc7 is call$ by ,m4 d',ar*iac ,nummulites ,pus*i4 ,! same is also v common 9 rocks ( ! same age 9 ! ,c>pa?ians4 ,9 _m di/ant c\ntries1 9 ,cut*1 = example1 "s ( ! same %ells1 su* z ,n]ita conoidea 7,fig4 #bbb71 accompany ! nummulites1 z 9 ,france4 ,! op9ion ( _m obs]v]s1 t ! ,nummulitic =mation belongs p>tly to ! cretace\s era1 seems *iefly to h aris5 f conf\nd+ an alli$ g5us1 ,orbitoides1 ) ! true ,nummulite4 ,fig4 #bbc3 ,nummulites ,pus*i4 ,:5 we h once arriv$ at ! conviction t ! nummulitic =mation occupies a middle & upp] place 9 ! ,eoc5e s]ies1 we are /ruck ) ! comp>atively mod]n date to :i* "s ( ! greate/ revolutions 9 ! physical geography ( ,europe1 ,asia1 & ,nor!rn ,africa mu/ be ref]r$4 ,all ! m\nta9-*a9s1 su* z ! ,alps1 ,pyr5ees1 ,c>pa?ians1 & ,himalayas1 into ! composition ( ^: c5tral & l(tie/ p>ts ! nummulitic /rata ent] bodily1 c\ld h _h no exi/5ce till aft] ! ,middle ,eoc5e p]iod4 ,dur+ t p]iod ! sea prevail$ :]e ^! *a9s n[ rise1 = nummulites & _! accompany+ te/acea 7 unque/ionably inhabitants ( salt wat]4 ,be=e ^! ev5ts1 compris+ ! conv]sion ( a wide area f a sea to a cont95t1 ,engl& _h be5 peopl$1 z ,i be=e po9t$ out 7p4 #bfg71 by v>i\s quadrup$s1 by h]bivor\s pa*yd]ms1 by insectivor\s bats1 & by opossums4 ,almo/ all ! volcanoes :i* pres]ve any rema9s ( _! orig9al =m1 or f ! crat]s ( :i* lava /reams c be trac$1 are m mod]n ?an ! ,eoc5e fauna n[ "u consid]ation2 & besides ^! sup]ficial monum5ts ( ! action ( heat1 ,plutonic influ5ces h work$ va/ *anges 9 ! texture ( rocks )9 ! same p]iod4 ,"s memb]s ( ! nummulitic & ov]ly+ t]ti>y /rata call$ flys* h actually be5 conv]t$ 9 ! c5tral ,alps into cry/all9e rocks1 & trans=m$ into m>ble1 qu>tz-rock1 mi*a-s*i/1 & gneiss4#aa ,eoc5e ,/rata 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,9 ,nor? ,am]ica ! ,eoc5e =mations occupy a l>ge area bord]+ ! ,atlantic1 :i* increases 9 bread? & importance z x is trac$ s\?w>d f ,delaw>e & ,m>yl& to ,georgia & ,alabama4 ,!y also occur 9 ,l\isiana & o!r ,/ates bo? ea/ & we/ ( ! valley ( ! ,mississippi4 ,at ,claiborne1 9 ,alabama1 no less ?an #djj species ( m>9e %ells1 ) _m e*9od]ms & tee? ( fi%1 *>act]ise "o memb] ( ?is sy/em4 ,among ! %ells1 ! ,c>dita planico/a1 be=e m5tion$ 7,fig4 #aia71 is 9 abundance2 & ?is fossil & "s o!rs id5tical ) ,european species1 or v ne>ly alli$ to !m1 make x highly probable t ! ,claiborne b$s agree 9 age ) ! c5tral or ,brackle%am gr\p ( ,engl&1 & ) ! calcaire grossi]e ( ,p>is4#ab ,high] 9 ! s]ies is a rem>kable calc>e\s rock1 =m]ly call$ 8! nummulite lime/one10 f ! great numb] ( discoid bodies resembl+ nummulites :i* x conta9s1 fossils n[ ref]r$ by ,a4 d',orbigny to ! g5us ,orbitoides1 :i* has be5 demon/rat$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t] to belong to ! =am9if]a4#ac ,t naturali/1 moreov]1 is ( op9ion t ! ,orbitoides allud$ to 7,o4 ,mantelli7 is ( ! same species z "o f\nd 9 ,cut*1 9 ! ,middle ,eoc5e or nummulitic =mation ( ,india4 ,above ! orbitoidal lime/one is a :ite lime/one1 sometimes s(t & argillace\s1 b 9 p>ts v compact & calc>e\s4 ,x conta9s sev]al peculi> corals1 & a l>ge ,nautilus alli$ to ,n4 ziczac2 also 9 its upp] b$ a gigantic cetacean1 call$ ,zeuglodon by ,ow54#ad ,! colossal bones ( ?is cetacean are s pl5tiful 9 ! int]ior ( ,cl>ke ,c\nty1 ,alabama1 z to be *>act]i/ic ( ! =mation4 ,! v]tebral column ( "o skeleton f\nd by ,dr4 ,buckley at a spot visit$ by me1 ext5d$ to ! l5g? ( ne>ly sev5ty feet1 & n f> (f "p ( ano!r backbone ne>ly fifty feet long 0 dug up4 ,i obta9$ evid5ce1 dur+ a %ort excursion1 ( s _m localities ( ?is fossil animal )9 a di/ance ( t5 miles1 z to lead me to conclude t !y mu/ h belong$ to at lea/ =ty di/9ct individuals4 ,pr(essor ,ow5 fir/ po9t$ out t ?is huge animal 0 n reptilian1 s9ce ea* too? 0 furni%$ ) d\ble roots 7,fig4 #bbd71 implant$ 9 correspond+ d\ble sockets2 & 8 op9ion ( ! cetacean nature ( ! fossil 0 aft]w>ds confirm$ by ,dr4 ,wyman & ,dr4 ,r4 ,w4 ,gibbes4 ,t x 0 an ext9ct mammal ( ! :ale tribe has s9ce be5 plac$ beyond all d\bt by discov]y ( ! entire skull ( ano!r fossil species ( ! same family1 hav+ ! d\ble occipital condyles only met ) 9 mammals1 & ! convolut$ tympanic bones :i* are *>act]i/ic ( cetaceans4 ,fig4 #bbd3 ,zeuglodon cetoides1 ,fig #bbe3 ,basilosaurus4 #a ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rnal1 vol4 xx1 p4 #ig1 #ahfd4 #b ,palont4 ,soc4 ,monograph1 ,rept41 pt4 ii1 p4 #fa4 #c ,he]1 ,climat et ,vgtation du ,pays ,t]tiaire1 p4 #agb4 #d ,b[]bank1 ,fossil ,fruits & ,se$s ( ,london ,clay1 ,plates ix & x4 #e ,pre/wi*1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 x4 #f ,second ,visit to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ajd4 #g ,cuvi]1 ,oss4 ,foss41 tome iii1 p4 #bee4 #h ,sur des ,empre9tes de ,pas d',animaux p> ,m4 ,j4 ,desnoy]s4 ,compte r5du de l',in/itut1 #ahei4 #i ,d',ar*iac1 ,bullet91 tome x2 & ,pre/wi*1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 #ahdg1 p4 #cgg4 #aj ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xii1 p4 #bjd1 #ahef4 #aa ,mur*ison1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ( ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 v1 & ,lyell1 vol4 vi1 #ahej4 ,anniv]s>y ,address4 #ab ,see pap] by ! ,au?or1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ( ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 iv1 p4 #ab2 & ,second ,visit to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ei4 #ac ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ( ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 vi1 p4 #cb4 #ad ,see ,memoir by ,r4 ,w4 ,gibbes1 ,j\rn4 ( ,acad4 ,nat4 ,sci4 ,philad41 vol4 i1 #ahdg4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,upp] ,,cretace\s ,,gr\p4 ,lapse ( ,"t betwe5 ,cretace\s & ,eoc5e ,p]iods4 -- ,table ( successive ,cretace\s ,=mations4 -- ,mae/ri*t ,b$s4 -- ,pisolitic ,lime/one ( ,france4 -- ,*alk ( ,faxoe4 -- ,geographical ,ext5t & ,orig9 ( ! ,:ite ,*alk4 -- ,*alky ,matt] n[ =m+ 9 ! ,b$ ( ! ,atlantic4 -- ,m>k$ ,diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,cretace\s & exi/+ ,fauna4 -- ,*alk-fl9ts4 -- ,pot-/ones ( ,hor/ead4 -- ,vitre\s ,sponges 9 ! ,*alk4 -- ,isolat$ ,blocks ( ,=eign ,rocks 9 ! ,:ite ,*alk suppos$ to be ice-borne4 -- ,di/9ctness ( ,m9]al ,"* 9 contemporane\s ,rocks ( ! ,cretace\s ,epo*4 -- ,fossils ( ! ,:ite ,*alk4 -- ,l[] ,:ite ,*alk )\t ,fl9ts4 -- ,*alk ,m>l & its ,fossils4 -- ,*loritic ,s]ies or ,upp] ,gre5s&4 -- ,coprolite ,b$ ne> ,cambridge4 -- ,fossils ( ! ,*loritic ,s]ies4 -- ,gault4 -- ,connection betwe5 ,upp] & ,l[] ,cretace\s ,/rata4 -- ,blackd[n ,b$s4 -- ,flora ( ! ,upp] ,cretace\s ,p]iod4 -- ,hippurite ,lime/one4 -- ,cretace\s ,rocks 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,we h treat$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s ( ! ,t]ti>y or ,ca9ozoic /rata1 & h next to speak ( ! ,second>y or ,mesozoic =mations4 ,! upp]mo/ ( ^! la/ is commonly call$ ! *alk or ! cretace\s =mation1 f creta1 ! lat9 "n = t rem>kable :ite e>?y lime/one1 :i* con/itutes an upp] memb] ( ! gr\p 9 ^? p>ts ( ,europe :]e x 0 fir/ /udi$4 ,! m>k$ discordance 9 ! fossils ( ! t]ti>y1 z comp>$ ) ! cretace\s =mations1 has long induc$ _m geologi/s to suspect t an indef9ite s]ies ( ages elaps$ betwe5 ! respective p]iods ( _! orig94 ,measur$1 inde$1 by su* a /&>d1 t is to say1 by ! am\nt ( *ange 9 ! ,fauna & ,flora ( ! e>? effect$ 9 ! int]val1 ! "t betwe5 ! ,cretace\s & ,eoc5e may h be5 z great z t betwe5 ! ,eoc5e & ,rec5t p]iods1 to ! hi/ory ( :i* ! la/ sev5 *apt]s h be5 devot$4 ,sev]al deposits h be5 met ) "h & !re1 9 ! c\rse ( ! la/ half c5tury1 ( an age int]m$iate betwe5 ! :ite *alk & ! pla/ic clays & s&s ( ! ,p>is & ,london di/ricts1 monum5ts :i* h ! same k9d ( int]e/ to a geologi/ :i* c]ta9 m$ieval records excite :5 we /udy ! hi/ory ( nations4 ,= bo? ( !m ?r[ light on ages ( d>kness1 prec$$ & foll[$ by o!rs ( :i* ! annals are comp>atively well-kn[n to u4 ,b ^! newly-discov]$ records d n fill up ! wide gap1 "s ( !m be+ closely alli$ to ! ,eoc5e1 & o!rs to ! ,cretace\s type1 :ile none appe> z yet to possess s di/9ct & *>act]i/ic a fauna z may entitle !m to hold an indep5d5t place 9 ! great *ronological s]ies4 ,among ! =mations allud$ to1 ! ,?anet ,s&s ( ,pre/wi* h be5 suffici5tly describ$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 & class$ z ,l[] ,eoc5e4 ,to ! same t]ti>y s]ies belong ! ,belgian =mations1 call$ by ,pr(essor ,dumont1 ,l&5ian4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,mae/ri*t & ,faxoe lime/ones are v closely connect$ ) ! *alk1 to :i* also ! ,pisolitic lime/one ( ,france is ref]able4 ,classification ( ! ,cretace\s ,rocks4--,! cretace\s gr\p has g5]ally be5 divid$ into an ,upp] & a ,l[] s]ies1 ! ,upp] call$ famili>ly ! *alk1 & ! ,l[] ! gre5s&2 ! "o d]iv+ its "n f ! pr$om9ance ( :ite e>?y lime/one & m>l1 ( :i* x consi/s 9 a great "p ( ,france & ,engl&1 ! o!r or l[] s]ies f ! pl5tiful mixture ( gre5 or *loritic gra9s conta9$ 9 "s ( ! s&s & *]ts ( :i* x l>gely consi/s 9 ! same c\ntries4 ,b ^! m9]al *>act]s (t5 fail1 ev5 :5 we attempt to foll[ out ! same cont9u\s subdivisions ?r\gh\t a small portion ( ! nor? ( ,europe1 & are worse ?an valueless :5 we desire to apply !m to m di/ant regions4 ,x is only by aid ( ! organic rema9s :i* *>act]ise ! successive m>9e subdivisions ( ! =mation t we are able to recognise 9 remote c\ntries1 su* z ! s\? ( ,europe or ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! =mations :i* 7 !re contemporane\sly 9 progress4 ,to ! ,engli% /ud5t ( geology x w be suffici5t to beg9 by enum]at+ ^? gr\ps :i* *>act]ise ! s]ies 9 ?is c\ntry & o!rs imm$iately contigu\s1 allud+ b slightly to ^? ( m di/ant regions4 ,9 ! table 7p4 #bhc7 x w be se5 t ,i h us$ ! t]m ,neocomian = t commonly call$ 8,l[] ,gre5s&20 z ?is latt] t]m is peculi>ly objectionable1 s9ce ! gre5 gra9s are an exception to ! rule 9 _m ( ! memb]s ( ?is gr\p ev5 9 di/ricts :]e x 0 fir/ /udi$ & nam$4 ,,upp] ,,cretace\s ,,or ,,*alk ,,p]iod4 ,mae/ri*t ,b$s & ,faxoe ,lime/one4 ,upp] ,:ite ,*alk1 ) fl9ts4 ,l[] ,:ite ,*alk1 )\t fl9ts4 ,*alk ,m>l4 ,*loritic s]ies 7or ,upp] ,gre5s&74 ,gault4 ,,l[] ,,cretace\s ,,or ,,neocomian4 ,m>9e ,fre%-wat] ,m>9e3 ,upp] ,neocomian1 see p4#cjh ,m>9e3 ,middle ,neocomian1 see p4#cab ,m>9e3 ,l[] ,neocomian1 see p4#cab ,weald5 ,b$s 7upp] "p74 ,belemnitella mucronata4 ,belemnitella mucronata1 ,mae/ri*t1 ,faxoe1 & ,:ite ,*alk4 a_/ ,entire specim51 %[+ vascul> impression on out] surface1 & *>act]i/ic slit4 b4 ,section ( same1 %[+ place ( phragmocone4#a ,mae/ri*t ,b$s4--,on ! banks ( ! ,meuse1 at ,mae/ri*t1 repos+ on ord9>y :ite *alk ) fl9ts1 we f9d an upp] calc>e\s =mation ab\t #ajj feet ?ick1 ! fossils ( :i* are1 on ! :ole1 v peculi>1 & all di/9ct f t]ti>y species4 ,"s few are ( species common to ! inf]ior :ite *alk1 among :i* may be m5tion$ ,belemnitella mucronata 7,fig4 #bbf7 & ,pect5 quadrico/atus1 a %ell reg>d$ by _m z a m]e v>iety ( ,p4 qu9queco/atus 7see ,fig4 #bgj74 ,besides ! ,belemnite !re are o!r g5]a1 su* z ,baculites & ,hamites1 nev] f\nd 9 /rata new] ?an ! cretace\s1 b frequ5tly met ) 9 ^! ,mae/ri*t b$s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,voluta1 ,fasciol>ia1 & o!r g5]a ( univalve %ells1 usually met ) only 9 t]ti>y /rata1 occur4 ,! upp] "p ( ! rock1 ab\t #bj feet ?ick1 z se5 9 ,/4 ,pet]'s ,m\nt1 9 ! suburbs ( ,mae/ri*t1 ab\nds 9 corals & ,bryozoa1 (t5 deta*able f ! matrix2 & ^! b$s are succe$$ by a s(t yell[i% lime/one #ej feet ?ick1 ext5sively qu>ri$ f "t immemorial = build+4 ,! /one bel[ is :it]1 & conta9s occasional nodules ( grey *]t or *alc$ony4 ,m4 ,bosquet1 ) :om ,i exam9$ ?is =mation 7,augu/1 #ahej71 po9t$ out to me a lay] ( *alk f two to f\r in*es ?ick1 conta9+ gre5 e>? & num]\s encr9ital /ems1 :i* =ms ! l9e ( dem>kation betwe5 ! /rata conta9+ ! fossils peculi> to ,mae/ri*t & ! :ite *alk bel[4 ,! latt] is di/+ui%$ by regul> lay]s ( black fl9t 9 nodules1 & by sev]al %ells1 su* z ,t]ebratula c>nea 7see ,fig4 #bdf71 :olly want+ 9 b$s high] ?an ! gre5 b&4 ,"s ( ! organic rema9s1 h[ev]1 = :i* ,/4 ,pet]'s ,m\nt is celebrat$1 occur bo? above & bel[ t p>t+ lay]1 &1 among o!rs1 ! great m>9e reptile call$ ,mosasaurus 7see ,fig4 #bbg71 a saurian suppos$ to h be5 #bd feet 9 l5g?1 ( :i* ! entire skull & a great "p ( ! skeleton h be5 f\nd4 ,su* rema9s are *iefly met ) 9 ! s(t free/one1 ! pr9cipal memb] ( ! ,mae/ri*t b$s4 ,among ! fossils common to ! ,mae/ri*t & :ite *alk may be in/anc$ ! e*9od]m1 ,fig4 #bbh4 ,mosasaurus ,camp]i4 ,hemipneu/es radiatus4 ,i saw pro(s ( ! previ\s d5udation ( ! :ite *alk exhibit$ 9 ! l[] b$ ( ! ,mae/ri*t =mation 9 ,belgium1 ab\t #cj miles ,s4,w4 ( ,mae/ri*t1 at ! village ( ,j5dra91 :]e ! base ( ! new] deposit consi/$ *iefly ( a lay] ( well-roll$1 black *alk-fl9t pebbles1 9 ! mid/ ( :i* p]fect specim5s ( ,!cidea papillata & ,belemnitella mucronata are imb$d$4 ,to a geologi/ accu/om$ 9 ,engl& to reg>d roll$ pebbles ( *alk-fl9t z a common & di/9ctive feature ( t]ti>y b$s ( diff]5t ages1 x is a new & surpris+ ph5om5on to behold /rata made up ( su* mat]ials1 & yet to feel no d\bt t !y 7 accumulat$ 9 a sea 9 :i* ! belemnite & o!r cretace\s mollusca fl\ri%$4 ,pisolitic ,lime/one ( ,france4--,geologi/s 7 = _m ye>s at v>iance respect+ ! *ronological relations ( ?is rock1 :i* is met ) 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,p>is1 & at places nor?1 s\?1 ea/1 & we/ ( t metropolis1 z betwe5 ,v]tus & ,lav]s9es1 ,meudon & ,mont]eau4 ,by _m able palontologi/s ! species ( fossils1 m ?an fifty 9 numb]1 7 decl>$ to be m ,eoc5e 9 _! appe>ance ?an ,cretace\s4 ,b ,m4 ,hb]t f\nd 9 ?is =mation at ,mont]eau1 ne> ,p>is1 ! ,pect5 quadrico/atus1 a well-kn[n ,cretace\s species1 toge!r ) "s o!r fossils common to ! ,mae/ri*t *alk & to ! ,baculite lime/one ( ! ,cot5t91 9 ,norm&y4 ,he !re=e1 z well z ,m4 ,alcide d',orbigny1 :o _h c>efully /udi$ ! fossils1 came to ! op9ion t x 0 an upp] memb] ( ! ,cretace\s gr\p4 ,x is usually 9 ! =m ( a co>se yell[i% or :iti% lime/one1 & ! total ?ickness ( ! s]ies ( b$s already kn[n is ab\t #ajj feet4 ,its geographical range1 accord+ to ,m4 ,hb]t1 is n less ?an #de leagues f ea/ to we/1 & #ce f nor? to s\?4 ,)9 ^! limits x occurs 9 small pat*es only1 re/+ uncon=mably on ! :ite *alk4 ,! ,nautilus ,danicus1 ,fig4 #bcj1 & two or ?ree o!r species f\nd 9 ?is rock1 are frequ5t 9 t ( ,faxoe1 9 ,d5m>k1 b z yet no ,ammonites1 ,hamites1 ,scaphites1 ,turrilites1 ,baculites1 or ,hippurites h be5 met )4 ,! proportion ( peculi> species1 _m ( !m ( t]ti>y aspect1 is confess$ly l>ge2 & great aque\s erosion suff]$ by ! :ite *alk1 be=e ! pisolitic lime/one 0 =m$1 af=ds an additional indication ( ! two deposits be+ widely sep>at$ 9 "t4 ,! pisolitic =mation1 !re=e1 may ev5tually prove to be some:at m int]m$iate 9 date betwe5 ! second>y & t]ti>y epo*s ?an ! ,mae/ri*t rock4 ,*alk ( ,faxoe4-- ,9 ! isl& ( ,seel&1 9 ,d5m>k1 ! newe/ memb] ( ! *alk s]ies1 se5 9 ! sea-cliffs at ,/ev5skl9t re/+ on :ite *alk ) fl9ts1 is a yell[ lime/one1 a portion ( :i*1 at ,faxoe1 :]e x is us$ z a build+ /one1 is compos$ ( corals1 ev5 m conspicu\sly ?an is usually obs]v$ 9 rec5t coral reefs4 ,x has be5 qu>ri$ to ! dep? ( m ?an #dj feet1 b its ?ickness is unkn[n4 ,! imb$d$ %ells are *iefly ca/s1 _m ( !m ( univalve mollusca1 :i* are usually v r>e 9 ! :ite *alk ( ,europe4 ,?us1 !re are two species ( ,cypra1 "o ( ,oliva1 two ( ,mitra1 f\r ( ! g5us ,c]i?ium1 six ( ,fusus1 two ( ,tro*us1 "o ( ,patella1 "o ( ,em>g9ula1 etc42 on ! :ole1 m ?an ?irty univalves1 spiral or patelli=m4 ,at ! same "t1 "s ( ! accompany+ bivalve %ells1 e*9od]ms1 & zoophytes1 are specifically id5tical ) fossils ( ! true ,cretace\s s]ies4 ,among ! cephalopoda ( ,faxoe may be m5tion$ ,baculites ,faujasii 7,fig4 #bbi71 & ,belemnitella mucronata 7,fig4 #bbf71 %ells ( ! :ite *alk4 ,! ,nautilus ,danicus 7see ,fig4 #bcj7 is *>act]i/ic ( ?is =mation2 & x also occurs 9 ,france 9 ! calcaire pisolitique ( ,lav]s9 7,dep>tm5t ( ,oise74 ,! claws & entire skull ( a small crab1 ,bra*yurus rugosus 7,s*lott471 are scatt]$ ?r\gh ! ,faxoe /one1 rem9d+ u ( simil> cru/aceans inclos$ 9 ! rocks ( mod]n coral reefs4 ,"s small portions ( ?is corall9e =mation consi/ ( :ite e>?y *alk4 ,fig4 #bbi3 ,portion ( ,baculites ,faujasii1 ,fig4 #bcj3 ,nautilus ,danicus4 ,composition1 ,ext5t & ,orig9 ( ! ,:ite ,*alk4--,! highe/ b$s ( *alk 9 ,engl& & ,france consi/ ( a pure1 :ite1 calc>e\s mass1 usually too s(t = a build+-/one1 b sometimes pass+ into a m solid /ate4 ,x consi/s1 almo/ purely1 ( c>bonate ( lime2 ! /ratification is (t5 obscure1 except :]e r5d]$ di/9ct by int]/ratifi$ lay]s ( fl9t1 a few in*es ?ick1 occasionally 9 cont9u\s b$s1 b (t5] 9 nodules1 & recurr+ at int]vals g5]ally f two to f\r feet di/ant f ea* o!r4 ,?is upp] *alk is usually succe$$1 9 ! desc5d+ ord]1 by a great mass ( :ite *alk )\t fl9ts1 bel[ :i* comes ! *alk m>l1 9 :i* !re is a slight admixture ( argillace\s matt]4 ,! unit$ ?ickness ( ! ?ree divisions 9 ! s\? ( ,engl& equals1 9 "s places1 #ajjj feet4 ,! section 9 ,fig4 #bca w %[ ! mann] 9 :i* ! :ite *alk ext5ds f ,engl& into ,france1 cov]$ by ! t]ti>y /rata describ$ 9 =m] *apt]s1 & repos+ on l[] cretace\s b$s4 ,! area ov] :i* ! :ite *alk pres]ves a ne>ly homog5e\s aspect is s va/1 t ! e>li] geologi/s despair$ ( discov]+ any analog\s deposits ( rec5t date4 ,pure *alk1 ( ne>ly uni=m aspect & composition1 is met ) 9 a nor?-we/ & s\?-ea/ direction1 f ! nor? ( ,irel& to ! ,crimea1 a di/ance ( ab\t #aadj geographical miles1 & 9 an opposite direction x ext5ds f ! s\? ( ,sw$5 to ! s\? ( ,bordeaux1 a di/ance ( ab\t #hdj geographical miles4 ,9 ,s\!rn ,russia1 accord+ to ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison1 x is sometimes #fjj feet ?ick1 & reta9s ! same m9]al "* z 9 ,france & ,engl&1 ) ! same fossils1 includ+ ,inoc]amus ,cuvi]i1 ,belemnitella mucronata1 & ,o/rea vesicul>is 7,fig4 #bea74 ,diagrammatic section f ,h]t=d%ire1 9 ,engl&1 to ,s5s1 9 ,france4 ,great light has rec5tly be5 ?r[n ^u ! orig9 ( ! unconsolidat$ :ite *alk by ! deep s\nd+s made 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 previ\s to lay+ d[n1 9 #aheh1 ! electric telegraph betwe5 ,irel& & ,newf\ndl&4 ,at dep?s sometimes exce$+ two miles1 ! mud =m+ ! floor ( ! ocean 0 f\nd1 by ,pr(essor ,huxley1 to be almo/ entirely compos$ 7m ?an n9ete5-tw5tie?s ( ! :ole7 ( m9ute ,rhizopods1 or =am9if]\s %ells ( ! g5us ,globig]9a1 especially ! species ,globig]9a bulloides 7see ,fig4 #bcb47 ! organic bodies next 9 quantity 7 ! silice\s %ells call$ ,polycy/9e1 & next to !m ! silice\s skeletons ( plants call$ ,diatomace 7,figs4 #bcc1 #bcd1 #bce71 & occasionally "s silice\s spicul ( sponges 7,fig4 #bcf7 7 int]mix$4 ,^! 7 connect$ by a mass ( liv+ gelat9\s matt] to :i* he has giv5 ! "n ( ,ba?ybius1 & :i* conta9s abundance ( v m9ute bodies t]m$ ,coccoli?s & ,coccosph]es1 :i* h also be5 detect$ fossil 9 *alk4 ,sir ,leopold ,mac,clintock & ,dr4 ,walli* h asc]ta9$ t #ie p] c5t ( ! mud ( a l>ge "p ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic consi/s ( ,globig]9a %ells4 ,b ,capta9 ,bullock1 ,r4,n41 lately br\ght up f ! enorm\s dep? ( #af1hfj feet a :ite1 viscid1 *alky mud1 :olly devoid ( ,globig]94 ,?is mud 0 p]fectly homog5e\s 9 composition1 & conta9$ no organic rema9s visible to ! nak$ eye4 ,mr4 ,e!ridge1 h[ev]1 has asc]ta9$ by microscopical exam9ation t x is made up ( ,coccoli?s1 ,discoli?s1 & o!r m9ute fossils l ^? ( ! ,*alk class$ by ,huxley z ,ba?ybius1 :5 ?is t]m is us$ 9 its wide/ s5se4 ,?is mud1 m ?an ?ree miles deep1 0 dr$g$ up 9 latitude #bj #ai ,n41 longitude #d #cf ,e41 or ab\t midway betwe5 ,madeira & ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,fig4 #bcb3 ,globig]9a bulloides1 ,calc>e\s ,rhizopod4 ,fig4 #bcc3 ,act9ocyclus1 ,fig4 #bcd3 ,p9nul>ia1 ,fig4 #bce3 ,eunotia bid5s1 ,silice\s ,diatomace4 ,fig4 #bcf3 ,spicula ( sponge1 ,silice\s sponge4 ,! rec5t deep-sea dr$g+s 9 ! ,atlantic conduct$ by ,dr4 ,wyville ,?omson1 ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 ,mr4 ,gwyn ,jeffreys1 & o!rs1 h %[n t on ! same :ite mud !re sometimes fl\ri% ,mollusca1 ,cru/acea1 & ,e*9od]ms1 besides abundance ( silice\s sponges1 =m+1 on ! :ole1 a m>9e fauna be>+ a /rik+ resemblance 9 its g5]al "* to t ( ! anci5t *alk4 ,popul> ,error z to ! ,geological ,cont9uity ( ! ,cretace\s ,p]iod4--,we mu/ be c>eful1 h[ev]1 n to ov]rate ! po9ts ( resemblance :i* ! deep-sea inve/igations h plac$ 9 a /rong light4 ,!y h be5 suppos$ by "s naturali/s to w>rant a conclusion express$ 9 ^! words3 8,we are /ill liv+ 9 ! ,cretace\s epo*20 a doctr9e :i* has l$ to mu* popul> delusion z to ! be>+ ( ! new facts on geological reason+ & classification4 ,! read] %\ld be rem9d$ t 9 geology we h be5 9 ! habit ( f\nd+ our great *ronological divisions1 n on =am9if]a & sponges1 nor ev5 on e*9od]ms & corals1 b on ! rema9s ( ! mo/ highly organis$ be+s available to u1 su* z ! mollusca2 ^! be+ met )1 z expla9$ 7p4 #adb71 9 /ratifi$ rocks ( almo/ e age4 ,9 deal+ ) ! mollusca1 x is ^? ( ! highe/ or mo/ specialis$ organisation1 :i* af=d u ! be/ *>act]s 9 proportion z _! v]tical range is ! mo/ limit$4 ,?us ! ,cephalopoda are ! mo/ valuable1 z hav+ a m re/rict$ range 9 "t ?an ! ,ga/]opoda2 & ^!1 aga91 are m *>act]i/ic ( ! p>ticul> /ratigraphical subdivisions ?an are ! ,lamellibran*iate ,bivalves1 :ile ^! la/1 aga91 are m s]viceable 9 classification ?an ! ,bra*iopoda1 a /ill l[] class ( %ell-fi%1 :i* are ! mo/ endur+ ( all4 ,:5 told t ! new dr$g+s prove t 8we are /ill liv+ 9 ! ,*alk ,p]iod10 we naturally ask :e!r "s cuttle-fi% has be5 f\nd ) a ,belemnite =m+ "p ( its int]nal framework2 or h ,ammonites1 ,baculites1 ,hamites1 ,turrilites1 ) f\r or five o!r ,cephalopod\s g5]a *>act]i/ic ( ! *alk & unkn[n z t]ti>y1 be5 met ) 9 ! abysses ( ! ocean8 ,or1 9 ! abs5ce ( ^! long-ext9ct =ms1 has a s+le spiral univalve1 or species ( ,cretace\s ,ga/]opod1 be5 f\nd liv+8 ,or1 to desc5d /ill l[] 9 ! scale1 has "s *>act]i/ic ,cretace\s g5us ( ,lamellibran*iate ,bivalve1 su* z ! ,inoc]amus1 or ,hippurite1 =eign to ! ,t]ti>y seas1 be5 prov$ to h surviv$ d[n to our "t8 ,or1 ( ! num]\s g5]a ( lamellibran*iates common to ! ,cretace\s & ,rec5t seas1 has "o species be5 f\nd liv+8 ,! answ] to all ^! que/ions is--n "o has be5 f\nd4 ,ev5 ( ! humble/ %ell-fi%1 ! ,bra*iopods1 no new species common to ! ,cretace\s & rec5t seas has yet be5 met )4 ,x has be5 v g5]ally admitt$ by con*ologi/s t out ( a hundr$ species ( ?is tribe occurr+ fossil 9 ! ,upp] ,*alk--"o1 & "o only1 ,t]ebratul9a /riata1 is /ill liv+1 be+ ?\ght to be id5tical ) ,t]ebratula caput-s]p5tis4 ,al?\gh ?is id5tity is /ill que/ion$ by "s naturali/s ( au?ority1 x w\ld c]ta9ly n surprise u if ano!r lamp-%ell ( equal antiquity %\ld be met ) 9 ! deep sea4 ,_h x be5 decl>$ t we are liv+ 9 ! ,eoc5e epo*1 ! idea w\ld n be s extravagant1 = ! great reptiles ( ! ,upp] ,*alk1 ! ,mosasaurus1 ,pliosaurus1 & ,pt]odactyle1 & _m o!rs1 z well z s _m g5]a ( *amb]$ univalves1 _h already disappe>$ f ! e>?1 & ! m>9e fauna _h made a great] approa* to our own by ne>ly ! entire diff]5ce :i* sep>ates x f ! fauna ( ! ,cretace\s seas4 ,! ,eoc5e nummulitic lime/one ( ,egypt is a rock ma9ly compos$1 l ! m anci5t :ite *alk1 ( globig]9e mud2 & if ! read] w ref] to :at we h said ( ! ext5t to :i* ! nummulitic m>9e /rata1 =m$ orig9ally at ! bottom ( ! sea1 n[ ent] into ! frame-"w ( m\nta9 *a9s ( ! pr9cipal cont95ts1 he w at once p]ceive t ! pres5t ,atlantic1 ,pacific1 & ,indian ,oceans are geographical t]ms1 :i* mu/ be :olly )\t mean+ :5 appli$ to ! ,eoc5e1 & /ill m to ! ,cretace\s ,p]iod2 s t to talk ( ! *alk hav+ be5 un9t]rupt$ly =m+ 9 ! ,atlantic f ! ,cretace\s ,p]iod to our own1 is z inadmissible 9 a geographical z 9 a geological s5se4 ,*alk-fl9ts4--,! orig9 ( ! lay]s ( fl9t1 :e!r 9 ! =m ( nodules1 or cont9u\s %eets1 or 9 ve9s or cracks n p>allel to ! /ratification1 has always be5 m difficult to expla9 ?an t ( ! :ite *alk4 ,b "h1 aga91 ! late deep-sea s\nd+s h sugge/$ a possible s\rce ( su* m9]al matt]4 ,dur+ ! cruise ( ! 8,bulldog10 already allud$ to1 x 0 asc]ta9$ t :ile ! calc>e\s ,globig]9 _h almo/ exclusive possession ( c]ta9 tracts ( ! sea-bottom1 !y 7 :olly want+ 9 o!rs1 z betwe5 ,gre5l& & ,labrador4 ,accord+ to ,dr4 ,walli*1 !y may fl\ri% 9 ^? spaces :]e !y d]ive nutrim5t f organic & o!r matt]1 br\ght f ! s\? by ! w>m wat]s ( ! ,gulf ,/ream1 & !y may be abs5t :]e ! effects ( t great curr5t are n felt4 ,n[1 9 sev]al ( ! spaces :]e ! calc>e\s ,rhizopods are want+1 c]ta9 microscopic plants1 call$ ,diatomace1 above m5tion$ 7,figs4 #bcc-bce71 ! solid p>ts ( :i* are silice\s1 monopolise ! gr\nd at a dep? ( ne>ly #djj fa?oms1 or #bdjj feet4 ,! l>ge quantities ( silex 9 solution requir$ = ! =mation ( ^! plants may probably arise f ! dis9tegration ( feldspa?ic rocks1 :i* are univ]sally di/ribut$4 ,z m ?an half ( _! bulk is =m$ ( silice\s e>?1 !y may af=d an endless supply ( silica to all ! great riv]s :i* fl[ into ! ocean4 ,we may imag9e t1 aft] a lapse ( _m ye>s or c5turies1 *anges took place 9 ! direction ( ! m>9e curr5ts1 fav\r+ at "o "t a supply 9 ! same area ( silice\s1 & at ano!r ( calc>e\s matt] 9 excess1 giv+ rise 9 ! "o case to a prepond]ance ( ,globig]91 & 9 ! o!r ( ,diatomace4 ,^! la/1 & c]ta9 sponges1 may by _! decomposition h furni%$ ! silex1 :i*1 sep>at+ f ! *alky mud1 collect$ r\nd organic bodies1 or =m$ nodules1 or fill$ %r9kage cracks4 ,pot-/ones4--,a m difficult enigma is pres5t$ by ! occurr5ce ( c]ta9 huge fl9ts1 or pot-/ones1 z !y are call$ 9 ,norfolk1 occurr+ s+ly1 or arrang$ 9 ne>ly cont9u\s columns at "r angles to ! ord9>y & horizontal lay]s ( small fl9ts4 ,i visit$ 9 ! ye> #ahbe an ext5sive range ( qu>ries !n op5 on ! riv] ,bure1 ne> ,hor/ead1 ab\t six miles f ,norwi*1 :i* af=d$ a cont9u\s section1 a qu>t] ( a mile 9 l5g?1 ( :ite *alk1 expos$ to ! dep? ( ab\t tw5ty-six feet1 & cov]$ by a b$ ( gravel4 ,! pot-/ones1 _m ( !m pe>-%ap$1 7 usually ab\t ?ree feet 9 height & "o foot 9 _! transv]se diamet]1 plac$ 9 v]tical r[s1 l pill>s1 at irregul> di/ances f ea* o!r1 b usually f tw5ty to ?irty feet ap>t1 ?\gh sometimes ne>] toge!r1 z 9 ,figure #bcg4 ,^! r[s did n t]m9ate d[nw>d 9 any in/ance :i* ,i c\ld exam9e1 nor upw>d1 except at ! po9t :]e !y 7 cut (f abruptly by ! b$ ( gravel4 ,on break+ op5 ! pot-/ones1 ,i f\nd an int]nal cyl9drical nucleus ( pure *alk1 mu* h>d] ?an ! ord9>y surr\nd+ *alk1 & n crumbl+ to pieces l x1 :5 expos$ to ! w9t]'s fro/4 ,at ! di/ance ( half a mile1 ! v]tical piles ( pot-/ones 7 mu* f>!r ap>t f ea* o!r4 ,dr4 ,buckl& has describ$ v simil> ph5om5a z *>act]is+ ! :ite *alk on ! nor? coa/ ( ,antrim1 9 ,irel&4#b ,view ( a *alk-pit at ,hor/ead1 ne> ,norwi*1 %[+ ! position ( ! pot-/ones4 ,vitre\s ,sponges ( ! ,*alk4--,^! pe>-%ap$ masses ( fl9t (t5 resemble 9 %ape & size ! l>ge sponges call$ ,neptune's ,cups 7,spongia pat]a1 ,h>dw471 :i* gr[ 9 ! seas ( ,sumatra2 & if we c\ld suppose a s]ies ( su* gigantic sponges to be sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 l trees 9 a =e/1 & ! individuals ( ea* successive g5]ation to gr[ on ! exact spot :]e ! p>5t sponge di$ & 0 envelop$ 9 calc>e\s mud1 s t !y %\ld become pil$ "o above ! o!r 9 a v]tical column1 _! gr[? keep+ pace ) ! accumulation ( ! envelop+ calc>e\s mud1 a c\nt]p>t ( ! ph5om5a ( ! ,hor/ead pot-/ones might be obta9$4 ,fig4 #bch3 ,v5triculites radiatus4 ,:ite *alk4 ,pr(essor ,wyville ,?omson1 describ+ ! mod]n s\nd+s 9 #ahfi (f ! nor? coa/ ( ,scotl&1 speaks ( ! ooze or *alk mud br\ght f a dep? ( ab\t #cjjj feet1 & /ates t at "o haul !y obta9$ =ty specim5s ( vitre\s sponges buri$ 9 ! mud4 ,he sugge/s t ! ,v5triculites ( ! *alk 7 ne>ly alli$ to ^! sponges1 & t :5 ! silica ( _! spicules 0 remov$1 & 0 dissolv$ out ( ! calc>e\s matrix1 x set into fl9t4 ,b\ld]s & ,gr\ps ( ,pebbles 9 ,*alk4--,! occurr5ce "h & !re1 9 ! :ite *alk ( ! s\? ( ,engl&1 ( isolat$ pebbles ( qu>tz & gre5 s*i/ has ju/ly excit$ mu* wond]4 ,x 0 at fir/ suppos$ t !y _h be5 dropp$ f ! roots ( "s float+ tree1 by :i* means /ones are c>ri$ to "s ( ! small coral isl&s ( ! ,pacific4 ,b ! discov]y 9 #aheg ( a gr\p ( /ones 9 ! :ite *alk ne> ,croydon1 ! l>ge/ ( :i* 0 sy5ite & weigh$ ab\t =ty p\nds1 accompani$ by pebbles & f9e s& l t ( a bea*1 has be5 %[n by ,mr4 ,godw9 ,au/5 to be inexplicable except by ! ag5cy ( float+ ice4 ,if we consid] t iceb]gs n[ rea* #dj degrees nor? latitude 9 ! ,atlantic1 & sev]al degrees ne>] ! equator 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 we c ! m easily believe t ev5 dur+ ! ,cretace\s epo*1 assum+ t ! climate 0 mild]1 fragm5ts ( coa/ ice may h float$ occasionally z f> z ! s\? ( ,engl&4 ,di/9ctness ( ,m9]al ,"* 9 ,contemporane\s ,rocks ( ! ,cretace\s ,p]iod4--,b we mu/ n imag9e t because pebbles are s r>e 9 ! :ite *alk ( ,engl& & ,france !re are no pro(s ( s&1 %+le1 & clay hav+ be5 accumulat$ contemporane\sly ev5 9 ,european seas4 ,! silice\s s&/one call$ 8upp] quad]0 by ! ,g]mans ov]lies :ite argillace\s *alk or 8pln]-kalk10 a deposit resembl+ 9 composition & organic rema9s ! *alk m>l ( ! ,engli% s]ies4 ,?is s&/one conta9s z _m fossil %ells common to our :ite *alk z c\ld be expect$ 9 a sea-bottom =m$ ( su* diff]5t mat]ials4 ,x sometimes atta9s a ?ickness ( #fjj feet1 &1 by its jo9t$ /ructure & v]tical precipices1 plays a conspicu\s "p 9 ! picturesque sc5]y ( ,saxon ,switz]l&1 ne> ,dresd54 ,x demon/rates t 9 ! ,cretace\s sea1 z 9 our own1 di/9ct m9]al deposits 7 simultane\sly 9 progress4 ,! qu>tzose s&/one allud$ to1 d]iv$ f ! detritus ( ! neighb\r+ granite1 is absolutely devoid ( c>bonate ( lime1 yet x 0 =m$ at ! di/ance only ( f\r hundr$ miles f a sea-bottom n[ con/itut+ "p ( ,france1 :]e ! purely calc>e\s :ite *alk 0 =m+4 ,9 ! ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t1 on ! o!r h&1 :]e ! ,upp] ,cretace\s =mations are s widely develop$1 true :ite *alk1 9 ! ord9>y s5se ( t t]m1 does n exi/4 ,fig4 #bci3 ,anan*ytes ovatus4 ,:ite *alk1 upp] & l[]4 ,fossils ( ! ,:ite ,*alk4--,among ! fossils ( ! :ite *alk1 e*9od]ms are v num]\s2 & "s ( ! g5]a1 l ,anan*ytes 7see ,fig4 #bci71 are exclusively cretace\s4 ,among ! ,cr9oidea1 ! ,m>supites 7,fig4 #bdb7 is a *>act]i/ic g5us4 ,among ! mollusca1 ! cephalopoda are repres5t$ by ,ammonites1 ,baculites 7,fig4 #bbi71 & ,belemnites 7,fig4 #bbf74 ,al?\gh !re are eight or m species ( ,ammonites & six ( !m peculi> to x1 ?is g5us is mu* less fully repres5t$ ?an 9 ea* ( ! o!r subdivisions ( ! ,upp] ,cretace\s gr\p4 ,among ! bra*iopoda 9 ! :ite *alk1 ! ,t]ebratul are v abundant 7see ,figs4 #bdc-bdg74 ,) ^! are associat$ "s =ms ( oy/] 7see ,fig4 #bea71 & o!r bivalves 7,figs4 #bdi1 #bej74 ,fig4 #bdj3 ,micra/] cor-angumum4 ,:ite *alk4 ,fig4 #bda3 ,gal]ites albogal]us4 ,:ite *alk4 ,fig4 #bdb3 ,m>supites ,mill]i4 ,:ite *alk4 ,fig4 #bdc3 ,t]ebratul9a /riata4 ,upp] :ite *alk4 ,fig4 #bdd3 ,rhyn*onella octoplicata4 ,upp] :ite *alk4 ,fig4 #bde3 ,magas pumila4 ,upp] :ite *alk4 ,fig4 #bdf3 ,t]ebratula c>nea4 ,upp] :ite *alk4 ,fig4 #bdg3 ,t]ebratula biplicata4 ,upp] cretace\s4 ,fig4 #bdh3 ,crania ,p>isi5sis4 ,inf]ior or atta*$ valve4 ,upp] :ite *alk4 ,fig4 #bdi3 ,pet5 ,beav]i4 ,l[] :ite *alk & *alk m>l4 ,fig4 #bej3 ,lima sp9osa4 ,upp] :ite *alk4 ,among ! bivalve mollusca1 no =m m>ks ! ,cretace\s era 9 ,europe1 ,am]ica1 & ,india 9 a m /rik+ mann] ?an ! ext9ct g5us ,inoc]amus 7,catillus ( ,lam42 see ,fig4 #beb71 ! %ells ( :i* are di/+ui%$ by a fibr\s texture1 & are (t5 met ) 9 fragm5ts1 hav+ probably be5 extremely friable4 ,( ! s+ul> family call$ ,rudi/es by ,lam>ck1 h]eaft] to be m5tion$ z extremely *>act]i/ic ( ! *alk ( s\!rn ,europe1 a s+le repres5tative only 7,fig4 #bec7 has be5 discov]$ 9 ! :ite *alk ( ,engl&4 ,fig4 #bea3 ,o/rea vesicul>is4 ,upp] *alk & upp] gre5s&4 ,fig4 #beb3 ,inoc]amus ,lam>ckii4 ,:ite *alk4 ,radiolites ,mortoni1 ,mantell4 ,h\ghton1 ,sussex4 ,:ite *alk4 ,diamet] "o-sev5? nat4 size4 ,fig4 #bec4 ,two individuals depriv$ ( _! upp] valves1 adh]+ toge!r4 ,fig4 #bed4 ,same se5 f above4 ,fig4 #bee4 ,transv]se section ( "p ( ! wall ( ! %ell1 magnifi$ to %[ ! /ructure4 ,fig4 #bef4 ,v]tical section ( ! same4 ,on ! side :]e ! %ell is ?9ne/1 !re is "o ext]nal furr[ & correspond+ int]nal ridge1 a1 b1 figs4 #bee1 #bef2 b !y are usually less prom95t ?an 9 ^! figures4 ,! upp] or op]cul> valve is want+4 ,! g5]al abs5ce ( univalve mollusca 9 ! :ite *alk is v m>k$4 ,( bryozoa !re is an abundance1 su* z ,es*>a & ,es*>9a 7,figs4 #beg1 #beh74 ,^! & o!r organic bodies1 especially sponges1 su* z ,v5triculites 7,fig4 #bch71 are disp]s$ indiff]5tly ?r\gh ! s(t *alk & h>d fl9t1 & "s ( ! fl9ty nodules owe _! irregul> =ms to inclos$ sponges1 su* z ,fig4 #bei1 a1 :]e ! holl[s 9 ! ext]ior are caus$ by ! bran*es ( a sponge 7,fig4 #bei1 b71 se5 on break+ op5 ! fl9t4 ,fig4 #beg3 ,es*>a di/i*a4 ,:ite *alk4 ,fig4 #beh3 ,es*>9a oceani4 ,:ite *alk4 ,fig4 #bei3 ,a bran*+ sponge 9 a fl9t1 f ! :ite *alk4 ,! rema9s ( fi%es ( ! ,upp] ,cretace\s =mations consi/ *iefly ( tee? belong+ to ! %>k family4 ,"s ( ! g5]a are common to ! ,t]ti>y =mations1 & "s are di/9ct4 ,to ! latt] belongs ! g5us ,pty*odus 7,fig4 #bfj71 :i* is alli$ to ! liv+ ,port ,jackson %>k1 ,ce/racion ,phillippi1 ! ant]ior tee? ( :i* 7see ,fig4 #bfa1 a7 are %>p & cutt+1 :ile ! po/]ior or palatal tee? 7b7 are flat 7,fig4 #bfj74 ,b we meet ) no bones ( l&-animals1 nor any t]re/rial or fluviatile %ells1 nor any plants1 except sea-we$s1 & "h & !re a piece ( drift-wood4 ,all ! appe>ances concur 9 lead+ u to conclude t ! :ite *alk 0 ! product ( an op5 sea ( consid]able dep?4 ,fig4 #bfj3 ,palatal too? ( ,pty*odus decurr5s4 ,l[] :ite *alk4 ,! exi/5ce ( turtles & ovip>\s saurians1 & ( a ,pt]odactyl or w+$ liz>d1 f\nd 9 ! :ite *alk ( ,maid/one1 implies1 no d\bt1 "s neighb\r+ l&2 b a few small islets 9 mid-ocean1 l ,asc5sion1 =m]ly s mu* frequ5t$ by migratory droves ( turtle1 might p]haps h af=d$ ! requir$ retreat :]e ^! creatures laid _! eggs 9 ! s&1 or f :i* ! fly+ species may h be5 bl[n out to sea4 ,( ! vegetation ( su* isl&s we h sc>cely any indication1 b x consi/$ p>tly ( cycadace\s plants2 = a fragm5t ( "o ( ^! 0 f\nd by ,capta9 ,ibbetson 9 ! ,*alk ,m>l ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 & is ref]r$ by ,a4 ,brongni>t to ,cla?r>ia ,lyellii1 ,mantell1 a species common to ! antec$5t ,weald5 p]iod4 ,! fossil plants1 h[ev]1 ( b$s correspond+ 9 age to ! :ite *alk at ,aix-la-,*apelle1 pres5tly to be describ$1 l ! s&y b$s ( ,saxony1 be=e allud$ to 7p4 #bic71 af=d su* evid5ce ( l& z to prove h[ vague mu/ be any ef=ts ( ours to re/ore ! geography ( t p]iod4 ,fig4 #bfa3 ,ce/racion ,phillipi2 rec5t4 ,! ,pt]odactyl ( ! ,k5ti% *alk1 above allud$ to1 0 ( gigantic dim5sions1 measur+ #af feet #f in*es f tip to tip ( its out/ret*$ w+s4 ,"s ( its elongat$ bones 7 at fir/ mi/ak5 by able anatomi/s = ^? ( birds2 ( :i* class no osse\s rema9s h z yet be5 d]iv$ f ! :ite *alk1 al?\gh !y h be5 f\nd 7z w be se5 on page #bii7 9 ! ,*loritic s&4 ,! collector ( fossils f ! :ite *alk 0 =m]ly puzzl$ by meet+ ) c]ta9 bodies :i* !y call l>*-cones1 :i* 7 aft]w>ds recognis$ by ,dr4 ,buckl& to be ! excrem5t ( fi% 7see ,fig4 #bfb74 ,!y are compos$ 9 great "p ( phosphate ( lime4 ,fig4 #bfb3 ,coprolites ( fi%1 f ! *alk4 ,fig4 #bfc3 ,baculites anceps4 ,l[] *alk4 ,fig4 #bfd3 ,ammonites ,rhotomag5sis4 ,*alk m>l4 ,l[] ,:ite ,*alk4--,! ,l[] ,:ite ,*alk1 :i* is sev]al hundr$ feet ?ick1 )\t fl9ts1 has yield$ #be species ( ,ammonites1 ( :i* half are peculi> to x4 ,! g5]a ,baculite1 ,hamite1 ,scaphite1 ,turrilite1 ,nautilus1 ,belemnite1 & ,belemnitella1 are also repres5t$4 ,*alk ,m>l4--,! l[] *alk )\t fl9ts passes gradually d[nw>d1 9 ! s\? ( ,engl&1 into an argillace\s lime/one1 8! *alk m>l10 already allud$ to4 ,x conta9s #cb species ( ,ammonites1 sev5 ( :i* are peculi> to x1 :ile elev5 pass up into ! ov]ly+ l[] :ite *alk4 ,a4 ,rhotomag5sis is *>act]i/ic ( ?is =mation4 ,among ! ,briti% cephalopods ( o!r g5]a may be m5tion$ ,scaphites qualis 7,fig4 #bff7 & ,turrilites co/atus 7,fig4 #bfe74 ,*loritic ,s]ies 7or ,upp] ,gre5s&74--,accord+ to ! old nom5clature1 ?is subdivision ( ! *alk 0 call$ ,upp] ,gre5s&1 9 ord] to di/+ui% x f ^? memb]s ( ! ,neocomian or ,l[] ,cretace\s s]ies bel[ ! ,gault to :i* ! "n ( ,gre5s& _h be5 appli$4 ,besides ! reasons be=e giv5 7p4 #bhb7 = ab&on+ ?is nom5clature1 x is objectionable 9 ?is in/ance z lead+ ! un9itiat$ to suppose t ! divisions ?us nam$ ,upp] & ,l[] ,gre5s& are ( co-ord9ate value1 in/ead ( :i* ! *loritic s& is q a subord9ate memb] ( ! ,upp] ,cretace\s gr\p1 & ! t]m ,gre5s& has v commonly be5 us$ = ! :ole ( ! ,l[] ,cretace\s rocks1 :i* are almo/ comp>able 9 importance to ! entire ,upp] ,cretace\s s]ies4 ,! high] portion ( ! ,*loritic s]ies 9 "s di/ricts has be5 call$ *loritic m>l1 f its consi/+ ( a *alky m>l ) *loritic gra9s4 ,9 p>ts ( ,surrey1 :]e calc>e\s matt] is l>gely int]mix$ ) s&1 x =ms a /one call$ malm-rock or fire/one4 ,9 ! cliffs ( ! s\!rn coa/ ( ! ,isle ( ,wight x conta9s b&s ( calc>e\s lime/one ) nodules ( *]t4 ,fig4 #bfe3 ,turrilites co/atus4 ,l[] *alk & *alk m>l4 ,fig4 #bff3 ,scaphites qualis4 ,*loritic m>l & s&1 ,dorset%ire4 ,coprolite ,b$4--,! s-call$ coprolite b$1 f\nd ne> ,f>nham1 9 ,surrey1 & ne> ,cambridge1 conta9s nodules ( phosphate ( lime 9 su* abundance z to be l>gely work$ = ! manufacture ( artificial manure4 ,x belongs to ! upp] "p ( ! ,*loritic s]ies1 & is d\btless *iefly ( animal orig91 & may p]haps be p>tly coprolitic1 d]iv$ f ! excrem5t ( fi% & reptiles4 ,! late ,mr4 ,b>rett discov]$ 9 x1 ne> ,cambridge1 9 #aheh1 ! rema9s ( a bird1 :i* 0 r l>g] ?an ! common pigeon1 & probably ( ! ord] ,natatores1 & :i*1 l mo/ ( ! ,gull tribe1 _h well-develop$ w+s4 ,portions ( ! metac>pus1 metat>sus1 tibia1 & femur h be5 detect$1 & ! det]m9ations ( ,mr4 ,b>rett h be5 confirm$ by ,pr(essor ,ow54 ,?is phosphatic b$ 9 ! suburbs ( ,cambridge mu/ h be5 =m$ p>tly by ! d5udation ( pre-exi/+ rocks1 mo/ly ( ,cretace\s age4 ,! fossil %ells & bones ( animals wa%$ out ( ^! d5ud$ /rata1 n[ =m+ a lay] only a few feet ?ick1 h yield$ a ri* h>ve/ to ! collector4 ,a l>ge ,rudi/ ( ! g5us ,radiolite1 no less ?an two feet 9 height1 may be se5 9 ! ,cambridge ,museum1 obta9$ f ?is b$4 ,! numb] ( reptilian rema9s1 all app>5tly ( ,cretace\s age1 is truly surpris+2 m ?an t5 species ( ,pt]odactyl1 five or six ( ,i*?yosaurus1 "o ( ,pliosaurus1 "o ( ,d9osaurus1 eight ( ,*elonians1 besides o!r =ms1 hav+ be5 recognis$4 ,! *loritic s& is reg>d$ by _m geologi/s z a littoral deposit ( ! ,*alk ,ocean1 & !re=e contemporane\s ) "p ( ! *alk m>l1 & ev51 p]haps1 ) "s "p ( ! :ite *alk4 ,=1 z ! l& w5t on s9k+1 & ! cretace\s sea wid5$ its area1 :ite mud & *loritic s& 7 always =m+ some:]e1 b ! l9e ( sea-%ore 0 p]petually %ift+ its position4 ,h5ce1 ?\gh bo? s& & mud orig9at$ simultane\sly1 ! "o ne> ! l&1 ! o!r f> f x1 ! s&s 9 e locality :]e a %ore became subm]g$ might con/itute ! und]ly+ deposit4 ,fig4 #bfg3 ,o/rea columba4 ,*loritic s&4 ,fig4 #bfh3 ,o/rea c>9ata4 ,*alk m>l & *loritic s&4 ,among ! *>act]i/ic mollusca ( ! *loritic s& may be m5tion$ ,t]ebriro/ra lyra 7,fig4 #bfi71 ,plagio/oma ,hop]i 7,fig4 #bga71 ,pect5 qu9que-co/atus 7,fig4 #bgj71 & ,o/rea columba 7,fig4 #bfg74 ,fig4 #bfi3 ,t]ebriro/ra lyra4 ,*loritic s&4 ,fig4 #bgj3 ,pect5 #e-;co/atus4 ,:ite *alk & *loritic s&4 ,fig4 #bga3 ,plagio/oma ,hop]i4 ,:ite *alk & *loritic s&4 ,! ,cephalopoda are abundant1 among :i* #dj species ( ,ammonites are n[ kn[n1 #aj be+ peculi> to ?is subdivision1 & ! re/ common to ! b$s imm$iately above or bel[4 ,gault4--,! l[e/ memb] ( ! ,upp] ,cretace\s gr\p1 usually ab\t #ajj feet ?ick 9 ! ,s4,e4 ( ,engl&1 is prov9cially t]m$ ,gault4 ,x consi/s ( a d>k blue m>l1 sometimes int]mix$ ) gre5 s&4 ,_m peculi> =ms ( cephalopoda1 su* z ! ,hamite 7,fig4 #bgb71 & ,scaphite1 ) o!r fossils1 *>act]ise ?is =mation1 :i*1 small z is its ?ickness1 c be trac$ by its organic rema9s to di/ant p>ts ( ,europe1 z1 = example1 to ! ,alps4 ,fig4 #bgb3 ,ancyloc]as sp9ig]um4 ,ne> ,folke/one4 ,tw5ty-"o species ( ,briti% ,ammonites are record$ z f\nd 9 ! ,gault1 ( :i* only eight are peculi> to x1 t5 be+ common to ! ov]ly+ ,*loritic s]ies4 ,connection betwe5 ,upp] & ,l[] ,cretace\s ,/rata4--,blackd[n ,b$s4--,! break betwe5 ! ,upp] & ,l[] ,cretace\s =mations w be appreciat$ :5 x is /at$ t1 al?\gh ! ,neocomian conta9s #ca species ( ,ammonite1 & ! ,gault1 z we h se51 #ba1 !re are only ?ree ( ^? common to bo? divisions4 ,nev]!less1 we may expect ! discov]y 9 ,engl&1 & /ill m :5 we ext5d our survey to ! ,cont95t1 ( b$s ( passage int]m$iate betwe5 ! ,upp] & ,l[] ,cretace\s4 ,ev5 n[ ! ,blackd[n b$s 9 ,devon%ire1 :i* re/ imm$iately on ,triassic /rata1 & :i* evid5tly belong to "s "p ( ! ,cretace\s s]ies1 h be5 ref]r$ by "s geologi/s to ! ,upp] gr\p1 by o!rs to ! ,l[] or ,neocomian4 ,!y resemble ! ,folke/one b$s ( ! latt] s]ies 9 m9]al "*1 & #ei out ( #aef ( _! fossil mollusca are common to !m2 b !y h also #af species common to ! ,gault1 & #bj to ! ov]ly+ ,*loritic s]ies2 & :at is v important1 out ( sev5 ,ammonites six are f\nd also 9 ! ,gault & ,*loritic s]ies1 only "o be+ peculi> to ! ,blackd[n b$s4 ,pr(essor ,ramsay has rem>k$ t !re is a /ratigraphical break2 = 9 ,k5t1 ,surrey1 & ,sussex1 at ^? few po9ts :]e !re are exposures ( junctions ( ! ,gault & ,neocomian1 ! surface ( ! latt] has be5 mu* erod$ or d5ud$1 :ile to ! we/w>d ( ! great *alk esc>pm5t ! uncon=mability ( ! two gr\ps is equally /rik+4 ,at ,blackd[n ?is uncon=mability is /ill m m>k$1 = ?\gh di/ant only #ajj miles f ,k5t & ,surrey1 no =mation int]v5es betwe5 ^! b$s & ! ,trias2 all int]m$iate gr\ps1 su* z ! ,l[] ,neocomian & ,oolite1 hav+ ei!r n be5 deposit$ or de/roy$ by d5udation4 ,flora ( ! ,upp] ,cretace\s ,p]iod4--,z ! ,upp] ,cretace\s rocks ( ,europe are1 = ! mo/ "p1 ( purely m>9e orig91 & =m$ 9 deep wat] usually f> f ! ne>e/ %ore1 l&-plants ( ?is p]iod1 z we might naturally h anticipat$1 are v r>ely met )4 ,9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,aix-la-,*apelle1 h[ev]1 an important exception occurs1 = !re c]ta9 :ite s&s & lam9at$ clays1 #djj feet 9 ?ickness1 conta9 ! rema9s ( t]re/rial plants 9 a beautiful /ate ( pres]vation4 ,^! b$s are ! equival5ts ( ! :ite *alk & *alk m>l ( ,engl&1 or ,s5oni5 ( d',orbigny1 al?\gh ! :ite silice\s s&s ( ! l[] b$s1 & ! gre5 gra9s 9 ! upp] "p ( ! =mation1 cause x to diff] 9 m9]al "* f our :ite *alk4 ,b$s ( f9e clay1 ) fossil plants1 & ) seams ( lignite1 & ev5 p]fect coal1 are int]calat$4 ,float+ wood1 conta9+ p]=at+ %ells1 su* z ,pholas & ,ga/ro*o5a1 occur4 ,!re are likewise a few b$s ( a yell[i%-br[n lime/one1 ) m>9e %ells1 :i* enable u to prove t ! l[e/ & highe/ plant-b$s belong to "o gr\p4 ,among ^! %ells are ,pect5 quadrico/atus1 & sev]al o!rs :i* are common to ! upp] & l[] "p ( ! s]ies1 & ,trigonia limbata1 ,d',orbigny1 a %ell ( ! :ite *alk4 ,on ! :ole1 ! organic rema9s & ! geological position ( ! /rata prove di/9ctly t 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,aix-la-,*apelle a gulf ( ! anci5t ,cretace\s sea 0 b\nd$ by l& compos$ ( ,devonian rocks4 ,^! rocks consi/$ ( qu>tzose & s*i/ose b$s1 ! fir/ ( :i* suppli$ :ite s& & ! o!r argillace\s mud to a riv] :i* ent]$ ! sea at ?is po9t1 c>ry+ d[n 9 its turbid wat]s mu* drift-wood & ! leaves ( plants4 ,occasionally1 :5 ! =ce ( ! riv] abat$1 m>9e %ells ( ! g5]a ,trigonia1 ,turritella1 ,pect51 etc41 e/abli%$ !mselves 9 ! same area1 & plants alli$ to ,zo/]a & ,fucus grew on ! bottom4 ,! fossil plants ( ?is memb] ( ! upp] *alk at ,aix h be5 dilig5tly collect$ & /udi$ by ,dr4 ,debey1 & z !y af=d ! only example yet kn[n ( a t]re/rial flora old] ?an ! ,eoc5e1 9 :i* ! great divisions ( ! vegetable k+dom are repres5t$ 9 ne>ly ! same proportions z 9 our own times1 !y des]ve p>ticul> att5tion4 ,dr4 ,debey e/imates ! numb] ( species z am\nt+ to m ?an two hundr$1 ( :i* sixty-sev5 are cryptogam\s1 *iefly f]ns1 tw5ty species ( :i* c be well det]m9$1 mo/ ( !m be+ 9 fructification4 ,! sc>s on ! b>k ( "o or two are suppos$ to indicate tree-f]ns4 ,( ?irte5 g5]a ?ree are /ill exi/+1 namely1 ,glei*5ia1 n[ inhabit+ ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 & ,new ,holl&2 ,lygodium1 n[ spread ext5sively ?r\gh tropical regions1 b hav+ "s species :i* live 9 ,japan & ,nor? ,am]ica2 & ,aspl5ium1 a cosmopolite =m4 ,among ! phnogam\s plants1 ! ,conif]s are abundant1 ! mo/ common belong+ to a g5us call$ ,cycadopt]is by ,debey1 & h>dly sep>able f ,sequoia 7or ,well+tonia71 ( :i* bo? ! cones & bran*es are pres]v$4 ,:5 ,i visit$ ,aix1 ,i f\nd ! silicifi$ wood ( ?is plant v pl5tifully disp]s$ ?r\gh ! :ite s&s 9 ! pits ne> t city4 ,9 "o silicifi$ trunk #bjj r+s ( annual gr[? c\ld be c\nt$4 ,species ( ,arauc>ia l ^? ( ,au/ralia are also f\nd4 ,cycads are extremely r>e1 & ( ,monocotyl$ons !re are b few4 ,no palms h be5 recognis$ ) c]ta9ty1 b ! g5us ,p&anus1 or screw p9e1 has be5 di/9ctly made out4 ,! numb] ( ! ,dicotyl$on\s ,angiosp]ms is ! mo/ /rik+ feature 9 s anci5t a flora4#c ,among !m we f9d ! famili> =ms ( ! ,oak1 ,fig1 & ,walnut 7,qu]cus1 ,ficus1 & ,juglans71 ( ! la/ bo? ! nuts & leaves2 also sev]al g5]a ( ! ,myrtace4 ,b ! pr$om9ant ord] is ! ,proteace1 ( :i* !re are betwe5 sixty & sev5ty suppos$ species1 _m ( ext9ct g5]a1 b "s ref]r$ to ! foll[+ liv+ =ms--,dry&ra1 ,grevillea1 ,hakea1 ,banksia1 ,p]soonia--all n[ belong+ to ,au/ralia1 & ,leucosp]mum1 species ( :i* =m small bu%es at ! ,cape4 ,brongni>t4 ,l9dley4 ,cryptogamic4 #a4 ,cryptogam\s amphig5s1 or cellul> cryptogamic4 ,?allog5s4 ,li*5s1 sea-we$s1 fungi4 #b4 ,cryptogam\s acrog5s4 ,acrog5s4 ,mosses1 equisetums1 f]ns1 lycopodiums1--,lepidod5dra4 ,phn]ogamic4 #c4 ,dicotyl$on\s gymnosp]ms4 ,gymnog5s4 ,conif]s & ,cycads4 #d4 ,dicot4 angiosp]ms4 ,exog5s4 ,composit1 legum9os1 crucif]1 heal?s1 etc4 ,all native ,european trees except conif]s4 #e4 ,monocotyl$ons4 ,endog5s4 ,palms1 lilies1 aloes1 ru%es1 grasses1 etc4 ,! epid]mis ( ! leaves ( _m ( ^! ,aix plants1 especially ( ! ,proteace1 is s p]fectly pres]v$ 9 an envelope ( f9e clay1 t "u ! microscope ! /omata1 or polygonal cellules1 c be detect$1 & _! peculi> arrangem5t is id5tical ) t kn[n to *>act]ise "s liv+ ,proteace 7,grevillea1 = example74 ,al?\gh ?is peculi>ity ( ! /ructure ( /omata is also f\nd 9 plants ( widely di/ant ord]s1 x is1 on ! :ole1 b r>ely met )1 & be+ ?us obs]v$ to *>act]ise a foliage previ\sly suspect$ to be proteace\s1 x adds to ! probability t ! botanical evid5ce _h be5 correctly int]pret$4 ,an occasional admixture at ,aix-la-,*apelle ( ,fucoids & ,zo/]ites atte/s1 l ! %ells1 ! pres5ce ( salt-wat]4 ,( insects1 ,dr4 ,debey has obta9$ ab\t t5 species ( ! families ,curculionid & ,c>abid4 ,! resemblance ( ! flora ( ,aix-la-,*apelle to ! t]ti>y & liv+ floras 9 ! proportional numb] ( dicotyl$on\s angiosp]ms z comp>$ to ! gymnog5s1 is a subject ( no small !oretical int]e/1 because we c n[ affirm t ^! ,aix plants fl\ri%$ be=e ! ri* reptilian fauna ( ! second>y rocks _h ceas$ to exi/4 ,! ,i*?yosaurus1 ,pt]odactyl1 & ,mosasaurus 7 ( coeval date ) ! oak1 ! walnut1 & ! fig4 ,speculations h (t5 be5 haz>d$ respect+ a connection betwe5 ! r>ity ( ,exog5s 9 ! old] rocks & a peculi> /ate ( ! atmosph]e4 ,a d5s] air1 x 0 sugge/$1 _h 9 e>li] times be5 alike adv]se to ! well-be+ ( ! high] ord] ( fl[]+ plants1 & ( ! quick-brea?+ animals1 su* z mammalia & birds1 :ile x 0 fav\rable to a cryptogamic & gymnosp]m\s flora1 & to a pr$om9ance ( reptile life4 ,b we n[ le>n t !re is no incompatibility 9 ! co-exi/5ce ( a vegetation l t ( ! pres5t globe1 & "s ( ! mo/ rem>kable =ms ( ! ext9ct reptiles ( ! age ( gymnosp]ms4 ,if ! passage seem at pres5t to be some:at sudd5 f ! flora ( ! ,l[] or ,neocomian to t ( ! ,upp] ,cretace\s p]iod1 ! abruptness ( ! *ange w probably disappe> :5 we are bett] acqua9t$ ) ! fossil vegetation ( ! upp]mo/ b$s ( ! ,neocomian & t ( ! l[e/ /rata ( ! ,gault or true ,cretace\s s]ies4 ,hippurite lime/one4--,diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,*alk ( ! ,nor? & ,s\? ( ,europe4--,by ! aid ( ! ?ree te/s1 sup]position1 m9]al "*1 & fossils1 ! geologi/ has be5 enabl$ to ref] to ! same ,cretace\s p]iod c]ta9 rocks 9 ! nor? & s\? ( ,europe1 :i* diff] greatly bo? 9 _! fossil cont5ts & 9 _! m9]al composition & /ructure4 ,fig4 #bgc3 ,map4 ,if we attempt to trace ! cretace\s deposits f ,engl& & ,france to ! c\ntries bord]+ ! ,m$it]ranean1 we p]ceive1 9 ! fir/ place1 t 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,london & ,p>is !y =m "o great cont9u\s mass1 ! ,/raits ( ,dov] be+ a trifl+ int]ruption1 a m]e valley ) *alk cliffs on bo? sides4 ,we !n obs]ve t ! ma9 body ( ! *alk :i* surr\nds ,p>is /ret*es f ,t\rs to ne> ,poiti]s 7see ,fig4 #bgc1 9 :i* ! %ad$ "p repres5ts *alk74 ,betwe5 ,poiti]s & ,la ,ro*elle1 ! space m>k$ ,a on ! map sep>ates two regions ( *alk4 ,?is space is occupi$ by ! ,oolite & c]ta9 o!r =mations old] ?an ! ,*alk & ,neocomian1 & has be5 suppos$ by ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont to h =m$ an isl& 9 ! ,cretace\s sea4 ,s\? ( ?is space we aga9 meet ) rocks :i* we at once recognise to be cretace\s1 p>tly f ! *alky matrix & p>tly f ! fossils be+ v simil> to ^? ( ! :ite *alk ( ! nor?3 especially c]ta9 species ( ! g5]a ,spatangus1 ,anan*ytes1 ,cid>ites1 ,nucula1 ,o/rea1 ,grypha 7,exogyra71 ,pect51 ,plagio/oma 7,lima71 ,trigonia1 ,catillus 7,inoc]amus71 & ,t]ebratula4#d ,b ,ammonites1 z ,m4 d',ar*iac obs]ves1 ( :i* s _m species are met ) 9 ! *alk ( ! nor? ( ,france1 are sc>cely ev] f\nd 9 ! s\!rn region2 :ile ! g5]a ,hamite1 ,turrilite1 & ,scaphite1 & p]haps ,belemnite1 are entirely want+4 ,fig4 #bgd3 ,radiolites4 ,:ite *alk ( ,france4 ,fig4 #bge3 ,radiolites foliaceus4 ,:ite *alk ( ,france4 ,fig4 #bgf3 ,hippurites organisans4 ,upp] *alk3--*alk m>l ( ,pyr5ees8 ,fig4 #bgf3 ,hippurites organisans4 ,upp] *alk3--*alk m>l ( ,pyr5ees8#e ,on ! o!r h&1 c]ta9 =ms are common 9 ! s\? :i* are r>e or :olly unkn[n 9 ! nor? ( ,france4 ,among ^! may be m5tion$ _m ,hippurites1 ,sphrulites1 & o!r memb]s ( t great family ( mollusca call$ ,rudi/es by ,lam>ck1 to :i* no?+ analog\s has be5 discov]$ 9 ! liv+ creation1 b :i* is q *>act]i/ic ( rocks ( ! ,cretace\s era 9 ! s\? ( ,france1 ,spa91 ,sicily1 ,greece1 & o!r c\ntries bord]+ ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! species call$ ,hippurites organisans 7,fig4 #bgf7 is m abundant ?an any o!r 9 ! s\? ( ,europe2 & ! geologi/ %\ld make himself well acqua9t$ ) ! ca/ ( ! int]ior1 d1 :i* is (t5 ! only "p pres]v$ 9 _m compact m>bles ( ! ,upp] ,cretace\s p]iod4 ,! flut+s on ! int]ior ( ! ,hippurite1 :i* are repres5t$ on ! ca/ by smoo?1 r\nd$ longitud9al ribs1 & 9 "s individuals atta9 a great size & l5g?1 are :olly unlike ! m>k+s on ! ext]ior ( ! %ell4 ,cretace\s ,rocks 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,if we pass to ! ,am]ican cont95t1 we f9d 9 ! ,/ate ( ,new ,j]sey a s]ies ( s&y & argillace\s b$s :olly unlike 9 m9]al "* to our ,upp] ,cretace\s sy/em2 :i* we c1 nev]!less1 recognise z ref]able1 palontologically1 to ! same division4 ,t !y 7 ab\t ! same age g5]ally z ! ,european *alk & ,neocomian1 0 ! conclusion to :i* ,dr4 ,morton & ,mr4 ,conrad came aft] _! inve/igation ( ! fossils 9 #ahcd4 ,! /rata consi/ *iefly ( gre5 s& & gre5 m>l1 ) an ov]ly+ corall9e lime/one ( a pale yell[ col\r1 & ! fossils1 on ! :ole1 agree mo/ ne>ly ) ^? ( ! ,upp] ,european s]ies1 f ! ,mae/ri*t b$s to ! ,gault inclusive4 ,i collect$ sixty %ells f ! ,new ,j]sey deposits 9 #ahda1 five ( :i* 7 id5tical ) ,european species--,o/rea l>va1 ,o4 vesicul>is1 ,grypha co/ata1 ,pect5 qu9que-co/atus1 ,belemnitella mucronata4 ,z "s ( ^! h ! greate/ v]tical range 9 ,europe1 !y might be expect$ m ?an any o!rs to recur 9 di/ant p>ts ( ! globe4 ,ev5 :]e ! species 7 diff]5t1 ! g5]ic =ms1 su* z ! ,baculite & c]ta9 sections ( ,ammonites1 z also ! ,inoc]amus 7see ,fig4 #beb7 & o!r bivalves1 h a decid$ly cretace\s aspect4 ,fifte5 out ( ! sixty %ells above allud$ to 7 reg>d$ by ,pr(essor ,=bes z good geographical repres5tatives ( well-kn[n cretace\s fossils ( ,europe4 ,! correspond5ce1 !re=e1 is n small1 :5 we reflect t ! "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates :]e ^! /rata occur is betwe5 #cjjj & #djjj miles di/ant f ! *alk ( ,c5tral & ,nor!rn ,europe1 & t !re is a diff]5ce ( t5 degrees 9 ! latitude ( ! places comp>$ on opposite sides ( ! ,atlantic4 ,fi% ( ! g5]a ,lamna1 ,galeus1 & ,c>*>odon are common to ,new ,j]sey & ! ,european cretace\s rocks4 ,s also is ! g5us ,mosasaurus among reptiles4 ,x appe>s f ! lab\rs ( ,dr4 ,newb]ry & o!rs1 t ! ,cretace\s /rata ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ea/ & we/ ( ! ,appala*ians are *>act]is$ by a flora decid$ly analog\s to t ( ,aix-la-,*apelle above-m5tion$1 & !re=e hav+ consid]able resemblance to ! vegetation ( ! ,t]ti>y & ,rec5t ,p]iods4 #a ,= p>ticul>s ( /ructure see p4 #cah4 #b ,geol4 ,trans41 #a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 iv1 p4 #dac4 #c ,9 ?is & subsequ5t rem>ks on fossil plants ,i %all (t5 use ,dr4 ,l9dley's t]ms1 z mo/ famili> 9 ?is c\ntry2 b z ^? ( ,m4 ,a4 ,brongni>t are mu* cit$1 x may be useful to geologi/s to give a table expla9+ ! correspond+ names ( gr\ps s mu* spok5 ( 9 palontology4 #d ,d',ar*iac1 ,sur la =m4 ,crtace du ,s4-,o4 de la ,france ,mm4 de la ,soc4 ,gol4 de ,france1 tome ii4 #e ,d',orbigny's ,palontologie franais1 pl4 #ecc4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,l[] ,,cretace\s ,,or ,,neocomian ,,=mation4 ,classification ( m>9e & fre%-wat] ,/rata4 -- ,upp] ,neocomian4 -- ,folke/one & ,hy! ,b$s4 -- ,a!rfield ,clay4 -- ,simil>ity ( ,conditions caus+ ,reappe>ance ( ,species aft] %ort ,int]vals4 -- ,upp] ,speeton ,clay4 -- ,middle ,neocomian4 -- ,tealby ,s]ies4 -- ,middle ,speeton ,clay4 -- ,l[] ,neocomian4 -- ,l[] ,speeton ,clay4 -- ,weald5 ,=mation4 -- ,fre%-wat] ,"* ( ! ,weald54 -- ,weald ,clay4 -- ,ha/+s ,s&s4 -- ,punfield ,b$s ( ,purbeck1 ,dorset%ire4 -- ,fossil ,%ells & ,fi% ( ! ,weald54 -- ,area ( ! ,weald54 -- ,flora ( ! ,weald54 ,we n[ come to ! ,l[] ,cretace\s ,=mation :i* 0 =m]ly call$ ,l[] ,gre5s&1 & = :i* x w be useful = reasons be=e expla9$ 7p4 #bhb7 to use ! t]m 8,neocomian40 ,,l[] ,,cretace\s ,,or ,,neocomian ,,gr\p4 ,m>9e ,fre%-wat] ,upp] ,neocomian--,gre5s& ( ,folke/one1 ,s&gate1 & ,hy!1 ,a!rfield clay1 upp] "p ( ,speeton clay4 ,middle ,neocomian--,punfield ,m>9e b$1 ,tealby b$s1 middle "p ( ,speeton clay4 ,l[] ,neocomian--,l[] "p ( ,speeton clay4 ,"p ( ,weald5 b$s ( ,k5t1 ,surrey1 ,sussex1 ,hants1 & ,dorset4 ,9 ,we/]n ,france1 ! ,alps1 ! ,c>pa?ians1 ,nor!rn ,italy1 & ! ,ap5n9es1 an ext5sive s]ies ( rocks has be5 describ$ by ,cont95tal geologi/s "u ! "n ( ,ti?onian4 ,^! b$s1 :i* are )\t any m>9e equival5t 9 ?is c\ntry1 appe> completely to bridge ov] ! int]val betwe5 ! ,neocomian & ! ,oolites4 ,!y may1 p]haps1 z sugge/$ by ,mr4 ,judd1 be ( ! same age z "p ( ! ,weald5 s]ies4 ,,upp] ,,neocomian4 ,folk/one & ,hy! ,b$s4--,! s&s :i* crop out b5ea? ! ,gault 9 ,wilt%ire1 ,surrey1 & ,sussex are sometimes 9 ! upp]mo/ "p pure :ite1 at o!rs ( a yell[ & f]rug9\s col\r1 & "s ( ! b$s conta9 mu* gre5 matt]4 ,at ,folke/one !y conta9 lay]s ( calc>e\s matt] & *]t1 & at ,hy!1 9 ! neighb\rhood1 z also at ,maid/one & o!r p>ts ( ,k5t1 ! lime/one call$ ,k5ti% ,rag is int]calat$4 ,?is some:at clayey & calc>e\s /one =ms /rata two feet ?ick1 alt]nat+ ) qu>tzose s&4 ,! total ?ickness ( ^! ,folke/one & ,hy! b$s is less ?an #cjj feet1 & !y are se5 to re/ imm$iately on a grey clay1 to :i* we %all pres5tly allude z ! ,a!rfield clay4 ,among ! fossils ( ! ,folke/one & ,hy! b$s we may m5tion ,nautilus plicatus 7,fig4 #bgg71 ,ancyloc]as 7,scaphites7 gigas 7,fig4 #bgh71 :i* has be5 aptly describ$ z an ,ammonite m or less uncoil$2 ,trigonia caudata 7,fig4 #bhj71 ,g]villia anceps 7,fig4 #bgi71 a bivalve g5us alli$ to ,avicula1 & ,t]ebratula sella 7,fig4 #bha74 ,9 f]rug9\s b$s ( ! same age 9 ,wilt%ire is f\nd a rem>kable %ell call$ ,dic]as ,lonsdalii 7,fig4 #bhb71 :i* ab\nds 9 ! ,upp] & ,middle ,neocomian ( ,s\!rn ,europe4 ,?is g5us is closely alli$ to ,*ama1 & ! ca/ ( ! int]ior has be5 comp>$ to ! horns ( a goat4 ,fig4 #bgg3 ,nautilus licatus4 ,fig4 #bgh3 ,ancyloc]as gigas4 ,fig4 #bgi3 ,g]villia anceps4 ,fig4 #bhj3 ,trigonia caudata4 ,a!rfield ,clay4--,we m5tion$ be=e t ! ,folk/one & ,hy! s]ies re/ on a grey clay4 ,?is clay is only ( slight ?ickness 9 ,k5t & ,surrey1 b acquires great dim5sions at ,a!rfield1 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,! diff]5ce1 inde$1 9 m9]al "* & ?ickness ( ! ,upp] ,neocomian =mation ne> ,folke/one1 & ! correspond+ b$s 9 ! s\? ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 ab\t #ajj miles di/ant1 is truly rem>kable4 ,9 ! latt] place we f9d no lime/one answ]+ to ! ,k5ti% ,rag1 & ! entire ?ickness f ! bottom ( ! ,a!rfield clay to ! top ( ! ,neocomian1 in/ead ( be+ less ?an #cjj feet z 9 ,k5t1 is giv5 by ! late ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes z #hdc feet1 :i* he divides into sixty-?ree /rata1 =m+ ?ree gr\ps4 ,! upp]mo/ ( ^! consi/s ( f]rug9\s s&s1 ! second ( s&s & clay1 & ! ?ird or l[e/ ( a br[n clay1 ab\nd+ 9 fossils4 ,fig4 #bha3 ,t]ebratula sella4 ,fig4 #bhb3 ,dic]as ,lonsdalii4 a4 ,! bivavle %ell1 b4 ,ca/ ( "o ( ! valves enl>g$4 ,pebbles ( qu>tzose s&/one1 jasp]1 & fl9ty slate1 toge!r ) gra9s ( *lorite & mica1 &1 z ,mr4 ,godw9-,au/5 has %[n1 fragm5ts & wat]-worn fossils ( ! oolitic rocks1 speak pla9ly ( ! nature ( ! pre-exi/+ =mations1 by ! we>+ d[n ( :i* ! ,neocomian b$s 7 =m$4 ,! l&1 consi/+ ( su* rocks1 0 d\btless subm]g$ be=e ! orig9 ( ! :ite *alk1 a deposit :i* 0 =m$ 9 a m op5 sea1 & 9 cle>] wat]s4 ,fig4 #bhc3 ,p]na mulleti4 ,among ! %ells ( ! ,a!rfield clay ! bigge/ & mo/ abundant %ell is ! l>ge ,p]na ,mulleti1 ( :i* a r$uc$ figure is giv5 9 ,fig4 #bhc4 ,simil>ity ( ,conditions caus+ ,reappe>ance ( ,species4--,"s species ( mollusca & o!r fossils range ?r\gh ! :ole s]ies1 :ile o!rs are conf9$ to p>ticul> subdivisions1 & ,=bes laid d[n a law :i* has s9ce be5 f\nd ( v g5]al application 9 reg>d to e/imat+ ! *ronological relations ( consecutive /rata4 ,:5ev] simil> conditions1 he says1 are repeat$1 ! same species reappe>1 provid$ too great a lapse ( "t has n int]v5$2 :]eas if ! l5g? ( ! int]val has be5 geologically great1 ! same g5]a w reappe> repres5t$ by di/9ct species4 ,*anges ( dep?1 or ( ! m9]al nature ( ! sea-bottom1 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( lime or ( p]oxide ( iron1 ! occurr5ce ( a muddy1 or a s&y1 or a gravelly bottom1 are m>k$ by ! bani%m5t ( c]ta9 species & ! pr$om9ance ( o!rs4 ,b ^! diff]5ces ( conditions be+ m9]al1 *emical1 & local 9 _! nature1 h no necess>y connection ) ! ext9ction1 ?r\gh\t a l>ge area1 ( c]ta9 animals or plants4 ,:5 ! =ms prop] to loose s& or s(t clay1 or to p]fectly cle> wat]1 or to a sea ( mod]ate or great dep?1 recur ) all ! same species1 we may inf] t ! int]val ( "t has be51 geologically speak+1 small1 h[ev] d5se ! mass ( matt] accumulat$4 ,b if1 ! g5]a rema9+ ! same1 ! species are *ang$1 we h ent]$ ^u a new p]iod2 & no simil>ity ( climate1 or ( geographical & local conditions1 c !n recall ! old species :i* a long s]ies ( de/ructive causes 9 ! animate & inanimate _w has gradually annihilat$4 ,fig4 #bhd3 ,ammonites ,de%ayesii4 ,speeton ,clay1 ,upp] ,division4--,on ! coa/1 b5ea? ! :ite *alk ( ,flambor\gh ,head1 9 ,york%ire1 an argillace\s =mation crops out1 call$ ! ,speeton clay1 sev]al hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness1 ! palontological relations ( :i* h be5 ably work$ out by ,mr4 ,john ,w4 ,judd1#a & he has %[n t x is sep>able into ?ree divisions1 ! upp]mo/ ( :i*1 #aej feet ?ick1 & conta9+ #hg species ( mollusca1 decid$ly belongs to ! ,a!rfield clay & associat$ /rata ( ,hy! & ,folke/one1 already describ$4 ,x is *>act]is$ by ! ,p]na ,mulleti 7,fig4 #bhc7 & ,t]ebratula sella 7,fig4 #bha71 & by ,ammonites ,de%ayesii 7,fig4 #bhd71 a well-kn[n ,hy! fossil4 ,f9e skeletons ( reptiles ( ! g5]a ,pliosaurus & ,teleosaurus h be5 obta9$ f ?is clay4 ,at ! base ( ?is upp] division ( ! ,speeton clay !re occurs a lay] ( l>ge ,sept>ia1 =m]ly work$ = ! manufacture ( cem5t4 ,?is b$ is cr[d$ ) fossils1 especially ,ammonites1 "o species ( :i*1 ?ree feet 9 diamet]1 0 obs]v$ by ,mr4 ,judd4 ,,middle ,,neocomian4 ,tealby ,s]ies4--,at ,tealby1 a village 9 ! ,l9coln%ire ,wolds1 !re crop out b5ea? ! :ite *alk "s non-fossilif]\s f]rug9\s s&s ab\t tw5ty-feet ?ick1 b5ea? :i* are b$s ( clay & lime/one1 ab\t fifty feet ?ick1 ) an int]e/+ suite ( fossils1 among :i* are ,pect5 c9ctus 7,fig4 #bhe71 f #i to #ab in*es 9 diamet]1 ,ancyloc]as ,duvallei 7,fig4 #bhf71 & "s =ty o!r %ells1 _m ( !m common to ! ,middle ,speeton clay1 ab\t to be m5tion$4 ,mr4 ,judd rem>ks t z ,ammonites clypei=mis & ,t]ebratula hippopus *>act]ise ! ,middle ,neocomian ( ! ,cont95t1 x is to ?is /age t ! ,tealby s]ies conta9+ ! same fossils may be assign$4#b ,fig4 #bhe3 ,pect5 c9ctus4 ,fig4 #bhf3 ,ancyloc]as 7,crioc]as7 ,duvallei4 ,! middle division ( ! ,speeton clay1 occurr+ at ,speeton bel[ ! cem5t-b$1 be=e allud$ to1 is #aej feet ?ick1 & conta9s ab\t #ci species ( mollusca1 half ( :i* are common to ! ov]ly+ clay4 ,among ! peculi> %ells1 ,pect5 c9ctus 7,fig4 #bhe7 & ,ancyloc]as 7,crioc]as7 ,duvallei 7,fig4 #bhf7 occur4 ,,l[] ,,neocomian4 ,9 ! l[] division ( ! ,speeton clay1 #bjj feet ?ick1 #df species ( mollusca h be5 f\nd1 & ?ree divisions1 ea* *>act]is$ by its peculi> ammonite1 h be5 notic$ by ,mr4 ,judd4 ,! c5tral zone is m>k$ by ,ammonites ,noricus 7see ,fig4 #bhg74 ,on ! ,cont95t ^! b$s are well-kn[n by _! correspond+ fossils1 ! ,hils clay & conglom]ate ( ! nor? ( ,g]many agree+ ) ! ,middle & ,l[] ,speeton1 ! latt] ( :i*1 ) ! same m9]al *>act]s & fossils z 9 ,york%ire1 is also f\nd 9 ! little isl& ( ,heligol&4 ,yell[ lime/one1 :i* ,i h myself se5 ne> ,neu*atel1 9 ,switz]l&1 repres5ts ! ,l[] ,neocomian at ,speeton4 ,fig4 #bhg3 ,ammonites ,noricus4 ,,weald5 ,,=mation4 ,b5ea? ! ,a!rfield clay or ,upp] ,neocomian ( ! ,s4,e4 ( ,engl&1 a fre%-wat] =mation is f\nd1 call$ ! ,weald51 :i*1 al?\gh x occupies a small horizontal area 9 ,europe1 z comp>$ to ! ,:ite ,*alk & ! m>9e ,neocomian b$s1 is nev]!less ( great geological int]e/1 s9ce ! imb$d$ rema9s give u "s insight into ! nature ( ! t]re/rial fauna & flora ( ! ,l[] ,cretace\s epo*4 ,! "n ( ,weald5 0 giv5 to ?is gr\p because x 0 fir/ /udi$ 9 p>ts ( ,k5t1 ,surrey1 & ,sussex1 call$ ! ,weald2 & we are indebt$ to ,dr4 ,mantell = hav+ %[n1 9 #ahbb1 9 8 8,geology ( ,sussex10 t ! :ole gr\p 0 ( fluviatile orig94 ,9 pro( ( ?is he call$ att5tion to ! entire abs5ce ( ,ammonites1 ,belemnites1 ,bra*iopoda1 ,e*9od]mata1 ,corals1 & o!r m>9e fossils1 s *>act]i/ic ( ! ,cretace\s rocks above1 & ( ! ,oolitic /rata bel[1 & to ! pres5ce 9 ! ,weald ( ,palud91 ,melani1 ,cyr51 & v>i\s fluviatile %ells1 z well z ! bones ( t]re/rial reptiles & ! trunks & leaves ( l&-plants4 ,! evid5ce ( s unexpect$ a fact z t ( a d5se mass ( purely fre%-wat] orig9 und]ly+ a deep-sea deposit 7a ph5om5on ) :i* we h s9ce become famili>7 0 receiv$1 at fir/1 ) no small d\bt & incr$ulity4 ,b ! relative position ( ! b$s is unequivocal2 ! ,weald ,clay be+ di/9ctly se5 to pass b5ea? ! ,a!rfield ,clay 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,surrey1 ,k5t1 & ,sussex1 & to reappe> 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight at ! base ( ! ,cretace\s s]ies1 be+1 no d\bt1 cont9u\s f> b5ea? ! surface1 z indicat$ by ! dott$ l9es 9 ,fig4 #bhh4 ,!y are also f\nd occupy+ ! same relative position bel[ ! *alk 9 ! p59sula ( ,purbeck1 ,dorset%ire1 :]e1 z we %all see 9 ! sequel1 !y repose on /rata ref]able to ! ,upp] ,oolite4 ,weald ,clay4--,! ,upp] division1 or ,weald ,clay1 is1 9 great "p1 ( fre%-wat] orig91 b 9 its highe/ portion conta9s b$s ( oy/]s & o!r m>9e %ells :i* indicate fluvio-m>9e conditions4 ,! upp]mo/ b$s are n only con=mable1 z ,dr4 ,fitton obs]ves1 to ! inf]ior /rata ( ! ov]ly+ ,neocomian1 b ( simil> m9]al composition4 ,to expla9 ?is1 we may suppose t1 z ! delta ( a great riv] 0 tranquilly subsid+1 s z to all[ ! sea to encroa* ^u ! space previ\sly occupi$ by fre%-wat]1 ! riv] /ill cont9u$ to c>ry d[n ! same s$im5t into ! sea4 ,9 confirmation ( ?is view x may be /at$ t ! rema9s ( ! ,iguanodon ,mantelli1 a gigantic t]re/rial reptile1 v *>act]i/ic ( ! ,weald51 has be5 discov]$ ne> ,maid/one1 9 ! ov]ly+ ,k5ti% ,rag1 or m>9e lime/one ( ! ,upp] ,neocomian4 ,h5ce we may inf] t "s ( ! saurians :i* inhabit$ ! c\ntry ( ! great riv] cont9u$ to live :5 "p ( ! di/rict _h become subm]g$ b5ea? ! sea4 ,?us1 9 our own times1 we may suppose ! bones ( l>ge alligators to be frequ5tly entomb$ 9 rec5t fre%-wat] /rata 9 ! delta ( ! ,ganges4 ,b if "p ( t delta %\ld s9k d[n s z to be cov]$ by ! sea1 m>9e =mations might beg9 to accumulate 9 ! same space :]e fre%-wat] b$s _h previ\sly be5 =m$2 & yet ! ,ganges might /ill p\r d[n its turbid wat]s 9 ! same direction1 & c>ry seaw>d ! c>casses ( ! same species ( alligator1 9 :i* case _! bones might be includ$ 9 m>9e z well z 9 subjac5t fre%-wat] /rata4 ,fig4 #bhh ,! ,iguanodon1 fir/ discov]$ by ,dr4 ,mantell1 0 an h]bivor\s reptile1 ( :i* ! tee?1 ?\gh be>+ a great analogy1 9 _! g5]al =m & cr5at$ edges 7see ,figs4 #bhi a & b71 to ! mod]n ,iguanas :i* n[ frequ5t ! tropical woods ( ,am]ica & ! ,we/ ,indies1 exhibit _m important diff]5ces4 ,x appe>s t !y h (t5 be5 worn by ! process ( ma/ication2 :]eas ! exi/+ h]bivor\s reptiles clip & gnaw (f ! vegetable productions on :i* !y fe$1 b d n *ew !m4 ,_! tee? frequ5tly pres5t an appe>ance ( hav+ be5 *ipp$ (f1 b nev]1 l ! fossil tee? ( ! ,iguanodon1 h a flat gr\nd surface 7see ,fig4 #bij1 b7 resembl+ ! gr9d]s ( h]bivor\s mammalia4 ,dr4 ,mantell computes t ! tee? & bones ( ?is species :i* pass$ "u 8 exam9ation dur+ tw5ty ye>s mu/ h belong$ to no less ?an sev5ty-"o di/9ct individuals1 v>y+ 9 age & magnitude f ! reptile j bur/ f ! egg1 to "o ( :i* ! femur measur$ tw5ty-f\r in*es 9 circumf]5ce4 ,yet1 not)/&+ t ! tee? 7 m num]\s ?an any o!r bones1 x is rem>kable t x 0 n until ! relics ( all ^! individuals _h be5 f\nd1 t a solit>y example ( "p ( a jaw-bone 0 obta9$4 ,soon aft]w>ds rema9s bo? ( ! upp] & l[] jaw 7 met ) 9 ! ,ha/+s b$s 9 ,tilgate ,=e/1 ne> ,cuckfield4 ,9 ! same s&s at ,ha/+s1 ,mr4 ,beckles f\nd l>ge tridactyle impressions :i* x is conjectur$ 7 made by ! h9d feet ( ?is animal1 on :i* x is asc]ta9$ t !re 7 only ?ree well-develop$ toes4 ,fig4 #bhi a1 b3 ,too? ( ,iguanodon ,mantelli4 ,fig4 #bij3 a4 ,p>tially worn too? ( "y individual ( ! same2 ib4_/i ,cr[n ( too? 9 adult worn d[n4 ,fig4 #bia3 ,cypris sp9ig]a4 ,occasionally b&s ( lime/one1 call$ ,sussex ,m>ble1 occur 9 ! ,weald ,clay1 almo/ entirely compos$ ( a species ( ,palud9a1 closely resembl+ ! common ,p4 vivip>a ( ,engli% riv]s4 ,%ells ( ! ,cypris1 a g5us ( ,cru/aceans m5tion$ 7p4 #eg7 z ab\nd+ 9 lakes & ponds1 are also pl5tifully scatt]$ ?r\gh ! clays ( ! ,weald51 sometimes produc+1 l plates ( mica1 a ?9 lam9ation 7see ,fig4 #bib74 ,fig4 #bib3 ,weald clay ) ,cyprides4 ,ha/+s ,s&s4--,?is l[] division ( ! ,weald5 consi/s ( s&1 s&/one1 calcif]\s grit1 clay1 & %ale2 ! argillace\s /rata1 not)/&+ ! "n1 pr$om9at+ some:at ov] ! ar5ace\s1 z w be se5 by ref]5ce to ! foll[+ table1 drawn up by ,messrs4 ,drew & ,fo/]1 ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,great ,brita93 ,names ( ,subord9ate ,=mations4 ,m9]al ,composition ( ! ,/rata4 ,?ickness 9 feet4 ,ha/+s ,s& ,tunbridge ,wells ,s& ,s&/one & loam #aej ,wadhur/ ,clay ,blue & br[n %ale & clay1 ) a little calc-grit #ajj ,a%d[n ,s& ,h>d s&1 ) "s b$s ( calc-grit #afj ,a%burnham ,b$s ,mottl$ :ite & r$ clay1 ) "s s&/one #ccj ,! picturesque sc5]y ( ! 8,high ,rocks0 & o!r places 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,tunbridge ,wells is caus$ by ! /eep natural cliffs1 to :i* a h>d b$ ( :ite s&1 occurr+ 9 ! upp] "p ( ! ,tunbridge ,wells ,s&1 m5tion$ 9 ! above table1 gives rise4 ,?is b$ ( 8rock-s&0 v>ies 9 ?ickness f #be to #dh feet4 ,l>ge masses ( x1 :i* 7 by no means h>d or capable ( mak+ a good build+-/one1 =m1 nev]!less1 project+ rocks ) p]p5dicul> faces1 & resi/ ! degrad+ action ( ! riv] because1 says ,mr4 ,drew1 !y pres5t a solid mass )\t planes ( division4 ,! calc>e\s s&/one & grit ( ,tilgate ,=e/1 ne> ,cuckfield1 9 :i* ! rema9s ( ! ,iguanodon & ,hylosaurus 7 fir/ f\nd by ,dr4 ,mantell1 con/itute an upp] memb] ( ! ,tunbridge ,wells ,s&1 :ile ! 8s&-rock0 ( ! ,ha/+s cliffs1 ab\t #ajj feet ?ick1 is "o ( ! l[] memb]s ( ! same4 ,! reptiles1 :i* are v abundant 9 ?is division1 consi/ p>tly ( saurians1 ref]r$ by ,ow5 & ,mantell to eight g5]a1 among :i*1 besides ^? already enum]at$1 we f9d ! ,megalosaurus & ,plesiosaurus4 ,! ,pt]odactyl also1 a fly+ reptile1 is met ) 9 ! same /rata1 & _m rema9s ( ,*elonians ( ! g5]a ,trionyx & ,emys1 n[ conf9$ to tropical regions4 ,! fi%es ( ! ,weald5 are *iefly ref]able to ! ,ganoid & ,placoid ord]s4 ,among !m ! tee? & scales ( ,lepidotus are mo/ widely diffus$ 7see ,fig4 #bic1 next page74 ,^! ganoids 7 alli$ to ! ,lepido/eus1 or ,g>-pike1 ( ! ,am]ican riv]s4 ,! :ole body 0 cov]$ ) l>ge rhomboidal scales1 v ?ick1 & hav+ ! expos$ "p coat$ ) enamel4 ,mo/ ( ! species ( ?is g5us are suppos$ to h be5 ei!r riv]-fi%1 or inhabitants ( ! sea at ! m\? ( e/u>ies4 ,fig4 #bic3 ,lepidotus ,mantelli1 a4 ,palate & tee?1 b4 ,side view ( tee?1 c4 ,scale4 ,fig4 #bid3 ,unio ,vald5sis4 ,fig4 #bie3 ,"u side ( slab ( s&/one ab\t "o y>d 9 diamet]4 ,at diff]5t heights 9 ! ,ha/+s ,s&s1 we f9d aga9 & aga9 slabs ( s&/one ) a /rong ripple-m>k1 & betwe5 ^! slabs b$s ( clay _m y>ds ?ick4 ,9 "s places1 z at ,/amm]ham1 ,hor%am1 ne> !re1 are indications ( ?is clay hav+ be5 expos$ s z to dry & crack be=e ! next lay] 0 ?r[n d[n ^u x4 ,! op5 cracks 9 ! clay h s]v$ z m\lds1 ( :i* ca/s h be5 tak5 9 relief1 & :i* are1 !re=e1 se5 on ! l[] surface ( ! s&/one 7see ,fig4 #bie74 ,ne> ! same place a r$di% s&/one occurs 9 :i* are innum]able traces ( a fossil vegetable1 app>5tly ,sph5opt]is1 ! /ems & bran*es ( :i* are dispos$ z if ! plants 7 /&+ erect on ! spot :]e !y orig9ally grew1 ! s& hav+ be5 g5tly deposit$ ^u & ar\nd !m2 & simil> appe>ances h be5 rem>k$ 9 o!r places 9 ?is =mation4#c ,9 ! same division also ( ! ,weald51 at ,cuckfield1 is a b$ ( gravel or conglom]ate1 consi/+ ( wat]-worn pebbles ( qu>tz & jasp]1 ) roll$ bones ( reptiles4 ,^! mu/ h be5 drift$ by a curr5t1 probably 9 wat] ( no great dep?4 ,fig4 #bif3 ,sph5opt]is gracilis4 ,f su* facts we may inf] t1 not)/&+ ! great ?ickness ( ?is division ( ! ,weald51 ! :ole ( x 0 a deposit 9 wat] ( a mod]ate dep?1 & (t5 extremely %all[4 ,?is idea may seem />tl+ at fir/1 yet su* w\ld be ! natural consequ5ce ( a gradual & cont9u\s s9k+ ( ! gr\nd 9 an e/u>y or bay1 into :i* a great riv] dis*>g$ its turbid wat]s4 ,by ea* foot ( subsid5ce1 ! fundam5tal rock w\ld be depress$ "o foot f>!r f ! surface2 b ! bay w\ld n be deep5$1 if newly-deposit$ mud & s& %\ld raise ! bottom "o foot4 ,on ! contr>y1 su* new /rata ( s& & mud might be frequ5tly laid dry at l[ wat]1 or ov]gr[n = a season by a vegetation prop] to m>%es4 ,punfield ,b$s1 ,bracki% & ,m>9e4--,! %ells ( ! ,weald5 b$s belong to ! g5]a ,melanopsis1 ,melania1 ,palud9a1 ,cyr5a1 ,cyclas1 ,unio 7see ,fig4 #bid71 & o!rs1 :i* inhabit riv]s or lakes2 b "o b& has be5 f\nd at ,punfield1 9 ,dorset%ire1 indicat+ a bracki% /ate ( ! wat]1 :]e ! g5]a ,corbula1 ,mytilus1 & ,o/rea occur2 & 9 "s places ?is b$ becomes purely m>9e1 conta9+ "s well-kn[n ,neocomian fossils1 among :i* ,ammonites ,de%ayesii 7,fig4 #bhd7 may be m5tion$4 ,o!rs are peculi> z ,briti%1 b v *>act]i/ic ( ! ,upp] & ,middle ,neocomian ( ,spa91 & among ^! ! ,vic>ya ,lujani 7,fig4 #big71 a %ell alli$ to ,n]9ea1 is conspicu\s4 ,by ref]5ce to table 7p4 #cjh7 x w be se5 t ! ,weald5 b$s are giv5 z ! fre%-wat] equival5ts ( ! ,m>9e ,neocomian4 ,! highe/ "p ( !m 9 ,engl& may1 = reasons j giv51 be reg>d$ z ,upp] ,neocomian1 :ile "s ( ! inf]ior portions may correspond 9 age to ! ,middle & ,l[] divisions ( t gr\p4 ,9 fav\r ( ?is latt] view1 ,m4 ,m>c\ m5tions t a fi% call$ ,a/]acan?us granulosus1 occurr+ 9 ! ,tilgate b$s1 is *>act]i/ic ( ! l[e/ b$s ( ! ,neocomian ( ! ,jura1 & x is well kn[n t ,corbula alata1 common 9 ! ,a%burnham b$s1 is f\nd also at ! base ( ! ,neocomian ( ! ,cont95t4 ,fig4 #big3 ,vic>ya ,lujani4 ,fig4 #big3 ,vic>ya ,lujani1 ,de ,v]neuil4#d ,weald51 ,punfield4 ,area ( ! ,weald54--,9 reg>d to ! geographical ext5t ( ! ,weald51 x _c be accurately laid d[n1 because s mu* ( x is conceal$ b5ea? ! new] m>9e =mations4 ,x has be5 trac$ ab\t #cbj ,engli% miles f we/ to ea/1 f ! coa/ ( ,dorset%ire to ne> ,b\logne1 9 ,france2 & ne>ly #bjj miles f nor?-we/ to s\?-ea/1 f ,surrey & ,hamp%ire to ,vassy1 9 ,france4 ,if ! =mation be cont9u\s ?r\gh\t ?is space1 :i* is v d\btful1 x does n foll[ t ! :ole 0 contemporane\s2 because1 9 all likelihood1 ! physical geography ( ! region und]w5t frequ5t *anges ?r\gh\t ! :ole p]iod1 & ! e/u>y may h alt]$ its =m1 & ev5 %ift$ its place4 ,dr4 ,dunk]1 ( ,cassel1 & ,h4 von ,mey]1 9 an excell5t monograph on ! ,weald5s ( ,hanov] & ,we/phalia1 h %[n t !y correspond s closely1 n only 9 _! fossils1 b also 9 _! m9]al *>act]s1 ) ! ,engli% s]ies1 t we c sc>cely hesitate to ref] ! :ole to "o great delta4 ,ev5 !n1 ! magnitude ( ! deposit may n exce$ t ( _m mod]n riv]s4 ,?us1 ! delta ( ! ,quorra or ,nig]1 9 ,africa1 /ret*es into ! int]ior = m ?an #agj miles1 & occupies1 x is suppos$1 a space ( m ?an #cjj miles along ! coa/1 ?us =m+ a surface ( m ?an #be1jjj squ>e miles1 or equal to ab\t "o-half ( ,engl&4#e ,besides1 we "k n1 9 su* cases1 h[ f> ! fluviatile s$im5t & organic rema9s ( ! riv] & ! l& may be c>ri$ out f ! coa/1 & spread ov] ! b$ ( ! sea4 ,i h %[n1 :5 treat+ ( ! ,mississippi1 t a m anci5t delta1 includ+ species ( %ells su* z n[ inhabit ,l\isiana1 has be5 uprais$1 & made to occupy a wide geographical area1 :ile a new] delta is =m+2#f & ! possibility ( su* movem5ts & _! effects mu/ n be lo/ sight ( :5 we speculate on ! orig9 ( ! ,weald54 ,x may be ask$ :]e ! cont95t 0 plac$1 f ! ru9s ( :i* ! ,weald5 /rata 7 d]iv$1 & by ! dra9age ( :i* a great riv] 0 f$4 ,if ! ,weald5 0 gradually go+ d[nw>d #ajjj feet or m p]p5dicul>ly1 a l>ge body ( fre%-wat] w\ld n cont9ue to be p\r$ into ! sea at ! same po9t4 ,! adjo9+ l&1 if x p>ticipat$ 9 ! movem5t1 c\ld n escape be+ subm]g$4 ,b we may suppose su* l& to h be5 /ation>y1 or ev5 und]go+ contemporane\s sl[ upheaval4 ,!re may h be5 an asc5d+ movem5t 9 "o region1 & a desc5d+ "o 9 a contigu\s p>allel zone ( c\ntry4 ,b ev5 if t 7 ! case1 x is cle> t f9ally an ext5sive depression took place 9 t "p ( ,europe :]e ! deep sea ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod 0 aft]w>ds br\ght 94 ,?ickness ( ! ,weald54--,9 ! ,weald area itself1 betwe5 ! ,nor? & ,s\? ,d[ns1 fre%-wat] b$s to ! ?ickness ( #afjj feet are kn[n1 ! base n be+ rea*$4 ,probably ! ?ickness ( ! :ole ,weald5 s]ies1 z se5 9 ,swanage ,bay1 _c be e/imat$ z less ?an #bjjj feet4 ,weald5 ,flora4--,! flora ( ! ,weald5 is *>act]is$ by a great abundance ( ,conif]1 ,cycade1 & ,f]ns1 & by ! abs5ce ( leaves & fruits ( ,dicotyl$on\s ,angiosp]ms4 ,! discov]y 9 #ahee1 9 ! ,ha/+s b$s ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 ( ,gyrogonites1 or spore-vessels ( ! ,*>a1 0 ! fir/ example ( t g5us ( plants1 s common 9 ! t]ti>y /rata1 be+ f\nd 9 a ,second>y or ,mesozoic rock4 #a ,judd1 ,speeton clay1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xxiv1 #ahfh1 p4 #bah4 #b ,judd1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 #ahfg1 vol4 xxiii1 p4 #bdi4 #c ,mantell1 ,geol4 ( ,s4,e4 ( ,engl&1 p4 #bdd4 #d ,foss4 de ,utrillas4 #e ,fitton1 ,geol4 ( ,ha/+s1 p4 #eh1 :o cites ,l&]'s ,travels4 #f ,see p4 #ajb & ,second ,visit to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 vol4 ii1 *ap4 xxxiv4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,jurassic ,,gr\p4--,,purbeck ,,b$s ,,& ,,oolite4 ,! ,purbeck ,b$s a ,memb] ( ! ,jurassic ,gr\p4 -- ,subdivisions ( t ,gr\p4 -- ,physical ,geography ( ! ,oolite 9 ,engl& & ,france4 -- ,upp] ,oolite4 -- ,purbeck ,b$s4 -- ,new ,g5]a ( fossil ,mammalia 9 ! ,middle ,purbeck ( ,dorset%ire4 -- ,dirt-b$ or anci5t ,soil4 -- ,fossils ( ! ,purbeck ,b$s4 -- ,portl& ,/one & ,fossils4 -- ,kimm]idge ,clay4 -- ,li?ographic ,/one ( ,sol5h(54 -- ,ar*opt]yx4 -- ,middle ,oolite4 -- ,coral ,rag4 -- ,n]9a ,lime/one4 -- ,ox=d ,clay1 ,ammonites & ,belemnites4 -- ,kell[ay ,rock4 -- ,l[]1 or ,ba?1 ,oolite4 -- ,great ,plants ( ! ,oolite4 -- ,oolite & ,brad=d ,clay4 -- ,/onesfield ,slate4 -- ,fossil ,mammalia4 -- ,full]'s ,e>?4 -- ,inf]ior ,oolite & ,fossils4 -- ,nor?ampton%ire ,slates4 -- ,york%ire ,oolitic ,coal-field4 -- ,brora ,coal4 -- ,palontological ,relations ( ! sev]al ,subdivisions ( ! ,oolitic gr\p4 ,classification ( ! ,oolite4--,imm$iately bel[ ! ,ha/+s ,s&s we f9d 9 ,dorset%ire ano!r rem>kable fre%-wat] =mation1 call$ ! ,purbeck1 because x 0 fir/ /udi$ 9 ! sea-cliffs ( ! p59sula ( ,purbeck 9 t c\nty4 ,^! b$s are = ! mo/ "p ( fre%-wat] orig91 b ! organic rema9s ( "s few int]calat$ b$s are m>9e1 & %[ t ! ,purbeck s]ies has a clos] aff9ity to ! ,oolitic gr\p1 ( :i* x may be consid]$ z ! newe/ or upp]mo/ memb]4 ,9 ,engl& g5]ally1 & 9 ! great] "p ( ,europe1 bo? ! ,weald5 & ,purbeck b$s are want+1 & ! m>9e cretace\s gr\p is foll[$ imm$iately1 9 ! desc5d+ ord]1 by ano!r s]ies call$ ! ,jurassic4 ,9 ?is t]m1 ! =mations commonly designat$ z 8! ,oolite & ,lias0 are includ$1 bo? be+ f\nd 9 ! ,jura ,m\nta9s4 ,! ,oolite 0 s nam$ because 9 ! c\ntries :]e x 0 fir/ exam9$ ! lime/ones belong+ to x _h an ,oolitic /ructure 7see p4 #cg74 ,^! rocks occupy 9 ,engl& a zone ne>ly ?irty miles 9 av]age bread?1 :i* ext5ds across ! isl&1 f ,york%ire 9 ! nor?-ea/1 to ,dorset%ire 9 ! s\?-we/4 ,_! m9]al *>act]s are n uni=m ?r\gh\t ?is region2 b ! foll[+ are ! names ( ! pr9cipal subdivisions obs]v$ 9 ! c5tral & s\?-ea/]n p>ts ( ,engl&4 ,,oolite ,upp] a4 ,purbeck b$s4 b4 ,portl& /one & s&4 c4 ,kimm]idge clay4 ,middle d4 ,coral rag4 e4 ,ox=d clay1 & ,kell[ay rock4 ,l[] f4 ,cornbra% & ,=e/ m>ble4 g4 ,great ,oolite & ,/onesfield slate4 h4 ,full]'s e>?4 i4 ,inf]ior ,oolite4 ,! ,upp] ,oolitic sy/em ( ! above table has usually ! ,kimm]idge clay = its base2 ! ,middle ,oolitic sy/em1 ! ,ox=d clay4 ,! ,l[] sy/em reposes on ! ,lias1 an argillo-calc>e\s =mation1 :i* "s include 9 ! ,l[] ,oolite1 b :i* w be treat$ ( sep>ately 9 ! next *apt]4 ,_m ( ^! subdivisions are di/+ui%$ by peculi> organic rema9s2 &1 ?\gh v>y+ 9 ?ickness1 may be trac$ 9 c]ta9 directions = great di/ances1 especially if we comp>e ! "p ( ,engl& to :i* ! above-m5tion$ type ref]s ) ! nor?-ea/ ( ,france & ! ,jura ,m\nta9s adjo9+4 ,9 t c\ntry1 di/ant above #djj geographical miles1 ! analogy to ! accept$ ,engli% type1 not)/&+ ! ?9ness or occasional abs5ce ( ! clays1 is m p]fect ?an 9 ,york%ire or ,norm&y4 ,physical ,geography4--,! alt]nation1 on a gr& scale1 ( di/9ct =mations ( clay & lime/one has caus$ ! oolitic & liassic s]ies to give rise to "s m>k$ features 9 ! physical outl9e ( p>ts ( ,engl& & ,france4 ,wide valleys c usually be trac$ ?r\gh\t ! long b&s ( c\ntry :]e ! argillace\s /rata crop out2 & betwe5 ^! valleys ! lime/ones are obs]v$1 =m+ ranges ( hills or m elevat$ gr\nds4 ,^! ranges t]m9ate abruptly on ! side on :i* ! sev]al clays rise up f b5ea? ! calc>e\s /rata4 ,fig4 #bih3 ,configuration ( surface4 ,fig4 #bih w give ! read] an idea ( ! configuration ( ! surface n[ allud$ to1 su* z may be se5 9 pass+ f ,london to ,*elt5ham1 or 9 o!r p>allel l9es1 f ea/ to we/1 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ,engl&4 ,x has be5 necess>y1 h[ev]1 9 ?is draw+1 greatly to exagg]ate ! incl9ation ( ! b$s1 & ! height ( ! sev]al =mations1 z comp>$ to _! horizontal ext5t4 ,x w be rem>k$1 t ! l9es ( /eep slope1 or esc>pm5t1 face t[>ds ! we/ 9 ! great calc>e\s em95ces =m$ by ! *alk & ! ,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[] ,oolites2 & at ! base ( :i* we h respectively ! ,gault1 ,kimm]idge clay1 ,ox=d clay1 & ,lias4 ,?is la/ =ms1 g5]ally1 a broad vale at ! foot ( ! esc>pm5t ( inf]ior ,oolite1 b :]e x acquires consid]able ?ickness1 & conta9s solid b$s ( m>l/one1 x occupies ! l[] "p ( ! esc>pm5t4 ,! ext]nal outl9e ( ! c\ntry :i* ! geologi/ obs]ves 9 travell+ ea/w>d f ,p>is to ,metz1 is precisely analog\s1 & is caus$ by a simil> succession ( rocks int]v5+ betwe5 ! t]ti>y /rata & ! ,lias2 ) ?is diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 t ! esc>pm5ts ( ,*alk1 ,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[] ,oolites face t[>ds ! ea/ in/ead ( ! we/4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t ! d5ud+ causes 7see p4 #aje7 h act$ simil>ly ov] an area sev]al hundr$ miles 9 diamet]1 remov+ ! s(t] clays m ext5sively ?an ! lime/ones1 & caus+ ^! la/ to =m /eep slopes or esc>pm5ts :]ev] ! h>d] calc>e\s rock 0 bas$ ^u a m yield+ & de/ructible =mation4 ,,upp] ,,oolite4 ,purbeck ,b$s4--,^! /rata1 :i* we class z ! upp]mo/ memb] ( ! ,oolite1 are ( limit$ geographical ext5t 9 ,europe1 z already /at$1 b !y acquire importance :5 we consid] ! succession ( ?ree di/9ct sets ( fossil rema9s :i* !y conta94 ,su* repeat$ *anges 9 organic life mu/ h ref]5ce to ! hi/ory ( a va/ lapse ( ages4 ,! ,purbeck b$s are f9ely expos$ to view 9 ,durdle/one ,bay1 ne> ,swanage1 ,dorset%ire1 & at ,lulwor? ,cove & ! neighb\r+ bays betwe5 ,weym\? & ,swanage4 ,at ,meup's ,bay1 9 p>ticul>1 ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes exam9$ m9utely1 9 #ahej1 ! organic rema9s ( ?is gr\p1 display$ 9 a cont9u\s sea-cliff section1 & x appe>s f 8 rese>*es t ! ,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[] ,purbecks are ea* m>k$ by peculi> species ( organic rema9s1 ^! aga9 be+ diff]5t1 s f> z a comp>ison has yet be5 in/itut$1 f ! fossils ( ! ov]ly+ ,ha/+s ,s&s & ,weald ,clay4 ,upp] ,purbeck4--,! highe/ ( ! ?ree divisions is purely fre%-wat]1 ! /rata1 ab\t fifty feet 9 ?ickness1 conta9+ %ells ( ! g5]a ,palud9a1 ,physa1 ,limna1 ,planorbis1 ,valvata1 ,cyclas1 & ,unio1 ) ,cyprides & fi%4 ,all ! species seem peculi>1 & among ^! ! ,cyprides are v abundant & *>act]i/ic 7see ,fig4 #bii1 a1 b1 c47 ,! /one call$ 8,purbeck ,m>ble10 =m]ly mu* us$ 9 ornam5tal ar*itecture 9 ! old ,engli% ca!drals ( ! s\!rn c\nties1 is exclusively procur$ f ?is division4 ,fig4 #bii3 ,cyprides f ! ,upp] ,purbecks4 ,middle ,purbeck4--,next 9 succession is ! ,middle ,purbeck1 ab\t ?irty feet ?ick1 ! upp]mo/ "p ( :i* consi/s ( fre%-wat] lime/one1 ) cyprides1 turtles1 & fi%1 ( diff]5t species f ^? 9 ! prec$+ /rata4 ,bel[ ! lime/one are bracki%-wat] b$s full ( ,cyr5a1 & trav]s$ by b&s ab\nd+ 9 ,corbula & ,melania4 ,^! are bas$ on a purely m>9e deposit1 ) ,pect51 ,modiola1 ,avicula1 & ,?racia4 ,bel[ ?is1 aga91 come lime/ones & %ales1 p>tly ( bracki% & p>tly ( fre%-wat] orig91 9 :i* _m fi%1 especially species ( ,lepidotus & ,microdon radiatus1 are f\nd1 & a crocodilian reptile nam$ ,macrorhyn*us4 ,among ! mollusks1 a rem>kable ribb$ ,melania1 ( ! section ,*il9a1 occurs4 ,fig4 #cjj3 ,o/rea di/orta4 ,fig4 #cja3 ,hemicid>is ,purbeck5sis4 ,imm$iately bel[ is a great & conspicu\s /ratum1 twelve feet ?ick1 =m$ ( a va/ accumulation ( %ells ( ,o/rea di/orta 7,fig4 #cjj71 long famili> to geologi/s "u ! local "n ( 8,c9d]-b$40 ,9 ! upp]mo/ "p ( ?is b$ ,pr(essor ,=bes discov]$ ! fir/ e*9od]m 7,fig4 #cja7 z yet kn[n 9 ! ,purbeck s]ies1 a species ( ,hemicid>is1 a g5us *>act]i/ic ( ! ,oolitic p]iod1 & sc>cely1 if at all1 di/+ui%able f a previ\sly kn[n ,oolitic fossil4 ,x 0 accompani$ by a species ( ,p]na4 ,bel[ ! ,c9d]-b$ fre%-wat] /rata are aga9 se51 fill$ 9 _m places ) species ( ,cypris 7,fig4 #cjb1 a1 b1 c71 & ) ,valvata1 ,palud9a1 ,planorbis1 ,limna1 ,physa 7,fig4 #cjc71 & ,cyclas1 all diff]5t f any occurr+ high] 9 ! s]ies4 ,x w be se5 t ,cypris fasciculata 7,fig4 #cjb1 b7 has tub]cles at ! end only ( ea* valve1 a "* by :i* x c be imm$iately recognis$4 ,9 fact1 ^! m9ute cru/aceans1 almo/ z frequ5t 9 "s ( ! %ales z plates ( mica 9 a micace\s s&/one1 enable geologi/s at once to id5tify ! ,middle ,purbeck 9 places f> f ! ,dorset%ire cliffs1 z1 = example1 9 ! ,vale ( ,w>d\r 9 ,wilt%ire4 ,?ick b$s ( *]t occur 9 ! ,middle ,purbeck fill$ ) mollusca & cyprides ( ! g5]a already enum]at$1 9 a beautiful /ate ( pres]vation1 (t5 conv]t$ into *alc$ony4 ,among ^! ,pr(essor ,=bes met ) gyrogonites 7! spore-vessels ( ,*>a71 plants nev] until #ahea discov]$ 9 rocks old] ?an ! ,eoc5e4 ,ab\t tw5ty feet bel[ ! 8,c9d]-b$0 is a /ratum two or ?ree in*es ?ick1 9 :i* fossil mammalia pres5tly to be m5tion$ occur1 & b5ea? ?is a ?9 b& ( gre5i% %ales1 ) m>9e %ells & impressions ( leaves l ^? ( a l>ge ,zo/]a1 =m+ ! base ( ! ,middle ,purbeck4 ,fig4 #cjb3 ,cyprides f ! ,middle ,purbecks4 ,fig4 #cjc3 ,physa ,bri/ovii ,fossil ,mammalia ( ! ,middle ,purbeck4--,9 #aheb1a aft] allud+ to ! discov]y ( num]\s insects & air-brea?+ mollusca 9 ! ,purbeck /rata1 ,i rem>k$ t1 al?\gh no mammalia _h !n be5 f\nd1 8x 0 too soon to inf] _! non-exi/5ce on m]e negative evid5ce40 ,only two ye>s aft] ?is rem>k 0 9 pr9t1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,r4 ,brodie f\nd 9 ! ,middle ,purbeck1 ab\t tw5ty feet bel[ ! 8,c9d]-b$0 above allud$ to1 9 ,durdle/one ,bay1 portions ( sev]al small jaws ) tee?1 :i* ,pr(essor ,ow5 recognis$ z belong+ to a small mammif] ( ! insectivor\s class1 m closely alli$ 9 its d5tition to ! ,amphi!rium 7or ,?ylaco!rium7 ?an to any exi/+ type4 ,f\r ye>s lat] 79 #ahef7 ! rema9s ( sev]al o!r species ( w>m-blood$ quadrup$s 7 exhum$ by ,mr4 ,s4 ,h4 ,beckles1 ,f4,r4,s41 f ! same ?9 b$ ( m>l ne> ! base ( ! ,middle ,purbeck4 ,9 ?is m>ly /ratum _m reptiles1 sev]al insects1 & "s fre%-wat] %ells ( ! g5]a ,palud9a1 ,planorbis1 & ,cyclas1 7 f\nd4 ,mr4 ,beckles _h det]m9$ ?or\ghly to explore ! ?9 lay] ( calc>e\s mud f :i* 9 ! suburbs ( ,swanage ! bones ( ! ,spalaco!rium _h already be5 obta9$1 & 9 ?ree weeks he br\ght to light f an area =ty feet long & t5 wide1 & f a lay] ! av]age ?ickness ( :i* 0 only five in*es1 portions ( ! skeletons ( six new species ( mammalia1 z int]pret$ by ,dr4 ,falcon]1 :o fir/ exam9$ !m4 ,be=e ^! int]e/+ inquiries 7 br\ght to a close1 ! jo9t lab\rs ( ,pr(essor ,ow5 & ,dr4 ,falcon] _h made x cle> t twelve or m species ( mammalia *>act]is$ ?is portion ( ! ,middle ,purbeck1 mo/ ( !m insectivor\s or pr$ace\s1 v>y+ 9 size f t ( a mole to t ( ! common polecat1 ,mu/ela putorius4 ,:ile ! majority _h ! "* ( insectivor\s m>supials1 ,dr4 ,falcon] select$ "o z diff]+ widely f ! re/1 & po9t$ out t 9 c]ta9 *>act]s x 0 alli$ to ! liv+ ,kang>oo-rat1 or ,hypsiprymnus1 t5 species ( :i* n[ inhabit ! prairies & scrub-jungle ( ,au/ralia1 fe$+ on plants1 & gnaw+ scrat*$-up roots4 ,a /rik+ peculi>ity ( _! d5tition1 "o 9 :i* !y diff] f all o!r quadrup$s1 consi/s 9 _! hav+ a s+le l>ge pre-mol>1 ! enamel ( :i* is furr[$ ) v]tical grooves1 usually sev5 9 numb]4 ,! l>ge/ pre-mol> 7see ,fig4 #cje7 9 ! fossil g5us exhibits 9 l mann] sev5 p>allel grooves1 produc+ by _! t]m9ation a simil> s]rat$ edge 9 ! cr[n2 b _! direction is diagonal--a di/9ction1 says ,dr4 ,falcon]1 :i* is 8trivial1 n typical40 ,z ^! oblique furr[s =m s m>k$ a "* ( ! majority ( ! tee?1 ,dr4 ,falcon] gave to ! fossil ! g5]ic "n ( ,plagiaulax4 ,! %ape & relative size ( ! incisor1 a1 ,fig4 #cjf1 exhibit a no less /rik+ simil>ity to ,hypsiprymnus4 ,nev]!less1 ! m sudd5 upw>d curve ( ?is incisor1 z well z o!r *>act]s ( ! jaw1 indicate a great deviation 9 ! =m ( ,plagiaulax f t ( ! liv+ kang>oo-rats4 ,fig4 #cjd3 ,pre-mol> ( ! rec5t ,au/ralian ,hypsiprymnus ,gaim>di1 %[+ #g grooves at "r angles to ! l5g? ( ! jaw4 ,fig4 #cje3 ,?ird & l>ge/ pre-mol> 7l[] jaw7 ( ,plagiaulax ,becklesii1 %[+ #g diagonal grooves4 ,fig4 #cjf3 ,plagiaulax ,becklessi4 ,"r ramus ( l[] jaw4 ,!re are two fossil specim5s ( l[] jaws ( ?is g5us evid5tly ref]able to two di/9ct species extremely unequal 9 size & o!rwise di/+ui%able4 ,! ,plagiaulax ,becklesii 7,fig4 #cjf7 0 ab\t z big z ! ,engli% squirrel or ! fly+ phalang] ( ,au/ralia 7,petaurus ,au/ralis1 ,wat]h\se74 ,! small] fossil1 hav+ only half ! l9e> dim5sions ( ! o!r1 0 probably only "o-twelf? ( its bulk4 ,x is ( peculi> geological int]e/1 because1 z %[n by ,dr4 ,falcon]1 its two back mol>s be> a decid$ resemblance to ^? ( ! ,triassic ,microle/es 7,fig4 #chi71 ! mo/ anci5t ( kn[n mammalia1 ( :i* an acc\nt w be giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,up to #aheg all ! mammalian rema9s discov]$ 9 second>y rocks _h consi/$ solely ( s+le bran*es ( ! l[] jaw1 b 9 t ye> ,mr4 ,beckles obta9$ ! upp] portion ( a skull1 & on ! same slab ! l[] jaw ( ano!r quadrup$ ) eight mol>s1 a l>ge can9e1 & a broad & ?ick incisor4 ,x has be5 nam$ ,triconodon f its bicuspid tee?1 & is suppos$ to h be5 a small insectivor\s m>supial1 ab\t ! size ( a h$gehog4 ,o!r jaws h s9ce be5 f\nd indicat+ a l>g] species ( ! same g5us4 ,pr(essor ,ow5 has propos$ ! "n ( ,gale/es = ! l>ge/ ( ! mammalia discov]$ 9 #aheh 9 ,purbeck1 equall+ ! polecat 7,mu/ela putorius7 9 size4 ,x is suppos$ to h be5 pr$ace\s & m>supial4 ,betwe5 =ty & fifty pieces or sides ( l[] jaws ) tee? h be5 f\nd 9 oolitic /rata 9 ,purbeck2 only five upp] maxill>ies1 toge!r ) "o portion ( a sep>ate cranium1 occur at ,/onesfield1 & x is rem>kable t ) ^! !re 7 no examples 9 ,purbeck ( an entire skeleton1 nor ( any consid]able numb] ( bones 9 juxtaposition4 ,9 sev]al portions ( ! matrix !re 7 deta*$ bones1 (t5 mu* decompos$1 & fragm5ts ( o!rs app>5tly mammalian2 b if all ( !m 7 re/or$1 !y w\ld sc>cely suffice to complete ! five skeletons to :i* ! five upp] maxill>ies above allud$ to belong$4 ,z ! av]age numb] ( pieces 9 ea* mammalian skeleton is ab\t #bej1 !re mu/ be _m ?\s&s ( miss+ bones2 & :5 we endeav\r to acc\nt = _! abs5ce1 we are almo/ tempt$ to indulge 9 speculations l ^? once sugge/$ to me by ,dr4 ,buckl&1 :5 he tri$ to solve ! enigma 9 ref]5ce to ,/onesfield2 8,! corpses10 he said1 8( dr[n$ animals1 :5 !y float 9 a riv]1 di/5d$ by gases dur+ putrefaction1 h (t5 _! l[] jaw hang+ loose1 & sometimes x has dropp$ (f4 ,! re/ ( ! body may !n be drift$ else:]e1 & sometimes may be swall[$ entire by a pr$ace\s reptile or fi%1 su* z an i*?yosaur or a %>k40 ,z all ! above-m5tion$ ,purbeck m>supials1 belong+ to eight or n9e g5]a & to ab\t f\rte5 species1 insectivor\s1 pr$ace\s1 & h]bivor\s1 h be5 obta9$ f an area less ?an #ejj squ>e y>ds 9 ext5t1 & f a s+le /ratum no m ?an a few in*es ?ick1 we may safely conclude t ! :ole liv$ toge!r 9 ! same region1 & 9 all likelihood !y con/itut$ a m]e fraction ( ! mammalia :i* inhabit$ ! l&s dra9$ by "o riv] & its tribut>ies4 ,!y af=d ! fir/ positive pro( z yet obta9$ ( ! co-exi/5ce ( a v>i$ fauna ( ! highe/ class ( v]tebrata ) t ample developm5t ( reptile life :i* m>ks all ! p]iods f ! ,trias to ! ,l[] ,cretace\s inclusive1 & ) a gymnosp]m\s flora1 or t /ate ( ! vegetable k+dom :5 cycads & conif]s pr$om9at$ ov] all k9ds ( plants1 except ! f]ns1 s f>1 at lea/1 z our pres5t imp]fect k ( fossil botany entitles u to speak4 ,! foll[+ table w enable ! read] to see at a glance h[ conspicu\s a "p1 num]ically consid]$1 ! mammalian species ( ! ,middle ,purbeck n[ play :5 comp>$ ) ^? ( o!r =mations m anci5t ?an ! ,p>is gypsum1 &1 at ! same "t1 x w help him to appreciate ! enorm\s hiatus 9 ! hi/ory ( fossil mammalia :i* at pres5t occurs betwe5 ! ,eoc5e & ,purbeck p]iods1 & betwe5 ! latt] & ! ,/onesfield ,oolite1 & betwe5 ?is aga9 & ! ,trias4 ,numb] & ,di/ribution ( all ! kn[n ,species ( ,fossil ,mammalia f ,/rata old] ?an ! ,p>is ,gypsum1 or ?an ! ,bembridge ,s]ies ( ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,,t]ti>y ,headon ,s]ies & b$s betwe5 ! ,p>is ,gypsum & ! ,grs de ,beau*amp #ad #aj ,engli% #d ,fr5* ,b>ton ,clay & ,sables de ,beau*amp #j ,bag%ot ,b$s1 ,calcaire ,grossi]1 & ,upp] ,soissonnais ( ,cuisse-,lamotte #bj #af ,fr5* #a ,engli% #c ,u4 ,/ates#b ,london ,clay1 includ+ ! ,kyson ,s& #g ,engli% ,pla/ic ,clay & ,lignite #i #g ,fr5* #b ,engli% ,sables de ,bra*eux #a ,fr5* ,?anet ,s&s & ,l[] ,l&5ian ( ,belgium #j ,,second>y ,mae/ri*t ,*alk #j ,:ite ,*alk #j ,*alk ,m>l #j ,*loritic ,s]ies 7,upp] ,gre5s&7 #j ,gault #j ,neocomian 7,l[] ,gre5s&7 #j ,weald5 #j ,upp] ,purbeck ,oolite #j ,middle ,purbeck ,oolite #ad ,swanage ,l[] ,purbeck ,oolite #j ,portl& ,oolite #j ,kimm]idge ,clay #j ,coral ,rag #j ,ox=d ,clay #j ,great ,oolite #d ,/onesfield ,inf]ior ,oolite #j ,lias #j ,upp] ,trias #d ,wurtemb]g ,som]set%ire ,n4 ,c>ol9a ,middle ,trias #j ,l[] ,trias #j ,,prim>y ,p]mian #j ,c>bonif]\s #j ,devonian #j ,silurian #j ,cambrian #j ,laur5tian #j ,! ,sables de ,bra*eux1 enum]at$ 9 ! ,t]ti>y division ( ! table1 suppos$ by ,mr4 ,pre/wi* to be some:at new] ?an ! ,?anet ,s&s1 & by ,m4 ,hb]t to be ( ab\t t age1 h yield$ at ,la ,f]e ! ,arctocyon 7,palocyon7 primvus1 ! olde/ kn[n t]ti>y mammal4 ,x is wor?y ( notice1 t 9 ! ,ha/+s ,s&s !re are c]ta9 lay]s ( clay & s&/one 9 :i* num]\s footpr9ts ( quadrup$s h be5 f\nd by ,mr4 ,beckles1 & trac$ by him 9 ! same set ( rocks ?r\gh ,sussex & ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,!y appe> to belong to ?ree or f\r species ( reptiles1 & no "o ( !m to any w>m-blood$ quadrup$4 ,!y ought1 !re=e1 to s]ve z a w>n+ to u1 :5 we fail 9 l mann] to detect mammalian footpr9ts 9 old] rocks 7su* z ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one71 to refra9 f inf]r+ t quadrup$s1 o!r ?an reptilian1 did n exi/ or pre-exi/4 ,b ! mo/ in/ructive lesson read to u by ! ,purbeck /rata consi/s 9 ?is3 ,!y are all1 ) ! exception ( a few int]calat$ bracki% & m>9e lay]s1 ( fre%-wat] orig92 !y are #afj feet 9 ?ickness1 h be5 well se>*$ by skillful collectors1 & by ! late ,edw>d ,=bes 9 p>ticul>1 :o /udi$ !m = mon?s consecutively4 ,!y h be5 numb]$1 & ! cont5ts ( ea* /ratum record$ sep>ately1 by ! (fic]s ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,great ,brita94 ,!y h be5 divid$ into ?ree di/9ct gr\ps by ,=bes1 ea* *>act]is$ by ! same g5]a ( pulmonif]\s mollusca & cyprides1 ^! g5]a be+ repres5t$ 9 ea* gr\p by diff]5t species2 !y h yield$ insects ( _m ord]s1 & ! fruits ( sev]al plants2 & la/ly1 !y conta9 8dirt-b$s10 or old t]re/rial surfaces & vegetable soils at diff]5t levels1 9 "s ( :i* erect trunks & /umps ( cycads & conif]s1 ) _! roots /ill atta*$ to !m1 are pres]v$4 ,yet :5 ! geologi/ inquires if any l&-animals ( a high] grade ?an reptiles liv$ dur+ any "o ( ^! ?ree p]iods1 ! rocks are all sil5t1 save "o ?9 lay] a few in*es 9 ?ickness2 & ?is s+le page ( ! e>?'s hi/ory has sudd5ly reveal$ to u 9 a few weeks ! memorials ( s _m species ( fossil mammalia1 t !y already outnumb] ^? ( _m a subdivision ( ! t]ti>y s]ies1 & f> surpass ^? ( all ! o!r second>y rocks put toge!r6 ,l[] ,purbeck4--,b5ea? ! ?9 m>9e b& m5tion$ at p4 #cbd z ! base ( ! ,middle ,purbeck1 "s purely fre%-wat] m>ls occur1 conta9+ species ( ,cypris 7,fig4 #cjg a1 c71 ,valvata1 & ,limna1 diff]5t f ^? ( ! ,middle ,purbeck4 ,?is is ! beg9n+ ( ! inf]ior division1 :i* is ab\t #hj feet ?ick4 ,bel[ ! m>ls are se51 at ,meup's ,bay1 m ?an ?irty feet ( bracki%-wat] /rata1 ab\nd+ 9 a species ( ,s]pula1 alli$ to1 if n id5tical )1 ,s]pula coac]vites1 f\nd 9 b$s ( ! same age 9 ,hanov]4 ,!re are also %ells ( ! g5us ,rissoa 7( ! subg5us ,hydrobia71 & a little ,c>dium ( ! subg5us ,protoc>dium1 9 ^! m>9e b$s1 toge!r ) ,cypris4 ,"s ( ! cypris-be>+ %ales are /rangely contort$ & brok5 up1 at ! we/ end ( ! ,isle ( ,purbeck4 ,! great dirt-b$ or vegetable soil conta9+ ! roots & /ools ( ,cycade1 :i* ,i %all pres5tly describe1 und]lies ^! m>ls1 & re/s ^u ! l[e/ fre%-wat] lime/one1 a rock ab\t eight feet ?ick1 conta9+ ,cyclas1 ,valvata1 & ,limna1 ( ! same species z ^? ( ! upp]mo/ "p ( ! ,l[] ,purbeck1 or above ! dirt-b$4 ,! fre%-wat] lime/one 9 its turn re/s ^u ! top b$s ( ! ,portl& /one1 :i*1 al?\gh x conta9s purely m>9e rema9s1 (t5 consi/s ( a rock undi/+ui%able 9 m9]al "* f ! ,l[e/ ,purbeck lime/one4 ,fig4 #cjg3 ,cyprides f ! ,l[] ,purbeck4 ,fig4 #cjh3 ,mantellia nidi=mis4 ,dirt-b$ or anci5t ,surface-soil4--,! mo/ rem>kable ( all ! v>i$ succession ( b$s enum]at$ 9 ! above li/ is t call$ by ! qu>rym5 8! dirt10 or 8black dirt10 :i* 0 evid5tly an anci5t vegetable soil4 ,x is f #ab to #ah in*es ?ick1 is ( a d>k br[n or black col\r1 & conta9s a l>ge proportion ( e>?y lignite4 ,?r\gh x are disp]s$ r\nd$ & sub-angul> fragm5ts ( /one1 f #c to #i in*es 9 diamet]1 9 su* numb]s t x almo/ des]ves ! "n ( gravel4 ,i also saw 9 #ahff1 9 ,portl&1 a small] dirt-b$ six feet bel[ ! pr9cipal "o1 six in*es ?ick1 consi/+ ( br[n e>? ) upright ,cycads ( ! same species1 ,mantellia nidi=mis1 z ^? f\nd 9 ! upp] b$1 b no ,conif]4 ,! weight ( ! incumb5t /rata squeez+ d[n ! compressible dirt-b$ has caus$ ! ,cycads to assume t =m :i* has l$ ! qu>rym5 to call !m 8petrifi$ birds' ne/s10 :i* sugge/$ to ,brongni>t ! specific "n ( nidi=mis4 ,i am indebt$ to ,mr4 ,c>ru!rs = ,figure #cjh ( "o ( ^! ,purbeck specim5s1 9 :i* ! orig9al cyl9drical figure has be5 less di/ort$ ?an usual by pressure4 ,_m silicifi$ trunks ( conif]\s trees1 & ! rema9s ( plants alli$ to ,zamia & ,cycas1 are buri$ 9 ?is dirt-b$1 & mu/ h become fossil on ! spots :]e !y grew4 ,! /umps ( ! trees /& erect = a height ( f "o to ?ree feet1 & ev5 9 "o in/ance to six feet1 ) _! roots atta*$ to ! soil at ab\t ! same di/ances f "o ano!r z ! trees 9 a mod]n =e/4 ,! c>bonace\s matt] is mo/ abundant imm$iately ar\nd ! /umps1 & r\nd ! rema9s ( fossil ,cycade4 ,besides ! upright /umps above m5tion$1 ! dirt-b$ conta9s ! /ems ( silicifi$ trees laid pro/rate4 ,^! are p>tly sunk into ! black e>?1 & p>tly envelop$ by a calc>e\s slate :i* cov]s ! dirt-b$4 ,! fragm5ts ( ! pro/rate trees are r>ely m ?an ?ree or f\r feet 9 l5g?2 b by jo9+ _m ( !m toge!r1 trunks h be5 re/or$1 hav+ a l5g? f ! root to ! bran*es ( f #bj to #bc feet1 ! /ems be+ undivid$ = #ag or #bj feet1 & !n =k$4 ,! diamet] ( ^! ne> ! root is ab\t "o foot2 b ,i measur$ "o myself1 9 #ahff1 :i* 0 #c feet 9 diamet]1 said by ! qu>rym5 to be unusually l>ge4 ,root-%ap$ cavities 7 obs]v$ by ,pr(essor ,h5sl[ to desc5d f ! bottom ( ! dirt-b$ into ! subjac5t fre%-wat] /one1 :i*1 ?\gh n[ solid1 mu/ h be5 9 a s(t & p5etrable /ate :5 ! trees grew4 ,! ?9 lay]s ( calc>e\s slate 7,fig4 #cji7 7 evid5tly deposit$ tranquilly1 & w\ld h be5 horizontal b = ! protrusion ( ! /umps ( ! trees1 ar\nd ! top ( ea* ( :i* !y =m hemisph]ical concretions4 ,fig4 #cji3 ,section 9 ,isle ( ,portl&1 ,dorset4 ,! dirt-b$ is by no means conf9$ to ! isl& ( ,portl&1 :]e x has be5 mo/ c>efully /udi$1 b is se5 9 ! same relative position 9 ! cliffs ea/ ( ,lulwor? ,cove1 9 ,dorset%ire1 :]e1 z ! /rata h be5 di/urb$1 & are n[ incl9$ at an angle ( #de1 ! /umps ( ! trees are also incl9$ at ! same angle 9 an opposite direction--a beautiful illu/ration ( a *ange 9 ! position ( b$s orig9ally horizontal 7see ,fig4 #caj74 ,fig4 #caj3 ,section ( cliff ea/ ( ,lulwor? ,cove4 ,f ! facts above describ$ we may inf]1 fir/1 t ^? b$s ( ! ,upp] ,oolite1 call$ 8! ,portl&10 :i* are full ( m>9e %ells1 7 ov]spread ) fluviatile mud1 :i* became dry l&1 & cov]$ by a =e/1 ?r\gh\t a portion ( ! space n[ occupi$ by ! s\? ( ,engl&1 ! climate be+ su* z to p]mit ! gr[? ( ! ,zamia & ,cycas4 ,secondly4 ,?is l& at l5g? sank d[n & 0 subm]g$ ) its =e/s b5ea? a body ( fre%-wat]1 f :i* s$im5t 0 ?r[n d[n envelop+ fluviatile %ells4 ,?irdly4 ,! regul> & uni=m pres]vation ( ?is ?9 b$ ( black e>? ov] a di/ance ( _m miles1 %[s t ! *ange f dry l& to ! /ate ( a fre%-wat] lake or e/u>y1 0 n accompani$ by any viol5t d5udation1 or ru% ( wat]1 s9ce ! loose black e>?1 toge!r ) ! trees :i* lay pro/rate on its surface1 mu/ inevitably h be5 swept away _h any su* viol5t cata/rophe tak5 place4 ,! =e/ ( ! dirt-b$1 z be=e h9t$1 0 n ev]y:]e ! fir/ vegetation :i* grew 9 ?is region4 ,besides ! l[] b$ conta9+ upright ,cycade1 be=e m5tion$1 ano!r has sometimes be5 f\nd above x1 :i* implies oscillations 9 ! level ( ! same gr\nd1 & its alt]nate occupation by l& & wat] m ?an once4 ,subdivisions ( ! ,purbeck4--,x w be obs]v$ t ! division ( ! ,purbecks into upp]1 middle1 & l[]1 0 made by ,pr(essor ,=bes /rictly on ! pr9ciple ( ! entire di/9ctness ( ! species ( organic rema9s :i* !y include4 ,! l9es ( dem>kation are n l9es ( di/urbance1 nor indicat$ by any /rik+ physical *>act]s or m9]al *anges4 ,! features :i* attract ! eye 9 ! ,purbecks1 su* z ! dirt-b$s1 ! dislocat$ /rata at ,lulwor?1 & ! ,c9d]-b$1 d n indicate any breaks 9 ! di/ribution ( organis$ be+s4 8,! causes :i* l$ to a complete *ange ( life ?ree times dur+ ! deposition ( ! fre%-wat] & bracki% /rata mu/10 says ?is naturali/1 8be s\ght =1 n simply 9 ei!r a rapid or a sudd5 *ange ( _! area into l& or sea1 b 9 ! great lapse ( "t :i* int]v5$ betwe5 ! epo*s ( deposition at c]ta9 p]iods dur+ _! =mation40 ,ea* dirt-b$ may1 no d\bt1 be ! memorial ( _m ?\s& ye>s or c5turies1 because we f9d t two or ?ree feet ( vegetable soil is ! only monum5t :i* _m a tropical =e/ has left ( its exi/5ce ev] s9ce ! gr\nd on :i* x n[ /&s 0 fir/ cov]$ ) its %ade4 ,yet1 ev5 if we imag9e ! fossil soils ( ! ,l[] ,purbeck to repres5t z _m ages1 we ne$ n be surpris$ to f9d t !y d n con/itute l9es ( sep>ation betwe5 /rata *>act]is$ by diff]5t zoological types4 ,! pres]vation ( a lay] ( vegetable soil1 :5 9 ! act ( be+ subm]g$1 mu/ be reg>d$ z a r>e exception to a g5]al rule4 ,x is ( s p]i%able a nature1 t x mu/ usually be c>ri$ away by ! d5ud+ waves or curr5ts ( ! sea1 or by a riv]2 & _m ,purbeck dirt-b$s 7 probably =m$ 9 succession & annihilat$1 besides ^? few :i* n[ rema94 ,! plants ( ! ,purbeck b$s1 s f> z our k ext5ds at pres5t1 consi/ *iefly ( ,f]ns1 ,conif]1 & ,cycade 7,fig4 #cjh71 )\t any angiosp]ms2 ! :ole m alli$ to ! ,oolitic ?an to ! ,cretace\s vegetation4 ,! same aff9ity is indicat$ by ! v]tebrate & inv]tebrate animals4 ,mr4 ,brodie has f\nd ! rema9s ( beetles & sev]al insects ( ! homopt]\s & tri*opt]\s ord]s1 "s ( :i* n[ live on plants1 :ile o!rs are ( su* =ms z hov] ov] ! surface ( our pres5t riv]s4 ,portl& ,oolite & ,s& 7b1 ,table p4 #cba74--,! ,portl& ,oolite has already be5 m5tion$ z =m+ 9 ,dorset%ire ! f\ndation on :i* ! fre%-wat] lime/one ( ! ,l[] ,purbeck reposes 7see p4 #cca74 ,x supplies ! well-kn[n build+-/one ( :i* ,/4 ,paul's & s _m ( ! pr9cipal edifices ( ,london are con/ruct$4 ,ab\t fifty species ( mollusca occur 9 ?is =mation1 among :i* are "s ammonites ( l>ge size4 ,! ca/ ( a spiral univalve call$ by ! qu>rym5 ! 8,portl& screw0 7a1 ,figure #caa71 is common2 ! %ell ( ! same 7b7 be+ r>ely met )4 ,also ,trigonia gibbosa 7,fig4 #cac7 & ,c>dium dissimile 7,fig4 #cad74 ,?is upp] memb] re/s on a d5se b$ ( s&1 call$ ! ,portl& ,s&1 conta9+ simil> m>9e fossils1 bel[ :i* is ! ,kimm]idge ,clay4 ,9 ,engl& ^! ,upp] ,oolite =mations are almo/ :olly conf9$ to ! s\!rn c\nties4 ,b "s fragm5ts ( !m occur b5ea? ! ,neocomian or ,speeton ,clay on ! coa/ ( ,york%ire1 conta9+ _m m fossils common to ! ,portl&ian ( ! ,cont95t ?an does ! same =mation 9 ,dorset%ire4 ,corals are r>e 9 ?is =mation1 al?\gh "o species is f\nd pl5tifully at ,tisbury1 ,wilt%ire1 9 ! ,portl& ,s&1 conv]t$ into fl9t & *]t1 ! orig9al calc>e\s matt] be+ replac$ by silex 7,fig4 #cab74 ,fig4 #caa3 ,c]i?ium ,portl&icum4 ,fig4 #cab3 ,isa/ra oblonga4 ,fig4 #cac3 ,trigonia gibbosa4 ,kimm]idge ,clay4--,! ,kimm]idge ,clay consi/s1 9 great "p1 ( a bitum9\s %ale1 sometimes =m+ an impure coal1 sev]al hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness4 ,9 "s places 9 ,wilt%ire x mu* resembles peat2 & ! bitum9\s matt] may h be51 9 "p at lea/1 d]iv$ f ! decomposition ( vegetables4 ,b z impressions ( plants are r>e 9 ^! %ales1 :i* conta9 ammonites1 oy/]s1 & o!r m>9e %ells1 ) skeletons ( fi% & saurians1 ! bitum5 may p]haps be ( animal orig94 ,"s ( ! saurians 7,pliosaurus7 9 ,dorset%ire are among ! mo/ gigantic ( _! k9d4 ,fig4 #cad3 ,c>dium dissimile4 ,fig4 #cae3 ,o/rea expansa4 ,fig4 #caf3 ,c>dium /riatulum4 ,fig4 #cag3 ,o/rea deltoidea4 ,fig4 #cah3 ,grypha 7,exogyra7 virgula4 ,among ! fossils1 am\nt+ to ne>ly #ajj species1 may be m5tion$ ,c>dium /riatulum 7,fig4 #caf7 & ,o/rea deltoidea 7,fig4 #cag71 ! latt] f\nd 9 ! ,kimm]idge ,clay ?r\gh\t ,engl& & ! nor? ( ,france1 & also 9 ,scotl&1 ne> ,brora4 ,! ,grypha virgula 7,fig4 #cah71 also met ) 9 ! ,kimm]idge ,clay ne> ,ox=d1 is s abundant 9 ! ,upp] ,oolite ( p>ts ( ,france z to h caus$ ! deposit to be t]m$ 8m>nes gryphes virgules40 ,ne> ,cl]mont1 9 ,argonne1 a few leagues f ,/4 ,m5eh\ld1 :]e ^! indurat$ m>ls crop out f b5ea? ! ,gault1 ,i h se5 !m1 on decompos+1 leave ! surface ( e pl\gh$ field lit]ally /rew$ ov] ) ?is fossil oy/]4 ,fig4 #cai3 ,trigonellites latus4 ,! ,trigonellites latus 7,apty*us ( "s au?ors7 7,fig4 #cai7 is also widely disp]s$ ?r\gh ?is clay4 ,! real nature ( ! %ell1 ( :i* !re are _m species 9 oolitic rocks1 is /ill a matt] ( conjecture4 ,"s are ( op9ion t ! two plates h be5 ! gizz>d ( a cephalopod2 o!rs1 t x may h =m$ a bivalve op]culum ( ! same4 ,sol5h(5 ,/one4--,! celebrat$ li?ographic /one ( ,sol5h(5 9 ,bav>ia1 appe>s to be ( int]m$iate age betwe5 ! ,kimm]idge clay & ! ,coral ,rag1 pres5tly to be describ$4 ,x af=ds a rem>kable example ( ! v>iety ( fossils :i* may be pres]v$ "u fav\rable circum/ances1 & :at delicate impressions ( ! t5d] p>ts ( c]ta9 animals & plants may be reta9$ :]e ! s$im5t is ( extreme f95ess4 ,al?\gh ! numb] ( te/acea 9 ?is slate is small1 & ! plants few1 & ^? all m>9e1 c\nt ,mun/] _h det]m9$ no less ?an #bcg species ( fossils :5 ,i saw 8 collection 9 #ahcc2 & among !m no less ?an sev5 species ( fly+ reptiles or pt]odactyls 7see ,fig4 #cbj71 six saurians1 ?ree tortoises1 sixty species ( fi%1 =ty-six ( cru/acea1 & tw5ty-six ( insects4 ,^! insects1 among :i* is a libellula1 or dragon-fly1 mu/ h be5 bl[n out to sea1 probably f ! same l& to :i* ! pt]odactyls1 & o!r contemporane\s air-brea!rs1 resort$4 ,fig4 #cbj3 ,skeleton ( ,pt]odactylus crassiro/ris4 ,9 ! same slate ( ,sol5h(5 a f9e example 0 met ) 9 #ahfb ( ! skeleton ( a bird almo/ entire1 & reta9+ ev5 its fea!rs s p]fect t ! vanes z well z ! %aft are pres]v$4 ,! head 0 at fir/ suppos$ to be want+1 b ,mr4 ,evans detect$ on ! slab :at seems to be ! impression ( ! cranium & beak1 mu* resembl+ 9 size & %ape t ( ! jay or woodcock4 ,?is valuable specim5 is n[ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 & has be5 call$ by ,pr(essor ,ow5 ,ar*opt]yx macrura4 ,al?\gh anatomi/s agree t x is a true bird1 yet !y also f9d t 9 ! l5g? ( ! bones ( ! tail1 & "s o!r m9or po9ts ( its anatomy1 x approa*es m ne>ly to reptiles ?an any kn[n liv+ bird4 ,9 ! liv+ repres5tatives ( ! class ,aves1 ! tail-fea!rs are atta*$ to a coccygian bone1 consi/+ ( sev]al v]tebr unit$ toge!r1 :]eas 9 ! ,ar*opt]yx ! tail is compos$ ( tw5ty v]tebr1 ea* ( :i* supports a pair ( quill-fea!rs4 ,! fir/ five only ( ! v]tebr1 z se5 9 ,a1 h transv]se processes1 ! fifte5 rema9+ ones become gradually long] & m tap]+4 ,! fea!rs div]ge outw>d f !m at an angle ( #de4 ,fig4 #cba3 ,tail & fea!r ( ,ar*opt]yx1 f ,sol5h(51 & tail ( liv+ bird = comp>ison4 ,pr(essor ,huxley 9 8 late memoirs on ! ord] ( reptiles call$ ,d9osaurians1 :i* are l>gely repres5t$ 9 all ! =mations1 f ! ,neocomian to ! ,trias inclusive1 has %[n t !y pres5t 9 _! /ructure _m rem>kable aff9ities to birds4 ,b a reptile ab\t two feet long1 call$ ,compsogna?us1 lately f\nd 9 ! ,/onesfield slate1 makes a mu* great] approximation to ! class ,aves ?an any ,d9osaur1 & !re=e =ms a clos] l9k betwe5 ! classes ,aves & ,reptilia ?an does ! ,ar*opt]yx4 ,x appe>s d\btful :e!r any species ( ,briti% fossil1 :e!r ( ! v]tebrate or inv]tebrate class1 is common to ! ,oolite & ,*alk4 ,b !re is no simil> break or discordance z we proce$ d[nw>d1 & pass f "o to ano!r ( ! sev]al lead+ memb]s ( ! ,jurassic gr\p1 ! ,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[] ,oolite1 & ! ,lias1 !re be+ (t5 a consid]able proportion ( ! mollusca1 sometimes z mu* z a f\r?1 common to su* divisions z ! ,upp] & ,middle ,oolite4 ,,middle ,,oolite4 ,coral ,rag4--,"o ( ! lime/ones ( ! ,middle ,oolite has be5 call$ ! 8,coral ,rag10 because x consi/s1 9 "p1 ( cont9u\s b$s ( petrifi$ corals1 mo/ ( !m reta9+ ! position 9 :i* !y grew at ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,9 _! =ms !y m frequ5tly resemble ! reef-build+ polyp>ia ( ! ,pacific ?an d ! corals ( any o!r memb] ( ! ,oolite4 ,!y belong *iefly to ! g5]a ,!cosmilia 7,fig4 #cbb71 ,protos]is1 & ,?amna/ra1 & sometimes =m masses ( coral fifte5 feet ?ick4 ,fig4 #cbb3 ,!cosmilia annul>is4 ,fig4 #cbc3 ,?amna/ra4 ,fig4 #cbd3 ,o/rea greg>ia4 ,fig4 #cbe3 ,n]9a ,goodhallii4 ,9 ,fig4 #cbc ( a ,?amna/ra f ?is =mation1 x w be se5 t ! cup-%ap$ cavities are deepe/ on ! "r-h& side1 & t !y gr[ m & m %all[1 until ^? on ! left side are ne>ly fill$ up4 ,! la/-m5tion$ />s are suppos$ to repres5t a p]fect$ condition1 & ! o!rs an immature /ate4 ,^! corall9e /rata ext5d ?r\gh ! calc>e\s hills ( ! nor?-we/ ( ,b]k%ire1 & nor? ( ,wilts1 & aga9 recur 9 ,york%ire1 ne> ,sc>bor\gh4 ,! ,o/rea greg>ea 7,fig4 #cbd7 is v *>act]i/ic ( ! =mation 9 ,engl& & on ! ,cont95t4 ,"o ( ! lime/ones ( ! ,jura1 ref]r$ to ! age ( ! ,engli% ,coral ,rag1 has be5 call$ 8,n]9an lime/one0 7,calcaire ,nr9es7 by ,m4 ,?irria2 ,n]9a be+ an ext9ct g5us ( univalve %ells 7,fig4 #cbe7 mu* resembl+ ! ,c]i?ium 9 ext]nal =m4 ,! section %[s ! curi\s & cont9u\s ridges on ! columnella & :orls4 ,ox=d ,clay4--,! corall9e lime/one1 or 8,coral ,rag10 above describ$1 & ! accompany+ s&y b$s1 call$ 8calc>e\s grits10 ( ! ,middle ,oolite1 re/ on a ?ick b$ ( clay1 call$ ! 8,ox=d ,clay10 sometimes n less ?an #fjj feet ?ick4 ,9 ?is !re are no corals1 b great abundance ( cephalopoda1 ( ! g5]a ,ammonite & ,belemnite 7,figs4 #cbf & #cbg74 ,9 "s ( ! f9ely lam9at$ clays ammonites are v p]fect1 al?\gh some:at compress$1 & are frequ5tly f\nd ) ! lat]al lobe ext5d$ on ea* side ( ! op5+ ( ! m\? into a horn-l projection 7,figure #cbg74 ,^! 7 discov]$ 9 ! cutt+s ( ! ,great ,we/]n ,railway1 ne> ,*ipp5ham1 9 #ahda1 & h be5 describ$ by ,mr4 ,pratt 7,an4 ,nat4 ,hi/41 ,nov41 #ahda74 ,fig4 #cbf3 ,belemnites ha/atus4 ,fig4 #cbg3 ,ammonites ,jason4 ,simil> elongat$ processes h be5 also obs]v$ to ext5d f ! %ells ( "s ,belemnites discov]$ by ,dr4 ,mantell 9 ! same clay 7see ,figure #cbh71 :o1 by ! aid ( ?is & o!r specim5s1 has be5 able to ?r[ mu* light on ! /ructure ( s+ul> ext9ct =ms ( cuttle-fi%4#c ,kell[ay ,rock4--,! ar5ace\s lime/one :i* passes "u ?is "n is g5]ally gr\p$ z a memb] ( ! ,ox=d clay1 9 :i* x =ms1 9 ! s\?-we/ ( ,engl&1 l5ticul> masses1 #h or #aj feet ?ick1 conta9+ at ,kell[ay1 9 ,wilt%ire1 num]\s ca/s ( ammonites & o!r %ells4 ,b 9 ,york%ire ?is calc>eo-ar5ace\s =mation ?ick5s to ab\t #cj feet1 & con/itutes ! l[] "p ( ! ,middle ,oolite1 ext5d+ inl& f ,sc>bor\gh 9 a s\!rly direction4 ,! numb] ( mollusca :i* x conta9s is1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,e!ridge1 #adc1 ( :i* only #cd1 or #bc p] c5t1 are common to ! ,ox=d clay prop]4 ,( ! #eb ,cephalopoda1 #ae 7namely #ac species ( ammonite1 ! ,ancyloc]as ,callovi5se & "o ,belemnite7 are common to ! ,ox=d ,clay1 giv+ a proportion ( ne>ly #cj p] c5t4 ,fig4 #cbh3 ,belemnites ,puzosianus4 ,,l[] ,,oolite4 ,cornbra% & ,=e/ ,m>ble4--,! upp] division ( ?is s]ies1 :i* is m ext5sive ?an ! prec$+ or ,middle ,oolite1 is call$ 9 ,engl& ! ,cornbra%1 z be+ a bra%y1 easily brok5 rock1 good = corn l&4 ,x consi/s ( clays & calc>e\s s&/ones1 :i* pass d[nw>d into ! ,=e/ ,m>ble1 an argillace\s lime/one1 ab\nd+ 9 m>9e fossils4 ,9 "s places1 z at ,brad=d1 ?is lime/one is replac$ by a mass ( clay4 ,! s&/ones ( ! ,=e/ ,m>ble ( ,wilt%ire are (t5 ripple-m>k$ & fill$ ) fragm5ts ( brok5 %ells & pieces ( drift-wood1 hav+ evid5tly be5 =m$ on a coa/4 ,rippl$ slabs ( fissile oolite are us$ = ro(+1 & h be5 trac$ ov] a broad b& ( c\ntry f ,brad=d 9 ,wilts1 to ,tetbury 9 ,gl\ce/]%ire4 ,^! calc>e\s tile-/ones are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by ?9 seams ( clay1 :i* h be5 deposit$ ^u !m1 & h tak5 _! =m1 pres]v+ ! undulat+ ridges & furr[s ( ! s& 9 su* complete integrity1 t ! impressions ( small foot/eps1 app>5tly ( cru/aceans1 :i* walk$ ov] ! s(t wet s&s1 are /ill visible4 ,9 ! same /one ! claws ( crabs1 fragm5ts ( e*9i1 & o!r signs ( a neighb\r+ bea*1 are obs]v$4#d ,great 7or ,ba?7 ,oolite4--,al?\gh ! "n ( ,coral ,rag has be5 appropriat$1 z we h se51 to a memb] ( ! ,middle ,oolite be=e describ$1 "s portions ( ! ,l[] ,oolite are equally entitl$ 9 _m places to be call$ corall9e lime/ones4 ,?us ! ,great ,oolite ne> ,ba? conta9s v>i\s corals1 among :i* ! ,eunomia radiata 7,fig4 #cbi7 is v conspicu\s1 s+le individuals =m+ masses sev]al feet 9 diamet]2 & hav+ probably requir$1 l ! l>ge exi/+ bra9-coral 7,me&r9a7 ( ! tropics1 _m c5turies be=e _! gr[? 0 complet$4 ,fig4 #cbi3 ,eunomia radiata4 ,diff]5t species ( cr9oids1 or /one-lilies1 are also common 9 ! same rocks ) corals2 &1 l !m1 mu/ h enjoy$ a firm bottom1 :]e _! base ( atta*m5t rema9$ undi/urb$ = ye>s 7c1 ,fig4 #ccj74 ,su* fossils1 !re=e1 are almo/ conf9$ to ! lime/ones2 b an exception occurs at ,brad=d1 ne> ,ba?1 :]e !y are envelop$ 9 clay sometimes #fj feet ?ick4 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 x appe>s t ! solid upp] surface ( ! 8,great ,oolite0 _h support$1 = a "t1 a ?ick subm>9e =e/ ( ^! beautiful zoophytes1 until ! cle> & /ill wat] 0 invad$ by a curr5t *>g$ ) mud1 :i* ?rew d[n ! /one-lilies1 & broke mo/ ( _! /ems %ort (f ne> ! po9t ( atta*m5t4 ,! /umps /ill rema9 9 _! orig9al position2 b ! num]\s articulations1 once compos+ ! /em1 arms1 & body ( ! encr9ite1 7 scatt]$ at r&om ?r\gh ! argillace\s deposit 9 :i* "s n[ lie pro/rate4 ,^! appe>ances are repres5t$ 9 ! section b1 ,fig4 #ccj1 :]e ! d>k] /rata repres5t ! ,brad=d clay1 :i* is h[ev] a =mation ( su* local developm5t t 9 _m places x _c easily be sep>at$ f ! clays ( ! ov]ly+ 8=e/-m>ble0 & und]ly+ 8full]'s e>?40 ,! upp] surface ( ! calc>e\s /one bel[ is completely incru/$ ov] ) a cont9u\s pavem5t1 =m$ by ! /ony roots or atta*m5ts ( ! ,cr9oidea2 & besides ?is evid5ce ( ! l5g? ( "t !y _h liv$ on ! spot1 we f9d great numb]s ( s+le jo9ts1 or circul> plates ( ! /em & body ( ! encr9ite1 cov]$ ov] ) s]pul4 ,n[ ^! s]pul c\ld only h begun to gr[ aft] ! dea? ( "s ( ! /one-lilies1 p>ts ( ^: skeletons _h be5 /rew$ ov] ! floor ( ! ocean be=e ! irruption ( argillace\s mud4 ,9 "s in/ances we f9d t1 aft] ! p>asitic s]pul 7 full gr[n1 !y _h become incru/$ ov] ) a bryozoan1 call$ ,dia/opora diluviana 7see b1 ,fig4 #cca72 & _m g5]ations ( ^! molluscoids _h succe$$ ea* o!r 9 ! pure wat] be=e !y became fossil4 ,fig4 #ccj3 ,apiocr9ites rotundus1 or ,pe> ,eucr9ite4 ,fig4 #cca3 a4 ,a+le plate ( body ( ,apiocr9us1 ov]gr[n ) s]pul & bryozoa2 b4 ,portion ( same magnifi$1 %[+ ! bryozoan ,dia/opora diluviana cov]+ "o ( ! s]pul4 ,we may1 !re=e1 p]ceive di/9ctly t1 z ! p9es & cycade\s plants ( ! anci5t 8dirt-b$10 or fossil =e/1 ( ! ,l[] ,purbeck 7 kill$ by subm]g5ce "u fre% wat]1 & soon buri$ b5ea? muddy s$im5t1 s an invasion ( argillace\s matt] put a sudd5 /op to ! gr[? ( ! ,brad=d ,encr9ites1 & l$ to _! pres]vation 9 m>9e /rata4 ,su* diff]5ces 9 ! fossils z di/+ui% ! calc>e\s & argillace\s deposits f ea* o!r1 w\ld be describ$ by naturali/s z aris+ out ( a diff]5ce 9 ! /ations ( species2 b besides ^!1 !re are v>iations 9 ! fossils ( ! high]1 middle1 & l[] "p ( ! oolitic s]ies1 :i* mu/ be ascrib$ to t great law ( *ange 9 organic life by :i* di/9ct assemblages ( species h be5 adapt$1 at successive geological p]iods1 to ! v>y+ conditions ( ! habitable surface4 ,9 a s+le di/rict x is difficult to decide h[ f> ! limitation ( species to c]ta9 m9or =mations has be5 due to ! local influ5ce ( /ations1 or h[ f> x has be5 caus$ by "t or ! law ( v>iation above allud$ to4 ,b we recognise ! reality ( ! la/-m5tion$ influ5ce1 :5 we contra/ ! :ole oolitic s]ies ( ,engl& ) t ( p>ts ( ! ,jura1 ,alps1 & o!r di/ant regions1 :]e1 al?\gh !re is sc>cely any li?ological resemblance1 yet "s ( ! same fossils rema9 peculi> 9 ea* c\ntry to ! ,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[] ,oolite =mations respectively4 ,mr4 ,?urmann has %[n h[ rem>kably ?is fact holds true 9 ! ,b]nese ,jura1 al?\gh ! argillace\s divisions1 s conspicu\s 9 ,engl&1 are feebly repres5t$ !re1 & "s entirely want+4 ,! calc>e\s portion ( ! ,great ,oolite consi/s ( sev]al %elly lime/ones1 "o ( :i*1 call$ ! ,ba? ,oolite1 is mu* celebrat$ z a build+-/one4 ,9 p>ts ( ,gl\ce/]%ire1 especially ne> ,m9*9hampton1 ! ,great ,oolite1 says ,mr4 ,lycett1 8mu/ h be5 deposit$ 9 a %all[ sea1 :]e /rong curr5ts prevail$1 = !re are frequ5t *anges 9 ! m9]al "* ( ! deposit1 & "s b$s exhibit false /ratification4 ,9 o!rs1 heaps ( brok5 %ells are m+l$ ) pebbles ( rocks =eign to ! neighb\rhood1 & ) fragm5ts ( abrad$ madrepores1 dicotyl$on\s wood1 & crabs' claws4 ,! %elly /rata1 also1 h occasionally suff]$ d5udation1 & ! remov$ portions h be5 replac$ by clay40 ,9 su* %all[-wat] b$s %ells ( ! g5]a ,patella1 ,n]ita1 ,rimula1 ,cyl9drites are common 7see ,figs4 #ccd to #ccg72 :ile cephalopods are r>e1 & in/ead ( ammonites & belemnites1 num]\s g5]a ( c>nivor\s tra*elipods appe>4 ,out ( #bbd species ( univalves obta9$ f ! ,m9*9hampton b$s1 ,mr4 ,lycett f\nd no less ?an #ej to be c>nivor\s4 ,!y belong pr9cipally to ! g5]a ,bucc9um1 ,pleurotoma1 ,ro/ell>ia1 ,murex1 ,purpuroidea 7,fig4 #ccc71 & ,fusus1 & exhibit a proportion ( zoophag\s species n v diff]5t f t :i* obta9s 9 seas ( ! ,rec5t p]iod4 ,^! zoological results are curi\s & unexpect$1 s9ce x 0 imag9$ t we might look 9 va9 = ! c>nivor\s tra*elipods 9 rocks ( su* high antiquity z ! ,great ,oolite1 & x 0 a receiv$ doctr9e t !y did n beg9 to appe> 9 consid]able numb]s till ! ,eoc5e p]iod1 :5 ^? two great families ( cephalopoda1 ! ammonites & belemnites1 & a great numb] ( o!r repres5tatives ( ! same class ( *amb]$ %ells1 _h become ext9ct4 ,fig4 #ccb3 ,t]ebratula digona4 ,fig4 #ccc3 ,purpuroidea nodulata4 ,fig4 #ccd3 ,cyl9drites acutus4 ,fig4 #cce3 ,patella rugosa4 ,fig4 #ccf3 ,n]ita co/ulata4 ,fig4 #ccg3 ,rimula 7,em>g9ula7 cla?rata4 ,/onesfield ,slate3 ,mammalia4--,! slate ( ,/onesfield has be5 %[n by ,mr4 ,lonsdale to lie at ! base ( ! ,great ,oolite4#e ,x is a slightly oolitic %elly lime/one1 =m+ l>ge l5ticul> masses imb$d$ 9 s& only six feet ?ick1 b v ri* 9 organic rema9s4 ,x conta9s "s pebbles ( a rock v simil> to itself1 & :i* may be portions ( ! deposit1 brok5 up on a %ore at l[ wat] or dur+ /orms1 & r$eposit$4 ,! rema9s ( belemnites1 trigoni1 & o!r m>9e %ells1 ) fragm5ts ( wood1 are common1 & impressions ( f]ns1 cycade1 & o!r plants4 ,sev]al insects1 also1 &1 among ! re/1 ! elytra or w+-cov]s ( beetles1 are p]fectly pres]v$ 7see ,fig4 #cch71 "s ( !m approa*+ ne>ly to ! g5us ,bupre/is4 ,! rema9s1 also1 ( _m g5]a ( reptiles1 su* z ,plesiosaur1 ,crocodile1 & ,pt]odactyl1 h be5 discov]$ 9 ! same lime/one4 ,fig4 #cch3 ,elytron ( ,bupre/is8 ,b ! rem>kable fossils = :i* ! ,/onesfield slate is mo/ celebrat$ are ^? ref]r$ to ! mammif]\s class4 ,! /ud5t %\ld be rem9d$ t 9 all ! rocks describ$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s z old] ?an ! ,eoc5e1 no bones ( any l&-quadrup$1 or ( any cetacean1 _h be5 discov]$ until ! ,spalaco!rium ( ! ,purbeck b$s came to light 9 #ahed4 ,yet we h se5 t t]re/rial plants 7 n want+ 9 ! ,upp] ,cretace\s =mation 7see p4 #cjb71 & t 9 ! ,weald5 !re 0 evid5ce ( fre%-wat] s$im5t on a l>ge scale1 conta9+ v>i\s plants1 & ev5 anci5t vegetable soils4 ,we _h also 9 ! same ,weald5 _m l&-reptiles & w+$ insects1 :i* r5d] ! abs5ce ( t]re/rial quadrup$s ! m /rik+4 ,! want1 h[ev]1 ( any bones ( :ales1 seals1 dolph9s1 & o!r aquatic mammalia1 :e!r 9 ! *alk or 9 ! upp] or middle oolite1 is c]ta9ly /ill m rem>kable4 ,^! obs]vations are made to prep>e ! read] to appreciate m ju/ly ! int]e/ felt by e geologi/ 9 ! discov]y 9 ! ,/onesfield slate ( no less ?an t5 specim5s ( l[] jaws ( mammif]\s quadrup$s1 belong+ to f\r diff]5t species & to ?ree di/9ct g5]a1 = :i* ! names ( ,amphi!rium1 ,phascolo!rium1 & ,/]eogna?us h be5 adopt$4 ,fig4 #cci3 ,tupaia ,tana4 ,"r ramus ( l[] jaw4 ,x is n[ g5]ally admitt$ t ^! or really ! rema9s ( mammalia 7al?\gh x 0 at fir/ sugge/$ t !y might be reptiles71 & ! only "q op5 to controv]sy is limit$ to ?is po9t1 :e!r ! fossil mammalia f\nd 9 ! ,l[] ,oolite ( ,ox=d%ire ought to be ref]r$ to ! m>supial quadrup$s1 or to ! ord9>y plac5tal s]ies4 ,cuvi] _h long ago po9t$ out a peculi>ity 9 ! =m ( ! angul> process 7c1 ,figs4 #cdb & #cdc7 ( ! l[] jaw1 z a "* ( ! g5us ,didelphys2 & ,pr(essor ,ow5 has s9ce confirm$ ! doctr9e ( its g5]ality 9 ! entire m>supial s]ies4 ,9 all ^! p\*$ quadrup$s ?is process is turn$ inw>d1 z at c1 d1 ,fig4 #cdb1 9 ! ,brazilian opossum1 :]eas 9 ! plac5tal s]ies1 z at c1 ,figs4 #cdj & #cda1 !re is an almo/ entire abs5ce ( su* inflection4 ,! ,tupaia ,tana ( ,sumatra has be5 select$ by ,mr4 ,wat]h\se = ?is illu/ration1 because ! jaws ( t small insectivor\s quadrup$ be> a great resemblance to ^? ( ! ,/onesfield ,amphi!rium4 ,by cle>+ away ! matrix f ! specim5 ( ,amphi!rium ,prevo/ii "h repres5t$ 7,fig4 #cdd71 ,pr(essor ,ow5 asc]ta9$ t ! angul> process 7c7 b5t inw>d 9 a slight] degree ?an 9 any ( ! kn[n m>supialia2 9 %ort1 ! inflection does n exce$ t ( ! mole or h$gehog4 ,?is fact made him d\bt :e!r ! ,amphi!rium might n be an insectivor\s plac5tal1 al?\gh x (f]$ "s po9ts ( approximation 9 its o/eology to ! m>supials1 especially to ! ,myrmecobius1 a small insectivor\s quadrup$ ( ,au/ralia1 :i* has n9e mol>s on ea* side ( ! l[] jaw1 besides a can9e & ?ree incisors4#f ,ano!r species ( ,amphi!rium has be5 f\nd at ,/onesfield 7,fig4 #cde71 :i* diff]s f ! =m] 7,fig4 #cdd7 pr9cipally 9 be+ l>g]4 ,fig4 #cdj3 ,"p ( l[] jaw ( ,tupaia ,tana4 ,fig4 #cda3 ,side view ( same4 ,fig4 #cdb3 ,"p ( l[] jaw ( ,didelphys ,az>4 ,fig4 #cdc3 ,side view ( same4 ,fig4 #cdd3 ,amphi!rium ,prevo/ii4 ,fig4 #cdd3 ,amphi!rium ,prevo/ii4 ,fig4 #cde3 ,amphi!rium ,brod]ipii4 ,fig4 #cdf3 ,phascolo!rium ,buckl&ii4 ,! second mammif]\s g5us discov]$ 9 ! same slates 0 nam$ orig9ally by ,mr4 ,brod]ip ,didelphys ,buckl&i 7see ,fig4 #cdf71 & has s9ce be5 call$ ,phascolo!rium by ,ow54 ,x manife/s a mu* /rong] lik5ess to ! m>supials 9 ! g5]al =m ( ! jaw1 & 9 ! ext5t & position ( its inflect$ angle1 :ile ! agreem5t ) ! liv+ g5us ,didelphys 9 ! numb] ( ! pre-mol> & mol> tee? is complete4#g ,9 #ahed ! rema9s ( ano!r mammif]1 small 9 size1 b l>g] ?an any ( ^? previ\sly kn[n1 0 br\ght to light4 ,! g5]ic "n ( ,/]eogna?us 0 giv5 to x1 &1 z is usually ! case 9 ^! old rocks 7see p4 #cbh71 x consi/$ ( "p ( a l[] jaw1 9 :i* 7 implant$ ?ree d\ble-fang$ tee?1 diff]+ 9 /ructure f ^? ( all o!r kn[n rec5t or ext9ct mammals4 ,plants ( ! ,oolite4--,! ,arauc>ian p9es1 :i* are n[ abundant 9 ,au/ralia & its isl&s1 toge!r ) m>supial quadrup$s1 are f\nd 9 l mann] to h accompani$ ! m>supials 9 ,europe dur+ ! ,oolitic p]iod 7see ,fig4 #cdh74 ,9 ! same rock endog5s ( ! mo/ p]fect /ructure are met )1 z1 = example1 fruits alli$ to ! ,p&anus1 su* z ! ,kaidac>pum ooliticum ( ,c>ru!rs 9 ! ,great ,oolite1 & ! ,podoc>ya ( ,buckl& 7see ,fig4 #cdg7 9 ! ,inf]ior ,oolite4 ,full]'s ,e>?4--,betwe5 ! ,great & ,inf]ior ,oolite ne> ,ba?1 an argillace\s deposit1 call$ 8! full]'s e>?10 occurs2 b x is want+ 9 ! nor? ( ,engl&4 ,x ab\nds 9 ! small oy/] repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #cdi4 ,! numb] ( mollusca kn[n 9 ?is deposit is ab\t sev5ty2 namely1 fifty ,lamellibran*iate ,bivalves1 t5 ,bra*iopods1 ?ree ,ga/]opods1 & sev5 or eight ,cephalopods4 ,fig4 #cdg3 ,portion ( a fossil fruit ( ,podoc>ya ,buckl&ii4 ,fig4 #cdh3 ,cone ( fossil ,arauc>ia sphroc>pa4 ,fig4 #cdi3 ,o/rea acum9ata4 ,inf]ior ,oolite4--,?is =mation consi/s ( a calc>e\s free/one1 usually ( small ?ickness1 b atta9+ 9 "s places1 z 9 ! typical area ( ,*elt5ham & ! ,we/]n ,cotswolds1 a ?ickness ( #bej feet4 ,x sometimes re/s ^u yell[ s&s1 =m]ly class$ z ! s&s ( ! ,inf]ior ,oolite1 b n[ reg>d$ z a memb] ( ! ,upp] ,lias4 ,^! s&s repose ^u ! ,upp] ,lias clays 9 ! s\? & we/ ( ,engl&4 ,! ,collywe/on slate1 =m]ly class$ ) ! ,great ,oolite1 & suppos$ to repres5t 9 ,nor?ampton%ire ! ,/onesfield slate1 is n[ f\nd to belong to ! ,inf]ior ,oolite1 bo? by community ( species & position 9 ! s]ies4 ,! ,collywe/on b$s1 on ! :ole1 assume a mu* m m>9e "* ?an ! ,/onesfield slate4 ,nev]!less1 "o ( ! fossil plants ,aroides ,/utt]di1 ,c>ru!rs1 rem>kable1 l ! ,p&anace\s species be=e m5tion$ 7,fig4 #cdg7 z a repres5tative ( ! monocotyl$on\s class1 is common to ! ,/onesfield b$s 9 ,ox=d%ire4 ,! ,inf]ior ,oolite ( ,york%ire consi/s l>gely ( %ales & s&/ones1 :i* assume mu* ! aspect ( a true coal-field1 ?9 seams ( coal hav+ actually be5 work$ 9 !m = m ?an a c5tury4 ,a ri* h>ve/ ( fossil f]ns has be5 obta9$ f !m1 z at ,gri/horpe1 ne> ,sc>bor\gh 7,fig4 #cej74 ,!y conta9 also ,cycade1 ( :i* family a magnific5t specim5 has be5 describ$ by ,mr4 ,williamson "u ! "n ,zamia gigas1 & a fossil call$ ,equisetum ,column>e 7see ,fig4 #cig71 :i* ma9ta9s an upright position 9 s&/one /rata ov] a wide area4 ,%ells ( ,e/h]ia & ,unio1 collect$ by ,mr4 ,bean f ^! ,york%ire coal-be>+ b$s1 po9t to ! e/u>y or fluviatile orig9 ( ! deposit4 ,fig4 #cej3 ,hemitelites ,br[nii4 ,at ,brora1 9 ,su!rl&%ire1 a coal =mation1 probably coeval ) ! above1 or at lea/ belong+ to "s ( ! l[] divisions ( ! ,oolitic p]iod1 has be5 m9$ ext5sively = a c5tury or m4 ,x af=ds ! ?icke/ /ratum ( pure vegetable matt] hi!rto detect$ 9 any second>y rock 9 ,engl&4 ,"o seam ( coal ( good quality has be5 work$ ?ree & a half feet ?ick1 & !re are sev]al feet m ( pyrit\s coal re/+ ^u x4 ,fig4 #cea3 ,t]ebratula fimbria4 ,fig4 #ceb3 ,rhyn*onella sp9osa4 ,fig4 #cec3 ,pholadomya fidicula4 ,among ! *>act]i/ic %ells ( ! ,inf]ior ,oolite1 ,i may in/ance ,t]ebratula fimbria 7,fig4 #cea71 ,rhyn*onella sp9osa 7,fig4 #ceb71 & ,pholadomya fidicula 7,fig4 #cec74 ,! ext9ct g5us ,pleurotom>ia is also a =m v common 9 ?is division z well z 9 ! ,oolitic sy/em g5]ally4 ,x resembles ! ,tro*us 9 =m1 b is m>k$ by a deep cleft 7a1 ,figs4 #ced1 #cee7 on "o side ( ! m\?4 ,! ,collyrites 7,dysa/]7 r+5s 7,fig4 #cef7 is an ,e*9od]m common to ! ,inf]ior ,oolite ( ,engl& & ,france1 z are ! two ,ammonites 7,figs4 #ceg1 #ceh74 ,fig4 #ced3 ,pleurotom>ia granulata4 ,fig4 #cee3 ,pleurotom>ia ornata4 ,fig4 #cef3 ,collyrites 7,dysa/]7 r+5s4 ,fig4 #ceg3 ,ammonites ,humphresianus4 ,fig4 #ceh3 ,ammonites ,braik5ridgii4 ,fig4 #cei3 ,o/rea ,m>%ii4 ,palontological ,relations ( ! ,oolitic ,/rata4--,obs]vations h already be5 made on ! di/9ctness ( ! organic rema9s ( ! ,oolitic & ,cretace\s /rata1 & ! proportion ( species common to ! diff]5t memb]s ( ! ,oolite4 ,betwe5 ! ,l[] ,oolite & ! ,lias !re is a some:at great] break1 = out ( #bef mollusca ( ! ,upp] ,lias1 ?irty-sev5 species only pass up into ! ,inf]ior ,oolite4 ,fig4 #cfj3 ,ammonites macrocephalus4 ,9 illu/ration ( %ells hav+ a great v]tical range1 x may be /at$ t 9 ,engl& "s few species pass up f ! ,l[] to ! ,upp] ,oolite1 z1 = example1 ,rhyn*onella obsoleta1 ,li?odomus inclusus1 ,pholadomya ovalis1 & ,trigonia co/ata4 ,( all ! ,jurassic ,ammonites ( ,great ,brita91 ,a4 macrocephalus 7,fig4 #cfj71 :i* is common to ! ,great ,oolite & ,ox=d ,clay1 has ! wide/ range4 ,we h e reason to conclude t ! gaps :i* occur1 bo? betwe5 ! l>g] & small] sections ( ! ,engli% ,oolites1 imply int]vals ( "t1 else:]e repres5t$ by fossilif]\s /rata1 al?\gh no deposit may h tak5 place 9 ! ,briti% area4 ,?is conclusion is w>rant$ by ! p>tial ext5t ( _m ( ! m9or & "s ( ! l>g] divisions ev5 9 ,engl&4 #a ,elem5ts ( ,geology1 #d? edition4 #b ,i allude to sev]al ,zeuglodons f\nd 9 ,alabama1 & ref]r$ by "s zoologi/s to ?ree species4 #c ,see ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahej1 p4 #cfc2 also ,huxley1 ,memoirs ( ,geol4 ,survey1 #ahfd2 ,phillips1 ,palont4 ,soc4 #d ,p4 ,scrope1 ,proc4 ,geol4 ,soc41 ,m>*1 #ahca4 #e ,proce$+s ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 i1 p4 #dad4 #f ,a figure ( ?is rec5t ,myrmecobius w be f\nd 9 my ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 *ap4 ix4 #g ,ow5's ,briti% ,fossil ,mammals1 p4 #fb4 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,jurassic ,,gr\p--cont9u$--,,lias4 ,m9]al ,"* ( ,lias4 -- ,num]\s successive ,zones 9 ! ,lias1 m>k$ by di/9ct ,fossils1 )\t ,uncon=mity 9 ! ,/ratification1 or ,*ange 9 ! ,m9]al ,"* ( ! ,deposits4 -- ,gryphite ,lime/one4 -- ,%ells ( ! ,lias4 -- ,fi% ( ! ,lias4 -- ,reptiles ( ! ,lias4 -- ,i*?yosaur & ,plesiosaur4 -- ,m>9e ,reptile ( ! ,galapagos ,isl&s4 -- ,sudd5 ,de/ruction & ,burial ( ,fossil ,animals 9 ,lias4 -- ,fluvio-m>9e ,b$s 9 ,gl\ce/]%ire1 & ,insect ,lime/one4 -- ,fossil ,plants4 -- ,! orig9 ( ! ,oolite & ,lias1 & ( alt]nat+ ,calc>e\s & ,argillace\s ,=mations4 ,lias4--,! ,engli% prov9cial "n ( ,lias has be5 v g5]ally adopt$ = a =mation ( argillace\s lime/one1 m>l1 & clay1 :i* =ms ! base ( ! ,oolite1 & is class$ by _m geologi/s z "p ( t gr\p4 ,! peculi> aspect :i* is mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ! ,lias 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,g]many1 is an alt]nation ( ?9 b$s ( blue or grey lime/one1 hav+ a surface :i* becomes light-br[n :5 wea!r$1 ^! b$s be+ sep>at$ by d>k-col\r$1 n>r[ argillace\s p>t+s1 s t ! qu>ries ( ?is rock1 at a di/ance1 assume a /rip$ & ribbon-l appe>ance4 ,! ,lias has be5 divid$ 9 ,engl& into ?ree gr\ps1 ! ,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[]4 ,! ,upp] ,lias consi/s fir/ ( s&s1 :i* 7 =m]ly reg>d$ z ! base ( ! ,oolite1 b :i*1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,wright1 are by _! fossils m prop]ly ref]able to ! ,lias2 secondly1 ( clay %ale & ?9 b$s ( lime/one4 ,! ,middle ,lias1 or m>l-/one s]ies1 has be5 divid$ into ?ree zones2 & ! ,l[] ,lias1 accord+ to ! lab\rs ( ,qu5/$t1 ,oppel1 ,/rickl&1 ,wright1 & o!rs1 into sev5 zones1 ea* m>k$ by its own gr\p ( fossils4 ,?is ,l[] ,lias av]ages f #fjj to #ijj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,f ,devon & ,dorset%ire to ,york%ire all ^! divisions1 obs]ves ,pr(essor ,ramsay1 are con/ant2 & f top to bottom we _c ass]t t any:]e !re is actual uncon=mity betwe5 any two subdivisions1 :e!r ( ! l>g] or small] k9d4 ,9 ! :ole ( ! ,engli% ,lias !re are at pres5t kn[n ab\t #icg species ( mollusca1 & ( ^! #bfg are ,cephalopods1 ( :i* class m ?an two-?irds are ,ammonites1 ! ,nautilus & ,belemnite also ab\nd+4 ,! :ole s]ies has be5 divid$ by zones *>act]is$ by p>ticul> ,ammonites2 = :ile o!r families ( %ells pass f "o division to ano!r 9 numb]s v>y+ f ab\t #bj to #ej p] c5t1 ^! cephalopods are almo/ always limit$ to s+le zones1 z ,qu5/$t & ,oppel h %[n = ,g]many1 & ,dr4 ,wright & o!rs = ,engl&4 ,z no actual uncon=mity is kn[n f ! top ( ! ,upp] to ! bottom ( ! ,l[] ,lias1 & z !re is a m>k$ uni=mity 9 ! m9]al "* ( almo/ all ! /rata1 x is some:at difficult to acc\nt ev5 = su* p>tial breaks z h be5 allud$ to 9 ! succession ( species1 if we reject ! hypo!sis t ! old species 7 9 ea* case de/roy$ at ! close ( ! deposition ( ! rocks conta9+ !m1 & replac$ by ! creation ( new =ms :5 ! succe$+ =mation began4 ,i agree ) ,pr(essor ,ramsay 9 n accept+ ?is hypo!sis4 ,no d\bt "s ( ! old species occasionally di$ out1 & left no repres5tatives 9 ,europe or else:]e2 o!rs 7 locally ext]m9at$ 9 ! /ruggle = life by species :i* invad$ _! anci5t doma91 or by v>ieties bett] fitt$ = a new /ate ( ?+s4 ,pauses also ( va/ duration may h occurr$ 9 ! deposition ( /rata1 all[+ "t = ! modification ( organic life ?r\gh\t ! globe1 sl[ly br\ght ab\t by v>iation accompani$ by ext9ction ( ! orig9al =ms4 ,fig4 #cfa3 ,plagio/oma 7,lima7 giganteum4 ,fig4 #cfb3 ,grypha incurva4 ,fossils ( ! ,lias4--,! "n ( ,gryphite lime/one has sometimes be5 appli$ to ! ,lias1 9 consequ5ce ( ! great numb] ( %ells :i* x conta9s ( a species ( oy/]1 or ,grypha 7,fig4 #cfb74 ,a l>ge heavy %ell call$ ,hippopodium 7,fig4 #cfe71 alli$ to ,cypric>dia1 is also *>act]i/ic ( ! upp] "p ( ! ,l[] ,lias4 ,9 ?is =mation occur also ! ,aviculas1 ,figs4 #cfc & #cfd4 ,! ,lias =mation is also rem>kable = be+ ! newe/ ( ! second>y rocks 9 :i* bra*iopoda ( ! g5]a ,spirif] & ,leptna 7,figs4 #cff1 #cfg7 occur1 al?\gh ! =m] is slightly modifi$ 9 /ructure s z to con/itute ! subg5us ,spirif]9a1 ,davidson1 & ! ,leptna has dw9dl$ to a %ell small] 9 size ?an a pea4 ,no less ?an eight or n9e species ( ,spirif]9a are enum]at$ by ,mr4 ,davidson z belong+ to ! ,lias4 ,palliobran*iate mollusca pr$om9ate greatly 9 /rata old] ?an ! ,trias2 b1 s f> z we yet "k1 !y did n survive ! ,liassic epo*4 ,fig4 #cfc3 ,avicula 9quivalvis4 ,fig4 #cfd3 ,avicula cygnipes4 ,fig4 #cfe3 ,hippopodium pond]osum4 ,fig4 #cff3 ,spirif]9a 7,spirif]a74 ,fig4 #cfg3 ,leptna ,moorei4 ,fig4 #cfh3 ,ammonites ,buckl&i4 ,fig4 #cfi3 ,ammonites planorbis4 ,fig4 #cgj3 ,nautilus truncatus4 ,fig4 #cga3 ,ammonites bifrons4 ,allusion has already be5 made1 p4 #ced1 to num]\s zones 9 ! ,lias hav+ ea* _! peculi> ,ammonites4 ,two ( ^! occur ne> ! base ( ! ,l[] ,lias1 hav+ a unit$ ?ickness1 v>y+ f #dj to #hj feet4 ,! upp] ( ^! is *>act]is$ by ,ammonites ,buckl&i1 & ! l[] by ,ammonites planorbis 7see ,figs4 #cfh1 #cfi74a ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 !re is a ?ird int]m$iate zone1 t ( ,ammonites angulatus1 :i* is ! equival5t ( ! zone call$ ! infra-lias on ! ,cont95t1 ! species ( :i* are = ! mo/ "p common to ! sup]ior gr\p m>k$ by ,ammonites ,buckl&i4 ,fig4 #cgb3 ,ammonites m>g>itatus4 ,among ! ,cr9oids or ,/one-lilies ( ! ,lias1 ! ,p5tacr9ites are conspicu\s4 7,see ,fig4 #cgc47 ,( ,palocoma 7,ophiod]ma7 ,eg]toni 7,fig4 #cgd71 ref]able to ! ,ophiurid ( ,mull]1 p]fect specim5s h be5 met ) 9 ! ,middle ,lias b$s ( ,dorset & ,york%ire4 ,fig4 #cgc3 ,extracr9us 7,p5tacr9us7 ,bri>eus4 ,fig4 #cgd3 ,palocoma 7,ophiod]ma7 t5uibra*iata4 ,! ,extracr9us ,bri>eus 7remov$ by ,major ,au/9 f ,p5tacr9us on acc\nt ( g5]ic diff]5ces7 occurs 9 tangl$ masses1 =m+ ?9 b$s ( consid]able ext5t1 9 ! ,l[] ,lias ( ,dorset1 ,gl\ce/]%ire1 & ,york%ire4 ,! rema9s are (t5 highly *>g$ ) pyrites4 ,?is ,cr9oid1 ) its innum]able t5tacul> arms1 appe>s to h be5 frequ5tly atta*$ to ! driftwood ( ! liassic sea1 9 ! same mann] z ,b>nacles float ab\t on wood at ! pres5t day4 ,!re is ano!r species ( ,extracr9us & sev]al ( ,p5tacr9us 9 ! ,lias2 & ! latt] g5us is f\nd 9 ne>ly all ! =mations f ! ,lias to ! ,london ,clay inclusive4 ,x is repres5t$ 9 ! pres5t seas by ! delicate & r>e ,p5tacr9us caput-m$us ( ! ,antilles1 :i*1 ) ,comatula1 is "o ( ! few surviv+ memb]s ( ! anci5t family ( ! ,cr9oids1 repres5t$ by s _m ext9ct g5]a 9 ! old] =mations4 ,fig4 #cge3 ,scales ( ,lepidotus gigas4 ,fig4 #cgf3 a4 ,scales ( *modus ,lea*ii1 b4 *modus 7re/or$ outl9e71 c4 ,scales ( ,dap$ius monilif]4 ,fi%es ( ! ,lias4--,! fossil fi%1 ( :i* !re are no less ?an #aag species kn[n z ,briti%1 resemble g5]ically ^? ( ! ,oolite1 b diff]1 accord+ to ,m4 ,agassiz1 f ^? ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod4 ,among !m is a species ( ,lepidotus 7,l4 gigas1 ,agassiz71 ,fig4 #cge1 :i* is f\nd 9 ! ,lias ( ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,g]many4#b ,?is g5us 0 be=e m5tion$ 7p4 #caf7 z occurr+ 9 ! ,weald51 & is suppos$ to h frequ5t$ bo? riv]s & sea-coa/s4 ,ano!r g5us ( ,ganoids 7or fi% ) h>d1 %9+1 & enamell$ scales71 call$ *modus 7,fig4 #cgf71 is almo/ exclusively ,liassic4 ,! tee? ( a species ( ,acrodus1 also1 are v abundant 9 ! ,lias 7,fig4 #cgg74 ,fig4 #cgg3 ,acrodus nobilis4 ,fig4 #cgh3 ,hybodus reticulatus1 a4 ,"p ( f91 commonly call$ ,i*?yodorylite1 b4 ,too?4 ,b ! rema9s ( fi% :i* h excit$ m att5tion ?an any o!rs are ^? l>ge bony sp9es call$ i*?yodorulites 7a1 ,figure #cgh71 :i* 7 once suppos$ by "s naturali/s to be jaws1 & by o!rs weapons1 resembl+ ^? ( ! liv+ ,bali/es & ,silurus2 b :i* ,m4 ,agassiz has %[n to be nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r4 ,! sp9es1 9 ! g5]a la/ m5tion$1 articulate ) ! backbone1 :]eas !re are no signs ( any su* articulation 9 ! i*?yodorulites4 ,fig4 #cgi3 ,*imra mon/rosa4 ,fig4 #cgi3 ,*imra mon/rosa4#c ,^! la/ appe> to h be5 bony sp9es :i* =m$ ! ant]ior "p ( ! dorsal f91 l t ( ! liv+ g5]a ,ce/racion & ,*imra 7see a1 ,figure #cgi74 ,9 bo? ( ^! g5]a1 ! po/]ior concave face is arm$ ) small sp9es1 z 9 t ( ! fossil ,hybodus 7,fig4 #cgh71 a placoid fi% ( ! %>k family f\nd fossil at ,lyme ,regis4 ,su* sp9es are simply imb$d$ 9 ! fle%1 & atta*$ to /rong muscles4 8,!y s]ve10 says ,dr4 ,buckl&1 8z 9 ! ,*imra 7,fig4 #cgi71 to raise & depress ! f91 _! action resembl+ t ( a movable ma/1 rais+ & l[]+ backw>d ! sail ( a b>ge40#d ,reptiles ( ! ,lias4--,x is n1 h[ev]1 ! fossil fi% :i* =m ! mo/ /rik+ feature 9 ! organic rema9s ( ! ,lias2 b ! ,enaliosaurian reptiles1 :i* are extraord9>y = _! numb]1 size1 & /ructure4 ,among ! mo/ s+ul> ( ^! are sev]al species ( ,i*?yosaurus & ,plesiosaurus 7,figs4 #chj1 #cha74 ,! g5us ,i*?yosaurus1 or fi%-liz>d1 is n conf9$ to ?is =mation1 b has be5 f\nd 9 /rata z high z ! ,:ite ,*alk ( ,engl&1 & z l[ z ! ,trias ( ,g]many1 a =mation :i* imm$iately succe$s ! ,lias 9 ! desc5d+ ord]4 ,x is evid5t f _! fi%-l v]tebr1 _! paddles1 resembl+ ^? ( a porpoise or :ale1 ! l5g? ( _! tail1 & o!r p>ts ( _! /ructure1 t ! ,i*?yosaurs 7 aquatic4 ,_! jaws & tee? %[ t !y 7 c>nivor\s2 & ! half-dige/$ rema9s ( fi%es & reptiles1 f\nd )9 _! skeletons1 indicate ! precise nature ( _! food4 ,mr4 ,conybe>e 0 enabl$1 9 #ahbd1 aft] exam9+ _m skeletons ne>ly p]fect1 to give an ideal re/oration ( ! o/eology ( ?is g5us1 & ( t ( ! ,plesiosaurus4#e 7,see ,figs4 #chj1 #cha47 ,! latt] animal _h an extremely long neck & small head1 ) tee? l ^? ( ! crocodile1 & paddles analog\s to ^? ( ! ,i*?yosaurus1 b l>g]4 ,x is suppos$ to h liv$ 9 %all[ seas & e/u>ies1 & to h brea!d air l ! ,i*?yosaur & our mod]n cetacea4#f ,"s ( ! reptiles above m5tion$ 7 ( =midable dim5sions4 ,"o specim5 ( ,i*?yosaurus platydon1 f ! ,lias at ,lyme1 n[ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 mu/ h belong$ to an animal m ?an #bd feet 9 l5g?2 & !re are species ( ,plesiosaurus :i* measure f #ah to #bj feet 9 l5g?4 ,! =m ( ! ,i*?yosaurus may h fitt$ x to cut ?r\gh ! waves l ! porpoise2 z x 0 furni%$ besides its paddles ) a tail-f9 s con/ruct$ z to be a p[]ful organ ( motion2 b x is suppos$ t ! ,plesiosaurus1 at lea/ ! long-neck$ species 7,fig4 #cha71 0 bett] suit$ to fi% 9 %all[ creeks & bays def5d$ f heavy break]s4 ,x is n[ v g5]ally agre$ t ^! ext9ct saurians mu/ h inhabit$ ! sea2 & x 0 urg$ t z !re are n[ *elonians1 l ! tortoise1 liv+ 9 fre% wat]1 & o!rs1 z ! turtle1 frequ5t+ ! ocean1 s !re may h be5 =m]ly "s saurians prop] to salt1 o!rs to fre% wat]4 ,! common crocodile ( ! ,ganges is well-kn[n to frequ5t equally t riv] & ! bracki% & salt wat] ne> its m\?2 & crocodiles are said 9 l mann] to be abundant bo? 9 ! riv]s ( ! ,isla de ,p9os 7,isle ( ,p9es71 s\? ( ,cuba1 & 9 ! op5 sea r\nd ! coa/4 ,9 #ahce a curi\s liz>d 7,amblyrhyn*us cri/atus7 0 discov]$ by ,mr4 ,d>w9 9 ! ,galapagos ,isl&s4#g ,x 0 f\nd to be exclusively m>9e1 swimm+ easily by means ( its flatt5$ tail1 & subsi/+ *iefly on seawe$4 ,"o ( !m 0 sunk f ! %ip by a heavy weight1 & on be+ drawn up aft] an h\r 0 q unh>m$4 ,fig4 #chj3 ,skeleton ( ,i*?yosaurus communis1 re/or$ by ,conybe>e & ,cuvi]4 ,fig4 #cha3 ,skeleton ( ,plesiosaurus doli*odeirus1 re/or$ by ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,conybe>e4 ,! families ( ,d9osauria1 crocodiles1 & ,pt]osauria or w+$ reptiles1 are also repres5t$ 9 ! ,lias4 ,sudd5 ,de/ruction ( ,saurians4--,x has be5 rem>k$1 & truly1 t _m ( ! fi% & saurians1 f\nd fossil 9 ! ,lias1 mu/ h met ) sudd5 dea? & imm$iate burial2 & t ! de/ructive op]ation1 :atev] may h be5 its nature1 0 (t5 repeat$4 8,sometimes10 says ,dr4 ,buckl&1 8sc>cely a s+le bone or scale has be5 remov$ f ! place x occupi$ dur+ life2 :i* c\ld n h happ5$ _h ! uncov]$ bodies ( ^! saurians be5 left1 ev5 = a few h\rs1 expos$ to putrefaction1 & to ! attacks ( fi%es & o!r small] animals at ! bottom ( ! sea40#h ,n only are ! skeletons ( ! ,i*?yosaurs entire1 b sometimes ! cont5ts ( _! /oma*s /ill rema9 betwe5 _! ribs1 z be=e rem>k$1 s t we c discov] ! p>ticul> species ( fi% on :i* !y liv$1 & ! =m ( _! excrem5ts4 ,n unfrequ5tly !re are lay]s ( ^! coprolites1 at diff]5t dep?s 9 ! ,lias1 at a di/ance f any entire skeletons ( ! m>9e liz>ds f :i* !y 7 d]iv$2 8z if10 says ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e1 8! muddy bottom ( ! sea receiv$ small sudd5 accessions ( matt] f "t to "t1 cov]+ up ! coprolites & o!r exuvi :i* _h accumulat$ dur+ ! int]vals40#i ,x is fur!r /at$ t1 at ,lyme ,regis1 ^? surfaces only ( ! coprolites :i* lay upp]mo/ at ! bottom ( ! sea h suff]$ p>tial decay1 f ! action ( wat] be=e !y 7 cov]$ & protect$ by ! muddy s$im5t t has aft]w>ds p]man5tly envelop$ !m4 ,num]\s specim5s ( ! ,calam>y or p5-&-ink fi%1 7,geoteu?is boll5sis7 h also be5 met ) 9 ! ,lias at ,lyme1 ) ! ink-bags /ill di/5d$1 conta9+ ! ink 9 a dri$ /ate1 *iefly compos$ ( c>bon1 & b slightly impregnat$ ) c>bonate ( lime4 ,^! ,cephalopoda1 !re=e1 mu/1 l ! saurians1 h be5 soon buri$ 9 s$im5t2 =1 if long expos$ aft] dea?1 ! membrane conta9+ ! ink w\ld h decay$4#aj ,z we "k t riv]-fi% are sometimes /ifl$1 ev5 9 _! own elem5t1 by muddy wat] dur+ floods1 x _c be d\bt$ t ! p]iodical dis*>ge ( l>ge bodies ( turbid fre% wat] 9 ! sea may be /ill m fatal to m>9e tribes4 ,9 ! 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology0 ,i h %[n t l>ge quantities ( mud & dr[n$ animals h be5 swept d[n into ! sea by riv]s dur+ e>?quakes1 z 9 ,java 9 #afii2 & t indescribable multitudes ( dead fi%es h be5 se5 float+ on ! sea aft] a dis*>ge ( noxi\s vap\rs dur+ simil> convulsions4 ,b 9 ! int]vals betwe5 su* cata/rophes1 /rata may h accumulat$ sl[ly 9 ! sea ( ! ,lias1 "s be+ =m$ *iefly ( "o description ( %ell1 su* z ammonites1 o!rs ( gryphites4 ,fig4 #chb3 ,w+ ( a neuropt]\s insect4 ,fre%-wat] ,deposits4--,insect-b$s4--,f ! above rem>ks ! read] w inf] t ! ,lias is = ! mo/ "p a m>9e deposit4 ,"s memb]s1 h[ev]1 ( ! s]ies h an e/u>9e "*1 & mu/ h be5 =m$ )9 ! influ5ce ( riv]s4 ,at ! base ( ! ,upp] & ,l[] ,lias respectively1 insect-b$s appe> to be almo/ ev]y:]e pres5t ?r\gh\t ! ,midl& & ,s\?-we/]n di/ricts ( ,engl&4 ,^! b$s are cr[d$ ) ! rema9s ( insects1 small fi%1 & cru/aceans1 ) occasional m>9e %ells4 ,"o b& 9 ,gl\ce/]%ire1 r>ely exce$+ a foot 9 ?ickness1 has be5 nam$ ! 8insect lime/one40 ,x passes upw>d1 says ! ,rev]5d ,p4 ,b4 ,brodie1#aa into a %ale conta9+ ,cypris & ,e/h]ia1 & is full ( ! w+-cases ( sev]al g5]a ( ,coleopt]a1 ) "s ne>ly entire beetles1 ( :i* ! eyes are pres]v$4 ,! n]vures ( ! w+s ( neuropt]\s insects 7,figure #chb7 are beautifully p]fect 9 ?is b$4 ,f]ns1 ) ,cycads & leaves ( monocotyl$on\s plants1 & "s app>5tly bracki% & fre%-wat] %ells1 accompany ! insects 9 sev]al places1 :ile 9 o!rs m>9e %ells pr$om9ate1 ! fossils v>y+ app>5tly z we exam9e ! b$ ne>] or f>!r f ! anci5t l&1 or ! s\rce :5ce ! fre% wat] 0 d]iv$4 ,aft] /udy+ #cjj specim5s ( ^! insects f ! ,lias1 ,mr4 ,we/wood decl>es t !y comprise bo? wood-eat+ & h]b-dev\r+ beetles1 ( ! ,l9nean g5]a ,elat]1 ,c>abus1 etc41 besides gras%opp]s 7,gryllus71 & deta*$ w+s ( dragon-flies & may-flies1 or insects ref]able to ! ,l9nean g5]a ,libellula1 ,ephem]a1 ,hem]obius1 & ,panorpa1 9 all belong+ to no less ?an tw5ty-f\r families4 ,! size ( ! species is usually small1 & su* z tak5 alone w\ld imply a temp]ate climate2 b _m ( ! associat$ organic rema9s ( o!r classes mu/ lead to a diff]5t conclusion4 ,fossil ,plants4--,among ! vegetable rema9s ( ! ,lias1 sev]al species ( ,zamia h be5 f\nd at ,lyme ,regis1 & ! rema9s ( conif]\s plants at ,:itby4 ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongni>t enum]ates =ty-sev5 liassic acrog5s1 mo/ ( !m f]ns2 & fifty gymnosp]ms1 ( :i* ?irty-n9e are cycads1 & elev5 conif]s4 ,among ! cycads ! pr$om9ance ( ,zamites1 & among ! f]ns ! num]\s g5]a ) leaves hav+ reticulat$ ve9s 7z 9 ,fig4 #cdi71 are m5tion$ z botanical *>act]i/ics ( ?is era4#ab ,! abs5ce z yet f ! ,lias & ,oolite ( all signs ( dicotyl$on\s angiosp]ms is wor?y ( notice4 ,! leaves ( su* plants are frequ5t 9 t]ti>y /rata1 & occur 9 ! ,cretace\s1 ?\gh less pl5tifully 7see p4 #cjc74 ,! angiosp]ms seem1 !re=e1 to h be5 at ! lea/ comp>atively r>e 9 ^! old] second>y p]iods1 :5 m space 0 occupi$ by ! ,cycads & ,conif]s4 ,orig9 ( ! ,oolite & ,lias4--,! entire gr\p ( ,oolite & ,lias consi/s ( repeat$ alt]nations ( clay1 s&/one1 & lime/one1 foll[+ ea* o!r 9 ! same ord]4 ,?us ! clays ( ! ,lias are foll[$ by ! s&s n[ consid]$ 7see p4 #cec7 z belong+ to ! same =mation1 ?\gh =m]ly ref]r$ to ! ,inf]ior ,oolite1 & ^! s&s aga9 by ! %elly & corall9e lime/one call$ ! ,great or ,ba? ,oolite4 ,s1 9 ! ,middle ,oolite1 ! ,ox=d ,clay is foll[$ by calc>e\s grit & coral rag2 la/ly1 9 ! ,upp] ,oolite1 ! ,kimm]idge ,clay is foll[$ by ! ,portl& ,s& & lime/one 7see ,fig4 #bih74ac ,! clay b$s1 h[ev]1 z ,sir ,h4 de la ,be*e rem>ks1 c be foll[$ ov] l>g] areas ?an ! s& or s&/ones4#ad ,x %\ld also be rememb]$ t :ile ! ,oolite sy/em becomes ar5ace\s & resembles a coal-field 9 ,york%ire1 x assumes 9 ! ,alps an almo/ purely calc>e\s =m1 ! s&s & clays be+ omitt$2 & ev5 9 ! int]v5+ tracts x is m complicat$ & v>iable ?an appe>s 9 ord9>y descriptions4 ,nev]!less1 "s ( ! clays & int]v5+ lime/ones d reta91 9 reality1 a pretty uni=m "* = di/ances ( f #djj to #fjj miles f ea/ to we/ & nor? to s\?4 ,9 ord] to acc\nt = su* a succession ( ev5ts1 we may imag9e1 fir/1 ! b$ ( ! ocean to be ! receptacle = ages ( f9e argillace\s s$im5t1 br\ght by oceanic curr5ts1 :i* may h communicat$ ) riv]s1 or ) "p ( ! sea ne> a wa/+ coa/4 ,?is mud ceases1 at l5g?1 to be convey$ to ! same region1 ei!r because ! l& :i* _h previ\sly suff]$ d5udation is depress$ & subm]g$1 or because ! curr5t is deflect$ 9 ano!r direction by ! alt]$ %ape ( ! b$ ( ! ocean & neighb\r+ dry l&4 ,by su* *anges ! wat] becomes once m cle> & fit = ! gr[? ( /ony zoophytes4 ,calc>e\s s& is !n =m$ f comm9ut$ %ell & coral1 or1 9 "s cases1 ar5ace\s matt] replaces ! clay2 because x commonly happ5s t ! f9] s$im5t1 be+ fir/ drift$ f>!/ f coa/s1 is subsequ5tly ov]spread by co>se s&1 aft] ! sea has gr[n %all[]1 or :5 ! l&1 increas+ 9 ext5t1 :e!r by upheaval or by s$im5t fill+ up p>ts ( ! sea1 has approa*$ ne>] to ! spots fir/ occupi$ by f9e mud4 ,! increas$ ?ickness ( ! lime/ones 9 ^? regions1 z 9 ! ,alps & ,jura1 :]e ! clays are comp>atively ?91 arises f ! calc>e\s matt] hav+ be5 d]iv$ f species ( corals & o!r organic be+s :i* live 9 cle> wat]1 f> f l&1 to ! gr[? ( :i* ! influx ( mud w\ld be unfav\rable4 ,portions !re=e ( ^! clays & lime/ones h probably be5 =m$ contemporane\sly to a great] ext5t ?an we c g5]ally prove1 = ! di/9ctness ( ! species ( organic be+s w\ld be caus$ by ! diff]5ce ( conditions betwe5 ! m littoral & ! m pelagic areas & ! diff]5t dep?s & nature ( ! sea-bottom4 ,indep5d5tly ( ^? asc5d+ & desc5d+ movem5ts :i* h giv5 rise to ! sup]position ( ! lime/ones & clays1 & by :i* ! position ( l& & sea are made 9 ! c\rse ( ages to v>y1 ! geologi/ has ! difficult task ( all[+ = ! contemporane\s ?9n+ out 9 "o direction & ?ick5+ 9 ano!r1 ( ! successive organic & inorganic deposits ( ! same era4 #a ,qu>t4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xvi1 p4 #cgf4 #b ,agassiz1 ,poissons ,fossiles1 vol4 ii1 tab4 #bh1 #bi4 #c ,agassiz1 ,poissons ,fossiles1 vol4 iii1 tab4 ,c1 ,fig4 #a4 #d ,bridgewat] ,treatise1 p4 #bij4 #e ,geol4 ,soc4 ,transactions1 ,second ,s]ies1 vol4 i1 p4 #di4 #f ,conybe>e & ,de la ,be*e1 ,geol4 ,trans41 ,fir/ ,s]ies1 vol4 v1 p4 #eei2 & ,buckl&1 ,bridgewat] ,treatise1 p4 #bjc4 #g ,see ,d>w91 ,naturali/'s ,voyage1 p4 #che4 ,murray4 #h ,bridgewat] ,treatise1 p4 #aae4 #i ,geological ,rese>*es1 p4 #ccd4 #aj ,buckl&1 ,bridgewat] ,treatise1 p4 #cjg4 #aa ,a ,hi/ory ( ,fossil ,insects1 etc41 #ahdf4 ,london4 #ab ,tableau des ,vg4 ,foss41 #ahdi1 p4 #aje4 #ac ,conybe>e & ,philips's ,outl9es1 etc41 p4 #aff4 #ad ,geological ,rese>*es1 p4 #ccg4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,trias1 ,,or ,,new ,,r$ ,,s&/one ,,gr\p4 ,b$s ( ,passage betwe5 ! ,lias & ,trias1 ,rhtic ,b$s4 -- ,triassic ,mammif]4 -- ,triple ,division ( ! ,trias4 -- ,keup]1 or ,upp] ,trias ( ,engl&4 -- ,reptiles ( ! ,upp] ,trias4 -- ,foot-pr9ts 9 ! ,bunt] =mation 9 ,engl&4 -- ,dolomitic ,conglom]ate ( ,bri/ol4 -- ,orig9 ( ,r$ ,s&/one & ,rock-salt4 -- ,precipitation ( ,salt f inl& ,lakes & ,lagoons4 -- ,trias ( ,g]many4 -- ,keup]4 -- ,/4 ,cassian & ,hall/adt ,b$s4 -- ,peculi>ity ( _! ,fauna4 -- ,mus*elkalk & its ,fossils4 -- ,trias ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 -- ,fossil ,foot-pr9ts ( ,birds & ,reptiles 9 ! ,valley ( ! ,connecticut4 -- ,triassic ,mammif] ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a4 -- ,triassic ,coal-field ( ,ri*mond1 ,virg9ia4 -- ,l[ ,grade ( e>ly ,mammals fav\rable to ! ,!ory ( ,progressive ,developm5t4 ,b$s ( ,passage betwe5 ! ,lias & ,trias--,rhtic ,b$s4--,we h m5tion$ 9 ! la/ *apt] 7p4 #cef7 t ! base ( ! ,l[] ,lias is *>act]is$1 bo? 9 ,engl& & ,g]many1 by b$s conta9+ di/9ct species ( ,ammonites1 ! l[e/ subdivision hav+ be5 call$ ! zone ( ,ammonites planorbis4 ,bel[ ?is zone1 on ! b\nd>y l9e betwe5 ! ,lias & ! /rata ( :i* we are ab\t to treat1 call$ 8,trias10 c]ta9 cream-col\r$ lime/ones devoid ( fossils are usually f\nd4 ,^! :ite b$s 7 call$ by ,william ,smi? ! ,:ite ,lias1 & !y h be5 %[n by ,mr4 ,*>les ,moore to belong to a =mation simil> to "o 9 ! ,rhtian ,alps ( ,bav>ia1 to :i* ,mr4 ,gumbel has appli$ ! "n ( ,rhtic4 ,!y h also long be5 kn[n z ! ,koess5 b$s 9 ,g]many1 & may be reg>d$ z b$s ( passage betwe5 ! ,lias & ,trias4 ,!y are nam$ ! ,p5>? b$s by ! ,gov]nm5t surveyors ( ,great ,brita91 f ,p5>?1 ne> ,c>diff1 9 ,glamorgan%ire1 :]e !y sometimes atta9 a ?ickness ( fifty feet4 ,! pr9cipal memb] ( ?is gr\p has be5 call$ by ,dr4 ,wright ! ,avicula contorta b$1#a z ?is %ell is v abundant1 & has a wide range 9 ,europe4 ,g5]al ,portlock fir/ describ$ ! =mation z x occurs at ,portru%1 9 ,antrim1 :]e ! ,avicula contorta is accompani$ by ,pect5 ,valoni5sis1 z 9 ,g]many4 ,! be/ kn[n memb] ( ! gr\p1 a ?9 b& or bone-breccia1 is conspicu\s among ! black %ales 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,axm\? 9 ,devon%ire1 & 9 ! cliffs ( ,we/bury-on-,sev]n1 z well z at ,au/ & o!r places on ! bord]s ( ! ,bri/ol ,*annel4 ,x ab\nds 9 ! rema9s ( saurians & fi%1 & 0 =m]ly class$ z ! l[e/ b$ ( ! ,lias2 b ,sir ,p4 ,eg]ton fir/ po9t$ out1 9 #ahda1 t x %\ld be ref]r$ to ! ,upp] ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 because x conta9$ an assemblage ( fossil fi% :i* are ei!r peculi> to ?is /ratum1 or belong to species well-kn[n 9 ! ,mus*elkalk ( ,g]many4 ,^! fi% belong to ! g5]a ,acrodus1 ,hybodus1 ,gyrolepis1 & ,sauri*?ys4 ,fig4 #chc3 ,c>dium rhticum4 ,fig4 #chd3 ,pect5 ,valoni5sis4 ,fig4 #che3 ,avicula contorta4 ,fig4 #chf3 ,hybodus plica ilis4 ,fig4 #chg3 ,sauri*?ys apicalis4 ,fig4 #chh3 ,gyrolepsis t5ui/riatus4 ,among ^? common to ! ,engli% bone-b$ & ! ,mus*elkalk ( ,g]many are ,hybodus plicatilis 7,fig4 #chf71 ,saury*?ys apicalis 7,fig4 #chg71 ,gyrolepis t5ui/riatus 7,fig4 #chh71 & ,g4 ,alb]tii4 ,rema9s ( saurians1 ,plesiosaurus among o!rs1 h also be5 f\nd 9 ! bone-b$1 & plates ( an ,encr9us4 ,x may be que/ion$ :e!r "s ( ^? fossils :i* h ! mo/ ,triassic "* may n h be5 d]iv$ f ! de/ruction ( old] /rata1 s9ce 9 bone-b$s1 9 g5]al1 _m ( ! organic rema9s are und\bt$ly d]ivative4 ,fig4 #chi3 ,microle/es antiquus1 mol> too?4 ,triassic ,mammif]4--,9 ,nor?-we/]n ,g]many1 z 9 ,engl&1 !re occurs b5ea? ! ,lias a rem>kable bone breccia4 ,x is fill$ ) %ells & ) ! rema9s ( fi%es & reptiles1 almo/ all ! g5]a ( :i*1 & "s ev5 ( ! species1 agree ) ^? ( ! subjac5t ,trias4 ,?is breccia has accord+ly be5 consid]$ by ,pr(essor ,qu5/$t1 & o!r ,g]man geologi/s ( high au?ority1 z ! newe/ or upp]mo/ "p ( ! ,trias4 ,pr(essor ,pli5+] f\nd 9 x1 9 #ahdg1 ! mol> too? ( a small ,triassic mammif]1 call$ by him ,microle/es antiquus4 ,he inf]r$ its true nature f its d\ble fangs1 & f ! =m & numb] ( ! protub]ances or cusps on ! flat cr[n2 & consid]+ x z pr$ace\s1 probably insectivor\s1 he call$ x ,microle/es f micros1 little1 & le/es1 a bea/ ( prey4 ,soon aft]w>ds he f\nd a second too?1 also at ! same locality1 ,dieg]lo*1 ab\t two miles to ! s\?-ea/ ( ,/uttg>t4 ,no anatomi/ _h be5 able to give any feasible conjecture z to ! aff9ities ( ?is m9ute quadrup$ until ,dr4 ,falcon]1 9 #aheg1 recognis$ an unmi/akable resemblance betwe5 its tee? & ! two back mol>s ( 8 new g5us ,plagiaulax 7,fig4 #cjf71 f ! ,purbeck /rata4 ,?is w\ld lead u to ! conclusion t ,microle/es 0 m>supial & plant-eat+4 ,9 ,wrtemb]g !re are two bone-b$s1 namely1 t conta9+ ! ,microle/es1 :i* has j be5 describ$1 :i* con/itutes1 z we h se51 ! upp]mo/ memb] ( ! ,trias1 & ano!r ( /ill great] ext5t1 & /ill m ri* 9 ! rema9s ( fi% & reptiles1 :i* is ( old] date1 int]v5+ betwe5 ! ,keup] & ,mus*elkalk4 ,! g5]a ,sauri*?ys1 ,hybodus1 & ,gyrolepis are f\nd 9 bo? ^! breccias1 & "o ( ! species1 ,sauri*?ys ,mongeoti1 is common to bo? bone-b$s1 z is also a rem>kable reptile call$ ,no?osaurus mirabilis4 ,! saurian call$ ,belodon by ,h4 von ,mey]1 ( ! ,!codont family1 is ano!r ,triassic =m1 associat$ at ,dieg]lo* ) ,microle/es4 ,,trias ,,( ,,engl&4 ,betwe5 ! ,lias & ! ,coal 7or ,c>bonif]\s gr\p7 !re is int]pos$1 9 ! midl& & we/]n c\nties ( ,engl&1 a great s]ies ( r$ loams1 %ales1 & s&/ones1 to :i* ! "n ( ! 8,new ,r$ ,s&/one =mation0 0 fir/ giv51 to di/+ui% x f o!r %ales & s&/ones call$ ! 8,old ,r$10 (t5 id5tical 9 m9]al "*1 :i* lie imm$iately b5ea? ! coal4 ,! "n ( 8,r$ ,m>l0 has be5 incorrectly appli$ to ! r$ clays ( ?is =mation1 z be=e expla9$ 7p4 #ch71 = !y are rem>kably free f calc>e\s matt]4 ,! abs5ce1 inde$1 ( c>bonate ( lime1 z well z ! sc>city ( organic rema9s1 toge!r ) ! bright r$ col\r ( mo/ ( ! rocks ( ?is gr\p1 causes a /rong contra/ betwe5 x & ! ,jurassic =mations be=e describ$4 ,! gr\p 9 "q is m fully develop$ 9 ,g]many ?an 9 ,engl& or ,france4 ,x has be5 call$ ! ,trias by ,g]man writ]s1 or ! ,triple ,gr\p1 because x is sep>able into ?ree di/9ct =mations1 call$ ! 8,keup]10 ! 8,mus*elkalk10 & ! 8,bunt]-s&/e940 ,( ^! ! middle division1 or ! ,mus*elkalk1 is :olly want+ 9 ,engl&1 & ! upp]mo/ 7,keup]7 & l[e/ 7,bunt]7 memb]s ( ! s]ies are n ri* 9 fossils4 ,upp] ,trias or ,keup]4--,9 c]ta9 grey indurat$ m>ls bel[ ! bone-b$ ,mr4 ,boyd ,dawk9s has f\nd at ,wat*et1 on ! coa/ ( ,som]set%ire1 a mol> too? ( ,microle/es1 enabl+ him to ref] to ! ,trias /rata =m]ly suppos$ to be ,liassic4 ,mr4 ,*>les ,moore _h previ\sly discov]$ _m tee? ( mammalia ( ! same family ne> ,frome1 9 ,som]set%ire1 9 ! cont5ts ( a v]tical fissure trav]s+ a mass ( c>bonif]\s lime/one4 ,! top ( ?is fissure mu/ h communicat$ ) ! b$ ( ! ,triassic sea1 & probably at a po9t n f> f ! anci5t %ore on :i* ! small m>supials ( t era ab\nd$4 ,?is upp] division ( ! ,trias call$ ! ,keup] is ( great ?ickness 9 ! c5tral c\nties ( ,engl&1 atta9+1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,hull's e/imate1 no less ?an #cdej feet 9 ,*e%ire1 & x cov]s a l>ge ext5t ( c\ntry betwe5 ,lanca%ire & ,devon%ire4 ,9 ,worce/]%ire & ,w>wick%ire 9 s&/one belong+ to ! upp]mo/ "p ( ! ,keup] ! bivalve cru/acean ,e/h]ia m9uta occurs4 ,! memb] ( ! ,engli% 8,new ,r$0 conta9+ ?is %ell1 9 ^? p>ts ( ,engl&1 is1 accord+ to ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison & ,mr4 ,/rickl&1 #fjj feet ?ick1 & consi/s *iefly ( r$ m>l or slate1 ) a b& ( s&/one4 ,i*?yodorulites1 or sp9es ( ,hybodus1 tee? ( fi%es1 & footpr9ts ( reptiles 7 obs]v$ by ! same geologi/s 9 ^! /rata4 ,fig4 #cij3 ,e/h]ia m9uta4 ,fig4 #cia3 ,hyp]odap$on ,gordoni4 ,left ,plate1 ,maxill>y4 ,9 ! ,upp] ,trias or ,keup] ! rema9s ( two saurians ( ! ord] ,lac]tilia h be5 f\nd4 ,! "o call$ ,rhyn*osaurus occurr$ at ,gr9sell ne> ,%rewsbury1 & is *>act]is$ by hav+ a small bird-l skull & jaws )\t tee?4 ,! o!r ,hyp]odap$on 7,fig4 #cia7 0 fir/ notic$ 9 #aheh1 ne> ,elg91 9 /rata n[ recognis$ z ,upp] ,triassic1 & aft]w>ds 9 b$s ( ab\t ! same age 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,w>wick4 ,rema9s ( ! same g5us h be5 f\nd bo? 9 ,c5tral ,india & ,s\!rn ,africa 9 rocks believ$ to be ( ,triassic age4 ,! ,hyp]odap$on has be5 %[n by ,pr(essor ,huxley to be a t]re/rial reptile hav+ num]\s palatal tee?1 & closely alli$ to ! liv+ ,sph5odon ( ,new ,zeal&4 ,! rec5t discov]ies ( a liv+ saurian 9 ,new ,zeal& s closely alli$ to ?is suppos$ ext9ct division ( ! ,lac]tilia seems to af=d an illu/ration ( a pr9ciple po9t$ out by ,mr4 ,d>w9 ( ! survival 9 insulat$ tracts1 aft] _m *anges 9 physical geography1 ( ord]s ( :i* ! cong5]s h become ext9ct on cont95ts :]e !y h be5 expos$ to ! sev]] competition ( a l>g] progressive fauna4 ,fig4 #cib3 ,too? ( ,labyr9?odon4 ,tee? ( ,labyr9?odon 7,fig4 #cib7 f\nd 9 ! ,keup] 9 ,w>wick%ire 7 exam9$ microscopically by ,pr(essor ,ow51 & comp>$ ) o!r tee? f ! ,g]man ,keup]4 ,he f\nd aft] c>eful inve/igation t nei!r ( !m c\ld be ref]r$ to true saurians1 al?\gh !y _h be5 nam$ ,ma/odonsaurus & ,phytosaurus by ,jg]4 ,x appe>$ t !y 7 ( ! ,batra*ian ord]1 & ( gigantic dim5sions 9 comp>ison ) any repres5tatives ( t ord] n[ liv+4 ,bo? ! ,cont95tal & ,engli% fossil tee? exhibit$ a mo/ complicat$ texture1 diff]+ f t previ\sly obs]v$ 9 any reptile1 :e!r rec5t or ext9ct1 b mo/ ne>ly analog\s to ! ,i*?yosaurus4 ,a section ( "o ( ^! tee? exhibits a s]ies ( irregul> folds1 resembl+ ! labyr9?ic w9d+s ( ! surface ( ! bra92 & f ?is "* ,pr(essor ,ow5 has propos$ ! "n ,labyr9?odon = ! new g5us4 ,fig4 #cic ( "p ( "o is giv5 f 8 8,odontography10 plate #fd1 ,a4 ,! entire l5g? ( ?is too? is suppos$ to h be5 ab\t ?ree in*es & a half1 & ! bread? at ! base "o in* & a half4 ,fig4 #cic3 ,transv]se section ( upp] "p ( too? ( ,labyr9?odon ,jaeg]i4 ,rock-salt4--,9 ,*e%ire & ,lanca%ire !re are r$ clays conta9+ gypsum & salt ( ! age ( ! ,trias :i* are betwe5 #ajjj & #aejj feet ?ick4 ,9 "s places l5ticul> masses ( pure rock-salt ne>ly #ajj feet ?ick are int]polat$ betwe5 ! argillace\s b$s4 ,at ! base ( ! =mation b5ea? ! rock-salt occur ! ,l[] ,s&/ones & ,m>l1 call$ prov9cially 9 ,*e%ire 8wat]-/ones10 :i* are l>gely qu>ri$ = build+4 ,!y are (t5 ripple-m>k$1 & are impress$ ) num]\s footpr9ts ( reptiles4 ,! basem5t b$s ( ! ,keup] re/ ) a slight uncon=mability ^u an erod$ surface ( ! 8,bunt]0 next to be describ$4 ,fig4 #cid3 ,s+le foot/ep ( ,*eiro!rium4 ,l[] ,trias or ,bunt]4--,! l[] division or ,engli% repres5tative ( ! 8,bunt]0 atta9s a ?ickness ( #aejj feet 9 ! c\nties la/ m5tion$1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,ramsay4 ,besides r$ & gre5 %ales & r$ s&/ones1 x comprises mu* s(t :ite qu>tzose s&/one1 9 :i* ! trunks ( silicifi$ trees h be5 met ) at ,allesley ,hill1 ne> ,cov5try4 ,sev]al ( !m 7 a foot & a half 9 diamet]1 & "s y>ds 9 l5g?1 decid$ly ( conif]\s wood1 & %[+ r+s ( annual gr[?4#b ,impressions1 also1 ( ! foot/eps ( animals h be5 detect$ 9 ,lanca%ire & ,*e%ire 9 ?is =mation4 ,"s ( ! mo/ rem>kable occur a few miles f ,liv]pool1 9 ! :iti% qu>tzose s&/one ( ,/orton ,hill1 on ! we/ side ( ! ,m]sey4 ,!y be> a close resemblance to tracks fir/ obs]v$ 9 ?is memb] ( ! ,upp] ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 at ! village ( ,hesseb]g1 ne> ,hildburghaus51 9 ,saxony4 ,= _m ye>s ^! footpr9ts h be5 ref]r$ to a l>ge unkn[n quadrup$1 provisionally nam$ ,*eiro!rium by ,pr(essor ,kaup1 because ! m>ks bo? ( ! =e & h9d feet resembl$ impressions made by a human h&4 7,see ,fig4 #cid47 ,! foot-m>ks at ,hesseb]g are p>tly concave1 & p>tly 9 relief1 ! =m]1 or ! depressions1 are se5 ^u ! upp] surface ( ! s&/one slabs1 b ^? 9 relief are only ^u ! l[] surfaces1 be+1 9 fact1 natural ca/s1 =m$ 9 ! subjac5t footpr9ts z 9 m\lds4 ,! l>g] impressions1 :i* seem to be ^? ( ! h9d foot1 are g5]ally eight in*es 9 l5g?1 & five 9 wid?1 & "o 0 twelve in*es long4 ,ne> ea* l>ge foot/ep1 & at a regul> di/ance 7ab\t an in* & a half7 be=e x1 a small] pr9t ( a =e foot1 f\r in*es long & ?ree in*es wide1 occurs4 ,! foot/eps foll[ ea* o!r 9 pairs1 ea* pair 9 ! same l9e1 at int]vals ( f\rte5 in*es f pair to pair4 ,! l>ge z well z ! small /eps %[ ! great toes alt]nately on ! "r & left side2 ea* /ep makes ! pr9t ( five toes1 ! fir/1 or great toe1 be+ b5t inw>d l a ?umb4 ,?\gh ! =e & h9d foot diff] s mu* 9 size1 !y are ne>ly simil> 9 =m4 ,fig4 #cie3 ,l9e ( foot/eps on slab ( s&/one4 ,z nei!r 9 ,g]many nor 9 ,engl& _h any bones or tee? be5 met ) 9 ! same id5tical /rata z ! foot/eps1 anatomi/s indulg$1 = sev]al ye>s1 9 v>i\s conjectures respect+ ! my/]i\s animals f :i* !y might h be5 d]iv$4 ,pr(essor ,kaup sugge/$ t ! unkn[n quadrup$ might h be5 alli$ to ! ,m>supialia2 = 9 ! kang>oo ! fir/ toe ( ! =e foot is 9 a simil> mann] set obliquely to ! o!rs1 l a ?umb1 & ! disproportion betwe5 ! =e & h9d feet is also v great4 ,b ,m4 ,l9k conceiv$ t "s ( ! f\r species ( animals ( :i* ! tracks _h be5 f\nd 9 ,saxony might h be5 gigantic ,batra*ians1 & :5 x 0 aft]w>ds inf]r$ t ! ,labyr9?odon 0 an air-brea?+ reptile1 x 0 conjectur$ by ,pr(essor ,ow5 t x might be "o & ! same z ! ,*eiro!rium4 ,dolomitic ,conglom]ate ( ,bri/ol4--,ne> ,bri/ol1 9 ,som]set%ire1 & 9 o!r c\nties bord]+ ! ,sev]n1 ! l[e/ /rata belong+ to ! ,triassic s]ies consi/ ( a conglom]ate or breccia re/+ uncon=mably ^u ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 & on diff]5t memb]s ( ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks1 su* z ! ,coal ,measures1 ,mill/one ,grit1 & ,m\nta9 ,lime/one4 ,?is mode ( sup]position w be und]/ood by ref]5ce to ! section bel[ ,dundry ,hill 7,fig4 #he71 :]e ,no4 #d is ! dolomitic conglom]ate4 ,su* breccias may h be5 p>tly ! result ( ! subrial wa/e ( an old l&-surface :i* gradually sank d[n & suff]$ littoral d5udation 9 proportion z x became subm]g$4 ,! pebbles & fragm5ts ( old] rocks :i* con/itute ! conglom]ate are cem5t$ toge!r by a r$ or yell[ base ( dolomite1 & 9 "s places ! encr9ites & o!r fossils d]iv$ f ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one are s deta*$ f ! p>5t rocks t !y h ! deceptive appe>ance ( belong+ to a fauna contemporane\s ) ! dolomitic b$s 9 :i* !y occur4 ,! imb$d$ fragm5ts are bo? r\nd$ & angul>1 "s consi/+ ( s&/one f ! coal-measures1 be+ ( va/ size1 & weigh+ ne>ly a ton4 ,fractur$ bones & tee? ( saurians :i* are truly ( contemporane\s orig9 are disp]s$ ?r\gh "s p>ts ( ! breccia1 & two ( ^! reptiles call$ ,!codont saurians1 nam$ f ! mann] 9 :i* ! tee? 7 implant$ 9 ! jawbone1 obta9$ great celebrity because ! pat*es ( r$ conglom]ate 9 :i* !y 7 f\nd1 ne> ,bri/ol1 7 orig9ally suppos$ to be ( ,p]mian or ,palozoic age1 & !re=e ! only repres5tatives 9 ,engl& ( v]tebrate animals ( s high a grade 9 rocks ( su* antiquity4 ,! tee? ( ^! saurians are conical1 compress$1 & ) f9ely s]rat$ edges 7see ,fig4 #cif72 !y are ref]r$ by ,pr(essor ,huxley to ! ,d9osaurian ord]4 ,fig4 #cif3 ,too? ( ,!codontosaurus4 ,orig9 ( ,r$ ,s&/one & ,rock-salt4--,9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w1 r$ & mottl$ clays & s&/ones1 ( sev]al di/9ct geological epo*s1 are f\nd associat$ ) salt1 gypsum1 & magnesian lime/one1 or ) "o or all ( ^! sub/ances4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 9 all likelihood1 a g5]al cause = su* a co9cid5ce4 ,nev]!less1 we mu/ n =get t !re are d5se masses ( r$ & v>iegat$ s&/ones & clays1 ?\s&s ( feet 9 ?ickness1 & ( va/ horizontal ext5t1 :olly devoid ( salif]\s or gypse\s matt]4 ,!re are also deposits ( gypsum & ( common salt1 z 9 ! blue-clay =mation ( ,sicily1 )\t any accompany+ r$ s&/one or r$ clay4 ,^! r$ deposits may be acc\nt$ = by ! decomposition ( gneiss & mica s*i/1 :i* 9 ! ea/]n ,grampians ( ,scotl& has produc$ a mass ( detritus ( precisely ! same col\r z ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,x is a g5]al fact1 & "o n yet acc\nt$ =1 t sc>cely any fossil rema9s are ev] pres]v$ 9 /ratifi$ rocks 9 :i* ?is oxide ( iron ab\nds2 & :5 we f9d fossils 9 ! ,new or ,old ,r$ ,s&/one 9 ,engl&1 x is 9 ! grey1 & usually calc>e\s b$s1 t !y occur4 ,! sal9e or gypse\s int]/ratifi$ b$s may h be5 produc$ by subm>9e gase\s emanations1 or hot m9]al spr+s1 :i* (t5 cont9ue to fl[ 9 ! same spots = ages4 ,b$s ( rock-salt are1 h[ev]1 m g5]ally attribut$ to ! evaporation ( lakes or lagoons communicat+ at int]vals ) ! ocean4 ,9 ,*e%ire two b$s ( salt occur ( ! extraord9>y ?ickness ( #ij or ev5 #ajj feet1 & ext5d+ ov] an area suppos$ to be #aej miles 9 diamet]4 ,! adjac5t b$s pres5t ripple-m>k$ s&/ones & footpr9ts ( animals at s _m levels z to imply t ! :ole area und]w5t a sl[ & gradual depression dur+ ! =mation ( ! r$ s&/one4 ,major ,h>ris1 9 8 8,highl&s ( ,e?iopia10 describes a salt lake1 call$ ! ,bahr ,assal1 ne> ! ,abyss9ian fronti]1 :i* once =m$ ! prolongation ( ! ,gulf ( ,tadj>a1 b 0 aft]w>ds cut (f f ! gulf by a broad b> ( lava or ( l& uprais$ by an e>?quake4 8,f$ by no riv]s1 & expos$ 9 a burn+ climate to ! unmitigat$ rays ( ! sun1 x has %runk into an elliptical bas91 sev5 miles 9 its transv]se axis1 half fill$ ) smoo? wat] ( ! deepe/ crulean hue1 & half ) a solid %eet ( glitt]+ sn[-:ite salt1 ! (fspr+ ( evaporation40 8,if10 says ,mr4 ,hugh ,mill]1 8we suppose1 in/ead ( a b>ri] ( lava1 t s&-b>s 7 rais$ by ! surf on a flat ar5ace\s coa/ dur+ a sl[ & equable s9k+ ( ! surface1 ! wat]s ( ! out] gulf might occasionally topple ov] ! b>1 & supply fre% br9e :5 ! fir/ /ock _h be5 exhau/$ by evaporation40 ,! ,runn ( ,cut*1 z ,i h %[n else:]e1#c is a l[ region ne> ! delta ( ! ,indus1 equal 9 ext5t to ab\t a qu>t] ( ,irel&1 :i* is nei!r l& nor sea1 be+ dry dur+ "p ( e ye>1 & cov]$ by salt wat] dur+ ! monsoons4 ,"h & !re its surface is incru/$ ov] ) a lay] ( salt caus$ by ! evaporation ( sea-wat]4 ,a subsid+ movem5t has be5 witness$ 9 ?is c\ntry dur+ e>?quakes1 s t a great ?ickness ( pure salt might result f a cont9uation ( su* s9k+4 ,,trias ,,( ,,g]many4 ,9 ,g]many1 z be=e h9t$1 *apt] #ba1 ! ,trias fir/ receiv$ its "n z a ,triple ,gr\p1 consi/+ ( two s&/ones ) an int]m$iate m>9e calc>e\s =mation1 :i* la/ is want+ 9 ,engl&4 ,,nom5clature ,,( ,,trias4 ,g]man ,fr5* ,engli% ,keup] ,m>nes irises ,salif]\s & gypse\s %ales & s&/one4 ,mus*elkalk ,mus*elkalk1 on calcaire coquilli] ,want+ 9 ,engl&4 ,bunt]-s&/e9 ,grs big>r ,s&tone & qu>tzose conglom]ate4 ,keup]4--,! fir/ ( ^!1 or ! ,keup]1 und]ly+ ! b$s be=e describ$ z ,rhtic1 atta9s 9 ,wrtemb]g a ?ickness ( ab\t #ajjj feet4 ,x is divid$ by ,alb]ti into s&/one1 gypsum1 & c>bonace\s clay-slate4#d ,rema9s ( reptiles call$ ,no?osaurus & ,phytosaurus1 h be5 f\nd 9 x ) ,labyr9?odon2 ! deta*$ tee?1 also1 ( placoid fi% & ( ,rays1 & ( ! g5]a ,sauri*?ys & ,gyrolepis 7,figs4 #chg1 #chh74 ,! plants ( ! ,keup] are g5]ically v analog\s to ^? ( ! oolite & lias1 consi/+ ( f]ns1 equisetace\s plants1 cycads1 & conif]s1 ) a few d\btful monocotyl$ons4 ,a few species su* z ,equisetites column>is1 are common to ?is gr\p & ! oolite4 ,fig4 #cig3 ,equisetites column>is4 ,/4 ,cassian & ,hall/adt ,b$s 7see ,map1 ,fig4 #cih74-- ,! s&/ones & clay ( ! ,keup] resemble ! deposits ( e/u>ies & a %all[ sea ne> ! l&1 & af=d1 9 ! ,n4,w4 ( ,g]many1 z 9 ,france & ,engl&1 b a scanty repres5tation ( ! m>9e life ( t p]iod4 ,we might1 h[ev]1 h anticipat$1 f its ri* reptilian fauna1 t ! contemporane\s inhabitants ( ! sea ( ! ,keup] p]iod w\ld be v num]\s1 %\ld we ev] h an opportunity ( br++ _! rema9s to light4 ,?is1 x is believ$1 has at l5g? be5 accompli%$1 by ! position n[ assign$ to c]ta9 ,alp9e rocks call$ ! 8,/4 ,cassian b$s10 ! true place ( :i* 9 ! s]ies 0 until lately a subject ( mu* d\bt & discussion4 ,x has be5 prov$ t ! ,hall/adt b$s on ! nor!rn flanks ( ! ,au/rian ,alps correspond 9 age ) ! ,/4 ,cassian b$s on _! s\!rn declivity1 & ! ,au/rian geologi/s1 ,m4 ,suess ( ,vi5na & o!rs1 h satisfi$ !mselves t ! ,hall/adt =mation is ref]able to ! p]iod ( ! ,upp] ,trias4 ,assum+ ?is conclusion to be correct1 we become acqua9t$ sudd5ly & unexpect$ly ) a ri* m>9e fauna belong+ to a p]iod previ\sly believ$ to be v b>r5 ( organic rema9s1 because 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,nor!rn ,g]many ! upp] ,trias is *iefly repres5t$ by b$s ( fre% or bracki% wat] orig94 ,fig4 #cih3 ,map ( ,tyrol & ,/yria %[+ ,/4 ,cassian & ,hall/adt ,b$s4 ,fig4 #cii3 ,scoliotoma4 ,fig4 #djj3 ,kon9ckia ,leonh>di4 ,ab\t #fjj species ( inv]tebrate fossils occur 9 ! ,hall/adt & ,/4 ,cassian b$s1 _m ( :i* are /ill undescrib$2 "s ( ! ,mollusca are ( new & peculi> g5]a1 z ,scolio/oma1 ,fig4 #cii1 & ,platy/oma1 ,fig4 #djj1 among ! ,ga/]opoda2 & ,kon9ckia1 ,fig4 #dja1 among ! ,bra*iopoda4 ,fig4 #dja3 ,kon9ckia ,leonh>di4 ,! foll[+ table ( g5]a ( m>9e %ells f ! ,hall/adt & ,/4 ,cassian b$s1 drawn up fir/ on ! jo9t au?ority ( ,m4 ,suess & ! late ,dr4 ,woodw>d1 & s9ce correct$ by ,messrs4 ,e!ridge & ,tate1 %[s h[ _m connect+ l9ks betwe5 ! fauna ( prim>y & second>y ,palozoic & ,mesozoic rocks are suppli$ by ! ,/4 ,cassian & ,hall/adt b$s4 ,,g5]a ,,( ,,fossil ,,mollusca ,,9 ,,! ,,/4 ,,cassian ,,& ,,hall/adt ,,b$s4 ,common to ,old] ,rocks ,*>act]i/ic ,triassic ,g5]a ,common to ,new] ,rocks ,or?oc]as ,bactrites ,macro*eilus ,loxonema ,holopella ,mur*isonia ,porcellia ,a?yris ,retzia ,cyrt9a ,euomphalus ,c]atites ,co*loc]as ,*ori/oc]as ,rhabdoc]as ,aulacoc]as ,scolio/oma #e ,naticella ,platy/oma ,pty*o/oma ,eu*rysalis ,halobia ,hornesia ,amphicl9a ,kon9ckia ,cassianella #f ,myophoria #f ,ammonites ,*emnitzia ,c]i?ium ,monodonta ,opis ,spho]a ,c>dita ,myocon*a ,h9nites ,monotis ,plicatula ,pa*yrisma ,!cidium ,! fir/ column m>ks ! la/ appe>ance ( sev]al g5]a :i* are *>act]i/ic ( ,palozoic /rata4 ,! second %[s ^? g5]a :i* are *>act]i/ic ( ! ,upp] ,trias1 ei!r z peculi> to x1 or1 z 9 ! ?ree cases m>k$ by a/]isks1 rea*+ _! maximum ( developm5t at ?is era4 ,! ?ird column m>ks ! fir/ appe>ance 9 ,triassic rocks ( g5]a de/9$ to become m abundant 9 lat] ages4 ,x is only1 h[ev]1 :5 we contemplate ! numb] ( species by :i* ea* ( ! above-m5tion$ g5]a are repres5t$ t we compreh5d ! peculi>ities ( :at is commonly call$ ! ,/4 ,cassian fauna4 ,?us1 = example1 ! ,ammonite1 :i* is n common to old] rocks1 is repres5t$ by no less ?an sev5ty-?ree species2 :]eas ,loxonema1 :i* is only kn[n z common to old] rocks1 furni%es fifte5 ,triassic species4 ,c]i?ium1 s abundant 9 t]ti>y /rata1 & :i* /ill lives1 is repres5t$ by no less ?an f\rte5 species4 ,z ! ,or?oc]as _h nev] be5 met ) 9 ! m>9e ,mus*elkalk1 mu* surprise 0 naturally felt t sev5 or eight species ( ! g5us %\ld appe> 9 ! ,hall/adt b$s1 assum+ ^! la/ to belong to ! ,upp] ,trias4 ,among ^! species are "s ( l>ge dim5sions1 associat$ ) l>ge ,ammonites ) foliat$ lobes1 a =m nev] se5 be=e s l[ 9 ! s]ies1 :ile ! ,or?oc]as _h nev] be5 se5 s high4 ,on ! :ole1 ! ri* m>9e fauna ( ,hall/adt & ,/4 ,cassian1 n[ g5]ally assign$ to ! l[e/ memb]s ( ! ,upp] ,trias or ,keup]1 leads u to suspect t :5 ! /rata ( ! ,triassic age are bett] kn[n1 especially ^? belong+ to ! p]iod ( ! ,bunt] s&/one1 ! break betwe5 ! ,palozoic & ,mesozoic ,p]iods may be almo/ effac$4 ,inde$ "s geologi/s are n yet satisfi$ t ! true position ( ! ,/4 ,cassian b$s 7conta9+ s great an admixture ( types1 hav+ at once bo? ,mesozoic & ,palozoic aff9ities7 is made out1 & d\bt :e!r !y h yet be5 cle>ly prov$ to be new] ?an ! ,mus*elkalk4 ,mus*elkalk4--,! next memb] ( ! ,trias 9 ,g]many1 ! ,mus*elkalk1 :i* und]lies ! ,keup] be=e describ$1 consi/s *iefly ( a compact greyi% lime/one1 b includes b$s ( dolomite 9 _m places1 toge!r ) gypsum & rock-salt4 ,?is lime/one1 a =mation :olly unrepres5t$ 9 ,engl&1 ab\nds 9 fossil %ells1 z ! "n implies4 ,among ! ,cephalopoda !re are no belemnites1 & no ammonites ) foliat$ sutures1 z 9 ! ,lias1 & ,oolite1 & ! ,hall/adt b$s2 b we f9d in/ead a g5us alli$ to ! ,ammonite1 call$ ,c]atites by de ,haan1 9 :i* ! desc5d+ lobes 7,fig4 #djb7 t]m9ate 9 a few small d5ticulations po9t+ inw>d4 ,among ! bivalve cru/acea1 ! ,e/h]ia m9uta1 ,bronn 7see ,fig4 #cij71 is abundant1 rang+ ?r\gh ! ,keup]1 ,mus*elkalk1 & ,bunt]-s&/e92 & ,g]villia socialis 7,fig4 #djc71 hav+ a simil> range1 is f\nd 9 great numb]s 9 ! ,mus*elkalk ( ,g]many1 ,france1 & ,pol&4 ,fig4 #djb3 ,c]atites nodosus4 ,fig4 #djc3 ,g]villia 7,avicula7 socialis4 ,fig4 #djd3 ,en]9us lilii=mis4 ,fig4 #dje3 ,aspidura loricata4 ,! abundance ( ! heads & /ems ( lily encr9ites1 ,encr9us lilii=mis 7,fig4 #djd71 7or ,encr9ites monili=mis71 %[s ! sl[ mann] 9 :i* "s b$s ( ?is lime/one h be5 =m$ 9 cle> sea-wat]4 ,! />-fi% call$ ,aspidura loricata 7,fig4 #dje7 is z yet peculi> to ! ,mus*elkalk4 ,9 ! same =mation are f\nd ! skull & tee? ( a reptile ( ! g5us ,placodus 7see ,fig4 #djf71 :i* 0 ref]r$ orig9ally by ,mun/]1 & aft]w>ds by ,agassiz1 to ! class ( fi%es4 ,b m p]fect specim5s enabl$ ,pr(essor ,ow51 9 #aheh1 to %[ t ?is fossil animal 0 a ,saurian reptile1 :i* probably f$ on %ell-be>+ mollusks1 & us$ its %ort & flat tee?1 s ?ickly coat$ ) enamel1 = p\nd+ & cru%+ ! %ells4 ,fig4 #djf3 ,palatal tee? ( ,placodus gigas4 ,fig4 #djg3 ,voltzia het]ophylla4 ,bunt]-s&/e94--,! ,bunt]-s&/e9 consi/s ( v>i\s-col\r$ s&/ones1 dolomites1 & r$ clays1 ) "s b$s1 especially 9 ! ,h>tz1 ( calc>e\s pisolite or roe-/one1 ! :ole sometimes atta9+ a ?ickness ( m ?an #ajjj feet4 ,! s&/one ( ! ,vosges is prov$1 by its fossils1 to belong to ?is l[e/ memb] ( ! ,triassic gr\p4 ,at ,sulzbad 7or ,s\ltz-les-ba9s71 ne> ,/rasburg1 on ! flanks ( ! ,vosges1 _m plants h be5 obta9$ f ! 8bunt]10 especially conif]s ( ! ext9ct g5us ,voltzia1 ( :i* ! fructification has be5 pres]v$4 7,see ,fig4 #djg47 ,out ( ?irty species ( f]ns1 cycads1 conif]s1 & o!r plants1 enum]at$ by ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongni>t1 9 #ahdi1 z com+ f ! 8,grs big>r10 or ,bunt]1 n "o is common to ! ,keup]4 ,! footpr9ts ( ,labyr9?odon obs]v$ 9 ! clays ( ?is =mation at ,hildburghaus51 9 ,saxony1 h already be5 m5tion$4 ,"s idea ( ! v>iety & importance ( ! t]re/rial v]tebrate fauna ( ! ?ree memb]s ( ! ,trias 9 ,nor!rn ,g]many may be d]iv$ f ! fact t 9 ! great monograph by ! late ,h]mann von ,mey] on ! reptiles ( ! ,trias1 ! rema9s ( no less ?an eighty di/9ct species are describ$ & figur$4 ,,trias ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates4 ,new ,r$ ,s&/one ( ! ,valley ( ! ,connecticut ,riv]4--,9 a depression ( ! granitic or hypog5e rocks 9 ! ,/ates ( ,massa*usetts & ,connecticut /rata ( r$ s&/one1 %ale1 & conglom]ate are f\nd1 occupy+ an area m ?an #aej miles 9 l5g? f nor? to s\?1 & ab\t five to t5 miles 9 bread?1 ! b$s dipp+ to ! ea/w>d at angles v>y+ f #e to #ej degrees4 ,! extreme incl9ation ( #ej degrees is r>e1 & only obs]v$ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( masses ( trap :i* h be5 intrud$ into ! r$ s&/one :ile x 0 =m+1 or be=e ! new] p>ts ( ! deposit _h be5 complet$4 ,hav+ exam9$ ?is s]ies ( rocks 9 _m places1 ,i feel satisfi$ t !y 7 =m$ 9 %all[ wat]1 & = ! mo/ "p ne> ! %ore1 & t "s ( ! b$s 7 f "t to "t rais$ above ! level ( ! wat]1 & laid dry1 :ile a new] s]ies1 compos$ ( simil> s$im5t1 0 =m+4 ,fig4 #djh3 ,foot-pr9ts ( a bird1 ,turn]'s ,falls1 ,valley ( ! ,connecticut4 ,accord+ to ,pr(essor ,hit*cock1 ! footpr9ts ( no less ?an ?irty-two species ( bip$s1 & twelve ( quadrup$s1 h be5 already detect$ 9 ^! rocks4 ,?irty ( ^! are believ$ to be ^? ( birds1 f\r ( liz>ds1 two ( *elonians1 & six ( batra*ians4 ,! tracks h be5 f\nd 9 m ?an tw5ty places1 scatt]$ ?r\gh an ext5t ( ne>ly #hj miles f nor? to s\?1 & !y are repeat$ ?r\gh a succession ( b$s atta9+ at "s po9ts a ?ickness ( m ?an #ajjj feet4#g ,! bip$al impressions are1 = ! mo/ "p1 trifid1 & %[ ! same numb] ( jo9ts z exi/ 9 ! feet ( liv+ tridactyl\s birds4 ,n[1 su* birds h ?ree phalangeal bones = ! inn] toe1 f\r = ! middle1 & five = ! out] "o 7see ,fig4 #djh72 b ! impression ( ! t]m9al jo9t is t ( ! nail only4 ,! fossil footpr9ts exhibit regul>ly1 :]e ! jo9ts are se51 ! same numb]2 & we see 9 ea* cont9u\s l9e ( tracks ! ?ree-jo9t$ & five-jo9t$ toes plac$ alt]nately outw>d1 fir/ on ! "o side1 & !n on ! o!r4 ,9 "s specim5s1 besides impressions ( ! ?ree toes 9 front1 ! rudim5t is se5 ( ! f\r? toe beh9d4 ,x is n (t5 t ! matrix has be5 f9e en\gh to reta9 impressions ( ! integum5t or sk9 ( ! foot2 b 9 "o f9e specim5 f\nd at ,turn]'s ,falls1 on ! ,connecticut1 by ,dr4 ,deane1 ^! m>k+s are well pres]v$1 & h be5 recognis$ by ,pr(essor ,ow5 z resembl+ ! sk9 ( ! o/ri*1 & n t ( reptiles4 ,! ca/s ( ! footpr9ts %[ t "s ( ! fossil bip$s ( ! r$ s&/one ( ,connecticut _h feet f\r times z l>ge z ! liv+ o/ri*1 b sc>cely1 p]haps1 l>g] ?an ! ,d9ornis ( ,new ,zeal&1 a lo/ g5us ( fea!r$ giants relat$ to ! ,apt]yx1 ( :i* !re 7 _m species :i* h left _! bones & almo/ entire skeletons 9 ! sup]ficial alluvium ( t isl&4 ,by ref]r+ to :at 0 said ( ! ,iguanodon ( ! ,weald51 ! read] w p]ceive t ! ,d9osaur 0 some:at int]m$iate betwe5 reptiles & birds1 & left a s]ies ( tridactyl\s impressions on ! s&4 ,to det]m9e ! exact age ( ! r$ s&/one & %ale conta9+ ^! anci5t footpr9ts1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 is n possible at pres5t4 ,no fossil %ells h yet be5 f\nd 9 ! deposit1 nor plants 9 a det]m9able /ate4 ,! fossil fi% are num]\s & v p]fect2 b !y are ( a peculi> type1 call$ ,is*ypt]us1 by ,sir ,philip ,eg]ton1 f ! great size & /r5g? ( ! fulcral rays ( ! dorsal f91 f is*us1 /r5g?1 & pt]on1 a f94 ,! age ( ! ,connecticut b$s _c be prov$ by direct sup]position1 b may be presum$ f ! g5]al /ructure ( ! c\ntry4 ,t /ructure proves !m to be new] ?an ! movem5ts to :i* ! ,appala*ian or ,allegh5y *a9 owes its flexures1 & ?is *a9 includes ! anci5t or palozoic coal-=mation among its contort$ rocks4 ,coal-field ( ,ri*mond1 ,virg9ia4--,9 ! ,/ate ( ,virg9ia1 at ! di/ance ( ab\t #ac miles ea/w>d ( ,ri*mond1 ! capital ( t ,/ate1 !re is a coal-field occurr+ 9 a depression ( ! granite rocks1 & occupy+ a geological position analog\s to t ( ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 above-m5tion$1 ( ! ,connecticut valley4 ,x ext5ds #bf miles f nor? to s\?1 & f f\r to twelve f ea/ to we/4 ,! plants consi/ *iefly ( zamites1 calamites1 equiseta1 & f]ns1 &1 ^u ! :ole1 are consid]$ by ,pr(essor ,he] to h ! ne>e/ aff9ity to ^? ( ! ,european ,keup]4 ,! equiseta are v commonly met ) 9 a v]tical position m or less compress$ p]p5dicul>ly4 ,x is cle> t !y grew 9 ! places :]e !y are n[ buri$ 9 /rata ( h>d5$ s& & mud4 ,i f\nd !m ma9ta9+ _! erect attitude1 at po9ts _m miles ap>t1 9 b$s bo? above & betwe5 ! seams ( coal4 ,9 ord] to expla9 ?is fact1 we mu/ suppose su* %ales & s&/ones to h be5 gradually accumulat$ dur+ ! sl[ & repeat$ subsid5ce ( ! :ole region4 ,fig4 #dji3 ,triassic coal-%ale1 ,ri*mond1 ,virg9ia4 ,! fossil fi% are ,ganoids1 "s ( !m ( ! g5us ,catopt]us1 o!rs belong+ to ! liassic g5us ,tetragonolepis 7*modus71 see ,fig4 #cgf4 ,two species ( ,entomo/raca call$ ,e/h]ia are 9 su* pr(usion 9 "s %aly b$s z to divide !m l ! plates ( mica 9 micace\s %ales 7see ,fig4 #dji74 ,^! ,virg9ian coal-measures are compos$ ( grits1 s&/ones1 & %ales1 exactly resembl+ ^? ( old] or prim>y date 9 ,am]ica & ,europe1 & !y rival1 or ev5 surpass1 ! latt] 9 ! ri*ness & ?ickness ( ! coal-seams4 ,"o ( ^!1 ! ma9 seam1 is 9 "s places f #cj to #dj feet ?ick1 compos$ ( pure bitum9\s coal4 ,! coal is l ! f9e/ k9ds %ipp$ at ,newca/le1 & :5 analys$ yields ! same proportions ( c>bon & hydrog5--a fact wor?y ( notice1 :5 we consid] t ?is fuel has be5 d]iv$ f an assemblage ( plants v di/9ct specifically1 & 9 "p g5]ically1 f ^? :i* h contribut$ to ! =mation ( ! anci5t or palozoic coal4 ,triassic ,mammif]4--,9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ! late ,pr(essor ,emmons has describ$ ! /rata ( ! ,*a?am coal-field1 :i* correspond 9 age to ^? ne> ,ri*mond1 9 ,virg9ia4 ,9 b$s und]ly+ !m he has met ) ?ree jaws ( a small insectivor\s mammal :i* he has call$ ,droma!rium sylve/re1 closely alli$ to ,spalaco!rium4 ,its ne>e/ liv+ analogue1 says ,pr(essor ,ow51 8is f\nd 9 ,myrmecobius2 = ea* ramus ( ! l[] jaw conta9$ t5 small mol>s 9 a cont9u\s s]ies1 "o can9e1 & ?ree conical incisors--! latt] be+ divid$ by %ort int]vals40 ,l[ ,grade ( ,e>ly ,mammals fav\rable to ! ,!ory ( ,progressive ,developm5t4--,!re is e reason to believe t ?is fossil quadrup$ is at lea/ z anci5t z ! ,microle/es ( ! ,european ,trias describ$ 9 p4 #cfh2 & ! fact is highly important1 z prov+ t a c]ta9 l[ grade ( m>supials _h n only a wide range 9 "t1 f ! ,trias to ! ,purbeck1 or upp]mo/ oolitic /rata ( ,europe1 b _h also a wide range 9 space1 namely1 f ,europe to ,nor? ,am]ica1 9 an ea/ & we/ direction1 &1 9 reg>d to latitude1 f ,/onesfield1 9 #eb ,n41 to t ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 #ce ,n4 ,if ! ?ree localities 9 ,europe :]e ! mo/ anci5t mammalia h be5 f\nd--,purbeck1 ,/onesfield1 & ,/uttg>t--_h belong$ all ( !m to =mations ( ! same age1 we might well h imag9$ s limit$ an area to h be5 peopl$ exclusively ) p\*$ quadrup$s1 j z ,au/ralia n[ is1 :ile o!r p>ts ( ! globe 7 inhabit$ by plac5tals2 = ,au/ralia n[ supports "o hundr$ & sixty species ( m>supials1 :ile ! re/ ( ! cont95ts & isl&s are t5ant$ by ab\t sev5te5 hundr$ species ( mammalia1 ( :i* only =ty-six are m>supial1 namely1 ! opossums ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,b ! great diff]5ce ( age ( ! /rata 9 ea* ( ^! ?ree localities seems to indicate ! pr$om9ance ?r\gh\t a va/ lapse ( "t 7f ! era ( ! ,upp] ,trias to t ( ! ,purbeck b$s7 ( a l[ grade ( quadrup$s2 & ?is p]si/5cy ( simil> g5]ic & ord9al types 9 ,europe :ile ! species 7 *ang+1 & :ile ! fi%1 reptiles1 & mollusca 7 und]go+ great modifications1 w\ld naturally lead u to suspect t !re mu/ also h be5 a va/ ext5sion 9 space ( ! same m>supial =ms dur+ t portion ( ! ,second>y or ,mesozoic epo* :i* has be5 t]m$ 8! age ( reptiles40 ,su* an inf]5ce z to ! wide geographical range ( ! anci5t m>supials has be5 confirm$ by ! discov]y 9 ! ,trias ( ,nor? ,am]ica ( ! above-m5tion$ ,droma!rium4 ,! pr$om9ance 9 e>li] ages ( ^! mammalia ( a l[ grade1 & ! abs5ce1 s f> z our inve/igations h yet gone1 ( species ( high] organisation1 :e!r aquatic or t]re/rial1 is c]ta9ly 9 fav\r ( ! !ory ( progressive developm5t4 #a ,dr4 ,wright1 on ,lias & ,bone ,b$1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 #ahfj1 vol4 xvi4 #b ,buckl&1 ,proc4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ii1 p4 #dci2 & ,mur*ison & ,/rickl&1 ,geol4 ,trans41 ,second ,s]ies41 vol4 v1 p4 #cdg4 #c ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 *ap4 xxvii4 #d ,monog4 des ,bunt]-,s&/e9s4 #e ,rea*es its maximum 9 ! ,trias1 b passes d[n to old] rocks4 #f ,rea* _! maximum 9 ! ,trias1 b pass up to new] rocks4 #g ,hit*cock1 ,mem4 ( ,am]4 ,acad41 ,new ,s]ies1 vol4 iii1 p4 #abi1 #ahdh4 ,,prim>y ,,or ,,pal,,ozoic ,,s]ies ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,p]mian ,,or ,,magnesian ,,lime/one ,,gr\p4 ,l9e ( ,sep>ation betwe5 ,mesozoic & ,palozoic ,rocks4 -- ,di/9ctness ( ,triassic & ,p]mian ,fossils4 -- ,t]m ,p]mian4 -- ,?ickness ( calc>e\s & s$im5t>y ,rocks 9 ,nor? ( ,engl&4 -- ,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[] ,p]mian4 -- ,m>9e ,%ells & ,corals ( ! ,engli% ,magnesian ,lime/one4 -- ,reptiles & ,fi% ( ,p]mian ,m>l-slate4 -- ,foot-pr9ts ( ,reptiles4 -- ,angul> ,breccias 9 ,l[] ,p]mian4 -- ,p]mian ,rocks ( ! ,cont95t4 -- ,ze*/e9 & ,ro?lieg5des ( ,?ur+ia4 -- ,p]mian ,flora4 -- ,its g5]ic ,aff9ity to ! ,c>bonif]\s4 ,9 pursu+ our exam9ation ( ! /rata 9 desc5d+ ord]1 we h next to pass f ! base ( ! ,second>y or ,mesozoic to ! upp]mo/ or newe/ ( ! ,prim>y or ,palozoic =mations4 ,z ?is po9t has be5 select$ z a l9e ( dem>kation = "o ( ! ?ree great divisions ( ! fossilif]\s s]ies1 ! /ud5t might naturally expect t by aid ( li?ological & palontological *>act]s he w\ld be able to recognise )\t difficulty a di/9ct break betwe5 ! new] & old] gr\p4 ,b s f> is ?is f be+ ! case 9 ,great ,brita91 t n[h]e h geologi/s f\nd m difficulty 9 draw+ ! l9e ( sep>ation ?an betwe5 ! ,second>y & ,prim>y s]ies4 ,! obscurity has aris5 f ! great resemblance 9 col\r & m9]al "* ( ! ,triassic & ,p]mian r$ m>ls & s&/ones1 & ! sc>city & (t5 total abs5ce 9 !m ( organic rema9s4 ,! ?ickness ( ! /rata belong+ to ea* gr\p am\nts 9 "s places to sev]al ?\s& feet2 & by d9t ( a c>eful exam9ation ( _! geological position1 & ( ^? fossil1 animal1 & vegetable =ms :i* are occasionally met ) 9 "s memb]s ( ea* s]ies1 x has at l5g? be5 made cle> t ! old] or ,p]mian rocks are m connect$ ) ! ,prim>y or ,palozoic ?an ) ! ,second>y or ,mesozoic /rata already describ$4 ,! t]m ,p]mian has be5 propos$ = ?is gr\p by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison1 f ,p]m1 a ,russian prov9ce1 :]e x occupies an area twice ! size ( ,france1 & conta9s a great abundance & v>iety ( fossils1 bo? v]tebrate & inv]tebrate4 ,pr(essor ,s$gwick 9 #ahcba describ$ :at is n[ recognis$ z ! c5tral memb] ( ?is gr\p1 ! ,magnesian lime/one1 %[+ t x atta9$ a ?ickness ( #fjj feet along ! nor?-ea/ ( ,engl&1 9 ! c\nties ( ,durham1 ,york%ire1 & ,nott+ham%ire1 its l[] "p (t5 pass+ into a fossilif]\s m>l-slate & re/+ on an inf]ior ,r$ ,s&/one1 ! equival5t ( ! ,ro?lieg5des ( ,g]many4 ,x has s9ce be5 %[n t "s ( ! ,r$ ,s&/ones ( new] date also belong to ! ,p]mian gr\p2 & x appe>s f ! obs]vations ( ,mr4 ,b9ney1 ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison1 ,mr4 ,h>kness1 & o!rs1 t x is 9 ! region :]e ! lime/one is mo/ l>gely develop$1 z1 = example1 9 ! c\nty ( ,durham1 t ! associat$ r$ s&/ones or s$im5t>y rocks are ?9ne/1 :]eas 9 ! c\ntry :]e ! latt] are ?icke/ ! calc>e\s memb] is r$uc$ to ?irty1 or ev5 sometimes to t5 feet4 ,x is cle>1 !re=e1 says ,mr4 ,hull1 t ! s$im5t>y region 9 ! nor? ( ,engl& area has be5 to ! we/w>d1 & ! calc>e\s area to ! ea/w>d2 & t 9 ?is gr\p !re has be5 a developm5t f opposite directions ( ! two types ( /rata4 ,9 illu/ration ( ?is he has giv5 u ! foll[+ table3 ,,?ickness ,,( ,,p]mian ,,/rata ,,9 ,,nor? ,,( ,,engl&4 ,n4,w4 ( ,engl& ,n4,e4 ( ,engl& ,feet ,feet ,upp] ,p]mian 7,s$im5t>y7 #fjj #ej-ajj ,middle ,p]mian 7,calc>e\s7 #aj-cj #fjj ,l[] ,p]mian 7,s$im5t>y7 #cjjj #ajj-bejb ,upp] ,p]mian4--,:at is call$ 9 ?is table ! ,upp] ,p]mian w be se5 to atta9 its *ief ?ickness 9 ! nor?-we/1 or on ! coa/ ( ,cumb]l&1 z at ,/4 ,bee's ,head1 :]e x is describ$ by ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison z consi/+ ( massive r$ s&/ones ) gypsum re/+ on a ?9 c\rse ( ,magnesian ,lime/one ) fossils1 :i* aga9 is connect$ ) ! ,l[] ,r$ ,s&/one1 resembl+ ! upp] "o 9 su* a mann] t ! :ole =ms a cont9u\s s]ies4 ,no fossil footpr9ts h be5 f\nd 9 ?is ,upp] z 9 ! ,l[] ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,middle ,p]mian--,magnesian ,lime/one & ,m>l-slate4--,?is =mation is se5 ^u ! coa/ ( ,durham & ,york%ire1 betwe5 ! ,we> & ! ,tees4 ,among its *>act]i/ic fossils are ,s*izodus ,s*lo!imi 7,fig4 #daj7 & ,mytilus septif] 7,fig4 #dab74 ,^! %ells occur at ,h>tlepool & ,sund]l&1 :]e ! rock assumes an oolitic & botryoidal "*4 ,"s ( ! b$s 9 ?is division are ripple-m>k$4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ! coa/ ( ,durham1 :]e ! rock is n cry/all9e1 x conta9s z mu* z #dd p] c5t ( c>bonate ( magnesia1 mix$ ) c>bonate ( lime4 ,9 o!r places--= x is extremely v>iable 9 /ructure--x consi/s *iefly ( c>bonate ( lime1 & has concret$ into globul> & hemisph]ical masses1 v>y+ f ! size ( a m>ble to t ( a cannon-ball1 & radiat+ f ! c5tre4 ,occasionally e>?y & pulv]ul5t b$s pass into compact lime/one or h>d granul> dolomite4 ,sometimes ! lime/one appe>s 9 a brecciat$ =m1 ! fragm5ts :i* are unit$ toge!r n consi/+ ( =eign rocks b seem+ly compos$ ( ! break+-up ( ! ,p]mian lime/one itself1 ab\t ! "t ( its consolidation4 ,"s ( ! angul> masses 9 ,tynem\? cliff are two feet 9 diamet]4 ,fig4 #daj3 ,s*idozus ,s*lo!imi1 ,p]mian cry/all9e lime/one4 ,fig4 #daa3 ,! h+e ( ,s*izodus truncatus1 ,p]mian4 ,fig4 #dab3 ,mytilus septif]1 ,p]mian cry/all9e lime/one4 ,! magnesian lime/one sometimes becomes v fossilif]\s & includes 9 x delicate bryozoa1 "o ( :i*1 ,f5e/ella reti=mis 7,fig4 #dac71 is a v v>iable species1 & has receiv$ _m diff]5t names4 ,x sometimes atta9s a l>ge size1 s+le specim5s measur+ eight in*es 9 wid?4 ,! same bryozoan1 ) sev]al o!r ,briti% species1 is also f\nd abundantly 9 ! ,p]mian ( ,g]many4 ,! total kn[n fauna ( ! ,p]mian s]ies ( ,great ,brita9 at pres5t numb]s #adg species1 ( :i* #gg1 or m ?an half1 are mollusca4 ,n "o ( ^! is common to rocks new] ?an ! ,palozoic1 & ! bra*iopods are ! only gr\p :i* h furni%$ species common to ! m anci5t or ,c>bonif]\s rocks4 ,( ^! ,l+ula ,cr$n]ii 7,fig4 #dae7 is an example4 ,!re are #be ,ga/]opods & only "o cephalopod1 ,nautilus ,freiesleb5i1 :i* is also f\nd 9 ! ,g]man ,ze*/e94 ,fig4 #dac3 ,magnesian ,lime/one4 ,fig4 #dac3 ,magnesian ,lime/one1 ,humbleton ,hill1 ne> ,sund]l&4#c ,%ells ( ! g5]a ,productus 7,fig4 #dad7 & ,/rophalosia 7! latt] ( alli$ =m ) h+e tee?71 :i* d n occur 9 /rata new] ?an ! ,p]mian1 are abundant 9 ! ord9>y yell[ magnesian lime/one1 z w be se5 9 ! valuable memoirs ( ,messrs4 ,k+ & ,h[se4 ,!y are accompani$ by c]ta9 species ( ,spirif]a 7,fig4 #daf71 ,l+ula ,cr$n]ii 7,fig4 #dae71 & o!r bra*iopoda ( ! true prim>y or palozoic type4 ,"s ( ?is same tribe ( %ells1 su* z ,cam>ophoria1 alli$ to ,rhyn*onella1 ,spirif]9a1 & two species ( ,l+ula1 are specifically ! same z fossils ( ! c>bonif]\s rocks4 ,avicula1 ,arca1 & ,s*izodus 7,fig4 #daj71 & o!r lamellibran*iate bivalves1 are abundant1 b spiral univalves are v r>e4 ,fig4 #dad3 ,productus horridus4 ,fig4 #dae3 ,l+ula ,cr$n]ii4 ,fig4 #daf3 ,spirif]a alata4 ,b5ea? ! lime/one lies a =mation t]m$ ! m>l-/one1 :i* consi/s ( h>d calc>e\s %ales1 m>l-slate1 & ?9-b$d$ lime/ones4 ,at ,ea/ ,?ickley1 9 ,durham1 :]e x is ?irty feet ?ick1 ?is slate has yield$ _m f9e specim5s ( fossil fi%--( ! g5]a ,paloniscus t5 species1 ,pygopt]us two species1 ,coelacan?us two species1 & ,platysomus two species1 :i* z g5]a are common to ! old] ,c>bonif]\s =mation1 b ! ,p]mian species are peculi>1 &1 = ! mo/ "p1 id5tical ) ^? f\nd 9 ! m>l-slate or copp]-slate ( ,?ur+ia4 ,fig4 #dag3 ,re/or$ outl9e ( a fi% ( ! g5us ,paloniscus4 ,fig4 #dah3 ,%>k1 ,het]oc]cal4 ,fig4 #dai3 ,%ad4 7,clupea4 ,h]r+ tribe47 ,homoc]eal4 ,! ,paloniscus above m5tion$ belongs to t division ( fi%es :i* ,m4 ,agassiz has call$ 8,het]oc]cal10 :i* h _! tails unequally bilobate1 l ! rec5t %>k & /urgeon1 & ! v]tebral column runn+ along ! upp] caudal lobe4 7,see ,fig4 #dah47 ,! 8,homoc]cal0 fi%1 :i* comprise almo/ all ! #ijjj species at pres5t kn[n 9 ! liv+ creation1 h ! tail-f9 ei!r s+le or equally divid$2 & ! v]tebral column /ops %ort1 & is n prolong$ into ei!r lobe4 7,see ,fig4 #dai47 ,n[ x is a s+ul> fact1 fir/ po9t$ out by ,agassiz1 t ! het]oc]cal =m1 :i* is conf9$ to a small numb] ( g5]a 9 ! exi/+ creation1 is univ]sal 9 ! magnesian lime/one1 & all ! m anci5t =mations4 ,x *>act]ises ! e>li] p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 :]eas 9 ! second>y /rata1 or ^? new] ?an ! ,p]mian1 ! homoc]cal tail pr$om9ates4 ,a full description has be5 giv5 by ,sir ,philip ,eg]ton ( ! species ( fi% *>act]i/ic ( ! m>l-slate1 9 ,pr(essor ,k+'s monograph be=e ref]r$ to1 :]e figures ( ! i*?yolites1 :i* are v entire & well pres]v$1 w be f\nd4 ,ev5 a s+le scale is usually s *>act]i/ically m>k$ z to indicate ! g5us1 & sometimes ev5 ! p>ticul> species4 ,!y are (t5 scatt]$ ?r\gh ! b$s s+ly1 & may be useful to a geologi/ 9 det]m9+ ! age ( ! rock4 ,fig4 #dbj3 ,paloniscus comptus4 ,fig4 #dba3 ,paloniscus elegans4 ,fig4 #dbb3 ,paloniscus glaphyrus4 ,fig4 #dbc3 ,clacan?us granulatus4 ,fig4 #dbd3 ,pygopt]us m&ibul>is4 ,fig4 #dbe3 ,acrolepis ,s$gwickii4 ,we are indebt$ to ,messrs4 ,hancock & ,h[se = ! discov]y 9 ?is m>l-slate at ,midd]idge1 ,durham1 ( two species ( ,protosaurus1 a g5us ( reptiles1 "o repres5tative ( :i*1 ,p4 ,sp5]i1 has be5 celebrat$ ev] s9ce ! ye> #ahaj z *>act]i/ic ( ! ,kupf]-s*ief] or ,p]mian ( ,?ur+ia4 ,pr(essor ,huxley in=ms u t ! agreem5t ( ! ,durham fossil ) ,h]mann von ,mey]'s figure ( ! ,g]man specim5 is mo/ /rik+4 ,al?\gh ! head is want+ 9 all ! examples yet f\nd1 !y cle>ly belong to ! ,lac]tian ord]1 & are !re=e ( a high] grade ?an any o!r v]tebrate animal hi!rto f\nd fossil 9 a ,palozoic rock4 ,rema9s ( ,labyr9?odont reptiles h also be5 met ) 9 ! same slate ne> ,durham4 ,l[] ,p]mian4--,! inf]ior s&/ones :i* lie b5ea? ! m>l-slate consi/ ( s&/one & s&1 sep>at+ ! ,magnesian ,lime/one f ! coal1 9 ,york%ire & ,durham4 ,9 "s in/ances1 r$ m>l & gypsum h be5 f\nd associat$ ) ^! b$s4 ,!y h be5 class$ ) ! ,magnesian ,lime/one by ,pr(essor ,s$gwick1 z be+ ne>ly co-ext5sive ) x 9 geographical range1 ?\gh _! relations are v obscure4 ,b ! pr9cipal developm5t ( ,l[] ,p]mian is1 z we h se5 by ,mr4 ,hull's table p4 #chf1 9 ! nor?we/1 :]e ! ,p5ri? s&/one1 z x has be5 call$1 & ! associat$ breccias & purple %ales are e/imat$ by ,pr(essor ,h>kness to atta9 a ?ickness ( #cjjj feet4 ,organic rema9s are g5]ally want+1 b ! leaves & wood ( conif]\s plants1 & 9 "o case a cone1 h be5 f\nd4 ,also 9 ! purple m>ls ( ,corncockle ,muir ne> ,dumfries1 v di/9ct footpr9ts ( reptiles occur1 orig9ally ref]r$ to ! ,trias1 b %[n by ,mr4 ,b9ney 9 #ahef to be ,p]mian4 ,no bones ( ! animals :i* !y repres5t h yet be5 discov]$4 ,angul> ,breccias 9 ,l[] ,p]mian4--,a /rik+ feature 9 ^! b$s is ! occasional occurr5ce1 especially at ! base ( ! =mation1 ( angul> & sometimes r\nd$ fragm5ts ( ,c>bonif]\s & old] rocks ( ! adjo9+ di/ricts be+ includ$ 9 a pa/e ( r$ m>l4 ,"s ( ! angul> masses are ( huge size4 ,9 ! c5tral & s\!rn c\nties1 :]e ! ,middle ,p]mian or ,magnesian ,lime/one is want+1 x is difficult to sep>ate ! upp] & l[] s&/ones1 & ,mr4 ,hull is ( op9ion t ! pat*es ( ?is =mation f\nd "h & !re 9 ,worce/]%ire1 ,%rop%ire1 & o!r c\nties may h be5 deposit$ 9 a sea sep>at$ f ! nor!rn bas9 by a b>ri] ( ,c>bonif]\s rocks runn+ ea/ & we/1 & n[ conceal$ "u ! ,triassic /rata ( ,*e%ire4 ,simil> breccias to ^? be=e describ$ are f\nd 9 ! m s\!rn c\nties la/ m5tion$1 :]e _! appe>ance is r5d]$ m /rik+ by ! m>k$ contra/ !y pres5t to ! b$s ( well-roll$ & r\nd$ pebbles ( ! ,trias occupy+ a l>ge area 9 ! same region4 ,pr(essor ,ramsay ref]s ! angul> =m & l>ge size ( ! fragm5ts compos+ ^! breccias to ! action ( float+ ice 9 ! sea4 ,^! masses ( angul> rock1 "s ( !m weigh+ m ?an half a ton1 & ly+ confus$ly 9 a r$1 un/ratifi$ m>l1 l /ones 9 b\ld]-drift1 are 9 "s cases poli%$1 /riat$1 & furr[$ l erratic blocks 9 ! mora9e ( a glaci]4 ,!y c be %[n 9 "s cases to h travell$ f ! p>5t rocks1 ?irty or m miles di/ant1 & yet n to h lo/ _! angul> %ape4#d ,p]mian ,rocks ( ! ,cont95t4--,g]many is ! classic gr\nd ( ! ,magnesian ,lime/one n[ call$ ,p]mian4 ,! =mation 0 well /udi$ by ! m9]s ( t c\ntry a c5tury ago z conta9+ a ?9 b& ( d>k-col\r$ cuprif]\s %ale1 *>act]is$ at ,mansfield 9 ,?ur+ia by num]\s fossil fi%4 ,b5ea? "s v>iegat$ s&/ones 7n belong+ to ! ,trias1 ?\gh (t5 conf\nd$ ) x7 !y came d[n fir/ ^u a dolomitic lime/one correspond+ to ! upp] "p ( our ,middle ,p]mian1 & !n ^u a m>l-slate ri*ly impregnat$ ) copp] pyrites1 & conta9+ fi% & reptiles 7,protosaurus7 id5tical 9 species ) ^? ( ! correspond+ m>l-slate ( ,durham4 ,to ! lime/one !y gave ! "n ( ,ze*/e91 & to ! m>l-slate t ( ,m]gel-s*ief] or ,kupf]-s*ief]4 ,b5ea? ! fossilif]\s gr\p lies ! ,ro?lieg5des or ,ro?todt-lieg5des1 mean+ ! r$-ly] or r$-dead-ly]1 s-call$ by ! ,g]man m9]s f its col\r1 & because ! copp] _h di$ out :5 !y rea*$ ?is und]ly+ non-metallif]\s memb] ( ! s]ies4 ,?is r$ "u-ly] is1 9 fact1 a great deposit ( r$ s&/one1 breccia1 & conglom]ate ) associat$ porphyry1 basalt1 & amygdaloid4 ,accord+ to ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison1 ! ,p]mian rocks are compos$1 9 ,russia1 ( :ite lime/one1 ) gypsum & :ite salt2 & ( r$ & gre5 grits1 occasionally ) copp] ore2 also magnesian lime/ones1 m>l-/ones1 & conglom]ates4 ,fig4 #dbf3 ,wal*ia p9i=mis4 ,p]mian ,flora4--,ab\t #ah or #bj species ( plants are kn[n 9 ! ,p]mian rocks ( ,engl&4 ,none ( !m pass d[n into ! ,c>bonif]\s s]ies1 b sev]al g5]a1 su* z ,ale?opt]is1 ,neuropt]is1 ,wal*ia1 & ,ullmania1 are common to ! two gr\ps4 ,! ,p]mian flora on ! ,cont95t appe>s1 f ! rese>*es ( ,,mm4 ,mur*ison & de ,v]neuil 9 ,russia1 & ( ,,mm4 ,ge9itz & von ,gutbi] 9 ,saxony1 to be1 ) a few exceptions1 di/9ct f t ( ! coal4 ,fig4 #bg3 ,c>dioc>pon ,ottonis4 ,9 ! ,p]mian rocks ( ,saxony no less ?an #fj species ( fossil plants h be5 met )4 ,two or ?ree ( ^!1 z ,calamites gigas1 ,sph5opt]is erosa1 & ,s4 lobata1 are also met ) 9 ! gov]nm5t ( ,p]m 9 ,russia4 ,sev5 o!rs1 & among !m ,neuropt]is ,lo%ii1 ,pecopt]is arboresc5s1 & ,p4 similis1 & sev]al species ( ,wal*ia 7see ,fig4 #dbf71 a g5us ( ,conif]s1 call$ ,lycopodites by "s au?ors1 are said by ,ge9itz to be common to ! coal-measures4 ,fig4 #dbh3 ,noegg]a?ia cuneifolia4 ,fig4 #dbh3 ,noegg]a?ia cuneifolia4 ,brongni>t4#e ,among ! g5]a also enum]at$ by ,colonel ,gutbi] are ! fruit call$ ,c>dioc>pon 7see ,fig4 #dbg71 ,a/]ophyllites1 & ,annul>ia1 s *>act]i/ic ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod2 also ,lepidod5dron1 :i* is common to ! ,p]mian ( ,saxony1 ,?ur+ia1 & ,russia1 al?\gh n abundant4 ,neogg]a?ia 7see ,fig4 #dbh71 ! leaves ( :i* h p>allel ve9s )\t a midrib1 & to :i* v>i\s g5]ic synonyms1 su* z ,cordaites1 ,flabell>ia1 & ,poacites1 h be5 giv51 is ano!r l9k betwe5 ! ,p]mian & ,c>bonif]\s vegetation4 ,conif]1 ( ! ,arauc>ian division1 also occur2 b ^! are likewise met ) bo? 9 old] & new] rocks4 ,! plants call$ ,sigill>ia & ,/igm>ia1 s m>k$ a feature 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 are z yet want+ 9 ! true ,p]mian4 ,among ! rem>kable fossils ( ! ,ro?lieg5des1 or l[e/ "p ( ! ,p]mian 9 ,saxony & ,bohemia1 are ! silicifi$ trunks ( tree-f]ns call$ g5]ically ,ps>onius4 ,_! b>k 0 surr\nd$ by a d5se mass ( air-roots1 :i* (t5 con/itut$ a great addition to ! orig9al /em1 s z to d\ble or quadruple its diamet]4 ,! same rem>k holds good 9 reg>d to c]ta9 liv+ extra-tropical arboresc5t f]ns1 p>ticul>ly ^? ( ,new ,zeal&4 ,^u ! :ole1 x is evid5t t ! ,p]mian plants approa* mu* ne>] to ! ,c>bonif]\s flora ?an to ! ,triassic2 & ! same may be said ( ! ,p]mian fauna4 #a ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,lond41 ,second ,s]ies1 vol4 iii1 p4 #cg4 #b ,edw>d ,hull1 ,t]n>y ,classification1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,sci5ce1 ,no4 xxiii1 #ahfi4 #c ,k+'s ,monograph1 pl4 #b4 #d ,ramsay1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 #ahee2 & ,lyell1 ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 vol4 i1 p4 #bbc1 #aj? edit4 #e ,mur*ison's ,russia1 vol4 ii1 pl4 ,a1 fig4 #c4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,! ,,coal ,,or ,,c>bonif]\s ,,gr\p4 ,pr9cipal ,subdivisions ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,gr\p4 -- ,diff]5t ,?ickness ( ! s$im5t>y & calc>e\s ,memb]s 9 ,scotl& & ! ,s\? ( ,engl&4 -- ,coal-measures4 -- ,t]re/rial ,nature ( ! ,gr[? ( ,coal4 -- ,erect fossil ,trees4 -- ,unit+ ( _m ,coal-seams into "o ?ick ,b$4 -- ,purity ( ! ,coal expla9$4 -- ,conv]sion ( ,coal into ,an?racite4 -- ,orig9 ( ,clay-iron/one4 -- ,m>9e & bracki%-wat] ,/rata 9 ,coal4 -- ,fossil ,insects4 -- ,batra*ian ,reptiles4 -- ,labyr9?odont ,foot-pr9ts 9 ,coal-measures4 -- ,nova ,scotia ,coal-measures ) successive ,gr[?s ( erect fossil ,trees4 -- ,simil>ity ( ,am]ican & ,european ,coal4 -- ,air-brea!rs ( ! ,am]ican ,coal4 -- ,*anges ( ,condition ( ,l& & ,sea indicat$ by ! ,c>bonif]\s ,/rata ( ,nova ,scotia4 ,pr9cipal ,subdivisions ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,gr\p4--,! next gr\p :i* we meet ) 9 ! desc5d+ ord] is ! ,c>bonif]\s1 commonly call$ 8,! ,coal10 because x conta9s _m b$s ( t m9]al1 9 a m or less pure /ate1 int]/ratifi$ ) s&/ones1 %ales1 & lime/ones4 ,! coal itself1 ev5 9 ,great ,brita9 & ,belgium1 :]e x is mo/ abundant1 con/itutes b an insignificant portion ( ! :ole mass4 ,9 ,s\? ,wales1 = example1 ! ?ickness ( ! coal-be>+ /rata has be5 e/imat$ at betwe5 #aa1jjj & #ab1jjj feet1 :ile ! v>i\s coal seams1 ab\t #hj 9 numb]1 d n1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,phillips1 exce$ 9 ! aggregate #abj feet4 ,! ,c>bonif]\s =mation assumes v>i\s *>act]s 9 diff]5t p>ts ev5 ( ! ,briti% ,isl&s4 ,x usually comprises two v di/9ct memb]s3 fir/1 ! s$im5t>y b$s1 usually call$ ! ,coal-measures1 ( mix$ fre%-wat]1 t]re/rial1 & m>9e orig91 (t5 includ+ seams ( coal2 second1 t nam$ 9 ,engl& ! ,m\nta9 or ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one1 ( purely m>9e orig91 & made up *iefly ( corals1 %ells1 & encr9ites1 & re/+ on %ales call$ ! %ales ( ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one4 ,9 ! s\?-we/]n "p ( our isl&1 9 ,som]set%ire & ,s\? ,wales1 ! ?ree divisions usually spok5 ( are3 ,coal-measures3 ,/rata ( %ale1 s&/one1 & grit1 f #fjj to #ab1jjj feet ?ick1 ) occasional seams ( coal4 ,mill/one grit3 ,a co>se qu>tzose s&/one pass+ into a conglom]ate1 sometimes us$ = mill/ones1 ) b$s ( %ale2 usually devoid ( coal2 occasionally above #fjj feet ?ick4 ,m\nta9 or ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one3 ,a calc>e\s rock conta9+ m>9e %ells1 corals1 & encr9ites2 devoid ( coal2 ?ickness v>iable1 sometimes m ?an #aejj feet4 ,if ! read] w ref] to ! section 9 ,fig4 #he1 he w see t ! ,upp] & ,l[] ,coal-measures ( ! coal-field ne> ,bri/ol are divid$ by a micace\s flaggy s&/one call$ ! ,p5nant ,rock4 ,! ,l[] ,coal-measures ( ! same section re/ sometimes1 especially 9 ! nor? "p ( ! bas91 on a base ( co>se grit call$ ! ,mill/one ,grit 7,no4 #b on ! previ\s page74 ,9 ! ,s\? ,wel% coal-field ,mill/one ,grit occurs 9 l mann] at ! base ( ! productive coal4 ,x is call$ by ! m9]s ! 8,f>ewell ,rock10 z :5 !y rea* x !y h no long] any hopes ( obta9+ coal at a great] dep? 9 ! same di/rict4 ,9 ! c5tral & nor!rn coal-fields ( ,engl& ?is same grit1 includ+ qu>tz pebbles1 ) "s accompany+ s&/ones & %ales conta9+ coal plants1 acquires a ?ickness ( sev]al ?\s& feet1 ly+ b5ea? ! productive coal-measures1 :i* are ne>ly #aj1jjj feet ?ick4 ,bel[ ! ,mill/one ,grit is a cont9uation ( simil> s&/ones & %ales call$ by ,pr(essor ,phillips ! ,yor$ale s]ies1 f ,yor$ale1 9 ,york%ire1 :]e !y atta9 a ?ickness ( f #hjj to #ajjj feet4 ,at sev]al int]vals b&s ( lime/one divide ?is "p ( ! s]ies1 "o ( :i*1 call$ ! ,ma9 ,lime/one or ,upp] ,sc> ,lime/one1 compos$ 9 great "p ( encr9ites1 is #gj feet ?ick4 ,?9 seams ( coal also occur 9 ^! l[] ,yor$ale b$s 9 ,york%ire1 %[+ t 9 ! same region !re 7 great alt]nations 9 ! /ate ( ! surface4 ,= at successive p]iods 9 ! same area !re prevail$ fir/ t]re/rial conditions fav\rable to ! gr[? ( pure coal1 secondly1 a sea ( "s dep? suit$ to ! =mation ( ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one1 &1 ?irdly1 a supply ( muddy s$im5t & s&1 furni%+ ! mat]ials = s&/one & %ale4 ,!re is no cle> l9e ( dem>kation betwe5 ! ,coal-measures & ! ,mill/one ,grit1 nor betwe5 ! ,mill/one ,grit & und]ly+ ,yor$ale rocks4 ,on comp>+ a s]ies ( v]tical sections 9 a nor?-we/]ly direction f ,leice/]%ire & ,w>wick%ire into ,nor? ,lanca%ire1 we f9d1 says ,mr4 ,hull1 )9 a di/ance ( #abj miles an augm5tation ( ! s$im5t>y mat]ials to ! ext5t ( #af1jjj feet4 ,leice/]%ire & ,w>wick%ire #b1fjj feet ,nor? ,/af=d%ire #i1jjj feet ,s\? ,lanca%ire #ab1acj feet ,nor? ,lanca%ire #ah1gjj feet ,9 c5tral ,engl&1 :]e ! s$im5t>y b$s are r$uc$ to ab\t #cjjj feet 9 all1 ! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one atta9s an enorm\s ?ickness1 z mu* z #djjj feet at ,a%b\rne1 ne> ,d]by1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,hull's e/imate4 ,to a c]ta9 ext5t1 !re=e1 we may consid] ! calc>e\s memb] ( ! =mation z hav+ orig9at$ simultane\sly ) ! accumulation ( ! mat]ials ( grit1 s&/one1 & %ale1 ) seams ( coal2 j z /rata ( mud1 s&1 & pebbles1 sev]al ?\s& feet ?ick1 ) lay]s ( vegetable matt]1 are n[ 9 ! process ( =mation 9 ! cypress swamps & delta ( ! ,mississippi1 :ile coral reefs are =m+ on ! coa/ ( ,florida & 9 ! sea ( ! ,b]muda isl&s4 ,= we may safely conclude t 9 ! anci5t ,c>bonif]\s ocean ^? m>9e animals :i* 7 lime/one build]s 7 nev] freely develop$ 9 areas :]e ! riv]s p\r$ 9 fre% wat] *>g$ ) s& or clay2 & ! lime/one c\ld only become sev]al ?\s& feet ?ick 9 p>ts ( ! ocean :i* rema9$ p]fectly cle> = ages4 ,! calc>e\s /rata ( ! ,scot* coal-fields1 ^? ( ,lan>k%ire1 ! ,lo?ians1 & ,fife1 = example1 are v insignificant 9 ?ickness :5 comp>$ to ^? ( ,engl&4 ,!y consi/ ( a few b$s int]calat$ betwe5 ! s&/ones & %ales conta9+ coal & iron/one1 ! comb9$ ?ickness ( all ! lime/ones am\nt+ to no m ?an #aej feet4 ,! vegetation ( "s ( ^! nor!rn s$im5t>y b$s conta9+ coal may be old] ?an any ( ! coal-measures ( c5tral & s\!rn ,engl&1 z be+ coeval ) ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one ( ! s\?4 ,9 ,irel& ! lime/one pr$om9ates ov] ! coal-be>+ s&s & %ales4 ,we may inf] ! =m] cont9uity ( sev]al ( ! coal-fields 9 nor!rn & c5tral ,engl&1 n only f ! abrupt mann] 9 :i* !y are cut (f at _! outcrop1 b f _! rem>kable correspond5ce 9 ! succession & "* ( p>ticul> b$s4 ,b ! limit$ ext5t to :i* ^! /rata are expos$ at ! surface is n m]ely ow+ to _! =m] d5udation1 b ev5 9 a /ill great] degree to _! hav+ be5 l>gely cov]$ by ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 z 9 ,*e%ire1 & "h & !re by ! ,p]mian /rata1 z 9 ,durham4 ,x has long be5 ! op9ion ( ! mo/ em95t geologi/s t ! coal-fields ( ,york%ire & ,lanca%ire 7 once unit$1 ! upp] ,coal-measures & ! ov]ly+ ,mill/one ,grit & ,yor$ale rocks hav+ be5 subsequ5tly remov$2 b :at is rem>kable1 is ! anci5t date n[ assign$ to ?is d5udation1 = x seems t a ?ickness ( no less ?an #aj1jjj feet ( ! coal-measures _h be5 c>ri$ away be=e ! deposition ev5 ( ! l[] ,p]mian rocks :i* 7 ?r[n d[n ^u ! already di/urb$ truncat$ edges ( ! coal-/rata4#a ,! c>bonif]\s /rata mo/ productive ( workable coal h s (t5 a bas9-%ap$ arrangem5t t ^! tr\ghs h sometimes be5 suppos$ to be connect$ ) ! orig9al con=mation ( ! surface ^u :i* ! b$s 7 deposit$4 ,b x is n[ admitt$ t ?is /ructure has be5 ow+ to movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ ( upheaval & subsid5ce1 & t ! flexure & incl9ation ( ! b$s has no connection ) ! orig9al geographical configuration ( ! di/rict4 ,,coal-,,measures4 ,i %all n[ treat m p>ticul>ly ( ! productive coal-measures1 & _! mode ( orig9 & organic rema9s4 ,coal =m$ on ,l&4--,9 ,s\? ,wales1 already allud$ to1 :]e ! coal-measures atta9 a ?ickness ( #ab1jjj feet1 ! b$s ?r\gh\t appe> to h be5 =m$ 9 wat] ( mod]ate dep?1 dur+ a sl[1 b p]haps int]mitt5t1 depression ( ! gr\nd1 9 a region to :i* riv]s 7 br++ a nev]-fail+ supply ( muddy s$im5t & s&4 ,! same area 0 sometimes cov]$ ) va/ =e/s1 su* z we see 9 ! deltas ( great riv]s 9 w>m climates1 :i* are liable to be subm]g$ b5ea? fre% or salt wat] %\ld ! gr\nd s9k v]tically a few feet4 ,9 "o section ne> ,swansea1 9 ,s\? ,wales1 :]e ! total ?ickness ( /rata is #cbdf feet1 we le>n f ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e t !re are t5 pr9cipal masses ( s&/one4 ,"o ( ^! is #ejj feet ?ick1 & ! :ole ( !m make toge!r a ?ickness ( #babe feet4 ,!y are sep>at$ by masses ( %ale1 v>y+ 9 ?ickness f #aj to #ej feet4 ,! int]calat$ coal-b$s1 sixte5 9 numb]1 are g5]ally f "o to five feet ?ick1 "o ( !m1 :i* has two or ?ree lay]s ( clay int]pos$1 atta9+ n9e feet4 ,at o!r po9ts 9 ! same coal-field ! %ales pr$om9ate ov] ! s&/ones4 ,great z is ! div]sity 9 ! horizontal ext5t ( individual coal-seams1 !y all pres5t "o *>act]i/ic feature1 9 hav+1 ea* ( !m1 :at is call$ its und]clay4 ,^! und]clays1 co-ext5sive ) e lay] ( coal1 consi/ ( ar5ace\s %ale1 sometimes call$ fire-/one1 because x c be made into bricks :i* /& ! fire ( a furnace4 ,!y v>y 9 ?ickness f six in*es to m ?an t5 feet2 & ,sir ,william ,logan fir/ ann\nc$ to ! sci5tific _w 9 #ahda t !y 7 reg>d$ by ! colli]s 9 ,s\? ,wales z an ess5tial accompanim5t ( ea* ( ! eighty or m seams ( coal met ) 9 _! coal-field4 ,!y are said to =m ! floor on :i* ! coal re/s2 & "s ( !m h a slight admixture ( c>bonace\s matt]1 :ile o!rs are q black5$ by x4 ,all ( !m1 z ,sir ,william ,logan po9t$ out1 are *>act]is$ by inclos+ a peculi> species ( fossil vegetable call$ ,/igm>ia1 to ! exclusion ( o!r plants4 ,x 0 also obs]v$ t1 :ile 9 ! ov]ly+ %ales1 or 8ro(0 ( ! coal1 f]ns & trunks ( trees ab\nd )\t any ,/igm>i1 & are flatt5$ & compress$1 ^? s+ul> plants ( ! und]clay mo/ commonly reta9 _! natural =ms1 unflatt5$ & bran*+ freely1 & s5d+ out _! sl5d] rootlets1 =m]ly ?\ght to be leaves1 ?r\gh ! mud 9 all directions4 ,sev]al species ( ,/igm>ia _h long be5 kn[n to botani/s1 & describ$ by !m1 be=e _! position "u ea* seam ( coal 0 po9t$ out1 & be=e _! true nature z ! roots ( trees 7"s hav+ be5 actually f\nd atta*$ to ! base ( ,sigill>ia /umps7 0 recognis$4 ,x 0 conjectur$ t !y might be aquatic1 p]haps float+ plants1 :i* sometimes ext5d$ _! bran*es & leaves freely 9 fluid mud1 9 :i* !y 7 f9ally envelop$4 ,n[ t all agree t ^! und]clays are anci5t soils1 x foll[s t 9 e in/ance :]e we f9d !m !y atte/ ! t]re/rial nature ( ! plants :i* =m$ ! ov]ly+ coal1 :i* consi/s ( ! trunks1 bran*es1 & leaves ( ! same plants4 ,! trunks h g5]ally fall5 pro/rate 9 ! coal1 b "s ( !m /ill rema9 at "r angles to ! anci5t soils 7see ,fig4 #ddj74 ,pr(essor ,gopp]t1 aft] exam9+ ! fossil vegetables ( ! coal-fields ( ,g]many1 has detect$1 9 b$s ( pure coal1 rema9s ( plants ( e family hi!rto kn[n to occur fossil 9 ! c>bonif]\s rocks4 ,_m seams1 he rem>ks1 are ri* 9 ,sigill>i1 ,lepidod5dra1 & ,/igm>i1 ! latt] 9 su* abundance z to appe> to =m ! bulk ( ! coal4 ,9 "s places1 almo/ all ! plants 7 calamites1 9 o!rs f]ns4#b ,betwe5 ! ye>s #ahcg & #ahdj1 six fossil trees 7 discov]$ 9 ! coal-fields ( ,lanca%ire1 :]e x is int]sect$ by ! ,bolton railway4 ,!y 7 all at "r angles to ! plane ( ! b$1 :i* dips ab\t #ae degrees to ! s\?4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! fir/ & ! la/ 0 m ?an #ajj feet1 & ! roots ( all 7 imb$d$ 9 a s(t argillace\s %ale4 ,9 ! same plane ) ! roots is a b$ ( coal1 eight or t5 in*es ?ick1 :i* has be5 f\nd to ext5d across ! railway1 or to ! di/ance ( at lea/ t5 y>ds4 ,j above ! cov]+ ( ! roots1 yet b5ea? ! coal-seam1 s l>ge a quantity ( ! ,lepido/robus v>iabilis 0 discov]$ inclos$ 9 nodules ( h>d clay1 t m ?an a bu%el 0 collect$ f ! small op5+s ar\nd ! base ( "s ( ! trees 7see ,fig4 #deg ( ?is g5us74 ,! ext]ior trunk ( ea* 0 m>k$ by a coat+ ( friable coal1 v>y+ f "o-qu>t] to ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* 9 ?ickness2 b x crumbl$ away on remov+ ! matrix4 ,! dim5sions ( "o ( ! trees is #ae feet 9 circumf]5ce at ! base1 #g feet at ! top1 its height be+ elev5 feet4 ,all ! trees h l>ge spread+ roots1 solid & /rong1 sometimes bran*+1 & trac$ to a di/ance ( sev]al feet1 & presum$ to ext5d mu* f>!r4 ,9 a colli]y ne> ,newca/le a great numb] ( ,sigill>i occur 9 ! rock z if !y _h reta9$ ! position 9 :i* !y grew4 ,no less ?an ?irty1 "s ( !m f\r or five feet 9 diamet]1 7 visible )9 an area ( #ej y>ds squ>e1 ! int]ior be+ s&/one1 & ! b>k hav+ be5 conv]t$ into coal4 ,su* v]tical /ems are famili> to our coal-m9]s1 "u ! "n ( coal-pipes4 ,!y are mu* dread$1 = almo/ e ye> 9 ! ,bri/ol1 ,newca/le1 & o!r coal-fields1 !y are ! cause ( fatal accid5ts4 ,ea* cyl9drical ca/ ( a tree1 =m$ ( solid s&/one1 & increas+ gradually 9 size t[>ds ! base1 & be+ )\t bran*es1 has its :ole weight ?r[n d[nw>d1 & receives no support f ! coat+ ( friable coal :i* has replac$ ! b>k4 ,z soon1 !re=e1 z ! cohesion ( ?is ext]nal lay] is ov]come1 ! heavy column falls sudd5ly 9 a p]p5dicul> or oblique direction f ! ro( ( ! gall]y :5ce coal has be5 extract$1 w\nd+ or kill+ ! workman :o /&s bel[4 ,x is /range to reflect h[ _m ?\s&s ( ^! trees fell orig9ally 9 _! native =e/s 9 ob$i5ce to ! law ( gravity2 & h[ ! few :i* cont9u$ to /& erect1 obey+1 aft] myriads ( ages1 ! same =ce1 are ca/ d[n to immolate _! human victims4 ,x has be5 rem>k$ t if1 in/ead ( work+ 9 ! d>k1 ! m9] 0 accu/om$ to remove ! upp] cov]+ ( rock f ea* seam ( coal1 & to expose to ! day ! soils on :i* anci5t =e/s grew1 ! evid5ce ( _! =m] gr[? w\ld be obvi\s4 ,?us 9 ,s\? ,/af=d%ire a seam ( coal 0 laid b>e 9 ! ye> #ahdd1 9 :at is call$ an op5 "w at ,p>kfield colli]y1 ne> ,wolv]hampton4 ,9 ! space ( ab\t a qu>t] ( an acre ! /umps ( no less ?an #gc trees ) _! roots atta*$ appe>$1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #dbi1 "s ( !m m ?an eight feet 9 circumf]5ce4 ,! trunks1 brok5 (f close to ! root1 7 ly+ pro/rate 9 e direction1 (t5 cross+ ea* o!r4 ,"o ( !m measur$ #ae1 ano!r #cj feet 9 l5g?1 & o!rs less4 ,!y 7 inv>iably flatt5$ to ! ?ickness ( "o or two in*es1 & conv]t$ into coal4 ,_! roots =m$ "p ( a /ratum ( coal t5 in*es ?ick1 :i* re/$ on a lay] ( clay two in*es ?ick1 bel[ :i* 0 a second =e/ re/+ on a two-foot seam ( coal4 ,five feet bel[ ?is1 aga91 0 a ?ird =e/ ) l>ge /umps ( ,lepidod5dra1 ,calamites1 & o!r trees4 ,fig4 #dbi3 ,gr\nd plan ( fossil =e/1 ,p>kfield ,colli]y1 ne> ,wolv]hampton1 %[+ ! position ( #gc trees 9 a qu>t] ( an ace4 ,bl5d+ ( ,coal-seams4--,bo? 9 ,engl& & ,nor? ,am]ica seams ( coal are occasionally obs]v$ to be p>t$ f ea* o!r by lay]s ( clay & s&1 &1 aft] !y h be5 p]si/5t = miles1 to come toge!r & bl5d 9 "o s+le b$1 :i* is !n f\nd to be equal 9 ! aggregate to ! ?ickness ( ! sev]al seams4 ,i 0 %[n by ,mr4 ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s a rem>kable example ( ?is 9 ,p5nsylvania4 ,9 ! ,%>k ,m\nta91 ne> ,pottsville1 9 t ,/ate1 !re are ?irte5 seams ( an?racite coal1 "s ( !m m ?an six feet ?ick1 sep>at$ by b$s ( :ite qu>tzose grit & a conglom]ate ( qu>tz pebbles1 (t5 ( ! size ( a h5's egg4 ,betwe5 ,pottsville & ! ,lehigh ,summit ,m9e1 sev5 ( ^! seams ( coal1 at fir/ widely sep>at$1 are1 9 ! c\rse ( sev]al miles1 br\ght ne>] & ne>] toge!r by ! gradual ?9n+ out ( ! int]v5+ co>se-gra9$ /rata & _! accompany+ %ales1 until at l5g? !y successively unite & =m "o mass ( coal betwe5 =ty & fifty feet ?ick1 v pure on ! :ole1 ?\gh ) a few ?9 p>t+s ( clay4 ,?is mass ( coal ,i saw qu>ri$ 9 ! op5 air at ,mau* ,*unk1 on ! ,be> ,m\nta94 ,! orig9 ( su* a va/ ?ickness ( vegetable rema9s1 s unmix$1 on ! :ole1 ) e>?y +r$i5ts1 c be acc\nt$ = 9 no o!r way ?an by ! gr[?1 dur+ ?\s&s ( ye>s1 ( trees & f]ns 9 ! mann] ( peat--a !ory :i* ! pres5ce ( ! ,/igm>ia 9 situ "u ea* ( ! sev5 lay]s ( an?racite fully be>s out4 ,! rival hypo!sis1 ( ! drift+ ( plants into a sea or e/u>y1 leaves ! non-int]mixture ( s$im5t1 or ( clay1 s&1 & pebbles1 ) ! pure coal :olly unexpla9$4 ,! late ,mr4 ,b[man 0 ! fir/ :o gave a satisfactory explanation ( ! mann] 9 :i* di/9ct coal-seams1 aft] ma9ta9+ _! indep5d5ce = miles1 may at l5g? unite1 & !n p]si/ ?r\gh\t ano!r wide area ) a ?ickness equal to t :i* ! sep>ate seams _h previ\sly ma9ta9$4 ,fig4 #dcj3 ,unit+ ( di/9ct coal-seams4 ,let ,a ,c 7,fig4 #dcj7 be a ?ree-foot seam ( coal orig9ally laid d[n z a mass ( vegetable matt] on ! level area ( an ext5sive swamp1 hav+ an "u-clay1 f g1 ?r\gh :i* ! ,/igm>i or roots ( ! trees p5etrate z usual4 ,"o portion1 ,b ,c1 ( ?is seam ( coal is n[ incl9$2 ! area ( ! swamp hav+ subsid$ z mu* z #be feet at ,e ,c1 & become = a "t subm]g$ "u salt1 fre%1 or bracki% wat]4 ,"s ( ! trees ( ! orig9al =e/ ,a ,b ,c fell d[n1 o!rs cont9u$ to /& erect 9 ! new lagoon1 _! /umps & "p ( _! trunks becom+ gradually envelop$ 9 lay]s ( s& & mud1 :i* at l5g? fill$ up ! new piece ( wat] ,c ,e4 ,:5 ?is lagoon has be5 entirely silt$ up & conv]t$ into l&1 ! =e/-cov]$ surface ,a ,b w ext5d once m ov] ! :ole area ,a ,b ,e1 & a second mass ( vegetable matt]1 ,d ,e1 =m+ ?ree feet m ( coal1 w accumulate4 ,we !n f9d 9 ! region ,e ,c two seams ( coals1 ea* ?ree feet ?ick1 ) _! respective "u-clays1 ) erect buri$ trees bas$ ^u ! surface ( ! l[] coal1 ! two seams be+ sep>at$ by #be feet ( int]v5+ %ale & s&/one4 ,:]eas 9 ! region ,a ,b1 :]e ! gr[? ( ! =e/ has nev] be5 int]rupt$ by subm]g5ce1 !re w simply be "o seam1 two y>ds ?ick1 correspond+ to ! unit$ ?ickness ( ! b$s ,b ,e & ,b ,c4 ,x may be object$ t ! un9t]rupt$ gr[? ( plants dur+ ! int]val ( "t requir$ = ! fill+ up ( ! lagoon w h caus$ ! vegetable matt] 9 ! region ,d ,a ,b to be ?ick] ?an ! two di/9ct seams ,e & ,c1 & no d\bt !re w\ld actually be a slight excess repres5t+ "o or m g5]ation ( trees & plants =m+ ! und]gr[?2 b ?is excess ( vegetable matt]1 :5 compress$ into coal1 w\ld be s insignificant 9 ?ickness t ! m9] might /ill affirm t ! seam ,d ,a ?r\gh\t ! area ,d ,a ,b 0 equal to ! two seams ,c & ,e4 ,cause ( ! ,purity ( ,coal4--,! purity ( ! coal itself1 or ! abs5ce 9 x ( e>?y p>ticles & s&1 ?r\gh\t areas ( va/ ext5t1 is a fact :i* appe>s v difficult to expla9 :5 we attribute ea* coal-seam to a vegetation gr[+ 9 swamps4 ,x has be5 ask$ h[1 dur+ riv] inundations capable ( sweep+ away ! leaves ( f]ns & ! /ems & roots ( ,sigill>i & o!r trees1 c\ld ! wat]s fail to transport "s f9e mud into ! swamps8 ,"o g5]ation aft] ano!r ( tall trees grew ) _! roots 9 mud1 & _! leaves & pro/rate trunks =m$ lay]s ( vegetable matt]1 :i* 0 aft]w>ds cov]$ ) mud s9ce turn$ to %ale4 ,yet ! coal itself1 or alt]$ vegetable matt]1 rema9$ all ! :ile unsoil$ by e>?y p>ticles4 ,?is enigma1 h[ev] p]plex+ at fir/ sight1 may1 ,i ?9k1 be solv$ by att5d+ to :at is n[ tak+ place 9 deltas4 ,! d5se gr[? ( re$s & h]bage :i* encompasses ! m>g9s ( =e/-cov]$ swamps 9 ! valley & delta ( ! ,mississippi is su* t ! fluviatile wat]s1 9 pass+ ?r\gh !m1 are filt]$ & made to cle> !mselves entirely be=e !y rea* ! areas 9 :i* vegetable matt] may accumulate = c5turies1 =m+ coal if ! climate be fav\rable4 ,!re is no possibility ( ! lea/ int]mixture ( e>?y matt] 9 su* cases4 ,?us 9 ! l>ge subm]g$ tract call$ ! 8,sunk ,c\ntry10 ne> ,new ,madrid1 =m+ "p ( ! we/]n side ( ! valley ( ! ,mississippi1 erect trees h be5 /&+ ev] s9ce ! ye> #ahaa-ab1 kill$ by ! great e>?quake ( t date2 lacu/r9e & swamp plants h be5 gr[+ !re 9 ! %all[s1 & sev]al riv]s h annually inundat$ ! :ole space1 & yet h be5 unable to c>ry 9 any s$im5t )9 ! out] b\nd>ies ( ! morass1 s d5se is ! m>g9al belt ( re$s & bru%-wood4 ,x may be affirm$ t g5]ally1 9 ! 8cypress swamps0 ( ! ,mississippi1 no s$im5t m+les ) ! vegetable matt] accumulat$ !re f ! decay ( trees & semi-aquatic plants4 ,z a s+ul> pro( ( ?is fact1 ,i may m5tion t :5ev] any "p ( a swamp 9 ,l\isiana is dri$ up1 dur+ an unusually hot season1 & ! wood set on fire1 pits are burnt into ! gr\nd _m feet deep1 or z f> d[n z ! fire c desc5d )\t meet+ ) wat]1 & x is !n f\nd t sc>cely any residuum or e>?y matt] is left4 ,at ! bottom ( all ^! 8cypress swamps0 a b$ ( clay is f\nd1 ) roots ( ! tall cypress 7,taxodium di/i*um71 j z ! "u-clays ( ! coal are fill$ ) ,/igm>ia4 ,conv]sion ( ,coal into ,an?racite4--,x appe>s f ! rese>*es ( ,liebig & o!r em95t *emi/s1 t :5 wood & vegetable matt] are buri$ 9 ! e>? expos$ to moi/ure1 & p>tially or entirely exclud$ f ! air1 !y decompose sl[ly & evolve c>bonic acid gas1 ?us p>t+ ) a portion ( _! orig9al oxyg54 ,by ?is means !y become gradually conv]t$ into lignite or wood-coal1 :i* conta9s a l>g] proportion ( hydrog5 ?an wood does4 ,a cont9uance ( decomposition *anges ?is lignite into common or bitum9\s coal1 *iefly by ! dis*>ge ( c>buret$ hydrog51 or ! gas by :i* we illum9ate our /reets & h\ses4 ,accord+ to ,bis*(f1 ! inflammable gases :i* are always escap+ f m9]al coal1 & are s (t5 ! cause ( fatal accid5ts 9 m9es1 always conta9 c>bonic acid1 c>buret$ hydrog51 nitrog51 & olefiant gas4 ,! dis5gagem5t ( all ^! gradually trans=ms ord9>y or bitum9\s coal into an?racite1 to :i* ! v>i\s names ( glance-coal1 coke1 h>d-coal1 culm1 & _m o!rs1 h be5 giv54 ,!re is an intimate connection betwe5 ! ext5t to :i* ! coal has 9 diff]5t regions p>t$ ) its gase\s cont5ts1 & ! am\nt ( di/urbance :i* ! /rata h und]gone4 ,! co9cid5ce ( ^! ph5om5a may be attribut$ p>tly to ! great] facility af=d$ = ! escape ( volatile matt]1 :5 ! fractur+ ( ! rocks has produc$ an inf9ite numb] ( cracks & crevices4 ,! gases & wat] :i* are made to p5etrate ^! cracks are probably r5d]$ ! m effective z metamorphic ag5ts by increas$ temp]ature d]iv$ f ! int]ior4 ,x is well kn[n t1 at ! pres5t p]iod1 !rmal wat]s & hot vap\rs bur/ out f ! e>? dur+ e>?quakes1 & ^! w\ld n fail to promote ! dis5gagem5t ( volatile matt] f ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks4 ,9 ,p5nsylvania ! /rata ( coal are horizontal to ! we/w>d ( ! ,alleghany ,m\nta9s1 :]e ! late ,pr(essor ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s po9t$ out t !y 7 mo/ bitum9\s2 b z we travel s\?-ea/w>d1 :]e !y no long] rema9 level & unbrok51 ! same seams become progressively debitum5iz$ 9 proportion z ! rocks become m b5t & di/ort$4 ,at fir/1 on ! ,ohio ,riv]1 ! proportion ( hydrog51 oxyg51 & o!r volatile matt]s ranges f =ty to fifty p] c5t4 ,ea/w>d ( ?is l9e1 on ! ,monongahela1 x /ill approa*es =ty p] c5t1 :]e ! /rata beg9 to exp]i5ce "s g5tle flexures4 ,on ent]+ ! ,alleghany ,m\nta9s1 :]e ! di/9ct anticl9al axes beg9 to %[ !mselves1 b be=e ! dislocations are consid]able1 ! volatile matt] is g5]ally 9 ! proportion ( eighte5 or tw5ty p] c5t4 ,at l5g?1 :5 we arrive at "s insulat$ coal-fields associat$ ) ! bolde/ flexures ( ! ,appala*ian *a91 :]e ! /rata h be5 actually turn$ ov]1 z ne> ,pottsville1 we f9d ! coal to conta9 only f six p] c5t ( volatile matt]1 ?us becom+ a g5u9e an?racite4 ,clay-iron/one4--,b&s & nodules ( clay-iron/one are common 9 coal-measures1 & are =m$1 says ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e1 ( c>bonate ( iron m+l$ me*anically ) e>?y matt]1 l t con/itut+ ! %ales4 ,mr4 ,hunt1 ( ! ,museum ( ,practical ,geology1 in/itut$ a s]ies ( exp]im5ts to illu/rate ! production ( ?is sub/ance1 & f\nd t decompos+ vegetable matt]1 su* z w\ld be di/ribut$ ?r\gh all coal /rata1 prev5t$ ! fur!r oxidation ( ! proto-salts ( iron1 & conv]t$ ! p]oxide into protoxide by tak+ a portion ( its oxyg5 to =m c>bonic acid4 ,su* c>bonic acid1 meet+ ) ! protoxide ( iron 9 solution1 w\ld unite ) x & =m a c>bonate ( iron2 & ?is m+l+ ) f9e mud1 :5 ! excess ( c>bonic acid 0 remov$1 might =m b$s or nodules ( argillace\s iron/one4#c ,int]calat$ ,m>9e ,b$s 9 ,coal4--,bo? 9 ! coal-fields ( ,europe & ,am]ica ! association ( fre%1 bracki%-wat]1 & m>9e /rata ) coal-seams ( t]re/rial orig9 is frequ5tly recognis$4 ,?us1 = example1 a deposit ne> ,%rewsbury1 probably =m$ 9 bracki% wat]1 has be5 describ$ by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison z ! y\nge/ memb] ( ! coal-measures ( t di/rict1 at ! po9t :]e !y are 9 contact ) ! ov]ly+ ,p]mian gr\p4 ,x consi/s ( %ales & s&/ones ab\t #aej feet ?ick1 ) coal & traces ( plants2 includ+ a b$ ( lime/one v>y+ f two to n9e feet 9 ?ickness1 :i* is cellul>1 & resembles "s lacu/r9e lime/ones ( ,france & ,g]many4 ,x has be5 trac$ = #cj miles 9 a /raight l9e1 & c be recognis$ at /ill m di/ant po9ts4 ,! *>act]i/ic fossils are a small bivalve1 hav+ ! =m ( a ,cyclas or ,cyr5a1 also a small entomo/racan1 ,cy!re inflata 7,fig4 #dcb71 & ! microscopic %ell ( an annelid ( an ext9ct g5us call$ ,microcon*us 7,fig4 #dca71 alli$ to ,spirorbis4 ,9 ! coal-field ( ,york%ire !re are fre%-wat] /rata1 "s ( :i* conta9 %ells ref]r$ to ! family ,unionid2 b 9 ! mid/ ( ! s]ies !re is "o ?9 b v widely-spread /ratum1 ab\nd+ 9 fi%es & m>9e %ells1 su* z ,goniatites ,li/]i 7,fig4 #dcc71 ,or?oc]as1 & ,aviculopect5 papyraceus1 ,goldf4 7,fig4 #dcd74 ,fig4 #dca3 ,microcon*us 7,spirorbis7 c>bon>ius4 ,fig4 #dcb3 ,cy!re 7,lep]ditia7 inflata4 ,fig4 #dcc3 ,goniatites ,li/]i4 ,fig4 #dcd3 ,aviculopect5 papyraceus4 ,insects 9 ,european ,coal4--,articulate animals ( ! g5us ,scorpion 7 f\nd by ,c\nt ,/]nb]g 9 #ahce 9 ! coal-measures ( ,bohemia1 & ab\t ! same "t 9 ^? ( ,coalbrook ,dale by ,mr4 ,pre/wi*1 7 also true insects1 su* z beetles ( ! family ,curculionid1 a neuropt]\s insect ( ! g5us ,corydalis1 & ano!r relat$ to ! ,phasmid1 h be5 f\nd4 ,f ! coal ( ,wett+1 9 ,we/phalia1 sev]al specim5s ( ! cockroa* or ,blatta family1 & ! w+ ( a cricket 7,acridites7 h be5 describ$ by ,g]m>4 ,pr(essor ,gold5b]g publi%$1 9 #ahed1 descriptions ( no less ?an twelve species ( insects f ! nodul> clay-iron/one ( ,sa>brck1 ne> ,trves4#d ,among !m are sev]al ,blatt91 ?ree species ( ,neuropt]a1 "o beetle ( ! ,sc>abu family1 a gras%opp] or locu/1 ,gryllacris 7see ,fig4 #dce71 & sev]al :ite ants or ,t]mites4 ,pr(essor ,gold5b]g %[$ me1 9 #ahfd1 ! w+ ( a :ite ant1 f\nd l[ d[n 9 ! productive coal-measures ( ,sa>brck1 9 ! int]ior ( a flatt5$ ,lepidod5dron4 ,x is mu* l>g] ?an t ( any kn[n liv+ species ( ! same g5us4 ,fig4 #dce3 ,w+ ( a ,gras%opp]4 ,gryllacris li?an?raca4 ,fig4 #dcf3 ,ar*egosaurus m9or4 ,fossil reptile f ! coal-measures1 ,sa>brck4 ,batra*ian ,reptiles 9 ,coal4--,no v]tebrat$ animals m highly organis$ ?an fi% 7 kn[n 9 rocks ( high] antiquity ?an ! ,p]mian until ! ye> #ahdd1 :5 ! ,apateon p$e/ris1 ,mey]1 0 discov]$ 9 ! coal-measures ( ,mun/]-,appel 9 ,rh5i% ,bav>ia1 & ?ree ye>s lat]1 9 #ahdg1 ,pr(essor von ,de*5 f\nd ?ree o!r di/9ct species ( ! same family ( ,amphibia 9 ! ,sa>bruck coal-field above allud$ to4 ,^! 7 describ$ by ! late ,pr(essor ,goldfuss "u ! g5]ic "n ( ,ar*egosaurus4 ,! skulls1 tee?1 & ! great] portions ( ! skeleton1 nay1 ev5 a l>ge "p ( ! sk91 ( two ( ^! reptiles h be5 fai?fully pres]v$ 9 ! c5tre ( sph]oidal concretions ( clay-iron/one4 ,! l>ge/ ( ^!1 ,ar*egosaurus ,de*5i1 mu/ h be5 ?ree feet six in*es long4 ,figure #dcf repres5ts ! skull & neck bones ( ! smalle/ ( ! ?ree1 ( ! natural size4 ,!y 7 consid]$ by ,goldfuss z saurians1 b by ,h]man von ,mey] z mo/ ne>ly alli$ to ! ,labyr9?odon be=e m5tion$ 7p4 #cga71 & ! rema9s ( ! extremities leave no d\bt !y 7 quadrup$s1 8provid$10 says ,von ,mey]1 8) h&s & feet t]m9at+ 9 di/9ct toes2 b ^! limbs 7 weak1 s]v+ only = swimm+ or creep+40 ,! same anatomi/ has po9t$ out c]ta9 po9ts ( analogy betwe5 _! bones & ^? ( ! ,proteus angu9us2 & ,pr(essor ,ow5 has obs]v$ t !y make an approa* to ! ,proteus 9 ! %ortness ( _! ribs4 ,two specim5s ( ^! anci5t reptiles reta9 a l>ge "p ( ! out] sk91 :i* consi/$ ( long1 n>r[1 w$ge-%ap$1 tile-l1 & horny scales1 arrang$ 9 r[s 7see ,fig4 #dcg74 ,fig4 #dcg3 ,imbricat$ cov]+ ( sk9 ( ,ar*egosaurus m$ius4 ,9 #ahfe1 sev]al species belong+ to ?ree diff]5t g5]a ( ! same family ( p]5nibran*iate ,batra*ians 7 f\nd 9 ! coal-field ( ,kilk5ny 9 bitum9\s %ale at ! junction ( ! coal ) ! und]ly+ ,/igm>ia-be>+ clay4 ,!y 71 probably1 inhabitants ( a m>%1 & ! l>ge processes project+ f ! v]tebr ( _! tail imply1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,huxley1 great p[]s ( swimm+4 ,!y 7 ( ! ,labyr9?odont family1 & _! association ) ! fi% ( ! coal1 ( :i* s l>ge a proportion are ganoids1 rem9ds u t ! liv+ p]5nibran*iate amphibia ( ,am]ica frequ5t ! same riv]s z ! ganoid ,lepido/ei or bony pikes4 ,labyr9?odont footpr9ts 9 coal-measures4--,9 #ahdd1 ! v ye> :5 ! ,apateon1 be=e m5tion$1 ( ! coal 0 fir/ met ) 9 ! c\ntry betwe5 ! ,moselle & ! ,rh9e1 ,dr4 ,k+ publi%$ an acc\nt ( ! footpr9ts ( a l>ge reptile discov]$ by him 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,^! occur 9 ! coal-/rata ( ,gre5sburg1 9 ,we/morel& ,c\nty1 ,p5nsylvania2 & ,i _h an opportunity ( exam9+ !m :5 9 t c\ntry 9 #ahdf4 ,! footm>ks 7 fir/ obs]v$ /&+ out 9 relief f ! l[] surface ( slabs ( s&/one1 re/+ on ?9 lay]s ( f9e unctu\s clay4 ,i br\ght away "o ( ^! masses1 :i* is repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #dch4 ,x displays1 toge!r ) footpr9ts1 ! ca/s ( cracks 7a1 a7 ( v>i\s sizes4 ,! orig9 ( su* cracks 9 clay1 & ca/s ( ! same1 has be=e be5 expla9$1 & ref]r$ to ! dry+ & %r9k+ ( mud1 & ! subsequ5t p\r+ ( s& into op5 crevices4 ,x w be se5 t "s ( ! cracks1 z at b1 c1 trav]se ! footpr9ts1 & produce di/ortion 9 !m1 z might h be5 expect$1 = ! mud mu/ h be5 s(t :5 ! animal walk$ ov] x & left ! impressions2 :]eas1 :5 x aft]w>ds dri$ up & %rank1 x w\ld be too h>d to receive su* ind5tations4 ,fig4 #dch3 ,slab ( s&/one f ! coal-measures ( ,p5nsylvania1 ) foot-pr9ts ( air-brea?+ reptile & ca/s ( cracks4 ,we may assume t ! reptile :i* left ^! pr9ts on ! anci5t s&s ( ! coal-measures 0 an air-brea!r1 because its weight w\ld n h be5 suffici5t "u wat] to h made impressions s deep & di/9ct4 ,! same conclusion is also borne out by ! ca/s ( ! cracks above describ$1 = !y %[ t ! clay _h be5 expos$ to ! air & sun1 s z to h dri$ & %runk4 ,nova ,scotia ,coal-measures4--,! s$im5t>y /rata 9 :i* ?9 seams ( coal occur atta9 a ?ickness1 z we h se51 ( #ah1jjj feet 9 ! nor? ( ,engl& exclusive ( ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 & are e/imat$ by ,von ,de*5 at ov] #bj1jjj feet 9 ,rh5i% ,prussia4 ,b ! f9e/ example 9 ! _w ( a natural exposure 9 a cont9u\s section t5 miles long1 occurs 9 ! sea-cliffs bord]+ a bran* ( ! ,bay ( ,fundy1 9 ,nova ,scotia4 ,^! cliffs1 call$ ! 8,s\? ,jogg9s10 :i* ,i fir/ exam9$ 9 #ahdb1 & aft]w>ds ) ,dr4 ,dawson 9 #ahde1 h lately be5 admirably describ$ by ! la/-m5tion$ geologi/#e 9 detail1 & 8 evid5ce is mo/ valuable z %[+ h[ l>ge a portion ( ?is d5se mass 0 =m$ on l&1 or 9 swamps :]e t]re/rial vegetation fl\ri%$1 or 9 fre%-wat] lagoons4 ,8 computation ( ! ?ickness ( ! :ole s]ies ( c>bonif]\s /rata z exce$+ ?ree miles1 agrees ) ! measurem5t made indep5d5tly by ,sir ,william ,logan 9 8 survey ( ?is coa/4 ,!re is no reason to believe t 9 ?is va/ succession ( /rata1 compris+ "s m>9e z well z _m fre%-wat] & t]re/rial =mations1 !re is any repetition ( ! same b$s4 ,!re are no faults to mislead ! geologi/1 & cause him to c\nt ! same b$s ov] m ?an once1 :ile "s ( ! same plants h be5 trac$ f ! top to ! bottom ( ! :ole s]ies1 & are di/9ct f ! flora ( ! antec$5t ,devonian =mation ( ,canada4 ,eighty-"o seams ( coal1 v>y+ 9 ?ickness f an in* to ab\t five feet1 h be5 discov]$1 & no less ?an sev5ty-"o ( ^! h be5 actually expos$ 9 ! sea-cliffs4 ,9 ! section 7,fig4 #dci71 :i* ,i exam9$ 9 #ahdb1 ! b$s f c to i are se5 all dipp+ ! same way1 _! av]age incl9ation be+ at an angle ( #bd ,s4,s4,w4 ,! v]tical height ( ! cliffs is f #aej to #bjj feet2 & betwe5 d & g--9 :i* space ,i obs]v$ sev5te5 trees 9 an upright position1 or1 to speak m correctly1 at "r angles to ! planes ( /ratification--,i c\nt$ n9ete5 seams ( coal1 v>y+ 9 ?ickness f two in*es to f\r feet4 ,at l[ tide a f9e horizontal section ( ! same b$s is expos$ to view on ! bea*1 :i* at l[ tide ext5ds sometimes #bjj y>ds f ! base ( ! cliff4 ,! ?ickness ( ! b$s allud$ to1 betwe5 d & g1 is ab\t #bejj feet1 ! erect trees consi/+ *iefly ( l>ge ,sigill>i1 occurr+ at t5 di/9ct levels1 "o above ! o!r4 ,! usual height ( ! buri$ trees se5 by me 0 f six to eight feet2 b "o trunk 0 ab\t #be feet high & f\r feet 9 diamet]1 ) a consid]able bulge at ! base4 ,9 no in/ance c\ld ,i detect any trunk int]sect+ a lay] ( coal1 h[ev] ?92 & mo/ ( ! trees t]m9at$ d[nw>d 9 seams ( coal4 ,"s few only 7 bas$ on clay & %ale2 none ( !m1 except ,calamites1 on s&/one4 ,! erect trees1 !re=e1 appe>$ 9 g5]al to h gr[n on b$s ( vegetable matt]4 ,9 ! und]clays ,/igm>ia ab\nds4 ,fig4 #dci3 ,section ( ! cliffs ( ! ,s\? ,jogg9s1 ne> ,m9udie1 ,nova ,scotia4 ,^! root-be>+ b$s h be5 f\nd "u all ! coal-seams1 & su* old soils are at pres5t ! mo/ de/ructible masses 9 ! :ole cliff1 ! s&/ones & lam9at$ %ales be+ h>d] & m capable ( resi/+ ! action ( ! waves & ! wea!r4 ,orig9ally ! rev]se 0 d\btless true1 = 9 ! exi/+ delta ( ! ,mississippi ^? clays 9 :i* ! innum]able roots ( ! decidu\s cypress & o!r swamp trees ramify 9 all directions are se5 to )/& f> m effectually ! und]m9+ p[] ( ! riv]1 or ( ! sea at ! base ( ! delta1 ?an d b$s ( loose s& or lay]s ( mud n support+ trees4 ,x is obvi\s t if ?is s& or mud be aft]w>ds consolidat$ & turn$ to s&/one & h>d %ale1 x w\ld be ! lea/ de/ructible4 ,9 reg>d to ! plants1 !y belong$ to ! same g5]a1 & mo/ ( !m to ! same species1 z ^? met ) 9 ! di/ant coal-fields ( ,europe4 ,dr4 ,dawson has enum]at$ m ?an #aej species1 two-?irds ( :i* are ,european1 a great] agreem5t ?an c be said to exi/ betwe5 ! same ,nova ,scotia flora & t ( ! coal-fields ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,by ref]r+ to ! section1 ,fig4 #dci1 ! position ( ! f\r-foot coal w be p]ceiv$1 & 9 ,fig4 #ddj 7a section made by me 9 #ahdb ( a small portion7 t f e to f ( ! same cliff is exhibit$1 9 ord] to %[ ! mann] ( occurr5ce ( erect fossil trees at "r angles to ! planes ( ! incl9$ /rata4 ,fig4 #ddj3 ,erect fossil trees1 ,coal-measures1 ,nova ,scotia4 ,9 ! s&/one :i* fill$ _! int]iors1 ,i frequ5tly obs]v$ f]n-leaves1 & sometimes fragm5ts ( ,/igm>ia1 :i* _h evid5tly ent]$ toge!r ) s$im5t aft] ! trunk _h decay$ & become holl[1 & :ile x 0 /ill /&+ "u wat]4 ,?us ! tree1 a1 ,fig4 #ddj1 repres5t$ 9 ! b$ e 9 ! section1 ,fig4 #dci1 is a holl[ trunk five feet eight in*es 9 l5g?1 trav]s+ v>i\s /rata1 & cut (f at ! top by a lay] ( clay two feet ?ick1 on :i* re/s a seam ( coal 7b1 ,fig4 #ddj7 "o foot ?ick4 ,on ?is coal aga9 /ood two l>ge trees 7c & d71 :ile at a great] height ! trees f & g re/ ^u a ?9 seam ( coal 7e71 & above !m is an und]clay1 support+ ! f\r-foot coal4 ,occasionally ! lay]s ( matt] 9 ! inside ( ! tree are m num]\s ?an ^? )\t2 b x is m common 9 ! coal-measures ( all c\ntries to f9d a cyl9d] ( pure s&/one--! ca/ ( ! int]ior ( a tree--int]sect+ a great _m alt]nat+ b$s ( %ale & s&/one1 :i* orig9ally envelop$ ! trunk z x /ood erect 9 ! wat]4 ,su* a want ( correspond5ce 9 ! mat]ials outside & inside1 is j :at we might expect if we reflect on ! diff]5ce ( "t at :i* ! deposition ( s$im5t w take place 9 ! two cases2 ! imb$d+ ( ! tree hav+ gone on = _m ye>s be=e its decay _h made mu* progress4 ,9 _m places di/9ct pro( is se5 t ! envelop+ /rata took ye>s to accumulate1 = "s ( ! s&/ones surr\nd+ erect sigill>ian trunks support at diff]5t levels roots & /ems ( ,calamites2 ! ,calamites hav+ begun to gr[ aft] ! old] ,sigill>i _h be5 p>tially buri$4 ,! g5]al abs5ce ( /ructure 9 ! int]ior ( ! l>ge fossil trees ( ! ,coal implies ! v durable nature ( _! b>k1 z comp>$ ) _! woody portion4 ,! same diff]5ce ( durability ( b>k & wood exi/s 9 mod]n trees1 & 0 fir/ po9t$ out to me by ,dr4 ,dawson1 9 ! =e/s ( ,nova ,scotia1 :]e ! ,canoe ,bir* 7,betula papyracea7 has su* t\gh b>k t x may sometimes be se5 9 ! swamps look+ ext]nally s\nd & fre%1 al?\gh consi/+ simply ( a holl[ cyl9d] ) all ! wood decay$ & gone4 ,:5 portions ( su* trunks h become subm]g$ 9 ! swamps !y are sometimes f\nd fill$ ) mud4 ,"o ( ! erect fossil trees ( ! ,s\? ,jogg9s fifte5 feet 9 height1 occurr+ at a high] level ?an ! ma9 coal1 has be5 %[n by ,dr4 ,dawson to h a conif]\s /ructure1 s t "s ,conif] ( ! ,coal p]iod grew 9 ! same swamps z ,sigill>i1 j z n[ ! decidu\s ,cypress 7,taxodium di/i*um7 ab\nds 9 ! m>%es ( ,l\isiana ev5 to ! edge ( ! sea4 ,:5 ! c>bonif]\s =e/s sank bel[ high-wat] m>k1 a species ( ,spirorbis or ,s]pula 7,fig4 #dca71 atta*$ itself to ! outside ( ! /umps & /ems ( ! erect trees1 adh]+ occasionally ev5 to ! int]ior ( ! b>k--ano!r pro( t ! process ( envelopm5t 0 v gradual4 ,^! holl[ upright trees1 cov]$ ) innum]able m>9e annelids1 rem9d$ me ( a 8cane-brake10 z x is commonly call$1 consi/+ ( tall re$s1 ,arund9>ia macrosp]ma1 :i* ,i saw 9 #ahdf1 at ! ,balize1 or extremity ( ! delta ( ! ,mississippi4 ,al?\gh ^! re$s are fre%-wat] plants1 !y 7 cov]$ ) b>nacles1 hav+ be5 kill$ by an incursion ( salt-wat] ov] an ext5t ( _m acres1 :]e ! sea _h = a season usurp$ a space previ\sly ga9$ f x by ! riv]4 ,yet ! dead re$s1 9 spite ( ?is *ange1 rema9$ /&+ 9 ! s(t mud1 enabl+ u to conceive h[ easily ! l>g] ,sigill>i1 holl[ z !y 7 b support$ by /rong roots1 may h resi/$ an incursion ( ! sea4 ,! high tides ( ! ,bay ( ,fundy1 ris+ m ?an #fj feet1 are s de/ructive z to und]m9e & sweep away cont9ually ! :ole face ( ! cliffs1 & ?us a new crop ( erect fossil trees is br\ght into view e ?ree or f\r ye>s4 ,!y are kn[n to ext5d ov] a space betwe5 two & ?ree miles f nor? to s\?1 & m ?an twice t di/ance f ea/ to we/1 be+ se5 9 ! banks ( /reams int]sect+ ! coal-field4 ,/ructure ( ,coal4--,! bitum9\s coal ( ,nova ,scotia is simil> 9 composition & /ructure to t ( ,great ,brita91 be+ *iefly d]iv$ f sigill>ioid trees mix$ ) leaves ( f]ns & ( a ,lycopodiace\s tree call$ ,cordaites 7,noegg]a?ia1 etc41 = g5us1 see ,fig4 #dbh71 suppos$ by ,dawson to h be5 decidu\s1 & :i* _h broad p>allel ve9$ leaves )\t a mid-rib4 ,on ! surface ( ! seams ( coal are l>ge quantities ( m9]al *>coal1 :i* d\btless consi/1 z ,dr4 ,dawson sugge/s1 ( fragm5ts ( wood :i* decay$ 9 ! op5 air1 z w\ld naturally be expect$ 9 swamps :]e s _m erect trees 7 pres]v$4 ,b$s ( cannel-coal display1 says ,dr4 ,dawson1 su* a microscopical /ructure & *emical composition z %[s !m to h be5 ( ! nature ( f9e vegetable mud su* z accumulates 9 ! %all[ ponds ( mod]n swamps4 ,! und]clays are loamy soils1 :i* mu/ h be5 suffici5tly above wat] to admit ( dra9age1 & ! abs5ce ( sulphurets1 & ! occurr5ce ( c>bonate ( iron 9 !m1 prove t :5 !y exi/$ z soils1 ra9-wat]1 & n sea-wat]1 p]colat$ !m4 ,) ! exception1 p]haps1 ( ,a/]ophyllites 7see ,fig4 #dfa71 !re is a rem>kable abs5ce f ! coal-measures ( any =m ( vegetation prop]ly aquatic1 ! true coal be+ a sub-arial accumulation 9 soil t 0 wet & swampy b n p]man5tly subm]g$4 ,air-brea!rs ( ! ,coal4--,if we h rightly int]pret$ ! evid5ce ( ! =m] exi/5ce at m ?an eighty diff]5t levels ( =e/s ( trees1 "s ( !m ( va/ ext5t1 & :i* la/$ = ages1 giv+ rise to a great accumulation ( vegetable matt]1 x is natural to ask :e!r !re 7 n _m air-brea?+ inhabitants ( ^! same regions4 ,z yet no rema9s ( mammalia or birds h be5 f\nd1 a negative "* common at pres5t to all ! ,palozoic =mations2 b 9 #aheb ! osse\s rema9s ( a reptile1 ! fir/ ev] met ) 9 ! c>bonif]\s /rata ( ! ,am]ican cont95t1 7 f\nd by ,dr4 ,dawson & myself4 ,we detect$ !m 9 ! int]ior ( "o ( ! erect ,sigill>i be=e allud$ to z ( su* frequ5t occurr5ce 9 ,nova ,scotia4 ,! tree 0 ab\t two feet 9 diamet]1 & consi/$ ( an ext]nal cyl9d] ( b>k1 conv]t$ into coal1 & an int]nal /ony axis ( black s&/one1 or r mud & s& /a9$ black by c>bonace\s matt]1 & cem5t$ toge!r ) fragm5ts ( wood into a rock4 ,^! fragm5ts 7 9 ! /ate ( *>coal1 & seem to h fall5 to ! bottom ( ! holl[ tree :ile x 0 rott+ away4 ,! skull1 jaws1 & v]tebr ( a reptile1 probably ab\t #b feet 9 l5g? 7,d5dr]peton ,acadianum1 ,ow571 7 scatt]$ ?r\gh ?is /ony matrix4 ,! %ell1 also1 ( a ,pupa 7see ,fig4 #ddb71 ! fir/ l&-%ell ev] met ) 9 ! coal or 9 b$s old] ?an ! t]ti>y1 0 obs]v$ 9 ! same /ony mass4 ,dr4 ,wyman ( ,bo/on pron\nc$ ! reptile to be alli$ 9 /ructure to ,m5obran*us & ,m5opoma1 species ( batra*ians1 n[ inhabit+ ! ,nor? ,am]ican riv]s4 ,! same view 0 aft]w>ds confirm$ by ,pr(essor ,ow51 :o also po9t$ out ! resemblance ( ! cranial plates to ^? se5 9 ! skull ( ,ar*egosaurus & ,labyr9?odon4#f ,:e!r ! creature _h crept into ! holl[ tree :ile its top 0 /ill op5 to ! air1 or :e!r x 0 wa%$ 9 ) mud dur+ a flood1 or 9 :atev] o!r mann] x ent]$1 mu/ be matt] ( conjecture4 ,footpr9ts ( two reptiles ( diff]5t sizes _h previ\sly be5 obs]v$ by ,dr4 ,h>d+ & ,dr4 ,gesn] on ripple-m>k$ flags ( ! l[] coal-measures 9 ,nova ,scotia 7,no4 #b1 ,fig4 #ddg71 evid5tly made by quadrup$s walk+ on ! anci5t bea*1 or out ( ! wat]1 j z ! rec5t ,m5opoma is sometimes obs]v$ to d4 ,! rema9s ( a second & small] species ( ,d5dr]peton1 ,d4 ,ow5i1 7 also f\nd accompany+ ! l>g] "o1 & /ill reta9+ "s ( its d]mal app5dages2 & 9 ! same tree 7 ! bones ( a ?ird small liz>d-l reptile1 ,hylonomus ,lyelli1 sev5 in*es long1 ) /\t h9d limbs1 & =e limbs comp>atively sl5d]1 suppos$ by ,dr4 ,dawson to be capable ( walk+ & runn+ on l&4#g ,fig4 #dda3 ,xylobius ,sigill>i4 ,coal1 ,nova ,scotia4 ,9 a second specim5 ( an erect /ump ( a holl[ tree #ae in*es 9 diamet]1 ! ribb$ b>k ( :i* %[$ t x 0 a ,sigill>ia1 & :i* belong$ to ! same =e/ z ! specim5 exam9$ by u 9 #aheb1 ,dr4 ,dawson obta9$ n only fifty specim5s ( ,pupa vetu/a 7,fig4 #ddb71 & n9e skeletons ( reptiles belong+ to f\r species1 b also sev]al examples ( an articulat$ animal resembl+ ! rec5t c5tip$e or gally-worm1 a creature :i* fe$s on decay$ vegetable matt] 7see ,fig4 #dda74 ,"u ! microscope1 ! head1 ) ! eyes1 m&ible1 & labrum1 are well se54 ,x is int]e/+1 z be+ ! e>lie/ kn[n repres5tative ( ! myriapods1 none ( :i* _h previ\sly be5 met ) 9 rocks old] ?an ! oolite or li?ographic slate ( ,g]many4 ,fig4 #ddb3 ,pupa vetu/a4 ,"s ye>s aft] ! discov]y ( ! fir/ ,pupa1 ,dr4 ,dawson1 c>efully exam9+ ! same great section conta9+ s _m buri$ =e/s 9 ! cliffs ( ,nova ,scotia1 discov]$ ano!r b$1 sep>at$ f ! tree conta9+ ,d5dr]peton by a mass ( /rata m ?an #abjj feet ?ick4 ,z !re 7 #ba seams ( coal 9 ?is int]v5+ mass1 ! l5g? ( "t compris$ 9 ! int]val is n to be measur$ by ! m]e ?ickness ( ! s&/ones & %ales4 ,?is l[] b$ is an und]clay sev5 feet ?ick1 ) /igm>ian rootlets1 & ! small l&-%ells occurr+ 9 x are 9 all /ages ( gr[?4 ,!y are *iefly conf9$ to a lay] ab\t two in*es ?ick1 & are unmix$ ) any aquatic %ells4 ,!y 7 all orig9ally entire :5 imb$d$1 b are mo/ ( !m n[ cru%$1 flatt5$1 & di/ort$ by pressure2 !y mu/ h be5 accumulat$1 says ,dr4 ,dawson1 9 mud deposit$ 9 a pond or creek4 ,fig4 #ddc3 ,zonites 7,conulus7 priseus4 ,! surface /ri ( ,pupa vetu/a1 :5 magnifi$ #ej diamet]s1 pres5t exactly ! same appe>ance z a portion correspond+ 9 size ( ! common ,engli% ,pupa junip]i1 & ! int]nal hexagonal cells1 magnifi$ #ejj diamet]s1 %[ ! int]nal /ructure ( ! fossil & rec5t ,pupa to be id5tical4 ,9 #ahffh ,dr4 ,dawson discov]$ 9 ?is l[] b$1 s full ( ! ,pupa1 ano!r l&-%ell ( ! g5us ,helix 7sub-g5us ,zonites71 see ,fig4 #ddc4 ,none ( ! reptiles obta9$ f ! coal-measures ( ! ,s\? ,jogg9s are ( a high] grade ?an ! ,labyr9?odonts1 b "s ( ^! 7 ( v great size1 two caudal v]tebr f\nd by ,mr4 ,m>% 9 #ahfb measur+ two & a half in*es 9 diamet]1 & imply+ a gigantic aquatic reptile ) a p[]ful swimm+ tail4 ,except "s obscure traces ( an insect f\nd by ,dr4 ,dawson 9 a coprolite ( a t]re/rial reptile occurr+ 9 a fossil tree1 no specim5 ( ?is class has be5 br\ght to light 9 ! ,jogg9s4 ,b ,mr4 ,james ,b>nes f\nd 9 a b$ ( %ale at ,little ,grace ,bay1 ,cape ,breton1 ! w+ ( an ,ephem]a1 :i* mu/ h measur$ sev5 in*es f tip to tip ( ! exp&$ w+s--l>g] ?an any kn[n liv+ insect ( ! ,neuropt]\s family4 ,t we %\ld h made s little progress 9 obta9+ a k ( ! t]re/rial fauna ( ! ,coal is c]ta9ly a my/]y1 b we h no reason to wond] at ! extreme r>ity ( insects1 see+ h[ few are kn[n 9 ! c>bonif]\s rocks ( ,europe1 work$ = c5turies be=e ,am]ica 0 discov]$1 & n[ qu>ri$ on s enorm\s a scale4 ,^! ,european rocks h n yet produc$ a s+le l&-%ell1 9 spite ( ! millions ( tons ( coal annually extract$1 & ! _m hundr$s ( soils replete ) ! fossil roots ( trees1 & ! erect trunks & /umps pres]v$ 9 ! position 9 :i* !y grew4 ,9 _m l>ge coal-fields we cont9ue z mu* 9 ! d>k respect+ ! inv]tebrate air-brea!rs !n liv+1 z if ! coal _h be5 ?r[n d[n 9 mid-ocean4 ,! e>ly date ( ! c>bonif]\s /rata _c expla9 ! enigma1 because we "k t :ile ! l& support$ a luxuriant vegetation1 ! contemporane\s seas sw>m$ ) life--) ,articulata1 ,mollusca1 ,radiata1 & ,fi%es4 ,! p]plexity 9 :i* we are involv$ :5 we attempt to solve ?is problem may be ow+ p>tly to our want ( dilig5ce z collectors1 b /ill m p]haps to ignorance ( ! laws :i* gov]n ! fossilisation ( l&-animals1 :e!r ( high or l[ degree4 ,c>bonif]\s ,ra9-pr9ts4--,at v>i\s levels 9 ! coal measures ( ,nova ,scotia1 ripple-m>k$ s&/ones1 & %ales ) ra9-pr9ts1 7 se5 by ,dr4 ,dawson & myself1 b /ill m p]fect impressions ( ra9 7 discov]$ by ,mr4 ,br[n1 ne> ,sydney1 9 ! adjo9+ isl& ( cape ,breton4 ,!y consi/ ( v delicate m>k+s on gre5i% slates1 accompani$ by worm-tracks 7a1 b1 ,fig4 #ddd71 su* z are (t5 se5 betwe5 high & l[ wat] m>k on ! rec5t mud ( ! ,bay ( ,fundy4 ,! great humidity ( ! climate ( ! ,coal p]iod _h be5 previ\sly inf]r$ f ! numb] ( its f]ns & ! cont9uity ( its =e/s = hundr$s ( miles2 b x is satisfactory to h at l5g? obta9$ su* positive pro(s ( %[]s ( ra91 ! drops ( :i* resembl$ 9 _! av]age size ^? :i* n[ fall f ! cl\ds4 ,f su* data we may presume t ! atmosph]e ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod correspond$ 9 d5sity ) t n[ inve/+ ! globe1 & t diff]5t curr5ts ( air v>i$ !n z n[ 9 temp]ature1 s z to give rise1 by _! mixture1 to ! cond5sation ( aque\s vap\r4 ,fig4 #ddd3 ,c>bonif]\s ra9-pr9ts ) worm tracks on gre5 %ale1 f ,cape ,breton1 ,nova ,scotia4 ,fig4 #dde3 ,ca/s ( ra9-pr9ts on a portion ( ! same slab 7,fig4 #ddd71 se5 to project on ! und]side ( an incumb5t lay] ( ar5ace\s %ale4 ,fold+ & ,d5udation ( ! ,b$s indicat$ by ! ,nova ,scotia ,coal-/rata4--,! s]ies ( ev5ts :i* are indicat$ by ! great section ( ! coal-/rata 9 ,nova ,scotia consi/ ( a gradual & long-cont9u$ subsid5ce ( a tract :i* ?r\gh\t mo/ ( ! p]iod 0 9 ! /ate ( a delta1 ?\gh occasionally subm]g$ b5ea? a sea ( mod]ate dep?4 ,deposits ( mud & s& 7 fir/ c>ri$ d[n into a %all[ sea on ! l[ %ores ( :i* ! footpr9ts ( reptiles 7 sometimes impress$ 7see p4 #djg74 ,fig4 #ddf3 ,cone & bran* ( ,lepidod5dron corrugatum4 ,?\gh no regul> seams ( coal 7 =m$1 ! *>act]i/ic imb$d$ coal-plants are ( ! g5]a ,cyclopt]is & ,ale?opt]is1 agree+ ) species occurr+ at mu* high] levels1 & di/9ct f ^? ( ! antec$5t ,devonian gr\p4 ,! ,lepidod5dron corrugatum 7see ,fig4 #ddf71 a plant pr$om9at+ 9 ! ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s gr\p ( ,europe1 is also conspicu\s 9 ^! %all[-wat] b$s1 toge!r ) _m fi%es & entomo/racans4 ,a m rapid rate ( subsid5ce sometimes conv]t$ "p ( ! sea into deep cle> wat]1 9 :i* !re 0 a gr[? ( coral :i* 0 aft]w>ds turn$ into cry/all9e lime/one1 & p>ts ( x1 app>5tly by ! action ( sulphuric acid1 into gypsum4 ,9 spite ( cont9u$ s9k+1 am\nt+ to sev]al ?\s& feet1 ! sea might 9 "t h be5 r5d]$ %all[ by ! gr[? ( coral1 _h n its conv]sion into l& or swampy gr\nd be5 accel]at$ by ! p\r+ 9 ( s& & ! advance ( ! delta accompani$ ) su* fluviatile & bracki%-wat] =mations z are common 9 lagoons4 ,! am\nt to :i* ! b$ ( ! sea sank d[n 9 ord] to all[ ( ! =mation ( s va/ a ?ickness ( rock ( s$im5t>y & organic orig9 is express$ by ! total ?ickness ( ! ,c>bonif]\s /rata1 includ+ ! coal-measures1 ,no4 #a1 & ! rocks :i* und]lie !m1 ,no4 #b1 ,fig4 #ddg4 ,fig4 #ddg3 ,diagram %[+ ! curvature & suppos$ d5udation ( ! ,c>bonif]\s /rata 9 ,nova ,scotia4 ,aft] ! /rata ,no4 #b _h be5 elaborat$1 ! conditions prop] to a great delta exclusively prevail$1 ! subsid5ce /ill cont9u+ s t "o =e/ aft] ano!r grew & 0 subm]g$ until _! "u-clays ) roots1 & usually seams ( coal1 7 left at m ?an eighty di/9ct levels4 ,"h & !re1 also1 deposits be>+ te/imony to ! exi/5ce ( fre% or bracki%-wat] lagoons1 fill$ ) calc>eo-bitum9\s mud1 7 =m$4 ,9 ^! b$s 7h & i1 ,fig4 #dci7 are f\nd fre%-wat] bivalves or mussels alli$ to ,anodon1 ?\gh n id5tical ) t or any liv+ g5us1 & call$ ,naiadites c>bon>ius by ,dawson4 ,!y are associat$ ) small entomo/rac\s cru/aceans ( ! g5us ,cy!re1 & scales ( small fi%es4 ,occasionally "s ( ! calamite brakes & =e/s ( ,sigill>i & ,conif] 7 expos$ 9 ! flood season1 or sometimes1 p]haps1 by slight elevatory movem5ts to ! d5ud+ action ( ! riv] or ! sea4 ,9 ord] to int]pret ! great coa/ section expos$ to view on ! %ores ( ! ,bay ( ,fundy1 ! /ud5t mu/1 9 ! fir/ place1 und]/& t ! newe/ or la/-m5tion$ coal =mations w\ld h be5 ! only ones kn[n to u 7= !y w\ld h cov]$ all ! o!rs71 _h !re n be5 two great movem5ts 9 opposite directions1 ! fir/ consi/+ ( a g5]al s9k+ ( ?ree miles1 :i* took place dur+ ! ,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod1 & ! second an upheaval ( m limit$ horizontal ext5t1 by :i* ! anticl9al axis ,a 0 =m$4 ,t ! fir/ great *ange ( level 0 "o ( subsid5ce is prov$ by ! fact t !re are %all[-wat] deposits at ! base ( ! ,c>bonif]\s s]ies1 or 9 ! l[e/ b$s ( ,no4 #b4 ,subsequ5t movem5ts produc$ 9 ! ,nova ,scotia & ! adjo9+ ,new ,brunswick coal-fields ! usual anticl9al & syncl9al flexures4 ,9 ord] to foll[ ^!1 we mu/ survey ! c\ntry = ab\t ?irty miles r\nd ! ,s\? ,jogg9s1 or ! region :]e ! erect trees describ$ 9 ! =ego+ pages are se54 ,z we pass along ! cliffs = miles 9 a s\!rly direction1 ! b$s conta9+ ^! fossil trees1 :i* 7 m5tion$ z dipp+ ab\t #ah s\?1 are less & less incl9$1 until !y become ne>ly horizontal 9 ! valley ( a small riv] call$ ! ,%\lie1 z asc]ta9$ by ,dr4 ,dawson4 ,aft] pass+ ?is syncl9al l9e ! b$s beg9 to dip 9 an opposite or nor?-ea/]ly direction1 acquir+ a /eep dip :]e !y re/ uncon=mably on ! edges ( ! ,upp] ,silurian /rata ( ! ,cobequid ,hills1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ddg4 ,b if we travel nor?w>d t[>ds ,m9udie f ! region ( ! coal-seams & buri$ =e/s1 we f9d ! dip ( ! coal-/rata increas+ f an angle ( #ah to "o ( m ?an #dj1 l[] b$s be+ cont9ually expos$ to view until we rea* ! anticl9al axis ,a & see ! l[] ,c>bonif]\s =mation1 ,no4 #b1 at ! surface4 ,! miss+ rocks remov$ by d5udation are express$ by ! fa9t l9es at ,a1 & ?us ! /ud5t w see t1 accord+ to ! pr9ciples laid d[n 9 ! sev5? *apt]1 we are enabl$1 by ! jo9t op]ations ( upheaval & d5udation1 to look1 z x 71 ab\t ?ree miles into ! int]ior ( ! e>? )\t pass+ beyond ! limits ( a s+le =mation4 #a ,edw>d ,hull1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xxiv1 p4 #cbg4 #b ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 v1 ,mem41 p4 #ag4 #c ,memoirs ( ! ,geol4 ,survey1 pp4 #ea1 #bee1 etc4 #d ,dunk] & ,v4 ,mey]1 ,palont41 vol4 iv1 p4 #ag4 #e ,acadian ,geology1 #bnd edit41 #ahfh4 #f ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 ix1 p4 #eh4 #g ,dawson1 ,air-,brea!rs ( ! ,coal 9 ,nova ,scotia1 ,montreal1 #ahfc4 #h ,dawson1 ,acadian ,geology1 #ahfh1 p4 #che4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,flora ,,& ,,fauna ,,( ,,! ,,c>bonif]\s ,,p]iod4 ,vegetation ( ! ,coal ,p]iod4 -- ,f]ns1 ,lycopodiace1 ,equisetace1 ,sigill>i1 ,/igm>i1 ,conif]4 -- ,angiosp]ms4 -- ,climate ( ! ,coal ,p]iod4 -- ,m\nta9 ,lime/one4 -- ,m>9e ,fauna ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod4 -- ,corals4 -- ,bryozoa1 ,cr9oidea4 -- ,mollusca4 -- ,great ,numb] ( fossil ,fi%4 -- ,=am9if]a4 ,vegetation ( ! ,coal ,p]iod4--,9 ! la/ *apt] we h se5 t ! seams ( coal1 :e!r bitum9\s or an?racitic1 are d]iv$ f ! same species ( plants1 & ,gopp]t has asc]ta9$ t ! rema9s ( e family ( plants scatt]$ ?r\gh ! %ales & s&/ones ( ! coal-measures are sometimes met ) 9 ! pure coal itself--a fact :i* adds greatly to ! geological int]e/ ( ?is flora4 ,! coal-p]iod 0 call$ by ,adolphe ,brongni>t ! age ( ,acrog5s1#a s great appe>s to h be5 ! num]ical prepond]ance ( fl[]less or cryptogamic plants ( ! families ( f]ns1 club-mosses1 & horse-tails4 ,he reckon$ ! kn[n species 9 #ahdi at #ejj1 & ! numb] has be5 l>gely increas$ by rec5t rese>* 9 spite ( r$uctions ow+ to ! discov]y t diff]5t p>ts ( ev5 ! same plants _h be5 tak5 = di/9ct species4 ,not)/&+ ^! *anges1 ,brongni>t's g5]alisation conc]n+ ?is flora /ill holds true1 namely1 t ! /ate ( ! vegetable _w 0 !n extremely diff]5t f t n[ prevail+1 n only because ! cryptogam\s plants con/itut$ ne>ly ! :ole flora1 b also because !y 71 on ! :ole1 m highly develop$ ?an any belong+ to ! same class n[ exi/+1 & unit$ "s =ms ( /ructure n[ only f\nd sep>ately & 9 di/9ct ord]s4 ,! only phnogam\s plants 7 con/itute any feature 9 ! coal are ! conif]2 monocotyl$on\s angiosp]ms appe> to h be5 v r>e1 & ! dicotyl$on\s1 ) "o or two d\btful exceptions1 7 want+4 ,= ?is we are 9 "s measure prep>$ by :at we h se5 ( ! ,second>y or ,mesozoic floras if1 consi/5tly ) ! belief 9 ! !ory ( evolution1 we expect to f9d ! preval5ce ( simpl] & less specialis$ organisms 9 old] rocks4 ,f]ns4--,we are /ruck at ! fir/ glance ) ! simil>ity ( ! f]ns to ^? n[ liv+4 ,9 ! fossil g5us ,pecopt]is1 = example 7,fig4 #ddh71 x is n easy to decide :e!r ! fossils might n be ref]r$ to ! same g5]a z ^? e/abli%$ = liv+ f]ns2 :]eas1 9 reg>d to "s ( ! o!r contempor>y families ( plants1 ) ! exception ( ! fir tribe1 x is n easy to guess ev5 ! class to :i* !y belong4 ,! f]ns ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod are g5]ally )\t organs ( fructification1 b 9 ! few in/ances 9 :i* ^! d occur 9 a fit /ate = microscopical inve/igations !y agree ) ^? ( ! liv+ f]ns4 ,fig4 #ddh3 ,pecopt]is elliptica4 ,fig4 #ddi3 ,caulopt]is primva4 ,fig4 #ddh3 ,pecopt]is elliptica1 ,bunbury4#b ,fro/burg4 ,fig4 #ddi3 ,caulopt]is primva1 ,l9dley4 ,:5 collect+ fossil specim5s f ! coal-measures ( ,fro/burg1 9 ,m>yl&1 ,i f\nd 9 ! iron-%ales sev]al species ) well-pres]v$ r\nd$ spots or m>ks ( ! sori 7see ,fig4 #ddh74 ,9 ! g5]al abs5ce ( su* *>act]s !y h be5 divid$ into g5]a di/+ui%$ *iefly by ! bran*+ ( ! fronds & ! way 9 :i* ! ve9s ( ! leaves are dispos$4 ,! l>g] portion are suppos$ to h be5 ( ! size ( ord9>y ,european f]ns1 b "s 7 decid$ly arboresc5t1 especially ! gr\p call$ ,caulopt]is 7see ,fig4 #ddi7 by ,l9dley1 & ! ,ps>onius ( ! upp] or newe/ coal-measures1 be=e allud$ to 7p4 #cic74 ,all ! rec5t tree-f]ns belong to "o tribe 7,polypodiace71 & to a small numb] only ( g5]a 9 t tribe1 9 :i* ! surface ( ! trunk is m>k$ ) sc>s1 or cicatrices1 left aft] ! fall ( ! fronds4 ,^! sc>s resemble ^? ( ,caulopt]is4 ,no less ?an #acj species ( f]ns are enum]at$ z hav+ be5 obta9$ f ! ,briti% coal-/rata1 & ?is numb] is m ?an d\bl$ if we include ! ,cont95tal & ,am]ican species4 ,ev5 if we make "s r$uction on ! gr\nd ( v>ieties :i* h be5 mi/ak51 9 ! abs5ce ( _! fructification1 = species1 /ill ! result is s+ul>1 because ! :ole ( ,europe af=ds at pres5t no m ?an sixty-sev5 indig5\s species4 ,liv+ tree-f]ns ( diff]5t g5]a4 ,fig4 #dej3 ,tree-f]n f ,isle ( ,b\rbon4 ,fig4 #dea3 ,cya!a glauca1 ,mauritius4 ,fig4 #deb3 ,tree-f]n f ,brazil4 ,lycopodiace--,lepidod5dron4--,ab\t =ty species ( fossil plants ( ! ,coal h be5 ref]r$ to ?is g5us1 m ?an half ( :i* are f\nd 9 ! ,briti% coal-measures4 ,!y consi/ ( cyl9drical /ems or trunks1 cov]$ ) leaf-sc>s4 ,9 _! mode ( bran*+1 !y are always di*otom\s 7see ,fig4 #ded74 ,!y belong to ! ,lycopodiace1 be>+ sporangia & spores simil> to ^? ( ! liv+ repres5tatives ( ?is family 7,fig4 #deg72 & al?\gh mo/ ( ! ,c>bonif]\s species grew to ! size ( l>ge trees1 ,mr4 ,c>ru!rs has f\nd by c>eful measurem5t t ! volume ( ! fossil spores did n exce$ t ( ! rec5t club-moss1 a fact ( "s geological importance1 z x may help to expla9 ! facility ) :i* ^! se$s may h be5 transport$ by ! w9d1 caus+ ! same wide di/ribution ( ! species ( ! fossil =e/s 9 ,europe & ,am]ica :i* we n[ obs]ve 9 ! geographical di/ribution ( s _m liv+ families ( cryptogam\s plants4 ,lepidod5drum ,/]nb]gii4 ,coal-measures1 ne> ,newca/le4 ,fig4 #dec3 ,bran*+ trunk1 #di feet long1 suppos$ to h belong$ to ,l4 ,/]nb]gii4 ,fig4 #ded3 ,bran*+ /em ) b>k & leaves ( ,l4 ,/]nb]gii4 ,fig4 #dee3 ,portion ( same1 ne>] ! root4 ,fig4 #def3 a4 ,lycopodium d5sum4 ,liv+ species1 ,new ,zeal&2 b4 ,bran*2 c4 ,"p ( same1 magnifi$4 ,! ,figs4 #dec-dee repres5t a fossil ,lepidod5dron1 #di feet long1 f\nd 9 ,j>r[ ,colli]y1 ne> ,newca/le1 ly+ 9 %ale p>allel to ! planes ( /ratification4 ,fragm5ts ( o!rs1 f\nd 9 ! same %ale1 indicate1 by ! size ( ! rhomboidal sc>s :i* cov] !m1 a /ill great] magnitude4 ,! liv+ club-mosses1 ( :i* !re are ab\t #bjj species1 are mo/ abundant 9 tropical climates4 ,!y usually creep on ! gr\nd1 b "s /& erect1 z ! ,lycopodium d5sum f ,new ,zeal& 7see ,fig4 #def71 :i* atta9s a height ( ?ree feet4 ,9 ! ,c>bonif]\s /rata ( ,coalbrook ,dale1 & 9 _m o!r coal-fields1 elongat$ cyl9drical bodies1 call$ fossil cones1 nam$ ,lepido/robus by ,m4 ,adolphe ,brongni>t1 are met )4 7,see ,fig4 #deg47 ,!y (t5 =m ! nucleus ( concretion>y balls ( clay-iron/one1 & are well pres]v$1 exhibit+ a conical axis1 ar\nd :i* a great quantity ( scales 7 compactly imbricat$4 ,! op9ion ( ,m4 ,brongni>t t ! ,lepido/robus is ! fruit ( ,lepidod5dron has be5 confirm$1 = ^! /robili or fruits h be5 f\nd t]m9at+ ! tip ( a bran* ( a well-*>act]is$ ,lepidod5dron 9 ,coalbrook ,dale & else:]e4 ,fig4 #deg3 a4 ,lepido/robus ornatus2 b4 ,portion ( a section1 %[+ ! l>ge sporangia 9 _! natural position1 & ea* support$ by its bract or scale2 c4 ,spores 9 ^! sporangia1 highly magnifi$4 ,fig4 #deh3 ,calamites ,suc[ii1 common ?r\gh\t ,europe4 ,fig4 #dei3 ,/em ( ,fig4 #deh1 z retor$ by ,dr4 ,dawson4 ,equisetace4--,to ?is family belong two fossil g5]a ( ! coal1 ,equisetites & ,calamites4 ,! ,calamites 7 evid5tly closely relat$ to ! mod]n horse-tails 7,equiseta7 diff]+ pr9cipally 9 _! great size1 ! want ( %ea?s at ! jo9ts1 & "s details ( fructification4 ,!y grew 9 d5se brakes on s&y & muddy flats 9 ! mann] ( mod]n ,equisetace1 & _! rema9s are frequ5t 9 ! coal4 ,sev5 species ( ?is plant occur 9 ! great ,nova ,scotia section be=e describ$1 :]e ! /ems ( "s ( !m five in*es 9 diamet]1 & sometimes eight feet high1 may be se5 t]m9at+ d[nw>d 9 a tap]+ root 7see ,fig4 #dfj74 ,fig4 #dfj3 ,radical t]m9ation ( a ,calamite4 ,fig4 #dfa3 ,a/]ophyllites foliosus1 ,coal-measures1 ,newca/le4 ,botani/s are n yet agre$ :e!r ! ,a/]ophyllites1 a species ( :i* is repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #dfa1 c =m a sep>ate g5us f ! ,calamite1 f :i*1 h[ev]1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,dawson1 its foliage is di/+ui%$ by a true mid-rib1 :i* is want+ 9 ! leaves kn[n to belong to "s ,calamites4 ,fig4 #dfb3 ,annul>ia sph5ophylloides4,fig4 #dfc3 ,sph5ophyllum erosum4 ,figs4 #dfb & #dfc repres5t leaves ( ,annul>ia & ,sph5ophyllum1 common 9 ! coal1 & believ$ by ,mr4 ,c>ru!rs to be leaves ( ,calamites4 ,dr4 ,williamson1 :o has c>efully /udi$ ! ,calamites1 ?9ks t !y _h a fi/ul> pi?1 exog5\s woody /em1 & ?ick smoo? b>k1 :i* la/ hav+ always disappe>$1 leaves a flut$ /em1 z repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #dei4 ,sigill>ia4--,a l>ge portion ( ! trees ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod belong$ to ?is g5us1 ( :i* z _m z #bh species are enum]at$ z ,briti%4 ,! /ructure1 bo? int]nal & ext]nal1 0 v peculi>1 &1 ) ref]5ce to exi/+ types1 v anomal\s4 ,!y 7 =m]ly ref]r$1 by ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongni>t1 to f]ns1 :i* !y resemble 9 ! scal>i=m texture ( _! vessels &1 9 "s degree1 9 ! =m ( ! cicatrices left by ! base ( ! leaf-/alks :i* h fall5 (f 7see ,fig4 #dfd74 ,b "s ( !m are asc]ta9$ to h _h long l9e> leaves1 q unlike ^? ( f]ns4 ,!y grew to a great height1 f #cj to #fj1 or ev5 #gj feet1 ) regul> cyl9drical /ems1 & )\t bran*es1 al?\gh "s species 7 di*otom\s t[>ds ! top4 ,_! flut$ trunks1 f "o to five feet 9 diamet]1 appe> to h decay$ m rapidly 9 ! int]ior ?an ext]nally1 s t !y became holl[ :5 /&+2 & :5 ?r[n pro/rate1 !y 7 squeez$ d[n & flatt5$4 ,h5ce1 we f9d ! b>k ( ! two opposite sides 7n[ conv]t$ into bright %9+ coal7 con/itute two horizontal lay]s1 "o ^u ! o!r1 half an in*1 or an in*1 9 _! unit$ ?ickness4 ,^! same trunks1 :5 !y are plac$ obliquely or v]tically to ! planes ( /ratification1 reta9 _! orig9al r\nd$ =m1 & are uncompress$1 ! cyl9d] ( b>k hav+ be5 fill$ ) s&1 :i* n[ af=ds a ca/ ( ! int]ior4 ,fig4 #dfd3 ,sigill>ia lvigata4 ,dr4 ,hook] incl9$ to ! belief t ! ,sigill>i may h be5 cryptogam\s1 ?\gh m highly develop$ ?an any fl[]less plants n[ liv+4 ,dr4 ,dawson hav+ f\nd 9 "s species :at he reg>ds z m$ull>y rays1 ?9ks ) ,brongni>t t !y h "s relation to gymnog5s1 :ile ,mr4 ,c>ru!rs leans to ! op9ion t !y belong to ! ,lycopodiace4 ,/igm>ia4--,?is fossil1 ! importance ( :i* has already be5 po9t$ out 9 p4 #cih1 0 orig9ally conjectur$ to be an aquatic plant4 ,x is n[ asc]ta9$ to be ! root ( ,sigill>ia4 ,! connection ( ! roots ) ! /em1 previ\sly suspect$1 on botanical gr\nds1 by ,brongni>t1 0 fir/ prov$1 by actual contact1 9 ! ,lanca%ire coal-field1 by ,mr4 ,b9ney4 ,! fact has lately be5 %[n1 ev5 m di/9ctly1 by ,mr4 ,ri*>d ,br[n1 9 8 description ( ! ,/igm>i occurr+ 9 ! "u-clays ( ! coal-seams ( ! ,isl& ( ,cape ,breton1 9 ,nova ,scotia4 ,9 a specim5 ( "o ( ^!1 repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #dfe1 ! spread ( ! roots 0 sixte5 feet1 & "s ( !m s5t out rootlets1 9 all directions1 into ! surr\nd+ clay4 ,fig4 #dfe3 ,/igm>ia atta*$ to a trunk ( ,sigill>ia4 ,9 ! sea-cliffs ( ! ,s\? ,jogg9s 9 ,nova ,scotia1 ,i exam9$ sev]al erect ,sigill>i1 9 company ) ,dr4 ,dawson1 & we f\nd t f ! l[] extremities ( ! trunk !y s5t out ,/igm>i z roots4 ,all ! /ools ( ! fossil trees dug out by u divid$ into f\r p>ts1 & ^! aga9 bifurcat$1 =m+ eight roots1 :i* 7 also di*otom\s :5 traceable f> en\gh4 ,! cyl9drical rootlets =m]ly reg>d$ z leaves are n[ %[n by m p]fect specim5s to h be5 atta*$ to ! root by fitt+ into deep cyl9drical pits4 ,9 ! fossil !re is r>ely any trace ( ! =m ( ^! cavities1 9 consequ5ce ( ! %r9kage ( ! surr\nd+ tissues4 ,:]e ! rootlets are remov$1 no?+ rema9s on ! surface ( ! ,/igm>ia b r[s ( mammillat$ tub]cles 7see ,figs4 #dff1 #dfg71 :i* h =m$ ! base ( ea* rootlet4 ,fig4 #dff3 ,/igm>ia ficoides4 ,fig4 #dfg3 ,surface ( ano!r individual ( same species1 %[+ =m ( tub]cles4 ,^! protub]ances may possibly indicate ! place ( a jo9t at ! l[] extremity ( ! rootlet4 ,r[s ( ^! tub]cles are arrang$ spirally r\nd ea* root1 :i* h always a m$ull>y axis & woody sy/em mu* resembl+ t ( ,sigill>ia1 ! /ructure ( ! vessels be+1 l x1 scal>i=m4 ,conif]4--,! conif]\s trees ( ?is p]iod are ref]r$ to five g5]a2 ! woody /ructure ( "s ( !m %[+ t !y 7 alli$ to ! ,arauc>ian division ( p9es1 m ?an to any ( our common ,european firs4 ,"s ( _! trunks exce$$ =ty-f\r feet 9 height4 ,_m1 if n all ( !m1 seem to h diff]$ f liv+ ,conif] 9 hav+ l>ge pi?s2 = ,pr(essor ,williamson has demon/rat$ ! fossil ( ! coal-measures call$ ,/]nb]gia to be ! pi? ( ^! trees1 or r ! ca/ ( cavities =m$ by ! %r9k+ or p>tial absorption ( ! orig9al m$ull>y axis 7see ,figs4 #dfh1 #dfi74 ,?is peculi> type ( pi? is obs]v$ 9 liv+ plants ( v diff]5t families1 su* z ! common ,walnut & ! ,:ite ,jasm9e1 9 :i* ! pi? becomes s r$uc$ z simply to =m a ?9 l9+ ( ! m$ull>y cavity1 across :i* transv]se plates ( pi? ext5d horizontally1 s z to divide ! cyl9drical holl[ into discoid int]spaces4 ,:5 ^! int]spaces h be5 fill$ up ) inorganic matt]1 !y con/itute an axis to :i*1 be=e _! true nature 0 kn[n1 ! provisional "n ( ,/]nb]gia 7d1 d1 ,fig4 #dfh7 0 giv54 ,9 ! above specim5 ! /ructure ( ! wood 7b1 ,figs4 #dfh & #dfi7 is conif]\s1 & ! fossil is ref]able to ,endli*]'s fossil g5us ,dadoxylon4 ,fig4 #dfh3 ,fragm5t ( conif]\s wood4 ,fig4 #dfh3 ,fragm5t ( conif]\s wood1 ,dadoxylon1 ( ,endli*]1 fractur$ longitud9ally2 f ,coalbrook ,dale4 ,w4,c4 ,williamson#c ,fig4 #dfi3 ,magnifi$ portion ( ,fig4 #dfh2 transv]se section4 ,! fossil nam$ ,trigonoc>pon 7,figs4 #dgj & #dga71 =m]ly suppos$ to be ! fruit ( a palm1 may n[1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,hook]1 be ref]r$1 l ! ,/]nb]gia1 to ! ,conif]4 ,its geological importance is great1 = s abundant is x 9 ! coal-measures1 t 9 c]ta9 localities ! fruit ( "s species may be procur$ by ! bu%el2 nor is !re any "p ( ! =mation :]e !y d n occur1 except ! "u-clays & lime/one4 ,! s&/one1 iron/one1 %ales1 & coal itself1 all conta9 !m4 ,mr4 ,b9ney has at l5g? f\nd 9 ! clay-iron/one ( ,lanca%ire sev]al specim5s display+ /ructure1 & f ^!1 says ,dr4 ,hook]1 we le>n t ! ,trigonoc>pon belong$ to t l>ge section ( exi/+ conif]\s plants :i* be> fle%y solit>y fruits1 & n cones4 ,x resembl$ v closely ! fruit ( ! ,*9ese g5us ,salisburia1 "o ( ! ,yew tribe1 or ,taxoid conif]s4 ,fig4 #dgj3 ,trigonoc>pum ovatum4,fig4 #dga3 ,trigonoc>pum oliv=me4 ,fig4 #dgb3 ,an?oli!s4 ,angiosp]ms4--,! curi\s fossils call$ ,an?oli!s by ,l9dley h usually be5 consid]$ to be fl[] spikes1 hav+ :at seems a calyx & l9e> petals 7see ,fig4 #dgb74 ,dr4 ,hook]1 aft] see+ v p]fect specim5s1 also ?\ght t !y resembl$ ! spike ( a highly-organis$ plant 9 full fl[]1 su* z "o ( ! ,bromeliace1 to :i* ,pr(essor ,l9dley _h at fir/ comp>$ !m4 ,mr4 ,c>ru!rs1 :o has lately exam9$ a l>ge s]ies 9 diff]5t museums1 consid]s x to be a dicotyl$on\s angiosp]m alli$ to ,oroban*e 7broom-rape71 :i* grew1 n on ! soil1 b p>asitically on ! trees ( ! coal =e/s4 ,9 ! coal-measures ( ,granton1 ne> ,ed9burgh1 a rem>kable fossil 7,fig4 #dgc7 0 f\nd & describ$ 9 #ahdj1d by ,dr4 ,rob]t ,pat]son4 ,x 0 compress$ betwe5 lay]s ( bitum9\s %ale1 & consi/s ( a /em be>+ a cyl9drical spike1 a1 :i* 9 ! portion pres]v$ 9 ! slate exhibits two subdivisions & "p ( a ?ird4 ,! spike is cov]$ on ! expos$ surface ) ! f\r-cleft calyces ( ! fl[]s arrang$ 9 p>allel r[s4 ,! /em %[s1 at b1 a little bel[ ! spike1 rema9s ( a lat]al app5dage1 :i* is suppos$ to indicate ! beg9n+ ( ! spa!4 ,! fossil has be5 ref]r$ to ! ,aroidi1 & !re is e probability t x is a true memb] ( ?is ord]4 ,!re c at lea/ be no d\bt z to ! high grade ( its organisation1 & t x belongs to ! monocotyl$on\s angiosp]ms4 ,mr4 ,c>ru!rs has c>efully exam9$ ! orig9al specim5 9 ! ,botanical ,museum1 ,ed9burgh1 & ?9ks x may h be5 an epiphyte4 ,fig4 #dgc3 ,po?ocites ,grantonii4 ,climate ( ! ,coal ,p]iod4--,z to ! climate ( ! ,coal1 ! ,f]ns & ! ,conif] are p]haps ! two classes ( plants :i* may be mo/ reli$ ^u z lead+ u to safe conclusions1 z ! g5]a are ne>ly alli$ to liv+ types4 ,all botani/s admit t ! abundance ( f]ns implies a moi/ atmosph]e4 ,b ! conif]1 says ,hook]1 are ( m d\btful import1 z !y are f\nd 9 hot & dry1 & 9 cold & dry climates2 9 hot & moi/1 & 9 cold & moi/ regions4 ,9 ,new ,zeal& ! conif] atta9 _! maximum 9 numb]s1 con/itut+ #a_/fb "p ( all ! fl[]+ plants2 :]eas 9 a wide di/rict ar\nd ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope !y d n =m #a_/afjj ( ! ph5ogamic flora4 ,besides ! conif]s1 _m species ( f]ns fl\ri% 9 ,new ,zeal&1 "s ( !m arboresc5t1 toge!r ) _m lycopodiums2 s t a =e/ 9 t c\ntry may make a ne>] approa* to ! c>bonif]\s vegetation ?an any o!r n[ exi/+ on ! globe4 ,,m>9e ,,fauna ,,( ,,! ,,c>bonif]\s ,,p]iod4 ,x has already be5 /at$ t ! ,c>bonif]\s or ,m\nta9 ,lime/one und]lies ! coal-measures 9 ! ,s\? ( ,engl& & ,wales1 :]eas 9 ! ,nor?1 & 9 ,scotl&1 m>9e calc>e\s rocks p>tly ( ! age ( ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one alt]nate ) %ales & s&/ones1 conta9+ seams ( coal4 ,9 its mo/ calc>e\s =m ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one is de/itute ( l&-plants1 & is load$ ) m>9e rema9s--! great] "p1 inde$1 ( ! rock be+ made up bodily ( cr9oids1 corals1 & bryozoa ) int]sp]s$ mollusca4 ,corals4--,! corals des]ve especial notice1 z ! cup-&-/> corals1 :i* h ! mo/ massive & /ony skeletons1 display peculi>ities ( /ructure by :i* !y may be di/+ui%$ g5]ally1 z ,,mm4 ,milne ,edw>ds & ,haime fir/ po9t$ out1 f all species f\nd 9 /rata new] ?an ! ,p]mian4 ,!re is1 9 %ort1 an anci5t or ,palozoic1 & a mod]n or ,neozoic type1 if1 by ! latt] t]m1 we designate 7z propos$ by ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes7 all /rata f ! triassic to ! mo/ mod]n1 inclusive4 ,! accompany+ diagrams 7,figs4 #dgd1 #dge7 may illu/rate ^! types4 ,fig4 #dgd3 ,palozoic type ( lamellif]\s cup-%ap$ ,coral4 ,v]tical section ( ,campophyllum flexuosum1 7,cya?ophyllum1 ,goldfuss72 f ! ,devonian ( ! ,eifel4 ,! lamell are se5 ar\nd ! inside ( ! cup2 ! walls consi/ ( cellul> tissue2 & l>ge transv]se plates1 call$ tubul1 divide ! int]ior into *amb]s4 ,arrangem5t ( ! lamell 9 ,polycoelia pr(unda1 ,g]m>1 sp42 f ! ,magnesian ,lime/one1 ,durham4 ,?is diagram %[s ! quadrip>tite arrangem5t ( ! prim>y septa1 *>act]i/ic ( palozoic corals1 !re be+ f\r pr9cipal & eight int]m$iate lamell1 ! :ole numb] 9 ?is type be+ always a multiple ( f\r4 ,/auria a/ri=mis1 ,milne ,edw>ds4 ,"y gr\p1 natural size4 ,upp] ,silurian1 ,go?l&4 ,! lamell or septal sy/em 9 ea* cup are divid$ by f\r prom95t ridges into f\r gr\ps4 ,fig4 #dge3 ,neozoic type ( lamellif]\s cup-%ap$ ,coral4 ,p>asmilia c5tralis1 ,mantell1 sp4 ,v]tical section4 ,upp] ,*alk1 ,graves5d4 ,9 ?is type ! lamell are massive1 & ext5d to ! axis or columella compos$ ( loose cellul> tissue1 )\t any transv]se plates l ^? 9 ,fig4 #dgd1 a4 ,cya?9a ,b[]bankii1 ,ed4 & ,h4 ,transv]se section1 enl>g$4 ,gault1 ,folke/one4 ,9 ?is coral ! prim>y septa are a multiple ( six4 ,! twelve pr9cipal plates rea* ! columella1 & betwe5 ea* pair !re are ?ree second>ies1 9 all =ty-eight4 ,! %ort int]m$iate plates :i* proce$ f ! columella are n c\nt$4 ,!y are call$ pali4 ,fungia patell>is1 ,lam>ck4 ,rec5t2 v "y /ate4 ,diagram ( its six prim>y & six second>y septa1 magnifi$4 ,! sextuple arrangem5t is always m manife/ 9 ! "y ?an 9 ! adult /ate4 ,x w be se5 t ! m anci5t corals h :at is call$ a quadrip>tite arrangem5t ( ! *ief plates or lamell--p>ts ( ! skeleton :i* support ! organs ( reproduction4 ,! numb] ( ^! lamell 9 ! ,palozoic type is #d1 #h1 #af1 etc42 :ile 9 ! ,neozoic type ! numb] is #f1 #ab1 #bd1 or "s o!r multiple ( six2 & ?is holds good1 :e!r !y be simple =ms1 z 9 ,figs4 #dgd1 a1 & #dge1 a1 or aggregate clu/]s ( corallites1 z 9 #dgd1 c4 ,b fur!r inve/igations h %[n 9 ?is1 z 9 all simil> gr& g5]alisations 9 natural hi/ory1 t !re are excepions to ! rule4 ,?us 9 ! ,l[] ,gre5s& ,holocy/is elegans 7,ed4 & ,h47 & o!r =ms h ! ,palozoic type1 & ,dr4 ,duncan has %[n to :at ext5t ! ,neozoic =ms p5etrate d[nw>d into ! ,c>bonif]\s & ,devonian rocks4 ,fig4 #dgf3 ,li?o/rotion basalti=me4 ,fig4 #dgg3 ,lonsdaleia flori=mis4 ,f a great numb] ( lamellif]\s corals met ) 9 ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 two species 7,figs4 #dgf1 #dgg7 h be5 select$1 z hav+ a v wide range1 ext5d+ f ! ea/]n bord]s ( ,russia to ! ,briti% ,isles1 & be+ f\nd almo/ ev]y:]e 9 ea* c\ntry4 ,^! fossils1 toge!r ) num]\s species ( ,zaphr5tis1 ,amplexus1 ,cya?ophyllum1 ,clisiophyllum1 ,syr+opora1 & ,mi*el9ia1#e =m a gr\p ( rugose corals widely diff]5t f any t foll[$ !m4 ,bryozoa & ,cr9oidea4--,( ! ,bryozoa1 ! prevail+ =ms are ,f5e/ella1 ,hemitrypa1 & ,polypora1 & ^! (t5 =m consid]able b$s4 ,_! net-l fronds are easily recognis$4 ,cr9oidea are also num]\s 9 ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one 7see ,figs4 #dgh1 #dgi71 two g5]a1 ,p5tremites & ,codona/]1 be+ peculi> to ?is =mation 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,fig4 #dgh3 ,cya?ocr9us planus4 ,fig4 #dgi3 ,cya?ocr9us c>yocr9oides4 ,fig4 #dhj3 ,pal*9us gigas4 ,9 ! great] "p ( !m1 ! cup or pelvis1 ,figure #dgi1 b1 is greatly develop$ 9 size 9 proportion to ! arms1 al?\gh ?is is n ! case 9 ,fig4 #dgh4 ,! g5]a ,pot]iocr9us1 ,cya?ocr9us1 ,p5tremites1 ,act9ocr9us1 & ,platycr9us1 are all ( !m *>act]i/ic ( ?is =mation4 ,o!r ,e*9od]ms are r>e1 a few ,sea-,ur*9s only be+ kn[n3 ^! h a complex /ructure1 ) _m m plates on _! surface ?an are se5 9 ! mod]n g5]a ( ! same gr\p4 ,"o g5us1 ! ,pal*9us 7,fig4 #dhj71 is ! analogue ( ! mod]n ,e*9us1 b has f\r1 five1 or six r[s ( plates 9 ! int]ambulacral region or area1 :]eas ! mod]n g5]a h only two4 ,! o!r1 ,ar*ocid>is1 repres5ts1 9 l mann]1 ! ,cid>is ( ! pres5t seas4 ,mollusca4--,! ,briti% ,c>bonif]\s mollusca enum]at$ by ,mr4 ,e!ridge#f comprise #fec species ref]able to #hf g5]a1 occurr+ *iefly 9 ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one4 ,( ?is l>ge numb] only #dj species are common to ! und]ly+ ,devonian rocks1 #i ( !m be+ ,cephalopods1 #g ,ga/]opods1 & ! re/ bivalves1 *iefly ,bra*iopoda 7or ,palliobran*iates74 ,?is latt] gr\p con/itutes ! l>g] "p ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,mollusca1 #aeg species be+ kn[n 9 ,great ,brita9 alone1 & x w be f\nd to increase 9 importance 9 ! fauna ( ! prim>y rocks ! l[] we desc5d 9 ! s]ies4 ,p]haps ! mo/ *>act]i/ic %ells ( ! =mation are l>ge species ( ,productus1 su* z ,p4 giganteus1 p4 hemisph]icus1 ,p4 semireticulatus 7,fig4 #dha71 & ,p4 scabriculus4 ,l>ge plait$ spirif]s1 z ,spirif]a /riata1 ,s4 rotundata1 & ,s4 trigonalis 7,fig4 #dhb71 also ab\nd2 & smoo? species1 su* z ,spirif]a glabra 7,fig4 #dhc71 ) its num]\s v>ieties4 ,fig4 #dha3 ,productus semireticulatus4 ,fig4 #dhb3 ,spirif]a trigonalis4 ,fig4 #dhc3 ,spirif]a glabra4 ,fig4 #dhd3 ,t]ebratula ha/ata4 ,fig4 #dhe3 ,aviculopect5 sublobatus4 ,fig4 #dhf3 ,pleurotom>ia c>9ata4 ,among ! bra*iopoda1 ,t]ebratula ha/ata 7,fig4 #dhd7 des]ves m5tion1 n only = its wide range1 b because x (t5 reta9s ! patt]n ( ! orig9al col\r$ /ripes :i* ornam5t$ ! liv+ %ell4 ,^! col\r$ b&s are also pres]v$ 9 sev]al lamellibran*iate bivalves1 z 9 ,aviculopect5 7,fig4 #dhe71 9 :i* d>k /ripes alt]nate ) a light gr\nd4 ,9 "s also ( ! spiral univalves ! patt]n ( ! orig9al pa9t+ is di/9ctly reta9$1 z 9 ,pleurotom>ia 7,fig4 #dhf71 :i* displays wavy blot*es1 resembl+ ! col\r+ 9 _m rec5t tro*id4 ,fig4 #dhg3 ,euomphalus p5tagulatus4 ,"s few ( ! c>bonif]\s mollusca1 su* z ,avicula1 ,nucula 7sub-g5us ,ct5odonta71 ,solemya1 & ,li?odomus1 belong no d\bt to exi/+ g5]a2 b ! majority1 ?\gh (t5 ref]r$ to z liv+ types1 su* z ,isoc>dia1 ,turritella1 & ,bucc9um1 belong really to =ms :i* appe> to h become ext9ct at ! close ( ! ,palozoic epo*4 ,euomphalus is a *>act]i/ic univalve %ell ( ?is p]iod4 ,9 ! int]ior x is divid$ into *amb]s 7,fig4 #dhg1 d71 ! septa or p>titions n be+ p]=at$ z 9 =am9if]\s %ells1 or 9 ^? hav+ siphuncles1 l ! ,nautilus4 ,! animal appe>s to h retreat$ at diff]5t p]iods ( its gr[? f ! int]nal cavity previ\sly =m$1 & to h clos$ all communication ) x by a septum4 ,! numb] ( *amb]s is irregul>1 & !y are g5]ally want+ 9 ! inn]mo/ :orl4 ,! animal ( ! rec5t ,turritella communis p>titions (f 9 l mann] z x advances 9 age a "p ( its spire1 =m+ a %elly septum4 ,m ?an tw5ty species ( ! g5us ,bell]ophon 7see ,fig4 #dhh71 a %ell l ! liv+ ,argonaut )\t *amb]s1 occur 9 ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one4 ,! g5us is n met ) 9 /rata ( lat] date4 ,x is mo/ g5]ally reg>d$ z belong+ to ! pelagic ,nucleobran*iata & ! family ,atlantid1 p>tly alli$ to ! ,glass-,%ell1 ,c>9>ia2 b by "s few x is ?\ght to be a simple =m ( ,cephalopod4 ,fig4 #dhh3 ,bell]ophon co/atus4 ,fig4 #dhi3 ,portion ( ,or?ox]as lat]ale4 ,fig4 #dij3 ,goniatites cr5i/ra4 ,! c>bonif]\s ,cephalopoda d n dep>t s widely f ! liv+ type 7! ,nautilus7 z d ! m anci5t ,silurian repres5tatives ( ! same ord]2 yet !y (f] "s rem>kable =ms4 ,among ^! is ,or?oc]as1 a siphuncl$ & *amb]$ %ell1 l a ,nautilus uncoil$ & /raight5$ 7,fig4 #dhi74 ,"s species ( ?is g5us are sev]al feet long4 ,! ,goniatite is ano!r g5us1 ne>ly alli$ to ! ,ammonite1 f :i* x diff]s 9 hav+ ! lobes ( ! septa free f lat]al d5ticulations1 or cr5atures2 s t ! outl9e ( ^! is angul>1 cont9u\s1 & un9t]rupt$4 ,! species repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #dij is f\nd 9 mo/ localities1 & pres5ts ! zigzag "* ( ! septal lobes 9 p]fection4 ,! dorsal position ( ! siphuncle1 h[ev]1 cle>ly di/+ui%es ! ,goniatite f ! ,nautilus1 & proves x to h belong$ to ! family ( ! ,ammonites1 f :i*1 inde$1 "s au?ors d n believe x to be g5]ically di/9ct4 ,fossil ,fi%4--,! di/ribution ( ^! is s+ul>ly p>tial2 s mu* s1 t ,m4 ,de ,kon9ck ( ,lige1 ! em95t palontologi/1 once /at$ to me t1 9 mak+ 8 ext5sive collection ( ! fossils ( ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one ( ,belgium1 he _h f\nd no m ?an f\r or five examples ( ! bones or tee? ( fi%es4 ,judg+ f ,belgian data1 he might h conclud$ t ?is class ( v]tebrata 0 ( extreme r>ity 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s seas2 :]eas ! inve/igation ( o!r c\ntries has l$ to q a diff]5t result4 ,?us1 ne> ,clifton1 on ! ,avon1 z well z at num]\s places ar\nd ! ,bri/ol bas9 f ! ,m5dip ,hills to ,tortwor?1 !re is a celebrat$ 8bone-b$10 almo/ entirely made up ( i*?yolites4 ,x occurs at ! base ( ! ,l[] ,lime/one %ales imm$iately re/+ ^u ! passage b$s ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,simil> bone-b$s occur 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one ( ,armagh1 9 ,irel&1 :]e !y are made up *iefly ( ! tee? ( fi%es ( ! ,placoid ord]1 ne>ly all ( !m roll$ z if drift$ f a di/ance4 ,"s tee? are %>p & po9t$1 z 9 ord9>y %>ks1 ( :i* ! g5us ,cladodus af=d an illu/ration2 b ! majority1 z 9 ,psammodus & ,co*liodus1 are1 l ! tee? ( ! ,ce/racion ( ,port ,jackson 7see ,fig4 #bfa71 massive palatal tee? fitt$ = gr9d+4 7,see ,figs4 #dia1 #dib47 ,fig4 #dia3 ,psammodus porosus4 ,fig4 #dib3 ,co*liodus controtus4 ,!re are upw>d ( sev5ty o!r species ( fossil fi% kn[n 9 ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one ( ! ,briti% ,isl&s4 ,! def5sive f9-bones ( ^! creatures are n infrequ5t at ,armagh & ,bri/ol2 ^? kn[n z ,oracan?us1 ,ct5ocan?us1 & ,on*us are (t5 ( a v l>ge size4 ,ganoid fi%1 su* z ,holopty*ius1 also occur2 b ^! are f> less num]\s4 ,! great ,megali*?ys ,hibb]ti appe>s to range f ! ,upp] ,coal-measures to ! l[e/ ,c>bonif]\s /rata4 ,=am9if]a4--,9 ! upp] "p ( ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one gr\p 9 ! ,s4,w4 ( ,engl&1 ne> ,bri/ol1 lime/ones hav+ a di/9ct oolitic /ructure alt]nate ) %ales4 ,9 ^! rocks ! nucleus ( e m9ute sph]ule is se51 "u ! microscope1 to consi/ ( a small rhizopod or =am9if]4 ,?is division ( ! l[] animals1 :i* is repres5t$ s fully at lat] epo*s by ! ,nummulites & _! num]\s m9ute allies1 appe>s 9 ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one to be re/rict$ to a v few species1 among :i* ,textul>ia1 ,nodos>ia1 ,endo?yra1 & ,fusul9a 7,fig4 #dic71 h be5 recognis$4 ,! fir/ two g5]a are common to ?is & all ! aft] p]iods2 ! ?ird has be5 f\nd 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian1 b is n kn[n above ! ,c>bonif]\s /rata2 ! f\r? 7,fig4 #dic7 is *>act]i/ic ( ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,arctic ,am]ica1 ,russia1 & ,asia ,m9or1 b is also kn[n 9 ! ,p]mian4 ,fig4 #dic3 ,fusul9a cyl9drica4 #a ,= botanical nom5clature see p4 #cjd4 #b ,sir ,c4 ,bunbury1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 ii1 #ahde4 #c ,man*e/] ,phil4 ,mem41 vol4 ix1 #ahea4 #d ,trans4 ( ,bot4 ,soc4 ( ,ed9burgh1 vol4 i1 #ahdd4 #e ,= figures ( ^! corals1 see ,palontographical ,society's ,monographs1 #aheb4 #f ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xxiii1 p4 #fgd1 #ahfg4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,devonian ,,or ,,old ,,r$ ,,s&/one ,,gr\p4 ,classification ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one 9 ,scotl& & 9 ,devon%ire4 -- ,upp] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one 9 ,scotl&1 ) ,fi% & ,plants4 -- ,middle ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 -- ,classification ( ! ,i*?yolites ( ! ,old ,r$1 & _! ,relation to ,liv+ ,types4 -- ,l[] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 ) ,cephalaspis & ,pt]ygotus4 -- ,m>9e or ,devonian ,type ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 -- ,table ( ,devonian ,s]ies4 -- ,upp] ,devonian ,rocks & ,fossils4 -- ,middle4 -- ,l[]4 -- ,eifel ,lime/one ( ,g]many4 -- ,devonian ( ,russia4 -- ,devonian ,/rata ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada4 -- ,devonian ,plants & ,insects ( ,canada4 ,classification ( ! two ,types ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4--,we h se5 t ! ,c>bonif]\s /rata are surm\nt$ by ! ,p]mian & ,trias1 bo? orig9ally includ$ 9 ,engl& "u ! "n 8,new ,r$ ,s&/one10 f ! prevail+ r$ col\r ( ! /rata4 ,"u ! coal came o!r r$ s&/ones & %ales :i* 7 di/+ui%$ by ! title ( 8,old ,r$ ,s&/one40 ,aft]w>ds ! "n ( 8,devonian0 0 giv5 by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison & ,pr(essor ,s$gwick to m>9e fossilif]\s /rata :i*1 9 ! s\? ( ,engl&1 occupy a simil> position betwe5 ! ov]ly+ coal & ! und]ly+ ,silurian =mations4 ,x may be truly said t 9 ! ,briti% ,isles ! rocks ( ?is age pres5t !mselves 9 _! m9]al aspect1 & ev5 to "s ext5t 9 _! fossil cont5ts1 "u two v diff]5t =ms2 ! "o z di/9ct f ! o!r z are (t5 lacu/r9e or fluviatile f m>9e /rata4 ,x has inde$ be5 sugge/$ t by f> ! great] "p ( ! deposits belong+ to :at may be t]m$ ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one type are ( fre%-wat] orig94 ,! numb] ( l&-plants1 ! "* ( ! fi%es1 & ! fact t ! only %ell yet discov]$ belongs to ! g5us ,anodonta1 mu/ be all[$ to l5d no small c\nt5ance to ?is op9ion4 ,9 ?is case ! difficulty ( classification :5 ! /rata ( ?is type are comp>$ 9 diff]5t regions1 ev5 :]e !y are contigu\s1 may arise p>tly f _! hav+ be5 =m$ 9 di/9ct hydrographical bas9s1 or 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! l& 9 %all[ p>ts ( ! sea into :i* l>ge bodies ( fre%-wat] ent]$1 & :]e no m>9e mollusca or corals c\ld fl\ri%4 ,"u su* geographical conditions ! limit$ ext5t ( "s k9ds ( s$im5t1 z well z ! abs5ce ( ^? m>9e =ms by :i* we are able to id5tify or contra/ m>9e =mations1 may be expla9$1 :ile ! great ?ickness ( ! rocks1 :i* might seem at fir/ sight to require a correspond+ dep? ( wat]1 c (t5 be %[n to h be5 due to ! gradual s9k+ d[n ( ! bottom ( ! e/u>y or sea :]e ! s$im5t 0 accumulat$4 ,ano!r active cause ( local v>iation 9 ,scotl& 0 ! frequ5cy ( contemporane\s volcanic eruptions2 "s ( ! rocks d]iv$ f ?is s\rce1 z betwe5 ! ,grampians & ! ,tay1 hav+ =m$ isl&s 9 ! sea1 & hav+ be5 conv]t$ into %+le & conglom]ate1 be=e ! upp] portions ( ! r$ %ales & s&/ones 7 sup]impos$4 ,! de>? ( calc>e\s matt] ov] wide areas is *>act]i/ic ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,?is is1 no d\bt1 9 great "p due to ! abs5ce ( %ells & corals2 b :y %\ld ^! be s g5]ally want+ 9 all s$im5t>y rocks ! col\r ( :i* is det]m9$ by ! r$ oxide ( iron8 ,"s geologi/s are ( op9ion t ! wat]s impregnat$ ) ?is oxide 7 prejudicial to liv+ be+s1 o!rs t /rata p]meat$ ) ?is oxide w\ld n pres]ve su* fossil rema9s4 ,9 reg>d to ! two types1 ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one & ! ,devonian1 ,i %all fir/ treat ( !m sep>ately1 & !n allude to ! pro(s ( _! hav+ be5 to a great ext5t contemporane\s4 ,t !y con/itute a s]ies ( rocks int]m$iate 9 date betwe5 ! l[e/ ,c>bonif]\s & ! upp]mo/ ,silurian is n disput$ by ! able/ geologi/s2 & x c no long] be cont5d$ t ! ,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one prec$$ 9 date ! ?ree divisions to :i*1 by aid ( ! m>9e %ells1 ! ,devonian rocks h be5 ref]r$1 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 we h n yet data = enabl+ u to affirm to :at ext5t ! subdivisions ( ! "o s]ies may be ! equival5ts 9 "t ( ^? ( ! o!r4 ,upp] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4--,! highe/ b$s ( ! s]ies 9 ,scotl&1 ly+ imm$iately bel[ ! coal 9 ,fife1 are compos$ ( yell[ s&/one well se5 at ,dura ,d51 ne> ,c\p>1 9 ,fife1 :]e1 al?\gh ! /rata conta9 no mollusca1 fi% h be5 f\nd abundantly1 & h be5 ref]r$ to ! g5]a ,holopty*ius1 ,pamphractus1 ,glyptopomus1 & _m o!rs4 ,9 ! c\nty ( ,cork1 9 ,irel&1 a simil> yell[ s&/one occurs conta9+ fi% ( g5]a *>act]i/ic ( ! ,scot* ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 z = example ,cocco/eus 7a =m repres5t$ by _m species 9 ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one & by "o only 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s gr\p71 & ,glytolepis & ,a/]olepis1 bo? exclusively conf9$ to ! 8,old ,r$40 ,9 ! same ,iri% s&/one at ,kiltorkan has be5 f\nd an ,anodonta or fre%-wat] mussel1 ! only %ell hi!rto discov]$ 9 ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ! ,briti% ,isles 7see ,fig4 #did74 ,fig4 #did3 ,anodonta ,jukesii4 ,fig4 #die3 ,bifurcat+ bran* ( ,lepid5dron ,griffi?sii4 ,fig4 #dif3 ,palopt]is ,hib]nia4 ,9 ! same =mation are f\nd ! f]n 7,fig4 #dif7 & ! ,lepidod5dron 7,fig4 #die71 & o!r species ( plants1 "s ( :i*1 ,pr(essor ,he] rem>ks1 agree specifically ) species f ! l[] c>bonif]\s b$s4 ,?is induces him to lean to ! op9ion long ago advocat$ by ,sir ,ri*>d ,griffi?s1 t ! yell[ s&/one1 9 spite ( its fi% rema9s1 %\ld be class$ z ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s1 an op9ion :i* ,i am n yet prep>$ to adopt4 ,betwe5 ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one & ! yell[ s&/one 9 ! s\?-we/ ( ,irel& !re int]v5es a =mation no less ?an #ejjj feet ?ick1 call$ ! 8,c>bonif]\s slate10 & at ! base ( ?is1 9 "s places1 are local deposits1 su* z ! ,gl5g>iff ,grits1 :i* appe> to be b$s ( passage betwe5 ! ,c>bonif]\s & ,old ,r$ ,s&/one gr\ps4 ,x is a rem>kable result ( ! rec5t exam9ation ( ! fossil flora ( ,be> ,isl&1 latitude #gd #cj ,n41 t ,pr(essor ,he] has describ$ z occurr+ 9 t "p ( ! ,arctic region 7ne>ly tw5ty-six degrees to ! nor? ( ! ,iri% locality7 a flora agree+ 9 sev]al ( its species ) t ( ! yell[ s&/ones ( ,irel&4 ,?is ,be> ,isl& flora is believ$ by ,pr(essor ,he] to comprise species ( plants "s ( :i* asc5d ev5 to ! high] /ages ( ! ,european ,c>bonif]\s =mation1 or z high z ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one & ,mill/one ,grit4 ,palontologi/s h long ma9ta9$ t ! same species :i* h a wide range 9 space are also ! mo/ p]si/5t 9 "t1 :i* may prep>e u to f9d t "s plants hav+ a va/ geographical range may also h endur$ f ! p]iod ( ! ,upp] ,devonian to t ( ! ,mill/one ,grit4 ,fig4 #dig3 ,scale ( ,holopty*ius nobilissimus4 ,outli]s ( ! ,upp] 8,old ,r$0 occur uncon=mably on old] memb]s ( ! gr\p1 & ! =mation repres5t$ at ,:it5ess1 ne> ,arbroa?1 a1 ,fig4 #ee1 may probably be "o ( ^! outli]s1 ?\gh ! want ( organic rema9s r5d]s ?is unc]ta94 ,x is n improbable t ! b$s giv5 9 ?is section z ,nos4 #a1 #b1 & #c1 may all belong to ! e>ly "p ( ! p]iod ( ! ,upp] ,old ,r$1 z "s scales ( ,holopty*ius nobilissimus h be5 f\nd scatt]$ ?r\gh ^! b$s1 ,no4 #b1 9 ,/ra?more4 ,ano!r ne>ly alli$ ,holopty*ius occurs 9 ,dura ,d51 see ,fig4 #dih ( ?is fi% & also ,fig4 #dig ( "o ( its scales1 z ^! la/ are (t5 ! only p>ts met )2 be+ scatt]$ 9 ,=f>%ire ?r\gh r$-col\r$ %ales & s&/ones1 z are scales ( a l>ge species ( ! same g5us 9 a correspond+ matrix 9 ,h]e=d%ire4#a ,! numb] ( fi% obta9$ f ! ,briti% ,upp] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one am\nts to fifte5 species ref]r$ to elev5 g5]a4 ,fig4 #dih3 ,holopty*ius1 z re/or$ by ,pr(essor ,huxley4 ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison gr\ps ) ?is upp] division ( ! ,old ,r$ ( ,scotl& c]ta9 light-r$ & yell[ s&/ones & grits :i* occur 9 ! nor!rnmo/ "p ( ! ma9l&1 & ext5d also into ! ,orkney & ,%etl& ,isl&s4 ,!y conta9 ,calamites & o!r plants :i* agree g5]ically ) ,c>bonif]\s =ms4 ,middle ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4--,9 ! nor!rn "p ( ,scotl& !re occur a great s]ies ( bitum9\s s*i/s & flag/ones1 to ! fossil fi% ( :i* att5tion 0 fir/ call$ by ! late ,hugh ,mill]4 ,!y 7 aft]w>ds describ$ by ,agassiz1 & ! rocks conta9+ !m 7 exam9$ by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison & ,pr(essor ,s$gwick1 9 ,cai?ness1 ,crom>ty1 ,moray1 ,nairn1 ,gamrie 9 ,banff1 & ! ,orkneys & ,%etl&s1 9 :i* great numb]s ( fossil fi% h be5 f\nd4 ,^! 7 at fir/ suppos$ to be ! olde/ kn[n v]tebrate animals1 z 9 ,crom>ty ! b$s 9 :i* !y occur seem to =m ! base ( ! ,old ,r$ sy/em re/+ almo/ imm$iately on ! cry/all9e or metamorphic rocks4 ,b 9 fact ^! fi%-be>+ b$s1 :5 !y are trac$ f nor? to s\?1 or to ! c5tral p>ts ( ,scotl&1 ?9 out1 s t _! relative age to ! ,l[] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 pres5tly to be m5tion$1 0 n at fir/ detect$1 ! two =mations n appe>+ 9 sup]position 9 ! same di/rict4 ,9 ,cai?ness1 h[ev]1 _m hundr$ feet bel[ ! fi%-zone ( ! middle division1 rema9s ( ,pt]aspis 7 f\nd by ,mr4 ,pea* 9 #ahfa4 ,?is g5us has nev] yet be5 f\nd 9 ei!r ( ! two high] divisions ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 & confirms ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison's previ\s suspicion t ! rocks 9 :i* x occurs belong to ! ,l[] 8,old ,r$10 or agree 9 age ) ! ,arbroa? pav+-/one4#b ,fossil ,fi% ( ! ,middle ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4--,! ,devonian fi% 7 ref]r$ by ,agassiz to two ( 8 great ord]s1 namely1 ! ,placoids & ,ganoids4 ,( ! fir/ ( ^!1 :i* 9 ! ,rec5t p]iod comprise ! %>k1 ! dog-fi%1 & ! ray1 no entire skeletons are pres]v$1 b f9-sp9es1 call$ i*?yodorulites1 & tee? occur4 ,on su* rema9s ! g5]a ,on*us1 ,odontacan?us1 & ,ct5odus1 a suppos$ ce/raciont1 & "s o!rs1 h be5 e/abli%$4 ,by f> ! great] numb] ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one fi%es belong to a sub-ord] ( ,ganoids in/itut$ by ,huxley 9 #ahfa1 & = :i* he has propos$ ! "n ( ,crossopt]ygid1#c or ! fr+e-f9n$1 9 consid]ation ( ! peculi> mann] 9 :i* ! f9-rays ( ! pair$ f9s are arrang$ s z to =m a fr+e r\nd a c5tral lobe1 z 9 ! ,polypt]us 7see a1 ,fig4 #dii71 a g5us ( :i* !re are sev]al species n[ inhabit+ ! ,nile & o!r ,african riv]s4 ,! read] w at once recognise 9 ,o/eolepis 7,fig4 #ejj71 "o ( ! common fi%es ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 _m po9ts ( analogy ) ,polypt]us4 ,!y n only agree 9 ! /ructure ( ! f91 at fir/ po9t$ out by ,huxley1 b also 9 ! position ( ! pectoral1 v5tral1 & anal f9s1 & 9 hav+ an elongat$ body & rhomboidal scales4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! tail is m symmetrical 9 ! rec5t fi%1 :i* has also an app>atus ( dorsal f9lets ( a v abnormal "*1 bo? z to numb] & /ructure4 ,z to ! dorsals ( ,o/eolepis1 !y are regul> 9 /ructure & position1 hav+ no?+ rem>kable ab\t !m1 except t !re are two ( !m1 :i* is comp>atively unusual 9 liv+ fi%4 ,fig4 #dii3 ,polypt]us4 ,liv+ 9 ! ,nile & o!r riv]s4 ,fig4 #ejj3 ,re/oration ( ,o/eolepis4 ,among ! 8fr+e-f9n$0 ,ganoids we f9d "s ) rhomboidal scales1 su* z ,o/eolepis1 ,fig4 #ejj2 o!rs ) cycloidal scales1 z ,holopty*ius1 be=e m5tion$ 7see ,fig4 #dih74 ,9 ! g5]a ,dipt]us & ,diplopt]us1 z ,hugh ,mill] po9t$ out1 & 9 sev]al o!r ( ! fr+e-f9n$ g5]a1 z 9 ,gyropty*ius & ,glyptolepis1 ! two dorsals are plac$ f> backw>d1 or directly ov] ! v5tral & anal f9s4 ,! ,a/]olepis 0 a ganoid fi% ( gigantic dim5sions4 ,a4 ,asmusii1 ,ei*wald1 a species *>act]i/ic ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,russia1 z well z t ( ,scotl&1 atta9$ ! l5g? ( betwe5 tw5ty & ?irty feet4 ,x 0 clo!d ) /rong bony arm\r1 emboss$ ) />-l tub]cles1 b x _h only a c>tilag9\s skeleton4 ,! m\? 0 furni%$ ) two r[s ( tee?1 ! out] ones small & fi%-l1 ! inn] l>g] & ) a reptilian "*4 ,! ,a/]olepis occurs also 9 ! ,devonian rocks ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,if we except ! ,placoids already allud$ to1 & a few o!r families ( d\btful aff9ities1 all ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one fi%es are ,ganoids1 an ord] s nam$ by ,agassiz f ! %9+ out] surface ( _! scales2 b ,pr(essor ,huxley has also call$ our att5tion to ! fact t1 :ile a few ( ! prim>y & ! great majority ( ! second>y ,ganoids resemble ! liv+ bony pike1 ,lepido/eus1 or ! ,amia1 g5]a n[ f\nd 9 ,nor? ,am]ican riv]s1 & "o ( !m1 ,lepido/eus1 ext5d+ z f> s\? z ,guatemala1 ! ,crossopt]ygii1 or fr+e-f9n$ ,i*?yolites1 ( ! ,old ,r$ are closely relat$ to ! ,african ,polypt]us1 :i* is repres5t$ by five or six species n[ inhabit+ ! ,nile & ! riv]s ( ,s5egal4 ,^! ,nor? ,am]ican & ,african ,ganoids are q exceptional 9 ! liv+ creation2 !y are entirely conf9$ to ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 unless "s species ( ,polypt]us range to ! s\? ( ! l9e 9 ,africa2 &1 out ( ab\t #ijjj liv+ species ( fi% kn[n to ,m4 ,gn!r1 & ( :i* m ?an #fjjj are n[ pres]v$ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 !y probably con/itute no m ?an n9e4 ,fig4 #eja3 ,pt]i*?ys4 ,upp] side1 %[+ m\?4 ,if _m circum/ances fav\r ! !ory ( ! fre%-wat] orig9 ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 ?is view ( its nature is n a little confirm$ by our f9d+ t x is 9 ,llake ,sup]ior & ! o!r inl& ,canadian seas ( fre% wat]1 & 9 ! ,mississippi & ,african riv]s1 t we at pres5t f9d ^? fi% :i* h ! ne>e/ aff9ity to ! fossil =ms ( ?is anci5t =mation4 ,among ! anomal\s =ms ( ,old ,r$ fi%es n ref]able to ,huxley's ,crossopt]ygii is ! ,pt]i*?ys1 ( :i* five species h be5 f\nd 9 ! middle division ( ! ,old ,r$ ( ,scotl&4 ,"s writ]s h comp>$ _! %elly cov]+ to t ( ,cru/aceans1 ) :i*1 h[ev]1 !y h no real aff9ity4 ,! w+-l app5dages1 :5ce ! g5us is nam$1 7 fir/ suppos$ by ,hugh ,mill] to be paddles1 l ^? ( ! turtle2 & !re c n[ be no d\bt t !y d really correspond ) ! pectoral f9s4 ,! numb] ( species ( fi% already obta9$ f ! middle division ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one 9 ,great ,brita9 is ab\t #gj1 & ! pr9cipal g5]a1 besides ,o/eolepis & ,pt]i*?ys1 already m5tion$1 are ,glyptolepis1 ,diplacan?us1 ,d5drodus1 ,cocco/eus1 ,*eirancan?us1 & ,acan?oides4 ,fig4 #ejb3 ,cephalapsis ,lyellii4 ,l[] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4--,! ?ird or l[e/ division s\? ( ! ,grampians consi/s ( grey pav+-/one & ro(+-slate1 ) associat$ r$ & grey %ales2 ^! /rata und]lie a d5se mass ( conglom]ate4 ,9 ^! grey b$s sev]al rem>kable fi% h be5 f\nd ( ! g5us nam$ by ,agassiz ,cephalaspis1 or 8buckl]-head$10 f ! extraord9>y %ield :i* cov]s ! head 7see ,fig4 #ejb71 & :i* has (t5 be5 mi/ak5 = t ( a trilobite1 su* z ,asaphus4 ,a species ( ,pt]aspis1 ( ! same family1 has also be5 f\nd by ! ,rev]5d ,hugh ,mit*ell 9 b$s ( correspond+ age 9 ,p]?%ire2 & ,mr4 ,p[rie enum]ates no less ?an five g5]a ( ! family ,acan?odid1 ! sp9es1 scales1 & o!r rema9s ( :i* h be5 detect$ 9 ! grey flaggy s&/ones4#d ,fig4 #ejc3 ,pteygotus anglicus4 ,9 ! same =mation at ,c>mylie1 9 ,=f>%ire1 commonly kn[n z ! ,arbroa? pav+-/one1 fragm5ts ( a huge cru/acean h be5 met ) f "t to "t4 ,!y are call$ by ! ,scot* qu>rym5 ! 8,s]aphim10 f ! w+-l =m & fea!r-l ornam5t ( ! ?oracic app5dage1 ! "p mo/ usually met )4 ,agassiz1 hav+ previ\sly ref]r$ "s ( ^! fragm5ts to ! class ( fi%es1 0 ! fir/ to recognise _! cru/acean "*1 &1 al?\gh at ! "t unable correctly to det]m9e ! true relation ( ! sev]al p>ts1 he figur$ ! portions on :i* he f\nd$ 8 op9ion1 9 ! fir/ plate ( 8 8,poissons ,fossiles du ,vieux ,grs ,r\ge40 ,fig4 #ejd3 ,pt]ygotus anglicus4 ,v5tral aspect4 ,c>apace1 %[+ ! l>ge sessile eyes at ! ant]ior angles4 ,! meta/oma or po/-oral plate 7s]v+ ! (fice ( a l[] lip74 ,*elate app5dages 7ant5nules74 ,fir/ pair ( simple palpi 7ant5n74 ,second pair ( simple palpi 7m&ibles74 ,?ird pair ( simple palpi 7fir/ maxill74 ,pair ( swimm+ feet ) _! broad basal jo9ts1 ^: s]rat$ edges s]ve ! (fice ( maxill4 ,?oracic plate cov]+ ! fir/ two ?oracic segm5ts1 :i* are indicat$ by ! figures #a1 #b1 & a dott$ l9e4 #a-f4 ,?oracic segm5ts4 #g-ab4 ,abdom9al segm5ts4 #ac4 ,telson1 or tail-plate47 ,a re/oration 9 correct proportion to ! size ( ! fragm5ts ( ,p4 anglicus 7,fig4 #ejd71 f ! ,l[] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,p]?%ire & ,=f>%ire1 w\ld give u a creature measur+ f five to six feet 9 l5g?1 & m ?an "o foot across4 ,! l>ge/ cru/aceans liv+ at ! pres5t day are ! ,ina*us ,kaempf]i1 ( ,de ,haan1 f ,japan 7a bra*yur\s or %ort-tail$ crab71 *iefly rem>kable = ! extraord9>y l5g? ( its limbs2 ! =e-arm measur+ f\r feet 9 l5g?1 & ! o!rs 9 proportion1 s t x cov]s ab\t #be squ>e feet ( gr\nd2 & ! ,limulus ,moluccanus1 ! great ,k+ ,crab ( ,*9a & ! ,ea/]n seas1 :i*1 :5 adult1 measures #a foot across its c>apace1 & is ?ree feet 9 l5g?4 ,besides "s species ( ,pt]ygotus1 sev]al ( ! alli$ g5us ,eurypt]us occur 9 ! ,l[] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 & ) !m ! rema9s ( grass-l plants s abundant 9 ,=f>%ire & ,k9c>d9e%ire z to be useful to ! geologi/ by enabl+ him to id5tify ! inf]ior /rata at di/ant po9ts4 ,"s botani/s h sugge/$ t ^! plants may be ( ! family ,fluviales1 & ( fre%-wat] g5]a4 ,!y are accompani$ by fossils1 call$ 8b]ries0 by ! qu>rym51 :i* !y comp>$ to a compress$ blackb]ry 7see ,figs4 #eje1 #ejf71 & :i* 7 call$ 8,p>ka0 by ,dr4 ,flem+4 ,!y are n[ consid]$ by ,mr4 ,p[rie to be ! eggs ( cru/aceans1 :i* is highly probable1 = !y h n only be5 f\nd ) ,pt]ygotus anglicus 9 ,=f>%ire & ,p]?%ire1 b also 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian /rata ( ,engl&1 9 :i* species ( ! same g5us1 ,pt]ygotus1 occur4 ,fig4 #eje3 ,p>ka decipi5s4 ,9 s&/one ( l[] b$s ( ,old ,r$1 ,ley's ,mill1 ,=f>%ire4 ,fig4 #ejf3 ,p>ka decipi5s4 ,9 %ale ( ,l[] ,old ,r$1 ,p>k ,hill1 ,fife4 ,fig4 #ejg3 ,%ale ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,=f>%ire4 ,) impression ( plants & eggs ( ,cru/aceans4 ,! gr&e/ exhibitions1 says ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison1 ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one 9 ,engl& & ,wales appe> 9 ! esc>pm5ts ( ! ,black ,m\nta9s & 9 ! ,fans ( ,brecon & ,c>m>!n1 ! "o #bhfb1 & ! o!r #beij feet above ! sea4 ,! mass ( r$ & br[n s&/one 9 ^! m\nta9s is e/imat$ at n less ?an #aj1jjj feet1 cle>ly int]calat$ betwe5 ! ,c>bonif]\s & ,silurian /rata4 ,no %ells or corals h ev] be5 f\nd 9 ! :ole s]ies1 n ev5 :]e ! b$s are calc>e\s1 =m+ irregul> c\rses ( concretion>y lumps call$ 8corn-/ones10 :i* may be describ$ z mottl$ r$ & gre5 e>?y lime/ones4 ,! fi%es ( ?is l[e/ ,engli% ,old ,r$ are ,cephalaspis & ,pt]aspis1 specifically diff]5t f species ( ! same g5]a :i* occur 9 ! upp]mo/ ,ludl[ or ,silurian tile/ones4 ,cru/aceans also ( ! g5us ,eurypt]us are met )4 ,m>9e or ,devonian ,type4--,we may n[ speak ( ! m>9e type ( ! ,briti% /rata int]m$iate betwe5 ! ,c>bonif]\s & ,silurian1 9 treat+ ( :i* we %all f9d x mu* m easy to id5tify ! ,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[] divisions ) /rata ( ! same age 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,x 0 n until ! ye> #ahcf t ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison & ,pr(essor ,s$gwick discov]$ t ! culmif]\s or an?racitic %ales & s&/ones ( ,nor? ,devon1 sev]al ?\s& feet ?ick1 belong$ to ! coal1 & t ! b$s bel[ !m1 :i* are ( /ill great] ?ickness1 & :i*1 l ! c>bonif]\s /rata1 _h be5 conf\nd$ "u ! g5]al "n 8graywacke10 occupi$ a geological position correspond+ to t ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one already describ$4 ,9 ?is re=m !y 7 aid$ by a sugge/ion ( ,mr4 ,lonsdale1 :o1 aft] /udy+ ! ,devon%ire fossils1 p]ceiv$ t !y belong$ to a peculi> palontological type ( int]m$iate "* betwe5 ! ,c>bonif]\s & ,silurian4 ,x is 9 ! nor? ( ,devon t ^! =mations may be/ be /udi$1 :]e !y h be5 divid$ into an ,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[] ,gr\p1 & :]e1 al?\gh mu* contort$ & fold$1 !y h = ! mo/ "p escap$ be+ alt]$ by intrusive trap-rocks & by granite1 :i* 9 ,d>tmoor & ! m s\!rn p>ts ( ! same c\nty h (t5 r$uc$ !m to a cry/all9e or metamorphic /ate4 ,,devonian ,,s]ies ,,9 ,,nor? ,,devon4 ,,upp] ,,devonian ,,or ,,pilton ,,gr\p 7a7 ,s&y slates & s*i/s ) fossils1 #cf species out ( #aaj common to ! ,c>bonif]\s gr\p 7,pilton1 ,b>n/aple1 etc471 re/+ on s(t s*i/s 9 :i* fossils are v abundant 7,croyde1 etc471 & :i* pass d[n into 7b7 ,yell[1 br[n1 & r$ s&/one1 ) l& plants 7,cyclopt]is1 etc47 & m>9e %ells4 ,"o zone1 *>act]is$ by ! abundance ( cuculla 7,baggy ,po9t1 ,m>wood1 ,sloly1 etc47 re/+ on h>d grey & r$di% s&/one & micace\s flags1 no fossils yet f\nd 7,dulv]ton1 ,pickwell1 ,d[n1 etc47 ,,middle ,,devonian ,,or ,,ilfracombe ,,gr\p4 7a7 ,gre5 glossy slates ( consid]able ?ickness1 no fossils yet record$ f ^! b$s 7,mort5oe1 ,lee ,bay1 etc474 7b7 ,slates & s*i/s1 ) sev]al irregul> c\rses ( lime/one conta9+ %ells & corals l ^? ( ! ,plym\? ,lime/one 7,combe ,m>t91 ,ilfracombe1 etc474 ,,l[] ,,devonian ,,or ,,lynton ,,gr\p4 7a7 ,h>d1 gre5i%1 r$1 & purple s&/one--no fossils yet f\nd 7,hangman ,hill1 etc474 7b7 ,s(t slates ) subord9ate s&/ones--fossils num]\s at v>i\s horizons--,or?is1 ,corals1 ,encr9ites1 etc4 7,valley ( ,rocks1 ,lynm\?1 etc474 ,! above table exhibits ! sequ5ce ( ! /rata or subdivisions z se5 bo? on ! sea-coa/ ( ! ,briti% ,*annel & 9 ! int]ior ( ,devon4 ,x w be se5 t 9 all ma9 po9ts x agrees ) ! table drawn up 9 #ahfd = ! six? edition ( my 8,elem5ts40 ,mr4 ,e!ridge#e has s9ce publi%$ an excell5t acc\nt ( ! diff]5t subdivisions ( ! rocks & _! fossils1 & has also po9t$ out _! relation to ! correspond+ m>9e /rata ( ! ,cont95t4 ,! slight modifications introduc$ 9 my table s9ce #ahfd are ! result ( a t\r made 9 #ahgj 9 company ) ,mr4 ,t4 ,mck4 ,hughes1 :5 we _h ! advantage ( ,mr4 ,e!ridge's memoir z our guide4 ,! place ( ! s&/ones ( ! ,=el& is n yet cle>ly made out1 z !y are cut (f by a great fault & di/urbance4 ,fig4 #ejh3 ,spirif]a disjuncta4 ,fig4 #eji3 ,phacops latifrons4 ,upp] ,devonian ,rocks4--,! slates & s&/ones ( ,b>n/aple 7a & b ( ! prec$+ section7 conta9 ! %ell ,spirif]a disjuncta1 ,s[]by 7,s4 ,v]neuilii1 ,mur*471 7see ,fig4 #ejh71 :i* has a v wide range 9 ,europe1 ,asia ,m9or1 & ev5 ,*9a2 also ,/rophalosia cap]ata1 toge!r ) ! l>ge trilobite ,phacops latifrons1 ,bronn4 7,see ,fig4 #eji71 :i* is all b _w-wide 9 its di/ribution4 ,! fossils are num]\s1 & comprise ab\t #aej species ( mollusca1 a fif? ( :i* pass up into ! ov]ly+ ,c>bonif]\s rocks4 ,to ?is ,upp] ,devonian belong a s]ies ( lime/ones & slates well develop$ at ,pe!rwyn1 9 ,cornwall1 :]e !y h yield$ #ge species ( fossils4 ,! g5us ( ,cephalopoda call$ ,clym5ia 7,fig4 #eaj7 is repres5t$ by no less ?an elev5 species1 & /rata occupy+ ! same position 9 ,g]many are call$ ,clym5i5-,kalk1 or sometimes ,cyprid95-,s*ief]1 on acc\nt ( ! numb] ( m9ute bivalve %ells ( ! cru/acean call$ ,cyprid9a s]rato-/riata 7,fig4 #eaa71 :i* is f\nd 9 ^! b$s1 9 ! ,rh5i% prov9ces1 ! ,h>z1 ,saxony1 & ,silesia1 z well z 9 ,cornwall & ,belgium4 ,middle ,devonian ,rocks4--,we come next to ! mo/ typical portion ( ! ,devonian sy/em1 includ+ ! great lime/ones ( ,plym\? & ,torbay1 replete ) %ells1 trilobites1 & corals4 ,( ! corals #ea species are enum]at$ by ,mr4 ,e!ridge1 none ( :i* pass into ! ,c>bonif]\s =mation4 ,among ! g5]a we f9d ,favosites1 ,heliolites1 & ,cya?ophyllum4 ,! two =m] g5]a are v frequ5t 9 ,silurian rocks3 "s few ev5 ( ! species are said to be common to ! ,devonian & ,silurian gr\ps1 z1 = example1 ,favosites c]vicornis 7,fig4 #eac71 "o ( ! commone/ ( all ! ,devon%ire fossils4 ,! ,cya?ophyllum cspitosum 7,fig4 #ead7 & ,heliolites pyri=mis 7,fig4 #eab7 are species peculi> to ?is =mation4 ,fig4 #eaj3 ,clym5ia l9e>is4 ,fig4 #eaa3 ,cyprid9a s]rato-/riata4 ,fig4 #eab3 ,heliolites porosa4 ,fig4 #eac3 ,favosites c]vicornis4 ,fig4 #ead3 ,cya?ophyllum cspitosum4 ,fig4 #eae3 ,/r+ocephalus ,burt9i4 ,fig4 #eaf3 ,uncites ,gryphus4 ,) ! above are f\nd no less ?an elev5 g5]a ( /one-lilies or cr9oids1 "s ( !m1 su* z ,cupressocr9ites1 di/9ct f any ,c>bonif]\s =ms4 ,! mollusks1 also1 are no less *>act]i/ic2 ( #fh species ( ,bra*iopoda1 t5 only are common to ! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one4 ,! ,/r+ocephalus ,burt9i 7,fig4 #eae7 & ,uncites ,gryphus 7,fig4 #eaf7 may be m5tion$ z exclusively ,middle ,devonian g5]a1 & extremely *>act]i/ic ( ! same division 9 ,belgium4 ,! ,/r+ocephalus is also s abundant 9 ! ,middle ,devonian ( ! banks ( ! ,rh9e z to h sugge/$ ! "n ( ,/r+ocephalus ,lime/one4 ,fig4 #eag3 ,megalodon cucullatus4 ,! only two species ( ,bra*iopoda common to ! ,silurian & ,devonian =mations are ,atrypa reticul>is 7,fig4 #ecb71 :i* seems to h be5 a cosmopolite species1 & ,/rophom5a rhomboidalis4 ,among ! peculi> lamellibran*iate bivalves common to ! ,plym\? lime/one ( ,devon%ire & ! ,cont95t1 we f9d ! ,megalodon 7,fig4 #eag74 ,!re are also twelve g5]a ( ,ga/]opods :i* h yield$ #cf species1 f\r ( :i* pass to ! ,c>bonif]\s gr\p1 namely ,macro*eilus1 ,acroculia1 ,euomphalus1 & ,mur*isonia4 ,pt]opods occur1 su* z ,conul>ia 7,fig4 #eah71 & ,cephalopods1 su* z ,cyrtoc]as1 ,gyroc]as1 ,or?oc]as1 & o!rs1 ne>ly all ( g5]a di/9ct f ^? prevail+ 9 ! ,upp] ,devonian ,lime/one1 or ,clym5i5-kalk ( ! ,g]mans already m5tion$4 ,al?\gh b few species ( ,trilobites occur1 ! *>act]i/ic ,bronteus flabellif] 7,fig4 #eai7 is f> f r>e1 & all collectors are famili> ) its fan-l tail4 ,9 ?is same gr\p1 call$1 z be=e /at$1 ! ,/r+ocephalus1 or ,eifel ,lime/one1 9 ,g]many1 sev]al fi% rema9s h be5 detect$1 & among o!rs ! rem>kable g5us ,cocco/eus1 cov]$ ) its tub]culat$ bony arm\r2 & ^! i*?yolites s]ve1 z ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison obs]ves 7,siluria1 p4 #cfb71 to id5tify ?is middle m>9e ,devonian ) ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,brita9 & ,russia4 ,fig4 #eah3 ,conul>ia ornata4,fig4 #eai3 ,bronteus flabellif]4 ,fig4 #ebj3 ,calceola s&al9a4 ,b5ea? ! ,eifel ,lime/one 7! great c5tral & typical memb] ( 8! ,devonian0 on ! ,cont95t7 lie c]ta9 s*i/s call$ by ,g]man writ]s 8,calceola-s*ief]10 because !y conta9 9 abundance a fossil body ( v curi\s /ructure1 ,calceola s&al9a 7,fig4 #ebj71 :i* has be5 usually consid]$ a bra*iopod1 b :i* "s naturali/s h lately ref]r$ to a ,goniophyllum1 suppos+ x to be an abnormal =m ( ! ord] ,zoan?>ia rugosa 7see ,fig4 #dgd71 diff]+ f all o!r corals 9 be+ furni%$ ) a /rong op]culum4 ,?is is by no means a r>e fossil 9 ! slaty lime/one ( ,s\? ,devon1 &1 l ! ,eifel =m1 is conf9$ to ! middle gr\p ( ?is c\ntry4 ,l[] ,devonian ,rocks4--,a great s]ies ( s&/ones & glossy slates1 ) ,cr9oids1 ,bra*iopods1 & "s corals1 occurr+ on ! coa/ at ,lynm\? & ! neighb\rhood1 & call$ ! ,lynton ,gr\p 7see ,table p4 #ddi1 =m ! l[e/ memb] ( ! ,devonian 9 ,nor? ,devon4 ,among ! #ah species ( all classes enum]at$ by ,mr4 ,e!ridge1 two-?irds are common to ! ,middle ,devonian1 b only "o1 ! ubiquit\s ,atrypa reticul>is1 c ) c]ta9ty be id5tifi$ ) ,silurian species4 ,among ! *>act]i/ic =ms are ,alveolites suborbicul>is1 also common to ?is =mation 9 ! ,rh9e1 & ,or?is arcuata1 v widely spread 9 ! ,nor? ,devon localities4 ,b we may expect a l>ge addition to ! numb] ( fossils :5ev] ^! /rata %all h be5 c>efully se>*$4 ,! ,spirif] ,s&/one ( ,s&b]g]1 z exhibit$ 9 ! rocks bord]+ ! ,rh9e betwe5 ,cobl5tz & ,caub1 belong to ?is ,l[] division1 & ! same broad-w+$ ,spirif]s di/+ui% ! ,devonian /rata ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,fig4 #eba3 ,spiri=a mucronata4 ,fig4 #ebb3 ,homalonotus armatus4 ,among ! ,trilobites ( ?is era sev]al l>ge species ( ,homalonotus 7,fig4 #ebb7 are conspicu\s4 ,! g5us is /ill bett] kn[n z a ,silurian =m1 b ! sp9ose species appe> to belong exclusively to ! 8,l[] ,devonian10 & are f\nd 9 ,brita91 ,europe1 & ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,devonian ( ,russia4--,! ,devonian /rata ( ,russia ext5d1 accord+ to ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison1 ov] a region m spaci\s ?an ! ,briti% ,isles2 & x is rem>kable t1 :]e !y consi/ ( s&/one l ! 8,old ,r$0 ( ,scotl& & ,c5tral ,engl&1 !y are t5ant$ by fossil fi%es (t5 ( ! same species & /ill (t5] ( ! same g5]a z ! ,briti%1 :]eas :5 !y consi/ ( lime/one !y conta9 %ells simil> to ^? ( ,devon%ire1 ?us confirm+1 z ,sir ,rod]ick has po9t$ out1 ! contemporane\s orig9 :i* _h be5 previ\sly assign$ to =mations exhibit+ two v di/9ct m9]al types 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ,brita94#f ,! calc>e\s & ! ar5ace\s rocks ( ,russia above allud$ to alt]nate 9 su* a mann] z to leave no d\bt ( _! hav+ be5 deposit$ 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! same great p]iod4 ,fig4 #ebc3 ,psilophyton pr9ceps4 ,devonian ,/rata 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada4--,betwe5 ! ,c>bonif]\s & ,silurian /rata !re int]v5es1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada1 a great s]ies ( =mations ref]able to ! ,devonian gr\p1 compris+ "s /rata ( m>9e orig9 ab\nd+ 9 %ells & corals1 & o!rs ( %all[-wat] & littoral orig9 9 :i* t]re/rial plants ab\nd4 ,! fossils1 bo? ( ! deep & %all[ wat] /rata1 are v analog\s to ^? ( ,europe1 ! species be+ 9 "s cases ! same4 ,9 ,ea/]n ,canada ,sir ,w4 ,logan has po9t$ out t 9 ! p59sula ( ,gaspe1 s\? ( ! e/u>y ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 a mass ( s&/one1 conglom]ate1 & %ale ref]able to ?is p]iod occurs1 ri* 9 vegetable rema9s1 toge!r ) "s fi%-sp9es4 ,f> d[n 9 ! s&/ones ( ,gaspe1 ,dr4 ,dawson f\nd1 9 #ahfi1 an entire specim5 ( ! g5us ,cephalaspis1 a =m s *>act]i/ic1 z we h already se51 ( ! ,scot* ,l[] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,"s ( ! s&/ones are ripple-m>k$1 & t[>ds ! upp] "p ( ! :ole s]ies a ?9 seam ( coal has be5 obs]v$1 measur+1 toge!r ) "s associat$ c>bonace\s %ale1 ab\t ?ree in*es 9 ?ickness4 ,x re/s on an "u-clay 9 :i* are ! roots ( ,psilophyton 7see ,fig4 #ebc74 ,at _m o!r levels rootlets ( ?is same plant h be5 %[n by ,pr9cipal ,dawson to p5etrate ! clays1 & to play ! same "p z d ! rootlets ( ,/igm>ia 9 ! coal =mation4 ,we _h already le>nt f ! works ( ,gpp]t1 ,ung]1 & ,bronn t ! ,european plants ( ! ,devonian epo* resemble g5]ically1 ) few exceptions1 ^? already kn[n z ,c>bonif]\s2 & ,dr4 ,dawson1 9 #ahei1 enum]at$ #cb g5]a & #fi species :i* he _h !n obta9$ f ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york & ,canada4 ,a p]usal ( 8 catalogue1#g compris+ ,conif]1 ,sigill>i1 ,calamites1 ,a/]ophyllites1 ,lepidod5dra1 & f]ns ( ! g5]a ,cyclopt]is1 ,neuropt]is1 ,sph5opt]is1 & o!rs1 toge!r ) fruits1 su* z ,c>dioc>pum & ,trigonoc>pum1 might dispose geologi/s to believe t !y 7 pres5t$ ) a li/ ( ,c>bonif]\s fossils1 ! diff]5ce ( ! species f ^? ( ! coal-measures1 & ev5 a slight admixture ( g5]a unkn[n 9 ,europe1 be+ naturally ascrib$ to geographical di/ribution & ! di/ance ( ! ,new f ! ,old ,_w4 ,b =tunately ! coal =mation is fully develop$ on ! o!r side ( ! ,atlantic1 & is s+ul>ly l t ( ,europe1 bo? li?ologically & 9 ! species ( its fossil plants4 ,!re is also ! mo/ unequivocal evid5ce ( relative age af=d$ by sup]position1 = ! ,devonian /rata 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates are se5 to crop out f b5ea? ! ,c>bonif]\s on ! bord]s ( ,p5nsylvania & ,new ,york1 :]e bo? =mations are ( great ?ickness4 ,! numb] ( ,am]ican ,devonian plants has n[ be5 rais$ by ,dr4 ,dawson to #abj1 to :i* we may add ab\t #hj f ! ,european flora ( ! same age1 s t already ! vegetation ( ?is p]iod is beg9n+ to be ne>ly half z ri* z t ( ! coal-measures :i* h be5 /udi$ = s mu* long] a "t & ov] s mu* wid] an area4 ,! ,psilophyton above allud$ to is believ$ by ,dr4 ,dawson to be a lycopodiace\s plant1 bran*+ di*otom\sly 7see ,p4 pr9ceps1 ,fig4 #ebc71 ) /ems spr++ f a rhizome1 :i* la/ has circul> areoles1 mu* resembl+ ^? ( ,/igm>ia1 & l x s5d+ =? cyl9drical rootlets4 ,! extreme po9ts ( "s ( ! bran*lets are roll$ up s z to resemble ! crozi]s or circ9ate v]nation ( f]ns2 ! leaves or bracts1 a1 suppos$ to belong to ! same plant1 are describ$ by ,dawson z hav+ inclos$ ! fructification4 ,! rema9s ( ,psilophyton pr9ceps h be5 trac$ ?r\gh all ! memb]s ( ! ,devonian s]ies 9 ,am]ica1 & ,dr4 ,dawson has lately recognis$ x 9 specim5s ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one f ! nor? ( ,scotl&4 ,! monoton\s "* ( ! ,c>bonif]\s flora might be expla9$ by imag9+ t we h only ! vegetation h&$ d[n to u ( "o set ( /ations1 consi/+ ( wide swampy flats4 ,b ,dr4 ,dawson supposes t ! geographical conditions "u :i* ! ,devonian plants grew 7 m v>i$1 & _h m ( an upl& "*4 ,if s1 ! limitation ( ?is m anci5t flora1 repres5t$ by s _m g5]a & species1 to ! gymnosp]m\s & cryptogam\s ord]s1 & ! abs5ce or extreme r>ity ( plants ( high] grade1 lead u naturally to speculate on ! !ory ( progressive developm5t1 h[ev] difficult x may be to avail ourselves ( ?is explanation1 s long z we meet ) ev5 a few exceptional cases ( :at may seem to be monocotyl$on\s or dicotyl$on\s exog5s4 ,devonian ,insects ( ,canada4--,! e>lie/ kn[n insects 7 br\ght to light 9 #ahfe 9 ! ,devonian /rata ( ,/4 ,john's1 ,new ,brunswick1 & are ref]r$ by ,mr4 ,scudd] to f\r species ( ,neuropt]a4 ,"o ( !m is a gigantic ,ephem]a1 & measur$ five in*es 9 expanse ( w+4 ,l _m o!r anci5t animals1 says ,dr4 ,dawson1 !y %[ a rem>kable union ( *>act]s n[ f\nd 9 di/9ct ord]s ( insects1 or con/itute :at h be5 nam$ 8syn!tic types40 ,( ?is k9d is a /ridulat+ or musical app>atus l t ( ! cricket 9 an insect o!rwise alli$ to ! ,neuropt]a4 ,?is /ructure1 z ,dr4 ,dawson obs]ves1 if rightly int]pret$ by ,mr4 ,scudd]1 introduces u to ! s\nds ( ! ,devonian woods1 br++ be=e our imag9ation ! trill & hum ( insect life t enliv5$ ! solitudes ( ^! /range old =e/s4 #a ,siluria1 #d? ed41 p4 #bfe4 #b ,siluria1 #d? ed41 p4 #beh4 #c ,abridg$ f crossotos1 a fr+e1 & pt]yx1 a f94 #d ,p[rie1 ,geol4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xx1 p4 #dag4 #e ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xxiii41 #ahfg4 #f ,mur*ison's ,siluria1 p4 #cbi4 #g ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xv1 p4 #dgg1 #ahei2 also vol4 xviii1 p4 #bif1 #ahfb4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,,silurian ,,gr\p4 ,classification ( ! ,silurian ,rocks4 -- ,ludl[ ,=mation & ,fossils4 -- ,bone-b$ ( ! ,upp] ,ludl[4 -- ,l[] ,ludl[ ,%ales ) ,p5tam]us4 -- ,olde/ kn[n ,rema9s ( fossil ,fi%4 -- ,table ( ! progressive ,discov]y ( ,v]tebrata 9 old] ,rocks4 -- ,w5lock ,=mation1 ,corals1 ,cy/ideans & ,trilobites4 -- ,ll&ov]y ,gr\p or ,b$s ( ,passage4 -- ,l[] ,silurian ,rocks4 -- ,c>adoc & ,bala ,b$s4 -- ,bra*iopoda4 -- ,trilobites4 -- ,cy/ide4 -- ,graptolites4 -- ,ll&eilo ,flags4 -- ,ar5ig or ,/ip]-/ones ,gr\p4 -- ,=eign ,silurian ,equival5ts 9 ,europe4 -- ,silurian ,/rata ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 -- ,canadian ,equival5ts4 -- ,am\nt ( specific ,agreem5t ( ,fossils ) ^? ( ,europe4 ,classification ( ! ,silurian ,rocks4--,we come next 9 desc5d+ ord] to t division ( ,prim>y or ,palozoic rocks :i* imm$iately und]lie ! ,devonian gr\p or ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,= ^! /rata ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison fir/ propos$ ! "n ( ,silurian :5 he _h /udi$ & classifi$ !m 9 t "p ( ,wales & "s ( ! contigu\s c\nties ( ,engl& :i* once con/itut$ ! k+dom ( ! ,silures1 a tribe ( anci5t ,britons4 ,! foll[+ table w expla9 ! two pr9cipal divisions1 ,upp] & ,l[]1 ( ! ,silurian rocks1 & ! m9or subdivisions usually adopt$1 compreh5d+ all ! /rata orig9ally embrac$ 9 ! ,silurian sy/em by ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison4 ,! =mations bel[ ! ,ar5ig or ,/ip]-/ones gr\p are treat$ ( 9 ! next *apt]1 :5 ! 8,primordial0 or ,cambrian gr\p is describ$4 ,,upp] ,,silurian ,,rocks4 ,?ickness 9 feet #a4 ,,ludl[ ,,=mation3 a4 ,upp] ,ludl[ b$s #ghj b4 ,l[] ,ludl[ b$s3 #a1jej #b4 ,,w5lock ,,=mation3 a4 ,w5lock lime/one & %ale above #d1jjj b4 ,woolhope lime/one & %ale1 & ,d5bigh%ire grits3 #c4 ,,ll&ov]y ,,=mation 7,b$s ( passage betwe5 ,upp] & ,l[] ,silurian73 a4 ,upp] ,ll&ov]y 7,may-,hill b$s73 #hjj b4 ,l[] ,ll&ov]y3 #fjj-a1jjj ,,l[] ,,silurian ,,rocks4 #a4 ,,bala ,,& ,,c>adoc ,,b$s1 includ+ volcanic rocks3 #ab1jjj #b4 ,,ll&eilo ,,flags1 includ+ volcanic rocks3 #d1ejj #c4 ,,ar5ig ,,or ,,/ip]-,,/ones ,,gr\p1 includ+ volcanic rocks3 above #aj1jjj ,,upp] ,,silurian ,,rocks4 #a4 ,ludl[ ,=mation4--,?is memb] ( ! ,upp] ,silurian gr\p1 z w be se5 by above table1 is ( great ?ickness1 & subdivid$ into two p>ts--! ,upp] ,ludl[ & ! ,l[] ,ludl[4 ,ea* ( ^! may be di/+ui%$ ne> ! t[n ( ,ludl[1 & at o!r places 9 ,%rop%ire & ,h]e=d%ire1 by peculi> organic rema9s2 b out ( m ?an #ejj species f\nd 9 ! ,ludl[ =mation z a :ole1 n m ?an five species p] hundr$ are common to ! ov]ly+ ,devonian4 ,! /ud5t may ref] to ! excell5t tables giv5 9 ! la/ edition ( ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison's ,siluria = a li/ ( ! organic rema9s ( all classes di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! diff]5t subdivisions ( ! ,upp] & ,l[] ,silurian4 a4 ,upp] ,ludl[3 ,d[nton ,s&/one4--,at ! top ( ?is subdivision !re occur b$s ( f9e-gra9$ yell[i% s&/one & h>d r$di% grits :i* 7 =m]ly ref]r$ by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison to ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 "u ! "n ( 8,tile/ones40 ,9 m9]al "* ?is gr\p =ms a transition f ! ,silurian to ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 ! /rata ( bo? be+ con=mable2 b x is n[ asc]ta9$ t ! fossils agree 9 great "p specifically1 & 9 g5]al "* entirely1 ) ^? ( ! und]ly+ ,upp] ,ludl[ rocks4 ,among ^! are ,or?oc]as bullatum1 ,platys*isma helicites1 ,bell]ophon trilobatus1 ,*onetes lata1 etc41 ) num]\s def5ses ( fi%es4 ,^! b$s1 !re=e1 n[ g5]ally call$ ! 8,d[nton ,s&/one10 are class$ z ! newe/ memb] ( ! ,upp] ,silurian4 ,!y are well se5 at ,d[nton ,ca/le1 ne> ,ludl[1 :]e !y are qu>ri$ = build+1 & at ,k+ton1 9 ,h]e=d%ire4 ,9 ! latt] place1 z well z at ,ludl[1 cru/aceans ( ! g5]a ,pt]ygotus 7= g5us see ,fig4 #ejd7 & ,eurypt]us are met )4 ,bone-b$ ( ! ,upp] ,ludl[4--,at ! base ( ! ,d[nton s&/ones !re occurs a bone-b$ :i* des]ves especial notice z af=d+ ! mo/ anci5t example ( fossil fi% occurr+ 9 any consid]able quantity4 ,x usually consi/s ( "o or two ?9 lay]s ( br[n bony fragm5ts ne> ! junction ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one & ! ,ludl[ rocks1 & 0 fir/ obs]v$ by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison ne> ! t[n ( ,ludl[1 :]e x is ?ree or f\r in*es ?ick4 ,x has s9ce be5 trac$ to a di/ance ( #de miles f t po9t into ,gl\ce/]%ire & o!r c\nties1 & is commonly n m ?an an in* ?ick1 b v>ies to ne>ly a foot4 ,ne> ,ludl[ two bone-b$s are obs]vable1 ) #ad feet ( int]v5+ /rata full ( ,upp] ,ludl[ fossils4#a ,at t po9t imm$iately above ! upp] fi%-b$ num]\s small globul> bodies h be5 f\nd1 :i* 7 det]m9$ by ,dr4 ,hook] to be ! sporangia ( a cryptogamic l&-plant1 probably lycopodiace\s4 ,fig4 #ebd3 ,on*us t5ui/riatus4 ,fig4 #ebe3 ,%agre5-scales ( a placoid fi%1 ,!lodus p>vid5s4 ,mo/ ( ! fi% h be5 ref]r$ by ,agassiz to 8 placoid ord]1 "s ( !m to ! g5us ,on*us1 to :i* ! sp9e 7,fig4 #ebd7 & ! m9ute scales 7,fig4 #ebe7 are suppos$ to belong4 ,x has be5 sugge/$1 h[ev]1 t ,on*us may be "o ( ^? ,acan?odian fi% ref]r$ by ,agassiz to 8 ,ganoid ord]1 :i* are s *>act]i/ic ( ! base ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one 9 ,=f>%ire1 al?\gh ! species ( ! ,old ,r$ are all diff]5t f ^! ( ! ,silurian b$s n[ "u consid]ation4 ,fig4 #ebf3 ,plectrodus mirabilis4 ,! jaw & tee? ( ano!r pr$ace\s g5us 7,fig4 #ebf7 h also be5 detect$1 toge!r ) "s specim5s ( ,pt]aspis ,lud5sis4 ,z usual 9 bone-b$s1 ! tee? & bones are1 = ! mo/ "p1 fragm5t>y & roll$4 ,fig4 #ebg3 ,or?is elegantula4,fig4 #ebh3 ,rhyn*onella navicula4 ,grey ,s&/one & ,mud/one1 etc4--,! next subdivision ( ! ,upp] ,ludl[ consi/s ( grey calc>e\s s&/one1 or v commonly a micace\s /one1 decompos+ into s(t mud1 & conta9s1 besides ! %ells m5tion$ aon page #dei1 ,l+ula cornea1 ,or?is orbicul>is1 a r\nd v>iety ( ,o4 elegantula1 ,modiolopsis platyphylla1 ,grammysia c+ulata1 all *>act]i/ic ( ! ,upp] ,ludl[4 ,! l[e/ or mud-/one b$s conta9 ,rhyn*onella navicula 7,fig4 #ebh71 :i* is common to ?is b$ & ! ,l[] ,ludl[4 ,z usual 9 ,palozoic /rata old] ?an ! coal1 ! bra*iopod\s mollusca greatly outnumb] ! lamellibran*iate 7see p4 #dgj72 b ! latt] are by no means unrepres5t$4 ,among o!r g5]a1 = example1 we obs]ve ,avicula & ,pt]9ea1 ,c>diola1 ,ct5odonta 7sub-g5us ( ,nucula71 ,or?onota1 ,modiolopsis1 & ,palarca4 ,"s ( ! ,upp] ,ludl[ s&/ones are ripple-m>k$1 ?us af=d+ evid5ce ( gradual deposition2 & ! same may be said ( ! accompany+ f9e argillace\s %ales1 :i* are ( great ?ickness1 & h be5 prov9cially nam$ 8mud-/ones40 ,9 "s ( ^! %ales /ems ( cr9oidea are f\nd 9 an erect position1 hav+ evid5tly become fossil on ! spots :]e !y grew at ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,! facility ) :i* ^! rocks1 :5 expos$ to ! wea!r1 are resolv$ into mud1 proves t1 not)/&+ _! antiquity1 !y are ne>ly 9 ! /ate 9 :i* !y 7 fir/ ?r[n d[n4 ,fig4 #ebi3 ,p5tam]us ,knightii4 b4 ,l[] ,ludl[ ,b$s4--,! *ief mass ( ?is =mation consi/s ( a d>k grey argillace\s %ale ) calc>e\s concretions1 hav+ a maximum ?ickness ( #ajjj feet4 ,9 "s places1 & especially at ,ayme/ry1 9 ,h]e=d%ire1 a subcry/all9e & argillace\s lime/one1 sometimes #ej feet ?ick1 ov]lies ! %ale4 ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison !re=e classes ?is ,ayme/ry lime/one z hold+ an int]m$iate position betwe5 ! ,upp] & ,l[] ,ludl[1 b ,mr4 ,lightbody rem>ks t at ,mocktrie1 ne> ,le9tw>d9e1 ! ,l[] ,ludl[ %ales1 ) _! *>act]i/ic fossils1 occur bo? above & bel[ a simil> lime/one4 ,?is lime/one ar\nd ,ayme/ry & ,s$geley is di/+ui%$ by ! abundance ( ,p5tam]us ,knightii1 ,s[]by 7,fig4 #ebi71 also f\nd 9 ! ,l[] ,ludl[ & ,w5lock %ale4 ,?is g5us ( bra*iopoda 0 fir/ f\nd 9 ,silurian /rata1 & is exclusively a palozoic =m4 ,! "n 0 d]iv$ f p5te1 five1 & m]os1 a "p1 because bo? valves are divid$ by a c5tral septum1 mak+ f\r *amb]s1 & 9 "o valve ! septum itself conta9s a small *amb]1 mak+ five4 ,! size ( ^! septa is enorm\s comp>$ ) ^? ( any o!r bra*iopod %ell2 & !y mu/ ne>ly h divid$ ! animal into two equal halves2 b !y are1 nev]!less1 ( ! same nature z ! septa or plates :i* are f\nd 9 ! int]ior ( ,spirif]a1 ,t]ebratula1 & _m o!r %ells ( ?is ord]4 ,messrs4 ,mur*ison & ,de ,v]neuil discov]$ ?is species disp]s$ 9 myriads ?r\gh a :ite lime/one ( ,upp] ,silurian age1 on ! banks ( ! ,is1 on ! ea/]n flank ( ! ,urals 9 ,russia1 & a simil> species is frequ5t 9 ,sw$54 ,fig4 #ecj3 ,l+ula ,lewisii4 ,?ree o!r abundant %ells 9 ! ,ayme/ry lime/one are1 fir/1 ,l+ula ,lewisii 7,fig4 #ecj72 second1 ,rhyn*onella ,wilsoni1 ,s[]by 7,fig4 #eca71 :i* is also common to ! ,l[] ,ludl[ & ,w5lock lime/one2 ?ird1 ,atrypa reticul>is1 ,l9n4 7,fig4 #ecb71 :i* has a v wide range1 be+ f\nd 9 e "p ( ! ,upp] ,silurian sy/em1 & ev5 rang+ up into ! ,middle ,devonian s]ies4 ,fig4 #eca3 ,rhyn*onella 7,t]ebratula7 ,wilsoni4 ,! ,ayme/ry ,lime/one conta9s _m %ells1 especially bra*iopoda1 corals1 trilobites1 & o!r fossils1 am\nt+ on ! :ole to #gd species1 all except ?ree or f\r be+ common to ! b$s ei!r above or bel[4 ,fig4 #ecb3 ,atrypa reticul>is4 ,! ,l[] ,ludl[ ,%ale conta9s1 among o!r fossils1 _m l>ge cephalopoda n kn[n 9 new] rocks1 z ! ,phragmoc]as ( ,brod]ip1 & ! ,lituites ( ,breynius 7see ,figs4 #ecc1 #ecd74 ,! latt] is p>tly /raight & p>tly convolut$ 9 a v flat spire4 ,! ,or?oc]as ,lud5se 7,fig4 #ece71 z well z ! cephalopod la/ m5tion$1 occurs 9 ?is memb] ( ! species4 ,fig4 #ecc3 ,phragmoc]as v5tricosum4 ,a species ( ,graptolite1 ,g4 priodon1 ,bronn 7,fig4 #ede71 occurs pl5tifully 9 ! ,l[] ,ludl[4 ,?is fossil1 ref]r$1 ?\gh some:at d\btfully1 to a =m ( hydrozoid or s]tul>ian polyp1 has n yet be5 met ) 9 /rata above ! ,silurian4 ,/>-fi%1 z ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison po9ts out1 are by no means r>e 9 ! ,l[] ,ludl[ rock4 ,^! fossils1 ( :i* six ext9ct g5]a are n[ kn[n 9 ! ,ludl[ s]ies1 repres5t$ by #ah species1 rem9d u ( v>i\s liv+ =ms n[ f\nd 9 our ,briti% seas1 bo? ( ! families ,a/]iad & ,ophiurid4 ,fig4 #ecd3 ,lituites 7,tro*oc]as7 giganteus4 ,fig4 #ece3 ,fragm5t ( ,or?oc]as ,lud5se4 ,olde/ kn[n ,fossil ,fi%4--,until #ahei !re 0 no example ( a fossil fi% old] ?an ! bone-b$ ( ! ,upp] ,ludl[1 b 9 t ye> a specim5 ( ,pt]aspis 0 f\nd at ,*ur* ,hill1 ne> ,le9tw>d9e1 9 ,%rop%ire1 by ,mr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,lee ( ,ca]leon1 ,f4,g4,s41 9 %ale bel[ ! ,ayme/ry lime/one1 associat$ ) fossil %ells ( ! ,l[] ,ludl[ =mation--%ells :i* diff] consid]ably f ^? *>act]is+ ! ,upp] ,ludl[ already describ$4 ,?is discov]y is ( no small int]e/ z be>+ on ! !ory ( progressive developm5t1 because1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,huxley1 ! g5us ,pt]aspis is alli$ to ! /urgeon1 & !re=e by no means ( l[ grade 9 ! pisc9e class4 ,x is a fact well wor?y ( notice t no rema9s ( v]tebrata h yet be5 met ) 9 any /rata old] ?an ! ,l[] ,ludl[4 ,:5 we reflect on ! hundr$s ( ,mollusks1 ,e*9od]ms1 ,trilobites1 ,corals1 & o!r fossils already obta9$ f m anci5t ,silurian =mations1 ,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[]1 we may well ask :e!r any set ( fossilif]\s rocks new] 9 ! s]ies 7 ev] /udi$ ) equal dilig5ce1 & ov] s va/ an area1 )\t yield+ a s+le i*?yolite4 ,yet we mu/ hesitate be=e we accept1 ev5 on su* evid5ce1 s sweep+ a conclusion1 z t ! globe1 = ages aft] x 0 inhabit$ by all ! great classes ( inv]tebrata1 rema9$ :olly unt5ant$ by v]tebrate animals4 ,dates ( ! ,discov]y ( diff]5t ,classes ( ,fossil ,v]tebrata2 %[+ ! gradual progress made 9 trac+ !m to rocks ( high] antiquity4 ,ye> ,=mations ,geographical localities ,mammalia #agih ,upp] ,eoc5e ,p>is 7,gypsum ( ,montm>tre74#a #ahah ,l[] ,oolite ,/onesfield4#b #ahdg ,upp] ,trias ,/uttg>t4#c ,aves #aghb ,upp] ,eoc5e ,p>is 7,gypsum ( ,montm>tre74#d #ahci ,l[] ,eoc5e ,isle ( ,%eppey 7,london ,clay74#e #ahed ,l[] ,eoc5e ,woolwi* ,b$s4#f #ahee ,l[] ,eoc5e ,m5don 7,pla/ic ,clay74#g #aheh ,*loritic ,s]ies1 or ,upp] ,gre5s& ,cambridge4#h #ahfc ,upp] ,oolite ,sol5h(54#i ,reptilia #agaj ,p]mian 7or ,ze*/e97 ,?ur+ia4#aj #ahdd ,c>bonif]\s ,sa>brck1 ne> ,trves4#aa ,pisces #agji ,p]mian 7or ,kupf]s*ief]7 ,?ur+ia4#ab #agic ,c>bonif]\s 7,m\nta9 ,lime/one7 ,glasg[4#ac #ahbh ,devonian ,cai?ness4#ad #ahdj ,upp] ,ludl[ ,ludl[4#ae #ahei ,l[] ,ludl[ ,le9tw>d9e4#af #a4 ,george ,cuvi]1 ,bullet9 ,soc4 ,philom4 xx4 #b4 ,9 #ahah1 ,cuvi]1 visit+ ! ,museum ( ,ox=d1 decid$ on ! mammalian "* ( a jaw f ,/onesfield4 ,see also p4 #cdg4 #c4 ,pr(4 ,pli5+]4 ,see p4 #cfh4 #d4 ,cuvi]1 ,ossem5s ,foss4 ,art4 8,oiseaux40 #e4 ,pr(4 ,ow51 ,geol4 ,trans41 #bnd s]ies1 vol4 vi1 p4 #bjc1 #ahci4 #f4 ,upp] "p ( ! ,woolwi* b$s4 ,pre/wi*1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 x1 p4 #aeg4 #g4 ,ga/ornis ,p>isi5sis4 ,ow51 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xii1 p4 #bjd1 #ahef4 #h4 ,coprolitic b$1 9 ! ,upp] ,gre5s&4 ,see p4 #bii4 #i4 ,! ,ar*opt]yx macrura1 ,ow54 ,see p4 #cch4 #aj4 ,! fossil monitor ( ,?ur+ia 7,protosaurus ,sp5]i1 ,v4 ,mey]7 0 figur$ by ,sp5] ( ,b]l9 9 #ahaj4 7,miscel4 ,b]l947 #aa4 ,see p4 #djf4 #ab4 ,memorabilia ,saxoni ,subt]r41 ,leipsic1 #agji4 #ac4 ,hi/ory ( ,ru!rgl5 by ,rev4 ,david ,ure1 #agic4 #ad4 ,s$gwick & ,mur*ison1 ,geol4 ,trans41 #bnd s]ies1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ada1 #ahbh4 #ae4 ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison4 ,see p4 #dei4 #af4 ,see p4 #dfa4 ,obs4--,! evid5ce d]iv$ f foot-pr9ts1 ?\gh (t5 to be reli$ on1 is omitt$ 9 ! above table1 z be+ less exact ?an t f\nd$ on bones & tee?4 ,9 ! prec$+ ,table a few dates are set be=e ! read] ( ! discov]y ( diff]5t classes ( animals 9 anci5t rocks1 to enable him to p]ceive at a glance h[ gradual has be5 our progress 9 trac+ back ! signs ( v]tebrata to =mations ( high antiquity4 ,su* facts may be useful 9 w>n+ u n to assume too ha/ily t ! po9t :i* our retrospect may h rea*$ at ! pres5t mom5t c be reg>d$ z fix+ ! date ( ! fir/ introduction ( any "o class ( be+s ^u ! e>?4 #b4 ,w5lock ,=mation4--,we next come to ! ,w5lock =mation1 :i* has be5 divid$ 7see ,table1 p4 #deh7 into ,w5lock lime/one1 ,w5lock %ale1 & ,woolhope lime/one & ,d5bigh%ire grits4 ,fig4 #ecf3 ,halysites cat5ul>ius4 a4 ,w5lock ,lime/one4--,?is lime/one1 o!rwise well kn[n to collectors by ! "n ( ! ,dudley ,lime/one1 =ms a cont9u\s ridge 9 ,%rop%ire1 rang+ = ab\t #bj miles f ,s4,w4 to ,n4,e41 ab\t a mile di/ant f ! ne>ly p>allel esc>pm5t ( ! ,ayme/ry lime/one4 ,?is ridgy prom95ce is due to ! solidity ( ! rock1 & to ! s(tness ( ! %ales above & bel[ x4 ,ne> ,w5lock x consi/s ( ?ick masses ( grey subcry/all9e lime/one1 replete ) corals1 encr9ites1 & trilobites4 ,x is ess5tially ( a concretion>y nature2 & ! concretions1 t]m$ 8ball-/ones0 9 ,%rop%ire1 are (t5 enorm\s1 ev5 #hj feet 9 diamet]4 ,!y are ( pure c>bonate ( lime1 ! surr\nd+ rock be+ m or less argillace\s#b ,sometimes 9 ! ,malv]n ,hills ?is lime/one1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,phillips1 is oolitic4 ,fig4 #ecg3 ,favosites ,go?l&ica4 ,among ! corals1 9 :i* ?is =mation is s ri*1 #ec species be+ kn[n1 ! 8*a9-coral10 ,halysites cat5ul>ius 7,fig4 #ecf71 may be po9t$ out z "o v easily recognis$1 & widely spread 9 ,europe1 rang+ ?r\gh all p>ts ( ! ,silurian gr\p1 f ! ,ayme/ry lime/one to ne> ! bottom ( ! ,ll&eilo rocks4 ,ano!r coral1 ! ,favosites ,go?l&ica 7,fig4 #ecg71 is also met ) 9 pr(usion 9 l>ge hemisph]ical masses1 :i* break up into column> & prismatic fragm5ts1 l t "h figur$ 7,fig4 #ecg1 b74 ,ano!r common =m 9 ! ,w5lock lime/one is ! ,omphyma turb9atum 7,fig4 #ech71 :i*1 l _m ( its mod]n companions1 rem9ds u ( "s cup-corals2 b all ! ,silurian g5]a belong to ! palozoic type be=e m5tion$ 7p4 #dcb71 exhibit+ ! quadrip>tite arrangem5t ( ! septalamell )9 ! cup4 ,fig4 #ech3 ,omphyma turb9atum4,fig4 #eci3 ,pseudocr9ites bifasciatus4 ,among ! num]\s ,cr9oids1 sev]al peculi> species ( ,cya?ocr9us 7= g5us see ,figs4 #dgh1 #dgi7 contribute _! calc>e\s /ems1 arms1 & cups t[>ds ! composition ( ! ,w5lock lime/one4 ,( ,cy/ideans !re are a few v rem>kable =ms1 mo/ ( !m peculi> to ! ,upp] ,silurian =mation1 z1 = example1 ! ,pseudocr9ites1 :i* 0 furni%$ ) p9nat$ fix$ arms1#c z repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #eci4 ,fig4 #edj3 ,/rophom5a 7,leptna7 depressa4 ,! ,bra*iopoda are1 _m ( !m1 ( ! same species z ^? ( ! ,ayme/ry lime/one2 z1 = example1 ,atrypa reticul>is 7,fig4 #ecb71 & ,/rophom5a depressa 7,fig4 #edj72 b ! latt] species ranges also f ! ,ludl[ rocks1 ?r\gh ! ,w5lock %ale1 to ! ,c>adoc ,s&/one4 ,fig4 #eda3 ,calym5e ,blum5ba*ii4 ,! cru/aceans are repres5t$ almo/ exclusively by ,trilobites1 :i* are v conspicu\s1 #bb be+ peculi>4 ,! ,calym5e ,blum5ba*ii 7,fig4 #eda71 call$ ! 0,dudley ,trilobite10 0 kn[n to collectors long be=e its true place 9 ! animal k+dom 0 asc]ta9$4 ,x is (t5 f\nd coil$ up l ! common ,oniscus or wood-l\se1 & ?is is s usual a circum/ance among c]ta9 g5]a ( trilobites z to lead u to conclude t !y mu/ h habitually resort$ to ?is mode ( protect+ !mselves :5 al>m$4 ,! o!r common species is ! ,phacops caudatus 7,asaphus caudatus71 ,brong4 7see ,fig4 #edb71 & ?is is conspicu\s = its l>ge size & flatt5$ =m4 ,sphrexo*us mirus 7,fig4 #edc7 is almo/ a globe :5 roll$ up1 ! =ehead or glabellum ( ?is species be+ extremely inflat$4 ,! ,homalonotus1 a =m ( ,trilobite 9 :i* ! trip>tite division ( ! dorsal cru/ is almo/ lo/ 7see ,fig4 #edd71 is v *>act]i/ic ( ?is division ( ! ,silurian s]ies4 ,fig4 #edb3 ,phacops 7,asaphus7 caudatus4,fig4 #edc3 ,sphrexo*us mirus4 ,w5lock ,%ale4--,?is1 obs]ves ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison1 is inf9itely ! l>ge/ & mo/ p]si/5t memb] ( ! ,w5lock =mation1 = ! lime/one (t5 ?9s out & disappe>s4 ,! %ale1 l ! ,l[] ,ludl[1 (t5 conta9s elliptical concretions ( impure e>?y lime/one4 ,fig4 #edd3 ,homalonotus delph9ocephalus4 ,9 ! ,malv]n di/rict x is a mass ( f9ely levigat$ argillace\s matt]1 atta9+1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,phillips1 a ?ickness ( #fdj feet1 b x is sometimes m ?an #ajjj feet ?ick 9 ,wales1 & is work$ = flag-/ones & slates4 ,! prevail+ fossils1 besides corals & trilobites1 & "s cr9oids1 are sev]al small species ( ,or?is1 ,c>diola1 & num]\s ?9-%ell$ species ( ,or?oc]atites4 ,ab\t six species ( ,graptolite1 a peculi> gr\p ( s]tul>ian fossils be=e allud$ to 7p4 #dfc7 z be+ conf9$ to ,silurian rocks1 occur 9 ?is %ale4 ,( fossils ( ?is g5us1 :i* is v *>act]i/ic ( ! ,l[] ,silurian1 ,i %all aga9 speak 9 ! sequel 7p4 #dgd74 ,fig4 #ede3 ,graptoli?us priodon4 b4 ,woolhope ,b$s4--,?\gh n always recognis$ z a sep>ate subdivision ( ! ,w5lock1 ! ,woolhope b$s1 :i* und]lie ! ,w5lock %ale1 are ( great importance4 ,usually !y occur z massive or nodul> lime/ones1 und]laid by a f9e %ale or flag-/one2 & 9 o!r cases1 z 9 ! not$ ,d5bigh%ire s&/ones1 z a co>se grit ( v great ?ickness4 ,?is grit =ms m\nta9 ranges ?r\gh ,nor? & ,s\? ,wales1 & is g5]ally m>k$ by ! great /]ility ( ! soil :]e x occurs4 ,x conta9s ! usual ,w5lock fossils1 b ) ! addition ( "s common 9 ! upp]mo/ ,ludl[ rock1 su* z ,*onetes lata & ,bell]ophon trilobatus4 ,! *ief fossils ( ! ,woolhope lime/one are ,illnus ,b>ri5sis1 ,homalonotus delph9ocephalus 7,fig4 #edd71 ,/rophom5a imbrex1 & ,rhyn*onella ,wilsoni 7,fig4 #eca74 ,! latt] atta9s 9 ! ,woolhope b$s an unusual size = ! species1 ! specim5s be+ sometimes twice z l>ge z ^? f\nd 9 ! ,w5lock lime/one4 ,9 "s places bel[ ! ,w5lock =mation !re are %ales ( a pale or purple col\r1 :i* ne> ,t>annon atta9 a ?ickness ( ab\t #ajjj feet2 !y c be trac$ ?r\gh ,radnor & ,montgom]y to ,nor? ,wales1 accord+ to ,messrs4 ,jukes & ,avel9e4 ,by ! latt] geologi/ !y h be5 id5tifi$ ) c]ta9 %ales above ! ,may-,hill ,s&/one1 ne> ,ll&ov]y1 b1 ow+ to ! extreme sc>city ( fossils1 _! exact position rema9s d\btful4 #c4 ,ll&ov]y ,gr\p--,b$s ( ,passage4--,we n[ come to b$s respect+ ! classification ( :i* !re has be5 mu* diff]5ce ( op9ion1 & :i* 9 fact mu/ be consid]$ z b$s ( passage betwe5 ,upp] & ,l[] ,silurian4 ,i =m]ly adopt$ ! plan ( ^? :o class !m z ,middle ,silurian1 b !y are sc>cely entitl$ to ?is di/9ction1 s9ce aft] ab\t #adjj ,silurian species h be5 comp>$ ! numb] peculi> to ! gr\p 9 "q only gives !m an importance equal to su* m9or subdivisions z ! ,ludl[ or ,bala gr\ps4 ,i !re=e pref] to reg>d !m z ! base ( ! ,upp] ,silurian1 to :i* gr\p !y are l9k$ by m ?an twice z _m species z to ! ,l[] ,silurian4 ,by ?is arrangem5t ! l9e ( dem>kation betwe5 ! two great divisions1 ?\gh confess$ly arbitr>y1 is less s ?an by any o!r4 ,!y are call$ ,ll&ov]y ,rocks1 f a t[n 9 ,s\? ,wales1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( :i* !y are well develop$1 & :]e1 especially at a hill call$ ,noe? ,grug1 9 spite ( sev]al faults1 _! relations to "o ano!r c be cle>ly se54 a4 ,upp] ,ll&ov]y or ,may-,hill ,s&/one4--,! ,may-,hill gr\p1 :i* has also be5 nam$ 0,upp] ,ll&ov]y10 by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison1 ranges f ! we/ ( ! ,longmynd to ,buil?1 ,ll&ov]y1 & ,ll&eilo1 & to ! sea 9 ,m>l['s ,bay1 :]e x is se5 9 ! cliffs4 ,x consi/s ( br[ni% & yell[ s&/ones ) calc>e\s nodules1 hav+ sometimes a conglom]ate at ! base d]iv$ f ! wa/e ( ! ,l[] ,silurian rocks4 ,^! ,may-,hill b$s 7 =m]ly suppos$ to be "p ( ! ,c>adoc =mation1 b _! true position 0 det]m9$ by ,pr(essor ,s$gwick#d to be at ! base ( ! ,upp] ,silurian prop]4 ,! m calc>e\s portions ( ! rock h be5 call$ ! ,p5tam]us lime/one1 because ,p5tam]us oblongus 7,fig4 #edf7 is v abundant 9 !m4 ,x is usually accompani$ by ,p4 7,/rickl&9ia7 lirata 7,fig4 #edg72 bo? =ms h a wide geographical range1 be+ also met ) 9 ! same "p ( ! ,silurian s]ies 9 ,russia & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,fig4 #edf3 ,p5tam]us oblongus4 ,ab\t #bbh species ( fossils are kn[n 9 ! ,may-,hill division1 m ?an half ( :i* are ,w5lock species4 ,!y consi/ ( trilobites ( ! g5]a ,illnus & ,calym5e2 ,bra*iopods ( ! g5]a ,or?is1 ,atrypa1 ,leptna1 ,p5tam]us1 ,/rophom5a1 & o!rs2 ,ga/]opods ( ! g5]a ,turbo1 ,mur*isonia 7= g5us1 see ,fig4 #efg71 & ,bell]ophon2 & ,pt]opods ( ! g5us ,conul>ia4 ,! ,bra*iopods1 ( :i* !re are #ff species1 are almo/ all ,upp] ,silurian4 ,fig4 #edg3 ,/rickl&9ia 7,p5tam]us7 lirata4 ,fig4 #edh3 ,t5taculites annulatus4 ,among ! fossils ( ! ,may-,hill %elly s&/one at ,malv]n1 ,t5taculites annulatus 7,fig4 #edh71 an annelid1 probably alli$ to ,s]pula1 is f\nd4 ,l[] ,ll&ov]y ,rocks4--,bel[ ! ,may-,hill ,gr\p are ! ,l[] ,ll&ov]y ,rocks1 :i* consi/ *iefly ( h>d slaty rocks1 & b$s ( conglom]ate f #fjj to #ajjj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,! fossils1 :i* are some:at r>e 9 ! l[] b$s1 consi/ ( #abh kn[n species1 only elev5 ( :i* are peculi>1 #hc be+ common to ! ,may-,hill gr\p above1 & #ic common to ! rocks bel[4 ,/rickl&9ia 7,p5tam]us7 levis1 :i* is common 9 ! ,l[] ,ll&ov]y1 becomes r>e 9 ! ,upp]1 :ile ,p5tam]us oblongus 7,fig4 #edf71 :i* is ! *>act]i/ic %ell ( ! ,upp] ,ll&ov]y1 occurs b seldom 9 ! ,l[]4 ,,l[] ,,silurian ,,rocks4 ,! ,l[] ,silurian has be5 divid$ into1 fir/1 ! ,bala ,gr\p2 second1 ! ,ll&eilo flags2 &1 ?ird1 ! ,ar5ig or ,l[] ,ll&eilo =mation4 ,bala & ,c>adoc ,b$s4--,! ,c>adoc s&/one 0 orig9ally s nam$ by ,sir ,r4 ,i4 ,mur*ison f ! m\nta9 call$ ,ca] ,c>adoc1 9 ,%rop%ire2 x consi/s ( %elly s&/ones ( great ?ickness1 & sometimes conta9+ mu* calc>e\s matt]4 ,! rock is frequ5tly lad5 ) ! beautiful trilobite call$ by ,mur*ison ,tr9ucleus ,c>actaci 7see ,fig4 #eec71 :i* ranges f ! base to ! summit ( ! =mation1 usually accompani$ by ,/rophom5a gr&is 7see ,fig4 #eea71 & ,or?is vesp]tilio 7,fig4 #eej71 ) _m o!r fossils4 ,fig4 #edi3 ,or?is tric5>ia4 ,fig4 #eej3 ,or?is vesp]tilio4 ,fig4 #eea3 ,or?is 7,/rophom5a7 gr&is4 ,bra*iopoda4--,no?+ is m rem>kable 9 ^! b$s1 & 9 ! ,silurian /rata g5]ally ( all c\ntries1 ?an ! prepond]ance ( bra*iopoda ov] o!r =ms ( mollusca4 ,_! proportional numb]s c by no means be expla9$ by suppos+ !m to h inhabit$ seas ( great dep?1 = ! contra/ betwe5 ! palozoic & ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s has n be5 ess5tially alt]$ by ! late discov]ies made 9 our deep-sea dr$g+s4 ,we f9d ! liv+ bra*iopoda s r>e z to =m ab\t "o =ty-f\r? ( ! :ole bivalve fauna1 :]eas 9 ! ,l[] ,silurian rocks ( :i* we are n[ ab\t to treat1 & :]e ! bra*iopoda rea* _! maximum1 !y are repres5t$ by m ?an twice z _m species z ! ,lamellibran*iate bivalves4 ,!re may1 inde$1 be said to be a cont9u$ decrease ( ! proportional numb] ( ?is l[] tribe ( mollusca z we proce$ f old] to new] rocks4 ,9 ! ,briti% ,devonian1 = example1 ! ,bra*iopoda numb] #ii1 ! ,lamellibran*iata #eh2 :ile 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s _! proportions are m ?an rev]s$1 ! ,lamellibran*iata numb]+ #ccd species1 & ! ,bra*iopoda only #aeg4 ,9 ! ,second>y or ,ca9ozoic =mations ! prepond]ance ( ! high] grade ( bivalves becomes m & m m>k$1 till 9 ! t]ti>y /rata x approa*es t obs]v$ 9 ! liv+ creation4 ,:ile on ?is subject1 x may be useful to ! /ud5t to "k t a ,bra*iopod diff]s f ord9>y bivalves1 mussels1 cockles1 etc41 9 be+ always equal-sid$ & nev] q equi-valv$2 ! =m ( ea* valve be+ symmetrical1 x may be divid$ into two equal p>ts by a l9e drawn f ! apex to ! c5tre ( ! m>g94 ,trilobites4--,9 ! ,bala & ,c>adoc b$s ! trilobites rea* _! maximum1 be+ repres5t$ by #aaa species ref]r$ to #bc g5]a4 ,burmei/]1 9 8 "w on ! organisation ( trilobites1 supposes t !y swam at ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! op5 sea & ne> coa/s1 fe$+ on small] m>9e animals1 & to h _h ! p[] ( roll+ !mselves into a ball z a def5ce aga9/ injury4 ,he 0 also ( op9ion t !y und]w5t v>i\s trans=mations analog\s to ^? ( liv+ cru/aceans4 ,m4 ,b>r&e1 au?or ( an admirable "w on ! ,silurian rocks ( ,bohemia1 confirms ! doctr9e ( _! metamorphosis1 hav+ trac$ m ?an tw5ty species ?r\gh diff]5t /ages ( gr[? f ! "y /ate j aft] its escape f ! egg to ! adult =m4 ,he has foll[$ "s ( !m f a po9t 9 :i* !y %[ no eyes1 no jo9ts1 or body r+s1 & no di/9ct tail1 up to ! complete =m ) ! full numb] ( segm5ts4 ,?is *ange is br\ght ab\t be=e ! animal has atta9$ a t5? "p ( its full dim5sions1 & h5ce su* m9ute & delicate specim5s are r>ely met )4 ,"s ( 8 figures ( ! metamorphoses ( ! common ,tr9ucleus are copi$ 9 ,figs4 #eeb & #eec4 ,x 0 n till #ahgj t ,mr4 ,bill+s 0 enabl$1 by means ( a specim5 f\nd 9 ,canada1 to prove t ! trilobite 0 provid$ ) eight legs4 ,x has be5 asc]ta9$ t a great ?ickness ( slaty & cry/all9e rocks ( ,s\? ,wales1 z well z ^? ( ,sn[don & ,bala1 9 ,nor? ,wales1 :i* 7 fir/ suppos$ to be ( old] date ?an ! ,silurian s&/ones & mud/ones ( ,%rop%ire1 are 9 fact id5tical 9 age1 & conta9 ! same organic rema9s4 ,at ,bala1 9 ,m]ione?%ire1 a lime/one ri* 9 fossils occurs1 9 :i* two g5]a ( />-fi%1 ,prota/] & ,pala/]1 are f\nd2 ! fossil specim5 ( ! latt] 7,fig4 #eed7 be+ almo/ z uncompress$ z if f\nd j wa%$ up on ! sea-bea*4 ,besides ! />-fi% !re occur abundance ( ^? peculi> bodies call$ ,cy/ide4 ,!y are ! ,sphronites ( old au?ors1 & 7 consid]$ by ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes z int]m$iate betwe5 ! cr9oids & e*9od]ms4 ,! ,e*9osphronite "h repres5t$ 7,fig4 #eee7 is *>act]i/ic ( ! ,c>adoc b$s 9 ,wales1 & ( _! equival5ts 9 ,sw$5 & ,russia4 ,fig4 #eeb3 ,"y individuals ( ,tr9ucleus conc5tricus4 ,fig4 #eec3 ,tr9ucleus conc5tricus4 ,fig4 #eed3 ,pala/] asp]imus4 ,fig4 #eee3 ,e*9osphronites ballicus4 ,) x h be5 f\nd sev]al o!r g5]a ( ! same family1 su* z ,sphronites1 ,hemicosmites1 etc4 ,among ! mollusca are ,pt]opods ( ! g5us ,conul>ia ( l>ge size 7= g5us1 see ,fig4 #eah74 ,ab\t elev5 species ( ,graptolite are reckon$ z belong+ to ?is =mation2 !y are *iefly f\nd 9 peculi> localities :]e black mud ab\nd$4 ,! =mation1 :5 trac$ into ,s\? ,wales & ,irel&1 assumes a greatly alt]$ m9]al aspect1 b /ill reta9s its *>act]i/ic fossils4 ,! kn[n fauna ( ! ,bala gr\p comprises #efe species1 #ceb ( :i* are peculi>1 & #ic1 z be=e /at$1 are common to ! ov]ly+ ,ll&ov]y rocks4 ,x is wor?y ( rem>k t1 :5 x occurs "u ! =m ( trappean tuff 7volcanic a%es ( ,de la ,be*e71 z 9 ! cre/ ( ,sn[don1 ! peculi> species :i* di/+ui% x f ! ,ll&eilo b$s are /ill obs]vable4 ,! =mation g5]ally appe>s to be ( %all[-wat] orig91 & 9 t respect is contra/$ ) ! gr\p next to be describ$4 ,pr(essor ,ramsay e/imates ! ?ickness ( ! ,bala ,b$s1 includ+ ! contemporane\s volcanic rocks1 /ratifi$ & un/ratifi$1 z be+ f #aj1jjj to #ab1jjj feet4 ,fig4 #eef3 ,didymograpsus 7,graptolites7 ,mur*isonii4 ,ll&eilo ,flags4--,! ,l[] ,silurian /rata 7 orig9ally divid$ by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison into ! upp] gr\p already describ$1 "u ! "n ( ,c>adoc ,s&/one1 & a l[] "o1 call$1 f a t[n 9 ,c>m>!n%ire1 ! ,ll&eilo flags4 ,! la/ m5tion$ /rata consi/ ( d>k-col\r$ micace\s flags1 frequ5tly calc>e\s1 ) a great ?ickness ( %ales1 g5]ally black1 bel[ !m4 ,! same b$s are also se5 at ,buil?1 9 ,radnor%ire1 :]e !y are int]/ratifi$ ) volcanic matt]4 ,a /ill l[] "p ( ! ,ll&eilo rocks consi/s ( a black c>bonace\s slate ( great ?ickness1 frequ5tly conta9+ sulphate ( alum9a1 & sometimes1 z 9 ,dumfries%ire1 b$s ( an?racite4 ,x has be5 conjectur$ t ?is c>bonace\s matt] may be due 9 great measure to l>ge quantities ( imb$d$ animal rema9s1 = ! numb] ( ,graptolites includ$ 9 ^! slates 0 c]ta9ly v great4 ,9 ,great ,brita9 elev5 g5]a & ab\t #dj species ( ,graptolites occur 9 ! ,ll&eilo flags & und]ly+ ,ar5ig b$s4 ,! d\ble ,graptolites1 or ^? ) two r[s ( cells1 su* z ,diplograpsus 7,fig4 #eeg71 are conspicu\s4 ,fig4 #eeg3 ,diplograpsus pri/is4 ,fig4 #eeh3 ,ra/rites p]egr9us4 ,fig4 #eei3 ,diplograpsus folium4 ,! bra*iopoda ( ! ,ll&eilo flags1 :i* numb] #dg species1 are 9 ! ma9 ! same z ^? ( ! ,c>adoc ,s&/one1 b ! o!r mollusca are 9 great "p ( diff]5t species4 ,9 ,europe g5]ally1 z1 = example1 9 ,sw$5 & ,russia1 no %ells are s *>act]i/ic ( ?is =mation z ,or?oc]atites1 usually ( great size1 & ) a wide siphuncle plac$ on "o side in/ead ( be+ c5tral 7see ,fig4 #efj74 ,fig4 #efj3 ,or?oc]as duplex4 ,among o!r ,cephalopods 9 ! ,ll&eilo flags is ,cyrtoc]as2 9 ! same b$s also are f\nd ,bell]ophon 7see ,fig4 #dhh7 & "s ,pt]opod %ells 7,conul>ia1 ,!ca1 etc471 also 9 spots :]e s& ab\nd$1 lamellibran*iate bivalves ( l>ge size4 ,! ,cru/aceans 7 pl5tifully repres5t$ by ! ,trilobites1 :i* appe> to h sw>m$ 9 ! ,silurian seas j z crabs & %rimps d 9 our own2 no less ?an #bfc species h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,briti% ,silurian fauna4 ,! g5]a ,asaphus 7,fig4 #efa71 ,ogygia 7,fig4 #efb71 & ,tr9ucleus 7,figs4 #eeb & #eec7 =m a m>k$ feature ( ! ri* & v>i$ ,trilobitic fauna ( ?is age4 ,fig4 #efa3 ,asaphus tyrannus4 ,fig4 #efb3 ,ogygia ,bu*ii4 ,b5ea? ! black slates above describ$ ( ! ,ll&eilo =mation1 ,graptolites are /ill f\nd 9 great v>iety & abundance1 & ! *>act]i/ic g5]a ( %ells & trilobites ( ! ,l[] ,silurian rocks are /ill traceable d[nw>d1 9 ,%rop%ire1 ,cumb]l&1 & ,nor? & ,s\? ,wales1 ?r\gh a va/ dep? ( %aly b$s1 9 "s di/ricts int]/ratifi$ ) trappean =mations ( contemporane\s orig92 ^! consi/ ( tuffs & lavas1 ! tuffs be+ =m$ ( su* mat]ials z are eject$ f crat]s & deposit$ imm$iately on ! b$ ( ! ocean1 or wa%$ into x f ! l&4 ,accord+ to ,pr(essor ,ramsay1 _! ?ickness is ab\t #ccjj feet 9 ,nor? ,wales1 includ+ ^? ( ! ,l[] ,ll&eilo4 ,! lavas are feldspa?ic1 & ( porphyritic /ructure1 &1 accord+ to ! same au?ority1 ( an aggregate ?ickness ( #bejj feet4 ,fig4 #efc3 ,ar5icolites l9e>is4 ,ar5ig or ,/ip]-,/ones ,gr\p 7,l[] ,ll&eilo ( ,mur*ison74--,next 9 ! desc5d+ ord] are ! %ales & s&/ones 9 :i* ! qu>tzose rocks call$ ,/ip]-,/ones 9 ,%rop%ire occur4 ,orig9ally ^! ,/ip]-,/ones 7 only kn[n z ar5ace\s qu>tzose /rata 9 :i* no organic rema9s 7 conspicu\s1 except ! tubul> burr[s ( annelids 7see ,fig4 #efc1 ,ar5icolites l9e>is71 :i* are rem>kably common 9 ! ,l[e/ ,silurian 9 ,%rop%ire1 & 9 ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york1 9 ,am]ica4 ,!y h already be5 allud$ to z occurr+ by ?\s&s 9 ! ,silurian /rata uncon=mably ov]ly+ ! ,cambrian1 9 ! m\nta9 ( ,que5aig1 9 ,su!rl&%ire 7,fig4 #hb74 ,i h se5 simil> burr[s n[ made on ! retir+ ( ! tides 9 ! s&s ( ! ,bri/ol ,*annel1 ne> ,m9ehead1 by lob-worms :i* are dug out by fi%]m5 & us$ z bait4 ,:5 ! t]m ,silurian 0 giv5 by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison1 9 #ahce1 to ! :ole s]ies1 he consid]$ ! ,/ip]-,/ones z ! base ( ! ,silurian sy/em1 b no fossil fauna _h !n be5 obta9$1 su* z c\ld alone enable ! geologi/ to draw a l9e betwe5 ?is memb] ( ! s]ies & ! ,ll&eilo flags above1 or a va/ ?ickness ( rock bel[1 :i* 0 se5 to =m ! ,longmynd hills1 & 0 call$ 0unfossilif]\s graywacke40 ,pr(essor ,s$gwick _h describ$1 9 #ahdc1 /rata n[ asc]ta9$ to be ( ! same age z l>gely develop$ 9 ! ,ar5ig m\nta91 9 ,m]ione?%ire2 & ! ,skiddaw slates 9 ! ,lake-,di/rict ( ,cumb]l&1 /udi$ by ! same au?or1 7 ( correspond+ date1 ?\gh ! numb] ( fossils 01 9 bo? cases1 too few = ! det]m9ation ( _! true *ronological relations4 ,! subsequ5t rese>*es ( ,messrs4 ,s$gwick & ,h>kness1 9 ,cumb]l&1 & ( ,sir ,r4 ,i4 ,mur*ison & ! ,gov]nm5t surveyors 9 ,%rop%ire1 h increas$ ! species to m ?an sixty4 ,^! 7 exam9$ by ,mr4 ,salt]1 & %[n 9 ! ?ird edition ( 0,siluria0 7p4 #eb1 #ahei7 to be q di/9ct f ! fossils ( ! ov]ly+ ,ll&eilo flags4 ,among ^! ! ,obolella plumbea1 gl9a b9odosa1 ,ogygia ,selwynii1 & ,didymograpsus gem9us 7,fig4 #efd71 & ,d4 ,hirundo1 are *>act]i/ic4 ,fig4 #efd3 ,didymograpsus gem9us4 ,b1 al?\gh ! species are di/9ct1 ! g5]a are ! same z ^? :i* *>act]ise ! ,silurian rocks above1 & none ( ! *>act]i/ic primordial or ,cambrian =ms1 pres5tly to be m5tion$1 are int]mix$4 ,! same may be said ( a set ( b$s und]ly+ ! ,ar5ig rocks at ,ramsay ,isl& & o!r places 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,/4 ,david's4 ,^! b$s1 :i* h only lately become kn[n to u ?r\gh ! lab\rs ( ,dr4 ,hicks1#e pres5t already tw5ty new species1 ! great] "p ( !m alli$ g5]ically to ! ,ar5ig rocks4 ,?is ,ar5ig gr\p may !re=e be conv5i5tly reg>d$ z ! base ( ! great ,silurian sy/em1 a sy/em :i*1 by ! ?ickness ( its /rata & ! *anges 9 animal life ( :i* x conta9s ! record1 is m ?an equal 9 value to ! ,devonian1 or ,c>bonif]\s1 or o!r pr9cipal divisions1 :e!r ( prim>y or second>y date4 ,x w\ld be unsafe to rely on ! m]e ?ickness ( ! /rata1 consid]$ ap>t f ! great fluctuations 9 organic life :i* took place betwe5 ! era ( ! ,ll&eilo & t ( ! ,ludl[ =mation1 especially z ! enorm\s pile ( ,silurian rocks obs]v$ 9 ,great ,brita9 79 ,wales m p>ticul>ly7 is d]iv$ 9 great "p f igne\s action1 & is n conf9$ to ! ord9>y deposition ( s$im5t f riv]s or ! wa/e ( cliffs4 ,9 volcanic ar*ipelagoes1 su* z ! ,can>ies1 we see ! mo/ active ( all kn[n causes1 aque\s & igne\s1 simultane\sly at "w to produce great results 9 a comp>atively mod]ate lapse ( "t4 ,! outp\r+ ( repeat$ /reams ( lava--! %[]+ d[n ^u l& & sea ( volcanic a%es--! sweep+ seaw>d ( loose s& & c9d]s1 or ( rocks gr\nd d[n to pebbles & s&1 by riv]s & torr5ts desc5d+ /eeply incl9$ *annels--! und]m9+ & eat+ away ( long l9es ( sea-cliff expos$ to ! swell ( a deep & op5 ocean--^! op]ations comb9e to produce a consid]able volume ( sup]impos$ matt]1 )\t !re be+ "t = any ext5sive *ange ( species4 ,nev]!less1 !re w\ld seem to be a limit to ! ?ickness ( /ony masses =m$ ev5 "u su* fav\rable circum/ances1 = ! analogy ( t]ti>y volcanic regions l5ds no c\nt5ance to ! notion t s$im5t>y & igne\s rocks #be1jjj1 mu* less #de1jjj feet ?ick1 l ^? ( ,wales1 c\ld orig9ate :ile "o & ! same fauna %\ld cont9ue to p ! e>?4 ,if1 !n1 we all[ t ab\t #be1jjj feet ( matt] may be ascrib$ to "o sy/em1 su* z ! ,silurian1 z above describ$1 we may be prep>$ to discov] 9 ! next s]ies ( subjac5t rocks a di/9ct assemblage ( species1 or ev5 9 great "p ( g5]a1 ( organic rema9s4 ,su* appe>s to be ! fact1 & ,i %all !re=e conclude ) ! ,ar5ig b$s my enum]ation ( ! ,silurian =mations 9 ,great ,brita91 & proce$ to say some?+ ( _! =eign equival5ts1 be=e treat+ ( rocks old] ?an ! ,silurian4 ,silurian ,/rata ( ! ,cont95t ( ,europe4--,:5 we turn to ! cont95t ( ,europe1 we discov] ! same anci5t s]ies occupy+ a wide area1 b 9 no region z yet has x be5 obs]v$ to atta9 great ?ickness4 ,?us1 9 ,norway & ,sw$51 ! total ?ickness ( /rata ( ,silurian age is consid]ably less ?an #ajjj feet1 al?\gh ! repres5tatives bo? ( ! ,upp] & ,l[] ,silurian ( ,engl& are n want+ !re4 ,9 ,russia ! ,silurian /rata1 s f> z !y are yet kn[n1 seem to be ev5 ( small] v]tical dim5sions ?an 9 ,sc&9avia1 & !y appe> to consi/ *iefly ( ! ,ll&ov]y gr\p1 or ( a lime/one conta9+ ,p5tam]us oblongus1 bel[ :i* are /rata ) fossils correspond+ to ^? ( ! ,ll&eilo b$s ( ,engl&4 ,! l[e/ rock ) organic rema9s yet discov]$ is 0! ,ungulite or ,obolus grit0 ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 probably coeval ) ! ,ll&eilo flags ( ,wales4 ,! %ales & grits ne> ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 above allud$ to1 conta9 gre5 gra9s 9 _! s&y lay]s1 & are 9 a s+ul>ly unalt]$ /ate1 tak+ into acc\nt _! high antiquity4 ,! prevail+ ,bra*iopods consi/ ( ! ,obolus ,%ells ( ! l[e/ kn[n ,fossilif]\s ,b$s 9 ,russia4 ,fig4 #efe3 ,siphonotreta unguiculata4 ,fig4 #eff3 ,obolus ,apoll9is4 or ,ungulite ( ,p&]1 & a ,siphonotreta 7,figs4 #efe1 #eff74 ,not)/&+ ! antiquity ( ?is ,russian =mation1 x %\ld be /at$ t bo? ( ^! g5]a ( bra*iopods h be5 also f\nd 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian ( ,engl&1 i4e41 9 ! ,w5lock lime/one4 ,among ! gre5 gra9s ( ! s&y /rata above-m5tion$1 ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g ann\nc$ 9 #ahed 8 discov]y ( rema9s ( =am9if]a4 ,^! are ca/s ( ! cells2 & among five or six =ms ?ree are consid]$ by him z ref]able to exi/+ g5]a 7e4g41 ,textul>ia1 ,rotalia1 & ,guttul9a74 ,silurian ,/rata ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,! ,silurian =mations c be advantage\sly /udi$ 9 ! ,/ates ( ,new ,york1 ,ohio1 & o!r regions nor? & s\? ( ! great ,canadian lakes4 ,"h !y are (t5 f\nd1 z 9 ,russia1 ne>ly 9 horizontal position1 & are m ri* 9 well-pres]v$ fossils ?an 9 almo/ any spot 9 ,europe4 ,9 ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york1 :]e ! succession ( ! b$s & _! fossils h be5 mo/ c>efully work$ out by ! ,gov]nm5t surveyors1 ! subdivisions giv5 9 ! fir/ column ( ! table bel[ h be5 adopt$4 ,subdivisions ( ! ,silurian ,/rata ( ,new ,york4 7,/rata bel[ ! ,oriskany s&/one or base ( ! ,devonian47 ,new ,york ,names ,briti% equival5ts #a4 ,upp] ,p5tam]us ,lime/one #b4 ,encr9al ,lime/one #c4 ,del?yris ,%aly ,lime/one #d4 ,p5tam]us & ,t5taculite ,lime/ones #e4 ,wat] ,lime ,gr\p #f4 ,onondaga ,salt ,gr\p #g4 ,niag>a ,gr\p ,upp] ,silurian 7or ,ludl[ & ,w5lock =mations #h4 ,cl9ton ,gr\p #i4 ,m$9a ,s&/one #aj4 ,oneida ,conglom]ate #aa4 ,gray ,s&/one ,b$s ( ,passage1 ,ll&ov]y ,gr\p4 #ab4 ,hudson ,riv] ,gr\p #ac4 ,tr5ton ,lime/one #ad4 ,black-,riv] ,lime/one #ae4 ,bird's-eye ,lime/one #af4 ,*azy ,lime/one #ag4 ,calcif]\s ,s&/one ,l[] ,silurian 7or ,c>adoc & ,bala1 ,ll&eilo & ,ar5ig ,=mations74 ,9 ! second column ( ! same table ,i h add$ ! suppos$ ,briti% equival5ts4 ,all ,palontologi/s1 ,european & ,am]ican1 su* z ,,mm4 ,de ,v]neuil1 ,d4 ,%>pe1 ,pr(essor ,hall1 ,e4 ,bill+s1 & o!rs1 :o h ent]$ ^u ?is comp>ison1 admit t !re is a m>k$ g5]al correspond5ce 9 ! succession ( fossil =ms1 & ev5 species1 z we trace ! organic rema9s d[nw>d f ! highe/ to ! l[e/ b$s2 b x is impossible to p>allel ea* m9or subdivision4 ,t ! ,niag>a ,lime/one1 ov] :i* ! riv] ( t "n is precipitat$ at ! great cat>act1 toge!r ) its und]ly+ %ales1 corresponds to ! ,w5lock lime/one & %ale ( ,engl& !re c be no d\bt4 ,among ! species common to ?is =mation 9 ,am]ica & ,europe are ,calym5e ,blum5ba*ii1 ,homalonotus delph9ocephalus 7,fig4 #edd71 ) sev]al o!r trilobites2 ,rhyn*onella ,wilsoni1 ,fig4 #eca1 & ,retzia cuneata2 ,or?is elegantula1 ,p5tam]us galeatus1 ) _m m bra*iopods2 ,or?oc]as annulatum1 among ! cephalopod\s %ells2 & ,favosites go?l&ica1 ) o!r l>ge corals4 ,fig4 #efg3 ,mur*isonia gracilis4 ,! ,cl9ton ,gr\p1 conta9+ ,p5tam]us oblongus & ,/rickl&9ia1 & relat$ m ne>ly by its fossil species ) ! b$s above ?an ) ^? bel[1 is ! equival5t ( ! ,ll&ov]y ,gr\p or b$s ( passage4 ,! ,hudson ,riv] ,gr\p1 & ! ,tr5ton ,lime/one1 agree palontologically ) ! ,c>adoc or ,bala gr\p1 conta9+ 9 common ) !m sev]al species ( trilobites1 su* z ,asaphus 7,isotelus7 gigas1 ,tr9ucleus conc5tricus 7,fig4 #eec72 & v>i\s %ells1 su* z ,or?is /riatula1 ,or?is bi=ata 7or ,o4 lynx71 ,o4 porcata 7,o4 occid5talis ( ,hall71 & ,bell]ophon bilobatus4 ,9 ! ,tr5ton lime/one occurs ,mur*isonia gracilis1 ,fig4 #efg1 a fossil also common to ! ,ll&eilo b$s 9 ,engl&4 ,mr4 ,d4 ,%>pe1 9 8 report on ! mollusca collect$ by me f ^! /rata 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1#f has conclud$ t ! numb] ( species common to ! ,silurian rocks on bo? sides ( ! ,atlantic is betwe5 #cj & #dj p] c5t2 a result :i*1 al?\gh no d\bt liable to future modification1 :5 a l>g] comp>ison %all h be5 made1 proves1 nev]!less1 t _m ( ! species _h a wide geographical range4 ,x seems t comp>atively few ( ! ga/]opods & lamellibran*iate bivalves ( ,nor? ,am]ica c be id5tifi$ specifically ) ,european fossils1 :ile no less ?an two-fif?s ( ! bra*iopoda1 ( :i* my collection *iefly consi/$1 are ! same4 ,9 explanation ( ^! facts1 x is sugge/$ t mo/ ( ! rec5t bra*iopoda 7especially ! or?idi=m ones7 are inhabitants ( deep wat]1 & t !y may h _h a wid] geographical range ?an %ells liv+ ne> %ore4 ,! pr$om9ance ( bivalve mollusca ( ?is peculi> class has caus$ ! ,silurian p]iod to be sometimes /yl$ 0! age ( bra*iopods40 ,9 ,canada1 z 9 ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york1 ! ,potsdam ,s&/one und]lies ! above-m5tion$ calc>e\s rocks1 b conta9s a diff]5t suite ( fossils1 z w be h]eaft] expla9$4 ,9 p>ts ( ! globe /ill m remote f ,europe ! ,silurian /rata h also be5 recognis$1 z 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,au/ralia1 & ,india4 ,9 all ^! regions ! facies ( ! fauna1 or ! types ( organic life1 enable u to recognise ! contemporane\s orig9 ( ! rocks2 b ! fossil species are di/9ct1 %[+ t ! old notion ( a univ]sal diffusion ?r\gh\t ! 0primval seas0 ( "o uni=m specific fauna 0 q unf\nd$1 geographical prov9ces hav+ evid5tly exi/$ 9 ! olde/ z 9 ! mo/ mod]n times4 #a ,mur*ison's ,siluria1 p4 #adj4 #b ,mur*ison's ,siluria1 *ap4 vi4 #c ,e4 ,=bes1 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv41 vol4 ii1 p4 #dif4 #d ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 iv1 p4 #bae1 #ahec4 #e ,trans4 ,brit4 ,assoc41 #ahff4 ,proc4 ,liv]pool ,geol4 ,soc41 #ahfi4 #f ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 iv4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,,cambrian ,,& ,,laur5tian ,,gr\ps4 ,classification ( ! ,cambrian ,gr\p1 & its ,equival5t 9 ,bohemia4 -- ,upp] ,cambrian ,rocks4 -- ,tremadoc ,slates & _! ,fossils4 -- ,l+ula ,flags4 -- ,l[] ,cambrian ,rocks4 -- ,m5evian ,b$s4 -- ,longmynd ,gr\p4 -- ,h>le* ,grits ) l>ge ,trilobites4 -- ,llanb]is ,slates4 -- ,cambrian ,rocks ( ,bohemia4 -- ,primordial ,zone ( ,b>r&e4 -- ,metamorphosis ( ,trilobites4 -- ,cambrian ,rocks ( ,sw$5 & ,norway4 -- ,cambrian ,rocks ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada4 -- ,potsdam ,s&/one4 -- ,huronian ,s]ies4 -- ,laur5tian ,gr\p1 upp] & l[]4 -- ,eozoon ,canad5se1 olde/ kn[n ,fossil4 -- ,fundam5tal ,gneiss ( ,scotl&4 ,,cambrian ,,gr\p4 ,! *>act]s ( ! ,upp] & ,l[] ,silurian rocks 7 e/abli%$ s fully1 bo? on /ratigraphical & palontological data1 by ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison aft] five ye>s' lab\r1 9 #ahci1 :5 8 8,silurian ,sy/em0 0 publi%$1 t ^! =mations c\ld f t p]iod be recognis$ & id5tifi$ 9 all o!r p>ts ( ,europe & 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ev5 9 c\ntries :]e mo/ ( ! fossils diff]$ specifically f ^? ( ! classical region 9 ,brita91 :]e !y 7 fir/ /udi$4 ,:ile ,sir ,r4 ,i4 ,mur*ison 0 explor+ 9 #ahcc1 9 ,%rop%ire & ! bord]s ( ,wales1 ! /rata :i* 9 #ahce he fir/ call$ ,silurian1 ,pr(essor ,s$gwick 0 survey+ ! rocks ( ,nor? ,wales1 :i* bo? ^! geologi/s consid]$ at t p]iod z ( old] date1 & = :i* 9 #ahcf ,s$gwick propos$ ! "n ( ,cambrian4 ,x 0 aft]w>ds f\nd t a l>ge portion ( ! slaty rocks ( ,nor? ,wales1 :i* _h be5 consid]$ z m anci5t ?an ! ,ll&eilo b$s & ,/ip]-,/ones be=e allud$ to1 71 9 reality1 n inf]ior 9 position to ^? ,l[] ,silurian b$s ( ,mur*ison1 b m]ely ext5sive undulations ( ! same1 be>+ fossils id5tical 9 species1 ?\gh ^! 7 g5]ally r>] & less p]fectly pres]v$1 ow+ to ! *anges :i* ! rocks _h und]gone f metamorphic action4 ,to su* rocks ! t]m 8,cambrian0 0 no long] applicable1 al?\gh x cont9u$ to be appropriate to /rata inf]ior to ! ,/ip]-,/ones1 & :i* 7 old] ?an ^? ( ! ,l[] ,silurian gr\p z orig9ally def9$4 ,x 0 n till #ahdf t fossils 7 f\nd 9 ,wales 9 ! ,l+ula flags1 ! place ( :i* w be se5 9 ! table bel[4 ,by ?is "t ,b>r&e _h already publi%$ an acc\nt ( a ri* collection ( fossils :i* he _h discov]$ 9 ,bohemia1 portions ( :i* he recognis$ z ( correspond+ age ) ,mur*ison's ,upp] & ,l[] ,silurian1 :ile o!rs 7 m anci5t1 to :i* he gave ! "n ( 8,primordial10 = ! fossils 7 suffici5tly di/9ct to entitle ! rocks to be ref]r$ to a new p]iod4 ,!y consi/$ *iefly ( trilobites ( g5]a di/9ct f ^? occurr+ 9 ! ov]ly+ ,silurian =mations4 ,^! peculi> g5]a 7 aft]w>ds f\nd 9 rocks hold+ a correspond+ position 9 ,wales1 & ,i %all reta9 = !m ! t]m ,cambrian1 z rec5t discov]ies 9 our own c\ntry seem to c>ry ! fir/ fauna ( ,b>r&e1 or 8 primordial type1 ev5 into old] /rata ?an any :i* he f\nd to be fossilif]\s 9 ,bohemia4 ,! t]m primordial 0 int5d$ to express ,m4 ,b>r&e's own belief t ! fossils ( ! rocks s-call$ af=d$ evid5ce ( ! fir/ appe>ance ( vital ph5om5a on ?is planet1 & t consequ5tly no fossilif]\s /rata ( old] date w\ld or c\ld ev] be discov]$4 ,! acceptance ( su* a nom5clature w\ld seem to imply t we despair$ ( ext5d+ our discov]ies ( new & m anci5t fossil gr\ps at "s future day :5 va/ portions ( ! globe1 hi!rto unexplor$1 %\ld h be5 ?or\ghly survey$4 ,already ! discov]y ( ! ,laur5tian ,eozoon 9 ,canada1 pres5tly to be m5tion$1 disc\nt5ances su* views4 ,! foll[+ table w %[ ! succession ( ! /rata 9 ,engl& & ,wales :i* belong to ! ,cambrian gr\p or ! fossilif]\s rocks old] ?an ! ,ar5ig or ,l[] ,ll&eilo rocks3 ,,upp] ,,cambrian ,,tremadoc ,,slates 7,primordial ( ,b>r&e 9 "p7 ,,l+ula ,,flags 7,primordial ( ,b>r&e7 ,,l[] ,,cambrian ,,m5evian ,,b$s 7,primordial ( ,b>r&e7 ,,longmynd ,,gr\p a4 ,h>le* ,grits b4 ,llanb]is ,slates ,tremadoc ,slates4--,! ,tremadoc slates ( ,s$gwick are m ?an #ajjj feet 9 ?ickness1 & consi/ ( d>k e>?y slates occurr+ ne> ! little t[n ( ,tremadoc1 situat$ on ! nor? side ( ,c>digan ,bay1 9 ,c>n>von%ire4 ,^! slates 7 fir/ exam9$ by ,s$gwick 9 #ahca1 & 7 re-exam9$ by him & describ$ 9 #ahdf1a aft] "s fossils _h be5 f\nd 9 ! und]ly+ ,l+ula flags by ,mr4 ,davis4 ,! inf]iority 9 position ( ^! ,l+ula flags to ! ,tremadoc b$s 0 at ! same "t e/abli%$4 ,! ov]ly+ ,tremadoc b$s 7 trac$ by _! pisolitic ore f ,tremadoc to ,dolgelly4 ,no fossils prop] to ! ,tremadoc slates 7 !n obs]v$1 b subsequ5tly1 ?irty-six species ( all classes h be5 f\nd 9 !m1 ?anks to ! rese>*es ( ,messrs4 ,salt]1 ,homfray1 & ,a%4 ,we h already se5 t 9 ! ,ar5ig or ,/ip]-,/ones gr\p1 :]e ! species are di/9ct1 ! g5]a agree ) ,silurian types2 b 9 ^! ,tremadoc slates1 :]e ! species are also peculi>1 !re is ab\t an equal admixture ( ,silurian types ) ^? :i* ,b>r&e has t]m$ 8primordial40 ,"h1 !re=e1 x may truly be said t we are ent]+ ^u a new doma9 ( life 9 our retrospective survey ( ! pa/4 ,! trilobites ( new species1 b ( ,l[] ,silurian g5]a1 belong to ,ogygia1 ,asaphus1 & ,*eirurus2 :]eas ^? belong+ to primordial types1 or ,b>r&e's fir/ fauna z well z to ! ,l+ula flags ( ,wales1 comprise ,dikelocephalus1 ,conocoryphe 7= g5]a see ,fig4 #egg & #eha71b ,ol5us1 & ,angel9a4 ,fig4 #efh3 ,!ca 7,cleido!ca op]culata4 ,9 ! ,tremadoc slates are f\nd ,bell]ophon1 ,or?oc]as1 & ,cyrtoc]as1 all specifically di/9ct f ,l[] ,silurian fossils ( ! same g5]a3 ! ,pt]opods ,!ca 7,fig4 #efh7 & ,conul>ia range ?r\gh\t ^! slates2 !re are no ,graptolites4 ,! ,l+ula 7,l+ulella7 ,davisii ranges f ! top to ! bottom ( ! =mation1 & l9ks x ) ! zone next to be describ$4 ,! ,tremadoc slates are v local1 & seem to be conf9$ to a small "p ( ,nor? ,wales2 & ,pr(essor ,ramsay supposes !m to lie uncon=mably on ! ,l+ula flags1 & t a long int]val ( "t elaps$ betwe5 ^! =mations4 ,cephalopoda h n yet be5 f\nd l[] ?an ?is gr\p1 b x w be obs]v$ t !y occur "h associat$ ) g5]a ( ,trilobites consid]$ by ,b>r&e z *>act]i/ically ,primordial1 "s ( :i* belong to all ! divisions ( ! ,briti% ,cambrian ab\t to be m5tion$4 ,?is r5d]s ! abs5ce ( cephalopoda ( less importance z be>+ on ! !ory ( developm5t4 ,l+ula ,flags4--,next bel[ ! ,tremadoc slates 9 ,nor? ,wales lie micace\s flag/ones & slates1 9 :i*1 9 #ahdf1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,davis discov]$ ! ,l+ula 7,l+ulella71 ,fig4 #egj1 nam$ aft] him1 & f :i* 0 d]iv$ ! "n ( ,l+ula flags4 ,^! b$s1 :i* are palontologically ! equival5ts ( ,b>r&e's primordial zone1 are repres5t$ by m ?an #ejjj feet ( /rata1 & h be5 /udi$ *iefly 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,dolgelly1 ,ffe/9iog1 & ,portmadoc 9 ,nor? ,wales1 & at ,/4 ,david's 9 ,s\? ,wales4 ,!y h yield$ ab\t =ty species ( fossils1 ( :i* six only are common to ! ov]ly+ ,tremadoc rocks1 b ! two =mations are closely alli$ by hav+ sev]al *>act]i/ic 8primordial0 g5]a 9 common4 ,dikelocephalus1 ,ol5us 7,fig4 #ega71 & ,conocoryphe are prom95t =ms1 z is also ,hym5oc>is 7,fig4 #efi71 a g5us ( phyllopod cru/acean entirely conf9$ to ! ,l+ula ,flags4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,belt1 :o has devot$ mu* att5tion to ^! b$s1 !re are already palontological data = subdivid+ ! ,l+ula ,flags into ?ree sections4#c 8,l+ula ,flags0 ( ,dolgelly1 & ,ffe/9iog2 ,n4 ,wales4 ,9 ,m]ione?%ire1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,ramsay1 ! ,l+ula ,flags atta9 _! greate/ developm5t2 9 ,c>n>von%ire !y ?9 out s z to h lo/ two-?irds ( _! ?ickness 9 elev5 miles1 :ile 9 ,anglesea & on ! ,m5ai ,/raits bo? !y & ! ,tremadoc b$s are entirely abs5t1 & ! ,l[] ,silurian re/s directly on ,l[] ,cambrian /rata4 ,,l[] ,,cambrian4 ,m5evian ,b$s4--,imm$iately b5ea? ! ,l+ula ,flags !re occurs a s]ies ( d>k grey & black flags & slates alt]nat+ at ! upp] "p ) "s b$s ( s&/one1 ! :ole rea*+ a ?ickness ( f #ejj to #fjj feet4 ,^! b$s 7 =m]ly class$1 on purely li?ological gr\nds1 z ! base ( ! ,l+ula ,flags1 b ,messrs4 ,hicks & ,salt]1 to ^: ex]tions we owe almo/ all our k ( ! fossils1 h po9t$ out#d t ! mo/ *>act]i/ic g5]a f\nd 9 !m are q unkn[n 9 ! ,l+ula ,flags1 :ile !y possess _m ( ! /rictly ,l[] ,cambrian g5]a1 su* z ,microdiscus & ,p>adoxides4 ,!y !re=e propos$ to place !m1 & x seems to me ) good reason1 at ! top ( ! ,l[] ,cambrian "u ! t]m 8,m5evian10 ,m5evia be+ ! classical "n ( ,/4 ,david's4 ,! b$s are well exhibit$ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,/4 ,david's 9 ,s\? ,wales1 & ne> ,dolgelly & ,ma5twrog 9 ,nor? ,wales4 ,!y are ! equival5ts ( ! l[e/ "p ( ,b>r&e's ,primordial ,zone 7tage ,c74 ,m ?an =ty species h be5 f\nd 9 !m1 & ! gr\p is altoge!r v ri* 9 fossils = s e>ly a p]iod4 ,fig4 #egb3 ,p>adoxides ,davidis4 ,! trilobites are ( l>ge size2 ,p>adoxides ,davidis 7see ,fig4 #egb71 ! l>ge/ trilobite kn[n 9 ,engl&1 #bb in*es or ne>ly two feet long1 is peculi> to ! ,m5evian ,b$s4 ,by ref]r+ to ! ,bohemian trilobite ( ! same g5us 7,fig4 #egf71 ! read] w at once see h[ ^! fossils 7?\gh ( su* diff]5t dim5sions7 resemble ea* o!r 9 ,bohemia & ,wales1 & o!r closely alli$ species f ! two regions might be add$1 besides "s :i* are common to bo? c\ntries4 ,! ,sw$i% fauna1 pres5tly to be m5tion$1 w be f\nd to be /ill m ne>ly connect$ ) ! ,wel% ,m5evian4 ,9 all ^! c\ntries !re is an equally m>k$ diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,cambrian fossils & ^? ( ! ,upp] & ,l[] ,silurian rocks4 ,! trilobite ) ! l>ge/ numb] ( r+s1 ,er9nys v5ulosa1 occurs "h 9 conjunction ) ,agno/us & ,microdiscus1 ! g5]a ) ! smalle/ numb]4 ,bl9d trilobites are also f\nd z well z ^? :i* h ! l>ge/ eyes1 su* z ,microdiscus on ! "o h&1 & ,anopl5us on ! o!r4 ,,longmynd ,,gr\p4 ,old] ?an ! ,m5evian ,b$s are a ?ick s]ies ( olive gre51 purple1 r$ & grey grits & conglom]ates f\nd 9 ,nor? & ,s\? ,wales1 ,%rop%ire1 & p>ts ( ,irel& & ,scotl&4 ,!y h be5 call$ by ,pr(essor ,s$gwick ! ,longmynd or ,bangor ,gr\p1 compris+1 fir/1 ! ,h>le* & ,b>m\? s&/ones2 & secondly1 ! ,llanb]is slates4 ,fig4 #egc3 ,hi/iod]ma ,hib]nica4 ,h>le* ,grits4--,! s&/ones ( ?is p]iod atta9 9 ! ,longmynd hills a ?ickness ( no less ?an #fjjj feet )\t any int]position ( volcanic matt]2 9 "s places 9 ,m]ione?%ire !y are /ill ?ick]4 ,until rec5tly ^! rocks possess$ b a v scanty fauna4 ,) ! exception ( five species ( annelids 7see ,fig4 #dfj7 br\ght to light by ,mr4 ,salt] 9 ,%rop%ire1 & ,dr4 ,k9ahan 9 ,wickl[1 & an obscure cru/acean =m1 ,palopyge ,ramsayi1 !y 7 suppos$ to be b>r5 ( organic rema9s4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 ?r\gh ! lab\rs ( ,mr4 ,hicks1#e !y h yield$ at ,/4 ,david's a ri* fauna ( trilobites1 bra*iopods1 phyllopods1 & pt]opods1 %[+1 toge!r ) o!r fossils1 a by no means l[ /ate ( organisation at ?is e>ly p]iod4 ,already ! fauna am\nts to #bj species ref]r$ to #ag g5]a4 ,a new g5us ( trilobite call$ ,plutonia ,s$gwickii1 n yet figur$ & describ$1 has be5 met ) 9 ! ,h>le* grits4 ,x is comp>able 9 size to ! l>ge ,p>adoxides ,davidis be=e m5tion$1 has well-develop$ eyes1 & is cov]$ all ov] ) tub]cles4 ,9 ! same /rata occur o!r g5]a ( trilobites1 namely1 ,conocoryphe1 ,p>adoxides1 ,microdiscus1 & ! ,pt]opod ,!ca 7,fig4 #efh71 all repres5t$ by species peculi> to ! ,h>le* grits4 ,! s&s ( ?is =mation are (t5 rippl$1 & 7 evid5tly left dry at l[ tides1 s t ! surface 0 dri$ by ! sun & made to %r9k & pres5t sun-cracks4 ,!re are also di/9ct impressions ( ra9-drops on _m surfaces1 l ^? 9 ,fig4 #ddd & #dde4 ,lanb]is ,slates4--,! slates ( ,llanb]is & ,p5rhyn 9 ,c>n>von%ire1 ) _! associat$ s&y /rata1 atta9 a great ?ickness1 sometimes ab\t #cjjj feet4 ,!y are p]haps n m anci5t ?an ! ,h>le* & ,b>m\? b$s la/ m5tion$1 = !y may repres5t ! deposits ( f9e mud ?r[n d[n 9 ! same sea1 on ! bord]s ( :i* ! s&s above-m5tion$ 7 accumulat+4 ,9 "s ( ^! slaty rocks 9 ,irel&1 imm$iately opposite ,anglesea & ,c>n>von1 two species ( fossils h be5 f\nd1 to :i* ! late ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes gave ! "n ( ,oldhamia4 ,! nature ( ^! organisms is /ill a matt] ( discussion among naturali/s4 ,fig4 #egd3 ,oldhamia radiata4 ,fig4 #ege3 ,oldhamia antiqua4 ,cambrian ,rocks ( ,bohemia 7,primordial zone ( ,b>r&e74--,9 ! ye> #ahdf1 z be=e /at$1 ,m4 ,joa*im ,b>r&e1 aft] t5 ye>s' exploration ( ,bohemia1 & aft] collect+ m ?an a ?\s& species ( fossils1 _h asc]ta9$ ! exi/5ce 9 t c\ntry ( ?ree di/9ct faunas bel[ ! ,devonian4 ,to 8 fir/ fauna1 :i* 0 old] ?an any !n kn[n 9 ?is c\ntry1 he gave ! "n ( tage ,c2 8 two fir/ /ages ,a & ,b consi/+ ( cry/all9e & metamorphic rocks & unfossilif]\s s*i/s4 ,?is tage ,c or primordial zone prov$ aft]w>ds to be ! equival5t ( ^? subdivisions ( ! ,cambrian gr\ps :i* h be5 above describ$ "u ! names ( ,m5evian & ,l+ula ,flags4 ,! second fauna tallies ) ,mur*ison's ,l[] ,silurian1 z orig9ally def9$ by him :5 no fossils _h be5 discov]$ bel[ ! ,/ip]-,/ones4 ,! ?ird fauna agrees ) ! ,upp] ,silurian ( ! same au?or4 ,b>r&e1 )\t gov]nm5t assi/ance1 _h und]tak5 s+le-h&$ ! geological survey ( ,bohemia1 ! fossils previ\sly obta9$ f t c\ntry hav+ sc>cely exce$$ #bj 9 numb]1 :]eas he _h already acquir$1 9 #ahej1 no less ?an #aajj species1 namely1 #bej cru/aceans 7*iefly ,trilobites71 #bej ,cephalopods1 #afj ga/]opods & pt]opods1 #acj acephal\s mollusks1 #baj bra*iopods1 & #aaj corals & o!r fossils4 ,^! numb]s h s9ce be5 almo/ d\bl$ by subsequ5t inve/igations 9 ! same c\ntry4 ,9 ! primordial zone ,c1 he discov]$ trilobites ( ! g5]a ,p>adoxides1 ,conocoryphe1 ,ellipsocephalus1 ,sao1 ,arionellus1 ,hydrocephalus1 & ,agno/us4 ,m4 ,b>r&e po9t$ out t ^! primordial trilobites h a peculi> facies ( _! own dep5d5t on ! multiplication ( _! ?oracic segm5ts & ! dim9ution ( _! caudal %ield or pygidium4 ,fossils ( ! l[e/ ,fossilif]\s ,b$s 9 ,bohemia1 or 8,primordial ,zone0 ( ,b>r&e4 ,fig4 #egf3 ,p>adoxides ,bohemicus4 ,fig4 #egg3 ,conocoryphe /riata4 ,fig4 #egh3 ,agno/us integ]4 ,fig4 #egi3 ,agno/us ,rex4 ,fig4 #ehj3 ,sao hirsuta 9 its v>i\s /ages ( gr[?4 ,"o ( ! 8primordial0 or ,upp] ,cambrian ,trilobites ( ! g5us ,sao1 a =m n f\nd z yet else:]e 9 ! _w1 af=d$ ,m4 ,b>r&e a f9e illu/ration ( ! metamorphosis ( ^! creatures1 = he trac$ !m ?r\gh no less ?an tw5ty /ages ( _! developm5t4 ,a few ( ^! *anges h be5 select$ = repres5tation 9 ,figure #ehj1 t ! read] may le>n ! gradual mann] 9 :i* diff]5t segm5ts ( ! body & ! eyes make _! appe>ance4 ,9 ,bohemia ! primordial fauna ( ,b>r&e d]iv$ its importance exclusively f its num]\s & peculi> trilobites4 ,besides ^!1 h[ev]1 ! same anci5t s*i/s h yield$ two g5]a ( bra*iopods1 ,or?is & ,orbicula1 a ,pt]opod ( ! g5us ,!ca1 & f\r e*9od]ms ( ! cy/idean family4 ,cambrian ( ,sw$5 & ,norway4--,! ,cambrian b$s ( ,wales are repres5t$ 9 ,sw$5 by /rata ! fossils ( :i* h be5 describ$ by a mo/ able naturali/1 ,m4 ,angel91 9 8 8,palontologica ,suecica0 7#aheb-d74 ,! 8alum-s*i/s10 z !y are call$ 9 ,sw$51 are horizontal argillace\s rocks :i* und]lie con=mably c]ta9 ,l[] ,silurian /rata 9 ! m\nta9 call$ ,k9nekulle1 s\? ( ! great ,w5] ,lake 9 ,sw$54 ,^! s*i/s conta9 trilobites belong+ to ! g5]a ,p>adoxides1 ,ol5us1 ,agno/us1 & o!rs1 "s ( :i* pres5t rudim5t>y =ms1 l ! g5us la/ m5tion$1 )\t eyes1 & ) ! body segm5ts sc>cely develop$1 & o!rs1 aga91 h ! numb] ( segm5ts excessively multipli$1 z 9 ,p>adoxides4 ,su* peculi>ities agree ) ! *>act]s ( ! cru/aceans met ) 9 ! ,cambrian /rata ( ,wales2 & ,dr4 ,torell has rec5tly f\nd 9 ,sw$5 ! ,p>adoxides ,hicksii1 a well-kn[n ,l[] ,cambrian fossil4 ,at ! base ( ! ,cambrian /rata 9 ,sw$51 :i* 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,lake ,w5] are p]fectly horizontal1 lie ripple-m>k$ qu>tzose s&/ones ) worm-tracks & annelid bor+s1 l "s ( ^? f\nd 9 ! ,h>le* grits ( ! ,longmynd4 ,among ^! are "s :i* h be5 ref]r$ d\btfully to plants4 ,^! s&/ones h be5 call$ 9 ,sw$5 8fucoid s&/ones40 ,! :ole ?ickness ( ! ,cambrian rocks ( ,sw$5 does n exce$ #cjj feet f ! equival5ts ( ! ,tremadoc b$s to ^! s&/ones1 :i* la/ seem to correspond ) ! ,longmynd1 & are reg>d$ by ,torell z old] ?an any fossilif]\s primordial rocks 9 ,bohemia4 ,cambrian ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada 7,potsdam ,s&/one74--,?is =mation1 z we le>n f ,sir ,w4 ,logan1 is #gjj feet ?ick 9 ,canada2 ! upp] "p consi/s ( s&/one conta9+ fucoids1 & p]=at$ by small v]tical holes1 :i* are v *>act]i/ic ( ! rock1 & appe> to h be5 made by annelids 7,scoli?us l9e>is74 ,! l[] portion is a conglom]ate ) qu>tz pebbles4 ,i h se5 ! ,potsdam s&/one on ! banks ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 & on ! bord]s ( ,lake ,*ampla91 :]e1 z at ,keesville1 x is a :ite qu>tzose f9e-gra9$ grit1 almo/ pass+ into qu>tzite4 ,x is divid$ into horizontal ripple-m>k$ b$s1 v l ^? ( ! ,l+ula ,flags ( ,brita91 & replete ) a small r\nd-%ap$ ,obolella1 9 su* numb]s z to divide ! rock into p>allel planes1 9 ! same mann] z d ! scales ( mica 9 "s micace\s s&/ones4 ,among ! %ells ( ?is =mation 9 ,wiscons9 are species ( ,l+ula & ,or?is1 & sev]al trilobites ( ! primordial g5us ,dikelocephalus 7,fig4 #eha74 ,on ! banks ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 ne> ,beauh>nois & else:]e1 _m fossil footpr9ts h be5 obs]v$ on ! surface ( ! rippl$ lay]s4 ,!y are suppos$ by ,pr(essor ,ow5 to be ! trails ( m ?an "o species ( articulate animal1 probably alli$ to ! ,k+ ,crab1 or ,limulus4 ,fig4 #eha3 ,dikelocephalus ,m9nesot5sis4 ,rec5t inve/igations by ! naturali/s ( ! ,canadian survey h r5d]$ x c]ta9 t bel[ ! level ( ! ,potsdam ,s&/one !re are slates & s*i/s ext5d+ f ,new ,york to ,newf\ndl&1 occupi$ by a s]ies ( trilobitic =ms simil> 9 g5]a1 ?\gh n 9 species1 to ^? f\nd 9 ! ,european ,upp] ,cambrian /rata4 ,huronian ,s]ies4--,next bel[ ! ,upp] ,cambrian occur /rata call$ ! ,huronian by ,sir ,w4 ,logan1 :i* are ( va/ ?ickness1 consi/+ *iefly ( qu>tzite1 ) great masses ( gre5i% *loritic slate1 :i* sometimes include pebbles ( cry/all9e rocks d]iv$ f ! ,laur5tian =mation1 next to be describ$4 ,lime/ones are r>e 9 ?is s]ies1 b "o b& ( #cjj feet 9 ?ickness has be5 trac$ = consid]able di/ances to ! nor? ( ,lake ,huron4 ,b$s ( gre5/one are int]calat$ con=mably ) ! qu>tzose & argillace\s memb]s ( ?is s]ies4 ,no organic rema9s h yet be5 f\nd 9 any ( ! b$s1 :i* are ab\t #ah1jjj feet ?ick1 & re/ uncon=mably on ! ,laur5tian rocks4 ,,laur5tian ,,gr\p4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! geological survey c>ri$ on "u ! direction ( ,sir ,w4,e4 ,logan1 x has be5 %[n t1 nor?w>d ( ! riv] ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 !re is a va/ s]ies ( cry/all9e rocks ( gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 qu>tzite1 & lime/one1 m ?an #cj1jjj feet 9 ?ickness1 :i* h be5 call$ ,laur5tian1 & :i* are already kn[n to occupy an area ( ab\t #bjj1jjj squ>e miles4 ,!y are n only m anci5t ?an ! fossilif]\s ,cambrian =mations above describ$1 b are old] ?an ! ,huronian la/ m5tion$1 & _h und]gone great di/urb+ movem5ts be=e ! ,potsdam s&/one & ! o!r 8primordial0 or ,cambrian rocks 7 =m$4 ,! old] half ( ?is ,laur5tian s]ies is uncon=mable to ! new] portion ( ! same4 ,upp] ,laur5tian or ,labrador ,s]ies4--,! ,upp] ,gr\p1 m ?an #aj1jjj feet ?ick1 consi/s ( /ratifi$ cry/all9e rocks 9 :i* no organic rema9s h yet be5 f\nd4 ,!y consi/ 9 great "p ( feldsp>s1 :i* v>y 9 composition f anor?ite to &es9e1 or f ^? k9ds 9 :i* !re is less ?an "o p] c5t ( pota% & soda to ^? 9 :i* !re is m ?an sev5 p] c5t ( ^! alkalies1 ! soda prepond]at+ greatly4 ,^! feldsp>ites sometimes =m m\nta9 masses almo/ )\t any admixture ( o!r m9]als2 b at o!r times !y include augite1 :i* passes into hyp]/h5e4 ,!y are (t5 granitoid 9 /ructure4 ,"o ( ! v>ieties is ! same z ! apolesc5t labradorite rock ( ,labrador4 ,! ,adirondack ,m\nta9s 9 ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york are ref]r$ to ! same s]ies1 & x is conjectur$ t ! hyp]/h5e rocks ( ,skye1 :i* resemble ?is =mation 9 m9]al "*1 may be ( ! same geological age4 ,l[] ,laur5tian4--,?is s]ies1 ab\t #bj1jjj feet 9 ?ickness1 is1 z be=e /at$1 uncon=mable to t la/ m5tion$2 x consi/s 9 great "p ( gneiss ( a r$di% t9t ) or?oclase feldsp>4 ,b$s ( ne>ly pure qu>tz1 f #djj to #fjj feet ?ick1 occur 9 "s places4 ,hornbl5dic & micace\s s*i/s are (t5 int]/ratifi$1 & b$s ( lime/one1 usually cry/all9e4 ,b$s ( plumbago also occur4 ,t ?is pure c>bon may h be5 ( organic orig9 be=e metamorphism has naturally be5 conjectur$4 ,!re are sev]al ( ^! lime/ones :i* h be5 trac$ to great di/ances1 & "o ( !m is f #gjj to #aejj feet ?ick4 ,9 ! mo/ massive ( !m ,sir ,w4 ,logan obs]v$1 9 #ahei1 :at he consid]$ to be an organic body mu* resembl+ ! ,silurian fossil call$ ,/romatopora rugosa4 ,x _h be5 obta9$ ! ye> be=e by ,mr4 ,j4 ,mac,mullen at ! ,gr& ,calumet1 on ! riv] ,ottawa4 ,?is fossil 0 exam9$ 9 #ahfd by ,dr4 ,dawson ( ,montreal1 :o detect$ 9 x1 by aid ( ! microscope1 ! di/9ct /ructure ( a ,rhizopod or ,=am9if]4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] & ,pr(essor ,t4 ,rup]t ,jones h s9ce confirm$ ?is op9ion1 comp>+ ! /ructure to t ( ! well-kn[n nummulite4 ,x appe>s to h gr[n "o lay] ov] ano!r1 & to h =m$ reefs ( lime/one z d ! liv+ coral-build+ polyp animals4 ,p>ts ( ! orig9al skeleton1 consi/+ ( c>bonate ( lime1 are /ill pres]v$2 :ile c]ta9 int]-spaces 9 ! calc>e\s fossil h be5 fill$ up ) s]p5t9e & :ite augite4 ,on ?is olde/ ( kn[n organic rema9s ,dr4 ,dawson has conf]r$ ! "n ( ,eozoon ,canad5se 7see ,figs4 #ehb1 #ehc72 its antiquity is su* t ! di/ance ( "t :i* sep>at$ x f ! ,upp] ,cambrian p]iod1 or t ( ! ,potsdam s&/one1 may1 says ,sir ,w4 ,logan1 be equal to ! "t :i* elaps$ betwe5 ! ,potsdam s&/one & ! nummulitic lime/ones ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,! ,laur5tian & ,huronian rocks unit$ are ab\t #ej1jjj feet 9 ?ickness1 & ! ,l[] ,laur5tian 0 di/urb$ be=e ! new] s]ies 0 deposit$4 ,we may naturally expect ! o!r pro(s ( uncon=mability w h]eaft] be detect$ at m ?an "o po9t 9 s va/ a succession ( /rata4 ,fig4 #ehb & #ehc3 ,eozoon ,canad5se4 ,fig4 #ehb4 a4 ,*amb]s ( l[] ti] communicat+ at 1 & sep>at$ f adjo9+ *amb]s at ,o by an int]v5+ septum1 trav]s$ by passages4 b4 ,*amb]s ( an upp] ti]4 c4 ,walls ( ! *amb]s trav]s$ by f9e tubules4 7,^! tubules pass ) uni=m p>allelism f ! inn] to ! out] surface1 op5+ at regul> di/ances f ea* o!r47 d4 ,int]m$iate skeleton1 compos$ ( homog5e\s %ell sub/ance1 trav]s$ by f4 ,/olonif]\s passages connect+ ! *amb]s ( ! two ti]s4 e4 ,canal sy/em 9 int]m$iate skeleton1 %[+ ! arboresc5t saceodic prolongations4 7,fig4 #ehc %[s ^! bodies 9 a decalcifi$ /ate47 f4 ,/olonif]\s passages4 ,fig4 #ehc4 ,decalcifi$ portion ( natural rock1 %[+ canal sy/em & ! sev]al lay]s2 ! acut5ess ( ! planes prev5ts m ?an "o or two p>allel ti]s be+ obs]v$4 ,! m9]al "* ( ! ,upp] ,laur5tian diff]s1 z we h se51 f t ( ! ,l[]1 & ! pebbles ( gneiss 9 ! ,huronian conglom]ates are ?\ght to prove t ! ,laur5tian /rata 7 already 9 a metamorphic /ate be=e !y 7 brok5 up to supply mat]ials = ! ,huronian4 ,ev5 if we _h n discov]$ ! ,eozoon1 we might fairly h inf]r$ f analogy t z ! qu>tzites 7 once b$s ( s&1 & ! gneiss & mica-s*i/ d]iv$ f %ales & argillace\s s&/ones1 s ! calc>e\s masses1 f #djj to #ajjj feet & m 9 ?ickness1 7 orig9ally ( organic orig94 ,?is is n[ g5]ally believ$ to h be5 ! case ) ! ,silurian1 ,devonian1 ,c>bonif]\s1 ,oolitic1 & ,cretace\s lime/ones & ^? nummulitic rocks ( t]ti>y date :i* be> ! close/ aff9ity to ! ,eozoon reefs ( ! ,l[] ,laur5tian4 ,! olde/ /ratifi$ rock 9 ,scotl& is t call$ by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison 8! fundam5tal gneiss10 :i* is f\nd 9 ! nor?-we/ ( ,ross-%ire1 & 9 ,su!rl&%ire 7see ,fig4 #hb71 & =ms ! :ole ( ! adjo9+ isl& ( ,lewis1 9 ! ,hebrides4 ,x has a /rike f nor?-we/ to s\?-ea/1 ne>ly at "r angles to ! metamorphic /rata ( ! ,grampians4 ,on ?is ,laur5tian gneiss1 9 p>ts ( ! we/]n ,highl&s1 ! ,l[] ,cambrian & v>i\s metamorphic rocks re/ uncon=mably4 ,x seems highly probable t ?is anci5t gneiss ( ,scotl& may correspond 9 date ) "p ( ! great ,laur5tian gr\p ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 #a ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 iii1 p4 #aef4 #b ,?is g5us has be5 sub/itut$ = ,b>r&e's ,conocephalus1 z ! latt] t]m _h be5 preoccupi$ by ! entomologi/s4 #c ,geol4 ,mag41 vol iv4 #d ,briti% ,association ,report #ahfe1 #ahff1 #ahfh & ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vols4 xxi1 xxv4 #e ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,report1 #ahfh4 ,,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,,volcanic ,,rocks4 ,ext]nal ,=m1 ,/ructure1 & ,orig9 ( ,volcanic ,m\nta9s4 -- ,cones & ,crat]s4 -- ,hypo!sis ( 8,elevation ,crat]s0 consid]$4 -- ,trap ,rocks4 -- ,"n :5ce d]iv$4 -- ,m9]als mo/ abundant 9 ,volcanic ,rocks4 -- ,table ( ! ,analysis ( ,m9]als 9 ! ,volcanic & ,hypog5e ,rocks4 -- ,simil> ,m9]als 9 ,meteorites4 -- ,!ory ( ,isomorphism4 -- ,basaltic ,rocks4 -- ,tra*ytic ,rocks4 -- ,special ,=ms ( ,/ructure4 -- ,! column> & globul> ,=ms4 -- ,trap ,dikes & ,ve9s4 -- ,alt]ation ( ,rocks by volcanic ,dikes4 -- ,conv]sion ( ,*alk into ,m>ble4 -- ,intrusion ( ,trap betwe5 ,/rata4 -- ,relation ( trappean ,rocks to ! ,products ( active ,volcanoes4 ,! aque\s or fossilif]\s rocks hav+ n[ be5 describ$1 we h next to exam9e ^? :i* may be call$ volcanic1 9 ! mo/ ext5d$ s5se ( t t]m4 ,9 ! diagram 7,fig4 #ehd7 suppose a1 a to repres5t ! cry/all9e =mations1 su* z ! granitic & metamorphic2 b1 b ! fossilif]\s /rata2 & c1 c ! volcanic rocks4 ,^! la/ are sometimes f\nd1 z 0 expla9$ 9 ! fir/ *apt]1 break+ ?r\gh a & b1 sometimes ov]ly+ bo?1 & occasionally alt]nat+ ) ! /rata b1 b4 ,fig4 #ehd3 a4 ,hypog5e =mations1 /ratifi$ & un/ratifi$4 b4 ,aque\s =mations4 c4 ,volcanic rocks4 ,ext]nal ,=m1 ,/ructure1 & ,orig9 ( ,volcanic ,m\nta9s4--,! orig9 ( volcanic cones ) crat]-%ap$ summits has be5 expla9$ 9 ! 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology0 7,*apt]s #bc to #bg71 :]e ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 ,santor91 & ,b>r5 ,isl& are describ$4 ,! m anci5t portions ( ^? m\nta9s or isl&s1 =m$ long be=e ! times ( hi/ory1 exhibit ! same ext]nal features & int]nal /ructure :i* belong to mo/ ( ! ext9ct volcanoes ( /ill high] antiquity2 & ^! la/ h evid5tly be5 due to a complicat$ s]ies ( op]ations1 v>i$ 9 k9d accord+ to circum/ances2 z1 = example1 :e!r ! accumulation took place above or bel[ ! level ( ! sea1 :e!r ! lava issu$ f "o or sev]al contigu\s v5ts1 &1 la/ly1 :e!r ! rocks r$uc$ to fusion 9 ! subt]ranean regions happ5$ to h conta9$ m or less silica1 pota%1 soda1 lime1 iron1 & o!r +r$i5ts4 ,we are be/ acqua9t$ ) ! effects ( eruptions above wat]1 or ^? call$ subrial or supram>9e2 yet ! products ev5 ( ^! are arrang$ 9 s _m ways t _! int]pretation has giv5 rise to a v>iety ( contradictory op9ions1 "s ( :i* w h to be consid]$ 9 ?is *apt]4 ,fig4 #ehe3 ,"p ( ! *a9 ( ext9ct volcanoes call$ ! ,monts ,dome1 ,aurv]gne4 ,cones & ,crat]s4--,9 regions :]e ! eruption ( volcanic matt] has tak5 place 9 ! op5 air1 & :]e ! surface has nev] s9ce be5 subject$ to great aque\s d5udation1 cones & crat]s con/itute ! mo/ /rik+ peculi>ity ( ?is class ( =mations4 ,_m hundr$s ( ^! cones are se5 9 c5tral ,france1 9 ! anci5t prov9ces ( ,auv]gne1 ,velay1 & ,viv>ais1 :]e !y obs]ve1 = ! mo/ "p1 a l9e> arrangem5t1 & =m *a9s ( hills4 ,al?\gh none ( ! eruptions h happ5$ )9 ! hi/orical era1 ! /reams ( lava may /ill be trac$ di/9ctly desc5d+ f _m ( ! crat]s1 & foll[+ ! l[e/ levels ( ! exi/+ valleys4 ,! orig9 ( ! cone & crat]-%ap$ hill is well und]/ood1 ! gr[? ( _m hav+ be5 wat*$ dur+ volcanic eruptions4 ,a *asm or fissure fir/ op5s 9 ! e>?1 f :i* great volumes ( /eam are evolv$4 ,! explosions are s viol5t z to hurl up into ! air fragm5ts ( brok5 /one1 p>ts ( :i* are %iv]$ into m9ute atoms4 ,at ! same "t melt$ /one or lava usually asc5ds ?r\gh ! *imney or v5t by :i* ! gases make _! escape4 ,al?\gh extremely heavy1 ?is lava is =c$ up by ! expansive p[] ( entangl$ gase\s fluids1 *iefly /eam or aque\s vap\r1 exactly 9 ! same mann] z wat] is made to boil ov] ! edge ( a vessel :5 /eam has be5 g5]at$ at ! bottom by heat4 ,l>ge quantities ( ! lava are also %ot up into ! air1 :]e x sep>ates into fragm5ts1 & acquires a spongy texture by ! sudd5 enl>gem5t ( ! includ$ gases1 & ?us =ms scori1 o!r portions be+ r$uc$ to an impalpable p[d] or du/4 ,! %[]+ d[n ( ! v>i\s eject$ mat]ials r\nd ! orifice ( eruption gives rise to a conical m\nd1 9 :i* ! successive envelopes ( s& & scori =m lay]s1 dipp+ on all sides f a c5tral axis4 ,9 ! mean "t a holl[1 call$ a crat]1 has be5 kept op5 9 ! middle ( ! m\nd by ! cont9u$ passage upw>d ( /eam & o!r gase\s fluids4 ,! lava sometimes fl[s ov] ! edge ( ! crat]1 & ?us ?ick5s & /r5g!ns ! sides ( ! cone2 b sometimes x breaks d[n ! cone on "o side 7see ,fig4 #ehe71 & (t5 x fl[s out f a fissure at ! base ( ! hill1 or at "s di/ance f its base4 ,"s geologi/s _h errone\sly suppos$1 f obs]vations made on rec5t cones ( eruption1 t lava :i* consolidates on /eep slopes is always ( a scoriace\s or vesicul> /ructure1 & nev] ( t compact texture :i* we f9d 9 ^? rocks :i* are usually t]m$ 8trappean40 ,misl$ by ?is !ory1 !y h gone s f> z to believe t if melt$ matt] has orig9ally desc5d$ a slope at an angle exce$+ f\r or five degrees1 x nev]1 on cool+1 acquires a /ony compact texture4 ,consequ5tly1 :5ev] !y f\nd 9 a volcanic m\nta9 %eets ( /ony mat]ials incl9$ at angles ( f #e to #bj or ev5 m ?an #cj1 !y ?\ght !mselves w>rant$ 9 assum+ t su* rocks _h be5 orig9ally horizontal1 or v slightly incl9$1 & _h acquir$ _! high incl9ation by subsequ5t upheaval4 ,to su* dome-%ap$ m\nta9s ) a cavity 9 ! middle1 & ) ! incl9$ b$s hav+ :at 0 call$ a ququv]sal dip or a slope outw>d on all sides1 !y gave ! "n ( 8,elevation crat]s40 ,z ! late ,leopold ,von ,bu*1 ! au?or ( ?is !ory1 _h select$ ! ,isle ( ,palma1 "o ( ! ,can>ies1 z a typical illu/ration ( ?is =m ( volcanic m\nta91 ,i visit$ t isl& 9 #ahed1 9 company ) my fri5d ,mr4 ,h>tung1 & ,i satisfi$ myself t x owes its orig9 to a s]ies ( eruptions ( ! same nature z ^? :i* =m$ ! m9or cones1 already allud$ to4 ,9 "s ( ! m anci5t or ,mioc5e volcanic m\nta9s1 su* z ,mont ,dor & ,cantal 9 c5tral ,france1 ! mode ( orig9 by upheaval z above describ$ is attribut$ to ^? dome-%ap$ masses1 :e!r !y possess or n a great c5tral cavity1 z 9 ,palma4 ,:]e ?is cavity is pres5t1 x has probably be5 due to "o or m great explosions simil> to t :i* de/roy$ a great "p ( anci5t ,vesuvius 9 ! "t ( ,pl9y4 ,simil> p>oxysmal cata/rophes h caus$ 9 hi/orical times ! truncation on a gr& scale ( "s l>ge cones 9 ,java & else:]e4#a ,among ! objections :i* may be consid]$ z fatal to ,von ,bu*'s doctr9e ( upheaval 9 ^! cases1 ,i may /ate t a s]ies ( volcanic =mations ext5d+ ov] an area six or sev5 miles 9 its %orte/ diamet]1 z 9 ,palma1 c\ld n be accumulat$ 9 ! =m ( lavas1 tuffs1 & volcanic breccias or agglom]ates )\t produc+ a m\nta9 z l(ty z t :i* !y n[ con/itute4 ,b assum+ t !y 7 fir/ horizontal1 & !n lift$ up by a =ce act+ mo/ p[]fully 9 ! c5tre & tilt+ ! b$s on all sides1 a c5tral crat] hav+ be5 =m$ by explosion or by a *asm op5+ 9 ! middle1 :]e ! cont9uity ( ! rocks 0 int]rupt$1 we %\ld h a "r to expect t ! *ief rav9es or valleys w\ld op5 t[>ds ! c5tral cavity1 in/ead ( :i* ! rim ( ! great crat] 9 ,palma & o!r simil> anci5t volcanoes is entire = m ?an ?ree p>ts ( ! :ole circumf]5ce4 ,if dikes are se5 9 ! precipices surr\nd+ su* crat]s or c5tral cavities1 !y c]ta9ly imply r5ts :i* 7 fill$ up ) liquid matt]4 ,b none ( ! dislocations produc+ su* r5ts c h belong$ to ! suppos$ p]iod ( t]m9al & p>oxysmal upheaval1 = _h a great c5tral crat] be5 already =m$ be=e !y orig9at$1 or at ! "t :5 !y took place1 ! melt$ matt]1 in/ead ( fill+ ! n>r[ v5ts1 w\ld h fl[$ d[n into ! bottom ( ! cavity1 & w\ld h oblit]at$ x to a c]ta9 ext5t4 ,mak+ due all[ance = ! quantity ( matt] remov$ by subarial d5udation 9 volcanic m\nta9s ( high antiquity1 & = ! gr& explosions :i* are kn[n to h caus$ truncation 9 active volcanoes1 !re is no reason = call+ 9 ! viol5t hypo!sis ( elevation crat]s to expla9 ! /ructure ( su* m\nta9s z ,t5]iffe1 ! ,gr& ,can>y1 ,palma1 or ^? ( c5tral ,france1 ,etna1 or ,vesuvius1 all ( :i* ,i h exam9$4 ,) reg>d to ,etna1 ,i h %[n1 f obs]vations made by me 9 #aheg1 t mod]n lavas1 sev]al ( !m ( kn[n date1 h =m$ cont9u\s b$s ( compact /one ev5 on slopes ( #ae1 #cf1 & #ch degrees1 &1 9 ! case ( ! lava ( #aheb1 m ?an #dj degrees4 ,! ?ickness ( ^! tabul> lay]s v>ies f #a foot to #bf feet4 ,& _! planes ( /ratification are p>allel to ^? ( ! ov]ly+ & und]ly+ scori :i* =m "p ( ! same curr5ts4#b ,nom5clature ( ,trappean ,rocks4--,:5 geologi/s fir/ began to exam9e att5tively ! /ructure ( ! nor!rn & we/]n p>ts ( ,europe1 !y 7 almo/ entirely ignorant ( ! ph5om5a ( exi/+ volcanoes4 ,!y f\nd c]ta9 rocks1 = ! mo/ "p )\t /ratification1 & ( a peculi> m9]al composition1 to :i* !y gave diff]5t names1 su* z basalt1 gre5/one1 porphyry1 trap tuff1 & amygdaloid4 ,all ^!1 :i* 7 recognis$ z belong+ to "o family1 7 call$ 8trap0 by ,b]gmann1 f trappa1 ,sw$i% = a flight ( /eps--a "n s9ce adopt$ v g5]ally into ! nom5clature ( ! sci5ce2 = x 0 obs]v$ t _m rocks ( ?is class occurr$ 9 great tabul> masses ( unequal ext5t1 s z to =m a succession ( t]races or /eps4 ,x 0 also felt t "s g5]al t]m 0 indisp5sable1 because ^! rocks1 al?\gh v div]sifi$ 9 =m & composition1 evid5tly belong$ to "o gr\p1 di/+ui%able f ! ,plutonic z well z f ! non-volcanic fossilif]\s rocks4 ,by degrees famili>ity ) ! products ( active volcanoes conv9c$ geologi/s m & m t !y 7 id5tical ) ! trappean rocks4 ,9 e /ream ( mod]n lava !re is "s v>iation 9 "* & composition1 & ev5 :]e no important diff]5ce c be recognis$ 9 ! proportions ( silica1 alum9a1 lime1 pota%1 iron1 & o!r elem5t>y mat]ials1 ! result+ mat]ials are (t5 n ! same1 = reasons :i* we are z yet unable to expla94 ,! diff]5ce also ( ! lavas p\r$ out f ! same m\nta9 at two di/9ct p]iods1 especially 9 ! quantity ( silica :i* !y conta91 is (t5 s great z to give rise to rocks :i* are reg>d$ z =m+ di/9ct families1 al?\gh !re may be e int]m$iate gradation betwe5 ! two extremes1 & al?\gh "s rocks1 =m+ a transition f ! "o class to ! o!r1 may (t5 be s abundant z to dem& special names4 ,^! species might be multipli$ indef9itely1 & ,i c only af=d space to "n a few ( ! pr9cipal ones1 ab\t ! composition & aspect ( :i* !re is ! lea/ discordance ( op9ion4 ,m9]als mo/ abundant 9 ,volcanic ,rocks4--,! m9]als :i* =m ! *ief con/itu5ts ( ^! igne\s rocks are few 9 numb]4 ,next to qu>tz1 :i* is ne>ly pure silica or silicic acid1 ! mo/ important are ^? silicates commonly class$ "u ! sev]al heads ( feldsp>1 mica1 hornbl5de or augite1 & oliv9e4 ,9 ,table #bh4a1 9 draw+ up :i* ,i h receiv$ ! able assi/ance ( ,mr4 ,david ,=bes1 ! *emical analysis ( ^! m9]als & _! v>ieties is %[n1 & he has add$ ! specific gravity ( ! diff]5t m9]al species1 ! geological application ( :i* 9 det]m9+ ! rocks =m$ by ^! m9]als w be expla9$ 9 ! sequel 7p4#ejd74 ,analysis ( ,m9]als mo/ abundant 9 ! ,volcanic & ,hypog5e ,rocks4 ,,! ,,qu>tz ,,gr\p ,,qu>tz #ajjj #bf ,silica ,specific gravity ,,tridymite #ajjj #bc ,silica ,specific gravity ,,! ,,feldsp> ,,gr\p ,,or?oclase4 ---- ,c>isbad1 9 granite 7bulk7 #febc #afbf #jbg nil trace nil #adff #ade nil #bee ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ---- ,sanad9e1 ,dra*5fels 9 tra*yte 7,rammelsb]g7 #fehg #ahec nil nil #jie #jcj #ajcb #cdi ,w4 #jdd #bee ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,albite4 ---- ,ar5dal1 9 granite 7,g4 ,rose7 #fhdf #aicj nil #jbh #jfh nil nil #aabg nil #bfa ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,oligoclase4 ---- ,ytt]by1 9 granite 7,b]zelius7 #faee #bchj nil nil #cah #jhj #jch #ifg nil #bfe ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ---- ,t5]iffe1 9 tra*yte 7,deville7 #faee #bbjc nil nil #bha #jdg #cdd #ggd nil #bei ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,labradorite4 ---- ,hitt]oe1 9 ,labrador-rock 7,waage7 #eaci #bidb #bij nil #idd #jcg #aaj #ejc ,w4 #jga #bgb ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ---- ,icel&1 9 volcanic 7,dam\r7 #ebag #bibb #aij nil #acaa nil nil #cdj nil #bga ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,anor?ite4 ---- ,h>zburg1 9 diorite 7,/r5g7 #decg #cdha #jei nil #afeb #jhc #jdj #ade ,w4 #jhg #bgd ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ---- ,hecla1 9 volcanic 7,walt]%aus57 #dead #cbaj #bjc #jgh #ahcb nil #jbb #ajf nil #bgd ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,leucite4 ---- ,vesuvius1 #ahaa1 9 lava 7,rammelsb]g7 #efaj #bcbb nil nil nil nil #bjei #jeg nil #bdh ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,nephel9e4 ---- ,miask1 9 ,miascite 7,s*e]]7 #ddcj #ccbe #jhb nil #jcb #jjg #ehb #afjb nil #bei ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ---- ,vesuvius1 9 volcanic 7,arfv$son7 #ddaa #ccgc nil nil nil nil nil #bjdf ,w4 #jfb #bfj ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,! ,,mica ,,gr\p ,,muscovite4 ---- ,f9l&1 9 grante 7,rose7 #dfcf #cfhj #dec nil nil nil #ibb nil ,f4 #jfg ,w4 #ahd #bij ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,lepidolite4 ---- ,cornwall1 9 granite 7,regnault7 #ebdj #bfhj nil #aej nil nil #iad nil ,f4 #dah ,li4 #dhe #bij ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,biotite4 ---- ,bod5nais 7,v4 ,kobel #djhf #aeac #acjj nil nil #bbjj #hhc nil ,w4 #jdd #bgj ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ---- ,vesuvius1 9 volcanic 7,*odnef7 #djia #agga #aajb nil #jcj #aijd #iif nil nil #bge ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,phlogopite4 ---- ,new ,york1 9 metamorphic lime/one 7,rammelsb]g7 #daif #acdg nil #bfg #jcd #bgab #icg nil ,f4 #bic ,w4 #jfj #bha ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,m>g>ite4 ---- ,nexos 7,smi?7 #cjjb #dieb #afe nil #ajhb #jdh #abe ,w4 #eee #bii ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,rapidolite4 ---- ,pyr5ees 7,delesse7 #cbaj #ahej nil #jjf nil #cfgj nil nil ,w4 #abaj #bfa ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,talc4 ---- ,zill]?al 7,delesse7 #fcjj nil nil trace nil #ccfj nil nil ,w4 #caj #bgh ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,! ,,amphibole ,,& ,,pyrox5e ,,gr\p ,,tremolite4 ---- ,/4 ,go?>d 7,rammelsbeg7 #ehee nil nil nil #acij #bffc nil nil ,f4,w4 #jcd #bic ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,act9olite4 ---- ,ar5dal1 9 granite 7,rammelsb]g7 #efgg #jig nil #ehh #acef #badh nil nil ,w4 #bbj #cjb ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,hornbl5de4 ---- ,faymont1 9 diorite 7,deville7 #daii #aaff nil #bbbb #iee #abei nil #ajb ,w4 #adg #cbj ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ---- ,etna1 9 volcanic 7,walt]%aus57 #djia #acfh nil #agdi #acdd #acai nil nil ,w4 #jhe #cja ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,uralite4 ---- ,ural1 7,rammelsb]g7 #ejge #efe nil #agbg #aaei #abbh nil nil ,w4 #ahj #cad ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,augite4 ---- ,bohemia1 9 dol]ite 7,rammelsb]g7 #eaab #cch #jie #hjh #bced #abhb nil nil nil #cce ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ---- ,vesuvius1 9 lava ( #aheh 7,rammelsb]g7 #difa #ddb nil #ijh #bbhc #adbb nil nil nil #cbe ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,diallage4 ---- ,h>z1 9 ,gabbro 7,rammelsb]g7 #ebjj #caj nil #icf #afbi #ahea nil nil ,w4 #aaj #cbc ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,hyp]/h5e4 ---- ,labrador1 9 ,labrador-,rock 7,dam\r7 #eacf #jcg nil #bbei #cji #baca nil nil nil #cci ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,! ,,oliv9e ,,gr\p ,,bronzite4 ---- ,gre5l& 7,v4 ,kobell7 #ehjj #acc #aaad nil nil #biff nil nil nil #cbj ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,,oliv9e4 ---- ,c>lsbad1 9 basalt 7,rammelsb]g7 #cicd nil nil #adhe nil #deha nil nil nil #cdj ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ---- ,m\nt ,somma1 9 volcanic 7,walm/$t7 #ajjh #jah nil #aegd nil #ddbb nil nil nil #ccc ,silica ,alum9a ,sesquioxide ( ,iron ,protoxides ( ,iron & ,manganese ,lime ,magnesia ,pota% ,soda ,o!r con/itu5ts ,specific gravity ,9 ! 8,o!r con/itu5ts0 ! foll[+ signs are us$3 ,f,fluor9e1 ,li,li?ia1 ,w,loss on ignit+ ! m9]al1 9 mo/ in/ances only ,wat]4 ,f ! table above x w be obs]v$ t _m m9]als are omitt$ :i*1 ev5 if !y are ( common occurr5ce1 are m to be reg>d$ z accessory ?an z ess5tial compon5ts ( ! rocks 9 :i* !y are f\nd4#c ,su* are1 = example1 ,g>net1 ,epidote1 ,t\rmal9e1 ,idocrase1 ,&alusite1 ,scapolite1 ! v>i\s ,zeolites1 & sev]al o!r silicates ( some:at r>] occurr5ce4 ,magnetite1 ,titan(]rite1 & ,iron-pyrites also occur z normal con/itu5ts ( v>i\s igne\s rocks1 al?\gh 9 v small am\nt1 z also ,apatite1 or phosphate ( lime4 ,! o!r salts ( lime1 includ+ its c>bonate or calcite1 al?\gh (t5 met )1 are inv>iably products ( second>y *emical action4 ,! ,zeolites1 above m5tion$1 s nam$ f ! mann] 9 :i* !y fro? up "u ! bl[-pipe & melt into a glass1 diff] 9 _! *emical composition f all ! o!r m9]al con/itu5ts ( volcanic rocks1 s9ce !y are hydrat$ silicates conta9+ f #aj to #be p] c5t ( wat]4 ,!y ab\nd 9 "s trappean rocks & anci5t lavas1 :]e !y fill up vesicul> cavities & int]/ices 9 ! sub/ance ( ! rocks1 b are r>ely f\nd 9 any quantity 9 rec5t lavas2 9 mo/ cases !y are to be reg>d$ z second>y products =m$ by ! action ( wat] on ! o!r con/itu5ts ( ! rocks4 ,among !m ! species ,analcime1 ,/ilbite1 ,natrolite1 & ,*abazite may be m5tion$ z ( mo/ common occurr5ce4 ,qu>tz ,gr\p4--,! microscope has %[n t pure qu>tz is (t5] pres5t 9 lavas ?an 0 =m]ly suppos$4 ,x _h be5 argu$ t ! qu>tz 9 granite hav+ a specific gravity ( #bf1 0 n ( purely igne\s orig91 because ! silica result+ f fusion 9 ! laboratory has only a specific gravity ( #bc4 ,b ,mr4 ,david ,=bes has asc]ta9$ t ! free qu>tz 9 tra*ytes1 :i* are kn[n to h fl[$ z lava1 has ! same specific gravity z ! ord9>y qu>tz ( granite2 & ! rec5t rese>*es ( ,von ,ra? & o!rs prove t ! m9]al ,tridymite1 :i* is cry/allis$ silica ( specific gravity #bc 7see ,table1 p4 #dii71 is ( common occurr5ce 9 ! volcanic rocks ( ,mexico1 ,auv]gne1 ! ,rh9e1 & else:]e1 al?\gh hi!rto entirely ov]look$4 ,feldsp> ,gr\p4--,9 ! ,feldsp> gr\p 7,table1 p4 #dii7 ! five m9]al species mo/ commonly met ) z rock con/itu5ts are3 #a4 ,or?oclase1 (t5 call$ common or pota%-feldsp>4 #b4 ,albite1 or soda-feldsp>1 a m9]al :i* plays a m subord9ate "p ?an 0 =m]ly suppos$1 ?is "n hav+ be5 giv5 to mu* :i* has s9ce be5 prov$ to be ,oligoclase4 #c4 ,oligoclase1 or soda-lime feldsp>1 9 :i* soda is pres5t 9 mu* l>g] proportion ?an lime1 & ( :i* m9]al &esite are &es9e1 is consid]$ to be a v>iety4 #d4 ,labradorite1 or lime-soda-feldsp>1 9 :i* ! proportions ( lime & soda are ! rev]se to :at !y are 9 ,oligoclase4 #e4 ,anor?ite or lime-feldsp>4 ,! two latt] feldsp>s are r>ely if ev] f\nd to ent] into ! composition ( rocks conta9+ qu>tz4 ,9 employ+ su* t]ms z pota%-feldsp>1 etc41 x mu/1 h[ev]1 always be borne 9 m9d t x is only int5d$ to direct att5tion to ! pr$om9ant alkali or alkal9e e>? 9 ! m9]al1 n to ass]t ! abs5ce ( ! o!rs1 :i* 9 mo/ cases w be f\nd to be pres5t 9 m9or quantity4 ,?us pota%-feldsp> 7or?oclase7 almo/ always conta9s a little soda1 & (t5 traces ( lime or magnesia2 & 9 l mann] ) ! o!rs4 ,! t]ms 8glassy0 & 8compact0 feldsp>s only ref] to /ructure1 & n to species or composition2 ! /ud5t %\ld be prep>$ to meet ) any ( ! above feldsp>s 9 ei!r ( ^! conditions3 ! glassy /ate be+ app>5tly due to quick cool+1 & ! compact to conditions unfav\rable to cry/allisation2 ! s-call$ 8compact feldsp>0 is also v commonly f\nd to be an admixture ( m ?an "o feldsp> species1 & frequ5tly also conta9s qu>tz & o!r extrane\s m9]al matt] only to be detect$ by ! microscope4 ,feldsp>s :5 arrang$ accord+ to _! sy/em ( cry/allisation are monocl9ic1 hav+ "o axis obliquely incl9$2 or tricl9ic1 hav+ ! ?ree axes all obliquely incl9$ to ea* o!r4 ,if arrang$ ) ref]5ce to _! cleavage !y are or?ocla/ic1 ! fracture tak+ place always at a "r angle2 or plagiocla/ic1 9 :i* ! cleavages are oblique to "o ano!r4 ,or?oclase is or?ocla/ic & monocl9ic2 all ! o!r feldsp>s are plagiocla/ic & tricl9ic4 ,m9]als 9 ,meteorites4--,t v>iety ( ! ,feldsp> ,gr\p :i* is call$ ,anor?ite has be5 %[n by ,rammelsb]g to occur 9 a meteoric /one1 & 8 analysis proves x to be almo/ id5tical 9 its *emical proportions to ! same m9]al 9 ! lavas ( mod]n volcanoes4 ,s also ,bronzite 7,en/atite7 & ,oliv9e h be5 met ) 9 meteorites %[n by analysis to come rem>kably ne> to ^! m9]als 9 ord9>y rocks4 ,mica ,gr\p4--,) reg>d to ! micas1 ! f\r pr9cipal species 7,table1 p4 #dii7 all conta9 pota% 9 ne>ly ! same proportion1 b diff] greatly 9 ! proportion & nature ( _! o!r +r$i5ts4 ,muscovite is (t5 call$ common or pota% mica2 ,lepidolite is *>act]is$ by conta9+ li?ia 9 addition2 ,biotite conta9s a l>ge am\nt ( magnesia & oxide ( iron2 :il/ ,phlogopite conta9s /ill m ( ! =m] sub/ance4 ,9 rocks conta9+ qu>tz1 muscovite or lepidolite are mo/ common4 ,! mica 9 rec5t volcanic rocks1 gabbros1 & diorites is usually ,biotite1 :ile t s common 9 metamorphic lime/ones is usually1 if n always1 ,phlogopite4 ,amphibole & ,pyrox5e ,gr\p4--,! m9]als includ$ 9 ! table "u ! ,amphibole & ,pyrox5e ,gr\p diff] some:at 9 _! cry/allisation =m1 ?\gh !y all belong to ! monocl9ic sy/em4 ,amphibole is a g5]al "n = all ! diff]5t v>ieties ( ,hornbl5de1 ,act9olite1 ,tremolite1 etc41 :ile ,pyrox5e includes ,augite1 ,diallage1 ,malacolite1 ,sahlite1 etc4 ,! two divisions are s mu* alli$ 9 *emical composition & cry/allographic *>act]s1 & bl5d s completely "o into ! o!r 9 ,uralite 7see page #dii71 t x is p]haps be/ to unite !m 9 "o gr\p4 ,!ory ( ,isomorphism4--,! hi/ory ( ! *anges ( op9ion on ?is po9t is curi\s & in/ructive4 ,w]n] fir/ di/+ui%$ augite f hornbl5de2 & 8 proposal to sep>ate !m obta9$ aft]w>ds ! sanction ( ,hay1 ,mohs1 & o!r celebrat$ m9]alogi/s4 ,x 0 agre$ t ! =m ( ! cry/als ( ! two species 0 diff]5t1 & also _! /ructure1 z %[n by cleavage--t is to say1 by break+ or cleav+ ! m9]al ) a *isel1 or a bl[ ( ! hamm]1 9 ! direction 9 :i* x yields mo/ readily4 ,x 0 also f\nd by analysis t augite usually conta9$ m lime1 less alum9a1 & no fluoric acid2 :i* la/1 ?\gh n always f\nd 9 hornbl5de1 (t5 ent]s into its composition 9 m9ute quantity4 ,9 addition to ^! *>act]s1 x 0 rem>k$ z a geological fact1 t augite & hornbl5de are v r>ely associat$ toge!r 9 ! same rock4 ,x 0 also rem>k$ t 9 ! cry/all9e slags ( furnaces augitic =ms 7 frequ5t1 ! hornbl5dic entirely abs5t2 h5ce x 0 conjectur$ t hornbl5de might be ! result ( sl[1 & augite ( rapid cool+4 ,?is view 0 confirm$ by ! fact t ,mits*]li* & ,b]?i] 7 able to make augite artificially1 b c\ld nev] succe$ 9 =m+ hornbl5de4 ,la/ly1 ,gu/avus ,rose fus$ a mass ( hornbl5de 9 a porcela9 furnace1 & f\nd t x did n1 on cool+1 assume its previ\s %ape1 b inv>iably took t ( augite4 ,! same m9]alogi/ obs]v$ c]ta9 cry/als call$ ,uralite 7see ,table1 p4 #dii7 9 rocks f ,sib]ia1 :i* possess$ ! cleavage & *emical composition ( hornbl5de1 :ile !y _h ! ext]nal =m ( augite4 ,if1 f ^! data1 x is inf]r$ t ! same sub/ance may assume ! cry/all9e =ms ( hornbl5de or augite indiff]5tly1 accord+ to ! m or less rapid cool+ ( ! melt$ mass1 x is nev]!less c]ta9 t ! v>iety commonly call$ augite1 & recognis$ by a peculi> cry/all9e =m1 has usually m lime 9 x1 & less alum9a1 ?an t call$ hornbl5de1 al?\gh ! quantities ( ^! elem5ts d n seem to be always ! same4 ,unque/ionably ! facts & exp]im5ts above m5tion$ %[ ! v ne> aff9ity ( hornbl5de & augite2 b ev5 ! conv]tibility ( "o into ! o!r1 by melt+ & recry/allis+1 does n p]haps demon/rate _! absolute id5tity4 ,= !re is (t5 "s portion ( ! mat]ials 9 a cry/al :i* are n 9 p]fect *emical comb9ation ) ! re/4 ,c>bonate ( lime1 = example1 sometimes c>ries ) x a consid]able quantity ( silex into its own =m ( cry/al1 ! silex be+ me*anically mix$ z s&1 & yet n prev5t+ ! c>bonate ( lime f assum+ ! =m prop] to x4 ,?is is an extreme case1 b 9 _m o!rs "s "o or m ( ! +r$i5ts 9 a cry/al may be exclud$ f p]fect *emical union2 & aft] fusion1 :5 ! mass recry/allises1 ! same elem5ts may comb9e p]fectly or 9 new proportions1 & ?us a new m9]al may be produc$4 ,or "s "o ( ! gase\s elem5ts ( ! atmosph]e1 ! oxyg5 = example1 may1 :5 ! melt$ matt] reconsolidates1 comb9e ) "s "o ( ! compon5t elem5ts4 ,! diff]5t quantity ( ! impurities or ! refuse above allud$ to1 :i* may occur 9 all b ! mo/ transp>5t & p]fect cry/als1 may p>tly expla9 ! discordant results at :i* exp]i5c$ *emi/s h arriv$ 9 _! analysis ( ! same m9]al4 ,= ! read] w (t5 f9d t cry/als ( a m9]al det]m9$ to be ! same by physical *>act]s1 cry/all9e =m1 & optical prop]ties1 h be5 decl>$ by skilful analys]s to be compos$ ( di/9ct elem5ts4 ,?is disagreem5t seem$ at fir/ subv]sive ( ! atomic !ory1 or ! doctr9e t !re is a fix$ & con/ant relation betwe5 ! cry/all9e =m & /ructure ( a m9]al & its *emical composition4 ,! app>5t anomaly1 h[ev]1 :i* ?reat5$ to ?r[ ! :ole sci5ce ( m9]alogy into confusion1 0 reconcil$ to fix$ pr9ciples by ! discov]ies ( ,pr(essor ,mits*]li* at ,b]l91 :o asc]ta9$ t ! composition ( ! m9]als :i* _h appe>$ s v>iable 0 gov]n$ by a g5]al law1 to :i* he gave ! "n ( isomorphism 7f isos1 equal1 & morphe1 =m74 ,accord+ to ?is law1 ! +r$i5ts ( a giv5 species ( m9]al are n absolutely fix$ z to _! k9d & quality2 b "o +r$i5t may be replac$ by an equival5t portion ( "s analog\s +r$i5t4 ,?us1 9 augite1 ! lime may be 9 "p replac$ by portions ( protoxide ( iron1 or ( manganese1 :ile ! =m ( ! cry/al1 & ! angle ( its cleavage planes1 rema9 ! same4 ,^! vic>i\s sub/itutions1 h[ev]1 ( p>ticul> elem5ts _c exce$ c]ta9 def9$ limits4 ,basaltic ,rocks4--,! two pr9cipal families ( trappean or volcanic rocks are ! basalts & ! tra*ytes1 :i* diff] *iefly f ea* o!r 9 ! quantity ( silica :i* !y conta94 ,! basaltic rocks are comp>atively poor 9 silica1 conta9+ less ?an #ej p] c5t ( t m9]al1 & none 9 a pure /ate or z free qu>tz1 ap>t f ! re/ ( ! matrix4 ,!y conta9 a l>g] proportion ( lime & magnesia ?an ! tra*ytes1 s t !y are heavi]1 indep5d5tly ( ! frequ5t pres5ce ( ! oxides ( iron :i* 9 "s cases =ms m ?an a f\r? "p ( ! :ole mass4 ,abi* has1 !re=e1 propos$ t we %\ld weigh ^! rocks1 9 ord] to appreciate _! composition 9 cases :]e x is impossible to sep>ate _! compon5t m9]als4 ,?us1 basalt f ,/affa1 conta9+ #dghj p] c5t ( silica1 has a specific gravity ( #bie2 :]eas tra*yte1 :i* has #ff p] c5t ( silica1 has a specific gravity ( only #bfh2 tra*ytic porphyry1 conta9+ #fi p] c5t ( silica1 a specific gravity ( only #beh4 ,if we !n take a rock ( int]m$iate composition1 su* z t prevail+ 9 ! ,peak ( ,t5]iffe1 :i* ,abi* calls ,tra*yte-dol]ite1 its proportion ( silica be+ int]m$iate1 or #eh p] c5t1 x weighs #bgh1 or m ?an tra*yte1 & less ?an basalt4#d ,basalt4--,! diff]5t v>ieties ( ?is rock are di/+ui%$ by ! names ( basalts1 anamezites1 & dol]ites1 names :i*1 h[ev]1 only d5ote diff]5ces 9 texture )\t imply+ any diff]5ce 9 m9]al or *emical composition3 ! t]m ,basalt be+ us$ only :5 ! rock is compact1 amorph\s1 & (t5 semi-vitre\s 9 texture1 & :5 x breaks ) a p]fect con*oidal fracture2 :51 h[ev]1 x is uni=mly cry/all9e 9 appe>ance1 yet v close-gra9$1 ! "n ,anamesite 7f anamesos1 int]m$iate7 is employ$1 b if ! rock be s co>sely cry/allis$ t its diff]5t m9]al con/itu5ts c be easily recognis$ by ! eye1 x is call$ ,dol]ite 7f dol]os1 deceitful71 9 allusion to ! difficulty ( di/+ui%+ x f "s ( ! rocks kn[n z ,plutonic4 ,melaphyre is (t5 q undi/+ui%able 9 ext]nal appe>ance f basalt1 = al?\gh r>ely s heavy1 d>k-col\r$1 or compact1 x may pres5t at times all ^! v>ieties ( texture4 ,bo? ^! rocks are compos$ ( tricl9ic feldsp> & augite ) m or less oliv9e1 magnetic or titanif]\s oxide ( iron1 & usually a little nephel9e1 leucite1 & apatite2 basalt usually conta9s consid]ably m oliv9e ?an melaphyre1 b *emically !y are closely alli$1 al?\gh ! melaphyres usually conta9 m silica & alum9a1 ) less oxides ( iron1 lime1 & magnesia1 ?an ! basalts4 ,! ,r[ley ,hills 9 ,/af=d%ire1 commonly kn[n z ,r[ley ,rag/one1 are melaphyre4 ,gre5/one4--,?is "n has usually be5 ext5d$ to all granul> mixtures1 :e!r ( hornbl5de & feldsp>1 or ( augite & feldsp>4 ,! t]m diorite has be5 appli$ exclusively to comp\nds ( hornbl5de & tricl9ic feldsp>4 ,labrador-rock is a t]m us$ = a comp\nd ( labradorite or labrador-feldsp> & hyp]/h5e2 :5 ! hyp]/h5e pr$om9ates x is sometimes kn[n "u ! "n ( ,hyp]/h5e-rock4 ,gabbro & ,diabase are rocks ma9ly compos$ ( tricl9ic feldsp>s & diallage4 ,all ^! rocks become sometimes v cry/all9e1 & help to connect ! volcanic ) ! ,plutonic =mations1 :i* w be treat$ ( 9 ,*apt] ,,xxxi4 ,tra*ytic ,rocks4--,! "n tra*yte 7f 9999,greek tra*us1 r\gh7 0 orig9ally giv5 to a co>se granul> feldspa?ic rock :i* 0 r\gh & gritty to ! t\*4 ,! t]m 0 subsequ5tly made to include o!r rocks1 su* z cl9k/one & obsidian1 :i* h ! same m9]al composition1 b to :i*1 ow+ to _! diff]5t texture1 ! ^w 9 its orig9al mean+ w\ld n apply4 ,! feldsp>s :i* occur 9 ,tra*ytic rocks are inv>iably ^? :i* conta9 ! l>ge/ proportion ( silica1 or f #fj to #gj p] c5t ( t m9]al4 ,?r\gh ! base are usually dissem9at$ cry/als ( glassy feldsp>1 mica1 & sometimes hornbl5de4 ,al?\gh qu>tz is n a necess>y +r$i5t 9 ! composition ( ?is rock1 x is v frequ5tly pres5t1 & ! qu>tz tra*ytes are v l>gely develop$ 9 _m volcanic di/ricts4 ,9 ?is respect ! tra*ytes diff] entirely f ! memb]s ( ! ,basaltic family1 & are m ne>ly alli$ to ! granites4 ,obsidian4--,obsidian1 ,pit*/one1 & ,pe>l/one are only diff]5t =ms ( a volcanic glass produc$ by ! fusion ( tra*ytic rocks4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 !m is caus$ by diff]5t rates ( cool+ f ! melt$ /ate1 z has be5 prov$ by exp]im5t4 ,obsidian is ( a black or a%-grey col\r1 & ?\gh opaque 9 mass is transp>5t 9 ?9 edges4 ,cl9k/one or ,phonolite4--,among ! rocks ( ! tra*ytic family1 or ^? 9 :i* ! feldsp>s are ri* 9 silica1 t t]m$ ,cl9k/one or ,phonolite is conspicu\s by its fissile /ructure1 & its t5d5cy to lam9ation1 :i* is su* z sometimes to r5d] x useful z ro(+-slate4 ,x r+s :5 /ruck ) ! hamm]1 :5ce its "n2 is compact1 & usually ( a greyi% blue or br[ni% col\r2 is v>iable 9 composition1 b almo/ entirely compos$ ( feldsp>4 ,:5 x conta9s dissem9at$ cry/als ( feldsp>1 x is call$ ,cl9k/one porphyry4 ,volcanic ,rocks di/+ui%$ by special ,=ms ( ,/ructure4--,_m volcanic rocks are commonly spok5 ( "u names d5ot+ /ructure alone1 :i* mu/ n be tak5 to imply t !y are di/9ct rocks1 i4e41 t !y diff] f "o ano!r ei!r 9 m9]al or *emical composition4 ,?us ! t]ms ,tra*ytic porphyry1 ,tra*ytic tuff1 etc41 m]ely ref] to ! same rock "u diff]5t conditions ( me*anical aggregation or cry/all9e developm5t :i* w\ld be m correctly express$ by ! use ( ! adjective1 z porphyritic tra*yte1 etc41 b z ^! t]ms are s commonly employ$ x is consid]$ advisable to direct ! /ud5t's att5tion to !m4 ,fig4 #ehf3 ,porphyry4 ,:ite cry/als ( feldsp> 9 a d>k base ( hornbl5de & feldsp>4 ,porphyry is "o ( ?is class1 & v *>act]i/ic ( ! volcanic =mations4 ,:5 di/9ct cry/als ( "o or m m9]als are scatt]$ ?r\gh an e>?y or compact base1 ! rock is t]m$ a porphyry 7see ,fig4 #ehf74 ,?us tra*yte is usually porphyritic2 = 9 x1 z 9 _m mod]n lavas1 !re are cry/als ( feldsp>2 b 9 "s porphyries ! cry/als are ( augite1 oliv9e1 or o!r m9]als4 ,if ! base be gre5/one1 basalt1 or pit*/one1 ! rock may be d5om9at$ gre5/one-porphyry1 pit*/one-porphyry1 & s =?4 ,! old classical type ( ?is =m ( rock is ! r$ porphyry ( ,egypt1 or ! well-kn[n 8,rosso antico40 ,x consi/s1 accord+ to ,delesse1 ( a r$ feldspa?ic base 9 :i* are dissem9at$ rose-col\r$ cry/als ( ! feldsp> call$ oligoclase1 ) "s plates ( blacki% hornbl5de & gra9s ( oxide ( iron 7iron-glance74 ,r$ qu>tzif]\s porphyry is a mu* m silice\s rock1 conta9+ ab\t #gj or #hj p] c5t ( silex1 :ile t ( ,egypt has only #fb p] c5t4 ,amygdaloid4--,?is is also ano!r =m ( igne\s rock1 admitt+ ( e v>iety ( composition4 ,x compreh5ds any rock 9 :i* r\nd or almond-%ap$ nodules ( "s m9]al1 su* z agate1 *alc$ony1 calc>e\s sp>1 or zeolite1 are scatt]$ ?r\gh a base ( wacke1 basalt1 gre5/one1 or o!r k9d ( trap4 ,x d]ives its "n f ! ,greek ^w amygdalon1 an almond4 ,! orig9 ( ?is /ructure _c be d\bt$1 = we may trace ! process ( its =mation 9 mod]n lavas4 ,small pores or cells are caus$ by bubbles ( /eam & gas conf9$ 9 ! melt$ matt]4 ,aft] or dur+ consolidation1 ^! empty spaces are gradually fill$ up by matt] sep>at+ f ! mass1 or infilt]$ by wat] p]meat+ ! rock4 ,z ^! bubbles h be5 sometimes l5g!n$ by ! fl[ ( ! lava be=e x f9ally cool$1 ! cont5ts ( su* cavities h ! =m ( almonds4 ,9 "s ( ! amygdaloidal traps ( ,scotl&1 :]e ! nodules h decompos$1 ! empty cells are se5 to h a glaz$ or vitre\s coat+1 & 9 ?is respect exactly resemble scoriace\s lavas1 or ! slags ( furnaces4 ,fig4 #ehg3 ,scoriace\s lava 9 "p conv]t$ into an amygdaloid4 ,fig4 #ehg repres5ts a fragm5t ( /one tak5 f ! upp] "p ( a %eet ( basaltic lava 9 ,auv]gne4 ,"o-half is scoriace\s1 ! pores be+ p]fectly empty2 ! o!r "p is amygdaloidal1 ! pores or cells be+ mo/ly fill$ up ) c>bonate ( lime1 =m+ :ite k]nels4 ,lava4--,?is t]m has a some:at vague signification1 hav+ be5 appli$ to all melt$ matt] obs]v$ to fl[ 9 /reams f volcanic v5ts4 ,:5 ?is matt] consolidates 9 ! op5 air1 ! upp] "p is usually scoriace\s1 & ! mass becomes m & m /ony z we desc5d1 or 9 proportion z x has consolidat$ m sl[ly & "u great] pressure4 ,at ! bottom1 h[ev]1 ( a /ream ( lava1 a small portion ( scoriace\s rock v frequ5tly occurs1 =m$ by ! fir/ ?9 %eet ( liquid matt]1 :i* (t5 prec$es ! ma9 curr5t1 & solidifies "u slight pressure4 ,! m compact lavas are (t5 porphyritic1 b ev5 ! scoriace\s "p sometimes conta9s imp]fect cry/als1 :i* h be5 d]iv$ f "s old] rocks1 9 :i* ! cry/als pre-exi/$1 b 7 n melt$1 z be+ m infusible 9 _! nature4 ,al?\gh melt$ matt] ris+ 9 a crat]1 & ev5 t :i* ent]s a r5t on ! side ( a crat]1 is call$ lava1 yet ?is t]m belongs m prop]ly to t :i* has fl[$ ei!r 9 ! op5 air or on ! b$ ( a lake or sea4 ,if ! same fluid has n rea*$ ! surface1 b has be5 m]ely inject$ into fissures bel[ gr\nd1 x is call$ trap4 ,!re is e v>iety ( composition 9 lavas2 "s are tra*ytic1 z 9 ! ,peak ( ,t5]iffe2 a great numb] are basaltic1 z 9 ,vesuvius & ,auv]gne2 o!rs are &esitic1 z ^? ( ,*ili2 "s ( ! mo/ mod]n 9 ,vesuvius consi/ ( gre5 augite1 & _m ( ^? ( ,etna ( augite & labrador-feldsp>4#e ,scori & ,pumice may next be m5tion$1 z por\s rocks produc$ by ! action ( gases on mat]ials melt$ by volcanic heat4 ,scori are usually ( a r$di%-br[n & black col\r1 & are ! c9d]s & slags ( basaltic or augitic lavas4 ,pumice is a light1 spongy1 fibr\s sub/ance1 produc$ by ! action ( gases on tra*ytic & o!r lavas2 ! relation1 h[ev]1 ( its orig9 to ! composition ( lava is n yet well und]/ood4 ,von ,bu* says t x nev] occurs :]e only labrador-feldsp> is pres5t4 ,volcanic ,a% or ,tuff1 ,trap ,tuff4--,small angul> fragm5ts ( ! scori & pumice1 above-m5tion$1 & ! du/ ( ! same1 produc$ by volcanic explosions1 =m ! tuffs :i* ab\nd 9 all regions ( active volcanoes1 :]e %[]s ( ^! mat]ials1 toge!r ) small pieces ( o!r rocks eject$ f ! crat]1 & m or less burnt1 fall d[n ^u ! l& or into ! sea4 ,"h !y (t5 become m+l$ ) %ells1 & are /ratifi$4 ,su* tuffs are sometimes b\nd toge!r by a calc>e\s cem5t1 & =m a /one susceptible ( a beautiful poli%4 ,b ev5 :5 little or no lime is pres5t1 !re is a great t5d5cy 9 ! mat]ials ( ord9>y tuffs to coh]e toge!r4 ,! t]m volcanic a% has be5 mu* us$ = rocks ( all ages suppos$ to h be5 d]iv$ f matt] eject$ 9 a melt$ /ate f volcanic orifices4 ,we meet occasionally ) extremely compact b$s ( volcanic mat]ials1 int]/ratifi$ ) fossilif]\s rocks4 ,^! may sometimes be tuffs1 al?\gh _! d5sity or compactness is su* z ! cause !m to resemble _m ( ^? k9ds ( trap :i* are f\nd 9 ord9>y dikes4 ,wacke is a "n giv5 to a decompos$ /ate ( v>i\s trap rocks ( ! basaltic family1 or ^? :i* are poor 9 silica4 ,x resembles clay ( a yell[i% or br[n col\r1 & passes gradually f ! s(t /ate to ! h>d dol]ite1 gre5/one1 or o!r trap rock f :i* x has be5 d]iv$4 ,agglom]ate4--,9 ! neighb\rhood ( volcanic v5ts1 we frequ5tly obs]ve accumulations ( angul> fragm5ts ( rocks =m$ dur+ eruptions by ! explosive action ( /eam1 :i* %att]s ! subjac5t /ony =mations1 & hurls !m up into ! air4 ,!y !n fall 9 %[]s ar\nd ! cone or crat]1 or may be spread = "s di/ance ov] ! surr\nd+ c\ntry4 ,! fragm5ts consi/ usually ( diff]5t v>ieties ( scoriace\s & compact lavas2 b o!r k9ds ( rock1 su* z granite or ev5 fossilif]\s lime/ones1 may be int]mix$2 9 %ort1 any sub/ance ?r\gh :i* ! expansive gases h =c$ _! way4 ,! disp]sion ( su* mat]ials may be aid$ by ! w9d1 z x v>ies 9 direction or int5sity1 & by ! slope ( ! cone d[n :i* !y roll1 or by floods ( ra91 :i* (t5 accompany eruptions4 ,b if ! p[] ( runn+ wat]1 or ( ! waves & curr5ts ( ! sea1 be suffici5t to c>ry ! fragm5ts to a di/ance1 x c sc>cely fail to we> (f _! angles1 & ! =mation !n becomes a conglom]ate4 ,if occasionally globul> pieces ( scori ab\nd 9 an agglom]ate1 !y may n owe _! r\nd =m to attrition4 ,:5 all ! angul> fragm5ts are ( volcanic rocks ! mass is usually t]m$ a volcanic breccia4 ,lat]ite is a r$ or brick-l rock compos$ ( silicate ( alum9a & oxide ( iron4 ,! r$ lay]s call$ 8o*re b$s10 divid+ ! lavas ( ! ,giant's ,causeway1 are lat]ites4 ,^! 7 f\nd by ,delesse to be trap impregnat$ ) ! r$ oxide ( iron1 & 9 "p r$uc$ to kaol94 ,:5 /ill m decompos$1 !y 7 f\nd to be clay col\r$ by r$ o*re4 ,z two ( ! lavas ( ! ,giant's ,causeway are p>t$ by a b$ ( lignite1 x is n improbable t ! lay]s ( lat]ite se5 9 ! ,antrim cliffs result$ f atmosph]ic decomposition4 ,9 ,madeira & ! ,can>y ,isl&s /reams ( lava ( subarial orig9 are (t5 divid$ by r$ b&s ( lat]ite1 probably anci5t soils =m$ by ! decomposition ( ! surfaces ( lava-curr5ts1 _m ( ^! soils hav+ be5 col\r$ r$ 9 ! atmosph]e by oxide ( iron1 o!rs burnt into a r$ brick by ! ov]fl[+ ( heat$ lavas4 ,^! r$ b&s are sometimes prismatic1 ! small prisms be+ at "r angles to ! %eets ( lava4 ,r$ clay or r$ m>l1 =m$ z above /at$ by ! dis9tegration ( lava1 scori1 or tuff1 has (t5 accumulat$ to a great ?ickness 9 ! valleys ( ,madeira1 be+ wa%$ into !m by alluvial action2 & "s ( ! ?ick b$s ( lat]ite 9 ,india may h _h a simil> orig94 ,9 ,india1 h[ev]1 especially 9 ! ,deccan1 ! t]m 8lat]ite0 seems to h be5 us$ too vaguely to answ] ! above def9ition4 ,! vegetable soil 9 ! g>d5s ( ! suburbs ( ,catania :i* 0 ov]fl[$ by ! lava ( #affi 0 turn$ or burnt into a lay] ( r$ brick-col\r$ /one1 or 9 o!r words1 into lat]ite1 :i* may n[ be se5 support+ ! old lava-curr5t4 ,column> & ,globul> ,/ructure4--,"o ( ! *>act]i/ic =ms ( volcanic rocks1 especially ( basalt1 is ! column>1 :]e l>ge masses are divid$ into regul> prisms1 sometimes easily sep>able1 b 9 o!r cases adh]+ firmly toge!r4 ,! columns v>y1 9 ! numb] ( angles1 f ?ree to twelve2 b !y h mo/ commonly f five to sev5 sides4 ,!y are (t5 divid$ transv]sely1 at ne>ly equal di/ances1 l ! jo9ts 9 a v]tebral column1 z 9 ! ,giant's ,causeway1 9 ,irel&4 ,!y v>y exce$+ly 9 respect to l5g? & diamet]4 ,dr4 ,mac,culloch m5tions "s 9 ,skye :i* are ab\t #djj feet long2 o!rs1 9 ,morv51 n exce$+ an in*4 ,9 reg>d to diamet]1 ^? ( ,ailsa measure n9e feet1 & ^? ( ,morv5 an in* or less4#f ,!y are usually /raight1 b sometimes curv$2 & examples ( bo? ^! occur 9 ! isl& ( ,/affa4 ,9 a horizontal b$ or %eet ( trap ! columns are v]tical2 9 a v]tical dike !y are horizontal4 ,fig4 #ehh3 ,lava ( ,la ,c\pe d',ayzac1 ne> ,antraigue1 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,ard*e4 ,x be+ assum$ t column> trap has consolidat$ f a fluid /ate1 ! prisms are said to be always at "r angles to ! cool+ surfaces4 ,if ^! surfaces1 !re=e1 in/ead ( be+ ei!r p]p5dicul> or horizontal1 are curv$1 ! columns ought to be incl9$ at e angle to ! horizon2 & !re is a beautiful exemplification ( ?is ph5om5on 9 "o ( ! valleys ( ! ,viv>ais1 a m\nta9\s di/rict 9 ! ,s\? ( ,france1 :]e1 9 ! mid/ ( a region ( gneiss1 a geologi/ enc\nt]s unexpect$ly sev]al volcanic cones ( loose s& & scori4 ,f ! crat] ( "o ( ^! cones1 call$ ,la ,c\pe d',ayzac1 a /ream ( lava has desc5d$ & occupi$ ! bottom ( a n>r[ valley1 except at ^? po9ts :]e ! riv] ,volant1 or ! torr5ts :i* jo9 x1 h cut away portions ( ! solid lava4 ,fig4 #ehh repres5ts ! remnant ( ! lava at "o ( ^! po9ts4 ,x is cle> t ! lava once fill$ ! :ole valley up to ! dott$ l9e d a2 b ! riv] has gradually swept away all bel[ t l9e1 :ile ! tribut>y torr5t has laid op5 a transv]se section2 by :i* we p]ceive1 9 ! fir/ place1 t ! lava is compos$1 z usual 9 ?is c\ntry1 ( ?ree p>ts3 ! upp]mo/1 at a1 be+ scoriace\s1 ! second b1 pres5t+ irregul> prisms2 & ! ?ird1 c1 ) regul> columns1 :i* are v]tical on ! banks ( ! ,volant1 :]e !y re/ on a horizontal base ( gneiss1 b :i* are incl9$ at an angle ( #de1 at g1 & are ne>ly horizontal at f1 _! position hav+ be5 ev]y:]e det]m9$1 accord+ to ! law be=e m5tion$1 by ! =m ( ! orig9al valley4 ,fig4 #ehi3 ,column> basalt 9 ! ,vic5t94 ,9 ,fig4 #ehi1 a view is giv5 ( "s ( ! incl9$ & curv$ columns :i* pres5t !mselves on ! sides ( ! valleys 9 ! hilly region nor? ( ,vic5za1 9 ,italy1 & at ! foot ( ! high] ,alps4#g ,unlike ^? ( ! ,viv>ais1 la/ m5tion$1 ! basalt ( ?is c\ntry 0 evid5tly subm>9e1 & ! pres5t valleys h s9ce be5 holl[$ out by d5udation4 ,! column> /ructure is by no means peculi> to ! trap rocks 9 :i* augite ab\nds2 x is also obs]v$ 9 tra*yte1 & o!r feldspa?ic rocks ( ! igne\s class1 al?\gh 9 ^! x is r>ely exhibit$ 9 su* regul> polygonal =ms4 ,x has be5 already /at$ t basaltic columns are (t5 divid$ by cross-jo9ts4 ,sometimes ea* segm5t1 in/ead ( an angul>1 assumes a sph]oidal =m1 s t a pill> is made up ( a pile ( balls1 usually flatt5$1 z 9 ! ,*eese-grotto at ,b]tri*-,bad51 9 ! ,eifel1 ne> ! ,moselle 7,fig4 #eij74 ,! basalt !re is "p ( a small /ream ( lava1 f #cj to #dj feet ?ick1 :i* has proce$$ f "o ( sev]al volcanic crat]s1 /ill extant1 on ! neighb\r+ heights4 ,fig4 #eij3 ,basaltic pill>s ( ,ksegrotte1 ,b]tri*-,bad51 half-way betwe5 ,trves & ,cobl5z4 ,9 "s masses ( decompos+ gre5/one1 basalt1 & o!r trap rocks1 ! globul> /ructure is s conspicu\s t ! rock has ! appe>ance ( a heap ( l>ge cannon balls4 ,accord+ to ,m4 ,delesse1 ! c5tre ( ea* sph]oid has be5 a c5tre ( cry/allisation1 ar\nd :i* ! diff]5t m9]als ( ! rock arrang$ !mselves symmetrically dur+ ! process ( cool+4 ,b x 0 also1 he says1 a c5tre ( contraction1 produc$ by ! same cool+1 ! globul> =m1 !re=e1 ( su* sph]oids be+ ! comb9$ result ( cry/allisation & contraction4#h ,fig4 #eia3 ,globi=m pit*/one4 ,*iaja di ,luna1 ,isle ( ,ponza4 ,mr4 ,scrope gives z an illu/ration ( ?is /ructure a res9\s tra*yte or pit*/one-porphyry 9 "o ( ! ,ponza isl&s1 :i* rise f ! ,m$it]ranean1 (f ! coa/ ( ,t]rac9a & ,gaeta4 ,! globes v>y f a few in*es to ?ree feet 9 diamet]1 & are ( an ellipsoidal =m 7see ,fig4 #eia74 ,! :ole rock is 9 a /ate ( decomposition1 8& :5 ! balls10 says ,mr4 ,scrope1 8h be5 expos$ a %ort "t to ! wea!r1 !y scale (f at a t\* into num]\s conc5tric coats1 l ^? ( a bulb\s root1 inclos+ a compact nucleus4 ,! lam9 ( ?is nucleus h n be5 s mu* loos5$ by decomposition2 b ! application ( a rud] bl[ w produce a /ill fur!r exfoliation40#i ,fig4 #eib3 ,dike 9 valley1 ne> ,braz5 ,head1 ,madeira4 7,f a draw+ ( ,capta9 ,basil ,hall1 ,r4,n47 ,volcanic or ,trap ,dikes4--,! lead+ v>ieties ( ! trappean rocks--basalt1 gre5/one1 tra*yte1 & ! re/--are f\nd sometimes 9 dikes p5etrat+ /ratifi$ & un/ratifi$ =mations1 sometimes 9 %apeless masses protrud+ ?r\gh or ov]ly+ !m1 or 9 horizontal %eets int]calat$ betwe5 /rata4 ,fissures h already be5 spok5 ( z occurr+ 9 all k9ds ( rocks1 "s a few feet1 o!rs _m y>ds 9 wid?1 & (t5 fill$ up ) e>? or angul> pieces ( /one1 or ) s& & pebbles4 ,in/ead ( su* mat]ials1 suppose a quantity ( melt$ /one to be driv5 or inject$ into an op5 r5t1 & !re consolidat$1 we h !n a tabul> mass resembl+ a wall1 & call$ a trap dike4 ,x is n uncommon to f9d su* dikes pass+ ?r\gh /rata ( s(t mat]ials1 su* z tuff1 scori1 or %ale1 :i*1 be+ m p]i%able ?an ! trap1 are (t5 wa%$ away by ! sea1 riv]s1 or ra91 9 :i* case ! dike /&s prom95tly out 9 ! face ( precipices1 or on ! level surface ( a c\ntry 7see ,fig4 #eib74 ,9 ! isl&s ( ,arran & ,skye1 & 9 o!r p>ts ( ,scotl&1 :]e s&/one1 conglom]ate1 & o!r h>d rocks are trav]s$ by dikes ( trap1 ! conv]se ( ! above ph5om5on is se54 ,! dike1 hav+ decompos$ m rapidly ?an ! conta9+ rock1 has once m left op5 ! orig9al fissure1 (t5 = a di/ance ( _m y>ds inl& f ! sea-coa/4 ,!re is yet ano!r case1 by no means uncommon 9 ,arran & o!r p>ts ( ,scotl&1 :]e ! /rata 9 contact ) ! dike1 & = a c]ta9 di/ance f x1 h be5 h>d5$1 s z to resi/ ! action ( ! wea!r m ?an ! dike itself1 or ! surr\nd+ rocks4 ,:5 ?is happ5s1 two p>allel walls ( indurat$ /rata are se5 protrud+ above ! g5]al level ( ! c\ntry & foll[+ ! c\rse ( ! dike4 ,9 ,fig4 #eic1 a gr\nd plan is giv5 ( a ramify+ dike ( gre5/one1 :i* ,i obs]v$ cutt+ ?r\gh s&/one on ! bea* ne> ,kildonan ,ca/le1 9 ,arran4 ,! l>g] bran* v>ies f five to sev5 feet 9 wid?1 :i* w af=d a scale ( measurem5t = ! :ole4 ,fig4 #eic3 ,gr\nd-plan ( gre5/one dikes trav]s+ s&/one4 ,9 ! ,hebrides & o!r c\ntries1 ! same masses ( trap :i* occupy ! surface ( ! c\ntry f> & wide1 conceal+ ! subjac5t /ratifi$ rocks1 are se5 also 9 ! sea-cliffs1 prolong$ d[nw>d 9 ve9s or dikes1 :i* probably unite ) o!r masses ( igne\s rock at a great] dep?4 ,! l>ge/ ( ! dikes repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #eid1 & :i* are se5 9 "p ( ! coa/ ( ,skye1 is no less ?an #ajj feet 9 wid?4 ,fig4 #eid3 ,trap divid+ & cov]+ s&/one ne> ,sui%ni%1 9 ,skye4 ,e v>iety ( trap-rock is sometimes f\nd 9 dikes1 z basalt1 gre5/one1 feldsp>-porphyry1 & tra*yte4 ,! amygdaloidal traps also occur1 ?\gh m r>ely1 & ev5 tuff & breccia1 = ! mat]ials ( ^! la/ may be wa%$ d[n into op5 fissures at ! bottom ( ! sea1 or dur+ eruption on ! l& may be %[]$ into !m f ! air4 ,"s dikes ( trap may be foll[$ = leagues un9t]rupt$ly 9 ne>ly a /raight direction1 z 9 ! nor? ( ,engl&1 %[+ t ! fissures :i* !y fill mu/ h be5 ( extraord9>y l5g?4 ,rocks alt]$ by ,volcanic ,dikes4--,aft] ^! rem>ks on ! =m & composition ( dikes !mselves1 ,i %all describe ! alt]ations :i* !y sometimes produce 9 ! rocks 9 contact ) !m4 ,! *anges are usually su* z ! heat ( melt$ matt] & ( ! entangl$ /eam & gases might be expect$ to cause4 ,plas-,newydd3 ,dike cutt+ ?r\gh ,%ale4--,a /rik+ example1 ne> ,plas-,newydd1 9 ,anglesea1 has be5 describ$ by ,pr(essor ,h5sl[4#aj ,! dike is #acd feet wide1 & consi/s ( a rock :i* is a comp\nd ( feldsp> & augite 7dol]ite ( "s au?ors74 ,/rata ( %ale & argillace\s lime/one1 ?r\gh :i* x cuts p]p5dicul>ly1 are alt]$ to a di/ance ( #cj1 or ev51 9 "s places1 ( #ce feet f ! edge ( ! dike4 ,! %ale1 z x approa*es ! trap1 becomes gradually m compact1 & is mo/ indurat$ :]e ne>e/ ! junction4 ,"h x loses "p ( its s*i/ose /ructure1 b ! sep>ation into p>allel lay]s is /ill disc]nible4 ,9 sev]al places ! %ale is conv]t$ into h>d porcelan\s jasp]4 ,9 ! mo/ h>d5$ "p ( ! mass ! fossil %ells1 pr9cipally ,producti1 are ne>ly oblit]at$2 yet ev5 "h _! impressions may frequ5tly be trac$4 ,! argillace\s lime/one und]goes analog\s mutations1 los+ its e>?y texture z x approa*es ! dike1 & becom+ granul> & cry/all9e4 ,b ! mo/ extraord9>y ph5om5on is ! appe>ance 9 ! %ale ( num]\s cry/als ( analcime & g>net1 :i* are di/9ctly conf9$ to ^? portions ( ! rock affect$ by ! dike4#aa ,"s g>nets conta9 z mu* z #bj p] c5t ( lime1 :i* !y may h d]iv$ f ! decomposition ( ! fossil %ells or ,producti4 ,! same m9]al has be5 obs]v$1 "u v analog\s circum/ances1 9 ,high ,teesdale1 by ,pr(essor ,s$gwick1 :]e x also occurs 9 %ale & lime/one1 alt]$ by basalt4#ab ,antrim3 ,dike cutt+ ?r\gh ,*alk4--,9 sev]al p>ts ( ! c\nty ( ,antrim1 9 ! nor? ( ,irel&1 *alk ) fl9ts is trav]s$ by basaltic dikes4 ,! *alk is !re conv]t$ into granul> m>ble ne> ! basalt1 ! *ange sometimes ext5d+ eight or t5 feet f ! wall ( ! dike1 be+ greate/ ne> ! po9t ( contact1 & !nce gradually decreas+ till x becomes evanesc5t4 8,! extreme effect10 says ,dr4 ,b]g]1 8pres5ts a d>k br[n cry/all9e lime/one1 ! cry/als runn+ 9 flakes z l>ge z ^? ( co>se primitive 7metamorphic7 lime/one2 ! next /ate is sac*>9e1 !n f9e gra9$ & ar5ace\s2 a compact v>iety1 hav+ a porcelan\s aspect & a blui%-grey col\r1 succe$s3 ?is1 t[>ds ! out] edge1 becomes yell[i%-:ite1 & ins5sibly graduates into ! unalt]$ *alk4 ,! fl9ts 9 ! alt]$ *alk usually assume a grey yell[i% col\r40#ac ,all traces ( organic rema9s are effac$ 9 t "p ( ! lime/one :i* is mo/ cry/all9e4 ,fig4 #eie3 ,basaltic dikes 9 *alk 9 ,isl& ( ,ra?l91 ,antrim4 ,gr\nd-plan z se5 on ! bea*4 ,fig4 #eie3 ,basaltic dikes 9 *alk 9 ,isl& ( ,ra?l91 ,antrim4 ,gr\nd-plan z se5 on ! bea*4 7,conybe>e & ,buckl&#ad7 ,fig4 #eie repres5ts ?ree basaltic dikes trav]s+ ! *alk1 all )9 ! di/ance ( #ij feet4 ,! *alk contigu\s to ! two out] dikes is conv]t$ into a f9ely granul> m>ble1 m1 m1 z are ! :ole ( ! masses betwe5 ! out] dikes & ! c5tral "o4 ,! entire contra/ 9 ! composition & col\r ( ! intrusive & invad$ rocks1 9 ^! cases1 r5d]s ! ph5om5a peculi>ly cle> & int]e/+4 ,ano!r ( ! dikes ( ! nor?-ea/ ( ,irel& has conv]t$ a mass ( r$ s&/one into horn/one4 ,by ano!r1 ! %ale ( ! coal-measures has be5 indurat$1 assum+ ! "* ( fl9ty slate2 & 9 ano!r place ! slate-clay ( ! lias has be5 *ang$ into fl9ty slate1 :i* /ill reta9s num]\s impressions ( ammonites4#ae ,x might h be5 anticipat$ t b$s ( coal w\ld1 f _! combu/ible nature1 be affect$ 9 an extraord9>y degree by ! contact ( melt$ rock4 ,accord+ly1 "o ( ! gre5/one dikes ( ,antrim1 on pass+ ?r\gh a b$ ( coal1 r$uces x to a c9d] = ! space ( n9e feet on ea* side4 ,at ,cockfield ,fell1 9 ! nor? ( ,engl&1 a simil> *ange is obs]v$4 ,specim5s tak5 at ! di/ance ( ab\t ?irty y>ds f ! trap are n di/+ui%able f ord9>y pit-coal2 ^? ne>] ! dike are l c9d]s1 & h all ! "* ( coke2 :ile ^? close to x are conv]t$ into a sub/ance resembl+ soot4#af ,x is by no means uncommon to meet ) ! same rocks1 ev5 9 ! same di/ricts1 absolutely un*ang$ 9 ! proximity ( volcanic dikes4 ,?is great inequality 9 ! effects ( ! igne\s rocks may (t5 arise f an orig9al diff]5ce 9 _! temp]ature1 & 9 t ( ! entangl$ gases1 su* z is asc]ta9$ to prevail 9 diff]5t lavas1 or 9 ! same lava ne> its s\rce & at a di/ance f x4 ,! p[] also ( ! invad$ rocks to conduct heat may v>y1 accord+ to _! composition1 /ructure1 & ! fractures :i* !y may h exp]i5c$1 & p]haps1 also1 accord+ to ! quantity ( wat] 7s capable ( be+ heat$7 :i* !y conta94 ,x mu/ happ5 9 "s cases t ! compon5t mat]ials are mix$ 9 su* proportions z to prep>e !m readily to ent] into *emical union1 & =m new m9]als2 :ile 9 o!r cases ! mass may be m homog5e\s1 or ! proportions less adapt$ = su* union4 ,we mu/ also take into consid]ation1 t "o fissure may be simply fill$ ) lava1 :i* may beg9 to cool f ! fir/2 :]eas 9 o!r cases ! fissure may give passage to a curr5t ( melt$ matt]1 :i* may asc5d = days or mon?s1 fe$+ /reams :i* are ov]fl[+ ! c\ntry above1 or be+ eject$ 9 ! %ape ( scori f "s crat]4 ,if ! walls ( a r5t1 moreov]1 are heat$ by hot vap\r be=e ! lava rises1 z we "k may happ5 on ! flanks ( a volcano1 ! additional heat suppli$ by ! dike & its gases w act m p[]fully4 ,intrusion ( ,trap betwe5 ,/rata4--,masses ( trap are n unfrequ5tly met ) int]calat$ betwe5 /rata1 & ma9ta9+ _! p>allelism to ! planes ( /ratification ?r\gh\t l>ge areas4 ,!y mu/ 9 "s places h =c$ _! way lat]ally betwe5 ! divisions ( ! /rata1 a direction 9 :i* !re w\ld be ! lea/ resi/ance to an advanc+ fluid1 if no v]tical r5ts communicat$ ) ! surface1 & a p[]ful hydro/atic pressure 7 caus$ by gases propell+ ! lava upw>d4 ,relation ( ,trappean ,rocks to ! ,products ( active ,volcanoes4--,:5 we reflect on ! *anges above describ$ 9 ! /rata ne> _! contact ) trap dikes1 & consid] h[ complete is ! analogy or (t5 id5tity 9 composition & /ructure ( ! rocks call$ trappean & ! lavas ( active volcanoes1 x seems difficult at fir/ to und]/& h[ s mu* d\bt c\ld h prevail$ = half a c5tury z to :e!r trap 0 ( igne\s or aque\s orig94 ,to a c]ta9 ext5t1 h[ev]1 !re 0 a real di/9ction betwe5 ! trappean =mations & ^? to :i* ! t]m volcanic 0 almo/ exclusively conf9$4 ,a l>ge portion ( ! trappean rocks fir/ /udi$ 9 ! nor? ( ,g]many1 & 9 ,norway1 ,france1 ,scotl&1 & o!r c\ntries1 7 su* z _h be5 =m$ entirely "u wat]1 or _h be5 inject$ into fissures & intrud$ betwe5 /rata1 & :i* _h nev] fl[$ out 9 ! air1 or ov] ! bottom ( a %all[ sea4 ,:5 ^! products1 !re=e1 ( subm>9e or subt]ranean igne\s action 7 contra/$ ) loose cones ( scori1 tuff1 & lava1 or ) n>r[ /reams ( lava 9 great "p scoriace\s & por\s1 su* z 7 obs]v$ to h proce$$ f ,vesuvius & ,etna1 ! resemblance seem$ remote & equivocal4 ,x 01 9 tru?1 l comp>+ ! roots ( a tree ) its leaves & bran*es1 :i*1 al?\gh ! belong to ! same plant1 diff] 9 =m1 texture1 col\r1 mode ( gr[?1 & position4 ,! ext]nal cone1 ) its loose a%es & por\s lava1 may be lik5$ to ! light foliage & bran*es1 & ! rocks conceal$ f> bel[1 to ! roots4 ,b x is n en\gh to say ( ! volcano1 8,quantum v]tice 9 auras !rias1 tantum radice 9 ,t>t>a t5dit10 = its roots d lit]ally rea* d[nw>d to ,t>t>us1 or to ! regions ( subt]ranean fire2 & :at is conceal$ f> bel[ is probably always m important 9 volume & ext5t ?an :at is visible above gr\nd4 ,fig4 #eif3 ,/rata int]cept$ by a trap dike1 & cov]$ ) alluvium4 ,we h already /at$ h[ frequ5tly d5se masses ( /rata h be5 remov$ by d5udation f wide areas 7see ,*apt] ,,vi72 & ?is fact prep>es u to expect a simil> de/ruction ( :atev] may once h =m$ ! upp]mo/ "p ( anci5t subm>9e or subarial volcanoes1 m especially z ^? sup]ficial p>ts are always ( ! lighte/ & mo/ p]i%able mat]ials4 ,! abrupt mann] 9 :i* dikes ( trap usually t]m9ate at ! surface 7see ,fig4 #eif71 & ! wat]-worn pebbles ( trap 9 ! alluvium :i* cov]s ! dike1 prove inconte/ably t :atev] 0 upp]mo/ 9 ^! =mations has be5 swept away4 ,x is easy1 !re=e1 to conceive t :at is gone 9 regions ( trap may h correspond$ to :at is n[ visible 9 active volcanoes4 ,z to ! abs5ce ( porosity 9 ! trappean =mations1 ! appe>ances are 9 a great degree deceptive1 = all amygdaloids are1 z already expla9$1 por\s rocks1 into ! cells ( :i* m9]al matt] su* z silex1 c>bonate ( lime1 & o!r +r$i5ts1 h be5 subsequ5tly introduc$ 7see p4 #ejg72 sometimes1 p]haps1 by secretion dur+ ! cool+ & consolidation ( lavas4 ,9 ! ,little ,cumbray1 "o ( ! ,we/]n ,isl&s1 ne> ,arran1 ! amygdaloid sometimes conta9s elongat$ cavities fill$ ) br[n sp>2 & :5 ! nodules h be5 wa%$ out1 ! int]ior ( ! cavities is glaz$ ) ! vitre\s v>ni% s *>act]i/ic ( ! pores ( slaggy lavas4 ,ev5 9 "s p>ts ( ?is rock :i* are exclud$ f air & wat]1 ! cells are empty1 & seem to h always rema9$ 9 ?is /ate1 & are !re=e undi/+ui%able f "s mod]n lavas4#ag ,dr4 ,mac,culloch1 aft] exam9+ ) great att5tion ^! & ! o!r igne\s rocks ( ,scotl&1 obs]ves1 8t x is a m]e dispute ab\t t]ms1 to refuse to ! anci5t eruptions ( trap ! "n ( subm>9e volcanoes2 = !y are su* 9 e ess5tial po9t1 al?\gh !y no long] eject fire & smoke40 ,! same au?or also consid]s x n improbable t "s ( ! volcanic rocks ( ! same c\ntry may h be5 p\r$ out 9 ! op5 air4#ah ,x w be se5 9 ! foll[+ *apt]s t 9 ! e>?'s cru/ !re are volcanic tuffs ( all ages1 conta9+ m>9e %ells1 :i* be> witness to eruptions at _m successive geological p]iods4 ,^! tuffs1 & ! associat$ trappean rocks1 mu/ n be comp>$ to lava & scori :i* _h cool$ 9 ! op5 air4 ,_! c\nt]p>ts mu/ be s\ght 9 ! products ( mod]n subm>9e volcanic eruptions4 ,if x be object$ t we h no opportunity ( /udy+ ^! la/1 x may be answ]$1 t subt]ranean movem5ts h caus$1 almo/ ev]y:]e 9 regions ( active volcanoes1 great *anges 9 ! relative level ( l& & sea1 9 times comp>atively mod]n1 s z to expose to view ! effects ( volcanic op]ations at ! bottom ( ! sea4 #a ,pr9ciples1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #ef & #ade4 #b ,memoir on ,m\nt ,etna1 ,phil4 ,trans41 #aheh4 #c ,= analyses ( ^! m9]als see ! ,m9]alogies ( ,dana & ,bri/[4 #d ,dr4 ,daub5y on ,volcanoes1 #bnd ed41 pp4 #ad1 #ae4 #e ,g4 ,hose1 ,ann4 des ,m9es1 tome viii1 p4 #cb4 #f ,mac,culloch ,sys4 ( ,geol41 vol4 ii1 p4 #acg4 #g ,=tis1 ,mm4 sur l',hi/4 ,nat4 de l',italie1 tome #a41 p4 #bcc1 plate #g4 #h ,delesse1 sur les ,ro*es ,globuleuses1 ,mm4 de la ,soc4 ,gol4 de ,france1 #b sr41 tome iv4 #i ,scrope1 ,geol4 ,trans41 #bnd s]ies1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bje4 #aj ,cambridge ,transactions1 vol4 i1 p4 #djb4 #aa ,ibid41 vol4 i1 p4 #daj4 #ab ,ibid41 vol4 ii1 p4 #age4 #ac ,dr4 ,b]g]1 ,geol4 ,trans41 #a/ s]ies1 vol4 iii1 p4 #agb4 #ad ,geol4 ,trans41 #a/ s]ies1 vol4 iii1 p4 #baj & plate #aj4 #ae ,ibid41 vol4 iii1 p4 #bac2 & ,playfair1 ,illus4 ( ,hutt4 ,!ory1 s4 #bec4 #af ,s$gwick1 ,camb4 ,trans41 vol4 ii1 p4 #cg47 #ag ,mac,culloch1 ,we/4 ,isl&s1 vol4 ii1 p4 #dhg4 #ah ,sy/4 ( ,geol41 vol4 ii1 p4 #aad4 ,,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,,on ,,! ,,ages ,,( ,,volcanic ,,rocks4 ,te/s ( relative ,age ( ,volcanic ,rocks4 -- ,:y anci5t & mod]n ,rocks _c be id5tical4 -- ,te/s by ,sup]position & intrusion4 -- ,te/ by ,alt]ation ( ,rocks 9 ,contact4 -- ,te/ by ,organic ,rema9s4 -- ,te/ ( ,age by ,m9]al ,"*4 -- ,te/ by ,includ$ ,fragm5ts4 -- ,rec5t & ,po/-plioc5e volcanic ,rocks4 -- ,vesuvius1 ,auv]gne1 ,puy de ,cme1 & ,puy de ,p>i\4 -- ,new] ,plioc5e volcanic ,rocks4 -- ,cyclopean ,isles1 ,etna1 ,dikes ( ,palagonia1 ,madeira4 -- ,old] ,plioc5e volcanic ,rocks4 -- ,italy4 -- ,plioc5e ,volcanoes ( ! ,eifel4 -- ,trass4 ,hav+ 9 ! =m] "p ( ?is "w ref]r$ ! s$im5t>y /rata to a long succession ( geological p]iods1 we h n[ to consid] h[ f> ! volcanic =mations c be class$ 9 a simil> *ronological ord]4 ,! te/s ( relative age 9 ?is class ( rocks are f\r3 fir/1 sup]position & intrusion1 ) or )\t alt]ation ( ! rocks 9 contact2 second1 organic rema9s2 ?ird1 m9]al *>act]s2 f\r?1 includ$ fragm5ts ( old] rocks4 ,besides ^! f\r te/s x may be said1 9 a g5]al way1 t volcanic rocks ( ,prim>y or ,palozoic antiquity diff] f ^? ( ! ,second>y or ,mesozoic age1 & ^! aga9 f ! ,t]ti>y & ,rec5t4 ,n1 p]haps1 t !y diff]$ orig9ally 9 a great] degree ?an ! mod]n volcanic rocks ( "o region1 su* z t ( ! ,&es1 diff] f ^? ( ano!r1 su* z ,icel&1 b because all rocks p]meat$ by wat]1 especially if its temp]ature be high1 are liable to und]go a sl[ transmutation1 ev5 :5 !y d n assume a new cry/all9e =m l t ( ! hypog5e rocks4 ,al?\gh subarial & subm>9e d5udation1 z be=e /at$1 remove1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 l>ge portions ( ! upp] or m sup]ficial products ( volcanoes1 yet ^! are sometimes pres]v$ by subsid5ce1 becom+ cov]$ by ! sea or by sup]impos$ m>9e deposits4 ,9 ?is way !y may be protect$ = ages f ! waves ( ! sea1 or ! de/roy+ action ( riv]s1 :ile1 at ! same "t1 !y may n s9k s deep z to be expos$ to t ,plutonic action 7to be spok5 ( 9 ,*apt] ,,xxxi7 :i* w\ld conv]t !m into cry/all9e rocks4 ,b ev5 9 ?is case !y w n rema9 unalt]$1 because !y w be p]colat$ by wat] (t5 ( high temp]ature1 & *>g$ ) c>bonate ( lime1 silex1 iron1 & o!r m9]al +r$i5ts1 :]eby gradual *anges 9 ! con/itution ( ! rocks may be sup]9duc$4 ,e geologi/ is aw>e h[ (t5 silicifi$ trees occur 9 volcanic tuffs1 ! p]fect pres]vation ( _! int]nal /ructure %[+ t !y h n decay$ be=e ! petrify+ mat]ial 0 suppli$4 ,! por\s & vesicul> nature ( a l>ge "p1 bo? ( ! basaltic & tra*ytic lavas1 af=ds cavities 9 :i* silex & c>bonate ( lime are readily deposit$4 ,m9]als ( ! zeolite family1 ! composition ( :i* has already be5 allud$ to1 p4 #ejj1 occur 9 amygdaloids & o!r trap-rocks 9 great abundance1 & ,daubre's obs]vations h prov$ t !y are n always simple deposits ( sub/ances held 9 solution by ! p]colat+ wat]s1 be+ occasionally products ( ! *emical action ( t wat] on ! rock ?r\gh :i* !y are filt]$1 & portions ( :i* are decompos$4 ,f ^! consid]ations x foll[s t ! p]fect id5tity ( v anci5t & v mod]n volcanic =mations is sc>cely possible4 ,fig4 #eig3 ,%[+ melt$ matt] =c$ betwe5 two /rata4 ,te/s by ,sup]position4--,if a volcanic rock re/ ^u an aque\s deposit1 ! volcanic mu/ be ! newe/ ( ! two2 b ! l rule does n hold good :]e ! aque\s =mation re/s ^u ! volcanic1 = melt$ matt]1 ris+ f bel[1 may p5etrate a s$im5t>y mass )\t rea*+ ! surface1 or may be =c$ 9 con=mably betwe5 two /rata1 z b bel[ ,d 9 ,fig4 #eig1 aft] :i* x may cool d[n & consolidate4 ,sup]position1 !re=e1 is n ( ! same value z a te/ ( age 9 ! un/ratifi$ volcanic rocks z 9 fossilif]\s =mations4 ,we c only rely implicitly on ?is te/ :]e ! volcanic rocks are contemporane\s1 n :]e !y are intrusive4 ,n[1 !y are said to be contemporane\s if produc$ by volcanic action :i* 0 go+ on simultane\sly ) ! deposition ( ! /rata ) :i* !y are associat$4 ,?us 9 ! section at ,d 7,fig4 #eig71 we may p]haps asc]ta9 t ! trap b fl[$ ov] ! fossilif]\s b$ c1 & t1 aft] its consolidation1 a 0 deposit$ ^u x1 a & c bo? belong+ to ! same geological p]iod4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 we mu/ conclude ! trap to be intrusive1 if ! /ratum a be alt]$ by b at ! po9t ( contact1 or if1 9 pursu+ b = "s di/ance1 we f9d at l5g? t x cuts ?r\gh ! /ratum a1 & !n ov]lies x z at ,e4 ,fig4 #eih3 ,section ?r\gh s$im5t>y mass ) melt$ matt]4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 be easily deceiv$ 9 suppos+ ! volcanic rock to be intrusive1 :5 9 reality x is contemporane\s2 = a %eet ( lava1 z x spreads ov] ! bottom ( ! sea1 _c re/ ev]y:]e ^u ! same /ratum1 ei!r because ^! h be5 d5ud$1 or because1 if newly ?r[n d[n1 !y ?9 out 9 c]ta9 places1 ?us all[+ ! lava to cross _! edges4 ,besides1 ! heavy igne\s fluid w (t51 z x moves along1 cut a *annel into b$s ( s(t mud & s&4 ,suppose ! subm>9e lava ,f 7,fig4 #eih7 to h come 9 contact 9 ?is mann] ) ! /rata a1 b1 c1 & t aft] its consolidation ! /rata d1 e are ?r[n d[n 9 a ne>ly horizontal position1 yet s z to lie uncon=mably to ,f1 ! appe>ance ( subsequ5t intrusion w "h be complete1 al?\gh ! trap is 9 fact contemporane\s4 ,we mu/ n1 !re=e1 ha/ily inf] t ! rock ,f is intrusive1 unless we f9d ! ov]ly+ /rata1 d1 e1 to h be5 alt]$ at _! junction1 z if by heat4 ,! te/ ( age by sup]position is /rictly applicable to all /ratifi$ volcanic tuffs1 accord+ to ! rules already expla9$ 9 ! case ( s$im5t>y deposits 7see p4 #abd74 ,te/ ( ,age by ,organic ,rema9s4--,we h se5 h[1 9 ! vic9ity ( active volcanoes1 scori1 pumice1 f9e s&1 & fragm5ts ( rock are ?r[n up into ! air1 & !n %[]$ d[n ^u ! l&1 or into neighb\r+ lakes or seas4 ,9 ! tuffs s =m$ %ells1 corals1 or any o!r durable organic bodies :i* may happ5 to be /rew$ ov] ! bottom ( a lake or sea w be imb$d$1 & ?us cont9ue z p]man5t memorials ( ! geological p]iod :5 ! volcanic eruption occurr$4 ,tuface\s /rata ?us =m$ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 ,/romboli1 & o!r volcanoes n[ 9 isl&s or ne> ! sea1 may give in=mation ( ! relative age ( ^! tuffs at "s remote future p]iod :5 ! fires ( ^! m\nta9s are ext+ui%$4 ,by evid5ce ( ?is k9d we c e/abli% a co9cid5ce 9 age betwe5 volcanic rocks & ! diff]5t prim>y1 second>y1 & t]ti>y fossilif]\s /rata4 ,! tuffs allud$ to may n always be m>9e1 b may include1 9 "s places1 fre%-wat] %ells2 9 o!rs1 ! bones ( t]re/rial quadrup$s4 ,! div]sity ( organic rema9s 9 =mations ( ?is nature is p]fectly intelligible1 if we reflect on ! wide disp]sion ( eject$ matt] dur+ late eruptions1 su* z t ( ! volcano ( ,cosegu9a1 9 ! prov9ce ( ,nic>agua1 ,janu>y #ai1 #ahce4 ,hot c9d]s & f9e scori 7 !n ca/ up to a va/ height1 & cov]$ ! gr\nd z !y fell to ! dep? ( m ?an t5 feet1 = a di/ance ( eight leagues f ! crat]1 9 a s\!rly direction4 ,birds1 cattle1 & wild animals 7 scor*$ to dea? 9 great numb]s1 & buri$ 9 a%es4 ,"s volcanic du/ fell at ,*iapa1 upw>d ( #abjj miles1 n to leew>d ( ! volcano1 z might h be5 anticipat$1 b to w9dw>d1 a /rik+ pro( ( a c\nt]-curr5t 9 ! upp] region ( ! atmosph]e2 & "s on ,jamaica1 ab\t #gjj miles di/ant to ! nor?-ea/4 ,9 ! sea1 also1 at ! di/ance ( #aajj miles f ! po9t ( eruption1 ,capta9 ,ed5 ( ! 8,conway0 sail$ #dj miles ?r\gh float+ pumice1 among :i* 7 "s pieces ( consid]able size4#a ,te/ ( ,age by ,m9]al ,composition4--,z s$im5t ( homog5e\s composition1 :5 dis*>g$ f ! m\? ( a l>ge riv]1 is (t5 deposit$ simultane\sly ov] a wide space1 s a p>ticul> k9d ( lava fl[+ f a crat] dur+ "o eruption may spread ov] an ext5sive area2 ?us 9 ,icel&1 9 #aghc1 ! melt$ matt]1 p\r+ f ,skapt> ,jokul1 fl[$ 9 /reams 9 opposite directions1 & caus$ a cont9u\s mass ! extreme po9ts ( :i* 7 #ij miles di/ant f ea* o!r4 ,?is enorm\s curr5t ( lava v>i$ 9 ?ickness f #ajj feet to #fjj feet1 & 9 bread? f t ( a n>r[ riv] gorge to #ae miles4#b ,n[1 if su* a mass %\ld aft]w>ds be divid$ into sep>ate fragm5ts by d5udation1 we might /ill1 p]haps1 id5tify ! deta*$ portions by _! simil>ity 9 m9]al composition4 ,nev]!less1 ?is te/ w n always avail ! geologi/2 =1 al?\gh !re is usually a prevail+ "* 9 lava emitt$ dur+ ! same eruption1 & ev5 9 ! successive curr5ts fl[+ f ! same volcano1 /ill1 9 _m cases1 ! diff]5t p>ts ev5 ( "o lava-/ream1 or1 z be=e /at$1 ( "o cont9u\s mass ( trap1 v>y mu* 9 m9]al composition & texture4 ,9 ,auv]gne1 ! ,eifel1 & o!r c\ntries :]e tra*yte & basalt are bo? pres5t1 ! tra*ytic rocks are = ! mo/ "p old] ?an ! basaltic4 ,^! rocks d1 inde$1 sometimes alt]nate p>tially1 z 9 ! volcano ( ,mont ,dor1 9 ,auv]gne2 & 9 ,madeira tra*ytic rocks ov]lie an old] basaltic s]ies2 b ! tra*yte occupies m g5]ally an inf]ior position1 & is cut ?r\gh & ov]fl[$ by basalt4 ,x c by no means be inf]r$ t tra*yte pr$om9at$ at "o p]iod ( ! e>?'s hi/ory & basalt at ano!r1 = we "k t tra*ytic lavas h be5 =m$ at _m successive p]iods1 & are /ill emitt$ f _m active crat]s2 b x seems t 9 ea* region1 :]e a long s]ies ( eruptions h occurr$1 ! lavas conta9+ feldsp> m ri* 9 silica h be5 fir/ emitt$1 & ! escape ( ! m augitic k9ds has foll[$4 ,! hypo!sis sugge/$ by ,mr4 ,scrope may1 p]haps1 af=d a solution ( ?is problem4 ,! m9]als1 he obs]ves1 :i* ab\nd 9 basalt are ( great] specific gravity ?an ^? compos+ ! feldspa?ic lavas2 ?us1 = example1 hornbl5de1 augite1 & oliv9e are ea* m ?an ?ree times ! weight ( wat]2 :]eas common feldsp> & albite h ea* sc>cely m ?an #b times ! specific gravity ( wat]2 & ! diff]5ce is increas$ 9 consequ5ce ( !re be+ mu* m iron 9 a metallic /ate 9 basalt & gre5/one ?an 9 tra*yte & o!r alli$ feldspa?ic lavas4 ,if1 !re=e1 a l>ge quantity ( rock be melt$ up 9 ! b[els ( ! e>? by volcanic heat1 ! d5s] +r$i5ts ( ! boil+ fluid may s9k to ! bottom1 & ! light] rema9+ above w\ld 9 t case be fir/ propell$ upw>d to ! surface by ! expansive p[] ( gases4 ,^? mat]ials1 !re=e1 :i* occupy ! l[e/ place 9 ! subt]ranean res]voir w always be emitt$ la/1 & take ! upp]mo/ place on ! ext]ior ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,te/ by ,includ$ ,fragm5ts4--,we may sometimes discov] ! relative age ( two trap-rocks1 or ( an aque\s deposit & ! trap on :i* x re/s1 by f9d+ fragm5ts ( "o includ$ 9 ! o!r 9 cases su* z ^? be=e allud$ to1 :]e ! evid5ce ( sup]position alone w\ld be insuffici5t4 ,x is also n uncommon to f9d a conglom]ate almo/ exclusively compos$ ( roll$ pebbles ( trap1 associat$ ) "s fossilif]\s /ratifi$ =mation 9 ! neighb\rhood ( massive trap4 ,if ! pebbles agree g5]ally 9 m9]al "* ) ! latt]1 we are !n enabl$ to det]m9e its relative age by kn[+ t ( ! fossilif]\s /rata associat$ ) ! conglom]ate4 ,! orig9 ( su* conglom]ates is expla9$ by obs]v+ ! %+le bea*es compos$ ( trap-pebbles 9 mod]n volcanoes1 z at ! base ( ,etna4 ,rec5t & ,po/-plioc5e ,volcanic ,rocks4--,i %all n[ select examples ( contemporane\s volcanic rocks ( successive geological p]iods1 to %[ t igne\s causes h be5 9 activity 9 all pa/ ages ( ! _w4 ,!y h be5 p]petually %ift+ ! places :]e !y h brok5 out at ! e>?'s surface1 & we c sometimes prove t ^? areas :i* are n[ ! great !atres ( volcanic action 7 9 a /ate ( p]fect tranquillity at remote geological epo*s1 & t1 on ! o!r h&1 9 places :]e at =m] p]iods ! mo/ viol5t eruptions took place at ! surface & cont9u$ = a great l5g? ( "t1 !re has be5 an entire susp5sion ( igne\s action 9 hi/orical times1 & ev51 z 9 ! ,briti% ,isles1 ?r\gh\t a l>ge "p ( ! antec$5t ,t]ti>y ,p]iod4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( ,briti% examples ( volcanic rocks new] ?an ! ,upp] ,mioc5e1 ,i may /ate t 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w1 especially 9 ^? :]e volcanic eruptions are n[ tak+ place f "t to "t1 !re are tuffs & lavas belong+ to t "p ( ! ,t]ti>y era ! antiquity ( :i* is prov$ by ! pres5ce ( ! bones ( ext9ct quadrup$s :i* co-exi/$ ) t]re/rial1 fre%-wat]1 & m>9e mollusca ( species /ill liv+4 ,"o portion ( ! lavas1 tuffs1 & trap-dikes ( ,etna1 ,vesuvius1 & ! isl& ( ,is*ia has be5 produc$ )9 ! hi/orical era2 ano!r & a f> m consid]able "p orig9at$ at times imm$iately antec$5t1 :5 ! wat]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean 7 already inhabit$ by ! exi/+ te/acea1 b :5 c]ta9 species ( elephant1 rh9oc]os1 & o!r quadrup$s n[ ext9ct1 inhabit$ ,europe4 ,vesuvius4--,i h trac$ 9 ! 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology0 ! hi/ory ( ! *anges :i* ! volcanic region ( ,campania is kn[n to h und]gone dur+ ! la/ #bjjj ye>s4 ,! aggregate effect ( igne\s op]ations dur+ t p]iod is f> f insignificant1 compris+ z x does ! =mation ( ! mod]n cone ( ,vesuvius s9ce ! ye> #gi1 & ! production ( sev]al m9or cones 9 ,is*ia1 toge!r ) t ( ,monte ,nuovo 9 ! ye> #aech4 ,lava-curr5ts h also fl[$ ^u ! l& & along ! bottom ( ! sea--volcanic s&1 pumice1 & scori h be5 %[]$ d[n s abundantly t :ole cities 7 buri$--tracts ( ! sea h be5 fill$ up or conv]t$ into %oals--& tuface\s s$im5t has be5 transport$ by riv]s & l&-floods to ! sea4 ,!re are also pro(s1 dur+ ! same rec5t p]iod1 ( a p]man5t alt]ation ( ! relative levels ( ! l& & sea 9 sev]al places1 & ( ! same tract hav+1 ne> ,puzzuoli1 be5 alt]nately upheav$ & depress$ to ! am\nt ( m ?an tw5ty feet4 ,9 connection ) ^! convulsions1 !re are f\nd1 on ! %ores ( ! ,bay ( ,bai1 rec5t tuface\s /rata1 fill$ ) articles fabricat$ by ! h&s ( man1 & m+l$ ) m>9e %ells4 ,x has also be5 /at$ 7p4 #bjf71 t :5 we exam9e ?is same region1 x is f\nd to consi/ l>gely ( tuface\s /rata1 ( a date ant]ior to human hi/ory or tradition1 :i* are ( su* ?ickness z to con/itute hills f #ejj to m ?an #bjjj feet 9 height4 ,"s ( ^! /rata conta9 m>9e %ells :i* are exclusively ( liv+ species1 o!rs conta9 a slight mixture1 "o or two p] c5t ( species n kn[n z liv+4 ,! anci5t "p ( ,vesuvius is call$ ,somma1 & consi/s ( ! rema9s ( an old] cone :i* appe>s to h be5 p>tly de/roy$ by explosion4 ,9 ! great esc>pm5t :i* ?is remnant ( ! anci5t m\nta9 pres5ts t[>ds ! mod]n cone ( ,vesuvius1 !re are _m dikes :i* are = ! mo/ "p v]tical1 & trav]se ! incl9$ b$s ( lava & scori :i* 7 successively sup]impos$ dur+ ^? eruptions by :i* ! old cone 0 =m$4 ,!y project 9 relief sev]al in*es1 or sometimes feet1 f ! face ( ! cliff1 be+ extremely compact1 & less de/ructible ?an ! int]sect$ tuffs & por\s lavas4 ,9 v]tical ext5t !y v>y f a few y>ds to #ejj feet1 & 9 bread? f "o to twelve feet4 ,_m ( !m cut all ! incl9$ b$s 9 ! esc>pm5t ( ,somma f top to bottom1 o!rs /op %ort be=e !y asc5d above halfway4 ,9 m9]al composition !y sc>cely diff] f ! lavas ( ,somma1 ! rock consi/+ ( a base ( leucite & augite1 ?r\gh :i* l>ge cry/als ( augite & "s ( leucite are scatt]$4 ,no?+ is m rem>kable ?an ! usual p>allelism ( ! opposite sides ( ! dikes1 :i* correspond almo/ z regul>ly z ! two opposite faces ( a wall ( masonry4 ,?is "* appe>s at fir/ ! m inexplicable1 :5 we consid] h[ jagg$ & unev5 are ! r5ts caus$ by e>?quakes 9 masses ( het]og5e\s composition1 l ^? compos+ ! cone ( ,somma4 ,9 explanation ( ?is ph5om5on1 ,m4 ,neck] ref]s u to ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton's acc\nt ( an eruption ( ,vesuvius 9 ! ye> #aggi1 :o records ! foll[+ fact3 8,! lavas1 :5 !y ei!r boil$ ov] ! crat]1 or broke out f ! conical p>ts ( ! volcano1 con/antly =m$ *annels z regul> z if !y _h be5 cut by art d[n ! /eep "p ( ! m\nta92 & :il/ 9 a /ate ( p]fect fusion1 cont9u$ _! c\rse 9 ^? *annels1 :i* 7 sometimes full to ! brim1 & at o!r times m or less s1 accord+ to ! quantity ( matt] 9 motion4 0,^! *annels 7says ! same obs]v]71 ,i h f\nd1 ^u exam9ation aft] an eruption1 to be 9 g5]al f two to five or six feet wide1 & sev5 or eight feet deep4 ,!y 7 (t5 hid f ! sight by a quantity ( scori t _h =m$ a cru/ ov] !m2 & ! lava1 hav+ be5 convey$ 9 a cov]$ way = "s y>ds1 came out fre% aga9 into an op5 *annel4 ,aft] an eruption1 ,i h walk$ 9 "s ( ^? subt]rane\s or cov]$ gall]ies1 :i* 7 exce$+ly curi\s1 ! sides1 top1 & bottom be+ worn p]fectly smoo? & ev5 9 mo/ p>ts by ! viol5ce ( ! curr5ts ( ! r$-hot lavas :i* !y _h convey$ = _m weeks successively40 ,i 0 able to v]ify ?is ph5om5on 9 #aheh1 :5 a /ream ( lava issu$ f a lat]al cone4#c ,n[1 ! walls ( a v]tical fissure1 ?r\gh :i* lava has asc5d$ 9 its way to a volcanic v5t1 mu/ h be5 expos$ to ! same erosion z ! sides ( ! *annels be=e adv]t$ to4 ,! prolong$ & uni=m friction ( ! heavy fluid1 z x is =c$ & made to fl[ upw>d1 _c fail to we> & smoo? d[n ! surfaces on :i* x rubs1 & ! int5se heat mu/ melt all su* masses z project & ob/ruct ! passage ( ! inc&esc5t fluid4 ,! rock compos+ ! dikes bo? 9 ! mod]n & anci5t "p ( ,vesuvius is f> m compact ?an t ( ord9>y lava1 = ! pressure ( a column ( melt$ matt] 9 a fissure greatly exce$s t 9 an ord9>y /ream ( lava2 & pressure *ecks ! expansion ( ^? gases :i* give rise to vesicles 9 lava4 ,!re is a t5d5cy 9 almo/ all ! ,vesuvian dikes to divide into horizontal prisms1 a ph5om5on 9 accordance ) ! =mation ( v]tical columns 9 horizontal b$s ( lava2 = 9 bo? cases ! divisions :i* give rise to ! prismatic /ructure are at "r angles to ! cool+ surfaces4 7,see p4 #eaj47 ,auv]gne4--,al?\gh ! late/ eruptions 9 c5tral ,france seem to h long prec$$ ! hi/orical era1 !y are s mod]n z to h a v intimate connection ) ! pres5t sup]ficial outl9e ( ! c\ntry & ) ! exi/+ valleys & riv]-c\rses4 ,among a great numb] ( cones ) p]fect crat]s1 "o call$ ! ,puy de ,t>t>et s5t =? a lava-curr5t :i* c be trac$ up to its crat]1 & :i* fl[$ = a di/ance ( ?irte5 miles along ! bottom ( ! pres5t valley to ! village ( ,ne*]s1 cov]+ ! alluvium ( ! old valley 9 :i* 7 pres]v$ ! bones ( an ext9ct species ( horse1 & ( a lagomys & o!r quadrup$s all closely alli$ to rec5t animals1 :ile ! associat$ l&-%ells 7 ( species n[ liv+1 su* z ,cyclo/oma elegans1 ,helix hort5sis1 ,h4 nemoralis1 ,h4 lapicida1 & ,clausilia rugosa4 ,t ! curr5t :i* has issu$ f ! ,puy de ,t>t>et may1 nev]!less1 be v anci5t 9 ref]5ce to ! ev5ts ( human hi/ory1 we may conclude1 n only f ! div]g5ce ( ! mammif]\s fauna f t ( our day1 b f ! fact t a ,roman bridge ( su* =m & con/ruction z cont9u$ 9 use only d[n to ! fif? c5tury1 b :i* may be old]1 is n[ se5 at a place ab\t a mile & a half f ,/4 ,nectaire4 ,?is anci5t bridge spans ! riv] ,c\ze ) two ar*es1 ea* ab\t f\rte5 feet wide4 ,^! ar*es spr+ f ! lava ( ,t>t>et1 on bo? banks1 %[+ t a rav9e precisely l t n[ exi/+ _h already be5 excavat$ by ! riv] ?r\gh t lava ?irte5 or f\rte5 c5turies ago4 ,:ile ! riv] ,c\ze has 9 mo/ cases1 z at ! site ( ?is anci5t bridge1 be5 simply able to cut a deep *annel ?r\gh ! lava1 ! l[] portion ( :i* is %[n to be column>1 ! same torr5t has 9 o!r places1 :]e ! valley 0 contract$ to a n>r[ gorge1 _h p[] to remove ! entire mass ( basaltic rock1 caus+ = a %ort space a complete brea* ( cont9uity 9 ! volcanic curr5t4 ,! "w ( erosion has be5 v sl[1 z ! basalt is t\gh & h>d1 & "o column aft] ano!r mu/ h be5 und]m9$ & r$uc$ to pebbles1 & !n to s&4 ,dur+ ! "t requir$ = ?is op]ation1 ! p]i%able cone ( ,t>t>et1 occupy+ ! l[e/ "p ( ! great valley desc5d+ f ,mont ,dor 7see p4 #edb71 & damm+ up ! riv] s z to cause ! ,lake ( ,*ambon1 has /ood un9jur$1 prov+ t no great flood or deluge c h pass$ ov] ?is region 9 ! int]val betwe5 ! eruption ( ,t>t>et & our own times4 ,puy de ,cme4--,! ,puy de ,cme & its lava-curr5t1 ne> ,cl]mont1 may be m5tion$ z ano!r m9or volcano ( ab\t ! same age4 ,?is conical hill rises f ! granitic plat=m1 at an angle ( betwe5 #cj & #dj1 to ! height ( m ?an #ijj feet4 ,its summit pres5ts two di/9ct crat]s1 "o ( !m ) a v]tical dep? ( #bej feet4 ,a /ream ( lava takes its rise at ! we/]n base ( ! hill in/ead ( issu+ f ei!r crat]1 & desc5ds ! granitic slope t[>ds ! pres5t site ( ! t[n ( ,pont ,gibaud4 ,!nce x p\rs 9 a broad %eet d[n a /eep declivity into ! valley ( ! ,si\le1 fill+ ! anci5t riv]-*annel = ! di/ance ( m ?an a mile4 ,! ,si\le1 ?us dispossess$ ( its b$1 has work$ out a fre% "o betwe5 ! lava & ! granite ( its we/]n bank2 & ! excavation has disclos$1 9 "o spot1 a wall ( column> basalt ab\t fifty feet high4#d ,! excavation ( ! rav9e is /ill 9 progress1 e w9t] "s columns ( basalt be+ und]m9$ & c>ri$ d[n ! *annel ( ! riv]1 & 9 ! c\rse ( a few miles roll$ to s& & pebbles4 ,mean:ile ! cone ( ,cme rema9s unimpair$1 its loose mat]ials be+ protect$ by a d5se vegetation1 & ! hill /&+ on a ridge n comm&$ by any high] gr\nd1 s t no floods ( ra9-wat] c desc5d ^u x4 ,!re is no end to ! wa/e :i* ! h>d basalt may und]go 9 future1 if ! physical geography ( ! c\ntry cont9ue un*ang$--no limit to ! numb] ( ye>s dur+ :i* ! heap ( incoh]5t & transportable mat]ials call$ ! ,puy de ,cme may rema9 9 an almo/ /ation>y condition4 ,puy de ,p>i\4--,! brim ( ! crat] ( ! ,puy de ,p>i\1 ne> ,cl]mont1 is s %>p1 & has be5 s little blunt$ by "t1 t x sc>cely af=ds room to /& ^u4 ,?is & o!r cones 9 an equally rem>kable /ate ( integrity h /ood1 ,i conceive1 un9jur$1 n 9 spite ( _! loose por\s nature1 z might at fir/ be naturally suppos$1 b 9 consequ5ce ( x4 ,no rills c collect :]e all ! ra9 is in/antly absorb$ by ! s& & scori1 z is rem>kably ! case on ,etna2 & no?+ b a wat]-sp\t break+ directly ^u ! ,puy de ,p>i\ c\ld c>ry away a portion ( ! hill1 s long z x is n r5t or +ulf$ by e>?quakes4 ,new] ,plioc5e ,volcanic ,rocks4--,! m anci5t portion ( ,vesuvius & ,etna orig9at$ at ! close ( ! ,new] ,plioc5e p]iod1 :5 less ?an t51 sometimes only "o1 9 a hundr$ ( ! %ells diff]$ f ^? n[ liv+4 ,9 ! case ( ,etna1 x 0 be=e /at$ 7p4 #bje7 t ,po/-plioc5e =mations occur 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,catania1 :ile ! olde/ lavas ( ! great volcano are ,plioc5e4 ,^! la/ are se5 associat$ ) s$im5t>y deposits at ,trezza & o!r places on ! s\!rn & ea/]n flanks ( ! great cone 7see p4 #bje74 ,cyclopean ,isl&s4--,! ,cyclopean ,isl&s1 call$ by ! ,sicilians ,dei ,f>aglioni1 9 ! sea-cliffs ( :i* ^! b$s ( clay1 tuff1 & associat$ lava are laid op5 to view1 are situat$ 9 ! ,bay ( ,trezza1 & may be reg>d$ z ! extremity ( a promontory sev]$ f ! ma9 l&4 ,"h num]\s pro(s are se5 ( subm>9e eruptions1 by :i* ! argillace\s & s&y /rata 7 invad$ & cut ?r\gh1 & tuface\s breccias =m$4 ,inclos$ 9 ^! breccias are _m angul> & h>d5$ fragm5ts ( lam9at$ clay 9 diff]5t /ates ( alt]ation by heat1 & int]mix$ ) volcanic s&s4 ,fig4 #eii3 ,view ( ! ,isle ( ,cyclops1 9 ! ,bay ( ,trezza4 ,! l(tie/ ( ! ,cyclopean islets1 or r rocks1 is ab\t #bjj feet 9 height1 ! summit be+ =m$ ( a mass ( /ratifi$ clay1 ! lam9 ( :i* are occasionally subdivid$ by ?9 ar5ace\s lay]s4 ,^! /rata dip to ! ,n4,w41 & re/ on a mass ( column> lava 7see ,fig4 #eii7 9 :i* ! tops ( ! pill>s are wea!r$1 & s r\nd$ z to be (t5 hemisph]ical4 ,fig4 #fjj3 ,contortions ( /rata 9 ! l>ge/ ( ! ,cyclopean ,isl&s4 ,9 "s places 9 ! adjo9+ & l>ge/ islet ( ! gr\p1 :i* lies to ! nor?-ea/w>d ( t repres5t$ 9 ,figure #eii71 ! ov]ly+ clay has be5 greatly alt]$ & h>d5$ by ! igne\s rock1 & occasionally contort$ 9 ! mo/ extraord9>y mann]2 yet ! lam9ation has n be5 oblit]at$1 b1 on ! contr>y1 r5d]$ mu* m conspicu\s1 by ! indurat+ process4 ,9 ,fig4 #fjj ,i h repres5t$ a portion ( ! alt]$ rock1 a few feet squ>e1 :]e ! alt]nat+ ?9 lam9 ( s& & clay are contort$ 9 a mann] (t5 obs]v$ 9 anci5t metamorphic s*i/s4 ,a great fissure1 runn+ f ea/ to we/1 ne>ly divides ?is l>g] isl& into two p>ts1 & lays op5 its int]nal /ructure4 ,9 ! section ?us exhibit$1 a dike ( lava is se51 fir/ cutt+ ?r\gh an old] mass ( lava1 & !n p5etrat+ ! sup]9cumb5t t]ti>y /rata4 ,9 "o place ! lava ramifies & t]m9ates 9 ?9 ve9s1 f a few feet to a few in*es 9 ?ickness 7see ,fig4 #fja74 ,! ar5ace\s lam9 are mu* h>d5$ at ! po9t ( contact1 & ! clays are conv]t$ into silice\s s*i/4 ,9 ?is isl& ! alt]$ rocks assume a honey-comb /ructure on _! wea!r$ surface1 s+ul>ly contra/$ ) ! smoo? & ev5 outl9e :i* ! same b$s pres5t 9 _! usual s(t & yield+ /ate4 ,! pores ( ! lava are sometimes coat$1 or entirely fill$ ) c>bonate ( lime1 & ) a zeolite resembl+ analcime1 :i* has be5 call$ cyclopite4 ,! latt] m9]al has also be5 f\nd 9 small fissures trav]s+ ! alt]$ m>l1 %[+ t ! same cause :i* introduc$ ! m9]als into ! cavities ( ! lava1 :e!r we suppose sublimation or aque\s infiltration1 convey$ x also into ! op5 r5ts ( ! contigu\s s$im5t>y /rata4 ,fig4 #fja3 ,new] plioc5e /rata invad$ by lava4 ,isle ( ,cyclops 7horizontal section74 ,dikes ( ,palagonia4--,dikes ( vesicul> & amygdaloidal lava are also se5 trav]s+ m>9e tuff or pep]9o1 we/ ( ,palagonia1 "s ( ! pores ( ! lava be+ empty1 :ile o!rs are fill$ ) c>bonate ( lime4 ,9 su* cases we may suppose ! tuff to h result$ f %[]s ( volcanic s& & scori1 toge!r ) fragm5ts ( lime/one1 ?r[n out by a subm>9e explosion1 simil> to t :i* gave rise to ,graham ,isl& 9 #ahca4 ,:5 ! mass 01 to a c]ta9 degree1 consolidat$1 x may h be5 r5t op51 s t ! lava asc5d$ ?r\gh fissures1 ! walls ( :i* 7 p]fectly ev5 & p>allel4 ,9 "o case1 aft] ! melt$ matt] t fill$ ! r5t 7,fig4 #fjb7 _h cool$ d[n1 x mu/ h be5 fractur$ & %ift$ horizontally by a lat]al movem5t4 ,9 ,fig4 #fjc1 ! lava has m ! appe>ance ( a ve91 :i* =c$ its way ?r\gh ! pep]9o4 ,x is highly probable t simil> appe>ances w\ld be se51 if we c\ld exam9e ! floor ( ! sea 9 t "p ( ! ,m$it]ranean :]e ! waves h rec5tly wa%$ away ! new volcanic isl&2 = :5 a sup]9cumb5t mass ( eject$ fragm5ts has be5 remov$ by d5udation1 we may expect to see sections ( dikes trav]s+ tuff1 or1 9 o!r words1 sections ( ! *annels ( communication by :i* ! subt]ranean lavas rea*$ ! surface4 ,figs4 #fjb & #fjc3 ,gr\nd-plan ( dikes ne> ,palagonia4 ,madeira4--,al?\gh ! m anci5t portion ( ! volcanic eruptions by :i* ! isl& ( ,madeira & ! neighb\r+ "o ( ,porto ,santo 7 built up occurr$1 z we %all pres5tly see1 9 ! ,upp] ,mioc5e ,p]iod1 a /ill l>g] "p ( ! isl& is ( ,plioc5e date4 ,t ! late/ outbreaks belong$ to ! ,new] ,plioc5e ,p]iod1 ,i inf] f ! close aff9ity to ! pres5t flora ( ,madeira ( ! fossil plants pres]v$ 9 a leaf-b$ 9 ! nor?-ea/]n "p ( ! isl&4 ,^! fossils1 associat$ ) "s lignite 9 ! rav9e ( ! riv] ,san ,jorge1 c none ( !m be prov$ to be ( ext9ct species1 b _! antiquity may be inf]r$ f ! foll[+ consid]ations3 ,fir/ly--,! leaf-b$1 discov]$ by ,mr4 ,h>tung & myself 9 #ahec1 at ! height ( #ajjj feet above ! level ( ! sea1 crops out at ! base ( a cliff =m$ by ! erosion ( a gorge cut ?r\gh alt]nat+ lay]s ( basalt & scori1 ! product ( a va/ succession ( eruptions ( unkn[n date1 pil$ up to a ?ickness ( #ajjj feet1 & :i* 7 all p\r$ out aft] ! plants1 ( :i* ab\t tw5ty species h be5 recognis$1 fl\ri%$ 9 ,madeira4 ,^! lavas are incl9$ at an angle ( ab\t #ae to ! nor?1 & came d[n f ! great c5tral region ( eruption4 ,_! accumulation implies a long p]iod ( int]mitt5t volcanic action1 subsequ5tly to :i* ! rav9e ( ,san ,jorge 0 holl[$ out4 ,secondly--,"s few ( ! plants1 ?\gh p]haps all ( liv+ species1 are suppos$ to be ( g5]a n n[ exi/+ 9 ! isl&4 ,!y h be5 describ$ by ,sir ,*>les ,bunbury & ,pr(essor ,he]1 & ! =m] fir/ po9t$ out t _m ( ! leaves are ( ! laurel type1 & analog\s to ^? n[ fl\ri%+ 9 ! mod]n =e/s ( ,madeira4 ,he also recognis$ among !m ! leaves ( ,woodw>dia radicans1 & ,davallia ,can>i5sis1 f]ns n[ abundant 9 ,madeira4 ,?irdly--! great age ( ?is leaf-b$ ( ,san ,jorge1 :i* 0 p]haps orig9ally =m$ 9 ! crat] ( "s anci5t volcanic cone aft]w>ds buri$ "u lava1 is prov$ by its belong+ to a "p ( ! ea/]n extremity ( ,madeira1 :i*1 aft] ! close ( ! igne\s eruptions1 became cov]$ 9 ! adjo9+ di/rict ( ,canial ) bl[n s& 9 :i* a va/ numb] ( l&-%ells 7 buri$4 ,^! fossil %ells belong$ to no less ?an #cf species1 among :i* are _m n[ extremely r>e 9 ! isl&1 & o!rs1 ab\t five p] c5t1 ext9ct or unkn[n 9 any "p ( ! _w4 ,sev]al ( ^! ( ! g5us ,helix are conspicu\s f ! peculi>ity ( _! =ms1 o!rs f _! l>ge dim5sions4 ,! geographical configuration ( ! c\ntry %[s t ?is %ell-b$ is consid]ably m mod]n ?an ! leaf-b$2 x mu/ !re=e be ref]r$ to ! ,new] ,plioc5e1 accord+ to ! def9ition ( ?is p]iod giv5 9 a =m] *apt] 7p4 #adc74 ,old] ,plioc5e ,p]iod4--,italy4--,9 ,tuscany1 z at ,radic(ani1 ,vit]bo1 & ,aquap5d5te1 & 9 ! ,campagna di ,roma1 subm>9e volcanic tuffs are int]/ratifi$ ) ! ,old] ,plioc5e /rata ( ! ,sub-ap5n9e hills 9 su* a mann] z to leave no d\bt t !y 7 ! products ( eruptions :i* occurr$ :5 ! %elly m>ls & s&s ( ! ,sub-app59e hills 7 9 ! c\rse ( deposition4 ,?is op9ion ,i express$#e aft] my visit to ,italy 9 #ahbh & x has rec5tly 7#ahej7 be5 confirm$ by ! argum5t adduc$ by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison 9 fav\r ( ! subm>9e orig9 ( ! t]ti>y volcanic rocks ( ,italy4#f ,^! rocks are well-kn[n to re/ con=mably on ! ,sub-ap5n9e m>ls1 ev5 z f> s\? z ,monte ,m>io1 9 ! suburbs ( ,rome4 ,on ! exact age ( ! deposits ( ,monte ,m>io new light has rec5tly be5 ?r[n by a c>eful /udy ( _! m>9e fossil %ells1 und]tak5 by ,,mm4 ,rayneval1 ,van d5 ,hecke1 & ,ponzi4 ,!y h comp>$ no less ?an #afj species ) ! %ells ( ! ,corall9e ,crag ( ,suffolk1 s well describ$ by ,mr4 ,se>les ,wood2 & ! specific agreem5t betwe5 ! ,briti% & ,italian fossils is s great1 if we make due all[ance = geographical di/ance & ! diff]5ce ( latitude1 t we c h little hesitation 9 ref]r+ bo? to ! same p]iod1 or to ! ,old] ,plioc5e ( ?is "w4 ,x is highly probable t1 betwe5 ! olde/ tra*ytes ( ,tuscany & ! newe/ rocks 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,naples1 a s]ies ( volcanic products might be detect$ ( e age f ! ,old] ,plioc5e to ! hi/orical epo*4 ,plioc5e ,volcanoes ( ! ,eifel4--,"s ( ! mo/ p]fect cones & crat]s 9 ,europe1 n ev5 except+ ^? ( ! di/rict r\nd ,vesuvius1 may be se5 on ! left or we/ bank ( ! ,rh9e1 ne> ,bonn & ,&]na*4 ,!y exhibit *>act]s di/9ct f any :i* ,i h obs]v$ else:]e1 ow+ to ! l>ge "p :i* ! escape ( aque\s vap\r has play$ 9 ! eruptions & ! small quantities ( lava emitt$4 ,! fundam5tal rocks ( ! di/rict are grey & r$ s&/ones & %ales1 ) "s associat$ lime/ones1 replete ) fossils ( ! ,devonian or ,old ,r$ ,s&/one gr\p4 ,! volcanoes broke out 9 ! mid/ ( ^! incl9$ /rata1 & :5 ! pres5t sy/ems ( hills & valleys _h already be5 =m$4 ,! eruptions occurr$ sometimes at ! bottom ( deep valleys1 sometimes on ! summit ( hills1 & frequ5tly on int]v5+ plat=ms4 ,9 travell+ ?r\gh ?is di/rict we (t5 come ^u !m mo/ unexpect$ly1 & may f9d ourselves on ! v edge ( a crat] be=e we _h be5 l$ to suspect t we 7 approa*+ ! site ( any igne\s outbur/4 ,?us1 = example1 on arriv+ at ! village ( ,gemund1 imm$iately s\? ( ,daun1 we leave ! /ream1 :i* fl[s at ! bottom ( a deep valley 9 :i* /rata ( s&/one & %ale crop out4 ,we !n climb a /eep hill1 on ! surface ( :i* we see ! edges ( ! same /rata dipp+ inw>d t[>ds ! m\nta94 ,:5 we h asc5d$ to a consid]able height1 we see fragm5ts ( scori sp>+ly scatt]$ ov] ! surface2 until at l5g?1 on rea*+ ! summit1 we f9d ourselves sudd5ly on ! edge ( a t>n1 or deep circul> lake-bas9 call$ ! ,gemund] ,ma>4 ,9 x we recognise ! ord9>y =m ( a crat]1 = :i* we h be5 prep>$ by ! occurr5ce ( scori scatt]$ ov] ! surface ( ! soil4 ,b on exam9+ ! walls ( ! crat] we f9d precipices ( s&/one & %ale :i* exhibit no signs ( ! action ( heat2 & we look 9 va9 = ^? b$s ( lava & scori1 dipp+ outw>d on e side1 :i* we h be5 accu/om$ to consid] z *>act]i/ic ( volcanic v5ts4 ,z we proce$1 h[ev]1 to ! opposite side ( ! lake1 we f9d a consid]able quantity ( scori & "s lava1 & see ! :ole surface ( ! soil sp>kl+ ) volcanic s&1 & /rew$ ) eject$ fragm5ts ( half-fus$ %ale1 :i* pres]ves its lam9at$ texture 9 ! int]ior1 :ile x has a vitrifi$ or scori=m coat+4 ,o!r crat] lakes ( circul> or oval =m1 & holl[$ out ( simil> anci5t /rata1 occur 9 ! ,upp] ,eifel1 :]e copi\s ari=m dis*>ges h tak5 place1 ?r[+ out va/ heaps ( pulv]iz$ %ale into ! air4 ,i "k ( no o!r ext9ct volcanoes :]e gase\s explosions ( su* magnitude h be5 att5d$ by ! emission ( s small a quantity ( lava4 ,yet ,i look$ 9 va9 9 ! ,eifel = any appe>ances :i* c\ld l5d support to ! hypo!sis t ! sudd5 ru%+ out ( su* enorm\s volumes ( gas _h ev] lift$ up ! /ratifi$ rocks imm$iately ar\nd ! v5t s z to =m conical masses1 hav+ _! /rata dipp+ outw>d on all sides f a c5tral axis1 z is assum$ 9 ! !ory ( elevation crat]s1 allud$ to 9 ! la/ *apt]4 ,i h already giv5 7,fig4 #eij7 an example 9 ! ,eifel ( a small /ream ( lava :i* issu$ f "o ( ! crat]s ( t di/rict at ,b]tri*-,bad54 ,x %[s t :5 "s ( ^! volcanoes 7 9 action ! valleys _h already be5 erod$ to _! pres5t dep?4 ,trass4--,! tuface\s alluvium call$ trass1 :i* has cov]$ l>ge areas 9 ! ,eifel1 & *ok$ up "s valleys n[ p>tially re-excavat$1 is un/ratifi$4 ,its base consi/s almo/ entirely ( pumice1 9 :i* are includ$ fragm5ts ( basalt & o!r lavas1 pieces ( burnt %ale1 slate1 & s&/one1 & num]\s trunks & bran*es ( trees4 ,if1 z is probable1 ?is trass 0 =m$ dur+ ! p]iod ( volcanic eruptions1 x may h orig9at$ 9 ! mann] ( ! moya ( ! ,&es4 ,we may easily conceive t a simil> mass might n[ be produc$1 if a copi\s evolution ( gases %\ld occur 9 "o ( ! lake-bas9s4 ,if a brea* %\ld be made 9 ! side ( ! cone1 ! flood w\ld sweep away great heaps ( eject$ fragm5ts ( %ale & s&/one1 :i* w\ld be borne d[n into ! adjo9+ valleys4 ,=e/s might be torn up by su* a flood1 & ?us ! occurr5ce ( ! num]\s trunks ( trees disp]s$ irregul>ly ?r\gh ! trass c be expla9$4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ?is trass con=ms to ! %ape ( ! pres5t valleys implies its comp>atively mod]n orig91 probably n dat+ f>!r back ?an ! ,plioc5e ,p]iod4 #a ,caldcleugh1 ,phil4 ,trans41 #ahcf1 p4 #bg4 #b ,see ,pr9ciples1 ,index1 8,skapt> ,jokul40 #c ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 vol4 i1 p4 #fbf4 #d ,scrope's ,c5tral ,france1 p4 #fj1 & plate4 #e ,see #a/ edit4 ( ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 vol4 iii1 *aps4 xiii & xiv1 #ahcc2 & =m] editions ( ?is "w1 *ap4 xxxi4 #f ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 vi1 p4 #bha4 ,,*apt] ,,xxx4 ,,age ,,( ,,volcanic ,,rocks--cont9u$4 ,volcanic ,rocks ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e ,p]iod4 -- ,madeira4 -- ,gr& ,can>y4 -- ,azores4 -- ,l[] ,mioc5e ,volcanic ,rocks4 -- ,isle ( ,mull4 -- ,/affa & ,antrim4 -- ,! ,eifel4 -- ,upp] & ,l[] ,mioc5e ,volcanic ,rocks ( ,auv]gne4 -- ,hill ( ,g]govia4 -- ,eoc5e ,volcanic ,rocks ( ,monte ,bolca4 -- ,trap ( ,cretace\s ,p]iod4 -- ,oolitic ,p]iod4 -- ,triassic ,p]iod4 -- ,p]mian ,p]iod4 -- ,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod4 -- ,erect ,trees buri$ 9 ,volcanic ,a% 9 ! ,isl& ( ,arran4 -- ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ,p]iod4 -- ,silurian ,p]iod4 -- ,cambrian ,p]iod4 -- ,laur5tian ,volcanic ,rocks4 ,volcanic ,rocks ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e ,p]iod4--,madeira4--,! great] "p ( ! volcanic eruptions ( ,madeira1 z we h already se5 7p4 #ecb71 belong to ! ,plioc5e ,p]iod1 b ! mo/ anci5t ( !m are ( ,upp] ,mioc5e date1 z %[n by ! fossil %ells includ$ 9 ! m>9e tuffs :i* h be5 uprais$ at ,san ,vic5te1 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! isl&1 to ! height ( #acjj feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,a simil> m>9e & volcanic =mation con/itutes ! fundam5tal portion ( ! neighb\r+ isl& ( ,porto ,santo1 =ty miles di/ant f ,madeira1 & is !re elevat$ to an equal height1 & cov]$1 z 9 ,madeira1 ) lavas ( supra-m>9e orig94 ,! l>ge/ numb] ( fossils h be5 collect$ f ! tuffs & conglom]ates & "s b$s ( lime/one 9 ! isl& ( ,baixo1 (f ! s\!rn extremity ( ,porto ,santo4 ,!y am\nt 9 ?is s+le locality to m ?an sixty 9 numb]1 ( :i* ab\t fifty are mollusca1 b _m ( ^! are only ca/s4 ,"s ( ! %ells probably liv$ on ! spot dur+ ! int]vals betwe5 eruptions1 & "s may h be5 ca/ up into ! wat] or air toge!r ) muddy ejections1 &1 fall+ d[n aga91 h be5 deposit$ on ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,! holl[s 9 "s ( ! fragm5ts ( vesicul> lava ( :i* ! breccias & conglom]ates are compos$ are p>tially fill$ ) calc-s9t]1 be+ ?us half conv]t$ into amygdaloids4 ,among ! fossil %ells common to ,madeira & ,porto ,santo1 l>ge cones1 /rombs1 & c[ries are conspicu\s among ! univalves1 & ,c>dium1 ,spondylus1 & ,li?odomus among ! lamellibran*iate bivalves1 & among ! ,e*9od]ms ! l>ge ,clypea/] call$ ,c4 altus1 an ext9ct ,european ,mioc5e fossil4 ,! l>ge/ li/ ( fossils has be5 publi%$ by ,mr4 ,k>l ,mey]1 9 ,h>tung's 8,madeira20 b 9 ! collection made by myself1 & 9 a /ill l>g] "o =m$ by ,mr4 ,j4 ,yate ,johnson1 sev]al rem>kable =ms n 9 ,mey]'s li/ occur1 z1 = example1 ,pholadomya1 & a l>ge ,t]ebra4 ,mr4 ,johnson also f\nd a f9e specim5 ( ,nautilus 7,atruria7 ziczac 7,fig4 #baa71 a well-kn[n ,falunian fossil ( ,europe2 & 9 ! same volcanic tuff ( ,baixo1 ! ,e*9od]m ,brissus ,scill1 a liv+ ,m$it]ranean species1 f\nd fossil 9 ! ,mioc5e /rata ( ,malta4 ,mr4 ,mey] id5tifies "o-?ird ( ! ,madeira %ells ) kn[n ,european ,mioc5e 7or ,falunian7 =ms4 ,! huge ,/rombus ( ,san ,vic5te & ,porto ,santo1 ,s4 ,italicus1 is an ext9ct %ell ( ! ,sub-ap5n9e or ,old] ,plioc5e =mations4 ,! mollusca already obta9$ f v>i\s localities ( ,madeira & ,porto ,santo are n less ?an "o hundr$ 9 numb]1 &1 accord+ to ! late ,dr4 ,s4 ,p4 ,woodw>d1 r m ?an a ?ird are ( species /ill liv+1 b _m ( ^! are n n[ inhabitants ( ! neighb\r+ sea4 ,x has be5 rem>k$ 7p4 #bab71 t 9 ! ,old] ,plioc5e & ,upp] ,mioc5e deposits ( ,europe _m =ms occur ( a m s\!rn aspect ?an ^? n[ inhabit+ ! ne>e/ sea4 ,9 l mann] ! fossil corals1 or ,zoan?>ia1 six 9 numb]1 :i* ,i obta9$ f ,madeira1 ( ! g5]a ,a/ra1 ,s>c9ula1 ,hydnophora1 7 pron\nc$ by ,mr4 ,lonsdale to be =ms =eign to ! adjac5t coa/s1 & agree+ ) ! fauna ( a sea w>m] ?an t n[ sep>at+ ,madeira f ! ne>e/ "p ( ! ,african coa/4 ,we le>n1 inde$1 f ! obs]vations made 9 #ahei1 by ! ,rev]5d ,r4 ,t4 ,l[e1 t m ?an "o-half1 or fifty-?ree 9 n9ety1 ( ! m>9e mollusks collect$ by him f ! s&y bea* ( ,mogador are common ,briti% species1 al?\gh ,mogador is #ah degrees s\? ( ! ne>e/ %ores ( ,engl&4 ,! liv+ %ells ( ,madeira & ,porto ,santo are 9 l mann] ^? ( a temp]ate climate1 al?\gh 9 great "p diff]+ specifically f ^? ( ,mogador4#a ,gr& ,can>y4--,9 ! ,can>ies1 especially 9 ! ,gr& ,can>y1 ! same m>9e ,upp] ,mioc5e =mation is f\nd4 ,/ratifi$ tuffs1 ) int]calat$ conglom]ates & lavas1 are !re se5 9 ne>ly horizontal lay]s 9 sea-cliffs ab\t #cjj feet high1 ne> ,las ,palmas4 ,mr4 ,h>tung & ,i 7 unable to f9d m>9e %ells 9 ^! tuffs at a great] elevation ?an #djj feet above ! sea2 b z ! deposit to :i* !y belong rea*es to ! height ( #aajj feet or m 9 ! int]ior1 we conceive t an upheaval ( at lea/ t am\nt has tak5 place4 ,! ,clypea/] altus1 ,spondylus gd]opus1 ,pectunculus pilosus1 ,c>dita calyculata1 & sev]al o!r %ells1 s]ve to id5tify ?is =mation ) t ( ! ,madeiras1 & ,ancill>ia gl&i=mis1 :i* is n r>e1 & "s o!r fossils1 rem9d u ( ! faluns ( ,t\ra9e4 ,! sixty-two ,mioc5e species :i* ,i collect$ 9 ! ,gr& ,can>y 7 ref]r$ by ! late ,dr4 ,s4 ,p4 ,woodw>d to =ty-sev5 g5]a1 t5 ( :i* are no long] repres5t$ 9 ! neighb\r+ sea1 namely ,corbis1 an ,african =m1 ,h9nites1 n[ liv+ 9 ,oregon1 ,!cidium 7,t4 ,m$it]ranean1 id5tical ) ! ,mioc5e fossil ( ,/4 ,juvat1 9 ,brittany71 ,calyptra1 ,hipponyx1 ,n]ita1 ,erato1 ,oliva1 ,ancill>ia1 & ,fasciol>ia4 ,^! tuffs ( ! s\!rn %ores ( ! ,gr& ,can>y1 conta9+ ! ,upp] ,mioc5e %ells1 appe> to be ab\t ! same age z ! mo/ anci5t volcanic rocks ( ! isl&1 compos$ ( slaty diabase1 phonolite1 & tra*yte4 ,ov] ! m>9e lavas & tuffs tra*ytic & basaltic products ( subarial volcanic orig91 betwe5 #djjj & #ejjj feet 9 ?ickness1 h be5 pil$1 ! c5tral p>ts ( ! ,gr& ,can>y rea*+ ! height ( ab\t #fjjj feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,a l>ge portion ( ?is mass is ( ,plioc5e date1 & "s ( ! late/ lavas h be5 p\r$ out s9ce ! "t :5 ! valleys 7 already excavat$ to )9 a few feet ( _! pres5t dep?4 ,on ! :ole1 ! rocks ( ! ,gr& ,can>y1 an isl& ( a ne>ly circul> %ape1 & #f geographical miles diamet]1 exhibit pro(s ( a long s]ies ( eruptions beg9n+ l ^? ( ,madeira1 ,porto ,santo1 & ! ,azores1 9 ! ,upp] ,mioc5e p]iod1 & cont9u$ to ! ,po/-,plioc5e4 ,! build+ up ( ! ,gr& ,can>y by subarial eruptions1 sev]al ?\s& feet ?ick1 w5t on simultane\sly ) ! gradual upheaval ( ! e>lie/ products ( subm>9e eruptions1 9 ! same mann] z ! ,plioc5e m>9e /rata ( ! olde/ p>ts ( ,vesuvius & ,etna h be5 uprais$ dur+ eruptions ( ,po/-t]ti>y date4 ,9 pro( t movem5ts ( elevation h actually cont9u$ d[n to ,po/-t]ti>y times1 ,i may rem>k t ,i f\nd rais$ bea*es conta9+ %ells ( ! ,rec5t ,p]iod 9 ! ,gr& ,can>y1 ,t5]iffe1 & ,porto ,santo4 ,! mo/ rem>kable rais$ bea* :i* ,i obs]v$ 9 ! ,gr& ,can>y1 9 ! /udy ( :i* ,i 0 assi/$ by ,don ,p$ro ,maffiotte1 is situat$ 9 ! nor?-ea/]n "p ( ! isl& at ,san ,catal9a1 ab\t a qu>t] ( a mile nor? ( ,las ,palmas4 ,x int]v5es betwe5 ! base ( ! high cliff =m$ ( ! tuffs ) ,mioc5e %ells & ! sea-%ore4 ,f ?is bea*1 at an elevation ( tw5ty-five feet above high-wat] m>k1 & at a di/ance ( ab\t #aej feet f ! pres5t %ore1 ,i obta9$ m ?an fifty species ( liv+ m>9e %ells4 ,_m ( !m1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,s4 ,p4 ,woodw>d1 are no long] inhabitants ( ! contigu\s sea1 z1 = example1 ,/rombus bubonius1 :i* is /ill liv+ on ! ,we/ ,coa/ ( ,africa1 & ,c]i?ium proc]um1 f\nd at ,mozambique2 o!rs are ,m$it]ranean species1 z ,pect5 ,jacobu & ,p4 polymorphus4 ,"s ( ^! te/acea1 su* z ,c>dita squamosa1 are inhabitants ( deep wat]1 & ! deposit on ! :ole seems to indicate a dep? ( wat] exce$+ a hundr$ feet4 ,azores4--,9 ! isl& ( ,/4 ,m>y's1 "o ( ! ,azores1 m>9e fossil %ells h long be5 kn[n4 ,!y are f\nd on ! nor?-ea/ coa/ on a small project+ promontory call$ ,ponta d ,papagaio 7or ,po9t-,p>rot71 *iefly 9 a lime/one ab\t tw5ty feet ?ick1 :i* re/s ^u1 & is aga9 cov]$ by1 basaltic lavas1 scori1 & conglom]ates4 ,! pebbles 9 ! conglom]ate are cem5t$ toge!r ) c>bonate ( lime4 ,mr4 ,h>tung1 9 8 acc\nt ( ! ,azores1 publi%$ 9 #ahfj1 describes tw5ty-?ree %ells f ,/4 ,m>y's1#b ( :i* eight p]haps are id5tical ) liv+ species1 & twelve are ) m or less c]ta9ty ref]r$ to ,european ,t]ti>y =ms1 *iefly ,upp] ,mioc5e4 ,"o ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic & abundant ( ! new species1 ,c>dium ,h>tungi1 n kn[n z fossil 9 ,europe1 is v common 9 ,porto ,santo & ,baixo1 & s]ves to connect ! ,mioc5e fauna ( ! ,azores & ! ,madeiras4 ,9 "s ( ! ,azores1 z well z 9 ! ,can>y isl&s1 ! volcanic fires are n yet ext9ct1 z ! record$ eruptions ( ,lanz]ote1 ,t5]iffe1 ,palma1 ,/4 ,mi*ael's1 & o!rs1 atte/4 ,l[] ,mioc5e ,volcanic ,rocks4--,isle ( ,mull & ,antrim4--,i may ref] ! read] to ! acc\nt already giv5 7p4 #bdg7 ( leaf-b$s at ,ardtun1 9 ! ,isle ( ,mull 9 ! ,hebrides1 :i* be> a relation to ! associat$ volcanic rocks ( ,l[] ,mioc5e date analog\s to t :i* ! ,madeira leaf-b$1 above describ$ 7p4 #ecb71 be>s to ! ,plioc5e lavas ( t isl&4 ,mr4 ,geikie has %[n t ! volcanic rocks 9 ,mull are above #cjjj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,!re seems little d\bt t ! well-kn[n column> basalt ( ,/affa1 z well z t ( ,antrim 9 ,irel&1 are ( ! same age1 & n ( high] antiquity1 z once suspect$4 ,! ,eifel4--,a l>ge portion ( ! volcanic rocks ( ! ,l[] ,rh9e & ! ,eifel are coeval ) ! ,l[] ,mioc5e deposits to :i* mo/ ( ! 8,br[n-,coal0 ( ,g]many belongs4 ,! ,t]ti>y /rata ( t age are se5 on bo? sides ( ! ,rh9e1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,bonn1 re/+ uncon=mably on highly incl9$ & v]tical /rata ( ,silurian & ,devonian rocks4 ,! ,br[n-,coal =mation ( t region consi/s ( b$s ( loose s&1 s&/one1 & conglom]ate1 clay ) nodules ( clay-iron-/one1 & occasionally silex4 ,lay]s ( light br[n & sometimes black lignite are int]/ratifi$ ) ! clays & s&s1 & (t5 irregul>ly diffus$ ?r\gh !m4 ,!y conta9 num]\s impressions ( leaves & /ems ( trees1 & are ext5sively work$ = fuel1 :5ce ! "n ( ! =mation4 ,9 sev]al places lay]s ( tra*ytic tuff are int]/ratifi$1 & 9 ^! tuffs are leaves ( plants id5tical ) ^? f\nd 9 ! br[n-coal1 %[+ t1 dur+ ! p]iod ( ! accumulation ( ! latt]1 "s volcanic products 7 eject$4 ,! igne\s rocks ( ! ,we/]wald1 & ( ! m\nta9s call$ ! ,sieb5gebirge1 consi/ p>tly ( basaltic & p>tly ( tra*ytic lavas1 ! latt] be+ 9 g5]al ! m anci5t ( ! two4 ,!re are _m v>ieties ( tra*yte1 "s ( :i* are highly cry/all9e1 resembl+ a co>se-gra9$ granite1 ) l>ge sep>ate cry/als ( feldsp>4 ,tra*ytic tuff is also v abundant4 ,m4 ,von ,de*51 9 8 "w on ! ,sieb5gebirge1#c has giv5 a copi\s li/ ( ! animal & vegetable rema9s ( ! fre%-wat] /rata associat$ ) ! br[n-coal ( t "p ( ,g]many4 ,plants ( ! g5]a ,flabell>ia1 ,ceano?us1 & ,daphnog5e1 includ+ ,d4 c9namomifolia 7,fig4 #aee71 occur 9 ^! b$s1 ) ne>ly #aej o!r plants4 ,! fi%es ( ! br[n-coal ne> ,bonn are f\nd 9 a bitum9\s %ale1 call$ pap]-coal1 f be+ divisible into extremely ?9 leaves4 ,! individuals are v num]\s2 b !y appe> to belong to a small numb] ( species1 "s ( :i* 7 ref]r$ by ,agassiz to ! g5]a ,leuciscus1 ,aspius1 & ,p]ca4 ,! rema9s ( frogs also1 ( ext9ct species1 h be5 discov]$ 9 ! pap]-coal2 & a complete s]ies may be se5 9 ! museum at ,bonn1 f ! mo/ imp]fect /ate ( ! tadpole to t ( ! full-gr[n animal4 ,) ^! a salam&]1 sc>cely di/+ui%able f ! rec5t species1 has be5 f\nd1 & ! rema9s ( _m insects4 ,upp] & ,l[] ,mioc5e ,volcanic ,rocks ( ,auv]gne4--,! ext9ct volcanoes ( ,auv]gne & ,cantal1 9 c5tral ,france1 seem to h comm5c$ _! eruptions 9 ! ,l[] ,mioc5e p]iod1 b to h be5 mo/ active dur+ ! ,upp] ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e eras4 ,i h already allud$ to ! gr& succession ( ev5ts ( :i* !re is evid5ce 9 ,auv]gne s9ce ! la/ retreat ( ! sea 7see p4 #ebg74 ,! e>lie/ monum5ts ( ! ,t]ti>y ,p]iod 9 t region are lacu/r9e deposits ( great ?ickness1 9 ! l[e/ conglom]ates ( :i* are r\nd$ pebbles ( qu>tz1 mica-s*i/1 granite1 & o!r non-volcanic rocks1 )\t ! slighte/ int]mixture ( igne\s products4 ,to ^! conglom]ates succe$ argillace\s & calc>e\s m>ls & lime/ones1 conta9+ ,l[] ,mioc5e %ells & bones ( mammalia1 ! high] b$s ( :i* sometimes alt]nate ) volcanic tuff ( contemporane\s orig94 ,aft] ! fill+ up or dra9age ( ! anci5t lakes1 huge piles ( tra*ytic & basaltic rocks1 ) volcanic breccias1 accumulat$ to a ?ickness ( sev]al ?\s& feet1 & 7 sup]impos$ ^u granite1 or ! contigu\s lacu/r9e /rata4 ,! great] portion ( ^! igne\s rocks appe> to h orig9at$ dur+ ! ,upp] ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e p]iods2 & ext9ct quadrup$s ( ^? eras1 belong+ to ! g5]a ,ma/odon1 ,rh9oc]os1 & o!rs1 7 buri$ 9 a%es & b$s ( alluvial s& & gravel1 :i* owe _! pres]vation to ov]spread+ %eets ( lava4 ,9 ,auv]gne1 ! mo/ anci5t & conspicu\s ( ! volcanic masses is ,mont ,dor1 :i* re/s imm$iately on ! granitic rocks /&+ ap>t f ! fre%-wat] /rata4 ,?is great m\nta9 rises sudd5ly to ! height ( sev]al ?\s& feet above ! surr\nd+ plat=m1 & reta9s ! %ape ( a flatt5$ & some:at irregul> cone1 ! slope ( :i* is gradually lo/ 9 ! high pla9 ar\nd4 ,?is cone is compos$ ( lay]s ( scori1 pumice-/ones1 & _! f9e detritus1 ) int]pos$ b$s ( tra*yte & basalt1 :i* desc5d (t5 9 un9t]rupt$ %eets until !y rea* & spread !mselves r\nd ! base ( ! m\nta94#d ,conglom]ates1 also1 compos$ ( angul> & r\nd$ fragm5ts ( igne\s rocks1 are obs]v$ to alt]nate ) ! above2 & ! v>i\s masses are se5 to dip (f f ! c5tral axis1 & to lie p>allel to ! slop+ flanks ( ! m\nta94 ,! summit ( ,mont ,dor t]m9ates 9 sev5 or eight rocky peaks1 :]e no regul> crat] c n[ be trac$1 b :]e we may easily imag9e "o to h exi/$1 :i* may h be5 %att]$ by e>?quakes1 & h suff]$ degradation by aque\s ag5ts4 ,orig9ally1 p]haps1 l ! highe/ crat] ( ,etna1 x may h =m$ an insignificant feature 9 ! great pile1 &1 l x1 may frequ5tly h be5 de/roy$ & r5ovat$4 ,respect+ ! age ( ! great mass ( ,mont ,dor1 we _c come at pres5t to any positive decision1 because no organic rema9s h yet be5 f\nd 9 ! tuffs1 except impressions ( ! leaves ( trees ( species n yet det]m9$4 ,x has already be5 /at$ 7p4 #bcd7 t ! e>lie/ eruptions mu/ h be5 po/]ior 9 orig9 to ^? grits & conglom]ates ( ! fre%-wat] =mation ( ! ,limagne :i* conta9 no pebbles ( volcanic rocks4 ,b !re is evid5ce at a few po9ts1 z 9 ! hill ( ,g]govia1 pres5tly to be m5tion$1 t "s eruptions took place be=e ! great lakes 7 dra9$1 :ile o!rs occurr$ aft] ! desiccation ( ^? lakes1 & :5 deep valleys _h already be5 excavat$ ?r\gh fre%-wat] /rata4 ,! valley 9 :i* ! cone ( ,t>t>et1 above-m5tion$ 7p4 #ebg71 is situat$ af=ds an impressive monum5t ( ! v diff]5t dates at :i* ! igne\s eruptions ( ,auv]gne h happ5$2 = :ile ! cone itself is ( ,po/-,plioc5e date1 ! valley is b\nd$ by l(ty precipices compos$ ( %eets ( anci5t column> tra*yte & basalt1 :i* once fl[$ f ! summit ( ,mont ,dor 9 "s "p ( ! ,mioc5e p]iod4 ,^! ,mioc5e lavas _h accumulat$ to a ?ickness ( ne>ly #ajjj feet be=e ! rav9e 0 cut d[n to ! level ( ! riv] ,c\ze1 a riv] :i* 0 at l5g? damm$ up by ! mod]n cone & ! upp] "p ( its c\rse trans=m$ into a lake4 ,g]govia4--,x has be5 suppos$ by "s obs]v]s t !re is an alt]nation ( a contemporane\s %eet ( lava ) fre%-wat] /rata 9 ! hill ( ,g]govia1 ne> ,cl]mont4 ,b ?is idea has aris5 f ! intrusion ( ! dike repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #fjd1 :i* has alt]$ ! gre5 & :ite m>ls bo? above & bel[4 ,nev]!less1 !re is a real alt]nation ( volcanic tuff ) /rata conta9+ ,l[] ,mioc5e fre%-wat] %ells1 among o!rs a ,melania alli$ to ,m4 inqu9ata 7,fig4 #bag71 ) a ,melanopsis & a ,unio2 !re c1 !re=e1 be no d\bt t 9 ,auv]gne "s volcanic explosions took place be=e ! dra9age ( ! lakes1 & at a "t :5 ! ,l[] ,mioc5e species ( animals & plants /ill fl\ri%$4 ,fig4 #fjd3 ,hill ( ,g]govia4 ,eoc5e ,volcanic ,rocks4--,monte ,bolca4--,! fissile lime/one ( ,monte ,bolca1 ne> ,v]ona1 has = _m c5turies be5 celebrat$ 9 ,italy = ! numb] ( p]fect ,i*?yolites :i* x conta9s4 ,agassiz has describ$ no less ?an #acc species ( fossil fi% f ?is s+le deposit1 & ! multitude ( individuals by :i* _m ( ! species are repres5t$ is atte/$ by ! v>iety ( specim5s treasur$ up 9 ! pr9cipal museums ( ,europe4 ,!y h be5 all obta9$ f qu>ries work$ exclusively by lov]s ( natural hi/ory1 = ! sake ( ! fossils4 ,_h ! li?ographic /one ( ,sol5h(51 n[ reg>d$ z s ri* 9 fossils1 be5 9 l mann] qu>ri$ solely = sci5tific objects1 x w\ld h rema9$ almo/ a seal$ book to palontologi/s1 s sp>sely are ! organic rema9s scatt]$ ?r\gh x4 ,:5 ,i visit$ ,monte ,bolca1 9 company ) ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison1 9 #ahbh1 we asc]ta9$ t ! fi%-be>+ b$s 7 ( ,eoc5e date1 conta9+ well-kn[n species ( ,nummulites1 & t a long s]ies ( subm>9e volcanic eruptions1 evid5tly contemporane\s1 _h produc$ b$s ( tuff1 :i* are cut ?r\gh by dikes ( basalt4 ,!re is evid5ce "h ( a long s]ies ( subm>9e volcanic eruptions ( ,eoc5e date1 & dur+ "s ( !m1 z ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison has sugge/$1 %oals ( fi% 7 probably de/roy$ by ! evolution ( heat1 noxi\s gases1 & tuface\s mud1 j z happ5$ :5 ,graham's ,isl& 0 ?r[n up betwe5 ,sicily & ,africa 9 #ahca1 at :i* "t ! wat]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean 7 se5 to be *>g$ ) r$ mud1 & cov]$ ) dead fi% ov] a wide area4#e ,associat$ ) ! m>ls & lime/ones ( ,monte ,bolca are b$s conta9+ lignite & %ale ) num]\s plants1 :i* h be5 describ$ by ,ung] & ,massalongo1 & ref]r$ by !m to ! ,eoc5e p]iod4 ,i h already cit$ 7p4 #bfc7 ,pr(essor ,he]'s rem>k1 t sev]al ( ! species are common to ,monte ,bolca & ! :ite clay ( ,alum ,bay1 a ,middle ,eoc5e deposit2 & ! same botani/ dwells on ! tropical "* ( ! flora ( ,monte ,bolca & its di/9ctness f ! sub-tropical flora ( ! ,l[] ,mioc5e ( ,switz]l& & ,italy1 9 :i* la/ !re is a f> m consid]able mixture ( =ms ( a temp]ate climate1 su* z ! will[1 popl>1 bir*1 elm1 & o!rs4 ,t sc>cely any "o ( ! ,monte ,bolca fi% %\ld h be5 f\nd 9 any o!r locality 9 ,europe1 is a /rik+ illu/ration ( ! extreme imp]fection ( ! palontological record4 ,we are 9 ! habit ( imag9+ t our insight into ! geology ( ! ,eoc5e p]iod is m ?an usually p]fect1 & we are c]ta9ly acqua9t$ ) an almo/ unbrok5 succession ( assemblages ( %ells pass+ "o into ! o!r f ! era ( ! ,?anet s&s to t ( ! ,bembridge b$s or ,p>is gypsum4 ,! g5]al de>?1 !re=e1 ( fi% 9 ! diff]5t memb]s ( ! ,eoc5e s]ies1 ,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[]1 might induce a ha/y reason] to conclude t !re 0 a pov]ty ( i*?yic =ms dur+ ?is p]iod2 b :5 a local accid5t1 l ! volcanic eruptions ( ,monte ,bolca1 occurs1 pro(s are sudd5ly reveal$ to u ( ! ri*ness & v>iety ( ?is great class ( v]tebrata 9 ! ,eoc5e sea4 ,! numb] ( g5]a ( ,monte ,bolca fi% is1 accord+ to ,agassiz1 no less ?an sev5ty-five1 tw5ty ( !m peculi> to t locality1 & only eight common to ! antec$5t ,cretace\s p]iod4 ,no less ?an =ty-sev5 out ( ! sev5ty-five g5]a make _! appe>ance = ! fir/ "t 9 ! ,monte ,bolca rocks1 none ( !m hav+ be5 met ) z yet 9 ! antec$5t =mations4 ,!y =m a great contra/ to ! fi% ( ! second>y /rata1 z1 ) ! exception ( ! ,placoids1 !y are all ,teleo/eans1 only "o g5us1 ,pycnodus1 belong+ to ! ord] ( ,ganoids1 :i* =m1 z be=e /at$1 ! va/ majority ( ! i*?yolites entomb$ 9 ! second>y are ,mesozoic rocks4 ,cretace\s ,p]iod4--,m4 ,virlet1 9 8 acc\nt ( ! geology ( ! ,morea1 p4 #bje1 has cle>ly %[n t c]ta9 traps 9 ,greece are ( ,cretace\s date2 z ^?1 = example1 :i* alt]nate con=mably ) cretace\s lime/one & gre5s& betwe5 ,ka/ri & ,damala1 9 ! ,morea4 ,!y consi/ 9 great "p ( diallage rocks & s]p5t9e1 & ( an amygdaloid ) calc>e\s k]nels1 & a base ( s]p5t9e4 ,9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! ,morea1 ! age ( ^! volcanic rocks is e/abli%$ by ! foll[+ pro(s3 fir/1 ! li?ographic lime/ones ( ! ,cretace\s era are cut ?r\gh by trap1 & !n a conglom]ate occurs1 at ,nauplia & o!r places1 conta9+ 9 its calc>e\s cem5t _m well-kn[n fossils ( ! *alk & gre5s&1 toge!r ) pebbles =m$ ( roll$ pieces ( ! same s]p5t9\s trap1 :i* appe> 9 ! dikes above allud$ to4 ,p]iod ( ,oolite & ,lias4--,al?\gh ! gre5 & s]p5t9\s trap-rocks ( ! ,morea belong *iefly to ! ,cretace\s era1 z be=e m5tion$1 yet x seems t "s eruptions ( simil> rocks began dur+ ! ,oolitic p]iod2#f & x is probable t a l>ge "p ( ! trappean masses1 call$ ophiolites 9 ! ,ap5n9es1 & associat$ ) ! lime/one ( t *a91 are ( correspond+ age4 ,trap ( ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one ,p]iod4--,9 ! s\!rn "p ( ,devon%ire1 trappean rocks are associat$ ) ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 &1 accord+ to ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e1 h n be5 intrud$ subsequ5tly into ! s&/one1 b 7 produc$ by contemporane\s volcanic action4 ,"s b$s ( grit1 m+l$ ) ord9>y r$ m>l1 resemble s&s eject$ f a crat]2 & 9 ! /ratifi$ conglom]ates occurr+ ne> ,tiv]ton are _m angul> fragm5ts ( trap porphyry1 "s ( !m "o or two tons 9 weight1 int]m+l$ ) pebbles ( o!r rocks4 ,^! angul> fragm5ts 7 probably ?r[n out f volcanic v5ts1 & fell ^u s$im5t>y matt] !n 9 ! c\rse ( deposition4#g ,trap ( ! ,p]mian ,p]iod4--,! rec5t inve/igations ( ,mr4 ,ar*ibald ,geikie 9 ,ayr%ire h %[n t "s ( ! volcanic rocks 9 t c\nty are ( ,p]mian age1 & x appe>s highly probable t ! upp]mo/ portion ( ,ar?ur's ,seat 9 ! suburbs ( ,ed9burgh m>ks ! site ( an eruption ( ! same era4 ,trap ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod4--,two classes ( contemporane\s trap-rocks occur 9 ! coal-field ( ! ,=?1 9 ,scotl&4 ,! newe/ ( ^!1 connect$ ) ! high] s]ies ( coal-measures1 is well exhibit$ along ! %ores ( ! ,=?1 9 ,fife%ire1 :]e !y consi/ ( basalt ) oliv9e1 amygdaloid1 gre5/one1 wacke1 & tuff4 ,!y appe> to h be5 erupt$ :ile ! s$im5t>y /rata 7 9 a horizontal position1 & to h suff]$ ! same dislocations :i* ^? /rata h subsequ5tly und]gone4 ,9 ! volcanic tuffs ( ?is age are f\nd n only fragm5ts ( lime/one1 %ale1 fl9ty slate1 & s&/one1 b also pieces ( coal4 ,! o!r or old] class ( c>bonif]\s traps are trac$ along ! s\? m>g9 ( ,/ra!d51 & con/itute a ridge p>allel ) ! ,o*ils1 & ext5d+ f ,/irl+ to ne> ,/4 ,&rews4 ,!y consi/ almo/ exclusively ( gre5/one1 becom+1 9 a few in/ances1 e>?y & amygdaloidal4 ,!y are regul>ly int]/ratifi$ ) ! s&/one1 %ale1 & iron-/one ( ! l[] coal-measures1 &1 on ! ,ea/ ,lomond1 ) ,m\nta9 ,lime/one4 ,i exam9$ ^! trap-rocks 9 #ahch1 9 ! cliffs s\? ( ,/4 ,&rews1 :]e !y consi/ 9 great "p ( /ratifi$ tuffs1 :i* are curv$1 v]tical1 & contort$1 l ! associat$ coal-measures4 ,9 ! tuff ,i f\nd fragm5ts ( c>bonif]\s %ale & lime/one1 & int]sect+ ve9s ( gre5/one4 ,fife--,flisk ,dike4--,a trap dike 0 po9t$ out to me by ,dr4 ,flem+1 9 ! p>i% ( ,flisk1 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! c\nty ( ,fife1 :i* cuts ?r\gh ! grey s&/one & %ale1 =m+ ! l[e/ "p ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 b :i* may probably be ( c>bonif]\s date4 ,x may be trac$ = _m miles1 pass+ ?r\gh ! amygdaloidal & o!r traps ( ! hill call$ ,norman's ,law 9 t p>i%4 ,9 its c\rse x af=ds a good exemplification ( ! passage f ! trappean into ! ,plutonic1 or highly cry/all9e texture4 ,pr(essor ,gu/avus ,rose1 to :om ,i submitt$ specim5s ( ?is dike1 f\nd x to be dol]ite1 & compos$ ( gre5i% black augite & ,labrador feldsp>1 ! latt] be+ ! mo/ abundant +r$i5t4 ,a small quantity ( magnetic iron1 p]haps titanif]\s1 is also pres5t4 ,! result ( ?is analysis is int]e/+1 because bo? ! anci5t & mod]n lavas ( ,etna consi/ 9 l mann] ( augite1 ,labradorite1 & titanif]\s iron4 ,erect ,trees buri$ 9 ,volcanic ,a% at ,arran4--,an int]e/+ discov]y 0 made 9 #ahfg by ,mr4 ,e4 ,a4 ,wns* 9 ! c>bonif]\s /rata ( ! nor?-ea/]n "p ( ! isl& ( ,arran4 ,9 ! sea-cliff ab\t five miles nor? ( ,corrie1 ne> ! village ( ,laggan1 /rata ( volcanic a% occur1 =m+ a solid rock cem5t$ by c>bonate ( lime & envelop+ trunks ( trees1 det]m9$ by ,mr4 ,b9ney to belong to ! g5]a ,sigill>ia & ,lepidod5dron4 ,"s ( ^! trees are at "r angles to ! planes ( /ratification1 :ile o!rs are pro/rate & accompani$ by leaves & fruits ( ! same g5]a4 ,i visit$ ! spot 9 company ) ,mr4 ,wns* 9 #ahgj1 & saw t ! trees ) _! roots1 ( :i* ab\t f\rte5 _h be5 obs]v$1 occur at two di/9ct levels 9 volcanic tuffs p>allel to ea* o!r1 & incl9$ at an angle ( ab\t #dj1 hav+ betwe5 !m b$s ( %ale & coaly matt] sev5 feet ?ick4 ,x is evid5t t ! trees 7 ov]:elm$ by a %[] ( a%es f "s neighb\r+ volcanic v5t1 z ,pompeii 0 buri$ by matt] eject$ f ,vesuvius4 ,! trunks1 sev]al ( !m f ?ree to five feet 9 circumf]5ce1 rema9$ ) _! ,/igm>ian roots spread+ ?r\gh ! /ratum bel[1 :i* _h s]v$ z a soil4 ,! trees mu/ h cont9u$ = ye>s 9 an upright position aft] !y 7 kill$ by ! %[] ( burn+ a%es1 giv+ "t = a p>tial decay ( ! int]ior1 s z to af=d holl[ cyl9d]s into :i* ! spores ( plants 7 waft$4 ,^! spores g]m9at$ & grew1 until f9ally _! /ems 7 petrifi$ by c>bonate ( lime l "s ( ! rema9+ portions ( ! wood ( ! conta9+ ,sigill>ia4 ,mr4 ,c>ru!rs has discov]$ t sometimes ! plants :i* _h ?us gr[n & become fossil 9 ! inside ( a s+le trunk belong$ to sev]al di/9ct g5]a4 ,! fact t ! tree-be>+ deposits n[ dip at an angle ( #dj is ! m /rik+1 z !y mu/ cle>ly h rema9$ horizontal & undi/urb$ dur+ a long p]iod ( int]mitt5t & contemporane\s volcanic action4 ,9 "s ( ! associat$ c>bonif]\s %ales1 f]ns & calamites occur1 & all ! ph5om5a ( ! successive buri$ =e/s rem9d u ( ! sections 9 pp4 #daj & #daa ( ! ,nova ,scotia coal-measures1 ) ?is diff]5ce only1 t 9 ! case ( ! ,s\? ,jogg9s ! fossilisation ( ! trees 0 effect$ )\t ! eruption ( volcanic matt]4 ,trap ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ,p]iod4--,by ref]r+ to ! section explanatory ( ! /ructure ( ,=f>%ire1 already giv5 7p4 #gd71 ! read] w p]ceive t b$s ( conglom]ate1 ,no4 #c1 occur 9 ! middle ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one sy/em1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d4 ,! pebbles 9 ^! conglom]ates are sometimes compos$ ( granitic & qu>tzose rocks1 sometimes exclusively ( diff]5t v>ieties ( trap1 :i* la/1 al?\gh purposely omitt$ 9 ! section ref]r$ to1 is (t5 f\nd ei!r intrud+ itself 9 amorph\s masses & dikes into ! old fossilif]\s tile/ones1 ,no4 #d1 or alt]nat+ ) !m 9 con=mable b$s4 ,all ! diff]5t divisions ( ! r$ s&/one1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 are occasionally int]sect$ by dikes1 b !y are v r>e 9 ,nos4 #a & #b1 ! upp] memb]s ( ! gr\p consi/+ ( r$ %ale & r$ s&/one4 ,^! ph5om5a1 :i* occur at ! foot ( ! ,grampians1 are repeat$ 9 ! ,sidlaw ,hills2 & x appe>s t 9 ?is "p ( ,scotl& volcanic eruptions 7 mo/ frequ5t 9 ! e>li] "p ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one p]iod4 ,! trap-rocks allud$ to consi/ *iefly ( feldspa?ic porphyry & amygdaloid1 ! k]nels ( ! latt] be+ sometimes calc>e\s1 (t5 *alc$onic1 & =m+ beautiful agates4 ,we meet also ) clay/one1 gre5/one1 compact feldsp>1 & tuff4 ,"s ( ^! rocks look z if !y _h fl[$ z lavas ov] ! bottom ( ! sea1 & envelop$ qu>tz pebbles :i* 7 ly+ !re1 s z to =m conglom]ates ) a base ( gre5/one1 z is se5 9 ,lumley ,d51 9 ! ,sidlaw ,hills4 ,on ei!r side ( ! axis ( ?is *a9 ( hills 7see ,fig4 #ee71 ! b$s ( massive trap1 & ! tuffs compos$ ( volcanic s& & a%es1 dip regul>ly to ! s\?-ea/ or nor?-we/1 con=mably ) ! %ales & s&/ones4 ,b ! geological /ructure ( ! ,p5tl& ,hills1 ne> ,ed9burgh1 %[s t igne\s rocks 7 !re =m$ dur+ ! new] "p ( ! ,devonian or 8,old ,r$0 p]iod4 ,^! hills are #aijj feet high above ! sea1 & consi/ ( conglom]ates & s&/ones ( ,upp] ,devonian age1 re/+ on ! incl9$ edges ( grits & slates ( ,l[] ,devonian & ,upp] ,silurian date4 ,! contemporane\s volcanic rocks int]calat$ 9 ?is ,upp] ,old ,r$ consi/ ( feldspa?ic lavas1 or feld/ones1 ) associat$ tuffs or a%y b$s4 ,! lavas 7 "s ( !m orig9ally compact1 o!rs vesicul>1 & ^! la/ h be5 conv]t$ into amygdaloids4 ,!y consi/ *iefly ( feld/one or compact feldsp>4 ,! ,p5tl& ,hills1 say ,messrs4 ,macl>5 & ,geikie1 af=d evid5ce t at ! "t ( ! ,upp] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 ! di/rict to ! s\?-we/ ( ,ed9burgh 0 = a long :ile ! seat ( a p[]ful volcano1 :i* s5t out massive /reams ( lava & %[]s ( a%1 & cont9u$ active until well-nigh ! dawn ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4#h ,silurian ,volcanic ,rocks4--,x appe>s f ! inve/igations ( ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison 9 ,%rop%ire1 t :5 ! ,l[] ,silurian /rata ( t c\ntry 7 accumulat+1 !re 7 frequ5t volcanic eruptions b5ea? ! sea2 & ! a%es & scori !n eject$ gave rise to a peculi> k9d ( tuface\s s&/one or grit1 dissimil> to ! o!r rocks ( ! ,silurian s]ies1 & only obs]vable 9 places :]e sy5itic & o!r trap-rocks protrude4 ,^! tuffs occur on ! flanks ( ! ,wrek9 & ,ca] ,c>adoc1 & conta9 ,silurian fossils1 su* z ca/s ( encr9ites1 trilobites1 & mollusca4 ,al?\gh fossilif]\s1 ! /one resembles a s&y clay/one ( ! trap family4#i ,?9 lay]s ( trap1 only a few in*es ?ick1 alt]nate 9 "s p>ts ( ,%rop%ire & ,montgom]y%ire ) s$im5t>y /rata ( ! ,l[] ,silurian sy/em4 ,?is trap consi/s ( slaty porphyry & granul> feldsp> rock1 ! b$s be+ trav]s$ by jo9ts l ^? 9 ! associat$ s&/one1 lime/one1 & %ale1 & hav+ ! same /rike & dip4#aj ,9 ,radnor%ire !re is an example ( twelve b&s ( /ratifi$ trap1 alt]nat+ ) ,silurian s*i/s & flag/ones1 9 a ?ickness ( #cej feet4 ,! b$d$ traps consi/ ( feldsp> porphyry1 & o!r v>ieties2 & ! int]pos$ ,ll&eilo flags are ( s&/one & %ale1 ) trilobites & graptolites4#aa ,! ,sn[donian hills 9 ,c>n>von%ire consi/ 9 great "p ( volcanic tuffs1 ! olde/ ( :i* are int]/ratifi$ ) ! ,bala & ,ll&eilo b$s4 ,!re are "s contemporane\s feldspa?ic lavas ( ?is era1 :i*1 says ,pr(essor ,ramsay1 alt] ! slates on :i* !y repose1 hav+ d\btless be5 p\r$ out ov] !m1 9 a melt$ /ate1 :]eas ! slates :i* ov]lie !m hav+ be5 subsequ5tly deposit$ aft] ! lava _h cool$ & consolidat$1 h entirely escap$ alt]ation4 ,b !re are gre5/ones associat$ ) ! same =mation1 :i*1 al?\gh !y are (t5 con=mable to ! slates1 are 9 reality intrusive rocks4 ,!y alt] ! /ratifi$ deposits bo? above & bel[ !m1 & :5 trac$ to great di/ances are sometimes se5 to cut ?r\gh ! slates1 & to s5d (f bran*es4 ,nev]!less1 ^! gre5/ones appe> to belong1 l ! lavas1 to ! ,l[] ,silurian p]iod4 ,cambrian ,volcanic ,rocks4--,! ,l+ula b$s 9 ,nor? ,wales h be5 describ$ z #ejjj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,9 ! upp] portion ( ^! deposits volcanic tuffs or a%y mat]ials are int]/ratifi$ ) ord9>y muddy s$im5t1 & "h & !re associat$ ) ?ick b$s ( feldspa?ic lava4 ,^! rocks =m ! m\nta9s call$ ! ,arans & ! ,ar5igs2 num]\s gre5/ones are associat$ ) !m1 :i* are intrusive1 al?\gh !y (t5 run 9 ! l9es ( b$d+ = a space4 8,mu* ( ! a%10 says ,pr(essor ,ramsay1 8seems to h be5 subarial4 ,isl&s1 l ,graham's ,isl&1 may h sometimes rais$ _! crat]s = v>i\s p]iods above ! wat]1 & by ! wa/e ( su* isl&s "s ( ! a%y matt] became wat]worn1 :5ce ! a%y conglom]ate4 ,visc\s matt] seems also to h be5 %ot into ! air z volcanic bombs1 :i* fell among ! du/ & brok5 cry/als 7t (t5 =m ! a%es7 be=e p]fect cool+ & consolidation _h tak5 place40#ab ,laur5tian ,volcanic ,rocks4--,! ,laur5tian rocks 9 ,canada1 especially 9 ,ottawa & ,arg5teuil1 are ! olde/ intrusive masses yet kn[n4 ,!y =m a set ( dikes ( a f9e-gra9$ d>k gre5/one or dol]ite1 compos$ ( feldsp> & pyrox5e1 ) occasional scales ( mica & gra9s ( pyrites4 ,_! wid? v>ies f a few feet to a hundr$ y>ds1 & !y h a column> /ructure1 ! columns be+ truly at "r angles to ! plane ( ! dike4 ,"s ( ! dikes s5d (f bran*es4 ,^! dol]ites are cut ?r\gh by intrusive sy5ite1 & ?is sy5ite1 9 its turn1 is aga9 cut & p5etrat$ by feldsp> porphyry1 ! base ( :i* consi/s ( petrosilex1 or a mixture ( or?oclase & qu>tz4 ,all ^! trap-rocks appe> to be ( ,laur5tian date1 z ! ,cambrian & ,huronian rocks re/ uncon=mably ^u !m4#ac ,:e!r "s ( ! v>i\s con=mable cry/all9e rocks ( ! ,laur5tian s]ies1 su* z ! co>se-gra9$ granitoid & porphyritic v>ieties ( gneiss1 exhibit+ sc>cely any signs ( /ratification1 & "s ( ! s]p5t9es1 may n also be ( volcanic orig91 is a po9t v difficult to det]m9e 9 a region :i* has und]gone s mu* metamorphic action4 #a ,l9nean ,proce$+s2 ,zoology1 #ahfj4 #b ,h>tung1 ,die ,azor51 #ahfj2 also ,insel ,gran ,can>ia1 ,madeira und ,porto ,santo1 #ahfd1 ,leipsig4 #c ,geogno/4 ,bes*reib4 des ,sieb5gebirges am ,rhe94 ,bonn1 #aheb4 #d ,scrope's ,c5tral ,france1 p4 #ih4 #e ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 *ap4 xxvi1 #i? ed41 p4 #dcb4 #f ,boblaye & ,virlet1 ,morea1 p4 #bc4 #g ,de la ,be*e1 ,geol4 ,proce$+s1 vol4 ii1 p4 #aih4 #h ,macl>51 ,geology ( ,fife & ,lo?ians4 ,geikie1 ,trans4 ,royal ,soc4 ,ed9burgh1 #ahfj-ahfa4 #i ,mur*ison1 ,silurian ,sy/em1 etc41 p4 #bcj4 #aj ,ibid41 p4 #bab4 #aa ,mur*ison1 ,silurian ,sy/em1 etc41 p4 #cbe4 #ab ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 ix1 p4 #agj1 #aheb4 #ac ,logan1 ,geology ( ,canada1 #ahfc4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxi4 ,,plutonic ,,rocks4 ,g5]al ,aspect ( ,plutonic ,rocks4 -- ,granite & its ,v>ieties4 -- ,decompos+ into ,sph]ical ,masses4 -- ,rude column> ,/ructure4 -- ,graphic ,granite4 -- ,mutual ,p5etration ( ,cry/als ( ,qu>tz & ,feldsp>4 -- ,glass ,cavities 9 ,qu>tz ( ,granite4 -- ,porphyritic1 talcose1 & sy5itic ,granite4 -- ,s*orlrock & ,eurite4 -- ,sy5ite4 -- ,connection ( ! ,granites & ,sy5ites ) ! ,volcanic ,rocks4 -- ,analogy 9 ,composition ( ,tra*yte & ,granite4 -- ,granite ,ve9s 9 ,gl5 ,tilt1 ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 & ,cornwall4 -- ,metallif]\s ,ve9s 9 ,/rata ne> _! ,junction ) ,granite4 -- ,qu>tz ,ve9s4 -- ,exposure ( ,plutonic ,rocks at ! surface due to ,d5udation4 ,! ,plutonic rocks may be treat$ ( next 9 ord]1 z !y are mo/ ne>ly alli$ to ! volcanic class already consid]$4 ,i h describ$1 9 ! fir/ *apt]1 ^! ,plutonic rocks z ! un/ratifi$ division ( ! cry/all9e or hypog5e =mations1 & h /at$ t !y diff] f ! volcanic rocks1 n only by _! m cry/all9e texture1 b also by ! abs5ce ( tuffs & breccias1 :i* are ! products ( eruptions at ! e>?'s surface1 :e!r ?r[n up into ! air or ! sea4 ,!y diff] also by ! abs5ce ( pores or cellul> cavities1 to :i* ! expansion ( ! entangl$ gases gives rise 9 ord9>y lava1 nev] be+ scoriace\s or amygdaloidal1 & nev] =m+ a porphyry ) an uncry/all9e base1 nor alt]nat+ ) tuffs4 ,f ^! & o!r peculi>ities x has be5 inf]r$ t ! granites h be5 =m$ at consid]able dep?s 9 ! e>?1 & h cool$ & cry/allis$ sl[ly "u great pressure1 :]e ! conta9$ gases c\ld n exp&4 ,! volcanic rocks1 on ! contr>y1 al?\gh !y also h ris5 up f bel[1 h cool$ f a melt$ /ate m rapidly ^u or ne> ! surface4 ,f ?is hypo!sis ( ! great dep? at :i* ! granites orig9at$1 has be5 d]iv$ ! "n ( 8,plutonic rocks40 ,! beg9n] w easily conceive t ! influ5ce ( subt]ranean heat may ext5d d[nw>d f ! crat] ( e active volcano to a great dep? bel[1 p]haps sev]al miles or leagues1 & ! effects :i* are produc$ deep 9 ! b[els ( ! e>? may1 or r mu/1 be di/9ct2 s t volcanic & ,plutonic rocks1 ea* diff]5t 9 texture1 & sometimes ev5 9 composition1 may orig9ate simultane\sly1 ! "o at ! surface1 ! o!r f> b5ea? x4 ,! ,plutonic =mations also agree ) ! volcanic 9 hav+ ve9s or ramifications proce$+ f c5tral masses into ! adjo9+ rocks1 & caus+ alt]ations 9 ^! la/1 :i* w be pres5tly describ$4 ,!y also resemble trap 9 conta9+ no organic rema9s2 b !y diff] 9 be+ m uni=m 9 texture1 :ole m\nta9 masses ( indef9ite ext5t appe>+ to h orig9at$ "u conditions precisely simil>4 ,! two pr9cipal memb]s ( ! ,plutonic family ( rocks are ,granite & ,sy5ite1 ea* ( :i*1 ) _! v>ieties1 be> v mu* ! same relation to ea* o!r z ! tra*ytes be> to ! basalts4 ,granite is a comp\nd ( feldsp>1 qu>tz1 & mica1 ! feldsp>s be+ ri* 9 silica1 :i* =ms f #fj to #gj p] c5t ( ! :ole aggregate4 ,9 ,sy5ite qu>tz is r>e or want+1 hornbl5de tak+ ! place ( mica1 & ! proportion ( silica n exce$+ #ej to #fj p] c5t4 ,fig4 #fje3 ,mass ( granite ne> ! ,%>p ,tor1 ,cornwall4 ,granite & its ,v>ieties4--,granite (t5 pres]ves a v uni=m "* ?r\gh\t a wide range ( t]ritory1 =m+ hills ( a peculi> r\nd$ =m1 usually clad ) a scanty vegetation4 ,! surface ( ! rock is = ! mo/ "p 9 a crumbl+ /ate1 & ! hills are (t5 surm\nt$ by piles ( /ones l ! rema9s ( a /ratifi$ mass1 z 9 ,figure #fje1 & sometimes l heaps ( b\ld]s1 = :i* !y h be5 mi/ak54 ,! ext]ior ( ^! /ones1 orig9ally quadrangul>1 acquires a r\nd$ =m by ! action ( air & wat]1 = ! edges & angles wa/e away m rapidly ?an ! sides4 ,a simil> sph]ical /ructure has already be5 describ$ z *>act]i/ic ( basalt & o!r volcanic =mations1 & x mu/ be ref]r$ to analog\s causes1 z yet b imp]fectly und]/ood4 ,al?\gh x is ! g5]al peculi>ity ( granite to assume no def9ite %apes1 x is nev]!less occasionally subdivid$ by fissures1 s z to assume a cuboidal1 & ev5 a column>1 /ructure4 ,examples ( ^! appe>ances may be se5 ne> ! ,l&'s ,end1 9 ,cornwall4 7,see ,fig4 #fjf47 ,feldsp>1 qu>tz1 & mica are usually consid]$ z ! m9]als ess5tial to granite1 ! feldsp> be+ mo/ abundant 9 quantity1 & ! proportion ( qu>tz exce$+ t ( mica4 ,^! m9]als are unit$ 9 :at is t]m$ a confus$ cry/allisation2 t is to say1 !re is no regul> arrangem5t ( ! cry/als 9 granite1 z 9 gneiss 7see ,fig4 #fbb71 except 9 ! v>iety t]m$ graphic granite1 :i* occurs mo/ly 9 granitic ve9s4 ,?is v>iety is a comp\nd ( feldsp> & qu>tz1 s arrang$ z to produce an imp]fect lam9> /ructure4 ,! cry/als ( feldsp> appe> to h be5 fir/ =m$1 leav+ betwe5 !m ! space n[ occupi$ by ! d>k]-col\r$ qu>tz4 ,?is m9]al1 :5 a section is made at "r angles to ! alt]nate plates ( feldsp> & qu>tz1 pres5ts brok5 l9es1 :i* h be5 comp>$ to ,hebrew *>act]s4 7,see ,fig4 #fjh47 ,! v>iety ( granite call$ by ! ,fr5* ,pegmatite1 :i* is a mixture ( qu>tz & common feldsp>1 usually ) "s small admixture ( :ite silv]y mica1 (t5 passes into graphic granite4 ,fig4 #fjf3 ,granite hav+ a cuboidal & rude column> /ructure1 ,l&'s ,end1 ,cornwall4 ,ord9>y granite1 z well z sy5ite & eurite1 usually conta9s two k9ds ( feldsp>3 ,fir/1 ! common1 or or?oclase1 9 :i* pota% is ! prevail+ alkali1 & ?is g5]ally occurs 9 l>ge cry/als ( a :ite or fle% col\r2 & secondly1 feldsp> 9 small] cry/als1 9 :i* soda pr$om9ates1 usually ( a dead :ite or spott$1 & /riat$ l albite1 b n ! same 9 composition4#a ,graphic granite4 ,fig4 #fjg3 ,section p>allel to ! lam94 ,fig4 #fjh3 ,section transv]se to ! lam94 ,z a g5]al rule1 qu>tz1 9 a compact or amorph\s /ate1 =ms a vitre\s mass1 s]v+ z ! base 9 :i* feldsp> & mica h cry/allis$2 = al?\gh ^! m9]als are mu* m fusible ?an silex1 !y h (t5 impr9t$ _! %apes ^u ! qu>tz4 ,?is fact1 app>5tly s p>adoxical1 has giv5 rise to mu* +5i\s speculation4 ,we %\ld naturally h anticipat$ t1 dur+ ! cool+ ( ! mass1 ! fl9ty portion w\ld be ! fir/ to consolidate2 & t ! diff]5t v>ieties ( feldsp>1 z well z g>nets & t\rmal9es1 be+ m easily liquefi$ by heat1 w\ld be ! la/4 ,precisely ! rev]se has tak5 place 9 ! passage ( mo/ granite aggregates f a fluid to a solid /ate1 cry/als ( ! m fusible m9]als be+ f\nd envelop$ 9 h>d1 transp>5t1 glassy qu>tz1 :i* has (t5 tak5 v fai?ful ca/s ( ea*1 s z to pres]ve ev5 ! microscopically m9ute /riations on ! surface ( prisms ( t\rmal9e4 ,v>i\s explanations ( ?is ph5om5on h be5 propos$ by ,,mm4 de ,beaumont1 ,f\rnet1 & ,duro*]4 ,!y ref] to ,m4 ,gaud9's exp]im5ts on ! fusion ( qu>tz1 :i* %[ t silex1 z x cools1 has ! prop]ty ( rema9+ 9 a visc\s /ate1 :]eas alum9a nev] does4 ,?is 8gelat9\s fl9t0 is suppos$ to reta9 a consid]able degree ( pla/icity long aft] ! granitic mixture has acquir$ a l[ temp]ature4 ,occasionally we f9d ! qu>tz & feldsp> mutually impr9t+ _! =ms on ea* o!r1 af=d+ evid5ce ( ! simultane\s cry/allisation ( bo?4#b ,accord+ to ! exp]im5ts & obs]vations ( ,gu/avus ,rose1 ! qu>tz ( granite has ! specific gravity ( #bf1 :i* *>act]ises silica :5 x is precipitat$ f a liquid solv5t1 & n t inf]ior d5sity1 namely1 #bc1 :i* belongs to x :5 x cools 9 ! laboratory f a /ate ( fusion 9 :at is call$ ! dry way4 ,by "s x _h be5 ra%ly inf]r$ t ! mann] 9 :i* ! consolidation ( granite takes place is exce$+ly diff]5t f ! cool+ ( lavas1 & t ! int5se heat suppos$ to be necess>y = ! production ( m\nta9 masses ( ,plutonic rocks might be disp5s$ )4 ,b ,mr4 ,david ,=bes in=ms me t silica c cry/allise 9 ! dry way1 & he has f\nd 9 qu>tz =m+ a con/itu5t "p ( "s tra*ytes1 bo? f ,guadel\pe & ,icel&1 glass cavities q simil> to ^? met ) 9 g5u9e volcanic m9]als4 ,^! 8glass cavities10 :i* ) _m o!r k9dr$ ph5om5a h be5 c>efully /udi$ by ,mr4 ,sorby1 are ^? 9 :i* a liquid1 on cool+1 has become fir/ visc\s & !n solid )\t cry/allis+ or und]go+ a def9ite *ange 9 its physical /ructure4 ,o!r cavities :i*1 l ^? j m5tion$1 are frequ5tly disc]nible "u ! microscope 9 ! m9]als compos+ granitic rocks1 are fill$1 "s ( !m ) gas or vap\r1 o!rs ) liquid1 & by ! movem5ts ( ! bubbles ?us includ$ ! di/9ctness ( su* cavities f ^? fill$ ) a glassy sub/ance c be te/$4 ,mr4 ,sorby admits t ! frequ5t occurr5ce ( fluid cavities 9 ! qu>tz ( granite implies t wat] 0 almo/ always pres5t 9 ! =mation ( ?is rock2 b ! same may be said ( almo/ all lavas1 & x is n[ m ?an =ty ye>s s9ce ,mr4 ,scrope insi/$ on ! important "p :i* wat] plays 9 volcanic eruptions1 be+ s intimately mix$ up ) ! mat]ials ( ! lava t he suppos$ x to aid 9 giv+ mobility to ! fluid mass4 ,x is well kn[n t /eam escapes = mon?s1 sometimes = ye>s1 f ! cavities ( lava :5 x is cool+ & consolidat+4 ,z to ! result ( ,mr4 ,sorby's exp]im5ts & speculations on ?is difficult subject1 !y may be /at$ 9 a few words4 ,he concludes t ! physical conditions "u :i* ! volcanic & granitic rocks orig9ate are s f> simil> t 9 bo? cases !y comb9e igne\s fusion1 aque\s solution1 & gase\s sublimation--! pro(1 he says1 ( ! op]ation ( wat] 9 ! =mation ( granite be+ q z /rong z ( t ( heat4#c ,:5 rocks are melt$ at great dep?s wat] mu/ be pres5t1 = two reasons--,fir/1 because ra9wat] & seawat] are always desc5d+ ?r\gh fissur$ & por\s rocks1 & mu/ at l5g? f9d _! way into ! regions ( subt]ranean heat2 & secondly1 because 9 a /ate ( comb9ation wat] ent]s l>gely into ! composition ( "s ( ! mo/ common m9]als1 especially ^? ( ! alum9\s class4 ,b ! exi/5ce ( wat] "u great pressure af=ds no argum5t aga9/ our attribut+ an excessively high temp]ature to ! mass ) :i* x is mix$ up4 ,buns51 inde$1 imag9es t 9 ,icel& wat] atta9s a :ite heat at a v mod]ate dep?4 ,to :at ext5t "s ( ! metamorphic rocks conta9+ ! same m9]als z ! granites may h be5 =m$ by hydro!rmal action )\t ! int]v5tion ( int5se heat comp>able to t br\ght into play 9 a volcanic eruption1 w be consid]$ :5 we treat ( ! metamorphic rocks 9 ! ?irty-?ird *apt]4 ,fig4 #fji3 ,porphyritic granite4 ,l&'s ,end1 ,cornwall4 ,porphyritic ,granite4--,?is "n has be5 sometimes giv5 to t v>iety 9 :i* l>ge cry/als ( common feldsp>1 sometimes m ?an ?ree in*es 9 l5g?1 are scatt]$ ?r\gh an ord9>y base ( granite4 ,an example ( ?is texture may be se5 9 ! granite ( ! ,l&'s ,end1 9 ,cornwall 7,fig4 #fji74 ,! two l>g] prismatic cry/als 9 ?is draw+ repres5t feldsp>1 small] cry/als ( :i* are also se51 simil> 9 =m1 scatt]$ ?r\gh ! base4 ,9 ?is base also appe> black specks ( mica1 ! cry/als ( :i* h a m or less p]fect hexagonal outl9e4 ,! rema9d] ( ! mass is qu>tz1 ! transluc5cy ( :i* is /rongly contra/$ to ! opaqu5ess ( ! :ite feldsp> & black mica4 ,b nei!r ! transp>5cy ( ! qu>tz nor ! silv]y lu/re ( ! mica c be express$ 9 ! engrav+4 ,! uni=m m9]al "* ( l>ge masses ( granite seems to indicate t l>ge quantities ( ! compon5t elem5ts 7 ?or\ghly mix$ up toge!r1 & !n cry/allis$ "u precisely simil> conditions4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 _m accid5tal1 or 8occasional10 m9]als1 z !y are t]m$1 :i* belong to granite4 ,among ^! black s*orl or t\rmal9e1 act9olite1 zircon1 g>net1 & fluor sp> are n uncommon2 b !y are too sp>+ly disp]s$ to modify ! g5]al aspect ( ! rock4 ,!y %[1 nev]!less1 t ! +r$i5ts 7 n ev]y:]e exactly ! same2 & a /ill great] diff]5ce may be trac$ 9 ! ev]-v>y+ proportions ( ! feldsp>1 qu>tz1 & mica4 ,talcose ,granite1 or ,protog9e ( ! ,fr5*1 is a mixture ( feldsp>1 qu>tz1 & talc4 ,x ab\nds 9 ! ,alps1 & 9 "s p>ts ( ,cornwall1 produc+ by its decomposition ! kaol9 or *9a clay1 m ?an #ab1jjj tons ( :i* are annually export$ f t c\ntry = ! pott]ies4 ,s*orl-rock1 & ,s*orly ,granite4--,! =m] ( ^! is an aggregate ( s*orl1 or t\rmal9e1 & qu>tz4 ,:5 feldsp> & mica are also pres5t1 x may be call$ s*orly granite4 ,?is k9d ( granite is comp>atively r>e4 ,eurite1 ,feld/one4--,eurite is a rock 9 :i* ! +r$i5ts ( granite are bl5d$ into a f9ely granul> mass1 mica be+ usually abs5t1 &1 :5 pres5t1 9 su* m9ute flakes z to be invisible to ! nak$ eye4 ,x is sometimes call$ ,feld/one1 & :5 ! cry/als ( feldsp> are conspicu\s x becomes ,feldsp> porphyry4 ,all ^! & o!r v>ieties ( granite pass into c]ta9 k9ds ( trap--a circum/ance :i* af=ds "o ( _m argum5ts 9 fav\r ( :at is n[ ! prevail+ op9ion1 t ! granites are also ( igne\s orig94 ,! contra/ ( ! mo/ cry/all9e =m ( granite to t ( ! mo/ common & e>?y trap is und\bt$ly great2 b ea* memb] ( ! volcanic class is capable ( becom+ porphyritic1 & ! base ( ! porphyry may be m & m cry/all9e1 until ! mass passes to ! k9d ( granite mo/ ne>ly alli$ 9 m9]al composition4 ,sy5itic ,granite4--,! quadruple comp\nd ( qu>tz1 feldsp>1 mica1 & hornbl5de1 may be t]m$ ,sy5itic ,granite1 & =ms a passage betwe5 ! granites & ! sy5ites4 ,?is rock occurs 9 ,scotl& & 9 ,gu]nsey4 ,sy5ite4--,we n[ come to ! second division ( ! ,plutonic rocks1 or ^? hav+ less ?an #fj p] c5t ( silica1 & :i*1 z be=e /at$ 7p4 #eeb71 are usually call$ sy5itic4 ,sy5ite orig9ally receiv$ its "n f ! celebrat$ anci5t qu>ries ( ,sy5e1 9 ,egypt4 ,x diff]s f granite 9 hav+ hornbl5de z a sub/itute = mica1 & be+ )\t qu>tz4 ,w]n] at lea/ consid]$ sy5ite z a b9>y comp\nd ( feldsp> & hornbl5de1 & reg>d$ qu>tz z m]ely "o ( its occasional m9]als4 ,miascite4--,miascite is "o ( ! v>ieties ( sy5ite mo/ frequ5tly spok5 (2 x is compos$ *iefly ( or?oclase & nephel9e1 ) hornbl5de & qu>tz z occasional accessory m9]als4 ,x d]ives its "n f ,miask1 9 ! ,ural ,m\nta9s1 :]e x 0 fir/ discov]$ by ,gu/avus ,rose4 ,zircon-sy5ite is ano!r v>iety closely alli$ to ,miascite1 b conta9+ cry/als ( ,zircon4 ,connection ( ! ,granites & ,sy5ites ) ! ,volcanic ,rocks4--,! m9]als :i* con/itute alike ! ,plutonic & volcanic rocks consi/1 almo/ exclusively1 ( sev5 elem5ts1 namely1 silica1 alum9a1 magnesia1 lime1 soda1 pota%1 & iron 7see ,table p4 #ddi72 & ^! may sometimes exi/ 9 ab\t ! same proportions 9 a por\s lava1 a compact trap1 & a cry/all9e granite4 ,! same lava1 = example1 may be glassy1 or scoriace\s1 or /ony1 or porphyritic1 accord+ to ! m or less rapid rate at :i* x cools4 ,x w\ld be easy to multiply examples & au?orities to prove ! gradation ( ! ,plutonic into ! trap rocks4 ,on ! we/]n side ( ! ,fiord ( ,*ri/iania1 9 ,norway1 !re is a l>ge di/rict ( trap1 *iefly gre5/one-porphyry & sy5itic-gre5/one1 re/+ on fossilif]\s /rata4 ,to ?is1 on its s\!rn limit1 succe$s a region equally ext5sive ( sy5ite1 ! passage f ! trappean to ! cry/all9e ,plutonic rock be+ s gradual t x is impossible to draw a l9e ( dem>kation betwe5 !m4 8,! ord9>y granite ( ,ab]de5%ire10 says ,dr4 ,mac,culloch1 8is ! usual t]n>y comp\nd ( qu>tz1 feldsp>1 & mica2 ?\gh sometimes hornbl5de is sub/itut$ = ! mica4 ,b 9 _m places a v>iety occurs :i* is compos$ simply ( feldsp> & hornbl5de2 & 9 exam9+ m m9utely ?is duplicate comp\nd1 x is obs]v$ 9 "s places to assume a f9e gra91 & at l5g? to become undi/+ui%able f ! gre5/ones ( ! trap family4 ,x also passes 9 ! same un9t]rupt$ mann] into a basalt1 & at l5g? into a s(t clay/one1 ) a s*i/ose t5d5cy on exposure1 9 no respect diff]+ f ^? ( ! trap isl&s ( ! we/]n coa/40 ,! same au?or m5tions1 t 9 ,%etl& a granite compos$ ( hornbl5de1 mica1 feldsp>1 & qu>tz graduates 9 an equally p]fect mann] into basalt4#d ,9 ,hung>y !re are v>ieties ( tra*yte1 :i*1 geologically speak+1 are ( mod]n orig91 9 :i* cry/als1 n only ( mica1 b ( qu>tz1 are common1 toge!r ) feldsp> & hornbl5de4 ,x is easy to conceive h[ su* volcanic masses may1 at a c]ta9 dep? f ! surface1 pass d[nw>d into granite4 ,granitic ,ve9s4--,i h already h9t$ at ! close analogy 9 ! =ms ( c]ta9 granitic & trappean ve9s2 & x w be f\nd t /rata p5etrat$ by ,plutonic rocks h suff]$ *anges v simil> to ^? exhibit$ ne> ! contact ( volcanic dikes4 ,?us1 9 ,gl5 ,tilt1 9 ,scotl&1 alt]nat+ /rata ( lime/one & argillace\s s*i/ come 9 contact ) a mass ( granite4 ,! contact does n take place z might h be5 look$ = if ! granite _h be5 =m$ !re be=e ! /rata 7 deposit$1 9 :i* case ! section w\ld h appe>$ z 9 ,fig4 #faj2 b ! union is z repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #faa1 ! undulat+ outl9e ( ! granite int]sect+ diff]5t /rata1 & occasionally intrud+ itself 9 tortur\s ve9s into ! b$s ( clay-slate & lime/one1 f :i* x diff]s s rem>kably 9 composition4 ,! lime/one is sometimes *ang$ 9 "* by ! proximity ( ! granitic mass or its ve9s1 & acquires a m compact texture1 l t ( horn/one or *]t1 ) a spl9t]y fracture1 & eff]vesc+ freely ) acids4 ,fig4 #faj & ,fig4 #faa3 ,junction ( granite & arbillace\s s*i/ 9 ,gl5 ,tilt4 7,mac,culloch47 ,fig4 #faj & ,fig4 #faa3 ,junction ( granite & arbillace\s s*i/ 9 ,gl5 ,tilt4 7,mac,culloch47#e ,! conv]sion ( ! lime/one & ^! & _m o!r in/ances into a silice\s rock1 eff]vesc+ sl[ly ) acids1 w\ld be difficult ( explanation1 7 x n asc]ta9$ t su* lime/ones are always impure1 conta9+ gra9s ( qu>tz1 mica1 or feldsp> dissem9at$ ?r\gh !m4 ,! elem5ts ( ^! m9]als1 :5 ! rock has be5 subject$ to great heat1 may h be5 fus$1 & s spread m uni=mly ?r\gh ! :ole mass4 ,9 ! ,plutonic1 z 9 ! volcanic rocks1 !re is e gradation f a tortu\s ve9 to ! mo/ regul> =m ( a dike1 su* z int]sect ! tuffs & lavas ( ,vesuvius & ,etna4 ,dikes ( granite may be se51 among o!r places1 on ! s\!rn flank ( ,m\nt ,battock1 "o ( ! ,grampians1 ! opposite walls sometimes pres]v+ an exact p>allelism = a consid]able di/ance4 ,z a g5]al rule1 h[ev]1 granite ve9s 9 all qu>t]s ( ! globe are m s9u\s 9 _! c\rse ?an ^? ( trap4 ,!y pres5t simil> %apes at ! mo/ nor!rn po9t ( ,scotl&1 & ! s\!rnmo/ extremity ( ,africa1 z ,figs4 #fab & #fac w %[4 ,fig4 #fab3 ,granite ve9s trav]s+ clay slate1 ,table ,m\nta91 ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,fig4 #fab3 ,granite ve9s trav]s+ clay slate1 ,table ,m\nta91 ,cape ( ,good ,hope4#f ,fig4 #fac3 ,granite ve9s trav]s+ gneiss1 ,cape ,wra?4 ,fig4 #fac3 ,granite ve9s trav]s+ gneiss1 ,cape ,wra?4#g ,x is n uncommon = "o set ( granite ve9s to int]sect ano!r2 & sometimes !re are ?ree sets1 z 9 ! environs ( ,heidelb]g1 :]e ! granite on ! banks ( ! riv] ,neck] is se5 to consi/ ( ?ree v>ieties1 diff]+ 9 col\r1 gra91 & v>i\s peculi>ities ( m9]al composition4 ,"o ( ^!1 :i* is evid5tly ! second 9 age1 is se5 to cut ?r\gh an old] granite2 & ano!r1 /ill new]1 trav]ses bo? ! second & ! fir/4 ,9 ,%etl& !re are two k9ds ( granite4 ,"o ( !m1 compos$ ( hornbl5de1 mica1 feldsp>1 & qu>tz1 is ( a d>k col\r1 & is se5 und]ly+ gneiss4 ,! o!r is a r$ granite1 :i* p5etrates ! d>k v>iety ev]y:]e 9 ve9s4#h ,fig4 #fad is a sket* ( a gr\p ( granite ve9s 9 ,cornwall1 giv5 by ,messrs4 ,von ,oeynhaus5 & ,von ,de*54#i ,! ma9 body ( ! granite "h is ( a porphyritic appe>ance1 ) l>ge cry/als ( feldsp>2 b 9 ! ve9s x is f9e-gra9$1 & )\t ^! l>ge cry/als4 ,! g5]al height ( ! ve9s is f #af to #bj feet1 b "s are mu* high]4 ,fig4 #fad3 ,granite ve9s pass+ ?r\gh hornbl5de slate1 ,c>nsilv] ,cove1 ,cornwall4 ,granite1 sy5ite1 & ^? porphyries :i* h a graniti=m /ructure1 9 %ort all ,plutonic rocks1 are frequ5tly obs]v$ to conta9 metals1 at or ne> _! junction ) /ratifi$ =mations4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ve9s :i* trav]se /ratifi$ rocks are1 z a g5]al law1 m metallif]\s ne> su* junctions ?an 9 o!r positions4 ,h5ce x has be5 inf]r$ t ^! metals may h be5 spread 9 a gase\s =m ?r\gh ! fus$ mass1 & t ! contact ( ano!r rock1 9 a diff]5t /ate ( temp]ature1 or sometimes ! exi/5ce ( r5ts 9 o!r rocks 9 ! vic9ity1 may h caus$ ! sublimation ( ! metals4#aj ,fig4 #fae3 a1 b4 ,qu>tz ve9 pass+ ?r\gh gneiss & gre5/one4 ,tron/ad ,/r&1 ne> ,*ri/iania4 ,ve9s ( pure qu>tz are (t5 f\nd 9 granite z 9 _m /ratifi$ rocks1 b !y are n traceable1 l ve9s ( granite or trap1 to l>ge bodies ( rock ( simil> composition4 ,!y appe> to h be5 cracks1 into :i* silice\s matt] 0 infilt]$4 ,su* segregation1 z x is call$1 c sometimes cle>ly be %[n to h tak5 place long subsequ5tly to ! orig9al consolidation ( ! conta9+ rock4 ,?us1 = example1 ,i obs]v$ 9 ! gneiss ( ,tron/ad ,/r&1 ne> ,dramm51 9 ,norway1 ! section on ! bea* %[n 9 ,figure #fae4 ,x appe>s t ! alt]nat+ /rata ( :iti% graniti=m gneiss & black hornbl5de-s*i/ 7 fir/ cut by a gre5/one dike1 ab\t #b feet wide2 !n ! crack a1 b1 pass$ ?r\gh all ^! rocks1 & 0 fill$ up ) qu>tz4 ,! opposite walls ( ! ve9 are 9 "s p>ts incru/$ ) transp>5t cry/als ( qu>tz1 ! middle ( ! ve9 be+ fill$ up ) common opaque :ite qu>tz4 ,fig4 #faf3 ,euritic porphyry alt]nat+ ) prim>y fossilif]\s /rata1 ne> ,*ri/iania4 ,we h se5 t ! volcanic =mations h be5 call$ ov]ly+1 because !y n only p5etrate o!rs b spread ov] !m4 ,m4 ,neck] has propos$ to call ! granites ! und]ly+ igne\s rocks1 & ! di/9ction "h indicat$ is highly *>act]i/ic4 ,x 01 inde$1 suppos$ by "s ( ! e>li] obs]v]s t ! granite ( ,*ri/iania1 9 ,norway1 0 int]calat$ 9 m\nta9 masses betwe5 ! prim>y or palozoic /rata ( t c\ntry1 s z to ov]lie fossilif]\s %ale & lime/one4 ,b al?\gh ! granite s5ds ve9s into ^! fossilif]\s rocks1 & is decid$ly po/]ior 9 orig91 its actual sup]position 9 mass has be5 disprov$ by ,pr(essor ,keilhau1 ^: obs]vations on ?is controv]t$ po9t ,i _h opportunities1 9 #ahcg1 ( v]ify+4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 on a small] scale1 c]ta9 b$s ( euritic porphyry1 "s a few feet1 o!rs _m y>ds 9 ?ickness1 :i* pass into granite1 & des]ve1 p]haps1 to be class$ z ,plutonic r ?an trappean rocks1 :i* may truly be describ$ z int]pos$ con=mably betwe5 fossilif]\s /rata1 z ! porphyries 7a1 c1 ,fig4 #faf7 :i* divide ! bitum9\s %ales & argillace\s lime/ones1 f1 f4 ,b "s ( ^! same porphyries are p>tially uncon=mable1 z b1 & may lead u to suspect t ! o!rs also1 not)/&+ _! appe>ance ( int]/ratification1 h be5 =cibly inject$4 ,"s ( ! porphyritic rocks above m5tion$ are highly qu>tzose1 o!rs v feldspa?ic4 ,9 proportion z ! masses are m volum9\s1 !y become m granitic 9 _! texture1 less con=mable1 & ev5 beg9 to s5d =? ve9s into contigu\s /rata4 ,9 a ^w1 we h "h a beautiful illu/ration ( ! int]m$iate gradations betwe5 volcanic & ,plutonic rocks1 n only 9 _! m9]alogical composition & /ructure1 b also 9 _! relations ( position to associat$ =mations4 ,if ! t]m 8ov]ly+0 c 9 ?is in/ance be appli$ to a ,plutonic rock1 x is only 9 proportion z t rock beg9s to acquire a trappean aspect4 ,x has be5 already h9t$ t ! heat :i* 9 e active volcano ext5ds d[nw>d to indef9ite dep?s mu/ produce simultane\sly v diff]5t effects ne> ! surface & f> bel[ x2 & we _c suppose t rocks result+ f ! cry/allis+ ( fus$ matt] "u a pressure ( sev]al ?\s& feet1 mu* less sev]al miles1 ( ! e>?'s cru/ c exactly resemble ^? =m$ at or ne> ! surface4 ,h5ce ! production at great dep?s ( a class ( rocks analog\s to ! volcanic1 & yet diff]+ 9 _m p>ticul>s1 might h be5 pr$ict$1 ev5 _h we no ,plutonic =mations to acc\nt =4 ,h[ well ^! agree1 bo? 9 _! positive & negative *>act]s1 ) ! !ory ( _! deep subt]ranean orig91 ! /ud5t w be able to judge by consid]+ ! descriptions already giv54 ,x has1 h[ev]1 be5 object$1 t if ! granitic & volcanic rocks 7 simply diff]5t p>ts ( "o great s]ies1 we ought to f9d 9 m\nta9 *a9s volcanic dikes pass+ upw>d into lava & d[nw>d into granite4 ,b we may answ] t our v]tical sections are usually ( small ext5t2 & if we f9d 9 c]ta9 places a transition f trap to por\s lava1 & 9 o!rs a passage f granite to trap1 x is z mu* z c\ld be expect$ ( ?is evid5ce4 ,! prodigi\s ext5t ( d5udation :i* has be5 already demon/rat$ to h occurr$ at =m] p]iods1 w reconcile ! /ud5t to ! belief t cry/all9e rocks ( high antiquity1 al?\gh deep 9 ! e>?'s cru/ :5 orig9ally =m$1 may h become uncov]$ & expos$ at ! surface4 ,_! actual elevation above ! sea may be ref]r$ to ! same causes to :i* we h attribut$ ! upheaval ( m>9e /rata1 ev5 to ! summits ( "s m\nta9 *a9s4 #a ,delesse1 ,ann4 des ,m9es1 #aheb1 tome iii1 p4 #dji1 & #ahdh1 tome xiii1 p4 #fge4 #b ,bullet91 #b;e srie1 iv1 #acjd2 & ,d',ar*iac1 ,hi/4 des ,progrs de la ,gol41 i1 #ch4 #c ,see ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xiv1 pp4 #dfe1 #dhh4 #d ,sy/4 ( ,geol41 vol4 i1 pp4 #aeg & #aeh4 #e ,geol4 ,trans41 ,fir/ ,s]ies1 vol4 iii1 pl4 #ba4 #f ,capta9 ,b4 ,hall1 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,ed9burgh1 vol4 vii4 #g ,we/]n ,isl&s1 pl4 #ca4 #h ,mac,culloch1 ,sy/4 ( ,geol41 vol4 ii1 p4 #eh4 #i ,phil4 ,mag4 & ,annals1 ,no4 #bg1 ,new ,s]ies1 ,m>*1 #ahbi4 #aj ,neck]1 ,proce$+s ( ! ,geol4 ,soc41 ,no4 #bf1 p4 #cib4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxii4 ,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,ages ,,( ,,! ,,plutonic ,,rocks4 ,difficulty 9 asc]ta9+ ! precise ,age ( a ,plutonic ,rock4 -- ,te/ ( ,age by ,relative ,position4 -- ,te/ by ,intrusion & ,alt]ation4 -- ,te/ by ,m9]al ,composition4 -- ,te/ by includ$ ,fragm5ts4 -- ,rec5t & ,plioc5e ,plutonic ,rocks1 :y invisible4 -- ,mioc5e ,sy5ite ( ! ,isle ( ,skye4 -- ,eoc5e ,plutonic ,rocks 9 ! ,&es4 -- ,granite alt]+ ,cretace\s ,rocks4 -- ,granite alt]+ ,lias 9 ! ,alps & 9 ,skye4 -- ,granite ( ,d>tmoor alt]+ ,c>bonif]\s ,/rata4 -- ,granite ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ,p]iod4 -- ,sy5ite alt]+ ,silurian ,/rata 9 ,norway4 -- ,bl5d+ ( ! same ) ,gneiss4 -- ,mo/ anci5t ,plutonic ,rocks4 -- ,granite protrud$ 9 a solid ,=m4 ,:5 we adopt ! igne\s !ory ( granite1 z expla9$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 & believe t diff]5t ,plutonic rocks h orig9at$ at successive p]iods b5ea? ! surface ( ! planet1 we mu/ be prep>$ to enc\nt] great] difficulty 9 asc]ta9+ ! precise age ( su* rocks ?an 9 ! case ( volcanic & fossilif]\s =mations4 ,we mu/ be> 9 m9d t ! evid5ce ( ! age ( ea* contemporane\s volcanic rock 0 d]iv$ ei!r f lavas p\r$ out ^u ! anci5t surface1 :e!r 9 ! sea or 9 ! atmosph]e1 or f tuffs & conglom]ates1 also deposit$ at ! surface1 & ei!r conta9+ organic rema9s !mselves or int]calat$ betwe5 /rata conta9+ fossils4 ,b ! same te/s entirely fail1 or are only applicable 9 a modifi$ degree1 :5 we endeav\r to fix ! *ronology ( a rock :i* has cry/allis$ f a /ate ( fusion 9 ! b[els ( ! e>?4 ,9 t case we are r$uc$ to ! te/s ( relative position1 intrusion1 alt]ation ( ! rocks 9 contact1 includ$ fragm5ts1 & m9]al "*2 b all ^! may yield at be/ a some:at ambigu\s result4 ,te/ ( ,age by ,relative ,position4--,unalt]$ fossilif]\s /rata ( e age are met ) repos+ imm$iately on ,plutonic rocks2 z at ,*ri/iania1 9 ,norway1 :]e ! ,po/-plioc5e deposits re/ on granite2 9 ,auv]gne1 :]e ! fre%-wat] ,mioc5e /rata1 & at ,heidelb]g1 on ! ,rh9e1 :]e ! ,new ,r$ s&/one occupy a simil> place4 ,9 all ^!1 & simil> in/ances1 inf]iority 9 position is connect$ ) ! sup]ior antiquity ( granite4 ,! cry/all9e rock 0 solid be=e ! s$im5t>y b$s 7 sup]impos$1 & ! latt] usually conta9 9 !m r\nd$ pebbles ( ! subjac5t granite4 ,te/ by ,intrusion & ,alt]ation4--,b :5 ,plutonic rocks s5d ve9s into /rata1 & alt] !m ne> ! po9t ( contact1 9 ! mann] be=e describ$ 7p4 #eei71 x is cle> t1 l intrusive traps1 !y are new] ?an ! /rata :i* !y invade & alt]4 ,examples ( ! application ( ?is te/ w be giv5 9 ! sequel4 ,te/ by ,m9]al ,composition4--,not)/&+ a g5]al uni=mity 9 ! aspect ( ,plutonic rocks1 we h se5 9 ! la/ *apt] t !re are _m v>ieties1 su* z sy5ite1 talcose granite1 & o!rs4 ,"o ( ^! v>ieties is sometimes f\nd exclusively prevail+ ?r\gh\t an ext5sive region1 :]e x pres]ves a homog5e\s "*2 s t1 hav+ asc]ta9$ its relative age 9 "o place1 we c recognise its id5tity 9 o!rs1 & ?us det]m9e f a s+le section ! *ronological relations ( l>ge m\nta9 masses4 ,hav+ obs]v$1 = example1 t ! sy5itic granite ( ,norway1 9 :i* ! m9]al call$ zircon ab\nds1 has alt]$ ! ,silurian /rata :]ev] x is 9 contact1 we d n hesitate to ref] o!r masses ( ! same zircon-sy5ite 9 ! s\? ( ,norway to a po/-,silurian date4 ,"s h imag9$ t ! age ( diff]5t granites might1 to a great ext5t1 be det]m9$ by _! m9]al *>act]s alone2 sy5ite1 = in/ance1 or granite ) hornbl5de1 be+ m mod]n ?an common or micace\s granite4 ,b mod]n inve/igations h prov$ ^! g5]alisations to h be5 premature4 ,te/ by ,includ$ ,fragm5ts4--,?is crit]ion c r>ely be ( mu* importance1 because ! fragm5ts involv$ 9 granite are usually s mu* alt]$ t !y _c be ref]r$ ) c]ta9ty to ! rocks :5ce !y 7 d]iv$4 ,9 ! ,:ite ,m\nta9s1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,hubb>d1 a granite ve91 trav]s+ granite1 conta9s fragm5ts ( slate & trap :i* mu/ h fall5 into ! fissure :5 ! fus$ mat]ials ( ! ve9 7 inject$ f bel[1#a & ?us ! granite is %[n to be new] ?an ^? slaty & trappean =mations f :i* ! fragm5ts 7 d]iv$4 ,rec5t & ,plioc5e ,plutonic ,rocks1 :y invisible4--,! explanations already giv5 9 ! #bh? & 9 ! la/ *apt] ( ! probable relation ( ! ,plutonic to ! volcanic =mations1 w naturally lead ! read] to inf] t rocks ( ! "o class c nev] be produc$ at or ne> ! surface )\t "s memb]s ( ! o!r be+ =m$ bel[4 ,x is n uncommon = lava-/reams to require m ?an t5 ye>s to cool 9 ! op5 air2 & :]e !y are ( great dep?1 a mu* long] p]iod4 ,! melt$ matt] p\r$ f ,jorullo1 9 ,mexico1 9 ! ye> #agei1 :i* accumulat$ 9 "s places to ! height ( #eej feet1 0 f\nd to reta9 a high temp]ature half a c5tury aft] ! eruption4#b ,we may conceive1 !re=e1 t great masses ( subt]ranean lava may rema9 9 a r$-hot or inc&esc5t /ate 9 ! volcanic foci = imm5se p]iods1 & ! process ( refrig]ation may be extremely gradual4 ,sometimes1 inde$1 ?is process may be ret>d$ = an indef9ite p]iod by ! accession ( fre% supplies ( heat2 = we f9d t ! lava 9 ! crat] ( ,/romboli1 "o ( ! ,lip>i ,isl&s1 has be5 9 a /ate ( con/ant ebullition = ! la/ two ?\s& ye>s2 & we may suppose ?is fluid mass to communicate ) "s caldron or res]voir ( fus$ matt] bel[4 ,9 ! ,isle ( ,b\rbon1 also1 :]e !re has be5 an emission ( lava once 9 e two ye>s = a long p]iod1 ! lava bel[ c sc>cely fail to h be5 p]man5tly 9 a /ate ( liquefaction4 ,if !n x be a reasonable conjecture1 t ab\t #bjjj volcanic eruptions occur 9 ! c\rse ( e c5tury1 ei!r above ! wat]s ( ! sea or b5ea? !m1#c x w foll[ t ! quantity ( ,plutonic rock g5]at$ or 9 progress dur+ ! ,rec5t epo* mu/ already h be5 consid]able4 ,b z ! ,plutonic rocks orig9ate at "s dep? 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 !y c only be r5d]$ accessible to human obs]vation by subsequ5t upheaval & d5udation4 ,betwe5 ! p]iod :5 a ,plutonic rock cry/allises 9 ! subt]ranean regions & ! era ( its protrusion at any s+le po9t ( ! surface1 "o or two geological p]iods mu/ usually int]v5e4 ,h5ce1 we mu/ n expect to f9d ! ,rec5t or ev5 ! ,plioc5e granites laid op5 to view1 unless we are prep>$ to assume t suffici5t "t has elaps$ s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,plioc5e p]iod = great upheaval & d5udation4 ,a ,plutonic rock1 !re=e1 mu/1 9 g5]al1 be ( consid]able antiquity relatively to ! fossilif]\s & volcanic =mations1 be=e x becomes ext5sively visible4 ,z we "k t ! upheaval ( l& has be5 sometimes accompani$ 9 ,s\? ,am]ica by volcanic eruptions & ! emission ( lava1 we may conceive ! m anci5t ,plutonic rocks to be =c$ upw>d to ! surface by ! new] rocks ( ! same class =m$ successively bel[--subt]position 9 ! ,plutonic1 l sup]position 9 ! s$im5t>y rocks1 be+ usually *>act]i/ic ( a new] orig94 ,fig4 #fag3 ,diagram %[+ ! relative position :i* ! ,plutonic & s$im5t>y =mations ( diff]5t ages may occupy4 ,9 ,fig4 #fag an attempt is made to %[ ! inv]t$ ord] 9 :i* s$im5t>y & ,plutonic =mations may occur 9 ! e>?'s cru/4 ,! olde/ ,plutonic rock1 ,no4 ,i1 has be5 upheav$ at successive p]iods until x has become expos$ to view 9 a m\nta9-*a94 ,?is protrusion ( ,no4 ,i has be5 caus$ by ! igne\s ag5cy :i* produc$ ! new] ,plutonic rocks ,nos4 ,,ii1 ,,iii & ,,iv4 ,"p ( ! prim>y fossilif]\s /rata1 ,no4 ,i1 h also be5 rais$ to ! surface by ! same gradual process4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! ,rec5t /rata ,no4 #d & ! ,rec5t granite or ,plutonic rock ,no4 ,,iv are ! mo/ remote f ea* o!r 9 position1 al?\gh ( contemporane\s date4 ,accord+ to ?is hypo!sis1 ! convulsions ( _m p]iods w be requir$ be=e ,rec5t or ,po/-t]ti>y granite w be uprais$ s z to =m ! highe/ ridges & c5tral axes ( m\nta9-*a9s4 ,dur+ t "t ! rec5t /rata ,no4 #d might be cov]$ by a great _m new] s$im5t>y =mations4 ,mioc5e ,plutonic ,rocks4--,a consid]able mass ( sy5ite1 9 ! ,isle ( ,skye1 is describ$ by ,dr4 ,mac,culloch z int]sect+ lime/one & %ale1 :i* are ( ! age ( ! lias4 ,! lime/one1 :i* at a great] di/ance f ! granite conta9s %ells1 exhibits no traces ( !m ne> its junction1 :]e x has be5 conv]t$ into a pure cry/all9e m>ble4#d ,mac,culloch po9t$ out t ! sy5ite "h1 z 9 ,raasay1 0 new] ?an ! second>y rocks1 & ,mr4 ,geikie has s9ce %[n t !re is a /rong probability t ?is ,plutonic rock may be ( ,mioc5e age1 because a simil> ,sy5ite hav+ a true granitic "* 9 its cry/allisation has modifi$ ! ,t]ti>y volcanic rocks ( ,b5 ,m1 9 ,mull1 "s ( :i* h und]gone consid]able metamorphism4 ,eoc5e ,plutonic ,rocks4--,9 a =m] "p ( ?is volume 7,*apt] #af71 ! great nummulitic =mation ( ! ,alps & ,pyr5ees 0 ref]r$ to ! ,eoc5e p]iod1 & x foll[s t va/ movem5ts :i* h rais$ ^? fossilif]\s rocks f ! level ( ! sea to ! height ( m ?an #aj1jjj feet above its level h tak5 place s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,t]ti>y epo*4 ,"h1 !re=e1 if any:]e1 we might expect to f9d hypog5e =mations ( ,eoc5e date break+ out 9 ! c5tral axis or mo/ di/urb$ region ( ! l(tie/ *a9 9 ,europe4 ,accord+ly1 9 ! ,swiss ,alps1 ev5 ! flys*1 or upp] portion ( ! nummulitic s]ies1 has be5 occasionally invad$ by ,plutonic rocks1 & conv]t$ into cry/all9e s*i/s ( ! hypog5e class4 ,!re c be little d\bt t ev5 ! talcose granite or gneiss ( ,mont ,blanc itself has be5 9 a fus$ or pa/y /ate s9ce ! flys* 0 deposit$ at ! bottom ( ! sea2 & ! "q z to its age is n s mu* :e!r x be a second>y or t]ti>y granite or gneiss1 z :e!r x %\ld be assign$ to ! ,eoc5e or ,mioc5e epo*4 ,great upheav+ movem5ts h be5 exp]i5c$ 9 ! region ( ! ,&es1 dur+ ! ,po/-t]ti>y p]iod4 ,9 "s "p1 !re=e1 ( ?is *a91 we may expect to discov] t]ti>y ,plutonic rocks laid op5 to view2 & ,mr4 ,d>w9's acc\nt ( ! ,*ilian ,&es1 to :i* ! read] may ref]1 fully realises ?is expectation3 = he %[s t we h /rong gr\nd to presume t ,plutonic rocks !re expos$ on a l>ge scale are ( lat] date ?an c]ta9 ,second>y & ,t]ti>y =mations4 ,b ! !ory adopt$ 9 ?is "w ( ! subt]ranean orig9 ( ! hypog5e =mations w\ld be unt5able1 if ! suppos$ fact "h allud$ to1 ( ! appe>ance ( t]ti>y granite at ! surface1 0 n a r>e exception to ! g5]al rule4 ,a consid]able lapse ( "t mu/ int]v5e betwe5 ! =mation ( ,plutonic & metamorphic rocks 9 ! ne!r regions & _! em]g5ce at ! surface4 ,= a long s]ies ( subt]ranean movem5ts mu/ occur be=e su* rocks c be uplift$ into ! atmosph]e or ! ocean2 &1 be=e !y c be r5d]$ visible to man1 "s /rata :i* previ\sly cov]$ !m mu/ h be5 /ripp$ (f by d5udation4 ,we "k t 9 ! ,bay ( ,bai 9 #aech1 9 ,cut* 9 #ahai1 & on sev]al occasions 9 ,p]u & ,*ili1 s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! pres5t c5tury1 ! p]man5t upheaval or subsid5ce ( l& has be5 accompani$ by ! simultane\s emission ( lava at "o or m po9ts 9 ! same volcanic region4 ,f ^! & o!r examples x may be inf]r$ t ! ris+ or s9k+ ( ! e>?'s cru/1 op]ations by :i* sea is conv]t$ into l&1 & l& into sea1 are a "p only ( ! consequ5ces ( subt]ranean igne\s action4 ,x c sc>cely be d\bt$ t ?is action consi/s1 9 a great degree1 ( ! bak+1 & occasionally ! liquefaction1 ( rocks1 caus+ !m to assume1 9 "s cases a l>g]1 9 o!rs a small] volume ?an be=e ! application ( heat4 ,x consi/s also 9 ! g5]ation ( gases1 & _! expansion by heat1 & ! injection ( liquid matt] into r5ts =m$ 9 sup]9cumb5t rocks4 ,! prodigi\s scale on :i* ^! subt]ranean causes h op]at$ 9 ,sicily s9ce ! deposition ( ! ,new] ,plioc5e /rata w be appreciat$ :5 we rememb] t ?r\gh\t half ! surface ( t isl& su* /rata are met )1 rais$ to ! height ( f #ej to t ( #bjjj & ev5 #cjjj feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,9 ! same isl& also ! old] rocks :i* are contigu\s to ^! m>9e t]ti>y /rata mu/ h und]gone1 )9 ! same p]iod1 a simil> am\nt ( upheaval4 ,! l obs]vations may be ext5d$ to ne>ly ! :ole ( ,europe1 =1 s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,eoc5e ,p]iod1 ! entire ,european area1 includ+ "s ( ! c5tral & v l(ty portions ( ! ,alps !mselves1 z ,i h else:]e %[n1#e has1 ) ! exception ( a few di/ricts1 em]g$ f ! deep to its pres5t altitude4 ,!re mu/1 !re=e1 h be5 at great dep?s 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 )9 ! same p]iod1 an am\nt ( subt]ranean *ange correspond+ to ?is va/ alt]ation ( level affect+ a :ole cont95t4 ,! pr9cipal effect ( subt]ranean movem5ts dur+ ! ,t]ti>y ,p]iod seems to h consi/$ 9 ! upheaval ( hypog5e =mations ( an age ant]ior to ! ,c>bonif]\s4 ,! repetition ( ano!r s]ies ( movem5ts1 ( equal viol5ce1 might upraise ! ,plutonic & metamorphic rocks ( _m second>y p]iods2 &1 if ! same =ce %\ld /ill cont9ue to act1 ! next convulsions might br+ up to ! day ! t]ti>y & rec5t hypog5e rocks4 ,9 ! c\rse ( su* *anges _m ( ! exi/+ s$im5t>y /rata w\ld suff] greatly by d5udation1 o!rs might assume a metamorphic /ructure1 or become melt$ d[n into ,plutonic & volcanic rocks4 ,mean:ile ! deposition ( a great ?ickness ( new /rata w\ld n fail to take place dur+ ! upheaval & p>tial de/ruction ( ! old] rocks4 ,b ,i mu/ ref] ! read] to ! la/ *apt] b "o ( ?is volume = a full] explanation ( ^! views4 ,fig4 #fah3 ,section ?r\gh ?ree lay]s 7b1 c1 d7 ( ! ,cretace\s s]ies ov] granite 7,a74 ,plutonic ,rocks ( ,cretace\s ,p]iod4--,x w be %[n 9 ! next *apt] t *alk1 z well z lias1 has be5 alt]$ by granite 9 ! ea/]n ,pyr5ees4 ,:e!r su* granite be cretace\s or t]ti>y1 _c easily be decid$4 ,suppose b1 c1 d1 ,fig4 #fah1 to be ?ree memb]s ( ! ,cretace\s s]ies1 ! l[e/ ( :i*1 b1 has be5 alt]$ by ! granite ,a1 ! modify+ influ5ce n hav+ ext5d$ s f> z c1 or hav+ b slightly affect$ its l[e/ b$s4 ,n[ x c r>ely be possible = ! geologi/ to decide :e!r ! b$s d exi/$ at ! "t ( ! intrusion ( ,a1 & alt]ation ( b & c1 or :e!r !y 7 subsequ5tly ?r[n d[n ^u c4 ,b z "s ,cretace\s & ev5 ,t]ti>y rocks h be5 rais$ to ! height ( m ?an #ijjj feet 9 ! ,pyr5ees1 we mu/ n assume t plutonic =mations ( ! same p]iods may n h be5 br\ght up & expos$ by d5udation1 at ! height ( #bjjj or #cjjj feet on ! flanks ( t *a94 ,fig4 #fai3 ,junction ( granite ) ,jurassic or ,oolite /rata 9 ! ,alps1 ne> ,*ampoleon4 ,plutonic ,rocks ( ! ,oolite & ,lias4--,9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,hautes ,alpes1 9 ,france1 ,m4 lie de ,beaumont trac$ a black argillace\s lime/one1 *>g$ ) belemnites1 to )9 a few y>ds ( a mass ( granite4 ,"h ! lime/one beg9s to put on a granul> texture1 b is extremely f9e-gra9$4 ,:5 ne>] ! junction x becomes grey1 & has a sac*>oid /ructure4 ,9 ano!r locality1 ne> ,*ampoleon1 a granite compos$ ( qu>tz1 black mica1 & rose-col\r$ feldsp> is obs]v$ p>tly to ov]lie ! second>y rocks1 produc+ an alt]ation :i* ext5ds = ab\t #cj feet d[nw>d1 dim9i%+ 9 ! b$s :i* lie f>!/ f ! granite4 7,see ,fig4 #fai47 ,9 ! alt]$ mass ! argillace\s b$s are h>d5$1 ! lime/one is sac*>oid1 ! grits qu>tzose1 & 9 ! mid/ ( !m is a ?9 lay] ( an imp]fect granite4 ,x is also an important circum/ance t ne> ! po9t ( contact1 bo? ! granite & ! second>y rocks become metallif]\s1 & conta9 ne/s & small ve9s ( bl5de1 gal5a1 iron1 & copp] pyrites4 ,! /ratifi$ rocks become h>d] & m cry/all9e1 b ! granite1 on ! contr>y1 s(t] & less p]fectly cry/allis$ ne> ! junction4#f ,al?\gh ! granite is incumb5t 9 ! section 7,fig4 #fai71 we _c assume t x ov]fl[$ ! /rata1 = ! di/urbances ( ! rocks are s great 9 ?is "p ( ! ,alps t _! orig9al position is (t5 inv]t$4 ,at ,pr$azzo1 9 ! ,tyrol1 second>y /rata1 "s ( :i* are lime/ones ( ! ,oolitic p]iod1 h be5 trav]s$ & alt]$ by ,plutonic rocks1 "o portion ( :i* is an augitic porphyry1 :i* passes ins5sibly into granite4 ,! lime/one is *ang$ into granul> m>ble1 ) a b& ( s]p5t9e at ! junction4#g ,plutonic ,rocks ( ,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod4--,! granite ( ,d>tmoor1 9 ,devon%ire1 0 =m]ly suppos$ to be "o ( ! mo/ anci5t ( ! ,plutonic rocks1 b is n[ asc]ta9$ to be po/]ior 9 date to ! culm-measures ( t c\nty1 :i* f _! position1 &1 z conta9+ true coal-plants1 are n[ kn[n to be memb]s ( ! true ,c>bonif]\s s]ies4 ,?is granite1 l ! sy5itic granite ( ,*ri/iania1 has brok5 ?r\gh ! /ratifi$ =mations1 on ! nor?-we/ side ( ,d>tmoor1 ! successive memb]s ( ! culm-measures abutt+ aga9/ ! granite1 & becom+ metamorphic z !y approa*4 ,^! /rata are also p5etrat$ by granite ve9s1 & ,plutonic dikes1 call$ 8elvans40#h ,! granite ( ,cornwall is probably ( ! same date1 &1 !re=e1 z mod]n z ! ,c>bonif]\s /rata1 if n new]4 ,fig4 #fbj3 ,section ?r\gh ,silurian /rata & ,granite4 ,plutonic ,rocks ( ,silurian ,p]iod4--,x has long be5 kn[n t a v anci5t granite ne> ,*ri/iania1 9 ,norway1 is po/]ior 9 date to ! ,l[] ,silurian /rata ( t region1 al?\gh its exact position 9 ! ,palozoic s]ies _c be def9$4 ,von ,bu* fir/ ann\nc$1 9 #ahac1 t x 0 ( new] orig9 ?an c]ta9 lime/ones conta9+ or?oc]ata & trilobites4 ,! pro(s consi/ 9 ! p5etration ( granite ve9s into ! %ale & lime/one1 & ! alt]ation ( ! /rata1 = a consid]able di/ance f ! po9t ( contact1 bo? ( ^! ve9s & ! c5tral mass f :i* !y emanate4 7,see p4 #efb7 ,von ,bu* suppos$ t ! ,plutonic rock alt]nat$ ) ! fossilif]\s /rata1 & t l>ge masses ( granite 7 sometimes incumb5t ^u ! /rata2 b ?is idea 0 errone\s1 & arose f ! fact t ! b$s ( %ale & lime/one (t5 dip t[>ds ! granite up to ! po9t ( contact1 appe>+ z if !y w\ld pass "u x 9 mass1 z at a1 ,fig4 #fbj1 & !n aga9 on ! opposite side ( ! same m\nta91 z at b1 dip away f ! same granite4 ,:5 ! junctions1 h[ev]1 are c>efully exam9$1 x is f\nd t ! ,plutonic rock intrudes itself 9 ve9s1 & n[h]e cov]s ! fossilif]\s /rata 9 l>ge ov]ly+ masses1 z is s commonly ! case ) trappean =mations4#i ,n[ ?is granite1 :i* is m mod]n ?an ! ,silurian /rata ( ,norway1 also s5ds ve9s 9 ! same c\ntry into an anci5t =mation ( gneiss2 & ! relations ( ! ,plutonic rock & ! gneiss1 at _! junction1 are full ( int]e/ :5 we duly consid] ! wide diff]5ce ( epo* :i* mu/ h sep>at$ _! orig94 ,fig4 #fba3 ,granite s5d+ ve9s into ,silurian /rata & gneiss4 ,*ri/iania1 ,norway4 ,! l5g? ( ?is int]val ( "t is atte/$ by ! foll[+ facts3 ,! fossilif]\s1 or ,silurian1 b$s re/ uncon=mably ^u ! truncat$ edges ( ! gneiss1 ! incl9$ /rata ( :i* _h be5 d5ud$ be=e ! s$im5t>y b$s 7 sup]impos$ 7see ,figure #fba74 ,! signs ( d5udation are tw(old2 fir/1 ! surface ( ! gneiss is se5 occasionally1 on ! removal ( ! new] b$s conta9+ organic rema9s1 to be worn & smoo!d2 secondly1 pebbles ( gneiss h be5 f\nd 9 "s ( ^! ,silurian /rata4 ,betwe5 ! orig91 !re=e1 ( ! gneiss & ! granite !re int]v5$1 fir/1 ! p]iod :5 ! /rata ( gneiss 7 d5ud$2 secondly1 ! p]iod ( ! deposition ( ! ,silurian deposits ^u ! d5ud$ & incl9$ gneiss1 a4 ,yet ! granite produc$ aft] ?is long int]val is (t5 s intimately bl5d$ ) ! anci5t gneiss1 at ! po9t ( junction1 t x is impossible to draw any o!r ?an an arbitr>y l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 !m2 & :]e ?is is n ! case1 tortu\s ve9s ( granite pass freely ?r\gh gneiss1 end+ sometimes 9 ?reads1 z if ! old] rock _h (f]$ no resi/ance to _! passage4 ,^! appe>ances may probably be due to hydro!rmal action 7see p4 #ehd74 ,i %all m]ely obs]ve 9 ?is place t _h su* junctions alone be5 visible1 & _h we n le>nt1 f o!r sections1 h[ long a p]iod elaps$ betwe5 ! consolidation ( ! gneiss & ! injection ( ?is granite1 we might h suspect$ t ! gneiss 0 sc>cely solidifi$1 or _h n yet assum$ its complete metamorphic "* :5 invad$ by ! ,plutonic rock4 ,f ?is example we may le>n h[ impossible x is to conjecture :e!r c]ta9 granites 9 ,scotl&1 & o!r c\ntries1 :i* s5d ve9s into gneiss & o!r metamorphic rocks1 are prim>y1 or :e!r !y may n belong to "s second>y or t]ti>y p]iod4 ,olde/ ,granites4--,x is n half a c5tury s9ce ! doctr9e 0 v g5]al t all granitic rocks 7 primitive1 t is to say1 t !y orig9at$ be=e ! deposition ( ! fir/ s$im5t>y /rata1 & be=e ! creation ( organic be+s 7see p4 #cd74 ,b s greatly are our views n[ *ang$1 t we f9d x no easy task to po9t out a s+le mass ( granite demon/rably m anci5t ?an kn[n fossilif]\s deposits4 ,c\ld we discov] "s ,laur5tian /rata re/+ imm$iately on granite1 !re be+ no alt]ations at ! po9t ( contact1 nor any int]sect+ granitic ve9s1 we might !n affirm ! ,plutonic rock to h orig9at$ be=e ! olde/ kn[n fossilif]\s /rata4 ,/ill x w\ld be presumptu\s1 z we h already po9t$ out 7p4 #dfd71 to suppose t :5 a small "p only ( ! globe has be5 inve/igat$1 we are acqua9t$ ) ! olde/ fossilif]\s /rata 9 ! cru/ ( our planet4 ,ev5 :5 ^! are f\nd1 we _c assume t !re nev] 7 any antec$5t /rata conta9+ organic rema9s1 :i* may h become metamorphic4 ,if we f9d pebbles ( granite 9 a conglom]ate ( ! ,l[] ,laur5tian sy/em1 we may !n feel assur$ t ! p>5t granite 0 =m$ be=e ! ,laur5tian =mation4 ,b if ! incumb5t /rata be m]ely ,cambrian or ,silurian1 ! fundam5tal granite1 al?\gh ( high antiquity1 may be po/]ior 9 date to kn[n fossilif]\s =mations4 ,protrusion ( ,solid ,granite4--,9 "p ( ,su!rl&%ire1 ne> ,brora1 common granite1 compos$ ( feldsp>1 qu>tz1 & mica is 9 imm$iate contact ) ,oolitic /rata1 & has cle>ly be5 elevat$ to ! surface at a p]iod subsequ5t to ! deposition ( ^? /rata4#aj ,pr(essor ,s$gwick & ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison conceive t ?is granite has be5 upheav$ 9 a solid =m2 & t 9 break+ ?r\gh ! subm>9e deposits1 ) :i* x 0 n p]haps orig9ally 9 contact1 x has fractur$ !m s z to =m a breccia along ! l9e ( junction4 ,?is breccia consi/s ( fragm5ts ( %ale1 s&/one1 & lime/one1 ) fossils ( ! oolite1 all unit$ toge!r by a calc>e\s cem5t4 ,! second>y /rata at "s di/ance f ! granite are b slightly di/urb$1 b 9 proportion to _! proximity ! am\nt ( dislocation becomes great]4 ,mr4 ,t4 ,mc,kenney ,hughes has sugge/$ to me 9 explanation ( ^! ph5om5a t !y may be ! effect ( ! association ( m pliant /rata ) h>d unyield+ rocks1 ! :ole ( :i* 7 subject$ simultane\sly to great movem5ts1 :e!r ( elevation or subsid5ce1 & ( lat]al pressure1 dur+ :i* ! m solid granite1 be+ incapable ( compression1 0 =c$ ?r\gh ! s(t] b$s ( %ale1 s&/one1 & lime/one4 ,he rem>ks t simil> breccias ) slick5sides are obs]v$ on a m9or scale :]e rocks ( diff]5t composition & rigidity are contort$ toge!r4 ,su* protrusion may h be5 br\ght ab\t by degrees by innum]able %ocks ( e>?quakes repeat$ aft] long int]vals ( "t along ! same tract ( c\ntry4 ,! op5+ ( new fissures 9 ! h>de/ rocks is a frequ5t accompanim5t ( su* convulsions1 & dur+ ! consequ5t vibrations1 breccias mu/ (t5 be caus$4 ,b ^! cata/rophes1 z we well "k1 d n imply t ! l& or sea ( ! di/urb$ region are r5d]$ un9habitable by liv+ be+s1 & by no means indicate a /ate ( ?+s diff]5t f t witness$ 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature4 #a ,silliman's ,j\rn41 ,no4 #fi1 p4 #abc4 #b ,see 8,pr9ciples10 ,index1 8,jorullo40 #c ,ibid41 8,volcanic ,eruptions40 #d 8,we/]n ,isl&s10 vol4 i1 p4 #ccj4 #e ,see map ( ,europe1 & explanation1 9 ,pr9ciples1 book i4 #f lie de ,beaumont sur les ,montagnes de l',oisans1 etc4 ,mm4 de la ,soc4 d',hi/4 ,nat4 de ,p>is1 tome v4 #g ,von ,bu*1 ,annales de ,*imie1 etc4 #h ,proce$4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ii1 p4 #efb2 & ,trans41 #bnd s]ies1 vol4 v1 p4 #fhf4 #i ,see ! ,ga ,norvegica & o!r works ( ,keilhau1 ) :om ,i exam9$ ?is c\ntry4 #aj ,mur*ison1 ,geol4 ,trans41 #bnd s]ies1 vol4 ii1 p4 #cjg4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxiii4 ,,metamorphic ,,rocks4 ,g5]al ,"* ( ,metamorphic ,rocks4 -- ,gneiss4 -- ,hornbl5de-s*i/4 -- ,s]p5t9e4 -- ,mica-s*i/4 -- ,clay-slate4 -- ,qu>tzite4 -- ,*lorite-s*i/4 -- ,metamorphic ,lime/one4 -- ,orig9 ( ! metamorphic ,/rata4 -- ,_! ,/ratification4 -- ,fossilif]\s ,/rata ne> intrusive ,masses ( ,granite conv]t$ into ,rocks id5tical ) diff]5t ,memb]s ( ! metamorphic ,s]ies4 -- ,argum5ts h5ce d]iv$ z to ! ,nature ( ,plutonic ,action4 -- ,hydro!rmal ,action1 or ! ,influ5ce ( ,/eam & ,gases 9 produc+ ,metamorphism4 -- ,objections to ! metamorphic ,!ory consid]$4 ,we h n[ consid]$ ?ree di/9ct classes ( rocks3 fir/1 ! aque\s1 or fossilif]\s2 secondly1 ! volcanic2 &1 ?irdly1 ! ,plutonic2 & x rema9s = u to exam9e ^? cry/all9e 7or hypog5e7 /rata to :i* ! "n ( metamorphic has be5 assign$4 ,! la/-m5tion$ t]m expresses1 z be=e expla9$1 a !oretical op9ion t su* /rata1 aft] hav+ be5 deposit$ f wat]1 acquir$1 by ! influ5ce ( heat & o!r causes1 a highly cry/all9e texture4 ,!y :o /ill "q ?is op9ion may call ! rocks "u consid]ation ! /ratifi$ hypog5e =mations or cry/all9e s*i/s4 ,^! rocks1 :5 9 _! *>act]i/ic or normal /ate1 are :olly devoid ( organic rema9s1 & conta9 no di/9ct fragm5ts ( o!r rocks1 :e!r r\nd$ or angul>4 ,!y sometimes break out 9 ! c5tral p>ts ( m\nta9 *a9s1 b 9 o!r cases ext5d ov] areas ( va/ dim5sions1 occupy+1 = example1 ne>ly ! :ole ( ,norway & ,sw$51 :]e1 z 9 ,brazil1 !y appe> alike 9 ! l[] & high] gr\nds4 ,h[ev] cry/all9e ^! rocks may become 9 c]ta9 regions1 !y nev]1 l granite or trap1 s5d ve9s into contigu\s =mations4 ,9 ,great ,brita91 ^? memb]s ( ! s]ies :i* approa* mo/ ne>ly to granite 9 _! composition1 z gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 & hornbl5de-s*i/1 are conf9$ to ! c\ntry nor? ( ! riv]s ,=? & ,clyde4 ,_m attempts h be5 made to trace a g5]al ord] ( succession or sup]position 9 ! memb]s ( ?is family2 clay-slate1 = example1 hav+ be5 (t5 suppos$ to hold inv>iably a high] geological position ?an mica-s*i/1 & mica-s*i/ to ov]lie gneiss4 ,b al?\gh su* an ord] may prevail ?r\gh\t limit$ di/ricts1 x is by no means univ]sal4 ,to ?is subject1 h[ev]1 ,i %all aga9 rev]t1 9 ,*apt] ,,xxxv1 :]e ! *ronological relations ( ! metamorphic rocks are po9t$ out4 ,pr9cipal ,metamorphic ,rocks4--,! foll[+ may be enum]at$ z ! pr9cipal memb]s ( ! metamorphic class3--gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 hornbl5de-s*i/1 clay-slate1 *lorite-s*i/1 hypog5e or metamorphic lime/one1 & c]ta9 k9ds ( qu>tz-rock or qu>tzite4 ,fig4 #fbb3 ,fragm5t ( gneiss2 section made at "r angles to ! planes ( foliation4 ,gneiss4--,! fir/ ( ^!1 gneiss1 may be call$ /ratifi$--or by ^? :o object to t t]m1 foliat$--granite1 be+ =m$ ( ! same mat]ials z granite1 namely1 feldsp>1 qu>tz1 & mica4 ,9 ! specim5 9 ,fig4 #fbb1 ! :ite lay]s consi/ almo/ exclusively ( granul> feldsp>1 ) "h & !re a speck ( mica & gra9 ( qu>tz4 ,! d>k lay]s are compos$ ( grey qu>tz & black mica1 ) occasionally a gra9 ( feldsp> int]mix$4 ,! rock splits mo/ easily 9 ! plane ( ^! d>k] lay]s1 & ! surface ?us expos$ is almo/ entirely cov]$ ) %9+ spangles ( mica4 ,! accompany+ qu>tz1 h[ev]1 greatly pr$om9ates 9 quantity1 b ! mo/ ready cleavage is det]m9$ by ! abundance ( mica 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! d>k lay]4 ,in/ead ( consi/+ ( ^! ?9 lam91 gneiss is sometimes simply divid$ into ?ick b$s1 9 :i* ! mica has only a slight degree ( p>allelism to ! planes ( /ratification4 ,h& specim5s may (t5 be obta9$ f su* gneiss :i* are undi/+ui%able f granite1 af=d+ an argum5t to :i* we %all allude 9 ! conclud+ "p ( ?is *apt]1 9 fav\r ( ^? :o reg>d all granite & sy5ite n z igne\s rocks1 b z aque\s =mations s alt]$ z to h lo/ all signs ( _! orig9al /ratifi$ arrangem5t4 ,gneiss 9 geology is commonly us$ to designate n m]ely /ratifi$ & foliat$ rocks hav+ ! same compon5t mat]ials z granite or sy5ite1 b also 9 a wid] s5se to embrace ! =mation ) :i* o!r memb]s ( ! metamorphic s]ies1 su* z hornbl5de-s*i/1 may alt]nate1 & :i* are !n consid]$ subord9ate to ! true gneiss4 ,! diff]5t v>ieties ( rock alli$ to gneiss1 into :i* feldsp> ent]s z an ess5tial +r$i5t1 w be und]/ood by ref]r+ to :at 0 said ( granite4 ,?us1 = example1 hornbl5de may be sup]add$ to mica1 qu>tz1 & feldsp>1 =m+ a hornbl5dic or sy5itic gneiss2 or talc may be sub/itut$ = mica1 con/itut+ talcose gneiss 7call$ /ratifi$ protog9e by ! ,fr5*71 a rock compos$ ( feldsp>1 qu>tz1 & talc1 9 di/9ct cry/als or gra9s4 ,eurite1 :i* has already be5 m5tion$ z a ,plutonic rock1 occurs also ) precisely ! same composition 9 b$s subord9ate to gneiss or mica-slate4 ,hornbl5de-s*i/ is usually black1 & compos$ pr9cipally ( hornbl5de1 ) a v>iable quantity ( feldsp>1 & sometimes gra9s ( qu>tz4 ,:5 ! hornbl5de & feldsp> are 9 ne>ly equal quantities1 & ! rock is n slaty1 x corresponds 9 "* ) ! gre5/ones ( ! trap family1 & has be5 call$ 8primitive gre5/one40 ,x may be t]m$ hornbl5de rock1 or amphibolite4 ,"s ( ^! hornbl5dic masses may really h be5 volcanic rocks1 :i* h s9ce assum$ a m cry/all9e or metamorphic texture4 ,s]p5t9e is a gre5i% rock1 a silicate ( magnesia1 9 :i* !re is sometimes f #cj to #dj p] c5t ( magnesia4 ,x ent]s l>gely into ! composition ( a trap dike cutt+ ?r\gh ,old ,r$ ,s&/one 9 ,=f>%ire1 & 9 t case is probably an alt]$ basaltic dike :i* _h conta9$ mu* oliv9e4 ,! !ory ( its hav+ be5 orig9ally a volcanic product subsequ5tly alt]$ by metamorphism may at fir/ sight seem inconsi/5t ) its occurr5ce 9 l>ge & regul>ly /ratifi$ masses 9 ! metamorphic s]ies 9 ,scotl&1 z 9 ,ab]de5%ire4 ,b x has be5 sugge/$ 9 explanation t su* s]p5t9e may h be5 orig9ally regul>ly-b$d$ trap tuff1 & volcanic breccia1 ) mu* oliv9e1 :i* w\ld /ill reta9 a /ratifi$ appe>ance aft] _! conv]sion into a metamorphic rock4 ,act9olite ,s*i/ is a slaty foliat$ rock1 compos$ *iefly ( act9olite1 an em]ald-gre5 m9]al1 alli$ to hornbl5de1 ) "s admixture ( g>net1 mica1 & qu>tz4 ,mica-s*i/ or ,micace\s ,s*i/ is1 next to gneiss1 "o ( ! mo/ abundant rocks ( ! metamorphic s]ies4 ,x is slaty1 ess5tially compos$ ( mica & qu>tz1 ! mica sometimes appe>+ to con/itute ! :ole mass4 ,b$s ( pure qu>tz also occur 9 ?is =mation4 ,9 "s di/ricts1 g>nets 9 regul> twelve-sid$ cry/als =m an integrant "p ( mica-s*i/4 ,?is rock passes by ins5sible gradations into clay-slate4 ,clay-slate--,argillace\s ,s*i/--,argillite4--,?is rock sometimes resembles an indurat$ clay or %ale4 ,x is = ! mo/ "p extremely fissile1 (t5 af=d+ good ro(+-slate4 ,occasionally x d]ives a %9+ & silky lu/re f ! m9ute p>ticles ( mica or talc :i* x conta9s4 ,x v>ies f gre5i% or blui%-grey to a lead col\r2 & x may be said ( ?is1 m ?an ( any o!r s*i/1 t x is common to ! metamorphic & fossilif]\s s]ies1 = "s clay-slates tak5 f ea* division w\ld n be di/+ui%able by m9]al *>act]s alone4 ,x is n uncommon to meet ) an argillace\s rock hav+ ! same composition1 )\t ! slaty cleavage1 :i* may be call$ argillite4 ,*lorite ,s*i/ is a gre5 slaty rock1 9 :i* *lorite is abundant 9 foliat$ plates1 usually bl5d$ ) m9ute gra9s ( qu>tz1 or sometimes ) feldsp> or mica2 (t5 associat$ )1 & graduat+ into1 gneiss & clay-slate4 ,qu>tzite1 or ,qu>tz ,rock1 is an aggregate ( gra9s ( qu>tz :i* are ei!r 9 m9ute cry/als1 or 9 _m cases slightly r\nd$1 occurr+ 9 regul> /rata1 associat$ ) gneiss or o!r metamorphic rocks4 ,compact qu>tz1 l t s frequ5tly f\nd 9 ve9s1 is also f\nd toge!r ) granul> qu>tzite4 ,bo? ( ^! alt]nate ) gneiss or mica-s*i/1 or pass into ^? rocks by ! addition ( mica1 or ( feldsp> & mica4 ,cry/all9e1 or ,metamorphic ,lime/one4--,?is hypog5e rock1 call$ by ! e>li] geologi/s prim>y lime/one1 is sometimes a :ite cry/all9e granul> m>ble1 :i* :5 9 ?ick b$s c be us$ 9 sculpture2 b m frequ5tly x occurs 9 ?9 b$s1 =m+ a foliat$ s*i/ mu* resembl+ 9 col\r & arrangem5t c]ta9 v>ieties ( gneiss & mica-s*i/4 ,:5 x alt]nates ) ^! rocks1 x (t5 conta9s "s cry/als ( mica1 & occasionally qu>tz1 feldsp>1 hornbl5de1 talc1 *lorite1 g>net1 & o!r m9]als4 ,x ent]s sp>+ly into ! /ructure ( ! hypog5e di/ricts ( ,norway1 ,sw$51 & ,scotl&1 b is l>gely develop$ 9 ! ,alps4 ,orig9 ( ! ,metamorphic ,/rata4--,hav+ said ?us mu* ( ! m9]al composition ( ! metamorphic rocks1 ,i may comb9e :at rema9s to be said ( _! /ructure & hi/ory ) an acc\nt ( ! op9ions ent]ta9$ ( _! probable orig94 ,at ! same "t1 x may be well to =ew>n ! read] t we are "h ent]+ ^u gr\nd ( controv]sy1 & soon rea* ! limits :]e positive induction ends1 & beyond :i* we c only indulge 9 speculations4 ,x 0 once a fav\rite doctr9e1 & is /ill ma9ta9$ by _m1 t ^! rocks owe _! cry/all9e texture1 _! want ( all signs ( a me*anical orig91 or ( fossil cont5ts1 to a peculi> & nasc5t condition ( ! planet at ! p]iod ( _! =mation4 ,! argum5ts 9 refutation ( ?is hypo!sis w be m fully consid]$ :5 ,i %[1 9 ,*apt] ,,xxxv1 to h[ _m diff]5t ages ! metamorphic =mations are ref]able1 & h[ gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 clay-slate1 & hypog5e lime/one 7t ( ,c>r>a1 = example7 h be5 =m$1 n only s9ce ! fir/ introduction ( organic be+s into ?is planet1 b ev5 long aft] _m di/9ct races ( plants & animals _h fl\ri%$ & pass$ away 9 succession4 ,! doctr9e respect+ ! cry/all9e /rata impli$ 9 ! "n metamorphic may prop]ly be treat$ ( 9 ?is place2 & we mu/ fir/ inquire :e!r ^! rocks are really entitl$ to be call$ /ratifi$ 9 ! /rict s5se ( hav+ be5 orig9ally deposit$ z s$im5t f wat]4 ,! g5]al adoption by geologi/s ( ! t]m /ratifi$1 z appli$ to ^! rocks1 suffici5tly atte/s _! division into b$s v analog\s1 at lea/ 9 =m1 to ord9>y fossilif]\s /rata4 ,?is resemblance is by no means conf9$ to ! exi/5ce 9 bo? occasionally ( a lam9at$ /ructure1 b ext5ds to e k9d ( arrangem5t :i* is compatible ) ! abs5ce ( fossils1 & ( s&1 pebbles1 ripple-m>k1 & o!r *>act]s :i* ! metamorphic !ory supposes to h be5 oblit]at$ by ,plutonic action4 ,?us1 = example1 we behold alike 9 ! cry/all9e & fossilif]\s =mations an alt]nation ( b$s v>y+ greatly 9 composition1 col\r1 & ?ickness4 ,we obs]ve1 = in/ance1 gneiss alt]nat+ ) lay]s ( black hornbl5de-s*i/ or ( gre5 *lorite-s*i/1 or ) granul> qu>tz or lime/one2 & ! int]*ange ( ^! diff]5t /rata may be repeat$ = an indef9ite numb] ( times4 ,9 ! l mann]1 mica-s*i/ alt]nates ) *lorite-s*i/1 & ) b$s ( pure qu>tz or ( granul> lime/one4 ,we h already se5 t1 ne> ! imm$iate contact ( granitic ve9s & volcanic dikes1 v extraord9>y alt]ations 9 rocks h tak5 place1 m especially 9 ! neighb\rhood ( granite4 ,x w be useful "h to add o!r illu/rations1 %[+ t a texture undi/+ui%able f t :i* *>act]ises ! m cry/all9e metamorphic =mations has actually be5 sup]9duc$ 9 /rata once fossilif]\s4 ,fossilif]\s ,/rata r5d]$ metamorphic by intrusive ,masses ( ,granite4--,9 ! s\!rn extremity ( ,norway !re is a l>ge di/rict1 on ! we/ side ( ! fiord ( ,*ri/iania1 :i* ,i visit$ 9 #ahcg ) ! late ,pr(essor ,keilhau1 9 :i* sy5itic granite protrudes 9 m\nta9 masses ?r\gh fossilif]\s /rata1 & usually s5ds ve9s into !m at ! po9t ( contact4 ,! /ratifi$ rocks1 replete ) %ells & zoophytes1 consi/ *iefly ( %ale1 lime/one1 & "s s&/one1 & all ^! are inv>iably alt]$ ne> ! granite = a di/ance ( f #ej to #djj y>ds4 ,! alum9\s %ales are h>d5$1 & h become fl9ty4 ,sometimes !y resemble jasp]4 ,ribbon$ jasp] is produc$ by ! h>d5+ ( alt]nate lay]s ( gre5 & *ocolate-col\r$ s*i/1 ea* /ripe fai?fully repres5t+ ! orig9al l9es ( /ratification4 ,ne>] ! granite ! s*i/ (t5 conta9s cry/als ( hornbl5de1 :i* are ev5 met ) 9 "s places = a di/ance ( sev]al hundr$ y>ds f ! junction2 & ?is black hornbl5de is s abundant t em95t geologi/s1 :5 pass+ ?r\gh ! c\ntry1 h conf\nd$ x ) ! anci5t hornbl5de-s*i/1 subord9ate to ! great gneiss =mation ( ,norway4 ,frequ5tly1 betwe5 ! granite & ! hornbl5de-slate above-m5tion$1 gra9s ( mica & cry/all9e feldsp> appe> 9 ! s*i/1 s t rocks resembl+ gneiss & mica-s*i/ are produc$4 ,fossils c r>ely be detect$ 9 ^! s*i/s1 & !y are m completely effac$ 9 proportion to ! m cry/all9e texture ( ! b$s1 & _! vic9ity to ! granite4 ,fig4 #fbc3 ,gr\nd-plan ( alt]$ slate & lime/one ne> granite4 ,*ri/iania4 ,! arr[s indicate ! dip1 & ! oblique l9es ! /rike ( ! b$s4 ,9 "s places ! silice\s matt] ( ! s*i/ becomes a granul> qu>tz2 & :5 hornbl5de & mica are add$1 ! alt]$ rock loses its /ratification1 & passes into a k9d ( granite4 ,! lime/one1 :i* at po9ts remote f ! granite is ( an e>?y texture & blue col\r1 & (t5 ab\nds 9 corals1 becomes a :ite granul> m>ble ne> ! granite1 sometimes silice\s1 ! granul> /ructure ext5d+ occasionally upw>d ( #djj y>ds f ! junction2 ! corals be+ = ! mo/ "p oblit]at$1 ?\gh sometimes pres]v$1 ev5 9 ! :ite m>ble4 ,bo? ! alt]$ lime/one & h>d5$ slate conta9 g>nets 9 _m places1 also ores ( iron1 lead1 & copp]1 ) "s silv]4 ,^! alt]ations occur equally :e!r ! granite invades ! /rata 9 a l9e p>allel to ! g5]al /rike ( ! fossilif]\s b$s1 or 9 a l9e at "r angles to _! /rike1 bo? ( :i* modes ( junction w be se5 by ! gr\nd-plan 9 ,fig4 #fbc4a ,! granite ( ,cornwall s5ds =? ve9s into a co>se argillace\s-s*i/1 prov9cially t]m$ killas4 ,?is killas is conv]t$ into hornbl5de-s*i/ ne> ! contact ) ! ve9s4 ,^! appe>ances are well se5 at ! junction ( ! granite & killas1 9 ,/4 ,mi*ael's ,m\nt1 a small isl& ne>ly #cjj feet high1 situat$ 9 ! bay1 at a di/ance ( ab\t ?ree miles f ,p5zance4 ,! granite ( ,d>tmoor1 9 ,devon%ire1 says ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e1 has intrud$ itself into ! ,c>bonif]\s slate & slaty s&/one1 twi/+ & contort+ ! /rata1 & s5d+ ve9s into !m4 ,h5ce "s ( ! slate rocks h become 8micace\s2 o!rs m indurat$1 & ) ! *>act]s ( mica-slate & gneiss2 :ile o!rs aga9 appe> conv]t$ into a h>d zon$ rock /rongly impregnat$ ) feldsp>40#b ,we le>n f ! inve/igation ( ,m4 ,dufr5oy t 9 ! ea/]n ,pyr5ees !re are m\nta9 masses ( granite po/]ior 9 date to ! =mations call$ lias & *alk ( t di/rict1 & t ^! fossilif]\s rocks are greatly alt]$ 9 texture1 & (t5 *>g$ ) iron-ore1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! granite4 ,?us 9 ! environs ( ,/4 ,m>t91 ne> ,/4 ,paul de ,f5\illet1 ! *alky lime/one becomes m cry/all9e & sac*>oid z x approa*es ! granite1 & loses all trace ( ! fossils :i* x previ\sly conta9$ 9 abundance4 ,at "s po9ts1 also1 x becomes dolomitic1 & fill$ ) small ve9s ( c>bonate ( iron1 & spots ( r$ iron-ore4 ,at ,rancie ! lias ne>e/ ! granite is n only fill$ ) iron-ore1 b *>g$ ) pyrites1 tremolite1 g>net1 & a new m9]al some:at alli$ to feldsp>1 call$1 f ! place 9 ! ,pyr5ees :]e x occurs1 8c\z]anite40 8,hornbl5de-s*i/10 says ,dr4 ,mac,culloch1 8may at fir/ h be5 m]e clay2 = clay or %ale is f\nd alt]$ by trap into ,lydian /one1 a sub/ance diff]+ f hornbl5de-s*i/ almo/ solely 9 compactness & uni=mity ( texture40#c 8,9 ,%etl&10 rem>ks ! same au?or1 8argillace\s-s*i/ 7or clay-slate71 :5 9 contact ) granite1 is sometimes conv]t$ into hornbl5de-s*i/1 ! s*i/ becom+ fir/ silice\s1 & ultimately1 at ! contact1 hornbl5de-s*i/40 ,9 l mann] gneiss & mica-s*i/ may be no?+ m ?an alt]$ micace\s & argillace\s s&/ones1 granul> qu>tz may h be5 d]iv$ f silice\s s&/one1 & compact qu>tz f ! same mat]ials4 ,clay-slate may be alt]$ %ale1 & granul> m>ble may h orig9at$ 9 ! =m ( ord9>y lime/one1 replete ) %ells & corals1 :i* h s9ce be5 oblit]at$2 &1 la/ly1 calc>e\s s&s & m>ls may h be5 *ang$ into impure cry/all9e lime/ones4 ,! an?racite & plumbago associat$ ) hypog5e rocks may h be5 coal2 = n only is coal conv]t$ into an?racite 9 ! vic9ity ( "s trap dikes1 b we h se5 t a l *ange has tak5 place g5]ally ev5 f> f ! contact ( igne\s rocks1 9 ! di/urb$ region ( ! ,appala*ians4 ,at ,worce/]1 9 ! ,/ate ( ,massa*usetts1 #de miles due we/ ( ,bo/on1 a b$ ( plumbago & impure an?racite occurs1 int]/ratifi$ ) mica-s*i/4 ,x is ab\t two feet 9 ?ickness1 & has be5 made use ( bo? z fuel1 & 9 ! manufacture ( lead p5cils4 ,at ! di/ance ( #cj miles f ! plumbago1 !re occurs1 on ! bord]s ( ,rhode ,isl&1 an impure an?racite 9 slates conta9+ impressions ( coal-plants ( ! g5]a ,pecopt]is1 ,neuropt]is1 ,calamites1 etc4 ,?is an?racite is int]m$iate 9 "* betwe5 t ( ,p5nsylvania & ! plumbago ( ,worce/]1 9 :i* la/ ! gase\s or volatile matt] 7hydrog51 oxyg51 & nitrog57 is to ! c>bon only 9 ! proportion ( ?ree p] c5t4 ,aft] trav]s+ ! c\ntry 9 v>i\s directions1 ,i came to ! conclusion t ! c>bonif]\s %ales or slates ) an?racite & plants1 :i* 9 ,rhode ,isl& (t5 pass into mica-s*i/s1 h at ,worce/] assum$ a p]fectly cry/all9e & metamorphic texture2 ! an?racite hav+ be5 ne>ly transmut$ into t /ate ( pure c>bon :i* is call$ plumbago or graphite4#d ,n[ ! alt]ations above describ$ z sup]9duc$ 9 rocks by volcanic dikes & granite ve9s prove inconte/ably t p[]s exi/ 9 nature capable ( trans=m+ fossilif]\s into cry/all9e /rata1 a v few simple elem5ts con/itut+ ! compon5t mat]ials common to bo? classes ( rocks4 ,^! elem5ts1 :i* are enum]at$ 9 ! table at p4 #dii1 may be made to =m new comb9ations by :at has be5 t]m$ ,plutonic action1 or ^? *emical *anges :i* are no d\bt connect$ ) ! passage ( heat1 unusually heat$ /eam & wat]s1 ?r\gh ! /rata4 ,hydro!rmal ,action1 or ! ,influ5ce ( ,/eam & ,gases 9 produc+ ,metamorphism4--,! exp]im5ts ( ,gregory ,watt1 9 fus+ rocks 9 ! laboratory1 & all[+ !m to consolidate by sl[ cool+1 prove di/9ctly t a rock ne$ n be p]fectly melt$ 9 ord] t a re-arrangem5t ( its compon5t p>ticles %\ld take place1 & a p>tial cry/allisation ensue4#e ,we may easily suppose1 !re=e1 t all traces ( %ells & o!r organic rema9s may be de/roy$1 & t new *emical comb9ations may arise1 )\t ! mass be+ s fus$ z t ! l9es ( /ratification %\ld be :olly oblit]at$4 ,we mu/ n1 h[ev]1 imag9e t heat alone1 su* z may be appli$ to a /one 9 ! op5 air1 c con/itute all t is compris$ 9 ,plutonic action4 ,we "k t volcanoes 9 eruption n only emit fluid lava1 b give (f /eam & o!r heat$ gases1 :i* ru% out 9 enorm\s volume1 = days1 weeks1 or ye>s cont9u\sly1 & are ev5 dis5gag$ f lava dur+ its consolidation4 ,we also "k t long aft] volcanoes h sp5t _! =ce1 hot spr+s cont9ue = ages to fl[ out at v>i\s po9ts 9 ! same area4 ,9 regions1 also1 subject to viol5t e>?quakes su* spr+s are frequ5tly obs]v$ issu+ f r5ts1 usually along l9es ( fault or displacem5t ( ! rocks4 ,^! !rmal wat]s are mo/ commonly *>g$ ) a v>iety ( m9]al +r$i5ts1 & !y reta9 a rem>kable uni=mity ( temp]ature f c5tury to c5tury4 ,a l uni=mity is also p]si/5t 9 ! nature ( ! e>?y1 metallic1 & gase\s sub/ances ) :i* !y are impregnat$4 ,x is well asc]ta9$ t spr+s1 :e!r hot or cold1 *>g$ ) c>bonic acid1 especially ) hydr(luoric acid1 :i* is (t5 pres5t 9 small quantities1 are p[]ful causes ( decomposition & *emical reaction 9 rocks ?r\gh :i* !y p]colate4 ,! *anges :i* ,daubre has %[n to h be5 produc$ by ! alkal9e wat]s ( ,plombires 9 ! ,vosges1 are m especially in/ructive4#f ,^! wat]s h a heat ( #afj ,f41 or an excess ( #aji above ! av]age temp]ature ( ord9>y spr+s 9 t di/rict4 ,!y 7 convey$ by ! ,romans to ba?s ?r\gh long conduits or aqu$ucts4 ,! f\ndations ( "s ( _! works consi/$ ( a b$ ( concrete made ( lime1 fragm5ts ( brick1 & s&/one4 ,?r\gh ?is & o!r masonry ! hot wat]s h be5 p]colat+ = c5turies1 & h giv5 rise to v>i\s zeolites--apophyllite & *abazite among o!rs2 also to calc>e\s sp>1 arragonite1 & fluor sp>1 toge!r ) silice\s m9]als1 su* z opal--all f\nd 9 ! int]-spaces ( ! bricks & mort>1 or con/itut+ "p ( _! re-arrang$ mat]ials4 ,! quantity ( heat br\ght into action 9 ?is in/ance 9 ! c\rse ( #bjjj ye>s has1 no d\bt1 be5 enorm\s1 b ! int5sity ( x develop$ at any "o mom5t has be5 always inconsid]able4 ,f ^! facts & f ! exp]im5ts & obs]vations ( ,sn>mont1 ,daubre1 ,delesse1 ,s*e]]1 ,sorby1 ,/]ry ,hunt1 & o!rs1 we are l$ to inf] t :5 9 ! b[els ( ! e>? !re are l>ge volumes ( matt] conta9+ wat] & v>i\s acids int5sely heat$ "u enorm\s pressure1 ^! subt]ranean fluid masses w gradually "p ) _! heat by ! escape ( /eam & v>i\s gases ?r\gh fissures1 produc+ hot spr+s2 or by ! passage ( ! same ?r\gh ! pores ( ! ov]ly+ & inject$ rocks4 ,ev5 ! mo/ compact rocks may be reg>d$1 be=e !y h be5 expos$ to ! air & dri$1 9 ! light ( sponges fill$ ) wat]4 ,accord+ to ! exp]im5ts ( ,h5ry1 wat]1 "u a hydro/atic pressure ( #if feet1 w absorb ?ree times z mu* c>bonic acid gas z x c "u ! ord9>y pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 ,!re are o!r gases1 z well z ! c>bonic acid1 :i* wat] absorbs1 & m rapidly 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( pressure4 ,al?\gh ! gase\s matt] fir/ absorb$ w\ld soon be cond5s$1 & "p ) its heat1 yet ! cont9ual arrival ( fre% supplies f bel[ might1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 cause ! temp]ature ( ! wat]1 & ) x t ( ! conta9+ rock1 to be mat]ially rais$2 ! wat] acts n only z a vehicle ( heat1 b also by its aff9ity = v>i\s silicates1 :i*1 :5 "s ( ! mat]ials ( ! invad$ rocks are decompos$1 =m qu>tz1 feldsp>1 mica1 & o!r m9]als4 ,z = qu>tz1 x c be produc$ "u ! influ5ce ( heat by wat] hold+ alkal9e silicates 9 solution1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,plombires spr+s4 ,! quantity ( wat] requir$1 accord+ to ,daubre1 to produce great trans=mations 9 ! m9]al /ructure ( rocks1 is v small4 ,z to ! heat requir$1 silicates may be produc$ 9 ! moi/ way at ab\t incipi5t r$ heat1 :]eas to =m ! same 9 ! dry way w\ld require a mu* high] temp]ature4 ,m4 ,f\rnet1 9 8 description ( ! metallif]\s gneiss ne> ,cl]mont1 9 ,auv]gne1 /ates t all ! m9ute fissures ( ! rock are q saturat$ ) free c>bonic acid gas2 :i* gas rises pl5tifully f ! soil !re & 9 _m p>ts ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry4 ,! v>i\s elem5ts ( ! gneiss1 ) ! exception ( ! qu>tz1 are all s(t5$2 & new comb9ations ( ! acid ) lime1 iron1 & manganese are cont9ually 9 progress4#g ,! p[] ( subt]ranean gases is well illu/rat$ by ! /ufas ( ,/4 ,calog]o 9 ! ,lip>i ,isl&s1 :]e ! horizontal /rata ( tuffs1 =m+ cliffs #bjj feet high1 h be5 discol\r$ 9 places by ! jets ( /eam (t5 above ! boil+ po9t1 call$ 8/ufas10 issu+ f ! fissures2 & simil> in/ances are record$ by ,m4 ,virlet ( corrosion ( rocks ne> ,cor9?1 & by ,dr4 ,daub5y ( decomposition ( tra*ytic rocks by sulphuret$ hydrog5 & muriatic acid gases 9 ! ,solfat>a1 ne> ,naples4 ,9 all ^! in/ances x is cle> t ! gase\s fluids mu/ h made _! way ?r\gh va/ ?icknesses ( por\s or fissur$ rocks1 & _! modify+ influ5ce may spread ?r\gh ! cru/ = ?\s&s ( y>ds 9 ?ickness4 ,x has be5 urg$ z an argum5t aga9/ ! metamorphic !ory1 t rocks h a small p[] ( conduct+ heat1 & x is true t :5 dry1 & 9 ! air1 !y diff] rem>kably f metals 9 ?is respect4 ,! sy5ite ( ,norway1 z we h se5 7p4 #eeh71 has sometimes alt]$ fossilif]\s /rata bo? 9 ! direction ( _! dip & /rike = a di/ance ( a qu>t] ( a mile1 b ! !ory ( gneiss & mica-s*i/ above propos$ requires u to imag9e t ! same influ5ce has ext5d$ ?r\gh /rata miles 9 ?ickness4 ,pr(essor ,bis*( has %[n :at *anges may be sup]9duc$1 on black m>ble & o!r rocks1 by ! /eam ( a hot spr+ hav+ a temp]ature ( no m ?an #acc to #afg ,fahr5heit1 & we are becom+ m & m acqua9t$ ) ! prom95t "p :i* wat] is play+ 9 di/ribut+ ! heat ( ! int]ior ?r\gh m\nta9 masses ( incumb5t /rata1 & ( introduc+ into !m v>i\s m9]al elem5ts 9 a fluid or gase\s /ate4 ,su* facts may induce u to consid] :e!r _m granites & o!r rocks ( t class may n sometimes repres5t m]ely ! extreme ( a simil> sl[ metamorphism4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! heat ( lava 9 a volcanic crat] :5 x is :ite & gl[+ l ! sun mu/ conv9ce u t ! temp]ature ( a column ( su* a fluid at ! dep? ( _m miles exce$s any heat :i* c ev] be witness$ at ! surface4 ,t l>ge portions ( ! ,plutonic rocks _h be5 =m$ "u ! influ5ce ( su* int5se heat is 9 p]fect accordance ) _! great volume1 uni=m composition1 & abs5ce ( /ratification4 ,! =c+ also ( ve9s into contigu\s /ratifi$ or s*i/ose rocks is a natural consequ5ce ( ! hydro/atic pressure to :i* columns ( molt5 matt] _m miles 9 height mu/ give rise4 ,objections to ! ,metamorphic ,!ory consid]$4--,x has be5 object$ to ! metamorphic !ory t ! cry/all9e s*i/s conta9 a consid]able proportion ( pota% & soda1 :il/ ! s$im5t>y /rata out ( :i* !y are suppos$ to h be5 =m$ are usually want+ 9 alkal9e matt]4 ,b ?is reason+ proce$s on mi/ak5 data1 = clay1 m>l1 %ale1 & slate (t5 conta9 a consid]able proportion ( alkali1 s mu* s z to make !m frequ5tly unfit to be burnt into bricks or pott]y1 & ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one 9 ,=f>%ire & o!r p>ts ( ,scotl&1 d]iv$ f dis9tegration ( granite1 conta9s mu* triturat$ feldsp> ri* 9 pota%4 ,9 ! common salt by :i* /rata are (t5 l>gely impregnat$1 z 9 ,patagonia1 mu* soda is pres5t1 & pota% ent]s l>gely into ! composition ( fossil sea-we$s1 & rec5t analysis has also %[n t ! c>bonif]\s /rata 9 ,engl&1 ! ,upp] & ,l[] ,silurian 9 ,ea/ ,canada1 & ! olde/ clay-slates 9 ,norway1 all conta9 z mu* alkali z is g5]ally pres5t 9 metamorphic rocks4 ,ano!r objection has be5 d]iv$ f ! alt]nation ( highly cry/all9e /rata ) o!rs less cry/all9e4 ,! heat1 x is said1 9 its asc5t f bel[1 mu/ h trav]s$ ! less alt]$ s*i/s be=e x rea*$ a high] & m cry/all9e b$4 ,9 answ] to ?is1 x may be obs]v$1 t if a numb] ( /rata diff]+ greatly 9 composition f ea* o!r be subject$ to equal quantities ( heat1 or hydro!rmal action1 !re is e probability t "s w be mu* m fusible or soluble ?an o!rs4 ,"s1 = example1 w conta9 soda1 pota%1 lime1 or "s o!r +r$i5t capable ( act+ z a flux or solv5t2 :ile o!rs may be de/itute ( ! same elem5ts1 & s refractory z to be v slightly affect$ by ! same causes4 ,nor %\ld x be =gott5 t1 z a g5]al rule1 ! less cry/all9e rocks d really occur 9 ! upp]1 & ! m cry/all9e 9 ! l[] "p ( ea* metamorphic s]ies4 #a ,keilhau1 ,ga ,norvegica1 pp4 #fa-fc4 #b ,geol4 ,manual1 p4 #dgi4 #c ,sy/4 ( ,geol41 vol4 i1 pp4 #baj1 #baa4 #d ,see ,lyell1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 i1 p4 #aii4 #e ,phil4 ,trans41 #ahjd4 #f ,daubre1 ,sur le ,mtamorphisme4 ,p>is1 #ahfj4 #g ,see ,pr9ciples1 ,index1 8,c>bonat$ ,spr+s10 etc4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxiv4 ,,metamorphic ,,rocks--cont9u$4 ,def9ition ( slaty ,cleavage & ,jo9ts4 -- ,suppos$ ,causes ( ^! ,/ructures4 -- ,cry/all9e ,!ory ( ,cleavage4 -- ,me*anical ,!ory ( ,cleavage4 -- ,cond5sation & ,elongation ( slate ,rocks by lat]al ,pressure4 -- ,lam9ation ( "s volcanic ,rocks due to ,motion4 -- ,:e!r ! ,foliation ( ! cry/all9e ,s*i/s be usually p>allel ) ! orig9al ,planes ( ,/ratification4 -- ,examples 9 ,norway & ,scotl&4 -- ,causes ( ,irregul>ity 9 ! ,planes ( ,foliation4 ,we h already se5 t *emical =ces ( great int5sity h frequ5tly act$ ^u s$im5t>y & fossilif]\s /rata long subsequ5tly to _! consolidation1 & we may next inquire :e!r ! compon5t m9]als ( ! alt]$ rocks usually arrange !mselves 9 planes p>allel to ! orig9al planes ( /ratification1 or :e!r1 aft] cry/allisation1 !y m commonly take up a diff]5t position4 ,9 ord] to e/imate fairly ! m]its ( ?is "q1 we mu/ fir/ def9e :at is meant by ! t]ms cleavage & foliation4 ,!re are f\r di/9ct =ms ( /ructure exhibit$ 9 rocks1 namely1 /ratification1 jo9ts1 slaty cleavage1 & foliation2 & all ^! mu/ h diff]5t names1 ev5 ?\gh !re be cases :]e x is impossible1 aft] c>efully /udy+ ! appe>ances1 to decide ^u ! class to :i* !y belong4 ,slaty ,cleavage4--,pr(essor ,s$gwick1 ^: essay 8,on ! ,/ructure ( l>ge ,m9]al ,masses0 fir/ cle>$ ! way t[>ds a bett] und]/&+ ( ?is difficult subject1 obs]ves1 t jo9ts are di/+ui%able f l9es ( slaty cleavage 9 ?is1 t ! rock int]v5+ betwe5 two jo9ts has no t5d5cy to cleave 9 a direction p>allel to ! planes ( ! jo9ts1 :]eas a rock is capable ( indef9ite subdivision 9 ! direction ( its slaty cleavage4 ,9 cases :]e ! /rata are curv$1 ! planes ( cleavage are /ill p]fectly p>allel4 ,?is has be5 obs]v$ 9 ! slate rocks ( "p ( ,wales 7see ,fig4 #fbd71 :i* consi/s ( a h>d gre5i% slate4 ,! true b$d+ is !re indicat$ by a numb] ( p>allel /ripes1 "s ( a light] & "s ( a d>k] col\r ?an ! g5]al mass4 ,su* /ripes are f\nd to be p>allel to ! true planes ( /ratification1 :]ev] ^! are manife/$ by ripple-m>k or by b$s conta9+ peculi> organic rema9s4 ,"s ( ! contort$ /rata are ( a co>se me*anical /ructure1 alt]nat+ ) f9e-gra9$ cry/all9e *loritic slates1 9 :i* case ! same slaty cleavage ext5ds ?r\gh ! co>s] & f9] b$s1 ?\gh x is br\ght out 9 great] p]fection 9 proportion z ! mat]ials ( ! rock are f9e & homog5e\s4 ,x is only :5 ^! are v co>se t ! cleavage planes entirely vani%4 ,9 ! ,wel% hills ^! planes are usually incl9$ at a v consid]able angle to ! planes ( ! /rata1 ! av]age angle be+ z mu* z f #cj to #dj4 ,sometimes ! cleavage planes dip t[>ds ! same po9t ( ! compass z ^? ( /ratification1 b (t5 to opposite po9ts4#a ,! cleavage1 z repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #fbd1 is g5]ally con/ant ov] ! :ole ( any area affect$ by "o great set ( di/urbances1 z if ! same lat]al pressure :i* caus$ ! crumpl+ up ( ! rock along p>allel1 anticl9al1 & syncl9al axes caus$ also ! cleavage4 ,fig4 #fbd3 ,p>allel planes ( cleavage int]sect+ curv$ /rata4 ,fig4 #fbe3 ,section 9 ,l[] ,silurian slates ( ,c>digan%ire1 %[+ ! cleavage planes b5t along ! junction ( ! b$s4 ,mr4 ,t4 ,mc,k4 ,hughes rem>ks1 t :]e a r\gh cleavage cuts flag-/ones at a consid]able angle to ! planes ( /ratification1 ! rock (t5 splits into l>ge slabs1 across :i* ! l9es ( b$d+ are frequ5tly se51 b :5 ! cleavage planes approa* )9 ab\t #ae ( /ratification1 ! rock is apt to split along ! l9es ( b$d+4 ,he has also call$ my att5tion to ! fact t subsequ5t movem5ts 9 a cleav$ rock sometimes drag & b5d ! cleavage planes along ! junction ( ! b$s 9 ! mann] indicat$ 9 ,fig4 #fbe4 ,jo9t$ ,/ructure4--,9 reg>d to jo9ts1 !y are natural fissures :i* (t5 trav]se rocks 9 /raight & well-det]m9$ l9es4 ,!y af=d to ! qu>ryman1 z ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison obs]ves1 :5 speak+ ( ! ph5om5on1 z exhibit$ 9 ,%rop%ire & ! neighb\r+ c\nties1 ! greate/ aid 9 ! extraction ( blocks ( /one2 &1 if a suffici5t numb] cross ea* o!r1 ! :ole mass ( rock is split into symmetrical blocks4 ,! faces ( ! jo9ts are = ! mo/ "p smoo!r & m regul> ?an ! surfaces ( true /rata4 ,! jo9ts are /raight-cut *9ks1 sometimes slightly op51 & (t5 pass+1 n only ?r\gh lay]s ( successive deposition1 b also ?r\gh balls ( lime/one or o!r matt] :i* h be5 =m$ by concretion>y action s9ce ! orig9al accumulation ( ! /rata4 ,su* jo9ts1 !re=e1 mu/ (t5 h result$ f "o ( ! la/ *anges sup]9duc$ ^u s$im5t>y deposits4#b ,fig4 #fbf3 ,/ratification1 jo9ts1 & cleavage4 ,9 ,fig4 #fbf ! flat-surfaces ( rock1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 repres5t expos$ faces ( jo9ts1 to :i* ! walls ( o!r jo9ts1 ,j ,j1 are p>allel4 ,s ,s are ! l9es ( /ratification2 ,d ,d are l9es ( slaty cleavage1 :i* int]sect ! rock at a consid]able angle to ! planes ( /ratification4 ,9 ! ,swiss & ,savoy ,alps1 z ,mr4 ,bakewell has rem>k$1 enorm\s masses ( lime/one are cut ?r\gh s regul>ly by ne>ly v]tical p>t+s1 & ^! jo9ts are (t5 s mu* m conspicu\s ?an ! seams ( /ratification1 t an inexp]i5c$ obs]v] w almo/ inevitably conf\nd !m1 & suppose ! /rata to be p]p5dicul> 9 places :]e 9 fact !y are almo/ horizontal4#c ,n[ su* jo9ts are suppos$ to be analog\s to ! p>t+s :i* sep>ate volcanic & ,plutonic rocks into cuboidal & prismatic masses4 ,on a small scale we see clay & />* :5 dry split into simil> %apes2 ?is is (t5 caus$ by simple contraction1 :e!r ! %r9k+ be due to ! evaporation ( wat]1 or to a *ange ( temp]ature4 ,x is well kn[n t _m s&/ones & o!r rocks exp& by ! application ( mod]ate degrees ( heat1 & !n contract aga9 on cool+2 & !re c be no d\bt t l>ge portions ( ! e>?'s cru/ h1 9 ! c\rse ( pa/ ages1 be5 subject$ aga9 & aga9 to v diff]5t degrees ( heat & cold4 ,^! alt]nations ( temp]ature h probably contribut$ l>gely to ! production ( jo9ts 9 rocks4 ,9 _m c\ntries :]e masses ( basalt re/ on s&/one1 ! aque\s rock has1 = ! di/ance ( sev]al feet f ! po9t ( junction1 assum$ a column> /ructure simil> to t ( ! trap4 ,9 l mann] "s he>?-/ones1 aft] exposure to ! heat ( a furnace )\t be+ melt$1 h become prismatic4 ,c]ta9 cry/als also acquire by ! application ( heat a new int]nal arrangem5t1 s z to break 9 a new direction1 _! ext]nal =m rema9+ unalt]$4 ,cry/all9e ,!ory ( ,cleavage4--,pr(essor ,s$gwick1 speak+ ( ! planes ( slaty cleavage1 :]e !y are decid$ly di/9ct f ^? ( s$im5t>y deposition1 decl>$1 9 ! essay be=e allud$ to1 8 op9ion t no retreat ( p>ts1 no contraction 9 ! dim5sions ( rocks 9 pass+ to a solid /ate1 c acc\nt = ! ph5om5on4 ,he accord+ly ref]r$ x to cry/all9e or pol> =ces act+ simultane\sly1 & some:at uni=mly1 9 giv5 directions1 on l>ge masses hav+ a homog5e\s composition4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 9 allusion to slaty cleavage1 has sugge/$ t 8if rocks h be5 s heat$ z to all[ a comm5cem5t ( cry/allisation--t is to say1 if !y h be5 heat$ to a po9t at :i* ! p>ticles c beg9 to move among !mselves1 or at lea/ on _! own axes1 "s g5]al law mu/ !n det]m9e ! position 9 :i* ^! p>ticles w re/ on cool+4 ,probably1 t position w h "s relation to ! direction 9 :i* ! heat escapes4 ,n[1 :5 all1 or a majority ( p>ticles ( ! same nature h a g5]al t5d5cy to "o position1 t mu/ ( c\rse det]m9e a cleavage-plane4 ,?us we see ! inf9itesimal cry/als ( fre%-precipitat$ sulphate ( b>ytes1 & "s o!r su* bodies1 arrange !mselves alike 9 ! fluid 9 :i* !y float2 s z1 :5 /irr$1 all to glance ) "o light1 & give ! appe>ance ( silky filam5ts4 ,"s sorts ( soap1 9 :i* insoluble m>g>ates#d exi/1 exhibit ! same ph5om5on :5 mix$ ) wat]2 & :at occurs 9 our exp]im5ts on a m9ute scale may occur 9 nature on a great "o40#e ,me*anical ,!ory ( ,cleavage4--,pr(essor ,phillips has rem>k$ t 9 "s slaty rocks ! =m ( ! outl9e ( fossil %ells & trilobites has be5 mu* *ang$ by di/ortion1 :i* has tak5 place 9 a longitud9al1 transv]se1 or oblique direction4 ,?is *ange1 he adds1 seems to be ! result ( a 8creep+ movem5t0 ( ! p>ticles ( ! rock along ! planes ( cleavage1 its direction be+ always uni=m ov] ! same tract ( c\ntry1 & its am\nt 9 space be+ sometimes measurable1 & be+ z mu* z a qu>t] or ev5 half an in*4 ,! h>d %ells are n affect$1 b only ^? :i* are ?94#f ,mr4 ,d4 ,%>pe1 foll[+ up ! same l9e ( inquiry1 came to ! conclusion t ! pres5t di/ort$ =ms ( ! %ells 9 c]ta9 ,briti% slate rocks may be acc\nt$ = by suppos+ t ! rocks 9 :i* !y are imb$d$ h und]gone compression 9 a direction p]p5dicul> to ! planes ( cleavage1 & a correspond+ expansion 9 ! direction ( ! dip ( ! cleavage4#g ,subsequ5tly 7#ahec7 ,mr4 ,sorby demon/rat$ ! great ext5t to :i* ?is me*anical !ory is applicable to ! slate rocks ( ,nor? ,wales & ,devon%ire1#h di/ricts :]e ! am\nt ( *ange 9 dim5sions c be te/$ & measur$ by comp>+ ! diff]5t effects ex]t$ by lat]al pressure on alt]nat+ b$s ( f9] & co>s] mat]ials4 ,?us1 = example1 9 ,fig4 #fbg x w be se5 t ! s&y b$ d f1 :i* has (f]$ great] resi/ance1 has be5 %>ply contort$1 :ile ! f9e-gra9$ /rata1 a1 b1 c1 h rema9$ comp>atively unb5t4 ,! po9ts d & f 9 ! /ratum d f mu/ h be5 orig9ally f\r times z f> ap>t z !y are n[4 ,!y h be5 =c$ s mu* ne>] to ea* o!r1 p>tly by b5d+1 & p>tly by becom+ elongat$ 9 ! direction ( :at may be call$ ! long] axes ( _! contortions1 & la/ly1 to a c]ta9 small am\nt1 by cond5sation4 ,! *ief result has obvi\sly be5 due to ! b5d+2 b1 9 pro( ( elongation1 x w be obs]v$ t ! ?ickness ( ! b$ d f is n[ ab\t f\r times great] 9 ^? p>ts ly+ 9 ! ma9 direction ( ! flexures ?an 9 a plane p]p5dicul> to !m2 & ! same b$ exhibits cleavage planes 9 ! direction ( ! greate/ movem5t1 al?\gh !y are mu* few] ?an 9 ! slaty /rata above & bel[4 ,fig4 #fbg3 ,v]tical section ( slate rock 9 ! cliffs ne> ,ilfracombe1 ,nor? ,devon4 ,above ! s&y b$ d f1 ! /ratum c is some:at di/urb$1 :ile ! next b$1 b1 is mu* less s1 & a n at all2 yet all ^! b$s1 c1 b1 & a1 mu/ h und]gone an equal am\nt ( pressure ) d1 ! po9ts a & g hav+ approximat$ z mu* t[>ds ea* o!r z h d & f4 ,! same ph5om5a are also repeat$ 9 ! b$s bel[ d1 & might h be5 %[n1 _h ! section be5 ext5d$ d[nw>d4 ,h5ce x appe>s t ! f9] b$s h be5 squeez$ into a f\r? ( ! space !y previ\sly occupi$1 p>tly by cond5sation1 or ! clos] pack+ ( _! ultimate p>ticles 7:i* has giv5 rise to ! great specific gravity ( su* slates71 & p>tly by elongation 9 ! l9e ( ! dip ( ! cleavage1 ( :i* ! g5]al direction is p]p5dicul> to t ( ! pressure4 8,^! & num]\s o!r cases 9 ,nor? ,devon are analog\s10 says ,mr4 ,sorby1 8to :at w\ld occur if a /rip ( pap] 7 includ$ 9 a mass ( "s s(t pla/ic mat]ial :i* w\ld readily *ange its dim5sions4 ,if ! :ole 7 !n compress$ 9 ! direction ( ! l5g? ( ! /rip ( pap]1 x w\ld be b5t & puck]$ up into contortions1 :ile ! pla/ic mat]ial w\ld readily *ange its dim5sions )\t und]go+ su* contortions2 & ! diff]5ce 9 di/ance ( ! ends ( ! pap]1 z measur$ 9 a direct l9e or along x1 w\ld indicate ! *ange 9 ! dim5sions ( ! pla/ic mat]ial40 ,by microscopic exam9ation ( m9ute cry/als1 & by o!r obs]vations1 ,mr4 ,sorby has come to ! conclusion t ! absolute cond5sation ( ! slate rocks am\nts ^u an av]age to ab\t "o half _! orig9al volume4 ,mo/ ( ! scales ( mica occurr+ 9 c]ta9 slates exam9$ by ,mr4 ,sorby lie 9 ! plane ( cleavage2 :]eas 9 a simil> rock n exhibit+ cleavage !y lie ) _! long] axes 9 all directions4 ,may n _! position 9 ! slates h be5 det]m9$ by ! movem5t ( elongation be=e allud$ to8 ,to illu/rate ?is !ory "s scales ( oxide ( iron 7 mix$ ) s(t pipe-clay 9 su* a mann] t !y incl9$ 9 all directions4 ,! dim5sions ( ! mass 7 !n *ang$ artificially to a simil> ext5t to :at has occurr$ 9 slate rocks1 & ! pipe-clay 0 !n dri$ & bak$4 ,:5 x 0 aft]w>ds rubb$ to a flat surface p]p5dicul> to ! pressure & 9 ! l9e ( elongation1 or 9 a plane correspond+ to t ( ! dip ( cleavage1 ! p>ticles 7 f\nd to h become arrang$ 9 ! same mann] z 9 natural slates1 & ! mass admitt$ ( easy fracture into ?9 flat pieces 9 ! plane allud$ to1 :]eas x w\ld n yield 9 t p]p5dicul> to ! cleavage4#i ,dr4 ,tyndall1 :5 comm5t+ 9 #ahef on ,mr4 ,sorby's exp]im5ts1 obs]v$ t pressure alone is suffici5t to produce cleavage1 & t ! int]v5tion ( plates ( mica or scales ( oxide ( iron1 or any o!r sub/ances hav+ flat surfaces1 is q unnecess>y4 ,9 pro( ( ?is he %[$ exp]im5tally t a mass ( 8pure :ite wax1 aft] hav+ be5 submitt$ to great pressure1 exhibit$ a cleavage m clean ?an t ( any slate-rock1 splitt+ into lam9 ( surpass+ t5uity40#aj ,he rem>ks t e mass ( clay or mud is divid$ & subdivid$ by surfaces among :i* ! cohesion is comp>atively small4 ,on be+ subject$ to pressure1 su* masses yield & spread out 9 ! direction ( lea/ resi/ance1 small nodules become conv]t$ into lam9 sep>at$ f ea* o!r by surfaces ( weak cohesion1 & ! result is t ! mass cleaves at "r angles to ! l9e 9 :i* ! pressure is ex]t$4 ,9 fur!r illu/ration ( ?is1 ,mr4 ,hughes rem>ks t 8concretions :i* 9 ! undi/urb$ b$s h _! long] axes p>allel to ! b$d+ are1 :]e ! rock is mu* cleav$1 frequ5tly f\nd flatt5$ lat]ally1 s z to h _! long] axes p>allel to ! cleavage planes1 & at a consid]able angle1 ev5 "r angles1 to _! =m] position40 ,mr4 ,d>w9 attributes ! lam9ation & fissile /ructure ( volcanic rocks ( ! tra*ytic s]ies1 includ+ "s obsidians 9 ,asc5sion1 ,mexico1 & else:]e1 to _! hav+ mov$ :5 liquid 9 ! direction ( ! lam94 ,! zones consi/ sometimes ( lay]s ( air-cells drawn out & l5g!n$ 9 ! suppos$ direction ( ! mov+ mass4#aa ,foliation ( ,cry/all9e ,s*i/s4--,aft] /udy+1 9 #ahce1 ! cry/all9e rocks ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,mr4 ,d>w9 propos$ ! t]m foliation = ! lam9 or plates into :i* gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 & o!r cry/all9e rocks are divid$4 ,cleavage1 he obs]ves1 may be appli$ to ^? divisional planes :i* r5d] a rock fissile1 al?\gh x may appe> to ! eye q or ne>ly homog5e\s4 ,foliation may be us$ = ^? alt]nat+ lay]s or plates ( diff]5t m9]alogical nature ( :i* gneiss & o!r metamorphic s*i/s are compos$4 ,t ! planes ( foliation ( ! cry/all9e s*i/s 9 ,norway accord v g5]ally ) ^? ( orig9al /ratification is a conclusion long s9ce esp\s$ by ,keilhau4#ab ,num]\s obs]vations made by ,mr4 ,david ,=bes 9 ! same c\ntry 7! be/ probably 9 ,europe = /udy+ su* ph5om5a on a gr& scale7 confirm ,keilhau's op9ion4 ,9 ,scotl&1 also1 ,mr4 ,d4 ,=bes has po9t$ out a /rik+ case :]e ! foliation is id5tical ) ! l9es ( /ratification 9 rocks well se5 ne> ,crianlori* on ! road to ,tyndrum1 ab\t eight miles f ,inv]>non1 9 ,p]?%ire4 ,!re is 9 t locality a blue lime/one foliat$ by ! int]calation ( small plates ( :ite mica1 s t ! rock is (t5 sc>cely di/+ui%able 9 aspect f gneiss or mica-s*i/4 ,! /ratification is %[n by ! l>ge b$s & col\r$ b&s ( lime/one all dipp+1 l ! folia1 at an angle ( #cb ,n4,e4#ac ,9 /ratifi$ =mations ( e age we see lay]s ( silice\s s& ) or )\t mica1 alt]nat+ ) clay1 ) fragm5ts ( %ells or corals1 or ) seams ( vegetable matt]1 & we %\ld expect ! mutual attraction ( l p>ticles to fav\r ! cry/allisation ( ! qu>tz1 or mica1 or feldsp>1 or c>bonate ( lime1 along ! planes ( orig9al deposition1 r ?an 9 planes plac$ at angles ( #bj or #dj degrees to ^? ( /ratification4 ,we h se5 h[ mu* ! orig9al planes ( /ratification may be int]f]$ ) or ev5 oblit]at$ by concretion>y action 9 deposits /ill reta9+ _! fossils1 z 9 ! case ( ! magnesian lime/one 7see p4 #fc74 ,h5ce we mu/ expect to be frequ5tly baffl$ :5 we attempt to decide :e!r ! foliation does or does n accord ) t arrangem5t :i* gravitation1 comb9$ ) curr5t-action1 imp>t$ to a deposit f wat]4 ,moreov]1 :5 we look = /ratification 9 cry/all9e rocks1 we mu/ be on our gu>d n to expect too mu* regul>ity4 ,! occurr5ce ( w$ge-%ap$ masses1 su* z belong to co>se s& & pebbles--diagonal lam9ation 7p4 #db7--ripple-m>k$1 uncon=mable /ratification1--! fanta/ic folds produc$ by lat]al pressure--faults ( v>i\s wid?--intrusive dikes ( trap--organic bodies ( div]sifi$ %apes1 & o!r causes ( unev5ness 9 ! planes ( deposition1 bo? on ! small & on ! l>ge scale1 w int]f]e ) p>allelism4 ,if complex & enigmatical appe>ances did n pres5t !mselves1 x w\ld be a s]i\s objection to ! metamorphic !ory4 ,mr4 ,sorby has %[n t ! peculi> /ructure belong+ to ripple-m>k$ s&s1 or t :i* is g5]at$ :5 ripples are =m$ dur+ ! deposition ( ! mat]ials1 is di/9ctly recognisable 9 _m v>ieties ( mica-s*i/s 9 ,scotl&4#ad ,fig4 #fbh3 ,lam9ation ( clay-/one4 ,montagne de ,segu9at1 ne> ,gav>nie1 9 ! ,pyr5ees4 ,9 ,fig4 #fbh ,i h repres5t$ c>efully ! lam9ation ( a co>se argillace\s s*i/ :i* ,i exam9$ 9 #ahcj 9 ! ,pyr5ees4 ,9 "p x approa*es 9 "* to a gre5 & blue ro(+-slate1 :ile "p is extremely qu>tzose1 ! :ole mass pass+ d[nw>d into micace\s s*i/4 ,! v]tical section "h exhibit$ is ab\t ?ree feet 9 height1 & ! lay]s are sometimes s ?9 t fifty may be c\nt$ 9 ! ?ickness ( an in*4 ,"s ( !m consi/ ( pure qu>tz4 ,!re is a resemblance 9 su* cases to ! diagonal lam9ation :i* we see 9 s$im5t>y rocks1 ev5 ?\gh ! lay]s ( qu>tz & ( mica1 or ( feldsp> & o!r m9]als1 may be m di/9ct 9 alt]nat+ folia ?an !y 7 orig9ally4 #a ,geol4 ,trans41 #bnd s]ies1 vol4 iii1 p4 #dfa4 #b ,silurian ,sy/em1 p4 #bdf4 #c ,introduction to ,geology1 *ap4 iv4 #d ,m>g>ic acid is an oleag9\s acid1 =m$ f diff]5t animal & vegetable fatty sub/ances4 ,a m>g>ate is a comp\nd ( ?is acid ) soda1 pota%1 or "s o!r base1 & is s nam$ f its pe>ly lu/re4 #e ,lett] to ! au?or1 dat$ ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 ,feb4 #bj1 #ahcf4 #f ,report1 ,brit4 ,assoc41 ,cork1 #ahdc1 ,sect4 p4 #fj4 #g ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 iii1 p4 #hg1 #ahdg4 #h ,on ! ,orig9 ( ,slaty ,cleavage1 by ,h4 ,c4 ,sorby1 ,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn41 #ahec1 vol4 lv1 p4 #acg4 #i ,sorby1 z cit$ above1 p4 #gda1 note4 #aj ,tyndall1 ,view ( ! ,cleavage ( ,cry/als & ,slate rocks4 #aa ,d>w91 ,volcanic ,isl&s1 pp4 #fi1 #gj4 #ab ,norske ,mag4 ,naturvidsk41 vol4 i1 p4 #ga4 #ac ,memoir read be=e ! ,geol4 ,soc4 ,london1 ,jan4 #ca1 #ahee4 #ad ,h4 ,c4 ,sorby1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xix41 p4 #dja4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxv4 ,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,ages ,,( ,,! ,,metamorphic ,,rocks4 ,difficulty ( asc]ta9+ ! ,age ( metamorphic ,/rata4 -- ,metamorphic ,/rata ( ,eoc5e date 9 ! ,alps ( ,switz]l& & ,savoy4 -- ,lime/one & ,%ale ( ,c>r>a4 -- ,metamorphic ,/rata ( old] date ?an ! ,silurian & ,cambrian ,rocks4 -- ,ord] ( ,succession 9 metamorphic ,rocks4 -- ,uni=mity ( m9]al ,"*4 -- ,suppos$ ,azoic ,p]iod4 -- ,connection betwe5 ! ,abs5ce ( ,organic ,rema9s & ! ,sc>city ( calc>e\s ,matt] 9 metamorphic ,rocks4 ,accord+ to ! !ory adopt$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 ! metamorphic /rata h be5 deposit$ at "o p]iod1 & h become cry/all9e at ano!r4 ,we c r>ely hope to def9e ) exactness ! date ( bo? ^! p]iods1 ! fossils hav+ be5 de/roy$ by ,plutonic action1 & ! m9]al *>act]s be+ ! same1 :atev] ! age4 ,sup]position itself is an ambigu\s te/1 especially :5 we desire to det]m9e ! p]iod ( cry/allisation4 ,suppose1 = example1 we are conv9c$ t c]ta9 metamorphic /rata 9 ! ,alps1 :i* are cov]$ by cretace\s b$s1 are alt]$ lias2 ?is lias may h assum$ its cry/all9e texture 9 ! cretace\s or 9 "s t]ti>y p]iod1 ! ,eoc5e = example4 ,:5 discuss+ ! ages ( ! ,plutonic rocks1 we h se5 t examples occur ( v>i\s prim>y1 second>y1 & t]ti>y deposits conv]t$ into metamorphic /rata ne> _! contact ) granite4 ,!re c be no d\bt 9 ^! cases t /rata once compos$ ( mud1 s&1 & gravel1 or ( clay1 m>l1 & %elly lime/one1 h = ! di/ance ( sev]al y>ds1 & 9 "s in/ances sev]al hundr$ feet1 be5 turn$ into gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 hornbl5de-s*i/1 *lorite-s*i/1 qu>tz rock1 /atu>y m>ble1 & ! re/4 7,see ! two prec$+ *apt]s47 ,x may be easy to prove ! id5tity ( two diff]5t p>ts ( ! same /ratum2 "o1 :]e ! rock has be5 9 contact ) a volcanic or ,plutonic mass1 & has be5 *ang$ into m>ble or hornbl5de-s*i/1 & ano!r n f> di/ant1 :]e ! same b$ rema9s unalt]$ & fossilif]\s2 b :5 hydro!rmal action1 z describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xxxiii1 has op]at$ gradually on a m ext5sive scale1 x may h f9ally de/roy$ all monum5ts ( ! date ( its developm5t ?r\gh\t a :ole m\nta9 *a91 & all ! lab\r & skill ( ! mo/ practis$ obs]v]s are requir$1 & may sometimes be at fault4 ,i %all m5tion "o or two examples ( alt]ation on a gr& scale1 9 ord] to expla9 to ! /ud5t ! k9d ( reason+ by :i* we are l$ to inf] t d5se masses ( fossilif]\s /rata h be5 conv]t$ into cry/all9e rocks4 ,eoc5e ,/rata r5d]$ metamorphic 9 ! ,alps4--,9 ! ea/]n "p ( ! ,alps1 "s ( ! ,palozoic /rata1 z well z ! old] ,mesozoic =mations1 includ+ ! oolitic & cretace\s rocks1 are di/9ctly recognisable4 ,t]ti>y deposits also appe> 9 a less elevat$ position on ! flanks ( ! ,ea/]n ,alps2 b 9 ! ,c5tral or ,swiss ,alps1 ! ,palozoic & old] ,mesozoic =mations disappe>1 & ! ,cretace\s1 ,oolitic1 ,liassic1 & at "s po9ts ev5 ! ,eoc5e /rata1 graduate ins5sibly into metamorphic rocks1 consi/+ ( granul> lime/one1 talc-s*i/1 talcose-gneiss1 micace\s s*i/1 & o!r v>ieties4 ,z an illu/ration ( ! p>tial conv]sion into gneiss ( portions ( a highly incl9$ set ( b$s1 ,i may cite ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison's memoir on ! /ructure ( ! ,alps4 ,slates prov9cially t]m$ 8flys*0 7see p4 #bgh71 ov]ly+ ! nummulite lime/one ( ,eoc5e date1 & compris+ "s ar5ace\s & "s calc>e\s lay]s1 are se5 to alt]nate sev]al times ) b&s ( granitoid rock1 answ]+ 9 "* to gneiss4 ,9 ?is case heat1 vap\r1 or wat] at a high temp]ature may h trav]s$ ! m p]meable b$s1 & alt]$ !m s f> z to admit ( an int]nal movem5t & re-arrangem5t ( ! molecules1 :ile ! adjo9+ /rata did n give passage to ! same heat$ gases or wat]1 or1 if s1 rema9$ un*ang$ because !y 7 compos$ ( less fusible or decomposable mat]ials4 ,:atev] hypo!sis we adopt1 ! ph5om5a e/abli% beyond a d\bt ! possibility ( ! developm5t ( ! metamorphic /ructure 9 a t]ti>y deposit 9 planes p>allel to ^? ( /ratification4 ,! /rata appe> cle>ly to h be5 affect$1 ?\gh 9 a less int5se degree1 by t same ,plutonic action :i* has entirely alt]$ & r5d]$ metamorphic s _m ( ! subjac5t =mations2 = 9 ! ,alps ?is action has by no means be5 conf9$ to ! imm$iate vic9ity ( granite4 ,granite1 inde$1 & o!r ,plutonic rocks1 r>ely make _! appe>ance at ! surface1 not)/&+ ! deep rav9es :i* lay op5 to view ! int]nal /ructure ( ^! m\nta9s4 ,t !y exi/ bel[ at no great dep? we _c d\bt1 = at "s po9ts1 z 9 ! ,valors9e1 ne> ,mont ,blanc1 granite & granitic ve9s are obs]vable1 pi]c+ ?r\gh talcose gneiss1 :i* passes ins5sibly upw>d into second>y /rata4 ,x is c]ta9ly 9 ! ,alps ( ,switz]l& & ,savoy1 m ?an 9 any o!r di/rict 9 ,europe1 t ! geologi/ is prep>$ to meet ) ! signs ( an int5se developm5t ( ,plutonic action2 = "h /rata ?\s&s ( feet ?ick h be5 b5t1 fold$1 & ov]turn$1 & m>9e second>y =mations ( a comp>atively mod]n date1 su* z ! ,oolitic & ,cretace\s1 h be5 upheav$ to ! height ( #ab1jjj1 & "s ,eoc5e /rata to elevations ( #aj1jjj feet above ! level ( ! sea2 & ev5 deposits ( ! ,mioc5e era h be5 rais$ #djjj or #ejjj feet1 s z to rival 9 height ! l(tie/ m\nta9s 9 ,great ,brita94 ,9 "o ( ! sections describ$ by ,m4 ,/ud] 9 ! highe/ ( ! ,b]nese ,alps1 namely 9 ! ,ro??al1 a valley bord]+ ! l9e ( p]petual sn[ on ! nor!rn side ( ! ,jungfrau1 !re occurs a mass ( gneiss #ajjj feet ?ick1 & #ae1jjj feet long1 :i* ,i exam9$1 n only re/+ ^u1 b also aga9 cov]$ by /rata conta9+ oolitic fossils4 ,^! anomal\s appe>ances may p>tly be expla9$ by suppos+ great solid w$ges ( intrusive gneiss to h be5 =c$ 9 lat]ally betwe5 /rata to :i* ,i f\nd !m to be 9 _m sections uncon=mable4 ,! sup]position1 also1 ( ! gneiss to ! oolite may1 9 "s cases1 be due to a rev]sal ( ! orig9al position ( ! b$s 9 a region :]e ! convulsions h be5 on s /up5d\s a scale4 ,nor!rn ,ap5n9es4--,c>r>a4--,! celebrat$ m>ble ( ,c>r>a1 us$ 9 sculpture1 0 once reg>d$ z a type ( primitive lime/one4 ,x ab\nds 9 ! m\nta9s ( ,massa ,c>r>a1 or ! 8,apuan ,alps10 z !y h be5 call$1 ! highe/ peaks ( :i* are ne>ly #fjjj feet high4 ,its great antiquity 0 inf]r$ f its m9]al texture1 f ! abs5ce ( fossils1 & its passage d[nw>d into talc-s*i/ & g>netif]\s mica-s*i/2 ^! rocks aga9 graduat+ d[nw>d into gneiss1 :i* is p5etrat$1 at ,=no1 by granite ve9s4 ,b ! rese>*es ( ,,mm4 ,savi1 ,b\1 ,p>eto1 ,guidoni1 ,de la ,be*e1 ,h(fman1 & ,pilla demon/rat$ t ?is m>ble1 once suppos$ to be =m$ be=e ! exi/5ce ( organic be+s1 is1 9 fact1 an alt]$ lime/one ( ! ,oolitic p]iod1 & ! und]ly+ cry/all9e s*i/s are second>y s&/ones & %ales1 modifi$ by ,plutonic action4 ,9 ord] to e/abli% ^! conclusions x 0 fir/ po9t$ out t ! calc>e\s rocks bord]+ ! ,gulf ( ,spezia1 & ab\nd+ 9 ,oolitic fossils1 assume a texture l t ( ,c>r>a m>ble1 9 proportion z !y are m & m invad$ by c]ta9 trappean & ,plutonic rocks1 su* z diorite1 s]p5t9e1 & granite1 occurr+ 9 ! same c\ntry4 ,x 0 !n obs]v$ t1 9 places :]e ! second>y =mations are unalt]$1 ! upp]mo/ consi/ ( common ,ap5n9e lime/one ) nodules ( fl9t1 bel[ :i* are %ales1 & at ! base ( all1 argillace\s & silice\s s&/ones4 ,9 ! lime/one fossils are frequ5t1 b v r>e 9 ! und]ly+ %ale & s&/one4 ,!n a gradation 0 trac$ lat]ally f ^! rocks into ano!r & correspond+ s]ies1 :i* is completely metamorphic2 = at ! top ( ?is we f9d a :ite granul> m>ble1 :olly devoid ( fossils1 & almo/ )\t /ratification1 9 :i* !re are no nodules ( fl9t1 b 9 its place silice\s matt] dissem9at$ ?r\gh ! mass 9 ! =m ( prisms ( qu>tz4 ,bel[ ?is1 & 9 place ( ! %ales1 are talc-s*i/s1 jasp]1 & horn/one2 & at ! bottom1 in/ead ( ! silice\s & argillace\s s&/ones1 are qu>tzite & gneiss4#a ,_h ^! second>y /rata ( ! ,ap5n9es und]gone univ]sally z great an am\nt ( transmutation1 x w\ld h be5 impossible to =m a conjecture respect+ _! true age2 & !n1 accord+ to ! me?od ( classification adopt$ by ! e>li] geologi/s1 !y w\ld h rank$ z prim>y rocks4 ,9 t case ! date ( _! orig9 w\ld h be5 ?r[n back to an era antec$5t to ! deposition ( ! ,l[] ,silurian or ,cambrian /rata1 al?\gh 9 reality !y 7 =m$ 9 ! ,oolitic p]iod1 & alt]$ at "s subsequ5t & p]haps mu* lat] epo*4 ,metamorphic ,/rata ( old] date ?an ! ,silurian & ,cambrian ,rocks4--,x 0 rem>k$ 7,fig4 #fag7 t z ! hypog5e rocks1 bo? /ratifi$ & un/ratifi$1 cry/allise orig9ally at a c]ta9 dep? b5ea? ! surface1 !y mu/ always1 be=e !y are uprais$ & expos$ at ! surface1 be ( consid]able antiquity1 relatively to a l>ge portion ( ! fossilif]\s & volcanic rocks4 ,!y may be =m+ at all p]iods2 b be=e any ( !m c become visible1 !y mu/ be rais$ above ! level ( ! sea1 & "s ( ! rocks :i* previ\sly conceal$ !m mu/ h be5 remov$ by d5udation4 ,9 ,canada1 z we h se5 7p4 #dia71 ! ,l[] ,laur5tian gneiss1 qu>tzite1 & lime/one may be reg>d$ z metamorphic1 because1 among o!r reasons1 organic rema9s 7,eozoon ,canad5se7 h be5 detect$ 9 a "p ( "o ( ! calc>e\s masses4 ,! ,upp] ,laur5tian or ,labrador s]ies lies uncon=mably ^u ! ,l[]1 & diff]s f x *iefly 9 hav+ z yet yield$ no fossils4 ,x consi/s ( gneiss ) ,labrador-feldsp> & feld/ones1 9 all #aj1jjj feet ?ick1 & bo? its composition & /ructure lead u to suppose t1 l ! ,l[] ,laur5tian1 x 0 orig9ally ( s$im5t>y orig9 & owes its cry/all9e condition to metamorphic action4 ,! remote date ( ! p]iod :5 "s ( ^! old ,laur5tian /rata ( ,canada 7 conv]t$ into gneiss may be inf]r$ f ! fact t pebbles ( t rock are f\nd 9 ! ov]ly+ ,huronian =mation1 :i* is probably ( ,cambrian age 7p4 #dij74 ,! olde/ /ratifi$ rock ( ,scotl& is ! hornbl5dic gneiss ( ,lewis1 9 ! ,hebrides1 & t ( ! nor?-we/ coa/ ( ,ross-%ire1 repres5t$ at ! base ( ! section giv5 at ,fig4 #hb4 ,x is ! same z t int]sect$ by num]\s granite ve9s :i* =ms ! cliffs ( ,cape ,wra?1 9 ,su!rl&%ire 7see ,fig4 #fac71 & is conjectur$ to be ( ,laur5tian age4 ,above x1 z %[n 9 ! section 7,fig4 #hb71 lie uncon=mable b$s ( a r$di% or purple s&/one & conglom]ate1 ne>ly horizontal1 & betwe5 #cjjj & #djjj feet ?ick4 ,9 ^! anci5t grits no fossils h be5 f\nd1 b !y are suppos$ to be ( ,cambrian date1 = ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison f\nd ,l[] ,silurian /rata re/+ uncon=mably ^u !m4 ,^! /rata consi/ ( qu>tzite ) annelid burr[s already allud$ to 7p4 #aab71 & lime/one 9 :i* ,mr4 ,*>les ,pea* 0 ! fir/ to f9d1 9 #ahed1 ?ree or f\r species ( ,or?oc]as1 also ! g5]a ,cyrtoc]as & ,lituites1 two species ( ,mur*isonia1 a ,pleurotom>ia1 a species ( ,maclurea1 "o ( ,euomphalus1 & an ,or?is4 ,sev]al ( ! species are believ$ by ,mr4 ,salt] to be id5tical ) ,l[] ,silurian fossils ( ,canada & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! discov]y ( ! true age ( ^! fossilif]\s rocks 0 "o ( ! mo/ important /eps made ( late ye>s 9 ! progress ( ,briti% ,geology1 = x l$ to ! unexpect$ conclusion t all ! ,scot* cry/all9e /rata to ! ea/w>d1 once call$ primitive1 :i* ov]lie ! lime/one & qu>tzite 9 "q1 are ref]able to "s "p ( ! ,silurian s]ies4 ,^! ,scot* metamorphic /rata are ( gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 & clay-slate ( va/ ?ickness1 & hav+ a /rike f nor?-ea/ to s\?-we/ almo/ at "r angles to t ( ! old] ,laur5tian gneiss be=e m5tion$4 ,! new] cry/all9e s]ies1 compris+ ! cry/all9e rocks ( ,ab]de5%ire1 ,p]?%ire1 & ,=f>%ire1 7 inf]r$ by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison to be alt]$ ,silurian /rata2 & 8 op9ion has be5 s9ce confirm$ by ! obs]vations ( ?ree able geologi/s1 ,messrs4 ,ramsay1 ,h>kness1 & ,geikie4 ,! newe/ ( ! s]ies is a clay-slate1 on :i*1 along ! s\!rn bord]s ( ! ,grampians1 ! ,l[] ,old ,r$1 conta9+ ,cephalaspis ,lyelli1 ,pt]ygotus ,anglicus1 & ,p>ka decipi5s1 re/s uncon=mably4 ,ord] ( ,succession 9 ,metamorphic ,rocks4--,!re is no univ]sal & inv>iable ord] ( sup]position 9 metamorphic rocks1 al?\gh a p>ticul> arrangem5t may prevail ?r\gh\t c\ntries ( great ext5t1 = ! same reason t x is traceable 9 ^? s$im5t>y =mations f :i* cry/all9e /rata are d]iv$4 ,?us1 = example1 we h se5 t 9 ! ,ap5n9es1 ne> ,c>r>a1 ! desc5d+ s]ies1 :]e x is metamorphic1 consi/s (1 fir/1 sac*>9e m>ble2 second1 talcose-s*i/2 & ?ird1 ( qu>tz-rock & gneiss3 :]e unalt]$1 (1 fir/1 fossilif]\s lime/one2 second1 %ale2 & ?ird1 s&/one4 ,b if we inve/igate diff]5t m\nta9 *a9s1 we f9d gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 hornbl5de-s*i/1 *lorite-s*i/1 hypog5e lime/one1 & o!r rocks1 succe$+ ea* o!r1 & alt]nat+ ) ea* o!r 9 e possible ord]4 ,x is1 inde$1 m common to meet ) "s v>iety ( clay-slate =m+ ! upp]mo/ memb] ( a metamorphic s]ies ?an any o!r rock2 b ?is fact by no means implies1 z "s h imag9$1 t all clay-slates 7 =m$ at ! close ( an imag9>y p]iod :5 ! deposition ( ! cry/all9e /rata gave way to t ( ord9>y s$im5t>y deposits4 ,su* clay-slates1 9 fact1 are v>iable 9 composition1 & sometimes alt]nate ) fossilif]\s /rata1 s t !y may be said to belong almo/ equally to ! s$im5t>y & metamorphic ord] ( rocks4 ,x is probable t1 _h !y be5 subject$ to m int5se ,plutonic action1 !y w\ld h be5 trans=m$ into hornbl5de-s*i/1 foliat$ *lorite-s*i/1 scaly talcose-s*i/1 mica-s*i/1 or o!r m p]fectly cry/all9e rocks1 su* z are usually associat$ ) gneiss4 ,uni=mity ( ,m9]al ,"* 9 ,hypog5e ,rocks4--,x is true1 z ,humboldt has happily rem>k$1 t :5 we pass to ano!r hemisph]e1 we see new =ms ( animals & plants1 & ev5 new con/ellations 9 ! heav5s2 b 9 ! rocks we /ill recognise our old acqua9tances--! same granite1 ! same gneiss1 ! same micace\s s*i/1 qu>tz-rock1 & ! re/4 ,!re is c]ta9ly a great & /rik+ g5]al resemblance 9 ! pr9cipal k9ds ( hypog5e rocks 9 all c\ntries1 h[ev] diff]5t _! ages2 b ea* ( !m1 z we h se51 mu/ be reg>d$ z geological families ( rocks1 & n z def9ite m9]al comp\nds4 ,!y are m uni=m 9 aspect ?an s$im5t>y /rata1 because ^! la/ are (t5 compos$ ( fragm5ts v>y+ greatly 9 =m1 size1 & col\r1 & conta9 fossils ( diff]5t %apes & m9]al composition1 & acquire a v>iety ( t9ts f ! mixture ( v>i\s k9ds ( s$im5t4 ,! mat]ials ( su* /rata1 if !y und]w5t metamorphism1 w\ld be subject to *emical laws1 simple & uni=m 9 _! action1 ! same 9 e climate1 & :olly undi/urb$ by me*anical & organic causes4 ,x w\ld1 h[ev]1 be a great error to assume1 z "s h done1 t ! hypog5e rocks1 consid]$ z aggregates ( simple m9]als1 are really m homog5e\s 9 _! composition ?an ! sev]al memb]s ( ! s$im5t>y s]ies4 ,n only d ! proportional quantities ( feldsp>1 qu>tz1 mica1 hornbl5de1 & o!r m9]als1 v>y 9 hypog5e rocks be>+ ! same "n2 b :at is /ill m important1 ! +r$i5ts1 z we h se51 ( ! same simple m9]al are n always con/ant 7see p4 #ejc & table1 p4 #dii74 ,suppos$ ,azoic ,p]iod4--,! total abs5ce ( any trace ( fossils has incl9$ _m geologi/s to attribute ! orig9 ( ! mo/ anci5t /rata to an azoic p]iod1 or "o antec$5t to ! exi/5ce ( organic be+s4 ,admitt+1 !y say1 ! oblit]ation1 9 "s cases1 ( fossils by ,plutonic action1 we might /ill expect t traces ( !m w\ld (t5] be f\nd 9 c]ta9 anci5t sy/ems ( slate :i* c sc>cely be said to h assum$ a cry/all9e /ructure4 ,b 9 urg+ ?is argum5t x seems to h be5 =gott5 t !re are /ratifi$ =mations ( enorm\s ?ickness1 & ( v>i\s ages1 "s ( !m ev5 ( ,t]ti>y date1 & :i* we "k 7 =m$ aft] ! e>? _h become ! abode ( liv+ creatures1 :i* are1 nev]!less1 9 "s di/ricts1 entirely de/itute ( all ve/iges ( organic bodies4 ,9 "s1 ! traces ( fossils may h be5 effac$ by wat] & acids1 at _m successive p]iods2 inde$ ! removal ( ! calc>e\s matt] ( fossil %ells is prov$ by ! fact ( su* organic rema9s be+ (t5 replac$ by silex or o!r m9]als1 & sometimes by ! space once occupi$ by ! fossil be+ left empty1 or only m>k$ by a fa9t impression4 ,^? :o believ$ ! hypog5e rocks to h orig9at$ antec$5tly to ! creation ( organic be+s1 imput$ ! abs5ce ( lime1 s rem>kable 9 metamorphic /rata1 to ! non-exi/5ce ( ^? mollusca & zoophytes by :i* %ells & corals are secret$2 b :5 we ascribe ! cry/all9e =mations to ,plutonic action1 x is natural to inquire :e!r ?is action itself may n t5d to expel c>bonic acid & lime f ! mat]ials :i* x r$uces to fusion or semi-fusion4 ,n only c>bonate ( lime1 b also free c>bonic acid gas1 is giv5 (f pl5tifully f ! soil & crevices ( rocks 9 regions ( active & sp5t volcanoes1 z ne> ,naples & 9 ,auv]gne4 ,by ?is process1 fossil %ells or corals may (t5 lose _! c>bonic acid1 & ! residual lime may ent] into ! composition ( augite1 hornbl5de1 g>net1 & o!r hypog5e m9]als4 ,al?\gh we _c desc5d into ! subt]ranean regions :]e volcanic heat is develop$1 we c obs]ve 9 regions ( ext9ct volcanoes1 su* z ,auv]gne & ,tuscany1 hundr$s ( spr+s1 bo? cold & !rmal1 fl[+ out f granite & o!r rocks1 & hav+ _! wat]s pl5tifully *>g$ ) c>bonate ( lime4 ,if all ! calc>e\s matt] transf]r$ 9 ! c\rse ( ages by ^! & ?\s&s ( o!r spr+s f ! l[] "p ( ! e>?'s cru/ to ! atmosph]e c\ld be pres5t$ to u 9 a solid =m1 we %\ld f9d t its volume 0 comp>able to t ( _m a *a9 ( hills4 ,calc>e\s matt] is p\r$ into lakes & ! ocean by a ?\s& spr+s & riv]s2 s t "p ( almo/ e new calc>e\s rock *emically precipitat$1 & ( _m reefs ( %elly & corall9e /one1 mu/ be d]iv$ f m9]al matt] subtract$ by ,plutonic ag5cy1 & driv5 up by gas & /eam f fus$ & heat$ rocks 9 ! b[els ( ! e>?4 ,! sc>city ( lime/one 9 _m ext5sive regions ( metamorphic rocks1 z 9 ! ,ea/]n & ,s\!rn ,grampians ( ,scotl&1 may h be5 ! result ( "s action ( ?is k9d2 & if ! lime/ones ( ! ,l[] ,laur5tian 9 ,canada af=d a rem>kable exception to ! g5]al rule1 we mu/ n =get t x is precisely 9 ?is mo/ anci5t =mation t ! ,eozoon ,canad5se has be5 f\nd4 ,! fact t "s di/9ct b&s ( lime/one f #gjj to #aejj feet ?ick occur "h1 may be connect$ ) ! escape f de/ruction ( "s few traces ( organic life1 ev5 9 a rock 9 :i* metamorphic action has gone s f> z to produce s]p5t9e1 augite1 & o!r m9]als f\nd l>gely int]mix$ ) ! c>bonate ( lime4 #a ,see notices ( ,savi1 ,h(fman1 & o!rs1 ref]r$ to by ,b\1 ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,gol4 de ,france1 tome v1 p4 #cag & tome iii1 p4 #dd2 also ,pilla1 cit$ by ,mur*ison1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 v1 p4 #bff4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxvi4 ,,m9]al ,,ve9s4 ,diff]5t ,k9ds ( m9]al ,ve9s4 -- ,ord9>y metallif]\s ,ve9s or ,lodes4 -- ,_! frequ5t ,co9cid5ce ) ,faults4 -- ,pro(s t !y orig9at$ 9 ,fissures 9 solid ,rock4 -- ,ve9s %ift+ o!r ,ve9s4 -- ,poli%+ ( _! ,walls or 8,slick5 sides40 ,%ells & ,pebbles 9 ,lodes4 -- ,evid5ce ( ! successive ,enl>gem5t & ,reop5+ ( ve9s4 -- ,examples 9 ,cornwall & 9 ,auv]gne4 -- ,dim5sions ( ,ve9s4 -- ,:y "s alt]nately swell out & contract4 -- ,fill+ ( ,lodes by ,sublimation f bel[4 -- ,suppos$ relative ,age ( ! preci\s ,metals4 -- ,copp] & lead ,ve9s 9 ,irel& old] ?an ,corni% ,t94 -- ,lead ,ve9 9 ,lias1 ,glamorgan%ire4 -- ,gold 9 ,russia1 ,cali=nia1 & ,au/ralia4 -- ,connection ( hot ,spr+s & m9]al ,ve9s4 ,! mann] 9 :i* metallic sub/ances are di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! e>?'s cru/1 & m especially ! ph5om5a ( ^? m or less connect$ masses ( ore call$ m9]al ve9s1 f :i* ! l>g] "p ( ! preci\s metals us$ by man are obta9$1 are subjects ( ! highe/ practical importance to ! m9]1 & ( no less !oretical int]e/ to ! geologi/4 ,on diff]5t ,k9ds ( ,m9]al ,ve9s4--,! m9]al ve9s ) :i* we are mo/ famili>ly acqua9t$ are ^? ( qu>tz & c>bonate ( lime1 :i* are (t5 obs]v$ to =m l5ticul> masses ( limit$ ext5t trav]s+ bo? hypog5e /rata & fossilif]\s rocks4 ,su* ve9s appe> to h once be5 *9ks or small cavities1 caus$1 l cracks 9 clay1 by ! %r9k+ ( ! mass1 dur+ desiccation1 or 9 pass+ f a high] to a l[] temp]ature4 ,silice\s1 calc>e\s1 & occasionally metallic matt]s h sometimes f\nd _! way simultane\sly into su* empty spaces1 by infiltration f ! surr\nd+ rocks4 ,mix$ ) hot wat] & /eam1 metallic ores may h p]meat$ ! mass until !y rea*$ ^? receptacles =m$ by %r9kage1 & ?us gave rise to t irregul> assemblage ( ve9s1 call$ by ! ,g]mans a 8/ockw]k10 9 allusion to ! diff]5t floors on :i* ! m9+ op]ations are 9 su* cases c>ri$ on4 ,! m ord9>y or regul> ve9s are usually work$ 9 v]tical %afts1 & h evid5tly be5 fissures produc$ by me*anical viol5ce4 ,!y trav]se all k9ds ( rocks1 bo? hypog5e & fossilif]\s1 & ext5d d[nw>d to indef9ite or unkn[n dep?s4 ,we may assume t !y correspond ) su* r5ts z we see caus$ f "t to "t by ! %ock ( an e>?quake4 ,metallif]\s ve9s ref]able to su* ag5cy are occasionally a few in*es wide1 b m commonly ?ree or f\r feet4 ,!y hold _! c\rse cont9u\sly 9 a c]ta9 prevail+ direction = miles or leagues1 pass+ ?r\gh rocks v>y+ 9 m9]al composition4 ,t ,metallif]\s ,ve9s 7 ,fissures4--,z "s intellig5t m9]s1 aft] an att5tive /udy ( metallif]\s ve9s1 h be5 unable to reconcile _m ( _! *>act]i/ics ) ! hypo!sis ( fissures1 ,i %all beg9 by /at+ ! evid5ce 9 its fav\r4 ,! mo/ /rik+ fact1 p]haps1 :i* c be adduc$ 9 its support is1 ! co9cid5ce ( a consid]able proportion ( m9]al ve9s ) faults1 or ^? dislocations ( rocks :i* are indisputably due to me*anical =ce1 z above expla9$ 7p4 #hg74 ,!re are ev5 pro(s 9 almo/ e m9+ di/rict ( a succession ( faults1 by :i* ! opposite walls ( r5ts1 n[ ! receptacles ( metallic sub/ances1 h suff]$ displacem5t4 ,?us1 = example1 suppose a a1 ,fig4 #fbi1 to be a t9 lode 9 ,cornwall1 ! t]m lode be+ appli$ to ve9s conta9+ metallic ores4 ,?is lode1 runn+ ea/ & we/1 is a y>d wide1 & is %ift$ by a copp] lode 7b b7 ( simil> wid?4 ,! fir/ fissure 7a a7 has be5 fill$ ) v>i\s mat]ials1 p>tly ( *emical orig91 su* z qu>tz1 fluor-sp>1 p]oxide ( t91 sulphuret ( copp]1 ars5ical pyrites1 bismu?1 & sulphuret ( nickel1 & p>tly ( me*anical orig91 compris+ clay & angul> fragm5ts or detritus ( ! int]sect$ rocks4 ,! plates ( qu>tz & ! ores are1 9 "s places1 p>allel to ! v]tical sides or walls ( ! ve91 be+ divid$ f ea* o!r by alt]nat+ lay]s ( clay or o!r e>?y matt]4 ,occasionally ! metallic ores are dissem9at$ 9 deta*$ masses among ! ve9-/ones4 ,x is cle> t1 aft] ! gradual introduction ( ! t9 & o!r sub/ances1 ! second r5t 7b b7 0 produc$ by ano!r fracture accompani$ by a displacem5t ( ! rocks along ! plane ( b b4 ,?is new op5+ 0 !n fill$ ) m9]als1 "s ( !m resembl+ ^? 9 a a1 z fluor-sp> 7or fluate ( lime7 & qu>tz2 o!rs diff]5t1 ! copp] be+ pl5tiful & ! t9 want+ or v sc>ce4 ,we mu/ next suppose a ?ird movem5t to occur1 break+ asund] all ! rocks along ! l9e c c1 ,fig4 #fcj2 ! fissure1 9 ?is in/ance1 be+ only six in*es wide1 & simply fill$ ) clay1 d]iv$1 probably1 f ! friction ( ! walls ( ! r5t1 or p>tly1 p]haps1 wa%$ 9 f above4 ,?is new movem5t has displac$ ! rock 9 su* a mann] z to int]rupt ! cont9uity ( ! copp] ve9 7b b71 &1 at ! same "t1 to %ift or heave lat]ally 9 ! same direction a portion ( ! t9 ve9 :i* _h n previ\sly be5 brok54 ,v]tical sections ( ! m9e at ,huel ,peev]1 ,r$ru?1 ,cornwall4 ,fig4 #fbi3 ,t92 ,fig4 #fcj3 ,copp]2 ,fig4 #fca3 ,clay4 ,aga91 9 ,fig4 #fca we see evid5ce ( a f\r? fissure 7d d71 also fill$ ) clay1 :i* has cut ?r\gh ! t9 ve9 7a a71 & has lift$ x slightly upw>d t[>ds ! s\?4 ,! v>i\s *anges "h repres5t$ are n ideal1 b are exhibit$ 9 a section obta9$ 9 work+ an old ,corni% m9e1 long s9ce ab&on$1 9 ! p>i% ( ,r$ru?1 call$ ,huel ,peev]1 & describ$ bo? by ,mr4 ,williams & ,mr4 ,c>ne4#a ,! pr9cipal movem5t "h ref]r$ to1 or t ( c c1 ,fig4 #fca1 ext5ds ?r\gh a space ( no less ?an #hd feet2 b 9 ?is1 z 9 ! case ( ! o!r ?ree1 x w be se5 t ! outl9e ( ! c\ntry above1 d1 c1 b1 a1 etc41 or ! geographical features ( ,cornwall1 are n affect$ by any ( ! dislocations1 a p[]ful d5ud+ =ce hav+ cle>ly be5 ex]t$ subsequ5tly to all ! faults4 7,see p4 #ic47 ,x is commonly said 9 ,cornwall1 t !re are eight di/9ct sy/ems ( ve9s1 :i* c 9 l mann] be ref]r$ to z _m successive movem5ts or fractures2 & ! ,g]man m9]s ( ! ,h>tz ,m\nta9s speak also ( eight sy/ems ( ve9s1 ref]able to z _m p]iods4 ,besides ! pro(s ( me*anical action already expla9$1 ! opposite walls ( ve9s are (t5 beautifully poli%$1 z if glaz$1 & are n unfrequ5tly /riat$ or scor$ ) p>allel furr[s & ridges1 su* z w\ld be produc$ by ! cont9u$ rubb+ toge!r ( surfaces ( unequal h>dness4 ,^! smoo!d surfaces resemble ! rocky floor ov] :i* a glaci] has pass$ 7see ,fig4 #ajf74 ,!y are common ev5 9 cases :]e !re has be5 no %ift1 & occur equally 9 non-metallif]\s fissures4 ,!y are call$ by m9]s 8slick5-sides10 f ! ,g]man s*li*t51 to plane1 & seite1 side4 ,x is suppos$ t ! l9es ( ! /ri indicate ! direction 9 :i* ! rocks 7 mov$4 ,9 "s ( ! ve9s 9 ! m\nta9 lime/one ( ,d]by%ire1 conta9+ lead1 ! ve9-/uff1 :i* is ne>ly compact1 is occasionally trav]s$ by :at may be call$ a v]tical crack pass+ d[n ! middle ( ! ve94 ,! two faces 9 contact are slick5-sides1 well poli%$ & flut$1 & sometimes cov]$ by a ?9 coat+ ( lead-ore4 ,:5 "o side ( ! ve9-/uff is remov$1 ! o!r side cracks1 especially if small holes be made 9 x1 & fragm5ts fly (f ) l\d explosions1 & cont9ue to d s = "s days4 ,! m9]1 avail+ himself ( ?is circum/ance1 makes ) 8 pick small holes ab\t six in*es ap>t1 & f\r in*es deep1 & on 8 return 9 a few h\rs f9ds e "p ready brok5 to 8 h&4#b ,t a great _m ve9s communicat$ orig9ally ) ! surface ( ! c\ntry above1 or ) ! b$ ( ! sea1 is prov$ by ! occurr5ce 9 !m ( well-r\nd$ pebbles1 agree+ ) ^? 9 sup]ficial alluviums1 z 9 ,auv]gne & ,saxony4 ,m>9e fossil %ells1 also1 h be5 f\nd at great dep?s1 hav+ probably be5 +ulf$ dur+ subm>9e e>?quakes4 ,?us1 a grypha is /at$ by ,m4 ,virlet to h be5 met ) 9 a lead-m9e ne> ,semur1 9 ,france1 & a madrepore 9 a compact ve9 ( c9nab> 9 ,hung>y4#c ,9 ,bohemia1 simil> pebbles h be5 met ) at ! dep? ( #ahj fa?oms2 & 9 ,cornwall1 ,mr4 ,c>ne m5tions true pebbles ( qu>tz & slate 9 a t9 lode ( ! ,reli/ran ,m9e1 at ! dep? ( #fjj feet bel[ ! surface4 ,!y 7 cem5t$ by oxide ( t9 & bisulphuret ( copp]1 & 7 trac$ ov] a space m ?an twelve feet long & z _m wide4#d ,:5 diff]5t sets or sy/ems ( ve9s occur 9 ! same c\ntry1 ^? :i* are suppos$ to be ( contemporane\s orig91 & :i* are fill$ ) ! same k9d ( metals1 (t5 ma9ta9 a g5]al p>allelism ( direction4 ,?us1 = example1 bo? ! t9 & copp] ve9s 9 ,cornwall run ne>ly ea/ & we/1 :ile ! lead ve9s run nor? & s\?2 b !re is no g5]al law ( direction common to diff]5t m9+ di/ricts4 ,! p>allelism ( ! ve9s is ano!r reason = reg>d+ !m z ord9>y fissures1 = we obs]ve t faults & trap dikes1 admitt$ by all to be masses ( melt$ matt] :i* h fill$ r5ts1 are (t5 p>allel4 ,fracture1 ,re-op5+ & ,successive ,=mation ( ,ve9s4--,assum+1 !n1 t ve9s are simply fissures 9 :i* *emical & me*anical deposits h accumulat$1 we may next consid] ! pro(s ( _! hav+ be5 fill$ gradually & (t5 dur+ successive enl>gem5ts4 ,w]n] obs]v$1 9 a ve9 ne> ,g]sdorff1 9 ,saxony1 no less ?an ?irte5 b$s ( diff]5t m9]als1 arrang$ ) ! utmo/ regul>ity on ea* side ( ! c5tral lay]4 ,?is lay] 0 =m$ ( two plates ( calc>e\s sp>1 :i* _h evid5tly l9$ ! opposite walls ( a v]tical cavity4 ,! ?irte5 b$s foll[$ ea* o!r 9 correspond+ ord]1 consi/+ ( fluor-sp>1 heavy sp>1 gal5a1 etc4 ,9 ^! cases ! c5tral mass has be5 la/ =m$1 & ! two plates :i* coat ! walls ( ! r5t on ea* side are ! olde/ ( all4 ,if !y consi/ ( cry/all9e precipitates1 !y may be expla9$ by suppos+ ! fissure to h rema9$ unalt]$ 9 its dim5sions1 :ile a s]ies ( *anges occurr$ 9 ! nature ( ! solutions :i* rose up f bel[3 b su* a mode ( deposition1 9 ! case ( _m successive & p>allel lay]s1 appe>s to be exceptional4 ,if a ve9-/one consi/ ( cry/all9e matt]1 ! po9ts ( ! cry/als are always turn$ inw>d1 or t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! ve92 9 o!r words1 !y po9t 9 ! direction :]e !re 0 space = ! developm5t ( ! cry/als4 ,?us ea* new lay] receives ! impression ( ! cry/als ( ! prec$+ lay]1 & impr9ts its cry/als on ! "o :i* foll[s1 until at l5g? ! :ole ( ! ve9 is fill$3 ! two lay]s :i* meet dovetail ! po9ts ( _! cry/als ! "o into ! o!r4 ,b 9 ,cornwall1 "s lodes occur :]e ! v]tical plates1 or combs1 z !y are !re call$1 exhibit cry/als s dovetail$ z to prove t ! same fissure has be5 (t5 enl>g$4 ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e gives ! foll[+ curi\s & in/ructive example 7,fig4 #fcb71 f a copp]-m9e 9 granite1 ne> ,r$ru?4#e ,ea* ( ! plates or combs 7a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 f7 is d\ble1 hav+ ! po9ts ( _! cry/als turn$ inw>d along ! axis ( ! comb4 ,! sides or walls 7#b1 #c1 #d1 #e & #f7 are p>t$ by a ?9 cov]+ ( o*re\s clay1 s t ea* comb is readily sep>able f ano!r by a mod]ate bl[ ( ! hamm]4 ,! bread? ( ea* repres5ts ! :ole wid? ( ! fissure at six successive p]iods1 & ! out] walls ( ! ve91 :]e ! fir/ n>r[ r5t 0 =m$1 consi/$ ( ! granitic surfaces #a & #g4 ,fig4 #fcb3 ,copp] lode1 ne> ,r$ru?1 enl>g$ at six successive p]iods4 ,a some:at analog\s int]pretation is applicable to _m o!r cases1 :]e clay1 s&1 or angul> detritus1 alt]nate ) ores & ve9-/ones4 ,?us1 we may imag9e ! sides ( a fissure to be incru/$ ) silice\s matt]1 z ,von ,bu* obs]v$1 9 ,lanc]ote1 ! walls ( a volcanic crat] =m$ 9 #agca to be trav]s$ by an op5 r5t 9 :i* hot vap\rs _h deposit$ hydrate ( silica1 ! incru/ation ne>ly ext5d+ to ! middle4#f ,su* a ve9 may !n be fill$ ) clay or s&1 & aft]w>ds re-op5$1 ! new r5t divid+ ! argillace\s deposit1 & all[+ a quantity ( rubbi% to fall d[n4 ,v>i\s metals & sp>s may !n be precipitat$ f aque\s solutions among ! int]/ices ( ?is het]og5e\s mass4 ,t su* *anges h repeat$ly occurr$1 is demon/rat$ by occasional cross-ve9s1 imply+ ! oblique fracture ( previ\sly =m$ *emical & me*anical deposits4 ,?us1 = example1 ,m4 ,f\rnet1 9 8 description ( "s m9es 9 ,auv]gne work$ "u 8 sup]9t5d5ce1 obs]ves t ! granite ( t c\ntry 0 fir/ p5etrat$ by ve9s ( granite1 & !n dislocat$1 s t op5 r5ts cross$ bo? ! granite & ! granitic ve9s4 ,into su* op5+s1 qu>tz1 accompani$ by sulphurets ( iron & ars5ical pyrites1 0 introduc$4 ,ano!r convulsion !n bur/ op5 ! rocks along ! old l9e ( fracture1 & ! fir/ set ( deposits 7 crack$ & (t5 %att]$1 s t ! new r5t 0 fill$1 n only ) angul> fragm5ts ( ! adjo9+ rocks1 b ) pieces ( ! old] ve9-/ones4 ,poli%$ & /riat$ surfaces on ! sides or 9 ! cont5ts ( ! ve9 also atte/ ! reality ( ^! movem5ts4 ,a new p]iod ( repose !n ensu$1 dur+ :i* v>i\s sulphurets 7 introduc$1 toge!r ) horn/one qu>tz1 by :i* angul> fragm5ts ( ! old] qu>tz be=e m5tion$ 7 cem5t$ into a breccia4 ,?is p]iod 0 foll[$ by o!r dilatations ( ! same ve9s1 & ! introduction ( o!r sets ( m9]al deposits1 z well z ( pebbles ( ! basaltic lavas ( ,auv]gne1 d]iv$ f sup]ficial alluviums1 probably ( ,mioc5e or ev5 ,old] ,plioc5e date4 ,su* repeat$ enl>gem5t & re-op5+ ( ve9s might h be5 anticipat$1 if we adopt ! !ory ( fissures1 & reflect h[ few ( !m h ev] be5 seal$ up entirely1 & t a c\ntry ) fissures only p>tially fill$ mu/ naturally (f] mu* feebl] resi/ance along ! old l9es ( fracture ?an any:]e else4 ,cause ( alt]nate ,contraction & ,swell+ ( ,ve9s4--,a l>ge proportion ( metallif]\s ve9s h _! opposite walls ne>ly p>allel1 & sometimes ov] a wide ext5t ( c\ntry4 ,!re is a f9e example ( ?is 9 ! celebrat$ ve9 ( ,&reasburg 9 ! ,h>tz1 :i* has be5 work$ = a dep? ( #ejj y>ds p]p5dicul>ly1 & #bjj horizontally1 reta9+ almo/ ev]y:]e a wid? ( ?ree feet4 ,b _m lodes 9 ,cornwall & else:]e are extremely v>iable 9 size1 be+ "o or two in*es 9 "o "p1 & !n eight or t5 feet 9 ano!r1 at ! di/ance ( a few fa?oms1 & !n aga9 n>r[+ z be=e4 ,su* alt]nate swell+ & contraction is s (t5 *>act]i/ic z to require explanation4 ,! walls ( fissures 9 g5]al1 obs]ves ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e1 are r>ely p]fect planes ?r\gh\t _! entire c\rse1 nor c\ld we well expect !m to be s1 s9ce !y commonly pass ?r\gh rocks ( unequal h>dness & diff]5t m9]al composition4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! opposite sides ( su* irregul> fissures slide ^u ea* o!r1 t is to say1 if !re be a fault1 z 9 ! case ( s _m m9]al ve9s1 ! p>allelism ( ! opposite walls is at once entirely de/roy$1 z w be readily se5 by /udy+ ,figs4 #fcc to #fce4 ,let a b1 ,fig4 #fcc1 be a l9e ( fracture trav]s+ a rock1 & let a b1 ,fig4 #fcd1 repres5t ! same l9e4 ,n[1 if we cut 9 two a piece ( pap] repres5t+ ?is l9e1 & !n move ! l[] portion ( ?is cut pap] sideways f a to a1 tak+ c>e t ! two pieces ( pap] /ill t\* ea* o!r at ! po9ts #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 we obta9 an irregul> ap]ture at c1 & isolat$ cavities at d1 d1 d1 & :5 we comp>e su* figures ) nature we f9d t1 ) c]ta9 modifications1 !y repres5t ! int]ior ( faults & m9]al ve9s4 ,if1 in/ead ( slid+ ! cut pap] to ! "r h&1 we move ! l[] "p t[>ds ! left1 ab\t ! same di/ance t x 0 previ\sly slid to ! "r1 we obta9 consid]able v>iation 9 ! cavities s produc$1 two long irregul> op5 spaces1 f1 f1 ,fig4 #fce1 be+ !n =m$4 ,?is w s]ve to %[ to :at slight circum/ances consid]able v>iations 9 ! "* ( ! op5+s betwe5 unev5ly fractur$ surfaces may be due1 su* surfaces be+ mov$ ^u ea* o!r1 s z to h num]\s po9ts ( contact4 ,figs4 #fcc1 #fcd1 #fce3 ,l9es ( fracture trav]s+ a rock4 ,fig4 #fcf3 ,nipp$ ores :]e ! c\rse ( a ve9 dep>ts f v]ticality4 ,mo/ lodes are p]p5dicul> to ! horizon1 or ne>ly s2 b "s ( !m h a consid]able incl9ation or 8hade10 z x is t]m$1 ! angles ( dip be+ v v>i\s4 ,! c\rse ( a ve9 is frequ5tly v /raight2 b if tortu\s1 x is f\nd to be *ok$ up ) clay1 /ones1 & pebbles1 at po9ts :]e x dep>ts mo/ widely f v]ticality4 ,h5ce at places1 su* z a1 ,fig4 #fcf1 ! m9] compla9s t ! ores are 8nipp$10 or greatly r$uc$ 9 quantity1 ! space = _! free deposition hav+ be5 int]f]$ ) 9 consequ5ce ( ! pre-occupancy ( ! lode by e>?y mat]ials4 ,:5 lodes are _m fa?oms wide1 !y are usually fill$ = ! mo/ "p ) e>?y matt]1 & fragm5ts ( rock1 ?r\gh :i* ! ores are dissem9at$4 ,! metallic sub/ances frequ5tly coat or encircle deta*$ pieces ( rock1 :i* our m9]s call 8horses0 or 8rid]s40 ,t we %\ld f9d "s m9]al ve9s :i* split into bran*es is also natural1 = we obs]ve ! same 9 reg>d to op5 fissures4 ,*emical ,deposits 9 ,ve9s4--,if we n[ turn f ! me*anical to ! *emical ag5cies :i* h be5 in/rum5tal 9 ! production ( m9]al ve9s1 x may be rem>k$ t ^? p>ts ( fissures :i* 7 *ok$ up ) ! ru9s ( fractur$ rocks mu/ always h be5 fill$ ) wat]2 & almo/ e ve9 has probably be5 ! *annel by :i* hot spr+s1 s common 9 c\ntries ( volcanoes & e>?quakes1 h made _! way to ! surface4 ,= we "k t ! r5ts 9 :i* ores ab\nd ext5d d[nw>d to va/ dep?s1 :]e ! temp]ature ( ! int]ior ( ! e>? is m elevat$4 ,we also "k t m9]al ve9s are mo/ metallif]\s ne> ! contact ( ,plutonic & /ratifi$ =mations1 especially :]e ! =m] s5d ve9s into ! latt]1 a circum/ance :i* indicates an orig9al proximity ( ve9s at _! inf]ior extremity to igne\s & heat$ rocks4 ,x is moreov] ackn[l$g$ t ev5 ^? m9]al & !rmal spr+s :i*1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ! globe1 are f> f volcanoes1 are nev]!less obs]v$ to bur/ out along great l9es ( upheaval & dislocation ( rocks4#g ,x is also asc]ta9$ t all ! sub/ances ) :i* hot spr+s are impregnat$ agree ) ^? dis*>g$ 9 a gase\s =m f volcanoes4 ,_m ( ^! bodies occur z ve9-/ones2 su* z silex1 c>bonate ( lime1 sulphur1 fluor-sp>1 sulphate ( b>ytes1 magnesia1 oxide ( iron1 & o!rs4 ,i may add t1 if ve9s h be5 fill$ ) gase\s emanations f masses ( melt$ matt]1 sl[ly cool+ 9 ! subt]ranean regions1 ! contraction ( su* masses z !y pass f a pla/ic to a solid /ate w\ld1 accord+ to ! exp]im5ts ( ,deville on granite 7a rock :i* may be tak5 z a /&>d71 produce a r$uction 9 volume am\nt+ to #aj p] c5t4 ,! sl[ cry/allisation1 !re=e1 ( su* ,plutonic rocks supplies u ) a =ce n only capable ( r5d+ op5 ! incumb5t rocks by caus+ a failure ( support1 b also ( giv+ rise to faults :5ev] "o portion ( ! e>?'s cru/ subsides sl[ly :ile ano!r contigu\s to x happ5s to re/ on a diff]5t f\ndation1 s z to rema9 unmov$4 ,al?\gh we are l$ to inf]1 f ! =ego+ reason+1 t !re has (t5 be5 an intimate connection betwe5 metallif]\s ve9s & hot spr+s hold+ m9]al matt] 9 solution1 yet we mu/ n on t acc\nt expect t ! cont5ts ( hot spr+s & m9]al ve9s w\ld be id5tical4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont has judici\sly obs]v$ t we ought to f9d 9 ve9s ^? sub/ances :i*1 be+ lea/ soluble1 are n dis*>g$ by hot spr+s--or t class ( simple & comp\nd bodies :i* ! !rmal wat]s asc5d+ f bel[ w\ld fir/ precipitate on ! walls ( a fissure1 z soon z _! temp]ature began slightly to dim9i%4 ,! high] !y m\nt t[>ds ! surface1 ! m w !y cool1 till !y acquire ! av]age temp]ature ( spr+s1 be+ 9 t case *iefly *>g$ ) ! mo/ soluble sub/ances1 su* z ! alkalies1 soda & pota%4 ,^! are n met ) 9 ve9s1 al?\gh !y ent] s l>gely into ! composition ( granitic rocks4#h ,to a c]ta9 ext5t1 !re=e1 ! arrangem5t & di/ribution ( metallic matt] 9 ve9s may be ref]r$ to ord9>y *emical action1 or to ^? v>iations 9 temp]ature :i* wat]s hold+ ! ores 9 solution mu/ und]go1 z !y rise upw>d f great dep?s 9 ! e>?4 ,b !re are o!r ph5om5a :i* d n admit ( ! same simple explanation4 ,?us1 = example1 9 ,d]by%ire1 ve9s conta9+ ores ( lead1 z9c1 & copp]1 b *iefly lead1 trav]se alt]nate b$s ( lime/one & gre5/one4 ,! ore is pl5tiful :]e ! walls ( ! r5t consi/ ( lime/one1 b is r$uc$ to a m]e /r+ :5 !y are =m$ ( gre5/one1 or 8toad-/one10 z x is call$ prov9cially4 ,n t ! orig9al fissure is n>r[] :]e ! gre5/one occurs1 b because m ( ! space is !re fill$ ) ve9-/ones1 & ! wat]s at su* po9ts h n p>t$ s freely ) _! metallic cont5ts4 8,lodes 9 ,cornwall10 says ,mr4 ,rob]t ,w4 ,fox1 8are v mu* influ5c$ 9 _! metallic ri*es by ! nature ( ! rock :i* !y trav]se1 & !y (t5 *ange 9 ?is respect v sudd5ly1 9 pass+ f "o rock to ano!r4 ,?us _m lodes :i* yield abundance ( ore 9 granite1 are unproductive 9 clay-slate1 or killas & vice v]sa4 ,suppos$ relative ,age ( ! diff]5t ,metals4--,aft] duly reflect+ on ! facts above describ$1 we _c d\bt t m9]al ve9s1 l eruptions ( granite or trap1 are ref]able to _m di/9ct p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 al?\gh x may be m difficult to det]m9e ! precise age ( ve9s2 because !y h (t5 rema9$ op5 = ages1 & because1 z we h se51 ! same fissure1 aft] hav+ be5 once fill$1 has frequ5tly be5 re-op5$ or enl>g$4 ,b besides ?is div]sity ( age1 x has be5 suppos$ by "s geologi/s t c]ta9 metals h be5 produc$ exclusively 9 e>li]1 o!rs 9 m mod]n times2 t t91 = example1 is ( high] antiquity ?an copp]1 copp] ?an lead or silv]1 & all ( !m m anci5t ?an gold4 ,i %all fir/ po9t out t ! facts once reli$ ^u 9 support ( "s ( ^! views are contradict$ by lat] exp]i5ce1 & !n consid] h[ f> any *ronological ord] ( arrangem5t c be recognis$ 9 ! position ( ! preci\s & o!r metals 9 ! e>?'s cru/4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is n true t ve9s 9 :i* t9 ab\nds are ! olde/ lodes work$ 9 ,great ,brita94 ,! gov]nm5t survey ( ,irel& has demon/rat$ t 9 ,wex=d ve9s ( copp] & lead 7! latt] z usual be+ arg5tif]\s7 are mu* old] ?an ! t9 ( ,cornwall4 ,9 ea* ( ! two c\ntries a v simil> s]ies ( geological *anges has occurr$ at two di/9ct epo*s--9 ,wex=d1 be=e ! ,devonian /rata 7 deposit$2 9 ,cornwall1 aft] ! ,c>bonif]\s epo*4 ,to beg9 ) ! ,iri% m9+ di/rict3 ,we h granite 9 ,wex=d trav]s$ by granite ve9s1 :i* ve9s also intrude !mselves into ! ,silurian /rata1 ! same ,silurian rocks z well z ! ve9s hav+ be5 d5ud$ be=e ! ,devonian b$s 7 sup]impos$4 ,next we f9d1 9 ! same c\nty1 t elvans1 or /raight dikes ( porphyritic granite1 h cut ?r\gh ! granite & ! ve9s be=e m5tion$1 b h n p5etrat$ ! ,devonian rocks4 ,subsequ5tly to ^! elvans1 ve9s ( copp] & lead 7 produc$1 be+ ( a date c]ta9ly po/]ior to ! ,silurian1 & ant]ior to ! ,devonian2 = !y d n ent] ! latt]1 &1 :at is /ill m decisive1 /reaks or lay]s ( d]ivative copp] h be5 f\nd ne> ,wex=d 9 ! ,devonian1 n f> f po9ts :]e m9es ( copp] are work$ 9 ! ,silurian /rata4 ,al?\gh ! precise age ( su* copp] lodes _c be def9$1 we may safely affirm t !y 7 ei!r fill$ at ! close ( ! ,silurian or comm5cem5t ( ! ,devonian p]iod4 ,besides copp]1 lead1 & silv]1 !re is "s gold 9 ^! anci5t or prim>y metallif]\s ve9s4 ,a few fragm5ts also ( t9 f\nd 9 ,wickl[ 9 ! drift are suppos$ to h be5 d]iv$ f ve9s ( ! same age4#i ,next1 if we turn to ,cornwall1 we f9d !re also ! monum5ts ( a v analog\s sequ5ce ( ev5ts4 ,fir/1 ! granite 0 =m$2 !n1 ab\t ! same p]iod1 ve9s ( f9e-gra9$ granite1 (t5 tortu\s 7see ,fig4 #fad71 p5etrat+ bo? ! out] cru/ ( granite & ! adjo9+ fossilif]\s or prim>y rocks1 includ+ ! coal-measures2 ?irdly1 elvans1 hold+ _! c\rse /raight ?r\gh granite1 granitic ve9s1 & fossilif]\s slates2 f\r?ly1 ve9s ( t9 also conta9+ copp]1 ! fir/ ( ^? eight sy/ems ( fissures ( diff]5t ages already allud$ to1 p4 #fjg4 ,"h1 !n1 ! t9 lodes are new] ?an ! elvans4 ,x has1 inde$1 be5 /at$ by "s ,corni% m9]s t ! elvans are 9 "s in/ances po/]ior to ! olde/ t9-be>+ lodes1 b ! obs]vations ( ,sir ,h4 de la ,be*e dur+ ! survey l$ him to an opposite conclusion1 & he has %[n h[ ! cases ref]r$ to 9 corroboration c be o!rwise int]pret$4#aj ,we may1 !re=e1 ass]t t ! mo/ anci5t ,corni% lodes are y\ng] ?an ! coal-measures ( t "p ( ,engl&1 & x foll[s t !y are ( a mu* lat] date ?an ! ,iri% copp] & lead ( ,wex=d & "s adjo9+ c\nties4 ,h[ mu* lat]1 x is n s easy to decl>e1 al?\gh probably !y are n new] ?an ! beg9n+ ( ! ,p]mian p]iod1 z no t9 lodes h be5 discov]$ 9 any r$ s&/one :i* ov]lies ! coal 9 ! s\?-we/ ( ,engl&4 ,!re are lead ve9s 9 ,glamorgan%ire :i* ent] ! lias1 & o!rs ne> ,frome1 9 ,som]set%ire1 :i* h be5 trac$ into ! ,inf]ior ,oolite4 ,9 ,bohemia1 ! ri* ve9s ( silv] ( ,joa*im/hal cut ?r\gh basalt conta9+ oliv9e1 :i* ov]lies t]ti>y lignite1 9 :i* are leaves ( dicotyl$on\s trees4 ,?is silv]1 !re=e1 is decid$ly a t]ti>y =mation4 ,9 reg>d to ! age ( ! gold ( ! ,ural m\nta9s1 9 ,russia1 :i*1 l t ( ,cali=nia1 is obta9$ *iefly f aurif]\s alluvium1 x occurs 9 ve9s ( qu>tz 9 ! s*i/ose & granitic rocks ( t *a91 & is suppos$ by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison1 ,,mm4 ,dev]neuil & ,keys]l+ to be new] ?an ! sy5itic granite ( ! ,ural--p]haps ( t]ti>y date4 ,!y obs]ve t no gold has yet be5 f\nd 9 ! ,p]mian conglom]ates :i* lie at ! base ( ! ,ural ,m\nta9s1 al?\gh l>ge quantities ( iron & copp] detritus are mix$ ) ! pebbles ( ^? ,p]mian /rata4 ,h5ce x seems t ! ,uralian qu>tz ve9s1 conta9+ gold & plat9um1 7 n =m$1 or c]ta9ly n expos$ to aque\s d5udation1 dur+ ! ,p]mian era4 ,9 ! aurif]\s alluvium ( ,russia1 ,cali=nia1 & ,au/ralia1 ! bones ( ext9ct l&-quadrup$s h be5 met )1 ^? ( ! mammo? be+ common 9 ! gravel at ! foot ( ! ,ural ,m\nta9s1 :ile 9 ,au/ralia !y consi/ ( huge m>supials1 "s ( !m ( ! size ( ! rh9oc]os & alli$ to ! liv+ wombat4 ,!y belong to ! g5]a ,diprotodon & ,noto!rium ( ,pr(essor ,ow54 ,! gold ( ,nor!rn ,*ili is associat$ 9 ! m9es ( ,los ,hornos ) copp] pyrites1 9 ve9s trav]s+ ! cretaceo-oolitic =mations1 s-call$ because its fossils h ! "* p>tly ( ! cretace\s & p>tly ( ! oolitic fauna ( ,europe4#aa ,! gold f\nd 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ! m\nta9\s p>ts ( ,virg9ia1 ,nor? & ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 & ,georgia1 occurs 9 metamorphic ,silurian /rata1 z well z 9 aurif]\s gravel d]iv$ f ! same4 ,gold has n[ be5 detect$ 9 almo/ e k9d ( rock1 9 slate1 qu>tzite1 s&/one1 lime/one1 granite1 & s]p5t9e1 bo? 9 ve9s & 9 ! rocks !mselves at %ort di/ances f ! ve9s4 ,9 ,au/ralia x has be5 work$ successfully n only 9 alluvium1 b 9 ve9-/ones 9 ! native rock1 g5]ally consi/+ ( ,silurian %ales & slates4 ,x has be5 trac$ on t cont95t ov] m ?an n9e degrees ( latitude 7betwe5 ! p>allels ( #cj & #ci ,s471 & ov] twelve ( longitude1 & yield$ 9 #ahec an annual supply equal1 if n sup]ior1 to t ( ,cali=nia2 nor is !re any app>5t prospect ( ?is supply dim9i%+1 /ill less ( ! exhau/ion ( ! gold-fields4 ,orig9 ( ,gold 9 ,cali=nia4--,mr4 ,j4 ,ar?ur ,phillips1#ab 9 8 treatise 8,on ! ,gold ,fields ( ,cali=nia10 has %[n t ! ore 9 ! gold work+s is d]iv$ f drifts1 or gravel clay1 & s&1 ( two di/9ct geological ages1 bo? comp>atively mod]n1 b belong+ to diff]5t riv]-sy/ems1 ! old] ( :i* is s anci5t z to be capp$ by a ?ick %eet ( lava divid$ by basaltic columns4 ,! aurif]\s qu>tz ( ^! drifts is d]iv$ f ve9s app>5tly due to hydro!rmal ag5cy1 proce$+ f granite & p5etrat+ /rata suppos$ to be ( ,jurassic & ,triassic date4 ,! fossil wood ( ! drift is sometimes beautifully silicifi$1 & occasionally ! trunks ( trees are replac$ by iron pyrites1 b gold seems n to h be5 f\nd z 9 ! pyrites ( simil>ly petrifi$ trees 9 ! drift ( ,au/ralia4 ,! =mation ( rec5t metallif]\s ve9s is n[ go+ on1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,phillips1 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! ,pacific coa/4 ,?us1 = example1 !re are fissures at ! foot ( ! ea/]n declivity ( ! ,si]ra ,nevada 9 ! /ate ( t "n1 f :i* boil+ wat] & /eam escape1 =m+ silice\s incru/ations on ! sides ( ! fissures4 ,9 "o case1 :]e ! fissure is p>tially fill$ up ) silica inclos+ iron & copp] pyrites1 gold has also be5 f\nd 9 ! ve9-/one4 ,x has be5 rem>k$ by ,m4 de ,beaumont1 t lead & "s o!r metals are f\nd 9 dikes ( basalt & gre5/one1 z well z 9 m9]al ve9s connect$ ) trap-rock1 :]eas t9 is met ) 9 granite & 9 ve9s associat$ ) ! ,plutonic s]ies4 ,if ?is rule hold true g5]ally1 ! geological position ( t9 accessible to ! m9] w belong1 = ! mo/ "p1 to rocks old] ?an ^? be>+ lead4 ,! t9 ve9s w be ( high] relative antiquity = ! same reason t ! 8und]ly+0 igne\s =mations or granites :i* are visible to man are old]1 on ! :ole1 ?an ! ov]ly+ or trappean =mations4 ,if diff]5t sets ( fissures1 orig9at+ simultane\sly at diff]5t levels 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 & communicat+1 "s ( !m ) volcanic1 o!rs ) heat$ ,plutonic masses1 be fill$ ) diff]5t metals1 x w foll[ t ^? =m$ f>!/ f ! surface w usually require ! longe/ "t be=e !y c be expos$ sup]ficially4 ,9 ord] to br+ !m into view1 or )9 rea* ( ! m9]1 a great] am\nt ( upheaval & d5udation mu/ take place 9 proportion z !y h la9 deep] :5 fir/ =m$ & fill$4 ,a consid]able s]ies ( geological revolutions mu/ int]v5e be=e any "p ( ! fissure :i* has be5 = ages 9 ! proximity ( ! ,plutonic rock1 s z to receive ! gases dis*>g$ f x :5 x 0 cool+1 c em]ge into ! atmosph]e4 ,b ,i ne$ n enl>ge on ?is subject1 z ! read] w rememb] :at 0 said 9 ! #cj?1 #cbnd1 & #ce? *apt]s on ! *ronology ( ! volcanic & hypog5e =mations4 #a ,geol4 ,trans41 vol4 iv1 p4 #aci2 ,trans4 ,royal ,geol4 ,society1 ,cornwall1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ij #b ,conybe>e & ,phil4 ,geol41 p4 #dja1 & ,f>ey's ,d]by%ire1 p4 #bdc4 #c ,f\rnet1 tudes sur les ,dpts ,mtallifres4 #d ,c>ne1 ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc41 ,cornwall1 vol4 iii1 p4 #bch4 #e ,geol4 ,rep4 on ,cornwall1 p4 #cdj4 #f ,pr9ciples1 *ap4 xxvii1 #h? edit41 p4 #dbb4 #g ,see ,dr4 ,daub5y's ,volcanoes4 #h ,bullet91 iv1 p4 #abgh4 #i ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e1 ,,ms4 ,notes on ,iri% ,survey4 #aj ,report on ,geology ( ,cornwall1 p4 #caj4 #aa ,d>w9's ,s\? ,am]ica1 p4 #bji1 etc4 #ab ,proc4 ,royal ,soc41 #ahfh1 p4 #bid4 ,,index4 ----33---- ,! ,fossils1 ! names ( :i* appe> 9 ,italics1 are figur$ 9 ! ,text4 ,,abbeville1 fl9t tools (1 #aeb ,ab]de5%ire1 granite (1 #eeh ,abi*1 ,m41 on tra*ytic rocks1 #ejd ,ac] trilobatum1 ,mioc5e1 #bbj1 #bba ,acrodus nobilis1 ,lias1 #cei ,acrog5s1 t]m expla9$1 #cjc ,acrolepis ,s$gwickii1 ,p]mian1 #cij ,acton acutus1 ,great ,oolite1 #cde ,act9ocyclas1 9 ,atlantic mud1 #bhh ,act9olite1 #dii1 #ejb ---- s*i/1 #egh *modus ,lea*ii1 ,lias1 #ceh ,adiantites ,hib]nica1 ,old ,r$1 #dda ,agassiz on fi% ( ,%eppey1 #bfg ---- on fi% ( ! ,br[n-,coal1 #edj ---- on fi% ( ,monte ,bolca1 #edd ---- on ,old ,r$ fossil fi%1 #ddc1 #ddg ---- on ,silurian fi%1 #dfj ,age ( metamorphic rocks1 #eig ---- ( ,plutonic rocks1 #efd ---- ( /rata1 te/s (1 #abc ---- ( volcanic rocks1 #ebj ,agglom]ate describ$1 #eji ,agno/us integ]4 ,a4 ,rex1 #dhh ,air-brea!rs ( ! ,coal1 #dac ,aix-la-,*apelle1 ,cretace\s flora (1 #cjb ,alaba/] def9$1 #ci ,alb]ti on ,keup]1 #cgf ,albite1 #dii1 #ejj ,aldeby & ,*illes=d b$s1 #aib ,alkali1 pres5t 9 ! ,palozoic /rata1 #ehg ,alp9e blocks on ! ,jura1 #afi ,alps1 age ( metamorphic rocks 91 #eii ----1 nummulitic lime/one & flys* (1 #gg ,alum s*i/s ( ,norway & ,sw$51 #dhi ,alluvial deposits1 ,rec5t & ,po/-plioc5e1 #aea ,alluvium1 t]m expla9$1 #ii ---- 9 ,auv]gne1 #ajj ,alt]nations ( m>9e & fre%-wat] /rata1 #gb ,alum ,bay b$s1 plants ( !1 #bfb ,amblyrhyn*us cri/atus1 a liv+ m>9e saurian1 #cfb ,am]ica4 ,see ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,canada1 ,nova ,scotia4 ----1 ,nor?1 ,glacial =mations (1 #ahb ----1 ,s\?1 gradual rise ( l& 91 #gb ----1 ,silurian /rata (1 #dgh ,am]ican "* ( ,l[] ,mioc5e flora1 #bch ---- =ms 9 ,swiss ,mioc5e flora1 #bbc ,ami5s1 fl9t tools (1 #aeb ,ammonites bifrons1 ,lias1 #cef ---- ,braik5ridgii1 ,oolite1 #cea ---- ,buckl&i1 ,lias1 #cef ---- ,de%ayesii1 ,neocomian1 #caa ---- ,humphresianus1 ,inf]ior ,oolite1 #cea ---- ,jason1 ,ox=d ,clay1 #cdj ---- ,noricus1 ,speeton1 #cab ---- macrocephalus1 ,oolite1 #ceb ---- m>g>itatus1 ,lias1 #ceg ---- planorbis1 ,lias1 #cef ---- rhotomag5sis1 ,*alk m>l1 #bih ,amphibole gr\p ( m9]als1 #dii1 #ejb ,amphi/eg9a ,hau]9a1 ,vi5na bas91 #bbe ,amphi!rium ,brod]ipii1 9 ,/onesfield1 #cdh ---- ,prevo/ii1 ,/onesfield slate1 #cdg ,ampull>ia glauca1 #ef ,amygdaloid1 #ejg ,analcime1 #ejj ,anamesite1 a v>iety ( basalt1 #ejd ,anan*ytes ovatus1 ,:ite *alk1 #bic ----1 ) crania atta*$1 #di ,ancill>ia subulata1 ,eoc5e1 #eg ,ancyloc]as gigas1 #cji ---- sp9ig]um1 ,gault1 #cja ---- ,duvallei1 ,neocomian1 #cab ,ancylus velletia 7,a4 elegans71 #ee ,&alusite1 #ejj ,&es1 ,plutonic rocks ( !1 #efi ,&reasburg1 metallif]\s ve9 (1 #faa ,angel91 on ,cambrian ( ,sw$51 #dhi ,angiosp]ms1 #cjc ---- ( ! ,coal1 #dbi ,anglesea1 dike cutt+ ?r\gh %ale 91 #ead ,anodonta ,cordi]ii1 #ed ---- ,jukesii1 ,upp] ,old ,r$1 #dda ---- latim>g9ata1 #ed ,anoplo!rium commune1 ,b9/ead1 #bed ---- gracile1 ,p>is bas91 #bga ,anor?ite1 #dii1 #eja ,annul>ia sph5ophylloides1 ,coal1 #dbe ,an?oli!s1 coal-measures1 #dbi ,an?racite1 conv]sion ( coal into1 #djh ,anticl9al & syncl9al curves1 #gd1 #he ,antrim1 ,*alk alt]$ by a dike 91 #eaf ----1 ,l[] ,mioc5e1 volcanic rocks (1 #eci ,antw]p ,crag1 #bjd ,apateon p$e/ris1 a c>bonif]\s reptile1 #djf ,apatite1 #ejj ,ap5n9es1 ,nor!rn1 metamorphic rocks (1 #eii ,apes1 fossil ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e1 #bae ,apiocr9ites rotundus1 ,brad=d1 #cdc ,appala*ians1 long l9es ( flexures 91 #ib1 #ic ----1 va/ ?ickness ( successive /rata 91 #aaj ,apty*us1 "p ( ammonite1 #ccf ,aque\s rocks def9$1 #bg1 #ce ,arauc>ia sphroc>pa1 ,inf]ior ,oolite1 #cdh ,arbroa?1 section ( ,old ,r$ at1 #gd ,ar*opt]yx macrura1 ,sol5h(51 #cch ,ar*egosaurus m9or & ,a4 m$ius1 coal measures1 #djf1 #djg ,ar*iac1 ,m4 de1 on nummulites1 #bgg ----1 on *alk ( ,france1 #cjf ,arctic ,mioc5e ,flora1 #bci ,area ( ! ,weald51 #cai ,areas1 p]man5ce ( cont95tal1 #aag ,ar5ace\s rocks describ$1 #ce ,ar5icolites l9e>is1 ,ar5ig b$s1 #dge ,ar5ig or ,/ip]-,/ones gr\p1 #dgd ----1 volcanic =mations (1 #edi ,argile pla/ique1 #bgf ,argillace\s rocks describ$1 #cf ,argillite1 ,argillace\s s*i/1 #egi ,argyll1 ,duke (1 on ,isle ( ,mull leaf-b$s1 #bdg ,armagh1 bone-b$s 9 ,m\nta9 ,lime/one at1 #dcg ,arran1 amygdaloid fill$ ) sp> ne>1 #eah ----1 erect trees 9 volcanic a% (1 #edf ----1 ,gre5/one dike 91 #ead ,ar?ur's seat1 trap rocks (1 #ede ,arvicola1 too? (1 #afe ,asaphus caudatus1 ,silurian1 #dfg ---- tyrannus1 ,a4 ,bu*ii1 #dgd ,asc5sion1 lam9ation ( volcanic rocks 91 #eie ,a%1 ,mr41 on fossils ( ,tremadoc b$s1 #dhc ,a%by-de-la-,z\*1 fault 9 coal field (1 #ia ,aspidura loricata1 ,mus*elkalk1 #cgi ,a/>te borealis 7,a4 arctica,a4 compressa71 #agf ---- ,omalii1 ,crag1 #aii ,a/]ophyllites foliosus1 ,coal1 #dbe ,a/rangia l9eata 7,an?ophyllum l9eatum71 #bbi ,a/ra basalti=me1 ,c>bonif]\s1 #dcb ,a/ropect5 crispatus1 ,london clay1 #bff ,a!rfield clay1 #cji ,atlantic mud1 composition (1 #bhg ,atrypa reticul>is1 ,ayme/ry1 #dfb ,aturia ziczac 7,nautilus ziczac71 #bff ,augite1 #dii1 #ejb ,auricula1 rec5t1 #ee ,au/51 ,mr4 ,godw91 on m>9e deposit ( ,selsea ,bill1 #ahb ----1 on b\ld]s 9 *alk1 #bib ,au/ralian cave breccias1 #aeh ,au/ralia1 aurif]\s gravel (1 #fag ,auv]gne1 alluvium 91 #ajj ----1 *a9 ( ext9ct volcanoes 91 #die ----1 granite ve9s 91 #faj ----1 ,l[] ,mioc5e (1 #bcc ----1 ,mioc5e volcanic rocks (1 #edj ----1 ,po/-plioc5e volcanic eruptions 91 #ebg ----1 spr+s f sp5t volcanoes 91 #fjd ,avel9e ,mr41 on ,t>annon %ales1 #dfh ,avicula contorta1 ,rhtic b$s1 #cff ---- cygnipes1 ,lias1 #cee ---- 9quivalvis1 ,lias1 #cee ---- socialis1 ,mus*elkalk1 #cgi ,aviculopect5 papyraceus1 coal measures1 #dje ---- sublobatus1 m\nta9 lime/one1 #dcd ,ayme/ry ,lime/one1 #dfa ,azoic p]iod1 suppos$1 #fjc ,azores1 ,mioc5e lavas ) %ells1 #eci ,,bacill>ia p>adoxa1 #ea ,baculites anceps1 ,l[] ,*alk1 #bih ---- ,fauiasii1 *alk1 #bhf ,baff9's ,bay1 =mation ( drift 91 #aga1 #agc ,bag%ot s&s1 #beh1 #bei1 #bfb ,bai1 ,bay (1 subt]ranean igne\s action 91 #efi ,bakewell1 ,mr41 on cleavage 9 ,swiss ,alps1 #eij ,bala & ,c>adoc b$s1 #dgj ,bali/id1 def5sive sp9e (1 #bfa ,bangor1 or ,longmynd gr\p1 #dhe ,banksia1 se$ & fruit (1 ,l[] ,mioc5e1 #bch ,b>m\? s&/ones1 #dhf ,b>nes1 ,mr4 ,j41 on insects 9 ,am]ican coal1 #daf ,b>n/aple1 ,upp] ,devonian (1 #dej ,b>r&e1 ,m4 ,joa*im1 8 8,primordial ,zone10 #dga1 #dhb1 #dhg ----1 on metamorphosis ( trilobites1 #dga ,b>rett1 ,mr41 on bird 9 ,blackd[n b$s1 #bii ,b>ton s]ies s&s & clays1 #beh ---- %ells1 p]c5tage (1 common to ,london clay1 #beh ,basalt1 column>1 #eaa ----1 composition (1 #ejd ,basaltic rocks1 poor 9 silica1 #ejd ----1 specific gravity ( m9]als 91 #ejd ,basilosaurus1 ,eoc5e1 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #bhj ,basset1 t]m expla9$1 #hc ,ba/]ot1 ,m4 de1 on ,bordeaux t]ti>y /rata1 #ada ,ba? ,oolite1 #cdb ,batra*ian reptiles 9 coal1 #djf ,bay ( ,fundy1 d5udation 9 coalfield 91 #dah ,bean1 ,mr41 on ,york%ire ,oolite1 #cej ,be> ,isl& c>bonif]\s flora1 #dda ,beaumont1 ,m4 ,e4 de1 on isl& 9 ,cretace\s sea1 #cje ----1 on m9]al ve9s1 #fac ----1 on ,jurassic plutonic rocks1 #ega ----1 on =mation ( granite1 #eec ,beckles1 ,mr4 ,s4 ,h41 on footpr9ts 9 ,ha/+s s&s1 #cae1 #ccj ---- on ,mammalia ( ,purbeck1 #cbf ,belemnitella mucronata1 ,*alk1 #bhc ,belemnites ha/atus1 ,ox=d clay1 #cdj ---- ,puzosianus1 ,ox=d clay1 #cda ,belgium1 ,l[] ,mioc5e (1 #bda ,bell]ophon co/atus1 ,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 #dcf ,belosepia sepioidea1 ,%eppey1 #bff ,belt1 ,mr41 on subdivision ( ,l+ula ,flags1 #dhd ,bembridge b$s1 ,y>m\?1 #beb ,b]g]1 ,dr41 on rocks alt]$ by dikes1 #eae ,b]l91 ,mioc5e /rata ne>1 #bdb ,b]nese ,alps1 gneiss 9 !1 #eii ,b]?i] on isomorphism1 #ejb ,b]tri*-,bad51 column> basalt (1 #eab ,beyri* on t]m ,oligoc5e = ,l[] ,mioc5e1 #bdd ,bill+s1 ,mr41 on trilobites1 #dga ,b9ney1 ,mr41 on ,sigill>i 9 volcanic a%1 #edf ----1 on ,/igm>ia1 ! root ( ,sigill>ia1 #dbf ,biotite1 #dii1 #eja ,bird 9 argile pla/ique1 #bgf ,bis*(f1 ,pr(essor1 on ,nile & ,rh9e mud1 #aed ----1 on conv]sion ( coal into an?racite1 #djc ----1 on hydro!rmal action1 #ehf ,blackd[n b$s1 #cja ,blacklead ( ,borr[dale1 #fe ,bog-iron-ore1 #eb ,bohemia1 ,cambrian rocks (1 #dhg ----1 silv] ve9s 91 #faf ,bold]b]g1 9 ,belgium1 ,upp] ,mioc5e (1 #bbd ,bone-b$ ( fi% rema9s1 ,armagh1 #dcg ---- ( ,upp] ,ludl[1 #dej ---- ( ! ,trias1 #cfg ,boom1 ,l[] ,mioc5e (1 #bda ,bordeaux1 ,upp] ,mioc5e (1 #bad ,borr[dale1 blacklead (1 #fe ,bosquet1 ,m4 on *alk fossils1 #bhc ----1 on ,mae/ri*t b$s1 #bhc ,botanical nom5clature1 #cjc ,b\*] de ,p]!s on ,abbeville alluvium1 #aeb ,b\ld]-clay1 :e!r =m$ by iceb]gs or l&-ice1 #aff-gc1 #agh ,b\ld]-clay ( ,canada1 #ahb ---- fauna (1 #agf1 #ahi ,b\ld]s & pebbles 9 *alk1 #bib ,b\rnem\? b$s 7,l[] ,bag%ot71 #bfb ,bovey ,tracey1 lignites & clays (1 #bdf ,b[]bank1 ,mr41 on fossil fruits ( ,london ,clay1 #bfe ----1 on fossil fruits ( ,%eppey1 #bfe ,b[man1 ,mr41 on unit+ ( di/9ct coal-seams1 #dja ,bra*iopoda1 prepond]ance (1 9 old] rocks1 #dgj ----1 mode ( recognis+ %ells (1 #dga ,brackle%am b$s & ,bag%ot ,s&s1 #bei ,brad=d encr9ites1 #cdb ,breccias ( ,l[] ,p]mian1 #cia ,brick-e>? or fluviatile loam1 #aec ,bridl+ton drift1 #ahi ,bri/ol1 dolomitic conglom]ate (1 #cgc ,bri/[1 ,mr41 on volcanic m9]als1 #ejj ,brixham cave ne> ,torquay1 #aeh ,broc*i on ,italian t]ti>y /rata1 #ada ---- on subap5n9e /rata1 #bjh ,brock5hur/1 corals & %ells (1 #beg ,brodie1 ,rev4 ,p4 ,b41 on ,lias insects1 #cfc ,brodie1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,r41 on ,purbeck mammalia1 #cbf ,brongni>t1 ,m4 ,adolphe1 on botanical nom5clature1 #cjc ----1 on ,lias plants1 #cfd ----1 on flora ( ! ,bunt]1 #chj ----1 on flora ( ! coal1 #dbj ----1 on fruit ( ,lepidod5dron1 #dbd ----1 ,m4 ,alex41 on ,t]ti>y s]ies1 #ada ,bronteus flabellif]1 ,devonian1 #dec ,brora1 oolitic coal =mation (1 #cej ,br[n1 ,mr4 ,ri*>d1 on ,/igm>ia1 #dbf ----1 on c>bonif]\s ra9-pr9ts1 #daf ,br[n1 ,rob]t1 on ,eoc5e protace\s fruit1 #bfd ,br[n1 ,rev]5d ,t41 on m>9e %ells 9 ,scot* drift1 #agg ,br[n-coal ( ,g]many1 #edj ,bryce1 ,mr41 on ,scot* till1 #agf ,bryozoa ( ,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 #dcc ---- & polyzoa1 t]ms expla9$1 #aig ,bu*1 von4 ,see ,von ,bu*4 ,buckl&1 ,dr41 on ,kirkdale cave1 #aeh ----1 on viol5t dea? ( saurians1 #cfb ----1 on sp9es ( fi%1 #cei ----1 on ,eoc5e oy/]s1 #bfh ----1 on pot-/ones 9 *alk1 #bia ,buddle1 ,mr41 on creeps 9 coal-m9es1 #gh ,bulimus ellipticus1 ,bembridge1 #bec ---- lubricus1 ,loess1 #ef ,bullock1 ,capt41 ,r4,n41 on ,atlantic mud1 #bhg ,bunbury1 ,sir ,c41 on leaf-b$ ( ,madeira1 #ecb ----1 on f]ns ( ! ,m>yl& coal1 #dba ,bunt] ( ,g]many1 #chj ---- or ,l[] ,trias ( ,engl&1 #cgb ,bupre/is8 ,elytron (1 ,/onesfield1 #cdf ,burmei/] on trilobites1 #dga ,,ca9ozoic1 t]m def9$1 #abc ,cai?ness1 fi% b$s (1 #ddc ,calamite1 root (1 #dbe ,calamites ,suc[ii1 coal1 & re/or$ /em1 #dbd ,calamophyllia radiata1 ,ba? ,oolite1 #cdb ,calcaire de la ,beauce1 age ( !1 #bcj ---- grossi]1 fossils ( !1 #bgd ---- siliceux ( ,france1 #bgc ,calc>e\s matt] p\r$ out by spr+s1 #fjd ---- rocks describ$1 #cf ---- nodules 9 ,lias1 #fc ,calc>9a r>isp9a1 ,eoc5e1 #bge ,calceola s&al9a1 ,devonian1 #dec ----1 s*ief] ( ,g]many1 #dec ,cali=nia1 aurifr\s gravel (1 #fag ----1 gold 9 petrifi$ wood ( age ( alluvium1 #fja ,calym5e ,blum5ba*ii1 ,silurian1 #dff ,cambrian ,gr\p1 classification ( !1 #dha ,cambrian1 ,upp]1 #dhb ----1 ,l[]1 #dhd ----1 ( ,sw$5 & ,norway1 #dhi ----1 /rata ( ,bohemia1 #dhg ----1 ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 #dhi ----1 volcanic rocks1 #edi ,campophyllum flexuosum1 #dca ,canada1 ,cambrian (1 #dhi ----1 ,devonian (1 #dee ----1 trap-rocks (1 #edi ,canadian drift1 #ahb ,can>y1 ,gr&1 %elly tuffs (1 #ech ,cantal1 ,l[] ,mioc5e ( !1 #bca ,cape ,breton1 ra9-pr9ts 9 coal-measures (1 #daf ,cape ,wra?1 granite ve9s 9 gneiss at1 #efj ,c>adoc & ,bala b$s1 #dgj ,c>bonate ( lime 9 rocks1 h[ te/$1 #cg ,c>bonif]\s ,gr\p1 subdivisions ( !1 #cid ---- flora1 #dbj-cj ---- lime/one1 ?ickness (1 #cif ----1 m>9e fauna ( !1 #dcb ---- ,p]iod1 trap-rocks (1 #ede ---- plutonic rocks1 #egb ---- reptiles1 #djf ---- insects1 #dje ,c>*>odon angu/id5s1 ,brackle%am1 #bfb ,c>digan%ire1 section ( slaty cleavage 91 #ehi ,c>dioc>pon ,ottonis1 ,p]mian1 #cic ,c>dita 7,v5]ic>dia7 planico/a1 #bfj ---- sulcata1 ,b>ton1 #bei ,c>dium dissimile1 ,portl& ,/one1 #ccf ---- rhticum1 ,rhtic ,b$s1 #cff ---- /riatulum1 ,kimm]idge clay1 #ccf ,c>ne1 ,mr4 ,n41 on ,corni% lodes1 #fjg ,c>p5t]1 ,dr41 on ,atlantic mud1 #bhh ----1 on ,eozoon ,canad5se1 #dia ,c>r>a1 m>ble (1 #eii ,c>ru!rs1 ,mr41 on ,eoc5e proteace\s fruit1 #bfe ----1 on cycads ( ! ,purbeck1 #ccb ----1 on leaves ( calamite1 #dbe ----1 on spores ( c>bonif]\s ,lycopodiace1 #dbb ----1 on /ructure ( sigill>ia1 #dbf ----1 on trees 9 volcanic a%1 #edg ,ca%m]e1 rec5t =mations 91 #adf ,cassian1 ,/41 ,triassic /rata (1 #cgf ,ca/rogiovanni1 curv$ /rata ne>1 #hf ,catania1 lat]ite =m$ 91 #eaj ----1 ,t]ti>y b$s 91 #bjf ,catillus ,lam>ckii1 ,:ite ,*alk1 #bie ,caucasus1 abs5ce ( lakes 9 !1 #ahg ,caulopt]is primva1 ,coal1 #dba ,cave-breccias ( ,au/ralia1 #aeh ,cav]n deposits ) human & animal rema9s1 #aef ,caves ( ,kirkdale & ,brixham1 #aeg ,celts describ$1 #aeb ,cem5t+ ( /rata1 #fa ,cephalaspis ,lyelli1 ,old ,r$1 #ddf ,c]atites nodosus1 ,mus*elkalk1 #cgi ,c]i?ium concavum1 ,headon1 #bef ---- elegans1 ,hemp/ead b$s1 #bde ---- 7,t]ebra7 ,portl&icum1 #cce ---- plicatum1 ,hemp/ead b$s1 #bde ---- melanoides1 #bfh ,c]vus alces1 too? (1 #afd ,ce/racion ,phillippi1 ,rec5t1 #big ,*abasite1 #ejj ,*alk1 composition1 ext5t1 & orig9 (1 #bhf ---- ( ,faxoe1 #bhf ---- fl9ts1 orig9 (1 #bij ---- fossils ( ! ,:ite1 #bic-f ----1 iceborne b\ld]s 9 !1 #bib ---- ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,europe1 #cje ----1 ,l[] ,:ite1 )\t fl9ts1 #bih ---- m>l1 fossils ( !1 #bih ---- ,p]iod1 popul> error conc]n+1 #bhh ,*alk-pit ) pot-/ones1 view (1 #bia ,*ama squamosa1 ,b>ton1 #beh ,*ampoleon1 junction ( granite ) ,jurassic /rata ne>1 #ega ,*>a ela/ica1 ,c4 m$icag9ula1 #eh ---- tub]culata1 ,bembridge1 #bec ,*>p5ti]1 ,m41 on ,alp9e glaci]s1 #agj ----1 on depression ( ,alps 9 ,glacial ,p]iod1 #ahe ,*a?am coal-field1 #chc ,*eiro!rium1 footpr9ts (1 #cgb ,*emical deposits 9 ve9s1 #fab ---- & me*anical deposits1 #fj ,*iapa1 fall ( volcanic du/ at1 #ebc ,*i*e/]1 erratics ne>1 #aha ,*ili1 copp] pyrites ) gold 91 #faf ----1 walls crack$ by e>?quake 91 #hg ,*illes=d & ,aldeby b$s1 #aib ,*imra mon/rosa1 ,lias1 #cei ,*lorite-s*i/1 #egi ,*loritic s]ies1 or ,upp] ,gre5s&1 #bih ,*ri/iania1 ,euritic porphyry at1 #efb ----1 granite ve9s 9 ,silurian /rata (1 #egb ----1 qu>tz ve9 9 gneiss at1 #efa ,*ronological gr\ps ( =mations1 #abi ,*ronology1 te/ (1 9 rocks1 #aba ,c9d]-b$ ( ! ,purbeck1 #cbe ,c9namomum polymorphum1 ,mioc5e1 #bai ---- ,rossmssl]i1 ,mioc5e1 #bci ,claiborne b$s1 ,eoc5e fossils (1 #bgi ,cl>ke ,c\nty1 ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,zeuglodon (1 #bgi ,classification ( ,t]ti>y =mations1 #acg1 #adc ----1 value ( %ells 91 #adb ,clausilia bid5s1 ,loess1 #ef ,clay def9$1 #cf ---- iron-/one def9$1 #djd ----1 pla/ic1 #bfg ---- slate1 #egi ----1 ,weald1 #cac ,cleavage expla9$1 #ejb ----1 cry/all9e !ory (1 #eia ----1 me*anical !ory (1 #eib ---- ( metamorphic rocks1 #ehh ,cleido!ca op]culata1 #dhc ,cl]mont1 metallif]\s gneiss ne>1 #ehf ,climate ( ! ,crags1 #bjj ---- ( ! ,coal1 #dcj ---- ( ! ,mioc5e 9 ! ,arctic regions1 #bdj ---- ( ! ,po/-plioc5e p]iod1 #afa ,cl9k/one1 #ejf ,cl9ton gr\p1 fossils ( !1 #dgi ,clyde1 buri$ canoes 9 e/u>y (1 #adf ----1 arctic m>9e %ells 9 drifts (1 #agf ,clym5ia l9e>is1 ,devonian1 #dea ,clym5i5-,kalk ( ,g]many1 #dej ,coal1 conv]sion into an?racite (1 #djc ---- a l& & swamp =mation1 #cig ----1 cause ( ! purity (1 #djb ----1 conv]sion ( lignite into1 #djc ----1 erect trees 91 #daa ----1 /ructure ( !1 #dab ----1 vegetation ( !1 #dbj ----1 air-brea!rs 9 !1 #dje1 #dac ,coal ,p]iod1 climate ( !1 #dcj ---- field ( ,virg9ia1 #chb ---- measures ( ,nova ,scotia1 #djh ---- measures1 ?ickness (1 9 ,wales1 #cig ---- pipes1 dang] (1 #cij ----1 ra9pr9ts 91 #daf ---- seams1 unit+ (1 #djj ,coalbrook-,dale1 faults 91 #hh ,co*liodus contortus1 #dcg ,cockfield ,fell rocks1 alt]$ by dikes1 #eaf ,coelacan?us granulatus1 ,p]mian1 #cij ,coleopt]a ( n+5 b$s1 #bbc ,collyrites r+5s1 ,inf]ior ,oolite1 #cea ,column> /ructure ( volcanic rocks1 #eaj ---- basalt 9 ! ,vic5t91 #eaa ,compact feldsp>1 #eja ,concretion>y /ructure1 #fc ,cone ( ,t>t>et1 #ebg1 #edb ---- ( ,cme1 #bh ,cones & crat]s describ$1 #die ----1 abs5ce (1 9 ,engl&1 #cj ,con=mable /ratification1 #ci ,conglom]ate or pudd+-/one1 #cf ----1 ,dolomitic1 ( ,bri/ol1 #cgc ,conif] ( ! coal-measures1 #dbg ,connecticut ,valley1 ,new ,r$ ,s&/one (1 #cha ,conocephalus /riatus1 #dhh ,conocoryphe /riata1 #dhh ,conrad1 ,mr41 on age ( ,am]ican cretace\s rocks1 #cjg ,consolidation ( /rata1 #fa ,cont95ts & oceans1 p]man5ce (1 #aag ,contort$ /rata1 9 drift1 #agh ,conul>ia ornata1 ,devonian1 #dec ,conulus priscus1 ,coal1 #dae ,conus dep]ditus1 ,brackle%am1 #bfb ,conybe>e & ,phillips on n9ety-fa?om dike1 #ij ,conybe>e1 ,mr41 on reptiles ( ! ,lias1 #cfj ,copp] lode ne> ,r$ru?1 #fjg ,coprolite b$ ( ,*loritic ,s]ies1 #bii ---- b$s ( ,r$ & ,corall9e crags1 #aig1 #aih ,coprolites ( fi% f ! *alk1 #bih ,coral ,rag1 fossils ( !1 #cci ,corall9e ( ,:ite ,crag1 #aig ,corals ( ! ,devonian1 #dea ---- ( ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 #dcc ----1 ,neozoic type (1 #dca ----1 ,palozoic type (1 #dca ,corbicella 7,cyr5a7 flum9alis1 #ed ,corbula pisum1 ,hemp/ead b$s1 #bde ,cor9?1 corrosion ( rocks by gases ne>1 #ehf ,cornbra% or ,=e/ ,m>ble1 #cda ,cornwall1 granite ve9s 91 #efa1 #ehb ----1 lodes 91 #fae ----1 mass ( granite 91 #eeb ----1 v]tical sections ( ve9s 9 m9e1 #fjg ,cosequ9a volcano1 bury+ ( organic rema9s by1 #ebc ,crag1 t]m def9$1 #aib ---- ( ,antw]p1 #bjd ----1 fauna (1 its relation to t ( pres5t seas1 #bja ----1 ,norwi*1 #aic ----1 ,corall9e or ,:ite1 #aig ----1 ,r$1 #aid ----1 tables ( m>9e te/acea 91 #bjb ---- deposits1 climate (1 #bjj ,crania atta*$ to a sea-ur*91 #di ---- ,p>isi5sis1 ,:ite ,*alk1 #bid ,crassatella sulcata1 ,b>ton1 #bei ,crat]s & cones describ$1 #die ----1 ,!ory ( ,elevation1 #dif ,crav5 fault1 #ij ,creeps 9 coal-m9es1 #gh ,cretace\s rocks ( ,unit$ ,/ates1 #cjg ---- ,p]iod1 error z to cont9uity (1 #bhh ----1 flora ( ! ,upp]1 #cjb ---- volcanic rocks1 #edd ---- plutonic rocks1 #egj ---- ,p]iod1 di/9ct m9]al "* ( rocks 91 #bib ---- rocks1 classification (1 #bhb ---- /rata1 connection betwe5 ,upp] & ,l[]1 #cja ,cr9oidea ( ,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 #dcc ,croatia1 ,l[] ,mioc5e b$s (1 #bdb ,croll1 ,mr41 on am\nt ( subarial d5udation1 #aad ,crom] =e/-b$1 #aia ,crop out1 t]m expla9$1 #hc ,crossopt]ygid1 or fr+e-f9n$ fi%1 #ddc ,cr[foot1 ,mr41 on %ells ( ,aldeby b$s1 #aib ,cru/ ( ! e>? def9$1 #bf ,cru/aceans ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 #ddf ,cryptodon angulatum1 ,london ,clay1 #bff ,cry/all9e ,lime/one1 #egi ---- rocks def9$1 #cb ---- s*i/s1 mu* alkali 9 !1 #ehg ---- !ory ( cleavage1 #eia ,cup & ,/> corals1 #dca ,curv$ /rata1 #gc-gf ,cut*1 salt-lay]s 9 ! ,runn (1 #cge ,cuvi]1 ,m41 on fauna ( ! ,p>is bas91 #bga ----1 on ,mammalia ( ,p>is gypsum1 #bca ----1 on ,t]ti>y s]ies1 #ada ,cya?ocr9us c>yocr9oides1 #dcc ---- planus1 #dcc ,cya?ophyllum cspitosum1 #dea ,cyclopean isles1 b$s ( tuff & clay 91 #ebi ----1 contort$ /rata 91 #ecj ,cyclopt]is ,hib]nica1 ,old ,r$1 #dda ,cyclo/igma 7,lepidod5dron71 ,old ,r$1 #dda ,cyclo/oma elegans1 ,loess1 #ef ,cyl9drites acutus1 ,great ,oolite1 #cde ,cypress swamps ( ! ,mississippi1 #djb ,cyprides 9 ! ,weald ,clay1 #cae ,cyprid9a s]rato-/riata1 #dea ,cypris 9 fre%-wat] deposits1 #eg ---- gibbosa1 ,c4 tub]culata1 ,c4 legum9ella1 #cbd ---- /riato-punctata1 ,c4 fasciculata1 ,c4 granulata1 #cbe ---- ,purbeck5sis1 ,cypris punctata1 #cca ---- sp9ig]a1 ,weald ,clay1 #cae ,cyr5a 7,corbicella7 flum9alis1 #ed ---- cunei=mis1 ,woolwi* ,clays1 #bfh ---- obovata1 #ed ---- semi/riata1 ,hemp/ead b$s1 #bde ,cy/ide ( ,silurian rocks1 #dff ,cy!re inflata1 coal-measures1 #dje ,,dadoxylon1 fragm5t ( conif]\s wood1 #dbh ,dana1 on volcanic m9]als1 #ejj ,dani% kit*5-midd5s1 #adf ,dap$ius monilif]1 ,lias1 #ceh ,d>bi%ire on %ells ( ,moel ,tryfa51 #ahj ,d>tmoor1 po/-c>bonif]\s granite (1 #egb ---- intrusive granite at1 #egb ,d>w91 ,mr41 on foliation & lam9ation1 #eie ----1 on mammalia ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 #afj ----1 on m>9e saurian1 #cfb ----1 on rise ( "p ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 #gb ----1 on s9k+ ( coral reefs1 #gb ----1 on plutonic rocks ( ! ,&es1 #efi ----1 on relation%ip ( ext9ct to liv+ types1 #afj ,dates ( discov]y ( fossil v]tebrata1 #dfd ,daub5y1 ,dr41 on decomposition ( tra*ytic rocks1 #ehf ,daubre1 on =mation ( zeolites1 #eba ----1 on alkal9e wat]s ( ,plombires1 #ehd ,davidson1 ,mr41 on ,spirif]9a1 #cee ,davis1 ,mr4 ,e41 on fossils ( ,l+ula ,flags1 #dhd ,dawk9s1 ,mr4 ,boyd1 on ,hyna spela1 #aeh ----1 on mammalia ( ,crom] ,=e/-b$1 #aia ----1 on ,triassic mammif]1 #cfi ,dawson1 ,dr41 on ,devonian flora & insects1 #def1 #deg ----1 on ,eozoon ,canad5se1 #dia ----1 on ,nova ,scotia coal-measures1 #dji ----1 on ,nova ,scotia coal-plants1 #daj1 #dab ----1 on ,pupa vetu/a1 #dae ----1 on reptiles & %ells 9 ,nova ,scotia coal1 #dac ----1 on /ructure ( calamite1 #dbe ----1 on /ructure ( sigill>ia1 #dbf ,deane1 ,dr41 on footpr9ts 9 ,trias1 #chb ,debey1 ,dr41 on flora & fauna ( ,aix1 #cjb-jd ,de*51 ,m4 von1 on organic rema9s ( ! br[n coal1 #edj ----1 on ,corni% granite ve9s1 #efj ,de la ,be*e1 ,sir ,h41 on granite ( ,d>tmoor1 #ehb ----1 on ,c>r>a m>ble1 #eii ----1 on m9]al ve9s1 #faf ----1 on ,r$ru? copp]-m9e1 #faj ----1 on saurians ( ! ,lias1 #cfb ----1 on trap-rocks ( ,new ,r$1 #ede ----1 on ,wel% coal-measures1 #cig ,delesse1 on action ( wat] 9 metamorphism1 #ehe ,deltas1 /rata accumulat$ 91 #bh ,d5dr]peton 9 ,coal1 #dac ,d5udation def9$1 #if ----1 subarial1 #ig ----1 littoral1 #ajb ----1 subm>9e1 #aje ----1 av]age annual am\nt ( subarial1 #aac ---- ( c>bonif]\s /rata1 #cif ---- c\nt]act+ upheaval1 #ajf-ae1 #ajh-ae ---- a means ( expos+ cry/all9e rocks1 #efc ----1 trap-dikes cut (f by1 #eah ---- & volcanic =ce antagoni/ic p[]s1 #aae ,deposition1 rate (1 %[n by fossils1 #dg ,d]by%ire1 ve9s 9 ,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 #fjh ,d]ivative %ells ( ! ,r$ ,crag1 #aie-bjc ,desnoy]s1 ,m41 on age ( ,faluns1 #adb ----1 on ,eoc5e fossil footpr9ts1 #bgb ,desor1 ,m41 on ,celtic co9s 9 lake-dwell+s1 #adi ,devonian ,p]iod1 ,upp]1 #dej ,middle1 #dej ,l[]1 #dec ---- fossils ( ! ,eifel1 #ecd ---- ( ,russia1 #ded ---- ( ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada1 #dee ---- insects ( ,canada1 #deg ---- /rata1 classification (1 #dci-ej ,devon%ire1 cleavage ( slate rocks 91 #eic ,diabase1 #eje ,diagonal1 or cross-/ratification1 #db ,diagram ( fossilif]\s rocks1 #acg ---- ( plutonic & s$im5t>y =mations1 #efg ,diallage1 #ejj1 #ejb ,dia/opora diluviana1 ,ba? ,oolite1 #cdc ,diatomace =m+ tripoli1 #ea ,dic]as ,lonsdalii1 ,neocomian1 #caj ,didelphys ,az>1 ,rec5t1 #cdg ,didymograpsus gem9us1 #dgf ---- ,mur*isonii1 #dgc ,dike cutt+ ?r\gh %ale1 ,anglesea1 #eae ---- cutt+ ?r\gh *alk1 ,antrim1 #eae1 #eaf ,dikelocephalus ,m9nesot5sis1 #dij ,dikes def9$1 #cj ---- ( ,monte ,somma1 #ebf ---- 9 ,palagonia1 gr\nd-plan (1 #ecb ----1 volcanic or trap1 #eac-g ,diluvium1 orig9 ( t]m1 #afg ,d9ornis ,palapt]yx1 ( ,new ,zeal&1 #afj ,d9o!rium giganteum1 #bab ,diorite1 #eje ,dip & /rike1 t]ms expla9$1 #hj ,diplograpsus folium1 ,ll&eilo ,flags1 #dgd ---- pri/is1 ,ll&eilo b$s1 #dgc ,dirt-b$ ( ! ,purbeck1 #cca ,dogg]-bank describ$1 #aje ,dol]ite1 a v>iety ( basalt1 #ejd ,dolomite def9$1 #ch ,dolomitic conglom]ate ( ,bri/ol1 #cgc ,d[ns1 esc>pm5ts ( ,nor? & ,s\?1 #ajd ,d[nton ,s&/one1 #dei ,d[son1 ,mr41 on %ells ( ,aldeby b$s1 #aib ,drew1 ,mr41 on ,ha/+s ,s&s1 #caf ,drift ( ,irel&1 #aij ---- ( ,norfolk cliffs1 #aij ---- ( ,sc&9avia1 #agd ---- ( ,bridl+ton1 #ahi ---- c>ri$ by iceb]gs1 #agb ---- %ells 9 ,canada1 #ahc ----1 contort$ /rata 91 #agh ----1 m>9e %ells 9 ,scot*1 #age ,dudley ,lime/one1 #dfe ,dufr5oy1 ,m41 on granite ( ,pyr5ees1 #ehb ,dumont1 ,pr(essor1 on ,belgian ,l[] ,eoc5e1 #bhb ,duncan1 ,dr41 on ,neozoic corals pass+ d[n to ,devonian1 #dcb ,dundry ,hill1 ne> ,bri/ol1 section (1 #acj ,dunk]1 ,dr41 on weald5 ( ,g]many1 #cai ,dura ,d51 yell[ s&/one (1 #ddj ,,e>?',s cru/ def9$1 #bf ,e*9od]ms ( ,suffolk ,crag1 #bjj ,e*9osphronites balticus1 #dgb ,eg]ton1 ,sir ,p41 on fi% ( ,headon s]ies1 #bef ----1 on fi% ( ! ,p]mian1 #chi ----1 on fi% ( ,p5>? b$s1 #cff ,ehr5b]g1 ,pr(essor1 on t]m ,bryoz\m1 #aig ----1 on ,silurian =am9if]a1 #dgh ----1 on infusoria1 #ea ,eifel ,lime/one1 #dec ----1 ,lake-crat]s (1 #ecd ---- ,mioc5e1 volcanic rocks (1 #eci ---- ,plioc5e1 volcanoes ( !1 #ecd ----1 trass ( !1 #ece ,elephas antiquus1 mol> (1 #afc ---- m]idionalis1 mol> (1 #afc ---- primig5ius1 mol> (1 #afb ,elevation crat]s1 !ory (1 #dif ,elvans1 t]m expla9$1 #egb ---- ( ,irel& & ,cornwall1 #fae ,elytron ( ,bupre/is8 ,/onesfield1 #cdf ,emmons1 ,pr(essor1 on jaws ( ,triassic quadrup$1 #chc ----1 on ,droma!rium1 #chc ,encr9ites ( ,brad=d1 #cdb ,encr9us lilii=mis1 ,mus*elkalk1 #cgi ,endog5s1 t]m expla9$1 #cjc ,engih\l cave1 human & animal rema9s 91 #aeg ,engl& & ,wales1 glaciation (1 #ahj ,en/atite1 #eja ,eoc5e areas ( ,europe1 map (1 #bej ---- =am9if]a1 #bgd ---- =mations ( ,france1 #bgj-f ---- ( ,engl&1 #beb ---- p]iod1 volcanic rocks (1 #edc ----1 plutonic rocks ( !1 #efh ----1 metamorphic rocks ( !1 #eih ---- ( ,france1 footpr9ts 91 #bgb ---- & ,mioc5e1 l9e betwe5 !1 #bcj1 #bej ----1 t]m def9$1 #adc ---- ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 #bgh ,eozoon ,canad5se1 olde/ kn[n fossil1 #dib ,epidote1 #ejj ,eppel%eim1 ,d9o!rium (1 #bbe ,equisetace ( ! ,coal1 #dbd ,equisetites column>is1 ,keup]1 #cgf ,equus caballus1 too? (1 #afd ,erratic blocks1 nature (1 #afg ---- ( ,gre5l&1 #aga ---- ne> ,*i*e/]1 #aha ---- 9 ! ,r$ ,crag1 #bja ,erratics1 ,alp9e1 #afi ,esc>pm5ts expla9$1 #ajd ,es*>a di/i*a1 ,:ite ,*alk1 #bif ,es*>9a oceani1 ,:ite ,*alk1 #bif ,e/h]ia m9uta1 ,trias1 #cgj ---- ovata1 ,ri*mond1 ,virg9ia1 #chc ,e?ridge1 ,mr41 on ,atlantic mud1 #bhh ----1 on ,devonian s]ies1 9 ,devon1 #dej ----1 on ,devonian fauna1 #dea1 #ded ----1 on mollusca ( ,brackle%am1 #bfj ----1 on ,/4 ,cassian fossils1 #cgg ,etna1 built up s9ce ,new] ,plioc5e1 #bjd ----1 ,plioc5e lavas (1 #ebi ,ett+%aus5 on ,%eppey ,eoc5e fruit1 #bfe ,eunomia radiata1 ,ba? ,oolite1 #cdb ,eunotia bid5s1 ,atlantic mud1 #bhh ,euomphalus p5tangulatus1 #dce ,eurite1 #eeg1 #egh ,euritic porphyry ( ,norway1 #efb ,evans1 ,mr41 on ,ar*opt]yx1 #ccg ,exog5s1 #big ,exogyra virgula1 ,kimm]idge ,clay1 #ccf ,extracr9us 7,p5tacr9us7 ,bri>eus1 ,lias1 #ceg ,,falcon]1 ,dr41 on ,mioc5e fauna ( ,siwalik ,hills1 #bbf ----1 on ,brixham ,cave fl9t knives1 #aeg ----1 on ,purbeck mammalia1 #cbf ,faluns ( ,loire1 rec5t %ells 91 #bad ---- ( ,t\ra9e1 #baa ,f>nham1 phosphate ( lime ne>1 #bii ,fascicul>ia aurantium1 ,corall9e crag1 #aii ,faults 9 coal-measures ( ,coalbrook ,dale1 #hh ---- describ$1 #hg-ib ---- (t5 ! result ( repeat$ movem5ts1 #ij ,fauna ( ! crag1 its relation to t ( our pres5t seas1 #bja ---- ( ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 #dcj ---- ( ! ,p>is bas91 #bga ,favosites c]vicornis1 ,devonian1 #dea ---- ,go?l&ica1 ,silurian1 #dfe ,favre1 ,m4 ,e41 on glaci]s & mora9es ( ! ,caucasus1 #ahg ,faxoe1 *alk (1 #bhe ,feldsp>-porphyry1 #eeg ,feldsp>1 v>ieties (1 #dii1 #ejj ,feld/one1 #eeg ,felis tigris1 too? (1 #aff ,f5e/ella reti=mis1 ,magnesian ,lime/one1 #chh ,f]ns ( ! coal1 #dba ,fife1 trap-dike 91 #edc ,fi%1 fossil ( ! ,c>bonif]\s1 #dcf ----1 ,eoc5e ( ,monte ,bolca1 #edd ----1 olde/ kn[n fossil1 #dfc ----1 numb] ( liv+1 #dde ----1 fre%-wat] & m>9e1 #eh ---- ( ! ,upp] ,ludl[1 #dei ---- ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 #ddc-e ---- ( ! ,p]mian m>l slate1 #chi ---- ( ! br[n coal1 #edj ---- ( ! ,lias1 #ceh ,fi%]ton1 ,gre5l& lemm+ 9 drift (1 #afa ,fissures1 fill$ ) metallic matt]1 #fjf ,fitton1 ,dr41 on ! ,neocomian /rata1 #cad ,flem+1 ,dr41 on ,p>ka decipi5s1 #ddh ----1 on trap-dike 9 ,fife1 #edf ,fl9ts 9 ! ,*alk1 #bij ,flisk dike ( ,fife1 #edf ,flora ( ! ,c>bonif]\s1 #dbj ----1 ,devonian1 comp>$ to ,c>bonif]\s1 #deg ---- ( ! ,subap5n9es1 #bjh ----1 ,l[] ,mioc5e ( ,switz]l&1 #bce ----1 ,mioc5e ( ! ,arctic ,regions1 #bci ----1 ,old] ,plioc5e ( ,italy1 #bjh ---- ( ! ,p]mian1 #cib ---- ( ! ,upp] ,cretace\s1 #cjb ----1 ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ,switz]l&1 #bae-bb ---- ( ! ,weald51 #cbj ,fluvio-m>9e or ,norwi* ,crag1 #aic ,flys* ( ! ,alps1 #bgh ----1 plutonic rocks invad+1 #efh ,fold+ & d5udation ( ,nova ,scotia ,c>bonif]\s rocks1 #dag ,folds ( p>allel /rata1 arrangem5t & direction (1 #ic ,foliation ( cry/all9e rocks1 #eie ----1 irregul>ities 91 #eif ,folke/one & ,hy! b$s1 #cjh ,fonta9ebleau1 ,gres de1 #bcj ,footpr9ts 9 ,potsdam s&/one1 #dij ---- ( reptiles 9 ,coal-measures1 #djh ----1 fossil 9 ,new r$1 #cha ---- 9 ,p>is gypsum1 #bgb ,=am9if]a1 ,eoc5e1 #bge ---- ( ,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 #dcg ---- ( ! ,*alk1 #bhg ,=bes1 ,mr4 ,david1 on glass cavities 9 qu>tz1 #eee ----1 on planes ( foliation1 #eie ----1 on specific gravity ( qu>tz1 #ejj ----1 on volcanic m9]als1 #dih ,=bes1 ,pr(essor ,e41 on fossils ( ,bembridge b$s1 #beb ----1 on ,hemp/ead b$s1 #bdd ----1 on %ells ( ! crag1 #bjj ----1 on sphronites1 #dgb ----1 on subdivisions ( ! ,purbeck1 #ccc ----1 on te/acea ( ! ,faluns1 #bab ----1 on ?ickness ( ,upp] ,neocomian1 #cji ,=e/-b$ at ,crom]1 #aia ---- m>ble or cornbra%1 #cda ----1 subm]g$1 #ajc1 #ajd ----1 fossil 9 ,coal1 #djj ----1 fossil ( ,isle ( ,portl&1 #ccb ,=f>%ire1 ,cephalaspis b$s (1 #ddf ----1 contort$ /rata 91 #agh ,=mation1 t]m def9$1 #bg ,fossil1 t]m def9$1 #bi ---- trees erect 9 coal1 #daj ---- ,fi% ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 #ddb ,fossilif]\s gr\ps1 table ( succession (1 #aca ,fossils1 arrangem5t (1 9 /rata1 #dg ----1 de/ruction (1 9 old] =mations1 #aci ----1 fre%-wat] & m>9e1 #eb ---- oblit]at$ by metamorphic action1 #fjc ----1 rec5t1 & ,po/-plioc5e1 #aed-fe ---- ( ! drift1 #agf1 #ahj1 #aib ---- ( ! ,crags1 #aic-bjc ----1 ,upp] ,mioc5e1 #bad-bi ----1 ,l[] ,mioc5e ( ,switz]l&1 #bcf ---- ( ! ,hemp/ead ,b$s1 #bdd ----1 ,eoc5e1 #bec ---- ( ! ,b>ton ,clay1 #bei ---- ( ! ,:ite ,*alk1 #bic ---- ( ! ,neocomian1 #cji ---- ( ! ,oolite1 #cbd ---- ( ! ,/onesfield ,slate1 #cdg ---- ( ! ,lias1 #ced ---- ( ! ,trias1 #cgj ---- ( ! ,magnesian ,lime/one1 #chg ---- ( ! ,coal1 #dje ---- plants ( ! ,coal1 #dba ---- ( ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 #dcj ----1 ,devonian1 #ddi ----1 ,silurian1 #dfj ----1 ,cambrian1 #dhd ---- ,laur5tian1 #dib ,f\rnet1 ,m4 on metallif]\s gneiss1 #ehf ----1 on ve9s 9 granite1 #faj ,fox1 ,rev4 ,d41 on ,isle ( ,wight ,eoc5e fossils1 #bed ,fox1 ,mr4 ,r41 on lodes 9 ,cornwall1 #fad ,fractures ( /rata1 & faults1 #hg ,fragm5ts1 includ$1 a te/ ( age ( plutonic rocks1 #efe ----1 includ$1 a te/ ( age ( /rata1 #abi ---- a te/ ( age 9 volcanic rocks1 #ebd ,france1 ,eoc5e =mations (1 #bgj-f ----1 ,l[] ,mioc5e (1 #bca ----1 ,upp] ,mioc5e (1 #baa ,fre%field1 ,mr41 on abs5ce ( lakes 9 ! ,caucasus1 #ahg ,fre%-wat] /rata1 h[ di/+ui%$ f m>9e1 #ec-i ---- =mation ( ,auv]gne1 #bcc ,fucoid s&/ones ( ,sw$51 #dhi ,fulgur canaliculatus1 ,m>yl&1 #bbh ,full]'s e>?1 fossils ( !1 #cdh ,fundy1 ,bay (1 fossil trees expos$ 9 cliffs at1 #dab ,fusil9a cyl9drica1 #dch ,fusion ( qu>tz1 #ejj ,fusus contr>ius 7,trophon antiquum71 #aif ---- quadrico/atus1 ,m>yl&1 #bbh ,,gabbro1 #eje ,gaillonella f]rug9ea1 & ,g4 di/ans1 #eb ,galapagos ,isl&s1 liv+ m>9e saurian 91 #cfb ,galeoc]do latid5s1 ,brackle%am1 #bfb ,gal]ites albogal]us1 ,:ite ,*alk1 #bid ,gale/es 9 ,middle ,purbeck1 #cbh ,ganoids1 ! type ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one fi%1 #ddc ---- ( ! ,weald51 #caf ---- ( ! ,trias1 #chc ,gaps 9 ! sequ5ce ( fossil rema9s1 #ach ,g>net1 #ejj ,gases1 corrosion ( rocks by1 #ehf ,gaud9 on ,l[] ,mioc5e ( ,switz]l&1 #bcf ---- on ,plioc5e flora ( ,italy1 #bji ---- on ,proteace 9 ,b\rnem\? ,eoc5e1 #bfc ,gault1 ?ickness & fossils (1 #cjj ,geikie1 ,mr4 ,a41 on ,ayr%ire ,p]mian trap-rocks1 #ede ----1 on subarial d5udation1 #aae ----1 on ice erosion ( lake-bas9s1 #ahg ----1 on ,isle ( ,mull volcanic rocks1 #eci ----1 on ,p5tl& ,old ,r$ volcanic rocks1 #edh ----1 on ,silurian metamorphic rocks1 #fjb ----1 on sy5ite ( ,skye1 #efh ,ge9itz1 ,m41 on ,p]mian flora1 #cic ,gemund] ,ma>1 volcanic rocks (1 #ecd ,g5eva1 ,l[] ,mioc5e (1 #bcf ,geology def9$1 #be ,g]govia1 tuffs & associat$ lacu/r9e /rata (1 #edb ,g]many1 ,l[] ,mioc5e (1 #bdb ----1 ,triassic fauna (1 #cge ,g]s1 ,upp] ,mioc5e (1 #bae ,g]villia anceps1 ,neocomian1 #caj ---- socialis1 ,mus*elkalk1 #cgi ,giant's ,causeway basalt1 age (1 #bdh ----1 lat]ite ( !1 #eji ----1 column> basalt (1 #eaj ,girg5ti1 ,new] ,plioc5e (1 #bjg ,glacial drift1 di/ribution & nature (1 #aff ---- epo* 9 ! ,po/-plioc5e1 #aff ---- =mations ( ,plioc5e age1 #ahi-ib ,glaciation ( ,russia & ,sc&9avia1 #agd ---- ( ,scotl&1 #age ---- ( ,wales & ,engl&1 #ahj ---- ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 #ahb ,glaci]s1 transport+ & abrad+ p[] (1 #afh ,glasg[1 m>9e /rata ne>1 #adf ,glauconie grossi]e1 #bge ,gl5 ,tilt1 junction ( granite & s*i/ at1 #eei ,globi=m pit*/one1 #eab ,globig]9a bulloides1 #bhh ,globul> /ructure ( volcanic rocks1 #eaj ,glypto/robus1 ,europu1 n+51 #bbc ,gneiss1 granite ve9s trav]s+1 #efj ---- def9$ & figur$1 #egg ----1 fundam5tal1 ( ,scotl&1 #dic ,gold m9es ( ,au/ralia & ,*ili1 #faf ---- ve9s ( ,russia1 #faf ---- ( ,cali=nia1 ( age ( alluvium1 #fag ,gold5b]g1 ,pr(essor1 on ,sa>brck coal insects1 #djf ,goldfuss1 ,pr(essor1 on reptiles 9 coal1 #djf ,goniatites cr5i/ria1 #dcf ---- ,li/]i1 coal-measures1 #dje ,gpp]t1 on ,am]ican =ms 9 ,swiss ,mioc5e flora1 #bbc ---- on petrification1 #fh ---- on plants ( coal-measures1 #cih ,gorgonia infundibuli=mis1 ,p]mian1 #chh ,graham's ,isl&1 =m+ a%y conglom]ate1 #edi ,grampians1 ,old ,r$ conglom]ates (1 #gc ----1 trap-rocks ( !1 #edg ----1 =m] glaci]s 9 !1 #age ,gr& ,can>y1 ,upp] ,mioc5e1 %elly tuffs (1 #eeh ,granite1 composition (1 #eeb ----1 graphic & column>1 #eec1 #eed ----1 h[ f> connect$ ) trap-rocks1 #eeh ----1 hydro!rmal action 9 =mation (1 #eee ---- metamorphos+ fossilif]\s /rata1 #eha ----1 porphyritic1 #eef ----1 olde/1 #egd ----1 protrusion ( solid1 #egd ----1 passage (1 into trap1 #eeh ----1 s*orly1 #eeg ---- ve9s1 #eei ---- ve9s 9 talcose gneiss1 #efj ,granton1 angiosp]m f\nd 9 coal at1 #dbi ,graptolites ( ,ll&eilo flags1 #dgd ,graptolites ,mur*isonii4 ,ll&eilo flags1 #dgc ,graptoli?us priodon1 ,silurian1 #dfg ,gray's1 ,essex1 pa*yd]ms f\nd at1 #afa ,great 7or ,ba?7 ,oolite1 #cdb ,greece1 ,upp] ,mioc5e =mations (1 #bbf ,gre5l&1 cont95tal ice (1 #agj ----1 gradual s9k+ (1 #gb ,gre5/one1 #eje ,gres de ,beau*amp1 ,p>is bas91 #bgc ,gres de ,fonta9ebleau1 age ( !1 #bcj ,griffi?s1 ,sir ,r41 on yell[ s&/one ( ,irel&1 #dda ,grit def9$1 #cf ,gr\ps1 old]1 rise highe/ above ! sea1 #aci ---- :y ! newe/ to be /udi$ fir/1 #adj ,gryllacris li?an?raca1 coal1 #dje ,grypha coat$ ) s]pul1 #dh ---- columba1 ,*loritic ,s&1 #cjj ---- convexa1 ,*alk1 #bie ---- incurva 7,g4 arcuata71 #ed1 #ced ---- virgula1 ,kimm]idge clay1 #ccf ,gryphite ,lime/one1 #ced ,guadal\pe1 glass cavities 9 qu>tz (1 #eee ,gulf-,/ream1 probable abrad+ p[] (1 #aje ,gmbel1 ,m41 on ,rhtic b$s1 #cff ,gunn1 ,mrs41 on pot-/ones 9 ! *alk1 #bia ,gutbi]1 ,colonel1 on ,p]mian flora1 #cic ,gymnog5s1 t]m expla9$1 #cjc ,gypse\s m>ls ( ,auv]gne1 #bcc ,gypsum & gypse\s m>l def9$1 #ch1 #ci ,gyrolepis t5ui/riatus1 ,rhtic b$s1 #cfg ,,haime1 ,mr41 on palozoic corals1 #dca ,hakea silic9a & ,hakea saligna1 n+51 #bbb ,hall1 ,capta9 ,basil1 on ,cyclopean ,isles1 #ecj ,hall1 ,sir ,james1 on curv$ /rata1 #ge ,hall1 ,mr4 ,j41 on ,appala*ian palozoic rocks1 #aaj ,hall/adt & ,/4 ,cassian b$s1 #cgf ,halysites cat5ul>is1 ,silurian1 #dfe ,hamilton1 ,sir ,w41 on eruption ( ,vesuvius1 #aggi1 #ebf ,hamites sp9ig]1 ,gault1 #cja ,hancock1 ,mr41 on ,protosaurus 9 ,p]mian1 #cij ,h>kness1 ,pr(essor1 on ,silurian metamorphic rocks1 #fjb ,h>le* grits1 fossils ( !1 #dhf ,h>ris1 ,major1 on ! ,salt ,lakes1 #cgd ,h>pactor maculipes1 n+51 #bbd ,h>pe1 ,m4 de la1 on ,b\rnem\? ,eoc5e flora1 #bfc ,h>tung1 ,mr41 cit$1 #dif ,h>tz m\nta9s1 m9]al ve9s (1 #fjh ----1 ,bunt] ,s&/e9 (1 #chj ,ha/+s ,s&s1 subdivisions ( !1 #caf ,hautes ,alpes1 granite ( !1 #ega ,hauy on isomorphism1 #ejb ,headon s]ies1 fossils ( !1 #bee ,heat1 p[]ful 9 consolidat+ rocks1 #fe ----1 rocks uprais$ & fold$ by1 #ib ,hb]t1 ,m41 on age ( ,sables de ,bra*eux1 #ccj ----1 comp>ison ( ,sables ,moy5s & ,b>ton %ells1 #beh ----1 on pisolitic lime/one1 #bhe ,hebrides1 dikes 9 !1 #ead ,he]1 ,pr(essor1 on ,am]ican g5]a 9 ,swiss ,mioc5e1 #bci ----1 on age ( ,madeira leaf-b$1 #ecb ----1 on ,arctic ,mioc5e flora1 #bci ----1 on ,be> ,isl& flora1 #dda ----1 on ,bovey ,tracey ,mioc5e flora1 #bdg ----1 on fossil plants ( ,switz]l&1 #bae1 #bai1 #bba1 #bbd1 #bcf ----1 on ,l[] ,mioc5e plants ( ,mull1 #bdh ----1 on ,monte ,bolca ,eoc5e plants1 #bfc1 #edc ----1 on ,proteas ( ,l[] ,mioc5e1 #bcg ----1 on plants ( ,hemp/ead b$s1 #bdf ----1 on plants ( coal-field1 ,virg9ia1 #chc ----1 on ,swiss ,mioc5e insects1 #bbc ----1 on suppos$ ,proteace ( n+5 b$s1 #bba ----1 on ,sup]ga fossil plants1 #bdd ,heidelb]g1 v>ieties ( granite ne>1 #efj ,heliolites porosa1 ,devonian1 #dea ,helix hispida 7plebeia71 #aee ---- labyr9?ica1 ,headon1 #bee ---- occlusa1 ,bembridge1 #bec ---- ,turon5sis1 faluns1 #ef ,hemicid>is ,purbeck5sis1 ,purbeck1 #cbd ,hemipneu/es radiatus1 ,*alk1 #bhd ,hemitelites ,br[nii1 ,inf]ior ,oolite1 #cej ,hemp/ead b$s1 subdivisions ( !1 #bdd ,h5ry1 on absorption ( c>bonic acid gas 9 wat]1 #ehe ,h5sl[1 ,pr(essor1 on dike 9 ,anglesea1 #eae ----1 on ,r$ ,crag coprolite b$1 #aig ,h]s*el1 ,sir ,j41 on slaty cleavage1 #eij ,h]t=d%ire pudd+-/one1 #fb ,het]oc]cal tail ( fi%1 #chi ,hicks1 ,dr41 on fossils ( ,ar5ig b$s1 #dgf ----1 on fossils ( ,h>le* grits1 #dhf ----1 on ,m5evian b$s1 #dhe ,himalaya1 %ells #ah1jjj feet high 91 #bi ----1 ,upp] ,mioc5e (1 #bbf ,hippopodium pond]osum1 ,lias1 #cee ,hippopotamus1 too? (1 #afd ,hippurite ,lime/one1 #cjd ,hippurites organisans1 ,*alk1 #cjf ,hi/iod]ma hib]nica1 #dhf ,hit*cock1 ,pr(essor1 on ,trias footpr9ts1 #cha ,holopty*ius nobilissimus1 scale (1 & re/oration1 #ddb ,homalonotus ,delph9ocephalus1 #dfg ---- armatus1 ,devonian1 #ded ,homfray1 ,mr41 on fossils ( ,tremadoc b$s1 #dhc ,homoc]cal tail ( fi%1 #chi ,hooghly ,riv]1 analysis ( wat]1 #fi ,hook]1 ,dr41 on conif]1 #dbi1 #dcj ----1 on /ructure ( sigill>ia1 #dbf ----1 on sporangia ( ,silurian plant1 #dfj ,horizontality ( /rata1 #dj ,horizontal /rata1 upheaval (1 #ga ,hornbl5de1 #dii1 #ejb ,hornbl5de-s*i/1 #egh ,hrnes1 ,dr41 on fossil mollusca ( ,vi5na bas91 #bbe ,hor/ead1 pot-/ones at1 #bia ,h\r-glass illu/rat+ ! de/ruction & r5ovation ( l&1 #aai ,h[se1 ,mr41 on ,protosaurus 9 ,p]mian1 #cij ,hubb>d1 ,pr(essor1 on granite ( ,:ite ,m\nta9s1 #efe ,hudson ,riv] ,gr\p1 fossils ( !1 #dgi ,hughes1 ,mr4 ,t4 ,mc,kenny1 cit$1 #dej ----1 on slaty cleavage1 #ehi ----1 on protrusion ( solid granite1 #ege ,hull1 ,mr4 ,e41 on breccias 9 ,p]mian1 #cia ----1 on c>bonif]\s ( ,lanca%ire1 #cie ----1 on c>bonif]\s rocks ( nor? ( ,engl&1 #aaa ----1 on faults 9 ,lanca%ire coal-field1 #ia ----1 on anticl9als & syncl9als1 ,lanca%ire1 #he ----1 on ?ickness ( ! ,upp] ,trias1 #cfi ----1 on ?ickness ( ,p]mian1 #chf ----1 on ?ree l9es ( flexure s9ce ! coal 9 ,lanca%ire1 #id ,human rema9s ( ,rec5t ,p]iod1 #aeg ---- 9 cav]n deposits1 #aef ,humboldt1 on m9]al "* ( rocks1 #fjb ,humphrey & ,abbot on ,mississippi d5udation1 #aad ,hung>y1 tra*yte (1 #eeh ,hunt1 ,/]ry1 on action ( wat] 9 metamorphism1 #ehe ,huronian s]ies1 ?ickness ( !1 #dij ,huxley1 ,pr(essor1 on ,atlantic *alk-mud1 #bhg ----1 on aff9ity betwe5 reptiles & birds1 #cch ----1 on batra*ians ( ! coal1 #djg ----1 on fi% ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 #ddc-e ----1 on ,pt]aspis1 #dfc ,hyna d5 ( ,kirkdale cave1 #aeg ,hyna spela1 too? (1 #afe ,hybodus plicatilis1 ,rhtic b$s1 #cfg ---- reticulatus1 ,lias1 #cei ,hydro!rmal action produc+ metamorphism1 #ehd ---- 9 =mation ( granite1 #eee ---- =m+ granite ve9s1 #egc ,hym5oc>is v]micauda1 #dhd ,hyp]odap$on ,gordoni1 ,trias1 #cgj ,hyp]/h5e1 #dii1 #ejb ---- rock1 #eje ---- rocks ( ,skye1 #dia ,hypog5e rocks1 uni=mity ( m9]al "* 91 #fjb ---- rocks1 t]m def9$1 #bf ,hypsiprymnus ,gaim>di1 mol> ( rec5t1 #cbg ,hy!1 ,neocomian b$s (1 #cjh ,,ice1 erosion ( lake-bas9s consid]$1 #ahd1 #ahh ----1 abrad+ p[] (1 #afh ----1 cont95tal1 ( ,gre5l&1 #agj ,iceb]gs1 drift c>ri$ by1 #agb ---- /r&$ 9 ,baff9's ,bay1 #agc ,ice-borne erratics at ,*i*e/]1 #aha ,icel&1 glass cavities 9 qu>tz (1 #eee ----1 fl[ ( lava 91 #ebc ,i*?yosaurus communis1 ,lias1 #cfa ,idocrase1 #ejj ,i*?yodorulite ( ! ,lias1 #cei ,iguanodon ,mantelli1 ,weald ,clay1 #cae ,ilfracombe ,gr\p ( ,devon1 #ddi ,incl9$ /rata1 #gc ,india1 ,mioc5e =mations (1 #bbf ,india1 ,upp] ,mioc5e (1 #bbf ,inf]ior ,oolite1 ?ickness & fossils (1 #cdi ,infusoria 9 tripoli1 #ea ,inl& sea-cliffs1 #ajc ,inoc]amus ,lam>ckii1 ,:ite ,*alk1 #bie ,insect 9 ,am]ican coal1 #daf ---- b$s ( ! ,lias1 #cfc ,insect w+ ( neuropt]\s1 #cfc ,insects1 ,devonian1 ( ,canada1 #deg ---- 9 ,european coal1 #dje ----1 ,mioc5e1 ( ,croatia1 #bdc ----1 ,upp] ,mioc5e1 at n+51 #bbc ,intrusion1 a te/ ( age ( ,plutonic rocks1 #efe ----1 a te/ ( age ( volcanic rocks1 #eba ,inundation mud ( riv]s1 #aec ,irel&1 glacial drift (1 #aij ----1 yell[ s&/one (1 #dda ,iron pyrites1 #ejj ---- weapons ( ,swiss lake-dwell+s1 #adh ,isa/ra oblonga1 ,portl& ,s&1 #cce ,isle ( ,b\rbon1 lava curr5t ( !1 #eff ---- ,wight1 ,hemp/ead b$s1 #bdd ---- ,wight1 ,eoc5e b$s1 #bee ---- ,mull1 ,mioc5e leaf-b$ (1 #bdg ---- ,mull1 volcanic rocks1 #bdh ,isomorphism1 !ory (1 #ejb ,italy1 ,l[] ,mioc5e (1 #bdd ----1 ,old] ,plioc5e volcanoes (1 #ebc ----1 ,plioc5e (1 #bjg ----1 ,old] ,plioc5e flora (1 #bjh ----1 ,upp] ,mioc5e /rata (1 #bbf ,,jamieson1 ,mr4 ,t4 ,f41 on ,scot* glacial drift1 #age ,jaws ( mammalia 9 ,purbeck1 #cbg ,jeffreys1 ,mr4 ,gwyn1 on ,atlantic mud1 #bhh ,jo9t$ /ructure ( metamorphic rocks1 #ehi ,jones1 ,dr4 ,rup]t1 on ,eozoon ,canad5se1 #dia ,jorullo1 lava /ream (1 #eff ,judd1 ,mr41 on ,speeton clay1 #caa ,jukes1 ,mr41 on ,t>annon %ales1 #dfh ,jura1 erratic blocks on !1 #afi ----1 /ructure ( !1 #hb ,,kang>oo1 jaws (1 #aei ,ksegrotte1 ,b]tri* ,bad51 ,basaltic pill>s (1 #eab ,kaup1 ,pr(essor1 on footpr9ts ( ! ,trias1 #cgc ,keilhau1 ,pr(essor1 on granite ve9s1 #efb ----1 on planes ( foliation1 #eie ----1 on ,silurian granite ( ,norway1 #egc ----1 on protrusion ( granite1 #eha ,kell]1 ,dr4 ,f41 on lake-dwell+s1 #adh ,kell[ay ,rock1 p]c5tage ( ,ox=d clay fossils 91 #cda ,k5ti% ,rag1 #cjh ,keup]1 ( ,g]many1 #cge ---- or ,upp] ,trias ( ,engl&1 #cfi ,kilk5ny1 fossil plants (1 #dda ,killas1 alt]$ by granite 9 ,cornwall1 #ehb ,kiltorkan1 yell[ s&/one (1 ) ,anodonta1 #dda ,kimm]idge ,clay1 #cce ,k+1 ,dr41 on reptile footpr9ts 9 coal1 #djg ,k+1 ,mr41 on ,p]mian fossils1 #chh ,kirkdale cave1 hyna's d5 (1 #aeg ,kit*5-midd5s ( ,d5m>k1 #adf ,kleyn ,spaw5 b$s1 #bdb ,kn51 ,b>on von1 on ,brock5hur/ %ells1 #beg ,kon9ck1 ,m4 de1 on ,m\nta9 ,lime/one fi%1 #dcf ----1 on %ells ( ,may5ce bas91 #bdb ,kon9ckia ,leonh>di1 ,hall/adt1 #cgg ,,labrador rock1 #eje ---- s]ies1 #dij ,labradorite1 #dii1 #eja ,labyr9?odon ,jg]i1 section ( too?1 #cga ----1 too? (1 #cgj ,labyr9?odonts ( ,coal1 #djg ,lake-crat]s ( ! ,eifel1 #ecd ,lake di/ricts1 s\!rn limits ( !1 #ahd ,lake-dwell+s1 sc>city ( human rema9s 91 #adi ---- ( ,switz]l&1 #adh ,lakes1 deposits 91 #bg ----1 connection (1 ) glacial action1 #ahd-h ,lam>ck on bivalve mollusca1 #ed ,lam9ation ( clay slate1 #eid ,lamna elegans1 ,brackle%am1 #bfb ,lanca%ire1 va/ ?ickness ( rocks )\t correspond+ altitude 91 #aaa ,l&1 balance ( dry1 h[ pres]v$1 #aaf1 #aah ---- has be5 rais$1 n ! sea l[]$1 #gj ----1 mean height (1 above ! sea1 #aae ----1 rise (1 9 ,sw$51 #gb ----1 rise & fall (1 affect+ d5udation1 #aja ,l&-ice1 action (1 9 ,gre5l&1 #aga ,l&'s ,end1 column> granite at1 #eec ----1 porphyritic granite at1 #eef ,la ,ro*e1 rec5t deposits 9 e/u>y (1 #dj ,l>tet1 ,m41 on mammalia ( ,faluns1 #bad ----1 on ,ga/ornis ,p>isi5sis1 #bgf ----1 on re9de] p]iod1 #aej ,la/ra /iriaca1 ,monod1 #bci ,lat]al compression caus+ curv$ /rata1 #ge ,lat]ite ( ,giant's ,causeway1 #eji ,laur5tian gneiss ( ,scotl&1 #dic ---- ,gr\p1 ,upp] & ,l[]1 #dia ---- metamorphic rocks1 #fja ---- volcanic rocks1 #edi ,lava1 #ejg ---- consolidat+ on slopes1 #dif ---- curr5ts ( ,auv]gne1 #eda ---- /reams1 effect (1 #cj ---- ( ,la ,c\pe d',ayzac1 #eaa ---- ( ,jorullo1 #eff ,lead ve9s1 age (1 #faf ,leaf-b$ ( ,madeira 9 basalt & scori1 #ecb ----1 ,isle ( ,mull ,mioc5e1 #bdh ,l$a amygdaloides1 ,london ,clay1 #bff ---- ,de%ayesiana 7,nucula ,de%ayesiana71 #bda ---- lanceolata 7,l4 oblonga71 ,scot* drift1 #agf ---- truncata1 ,scot* drift1 #agg ,lee1 ,mr4 ,j4,e41 on ,pt]aspis ( ,l[] ,ludl[1 #dfc ,leidy1 ,dr41 on fossil quadrup$s ( ,nebraska1 #bdi ,lep]ditia inflata1 coal-measures1 #dje ,lepidod5dron1 ,griffi?sii1 #dda ---- corrugatum1 c>bonif]\s41 #dag ---- ,/]nb]gii1 coal-measures1 #dbc ,lepidolite1 #dii1 #eja ,lepido/robus ornatus1 ,coal1 #dbd ,lepidotus gigas1 ,lias1 #ceh ---- ,mantelli1 ,weald51 #cag ,leptna depressa1 ,w5lock1 #dff ---- ,moorei1 ,lias1 #cee ,level ( surface alt]$ by *ange ( subt]ranean heat1 #aai ,lewis1 hornbl5dic gneiss (1 #fja ,lias1 fi%es ( !1 #ceh ----1 fossils ( !1 #ced ---- & ,oolite1 orig9 ( !1 #cfd ----1 reptiles ( !1 #cfj ----1 insects ( !1 #cfc ----1 plants ( !1 #cfd ----1 plutonic rocks ( !1 #ega ----1 subdivisions ( !1 #cec ----1 volcanic rocks ( !1 #edd ,liebig1 on conv]sion ( coal into an?racite1 #djc ----1 on orig9 ( /alactite1 #aef ,lige1 lime/one cav]ns at1 #aef ,lightbody1 ,mr41 on ,l[] ,ludl[ %ales1 #dfa ,lignite1 conv]sion ( into coal1 #djc ,lima giganteum1 #ced ---- ,hop]i1 ,*alk1 #cjj ---- sp9osa1 ,:ite ,*alk1 #bid ,limagne d',auv]gne1 ,l[] ,mioc5e mammalia ( !1 #bcd ,limburg b$s1 #bdb ,lime1 sc>city (1 9 metamorphic rocks1 #fjd ---- 9 solution1 s\rce (1 #fi ,lime/one1 block ( /riat$1 #afh ----1 brecciat$1 #chg ---- ( *emical & organic orig91 #fa ----1 compact1 #eja ----1 ,hippurite1 #cjd ----1 magnesian1 #chg ----1 metamorphic or cry/all9e1 #egi ----1 ,m\nta91 & its fossils1 #dcj-h ----1 /riat$1 #afh ,limna longiscata1 #ee ,l+ula b$s1 volcanic tuffs ( !1 #edi ,l+ula ,cr$n]i1 ,p]mian1 #chh ,l+ula ,flags1 fossils ( !1 #dhd ,l+ula ,dumorti]i1 ,crag1 #bjj ---- ,lewisii1 ,ludl[1 #dfb ,l+ulella ,davisii1 #dhd ,lip>i ,isles1 tufas 91 #ehf ,liquidamb> europum1 #bji ,li?ro/rotion basalti=me1 ,c>bonif]\s1 #dcb ,lits coquilli]s1 #bge ,littoral d5udation def9$1 #ajb ,lituites giganteus1 ,ludl[1 #dfc ,llanb]is slates1 #dhf ,ll&eilo ,flags1 fossils ( !1 #dgc-e ,ll&eilo =mation1 ?ickness ( !1 #dge ----1 ,l[]1 #dge ,ll&ov]y ,gr\p1 classification ( !1 #dfh ---- ,rocks1 ?ickness ( ! ,l[]1 #dfi ,loam def9$1 #ch1 #aec ,lodes1 %ells & pebbles 91 #fjh ---- ,see ,m9]al ,ve9s4 ,loess ( fluviatile loam describ$1 #aec ----1 fossil %ells ( !1 #aed ,logan1 ,sir ,w41 on ,eozoon ,canad5se1 #dij ----1 on ,gaspe s&/ones1 #dee ----1 on ,huronian & ,laur5tian1 #dij ----1 on /igm>ia 9 "u-clays1 #cih ----1 on ?ickness ( ,nova ,scotia coal1 #dji ----1 on ?ickness ( ,laur5tian 9 ,canada1 #aac ,loire1 faluns ( !1 #baa ,london ,clay1 fossils ( !1 #bfd1 #bff ,longevity1 relative1 ( mammalia & te/acea1 #afb ,longmynd ,gr\p1 fauna ( !1 #dhf ,lonsdale1 ,mr41 on corals ( ,am]ica1 #bbi ----1 on ,devonian fossils1 #ddi ----1 on ,/onesfield slate1 #cde ----1 on ,unit$ ,/ates ,mioc5e corals1 #bbi ,lonsdaleia flori=mis1 ,c>bonif]\s1 #dcb ,l[e1 ,rev]5d ,r4 ,t41 on ,mogador %ells1 #ecg ,lubbock1 ,sir ,j41 on ! two /one-p]iods1 #adg ,luc9a s]rata1 ,brackle%am1 #bfb ,ludl[ =mation1 ,upp]1 #dei2 ,l[]1 #dfa ----1 bone-b$ ( ! ,upp]1 #dei ,lulwor? ,cove1 dirt-b$ (1 #ccc ,lycett1 ,mr41 on fossils ( ! ,great ,oolite1 #cdd ,lycopodiace ( ,coal1 #dbb ,lycopodium d5sum1 liv+ species1 #dbc ,lym-fiord1 m+l$ fre%-wat] & m>9e /rata (1 #ei ,lymnea caudata1 ,headon1 #bef ---- longiscata1 ,bembridge1 #bec ,lynton ,gr\p ( ,devon1 #ded ,,macl>51 ,mr41 on ,p5tl& ,hills1 volcanic rocks1 #edh ,macclesfield1 m>9e %ells #a1bjj feet high at1 #aha ,mac,clintock1 ,sir ,l41 on ,atlantic mud1 #bhg ,mac,culloch1 ,dr41 on ,ab]de5%ire granite1 #eeh ----1 on basaltic columns 9 ,skye1 #eaj ----1 on =mation ( hornbl5de-s*i/1 #ehb ----1 on trap1 #eai ,mac,mullen1 ,mr4 ,j41 on ,eozoon ,canad5se1 #dia ,macropus atlas1 l[] jaw (1 #aeh ---- major 7liv+71 l[] jaw (1 #aei ,madeira1 b$s ( lat]ite 91 #eji ----1 dike 9 valley 91 #eac ----1 ,plioc5e leaf-b$ & %ells 9 lavas (1 #ecb ----1 ,mioc5e volcanic rocks (1 #ecf ----1 w9d1 remov+ scori 91 #ig ,mae/ri*t b$s & _! fossils1 #bhc ,maffiotte1 ,don ,p$ro1 cit$1 #ech ,magas pumila1 ,:ite ,*alk1 #bid ,magnesian ,lime/one def9$1 #ch ---- & m>l-slate1 #chg ,magnetite1 #ejj ,maid/one1 ,upp] ,cretace\s fossils (1 #big ,malacolite1 #ejb ,malaise1 ,pr(essor1 on ,engih\l cave1 #aeg ,mammalia1 ant]ior to ,p>is gypsum1 table (1 #cbi ----1 ext9ct1 coeval ) man1 #aeb1 #aeg ----1 fossil1 ( ,middle ,purbeck1 #cbe ----1 fossil1 9 ,plioc5e 9 ,val d',arno1 #bjh ----1 fossil1 9 ! ,crag1 #aic1 #aig ----1 fossil1 ( ,vi5na bas91 #bbe ---- ( ! ,limagne d',auv]gne1 #bcd ---- ( ,siwalik ,hills1 #bbg ---- ( ! ,/onesfield slate1 #cde ----1 tee? ( ,po/-plioc5e1 #afe ,mammalia & te/acea1 comp>ative longevity (1 #afb ,mammo?1 rude c>v+ ( 9 ,p]igord cave1 #aej ---- 9 ,scot* till1 #age ---- ,see ,elephas primig5ius4 ,man1 antiquity (1 #aeb ,manfr$i on am\nt ( subarial d5udation1 #aad ,mantell1 ,dr41 on iguanodon ( ,weald51 #cac ----1 on ,ox=d ,clay belemnites1 #cdj ----1 on ,weald5 fossils1 #caf ,mantellia nidi=mis1 ,purbeck1 #cca ,map ( ,*alk =mation 9 ,france1 #cje ---- ( ,eoc5e t]ti>y bas9s1 #bej ---- ( ,hall/adt & ,/4 ,cassian b$s1 #cgf ,m>ble def9$1 #cg ---- ( ,c>r>a1 metamorphic1 #eii ,m>c\1 ,m41 on age ( ,weald5 b$s1 #cai ,m>g>ic acid1 #eia ,m>9e fauna ( ! ,c>bonif]\s1 #dcb ---- b$s und]ly+ ! ,london ,clay1 #bfi ---- & bracki%-wat] /rata 9 coal1 #djd ---- /rata1 h[ di/+ui%$ f fre%-wat]1 #ec-ei ,m>l f ,lake ,sup]ior1 #fc ---- & m>l-slate def9$1 #ch ----1 r$1 gre51 & :ite1 ( ,auv]gne1 #bcc ---- slate ( ,middle ,p]mian1 #chg ,m>supials1 ext9ct1 ( ,au/ralia1 #aei ,m>supites ,mill]i1 ,:ite ,*alk1 #bid ,massa*usetts1 plumbago (1 #ehc ,ma/odon arv]n5sis1 mol> (1 ,norwi* crag1 #aic ---- giganteus1 9 ,unit$ ,/ates aft] ! drift1 #ahc ,may5ce bas9 t]ti>ies1 #bdb ,may-,hill ,s&/one1 #dfh ,me*anical & *emical deposits1 #fj ---- !ory ( cleavage1 #eib ,m$it]ranean1 "o zoological prov9ce1 #abg ,megalodon cucullatus1 ,devonian1 #deb ,melania inqu9ata 7,c]i?ium melanoides71 #ee1 #bfh ,melania turritissima1 ,bembridge1 #bec ,melanopsis bucc9oidea1 #ee ,melaphyre1 a v>iety ( basalt1 #ejd ,m5evian b$s & _! fossils1 #dhd ,mesozoic1 t]m expla9$1 #abc ---- & ,ca9ozoic p]iods1 gap betwe5 !1 #bhb ---- & ,palozoic rocks1 limits ( !1 #che ,metals1 relative age ( diff]5t1 #fad ,metamorphic lime/one1 #egi ---- /rata1 orig9 (1 #egi ---- !ory1 objections to1 consid]$1 #ehg ---- rocks def9$1 #cb ,metamorphic rocks1 #egf ----1 cleavage (1 #ehh ----1 sc>city ( lime 91 #fjd ----1 ages (1 #eig ----1 ord] ( succession (1 #fjb ----1 uni=mity ( m9]al "* 91 #fjb ,metamorphism1 hydro!rmal action produc+1 #ehd ,metamorphosis ( trilobites1 #dga1 #dhg ,meteorites1 m9]als 91 #eja ,mexico1 ,gulf (1 t]re/rial rema9s wa%$ into1 #abh ,mey]1 ,mr4 ,k>l1 on fossil %ells ( ,madeira1 #ecg ----1 ,m4 ,h4 von1 on reptiles 9 coal1 #djg ----1 on ,weald5 ( ,g]many1 #cai ,miascite1 #eeh ,mica & its v>ieties1 #dii1 #eja ----1 h[ deposit$1 #dj ---- s*i/ or micace\s s*i/1 #egh ,micace\s s&/one1 orig9 (1 #cf ,micra/] cor-angu9um1 #bid ,microcon*us c>bon>ius1 coal-measures1 #dje ,microle/es antiquus1 ,upp] ,trias1 #cfh ,migrations ( quadrup$s1 #afa ,miliolite lime/one1 #bgd ,mill]1 ,hugh1 on ,old ,r$ ,s&/one fi%1 #ddc ----1 on salt lakes1 #cge ,milne ,edw>ds1 ,mr41 on ,palozoic corals1 #dcb ,m9*9hampton1 ,great ,oolite (1 #cdd ,m9]al composition a te/ ( age ( volcanic rocks1 #ebc ---- a te/ ( age ( plutonic rocks1 #efe ---- a te/ ( age ( /rata1 #abd ---- "* ( hypog5e rocks1 #fjb ---- spr+s ( ,auv]gne1 #fjd ,m9]al ve9s1 #fje ---- =m$ 9 fissures1 #fjf ----1 successive =mation (1 #fji ----1 swell+ & contraction (1 #faa ----1 relative age (1 #fad ----1 pebbles 91 #fjh ,m9]alisation ( organic rema9s1 #fe ,m9]als 9 meteorites1 #eja ----1 table ( ! mo/ abundant 9 hypog5e rocks1 #dii ,mioc5e ( ,bordeaux & s\? ( ,france1 #bad ---- & ,eoc5e1 l9e betwe5 !1 #bcj1 #bea ----1 ,l[]1 ( ,engl&1 #bdd ----1 ,l[]1 ( ,g]many & ,croatia1 #bdb ----1 ,l[]1 ( ,c5tral ,france1 #bca ----1 ,l[]1 ( ,italy1 #bdd ----1 ,l[]1 ( ,nebraska1 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #bdh ----1 t]m def9$1 #adc ----1 ,upp]1 ( ! ,bold]b]g1 #bbd ----1 ,upp]1 ( ,france1 #baa ----1 ,upp]1 ( ,italy1 #bbf ----1 ,upp]1 ( ,greece1 #bbf ----1 ,upp]1 ( ,india1 #bbf ----1 ,upp]1 ( ,vi5na bas91 #bbd ,mississippi1 s$im5t (1 us$ z a te/ ( d5udation by riv]s1 #aad ---- valley1 deposition & d5udation 9 !1 #ajb ,mit*ell1 ,mr41 on ,aralia fruit 9 ,alum ,bay1 ,eoc5e1 #bfc ,mit*ell1 ,sir ,t41 on ,well+ton caves1 #aeh ,mit*ell1 ,rev4 ,hugh1 on ,pt]aspis1 #ddf ,mitra ,scabra1 ,b>ton clay1 #bei ,mits*]li*1 on ,isomorphism1 #ejb ,modiola acum9ata1 ,p]mian1 #chg ,moel ,tryfa51 %ells f\nd at1 #aha ,mohs on isomorphism1 #ejb ,molasse1 ,l[]1 ( ,switz]l&1 #bce ----1 ,middle1 or ,m>9e1 ( ,switz]l&1 #bbc ----1 ,upp]1 fre%-wat]1 ( ,switz]l&1 #bag ----1 t]m expla9$1 #bag ,mollusca4 ,see ,%ells4 ----1 longevity ( species (1 #afb ---- ( ,hall/adt b$s1 #cgg ----1 value (1 9 classification1 #adb ---- ( ! ,c>bonif]\s1 #dce ,monitor ( ,?ur+ia1 #dfc ,monocl9ic feldsp>s1 #eja ,monod1 flora ( ! ,l[] ,molasse at1 #bcf ,mons1 uncon=mable /rata ne>1 #ie ,montblanc1 talcose granite (1 #efh ---- ,dor1 ,auv]gne1 ext9ct volcanoes (1 #bcb ----1 age ( volcano (1 #eda ,monte ,bolca1 fossil fi% (1 #edc ---- ,calvo1 section ( cross /ratification1 #dd ---- ,m>io1 age ( volcanic deposits (1 #ecc ---- ,nuovo1 =m$ #aech1 #ebe ,montm>tre1 gypse\s s]ies (1 #bgj ,monts ,dome1 ,auv]gne1 ext9ct volcanoes1 #die ,moore1 ,mr4 ,c41 on ,rhtic b$s1 #cff ----1 on ,upp] ,trias quadrup$s1 #cfi ,mora9es describ$1 #afi ,morea1 cretace\s volcanic rocks (1 #edd ,mortillet1 ,m4 de1 on ice-erosion ( lake-bas9s1 #ahd ,morton1 ,dr41 on age ( ,am]ican cretace\s rocks1 #cjg ,mosasaurus ,camp]i1 ,*alk1 #bhd ,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 fossils ( !1 #dcc-h ,mull1 ,isle (1 leaf-b$1 #bdg ,mn/]1 ,c\nt1 on fossils ( ,sol5h(51 #ccg ,mur*ison1 ,sir ,r41 on bracki%-wat] /rata 9 coal1 #djd ----1 on ,devonian s]ies1 #dci1 #ddi1 #ded ----1 on ,devonian i*?yolites1 #dec ----1 on ,eoc5e igne\s rocks1 #bgh ----1 on ,ll&ov]y b$s1 #dfh ----1 on ,laur5tian gneiss ( ,scotl&1 #dib ----1 on metamorphic rocks ( ,nor? ,highl&s1 #fja ----1 on ,monte ,bolca fi%-b$s1 #edc ----1 on "n ,p]mian1 #che ----1 on ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 #ddi ----1 on ,palozoic /rata1 ,que5aig1 #aab1 #aac ----1 on protrusion ( solid granite1 #egd ----1 on ,silurian1 #deh1 #dei1 #dfa1 #dfg1 #dgj1 #dgc1 #dge ----1 on ,t]ti>y volcanic rocks ( ,italy1 #ecc ----1 on ?ickness ( *alk 9 ,russia1 #bhg ----1 on ?ickness ( ! ,trias1 #cfi ----1 on ! ,upp] 8,old ,r$01 #dfh ,mur*isonia gracilis1 #dgi ,murex vag9atus1 #bjd ,mus*elkalk1 fossils ( !1 #cgh ,muscovite1 or common mica1 #dii1 #eja ,musk-ox1 fossil1 9 ,?ames valley1 #afa ,myliobates ,edw>dsi1 ,brackle%am1 #bfa ,mytilus septif]1 ,p]mian1 #chg ,,naples1 ,po/-plioc5e volcanic rocks (1 #ebe ----1 escape ( c>bonic acid ne>1 #fjd ,natica clausa1 ,scot* drift1 #agf ---- helicoides1 ,*illes=d b$s1 #aib ,natrolite1 #ejj ,nautilus c5tralis1 ,london ,clay1 #bff ---- ,danicus1 ,faxoe ,*alk1 #bhf ---- plicatus1 ,hy! b$s1 #cji ---- truncatus1 ,lias1 #cef ---- ziczac 7,aturia ziczac71 #bff ,nebraska1 ,mioc5e /rata (1 #bdh ,neck]1 ,m41 on 8und]ly+0 igne\s rocks1 #efb ----1 on dikes 9 ,vesuvius1 #ebf ,neocomian1 ,upp]1 #cjh ----1 ,middle1 #cab ----1 ,l[]1 #cab ----1 use ( ! t]m1 #bhb ,neoli?ic era1 #adg ,neozoic type ( corals1 #dca ,n]9a ,goodhallii1 ,coral ,rag1 #cci ,n]9an lime/one1 #cdj ,n]ita conoidea 7,n4 ,s*midelliana71 #bge ---- co/ulata1 ,great ,oolite1 #cde ---- granulosa1 #ee ,n]it9a concava1 ,headon1 #bee ---- globulus1 #ee ,neuf*tel1 co9s & iron tools 9 lake (1 #adi ,newb]ry1 ,dr41 on flora ( ,am]ican cretace\s rocks1 #cjg ,newca/le coal-field1 faults 91 #ij ,newf\ndl& bank describ$1 #ajf ,new ,j]sey1 ma/odon 91 #ahc ,new ,madrid1 8,sunk ,c\ntry0 91 #djb ,new ,r$ s&/one ( ,connecticut ,valley1 #cha ----1 trappean rocks ( !1 #ede ,new ,york1 ,devonian /rata (1 #def ----1 ,cambrian /rata (1 #dij ----1 ,silurian /rata (1 #dgh ----1 ,laur5tian /rata (1 #dia ,niag>a ,lime/one1 fossils ( !1 #dgi ,nidau1 iron tools 9 lake (1 #adh ,nile1 homog5e\s mud ( !1 #aed ,n9ety-fa?om dike 9 coal1 #ij ,nipadites ellipticus1 ,%eppey1 #bfd ,nodules 9 /rata1 h[ =m$1 #fc ,noegg]a?ia cuneifolia1 ,p]mian1 #cic ,nom5clature ( rocks1 #adj ---- ( volcanic m9]als1 #dii ,norfolk cliffs1 drift (1 #aij ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,see ,am]ica4 ,norway1 ,cambrian (1 #dhi ----1 foliation ( cry/all9e s*i/s 91 #eie ----1 granite ve9s 9 gneiss (1 #egc ----1 granite alt]+ fossilif]\s /rata 91 #eha ,norwi*1 or ,fluvio-m>9e crag1 #aic ,nova ,scotia coal-measures1 #dji ---- coal1 reptiles & %ells 91 #dad ----1 fold+ & d5udation ( b$s 91 #dag ,nucula ,cobboldi1 ,crag1 #aid ,nummulites lvigata1 ,brackle%am1 #bfj ---- ,pus*i1 ,pyr5ees1 #bgh ---- v>iol>ia1 ,brackle%am1 #bei ,nummulitic =mations1 #bgg ,,obolus ,,apoll9is1 9 ,russian grit1 #dgh ,obsidian1 #eje ,oceanic areas1 p]man5ce (1 #aag n+51 ,upp] ,mioc5e b$s (1 #bae ,oeynhaus51 ,m4 von1 on ,corni% granite ve9s1 #efj ,ogygia ,bu*ii1 #dgd ,oldhamia radiata3 ,o4 antiqua1 #dhg ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 ,upp]1 #ddj ----1 ,middle1 ) fi%1 #ddc ----1 ,l[]1 #ddf ----1 trap ( !1 #edg ----1 classification (1 #dci ,ol5us micrurus1 #dhd ,oligoc5e1 t]m = ,l[] ,mioc5e1 #bcj1 #bdd ,oligoclase1 #dii1 #ejj ,oliva ,dufresnii1 ,bold]b]g1 ,belgium1 #bbd ,oliv9e1 #dii ,omphyma turb9atum1 ,silurian1 #dff ,on*us t5ui/riatus1 ,silurian1 #dfj ,oolite1 classification & physical geography ( !1 #cba ----1 def9$1 #cg ----1 ,inf]ior1 fossils ( !1 #cdi1 #cej ---- & ,lias1 orig9 ( !1 #cfd ---- & ,*alk1 ,palontological break betwe51 #cch ,oolitic /rata1 palontological relations (1 #cea ---- volcanic rocks1 #ede ,ophiod]ma t5uibra*iata1 ,lias1 #ceg ,oppel on zones ( ,lias1 #cec ,orbigny1 ,alcide de1 on =am9if]a ( ,vi5na bas91 #bbe ----1 on orbitoidal lime/one1 #bgi ----1 on ,pisolitic lime/one1 #bhe ----1 on ,snonian1 #cjb ,oreodaphne ,he]ii1 ,italian ,plioc5e1 #bji ,organic rema9s1 m9]alisation (1 #fe ----1 te/s ( age ( /rata1 #abe ----1 te/s ( age ( volcanic rocks1 #ebb ----1 geological prov9ces (1 #abg ,oriskany ,s&/one1 #dgh ,or?is elegantula1 ,ludl[1 #df ---- gr&is1 ,c>adoc b$s1 #dgj ---- tric5>ia1 ,bala b$s1 #dgj ---- vesp]tilio1 ,bala b$s1 #dgj ,or?oc]as duplex1 #dgd ---- ,lud5se1 ,silurian1 #dfc ---- lat]ale1 #dcf ---- v5tricosum1 ,silurian1 #dfb ,or?oclase1 #dii1 #ejj ,or?ocla/ic feldsp>s1 #eja ,osborne or ,/4 ,hel5's s]ies1 ,eoc5e1 #bee ,o/eolepis1 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 #ddd ,o/raceon1 sp9e (1 ,brackle%am1 #bfa ,o/rea acum9ata1 ,full]'s e>?1 #cdi ---- c>9ata1 ,*alk m>l1 #cjj ---- columba1 ,*loritic s&1 #cjj ---- greg>ea1 ,coral ,rag1 #cci ---- deltoidea1 ,kimm]idge clay1 #ccf ---- di/orta1 ,middle ,purbeck1 #cbd ---- expansa1 ,portl& s&1 #ccf ---- ,m>%ii1 ,oolite1 #cea ---- vesicul>is1 ,*alk1 #bie ,otodus obliquus1 ,brackle%am1 #bfb ,outcrop ( /rata1 #hc ,ov]lapp+ /rata1 #ie ,ow51 ,pr(essor on ,ar*opt]yx1 #ccg ----1 on ,eoc5e ,zeuglodon1 #bgi ----1 on footpr9ts 9 ,trias1 #chb ----1 on fauna ( ,%eppey1 #bfe1 #bfg ----1 on ,ga/ornis ,p>isi5sis1 #bgf ----1 on ,labyr9?odon1 #cgj ----1 on mammalia ( ,/onesfield1 #cdg ----1 on ,purbeck mammalia1 #cbf1 #cbh ----1 on reptiles ( coal1 #djg1 #dad ----1 on zoological prov9ces ( ext9ct animals1 #afj ,ox1 too? ( 7rec5t71 #afe ,ox=d ,clay1 ?ickness & fossils (1 #cdj ,,pagham1 erratic block at1 #ahb ,pala/] asp]imus1 #dgb ,pal*9us gigas1 ,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 #dc ,palocoma t5uibra*iata1 ,lias1 #ceg ,paloniscus1 ,p]mian fi%1 #chi ---- comptus1 ,p4 elegans1 ,p4 glaphyrus1 #cij ,palo!rium magnum1 #bed ,palophis typhoeus1 ,brackle%am1 #bfa ,palozoic or ,paleozoic1 t]m def9$1 #abc ---- ,plutonic rocks1 #egb ---- rocks1 #deh ---- type ( corals1 #dca ,palagonia1 dikes ( lava 91 #eca ,paleoli?ic era1 #adg1 #adi ----1 alluvial deposits (1 #aej ,palm 9 ,swiss ,mioc5e1 #bcg ,palma1 volcanic crat] (1 #dig ,palud9a l5ta1 ,hemp/ead b$s1 #ee ---- orbicul>is1 ,bembridge1 #bec ,p>adoxides ,bohemicus1 #dhh ---- ,davidis1 ,l[] ,cambrian1 #dhe ,p>allelism ( fold$ /rata = long di/ances1 #ic ,p>is bas91 ,t]ti>y gr\p fir/ /udi$ 91 #ada ----1 ,t]ti>ies ( !1 #bgj ,p>ka decipi5s1 8,old ,r$10 #ddh ,p>kfield ,colli]y1 gr\nd-plan (1 #djj ,patagonia1 /rata (1 ri* 9 soda1 #ehg ,patella rugosa1 ,great ,oolite1 #cde ,pat]son1 ,dr41 on angiosp]m ( ! ,coal1 #dbi ,pea*1 ,mr4 ,c1 cit$1 #fja ----1 ,pt]aspis1 f\nd by1 #ddc ,pe>l/one1 #eje ,pebbles 9 m9]al ve9s1 #fjh ---- 9 *alk1 #bib ,pecopt]is elliptica1 ,coal1 #dba ,pect5 ,beav]i1 ,:ite ,*alk1 #bid ---- c9ctus1 ,neocomian1 #cab ---- isl&icus1 ,scot* ,drift1 #agf ---- jacobu1 9 t]ti>y ( ,sicily1 #bjf ---- qu9que-co/atus1 #cjj ---- ,valoni5sis1 ,rhtic b$s1 #cff ,pegmatite1 #eec ,p5>? b$s1 #cff ,p5gelly1 ,mr41 on ,bovey ,tracey lignite1 #bdf ----1 on fl9t-knives ( ,brixham ,cave1 #aeg ,p5tacr9us ,bri>eus1 ,lias1 #ceg ,p5tam]us ,knightii1 ,ayme/ry1 #dfa ---- oblongus1 & ,p4 lirata1 #dfi ,p5tl& ,hills1 volcanic rocks ( !1 #edh ,p]igord cave1 c>v+ ( mammo? 91 #aej ,p]man5ce ( cont95ts & oceans1 #aag ,p]mian ,flora1 #cib ---- ( ,g]many1 #cic ---- /rata1 ?ickness (1 9 nor? ( ,engl&1 #chf ----1 ,upp] & ,middle1 #chf1 #chg ----1 ,l[]1 #cij ,p]na ,mulleti1 ,neocomian1 #caj ,pe!rwyn1 ,devonian fossils (1 #dej ,petrifaction1 process (1 #fg ,petrophiloides ,ri*>dsoni1 ,%eppey1 #be ,pahcops caudatus1 ,silurian1 #dfg ---- latifrons1 ,devonian1 #dej ,phascolo!rium ,buckl&i1 #cdh ,phasianella ,h$d+ton5sis1 & ca/1 #ff ,phillippi1 on t]ti>y %ells ( ,sicily1 #bje ,phillips1 ,pr(essor1 on fossils di/ort$ by cleavage1 #eib ----1 on n9ety fa?om dike1 #ij ----1 on ,w5lock lime/one & %ale1 #dfe1 #dfg ----1 on ,yor$ale s]ies1 #cie ,phillips1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,ar?ur1 on orig9 ( gold ( ,cali=nia1 #fag ,phlebopt]is contigua1 ,inf]ior ,oolite1 #cej ,phlogopite1 #dii1 #eja ,pholadomya fidicula1 ,inf]ior ,oolite1 #cej ,phonolite1 #ejf ,phorus ext5sus1 ,london ,clay1 #bff ,phragmoc]as v5tricosum1 ,silurian1 #dfc ,physa ,bri/ovii1 ,middle ,purbeck1 #cbe ---- column>is1 #ee ---- hypnorum1 #ee ,pi$mont1 abs5ce ( lakes 91 #ahf ,pile dwell+s ( ,switz]l&1 #adh ,pilton1 gr\p (1 ,devon1 #ddi ,p9nul>ia 9 ,atlantic mud1 #bhh ,p9us sylve/ris 9 peat1 #adg ,pisolitic lime/one ( ,france1 #bhe ,pit*/one1 #eje ,placodus gigas1 ,mus*elkalk1 #chj ,placoids1 r>e 9 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 #ddc ,plagiaulax ,becklesii1 jaw & mol> (1 #cbg ,plagiocla/ic feldsp>s1 #eja ,plagio/oma giganteum1 ,lias1 #ced ---- ,hop]i1 ,*alk1 #cjj ,planorbis discus1 ,bembridge1 #bec ---- euomphalus1 #ee1 #bee ,plants ( ,bovey ,tracey1 ,mioc5e1 #bdg ----1 fossil fre%-wat]1 #eg ---- ( ! ,coal1 #dbj ---- ( ! ,lias1 #cfd ---- ( ! ,swiss ,upp] ,mioc5e1 #bai ,plas ,newydd1 rock alt]$ by dike ne>1 #eae ,pla/ic ,clay1 ,eoc5e1 #bfg ,platanus ac]oides1 ,mioc5e1 #bba ,platy/oma ,suessii1 ,hall/adt1 #cgg ,playfair1 on am\nt ( subarial d5udation1 #aad ---- on faults1 #hg ,plectrodus mirabilis1 ,ludl[1 #dfj ,plesiosaurus doli*odeirus1 ,lias1 #cfa ,pleurotoma att5uata1 ,brackle%am1 #bfb ---- exorta1 ,eoc5e1 #eg ,pleurotom>ia anglica1 & ca/1 #ff ---- c>9ata 7flammig]a71 #dcd ---- granulata1 ,inf]ior ,oolite1 #cea ---- ornata1 ,inf]ior ,oolite1 #cea ,pli5+]1 ,pr(essor1 on ,triassic mammif]1 #cfh ,plioc5e glacial =mations1 #ahi-ib ---- ,p]iod1 #ahi ---- plutonic rocks1 #efe ---- /rata ( ,sicily1 #bjd ----1 t]m def9$1 #adc ---- volcanic rocks1 #ebi ,plombires1 alkal9e wat]s (1 #ehe ,plumbago ( ,massa*usetts1 #ehc ,plutonic & s$im5t>y =mations1 diagram (1 #efg ----1 orig9 ( ! t]m1 #eea ---- rocks1 ,mesozoic1 #egj ----1 ,rec5t & ,plioc5e1 #efe ----1 ,mioc5e & ,eoc5e1 #efh ----1 unc]ta9 te/s ( age (1 #efd ---- def9$1 #ca ,podoc>ya ,buckl&i1 ,oolite1 #cdh ,polypt]us ( ! ,nile1 #ddd ,polyzoa & ,bryozoa1 t]ms expla9$1 #aig ,pomel1 ,m41 on fossil mammalia ( ! ,limagne1 #bce ,ponza ,isl&s1 globi=m pit*/one (1 #eab ,porites pyri=mis1 ,devonian1 #dea ,porphyritic granite1 #eef ,porphyry1 #ejf ,portl&1 ,cycads 9 dirt-b$ (1 #cca ---- oolite & s&1 #ccd 8,portl& screw10 a ca/ ( a %ell1 #cce ,porto ,santo1 m>9e %ells 9 volcanic tuff (1 #ecf ,po/-plioc5e p]iod1 climate ( !1 #afa ---- mammalia1 tee? (1 #afc ----1 t]m def9$1 #ade ---- lakes ( ,switz]l&1 #ahe ---- volcanic rocks1 #ebd ,potamides c9ctus1 #ef ,po?ocites ,grantonii1 coal-measures1 #dbi ,potsdam ,s&/one1 #dhj1 #dhi ,pot-/ones 9 ! ,*alk1 #bij ,pottsville1 coal seams (1 #djj ,p[rie1 ,mr41 on ,cephalaspis b$s1 #ddf ----1 on ,p>ka decipi5s1 #ddh ,pratt1 ,mr41 on ,eoc5e ,isle ( ,wight mammalia1 #bed ,pr$azzo1 alt]$ rocks at1 #ega ,pressure1 solidify+ rocks1 #fe ,pre/wi*1 ,mr41 on age ( ,sables inf]ieurs1 #bgf ----1 on ,*illes=d b$s1 #aib ----1 on ,coalbrook ,dale insects1 #dje ----1 on ,eoc5e /rata1 #bfg1 #bfi ----1 on faults 9 coal-measure ( ,coalbrook ,dale1 #hh ----1 on %ells ( ,london clay1 #bfd ----1 on ?ickness ( ,corall9e ,crag1 #aih ,prvo/1 ,m4 ,con/ant1 on ,p>is bas91 #bgj ,prim>y ,lime/one1 #egi ---- rocks1 #deh ----1 t]m def9$1 #abc 8,primordial ,zone0 ( ,bohemia1 #dha1 #dhb ,productus horridus1 ,p]mian1 #chh ---- semireticulatus 7antiquatus71 #dcd ,progressive developm5t indicat$ by l[ grade ( e>ly mammals1 #chd ,proteace ( ,aix-la-,*apelle flora1 #cjd ---- ( ,l[] ,molasse1 ,switz]l&1 #bcg ---- ( n+5 b$s1 #bba ,protog9e1 #egh ,protosaurus ( ,?ur+ia1 #cij1 #dfd ,protrusion ( solid granite1 #egd ,prov9ces ( animals & plants1 #abf ,psammodus porosus1 #dcg ,pseudocr9ites bifasciatus1 ,silurian1 #dff ,psilophyton pr9ceps1 ,devonian1 #dee ,pt]aspis 9 ,l[] ,ludl[ %ale1 #dfc ,pt]i*?ys1 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 #dde ,pt]odactyl ( ,k5ti% *alk1 #big ,pt]odactylus anglicus1 ,old ,r$1 #ddg ---- crassiro/ris1 ,sol5h(51 #ccg ,pty*odus decurr5s1 ,:ite ,*alk1 #big ,pudd+-/one or conglom]ate1 #cf ----1 =mation (1 #fb ,pumice1 #ejh ,punfield b$s1 bracki% & m>9e1 #cah ,pupa muscorum1 #aee ---- trid5s1 ,loess1 #ef ---- vetu/a1 ,coal1 #dae ,purbeck b$s1 ,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[]1 #cbc1 #cbd1 #ccf ----1 fossil mammalia ( ! ,middle1 #cbe ---- m>ble1 #cbd ----1 subdivisions ( !1 #ccc ,purity ( coal1 cause (1 #djb ,purpura tetragona1 ,r$ ,crag1 #aif ,purpuroidea nodulata1 ,great ,oolite1 #cde ,puy de ,cme1 cone & lava-curr5t (1 #ebh ---- de ,t>t>et1 lava-curr5t & cone (1 #ebg1 #edb ---- de ,p>i\1 crat] ( !1 #ebi ,puzzuoli1 elevation ( l& at1 #ebe ,pygopt]us m&ibul>is1 ,p]mian1 #cij ,pyr5ees1 *alk alt]$ by granite 9 !1 #egj ----1 curv$ /rata 91 #hf ----1 lam9ation ( clay-slate 91 #eif ,pyrox5e gr\p ( m9]als1 #dii1 #ejb ,pyrula reticulata1 ,crag1 #bjj ,,quad]-,,s&/e91 ,cretace\s age ( !1 #bic ,quadrumana ( ,g]s1 #bae ,quadrup$s1 ext9ct1 9 ,paleoli?ic gravels1 #aeb ,qu>tz1 specific gravity (1 #dii1 #ejj1 #eee ,qu>tzite or ,qu>tz ,rock1 #egi ,que5aig1 uncon=mable ,palozoic /rata at1 #aab ,qu5/$t on zones ( ,lias1 #cec ,,radaboj ,mioc5e1 br[n coal (1 #bdb ,radiolites foliaceus1 ,:ite ,*alk1 #cjf ---- ,mortoni1 ,:ite ,*alk1 #bie ---- radiosa1 ,:ite ,*alk1 #cjf ,radnor%ire1 /ratifi$ trap 91 #edi ,ra9-pr9ts ) worm tracks 9 ,coal1 #daf ----1 c>bonif]\s1 #daf ,ramsay1 ,pr(essor1 on break betwe5 ,upp] & ,l[] ,cretace\s1 #cja ----1 on breccias 9 ,p]mian1 #cia ----1 on esc>pm5ts1 #ajd ----1 on d5udation1 #ih ----1 on ice-erosion ( lake-bas9s1 #ahd ----1 on ,l+ula ,flags1 #dhd ----1 on position ( ,tremadoc b$s1 #dhc ----1 on ,silurian metamorphic rocks1 #fjb ----1 on subm]g5ce 9 glacial p]iod1 #aha ----1 on ?ickness ( ! ,l[] ,trias1 #cgb ----1 on ?ickness ( ,ll&eilo b$s1 #dge ----1 on ?ickness ( ! ,bala b$s1 #dgc ----1 on volcanic tuffs ( ,sn[don1 #edi ----1 on zones ( ! ,lias1 #cec ,ra/rites p]egr9us1 ,ll&eilo ,flags1 #dgc ,ra?1 ,von1 on ,tridymite1 #ejj ,rec5t ,p]iod def9$1 #ade ---- volcanic rocks1 #ebd ,record1 imp]fection (1 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 #ach ,r$ ,crag1 old] ,plioc5e1 #aid ---- ,s&/one1 ,orig9 (1 #cgd ---- ,sea & ,m$it]ranean1 di/9ct species 91 #abg ,r$ru?1 ,cornwall1 section ( ve9s 9 m9e1 #fjg ,re9de] ,p]iod 9 ,s\? ( ,france1 #adi ,reli/ran m9e1 pebbles 9 t9 (1 #fji ,reptiles ( ! ,coal1 #djf1 #dac ,reptiles ( ! ,lias1 #cfj ,retepora flu/racea1 ,p]mian1 #chh ,rhtic b$s betwe5 ,lias & ,trias1 #cff ,rh9e1 fre%-wat] /rata ( !1 #ec ----1 loess ( !1 #aed ,rh9oc]os 9 drift ( ,abbeville1 #aec ---- leptorh9us 7meg>h9us71 mol> (1 #afd ---- ti*orh9us1 mol> (1 #afd ,rhode ,isl&1 metamorphic rocks (1 #ehc ,rhyn*onella navicula1 ,ludl[1 #dfj ---- octoplicata1 ,:ite ,*alk1 #bid ---- sp9osa1 ,inf]ior ,oolite1 #cej ---- ,wilsoni1 ,ayme/ry1 #dfb ,ri*mond1 ,virg9ia1 ,triassic coal-field (1 #chb ,rigi & ,spe]1 ,l[] ,mioc5e ( !1 #bce ,rimula cla?rata1 ,great ,oolite1 #cde ,r9k1 ,mr41 on ,gre5l& l&-ice1 #aga ,ripple-m>k$ s&/one1 h[ =m$1 #df ,rise & fall ( l&1 #adf ,rissoa ,*a/elii1 ,hemp/ead b$s1 #bde ,riv]s1 d5ud+ p[]s (1 #aja1 #aad ,ro*es m\tonnees describ$1 #afi ,rock1 t]m def9$1 #bf ,rocks alt]$ by volcanic dikes1 #ead ---- alt]$ by subt]ranean gases1 #ehf ----1 analysis ( m9]als 91 #dii ----1 aque\s or /ratifi$1 #bg ----1 classification (1 #aba ----1 great ?ickness ( palozoic1 #aaj ----1 glacial scor+s on1 #afi ----1 metamorphic1 age (1 #eig ----1 plutonic age (1 #efd ----1 volcanic1 age (1 #ebj ----1 trappean1 #dig ----1 metamorphic1 def9$1 #cb ----1 f\r classes ( contemporane\s1 #cc ----1 plutonic1 def9$1 #ca ----1 te/s ( age (1 #abc1 #abe1 #ebj1 #efd1 #eig ----1 f\r contemporane\s classes (1 #abb ----1 und]ly+1 n always ! olde/1 #abb ----1 volcanic1 def9$1 #bi ,rock-salt ( ,trias1 #cga ----1 orig9 (1 #cgd ,rog]s1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,d41 on bl5d+ ( coal-seams1 #djj ----1 on ,virg9ian fault1 #ib ,rose1 ,gu/avus1 on isomorphism1 #ejb ----1 on ,fife%ire dike1 #edf ----1 on qu>tz 9 granite1 #eee ,rosso antico1 r$ porphyry ( ,egypt1 #ejf ,ro/ell>ia 7,hippocr5es7 ampla1 ,london ,clay1 #bff ,ro?1 ,m41 on ,mioc5e ( ,greece1 #bbf ,runn ( ,cut*1 salt (1 #cge ,rupelian b$s ( ,dumont1 #bda1 #bdb ,russia1 glaciation (1 #agd ----1 ,devonian (1 #ded ----1 ,silurian /rata (1 #dgh ,,sa>bruck1 reptiles 9 coal-field (1 #djf ,sabal major1 ,l[] ,mioc5e1 #bcg ,sables de ,bra*eux1 #bgf ---- moy5s1 ,p>is bas91 #bgc ,sahlite1 #ejb ,/4 ,abb's ,head1 curv$ /rata (1 #gf ----1 uncon=mable /ratification at1 #id ,/4 ,&rews1 c>bonif]\s trap-rocks (1 #ede ,/4 ,cassian1 fossil mollusca (1 #cgg ---- & ,hall/adt b$s1 #cgf ,/4 ,david's1 ,m5evian b$s (1 #dhe ,/4 ,m>y's1 %ells (1 #eci ,salt1 rock1 orig9 (1 #cgb ,salt]1 ,mr41 on fossils ( ,ar5ig gr\p1 #dgf ----1 on ,m5evian b$s1 #dhe ----1 on ,tremadoc fossils1 #dhc ,s&b]g]1 ,dr4 ,f41 on ,may5ce bas91 #bdb ,s&/one1 ,new ,r$1 #cfi ----1 ,old ,r$1 #dci ---- slab ) cracks1 #cag ----1 slab ( ripple-m>k$1 #de ---- slab ) footpr9ts1 #djh ,sao hirsuta1 #dhh ,saurians ( ! ,lias1 #cfa ----1 sudd5 de/ruction (1 #cfb ,sauri*?ys apicalis1 ,rhtic ,b$s1 #cfg ,saussure1 on v]tical conglom]ates1 #gc ,saxicava rugosa1 ,scot* drift1 #agf ,saxony1 b$s ( m9]als 91 #fji ,sc&9avia1 glaciation (1 #agd ,scaphites qualis1 ,*loritic m>l1 #bii ,scapolite1 #ejf ,s*e]] on action ( wat] 9 metamorphism1 #ehe ,s*i/1 mica1 #egh ----1 argillace\s1 #egi ----1 hornbl5de1 #egh ,s*izodus ,s*lo!imi1 ,p]mian1 #chg ---- truncatus1 ,p]mian1 #chg ,s*m]l+1 ,dr41 on ,lige cav]ns1 #aeg ,s*orl-rock1 & s*orly granite1 #eeg ,s*wab1 ,m41 on ,celtic co9s 9 lake-dwell+s1 #adi ,scolio/oma1 ,/4 ,cassian1 #cgg ,scoresby1 on ,arctic iceb]gs1 #agb ,scoriace\s lava1 #ejg ,scori1 #ejh ,scotl&1 8,fundam5tal gneiss0 (1 #dic ----1 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one (1 #ddj ----1 glaciation (1 #age ,screws1 fossil1 int]nal ca/s ( %ells1 #ff ,scrope1 ,mr41 on ,isle ( ,ponza1 globi=m pit*/one1 #eab ----1 on m9]als 9 lava1 #ebd ----1 on wat] 9 lava1 #eee ,scudd]1 ,mr41 on ,devonian insects ( ,canada1 #deg ,sea1 app>5t fall (1 caus$ by rise ( l&1 #gj ----1 d5ud+ p[] ( !1 #aje ----1 deep s\nd+s 91 #bhg ----1 mean dep? ( !1 #aah ---- cliffs1 inl&1 #ajc ,second>y & ,t]ti>y1 gap betwe5 !1 #bha ----1 t]m def9$1 #abc ,section ( ,auv]gne alluvium1 #ajj ---- ( c>bonif]\s rocks1 ,lanca%ire1 #he ---- ( *alk & gre5s&1 #bhg ---- ( crags ne> ,woodbridge1 ,suffolk1 #aih ---- ( cross-/ratification1 #db-dd ---- ( curv$ /rata ( ! ,jura1 #hb ---- ( dirt-b$ 9 ,isle ( ,portl&1 #ccb ---- ( ,=f>%ire1 %[+ curv$ /rata1 #gd ---- ( fossil tree1 %[+ texture1 #fg ---- ( fold$ & d5ud$ c>bonif]\s b$s1 ,nova ,scotia1 #dah ---- ( ! ,oolitic /rata1 #cbb ---- ( ,rec5t & ,po/-plioc5e alluvial deposits1 #aea ---- %[+ creeps 9 coal-m9es1 #gi ---- ( slaty cleavage1 #ehi ---- %[+ valleys ( d5udation1 #ih ---- %[+ ! ,weald =mation1 #cac ---- ( /rata ?9n+ out1 #da ---- ( sup]impos$ gr\ps at ,dundry ,hill1 #acj ---- ( uncon=mable /rata ne> ,mons1 #ie ,sections illu/rat+ faults1 #hh1 #ij1 #ia ,s$gwick1 ,pr(essor1 on ! ,cambrian ,gr\p1 #dha1 #dhb1 #dhf ----1 on classification ( ,ar5ig gr\p1 #dgf ----1 on ,devonian s]ies1 #dci1 #ddi ----1 on position ( ! ,may-,hill b$s1 #efh ----1 on protrusion ( solid granite1 #egd ----1 on slaty cleavage1 #ehh1 #eia ----1 on g>net 9 alt]$ rock1 #eae ----1 on concretion>y /ructure1 #fc ,s$im5t1 accumulation (1 caus+ a %ift+ ( ! subt]ranean1 #aag iso!rmals4 ,s$im5t>y b$s ( ! ,c>bonif]\s1 #cif ,selsea ,bill1 erratics at1 #ahb ,s5>mont on action ( wat] 9 metamorphism1 #ehe ,sequoia ,langsdorfii1 #bch 8,s]aphim10 head ( ,pt]ygotus anglicus1 #ddf ,s]apis1 m>9e littoral deposits (1 #adf ,s]p5t9e1 #egh ,s]pul atta*$ to ,grypha1 #dh ---- atta*$ to ,spatangus1 #di ---- atta*$ to ,apiocr9us1 #cdc ,%ale def9$1 #cf ---- ( ! ,l[] ,ludl[1 #dfa ,%>pe1 ,mr4 ,d41 on ,am]ican ,silurian fossils1 #dgi ----1 on fossils di/ort$ by cleavage1 #eib ,%ell-m\nds ( ,d5m>k1 #adf ,%ells1 ,arctic1 9 ,scot* drift1 #agg ----1 d]ivative1 9 ! ,crag1 #aie-bjc ----1 m>9e1 f\nd at great heights above ! sea1 #bi ----1 proportion ( liv+1 9 ! ,crags1 #aid1 #aie1 #aii ----1 value (1 9 classification1 #adb ----1 fossil1 ( ,virg9ia1 #bbh ---- ( ! ,london clay1 #bff ---- ( ! m\nta9 lime/one1 #dcc ---- ( ! ,b>ton clay1 #beh ---- ( ! ,oolite1 #cce1 #cde1 #cej ----1 m>9e1 ( ,moel ,tryfa51 #ahj ,%eppey1 fauna & flora (1 #bfd ----1 ,eoc5e fi% (1 #bfg ,%]r+ham1 erratic block at1 #aia ,%etl&1 granite (1 #eeh ----1 hornbl5de-s*i/ (1 #ehc ,sicily1 fauna & flora (1 old] ?an ! c\ntry itself1 #bjg ----1 new] ,plioc5e /rata (1 #bjd ----1 subt]ranean igne\s action 91 #efi ----1 undulat+ gypse\s m>ls (1 #hf ----1 volcanic dikes (1 #eca ,sidlaw ,hills1 trap (1 #edh ,sigill>ia 9 coal-measures1 #chj1 #daa1 #dbe ,sigill>ia lvigata1 coal-measures1 #dbf ,silice\s lime/one def9$1 #cg ,silurian1 d]ivation ( ! "n1 #deh ----1 granite ( ,norway1 #egc ----1 metamorphic1 ( ,nor? ,highl&s1 #fja ---- rocks1 classification (1 #deh ---- /rata ( ! cont95t ( ,europe1 #dgg ---- /rata ( ,unit$ ,/ates1 #dgh ---- volcanic rocks1 #edh ,siphonotreta unguiculata1 obolus grits1 #dgh ,siwlik ,hills1 fre%-wat] deposits (1 #bbf ,skapt> ,jokul1 fl[ ( lava f1 #ebc ,skye1 hyp]/h5e rocks (1 #dia ----1 ,isle (1 ,mioc5e sy5ite ( !1 #efh ----1 trap dike 91 #ead ,slaty cleavage1 #ehh ,slick5-sides1 9 opposite walls ( ve9s1 #fjh ----1 t]m def9$1 #hg ,smilax sagittif]a1 n+51 #bbb ,smi?1 ,mr4 ,w41 on ,:ite ,lias b$1 #cff ,sn[don1 volcanic tuffs (1 #edi ,soissonnais s&s1 #bge ,sol5a/ra cellulosa1 ,brock5hur/1 #beg ,sol5h(5 /one1 fossils 9 !1 #ccg ,solfat>a1 decomposition ( rocks 9 !1 #ehf ,somma1 cone & dikes (1 #ebf ,sop)1 ,mr4 ,t41 models ( outcrop ( /rata1 #he ,sorby1 ,mr41 on action ( wat] 9 metamorphism1 #ehe ----1 on glass cavities 9 qu>tz1 #eee ----1 on me*anical !ory ( cleavage1 #eib ----1 on ripple-m>ks 9 mica s*i/1 #eif ,s\? ,jogg9s1 section ( cliffs at1 #daj ,spalaco!rium1 ,purbeck1 #cdf ,spatangus radiatus1 ,*alk1 #bhd ---- ) s]pula atta*$1 #di ,species1 gradual *ange (1 #aci ---- old] ?an ! l& !y inhabit1 #bjg ----1 simil>ity ( conditions caus+ reappe>ance (1 #caa ,specific gravity ( basalt & tra*yte1 #ejd ,spe] & ,rigi1 ,l[] ,mioc5e ( !1 #bce ,speeton ,clay1 #caa ,sphrexo*us mirus1 ,silurian1 #dfg ,sphrulites ag>ici=mis1 ,:ite ,*alk1 #cjf ---- ( volcanic m9]als1 #dii ,sph5ophyllum erosum1 ,coal1 #dbe ,sph5opt]is gracilis1 ,ha/+s s&s1 #cah ,sph]oidal concretions 9 lime/one1 #fd ,spicula ( sponge1 ,atlantic mud1 #bhh ,spirif]a disjuncta1 ,devonian1 #dej ---- alata1 ,p]mian1 #chh ---- mucronata1 #ded ---- trigonalis1 & ,s4 glabra1 #dcd ,spirif]9a ,walcotti1 ,lias1 #cee ,spirol9a /5o/oma1 ,eoc5e1 #bge ,spirorbis c>bon>ius1 coal-measures1 #dje ,spondylus sp9osus1 ,:ite ,*alk1 #bid ,sponge 9 fl9t f ,:ite ,*alk1 #bif ,sponges1 vitre\s1 9 ! *alk1 #bia ,spr+s1 m9]al ( ,auv]gne1 #fjd ,/affa1 age ( column> basalt (1 #eci ,/alactite1 orig9 (1 expla9$1 #aef ,/>fi% 9 ,silurian /rata1 #dgb ,/ations ( species affect+ di/ribution ( fossils1 #ced ,/auria a/ri=mis1 #dca ,/]eogna?us ( ,/onesfield1 #cdh ,/]nb]g1 ,c\nt1 on insects 9 coal1 #die ,/igm>ia atta*$ to trunk ( ,sigill>ia1 #dbg ---- 9 coal-measures1 #cih1 #daa1 #dbf ---- ficoides & surface %[+ tub]cles1 ,coal1 #dbg ,/ilbite1 #ejj ,/ip]-,/ones or ,ar5ig ,gr\p1 #dge ,/ockw]k1 assemblage ( ve9s1 #fje ,/onesfield slate1 mammalia ( !1 #cde ,/rata1 t]m def9$1 alt]nations ( fre%-wat]1 & %all[ & deep1 #bg sea4 ----1 alt]nations ( m>9e & fre%-wat]1 #ajh ----1 curv$1 incl9$1 & v]tical1 #gc ----1 app>5t horizontality ( incl9$1 #ha ----1 contort$ 9 drift1 #agh ----1 contortion (1 9 ,cyclopean ,isles1 #ecj ----1 g5]al table ( fossilif]\s1 #aca ----1 horizontality (1 #dj ----1 orig9 ( metamorphic1 #hc ----1 ov]lapp+1 #ie ---- repeat$ by be+ d\bl$ back1 #hg ----1 sl[ gr[? (1 atte/$ by fossils1 #dg-ej ---- ( organic orig91 #ea ----1 te/s ( age (1 #abc ----1 uncon=mability (1 #id1 #ach ----1 va/ ?ickness (1 n =m+ high m\nta9s1 #aji-ac ,/ratification1 diagonal or cross1 #db1 #dd ----1 diff]5t =ms describ$1 #ci ---- ( metamorphic rocks consid]$1 #ehj ,/ratifi$ rocks1 composition (1 #ce ,/ri1 production (1 #afh ,/rickl&1 ,mr41 on ?ickness ( ! ,trias1 #cfi ,/rickl&9ia lirata1 #dfi ,/rike1 t]m expla9$1 #hj ,/r+ocephalus ,burt9i1 #deb ,/romboli1 lava (1 #eff ,/rophom5a depressa1 ,w5lock1 #dff ---- gr&is1 #dga ,/ud]1 ,mr41 on gneiss ( ! ,jungfrau1 #eii subarial d5udation1 av]age annual am\nt (1 #aac ,subap5n9e b$s1 proportion ( rec5t species 91 #adc ---- /rata1 old] ,plioc5e1 #bjh ,subm>9e d5udation1 #aje ,subsid5ce ( l& mu/ prepond]ate ov] upheaval1 #aaf ,succ9ea amphibia1 #ee ---- elongata1 #aee ,suess1 ,m41 on fossils ( ,/4 ,cassian b$s1 #cgf1 #cgg ----1 on ,vi5na bas91 #bbe ,suffolk1 ,crag (1 #aie 8,sunk c\ntry10 ,new ,madrid1 #djb ,sup]ga1 ,l[] ,mioc5e ( !1 #bdd ,sup]ior1 ,lake1 m>l 91 #fc ,sup]position ( deposits1 a te/ ( age1 #abd ---- a te/ ( age ( volcanic rocks1 #eba ,su!rl&%ire1 uncon=mable ,palozoic /rata 91 #aab ,swanage1 fossil mammalia f\nd at1 #cbf ,sw$51 ,cambrian (1 #dhi ----1 sl[ rise ( l& 91 #gb ----1 small ?ickness ( ,silurian /rata 91 #dgg ,switz]l&1 lake-dwell+s (1 #adh ----1 ,l[] ,molasse (1 #bce ----1 ,middle or ,m>9e ,molasse (1 #bbc ----1 ,upp] ,mioc5e (1 at n+51 #bae ,sydney coal-field1 ra9-pr9ts 91 #daf ,sy5ite1 composition (1 #eeb1 #eeg ----1 h[ f> connect$ ) trap-rocks1 #eeh ,sy5itic granite1 #eeg ,symonds1 ,rev4 ,w4 ,s41 on ,moel ,tryfa5 %ells1 #ahj ,syncl9al & anticl9al curves1 #gd1 #he ,,table ( ,botanical ,nom5clature1 #cjc ---- ( ,/4 ,cassian fossil mollusca1 #cgg ---- ( ,cretace\s =mations1 #bhc ---- ( ,devonian s]ies 9 ,devon1 #ddi ---- ( divisions ( ,ha/+s ,s&1 #caf ---- ( ,engli% & ,fr5* ,eoc5e /rata1 #beb ---- ( ages ( fossil v]tebrata1 #dfd ---- ( ,neocomian /rata1 #cjh ---- ( mammalia old] ?an ,p>is gypsum1 #cbi ---- ( m>9e te/acea 9 ! ,crag1 #bjb ---- ( ,oolitic /rata1 #cba ---- ( volcanic m9]als1 #dii ---- ( ,silurian /rata ( ,unit$ ,/ates1 #dgh ---- ( ,silurian rocks1 #deh ---- ( ,triassic /rata1 #cge ---- ( ,cambrian /rata1 #dhb ---- ( ,p]mian ( nor? ( ,engl&1 #chf ---- ( ,wel% coal-measures1 #cid ---- ( ?icknesses ( ,c>bonif]\s lime/one1 #cie ----1 g5]al1 ( fossilif]\s /rata1 #aca ,table ,m\nta91 granite ve9s 9 clay-slate (1 #efj ,tails ( homoc]cal & het]oc]cal fi%1 #chi ,talcose granite1 #eeg ---- gneiss1 #egh ,t>annon %ales1 #dfh ,t>t>et cone1 & lava (1 #ebg1 #edb ,tate1 ,mr41 on ,/ ,cassian fossils1 #cgg ,tealby s]ies1 ,middle ,neocomian1 #cab ,tee? ( ext9ct mammalia1 #afc1 #afd ,tell9a bal?ica 7,t4 solidula71 #aij ---- calc>ea 7,t4 proxima71 #agg ---- obliqua1 ,crag1 #aid ,temne*9us excavatus1 #bjj ,temnopleurus excavatus1 #bjj ,t5taculites annulatus1 ,silurian1 #dhi ,t]ebellum fusi=me1 ,b>ton1 #bei ---- sopita1 ,b>ton1 #bei ,t]ebratula aff9is1 ,ayme/ry1 #dfb ---- biplicata1 ,:ite ,*alk1 #bid ---- c>nea1 ,:ite ,*alk1 #bid ---- digona1 ,brad=d clay1 #cde ---- fimbria1 ,inf]ior ,oolite1 #cej ---- ha/ata1 ,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 #dcd ---- sella1 ,neocomian1 #caj ---- ,wilsoni1 ,ayme/ry1 #dfb ,t]ebratul9a /riata1 ,:ite ,*alk1 #bid ,t]ebriro/ra lyra1 ,*loritic ,s&1 #cjj ,t]$o navalis1 bor+ wood1 #ej ,t]ti>y =mations1 classification (1 #acg1 #adc ---- /rata1 subdivisions (1 #adc ----1 t]m def9$1 #abc ,te/acea4 ,see ,%ells4 ,?allog5s1 #cjc ,?amna/ra1 ,coral ,rag1 #cci ,?anet s&s1 #bfi ,!ca op]culata1 ,tremadoc b$s1 #dhc ,!codontosaurus1 too? (1 #cgd ,!codus p>vid5s1 ,ludl[1 #dfj ,!cosmilia annul>is1 ,coral ,rag1 #cci ,?irria1 ,m41 on ,n]9an lime/one1 #cdj ,?ompson1 ,dr41 on ,nummulites ( ,?ibet1 #bgg ,?omson1 ,wyville1 on ,atlantic mud1 #bhh ----1 on sponges 9 *alk mud1 #bib ,?ur+ia1 monitor (1 #cij1 #dfc ,?urmann1 ,m41 on ,b]nese ,jura ,oolite1 #cdd ----1 on /ructure ( ! ,jura1 #hc ,?ylaco!rium ,prevo/ii1 ,/onesfield1 #cdg ,tile-/ones ( ! ,upp] ,ludl[1 #dei ,tilgate =e/1 fossil ,iguanodon 91 #cae ,till describ$1 #aff ----1 mammo? 9 ,scot*1 #age ---- ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 #ahb ,t9 ve9s1 age (1 9 ,cornwall1 #fae ,titan(]rite1 #ejj ,torell1 ,dr41 on ice-action 9 ,gre5l&1 #agb ----1 on ,sw$i% ,cambrian fossils1 #dhi ,t\ra9e1 faluns (1 #baa ,t\rmal9e1 #ejj ,tra*ytic rocks1 #eje ---- tuff1 #ejf ---- porphyry1 #ejf ---- lava1 age (1 #ebc ,trap1 t]m def9$1 #dih ---- dike1 int]cept+ /rata1 #eah ---- dikes1 #eac-ag ----1 intrusion (1 betwe5 /rata1 #eag ---- rocks1 ages (1 #ebd-ej ---- rocks pass+ into granite1 #eei ---- tuff describ$1 #ejh ,trappean rocks1 nom5clature (1 #dig ---- rocks1 _! relation to active volcanoes1 #eag ,trass ( ,l[] ,eifel1 #ece ,trav]t91 h[ deposit$1 #fj ----1 infrieur ( ,p>is bas91 #bgc ,tree f]ns1 liv+1 #dbb ,trees erect 9 coal1 ,nova ,scotia1 #daa ,tremadoc slates & _! fossils1 #dhb ,tremolite1 #dii1 #ejb ,tr5ton lime/one1 fossils ( !1 #dgi ,trezza1 volcanic rocks (1 #ebi ,trias1 b$s ( passage betwe5 ,lias &1 #cff ---- ( ,engl&1 #cfi-gd ---- ( ,g]many1 #cge ----1 ,saurians ( !1 #cgj ---- ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 #cha ,triassic mammif]1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 #chc ,tricl9ic feldsp>s1 #eja ,tridymite1 cry/allis$ silica1 #ejj ,trigonellites latus1 ,kimm]idge clay1 #ccf ,trigonia caudata1 ,neocomian1 #caj ---- gibbosa1 ,portl& /one1 #cce ,trigonoc>pum ovatum1 & ,t4 oliv=me1 ,coal1 #dbi ,trigonotreta undulata1 ,p]mian1 #chh ,trilobites ( ,bala & ,c>adoc b$s1 #dga ----1 metamorphosis (1 #dga1 #dhh ---- ( primordial zone1 #dhg ,trilocul9a inflata1 ,eoc5e1 #bge ,trimm]1 ,mr41 on contort$ /rata1 #agi ----1 on %ells ( ,moel ,tryfa51 #ahf ,tr9ucleus conc5tricus1 ,t4 ,c>actaci1 #dgb ,trionyx1 c>apace (1 ,bembridge1 #bec ,tripoli compos$ ( diatomace1 #ea ,tro*oc]as giganteus1 ,ludl[1 #dfc ,trophon antiquum 7,fusus contr>ius71 #aif ---- cla?ratum1 ,scot* drift1 #agf ,tuff def9$1 #cj ----1 %elly1 ( ! ,gr& ,can>y1 #ech ----1 trappean1 ( ,ll&eilo rocks1 #dgc ----1 %elly1 ( ,g]govia1 #edb ,tupaia ,tana1 rec5t1 #cdg ,turn]1 ,dr41 on *emical decomposition1 #fh ,turrilites co/atus1 ,*alk1 #bii ,turritella multisulcata1 ,brackle%am1 #bfb ,tuscany1 m9]al spr+s (1 #fjd ,tylor1 ,mr41 on am\nt ( subarial d5udation1 #aad ,tyndall1 ,dr41 on slaty cleavage1 #eid ,tyn$ale fault1 #ij ,tynem\? cliff1 brecciat$ lime/one (1 #chg ,typhis pung5s1 ,b>ton clay1 #bei ,,uncites ,gryphus1 ,devonian1 #deb ,uncon=mability ( /rata1 #id1 #ach ,und]ly+1 t]m appli$ to plutonic rocks1 #cd ,ung] on ,am]ican =ms 9 ,swiss ,mioc5e flora1 #bbc1 #bci ---- on ,mioc5e plants ( ,croatia1 #bdc ,ungulite1 or ,obolus grit ( ,russia1 #dgg ,unio littoralis1 #ed ---- ,vald5sis1 ,ha/+s ,s&s1 #cag ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,cambrian ( !1 #dhi ----1 ,cretace\s rocks (1 #cjg ----1 ,devonian (1 #dee ----1 ,eoc5e /rata 9 !1 #bgh ----1 footpr9ts 9 ,c>bonif]\s (1 #djg ----1 ,l[] ,mioc5e (1 #bdh ----1 old] ,plioc5e & ,mioc5e =mations (1 #bbg ----1 ,silurian /rata (1 #dgh ----1 ,trias ( !1 #cha ,upheaval ( l& m ?an c\nt]act$ by subsid5ce1 #aaf ----1 p[] ( d5udation to c\nt]act1 #aje1 #aae ,upp] ,gre5s&1 or ,*loritic s]ies1 #bih ,upsala1 erratics on mod]n m>9e drift ne>1 #agd ,ural ,m\nta9s1 aurif]\s alluvium (1 #faf ,uralite1 #dii ,ursus spelu1 too? (1 #afe ,urville1 ,capta9 de1 on size ( iceb]gs1 #agb ,,val ,d,,rsquo2,,arno1 ,new] ,plioc5e (1 #bjg ,valleys1 orig9 (1 #ajb ,valors9e1 granite ve9s 9 talcose gneiss 91 #eii ,valvata pisc9alis1 #ee ,vanessa ,pluto1 ,l[] ,mioc5e1 ,croatia1 #bdc ,vegetation ( ! ,coal1 #dbj ---- ( ! ,devonian ( ,am]ica1 #dee ----4 ,see ,plants4 ,ve9s1 *emical deposits 91 #fab ----1 granite rocks alt]$ by1 #eei ----1 diff]5t k9ds ( m9]als1 #fje ----4 ,see ,m9]al ve9s4 ,ve9-/ones1 #faj ,v5]ic>dia planico/a1 #bfj ,v5etz1 ,m41 on ,alp9e glaci]s1 #agj ,v5triculites radiatus1 ,*alk1 #bib ,v]neuil1 ,m4 de1 on ,russian ,silurian1 #dfb ----1 on ,p]mian flora1 #cib ,v]tebrata1 progress ( discov]y ( fossil1 #dfd ,v]tical /rata1 #gc ,vesuvius1 ,rec5t & ,po/-plioc5e volcanic rocks (1 #ebe ----1 basaltic lavas (1 #ejh ----1 tuface\s /rata (1 #ebb ----1 dikes (1 #ebg ,vic>ya ,lujani1 ,punfield1 #cai ,vic5t91 column> basalt ( !1 #eaa ,vi5na ,bas91 ,upp] ,mioc5e b$s (1 #bbd ,v9e 9 ,upp] ,mioc5e b$s at n+51 #bba ,virg9ia1 eighty miles ( fault 91 #ib ----1 coal-field (1 #chb ,virlet1 ,m1 on corrosion ( rocks ne> ,cor9?1 #ehf ----1 on ,cretace\s traps ( ,greece1 #edd ----1 on fossils 9 ve9s1 #fjh ----1 on volcanic rocks ( ! ,morea1 #edd ,volcanic a% or tuff1 #ejh ---- breccia1 #eji ---- dikes1 #eac-af ---- =ce & d5udation oppos+ p[]s1 #aag ---- m\nta9s1 /ructure & orig9 (1 #did ,volcanic rocks def9$1 #bi ----1 m9]al composition (1 #dih ----1 ,rec5t & ,po/-plioc5e1 #ebd ----1 ,plioc5e1 #ebi ----1 ,mioc5e1 #ecf-dc ----1 ,eoc5e1 #edc ----1 ,cretace\s & ,liassic1 #edd1 #ede ----1 ,new ,r$1 ,p]mian & ,c>bonif]\s1 #ede ----1 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 #edg ----1 ,silurian1 ,cambrian & ,laur5tian1 #edh1 #edi ---- ( ,auv]gne1 #edj ----1 column> & globul>1 /ructure (1 #eaj ---- ( ,gr& ,can>y1 #ebh ---- ( ,silurian age1 #dgg ----1 special =ms ( /ructure (1 #ejf ----1 te/s ( age (1 #ebj-d ,volcanoes1 ext9ct1 #cj ---- ( ,auv]gne1 #die ,voltzia het]ophylla1 ,bunt]1 #chj ,voluta ambigua1 ,b>ton clay1 #bei ---- a?leta1 ,b>ton1 #bei ---- ,lamb]ti1 corall9e & ,r$ ,crag1 #aif ---- ,lamb]ti1 faluns1 #bad ---- nodosa1 ,london clay1 #bff ---- ,selseensis1 ,brackle%am1 #bfb ,von ,bu*1 ,leopold1 on 8elevation crat]s10 #dif ----1 on ,silurian plutonic rocks1 #egb ,,wacke describ$1 #ejh ,wagn]1 ,m41 on ,mioc5e ( ,greece1 #bbf ,wal*ia p9i=mis1 ,p]mian1 #cib ,wales & ,engl&1 glaciation (1 #ahj ,walli*1 ,dr41 on ,atlantic mud1 #bhg ,wat]1 d5ud+ p[] ( runn+1 #ih1 #aae ----1 action (1 9 metamorphism1 #ehd ,watt1 ,gregory1 on fusion ( rock1 #ehd ,weald clay & its fossils1 #cag ,weald5 area1 ?ickness ( !1 #cai ---- =mation1 #cac ---- flora1 #cbj ,web/]1 ,mr4 ,t41 on ,t]ti>y /rata1 #ada ,well+ton ,valley caves1 #aeh ,w5lock =mation1 fossils ( !1 #dfe-h ---- lime/one1 #dfe ---- %ale1 #dfg ,w]n] on m9]al ve9s 9 ,saxony1 #fji ---- on isomorphism1 #ejb ,we/wood1 ,mr41 on ,lias beetles1 #cfc ,wex=d1 ve9s ( copp] at1 #fae ,:itak]1 ,mr41 on subarial orig9 ( esc>pm5ts1 #ajd ,:ite or corall9e crag1 #aig ---- s& ( ,alum ,bay1 #ch ,:ymp]1 ,mr41 on ,arctic ,mioc5e plants1 #bdj ,williams1 ,mr41 on ,corni% lodes1 #fjg ,williamson1 ,pr(essor1 on ,conif]s ( ! ,coal1 #dbh ----1 on /ructure ( calamite1 #dbe ,w9d1 d5ud+ action ( !1 #ig ,wood1 ,mr4 ,se>les1 on ,bridl+ton %ells1 #aij ----1 on ,*illes=d & ,aldeby b$s1 #aib ----1 on %ells ( ! ,crags1 #aid1 #aie1 #aii ----1 on %ells ( ,crag & faluns comp>$1 #bac ----1 on fi% ( ,headon s]ies1 #bee ----1 table ( m>9e te/acea ( ! ,crag1 #bjb ----1 on ?ickness ( corall9e crag1 #aih ,woodw>d1 ,dr41 on ,/4 ,cassian fossils1 #cgg ,woodw>d1 ,mr4 ,h41 on ,pt]ygotus1 #ddg ,woolhope b$s1 #dfg ,woolwi* & ,read+ s]ies1 #bfg ,wright1 ,dr41 on ,b>ton %ells1 #beh ----1 on zones ( ! ,lias1 #cec ,wuns*1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,a41 on trees 9 volcanic a%1 #edf ,wyville ,?omson4 ,see ,?omson4 ,,xiphodon gracile1 ,p>is bas91 #bga ,xylobius ,sigill>i1 ,nova ,scotia coal1 #dae ,,yor$ale b$s1 ?ickness ( !1 #cie ,york%ire1 ,oolite (1 #cdi ,"y1 ,mr41 on se$s wa%$ out ( mammo? tusks1 #agf ,,ze*/e9 ( ,g]many1 #cib ,zeolites1 second>y volcanic m9]als1 #ejj ,zeuglodon cetoides1 ,eoc5e1 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #bhj ,zircon-sy5ite1 #eeh ,zoan?>ia rugosa & ,z4 aporosa1 #dca ,zones ( ! ,lias1 #cec ,zonites priscus1 ,coal1 #dae ,zoological prov9ces1 great ext5t (1 #abg ,zoophytes1 fossil1 #dh ----4 ,see ,corals1 ,bryozoa1 etc4 ,zuri*1 lake-dwell+s 9 ,lake (1 #adh