,,creed ,,and ,,deed  ,a ,,series ,,of  
,,discourses   ,by ,felix ,adler   #ahhj
     ,,prefatory ,,notice4  ,the        
lectures contained in the following     
pages are published by request of the   
society before which they were          
delivered4 ,those on ,immortality and   
,religion have been considerably        
abridged and condensed4 ,the remainder  
have been allowed to retain their       
original form without any serious       
modification4 ,the ,first ,anniversary  
,discourse reviews the work of the year1
 and gives a brief account of the       
motives which impelled the society to   
organize and of the general animus by   
which its labors are directed4 ,the     
,lecture entitled ,the ,form of the     
,ideal foreshadows the constructive     
purpose of the movement4 ,the articles  
on ,the ,evolution of ,hebrew ,religion 
and ,reformed ,judaism from the ,popular
 ,science ,monthly 7,september1 #ahgf7  
and the ,north ,american ,review        
7,july-,august and ,september-,october7 

contain in the substance of several of  
the lectures of last winter's course1   
and are reprinted in the appendix with  
the kind consent of the editors4 ,rigid 
adherrence to the requirements of       
systematic exposition is neither        
possible nor desirable in addresses of  
the kind and has not therefore been     
attempted4  ,in giving this volume to   
the public ,i gladly embrace the        
opportunity of expressing my sincere    
gratitude to those faithful and         
self-sacrificing friends whose          
indefatigable labors have gone so far to
 win for a hazardous venture the promise
 of assured permanence and satisfactory 
development4  ,felix ,adler4  ,new      
,york1 ,september1 #ahgg4     ,,creed   
,,and ,,deed     ,i4 ,,immortality      
not by the ,creed but by the ,deed4     
,the ,spciety which ,i have the         
privilege of addressing1 has been       
organized with the above for its motto4 
,some of my hearers have entirely       
abandoned the tenets of the positive    

religions2 others continue to hold them 
true1 but1 are discouraged by the lack  
of spiritual force1 the prominence given
 to mere externals1 the barren formalism
 in the churches and synagogues4 ,we    
agree in believing that theology is     
flourishing at the expense of religion4 
,it seems to us that differences in     
creed are constantly increasing1 and    
will continue to multiply with the      
growth and differentiation of the human 
intellect4 ,we perceive that every      
attempt to settle problems of faith has 
thus far signally failed1 nor can we    
hope for better results in the future4  
,certainty even with regard to the      
essential dogmas appears to us          
impossible4 ,we do not therefore deny   
dogma1 but prefer to remit it to the    
sphere of individual conviction with    
which public associations should have no
 concern4 ,far from believing that the  
doctrines of religion as commonly taught
 are essential to the well being of     
society1 we apprehend that the disputes 

concerning the author of the law have   
diverted the attention of men from the  
law itself1 and that the so-called      
duties toward ,god too often interfere  
with the proper performance of our      
duties toward one another4 ,it were     
better to insist less upon a right      
belief1 and more upou right action4  ,in
 order to find a common basis whereon   
good men1 whether believers or          
unbelievers can unite1 we look to the   
moral law itself1 whose certainty rests 
in the universal experience of civilized
 ,humanity4 ,we shall hold questions of 
faith in abeyance1 shall endeavor to    
stimulate the conscience and to this end
 shall seek to awaken an interest in the
 grave social problems of our day1 which
 need nothing so much as a vigorous     
exertion of our moral energies1 in order
 to arrive at a peaceable solution4 ,to 
broaden and deepen the ethical sentiment
 in ourselves1 and to hold up to the sad
 realities of the times1 the mirror of  
the ideal life1 is the object with which

 we set out4 ,we do not therefore delude
 ourselves with the hope that the ideal 
will ever be fully realized1 but are    
convinced that in aspiring to noble ends
 the soul will take on something of the 
grandeur of what it truly admires4      
,starting with the assumption that the  
doctrines of religion are incapable of  
proof1 it behooves us to show in one or 
more instances the fallacy of the       
arguments upon which they are commonly  
founded1 and we shall begin with the    
doctrine of ,,immortality4  ,in         
approaching our subject we are first    
confronted by the argument from the     
common consent of mankind4 ,like the    
belief in ,god1 the hope of immortality 
is said to be implanted in every human  
heart1 and the experience of travellers 
is cited to show that even the most     
barbarous races have given it expression
 in some form1 however crude4 ,aside    
from the fact that the statement1 as it 
stands1 is somewhat exaggerated1 we will
 admit that the belief in a future state

 is widely current among savage tribes4 
,but the value of this testimony becomes
 extremely doubtful on closer           
inspection4 ,a brief account of the     
origin of the conception of soul among  
our primitive ancestors1 will make this 
plain4  ,if we observe a child in its   
sleep1 some half articulate word1 some  
cry or gesture occasionally reveals to  
us the vividness of the dreams with     
which the little brain is teeming4 ,it  
is hardly doubtful that the child       
mistakes the visions of its dream for   
actual occurrences1 and attaches the    
same reality to these miasmas of the    
stagnant night as to the clear prospects
 of daylight reason4 ,even the adult    
sometimes finds it difficult to clear   
his brain of the fancies which occupied 
it in the hours of sleep4 ,and the test 
of large experience can alone enable him
 to distinguish between fact and        
phantom4 ,i call attention to these     
facts1 because the phenomena of sleep   
and dreams seem to offer a satisfactory 

clue to the naive theories of the lower 
races concerning death and the after    
life4 ,the savage indeed is the         
veritable child-man4 ,his ardent        
emotions1 his crude logic1 the eagerness
 with which he questions the how and    
wherefore of nature1 and the comparative
 ease with which his simple             
understanding accepts the most fanciful 
solutions1 all combine to place him on  
the level of the child4  ,aware that the
 body in sleep is at rest1 while at the 
same time the sleeper is conscious of   
acting and suffering1 visiting distant  
regions perhaps1 conversing with        
friends1 engaging in battle with        
enemies1 the savage reasoned that there 
must be a man within the man1 as it     
were1--an airy counterfeit of man which 
leaves its grosser tenement in the      
night1 and in the course of its         
wanderings experiences whatever the     
fortunes of the dream may chance to be4 
,instances are related where the body   
was prematurely disturbed1 the inner man

 was prevented from returning to his    
envelope1 and death resulted4 ,the      
shadow cast by the human figure1 an     
attenuated image of man1 connected with 
the body and yet distinct from it1      
afforded a curious confirmation of this 
artless theory4 ,the ,basutos99 affirm  
that a person having on one occasion    
incautiously approached the bank of a   
river1 his shadow was seized by a       
crocodile1 and he died in consequence4  
,the story of shadowless or soulless men
 has been made familiar to modern       
literature by ,chamisso's well known    
tale4 ,the spectral man who severs his  
connection with the body during sleep1  
remains concealed within it during the  
hours of waking1 and in this manner1 the
 idea of a human soul as distinct from  
the body1 takes its rise49999 ,it is    
easy to see how by extending the        
analogy1 what we call death must have   
appeared as only another form of sleep1 
and how the theory of dreams gave rise  
to a belief in the continuance of life  

beyond the grave4 ,that sleep and death 
are twin brothers1 was to the primitive 
man more than mere metaphor4 ,as in     
sleep1 so in death1 the body is at rest1
 but as in sleep1 so also in death1 a   
shade was supposed to go forth capable  
of acting and suffering1 and yearning to
 return to its former condition4 ,the   
apparitions of the deceased seen at     
night by the friends they had left      
behind1 were taken to be real           
visitations1 and corroborated the       
assumption of the continued existence of
 the departed4 ,the ghosts of the dead  
were dreaming phantoms1 debarred from   
permanently returning to their abandoned
 bodies4       99 ,the dream theory     
seems to be the one generally adopted by
      writers on primitive culture4 ,for
 an extended account of      this       
subject vide the works of ,tylor1       
,lubbock and ,bastian1      from which  
the illustrations given in the text are 
taken4       9999 ,peter ,schlemihl4    
999999 ,the soul was believed to be     

corporeal in nature1 only      more     
vague and shadowy than the framework of 
the body1 and      distinguished by     
greater swiftness of locomotion4  ,the  
view we have taken of the origin of the 
conception of soul is greatly           
strengthened when we consider the       
thoroughly material character of the    
ghost's life after death4 ,the ghost    
continues to be liable to hunger1 pain1 
cold1 as before4 ,but the living have   
shut it out from their communion2 in    
consequence it hates its former         
companions1 persecutes them where it    
can1 and wreaks its vengeance upon them 
when they are least prepared to resist  
it4 ,in a certain district of ,germany  
it was believed that the dead person1   
when troubled by the pangs of hunger1   
begins by gnawing its shroud until that 
is completely devoured1 then rising from
 the grave1 it stalks through the       
village and in the shape of a vampire1  
sits upon the children in their cradles1
 and sucks their blood4 ,when sated with

 the hideous feast1 it returns to the   
churchyard to renew its visits on the   
succeeding nights4 ,in order to hinder  
them from using their jaws1 it was      
customary to place stones or coins into 
the mouths of the dead before burial and
 the most grotesque devices were        
resorted to1 to prevent the much dreaded
 return of the denizens of the tomb4 ,in
 the middle ages the corpse was often   
spiked down to hinder its rising4 ,among
 the ,hottentots a hole was broken into 
the wall1 through which the corpse was  
carried from the house1 and then        
carefully covered up1 it being the      
prevailing superstition1 that the dead  
can only reenter by the same way in     
which they have previously made their   
exit4 ,among a certain negro tribe of   
,africa1 the path from the house to the 
grave was strewn with thorns1 in the    
hope that the ghost would find the path 
too painful1 and desist4 ,as late as    
#ahfa1 it occurred in a village in      
,gallicia1 that the ghost of a dead     

peasant was found to pursue the living1 
and the inhabitants rushing out to the  
grave fearfully mutilated the body1 to  
prevent it from committing further      
injury4  ,the same conception1 from a   
more charitable point of view1 led to   
the institution of regular meals for the
 ghosts at stated intervals4 ,in        
,north-eastern ,india1 after the body   
has been consigned to its final         
resting-place1 a friend of the deceased 
steps forward1 and holding food and     
drink in his hand1 speaks the following 
suggestive words1 ,take and eat2        
heretofore you have eaten and drunk with
 us1 you can do so no more2 you were one
 of us1 you can be so no longer2 we come
 no more to you2 come you not to us4 ,in
 ,eastern ,africa1 the ,wanicas are     
accustomed to fill a cocoa-nut shell    
with rice and tembo1 and place it near  
the grave4 ,in the ,congo district1 a   
channel is dug into the grave leading to
 the mouth of the corpse1 by which means
 food and drink are duly conveyed4 ,the 

sense of decorum impels certain         
,turanian tribes to place not only food1
 but even napkins1 on the graves of     
their relatives4 ,we cannot resist the  
temptation of quoting the following     
passage from ,mr4 ,tylor's graphic      
account of the manner in which the      
,chinese feast their ghostly visitors4  
,some victuals are left over for any    
blind or feeble spirit who may be late1 
and a pail of gruel is provided for     
headless souls1 with spoons for them to 
put it down their throats with4 ,such   
proceedings culminate in the so-called  
,universal ,rescue1 now and then        
celebrated1 when a little house is built
 for the expected visitors1 with        
separate accommodations1 and bath rooms 
for male and female ghosts4 99 ,in the  
,alpach ,valley of ,tyrol1 ghosts       
released from purgatory on the night of 
,all ,souls1 return to the houses of the
 peasantry4 ,a light is left burning in 
the dining room1 and a certain cake1    
prepared for the occasion1 is placed    

upon the table for their delectation1   
also a pot of grease for the poor souls 
to anoint their wounds with4       99   
,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 ii1 p4 #cd4
  ,occasionally1 to obviate the         
necessity of continued attendance upon  
the dead1 a single sumptuous feast is   
provided immediately after their demise1
 and this is believed to cancel their   
claims once for all4 ,in this manner    
arose the custom of funeral banquets4   
,in ,england1 in the fifteenth century1 
a noisy revel of three days' duration   
attended the obsequies of ,sir ,john    
,paston4 ,the so-called ,irish wake     
originated in the same way4 ,after the  
first outbreaks of grief have subsided1 
meat and drink are brought in1 chiefly  
the latter1 and what was at first       
intended for a parting entertainment to 
the dead1 often ends in the boisterous  
excesses of the living4  ,it is here    
proper to remark that the savage tribes 
who believe in an after existence1 do   
not in many instances claim this        

privilege for themselves alone1 but     
share it willingly with the lower       
animals and even with inanimate objects4
 ,weapons1 utensils1 and even           
victuals--have their ghostly            
representatives like men4 ,when a great 
chief dies1 his widow is often forced by
 public opinion to follow him to the    
grave1 in order that the departed brave 
may not be wifeless in the hereafter4   
,but besides the widow1 his horse1 his  
war-club1 his girdle1 his favorite      
trinkets are buried or burned with him  
to serve his use or vanity in           
spectre-land4  ,from what has preceded1 
it must be clear that the savage's      
conception of a ghost bears but a faint 
and distant resemblance to the idea of  
soul1 as it became current in the       
schools of philosophy2 nor can the      
latter derive support from the ignorant 
reasonings1 the hasty inductions of     
primitive man4 ,on the lower levels of  
culture the idea of immortality indeed  
is quite unknown4 ,if the ghost         

continues its shadowy existence after   
death1 it is none the less liable to    
come to an abrupt end1 and then nothing 
whatever of its former substance        
remains2 it is a pale1 filmy thing1     
exposed to the inroads of the hostile   
elements1 surrounded by numerous        
dangers1 to which it may at any moment  
succumb4 ,in the ,tonga ,islands only   
the souls of the well-born are supposed 
to survive at all4 ,the common people   
have no souls worth speaking of1 and    
when they die1 are completely           
extinguished4 ,the ghosts of ,guinea    
negroes are compelled to approach the   
bank of the terrible river of death4    
,some of them are thereupon wafted      
across to lead pleasant lives on the    
opposite side1 others are drowned in the
 stream1 or beaten to atoms with a club4
 ,with the ,fijians it is always a      
matter of doubt whether a soul will     
succeed at all in maintaining its feeble
 existence after it has left its        
protecting house of sinew and bone4 ,but

 they open a peculiarly dismal prospect 
to wifeless souls4 ,nanananga1 a fierce 
demoniac being1 watches for them on the 
shore as they approach1 and dashes them 
to pieces upon the rocks4 ,the          
,greenlanders affirm that after death   
the soul enters upon a long1 lone       
journey over a mountain full of         
precipitous descents1 covered with ice  
and snow4 ,the storms howl about its    
path1 and every step is fraught with    
pain and danger4 ,if any harm happens to
 the poor wanderer here1 then it dies   
the other death from which there is no  
re-awakening4  ,in the theories of a    
future state1 as devised by the lower   
races1 we are at a loss to detect the   
germs of any more spiritual longings4   
,far from looking forward with pleased  
anticipation or confidence to the world 
to come1 the barbarian shuddered as he  
thought of his approaching end1 and was 
loath to exchange the white and sunny   
world for the dreary companionship of   
luckless shades4 ,the life that awaited 

him was not in the majority of instances
 a better or a higher life than this2   
not free from the limitations of sense2 
no larger perfecting of what is here    
dwarfed and crippled2 it was lower1     
poorer1 meaner2 it was to the present1  
what the pressed flower is to the       
full-blown rose2 the same in substance1 
indeed1 but with its beauty perished1   
and its joyous fragrance evanesced4     
,the argument from the common consent of
 mankind in truth deserves no serious   
attention499       99 ,the doctrine of  
spiritual immortality is not common to  
the      human race4   ,the material    
life of the ghost bears no      analogy 
to what we mean by the soul's           
continuance4    ,the      continuance of
 the ghost's existence is not an        
immortal      continuance4  ,the        
argument cannot be substantiated1 it    
would prove nothing1 if it could4 ,the  
general concurrence of the whole human  
race in any form of error would not make
 that error less erroneous1 and the     

testimony of united millions against a  
solitary thinker might kick the beam    
when balanced in the scales of truth4   
,when we behold an ignorant knave       
squandering his ill-gotten gains on     
superfluities1 while honest people are  
famishing for want of the necessaries2  
when we see the unscrupulous politician 
outstripping the deserving statesman1 in
 the race for fame and station2 when    
modest merit shrinks in corners1 and the
 native royalty of talent plays courtier
 to the kings of lucre1 we are reminded 
of the complaint of ,job1 that the bad  
prosper1 and the righteous are          
down-trodden1 yet that they sleep       
together in the dust and the worm covers
 them alike4  ,this evident disparity   
between virtue and happiness has led men
 to take refuge in the thought of       
compensation hereafter1 and the         
necessity of a future state in which the
 good shall be rewarded1 and the evil   
punished1 according to the verdict of a 
just judge1 has been deduced even from  

the apparent injustice of the present4  
,thus the very imperfections of our own 
life on earth1 afford a pretext for the 
most ambitious conceptions of human     
destiny4  ,the argument from the        
necessity of reward and punishment is   
extremely popular among the uneducated1 
since it appeals ostensibly to their    
sense of justice and assures them that  
by the aid of ,divine omnipotence1 a    
full correspondence between worthiness  
and happiness1 though vainly expected   
here1 will be established in another    
sphere4 ,it behooves us to enquire      
whether there is anything in the nature 
of virtue1 that demands a correspondence
 of this kind4  ,the philosopher        
,epicurus was perhaps the first among   
the ancients to take strong ground in   
favor of the utilitarian view of virtue4
 ,pleasure1 he holds1 is the purpose of 
existence1 and virtue is thus reduced to
 enlightened self-interest4 ,there are  
different kinds of pleasure2 pleasures  
of the senses and of the soul4 ,epicurus

 points out that the former cannot be   
considered true pleasures1 since they   
defeat their own end1 blunting the      
capacity of enjoyment in proportion as  
they are indulged1 and incapable of     
affording permanent satisfaction4       
,himself a man of refined tastes and    
fastidious habits1 he shrank from the   
very coarseness of the passions1 and    
counselled moderation1 friendship and   
benevolence4 ,but he refused to         
recognize in these virtues any intrinsic
 value of their own1 and lauded them    
only because in contrast to the lower   
appetites1 the enjoyment they afford is 
lasting and constantly increases with   
their exercise4 ,it is easy to perceive 
that when the moral law is thus stripped
 of its authority to command1 the choice
 between duty and inclination will be   
governed by fortuitous preferences1 and 
not by principle4 ,it then remains for  
each individual to decide what form of  
pleasure may be most congenial to his   
temper and desires4 ,the philosopher    

will value the delights of contemplative
 ease1 and of kindly communion with his 
fellow-men2 the passionate youth may    
hold that a single deep draught from the
 chalice of sensual pleasure is worth   
more than a whole lifetime of neutral   
self-restraint2 eat and drink will be   
his motto2 remote consequences--who     
knows8 ,to-morrow we may die4 ,moreover 
the doctrine of enlightened             
self-interest has this fatal objection  
to it1 that if consistently applied1 at 
least among the powerful of the earth1  
it would lead to consequences the very  
reverse of moral4 ,it is but too true   
that honesty is not always the best     
policy2 that fraud and violence1 when   
perpetrated on a scale of sufficient    
magnitude1 7instance the division of    
unfortunate ,poland17 are not always    
punished as they deserve to be4 ,far    
from teaching the tyrant to subdue his  
baser instincts1 enlightened            
self-interest might rather lead him to  
stifle the accusing voice of conscience1

 and to root out the scruples that      
interfere with his ambition4 ,unless we 
concede that the moral law has a claim  
upon us which the constitution of our   
nature does not permit us to deny with  
impunity1 and that its pleasures differ1
 not only in degree1 but in kind1 from  
all others1 virtue1 while a necessity to
 the weak1 becomes folly in the strong2 
and ,napoleon1 that gigantic egotist1   
was correct1 when he called love a silly
 infatuation1 and sentiment a thing for 
women4  ,the principles of ,epicurus not
 only adulterate the motives of goodness
 with the desire of reward1 but they    
make the reward of desire the very      
sanction of all virtue1 and thus deprive
 human nature of its best title to      
nobility4  ,truly disinterestedness is  
the distinguishing mark of every high   
endeavor4 ,the pursuit of the artist is 
unselfish1 the beauty he creates is his 
reward4 ,the toil of the scientist in   
the pursuit of abstract truth is        
unselfish1 the truth he sees is his     

reward4 ,why should we hesitate to      
acknowledge in the domain of ethics1    
what we concede in the realm of art and 
science8 ,to say that unselfishness     
itself is only the more refined         
expression of a selfish instinct1 is to 
use the term selfish with a double      
meaning1 is a mere empty play on words4 
,we have the innate need of harmony in  
the moral relations2 this is our glory1 
and the stamp of the ,divine upon our   
nature4 ,we cannot demonstrate the      
existence of disinterested motives1 any 
more than we can demonstrate that there 
is joy in the sunlight and freedom in   
the mountain breeze4 ,the fact that we  
demand unselfishness in action alone    
assures us that the standard of         
enlightened self-interest is false4     
,and indeed if we consult the opinions  
of men1 where they are least likely to  
be warped by sophistry1 we shall find   
that disinterestedness is the universal 
criterion by which moral worth is       
measured4 ,if we suspect the motive we  

condemn the act4 ,if a person gives     
largely for some object of public useful
 ness or charity1 we do not permit the  
munificence of the gift to deceive our  
judgment4 ,perhaps he is merely desirous
 of vaunting his wealth1 perhaps it is  
social standing he aims at1 perhaps he  
is covetous of fame4 ,if these          
suspicions prove well founded1 the very 
men who accept his bounty will in their 
secret hearts despise him1 and by a     
certain revulsion of feeling we shall   
resent his action all the more1 because1
 not only is he destitute of honorable  
purpose1 but he has filched the fair    
front of virtue1 and defiled the laurel 
even in the wearing of it4  ,we do not  
even accord the name of goodness to that
 easy1 amiable sympathy which leads us  
to alleviate the sufferings of others1  
unless it be guided by wise regard for  
their permanent welfare4  ,the tattered 
clothes1 the haggard looks1 the piteous 
pleading voice of the pauper on the     
public highway may awaken our pity1 but 

the system of indiscriminate alms-giving
 is justly condemned as a weakness      
rather than a virtue4  ,on the other    
hand obedience to duty1 when it involves
 pain and self-abnegation1 seems to rise
 in the general estimation4 ,clearly    
because in this instance even the       
suspicion of interested motives is      
removed1 since hardship1 injury in      
estate and happiness1 and even the      
possible loss of life1 are among the    
foreseen consequences of the act4 ,it is
 for this reason that the ,book of      
,martyrs has become the golden book of  
mankind1 and that the story of their    
lives never fails to fill us with       
mingled sorrow1 and admiration1 and     
pride4 ,they are monuments on the field 
of history1 milestones on the path of   
human progress4 ,we regard them and gain
 new courage and confidence in our      
better selves4 ,the blazing pyre on the 
,campo ,fiore1 whereon ,giordano ,bruno 
breathes his last1 becomes a            
beacon-light for the truth-seeker2 the  

dying ,socrates still pours benignant   
peace over many a sufferer's couch2 the 
,man of sorrows1 on ,calvary1 comforts  
the hearts of the ,christian millions4  
,in the presence of these high examples 
the inadequacy of the selfish standard  
becomes clearly apparent4 ,we recognize 
what a sublime quality that is in man   
which enables him1 not only to triumph  
over torment and suffering1 but to      
devote his very self to destruction for 
the sake of honor and truth4 ,freely    
must virtue be wooed1 not for the dowry 
she may bring2 by loyal devotion to her 
for her own sake only1 can she be won6  
,if thus it appears that not only is    
there nothing in the nature of virtue to
 warrant a claim to reward1 but that it 
is her very nature to disclaim any      
reward1 it will become plain that the   
problem1 as stated in the beginning1    
rests upon an entirely false foundation4
 ,that the unrighteous and unprincipled 
should enjoy temporal happiness1 does   
not offend the law of justice4 ,that    

you1 my good sir1 honest in all your    
dealings1 truthful in all your acts1    
should be unhappy1 is greatly to be     
deplored4 ,why evil and unhappiness     
should have been allowed at all to enter
 a world created by an all good and all 
powerful ,being may fairly be asked4    
,why those who possess the treasure of a
 clear conscience should not also       
possess the lesser goods of earth1 is a 
question with which morality is in no   
wise concerned4  ,virtue can have no    
recompense1 save as it is its own       
recompense1 and vice can receive no real
 punishment save as it is its own       
avenger4 ,the hope of immortality1 in so
 far as it is based upon the supposed   
necessity of righting in a future state 
what is here wrong1 is therefore        
untenable1 for it is based upon the     
assumption of a wrong which exists in   
the imagination merely4 ,and he who     
claims a reward because of his virtue1  
has thereby forfeited his right to      
maintain the claim1 since that is not   

virtue1 which looks for reward4         
9999999999  ,having endeavored to show  
that the joys of earth cannot be claimed
 as the recompense of a moral life1 we  
must yet admit that the desire of       
happiness is altogether too strong and  
deep-seated in human nature to be thus  
summarily dismissed4 ,we seek happiness 
on its own account quite apart from any 
title which virtue may give us to its   
enjoyment4 ,were we created for misery8 
,does not the poverty and general       
unsatisfactoriness of our present       
condition warrant us in expecting ampler
 fulfilment1 permanent bliss in an after
 life8 ,i think we shall derive some    
assistance in discussing this question1 
by attempting to resolve the conception 
of happiness into its constituent       
elements4  ,pleasure has been defined to
 consist in the satisfaction of any of  
man's natural wants4 ,the variety of our
 pleasures corresponds to the diversity 
of our wants4  ,food to the hungry1 rest
 to the weary1 are sources of pleasure4 

,to feel on some cold wintry day the    
genial warmth of true hearth fire       
creeping into our blood1 and the frozen 
limbs relaxing their stiffness1 is      
pleasure4 ,all men admire the beautiful 
and delight in adornment4 ,even the rude
 savage seeks to gratify his aesthetic  
tastes1 so far as the means which nature
 places at his command permit4 ,the     
custom of tattooing the skin is widely  
practiced among the lower races1 and    
stars and circles1 trees and plants1 and
 other ingenious devices are impressed  
with laborious patience upon the        
different members of the body4 ,the     
chiefs of the ,fiji ,islanders1 a nude  
and cannibal race1 are represented as   
wearing an elaborate head-dress of three
 and even five feet in dimensions1 and  
were accustomed to spend several hours  
each day1 under the care of the royal   
hair-dresser4 ,among civilized men the  
desire for adornment finds vent chiefly 
in external objects1 while every coarse 
solicitation of attention to the person 

is shunned4 ,tastily decorated houses1  
flowers1 paintings1 music1 gratify our  
sense of symmetry1 and spread an        
atmosphere of culture and refinement in 
the vicinity of our daily occupations4  
,but there are deeper and purer joys in 
reserve4 ,man is eminently a social     
being2 he has the need of sympathy and  
depends upon the affections of his      
fellows4 ,the presence of cherished     
companions and friends becomes a        
necessity to him2 in absence he yearns  
for it1 and the lack of it is one of the
 most serious afflictions of human life4
 ,woe unto him who1 far from parents and
 loved kinsmen1 a lonely life must lead4
 ,his present joys devouring grief doth 
snatch4 ,his thoughts are ever straying 
in the distance back to his father's    
hall1 where the sun of life first rose  
upon him1 and where children of the     
common home1 playfully1 with gentle     
bonds1 close and closer drew their      
hearts together499 ,the tranquil delight
 which we derive from the enlargement of

 intellect1 and the exquisite inward    
satisfaction that results from high     
fidelity to duty1 may be mentioned as   
the last to crown the scale of          
pleasures4       99 ,goethe1 ,iphigenie 
auf ,tauris1 ,act ,i4  ,now1 it is      
evident that all these elements of      
happiness1 these diverse rays that      
nowhere melt into the perfect light1 are
 dependent upon the physical            
organization of man1 such as it is1 even
 for their partial attainment2 of the   
lower pleasures1 this is at once        
evident4 ,but a little reflection will  
show the same to be the case with the   
higher4 ,if we consider the aesthetic   
faculty1 we find its gratification      
conditioned by a physical basis4 ,what  
were music without the ear2 what the    
symmetry of form1 without the eye and   
touch8 ,the intellect1 in its turn1     
fashions-the rough timber of experience1
 which an ever flowing stream of        
sensation carries into the workshop of  
the brain4 ,can the mind feed upon      

itself8 ,can the laws of thought act    
otherwise than upon the material        
afforded by the senses8 ,the same is    
also true with respect to our moral     
qualities1 and the exercise of the      
virtues is inconceivable beyond the pale
 of human society4 ,all virtue          
presupposes a tendency to err2 the      
failings and limitations of our mortal  
condition4 ,justice is the adjustment of
 limitations common to all men in such  
manner that their stress shall not bear 
more heavily upon one than upon the     
other4 ,love is the expansion of one    
limited nature in another and their     
mutual enrichment by such union4        
,charity1 fortitude1 continence1        
whatever we applaud in human conduct1 is
 but an indirect testimony to the       
natural imperfections inherent in the   
human heart1 and is accounted admirable 
only in so far as it tends to ensure the
 best interests of the race on earth4   
,when therefore this body is corrupted1 
when we depart from out the fellowship  

of men1 the gratification of the        
appetites1 the enjoyment of beauty1 the 
exercise of reason1 and the practice of 
virtue become alike unthinkable4  ,we   
desire larger happiness than we can here
 achieve2 but because we desire a thing1
 are we therefore at all warranted in   
believing that we shall obtain it8 ,is  
the course of the world's affairs such  
as to encourage so flattering an        
hypothesis8 ,is not the fatality that so
 often attends our best efforts in this 
life1 an argument against1 rather than  
in favor of increasing felicity in      
another8 ,we should assume a wiser      
attitude as against fate4 ,there are    
those who fret under disappointment1 and
 murmur and rebel as if they had been   
defrauded of a right2 as if they had    
entered into a compact with destiny to  
their advantage1 as if the myriad worlds
 moved through space for their especial 
good4 ,this is an insane spirit4 ,we    
need something of the vim of stoicism to
 grapple with the difficulties of life2 

we need to cultivate a larger patience2 
an humble spirit prepared for every     
loss1 and welcoming every hour of joy as
 an unlooked for gain4 ,there are a     
thousand pleasures too in little things 
which we1 with the petulance of         
children1 daily spurn1 because we cannot
 have all we ask for4 ,in every stone   
there is instruction1 in every varying  
aspect of the sky there is beauty1      
wherever men congregate and commune1    
lessons of wisdom are revealed to the   
observer4 ,the movement of everlasting  
laws quivers in the meanest trifles1 and
 the eternities1 thinly veiled1 look out
 upon us with their solemn gaze from    
every passing mask of time4 ,these let  
us study2 art will help us2 science will
 open to us a wondrous chain of workings
 which the mind cannot exhaust1 and     
active exertions for the common weal    
will give a generous glow to our lives1 
and still the unquiet yearnings which we
 may never entirely set at rest4 ,you   
have seen how the flowers grow1 how that

 many seeds are scattered and but few   
take root2 how the germ slowly and with 
difficulty develops4 ,the rain waters   
it1 the warm sunbeam fosters it2 storms 
sweeping over the earth1 may crush it   
while it is still a young and tender    
shoot4 ,at last1 sometimes after years  
of preparation1 it buds and opens and   
blooms and becomes a delight and a      
glory1 a fount of fragrance1 a crown of 
beauty4 ,a few days pass and it droops2 
what the long process of time has slowly
 created1 a single moment may suffice to
 destroy2 and yet though its time was   
brief1 the flower fulfilled its nature  
only in that passing bloom2 all the     
previous stages of its existence had a  
meaning only as they led up to this1 the
 final revelation of its purpose4  ,the 
bloom of human life is morality2        
whatever else we may possess1 health1   
and wealth1 power1 grace1 knowledge1    
have a value only as they lead up to    
this2 have a meaning only as they make  
this possible4 ,nor should we complain  

that the blight of death so quickly     
withers what the course of threescore   
years has scarce sufficed to produce4   
,in the hour of our destruction1 we will
 lift up our hearts in triumph--we have 
blossomed6 ,we have blossomed6  ,but it 
will be said1 that the flower when it is
 wilted and withered here1 may be       
transplanted to fairer regions2 that the
 soul may take on new organs1 when it   
has abandoned its earthly habitation1   
and in a series of transformations of   
which1 it is true1 we can form no       
definite conception1 may enter afresh   
upon its struggles for worthiness in    
other spheres4 ,this is1 indeed1 the    
loftiest expression which the hope of   
immortality has found4 ,unlike the      
arguments previously considered1 it is  
unalloyed by any selfish motive1 is     
founded upon a really exalted sentiment1
 and it is ,love and ,virtue themselves 
that here take up the strain1 and sing  
us their animating song of ceaseless    
progress toward the good4 ,the argument 

in this shape1 involves the further     
question whether the existence of an    
independent and indestructible soul is  
assured1 and upon this point the whole  
problem of immortality finally hinges4  
,the question whether what we are       
accustomed to call the soul is a        
distinct and indivisible entity1 or     
merely the result of material processes1
 has divided mankind for more than two  
thousand years1 and some of the ablest  
thinkers have ranged themselves on      
either side4 ,as early as the fifth     
century ,b4 ,c4 the philosopher         
,democritus propounded materialistic    
doctrines among the ,greeks4 ,according 
to him1 the soul is a combination of    
smooth1 round1 polished and moving      
atoms1 and to the motions of these atoms
 the phenomena of life are to be        
ascribed4  ,among the ,romans1          
,lucretius advanced similar views4 ,he  
took particular pains to combat the     
vulgar fear of death1 protesting that   
the prospect of dissolution would lose  

its terrors1 did we not foolishly       
imagine ourselves conscious of being    
dead1 forgetting that death implies the 
entire cessation of consciousness4 ,the 
followers of materialistic opinions     
among the ancients1 were not a few4 ,but
 during the ascendancy of the ,christian
 ,church1 these opinions retired into   
the background1 until in the seventeenth
 and eighteenth centuries1 they were    
revived by such men as ,gassendi and ,la
 ,mettrie1 and others4 ,in modern times 
they have been widely spread4  ,the list
 of names on the opposite side is headed
 by ,socrates1 ,plato1 ,aristotle1 and  
embraces the great majority of writers  
and public teachers1 down to the present
 day4  ,it may appear strange that when 
the belief in immortality had once      
become current1 men should have been    
tempted to forego its pleasing          
prospects1 and even1 with a certain     
vehemence1 to urge their sceptical views
 upon others4 ,let us consider for a    
moment1 what it was that induced the    

materialists to assume their position4  
,the observed correspondence between    
mental and physical phenomena doubtless 
led them in the first instance to adopt 
their peculiar views4  ,we see in the   
tiny body of the new born babe1 barely  
more than the faint stirrings of animal 
life2 months pass by before it is able  
to form any clear conception of the     
persons and things in its vicinity1 the 
simpler mental processes appearing      
simultaneously with the growth of the   
bodily organs4 ,the intellect reaches   
its highest development in the age of   
manhood and womanhood1 when we stand in 
the maturity of our physical powers4 ,in
 that middle age of life lies1 with rare
 exceptions1 the best work we are       
destined to accomplish4 ,having entered 
upon the downward slope1 our faculties  
gradually lose their vigor1 until we    
sink into the final stage of drivelling 
old age1 and become feeble in mind1 as  
we are helpless in body4 ,in this manner
 the close connection between our       

spiritual and material parts1 is brought
 home forcibly1 even to the             
unreflecting2 as the one enlarges so    
does the other3 as the one diminishes so
 does the other3 together they increase1
 together they are weakened2 the        
inference is drawn1 shall it not be1    
that together they will perish8  ,the   
phenomena of sleep and of coma seem to  
convey the same lesson4 ,a haze steals  
over our consciousness2 sometimes       
settling into impenetrable night2 as the
 body for a time wears the semblance of 
death1 so also is the mind stupefied or 
completely paralyzed4 ,hours pass by2 in
 the interval1 the business of the world
 has gone on as before1 but to us there 
has been only a void and utter blank4   
,and thus it is said shall there be a   
void and a blank in the tomb2 time will 
pass by1 and we shall not know it2 men  
will move and act and we shall be none  
the wiser for it2 it will be all like   
sleep1 only that there will be no       
dreams4  ,and again when some malignant 

fever seizes upon the body and corrupts 
the currents of the blood1 how do the   
poor disordered thoughts dance about    
wildly1 driven by the lash of the       
distemper2 how does the use of          
stimulants besot the intellect1 so that 
every higher power is deadened2 how in  
the wild ravings of the diseased brain1 
do we behold the hideous mockery of     
mind4  ,and does not the grave itself   
testify loudly that the end is an end   
indeed2 the body falls to pieces1 the   
dust commingles with the dust1 and      
nothing remains1 nothing at least of    
which we can ever have experience4      
,right or wrong1 these facts impress the
 mind1 and their leaden weight serves to
 drag down our aspirations4  ,it is     
true1 the considerations ,i have        
enumerated are based upon a mere surface
 view of things1 but the more accurate  
methods of science seem1 at first sight1
 to confirm the general conclusions to  
which they lead4 ,on this point1 it     
would be well to dwell for a moment4    

,john ,stuart ,mill acknowledges that   
the evidence is well-nigh complete that 
all thought and feeling has some action 
of the bodily organism for its immediate
 coincident and accompaniment1 and that 
the specific variations1 and especially 
the different degrees of complication of
 the nervous and cerebral organism1     
correspond to differences in the        
development of our mental faculties4    
,the prodigious difficulties in the way 
of the study of the brain may long      
retard the progress of the investigator1
 but for the purposes of our argument we
 are at liberty to assume whatever is   
within the limits of possible           
achievement4 ,we may suppose that       
physiology will succeed so far that the 
brain will be accurately and completely 
mapped out1 and that the motions of the 
atoms upon which the thousand varying   
modes of thought and feeling depend1    
will be known and measured4 ,in         
anticipating such results1 we have      
reached the utmost tenable position of  

materialism4  ,but now to our surprise  
we discover that all this being allowed1
 the ultimate question1 what is soul1   
remains still unsolved and as insoluble 
as ever4 ,the unvarying coincidence of  
certain modes of soul with certain      
material processes may be within the    
range of proof1 but what cannot be      
proven is1 that these material processes
 explain the psychic phenomena4  ,if it 
is urged that the same difficulty       
presents itself in the explanation of   
the most ordinary occurrences1 this     
objection is based upon a               
misapprehension of the point at issue4  
,the scientist cannot show why heat     
should be convertible into motion1 but  
how it is thus transformed is easy to   
demonstrate1 and the exact mechanical   
equivalent of heat has been calculated4 
,but how certain motions of atoms in the
 brain should generate1 not heat1 but   
consciousness1 but thought and love1 is 
past all conception4 ,there are here two
 different orders of facts1 having no   

common principle to which they could    
both be reduced4 ,there is an impassable
 gulf between them which can in nowise  
be bridged over4  ,nor would it avail us
 to endow the atom itself with the      
promise and potency of intellect2 we    
should thereby throw back the issue a   
step further1 and disguise the problem  
whose existence it were better to       
plainly acknowledge4 ,the broad fact of 
consciousness therefore remains         
unexplained and inexplicable as before4 
,arrived at this limit1 science itself  
pauses and refuses to pass further4     
,some of the leading naturalists of our 
day have lately expressed themselves    
clearly and tersely in this sense4 ,the 
eminent physiologist ,dubois ,rey-mond  
denies that the connection between      
certain motions of certain atoms in the 
brain1 and what he calls1 the primal1   
undefinable and undeniable facts of     
consciousness1 is at all conceivable4   
,professor ,tyndall in his address on   
,the scope and limits of ,scientific    

,materialism1 explains his views with   
similar precision4  ,were our minds so  
expanded1 strengthened and illuminated  
as to enable us to see and feel the very
 molecules of the brain2 were we capable
 of following all their motions1 all    
their groupings1 all their electric     
discharges1 if such there be2 and were  
we intimately acquainted with the       
corresponding states of thought and     
feeling1 we should be as far as ever    
from the solution of the problem4 ,how  
are these physical processes connected  
by and with the facts of consciousness8 
,i do not think the materialist is      
entitled to say that his molecular      
groupings and his molecular motions     
explain everything1 in reality they     
explain nothing4444 ,the problem of body
 and soul is as insoluble in its modern 
form as it was in the pre-scientific    
ages4  ,now since it is impossible to   
demonstrate that the powers of mind are 
a product of matter1 the possibility    
undoubtedly remains that these powers   

may continue to exist even after their  
connection with the physical organism   
has been dissolved4 ,if all the         
arguments that are commonly adduced in  
support of the doctrine of a future life
 fall short of their object1 it is but  
just to add that every argument to the  
contrary is equally devoid of           
foundation4 ,the doctrine of immortality
 cannot be disproved4 ,of the nature of 
soul we are in absolute ignorance we    
know nothing2 what is more1 we can know 
nothing ,at this point we touch the     
utmost boundary of human reason1 and    
must be content to write mystery of     
mysteries4  ,in the state of settled    
uncertainty to which we are thus        
reduced1 the shape of our opinions will 
be determined by the bias of our natures
 or the influence of education4 ,the    
sceptic will remind us of the points in 
which we resemble all the perishable    
forms of nature and hold it improbable  
that we alone should escape the         
universal law of dissolution4 ,others   

will cling to the hope of continued     
life1 even on the brink of the grave1   
and the strong instinct of self         
preservation will give tone and color to
 their religious beliefs4 ,deep         
philosophical speculations are possible 
as to that ultimate source of being1    
that hidden light of which both matter  
and mind are diverse reflections4 ,and  
here too poetry assumes its legitimate  
office4 ,on the mists that cover the    
infinite abyss1 we may project whatever 
images1 foul or fair1 we list4 ,science 
you may be sure will never disturb us4  
,dogmatic assertion however1 on either  
side is totally unwarranted3 and the    
question of immortality 7,i think we    
must sooner or later make up our minds  
to that7 will remain an open one4       
,certain1 only1 is the fact of our      
uncertainty4  ,if the conclusions to    
which we have thus been led1 seem purely
 negative in their bearings1 they are   
none the less capable of certain        
positive applications1 which deserve our

 serious attention4 ,the longing for    
immortality has been developed into a   
morbid craving under the influence of   
the current religious teachings1 and has
 become a disturbing element in human   
society4 ,on more than one occasion it  
has imperilled the peace of nations1 and
 the doctrines of salvation became the  
watchwords of contending armies4 ,the   
doubtful chances of eternal felicity or 
damnation became the one absorbing topic
 on which men's minds dwelt1 and the    
wild horrors of the ,christian ,hell    
have cast a gloom over many an innocent 
life1 and curtailed the scant measure of
 its earthly happiness4 ,it were        
something gained1 if by a cool and      
dispassionate judgment the influence of 
these dismal fantasies could be         
lessened1 and men be freed from their   
slavish subjection to phantoms born of  
their own distempered imaginations4     
,furthermore1 it follows from what we   
have said that the belief in immortality
 should not be inculcated as a dogma in 

our schools of religion1 and above all  
that the dictates of the moral law      
should in no wise be made to depend upon
 it for their sanction4 ,the moral law  
is the common ground upon which all     
religious and in fact all true men may  
meet4 ,it is the one basis of union that
 remains to us amid the clashing        
antagonisms of the sects4 ,while dogma  
is by its nature1 open to attack1 and   
its acceptance at all times a matter of 
choice1 the principles of morality have 
a right to demand implicit obedience1   
and should rest as everlasting verities 
in the human heart4 ,let us reflect well
 before we imperil the latter by the    
undue prominence which we give the      
former4 ,it is not needful to impart to 
a child the whole truth1 but what it    
learns should be wholly true1 and       
nothing should be taught it as a        
fundamental fact which it can ever in   
after years be led to call in question4 
,how often has it occurred that when the
 riper reason of the man has rejected   

the tenets of the church in which he was
 educated1 he has been tempted to cast  
aside all the religious teachings of his
 youth1 the moral with the rest1 as idle
 fable and deceit4  ,and lastly1        
friends1 as we do not1 cannot know1 it  
is presumably wise that we should not   
know4 ,the vanity of all our efforts to 
grasp the infinite1 should teach us that
 on this island of time whereon we live1
 lies our work4 ,in its joys we may     
freely take delight2 for its woes we    
should reserve our sympathies1 and in   
laboring to advance the progress of the 
good we must find our satisfaction4     
,before closing this subject however let
 us recall vividly to our minds that the
 desire for continuance after death is  
capable of the most noble expression1   
and of supplying us with wholesome      
consolation and inspiriting motives to  
action4 ,the individual passes1 but the 
race lives6 ,there is a law in nature   
that no force is ever lost4 ,the        
thousand varying forms that ebb and flow

 around us are various only to our      
feeble vision4 ,at the core they are    
one1 transmuted1 yet the same1 changing 
yet changeless1 perishing to rise anew4 
,the law of the conservation of energy  
holds good throughout the entire domain 
of matter4 ,and such a law too obtains  
in our spiritual life4 ,the law of the  
conservation of moral energy is no less 
an abiding truth2 we are not dust       
merely1 that returns to dust2 we are not
 summer flies that bask in the sunshine 
of the passing day2 we are not bounded  
in our influence by the narrow tenure of
 our years4 ,say not when the sod has   
closed above those who have been dear to
 you that all is gone4 ,say not that the
 grace and loveliness1 and wisdom that  
once dwelt within the pallid form is    
breathed away like a hollow wind4 ,nor  
yet stand idly gazing upon the          
cloud-land of the future1 watching if   
you can trace perchance their shadowy   
lineaments fading into the dimness of   
untried worlds4 ,the dead are not dead  

if we have loved them truly4 ,in our own
 lives we give them immortality4 ,let us
 arise and take up the work they have   
left unfinished1 and preserve the       
treasures they have won1 and round out  
the circuit of their being to the       
fullness of an ampler orbit in our own4 
,all the good that was in them lives in 
you1 the germ and nucleus of the better 
that shall be4 ,all the evil that       
inhered in them shall be cleansed away  
in you and your virtues shall be the    
atonement for their sins4 ,thus shall   
the fathers live in the children1 and   
from generation to generation the bond  
that connects the past with the future  
remains unbroken4 ,they that have left  
you are not afar2 their presence is near
 and real1 a silent and august          
companionship4 ,in the still hours of   
meditation2 under the starlit night1 in 
the stress of action1 in trials and     
temptations1 you will hear their voices 
whispering words of cheer or warning1   
and your deeds are their deeds and your 

lives are their lives4  ,so does the    
light of other days still shine in the  
bright hued flowers that clothe our     
fields2 so do they who are long since   
gathered into the silent city of the    
dead still move about our houses1       
distributing kindness and nobleness     
among our lives4 ,so does the toll of   
the funeral bell become an alarum to    
rouse us to more active effort and to   
the nobler service of mankind4     ,,ii4
 ,,religion4  ,the question1 ,have we   
still a religion1 propounded by ,david  
,friedrich ,strauss some few years ago1 
will long engage the attention of       
radical thinkers4 ,it is clear that to  
answer it satisfactorily we must        
determine1 in the first instance1 what  
meaning ought rightly to be attached to 
the term religion4 ,in common parlance1 
it is often used with reference to mere 
externals1 a religious person being one 
who conforms to the rites and usages of 
some particular church4 ,on the other   
hand1 every innovation in the sphere of 

doctrine is branded as irreligious4     
,thus ,luther was deemed irreligious by 
the ,catholics2 ,st4 ,boniface by the   
heathen ,germans1 ,jesus by the ,jews1  
,elijah by the servants of ,baal4 ,there
 is not any single form1 nor even a     
single fundamental principle common to  
all religions4 ,religion is not         
identical with theology4 ,it is indeed  
often maintained that the belief in a   
personal ,god should be regarded as the 
foundation and criterion of religion2   
but upon this assumption1 two facts     
remain inexplicable1 the existence of   
religion before ever the idea of a deity
 had arisen among men1 and the existence
 of what may be termed an atheistical   
religion1 in conscious antagonism to the
 doctrine of a personal ,god4 ,among the
 lower races we find men worshipping1   
sacrificing and uttering their          
invocations to mountains1 fountains1    
rivers1 rocks and stones3 they know not 
a deity--sometimes they have not even   
idols1 and yet they certainly have1     

after a fashion of their own1 a         
religion4 ,again1 ,buddhism1 while      
possessing a subtle system of philosophy
 and an admirable code of ethics1 starts
 with the proposition that there never  
was a creation1 and in consequence1     
never a creator1 and yet more than four 
hundred millions of the earth's         
inhabitants call it their religion6     
,the question returns to us1 ,what is   
religion8 ,it is not creed2 it is not   
sacrifice2 it is not prayer2 it is not  
covered by the dogmas of any special    
form of belief2 it has acted as a       
controlling force in all ages1 in every 
zone1 among all manner of men4 ,are we  
devoid of it8 ,of it8 ,of what8  ,the   
feeling which the presence of the       
,infinite in the thoughts of man awakens
 within him1 is called1 the feeling of  
the sublime4 ,the feeling of the sublime
 is the root of the religious sentiment4
 ,it assumes various phases1 and to     
these correspond the various religions4 
,let us endeavor to enumerate some of   

the most prominent4  ,the feeling of the
 sublime is awakened by the mysterious4 
,the indefinite gives us our earliest   
presentiment of the infinite2 the       
religion of mystery is fetishism4 ,the  
feeling of the sublime is awakened by   
exhibitions of superhuman power4 ,the   
religion of power is paganism4 ,the     
feeling of the sublime is evoked by     
vastness2 the religions of vastness are 
,brahminism and ,buddhism4 ,the loftiest
 type of sublimity is to be found in the
 morally infinite4 ,judaism1            
,christianity and ,islam have sought to 
give it expression499       99 ,we do   
not pretend that the above schedule is  
at all      exhaustive4 ,various        
elements of the sublime1 not mentioned  
in the text1 have entered into the      
composition of each of      the great   
religions4 ,we have merely attempted to 
seize the      more salient feature of a
 few leading types4  ,let us discuss in 
the first place the origin of           
,fetishism4 ,there are certain natural  

phenomena that fill us with alarm1      
without our being able to attribute the 
effect to any definite cause4 ,the      
darkness of night1 the rustling of      
leaves1 the moaning of the wind through 
the forest1 the wailing cry of certain  
birds1 and the peculiar effects of a    
gathering fog1 are of this kind4 ,i have
 had occasion to observe a little child 
suddenly starting from its play with    
every sign of fear depicted upon its    
countenance2 the spasm passed away as   
quickly as it had come1 but was repeated
 at various intervals1 until at last the
 child ran up to me in uncontrollable   
alarm1 and threw up its arms for        
protection3 it was a raw wintry day1 a  
gusty wind blew fitfully against the    
windows2 and the dreary sound of the    
rattling panes could be distinctly heard
 in the stillness of the room2 on closer
 observation ,i noticed that the signs  
of alarm in the child recurred with     
great regularity1 as often as this sound
 was repeated4 ,in a similar way we may 

imagine our earliest ancestors to have  
been affected by whatever was vague and 
mysterious in nature4 ,the sense of     
uncertainty occasioned in this manner1  
gave rise in the primitive man to the   
first conceptions of mysterious powers  
beyond him4  ,the invention1 or rather  
the discovery1 of fire tended still     
further in the same direction4 ,to us it
 is barely possible to imagine life     
without this most useful of the         
elements4 ,the wild beast flees fire and
 fears it1 man uses it1 and it becomes  
the chief instrument of civilization4   
,but if we strive to picture to         
ourselves the state of the savage's mind
 on his first acquaintance with fire and
 its properties we shall find him       
utterly at a loss to account for4 ,how  
will he regard this nimble1 playful     
being1 so bright and yet so fearful in  
its ravages4 ,of the laws of chemical   
action he has of course no conception1  
but he has sometimes seen the lightning 
strike into the wood of the tree1 and   

now from the same wood he evokes the    
semblance of the lightning4 ,he is      
twirling two dry sticks between his     
hands2 of a sudden1 a lambent flame     
shoots forth1 seizes the wood1 makes    
away with it1 and leaves nothing but    
blackened cinders behind4 ,whence did it
 come1 whither has it vanished8 ,here   
was a new mystery2 a spiritual presence1
 latent in trees and stones2 kindly and 
beneficent at times1 then again hostile 
and fiercely destructive4  ,the mystery 
of the preparation of fire is celebrated
 in the ancient hymns of the ,vedah4 ,we
 there find its birth from the friction 
of the double sticks described1 and its 
properties rehearsed in reverent        
language4 ,it is invoked like any       
superior spirit to bless its votaries1  
and to protect them from harm4 ,the     
important role ascribed to fire in the  
sacred usages of the ancients1 is       
well-known1 and the origin of fire      
worship apparent4  ,the theory of       
dreams1 to which we have referred on a  

previous occasion1 contributed in like  
manner1 to extend the boundaries of the 
world of mystery4 ,convinced that he    
bore within himself an airy counterfeit 
of self1 the savage attributed the same 
species of possession to things animate 
and inanimate alike4 ,why should not    
beasts and rivers and stones have their 
ghosts like man8 ,moreover1 as to the   
ghosts of the human dead1 no one could  
tell where they might take up their     
abode4 ,they might be anywhere and      
everywhere4 ,their countless legions    
surrounded the living in all places4    
,they were heard shouting in the echo   
among the hills2 they were seen to ride 
past on the midnight gale4 ,often they  
assumed the shape of birds and reptiles 
and beasts of prey4 ,those creatures    
were singled out with a preference1     
whose movements and habits suggested the
 idea of mystery4 ,thus the owl was     
supposed to harbor an evil spirit1 and  
the serpent was worshipped because of   
its stealthy1 gliding motion1 its       

venomous bite1 and the fascination in   
its eye4 ,serpent worship existed the   
world over4 ,traces of it are preserved 
in the literature of the ,greeks and    
,romans1 and it was practised even among
 the ,hebrews1 as the ,books of ,kings  
attest4 ,among certain ,african tribes  
it is still customary to keep huge      
serpents in temples1 and priests are    
dedicated to their service4 ,powerful   
animals also1 such as the bear1 the lion
 and the tiger1 were sometimes supposed 
to contain the ghosts of departed       
chieftains1 and were revered            
accordingly4  ,if we remember the       
unfriendly relations supposed to subsist
 between the living and the dead1 we may
 conceive the state of alarm in which   
our primitive ancestors must have passed
 their lives on beholding themselves    
thus beset on every side1 with ghosts or
 demons in disguise4 ,a thousand        
fabulous terrors haunted their          
imagination4 ,wherever they turned they 
suspected lurking foes2 spirits were in 

the earth1 in the air1 in birds1 in     
animals1 in reptiles1 in trees4 ,they   
could not move a step without infringing
 on the boundaries of the spirit realm4 
,every object the least extraordinary in
 size1 or shape1 or color1 appeared to  
them the token of some demon's presence1
 and was worshipped in consequence1 not 
on its own account1 but because of the  
mystery which it suggested4  ,in this   
manner ,fetishism arose4 ,the fetish    
worshipper leaves his hut in the        
morning1 sees some bright pebble        
glistening on his path1 lifts it from   
the ground and says1 this shall be my   
fetish4 ,if he succeeds in the business 
of the day1 he places the little object 
in a shrine1 gilds it1 brings it food1  
addresses his prayers to it2 if it      
fails1 it is cast aside4 ,again1 if     
after a little time the fetish ceases to
 fulfil his wishes1 he breaks it and    
drags it in the mire by way of          
punishment4  ,such are a few of the     
gross and grotesque conceptions to which

 the religion of mystery has given      
birth4 ,it is true1 to the educated mind
 of the present day they will appear the
 very reverse of sublime4 ,but greatness
 is relative1 and our own loftier       
conceptions of the sublime are but the  
slow result of a long process of growth 
and development4   ,,the ,,religion ,,of
 ,,power  ,it has often been said that  
fear is the beginning of religion2 a    
statement of this kind however1 cannot  
be accepted1 without serious            
qualification4 ,there is a sense of     
kinship with the great1 in whatever form
 it may appear1 of which even the       
meanest are susceptible4 ,a nation      
worships the hero who ruins it2 and     
slaves will take a certain pride in the 
superiority of their masters4 ,it is not
 fear so much as admiration of might    
which makes men servants of the mighty4 
,the first tyrants on earth were1 in all
 likelihood1 strong1 agile1 and brave   
men1 possessing in an extraordinary     
degree1 the qualities which all others  

coveted4 ,they won applause1 they were  
looked up to as natural leaders1 and the
 arm of force maintained what the esteem
 of their fellows had accorded in the   
first instance4 ,there is a touch of the
 sublime even in the rudest adoration of
 force4  ,in the second stage of        
religious development1 which we are now 
approaching1 the theory of possession   
discussed in the above1 was extended to 
the heavenly bodies1 and the sun1 moon  
and stars were endowed with the         
attributes of personal beings4 ,hence   
the origin of the great gods4 ,as the   
sun is the most conspicuous body in the 
heavens1 the sun god figures as the     
central deity in every pantheon4 ,the   
various phases through which the        
luminary passes are represented in      
distinct personalities4 ,we find gods of
 the rising sun and of the setting sun2 
gods of the sun of spring1 summer and   
winter1 gods also of the                
cloud-enshrouded sun1 that battles with 
the storm giants4  ,since the hosts of  

heaven were supposed to be beings allied
 in nature to ourselves1 the action and 
interaction of the meteoric phenomena   
was ascribed to personal motives1 and   
the ingenuity of the primitive          
philosophers was exhausted in finding   
plausible pretexts to explain their     
attractions and repulsions1 their       
seeming friendships and hostilities4    
,thus arose the quaint and fanciful     
myths with which the traditions of      
antiquity abound4 ,those problems which 
the modern mind seeks to settle with the
 help of scientific investigation1 the  
limited experience of an earlier age was
 barely competent to attack1 and it     
covered with some pretty fiction1 the   
difficulties which it could not solve4  
,the genealogy and biography of the     
sun-god formed the main theme of all    
mythologies4  ,the daily progress of the
 sun through the heavens1 is described  
as follows3 ,each morning the golden    
crowned god leaves his golden palace in 
the ,east1 deep down below the ocean's  

waves2 he mounts his golden chariot1    
drawn by fiery steeds4 ,a rosy fingered 
maiden opens the purple gate of day1    
upward rush the steeds through blinding 
mist along the steep ascent of heaven1  
down they plunge at evening into the    
cooling waters of the sea2 the naiads   
await the deity and bear him backward to
 his orient home4  ,again the fair youth
 ,adonis is said to come out of the     
forest1 where nymphs had nurtured him4  
,venus and he hunt in joyous company    
through wood and dale4 ,one day ,adonis 
is slain2 the blood that trickled from  
his wounds has turned the roses red1 and
 the tender anemones have sprung from   
the tears that love wept when she beheld
 his fall4 ,the young god who comes out 
of the forest is ,spring2 for a time he 
disports joyously on earth1 with love   
for his companion1 but his term of life 
is quickly ended4 ,spring dies1 but ever
 returns anew4 ,among the ,syrian women 
it was customary for a long period to   
observe the festival of the ,adoneiah2  

with every sign of grief they first     
bemoaned the god's untimely death2 they 
beat their breasts1 cut off the rich    
luxuriance of their hair2 showed upon   
his effigy the marks of the wounds he   
had received2 bound him with linen      
bands1 anointed him with costly oil and 
spices1 and then buried him4 ,on the    
seventh day the cry was heard1 ,adonis  
lives1 ,adonis is resurrected from the  
grave4 ,the story of a young god typical
 of the ,spring who suffers a premature 
death1 and after a time resurrects from 
the grave is well known in the          
mythologies of other nations4  ,the     
progress of the sun through the seasons 
is thus personified4 ,the rays of the   
sun are described as the locks of the   
sun-god's hair4 ,when the sun's heat    
waxes1 these locks increase in          
abundance1 when it wanes they diminish1 
until in mid-winter the head of the     
sun-god is entirely bald4 ,at this      
season the god is supposed to be        
exceedingly weak1 and his eye1 bright in

 the summer1 is now become blind4 ,he is
 far from his home1 and subject to the  
power of his enemies1 the wintry storms4
 ,these traits recur in the familiar    
,hebrew myth of ,samson4 ,the word      
,samson means sun2 he is bound with     
ropes1 as is also the sun-god among the 
,polynesians4 ,the secret of his        
strength is in his hair4 ,shorn of this 
the giant becomes feeble as a child1 and
 is blinded by his foes4  ,but it is the
 sun in its conflict with the demons of 
the storm1 the sun as a warrior and a   
hero1 that chiefly attracts the         
religious reverence of the heroic age4  
,in nature there is no more striking    
exhibition of power than is revealed in 
the phenomena of the thunder-storm4     
,even to us it has not lost its         
sublimity1 and a sense of awe overcomes 
us whenever the mighty spectacle is     
enacted in the heavens4 ,primitive man  
had a far deeper interest in the issue  
of the tempest than we are now capable  
of appreciating4 ,to him the clouds     

appeared to be ferocious monsters1 and  
when they crowded about the central     
luminary1 he feared that they might     
quench its light in everlasting         
darkness4 ,the very existence of the    
universe seemed to be threatened4 ,the  
sun-god1 the true friend of man1 however
 arises to wage war against the demons3 
a terrific uproar follows and the       
contending forces meet4 ,do you hear    
,thor's far-sounding hammer1 ,jove's    
bolt falling in the thunder clap3 do you
 see ,indra's lightning-spear flashing  
across the sky1 and piercing the sides  
of the storm dragon8 ,the light         
triumphs2 the tempest rolls away1 but   
presently returns to be again defeated4 
,in this way arose the transparent      
stories of ,jupiter's conflict with     
,typhon1 his precipitate flight1 and his
 final victory2 the story of ,indra's   
warfare against the writhing serpent1   
,vritra1 and numerous others that might 
be mentioned4 ,it is the sun-god who    
flashes the lightning and hurls the     

thunder4 ,to him men owe the maintenance
 of the order of existence4 ,he is the  
mightiest of the gods4 ,fighting their  
battles on high1 he is invoked by the   
warriors to aid them in their           
earthly-conflicts2 he takes precedence  
of all the other deities2 he the        
strongest god is raised to the throne of
 the celestial state4  ,now if we study 
the history of these deities1 their     
intercourse among themselves and with   
men1 we find them to be no more than    
colossal images of ourselves cast on the
 mists of the unknown4 ,it is our face  
and form that ,jupiter wears2 the echo  
of our wishes comes back to us in his   
oracles4 ,if horses and cows could draw 
their gods1 an ancient philosopher has  
pointedly said1 as horses and cows would
 they draw them4 ,the gods share our    
passions1 the good and the evil1        
distinguished only in this1 that what we
 feebly attempt1 they can execute on a  
scale of gigantic magnitude4 ,they love 
and bless and shower a thousand gifts   

upon their worshippers2 but they can    
hate also2 are vain1 vindictive1 cruel4 
,the gods demand tribute4 ,like the     
kings of earth1 they received the best  
share of the spoils of war and of the   
chase2 and gold and silver also was     
deposited in their sanctuaries4         
,perfumed incense and dainty cakes were 
placed upon their altars4 ,the gods are 
hungry1 they must be fed4 ,the gods are 
thirsty1 and certain strong narcotic    
beverages were brewed especially for    
their benefit4 ,for this among the      
,hindoos the juice of the soma plant was
 mixed with pure milk4  ,the gods demand
 blood4 ,the wide prevalence of human   
sacrifice is the saddest fact that      
stains the annals of religious history4 
,among the ,fijians the new boat of the 
chieftain was not permitted to venture  
upon the waves until it had been washed 
with human blood1 in order to secure it 
against shipwreck4 ,among the ,khonds of
 ,india1 we learn that the body of a    
human victim was literally torn in      

pieces and his blood mixed with the new 
turned clod1 in order to insure a       
plentiful harvest4 ,it is estimated that
 at least twenty-five hundred human     
beings were annually sacrificed in the  
temples of ,mexico4 ,human sacrifice was
 known among the ,greeks1 and its       
practice among the ,hebrews is recorded 
in the ,hebrew ,bible4  ,when the       
manners of men ameliorated1 and gentler 
customs began to supplant the barbarous 
usages of an earlier day1 the tyranny of
 the gods was still feared1 but various 
modes of substitution were adopted to   
appease their jealousy of human         
happiness4 ,in ,india we are told1 that 
the god of light being displeased with  
the constant effusion of blood1         
commanded a buffalo to appear from out  
the jungle1 and a voice was heard       
saying1 sacrifice the buffalo and       
liberate the man4  ,another mode of     
substitution was to give a part for the 
whole4 ,some one member of the body was 
mutilated or curtailed in order to      

indicate that the person's life was in  
reality forfeit to the god4 ,among      
certain of the aboriginal tribes of     
,america1 the youth1 on reaching the    
years of maturity1 was forced to place  
his hand upon a buffalo's skull1 and one
 or more joints of the finger were then 
cut off and dedicated to the great      
spirit4 ,there were other modes of      
mutilation of which ,i dare not speak1  
but ,i will briefly add that the        
so-called rite of the covenant1 which is
 practised among the ,jews even at the  
present day1 rose in exactly the same   
manner4 ,of course the original         
signification of the custom has been    
forgotten and a purely symbolical       
mean-ing has been attached to it4       
,nevertheless1 its continuance is a     
disgrace to religion4 ,the grounds of   
sanity on which it is urged1 are not in 
themselves tenable1 and if they were1   
religion would have no concern with     
them4 ,it is but a fresh instance of the
 stubborn vitality which seems to inhere

 in the hoary superstitions of the past4
  ,occasionally1 when a whole people was
 threatened with destruction1 some      
prominent and beloved individual was    
selected for sacrifice1 in order that by
 his death he might save the rest4 ,the 
same feature was also introduced into   
the legends of the gods4 ,philo tells us
 that the great ,god ,el whom the       
,hebrews and ,phoenicians worshiped1    
once descended to earth1 and became a   
king4 ,this ,el was the supreme deity4  
,he had an only son whom he loved4 ,one 
day when great dangers threatened his   
people1 the god determined to sacrifice 
his only begotten 7--,greek--7 son and  
to redeem his people3 and year by year  
thereafter a solemn festival was        
celebrated in ,phoenicia in honor of    
that great sacrifice4  ,the religion of 
force has left its dark traces in the   
history of mankind4 ,even the higher    
religions accepted1 while they          
spiritualized1 its degrading conceptions
 into their systems4 ,slowly only and   

with the general spread of intelligence 
and morality1 can we hope that its last 
vestiges will be purged from the minds  
of men4  ,vastness is an element of the 
sublime4 ,in the religious conceptions  
of the ,hindoos we find it illustrated4 
,it entered alike into the system of the
 ,brahmin and of the ,buddhist1 and     
determined their tone and quality4 ,a   
certain fondness for the gigantic1 is   
peculiar to ,hindoo character4 ,witness 
the almost boundless periods of their   
ancient chronology2 the colossal forms  
with which the remains of their         
monuments and architecture abound4 ,a   
great ,aryan nation having advanced from
 the waters of the ,indus to the shores 
of the sacred ,ganges and having subdued
 the natives by the force of superior   
numbers or bravery1 had learned to      
forget the active pursuits of war1 and  
yielded to the lassitude engendered by  
the climate of their new settlements4   
,around them they beheld a rich and     
luxuriant vegetation2 birds of rare and 

many colored plumage1 stately trees     
rising from interminable jungles4       
,ravishing perfumes lulled their senses 
as they reposed in the shade of these   
fairy-like forests4 ,it was a land      
suited to dreamy contemplation4 ,here   
the philosophic priests might dwell upon
 the vastness of the ,universal1 and the
 imagination bewildered by the ever     
shifting phenomena of the scene might   
well seek some principle of unity which 
could connect and explain the whole4    
,brahma was the name they gave to the   
pervading ,spirit of ,all things4 ,from 
,brahma the entire order of existence   
has emanated2 the elements of material  
things1 plants1 birds1 beasts and men4  
,the lower castes came forth first and  
are nearest the brutes2 the castes of   
free-born workmen1 and of warriors next1
 the priests and saints last1 in whom   
the world's soul found its loftiest     
expression4  ,to ,brahma all things must
 return4 ,passing through an endless    
series of transformations1 and paying in

 the long and painful interval the      
penalty of every crime it has committed1
 the migrating spirit of man is led back
 at last to its primal source1 and is   
resolved in the ,brahma whence it arose4
 ,the connection between individual and 
universal life was thus kept constantly 
in view4 ,the soul in the course of its 
wanderings might pass through every     
conceivable mode of existence2 might    
assume the shape of creeping plants and 
worms1 and wild animals2 might rise to  
the possession of miraculous powers in  
the heavens of the ,rishis1 while its   
final destiny was to be reunited with   
the ,one and ,all4  ,the ,buddhist      
,nirvana resembles the ,brahma in being 
accounted the ultimate principle of the 
world4 ,when in the sixth century ,b4   
,c4 the royal ,hermit of the ,cakyas    
revolted against the cruel despotism of 
the priesthood1 the legend relates that 
the sight of suffering in the forms of  
sickness1 old age and death1 roused him 
from a life of indolent pleasure1 and   

impelled him to seek a remedy for the   
ills of human life4 ,his counsels were  
sweet and kindly2 he taught self-control
 and wise moderation in the indulgence  
of the passions1 and brotherly help and 
sympathy to lessen the evils which      
foresight cannot avert4 ,he lifted the  
degraded masses of the ,indian land from
 out their dull despair2 he warred      
against the distinctions of caste1 he   
took women and slaves for his           
companions1 he was a prophet of the     
people1 whom the people loved4 ,but even
 to him the ills of this mortal         
condition seemed little when compared   
with the endless possibilities of future
 ill that awaited the soul in the course
 of its ceaseless transmigrations4 ,he  
yearned to shorten its weary path to the
 goal2 and the mystic methods by which  
he sought to enter ,nirvana were a means
 adapted to this end4 ,nirvana is the   
beginning and the end of things4        
,nirvana in which there is neither      
action nor feeling2 in which            

intelligence and consciousness are      
submerged1 appeared to this pessimist   
preacher the last1 the only reality4    
,life is a delusion1 real only in its   
pains3 the entire cessation of conscious
 existence1 is the solution he offers to
 human suffering4  ,nirvana is the      
universal--its conception is vast and   
dim2 it hovers in the distance before   
the pilgrim of the earth2 there will he 
find rest4  ,unlike the ,western        
nations1 the ,hindoos regarded the idea 
of immortality with dread and terror1   
rather than pleased anticipation4 ,the  
highest promises of their religion1 were
 intended to assure them that they would
 cease to continue as individual beings 
or cease to continue altogether4 ,peace 
in the tomb when this present toil is   
over seemed to them the most desirable  
of goods1 and a dreamless sleep from    
which no angel trump should ever wake   
the sleeper4  ,two things1 says ,kant1  
fill the soul with ever new and         
increasing admiration and reverence2 the

 star-lit heavens above me1 and the     
moral law within me499       99 ,kant's 
,works 7,rosenkranz edition7 vol4 viii4 
p4 #cab4  ,the ,hebrews were the first  
to lend to the moral ideas a controlling
 influence in the sphere of religion4   
,let me attempt to briefly sketch the   
origin of ,monotheism amongst them1 as  
numerous considerations elsewhere       
recited in detail1 have led me to       
conceive of it4 ,the religions of the   
,semitic nations who surrounded ancient 
,israel were intensely emotional in     
character1 and their gods were gods of  
pleasure and pain4 ,in the temples      
unbounded license alternated with self  
sacrificing asceticism4 ,the lewd rites 
of the goddess of love must be regarded 
as typical of the one2 the slaughter of 
sons in honor of ,moloch1 of the other4 
,now the ,hebrews have been             
distinguished for the purity of their   
home life from a very early period of   
their history4 ,the high value which    
they set on male offspring1 the jealous 

vigilance with which they guarded the   
virtue of their women are alike         
illustrated in the narratives of the    
,bible4 ,the more gifted and noble      
minded among them1 beholding their      
domestic feelings outraged by the       
prevailing religions1 rebelled against  
the gross conceptions of idolatry4 ,how 
could they offer up their beloved sons  
for sacrifice1 how could they give over 
their wives and daughters to shame8 ,the
 controlling force of their character   
determined the doctrines of their creed4
 ,judaism became1 so to speak1 a family 
religion4 ,jehovah is conceived of as   
the husband of the people4 ,israel shall
 be his true and loyal spouse1 the      
children of ,israel are ,his children4  
,the image of ,jehovah is that of the   
ideal patriarch4 ,like the patriarch1 he
 is the head of the spiritual family of 
man4 ,like the patriarch in ancient     
times1 he is the lawgiver and the judge2
 ,he is the guardian of domestic purity4
 ,the word for false religion in ,hebrew

 signifies fornication4 ,contend against
 your mother1 says ,jehovah1 for ,i am  
not her spouse1 nor she my wife4 ,my    
people lust after false gods1 for the   
spirit of impurity has seduced them4    
,and the day of the triumph of the true 
religion is thus predicted3 ,on that day
 thou shalt not call me any more my     
,baal1 7paramour7 but thou shalt call me
 my husband1 and ,i shall wed thee in   
justice1 etc4 ,thus the idea of ,jehovah
 sprang from the soil of the family1 and
 the conception of a divine father in   
heaven was derived from the analogy of  
the noblest of moral institutions on    
earth4 ,the spiritual ,god of the       
,hebrews was the personification of the 
moral ,ideal4  ,like his relations to   
the chosen people and to mankind in     
general1 the relations of the ,deity to 
the external world were described in    
accordance with the demands of the      
,ethical ,law4 ,two things morality     
insists upon2 first1 that the natural in
 its coarser acceptation shall be       

subordinate to the moral4 ,secondly1    
that in the scale of values itself shall
 occupy the highest rank1 and that the  
purpose human life on earth can only be 
a moral purpose4 ,as the mechanism of   
nature is not of itself calculated to   
harmonize with the purposes of spirit1  
it behooves that the spiritual ,god     
shall possess a power over matter       
adequate to enforce the claims of the   
moral ideal1 such power as only the     
creator can exert over his creatures4   
,hence the doctrine of the creation4    
,and again the state of perfection to   
which the human heart aspires can only  
be attained through the instrumentality 
of supreme wisdom1 power and love1 in a 
millennial age when the scheme of the   
universe will be perfected in the reign 
of absolute justice and peace4 ,hence   
the doctrine of the ,messiah4 ,both     
doctrines are the typical expression of 
a moral need4  ,in the opening of       
,genesis we read a description of the   
making of the world4 ,all was wild vast 

chaos1 and darkness brooded over the    
abyss1 when the ,spirit of ,jehovah     
breathed on the waters2 a single word of
 command and light penetrated the gloom1
 the waters divided1 the great          
luminaries started forth on their       
course2 the earth clothed herself in    
verdure1 and the forms of living beings 
sprang into existence4 ,the words ,god  
saw everything he had made and behold it
 was very good1 contain the gist of the 
narrative4 ,in ,zephaniah and ,isaiah we
 read3 ,on that day ,i will turn to the 
people a pure language that they may all
 call upon the name of the ,lord to     
serve him with one consent4 ,no one     
shall then do evil1 no one hurt in all  
my holy mountain1 for the earth shall be
 full of the knowledge of ,god as the   
waters cover the sea4  ,these visions   
are not true in the sense of historical 
occurrences past or future4 ,that the   
world was ever created out of nothing1  
what human understanding can conceive of
 it8 ,that a time will come when society

 shall be so transformed that the pure  
language of love alone shall be spoken1 
who that is instructed in the failings  
of our finite nature can credit it8     
,they are true in the sense of ideals2  
true1 with the truth of poetry1 bodying 
forth in concrete shape the universal   
yearnings of mankind4  ,there is also   
another element of belief associated    
with the doctrine of the ,messiah1 which
 still more plainly illustrates the     
typical value of religious tenets4 ,in  
the coming week the churches throughout 
,christendom will rehearse the story of 
the passion and the death of their      
founder4 ,mournful chants and           
lamentations will recall every          
circumstance of the dark drama that     
closed on ,calvary4 ,that tale of       
harrowing agony still moves the hearts  
of millions as though it were a tale of 
yesterday4 ,it is the symbol of the     
suffering and the crucifixion of the    
whole human race4 ,ah1 but our griefs he
 has borne1 our sorrows he has carried1 

he was wounded for our transgressions1  
he was bruised for our iniquities4      
,hundreds of years before the birth of  
,christ1 the author of these lines      
transcribed in them the sad experience  
of the reformers of his day4 ,he does   
not refer to any one ,messiah2 he speaks
 of that legacy of sacrifice which is   
the heritage of the great and good1 the 
world over4 ,for who can help us when we
 are plunged in deepest anguish1 when it
 seems as though we must sink under the 
load of trouble1 but one who has endured
 like trials1 endured and triumphed over
 them8 ,it is the martyrdom of the pure 
that has redeemed mankind from guilt and
 sin8 ,there is this constant atonement 
of the strong for the weak1 of the good 
for the evil4 ,as old ,paul ,gerhard has
 it in his seventeenth century hymn3    
,when utmost dread shall seize me1      
,that human heart can know1      ,do    
thou from pain release me1      ,by thy 
great pain and woe4  ,the teachings of  
religion then have their source in the  

aspirations of the human heart2 are the 
echoes of our wishes and our hopes4 ,not
 valueless on that account1 but valuable
 only in so far as they express in noble
 types1 noble aspirations of our souls4 
,it were sad indeed if morality depended
 upon the certainty of dogma4 ,on the   
contrary it is true that all that is    
best and grandest in dogma1 is due to   
the inspiration of the moral law in man4
 ,the time will come when the tenets of 
faith will no longer be narrowly        
understood as now2 and while their      
influence will still be great1 they will
 cease to be harmful and confining4     
,they will be used as rare imagery1 to  
deck the sublime meanings which they    
symbolize2 not as vessels that contain  
the absolute truth1 but as choice and   
beautiful vases1 fit to hold the ever   
fresh and ever blooming flowers of the  
ideal4  ,the dogmatic assertion of      
religious teachings we hold to be a     
serious evil1 and dogma as such we      
cannot accept4 ,its influence in the    

past has been pernicious1 and is so at  
the present day no less4 ,it has        
inflamed the hatred of man against his  
brother man1 it has led to the fatal    
error of duties toward a personal       
,creator1 distinct from our duties      
toward our fellows3 it has perverted the
 moral sense1 by giving to the concern  
of future salvation1 a degree of        
prominence before which the interests of
 the present life sink into comparative 
insignificance2 it does not afford us a 
common basis whereon we could unite1 for
 it is by nature uncertain and          
calculated to provoke dissensions4 ,on  
the other hand we behold in conscience  
the root of whatever good religion has  
achieved1 and the law of conscience must
 suffice to guide and elevate our lives4
 ,to refresh the moral sentiment is the 
one thing needful in our time1 and      
indeed presents a task on whose         
accomplishment the highest interests of 
society depend4 ,time will show that a  
simple appeal to duty will surely       

suffice to lead men to more earnest     
exertions toward the good4 ,time will   
show that those who know no other mode  
of salvation than the salvation which is
 attained by works of love1 will be at  
least as active in the pursuit of virtue
 as those who put their trust in faith4 
,the gold of morality has been variously
 coined in the world's religious        
systems4 ,various have been the symbols 
that were stamped thereon1 and various  
the images of the ,king in whose name it
 was issued1 but their value so far as  
they had value was in the moral gold    
that they contained1 and in naught else4
 ,let ,liberalism stamp its coin with   
the ,eagle of ,liberty only1 in its     
ethical teachings it will still retain  
the substance of all religion4  ,dogma  
we will keep in abeyance1--this is our  
point of departure1 and the deed        
superior to the creed4 ,be it ours to   
hold high the moral ideal1 whether we   
clothe it with personality or not4 ,be  
it ours to act divine things1 no matter 

how we regard divine mysteries4 ,be it  
ours to help in lifting up the fallen1  
to lend free utterance to the complaints
 of the oppressed1 to brand the social  
iniquities of our time1 to give our     
hearts warmth and the labor of our hands
 to the cause of their redress1 and to  
push on with whatever power we may1 the 
progress of our race toward those high  
and holy goals of which the dreamers    
dream1 the prophets prophesy4     ,,iii4
 ,,the ,,new ,,ideal  ,the old religions
 and science are at war4 ,with pitiless 
consistency science directs its attack  
upon their vulnerable positions4 ,the   
conception of inexorable law subverts   
the testimony of miracles2 the fond     
belief in truths divinely revealed fails
 to withstand the searching analysis of 
historical criticism2 the battle of     
science is yet far from being won1 but  
from our standpoint the issue cannot    
appear doubtful4 ,it behooves us        
therefore to inquire into the moral     
bearings of the general result thus far 

achieved and to review what we have lost
 and won4 ,shall we succeed thereby in  
allaying the sense of alarm that is wont
 to agitate the timid heart when it     
beholds so much that it confidently     
believed a part of the everlasting      
verities of life1 sink back into the    
gulf of uncertainty and doubt8  ,we are 
standing at the portals of a new age1   
and new conceptions have arisen of the  
purpose which we are here to accomplish 
and of the means of help we can command 
in the attempt to realize our destiny4  
,these new conceptions we call ,the ,new
 ,ideal4 ,it is the purpose of our      
present discourse to compare some       
salient features of the old and new4    
,the old and new ,ideals agree in       
looking to an ,infinite beyond the      
borders of experience1 for it is in the 
nature of the ideal to lift us above the
 merely real4 ,they differ in the       
direction in which they seek their      
object1 and the bias which they         
consequently give to men's thoughts and 

actions4 ,theology1 perceiving the      
inability of reason to solve the        
problems of the beginning and the end1  
yet unable to restrain a desire to know 
what is really unknowable1 has impressed
 the imagination into its service1 and  
drawn a picture of the transcendental   
world1 conforming indeed to the         
analogies of man's terrestrial          
existence1 but on this account all the  
more adapted to answer the wishes of the
 masses of mankind4 ,enough for them    
that they feel the need of believing the
 picture true4 ,we of the ,new ,school  
are1 if possible1 even more profoundly  
convinced of the limitations of human   
reason4 ,we cheerfully accord to the    
religious conceptions of the past a     
poetic value2 they are poetry1 often of 
the sublimest kind2 but we cannot       
deceive ourselves as to the noble       
weakness of the heart to which they owe 
their origin2 we cannot forget that in  
their case alas the wish has been father
 to the thought4 ,to us the mystery is  

still mystery--the veiled arcana are not
 revealed1 the riddle is unread4 ,but we
 are not therefore filled with terror or
 dismay4 ,in the moral nature of man we 
discover a divine element4 ,in the voice
 of conscience we hear the voice of the 
present divinity within us1 and we learn
 to regard this mortal state of ours as 
a channel through which the currents of 
,eternity ebb and flow ceaselessly4 ,the
 divine nature is not far off1 nor      
beyond the sea2 in our own hearts on our
 own lips6  ,but let us seek to         
scrutinize the distinctive features of  
the old and new more closely4 ,the old  
ideal was supernatural in character1 it 
taught man to regard his life on earth  
as a brief1 temporary transit1 himself  
an exile from the ,kingdom on high4 ,the
 concerns of the present world were in  
consequence deemed of secondary         
importance1 and the eye dwelt with      
anxious preference on the dim chances of
 the hereafter4 ,where the hope of      
immortality has been prominently put    

forward by any religion1 the effect has 
thus but too often proved disastrous to 
the progress and security of society4   
,it is well-known by what painful       
penances the monks of the ,middle ,ages 
sought release from the trammels of the 
flesh1 how they affected to despise the 
ties of domestic affection1 how they    
retarded the advancement of knowledge1  
how the passions which they sought in   
vain to suppress often recoiled upon    
them with fearful retribution1 and gave 
rise to disorders which seriously       
undermined public virtue4  ,but not only
 has supernaturalism tended indirectly  
to weaken the springs of virtue1 it has 
called into being an order of men whose 
very existence is a standing menace to  
the freedom of intellect and the rights 
of conscience4 ,the distance between the
 ,creator and his creatures is so great1
 that the intervention of some third    
party is deemed necessary to mediate    
between the finite and the ,infinite4   
,the priest steps in to perform this    

office1 and his influence is great in   
proportion to the value of the services 
which he is supposed to render4         
,furthermore it is believed that the    
personal deity requires the performance 
of certain actions in his honor1 and    
what these actions are is again left to 
the priest to determine4 ,in this manner
 the ceremonial part of religion grows  
up1 and acquires a degree of importance 
fatal to the moral life4 ,the duties    
toward ,god transcend the duties toward 
man1 and but too often usurp their      
place4  ,the ,bible likens the relations
 of man to ,god to those of a child to  
its father4 ,it is true supernaturalism 
has often proved a valuable stay to     
those already morally strong1 and it    
were absurd to deny that under its      
fostering care many of the noblest      
qualities that distinguish the filial   
relation have been developed in the     
lives of religious men4 ,it is from no  
lack of appreciation on our part that we
 have dwelt on the evils rather than the

 blessings it has brought4 ,but in      
acknowledging that we have really lost  
the sense of protection1 the childlike  
trust which lend such rare beauty to the
 character of many ancient models of    
piety1 we deemed it important to point  
to the shades that darken the picture of
 the 99 supernatural religions1 its     
lights are made the theme of a thousand 
discourses week after week1 and are     
hardly in any danger of being speedily  
forgotten4  ,from the back-ground of the
 old ,ideal stands out in bold relief   
the new4 ,it is the reverse of          
supernatural2 if it takes pride in      
anything1 it is in marking a return to  
nature4 ,trammels of the flesh1         
contamination of the body8 ,there is    
nothing it tells us in itself           
contaminating4 ,the body is not alien to
 the mind1 it is the seed plot from     
which mind flowers out in every part4   
,regard the form of man1 observe the    
quick play of the features1 the         
expressive smile1 the speaking glance1  

every attitude1 every gesture full of   
meaning1 the whole body irradiated as it
 were1 with the indwelling intelligence4
 ,and so the passions too which we are  
wont to associate with our corporeal    
nature are but the rough material from  
which the artist soul behind them       
fashions its immortal types of beauty   
and of holiness4 ,there is a graceless  
innuendo in the term nature1 as of      
something hard1 gross1 material4 ,in    
truth1 nature is the subtlest1 most     
ethereal presence of which we catch a   
gleam only at rare intervals1 the reflex
 of a hidden light that glimmers through
 the facts and motions of the world4    
,take the nature of water for instance4 
,is it in the hydrogen1 in the oxygen1  
in the single atom8 ,not there1 yet     
there6 somewhere hovering1 imponderous1 
elusive4 ,it comes nighest to the senses
 when the atoms act and react upon each 
other1 in the flow of mighty rivers1 in 
the leap of cataracts1 in the turmoil of
 the sea4 ,or the nature of the tree2 is

 it in the roots1 in the trunk1 in the  
spreading branches1 the leafy crown8    
,perhaps in the fruit more than         
elsewhere the hidden being of the tree  
comes forth into external reality1 and  
opens to the eye and touch4 ,in action  
and fruition the deeper nature appears4 
,thus in the outward world1 and thus in 
man4 ,our soul-life1 too1 is a flowing  
stream1 whose power is not in any part  
but in the ceaseless1 changeful motion  
of the whole1 that forms a strong       
spiritual current on which our thoughts 
and sentiments move like swimmers toward
 an infinite sea4 ,and like a tree are  
we1 with the mighty trunk of intellect1 
the spreading branches of imagination1  
the fibrous roots of the lower          
instincts1 that bind us to the earth4   
,but the moral life is the fruit we     
bear2 in it our true nature is revealed2
 in it we see the purpose of our being  
fulfilled4 ,so when we speak of a return
 to nature1 it is this higher nature to 
which we refer1 whose origin we know    

not1 but whose workings we feel1 and    
know them by the token of the sweet     
satisfaction they afford us to be the   
crown and glory of our lives4 ,the old  
,ideal emphasizes the ,eternal that is  
without us2 the new the ,eternal that is
 within ourselves4 ,the old styles us   
exiles from the kingdom of truth2 the   
new summons us to be the banner-bearers 
of truth2 the old points to a heaven    
beyond the earth1 the new tells us that 
our earth too is a part of the heaven1 a
 light-world1 among endless worlds of   
light4  ,if secondly we consider the    
means of support at our disposal in the 
pursuit of the ideal1 we find prayer in 
universal use among the adherents of the
 old4 ,prayer in the sense of           
supplication1 has been defined as a     
request made to the ,deity as if he were
 a man4 ,and truly the language of      
prayer often tallies with this          
description4 ,let me succeed in this    
undertaking1 prays the ,indian1 that ,i 
may slay my enemy and bring home the    

tokens of victory to my dear family1 in 
order that they may rejoice together4   
,have pity on me and protect my life1   
and ,i will bring thee an offering4     
,some such inducement as the last is    
frequently coupled with the petition1   
,here is an offering for you1 ,o ,god6  
,look kindly towards this family1 let it
 prosper and increase1 and let us all be
 in good health4 ,let me come upon my   
enemies speedily1 let me find them      
sleeping and not awake1 and let me slay 
a good many of them4 ,i pray for cattle1
 ,i pray for corn1 ,i ask also for      
children1 in order that this village may
 have a large population1 and that your 
name may never come to an end1 for of   
old we have lived by your favor1 let us 
continue to receive it4 ,remember that  
the increase of our produce is the      
increase of your worship1 and that its  
diminution must be the diminution of    
your rites4 ,among the ,hindoos the     
efficacy ascribed to prayer was such    
that the gods themselves were deemed    

powerless to resist it1 and the mystic  
invocations of the priests exerted a    
fateful influence on the destinies of   
the world4 ,the ancient and modern      
literature of the ,hebrews likewise     
testifies to their faith in prayer1 and 
,christianity has herein followed if not
 outstripped their example4 ,in case of 
drought the following prayer is offered 
in many of our churches3 ,send us1 we   
beseech thee1 in this our necessity1    
such moderate rain and showers that we  
may receive the fruits of the earth to  
our comfort and to thy honor4 ,in case  
of storms3 ,we humbly beseech thee to   
restrain these immoderate rains1        
wherewith for our sins thou hast        
afflicted us1 and we pray thee to send  
such seasonable weather that the earth  
may in due time yield her increase for  
our benefit4 ,in case of famine1        
,increase the fruits of the earth by thy
 heavenly benediction1 and grant that   
the scarcity and dearth which we now    
most justly suffer for our sins1 through

 thy goodness may be turned into plenty4
 ,in case of sickness1 prayers are      
offered for the recovery of the         
sufferer4  ,against all these forms of  
petition the modern view of life        
emphatically protests4 ,it starts with  
the grandest of scientific              
generalizations1 that of the            
universality of nature's laws4 ,these   
laws cannot be broken2 they govern the  
course of the planets as they revolve   
through space1 they appear in the       
slightest eddy of dust that rises on our
 streets4 ,the world is a ,kosmos2 to   
pray for a change in its arrangements is
 to pray for its destruction4 ,the rains
 come when they must come1 and the earth
 yields or withholds her crop1 as a     
system of causes determined from        
immeasurable aeons of time prescribes4  
,is the ,god to whom men pray so poor a 
workman that he will change the         
mechanism of the ,universe at their     
bidding8 ,if all that is1 is his work1  
why then the drought is his work1 and   

the famine1 and the sickness are his    
work1 and they are1 because he has      
willed that they should be4 ,the gods   
help them that help themselves4 ,we are 
placed in a world with which we are but 
half acquainted2 our business is to know
 it thoroughly4 ,all the history of     
mankind from the beginning has been a   
series of tentative struggles to acquire
 this precious knowledge1 and we have   
made indeed some headway4 ,we began by  
defending ourselves against the attacks 
of wild beasts2 we tilled the soil2 we  
invented tools1 we formed communities1  
we moderated the friction of social     
intercourse2 we discovered the talisman 
of science1 and the ,aladdin's lamp of  
art4 ,in the treatment of disease also a
 great advance has been made4 ,when the 
,mayflower reached the ,american        
continent1 she found a bleak and barren 
shore1 full only of graves4 ,a great    
epidemic had swept over the ,indian     
tribes1 and the natives fell like dead  
flies before the scourge4 ,they had     

charms and prayers2 these did not help  
them4 ,we have accomplished a little2 we
 are bound to aim at more4 ,why then    
call in the supernatural8 ,it will not  
come1 though we call never so loudly4   
,the vain attempt does but keep us from 
that which is more needful1 active      
exertion and strenuous efforts at       
self-help4 ,but we are told that our    
success is poor at best1 and that in the
 vast majority of cases1 all our        
exertions avail nothing3 moreover it is 
said that man is too frail and feeble a 
creature to depend upon himself alone in
 times of trial1 and that prayer1       
whether it be answered or not1 is       
valuable as a means of consolation that 
soothes and stills the heart4 ,it is but
 too true that our achievements fall far
 short of our desires4 ,let those that  
do not1 cannot pray1 seek support in the
 sympathies of their kind1 and where    
self-help fails1 mutual help will offer 
them an inexhaustible source of strength
 and comfort4 ,as for that species of   

prayer which is not addressed to a      
personal ,god at all1 but claims to be  
an aspiration1 an outpouring of the     
spirit1 we do fail to see how it        
deserves the name of prayer in any      
sense4 ,the use of the vocative1 and of 
the pronoun thou is certainly calculated
 to mislead1 and the appearance of      
inconsistency is hardly avoidable4      
,lastly1 the old ,ideal was stationary1 
retrospective2 it placed its paradise at
 the beginning of human history4 ,in the
 far off past it beheld our best and    
loftiest hopes anticipated and realized4
 ,then the full significance of life had
 been reached2 then the oracles had     
spoken loudly and clearly whose faint   
echoes now float like memories of half  
forgotten melodies to our ear2 then the 
imperishable truths were revealed in    
those olden1 golden days4 ,not so1 says 
the new ,ideal4 ,rude and wretched were 
the beginnings of mankind on earth1 poor
 the mind1 and void the heart4 ,far from
 being exemplary1 the ideas of right and

 wrong entertained by our earliest      
progenitors were infinitely below our   
own4 ,not indeed1 that the substance of 
the moral sentiment has ever perceptibly
 changed4 ,the inherent principle of    
right remains the same1 but it assumes  
higher forms and is applied on a wider  
scale as the race advances4 ,thus the   
commandment not to kill a being like    
ourselves was recognized from the first1
 but in the earliest times1 only members
 of the same family were esteemed beings
 like ourselves2 to kill a neighbor was 
not wrong4 ,the family widened into the 
clan1 the clan into the people1 and all 
the nations are now embraced in the     
common bond of humanity4 ,thus step by  
step the life of the clansman1 the      
fellow citizen and at last of every     
human being came to be regarded as      
sacred4 ,from a common centre morality  
has developed outward in concentric     
circles4 ,in different ages also        
different virtues predominated4         
,patriotism was esteemed highest in the 

,roman world2 self-sacrifice and        
chastity in the first ,christian        
communities4 ,but whatever had thus been
 gained was not thereafter lost4 ,each  
age added its own to the stock of       
virtue2 each contributed its share to   
swell the treasure of mankind4 ,the     
struggle for existence that raged       
fiercely on the lower levels of culture1
 loses its harsher aspects as we advance
 upon the path of civilization4 ,the    
methods of force by which the unfit were
 eliminated are gradually falling into  
disrepute1 if not into disuse4 ,at last 
the good will survive because of its own
 persuasive excellency4 ,the conflict   
will become one of ideas merely1 an     
emulous peaceful contest for the prize  
of truth4  ,that the manners of the     
modern world have indeed become         
ameliorated1 our own brief experience as
 a society serves to illustrate4 ,a few 
centuries ago1 such an enterprise as    
ours would never have been attempted1 or
 if undertaken1 would have been speedily

 crushed by the arm of authority or the 
weight of prejudice4 ,we will not say   
that bigotry is dead2 the fires of      
persecution still slumber beneath their 
ashes1 and now and then start up into   
pretty bonfires to amuse the idle crowd2
 but the time has gone by when they     
could mount on funeral pyres--they can  
kindle conflagrations no more4  ,the new
 ,ideal is progressive4 ,whatever we    
have achieved1 it tells us there are    
larger achievements yet beyond4 ,as we  
rise in the scale of moral worth1 the   
eye becomes clearer and wider of vision4
 ,we see in remote ages a race of men   
freer and stronger because of our toils1
 and that is our dearest hope and our   
sweetest recompense that they shall reap
 what we have sown4  ,the old and the   
new ,ideals will struggle for the       
mastery2 that which is stronger will    
conquer as of old1 in the struggle for  
existence4 ,but the new hope fills us   
with trust and gladness that that which 
is true will be strong4     ,,iv4 ,,the 

,,priests ,,of ,,the ,,ideal  ,it is    
with good reason1 that the very name of 
the priesthood1 has become odious to the
 modern mind4 ,how has their fanaticism 
drenched the earth with blood1 how has  
their unbridled ambition sown seeds of  
discord among the nations2 how          
lamentable a commentary is the record of
 their frailties upon the assumption of 
superior sanctity and ,god-given        
authority4 ,yet it is not the priestly  
office1 but its abuse1 which has proved 
of evil1 nor has the time yet come1 when
 the ministry of priests can be safely  
dispensed with4 ,there shall come a new 
,ideal to attract men's reverence and a 
new service of the ,infinite and a new  
priesthood also to do its ministry4 ,it 
is of this modern priesthood1 ,i would  
speak4  ,fear not that ,i am about to   
advocate a return to that system of     
spiritual bondage1 from which we have   
but just escaped4 ,the priests to whom  
we allude shall not be known by cassock 
or surplice4 ,it is not at the altar    

they shall serve1 least of all shall    
they have dogmas to communicate4 ,they  
shall not be more than human1 only if   
possible more human4 ,priests have we of
 science1 we name them so2 men whose    
whole soul is wrapped up in the pursuit 
of knowledge3 priests of art1 who       
dedicate their lives to the service of  
the ,beautiful1 priests also of the     
,moral1 artists of the ,good1 sages in  
the science of ,virtue1 teachers of the 
,ideal4  ,let us consider for a moment1 
in order to illustrate our meaning1 the 
life of one such priest1 whose fame has 
come down to us undimmed by the         
corroding influence of time--the life of
 ,socrates4 ,he held no office1 he      
ministered at no shrine1 yet he was in  
the true sense a priest4 ,a plain       
unpretentious man1 content to live on   
coarse fare1 inured to want1 homely in  
appearance1 using homely language2      
nothing had he in appearance to attract2
 yet the gay youths left their feasts   
and frolics when he approached1 and the 

busy market-place was hushed to listen  
to the strange wisdom of his sayings2   
there was indeed a singular and potent  
charm in this man's soul4 ,he had a     
great need of righteousness1 wonderful1 
how he awakened the same need in the    
hearts of the ,athenian burghers of his 
day4 ,he was the reverse of dogmatic4   
,in comparison with the vastness of the 
unknown1 he was wont to say1 all human  
knowledge is little even to nothingness1
 he did not assume to know the truth1   
but strove to assist men in finding     
truths for themselves4 ,he had his own  
enlightened views on questions of       
theology4 ,but far from desiring to     
convert others to his convictions1 he   
rather sought to divert their attention 
from those mysterious problems1 in which
 men can never be wise1 problems that   
are no nearer their solution today1 than
 they were two thousand years ago4 ,to  
those who questioned him concerning     
religion he replied3 ,are ye then       
masters of the humanities1 that ye seek 

to pry into divine secrets8 ,his father 
had been a fashioner of statues before  
him1 he was a fashioner of souls6 ,this 
,socrates was condemned to suffer death 
on the charge of atheism1 and met his   
fate with the calmness of the           
philosophic mind4 ,if death1 he said1 is
 progress to untried spheres1 then      
welcome death6 ,if it is sleep only1    
then also welcome death and its deep    
repose4 ,all the tokens of the priest   
were fulfilled in him4 ,he was true to  
himself and unbared to others the veiled
 truths of their own higher nature4 ,he 
was a loftier presence on earth1 a      
living flame fed from its own central   
being1 a sun to which the world turned  
and was thereby enlightened4 ,we        
perceive then1 that what we desire is   
not a new thing4 ,there has been this   
service of the ,ideal from the earliest 
times4 ,only a new plea would we urge   
for larger fidelity to that which the   
best have striven for1 and which under  
new conditions it will be the glory of  

our age to approach more nearly4  ,the  
priest shall be a teacher of the ,ideal1
 but what is the ,ideal and how         
distinguish it from the ,real4 ,regard  
the trees1 behold their number1 the     
wondrous plenitude of their kinds44     
,there is the lithe and slender pine1   
the mighty oak1 the stately palm1 the   
tender willow4 ,alike yet most unlike4  
,and who has ever seen the perfect tree6
 ,observe the expressive features of the
 human face4 ,how many thousands of such
 faces are born into the world each year
 and yet no two alike4 ,by what fine    
shades1 what scarce perceptible curves1 
what delicate touches has nature's      
chisel marked them each apart4 ,graceful
 forms and lovely faces there are1 yet  
perfect none4 ,now the ,ideal is the    
perfection of the ,real4 ,to find it we 
must go beyond the ,realities4 ,we study
 the nature of the tree1 of man4 ,we    
note the suggestions of the various     
parts1 complete and produce them in     
utmost harmony1 each perfect in itself1 

each serving by its own perfection1 the 
rounded symmetry of the whole4 ,in the  
image thus created we grasp the ideal   
form4 ,art with its genial enchantments1
 creates such images and gives them     
permanence in pure types of immortal    
significance4 ,art is idealism of form4 
,the intellect also1 which looks out    
from behind the features1 the indwelling
 man1 exhibits the same twofold aspect  
of the ,real and ,ideal4 ,our real      
thoughts are incomplete and inadequate4 
,we are led astray a thousand times by  
false analogies1 we are decoyed into the
 labyrinths of fancy1 we become the     
victims of impression1 the toys of      
circumstance4 ,but deep down in the     
basic structure of the mind are true    
laws1 unerring guides4 ,logic expresses 
them1 logic is the idealism of          
intellect4  ,and lastly we recognize the
 same distinction in the realm of       
feeling4 ,to the untutored caprice1 the 
overmastering impulse1 in brief to the  
realism of the passions is opposed the  

law of right feeling1 which ethics      
expresses4 ,ethics is the idealism of   
character4 ,we call this last the       
capital revelation of man's nature4 ,the
 moral law is not derivative1 it can not
 be proven1 it can not be denied4 ,it is
 the root from which springs every      
virtue1 every grace1 all wisdom and all 
achievement4 ,an attempt has indeed been
 made to base morality upon a certain   
commonplace utility1 but true morality  
scorns your sad utilities4 ,that is     
useful1 which serves an object besides  
itself1 while morality is itself an end1
 and needs and admits no sanction save  
its own excellency4 ,as it delights the 
man of science to expand his judgment in
 ever wider and wider generalizations1  
as the larger thought is ever the truer 
thought1 so is there an exquisite       
pleasure and an unspeakable reward in   
expanding the narrow consciousness of   
self in the unselfish1 and the larger   
emotion is ever the nobler emotion4 ,we 
speak of the moral ,ideal1 as ,the      

,,ideal1 because it expresses the       
central idea of human life1 the purpose 
of our existence on earth4 ,to expound  
and illustrate its bearings on our daily
 duties1 our joys1 our griefs and our   
aspirations1 is the scope and limit of  
the priestly office4  ,the moral ideal  
would embrace the whole of life4 ,before
 it nothing is petty or indifferent1 it 
touches the veriest trifles and turns   
them into shining gold4 ,we are royal by
 virtue of it1 and like the kings in the
 fairy tale1 we may never lay aside our 
crowns4 ,it tells us1 that nothing shall
 be for its uses only1 but all things   
shall take their tone and quality from  
the central idea4  ,when we build a     
house1 it shall not be for its uses     
only4 ,we shall have kitchens and       
drawing rooms and libraries and pictures
 and flowers1 if possible4 ,but the     
house1 with all its comforts and        
luxuries1 is mere framework1 and our    
words and doings construct the true1 the
 spiritual home4 ,when we sit down to   

table1 it shall not be for the use of   
the food and the flavor of the wine     
only1 but morality should preside at the
 feast and lend it grace and dignity4   
,morality does not mope in corners1 is  
not sour nor gloomy4 ,it loves genial   
fellowship1 loves to convert our meanest
 wants into golden occasions for joy and
 sympathy and happy communion4 ,manners 
too are the offspring of character4 ,we 
do not rate highly the dry and cheerless
 conventionalisms of etiquette1 but in  
their origin1 they were the fruit of    
truth1 and love4 ,the rules of good     
breeding may be reduced to two2         
self-possession and deference4 ,as when 
a public speaker loses his self-control1
 his own uncertainty is quickly         
communicated to his audience1 and he    
forfeits his influence over his hearers2
 so the same cause produces the same    
effect in every lesser audience that    
gathers in our parlors4 ,society says to
 you3 ,if ,i shall trust you1 you must  
begin by trusting yourself4 ,the man of 

the world will enter the palace of the  
prince and the cottage of the peasant   
with the same equipoise of manner4 ,if  
he respects himself1 there is no reason 
why he should stand abashed4            
,self-possession is essentially         
self-respect4 ,deference1 too1 is a     
primary condition of all courtesy4 ,it  
teaches us to concede to others whatever
 we claim for ourselves2 it leads us    
instinctively to avoid loudness1 and    
self-complacency4 ,it is expressed not  
only in the polished phrase1 but in     
mien1 attitude1 every movement4         
,self-possession and deference of manner
 are both the outgrowth of moral        
qualities1 the one depending on the     
consciousness of personal worth1 the    
other inspired by an unselfish regard   
for the well-being of others4 ,from     
these two it were possible to deduce the
 rules of a new ',chesterfield1' which  
should be free from all the conceit and 
affectation of the old4 ,unfortunately1 
manners are no longer the natural       

outpouring of heart-goodness4 ,men      
attire themselves in politeness as they 
do in rich apparel2 they may be as rude 
as they please1 the year round1 they    
know they can be fine on occasion4      
,moreover in the home circle1 where the 
forms of courtesy are quite             
indispensable to prevent undue friction2
 to send the light of grace and poetry  
into a world of little cares2 to fill   
the atmosphere of our daily surroundings
 as with the fragrance of a pervading   
perfume2 they are yet most commonly     
neglected4 ,the word manners has the    
same meaning as morals4 ,when we shall  
have better morals1 we shall have truer 
and sweeter manners4  ,the ,ideal which 
thus seeks to interpenetrate the most   
ordinary affairs of private life1 stands
 out also in the market place1 in the   
forum1 in the halls of legislation1 and 
setting aside the merely useful1 exhorts
 men to return to permanent values4     
,that is the ideal view of politics     
which teaches us to hold the idea of    

country superior to the utilities of    
party1 to exact worthiness of the public
 servants1 to place the common good     
above sectional animosities and         
jealousies4 ,that is the ideal view of  
commerce1 which impels the merchant1    
while seeking prosperity by legitimate  
means1 to put conscience into his wares 
and dealings and to keep ever in sight  
the larger purposes of human life4 ,that
 is the ideal view of the professions1  
which leads their representatives to    
subordinate the claims of ambition and  
material gain to the enduring interests 
of science1 justice1 and of all the     
great trusts that are confided to their 
keeping4 ,and he therefore shall be     
called a priest of the ,ideal1 who by   
precept and example will divert us from 
the absorbing pursuit of the realities  
and make plain to us that the real is   
transitory1 while in the pursuit of the 
,ideal alone we can find lasting        
happiness4 ,for the realities are       
constantly disconcerting us in our      

search for the better4 ,they are so     
powerful1 so insistent2 we think them   
every thing until we have proved their  
attractions and find them nothing4 ,we  
have that only which we are4 ,but the   
common judgment holds to the reverse2 we
 are only what we have4 ,and so the     
turbulent crowd plunges madly into the  
race--for acres1 for equipage1 for      
well-stocked larders1 for office1 for   
fame4 ,good things are these1 as scales 
on the ladder of life1 but life is      
somewhat more than acres and equipage   
and office and fame4 ,seldom indeed do  
we truly live4 ,often are we but shadows
 of other lives4 ,we affect the fashions
 not only in dress but also in thought  
and opinion4 ,we are good or bad1 as    
public opinion bids us4 ,the state is   
ruined1 the church is corrupted1 and the
 world's giddy masquerade rushes        
heedlessly on4 ,give me one who will    
think ,having and ,seeming less than    
,being2 who will be content to be       
himself and a law unto himself and in   

him ,i will revere the ideal man4       
,before him the shams and mockeries of  
existence shall sink away4 ,he will look
 into his own soul and tell you the     
oracles he has read there1 and you will 
hear and behold your own heart4 ,he will
 plant the sign of the ,eternal on a    
high standard and call unto a people    
that strays in the wilderness to look up
 to that and be saved4 ,the old and the 
young will he instruct1 and they shall  
love him1 for his words will be an      
articulate cry to the dumb voices in    
their own breasts4 ,this is the be-all  
and end-all of his mission1--to make    
them acquainted with themselves4 ,do you
 know he will say1 what a power is in   
you1 what a light is hidden in the deep 
recesses of your nature4 ,artists are ye
 all to whom your own soul is given to  
mold it into beauty4 ,happy1 happy      
indeed if you seek no other reward but  
the artist's joy in his work and know   
that to be your glory and your          
recompense4  ,it is well1 that there    

should be priests appointed to bear such
 messages to us from time to time as we 
rest from our toil2 to bring us face to 
face with the inner life4 ,but there are
 special occasions in these passing     
years of ours1 when the ideal bearings  
of life come home to us with peculiar   
force and when we require the priest to 
be their proper interpreter4  ,marriage 
is one of them4 ,we often hear it said  
that marriage is a mere legal compact4  
,the state1 it is true1 has a vital     
interest in protecting the purity of the
 conjugal relation and may prescribe    
certain forms to which its citizens are 
bound to conform4 ,but has the meaning  
of the new bond been indeed fully       
expressed1 when the magistrate in the   
court room has pronounced the young man 
and the maiden to be now husband and    
wife8 ,among the ancient ,hebrews youths
 and young girls were wont to meet on   
the ,day of ,atonement1 the most solemn 
day of the year1 the day of purification
 from sin1 to cement their affections   

and plight their troth4 ,for marriage   
itself was esteemed an act of           
purification4 ,marriage is the          
foundation of all morality4 ,its        
celebration does not end with the       
wedding day3 it is a constant           
celebration1 a perpetual intermarrying  
of two souls while life lasts4  ,not the
 state only1 but humanity also1 that    
ideal state of which we are all         
citizens1 has an interest in the        
contract4 ,a new sanctuary is to be     
reared sacred to the ineffable mysteries
 of the home-life2 in the home with all 
the tender and holy associations that   
cluster about it let it be dedicated4   
,the supreme festival of humanity is    
marriage4 ,there shall be music and joy 
and a white-robed bride with myrtle     
wreath2 and solemn words to express the 
solemn meanings of the act4  ,at the    
grave also is the office of the priest1 
,when some dear friend has been taken   
from us1 when the whole earth seems     
empty for the loss of one and the       

pillars of existence seem broken1 he    
shall say to the grieving heart3 ,arise1
 be strong4 ,he shall bid your brooding 
sorrow pause4 ,he shall speak of larger 
duties1 which they you mourn have left  
you1 as their legacy4 ,larger duties3   
this is his medicine4 ,you are not free1
 you poor and sadly stricken friends to 
stand aside in idle woe1 but you shall  
make for the departed a memorial in your
 lives and assume their half completed  
tasks4 ,so the loss1 though loss it be1 
will purify you1 and vim and vigor be   
found in the consolations of the ,ideal4
 ,we trust that we have used the term   
priest in no narrow restricted sense4   
,it is not the hierarchies of the past  
or the present of whom we have spoken4  
,the priest is not superior to his      
fellow men1 nor has he access to those  
transcendental regions which are closed 
to others4 ,his power is in this1 that  
he speaks what all feel4 ,and he shall  
be counted an acceptable teacher1 then  
only1 when the slumbering echoes within 

you waken to the music that moves and   
masters him4  ,there have been those1   
whose lives were molded on such a       
pattern among the clergy at all times1  
and it is this circumstance1 that has   
attracted the reverence of mankind to   
the priestly office4  ,noble men were   
they whose love burst through the       
cramping fetters of their creeds1       
apostles of liberty1 missionaries of    
humanity4  ,but there is one other trait
 necessary to complete the picture4 ,the
 priest of the ,ideal must have the gift
 of tongues and kingly words to utter   
kingly thoughts4 ,in the philosophy of  
,alexandria it was held1 that before the
 world was1 the word was1 and the word  
created a universe out of chaos and the 
word was divine4 ,with that heaven-born 
energy must he be filled1 and with a    
breath of that creative speech must he  
inspire4 ,no tawdry eloquence be his1 no
 glittering gift of phrase or fantasy1  
but words of the soul's own language1   
words of the pith and core of truth4    

,the image of the ,ideal priest which ,i
 have attempted to draw is itself an    
ideal image1 nowhere realized1 never to 
be fully attained4 ,but it is to it that
 the priests of the new age will strive 
to come near and nearer1 and that will  
be their pride and their happiness1 if  
they can become in this sense friends   
and helpers of their kind4  ,in the eyes
 of the dogmatist they are strangers out
 of a strange land of thought4 ,if you  
ask them for their pass word1 it is     
freedom1 if you ask for their creed1 it 
is boundless4 ,the multitude seeking to 
compress the infinite within the narrow 
limits of the senses1 must needs have   
tangible shapes to lay hands on1 names  
if nothing better4 ,but the ,ideal in   
the highest is void of form and its name
 unutterable4 ,we will ascend on the    
wings of the morning1 we will let       
ourselves down to the uttermost depths  
of the sea1 and know it there4 ,but     
chiefly within ourselves shall we seek  
it1 in ourselves is its shrine4 ,the    

time will come when single men shall no 
more be needed to do its ministry1 when 
in the brotherhood and sisterhood of    
mankind all shall be priests and        
priestesses one to another1 for all     
their life shall be a song of praise to 
the highest1 and their whole being shall
 be consecrated and glorified in the    
immortal service of deathless ,ideals4  
,v4 ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,new       
,,ideal     ,a ,,new ,,order4  ,i ,,am  
aware that there exists a deep seated   
prejudice in the minds of many of my    
hearers against what are called the     
forms of religion4 ,we have too long    
experienced their limitations and       
restraints1 not to be jealous now of our
 hard won liberties4 ,but let us ask    
ourselves what it is that alienates our 
sympathies from the ritual and          
ceremonial observances of the dominant  
creeds8 ,is it the forms as such8 ,is it
 not rather the fact that to us they    
have become dead forms3 that they no    
longer appeal to our sentiments1 that   

they fail to stir1 to invigorate1 to    
ennoble us8 ,we have not cast them aside
 lightly4 ,often have we entered the    
house of worship1 prepared to be drawn  
back into the influence of its once     
familiar surroundings3 we beheld again  
the great assembly1 we heard the solemn 
music1 we listened to the preacher as he
 strove to impress upon a silent        
multitude1 the lessons of the higher    
life4 ,but in the prayers we could not  
join1 and the words to which the music  
moved we could not sing1 and the maxims 
of the preacher were couched in         
language1 and enforced with doctrinal   
arguments that touched no chord in our  
hearts4 ,we left disappointed1 we had   
received no help3 if this were religion1
 we felt ourselves more distant from    
religion than ever before4  ,on the     
banks of the ,euphrates there flourished
 of old an extensive colony of ,jews4 ,a
 ,prince of the ,captivity revived the  
memory of the vanished glory of ,king   
,david's house4 ,high schools were      

erected that afforded a common centre to
 the scattered members of the ,jewish   
,faith4 ,in these the people beheld at  
once their bond of connection with the  
past1 and the pledge of future          
restoration to their patrimony4 ,in the 
early part of the middle ages1 a prayer 
for the health and prosperity of the    
presidents of the high schools was      
inserted into the liturgy4 ,well nigh   
eight hundred years have elapsed since  
these dignitaries1 and the schools      
themselves1 have ceased to exist1 yet   
the prayer is still retained1 and may be
 heard repeated on any ,sabbath in the  
synagogues of the orthodox--a prayer for
 the health of the ,prince and the high 
schools on the ,euphrates that vanished 
from the face of the earth eight hundred
 years ago4 ,thus do religious forms    
continue to maintain themselves long    
after their vitality is perished and    
their very meaning is forgotten4 ,but if
 the prevalent forms have ceased to     
satisfy us1 can we therefore dispense   

with form altogether8 ,if the house that
 has given us shelter is in ruins1 shall
 we therefore live in the woods and     
fields1 or shall we not rather erect a  
new mansion on a broader foundation1 and
 with firmer walls8 ,it has been the    
bane of liberalism1 that it was simply  
critical and not constructive4 ,your    
thought must have not wings only1 but   
hands and feet to walk and work1 to form
 and reform4 ,liberalism must have its  
organs1 must enter the race with its    
rivals2 must not criticise only1 but do 
better4 ,liberalism must pass the stage 
of individualism1 must become the soul  
of great combinations4 ,what then shall 
be the form adequate to express the new 
,ideal8  ,the form of any religion is   
the image of its ideal4 ,to illustrate  
what this means1 let us consider for a  
moment the origin of the synagogue and  
the church4  ,the orthodox opinion that 
,judaism was revealed to ,moses fourteen
 hundred years ,b4 ,c4 is condemned by  
modern critics of the ,bible4 ,the      

following are some of the considerations
 that have influenced their verdict4    
,first1 we read in scripture that so    
late as the reign of ,david1 idolatry   
was still rampant among the ,hebrews1   
and the attempt to explain this fact    
upon the theory of a relapse1 is        
contrary to the testimony of the ,bible 
itself4  ,secondly3 ,the name of ,moses 
is unknown to the prophets1 his         
ostensible successors1 a circumstance   
which would remain inexplicable if      
,moses had indeed been the founder of   
monotheism4  ,thirdly3 ,large portions  
of the ,pentateuch were probably not    
composed before the sixth or fifth      
century ,b4 ,c1 that is to say about a  
thousand years after the time of ,moses4
 ,the account they give of the early    
history of the people is therefore open 
to serious and just doubt4 ,the prophets
 were the real authors of monotheism4   
,the priestly code of the ,pentateuch   
does not represent the form of ,judaism 
which they taught4 ,they are not        

chargeable with the technicalities and  
dry formalism of the ,books of ,moses4  
,they were the avowed enemies of the    
priesthood and for a long time engaged  
in fierce struggles with the ruling     
hierarchy4 ,their doctrines were in the 
essence these3 ,that there is a         
,creator1 that he is just and merciful1 
that the same qualities in man are the  
most acceptable species of divine       
service1 that ,god directs all events1  
whether great or small2 and that it is  
the duty of man to accept the guidance  
of the ,deity1 and to follow with       
tireless diligence the clews of the     
,divine ,will4 ,jehovah is to be        
reverenced not only as a spiritual1 but 
also as a temporal sovereign1 and the   
prophets are his ministers commissioned 
to transmit his decrees to men4 ,thus   
,monotheism found expression in the form
 of ,theocratic government4 ,it is true 
the heathen world was not yet prepared  
to enter into so near a relationship    
with the ,creator4 ,on this account the 

,jews were selected to be a typical     
people1 and the ,kingdom of ,god was for
 the time being confined to them4 ,it is
 evident from the above that the order  
of the prophets was the very mainstay of
 the ,theocratic fabric4 ,when these    
inspired messengers ceased to appear1   
the conclusion was drawn that the ,will 
of ,god had been fully revealed4 ,the   
writings of the prophets were then      
collected into sacred books1 and were   
regarded as the constitution of the     
divine empire4 ,when ,jerusalem was     
destroyed1 the sacrifices were          
discontinued and ,judaism was purged of 
many heathenish elements which had been 
allowed to mar the simplicity of the    
prophetic religion4 ,the synagogue took 
the place of the ,temple1 and an        
intricate code of ceremonies was        
gradually elaborated1 intended to remind
 the pious ,jew at all hours and seasons
 of his duties toward ,god1 and the     
peculiar mission accorded to his people4
 ,the synagogue was a single prominent  

peak in the range of the religious life1
 a rallying point for the members of the
 ,jewish community1 a meeting house     
where they assembled to confirm their   
allegiance to their heavenly ,king4     
,now the cardinal point of difference   
between primitive ,christianity and     
,judaism related to the alleged         
abrogation of the ancient constitution  
set forth in the old ,testament4        
,christianity said3 ,the ,messiah has   
come2 the law of ,moses is fulfilled2   
the ,king has issued a new constitution1
 and sent his own ,son to put it in     
force4 ,the time has arrived when the   
,kingdom of ,god need no longer be      
restricted to a single people4 ,jesus   
who perished on the cross will presently
 return1 and the universal theocracy    
will then be proclaimed4 ,but ,jesus did
 not return1 his followers waited long  
and patiently1 but they waited in vain4 
,as time rolled on1 they learned to     
dwell less upon the expected ,millennium
 on earth1 and to defer the fulfilment  

of their hopes to the life beyond the   
grave4 ,in the interval they perfected  
the organization of the church4 ,the    
,christian ,ideal of the ,kingdom of    
,heaven is that of a communion of all   
saints under the sovereignty of ,god    
through ,christ4 ,the ,christian ,church
 is designed to be an image of this     
,ideal1 a communion of saintly men on   
earth1 accepting ,christ as their       
,master4 ,christianity aspired to be the
 universal religion2 there should be no 
barriers any more between man and man2  
the exclusiveness of ancient ,judaism   
should be broken down2 yet withal the   
barriers of a new creed soon arose in   
place of the old2 the portals of the    
,kingdom of ,heaven were rigidly closed 
against all who refused to bow to the   
despotism of dogma2 and the virtues of  
pagans were declared to be shining      
vices4 ,the moral teachings of ,christ  
are gentle and kindly1 but in the       
doctrinal contentions of the ,christians
 the spirit of the ,master was          

forgotten1 and the earth was deluged    
with blood4 ,and now the new ,ideal     
differs from ,christianity in this1 that
 it seeks to approach the goal of a     
,kingdom of ,heaven upon earth1 not by  
the miraculous interference of the      
,deity1 but by the laborious exertions  
of men1 and the slow but certain        
progress of successive generations4 ,we 
have named the form of religion an image
 of the ,ideal1 yet an image poor and   
incomplete at best1 rather a symbol1 a  
suggestion of what can never be         
realized4 ,in the realm of art we do not
 find the soul of beauty in the colored 
canvas or the marble statue2 these are  
helpful hieroglyphics only1 teaching    
those that can read their mute language 
to create anew the ideal as it lived in 
the artist's soul1 in the divine hour of
 conception4 ,thus all form has its     
value only in what it suggests4 ,our    
,ideal is that of the fellowship of     
humanity in highest wisdom1 highest     
truth and highest love4 ,the form of    

this ideal therefore can be none other  
than a new fellowship united by the     
higher truths and purer love that make  
its bond to be a symbol of the highest6 
,we are weary of the unreal and untrue  
existence we are forced to lead2 we are 
weary of the emptiness of routine1 weary
 of the false coin of reputation that   
passes current in the market of vanity  
fair2 we are weary of the low standards 
by which actions are judged1 and to     
which1 to our dismay1 we perceive our   
actions insensibly conform4 ,but the    
pressure of social influences about us  
is enormous1 and no single arm can      
resist it4 ,we must needs band together 
then1 if we would achieve a higher life2
 we must create for ourselves a purer   
atmosphere1 if any rarer virtues are to 
flourish in our midst2 we must make our 
own public opinion1 to buoy us up in    
every loftier aspiration4 ,unions we    
want that will hold1 not religion as a  
duty1 but duty as a religion2 union to  
achieve a larger morality4 ,three things

 morality demands of us as interpreted  
in the light of our present social      
conditions3 greater simplicity in       
manners1 greater purity in the passions1
 greater charity4 ,the habit of         
luxurious living is eating into the     
vitals of society1 is defiling the      
family1 and corrupting the state4 ,let  
me not be falsely understood4 ,all that 
is luxury which political economists are
 wont to class as unproductive          
consumption4 ,in this sense1 books1     
music and pictures are luxuries1 and who
 would be willing to forego them4 ,it   
becomes us to the utmost of our powers  
to satisfy the thirst for knowledge1 and
 to educate the sense of harmony3 it is 
wise to expend generously upon every    
means of culture and refinement4 ,but   
this we must bear in mind1 that there   
should be a rank and a proper           
subordination among our tastes and      
desires4 ,now that is luxury in the     
evil1 in the debasing sense of the term1
 that we subvert the natural order of   

our tastes1 that we make the mere       
gratification of the animal passions1   
the mere pursuit of wealth1 the mere    
adornment of our clay1 main objects1    
while the graces of intellect perish1   
and the adornment of the soul is        
neglected4 ,say not1 we will do the one1
 and not leave undone the other2 for the
 inordinate degree to which the meaner  
passions are developed1 dulls our sense 
of loftier needs4 ,we cannot serve these
 two masters4 ,frivolous in prosperity1 
we become helpless in adversity and     
perish inwardly1 our growth stunted1 our
 nobler sympathies blunted1 long before 
we are bedded in our graves4 ,what      
single effort can achieve a change8     
,fellowship1 friends are needed1 and a  
public opinion on behalf of simplicity4 
,and purity in the passions is needed4  
,an ugly sore is here concealed1 a      
skeleton in the closet of which men     
speak with bated breath4 ,is there not  
such a thing as sanctity of the person6 
,did you not rebel against human slavery

 because you said it was wrong that any 
being born in the image of man should be
 the tool of another8 ,and no arguments 
could deceive you--not if the slave     
offered himself willingly to the yoke1  
and rejoiced in his bondage4 ,you dared 
not so sin against human nature1 and    
accept that offer4 ,and yet ,new ,york  
has its slaves1 ,boston its slaves1 and 
every large town on the face of the wide
 earth has this sinful1 outcast army of 
slaves--tools1 whom we have robbed of   
that which no human being has a right to
 barter1 the right to virtue at least1  
if not to happiness4 ,call not that a   
law of nature1 which is the lawlessness 
of nature6 ,say not1 it has ever been   
thus1 and ever shall be6 ,from depths of
 vice which the imagination dare not    
recall1 humanity has slowly risen to its
 present level1 and higher and higher   
will it take its course when the        
conscience is quickened and true love   
expands4 ,fellowship is needed to       
support this difficult virtue and a     

public opinion on behalf of purity4     
,and charity1 friends2 not that which we
 commonly called charity2 but charity   
that prevents rather than cures4 ,you   
pass through the lower quarters of our  
city1 you see the misery1 the filth1 the
 gaunt1 grim poverty1 the careworn      
faces1 the candidates for starvation4   
,starvation6 whoever hears of it8 ,the  
newspapers rarely speak of it2 here or  
there an exceptional case4 ,nay truly1  
these people do not starve2 they die of 
a cold perhaps2 the small-pox came and  
carried them off3 diphtheria makes its  
ravage among them4 ,ah1 but was it not  
want that sapped their strength1 and    
made them powerless to resist disease8  
,was it not their life of pinched       
pauperism that ripened them for the     
reaper's scythe8 ,then pass from these  
sorrowful sights to our stately ,avenue4
 ,behold the gay world of fashion1 its  
painted pomp1 its gilded sinfulness1 its
 heartless extravagance4 ,is not this an
 intolerable contrast8 ,shall we rest   

quiet under the talk of irremediable    
evils8 ,is it not true that something   
must be done1 and can be done because it
 must8 ,the distribution of wealth they 
say1 is governed by economic laws1 and  
sentiment has no right to be considered 
in affairs of business4 ,but where ,i   
pray you is the sentiment of brotherly  
love considered as it should be8        
,educate the masses6 ,but do we educate 
them8 ,stimulate their self-respect and 
teach them self-help6 ,but what large or
 effective measures are we taking to    
this most desirable end8 ,you cannot    
help1 good friend1 nor ,i4 ,but a dozen 
might aid somewhat1 and a thousand brave
 unselfish hearts knit together for such
 a purpose1 who shall say what mighty   
changes they could work4 ,surely        
fellowship is needed here1 and a public 
opinion on behalf of charity4  ,the fine
 phrase1 humanity has pregnant meanings4
 ,they stand for the grandest1 the      
sternest realities of the times4        
,purity1 charity and simplicity1 these  

shall be the watchwords of a new        
fellowship1 which shall practice the    
teachings of humanity1 that are vain as 
the empty wind1 if heard only and       
approved1 but not made actual in our    
deeds4  ,and yet some will smile        
incredulously and ask1 where are the men
 and women prepared to undertake such a 
task8 ,it is true1 we must begin at the 
beginning4 ,from earliest childhood the 
young must be trained on a nobler       
method1 and in the ethical school lies  
the main work of preparation4 ,there    
every step in the course of development 
must be carefully considered1 vigilantly
 watched and wisely directed1 to the one
 crowning purpose of ripening the young 
minds and hearts for that fellowship of 
love and hope4  ,a new fellowship1 a new
 order1 ,i say boldly1 whose members    
shall not be bound by any vows1 which   
shall have no convents1 no mysteries1   
but shall make itself an exemplar of the
 virtues it preaches1 a form of the     
ideal4 ,the perils that attend such     

organizations are great2 we will not    
attempt to underrate their gravity1 but 
we believe they can be overcome4 ,the   
spirit of co-operation lends mighty     
momentum to every cause2 it depends upon
 the cause itself whether the influence 
exerted shall be for good or evil4 ,and 
there has been in history a single order
 at least of the kind which ,i describe3
 ,the brotherhood of the common life1 it
 was called2 an order composed of       
earnest1 studious men1 to whom the      
upheaval of ,europe in the sixteenth    
century was largely due2 a noble        
brotherhood that prepared the way for   
the great ,reformation4 ,the ,catholic  
orders are dedicated to the world to    
come2 the order of the ,ideal will be   
dedicated to the world of the living3 to
 deepen and broaden the conscience of   
men will be its mission4  ,the          
propaganda of ,liberalism in the past   
has been weak and barren of great       
results4 ,strong personalities it has   
brought forth2 around these societies   

have clustered and fallen asunder when  
the personal magnet was withdrawn4 ,what
 we need is institutions of which       
persons shall be merely the exponents2  
institutions that must be grounded on   
the needs of the present1 and that shall
 last by their own vitality1 to future  
ages and to the increase of future good4
  ,it is the opening of the spring499   
,after its long winter sleep1 the earth 
reawakens1 and amid the fierce storms of
 the ,equinox nature ushers in the      
season of flowers and of summer's golden
 plenty4 ,it is the day of ,easter4     
,loudly the bells are pealing and joyous
 songs celebrate in the legend of       
,christ risen from the grave1 the marvel
 of the ,resurrection4 ,what we cannot  
credit of an individual1 is true of the 
nations4 ,after long periods of seeming 
torpor and death1 humanity ever arises  
anew from the dust1 shakes off its      
slumbers1 and clothes itself with       
fresher vigor and diviner powers4       
99 ,the above discourse was delivered on

 ,easter ,sunday1 ,april      #ast4     
,let the hope of the season animate us4 
,let it fill our souls with confidence  
in our greater destinies2 let it teach  
us to trust in them and to labor for    
them1 that a new ,ideal may vivify the  
palsied hearts and a new spring tide    
come1 and a new ,easter dawn arise over 
all mankind4     ,,vi4 ,,the ,,religious
 ,,conservatism ,,of ,,women4  ,no      
thoughtful person can fail to appreciate
 the enormous influence which women are 
constantly exercising for good and evil 
upon the destinies of the world4 ,the   
charms and graces of existence1 whatever
 ennobles and embellishes life1 we owe  
mainly to them4 ,they are the natural   
guardians of morality1 and from age to  
age the mothers of households have      
preserved the sacred fire on the        
domestic hearth1 whereat every virtue is
 kindled4 ,but they have also been the  
most formidable enemies of progress4    
,their conservatism is usually of the   
most unreasoning kind1 and the tenacity 

with which they cling to favorite       
prejudices is rarely overcome either by 
argument or appeal4 ,they have been from
 time immemorial the dupes1 the tools1  
and the most effective allies of        
priestcraft4 ,their hostility to the    
cause of ,reform has been so fatal1 not 
only because of the direct influence of 
their actions1 but because of that      
subtle power which they exert so        
skilfully over the minds of husbands1   
brothers and friends1 by the arts of    
remonstrance1 entreaty and the contagion
 of their feeble alarms4 ,the question  
whether their hostility can be turned   
into friendship1 is one of momentous    
importance for the leaders of the       
,liberal movement to consider4  ,in the 
following we shall endeavor to make     
plain that the subordinate position     
hitherto assigned to women1 is the      
principal cause that has impelled them  
to take sides against religious         
progress4  ,among the primitive races   
woman was reduced to a condition of     

abject slavery4 ,affection of the deeper
 kind was unknown4 ,the wife was robbed 
or purchased from her relations2 was    
treated as a menial by her husband1 and 
often exposed to the most brutal abuse4 
,as civilization advanced1 the marriage 
bond became more firm1 and common       
interest in the offspring of the union  
served to create common sympathies4     
,among the ,greeks1 the ideal of        
domestic life was pure and elevated4    
,the tales of ,andromache1 ,penelope and
 ,alcestes illustrate the strength of   
conjugal fidelity and the touching      
pathos of love that outlasts death4 ,the
 ,grecian home was fenced about with    
scrupulous care and strictest privacy   
protected its inmates from temptation4  
,it was the duty of the wife to         
superintend the internal economy of the 
household1 to spin and weave1 to direct 
the slaves in their various occupations1
 to nurse them when sick1 to watch over 
the young children1 and chiefly to      
insure the comfort and satisfaction of  

her lord4 ,his cares and ambitions      
indeed she hardly shared4 ,she never    
aspired to be his equal1 and simple     
obedience to his wishes was the supreme 
virtue impressed upon her by education1 
and enforced by habit4 ,among the       
,romans1 the character of the matron is 
described in the most laudatory and     
reverential terms4 ,still the laws of   
the ,republic made woman practically the
 bondswoman of man4 ,it is well-known   
that our ,english word family is derived
 from the ,latin where it originally    
means the household of slaves4 ,the     
matron too1 was counted1 at least       
theoretically1 among these slaves1 and  
the right of deciding her fate literally
 for life or death1 belonged exclusively
 to her husband4 ,it is true in the     
cordial intimacy of the monogamic bond1 
the austerity of usage1 and the         
harshness of the laws are often tempered
 by affection and mutual respect2 yet we
 are aptly reminded by a modern writer  
on this subject1 that the law which     

remains a dead letter to the refined and
 cultivated becomes the instrument of   
the most heartless oppression in the    
hands of the vulgar and the passionate4 
,among the ,hebrews1 a position of great
 dignity and consequence was sometimes  
accorded to their women4 ,the wives of  
,abraham1 ,isaac and ,jacob played an   
important part in directing the affairs 
of the ,patriarchal households4 ,a woman
 performed the functions of judge and   
leader of armies1 women sat upon the    
throne1 prophetesses were consulted in  
grave matters of the ,state and of      
religion2 in the absence of sons1 the   
,mosaic law guarantees to daughters the 
right of succession to the family       
estate4 ,the later writings of the ,jews
 are likewise replete with noble        
sentiments touching the sanctity of the 
conjugal tie4 ,many of the ordinances of
 the ,talmud depend upon women for their
 execution1 and this circumstance alone 
must have contributed to raise them in  
the popular estimation4 ,in every       

marriage contract a certain sum was set 
apart for the wife1 in case of her      
husband's death or of divorce4 ,still   
the right of dissolving the matrimonial 
connection belonged exclusively to the  
husband1 although under certain         
conditions he could be forced by the    
court to issue the writ of separation4  
,however the wife might be honored and  
loved1 she was ever regarded as man's   
inferior4  ,the influence of            
,christianity upon the position of      
women1 was twofold1 and in opposite     
directions4 ,on the one hand women had  
been among the first and most devoted   
followers of ,jesus2 women were largely 
instrumental in effecting the conversion
 of the ,roman ,empire1 and in the list 
of martyrs1 their names shine           
preeminent4 ,on the other hand1 the     
church in the early centuries cast an   
unpardonable slur on the marriage       
relation4 ,we read of young maidens     
fleeing the society of dear companions  
and friends1 to escape the temptation of

 the affections1 of faithful wives1     
filled with inexpressible loathing at a 
connection which they deemed contrary to
 the dictates of religion1 and deserting
 husbands and children4 ,the desire of  
love was poisoned with a sense of guilt4
 ,the celibacy of the clergy1 finally   
enforced by ,pope ,hildebrand1 gave rise
 to the most shocking irregularities4   
,all this tended to degrade the female  
sex4  ,at the time of the crusades a    
partial revulsion of feeling took place4
 ,the spirit of chivalry entered the    
church1 the character of woman was      
transfigured1 and the worship of the    
,virgin ,mary spread in consequence     
throughout ,europe4 ,a change in the    
education of girls was one of the       
results of the rise of ,chivalry4 ,music
 and poetry became its chief elements2  
women were fed on intellectual          
sweetmeats1 but strong and healthy      
nourishment was still denied them4  ,in 
all the different stages of progress    
which we have thus rapidly scanned1 the 

assumption of man's superiority to woman
 was held as an incontestible article of
 belief1 and even the chivalric ideal is
 only a more amiable and disguised      
expression of the same view4  ,what     
effect the disabilities under which they
 labored must have had upon the         
religious life of women will readily be 
perceived4 ,there are two attitudes of  
mind peculiarly favorable to orthodoxy2 
the one a tendency to lean on authority1
 the other a disposition to give free   
sway to the feelings without submitting 
them to the checks of reason4 ,now it is
 plain that the condition of dependence 
to which society has condemned woman is 
calculated to develop these very        
qualities to an abnormal degree4 ,from  
early childhood she receives commands   
and is taught to distrust her own       
judgment4 ,when she enters the bonds of 
matrimony she becomes dependent on her  
husband for support1 and in the vast    
majority of cases1 his riper judgment   
shames her inexperience4 ,in all graver 

matters she must perforce defer to his  
decision4 ,accustomed to rely on        
authority1 is it surprising that in     
matters of religion1 where even men     
confess their ignorance1 she should     
rejoice in the authority of the priest1 
whose directions relieve her of doubt   
and supply a ready channel for her      
thoughts and acts4 ,again the feelings  
are her natural weapons1 shall she not  
trust them6 ,the stability and security 
of society are the conditions on which  
her dearest hopes depend for their      
realization4 ,can she welcome the       
struggles of innovation4 ,all her       
feelings cluster about the religious    
traditions of the past2 all a woman's   
heart pleads for their maintenance4     
,now to confine the feelings of woman   
within their proper bounds1 it is       
necessary to give wider scope1 and a    
more generous cultivation to her        
intellect2 in brief to allow her the    
same freedom of development as is       
universally accorded to man4 ,freedom   

makes strong1 and the confidence of     
others generates an independent and     
self-reliant spirit in ourselves4 ,it is
 indeed often urged that woman is by    
nature the inferior of man4 ,but the    
appeal to physiology seems to be at     
least premature2 the relation of the    
size of the brain to intellectual       
capacity being by no means clearly      
determined2 while the appeal to history 
is1 if possible1 even more treacherous1 
because it cites the evils engendered by
 an ancient and long continued system of
 oppression in favor of the system      
itself4 ,counting all the disadvantages 
against which woman has been forced to  
contend1 and which have hampered her    
every effort to elevate her condition1  
it is truly marvelous1 not that she has 
done so little1 but that she has        
accomplished that which she has4 ,even  
in the difficult art of government she  
has earned well merited distinction1 and
 women are named among the wisest and   
most beneficent rulers of ancient and   

modern times499 ,what the possibilities 
of woman's nature may be1 no one can    
tell2 least of all she herself4 ,as it  
is she is credited with a superior power
 of intuition1 a readier insight into   
character1 a more complete mastery of   
details4 ,what larger powers now latent 
a broader culture will bring to light1  
remains for the future to show4       99
 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,the ,subjection of     
,women1 p4 #ajj4  ,but we are told that 
the sphere of woman's work is in the    
home1 and that properly to perform her  
vocation there1 she does not need the   
vigorous training required for men4     
,that woman's mission ought to be and   
happily is in the majority of cases in  
the home1 no one will gainsay4 ,at the  
same time1 we should not close our eyes 
to patent facts1 facts such as these2   
that the number of women whose mission  
actually does not lie in the home1 is   
exceedingly great2 that according to the
 last census of the ,united ,states1 for
 instance1 the female population of the 

,state of ,new ,york1 is fifty-six      
thousand in excess of the male2 that    
well nigh two millions of women in this 
country are engaged in working for their
 livelihood4 ,is it not cruel mockery to
 say to these women that their business 
is in the household8 ,if the condition  
of things is such that they must seek   
outside labor2 if we permit them to toil
 by hundreds of thousands in the fields 
and factories1 on what plea of right or 
reason can we deny them admission to the
 higher grades of service8 ,is it not   
simple justice to admit them to all the 
professions1 and to allow them the same 
advantages in colleges and professional 
schools as are enjoyed by men8  ,we need
 not fear that the privilege will be    
abused4 ,if women undertake to engage in
 pursuits for which they are physically 
or mentally unfit1 the effect of        
competition will quickly discourage     
them1 and here as elsewhere1 only the   
fittest will survive4  ,but aside from  
those who are destined to remain single1

 and considering the seven millions of  
women1 or more1 who will become wives   
and mothers of families2 is not the     
demand for higher education equally     
imperative in their case8 ,young girls  
are but too often educated to be the    
agreeable companions1 rather than the   
partners of their future husbands4 ,they
 receive sufficient instruction to give 
them a general acquaintance with the    
surface of things1 but not sufficient to
 develop what ought to be the chief end 
of every scheme of education--a         
permanent intellectual interest in any  
one direction4 ,much time is wasted on  
minor accomplishments4 ,at an age when  
the young girl is still totally         
immature1 she is often withdrawn from   
the influence of her preceptors1 and    
hurried from dissipation to dissipation1
 to tread the round of society's        
gayeties1 and to inhale the poisonous   
atmosphere of flattery and conventional 
falsehoods4 ,she enters a new world4    
,the contrast between the restraints of 

school life1 and her novel sense of     
consequence intoxicates her2 the desire 
for pleasure becomes a passion2 the     
books of useful information1 that never 
possessed a real charm for her1 are cast
 aside1 and the literature of the       
sentiments alone retains its attractions
 during the remainder of life4 ,it is   
not astonishing that those whose minds  
are thus left barren1 should employ     
their leisure hours in frivolous or     
vicious occupations2 that an exorbitant 
luxury1 the sign at all times1 of       
deficient culture1 should have infected 
the community4 ,it is not wonderful that
 when the trials of life approach1 these
 women grasp wildly at the nearest      
superstition1 and prostrate themselves  
before any idol of the vulgar1 in their 
blind ignorance and credulity4  ,i have 
said that higher education can alone    
make marriage what it ought to be1 for  
it is not fancy or the glow of passion  
that can bind the hearts together in    
lasting wedlock4 ,the marriage bond has 

deeper meanings4 ,two souls are united1 
each to be all in all to each4 ,here    
shall be the very consummation of love2 
love1 that precious boon that assuages  
every pang1 and stills every grief1 and 
triumphs over sickness1 sorrow1 and the 
tomb4 ,all nature's symbols fail to     
express its fulness2 it has the hope of 
the dawning day2 it has the tender      
pathos of the light of the moon2 it has 
the melody of birds1 the mystic         
stillness of the forest1 the infinity of
 the fathomless sea6 ,bounteous love1   
how inexhaustible are its treasures6    
,the fires of the passions kindle       
affection1 but cannot secure it4 ,if    
there be only the stubble of desire in  
the heart1 that will quickly be         
consumed2 if there be veins of true gold
 there1 that will be melted and refined4
 ,years pass1 youth fades1 the attendant
 train of the graces vanishes1          
loveliness falls like a mask1 but the   
union only becomes firmer and trustier1 
because it is a union1 not of the       

sentiments merely1 but of the souls4    
,the wife becomes the true sharer of her
 husband's thoughts2 mutual confidence  
reigns between them2 they grow by mutual
 furtherance2 each sees in each the     
mirror of his nobler self2 they are the 
true complement one to the other4 ,who  
does not know that such unions are rare6
 ,common sympathies1 common duties do   
indeed create a tolerable understanding 
in most households2 but that is not     
wedlock that men and women should jog on
 tolerably well together for the better 
part of a lifetime4  ,the modern mind is
 constantly broadening2 new facts1 new  
discoveries are constantly coming to    
light1 and loftier problems engage the  
attention of thinkers4 ,if woman would  
not be utterly left behind in the race1 
then must she make an effort to acquire 
more solid knowledge1 and educational   
reform is the first step in the cause of
 woman's emancipation4 ,the electoral   
franchise1 and whatever other measures  
may be included in the popular phrase of

 ,woman's rights should be reserved for 
future discussion4 ,if practicable at   
all1 they are assuredly for the present 
of secondary importance4  ,permit me to 
close by briefly formulating a few      
points that seem to me to deserve       
special consideration in this           
connection4  ,woman1 like man1 should   
comprehend the age in which she lives   
and the great questions by which it is  
agitated4 ,to this end a knowledge of   
history1 and chiefly the history of her 
own nation1 is requisite4 ,she should   
learn to understand the principles of   
the language she speaks1 and the        
literature in which it is preserved1 not
 from dry text-books1 but from the      
living works of the authors themselves4 
,she should be able to pass an          
intelligent judgment upon the political 
issues of the day1 that take up so large
 a share of men's conversation1 and to  
this end the rudiments of political     
science might profitably be taught her4 
,she should possess sufficient          

familiarity with the natural sciences to
 comprehend at least the main results of
 scientific investigations1 and a       
training of this kind would have the    
further advantage of accustoming her    
mind to the methods of accurate         
thinking4 ,she should gain some         
knowledge of the human body and of the  
laws upon which its health depends4 ,is 
it not strange that this important      
branch of knowledge is so generally     
neglected in the training of those who  
are to be mothers of the future         
generation8 ,how often would proper     
attention to a few simple rules of      
hygiene prevent sickness2 how often     
would more efficient nursing avert      
death1 where it is now freely allowed to
 enter4 ,then too the outlines of       
pedagogy should be included in a course 
of advanced instruction for women4      
,mothers are the educators of the       
children1 but the educators themselves  
require to be educated4  ,if the        
intellect of girls were braced and      

stimulated in this manner1 they would   
exhibit greater self-possession and     
self-reliance in their later lives2 they
 would be less apt to be deluded by     
false appeals to the feelings3 the      
woman's view would be no longer         
proverbial for the weaker view2 the     
whole of society would feel the         
beneficent change1 and the problem which
 we set out to discuss in the beginning 
would in due time solve itself4  ,we do 
not for a moment apprehend that the     
increased cultivation of the intellect  
would entail any loss of sweetness or of
 those gracious qualities that make the 
charm of womanhood4 ,wherever such a    
result has been apparently observed1 it 
is safe to ascribe it to other causes4  
,truth and beauty are far too closely   
akin in their inmost nature to exclude  
each other4 ,nor do we fear that the    
intensity of moral feeling1 for which   
women are distinguished1 would suffer   
under the restraining influence of      
reason's guidance4 ,the moral feelings  

would indeed be purified1 elevated and  
directed to their proper objects by the 
judicious use of reason2 they would not 
therefore be enfeebled4 ,in the past1   
the conservatism of women has been a    
mighty obstacle in the path of progress4
 ,it is but just to add that at the dawn
 of every great religious movement which
 promised the moral advancement of the  
race1 gifted women1 rising above the    
weakness of their sisters1 have been    
among the earliest to welcome the new   
hope for humanity2 have been among the  
most ardent1 the most self-sacrificing  
of its disciples4 ,the ,liberal movement
 of our day also is essentially a       
movement for larger morality1 and more  
and more as this feature will be clearly
 developed1 may it hope to gain the     
sympathies of brave and good women to   
its side4 ,in their support it will     
behold at once the criterion of its     
worthiness1 and the surest pledge of its
 ultimate triumph4     ,,vii4 ,,our     
,,consolations       ,a discourse       

delivered on ,sunday1 ,april #bi1 #ahgg4
  ,we go out in these balmy days of     
spring into the reviving fields1 and the
 eye drinks in with delight the fresh   
and succulent green of the meadows2 the 
willows begin to put forth their verdant
 foliage1 the brooks purl and babble of 
the new life that has waked in the      
forest3 be glad1 all nature cries1      
summer is coming4 ,and the freshness of 
the season enters into our own hearts1  
our pulses beat more quickly1 our step  
is more buoyant4 ,we remember all that  
is joyful in existence2 the arts that   
embellish1 the aspirations that ennoble1
 the affections that endear it4 ,golden 
the future lies before us2 our very     
cares lose their sombre hues2 like the  
golden islands of cloud that glow in the
 glory of sunset skies4  ,but beneath   
the fair semblance of nature that for a 
time deludes our senses1 a dark and     
terrible reality is concealed4 ,observe 
how pitilessly the destructive elements 
pursue their path1 the earthquake the   

tornado1 the epidemic4 ,a few months ago
 a rise of the sea swept away two       
hundred thousand human lives in the     
course of a few hours4 ,myriads of      
sentient beings are daily cast up in the
 summer to perish with the first breath 
of cold4 ,in the animal world1 the      
strong feed upon the weak1 and the      
remorseless struggle for existence      
extends even into the sphere of human   
activity4 ,at this very moment the whole
 of ,europe is filled with anxious alarm
 in view of an impending war of         
conquest4 ,while industry is paralyzed1 
while trade is at a stand-still1 while a
 virulent disease generated by          
starvation has broken out in ,silesia1  
and the workmen of ,lyons have become   
dependent on the public charity of      
,france1 the resources of nations1      
already well nigh exhausted1 are drained
 to prepare for the emergencies of      
conflict4 ,with a secret thrill of      
terror we read that beds for the wounded
 and millions of roubles for hospital   

appliances are being voted by the       
municipalities of ,russia4 ,readily the 
imagination can picture to itself what  
these ghastly preparations mean4 ,it is 
true1 so long as all is well with us1   
the larger evils of the world do not    
greatly disturb our equanimity4 ,man has
 the happy faculty of abstracting his   
attention from things remote4 ,the      
accumulated woes of a continent affect  
us less than some trifling accident in  
our immediate vicinity4 ,but when the   
messengers of evil have cast their      
shadows across our threshold1 when      
calamity has laid its heavy hand upon   
our shoulder1 it is then that the       
general unsatisfactoriness of life      
recurs to us with added force in view of
 our own experience2 the splendor fades 
from the surrounding scene2 every dark  
stain takes on a deeper blackness1 and  
the gloom that comes from within fills  
and obscures the entire field of our    
vision4 ,we have sustained financial    
loss1 perhaps we are harrowed by        

domestic discord1 we are suddenly       
stricken in the midst of health1 and    
drag on long years as hopeless invalids1
 or worse still1 we stand at the bedside
 of some dear friend or kinsman1 see him
 stretched upon the rack of pain1 and   
can do nothing to alleviate his         
sufferings2 we see the end slowly       
nearing2 but oh1 the weary waiting1 the 
patient's agonizing cry for death1 the  
cruel struggle that must still          
intervene4 ,and when at last1 it is     
over1 and we have laid him away under   
the sod1 and returned to our desolate   
homes1 what hope remains6 ,whither now1 
we ask1 shall we turn for consolation8  
,is there no outlook from this night of 
trouble8 ,is there no winged thought1   
that will bear us upward from out the   
depths2 is there no solace to assuage   
our pangs8  ,among the means of         
consolation commonly recommended the    
doctrine of ,immortality seems to be    
regarded as the most appropriate and    
effective4 ,it is needless to lament2   

the deceased has entered a better life4 
,yet a little and you will join him to  
be no more parted4 ,nor can we deny that
 to those who cordially entertain it1   
the belief in the soul's immortal       
continuance becomes a source of pure and
 inexpressibly tender satisfaction4 ,but
 with a certain class of minds--and     
their number1 ,i believe1 is on the     
increase--the consoling influence of    
this doctrine is marred by the fatal    
uncertainty in which the whole question 
is involved1 and which no efforts of man
 have ever yet1 nor ever will1 avail to 
remove4 ,christianity indeed claims to  
have settled the point4 ,the ,deity     
himself1 it avers1 intervened by direct 
revelation from on high1 to set our     
doubts at rest1 and ,jesus when he arose
 on the third day forever deprived the  
grave of its sting and took away our    
fears of the tomb4 ,but to those who    
read the books of revelations with      
unbiased mind1 the fact of their human  
authorship becomes sadly apparent1 and  

the resurrection itself is as difficult 
to prove as the doctrine which it is    
designed to substantiate4  ,in modern   
times spiritualism has likewise         
endeavored to demonstrate to the senses 
the existence of a world of souls beyond
 our own4 ,but the phenomena on which it
 lies are in part disputed1 in part the 
interpretation put upon them1 must1 to  
say the least1 be regarded as premature4
  ,moreover we should remember that even
 if by some unknown means the fact of   
immortality could be established1 the   
question of our re-union with friends in
 the hereafter1 in which alone the heart
 of the mourner is interested1 would    
still remain an open one and might be   
answered in the negative4 ,the belief in
 immortality has been held in this way  
by some of the greatest intellects of   
the human race1 ,spinoza among the rest4
 ,if we knew that we shall continue to  
live1 we should not therefore know how  
we shall continue to live4 ,perhaps it  
might prove that all our previous       

connections would be severed2 and who   
can tell what new phases of existence1  
what endless metamorphoses might await  
us among the infinite possibilities of  
,eternity4  ,so deep seated is the sense
 of uncertainty concerning our fate     
beyond the tomb1 that no religion1      
however great the control which it      
exerted over men1 has ever been able to 
banish it entirely from their hearts4   
,the most ardent ,christian is hardly   
less anxious than the infidel to retain 
those who are dear to him in life4 ,he  
prays as fervently for their health as  
though their present state were the sum 
total of their existence4 ,and yet he   
should rather hail the day of death as a
 day of thanksgiving1 and rejoice that  
those whom he loves have been translated
 to a sphere every way so much more     
desirable than our own4 ,no1 the natural
 feeling cannot be suppressed1 loss is  
felt to be loss1 and death remains      
death4 ,no hope of a happier condition  
in the world to come1 no confidence in  

the promises and prophesies of faith1   
can efface the sense of present         
bereavement1 and as we all alike feel   
it1 so are we all1 believers and        
unbelievers1 interested in seeking the  
means of its present relief4  ,some of  
the most fervid1 religious natures of   
the past endeavored to escape the       
sorrows of the world by having recourse 
to the cruel remedy of asceticism4 ,the 
ascetic ponders the origin of suffering2
 he sees that the desire for pleasure is
 the cause of pain4 ,were we not eager  
to possess we should not regret to lose4
 ,he cuts the gordian knot saying1      
abjure desire6 ,when you cease to want1 
you shall no longer be bruised4 ,there  
are certain wants inherent in the       
body--the want of food1 drink1 sleep2   
the heart has its needs--friendship1    
sympathy2 the mind--knowledge1 culture4 
,all these should be subdued4 ,we should
 eat and drink the coarsest in quality  
and the least possible in quantity2 we  
should avoid the attachments of love2 we

 should be poor in spirit1 and despise  
wisdom4 ,the ascetic ideal took firm    
root in ,christianity at an early period
 of its history4 ,the extravagance of   
the ,egyptian anchorites is well known4 
,the pillar saint1 ,st4 ,simeon1 who is 
said to have passed some thirty years of
 his life on the summit of a column     
twenty yards in height1 taking only the 
scantiest nourishment1 eschewing        
ablutions1 covered with filth and sores1
 was worshipped as a holy man by the    
multitude and his example was followed  
by others1 though with less rigor1      
during a period of nearly a thousand    
years4 ,among the ,hindoos1 too1 the    
ascetic ideal acquired a baneful        
ascendency4 ,we can hardly credit the   
tales that have come to us concerning   
the insane fanaticism which raged       
amongst this people4 ,to what tortures  
of body and soul did they subject       
themselves1 what cruel ordeals did they 
invent in order to steel themselves     
against the inevitable sufferings of    

life4 ,it was their beau-ideal to       
achieve a state bordering upon absolute 
unconsciousness1 in which the power of  
sensation might be entirely blunted1 and
 even the existence of the physical man 
be forgotten4  ,this1 indeed1 is a      
capital remedy1 a species of heroic     
treatment that attains its end4 ,man    
becomes passive in pain1 incapable of   
sorrow1 unmoved by any loss4 ,but with  
the pains1 the joys of existence have   
likewise fled4 ,the human being walks as
 a shadow among shadows1 a soulless     
substance1 the wretched semblance of his
 former self4 ,who would not rather bear
 the heaviest ills that flesh is heir   
to1 than purchase his release at such a 
cost4  ,and now in setting forth our own
 view of this mighty problem of human   
sorrow1 let us bear in mind that our    
private hardships and those general     
evils which we see enacted on a scale of
 such appalling magnitude in the world  
around us1 must be considered together1 
for the same cause constantly gives rise

 to both4 ,it is of the utmost          
importance that we should weigh well    
what we have a right to expect1 and     
ponder the conditions on which humanity 
holds the tenure of its existence4      
,perhaps our deepest disappointments are
 often due to the fact that we ask more 
than we have any legitimate title to    
receive1 and judge the scheme of the    
,universe according to false analogies  
and preconceived notions which the      
constitution of things does not bear    
out4 ,we are subject to two laws1 the   
one the law of nature1 the other that of
 morality3 the two clash and collide1   
and a conflict ensues4 ,theology labors 
to show that this conflict is apparent  
rather than real1 to admit it would seem
 to impugn the justice of the ,deity4   
,thus we read in the ,old ,testament    
that when the sufferer ,job protested   
his innocence1 his friends assailed his 
veracity1 and persisted in holding the  
bare fact of his misfortune as          
unimpeachable evidence of his           

sinfulness4 ,and thus the ,psalmist     
assures us1 that he has grown old and   
never seen the righteous man in want4   
,the experience of the ,psalmist must   
have been limited indeed6 ,the conflict 
exists1 however it may be denied4       
,nature is indifferent to morality1 goes
 on regardless4 ,the great laws that    
rule the ,kosmos1 act upon this planet  
of ours1 nor heed our presence4 ,if we  
chance to stand in the way1 they grind  
us to pieces with grim unconcern3 the   
earth opens1 the volcano sends forth its
 smoldering fires1 populous cities are  
overwhelmed1 locusts devastate the      
country2 they do not pause before the   
field of the righteous2 they have no    
moral preference4 ,the seeds of disease 
also are scattered broadcast over the   
land1 and the best1 often those whom we 
can least afford to lose1 are taken4    
,these are the hostile forces1 and      
against these man must contend4 ,to them
 he opposes his intellect1 his moral    
energy2 he seeks to adapt himself to his

 place in the universe4 ,he discovers   
that these foes are blind1 not          
necessarily his enemies1 if he can trace
 their path4 ,if he can read the secret 
of their working1 they cease to threaten
 him2 he holds them with the reins of   
intellect1 and binds them to his        
chariot1 and behold like swift steeds   
they carry him whithersoever it pleases 
him1 and on1 on1 they draw his car of   
progress4 ,in this manner the sway of   
man's genius is extended on earth4      
,already life is far easier than it was 
among our ancestors ten thousand years  
ago2 the epidemic is checked by wise    
sanitary regulations1 greater justice   
prevails in government1 and the means of
 happiness are extended over wider areas
 of the population4 ,what we thus behold
 realized on a partial scale1 we        
conceive in our visions of the future to
 be indefinitely prolonged1 the course  
of development leading to higher and    
higher planes1 healthier conditions1    
wiser laws1 nobler manners4 ,the moral  

order will thus increase on earth4 ,the 
moral order never is1 but is ever       
becoming4 ,it grows with our growth1 and
 to bring on the triumph of intellect   
over mechanism1 of responsible morality 
over irresponsible force1 is our        
mission4 ,the purpose of man's life is  
not happiness1 but worthiness4          
,happiness may come as an accessory1 we 
dare never make it an end4 ,there is    
that striving for the perfect within us3
 in it we live1 by it we are exalted    
above the clod2 it is the one and only  
solace that never fails us1 and the     
experience of progress in the past1 the 
hope of greater progress in the future1 
is the redeeming feature of life4 ,but  
the condition of all progress is        
experience2 we must go wrong a thousand 
times before we find the right4 ,we     
struggle1 and grope and injure ourselves
 until we learn the uses of things4     
,pain therefore becomes a necessity1 but
 it acquires in this view a new and     
nobler meaning1 for it is the price     

humanity pays for an invaluable good4   
,every painful sickness1 every premature
 death1 becomes the means of averting   
sickness and death hereafter4 ,every    
form of violence1 every social wrong1   
every inmost tribulation1 is the result 
of general causes and becomes a goad in 
the sides of mankind1 pressing them on  
to correct the hoary abuses it has      
tolerated1 the vicious principles of    
government1 education and economy to    
which it has conformed4 ,wide as the    
earth is the martyrdom of man1 but the  
cry of the martyr is the creaking of the
 wheel which warns us that the great car
 of human progress is in motion4  ,if we
 keep duly in mind the position which   
the human race occupies over against    
nature1 we shall not accuse fate4 ,fate 
is our adversary2 we must wrestle with  
it1 we are here to establish the law of 
our own higher nature in defiance of    
fate4 ,and this is the prerogative of   
man1 that he need not blindly follow the
 law of his being1 but that he is       

himself the author of the moral law1 and
 creates it even in acting it out4 ,we  
are all soldiers in the great army of   
mankind1 battling in the cause of moral 
freedom2 some to fight as captains1     
others to do valiant service in the     
ranks2 some to shout the paean of       
victory1 others to fall on the battle   
field or to retire wounded or crippled  
to the rear4 ,but as in every battle so 
too in this1 the fallen and the wounded 
have a share in the victory2 by their   
sufferings have they helped1 and the    
greenest wreath belongs to them4  ,it is
 strictly in accordance with the view we
 have taken1 that we behold in the      
performance of duty the solace of       
affliction4 ,all of us have felt1 after 
some great bereavement1 the beneficent  
influence of mere labor3 even the       
mechanical part of duty affords us some 
relief4 ,the knowledge that something   
must be done calls us away from brooding
 over our griefs1 and forces us back    
into the active currents of life4 ,the  

cultivation of the intellect also is a  
part of man's duty1 and stands us in    
great stead in times of trouble4 ,we    
should seek to accustom the mind to the 
aspect of large interests4 ,in the      
pursuit of knowledge there is nothing of
 the personal3 into the calm and silent 
realm of thought the feelings can gain  
no entrance4 ,there1 after the first    
spasms of emotion have subsided1 we may 
find at least a temporary relief1--there
 for hours we drink in a happy oblivion4
 ,but more is needed1 and the discharge 
of the duties of the heart alone can    
really console the heart4 ,there is this
 secret in the affections1 that they    
constantly add to our strength4         
,constant communion between allied      
natures leads to their mutual enrichment
 by all that is best in either4 ,but    
when the rude hand of death interferes1 
we are as a stream whose outlet is      
barred1 as a creeper whose stay is      
broken4 ,a larger channel is needed then
 into which the waters of our love may  

flow1 a firm support1 to which the      
tattered tendrils of affection may cling
 anew4 ,true1 the close and intimate    
bond that unites friend to friend can   
have no substitute1 but the warm love   
that obtains in the personal relations  
may be expanded into a wider and        
impersonal love1 which1 if less intense1
 is broader1 which1 if less fond1 is    
even more ennobling4 ,the love you can  
no longer lavish on one1 the many call  
for it4 ,the cherishing care you can no 
longer bestow upon your child1 the      
neglected children of the poor appeal   
for it2 the sympathy you can no longer  
give your friend1 the friendless cry for
 it4 ,in alleviating the misery of      
others1 your own misery will be         
alleviated1 and in healing you will find
 that there is cure4  ,this remedy is   
suggested in an ancient legend related  
of the ,buddha1 the great ,hindoo       
reformer1 who was so deeply affected by 
the ills of human life499 ,there came to
 him one day a woman who had lost her   

only child4 ,she was wild with grief1   
and with disconsolate sobs and cries    
called frantically on the prophet to    
give back her little one to life4 ,the  
,buddha gazed on her long and with that 
tender sympathy which drew all hearts to
 him1 said1 ,go my daughter1 get me a   
mustard seed from a house into which    
death has never entered1 and ,i will do 
as thou hast bidden me4 ,and the woman  
took up the dead child1 and began her   
search4 ,from house to house she went   
saying1 ,give me a mustard seed1 kind   
folk1 a mustard seed for the prophet to 
revive my child4 ,and they gave her what
 she asked1 and when she had taken it1  
she inquired whether all were gathered  
about the hearth1 father and mother and 
the children2 but the people would shake
 their heads and sigh1 and she would    
turn on her way sadder than before4 ,and
 far as she wandered1 in town and       
village1 in the crowded thoroughfare1   
and by the lonely road side1 she found  
not the house into which death had never

 entered4 ,then gradually as she went   
on1 the meaning of the ,buddha's words  
dawned upon her mind2 gradually as she  
learned to know the great sorrow of the 
race every where around her1 her heart  
went out in great yearning sympathy to  
the companions of her sorrow2 the tears 
of her pity fell free and fast1 and the 
passion of her grief was merged in      
compassion4 ,she had learned the great  
lesson of renunciation2 had learned to  
sink self in the unselfish4       99 ,we
 have ventured to offer this            
interpretation of the      legend in an 
article published in the ,atlantic      
,monthly for      ,june1 #ahge1 from    
which the account in the text is taken4 
,from the depths of the heart the stream
 of grief rises resistless1 the dams and
 dykes of reason are impotent to stay   
its course4 ,prepare a channel therefore
 to lead out its swelling tide away to  
the great ocean of mankind's sorrow1    
where in commingling it shall be        
absorbed4  ,the consolations of the     

,ideal are vigorous3 they do not        
encourage idle sentiment3 they recommend
 to the sufferer1 action4 ,the loss     
indeed as we set out by saying1 remains 
a loss1 and no preaching or teaching can
 ever make it otherwise4 ,the question  
is1 whether it shall weaken and embitter
 us1 or become the very purification of 
our souls1 and lead us to grander and   
diviner deeds1 lead us to raise unto the
 dead we mourn1 a monument in our lives 
that shall be better than tiny pillared 
chapel or storied marble tomb4  ,thus   
from whatever point we start1 we arrive 
at the same conclusion still3 not in the
 creed but in the deed6 ,in the deed is 
the pledge of the sacredness of life2 in
 the deed is the reward of our          
activities in health2 in the deed our   
solace1 and our salvation even in the   
abysmal gulfs of woe4 ,in hours of great
 sorrow we turn in vain to nature for an
 inspiring thought4 ,we question the    
sleepless stars2 they are cold and      
distant3 the winds blow1 the rivers run 

their course1 the seasons change2 they  
are careless of man4 ,in the world of   
men alone do we find an answering echo  
to the heart's needs4 ,let us grasp     
hands cordially and look into each      
other's eyes for sympathy1 while we     
travel together on our road toward the  
unknown goal4 ,to help one another is   
our wisdom1 and our renown1 and our     
sweet consolation4     ,,viii4          
,,spinoza4  ,two centuries have elapsed 
since ,spinoza passed from the world of 
the living1 and to-day that high and    
tranquil spirit walks the earth once    
more and men make wide their hearts to  
receive his memory and his name4 ,the   
great men whom the past has wronged1    
receive at last time's tardy recompense4
  ,on the day that ,columbus set sail   
for ,america1 the ,jews left ,spain in  
exile4 ,many of their number1 however1  
who could not find it in their hearts to
 bid adieu to their native land1        
remained and simulated the practice of  
devout ,catholics while in secret they  

preserved their allegiance to their     
ancestral religion4 ,they occupied high 
places in the church and state1 and     
monks1 prelates and bishops were counted
 in their ranks4 ,ere long the          
suspicions of the ,inquisition were     
alarmed against these covert heretics1  
and their position became daily more    
perilous and insecure4 ,some were       
condemned to the stake1 others pined for
 years in dungeons2 those that could    
find the means1 escaped and sought in   
distant lands security and repose from  
persecution4 ,it was especially the     
,free ,states of ,holland whose         
enlightened policy offered an asylum to 
the fugitives1 and thither accordingly  
in great numbers they directed their    
steps4 ,their frugality1 their thrift   
and enterprise1 contributed not a little
 to build up the prosperity of the      
,dutch metropolis4  ,in the opening of  
the seventeenth century a considerable  
congregation of the ,jews had collected 
in the city of ,amsterdam4 ,there in the

 year #afcb1 the child of ,spanish      
emigrants1 ,benedict ,spinoza was born4 
,of his childhood we know little4 ,at an
 early age he was initiated into the    
mysteries of ,hebrew lore1 was          
instructed in the ,hebrew grammar1 and  
learned to read and translate the       
various writings of the ,old ,testament4
 ,he was taught to thread his way       
through the mazes of the ,talmud1 and   
its subtle discussions proved an        
admirable discipline in preparing him   
for the favorite pursuits of his after  
years4 ,lastly he was introduced to the 
study of the ,jewish philosophers1 among
 whom ,maimonides and ,ibn ,ezra engaged
 his especial attention4 ,maimonides1   
one of the most profound thinkers of the
 middle ages1 strove to harmonize the   
teachings of ,aristotle with the        
doctrines of the ,bible4 ,ibn ,ezra on  
the other hand1 was a confirmed sceptic4
 ,in his biblical commentaries he       
anticipates many noteworthy discoveries 
of modern criticism1 and his orthodoxy  

in other respects also is more than     
doubtful4  ,in all these different      
branches of theology the young ,spinoza 
made rapid progress and soon gained     
astonishing proficiency4 ,he was the    
favorite of his instructors1 and they   
predicted that he would one day become a
 shining light of the synagogue4 ,not   
content1 however1 with this course of   
study1 ,spinoza addressed himself to the
 study of ,roman literature1 and with   
the assistance of a certain ,dr4 ,van   
den ,ende1 who had at that time gained  
considerable repute as a teacher of     
liberal learning1 he soon became an     
accomplished ,latin scholar4 ,he also   
took up the study of ,geometry and of   
,physics1 and acquired considerable     
skill in the art of sketching4 ,his mind
 being thus stored with various         
knowledge1 he was prepared to enter the 
vast realm of metaphysical speculation  
and here the works of ,rene ,descartes1 
preeminently engaged his attention4     
,descartes1 whose motto1 ,de omnibus    

dubitandum est1 sufficiently indicates  
the revolutionary character of his      
teachings1 was the leader of the new    
school of thought on the continent4 ,his
 influence proved decisive in shaping   
the career of ,spinoza4 ,bruno also     
deserves mention among those who        
determined the bias of ,spinoza's mind4 
,i mean that ,bruno was among the first 
followers of ,copernicus1 proclaimed the
 doctrine of the infinity of worlds and 
who himself inculcated a species of     
pantheism for which he paid the last    
penalty at ,rome in the year #afjj1     
thirty-two years before ,spinoza was    
born4 ,by all these influences the mind 
of the young philosopher was widened    
beyond the sphere of his early          
education4 ,in the pursuit of truth he  
sought the society of congenial minds1  
and found among the cultivated          
,christians of his day that intellectual
 sympathy of which he stood in need4    
,from the high plane of thought which he
 had now reached1 the rites and         

practices of external religion dwindled 
in importance1 and the questions of     
creed for which the mass of men contend 
appeared little and insignificant4 ,his 
absence from the worship of the         
synagogue now began to be remarked2 it  
was rumored that he neglected the       
prescribed fasts and he was openly      
charged with partaking of forbidden     
food4 ,at first he was treated with     
great leniency4 ,so high was his credit 
with the ,rabbis1 so impressed were they
 with his singular abilities1 that they 
strove by every gentle means to win him 
back to his allegiance4 ,they admonished
 him1 held out prospects of honor and   
emolument2 it is even stated that at    
last in despair of reclaiming him they  
offered an annual pension of a thousand 
florins to purchase his silence4        
,spinoza himself was keenly alive to the
 gravity of his position4 ,it had been  
fondly hoped that he would shed new     
lustre upon the religion of ,israel4 ,he
 would be accused of vile ingratitude   

for deserting his people4 ,he foresaw   
the inevitable rupture that would cut   
him off forever from friends and        
kinsmen1 from the opportunities of      
wealth and honorable position1 and      
deliver him over to privation and       
poverty4 ,he himself tells us in the    
introduction of a work which had long   
been forgotten and has been only        
recently rescued from oblivion1 that he 
saw riches and honor and all those goods
 for which men strive1 placed before him
 on the one hand1 and a sincere life    
serenely true to itself on the other2   
but that the former seemed veritable    
shams and evils compared with that one  
great good4 ,nay1 he said1 though he    
might never reach the absolute truth1 he
 felt as one sick unto death1 who knows 
but one balm that can help him and who  
must needs search for that balm whereby 
perchance he may be healed4  ,great was 
the commotion stirred up against him in 
the ,jewish community of ,amsterdam4    
,one evening a fanatic assaulted him on 

the street and attempted his life4 ,the 
stroke of the assassin's dagger was     
successfully parried4 ,but ,spinoza felt
 that the city was now no longer safe   
for him to dwell in4 ,he fled and for   
some time frequently changed his place  
of residence1 until at last he settled  
at the ,hague where he remained until   
his death4 ,in the mean time the lenient
 spirit of the ,jewish leaders had      
changed into stern1 uncompromising      
rigor4 ,observe now how persecution     
breeds persecution4 ,it had been the    
pride of ,judaism from of old that      
within its pale the practice of religion
 was deemed more essential than the     
theory2 that it permitted the widest    
divergence in matters of belief1 and    
granted ample tolerance to all4 ,but    
these ,jews of ,amsterdam1 fresh from   
the dungeons and the torture chambers of
 the ,inquisition1 had themselves       
imbibed the dark spirit of their        
oppressors4 ,uriel d',acosta they had   
driven to the verge of insanity and to a

 tragic death by their cruel bigotry4   
,and now the same methods were employed 
against a wiser and greater and purer   
man1 far than he4  ,on the #bgth of     
,july1 #afef1 in the synagogue of       
,amsterdam1 the sacred ark1 containing  
the scrolls of the law1 being kept open 
during the ceremony1 the edict of       
excommunication was solemnly            
promulgated4 ,it reads somewhat as      
follows3  ,by the decree of the angels  
and the verdict of the saints we        
separate1 curse and imprecate ,baruch de
 ,spinoza with the consent of the       
blessed ,god and of this holy           
congregation1 before the holy books of  
the ,law with the commandments that are 
inscribed therein1 with the ban with    
which ,joshua banned ,jericho1 with the 
curse with which ,elias cursed the      
youths1 and with all the imprecations   
that are written in the ,law4 ,cursed be
 he by day and cursed by night2 cursed  
when he lies down1 and cursed when he   
rises2 cursed in his going forth1 and   

cursed in his coming in4 ,may the ,lord 
,god refuse to pardon him2 may his wrath
 and anger be kindled against this man1 
and on him rest all the curses that are 
written in this book of the ,law4 ,may  
the ,lord wipe out his name from under  
the heavens1 and separate him for evil  
from all the tribes of ,israel1 with all
 the curses of the firmament that are   
written in the book of the ,law4 ,and ye
 that hold fast to the ,lord ,god are   
all living this day6 we warn you that   
none shall communicate with him either  
by word of mouth or letter1 nor show him
 any favor1 nor rest under the same roof
 with him1 nor approach his person      
within four yards1 nor read any writing 
that he has written4  ,when ,spinoza    
heard of this anathema he calmly        
replied3 ,they compel me to do nothing  
which ,i was not previously resolved    
upon4 ,he retired from the commerce of  
the world4 ,he coveted solitude4 ,within
 his silent chamber he moved in a world 
of his own4 ,there in twenty years of   

patient passionless toil he built up the
 mighty edifice of his system4 ,it rises
 before us as if hewn of granite rock4  
,its simplicity1 its grandeur1 its      
structural power have been the wonder of
 men4 ,i can offer only the barest      
outline of its design4  ,man's          
questioning spirit seeks to penetrate to
 the heart of ,nature1 would grasp the  
origin of things4 ,there is this mighty 
riddle3 who will solve it8 ,various     
attempts have been made4 ,pantheism is  
one4 ,spinoza was the great philosopher 
of ,pantheism4  ,beneath all diversity  
there is unity4 ,in all of ,nature's    
myriad forms and changes1 there is a    
substance unchangeable4 ,it is          
uncreated1 undivided1 uncaused1 the     
,absolute1 ,infinite1 ,god4 ,thought and
 extension are its attributes2 it is the
 ,one in ,all1 the ,all in ,one4 ,god is
 not matter1 is not mind2 is that deeper
 unity in which matter and mind are one2
 ,god or ,nature1 ,spinoza says4 ,this  
is not the ,god of theology4 ,god is in 

the tree1 in the stone1 in the stars1 in
 man4 ,god does not live1 nor labor for 
any purpose1 but produces from the      
necessity of his ,being in endless      
variety1 in ceaseless activity4 ,he is  
the inner cause of all things1 the      
ultimate ,reality1 and all things are as
 in their nature they partake of him4   
,man also is of ,god4 ,the essence of   
man is in the mind4 ,man is a logical   
being4 ,god alone owns truth2 in so far 
as man thinks truly and clearly1 he is a
 part of the infinite ,god4 ,logic is   
the basis of ethics4 ,spinoza ignores   
sentiment1 ignores art4 ,good and evil  
are but other names for useful and not  
useful4 ,but that alone is useful that  
we follow the necessary and universal   
laws1 seeking by the depth and reach of 
intellect to know and understand4       
,virtue is the pursuit of knowledge4    
,there are three kinds of knowledge3 the
 blurred perceptions of the senses1 the 
light of the understanding1 the         
intuition of intellect4 ,the last is the

 highest4  ,virtue is the sense of      
being2 whatever heightens the joyous    
consciousness of our active faculties is
 therefore good4 ,the wise man delights 
in the moderate enjoyment of pleasant   
food and drink1 in the color and        
loveliness of green shrubs1 in the      
adornment of garments1 in music's       
sweetness4 ,but our true being is to be 
found only in intellect2 hence1 virtue  
the joy of being1 is the joy of thought2
 hence1 the bold assertion--that is     
moral which helps1 and that immoral     
which hinders thought4  ,man is a social
 being4 ,as a drop is raised upward in  
the great ocean by the onflowing of the 
wave1 so the individual mind is exalted 
by the presence and communion of        
congenial minds moving in the same      
current4  ',tis thus that ,spinoza      
deduces the social virtues4 ,hate is    
evil at all times1 for hate implies the 
isolation and the weakness of the powers
 of reason4 ,we should reward hatred    
with love and restore the broken accord 

of intellect4 ,love is the sense of     
kinship in the common search for        
reason's goal--wisdom4 ,that all men    
should so live and act together that    
they may form1 as it were1 one body and 
one mind1 is the ideal of life4         
,friendship therefore he prizes as the  
dearest of earth's possessions1 and     
wedlock he esteems holy because in it is
 cemented the union of two souls for the
 common search of truth4 ,we should be  
serene at all times and shun fear1 which
 is weakness1 and hope also which is the
 child of desire1 and haughtiness and   
humbleness and remorse and pity should  
we avoid4 ,but in stillness and with    
collected power shall we possess our    
souls obedient to the laws of mind that 
make our being and helping when we help 
for reason's sake4 ,the passions bind us
 to passing phenomena4 ,when they become
 transparent to our reason1 when we know
 their causes then our nature conquers  
outward nature and we are masters1 we   
are free4  ,thus the emotional life is  

extinguished4 ,the feelings lose their  
color and vitality1 become blank as     
lines and surfaces1 and man1 freed from 
the constraints of passion1 dwells in   
the pure realm of intellect1 and in     
constant intercourse with the mind of   
,god1 fulfills the purpose of his       
existence--to know and understand4      
,against the blows of misfortune also   
reason steels us4 ,sorrow is but the    
lurking suspicion that all might have   
been otherwise4 ,when we come to know   
that all things are by necessity1 we    
shall find tranquillity in yielding to  
the inevitable4 ,for so ,god works by   
necessity4 ,for all things are in his   
hands as clay in the hand of the potter1
 which the potter taketh and fashioneth 
therefrom vessels of diverse value1 some
 to honor and some to disgrace4 ,and    
none shall rebuke him1 for all is by    
necessity4  ,when the body passes away  
the mind does not wholly perish1 but    
something remains that is infinite1 an  
eternal modus dwelling in the depths of 

the eternal mind4 ,but though we knew   
not that something of the mind remained1
 yet were goodness and strength of soul 
to be sought for above all else4 ,for   
who1 foreseeing that he cannot always   
feed on healthy nourishment1 would      
therefore sate himself with deadly      
poison8 or who1 though he knew that the 
mind is not immortal1 would therefore   
lead an empty life1 devoid of reason's  
good and guidance8 ,the wisdom of the   
wise and the freedom of the free is not 
in the aspect of death but of life4     
,religion and piety lead us to follow   
the laws of necessity in the world where
 they are manifest1 to dwell on the     
intellect of ,god1 of ,god their fount  
and origin4  ,but ,i forbear to enter   
farther into this wonderful system4 ,we 
see a giant wrestling with nature1      
seeking to wrest from her her secret4   
,mysterious nature baffles him and the  
riddle is still unread4 ,that substance 
of which he speaks is no more than an   
abstraction of the mind whose reality in

 the outward world he has failed to     
prove4 ,he has also erred in turning    
aside from the rich and manifold life of
 the emotions1 for the emotions are not 
in themselves evil1 they are the seminal
 principle of all virtue4  ,on pillars  
of intellect1 ,spinoza reared his       
system4 ,still1 solemn1 sublime like    
high mountains it towers upward1 but is 
devoid of color and warmth1 and even the
 momentary glow that now and then starts
 up in his writings1 passes quickly away
 like the flush of evening that reddens 
the snowy summits of ,alpine ranges4    
,spinoza's name marks a lofty peak in   
human history4 ,he was a true man2 no   
man more fully lived his teachings4 ,if 
he describes the pursuit of knowledge as
 the highest virtue1 he was himself a   
noble example of tireless devotion in   
that pursuit4 ,he was well versed in the
 natural sciences1 skillful in the use  
of the microscope1 and his contributions
 to the study of the inner life of man  
have earned him lasting recognition4    

,johannes ,mueller1 the distinguished   
physiologist1 has included the third    
division of ,spinoza's ,ethics in his   
well known work on physiology4          
,religion1 however1 was ,spinoza's      
favorite theme1 that religion which is  
free from all passionate longings and   
averse to superstition of whatever kind4
 ,he was among the first to hurl his    
mighty arguments against the infallible 
authority of the ,bible1 arguments that 
still command attention though two      
hundred years have since passed by4     
,miracles1 he said1 are past belief1 the
 beauty of ,cosmos is far more deserving
 of admiration than any so called       
miracle could possibly be4 ,he          
demanded--this was a great and novel    
claim--that the methods of natural      
science be applied to the study of      
scripture1 that the character of the age
 and local surroundings be considered in
 determining the meaning of each        
scriptural author4 ,in brief that a     
natural history of the bible1 so to     

speak1 should be attempted4 ,he claimed 
that the priesthood had falsified the   
very book which they professed to regard
 most holy4 ,he denied the ,mosaic      
authorship of the ,pentateuch1 and set  
forth in singularly clear and lucid     
language the discrepancies in which that
 work abounds4 ,he closed the treatise  
in which these views are laid down--the 
,theologico-political ,tract--with a    
magnificent plea for liberty of         
conscience and of speech4 ,that state   
alone1 he says1 can be free and happy   
which rests on the freedom of the       
,individual citizen4 ,where the right of
 free utterance is curtailed1 hypocrisy 
and shameful conformance flourish1 and  
public contumely and disgrace which     
ought to serve as a mete punishment for 
the vicious1 become a halo about the    
head of the most noble of men4 ,religion
 and piety1 he concludes1 the state has 
a right to demand1 but nothing hereafter
 shall be known as religion and piety   
save the practice of equity and of a    

wise and helpful love4  ,it was a bold  
awakening note which thus rang out into 
the seventeenth century1 and theologians
 were bitter in their replies4 ,the book
 was confiscated and ,christian curses  
were added to ,jewish anathemas4 ,but   
they failed to affect ,spinoza4  ,few   
men have suffered as he did4 ,few have  
preserved the same equanimity of soul in
 the face of adverse fortune4 ,twenty   
years he dwelt alone4 ,for days he did  
not leave his student's closet1 drawing 
his mighty circles1 intent on those high
 thoughts that formed the companionship 
he loved4 ,those that knew him well     
revered him4 ,de ,witt the noble        
statesman1 ,de ,witt who ended his days 
so miserably1 torn to pieces by a       
maddened mob1 sought his counsel4 ,young
 ardent disciples from a distance sent  
him words of cheer into his solitude4   
,his soul was pure as sunlight1 his     
character crystal clear4 ,he was frugal 
in the extreme3 a few pence a day       
sufficed to sustain him4 ,not that he   

affected austere views in general1 but  
the deep meditations that occupied his  
mind left him little time or inclination
 for the grosser pleasures4 ,his sense  
of honor was scrupulously nice4 ,again  
and again did he reject the munificent  
pensions which his friends pressed upon 
him2 he would be free and self-sustained
 in all things4 ,in his leisure hours he
 busied himself with the grinding and   
polishing of optical lenses1 an exercise
 that offered him at once the means of  
support and a welcome relaxation from   
the severe strain of mental effort4 ,his
 temper was rarely ruffled2 he was      
placid1 genial1 childlike4 ,when wearied
 with his labors he would descend to the
 family of his landlord1 the painter    
,van der ,speke1 and entering into the  
affairs of these simple people1 he      
found1 in their unaffected converse1 the
 relief he sought4  ,he valued the peace
 of mind which he had purchased so      
dearly4 ,when the ,elector of the       
,palatinate offered him the chair of    

philosophy at the ,university of        
,heidelberg on condition that he would  
so expound his philosophy as not to     
interfere with the established religion1
 he declined1 replying that he could    
teach the truth only as he saw it1 and  
that evil and designing men would       
doubtless add point and poison to his   
words4 ,yet he was fearless4 ,when      
toward the close of his career1 his life
 was again imperiled1 the grave         
tranquillity of his demeanor inspired   
his agitated friends with calmness and  
confidence4  ,he had gained his         
forty-fourth year4 ,for half a life time
 he had been fighting a treacherous     
disease1 that preyed in secret upon his 
health4 ,his life was slowly ebbing away
 amidst constant suffering1 yet no      
complaint crossed his lips and his      
nearest companions were hardly aware of 
what he endured4 ,in the early part of  
the year #afgg one day in ,february1    
while the family of the painter were at 
church the end approached4 ,only a      

single friend was with him4 ,calmly as  
he had lived1 in the stillness of the   
,sunday afternoon1 ,spinoza passed away4
  ,he has left a name in history that   
will not fade4 ,his people cast him out1
 ,christianity rejected him1 but he has 
found a wider fellowship1 he belongs to 
all mankind4 ,great hearts have throbbed
 responsive to his teachings and many a 
sorrowful soul has owned the restful    
influence of his words4 ,he was a helper
 of mankind4 ,not surely because he     
solved the ultimate problems of         
existence--what mortal ever will--but   
because he was wise in the secret of the
 heart1 because he taught men to appease
 their fretful passions in the aspect of
 the infinite laws in which we live and 
are4  ,sacred is the hour in which we   
read his ,ethics4 ,from the heat and    
glare of life we enter into its         
precincts as into the cool interior of  
some hallowed temple of religion4 ,but  
no idol stands there2 the spirit of     
truth alone presides and sanctifies the 

place and us4 ,the great men of the past
 we will reverence4 ,they are           
mile-stones on the highway of humanity1 
types of the ,infinite1 that has dawned 
in human breasts4 ,such an one was he of
 whom ,i have spoken4 ,and more and more
 as the light increases among men will  
all that was good and great in him shine
 forth to irradiate their path4 ,and as 
we stand here to-day on this day of     
remembrance to recall his teachings and 
his example1 so when other centuries    
shall have elapsed1 the memory of       
,spinoza will still live1 posterity will
 still own him1 and distant generations 
will name him anew3                     
,benedictus--,blessed6     ,,ix4 ,,the  
,,founder ,,of ,,christianity       ,a  
discourse delivered on ,sunday1         
,december #ca1 #ahgf4  ,i am not come to
 destroy1 but to fulfil1 for verily ,i  
say unto you till heaven and earth pass 
away one jot or one tittle shall in no  
wise pass from the law till all be      
fulfilled4 ,resist not evil1 99 99 99   

bless them that curse you1 do good to   
them that hate you4  ,in these sayings  
of ,jesus the key note of early         
,christianity is struck4 ,it was not a  
revolt against ,judaism1 it was but a   
reiterated assertion of what other and  
older ,prophets of the ,hebrews had so  
often and so fervently preached4 ,the   
law was to remain intact1 but the       
spiritual law was meant1 the deeper law 
of conscience that underlies the forms  
of legislation and the symbols of       
external worship4  ,there is a rare and 
gracious quality in the personality of  
,jesus as described in the ,gospels1    
which has exercised its charm upon the  
most heterogeneous nations and periods  
of history wide apart in the order of   
time and of culture4  ,to grasp the     
subtle essence of that charm1 and       
thereby to understand what it was that  
has given ,christianity so powerful a   
hold upon the affections of mankind1    
were a task well worthy the attention of
 thoughtful minds4 ,we desire to        

approach our subject in the spirit of   
reverence that befits a theme with which
 the tenderest fibres of faith are so   
intimately interwoven2 at the same time 
we shall pay no regard to the dogmatic  
character with which his later followers
 have invested ,jesus1 for we behold his
 true grandeur in the pure and noble    
humanity which he illustrated in his    
life and teachings4  ,the ,new          
,testament presents but scant material  
for the biography of ,jesus1 and the    
authenticity1 even of the little that   
remains to us1 has been rendered        
extremely uncertain by the labors of    
modern critics4 ,a few leading          
narratives1 however1 are doubtless      
trustworthy1 and these will suffice for 
our purpose4 ,a brief introduction on   
the character of the people among whom  
the new prophet arose1 the              
characteristics of the age in which he  
lived1 and the beliefs that obtained in 
his immediate surroundings1 will assist 
us in our task4  ,the expectation of the

 ,messiah had long been rife among the  
,jews4 ,holding themselves to be the    
elect people of ,god1 they believed the 
triumph of monotheism to be dependent   
upon themselves4 ,the prophets of       
,jehovah had repeatedly assured them    
that their supremacy would finally be   
acknowledged4 ,events however had turned
 out differently4 ,instead of success   
they met with constant defeat and       
disaster2 ,persia1 ,egypt1 ,syria had   
successively held their land in         
subjection2 the very existence of their 
religion was threatened1 and the heathen
 world1 far from showing signs of       
approaching conversion1 insisted upon   
its errors with increased obstinacy and 
assurance4 ,and yet ,jehovah had        
distinctly promised that he would raise 
up in his own good time1 a new ruler    
from the ancient line of ,israel's      
,kings1 a son of ,david1 who should lead
 the people to ,victory4 ,to his sceptre
 all the nations would bow1 and in his  
reign the faith of the ,hebrews would be

 acknowledged as the universal religion4
 ,every natural means for the fulfilment
 of these predictions seemed now cut    
off1 nothing remained but to take refuge
 in the supernatural2 it was said that  
the old order of things must entirely   
pass away2 a new heaven and a new earth 
be created and what was called the      
,kingdom of ,heaven might then be       
expected4 ,the ,kingdom of ,heaven1 a   
phrase that frequently recurs in the    
literature of the ,jews1 is used1 not to
 describe a locality1 but to denote a   
state of affairs on earth1 in which the 
will of heaven would be generally obeyed
 without the further intervention of    
human laws and government4 ,the agency  
of the ,messiah was looked to1 for the  
consummation of these happy hopes4 ,to  
reward those who had perished before his
 coming1 many moreover of those that    
slept in the dust would awaken1 and the 
general resurrection of the dead would  
signalize the approach of the           
millennium4  ,at the end of the first   

century ,b4 ,c4 these expectations had  
created a wild ferment among the        
population of ,palestine4 ,now if ever1 
it was fondly urged1 they must be       
fulfilled4 ,the need was at its highest1
 help then must be nighest4 ,for matters
 had indeed grown from bad to worse1 the
 political situation was intolerable1   
after the brief spell of independence in
 the days of the ,maccabees1 the ,roman 
yoke had been fastened upon the necks of
 the people1 and the weight of          
oppression became tenfold more difficult
 to support from the sweet taste of     
liberty that had preceded it4 ,the      
rapacity of the ,roman ,governors knew  
no bounds4 ,a land impoverished by      
incessant wars and the frequent failure 
of the crops1 was drained of its last   
resources to satisfy the enormous       
exactions of a foreign despot1 while to 
all this was added the humiliating      
consciousness that it was a nation of   
idolators which was thus permitted to   
grind the chosen people4  ,nor was the  

condition of religion at all more       
satisfactory4 ,it is true the splendid  
rites of the public worship were still  
maintained at the ,temple1 and ,herod   
was even then re-building the ,sanctuary
 on a scale of unparalleled             
magnificence4 ,bright was the sheen and 
glitter of gold upon its portals1 solemn
 the ceremonies enacted in its halls1   
and grand and impressive the voices of  
the ,levitic choirs as they sang to the 
tuneful melody of cymbals and of harps4 
,but the lessons of history teach us    
that the times in which lavish sums are 
expended on externals1 are not usually  
those in which religion possesses true  
vitality and power and depth4 ,here was 
a brand flickering near extinction2 here
 was a builder who built for            
destruction2 the ,temple had ceased to  
satisfy the needs of the people4  ,in   
the cities an attempt to supply the     
deficiency was made by the party of the 
,pharisees4 ,they sought to broaden and 
to spiritualize the meaning of          

scripture--they laid down new forms of  
religious observance by means of which  
every educated man became1 so to speak1 
his own priest4 ,the religion of the    
,pharisees however assumed a not        
inconsiderable degree of intellectual   
ability on the part of its followers4   
,so far as it went it answered very well
 for the intelligent middle classes4    
,but out in the country districts it did
 not answer at all2 not for the         
herdsmen1 not for the poor peasants1 not
 for those who had not even the         
rudiments of learning and who could do  
nothing with a learned religion4 ,and   
yet these very men before all others    
needed something to support them1       
something to cling to1 even because they
 were so miserably poor and illiterate4 
,they did not get what they wanted--they
 felt very strongly that the burdens    
upon them were exceedingly grievous2    
that while they suffered and starved1   
religion dwelt in palaces1 and had no   
heart for their misfortunes4 ,they felt 

that something was wrong and rotten in  
the then state of affairs1 and that a   
new state must come1 and a heaven-sent  
king1 who would lend a voice to their   
needs1 and lift them with strong arms   
from out their despair and degradation4 
,nowhere was this feeling more marked   
than in the district of ,galilee4 ,a    
beautiful land with green1 grassy       
valleys1 groves of sycamores1 broad blue
 lakes1 and villages nestling           
picturesquely on the mountain slopes1 it
 nourished an ardent and impulsive      
population4 ,their impatience with the  
existing order of things had already    
found vent in furious revolt4 ,judah1   
their famous leader1 had perished2 his  
two sons1 ,james and ,simon1 had been   
nailed to the cross2 the ,messiah was   
daily and hourly expected2 various      
impostors successively arose and quickly
 disappeared2 when would the hour of    
deliverance come2 when would the true   
,messiah appear at last8  ,it was at    
such a time and among such a people1    

that there arose ,jesus of ,nazareth in 
,galilee4 ,what was the startling truth 
he taught8 ,what was the new revelation 
he preached to the sons of men8 ,an old 
truth1 and an old                       
sermon--,righteousness2 no more1 meaning
 nothing at all1 a mere trite           
common-place1 on the lips of the        
time-server and the plausible vendor of 
moral phrases4 ,meaning mighty changes  
for the better1 when invoked with a     
profounder sense of its sanctity1 and a 
new sacredness in life1 and larger      
impulses for ever and for ever4         
,righteousness he taught1 and the change
 that was to come by righteousness4     
,yes1 so deep was his conviction1 so    
profoundly had the current conceptions  
of the day affected him1 that he        
believed the change to be near at hand1 
that he himself might be its author1    
himself ,messiah4  ,the novelty of      
,jesus' work has been sought in various 
directions4 ,it has been said1 for      
instance1 to consist in the overthrow of

 phariseeism2 and it is true that he    
rebukes the pharisees in the most severe
 terms2 these reproaches1 however1 were 
not directed against the party as a     
whole1 but only against its more        
extravagant and unworthy members4 ,the  
pharisees were certainly not a race of  
hypocrites1 and a generation of vipers4 
,let us remember that ,jesus himself1 in
 the main1 adhered to their principles2 
that his words often tally strictly with
 theirs2 that even the golden sayings   
which are collected in the sermon on the
 mount1 may be found in the             
contemporaneous ,hebrew writings1 whose 
authors were pharisees4 ,thirty years   
before his time1 ,hillel arose among the
 pharisees1 renowned for his marvellous 
erudition1 beloved and revered because  
of the gentleness and kindliness of his 
bearing1 the meekness with which he     
endured persecution1 the loving patience
 with which he overcame malice and hate4
 ,when asked to express in brief terms  
the essence of the law1 he to the       

pharisee replied1 ,do not unto others   
what thou wouldst not that others do    
unto thee2 this is the essence1 all the 
rest is commentary1--go and learn4      
,jesus fully admits the authority of the
 pharisees4 ,the pharisees1 he says1 sit
 in ,moses' seat2 all therefore         
whatsoever they bid you observe1 that   
observe and do4 ,if we read the gospel  
of ,matthew1 we find that he does not   
attempt to abrogate the pharisaic       
commandments1 but only insists upon the 
greater importance of the commandments  
of the heart4 ,woe1 he cries1 or ye pay 
tithe of mint1 of anise and cumin1 but  
ye have omitted the weightier matters of
 the law1 judgment1 mercy and faith1    
these ought ye to have done1 and not to 
leave the other undone1--and again1 ,if 
thou bring thy gift to the altar1 and   
there rememberest that thy brother hath 
aught against thee1 leave there thy gift
 before the altar and go thy way2 first 
be reconciled to thy brother1 and then  
come and offer thy gift4 ,the leper also

 whom he cured of his disease1 he       
advises to bring the gift prescribed by 
the ,jewish ritual4 ,we cannot fully    
understand the conduct of ,jesus in this
 respect1 unless we bear in mind that he
 believed the millenial time to be near 
at hand4 ,at that time it was supposed  
the ancient ceremonial of ,judaism would
 come to an end by its own limitation2  
until that time arrived1 it should be   
respected4 ,he does not wage war against
 the religious tenets and practices of  
his age2 only when they interfere with  
the superior claims of moral rectitude  
does he bitterly denounce them1 and ever
 insists that righteousness be          
recognized as the one thing above all   
others needful4  ,nor is the novelty of 
,jesus' work to be found in the         
extension of the gospel to the heathen  
world4 ,it seems1 on the contrary1      
highly probable that he conceived his   
mission to lie within the sphere of his 
own people1 and devoted his chief care  
and solicitude to their welfare4 ,i am  

not sent but unto the lost sheep of the 
house of ,israel1 he says2 and thus he  
charges his apostles1 ,go ye not into   
the way of the ,gentiles1 and into any  
city of the ,samaritans enter ye not4   
,go rather to the lost sheep of the     
house of ,israel1 and as ye go1 preach1 
saying the kingdom of heaven is at hand4
 ,and yet his exclusive devotion to the 
interest of the ,jews is not at variance
 with the world-embracing influence     
attributed to the ,messianic character4 
,in common with all his people1 he      
believed that upon the approach of the  
millennium1 the nations of the earth    
would come of their own accord1 to the  
holy mount of ,israel1 accept ,israel's 
religion1 and thenceforth live obedient 
to the ,messianic ,king4 ,the millennium
 was now believed to be actually in     
sight4 ,verily ,i say unto you there be 
some standing here who shall not taste  
of death until they see the ,son of man 
coming in his ,kingdom4 ,from the       
,jewish standpoint1 therefore1 which was

 the one taken by ,jesus and the        
earliest ,christians1 the mission to the
 heathen was unnecessary4  ,and again it
 has been said that the evangel of      
,jesus was new1 in that it substituted  
for the stern law of retribution the    
methods of charity and the law of love2 
that while the elder prophets had taught
 the people to consider themselves      
servants of a task-master1 he taught    
them freedom and brotherhood4 ,but is   
this true8 ,will any one who has read   
the ,hebrew ,prophets with attention1   
venture to assert that they instil a    
slavish fear into the hearts of men2    
they whose every line speaks aspiration1
 whose every word breathes liberty8 ,it 
is true their language is often stern   
when they dwell on duty4 ,and it is     
right that it should be so1 for so also 
is duty stern and in matters of         
conscience sentimental ism is out of    
place1 harmful4 ,simple obedience to the
 dictates of the moral law is required1 
imperatively1 unconditionally1 not for  

pity's sake1 nor for love's sake1 but   
for the right's sake1 simply and solely 
because it is right4 ,but the emotions  
that are never the sufficient sanctions 
of conduct may ennoble and glorify right
 conduct4 ,and how tenderly do the      
ancient prophets also attune their      
monitions to the promptings of the      
richest and purest of human sympathies4 
,thy neighbor thou shalt love as        
thyself1 was written by them1 and ,have 
we not all one ,father1 has not one ,god
 created us all4 ,thy poor brother too  
is thy brother1 and in secret shalt thou
 give charity4 ,in the dusk of the      
evening the poor are to come into the   
cornfields and gather there1 and no man 
shall know who has given and who has    
received4 ,the ancient prophets were    
idealists1 preachers of the ,spirit as  
opposed to the form that cramps and     
belittles4 ,in ,jesus we behold a       
renewal of their order1 a living protest
 against the formalism that had in the  
interval become encrusted about their   

teachings1 only differing from his      
predecessors in this1 that the hopes    
which they held out for a distant       
future1 seemed to him nigh their        
fulfilment1 and that he believed himself
 destined to fulfil them4  ,if we can   
discover nothing that had not been      
previously stated in the substance of   
,jesus' teachings1 there is that in the 
method he pursued1 which calls for      
genuine admiration and reverence1 the   
method of rousing against the offender  
the better nature in himself3 of seeming
 yielding to offence based on an        
implicit trust in the resilient energy  
of the good2 of conquering others1 by   
the strength of meekness and the might  
of love4 ,hillel too was endowed with   
this strength of meekness1 and ,buddha  
had said1 long before the days of       
,jesus3 ,hatred is not conquered by     
hatred at any time1 hatred is conquered 
by love2 this is an old rule4 ,but in   
the story of no other life has this     
method been applied with such singular  

sweetness1 with such consistent harmony 
from the beginning to the end4 ,whether 
we find him in the intimate circle of   
his disciples1 whether he is instructing
 the multitude along the sunny shores of
 ,lake ,gennesareth1 whether he stands  
before the tribunal of his judges1 or in
 the last dire agonies of death--he is  
ever the patient man1 the loving        
teacher1 the man of sorrows1 who looks  
beyond men and their crimes to an ideal 
humanity1 and confides in that2 who     
gives largely1 and forgives even because
 he gives so much4  ,but we shall not   
touch the true secret of his power until
 we recall his sympathy with the        
neglected classes of society2 that      
quality of his nature which caused the  
poor of ,galilee to hail him as their   
deliverer1 which produced so lasting an 
impression upon his contemporaries1 and 
made the development of his doctrines   
into a great religion possible4 ,his    
gospel was preeminently the gospel for  
the poor3 he sat down with despised     

publicans1 he did not shun the          
contamination of lepers1 nay nor of the 
moral leprosy of sin--he visited the    
hovels of paupers and taught his        
disciples to prefer them to the mansions
 of the fortunate2 he applied himself   
with peculiar fervor to those dumb      
illiterate masses of ,galilee1 who knew 
not whither they might turn1 to what    
they might cling4 ,he gave them hope1 he
 brought them help4 ,and so it came     
about that in the early ,christian      
communities which were still fresh from 
the presence of the master1 the appeal  
to conscience he had made so powerfully1
 resulted in solid helpfulness2 so it   
came about that in those pristine days1 
the ,church was a real instrument of    
practical good1 with few forms1 and     
little parade1 but with love feasts and 
the communion table spread with repasts 
for the needy4 ,come unto me all ye that
 labor and are heavy laden and ,i will  
give you rest4 ,take my yoke upon you   
and learn of me1 99 99 99 for my yoke is

 easy and my burden is light4 ,it is    
from such particulars that there was    
drawn that fascinating image which has  
captivated the fancy and attracted the  
worship of mankind4 ,the image of the   
pale man with the deep1 earnest eyes1   
who roused men to new exertions for the 
good1 who lifted up the down-trodden1   
who loved little children and taught the
 older children in riddles and parables 
that they might understand1 and the     
brief career of whose life was hallowed 
all the more in memory1 because of the  
mournful tragedy in which it closed4    
,all the noblest qualities of humanity  
were put into this picture and made it  
lovely4 ,it was the humanity1 not the   
dogma of ,jesus1 by which ,christianity 
triumphed4 ,like a refreshing shower in 
the perfumed spring1 his glad tidings of
 a new enthusiasm for the good came upon
 the arid ,roman world1 sickening with  
the dry rot of self-indulgence1 and     
thirsting for some principle to give a  
purpose to the empty weariness of       

existence4 ,like a message from a sphere
 of light it spread to the ,germanic    
tribes1 tempered the harshness of their 
manners1 taught them a higher law than  
that of force1 and conquered their grim 
strength with the mild pleadings of the 
,master of meekness in far-off ,galilee4
  ,it is the moral element contained in 
it that alone gives value and dignity to
 any religion1 and only then when its   
teachings serve to stimulate and purify 
our aspirations toward the good1 does it
 deserve to retain its ascendancy over  
mankind4 ,claiming to be of celestial   
origin1 the religions have drawn their  
secret spell from the human heart       
itself4 ,there is a principle of        
reverence inborn in every child of      
man1--this he would utter4 ,he sees the 
firmament above him1 with its untold    
hosts2 he stands in the midst of mighty 
workings1 he is filled with awe2 he     
stretches forth his arms to grasp the   
,infinite which his soul seeketh1 he    
makes unto himself signs and symbols1   

saying1 let these be tokens of what no  
words can convey4 ,but a little time    
elapses1 and these symbols themselves   
seem more than human1 they point no more
 beyond themselves1 and man becomes an  
idolator1 not of stone and wood merely4 
,then it is needful that he remember the
 divine power with which his soul has   
been clothed from the beginning1 that by
 the force of some moral impulse he may 
break through the fetters of the creeds1
 and cast aside the weight of doctrines 
that express his best ideals no more4   
,and so we find in history that every   
great religious reformation has been    
indebted for its triumphs1 not to the   
doctrines that swam upon the surface1   
but to the swelling currents of moral   
energy that stirred it from below2 not  
to the doctrine of the ,logos in ,jesus'
 day1 but to the tidings of release     
which he brought to the oppressed1 not  
to justification by faith1 in ,luther's 
time1 but to the mighty reaction to     
which his thunderous protest lent a     

voice1 against the lewdness and the     
license of a corrupt and cankerous      
priesthood4 ,the appeal to conscience   
has ever been the lever that raised     
mankind to a higher plane of religion4  
,conscience1 righteousness1 what is     
there new in these--their maxims are as 
old as the hills8 ,truly1 and as barren 
often as the rocks4 ,the novelty of     
righteousness is not in itself1 but in  
its novel application to the particular 
unrighteousness of a particular age4 ,it
 was thus that ,jesus applied to the    
sins and mock sanctities of his day1 the
 ancient truths known to the prophets   
and to others long before him4 ,it is   
thus that every new reformer will seek  
to bring home to the men of his         
generation what it is that the ancient  
standard of right and justice now       
requires at their hands4 ,that all men  
are brothers1 who did not concede it8   
,but that the enslaved man too is our   
brother1 what a convulsion did that not 
cause1 what vast expenditure of blood   

and treasure until that was made plain4 
,that we should relieve the necessities 
of the poor1 who will deny it8 ,but that
 a social system which year by year     
witnesses the increase of the pauper    
class1 and the increase of their        
miseries1 stands condemned before the   
tribunal of ,religion1 of justice1 how  
long will it take before that is        
understood and taken to heart8 ,the     
facts of righteousness are few and      
simple1 but to apply them how mighty1   
how difficult a task4 ,the time is      
approaching when this stupendous work   
must be attempted anew1 and we1 a small 
phalanx in the army of progress1 would  
aid1 with what power in us resides4 ,let
 this inspire us that we have the       
loftiest cause of the age for our own1  
that we are helping to pave the way for 
a stronger and freer and happier race4  
,for by so laboring1 alone can we feel  
that our life has a meaning under the   
sky and the sacred stars4  ,the year in 
which we have entered upon our journey  

is passing away4 ,to-night when the     
midnight bells send forth their         
clamorous voices1 we shall greet the new
 year1 and the work it brings4 ,no      
peaceful task dare we expect1 but       
something of good accomplished may it   
see4       ,ring out wild bells to the  
wild sky1      ,the flying cloud1 the   
frosty light1      ,the year is dying in
 the night1      ,ring out wild bells   
and let him die4       ,ring out the    
old1 ring in the new1      ,ring happy  
bells across the snow1      ,the year is
 going1 let him go1      ,ring out the  
false1 ring in the true4     ,x4 ,,the  
,,first ,,anniversary ,,discourse4  ,it 
is ,may1 the gladdest season of the     
year4 ,life is in the breezes1 life in  
the vernal glory of the fields1 life in 
the earth and in the skies4 ,of old1 men
 were wont to go forth at this time into
 the forest1 to wreath the fountains    
with garlands1 to cover their houses    
with green branches1 with songs and     
dances to celebrate the triumph of the  

,spring4 ,happy festivals1 happy omens4 
,a year has now passed since we began   
our work1 and for many months we have   
met in this hall week after week4 ,we   
have reached the first resting place    
upon our journey1 and it behooves us to 
look back once more upon the path we    
have travelled1 and forward into the yet
 untried future that awaits us4  ,what  
was it that induced us to enter upon so 
perilous and for many reasons so        
uncertain an enterprise8  ,we felt a    
great need4 ,religion which ought to    
stand for the highest truth1 had ceased 
to be true to us4 ,we saw it at war with
 the highest intelligence of the day2   
religion and conscience also seemed no  
longer inseparably connected1 as they   
should be4 ,we saw that millions are    
annually lavished upon the mere luxuries
 of religion1 gorgeous temples1 churches
 and on the elaborate apparatus of      
salvation2 we could not but reflect that
 if one tithe of the sums thus set apart
 were judiciously expended upon the     

wants of the many who are famishing1    
distress might often be relieved1       
sickness averted1 and crime confined    
within more narrow boundaries4 ,we saw  
around us many who had lapsed from their
 ancient faith but still preserved the  
outward show of conformance1 encouraged 
in so equivocal a course1 by the advice 
and example of noted leaders in the     
churches themselves4 ,we saw that the   
great tides of being are everywhere     
sweeping mankind on to larger           
achievements than were known to the     
past2 only within the churches all is   
still and motionless2 only within the   
churches the obsolete forms of centuries
 ago are retained1 or if concessions to 
the present are made1 they are tardy1   
ungracious and insufficient4 ,we beheld 
that the essentials of religion are     
neglected1 even while its accessories   
are observed with greater               
punctiliousness than ever4  ,we were    
passing moreover through a period of    
momentous import in our country's       

history4 ,the nation had just entered   
upon the second century of its          
existence1 and the great recollections  
of what the fathers had done and        
designed for the republic1 were fresh in
 our minds4 ,we recalled the memorable  
words of ,washington in his first       
inaugural address3 ,that the national   
policy would be laid in the pure and    
immutable principles of private         
morality4 ,but we were startled to      
observe how greatly recent events had   
falsified these hopes and felt it our   
duty1 within our own limited sphere1 to 
restore something of that noble         
simplicity1 something of that high      
fidelity to righteousness which it is   
said adorned the earlier days1 and on   
which alone the fortunes of the state   
can rest securely hereafter4  ,then also
 the question1 how best to educate the  
children to a worthy life1 confronted   
us4 ,the doctrines of religion as       
commonly interpreted1 we could no longer
 impart to them2 did we attempt to do   

so1 they would be likely to discard them
 in later years1 and would in the mean  
time be seriously injured in their moral
 estate by the struggle and its probable
 issue4 ,on the other hand we were aware
 that the temptations which surround the
 young in this complex and highly       
wrought civilization of ours1 are       
peculiarly dangerous and alluring1 and  
by all the holiest instincts of         
humanity1 we conceived ourselves bound  
to provide more effectively for their   
moral welfare4 ,a few of us therefore   
took counsel how these objects might be 
attained1 and we determined to take a   
step in a new direction4 ,we did not    
conceal from ourselves the difficulties 
that would attend what we were about to 
undertake4 ,we might expect honest      
opposition4 ,there would be no need to  
shrink from that4 ,we might expect      
misconstruction1 unintentioned or with  
malice aforethought2 we might expect    
also cold comfort from those illiberal  
liberals1 who are eager enough to assert

 the principles of freedom for          
themselves1 but relax alike their       
principles and their tempers when the   
limits are transcended which they have  
themselves reached1 and which1 on this  
account1 they arbitrarily set up as the 
barriers of future progress4 ,there were
 other obstacles inherent in the nature 
of the work itself4 ,but all these      
weighed lightly in the scales1 when     
opposed to the stern conviction1 that   
there are certain hideous shams allowed 
to flourish in our public life2 that    
there are certain great truths which    
ought to be brought home with new energy
 to the conscience of the people4  ,upon
 what platform could we unite4 ,to      
formulate a new creed was out of the    
question4 ,however comprehensive in its 
statements it might be1 nay though it   
had been the creed of absolute negation1
 from which indeed we are far removed1  
it would never have combined our efforts
 in permanent union4 ,and yet it was    
plain that to be strong and to exert    

influence1 we must effect a firm1       
cordial1 enthusiastic agreement upon    
some great principle4 ,the weakness of  
the ,liberal ,party had hitherto been1  
as we knew1 its dread of organization4  
,it ensured thereby for its members a   
greater measure of freedom than is      
elsewhere known1 but it purchased this  
advantage at an immense expense of      
practical influence and coherency4 ,its 
forces are scattered1 and in every      
emergency1 it finds itself paralyzed for
 want of unity in its own ranks4 ,the   
,catholic ,church has pursued the       
opposite policy1 and presents the most  
notable instance of its successful      
prosecution4 ,it is so formidable1      
mainly because of its splendid scheme of
 organization1 and the high executive   
ability of its leaders4 ,but its power  
is maintained at a complete sacrifice of
 freedom4 ,could we not secure both8    
,could we not be free and strong8 ,this 
was the problem before us1 and it seemed
 to us we could4  ,what the exigencies  

of the modern age demand1 more than     
aught else1 is a new movement for the   
moral elevation of the race4 ,now the   
basic facts of man's moral nature1      
though insufficiently illustrated in    
practice1 are universally admitted among
 civilized human beings4 ,concerning    
them there is and can be no dispute4    
,here then appeared the solid principle 
of our union4 ,the moral ideal would    
point the way of safety1 the moral ideal
 would permit us to preserve the sacred 
right of individual differences intact1 
and yet to combine with our fellow-men  
for the loftiest and purest ends4       
,taking the term creed therefore in its 
widest application1 we started out with 
the watchword1 ,diversity in the ,creed1
 ,unanimity in the ,deed4 ,this feature1
 if any at all1 lends character to our  
movement1 and by it would we be judged4 
,we claim to be thereby distinguished1  
as well from those religious            
corporations that base their            
organization upon definite theological  

dogmas1 as also from the great majority 
of ,liberals who meet for purposes of   
contemplation and poetical aspiration1  
in that we put the moral element        
prominently forward and behold in it the
 bond of our union1 the pledge of our   
vitality4  ,but at the very threshold of
 our enterprise1 we were met by the     
objection that our main premise is      
false2 that morality is impossible      
without dogma1 and that in neglecting   
the one we were virtually neutralizing  
our efforts toward the other4 ,it became
 our first and most serious task        
therefore to show the futility of this  
objection1 and to make clear by an      
appeal to philosophy and history that   
the claims of dogma are conditional1    
while the dictates of morality are      
imperative4 ,then1 having established   
the priority and supremacy of the moral 
law1 to examine what manner of          
substitute the ethical ideal can offer  
us to replace the offices of the        
doctrinal religions2 what are the hopes 

it holds out1 what its consolations1    
what it can give us for the priesthood  
and the church4 ,with this task we have 
been occupied during the year that has  
gone by1 and now1 at the close1 we      
propose to review once more1 the chief  
steps which we have taken in the course 
of our enquiry4  ,we discussed in the   
first place the doctrine of immortality1
 and some of the main arguments upon    
which it is commonly founded4  ,we next 
proceeded to take up the study of the   
,hebrew ,bible2 for it is evident that  
so long as this book is clothed with    
infallible authority1 arguments based on
 fact and logic avail nothing1 and      
reason is helpless before any random    
scriptural quotation4 ,we examined the  
composition of the work3 we learned that
 many of those portions that are        
esteemed most ancient1 are of           
comparatively recent origin2 that the   
text is studded with discrepancies1 and 
that the marks of savage and cruel      
customs such as the offering of human   

sacrifices to the ,deity1 are still     
clearly indented on the sacred volume4  
,the conclusion followed that a book so 
full of contradiction1 so deeply tinged 
with the evidence of human fallibility1 
could not have been the work of a divine
 author4 ,the inspiration theory being  
thus divested of its support1 we        
considered how baneful 99had been its   
influence on the course of human        
history2 how it had retarded the        
progress of the ,jews among whom it     
arose2 how it had checked the           
intellectual development of ,europe1 how
 it had hampered the advancement of     
science2 how it had offered a specious  
plea for the despotism of kings1 and of 
the holy ,inquisition2 how in our own   
days it had become in the hands of the  
,southern slaveholders a most formidable
 means of perpetuating their infamous   
scheme of oppression4 ,we concluded that
 whatever is false and worthless in the 
book we should feel at liberty to       
reject1 while what is great and holy    

would not therefore become less great or
 less holy to us1 because it was proven 
to be man's work1 man's testimony to the
 divine possibilities inherent in the   
human soul4  ,we went on striving to    
penetrate more deeply the origin of that
 mysterious power which we call         
religion4 ,to us it appeared that the   
feeling of the sublime is the root of   
the religious sentiment in man4 ,that   
the ,vedahs1 ,avesta1 ,koran1 ,bible are
 the songs of the nations on the theme  
of the infinite2 and that the moral     
ideal1 whether we endow it with         
personality or not1 presents to us the  
highest type of sublimity and is the    
sole object worthy of religious         
reverence4       ,who dare express him  
,and who profess him      ,saying1 ',i  
believe in him8'      ,who feeling1     
seeing1 deny his being      ,saying ,i  
believe him not8       ,call it then    
what thou wilt      ,call it bliss1     
heart1 love1      ,god2 ,i have no name 
to give it4      ,feeling is all in all1

      ,the name is sound and smoke4  ,we
 maintained lastly1 that the entrance of
 the moral into the sphere of religion  
has endowed the latter with whatever    
excellence it now possesses4  ,we showed
 in another course of lectures1 that    
every great religious movement has been 
in the essence1 a protest against the   
formalism and mock holiness of its time1
 and derived its vital impulses from the
 moral elements with which it was       
suffused4 ,we instanced the case of     
monotheism1 which1 as we believe1 arose 
in the struggle of the prophets against 
the immoral rites of ,baal3 ,we         
mentioned ,buddha1 the reformer of the  
,hindoos1 whose sermon of unselfishness 
won for him the affections of the       
people4 ,we referred on frequent        
occasions to the fact that ,christianity
 likewise triumphed because of the      
humanity of ,jesus3 because he was the  
,master of meekness2 because his gospel 
was a gospel for the poor4 ,the result  
of all which was to confirm the priority

 of morality1 and to show that it is    
indeed the source of whatever is durable
 and valuable in the ,creeds4  ,toward  
the end of ,february the two hundredth  
anniversary of the death of ,benedict   
,spinoza1 afforded us a welcome         
opportunity to dwell upon the life and  
philosophy of that illustrious thinker4 
,later on1 we endeavored to comprehend  
the causes which have produced that     
remarkable change the religious opinions
 of modern men1 that is daily becoming  
more widely apparent4 ,we found them to 
be the critical investigation of the    
,bible1 the progress of the natural     
sciences1 and indirectly1 the influence 
of commerce and of industry4 ,we        
attempted to set forth how the          
introduction of machinery became the    
means of fostering the growth of        
scepticism even among those classes to  
whom the arguments of scholars and men  
of science do not appeal4 ,we spoke of  
the enlightenment of the masses1 and    
considered the theory of those who hold 

that a religion1 even when it is found  
to be false1 should still be maintained 
as a salutary curb upon the passions of 
the multitude4 ,we insisted that this   
view of religion is as unsound as it is 
degrading2 that while all men may not be
 capable of the highest order of        
intellectual action1 all men are capable
 of heart goodness1 and goodness is the 
better part of religion2 that a generous
 confidence is the highest principle of 
education1 and that to trust men is the 
surest means of leading them to respond 
to our confidence2 that we should cease 
therefore to preach the depravity of    
human nature and preach rather the      
grandeur which is possible to human     
nature2 that in freedom alone can we    
become worthy of being free4  ,and again
 in a distinct group of lectures we     
sought to unfold our conception of the  
,new ,ideal1 and to point out that which
 distinguishes it from what has gone    
before4 ,we spoke of its appeal to the  
higher nature1 of its teachings         

concerning the ,infinite within         
ourselves4 ,we spoke of the priests that
 shall do its service2 of the solace it 
affords us by its summons to larger     
duties2 of the ethical schools that     
shall be erected for its culture2 of the
 manner in which women may be prepared  
to aid in its propaganda2 lastly of the 
form which it may assume in the future1 
in our discourse on the ,order of the   
,ideal4 ,thus far have we proceeded4 ,we
 issued our appeal1 at first1 as men    
uncertain what the fortunes of their    
enterprise might be4 ,but while we      
avowed it to be an experiment1 we were  
deeply convinced that it was an         
experiment which deserved to be tried4  
,and more and more as week followed     
week1 the response from your side came  
back full and cordial2 and more and more
 as the scope and the ultimate          
tendencies of our work were developed1  
new friends came to us whom we had not  
known1 and it became apparent that there
 is a deep1 downright purpose in your   

midst which will form a bond of union   
for us that shall not easily be snapped 
asunder4 ,until at last after a period  
had gone by1 you thought it time to     
exchange your temporary organization for
 one more stable1 and you declared to   
all who might be interested in learning 
it1 that it is your intention and your  
hope to become a permanent institution  
in this community4  ,we have made a     
beginning only4 ,if we look ahead1      
dangers and difficulties still lie      
thickly on our path4 ,the larger work is
 still before us4 ,but we will confide  
in the goodness of our cause1 and       
believe that if it be good indeed1 in   
the end it must succeed4  ,the country  
in which we live is most favorable for  
such experiments as ours4 ,there are    
lands of older culture1 and men' there  
of wider vision and maturer wisdom1 but 
nowhere1 as in ,america1 is a truth once
 seen1 so readily applied1 nowhere do   
even the common order of men so feel the
 responsibility for what transpires1 and

 the impulse to see the best            
accomplished4 ,here no heavy hand of    
rulers crushes the incipient good4 ,when
 the ,pilgrims set out on their voyage  
across the unknown ,atlantic1 ,robinson1
 their pastor1 their leader1 addressed  
them once more before they embarked1 and
 in that solemn hour of parting1 warned 
them against the self-sufficiency of a  
false conservatism1 and dedicated them  
and the new states they might found1 to 
the increase and the service of larger  
truths4 ,to larger truths ,america is   
dedicated4  ,o1 if it were thine1       
,america1 ,america that hast given      
political liberty to the world1 to give 
that spiritual liberty for which we     
pant1 to break also those spiritual     
fetters that load thy sons and          
daughters6 ,all over this land thousands
 are searching and struggling for the   
better1 they know not what4 ,oh that we 
might aid them in the struggle1 and they
 us2 and the hearts of many be knit     
together once more in a common purpose  

that would lift them above their sordid1
 weary cares1 and ennoble their lives   
and make them glorious6 ,the crops are  
waiting2 may the reapers come6          
,,appendix4     ,i4 ,,the ,,evolution   
,,of ,,hebrew ,,religion4       ,dans   
l'opinion du peuple pour qui ces liyres 
ont ete ecrits      le point capital et 
essentiel n'est certes pas la narration 
historiquc1 mais bien la legislation et 
l'idification      religieuse4  ,in     
#agie1 ,frederick ,augustus ,wolf       
published a modest octavo volume        
entitled ,prolegomena to ,homer1 from   
whose appearance is dated the beginning 
of a new era of historic criticism4 ,the
 composition of the poems of ,homer     
formed its subject4 ,for wellnigh twenty
 years the author had collected         
evidence1 weighed arguments1 and        
patiently tested his results by constant
 revision4 ,his own wishes were engaged 
on the side of the unity of the great   
,grecian epic4 ,but the results of his  
researches continued to point in the    

opposite direction1 and at last his     
earnest devotion to truth compelled him 
to adopt a theory the soundness of whose
 construction seemed to be no longer    
questionable4 ,he was thus worthy to    
become the founder of the science of    
philology in its present significance4  
9999 ,the influence of ,wolfs discovery 
was not confined to the study of classic
 literature only4       99 ,in the      
estimation of the people for whom these 
books were      written1 the capital1   
essential point surely was1 not the     
historic narrative1 but rather          
legislation and religious               
edification4 7,noldeke1 ',histoire      
,litte'raire de l',ancien               
,testament1' p4 #ai47       9999        
,bonitz1 ,ueber den ,ursprung der       
,homerischen ,gedichte4  ,it quickly    
radiated through every department of    
history4 ,in every singing age1 he said1
 a single saeculum is almost like a     
single man4 ,it is all one mind1 one    
soul499 ,this conception involved a new 

social law1 and radically altered the   
current opinions concerning the relation
 of individual effort to the larger     
forces that affect the development of   
nations4 ,the creative energy of        
remarkable minds was not1 indeed1       
lessened in importance1 but spontaneity1
 in this connection1 acquired a new     
meaning2 and for the ,deus ex machina of
 the olden time was substituted the     
cumulative force of centuries of        
progressive advancement1 culminating1 it
 is true1 at last in the triumphant     
synthesis of genius4 ,the commotion     
which the ,wolfian theory has stirred up
 in the literary world is largely due to
 the wide range of ideas which it       
affected4 ,yet it was itself but a part 
of that general movement which1 toward  
the close of the last century1 became   
conspicuous in its effects on every     
field of human inquiry4 ,everywhere the 
shackles of authority were thrown off1  
and1 in place of blindly accepting the  
testimony of the past1 men turned to    

investigate for themselves4 ,a new      
principle of research was everywhere    
acknowledged1 a new method was created1 
and science1 natural and historical1    
entered upon that astonishing career of 
discovery whose rich promise for the    
future we have but begun to             
anticipate49999       99 ,in a letter   
given in ,kttrte's ,leben und ,studien  
,f4 ,a      ,wolf s4 i41 p4 #cjg4       
9999 ,scientific pursuits are           
distinguished from others1 not by       
the material1 but by the method of      
knowledge4 ,the mere      collection of 
data1 however multiplied in detail1     
however      abstruse the subjects to   
which they may refer1 does not of       
itself deserve the name of science4 ,the
 term properly      applies only when   
phenomena are placed in causal relation1
      and the laws which govern their   
development are traced4      ,measured  
by this standard1 every attempt to      
explain the      growth of human thought
 and institutions1 and to elucidate     

the laws which have acted in the process
 of their evolution1      has a just    
claim to be classed under the head of   
scientific      inquiry4  ,to the       
impetus given by ,wolf1 and to the      
new-born spirit of science which he     
carried into the sphere of philology1 we
 owe among other valuable results the   
beginnings of a more critical inquiry   
into the records of the ancient ,hebrew 
religion4 ,indeed1 the author of the    
,prolegomena himself clearly foresaw the
 influence which his book was destined  
to exert on ,hebrew studies4 ,in a      
letter1 from which we have already      
quoted above1 he says3 ,the             
demonstration that the ,pentateuch is   
made up of unequal portions1 that these 
are the products of different centuries1
 and that they were put together shortly
 after the time of ,solomon1 may1 ere   
long1 be confidently expected4 ,i should
 myself be willing to undertake such an 
argument without fear1 for nowhere do we
 find any ancient witness to guarantee  

the authorship of the ,pentateuch to    
,moses himself499       99 ,letter in   
,korte's ,leben und ,studien ,f4 ,a4    
,wolf1 i41 p4      #cji4  ,the          
prediction embodied in these words soon 
came true4 ,a host of competent scholars
 took up the study of the ,hebrew       
,bible1 and1 profiting by ,wolf's       
example and suggestions1 applied to its 
elucidation the same careful methods1   
the same scrupulous honesty of          
interpretation1 that had proved so      
successful in the realm of classical    
philology4 ,theologians by profession1  
they set aside their predilections1 and 
placed the ascertainment of the truth   
above all other interests4 ,they        
believed in the indestructible vitality 
of religion1 and were willing to admit  
the full light of criticism upon the    
scriptural page1 confident that any loss
 would be temporary only1 the gain      
permanent4 ,in the course of their      
researches they arrived1 among others1  
at the following important conclusions3 

,that the editor of the ,pentateuch had 
admitted into his volume several        
accounts touching the main facts of     
early ,hebrew history2 that these       
accounts are often mutually at variance2
 that minute analysis and careful       
comparison alone can lead to an         
approximately true estimate of their    
comparative value2 and1 lastly1 that the
 transmission of historical information 
had in no wise been the object of the   
,hebrew writers4 ,the history of their  
people served1 it is true1 to illustrate
 certain of their doctrines concerning  
the divine government of the world1 and 
especially the peculiar relations of the
 ,deity to the chosen race2 but it was  
employed much in the sense of a moral   
tale1 being designed1 not to convey     
facts1 but to enforce lessons4 ,had the 
acceptance of any particular scheme of  
,hebrew history been deemed essential to
 the integrity of religious belief1 the 
,bible1 they argued1 would certainly not
 have included discrepant accounts of   

that history in its pages4 ,in the light
 of this new insight1 it seemed         
advisable to draw a distinction between 
the biblical narrative proper and the   
doctrines which it was designed to      
illustrate4 ,the latter belong to the   
province of faith1 and their treatment  
may be left to the expounders of faith4 
,the former is a department of general  
history1 and in dealing with it we are  
at liberty to apply the same canons of  
criticism that obtain in every other    
department1 without fearing to trespass 
upon sacred ground4 ,it is our purpose  
in the following pages to present some  
of the more interesting results that    
have been reached in the study of the   
,pentateuch1 so far as they illustrate  
the evolution of religious ideas among  
the ,hebrews4 ,we shall begin by        
summarizing a few instances of          
discrepant testimony to introduce our   
subject1 and1 in particular1 to show how
 little the ordinary purposes of history
 have been considered in the composition

 of the biblical writings2 how little   
the bare transmission of facts was an   
object with the sacred authors499  ,the 
,scriptures open with two divergent     
accounts of the creation4 ,in ,genesis  
i41 the work of creation proceeds in two
 grand movements1 including the         
formation of inanimate and animate      
,nature respectively49999 ,on the first 
day a diffused light is spread out over 
chaos4 ,then are made the firmament1 the
 dry earth1 the green herbs1 and        
fruit-bearing trees2 on the fourth day  
the great luminaries are called into    
being2 on the fifth1 the fishes and     
birds of the air2 on the sixth1 the     
beasts of the field2 and1 lastly1       
crowning all1 man1 his ,maker's         
masterpiece4 ,the human species enters  
at once upon its existence as a pair4   
,male and female did he create them4 ,in
 the second chapter the same methodical 
arrangement1 the same deliberate        
progress from the lower to the higher   
forms of being1 is not observed4 ,man1  

his interests and responsibilities1     
stand in the foreground of the picture4 
,the trees of the field are not made    
until after ,adam2 and1 subsequently to 
them1 the cattle and beasts4 ,moreover1 
man is a solitary being4 ,a comparison  
between his lonely condition and the    
dual existence of the remainder of the  
animal world leads the ,deity to        
determine upon the creation of woman4 ,a
 profound slumber then falls upon ,adam1
 a rib is taken from his side1 and from 
it ,eve is fashioned499 ,we may observe 
that the name ,jehovah1 as appertaining 
to the ,deity1 is employed in the second
 chapter1 while it is scrupulously      
avoided in the first4 ,the recognition  
of this distinction has led to further  
discoveries of far-reaching importance1 
but too complicated in their nature to  
be here detailed4 ,the conflicting      
statements of the two accounts1 which we
 have just indicated1 have induced      
scholars to regard them as the work of  
different writers4 ,in ,genesis iv4 we  

learn that in the days of ,enoch1       
,adam's grandson1 men began to call on  
the name of ,jehovah2 in ,exodus vi1 on 
the contrary1 that the name ,jehovah was
 first revealed to ,moses1 being unknown
 even to the patriarchs4       99 ,many 
of the following examples are familiarly
 known4 ,a      few1 however1 are drawn 
from recent investigations4 ,compare1   
especially1 ,kuenen1 ,the ,religion of  
,israel4       9999 ,tuch's ,genesis1 p4
 #c1 second edition1 ,halle1 #ahga4     
,gen4 xvi41 ,hagar is driven from her   
home by the jealousy of her mistress2   
escapes into the desert2 beholds a      
vision of ,god at a well in a           
wilderness4 ,gen4 xxi41 the flight of   
,hagar is related a second time4 ,the   
general scheme of the narrative is the  
same as above2 but there are important  
divergencies of detail4 ,as narrated in 
chapter xvi41 the escape took place     
immediately before the birth of         
,ishmael4 ,fifteen years elapsed19999   
and ,ishmael1 now approaching the years 

of maturity1 is once more driven forth  
from the house of ,abraham4 ,but1 to our
 surprise1 in chapter xxi4 the lad is   
described as a mere infant2 he is       
carried on his mother's shoulders1 and  
laid away1 like a helpless babe1 under  
some bushes by the wayside4 ,it appears 
that we have before us two accounts     
touching the same event1 agreeing in the
 main incidents of the escape1 but      
showing a disagreement of fifteen years 
as to the date of its occurrence4 ,the  
narratives are distinguished as above by
 the employment of different names of   
the ,deity3 ,jehovah in the one         
instance1 ,elohim in the other4       99
 ,for an account of the close analogy   
between the biblical      narration and 
the ,persian story of ,meshja and       
,meshjane1      their temptation and    
fall1 vide ibid4 p4 #dj4 ,it is of      
special importance to note that         
reference to the account of             
,genesis ii4 is made only in the later  
literature of the      ,hebrews1 ibid41 

p4 #db4       9999 ,gen4 xvii4 #be4 ,in 
quoting from the ,old ,testament1 we    
follow the order of the ,hebrew text4   
,gen4 xxxii41 ,jacob at the fords of    
,jabbok1 after wrestling during the     
night with a divine being1 receives the 
name of ,israel4 ,gen4 xxxv41 without   
reference to the previous account1 the  
name ,israel is conferred upon ,jacob at
 a different place and under different  
circumstances4  ,gen4 xlix41 the        
dispersion of the ,levites among the    
tribes is characterized as a punishment 
and a curse4 ,they are to be forever    
homeless and fugitive4 ,deuteronomy     
xxxiii4 and elsewhere1 it is described  
as a blessing4 ,the ,levites have been  
scattered as good seed over the land4   
,they are apostles1 commissioned to     
propagate ,jehovah's law4  ,passing on  
to the second book of the ,pentateuch1  
we pause before the account of the      
,revelation on ,mount ,sinai1 beyond a  
doubt the most important event of       
,israel's ancient history4 ,exodus xxiv4

 #b1 ,moses alone is to approach the    
divine presence4 ,exod4 xix4 #bd1 ,aaron
 is to accompany him4 ,exod4 xxiv4 #ac1 
,aaron is to remain below and ,joshua is
 to go in his stead4 ,again1 ,exod4     
xxxiii4 #bj1 instant death will overtake
 him who beholds ,god4 ,exod4 xxiv4     
#i-aa1 ,moses1 ,aaron1 two of his sons1 
and seventy elders of ,israel ascended1 
and they saw the ,god of ,israel4444    
,also1 they saw ,god1 and did eat and   
drink4 ,once more1 ,exod4 xxiv4 #d-g1   
,moses himself writes down the words of 
revelation in a book of covenant4 ,exod4
 xxiv4 #ab1 not ,moses but ,god writes  
them2 and1 elsewhere1 ,two tables of    
stone inscribed by the finger of ,god4  
,exod4 xx4 enjoins the observance of the
 sabbath-day as a memorial of the repose
 of the ,maker of heaven and earth on   
the sabbath of creation4 ,deut4 v41 the 
fourth commandment is enjoined because  
of the redemption of ,israel from       
,egyptian bondage4 ,exod4 xxxiv41 a new 
version of the decalogue1 differing in  

most respects from the one commonly     
received1 is promulgated499 ,the first  
commandment is to worship no strange    
god2 the second1 to make no graven      
images2 the third1 to observe the feast 
of unleavened bread2 the fourth1 to     
deliver the first-born unto ,jehovah2   
the fifth1 to observe the sabbath1 etc4 
99 ,compare ,de ,wette's ,einleitung in 
das alte ,testament      7,schrader's   
edition71 p4 #bhf1 note #ec4  ,in ,exod4
 xx4 we read that the guilt of the      
fathers will be avenged upon the        
children down even to the third and     
fourth generation2 in ,deut4 xxiv41 the 
children shall not die for their        
fathers4 ,every one for his own sin     
shall die4  ,in ,deut4 xxv4 the marrying
 of a deceased brother's wife is under  
certain conditions enjoined as a duty4  
,in ,levit4 xviii4 it is unconditionally
 prohibited as a crime4  ,exod4 xxxiii41
 ,moses removes the tabernacle beyond   
the camp4 ,num4 ii41 the tabernacle     
rests in the very heart of the camp1    

with all the tribes of ,israel grouped  
round about it1 according to their      
standards and divisions4  ,num4 xvi41   
the sons of ,korah1 the leader of the   
great ,leviti-cal sedition1 perish with 
their father4 ,num4 xxvi41 the sons of  
,korah do not perish499  ,of the forty  
years which the ,israelites are said to 
have dwelt in the desert1 not more than 
two are covered by the events of the    
narrative4 ,the remainder are wrapped in
 dense obscurity4 ,there is1 however1 a 
significant fact which deserves mention 
in this connection4 ,the death of ,aaron
 marks1 as it were1 the close of        
,israel's journey4 ,now1 while in ,num4 
xxxiii4 the death of the high-priest is 
described as occurring in the fortieth  
year1 in ,deut4 x4 it is actually       
referred to the second year of the      
,exodus49999       99 ,num4 xxvi4 #aa4  
,indeed1 had the sons of ,korah and     
every      human being related to him   
perished1 as ,num4 xvi4 avers1 how      
could we account for the fact that      

,korah's descendants      filled high   
offices in the ,temple at ,jerusalem    
later on8      ,the celebrated singer1  
,heman1 himself was a lineal            
descendant of ,korah4 ,to the           
descendants of ,korah also are          
ascribed the following ,psalms3 ,ps4    
xlii41 xliv4-xlix41      lxxxiv41       
lxxxv41 lxxxvii41 lxxxviii4       9999  
,in connection with this subject it is  
of interest to      compare ,goethe's   
argument in the ,westoslicher ,divan on 
the      duration of the desert journey4
 ,here1 as in so many other             
instances1 the intuitive perception of  
the great poet      anticipated the     
tardy results of subsequent             
investigation4  ,a brief digression     
beyond the borders of the ,pentateuch   
will show that the conflict of testimony
 which we have thus far noticed1        
affecting as it does some of the leading
 events of ancient ,hebrew history1 does
 not diminish as we proceed in the      
narrative4 ,in ,i ,samuel vii4 it is    

said that the ,philistines ceased to    
harass the land of ,israel all the days 
of ,samuel4 ,immediately thereupon we   
read of new ,philistine incursions more 
direful than ever in their              
consequences499 ,the popular proverb1   
,is ,saul among the prophets8 is        
variously explained1 ,i ,sam4 x4 and    
xix4 ,two discrepant accounts are given 
of ,saul's rejection from the kingdom1  
,i ,sam4 xiii4 and xv42 of ,david's     
introduction to ,saul1 i ,sam4 xvi4 and 
xvii4 ,the charming story of ,david's   
encounter with the giant ,goliath told  
in ,i ,sam4 xvii4 is contradicted in #b 
,sam4 xxi4 #ai1 where1 not ,david1 but  
some person otherwise unknown to fame1  
is reported to have slain the giant     
,goliath1 and also the time1 place1 and 
attendant circumstances1 are differently
 related49999       99 ,compare #a ,sam4
 vii4 #ac1 and #a ,sam4 xiii4 #ai4      
9999 ,in #a ,chron4 xx4 #e1 we read1 the
 brother of ,goliath4 ,the      purpose 
of the change is clear1 and accords well

 with the      apologetical tendencies  
of the author of ,chronicles4 ,vide ,de 
,wette1 ,einleitung1 etc41 p4 #cgj4     
,geiger1 ,urschrift4  ,it thus appears  
that the compiler of the ,pentateuch has
 admitted a variety of views1 not only  
on the ancient history of his people1   
but also on the general subject of      
religion and morals1 into his work2 and 
that the discordant opinions of diverse 
authors and of diverse stages of human  
progress are reflected in its pages4 ,it
 is the monument of a grand religious   
movement extending over many centuries  
of gradual development4 ,it is the image
 of a nation's struggles and growth4 ,as
 contained in the books of the          
,pentateuch1 the ,mosaic religion is a  
religious mosaic4  ,in the foregoing    
sketch we have observed how deep a mist 
of uncertainty hangs over the earliest  
period1 the golden age of the history of
 the ,hebrews4 ,all is in a state of    
flux1 and what appeared compact and     
coherent at a distance yields to our    

touch upon closer contact4 ,to gain     
terra firma let us turn to the period   
which immediately succeeded the         
settlement of the ,israelites in        
,palestine2 a period in which the       
outline of historical events begins to  
assume a more definite and tangible     
shape4  ,it was a dismal and sorrowful  
age4 ,the bonds of social order were    
loosened2 the current conceptions of the
 ,deity and the rites of his worship    
were gross and often degrading4 ,mutual 
jealousies kindled the firebrand of war 
among the contending clans4 ,almost the 
whole tribe of ,benjamin was extirpated4
 ,abimelech slew seventy princes upon   
one stone4 ,lust and treachery ran riot4
 ,a wilder deed has never been          
chronicled in the annals of mankind than
 that related in chapter xix4 of        
,judges1 nor ever has a terrible deed   
been more terribly avenged4 ,now1       
looking backward1 we ask1 ,is it to be  
believed that in the fourteenth century 
,b4 ,c4 not only the leader of ,israel1 

but also their elders1 their priests1   
nay1 large numbers of the very populace1
 shared in the most exalted1 the most   
spiritual conceptions of ,god1 and      
nourished the most refined sentiments in
 regard to human relationships1 while   
immediately thereupon1 and centuries    
thereafter1 violence and bloodshed1 and 
idolatry1 do not cease from the records8
 ,it has been argued1 indeed1 that the  
worship of idols was but a relapse from 
the purity of a preceding age2 and that1
 though the tradition of the ,mosaic    
time may have been lost in the          
succeeding period among the people at   
large1 it was still preserved in the    
circle of a select few1 the judges1     
,king ,david1 and others4 ,these1 it is 
believed1 continued to remain faithful  
disciples of the great lawgiver4 ,but   
these very men1 the judges--,king ,david
 himself--all fall immeasurably below   
the standard that is set up in the      
,pentateuch4 ,if they were esteemed the 
true representatives of the national    

religion in their day1 if the very      
points in which they transgressed the   
provisions of the ,mosaic code are      
distinguished by the approval of ,god   
and man1 we are forced to conclude that 
that standard--by which they stand      
condemned--did not yet exist2 that1 in  
the days of ,david1 the laws of ,moses1 
as we now have them2 were as yet        
unwritten and unknown4 ,let us          
illustrate this important point by a few
 examples taken from the records4       
,gideon no sooner returns from victory  
than he makes a golden idol and sets it 
up for worship4 ,jephthah slays his     
daughter as an offering of thanksgiving 
to ,jehovah4 ,in the ,pentateuch the    
adoration of images is branded as the   
gravest of offences4 ,david keeps       
household gods in his own home 7,sam4   
xix74 ,in the ,pentateuch1 on its       
opening page1 ,god is proclaimed as a   
pure spirit1 maker of heaven and earth4 
,in the eyes of ,david 7#a ,sam1 xxvi4  
#ai71 the sway of ,jehovah does not     

extend beyond the borders of            
,palestine499 ,in the ,pentateuch the   
ark of the covenant is described as the 
treasury of all that is brightest and   
best in the worship of the one ,god4    
,none but the consecrated priest dare   
approach it1 and even he only under     
circumstances calculated to inspire     
peculiar veneration and awe4 ,in #b     
,sam4 vi41 ,david abandons the ark to   
the keeping of a heathen ,philistine4   
,in an early age of culture1 when fear  
and terror in the presence of superior  
force entered largely into the religious
 conceptions of the ,hebrews1 the taking
 of the census was deemed an act of     
grave transgression4 ,it appeared a     
vaunting of one's strength2 it seemed to
 indicate a defiant attitude toward the 
loftier power of the ,deity1 which he   
would certainly visit with condign      
punishment4 ,at a later period the      
priesthood found it in their interest to
 override these scruples1 and the taking
 of the census became an affair of      

habitual occurrence4 ,in the last       
chapter of ,samuel the more primitive   
view still predominated4 ,seventy       
thousand ,israelites are miserably slain
 to atone for ,king ,david's presumption
 in commanding a census of the people4  
,in the fourth book of ,moses1 on the   
other hand1 the numbering of the people 
not only proceeds without the slightest 
evil resulting therefrom1 but at the    
express command of ,god himself4  ,in   
the book of ,deuteronomy the service of 
,jehovah is said to consist mainly in   
the practice of righteousness1 in works 
of kindness toward our fellows1 in      
sincere and holy love toward the ,deity1
 who is represented as the merciful     
father of all his human children4       
,second ,sam4 xxi41 a famine comes upon 
the land of ,israel4 ,the anger of      
,jehovah is kindled against the people4 
,to appease him1 ,david offers          
sacrifice--human sacrifice4 ,the seven  
sons of ,saul are slain1 and their      
bodies kept exposed on the hill1 in     

sight of ,jehovah1 and the horrid       
offering is accepted1 and the divine    
wrath is thereby pacified49999 ,truly1  
in the age of in the beginning of the   
barley-harvest4 ,this circumstance seems
 to throw light on the primitive mode of
 celebrating the ,passover4 ,that the   
rite of human sacrifice was originally  
connected with this festival is         
generally acknowledged4 ,vide1 e4 g41   
,exod4 xiii41 #b4 ,by such offerings it 
was intended1 no doubt1 to secure the   
favor of the god during the continuance 
of the harvest4       99 ,banishment    
being described as a transfer of        
allegiance to      strange gods4        
9999 ,it is important to note that the  
seven sons of ,saul were      sacrificed
  ,david1 the ,hebrews were far1 far    
removed from the high state of culture  
in which the ideal conception of        
religion that pervades ,deuteronomy     
became possible4 ,and long after1 when  
centuries had gone by and the kingdom of
 ,judah was already approaching its     

dissolution1 the direful practices of   
,david's reign still survived1 and the  
root of idolatry had not been plucked   
from the heart of the people4 ,still do 
we hear of human sacrifice perpetrated  
in the midst of ,jerusalem1 and steeds  
and chariots dedicated to the sun-god1  
and images of the ,phallus1 and all the 
abominations of sensual worship1 filled 
the very ,temple of ,jehovah4  ,but in  
the meantime a new force had entered the
 current of ,hebrew history4 ,the       
conviction that one ,god1 and he an     
all-just1 almighty being1 ruled the     
destinies of ,israel1 began to take     
root4 ,in the eighth century ,b4 ,c4    
authentic records prove that monotheism1
 as a form of religious belief1         
obtained1 at least among the more       
illustrious members of the prophetic    
order4 ,we have elsewhere attempted to  
trace the causes which led to the rise  
of monotheism at this particular epoch1 
and can do no more than briefly allude  
to them here4  ,when the mountaineers of

 ,southern ,palestine1 after centuries  
of protracted struggles1 had secured the
 safe possession of individual homes1   
the endearments of domestic life were   
invested with a sanctity in their eyes  
never before known4 ,the attachment of  
the ,hebrew toward his offspring was    
intensified2 his devotion to the wife of
 his bosom became purer and more        
enduring4 ,now1 the prevailing forms of 
,semitic religion outraged these        
feelings at every point4 ,the gods of   
the surrounding nations were gods of    
pleasure and of pain2 and in their      
worship the stern practices of fanatic  
asceticism alternated with the wildest  
orgies of sensual enjoyment4 ,the       
worship of ,baal ,moloch demanded the   
sacrifice of children2 that of the      
lascivious ,baaltis insulted the modesty
 of woman4 ,the nobler spirits among the
 ,hebrews rebelled against both these   
demands4 ,and1 as the latter were put   
forth in the name of the dominant       
religion1 the inevitable conclusion     

followed that that religion itself must 
be radically wrong4 ,the spirit of      
opposition thus awakened was aroused    
into powerful activity when1 in the days
 of ,ahab1 the queen1 supported by an   
influential priesthood1 determined to   
introduce the forms of ,phoenician      
religion in ,israel by measures of      
force4 ,the royal edicts were resisted1 
but for a while the rule of the stronger
 prevailed4 ,the leaders of the         
opposition were compelled to flee1 and1 
avoiding the habitations of men1 to take
 refuge in wild and solitary places4    
,thus the rupture was widened into      
schism1 and persecution inflamed the    
zeal and kindled the energies of that   
new order of men of whom ,elijah is the 
well-known type4  ,through their agency 
the emotional nature of the ,semitic    
race now found expression in a form of  
religious worship loftier by far than   
any that had ever arisen among men4 ,if 
,baal was the embodiment of ,semitic    
asceticism and ,baaltis the type of     

sensual orgiastic passion1 the national 
,god of ,israel now became the type of a
 nobler emotion1 the guardian of        
domestic purity1 the source of sanctity1
 the ideal ,father4 ,it is indeed the   
image of a just patriarch that fills the
 mind and wings the fancy of the eldest 
prophets1 when they describe the nature 
of ,jehovah1 their ,god4 ,jehovah is the
 husband of the people4 ,israel shall be
 his true and loyal spouse4 ,the        
children of ,israel are his children4   
,unchastity and irreligion are          
synonymous terms4 ,and thus1 if we err  
not1 the peculiar feature of ,hebrew    
character1 their faithful attachment to 
kith and kin1 the strength and purity of
 their domestic affections1 serves to   
explain the peculiar character1 the     
origin and development of the ,hebrew   
religion4 ,and because the essential    
elements of the new religion were moral 
elements it could not tolerate the      
,nature-worship of the heathens3 and the
 way was prepared for the gradual       

ascendency of the purely spiritual in   
religion1 which after ages of gradual   
progress constituted the last1 the      
lasting triumph of prophecy4  ,after    
ages of development6 ,for we are not to 
suppose that1 in the centuries          
succeeding ,hosea1 the doctrines of the 
prophetic schools had become in any     
sense the property of the people at     
large4 ,the powers that be were arrayed 
against them1 and the annals of the     
kings are replete with evidence of their
 sufferings4 ,it was in the late reign  
of ,josiah that they at last received   
not only the countenance of the reigning
 monarch1 but also a decisive influence 
upon the direction of affairs4 ,in that 
reign a scroll was found in the temple  
imbued with the doctrine of the unity of
 ,god1 and breathing the vigorous spirit
 of the prophets4 ,in it was emphasized 
the heart's religion in preference to   
the empty ceremonial of priestly        
worship4 ,the allegiance of the people  
was directed toward the ,god who had    

elected them from among the nations of  
the earth1 and dire disaster was        
predicted in case of disobedience4 ,when
 brought to the king and read in his    
presence1 he was powerfully affected1   
and determined1 if possible1 to stem the
 tide of impending ruin by such salutary
 measures of reform as the injunctions  
of the newly-found ,scripture seemed    
most urgently to call for4 ,the         
concurrence of many critics has         
identified this scroll1 written and     
published at or about the time when the 
youthful ,josiah succeeded to the throne
 of his ancestors1 with ,deuteronomy1   
the fifth of the books of ,moses4 ,it   
differs materially from the more recent 
writings of the ,pentateuch4 ,the family
 of ,aaron are not yet exclusively      
endowed with the priesthood4 ,the       
priests are all ,levites1 the ,levites  
all priests4 ,there are1 moreover1 other
 vital differences1 into which the      
limits of this article do not permit us 
to enter499 ,the date of the composition

 of ,deuteronomy is thus referred to the
 closing decades of the seventh century 
,b4 ,c49999       99 ,e4 ,g41 the       
rebellion of ,korah is unknown to the   
author of      ,deuteronomy4       9999 
,the language of ,deuteronomy attests   
its late origin4      ,sixty-six phrases
 of ,deuteronomy recur in the writings  
of      ,jeremiah4 ,vide ,zunz1         
,zeitschrift der ,deutschen             
,morgenlandischen ,gesellschaft1        
xxviii41 p4 #fgj4  ,the princes who     
succeeded ,josiah fell back into the old
 course1 and quite undid the work which 
had begun with such fair promise4       
,indeed1 little permanent good was to be
 hoped for in so disordered a condition 
of political affairs1 and from the      
degenerate rulers who then swayed the   
helm of state4 ,the fortunes of the     
kingdom of ,judah were swiftly          
declining1 and not fully a quarter of a 
century after the pious ,josiah had     
breathed his last1 ,nebuchadnezzar      
burned the ,temple of ,jerusalem1 and   

carried its inhabitants captive to      
,babylon4  ,heretofore1 with but a      
brief1 brilliant interlude1 idolatry had
 been the court religion of ,judah4     
,early training1 long usage1 the example
 of revered ancestors1 had endeared its 
forms and symbols to the affections of  
the people4 ,resistance to the          
innovating prophets was natural2 men    
being then1 as ever1 loath to abandon   
the sacred usages which had come down to
 them from the distant generations of   
the past4 ,but1 in the long years of the
 captivity1 a profound change came over 
the spirit of the ,hebrew people2 by    
,babel's streams they sat and wept2 by  
,babel's streams they recalled the      
memories of their native land1 that land
 which they had lost4 ,it was then that 
the voices of ,jehovah's messengers1    
which had so earnestly warned them of   
the approaching doom1 recurred to their 
startled recollection4 ,they remembered 
the message2 they beheld its            
fulfillment2 the testimony of the       

prophets had been confirmed by events2  
the one ,god to whom they testified had 
revealed his omnipotence in history2 and
 with ready assent the exiles promised  
allegiance to his commandments in the   
future4 ,the love of country1 the dread 
of further chastisement1 the dear hope  
of restoration1 combined to win them to 
the purer worship of their ,god1 and1 in
 the crucible of ,babylon1 the national 
religion was purged of the last dregs of
 heathendom4  ,with the permission of   
,cyrus1 the ,jews returned to ,palestine
 and the ,temple at ,jerusalem was      
rebuilt4 ,the question now arose in what
 forms the ceremonial of the new        
sanctuary should be conducted4 ,the     
time-honored festivals1 the solemn and  
joyful convocations1 the sacrifices and 
purifications of the olden time1 were   
all more or less infected with the taint
 of paganism4 ,prophecy would have none 
of them--prophecy1 free child of genius1
 contemned sacrifice1 denounced the     
priesthood1 even the temple and its     

ritual299 proclaimed humbleness and     
loving-kindness as the true service in  
which ,jehovah takes delight4 ,there was
 formalism on the one hand1 idealism on 
the other4 ,as is usual in such cases1  
when the time had arrived for turning   
theory into practice1 it was found      
necessary to effect a compromise4       
99 ,jeremiah vii4 #d2 ,isaiah lxvi4 #a2 
,micah vi4 #f4  ,as ,christianity in    
later days adopted the yule-tree into   
its system1 and lit the lamps of the    
heathen festival of the #beth of        
,december in honor of the nativity of   
its founder1 so the leaders of the      
,jews1 in the fifth century before our  
era1 adopted the feasts and usages of an
 ancient ,nature-worship1 breathed into 
them a new spirit informed them with a  
loftier meaning1 and made them tokens1  
symbols of the eternal ,god4 ,the old   
foes were thus reconciled2 priesthood   
and prophecy joined hands1 and were     
thenceforth united4 ,as an offspring of 
this union1 we behold a new code of laws

 and prescriptions1 whose marked and    
inharmonious features at once betray the
 dual nature of its progenitors4 ,a     
rough preliminary draft1 as it were1 of 
this code1 is preserved in the book of  
,ezekiel1 composed probably about the   
middle of the fifth century4 ,in its    
finished and final shape1 it forms the  
bulk of a still later work--of          
,leviticus1 namely the third of the     
books of the ,pentateuch3 of all the    
discoveries of criticism none more      
noteworthy1 none we are permitted to    
consider more assured4 ,what lends      
additional certainty to the result is   
the circumstance that it was reached    
independently by two of the most        
esteemed scholars of our day1 the one a 
,professor of ,theology in the          
,university of ,leyden199 the other a   
veteran of thought1 whose brow is       
wreathed by the ripe honors of more than
 fourscore years49999 ,let us briefly   
advert to the line of argument by which 
this astonishing conclusion was reached3

       99 ,prof4 ,a4 ,kuenen4       9999
 ,the venerable ,dr4 ,zunz1 of ,berlin4 
,the author of the book of ,ezekiel was 
a priest1 and one confessedly loyal to  
the sanctuary of ,jerusalem4 ,now1 had  
the laws of the ,levitical code1 which  
minutely describe the ritual of that    
sanctuary1 existed1 or been regarded as 
authoritative in his day1 he could not1 
would not have disregarded1 much less   
contradicted1 their provisions4 ,he does
 this1 and1 be it remarked1 in points of
 capital importance4 ,in chapter xlv4 of
 ,ezekiel are mentioned the great       
festivals1 with the sacrifices          
appropriate to each2 but the feast of   
,pentecost1 commanded in ,leviticus1 is 
entirely omitted2 also that of the      
eighth day of tabernacles4 ,the second  
of the daily burnt-offerings1 upon which
 the legislator of the fourth book of   
,moses dwells with such marked emphasis1
 is not commanded4 ,the order of        
sacrifices appointed in ,ezekiel is at  
variance with that in the more recent   

code4 ,ezekiel nowhere mentions the ark 
of the covenant4 ,according to him1 the 
new year begins on the tenth of the     
seventh month1 while the festival of the
 trumpets1 ordained in ,leviticus for   
the first of that month 7the present new
 year of the ,jews71 is nowhere referred
 to4 ,we are not to suppose1 however1   
that the festivals1 the ark1 etc41 did  
not yet exist in the time of ,ezekiel4  
,they existed1 no doubt1 but were still 
too intimately associated with pagan    
customs and superstitions to receive or 
merit the countenance of a prophetic    
writer4 ,in ,leviticus the process of   
assimilation above described had reached
 its climax4 ,the new meaning had been  
successfully engrafted upon the rites   
and symbols of the olden time2 and they 
were thenceforth freely employed4 ,the  
legislation of the ,levitical code      
exhibits the familiar features which in 
every instance mark the ascendency or   
consolidation of the hierarchical order4
 ,the lines of gradation and distinction

 between the members of the order among 
themselves are precisely drawn and      
strictly adhered to4 ,the prerogatives  
of the whole order as against the people
 are fenced about with stringent laws4  
,the revenues of the order are largely  
increased4 ,in the older code of        
,deuteronomy1 the annual tithes were set
 apart for a festival occasion1 and     
given over to the enjoyment of the      
people4 ,in the new code1 the hierarchy 
claims the tithes for its own use4 ,new 
taxes are invented4 ,the best portions  
of the sacrificial animal are reserved  
for the banquets of the ,temple4 ,the   
first-born of men and cattle belong to  
the priesthood1 and must be ransomed by 
the payment of a sum of money4 ,in no   
period prior to the fifth century ,b4   
,c4 was the hierarchy powerful enough to
 design such laws4 ,at that time1       
however1 when in the absence of a       
temporal sovereign they1 with the       
high-priest at their head1 were the     
acknowledged rulers of the state1 they  

were both prepared to conceive and able 
to carry them into effect4 ,the language
 of ,leviticus contributes not a little 
to betray its late origin499 ,the period
 in the history of the ,jews1 when the  
fear of taking the name of the ,lord in 
vain induced men to avoid1 if possible1 
mentioning it at all4 ,we find ha ,shem 
in the above sense in ,lev4 xxiv4 #aa4  
authorship of ,moses attributed to the  
,levitical code is symbolical4 ,the name
 of ,moses is utterly unknown to the    
elder prophets4       99 ,to mention    
only a single instance1 ha ,shem        
7meaning the      name1 i4 e4 the       
ineffable name of ,god7 was not employed
      until very late4  ,in all their   
manifold writings it does not occur a   
single time1 though they make frequent  
reference to the past4 ,there can now be
 little doubt that the composition of   
the bulk of ,leviticus1 and of          
considerable portions of the books of   
,numbers1 ,exodus1 and even parts of    
,genesis1 belongs to the epoch of the   

second ,temple1 and that the date of    
these writings may be approximately     
fixed at about one thousand years after 
the time of ,moses4 ,as to the story of 
,israel's desert wanderings1 it rests   
upon ancient traditions whose character 
it is not our present business to       
investigate4 ,it was successively worked
 up in various schools of priests and   
prophets1 and this accounts for the host
 of discrepancies it contains1 some of  
which have been noticed in the beginning
 of this essay4 ,it was finally         
amplified by the inventive genius of the
 second-,temple priesthood1 who         
succeeded in heightening the sanctity of
 their own institutions by tracing them 
back to a revered1 heroic person1 who   
had lived in the dim days of remote     
antiquity4  ,in the preceding pages we  
have indicated the more important phases
 of that conflict which ended in the    
establishment of monotheism1 a conflict 
whose traces1 though sometimes barely   
legible1 are still preserved in our     

records4 ,we saw in the first instance  
that the ,mosaic age is shrouded in     
uncertainty4 ,we pointed out that pure  
monotheism was unknown in the time of   
the early kings4 ,we briefly referred to
 the rise of monotheism4 ,finally1 we   
endeavored to show how the prophetic    
idea had been successively expressed in 
various codes1 each corresponding to a  
certain stage in the great process of   
evolution4 ,from what we have said1 it  
follows that the prophetic ideal of     
religion is the root and core of all    
that is valuable in the ,hebrew ,bible4 
,the laws1 rites1 and observances1 in   
which it found a temporary and changeful
 expression1 may lose their vitality2 it
 will always continue to exert its high 
influence4 ,it was not the work of one  
man1 nor of a single age1 but was       
reached in the long course of           
generations on generations1 evolved amid
 error and vice1 slowly1 and against all
 the odds of time4 ,it has been said    
that the ,bible is opposed to the theory

 of evolution4 ,the ,bible itself is a  
prominent example of evolution in       
history4 ,it is not homogeneous in all  
its parts4 ,there are portions filled   
with tales of human error and           
fallibility4 ,these are the incipient   
stages of an early age--the dark and    
dread beginnings4 ,there are others     
thrilling with noblest emotion1         
freighted with eternal truths1 breathing
 celestial music4 ,these are the triumph
 and the fruition of a later day4 ,it is
 thus by discriminating between what is 
essentially excellent and what is       
comparatively valueless that we shall   
best reconcile the discordant claims of 
reason and of faith4 ,the ,bible was    
never designed to convey scientific     
information1 nor was it intended to     
serve as a text-book of history4 ,in its
 ethical teachings lies its true        
significance4 ,on them it may fairly    
rest its claims to the immortal         
reverence of mankind4  ,there was a time
 in the olden days of ,greece when it   

was demanded that the poems of ,homer   
should be removed from the schools1 lest
 the minds of the young might be        
poisoned by the weeds of superstitious  
belief4 ,plato1 the poet-philosopher1 it
 was who urged this demand4 ,that time  
is past4 ,the tales of the gods and     
heroes have long since ceased to entice 
our credulity4 ,the story of ,achilles's
 wrath and the wanderings of the sage   
,ulysses are not believed as history1   
but the beauty and freshness and the    
golden poetry of the ,homeric epic have 
a reality all their own1 and are a      
delight and a glory now1 as they have   
ever been before4 ,the ,bible also is a 
classical book4 ,it is the classical    
book of noble ethical sentiment4 ,in it 
the mortal fear1 the overflowing hope1  
the quivering longings of the human soul
 toward the better and the best1 have   
found their first1 their freshest1 their
 fittest utterance4 ,in this respect it 
can never be superseded4  ,to ,greek    
philosophy we owe the evolution of the  

logical categories2 to ,hebrew prophecy1
 the pure canon of moral principle and  
action4 ,that this result was the       
outcome of a long process of suffering  
and struggle cannot diminish its value  
in our estimation4 ,when we compare the 
degrading offices of the ,hebrew        
religion in the days of the judges with 
the lofty aspirations of the second     
,isaiah1 when we remember the utter     
abyss of moral abasement from which the 
nobler spirits of the ,hebrews rose to  
the free heights of prophecy1 our       
confidence in the divine possibilities  
of the human soul is reinvigorated1 our 
emulation is kindled1 and from the great
 things already accomplished we gather  
the cheering promise of the greater     
things that are yet to come4 ,it is in  
this moral incentive that the practical 
value of the evolutionary theory chiefly
 lies499       99 ,most aptly has this  
thought been expressed in the lines     
with which ,goethe welcomed the         
appearance of ,f4 ,a4 ,wolfs            

,prolegomena4       ,erst die           
,gesundheit des ,mannes1 der1 endhch vom
 ,namen      ,homeros ,kuhn uns         
befreiend1 uns auch flihrt in die       
vollere      ,bahn4 ,denn wer wagte mit 
,gettern den ,kampf8 und wer mit dem    
,einen8--,doch ,homeride zu seyn1 auch  
nur als letzter1 ist      schon4        
,the ,elegy of ,hermann und ,dorothea   
,,ii4 ,,reformed ,,judaism4  ,the ,jews 
are justly called a peculiar people4    
,during the past three thousand years   
they have lived apart from their        
fellow-men1 in a state of voluntary or  
enforced isolation4 ,the laws of the    
,pentateuch directed them to avoid      
contact with heathens4 ,christianity in 
turn shunned and execrated them4 ,proud 
and sensitive by nature1 subjected to   
every species of humiliation and        
contempt1 they retired upon themselves1 
and continued to be what the seer from  
,aram had described them in the olden   
time1 ,a people that dwells in          
solitude499 ,it followed that1 in the   

progress of time1 idiosyncrasies of     
character were developed1 and habits of 
thinking and feeling grew up amongst    
them1 which could not but contribute to 
alienate them still more from the       
surrounding world4 ,they felt that they 
were not understood4 ,they were too shy 
to open their confidence to their       
oppressors4 ,they remained an enigma4   
,at wide intervals books appeared       
purporting to give an account of the    
,jews and their sacred customs4 ,but    
these attempts were1 in the main1       
dictated by no just or generous motive4 
,their authors1 narrow bigots or        
renegades from ,judaism1 ransacked the  
vast literature of the ,hebrew people   
for such scattered fragments as might be
 used to their discredit1 and exhibited 
these as samples of ,jewish manners and 
,jewish religion4 ,the image thus       
presented1 it is needless to say1 was   
extremely untrustworthy4 ,and yet the   
writings of these partial judges have   
remained almost the only sources from   

which even many modern writers are      
accustomed to draw their information4   
,the historian is yet to come who will  
dispel the dense mists of prejudice that
 have gathered about ,jewish history1   
and reveal the inward life of this      
wonderful people1 whose perennial       
freshness has been preserved through so 
many centuries of the most severe trials
 and persecution4 ,in one respect1      
indeed1 let us hasten to add1 the       
popular judgment concerning the ,jews   
has never been deceived4       99       
,numbers xxiii4 #i4  ,the intense       
conservatism in religion for which they 
have become proverbial is fully         
confirmed by facts4 ,there exists no    
other race of men that has approved its 
fidelity to religious conviction for an 
equal period1 under equal difficulties1 
and amid equal temptations4 ,antiochus1 
,titus1 ,firuz1 ,reccared1 ,edward ,i4  
of ,england1 ,philip ,augustus of       
,france1 ,ferdinand of ,spain1 exhausted
 the resources of tyranny in vain to    

shake their constancy4 ,their power of  
resistance rose with the occasion that  
called it forth2 and their fervid       
loyalty to the faith transmitted to them
 by the fathers never appeared to       
greater1 advantage than when it cost    
them their peace1 their happiness1 and  
their life to maintain it4 ,since the   
close of the last century1 however1 a   
great change has apparently come over   
the ,jewish people4 ,not only have they 
abandoned their former attitude of      
reserve and mingled freely with their   
fellow-citizens of whatever creed1 not  
only have they taken a leading part in  
the great political revolutions that    
swept over ,europe1 but the passion for 
change1 so characteristic of the age in 
which we live1 has extended even to     
their time-honored religion2 and a      
movement aiming at nothing less than the
 complete reformation of ,judaism has   
arisen1 and rapidly acquired the largest
 dimensions4 ,the very fact that such a 
movement should exist among such a      

people is rightly interpreted as a sign 
of the times deserving of careful and   
candid consideration2 and great interest
 has accordingly been manifested of late
 on the subject of ,jewish ,reform4 ,in 
a series of articles we shall undertake 
to give a brief sketch of the origin and
 bearings of the movement4 ,but before  
addressing ourselves to this task it    
will be necessary to review a few of the
 main causes that have enabled the ,jews
 to perdure in history1 and to consider 
the motives that impelled them to resist
 change so long1 if we would properly   
appreciate the process of transformation
 that is even now taking place among    
them4 ,among the efficient forces that  
conduced to the preservation of the     
,jewish people we rank highest3         
,,the ,,purity ,,of ,,their ,,domestic  
,,relations  ,the sacredness of the     
family tie is the condition both of the 
physical soundness and the moral vigor  
of nations4 ,the family is the miniature
 commonwealth1 upon whose integrity the 

safety of the larger commonwealth       
depends4 ,it is the seedplot of all     
morality4 ,in the child's intercourse   
with its parents the sentiment of       
reverence is instilled--the essence of  
all piety1 all idealism2 also the habit 
of obedience to rightful authority1     
which forms so invaluable a feature in  
the character of the loyal citizen4 ,in 
the companionship of brothers deference 
to the rights of equals is practically  
inculcated1 without which no community  
could exist4 ,the relations between     
brother and sister give birth to the    
sentiment of chivalry1--regard for the  
rights of the weaker1--and this forms   
the basis of magnanimity1 and every     
generous and tender quality that graces 
humanity4 ,reverence for superiors1     
respect for equals1 regard for          
inferiors1--these form the supreme      
trinity of the virtues4 ,whatever is    
great and good in the institutions and  
usages of mankind is an application of  
sentiments that have drawn their first  

nourishment from the soil of the family4
 ,the family is the school of duties4   
,but it has this distinguishing         
excellency1 that among those who are    
linked together by the strong ties of   
affection duty is founded on love4 ,on  
this account it becomes typical of the  
perfect morality in all the relations of
 life1 and we express the noblest       
longings of the human heart when we     
speak of a time to come in which all    
mankind will be united as one family4   
,now the preeminence of the ,jews in    
point of domestic purity will hardly be 
disputed4 ,in this respect they stand   
out like a bold promontory in the       
history of the past1 singular and       
unapproached1 said the philosopher      
,trendelenburg499 ,according to the     
provisions of the ,mosaic ,code1 the    
crime of adultery is punished with      
death4 ,the most minute directions are  
given touching the dress of the priests 
and the common people1 in order to check
 the pruriency of fancy4 ,the scale of  

forbidden marriages is widely extended  
with the same end in view4       99     
,vide the essay on the ,origin of       
,monotheism in ,jahrbuch des            
,vereins fur ,wissenschaftliche         
,padagogik1 ,vol ,,ix4 #ahgg1 by        
the author of this article4  ,almost the
 entire tribe of ,benjamin is extirpated
 to atone for an outrage upon feminine  
virtue committed within its borders4    
,the undutiful son is stoned to death in
 the presence of the whole people4 ,that
 husband and wife shall become as one   
flesh1 is a conception which we find    
only among the ,jews4 ,among them the   
picture of the true housewife which is  
unrolled to us in ,proverbs had its     
original1--the picture of her who unites
 all womanly grace and gentleness1 in   
whose environment dwell comfort and     
beauty1 whose husband and sons rise up  
to praise her4 ,the marriage tie was    
held so sacred that it was freely used  
by the prophets to describe the         
relations between the ,deity and the    

chosen people4 ,jehovah is called the   
husband of the people4 ,israel shall be 
his true and loyal spouse4 ,the children
 of ,israel are his children4 ,the      
worship of false gods was designated by 
the ,hebrew word that signifies conjugal
 infidelity4 ,this feature of ,jewish   
life remained equally prominent in later
 times4 ,in the age of the ,talmud      
marriage was called ,hillula1--a song of
 praise6 ,the most holy day of the year1
 the tenth of the seventh month1 a day  
of fasting and the atonement of sins1   
was deemed a proper occasion to collect 
the young people for the purpose of     
choosing husbands and wives4 ,on that   
day the maidens of ,jerusalem1 arrayed  
in pure white1 went out into the        
vineyards that covered the slopes of the
 neighboring hills1 dancing as they     
went1 and singing as the bands of youth 
came up to meet them from the valleys4  
,youth1 raise now thine eyes1 sang the  
beautiful among them1 and regard her    
whom thou choosest4 ,look not to beauty1

 sang the well-born1 but rather to      
ancient lineage and high descent4       
,lastly1 those who were neither         
beautiful nor well born took up the     
strain1 and thus they sang3 ,treacherous
 is grace1 and beauty deceitful2 the    
woman that fears ,god alone shall be    
praised4 ,the appropriateness of such   
proceedings on the ,atonement day was   
justified by the remark that marriage is
 itself an act of spiritual             
purification4 ,the high value attached  
to the institution of the family is     
further illustrated by many tender      
legends of the ,talmud which we cannot  
here stop to recount4 ,a separate gate1 
it is said1 was reserved in ,solomon's  
,temple for the use of bridegrooms1     
before which they received the          
felicitations of the assembled people4  
,the marriage celebration was           
essentially a festival of religion4     
,seven days it lasted4 ,the ,talmudic   
law1 usually so unbending in its        
exactions1 relaxed its austerity in     

favor of these auspicious occasions1 and
 recommended to all to rejoice with the 
joyful4 ,on the ,sabbath of the         
marriage-week1 the young husband was    
received with peculiar honors in the    
synagogue1 and the liturgy of the       
mediaeval ,jews is crowded with hymns   
composed in honor of these solemn       
receptions4 ,if a whole congregation    
thus united to magnify and sanctify the 
erection of a new home1 the continued   
preservation of its sanctity might      
safely be left to the jealous           
watchfulness of its inmates4 ,cases of  
sensual excess or of unfilial conduct   
have been extremely infrequent among the
 ,jews1 down to modern times4 ,however  
mean the outward appearance of their    
homes might be1 the moral atmosphere    
that pervaded them was rarely           
contaminated4 ,if the question be asked1
 how it came about that so feeble a     
people could resist the malevolence of  
its foes2 that a nation1 deprived of any
 visible rallying-point1 with no        

political or religious centre to cement 
their union1 had not long since been    
wiped out from the earth's surface1 we  
answer that the hearth was their        
rallying-point and the centre of their  
union4 ,there the scattered atoms gained
 consistency sufficient to withstand the
 pressure of the world4 ,thither they   
could come to recreate their torn and   
lacerated spirits4 ,there was the       
well-spring of their power4     ,,the   
,,schools4  ,if the ,jewish people were 
preserved in moral vigor by the         
influence of their domestic life1 the   
care they bestowed on the education of  
the young kept them intellectually      
fresh4 ,schools were erected in every   
town and country district4 ,it was      
forbidden a ,jew to reside in cities    
where no provision had been made for the
 instruction of children4 ,teachers were
 called the guardians of cities4 ,the   
destruction of ,jerusalem was attributed
 to the fact that the schools had been  
suffered to fall into neglect4          

,synagogues were often used for purposes
 of primary instruction4 ,a sage is     
greater than a prophet1 said the        
proverb4 ,to increase in knowledge1 at  
least in a certain kind of knowledge1   
was a part of the ,jew's religion4      
,according to the theory of the ,rabbies
 the revelation of ,god to man is fully 
embodied in the books of the ,old       
,testament1 especially in the books of  
the ,pentateuch1 commonly called the    
,tora1--the ,law4 ,they contain1 either 
by direct statement or by implication1  
whatever it is necessary for men to     
know4 ,they anticipate all future       
legislation4 ,though apparently scanty  
in substance1 they are replete with     
suggestions of profound and             
inexhaustible wisdom4 ,to penetrate the 
hidden meanings of the ,law became1 on  
this account1 the primary obligation of 
the devout2 and ignorance was not only  
despised on its own account1 but was1 in
 addition1 branded as a sign of         
deficient piety4 ,the ordinances of the 

,jewish sages are all ostensibly deduced
 from the words of the ,sacred ,law4    
,without such sanction no enactment of  
any later lawgiver1 however salutary in 
itself1 could aspire to general         
recognition4 ,the civil and criminal    
law1 the principles of science1 sanitary
 and police regulations1 even the rules 
of courtesy and decorum1 are alike      
rested on scriptural authority4 ,the    
entire ,talmud may be roughly described 
as an extended commentary on the ,mosaic
 ,law499 ,the authors of the ,talmud led
 a studious life1 and relied in great   
measure upon the habit of study to      
preserve the vitality of their faith4   
,among the sayings of the sages9999 we  
read such as these4 ,jose ben ,joeser   
says3 ,let thy house be the resort of   
the wise1 and let the dust of their feet
 cover thee1 and drink in thirstily     
their words4 ,joshua ben ,perachia says3
 ,get thee an instructor1 gain a        
companion for thy studies1 and judge all
 men upon the presumption of their      

innocence4 ,hillel says3 ,who gains not 
in knowledge loses4444 ,say not1 ',when 
,i am at leisure ,i will study'2 't is  
likely thou wilt never be at leisure4444
 ,he who increases flesh increases      
corruption2 he who increases worldly    
goods increases care2 he who increases  
servants increases theft2 but he who    
increases in the knowledge of the ,law  
increases life4 ,jochanan ben ,sakkai   
says3 ,if thou art wise in the knowledge
 of the ,law1 take not credit to        
thyself1 for to this end wast thou      
created4       99 ,for a concise but    
comprehensive account of the origin of  
the ,talmud1 vide the art4 ,talmud in   
,johnson's ,encyclopaedia4       9999   
,collected in the ,tract ,aboth         
7,fathers74  ,after the destruction of  
the ,temple by ,titus1 academies sacred 
to the study of the ,law were erected in
 different cities of ,palestine1 and    
similar institutions flourished on the  
banks of the ,euphrates4 ,in the        
eleventh century the chief seats of     

,jewish learning were transplanted to   
the ,west2 and since that time the      
,european ,jews have excelled their     
brethren of the ,east in all the        
elements of mental culture4 ,in the     
course of their manifold wanderings the 
,jews carried their libraries everywhere
 with them4 ,wherever a synagogue arose1
 a school for young children and a high 
school for youths were connected with   
it4 ,in the dark night of the ghetto the
 flame of knowledge was never quenched4 
,while the nations of ,europe were still
 sunk in barbarism the ,jews zealously  
devoted themselves to the pursuit of    
medicine1 mathematics1 and dialectics1  
and the love of learning became an      
hereditary quality in their midst4 ,the 
efforts of many generations have        
contributed to keep their intellectual  
faculties bright2 and1 unlike most      
oppressed races1 they have emerged from 
a long epoch of systematic persecution  
well fitted to attack the problems of   
the present with fresh interest and     

undiminished capacity4     ,,the        
,,democratic ,,organization ,,of ,,the  
,,synagogue4  ,the spirit of monotheism 
is essentially democratic both in       
politics and religion4 ,there is to be  
but one king1 and he the spiritual ,lord
 in heaven4 ,all the people are equal   
before him4 ,when the ,hebrews          
clamorously demanded a king the prophet 
charged them with treason against their 
proper ruler4 ,the prophet and priest   
were hostile powers2 and their          
antagonism was clearly felt1 and        
sometimes energetically expressed4 ,the 
,lord takes no delight in the slaughter 
of animals4 ,the bloody sacrifices are  
an offence to ,him4 ,what ,he requires  
is purity of heart1 righteous judgment1 
and care for the widow and the          
fatherless4 ,the idea of priestly       
mediation--of mediation in any          
shape--was repugnant to the ,jews4 ,the 
whole people are priests1 it was said4  
,when the sanctuary at ,jerusalem had   
been laid in ashes1 anything resembling 

a hierarchical caste was no longer      
tolerated among them4 ,the ,law and the 
,science of the ,law were open to all2  
and each one was expected1 according to 
the measure of his capacity1 to draw    
directly from the fountain-head of      
faith4 ,the autonomy of the             
congregations was strictly guarded4     
,entire uniformity in the ritual was    
never achieved499 ,the public lector of 
prayers was called the delegate of the  
congregation4 ,the ,rabbies 7the word   
means ,masters1 in the sense of         
teachers7 were men distinguished for    
superior erudition and the blamelessness
 of their lives1 and these qualities    
formed their only title to              
distinction49999 ,their duties differed 
radically from those of the ,catholic   
priest or the ,protestant clergyman4    
,they never took upon themselves the    
care of souls4 ,their office was to     
instruct the young1 and in general to   
regulate the practice of religion       
according to the principles and         

precedents laid down in the sacred      
traditions of their people4 ,the several
 congregations were independent of each 
other4 ,there were no general synods or 
councils1 no graded hierarchy           
culminating in a spiritual head1 no     
oligarchy of ministers and elders2 but  
rather a federation of small            
communities1 each being a sovereign     
unit1 and connected with the others     
solely by the ties of a common faith1   
common sympathies1 and common           
sufferings4 ,any ten men were competent 
to form themselves into a congregation1 
and to discharge all the duties of      
religion4 ,the fact that this was so    
proved of the utmost consequence in     
preserving the integrity of ,judaism4   
,the ,jews were parcelled out over the  
whole earth4 ,the body of the people was
 again and again divided4 ,but in every 
case the barest handful that remained   
sufficed to become the nucleus of new   
organizations4 ,had the system of       
,judaism required any one central organ1

 a blow aimed against this would        
doubtless have proved fatal to the      
whole4 ,but by the wise provisions of   
the federative system the vital power   
seems to have been equally disseminated 
over the entire community4 ,like the    
worm that is trodden under foot1 to     
which ,israel so often likens itself in 
the ,hebrew prayers1 the divided members
 lived a new life of their own1 and     
though apparently crushed beneath the   
heel of their oppressors1 they ever rose
 again in indestructible vitality4      
99 ,vide ,zunz ,die ,ritus4       9999  
,many of them supported themselves by   
following some      humble calling1     
refusing to receive remuneration for    
their      teachings1 on the principle  
that the ,law should not be made      a 
spade to dig with4     ,,the ,,influence
 ,,of ,,persecution4  ,in surveying the 
history of the ,jewish people we find a 
strange blending of nationalism and     
cosmopolitism illustrated in their      
actions and beliefs4 ,they proudly      

styled themselves the elect people of   
,god1 they looked down with a certain   
contempt upon the ,gentile nations1 yet 
they conceived themselves chosen1 not on
 their own account1 but for the world's 
sake1 in order to spread the knowledge  
of the true ,god among men4 ,they       
repudiated heathenism1 and regarded     
,trinitarianism as an aberration4 ,in   
contradistinction to these their mission
 was to protect the purity of the       
monotheistic religion until in the      
millennial age all nations would gather 
about their holy ,mount4 ,they          
considered their own continued existence
 as a people foreordained in the ,divine
 scheme199 because they believed        
themselves divinely commissioned to     
bring about the eternal happiness of the
 human race4 ,the centripetal and       
centrifugal forces of character were    
thus evenly balanced1 and this          
circumstance contributed not a little to
 enliven their courage in the face of   
long-continued adversity4 ,when the     

independence of ,greece was lost1 the   
,greeks ceased to exist as a nation4    
,but the loss of the ,temple and the    
fatherland gave barely more than a      
passing shock to the national           
consciousness of the ,jews4 ,easily they
 acclimatized themselves in every       
quarter of the globe4 ,the fact of their
 dispersion was cited by ,christianity  
as a sign of their rejection by ,god4   
,they themselves regarded it as a part  
of their mission to be scattered as seed
 over the whole earth4 ,that they should
 suffer was necessary1 they being the   
,messianic people6 ,their prayers were  
filled with lamentations and the recital
 of their cruel woes4 ,but they         
invariably ended with words of promise  
and confidence in the ultimate          
fulfillment of ,israel's hope4 ,thus in 
the very depths of their degradation    
they were supported by a sense of the   
grandeur of their destinies1 and by the 
proud consciousness that their          
sufferings were the price paid for the  

world's spiritual redemption4       99  
,let it not seem strange to you that we 
should regain our      former condition1
 even though only a single one of us    
were      left1 as it is written1 ',fear
 not1 thou worm1 ,jacob6'--,juda        
,,ha-,levi1 in the book ,cusari 7twelfth
 century71 iii4 ii4  ,in the earlier    
half of the ,middle ,ages the ,jews were
 still permitted to enjoy a certain     
measure of liberty4 ,in ,spain1 ,france 
and ,germany they lived on amicable     
terms with their neighbors1 they engaged
 in trade and manufacture1 and were     
allowed to possess landed property4 ,in 
the tenth and eleventh centuries a great
 part of the city of ,paris was owned by
 ,jews4 ,but at the time of the         
,crusades a terrible change in the      
aspect of their affairs took place4 ,the
 principles embodied in the canonical   
law had by this time entered into the   
practice of the ,european nations4      
,fanaticism was rampant4 ,the banks of  
the ,rhine and the ,moselle became the  

theatre of the most pitiless            
persecution4 ,among the ,crusaders the  
cry was raised1 ,we go to ,palestine to 
slay the unbelievers2 why not begin with
 the infidel ,jews in our own midst8    
,worms1 ,spires1 ,mayence1 ,strassburg1 
,basle1 ,regens-burg1 ,breslau1         
witnessed the slaughter of their ,jewish
 inhabitants4 ,toward the close of the  
thirteenth century one hundred thousand 
,jews perished at the hands of          
,rindfleisch1 and the murderous hordes  
of whom he was the leader4 ,to add fuel 
to the passions of the populace the most
 absurd accusations were brought forward
 against them1 and their religion was   
made odious by connecting it with       
charges of grave moral obliquity4       
,jewish physicians being in great       
request1 especially at the court of     
kings1 it was given out that with       
fiendish malice they were wont to       
procure the death of their ,christian   
patients499 ,they were accused of       
killing ,christian children1 and using  

the blood of ,christians in celebrating 
the ,passover festival1 and this        
monstrous falsehood was repeated until  
no one doubted its substantial truth4   
,let it be remembered that this charge  
was originally preferred1 in a somewhat 
different shape1 against the ,christians
 themselves4 ,it floated down1 as such  
rumors will1 from age to age1 until1 its
 authorship being forgotten1 it was     
finally used as a convenient handle     
against the hated ,jews4 ,in this manner
 the ,easter-tide which was to announce 
the triumph of a religion of love became
 to the ,jews a season of terror and    
mortal agony1 and the ,easter dawn was  
often reddened with the flames that rose
 from ,jewish homes4       99 ,thus in  
the case of ,charles the ,bald1 and     
others4  ,it is impossible to calculate 
the number of lives that have been lost 
in consequence of this single           
accusation4 ,it has lived on even into  
the present century499 ,in the          
fourteenth century the ,black ,death    

devastated the ,continent of ,europe4   
,soon the opinion gained ground that the
 ,jews were responsible for the ravages 
of the plague4 ,it was claimed that the 
,rabbi of ,toledo had sent out a        
venomous mixture concocted of           
consecrated wafers and the blood of     
,christian hearts to the various        
congregations1 with orders to poison the
 wells4 ,the ,pope himself undertook to 
plead for their innocency1 but even     
papal bulls were powerless to stay the  
popular madness4 ,in ,dekkendorf a      
church was built in honor of the        
massacre of the ,jews of that town1 and 
the spot thus consecrated has remained a
 favorite resort of pilgrims down to    
modern times4 ,the preaching friars of  
the ,franciscan and ,dominican orders   
were particularly active in fanning the 
embers of bigotry whenever they         
threatened to die down4 ,in ,england1   
,france and ,spain the horrors enacted  
in ,germany were repeated on a scale of 
similar magnitude4 ,the tragic fate of  

the ,jews of ,york1 the fury of the     
,pastoureaux1 the miserable scenes that 
accompanied the exodus of the ,jews from
 ,spain are familiar facts of history4  
,in ,poland1 in the seventeenth century1
 the uprising of the ,cossacks under the
 chieftainship of ,chmielnicki became   
once more the signal of destruction4 ,it
 is estimated that in ten years         
7#afdh-afeh7 upwards of two hundred and 
fifty thousand ,jews perished49999 ,even
 when the lives of the ,jews were       
spared1 their condition was so extremely
 wretched that death might often have   
seemed the preferable alternative4      
99  ,in the year #ahdj it was           
simultaneously renewed in ,rhenish      
,prussia1 on the ,isle of ,rhodos1 and  
in the city of ,damascus4      ,in that 
city the most respected members of the  
,jewish      community were arrested1   
with the assistance of the ,french      
,consul1 ,ratti ,menton1 and underwent  
cruel torture4 ,the      intense        
excitement caused throughout ,europe at 

the time is1      doubtless1 still fresh
 in the memory of many who will read    
these pages4 ,the utter falsity of the  
charge was at last      exposed1 thanks 
to the efforts of the ,austrian ,consul 
,merlato and the energetic action of    
,lord ,palmerston4       9999  ,graetz1 
,gesch4 der ,juden1 ,x4 p4 #gh4  ,the   
theory propounded by the ,church and    
acted out by the temporal rulers of the 
,middle ,ages is expressed in the words 
of ,innocent ,,iii41 ,quos propria culpa
 submisit perpetuae servituti1 quum     
,dominum crucifixerint--pietas          
,christiana receptet et sus-tineat      
cohabitationem illorum499  ,by the      
crucifixion of ,jesus the ,jews had     
forfeited for themselves and their      
posterity the right to exist in         
,christian states4 ,they lived on       
sufferance merely4 ,in the feudal system
 there was no room for them4 ,they were 
aliens1 were regarded as the property of
 the ,emperor1 and he was free to deal  
with them as suited his convenience4    

,hence the name servi camera--servants  
of the imperial chamber--was applied to 
them4 ,they could be sold1 purchased1   
given away at pleasure4 ,charles ,,iv4  
presented the persons and property of   
his ,jews to the city of ,worms4 ,in a  
schedule of toll-dues dating from the   
year #acih we read3 a horse pays two    
shillings1 a ,jew six shillings1 an ox  
two heller49999 ,they were compelled to 
wear a badge of shame upon their        
garments2999999 were confined to narrow 
and filthy quarters1---ghetto1          
juderia1--debarred from all honorable   
employments4 ,the schools and           
universities were closed against them4  
,the guilds shut them out from the      
various trades4 ,to gain the means of   
subsistence nothing remained for them   
but to engage in the petty traffic of   
the peddler or the disreputable business
 of the money-lender4 ,they had         
absolutely no choice in the matter4 ,the
 laws of ,moses certainly discountenance
 the lending of money at interest4 ,the 

authorities of the ,talmud severely     
condemn the practice of usury1 and      
refuse to admit the testimony of usurers
 in courts of law499999999       99     
,cassel1 art4 ,juden1 p4 #hc1 in ,ersch 
und ,gruber2 vide also      p4 #he1 ad  
perpetuam ,judaici sceleris ultionem    
eisdem      ,judaeis induxerit perpetuam
 servitutem4       9999 ,ibid1 p4 #ia   
999999 ,the signum circulate was        
borrowed from ,islam4 ,it has      been 
ingeniously conjectured that the        
circular form was      selected in      
contradistinction to the sign of the    
crescent4      ,ibid1 p4 #ge4           
99999999 ,mishna ,sanhedrin1 ,,iii4 #c4 
,but all scruples on the part of the    
,jews had now to be set aside4 ,gold    
they must have1 and in abundance4 ,it   
was the only means of buying their      
peace4 ,the taxes levied by the imperial
 chamber were enormous499 ,the cities1  
the baronial lords1 in whose territory  
they took refuge1 constantly imposed new
 burdens as the price of toleration4    

,the ,jews have often been held up to   
contempt for their avarice and rapacity4
 ,the reproach is unjust4 ,it reminds   
one of the ancient ,philistines1 who1   
having shorn the ,hebrew of his strength
 and blinded him1 called him with jeers 
from his prison-house to exhibit him to 
the popular gaze and to make sport of   
his infirmity4  ,under these            
circumstances the conservatism of the   
,jews in matters of religion can no     
longer astonish us4 ,rejected by the    
world1 they lived in a world of their   
own4 ,they had inherited from their     
ancestors an extended code of ceremonial
 observances1 dietary laws1 and minute  
and manifold directions for the conduct 
of life4 ,in these they beheld the      
bulwark of their religion1 the common   
bond that united the scattered members  
of their race4 ,the ,jew of ,persia or  
,palestine could come among his ,german 
brethren1 and hear the same prayers     
expressed in the same language1 and     
recognize the same customs as were      

current among his co-religionists in the
 ,east4 ,the passwords of the faith were
 everywhere understood4 ,to preserve    
complete unanimity with respect to      
religious usage was a measure dictated  
by the commanding instinct of           
self-preservation4 ,the ,jews of all    
countries were furthermore united by the
 common yearnings with which they looked
 back to the past1 and their common hope
 of ultimate restoration to the heritage
 of the promised land49999       99 ,a  
general tax paid in recognition of the  
,emperor's      protection2 the ,temple 
tax claimed by the ,holy ,roman         
,emperor in his capacity as the         
successor of ,vespasian2 the            
so-called aurum coronarium1 or          
coronation tax1 by virtue      of which 
every new emperor1 upon his accession to
 the      throne1 could confiscate the  
third part of the property of      the  
,jews4    ,besides these1 extraordinary 
levies were      frequent4       9999   
,on the eve of the #ith of the fifth    

month it was customary      at          
,jerusalem to announce the number of    
years that had      elapsed since the   
fall of the ,temple4   ,zunz1 ,die      
,ritus1 p4      #hd4  ,however prolonged
 their abode in the land of the stranger
 might be1 they never regarded it       
otherwise than in the light of a        
temporary sojourn1 and ,palestine       
remained their true fatherland1 ,if ,i  
forget thee1 ,jerusalem1 wither my right
 hand1 was sung as plaintively on the   
banks of the ,danube and the ,rhine as  
it had resounded of old by ,babel's     
streams4 ,the ,jewish people walked     
through history as in a dream1 their    
eyes fixed on ,zion's vanished glories4 
,empires fell2 wars devastated the      
earth2 new manners1 new modes of life1  
arose around them4 ,what was all this   
toil and turmoil of the nations to them6
 ,they were not admitted to the         
fellowship of mankind1 they preserved   
their iron stability1 they alone        
remained changeless4 ,so long as the    

world maintained its hostile attitude   
toward them1 there was little likelihood
 that they would abandon their          
time-honored traditions4 ,but toward the
 close of the last century the first    
tokens of political1 social1 and        
spiritual regeneration began to appear  
among the despondent people of the      
,hebrews4 ,the spirit of the            
,reformation1 which had slumbered so    
long1 awoke to new vitality4 ,the voice 
of love rebuked the selfishness of      
creeds2 ,philosophy in the person of    
,kant emphasized the duties of man to   
man2 ,poetry sent its warm breath       
through the ,german land1 and with its  
sweet strains instilled broad1          
humanitarian doctrine into the hearts of
 men4 ,lessing celebrated the virtues of
 his friend1 ,moses ,mendelssohn1 in    
,nathan the ,wise1 and in the parable of
 the rings showed how the true religion 
is to be sought and found4 ,the ,royal  
,academy at ,berlin nominated the same  
,mendelssohn for membership in its body4

 ,jewish scholars were received with    
distinction in the ,austrian and        
,prussian capitals4 ,eminent statesmen  
and writers began to exert themselves to
 remove the foul blot that had so long  
stained the conduct of the ,christian   
states in their dealings with the ,jews4
 ,in ,france the great ,revolution was  
rapidly sweeping away the accumulated   
wrongs of centuries4 ,when the          
emancipation of the ,jews came up for   
discussion in the ,convention1 the      
ablest speakers rose in their behalf4   
,the ,abbe ,gregoire exclaimed3 ,a new  
century is about to open4 ,may its      
portals be wreathed with the palm of    
humanity6 ,mirabeau lent his mighty     
eloquence to their cause4 ,i will not   
speak of tolerance1 he said2 the freedom
 of conscience is a right so sacred that
 even the name of tolerance involves a  
species of tyranny499       99,vide the 
account of the debates in the official  
,moniteur4  ,on the #bhth ,september1   
#agia1 the ,national ,convention decreed

 the equality of the ,israelites of     
,france with their ,christian           
fellow-citizens4 ,the waves of the      
,revolution1 however1 overflowed the    
borders of ,france1 and the agitation   
they caused was quickly communicated to 
all ,germany4 ,wherever the armies of   
the ,republic penetrated1 the gates of  
the ghettos were thrown open1 and in the
 name of ,fraternity1 ,liberty and      
,equality were announced to their       
inhabitants4 ,when ,napoleonic misrule  
at last exasperated ,germany into       
resistance1 the seeds which ,french     
influence had sown had already taken    
firm root in the ,german soil4 ,on the  
#aath ,march1 #ahab1 ,frederick ,william
 ,,iii4 issued his famous edict1        
removing the main disabilities from     
which the ,jews of his dominions had    
suffered1 granting them the rights and  
imposing upon them the honorable duties 
of citizenship4 ,they were no longer to 
be classed as foreigners4 ,the state    
claimed them as its children1 and       

exacted of them the same sacrifices as  
all its sons were called upon to bring  
in the troublous times that soon        
followed4 ,with what eager alacrity the 
,jews responded to the king's call the  
records of the ,german wars for         
independence amply testify4 ,on the     
battlefields of ,leipzig and ,waterloo  
they stood side by side with their      
,christian brethren4 ,many sons and     
fathers of ,jewish households yielded   
their lives in the country's defence4   
,in the blood of the fallen the new     
covenant of equal justice was sealed for
 all time to come4 ,however prejudice   
might still dog their footsteps1 however
 shamefully the government might violate
 its solemn pledges to the ,jewish      
soldiers on their return from the wars1 
the ,jews of ,germany had now gained    
what they could no more lose4 ,they felt
 that the land for which they had       
adventured their all1 in whose behalf   
they had lost so much1 was indeed their 
fatherland4 ,for the first time1 after  

many1 many centuries1 the fugitives had 
gained a home1 a country4 ,they awoke as
 from a long sleep4 ,they found the     
world greatly changed around them2 vast 
problems engaging the attention of      
thinkers1 science and philosophy        
everywhere shedding new light upon the  
path of mankind4 ,they were eager to    
approve themselves worthy and loyal     
citizens1 eager to join in the general  
work of progress4 ,they dwelt no more   
with anxious preference on the past4    
,the present and the future demanded    
their exertions1 and the motives that   
had so long compelled their exclusion   
from the fellowship of the ,gentiles    
were gradually disappearing4 ,as their  
religion was mainly retrospective in    
character and exclusive in tendency1    
great changes were needed to bring it   
into harmony with the altered condition 
of affairs4 ,these changes were         
accordingly attempted1 and their history
 is the history of ,jewish ,reform4     
,,iii4 ,,reformed ,,judaism4  ,reformed 

,judaism originated in ,germany2 its    
leading representatives have invariably 
been ,germans4 ,the history of ,germany 
during the past one hundred years is the
 background upon which our account of   
the movement must be projected4  ,the   
,jews of ,germany had waited long and   
patiently for deliverance4 ,at last1    
toward the close of the eighteenth      
century it came1 and one whom they      
delight to call their ,second ,moses    
arose to lead them into the promised    
land of freedom4 ,this was ,moses       
,mendelssohn4 ,his distinguished merits 
as a writer on philosophy and aesthetics
 we need not here pause to dilate upon1 
but shall proceed at once to consider   
him in his relations to the political1  
social1 and religious emancipation of   
his people4 ,in each of these different 
directions his example and influence    
upon others served to initiate a series 
of salutary changes1 and he may thus    
appropriately be termed the father of   
the ,reform movement in its widest      

acceptation4 ,it was ,mendelssohn who1  
in #agha1 inspired ,christian ,wilhelm  
,dohm to publish his book ,on the ,civil
 ,amelioration of the ,jews1 a work in  
which an earnest plea for their         
enfranchisement was for the first time  
put forth4 ,the author points to the    
thrift and frugality that mark the      
,jewish race1 their temperate habits and
 love of peace1 and exposes the folly of
 debarring so valuable a class of the   
population from the rights of the       
citizen4 ,he appeals to the wisdom of   
the government to redeem the errors and 
injustice of the past2 he defends the   
,jews against the absurd charges which  
were still repeated to their discredit1 
and strenuously insists that liberty and
 humane treatment would not only accrue 
to their own advantage1 but would       
ultimately redound to the honor and     
lasting welfare of the state4 ,dohm's   
book created a profound impression1 and 
though it failed to produce immediate   
results1 materially aided the cause of  

emancipation at a later period4  ,again 
,mendelssohn was the first to break     
through the social restraints that      
obstructed the intercourse of ,jews and 
,christians1 and thus triumphed over a  
form of prejudice which is commonly the 
last to yield4 ,his fame as a writer    
greatly assisted him in this respect4   
,the grace and freshness of his style1  
the apparent ease with which he divested
 the stern problems of philosophy of    
their harsher aspects1 had won him many 
and sincere admirers4 ,his ,phaedon was 
eagerly read by thousands1 whom the     
writings of ,leibnitz and ,kant had     
repelled4 ,on the afternoon of the      
,jewish ,sabbath he was accustomed to   
assemble many of the choice spirits of  
the ,prussian capital1 among whom we may
 mention ,lessing1 ,nikolai1 and ,gleim1
 in his home4 ,the conversation turned  
upon the gravest and loftiest topics    
that can occupy the human soul4 ,the    
host himself skilfully guided the stream
 of discussion1 and the waves of thought

 flowed easily along in that placid1    
restful motion which is adapted to      
speculative themes4 ,the spirit that of 
old had hallowed the shades of ,academe 
presided over these gatherings4         
,mendelssohn emulated the plastic       
idealism of ,plato and the divine       
hilarity of ,socrates4 ,the singular    
modesty1 the truthfulness and quiet     
dignity that adorned his character were 
reflected upon the people from whom he  
had sprung1 and produced a salutary     
change in their favor in the sentiments 
of the better classes4  ,but it is as   
the author of a profound revolution in  
the ,jewish religion1 that ,mendelssohn 
attracts our especial interest4 ,not1   
indeed1 that he himself ever assumed the
 character of a religious reformer4 ,he 
was1 on the contrary1 sincerely devoted 
to the orthodox form of ,judaism1 and   
even had a change appeared to him       
feasible or desirable1 he would in all  
probability have declined the           
responsibility of publicly advocating   

it4 ,his was the contemplative spirit   
which instinctively shrinks from the    
rude contact of reality4 ,he had neither
 the aggressive temper nor the bold     
self-confidence that stamp the leader of
 parties4 ,and yet1 without intending   
it1 he gave the first impulse to ,jewish
 ,reform1 whose subsequent progress1    
could he have foreseen it1 he would     
assuredly have been the first to        
deprecate4     ,,the ,,bible4  ,the     
condition of the ,jews at the close of  
the last century was in many respects   
unlike that of any other race that has  
ever been led from a state of subjection
 to one of acknowledged equality4 ,long 
oppression had not1 on the whole1 either
 blunted their intellects or debased    
their morals4 ,if they were ignorant in 
modern science and literature1 they were
 deeply versed in their own ancient     
literature1 and this species of learning
 was not the privilege of a single      
class1 but the common property of the   
whole people4 ,what they lacked was     

system4 ,in the rambling debates of the 
,talmud the true principles of logical  
sequence are but too often slighted1 and
 the student is encouraged to value the 
subtle play of dialectics on its own    
account1 without regard to any ultimate 
gain in positive and useful knowledge4  
,impatience of orderly arrangement being
 allowed to develop into a habit1 became
 contagious4 ,it impressed itself       
equally on the thought1 the manners1 the
 language99 of the ,jews1 and           
contributed not a little to alienate    
from them the sympathies of the refined4
 ,such1 however1 was the preponderating 
influence of the ,talmud that it not    
only engrossed the attention of the     
,jewish youth to the exclusion of       
secular knowledge1 but even perverted   
the exegesis of the ,bible and caused   
the study of ,scripture to be           
comparatively neglected4       99 ,the  
,german ,jews spoke a mixed dialect of  
,german and      ,hebrew1 which has been
 likened to the so-called ,pennsylvania 

,dutch4  ,to weaken the controlling     
influence of the ,talmud became the     
first needful measure of ,reform1 and to
 accomplish this it was necessary to    
give back to the ,bible its proper place
 in the education of the young4 ,it was 
an event1 therefore1 of no mean         
significance when ,mendelssohn1 in      
conjunction with a few friends1         
determined to prepare a ,german         
translation of the ,pentateuch1 and     
thus1 by presenting the teachings of    
,scripture in the garb of a modern      
tongue1 to render their true meaning    
apparent to every reflecting mind4 ,the 
work was finished in #aghc4 ,it holds a 
like relation to the ,jewish ,reform    
movement that ,luther's translation held
 to the great ,protestant movement of   
the sixteenth century4 ,it was greeted  
with a storm of abuse upon its          
appearance1 and was loudly execrated by 
the orthodox as the beginning of larger 
and far-reaching innovations4 ,its      
author might sincerely protest his      

entire innocency of the radical designs 
imputed to him1 but subsequent events   
have proved the keener insight of his   
opponents4 ,the influence of the new    
translation was twofold4 ,in the first  
place it facilitated a more correct     
understanding of the doctrine1 the      
literature and language of ,scripture2  
secondly1--and this is worthy of special
 remark1--it served the purpose of a    
text-book of the ,german for the great  
mass of the ,jews1 who were at that time
 unable to read a book written in the   
vernacular1 and thus became the means of
 opening to them the treasure-house of  
modern thought499       99 ,the  ,german
  of  ,mendelssohn's   translation was  
written      in ,hebrew letters4  ,in   
the very year in which ,mendelssohn's   
work appeared we notice among the       
younger generation a general revival of 
interest in the ,hebrew1 the            
mother-tongue of their race4 ,two       
students of the ,university of          
,konigsberg began the issue of a        

periodical devoted to the culture of the
 ,hebrew1 which was widely read and     
attracted great attention4 ,poems1      
original essays1 ,hebrew versions of    
modern writings1 appeared in its        
columns2 the style of the ,prophets and 
of the ,psalmists was emulated1 the     
works of the ancient masters of the     
language served as models1 and in the   
aspect of the noble forms employed in   
the diction of the biblical authors the 
aesthetic sense of the modern ,jews     
revived4 ,we are inclined to doubt      
whether the ,hebrew ,bible1 considered  
merely with a view to its aesthetic     
value1 is even yet fully appreciated4   
,the extravagance of religious credulity
 and the violent extreme of scepticism  
have alike tended to obscure its proper 
merits4 ,the one accustomed to behold in
 the holy book a message from the       
,creator to his creatures shrinks1 as a 
rule1 from applying to the work of a    
,divine author the critical standard of 
human composition4 ,the sceptics on the 

other hand1 impatient of the exorbitant 
claims which are urged for the sacred   
writings of the ,jews1 and resenting the
 sway which they still exercise over the
 human reason1 are hardly in a proper   
frame of mind to estimate justly its    
intrinsic and imperishable excellences4 
,and yet1 setting aside all questions of
 the supernatural origin of the ,bible1 
and regarding only the style in which   
its thoughts are conveyed1 how          
incomparably valuable does it still     
remain6 ,it would be difficult to       
calculate the extent to which many of   
our standard authors are indebted for   
the grandest passages of their works to 
their early familiarity with the        
biblical style4 ,those who are able to  
read the text in the original become    
aware of even subtler beauties that     
escape in the process of translation4   
,purity of diction1 power of striking   
antithesis1 simple and yet sublime      
imagery1 a marvellous facility in the   
expression of complex states of feeling1

 and those the deepest of which the     
human soul is capable1 are but a few of 
the obvious features that distinguish   
the golden age of ,hebrew literature4   
,never perhaps has the symbolism of     
nature been used with such supreme      
effect to express the unspeakable       
emotions that are deep down in the heart
 of man4 ,such music as that which      
swells through the pages of ,isaiah's   
prophecies cannot be forgotten2 such    
ringing1 rhythmic periods1 in which the 
eloquence of conviction bursts forth    
into the rounded fulness of perfect     
oratory1 can never fail to touch and to 
inspire4 ,we know of no nobler pattern  
on which the modern orator could mould  
his style4 ,and thus1 too1 the exquisite
 poetry of the ,song of ,songs1 the idyl
 of the ,book of ,ruth1 the weird pathos
 of ,jeremiah's lament1 the grand       
descriptions of ,job1 will ever be      
counted among the masterpieces of human 
genius4 ,whatever we may think of the   
doctrines of the ,bible1 it is safe to  

predict that the book will live long    
after the myths that surround its origin
 shall have been dispelled2 nay1 all the
 more1 when it shall cease to be        
worshipped as a fetish will men         
appreciate its abiding claims to their  
reverence1 and it will continue to hold 
its honored place in the libraries of   
the nations4 ,the refining influence of 
the study of the ,bible soon became     
evident among the contemporaries of     
,mendelssohn4 ,but in another way also  
his translation tended to their         
improvement4 ,we have said that it      
became the means of acquainting them    
with the language of the land4 ,a wide  
field of knowledge1 embracing the rich  
results of modern science1 philosophy1  
and art1 was thus laid open to their    
industry4 ,eagerly they availed         
themselves of the proffered opportunity2
 schools were erected1 in which the     
elements of liberal culture were        
imparted to the young1 and ere long we  
find a new generation of the ,jews      

engaging in honorable competition with  
their ,christian brethren for the prize 
of learning and the rewards of literary 
distinction4 ,it was at this time that  
,kant's ,critique of ,pure ,reason      
appeared1 a work which marks a new epoch
 in the world's thought4 ,its profound  
reasoning and technical style made it   
difficult of comprehension to all but   
the initiated4 ,three ,jewish           
scholars--,dr4 ,herz1 ,salomon ,maimon1 
and ,ben-,david--undertook the task of  
popularizing its main results1 and were 
among the first to call attention to the
 transcendent importance of the new     
system4 ,plainly new vital energy was   
coursing through the veins of the       
,jewish people4     ,,social ,,standing4
  ,but at this very time1 while they    
were rapidly assimilating the best      
results of modern culture and winning   
the respect and confidence of the       
learned1 the ,jews of ,germany were     
still laboring under an odious system of
 special laws1 and beheld themselves    

excluded from the common rights of      
citizenship4 ,the manly effort of ,dohm 
in their behalf had as yet availed      
nothing2 the voice of bigotry was still 
supreme in the councils of the          
sovereign4 ,and yet they felt themselves
 to be the equals of those whom the law 
unjustly ranked their superiors1 and    
longed to see the barriers done away    
that still divided them from their      
fellow-men4 ,many of their number had   
amassed fortunes1 and expended their    
wealth with commendable prudence and    
generosity4 ,they supported needy       
students1 founded libraries1 extended   
their knowledge1 and refined their      
tastes4 ,even the ,jewish maidens       
followed the general impulse toward     
self-culture that was setting with such 
force in the ,jewish community4 ,in     
particular the works of ,schiller and   
,goethe1 as they successively appeared  
at this period1 inflamed their          
enthusiasm1 and none were more zealous  
than they in spreading the fame and     

influence of the new school of ,german  
literature4 ,still they were taught to  
consider themselves an inferior class1  
and were despised as such4 ,the position
 of equality which the narrowness of the
 laws denied them they were resolved to 
achieve by the weight ol character and  
the force of spiritual attractions4     
,henrietta de ,lemos1 a young girl of   
singular beauty and attainments1 had at 
this time become the wife of ,dr4 ,herz1
 of whom we have casually spoken above  
in his connection with ,kant4 ,she is   
described as tall1 graceful1 possessing 
a face in which the features of         
,hellenic and ,oriental beauty were     
blended in exquisite harmony2 while the 
sobriquet of the ,tragic ,muse1 by which
 she became known1 denoted the majestic 
nobleness of her presence4 ,under the   
guidance of competent masters she had   
acquired considerable proficiency in    
many of the modern and ancient          
languages1 and to a mind stored with    
various knowledge was added the mellow  

charm of a most sweet and loving        
disposition4 ,attracted by her fame and 
captivated by her genius1 the most      
eminent men of the day sought the       
privilege of her society4 ,the art of   
conversation1 which had till then       
received but little attention in the    
,prussian capital1 was for the first    
time cultivated in the salon of         
,henrietta ,herz4 ,sparkling wit and    
profound philosophy were alike          
encouraged4 ,statesmen high in the      
service of their country sought the     
amenities of these delightful           
gatherings4 ,alexander and ,wilhelm von 
,humboldt1 ,gentz1 ,schleier-macher1    
,friedrich von ,schlegel1 ,mirabeau1    
,dorothea1 the daughter of ,mendelssohn1
 ,rahel1 afterwards wife of ,varnhagen  
von ,ense1 were among the intimates of  
her circle4 ,christians and ,jews met   
here on terms of mutual deference1 and  
forgot for a while the paltry           
distinctions which still kept them      
asunder in the world without4 ,and yet  

these distinctions1 senseless in        
themselves1 were full of ominous meaning
 to those who felt their burden4 ,young 
men eager for advancement in life found 
their religion an insuperable obstacle  
in their way4 ,the professions1 the     
army1 the offices of the government1    
were closed against them4 ,on the       
threshold of every higher career they   
were rudely repulsed1 unless they       
embraced the base alternative of        
changing their creed to satisfy their   
ambition4 ,under these circumstances    
that fidelity to the faith of the       
fathers which had so long marked the    
conduct of the ,jews began seriously to 
waver1 and in many instances gave way4  
,not1 indeed1 that the new converts     
became true and loyal ,christians4 ,on  
the contrary1 they considered the rite  
of baptism a mere hollow form1 and left 
it to the state1 which had insisted upon
 their conformance1 to justify the deep 
disgrace that was thus brought upon the 
,christian sacraments4 ,moreover1 a     

certain laxity in the interpretation of 
dogma had at this time become widely    
prevalent1 which greatly assisted them  
in setting their conscience at ease4    
,rationalism had stripped the positive  
religions of much of their substance and
 individuality4 ,to none of them was an 
absolute value allowed4 ,they were      
regarded as forms in which a principle  
higher than all forms had found an      
imperfect and temporary expression4     
,even the influence of ,schleiermacher  
tended rather to obliterate than to     
define the outlines of the contending   
creeds4 ,schleiermacher1 the author of a
 ,protestant revival in ,germany1 spoke 
the language of ,pantheism1 and his     
opinions are deeply suffused with the   
spirit of ,pantheistic teachings4 ,he   
defines religion to be the sense of     
dependence on the ,infinite1 the        
,universal4 ,to the fact that different 
men in different ages have been         
variously affected by the conception of 
the ,infinite he ascribes the origin of 

the different creeds4 ,theological      
dogmas1 according to him1 cannot claim  
to be true in the sense of scientific or
 philosophical propositions4 ,they      
approach the truth only in so far as    
they typically express certain emotional
 processes of our soul1 and those dogmas
 are nearest the truth which typify     
emotions of the most noble and exalted  
character4 ,allowing ,christianity to be
 what its learned expounders had defined
 it1 intelligent ,jews could hardly find
 it difficult to assume the ,christian  
name4 ,it is estimated that in the      
course of three decades full one half of
 the ,jewish community of ,berlin were  
nominally ,christianized4  ,how         
thoroughly conventional1 at the same    
time1 the use of the term ,christian had
 become may be judged from a letter     
addressed by ,david ,friedlander1 a     
friend of ,mendelssohn's1 to ,councillor
 ,teller of the ,consistory1 in which he
 offered1 on behalf of himself and some 
co-religionists1 to accept ,christianity

 in case they might be permitted to omit
 the observance of the ,christian       
festivals1 to reject the doctrine of the
 ,trinity1 of the divinity of ,jesus1   
and1 in fact1 whatever is commonly      
regarded as essentially and specifically
 ,christian4 ,it is true the reply of   
the ,councillor was not encouraging4    
,,paris1 ,,the ,,new ,,jerusalem4       
,while the very existence of ,judaism   
was thus threatened in ,germany1 it     
seemed about to regain its pristine     
vigor in ,france4 ,more than seventeen  
centuries had elapsed since the         
,sanhedrin1 the ,high ,court of         
,jerusalem1 had passed out of existence4
 ,quite unexpectedly it was recalled to 
momentary life by the caprice of the    
great ,corsican1 who then ruled the     
destinies of the world4 ,in the year    
#ahjf ,napoleon convened a parliament of
 ,jewish ,notables at ,paris in order to
 definitely settle the relations of     
,french ,israelites to the state4 ,soon 
after an imperial decree convoked the   

grand ,sanhedrin for the purpose of     
ratifying the decisions of the          
,notables4 ,the glories of ,jerusalem   
were to be renewed in modern ,babylon on
 the ,seine4 ,on ,february #i1 #ahjg1   
the ,sanhedrin met in the ,hotel de     
,ville4 ,care was taken to invest its   
sittings with due solemnity2 the seats  
of the members were arranged in crescent
 shape about the platform of the        
presiding officers1 as had been         
customary at ,jerusalem2 the president  
was saluted with the title of ,nassi    
7,prince71 as in the olden time2 the    
ancient titles and forms were copied    
with scrupulous exactness4 ,two-thirds  
of the members were ,rabbis1 the        
remainder laymen4 ,the opening of the   
,sanhedrin attracted universal          
attention1 but its proceedings were void
 of interest4 ,in fact1 its sole task   
was to lend the authority of an ancient 
tribunal to the action of the ,notables1
 and this having been accomplished it   
was adjourned after a brief session4 ,in

 connection with these conventions of   
the years #ahjf and #ahjg it behooves us
 to mention the creation of a new       
constitution for the ,french synagogue  
elaborated by the joint efforts of the  
imperial ,commissioners and the         
,notables4 ,the form of government      
adopted was moulded on the pattern of   
the secular power4 ,a system of         
consistories was organized throughout   
,france1 culminating in a central       
consistory at ,paris with a             
,grand-,rabbin at its head4 ,the        
officers of the consistories were       
treated as officers of the state1 the   
charge of their maintenance was in part 
defrayed at the public expense1 and1 in 
the course of time1 they were placed on 
a footing of almost complete equality   
with the dignitaries of the ,christian  
churches4 ,the union of the teachers of 
,judaism in a species of graded         
hierarchy1 dependent upon temporal      
rulers for their support1 was as have   
have been expected1 fruitful of evil    

results4 ,if it is true that the        
supremacy of the church over the state  
disturbs the peace of nations and       
endangers the very existence of         
governments1 it is equally certain that 
no religion can long continue to        
maintain its purity when the church     
becomes the subservient vassal of the   
state4 ,whatever the apparent gain in   
stability may be1 it is more than       
counterbalanced by the loss of          
spontaneity and sincerity4 ,hypocrisy   
flourishes1 the liberty of conscience is
 abridged1 and a spirit of base         
time-serving eventually prepares the    
downfall of institutions whose perfect  
safety is consistent only with perfect  
freedom4  ,the ,french ,synagogue1 as we
 have indicated1 presents a case in     
point4 ,during the past seventy years it
 has stagnated4 ,no single luminous     
thought lights up its dreary record1 no 
single whole-souled effort to           
appropriate the larger truths of our    
time dignifies its annals4 ,in the      

history of the ,reform movement it      
merits no further mention4     ,,the    
,,liturgy4  ,returning to ,germany we   
behold the leading ,jews at last        
awakened to the necessity of energetic  
measures to check the wide-spread       
disaffection that was thinning out their
 ranks4 ,hitherto the liturgy of the    
synagogue had not been affected by the  
growing tendency to change4 ,an attempt 
in this direction was initiated by      
,israel ,jacobsohn1 the financial agent 
of the ,duke of ,brunswick1 a man of    
wealth1 culture1 and generous           
disposition4 ,he was shocked by the     
scenes of disorder1 the utter lack of   
decorum1 that disgraced the public      
worship2 he was resolved as far as in   
his power lay to correct the abuses     
which had been allowed to grow up       
unrestrained in the gloomy period of    
mediaeval persecution1 and to win back  
to the faith those whose affections had 
been estranged by the barbarous form in 
which it appeared to view4 ,he erected  

at his own expense1 and dedicated on    
,july #ag1 #ahaj1 in the town of        
,seesen1 a new temple199 at the same    
time introducing certain radical        
modifications into the service which we 
shall presently take occasion to        
consider4       99 ,the term ,temple has
 since been used by the ,reformers in   
contradistinction to the orthodox       
,synagogue4  ,being appointed to the    
,presidency of the ,consistory of       
,cassel1 during the reign of ,jerome    
,bonaparte1 he took advantage of his    
official position to urge his           
innovations upon the congregations under
 his charge4 ,in #ahae he transplanted  
the new fashion in religion to ,berlin1 
and in #ahah assisted in founding the   
temple at ,hamburg1 which soon became   
one of the leading strongholds of       
,reform4 ,a provisional service on the  
same plan was likewise instituted at    
,leipsic199 during the period of the    
annual fair1 and tidings of the reform  
were thus rapidly transmitted to distant

 parts of ,germany4 ,the main changes   
introduced by ,jacobsohn1 and copied by 
others1 may be briefly summed up as     
follows3 ,the introduction of regular   
weekly sermons1 which had not previously
 been customary2 of prayers in the      
vernacular by the side of the ,hebrew2  
of choir singing with organ             
accompaniment1 and the confirmation of  
young children4 ,these innovations      
implied a revolution in the character of
 the public worship4       99 ,dr4 ,zunz
 was appointed preacher1 and the        
composer      ,meyerbeer directed the   
musical services4  ,the ,jewish people  
had been wont to regard themselves      
individually and collectively1 as       
soldiers in the army of their ,god1     
commissioned to wage warfare against    
every species of false religion4 ,a     
spirit of martial discipline1 as it     
were1 pervaded their ranks4 ,the        
repetition of prayers and benedictions  
by day and night in the privacy of      
domestic life1 on the public square and 

by the roadside1 was a species of drill 
intended to keep alive in them the      
consciousness of their mission1 and to  
prepare them for the emergencies of     
actual conflict4 ,thrice a day they     
mustered in their synagogues1 and       
renewed their oath of allegiance in the 
presence of their spiritual king4 ,the  
term ,jewish ,church1 though in frequent
 use1 is a misnomer based upon false    
analogy4 ,the difference between the    
synagogue and the church is as clearly  
marked as that between ,judaism and     
,christianity themselves4 ,the          
sentimental element1 using the word in  
its nobler signification1 which is      
distinctive of the latter1 is almost    
entirely lacking in the former4 ,both   
make it their aim to elevate the moral  
life in man1 but while ,judaism acts    
through the will upon the affections1   
,christianity places the affections in  
the foreground and seeks by their means 
to persuade and captivate the will4  ,it
 cannot be denied that the ,reformers   

had in some measure modified the        
traditional character of ,jewish        
worship4 ,the purely emotional element  
acquired a prominence which it had never
 had before1 the very word employed to  
designate the purpose of the temple     
service--,erbauung1 edification--was    
foreign to the ancient vocabulary of    
,judaism4 ,in another direction1 too1   
they transgressed the limits prescribed 
by time-honored usage4 ,we have referred
 above to the ceremony of confirmation1 
which has since been generally adopted  
by congregations of the ,reform school4 
,on some festival or ,sabbath--the      
,feast of ,weeks1 celebrated about      
,whitsuntide1 being commonly            
preferred--boys and girls of thirteen or
 fourteen are assembled in the temple1  
where1 after having undergone an        
examination in the chief tenets of their
 religion1 they are required to repeat  
aloud a confession of faith4 ,the       
ceremony usually attracts a large       
congregation1 and is one of the few     

institutions introduced by the          
,reformers that have strongly seized    
upon the popular heart4  ,the natural   
concern of parents for the welfare of   
their offspring lends a solemn interest 
to the occasion4 ,at an age when the    
child's character begins to assume      
definite outlines1 when the reason      
unfolds1 and the perils and temptations 
that attend every pilgrim on the valley 
road of life1 approach near1 an         
instinctive prompting of the human heart
 leads us to forecast the future of sons
 and daughters1 and to embrace with joy 
whatever means are placed at our        
disposal to guard them against          
aberration and misfortune4 ,to utilize  
the impressiveness of a great public    
gathering1 the sympathetic presence of  
parents and friends1 the earnest        
monitions of a wise and revered teacher1
 in order to confirm them in every      
virtuous endeavor and high resolve1 is  
therefore fit and proper499       99 ,it
 deserves to be noted that the ceremony 

of confirmation      among the ,jews    
took its origin in the schools of       
,seesen1      ,frankfort-on-the-,main1  
etc4 ,indeed1 the first ,reformed       
congregations were formed by natural    
accretion about these      schools4 ,the
 influence of schools in giving         
character and      stability to new     
religious movements is a subject of     
sufficient importance to deserve        
separate treatment4  ,the propriety of  
exacting a formal confession of faith1  
however1 has been hotly disputed both by
 the orthodox and the more advanced     
liberals4 ,it is urged that ,judaism is 
a practical1 rather than a dogmatical   
religion4 ,even the existence of a ,god 
is rather presupposed as a fact than    
asserted as a matter of belief4 ,apart  
from this it is claimed that a child at 
thirteen can hardly be prepared to      
comprehend the fundamental questions of 
religion1 much less to express          
convictions on problems so grave and    
difficult4 ,the age of reflection and   

consequently of doubt is yet to come1   
nor can any child on the day of its     
confirmation answer for its convictions 
ten years thereafter4  ,the progress of 
the ,reform movement was thus of a      
character to awaken distrust and fierce 
contention at every step4 ,the          
conservative party were enraged at what 
they considered unwarrantable           
encroachments upon the traditions of an 
immemorial past4 ,the radicals were     
dissatisfied with the lack of substance 
and vitality in the teachings of the    
,reformers1 the shallow moralizing tone 
of their preachers1 the superficial     
views of ,judaism which they scattered  
among the multitude4  ,it may indeed be 
asked how could better things have been 
expected at that time4 ,the great facts 
of ,jewish history were not yet clearly 
known1 the philosophy of ,judaism was   
proportionately vague and uncertain4 ,no
 ,jewish author had ever undertaken to  
write out the annals of his people2     
chaotic confusion reigned in their      

chronicles4 ,to know what ,judaism might
 be it seemed necessary to ascertain in 
the first instance what it had been2 the
 past would prove the index of the      
future4 ,untoward events that happened  
at this period gave a powerful impulse  
to historical research1 and led to      
fruitful investigations in the domain of
 ,judaism4     ,,hep-,,hep4  ,the great 
battles of #ahac and #ahae1 in which the
 ,german people regained their          
independence1 effected a marvellous     
change in the spirits and sentiments of 
the nation4  ,accustomed for a long time
 to endure in silence the insults and   
arrogance of a foreign despot1 they had 
learned to despair of themselves2 a     
deadly lethargy held their energies in  
bondage and in the fairy visions of     
poetry and the daring dreams of         
metaphysical speculation they sought    
consolation for the pains and burdens of
 reality4 ,the victories of ,leipsic and
 ,waterloo completely altered the tone  
of their feelings4 ,it is a not uncommon

 fact that individuals usually the      
reverse of self-asserting exhibit1 on   
occasions1 an overweening               
self-consciousness1 which is all the    
more pointed and aggressive because of  
their secret and habitual self-distrust4
 ,we note with curious interest the     
recurrence of the same obnoxious trait  
in the life of a great nation4 ,the     
novel sense of power intoxicated them1  
the ,german mind for the moment lost its
 poise2 ,romanticism flourished1 the    
violence of the ,middle ,ages was       
mistaken for manhood1 and held up to the
 emulation of the present generation4   
,whatever was ,german was therefore     
esteemed good2 whatever was foreign was 
therefore despised1 or at best ignored4 
,the ,jews were made to feel the sharp  
sting of this feverish vanity2 their    
,asiatic origin was cast up against     
them1 though it might have been supposed
 that a residence of fifteen centuries  
had given them some claim to dwell at   
peace with the children of the soil4 ,in

 the year #ahai the assassination of    
,kotzebue added fresh fuel to the fervor
 of ,teutonic passion4 ,in ,august of   
that year a professor of ,wurzburg1 who 
had written in defence of the ,jews1 was
 publicly insulted by the students4 ,a  
tumult ensued1 the cry ,hep-,hep99 arose
 on every side1 and ,death to the ,jews 
was the watchword4 ,on the next day the 
magistrate ordered them to leave        
,wurzburg1 and four hundred in number   
they were driven beyond the city's      
limits4 ,similar excesses occurred in   
,frankfort-on-the-,main1 ,meiningen1    
,carlsruhe1 and elsewhere4 ,inflammatory
 pamphlets contributed to increase the  
excitement4       99 ,hep-,hep has been 
explained as an abbreviation of the     
words ,hierosolyma est perdita          
7,jerusalem is perished74      ,probably
 it is no more than one of those        
meaningless      exclamations which are 
not infrequent in college jargon4       
,grattenauer1 ,runs1 ,fries1 had written
 to good effect4 ,all the old falsehoods

 were revived1 the fable of the use of  
,christian blood at ,passover among the 
rest4 ,it seemed as though the genius of
 chivalry which the ,romantic school had
 invoked had returned with its grim     
attendant train to renew the orgies of  
mediaeval persecution in the full light 
of the nineteenth century4 ,in ,november
 appeared the ,judenspiegel1 by         
,hundt-,radowsky4 ,in this the author   
argues that the murder of a ,jew is     
neither criminal nor sinful4 ,in order  
to avoid unnecessary bloodshed however1 
he proposes a more peaceful means of    
ridding the ,german people of these     
vermin4 ,his propositions1 couched in   
plain language and delivered in sober   
earnest1 are simply these3 the men to be
 castrated1 and sold as slaves to the   
,east ,indies2 the women--but the pen   
refuses to record the fiendish          
suggestion4 ,it is mortifying to reflect
 that this infamous publication was     
widely circulated and eagerly read499   
,,the ,,science ,,of ,,judaism4  ,the   

sole reply which these occurrences      
elicited from the intelligent members of
 the ,jewish community was a more       
strenuous effort on their part to       
complete the work of inward             
purification1 and renewed zeal in the   
study of their historic past4 ,they     
trusted that the image of ,judaism1 if  
presented in its proper light1 would    
remove the odium which rested upon their
 people1 and would furthermore become   
their sure guide in the work of         
reconstructing the religion of their    
ancestors4  ,late in the year #ahai a   
,society for the ,culture and ,science99
 of the ,jews was founded at ,berlin4   
,its object was twofold3 first to       
promote a more effective prosecution of 
the ,science of ,judaism2 secondly1 to  
elevate the moral tone of the people1 to
 counteract their prevailing bias toward
 commerce1 and to encourage them in the 
pursuits of agriculture1 the trades1 and
 such of the professions as they had    
access to4       99 ,graetz1 ,geschichte

 der ,juden1 ,x4 p4 #cfa4       9999    
,throughout this article we use the word
 science in the      sense of the       
,german ,wissenschaft4  ,the science of 
,judaism embraces the departments of    
history1 philosophy1 and philology1 the 
last being of special importance1 since 
it presents the key to the correct      
understanding of the two former4 ,the   
means adopted to secure these objects   
were chiefly three1--a scientific       
institute1 a journal whose columns were 
enriched by many contributions of       
enduring value1 and a school in which   
instruction was imparted gratis to poor 
students and ,partisans4 ,among the     
members of the society we mention       
,edward ,gans1 the ,president1          
afterwards ,professor of ,jurisprudence 
at the ,university of ,berlin2 the      
eminent critic1 ,dr4 ,zunz2 the poet1   
,heinrich ,heine299 ,moser2 the noble   
,wholwill2 and others4       99 ,heine  
was for some time an instructor in the  
society's      school4 ,for an account  

of the ,cultur-,verein1 and of the      
poet's cordial interest in its success1 
vide ,strodtmann1      ,heine's ,leben  
und ,werke1 p4 #bcg4  ,unfortunately1   
the public mind was not yet prepared to 
appreciate the labors of these men2 the 
society languished for want of support1 
and after a few years its formal        
organization was dissolved4 ,but in the 
brief term of its existence it had      
accomplished its main object2 the       
science of ,judaism was securely        
established1 and it could safely be left
 to the industry of a few gifted        
individuals to cultivate and propagate  
it4 ,the ten years following the        
,hep-,hep excitement witnessed a series 
of literary achievements whose          
importance it would be difficult to     
overrate4 ,zunz and ,rappoport1 the     
pioneers of the new science1 discovered 
the thread by which they were enabled to
 push their way through the labyrinth of
 ,jewish literature4 ,profound          
erudition1 critical acumen1 and a subtle

 insight amounting almost to intuition1 
are displayed in their writings4 ,a band
 of worthy disciples followed their     
lead4 ,the chain of tradition1 which had
 seemed hopelessly tangled1 was         
unravelled2 many of its missing links   
were ingeniously supplied1 and the      
sequence of events1 on the whole1       
satisfactorily determined4 ,the dimness 
and vagueness that had hung over the    
history of the ,jews was giving way1 and
 the leading figures in the procession  
of past generations assumed clear and   
distinct outlines4 ,at this time ,jost  
was employed in writing the first       
connected history of his people which   
had ever emanated from ,jewish sources4 
,,scientific ,,theology4  ,while        
scholars were thus busy preparing the   
way for a new theory of ,judaism based  
on the facts of its history1 no efforts 
were made to press the needful work of  
practical reform4 ,indeed1 the hostile  
attitude of the temporal rulers         
discouraged any such undertaking4 ,the  

influence of ,metternich swayed the     
councils of the ,german princes4 ,the   
,king of ,prussia had broken the promise
 of constitutional government which he  
had given to his people in the hour of  
need4 ,the power of the ,triple         
,alliance was prepared to crush out the 
faintest stirrings of political or      
religious liberty wherever they         
appeared4  ,in #ahcj1 however1 the      
revolution in ,france swept away a      
second time the throne of the ,bourbons1
 and changed the face of affairs4 ,the  
courage of the liberal party revived    
everywhere2 the bonds of despotism were 
relaxed2 a spirit of resistance to      
oppression arose1 and grew in intensity 
from year to year1 until it at last     
found vent in the convulsions of #ahdh4 
,the ,jews felt the prophetic promise of
 a better order of things1 and roused   
themselves to renewed exertions4  ,we   
have indicated in a previous article    
that the cause of political and of      
religious emancipation1 so far at least 

as ,germany was concerned1 advanced in  
parallel lines4 ,in #ahca ,gabriel      
,riesser addressed a manifesto to the   
,german people on the position of the   
,jews among them499 ,it was a clear and 
forcible presentment of the case4 ,the  
style is dignified1 free from the taint 
of undue self-assertion1 and equally    
free from misplaced modesty4 ,he did not
 petition for a favor2 he demanded a    
right4 ,he disdained all measures of    
compromise2 he dared to treat the       
question as one of national importance2 
he asked for simple justice1 and would  
be content with nothing less4 ,the      
,german people rewarded his manliness   
with their confidence19999 and under his
 able leadership the struggle for       
emancipation was finally brought to a   
triumphant close4       99 ,ueber die   
,stellung der ,bekenner des ,mosaischen 
,glaubens an      die ,deutschen aller  
,confessionen4    ,riesser's ,works1    
,,ii4       9999 ,he was elected        
,vice-,president of the first ,german   

,parliament that met in the             
,pauls-,kirche in ,frankfort4  ,in #ahce
 ,abraham ,geiger1 then ,rabbi of       
,wiesbaden1 began the publication of a  
,scientific ,journal for ,jewish        
,theology1 and with the appearance of   
this periodical the ,reform movement    
entered into its present phase4 ,it was 
the purpose of ,geiger and his          
coadjutors to prosecute the work of     
religious renovation on the basis of the
 science of ,judaism4 ,this is the      
distinguishing feature of the modern    
school of ,jewish ,reform4 ,but1 before 
we proceed to sketch the principles of  
these scientific theologians1 let us    
rapidly advert to the brief series of   
events that mark the outward development
 of the new school4  ,around the        
standard which ,geiger had unfurled a   
body of earnest men soon collected1 who 
agreed with him in the main in desiring 
to reconcile science and life           
7,wissenschaft und ,leben74 ,they were  
mostly young men1 fresh from the        

universities1 profoundly versed in      
,hebrew and rabbinic lore1 zealous      
lovers of their religion1 equipped with 
the elements of ancient and modern      
culture1 and anxious to harmonize the   
conflicting claims of both in their     
private lives and public station4 ,many 
of them underwent severe privations for 
their convictions' sake4 ,they were     
distrusted by the various governments1  
without whose sanction no ,jewish       
clergyman could enter upon his          
functions1 and were made to feel1 in    
common with other ,liberals1 the        
displeasure which their measures1       
moderate though they were1 had provoked 
in high quarters4 ,they were subjected  
to numberless petty annoyances1 and even
 downright force was employed to check  
their growing popularity4 ,with the     
accession of ,frederick ,william ,,iv41 
the ,ultramontanes and the party of     
retrogression in the ,protestant ,church
 completely gained the ascendant4       
,covered by the shield of royal favor   

they offered the most audacious insults 
to the conscience and common-sense of   
the people1 the right of free speech was
 impaired1 the press was shackled1 while
 the most abject superstitions were     
openly encouraged4 ,the holy coat of    
,jesus1 exhibited at the cathedral of   
,treves1 attracted hundreds of thousands
 of pilgrims1 and the fame of the       
miraculous cures it had effected was    
diligently spread4 ,but the very        
violence of the extremists provoked a   
determined opposition among the         
intelligent classes4 ,national unity and
 individual liberty were loudly         
demanded1 a ,german ,catholic party was 
formed with the avowed object of        
reorganizing ,catholicism on the basis  
of the modern ,state4 ,free religious   
congregations began to crop up here and 
there1 which1 though feeble as yet in   
their organization1 were properly       
regarded as significant of the spirit of
 the times4 ,on the waves of the turning
 tide the young ,rabbis were carried    

along4 ,they were ardent patriots2 they 
too1 were eager to see their religion   
wedded to the progressive tendencies of 
the age4 ,the sympathies of the most    
enlightened of their brethren were      
cheerfully extended to them1 and high   
hopes were founded on their success4    
,in #ahdd they were sufficiently strong 
to meet in convention4 ,disclaiming the 
functions of a religious synod1 they    
assumed the character of a scientific   
body1 assembled to promote the objects  
of truth in their special department4   
,the discussions were indeed intended to
 secure harmony of sentiment and action1
 but the resolutions adopted were       
binding neither upon the members        
themselves nor upon the congregations   
they represented4 ,three times these    
conventions were repeated at ,brunswick1
 ,frankfort1 and ,breslau4  ,in #ahde a 
new congregation was formed1 called ,the
 ,reform ,association of ,berlin1 which 
was recruited from the extreme left wing
 of the liberal ,jewish party4 ,this    

congregation became noted for the       
introduction of a ,sunday service1 a    
measure which eventually compelled them 
to entirely abandon the ,jewish         
,sabbath4 ,samuel ,holdheim1 the ablest 
exponent of radical ,judaism1 was       
selected to be their preacher4  ,thus   
far had the ,reform movement proceeded1 
when1 in #ahdh1 the incidents of a great
 political revolution crowded every     
other issue into comparative            
insignificance4 ,the fall of            
,metter-nich before the intrigues of the
 camarilla and the fury of a popular    
uprising1 the humiliation of the king of
 ,prussia1 the convocation of the       
national parliament1 the ,baden         
insurrection1--these were the events    
that absorbed the interest of the       
public4 ,political incompetency on the  
part of the leaders precipitated the    
catastrophe of the revolution1 and the  
hopes of the ,german people were again  
doomed to disappointment4 ,soon the     
reaction set in1 a dreary period of     

stagnation followed1 and the efforts of 
the friends of freedom were paralyzed4  
,the ,jewish ,reformers were stricken   
down by the general reverse that had    
overtaken the liberal party1 nor have   
they since been able to recover from its
 stunning effects4 ,two revolutions1    
those of #ahcj and #ahdh1 mark the      
growth and the decline of scientific    
reform4 ,within the past thirty years a 
number of prominent reformers have been 
called to this country1 and to them is  
due the spread of the movement in the   
,united ,states4  ,the difficulties     
which confronted them here were of the  
most formidable kind4 ,the great bulk of
 the ,jewish emigration to the ,united  
,states were originally drawn from the  
village congregations of the            
,fatherland1 and were by no means fair  
specimens of the intelligence and       
culture of the ,jewish race4 ,while they
 displayed the qualities of energy1     
perseverance1 and thrift1 and soon      
acquired wealth and influence in the    

commercial world1 few only were fitted  
to appreciate a movement so thoroughly  
intellectual in its bearings as that    
which the reformers came to propagate   
amongst them4 ,the mere externals of    
reform were readily adopted1 but its    
spiritual essence escaped them4         
,accordingly1 the development of        
,reformed ,judaism on ,american soil    
presents no novel or striking features  
for our consideration1 and it may       
appropriately be treated as a mere      
offshoot of the ,german stock4          
,,principles4  ,ever since the          
appearance of ,geiger's ,scientific     
,journal1 ,jewish philology and ,jewish 
theology have been inseparably          
connected4 ,to attempt a detailed       
account of the latter would involve the 
necessity of frequent reference to the  
former1 an attempt in which we can      
hardly assume the reader's interest     
would bear us out4 ,unwilling to test   
his patience by such a course1 we shall 
content ourselves with stating the main 

principles of ,reformed ,judaism1 and   
briefly indicating the successive steps 
by which it advanced to its present     
positions4  ,the one great fact which   
the ,science of ,judaism has            
indisputably established was the fact of
 evolution in the sphere of the ,jewish 
religion4 ,each generation had          
legislated for itself4 ,the authorities 
of the ,middle ,ages had introduced     
changes in the ritual2 the ,talmud      
itself1 that corner-stone of orthodoxy1 
was a stupendous innovation on the      
simplicity of ,bible religion499        
,applying the theory of evolution to    
their own case1 the modern ,rabbis      
assumed on their part the right to      
institute whatever changes the          
exigencies of the age had rendered      
imperative4       99 ,the theory of an  
,oral ,law1 delivered to ,moses on      
,sinai and      handed down from        
generation to generation1 until it was  
finally embodied in the ordinance of the
 ,talmudical      academies1 is a       

palpable fiction1 invented by the       
,talmudists      in order to lend to    
their own decisions the sanction of     
,divine authorship4  ,the very fact of  
change1 it is true1 presupposes the     
existence of a substratum that remains  
unchangeable4 ,what that substratum in  
the case of ,judaism is claimed to be1  
we shall presently discover4 ,the       
measures of the ,reformers were in the  
main dictated by the sentiment of       
patriotism and the desire to remove the 
barriers that interposed between them   
and their fellow-men4 ,they would cease 
to be a state within-the state1 cease to
 separate themselves from the fellowship
 of the ,gentiles4 ,hence the leading   
proposition upon which ,reformed        
,judaism is founded4 ,the ,jewish people
 have ceased to be a national unit1 and 
will exist hereafter as a confederation 
of religious societies4  ,if the ,jews  
have ceased to be a nation1 then the    
,reformers must abandon the idea of a   
national restoration4 ,they did so4 ,if 

they have ceased to be a nation1 they   
must give up the hope of a personal     
,messiah who should lead them back to   
the promised land4 ,they did so ,if they
 desired no longer to dwell in seclusion
 they must abolish the dietary laws1    
which forbid them to taste of the food  
of ,christians1 though commanded by the 
,talmud and founded apparently on the   
authority of ,moses4 ,this1 too1 they   
were willing to do4 ,other changes were 
inspired by the philosophic teachings of
 the day1 and were undertaken with equal
 readiness4 ,thus the doctrine of       
resurrection in the flesh was set aside4
 ,the fabric of ceremonial observances  
had been rudely shaken1 and soon gave   
way altogether4 ,changes in the ritual  
followed4 ,the prayer-book reflected the
 gloomy spirit of a people whose life   
was embittered by constant trials and   
dangers4 ,naturally they had turned to  
the past and the glories of ,zion2 the  
pomp of the sacrifices1 the advent of   
the ,messiah1 the future restoration of 

the kingdom of ,david1 were the themes  
on which they loved to dwell4 ,all this 
was no longer suited to the temper of   
the modern ,jews1 and radical           
alterations became necessary4 ,many of  
the festivals and fast-days also were   
struck from the calendar4 ,one of the   
most distinctive customs of the ,jews1  
the so-called rite of ,abraham's        
,covenant1 was boldly attacked1 and     
though the abolition of this ancient    
practice is still strenuously resisted1 
there is little doubt that it will      
ultimately go with the rest4 ,samuel    
,holdheim advocated the propriety of    
intermarriage between ,jews and         
,christians4  ,the manner in which these
 conclusions were reached may be        
described as follows4 ,at first an      
attempt was made to found each new      
measure of ,reform on the authority of  
the ,talmud4 ,the ,talmud was attacked  
with its own weapons4 ,the fallacy of   
such a method becoming apparent1 the    
authority of the ,talmud was entirely   

set aside4 ,a return to the ,bible was  
next in order4 ,but even the laws of the
 ,bible proved to be no longer capable  
of fulfilment in their totality4 ,a     
distinction was therefore drawn between 
the letter and the spirit of the ,bible4
 ,the letter is man's handiwork1 the    
spirit alone ought to be regarded as the
 ,divine rule of faith4 ,the spirit of  
the ,bible is the essence of ,judaism1  
which cannot change4 ,in the process of 
evolution it constantly assumes new     
forms1 but remains substantially the    
same4 ,nor could any motives of         
expediency1 nor could even the ardent   
desire of political emancipation have   
induced the ,reformers to pursue the    
course they did1 had they for one moment
 believed it contrary to the substantial
 teachings of the ,bible4 ,the spirit of
 the ,bible is expressed in two         
fundamental propositions3 the existence 
of one ,god1 the author and governor of 
the universe2 and the ,messianic mission
 of the people of ,israel4 ,the former  

is no longer the exclusive property of  
,judaism1 the latter is distinctively   
its own2 both together express the      
simple creed of the ,reformers4         
,,prospects4  ,if now we cast a glance  
upon the present aspect of ,reformed    
,judaism we are confronted by a state of
 affairs that by no means corresponds to
 the great anticipations which were     
connected with the movement in its      
earlier stages4 ,the ancient            
institutions have been cleared          
away1--that was unavoidable2 they had   
long been tottering to their ruin1--but 
an adequate substitute for what was     
taken has not been provided4 ,the       
leaders have penetrated to the          
foundations of their religion1 but upon 
these bare foundations they have erected
 what is at best a mere temporary       
structure incapable of affording them   
permanent shelter and protection4 ,the  
temper of the ,reform school has been   
critical4 ,its members were admirably   
fitted to analyze and to dissect2 their 

scholarship is unquestionably great2 the
 stainless purity of their lives has    
elevated the character of their people  
and entitled them to sincere respect    
,but they lacked the constructive genius
 needed for the creation of new         
institutions4 ,in the year #ahbb        
,wholwill declared that the ,jews must  
raise themselves and their principle to 
the level of science4 ,science is the   
one bond that alone can unite the whole 
human race4 ,the emphasis thus placed on
 science has continued to distinguish   
the ,reform movement down to the present
 day4 ,in the sphere of religion1       
however1 it is not sufficient to        
apprehend the abstract truth of ideas   
with the help of intellect1 but it is   
necessary to array these ideas in       
concrete forms1 in order that they may  
warm the heart and stimulate the will4  
,we hold it erroneous to believe that   
the age of symbolism is passed4 ,the    
province of religion is to bring the    
human soul into communion with the      

,infinite4 ,in the lower religions the  
conception of the ,infinite was meagre  
and insufficient and the symbols in use 
proportionately gross4 ,at the present  
day it is the ideal of moral perfection 
that alone is capable of exciting our   
devotion and kindling our enthusiasm4   
,now it is true that the material       
symbolism of the churches and the       
synagogues1 the venerable1 the bread and
 wine1 the scrolls of the ,pentateuch   
tricked out in fanciful vestments1 fail 
to appeal to the sympathies of many     
educated men and women of our time2 not1
 however1 because they are symbols1 but 
because they are inadequate symbols1    
because of an almost painful disparity  
between their earthy origin and the     
vastness of the spiritual ideas which   
they are intended to suggest4 ,there is1
 on the other hand1 a species of        
symbolism peculiarly adapted to the     
needs of the present generation1 and    
which1 if properly understood1 might be 
employed to incalculable advantage in   

the interest of a revival of the        
religious sentiment4 ,we allude to the  
symbolism of association4  ,the tendency
 to associate the efforts of individuals
 in corporate action has never been more
 markedly displayed than in our own day4
 ,so long as such associations confine  
themselves to certain finite objects1   
they are mere social engines organized  
with a view to utility and power1 and   
with such we are not concerned4 ,the    
characteristic of symbols is their      
suggestiveness4 ,they have a meaning in 
themselves1 but they suggest illimitable
 meanings beyond their scope4 ,now a    
form of organization is not only        
conceivable1 but has actually been      
attempted1 that fully meets the         
requirements of the symbolic character4 
,the ,christian ,church is designed to  
be such an organization4 ,not only does 
it propose to unite its members and to  
satisfy their spiritual needs during the
 term of their sojourn on earth1 but it 
aspires to typify the union of all      

saints under the sovereignty of ,jesus1 
and thus to give to the believer a      
presentiment of the felicity and        
perfection of the higher world4 ,in like
 manner the ,hebrews have been          
acquainted with the symbolism of        
association from a very early period of 
their history4 ,if they delight to style
 themselves the chosen people1 the      
meaning of that phrase1 so often        
misunderstood1 is purely symbolical4    
,recognizing the fact that the majority 
of mankind are at no time prepared to   
entertain the ideals of the few1 they   
undertook to work out among themselves a
 nobler conception of religion and a    
loftier morality1 trusting that the     
force of their example would in the end 
bring about the universal adoption of   
their faith and ethical code4 ,in this  
sense the choice of ,israel was         
interpreted by the ,prophets4 ,they     
believed that their selection by the    
,deity imposed upon them heavier        
responsibilities1 and regarded it in the

 light of an obligation rather than a   
privilege4 ,what the statue is to the   
ideal of beauty1 a whole people resolved
 to be in relation to the ideal of the  
good4 ,the same conception still        
dominates the thoughts of the           
,reformers1 and is expressed by them in 
their doctrine of ,israel's messianic   
mission4 ,they claim that the ,jews have
 been for the past three thousand years 
the ,swiss guard of monotheism4 ,they   
still believe themselves to be the      
typical people1 and their firm          
persuasion on this head is the one      
strong feature of the ,reformers' creed4
 ,if they will use their world-wide     
association to illustrate anew the      
virtues for which their race became     
renowned in the past1--and we refer     
especially to the purity of the sexual  
relations among them1 their pious       
reverence for domestic ties1--they may  
still become1 as they aspire to do1     
exemplars of purity to be joyfully      
imitated by others4 ,if they will use it

 in the spirit of their ancient lawgiver
 to tone down the harsh distinctions of 
wealth and poverty1 to establish juster 
relations between the strong and weak1  
in brief1 to harmonize the social       
antagonisms of modern life1 they may    
confer an inestimable benefit upon      
mankind4 ,but the manner in which the   
symbolism of association might be       
applied to invigorate the religious     
sentiment1 and to expel the coldness of 
the times by the fervor of a new        
enthusiasm1 is a subject of too vast    
dimensions to be thus summarily         
despatched1 and we shall hope to recur  
to it on some future occasion499        
99 ,in an article on the religious      
aspects of the social      question4    
,the present condition of liberal       
,judaism is strongly akin to that of    
liberal ,christianity4 ,the old is dead1
 the new has not been born4 ,it is      
hardly safe to predict what possible    
developments the future may yet have in 
store4 ,as regards the ,jews1 however1  

it is right to add that such changes as 
have taken place in the constitution of 
their religion have not brought them in 
any sense nearer to ,christianity4 ,on  
the contrary1 since the belief in a     
personal ,messiah has been dropped1 the 
hope of their conversion has become more
 vague and visionary than ever4 ,those  
whom the worship of the synagogue and   
the temple no longer attracts either    
become wholly sceptical and indifferent1
 or1 as is often the case1 transfer     
their allegiance to the new humanitarian
 doctrine which is fast assuming the    
character of a religion in the ardor it 
inspires and the strong spiritual union 
it cements4 ,for the great body of the  
,jews1 however1 the central doctrine of 
,judaism remains unshaken1 and          
doubtless1 so long as ,christianity     
exists1 ,judaism as a distinct creed    
will coexist with it4 ,the modern ,jews1
 like their ancestors1 believe that     
their mission is not yet ended1 and they
 await with patience the rising of some 

new man of genius amongst them1 who will
 combine the qualities of the popular   
leader with4'the attributes of the      
scholar1 and will give body and form to 
the ideas elaborated by the ,reformers4 
,as a religious society they desire to  
remain distinct4 ,but as citizens1 they 
are eager to remove whatever            
distinctions still hamper their         
intercourse with their neighbors of     
other creeds4 ,never has the desire to  
return to ,palestine and retrieve their 
lost nationality been more foreign to   
their sentiments than at the present    
day1 though recent speculations have    
misled many to believe otherwise4 ,they 
know they can no more return thither4   
,they would not if they could4 ,they    
love the land of their birth2 they wish 
to join their labors with those of      
others in promoting the progress of the 
entire human race4 ,they have ceased to 
regret the past1 and desire nothing more
 earnestly than to live in the present  
and for the future4  ,,the ,,end4