mat]ial f ! ,google ,pr9t project47 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,a few typographical errors h be5 correct$4 ,details are giv5 at ! end ( ! text4 ,,heads ,,( ,,lectures ,,on ,a ,,c\rse ,,( ,,exp]im5tal ,,philosophy1 ,,p>ticul>ly ,,includ+ ,,*emi/ry1 ,,deliv]$ ,,at ,,! ,,new ,,college ,,9 ,,hackney4 ,by ,,joseph ,,prie/ley1 ,,ll4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,ac4 ,,imp4 ,,petrop4 ,r4 ,,p>is4 ,,holm4 ,,taur94 ,,aurel4 ,,m$4 ,,p>is4 ,,h>lem4 ,,cantab4 ,,am]ic4 ,,et ,,philad4 ,,soc4 ,,qui ,,docet ,,discit4--,,wm4 ,,lilly ,,london3 ,,pr9t$ ,,= ,j4 ,,johnson1 ,,no4 #gb1 ,,/4 ,,paul',s ,,*ur*-,,y>d4 #agid4 ,,! ,,preface4 ,situat$1 z ,i happily am1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,new ,college at ,hackney1 an in/itution t does hon\r to ! ,diss5t]s1 an in/itution op5 to all p]sons )\t di/9ction#a1 & connect$ z ,i am by fri5d%ip ) ! tutors1 ,i 0 glad to give x e assi/ance 9 my p[]2 & !re=e und]took to read ! ,lectures on ,hi/ory & ,g5]al ,policy :i* ,i _h compos$ :5 ,i 0 tutor at ,w>r+ton1 & also to give ano!r c\rse on ! subject ( ,exp]im5tal ,philosophy4 ,) ?is view ,i drew up ! foll[+ ,heads ( ,lectures2 &1 to save ! /ud5ts ! tr\ble ( transcrib+ !m1 !y are n[ pr9t$4 ,to o!r p]sons !y may s]ve z a comp5di\s view ( ! mo/ important discov]ies relat+ to ! subject4 ,footnote #a3 ,"o g5tleman ( ! ,roman ,ca?olic p]suasion1 & sev]al ( ! ,*ur* ( ,engl&1 are n[ 9 ! ,college4 ,z x 0 f\nd mo/ conv5i5t1 ) respect to ! o!r bus9ess ( ! college1 to conf9e ?is c\rse to "o lecture 9 a week1 ,i contriv$ to br+ )9 t compass z mu* ( ! subject ( exp]im5tal philosophy z ,i well c\ld1 & especially to include ! :ole ( :at is call$ *emi/ry1 to :i* s mu* att5tion is n[ giv51 & :i* pres5ts s _m new fields ( philosophical inve/igation4 ,besides t ! plan ( ! "y g5tlem5's /udies w\ld n admit ( x1 ,i ?9k x mo/ advisable n to tr\ble beg9n]s ) m ?an a l>ge outl9e ( any bran* ( sci5ce4 ,by ?is means !y are n fatigu$ by too long an att5tion to any "o subject1 a great] v>iety ( articles may be br\ght be=e !m1 & 9 future life !y may pursue any ( !m z mu* f>!r z _! incl9ation may dispose1 & _! ability & opportunity %all enable1 !m to d x4 ,i d n give any acc\nt ( ! exp]im5ts introduc$ into ! sev]al lectures4 ,!y w be suffici5tly indicat$ by ! subjects ( !m4 ,!y 7 z _m z ,i c\ld conv5i5tly make )9 ! "t2 & :]e ! exp]im5ts !mselves c\ld n be made1 ,i usually exhibit$ bo? ! diff]5t sub/ances employ$ 9 !m1 & ^? t 7 ! result ( !m4 ,z ^! lectures 7 calculat$ = ! use ( ! /ud5ts at ! ,new ,college1 ,i prefix an ,address to !m1 ! same 9 sub/ance ) t :i* ,i deliv]$ to !m at ! close ( ! session ( #agia4 ,9 x may be se5 a specim5 ( ! language we hold to !m on ! subject ( politics1 :i* ) reasonable m5 w s]ve z an answ] to ! _m calumnies t h be5 ?r[n out aga9/ u1 z disaffect$ to ! gov]nm5t ( ?is c\ntry4 ,su* in/itutions w1 inde$1 always be objects ( hatr$ & dread to bigots & ! advocates = arbitr>y p[]1 b ! pride ( a truly free c\ntry4 ,i !re=e conclude ) my e>ne/ pray] 7! accompli%m5t ( :i* ! pres5t /ate ( ! ,college does n all[ u to d\bt7 ,,e/o ,,p]petua4 ,,! ,,d$ication4 ,,to ,,! ,,/ud5ts ,,at ,,! ,,new ,,college ,,9 ,,hackney4 ,my "y ,fri5ds1 ,hav+ drawn up ! foll[+ ,heads ( ,lectures = y\r use1 ,i take ! lib]ty ?us publickly to d$icate !m to y2 & z ,i e>ne/ly wi% = y\r improvem5t & happ9ess 9 all respects1 excuse me if ,i take ! f>!r lib]ty ( mak+ a few obs]vations1 & giv+ y "s advice1 ( a m g5]al nature1 adapt$ to y\r age & circum/ances4 ,z y w soon leave ?is place ( education1 & ent] ^u y\r sev]al pr(essions & employm5ts1 ,i hope y\r conduct w demon/rate to ! _w ! solid advantages ( ?is in/itution1 & t ! great exp5ce att5d+ x1 & ! be/ att5tion ( ! manag]s1 h n be5 be/[$ 9 va94 ,_m lib]al fri5ds ( sci5ce1 ( virtue1 & ( religion1 h contribut$ to procure y ! advantages :i* y enjoy4 ,!y h sp>$ no pa9s to provide able & c>eful tutors1 & y h _h e o!r advantage = ! prosecution ( y\r /udies t !y c\ld procure y1 unclogg$ by any subscription to articles ( fai?1 or obligation ( any o!r k9d1 besides su* z !y h deem$ necess>y = y\r own good1 & to give ! in/itution its greate/ effect4 ,?is is an advantage y c\ld n h f\nd else:]e1 at lea/ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,& 9 e sem9>y ( education mu* m dep5ds ^u opportunity = /udy1 free f any ob/ruction1 & undue bias1 ?an ^u ! ability ( tutors2 ?\gh !re is an additional advantage :5 !y are able m51 & em95t 9 ! bran*es ( sci5ce :i* !y und]take to tea*4 ,b ?is is by no means s ess5tial z _m o!r circum/ances4 ,:atev] be ! qualifications ( y\r tutors1 y\r improvem5t mu/ *iefly dep5d ^u y\rselves4 ,!y _c ?9k or lab\r = y4 ,!y c only put y 9 ! be/ way ( ?9k+ & lab\r+ = y\rselves4 ,if1 !re=e1 y get k1 y mu/ acquire x by y\r own indu/ry4 ,y mu/ =m all conclusions1 & all maxims1 = y\rselves1 f premises & data collect$1 & consid]$ by y\rselves4 ,& x is ! great object ( ?is in/itution to remove e bias ! m9d c lie "u1 & give ! greate/ scope to true fre$om ( ?9k+ & inquiry4 ,& provid$ y be intellig5t & virtu\s m51 & good citiz5s1 x w be no cause ( regret to ! fri5ds ( ?is in/itution1 if1 ) respect to religion1 or politics1 y adopt sy/ems ( pr9ciples1 & maxims ( conduct1 v diff]5t f !irs4 ,give me leave1 n[ t ,i am address+ y z "y m51 & "y /ud5ts1 to sugge/ a caution on a subject1 ( ! importance ( :i* x is h>dly possible t y %\ld be suffici5tly aw>e1 because x is only impress$ by t exp]i5ce :i* y h n yet _h4 ,i mean t degree ( vanity :i* g5]ally accompanies ! acquirem5ts t dilig5t p]sons ( y\r age make 9 places ( lib]al education1 & ! contempt !y are too apt to ent]ta9 = ^? :o h n made ! same pr(ici5cy ) !mselves4 ,& ,i assure y1 t 9 ! obs]vations ,i %all make on ?is subject1 ,i h no view :atev] to any ?+ t ,i h obs]v$1 or he>d1 ( any ( y 9 p>ticul>4 ,b ,i h be5 9 y\r situation myself1 & ,i "k ! importance ( ^! obs]vations to /ud5ts 9 g5]al4 ,y are n[ at an age 9 :i* "y p]sons usually make ! mo/ s5sible advances 9 k1 & 9 :i* ! und]/&+ appe>s to rip5 ! mo/ rapid mann]4 ,y are able to say e ye>1 e mon?1 & almo/ e day1 :at p>ticul> advances y h made1 & h[ mu* y "k m ?an y did be=e4 ,& be+ taught1 & accu/om$1 to express y\r ?\ghts 9 writ+1 y f9d y\rselves qualifi$ to d ?is 9 a mann] ( :i* y _h no idea1 or expectation1 b a little "t ago4 ,y also p]fectly rememb] :at y h s rec5tly le>n$1 & _m respects may be m p>ticul> & exact ?an ev5 y\r tutors !mselves4 ,! almo/ unavoidable effect ( ?is is a high idea ( y\r own p[]s & atta9m5ts1 & too (t5 a proportionable contempt ( ^? :o1 n hav+ _h equal advantages1 _c d :at y are easily capable (4 ,a c]ta9 degree ( vanity is1 !re=e1 excusable 9 "y p]sons2 &1 inde$1 x is by means ( x t !y are excit$ to ex]t !mselves 9 a mann] t !y w\ld n o!rwise h done4 ,b be c>eful t ?is temp] be n indulg$ to excess1 = x w !n be f\nd to h s]i\s ill consequ5ces2 ! lea/ ( :i* is ! preclud+ future improvem5t1 f be+ already satisfi$ ) y\rselves1 & consci\s ( a suffici5t sup]iority ov] o!rs4 ,! f\ndation ( ?is self-conceit1 on acc\nt ( lit]>y atta9m5ts1 w be f\nd to be extremely weak4 ,9 fact1 we le>n m be=e ! p]iod to :i* y are n[ arriv$1 & ,i hope y w cont9ue to le>n m aft] x1 )\t its be+ s mu* notic$2 & ! ability t is discov]$ 9 ! acquirem5ts :i* are ! subjects ( ?is vanity is n great] ?an appe>s on o!r occasions4 ,only !y are n s conspicu\s4 ,:at we all le>n 9 ! fir/ ?ree ye>s ( our lives1 is mu* m extraord9>y 9 its nature ?an all t we acquire aft]w>ds4 ,i mean ! p]fect use ( our limbs1 & ! elem5ts ( spee*4 ,:at we le>n 9 a mon? 9 t e>ly p]iod ( life1 c\ld n1 if we 7 br\ght up 9 ! ignorance ( x1 be le>n$ 9 a ye> at any subsequ5t p]iod4 ,b ^! acquirem5ts be+ univ]sal1 & :at ! circum/ances 9 :i* we are all necess>ily 9 compel u to le>n1 x does n appe> extraord9>y 9 any p>ticul> individual4 ,also1 ! pr(ici5cy t boys make at a gramm> s*ool1 9 :i*1 9 g5]al1 ! dead languages only are taught 7a k ( :i* is commonly ! result ( sev]e application7 is too common to be ! cause ( mu* self-conceit4 ,b ! advances t are made at places ( lib]al education are bo? less common1 & ( a m conspicu\s nature4 ,y w also f9d1 if y cont9ue y\r application to /udy1 t x is only ! elem5ts ( sci5ce t y c acquire "h1 & t if y live _m ye>s1 !y w be> b a small proportion to y\r future acquirem5ts4 ,b ^? future acquirem5ts1 9 consequ5ce ( _! be>+ a less proportion to y\r :ole /ock ( k1 w n be s conspicu\s4 ,?us1 ?\gh all ! build+s t 9 "o ye> are add$ to su* a city z ,london w\ld make a pretty l>ge c\ntry t[n1 !y be> s small a proportion to :at 0 built be=e1 t !y are n mu* notic$2 :]eas1 _h half ! quantity ( build+ be5 erect$ 9 a place :]e no h\se _h exi/$ be=e1 x w\ld h be5 a memorable ev5t 9 ! hi/ory ( ! c\ntry4 ,also1 z 9 old cities _m build+s w fall to decay1 :ile new ones are add$2 y mu/ expect to =get mu* ( :at y n[ "k4 ,no man c give equal att5tion to e object2 & z we advance 9 life1 we1 9 g5]al1 only le>n new ?+s at ! exp5ce ( ! old ones4 ,b !n !y are ! m valuable articles ( k1 ! m g5]al & lead+ pr9ciples1 :i* rema9 ) u2 :ile ! m useless ones1 ?+s to :i* we give less att5tion because we f9d !m to be ( less use1 disappe>4 ,yet x is no uncommon ?+ = +5i\s /ud5ts to despise old s*ol>s :o are n s ready 9 ! m9utiae ( lit]ature1 ?\gh !y may h =gott5 m ?an ^? y\?s ev] knew1 & may reta9 :at !y _c acquire )\t =gett+ z mu*4 ,ano!r obs]vation prop] to less5 ! conceit ( lit]>y m51 is1 t g5ius is n conf9$ to !m1 b is equally great1 ?\gh n equally conspicu\s1 9 e o!r l9e ( life1 & especially 9 manufactures & ! arts4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 discov]ies equal1 ) respect to sagacity1 to ^? ( ,newton1 contribute little to po/hum\s fame1 because ! discov]]s are n writ]s4 ,b ! greate/ bran* ( intellectual excell5ce ) respect to :i* e o!r is no?+1 & :i*1 f its nature1 c nev] be f\ndation ( any self-conceit1 is virtue1 or "r dispositions ( m9d1 lead+ to "r conduct 9 life4 ,prop] s5tim5ts1 & j affections ( m9d1 arise f j1 & (t5 compreh5sive1 views ( ?+s1 pa/1 pres5t1 & to come4 ,& if ! real greatness ( any ?\ght1 or action1 be e/imat$ by ! numb] ( elem5ts t con/itute x1 & its remot5ess f ! dictates ( s5se & natural appetite1 a virtu\s & pi\s man w appe> to be a mu* m dignifi$ "*1 m prop] to be view$ ) admiration & e/eem1 ?an ! greate/ s*ol>2 discov]+1 9 fact1 great] compreh5sion & =ce ( m9d4 ,i mean1 h[ev]1 t virtue :i* is ! result ( reflection1 ( discipl9e1 & mu* volunt>y ex]tion1 :i*1 ?\gh op]at+ ) equal promptness & facility1 is z mu* sup]ior to m]e innoc5ce1 & :at is commonly call$ good nature1 z motions second>ily automative are to ^? t are prim>ily s2 a comp>ison :i* y :o h /udi$ ,h>tley's ,!ory ( ! ,m9d w see ! =ce (4 ,^! consid]ations ,i take ! lib]ty to sugge/1 z be+ prop] to less5 t vanity :i* is s incid5t to ^? :o di/+ui% !mselves 9 ! fields ( lit]ature1 & :i*1 op]at+ l ! acquisition ( ri*es1 or p[]1 or any possession t is r>e among m51 in/ead ( enl>g+1 may t5d to contract ! m9d1 by conf9+ its att5tion to itself4 ,beg9n+ ) a g5]\s emulation1 x proce$s to envy & jeal\sy1 & ends 9 actual hatr$ & malignity1 aga9/ :i* y _c1 surely1 be too /rongly put ^u y\r gu>d2 ?is be+ ! greate/ depravity to :i* human nature is subject1 & :i* yet1 l any o!r vice1 may be 9 full possession ( ! m9d1 )\t ! p]son himself kn[+1 or suspect+ x2 unless he give m att5tion to 8 feel+s ?an mo/ p]sons d4 ,if no man ev] ?\ght himself to be av>ici\s1 or cruel1 c x be expect$ t any p]son %\ld ev] discov] t he is too self-conceit$8 ,bett]1 h[ev]1 inf9itely bett]1 7 x to rank ) ! m]e/ dunces1 ?an h ! conceit & malignity 7produc$ orig9ally f conceit7 ( "s :o h di/+ui%$ !mselves ! mo/ z l+ui/s1 critics1 & poets4 ,ev5 ! /udy ( nature1 ?\gh1 f its va/ ext5t1 x is less apt to produce ?is baneful effect1 is n always a suffici5t gu>d aga9/ x4 ,?is is an affect+ & an al>m+ consid]ation4 ,b 9 ! intellectual1 z 9 ! civil & comm]cial _w1 we ga9 no?+ b at ! risk ( "s loss2 & 9 ?is case ! possible ga9 is wor? ! risk ( ev5 ?is great loss4 ,= :5 lit]>y1 & sci5tific excell5ce co9cide ) t :i* is ( a moral nature1 x adds unspeakably to ! value ( a "*4 ,+5uity c\pl$ ) mode/y1 & great g5ius ) b5evol5ce & true piety1 con/itute ! p]fection ( human "*1 & is :at we %\ld ev] h 9 view4 ,& a c\rse ( education 9 :i* bo? ^! objects are equally att5d$ to1 is ! only "o t des]ves to be call$ lib]al3 b su* z1 ,i hope1 y h f\nd ?is to be4 ,give me leave fur!r to obs]ve to y1 t ! "t t y sp5d 9 a place ( lib]al education is ( m importance to y ?an y c be at pres5t aw>e (4 ,:atev] be ! sph]e ( life = :i* y are de/9$1 ! probability is1 t y w h]eaft] h b little leisure = read+ & /udy+1 comp>$ to :at y h n[4 ,besides1 g5]al maxims ( all k9ds1 su* z are ! f\ndation ( all our future conduct1 9 morals1 religion1 or politics1 are g5]ally =m$ at y\r "t ( life4 ,f ?is p]iod expect no great *ange 9 y\r op9ions1 or conduct2 because n[ x is t y give p>ticul> att5tion to ! =m+ y\r op9ions on all subjects ( importance2 s t v little t is mat]ially new to y c be expect$ to occur to y 9 future life1 & almo/ e ?+ t y w\ld *oose to read w only t5d to confirm y 9 ! g5]al pr9ciples t y w n[ adopt4 ,!re are1 no d\bt1 exceptions to ?is1 z well z e o!r g5]al obs]vation2 b x is wisdom to suppose1 & to act ^u ! supposition1 t we are con/itut$ z ! g5]ality ( mank9d are1 & t we %all feel1 & act1 z !y d4 ,s9ce1 !n1 s mu* dep5ds on ! lead+ pr9ciples & maxims :i* y w n[ adopt1 be x y\r c>e to =m j & good ones1 & let no au?ority ( tutors1 or o!rs1 h any undue influ5ce ov] y4 ,9 all cases ?9k & judge = y\rselves1 & especially on all subjects ( importance1 & ) z mu* att5tion z y c give to !m4 ,x may n be amiss1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s1 to say some?+ respect+ ano!r subject1 :i* n[ comm&s univ]sal att5tion4 ,y _c b be appris$1 t _m p]sons ent]ta9 a prejudice aga9/ ?is ,college1 on acc\nt ( ! republican1 &1 z !y *oose to call !m1 ! lic5ti\s1 pr9ciples ( gov]nm5t1 :i* are suppos$ to be taught "h4 ,%[1 !n1 by y\r g5]al conv]sation1 & conduct1 t y are ! fri5ds ( peace & good ord]2 & t1 :atev] may be y\r op9ions ) respect to ! be/ =m ( gov]nm5t = p :o h no previ\s prejudices or habits1 y w d e ?+ 9 y\r p[] = ! pres]vation ( t =m ( x :i* ! g5]ality ( y\r c\ntrym5 approve1 & "u :i* y live1 :i* is all t c be reasonably expect$ ( any subject4 ,z x is n necess>y t e good son %\ld ?9k 8 p>5t ! wise/ & be/ man 9 ! _w1 b x is ?\ght suffici5t if ! son pay due respect & ob$i5ce to 8 p>5t2 s nei!r is x to be expect$ t e man %\ld be ( op9ion t ! =m ( gov]nm5t "u :i* he happ5s to be born is ! be/ ( all possible =ms ( gov]nm5t4 ,x is en\gh t he submit to x1 & t he make no attempt to br+ ab\t any *ange1 except by fair reason+1 & endeav\r+ to conv9ce 8 c\ntrym51 t x is 9 _! p[] to bett] _! condition 9 t respect1 z well z 9 any o!r4 ,?9k1 !re=e1 speak1 & write1 ) ! greate/ fre$om on ! subject ( gov]nm5t1 p>ticul> or g5]al1 z well z on any o!r t may come be=e y4 ,x c only be av[$ tyranny t w\ld prev5t ?is4 ,b at ! same "t submit y\rselves1 & promote submission 9 o!rs1 to t =m ( gov]nm5t :i* y f9d to be mo/ approv$1 9 ?is c\ntry1 :i* at pres5t unque/ionably is t by ,k+1 ,lords1 & ,commons4 ,z to religion1 we may1 surely1 be all[$ to ?9k & act entirely = ourselves2 9 all cases obey+ ,god & consci5ce r ?an man4 ,b let u be ?ankful = ! degree ( lib]ty t we are all[$1 ?\gh x be n all t we are ju/ly entitl$ to2 & let u n use any o!r means ?an reason & argum5t 9 ord] to bett] our condition4 ,by ?is peaceable & /eady conduct we %all at l5g? conv9ce ^? :o w he> reason1 t we are entitl$ to great] consid]ation2 & d\bt n b :atev] is true & "r1 w f9ally prevail1 & be univ]sally e/abli%$4 ,t any ( y\r tutors1 or any ( ! fri5ds ( ?is in/itution1 wi% to promote re=mation1 9 *ur* or /ate1 by any o!r means ?an ^? ( reason1 & argum5t1 is a calumny1 utt]ly void ( f\ndation1 or probability4 ,b y\r conduct1 disp]s$ z y w soon be 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 w be ! be/ means ( refut+ x4 ,let u leave ! me?od ( proce$+ by riot & tumult to ^? p]sons to ^: s*emes su* proce$+s are cong5ial4 ,tru? /&s 9 no ne$ ( su* support1 & w always triumph :5 assail$ by su* weapons4 ,9 return1 !n1 = ! advantages :i* y h enjoy$ 9 ?is in/itution1 d x ?is s]vice2 & 9 recomm5d+ x1 ,i tru/ y are do+ sub/antial s]vice to ! cause ( lib]ty & tru?2 & conf]r+ a mo/ important b5efit on y\r c\ntry1 & on mank9d4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,lecture ,i4 ,! ,introduction #a ,,lecture ,,ii4 ,( ! ,prop]ties ( all ,matt] #i ,( ,a]i=m ,sub/ances #ac ,,lecture ,,iii4 ,( ,atmosph]ical ,air #ae ,,lecture ,,iv4 ,( ,dephlogi/icat$ ,air #ah ,( ,phlogi/icat$ ,air #bj ,,lecture ,v4 ,( ,inflammable ,air #ba ,,lecture ,,vi4 ,( ,nitr\s ,air #bc ,,lecture ,,vii4 ,( ,fix$ ,air #bg ,( ,hepatic ,air #bi ,( ,phosphoric ,air #cj ,,lecture ,,viii4 ,( ,dephlogi/icat$ ,m>9e ,acid ,air #ca ,( ,phlogi/icat$ ,m>9e ,acid ,air #cb ,,lecture ,,ix4 ,( ,vitriolic ,acid ,air #cd ,( ,fluor ,acid ,air #cf ,,lecture ,x4 ,( ,alkal9e ,air #cg ,miscellane\s ,obs]vations relat+ to ,air #ch ,,lecture ,,xi4 ,( ,liquid ,sub/ances2 & fir/ ( ,wat] #da ,,lecture ,,xii4 ,( ! ,nitr\s ,acid #de ,,lecture ,,xiii4 ,( ! ,vitriolic ,acid #di ,( ! ,m>9e ,acid #eb ,,lecture ,,xiv4 ,( ! ,vegetable ,acids1 & o!rs ( a less p]fect nature #ed ,,lecture ,,xv4 ,( ! ,phosphoric ,acid #ei ,,lecture ,,xvi4 ,( ,alkalis #fb ,,lecture ,,xvii4 ,( ,liquid ,inflammable ,sub/ances #ff ,( ,a,ether #fh ,,lecture ,,xviii4 ,( ,oil #gj ,,lecture ,,xix4 ,( ,solid ,sub/ances #gf ,( ,calc>e\s ,e>? #gg ,( ,silice\s ,e>? #gi ,,lecture ,,xx4 ,( ,argillace\s ,e>? #ha ,( ,t]ra ,pond]osa #hb ,( ,magnesia #hc ,,lecture ,,xxi4 ,( ,ores #hd ,( ,gold #hg ,,lecture ,,xxii4 ,( ,silv] #ij ,( ,plat9a #ib ,,lecture ,,xxiii4 ,( ,m]cury #id ,,lecture ,,xxiv4 ,( ,lead #ii ,( ,copp] #aja ,,lecture ,,xxv4 ,( ,iron #aje ,,lecture ,,xxvi4 ,( ,t9 #aji ,( ! ,semi-metals #aac ,,lecture ,,xxvii4 ,( ,nickel #aae ,( ,ars5ic #aaf ,( ,cobalt #aah ,( ,z9c #aai ,,lecture ,,xxviii4 ,( ,antimony #aba ,( ,manganese #abc ,( ,wolfram #abd ,( ,molybd5a #abe ,( ,solid ,combu/ible ,sub/ances #abf ,,lecture ,,xxix4 ,( ! ,doctr9e ( ,phlogi/on & ! ,composition ( ,wat] #abg ,,lecture ,,xxx4 ,( ,heat #ace ,,lecture ,,xxxi4 ,( ,animal ,heat #ade ,,lecture ,,xxxii4 ,( ,light #adh ,,lecture ,,xxxiii4 ,( ,magnetism #aee ,,lecture ,,xxxiv4 ,( ,electricity #afb ,,lecture ,,xxxv4 ,! same ,subject cont9u$ #agj ,,lecture ,,xxxvi4 ,! same ,subject cont9u$ #agg ,,lectures ,,on ,,exp]im5tal ,,philosophy4 ,,lecture ,i4 ,! ,introduction4 ,! object ( exp]im5tal philosophy is ! k ( nature 9 g5]al1 or m /rictly1 t ( ! prop]ties ( natural sub/ances1 & ( ! *anges ( ^? prop]ties 9 diff]5t circum/ances4 ,?is k c only be atta9$ by exp]im5t1 or obs]vation2 z t clay is capable ( becom+ h>d by means ( fire1 & !reby be+ made into bricks1 & t by ! same means lime-/one c be conv]t$ into quick-lime1 & by ! addition ( wat] & s&1 make mort>4 ,x is by obs]vation also t we discov] t /ones & o!r heavy bodies fall to ! gr\nd1 & t a magnet w attract iron4 ,9 o!r words1 exp]im5tal philosophy is an inve/igation ( ! wisdom ( ,god 9 ! works & ! laws ( nature1 s t x is "o ( ! greate/ objects to ! m9d ( man1 & op5s a field ( inquiry :i* has no b\nds2 e advance we make sugge/+ new d\bts & subjects ( f>!r inquiry4 ,! uni=mity we discov] 9 ! prop]ties ( natural sub/ances enables u to lay d[n g5]al rules1 or pr9ciples1 :i*1 be+ inv>iable1 we call ! laws ( nature2 & by our k ( ^! laws we are able to pr$ict1 & at our own pleasure to produce1 p>ticul> results1 & ?is is ! s\rce ( all ! p[]s ( man4 ,x is ! direction we acquire ( ! p[]s ( nature2 s t1 z ,"l ,bacon obs]v$1 k is p[]4 ,all arts & manufactures are d]iv$ f sci5ce4 ,?us ! doctr9e ( me*anics is an application ( ! law ( gravitation4 ,e ?+ we are capable ( do+ by means ( ! /eam-eng9e is d]iv$ f our k ( ! prop]ties ( wat] 9 /eam2 all ! great effects ( gunp[d] we owe to our k ( ! composition1 & *emical prop]ties1 ( t sub/ance4 ,e new appe>ance 9 nature is prec$$ by "s new circum/ance1 & to ?is1 or r to some?+ always att5d+ x1 we say t ! appe>ance is ow+4 ,?is circum/ance we !re=e call ! cause1 & ! new appe>ance ! effect ( t cause4 ,?us we say t ! union ( phlogi/on to a p>ticul> k9d ( e>? is ! cause ( its becom+ a metal4 ,x is "o ( ! pr9cipal rules ( philosophiz+ to admit no m causes ?an are necess>y to acc\nt = ! effects4 ,?us1 if ! p[] ( gravity1 by :i* heavy bodies fall to ! e>?1 be suffici5t to reta9 ! planets 9 _! orbits1 we are au?oriz$ to reject ! ,c>tesian ,vortices4 ,9 o!r words1 we mu/ make no m g5]al propositions ?an are necess>y to compreh5d all ! p>ticul>s conta9$ 9 !m4 ,?us1 aft] hav+ obs]v$ t iron consi/s ( a p>ticul> k9d ( e>? unit$ to phlogi/on1 & t x is soluble 9 acids2 & t ! same is true ( all o!r metallic sub/ances1 we say1 univ]sally1 t all metals consi/ ( a peculi> e>? & phlogi/on1 & t !y are all soluble 9 "s acid4 ,( ! circum/ances :i* occasion a *ange 9 ! prop]ties ( bodies1 "s are ! addition ( :at are prop]ly call$ sub/ances1 or ?+s t are ! objects ( our s5ses1 be+ visible1 tangible1 or hav+ weight1 c4 ,?us ! addition ( an acid *anges an alkali into a neutral salt4 ,b o!r *anges are occasion$ ei!r by a *ange ( texture 9 ! sub/ance itself1 or ! addition ( some?+ t is n ! object ( any ( our s5ses4 ,?us1 a piece ( /eel becomes a magnet by ! t\* ( ano!r magnet1 & a drop ( glass acquires ! prop]ty ( fly+ asund] by a small fracture1 9 consequ5ce ( fall+ :5 r$ hot into cold wat]4 ,su* also1 9 ! op9ion ( "s1 is ! diff]5ce betwe5 hot & cold sub/ances4 ,till ! nature ( ! cause be asc]ta9$1 x is conv5i5t to make use ( ! t]m pr9ciple1 z includ+ bo? ( ! above-m5tion$ causes ( ! *ange ( prop]ties 9 bodies4 ,?us1 :atev] be ! real cause ( gravity1 or ( inflammability1 we may speak ( ! pr9ciple ( gravity1 or ( inflammability2 :e!r1 ) ,newton1 we suppose gravity to be occasion$ by a fluid p]vad+ ! :ole univ]se1 :i* he t]m$ ae!r1 & :e!r inflammability be caus$ by ! pres5ce ( a real sub/ance call$ phlogi/on1 or n4 ,9 ?is mann] we use ! lett]s x & y to d5ote unkn[n quantities 9 algebra4 ,:5 *anges are made 9 sub/ances by ! addition ( o!r sub/ances1 !y make :at is call$ a *emical union2 & 9 ?is case ! prop]ties ( ! comp\nd _c ) any c]ta9ty be d$uc$ f ^? ( ! compon5t p>ts1 b mu/ be asc]ta9$ by fre% exp]im5ts4 ,?us1 f ! specific gravities1 or ! degrees ( fusibility1 ( two metals1 ^? ( ! comp\nd _c be pr$ict$4 ,nei!r wat] nor acid ( vitriol w sep>ately dissolve iron1 s z to produce inflammable air1 b bo? toge!r w d x4 ,h[ev]1 ! prop]ties ( simil> comp\nds are simil> to "o ano!r4 ,?us1 all metals dissolv$ 9 acids are precipitat$ by mild alkalis4 ,?is *emical union ( two sub/ances we ascribe to a c]ta9 elective attraction1 or aff9ity t subsi/s betwe5 !m1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* !y unite ) "o ano!r :5ev] a prop] opportunity (f]s1 9 pref]5ce to ^? sub/ances to :i* !y 7 be=e unit$4 ,?us ! vitriolic acid1 hav+ a /rong] aff9ity ) ! vegetable alkali :i* is ! basis ( nitre1 w unite ) t alkali1 & ) x =m ano!r comp\nd1 call$ vitriolat$ t>t>1 :ile ! acid ( nitre1 be+ deta*$ f its base1 is collect$ sep>ately4 ,:5 two sub/ances compose "o liquid1 & a ?ird1 :i* has a /rong] aff9ity ) ei!r ( ! two p>ts ?an !y h ) ea* o!r1 is add$ to !m1 x w unite ) t "p1 & take its place 9 ! solution1 :ile ! o!r w 9 _m cases be precipitat$1 & may be collect$4 ,?us ! e>? ( alum is precipitat$ f a solution ( alum by salt ( t>t>4 ,?is is ! case ( simple aff9ity4 ,:5 bo? ! sub/ances are comp\nds1 ! compon5t p>ts ( :i* h a weak] aff9ity ) ea* o!r ?an !y h ) ^? ( ! o!r comp\nd1 two new comb9ations are =m$1 & ?is is call$ a case ( d\ble aff9ity4 ,?us :5 phlogi/icat$ alkali is p\r$ into a solution ( gre5 vitriol1 ! acid ( ! vitriol unites ) ! alkali1 :ile ! phlogi/on jo9+ ! calx ( iron makes ,prussian blue4 ,all nature ly+ op5 to our inve/igation1 we mu/ consid] ! diff]5t p>ts 9 "s ord]4 ,b x is n v mat]ial :i* we adopt1 because1 beg9 :]e we w1 ! prop]ties ( ! sub/ances we fir/ treat ( w be connect$ ) ^? :i* mu/ be p>ticul>ly consid]$ aft]w>ds1 ! *anges 9 "o sub/ance be+ occasion$ by its union ) ano!r4 ,x w be impossible1 = example1 to expla9 ! prop]ties ( metals )\t consid]+ ! acids1 because by _! union ) acids v important *anges are made 9 _! prop]ties4 ,!re h be5 ?ree pr9cipal me?ods ( arrang+ natural sub/ances4 ,"o is accord+ to ! ?ree k+doms1 z !y are call$1 into :i* !y h be5 di/ribut$1 viz4 ! m9]al1 ! vegetable1 & ! animal4 ,ano!r is accord+ to ! elem5ts :i* ent] into _! composition1 & a ?ird accord+ to ! =m 9 :i* !y are usually f\nd1 viz4 a]ial1 fluid1 or solid4 ,^u ! :ole ?is la/ appe>s to me to be ! mo/ conv5i5t1 especially z x is easy to int]mix g5]al obs]vations conc]n+ ! o!r divisions :5 !y are p>ticul>ly want$4 ,z !re w be frequ5t occasion to speak ( ! compon5t & elem5t>y p>ts ( all sub/ances1 ,i %all "h obs]ve1 t1 accord+ to ! late/ obs]vations1 ! foll[+ appe> to be ! elem5ts :i* compose all natural sub/ances1 viz4 dephlogi/icat$ air1 or ! acidify+ pr9ciple2 phlogi/on1 or ! alkal9e pr9ciple2 ! diff]5t e>?s1 & ! pr9ciples ( heat1 light1 & electricity4 ,besides ^!1 !re are ! foll[+ pr9ciples :i* h n be5 prov$ to be sub/ances1 viz4 attraction1 repulsion1 & magnetism4 ,by ! help ( ^! pr9ciples we are able1 accord+ to ! pres5t /ate ( natural k1 to expla9 all ! appe>ances t h yet occurr$ to u4 ,,lecture ,,ii4 ,( ! ,prop]ties ( all ,matt]4 ,be=e ,i consid] ! prop]ties ( p>ticul> sub/ances1 x w be prop] to m5tion ^? :i* are common to !m all4 ,b ,i %all fir/ obs]ve1 t ! t]m sub/ance has no prop] idea annex$ to x1 b is m]ely a conv5i5ce 9 spee*2 s9ce we _c speak ( ! prop]ties ( sub/ances1 su* z h>d1 r\nd1 col\r$1 c4 c4 7:i* circum/ances alone affect our s5ses1 & !reby give prop] ideas7 )\t say+ t !y inh]e 91 or belong to1 "s ?+1 sub/ance1 or sub/ratum4 ,! t]ms be+ & p]son are also 9 ! same pr$icam5t4 ,"o prop]ty ( all sub/ances is ext5sion1 s9ce !y all occupy "s portion ( space4 ,! incapacity ( any sub/ance to *ange its place has be5 t]m$1 ?\gh improp]ly1 ! vis in]tiae ( matt]4 ,x is suffici5t to say1 t nei!r ?is1 nor any o!r effect c be produc$ )\t a cause4 ,inf9ite divisibility is a necess>y prop]ty ( all ext5d$ sub/ance2 & f ?is circum/ance x w foll[1 t ! smalle/ quantity ( solid matt] may be made to fill ! l>ge/ space1 & yet none ( ! pores %all exce$ ! smalle/ giv5 magnitude2 & consequ5tly1 t1 = any ?+ we "k to ! contr>y1 all ! bodies 9 ! univ]se may be compriz$ 9 ! smalle/ space4 ,ano!r prop]ty usually ascrib$ to all matt] is imp5etrability1 or ! necess>y exclusion ( any sub/ance f ! place occupi$ by ano!r4 ,b ! only pro( ( imp5etrability is ! resi/ance t we f9d to our endeav\rs to put "o sub/ance into ! place ( ano!r2 & x is demon/rat$ by exp]im5ts1 t ?is resi/ance is n occasion$ by ! actual contact ( ! sub/ances1 b by a p[] ( repulsion act+ at a real di/ance f _! surfaces4 ,x requires a consid]able =ce to br+ two solid sub/ances into z ne> contact z ! p>ticles ( ! same sub/ance2 & t ^! are n 9 actual contact is evid5t1 f _! be+ capable ( be+ br\ght ne>] by cold2 & ?is is mo/ rem>kable ) respect to ! heavie/1 t is1 ! d5se/1 ( all sub/ances1 viz4 ! metals4 ,a m positive argum5t = ! p5etrability ( matt] is1 t ! p>ticles ( light1 aft] ent]+ ! d5se/ transp>5t sub/ance1 d n appe> to meet ) any ob/ruction to _! progress till !y come to ! opposite side4 ,! p[]s ( attraction & repulsion seem to be common to all matt]1 & ! compon5t p>ts ( all sub/ances are kept 9 _! places by ! due balance ( ^? opposite p[]s4 ,if1 by any means1 ! p>ticles ( any sub/ance be remov$ beyond _! sph]e ( mutual attraction1 !y repel "o ano!r1 z ^? ( wat] :5 x becomes /eam4 ,( ! diff]5t k9ds ( attraction1 t ( gravitation seems to ext5d to ! greate/ possible di/ance2 b t :i* keeps toge!r ! p>ts ( ! same sub/ance1 !nce call$ ! attraction ( cohesion1 & ! diff]5t k9ds ( *emical attractions1 call$ aff9ities1 only act at a small di/ance4 ,( ! causes ( ^! attractions we are entirely ignorant4 ,( ,a]i=m ,sub/ances4 ,a]i=m sub/ances1 ( :i* ! air t we brea! is "o1 ?\gh invisible1 are real sub/ances1 z appe>s by _! exclud+ o!r sub/ances4 ,t ! air has weight appe>s by actually weigh+ a vessel be=e & aft] x is exhau/$ ( air by means ( an air-pump 7an in/rum5t contriv$ = t purpose7 by its bur/+ a bladd]1 & v>i\s o!r exp]im5ts4 ,air1 be+ a fluid1 presses 9 all directions1 z 9 ! exp]im5t ( ! f\nta9 9 vacuo1 & o!rs4 ,! weight ( ! air is ! cause ( ! susp5sion ( m]cury 9 a b>omet]1 & ( ! action ( pumps4 ,! weight ( atmosph]ical air is to t ( wat] 9 ! proportion ( ab\t #a to #hjj1 s z to press ) ! weight ( ab\t f\rte5 p\nds on e squ>e in* ( surface4 ,air1 be+ an ela/ic fluid1 is capable ( occupy+ m or less space accord+ to ! pressure :i* x su/a9s1 z appe>s by a bladd] p>tially fill$ ) air be+ exp&$ :5 ! air is drawn f a receiv] 9 :i* x is put1 by means ( ! air-pump1 & compress$ 9 ! cond5s+ eng9e1 an in/rum5t ! rev]se ( ! air-pump4 ,air is necess>y to ! conveyance ( s\nd1 to ! exi/5ce ( flame1 & to animal life4 ,,lecture ,,iii4 ,( ,atmosph]ical ,air4 ,! fir/ species ( air t (f]s itself to our consid]ation is t ( ! atmosph]e1 :i* appe>s to consi/ ( a mixture ( two k9ds ( air1 ( diff]5t & opposite qualities1 viz41 dephlogi/icat$ & phlogi/icat$1 9 ! proportion ( ab\t "o ?ird ( ! =m] to two ?irds ( ! latt]4 ,x is by means ( ! =m] ( ^! two +r$i5ts t x is capable ( support+ flame & animal life4 ,?is composition ( atmosph]ical air is prov$ by sev]al sub/ances absorb+ ! dephlogi/icat$ air1 & leav+ ! phlogi/icat$4 ,all ^! processes h be5 t]m$ phlogi/ic1 because ! effect is n produc$ b by sub/ances suppos$ to conta9 phlogi/on 9 a volatile /ate2 & by ! aff9ity betwe5 phlogi/on & ! dephlogi/icat$ "p ( ! air1 ! "o is sep>at$ f ! o!r4 ,( ^! processes are ! calc9ation ( metals1 a mixture ( iron-fil+s & sulphur1 liv] ( sulphur1 ! burn+ ( phosphorus1 & ! effluvia ( fl[]s4 ,9 "s cases1 h[ev]1 x is n s cle> t any ?+ is emitt$ f ! sub/ance t produces ?is effect2 = wat] depriv$ ( all air w absorb ! dephlogi/icat$ "p ( ! atmosph]ical 9 pref]5ce to ! phlogi/icat$ "p4 ,z ! purity ( atmosph]ical air1 or its fitness = respiration1 dep5ds ^u ! proportion ( ! dephlogi/icat$ air t x conta9s1 any ( ! above-m5tion$ processes w suffice to det]m9e x4 ,! m any giv5 quantity ( air is dim9i%$ by any ( !m1 ! pur] x 0 be=e ! dim9ution4 ,b ?is effect is produc$ ! mo/ quickly by a mixture ( nitr\s air1 or fir+ inflammable air 9 x1 be+ almo/ in/antane\s4 ,9 ord] to measure ! purity ( air1 x is conv5i5t to take m ( ! nitr\s or inflammable air ?an is necess>y to saturate ! dephlogi/icat$ air x conta9s4 ,equal quantities ( ea* be/ answ] ! purpose4 ,suppos+ a giv5 quantity ( atmosph]ical air to be mix$ ) an equal quantity ( nitr\s air1 & ! residuum to be #a4a measure1 ! proportion ( dephlogi/icat$ & phlogi/icat$ air 9 x may be f\nd by ! foll[+ ari?metical op]ation1 x be+ "h tak5 = grant$ t "o measure ( pure dephlogi/icat$ air w saturate two measures ( pure nitr\s air4 #b4j viz4 "o ( ea*4 #a4a ! residuum4 ----- #c7j4i ! quantity t has disappe>$4 #j4c ! dephlogi/icat$ air conta9$ 9 ! measure ( ! air exam9$4 ,& ?is sub/ract$ f #a leaves 4#g = ! proportion ( phlogi/icat$ air 9 x4 ,,lecture ,,iv4 ,( ,dephlogi/icat$ ,air4 ,dephlogi/icat$ air1 :i* is "o ( ! compon5t p>ts ( atmosph]ical air1 is a pr9cipal elem5t 9 ! composition ( acids1 & may be extract$ by means ( heat f _m sub/ances :i* conta9 !m1 especially ! nitr\s & vitriolic2 z f nitre1 r$ precipitate1 ! vitriols1 & turbi? m9]al1 & also f ^! two acids !mselves1 expos$ to a r$ heat 9 an e>!n tube4 ,?is k9d ( air is also conta9$ 9 sev]al sub/ances :i* _h attract$ x f ! atmosph]e1 z f precipitate p] se1 m9ium1 manganese4 ,dephlogi/icat$ air is likewise produc$ by ! action ( light ^u gre5 vegetables2 & ?is seems to be ! *ief means employ$ by nature to pres]ve ! purity ( ! atmosph]e4 ,x is ?is +r$i5t 9 atmosph]ic air t enables x to support combu/ion & animal life4 ,by means ( x ! mo/ int5se heat may be produc$1 & 9 ! pure/ ( x animals w live ne>ly five times z long z 9 an equal quantity ( atmosph]ical air4 ,9 respiration1 "p ( ?is air1 pass+ ! membrane ( ! lungs1 unites ) ! blood1 & imp>ts to x its florid col\r1 :ile ! rema9d]1 unit+ ) phlogi/on exhal$ f ! v5\s blood1 =ms fix$ air4 ,x is dephlogi/icat$ air comb9$ ) wat] t enables fi%es to live 9 x4 ,dephlogi/icat$ air is some?+ heavi] ?an atmosph]ical air1 & ! purity ( x measur$ by mix+ ) x two equal quantities ( nitr\s or inflammable air1 d$uc+ ! residuum aft] ! dim9ution f ! ?ree measures employ$1 & divid+ ! rema9d] by #c1 z 9 ! process = common air4 ,( ,phlogi/icat$ ,air4 ,! o!r +r$i5t 9 ! composition ( atmosph]ical air is phlogi/icat$ air4 ,x is procur$ by extract+ ! dephlogi/icat$ "p ( ! common air1 z by ! calc9ation ( metals1 c4 c4 by dissolv+ animal sub/ances 9 nitr\s acid1 & also by ! union ( phlogi/on ) nitr\s air1 z by heat+ iron 9 x1 & by a mixture ( iron-fil+s & sulphur4 ,phlogi/icat$ air ext+ui%es a c&le1 is entirely unfit = respiration1 & is some?+ light] ?an common air4 ,x is n capable ( decomposition1 except by explod+ x toge!r ) a sup]abundance ( dephlogi/icat$ air1 & a quantity ( inflammable air1 or by tak+ ! electric sp>k repeat$ly 9 a mixture ( x & dephlogi/icat$ air4 ,9 ^! cases nitr\s acid is =m$4 ,,lecture ,v4 ,( ,inflammable ,air4 ,inflammable air is procur$ f all combu/ible sub/ances by means ( heat & wat]1 & f sev]al ( ! metals1 especially iron1 z9k1 & t91 by ! vitriolic & m>9e acids4 ,f oils & _s ( w9e x is procur$ by ! electric sp>k4 ,by ! same means also alkal9e air is conv]t$ into x4 ,t :i* is procur$ f metals1 especially by /eam1 is ! pure/ & ! lighte/1 ab\t t5 times light] ?an common air2 9 consequ5ce ( :i*1 if a suffici5t quantity be conf9$ 9 a light cov]+1 x is possible to make x c>ry up heavy weights4 ,:5 x is procur$ f animal or vegetable sub/ances1 x is ( a heavi] k9d1 & burns ) a lamb5t flame1 ( v>i\s col\rs1 accord+ to ! circum/ances4 ,calces ( metals heat$ 9 inflammable air are reviv$1 & ! air absorb$2 & s9ce all ! metals are reviv$ 9 ! same inflammable air1 ! pr9ciple ( metallization1 or phlogi/on1 appe>s to be ! same 9 !m all4 ,pure inflammable air seems to consi/ ( phlogi/on & wat]1 & ! lamb5t k9ds to be ! same ?+1 ) ! addition ( "s oily vap\r diffus$ ?r\gh x4 ,,lecture ,,vi4 ,( ,nitr\s ,air4 ,nitr\s air is procur$ by dissolv+ mo/ ( ! metals1 especially iron1 m]cury1 & copp]1 9 ! nitr\s acid2 b t f m]cury seems to be ! pure/4 ,nitr\s air produc$ f copp] conta9s a mixture ( phlogi/icat$ air4 ,"s nitr\s air is also obta9$ f ! solution ( all vegetable sub/ances 9 nitr\s acid2 :]eas animal sub/ances 9 ! same process yield *iefly phlogi/icat$ air3 b 9 bo? ^! cases !re is a mixture ( fix$ air4 ,?is species ( air is likewise produc$ by impregnat+ wat] ) nitr\s vap\r4 ,?is process cont9ues to h ?is effect aft] ! wat] becomes blue1 b ceases :5 x turns gre52 !re n !n1 probably1 be+ a suffici5t proportion ( wat]4 ,nitr\s air is likewise produc$ by volatile alkali pass+ ov] r$ hot manganese1 or gre5 vitriol1 :5 !y are yield+ dephlogi/icat$ air4 ,?is %ews t dephlogi/icat$ air is "o +r$i5t 9 ! composition ( nitr\s air1 & ! same ?+ appe>s by pyrophorus burn+ 9 x4 ,on ! contr>y1 :5 nitr\s air is made to pass ov] r$-hot iron1 volatile alkali is produc$4 ,nitr\s air is completely decompos$ by a mixture ( ab\t half its bulk ( dephlogi/icat$ air1 & ! produce is nitr\s acid4 ,& z nitr\s acid is likewise =m$ by ! union ( inflammable & dephlogi/icat$ air1 "o pr9cipal +r$i5t 9 nitr\s air mu/ be common to x & inflammable air1 or phlogi/on4 ,?is air is likewise decompos$ by dephlogi/icat$ nitr\s acid1 :i* by ?is means becomes phlogi/icat$4 ,x is also decompos$ by a solution ( gre5 vitriol1 :i* by ?is means becomes black1 & :5 expos$ to ! air1 or heat$1 emits nitr\s air1 & recov]s its =m] col\r4 ,^! decompositions ( nitr\s air seem to be effect$ by depriv+ x ( phlogi/on1 & !reby r$uc+ x to ! phlogi/icat$ air orig9ally conta9$ 9 x4 ,?is k9d ( air is dim9i%$ to ab\t "o f\r? ( its bulk by a mixture ( iron fil+s & brim/one1 or by heat+ iron 9 x1 or calc9+ o!r metals 9 x1 :5 ! rema9d] is phlogi/icat$ air4 ,all t iron gets 9 ?is process is an addition ( weight1 :i* appe>s to be wat]1 b x loses its phlogi/on1 s t nitr\s air seems to conta9 m phlogi/on1 & less wat] ?an phlogi/icat$ air4 ,nitr\s air & dephlogi/icat$ air w act ^u "o ano!r ?r\gh a bladd]1 b 9 ?is case !re rema9s ab\t "o-f\r? ( ! bulk ( nitr\s air1 & t is phlogi/icat$ air2 s t 9 ?is case !re seems to be a conv]sion ( nitr\s air into phlogi/icat$ air )\t any addition ( phlogi/on4 ,nitr\s air is decompos$ by pyrophorus1 & by agitation 9 olive oil1 :i* becomes coagulat$ by ! process4 ,x is also absorb$ by _s ( turp5t9e1 by e!r1 by _s ( w9e1 & alkal9e liquors4 ,x is imbib$ by *>coal1 & bo? t air :i* is aft]w>ds expell$ f x by heat1 & t :i* rema9s unabsorb$1 is phlogi/icat$ air4 ,nitr\s air resi/s putrefaction1 b is dim9i%$ by ! animal sub/ances expos$ to x to ab\t a f\r? ( its bulk1 & becomes phlogi/icat$ air4 ,x is likewise fatal to plants1 & p>ticul>ly to insects4 ,:5 nitr\s air is long expos$ to iron1 x is dim9i%$ & br\ght into a /ate 9 :i* a c&le w burn 9 x1 ?\gh no animal c brea! x4 ,b ?is peculi> modification ( nitr\s air1 call$ dephlogi/icat$ nitr\s air1 is produc$ ) ! greate/ c]ta9ty by dissolv+ iron 9 _s ( nitre saturat$ ) copp]1 impregnat+ wat] ) ?is air1 & !n expell+ x f ! wat] by heat4 ,if bits ( e>!n w>e be heat$ 9 ?is dephlogi/icat$ nitr\s air1 a great proportion ( x becomes p]man5t air1 n miscible ) wat]1 & ne>ly z pure z common air1 s t ! pr9ciple ( heat seems to be want+ to con/itute x p]man5t air4 ,,lecture ,,vii4 ,( ,fix$ ,air4 ,hav+ consid]$ ! prop]ties ( ^? k9ds ( air :i* are n readily absorb$ by wat]1 & !re=e may be conf9$ by x1 ,i proce$ to ^? :i* are absorb$ by x1 & :i* require to be conf9$ by m]cury4 ,!re are two k9ds1 h[ev]1 9 a middle /ate betwe5 ^!1 be+ absorb$ by wat]1 b n v readily2 a consid]able "t1 or agitation1 be+ necess>y = t purpose4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is fix$ air4 ,?is k9d ( air is obta9$ 9 ! pure/ /ate by dissolv+ m>ble1 lime-/one1 & o!r k9ds ( mild calc>e\s e>? 9 any acid4 ,x is also obta9$ by ! burn+1 or ! putrefaction1 ( bo? animal & vegetable sub/ances1 b ) a mixture ( bo? phlogi/icat$ & inflammable air4 ,fix$ air is also produc$ by heat+ toge!r iron fil+s & r$ precipitate2 ! =m] ( :i* w\ld alone yield inflammable air1 & ! latt] dephlogi/icat$4 ,fix$ air is !re=e a comb9ation ( ^! two k9ds ( air4 ,ano!r fact :i* proves ! same ?+ is1 t if *>coal ( copp] be heat$ 9 dephlogi/icat$ air1 almo/ ! :ole ( x w be conv]t$ into fix$ air4 ,on ! same pr9ciple fix$ air is produc$ :5 iron1 & o!r inflammable sub/ances1 are burn$ 9 dephlogi/icat$ air1 & also :5 m9ium1 & o!r sub/ances conta9+ dephlogi/icat$ air1 are heat$ 9 inflammable air4 ,t wat] is an ess5tial "p ( fix$ air is prov$ by an exp]im5t ^u t]ra pond]osa a]ata1 :i* yields fix$ air :5 x is dissolv$ 9 an acid1 b n by m]e heat4 ,if /eam1 h[ev]1 be admitt$ to x 9 t /ate1 x w yield z mu* fix$ air z :5 x is dissolv$ 9 an acid4 ,wat] absorbs some?+ m ?an its own bulk ( fix$ air1 & !n becomes a prop] acid4 ,iron dissolv$ 9 ?is wat] makes x a prop] *alybeate2 z )\t iron x is ( ! same nature ) ,pyrmont or ,seltz] wat]1 :i* by ?is means may be made artificially4 ,ice w n imbibe ?is air1 & !re=e freez+ expels x f wat]4 ,fix$ air ext+ui%es flame1 & is fatal to animals brea?+ 9 x4 ,also wat] impregnat$ ) ?is air is fatal to fi%es1 & highly injuri\s to plants4 ,b wat] ?us impregnat$ w prev5t1 9 a great measure1 ! putrefaction ( animal sub/ances4 ,fix$ air ?r[n into ! inte/9es1 by way ( gly/]1 has be5 f\nd to give relief 9 "s cases ( putrid disease4 ,( ,hepatic ,air4 ,ano!r species ( air absorb$ by wat]1 b n in/antly1 is t]m$ hepatic air1 be+ produc$ by ! solution ( liv] ( sulphur1 or ( sulphurat$ iron1 9 vitriolic or m>9e acid4 ,wat] imbibes ab\t twice its bulk ( ?is k9d ( air1 & x is !n ! same ?+ ) ! sulphure\s wat]s ( ,h>r[gate4 ,( ,phosphoric ,air4 ,phosphoric air is produc$ by ! solution ( phosphorus 9 cau/ic fix$ alkali4 ,if ?is air be conf9$ by m]cury1 x w take fire on be+ admitt$ to atmosph]ic1 & mu* m to dephlogi/icat$ air4 ,aft] agitation 9 wat] x loses ?is prop]ty1 & ! residuum is m]ely inflammable air1 ) no great dim9ution ( its bulk4 ,?is k9d ( air1 !re=e1 probably consi/s ( phosphorus dissolv$ 9 inflammable air2 ?\gh x _c be made by melt+ x 9 inflammable air4 ,,lecture ,,viii4 ,( ,dephlogi/icat$ ,m>9e ,acid ,air4 ,?is species ( air is produc$ by heat+ _s ( salt ) manganese2 or m readily1 by p\r+ acid ( vitriol on a mixture ( salt & manganese1 9 ! proportion ( ab\t #af ( ! =m] to #f ( ! latt]4 ,9 ?is case ! acid ( vitriol decomposes ! salt1 & ! m>9e acid1 dis5gag$ 9 ! =m ( air1 takes dephlogi/icat$ air f ! manganese2 s t ?is species ( air seems to consi/ ( m>9e acid vap\r1 & dephlogi/icat$ air4 ,?is species ( air has a peculi>ly pung5t smell1 & is absorb$ by wat] z readily z fix$ air4 ,! wat] takes ab\t twice its bulk ( x2 & !reby acquires a yell[i% t+e4 ,bo? ?is air1 & ! wat] impregnat$ ) x1 dis*>ges vegetable col\rs f l95 or cotton1 & is !reby useful 9 blea*+4 ,?is air :5 cold coagulates into a yell[i% sub/ance4 ,x dissolves m]cury1 & ) x =ms corrosive sublimate4 ,( ,phlogi/icat$ ,m>9e ,acid ,air4 ,besides ! prec$+ k9ds ( air :i* are sl[ly absorb$ by wat]1 !re are o!rs :i* are absorb$ by x v rapidly1 s t !y _c be conf9$ b by m]cury4 ,( ?is k9d is phlogi/icat$ m>9e acid air1 procur$ by ! acid ( vitriol & common salt2 ! =m] seiz+ ^u ! alkal9e basis ( ! latt]1 & !reby expell+ ! m>9e acid 9 ! =m ( air4 ,x is call$ phlogi/icat$ to di/+ui% x f dephlogi/icat$ m>9e acid air1 :i* seems to be ! same ?+1 ) ! addition ( dephlogi/icat$ air4 ,phlogi/icat$ m>9e acid air is heavi] ?an common air4 ,x ext+ui%es a c&le ) a blue flame4 ,x dissolves _m sub/ances conta9+ phlogi/on1 z iron1 dry fle%1 c4 & !reby =ms a little inflammable air4 ,wat] absorbs #cfj times its bulk ( ?is air1 & is !n ! /ronge/ _s ( salt4 ,x absorbs "o-six? m ?an its bulk ( alkal9e air1 & ) x =ms ! common sal ammoniac4 ,its aff9ity to wat] enables x to dissolve ice1 & to deprive borax1 nitre1 & o!r sal9e sub/ances1 ( ! wat] t ent]s into _! composition4 ,,lecture ,,ix4 ,( ,vitriolic ,acid ,air4 ,vitriolic acid air is procur$ by heat+ 9 hot acid ( vitriol almo/ any sub/ance conta9+ phlogi/on1 especially ! metals :i* are soluble 9 t acid1 z copp]1 m]cury1 c4 ,?is k9d ( air is heavi] ?an common air1 & ext+ui%es a c&le1 b )\t any p>ticul> col\r ( its flame4 ,x w n dislodge ! nitr\s or m>9e acids f any sub/ance conta9+ !m4 ,by its aff9ity to wat] x deprives borax ( x4 ,"o measure ( ?is air saturates two ( alkal9e air1 & ) x =ms ! vitriolic ammoniac4 ,wat] imbibes betwe5 #cj & #dj times its bulk ( ?is air1 & reta9s x :5 froz54 ,wat] ?us impregnat$ dissolves "s metals1 & !reby yields inflammable air4 ,if ?is wat] be conf9$ 9 a glass tube1 toge!r ) common air1 & be expos$ to a long cont9u$ heat1 x =ms real sulphur1 ! dephlogi/icat$ "p ( ! common air be+ imbib$1 & =m+ real vitriolic acid1 :i* unit+ ) ! phlogi/on 9 ! air1 =ms ! sulphur4 ,also ?is air mix$ ) atmosph]ic air w1 )\t heat1 imbibe "s "p ( x1 & !reby become ! common acid ( vitriol2 s t wat] impregnat$ ) vitriolic acid air1 commonly call$ sulphure\s1 or phlogi/icat$ acid ( vitriol1 wants dephlogi/icat$ air to make x ! common acid ( ( vitriol4 ,?is k9d ( air is imbib$ by oils1 :i* !reby *ange _! col\r2 :ale oil becom+ r$1 olive oil ( an orange col\r1 & _s ( turp5t9e ( ! col\r ( amb]4 ,if ?is air be conf9$ 9 a glass tube by m]cury1 & ! electric sp>k be tak5 9 x1 a black t+e w be giv5 to ! glass contigu\s to ! sp>k1 & ?is black sub/ance appe>s to be m]cury sup]-phlogi/icat$2 s9ce by exposure to air x becomes runn+ m]cury3 s t ! vap\r ( m]cury mu/ be diffus$ ?r\gh e "p ( ?is air1 to ! di/ance ( at lea/ sev]al feet f ! surface ( ! m]cury4 ,( ,fluor ,acid ,air4 ,fluor acid air is procur$ by dissolv+ ! e>?y sub/ance call$ fluor 9 vitriolic acid4 ,?is k9d ( air ext+ui%es a c&le1 &1 l vitriolic acid air1 "o measure ( x saturates two ( alkal9e air4 ,x is peculi> to ?is k9d ( air to dissolve glass :5 x is hot4 ,x seems to consi/ ( a peculi> acid vap\r unit$ to ! /ony sub/ance ( ! fluor2 = wat] be+ admitt$ to x absorbs ! acid vap\r1 & ! /ony sub/ance is deposit$4 ,by ?is means x exhibits an amus+ appe>ance1 :e!r wat] be admitt$ to a glass j> previ\sly fill$ ) t air1 or ! bubbles ( air be admitt$1 z !y are =m$1 to a quantity ( wat] re/+ on m]cury4 ,,lecture ,x4 ,( ,alkal9e ,air4 ,alkal9e air is produc$ by means ( heat f cau/ic volatile alkali1 & also f a mixture ( sal-ammoniac & slak$ lime1 9 ! proportion ( ab\t "o-f\r? ( ! =m] to ?ree-f\r?s ( ! latt]4 ,9 ?is case ! m>9e acid 9 ! sal-ammoniac unites ) ! calc>e\s e>?1 & ! volatile alkali 7probably ) ! assi/ance ( ! wat]7 takes ! =m ( air4 ,?is species ( air is heavi] ?an inflammable air1 b light] ?an any ( ! acid airs4 ,l !m1 h[ev]1 x dissolves ice1 & deprives alum1 & "s o!r sal9e sub/ances1 ( ! wat] :i* !y conta94 ,unit$ ) fix$ air1 x makes ! concrete volatile alkali2 ) m>9e acid air1 ! common sal-ammoniac2 & ) wat]1 ! cau/ic volatile alkali4 ,! electric sp>k1 or a r$ heat1 conv]ts alkal9e air into ?ree times its bulk ( inflammable air2 & ! calces ( metals are reviv$ 9 alkal9e1 z well z 9 inflammable air2 b !re rema9s ab\t "o-f\r? ( its bulk ( phlogi/icat$ air4 ,^! facts %ew t alkal9e air consi/s *iefly ( phlogi/on4 ,miscellane\s ,obs]vations relat+ to ,air4 ,! nitr\s acid may be exhibit$ 9 ! =m ( air1 z well z ! vitriolic1 ! m>9e1 & ! fluor acids4 ,b x _c be conf9$ ev5 by m]cury1 :i* x in/antly dissolves4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 9 "s measure1 be conf9$ 9 a dry glass vessel1 f :i* x w 9 a great measure expel ! common air4 ,?is nitr\s acid air is t r$ vap\r1 :i* is produc$ by ! rapid solution ( bismu?1 & "s o!r metals 9 ! nitr\s acid4 ,b ! vegetable acid _c be exhibit$ 9 ! =m ( air4 ,x is only capable ( be+ conv]t$ into vap\r1 l wat]3 & 9 ! common temp]ature ( our atmosph]e1 returns to a /ate ( fluidity4 ,diff]5t k9ds ( air :i* h no aff9ity to ea* o!r1 :5 once mix$ toge!r w n sep>ate1 not)/&+ any diff]5ce ( specific gravity4 ,su* is ! case ( a mixture ( inflammable & dephlogi/icat$ air1 & ev5 ( inflammable & fix$ air4 ,)\t ?is prop]ty also1 ! phlogi/icat$ air1 :i* con/itutes ! greate/ "p ( our atmosph]e1 be+ specifically light] ?an dephlogi/icat$ air1 ( :i* ! o!r "p ( x consi/s1 w\ld sep>ate f x1 & asc5d into ! high] regions ( ! atmosph]e4 ,inflammable air1 h[ev]1 w n mix ) acid or alkal9e air4 ,diff]5t k9ds ( air are exp&$ diff]5tly by ! same degrees ( heat2 dephlogi/icat$ air ! lea/1 & alkal9e air ! mo/4 ,if any fluid1 z wat]1 _s ( w9e1 or ev5 m]cury1 be heat$ 9 a por\s e>!n vessel1 surr\nd$ by any k9d ( air1 ! vap\r ( ! fluid w pass ?r\gh ! vessel "o way1 :ile ! air passes ! o!r2 & :5 ! op]ation ceases1 ) respect to ! "o1 x likewise ceases ) respect to ! o!r4 ,,lecture ,,xi4 ,( ,liquid ,sub/ances2 ,,& ,,fir/ ,,( ,,wat]4 ,hav+ consid]$ all ! sub/ances t are usually f\nd 9 ! =m ( air1 ,i come to ^? t are g5]ally 9 a fluid =m1 beg9n+ ) wat]1 :i* is ! pr9cipal1 if n ! only cause ( fluidity to all ! o!r sub/ances t ,i %all place 9 ?is class4 ,pure wat] is a liquid sub/ance1 transp>5t1 )\t col\r1 ta/e1 or smell2 & ) diff]5t degrees ( heat & cold may be made to assume ! ?ree =ms ( a solid1 ( a fluid1 & ( air4 ,bel[ #cb deg4 ( ,fahr5heit x is ice1 & above #bab deg4 x is vap\r2 s t 9 an atmosph]e bel[ #cb deg4 x nev] c\ld h be5 kn[n to be any ?+ else ?an a peculi> k9d ( /one1 & above #bab deg4 a peculi> species ( air4 ,9 pass+ f ! /ate ( a solid to t ( a liquid1 wat] absorbs a great quantity ( ! pr9ciple1 or matt]1 ( heat1 :i* rema9s 9 x 9 a lat5t /ate2 & 9 pass+ f a /ate ( fluid to t ( vap\r1 x absorbs mu* m2 & ?is heat is f\nd :5 ! processes are rev]s$4 ,x has be5 obs]v$1 t :5 wat] becomes vap\r1 x takes ! =m ( small globules1 holl[ )91 s z to be specifically light] ?an air4 ,! degree ( heat at :i* wat] is conv]t$ into vap\r dep5ds ^u ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e2 s t 9 vacuo1 or on ! top ( a high m\nta91 x boils ) little heat2 & :5 compress$1 z 9 ,pap9's dige/]1 or 9 ! bottom ( a deep pit1 x requires mu* heat4 ,9 ! =m] case ! re/or+ ( ! pressure w in/antly put a /op to ! boil+1 & 9 ! latt] case ! remov+ ( ! pressure w in/antly conv]t ! heat$ wat] into vap\r4 ,! ease ) :i* wat] is conv]t$ into vap\r by heat1 has giv5 a great p[] to me*anicians1 ei!r by employ+ ! natural pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 :5 /eam is cond5s$ "u a moveable pi/]n1 9 an iron cyl9d]1 :i* 0 ! pr9ciple ( ! old fire-eng9e1 or by employ+ ! ela/ic p[] ( /eam to produce ! same effect1 :i* is ! pr9ciple ( ,mr4 ,watt's /eam eng9e4 ,wat] 0 long ?\ght to be incompressible by any ext]nal =ce1 b ,mr4 ,canton has %ewn t ev5 ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e w cond5se x v s5sibly4 ,we d n "k any ext]nal =ce equal to t by :i* wat] is exp&$ :5 x is conv]t$ into ice1 or into vap\r4 ,= ?\gh ! p>ticles ( wat] approa* ne>] by cold1 yet :5 x cry/allizes1 ! p>ticles arrange !mselves 9 a p>ticul> mann]1 ) int]/ices betwe5 !m2 s t1 on ! :ole1 x takes up m room ?an be=e4 ,wat] has an aff9ity to1 & comb9es )1 almo/ all natural sub/ances1 a]ial1 fluid1 or solid2 b mo/ intimately ) acids1 alkalies1 calc>e\s e>?1 & t calx ( iron :i* is call$ f9]y c9d]1 f :i* ! /ronge/ heat w n expel x4 ,x has be5 suppos$ by "s1 t by frequ5t di/illation1 & also by agitation1 wat] may be conv]t$ into a k9d ( e>?2 b ?is does n appe> to be ! case4 ,x has also ( late be5 ?\ght1 t wat] is resolvable into dephlogi/icat$ & inflammable air2 b ! exp]im5ts :i* h be5 alleg$ to prove ?is d n satisfy me2 s t1 = any ?+ t appe>$ till v lately1 wat] might be consid]$ z a simple elem5t4 ,by means ( heat1 h[ev]1 x seems to be resolvable into su* air z t ( :i* ! atmosph]e consi/s1 viz4 dephlogi/icat$ & phlogi/icat$1 only ) a great] proportion ( ! =m]4 ,wat]1 ) respect to specific gravity & temp]ature1 has g5]ally be5 made ! /&>d to all o!r sub/ances2 its freez+ & boil+ po9ts be+ ! limits by means ( :i* !rmomet]s are graduat$4 ,o!r sub/ances h also be5 comp>$ ) wat]1 z a /&>d1 ) respect to ! capacity ( receiv+ heat1 & reta9+ x 9 a lat5t /ate1 z w be %ewn :5 we consid] ! subject ( heat4 ,,lecture ,,xii4 ,( ! ,nitr\s ,acid4 ,"u ! head ( liquids ,i %all consid] acids & alkalis1 ?\gh "s ( !m may be exhibit$ 9 ! =m ( air1 & o!rs 9 a solid =m4 ,^! two *emical pr9ciples are =m$ to unite ) "o ano!r1 & !n !y con/itute :at is call$ a neutral salt4 ,bo? acids & alkalis are di/+ui%able by _! ta/e4 ,ano!r te/1 & m accurate1 is1 t acids *ange ! blue juices ( vegetables r$1 & alkalis turn ! syrup ( violets gre54 ,acids are g5]ally di/+ui%$ accord+ to ! ?ree k+doms to :i* !y belong1 viz4 m9]al1 vegetable1 & animal4 ,! m9]al acids are ?ree1 ! nitr\s1 ! vitriolic1 & ! m>9e4 ,! nitr\s acid is =m$ by ! union ( ! pure/ inflammable air1 or ! pure/ nitr\s air1 ) dephlogi/icat$ air4 ,b x is usually procur$ f nitre by means ( ! vitriolic acid1 :i*1 seiz+ its base1 expels ! nitr\s acid 9 a liquid =m4 ,on ?is acc\nt ?is acid is said to be weak] ?an ! vitriolic4 ,if ! nitr\s acid be made to pass ?r\gh a r$-hot e>!n tube1 x w be decompos$1 & ! greate/ "p ( x be conv]t$ into dephlogi/icat$ air4 ,l all o!r acids1 ! nitr\s acid has a /rong aff9ity to wat]2 b x is n capable ( s mu* conc5tration z ! vitriolic4 ,x is g5]ally ( an orange or yell[ col\r2 b heat w expel ?is col\r 9 ! =m ( a r$ vap\r1 :i* is ! same acid 9 ! =m ( air1 & load$ ) phlogi/on2 & !re=e :5 x is col\rless x is said to be dephlogi/icat$4 ,b ! col\rless vap\r expos$ to heat1 or to light1 w become col\r$ aga92 & ! liquid acid imbib+ ?is col\r$ vap\r1 becomes col\r$ z be=e4 ,?is acid t+es ! sk9 ( a yell[ col\r1 :i* does n disappe> till ! epid]mis be *ang$4 ,! nitr\s acid unites ) phlogi/on1 alkalis1 metallic sub/ances1 & calc>e\s e>?4 ,by means ( its aff9ity ) phlogi/on x occasions t rapid acc5sion call$ detonation1 :5 any salt conta9+ ?is acid1 especially nitre1 is appli$ to hot *>coal1 or :5 *>coal is put to hot nitre4 ,9 fact1 ! *>coal burns s rapidly by means ( ! dephlogi/icat$ air suppli$ by ! nitre4 ,a mixture ( sulphur assi/s ! acc5sion ( ^! sub/ances1 & makes gunp[d]1 9 ! explosion ( :i* mu* nitr\s or phlogi/icat$ air is sudd5ly produc$1 & exp&$ by ! heat4 ,! application ( ?is =ce1 bo? to useful & de/ructive purposes1 is well kn[n4 ,if1 in/ead ( nitre1 a salt made ) dephlogi/icat$ m>9e acid be made use (1 ! explosion is m easily produc$1 & is mu* m viol5t4 ,friction w d ?is z well z heat4 ,nitre also ent]s into ! composition ( pulvis fulm9ans1 viz4 ?ree p>ts nitre1 two ( dry alkali1 & "o ( sulphur4 ,?is composition melts1 & yields a blue flame1 be=e x explodes4 ,by means ( ! aff9ity ( ! nitr\s acid to oil1 ano!r sub/ance conta9+ phlogi/on1 x is capable ( produc+ n only a great heat1 b ev5 a sudd5 flame1 especially :5 mix$ ) a little vitriolic acid4 ,nitr\s acid dissolves all metallic sub/ances except gold & plat9a1 & 9 ! solution nitr\s air is produc$4 ,! p>ticul> k9ds ( sal9e sub/ances =m$ by ! union ( ! nitr\s acid ) ! sev]al metals & e>?s may be se5 9 tables con/ruct$ = ! purpose4 ,!y are all deliquesc5t4 ,,lecture ,,xiii4 ,( ! ,vitriolic ,acid4 ,! vitriolic acid1 s call$ because x 0 orig9ally procur$ f vitriol1 is n[ g5]ally procur$ f sulphur2 ! dephlogi/icat$ "p ( ! air unit+ ) x 9 ! act ( burn+4 ,t dephlogi/icat$ air is ess5tial to ?is acid is evid5t f ! decomposition ( x2 = if ! vap\r ( x be made to pass ?r\gh a r$-hot e>!n tube1 a great quantity ( dephlogi/icat$ air is procur$4 ,?is acid has a /rong aff9ity to wat]1 ) :i* x unites ) mu* heat2 & x is capable ( great] conc5tration1 or ( be+ made specifically heavi]1 ?an any o!r acid4 ,:5 pure1 x is entirely free f col\r & smell1 ow+1 probably1 to its be+ free f phlogi/on1 :i* is insep>able f ! nitr\s or m>9e acids4 ,! vitriolic acid w dislodge ! nitr\s1 or m>9e1 or any o!r acid1 f _! e>?y or metallic bases2 f :i* prop]ty x is call$ ! /ronge/ ( all ! acids4 ,by means ( ! sup]ior aff9ity ( ! vitriolic acid to e>?s1 & especially to t]ra pond]osa1 ! smalle/ quantity ( x 9 wat] may be discov]$ by a solution ( ?is e>? 9 ! m>9e acid4 ,9 ?is acid ! t]ra pond]osa is held 9 p]fect solution2 b ) ! vitriolic acid x =ms a sub/ance t is insoluble 9 wat]1 & !re=e x in/antly appe>s 9 ! =m ( a :ite cl\d4 ,p]haps *iefly f ! /rong aff9ity :i* ?is acid has ) wat]1 pyrophorus1 consi/+ ( a mixture ( alum & sev]al sub/ances conta9+ phlogi/on1 takes fire spontane\sly on exposure to ! air4 ,x is commonly made ( ?ree p>ts ( alum & "o ( br[n sug>1 or ( two p>ts alum1 "o ( salt ( t>t>1 & "o ( *>coal4 ,!y mu/ be heat$ till !y h = "s "t emitt$ a vap\r t burns ) a blue flame4 ,! sal9e sub/ances produc$ by ! union ( ?is acid ) ! sev]al e>?s & metals1 are be/ exhibit$ 9 tables con/ruct$ = ! purpose4 ,:5 unit$ to ?ree ( ! metals1 viz4 iron1 copp]1 & z9c1 !y are call$ vitriols1 gre51 blue1 & :ite4 ,& all ! sub/ances :i* ?is acid unites ) cry/allize1 & d n deliquesce4 ,?is acid unites ) oil1 & ! mixture is always black4 ,:5 any sub/ance conta9+ phlogi/on is heat$ 9 ! vitriolic acid1 ano!r species ( ! acid1 call$ sulphure\s1 is =m$1 ( a pung5t smell4 ,9 reality1 x is wat] impregnat$ ) vitriolic acid air4 ,x makes1 h[ev]1 a di/9ct species ( acid1 & is dislodg$ f its base by mo/ ( ! o!rs4 ,( ! ,m>9e ,acid4 ,! m>9e acid is procur$ f common salt by ! vitriolic acid1 :i* unites ) its base1 ! fossil alkali4 ,?is acid is g5]ally ( a /raw-col\r2 b ?is is ow+ to an impregnation ) "s e>?y matt]1 mo/ ( :i* x readily dissolves1 especially ! metallic ones4 ,x is less capable ( conc5tration ?an ! vitriolic or nitr\s acids1 p]haps f a m intimate union ( phlogi/on ) x4 ,no heat c extract f x any dephlogi/icat$ air4 ,?\gh ?is is d5om9at$ a weak] acid ?an ! nitr\s1 yet x w take silv]1 lead1 or m]cury1 f _! union ) ! nitr\s acid4 ,^u ?is pr9ciple1 a solution ( ^! metals 9 ! nitr\s acid w readily discov] :e!r any wat] conta9s ! m>9e acid1 ! latt] unit+ ) ! metal dissolv$ 9 ! =m]1 & =m+ ) x1 if x be silv]1 a luna cornea2 :i* be+ a sub/ance insoluble 9 wat]1 discov]s itself by a cl\dy appe>ance4 ,! union ( ! m>9e acid ) e>?s =ms salts t easily deliquesce1 b ) ! metals su* z are capable ( cry/allization2 & s also is t =m$ by ! union ( ?is acid to t]ra pond]osa4 ,nei!r ?is acid nor ! nitr\s w dissolve gold or plat9a2 b a mixture ( !m1 call$ aqua regia1 w d x4 ,! m>9e acid has a /rong aff9ity to dephlogi/icat$ air1 & w take x f manganese & o!r sub/ances2 & ) ?is union x becomes a diff]5t acid1 call$ dephlogi/icat$ m>9e acid1 be+ wat] impregnat$ ) dephlogi/icat$ m>9e acid air1 describ$ above4 ,,lecture ,,xiv4 ,( ! ,vegetable ,acids1 & o!rs ( a less p]fect nature4 ,! pr9cipal ( ! vegetable acids are ! acet\s & ! t>t>e\s4 ,! acet\s acid is ! produce ( a peculi> f]m5tation ( vegetable sub/ances1 succe$+ ! v9\s1 9 :i* ard5t _s x is procur$1 & succe$$ by ! putrefactive1 9 :i* volatile alkali is g5]at$4 ,?us w9e is conv]t$ into v9eg>4 ,crude v9eg>1 h[ev]1 conta9s "s +r$i5t f ! vegetable sub/ances f :i* x 0 procur$3 b di/illation sep>ates !m1 & makes ! v9eg> col\rless2 ?\gh "s ( ! acid is lo/ 9 ! process4 ,! acet\s acid is conc5trat$ by fro/1 :i* does n affect ! prop] acid1 b only ! wat] ) :i* x is unit$4 ,x may likewise be conc5trat$ by be+ fir/ comb9$ ) alkalies1 e>?s1 or metals1 & !n dislodg$ by a /rong] acid1 or by m]e heat4 ,?us ! acet\s acid1 comb9$ ) vegetable alkali1 =ms a sub/ance t is call$ ! foliat$ e>? ( t>t>2 & x may be expell$ f x by ! vitriolic acid4 ,:5 comb9$ ) copp] x makes v]digris2 & f ?is union heat alone w expel x 9 a conc5trat$ /ate4 ,! acet\s acid ?us conc5trat$ is call$ radical v9eg>4 ,/ill1 h[ev]1 x is weak] ?an any ( ! prec$+ m9]al acids4 ,sev]al vegetables1 z lemons1 sorrel1 & unripe fruit1 conta9 acids1 ready =m$ by nature1 mix$ ) "s ( ! ess5tial oil ( ! plants1 :i* gives !m _! peculi> flav\rs4 ,all ^! acids h peculi> prop]ties2 b x is n necess>y to note !m 9 ?is v g5]al view ( ! subject4 ,l v9eg>1 ^! acids may be conc5trat$ by fro/1 & also by a comb9ation ) o!r sub/ances1 & !n expell$ by a /rong] acid4 ,! acid ( t>t> is v simil> to t ( v9eg>4 ,t>t>1 f :i* x is procur$1 is a sub/ance deposit$ on ! inside ( w9e-casks1 ?\gh x is also f\nd ready =m$ 9 sev]al vegetables4 ,x consi/s ( ! vegetable alkali & ?is peculi> acid4 ,:5 ref9$ f its impurities1 x is call$ cry/als1 or cream ( t>t>4 ,! acid is procur$ by mix+ ! t>t> ) *alk1 or lime1 :i* imbibes ! sup]flu\s acid1 & ?is is expell$ by ! acid ( vitriol4 ,or x may be procur$ by boil+ ! t>t> ) five or six times its weight ( wat]1 & !n putt+ ! acid ( vitriol to x4 ,?is unites ) ! vegetable alkali1 & =ms vitriolat$ t>t>2 & ! pure acid ( t>t> may be procur$ 9 cry/als1 by evaporation & filtration1 equal 9 weight to half ! cream ( t>t>4 ,?is acid ( t>t> is m soluble 9 wat] ?an ! cream ( t>t>4 ,?is acid1 unit$ to ! m9]al alkali1 makes ,ro*elle salt4 ,e k9d ( wood1 :5 di/ill$1 or burn$1 yields a peculi> acid2 & x is ! vap\r ( ?is acid t is s (f5sive to ! eyes 9 ! smoke ( wood4 ,a peculi> acid is obta9$ f mo/ vegetable sub/ances1 especially ! f>9ace\s ones1 & f sug>1 by di/illation ) ! nitr\s acid4 ,?is seizes ^u ! sub/ance ) :i* ! acid 0 unit$1 & especially ! phlogi/on adh]+ to x1 & !n ! peculi> acid ( sug> cry/allizes4 ,?us ) ?ree p>ts ( sug>1 & ?irty ( nitr\s acid1 "o "p ( ! prop] acid ( sug> may be obta9$4 ,by ! same process an acid may be procur$ f camphor4 ,! b>k ( oak1 & "s o!r vegetable sub/ances1 especially nut-galls1 conta9 a sub/ance :i* has obta9$ ! "n ( ! a/r+5t pr9ciple2 ! peculi> prop]ty ( :i* is1 t x precipitates solutions ( iron 9 ! =m ( a black p[d]1 & 9 ?is mann] ink is made4 ,b by solution 9 wat] & evaporation1 cry/als1 :i* are a prop] acid ( galls1 may be obta9$4 ,amb] is a h>d semitransp>5t sub/ance1 *iefly f\nd 9 ,prussia1 ei!r dug out ( ! e>?1 or ?r[n up by ! sea4 ,x is *iefly rem>kable = its electrical prop]ty2 b by di/illation 9 close vessels !re sublimes f x a concret$ acid1 soluble 9 #bd times its weight ( cold wat]4 ,amb] seems to be ( vegetable orig91 & to consi/ ( an oil unit$ to ?is peculi> acid4 ,! acids ,i %all m5tion next are ( a m9]al orig92 b be+ ( a less p]fect nature z acids1 ,i %all only j note !m "h4 ,borax is a sub/ance *iefly f\nd 9 a cry/alliz$ /ate 9 "s lakes 9 ! ,ea/ ,indies4 ,x consi/s ( ! m9]al alkali & a peculi> acid1 :i* may be sep>at$1 & exhibit$ 9 :ite flakes1 by putt+ acid ( vitriol to a solution ( x 9 wat]4 ,?is acid has be5 call$ s$ative salt1 f its suppos$ uses 9 m$ic9e4 ,x is an acid t requires fifty times its weight ( wat] to dissolve x4 ,sev]al o!r m9]al sub/ances1 z ars5ic1 molybd5a1 tung/51 & wolfram1 9 consequ5ce ( be+ treat$ z ! prec$+ vegetables ones1 h be5 lately f\nd to yield peculi> acids4 ,!y are also produc$ 9 a concrete /ate1 & require a consid]able proportion ( wat] to make !m liquid2 b z ! wat] 9 :i* !y are dissolv$ turns ! juice ( litmus r$1 & z !y also unite ) alkalis1 !y h all ! necess>y *>act]i/ics ( acids4 ,,lecture ,,xv4 ,( ! ,phosphoric ,acid4 ,! mo/ important acid ( animal orig91 ?\gh x has lately be5 f\nd 9 "s m9]al sub/ances1 is ! phosphoric4 ,phosphorus itself is a rem>kable sub/ance1 mu* resembl+ sulphur1 b mu* m inflammable4 ,x has be5 procur$ *iefly1 till ( late1 f ur9e1 b n[ m g5]ally f bones1 by means ( ! vitriolic acid1 :i* unites ) ! calc>e\s e>? ( :i* bones consi/1 & sets at lib]ty ! phosphoric acid1 or ! base ( t acid1 ) :i* x 0 naturally comb9$4 ,! acid ?us procur$1 mix$ ) *>coal1 & expos$ to a /rong heat1 makes phosphorus4 ,?is sub/ance burns ) a lamb5t flame 9 ! common temp]ature ( our atmosph]e1 b ) a /rong & vivid flame if x be expos$ to ! op5 air :5 mod]ately w>m4 ,9 burn+ x unites ) ! dephlogi/icat$ air ( ! atmosph]e1 & 9 ?is mann] ! pure/ phosphoric acid is produc$4 ,?is acid is also procur$ 9 great purity by means ( ! nitr\s or vitriolic acids1 especially ! =m]1 :i* readily comb9es ) ! phlogi/on ( ! phosphorus1 & ?us leaves ! acid pure4 ,9 ?is process phlogi/icat$ air is produc$4 ,?is acid is p]fectly col\rless1 & :5 expos$ to heat loses all its wat]1 & becomes a glassy sub/ance1 n liable to be dissipat$ by fire1 & readily unit+ ) e>?s4 ,unit$ to ! m9]al alkali1 x =ms a neutral salt1 lately introduc$ into m$ic9e4 ,unit$ to ! m9]al & vegetable alkalis naturally conta9$ 9 ur9e1 x has obta9$ ! "n ( microcosmic salt1 frequ5tly us$ z a flux = m9]al sub/ances ) a bl[-pipe4 ,besides ! phosphoric1 !re are o!r acids ( an animal orig92 z t ( milk1 t ( sug> ( milk1 t ( ! animal calculus1 & t ( fat4 ,! acid ( milk is ! s\r :ey conta9$ 9 butt]-milk1 :i*1 by a t$i\s *emical process1 may be obta9$ pure f any =eign sub/ance4 ,! sug> ( milk is procur$ by evaporat+ ! :ey to dryness1 !n dissolv+ x 9 wat]1 cl>ify+ x ) :ites ( eggs1 & evaporat+ x to ! consi/5ce ( honey4 ,9 ?is /ate :ite cry/als ( ! acid ( sug> ( milk w be obta9$4 ,by di/ill+ ^! cry/als ) nitr\s acid1 o!r cry/als ( ! prop] acid ( sug> ( milk w be obta9$1 simil> to ^? ( ! acid ( sug>4 ,if ! human calculus be di/ill$1 x yields a volatile alkali1 & some?+ sublimes f x :i* has a s\ri% ta/e1 & !re=e call$ ! acid ( ! calculus4 ,x is probably "s modification ( ! phosphoric acid4 ,animal fat yields an acid by di/illation1 or by fir/ comb9+ x ) quick-lime1 & !n sep>at+ x by ! vitriolic acid4 ,silice\s e>? is corrod$ by ?is acid4 ,,lecture ,,xvi4 ,( ,alkalis4 ,! class ( sub/ances t seems p>ticul>ly =m$ by nature to unite ) acids1 & !reby =m neutral salts1 are ! alkalis4 ,!y h all a peculi> acrid ta/e1 n easily def9$4 ,!y *ange ! blue juices ( vegetables gre51 or purple1 & 9 common ) acids h an aff9ity ) wat]1 s z to be capable ( be+ exhibit$ 9 a liquid =m2 ?\gh :5 ?is wat] is expell$ by heat1 "s ( !m w assume a solid =m4 ,alkalis are ( two k9ds2 ! fix$1 :i* h no smell1 & ! volatile :i* h a pung5t "o4 ,! fix$ alkalis are ( vegetable or m9]al orig94 ,:5 9 a solid =m1 !y bo? melt ) a mod]ate heat1 & unit+ ) e>?y sub/ances1 make glass4 ,) an int5se heat !y are volatiliz$4 ,vegetable alkali is procur$ by burn+ plants1 & lixiviat+ ! a%es2 a pur] k9d by ! burn+ ( t>t>1 h5ce call$ salt ( t>t>2 b ! pure/ ( all is got by ! deflagration ( nitre2 ! *>coal unit+ ) ! acid z x assumes ! =m ( dephlogi/icat$ air1 & ! alkali be+ left beh9d4 ,m9]al alkali is f\nd 9 a%es ( sea-we$4 ,x is likewise ! basis ( sea-salt2 f :i* x is sep>at$ by sev]al processes1 b especially by ! calx ( lead1 :i* has a /rong] aff9ity ) ! m>9e acid ) :i* x is f\nd comb9$4 ,alkalis unit$ ) fix$ air are said to be mild1 & :5 depriv$ ( x cau/ic1 f _! read9ess to unite )1 & !reby corrode1 vegetable & animal sub/ances4 ,to r5d] !m cau/ic1 !y are depriv$ ( _! fix$ air by quick-lime2 & 9 ?is /ate !y unite ) oils1 & make soap4 ,alkalis h a /rong] aff9ity ) acids ?an metals h ) !m2 s t !y w precipitate !m f _! solutions 9 acid m5/ruums4 ,! vegetable fix$ alkali has a /rong attraction to wat]1 ) :i* x w become saturat$ 9 ! common /ate ( our atmosph]e1 :5 x is said to deliquesce2 & hav+ ! appe>ance ( oil1 ! salt ( t>t> is ?us said to become oil ( t>t> p] deliquium4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! m9]al1 or fossil alkali1 is apt to lose its wat] 9 a dry atmosph]e1 & !n x is said to effloresce4 ,9 ?is /ate x is (t5 f\nd on old walls4 ,volatile alkali is procur$ by burn+ animal sub/ances2 9 ,egypt 7f :5ce1 z conta9$ 9 sal ammoniac1 we till ( late import$ x7 f camel's dung2 b n[ f bones1 by di/illation4 ,to ! liquor ?us procur$ !y add vitriolic acid1 or sub/ances :i* conta9 x4 ,?is acid unites ) ! alkali1 & common salt be+ put to x1 a d\ble aff9ity takes place4 ,! vitriolic acid unit+ ) ! m9]al alkali ( ! salt1 makes ,glaub] salt1 & ! m>9e acid unit+ ) ! volatile alkali1 makes sal ammoniac4 ,slak$ lime add$ to ?is1 unites ) ! m>9e acid ( ! ammoniac1 & sets loose ! volatile alkali 9 ! =m ( alkal9e air1 :i* comb9+ ) wat]1 makes ! liquid cau/ic volatile alkali4 ,if *alk 7conta9+ calc>e\s e>? unit$ ) fix$ air7 be mix$ ) ! sal ammoniac1 heat w make ! calc>e\s e>? unite ) ! m>9e acid1 :ile ! fix$ air ( ! *alk w unite ) ! volatile alkali1 & assume a solid =m1 be+ ! sal volatile ( ! apo!c>ies4 ,,lecture ,,xvii4 ,( ,liquid ,inflammable ,sub/ances4 ,( liquid inflammable sub/ances ! pr9cipal is _s ( w9e1 sometimes call$ ard5t _s1 &1 :5 highly rectifi$1 alcohol4 ,x is obta9$ f vegetable sub/ances by _! go+ ?r\gh ! v9\s f]m5tation4 ,x is consid]ably light] ?an wat]1 col\rless1 & transp>5t1 has a peculi> smell & ta/e1 & ! prop]ty ( inebriat+4 ,ard5t _s seems to consi/ ( a peculi> comb9ation ( phlogi/on & wat]2 = :5 ! vap\r ( x is made to pass ?r\gh a r$-hot e>!n tube1 x is resolv$ into wat] & inflammable air4 ,x is highly inflammable1 & burns )\t smoke1 or leav+ any residuum2 & 9 ! act ( burn+ its phlogi/on s unites ) dephlogi/icat$ air z to make fix$ air4 ,ard5t _s mixes readily ) wat] 9 all proportions1 & also ) ess5tial oils1 & balsams or res9s1 :i* are ! same ?+ inspissat$4 ,by its aff9ity ) ess5tial oils1 ard5t _s extracts !m fro? aromatic plants2 & ^! liquors h obta9$ ! "n ( t9ctures4 ,:5 ! t9ctures are di/ill$1 ! m volatile p>ts ( ! ess5tial oils1 :i* come ov] 9 di/illation1 h acquir$ ! "n ( wat]s2 z ,lav5d] wat]1 ,rosem>y wat]1 c4 & :at rema9s 9 ! /ill is call$ ! extract ( ! plant4 ,if ! t9ctures be dilut$ ) mu* wat]1 ! res9\s "p ( ! plant w be obta9$ pure1 & sep>at$ f ! extractive "p1 :i* w rema9 dissolv$ 9 ! wat]1 :ile ! res9 sep>ates f x4 ,_s ( w9e w n dissolve ! gummy p>ts ( vegetables2 & by ?is means ! gummy sub/ances may be sep>at$ f _! solutions 9 wat]1 ! _s unit+ ) ! wat] only4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if res9s be dissolv$ 9 _s ( w9e1 ! affusion ( wat] w sep>ate !m4 ,by means ( ! aff9ity ( _s ( w9e ) wat]1 x w seize ^u ! wat] 9 :i* sev]al salts are dissolv$1 & ?us produce an in/ant cry/allization ( !m4 ,salt ( t>t> has a great] aff9ity to wat] ?an _s ( w9e1 & by extract+ wat] f x1 w assi/ 9 conc5trat+ x2 b ! be/ me?od ( r5d]+ _s w9e free f wat] is di/illation1 ! ard5t _s ris+ be=e ! wat]4 ,_s ( w9e mix$ ) ! vitriolic & o!r m9]al acids1 r5d]s !m mild]1 & !reby m prop] = c]ta9 m$ic9al uses4 ,?is is call$ dulcify+ !m4 ,_s ( w9e is a p[]ful antiseptic1 & is !re=e ( use to pres]ve vegetable & animal sub/ances f putrefaction4 ,( ,a,ether4 ,if _s ( w9e be di/ill$ ) almo/ any ( ! acids1 ! produce is a liquor :i* has obta9$ ! "n ( ,a,ether1 f its extreme lightness & volatility1 be+ mu* light]1 & m volatile1 ?an any o!r fluid t we are acqua9t$ )4 ,x is highly inflammable1 b ! burn+ ( x is accompani$ ) smoke1 & "s soot2 & on ?is acc\nt x is a m$ium betwe5 _s ( w9e & oil1 ! acid hav+ tak5 f ! _s ( w9e "p ( ! wat] t 0 ess5tial to x1 at ! same "t t x communicat$ some?+ ( its acid peculi>ly modifi$2 s9ce ae!rs h diff]5t prop]ties accord+ to ! acids by :i* !y are made2 z ! vitriolic1 ! nitr\s1 ! m>9e1 & ! acet\s4 ,no ae!r1 h[ev]1 c be made f ! m>9e acid till x has be5 9 "s measure dephlogi/icat$2 f :i* x may be inf]r$1 t dephlogi/icat$ air is necess>y to ! composition ( ae!r4 ,vitriolic ae!r is ! mo/ common1 9 consequ5ce ( ! process by :i* x is made be+ ! easie/4 ,a,ether does n mix ) wat] 9 all proportions1 l _s ( w9e1 b t5 p>ts ( wat] w take up "o ( ae!r4 ,x easily mixes ) all oils4 ,x is some?+ rem>kable1 t ?\gh ae!r w n dissolve gold1 x w take f aqua regia ! gold t has be5 previ\sly dissolv$ 9 x4 ,by ! quick evaporation ( ae!r a consid]able degree ( cold may be procur$2 & on ?is pr9ciple x has sometimes be5 appli$ to relieve ! head-a* & o!r pa9s4 ,,lecture ,,xviii4 ,( ,oil4 ,oil is a liquid inflammable sub/ance1 ( great t5acity1 dispos$ to p\r 9 a /ream r ?an 9 drops4 ,x is little1 if at all1 soluble 9 wat]4 ,x burns ) smoke & soot1 & leaves a residuum ( a coaly sub/ance4 ,x consi/s ( acid & wat] comb9$ ) phlogi/on4 ,all oil is ! produce ( ! vegetable or animal k+dom1 no prop] m9]al sub/ance conta9+ any ( x4 ,by di/illation oil is 9 "p decompos$1 & by ?is means ! ?ick] k9ds ( oil are r5d]$ ?9n] & m volatile1 ! acid1 to :i* _! consi/5ce is *iefly ow+1 be+ lo/ 9 ! process4 ,by repeat$ di/illation x is suppos$ t all oils may be br\ght almo/ to ! /ate ( ae!r1 & ev5 ( ard5t _s4 ,acids act p[]fully ^u oils1 b v diff]5tly1 accord+ to ! nature ( ea*4 ,alkalies also comb9e ) oils1 & ! less ?9 & volatile !y are1 ! m easily are !y soluble 9 alkalies4 ,! union ( alkali & oil makes soap4 ,all oil dissolves sulphur1 & ) x makes :at is call$ a balsam4 ,oils also dissolve metallic sub/ances1 b mo/ s5sibly copp] & lead4 ,unit$ ) ! calx ( lead1 x is us$ 9 pa9t+4 ,oil n readily mix+ ) wat]1 x w diffuse itself ov] its surface1 &1 not)/&+ its t5acity1 x w d ?is v rapidly1 & to a great ext5t2 & !n x has ! extraord9>y effect ( prev5t+ ! action ( ! w9d ^u ! wat]1 s z to prev5t ! =m+ ( waves4 ,if a quantity ( oil & wat] be put into a glass vessel & swung1 ! surface ( ! wat] bel[ ! oil w be se5 to *ange ) respect to ! vessel1 b n t ( ! oil4 ,if _s ( w9e be put ^u !m1 t w be at re/1 & bo? ! l[] fluids 9 motion4 ,vegetable oil is ( two k9ds1 ! s(t1 or mild1 :i* has little or no ta/e or smell1 & ! ess5tial oil1 :i* is ?91 & reta9s ! smell & ta/e ( ! plant f :i* x 0 extract$4 ,mild or sweet oil is express$ f ! gra9s or k]nels ( vegetables1 & requires a consid]able degree ( heat to conv]t x into vap\r1 9 :i* /ate alone x is capable ( be+ inflam$4 ,ess5tial oil is volatile 9 ! heat ( boil+ wat]1 & is g5]ally obta9$ by means ( di/illation f ! mo/ odorif]\s sorts ( plants2 b is sometimes f\nd 9 _! vesicles1 z 9 ! r9d ( an orange4 ,! /rong ta/e ( ?is k9d ( oil arises f ! dis5gag$ acid :i* ab\nds 9 x2 & by ?is means x is soluble 9 _s ( w9e1 :i* sweet oil is n2 b x loses mu* ( ?is prop]ty by repeat$ di/illations4 ,by long exposure to ! air x loses its m volatile p>ts1 & !reby approa*es to ! nature ( a res94 ,?is volatile odorif]\s pr9ciple has be5 call$ ! spiritus rector ( ! plant4 ,! ess5tial oils ( diff]5t plants diff] mu* 9 _! specific gravity1 & also 9 ! mann] by :i* !y are affect$ by cold1 "s be+ heavi] & o!rs light] ?an wat]1 & "s be+ m difficultly1 & o!rs m easily1 congeal$4 ,?\gh ! diff]5ces ) respect to weight & consi/5cy 9 ^! oils is probably ow+ to ! /ate ( ! acid t is comb9$ ) !m1 ^! two prop]ties are :olly indep5d5t ( ea* o!r2 "s ess5tial oils be+ v ?9 & yet heavy1 & o!rs ?ick & yet light4 ,ess5tial oils are us$ 9 p]fumes1 & also 9 m$ic9e1 act+ p[]fully ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,ess5tial oils are v apt to be adult]at$4 ,if x be ) sweet oil1 x may be discov]$ by evaporation on :ite pap]1 or by a solution 9 _s ( w9e1 :i* w n act ^u ! sweet oil4 ,if _s ( w9e be mix$ ) x1 x w be discov]$ by a milky appe>ance ^u putt+ wat] to x1 :i* unit+ ) ! _s1 w leave ! oil mu* divid$4 ,if oil ( turp5t9e1 :i* is ! *eape/ ( ess5tial oils1 be mix$ ) any ( ! m valuable k9ds1 x w be discov]$ by evaporation2 a /rong smell ( turp5t9e be+ left on ! pap]1 or clo?1 ^u :i* ! evaporation 0 made4 ,animal oil1 l ! vegetable1 is ( two k9ds2 ! fir/ butt]1 or fat1 :i* is easily congeal$1 ow+ to ! quantity ( acid t is intimately comb9$ ) x4 ,x resembles ! sweet oil ( vegetables 9 hav+ no smell or ta/e4 ,! o!r k9d ( animal oil is extract$ by di/illation f ! fle%1 ! t5dons1 ! bones1 & horns1 c4 ( animals4 ,x diff]s ess5tially f ! o!r k9d ( animal oil1 by conta9+ an alkali in/ead ( an acid4 ,by repeat$ di/illation x becomes highly att5uat$ & volatile2 & 9 ?is /ate x is call$ ! oil ( ,dippel1 ! discov]] ( x4 ,all oil expos$ to mu* heat is 9 "p decompos$1 & acquires a disagreeable smell2 & 9 ?is /ate x is said to be empyreumatic3 b ?is prop]ty is lo/ by repeat$ di/illations4 ,besides ! vegetable & animal oils above describ$1 !re is a fossil oil call$ bitum51 ! sev]al k9ds ( :i* diff] mu* 9 col\r & consi/5ce2 ! mo/ liquid is call$ petroleum1 f be+ f\nd 9 ! cavities ( rocks1 & ! m solid k9ds are amb]1 jet1 asphaltum1 & pit-coal4 ,:5 di/ill$1 ! pr9cipal compon5t p>ts ( all ^! sub/ances are an oil & an acid4 ,b all fossil oil is probably ( vegetable or animal orig91 f masses ( vegetables or animals long buri$ 9 ! e>?4 ,_! diff]5ces f res9s & o!r oily matt]s are probably ow+ to "t2 ! comb9ations ( m9]al acids & oils s ne>ly resembl+ bitum5s1 ! pr9cipal diff]5ce be+ _! insolubility 9 _s ( w9e4 ,t ! mo/ solid ( ^!1 z amb]1 has be5 =m]ly 9 a liquid /ate1 is evid5t1 f insects & o!r sub/ances be+ frequ5tly f\nd 9 !m2 & pit-coal has be5 (t5 f\nd ) bo? ! int]nal texture & ext]nal appe>ance ( wood2 s t /rata ( pit-coal h probably be5 b$s ( peat 9 "s =m] /ate ( ! e>?4 ,,lecture ,,xix4 ,( ,solid ,sub/ances4 ,all solid sub/ances are capable ( becom+ fluid by heat1 & mo/ ( !m may !reby be r$uc$ into a /ate ( vap\r1 or air2 & 9 pass+ f a fluid into a solid /ate _! compon5t p>ts assume a p>ticul> mode ( arrangem5t1 call$ cry/allization1 :i* diff]s accord+ to ! nature ( ! sub/ance2 s t all solids1 especially if !y be suff]$ to concrete sl[ly1 may be call$ cry/als4 ,exclusive ( salts1 :i* h be5 consid]$ already1 z =m$ by ! union ( acids & alkalis1 solids 9 g5]al h obta9$ ! names ( e>?s1 or /ones1 :i* diff] only 9 _! texture2 & !y are di/+ui%$ into ^? t are metallizable1 or ^? t are n2 ! =m] be+ call$ ores1 & ! latt] simply e>?s2 ! pr9cipal ( :i* are ! calc>e\s1 silice\s1 argillace\s1 magnesia1 t]ra pond]osa1 & a few o!rs :i* h be5 discov]$ lately1 b h n be5 mu* exam9$4 ,( ,calc>e\s ,e>?4 ,calc>e\s e>? is f\nd 9 ! %ells ( fi%es1 ! bones ( animals1 *alk1 lime-/one1 m>ble1 & gypsum3 b all calc>e\s e>? is suppos$ to be ( animal orig92 & b$s ( *alk1 lime-/one1 or m>ble1 are ?\ght to h be5 b$s ( %ells =m$ 9 ! sea1 9 "s pri/9e /ate ( ! e>?4 ,! calc>e\s e>? :i* is f\nd 9 %ells1 lime-/one1 & m>ble1 is comb9$ ) fix$ air1 discov]$ by eff]vesc+ ) acids4 ,to obta9 x p]fectly pure1 ! e>? mu/ be p\nd$ & wa%$ ) wat]1 9 ord] to free x f any sal9e sub/ance :i* may be conta9$ 9 x1 !n dissolv$ 9 di/ill$ v9eg>1 & precipitat$ by mild alkalies4 ,lime-/one expos$ to heat loses ab\t half its weight1 9 fix$ air & wat]1 & ! rema9d]1 call$ quick-lime1 attracts wat] v p[]fully1 & _! union is att5d$ ) mu* heat1 aft] :i* x dissolves into a f9e p[d] call$ slak$ lime4 ,if x be left expos$ to ! atmosph]e1 x w ( itself1 by gradually imbib+ moi/ure1 fall into ! /ate ( p[d]4 ,wat] dissolves ab\t "o sev5 hundr$? "p ( its weight ( quick-lime1 & is !n call$ lime-wat]4 ,expos$ to ! air1 a cru/ w be =m$ on its surface1 :i* is f\nd to consi/ ( calc>e\s e>? & fix$ air4 ,lime & wat] mix$ ) s& make mort>1 by :i* means diff]5t /ones may be made to coh]e z "o mass1 :i* is ! mo/ valuable use ( ?is k9d ( e>?4 ,calc>e\s e>?1 unit$ ) vitriolic acid1 makes gypsum2 & ?is sub/ance p\nd$ & expos$ to heat1 p>ts ) its wat]1 & is !n call$ plai/] ( ,p>is4 ,9 ?is /ate1 by imbib+ wat] aga91 x becomes a firm sub/ance1 & ?us is useful 9 mak+ m\lds1 c4 ,! e>? ( animal bones is calc>e\s unit$ to ! phosphoric acid4 ,( ,silice\s ,e>?4 ,silice\s e>? seems to be =m$ by nature f *alk1 p]haps by ! introduction ( "s unkn[n acid1 :i* ! vitriolic acid is n able to dislodge4 ,x ab\nds 9 mo/ sub/ances :i* are h>d en\gh to /rike fire ) /eel1 z fl9t1 rock cry/al1 & mo/ preci\s /ones4 ,x is n act$ ^u by any acid except ! fluor & phosphoric1 b especially ! =m]3 b x is soluble 9 alkalies2 & be+ !n dissolv$ 9 wat]1 makes liquor silicum1 f :i* ! pure/ silice\s e>? may be precipitat$ by acids4 ,= ?is purpose ab\t f\r times ! weight ( alkali mu/ be made use (4 ,) ab\t equal weights ( alkali & silice\s s& is made glass1 ( s great use 9 admitt+ light & exclud+ ! wea!r f our h\ses1 z well z = mak+ v>i\s useful ut5sils4 ,to make glass p]fectly col\rless1 & at ! same "t m d5se1 commonly call$ fl9t glass1 manufactur]s use a c]ta9 proportion ( calx ( lead & manganese4 ,silice\s e>? is n affect$ by ! /ronge/ heat1 except by means ( a burn+ l5s1 or dephlogi/icat$ air4 ,,lecture ,,xx4 ,( ,argillace\s ,e>?4 ,argillace\s e>? is f\nd 9 clay1 s*i/us1 or slate1 & 9 mica2 b ! pure/ is t :i* is precipitat$ f a solution ( alum by alkalies2 = alum consi/s ( ! union ( vitriolic acid & argillace\s e>?4 ,?is species ( e>? is ductile ) wat]2 x !n h>d5s & contracts by heat1 s z to be ( ! greate/ use 9 =m+ bricks1 or /ones ( any requir$ =m or size4 ,by means ( ! prop]ty ( clay to contract 9 ! fire1 ,mr4 ,w$gwood has con/ruct$ an excell5t !rmomet] to measure ! degrees ( extreme heat4 ,! ductility ( clay seems to dep5d ^u "s acid1 probably ! vitriolic1 adh]+ to x2 = x loses t prop]ty :5 x is burn$ into a brick1 b recov]s x :5 x has be5 aga9 dissolv$ 9 an acid4 ,( ,t]ra ,pond]osa4 ,t]ra pond]osa1 or m>mor metallicum1 is g5]ally f\nd 9 two /ates1 viz4 unit$ to vitriolic acid1 :5 x is call$ calk1 or to fix$ air1 :5 x is call$ t]ra pond]osa a]ata4 ,to obta9 x pure f its union ) ! vitriolic acid1 x mu/ be melt$ ) ab\t twice its weight ( fix$ alkali2 :i* unites ) ! acid1 & =m+ a sal9e sub/ance1 may be wa%$ out ( x4 ,9 ?is /ate x conta9s wat]1 & !re=e1 :5 expos$ to heat1 w yield fix$ air2 :]eas ! t]ra pond]osa a]ata w n yield fix$ air by heat only1 b :5 /eam is made to pass ov] x :5 r$ hot4 ,?is proves t wat] is ess5tial to ! composition ( fix$ air4 ,?is /one is di/+ui%able by its great specific gravity1 be+ f\r times z heavy z wat]2 b ?\gh 9 ?is x resembles an ore1 x has n be5 f\nd to be metallizable4 ,( ,magnesia4 ,?is species ( e>? is f\nd 9 /eatites1 or soap rock1 ,spani% *alk1 asbe/us1 & ,muscovy talck2 b ! pure/ is got by dissolv+ ,epsom salts 7:i* consi/s ( ?is e>? unit$ to ! vitriolic acid7 & precipitat+ x by a mild alkali4 ,9 ?is /ate x becomes unit$ to fix$ air1 :i* may be expell$ by heat4 ,x is !n calc9$1 or cau/ic1 b diff]s f quick-lime by n be+ soluble 9 wat]4 ,asbe/us1 :i* conta9s mu* ( ?is k9d ( e>?1 is rem>kable = n be+ de/ructible by heat1 ?\gh x is sometimes f\nd 9 flexible fibres1 s z to be capable ( be+ wov5 into clo?4 ,muscovy talck is rem>kable = ! ?9 & transp>5t flakes into :i* x is divisible1 & !reby capable ( v>i\s uses4 ,!re are "s o!r di/9ct species ( e>?1 p>ticul>ly "o br\ght f ,botany ,bay1 & ano!r call$ ,/ontiate1 f ! place :]e x 0 f\nd 9 ,scotl&2 b !y h n z yet be5 mu* exam9$4 ,all /ones =m$ by nature are comp\nd$1 & to di/+ui% !m f "o ano!r1 & asc]ta9 ! p>ts ( :i* !y consi/1 is ! subject ( li?ology1 a v ext5sive bran* ( k4 ,all ! simple e>?s are ne>ly1 if n absolutely1 infusible2 b :5 !y are mix$ !y may all be fus$4 ,,lecture ,,xxi4 ,( ,ores4 ,metallizable e>?s1 commonly call$ ores1 :5 unit$ to phlogi/on1 make ! metals1 di/+ui%able = _! specific gravity1 _! opacity1 %9+ appe>ance1 & fusibility4 ,all ! prop] metals are malleable1 & ^? :i* are n s are call$ semi-metals4 ,! metals aga9 are subdivid$ into ! p]fect & imp]fect4 ,! =m]1 :i* are gold1 silv]1 & plat9a1 suff] no *ange by fusion1 or ! longe/ cont9u$ heat3 :]eas heat calc9es or dissipates ! phlogi/on ( ! imp]fect metals1 :i* are m]cury1 lead1 copp]1 iron1 & t91 s t !y return to ! /ate ( e>?2 & ?is e>? is always heavi] ?an ! metal1 ?\gh ( less specific gravity1 hav+ receiv$ an addition ( weight f wat] or air3 b ^! e>?s1 or ores1 be+ expos$ to heat 9 contact ) sub/ances conta9+ phlogi/on1 aga9 become metals1 & are !n said to be reviv$4 ,! semi-metals are bismu?1 z9c1 nickel1 regulus ( ars5ic1 ( cobalt1 ( antimony1 ( manganese1 ( wolfram1 & ( molybd5a4 ,all metallic sub/ances are cry/allizable1 & ea* 9 a peculi> =m1 :i* is discov]$ by leav+ a hole 9 ! bottom ( ! crucible 9 :i* !y are melt$1 & draw+ out ! /opp]1 :5 ! mass is beg9n+ to lose its fluidity4 ,"s ( ! metals w n unite to o!rs :5 hot1 & o!rs ( !m w2 & su* z w unite ) o!rs are call$ sold]s4 ,?us t9 is a sold] = lead1 & brass1 gold1 or silv]1 = iron4 ,ores are nev] f\nd 9 regul> /rata1 l ! diff]5t k9ds ( e>?2 b 9 places :i* h =m]ly be5 cavities1 runn+ 9 all directions1 ) respect to ! regul> /rata1 & commonly call$ ve9s4 ,_m ( ! ores 9 _! natural /ate are said to be m9]aliz$ ) ars5ic or sulphur1 ^? sub/ances be+ intimately unit$ ) ! metallic e>?s4 ,9 ord] to conv]t ! ores into metals1 "s ( !m are fir/ r$uc$ to p[d]1 to wa% out ! e>?y or sal9e p>ticles4 ,!y are !n kept 9 a r$ heat1 :i* ! workm5 call roa/+1 9 ord] to drive away ! ars5ic1 or sulphur1 :i* are volatile2 & 9 ! la/ place !y are fus$ 9 contact ) *>coal1 or o!r sub/ances conta9+ phlogi/on2 & to promote ! fusion1 lime-/one is frequ5tly mix$ ) !m4 ,:5 ! op]ation is complet$1 ! unmetallic p>ts are conv]t$ into glass1 or scoria1 :i* lies on ! surface1 :]eas ! metal is f\nd at ! bottom4 ,to discov] ! quantity ( metal 9 a small piece ( ore is call$ assay+4 ,:5 metals are fus$ toge!r1 ! specific gravity1 fusibility1 & o!r prop]ties are *ang$1 & 9 su* a mann] z c\ld n be discov]$ f ! prop]ties ( ! con/itu5t p>ts4 ,( ,gold4 ,gold is ! heavie/ ( all metallic bodies except plat9a4 ,x appe>s yell[ or r$di% by reflect$ light1 b gre5 or blue by transmitt$ light1 :5 x is r$uc$ to ?9 plates4 ,?\gh gold und]goes no *ange 9 a common furnace1 or burn+ l5s1 x may1 9 "p1 at lea/1 be calc9$ by ! electric %ock4 ,gold has ! greate/ ductility1 & 9 wires ( equal diamet]s1 x has ! greate/ t5acity1 ( all ! metals4 ,"o gra9 ( x may be made to cov] #ef squ>e in*es2 "s gold leaf be+ less ?an a #bjj1jjj? "p ( an in* ?ick2 & :5 x is made to cov] a silv] wire1 ! gold ^u x may n be m ?an "o twelf? "p ( ! ?ickness ( ! gold leaf4 ,?is metal is soluble 9 aqua regia2 & be+ precipitat$ by a volatile alkali1 makes a p[d] call$ aurum fulm9ans1 :i* is "o f\r? heavi] ?an ! gold1 & explodes ) great viol5ce 9 a heat some?+ great] ?an t ( boil+ wat]4 ,t9 precipitates gold 9 ! =m ( a purple p[d]1 call$ ! p[d] ( ,cassius1 f ! inv5tor ( x1 & is us$ 9 enamels1 or ! glassy coat+ :i* is giv5 to metals by heat4 ,gold unites ) mo/ ( ! metals1 especially ) m]cury1 & ^! mixtures are call$ amalgams4 ,9 gild+1 ! amalgam is appli$ to ! surface ( ! metal to be gild$1 & ! m]cury is driv5 (f by heat1 leav+ ! gold atta*$ to ! surface4 ,gold mix$ ) iron1 makes x h>d]1 = ! purpose ( cutt+ in/rum5ts4 ,to sep>ate gold f ! imp]fect metals1 su* z copp]1 c4 x is mix$ ) lead1 & !n expos$ to a /rong heat1 :i* calc9es ! lead1 & ) x ! imp]fect metals1 leav+ ! gold pure4 ,?is process is call$ cupellation1 f be+ p]=m$ 9 a small crucible call$ a cupell4 ,:5 ! gold is mix$ ) silv]1 ?ree p>ts m ( silv] are put to x1 & !n ! silv] is dissolv$ by nitr\s acid1 leav+ ! gold pure4 ,?is process is call$ qu>tation1 f ! gold be+ "o f\r? "p ( ! mass4 ,! f95ess ( gold is g5]ally e/imat$ by divid+ ! gold into tw5ty-f\r p>ts1 call$ c>ats4 ,! phrase tw5ty-?ree c>ats f9e means t ! mass conta9s tw5ty-?ree p>ts out ( tw5ty-f\r ( pure gold1 ! rema9d] be+ alloy1 ( "s bas] metal4 ,! f95ess ( gold may 9 "s measure be discov]$ by ! col\r x leaves ^u a t\*-/one1 or f9e-gra9$ basaltes4 ,gold is g5]ally f\nd ne>ly pure1 b mix$ ) e>?1 or diffus$ 9 f9e gra9s ?r\gh /ones4 ,,lecture ,,xxii4 ,( ,silv]4 ,silv] is ! :ite/ ( all ! metals1 v ductile1 b less s ?an gold2 ! ?9ne/ leaves ( x be+ "o ?ird ?ick] ?an ^? ( gold4 ,x is n calc9$ 9 ! heat ( a common furnace1 b p>tially s by repeat$ fusion1 or a /rong burn+ l5s4 ,sulphure\s fumes unite ) silv]1 & t+e x black4 ,! nitr\s acid dissolves x1 & w hold m ?an half its weight ( x 9 solution4 ,:5 fully saturat$1 ?is solution deposits cry/als1 :i* are call$ lun> nitre1 or nitre ( silv]4 ,:5 ^! cry/als are melt$1 & ! wat] !y conta9 driv5 (f1 a black sub/ance1 call$ lapis inf]nalis1 or lun> cau/ic1 is =m$4 ,?is is us$ z a caut]y 9 surg]y4 ,a /rong heat w decompose ?is lun> nitre1 & recov] ! silv]4 ,?\gh ! nitr\s acid dissolves silv] ! mo/ readily1 ! m>9e acid w deprive ! nitr\s ( x1 & =m a sub/ance call$ luna cornea1 because1 :5 x is melt$ & cold1 x becomes a transp>5t mass some?+ resembl+ horn4 ,f ?is luna cornea ! pure/ silv] may be obta9$4 ,! vitriolic acid w likewise deprive ! nitr\s ( ! silv] conta9$ 9 x1 & =m a :ite p[d]1 n easily soluble 9 wat]4 ,a fulm9at+ silv] may be made by ! foll[+ process3 ! silv] mu/ fir/ be dissolv$ 9 pale nitr\s acid1 !n precipitat$ by lime-wat]1 dri$1 & expos$ to ! air ?ree days4 ,x mu/ !n be wa%$ 9 cau/ic volatile alkali1 aft] :i* ! fluid mu/ be decant$1 & ! black p[d] left to dry 9 ! air4 ,! slighte/ friction w cause ?is p[d] to fulm9ate4 ,x is said1 t ev5 a drop ( wat] fall+ ^u x w produce ?is effect2 s t x ought to be made only 9 v small quantities1 & manag$ ) ! greate/ caution4 ,mo/ ( ! metals precipitate silv]4 ,t by m]cury may be made to assume ! =m ( a tree1 call$ arbor ,dianae4 ,silv] is f\nd native 9 ,p]u2 & ! ores frequ5tly conta9 sulphur1 or ars5ic1 or bo?4 ,( ,plat9a4 ,plat9a is a metal lately discov]$ 9 ! gold m9es ( ,mexico1 :]e x is f\nd 9 small p>ticles1 nev] exce$+ ! size ( a pea1 mix$ ) f]rug9\s s& & qu>tz4 ,! /ronge/ fire w n melt ^! gra9s1 ?\gh x w make !m coh]e2 b !y may be melt$ by a burn+ l5s1 or a bl[-pipe suppli$ ) dephlogi/icat$ air4 ,pure plat9a is ! heavie/ body 9 nature1 its specific gravity exce$+ tw5ty-two4 ,x is v malleable1 ?\gh consid]ably h>d] ?an gold or silv]1 & has ! prop]ty ( weld+ 9 common ) iron4 ,?is metal is n affect$ by exposure to ! air1 or by any simple acid1 ?\gh conc5trat$ & hot2 b x is dissolv$ by dephlogi/icat$ m>9e acid1 & by aqua regia1 9 :i* a little nitr\s air is procur$4 ,! solution is br[n1 & :5 dilut$ yell[4 ,?is liquor is v corrosive1 & t+es animal sub/ances ( a blacki% br[n col\r4 ,plat9a is precipitat$ f a solution 9 aqua regia by sal-ammoniac1 z gold is by m>tial vitriol4 ,iron is precipitat$ f ?is solution by ! ,prussian alkali4 ,also mo/ ( ! metals precipitate plat9a1 b n 9 its metallic /ate4 ,ars5ic facilitates ! solution ( plat9a2 & by melt+ x ) equal p>ts ( ars5ic & vegetable alkali1 & !n r$uc+ ! mass to a p[d]1 x may be made to take any =m2 & a /rong heat w dissipate ! ars5ic & ! alkali1 leav+ ! plat9a 9 ! %ape requir$1 n fusible by any heat 9 a common furnace4 ,plat9a does n readily comb9e ) gold or silv]1 & x resi/s ! action ( m]cury z mu* z iron2 b x mixes well ) lead1 mak+ x less ductile1 & ev5 brittle1 accord+ to ! proportion ( ! plat9a4 ,) copp] x =ms a comp\nd :i* takes a beautiful poli%1 n liable to t>ni%1 & is !re=e us$ ) advantage = mirrors ( reflect+ telescopes4 ,x unites easily ) t91 & also ) bismu?1 antimony1 & z9c4 ,,lecture ,,xxiii4 ,( ,m]cury4 ,m]cury is ! mo/ fusible ( all ! metals1 n becom+ solid b 9 #dj deg4 bel[ #j 9 ,fahr5heit's !rmomet]4 ,x is !n malleable4 ,x is heavi] ?an any o!r metal except gold or plat9a4 ,x is volatile 9 a temp]ature mu* l[] ?an t ( boil+ wat]1 & 9 vacuo 9 ! common temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e2 & at six hundr$ x boils4 ,9 a degree ( heat 9 :i* x w\ld rise easily 9 vap\r1 m]cury imbibes pure air1 & becomes a r$ calx1 call$ precipitate p] se4 ,at a great] degree ( heat x p>ts ) t air1 & is runn+ m]cury aga94 ,m]cury is n p]ceptibly alt]$ by exposure to ! air4 ,m]cury is act$ ^u by ! vitriolic acid :5 hot4 ,9 ?is process vitriolic acid air is procur$1 & ! m]cury is conv]t$ into a :ite sub/ance1 :i* be+ dipp$ 9 wat] becomes yell[1 call$ turbi? m9]al1 "o ?ird heavi] ?an ! m]cury f :i* x 0 made4 ,by heat ?is sub/ance p>ts ) its pure air1 & becomes runn+ m]cury2 b if ! process be made 9 a clean e>!n vessel1 !re w rema9 a portion ( r$ calx1 :i* _c be r$uc$ by any degree ( heat1 except 9 contact ) "s sub/ance conta9+ phlogi/on4 ,if ?is be done ) a burn+ l5s1 9 inflammable air1 mu* ( ! air w be absorb$4 ,m]cury is dissolv$ mo/ readily 9 ! nitr\s acid1 :5 ! pure/ nitr\s air is procur$2 & !re rema9s a sub/ance :i* is fir/ yell[1 & by cont9uance r$1 call$ r$ precipitate4 ,9 a great] degree ( heat ! dephlogi/icat$ air w be recov]$1 & ! m]cury be reviv$2 b ! sub/ance yields nitr\s air aft] x becomes solid1 & till x *anges f yell[ to r$4 ,! precipitates ( m]cury f acids by means ( alkalies possess ! prop]ty ( explod+1 :5 !y are expos$ to a gradual heat 9 an iron spoon1 aft] hav+ be5 triturat$ ) "o six? ( _! weight ( ! fl[]s ( sulphur4 ,! residuum consi/s ( a violet-col\r$ p[d]1 :i*1 by sublimation1 is conv]t$ into c9nab>4 ,x seems1 !re=e1 z if ! sulphur comb9$ sudd5ly ) ! m]cury1 & expell$ ! dephlogi/icat$ air 9 an ela/ic /ate4 ,! m>9e acid seizes ^u m]cury dissolv$ 9 nitr\s acid1 & if ! acid be dephlogi/icat$1 ! precipitate is corrosive sublimate2 b ) common m>9e acid1 x is call$ calomel1 or m]curius dulcis4 ,?is prep>ation is g5]ally made 9 ! dry way1 by triturat+ equal p>ts ( m]cury1 common salt & vitriol1 & expos+ ! :ole to a mod]ate heat2 :5 ! corrosive sublimate rises1 & adh]es to ! upp] "p ( ! glass vessel 9 :i* ! process is made4 ,m]cury comb9es readily ) sulphur by trituration1 & ) x =ms a black p[d] call$ ,e?iops m9]al4 ,a m intimate comb9ation ( m]cury & sulphur is made by means ( fire4 ,?is is call$ c9nab>1 ab\t "o ?ird ( :i* is sulphur4 ,v]million is c9nab> r$uc$ to p[d]4 ,m]cury readily unites ) oil1 & ) x =ms a deep black or blue comp\nd1 us$ 9 m$ic9e4 ,x readily comb9es ) mo/ ( ! metals1 & :5 x is us$ 9 a suffici5t quantity to make !m s(t1 ! mixture is call$ an amalgam4 ,x comb9es mo/ readily ) gold1 silv]1 lead1 t91 bismu?1 & z9c4 ,look+-glasses are cov]$ on ! back ) an amalgam ( m]cury & t94 ,:5 m]cury is unit$ ) lead or o!r metals1 x is r5d]$ less brilliant & less fluid2 b agitation 9 pure air conv]ts ! impure metal into a calx1 toge!r ) mu* ( ! m]cury1 9 ! =m ( a black p[d]4 ,heat recov]s ! pure air1 & ! m]cury1 leav+ ! calx ( ! impure metal4 ,mu* m]cury is f\nd native 9 a slaty k9d ( e>?1 or 9 masses ( clay or /one2 b ! greate/ quantity is f\nd comb9$ ) sulphur 9 native c9nab>4 ,,lecture ,,xxiv4 ,( ,lead4 ,lead is a metal ( a blui% t+e1 ( no great t5acity1 b v consid]able specific gravity1 be+ heavi] ?an silv]4 ,x melts long be=e x is r$ hot1 & is !n calc9$1 if x be 9 contact ) respirable air4 ,:5 boil+ x emits fumes1 & calc9es v rapidly4 ,x may be granulat$ by be+ p\r$ into a wood5 box1 & agitat$4 ,dur+ congelation x is brittle1 s t ! p>ts w sep>ate by ! /roke ( a hamm]2 & by ?is means ! =m ( its cry/als may be discov]$4 ,9 ! progress ( calc9ation x fir/ becomes a dusky grey p[d]1 !n yell[1 :5 x is call$ massicot2 !n1 by imbib+ pure air1 x becomes r$1 & is call$ m9ium1 or r$ lead4 ,9 a great] degree ( heat x becomes massicot aga91 hav+ p>t$ ) its pure air4 ,if ! heat be too great1 & appli$ rapidly1 x becomes a flaky sub/ance1 call$ li?>ge2 & ) m heat x becomes a glass1 :i* readily unites ) metallic calces & e>?s1 & is a pr9cipal +r$i5t 9 ! manufacture ( fl9t glass1 giv+ x its peculi> d5sity & refractive p[]4 ,?\gh lead soon t>ni%es1 ! imp]fect calx ?us made does n sep>ate f ! re/ ( ! metal1 & !re=e protects x f any f>!r action ( ! air1 by :i* means x is v useful = ! cov]+ ( h\ses1 & o!r simil> purposes4 ,all acids act ^u lead1 & =m ) x diff]5t sal9e sub/ances4 ,:ite-lead consi/s ( its union ) v9eg> & pure air4 ,also dissolv$ 9 v9eg>1 & cry/alliz$1 x becomes sug> ( lead1 :i*1 l all ! o!r prep>ations ( ?is metal1 is a deadly poison4 ,oils dissolve ! calces ( lead1 :i*1 by ?is means1 is ! basis ( pa9ts1 plai/]s1 c4 ,by means ( heat li?>ge decomposes common salt1 ! lead unit+ ) ! m>9e acid1 & =m+ a yell[ sub/ance1 us$ 9 pa9t+1 & by ?is means ! fossil alkali is sep>at$4 ,lead unites ) mo/ metals1 ?\gh n ) iron4 ,two p>ts ( lead & "o ( t9 make a sold]1 :i* melts ) less heat ?an ei!r ( ! metals sep>ately2 b a composition ( eight p>ts ( bismu?1 five ( lead1 & ?ree ( t91 makes a metal :i* melts 9 boil+ wat]4 ,?is metal w be dissolv$ by wat] if x conta9 any sal9e matt]1 & ! dr9k+ ( x occasions a peculi> k9d ( *olic4 ,lead is sometimes f\nd native1 b g5]ally m9]ally m9]aliz$ ) sulphur or ars5ic1 & (t5 mix$ ) a small quantity ( silv]4 ,( ,copp]4 ,copp] is a metal ( a r$di% or br[ni% col\r1 consid]ably sonor\s1 & v malleable4 ,at a heat f> bel[ ignition1 ! surface1 ( copp] becomes cov]$ ) a range ( prismatic col\rs1 ! comm5cem5t ( its calc9ation2 & ) m heat a black scale is =m$1 :i* easily sep>ates f ! metal1 & 9 a /rong heat x melts1 & burns ) a blui% gre5 flame4 ,copp] ru/s by exposure to ! air2 b ! p>tially-calc9$ surface adh]es to ! metal1 z 9 ! case ( lead1 & ?us pres]ves x f f>!r corrosion4 ,copp] dissolv$ 9 ! vitriolic acid =ms cry/als ( a blot col\r1 call$ blue copp]as4 ,f ?is solution x is precipitat$ by iron1 :i* by ?is means becomes coat$ ) copp]4 ,! nitr\s acid dissolves copp] ) mo/ rapidity1 produc+ nitr\s air4 ,if ! solution be di/ill$1 almo/ all ! acid w be reta9$ 9 ! residuum1 :i* is :ite2 b m heat w expel ! acid1 *iefly 9 ! =m ( dephlogi/icat$ air1 & ! rema9d] w be a black sub/ance1 consi/+ ( ! pure calx ( copp]4 ,! vegetable acids dissolve copp] z well z ! m9]al ones1 :i* makes ! use ( ?is metal = cul9>y purposes 9 "s cases dang]\s4 ,to prev5t ?is !y give x a coat ( t94 ,! solution ( copp] 9 ! vegetable acid is call$ v]digris4 ,alkalies dissolve copp] z well z acids4 ,) ! volatile alkali a blue liquor is =m$1 b 9 "s cases x becomes col\rless4 ,all ! circum/ances ( ?is *ange ( col\r h n yet be5 exam9$4 ,bo? oil & sulphur w dissolve copp]1 & ) ! latt] x =ms a blacki% grey comp\nd1 us$ by dy]s4 ,copp] readily unites ) melt$ t91 at a temp]ature mu* l[] ?an t :i* is necess>y to melt ! copp]2 by :i* means copp] vessels are easily cov]$ ) a coat+ ( t94 ,a mixture ( copp] & t91 call$ bronze1 ! specific gravity ( :i* is great] ?an t ( ! m$ium ( ! two metals1 is us$ 9 ca/+ /atues1 cannon1 & bells2 & 9 a c]ta9 proportion ?is mixture is excell5t = ! purpose ( mirrors ( reflect+ telescopes1 receiv+ a f9e poli%1 & n be+ apt to t>ni%4 ,copp] & ars5ic make a brittle comp\nd call$ tomba*2 & ) z9c x makes ! useful comp\nd commonly call$ brass1 9 :i* z9c is ab\t "o ?ird ( its weight4 ,copp] is sometimes f\nd native2 b commonly mix$ ) sulphur1 9 ores ( a r$1 gre51 or blue col\r4 ,copp] be+ an e>li] discov]y ?an t ( iron1 0 =m]ly us$ = weapons & ! %oe+ ( horses2 & ! anci5ts _h a me?od1 ) :i* we are n well acqua9t$1 ( giv+ x a consid]able degree ( h>dness1 s t a sword made ( x might h a pretty good edge4 ,,lecture ,,xxv4 ,( ,iron4 ,iron is a metal ( a blui% col\r1 ( ! greate/ h>dness1 ! mo/ v>iable 9 its prop]ties1 & ! mo/ useful ( all ! metals2 s t )\t x x is h>dly possible = any p to make great advances 9 arts & civilization4 ,?is metal readily p>ts ) its phlogi/on1 s z to be v subject to calc9e1 or ru/1 by exposure to ! air4 ,! same is evid5t by ! col\rs :i* appe> on its surface :5 expos$ to heat1 & also :5 x is /ruck ) fl9t2 ! p>ticles t fly f x be+ iron p>tially calc9$4 ,9 consequ5ce ( its readily p>t+ ) its phlogi/on1 x is capable ( burn+1 l wood or o!r fuel1 9 pure air4 ,iron & plat9a h ! prop]ty ( weld+ :5 v hot1 s t two pieces may be jo9$ )\t any sold]4 ,:5 iron is heat$ 9 contact ) /eam1 "p ( ! wat] takes ! place ( ! phlogi/on1 :ile ! re/ unites ) x1 & makes inflammable air4 ,by ?is means ! iron acquires "o ?ird m weight1 & becomes :at is call$ f9]y c9d]4 ,?is sub/ance1 heat$ 9 inflammable air1 imbibes x1 p>ts ) its wat]1 & becomes p]fect iron aga94 ,if ! iron be heat$ 9 pure air1 x also imbibes ! wat]1 ( :i* t air *iefly consi/s1 & also a portion ( ! peculi> elem5t ( ! pure air4 ,! solution ( iron 9 _s ( vitriol produces gre5 copp]as2 :i* be+ calc9$1 becomes a r$ sub/ance1 call$ colco?>4 ,! precipitate ( iron1 by an infusion ( galls1 is ! col\r+ matt] 9 ink1 :i* is kept susp5d$ by means ( gum4 ,! precipitate f ! same solution by phlogi/icat$ alkali1 is ,prussian blue4 ,wat] saturat$ ) fix$ air dissolves iron1 & makes a pleasant *alybeat4 ,! calx ( iron gives a gre5 col\r to glass4 ,iron readily comb9es ) sulphur4 ,:5 !y are f\nd comb9$ by nature1 ! sub/ance is call$ pyrites4 ,! union ( phosphoric acid ) iron makes x brittle :5 cold1 commonly call$ cold %ort2 & ! union ( ars5ic makes x brittle :5 hot1 !nce call$ r$ %ort4 ,iron unites ) gold1 silv]1 & plat9a1 & plung$ 9 a :ite heat into m]cury1 x becomes coat$ ) x2 & if ! process be frequ5tly repeat$1 x w become brittle1 :i* %ews t !re is "s mutual action betwe5 !m4 ,iron readily unites ) t92 & by dipp+ ?9 plates ( iron into melt$ t91 !y get a complete coat+ ( x1 & make ! t9n$ plates 9 common use4 ,:5 crude iron comes f ! smelt+ furnace x is brittle2 & :5 x is :ite )91 x is extremely h>d2 b :5 x has a black gra91 ow+ to its hav+ m phlogi/on1 x is s(t]1 & may be fil$ & bor$4 ,ca/ iron becomes malleable by be+ expos$ to a bla/ ( air :5 ne>ly melt+2 ! consequ5ce ( :i* is a dis*>ge ( inflammable air1 & ! sep>ation ( a liquid sub/ance1 :i*1 :5 concret$1 is call$ f9]y c9d]4 ,! iron g5]ally loses "o f\r? ( its weight 9 ! process4 ,crude iron conta9s mu* plumbago1 & ! access ( pure air probably assi/s 9 dis*>g+ x1 by conv]t+ x into air1 *iefly inflammable4 ,malleable iron1 expos$ to a r$ heat 9 contact ) *>coal1 call$ cem5tation1 conv]ts x into /eel1 :i* has ! prop]ties ( becom+ mu* h>d] ?an iron1 & v ela/ic1 by be+ fir/ made v hot1 & !n sudd5ly cool$1 by plung+ x 9 cold wat]4 ,by fir/ mak+ x v h>d1 & !n giv+ diff]5t degrees ( heat1 & cool+ x 9 ^? diff]5t degrees1 x is capable ( a great v>iety ( temp]s1 prop] = diff]5t uses4 ,( ! degrees ( heat workm5 judge by ! *ange ( col\r on its surface4 ,/eel1 l crude iron1 is capable ( be+ melt$ )\t los+ its prop]ties4 ,x is !n call$ ca/ /eel1 & is ( a m uni=m texture4 ,iron acquires "s little weight by be+ conv]t$ into /eel2 & :5 dissolv$ 9 acid1 x yields m plumbago4 ,/eel has some?+ less specific gravity ?an iron4 ,if ! cem5tation be cont9u$ too long1 ! /eel acquires a d>ki% fracture1 x is m fusible1 & incapable ( weld+4 ,/eel heat$ 9 contact ) e>?y matt]s1 is r$uc$ to iron4 ,iron is ! only sub/ance capable ( magnetism2 & h>d5$ /eel alone is capable ( reta9+ magnetism4 ,! load/one is an ore ( iron4 ,,lecture ,,xxvi4 ,( ,t94 ,t9 is a metal ( a slightly yell[i% ca/1 ?\gh h>d] ?an lead1 v malleable1 b ( no great t5acity2 s t wires _c be made ( x4 ,x easily ext5ds "u ! hamm]1 & plates ( x1 call$ t9foil1 are made only "o ?\s&? "p ( an in* ?ick1 & might be made z ?9 aga94 ,t9 has less specific gravity ?an any o!r metal4 ,x melts long be=e ignition1 at #daj ( ,fahr5heit1 & by ! cont9uance ( heat is sl[ly conv]t$ into a :ite p[d]1 :i* is ! *ief +r$i5t 9 putty1 us$ 9 poli%+1 c4 ,l lead1 x is brittle :5 heat$ little %ort ( fusion1 & may be r$uc$ into gra9s by agitation z x passes f a fluid to a solid /ate4 ,! calx ( t9 resi/s fusion m ?an t ( any o!r metal1 :i* makes x useful 9 mak+ an opaque :ite enamel4 ,t9 loses its bright surface :5 expos$ to ! air1 b is n prop]ly subject to ru/2 s t x is useful 9 protect+ iron & o!r metals f ! effects ( ! atmosph]e4 ,conc5trat$ vitriolic acid1 assi/$ by heat1 dissolves half its weight ( t91 & yields vitriolic acid air4 ,) m wat] x yields inflammable air4 ,dur+ ! solution ! phlogi/on ( ! t9 unit+ ) ! acid1 =ms sulphur1 :i* makes x turbid4 ,by long /&+1 or ! addition ( wat]1 ! calx ( t9 is precipitat$ f ! solution4 ,! nitr\s acid dissolves t9 v rapidly )\t heat1 & yields b little nitr\s air4 ,) m>9e acid ?is metal yields inflammable air4 ,) aqua regia x assumes ! =m ( a gelat9\s sub/ance us$ by dy]s to height5 ! col\r ( "s r$ t9ctures1 s z to produce a bright sc>let 9 dy+ wool4 ,a transp>5t liquor1 :i* emits v copi\s fumes1 call$1 f ! inv5tor1 ! smok+ liquor ( ,libavius1 is made by di/ill+ equal p>ts ( amalgam ( t9 & m]cury ) corrosive sublimate1 triturat$ toge!r4 ,a col\rless liquor comes ov] fir/1 & !n a ?ick :ite fume1 :i* cond5ses into ! transp>5t liquor above m5tion$4 ,mr4 ,adet has %ewn1 t ?is liquor be>s ! same relation to ! common solution ( t91 t corrosive sublimate does to calomel1 & has giv5 an +5i\s solution ( _m ( its prop]ties4 ,t9 detonates ) nitre2 & if ! cry/als made by ! solution ( copp] 9 ! nitr\s acid be inclos$ 9 t9foil1 nitr\s fumes w be emitt$1 & ! :ole w become r$ hot4 ,also if five times its weight ( sulphur be add$ to melt$ t91 a black brittle comp\nd1 :i* readily takes fire1 w be =m$4 ,ano!r comb9ation ( t91 sulphur1 & m]cury1 makes a light yell[ sub/ance call$ aurum musivum us$ 9 pa9t+4 ,t9 is ! pr9cipal +r$i5t 9 ! composition ( pewt]1 ! o!r +r$i5ts be+ lead1 z9c1 bismu?1 & copp]2 ea* pewt]] hav+ 8 peculi> receipt4 ,x is also us$ 9 coat+ copp] & iron plates1 & 9 silv]+ look+-glasses1 besides be+ ca/ into a v>iety ( =ms1 :5 x is call$ block t94 ,t9 is sometimes f\nd native1 b is g5]ally m9]aliz$ ) sulphur & ars5ic4 ,! latt] is ?\ght to be always conta9$ 9 t91 & to be ! cause ( ! crackl+ noise made by b5d+ plates ( x4 ,( ! ,semi-metals4 ,bismu? is a semi-metal ( a yell[i% or r$di% ca/1 b little subject to *ange 9 ! air2 h>d] ?an lead1 b easily brok51 & r$ucible to p[d]4 ,:5 brok5 x exhibits l>ge %9+ facets1 9 a v>iety ( positions4 ,?9 pieces ( x are consid]ably sonor\s4 ,bismu? melts at ab\t #dfj deg4 ( ,fahr5heit4 ,) m heat x ignites1 & burns ) a slight blue flame1 :ile a yell[i% calx1 call$ fl[]s ( bismu?1 is produc$4 ,) m heat x becomes a gre5i% glass4 ,9 a /rong heat1 & 9 close vessels1 ?is metal sublimes4 ,vitriolic acid1 ev5 conc5trat$ & boil+1 has b little effect ^u bismu?2 b ! nitr\s acid acts ^u x ) ! greate/ rapidity & viol5ce1 produc+ mu* nitr\s air1 mix$ ) phlogi/icat$ nitr\s vap\r4 ,f ! solution ( bismu? 9 ?is acid1 a :ite sub/ance1 call$ magi/]y ( bismu?1 is precipitat$ by ! affusion ( wat]4 ,?is has be5 us$ z a pa9t = ! sk9 b has be5 ?\ght to injure x4 ,! m>9e acid does n readily act ^u bismu?2 b :5 conc5trat$1 x =ms ) x a sal9e comb9ation1 :i* does n easily cry/allize1 b may be sublim$ 9 ! =m ( a s(t fusible salt1 call$ butt] ( bismu?4 ,bismu? unites ) mo/ metallic sub/ances1 & 9 g5]al r5d]s !m m fusible4 ,:5 calc9$ ) ! imp]fect metals1 x unites ) !m1 & has ! same effect z lead 9 cupellation4 ,bismu? is us$ 9 ! composition ( pewt]1 9 pr9t]s' types1 & o!r metallic mixtures4 ,?is metal is sometimes f\nd native1 b m commonly m9]aliz$ ) sulphur4 ,,lecture ,,xxvii4 ,( ,nickel4 ,nickel is a semi-metal ( a r$di% ca/1 ( great h>dness1 & always magnetical2 on :i* acc\nt x is suppos$ to conta9 iron1 ?\gh *emi/s h n yet be5 able to sep>ate !m4 ,! pure/ nickel 0 s infusible z n to run into a mass 9 ! /ronge/ heat ( a smi?'s =ge2 b !n x 0 9 "s degree malleable4 ,conc5trat$ acid ( vitriol only corrodes nickel4 ,alkalies precipitate x f its solution 9 ! nitr\s acid1 & dissolve ! precipitate4 ,x readily unites ) sulphur4 ,nickel is f\nd ei!r native or m9]aliz$ ) sev]al o!r metals1 especially ) copp]1 :5 x is call$ kupf] nickel1 or false copp]1 be+ ( a r$di% or copp] col\r4 ,?is semi-metal has n yet be5 appli$ to any use4 ,( ,ars5ic4 ,:at is commonly call$ ars5ic is ! calx ( a semi-metal call$ ! regulus ( ars5ic4 ,x is a :ite & brittle sub/ance1 expell$ f ! ores ( sev]al metals by heat4 ,x is !n ref9$ by a second sublimation1 & melt$ into ! masses 9 :i* x is commonly sold4 ,?is calx is soluble 9 ab\t eighty times its weight ( cold wat]1 or 9 fifte5 times its weight ( boil+ wat]4 ,x acts 9 _m respects l an acid1 z x decomposes nitre by di/illation1 :5 ! nitr\s acid flies (f1 & ! ars5ical salt ( ,macqu] rema9s beh9d4 ,:5 ! calx ( ars5ic is di/ill$ ) sulphur1 ! vitriolic acid flies (f1 & a sub/ance ( a yell[ col\r1 call$ orpim5t1 is produc$4 ,?is appe>s to consi/ ( sulphur & ! regulus ( ars5ic2 "p ( ! sulphur receiv+ pure air f ! calx1 to :i* x communicates phlogi/on2 & ?us ! sulphur becomes conv]t$ into vitriolic acid1 :ile ! ars5ical calx is r$uc$1 & comb9es ) ! re/ ( ! sulphur4 ,! comb9ation ( sulphur & ars5ic1 by melt+ !m toge!r1 is ( a r$ col\r1 kn[n by ! "n ( realgal1 or realg>4 ,x is less volatile ?an orpim5t4 ,! solution ( fix$ alkali dissolves ! calx ( ars5ic1 & by means ( heat a br[n t5aci\s mass is produc$1 & hav+ also a disagreeable smell1 x is call$ liv] ( ars5ic4 ,! regulus ( ars5ic is ( a yell[ col\r1 subject to t>ni% or gr[ black1 by exposure to ! air1 v brittle1 & ( a lam9at$ texture4 ,9 close vessels x :olly sublimes1 b burns ) a small flame 9 pure air4 ,vitriolic acid has little action ^u ?is semi-metal1 except :5 hot2 b ! nitr\s acid acts readily ^u x1 & likewise dissolves ! calx1 z does boil+ m>9e acid1 ?\gh x affects x v little :5 cold4 ,mo/ ( ! metals unite ) ! regulus ( ars5ic4 ,dephlogi/icat$ m>9e acid conv]ts ! calx ( ars5ic into ars5ical acid by giv+ x pure air4 ,! acid ( ars5ic acts m or less ^u all metals1 b ! ph5om5a d n appe> to be ( mu* importance4 ,! calx ( acid is us$ 9 a v>iety ( ! arts1 especially 9 ! manufactory ( glass4 ,orpim5t & realg> are us$ z pigm5ts4 ,"s attempts h be5 made to introduce x into m$ic9e1 b be+ dang]\s1 ! exp]im5ts %\ld be made ) caution4 ,( ,cobalt4 ,cobalt is a semi-metal ( a grey or /eel col\r1 ( a close-gra9$ fracture1 m difficult ( fusion ?an copp]1 n easily calc9$4 ,x soon t>ni%es 9 ! air1 b wat] has no effect ^u x4 ,cobalt1 dissolv$ 9 aqua regia1 makes an excell5t sympa!tic ink1 appe>+ gre5 :5 held to ! fire1 & disappe>+ :5 cold1 unless x has be5 heat$ too mu*1 :5 x burns ! pap]4 ,! calx ( cobalt is ( a deep blue col\r1 :i*1 :5 fus$1 makes ! blue glass call$ smalt4 ,! ore ( cobalt1 call$ zaffre1 is f\nd 9 sev]al p>ts ( ,europe1 b *iefly 9 ,saxony4 ,z x is commonly sold1 x conta9s twice or ?rice its weight ( p[d] ( fl9ts4 ,! smalt is usually compos$ ( "o "p ( calc9$ cobalt1 fus$ ) two p>ts ( p[d] ( fl9t & "o ( pot-a%4 ,! *ief use ( cobalt is = mak+ smalt2 b ! p[d] & ! blue-/one us$ by laundresses is a prep>ation made by ! ,dut* ( a co>se k9d ( smalt4 ,( ,z9c4 ,z9c is a semi-metal ( a blui% ca/1 bright] ?an lead1 & s f> malleable z n to be brok5 by a hamm]1 ?\gh x _c be mu* ext5d$4 ,:5 brok5 by b5d+1 x appe>s to consi/ ( cubical gra9s4 ,if x be heat$ ne>ly to melt+1 x w be suffici5tly brittle to be pulv]iz$4 ,x melts long be=e ignition1 & :5 x is r$ hot1 x burns ) a dazzl+ :ite flame1 & is calc9$ ) su* rapidity1 t its calx flies up 9 ! =m ( :ite fl[]s1 call$ fl[]s ( z9c1 or philosophical wool4 ,9 a /rong] heat !y become a cle> yell[ glass4 ,heat$ 9 close vessels1 ?is metal rises )\t decomposition1 be+ ! mo/ volatile ( all ! metals except ! regulus ( ars5ic4 ,z9c dissolv$ 9 dilut$ vitriolic acid1 yields mu* inflammable air1 & has a residuum1 :i* appe>s to be plumbago1 & ! liquor =ms cry/als1 call$ :ite copp]as4 ,?is metals also yields inflammable air :5 dissolv$ 9 ! m>9e acid4 ,dissolv$ 9 ! nitr\s acid1 x yields dephlogi/icat$ nitr\s air1 ) v little prop] nitr\s air4 ,! ore ( z9c1 call$ calam9e1 is g5]ally ( a :ite col\r2 & ! *ief use ( x is to unite x ) copp]1 ) :i* x makes brass & o!r gold-col\r$ mixtures ( metals4 ,! calx & ! salts ( ?is metal are occasionally us$ 9 m$ic9e4 ,,lecture ,,xxviii4 ,( ,antimony4 ,! regulus ( antimony is ( a silv]y :ite col\r1 ( a scaly texture1 v brittle1 & melts soon aft] ignition4 ,by cont9uance ( heat x calc9es 9 :ite fumes1 call$ arg5t9e fl[]s ( antimony1 :i* melt into a hyac9?9e glass4 ,9 close vessels x rises )\t decomposition4 ,its calx is soluble 9 wat]1 l t ( ars5ic4 ,?is metal t>ni%es1 b does n prop]ly ru/1 by exposure to ! air4 ,?is metal is soluble 9 aqua regia4 ,x detonates ) nitre1 & :at rema9s ( equal p>ts ( nitre & regulus ( antimony aft] detonation1 9 a hot crucible1 is call$ diaphoretic antimony4 ,! wat] us$ 9 ?is prep>ation conta9s a portion ( ! calx susp5d$ by ! alkali1 & be+ precipitat$ by an acid1 is call$ c]use ( antimony4 ,:5 regulus ( antimony is pulv]iz$ & mix$ ) twice its weight ( corrosive sublimate 7:i* is att5d$ ) heat7 & !n di/ill$ ) a g5tle fire1 a ?ick fluid comes ov]1 :i* is congeal$ 9 ! receiv]1 or 9 ! neck ( ! retort1 & is call$ butt] ( antimony4 ,! residuum consi/s ( reviv$ m]cury1 ) "s regulus & calx ( antimony4 ,:5 ?is butt] ( antimony is ?r[n into pure wat]1 !re is a :ite precipitate1 call$ p[d] ( alg>o?1 a viol5t emetic4 ,nitr\s acid dissolves ! butt] ( antimony2 & :5 an equal weight ( nitr\s acid has be5 ?ree times di/ill$ to dryness f butt] ( antimony1 ! residuum1 aft] ignition1 is call$ bezo> m9]al1 & seems to be little m ?an a calx ( ! metal4 ,crude antimony1 :i* has be5 mu* us$ 9 ! exp]im5ts ( al*emi/s1 is a comb9ation ( sulphur & regulus ( antimony4 ,heat melts x1 & f9ally conv]ts x into glass1 ( a d>k r$ col\r1 call$ liv] ( antimony4 ,if antimony be melt$ or boil$ ) a fix$ alkali1 a precipitate is made by cool+1 call$ k]mes m9]al1 =m]ly us$ 9 m$ic9e4 ,! antimonial prep>ations t are n[ mo/ 9 use are antimonial w9e & t>t> emetic4 ,! w9e is made by infus+ pulv]iz$ glass ( antimony 9 ,spani% w9e "s days1 & filt]+ ! cle> fluid ?r\gh pap]4 ,! emetic t>t>1 or antimonial t>t>1 is a sal9e sub/ance1 compos$ ( acid ( t>t>1 vegetable alkali1 & antimony p>tially calc9$4 ,! prep>ation may be se5 9 ! ,disp5s>ies4 ,! regulus ( antimony is us$ 9 ! =m ( pills1 :i* purge m or less 9 proportion to ! acid !y meet )2 & z !y und]go little or no *ange 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! body1 !y are call$ p]petual pills4 ,( ,manganese4 ,manganese is a h>d1 black m9]al1 v pond]\s1 & ! regulus ( x is a semi-metal ( a dull :ite col\r :5 brok51 b soon gr[s d>k by exposure to ! air4 ,x is h>d & brittle1 ?\gh n pulv]izable1 r\gh 9 its fracture1 & ( v difficult fusion4 ,its calces are :ite :5 imp]fect1 b black1 or d>k gre51 :5 p]fect4 ,! :ite calx is soluble 9 acids4 ,:5 brok5 9 pieces1 x falls into p[d] by a spontane\s calc9ation1 & ?is p[d] is magnetical1 ?\gh ! mass 0 n possess$ ( t prop]ty4 ,! black calx ( manganese is altoge!r insoluble 9 acids4 ,x conta9s mu* dephlogi/icat$ air4 ,! calx ( manganese is us$ 9 mak+ glass2 ! glass de/roy+ ! col\r ( t ( ! o!r mat]ials1 & !reby mak+ ! :ole mass transp>5t4 ,?is semi-metal mixes ) mo/ ( ! metals 9 fusion1 b n ) m]cury4 ,!re is ano!r ore ( manganese1 call$ black woad1 :i* inflames spontane\sly :5 mix$ ) oil4 ,( ,wolfram4 ,wolfram is a m9]al ( a br[ni% or black col\r1 f\nd 9 ! t9 m9es ( ,cornwall1 ( a radiat$ or foliat$ texture1 %9+ almo/ l a metal4 ,x conta9s mu* ( ! calx ( manganese1 & iron2 b :5 ! sub/ance is pulv]iz$1 ^! are easily dissolv$1 & ! calx ( wolfram is f\nd to be yell[4 ,?is calx turns blue by exposure to light2 & an hundr$ gra9s ( x heat$ ) *>coal w yield sixty gra9s ( a peculi> metal1 9 small p>ticles1 :i*1 :5 brok51 look l /eel4 ,x is soluble 9 ! vitriolic or m>9e acids1 & r$uc$ to a yell[ calx by nitr\s acid or aqua regia4 ,( ,molybd5a4 ,molybd5a is a sub/ance :i* mu* resembles plumbago2 b its texture is scaly1 & n easily pulv]iz$1 on acc\nt ( a degree ( flexibility :i* its lam9ae possess4 ,) extreme heat1 & mix$ ) *>coal1 x yields small p>ticles ( a metal t is grey1 brittle1 & extremely infusible2 & unit+ ) sev]al ( ! metals1 x =ms ) !m brittle or friable comp\nds4 ,by heat x is conv]t$ into a :ite calx4 ,( ,solid ,combu/ible ,sub/ances4 ,!re yet rema9s a class ( solid sub/ances1 ( ! combu/ible k9d1 b mo/ ( !m h be5 already consid]$ "u ! =m ( ! fluids1 f :i* !y are orig9ally =m$1 z bitum51 pit-coal1 & amb]2 or "u ! pr9cipal +r$i5ts ( :i* !y are compos$1 z sulphur & plumbago4 ,!re only rema9s to be m5tion$ ! diamond1 :i* is ( a nature q diff]5t f t ( ! o!r preci\s /ones1 ! pr9cipal +r$i5t 9 :i* is silice\s e>?1 :i* r5d]s !m n liable to be mu* affect$ by heat4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! diamond is a combu/ible sub/ance2 = 9 a degree ( heat some:at great] ?an t :i* w melt silv]1 x burns ) a slight flame1 dim9i%es common air1 & leaves a soot beh9d4 ,also1 if diamond p[d] be triturat$ ) vitriolic acid1 x turns x black1 :i* is ano!r pro( ( its conta9+ phlogi/on4 ,! diamond is valu$ on acc\nt ( its extreme h>dness1 ! exquisite poli% x is capable (1 & its extraord9>y refractive p[]2 = light fall+ on its int]ior surface ) an angle ( incid5ce great] ?an #bd-a_/b w be :olly reflect$1 :]eas 9 glass x requires an angle ( #da degrees4 ,,lecture ,,xxix4 ,( ! ,doctr9e ( ,phlogi/on & ! ,composition ( ,wat]4 ,x 0 suppos$ to be a great discov]y ( ,mr4 ,/ahl1 t all inflammable sub/ances1 z well z metals1 conta9 a pr9ciple1 or sub/ance1 to :i* he gave ! "n ( phlogi/on1 & t ! addition or deprivation ( ?is sub/ance makes "s ( ! mo/ rem>kable *anges 9 bodies1 especially t ! union ( a metallic calx & ?is sub/ance makes a metal2 & t combu/ion consi/s 9 ! sep>ation ( phlogi/on f ! sub/ances t conta9 x4 ,t x is ! same pr9ciple1 or sub/ance1 t ent]s into all inflammable sub/ances1 & metals1 is evid5t1 f its be+ dis5gag$ f any ( !m1 & ent]+ into ! composition ( any ( ! o!rs4 ,?us ! phlogi/on ( *>coal or inflammable air becomes ! phlogi/on ( any ( ! metals1 :5 ! calx is heat$ 9 contact ) ei!r ( !m4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,mr4 ,lavoisi] & mo/ ( ! ,fr5* *emi/s1 are ( op9ion1 t !re is no su* pr9ciple1 or sub/ance1 z phlogi/on2 t metals & o!r inflammable bodies are simple sub/ances1 :i* h an aff9ity to pure air2 & t combu/ion consi/s n 9 ! sep>ation ( any ?+ f ! inflammable sub/ance1 b 9 ! union ( pure air ) x4 ,!y moreov] say1 t wat] is n1 z has be5 commonly suppos$1 a simple sub/ance1 b t x consi/s ( two elem5ts1 viz4 pure air1 or oxyg5e1 & ano!r1 to :i* !y give ! "n ( hydrog5e1 :i*1 ) ! pr9ciple ( heat1 call$ by !m calorique1 is inflammable air4 ,! pr9cipal fact adduc$ by !m to prove t metals d n lose any ?+ :5 !y become calces1 b only ga9 some?+1 is1 t m]cury becomes a calx1 call$ precipitate p] se1 by imbib+ pure air1 & t x becomes runn+ m]cury aga9 by p>t+ ) x4 ,?is is ackn[l$g$3 b x is almo/ ! only case ( any calx be+ reviv$ )\t ! help ( "s kn[n phlogi/ic sub/ance2 & 9 ?is p>ticul> case x is n absurd to suppose1 t ! m]cury1 9 becom+ precipitate p] se1 may reta9 all its phlogi/on1 z well z imbibe pure air1 & !re=e be reviv$ by simply p>t+ ) t air4 ,9 _m o!r cases ! same metal1 9 diff]5t /ates1 conta9s m or less phlogi/on1 z ca/ iron1 malleable iron1 & /eel4 ,also !re is a calx ( m]cury made by ! acid ( vitriol1 :i* _c be reviv$ )\t ! help ( inflammable air1 or "s o!r sub/ance suppos$ to conta9 phlogi/on3 & t ! inflammable air is really imbib$ 9 ^! processes1 is evid5t1 f its :olly disappe>+1 & no?+ be+ left 9 ! vessel 9 :i* ! process is made beside ! metal t is reviv$ by x4 ,if precipitate p] se be reviv$ 9 inflammable air1 ! air w be imbib$1 s t runn+ m]cury may conta9 m or less phlogi/on4 ,! antiphlogi/ians also say1 t ! dim9ution ( atmosph]ical air by ! burn+ ( phosphorus is a pro( ( _! !ory2 ! pure air be+ imbib$ by t sub/ance1 & no?+ emitt$ f x4 ,b !re is ! same pro( ( phosphorus conta9+ phlogi/on1 t !re is ( dry fle% conta9+ x2 s9ce ! produce ( ! solution ( x 9 nitr\s acid1 & its effect ^u ! acid1 are ! same1 viz4 ! production ( phlogi/icat$ air1 & ! phlogi/ication ( ! acid4 ,_! pro( t wat] is decompos$1 is1 t 9 s5d+ /eam ov] hot iron1 inflammable air 7:i* !y suppose to be "o con/itu5t "p ( x7 is procur$2 :ile ! o!r "p1 viz4 ! oxyg5e1 unites ) ! iron1 & adds to its weight4 ,b x is repli$1 t ! inflammable air may be well suppos$ to be ! phlogi/on ( ! iron1 unit$ to "p ( ! wat]1 z its base1 :ile ! rema9d] ( ! wat] is imbib$ by ! calx2 & t x is m]e wat]1 & n pure air1 or oxyg5e1 t is reta9$ 9 ! iron1 is evid5t1 f no?+ b pure wat] be+ recov]$ :5 ?is calx ( iron is reviv$ 9 inflammable air1 9 :i* case ! inflammable air :olly disappe>s1 tak+ ! place ( ! wat]1 by :i* x _h be5 expell$4 ,9 answ] to ?is x is said1 t ! pure air expell$ f ! calx unit+ ) ! inflammable air 9 ! vessel1 recomposes ! wat] f\nd aft] ?is process4 ,b 9 e o!r case 9 :i* any sub/ance conta9+ pure air is heat$ 9 inflammable air1 ?\gh ! inflammable air be 9 "p imbib$1 "s fix$ air is produc$1 & ?is fix$ air is compos$ ( ! pure air 9 ! sub/ance & "p ( ! inflammable air 9 ! vessel4 ,?us1 if m9ium1 :i* conta9s pure air1 & massicot1 :i* conta9s none1 be heat$ 9 inflammable air1 9 bo? ! cases lead w be reviv$ by ! absorption ( inflammable air2 b 9 ! =m] case only1 & n 9 ! latt]1 w fix$ air be produc$4 ,! calx ( iron1 !re=e1 hav+ ! same effect ) massicot1 :5 treat$ 9 ! same mann]1 appe>s to conta9 no m pure air ?an massicot does4 ,besides ?is explanation ( ! facts on :i* ! new !ory is f\nd$1 :i* %ews x to be unnecess>y1 ! old hypo!sis be+ suffici5t = ! purpose1 "s facts are all$g$1 z inconsi/5t ) ! new doctr9e4 ,if ! calx ( iron made by wat]1 & *>coal made by ! greate/ degree ( heat1 be mix$ toge!r1 a great quantity ( inflammable air w be produc$2 ?\gh1 accord+ to ! new !ory1 nei!r ( ^! sub/ances conta9$ any wat]1 :i* !y ma9ta9 to be ! only orig9 ( x4 ,b ?is fact is easily expla9$ ^u ! doctr9e ( phlogi/on2 ! wat] 9 ?is calx unit+ ) ! phlogi/on ( ! *>coal1 & !n =m+ inflammable air2 & x is ! same k9d ( inflammable air t is made f *>coal & wat]4 ,also ! union ( inflammable & pure air1 :5 !y are fir$ toge!r by means ( ! electric sp>k1 produces n pure wat]1 z1 accord+ to ! new !ory1 x ought to d1 b nitr\s acid4 ,to ?is x has be5 object$1 t ! acid ?us produc$ came f ! decomposition ( phlogi/icat$ air1 a small portion ( :i* 0 at fir/ conta9$ 9 ! mixture ( ! two k9ds ( air4 ,b :5 e p>ticle ( phlogi/icat$ air is exclud$1 ! /ronge/ acid is procur$4 ,!y f9d1 inde$1 t by ! sl[ burn+ ( inflammable air 9 pure air1 !y get pure wat]4 ,b !n x appe>s1 t :5ev] ?is is ! case1 !re is a production ( phlogi/icat$ air1 :i* conta9s ! necess>y elem5t ( nitr\s acid2 & ?is is always ! case :5 !re is a little surplus ( ! inflammable air t is fir$ along ) ! pure air1 z ! acid is always procur$ :5 !re is a r$undancy ( pure air4 ,t mu* wat] %\ld be procur$ by ! decomposition ( ^! k9ds ( air1 is easily acc\nt$ =1 by suppos+ t wat]1 or /eam1 is ! basis ( ^!1 z well z ( all o!r k9ds ( air4 ,s9ce air some?+ bett] ?an t ( ! atmosph]e is con/antly produc$ f wat] by conv]t+ x into vap\r1 & also by remov+ ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 & ^! processes d n appe> to h any limits2 x seems probable1 t wat] unit$ to ! pr9ciple ( heat2 con/itutes atmosph]ical air2 & if s1 x mu/ consi/ ( ! elem5ts ( bo? dephlogi/icat$ & phlogi/icat$ air2 :i* is a supposition v diff]5t f t ( ! ,fr5* *emi/s4 ,,lecture ,,xxx4 ,( ,heat4 ,heat is an affection ( bodies well kn[n by ! s5sation t x excites4 ,x is produc$ by friction or compression1 z by ! /rik+ ( fl9t aga9/ /eel1 & ! hamm]+ ( iron1 by ! reflection or refraction ( light1 & by ! combu/ion ( inflammable sub/ances4 ,x has be5 long disput$1 :e!r ! cause ( heat be prop]ly a sub/ance1 or "s p>ticul> affection ( ! p>ticles t compose ! sub/ance t is heat$4 ,b be x a sub/ance1 or a pr9ciple ( any o!r k9d1 x is capable ( be+ transf]r$ f "o body to ano!r1 & ! communication ( x is att5d$ ) ! foll[+ circum/ances4 ,all sub/ances are exp&$ by heat1 b "s 9 a great] degree ?an o!rs2 z metals m ?an e>?y sub/ances1 & *>coal m ?an wood4 ,also "s receive & transmit heat ?r\gh _! sub/ance m readily ?an o!rs2 metals m s ?an e>?s1 & ( ! metals1 copp] m readily ?an iron4 ,in/rum5ts contriv$ to asc]ta9 ! expansion ( sub/ances by heat1 are call$ pyromet]s1 & are ( v>i\s con/ructions4 ,z a /&>d to measure ! degrees ( heat1 m]cury is 9 g5]al pref]able to any o!r sub/ance1 on acc\nt ( its readily receiv+1 & communicat+1 heat ?r\gh its :ole mass4 ,!rmomet]s1 !re=e1 or in/rum5ts to measure ! degrees ( heat1 are g5]ally con/ruct$ ( x1 ?\gh1 z x is subject to become solid 9 a great degree ( cold1 ard5t _s1 :i* w n freeze at all1 is m prop] 9 t p>ticul> case4 ,! graduation ( !rmomet]s is arbitr>y4 ,9 t ( ,fahr5heit1 :i* is *iefly us$ 9 ,engl&1 ! freez+ po9t ( wat] is #cb deg41 & ! boil+ po9t #bab deg4 ,9 t ( ,reaumur1 :i* is *iefly us$ abroad1 ! freez+ po9t ( wat] is #j1 & ! boil+ po9t #hj4 ,to measure ! degrees ( heat above ignition1 ,mr4 ,w$gwood has happily contriv$ to use pieces ( clay1 :i* contract 9 ! fire2 & he has also be5 able to f9d ! co9cid5ce ( ! degrees 9 m]curial !rmomet]s ) ^? ( 8 own4 ,to measure ! degrees ( heat & cold dur+ a p]son's abs5ce1 ,"l ,george ,cav5di% contriv$ an in/rum5t1 9 :i* a small bason receiv$ ! m]cury1 t 0 rais$ high] ?an ! place = :i* x 0 regulat$ by heat or cold1 )\t a p[] ( return+4 ,b ,mr4 ,six has lately hit ^u a bett] me?od1 viz4 introduc+ into ! tube ( 8 !rmomet] a small piece ( iron1 :i* is rais$ by ! asc5t ( ! m]cury1 & prev5t$ f desc5d+ by a small spr+2 b :i* may be br\ght back to its =m] place by a magnet act+ ?r\gh ! glass4 ,heat1 l light1 is propagat$ 9 "r l9es2 & :at is m rem>kable1 cold obs]ves ! same laws4 ,= if ! sub/ance emitt+ heat )\t light1 z iron bel[ ignition1 be plac$ 9 ! focus ( a burn+ mirror1 a !rmomet] 9 ! focus ( a simil> mirror1 plac$ p>allel to x1 ?\gh at a consid]able di/ance1 w be heat$ by x1 & if a piece ( ice be plac$ !re1 ! m]cury w fall4 ,heat assi/s ! solv5t p[] ( almo/ all m5/rua2 s t _m sub/ances w unite 9 a c]ta9 degree ( heat1 :i* w =m no union at all )\t x1 z dephlogi/icat$ & inflammable air4 ,if sub/ances be ( ! same k9d1 !y w receive heat f "o ano!r1 9 proportion to _! masses4 ,?us1 if a quantity ( wat] heat$ to #dj deg4 be mix$ ) ano!r equal quantity ( wat] heat$ to #bj deg41 ! :ole mass w be heat$ to #cj deg4 ,b if ! sub/ances be ( diff]5t k9ds1 !y w receive heat f ea* o!r 9 diff]5t proportions1 accord+ to _! capacity 7z x is call$7 ( receiv+ heat4 ,?us1 if a p9t ( m]cury ( ! temp]ature ( #acf be mix$ ) a p9t ( wat] ( ! temp]ature ( #ej1 ! temp]ature ( ! two aft] mixture w n be a m$ium betwe5 ^? two numb]s1 viz4 #ic1 b #gf2 consequ5tly ! m]cury 0 cool$ #fj deg41 :ile ! wat] 0 heat$ only #bf2 s t #bf degrees ( heat 9 wat] correspond to #fj 9 m]cury4 ,b m]cury is ab\t #ac times specifically heavi] ?an wat]1 s t an equal weight ( m]cury w\ld conta9 only "o ?irtie? "p ( ?is heat2 & divid+ #bf by #ac1 ! quoti5t is #b4 ,if weight1 !re=e1 be consid]$1 ! heat discov]$ by wat] %\ld be reckon$ z #b in/ead ( #fj2 & consequ5tly :5 wat] receives #b degrees ( heat1 an equal weight ( m]cury w receive #fj deg42 & divid+ bo? ! numb]s by #b1 if ! heat ( wat] be #a1 t ( ! m]cury w be #cj4 ,or s9ce !y receive equal degrees ( heat1 :e!r !y discov] x or n 7& ! less !y discov]1 ! m !y reta9 9 a lat5t /ate7 a p\nd ( m]cury conta9s no m ?an "o ?irtie? "p ( ! heat actually exi/+ 9 a p\nd ( wat] ( ! same temp]ature4 ,wat]1 !re=e1 is said to h a great] capacity = receiv+ & reta9+ heat1 )\t discov]+ x1 ?an m]cury1 9 ! proportion ( #cj to #a1 if weight be consid]$1 or ( #fj to #bf1 t is ( #cj to #ac2 if bulk be ! /&>d1 ?\gh1 accord+ to "s1 x is z #c to #b4 ,! capacity ( receiv+ heat 9 ! sub/ance is greate/ 9 a /ate ( vap\r1 & lea/ 9 t ( a solid2 s t :5 ice is conv]t$ into wat]1 heat is absorb$1 & m /ill :5 x is conv]t$ into vap\r2 & on ! contr>y1 :5 vap\r is conv]t$ into wat]1 x gives out ! heat :i* x _h imbib$1 & :5 x becomes ice x gives out /ill m4 ,if equal quantities ( ice & wat] be expos$ to heat at ! temp]ature ( #cb deg41 ! ice w only become wat]1 )\t receiv+ any additional s5sible heat2 b an equal quantity ( wat] 9 ! same situation w\ld be rais$ to #agh deg41 s t #adf degrees ( heat w be imbib$1 & rema9 9 lat5t 9 ! wat]1 9 consequ5ce ( its pass+ f a /ate ( ice3 & heat communicat$ by a giv5 weight ( vap\r w raise an equal weight ( a nonevaporable sub/ance1 ( ! same capacity ) wat]1 #idc degrees2 s t mu* m heat is lat5t 9 /eam1 ?an 9 ! wat] f :i* x 0 =m$4 ,?is doctr9e ( lat5t heat expla9s a great v>iety ( pha5om5a 9 nature2 z t ( cool+ bodies by evaporation1 ! vap\r ( wat]1 or any o!r fluid sub/ance1 absorb+ & c>ry+ (f ! heat !y _h be=e4 ,wat]1 p]fectly at re/1 w fall consid]ably bel[ ! freez+ po9t1 & yet cont9ue fluid3 b on ! slighte/ agitation1 ! congelation ( ! :ole1 or "p ( x1 takes place in/antly1 & if ! :ole be n solid1 x w in/antly rise to #cb deg41 ! freez+ po9t4 ,f :atev] cause1 "s motion seems necess>y to ! comm5cem5t ( congelation1 at lea/ 9 a mod]ate temp]ature2 b :5ev] any "p ( ! wat] becomes solid1 x gives out "s ( ! heat x _h be=e1 & t heat :i* 0 be=e lat5t becom+ s5sible1 & be+ diffus$ ?r\gh ! :ole mass1 raises its temp]ature4 ,on ! same pr9ciple1 :5 wat] heat$ high] ?an ! boil+ po9t 9 a dige/] is sudd5ly p]mitt$ to escape 9 ! =m ( /eam1 ! rema9d] is in/antly r$uc$ to ! common boil+ po9t1 ! heat above t po9t be+ c>ri$ (f 9 a lat5t /ate by ! /eam4 ,_h x n be5 = ?is wise provision 9 nature1 ! :ole ( any quantity ( wat] w\ld1 9 all cases ( freez+1 h become solid at once2 & also ! :ole ( any quantity t 0 heat$ to ! po9t ( boil+1 w\ld h be5 conv]t$ into /eam at once2 circum/ances :i* w\ld h be5 extremely inconv5i5t1 & (t5 fatal4 ,?is doctr9e also expla9s ! effect ( freez+ mixtures1 z t ( salt & sn[4 ,^! solid sub/ances1 on be+ mix$1 become fluid1 & t fluid absorb+ mu* heat1 deprives all ! neighb\r+ bodies ( "p ( :at !y _h4 ,b if ! temp]ature at :i* ! mixture is made be z l[ z t to :i* ?is mixture w\ld h br\ght x1 x has no effect1 & 9 a l[] temp]ature ?is new fluid w\ld become solid2 = t mixture has only a c]ta9 det]m9ate capacity = heat1 & if ! neighb\r+ bodies h less heat1 !y w take f x4 ,x has be5 obs]v$1 t ! comp>ative heat ( bodies conta9+ phlogi/on is increas$ by calc9ation or combu/ion2 s t ! calx ( iron has a great] capacity = heat1 & !re=e conta9s m lat5t heat1 ?an ! metal4 ,9 g5]al x is n f\nd1 t ! same sub/ances h _! capacity = receiv+ heat increas$ by an increase ( temp]ature2 b ?is is said to be ! case ) a mixture ( ard5t _s & wat]1 & also t ( _s ( vitriol & wat]4 ,s9ce all sub/ances conta9 a great] or less quantity ( heat1 & 9 consequ5ce ( be+ depriv$ ( x become cold] & cold]1 x is a "q ( "s curiosity to det]m9e ! ext5t to :i* ?is c g1 or at :at degree 9 ! scale ( a !rmomet] any sub/ance w\ld be absolutely cold1 or depriv$ ( all heat2 & an attempt has be5 made to solve ?is problem 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,comp>+ ! capacity ( wat] ) t ( ice1 by means ( a ?ird sub/ance1 viz4 m]cury1 x has be5 f\nd1 t if t ( ice be #i deg41 t ( wat] is #aj deg42 s t wat] 9 becom+ ice gives out "o t5? "p ( its :ole quantity ( heat4 ,b x has be5 %[n1 t ice 9 becom+ wat] absorbs #adf degrees ( heat4 ,?is1 !re=e1 be+ "o t5? "p ( ! :ole heat ( wat]1 x mu/ h conta9$ #adfj degrees2 s t tak+ #cb degrees1 :i* is ! freez+ po9t1 f t numb]1 ! po9t ( absolute cold w be #adbf bel[ #j ( ,fahr5heit's scale4 ,by a computation1 made by means ( ! heat ( inflammable & dephlogi/icat$ air1 at ! temp]ature ( #ej1 ,dr4 ,craw=d f9ds1 t x conta9s ne>ly #aeej degrees ( heat2 s t ! po9t ( absolute cold w be #aejj bel[ #j4 ,b m exp]im5ts are want$ to solve ?is curi\s problem to entire satisfaction4 ,,lecture ,,xxxi4 ,( ,animal ,heat4 ,s9ce all animals1 & especially ^? t h r$ blood1 are mu* hott] ?an ! m$ium 9 :i* !y live1 ! s\rce ( ?is heat has become ! subject ( mu* inve/igation2 & z ! mo/ probable !ory is t ( ,dr4 ,craw=d1 ,i %all give a %ort detail ( ! reasons on :i* x is f\nd$4 ,hav+1 ) ! mo/ scrupul\s att5tion1 asc]ta9$ ! lat5t1 or1 z he calls x1 ! absolute heat ( blood1 & also t ( ! alim5ts ( :i* x is compos$1 he f9ds t x conta9s m ?an c\ld h be5 d]iv$ f !m4 ,also f9d+ t ! absolute heat ( art]ial blood exce$s t ( v5\s blood1 9 ! proportion ( #aa-a_/b to #aj1 he concludes t x d]ives its heat f ! air respir$ 9 ! lungs1 & t x p>ts ) ?is lat5t heat1 s t x becomes s5sible1 9 ! c\rse ( its circulation1 9 :i* x becomes load$ ) phlogi/on1 :i* x communicates to ! air 9 ! lungs4 ,t ?is heat is furni%$ by ! air1 he proves1 by f9d+1 t t :i* we inspire conta9s m heat ?an t :i* we expire1 or ?an ! aque\s humor :i* we expire along ) x1 9 a v consid]able proportion2 s t if ! heat conta9$ 9 ! pure air did n become lat5t 9 ! blood1 x w\ld raise its temp]ature high] ?an t ( r$-hot iron4 ,& aga91 if ! v5\s blood1 9 be+ conv]t$ into art]ial blood1 did n receive a supply ( lat5t heat f ! air1 its temp]ature w\ld fall f #if to #ajd bel[ #j 9 ,fahr5heit's !rmomet]4 ,t ! heat procur$ by combu/ion has ! same s\rce1 viz4 ! dephlogi/icat$ air t is decompos$ 9 ! process1 is g5]ally all[$2 & ,dr4 ,craw=d f9ds1 t :5 equal portions ( air are alt]$ by ! respiration ( a ,gu9ea pig1 or by ! burn+ ( *>coal1 ! quantity ( heat communicat$ by ! two processes is ne>ly equal4 ,! foll[+ facts are also alleg$ 9 fav\r ( 8 !ory4 ,:]eas animals :i* h mu* r$ blood1 & respire mu*1 h ! p[] ( keep+ !mselves 9 a temp]ature consid]ably high] ?an t ( ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e1 o!r animals1 z frogs & s]p5ts1 are ne>ly ( ! same temp]ature ) x2 & ^? animals :i* h ! l>ge/ respiratory organs1 z birds1 are ! w>me/2 also ! degree ( heat is 9 "s measure proportionable to ! quantity ( air t is respir$ 9 a giv5 "t1 z 9 viol5t ex]cise4 ,x has be5 obs]v$1 t animals 9 a m$ium hott] ?an ! blood h a p[] ( pres]v+ !mselves 9 ! same temp]ature4 ,9 ?is case ! heat is probably c>ri$ (f by p]spiration1 :ile ! blood ceases to receive1 or give out1 any heat2 & ,dr4 ,craw=d f9ds1 t :5 an animal is plac$ 9 a w>m m$ium ! col\r ( ! v5\s blood approa*es ne>] to t ( ! art]ial ?an :5 x is plac$ 9 a cold] m$ium2 & also1 t x phlogi/icates ! air less ?an 9 ! =m] case2 s t 9 ^! circum/ances respiration has n ! same effect t x has 9 a cold] temp]ature1 9 giv+ ! body an additional quantity ( heat2 :i* is an excell5t provision 9 nature1 z ! heat is n want$1 b1 on ! contr>y1 w\ld prove inconv5i5t4 ,,lecture ,,xxxii4 ,( ,light4 ,ano!r mo/ important ag5t 9 nature1 & "o t has a ne> connexion ) heat1 is light1 be+ emitt$ by all bodies 9 a /ate ( ignition1 & especially by ! sun1 ! great s\rce ( light & ( heat to ?is habitable _w4 ,:e!r light consi/s ( p>ticles ( matt] 7:i* is mo/ probable7 or be ! undulation ( a peculi> fluid1 fill+ all space1 x is emitt$ f all lum9\s bodies 9 "r l9es4 ,fall+ ^u o!r bodies1 "p ( ! light is reflect$ at an angle equal to t ( its incid5ce1 ?\gh n by imp++ on ! reflect+ surface1 b by a p[] act+ at a small di/ance f x4 ,b ano!r "p ( ! light ent]s ! body1 & is refract$ or b5t t[>ds1 or f1 ! p]p5dicul> to ! surface ( ! new m$ium1 if ! incid5ce be oblique to x4 ,9 g5]al1 rays ( light fall+ obliquely on any m$ium are b5t z if !y 7 attract$ by x1 :5 x has a great] d5sity1 or conta9s m ( ! inflammable pr9ciple1 ?an ! m$ium ?r\gh :i* x 0 transmitt$ to x4 ,m ( ! rays are reflect$ :5 !y fall ^u a body ) a small degree ( obliquity to its surface1 & m ( !m are transmitt$1 or ent] ! body1 :5 _! incid5ce is ne>] to a p]p5dicul>4 ,! velocity ) :i* light is emitt$ or reflect$ is ! same1 & s great t x passes f ! sun to ! e>? 9 ab\t eight m9utes & twelve seconds4 ,rays ( light emitt$ or reflect$ f a body ent]+ ! pupil ( ! eye1 are s refract$ by ! hum\rs ( x1 z to be unit$ at ! surface ( ! ret9a1 & s make images ( ! objects1 by means ( :i* !y are visible to u2 & ! magnify+ p[] ( telescopes or microscopes dep5ds ^u contriv+1 by means ( reflections or refractions1 t p5cils ( rays issu+ f e po9t ( any object %all fir/ div]ge1 & !n conv]ge1 z !y w\ld h done f a mu* l>g] object1 or f "o plac$ mu* ne>] to ! eye4 ,:5 a beam ( light is b5t out ( its c\rse by refraction1 all ! rays ( :i* x consi/s are n equally refract$1 b "s ( !m m & o!rs less2 & ! col\r :i* !y are dispos$ to exhibit is connect$ inv>iably ) ! degree ( _! refrangibility2 ! r$-col\r$ rays be+ ! lea/1 & ! violet ! mo/ refrangible1 & ! re/ be+ m or less s 9 proportion to _! ne>ness to ^!1 :i* are ! extremes1 9 ! foll[+ ord]1 violet1 indigo1 blue1 gre51 yell[1 orange1 r$4 ,^! col\rs1 :5 sep>at$ z mu* possible1 are /ill contigu\s2 & all ! %ades ( ea* col\r h likewise _! sep>ate & inv>iable degrees ( refrangibility4 ,:5 sep>at$ z di/9ctly z possible1 !y divide ! :ole space betwe5 !m exactly z a musical *ord is divid$ 9 ord] to f\nd ! sev]al notes & half notes ( an octave4 ,^! diff]5tly-col\r$ rays ( light are also sep>at$ 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! transp>5t m$ium ( air & wat]1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* ! sky appe>s blue & ! sea gre51 ^! rays be+ return$1 :ile ! r$ ones proce$ to a great] di/ance4 ,by ?is means also objects at ! bottom ( ! sea appe> to div]s r$1 & s d all objects enlight5$ by an ev5+ sun4 ,! mixture ( all ! diff]5tly-col\r$ rays1 9 ! proportions 9 :i* !y cov] ! col\r$ image above m5tion$1 makes a :ite1 & ! abs5ce ( all light is blackness4 ,by means ( ! diff]5t refrangibility ( light1 ! col\rs ( ! ra9b[ may be expla9$4 ,! di/ance to :i* ! diff]5tly-col\r$ rays are sep>at$ f ea* o!r is n 9 proportion to ! mean refractive p[] ( ! m$ium1 b dep5ds ^u ! peculi> con/itution ( ! sub/ance by :i* !y are refract$4 ,! disp]s+ p[] ( glass1 into ! composition ( :i* lead ent]s1 is great 9 proportion to ! mean refraction2 & x is proportionally little 9 t glass 9 :i* !re is mu* alkal9e salt4 ,! con/ruction ( a*romatic telescopes dep5ds ^u ?is pr9ciple4 ,n only h diff]5t rays ( light ^! diff]5t prop]ties ) respect to bodies1 s z to be m or less refract$1 or disp]s$1 by !m1 b diff]5t sides ( ! same rays seem to h diff]5t prop]ties1 = !y are diff]5tly affect$ on ent]+ a piece ( isl& cry/al4 ,) ! same degree ( incid5ce2 "p ( ! p5cil ( rays1 consi/+ ( all ! col\rs1 proce$s 9 "o direction1 & ! re/ 9 a diff]5t "o2 s t objects se5 ?r\gh a piece ( ?is sub/ance appe> d\ble4 ,at ! surface ( all bodies rays ( light are promiscu\sly reflect$1 or transmitt$4 ,b if ! next surface be v ne> to x1 ! rays ( "o col\r *iefly are reflect$1 & ! re/ transmitt$1 & ^! places occur alt]nately = rays ( ea* ( ! col\rs 9 pass+ f ! ?9ne/ to ! ?icke/ p>ts ( ! m$ium2 s t sev]al s]ies1 or ord]s1 ( col\rs w be visible on ! surface ( ! same ?9 transp>5t body4 ,on ?is pr9ciple col\r$ r+s appe> betwe5 a plane & a convex l5s1 9 a little oil on ! surface ( wat]1 & 9 bubbles made ) soap & wat]4 ,:5 rays ( light pass ne> to any body1 s z to come )9 ! sph]e ( its attraction & repulsion1 an inflection takes place2 all ! k9ds ( rays be+ b5t t[>ds1 or f1 ! body1 & ^! p[]s affect+ "s rays m ?an o!rs1 !y are by ?is means also sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 s t col\r$ /reaks appe> bo? )9 ! %ad[1 & ! outside ( x1 ! r$ rays be+ inflect$ at ! greate/ di/ance f ! body4 ,"p ( ! light :i* ent]s bodies is reta9$ )9 !m1 & proce$s no f>!r2 b s loosely 9 "s k9ds ( bodies1 t a small degree ( heat is suffici5t to expel x aga91 s z to make ! body visible 9 ! d>k3 b ! m heat is appli$1 ! soon] is all ! light expell$4 ,?is is a /rong argum5t = ! mat]iality ( light4 ,bolognian phosphorus is a sub/ance :i* has ?is prop]ty2 b a composition made by ,mr4 ,canton1 ( calc9$ oy/]-%ells & sulphur1 9 a mu* great] degree4 ,h[ev]1 :ite pap]1 & mo/ sub/ances1 except ! metals1 are possess$ ( ?is prop]ty 9 a small degree4 ,"s bodies1 especially phosphorus1 & animal sub/ances t5d+ to putrefaction1 emit light )\t be+ s5sibly hot4 ,! col\rs ( vegetables1 & likewise _! ta/e & smell1 dep5d ^u light4 ,x is also by means ( light fall+ on ! leaves & o!r gre5 p>ts ( plants1 t !y emit dephlogi/icat$ air1 :i* pres]ves ! atmosph]e fit = respiration4 ,x is light t imp>ts col\r to ! sk9s ( m51 by means ( ! fluid imm$iately "u !m4 ,?is is ! cause ( tann+1 ( ! copp] col\r ( ! ,nor? ,am]icans1 & ! black ( ! ,negroes4 ,light also gives col\r to sev]al o!r sub/ances1 especially ! solutions ( m]cury 9 acids4 ,,lecture ,,xxxiii4 ,( ,magnetism4 ,magnetism is a prop]ty peculi> to iron1 or "s ores ( x4 ,! e>? itself1 ow+ probably to ! iron ores conta9$ 9 x1 has ! same prop]ty4 ,b ?\gh all iron is act$ ^u by magnetism1 /eel only is capable ( hav+ ! p[] communicat$ to x4 ,e magnet has two poles1 d5om9at$ nor? & s\?1 ea* ( :i* attracts ! o!r1 & repels t ( ! same k9d ) itself4 ,if a magnet be cut into two p>ts1 betwe5 ! two poles1 x w make two magnets1 ! p>ts t 7 contigu\s becom+ opposite poles4 ,?\gh ! poles ( a magnet are d5om9at$ nor? & s\?1 !y d n con/antly1 & 9 all p>ts ( ! e>?1 po9t due nor? or s\?1 b 9 mo/ places to ! ea/ or we/ ( !m1 & ) a consid]able v>iation 9 a c\rse ( "t4 ,also a magnet exactly balanc$ at its c5t] w h a decl9ation f an horizontal position ( ab\t #gj degrees4 ,! =m] is call$ ! v>iation1 & ! latt] ! dipp+ ( ! magnetic ne$le4 ,a /raight b> ( iron :i* has be5 long fix$ 9 a v]tical position1 w become a magnet1 ! l[] end becom+ a nor? pole1 & ! upp] end a s\? "o2 = if x be susp5d$ horizontally1 ! l[] end w po9t t[>ds ! nor?1 & ! upp] end t[>ds ! s\?4 ,also any b> ( iron1 n magnetical1 held 9 a v]tical position1 w become a tempor>y magnet1 ! l[] end becom+ a nor? pole1 & ! upp] end a s\? "o2 & a few /rokes ( a hamm] w fix ! poles = a %ort "t1 ?\gh ! position ( ! ends be *ang$4 ,magnetism may likewise be giv5 to a b> ( iron by plac+ x firmly 9 ! position ( ! dipp+-ne$le1 & rubb+ x h>d "o way ) a poli%$ /eel in/rum5t4 ,iron w also become magnetical by ignition & qu5*+ x 9 wat] 9 ! position ( ! dipp+-ne$le4 ,magnetism acts1 )\t any dim9ution ( its =ce1 ?r\gh any m$ium2 & iron n magnetical w h t p[] :ile x is 9 connexion ) a magnet1 or r ! p[] ( ! magnet is ext5d$ ?r\gh ! iron4 ,/eel fil+s g5tly ?r[n ^u a magnet1 adh]e to x 9 a curi\s mann]2 & ! fil+s1 acquir+ magnetism by ! contact1 adh]e toge!r1 & =m a numb] ( small magnets1 :i* arrange !mselves accord+ to ! attraction ( ! poles ( ! orig9al magnet4 ,?is exp]im5t is made to ! mo/ advantage ^u a piece ( pa/ebo>d1 or pap]1 plac$ ov] ! magnet4 ,magnetism is communicat$ by ! friction1 or ! ne> position1 ( a magnet to a piece ( /eel ( a size less ?an x4 ,= ?is reason a comb9ation ( magnetical b>s w h a great] effect ?an a s+le "o2 & 9 ! foll[+ mann]1 beg9n+ )\t any magnetism at all1 ! greate/ quantity may be procur$4 ,six b>s ( /eel may be r5d]$ slightly magnetical by fix+ ea* ( !m successively to an upright pok]1 & /rok+ x sev]al times f ! bottom to ! top ) ! l[] end ( an old pair ( tongs4 ,if !n f\r ( ^! b>s be jo9$1 ! magnetism ( ! rema9+ two w be mu* increas$ by a prop] me?od ( rubb+ ) !m2 & by *ang+ _! places1 jo9+ ! /ronge/1 & act+ ^u ! weake/1 !y may all be made z magnetical z !y are capable ( be+4 ,! /r5g? ( a natural magnet may be increas$ by cov]+ its pol> extremities ) /eel4 ,?is is call$ ! arm+ ( ! load/one4 ,to acc\nt = ! v>iation ( ! ne$le1 ,dr4 ,halley suppos$ ! e>? to consi/ ( two p>ts1 an ext]nal %ell & an int]nal nucleus1 deta*$1 & hav+ a revolution di/9ct f x2 & t ! action ( ! poles ( ! %ell & ( ! nucleus w\ld expla9 all ! v>ieties 9 ! position ( ! ne$le4 ,b o!rs ?9k t ! cause ( ! magnetism ( ! e>? is n )91 b )\t itself4 ,"o reason = ?is op9ion is1 t a magnet is liable to be affect$ by a /rong aurora borealis2 & ano!r is1 t ! v>iation ( ! ne$le proce$s 9 su* mann] z supposes t ! motion ( ! nucleus mu/ be quick] ?an t ( ! %ell ( ! e>?2 :]eas1 s9ce x is mo/ natural to suppose t motion 0 communicat$ to ! nucleus by ! %ell1 x w\ld be sl[]4 ,"s idea ( ! quantity & ! progress ( ! v>iation ( ! ne$le may be =m$ f ! foll[+ facts4--,at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 :5 x 0 discov]$ by ! ,portuguese1 9 #adhf1 !re 0 no v>iation1 ! ne$le !re po9t+ due nor?2 9 #afbb x 0 ab\t #b degrees we/w>d1 9 #afge x 0 #h deg4 ,w4 9 #agjj ab\t #aa deg4 ,w4 9 #agef ab\t #ah deg4 ,w4 & 9 #aggd ab\t #ba-a_/b deg4 ,w4 ,9 ,london1 9 #aehj1 ! v>iation 0 #aa degrees #ae seconds ,e42 9 #afbb x 0 #f deg4 ,e4 9 #afcd x 0 #d deg4 #e m94 ,e4 9 #afeg x 0 no?+ at all2 9 #afgb x 0 #b deg4 #cj m94 ,w4 9 #afib x 0 #f deg4 ,w4 9 #agec x 0 ab\t #af ,w4 & at pres5t x is ab\t #ba ,w4 ,! longitude may 9 "s places be f\nd by ! v>iation ( ! ne$le2 & ,mr4 ,*ur*man1 ( ,am]ica1 hav+ giv5 mu* att5tion to ! subject1 comp>+ ! obs]vations ( o!rs1 & _m ( 8 own1 ?9ks t he has f\nd a me?od ( det]m9+ ! longitude to a great degree ( c]ta9ty1 9 mo/ cases1 by ?is means4 ,he says !re are two magnetic poles ( ! e>?1 "o to ! nor? & ! o!r to ! s\?1 at diff]5t di/ances f ! poles ( ! e>?1 & revolv+ 9 diff]5t times2 & f ! comb9$ influ5ce ( ^! two poles he d$uces rules = ! position ( ! ne$le 9 all places ( ! e>?1 & at all times1 pa/1 pres5t1 or to come4 ,! nor? magnetic pole1 he says1 makes a complete revolution 9 #dbf ye>s1 #gg days1 #i h\rs1 & ! s\? pole 9 ab\t #edei ye>s4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ye> #aggg ! nor? magnetic pole 0 9 #gf deg4 #d m94 nor? latitude2 & 9 longitude f ,gre5wi* #adj deg4 ea/2 & ! s\? 0 9 #gb deg4 s\? latitude1 & #adj deg4 ea/ f ,gre5wi*4 ,,lecture ,,xxxiv4 ,( ,electricity4 ,electricity is a prop]ty belong+ to1 or capable ( be+ communicat$ to1 all sub/ances :atev]2 & :]eas by "s ( !m x is transmitt$ ) great ease1 & by o!rs ) mu* difficulty1 !y h be5 divid$ into two classes1 & d5om9at$ conductors or non-conductors ( electricity4 ,also ! latt] receiv+ ?is p[] by friction1 & o!r means1 are t]m$ electrics1 & ! =m] non-electrics4 ,metals ( all k9ds1 & wat]1 are conductors1 ?\gh 9 v diff]5t degrees2 s also is *>coal4 ,all o!r sub/ances1 & also a p]fect vacuum1 are non-conductors ( electricity4 ,b _m ( ^! sub/ances1 :5 !y are made v hot1 z glass1 res91 bak$ wood1 & p]haps all ! re/ on :i* ! exp]im5t c be made 9 ?is /ate1 are conductors4 ,x is ! prop]ty ( all k9ds ( electrics1 :5 !y are rubb$ by bodies diff]5t f !mselves1 to attract light sub/ances ( all k9ds1 to exhibit an appe>ance ( light1 att5d$ ) a p>ticul> s\nd1 on ! approa* ( any conductor2 & if ! no/rils are pres5t$1 !y are affect$ ) a smell l t ( phosphorus4 ,?is attraction is mo/ easily expla9$ by suppos+ t electricity is produc$ by a fluid exce$+ly ela/ic1 or repulsive ( itself1 & attract$ by all o!r sub/ances4 ,an electric exhibit+ ! appe>ances above m5tion$1 is said to be excit$1 & "s ( !m1 p>ticul>ly ! t\rmal9e1 are excit$ by heat+ & cool+1 z well z by friction4 ,x appe>s1 h[ev]1 t excitation consi/s 9 ! m]e transf]r+ ( electricity f "o sub/ance to ano!r1 & t ! great s\rce ( electricity is 9 ! e>?4 ,on ?is acc\nt x is necess>y to ! consid]able excitation ( any electric1 t ! sub/ance aga9/ :i* x is rubb$ 7h5ce t]m$ ! rubb]7 h a communication ) ! e>?1 by means ( conductors2 = if ! rubb] be insulat$1 t is cut (f f all communication ) ! e>? by means ( electrics1 ! friction has b little effect4 ,:5 insulat$ bodies h be5 attract$ by1 & br\ght into contact )1 an excit$ electric1 !y beg9 to be repell$ by x1 & also to repel "o ano!r2 nor w !y be attract$ aga9 till !y h be5 br\ght into contact ) "s conductor communicat+ ) ! e>?2 b aft] ?is !y w be attract$ z at fir/4 ,if conductors be insulat$1 electric p[]s may be communicat$ to !m by ! approa* ( excit$ electrics1 or ! contact ( o!r electrifi$ bodies4 ,!y w !n attract light bodies1 & give sp>ks1 c4 l ! excit$ electrics !mselves4 ,:5 electricity is /rongly communicat$ to insulat$ animal bodies1 ! pulse is quick5$1 & p]spiration increas$2 & if !y receive1 or "p )1 _! electricity on a sudd51 a pa9ful s5sation is felt at ! place ( communication4 ,b :at is m extraord9>y1 is1 t ! influ5ce ( ! bra9 & n]ves ^u ! muscles seems to be ( an electric nature4 ,?is is "o ( ! la/ & mo/ important ( all philosophical discov]ies4 ,i %all1 !re=e1 give ! result ( all ! obs]vations t h hi!rto be5 made on ! subject1 9 a s]ies ( propositions1 drawn up by an intellig5t fri5d1 :o has giv5 mu* m att5tion to x ?an ,i h done4 #a4 ,! n]ve ( ! limb ( an animal be+ laid b>e1 & surr\nd$ ) a piece ( %eet lead1 or ( t9foil1 if a communication be =m$ betwe5 ! n]ve ?us arm$ & any ( ! neighb\r+ muscles1 by means ( a piece ( z9c1 /rong contractions w be produc$ 9 ! limb4 #b4 ,if a portion ( ! n]ve :i* has be5 laid b>e be arm$ z above1 contractions w be produc$ z p[]fully1 by =m+ ! communication betwe5 ! arm$ & b>e "p ( ! n]ve1 z betwe5 ! arm$ "p & muscle4 #c4 ,a simil> effect is produc$ by arm+ a n]ve & simply t\*+ ! arm$ "p ( ! n]ve ) ! metallic conductor4 #d4 ,contractions w take place if a muscle be arm$1 & a communication be =m$ by means ( ! conductor betwe5 x & a neighb\r+ n]ve4 ,! same effect w be produc$ if ! communication be =m$ betwe5 ! arm$ muscle & ano!r muscle1 :i* is contigu\s to x4 #e4 ,contractions may be produc$ 9 ! limb ( an animal by br++ ! pieces ( metal into contact ) ea* o!r at "s di/ance f ! limb1 provid$ ! latt] make "p ( a l9e ( communication betwe5 ! two metallic conductors4 ,! exp]im5t :i* proves ?is is made 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,! amputat$ limb ( an animal be+ plac$ ^u a table1 let ! op]ator hold ) "o h& ! pr9cipal n]ve1 previ\sly laid b>e1 & 9 ! o!r let him hold a piece ( z9c2 let a small plate ( lead or silv] be !n laid ^u ! table1 at "s di/ance f ! limb1 & a communication be =m$1 by means ( wat]1 betwe5 ! limb & ! "p ( ! table :]e ! metal is ly+4 ,if ! op]ator t\* ! piece ( silv] ) ! z9c1 contractions w be produc$ 9 ! limb ! mom5t t ! metals come into contact ) ea* o!r4 ,! same effect w be produc$ if ! two pieces ( metal be previ\sly plac$ 9 contact1 & ! op]ator t\* "o ( !m ) 8 f+]4 ,?is fact 0 discov]$ by ,mr4 ,william ,cruik%ank4 #f4 ,contractions c be produc$ 9 ! amputat$ leg ( a frog1 by putt+ x into wat]1 & br++ ! two metals into contact ) ea* o!r at a small di/ance f ! limb4 #g4 ,! influ5ce :i* has pass$ ?r\gh1 & excit$ contractions 91 "o limb1 may be made to pass ?r\gh1 & excite contractions 91 ano!r limb4 ,9 p]=m+ ?is exp]im5t x is necess>y to att5d to ! foll[+ circum/ances3 let two amputat$ limbs ( a frog be tak52 let "o ( !m be laid ^u a table1 & its foot be fold$ 9 a piece ( silv]2 let a p]son lift up ! n]ve ( ?is limb ) a silv] probe1 & ano!r p]son hold 9 8 h& a piece ( z9c1 ) :i* he is to t\* ! silv] includ+ ! foot2 let ! p]son hold+ ! z9c 9 "o h& cat* ) ! o!r ! n]ve ( ! second limb1 & he :o t\*es ! n]ve ( ! fir/ limb is to hold 9 8 o!r h& ! foot ( ! second2 let ! z9c n[ be appli$ to ! silv] includ+ ! foot ( ! fir/ limb1 & contractions w imm$iately be excit$ 9 bo? limbs4 #h4 ,! he>t is ! only involunt>y muscle 9 :i* contractions c be excit$ by ^! exp]im5ts4 #i4 ,contractions are produc$ m /rongly1 ! f>!r ! coat+ is plac$ f ! orig9 ( ! n]ve4 #aj4 ,animals :i* 7 almo/ dead h be5 f\nd to be consid]ably reviv$ by excit+ ?is influ5ce4 #aa4 ,:5 ^! exp]im5ts are repeat$ ^u an animal t has be5 kill$ by opium1 or by ! electric %ock1 v slight contractions are produc$2 & no contractions :atev] w take place 9 an animal t has be5 kill$ by corrosive sublimate1 or t has be5 />v$ to dea?4 #ab4 ,z9c appe>s to be ! be/ excit] :5 appli$ to gold1 silv]1 molybd5a1 /eel1 or copp]4 ,! latt] metals1 h[ev]1 excite b feeble contractions :5 appli$ to ea* o!r4 ,next to z9c1 9 contact ) ^! metals1 t9 & lead1 & silv] & lead1 appe> to be ! mo/ p[]ful excit]s4 ,at lea/ two k9ds ( fi%es1 ! torp$o & ! electrical eel1 h a volunt>y p[] ( giv+ s /rong a %ock to ! wat] 9 :i* !y swim1 z to affect fi%es & o!r animals :i* come ne> !m2 & by a conduc+ communication betwe5 diff]5t p>ts ( ^! fi%es1 an electric %ock may be giv5 exactly l t ( ! ,leyd5 phial1 :i* w be describ$ h]eaft]2 & if ! communication be int]rupt$1 a fla% ( electric light w be p]ceiv$4 ,! gr[? ( vegetables is also quick5$ by electricity4 ,,lecture ,,xxxv4 ,! same ,subject cont9u$4 ,no electric c be excit$ )\t produc+ electric appe>ances 9 ! body ) :i* x is excit$1 provid$ t body be insulat$2 = ?is insulat$ rubb] w attract light bodies1 give sp>ks1 & make a snapp+ noise1 ^u ! approa* ( a conductor1 z well z ! excit$ electric4 ,if an insulat$ conductor be po9t$1 or if a po9t$ conductor1 communicat+ ) ! e>?1 be held pretty ne> x1 little or no electric appe>ance w be exhibit$1 only a light w appe> at ea* ( ! po9ts dur+ ! act ( excitation1 & a curr5t ( air w be s5sible f (f !m bo?4 ,! effect ( po9t$ bodies is be/ expla9$ on ! supposition ( ! electric matt] 9 "o body repell+ t 9 ano!r2 & consequ5tly ! electricity belong+ to a body ) a l>ge surface mak+ a great] resi/ance to ! entrance ( =eign electricity ?an t belong+ to a small]4 ,^! two electricities1 viz4 t ( ! excit$ electric1 & t ( ! rubb]1 ?\gh simil> to1 are ! rev]se (1 "o ano!r4 ,a body attract$ by ! "o w be repell$ by ! o!r1 & !y w attract1 & 9 all respects act ^u1 "o ano!r m s5sibly ?an ^u o!r bodies2 s t two pieces ( glass or silk possess$ ( contr>y electricities w coh]e firmly toge!r1 & require a consid]able =ce to sep>ate !m4 ,^! two electricities hav+ be5 fir/ discov]$ by produc+ "o ( !m f glass1 & ! o!r f amb]1 seal+-wax1 sulphur1 ros91 c4 fir/ obta9$ ! names ( vitre\s & res9\s electricity2 & x be+ aft]w>ds imag9$ t "o ( !m 0 a r$undancy1 & ! o!r a defici5cy1 ( a suppos$ electric fluid1 ! =m] has obta9$ ! "n ( positive1 & ! latt] t ( negative1 electricity2 & ^! t]ms are n[ pr9cipally 9 use4 ,positive & negative electricity may be di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r by ! mann] 9 :i* !y appe> at ! po9ts ( bodies4 ,f a po9t$ body electrifi$ positively1 !re issues a /ream ( light1 divid$ into d5s] /reams1 at ! extremities2 :]eas1 :5 ! po9t is electrifi$ negatively1 ! light is m m9utely divid$1 & diffus$ equally4 ,! =m] ( ^! is call$ a bru%1 & ! latt] a />4 ,if a conductor n insulat$ be br\ght )9 ! atmosph]e 7t is ! sph]e ( action7 ( any electrifi$ body1 x acquires ! electricity opposite to t ( ! electrifi$ body1 & ! ne>] x is br\ght1 ! /rong] opposite electricity does x acquire1 till ! "o receive a sp>k f ! o!r1 & !n ! electricity ( bo? w be dis*>g$4 ,! electric sub/ance :i* sep>ates ! two conductors possess+ ^! two opposite k9ds ( electricity1 is said to be *>g$4 ,plates ( glass are ! mo/ conv5i5t = ?is purpose1 & ! ?9n] ! plate ! great] is ! *>ge x is capable ( hold+4 ,! conductors contigu\s to ea* side ( ! glass are call$ _! coat+4 ,agreeably to ! above-m5tion$ g5]al pr9ciple1 x is necess>y t "o side ( ! *>g$ glass h a communication ) ! rubb]1 :ile ! o!r receives ! electricity f ! conductor1 or ) ! conductor1 :ile ! o!r receives f ! rubb]4 ,x foll[s also1 t ! two sides ( ! plate ?us *>g$ are always possess$ ( ! two opposite electricities2 t side :i* communicates ) ! excit$ electric hav+ ! electricity ( ! electric1 & t :i* communicates ) ! rubb]1 t ( ! rubb]4 ,!re is1 consequ5tly1 a v eag] attraction betwe5 ^! two electricities ) :i* ! diff]5t sides ( ! plate are *>g$1 & :5 a prop] communication is made by means ( conductors1 a fla% ( electric light1 att5d$ ) a report 7:i* is great] or less 9 proportion to ! quantity ( electricity communicat$ to !m1 & ! goodness ( ! conductors7 is p]ceiv$ betwe5 !m1 & ! electricity ( bo? sides is !reby dis*>g$4 ,! sub/ance ( ! glass itself 91 or ^u1 :i* ^! electricities exi/1 is imp]vi\s to electricity1 & does n p]mit !m to unite2 b if !y be v /rong1 & ! plate ( glass v ?91 !y w =ce a passage ?r\gh ! glass4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 always breaks ! glass1 & r5d]s x incapable ( ano!r *>ge4 ,! fla% ( light1 toge!r ) ! explosion betwe5 ! two opposite sides ( a *>g$ electric1 is g5]ally call$ ! electric %ock1 on acc\nt ( ! disagreeable s5sation x gives any animal ^: body is made use ( to =m ! communication be5 !m4 ,! electric %ock is always f\nd to p]=m ! circuit f "o side ( ! *>g$ glass to ! o!r by ! %orte/ passage ?r\gh ! be/ conductors4 ,common communicat$ electricity also obs]ves ! same rule 9 its transmission f "o body to ano!r4 ,x has n be5 f\nd1 t ! electric %ock takes up any s5sible space ( "t 9 be+ transmitt$ to ! greate/ di/ances4 ,! electric %ock1 z also ! common electric sp>k1 displaces ! air ?r\gh :i* x passes2 & if its passage f conductor to conductor be int]rupt$ by non-conductors ( a mod]ate ?ickness1 x w r5d & te> !m 9 its passage1 9 su* a mann] z to exhibit ! appe>ance ( a sudd5 expansion ( ! air ab\t ! c5t] ( ! %ock4 ,if ! electric circuit be int]rupt$1 ! electric matt]1 dur+ ! dis*>ge1 w pass to any o!r body t lies ne> its pa?1 & in/antly return4 ,?is may be call$ ! lat]al explosion4 ,! effect ( ?is lat]al explosion ?r\gh a brass *a91 :5 ! quantity ( electricity is v great1 w be ! discol\r+ & p>tial burn+ ( ! pap] on :i* x lies4 ,if a great quantity ( electricity be accumulat$1 z 9 a batt]y1 ! explosion w pass ov] ! surfaces ( imp]fect conductors )\t ent]+ !m1 & ! effect w be a /rong concussion ( ! sub/ance4 ,also ! electric matt] ?us accumulat$ & cond5s$ w1 by its repulsion1 =m conc5tric circles1 :i* w appe> by melt+ ! surface ( a flat piece ( metal on :i* ! explosion is receiv$4 ,if an electric %ock1 or /rong sp>k1 be made to pass ?r\gh1 or ov]1 ! belly ( a muscle1 x =ces x to contract1 z 9 a convulsion4 ,if a /rong %ock be s5t ?r\gh a small animal body1 x w (t5 deprive x in/antly ( life4 ,:5 ! electric %ock is v /rong1 x w give pol>ity to magnetic ne$les1 & sometimes x rev]ses _! poles4 ,great %ocks1 by :i* animals are kill$1 are said to ha/5 putrefaction4 ,electricity & lightn+ are 9 all respects ! same ?+2 s9ce e effect ( lightn+ may be imitat$ by electricity1 & e exp]im5t 9 electricity may be made ) lightn+1 br\ght d[n f ! cl\ds by means ( insulat$ po9t$ rods ( metal4 ,,lecture ,,xxxvi4 ,! same ,subject cont9u$4 ,?ree curi\s & important in/rum5ts1 :i* are among ! late/ improvem5ts 9 electricity1 des]ve a p>ticul> explanation1 & 9 all ( !m ! effect dep5ds ^u ! g5]al pr9ciples m5tion$ above1 viz4 t bodies plac$ )9 ! influ5ce1 or1 z x is usually t]m$1 )9 ! atmosph]e1 ( an electrifi$ body1 are affect$ by a contr>y electricity1 & t ^! two electricities mutually attract ea* o!r4 ,^! in/rum5ts are ! electrophorus1 ! cond5s] ( electricity1 & ! d\bl] ( x4 ,! electrophorus consi/s ( an insulat$ conduct+ plate appli$ to an insulat$ electric4 ,if ! latt] h any electricity communicat$ to x1 = example ! negative1 ! positive electricity ( ! =m] w be attract$ by x1 & consequ5tly ! plate w be capable ( receiv+ electricity f any body communicat+ ) ! e>?2 be+1 9 ?is situation1 capable ( conta9+ m electricity ?an its natural quantity4 ,consequ5tly1 :5 x is remov$ f ! l[] plate1 & ! :ole ( its electricity equally diffus$ ?r\gh x1 x w appe> to h a r$undance1 & !re=e w give a sp>k to any body communicat+ ) ! e>?4 ,be+ !n replac$ ^u ! electric1 & t\*$ by any body communicat+ ) ! e>?1 x w be aga9 affect$ z be=e1 & give a sp>k on be+ rais$2 & ?is process may be cont9u$ at pleasure1 ! electrophorus supply+ ! place ( any o!r electrical ma*9e4 ,if ! conduct+ plate ( ! electrophorus be appli$ to a piece ( dry wood1 m>ble1 or any o!r sub/ance ?r\gh :i* electricity c pass b v sl[ly1 or if ! insulat$ conduct+ plate be cov]$ ) a piece ( ?9 silk1 :i* w make "s resi/ance to ! passage ( electricity1 & x be !n appli$ to ano!r plate communicat+ ) ! e>?2 & if1 9 ei!r ( ^! cases1 a body ) a l>ge surface possess$ ( a weak electricity be appli$ to ! conduct+ plate1 ! weak electricity n be+ able to ov]come ! ob/ruction pres5t$ to x1 s z to be communicat$ to ! o!r plate1 w affect x ) ! contr>y electricity1 & ?is react+ on ! fir/ plate1 w cond5se its electricity on t "p ( ! plate to :i* x is contigu\s2 9 consequ5ce ( :i* its capacity ( receiv+ electricity w be increas$2 s t on ! sep>ation ( ! two plates1 t electricity :i* 0 be=e cond5s$1 be+ equally diffus$ ?r\gh ! :ole plate1 w h a great] int5sity ?an x _h be=e1 attract+ light bodies1 or ev5 giv+ a sp>k1 :5 ! body f :i* x receiv$ its electricity 0 incapable ( x4 ,= ?\gh x conta9$ a great quantity ( electricity1 x 0 diffus$ ?r\gh s l>ge a space t its int5sity 0 v small4 ,?is in/rum5t is !re=e call$ a cond5s] ( electricity4 ,if an insulat$ plate ( metal possess+ ! smalle/ degree ( electricity be pres5t$ v ne> to ano!r plate communicat+ ) ! e>?1 x w affect ?is plate ) ! opposite electricity2 & ?is be+1 9 ! same mann]1 appli$ to a ?ird plate1 w put x into ! same /ate ) ! fir/4 ,if !n ^! two plates be jo9$1 & ! fir/ plate be pres5t$ to ei!r ( !m1 its own electricity be+ attract$ by t ( ! plate pres5t$1 t ( ! o!r w be drawn into x1 s t its quantity w be d\bl$4 ,! same process be+ repeat$1 w aga9 d\ble ! electricity ( ?is plate1 till1 f be+ q ins5sible to ! mo/ exquisite electromet]1 x w become v conspicu\s1 or ev5 give sp>ks4 ,?is in/rum5t is !re=e call$ a d\bl] ( electricity1 ( excell5t use 9 asc]ta9+ ! quality ( atmosph]ical electricity :5 ev] s small4 ,if ?is in/rum5t be s con/ruct$ t ^! ?ree plates c be successively pres5t$ to "o ano!r by ! revolution ( "o ( !m on an axis1 x is call$ ! revolv+ d\bl]2 & 9 ?is =m x is mo/ conv5i5t = use4 ,,! ,,end4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,details ( corrections ,position ,orig9al ,correction ,lecture ,i1 fir/ p>agraph lime/one lime-/one ,lecture ,i1 la/ p>agraph attraction attraction1 ,lecture ,,iii1 fir/ p>agraph viz viz4 ,lecture ,,iii1 la/ p>agraph #a4 #a ,lecture ,,xvii1 p5ultimate p>agraph dissov$ dissolv$ ,lecture ,,xix1 ,( ,calc>e\s ,e>? hundre? hundr$? ,lecture ,,xxvi1 ,( ,semi-metals ignates ignites ,lecture ,,xxviii1 fir/ p>agraph animony antimony