,,transcriber',s ,,note3 ,minor typographic errors corrected4 ,some place names have out-of-date spellings4 ,photographic plates are presented on facing pages within the book and have been placed at the nearest paragraph break in this document4 ,chapters are preceded by a page with the chapter title printed on it2 since this is repeated on the following page1 such pages are omitted4 ,,the ,,panama ,,canal ,,and ,,its ,,makers 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,rise ,,and ,,progress ,,of ,,the ,,south ,,american ,,republics ,by ,george ,w4 ,crichfield ,illustrated4 ,two ,vols4 ,royal #hvo1 cloth1 #bes4 ,,the ,,south ,,american ,,series ,edited by ,martin ,hume ,each ,volume ,demy #hvo1 cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,chile ,its ,history and ,development1 ,natural ,features1 ,products1 ,commerce and ,present ,conditions4 ,by ,g4 ,f4 ,scott ,elliott1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 ,author of ,a ,naturalist in ,mid ,africa4 ,with an ,introduction by ,martin ,hume1 a ,map1 and many ,illustrations4 ,an exhaustive and interesting account1 not only of the turbulent history of this country but of her present conditions and seeming prospects4--,westminster ,gazette4 ,will be found attractive and useful reading by the student of history1 the geographer1 the naturalist1 and last1 but assuredly not least1 the ,british merchant4--,scotsman4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,peru ,its ,former and ,present ,civilisation1 ,topography and ,natural ,resources1 ,history and ,political ,conditions1 ,commerce and ,general ,development4 ,by ,c4 ,reginald ,enock1 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 ,author of ,the ,andes and the ,amazon4 ,with an ,introduction by ,martin ,hume1 a ,map1 and numerous ,illustrations4 ,an important work4444 ,the writer possesses a quick eye and a keen intelligence2 is many-sided in his interests1 and on certain subjects speaks as an expert4 ,the volume deals fully with the development of the country1 and is written in the same facile and graphic style as before4 ,illustrated by a large number of excellent photographs4--,the ,times4 ,a magnificent collection of information on this interesting country4 ,the author's vivid and eloquent description invests it for us with some of the glamour it possessed for the ,conquistadores of the sixteenth century2 and on closing the book the reader feels tempted to set out at once for ,peru4--,yorkshire ,observer4 ,,in ,,preparation ,,vol4 ,,iii4 ,,mexico ,by ,c4 ,reginald ,enock ,,london3 ,t4 ,,fisher ,,unwin ,illustration3 ,,makers ,,of ,,the ,,canal4 ,,the ,,panama ,,canal ,,and ,,its ,,makers4 ,by ,,vaughan ,,cornish ,doctor of ,science 7,manchester ,univ471 ,fellow of the ,royal ,geographical1 ,geological1 and ,chemical ,societies of ,london1 ,member of the ,japan ,society ,,with ,,map1 ,,plans1 ,,and ,,photographs ,,taken ,,by ,,the ,,author ,t4 ,,fisher ,,unwin ,,london3 ,,adelphi ,,terrace ,,leipsic3 ,,inselstrasse #bj #aiji 7,all rights reserved47 ,,this ,,book ,,is ,,dedicated ,,to ,,the ,,reverend ,,charles ,,john ,,cornish1 ,m4,a4 7,,oxon71 ,,of ,,fleet1 ,,hants1 ,,and ,,salcombe ,,regis1 ,,devon1 ,,by ,,his ,,affectionate ,,son1 ,,the ,,author4 ,,preface ,i ,,am indebted to many persons for advice and information in connection with my study of the ,panama ,canal1 and wish to thank particularly ,his ,excellency the ,rt4 ,hon4 ,james ,bryce1 the ,rt4 ,hon4 ,lord ,avebury1 ,mr4 ,claude ,mallet1 ,c4,m4,g41 ,colonel ,george ,e4 ,church1 ,colonel ,george ,w4 ,goethals1 chairman of the ,isthmian ,canal ,commission1 and his colleagues1 ,colonel ,w4,c4 ,gorgas1 ,m4,d41 ,major ,d4,d4 ,gaillard1 ,major ,william ,l4 ,sibert1 ,mr4 ,jackson ,smith1 and ,mr4 ,bucklin ,bishop4 ,also ,major ,chester ,harding1 ,mr4 ,arango1 ,mr4 ,g4,r4 ,shanton1 ,chief of ,police1 ,mr4 ,william ,gerig 7formerly in charge of the ,gatun ,dam71 ,mr4 ,mason ,w4 ,mitchell1 and ,mr4 ,tracy ,robinson4 ,,vaughan ,,cornish4 ,november1 #aijh4 ,,contents ,,page ,,introduction #ae ,,chapter ,i ,,historical ,,review #bc ,,chapter ,,ii ,,on ,,the ,,canal ,,as ,,it ,,is ,,to ,,be #de ,,chapter ,,iii ,,on ,,the ,,present ,,condition ,,of ,,the ,,culebra ,,cut1 ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,methods ,,employed ,,for ,,excavation ,,and ,,disposal ,,of ,,the ,,spoil #gi ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,men ,,on ,,the ,,isthmus #ii ,,chapter ,v ,,health ,,on ,,the ,,isthmus ,,and ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,the ,,white ,,race ,,in ,,the ,,tropics #aai ,,chapter ,,vi ,,on ,,the ,,shortening ,,of ,,distances ,,by ,,sea1 ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,steamships ,,available ,,for ,,canal ,,transit #aea ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,the ,,canal #aga ,,index #agi ,,illustrations ,,makers ,,of ,,the ,,canal ,frontispiece ,,to ,,face ,,page ,,statue ,,of ,,columbus1 ,,christobal1 ,,colon #ah ,,christchurch1 ,,colon #ah ,,lock ,,and ,,dam ,,site1 ,,gatun #bf 7,the house is on the crest-line of the dam1 which will extend to the hills on the right7 ,,excavating ,,for ,,the ,,double ,,flight ,,of ,,three ,,locks ,,at ,,gatun #bf 7,in fine-grained argillaceous sandstone rock7 ,,re-,,location ,,of ,,railway ,,above ,,gatun ,,dam #cj 7,the trestle embankment will run as a causeway across a bay of the lake7 ,,motor ,,trolley ,,for ,,inspection ,,of ,,works #cj 7,in the background are screened houses of employees7 ,,tropical ,,forest1 ,,with ,,heavy ,,growth ,,of ,,parasitic ,,plants #cf ,,jungle ,,with ,,pipe ,,through ,,which ,,oil ,,is ,,conveyed ,,by ,,gravitation ,,across ,,the ,,isthmus #cf ,,chagres ,,river ,,near ,,barbacoes #db 7,in the dry season--looking down stream7 ,,chagres ,,river ,,near ,,obispo #db 7,in the dry season7 ,,french ,,dredger ,,laid ,,up #dh 7,several of these have recently been put in use again7 ,,french ,,trucks ,,partly ,,covered ,,with ,,forest ,,growth #dh 7,many of these were used at first by the ,americans1 but are now replaced by larger ones7 ,,excavation ,,near ,,tavernilla #eb ,,river ,,chagres ,,and ,,railway ,,near ,,gorgona #eb ,,lidgerwood ,,unloader1 ,,winding ,,apparatus #ef ,,anopheles ,,brigade ,,oiling ,a ,,ditch #ef #ajj-,,ton ,,wrecking ,,crane1 ,,gorgona #fb ,,interior ,,of ,,machine ,,shop1 ,,gorgona #fb ,,machine ,,shops1 ,,gorgona #ff ,,club ,,house ,,for ,,employees1 ,,gorgona #ff 7,managed by the ,y4,m4,c4,a47 ,,excavation ,,in ,,the ,,cut #gb ,,pipe ,,for ,,diversion ,,of ,a ,,river1 ,,near ,,empire #gb ,,in ,,the ,,cut1 ,,width #ejj ,,feet #gf ,,in ,,the ,,cut1 ,,looking ,,south ,,towards ,,culebra #gf 7,the gorge between ,golden and ,silver ,hills just visible7 ,,rock ,,drill #hb 7,these machines bore a hole #cj feet deep in eight hours7 ,,rock ,,drills ,,at ,,work ,,in ,,the ,,cut #hb ,,the ,,cut1 ,,looking ,,north ,,from ,,culebra #hf ,,the ,,cut1 ,,looking ,,south ,,from ,,culebra #hf ,,from ,,culebra1 ,,looking ,,east ,,to ,,distant ,,hills #ib ,,from ,,culebra1 ,,looking ,,east ,,across ,,the ,,cut #ib 7,terraces formed by landslip are just visible behind the smoke of a distant steam shovel7 ,,from ,,culebra1 ,,looking ,,east ,,to ,,golden ,,hill #if 7,showing excavation in steps and ledges4 ,each ledge has carried a railway track7 ,,the ,,cut ,,at ,,culebra1 ,,looking ,,north #if 7,the scarped face of ,golden ,hill on the right4 ,taken ,april1 #aijh1 in the then bottom of the cut1 #abj feet above ,canal bottom7 ,,gang ,,of ,,west ,,indian ,,labourers #ajb 7,unloading spoil-train at ,gatun7 ,,gang ,,of ,,spanish ,,labourers ,,at ,,culebra #ajb 7,working in the sun in ,april1 which is one of the hottest months1 less than #aj degrees from the equator4 ,the men are wearing ,european kit7 ,,steam ,,shovel ,,excavating ,,soil ,,at ,,culebra #ajf ,,steam ,,shovel ,,unloading ,,into ,a ,,dirt ,,car #ajf ,,steam ,,shovel ,,near ,,end ,,of ,,stroke #aab 7,the marks of the teeth made in a former stroke are visible on the right4 ,golden ,hill1 with the highest berm1 or ledge1 in the distance7 ,,steam ,,shovel1 ,,stroke ,,finished1 ,,loaded ,,with ,,soil #aab ,,steam ,,shovel ,,at ,,culebra #aaf ,,shovel-,,men ,,at ,,culebra #aaf ,,screened ,,bungalow1 ,,christobal1 ,,colon #abb ,,screened ,,quarters ,,of ,,employees1 ,,culebra #abb ,,reading ,,room1 ,,employees' ,,club1 ,,culebra #abf ,,hall ,,of ,,employees' ,,club1 ,,culebra #abf ,,cut ,,south ,,of ,,culebra1 ,,landslip ,,on ,,left #acb ,,looking ,,north1 ,,the ,,scarped ,,face ,,of ,,golden ,,hill ,,on ,,the ,,right #acb ,,looking ,,north ,,from ,,railway ,,bridge ,,at ,,paraiso #acf ,,abandoned ,,french ,,machinery #acf ,,gang ,,of ,,european ,,labourers 7,,in #aijg7 #adb ,a ,,former ,,hot-,,bed ,,of ,,malaria1 ,,now ,,drained #adb ,,near ,,the ,,site ,,of ,,milaflores ,,locks #adf ,,looking ,,north ,,to ,,culebra ,,divide ,,from ,,ancon ,,hill #adf ,,rio ,,grande1 ,,near ,,la ,,boca #aed ,,rio ,,grande1 ,,from ,,ancon ,,hill #aed 7,country north of that shown in the last photograph7 ,,la ,,boca1 ,,from ,,ancon ,,hill #aeh ,,ancon ,,cemetery #aeh ,,commission',s ,,hotel ,,at ,,ancon #afb ,,administration ,,building1 ,,ancon #afb ,,view ,,from ,,spanish ,,fort1 ,,panama #aff ,,cathedral ,,square1 ,,panama #aff ,,palace ,,of ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,republic ,,of ,,panama #agd ,,old ,,flat ,,arch ,,at ,,panama #agd 7,adduced as evidence of comparative freedom of ,panama from destructive earthquakes7 ,,map ,,of ,,canal ,,zone ,at end of volume 7,showing also profile of ,canal1 cross section of ,culebra ,cut1 the borings below ,gatun dam1 and the cross section of ,gatun dam as designed in ,april1 #aijh4 ,the design of this dam1 however1 is still undergoing modifications7 ,,introduction ,,at the present moment the ,canal ,zone of the ,isthmus of ,panama is the most interesting place in the world4 ,here is gathered an army of #dj1jjj men engaged in the epoch-making work of uniting the ,atlantic and ,pacific ,oceans1 and here is the greatest collection of machinery ever massed for the accomplishment of one undertaking4 ,if the present rate of progress continue unchecked1 the ,canal1 it is calculated1 will be opened in #aiae4 ,then will that ,isthmus1 which has hitherto been a barrier between two oceans but has failed to act as a bridge between two continents1 be pierced by a waterway capable of floating the largest ships now built or building4 ,then will the ,pacific coasts of the ,americas be accessible from ports on both sides of the ,atlantic without the necessity of a voyage by the ,straits of ,magellan4 ,then will the distance from ,new ,york to ,san ,francisco be shortened by #h1djj and that from ,liverpool by #f1jjj miles2 the distance from ,new ,york to ,south ,american ports will be shortened by an average of #e1jjj and that from ,liverpool to these ports by an average of #b1fjj miles3 then for the first time ,yokohama on the north and ,sydney on the south will be brought nearer to ,new ,york than to ,liverpool or ,antwerp1 and then will ,new ,orleans and the ports on the ,mexican ,gulf be brought nearer than ,new ,york1 by sea1 to ,san ,francisco1 ,south ,america beyond ,pernambuco1 ,australia1 and ,japan4 ,illustration3 ,,statue ,,of ,,columbus1 ,,christobal1 ,,colon4 ,illustration3 ,,christchurch1 ,,colon4 ,no one who cares to know the greater things which are shaping the world can now afford to be ignorant of what is happening on the ,isthmus of ,panama4 ,in the former days of unstable companies the student of affairs might decline to occupy himself in the study of an undertaking of which the fruition was doubtful4 ,now1 however1 that the ,government of a great nation have put their hands to the plough the furrow will be driven through4 ,the ,united ,states have acquired complete ownership and control of the ,canal and of a strip of land five miles wide on either side1 called the ,canal ,zone4 ,the small ,state of ,panama1 in which this zone is situate1 has placed itself under the protection of the ,united ,states4 ,the ,government of ,great ,britain has by a treaty ratified in #aija waived the treaty right which it formerly enjoyed to share with the ,united ,states the control of any trans-,isthmian canal4 ,the ,isthmus has been freed from those pestilences which were the greatest obstacles to human effort1 and the engineering difficulties are no longer beyond the scope of modern science4 99 99 99 99 99 ,having first visited the ,canal works at the beginning of #aijg1 ,i decided to make upon the spot a careful examination of the whole undertaking4 ,for this purpose ,i visited ,washington and made application through the proper channel to the ,department of ,state1 which kindly consented to further the inquiry4 ,a set of the published documents was supplied to me1 and ,i proceeded from ,new ,york to the ,isthmus by the ,r4,m4,s4,p4 ,magdalena1 arriving at ,colon ,april #ab1 #aijh4 ,here ,colonel ,goethals1 chairman of the ,isthmian ,canal ,commission1 provided me with a letter to those concerned to furnish all information1 and proposed that ,i should make my way about unattended and pursue my inquiries independently4 ,i was thus enabled to converse with perfect freedom with the rank and file1 while drawing freely on the special information possessed only by the heads of departments4 ,for the benefit of readers in ,england ,i may explain that these circumstances were to me of especial importance on account of the doubts thrown by ,american writers1 and also by ,americans of repute in conversation1 upon the reliability of official and other information supplied to the ,american public on the burning topic of the ,isthmus4 ,as an ,englishman1 and therefore standing outside ,american party politics1 and as a scientific student not engaged in commerce or political life1 ,i came to the study of the subject without prepossessions4 ,this at least was my happy state when ,i arrived in ,washington in ,march last4 ,when ,i left for the ,canal ,zone a month later ,i was filled with gloomy forebodings that ,i might after all find a rotten state of affairs on the ,isthmus4 ,it was with intense relief that ,i found that ,i had what is called in ,america an honest proposition to deal with4 ,as my doubts hitherto had been due to the patriotic anxiety of their compatriots1 ,i am sure ,colonel ,goethals and his colleagues will forgive me for this frank statement of my difficulties and their solution4 ,any ,englishman1 accustomed to see the work of our own soldiers and civil servants in the ,crown ,colonies or in ,egypt1 would recognise in the officers of the corps of ,engineers and of the ,army ,medical ,corps who are in charge of the ,canal ,zone men of a like high standard of duty4 ,as this account is written not only for my own countrymen but also for readers on the other side of the ,atlantic1 ,i should be glad1 if it be possible1 to convince of my own bona-fides those anxious patriots who find it difficult to believe any good report from ,panama4 ,it may tend in this direction to state that ,i travelled and sojourned at my own charges1 and that ,i went out on an independent inquiry4 ,that ,i had promised to give an account of the ,canal works to my brother geographers in ,london was my only undertaking1 and the acceptance of a free pass on the ,panama ,railway my only financial obligation either in ,washington or on the ,isthmus4 ,in order properly to understand the present and future of the ,canal undertaking1 it is necessary to give a short account of the history of ,isthmian communication1 for the conditions which now face the ,american ,government and the ,commission are not solely due to present physical causes1 but also to previous events4 ,,chapter ,i ,,historical ,,review ,,the conquest of ,constantinople by the ,ottoman ,turks in #adec completed their capture of the trade routes between ,western ,europe and the ,east ,indies4 ,the ,east ,indian trade had long been a source of great enrichment to ,european merchants4 ,it was especially suited to the restricted carrying power of those times1 the products 7such as pepper7 being small in bulk and high in price4 ,the maritime nations therefore sought sea routes to the ,indies in pursuit of this trade1 and it was ,columbus himself1 in his efforts to open up a western route to the ,indies and ,china1 who discovered the ,bay of ,limon in #adig4 ,he and his successors sought for a strait or channel which should open the way to the ,east ,indies4 ,cortes sought for the strait in ,mexico4 ,others sought as far north as the ,st4 ,lawrence1 which was supposed to afford a route to ,china4 ,no opening could1 however1 be found nearer to the ,equator than the ,straits of ,magellan 7#aebj71 and the hopes of a short route westward to the ,indies were disappointed4 ,an ,isthmian canal was talked of even in the days of ,charles ,v4 of ,spain to open the route to the ,east ,indies4 ,in those days of small vessels1 the river channels would have served for a great part of the traverse1 so that the scheme was not so wild as it may seem4 ,illustration3 ,,lock ,,and ,,dam ,,site1 ,,gatun4 ,illustration3 ,,excavation ,,for ,,locks1 ,,gatun4 ,the purpose1 therefore1 of the first proposal for piercing the ,isthmus was for shortening the distance to the ,indies and ,china4 ,the discovery of the nearer riches of ,peru1 however1 illustrated the fact that the ,isthmian barrier has its uses as well as its inconveniences4 ,porto ,bello and ,panama were fortified1 ships were launched from the latter port for the ,peruvian traffic1 the treasure was carried across the ,isthmus under escort and shipped to ,spain4 ,the treasure-ships1 indeed1 were liable to attack on the ,caribbean1 but the ,isthmian barrier proved an important safeguard to the ,peruvian possessions of ,spain4 ,in the next century1 the seventeenth1 the importance of the ,isthmian land route declined1 owing to the fact that ,spain was no longer able to secure even moderate safety for her ships on the ,caribbean4 ,in the present days1 when the importance of naval power is so well understood1 it is hardly necessary to enlarge upon the significance of this fact1 and its bearing upon the problems presented by the ,panama route to-day4 ,the project of an ,isthmian canal for the purpose of trade between ,europe and ,asia continued to be agitated1 but the inducements were inadequate to overcome the obstacles4 ,in the middle of the nineteenth century1 for the second time1 it was the need of improved communication between the east and west of the ,american ,continent which provided a sufficient inducement to improve the ,isthmian route4 ,at this time the ,government of the ,united ,states were much occupied with projects of trans-,isthmian communication1 particularly by canal1 not with a view to ,transpacific commerce1 but with the object of improved communication between the east and west of their own territory4 ,in #ahdf a treaty was made with the ,state of ,new ,grenada 7afterwards ,colombia7 with a view to providing facilities for transport in the war between the ,united ,states and ,mexico4 ,in its most important provision it is similar to the present treaty between the ,united ,states and the new ,republic of ,panama1 viz41 the ,united ,states guarantee the sovereignty of the ,state in question over the ,isthmian territory4 ,hence the ,isthmus was thus early constituted a ,protectorate of the ,united ,states4 ,but at this time it was generally thought that ,lake ,nicaragua provided the best route for a trans-,isthmian canal4 ,the ,pacific seaboard having recently acquired importance to the ,united ,states1 the ,government desired to further the canal project on that account4 ,the only practicable ,atlantic terminal of a ,nicaraguan canal lay within territory over which ,great ,britain had long exercised control4 ,further1 the ,pacific ,coast of ,canada had recently acquired importance to the eastern provinces and to the home country1 and access thereto was extremely difficult4 ,the outcome of these circumstances was the conclusion in #ahej of the celebrated ,clayton-,bulwer treaty between the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain1 which was duly ratified by ,congress4 ,by this instrument it was agreed that neither ,government should ever obtain or maintain for itself any exclusive control of any canal connecting the ,atlantic and ,pacific ,oceans1 nor erect fortifications commanding the same4 ,this treaty remained in force until #aija1 and ,i shall have to refer to it again4 ,meanwhile the great rush of gold-seekers to ,california had supplied the needful stimulus to a scheme1 already mooted1 of an ,isthmian railway terminating at ,panama4 ,in spite of the enormous difficulties entailed by the pestilential climate1 the undertaking was completed in #ahee4 ,this achievement1 originating in ,new ,york1 was the work of ,w4,h4 ,aspinwall1 ,henry ,chauncey1 and ,john ,l4 ,stephens4 ,illustration3 ,,re-,,location ,,of ,,railway ,,above ,,gatun4 ,illustration3 ,,motor ,,trolley ,,for ,,inspection ,,of ,,works4 ,it was undertaken independently of any canal scheme1 but it exercised a profound effect upon the fate of subsequent schemes4 ,the facilities which the railway afforded determined de ,lesseps's choice of route1 and de ,lesseps ploughed so deeply that those who came after him have found themselves constrained to follow his furrow4 ,the ,new ,world is in fact no longer new1 and its statesmen now have to solve problems presenting historical as well as physical factors4 ,the ,american ,civil ,war interrupted the prosecution of canal schemes1 but the examination of routes was recommenced by the ,united ,states ,government in #ahff1 a ,commission finally reporting in #ahgfa in favour of the ,nicaraguan route4 #a ,the report1 however1 was not published until #ahgi4 ,in #ahfi the ,suez ,canal was opened for traffic4 ,immediately1 the route by ,panama ceased to be the shortest from ,europe to any part of the ,east ,indies4 ,the importance of that route to ,asia was thus greatly reduced as far as ,europe was concerned1 but1 relatively1 its importance to the ,united ,states was increased1 for the ,suez ,canal does not shorten the ,asiatic voyage from ,new ,york1 ,boston1 or ,new ,orleans to the same extent as it does for ,european ports4 ,the ,old ,world had been severed into halves by the enterprise of one man1 and that man no potentate1 but merely one possessing the gift of persuasion4 ,by his achievement1 which was immediately crowned by financial success1 ,ferdinand de ,lesseps suddenly became possessed of powers such as are not always at the disposal of the ,governments even of great countries4 ,he decided himself to sever the barrier between the ,atlantic and ,pacific ,oceans1 convened a ,congress at ,paris in #ahgi1 and inaugurated in #ahha the ,compagnie ,universelle du ,canal ,inter-oceanique de ,panama4 ,he had decided to adopt the ,panama route on account of the facilities afforded by the railway4 ,the money was mainly subscribed in ,france4 ,the ,american railway company was bought out at the enormous price of #be1ejj1jjj1 and in the course of the next eight years a large part of the work required for a tide-level canal was well executed on sound lines by the genius of the ,french1 who are excelled by none in the arts of the civil engineer4 ,the exact proportion which the ,french work bears to that since accomplished by the ,american ,government will be shown later4 ,the engineers now on the ,isthmus are full of praise for the work of the ,french engineers1 and their wonder daily grows both at its quantity and its ingenuity4 ,it is only those at a distance1 or ill-informed1 who have belittled these achievements4 ,unfortunately1 the ,french engineers were not properly supported4 ,de ,lesseps1 if he were ever a practical man1 had certainly ceased to be so since his first great success4 ,a practical man is one who counts the cost of everything he is about to do4 ,de ,lesseps no longer counted cost4 ,he had become as one believing in his star4 ,his actions remind us of those of some of the great conquerors whose early successes have led them to undertake impossible campaigns4 ,the question has been discussed if any human character can stand more than a certain share of success and yet retain a sound judgment4 ,certainly the character of de ,lesseps was not equal to the strain4 ,the expenditure was awful--#cjj1jjj1jjj in eight years1 i4e41 more than three times the sum for which the ,suez ,canal was constructed4 ,the ,company went into liquidation in #ahhi4 ,much had been embezzled4 ,much1 it is said1 had been spent in purchasing the silence of voices which would otherwise have been raised against a ,europeanised canal4 ,the affairs of the ,company were taken over by the ,new ,panama ,canal ,company1 who continued to administer the railway1 and1 with small means1 did excellent work for the next twelve years in keeping the machinery and the works from deterioration1 in excavations at the summit1 and above all in extending the scientific examination of the country so as to obtain much-needed data for the construction of the high-level canal which was now proposed in place of de ,lesseps's project of a tide-level waterway4 ,in #ahfi ,president ,grant1 in a message to ,congress1 had recommended the construction of an ,isthmian canal under the sole control of the ,united ,states1 and popular opinion since that time1 if not before1 has always strongly held that if a canal be made it should be exclusively under that control4 ,it was not the least of de ,lesseps's imprudences that he proceeded with his project in spite of warnings on this matter4 ,in #ahih an event occurred which made the ,american nation feel that an ,isthmian canal was necessary1 and that it must be under their exclusive control4 ,at the outset of the war with ,spain1 the ,oregon1 one of the best of ,america's small fleet of battleships 7we write of ten years since71 was lying in the ,pacific4 ,she had to steam more than #ac1jjj miles to reach ,key ,west1 and the whole nation was in a state of nervous tension for many weeks pending her junction with the main fleet4 ,it seemed at the time that the ,panama route could hardly be obtained for a canal under purely ,american control1 and a further investigation of the ,nicaraguan route was ordered--that route which had been preferred by the ,american experts before de ,lesseps intervened4 ,the ,new ,panama ,canal ,company had by this time brought their labours to the point where it seemed practicable to appeal to the investing public of the world for funds to construct a high-level ,panama canal4 ,to do this in the face of a ,nicaraguan canal1 undertaken as a national affair by the ,united ,states1 would have been hopeless3 they therefore laid their detailed plans before ,president ,mc,kinley4 ,a ,commission was accordingly appointed by ,congress to inquire into the best route for an ,isthmian canal under the control1 management1 and ownership of the ,united ,states4#b ,the report was presented to ,congress on ,december #d1 #aija1 rather more than two years later1 and is a document of great historical and scientific interest4 ,the quarto volume of #fhh pages is accompanied by a portfolio of #hf maps1 plans1 and panoramic views4 ,the last of these1 showing the mountainous skyline of the ,isthmus east of ,colon1 with altitudes marked1 illustrates in a striking manner the conclusion of the ,commission that the ,san ,blas route1 or any route east of ,colon1 would involve a ship tunnel4 ,these routes are dismissed as impracticable on account of the altitude of the divide4 ,the ,nicaraguan and ,panamanian are found to be the only practicable routes1 and the details of both are fully discussed4 ,the high-level canal was preferred by the ,commission to the sea-level at ,panama1 and on the ,nicaraguan route only a high-level canal is possible1 so that in this respect the two routes were considered to be on a par4 #b ,act of ,congress approved by ,president1 ,march #c1 #ahii1 ,commission appointed ,june #aj4 ,illustration3 ,,tropical ,,forest ,,with ,,parasitic ,,growths4 ,illustration3 ,,pipe ,,conveying ,,oil ,,across ,,the ,,isthmus4 ,the relative advantages of the two routes are carefully set out in the report1 the general tenor of which is favourable to that by ,panama4 ,nevertheless1 the ,commission recommend that the ,nicaraguan route be adopted1 on account of the excessive valuation which1 they state1 was placed by the ,new ,panama ,canal ,company on their works and property4 ,the value of these1 including the ,panama ,railway1 was estimated by the ,commission at #dj1jjj1jjj4 ,the ,new ,panama ,canal ,company1 learning that the ,commission had thus reported1 cabled an offer to sell at this price1 and the ,commission accordingly sent in a supplementary report in favour of the ,panama route4 ,by ,june #bh1 #aijb1 the ,spooner ,act had been passed and ratified1 authorising the ,president to purchase the canal works at this price1 and to acquire from the ,republic of ,colombia the necessary rights for the control of a ,panama canal1 then to be constructed2 but in the event of his not being able to acquire such control1 then to proceed with the ,nicaraguan project4 ,meanwhile1 by the ,hay-,pauncefote ,treaty1 ratified by the ,senate ,december #af1 #aija1 ,great ,britain had waived the right of joint control of any ,isthmian canal which she had held since the ratification of the ,clayton-,bulwer ,treaty in #ahej4 ,it remained therefore only to negotiate a treaty with ,colombia4 ,the treaty of #ahdf with ,new ,grenada afforded a precedent as far as the question of control was concerned1 and the negotiations appear to have been related mainly to the question of price4 ,a treaty was negotiated by officials of the two ,republics1 by which the ,united ,states was to pay a sum of #aj1jjj1jjj to ,colombia1 and after nine years an annual sum of #ajj1jjj4 ,this was confirmed by ,congress but rejected by the ,colombian ,senate1 and negotiations came to an end with the adjournment of that body1 ,october #ca1 #aijc4 ,three days later the ,province of ,panama renounced its allegiance to ,colombia4 ,another three days1 and the independence of the ,new ,republic was recognised and guaranteed by the ,united ,states4 ,in less than a fortnight afterwards a treaty was signed at ,washington by which the ,united ,states acquired complete ownership and control of the proposed canal for the sum of #aj1jjj1jjj and an annual payment of #bej1jjj1 to commence nine years afterwards4 ,this treaty was ratified at ,panama ,december #b1 #aijc1 and by the ,united ,states ,senate ,february #bc1 #aijd4 ,one significant point must be mentioned with reference to the ,panamanian revolution4 ,the inability of ,colombia to make an effective effort to assert its power on the ,isthmus was due to naval weakness in the absence of communication by land4 ,no army could march through the tropical forests which still isolate the ,canal ,zone from ,south ,america1 and control at ,colon and ,panama still depends upon sea power4 ,thus1 at last1 the ,united ,states owns and controls its ,canal ,zone4 ,we will now state precisely the position in which that nation stands in reference to this matter1 and then we may leave the work of the diplomats to consider the task of the engineers4 ,the ,national ,status of the ,canal4 ,the position which will be held by the ,united ,states in relation to other ,powers is foreshown in the ,hay-,pauncefote treaty with ,great ,britain and in ,article ,,xxiii4 of the treaty with ,panama4 ,the ,hay-,pauncefote treaty is in supersession of the ,clayton-,bulwer treaty4 ,the latter stipulated that no fortifications should be erected controlling the ,canal4 ,in the ,hay-,pauncefote treaty this clause is omitted4 ,on the other hand1 it is stated in ,article ,,iii41 ,sec4 #b1 that the ,canal shall never be blockaded1 nor shall any right of war be exercised nor any act of hostility be committed within it4 ,hence1 the reader may have remained in doubt whether the ,united ,states ,government had intended to reserve to themselves the right to fortify4 ,however1 the terms of the subsequent treaty with the ,republic of ,panama answer this question1 for after stating in ,article ,,xviii4 that the ,canal shall be opened in accordance with all the stipulations of the treaty of #aija with ,great ,britain1 ,article ,,xxiii4 states that the ,united ,states shall have the right to establish fortifications4 ,as a matter of fact1 such fortifications are to be constructed1 and the plan of the ,canal has been adjusted to the requirements of military defence4 ,there have been1 among public men in the ,united ,states1 two schools of thought on the vital question of the defence of the ,canal4 ,one school has held that the best safeguard was to be obtained by leaving the ,canal unfortified 7as is the case with the ,suez ,canal71 and by the establishment of a general ,convention1 by which all the ,powers1 including the ,united ,states1 should bind themselves to respect the neutrality of the ,canal and leave it inviolate4 ,other public men preferred forts1 guardships1 and a garrison4 ,the general public in the ,united ,states1 on the other hand1 appears to have unanimously held that an international guarantee would be ineffectual and1 moreover1 derogatory4 ,as we have seen1 the popular view has prevailed1 but traces of the antagonistic and incompatible notion of internationalisation remain in the language of the treaties4 ,this is not surprising when we recollect that the first draft of the ,hay-,pauncefote treaty was drawn up with a view to neutralisation1 according to the precedents afforded by the ,suez ,canal4 ,thus we find that ,article ,,iii4 commences with the words3 ,the ,united ,states adopts as the basis of the neutralisation of the ,canal 4442 and in ,article ,,xviii4 of the treaty with ,panama we find3 ,the ,canal when constructed1 and the entrances thereto1 shall be neutral in perpetuity4444 ,illustration3 ,,chagres ,,river ,,near ,,babacoes4 ,illustration3 ,,chagres ,,river ,,near ,,obispo4 ,what then are we to understand by the term neutral as applied to the ,panama ,canal in war time8 ,i suppose the meaning to be that if there be a war to which the ,united ,states is not a party1 the ,canal will be used by belligerents in exactly the same way as was the ,suez ,canal1 e4g41 in the ,russo-,japanese ,war1 and that the ,government of the ,united ,states has pledged itself to see that such neutrality is preserved4 ,but if there be a war in which the ,united ,states is a party1 the circumstances of fortification and operation by the ,united ,states in fact render it impossible for the other belligerent to use the ,canal1 and are intended#c to have that effect4 ,this being so1 the ,united ,states is preparing to defend the ,canal from attack4 ,thus it is important to the proper understanding of the undertaking on which the ,united ,states ,government has embarked that we should clearly realise that the ,canal is only neutral in a restricted sense4 ,the commercial status of the ,canal1 however1 is similar to that of ,suez1 in that by ,article ,,iii41 ,sec4 #a1 of the ,hay-,pauncefote treaty1 ,the ,canal shall be free and open#d to the vessels 444 of all nations 444 on terms of entire equality1 so that there shall be no discrimination against any such nation1 or its citizens or subjects1 in respect of the conditions or charges of traffic1 or otherwise4 #c ,see ,report of ,canal ,commission1 #ahig1 p4 #afh4 #d ,in ,article ,,xviii4 of the treaty with ,panama this clause is cited1 with the addition and the entrances to the ,canal4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,on ,,the ,,canal ,,as ,,it ,,is ,,to ,,be ,,between ,colon and ,panama the ,american ,isthmus is about #cf miles across as the crow flies1 and is therefore nearly1 though not quite1 at its narrowest4 ,in this portion of its sinuous course both coasts trend north of east and ,panama lies nearly south-east of ,colon4 ,the ,isthmus in general is a very confused mass of hills and mountains4 ,it is crossed by no transverse trench 7such as sometimes occurs in mountainous regions71 neither by the trough provided by down-folded strata1 nor the rift valley produced by fracture and foundering of rock4 ,a low-level transverse can only be found by following up the course of a river1 crossing the divide1 and following the course of another river downwards to the other ocean4 ,from the vicinity of ,colon1 by following up the valley of the ,river ,chagres1 we are led in precisely the required direction1 i4e41 directly towards the ,pacific1 for nearly two-thirds of the way4 ,the distance from the head of ,limon ,bay1 following the curves of the valley1 is #bf miles to this place1 ,obispo1 and for the greater part of the distance the river flows in a broad valley of deep alluvial deposits4 ,illustration3 ,,french ,,dredger ,,laid ,,up4 ,illustration3 ,,french ,,trucks ,,partly ,,covered ,,with ,,forest ,,growth ,at the point mentioned1 the ,chagres abruptly changes its course1 and1 if followed towards its source1 will be found to be flowing from north-east to south-west4 ,moreover1 it is now confined to a narrow valley1 with steep hills of rocky substance on either side1 and its gradient becomes much greater than hitherto4 ,the course of the ,canal cannot therefore follow the ,chagres valley further4 ,fortunately1 the valley has led us not only a long distance towards the ,pacific1 but to a place where the dividing ridge only attains an elevation of about #cjj feet above sea-level4 ,striking from ,obispo straight for the ,bay of ,panama1 we come in #i miles to the low alluvial plain of the ,rio ,grande1 which leads straight to the sea in another #f miles4 ,thus1 from shore to shore1 the course of the ,canal along this route is #da miles2 but to reach deep water #d-a_/b miles must be dredged beneath the sea at either end1 so that the total length of the artificial waterway is #ej miles4 ,of the land-course less than a quarter1 or about #i miles1 is hill country1 and most of this is less than #bjj feet above the sea4 ,the ,united ,states has been committed to this route by the long chain of circumstances already narrated4 ,whatever type of canal was to be constructed along this route1 there were certain excavations which must necessarily be done4 ,these were1 firstly1 dredging the sea channels1 and secondly1 making a cut through the solid rocks of the divide4 ,thus1 although de ,lesseps started operations upon inadequate data1 yet most of the work done by the first ,panama ,canal ,company is available1 either for the tide-level canal proposed by de ,lesseps or for the #he-;foot-level canal now being made by the ,united ,states4 ,similarly1 the ,new ,panama ,canal ,company1 although hampered by many uncertainties1 continued to work at the ,culebra ,cut1 as it is called1 that is to say1 the trench through the rocky hills which separate the alluvial valleys of the ,chagres and the ,rio ,grande4 ,thus the works taken over by the ,united ,states in #aijd were available for any type of canal1 and the decision to adopt the #he-;foot-level was not taken until #aijf4 ,even now1 or in ,april1 #aijh1 at the time of my visit1 when so much work has been done upon the locks1 many of the rank and file of the employees still cherish the hope of a tide-level canal1 and there are not wanting well-informed people1 both on the ,isthmus and in the ,states1 who1 while accepting the high-level scheme as inevitable1 regard a tide-level canal as essentially a better thing4 ,let us resume our description of the ,isthmus1 in order that we may be in a position to understand the conditions with which the engineers have to deal4 ,the practicability of the ,panama route is due to the fact that rivers have already done a great part of the excavation1 and if desert conditions had supervened--if there were1 as at ,suez1 practically no rainfall--the construction of a tide-level canal would be simply the excavation of a trench in dry material1 which would be filled by the inflowing waters of the sea4 ,a tidal lock being added to regulate the ebb and flow at ,panama 7for the ,atlantic side is tideless71 the canal would be complete4 ,but as things actually are1 the rainfall on the ,isthmus is very heavy1 particularly on the ,atlantic side1 where it reaches #adj inches#e per annum1 and the rivers have at all times considerable bodies of water1 and during the rainy season 7commencing in ,may7 are subject to sudden and violent freshets4 ,the ,chagres at ,gamboa has been known to rise #ce-a_/b feet in #bd hours4#f ,suppose then that a tide-level trench were suddenly formed across the ,isthmus1 as by a convulsion of nature4 ,we should then see the rivers pouring into this fjord in a number of cascades of various height4 ,of these the greatest would be the ,chagres cascade1 entering from the east near ,gamboa and ,obispo4 ,the height of the waterfall would be #df feet in the driest season and as much as #hj feet in occasional floods4#g #e ,abbot1 ,problems of the ,panama ,canal1 p4 #if4 #f ,loc4 cit41 p4 #adf4 #g ,abbot1 loc4 cit41 p4 #aaf4 ,illustration3 ,,excavation ,,near ,,tavernilla4 ,illustration3 ,,river ,,chagres ,,and ,,railway ,,near ,,gorgona4 ,in order therefore to make a tide-level canal1 some means must be found for disposing of the waters of the ,chagres and other rivers4 ,de ,lesseps's tide-level project was rather an aspiration than a plan4 ,he proposed to conduct the waters of the ,chagres to the sea by other channels4 ,the magnitude of this task would be scarcely less than that of cutting the ,canal itself4 ,the other rivers on both sides of the ,canal would likewise require diversion channels1 so that the final result would be roughly the formation of three channels1 of which the centre one would be for navigation4 ,the ,board of ,consulting ,engineers summoned by ,president ,roosevelt in #aije to advise the ,isthmian ,canal ,commission recommended1 in a majority report1 a tide-level canal as practicable and best fulfilling the national requirements1 defined by the ,spooner ,act of #aijb4 ,but whereas they had detailed schemes for high-level canals before them1 they were in the matter of the sea-level project at the disadvantage of having to act in a constructive capacity and elaborate the details of a scheme before they could criticise it4 ,moreover1 five of the eight who constituted the majority were ,european engineers1 who returned to their duties as soon as the report was drafted4 ,the report of the minority in favour of the #he-;foot-level scheme having been adopted by ,congress in #aijf1 all available engineering talent has for the last two years been devoted to improving the details of this scheme4 ,the tide-level project of the majority of the ,board has had no such advantage1 and the difficulty of estimating the relative advantages of the two schemes is therefore all the greater4 ,both schemes depend for their success upon the security of dams4 ,the tide-level scheme has a dam at ,gamboa1 near ,obispo1 thus making a lake of the upper waters of the ,chagres1 whose surface would be #bjj feet above sea-level4#h ,the floodwater would partly be accommodated in the lake by reason of the great height of the dam above low-water stage1 and partly by running the excess into the ,canal1 by which it would escape to the sea1 generating currents which the ,board calculated would not attain an injurious velocity4 #h ,report1 ,board of ,consulting ,engineers1 p4 #bje4 ,streams entering the ,chagres in its lower reaches would be dammed back or diverted--a considerable1 but not momentous1 undertaking4 ,the three great objections to the scheme appeared to be3-- #a4 ,the extra cost1 and above all the extra time1 required to complete the immensely greater quantity of excavation required for the last #he feet2 #b4 ,the fact that the artificial lake was to be above the ,canal1 so that1 if the dam burst1 the ,canal might be ruined2 and1 #c4 ,that the velocity of currents in the ,canal due to discharge of the surplus waters might perhaps be a serious drawback to navigation in a narrow channel4 ,it will be seen presently that the second disadvantage is offset by corresponding disadvantages in the dam required for the high-level canal4 ,as for the cost1 that has always been an unknown quantity1 and1 ,i think1 has always been a secondary consideration4 ,the fear of undue delay seems to have been the principal deciding factor in favour of the high-level scheme4 ,rival expert opinions that the majority of the ,board of ,engineers had under-estimated the time required for the tide-level canal were adopted by those in authority1 and mainly on this account1 ,i think1 the high-level scheme became law4 ,since visiting the ,isthmus a second time1 and inspecting the work in the great ,cut between ,empire and ,paraiso1 it has seemed to me that there is an objection to the tide-level project which did not fully appear in the early stages of the work1 viz41 that the behaviour of the rock might involve the engineers in ever-increasing difficulties as the depths increased4 ,the opinion which had been held by many that the difficulties would diminish with the depth did not seem to me to be justified up to that time4 ,illustration3 ,,lidgerwood ,,unloader1 ,,winding ,,apparatus4 ,illustration3 ,,anopheles ,,brigade ,,oiling ,a ,,ditch4 ,next let us see what are the special difficulties of the high-level project4 ,this also depends for its success mainly on the efficacy of one dam1 which is now being made at ,gatun4 ,it will hold up the waters not only of the ,chagres but of its tributaries1 to a level of #he feet above mean tide1 and the area of the lake thus to be formed is shown on the map4 ,the ,chagres will be ponded back far above the point where it enters the ,canal1 and thus will be effectually tamed4 ,the flood-waters will be spread over an area of about #afd square miles--for ,lake ,gatun will be twice the size of ,lago ,maggiore and about four-fifths that of the ,lake of ,geneva1#i and ships1 in the ample waterway1 will not be troubled by currents4 #i ,the size1 in fact1 will not differ greatly from that of the principal basin of the ,lake of ,geneva1 all above the petit lac1 or narrow part at the ,geneva end4 ,a good idea of this area is obtained by recalling the well-known view over the waters of this lake from the quai at ,ouchy4 ,a flight of three locks at ,gatun will raise ships to the level of this lake in coming from the ,atlantic1 and one lock at ,pedro ,miguel and two at ,milaflores will lower them to the level of the ,pacific4 ,it has been claimed that if the ,gatun dam burst the consequences would be less disastrous than if the ,gamboa dam burst1 but there is in reality little to choose between the two catastrophes4 ,the great blot on the high-level scheme is that the great ,gatun dam is not founded on solid rock4 ,the ,gamboa dam of the tide-level project would have been founded throughout on hard rock1 from which it could have been built up of masonry so that the structure should be part and parcel of the rocky framework of the globe itself4 ,the ,gatun dam as recommended in the minority report1 on the other hand1 was designed to consist essentially of a mass of earth dumped upon an alluvial plain so as to fill up a gap of #b1jjj yards between two ranges of hills1 the gap through which the ,chagres escapes to the ,atlantic4 ,thus the ,gatun lake was to be held up as a glacier lake is held by a moraine blocking a valley4 ,we shall presently describe the high-level canal as it is to be1 from which it will be seen that it will provide a magnificent waterway1 but before concluding the present section ,i must mention the special point in which it will be inferior to a tide-level canal4 ,this is for purposes of defence4 ,a fortress has to be preserved from capture1 but not from damage4 ,the locks1 however1 must be preserved from serious damage1 which demands far more elaborate protection4 ,such protection1 moreover1 has to be provided at two positions 7,gatun and ,milaflores7 about #cj miles apart4 ,the ,high-level ,canal as it is to be4 ,the ,spooner ,act1 the law under which the ,canal is being constructed1 enacts that it shall be of sufficient capacity and depth as shall afford convenient passage for vessels of the largest tonnage and greatest draft now in use1 and such as may reasonably be expected4 ,accordingly the following dimensions have been selected3-- #a4 ,a minimum depth of #da feet4 ,the ,suez ,canal has a depth of #ca feet#aj admitting of the passage of ships with a draft of #bg feet4#aa ,the channel of this canal is now being deepened1 so that by #aiae it is hoped that a depth of #cf feet#ab will be obtained4 ,the ,kiel ,canal has a depth of #cj feet4 ,the average draft of the ,cunard s4s4 ,mauretania1 the largest ship now afloat1 is about #cb feet1 but she is stated to draw1 when fully laden1 about #cg feet1 and there are comparatively few harbours in the world which she could enter fully loaded4 #aj ,report1 ,board of ,consulting ,engineers1 p4 #age4 #aa ,four ,centuries of the ,panama ,canal1 p4 #dcf4 #ab ,daily ,telegraph1 ,june #ah1 #aijh4 #b4 ,a minimum bottom width of #bjj feet in the ,culebra ,cut4 ,the minimum bottom width1 or width at a depth of #ca feet1 in the ,suez ,canal is #ajh feet4 ,the bottom width of the ,kiel ,canal is #gb feet4#ac #ac ,report1 ,board of ,consulting ,engineers1 p4 #agc4 #c4 ,each lock will have a usable length of #a1jjj feet and a width of #aaj feet4 ,the locks of the ,kiel ,canal have an available length of #dib feet and width of #hb feet4 ,the ,mauretania has a length of #gij feet and beam of #hh feet4 #d4 ,the minimum radius of the curves is #e1egg feet 7#a1gjj metres74#ad ,this curve1 however1 does not come in the ,culebra ,cut1 where the bottom width is to be #bjj feet1 but north of ,bas ,obispo1 where the bottom width is #ejj feet4 ,most of the curves have a radius of #i1hdb feet 7#c1jjj metres74 #ad ,vide p4 #bje of ,general ,abbot's ,problems of the ,panama ,canal 7#aijg74 ,slight changes in the projected course are made from time to time1 so that this figure is subject to slight modification4 ,in the ,suez ,canal1#ae outside ,lake ,timsah1 there are five curves with a radius of #b1jjj metres1 or a little more1 which are being enlarged to #b1ejj metres 7#h1bjb feet74 ,the usual bottom width in these curves was #ahd feet1 but this is being increased to about #bcj feet4 ,the ,kiel ,canal has four curves with a radius of #a1jjj metres 7#c1bhd feet74 #ae ,report1 ,board of ,consulting ,engineers1 p4 #agh4 ,a reference to the accompanying plan 7vide ,map1 end of volume7 of the ,panama ,canal will show that most of the curves are situate in ,gatun lake1 where the width of the canal proper is large1 and where the spread of shallower waters secures better steerage4 ,thus the high-level ,canal is not only deep and wide1 but also much freer from troublesome curves than might be supposed from a casual inspection of its course4 ,the details of the bottom width of the high-level ,canal in its different parts are as follows3-- ,feet4 ,from the ,atlantic entrance to ,juan ,grande 7#bg miles7 #a1jjj ,juan ,grande to ,bas ,obispo #ejj ,bas ,obispo to a point about half-way between ,empire and ,culebra #cjj ,culebra ,cut nearly to ,pedro ,miguel lock 7about #d miles7 #bjj ,pedro ,miguel to ,pacific entrance #ejj ,illustration3 #ajj-,,ton ,,wrecking ,,crane1 ,,gorgona4 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,of ,,machine ,,shop1 ,,gorgona4 ,limon ,bay being shallow1 the deep water where a battleship can freely navigate or manoeuvre lies outside a line joining ,colon ,lighthouse with ,toro ,point1 and at a distance of #g-a_/b miles from ,gatun locks4 ,from this distance the lock-excavation can now be plainly discerned from the deck of a ship without the aid of a glass4 ,here1 when the ,canal is complete1 a ship will enter the buoyed channel of the submarine portion of the ,canal1 but this part of the channel does not lead directly towards the locks1 which are not visible upon the face of the water4 ,moreover1 they are presently hidden altogether by the land4 ,not until ,mile #e1 near ,mindi1 is reached does the course of the ,canal1 by a slight bend1 open up the locks to uninterrupted view1 and at this point the ship is already confined between banks4 ,when the foot of the flight of three locks is reached a vessel will no longer proceed under her own steam1 but be warped through4 ,the length and width of the locks has already been stated4 ,the maximum lift will be #cb feet1 or about #d feet more than in any other locks at present in use4 ,as the width 7#aaj feet7 is much greater than that of existing locks1 it follows that the lock gates will be far larger than any now in use4 ,the vessel has to pass through a flight of three succeeding locks4 ,parallel with this is a second flight of three locks1 so that two ships could be simultaneously put through either flight in the same1 or in opposite1 directions4 ,each lock through which the vessel passes on her upward course is provided with two pairs of mitre gates1 i4e41 double-swinging doors1 but the uppermost lock has in addition a rolling gate near the lower end4 ,this is a precaution against the breaking through of the upper folding doors by a ship coming down1 i4e41 from the ,pacific side4 ,an emergency gate is also being designed1 a sort of swing bridge1 to close the upper entrance to the flight of locks1 for ,gatun1 ,pedro ,miguel1 and ,milaflores4 ,it is hoped that a vessel will be put through all three locks at ,gatun in #ej minutes1 to which must be added some delay in approaching4 ,coming from the ,atlantic the water of the ,canal will be smooth1 and the vessel somewhat sheltered1 so that there should be no difficulty4 ,approaching from the lake there may be some roughness1 but anything more than a fresh breeze is rare1 and the lake will be practically free from currents1 so that the approach should present little difficulty4 ,the ,pacific side is always calm1 so that no difficulty of approach or exit is to be anticipated there on account of either winds1 waves1 or currents4 ,our vessel1 having been locked up to the broad surface of ,lake ,gatun1 proceeds under her own steam and at a fair rate of speed across that lake1 slowing down to about #d-a_/b miles per hour for the #i miles of ,culebra ,cut1 which will thus occupy two of the #h or #aj hours in which it is hoped to accomplish the whole transit4 ,on this basis it is calculated that #dj ships could be put through in #bd hours from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific1 or two fleets of #bj ships if passing simultaneously in opposite directions4 ,a #aj-;hour transit of the #ej-mile channel is about the same rate of progress as that in the ,suez ,canal1 where1 though there are no locks1 the speed has to be kept low on account of the friable nature of the banks4 ,it is evident that the time of transit cannot yet be certainly known to an hour or two1 but a considerable margin beyond the above estimate would enable the passage to be made between dawn and dusk of the tropical day4 ,at ,pedro ,miguel our vessel passes through one lock on her way down to the ,pacific1 and at ,milaflores through two locks4 ,each of these three locks has1 of course1 a duplicate alongside1 permitting1 as at ,gatun1 the simultaneous passage of a companion vessel1 or of one passing in the opposite direction4 ,in case of repairs to one set of locks the parallel set would maintain the waterway4 ,the lift of the lower lock at ,milaflores is variable1 depending upon the level of the tidal water in the last reach of the ,canal4 ,the extreme range of the tide at ,la ,boca1 the ,pacific entrance to the ,canal1 is #bj feet2 that is to say1 low water during spring tides is #aj feet below the average sea-level4 ,during low tide on the ,pacific side1 therefore1 the water in the ,canal stands #ie1 instead of #he1 feet above that sea4 ,hence the maximum lift of #cb feet already stated1 for #cb x #c #if4 ,illustration3 ,,machine ,,shops1 ,,gorgona4 ,illustration3 ,,club ,,house ,,for ,,employees1 ,,gorgona4 ,beyond the ,milaflores locks our vessel enters a reach of the ,canal which is exposed to the ebb and flow of the tide and which will be confined within banks or levees as far as ,la ,boca4 ,in this respect the plan and the section are both1 unfortunately1 misleading4 ,the ,la ,boca lock and dam have been abandoned1 and no ,sosa lake will therefore come into existence1 the lowest lock being1 as ,i have said1 at ,milaflores4 ,i have thought it better to reproduce the existing maps as they stand rather than to attempt a re-draught which would necessarily be imperfect4 ,our vessel1 then1 below ,milaflores is in a tidal channel and will be subject to some tidal current4 ,by designing this channel so as to avoid a bottle neck1 and by giving it a width of #ejj feet1 the calculated current will1 however1 not exceed #a foot per second4 ,the ,la ,boca site for locks was found to be much too exposed to gun fire and other modes of attack from the sea1 whereas the ,milaflores site is not only distant about #e miles from the shore1 but is well sheltered both by hills near it and by the position of the hilly eminences of the shore line4 ,it will be seen from the map that the dredged sea channel by which our vessel will reach deep water on the ,pacific passes to the west of the ,isle of ,naos instead of to the east1 as was proposed in the earlier plans4 99 99 99 99 99 ,returning now to the ,gatun locks4 ,the mitre sill of the top lock is #cg feet above mean sea-level1 i4e41 #dh feet below the surface of the lake1 which is #he feet above mean sea-level4 ,but the bottom of the lake here is only about #e feet above sea-level1 the total depth of water immediately above the locks and dam being #hj feet4 ,it follows that1 in the extreme case of both gates of one of the top locks 7as well as the roller gate7 being wrecked1 the level of the water in the lake can only fall to the level of #cg1 which would leave a depth of #cb feet immediately above the dam4 ,ships of large draft could therefore lie there without being stranded4 ,moreover1 the lake is so large that the outflow through the broken locks would only lower the level #b feet per diem1 so that more than three weeks would elapse before the water sank to the level of the mitre sill4 ,again1 the channel provided by the broken lock would be so small that in the ,canal below the calculated current which would result from the outflow would have a velocity of only #c-a_/b miles per hour4 ,above the ,pedro ,miguel and ,milaflores locks there is not the same surplus depth of water1 so that vessels might be grounded if the locks were broken4 ,moreover1 as there is no wide-spreading lake above ,pedro ,miguel1 the outflow of water would generate a somewhat swift current above the lock1 which might be a source of danger to ships4 ,this circumstance serves to enforce the apparent paradox that the great area of ,lake ,gatun is in several respects an element of safety1 not1 as the layman might suppose1 of danger4 ,the hydrostatic pressure upon the dam depends1 of course1 solely upon the depth of water1 not upon the area of the lake1 while the greater the contents of the reservoir the more nearly stagnant are its waters4 ,as there is to be no lock at ,la ,boca1 the dams shown there on the plan and profile will not have to be constructed1 so that it is not necessary to deal with the questions to which they formerly gave rise4 ,in the vicinity of the locks at ,pedro ,miguel and ,milaflores1 however1 dams have to be constructed to hold up the water4 ,at both places the dams will be short1 and will be founded upon hard rock1#af and in each case the head of water to be held up will only be about #dj feet1 instead of #hj1 as at ,gatun4 ,the construction of the dams at ,pedro ,miguel and ,milaflores is not1 therefore1 regarded with anxiety4 #af ,canal ,zone ,pilot1 pp4 #caf-cag4 ,the great ,gatun dam remains the one important experiment in the whole scheme of the high-level ,canal1 and much attention is being devoted to the planning of this work4 ,the alluvial foundation is a disadvantage shared by the ,bohio site formerly chosen1 and all other sites in the lower ,chagres valley2 so that1 having decided upon the ,panama route1 and a high-level canal1 there appears to be no alternative to the construction of a dam upon this kind of bottom4 ,the details of the proposed structure1 as elaborated in ,april1 #aijh1 were as follows3-- ,the length of the great earthen dam at ,gatun is #g1gjj feet1 its breadth no less than #b1jfj feet4 ,the weight of the dam per linear foot is more than #fj times the horizontal pressure of the water in the lake1 so that the pressure could not move the whole mass2 and the weight of the dam is spread over such a great width that it is not thought that the ground will sink beneath it4 ,the form of the plan and section is shown on the map1 and an idea of the topography may be obtained from the photographs1 which ,i took in ,april1 #aijh4 ,the south-eastern end of the dam abuts on the hill of hard1 fine-grained1 argillaceous sandstone in which the lock-site is being excavated4 ,the dam1 according to these plans1 is not to be merely superposed upon the surface1 as originally proposed in #aije4 ,embedded in its earthy mass there is to be a puddled core1 and a trench will be excavated to a level of #dj feet below the sea 7-#dj feet7 for the lower part of this core4 ,nor is this all that is to be done to check seepage beneath the earthen dam4 ,from the bottom of the trench excavated for the puddled core1 sheet piling1 made of #d-;inch timbers1 is to be driven down for another #dj feet1 so that sheet piling and puddled core together will form an impervious barrier to -#hj feet2 that is to say1 #hj feet below the surface-level of the sea1 or about #he feet below the lowest natural surface of the ground4 ,the puddled core is carried up through the earthen dam to the level of #ij1 that is to say1 #e feet above the level of the lake1 which is to be #he feet above sea4 ,the crest of the dam will be #ace feet1 i4e41 #ej feet above the level of the lake2 this excess of height being to provide top weight for increased stability of the whole structure1 and also for the purpose of compacting the underlying material4 ,the underwater slopes of the earthy materials have been reduced from the #a3c of #aije to #a3e4 ,on the other hand1 it has been decided that the width of #b1fbe feet given in #aije was in excess of utility1 and that a reduction of between #ejj and #fjj feet can be made without loss of strength or efficiency4 ,illustration3 ,,excavation ,,in ,,the ,,cut4 ,illustration3 ,,pipe ,,for ,,diversion ,,of ,a ,,river1 ,,near ,,empire4 ,about half way across the valley occurs a low hill1 on which a house is shown in the photograph4 ,this hill is on the crest-line of the dam1 and is useful as giving support to the sides of the regulating channel which will be excavated in it4 ,the material of the hill1 however1 is not the hard argillaceous sandstone of the lock site1 but merely alluvial4 ,the regulating works themselves will be built of concrete3 a solid mass built up to #fi feet1 and on this piers will be constructed #h feet in thickness1 between which will be the sluice-gates4 ,by their means the level of the lake will be prevented from rising unduly in flood time4 ,the capability of the dam to maintain the waters of the lake at a sufficient level in the dry season depends upon their not finding a ready way either through the dam itself or below it4 ,the construction of the dam is believed to guarantee its own practical impermeability4 ,not only is there a puddled core1 but the mud1 sand1 and rocks of which the principal mass will be composed will be laid down in the manner best calculated to secure compactness4 ,with regard to underground flow1 there is an underlying bed of indurated clay which is regarded as sufficiently impervious1 and wherever the puddled core and piling are imbedded in that clay it may1 ,i think1 be assumed with some confidence that the leakage will be unimportant4 ,on referring to the section 7map71 however1 it will be seen that there are in the valley two old river gorges1 which to a depth of #bjj and #bfj feet are filled only with gravel1 sand2 sand1 shells1 and wood2 clayey sand1 and so forth4 ,these gorges1 measured on the section shown in the figure1 have widths of about #a1bjj and #ejj feet respectively at the depth to which the sheet piling goes1 and extend about #abj and #ahj feet below4 ,how much water may escape by these gorges it is difficult to say4 ,this leads us to the next division of our subject4 ,on the ,supply of ,water ,available for the ,needs of the ,high-level ,canal4 ,the construction of the ,suez ,canal was a work of excavation pure and simple4 ,the construction of any kind of canal across the ,isthmus of ,panama involves another task1 second only in importance to the primary work of excavation1 viz41 that of regulating the rivers4 ,in the case of a sea-level canal the problem would have been how to get rid of their waters1 particularly in the rainy season4 ,in the actual case of an #he-;foot-level canal1 the regulation of the rivers1 particularly of the ,chagres1 presents two aspects1 viz43-- 7#a7 ,in the wet season1 disposing of the surplus waters4 7#b7 ,in the dry season1 conserving water supplied by the rains so as to meet the waste caused 7a7 by locking1 7b7 by evaporation1 7c7 by percolation4 ,the arrangements for taming the torrents of the ,chagres and its tributaries have already been described4 ,they are1 briefly1 the construction of the ,gatun dam and its spillway4 ,turning to the other aspect of the problem1 ,i have to answer the question1 ,what is the guarantee that there will be sufficient water in the dry season8 ,illustration3 ,,in ,,the ,,cut1 ,,width #ejj ,,feet4 ,illustration3 ,,in ,,the ,,cut1 ,,looking ,,south ,,towards ,,culebra4 ,probably there is no problem of the ,panama ,canal which has received more prolonged and careful study than this4 ,from the outset the ,french engineers commenced collecting data relating to the hydrology of the ,isthmus1 and when funds grew low1 and the proposed level of the canal began to rise1 the matter received ever-increasing attention4 ,the ,comite ,technique of the ,new ,panama ,canal ,company commenced in #ahid elaborate investigations to determine the catchment area1 the amount of rainfall1 and the discharge of rivers4 ,brigadier-,general ,henry ,l4 ,abbot 7late ,corps of ,engineers1 ,u4,s4,a471 whose investigations upon the ,mississippi are known the world over1 was a member of this ,committee of the ,new ,panama ,company until the work was taken over by the ,government of the ,united ,states1 for whom he continued to act2 and he was a member of the ,board of ,consulting ,engineers1 signing the minority report in favour of an #he-;foot-level canal in ,january1 #aijf4 ,a continuous study for seven years is an advantage enjoyed by few of the ,american engineers1 and the book on ,problems of the ,panama ,canal published by ,general ,abbot in #aije 7new edition #aijg7 deals very fully and ably with the hydrology and meteorology of the ,isthmus4 ,the observations were continued under the direction of ,don ,ricardo ,m4 ,arango1 who has also a long experience on the ,isthmus4 ,i shall not attempt to summarise the mass of data upon which the authorities rely in their calculation that there is a sufficient water supply for the needs of the ,canal during the dry season1 contenting myself with showing1 as above1 that in this department of study1 which more than all others connected with the ,canal demands long experience1 this requisite has in fact been secured4 ,yet whatever depends upon climate is liable to unexpected accidents1 and personally ,i regard as an important safeguard the fact that at ,alhajuela1 on the ,chagres1 #i or #aj miles above ,obispo1 there is an excellent site for a dam1 which would form a reservoir where some of the surplus water of the wet season could be stored1 and supplied to the ,canal as required4 ,the details for such a dam were elaborated in connection with one of the earlier plans of the ,canal1 so that the necessary data would be immediately available in case its construction should become necessary in the future4 ,harbours and ,fortifications4 ,there are no storms in the ,bay of ,panama1 and but little additional protection from weather is needed there for shipping4 ,the entrance to the ,canal being at ,la ,boca1 a new city will grow up there4 ,this will be the second westward migration of the terminal port1 the present city of ,panama lying between ,old ,panama and ,la ,boca4 ,colon is exposed to northers1 and protection against the heavy sea which then rolls in will have to be provided4 ,whether this will be done by breakwaters or by forming an interior basin is not yet decided1 and the cost of this part of the ,canal works is therefore not yet known4 ,the ,canal1 as already stated1 is to be fortified2 but ,i made no inquiries as to the location or character of the proposed fortifications1 a matter which ,i regarded as outside my province4 ,the cost of fortifications is included in the provision made by ,congress for the ,canal4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,on ,,the ,,present ,,condition ,,of ,,the ,,culebra ,,cut1 ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,methods ,,employed ,,for ,,excavation ,,and ,,disposal ,,of ,,the ,,spoil ,,reference once more to the plan and profile on the map will show at a glance the length and position of the rocky divide1 the whole of which is termed the ,culebra ,cut1 from the name of the town near the highest point4 ,the proposed form and dimensions of this cut1 throughout the #e miles of the greatest height1 is also shown 7the section adopted at the commencement of #aijf71 and the stage reached in ,april1 #aijh1 is shown by the photographs4 ,the line drawn across the above section at a level of #abj feet above bottom 7#afj feet above sea71 shows the general level of the bottom of the workings at ,culebra itself at the time the photographs were taken4 ,a narrow pilot cut1 only1 was then #bj feet lower4 ,illustration3 ,,rock ,,drill4 ,illustration3 ,,rock ,,drills ,,at ,,work ,,in ,,the ,,cut4 ,all that part of the section below this line 7#afj7 remained to be excavated4 ,most of the rock above this line has been removed1 but not all1 for the final width is not1 of course1 reached at any level until the central portion has been excavated below that level4 ,the level of the original rock line shown in this section was #bge1 i4e41 #bce above canal bottom1 so that the photographs show excavation of #aae feet of rock4 ,there was1 however1 soil above the hard basaltic rock1 of varying thickness--removed to the slope #a3b as shown on the section4 ,the highest original surface of the soil on the centre line of the ,canal 7between ,golden ,hill and ,silver ,hill at ,culebra7 was #cab feet1#ag so that the photographs in which ,golden ,hill appears show a total excavation of #aeb feet along the centre line4 ,as this line passed along a saddle between the two hills1 the original surface at the sides was considerably higher1 so that the total height shown in the photographs from the bottom of the cut to the highest berm1 or ledge1 on ,golden ,hill is considerably more than #aeb feet4 #ag ,the profile at end of volume shows the stage of excavation when the height here had been reduced to #baj4 ,the bottom of the ,canal will be #bgb feet below the original saddle1 and its depth below this berm1 which is seen on the photograph1 is considerably more4 ,thus will the gorge appear when the excavation is finished and before the water is allowed to flow in4 ,when full1 the surface of the water will be #bbg feet below the original saddle1 and the passenger on a vessel will gaze upon the scarped banks of a somewhat greater height than this4 ,for a tide-level canal1 not only would the depth be #he feet greater1 but1 as the slope could not be made steeper1 the width of the whole cutting would be correspondingly increased4 ,with reference to the slope of the sides1 it is important to note that it has not been found practicable to adhere always to the proposed section1 which has to be made flatter1 thus considerably increasing the amount of excavation required4 ,the behaviour of living rock is not susceptible of the precise specification which can be applied to quarried stone on the one hand or loose gravel on the other4 ,mechanically it is complex1 both on account of its structure and of the role which water plays in its economy4 ,in the case of the ,culebra rock1 the volcanic dykes by which it is traversed have altered the nature of the rock in their vicinity1 and the part played by water is considerable1 owing to the wetness of the climate4 ,moreover1 the rock does not remain wholly unchanged when exposed to air1 but deteriorates by weathering1 a chemical and physical process which proceeds much faster in an equatorial climate than in the temperate zones4 ,the climate1 however1 has a compensating action1 in so far as the rapid growth of vegetation soon clothes and protects the scarped slopes1 thus acting as a revetment4 99 99 99 99 99 ,alighting at ,culebra station on the ,panama ,railway1 and proceeding to the western side of the cut1 one obtains the most impressive view of the ,canal works1 and this is the spot usually visited by travellers and tourists4 ,i first stood there in ,january1 #aijg1 and returned in ,april1 #aijh4 ,the impressions obtained were very different on these two occasions4 ,in ,january1 #aijg1 after two and a half years of ,american occupation1 what struck me most was the enormous mass of material which had been removed by the ,french companies1 and the comparatively insignificant appearance of the ,american excavations1 which could readily be distinguished from the older work1 already coated with vegetation4 ,it was then that ,i began to appreciate the heroic labours of the ,french engineers1 whose achievements under circumstances of great difficulty are being daily more and more appreciated and praised by their successors4 ,turning to study the progress of work1 ,i watched with delight the operations of the #ajj-ton steam shovels1 which at a distance1 when the human hands are not seen1 appear endowed with volition1 and remind the spectator of elephants at work4 ,the cars were loaded with surprising celerity1 and the dirt-train was hauled off to the distant dump by an old ,belgian locomotive1 part of the machinery taken over from the ,new ,company4 ,but then the hitch came--there were no cars to take the place of those already filled1 and the steam shovel was idle4 ,looking round1 ,i found that many other steam shovels and their crews were idle from the same cause1 the machinery for transportation not having been provided in proper proportion to the machinery of excavation4 ,that the time required for the completion of the rock-cut was limited by the possible rate of transportation of spoil1 and not by that of excavation1 had long been known1 and the report of the ,board of ,consulting ,engineers contains elaborate diagrams of space available for shovels and for tracks4 ,it was apparent1 therefore1 that the organisation of the work was not yet perfected4 ,in like manner1 as far as ,i could judge during my first short visit1 the ,west ,indian labour was not yielding the best results1 owing to white foremen and coloured labourers not being in perfect harmony4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cut1 ,,looking ,,north ,,from ,,culebra4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cut1 ,,looking ,,south ,,from ,,culebra4 ,while1 however1 the fighting force1 so to speak1 of the ,isthmian army was obviously imperfect in many respects1 great results had evidently been achieved by the auxiliary services4 ,the ,department of ,sanitation had already made the ,isthmus healthier than most equatorial countries1 food and quarters were excellent1 law and order were well maintained4 ,on the first day of my second and prolonged visit1 ,april1 #aijh1 fifteen months later1 ,i went at once to the same spot on the ,culebra ,cut opposite to ,golden ,hill and again surveyed the scene of operations4 ,the change was enormous4 ,the gorge below me was greatly enlarged1 the shape of the hills altered1 the face of the landscape changed4 ,as ,i gazed into the deep trench below1 the thought flashed across my mind1 ,if my life be spared a few years longer1 ,i will sail through this on a ship4 ,the reason of the great change was readily apparent3 organisation had now been perfected4 ,in the first place1 the whole width of the cut was laid down in railway tracks1 tier above tier at the different levels1 so that the view was like the approach to the metropolitan terminus of one of the world's great railways4 ,up and down these tracks there came and went without ceasing the spoil-trains1 now composed of larger trucks than formerly1 with new and ingenious devices for rapid unloading4 ,the number of steam shovels visible was much larger than in #aijf1 yet they were kept constantly busy1 and all the time the drilling machines were at work boring holes for charges of dynamite1 and gangs of men were completing the preparations for explosions in other holes already made4#ah ,yet if the eyes were raised for a moment from the busy scene below1 they rested on a silent wilderness of tropical forest1 stretching unbroken to the horizon4 ,i stayed until1 at the approach of sunset1 the work of the shovels ceased1 and hundreds of men swarmed out of the ,cut1 and sought their quarters and the evening meal4 ,but all was not over for the day1 for now1 when the ,cut was cleared1 the shot-firing began4 ,at intervals there occurred a deafening explosion1 the earth trembled as in a considerable1 but preternaturally short1 earthquake1 and masses of rock rolled down the slopes1 disintegrated and ready for the shovel-man when he should arrive next morning4 ,i paid many visits to the ,cut1 between ,empire and ,pedro ,miguel1 but oftenest at ,culebra itself4 ,the sight never palls1 and is one of the wonders of the world4 ,the ,pyramids are another wonder of the world which in common with many thousands in all ages ,i have thought it worth going to see--but to go to ,culebra is as if one were privileged to watch the building of the ,pyramids4 ,yet how few go to the ,isthmus on purpose to see these things1 and1 mirabile dictu1 how few ,americans6 ,how is it that this people1 so enthusiastic in all that relates to national achievement and addicted to foreign travel1 does not include the ,isthmus among its many recognised places of pilgrimage8 ,of the ,americans whom ,i met on the ,zone there was scarcely one who had come voluntarily for pleasure4 ,the hotel accommodation1 it is true1 is limited1 but it is more than sufficient for present needs1 and is good1 as hotels in the tropics are reckoned4 ,moreover1 ,panama is now one of the healthiest places in the ,equatorial ,zone4 ,english tourists going out to the ,west ,indies by the ,royal ,mail are generally able to cross the ,isthmus and see something of the work while their ship is unloading at ,colon2 but ,i would venture to suggest1 to such of these as care to follow the world's progress1 that they should make arrangements beforehand to step off at ,colon1 cross to ,panama1 put up there1 visit thence the ,canal works at various points1 and proceed by their next ship4 ,the ,west ,indian tourist season coincides with the dry season on the ,isthmus4 ,at ,panama the mosquito is almost an extinct animal1 and though the heat there is sometimes trying1 a run up to ,culebra brings one to a dry and bracing atmosphere where a fresh breeze is almost always blowing4 #ah ,during #aijh no less than one million dynamite charges were exploded4 ,the steam shovel is the principal agent of excavation4 ,it scoops out loose soil directly1 but the basaltic rock has to be broken up first by blasting4 ,one shovel will load #a1bjj cubic yards of such materials upon the cars within the working day of #h hours1 an amount equal to #fjj two-horse loads4 ,for accelerating transportation railway trucks provided with flaps are used1 which make of the whole train a single platform4 ,at the rear of the train is a plough which can be drawn by a wire rope attached to a drum carried on a special car in the fore part of the train4 ,when the train arrives at the dump the drum is started1 and the plough1 advancing1 clears the #cbj cubic yards of earth and rock from the #af cars in #g minutes4 ,this is the ,lidgerwood ,unloader4 ,another important piece of machinery is the track-shifter1 which picks up and relays the railway lines of the ever-shifting spoil-tracks4 ,this remarkably successful contrivance was invented by an employee on the ,isthmus1 and is moreover manufactured there in the great workshops at ,gorgona4 ,illustration3 ,,from ,,culebra1 ,,looking ,,east ,,to ,,distant ,,hills4 ,illustration3 ,,from ,,culebra1 ,,looking ,,east ,,across ,,the ,,cut4 ,from ,bas ,obispo to ,pedro ,miguel1 which constitutes the ,cut1 is a distance of about #i miles1 and excavation is so planned that a summit is maintained at ,lirio1 near ,culebra1 about half-way between these two points4 ,on the north slope are#ai #ba steam shovels1 loading cars on #ad tracks4 ,these1 when loaded1 are hauled down-grade to the northern dumps at ,tavernilla and elsewhere1 or to the site of the ,gatun dam1 which is also a dump4 ,nearly #d1jjj cubic yards of rock are carried to the dam daily1 a distance of about #bd miles4 ,the return up-grade is made with empty cars4 ,on the southern slope about the same number of steam shovels are at work1 the spoil being taken to the southern dumping grounds on the ,pacific side1 including the trestle dump for the breakwater to ,naos ,island4 ,the spoil-trains follow one another at intervals of about three minutes1 and if1 from any cause1 delay occur1 the steam shovels1 and indeed the whole process of excavation1 is brought to a standstill4 ,any cause of delay is therefore reported at once by telephone to the ,superintendent of ,transportation at ,empire1 and all energies are at once directed to clearing the way4 ,on the ,isthmus everything gives way to the spoil-train1 as in a city to the fire-engine4 ,an excellent lesson both in the complexity and urgency of the transportation is afforded by a run through the ,cut on a motor trolley in company with the ,superintendent of the ,department of ,excavation4 ,constantly shunted from one track to another1 and occasionally having to retreat1 much ingenuity is required to thread a way among the spoil-trains1 but even the almost invaluable time of the ,superintendent himself is sacrificed rather than any delay should occur to the dirt train1 as it is usually called4 ,it is this dirt which stands between the ,american nation and the realisation of their long cherished scheme1 and nowhere is the classical definition of dirt as matter in the wrong place so appropriate as on the ,isthmus4 #ai ,this is for ,july1 #aijh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,let us now see how much matter has been removed1 and how much dirt remains which has yet to be removed4 ,i will give first the totals of what has been got out in both dry and wet way1 both in the ,canal prism itself and for auxiliary works4 ,,total ,,excavations ,,in ,,connection ,,with ,,the ,,panama ,,canal4#bj ,cubic ,yards4 ,by the ,french ,companies about #ha1edh1jjj ,by the ,american ,isthmian ,canal ,commission up to the end of ,june1 #aijh #dj1ibc1ecc ----------- #abb1dga1ecc #bj ,canal ,record1 ,july #h1 #aijh4 ,much of the work of the ,french ,companies1 however1 consisted in dredging out sea-level channels at both ends of the ,canal1 whereas the principal ,american work has been rock-excavation in the ,culebra ,cut--or the ,cut1 as it might equally well be called4 ,the figures relating to the ,cut are3-- ,,excavation ,,between ,,bas ,,obispo ,,and ,,pedeo ,,miguel1 i4e41 ,,the ,,culebea ,,cut1 #i-a_/b ,,miles4 ,cubic ,yards4 ,by the ,french ,companies #bb1fjj1jjj ,by the ,american ,commission to end of ,june1 #aijh #bj1abe1ahe ----------- ,total excavated in the ,cut #db1gbe1ahe ,remaining to be excavated #cg1igc1jfc ----------- #hj1fih1bdh so that at the end of last ,june the ,cut was half cut through1 one quarter having been done by the ,french ,companies and one quarter by the ,american ,commission4#ba #ba ,the total excavation for the prism of a sea-level canal was calculated by the ,board of ,consulting ,engineers at #bca1jbf1dgg cubic yards4 ,this statement by itself1 however1 would give a very inadequate idea of the rate at which the excavation is now proceeding1 for of the total taken out by the ,commission since #aijd1 #aa1jjj1jjj cubic yards were due to the work of the #ab months prior to ,june last4 ,it will be seen from what has gone before that the rate of progress is now even greater than in the year ,june1 #aijg-,may1 #aijh1 for the daily output from the ,cut for ,july1 #aijh 7#ee1dbg cubic yards71 works out at #a1dda1ajb cubic yards1 allowing #bf working days of that month1 which1 moreover1 is a wet month1 when work is much retarded4 ,illustration3 ,,from ,,culebra1 ,,looking ,,east ,,to ,,golden ,,hill4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cut ,,at ,,culebra1 ,,looking ,,north4 ,on the ,date of ,completion of the ,canal4 ,colonel ,goethals1 ,chief of the ,commission1 when examined early in #aijh at ,washington1 declined to bind himself to a date for completion1 or to an estimate of cost2 nevertheless1 it is not difficult to calculate the date of completion from the actual rate of progress on the assumption that all goes well4 ,the year #aiae is thus arrived at by the authorities for the calculated1 though not promised1 completion4 ,this is based primarily upon the rate of excavation possible under the restrictions imposed by the narrow gorge along which the spoil has to be transported4 ,it has been also calculated that the constructive works1 the locks and dams1 would require about the same time as1 but not longer than1 the excavations4 ,this just balance between the time required for the two elements1 excavation and building1 was one of the arguments employed in favour of the #he-;foot-level canal1 as securing the utmost practicable speed of construction#bb which could be obtained in a canal affording convenient passage for vessels of the largest tonnage4 #bb ,see address by ,president ,roosevelt to ,board of ,consulting ,engineers1 ,september #aa1 #aije4 ,report of the ,board1 p4 #ab4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one of the most impressive features on the ,isthmus at the present time is the great workshop at ,gorgona1 where repairs of all kinds are done1 and large machines such as the track-shifter are actually built4 ,as ,i passed from machine shop to boiler shop1 smith shop1 car shop1 pattern shop1 and so on1 ,i felt myself back among the circumstances of one of the great manufacturing towns1 and forgot for the time my actual surroundings4 ,it was with a feeling akin to surprise that1 on quitting the foundry1 ,i found myself on the fringe of the tropical forest1 now darkening with the shadows of the swift-descending sun4 ,i may here note by the way that the furnaces of the foundry produced considerable relief from the effects of the tropical heat1 which that day was somewhat oppressive4 ,relaying the ,panama ,railway4 ,reference to the map at the end of the volume will show how considerable is the task of reconstructing the ,panama ,railroad--what embankments have to be formed1 circuits made1 and 7near ,milaflores7 a tunnel bored4 ,the track1 too1 is being doubled1 and the rolling stock has been greatly improved4 ,the passenger cars are both comfortable and relatively cool1 and the double journey from ,pacific to ,atlantic ,ocean and back again can be pleasantly performed between luncheon and dinner4 ,much of the verdant forest land on which ,i have gazed with so much delight from the windows of the cars will soon cease to be land at all4 ,it will be drowned beneath the waters of ,lake ,gatun2 virgin forest1 cultivated patch1 squatter's hut1 villages1 and even small towns will disappear1 their sites submerged by water1 and presently to be covered by the silt of rivers4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,men ,,on ,,the ,,isthmus ,west ,indian ,labour4 ,,the success of sanitation1 and the modern facilities for storage of food1 have greatly simplified the task of obtaining an adequate supply of navvies for the pick and spade work4 ,in the ,united ,states the ,american-born1 particularly the majority who are of ,anglo-,saxon stock1 now form an aristocracy of labour1 and for the last fifteen years or so have performed but little of the pick and spade1 or ordinary navvy's1 work4 ,in the ,southern ,states the unskilled labour is mainly performed by the ,american negro4 ,elsewhere the pick and spade work is done by new immigrants1 some of whom settle1 and some go home with their savings4 ,they are largely from ,southern and ,central ,europe1 many being ,italians1 and in the extreme ,west there are ,japanese also4 ,illustration3 ,,gang ,,of ,,west ,,indian ,,labourers4 ,illustration3 ,,gang ,,of ,,spanish ,,labourers ,,at ,,culebra4 ,the ,commission1 however1 did not recruit in the ,united ,states1 in order not to disturb the labour market there1 but sought elsewhere for the supply of unskilled labour4 ,at first they relied almost entirely upon the ,west ,indian negro1 who formed the majority of the navvies employed under the ,french ,companies4 ,the ,commission1 however1 were profoundly dissatisfied with the result4 ,in ,december1 #aijf1 they reported that-- ,another year's experience with negro labourers from near-by tropical islands and countries has convinced the ,commission of the impossibility of doing satisfactory work with them4 ,not only do they seem to be disqualified by lack of actual vitality1 but their disposition to labour seems to be as frail as their bodily strength4 ,nevertheless1 they are still employed in undiminished numbers on the ,isthmus1 and the tone of the authorities towards them has changed4 ,this change is noticeable both in the official publications and also in the conversation of the foremen immediately in charge4 ,with regard to the latter1 ,i found a great difference of tone between ,january1 #aijg1 and ,april1 #aijh4 ,the improved relations with the ,west ,indians is due to two causes1 relating to the alleged lack of vitality and of industry respectively4 ,the lack of strength was found to be due largely to improper diet1 and most of the ,west ,indians are now provided with proper cooked meals1 as is done in the case of ,american and ,european employees4 ,in order to ensure their profiting by this provision1 however1 the charge for meals in the case of ,west ,indians is deducted from wages4 ,the result of supplying a nourishing diet has been a marked increase in working strength as shown by output4 ,in respect of disposition to labour there has also been an improvement4 ,this is shown both by the absence of animadversion in later official reports1 and also by the changed tone of the foremen and other ,americans in immediate control of the ,west ,indians1 when questioned on the subject4 ,in ,january1 #aijg1 ,i heard little but disparagement1 while in ,april1 #aijh1 a much more favourable account was given4 ,to one who has seen something of both the ,united ,states and of the ,west ,indies1 the reason for the improved state of affairs was easily understood1 viz41 the ,american foremen and others in charge had begun to understand the type of men with whom they were dealing4 ,accustomed to the character of the ,american negro1 and to the conventions which regulate intercourse with the coloured man in the ,united ,states1 they did not at first recognise that the ,west ,indian was a distinct type1 and accustomed1 at any rate in the ,british ,colonies1 to very different social relations towards the white man4 ,the handling of a gang of negroes from the tropics is an art which has had to be learnt4 ,the ,barbadians are reported to be1 generally speaking1 the best of the ,west ,indian workmen1 except the men from some of the country districts of ,jamaica1 who are their equals4 ,although the climate and products of the ,isthmus are so similar to those of their own islands1 comparatively few of these employees settle there1 but return to the homes they love so well4 ,it cannot but be gratifying to an ,englishman to find that those who come from the ,british islands are proud of their citizenship and pleased to greet him as a fellow-subject4 ,there are about ninety negro policemen on the ,zone1 most of whom were originally trained by ,english officers in the ,jamaica ,constabulary4 ,they are highly spoken of by the ,chief of ,police1 who finds that they know both when to arrest and when not to arrest4 ,they are also of much service to the new arrivals of their own colour1 who refer to them for all information4 ,the ordinary ,west ,indian labourer receives #aj cents gold 7about #e;d47 per hour and free quarters4 ,deducting the #cj cents per diem charged for meals1 he receives #ej cents 7#bs4 #a;d47 for an #h-;hour day1 besides food and lodging4 ,illustration3 ,,steam ,,shovel ,,excavating ,,soil ,,at ,,culebra4 ,illustration3 ,,steam ,,shovel ,,unloading ,,into ,a ,,dirt ,,car4 ,the total number actually at work on the ,isthmus has been-- ,june #cj1 #aijg4 ,on the ,canal ,works #ad1fjf ,on the ,panama ,railroad #d1igi ------ ,total #ai1ehe and on ,june #cj1 #aijh1 the number on the ,canal ,works alone was #af1jgh4 ,the total number on the roll is1 of course1 considerably more than #bj1jjj1 as there are necessarily absentees every day owing to sickness1 accident1 or other cause4 ,european ,labour on the ,isthmus4 ,in #aijf the number of ,european labourers on the ,isthmus was insignificant1 and the ,commission1 at that time profoundly dissatisfied with the ,west ,indians1 issued invitations for proposals to furnish #b1ejj ,chinese labourers1 with the privilege of increasing the number to #ae1jjj4bc ,nothing came of this scheme1 however1 while1 on the other hand1 the already improved1 and still improving1 conditions on the ,isthmus enabled the ,commission to obtain a largely increased supply of ,european labour4 ,while the supply of ,west ,indians was maintained constant1 or only slowly increased1 the additional force required was therefore obtained from ,europe4 ,the following figures show this3-- ,european ,labourers actually at ,work on ,june #cj1 #aijf #ejj ,june #cj1 #aijg #d1cag ,june #cj1 #aijh #d1iac #bc ,report of the ,isthmian ,canal ,commission1 #aijf1 p4 #ad4 ,a few ,russian and ,baltic folk came1 but appeared unable to stand the work1 and the few ,french who arrived did not take to pick and spade4 ,the majority were from ,greece1 ,italy1 and ,spain1 each of these countries sending at first about the same number4 ,the ,greeks proved to be physically inferior to the ,italians and ,spaniards1 and their number in ,april1 #aijh1 was only about #cjj4 ,the ,italians1 physically excellent1 and standing the climate well1 were found somewhat intractable4 ,a large proportion were migrant labourers1 who had become somewhat prone to collective action when dissatisfied1 and their numbers in ,april1 #aijh1 had been reduced to #ejj or #fjj4 ,the ,spaniards1 mainly ,galicians and ,castilians1 were found to be quite equal to the ,italians in physique and health1 and to give far less trouble1 a fact which is attributed partly to the circumstance that most of them came directly from their villages4 ,they are reported to be sober1 patient1 civil1 and quick to learn4 ,the number employed in ,april1 #aijh1 was about #e1jjj1 so that the ,spaniards constituted about five-sixths of the ,european force1 which numbered in all slightly over #f1jjj4 ,the figures given above for those at work on certain days are considerably less1 there being always a number absent from one cause or another4 ,that the ,spaniard is not oppressed by the tropical heat was apparent to me when watching gangs at work near mid-day at about the hottest time of year1 viz41 the last weeks of the dry season1 towards the end of ,april4 ,clothed in ,european kit1 wearing velveteen trousers and with only a cap for head-covering1 these men showed no signs of distress1 or even discomfort4 ,they showed1 in fact1 less sign of being heated than ,americans of apparently ,british or other ,northern descent engaged upon less laborious work4 ,the ordinary ,european labourer1 in addition to free quarters1 receives #bj cents gold per hour1 or #a4fj per #h-;hour day2 more when working overtime4 ,he is charged #dj cents per diem for his three meals1 served in the ,european mess1 which leaves #a4bj as a minimum net wage per diem1 or a little less than #cjs4 per week2 but many earn more1 and it should not be difficult under these conditions for a labourer to save ,l#e a month4 ,i was informed of one instance of a ,spanish labourer saving ,l#aj per month1 but such virtue must be rare4 ,the ,spaniard shows no sign of settling upon the ,zone4 ,sometimes he goes on to railway work in ,brazil2 more often he returns home with his savings4 ,skilled ,labour on the ,isthmus4 ,the skilled labour on the ,isthmus has from the outset been mainly done by white ,americans1 but there are still on the ,gold ,roll1 as it is termed1 some ,europeans4 ,new rules reducing the maximum length of leave have1 however1 made these posts less attractive to those whose homes are at a greater distance1 and by an order of ,february #h1 #aijh1 all future appointments on the ,gold ,roll shall be ,american citizens1 if the special services required can be obtained in the ,united ,states2 and in the event of any reduction of force1 preference shall be given to ,american citizens4 ,the duties being various1 the pay necessarily differs1 but1 taking free quarters into account1 is higher than in the ,united ,states1 as is of course necessary in a distant and tropical land4 ,since the industrial difficulties of #aijg-h there has been considerable competition for these billets4 ,an #h-;hour day is established by law for employees on the ,gold ,roll1 the quarters are excellent1 and the three meals a day provided at a fixed charge are up to the standard of a good hotel4 ,indeed1 the opportunity to share these meals1 supplied in large airy rooms1 screened by gauze but open to the breeze1 made my task on the ,isthmus much lighter4 ,from almost any part of the ,canal ,i could reach one of the ,commission hotels for meal-time1 and for #ej cents 7#bs4 #a;d47 obtain better food than ,i have generally been able to get in the tropics at a much higher price4 ,i took pleasure also in my company1 for1 if ,i may be permitted to say so1 the skilled mechanic of the ,united ,states has always seemed to me a most attractive representative of his nation2 and here particularly so1 where one is in touch with his work4 ,moreover1 each man's job on the ,isthmus is part of a vast undertaking1 the progress of which he can watch1 which fires his enthusiasm1 and makes him feel that he has a reward beyond his wage in the privilege of participating in national achievement4 ,illustration3 ,,steam ,,shovel ,,near ,,end ,,of ,,stroke4 ,illustration3 ,,steam ,,shovel1 ,,stroke ,,finished1 ,,loaded ,,with ,,soil4 ,i should like in this place to add a word of tribute to the great courtesy and kindness which they show towards ladies1 a circumstance which did much to render pleasant the excursions which my wife took on the ,isthmus1 sometimes in my company and sometimes alone4 ,the number of ,americans on the ,gold ,roll in ,january1 #aijh1 was about #f1jjj1 the total number of employees on the rolls of the ,commission and of the ,panama ,railroad being then approximately #dc1jjj4 ,the total number of employees actually at work on ,january #bi1 #aijh1 was ,on the ,canal works #be1cfg ,on the ,panama ,railroad #f1eeg ------ ,total #ca1ibd ,the ,responsible ,officials and the ,scheme of their ,organisation4 ,the responsibility for ,canal construction under the conditions laid down by ,acts of ,congress is vested in the ,president of the ,united ,states1 within the limits of the money which has so far been voted4 ,the ,president appointed a ,commission in #aije to carry out the work4 ,the first chief engineer appointed was ,mr4 ,john ,f4 ,wallace1 who arrived on the ,zone ,june #bh1 #aijd1 accompanied by ,colonel ,gorgas1 ,u4,s4,a41 head of the ,sanitation ,department4 ,mr4 ,wallace was in favour of a tide-level canal4 ,in ,april1 #aije1 the ,president appointed a second ,commission in place of the first1 with a changed personnel1#bd but ,mr4 ,wallace was retained as chief engineer1 and1 moreover1 became a member of the second ,commission4 #bd ,colonel ,gorgas1 head of the ,department of ,sanitation1 has remained1 however1 through all changes4 ,see post1 ,chapter ,v4 ,he1 however1 resigned1 ,june #bf1 #aije1 and his place was taken by ,mr4 ,john ,f4 ,stephens1 who arrived on the ,zone ,july #bgth4 ,at this time there was panic throughout the ,isthmus#be owing to the prevalent sickness1 and resignations were so numerous that it was difficult to carry on work at all1 and engineering operations were partly suspended for a time4 ,when the sanitary conditions improved1 however1 work was resumed with vigour4 ,this second ,commission proposed that the work should be put out to contract1 and bids were invited4 ,it was under this ,commission that the #he-;foot-level canal became law4 ,mr4 ,stephens was in favour of this form4 ,he resigned early in #aijg1 his resignation taking effect on ,april #ast1 and at the same time the ,president for the second time reorganised the ,commission4 #be ,see ,report of the ,governor of the ,canal ,zone1 #aije1 p4 #cj1 and ,sanitation in the ,canal ,zone1 by ,w4,c4 ,gorgas1 ,m4,b41 ,colonel1 ,journ4 ,am4 ,med4 ,assoc41 ,july #f1 #aijg1 vol4 xlix4 ,the third ,commission1 appointed ,april #a1 #aijg1 which is that under which the work was being carried on at the time of my second visit1 differs from its predecessors in that its members are resident on the ,zone4 ,thus the members of the ,commission are the actual executive1 the chairman of the ,commission being himself chief engineer4 ,the other important difference between the present and the former organisations is the fact that almost all the important departments are now under officers of the ,united ,states ,army1 and in one instance of the ,navy4 ,the chairman and chief engineer1 ,lieutenant-,colonel ,george ,w4 ,goethals1 of the ,corps of ,engineers1 had previous experience of the ,isthmus1 having been engaged upon work connected with fortification4 ,with respect to the other officers of engineers1 the significance of the appointments lies not in their being military men1 but in their being permanent ,government servants4 ,the ,government of the ,united ,states1 unlike that of his ,britannic ,majesty1 does not possess a large ,civil ,service whose members remain in the public employment through all changes of political parties4 ,in the absence of any considerable body corresponding1 for instance1 to our ,indian ,civil ,service1 the ,government of the ,united ,states frequently relies upon the ,corps of ,engineers for the supervision of great public works4 ,at the time of my second visit the scheme of organisation was as shown in the following table3-- ,,general ,,organisation ,,of ,,departments4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,men ,excavation and ,dredging #ab1cei ,major ,d4,d4 ,gaillard ,locks and ,dams #i1cdj ,major ,wm4 ,l4 ,sibert ,machinery and ,buildings#bf #b1afd ,h4,h4 ,rouseau1 ,u4,s4,n4 ,labour1 ,subsistence1 and ,quarters #b1jdh ,jackson ,smith 7resigned7 ,material and ,supplies #a1bbj ,w4,g4 ,tubby ,sanitation #b1ddi ,colonel ,w4,c4 ,gorgas ,civil ,administration #dea ,j4,c4,s4 ,blackburn ,panama ,railroad #f1fai ,w4,g4 ,bierd ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #bf ,now merged in other departments4 ,illustration3 ,,steam ,,shovel ,,at ,,culebra4 ,illustration3 ,,shovel-,,men ,,at ,,culebra4 ,technically the ,panama ,railroad is not a department1 but practically the construction of the ,canal and the reconstruction of the ,railroad are worked as parts of a single scheme4 ,in addition to the above are some smaller divisions1 reporting directly to the ,chairman1 such as that of ,accounts4 ,the office of the ,purchasing ,officer is situate in ,washington1 practically all the supplies being obtained in the ,united ,states4 ,this officer also reports to the ,chairman resident on the ,zone4 ,the numbers given above are subject to continual fluctuation1 and are quoted more for the purpose of showing the general proportions of the different parts of the undertaking than to give an exact total of the force employed4 ,some account has already been given of the activities of the men employed on excavation1 on locks and dams1 and on the railway4 ,those entered under the ,department of ,machinery and ,buildings are charged not only with this work in the ,zone1 but also with the paving and other improvements in the cities of ,colon and ,panama4 ,the ,department of ,sanitation also undertakes the hygiene of these two cities1 no small part of its responsibilities4 ,the ,republic of ,panama provides the cities with police1 who are ,panamanians4 ,the police force of the ,isthmian ,canal ,commission 7,department of ,civil ,administration7 numbers #bjj1 of whom #hh are the ,west ,indians already mentioned and the remainder white ,americans4 ,the force is numerically small1 but the power to deport all undesirable persons is of great assistance4 ,moreover1 as the ,zone is practically inaccessible except from the ports of ,colon and ,panama1 a fairly complete watch can be kept on all entries4 ,after making due allowance for all these advantages1 however1 one cannot but be impressed1 not only by the order1 but by the respectability of the ,isthmus1 which is singularly free from anything unseemly4 ,a scattered force of #bjj would be insufficient to deal with tumult among so large a population of men1 but there is maintained at ,obispo1 a central point1 a force of about #cej ,united ,states ,marines4 ,the work of the ,department of ,sanitation is of such primary interest and importance1 especially to geographers1 that ,i deal with it separately in the next chapter4 ,,chapter ,v ,,health ,,on ,,the ,,isthmus ,,and ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,the ,,white ,,race ,,in ,,the ,,tropics ,yellow ,fever4 ,,the cities of ,colon and ,panama have never been particularly unhealthy to the ,panamanian born1 whether white or coloured1 or to the ,west ,indian stranger4 ,this population has merely been subject to the malaria common to equatorial towns1 especially when in the neighbourhood of swamps1 and to the evils which attend imperfect sanitation in a hot climate4 ,the intervening country is very malarious in the low-lying parts1 less so on the hilly divide1 differing in no way from other similar localities in the same latitude4 ,illustration3 ,,reading ,,room1 ,,employees' ,,club1 ,,culebra4 ,illustration3 ,,hall ,,of ,,employees' ,,club1 ,,culebra4 ,the reputation of the ,isthmus of ,panama as a death-trap is due to the sickness which 7previous to #aijf7 has always been prevalent among white strangers1 and most other visitors1 and particularly to the high percentage of death from yellow fever4 ,to this short1 sharp1 and most deadly disease the native-born is immune2 hence the affairs of the city of ,panama have gone on well enough for centuries1 as far as the residents are concerned1 except that travellers by the ,isthmian route tarried no longer than they could help4 ,whenever large numbers of strangers have congregated on the ,isthmus1 as during the ,californian gold-rush1 the construction of the railway1 and the ,canal construction of the ,french ,companies1 there has been an epidemic of yellow fever among them1 and a very large proportion of cases have terminated fatally4 ,the immunity which the ,west ,indian negro enjoys from this disease gave him a superiority over other labourers on the ,isthmus which1 since the extinction of the disease1 is no longer his4 ,during the ,american occupation of ,havana1 after the ,american-,spanish ,war1 yellow fever broke out among the strangers1 and the mere cleaning up of the city1 though carried out with military thoroughness1 had no effect in checking the disease4 ,a medical board was sent to study the matter4 ,this was in #aijj1 four years after ,major ,ronald ,ross1 of the ,indian ,medical ,service1 had discovered the cause of malaria4 ,ross had proved that the cause of malaria in man was the presence in his blood of an organism introduced by the attack of the anopheles gnat 7or mosquito71 and that the species was only poisonous to man if it had itself become infected with the germ of this organism in biting a man suffering from malaria4 ,thus man and anopheles act alternately as hosts to the organism1 which apparently requires their co-operation for the continuance of its species4 ,gnats1 or mosquitoes1 as they are indifferently termed1 being thus under more than suspicion as an immediate cause of tropical fevers1 the medical board turned their attention to them1 and ,mr4 ,reed1 a member of the board1 tracked the yellow fever to another gnat1 the stegomyia1 and1 aided by the heroic devotion of his assistants1 proved beyond shadow of doubt that this disease is due to the activity of another minute organism1 which lives a double life in man and stegomyia4 ,mere contact with the clothing1 c41 of yellow-fever patients was proved to be no source of infection4 ,the stegomyia lives three months4 ,it becomes dangerous only by imbibing the organism through attacking man during the first three days of yellow fever1 and1 even then1 twelve days elapse before its bite is infectious4 ,six days after a man has been bitten by an infectious stegomyia he develops yellow fever1 and for the next three days 7as has been already said7 he is infectious to the stegomyia4 ,during the ,american occupation of ,cuba attempts were made to obtain immunity from yellow fever1 but it was found impossible to regulate the disease when voluntarily communicated by the bite of the mosquito1 and at present immunity is only enjoyed by persons who inherit the privilege4 ,the stegomyia does not breed in open swamps or large bodies of water1 but needs shelter1 and is also incapable of sustaining a long flight4 ,it breeds chiefly in and near towns1 depositing its larvae upon the surface of cisterns or stagnant pools4 ,colonel ,w4,c4 ,gorgas1 ,m4,d41 took charge of the ,department of ,sanitation of the ,commission in ,july1 #aijd4 ,the experience of our predecessors1 he writes1#bg was ample to convince us that unless we could protect our force against yellow fever and malaria we would be unable to accomplish the work4 #bg ,sanitation in the ,canal ,zone1 by ,w4,c4 ,gorgas ,journ4 ,am4 ,med4 ,assoc41 ,july #f1 #aijg1 vol4 xlix4 ,illustration3 ,,reading ,,room1 ,,employees' ,,club1 ,,culebra4 ,illustration3 ,,hall ,,of ,,employees' ,,club1 ,,culebra4 ,at this time there was but little yellow fever on the ,isthmus1 and1 in spite of the arrival of a large number of non-immunes1 no alarming outbreak occurred during the first ten months4 ,during ,april1 #aije1 however1 the administration building in ,panama1 in which worked some #cjj non-immune employees of the ,commission1 became infected4 ,in that month there were #i cases and #b deaths2 in ,may1 #cc cases and #h deaths1 of which #ba cases and #b deaths were among employees of the ,commission4 ,in ,june there were #ai deaths from yellow fever on the ,isthmus1 and in ,july #ac4 ,the ,commission reported#bh that3-- ,a feeling of alarm1 almost amounting to panic1 spread among the ,americans on the ,isthmus4 ,many resigned their positions to return to the ,united ,states1 while those who remained became possessed with a feeling of lethargy or fatalism1 resulting from a conviction that no remedy existed for the peril4 ,there was a disposition to partly ignore or openly condemn and abandon all preventive measures4 ,the gravity of the crisis was apparent to all4 #bh ,annual ,report1 #aije1 p4 #cj4 ,colonel ,gorgas writes#bi of this time3-- ,we could readily see that if the conditions as they existed in #aije were to continue the ,canal would never be finished4 ,and he adds that3-- ,the ,executive ,board of the ,commission itself1 as late as ,june1 #aije1 stated that the sanitary work of the ,isthmus had been a failure and recommended that the personnel be changed and other methods tried4 ,but the ,supreme ,authorities 444 gave us steady support1 and by the following ,december yellow fever had disappeared from the ,isthmus4 #bi ,sanitation in the ,canal ,zone4 ,the total deaths among employees of the ,commission from yellow fever during the #ab months ,october #a1 #aijd1 to ,september #cj1 #aije1 was #cg1 among about #ag1jjj4cj ,the total from yellow fever among the whole population1 including ,canal employees1 during the four months ,may #a to ,august #ca1 #aije1 was #dg1 while the number of deaths from malaria during the same period was #ajh4 ,the effect of malaria in impairing physical efficiency was even more in excess than these figures indicate1 for the fatal cases are a small proportion of the whole in malaria1 and a very large proportion in yellow fever4 ,the moral effect of the imminence of the more sudden and fatal form of disease was1 however1 as these reports show1 much the greater1 and it was this moral effect which caused the crisis above described4 #cj ,in #ahhc-hd the ,french ,company lost by yellow fever #ff men out of about the same number of employees4 99 99 99 99 99 ,previous to ,february1 #aije1 the ,department of ,sanitation had done little to improve the hygienic conditions of ,colon and ,panama1 chiefly owing to the opinion until then maintained by the legal advisers that there was no authority to expend money in those cities1 which are not within the ,canal ,zone4 ,in ,april the yellow fever broke out2 the number of men employed by the ,department of ,sanitation was increased to the huge total of #d1ajj1 and the battle with yellow fever began in earnest4 ,all cases were either transported to screened buildings1 or1 if left in their own homes1 these were carefully screened with fine-meshed copper gauze4 ,the object of this isolation was to prevent the patient from infecting healthy stegomyia mosquitoes4 ,every dwelling in ,colon and ,panama was thoroughly fumigated with pyrethrum powder or with sulphur1 and then cleared of dust and refuse1 which1 with the insensible but not always dead mosquitoes1 was then burnt4 ,the complete1 and1 it is hoped1 final freedom from yellow fever in ,colon and ,panama has been obtained by means of a proper water supply and universal paving with brick or cement1 as well as the supply of proper drainage4 ,formerly water for domestic use was stored in cisterns1 tanks1 tubs1 jars1 and so forth1 and1 after rain1 water stood stagnantly in a thousand ruts and holes in the unpaved squares1 streets1 and lanes4 ,these breeding-places of the stegomyia have now been done away with completely in ,panama1 and almost completely in ,colon4 ,the latter city is so low-lying and flat1 and subject to such heavy rainfall1 that pools of stagnant water will form4 ,they can1 however1 be oiled1 which kills the larvae1 and1 moreover1 it is ,panama1 and not the wind-swept1 salt-saturated1 town of ,colon1 which has been the chief source of yellow fever4 ,the last case of the disease in ,panama occurred in ,november1 #aije1 and in ,may1 #aijf1 there was an isolated case in ,colon4 ,the infection is considered to be at an end in a city three months after the last case1 that being the lifetime of stegomyia4 ,after this period1 all infected stegomyia having died1 those that remain are powerless for harm4 ,nevertheless1 the stringent measures for their destruction are not relaxed1 as1 while stegomyia exists1 the germ1 if re-introduced1 will be rapidly disseminated4 ,thus the yellow fever1 having taken toll for four hundred years of those who crossed the ,isthmus1 has been completely eradicated by4 ,colonel ,gorgas and his assistants4 ,it is a triumph of science and of despotic government combined2 and only in this combination can preventive medicine achieve full success4 ,there is one other aspect of the yellow fever campaign which must be mentioned before going on to describe the fight with malaria4 ,yellow fever1 unlike malaria1 does not occur in all tropical countries4 ,its home is the ,west ,indies1 ,central1 and parts of ,south1 ,america1 and1 before its extinction in ,havana1 it has been a serious scourge in the ,southern ,united ,states4 ,in the ,new ,world cases have occurred as far north as ,quebec1 in ,europe cases have occurred in ,wales and ,france1 and there have been serious epidemics in ,spain4 ,it has never been known east of ,genoa1 whether in ,europe or elsewhere4 ,thus in ,africa it is known on the west but not on the east coast4 ,the fact that it is unknown in ,india is very remarkable1 seeing that stegomyia is a very prevalent variety of mosquito there4 ,it follows from this that if yellow fever once got hold in ,india it would probably spread and might work great havoc4 ,the same is true of ,china in an even greater degree1 for such preventive measures as have been taken in ,panama would be far more difficult to carry out in the great cities of ,india1 and altogether impracticable in those of ,china4 ,thus1 as ,colonel ,gorgas has pointed out1 if the ,canal had been constructed in spite of yellow fever1 and if that disease had been allowed then to persist at ,panama1 the disease might not improbably have been carried to ,asia1 for the three months of life of stegomyia is ample for the voyage4 ,in this event the ,panama ,canal might have proved a curse rather than a boon to mankind4 ,illustration3 ,,cut ,,south ,,of ,,culebra1 ,,landslip ,,on ,,left4 ,illustration3 ,,looking ,,north1 ,,the ,,scarped ,,face ,,of ,,golden ,,hill ,,on ,,the ,,right4 ,malaria4 ,the campaign against malaria has been conducted on somewhat different lines4 ,the anopheles1 which transmits that disease1 deposits its larvae in clean water where grass and algae grow1 and is therefore almost entirely a mosquito of country districts4 ,but ,colon and ,panama1 both small cities1 are exposed to the disease1 as are about seventeen little towns and forty villages for labourers along the line of the ,canal4 ,as the flight of anopheles is not more than one hundred1 or possibly two hundred yards1 the working population can be in great measure protected from their attack by destroying the breeding places for such a distance on either side of the dwelling and working places4 ,this in itself is a large task1 which could not be carried out in a short time1 and while in progress the ,sanitary ,department relied mainly upon the erection of buildings completely screened 7including the verandahs7 with fine copper gauze1 which effectually shields the employees against mosquito attack within doors1 and therefore during the particularly dangerous hours of night4 ,in addition1 the employees are supplied with quinine1 and recommended to take three grains daily while in health4 ,this cinchonises the blood and renders it unwholesome to the malarial parasite4 ,the effect of screening is shown by the following example from the report of the ,commission1 ,december1 #aijf3-- ,the first shipload of ,european labourers arrived during the dry season1 when mosquitoes were most scarce1 and were quartered in unscreened buildings4 ,within six weeks of their arrival #cc per cent4 of these labourers had been taken sick with malaria4 ,the second shipload arrived during the rainy season1 and were quartered in a camp not #bjj yards distant from that of their predecessors4 ,the buildings of the camp were screened4 ,sickness among the men was infrequent1 and when they had been upon the ,isthmus six weeks it was found that only #d per cent4 had found their way to the hospitals4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the destruction of larvae1 and of their hiding places1 is commenced by the clearing of grass and bushes1 which are cut down with the machete1 a short cutlass with which the ,panamanian is very expert1 machete work being1 indeed1 the principal role in which the ,panamanian is employed by the ,commission4 ,also ditches are cleaned out1 and heavy oil poured upon the water in trenches and pools1 and land-crabs are caught and the holes in which they dwell are filled in or oiled4 ,finally the soil is drained1 which is the only means of making the ground permanently unfit for mosquito breeding4 ,subsoil draining is the best1 a tile drain being put in2 for1 even in concreted gutters1 pools will form1 owing to accidental obstruction1 and remain sufficiently long for the deposition and hatching of the larvae4 ,such is the work of the anopheles brigade1 and the stegomyia brigade carry out similar operations1 in the neighbourhood more particularly of ,panama4 ,with regard to the effect of these operations upon the numbers of the mosquitoes ,i may narrate my own experience4 ,i arrived at ,colon first in ,january1 #aijg1 and spent one or two nights on board my ship4 ,this was two years and a half after the commencement of the mosquito campaign1 and the officers of the ship congratulated themselves upon the absence of the swarms of mosquitoes which formerly attacked them at night on their vessel4 ,i found1 however1 that although there was no swarm of mosquitoes1 such as ,i have seen1 e4g41 when on board ship in the harbour of ,colombo1 ,ceylon1 yet that the individuals who remained certainly caused me discomfort1 and ,i think some subsequent indisposition4 ,in ,april1 #aijh1 however1 during two days at ,colon1 ,i did not so much as see a single mosquito4 ,illustration3 ,,looking ,,north ,,from ,,railway ,,bridge ,,at ,,paraiso4 ,illustration3 ,,abandoned ,,french ,,machinery4 ,at ,panama1 in ,january1 #aijg1 my wife and ,i stayed in the ,commission's screened hotel on ,ancon ,hill1 not caring to face the dirt and squalor of the old city4 ,in ,april1 #aijh1 finding the city properly paved1 drained1 and plumbed1 we took up our quarters at the ,hotel ,central in the town1 where we spent a fortnight in perfect health2 and although this building1 not being under the ,commission1 is unscreened1 ,i was only bitten by mosquitoes1 to my knowledge1 twice during that time1 and this without subsequent ill effect4 ,i may add that the picturesque surroundings1 not unlike those of some city on the ,mediterranean1 greatly enhance the pleasure of a stay on the ,isthmus1 now that they can be enjoyed without squalid accompaniments4 ,i did not1 except on one or two nights1 even draw the mosquito curtains4 ,out of doors1 in the city of ,panama1 ,i was not bitten once1 though ,i was attacked once or twice by solitary mosquitoes when walking on roads or paths with shrub or jungle adjoining4 ,this was near the end of the dry season4 ,when the rains commence a greater number of mosquitoes must be expected4 ,natives of the ,isthmus and the ,west ,indies are not immune from malaria1 and in #aijd-e about one-half of the inhabitants who were examined proved to have the parasite of malaria in their blood4 ,as the anopheles becomes infectious through biting a malarious man1 it is evident that such a dissemination of the parasite throughout the blood of the human population renders mosquitoes especially dangerous4 ,in the same proportion as the population becomes less malarious1 so the mosquitoes become less dangerous1 and theoretically a millennium is possible in which man and anopheles1 mutually purged of the malarial organism1 may live happily together4 ,unfortunately1 a malarious man it is believed remains infectious to anopheles for no less than three years1 instead of the three days' limit of yellow fever1 and this greatly increases the difficulty of exterminating malaria4 ,during #aijf1 with a force of #bf1jjj1 there were #ba1gci cases of malaria admitted to the ,commission ,hospitals1 and the death-rate from this disease was among whites #b per thousand1 among negroes #h per thousand4 ,in #aijg1 with a force of #ci1jjj1 there were #af1gec cases1 the death-rate among whites being #c per thousand and among negroes #d per thousand4 ,the increase among whites was due to the greater proportion of the ,european labourers1 whose circumstances are different from those of the skilled artisans and the screened clerical staff of ,americans4 ,the total death-rate from all causes in #aijg is shown below3-- ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,average ,total ,annual ,death ,number4 ,deaths4 ,rate per ,thousand4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,white ,employees #aj1gji #agi #af4ga ,black ,employees #bh1fcd #iec #cc4bh ---------------------------------- ,total #ci1cdc #a1acb #bh4gg ---------------------------------------- ----------------- --but accidents account for a considerable proportion of the deaths4 ,during the same period the average number of ,american women and children in ,commission quarters was #a1ccg1 among whom occurred nine deaths1 an average annual death-rate of #f4gc per thousand4 ,in addition to malaria there is one other disease which proves fatal to considerable numbers of employees1 attacking principally the black labourers4 ,this is pneumonia1 to which are attributed altogether #cbh deaths as against #aed from malaria4 ,it appears that special research is needed into the cause and prevention of this disease among negroes in the tropics4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in #aijg no less than #ga1jjj persons arrived on the ,isthmus1 all of whom had to pass the ,commission doctor at the entrance port4 ,all but transients are vaccinated on arrival1 and great watchfulness is exercised against the introduction of any new disease from abroad4 ,thus1 when bubonic plague broke out at ,guayaquil1 the ,department of ,sanitation commenced a campaign against rats as a precaution against the spread of the disease 7which is propagated by the rat flea7 in case quarantine measures failed to keep it out4 ,again1 when one or two cases of rabies recently occurred on the ,isthmus1 all dogs for whom an owner could not be found were at once destroyed4 ,life on the ,isthmus1 and on the ,future of the ,white ,man in the ,tropics4 ,the ,canal ,zone now being healthy1 the life of the ,americans is a cheerful as well as a busy one4 ,the climate1 to which the local diseases used to be attributed1 is not by any means wholly bad4 ,there are really two climates1 that of the ,atlantic seaboard and that of the ,pacific side4 ,colon is somewhat trying on account of the humidity1 but a healthy trade-wind blows4 ,the town of ,panama1 though receiving much less rain1 is also somewhat humid1 owing to there being less breeze4 ,the temperature1 however1 is lower than that of the great cities of the ,united ,states1 even in the ,north1 during summer heat-waves1 the hours of sunshine are shorter1 and the general feeling of oppression is1 ,i think1 distinctly less4 ,the ,ancon suburb1 where the ,commission buildings are situate1 is free from the humidity of the low-lying city4 ,the high lands at or near ,culebra1 where a large part of the ,american population now resides in screened wooden buildings1 enjoy in the dry season a bracing climate1 a fresh dry wind blowing across the divide1 imparting a sense of exhilaration1 which is heightened by the fine scenery1 the pleasant scents of the surrounding woodland1 and the ordered activity of the life4 ,amidst such circumstances the ,canal official finds it easy to work hard4 ,i noticed in this a great contrast to the condition ten years ago at ,ismailia1 the headquarters of the ,suez ,canal ,administration4 ,this place1 before ,major ,e4 ,ross's discoveries1 suffered severely from malaria1 and the officials of the ,administration1 some of whom had resided there for twenty years or more1 were in many cases saturated with malarial poison4 ,work for them was a burden1 bravely borne indeed1 but taken up each day with a sigh4 ,i spent about a fortnight there in a hot season conducting some investigations upon the forms and movement of drifting sand-dunes4 ,i suffered during part of the time from fever1 and only kept on working with an effort1 whereas on the ,isthmus ,i enjoyed more than usual vigour4 ,at ,culebra1 indeed1 the dry season is so bracing that the arrival of the rains is welcome for the soothing effect of greater humidity1 as well as on account of diminished dust4 ,the white woolly cloud or mist which then wraps round the hill-tops is no longer the white death1 as it was called in the days of the ,french ,company1 when the vapours were credited the poison which really lurks in the mosquito4 ,even now1 however1 there is an increase in the number of mosquitoes1 and some increase in malaria1 when the rains come4 ,illustration3 ,,gang ,,of ,,european ,,labourers 7,,in #aijg74 ,illustration3 ,a ,,former ,,hot-,,bed ,,of ,,malaria1 ,,now ,,drained4 ,not only do the men look well1 but the women and children also4 ,the women in general have the same appearance as in the ,united ,states2 perfectly dressed1 as always1 quiet in manner1 and apparently happy1 though occasionally somewhat bored4 ,to the wife1 not having the absorbing interest of the ,canal work1 the ,isthmus is generally less interesting than to her husband1 but of late there have grown up organisations for promoting intellectual and other social intercourse which are rapidly relieving the threatened ennui4 ,the children1 on the other hand1 look actually happier and stronger than they do in the cities of the ,united ,states4 ,they are in the open air all day1 for sunstroke is rare on the ,isthmus2 they are bronzed1 active1 fearless in bearing1 and apparently thoroughly satisfied with themselves and with their surroundings4 ,even when within doors they are still in a sense in the open air1 for the windows are unglazed1 and the houses are constructed so as to secure a free circulation of air4 ,it has been said that the possession of ,india taught the ,english the value of the cold bath1 an institution which has been slowly adopted from us by other ,northern nations in ,europe4 ,perhaps the possession of the ,canal ,zone will lead to the salutary open-window habit1 which is not yet general in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,commission clubs for gold-employees at the principal stations are commodious structures1 admirably designed for social recreation2 their management is entrusted to the ,young ,men's ,christian ,association4 ,there are well-equipped reading and writing rooms and gymnasia1 mainly used by the men1 but the interests of the women and children are not neglected1 and for the last playrooms are provided4 ,the large halls are used for entertainments and for meetings of the numerous benevolent secret societies which have been so important a factor in the preliminary organisation of ,american society in newly settled territories4 ,in the clubs only soft drinks are provided1 but ,i can testify to their excellent effects4 ,the question whether the white race can make a home in the tropics depends ultimately upon the tropical baby--upon his own health and that of his mother4 ,the ,american occupation is still recent1 but as far as experience goes it seems that the white children born on the ,isthmus have not shown unusual delicacy1 and the mothers have made a normal1 though sometimes rather slow1 recovery from confinement4 ,the views of ,colonel ,gorgas upon the future of the white race in the tropics deserve quotation4 ,he writes#ca3-- ,i think the sanitarian can now show that any population coming into the tropics can protect itself against these two diseases malaria and yellow fever by measures that are both simple and inexpensive2 that with these two diseases eliminated life in the tropics for the ,anglo-,saxon will be more healthful than in the temperate zones2 that gradually1 within the next two or three centuries1 tropical countries1 which offer a much greater return for man's labour than do the temperate zones1 will be settled up by the white races1 and that again the centres of wealth1 civilisation and population will be in the tropics1 as they were in the dawn of man's history1 rather than in the temperate zone1 as at present4 #ca ,sanitation in the ,canal ,zone4 ,in this connection ,i may perhaps be permitted to refer to an interesting suggestion made in the course of conversation by ,colonel ,gorgas1 although ,i omitted to inquire if it had been published4 ,this suggestion was that the records of the movements of great armies under the rulers of ancient ,mesopotamia and ,egypt indicate that malaria did not then exist in the nearer ,east1 and that malaria1 like yellow fever1 was once a local disease4 ,illustration3 ,,near ,,the ,,site ,,of ,,milaflores ,,locks4 ,illustration3 ,,looking ,,north ,,to ,,culebra ,,divide ,,from ,,ancon ,,hill4 ,from what ,i have seen as tourist and traveller 7not as resident7 in the ,west ,indies and in the ,orient1 ,i have arrived at the following tentative conclusions1 viz43-- ,that the debilitating effect which the tropics have been observed to exercise upon those who come from temperate regions has been due mainly to the presence of certain diseases which can be done away with4 ,that the rapid deterioration of the white stock which is usually noticed in the tropics1 especially near the equator1 is mainly due to the same cause4 ,but that ,anglo-,saxons cannot perform nearly the same amount of hard bodily labour in a constantly hot climate as they can in the temperate zone1 and ,anglo-,saxon immigrants never will be able to do so4 ,in this ,i think the ,mediterranean races--at all events the ,spaniards and ,italians--are our superiors4 ,whether the descendants of ,anglo-,saxon stock who have settled in a tropical country purified from tropical diseases will be able to support continued hard bodily labour better than their immigrant ancestors is a matter about which we have at present no direct evidence4 ,it may possibly be worth noting1 however1 that some years ago1 when wintering in ,manitoba1 ,i found that some of the farmer immigrants from ,england felt the cold more as the years went by1 but that their children born in the country were unaffected by it4 ,it is the case that in the tropics1 particularly in the equable equatorial belt1 many evils of the temperate zone are avoided1 chiefly those due to cold and to sudden changes of temperature4 ,it is this equatorial belt of equable temperature and heavy rainfall that ,i chiefly have in mind1 for it comprises those vast regions of prolific vegetation which appear capable of supporting so large a population4 ,the white man already rules1 or has marked off for rule1 the whole of the equatorial belt1 but who is to be the peasant cultivating this belt8 ,in those parts of tropical ,asia already peopled by industrious ,orientals there can never be a white peasantry4 ,equatorial ,africa presents great differences in different parts with respect to native population1 and the question of a possible future for white peasantry is there a complicated one4 ,in ,south ,america1 however1 there are vast equatorial regions either wholly unpeopled1 or sparsely inhabited by tribes of that ,indian stock which has elsewhere proved so slight an impediment to the establishment of the white labourer4 ,served by a system of rivers unrivalled elsewhere in equatorial regions1 already partitioned among ,christian ,governments1 and for the most part uninhabited1 the forests and savannahs of ,equatorial ,south ,america offer the readiest field for the establishment on a vast scale of a white peasantry under the equator4 ,by clearing the scrub within one or two hundred yards of his cottage1 and by employing wire screens1 the cultivator can protect himself against malaria1 and his crops come not once1 but several times a year4 ,if the ,spanish1 ,portuguese1 and ,italian peasant were to turn his attention to this field1 instead of1 or in addition to1 that of navvy work1 great things might come of it4 ,the circumstance that ,south ,america is a ,roman ,catholic continent1 where the ,latin races are dominant1 would enormously favour the experiment4 ,on the ,zone1 the ,spanish labourer works in order to save and to depart1 the milieu being foreign to him and unattractive4 ,in a ,latin ,state it would be different4 ,in writing of the possibilities of the white race in the equatorial zone it is understood that the problem relates to the lowlands4 ,there are1 of course1 favoured highlands1 such as those of ,colombia1 where the temperature is at the same time moderate and equable and the climate appears admirably adapted to white men4 ,a healthy city life in the tropics would be easily attainable in a new country settled wholly by white people and under a medical despotism4 ,the general1 but non-specialist1 opinion upon the ,isthmus is not as sanguine as that of ,colonel ,gorgas upon the hygienic future of the white race in the tropics4 ,the general opinion among ,americans seems to be that1 as far as they are concerned1 they would1 if engaged in the tropical parts of ,south or ,central ,america1 avail themselves of the improving means of transit to revisit frequently the ,united ,states1 and would rely upon such vacations in higher latitudes for the retention of their native vigour4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,on ,,the ,,shortening ,,of ,,distances ,,by ,,sea1 ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,steamships ,,available ,,for ,,canal ,,transit ,the ,shortening of ,distances by ,sea4 ,,as the sole object of a ship canal is to shorten sea distances1 the figures given in this section are of primary importance to a proper understanding of the subject4 ,the figures here given are those for steamships following the actual or prospective routes4 ,they are adopted from the figures supplied to the ,canal ,commission from the ,united ,states ,hydrographic ,bureau and are expressed in nautical miles4 ,it is perhaps not wholly superfluous to warn the reader that the apparent relative distances as shown on charts of the world1 especially those on the usual ,mercator projection1 are very different from the real relative distances4 ,moreover1 it is impossible to see correctly the relative distances between places far apart on a globe1 for the foreshortening of the rounded surface produces distortion4 ,by applying a measuring tape to the globe the true relative distances can be readily ascertained4 ,this is a salutary exercise and serves to correct the erroneous notions which tend to fix themselves in the minds of all of us owing to the appearance of the surface of the globe on the plane of the paper or on the plane of vision4 ,such a measurement of shortest distances would give a very fair notion of the actual reductions due to the ,suez and ,panama ,canals1 but there would still be considerable differences between these figures and the distance calculated from the actual courses pursued by steamships1 which in what follows will be referred to simply as the distance between ports4 ,illustration3 ,,rio ,,grande1 ,,near ,,la ,,boca4 ,illustration3 ,,rio ,,grande1 ,,from ,,ancon ,,hill4 ,the most notable effect of the ,panama ,canal will be the reduction of distance between the ,atlantic and ,pacific ports of ,north ,america4 ,taking ,new ,york as our port of reckoning on the ,atlantic1 the distance thence to ,panama and all ports north thereof on the ,pacific seaboard of ,central and ,north ,america will be reduced by #h1dae miles4 ,the reduction of distance from ,new ,york to the ,pacific ports of ,south ,america1 on the other hand1 is not constant1 but varies from the above maximum of #h1dae miles at ,panama to a minimum of about #a1jjd miles at ,punta ,arenas 7in the ,straits of ,magellan74 ,the average shortening on this coast is therefore #h1dae #a1jjd ------------- #d1gji miles4 #b ,the actual shortening to ,iquique1 the nitrate port in ,chile1 is #e1bjj miles4 ,we shall not be far out in saying briefly that the distance between ,new ,york and ,south ,american ,pacific ports will be shortened by an average of #e1jjj miles4 ,the ,canal shortens the distance between the ,pacific coast of the ,americas and the ports of ,europe also1 though in a lesser degree4 ,thus1 taking ,liverpool as our example 7and the reductions are much the same for ,london1 ,antwerp1 or ,hamburg71 the ,canal will shorten the distance to ,panama and all ports on the coast to the north by a constant quantity1 viz41 #f1jdf miles4 ,the reduction to ,pacific ports south of ,panama is not a constant but a variable quantity1 ranging from the above maximum of #f1jdf miles at ,panama itself to zero at a point between ,punta ,arenas and ,coronel 7the most southern industrial port of ,chile74 ,we may put the average shortening of distance between ,liverpool and ,south ,american ,pacific ports at about #b1fjj miles4 ,viewing the whole matter from the standpoint of the ,pacific ports of the ,americas1 we see an absolute commercial advantage accruing to them all in the diminished distance to the ,atlantic and ,gulf ports of ,north ,america and to the ports of ,europe4 ,viewing the matter from the standpoint of the ,atlantic and ,gulf ports of ,north ,america--to fix our ideas we will say from the standpoint of ,new ,york--we see the same absolute advantage plus a competitive advantage1 in that the reduction is greater for ,new ,york than for ,liverpool 7i4e41 ,europe74 ,as the world is at present constituted1 steamers from ,new ,york and from ,liverpool proceeding to these ,pacific ports all pass ,pernambuco1 in ,brazil1 near the easternmost point of ,south ,america1 not far south of the equator4 ,this port is #d1jff miles from ,liverpool and #c1fif miles from ,new ,york1 so that1 by sea1 ,san ,francisco is only #cgj miles nearer to ,new ,york than to ,liverpool4 ,but ,colon is #d1gbj miles from ,liverpool and only #a1ifa from ,new ,york1 so that via the ,canal all the ,pacific ports of the ,americas are #b1gei miles nearer to ,new ,york than to ,liverpool4 99 99 99 99 99 ,let us next consider the ,canal as the starting place for ,transpacific voyages1 the role for which it was originally projected in the sixteenth century4 ,in those days the ,isthmus of ,suez was firmly held by the hostile ,moslem1 and even if a canal had then been open there1 it would not have been available for the commerce of ,christian ,europe4 ,thus the discovery of a strait1 or the cutting of a canal1 at the ,isthmus of ,panama would at that time have opened to ,europeans a shorter seaway to the ,orient4 ,but now that the ,suez route has been opened for ships1 the ,panama ,canal will not bring any port in ,australia or the ,east ,indies1 nor any ice-free port in ,asia or ,asiatic ,islands1 nearer to any ,european port4 ,of all ports on the west1 that is to say the ,old ,world or ,oriental side1 of the ,pacific1 only those of ,new ,zealand and some in ,siberia will be brought nearer to ,liverpool1 and that to an insignificant amount4 ,illustration3 ,,la ,,boca1 ,,from ,,ancon ,,hill4 ,illustration3 ,,ancon ,,cemetery4 ,distances are1 however1 much diminished between ,new ,york and both the northern and the southern ports of the ,oriental ,pacific coasts1 as the following table shows3-- ,new ,york to-- ,reduction4 ,yokohama by ,suez #ac1efd #c1gbi miles4 by ,panama #i1hce ,shanghai by ,suez #ab1ead #a1fbi miles4 by ,panama #aj1hhe ,sydney by ,cape of ,good ,hope #ac1feh #c1hjf miles4 by ,panama 7via ,tahiti7 #i1heb ,melbourne by ,cape of ,good ,hope #ac1jhc #b1fef miles4 by ,panama 7via ,tahiti7 #aj1dbg ,wellington1 by ,straits of ,magellan #aa1dad #b1edb miles4 ,n4,z4 by ,panama 7via ,tahiti7 #h1hgb ,since the ,canal does not reduce the distances between these places and ,europe 7except slightly in the case of ,wellington71 the competitive gain of ,new ,york is equal in all cases to the absolute gain in distance4 ,the following figures show the distances from ,new ,york to ,hong ,kong and ,manila by the ,suez and ,panama routes3-- ,new ,york to-- ,reduction4 ,hong ,kong by ,suez #aa1fee by ,panama #aa1gdd ,manila by ,suez #aa1fja by ,panama1 via ,san ,francisco #af miles4 and ,yokohama #aa1ehe by ,panama1 ,honolulu and ,guam #aa1gbi ,ports on the mainland of ,asia in these latitudes are of course nearer to ,new ,york by way of ,suez4 ,the opportunities of a port for commerce obviously depend in a great measure upon the centrality of its position with reference to the other ports of the world4 ,let us see how ,liverpool and ,new ,york were originally situated in this respect1 and how far their situations are altered first by the opening of the ,suez route and secondly by that of ,panama2 remembering also that the changes introduced by the canals have about the same effect on ,antwerp or ,hamburg as on ,liverpool4 ,prior to the opening of the ,suez ,canal in #ahfi the route to ,asia and ,australia was via the ,cape of ,good ,hope from both ,liverpool and ,new ,york4 ,this gave ,liverpool an advantage of #dhj miles for all ,asiatic and ,australian ports as well as for the ,east ,coast of ,africa4 ,for most of ,south ,america and all the ,pacific coast of the ,americas the route was via ,pernambuco1 and ,new ,york had an advantage of #cgj miles4 ,suez being open but ,panama still closed1 the route to ,asia is via ,gibraltar for both ,liverpool and ,new ,york4 ,new ,york is distant #c1bjg miles and ,liverpool #a1bhc from that place1 so that ,liverpool has an advantage of #a1ibd miles instead of #dhj on the voyage to all ,asiatic ports1 a competitive benefit of #a1ddd miles resulting from the opening of the ,suez ,canal4 ,the voyage to ,australia from ,new ,york being still made via the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 while that from ,liverpool is most shortly made by ,suez1 ,liverpool is #a1fbb miles nearer by the canal and #dhj by the ,cape1 thus obtaining a benefit of #a1adb miles when the ,suez route is taken4 ,the opening of the ,panama route leaves unchanged the relative distances to the ,atlantic coast of ,south ,america1 to ,africa1 and to ,asiatic ports south of ,shanghai2 but it is ,new ,york and not ,liverpool which is now the nearer port to ,yokohama1 ,sydney1 and ,melbourne2 and ,wellington1 ,new ,zealand1 formerly nearly equidistant1 is placed #b1gci miles nearer to ,new ,york than to ,liverpool4 ,with reference to ,northern ,china1 however1 it is to be noted that1 although the ,panama route shortens the distance between ,new ,york and ,shanghai by #a1fbi miles1 ,liverpool will still be the nearer to ,shanghai by #bie miles1 assuming the ,new ,york vessel to call at ,san ,francisco4 ,illustration3 ,,commission',s ,,hotel ,,at ,,ancon4 ,illustration3 ,,administration ,,building1 ,,ancon4 ,these facts are illustrated by the figures given on the next page4 ,nearer to ,new ,york than to ,liverpool by ,new ,york via ,panama1 ,san ,francisco and by ,great ,circle #i1hce ,yokohama ,liverpool via ,suez1 ,aden1 #a1hje miles4 ,colombo1 ,singapore1 ,hong ,kong and ,shanghai #aa1fdj ,new ,york via ,panama and ,tahiti #i1heb ,sydney ,liverpool via ,suez1 ,aden1 ,colombo1 ,king ,george's #b1chc miles ,sound1 ,adelaide and ,melbourne #ab1bcd ,new ,york via ,panama ,wellington1 and ,tahiti #h1hgb ,n4,z4 ,liverpool via ,panama and #b1gei miles4#cb ,tahiti #aa1fca #cb ,liverpool to ,colon1 #d1gbj2 ,new ,york to ,colon1 #a1ifa3 difference1 #b1gei1 the subsequent routes being identical4 ,let us take a chart of the world and examine the portion comprised between the parallels of #dj deg4 ,north and #dj deg4 ,south and the meridians of #abj deg4 ,east and #afj deg4 ,east of ,greenwich4 ,this band1 in which are included ,japan and ,korea1 ,shanghai and the ,philippines1 ,new ,guinea and most of ,australia1 is of particular interest in relation to ,canal trade4 ,let us take the standpoint1 not of ,europe or of ,america1 but of traders residing in this area4 ,near its western margin the ,suez and the ,panama routes to ,new ,york are equal in length4 ,near its eastern margin1 which lies1 however1 outside ,japan and ,australia and only passes among small islands1 the ,suez and ,panama routes to ,liverpool are of equal length4 ,on a line rather west of the centre and running from rather west of north to rather east of south1 all places are equidistant from ,new ,york and ,liverpool--the latter via ,suez1 the former via ,panama4 ,it needs no prophet to foresee interesting commercial developments in a region where the alternative routes and alternative sources of manufacturing supply offer almost equal allurements4 ,i must also draw attention to the position of ,new ,orleans and other ports on the ,gulf of ,mexico in relation to the ,canal4 ,at present ,new ,orleans by sea is further than ,new ,york from ,valparaiso and ,san ,francisco1 ,yokohama and ,shanghai1 but it is #eha miles nearer to ,colon4 ,hence1 when the ,panama ,canal is open it will be #eha miles nearer than ,new ,york to those ports1 and to ,sydney1 ,melbourne1 and ,wellington4 ,thus1 as the ,mississippi waterway is improved1 an increasing proportion of the manufactures and other products of the great ,mississippi basin will find their way to foreign markets via the ,gulf ports1 and an increasing proportion of imports will find their way to the ,mississippi basin through these ports4#cc #cc ,among ,west ,indian ports affected by the ,canal1 ,kingston1 ,jamaica1 must be particularly mentioned4 ,now situate at the entrance of a cul de sac1 it will then be placed in a position of much greater centrality for the world's commerce1 and astride the route from ,colon to the ,north ,american ,atlantic ports4 ,thus the importance of ,jamaica as a constituent of the ,british ,empire will be enhanced4 ,may the opening of the ,canal increase the prosperity of our fellow subjects who have suffered so greatly from hurricane and earthquake6 ,in dealing with the shortening of sea routes it was shown that the greatest reduction was that between the two coasts of ,north ,america1 but even so the sea route remains longer than that by land1 so that the question of commercial advantage is not settled by a mere statement of sea distances1 and the indisputable and undiluted advantages of the ,canal route for the ,atlantic and ,gulf ports of ,north ,america are those of commerce with the ,pacific coast of ,south ,america1 with ,new ,zealand1 ,australia1 ,japan1 ,northern ,china1 ,manchuria1 and ,eastern ,siberia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,from the naval point of view1 however1 the results of shortening the sea distance from ,new ,york to ,san ,francisco are scarcely diminished by the fact of railway communication1 since only crews and stores1 and not warships1 can be transported by rail4 ,in order to understand the effect of the ,canal upon the naval position of the ,united ,states the student of affairs must1 in addition to the information given above1 examine the positions relatively to the ,canal of the possessions1 particularly the insular possessions1 of the ,united ,states and of other naval ,powers4 ,this will enable him to gauge for himself the more permanent factors which determine the value of the new line of communication1 the opportunities it affords for concentrating force where wanted1 and the responsibilities of defence which it entails4 ,with the aid of a fairly good atlas this can easily be done by anyone acquainted with the general facts of naval power at the present time4 ,the geographical facts1 which are perhaps the only ones beyond question or dispute1 are sufficiently simple4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,from ,,spanish ,,fort1 ,,panama4 ,illustration3 ,,cathedral ,,square1 ,,panama4 ,on the ,steamships ,available for ,canal ,transit4 ,the ,isthmian ,canal ,commission1 in the ,report of #ahii1 distinguishes between the commercial and the industrial benefits of the ,canal1 meaning by the former term the increased carrying of goods1 and by the latter the development of production induced by improved facilities of carriage4 ,the tables of distances already given show the potential commercial advantages1 and how they are distributed in different measure among different countries1 and these figures have all the permanence which makes geographical figures of such enduring importance4 ,but the actual commercial advantage of a ship canal depends equally upon a second factor1 viz41 the available ship-tonnage4 ,supposing a ,panama ,canal to be open at the present time1 there would be hardly any ,united ,states ships to use it1 except in transport between home ports from which ships flying foreign flags are debarred4 ,the transport to ,south ,america1 ,new ,zealand1 ,australia1 ,northern ,china1 and ,japan would necessarily be almost wholly carried on by ships of other nations1 especially ,british4 ,the absence of an ,american merchant marine trading with foreign ports is indeed a circumstance without parallel among other nations engaged in modern manufacture4 ,many interesting facts relating to this strange phenomenon were put on record in the debates of the ,united ,states ,senate in the early part of #aijh4cd #cd ,congressional ,record1 ,february #bd1 #aijh4 ,at that time there was not one steamship flying the flag of the ,united ,states between her ports and those of ,brazil1 the ,argentine1 ,chile1 or ,peru4 ,the three steamships of the ,oceanic ,line formerly plying to ,australia were then laid up in the harbour of ,san ,francisco1 being unable1 although subsidised for mails by the ,united ,states ,government1 to compete with foreign vessels4 ,there were1 however1 three ,united ,states steamers plying from ,puget ,sound to ,japan and ,china1 occasionally reaching the ,philippines4 ,the mails from ,new ,york and the other ,atlantic ports of the ,united ,states to ,brazil and the ,argentine go via ,europe1 so that in this important matter ,new ,york is actually #c1jjj miles further than ,europe1 instead of being #cgj miles nearer to those countries4#ce #ce ,senator ,gallinger1 loc4 cit4 ,in the same debate ,senator ,depew said that ships receiving the ,united ,states mail subsidy1 the only form of subsidy given1 have to be ,american built1 manned by ,americans1 and the diet of the sailors as prescribed by law4 ,he added that-- ,the labour unions have rightly and properly taken care of their wages4 ,the result is that the cost in wages and food to run ,american ships under ,american conditions across the ,pacific is double that of ,european or ,japanese steamers4 ,the relative cost of operating ,american and ,european vessels was given by the ,hon4 ,elihu ,root1 ,secretary of ,state1 in an address delivered ,november #cj1 #aijf1cf as follows3-- ,the operation of an ,american steamship of #b1ejj tons costs #ah1bhi per annum more than that of a ,british ship of this tonnage1 or #g4ca more per ton2 and ,the operation of an ,american steamship of #c1ejj tons costs #ae1cae per annum more than that of a ,german ship of the same size1 or #d4cg more per ton4 #cf ,address to ,mississippi ,commercial ,congress1 ,kansas ,city1 revised by ,mr4 ,root and published ,nat4 ,geogr4 ,mag41 #aijg1 vol4 xviii4 pp4 #fa-gb4 ,thus it is evident that1 in spite of geographical advantages1 there are at present some grounds for the extreme opinion sometimes expressed in the ,united ,states that the ,canal is being built with ,american money for the use of ,europe--and1 one may add1 of ,japan4 ,what attempts may be made to remedy this state of things1 and what effects such attempts may have1 are matters on which ,i shall not stay to speculate4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,the ,,canal ,,of the existing canals for ocean-going ships1 that of ,suez was built by a company as a commercial undertaking to earn dividends by tolls4 ,it cost #ij1jjj1jjj4 ,the ,manchester ,ship ,canal was partly commercial1 partly industrial1 i4e41 the large contribution of the city of ,manchester was made not as a financial speculation1 but in order to promote an undertaking likely to develop the industries of the city4 ,this canal1 partly commercial1 partly industrial1 cost #ge1jjj1jjj4 ,the ,kiel ,canal has further a military purpose1 providing a short line of communication for warships4 ,it cost #dj1jjj1jjj4 ,the ,panama ,canal is commercial1 industrial1 and military1 and will cost more than all the above put together4 ,illustration3 ,,palace ,,of ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,republic ,,of ,,panama4 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,flat ,,arch ,,at ,,panama4 ,up to ,june #cj1 #aijh1 the ,united ,states ,government have spent #abf1jdg1jfb on the ,panama ,canal1 made up as follows3-- ,payment to ,new ,panama ,canal ,company #dj1jjj1jjj1 and to ,republic of ,panama #aj1jjj1jjj #ej1jjj1jjj ,expenditure on work prior to ,july #a1 #aijg #dc1agb1djh ,expenditure on work ,july #a1 #aijg-;,june #cj1 #aijh #cb1hgd1fed ----------- ,total #abf1jdg1jfb ,the amount authorised to be appropriated by the ,act of ,june #bh1 #aijb1 was #ace1jjj1jjj1 plus #ej1jjj1jjj purchase money1 that is to say1 #ahe1jjj1jjj in all1 for the canal1 harbours1 and defences4 ,what the total cost will be is unknown1 but ,colonel ,goethals stated in evidence 7,january1 #aijh7 that the ,canal would cost at least #bej1jjj1jjj1 and possibly as much as #ejj1jjj1jjj4 ,the combined cost of the ,suez1 ,manchester1 and ,kiel ,canals has been #bje1jjj1jjj4 ,the following important ship canals have been completed for smaller sums3-- ,u4,s4,s4 ,st4 ,marie 7somewhat more than7 #f1jjj1jjj ,canadian ditto nearly #d1jjj1jjj ,amsterdam #aj1jjj1jjj ,corinth 7about7 #e1jjj1jjj ,cronstadt 7about7 #aj1jjj1jjj ,welland 7,lake ,erie-,lake ,ontario7 #bd1jjj1jjj ---------- ,total #ei1jjj1jjj ,adding these figures to those already given1 we have a grand total of #bfd1jjj1jjj for the cost of nine of the greatest existing ship canals1 which is about the same as the lowest current official estimate for the final cost of the ,panama ,canal4 ,in the case of a commercial company undertaking such a work as the ,panama ,canal1 the charge for compounded interest increases as the unremunerative years advance at an appalling rate1 which would surprise anyone not versed in the cumulative capability of figures which increase in geometrical progression4 ,fortunately it is not necessary for the ,united ,states to reckon the cost of the ,canal in this way1 and the ,government have been in a peculiarly advantageous position for financing the ,canal4 ,the bonds bear interest at #b per cent41 and in ,december1 #aijg1 were slightly above #ajc4 ,as all ,american banks have to deposit gold with the ,united ,states ,treasury it evidently pays to take up and deposit these bonds1 which reckon as gold1 receiving #b per cent4 interest4 ,moreover1 the small amount of securities with ,government guarantee in ,america renders such issues convenient1 so that the ,government can raise money more cheaply than with us1 although for industrial purposes the rates may be higher4 ,at the present time the payments of ,government pensions in connection with the ,civil ,war are yearly diminishing at a rapid rate4 ,finally1 there has been in the ,treasury a large surplus of cash4 ,thus from one cause and another the expenditure already incurred has not yet been felt4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as ,i write the last lines of the account in which ,i have endeavoured to state the salient facts relating to a great undertaking at only moderate length1 ,i recall our departure from ,colon harbour on the ,r4,m4,s4 ,orinoco homeward bound4 ,i confess that after the ,canal ,zone most places seem only half alive1 and ,i long to be back where one can watch human activities so great and so intelligent1 while the spirit is soothed by the balmy air which blows warm and fragrant from the tropical forest4 ,may the arduous labours of the ,isthmian ,canal ,commission be crowned with success6 ,,index ,a ,abbott1 ,brigadier-,general ,hy4 ,l41 #gf ,alhajuela1 #gg ,america1 ,south1 possibilities for white peasantry1 #adh-i ,anopheles mosquito1 see also ,malaria1 #acb1 #acg ,antwerp1 port of1 see ,distances ,arango1 ,mr4 ,r4,m41 #gg ,aspinwall1 ,w4,h41 and colleagues construct ,panama ,railway1 #cj ,asiatic ports1 see ,distances ,australia1 see ,distances ,b ,barbadians as labourers1 #ajd ,bohio1 abandoned site of dam1 #gj ,c ,california1 rush of gold-seekers to1 #bi ,canal1 ,panama1 national and commercial status defined1 #ci-dc tide-level schemes1 #eb1 #ed-ee curvatures of1 #fj time of transit through1 #fd date of completion1 #ie-f ,suez1 opened #ahfi1 #cj effect on value of ,panama route1 #cj dimensions and cost1 #ei1 #agc ,caribbean ,sea1 ,spain unable to protect her ships in1 #bg ,chagres1 ,river1 course of1 #dh sudden rise of1 #ea ,charles ,v4 of ,spain1 canal project1 #bf ,children1 white1 health of1 on ,isthmus1 #adc ,climate of the ,isthmus1 #adj-b ,clubs for employees1 #adc ,colombia 7formerly ,new ,granada71 treaty with ,united ,states1 #ahdf1 #bh ,senate of1 does not accept offer of ,united ,states1 #aijc1 #ch want of sea-power1 #ci ,colon1 protection from northers1 #gh yellow fever in1 #abi ,columbus discovers ,bay of ,limon1 #be ,commission1 ,isthmian ,canal1 ,report of #aija1 #cf-cg a second appointed1 #aac a third appointed1 #aad ,congress1 appoints ,isthmian ,canal ,commission1 #ahii1 #be ,spooner ,act of1 #cg-eh ,congress1 ,act of1 sanctioning #he-;foot-level canal1 #aijf1 #ec ,constantinople1 conquest by ,turks1 #adec1 #be ,contract ,construction of ,canal1 proposed by ,second ,commission1 #aad ,cortes searches for a strait1 #bf ,culebra1 view of works from1 described1 #hd-ij ,cut1 form and dimensions of1 #ha-hd amount excavated in1 #id ,currents in ,canal advanced as objection to tide-level scheme1 #ee tidal1 below ,milaflores1 #ff ,d ,dam1 ,bohio1 abandoned1 #gj ,gamboa1 controlling feature of tide-level scheme1 #ed1 #eg ,gatun1 as proposed in minority report of ,board of ,consulting ,engineers1 #ef-eh plans of1 ,april1 #aijh1 #gj-gd ,milaflores1 #fi ,pedro ,miguel1 #fi ,de ,lesseps1 ,ferdinand1 forms ,first ,panama ,canal ,company1 #ahgi1 #ca plan for tide-level canal1 #eb ,depew1 ,senator1 on the cost of operating ,american ships1 #afh ,dimensions of ,panama and other ,canals1 #ei-fa ,distances1 ,shortening of1 by ,suez ,canal1 #afj by ,panama ,canal1 #aec-afe to ,pacific ,coast of ,north ,america1 #aee1 #aef to ,pacific ,coast of ,south ,america1 #aee1 #aef to ,asiatic ports1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afa1 #afb ,australian and ,new ,zealand ports1 #aeh1 #afa1 #afb ,e ,employees1 number of1 on ,canal ,zone1 #aab ,engineers1 ,french1 ability of1 #cb ,board of ,consulting1 ,majority ,scheme for tide-level canal1 #ec-ee ,minority ,scheme for high-level canal1 #ef-gj names of chief1 #aac-aae ,corps of1 ,u4,s4,a41 and public works1 #aae ,excavation1 amount of1 by ,french ,companies1 #id by ,american ,commission1 #id ,f ,fever1 ,yellow1 #aba-acb geographical distribution of1 #acj-aca ,malarial1 see ,malaria ,floods of the ,chagres ,river1 #ea control of1 #ed ,forests1 tropical1 insulate the ,canal ,zone1 #ci ,fortifications for defence of the ,canal1 #dj1 #gh ,french ,companies1 excavation accomplished by1 #id ,engineers1 ability of1 #cb ,investors1 #ca-cb ,g ,gallinger1 ,senator1 on the lack of ,u4,s4 steamships trading with foreign ports1 #afg-h ,gamboa1 site of controlling dam of the tide-level scheme1 #ed ,gatun dam1 see ,dam ,lake1 #ef1 #fi locks1 see ,locks ,germany1 steamships of1 cost of operating as compared with ,american steamships1 #afi ,goethals1 ,colonel ,george ,w41 ,corps of ,engineers1 #bj appointed ,chairman of ,commission and ,chief ,engineer1 ,april1 #aijg1 #aae ,gold ,roll1 see ,labour1 skilled ,europeans on1 #aaj ,golden ,hill1 highest original level at1 #hb ,gorgas1 ,colonel ,w4,c41 ,m4,d41 head of ,department of ,sanitation1 #aac1 #abe1 #abf1 #acj on the future of the white race in the tropics1 #add-e ,gorgona1 workshops at1 #ig ,grant1 ,president1 recommends construction of ,isthmian ,canal1 #ahfi1 #cd ,greeks as labourers1 #ajg ,gulf ports1 see ,distances ,h ,hamburg1 see ,distances ,harbours1 at terminals of ,canal1 #gh ,havana1 yellow fever at1 #abc ,hotels1 ,commission's1 for employees1 #aaa ,i ,indies1 ,east1 original objective of ,canal project1 #bf ,ismailia1 effect of malaria at1 #ad ,italians as labourers1 #ajg1 #ajh as peasantry in the tropics1 #adi ,j ,jamaica1 effect of ,canal on position of1 #afd ,jamaicans as labourers1 #ajd as policemen1 #aje ,japan1 steamships of1 to use ,canal1 #afi see ,distances ,k ,kiel ,canal1 dimensions of1 #ei-fa cost1 #agc ,kingston1 see ,jamaica ,l ,la ,boca1 tide at1 #fe scheme for locks abandoned1 #fg ,labour on the ,isthmus1 ,chinese proposed1 #ajf ,west ,indian1 #aja-ajf ,european1 #ajf-aaj skilled1 #aaj-aab white1 in tropical countries1 #adj-aej ,panamanian1 #acd ,limon1 ,bay of1 discovered by ,columbus1 #be ,liverpool1 see ,distances ,lock at ,pedro ,miguel1 depth of water above1 #fh gates described1 #fc ,locks1 dimensions of proposed1 #fj1 #fb at ,gatun1 distance from deep water1 #fb ,gatun1 course of ,canal below1 #fb depth of water above1 #fh at ,milaflores1 variable lift of1 #fe ,longitude1 meridians between which distances via ,suez and ,panama are equal1 #afb ,m ,mc,kinley1 ,president1 #ce ,magellan1 ,straits of1 discovered #aebj1 #bf ,malaria1 #acb-acg1 #adf ,manchester ,ship ,canal1 cost of1 #agc ,manila1 distance from ,new ,york via ,suez and via ,panama1 #aei ,marines1 ,u4,s41 force of on ,isthmus1 #aah ,mauretania1 s4s41 dimensions of1 #ei1 #fj ,meteorology of ,isthmus1 #gf ,mexico1 war of ,united ,states with1 #bh ,milaflores1 see ,dams and ,locks ,mississippi1 basin of1 #afd ,n ,naos1 ,isle of1 #fg1 #ib ,new ,granada1 treaty of ,u4,s4 with1 #bh ,new ,york1 see ,distances ,new ,zealand1 see ,distances ,nicaragua1 canal route through1 #bh1 #cg ,o ,obispo1 change in course of ,chagres ,river at1 #dh ,oregon1 battleship1 voyage of1 #ahih1 #cd ,organisation1 efficiency of1 in #aijg and #aijh compared1 #hf-hh ,p ,panama ,canal ,company1 ,first1 formed #ahgi1 #ca in liquidation #ahhi1 #cc ,new1 formed1 #cc accepts offer of #dj1jjj1jjj1 #cg work of1 #ej ,isthmus of1 topography1 #dg ,province of1 revolts1 #ch ,railway1 completed #ahee1 #bi purchased by ,first ,p4 ,c4 ,company1 #cb relaying of1 #ig ,republic of1 independence guaranteed by ,u4,s41 #ch1 #ci ,pedro ,miguel1 see ,dams and ,lock ,peru1 ,spanish possessions in1 protected by ,isthmus1 #bg ,police1 force of1 #aag ,pneumonia among negroes in the tropics1 #aci ,plague1 bubonic1 #aci ,r ,rainfall on the ,isthmus1 #ea ,reed discovers cause of yellow fever1 #abd ,rio ,grande1 valley of1 #di ,ross1 ,ronald1 discovers cause of malaria1 #abc ,roosevelt1 ,president1 #ec1 #if ,root1 the ,hon4 ,elihu1 #afh ,s ,st4 ,lawrence1 the1 a supposed route to ,china1 #bf ,san ,blas route1 #cf ,sanitation1 ,department of1 #aah1 #abe1 #abh1 #acc1 #aci ,sea-power1 importance of1 in ,isthmian affairs1 #ci ,societies1 benevolent1 in the ,canal ,zone1 #add ,spaniards as navvies and as peasantry in tropics1 #ajh-aaj1 #adi ,spanish ,war1 voyage of ,oregon during1 #cd ,steam shovel1 rate of loading by1 #ia ,steamships available for ,canal transit1 #afe-afi relative cost of operating ,american and ,european1 #afi ,stegomyia mosquito1 mode of infection by1 #abd ,stephens1 ,john ,f41 chief engineer #aije-aijg1 #aac-aad ,t ,tide1 range of1 at ,la ,boca1 #fe ,tolls on the ,panama ,canal equal for all nations1 #dc ,tourists1 attractions for1 on the ,isthmus1 #hi ,track-shifter1 the1 #ia ,transportation of spoil in ,culebra ,cut1 #ia-ic ,treaty between ,u4,s4 and ,new ,granada1 #ahdf1 #bh1 #ch ,great ,britain 7,clayton-,bulwer7 #ahej1 #bi ,great ,britain 7,hay-,pauncefote7 #aija1 #ai1 #cg1 #dj ,republic of ,panama1 #aijc1 #ci1 #dj1 #db ,tropics1 future of white race in1 #adj-aej ,u ,united ,states1 civil war in1 interrupts ,canal scheme1 #cj ,unloader1 the1 for dirt-cars1 #ia ,w ,wages on the ,isthmus1 see ,labour ,wallace1 ,john ,f41 chief engineer1 #aijd-aije1 #aac ,water supply for high-level canal1 #gd-gg ,west ,indians1 relations with ,american employers1 #ajb-ajd immunity from yellow fever1 #abb see also ,labour ,white race1 future of1 in tropics1 #adj-aej ,women1 white1 life of1 on ,isthmus1 #adb ,y ,y4,m4,c4,a4 and management of clubs1 #add ,z ,zone1 the ,canal1 #ai ,,unwin ,,brothers1 ,,limited1 ,,the ,,gresham ,,press1 ,,woking ,,and ,,london4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,canal ,,zone4