,ver4#jg_/bg_/ja99;,,end99              
,the ,psychology of ,beauty  by ,ethel  
,d4 ,puffer     ,,preface  ,,the human  
being who thrills to the experience of  
beauty in nature and in art does not    
forever rest with that experience       
unquestioned4  ,the day comes when he   
yearns to pierce the secret of his      
emotion1 to discover what it is1 and    
why1 that has so stung him--to defend   
and to justify his transport to himself 
and to others4  ,he seeks a reason for  
the faith that is in him4  ,and so have 
arisen the speculative theories of the  
nature of beauty1 on the one hand1 and  
the studies of concrete beauty and our  
feelings about it1 on the other4        
,speculative theory has taken its own   
way1 however1 as a part of philosophy1  
in relating the ,beautiful to the other 
great concepts of the ,true and the     
,good2 building up an architectonic of  
abstract ideas1 far from the immediate  
facts and problems of the enjoyment of  
beauty4  ,there has grown up1 on the    

other hand1 in the last years1 a great  
literature of special studies in the    
facts of aesthetic production and       
enjoyment4  ,experiments with the       
aesthetic elements2 investigations into 
the physiological psychology of         
aesthetic reactions2 studies in the     
genesis and development of art forms1   
have multiplied apace4  ,but these are  
still mere groups of facts for          
psychology2 they have not been taken up 
into a single authoritative principle4  
,psychology cannot do justice to the    
imperative of beauty1 by virtue of      
which1 when we say this is beautiful1 we
 have a right to imply that the universe
 must agree with us4  ,a synthesis of   
these tendencies in the study of beauty 
is needed1 in which the results of      
modern psychology shall help to make    
intelligible a philosophical theory of  
beauty4  ,the chief purpose of this book
 is to seek to effect such a union4  ,a 
way of defining ,beauty which grounds it
 in general principles1 while allowing  

it to reach the concrete case1 is set   
forth in the essay on the ,nature of    
,beauty4  ,the following chapters aim to
 expand1 to test1 and to confirm this   
central theory1 by showing1 partly by   
the aid of the aforesaid special        
studies1 how it accounts for our        
pleasure in pictures1 music1 and        
literature4  ,the whole field of beauty 
is thus brought under discussion2 and   
therefore1 though it nowhere seeks to be
 exhaustive in treatment1 the book may  
fairly claim to be a more or less       
consistent and complete aesthetic       
theory1 and hence to address itself to  
the student of aesthetics as well as to 
the general reader4  ,the chapter on the
 ,nature of ,beauty1 indeed1 will       
doubtless be found by the latter        
somewhat technical1 and should be       
omitted by all who definitely object to 
professional phraseology4  ,the general 
conclusions of the book are sufficiently
 stated in the less abstract papers4    
,of the essays which compose the        

following volume1 the first1 third1 and 
last are reprinted1 in more or less     
revised form1 from the ,atlantic        
,monthly and the ,international         
,monthly4 ,although written as          
independent papers1 it is thought that  
they do not unduly repeat each other1   
but that they serve to verify1 in each  
of the several realms of beauty1 the    
truth of the central theory of the book4
  ,the various influences which have    
served to shape a work of this kind     
become evident in the reading2 but ,i   
cannot refrain from a word of thanks to 
the teachers whose inspiration and      
encouragement first made it possible4   
,i owe much gratitude to ,professor     
,mary ,a4 ,jordan and ,professor ,h4    
,norman ,gardiner of ,smith ,college1   
who in literature and in philosophy     
first set me in the way of aesthetic    
interest and inquiry1 and to ,professor 
,hugo ,munsterberg of ,harvard          
,university1 whose philosophical        
theories and scientific guidance have   

largely influenced my thought4          
,,wellesley ,,college1 ,april #bd1      
#aije4    ,,contents                    
,,page ,i4    ,,criticism ,,and         
,,aesthetics4444444444444444444444444444
4#a ,,ii4   ,,the ,,nature ,,of         
,,beauty44444444444444444444444444444444
#bg ,,iii4  ,,the ,,aesthetic           
,,repose44444444444444444444444444444444
#eg ,,iv4   ,,the ,,beauty ,,of ,,fine  
,,art444444444444444444444444444444#hi  
,a4  ,,the ,,beauty ,,of ,,visual       
,,form444444444444444444444#ia          
,b4  ,,space ,,composition ,,among ,,the
 ,,old ,,masters444444#abh ,v4    ,,the 
,,beauty ,,of                           
,,music44444444444444444444444444444444#
adi ,,vi4   ,,the ,,beauty ,,of         
,,literature444444444444444444444444444#
bjc ,,vii4  ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,the   
,,emotions ,,of ,,the                   
,,drama444444444444#bbi ,,viii4 ,,the   
,,beauty ,,of                           
,,ideas44444444444444444444444444444444#
bfc    ,i ,,criticism ,,and ,,aesthetics

    ,,the ,,psychology ,,of ,,beauty  ,i
 ,,criticism ,,and ,,aesthetics  ,,it is
 not so long ago that the field of      
literary criticism was divided into two 
opposing camps4  ,france being the only 
country in the world where criticism is 
a serious matter1 the battle waged most 
fiercely there1 and doubtless greatly   
served to bring about the present       
general interest and understanding of   
the theoretical questions at issue4     
,the combatants were1 of course1 the    
impressionistic and scientific schools  
of criticism1 and particularly          
enlightening were the more or less      
recent controversies between ,,mm4      
,anatole ,france and ,jules ,lemaitre as
 representatives of the first1 and ,m4  
,brunetiere as the chief exponent of the
 second4  ,they have planted their      
standards2 and we see that they stand   
for tendencies in the critical activity 
of every nation4  ,the ideal of the     
impressionist is to bring a new piece of
 literature into being in some          

exquisitely happy characterization1-- to
 create a lyric of criticism out of the 
unique pleasure of an aesthetic hour4   
,the stronghold of the scientist1 on the
 other hand1 is the doctrine of literary
 evolution1 and his aim is to show the  
history of literature as the history of 
a process1 and the work of literature as
 a product2 to explain it from its      
preceding causes1 and to detect thereby 
the general laws of literary            
metamorphosis4  ,such are the two great 
lines of modern criticism2 their        
purposes and ideals stand diametrically 
opposed4  ,of late1 however1 there have 
not been wanting signs of a spirit of   
reconciliation1 and of a tendency to    
concede the value1 each in its own      
sphere1 of different but complementary  
activities4  ,now and again the lion and
 the lamb have lain down together2 one  
might almost say1 on reading a          
delightful paper of ,mr4 ,lewis ,e4     
,gates on ,impressionism and            
,appreciation1#a that the lamb had      

assimilated the lion4  ,for the heir of 
all literary studies1 according to      
,professor ,gates1 is the appreciative  
critic2 and he it is who shall fulfill  
the true function of criticism4  ,he is 
to consider the work of art in its      
historical setting and its psychological
 origin1 as a characteristic moment in  
the development of human spirit1 and as 
a delicately transparent illustration of
 aesthetic law4  ,but1 in regarding the 
work of art under all these aspects1 his
 aim is1 primarily1 not to explain1 and 
not to judge or dogmatize1 but to enjoy2
 to realize the manifold charms the work
 of art has gathered unto itself from   
all sources1 and to interpret this charm
 imaginatively to the men of his own day
 and generation4  #a ,atlantic ,monthly1
 ,july1 #aijj4  ,thus it would seem that
 if the report of his personal reactions
 to a work of literary art is the       
intention of the impressionist1 and its 
explanation that of the scientist1 the  
purpose of the appreciative critic is   

fairly named as the illuminating and    
interpreting reproduction of that work1 
from material furnished by those other  
forms of critical activity4  ,must1     
then1 the method of appreciation1 as    
combining and reconciling the two       
opposed views1 forthwith claim our      
adherence8  ,to put to use all the      
devices of science and all the treasures
 of scholarship for the single end of   
imaginative interpretation1 for the sake
 of giving with the original melody all 
the harmonies of subtle association and 
profound meaning the ages have added1   
is1 indeed1 a great undertaking4  ,but  
is it as valuable as it is vast8  ,m4   
,brunetiere has poured out his irony    
upon the critics who believe that their 
own reactions upon literature are       
anything to us in the presence of the   
works to which they have thrilled4  ,may
 it not also be asked of the interpreter
 if its function is a necessary one8    
,do we require so much enlightenment1   
only to enjoy8  ,appreciative criticism 

is a salt to give the dull palate its   
full savor2 but what literary epicure1  
what real boo-lover1 will acknowledge   
his own need of it8  ,if the whole aim  
of appreciative criticism is to         
reproduce in other arrangement the      
contents1 expressed and implied1 and the
 emotional value1 original and derived1 
of a piece of literature1 the value of  
the end1 at least to the intelligent    
reader1 is out of all proportion to the 
laboriousness of the means4  ,sing1     
reading's a joy6  ,for me1 ,i read4     
,but a feeling of this kind is1 after   
all1 not a reason to be urged against   
the method4  ,the real weakness of      
appreciative criticism lies elsewhere4  
,it teaches us to enjoy2 but are we to  
enjoy everything8  ,since its only aim  
is to reveal the intricate implications 
of a work of art2 since it offers1 and  
professes to offer1 no literary         
judgments1--having indeed no explicit   
standard of literary value1--it must1 at
 least on its own theory1 take its      

objects of appreciation ready-made1 so  
to speak1 by popular acclaim4  ,it      
possesses no criterion2 it likes        
whate'er it looks on2 and it can never  
tell us what we are not to like4  ,that 
is unsatisfactory2 and it is worse1-- it
 is self-destructive4  ,for1 not being  
able to reject1 appreciation cannot1 in 
logic1 choose the objects of its        
attention4  ,but a method which cannot  
limit on its own principles the field   
within which it is to work is condemned 
from the beginning2 it bears a fallacy  
at its core4  ,in order to make         
criticism theoretically possible at all1
 the power to choose and reject1 and so 
the pronouncing of judgment1 must be an 
integral part of it4  ,to such a task   
the critic may lend himself without     
arousing our antagonism4  ,we have no   
pressing need to know the latent        
possibilities of emotion for us in a    
book or a poem2 but whether it is       
excellent or the reverse1 whether we    
were right in being moved by it1 we are 

indeed willing to hear1 for we desire to
 justify the faith that is in us4  ,if1 
then1 the office of the judge be an     
essential part of the critical function1
 the appreciative critic1 whatever his  
other merits1--and we shall examine them
 later1--fails at least of perfection4  
,his scheme is not the ideal one2 and we
 may turn back1 in our search for it1 to
 a closer view of those which his was to
 supersede4  ,impressionism1 however1 is
 at once out of the running2 it has     
always vigorously repudiated the notion 
of the standard1 and we know1 therefore1
 that no more than appreciation can it  
choose its material and stand alone4    
,but scientific criticism professes1 at 
least1 the true faith  ,m4 ,brunetiere  
holds that his own method is the only   
one by which an impersonal and stable   
judgment can be rendered4  ,the doctrine
 of the evolution of literary species is
 more or less explained in naming it4   
,literary species1 ,m4 ,brunetiere      
maintains1 do exist4  ,they develop and 

are transformed into others in a way    
more or less analogous to the evolution 
of natural types4  ,it remains to see on
 what basis an objective judgment can be
 given4  ,although ,m4 ,brunetiere seems
 to make classification the disposal of 
a work in the hierarchy of species1 and 
judgment the disposal of it in relation 
to others of its own species1 he has    
never sharply distinguished between     
them2 so that we shall not be wrong in  
taking his three principles of          
classification1 scientific1 moral1 and  
aesthetic1 as three principles by which 
he estimates the excellence of a work4  
,his own examples1 indeed1 prove that to
 him a thing is already judged in being 
classified4  ,the work of art is judged1
 then1 by its relation to the type4  ,is
 this position tenable8 ,i hold that1 on
 the contrary1 it precludes the         
possibility of a critical judgment2 for 
the judgment of anything always means   
judgment with reference to the end for  
which is exists4  ,a bad king is not the

 less a bad king for being a good       
father2 and if his kingship is his      
essential function1 he must be judged   
with reference to that alone4  ,now a   
piece of literature is1 with reference  
to its end1 first of all a work of art4 
,it represents life and it enjoins      
morality1 but it is only as a work of   
art that it attains consideration2 that1
 in the words of ,m4 ,lemaitre1 it      
exists for us at all4  ,its aim is      
beauty1 and beauty is its excuse for    
being4  ,the type belongs to natural    
history4  ,the one principle at the     
basis of scientific criticism is1 as we 
have seen1 the conception of literary   
history as a process1 and of the work of
 art as a product4  ,the work of art is1
 then1 a moment in a necessary          
succession1 governed by laws of change  
and adaptation like those of natural    
evolution4  ,but how can the conception 
of values enter here8  ,excellence can  
be attributed only to that which attains
 an ideal end2 and a necessary          

succession has no end in itself4  ,the  
type1 in this sense1 is perfectly       
hollow4 ,to say that the modern         
chrysanthemum is better than that of our
 forbears because it is more            
chrysanthemum-like is true only if we   
make the latter form the arbitrary      
standard of the chrysanthemum4  ,if the 
horse of the ,eocene age is inferior to 
the horse of to-day1 it is because1 on  
,m4 ,brunetiere's principle1 he is less 
horse-like4  ,but who shall decide which
 is more like a horse1 the original or  
the latter development8  ,no species    
which is constituted by its own history 
can be said to have an end in itself1   
and can1 therefore1 have an excellence  
to which it shall attain4  ,in short1   
good and bad can be applied to the      
moments in a necessary evolution only by
 imputing a fictitious superiority to   
the last term2 and so one type cannot   
logically be preferred to another4  ,as 
for the individual specimens1 since the 
conception of the type does not admit   

the principle of excellence1 conformity 
thereto means nothing4  ,the work of    
art1 on the other hand1 as a thing of   
beauty1 is an attainment of an ideal1   
not a product1 and1 from this point of  
view1 is related not at all to the other
 terms of a succession1 its causes and  
its effects1 but only to the abstract   
principles of that beauty at which it   
aims4  ,strangely enough1 the whole     
principle of this contention has been   
admitted by ,m4 ,brunetiere in a casual 
sentence1 of which he does not appear to
 recognize the full significance4  ,we  
acknowledge1 of course1 he says1 that   
there is in criticism a certain         
difference from natural history1 since  
we cannot eliminate the subjective      
element if the capacity works of art    
have of producing impressions on us     
makes a part of their definition4  ,it  
is not in order to be eaten that the    
tree produces its fruit4  ,but this is  
giving away his whole position6  ,as    
little as the conformity of the fruit to

 its species has to do with our pleasure
 in eating it1 just so little has the   
conformity of a literary work to its    
genre to do with the quality by virtue  
of which it is defined as art4  ,the    
,greek temple is a product of ,greek    
religion applied to geographical        
conditions4  ,to comprehend it as a     
type1 we must know that it was an       
adaptation of the open hilltop to the   
purpose of the worship of images of the 
gods4  ,but the most penetrating study  
of the slow moulding of this type will  
never reveal how and why just those     
proportions were chosen which make the  
joy and the despair of all beholders4   
,early ,italian art was purely          
ecclesiastical in its origin4  ,the     
exigencies of adaptation to altars1     
convent walls1 or cathedral domes       
explain the choice of subjects1 the     
composition1 even perhaps the color     
schemes 7as of frescoes1 for instance72 
and yet all that makes a ,giotto greater
 than a ,pictor ,ignotus is quite       

unaccounted for by these considerations4
  ,the quality of beauty is not evolved4
  ,all that comes under the category of 
material and practical purpose1 of idea 
or of moral attitude1 belongs to the    
succession1 the evolution1 the type     
,but the defining characters of the work
 of art are independent of time4  ,the  
temple1 the fresco1 and the symphony1 in
 the moment they become objects of the  
critical judgment1 become also qualities
 of beauty and transparent examples of  
its laws4  ,if the true critical        
judgment1 then1 belongs to an order of  
ideas of which natural science can take 
no cognizance1 the self-styled          
scientific criticism must show the      
strange paradox of ignoring the very    
qualities by virtue of which a given    
work has any value1 or can come at all  
to be the object of aesthetic judgment4 
,in two words1 the world of beauty and  
the world of natural processes are      
incommensurable1 and scientific         
criticism of literary art is a logical  

impossibility4  ,but the citadel of     
scientific criticism has yet one more   
stronghold4  ,granted that beauty1 as an
 abstract quality1 is timeless2 granted 
that1 in the judgment of a piece of     
literary art1 the standard of value is  
the canon of beauty1 not the type2 yet  
the old order changeth4  ,primitive and 
civilized man1 the ,hottentot and the   
,laplander1 the ,oriental and the ,slav1
 have desired differing beauties4  ,may 
it1 then1 still be said that although a 
given embodiment of beauty is to be     
judged with reference to the idea of    
beauty alone1 yet the concrete ideal of 
beauty must wear the manacles of space  
and time1-- that the metamorphoses of   
taste preclude the notion of an         
objective beauty8  ,and if this is true1
 are we not thrown back again on        
questions of genesis and development1   
and a study of the evolution1 not of    
particular types of art1 but of general 
aesthetic feeling2 and1 in consequence1 
upon a form of criticism which is       

scientific in the sense of being based  
on succession1 and not on absolute      
value8  ,it is indeed true that the very
 possibility of a criticism which shall 
judge of aesthetic excellence must stand
 or fall with this other question of a  
beauty in itself1 as an objective       
foundation for criticism4  ,if there is 
an absolute beauty1 it must be possible 
to work out a system of principles which
 shall embody its laws1--an aesthetic1  
in other words2 and on the basis of that
 aesthetic to deliver a well-founded    
critical judgment4 ,is there1 then1 a   
beauty in itself8  ,and if so1 in what  
does it consist8  ,we can approach such 
an aesthetic canon in two ways3 from the
 standpoint of philosophy1 which        
develops the idea of beauty as a factor 
in the system of our absolute values1   
side by side with the ideas of truth and
 of morality1 or from the standpoint of 
empirical science4  ,for our present    
purpose1 we may confine ourselves to the
 empirical facts of psychology and      

physiology4  ,when ,i feel the rhythm of
 poetry1 or of perfect prose1 which is1 
of course1 in its own way1 no less      
rhythmical1 every sensation of sound    
sends through me a diffusive wave of    
nervous energy4  ,i am the rhythm       
because ,i imitate it in myself4  ,i    
march to noble music in all my veins1   
even though ,i may be sitting decorously
 by my own hearthstone2 and when ,i     
sweep with my eyes the outlines of a    
great picture1 the curve of a ,greek    
vase1 the arches of a cathedral1 every  
line is lived over again in my own      
frame4  ,and when rhythm and melody and 
forms and colors give me pleasure1 it is
 because the imitating impulses and     
movements that have arisen in me are    
such as suit1 help1 heighten my physical
 organization in general and in         
particular4 ,it may seem somewhat       
trivial to say that a curved line is    
pleasing because the eye is so hung as  
to move best in it2 but we may take it  
as one instance of the numberless       

conditions for healthy action which a   
beautiful form fulfills4  ,a well-      
composed picture calls up in the        
spectator just such a balanced relation 
of impulses of attention and incipient  
movements as suits an organism which is 
also balanced--bilateral--in its own    
impulses to movement1 and at the same   
time stable2 and it is the              
correspondence of the suggested impulses
 with the natural movement that makes   
the composition good4  ,besides the     
pleasure from the tone relations1--which
 doubtless can be eventually reduced to 
something of the same kind1--it is the  
balance of nervous and muscular tensions
 and relaxations1 of yearnings and      
satisfactions1 which are the subjective 
side of the beauty of a strain of music4
  ,the basis1 in short1 of any aesthetic
 experience--poetry1 music1 painting1   
and the rest-- is beautiful through its 
harmony with the conditions offered by  
our senses1 primarily of sight and      
hearing1 and through the harmony of the 

suggestions and impulses it arouses with
 the whole organism4  ,but the sensuous 
beauty of art does not exhaust the      
aesthetic experience4  ,what of the     
special emotions--the gayety or triumph1
 the sadness or peace or agitation--that
 hang about the work of art1 and make1  
for many1 the greater part of their     
delight in it8  ,those among these      
special emotions which belong to the    
subject-matter of a work--like our      
horror at the picture of an             
execution--need not here be discussed4  
,to understand the rest we may venture  
for a moment into the realm of pure     
psychology4  ,we are told by psychology 
that emotion is dependent on the organic
 excitations of any given idea4  ,thus  
fear at the sight of a bear is only the 
reverberation in consciousness of all   
nervous and vascular changes set up     
instinctively as a preparation for      
flight4  ,think away our bodily         
feelings1 and we think away fear1 too4  
,and set up the bodily changes and the  

feeling of them1 and we have the emotion
 that belongs to them even without the  
idea1 as we may see in the unmotived    
panics that sometimes accompany certain 
heart disturbances4  ,the same thing1 on
 another level1 is a familiar           
experience4  ,a glass of wine makes     
merriment1 simply by bringing about     
those organic states which are felt     
emotionally as cheerfulness4  ,now the  
application of all this to aesthetics is
 clear4  ,all these tensions1           
relaxations1--bodily imitations of the  
form1--have each the emotional tone     
which belongs to it4  ,and so if the    
music of a ,strauss waltz makes us gay1 
and ,handel's ,largo serious1 it is not 
because we are reminded of the ballroom 
or of the cathedral1 but because the    
physical response to the stimulus of the
 music is itself the basis of the       
emotion4 ,what makes the sense of peace 
in the atmosphere of the ,low           
,countries8  ,only the tendency1 on     
following those level lines of          

landscape1 to assume ourselves the      
horizontal1 and the restfulness which   
belongs to that posture4  ,if the       
crimson of a picture by ,bocklin1 or the
 golden glow of a ,giorgione1 or the    
fantastic gleam of a ,rembrandt speaks  
to me like a human voice1 it is not     
because it expresses to me an idea1 but 
because it impresses that sensibility   
which is deeper than ideas1--the region 
of the emotional response to color and  
to light4  ,what is the beauty of the   
,ulalume1 or ,kubla ,khan1 or ,ueber    
allen ,gipfeln8  ,it is the way in which
 the form in its exquisite fitness to   
our senses1 and the emotion belonging to
 that particular form as organic        
reverberation therefrom1 in its         
exquisite fitness to thought1 create in 
us a delight quite unaccounted for by   
the ideas which they express4  ,this is 
the essence of beauty1--the possession  
of a quality which excites the human    
organism to functioning harmonious with 
its own nature4  ,we can see in this    

definition the possibility of an        
aesthetic which shall have objective    
validity because founded in the eternal 
properties of human nature1 while it yet
 allows us to understand that in the    
limits within which1 by education and   
environment1 the empirical man changes1 
his norms of beauty must vary1 too4     
,ideas can change in interest and in    
value1 but these energies lie much      
deeper than the idea1 in the original   
constitution of mankind4  ,they belong  
to the instinctive1 involuntary part of 
our nature4  ,they are changeless1 just 
as the eternal man is changeless2 and as
 the basis of aesthetic feeling they can
 be gathered into a system of laws which
 shall be subject to no essential       
metamorphosis4  ,so long as we laugh    
when we are joyful1 and weep when we are
 sick and sorry2 so long as we flush    
with anger1 or grow pale with fear1 so  
long shall we thrill to a golden sunset1
 the cadence of an air1 or the gloomy   
spaces of a cathedral4  ,the study of   

these forms of harmonious functioning of
 the human organism has its roots1 of   
course1 in the science of psychology1   
but comes1 nevertheless1 to a different 
flower1 because of the grafting on of   
the element of aesthetic value4 ,it is  
the study of the disinterested human    
pleasures1 and1 although as yet scarcely
 well begun1 capable of a most detailed 
and definitive treatment4  ,this is not 
the character of those studies so       
casually alluded to by the author of    
,impressionism and ,appreciation1 when  
he enjoins on the appreciative critic   
not to neglect the literature of        
aesthetics3  ,the characteristics of his
 the artist's temperament have been     
noted with the nicest loyalty2 and      
particularly the play of his special    
faculty1 the imagination1 as this       
faculty through the use of sensations   
and images and moods and ideas creates a
 work of art1 has been followed out with
 the utmost delicacy of observation4    
,but these are not properly studies in  

aesthetics at all4  ,to find out what is
 beautiful1 and the reason for its being
 beautiful1 is the aesthetic task2 to   
analyze the workings of the poet's mind1
 as his conception grows and ramifies   
and brightens1 is no part of it1 because
 such a study takes no account of the   
aesthetic value of the process1 but only
 of the process itself4  ,the same      
fallacy lurks here1 indeed1 as in the   
confusion of the scientific critic      
between literary evolution and poetic   
achievement1 and the test of the fallacy
 is this single fact3 the psychological 
process in the development of a dramatic
 idea1 for instance1 is1 and quite      
properly should be1 from the point of   
view of such analysis1 exactly the same 
for a ,shakespeare and for the ,hoyt of 
our ,american farces4  ,the cause of the
 production of a work of art may indeed 
by found by tracing back the stream of  
thought2 but the cause of its beauty is 
the desire and the sense of beauty in   
the human heart4  ,if a given           

combination of lines and colors is      
beautiful1 then the anticipation of the 
combination as beautiful is what has    
brought about its incarnation4  ,the    
artist's attitude toward his vision of  
beauty1 and the art lover's toward that 
vision realized1 are the same4  ,the    
only legitimate aesthetic analysis is1  
then1 that of the relation between the  
aesthetic object and the lover of       
beauty1 and all the studies in the      
psychology of invention--be it literary1
 scientific1 or practical               
invention--have no right to the other   
name4  ,aesthetics1 then1 is the science
 of beauty4  ,it will be developed as a 
system of laws expressing the relation  
between the object and aesthetic        
pleasure in it2 or as a system of       
conditions to which the object1 in order
 to be beautiful1 must conform4  ,it is 
hard to say where the task of the       
aesthetician ends1 and that of the      
critic begins2 and for the present1 at  
least1 they must often be commingled4   

,but they are defined by their purposes3
  the end and aim of one is a system of 
principles2 of the other1 the disposal  
of a given work with reference to those 
principles2 and when the science of     
aesthetics shall have taken shape1      
criticism will confine itself to the    
analysis of the work into its aesthetic 
elements1 to the explanation 7by means  
of the laws already formulated7 of its  
especial power in the realm of beauty1  
and to the judgment of its comparative  
aesthetic value4  ,the other forms of   
critical activity will then find their  
true place as preliminaries or          
supplements to the essential function of
 criticism4  ,the study of historical   
conditions1 of authors' personal        
relations1 of the literary moment1 will 
be means to show the work of art as in  
itself it really is4  ,shall we then say
 that the method of appreciation1 being 
an unusually exhaustive presentment of  
the object as in itself it really is1 is
 therefore an indispensable preparation 

for the critical judgment8  ,the modern 
appreciator1 after the model limned by  
,professor ,gates1 was to strive to get1
 as it were1 the aerial perspective of a
 masterpiece1--to present it as it looks
 across the blue depths of the years4   
,this is without doubt a fascinating    
study2 but it may be questioned if it   
does not darken the more important      
issue4  ,for it is not the object as in 
itself it really is that we at last     
behold1 but the object disguised in new 
and strange trappings4 ,such            
appreciation is to aesthetic criticism  
as the sentimental to the naive poet in 
,schiller's famous antithesis4  ,the    
virtue of the sentimental genius is to  
complete by the elements which it       
derives from itself an otherwise        
defective object4  ,so the aesthetic    
critic takes his natural need of beauty 
from the object2 the appreciative critic
 seeks a further beauty outside of the  
object1 in his own reflections and      
fancies about it4 ,but if we care       

greatly for the associations of         
literature1 we ,are in danger of        
disregarding its quality4  ,a vast deal 
of pretty sentiment may hang about and  
all but transmute the most prosaic      
object4  ,a sedan chair1 an old screen1 
a sundial1--to quote only ,austin       
,dobson1--need not be lovely in         
themselves to serve as pegs to hang a   
poem on2 and all the atmosphere of the  
eighteenth century may be wafted from a 
jar of potpourri4  ,read a lyric instead
 of a rose jar1 and the rule holds as   
well4  ,the man of feeling cannot but   
find all ,ranelagh and ,vauxhall in some
 icily regular effusion of the          
eighteenth century1 and will take a     
deeper retrospective thrill from an old 
playbill than from the play itself4     
,and since this is so1--since the       
interest in the overtones1 the added    
value given by time1 the value for us1  
is not necessarily related to the value 
as literature of the fundamental        
note1--to make the study of the         

overtones an essential part of criticism
 is to be guilty of the ,pathetic       
,fallacy2 that is1 the falsification of 
the object by the intrusion of          
ourselves1--the typical sentimental     
crime4  ,it seems to me1 indeed1 that   
instead of courting a sense for the     
aromatic in literature1 the critic      
should rather guard himself against its 
insidious approaches4  ,disporting      
himself in such pleasures of the fancy1 
he finds it easy to believe1 and to make
 us believe1 that a piece of literature 
gains in intrinsic value from its power 
to stimulate his historical sense4  ,the
 modern appreciative critic1 in short1  
is too likely to be the dupe of his     
sophisticated reverie1--like an epicure 
who should not taste the meat for the   
sauces4  ,a master work1 once beautiful 
according to the great and general laws1
 never becomes1 properly speaking1      
either more or less so4  ,if a piece of 
art can take us with its own beauty1    
there is no point in superimposing upon 

it shades of sentiment2 if it cannot so 
charm1 all the rose-colored lights of   
this kind of appreciative criticism are 
unavailing4  ,the literary treatment of 
art1 as the emotional treatment of      
literature1--for that is what           
appreciation and interpretation really  
are1--can completely justify itself only
 as the crowning touch of a detailed    
aesthetic analysis of those order of    
impression distinct in kind which are   
the primary elements in our pleasure in 
the beautiful4  ,it is the absence--and 
not only the absence1 but the ignoring  
of the possibility--of such analysis    
which tempts one to rebel against such  
phrases as those of ,professor ,gates3  
the splendid and victorious womanhood of
 ,titian's ,madonnas1 the gentle and    
terrestrial grace of motherhood in those
 of ,andrea del ,sarto1 the sweetly     
ordered comeliness of ,van ,dyck's4     
,one is moved to ask if the only        
difference between a ,madonna of ,titian
 and one of ,andrea is a difference of  

temper1 and if the important matter for 
the critic of art is the moral          
conception rather than the visible      
beauty4  ,i cannot think of anything for
 which ,i would exchange the enchanting 
volumes of ,walter ,pater1 and yet even 
he is not the ideal aesthetic critic    
whose duties he made clear4  ,what he   
has done is to give us the most         
exquisite and delicate of               
interpretations4  ,he has not failed to 
disengage the subtle and peculiar       
pleasure that each picture1 each poem or
 personality1 has in store for us2 but  
of analysis and explanation of this     
pleasure--of which he speaks in the     
,introduction to ,the                   
,renaissance--there is no more4  ,in the
 first lines of his paper on            
,botticelli1 the author asks1 ,what is  
the peculiar sensation which his work   
has the property of exciting in us8     
,and to what does he finally come8  ,the
 peculiar character of ,botticelli is   
the result of a blending in him of a    

sympathy for humanity in its uncertain  
conditions444with his consciousness of  
the shadow upon it of the great things  
from which it sinks4  ,but this is not  
aesthetic analysis6  ,it is not even the
 record of a peculiar sensation1 but a  
complex intellectual interpretation4    
,where is the pleasure in the           
irrepressible outline1 fascinating in   
its falseness1--in the strange color1   
like the taste of olives1 of the ,spring
 and the ,pallas8  ,so1 also1 his great 
passage on the ,mona ,lisa1 his         
,winckelmann1 even his ,giorgione       
itself1 are merely wonderful            
delineations of the mood of response to 
the creations of the art in question4   
,such interpretation as we have from    
,pater is a priceless treasure1 but it  
is none the less the final cornice1 and 
not the corner stone of aesthetic       
criticism4  ,the tendency to            
interpretation without any basis in     
aesthetic explanation is especially seen
 in the subject of our original         

discussion1--literature4  ,it is indeed 
remarkable how scanty is the space given
 in contemporary criticism to the study 
of an author's means to those results   
which we ourselves experience4  ,does no
 one really care how it is done8  ,or   
are they all in the secret1 and         
interested only in the temperament      
expressed or the aspect of life         
envisaged in a given work8 ,one would   
have thought that as the painter turned 
critic in ,fromentin at least to a      
certain extent sought out and dealt with
 the hidden workings of his art1 so the 
romancer or the poet-critic might also  
have told off for us the very pulse of  
the machine4  ,the last word has not    
been said on the mysteries of the       
writer's art4  ,we know1 it may be1 how 
the links of ,shakespeare's magic chain 
of words are forged1 but the same cannot
 be said of any other poet4  ,we have   
studied ,dante's philosophy and his     
ideal of love2 but have we found out the
 secrets of his inventive handling of   

rhythmical language8  ,if ,flaubert is  
univerally acknowledged to have created 
a masterpiece in ,madame ,bovary1 should
 there not be an interest for criticism 
in following out1 chapter by chapter1   
paragraph by paragraph1 word by word1   
the meaning of what it is to be a       
masterpiece8  ,but such seems not to be 
the case4  ,taine reconstructs the      
,english temperament out of ,fielding   
and ,dickens2 ,matthew ,arnold1 although
 he deals more than others in first     
principles1 never carries his analysis  
beyond the widest generalizations1 like 
the requirement for profound truth and  
high seriousness1 for great poetry4     
,and as we run the gamut of contemporary
 criticism1 we find ever preoccupation  
with the personality of the writers and 
the ideas of their books4  ,i recall    
only one example--the critical essays of
 ,henry ,james--where the craftsman has 
dropped some hints on the ideals of the 
literary art2 and even that1 if ,i maybe
 allowed the bull1 in his novels rather 

than in his essays1 for in critical     
theory he is the most ardent of         
impressionists4  ,whatever the cause1 we
 cannot but allow the dearth of         
knowledge of1 and interest in1 the      
peculiar subject-matter of criticism1-- 
the elements of beauty in a work of     
literature4  ,but although the present  
body of criticism consists rather of    
preliminaries and supplements to what   
should be its real accomplishment1 these
 should not therefore receive the less  
regard4  ,the impressionist has set     
himself a definite task1 and he has     
succeeded4  ,if not the true critic1 he 
is an artist in his own right1 and he   
has something to say to the world4  ,the
 scientific critic has taken all        
knowledge for his province2 and although
 we hold that it has rushed in upon and 
swamped his distinctly critical         
function1 so long as we may call him by 
his other name of natural historian of  
literature1 we can only acknowledge his 
great achievements4  ,for the           

appreciative critic we have less        
sympathy as yet1 but the development of 
the luxurious intricacy and the manifold
 implications of our enjoyment may fully
 crown the edifice of aesthetic         
explanation and appraisal of the art of 
every age4 ,but all these1 we feel1 do  
not fulfill the essential function2 the 
,idea of ,criticism is not here4  ,what 
the idea of criticism is we have tried  
to work out3  a judgment of a work of   
art on the basis of the laws of beauty4 
,that such laws there are1 that they    
exist directly in the relation between  
the material form and the suggested     
physical reactions1 and that they are   
practically changeless1 even as the     
human instincts are changeless1 we have 
sought to show4  ,and if there can be a 
science of the beautiful1 then an       
objective judgment on the basis of the  
laws of the beautiful can be rendered4  
,the true end of criticism1 therefore1  
is to tell us whence and why the charm  
of a work of art3  to disengage1 to     

explain1 to measure1 and to certify it4 
,and this explanation of charm1 and this
 stamping it with the seal of approval1 
is possible by the help1 and only by the
 help1 of the science of aesthetics1--a 
science now only in its beginning1 but  
greatly to be desired in its full       
development4  ,how greatly to be desired
 we realize in divining that the present
 dearth of constructive and destructive 
criticism1 of all1 indeed1 except       
interpretations and reports1 is         
responsible for the modern mountains of 
machine-made literature4  ,will not the 
aesthetic critic be for us a new        
,hercules1 to clear away the ever       
growing heap of formless things in book 
covers8  ,if he will teach us only what 
great art means in literature2 if he    
will give us never so little discussion 
of the first principles of beauty1 and  
point the moral with some selling books1
 he will at least have turned the flood4
  ,there are stories nowadays1 but few  
novels1 and plenty of spectacles1 but no

 plays2 and how should we know the      
difference1 never having heard what a   
novel ought to be8  ,but let the        
aesthetic critic give us a firm         
foundation for criticism1 a real        
understanding of the conditions of      
literary art2 let him teach us to know a
 novel or a play when we see it1 and we 
shall not always mingle the wheat and   
the chaff4   ,,ii ,,the ,,nature ,,of   
,,beauty   ,,ii ,,the ,,nature ,,of     
,,beauty  ,,every introduction to the   
problems of aesthetics begins by        
acknowledging the existence and claims  
of two methods of attack1--the general1 
philosophical1 deductive1 which starts  
from a complete metaphysics and installs
 beauty in its place among the other    
great concepts2 and the empirical1 or   
inductive1 which seeks to disengage a   
general principle of beauty from the    
objects of aesthetic experience and the 
facts of aesthetic enjoyment3 ,fechner's
 aesthetics from above and from below4  
,the first was the method of aesthetics 

par excellence4  ,it was indeed only    
through the desire of an                
eighteenth-century philosopher1         
,baumgarten1 to round out his           
architectonic of metaphysics that the   
science received its name1 as           
designating the theory of knowledge in  
the form of feeling1 parallel to that of
 clear1 logical thought4  ,kant1        
,schelling1 and ,hegel1 again1 made use 
of the concept of the ,beautiful as a   
kind of keystone or cornice for their   
respective philosophical edifices4      
,aesthetics1 then1 came into being as   
the philosophy of the ,beautiful1 and it
 may be asked why this philosophical    
aesthetics does not suffice--why beauty 
should need for its understanding also  
an aesthetics von unten4  ,the answer is
 not that no system of philosophy is    
universally accepted1 but that the      
general aesthetic theories have not1 as 
yet at least1 succeeded in answering the
 plain questions of the plain man in    
regard to concrete beauty4  ,kant1      

indeed1 frankly denied that the         
explanation of concrete beauty1 or      
,doctrine of ,taste1 as he called it1   
was possible1 while the various definers
 of beauty as the union of the ,real and
 the ,ideal the expression of the ,ideal
 to ,sense1 have done no more than he4  
,no one of these aesthetic systems1 in  
spite of volumes of so-called           
application of their principles to works
 of art1 has been able to furnish a     
criterion of beauty4  ,the criticism of 
the generations is summed up in the mild
 remark of ,fechner1 in his ,vorschule  
der ,aesthetik1 to the effect that the  
philosophical path leaves one in        
conceptions that1 by reason of their    
generality1 do not well fit the         
particular cases4  ,and so it was that  
empirical aesthetics arose1 which does  
not seek to answer those plain questions
 as to the enjoyment of concrete beauty 
down to its simplest forms1 to which    
philosophical aesthetics had been       
inadequate4  ,but it is clear that      

neither has empirical aesthetics said   
the last word concerning beauty4        
,criticism is still in a chaotic state  
that would be impossible if aesthetic   
theory were firmly grounded4  ,this     
situation appears to me to be due to the
 inherent inadequacy and                
inconclusiveness of empirical aesthetics
 when it stands alone2 the grounds of   
this inadequacy ,i shall seek to        
establish in the following4  ,granting  
that the aim of every aesthetics is to  
determine the ,nature of ,beauty1 and to
 explain our feelings about it1 we may  
say that the empirical treatments       
propose to do this either by describing 
the aesthetic object and extracting the 
essential elements of ,beauty1 or by    
describing the aesthetic experience and 
extracting the essential elements of    
aesthetic feeling1 thereby indicating   
the elements of ,beauty as those which  
effect this feeling4  ,now the bare     
description and analysis of beautiful   
objects cannot1 logically1 yield any    

result2 for the selection of cases would
 have to be arbitrary1 and would be at  
the mercy of any objection4  ,to any one
 who should say1 ,but this is not       
beautiful1 and should not be included in
 your inventory1 answer could be made   
only by showing that it had such and    
such qualities1 the very1 by hypothesis1
 unknown qualities that were to be      
sought4  ,moreover1 the field of beauty 
contains so many and so heterogeneous   
objects 1 that the retreat to their only
 common ground1 aesthetic feeling1      
appears inevitable4  ,a statue and a    
symphony can be reduced to a common     
denominator most easily if the states of
 mind which they induce are compared4   
,thus the analysis of objects passes    
naturally over to the analysis of mental
 states--the point of view of           
psychology4  ,there is1 however1 a      
method subsidiary to the preceding1     
which seeks the elements of ,beauty in a
 study of the genesis and the           
development of art forms4  ,but this    

leaves the essential phenomenon         
absolutely untouched4  ,the general     
types of aesthetic expression may indeed
 have been shaped by social forces1--   
religious1 commercial1 domestic1--but as
 social products1 not as aesthetic      
phenomena4  ,such studies reveal to us1 
as it were1 the excuse for the fact of  
music1 poetry1 painting--but they tell  
us nothing of the reason why beautiful  
rather than ugly forms were chosen1 as  
who should show that the bird sings to  
attract its mate1 ignoring the relation 
and sequence of the notes4  ,the        
decorative art of most savage tribes1   
for instance1 is nearly all of totemic  
origin1 and the decayed and degraded    
forms of snake1 bird1 bear1 fish1 may be
 traced in the most apparently empty    
geometric patterns2--but what does this 
discovery tell us of the essentially    
decorative quality of such patterns or  
of the nature of beauty of form8  ,the  
study of the ,gothic cathedral reveals  
the source of its general plan and of   

its whole scheme of ornament in detailed
 religious symbolism4 ,yet a complete   
knowledge of the character of the       
religious feeling which impelled to this
 monumental expression1 and of the      
genesis of every element of structure1  
fails to account for the essential      
beauty of rhythm and proportion in the  
finished work4  ,these researches1 in   
short1 explain the reason for the       
existence1 but not for the quality1 of  
works of art4  ,thus it is in psychology
 that empirical aesthetics finds its    
last resort4  ,and indeed1 our plain man
 might say1 the aesthetic experience    
itself is inescapable and undeniable4   
,you know that the sight or the hearing 
of this thing gives you a thrill of     
pleasure4  ,you may not be able to      
defend the beauty of the object1 but the
 fact of the experience you have4 ,the  
psychologist1 seeking to analyze the    
vivid and unmistakable ,aesthetic       
experience1 would therefore proceed     
somewhat as follows4  ,he would select  

the salient characteristics of his      
mental state in presence of a given work
 of art4  ,he would then study1 by      
experiment and introspection1 how the   
particular sense-stimulations of the    
work of art in question could become the
 psychological conditions of these      
salient characteristics4 ,thus1         
supposing the aesthetic experience to   
have been described as the conscious    
happiness in which one is absorbed1 and1
 as it were1 immersed in the            
sense-object1#a the further special aim1
 in connection with a picture1 for      
instance1 would be to show how the      
sensations and associated ideas from    
color1 line1 composition1 and all the   
other elements of a picture may1 on     
general psychological principles1 bring 
about this state of happy absorption4   
,such elements as can be shown to have a
 direct relation to the aesthetic       
experience are then counted as elements 
of the beauty of the aesthetic object1  
and such as are invariable in all art   

forms would belong to the general       
formula or concept of ,beauty4  #a      
,m4,w4 ,calkins3 ,an ,introduction to   
,psychology1 #aijb1 p4 #bgh4  ,this1 it 
seems to me1 is as favorable a way as   
possible of stating the possibilities of
 an independent aesthetic psychology4   
,yet this method1 as it works out1 does 
not exhaust the problem the solution of 
which was affirmed to be the aim of     
every aesthetics4  ,the aesthetic       
experience is very complex1 and the     
theoretical consequences of emphasizing 
this or that element very great4  ,thus1
 if it were held that the               
characteristics of the aesthetic        
experience could be given by the        
complete analysis of a single           
well-marked case1--say1 our impressions 
before a ,doric column1 or the          
,cathedral of ,chartres1 or the         
,giorgione ,venus1--it could be objected
 that for such a psychological          
experience the essential elements are   
hard to isolate4  ,the cathedral is     

stone rather than staff2 it is three    
hundred rather than fifty feet high4    
,our reaction upon these facts may or   
may not be essentials to the aesthetic  
moment1 and we can know whether they are
 essentials only by comparison and      
exclusion4  ,it might be said1          
therefore1 that the analysis of a       
single1 though typical1 aesthetic       
experience is insufficient2 a wide      
induction is necessary4  ,based on the  
experience of many people1 in face of   
the same object8  ,but to many there    
would be no aesthetic experience4  ,on  
that of one person1 over an extensive   
field of objects8  ,how1 then1 determine
 the limits of this field8  ,half of the
 dispute of modern aesthetics is over   
the right to include in the material for
 this induction various kinds of        
enjoyment which are vivid1 not directly 
utilitarian1 but traditionally excluded 
from the field4  ,guyan1 for instance1  
in a charming passage of his ,problemes 
de l',esthetique ,contemporaine1 argues 

for the aesthetic quality of the moment 
when1 exhausted by a long mountain      
tramp1 he quaffed1 among the slopes of  
the ,pyrenees1 a bowl of foaming milk4  
,the same dispute appears1 in more      
complicated form1 in the conflicting    
dicta of the critics4  ,if we do not    
know what part of our feeling is        
aesthetic feeling1 how can wee go       
farther8  ,if the introspecting subject 
cannot say1 ,this is aesthetic feeling1 
it is logically impossible to make his  
state of mind the basis for further     
advance4  ,it is clear that the great   
question is of what one has a right to  
include in the aesthetic experience4    
,but that one should have such a right  
implies that there is an imperative     
element in the situation1 an absolute   
standard somewhere4  ,it seems to me    
that the secret of the difficulty lies  
in the nature of the situation1 with    
which an empirical treatment must       
necessarily fail to deal4 ,what we have 
called the aesthetic experience is      

really a positive toning of the general 
aesthetic attitude4  ,this positive     
toning corresponds to aesthetic         
excellence in the object4  ,but wherever
 the concept of excellence enters1 there
 is always the implication of a         
standard1 value1 judgment4  ,but where  
there is a standard there is always an  
implicit a priori1--a philosophical     
foundation4  ,if1 then1 a philosophical 
method is the last resort and the first 
condition of a true aesthetics1 what is 
the secret of its failure8  ,for that it
 has failed seems to be still the       
consensus of opinion4  ,simply1 ,i      
believe and maintain1 the unreasonable  
and illogical demand which1 for         
instance1 ,fechner makes in the words ,i
 have quoted1 for just this immediate   
application of a philosophical          
definition to concrete cases4  ,who but 
an ,hegelian philosopher1 cries         
,professor ,james1 ever pretended that  
reason in action was per se a sufficient
 explanation of the political changes in

 ,europe8  ,who but an ,hegelian        
philosopher1 he might add1 ever         
pretended that the expression of the    
,idea to ,sense was a sufficient        
explanation of the ,sistine ,madonna8   
,but ,i think the ,hegelian--or         
other--philosopher might answer that he 
had no need so to pretend4  ,such a     
philosophical definition1 as ,i hope to 
show1 cannot possibly apply to          
particular cases1 and should not be     
expected to do so4  ,beauty is an       
excellence1 a standard1 a value4  ,but  
value is in its nature teleological2 is 
of the nature of purpose4 ,anything ha  
value because it fulfills an end1       
because it is good for something in the 
world4  ,a thing is not beautiful       
because it has value1--other things have
 that1--it has value because it is      
beautiful1 because it fulfills the end  
of ,beauty4 ,thus the metaphysical      
definition of ,beauty must set forth    
what this end of ,beauty is1--what it   
serves in the universe4  ,but to        

determine what anything does1 or        
fulfills1 or exemplifies1 is not the    
same as to determine what it is in      
itself4  ,the most that can be said is  
that the end1 or function1 shapes the   
means or constitution4  ,the end is a   
logical imperative4  ,beauty does1 and  
must do1 such things4  ,to ask how1 is  
at once to indicate an ultimate         
departure from the philosophical point  
of view2 for the means to an end are    
different1 and to be empirically        
determined4  ,now the constitution of   
,beauty can be only the means to the end
 of ,beauty1--that combination of       
qualities in the object which will bring
 about the end fixed by philosophical   
definition4 ,the end is general2 the    
means may be different kinds4           
,evidently1 then1 the philosophical     
definition cannot be applied directly to
 the object until the possibilities1    
conditions1 and limitations of that     
object's fitness for the purpose        
assigned are known4  ,we cannot ask1    

,does the ,sistine ,madonna express the 
,idea of ,sense8 until we know all      
possibilities and conditions of the     
visual for attaining that expression4   
,but1 indeed1 the consideration of      
causes and effects suggests at once that
 natural science must guide further     
investigation4  ,philosophy must lay    
down what ,beauty has to do1 but since  
it is in our experience of ,beauty that 
its end is accomplished1 since the      
analysis of such experience and the     
study of its contributing elements is a 
work of the natural science of such     
experience--it would follow that        
psychology must deal with the various   
means through which this end is to be   
reached4  ,thus we see that ,fechner's  
reproach is unjustified4  ,those        
concepts which are too general to apply 
to particular cases are not meant to do 
so4  ,if a general concept expresses1 as
 it should1 the place of ,beauty in the 
hierarchy of metaphysical values1 it is 
for the psychologist of aesthetics to   

develop the means by which that end can 
be reached in the various realms in     
which works of art are found4  ,nor can 
we agree with ,santayana's dictum#a that
 philosophical aesthetics confuses the  
import of an experience with the        
explanation of its cause4  ,it need not4
  ,the aesthetic experience is indeed   
caused by the beautiful object1 but the 
beautiful object itself is caused by the
 possibility of the aesthetic           
experience1-- beauty as an end under the
 conditions of human perception4  ,thus 
the ,nature of ,beauty is related to its
 import1 or meaning1 or end1 as means to
 that end2 and therefore the import of  
an experience may well point out to us  
the constitution of the cause of that   
experience4  ,a work of art1 a piece of 
nature1 is judged by its degree of      
attainment to that end2 the explanation 
of its beauty--of its degree of         
attainment1 that is--is found in the    
effect of its elements1 according to    
psychological laws1 on the aesthetic    

subject4  #a ,the ,sense of ,beauty1    
#ahih4 ,intro4  ,such a psychological   
study of the means by which the end of  
,beauty is attained is the only method  
by which we can come to an explanation  
of the wealth of concrete beauty4  ,the 
concept of explanation1 indeed1 is valid
 only within the realm of causes and    
effects4  ,the aim of aesthetics being  
conceded1 as above1 to be the           
determination of the ,nature of ,beauty 
and the explanation of our feelings     
about it1 it is evident at this point   
that the ,nature of ,beauty must be     
determined by philosophy2 but the       
general definition having been fixed1   
the meaning of the work of art having   
been made clear1 the only possible      
explanation of our feelings about       
it--the aesthetic experience1 in other  
words--must be gained from psychology4  
,this method is not open to the logical 
objections against the preceding4  ,no  
longer need we ask what has a right to  
be included in the aesthetic experience4

 ,that has been fixed by the definition 
of ,beauty4  ,but how the beautiful     
object brings about the aesthetic       
experience1 the boundaries of which are 
already known1 is clearly matter for    
psychology4  ,the first step must then  
be to win the philosophical definition  
of ,beauty4  ,it was ,kant1 says ,hegel1
 who spoke the first rational word      
concerning ,beauty4  ,the study of his  
successors will reveal1 ,i believe1 that
 the aesthetic of the great system of   
idealism forms1 on the whole1 one       
identical doctrine4  ,it is worth while 
to dwell somewhat on this point1 because
 the traditional view of the relation of
 the aesthetic of ,kant1 ,schiller1     
,schelling1 and ,hegel is otherwise4    
,kant's starting-point was the discovery
 of the normative1 over-individual      
nature of ,beauty1 which we have just   
found to be the secret of the           
contradictions of empirical aesthetics4 
,yet he came to it at the bidding of    
quite other motives4  ,kant's aesthetics

 was meant to serve as the keystone of  
the arch between sense and reason4  ,the
 discovery of all that is implicit in   
the experience of the senses had led him
 to deny the possibility of knowledge   
beyond the matter of this experience4   
,yet the reason has an inevitable       
tendency to press beyond this limit1 to 
seek all-embracing1 absolute            
unities1--to conceive an unconditioned  
totality4  ,thus the reason presents us 
with the ideas--beyond all possibility  
of knowledge--of the ,soul1 the ,world1 
and ,god4  ,in the words of ,kant1 the  
,ideas of ,reason lead the understanding
 to the consideration of ,nature        
according to a principle of             
completeness1 although it can never     
attain to this4  ,can there be a bridge 
across this abyss between sense and     
reason8 then asks ,kant2 which bridge he
 believes himself to have found in the  
aesthetic faculty4  ,for on inquiring   
what is involved in the judgment1 ,this 
is beautiful1 he discovers that such a  

judgment is universal and necessary1    
inasmuch as it implies that every normal
 spectator must acknowledge its         
validity1 that it is disinterested      
because it rests on the appearance of   
the object without demanding its actual 
existence1 and that it is immediate or  
free1 as it acknowledges the object as  
beautiful without definite purpose1 as  
of adaptation to use4  ,but how does    
this judgment constitute the desired    
bond between sense and reason8  ,simply 
in that1 though applied to an object of 
the senses1 it has yet all the marks of 
the ,idea of ,reason1--it is universal1 
necessary1 free1 unconditioned2 it is   
judged as if it were perfect1 and so    
fulfills those demands of reason which  
elsewhere in the world of sense are     
unsatisfied4  ,the two important        
factors1 then1 of ,kant's aesthetics are
 its reconciliation of sense and reason 
in beauty1 and its reference of the     
purposiveness of beauty to the cognitive
 faculty4  ,schiller has been given the 

credit of transcending ,kant's          
subjective aesthetic through his        
emphasis on the significance of the     
beautiful object4  ,it is not bound by a
 conception to which it must attain1 so 
that it is perceived as if it were free4
  ,nor do we desire the reality of it to
 use for ourselves or for others2 so    
that we are free in relation to it4     
,it1 the object1 is thus the vindication
 of freedom in the world of phenomena1  
that world which is otherwise a binding 
necessity4 ,but it would seem that this 
had been already taught by ,kant        
himself1 and that ,schiller has but     
enlivened the subject by his two        
illuminating phrases1 aesthetic         
semblance and the play-impulse1 to      
denote the real object of the aesthetic 
desire and the true nature of that      
desire2 form instead of material        
existence1 and a free attitude instead  
of serious purpose4  ,still1 his        
insistence on ,beauty as the realization
 of freedom may be said to have paved   

the way for ,schelling's theory1 in     
which the aesthetic reaches its maximum 
of importance4  ,the central thought of 
the ,absolute ,idealism of ,schelling is
 the underlying identity of ,nature and 
the ,self4  ,in ,nature1 from matter up 
to the organism1 the objective factor   
predominates1 or1 in ,schelling's       
phrase1 the conscious self is determined
 by the unconscious4  ,in morality1     
science1 the subjective factor          
predominates1 or the unconscious is     
determined by the conscious4  ,but the  
work of art is a natural appearance and 
so unconscious1 and is yet the product  
of a conscious activity4  ,it gives1    
then1 the equilibrium of the real and   
ideal factors1--just that repose of     
reconciliation or indifference which    
alone can show the ,absolute4  ,but--   
and this is of immense importance for   
our theory--in order to explain the     
identity of subject and object1 the ,ego
 must have an intuition1 through which1 
in one and the same appearance1 it is in

 itself at once conscious and           
unconscious1 and this condition is given
 in the aesthetic experience4  ,the     
beautiful is thus the solution of the   
riddle of the universe1 for it is the   
possibility of the explicit             
consciousness of the unity of ,nature   
and the ,self--or the ,absolute4  ,so   
,beauty is again the pivot on which a   
system turns4  ,its place is not        
essentially different from that which it
 held in the systems of ,kant and       
,schiller4  ,as the objective           
possibility for the bridge between sense
 and reason1 as the vindication of      
freedom in the phenomenal world1 and as 
vindication of the possible unity of the
 real and the ideal1 or nature and self1
 the world-elements1 its philosophical  
significance is nearly the same4  ,with 
,hegel ,beauty loses little of its      
commanding position4 ,the universe is in
 its nature rational2 ,thought and      
,being are one4  ,the world-process is a
 logical process2 and nature and        

history1 in which spirit of the world   
realizes itself1 are but applied logic4 
,the completely fulfilled or expressed  
,truth is then the concrete             
world-system2 at the same time the life 
or self of the universe2 the ,absolute4 
,this ,hegel calls the ,idea1 and he    
defines ,beauty as the expression of the
 ,idea to sense4  ,this definition would
 seem to be as to the letter in accord  
with the general tendency as have       
already outlined4  ,it might be said    
that it is but another phrasing of      
,schelling's thought of the ,absolute as
 presented to the ,ego in ,beauty4  ,but
 not so4  ,for ,schelling1 the aesthetic
 is a schema or form1--that is1 the form
 of balance1 equilibrium1 reconciliation
 of the rational ideal1--not a content4 
,but ,hegel's ,beauty expresses the     
,idea by the way of information or      
association4  ,that this is true any one
 of his traditional examples makes      
evident4 ,correggio's ,madonna of the   
,st4 ,sebastian is found by him inferior

 to the ,sistine ,madonna4  ,why8  ,in  
the first picture we have the dearest   
and loveliest of human relations        
consecrated by contrast with what is    
,divine4  ,in the second picture we have
 the ,divine relation itself1 showing   
itself under the limitations of the     
human4#a  ,dutch painting1 he tells us1 
ought not to be despised2 for it is this
 fresh and wakeful freedom and vitality 
of mind in apprehension and presentation
 that forms the highest aspect of these 
pictures4  ,and a commentator adds1 ,the
 spontaneous joy of the perfect life is 
figured to this lower sphere4  ,his     
whole treatment of ,art as a symbol     
confirms this view1 as do all his       
criticisms4  ,art or ,beauty shall      
reveal to our understanding the eternal 
,ideal4  #a ,kedney's ,hegel's          
,aesthetics1 #ahib1 p4 #aeh4  ,on       
comparing this with what we have won    
from ,kant1 ,schiller1 and ,schelling1  
the divergence becomes apparent4  ,i    
have tried to show that there is no     

essential difference between these three
 either in their general view of the    
aesthetic experience1 or in the degree  
of objectivity of their doctrine of     
,beauty4 ,they do not contradict one    
another4  ,they merely emphasize now the
 unity1 now the reconciliation of       
opposites1 in the aesthetic experience4 
,the experience of the beautiful        
constitutes a reconciliation of the     
warring elements of experience1 in a    
world in which the demands of ,reason   
seem to conflict with the logic of      
events1 and the beautiful object is such
 that it constitutes the permanent      
possibility for this reconciliation4    
,but the attempt to include ,hegel      
within this circle reveals at once the  
need of further delimitation4  ,the     
beautiful is to reveal1 and to vindicate
 in revealing1 the union of the         
world-elements1 that is1 the spirit of  
the world4  ,on ,hegel's own principles1
 the ,idea should be expressed to sense4
  ,now if this expression is not1 after 

all1 directly to sense1 but the sense   
gives merely the occasion for passing   
over to the thought of the ,divine1 it  
would seem that the ,beauty is not after
 all in the work of art1 but out of it4 
,the ,infinite1 or the ,idea1 or the    
fusion of real and ideal1 must be shown 
to sense4  ,is there any way in which   
this is conceivable8  ,we cannot        
completely express to sense ,niagara    
,falls or the ,jungfrau1 for they are   
infinitely beyond the possibilities of  
imitation4 ,yet the particular contour  
of the ,jungfrau is never mistaken in   
the smallest picture4 ,in making a model
 of ,niagara we should have to reproduce
 the relation between body of water1    
width of stream1 and height of fall1 and
 we might succeed in getting the        
peculiar effect of voluminousness which 
marks that wonder of ,nature4  ,the     
soaring of a lark is not like the       
pointing upward of a slender ,gothic    
spire1 yet there is a likeness in the   
attitudes with which we follow them4    

,all these cases have certain           
form-qualities in common1 by virtue of  
which they resemble each other4  ,now it
 is these very form-qualities which     
,kant is using when he takes the        
aesthetic judgment as representative of 
reason in the world of sense because it 
shows the qualities of the ideas of     
reason1--that is1 unconditional totality
 or freedom4  ,and we might1 indeed1    
hope to express the ,idea to sense if we
 could find for it a form-quality1 or   
subjectively1 in the phrase of ,kant1 a 
form of reflection4  ,what is the form  
of reflection for the ,absolute1 the    
,idea8 ,it would appear to be a         
combination of ,unity and ,totality--   
self-completeness4  ,an object1 then1   
which should be self- complete from all 
possible points of view1 to which could 
be applied the form of reflection for   
the ,absolute1 would1 therefore1 alone  
truly express it1 and so alone fulfill  
the end of ,beauty4  ,the ,idea would be
 there in its form2 it would be shown to

 sense1 and so first full expressed4    
,with this important modification of    
,hegel's definition of ,beauty1 which   
brings it into line with the point of   
view already won1 ,i believe the way is 
at last opened from the traditional     
philosophy of aesthetics to a healthy   
and concrete psychological theory4  ,but
 must every self-complete object give   
rise to the aesthetic experience8  ,an  
object is absolutely self-complete only 
for the perceiving subject2 it is so1 in
 other words1 only when it produces a   
self-complete experience for that       
subject4  ,if reconciliation of the     
warring elements of the universe is the 
end of ,beauty it must take place not   
for1 but in1 the human personality2 it  
must not be understood1 but immediately1
 completely experienced2 it should be   
realized in the subject of the aesthetic
 experience1 the lover of beauty4  ,the 
beautiful object would be not that which
 should show in outline form1 or remind 
of1 this ,unity of the ,world1 but which

 should create for the subject the      
moment of self- completeness2 which     
should inform the aesthetic subject with
 that unity and self-completeness which 
are the forms of reflection of the      
,infinite4  ,the subject should be not a
 mirror of perfection1 but a state of   
perfection4  ,only in this sense does   
the concept of reconciliation come to   
its full meaning4  ,not because ,i see  
freedom1 but because ,i am free2 not    
because ,i think of ,god1 or the        
,infinite1 or the one1 but because ,i am
 for the moment complete1 at the highest
 point of energy and unity1 does the    
aesthetic experience constitute such a  
reconciliation4  ,not because ,i behold 
the ,infinite1 but because ,i have1     
myself1 a moment of perfection4  ,herein
 it is that our theory constitutes a    
complete contradiction to all expression
 or significant theories of the         
,beautiful1 and does away with the      
necessity those theories are under of   
reading sermons into stones4  ,the      

yellow primrose needs not to remind us  
of the harmony of the universe1 or to   
have ulterior significance whatever1 if 
it gives by its own direct simple       
stimulation a moment of ,unity and      
,self- completeness4  ,that immediate   
experience indeed contains in itself the
 form of reflection of the ,absolute1   
and it is through this that we so often 
pass1 in the enjoyment of ,beauty1 to   
the thought of the divine4  ,but that   
thought is a corollary1 a secondary     
effect1 not an essential part of the    
aesthetic moment4  ,there is a wonderful
 bit of unconscious aesthetics in the   
following passage from ,senancour1      
touching the secret of relation we have 
just analyzed4  ,it was dark and rather 
cold4  ,i was gloomy1 and walked because
 ,i had nothing to do4  ,i passed by    
some flowers placed breast- high upon a 
wall4  ,a jonquil in bloom was there4   
,it is the strongest expression of      
desire3  it was the first perfume of the
 year4  ,i felt all the happiness       

destined for man4  ,this unutterable    
harmony of souls1 the phantom of the    
ideal world1 arose in me complete4  ,i  
never felt anything so great or so      
instantaneous4  ,i know not what shape1 
what analogy1 what secret of relation it
 was that made me see in this flower a  
limitless beauty4444 ,i shall never     
inclose in a conception this power1 this
 immensity that nothing will express2   
this form that nothing will contain2    
this ideal of a better world which one  
feels1 but which it would seem that     
nature has not made4#a  #a ,translation 
by ,carleton ,noyes3  ,the ,enjoyment of
 ,art1 #aijc1 p4 #fe4  ,our             
philosophical definition of ,beauty has 
thus taken final shape4  ,the beautiful 
object possesses those qualities which  
bring the personality into a state of   
unity and self-completeness4 ,lightly to
 case aside such a definition as        
abstract1 vague1 ,empty1 is no less     
short sighted than to treat the idea of 
the ,absolute ,will1 of the             

,transcendental ,reason1 of the ,eternal
 ,love1 as mere intellectual factors in 
the aesthetic experience4 ,it should not
 be criticised as giving no objective   
account of the nature and origin of     
,beauty4  ,the nature of ,beauty is     
indicated in the definition2 the origin 
of ,beauty may be studied in its        
historical development2 its reason for  
being is simply the desire of the human 
heart for the perfect moment4  ,beauty  
is to bring unity and self-completeness 
into the personality4  ,by what means8  
,what causes can bring about this       
effect8  ,when we enter the realm of    
causes and effects1 however1 we have    
already left the ground of philosophy1  
and it is fitting that the concepts     
which we have to use should be adapted  
to the empirical point of view4  ,the   
personality1 as dealt with in           
psychology1 is but the psychophysical   
organism2 and we need to know only how  
to translate unity and self-completeness
 into psychological terms4  ,the        

psychological organism is in a state of 
unity either when it is in a state of   
virtual congealment or emptiness1 as in 
a trance or ecstasy2 or when it is in a 
state of repose1 without tendency to    
change4  ,secondly1 the organism is     
self-complete when it is at the highest 
possible point of tone1 of functional   
efficiency1 of enhanced life4  ,then a  
combination of favorable stimulation and
 repose would characterize the aesthetic
 feeling4  ,but it may be said that     
stimulation and repose are contradictory
 concepts1 and we must indeed admit that
 the absolute repose of the hypnotic    
trance is not aesthetic1 because empty  
of stimulus4 ,the only aesthetic repose 
is that in which stimulation resulting  
in impulse to movement or action is     
checked or compensated for by its       
antagonistic impulse2 inhibition of     
action1 or action returning upon itself1
 combined with heightening of tone4     
,but this is ,,tension1 ,,equilibrium1  
or ,,balance ,,of ,,forces1 which is    

thus seen to be ,a ,,general ,,condition
 ,,of ,,all ,,aesthetic ,,experience4   
,the concept is familiar in pictorial   
composition and to some extent also in  
music and poetry1 but here first appears
 as grounded in the very demand for the 
union of repose with activity4          
,moreover1 this requirement1 which we   
have derived from the logical concepts  
of unity and totality1 as translated    
into psychological terms1 receives      
confirmation from the nature of organic 
life4  ,it was the perfect moment that  
we sought1 and we found it in the       
immediate experience of unity and       
self-completeness2 and unity for a      
living being ,,can only be equilibrium4 
,now it appears that an authoritative   
definition of the general nature of an  
organism makes it so built1 whether on  
mechanical principles or not1 that every
 deviation from the equilibrium point   
sets up a tendency to return to it4#a   
,equilibrium1 in greater or less        
excursions from the centre1 is thus the 

ultimate nature of organic life4  ,the  
perfect equilibrium1 that is1           
equilibrium with heightened tone1 will  
then give the perfect moment4  #a       
,l4,t4 ,hobhouse1 ,mind in ,evolution4  
,the further steps of aesthetics are    
then toward analysis of the             
psychological effect of all the elements
 which enter into a work of art1 with   
reference to their effect in producing  
stimulation or repose4  ,what colors1   
forms1 tones1 emotions1 ideas1 favorably
 stimulate8  ,what combinations of these
 bring to repose8  ,all the modern      
studies in so-called physiological      
aesthetics1 into the emotional and      
other--especially motor-- effects of    
color1 tone-sensation1 melodic sequence1
 simple forms1 etc41 find here there    
proper place4  ,a further important     
question1 as to the fitting             
psychological designation of the        
aesthetic state1 is now suggested4      
,some authorities speak of the aesthetic
 attitude or activity1 describing it as 

sympathetic imitation or absorption2    
others of the aesthetic pleasure4  ,but1
 according to our definition of the     
aesthetic experience as a combination of
 favorable stimulation with repose1 this
 state1 as involving a distinctive      
feeling-tone and a characteristic trend 
of activity aroused by a certain        
situation1#a can be no other than an    
emotion4  ,this view is confirmed by    
introspection2 we speak of aesthetic    
activity and aesthetic pleasure1 but we 
are conscious of a complete arrest1 and 
sometimes of a very distinct divergence 
from pure pleasure4  ,the experience is 
unique1 it seems to defy description1 to
 be intense1 vivid1 and yet--like itself
 alone4  ,any attempt to disengage      
special1 already known emotions1 even at
 the play or in hearing music1 is often 
in vain1 in just those moments when our 
excitement is most intense4  ,but the   
hypothesis of a unique emotion1 parallel
 to those of joy1 fear1 etc41 and with a
 psychological basis as outlined1 would 

account for these facts4  ,the positive 
toning of the experience--what we call  
aesthetic pleasure--is due not only to  
the favorable stimulation1 but also to  
the fact that the very antagonism of    
impulses which constitutes repose       
heightens tone while it inhibits action4
  ,thus the conditions of both factors  
of aesthetic emotion tend to induct     
pleasure4  #a ,baldwin's ,dict4 ,of     
,phil4 ,and ,psychol4  ,art4  ,emotion4 
,it is1 then1 clear that no specific    
aesthetic pleasure need be sought4  ,the
 very phrase1 indeed1 is a misnomer1    
since all pleasure is qualitatively the 
same1 and differentiated only by the    
specific activities which it            
accompanies4  ,it is also to be noted   
that those writers on aesthetics who    
have dwelt most on aesthetic pleasure   
have come in conclusion only to specific
 activities1 like the imitation of      
,groos1 for instance4 ,in the light of  
the just-won definition of aesthetic    
emotion1 it is interesting to examine   

some of the well-known modern aesthetic 
theories4  ,lipps defines the aesthetic 
experience as a thrill of sympathetic   
feeling1 ,groos as sympathetic          
imitation1 evidently assuming that      
pleasure accompanies this4  ,but there  
are many feelings of sympathy1 and      
joyful ones1 which do not belong to the 
aesthetic realm4  ,in the same way1 not 
all imitation is accompanied by         
pleasure1 and not all of that falls     
within the generally accepted aesthetic 
field4  ,if these definitions were      
accepted as they stand1 all our         
rejoicings with friends1 all our        
inspiration from a healthy1 magnetic    
presence must be included in it4  ,it is
 clear that further limitation is       
necessary2 but if to this sympathetic   
imitation1 this living through in       
sympathy1 we add the demand for repose1 
the necessary limitation is made4       
,physical exercise in general1 or the   
instinctive imitation of energetic1 or  
easy 7in general ,,favorable7 movements1

 is pleasurable1 indeed1 but the        
experience is not aesthetic1--as is     
quite clear1 indeed1 to common          
sense1--and it is not aesthetic because 
it is the contradiction of repose4  ,a  
particular case of the transformation of
 pleasurable physical exercise into an  
aesthetic activity is seen in the       
experience of symmetrical or balanced   
form2 any moderate1 smooth exercise of  
the eye is pleasurable1 but this alone  
induces a state of the whole organism   
combining repose with stimulation4  ,the
 theories of ,kulpe and ,santayana1     
while they definitely mark out the      
ground1 seem to me in need of addition4 
,absorption in the object in respect to 
its bare quality and conformation does  
not1 of course1 give the needed         
information1 for objective beauty1 of   
the character of this conformation or   
form4  ,but yet1 it might be said that  
the content of beauty might conceivably 
be deduced from the psychological       
conditions of absorption4  ,in the same 

way1 ,santayana's ,beauty as objectified
 pleasure1 or pleasure as the quality of
 a thing1 is neither a determination of 
objective beauty nor a sufficient       
description of the psychological state4 
,yet analysis of those qualities in the 
thing that cause us to make our pleasure
 a quality of it would supplement the   
definition sufficiently and completely  
in the sense of our own formula4  ,why  
do we regard pleasure as the quality of 
a thing8  ,because there is something in
 the thing that makes us spread1 as it  
were1 our pleasure upon it4  ,this is   
that which fixates us1 arrests us1 upon 
it1--which can be only the elements that
 make for repose4  ,guyau1 however1     
comes nearest to our point of view4     
,the beautiful is a perception or an    
action which stimulates life within us  
under its three forms simultaneously    
7i4e41 sensibility1 intelligence1 and   
will7 and produces pleasure by the swift
 consciousness of this general          
stimulation4#a  ,it is from this general

 stimulation that ,guyau explains the   
aesthetic effect of his famous drink of 
milk among mountain scenes4  ,but such  
general stimulation might accompany     
successful action of any kind1 and thus 
the moral and the aesthetic would fall  
together4  ,that ,m4 ,guyau is so       
successful in his analysis is due rather
 to the fact that just this diffused    
stimulation is likely to come from such 
exercise as is characterized by the     
mutual checking of antagonistic impulses
 producing an equilibrium4  ,the        
diffusion of stimulation would be our   
formula for the aesthetic state only if 
interpreted as stimulation arresting    
action4  #a  ,problemes de l',esthetique
 ,contemporaine #aijb1 p4 #gg4  ,the    
diffusion of stimulation1 the           
equilibrium of impulses1 life-          
enhancement through repose6--this is the
 aesthetic experience4 ,but how1 then1  
it will be asked1 are we to interpret   
the temporal arts8  ,a picture or a     
statue maybe understood through this    

formula1 but hardly a drama or a        
symphony4  ,if the form of the one is   
symmetry1 hidden or not1 would not the  
form of the other be represented by a   
straight line8  ,that which has         
beginning1 middle1 and end is not static
 but dynamic4  ,let us consider once    
more the concept of equilibrium4        
,inhibition of action through           
antagonistic impulses1 or action        
returning upon itself1 we have defined  
it2 and the line cannot be drawn sharply
 between these types4  ,the visual      
analogue for equilibrium may be either  
symmetrical figure or circle2 the       
excursion from the centre may be either 
the swing of the pendulum or the sweep  
of the planet4  ,the ,,return is the    
essential4  ,now it is a commonplace of 
criticism--though the significance of   
the dictum has never been sufficiently  
seen--that the great drama1 novel1 or   
symphony does return upon itself4  ,the 
excursion is merely longer1 of a        
different order of impulses from that of

 the picture4 ,the last note is the only
 possible answer to the first2 it       
contains the first4  ,the last scene has
 meaning only as the satisfaction of the
 first4  ,the measure of the perfection 
of a work of temporal art is thus its   
,,implicit character4  ,the end is      
contained in the beginning--that is the 
meaning of inevitableness4  ,that the   
constraining power of drama or symphony 
is just this sense of urgency1 of       
compulsion1 from one point to another1  
is but confirmation of this view4  ,the 
temporal art tries ever to pass from    
first to last1 which is first4  ,it     
yearns for unity4 ,the dynamic movement 
of the temporal arts is cyclic1 which is
 ultimately static1 of the nature of    
equilibrium4  ,it is only in the        
wideness of the sweep that the dynamic  
repose of poetry and music differs from 
the static activity of picture and      
statue4  ,thus the ,nature of ,beauty is
 in the relation of means to an end2 the
 means1 the possibilities of stimulation

 in the motor1 visual1 auditory1 and    
purely ideal fields2 the end1 a moment  
of perfection1 of self-complete unity of
 experience1 of favorable stimulation   
with repose4  ,beauty is not perfection2
 but the beauty of an object lies in its
 permanent possibility of creating the  
perfect moment4  ,the experience of this
 moment1 the union of stimulation and   
repose1 constitutes the unique aesthetic
 emotion4   ,,iii ,,the ,,aesthetic     
,,repose   ,,iii ,,the ,,aesthetic      
,,repose  ,,the popular interest in     
scientific truth has always had its     
hidden spring in a desire for the       
marvelous4  ,the search for the         
philosopher's stone has done as much for
 chemistry as the legend of the elixir  
of life for exploration and geographical
 discovery4  ,from the excitements of   
these suggestions of the occult1 the    
world settled down into a reasonable    
understanding of the facts of which they
 were but the enlarged and grotesque    
shadows4  ,so it has been with physics  

and physiology1 and so also1            
preeminently1 with the science of mental
 life4  ,mesmerism1 hypnotism1 the facts
 of the alteration1 the multiplicity1   
and the annihilation of personality have
 each brought us their moments of       
pleasurable terror1 and passed thus into
 the field of general interest4  ,but   
science can accept no broken chains4    
,for all the thrill of mystery1 we may  
not forget that the hypnotic state is   
but highly strung attention1--at the    
last turn of the screw1--and that the   
alternation of personality is after all 
no more than the highest power of       
variability of mood4  ,in regard to the 
annihilation of the sense of            
personality1 it may be said that no     
connection with daily experience is at  
first apparent4  ,scientists1 as well as
 the world at large1 have been inclined 
to look on the loss of the sense of     
personality as pathological2 and yet it 
may be maintained that it is            
nevertheless the typical form of those  

experiences we ourselves regard as the  
most valuable4  ,the loss of            
personality6  ,in that dread thought    
there lies1 to most of us1 all the sting
 of death and the victory of the grave4 
,it seems1 with such a fate in store1   
that immortality were futile1 and life  
itself a mockery4  ,yet the idea1 when  
dwelt upon1 assumes an aspect of strange
 familiarity2 it is an old friend1 after
 all4  ,can we deny that all our        
sweetest hours are those of             
self-forgetfulness8  ,the language of   
emotion1 religious1 aesthetic1          
intellectually creative1 testifies      
clearly to the fading of the            
consciousness of self as feeling nears  
the white heat4  ,not only in the       
speechless1 stark immobility of the     
pathological case1 but in all the stages
 of religious ecstasy1 aesthetic        
pleasure1 and creative inspiration1 is  
to be traced what we know as the loss of
 the feeling of self4  ,bernard of      
,clairvaux dwells on that ecstasy of    

deification in which the individual     
disappears in the eternal essence as the
 drop of water in a cask of wine4  ,says
 ,meister ,eckhart1 ,thou shalt sink    
away from they selfhood1 though shalt   
flow into ,his self- possession1 the    
very thought of ,thine shall melt into  
,his ,mine2 and ,st4 ,teresa1 ,the soul1
 in thus searching for its ,god1 feels  
with a very lively and very sweet       
pleasure that is is fainting almost     
quiet away4  ,still more striking is the
 language of aesthetic emotion4         
,philosopher and poet have but one      
expression for the universal experience4
  ,says ,keats in the ,ode to a         
,nightingale3--       ,my heart aches1  
and a drowsy numbness pains         ,my 
sense as though of hemlock ,i had drunk1
       ,or emptied some dull opiate to  
the drains         ,one minute past1 and
 ,lethewards had sunk3       ',tis not  
through envy of thy happy lot1          
,but being too happy in thy happiness4  
,and in ,schopenhauer we read that he   

who contemplates the beautiful forgets  
even his individuality1 his will1 and   
only continues to exist as the pure     
subject1 the clear mirror of the object4
  ,but not only the religious enthusiast
 and the worshiper of beauty lose       
themselves in ecstasy4  ,the fine frenzy
 of the thinker is typical4  ,from      
,archimedes1 whose life paid the forfeit
 of his impersonal absorption2 from     
,socrates1 musing in one spot from dawn 
to dawn1 to ,newton and ,goethe1 there  
is but one form of the highest effort to
 penetrate and to create4 ,emerson is   
right in saying of the genius1 ,his     
greatness consists in the fullness in   
which an ecstatic state is realized in  
him4  ,the temporary evaporation of the 
consciousness of one's own ,personality 
is then decidedly not a pathological    
experience4 ,it seems the condition1    
indeed1 and recognized as such in       
popular judgment1 of the deepest feeling
 and the highest achievement4  ,perhaps 
it is the very assumption of this       

condition in our daily thoughts that has
 veiled the psychological problem it    
presents4  ,we opine1 easily enough1    
that great deeds are done in            
forgetfulness of self4  ,but why should 
we forget ourselves in doing great      
deeds8  ,why not as well feel in every  
act its reverberation on the self1--the 
renewed assurance that it is ,i who can8
  ,why not1 in each aesthetic thrill1   
awake anew to the consciousness of      
myself as ruler in a realm of beauty8   
,why not1 in the rush of intellectual   
production1 glory that my mind to me a  
kingdom is8  ,and yet the facts are     
otherwise3 in proportion to the         
intensity and value of the experience is
 its approach to the objective1 the     
impersonal1 the ecstatic state4  ,then  
how explain this anomaly8  ,why should  
religious1 aesthetic1 and intellectual  
emotion be accompanied in varying       
degrees by the loss of                  
self-consciousness8  ,why should the    
sense of personality play us so strange 

a trick as to vanish1 at the moment of  
seemingly greatest power1 in the very   
shadow of its own glory8  ,if now we put
 the most obvious question1 and ask1 in 
explanation of its escapades1 what the  
true nature of this personality is1 we  
shall find ourselves quite out of our   
reckoning on the vast sea of            
metaphysics4  ,to know what personality 
,,is1 root and all1 and all in all1 is  
to know what ,god and man is4           
,fortunately1 our problem is much more  
simple4  ,it is not the personality1 its
 reality1 its meaning1 that vanishes2   
no1 nor even the psychological system of
 dispositions4  ,we remain1 in such a   
moment of ecstasy1 as persons1 what we  
were before4  ,it is the ,,feeling of   
personality that has faded2 and to find 
out in what this will-o'-the-wisp       
feeling of personality resides is a task
 wholly within the powers of            
psychological analysis4  ,let no one    
object that the depth and value of      
experience seem to disintegrate under   

the psychologist's microscope4  ,the    
place of the full-orbed personality in a
 world of noble ends is not affected by 
the possibility that the centre of its  
conscious crystallization may be found  
in a single sensation4  ,the            
explanation1 then1 of this apparent     
inconsistency--the fading away of self  
in the midst of certain most important  
experiences-- must lie in the nature of 
the feeling of personality4  ,what is   
that feeling8  ,on what is it based8    
,how can it be described8 ,the          
difficulties of introspection have led  
many to deny the possibility of such    
self-fixation4  ,the fleeting moment    
passes1 and we grasp only an idea or a  
feeling2 the ,ego has slipped away like 
a drop of mercury under the fingers4    
,like the hero of the ,german poet1 who 
wanted his queue in front1       ,then  
round and round1 and out and in1        
,all day that puzzled sage did spin2    
,in vain2 it mattered not a pin2        
,the pigtail hung behind him1  when ,i  

turn round upon myself to catch myself  
in the act of thinking1 ,i can never lay
 hold on anything but a sensation4  ,i  
may peel off1 like the leaves of an     
artichoke1 my social self1-- my         
possessions and positions1 my friends1  
my relatives2 my active self1--my books 
and implements of work2 my clothes2 even
 my flesh1 and sit in my bones1 like    
,sydney ,smith1--the ,i in me retreating
 ever to an inner citadel2 but ,i must  
stop with the feeling that something    
moves in there4  ,that is not what my   
self ,,is1 but what the elusive sprite  
feels like when ,i have got my finger on
 him4  ,in daily experience1 however1 it
 is unnecessary to proceed to such      
extremities4  ,the self1 at a given     
moment of consciousness1 is felt as one 
group of elements which form a          
foreground4  ,the second group is1 we   
say1 before the attention1 and is not at
 that moment felt as self2 while the    
first group is vague1 undifferentiated1 
not attended to1 but felt4  ,any element

 in this background can detach itself   
and come into the foreground of         
attention4  ,i become conscious at this 
moment1 for instance1 of the weight of  
my shoulders as they rest on the back of
 my chair3  that sensation1 however1    
belongs to my self no more than does the
 sensation of the smoothness of the     
paper on which my hand rests4  ,i know  
,i am a self1 because ,i can pass1 so to
 speak1 between the foreground and the  
background of my consciousness4  ,it is 
the feeling of transition that gives me 
the negative and positive of my circuit2
 and this feeling of transition1 hunted 
to its lair1 reveals itself as nothing  
more nor less than a motor sensation    
felt in the sense organs which adapt    
themselves to the new conditions4  ,i   
look on that picture and on this1 and   
know that they are two1 because the     
change in the adaptation of my sense    
organs to their objects has been felt4  
,i close my eyes and think of near and  
far1 and it is the change in the        

sensations from my eye muscles that     
tells me ,i have passed between the two2
 or1 to express it otherwise1 that it is
 in me the two have succeeded each      
other4  ,while the self in its widest   
sense1 therefore1 is co-extensive with  
consciousness1 the distinctive feeling  
of self as opposed to the elements in   
consciousness which represent the outer 
world is based on those bodily          
sensations which are connected with the 
relations of objects4 ,my world--the    
foreground of my consciousness--would   
fall in on me and crush me1 if ,i could 
not hold it off by just this power to   
feel it different from my background2   
and it is felt as different through the 
motor sensations involved in the change 
of my sense organs in passing from one  
to the other4  ,the condition of the    
feeling of transition1 and hence of the 
feeling of personality1 is then the     
presence in consciousness of at least   
two possible objects of attention2 and  
the formal consciousness of self might  

be schematized as a straight line       
connecting two points1 in which one     
point represents the foreground1 and the
 other the background1 of consciousness4
  ,if we now accept this view1 and ask  
under what conditions the sense of self 
may be lost1 the answer is at once      
suggested4 ,it will happen when the     
twoness disappears1 so that the line    
connecting and separating the two       
objects in our scheme drops out or is   
indefinitely decreased4  ,when          
background or foreground tends to       
disappear or to merge either into the   
other1 or when background or foreground 
makes an indissoluble unity or          
unbreakable circle1 the content of      
consciousness approaches absolute unity4
  ,there is no relating to be done1 no  
transition to be made4  ,the condition1 
then1 for the feeling of personality is 
no longer present1 and there results a  
feeling of complete unity with the      
object of attention2 and if this object 
of attention is itself without parts or 

differences1 there results an empty     
void1 ,nirvana4  ,suppose that ,i gaze1 
motionless1 at a single bright light    
until all my bodily sensations have     
faded4  ,then one of the points in our  
scheme has dropped out4  ,in my mind    
there reigns but one thought4  ,the     
transition feeling goes1 for there is   
nothing to be related4  ,now it is one  
blaze1 about me and within me2 ,i am    
that light1 and myself no longer4  ,my  
consciousness is a unit or a blank1 as  
you please4  ,if you say that ,i am     
self- hypnotized1 ,i may reply that ,i  
have simply ceased to feel myself       
different from the content of my        
consciousness1 because that content has 
ceased to allow a transition between its
 terms4  ,this is1 however1 not the only
 possible form of the disappearance of  
our twoness1 and the resulting loss of  
the self-feeling4 ,when the sequence of 
objects in consciousness is so rapid    
that the feeling of transition1         
expressed in motor terms1 drops below   

the threshold of sensation1 the feeling 
of self again fades4 ,think1 for        
instance1 of the ,bacchanal orgies4     
,the votary of ,dionysus1 dancing1      
shrieking1 tearing at his hair and at   
his garments1 lost in the lightning     
change of his sensations all power of   
relating them4  ,his mind was ringed in 
a whirling circle1 every point of which 
merged into the next without possibility
 of differentiation4  ,and since he     
could feel no transition periods1 he    
could feel ,,himself no longer2 he was  
one with the content of his             
consciousness1 which consciousness was  
no less a unit than our bright light    
aforesaid1 just as a circle is as truly 
a unit as a point4  ,the priest of      
,dionysus must have felt himself only a 
dancing1 shouting thing1 one with the   
world without1 whirled round in earth's 
diurnal course with rocks and stones and
 trees4  ,and how perfectly the ancient 
belief fits our psychophysical analysis6
  ,the ,bacchic enthusiast believed     

himself possessed with the very ecstasy 
of the spirit of nature4  ,his inspired 
madness was the presence of the god who 
descended upon him1--the god of the     
vine1 of spring2 the rising sap1 the    
rushing stream1 the bursting leaf1 the  
rippling song1 all the life of flowing  
things1 they were he6  ,autika ga pasa  
zoreusei1 was the cry1--soon the whole  
earth will dance and sing6  ,yes1 this  
breaking down of barriers1 this melting 
of the personality into its             
surroundings1 this strange and sweet    
self- abandonment must have its source  
in just the disappearance of the        
sensation of adjustment1 on which the   
feeling of personality is based4  ,but  
how can it be1 we have to ask1 that a   
principle so barren of emotional        
significance should account for the     
ecstasy of  religious emotion1 of       
aesthetic delight1 of creative          
inspiration8  ,it is not1 however1      
religion or beauty or genius that is the
 object of our inquiry at this moment1  

but simply the common element in the    
experience of each of these which we    
know as the disappearance of            
self-feeling4  ,how the circumstances   
peculiar to religious worship1 aesthetic
 appreciation1 and intellectual creation
 bring about the formal conditions of   
the loss of personal feeling must be    
sought in a more detailed analysis1 and 
we shall then be able to trace the      
source of the intensity of emotion in   
these experiences4  ,what1 then1 first  
of all1 are the steps by which priest   
and poet and thinker have passed into   
the exaltation of selfless emotion8     
,fortunately1 the passionate pilgrims of
 all three realms of deep experience    
have been ever prodigal of their        
confessions4  ,the religious ecstasy1   
however1 embodies the most complete     
case1 and allows the clearest insight   
into the nature of the experience2 and  
will therefore be dealt with at greatest
 length4  ,the typical religious        
enthusiast is the mystic4  ,from        

,plotinus to ,buddha1 from ,meister     
,eckhart to ,emerson1 the same doctrine 
has brought the same fruits of religious
 rapture4  ,there is one ,god1 and in   
contemplation of ,him the soul becomes  
of his essence4  ,whether it is held1 as
 by the ,neoplatonists1 that ,being and 
,knowledge are one1 that the procedure  
of the world out of ,god is a process of
 self-revelation1 and the return of     
things into ,god a process of higher and
 higher intuition1 and so the mystic    
experience an apprehension of the       
highest rather than a form of worship2  
or whether it is expressed as by the    
humble ,beguine1 ,mechthild1--,my soul  
swims in the ,being of ,god as a fish in
 water1'--the kernel of the mystic's    
creed is the same4  ,in ecstatic        
contemplation of ,god1 and1 in the      
higher states1 in ecstatic union with   
,him1 in sinking the individuality in   
the divine ,being1 is the only true     
life4  ,not all1 it is true1 who hold   
the doctrine have had the experience2   

not all can say with ,eckhart or with   
,madame ,guyon1 ,i have seen ,god in my 
own soul1 or ,i have become one with    
,god4  ,it is from the narratives and   
the counsels of perfection of these1 the
 chosen1 the initiate1 who have passed  
beyond the veil1 that light may be      
thrown on the psychological conditions  
of mystic ecstasy4  ,the most           
illuminating account of her actual      
mystical experiences is given by ,madame
 ,guyon1 the first of the sect or school
 of the ,quietists4  ,this gentle       
,frenchwoman had a gift for             
psychological observation1 and though   
her style is neither poetic nor         
philosophical1 ,i may be pardoned for   
quoting at some length her naive and    
lucid revelations4  ,the following      
passages1 beginning with an early       
religious experience1 are taken almost  
at random from the pages of her         
autobiography3--  ,these sermons made   
such an impression on my mind1 and      
absorbed me so strongly in ,god1 that ,i

 could not open my eyes nor hear what   
was said4  ,to hear ,thy name1 ,o my    
,god1 could put me into a profound      
prayer4444,i could not see any longer   
the saints nor the ,holy ,virgin outside
 of ,god2 but ,i saw them all in ,him1  
scarcely being able to distinguish them 
from ,him4444,i could not hear ,god nor 
our ,lord ,jesus ,christ spoken of      
without being1 as it were1 outside of   
myself hors de moi4444,love seized me so
 strongly that ,i remained absorbed1 in 
a profound silence and a peace that ,i  
cannot describe4  ,i made ever new      
efforts1 and ,i passed my life in       
beginning my prayers without being able 
to carry them through4444,i could ask   
nothing for myself nor for another1 nor 
wish anything but this divine will4444,i
 do not believe that there could be in  
the world anything more simple and more 
unified4444,it is a state of which one  
can say nothing more1 because it evades 
all expression1--a state in which the   
creature is lost1 engulfed4  ,all is    

,god1 and the soul perceives only ,god4 
,it has to strive no more for           
perfection1 for growth1 for approach to 
,him1 for union4  ,all is consummated in
 the unity1 but in a manner so free1 so 
natural1 so easy1 that the soul lives   
from the air which it breathes4444,the  
spirit is empty1 no more traversed by   
thoughts2 nothing fills the void1 which 
is no longer painful1 and the soul finds
 in itself an immense capacity that     
nothing can either limit or destroy4    
,can we fail to trace in these simple   
words the shadow of all religious       
exaltation that is based on faith alone8
  ,madame ,guyon is strung to a higher  
key than most of this dull and relaxed  
world2 but she has struck the eternal   
note of contemplative worship4  ,such is
 the sense of union with the divine     
,spirit4 ,such are the thoughts and even
 the words of ,dante1 ,eckhart1 ,st4    
,teresa1 the countless mystics of the   
,middle ,age1 and of the followers of   
,buddhism in its various shades1 from   

the ,ganges to the ,charles4  ,two      
characteristics disengage themselves to 
view3 the insistence on the unity of    
,god--,,in whom alone the ,holy ,virgin 
and the saints are seen--from a         
psychological point of view only2 and   
the mind's emptiness of thought in a    
state of religious ecstasy4  ,but       
without further analysis1 we may ask1 as
 the disciples of the mystics have      
always done1 how this state of blissful 
union is to be reached4  ,they have     
always been minute in their             
prescriptions1 and it is possible to    
derive therefrom what may be called the 
technique of the mystic procedure4  ,the
 word mystic1 to quote ,walter ,pater1  
has been derived from a ,greek word     
which signifies to shut1 as if one shut 
one's lips1 brooding on what cannot be  
uttered2 but the ,platonists themselves 
derive it rather from the act of        
shutting the eyes1 that one may see the 
more1 inwardly4  ,of such is the counsel
 of ,st4 ,luis de ,granada1 ,imitate the

 sportsman who hoods the falcon that it 
be made subservient to his rule2 and of 
another ,spanish mystic1 ,pedro de      
,alcantara3  ,in meditation1 let the    
person rouse himself from things        
temporal1 and let him collect himself   
within himself 4444,here let him hearken
 to the voice of ,god444as though there 
were no other in the world save ,god and
 himself4  ,st4 ,teresa found happiness 
only in shutting herself up within      
herself4 ,vocal prayer could not satisfy
 her1 and she adopted mental prayer4    
,the four stages of her                 
experience--which she named             
recollectedness1 quietude 7listening    
rather than speaking71 union 7blissful  
sleep with the faculties of the mind    
still71 ecstasy or rapture--are but     
progressive steps in the sealing of the 
senses4  ,the yoga of the ,brahmins1    
which is the same as the union of the   
,cabalists1 is made to depend upon the  
same conditions1--passivity1            
perseverance1 solitude4  ,the novice    

must arrest his breathing1 and may      
meditate on mystic symbols alone1 by way
 of reaching the formless1 ineffable    
,buddha4  ,but it is useless to heap up 
evidence2 the inference is sufficiently 
clear4  ,the body is first brought into 
a state either of nervous instability or
 irritability by ascetic practices1 or  
of nervous insensibility by the         
persistent withdrawal of all outer      
disturbance2 and the mind is fixed upon 
a single object1--the one ,god1 the ,god
 eternal1 absolute1 indivisible4        
,recalling our former scheme for the    
conditions of the sense of personality1 
we shall see that we have here the two  
poles of consciousness4 ,then1 as the   
tension is sharpened1 what happens8     
,under the artificial conditions of     
weakened nerves1 of blank surroundings1 
the self-background drops4  ,the feeling
 of transition disappears with the      
absence of related terms2 and the       
remaining1 the positive pole of         
consciousness1 is an undifferentiated   

,unity1 with which the person must feel 
himself one4  ,the feeling of           
personality is gone with that on which  
it rests1 and its loss is joined with an
 overwhelming sense of union with the   
,one1 the ,absolute1 ,god6  ,the object 
of mystic contemplation is the ,one     
indivisible4  ,but we can also think the
 ,one as the unity of all differences1  
the ,circle of the ,universe4  ,those   
natures also which1 like ,amiel's1 are  
bedazzled with the ,infinite and thirst 
for totality attain in their reveries to
 the same impersonal ecstasy4  ,amiel   
writes of a night on the sandy shore of 
the ,north ,sea1 stretched at full      
length upon the beach1 my eyes wandering
 over the ,milky ,way4  ,will they ever 
return to me1 those grandiose1 immortal1
 cosmogonic dreams1 in which one seems  
to carry the world in one's breast1 to  
touch the stars1 to possess the         
,infinite6  ,the reverie of ,senancour1 
on the bank of the ,lake of ,bienne1    
quoted by ,matthew ,arnold1 reveals the 

same emotion3  ,vast consciousness of a 
nature everywhere greater than we are1  
and everywhere impenetrable2            
all-embracing passion1 ripened wisdom1  
delicious self-abandonment4  ,in the    
coincidence of outer circumstance-- the 
lake1 the ,north ,sea1 night1 the       
attitude of repose--may we not trace a  
dissolution of the self-background1     
similar to that of the mystic worshiper8
  ,and in the ,infinite1 no less than in
 the ,one1 must the soul sink and melt  
into union with it1 because within it   
there is no determination1 no pause1 and
 no change4  ,the contemplation of the  
,one1 however1 is not the only type of  
mystic ecstasy4  ,that intoxication of  
emotion which seizes upon the negro camp
 meeting of to-day1 as it did upon the  
,delphic priestesses two thousand years 
ago1 seems at first glance to have      
nothing in common psychologically with  
the blessed nothingness of ,gautama and 
,meister ,eckhart4  ,but the loss of the
 feeling of personality and the sense of

 possession by a divine spirit are the  
same4 ,how1 then1 is this state reached8
 ,by means1 ,i believe1 which recall the
 general formula for the ,disappearance 
of self-feeling4  ,to repeat the        
monosyllable ,,om 7,brahm7 ten thousand 
times2 to circle interminably1 chanting 
the while1 about a sacred ire2 to listen
 to the monotonous magic drum2 to whirl 
the body about2 to rock to and fro on   
the knees1 vociferating prayers1 are    
methods which enable the members of the 
respective sects in which they are      
practiced either to enter1 as they say1 
into the ,eternal ,being1 or to become  
informed with it through the negation of
 the self4  ,the sense of personality1  
at any rate1 is more or less completely 
lost1 and the ecstasy takes a form more 
or less passionate1 according as the    
worshiper depends on the rapidity rather
 than on the monotony of his            
excitations4  ,here1 again1 the self-   
background drops1 inasmuch as every     
rhythmical movement tends to become     

automatic1 and then unconscious4  ,thus 
what we are wont to call the inspired   
madness of the ,delphic priestesses was 
less the expression of ecstasy than the 
means of its excitation4  ,perpetual    
motion1 as well as eternal rest1 may    
bring about the engulfment of the self  
in the object4  ,the most diverse types 
of religious emotions1 ,,in ,,so ,,far  
,,as ,,they ,,present ,,variations ,,in 
,,the ,,degree ,,of                     
,,self-,,consciousness1 are thus seen to
 be reducible to the same psychological 
basis4 ,the circle1 no less than the    
point1 is the symbol of the ,one1 and   
the devouring unity that lays hold on   
consciousness from the loss of the      
feeling of transition comes in the      
unrest of enthusiasm no less than in the
 blissful nothing of ,nirvana4  ,at this
 point1 ,i am sure1 the reader will     
interpose a protest4 ,is1 then1 the     
mystery of self-abandonment to the      
highest to be shared with the meanest of
 fanatics8  ,are the rapture of ,dante  

and the trance of the ,omphalopsychi    
sprung from the same root8  ,there is no
 occasion1 however1 for the revolt of   
sentiment because we fail to emphasize  
here the important differences in the   
emotional character and value of the    
states in question4  ,what interests us 
is only one aspect which they have in   
common1 the surrender of the sense of   
personality4 ,that is based on formal   
relations of the elements of            
consciousness1 and the explanation of   
its disappearance applies as well to the
 whirling dervish as to the converts of 
a revivalist preacher4  ,the mystic1    
then1 need only shut his senses to the  
world1 and contemplate the ,one4        
,subject fuses with object1 and he feels
 himself melt into the ,infinite4  ,but 
each experience is not the exclusive    
property of the religious enthusiast4   
,the worshiper of beauty has given      
evidence of the same feelings4 ,and yet1
 in his aesthetic rapture1 the latter   
dwells with deliberation on his         

delights1 and while luxuriating in the  
infinite labyrinths of beauty can       
scarcely be described as musing on an   
undifferentiated ,unity4  ,so far1 at   
least1 it does not appear that our      
formula applies to aesthetic feeling4   
,aesthetic feeling arises in the        
contemplation of a beautiful object4    
,but what makes an object beautiful8    
,to go still further back1 just what1   
psychologically1 does contemplation     
mean8  ,to contemplate an object is to  
dwell on the idea or image of it1 and to
 dwell upon an idea means to carry it   
out incipiently4  ,we may go even       
further1 and say it is the carrying out 
by virtue of which we grasp the idea4   
,how do we think of a tall pine-tree8   
,by sweeping our eyes up and down its   
length1 and out to the ends of its      
branches2 and if we are forbidden to use
 our eye muscles even infinitesimally1  
then we cannot think of the visual      
image4  ,in short1 we perceive an object
 in space by carrying out its motor     

suggestions2 more technically expressed1
 by virtue of a complex of motor        
impulses aroused by it2 more briefly1 by
 incipiently imitating it4              
,contemplation is inner imitation4  ,now
 a beautiful object is first of all a   
unified object2 why this must be so has 
been considered in the preceding        
chapter4 ,in it all impulses of soul and
 sense are bound to react upon one      
another1 and to lead back to one        
another4  ,and all the elements1 which  
in contemplation we reproduce in the    
form of motor impulses1 are bound to    
make a closed circle of these suggested 
energies4  ,the symmetrical picture     
calls out a set of motor impulses which 
balance1--a system of energies reacting 
on one centre2 the sonnet takes us out  
on one wave of rhythm and of thought1 to
 bring us back on another to the same   
point2 the sonata does the same in      
melody4  ,in the whirling circle of the 
drama1 not a word or an act that is not 
indissolubly linked with before and     

after4  ,thus the unity of a work of art
 makes of the system of suggested       
energies which form the foreground of   
attention an impregnable1 an            
invulnerable circle4  ,not only1        
however1 are we held in equilibrium in  
the object of attention2 we cannot      
connect with it our self-background1 for
 the will cannot act on the object of   
aesthetic feeling4 ,we cannot eat the   
grapes of ,apelles or embrace the       
,galatea of ,pygmalion2 we cannot rescue
 ,ophelia or enlighten ,juliet2 and of  
impulse to interfere1 to connect the    
scene with ourselves1 we have none4     
,but this is a less important factor in 
the situation4  ,that the house is dark1
 the audience silent1 and all motor     
impulses outside of the aesthetic circle
 stifled1 is1 too1 only a superficial1  
and1 so to speak1 a negative condition4 
,the real ground of the possibility of a
 momentary self- annihilation lies in   
the fact that all incitements to motor  
impulse--except those which belong to   

the indissoluble ring of the object     
itself--have been shut out by the       
perfection of unity to which the        
aesthetic object 7here the drama7 has   
been brought4  ,the background fades2   
the foreground satisfies1 incites no    
movement2 and with the disappearance of 
the possibility of action which would   
connect the two1 fades also that which  
dwells in this feeling of               
transition1--the sense of personality4  
,the depth of aesthetic feeling lies not
 in the worthy countryman who interrupts
 the play with cries for justice on the 
villain1 but in him who creates the     
drama again with the poet1 who lives    
over again in himself each of the       
thrills of emotion passing before him1  
and loses himself in their web4  ,the   
object is a unity or our whirling circle
 of impulses1 as you like to phrase it4 
,at any rate1 out of that unity the soul
 does not return upon itself2 it remains
 one with it in the truest sense4  ,the 
loss of the sense of personality is an  

integral part of the aesthetic          
experience2 and we have seen how it is a
 necessary psychological effect of the  
unity of the object4 ,from another point
 of view it may be said that the unity  
of the object is constituted just by the
 inhibition of all tendency to movement 
through the balance or centrality of    
impulses suggested by it4  ,in other    
words1 the balance of impulses makes us 
feel the object a unity4  ,and this     
balance of impulses1 this inhibition of 
movement1 corresponding to unity1 is    
what we know as aesthetic repose4  ,thus
 the conditions of aesthetic repose and 
of the loss of self-feeling are the     
same4  ,in fact1 it might be said that1 
within this realm1 the two conceptions  
are identical4  ,the true aesthetic     
repose is just that perfect rest in the 
beautiful object which is the essence of
 the loss of the sense of personality4  
,subtler and rarer1 again1 than the     
raptures of mysticism and of beauty     
worship is the ecstasy of intellectual  

production2 yet the clean1 clear joy of 
creation1 as ,kipling names it1 is not  
less to be grouped with those precious  
experiences in which the self is        
sloughed away1 and the soul at one with 
its content4  ,i speak1 of course1 of   
intellectual production in full swing1  
in the momentum of success4  ,the       
travail of soul over apparently hopeless
 difficulties or in the working out of  
indifferent details takes place not only
 in full self- consciousness1 but in    
self-disgust2 there we can take ,carlyle
 to witness4  ,but in the higher stages 
the fixation of truth and the           
appreciation of beauty are accompanied  
by the same extinction of the feeling of
 individuality4  ,of testimony we have  
enough and to spare4  ,i need not fill  
these pages with confessions and        
anecdotes of the ecstatical state in    
which all great deeds of art and science
 are done4  ,the question is rather to  
understand and explain it on the basis  
of the formal scheme to which we have   

found the religious and the aesthetic   
attitudes to conform4  ,jean ,paul says 
somewhere that1 however laborious the   
completion of a great work1 its         
conception came as a whole1--in one     
flash4 ,we remember the dreams of       
,schiller in front of his red curtain   
and the resulting musikalische          
,stimmung1--formless1 undirected1 out of
 which his poem shaped itself2 the      
half-somnambulic state of ,goethe and   
his frantic haste in fixation of the    
vision1 in which he dared not even stop 
to put his paper straight1 but wrote    
over the corners quite ruthlessly4      
,henner once said to a painter who      
mourned that he had done nothing on his 
picture for the ,salon1 though he saw it
 before him1 ,what6  ,you see your      
picture6  ,then it is done4  ,you can   
paint it in an hour4 ,if all these      
traditions be true1 they are            
significant2 and the necessary          
conditions of such composition seem to  
be highly analogous to those of the     

aesthetic emotion4  ,we have1 first of  
all1 a lack of outward stimulation1 and 
therefore possible disappearance of the 
background4  ,how much better have most 
poets written in a garret than in a     
boudoir6  ,goethe's bare little room in 
the garden house at ,weimar testifies to
 the severe conditions his genius found 
necessary4  ,tranquillity of the        
background is the condition of          
self-absorption1 or-- and this point    
seems to me worth emphasizing--a closed 
circle of outer activities4  ,i have    
never believed1 for instance1 in the    
case of the old tale of ,walter ,scott  
and the button1 that it was the surprise
 of his loss that tied the tongue of the
 future author's rival4  ,the poor head 
scholar had simply made for himself a   
transitionless experience with that     
twirling button1 and could then sink his
 consciousness in its object1-- at that 
moment the master's questions4  ,it is  
with many of us a familiar experience1  
that of not being able to think unless  

in constant motion4  ,translated into   
our psychological scheme1 the efficiency
 of these movements would be explained  
thus3  ,given the whirling circles1--the
 background of continuous movement      
sensations1 which finally dropped out of
 consciousness1 and the foreground of   
continuous thought1--the first          
protected1 so to speak1 the second1     
since they were mutually exclusive1 and 
what broke the one destroyed the other4 
,but to return from this digression1 a  
background fading into nothingness1     
either as rest or as a closed circle of 
automatic movements1 is the first       
condition of the ecstasy of mental      
production4  ,the second is given in the
 character of its object4  ,the object  
of high intellectual creation is a      
unity1-- a perfect whole1 revealed1 as  
,jean ,paul says1 in a single movement  
of genius4  ,within the enchanted circle
 of his creation1 the thinker is        
absorbed1 because here too all his      
impulses are turned to one end1 in      

relation to which nothing else exists4  
,i am aware that many will see a sharp  
distinction here between the work of the
 creator or discoverer in science and   
the artist4 ,they may maintain1 in      
,schopenhauer's phrase1 that the aim and
 end of science is just the connection  
of objects in the service of the will of
 the individual1 and hence transition   
between the various terms is constant2  
while art1 on the other hand1 indeed    
isolates its object1 and so drops       
transitions4  ,but ,i think where we    
speak of connection thus1 we mean the   
larger sweep of law4  ,if the thinker   
looks beyond his special problem at all1
 it is1 like ,buddha1 to fix his eyes   
upon the chain of causation4  ,the      
scientist of imagination sees his work  
under the form of eternity1 as one link 
of that endless chain1 one atom in that 
vortex of almighty purposes1 which      
science will need all time to reveal4   
,for him it is either one question1     
closed within itself by its own answer1 

or it is the ,infinite ,law of the      
,universe1--the point or the circle4    
,from all points of view1 then1 the     
object of creation in art or science is 
a girdle of impulses from which the mind
 may not stray4  ,the two conditions of 
our formal scheme are given3  a term    
which disappears1 and one which is a    
perfect whole4  ,transition between     
background and foreground has dropped4  
,between the objects of attention in the
 foreground it has no meaning1 because  
the foreground is an indissoluble unity4
  ,with that object the self must feel  
itself one1 since the distinctive       
self-feeling has disappeared with the   
opportunity for transition4  ,we have   
thus swung around the circle of         
mystical1 aesthetic1 and creative       
emotion1 and we have found a single     
formula to apply1 and a single          
explanation to avail for the loss of    
personality4  ,the conditions of such   
experiences bring about the             
disappearance of one term1 and the      

impregnable unity of the other4         
,without transition between two terms in
 consciousness1 two objects of          
attention1 the loss of the feeling of   
personality takes place according to    
natural psychological laws4  ,it is no  
longer a mystery that in intense        
experience the feeling of personality   
dissolves4  ,one point1 however1 does   
remain still unexplained1--the bliss of 
self-abandonment4  ,whence are the      
definiteness and intensity of the       
religious and aesthetic emotions8  ,the 
surrender of the sense of personality1  
it seems1 is based on purely formal     
relations of the elements of            
consciousness1 common to all three      
groups of the analyzed emotions4 ,yet it
 is precisely with a fading of          
self-feeling that intensity and         
definiteness deepen4 ,but how can       
different and emotionally significant   
feelings arise from a single formal     
process8  ,how can the worship of ,god  
become ecstatic joy through the loss of 

personality8  ,the solution of this     
apparent paradox is demanded not only in
 logic1 but also by those who would wish
 to see the religious trance            
distinguished also in its origin from   
those of baser content4  ,but it is1    
after all1 the formal nature of the     
phenomenon that gives us light4  ,if    
variation in the degree of self-feeling 
is the common factor1 and the           
disappearance of the transition- feeling
 its cause1 then the lowest member of   
the scale1 in which the loss of         
self-feeling takes place with           
mathematical completeness1 must be      
included4  ,that is the hypnotic trance4
 ,it is not necessary at this place to  
emphasize the fact that our theory1 if  
accepted1 would constitute a theory and 
a definition also of hypnotism4  ,of    
interest to our inquiry is merely a     
characteristic mark of the hypnotic     
state1--its tremendous suggestibility4  
,why is this8  ,our theory would answer 
that all impulses are held in           

equilibrium1 and that an external       
suggestion has thus no rivals4          
,whatever the cause1 this last is at any
 rate the fact4  ,all suggestions seem  
to double in emotional value4  ,tell the
 hypnotic subject that he is sailing up 
the ,rhine1 and the most vivid          
admiration is in his aspect2 he gazes in
 heart-felt devotion if it is a pretty  
girl he is bid to look at2 he quaffs a  
glass of water with livelier delight    
than he would show for the draught of   
,chateau ,yquem of which he is led to   
think4  ,now in religious and aesthetic 
experience there is brought about the   
same equilibrium or unity of impulses1  
resulting in analogous loss of          
self-feeling4  ,but it is a most        
interesting fact that the ,,form of the 
contemplated object is the cause of this
 arrest and repose4  ,god1 the circle of
 the ,infinite1 the ,eternal ,one1 enter
 into play as unity alone4  ,what1 then1
 of the content8  ,after the analogy of 
the extreme case1 the content--that is1 

emotional value and definite emotional  
tone--takes the place of the external   
suggestion4  ,under just the conditions 
of the religious trance1 the element of 
reverence1 of joyous sentiment1 is able 
suddenly to take on a more vivid aspect4
  ,it may not be that the emotion itself
 is greater1 but it now holds the field4
  ,it may not be that it is more        
intense1 but the intensity of           
concentration which takes on its color  
makes it seem so4  ,the rapture is just 
the sense of being caught up into union 
with the highest2 the joy of the rapture
 is the joy of every thought of ,god1   
here left free to brighten into ecstasy2
 and its revelation-value is again the  
sense of immediate union with a ,being  
the intellectual concept of whom is     
immensely vivified4  ,so may be analyzed
 the aesthetic ecstasy4  ,the tension of
 those mutually antagonistic impulses   
which make balance1 and so unity1 and so
 the conditions for loss of sense of    
self1 clears the way for tasting the    

full savor of pleasure in bright color1 
flowing line1 exquisite tone-sequence1  
moving thought4  ,many a commonplace    
experience1 says ,m4 ,souriau1 suddenly 
takes on a charm when seen in the       
arrested aesthetic vision4  ,every one  
can have observed that an object in     
itself agreeable to look on1 like a     
bouquet of flowers1 or the fresh face of
 a young girl1 takes on a sort of magic 
and supernatural beauty if we regard it 
mechanically while listening to music4#a
 ,the intensity of concentration caused 
by the unity of form fuses with this    
suggested vividness of feeling from     
content and material1 and the whole is  
felt as intensity of aesthetic emotion4 
,the ,sistine ,madonna would not strike 
so deep in feeling were it less         
crystalline in its unity1 less          
trance-like in its repose1 and so less  
enchanting in its suggestion4  #a ,p4   
,souriau1 ,la ,suggestion en l',art4    
,so it is not only the man of           
achievement who sees but one thing at a 

time4  ,to enter intensely into any     
ideal experience means to be blind to   
all others4  ,one must lose one's own   
soul to gain the world1 and none who    
enter and return from the paradise of   
selfless ecstasy will question that it  
is gained4  ,it may be that personality 
is a hindrance and a barrier1 and that  
we are only truly in harmony with the   
secret of our own existence when we     
cease to set ourselves over against the 
world4 ,nevertheless1 the sense of      
individuality is a possession for which 
the most of mankind would pay the price1
 if it must be paid1 even of eternal    
suffering4  ,the delicious hour of      
fusion with the universe is precious1 so
 it seems to us now1 just because we can
 return from it to our own nest1 and1   
close and warm there1 count up our      
happiness4  ,the fragmentariness and    
multiplicity of life are1 then1 the     
saving of the sense of selfhood1 and we 
must indeed     ,rejoice that man is    
hurled  ,from change to change          

unceasingly1  ,his soul's wings never   
furled4   ,,iv ,,the ,,beauty ,,of      
,,fine ,,art   ,,iv ,a4  ,,the ,,beauty 
,,of ,,visual ,,form  ,i  ,,in what     
consists the ,beauty of ,visual ,form8  
,the older writers on what we now know  
as the science of art did not ask       
themselves this question4  ,although we 
are accustomed to hear that order1      
symmetry1 unity in variety1 was the     
,greek1 and in particular the ,platonic1
 formula for beauty1 we observe1 on     
examining the passages cited in         
evidence1 that it is rather the moral   
quality appertaining to these           
characteristics that determines them as 
beautiful2 symmetry is beautiful1       
because harmonious1 and inducing order  
and self-restraint4  ,aristotle's single
 pronouncement in the sense of our      
question is the dictum3  there is no    
beauty without a certain magnitude4     
,lessing1 in his ,laocoon1 really the   
first modern treatise in aesthetics1    
discusses the excellences of painting   

and poetry1 but deals with visible      
beauty as if it were a fixed quality1   
understood when referred to1 like color4
  ,this is undoubtedly due to his       
unconscious reference of beauty to the  
human form alone2 a reference which he  
would have denied1 but which influences 
his whole aesthetic theory4  ,in        
speaking of a beautiful picture1 for    
instance1 he would have meant first of  
all the representation of beautiful     
persons in it1 hardly at all that       
essential beauty of the picture as      
painting1 to which every inch of the    
canvas is alike precious4  ,it is clear 
to us now1 however1 that the beauty of  
the human form is the most obscure of   
all possible cases1 complex in itself1  
and overlaid and involved as it is with 
innumerable interests and motives of    
extra-aesthetic character4 ,beauty in   
simple forms must be our first study2   
and great credit is due to ,hogarth for 
having propounded in his ,analysis of   
,beauty the simple question1--what makes

 the quality of beauty to the eye8  ,but
 in visible beauty1 the aesthetic value 
of pure form is not the only element    
involved3  or at least is must be       
settled whether or not it is the only   
element involved4  ,if in a work of art1
 as we believe1 what belongs to its     
excellence belongs to its beauty1 we may
 not applaud one painter1 for instance1 
for his marvelous color-schemes1 another
 for his expression of emotion1 another 
for his delineation of character1       
without acknowledging that expression of
 character and emotion come within our  
concept of visible beauty4  ,franz von  
,lenbach was once asked what he thought 
likely to be the fate of his own work4  
,as for that1 he replied1 ,i think ,i   
may possibly have a chance of living2   
but ,,only if ,individualization or     
,characterization be deemed to          
constitute a quality of permanent value 
in a picture4  ,this1 however1 ,i shall 
never know1 for it can only be adjudged 
by posterity4 ,if that verdict should   

prove unfavorable1 then my work1 too1   
will perish with the rest1--for it      
cannot compare on their lines with the  
great masters of the past4  ,that this  
is indeed an issue is shown by the      
contrasting opinion of the critic who   
exclaimed before a portrait1 ,think away
 the head and face1 and you will have a 
wonderful effect of color6 ,the analysis
 of visible beauty accordingly resolves 
itself into the explanation of the      
beauty of form 7including shape and     
color7 and the fixing in relation       
thereto of other factors4  ,the most    
difficult part of our task is indeed    
behind us4  ,we have already defined    
,beauty in general3  we have outlined in
 a preceding essay the abstract         
aesthetic demands1 and we have now only 
to ask through what psychological means 
these demands can be and are in fact    
met4  ,in other words we have to show   
that what we intensely feel as ,beauty  
can and does exemplify these principles1
 and through them is explained and      

accounted for4  ,beauty has been defined
 as that combination of qualities in the
 object which brings about a union of   
stimulation and repose in the enjoyer4  
,how must this be interpreted with      
reference to the particular facts of    
visual form8  ,the most immediate       
reference is naturally to the sense     
organ itself2 and the first question is 
therefore as to the favorable           
stimulations of the eye4  ,what1 in     
general1 does the eye demand of its     
object8   ,,ii  ,the simplest element of
 visual experience is of course found in
 light and color1 the sensation of the  
eye as such4  ,yet there is no branch of
 aesthetic which is so incomplete4  ,we 
know that the sensation of light or     
color1 if not too weak or too violent1  
is in itself pleasing4  ,the bright1 the
 glittering1 shining object1 so long as 
it is not painful1 is pleasantly        
stimulating4  ,gems1 tinsel1 lacquer1   
polish1 testify to this taste1 from the 
most primitive to the most civilized    

man4  ,color1 too1 if distinct1 not     
over-bright1 nor too much extended in   
field1 is in itself pleasing4  ,the     
single colors have been the object of   
comparatively little study4  ,experiment
 seems to show that the colors          
containing most brightness--white1 red1 
and yellow--are preferred4 ,baldwin1 in 
his dynamogenic experiments1#a based on 
the view that the infant's hand         
movements in reaching or grasping are   
the best index of the kind and intensity
 of its sensory experiences1 finds that 
the colors range themselves in order of 
attractiveness1 blue1 white1 red1 green1
 brown4  ,further corrections lay more  
emphasis upon the white4  ,yellow was   
not included in the experiments4 ,cohn's
 results1 which show a relative dislike 
of yellow1 are contradicted by other    
observers1 notably ,major and ,baker1#b 
and 7unpublished7 experiments of my own1
 including the aesthetic preferences of 
seven or eight different sets of        
students at ,radcliffe and ,wellesley   

colleges4  ,experiments of this kind are
 particularly difficult1 inasmuch as the
 material1 usually colored paper1 varies
 considerably from the spectral color1  
and differences in saturation1 hue1 and 
brightness make great differences in the
 results1 while the feeling-tone of     
association1 individual or racial1 very 
often intrudes4  ,but other things being
 equal1 the bright1 the clear1 the      
saturated color is relatively more      
pleasing1 and white1 red1 and yellow    
seem especially preferred4  #a ,mental  
,development in the ,child and the      
,race1 #ahie1 pp4 #ci1 #ej1 ff4 #b ,e4  
,s4 ,baker1 ,univ4 of ,toronto ,studies1
 ,psychol4 ,series1 ,no4 #d2 ,j4 ,cohn1 
,philos4 ,studien1 vol4 ,x2 ,major1     
,amer4 ,jour4 of ,psychol41 vol4 vii4   
,now1 according to the ,hering theory of
 color1 white1 red1 and yellow are the  
so-called dissimilating colors in the   
three pairs1 white-black1 red-green1 and
 yellow-blue1 corresponding to three    
hypothetical visual substances in the   

retina4  ,these substances1 that is1 in 
undergoing a kind of chemical           
disintegration under the action of      
light-rays1 are supposed to give the    
sensations white1 red1 or yellow        
respectively1 and in renewing themselves
 again to give the sensations of black1 
green1 and blue4  ,the dissimilating    
process seems to bring about stronger   
reactions on the physiological side1 as 
if it were a more exciting process4     
,thus it is found#a that as measured by 
the increase in strength of the hand    
grip under the stimulation of the       
respective colors1 red has particularly 
exciting qualities1 but the other colors
 have an analogous effect1 lessening1   
however1 with the descent from red to   
violet4  ,the pleasure in bright red1 or
 yellow1 for instance1 may thus well be 
the feeling-tone arising in the purely  
physiological effect of the color4  ,if 
red works like a trumpet call1 while    
blue calms and cools1 and if red is     
preferred to blue1 it is because a sharp

 stimulation is so felt1 and so         
preferred4  #a ,ch4 ,fere1 ,sensation et
 ,mouvement1 #ahhg1 p4 #hj4  ,the       
question of the demands of the eye in   
color combination is still more         
complicated4  ,it has been traditional  
to consider the complementaries         
black-white1 red-green1 blue-yellow1 and
 the other pairs resulting from the     
mixtures of these as the best           
combinations4  ,the physiological       
explanation is of course found in the   
relief and refreshment to the organs in 
successive alternation of the processes 
of assimilation and dissimilation1 and  
objectively in the reinforcement1       
through this stronger functioning of the
 retina1 of the complementary colors    
themselves4  ,this tendency to mutual   
aid is shown in the familiar experiment 
of fixating for some moments a colored  
object1 say red1 and then transferring  
the gaze to a white or gray expanse4    
,the image of the object appears thereon
 in the complementary green4  ,per      

contra1 the most complete lack of       
contrast makes the most unpleasing      
combination1 because instead of a       
refreshing alternation of processes in  
the retina1 a fatiguing repetition      
results4  ,red and orange 7red-yellow71 
or red and purple 7red-blue71           
successively stimulate the red- process 
with most evil effect4  ,this contrast  
theory should1 however1 not be          
interpreted too narrowly4  ,there are   
pairs of so-called complementaries which
 make a very crude1 harsh1 even painful 
impression4  ,the theory is happily     
supplemented by showing#a that the ideal
 combination involves all three contrast
 factors1 hue1 saturation1 and          
brightness4  ,contrast of saturation or 
brightness within the same hue is also  
pleasant4  ,for any two qualities of the
 color circle1 in fact1 there can be    
found degrees of saturation and         
brightness in which they will form an   
agreeable combination1 and this pleasing
 effect will be based on some form of   

contrast4 ,but the absolute and relative
 extension and the space-form of the    
components have also a great influence  
on the pleasurableness of combinations4 
#a ,a4 ,kirschmann1 ,die                
psychol4-aesthet4 ,bedeutung des ,licht 
und ,farbencontrastes1 ,philos4         
,studien1 vol4 vii4  ,further rules can 
hardly be given2 but the results of     
various observers#a seem to show that   
the best combinations lie1 as already   
said1 among the complementaries1 or     
among those pairs nearer together in the
 color circle than complementaries1     
which are warmer4  ,the reason for this 
last is that1 in ,chevreul's            
phraseology1 combinations of cold colors
 change each other's peculiar hue the   
most1 and of warm colors the least2     
because the complementaries of these    
cold colors are warm1 i4e4 bright1 and  
each1 appearing on the field of the     
neighboring cold color1 seems to fade it
 out2 while the complementaries of the  
juxtaposed warm colors are not bright1  

and do not have sufficient strength to  
affect their neighbors at all4  ,with a 
combination of blue and green for       
instance1 a yellow shade would appear in
 the green and a red in the blue4  ,such
 a result fails to satisfy the demand1  
already touched on1 for purity and      
homogeneity of color1--that is1 for     
unimpeded seeing of color4  #a          
,chevreul1 ,de la ,loi du ,contraste    
,simultane des ,couleurs4 ,e4,s4        
,banker1 op4 ,cit4  ,what significance  
have these abstract principles of beauty
 in the combination of colors for       
representative art8  ,in the choice of  
objects with a definite local color1 of 
course1 these laws will be found        
operative4  ,a scheme of blues and      
yellows is likely to be more effective  
than one of reds and violets4 ,if we    
analyze the masterpiece of coloring1 we 
shall find that what we at first        
supposed to be the wonderful single     
effects of color is really the result of
 juxtapositions which bring out each    

color to its highest power4   ,,iii     
,while all this may be true1 however1   
the most important question has not yet 
been asked4  ,is truth of color in      
representative art the same thing as    
beauty of color8  ,it might be said that
 the whole procedure of the so-called   
,impressionist school1 in fact the whole
 trend of the modern treatment of color1
 took their identity for granted4  ,yet 
we must discriminate4  ,truth of color  
may be truth to the local color of the  
given objects1 alone or together2 in    
this case we should have to say that    
beauty did or did not exist in the      
picture1 according as it did or did not 
exist in the original combination4  ,a  
red hat on a purple chair would set     
one's teeth on edge1 in model or        
picture4  ,secondly1 truth of color may 
be truth to the modifications of the    
enveloping light1 and in this case truth
 would make for beauty4 ,for the colors 
of any given scene are in general not   
colors which the objects themselves1 if 

isolated1 would have1 but the colors    
which the eye itself is forced to see4  
,the bluish shadow of an object in      
bright sunlight 7yellowish light7 is    
only an expression of the law that in   
the neighborhood of a colored object we 
see its complementary color4  ,if such  
an effect is reproduced in a picture1 it
 gives the same relief to the eye which 
the original effect showed the need of4 
,the eye fatigued with yellow sees blue2
 so if the blue is really supplied in   
the picture1 it is not only true1 but on
 the road to beauty1 because meting the 
eye's demand4  ,the older methods of    
painting gave the local color of an     
object1 with an admixture of white for  
the lights1 and a warm dark for the     
shadows2 the modern--which had been     
touched on1 indeed1 sporadically1 by    
,perugino and ,vermeer1 for             
instance1--gives in the shadow the      
complementary color of the object       
combined with that of the light falling 
upon it--all conditions of favorable    

stimulation4  ,further favorable        
stimulation of the eye is given in the  
method of the ,impressionists in        
treating values1 that is1 comparative   
relations of light and shade4  ,the real
 tones of objects including the sky1    
light1 etc41 can never be reproduced4   
,the older schools1 conscious of this1  
were satisfied to paint in a scale of   
correspondence1 in which the relative   
values were fairly kept4  ,but even by  
that means1 the great differences of    
intensity could not be given1 for the   
brightest spot of any painting is never 
more than sixty-six times brighter than 
the darkest1 while the gray sky on a    
dull rainy day is four hundred and      
twenty times brighter than a white      
painted cross-bar of a window seen      
against the sky as background4#a  ,there
 were various ways of combating this    
difficulty4  ,rembrandt1 for instance1  
as ,kirschmann tells us1 chose the      
sombre brown tone1 not out of caprice or
 an inclination for mystic dreaming     

7,fromentin71 but because the yellow and
 orange side of the color-manifold      
admits of the greatest number of        
intervals between full saturation and   
the darkest shade4  ,the precursors of  
the ,impressionists1 on the other hand1 
succeeded in painting absolute values1  
confining themselves to a very limited  
gamut2 for this reason the first        
landscapes of the school were all       
gray-green1 dull1 cloudy4  ,but ,monet  
did not stop there4  ,he painted the    
,,absolute ,,values of objects ,,in     
,,shade on a sunny day1 which of course 
demands the brightest possibilities of  
the palette1 and got the lighted objects
 themselves as nearly as he could1--thus
 destroying the relative values1 but    
getting an extraordinary joyous and     
glowing effect2 and one1 too1 of        
unexpected verisimilitude1 for it would 
seem that in a sunlit scene we are      
really attentive to the shaded objects  
alone1 and what becomes of the others   
does not so much matter4  ,this effect  

was made still more possible by the     
so-called dissociation of colors1--i4e4 
the juxtaposing of tints1 the blending  
of which by the eye gives the desired   
color1 without the loss of brightness   
which a mixing of pigments would        
involve4  ,thus by putting touches of   
black and white side by side1 for       
instance1 a gray results much brighter  
than could have been otherwise reached  
by mixing2 or blue and red spots are    
blended by the eye to an extraordinarily
 vivid purple4  ,thus1 by these methods1
 using the truth of color in the sense  
of following the nature of retinal      
functioning1 ,monet and his followers   
raised the color scale many degrees in  
brightness4  ,now we have seen that the 
eye loves light1 warmth1 strong         
color-effects1 related to each other in 
the way that the eye must see them4     
,impressionism1 as the name of the      
method just described1 makes it more    
possible than it had been before to meet
 the demands of the eye for light and   

color1 to recover the innocence of the  
eye1 in ,ruskin's phrase4  ,truth to the
 local color of objects is relatively   
indifferent1 unless that color is       
beautiful in itself2 truth to the       
reciprocal relations and changes of hue 
is beauty1 because it allows for the    
eye's own adaptations of its            
surroundings in the interest of its own 
functioning4  ,thus in this case1 and to
 sum up1 truth is synonymous with       
beauty1 in so far as beauty is          
constituted by favorable stimulation of 
an organ4  ,the further question1 how   
far this vivid treatment of light is of 
importance for the realization of depth 
and distance1 is not here entered on4   
#a ,kirschmann1 ,univ4 of ,toronto      
,studies1 ,psychol4 ,series ,no4 #d1 p4 
#bj4   ,,iv  ,the moment we touch upon  
line-form we are already1 in strictness1
 beyond the elements4  ,for with form   
enters the motor factor1 which cannot be
 separated from the motor innervations  
of the whole body4  ,it is possible1    

however1 to abstract for the moment from
 the form as a unit1 and to consider    
here only what may be called the quality
 of line4  ,a line may be straight or   
broken1 and if curved1 curving          
continuously or brokenly1 etc4  ,that   
this quality of line is distinct from   
form may be shown by the simple         
experiment of turning a spiral--a       
logarithmic spiral1 let us say--in      
different ways about its focus4  ,the   
aesthetic effect of the figure is       
absolutely different in the different   
positions1 and yet the feeling about the
 character of the line itself seems to  
remain the same4  ,in what sense1 and   
for what reasons1 does this curved line 
satisfy the demands of the eye8 ,the    
discussion of this question precipitates
 us at once into one of the burning     
controversies of aesthetics1 which may  
perhaps best be dealt with at this      
point4  ,an early answer to the question
 would have been1 that the eye is so    
hung in its muscles as to move most     

easily in curved lines1 and this easy   
action in following the curve is felt as
 favorable stimulation4  ,but recent    
experiment#a has shown that the eye in  
fact moves by most irregular1 angular   
leaps from point to point of the figure4
  ,the theory is therefore remodeled by 
substituting for the movement sensations
 of the eye1 the tendencies             
corresponding to those early movements  
of touching imitative of the form1 by   
which we learned to know a form for what
 it is1 and the reproduction of         
feeling-tones belonging to the character
 of such movement4  ,the movements of   
touching and feeling for a smooth       
continuous curved object are themselves 
pleasant4  ,this complex of psychical   
factors makes a pleasurably stimulating 
experience4  ,the greater the tendency  
to complete reproduction of these       
movements1 that is1 the stronger the    
bodily resonance1 the more vivid the    
pleasure4 ,whether we 7with ,groos7     
designate this as sympathetic           

reproduction1 or 7with ,lipps7 attribute
 to the figure the movements and the    
feelings which resound in us after this 
fashion1 or even 7with ,witasek7 insist 
on the purely ideal character of the    
reproduction1 seems to me not essential 
to the explanation of the pleasing      
character of the experience1 and hence  
of the beauty of the object4  ,not      
,,that we sympathetically reproduce     
7,miterleben71 or feel ourselves into a 
form 7,einfuhlen71 but ,,how we do so1  
is the question4  #a ,g4,m4 ,stratton1  
,philos4 ,studies1 xx4  ,all that       
,hogarth says of the beauty of the      
serpentine line1 as leading the eye a   
kind of chase1 is fully in harmony with 
this view1 if we add to the exploiting  
movements of the eyes those other more  
important motor innervations of the     
body4  ,but we should still have to ask1
 ,,what kind of chase8  ,sharp1 broken1 
starting lines might be the basis of a  
much more vivid experience1 --but it    
would be aesthetically negative4  ,the  

complete sensuous experience of the     
spatial is not enough1 unless that      
experience is positively1 that is1      
favorably toned4  ,clear or vivid seeing
 made possible by the form of the object
 is not enough4  ,only as ,,favorably   
stimulating1 that is1 only as calling up
 ideal reproductions1 or physical       
imitations1 of movements which in       
themselves were suited to the functions 
of the organs involved1 can forms be    
found positively aesthetic1 that is1    
beautiful4  ,moreover1 we have to note  
here1 and to emphasize1 that the organs 
involved are more than the eye1 as has  
already been made plain4  ,we cannot    
separate eye innvervations from bodily  
innervations in general4  ,and therefore
 the demands of the eye can never alone 
decide the question of the beauty of    
visual form4  ,if it were not so1 the   
favorable stimulation combined with     
repose of the eye would alone make the  
conditions of beauty4  ,the demands of  
the eye must be interpreted as the      

demands of the eye plus the demands of  
the motor system1--the whole            
psychophysical personality1 in short4   
,it is in these two principles1--bodily 
resonance1 and favorable as opposed to  
energetic functioning1--and these alone1
 that we have a complete refutation of  
the claim made by many artists to-day1  
that the phrase demands of the eye      
embodies a complete aesthetic theory4   
,the sculptor ,adolph ,hildebrand1 in   
his ,problem of ,form in the ,plastic   
,art first set it forth as the task of  
the artist to find a form which appears 
to have arisen only from the demands of 
the eye2#a and this doctrine is to-day  
so widely held1 that it must here be    
considered at some length4  #a ,das     
,proablem der form in d4 bildenden      
,kunst1 #ahig4  ,it is the space-form1  
all that is seen1 and not the object    
itself1 that is the object of vision4   
,now in viewing a plastic object near at
 hand1 the focus of the eye must be     
constantly changed between the nearer   

and further points4  ,in a more distant 
view1 on the other hand 7,hildebrand's  
,fernbild71 the contour is denoted by   
differences of light and shadow1 but it 
is nevertheless perceived in a single   
act of accommodation4  ,moreover1 being 
distant1 the muscles of accommodation   
are relaxed2 the eye acts at rest4  ,the
 ,fernbild thus gives the only unified  
picture of the three-dimensional        
complex1 and hence the only unity of    
space- values4  ,in the perception of   
this unity1 the author holds1 consists  
the essential pleasure which the work of
 art gives us4 ,hildebrand's treatment  
is difficult1 and lends itself to       
varying interpretations1 which have laid
 stress now on unity as the essential of
 art1#a now on the joy in the complete  
sensuous experience of the spatial4#b   
,the latter seems in harmony with the   
passage in which ,hildebrand says all   
pleasure in ,form is pleasure in our not
 being obliged to create this clearness 
for ourselves1 in its being created for 

us1 nay1 even forced upon us1 by the    
form itself4  #a ,a4 ,riehl1            
,vierteljahrschr4 f4 wissenensch4       
,philos41 xxi1 xxii4 #b ,k4 ,groos1 ,der
 ,aesthetische ,genuss1 #aijb1 p4 #ag4  
,but supposing the first interpretation 
correct3  supposing space-unity1        
conditioned by the unified and reposeful
 act of seeing1 to be the beauty we     
seek--it is at once clear that the      
reduction of three dimensions to two    
does not constitute unity even for the  
eye alone2 how much less for the motor  
system of the whole body1 which we have 
seen must be involved4  ,hildebrand's   
demands of the eye resolves itself into 
the stimulation plus repose of the      
ciliary muscle1--the organ of           
accommodation4  ,a real unity even for  
the eye alone would have to include not 
only space relations in the third       
dimension1 but relations of line and    
mass and color in the flat4  ,as for the
 complete sensuous experience of the    
spatial 7which would seem to be         

equivalent to ,berenson's tactile       
values71 the clearness of ,hildebrand's 
sentence above quoted1 it is evident    
that completeness of the experience does
 not necessarily involve the positive or
 pleasurable toning of the experience4  
,the distinction is that between a      
beautiful and a completely realistic    
picture4  ,a further extension or       
restatement of this theory1 in a recent 
article1#a seems to me to express it in 
the most favorable way4  ,beauty is     
again connected with the functioning of 
our organs of perception                
7,auffassungorgane74  ,we wish to be put
 into a fresh1 lively1 energetic and yet
 at the same time effortless            
activity4444  ,the pleasure in form is a
 pleasure in this1 that the conformation
 of the object makes possible or rather 
compels a natural purposeful functioning
 of our apprehending organs4  ,but      
purposeful for what8  ,for visual form1 
evidently to the end of seeing clearly4 
,the element of repose1 of unity1 hinted

 at in the effortless of the first      
sentence1 disappears in the second4     
,the organs of apprehension are         
evidently limited to the eye alone4  ,it
 is not the perfect moment of           
stimulation and repose for the whole    
organism which is aimed at1 but the     
complete sensuous experience of the     
spatial1 again4  #a ,th4 ,a4 ,meyer1    
,das ,formprinzip des ,schouen1 ,archiv4
 f4 ,phil41 ,bd4 x4  ,hildebrand1 to    
return to the more famous theorist1 was 
writing primarily of sculpture1 and     
would naturally confine himself to      
consideration of the plastic1 which is  
an additional reason against making this
 interesting brochure1 as some have     
done1 the foundation of an aesthetics4  
,it is rather the foundation of the     
sculptor's1 perhaps even of the         
painter's technique1 with reference to  
plastic elements alone4  ,what it       
contains of universal significance1 the 
demand for space-unity1 based on the    
state of the eye in a union of rest and 

action1 ignores all but one of the      
possible sources of rest and action for 
the eye1 that of accommodation1 and all 
the allied activities completely4  ,on  
the basis of the favorable stimulations 
of all these activities taken together1 
must we judge as pleasing the so- called
 quality of line4  ,but it is clear that
 we cannot really separate the question 
of quality of line from that of form1   
figure1 and arrangement in space4  ,the 
motor innervations enter with the first1
 and the moment we have form at all1 we 
have space-composition also4  ,but      
space-composition means unity1 and unity
 is the objective quality which must be 
translated1 in our investigations1 into 
aesthetic repose4  ,it is thus with the 
study of composition that we pass from  
the study of the elements as favorably  
stimulating1 to the study of the beauty 
of visual form4   ,v  ,we may begin by  
asking what1 as a matter of fact1 has   
been the arrangement of spaces to give  
aesthetic pleasure4  ,the primitive art 

of all nations shows that it has taken  
the direction of symmetry about a       
vertical line4  ,it might be said that  
this is the result of non-aesthetic     
influences1 such as convenience of      
construction1 technique1 etc4  #a;,it is
 clear that much of the symmetry        
appearing in primitive art is due 7#a7  
to the conditions of construction1 as in
 the form of dwellings1 binding         
patterns1 weaving and textile patterns  
generally2 7#b7 to convenience in use1  
as in the shapes of spears1 arrows1     
knives1 two-handled baskets or jars2    
7#c7 to the imitation of animal forms1  
as in the shapes of pottery1 etc4  ,on  
the other hand1 7#a7 a very great deal  
of symmetrical ornament maintains itself
 ,,against the suggestions of the shape 
to which it is applied1 as the ornaments
 of baskets1 pottery1 and all rounded   
objects2 and 7#b7 all distortion1       
disintegration1 degradation of pattern- 
motives1 often so marked as all but to  
destroy their meaning1 is in the        

direction of geometrical symmetry4  ,the
 early art of all civilized nations     
shows the same characteristic4  ,now it 
might be said that1 as there exists an  
instinctive tendency to imitate visual  
forms by motor impulses1 the impulses   
suggested by the symmetrical form are in
 harmony with the system of energies of 
our bilateral organism1 which is a      
system of double motor innervations1 and
 thus fulfill our demand for a set of   
reactions corresponding to the organism 
as a whole4  ,but we should then expect 
that all space arrangements which       
deviate from complete symmetry1 and thus
 suggest motor impulses which do not    
correspond to the natural bilateral     
type1 would fail to give aesthetic      
pleasure4  ,such1 however1 is not the   
case4  ,non-symmetrical arrangements of 
space are often extremely pleasing4  #a 
,the following is adapted from the      
author's ,studies in ,symmetry1 ,harvard
 ,psych4 ,studies1 vol i1 #aijb4  ,this 
contradiction disappears if we are able 

to show that the apparently             
non-symmetrical arrangement contains a  
hidden symmetry1 and that all the       
elements of that arrangement contribute 
to bring about just that bilateral type 
of motor impulses which is              
characteristic of geometrical symmetry4 
,a series of experiments was arranged1  
in which one of two unequal lines of    
white on a black background being fixed 
in an upright position a certain        
distance from the centre1 the other was 
shifted until the arrangement was felt  
to be pleasing4 ,it was found that when 
two lines of different sizes were       
opposed1 their relative positions       
corresponded to the relation of the arms
 of a balance1 that is1 a small line far
 from the centre was opposed by a large 
one near the centre4  ,a line pointing  
out from the centre fitted this formula 
if taken as heavy1 and pointing in1 if  
taken as light4  ,similarly1 objects of 
intrinsic interest and objects          
suggesting depth in the third dimension 

were heavy in the same interpretation4  
,all this1 however1 did not go beyond   
the proof that all pleasing space-      
arrangements can be described in terms  
of mechanical balance4 ,but what was    
this mechanical balance8  ,a metaphor   
explains nothing1 and no one will       
maintain that the visual representation 
of a long line weights more than a short
 one4  ,moreover1 the elements in the   
balance were so far heterogeneous4  ,the
 movement suggested by an idea had been 
treated as if equivalent to the movement
 actually made by the eye in following a
 long line2 the intrinsic interest--that
 is1 the ideal interest--of an object   
insignificant in form was equated to the
 attractive power of a perspective1     
which has1 presumably1 a merely         
physiological effect on the visual      
mechanism4  ,i believe1 however1 that   
the justification of this apparent      
heterogeneity1 and the basis for        
explanation1 is given in the reduction  
of all elements to their lowest         

term1--as objects for the expenditure of
 attention4  ,a large object and an     
interesting object are heavy for the    
same reason1 because they call out the  
attention4  ,and expenditure of effort  
is expenditure of attention2 thus1 if an
 object on the outskirts of the field of
 vision requires a wide sweep of the eye
 to take it in1 it demands the          
expenditure of attention1 and so is felt
 as heavy4  ,but what is the expenditure
 of attention in physiological terms8   
,it is nothing more than the measure of 
the motor impulses directed to the      
object of attention4  ,and whether the  
motor impulse appears as the tendency to
 follow out the suggestions of motion in
 the object1 all reduces to the same    
physiological basis4  ,it may here be   
objected that our motor impulses are1   
nevertheless1 still heterogeneous1      
inasmuch as some are toward the object  
of interest1 and some along the line of 
movement4  ,but it must be said1 first1 
that these are not felt in the body1 but

 transferred as values of weight to     
points in the picture1--it is the amount
 and not the direction of excitement    
that is counted2 and secondly1 that even
 if it were not so1 the suggested       
movement along a line is felt as weight 
at a particular point4  ,from this point
 of view the justification of the       
metaphor of mechanical balance is quite 
clear4  ,given two lines1 the most      
pleasing arrangement makes the larger   
nearer the centre1 and the smaller far  
from it4  ,this is balanced because the 
spontaneous impulse of attention to the 
near1 large line equals in amount the   
involuntary expenditure to apprehend the
 small1 farther one4  ,we may thus think
 of a space to be composed as a kind of 
target1 in which certain spots or       
territories count more or less1 both    
according to their distance from the    
centre and according to what fills them4
  ,every element of a picture1 in       
whatever way it gains power to excite   
motor impulses1 is felt as expressing   

that power in the flat pattern4  ,a     
noble vista is understood and enjoyed as
 a vista1 but it is ,,counted in the    
motor equation1 our balance1 as a spot  
of so much intrinsic value at such and  
such a distance from the centre4  ,the  
skillful artist will fill his target in 
the way to give the maximum of motor    
impulses with the perfection of balance 
between them4  ,it is thus in a kind of 
substitutional symmetry1 or balance1    
that we have the objective condition or 
counterpart of aesthetic repose1 or     
unity4  ,from this point of view it is  
clearly seen in what respect the unity  
of ,hildebrand fails4  ,he demands in   
the statue1 especially1 but also in the 
picture1 the flat surface as a unity for
 the three dimensions4  ,but it is only 
with the flat space1 won1 if you will1  
by ,hildebrand's method1 that the       
problem begins4  ,every point in the    
third dimension counts1 as has been     
said1 in the flat4  ,the ,fernbild is   
the beginning of beauty1 but within the 

,fernbild favorable stimulation and     
repose must still be sought4  ,and      
repose or unity is given by symmetry1   
subjectively the balance of attention1  
inasmuch as this balance is a tension of
 antagonistic impulses1 an equilibrium1 
and thus an inhibition of movement4     
,from this point of view1 we are in a   
position to refute ,souriau's           
interesting analysis#a of form as the   
condition for the appreciation of       
content4  ,he says that form1 in a      
picture for instance1 has its value in  
its power to produce 7through its       
fixation and concentration of the eye7 a
 mild hypnosis1 in which1 as is well    
known1 all suggestions come to us with  
bewildering vividness4  ,this is1 then1 
just the state in which the contents of 
the picture can most vividly impress    
themselves4  ,form1 then1 as the means  
to content1 by giving the conditions for
 suggestion1 is ,sourieau's account of  
it4  ,in so far as form--in the sense of
 unity--gives1 through balance and      

equilibrium of impulses1 the arrest of  
the personality1 it may indeed be       
compared with hypnotism4  ,but this     
arrest is not only a means1 but an end  
in itself2 that aesthetic repose1 which1
 as the unity of the personality1 is an 
essential element of the aesthetic      
emotion as we have described it4  #a ,la
 ,suggestion en l',art4   ,,vi  ,there  
is no point of light or color1 no       
contour1 no line1 no depth1 that does   
not contribute to the infinite complex  
which gives the maximum of experience   
with the minimum of effort and which we 
call beauty of form4  ,but yet there is 
another way of viewing the beautiful    
object1 on which we touched in the      
introduction to this chapter4  ,so far1 
what we see is only another name for    
,,how we see2 and the way of seeing has 
proved to contain enough to bring to    
stimulation and repose the              
psychophysical mechanism4  ,but now we  
must ask1 what relation has meaning to  
beauty8  ,is it an element1 coordinate  

with others1 or something superposed8 or
 is it an end in itself1 the supreme    
end8  ,what relation to the beauty of   
form has that quality of their works by 
virtue of which ,rembrandt is called a  
dreamer1 and ,rodin a poet in stone8    
,what do we mean when we speak of       
,sargent as a psychologist8  ,is it a   
virtue to be a poet in stone8  ,if it   
is1 we must somehow include in our      
concept of ,beauty the element of       
expression1 by showing how it serves the
 infinite complex4  ,or is it not an    
aesthetic virtue1 and ,rodin is great   
artist and poet combined1 and not great 
artist because poet1 as some would say8 
,what is the relation of the objective  
content to beauty of form8  ,in short1  
what place has the idea in ,beauty8  ,in
 the preceding the place of separate    
objects which have only an ideal        
importance has been made clear4  ,the   
gold-embroidered gauntlet in a picture  
counts as a patch of light1 a trend of  
line1 in a certain spot2 but it counts  

more there1 because it is of interest   
for itself1 and by thus counting more1  
the idea has entered into the spatial   
balance1--the idea has become itself    
form4  ,now it is the question whether  
all idea1 which seems so heterogeneous  
in its relation to form1 does not       
undergo this transmutation4  ,it is at  
least of interest to see whether the    
facts can be so interpreted4  ,we have  
spoken of ideas a parts of an aesthetic 
whole4  ,what of the idea of the whole8 
,corot used to say he painted a dream1  
and it is the dream of an autumn morning
 we see in his pictures4 ,millet        
portrays the sad majesty and sweetness  
of the life near the soil4  ,how must we
 relate these facts to the views already
 won8  ,it has often been said that the 
view which makes the element of form for
 the eye alone1 in the strictest sense1 
is erroneous1 because there is no form  
for the eye alone4  ,the very process of
 apprehending a line involves not only  
motor memories and impulses1 but        

numberless ideal associations1 and these
 associations constitute the line as    
truly as do the others4  ,the impression
 of the line involves expression1 a     
meaning which we cannot escape4  ,the   
forms of things constitute a kind of    
dialect of life1--and thus it is that   
the theory of ,einfuhlung in its deepest
 sense is grounded4  ,the ,doric column 
causes in us1 no doubt1 motor impulses1 
but it means1 and must mean1 to us1 the 
expression of internal energy through   
those very impulses it causes4  ,we     
ourselves are contracting our muscles1  
but we feel as if the lines were pulling
 and piercing1 bending and lifting1     
pressing down and pushing up2 in short1 
as soon as the visual impression is     
really isolated1 and all other ideas    
really excluded1 then the motor impulses
 do not awake actions which are taken as
 actions of ourselves1 but feelings of  
energy which are taken as energies of   
the visual forms and lines4#a  ,so the  
idea belonging to the object1 and the   

psychophysical effect of the object are 
only obverse and inverse of the same    
phenomenon4 ,and our pleasure in the    
form of the column is rather our        
appreciation of energy than our feeling 
of favorable stimulation4 ,admitting    
this reasoning1 the meaning of a picture
 would be the same as its beauty1 it is 
said4  ,the heroic art of ,j4-,f4       
,millet1 for example1 would be beautiful
 because it is the perfect expression of
 the simplicity and suffering of labor4 
#a ,h4 ,munsterberg1 ,the ,principles of
 ,art ,education1 p4 #hg4  ,let us      
examine this apparently reasonable      
theory4  ,it is true that every visual  
element is understood as expression too4
  ,it is not true1 however1 that        
expression and impression are parallel  
and mutually corresponding beyond the   
elements4  ,suppose a concourse of      
columns covered by a roof1--the         
,parthenon4  ,those psychophysical      
changes induced by the sight now        
mutually check and modify each other4   

,can we say that there is a meaning1    
like the energy of the column1          
corresponding to that complex8 ,it is at
 least not energy itself4  ,ask the same
 as regards the lines and masses of a   
picture by ,corot4  ,in the sense in    
which we have taken meaning1 the only   
psychologically possible one1 our       
reactions could be interpreted only by  
some mood4  ,if the column means energy 
because it makes us tower1 then the     
picture must mean what it makes us do4  
,that is1 a combination of feathery     
fronds and horizontal lines of water1   
bathed in a gray- green silvery mist1   
can mean only a repose lightened by a   
grave yet cheerful spirit4  ,in short1  
this theory of expressiveness cannot go 
beyond the mood or moral quality4  ,in  
the sense of ,,information1 the theory  
of ,einfuhlung contributes nothing4     
,now1 in this limited sense1 we have    
indeed no reason to contradict it1 but  
simply to point out that it holds only  
in this extremely limited sense4  ,when 

we see broad sweeping lines we interpret
 them by sympathetic reproduction as    
strength1 energy4  ,when those sweeping 
lines are made part of a ,titan's frame1
 we get the same effect plus the        
associations which belong to            
distinctively muscular energy4  ,those  
same lines might define the sweep of a  
drapery1 or the curve of an infant's    
limbs4  ,now all that part of the       
meaning which belongs to the lines      
themselves remains constant under       
whatever circumstances2 and it is quite 
true that a certain feeling-tone1 a     
certain moral quality1 as it were1      
belongs1 say1 to ,raphael's pictures1 in
 which this kind of outline is to be    
found4  ,but as belonging to a ,titan1  
the additional elements of understanding
 are not due to sympathetic             
reproduction4  ,they are not parallel   
with the motor suggestions2 they are    
simply an associational addition1 due to
 our information about the power of men 
with muscles like that4  ,that there are

 secondary motor elements as a          
reverberation of these ideal elements   
need not be denied4  ,but they are not  
directly due to the form4  ,now such    
part of our response to a picture as is 
directly induced by the form1 we have a 
right to include in the aesthetic       
experience4  ,it will1 however1 in every
 work of art of even the least          
complexity1 be expressible only as a    
mood1 very indefinite1 often            
indescribable4  ,to make this meaning1  
then1 the essential aim of a picture    
seems unreasonable4  ,it is evident that
 in experience we do not1 as a matter of
 fact1 separate the mood which is due to
 sympathy from the ideal content of the 
picture4  ,corot paint a summer dawn4   
,we cannot separate our pleasure in the 
sight from our pleasure in the          
understanding2 yet it is the visual     
complex that gives us the mood1 and the 
meaning of the scene is due to factors  
of association4  ,the serene and happy  
dream1 the conviction of a solemn and   

radiant ,arcadia1 are not expression in 
that inevitable sense in which we agreed
 to take it1 but the result of a most   
extended upbuilding of ideal 7that is1  
associational7 elements4  ,the idea1    
then1 as we have propounded it1 is not1 
as was thought possible1 an integral and
 essential part1 but an addition to the 
visual form1 and we have still to ask   
what is its value4  ,but in so far as it
 is an addition1 its effect may be in   
conflict with what we may call the      
feeling-tone produced by sympathetic    
reproduction4  ,in that case1 one must  
yield to the other4  ,now it is not     
probably that even the most convinced   
adherents of the expression theory would
 hold that if expression or beauty      
,,must go1 expression should be kept4   
,they only say that expression ,,is     
beauty4  ,but the moment it is admitted 
that there is a beauty of form          
independent of the ideal element1 this  
theory can no longer stand4  ,if there  
is a conflict1 the palm must be given to

 the direct1 rather than the indirect1  
factor4 ,indeed1 when there is such a   
conflict1 the primacy must always be    
with the medium suited to the organ1 the
 sensuous factor4  ,for if it were not  
so1 and expression ,,were beauty1 then  
that would have to be most beautiful    
which was most expressive4  ,and even if
 we disregard the extraordinary         
conclusions to which this would         
lead1--the story pictures preferred to  
those without a story1 the photographic 
reproductions preferred to the          
symphonies of color and form1--we should
 be obliged to admit something still    
more incendiary4  ,expression is always 
of an ideal content1 is of something to 
express2 and it is unquestioned that in 
words1 and in words alone1 can we get   
nearest to the inexpressible4  ,then    
literature1 as being the most           
expressive1 would be the highest art1   
and we should be confronted with a      
hierarchy of arts1 from that down4      
,now1 in truth1 the real lover of beauty

 knows that no one art is superior to   
another4  ,each in his separate star1   
they reign alone4  ,in order to be      
equal1 they must depend on their        
material1 not on that common quality of 
imaginative thought which each has in a 
differing degree1 and all less than     
literature4  ,the idea1 we conclude1 is 
then indeed subordinate1--a by-product1 
unless by chance it can enter into1 melt
 into1 the form4  ,this case we have    
clearest in the example1 already        
referred to1 of the gold-embroidered    
gauntlet1 or the jeweled chalice1--say  
the ,holy ,grail in ,abbey's            
pictures1--which counts more or less1 in
 the spatial balance1 according to its  
intrinsic interest4  ,we have seen that 
through sympathetic reproduction a      
certain mood is produced1 which becomes 
a kind of emotional envelope for the    
picture1--a favorable stimulation of the
 whole1 a raising of the whole harmony  
one tone1 as it were4  ,now the further 
ideal content of the picture may so     

closely belong to this basis that it    
helps it along4  ,thus all that we know 
about dawn--not only of a summer        
morning--helps us to see1 and seeing to 
rejoice1 in ,corot's silvery mist or    
,monet's iridescent shimmers4  ,all that
 we know and feel about the patient     
majesty of labor in the fields1 next the
 earth1 helps us to get the slow1 large 
rhythm1 the rich gloom of ,millet's     
pictures4  ,but it is the rhythm and the
 gloom that are the beauty1 and the idea
 reinforces our consciousness thereof4  
,the idea is a sounding-board for the   
beauty1 and so can be truly said to     
enter into the form4  ,but there are    
still some lions in the path of our     
theory4  ,the greatest of modern        
sculptors is reputed to have reached his
 present altitude by the passionate     
pursuance of ,nature1 and of the        
expressions of ,nature4  ,and few can   
see ,rodin's work without being at once 
in the grip of the emotion or fact he   
has chosen to depict4  ,a great deal of 

contemporary criticism on modern        
tendencies in art rests on the intention
 of expression1 and expression alone1   
attributed to him4  ,it is said of him3 
,the solicitude for ardent expression   
overmasters every aesthetic             
consideration4444  ,he is a poet with   
stone as his instrument of expression4  
,he makes it express emotions that are  
never found save in music or in         
psychological and lyric literature4#a   
#a ,c4 ,mauclair1 ,the ,decorative      
,sculpture of ,august ,rodin1           
,international ,monthly1 vol iii4  ,now 
while the last is undoubtedly true1 ,i  
believe that the first is not only not  
true1 but that it is proved to be so by 
,rodin's own procedure and utterances1  
and that1 if we understand his case     
aright1 it is for beauty alone that he  
lives4  ,he has related his search for  
the secret of ,michael ,angelo's design1
 and how he found it in the rhythm of   
two planes rather than four1 the ,greek 
composition4  ,this system of tormented 

form is one way of referring the body to
 the geometry of an imagined rectangular
 block inclosing the whole4  #a,the     
ordinary ,greek composition of the body1
 he puts it1 depends on a rhythm of four
 lines1 four volumes1 four planes4 ,if  
the line of the shoulders and pectorals 
slopes from right to left 7the man      
resting on his right leg7 the line      
across the hips takes the reverse slope1
 and is followed by that of the knees1  
while the line of the first echoes that 
of the shoulders4 ,thus we get the      
rhythm ,,abba1 and the balancing volumes
 set up a corresponding play of planes4 
,michael ,angelo so turns the body on   
itself that he reduces the four to two  
big planes1 one facing1 the other swept 
round to the side of the block4  ,that  
is1 he gets geometrical enveloping lines
 for his design4  ,and1 in fact1 there  
is no sculpture which is more wonderful 
in design than ,rodin's4  ,i quote ,mr4 
,mac,coll again4  ,it has been said that
 the ',bourgeois de ,calais' is a group 

of single figures1 possessing no unity  
of design1 or at best affording only a  
single point of view4  ,those who say so
 have never examined it with attention4 
,the way in which these figures move    
among themselves1 as the spectator walks
 round1 so as to produce from every     
fresh angle sweeping commanding lines1  
each of them thus playing a dozen parts 
at once1 is surely one of the most      
astounding feats of the genius of       
design4  ,nothing in the history of art 
is exactly comparable with it4  #a ,d4  
,s4 ,mac,coll1 ,nineteenth ,century     
,art1 #aijb1 p4 #aja4  ,in short1 it is 
the design1 for all his words1 that     
,rodin cares for4  ,he calls it ,nature1
 because he sees1 and can see ,nature   
only that way4  ,but as he said to some 
one who suggested that there might be a 
danger in too close devotion to ,nature1
 ,yes1 for a mediocre artist6  ,it is   
for the sake of the strange new beauty1 
the unedited poses1 the odd beautiful   
huddle#a of lines1 in a stopping or     

squatting form1 that all these wild and 
subtle moments are portrayed4  ,the     
limbs must be adjusted or surprised in  
some pattern beyond their own4  ,the    
ideas are the occasion and the excuse   
for new outlines1--that is all4  #a     
,said of ,degas4  ,mac,coll4  ,this is  
all scarcely less true of ,millet1 whom 
we have known above all as the painter  
who has shown the simple common lot of  
labor as divine4  ,but he1 too1 is      
artist for the sake of beauty first4    
,he sees two peasant women1 one laden   
with grass1 the other with fagots4      
,from far off1 they are superb1 they    
balance their shoulders under the weight
 of fatigue1 the twilight swallows their
 forms4  ,it is beautiful1 it is great  
as a myster4#a  #a ,sensier1 ,vie et    
,oeuvre de ,j4-,f4 ,millet4  ,the idea  
is1 as ,i said1 from this point of view1
 a means to new beauty2 and the stranger
 and subtler the idea1 the more original
 the forms4  ,the more unrestrained the 
expression of emotion in the figures1   

the more chance to surprise them in some
 new lovely pattern4  ,it is thus1 ,i   
believe1 that we may interpret the      
seeming trend of modern sculpture1 and  
so much1 indeed1 of all modern art1 to  
the expressive beauty path4 ,the        
mediocre artist will lose beauty in     
seeking expression1 the great artist    
will pursue his idea for the sake of the
 new beauty it will yield4  ,thus it    
seems that the stumbling blocks in the  
way of our theory are not insurmountable
 after all4  ,from every point of view1 
it is seen to be possible to transmute  
the idea into a helpmeet to the form4   
,visual beauty is first beauty to the   
eye and to the frame1 and the mind      
cherishes and enriches this beauty with 
all its own stored treasures4  ,the     
stimulation and repose of the           
psychophysical organism alone can make  
one thrill to visual form2 but the      
thrill is deeper and more satisfying if 
it engage the whole man1 and be         
reinforced from all sources4   ,,vii    

,but we ought to note a borderland in   
which the concern is professedly not    
with beauty1 but with ideas of life4    
,aristotle's lover of knowledge1 who    
rejoiced to say of a picture ,this is   
that man1 is the inspirer of drawing as 
opposed to the art of visual form4  ,it 
is not beauty we seek from the          
,rembrandt and ,durer of the etchings   
and woodcuts1 from ,hogarth1 ,goya1     
,klinger1 down to ,leech and ,keene and 
,du ,maurier2 it is not beauty1 but     
ideas1-- information1 irony1 satire1    
life-philosophy4  ,where there is a     
conflict1 beauty1 as we have defined it1
 goes to the wall4 ,we may trace1       
perhaps1 the ground of this in the      
highly increased amount of symbolic1    
associative power given1 and required1  
in the black and white4  ,even to       
understand such a picture demands such  
an enormous amount of unconscious mental
 supplementation that it is natural to  
find the aesthetic centre of gravity in 
that element4  ,the first conditions of 

the work1 that is1 determine its trend  
and aim4  ,the part played by           
imagination in our vision of an etching 
is and must be so important1 that it is1
 after all1 the imaginative part which  
outweighs the given4  ,nor do we desire 
the given to infringe upon the ideal    
field4  ,thus do we understand that for 
most drawings a background vague and    
formless is the desideratum4  ,such a   
tone is the foil for psychological      
moments1 as they are handled by ,goya1  
for instance1 with barbarically         
magnificent nakedness4  ,on a background
 which is scarcely indicated1 with few  
strokes1 which barely suggest space1 he 
impales like a butterfly the human type1
 mostly in a moment of folly or         
wickedness4444  ,the least definition of
 surrounding would blunt his 7the       
artist's7 keenness1 and make his        
vehemence absurd4#a  #a ,max ,klinger1  
,malerei u4 ,zeichnung1 #aijc1 p4 #db4  
,this theory of the aim of black and    
white is confirmed by the fact that     

while a painting is composed for the    
size in which it is painted1 and becomes
 another picture if reproduced in       
another measure1 the size of drawings is
 relatively indifferent2 reduced or     
enlarged1 the effect is approximately   
the same1 because what is given to the  
eye is such a small proportion of the   
whole experience4  ,the picture is only 
the cue for a complete structure of     
ideas4  ,here is a true case of         
,anders-,streben1 that partial          
alienation from its own limitations1 by 
which the arts are able1 not indeed to  
supply the place of each other1 but     
reciprocally to lend each other new     
forces4#a  ,it is by its success as     
representation that the art of the burin
 and needle--,griffelkunst1 as ,klinger 
names it--ought first to be judged4     
,this is not saying that it may not also
 possess beauty of form to a high       
degree1--only that this beauty of form  
is not its characteristic excellence4   
#a ,w4 ,pater1 ,the ,renaissance3 ,essay

 on ,giorgione4  ,in what consists the  
beauty of visual form8  ,if this        
question could be answered in a sentence
 our whole discussion of the abstract   
formula for beauty would have been      
unnecessary4  ,but since we know what   
the elements of visual form must do to  
bring about the aesthetic experience1 it
 has been the aim of the preceding pages
 to show how those elements must be     
determined and related4  ,the eye1 the  
psychophysical organism1 must be        
favorably stimulated2 these1 and such   
colors1 combinations1 lines as we have  
described1 are fitted to do it4  ,it    
must be brought to repose2 these1 and   
such relations between lines and colors 
as we have set forth1 are fitted to do  
it1 for reasons we have given4  ,it is  
to the eye and all that waits upon it   
that the first and the last appeal of   
fine art must be made2 and in so far as 
the emotion or the idea belonging to a  
picture or a statue waits upon the eye1 
in so far does it enter into the        

characteristic excellence1 that is1 the 
beauty of visual form4   ,b4  ,,space   
,,composition ,,among ,,the ,,old       
,,masters  ,i  ,,the preceding pages    
have set forth the concrete facts of    
visible beauty1 and the explanation of  
our feelings about it4 ,it is also      
interesting1 however1 to see how these  
principles are illustrated and confirmed
 in the masterpieces of art4  ,a        
statistical study1 undertaken some years
 ago with the purpose of dealing thus   
with the hypothesis of substitutional   
symmetry in pictorial composition1 has  
given abundance of material1 which ,i   
shall set forth1 at otherwise           
disproportionate length1 as to a certain
 extent illustrative of the methods of  
such study4  ,it is clear that this is  
but one of many possible investigations 
in which the preceding psychological    
theories may be further illuminated4    
,the text confines itself to pictures2  
but the functions of the elements of    
visual form are valid as well for all   

visual art destined to fill a bounded   
area4  ,the discussion will then be seen
 to be only ostensibly limited in its   
reference4  ,for picture might always be
 read space arrangement within a frame4 
,in the original experimental study of  
space arrangements1 the results of which
 were given at length on page #aaa1 the 
elements of form in a picture were      
reduced to ,,size or ,,mass1 ,,depth in 
the third dimension1 ,,direction1 and   
,,interest4  ,direction was further     
analyzed into direction of ,,motion or  
,,attention 7of persons or objects in   
the picture71 an ideal element1 that is2
 and direction of ,,line4  ,for the     
statistical study1 a given picture was  
then divided in half by an imaginary    
vertical line1 and the elements         
appearing on each side of this line were
 set off against each other to see how  
far they lent themselves to description 
by substitutional symmetry4  ,thus3  in 
,b4 van der ,helst's ,portrait of ,paul 
,potter1 the head of the subject is     

entirely to left of the central line1 as
 also his full face and frontward       
glance4 ,his easel is right1 his body   
turned sharply to right1 and both hands1
 one holding palette and brushes1 are   
stretched down to right4  ,thus the     
greater mass is to the left1 and the    
general direction of line is to the     
right2 elements of interest in the head1
 left2 in implements1 right4  ,this may 
be schematized in the equation          
7,lt47,m4,i47,rt47,i4,l4  ,pieter de    
,hooch1 ,the ,card-,players1 in         
,buckingham ,palace1 portrays a group   
completely on the right of the central  
line1 all facing in to the table between
 them4  ,directly behind them is a high 
light window1 screened1 and high on the 
wall to the extreme right are a picture 
and hanging cloaks4  ,all goes to       
emphasize the height1 mass1 and interest
 of the right side4 ,on the left1 which 
is otherwise empty1 is a door half the  
height of the window1 giving on a       
brightly lighted courtyard1 from which  

is entering a woman1 also in light      
clothing4  ,the light streams in        
diagonally across the floor4  ,thus1    
with all the weight on the right1 the   
effect of this deep vista on the left   
and of its brightness is to give a      
complete balance1 while the suggestion  
of line from doorway and light makes1   
together with the central figure1 a     
roughly outlined ,v1 which serves to    
bind together all the elements4         
,equation1 7,lt47,v4,i4 7,rt47,m4,i4    
,the thousand pictures on which the     
study was based#a were classified for   
convenience into groups1--,religious1   
,portrait1 ,genre1 and ,landscape4  ,it 
was found on analysis that the functions
 of the elements came out clearly1      
somewhat as follows4  #a ,one thousand  
reproductions of old masters from ,f4   
,bruckmann's ,classischer ,bilderschatz1
 ,munich1 omitting frescoes and pictures
 of which less than the whole was given4
  ,of the religious pictures1 only the  
,madonnas ,enthroned and other          

altar-pieces are considered at this     
point as presenting a simple type1 in   
which it is easy to show the variations 
from symmetry4  ,in all these pictures  
the balance comes in between the        
interest in the ,infant ,christ1        
sometimes together with direction of    
attention to him1 on one side1 and other
 elements on the other4  ,when the first
 side is especially heavy the number of 
opposing elements increases1 and        
especially takes the form of vista and  
line1 which have been experimentally    
found to be powerful in attracting      
attention4  ,where there are no         
surrounding worshipers1 we notice       
remarkable frequency in the use of vista
 and line1 and1 in general1 balance is  
brought about through the disposition of
 form rather than of interests4 ,the    
reason for this would appear to be that 
the lack of accessories in the persons  
of saints1 worshipers1 etc41 and the    
consequent increase in the size of      
,madonna and ,child in the picture1     

heightens the effect of any given       
outline1 and so makes the variations    
from symmetry greater4  ,this being the 
case1 the compensations would be        
stronger2 and as we have learned that   
vista and line are of this character1 we
 see why they are needed4  ,the portrait
 class is an especially interesting     
object for study1 inasmuch as while its 
general type is very simple and         
constant1 for this very reason the      
slightest variations are sharply felt1  
and have their very strongest           
characteristic effect4  ,the general    
type of the portrait composition is1 of 
course1 the triangle with the head at   
the apex1 and this point is also        
generally in the central line2          
nevertheless1 great richness of effect  
is brought about by emphasizing         
variations4 ,for instance1 the body and 
head are1 in the great majority of      
cases1 turned in the same way1 giving   
the strongest possible emphasis to the  
direction of attention1--especially     

powerful1 of course1 where all the      
interest is in the personality4  ,but it
 is to be observed that the very        
strongest suggestion of direction is    
given by the direction of the glance2   
and in no case1 when most of the other  
elements are directed in one way1 does  
the glance fail to come backward4  ,with
 the head on one side of the central    
line1 of course the greatest interest is
 removed to one side1 and the element of
 direction is brought in to balance4    
,again1 with this decrease in symmetry1 
we see a significant increase in the use
 of the especially effective elements1  
vista and line4  ,in fact1 the use of   
the small deep vista is almost confined 
to the class with heads not in the      
middle4  ,the direction of the glance   
also plays an important part4  ,very    
often the direction of movement alone is
 not sufficient to balance the powerful 
,m4,i4 of the other side1 and the eye   
has to be attracted by a definite object
 of interest4 ,this is usually the hand1

 with or without an implement1--like the
 palette1 etc41 of our first            
examples1--or a jewel1 vase1 or bit of  
embroidery4  ,this is very              
characteristic of the portraits of      
,rembrandt and ,van ,dyck4  ,in general1
 it may be said that 7#a7 portraits with
 the head in the centre of the frame    
show a balance between the direction of 
suggested movement on one side1 and mass
 or direction of attention1 or both     
together1 on the other2 while 7#b7      
portraits with the head not in the      
centre show a balance between mass and  
interest on one side1 and direction of  
attention1 or of line1 or vista1 or     
combinations of these1 on the other4    
,still more unsymmetrical in their      
framework than portraits1 in fact the   
most unfettered type of all1 are the    
genre pictures4 ,as these are pictures  
with a human interest1 and full of      
action and particular points of         
interest1 it was to be expected that    
interest would be the element most      

frequently appearing4  ,in compositions 
showing great variations from           
geometrical symmetry1 it was also to be 
expected that vista and line1 elements  
which have been noted comparatively     
seldom up to this point1 should suddenly
 appear strongly2 for1 as being the most
 strikingly heavy of the elements1 they 
serve to compensate for other variations
 combined4  ,the landscape is another   
type of unfettered composition4  ,it was
 of course to be expected that in       
pictures without action there should be 
little suggestion of attention or of    
direction of movement4  ,but the most   
remarkable point is the presence of     
vista in practically every example4  ,it
 is1 of course1 natural that somewhere  
in almost every picture there should be 
a break to show the horizon line1 for   
the sake of variety1 if for nothing     
else2 but what is significant is the    
part played by this break in the        
balancing of the picture4  ,in about two
 thirds of the examples the vista is    

inclosed by lines1 or masses1 and when  
near the centre1 as being at the same   
time the heaviest part of the picture1  
it serves as a fulcrum or centre to bind
 the parts--always harder to bring      
together than in the other types of     
pictures--into a close unity4  ,the most
 frequent form of this arrangement is a 
diagonal1 which just saves itself by    
turning up at its far end4  ,thus the   
mass1 and hence usually the special     
interest of the picture1 is on the one  
side1 on the other the vista and the    
sloping line of the diagonal4  ,in very 
few cases is the vista behind an        
attractive or noticeable part of the    
picture1 the fact showing that it acts  
in opposition to the latter1 leading the
 eye away from it1 and thus serving at  
once the variety and richness of the    
picture1 and its unity4  ,a complete    
diagonal would have line and vista both 
working at the extreme outer edge of the
 picture1 and thus too strongly1--      
unless1 indeed1 balanced by very        

striking elements near the outer edge4  
,this function of the vista as a        
unifying element is of interest in      
connection with the theory of           
,hildebrand1#a that the landscape should
 have a narrow foreground and wide      
background1 since that is most in       
conformity with our experience4  ,he    
adduces ,titian's ,sacred and ,profane  
,love as an example4  ,but of the       
general principle it may be said that   
not the reproduction of nature1 but the 
production of beauty1 is the aim of     
composition1 and that this aim is best  
reached by focusing the eye by a narrow 
background1 i4e4 vista4  ,no matter how 
much it wanders1 it returns to that     
central spot and is held there1 keeping 
hold on all the other elements4  ,of    
,hildebrand's example it may be said    
that the pyramidal composition1 with the
 dark and tall tree in the centre1      
effectually accomplishes the binding    
together of the two figures1 so that a  
vista is not needed4  ,a wide background

 without that tree would leave them     
rather disjointed4  #a ,op cit41 p4 #ee4
  ,in general1 it may be said that      
balance in landscape is effected between
 mass and interest on one side and vista
 and line on the other2 and that union  
is given especially by the use of vista4
   ,,ii  ,the experimental treatment of 
the isolated elements detected the      
particular function of each in          
distributing attention in the field of  
view4  ,but while all are possibly      
operative in a given picture1 some are  
given1 as we have seen1 much more       
importance than others1 and in pictures 
of different types different elements   
predominate4  ,in those classes with a  
general symmetrical framework1 such as  
the altar and ,madonna pieces1 the      
elements of interest and direction of   
attention determine the balance1 for    
they appear as variations in a symmetry 
which has already1 so to speak1 disposed
 of mass and line4  ,they give what     
action there is1 and where they are very

 strongly operative1 they are opposed by
 salient lines and deep vistas1 which   
act more strongly on the attention than 
does mass4 ,interest keeps its          
predominance throughout the types1      
except in the portraits1 where the head 
is usually in the central line4 ,but    
even among the portraits it has a       
respectable representation1 as jewels1  
embroideries1 beautiful hands1 etc41    
count largely too in composition4  ,the 
direction of attention is most operative
 among the portraits4 ,since these      
pictures represent no action1 it must be
 given by those elements which move and 
distribute the attention2 in accordance 
with which principle we find line also  
unusually influential4  ,as remarked    
above1 altar-pieces and ,madonna        
pictures1 also largely without action1  
depend largely for it on the direction  
of attention4  ,the vista1 as said      
above1 rivets and confines the          
attention4  ,we can1 therefore1         
understand how it is that in the genre  

pictures it appears very numerous4  ,the
 active character of these pictures     
naturally requires to be modified1 and  
the vista introduces a powerful         
balancing element1 which is yet quiet2  
or1 it might be said1 inasmuch as energy
 is certainly expended in plunging down 
the third dimension1 the vista          
introduces an element of action of      
counterbalancing character4  ,in the    
landscape it introduces the principal   
element of variety4  ,it is always to be
 found in those parts of the picture    
which are opposed to other powerful     
elements1 and the heavier the other     
side1 the deeper the vista4 ,also in    
pictures with two groups it serves as a 
kind of fulcrum1 or unifying element1   
inasmuch as it rivets the attention     
between the two detached sides4  ,the   
direction of suggestion by means of the 
indication of a line1 quite naturally is
 more frequent in the ,madonna picture  
and portrait classes4  ,both these types
 are of large simple outline1 so that   

line would be expected to tell4  ,in a  
decided majority of cases1 combined with
 vista--the shape being more or less a  
diagonal slope--it is clear that it acts
 as a kind of bond between the two      
sides1 carrying the attention without a 
break from one to the other4  ,the      
element of mass requires less comment4  
,it appears in greatest number in those 
pictures which have little action1 i4e4 
portraits and landscapes1 and which are 
not yet symmetrical1-- in which last    
case mass is1 of course1 already        
balanced4  ,in fact1 it must of         
necessity exert a certain influence in  
every unsymmetrical picture1 and so its 
percentage1 even for genre pictures1 is 
large4  ,thus we may regard the elements
 as both attracting attention to a      
certain spot and dispersing it over a   
field4  ,those types which are of a     
static character 7landscapes1           
altar-pieces7 abound in elements which  
disperse the attention2 those which are 
of a dynamic character 7genre picture71 

in those which make it stable4  ,the    
ideal composition seems to combine the  
dynamic and static elements1--to        
animate1 in short1 the whole field of   
view1 but in a generally bilateral      
fashion4  ,the elements1 in             
substitutional symmetry1 are then simply
 means of introducing variety and       
action4  ,as a dance in which there are 
complicated steps gives the actor and   
beholder a varied and thus vivified     
balance1 and is thus more beautiful than
 the simple walk1 so a picture composed 
in substitutional symmetry is more rich 
in its suggestions of motor impulse1 and
 thus more beautiful1 than an example of
 geometrical symmetry4   ,,iii  ,the    
particular functions of the elements    
which are substituted for geometrical   
symmetry have been made clear2 their    
presence lends variety and richness to  
the balance of motor impulses4 ,but this
 quality of repose1 or unity1 given by  
balance1 is also enriched by a unity for
 intuition1--a large outline in which   

all the elements are held together4     
,now this way of holding together       
varies2 and ,i believe that it bears a  
very close relation to the subject and  
purpose of the picture4  ,examples of   
these types of composition may best be  
found by analyzing a few well-known     
pictures4  ,we may begin with the class 
first studied1 the ,altar-piece1        
choosing a picture by ,botticelli1 in   
the ,florence ,academy4  ,under an arch 
is draped a canopy held up by angels2   
under this1 again1 sits the ,madonna    
with the ,child on her lap1 on a throne1
 at the foot of which1 on each side1    
stand three saints4  ,the outline of the
 whole is markedly pyramidal2 in fact1  
there are1 broadly speaking1 three      
pyramids1 --of the arch1 the canopy1 and
 the grouping4  ,a second1 much less    
symmetrical example of this type1 is    
given by another ,botticelli in the     
,academy1--,spring4  ,here the central  
female figure1 topped by the floating   
,cupid1 is slightly raised above the    

others1 which1 however1 bend slightly   
inward1 so that a triangle1 or pyramid  
with very obtuse angle at the apex1 is  
suggested2 and the whole1 which at first
 glance seems a little scattered1 is at 
once felt1 when this is grasped1 as     
closely bound together4  ,closely allied
 to this is the type of the ,holbein    
,madonna of ,burgomaster ,meyer1 in the 
,grand ,ducal ,castle1 ,darmstadt4  ,it 
is true that the same pyramid is given  
by the head of the ,madonna against the 
shell-like background1 and her spreading
 cloak which envelops the kneeling      
donors4  ,but still more salient is the 
diamond form given by the descending    
rows of these worshiping figures1       
especially against the dark background  
of the ,madonna's dress4  ,a second     
example1 without the pyramid backing1 is
 found in ,rubens's ,rape of the        
,daughters of ,leucippus1 in the ,alte  
,pinakothek at ,munich4  ,here the      
diamond shape formed by the horses and  
struggling figures is most              

remarkable1--an effect of lightness     
which will be discussed later in        
interpreting the types4  ,a third type1 
the diagonal1 is given in an ,evening   
,landscape by ,cuyp1 in the ,buckingham 
,palace1 ,london4  ,high trees and      
cliffs1 horsemen and others1 occupy one 
side1 and the mountains in the          
background1 the ground and the clouds1  
all slope gradually down to the other   
side4  ,it is a natural transition from 
this type to the ,v-shape of the        
landscapes by ,aart van der ,neer1      
,dutch ,villages1 in the ,london        
,national ,gallery and in the           
,rudolphinum at ,prague1 respectively4  
,here are trees and houses on each side1
 gradually sloping to the centre to show
 an open sky and deep vista4  ,other    
examples1 of course1 show the opening   
not exactly in the centre4  ,in the     
,concert by ,giorgione1 in the ,pitti   
,gallery1 ,florence1 is seen the less   
frequent type of the square4  ,the three
 figures turned toward each other with  

heads on the same level make almost a   
square space-shape1 although it might be
 said that the central player gives a   
pyramidal foundation4  ,this last may   
also be said of ,verrocchio's ,tobias   
and the ,archangels in the ,florence    
,academy1 for the square1 or other      
rectangle1 is again lengthened by the   
pyramidal shape of the two central      
figures4  ,the unrelieved square1 it may
 here be interpolated1 is not often     
found except in somewhat primitive      
examples4  ,still less often observed is
 the oval type of ,samson's ,wedding    
,feast1 ,rembrandt1 in the ,royal       
,gallery1 ,dresden4  ,here one might1 by
 pressing the interpretation1 see an    
obtuse-angled double-pyramid with the   
figure of ,delilah for an apex1 but a   
few very irregular pictures seem to fall
 best under the given classification4   
,last of all1 it must be remarked that  
the great majority of pictures show a   
combination of two or even three types2 
but these are usually subordinated to   

one dominant type4  ,such1 for instance1
 is the case with many portraits1 which 
are markedly pyramidal1 with the        
double-pyramid suggested by the position
 of the arms1 and the inverted pyramid1 
or ,v1 in the landscape background4     
,the diagonal sometimes just passes over
 into the ,v-shape1 or into the pyramid2
 or the square is combined with both4   
,what types are characteristic of the   
different kinds of pictures8 ,in order  
to answer this question we must ask     
first1 ,what are the different kinds of 
pictures8  ,one answer1 at least1 is at 
once suggested to the student on a      
comparison of the pictures with their   
groupings according to subjects4  ,all  
those which represent the ,madonna      
enthroned1 with all variations1 with or 
without saints1 shepherds1 or ,holy     
,family1 are very quiet in their action2
 that is1 it is not really an action at 
all which they represent1 but an        
attitude1--the attitude of              
contemplation4  ,this is no less true of

 the pictures we may call ,adorations1  
in which1 indeed1 the contemplative     
attitude is still more marked4  ,on the 
other hand1 such pictures as the        
,descents1 the ,annunciations1 and very 
many of the miscellaneous religious1    
allegorical1 and genre pictures1 portray
 a definite action or event4  ,now the  
pyramid type is characteristic of the   
contemplative pictures in a much higher 
degree4  ,a class which might be        
supposed to suggest the same treatment  
in composition is that of the portraits1
 --absolute lack of action being the    
rule4  ,and we find1 indeed1 that no    
single type is represented within it    
except the pyramid and double-pyramid1  
with eighty-six per cent4 of the former4
 ,thus it is evident that for the type  
of picture which expresses the highest  
degree of quietude1 contemplation1      
concentration1 the pyramid is the       
characteristic type of composition4     
,among the so-called active pictures1   
the diagonal and ,v-shaped types are    

most numerous4  ,the landscape picture  
presents a somewhat different problem4  
,it cannot be described as either active
 or passive1 inasmuch as it does not    
express either an attitude or an event4 
,there is no definite idea to be set    
forth1 no point of concentration1 as    
with the altar-pieces and the portraits1
 for instance2 and yet a unity is       
demanded4  ,an examination of the       
proportions of the types shows at once  
the characteristic type to be here also 
the diagonal and ,v-shaped4  ,it is now 
necessary to ask what must be the       
interpretation of the use of these types
 of composition4  ,must we consider the 
pyramid the expression of passivity1 the
 diagonal or ,v-shape1 of activity8     
,but the greatly predominating use of   
the second for landscapes would remain  
unexplained1 for at least nothing can be
 more reposeful than the latter4  ,it   
may aid the solution of the problem to  
remember that the composition taken as a
 whole has to meet the demand for unity1

 at the same time that it allows free   
play to the natural expression of the   
subject4  ,the altar-piece has to bring 
about a concentration of attention to   
express or induce a feeling of          
reverence4  ,this is evidently          
accomplished by the suggestion of the   
converging lines to the fixation of the 
high point in the picture1--the small   
area occupied by the ,madonna and       
,child1--and by the subordination of the
 free play of other elements4  ,the     
contrast between the broad base and the 
apex gives a feeling of solidity1 of    
repose2 and it seems not unreasonable to
 suppose that the tendency to rest the  
eyes above the centre of the picture    
directly induces the associated mood of 
reverence or worship4  ,thus the        
pyramidal form serves two ends2         
primarily that of giving unity1 and     
secondarily1 by the peculiarity of its  
shape1 that of inducing the feeling-tone
 appropriate to the subject of the      
picture4  ,applying this principle to   

the so-called active pictures1 we see   
that the natural movement of attention  
between the different actors in the     
picture must be allowed for1 while yet  
unity is secured4  ,and it is clear that
 the diagonal type is just fitted for   
this4  ,the attention sweeps down from  
the high side to the low1 from which it 
returns through some backward suggestion
 of lines or interest in the objects of 
the high side4  ,action and             
reaction--movement and return of        
attention--is inevitable under the      
conditions of this type2 and this it is 
which allows the free play1--which1     
indeed1 ,,constitutes and expresses the 
activity belonging to the subject1 just 
as the fixation of the pyramid          
constitutes the quietude of the         
religious picture4  ,thus it is that the
 diagonal composition is particularly   
suited to portray scenes of grandeur1   
and to induce a feeling of awe in the   
spectator1 because only here can the eye
 rove in one large sweep from side to   

side of the picture1 recalled by the    
mass and interest of the side from which
 it moves4  ,the swing of the pendulum  
is here widest1 so to speak1 and all the
 feeling-tones which belong to wide1    
free movement are called into play4     
,if1 at the same time1 the element of   
the deep vista is introduced1 we have   
the extreme of concentration combined   
with the extreme of movement2 and the   
result is a picture in the grand style  
--comparable to high tragedy--in which  
all the feeling-tones which wait on     
motor impulses are1 as it were1 while   
yet in the same reciprocal relation1    
tuned to the highest pitch4  ,such a    
picture is the ,finding of the ,ring1   
,paris ,bordone1 in the ,venice         
,academy4  ,all the mass and the        
interest and the suggestion of the      
downward lines and of the magnificent   
perspective toward the left1 and the    
effect of the whole space composition is
 of superb largeness of life and        
feeling4  ,compare ,titian's            

,presentation of the ,virgin1 also the  
two great compositions by ,veronese1    
,martyrdom of ,st4 ,mark1 etc41 in the  
,doge's ,palace1 ,venice1 and ,esther   
before ,ahaseurus1 in the ,uffizi1      
,florence4 ,in these last two1 the mass1
 direction of interest1 movement1 and   
attention are toward the left1 while all
 the lines tend diagonally to the right1
 where a vista is also suggested1--the  
diagonal making a ,v just at the end4   
,here1 too1 the effect is of            
magnificence and vigor4  ,if1 then1 the 
pyramid belongs to contemplation1 the   
diagonal to action1 what ca be said of  
landscape8  ,it is without action1 it is
 true1 and yet does not express that    
positive quality1 that ,,will not to    
act1 of the rapt contemplation4  ,the   
landscape uncomposed is negative1 and it
 demands unity4  ,its type of           
composition1 then1 must give it         
something positive besides unity4  ,it  
lacks both concentration and action2 but
 it can gain them both from a space     

composition which shall combine unity   
with a tendency to movement4  ,and this 
is given by the diagonal and ,v-shaped  
type4  ,this type merely allows free    
play to the natural tendency of the     
active picture2 but it constrains the   
neutral1 inanimate landscape4  ,the     
shape itself imparts motion to the      
picture3  the sweep of line1 the        
concentration of the vista1 the unifying
 power of the inverted triangle between 
two masses1 act1 as it were1 externally 
to the suggestion of the object itself4 
,there is always enough quiet in a      
landscape1-- the overwhelming suggestion
 of the horizontal suffices for that2 it
 is movement that is needed for richness
 of effect1 and1 as ,i have shown1 no   
type imparts the feeling of movement so 
strongly as the diagonal and ,v-shaped  
type of composition4 ,landscapes need   
energy to produce stimulation1 not      
repression1 and so the diagonal type is 
proportionately more numerous4  ,the    
rigid square is found only at an early  

stage in the development of composition4
  ,moreover1 all the examples are story 
pictures1 for the most part scenes from 
the lives of the saints1 etc4  ,many of 
them are double-centre1--square1 that   
is1 with a slight break in the middle1  
the grouping purely logical1 to bring   
out the relations of the characters4    
,thus1 in the ,dream of ,saint ,martin1 
,simone ,martini1 a fresco at ,assisi1  
the saint lies straight across the      
picture with his head in one corner4    
,behind him on one side stand the       
,christ and angels1 grouped closely     
together1 their heads on the same level4
  ,these are all1 of course1 in one     
sense symmetrical1-- in the weight of   
interest1 at least1--but they are       
completely amorphous from an aesthetic  
point of view4  ,the forms1 that is1 do 
not count at all1--only the meanings4   
,the story is told by a clear separation
 of the parts1 and as1 in most stories1 
there are two principal actors1 it      
merely happens that they fall into the  

two sides of the picture4  ,on the other
 hand1 a rigid geometrical symmetry is  
also characteristic of early            
composition1 and these two facts seem to
 contradict each other4  ,but it is to  
be noted1 first1 that the rigid         
geometrical symmetry belongs only to the
 ,madonna ,enthroned1 and general       
,adoration pieces2 and secondly1 that   
this very rigidity of symmetry in       
details can coexist with variations     
which destroy balance4  ,thus1 in a     
,madonna ,enthroned of ,giotto1 where   
absolute symmetry in detail is kept1 the
 ,child sits far out on the right knee  
of the ,madonna4  ,it would seem that   
the symmetry of these early pictures was
 not dictated by a conscious demand for 
symmetrical arrangement1 or rather for  
real balance1 else such failures would  
hardly occur4 ,the presence of          
geometrical symmetry is more easily     
explained as the product1 in large part1
 of technical conditions3  of the fact  
that these pictures were painted as     

altar-pieces to fill a space definitely 
symmetrical in character--often1 indeed1
 with architectural elements intruding  
into it4  ,we may even connect the      
,madonna pictures with the temple images
 of the classic period1 to explain why  
it was natural to paint the object of   
worship seated exactly facing the       
worshiper4  ,thus we may separate the   
two classes of pictures1 the one giving 
an object of worship1 and thus taking   
naturally1 as has been said1 the        
pyramidal1 symmetrical shape1 and being 
moulded to symmetry by all other        
suggestions of technique2 the other     
aiming at nothing except logical        
clearness4  ,this antithesis of the     
symbol and the story has a most         
interesting parallel in the two great   
classes of primitive art--the one       
symbolic1 merely suggestive1 shaped by  
the space it had to fill1 and so        
degenerating into the slavishly         
symmetrical2 the other descriptive1     
story-telling1 and without a trace of   

space composition4  ,on neither side is 
there evidence of direct aesthetic      
feeling4  ,only in the course of        
artistic development do we find the     
rigid1 yet often unbalanced1 symmetry   
relaxing into a free substitutional     
symmetry1 and the formless narrative    
crystallizing into a really unified and 
balanced space-form4  ,the two          
antitheses approach each other in the   
balance of the masterpieces of civilized
 art--in which1 for the first time1 a   
real feeling for space composition makes
 itself felt4    ,v ,,the ,,beauty ,,of 
,,music   ,v ,,the ,,beauty ,,of ,,music
  ,i  ,,there is a story1 in ,max       
,muller's amusing reminiscences1 of how 
,mendelssohn and ,david once played1 in 
his hearing1 ,beethoven's later sonatas 
for piano and violin1 and of how they   
shrugged their shoulders1 and opined the
 old man had not been quite himself when
 he wrote them4  ,in the history of     
music it seems to be a rule almost      
without exceptions1 that the works of   

genius are greeted with contumely4  ,the
 same is no doubt true1 though to a much
 less degree1 of other arts1 but in     
music it seems that the critics proposed
 also excellent reasons for their       
vehemence4 ,and it is instructive to    
observe that the objections1 and the    
reasons for the objections1 recur1 after
 the original object of wrath has passed
 into acceptance1 nay1 into dominance of
 the musical world4  ,one may also      
descry one basic controversy running    
through all these utterances1 even when 
not explicitly set forth4  ,it was made 
a reproach to ,beethoven1 as it has been
 made a reproach to ,richard ,strauss1  
that he sacrificed the beauty of form to
 expression2 and it was rejoined1       
perhaps less in the old time than now1  
that expression was itself the end and  
meaning of music4  ,now the works of    
genius1 as we have seen1 after all take 
care of themselves4  ,but it is of      
greatest significance for the theory of 
music1 as of all art1 that in the circle

 of the years1 the same contrasting     
views1 grown to ever sharper opposition1
 still greet the appearance of new work4
  ,it was with ,wagner1 as all the world
 knows1 that the question came first to 
complete formulation4  ,his invention of
 the music-drama rested on his famous   
theory of music as the heightened medium
 of expression1 glorified speech1 which 
accordingly demands freedom to follow   
all the varying nuances of feeling and  
emotion4  ,music has always been called 
the language of the emotions1 but       
,wagner based his views not only on the 
popular notion1 but on the metaphysical 
theories of ,schopenhauer2 in           
particular1 on the view that music is   
the objectification of the will4        
,herbert ,spencer followed with the     
thesis that music has its essential     
source in the cadences of emotional     
speech4  ,in opposition primarily to    
,wagner1 the so-called formalists were  
represented by ,hanslick1 who wrote his 
well-known ,the ,beautiful in ,music to 

show that though music ha a limited     
capacity of expression1 its aim is      
formal or logical perfection alone4     
,the expressionist school could not     
contradict the undoubted fact that      
chords and intervals which are          
harmonious show certain definite        
physical and mathematical relationships1
 that1 in other words1 our musical      
preferences appear to be closely related
 to1 if not determined by1 these        
relationships4  ,thus each school seemed
 to be backed by science4  ,the         
emotional-speech theory has been held in
 a vague way1 indeed1 by most of those  
theorists whose natural conservatism    
would have drawn them in the other      
direction1 and is doubtless responsible 
for the attempts at mediation1 first    
made by ,ambros1#a and now met in almost
 all musical literature4  ,music may be1
 and is1 expressive1 it is said1 so long
 as each detail allows itself to be     
entirely derived from and justified by  
the mere formal element4  ,the centre of

 gravity lies in the formal relations4  
#a ,the ,boundaries of ,music and       
,poetry4  ,to this1 after all1 ,hanslick
 himself might subscribe4  ,other       
writers seek to balance form and        
expression1 insisting on the dual nature
 of music1 while resting ultimately on  
the emotional-speech theory4  ,the most 
universal composers1 recognizing the    
interdependence of the two elements1    
produce the highest type of pure music1 
music in which beauty is based upon     
expression1 and expression transfigured 
by beauty4#a  #a  ,d4,g4 ,mason1 ,from  
,grieg to ,brahms1 #aijb1 p4 #cj4  ,this
 usual type of reconciliation1 however1 
is a perfectly mechanical binding       
together of two possibly conflicting    
aesthetic demands4  ,the question is of 
the essential nature of music1 not      
whether music may be1 but whether it    
must be1 expressive2 not whether is has 
expressive power1 but whether it is1 in 
its essence1 expression1--a question    
which is only obscured by insisting on  

the interdependence of the two elements4
  ,if music has its essential source in 
the cadences of speech1 then it must    
develop and must be judged accordingly4 
,herbert ,spencer is perfectly logical  
in saying ,it may be shown that music is
 but an idealization of the natural     
language of emotion1 and that1          
consequently1 music must be good or bad 
according as it conforms to the laws of 
this natural language4#a  ,but what1    
then1 of music which1 according to      
,ambros1 is justified by its formal     
relations8 ,is music good because it is 
very expressive1 and bad because it is  
too little expressive8 or is its        
goodness and badness independent of its 
expressiveness8  ,such a question is not
 to be answered by recognizing two kinds
 of goodness4  ,only by an attempt to   
decide the fundamental nature of the    
musical experience1 and an adjustment of
 the other factors in strict            
subordination to it1 can the general    
principle be settled4  #a ,on           

,educaiton1 p4 #da4  ,the excuse for    
this artificial yoking together of two  
opposing principles is apparent when it 
is seen that form and expression are    
taken as addressing themselves to two   
different mental faculties4  ,it seems  
to be the view of most musical theorists
 that the experience of musical form is 
a perception1 while the experience of   
musical expression1 disregarding for the
 moment the suggestion of facts and     
ideas1 is an emotion4  ,thus ,mr4       
,mason3  ,in music we are capable of    
learning1 and knowledge of the          
principles of musical effect can help us
 to learn1 that the balance and         
proportion and symmetry of the whole is 
far more essential than any poignancy1  
however great1 in the parts4 ,he best   
appreciates music444who understands it  
intellectually as well as feels it      
emotionally2#a and again1 ,we feel in   
the music of ,haydn its lack of         
emotional depth1 and its lack of        
intellectual subtlety4  #a ,op4 ,cit41  

p4 #f4  ,it is just this contrast and   
parallelism of structure as balance1    
proportion1 symmetry1 addressed to the  
mind1 with expression as emotional      
content1 that a true view of the        
aesthetic experience would lead us to   
challenge4  ,if there is one thing that 
our study of the general nature of      
aesthetic experience has shown1 it is   
that aesthetic emotion is unique--      
neither a perception nor an intellectual
 grasp of relations1 nor an emotion     
within the accepted rubric--joy1 desire1
 triumph1 etc4  ,whether or not music is
 an exception to this principle1 remains
 to be seen2 but the presumption is at  
least in favor of a direct1 immediate1  
unique emotion aroused by the true      
beauty of music1 whatever that may prove
 to be4  ,with a great literature in the
 form of special studies1 we must yet1  
on the whole1 admit that we possess no  
general formula in the philosophy or    
psychology of music which covers the    
whole ground4  ,schopenhauer has said   

that music is the objectification of the
 will--not a copy or a picture of it1   
but the will itself2 a doctrine which   
however illuminating when it is modified
 in various ways is obviously no        
explanation of our experience4          
,hanslick has but shown what music is   
not2 ,edmund ,gurney's eloquent book1   
,the ,power of ,sound1 is completely    
agnostic in its conclusion that music is
 a unique1 indefinable1 indescribable   
phenomenon1 which possesses1 indeed1    
certain analogues with other physical   
and psychical facts1 but is coextensive 
with none4  ,spencer's theory of music  
as glorified speech is not only in a yet
 unexplained conflict with many facts1  
but has never been formulated so that it
 could apply to concrete cases4  ,the   
same is true of ,wagner's music as the  
utterance of feeling4  ,but there is a  
body of scientific facts respecting the 
elements of music1 in which we may well 
seek for clues4  ,as facts alone they   
are of no value4  ,they must be         

explained as completely as possible2 and
 it is probable that if we are able to  
reach the ultimate nature and origin of 
these elements of music they will prove 
significant1 and a way will be opened to
 a theory of the whole musical          
experience4  ,the need of such intensive
 understanding must excuse the more or  
less technical discussions in the       
following pages1 without which no firm  
foundation for a theory of music could  
be attained4   ,,ii  ,the two great     
factors of music are rhythm and         
tone-sensation1 of which rhythm appears 
to be the more fundamental4  ,rhythm is 
defined in general as a repeating series
 of time intervals4  ,events which occur
 in such a series are said to have      
rhythm4  ,in aesthetics1 it is the      
periodic recurrence of stress1 emphasis1
 or accent in the movements of dancing1 
the sounds of music1 the language of    
poetry4  ,subjectively it is the quality
 of stimulation due to a succession of  
impressions 7tactual and auditory are   

most favorable7 which vary regularly in 
objective intensity4  ,we desire to     
understand the nature1 and the source of
 the pleasing quality1 of this          
phenomenon4  ,it is only by a complete  
psychological description1 however1 even
 a physiological explanation1 that we   
can hope to fathom the tremendous       
significance of rhythm in music and     
poetry4 ,those treatments which expose  
its development in the dance and song   
really beg the question2 they assume the
 very fact for which we have to find the
 ground1 namely1 the natural impulse to 
rhythm4  ,even those theories which     
explain it as a helpful social          
phenomenon1 as regulating work1 etc41   
fail to account for its peculiar        
psychological character--that           
compelling1 intimate force1 the ,zwang  
of which ,nietszche speaks1 which we all
 feel1 and which makes it helpful4      
,this compelling quality of rhythm would
 lead us to look behind the sociological
 influences1 for the explanation in some

 fundamental condition of consciousness1
 some demand of the organism4  ,for this
 reason we must find superficial the    
views which connect rhythm with the     
symmetry of the body as making          
rhythmical gesture necessary2 or more   
particularly with the conditions of     
work1 which1 if it is skilled and well  
carried out1 proceeds in equal recurring
 periods1 like the swinging of a hammer 
or an axe4  ,but it appears that        
primitive effort is not carried on in   
this way1 and proceeds1 not from        
regularity to rhythm1 but rather1       
through1 by means of rhythm1 which is   
made a help1 to regularity4  ,again1 it 
is said that work can be well carried   
out by a large number of people1 only in
 unison1 only by simultaneous action1   
and that rhythm is a condition of this4 
,the work in the cotton fields1 the work
 of sailors1 etc4 requires something to 
give notice of the moment for beginning 
action4  ,rhythm would then have arisen 
as a social function4 ,against this it  

may be said that signals of this kind   
might assist common action without      
recurring at regular intervals1 while   
periodicity is the fundamental quality  
of rhythm4  ,thus this theory would     
explain a natural tendency by its       
effect4  ,looking then1 in accordance   
with the principle stated above1 for    
deeper conditions1 we find rhythm       
explained in connection with such       
rhythmical events as the heart beat and 
pulse1 the double rhythm of the breath2 
but these are1 for the most part1       
unfelt2 and moreover1 they would hardly 
explain the predominance of rhythms     
quite other than the physiological ones4
  ,another theory1 closely allied1      
connects rhythm with the conditions of  
activity in general1 but attaches itself
 rather to the effect of rhythm than to 
its cause4  ,thus we are reminded of the
 heightened sense of expansion1 or life1
 connected with the augmentation of     
muscular movements induced by the more  
extensive nervous discharges following  

rhythmic stimulation4#a ,but why should 
it be just rhythmic stimulation that    
produces this effect8  ,we are finally  
thrown back on physiology for the answer
 that in rhythmical stimulation there   
are involved recurrent activities of    
organs refreshed by immediately         
preceding periods of repose4  ,here     
again1 however1 we must ask1 why on this
 hypothesis the periods themselves must 
be exactly equal4  ,for within the      
periods the greatest variety obtains4   
,one measure of a single note may be    
succeeded by another containing eight2  
within the periods1 that is1 the minor  
moments of activity and repose are quite
 unequal4  #a ,h4,r4 ,marshall1 ,pain1  
,pleasure1 and ,aesthetics4  ,last of   
all1 we must note the view of rhythm as 
a phenomenon of expectation 7,wundt74   
,but while we can undoubtedly describe  
rhythm in terms of expectation and its  
satisfaction1 rhythm is rhythm just     
through its difference from other kinds 
of expectation4  ,all these explanations

 seem either merely to describe the     
facts we seek to explain1 or to fail to 
notice the peculiar intimate nature of  
the rhythmical experience4  ,but if it  
could be shown not only that in all     
stimulation there must be involved an   
alternation of activity and repose1 but 
also that an equality of such periods   
was highly favorable to the organism1 we
 should have the conditions for a       
physiological theory of rhythm4  ,now   
the important psychological facts of    
so-called subjective rhythmizing seem to
 supply just this need4  ,it has been   
shown#a that we can neither receive     
objectively equal sense-stimuli1 nor    
produce regular movements1 without      
injecting into these a rhythmical       
element4  ,a series of objectively equal
 sound-stimuli--the ticking of a clock1 
for instance--is heard in groups1 within
 each of which one element is of greater
 intensity4  ,a series of movements are 
never objectively equal1 but grouped in 
the same way4  ,now this subjective     

rhythm1 sensory and motor1 is explained 
as follows from the general             
physiological basis of attention4  #a   
,t4,l4 ,bolton1 ,amer4 ,jour4 ,of       
,psychol41 vol4 vi4  ,the classical     
historical study of theories of rhythm  
remains that of ,meumann1 ,phil4        
,studien1 vol4 x4  ,attention itself is 
ultimately a motor phenomenon4  ,thus3  
the sensory aspect of attention is      
vividness1 and vividness is explained   
physiologically as a brain-state of     
readiness for motor discharge2#a in the 
case of a visual stimulus1 for instance1
 a state of readiness to carry out      
movements of adjustment to the object2  
in short1 the motor path is open4  ,now 
attention1 or vividness1 is found to    
fluctuate periodically1 so that in a    
series of objectively equal stimuli1    
certain ones1 regularly recurring1 would
 be more vividly sensed4  ,this is      
exemplified in the well-known facts of  
the fluctuation of the threshold of     
sensation1 of the so-called retinal     

rivalry1 and of the subjective          
rhythmizing of auditory stimuli1 already
 mentioned4  ,there is a natural rhythm 
of vividness4  ,here1 therefore1 in the 
very conditions of consciousness itself1
 we have the conditions of rhythm too4  
,the case of subjective motor rhythm    
would be still clearer1 since vividness 
is only the psychical side of readiness 
for motor discharge2 in other words1    
increased readiness for motor discharge 
occurs periodically1 giving motor       
rhythm4  #a ,munsterberg1 ,grundzuge d4 
,psychologie1 #aijb14 ,p4 #ebe4  ,it has
 been said#a that this periodicity of   
the brain-wave cannot furnish the       
necessary condition for rhythm1 inasmuch
 as it is itself a constant1 and could  
at most be applied to a series which was
 adapted to its own time4  ,but this    
objection does not fit the facts4  ,the 
brain-wave1 or vividness1 or attention  
period1 is not a constant1 but attaches 
itself to the contents of consciousness4
  ,in other words1 it does not function 

without material4  ,it is itself        
conditioned by its occasion4  ,in the   
case of a regularly repeated stimulus1  
it is simply adjusted to what is there1 
and out of the series chooses1 as it    
were1 one at regular periods4#b  #a     
,j4,b4 ,miner1 ,motor1 ,visual1 and     
,applied ,rhythms1 ,psychol4 ,rev41     
,mon4 ,suppl41 ,no4 #ba4 #b ,facts1 too 
technical for reproduction here1 quoted 
by ,r4,h4 ,stetson 7,harvard ,psychol4  
,studies1 vol4 i1 #aijb7 from           
,cleghorn's and ,hofbauer's experiments 
seem to be in harmony with this view4   
,closely connected with these facts1    
perhaps only a somewhat different aspect
 of them1 is the phenomenon of motor    
mechanization4 ,any movement repeated   
tends to become a circular reaction1 as 
it is called2 that is1 the end of one   
repetition serves as a cue for the      
beginning of the next4  ,now1 in        
regularly recurring stimuli1 giving     
rise1 as will be later shown1 to motor  
reactions1 which are differentiated     

through the natural periodicity of the  
attention 7physiologically the tendency 
to motor discharge71 we have the best   
condition for this mechanization4  ,in  
other words1 a rhythmical grouping once 
set up naturally tends to persist4 ,the 
organism prepares itself for shocks at  
definite times1 and shocks coming at    
those times are pleasant because they   
fulfill a need4  ,moreover1 every       
further stimulus reinforces the original
 activity2 so that rhythmical grouping  
tends not only to persist1 but to grow  
more distinct1--as1 indeed1 all the     
facts of introspection show4  ,all this1
 however1 is true of the repetition of  
objectively equal stimuli4  ,it shows   
how an impulse to rhythm would arise and
 persist subjectively1 but does not of  
itself explain the pleasure in the      
experience of objective rhythm4  ,it may
 be said in general1 however1 that      
changes which would occur naturally in  
an objectively undifferentiated content 
give direct pleasure when they are      

artificially introduced1--when1 that is1
 the natural disposition is satisfied4  
,this we have seen to be true in the of 
color contrast2 and it is perhaps even  
more valid in the realm of motor        
activity4  ,whatever in sense           
stimulation gives the condition for1    
helps1 furthers1 enhances the natural   
function1 is felt both as pleasing and  
as furthering the particular activity in
 question4  ,now1 the objective stress  
in rhythm is but emphasis on a stress   
that would be in any case to some degree
 subjectively supplied4  ,rhythm in     
music1 abstracting from all other       
pleasure-giving factors1 is then        
pleasurable because it is in every sense
 a favorable stimulation4  ,in          
accordance with the principle that      
complete explanation of psychical facts 
is possible only through the            
physiological substrate1 we have so far 
kept rather to that field in dealing    
with the foundations of our pleasure in 
rhythm4  ,but further description of the

 rhythmical experience is most natural  
in psychological terms4  ,there seems1  
indeed1 on principle no ground for the  
current antithesis1 so much emphasized  
of late1 of psychical and motor theories
 of rhythm4  ,attention and expectation 
are not psychical as opposed to motor4  
,granting1 as no doubt most             
psychologists would grant1 that         
attention is the psychical analogue of  
the physiological tendency to motor     
discharge1 then a motor automatism of   
which one is fully conscious could be   
described as expectation and its        
satisfaction4 ,indeed1 the impossibility
 of a sharp distinction between ideas of
 movement and movement sensations       
confirms this view4  ,when expectation  
has reference to an experience with a   
movement element in it1 the expectation 
itself contains movement sensations of  
the kind in question4#a  ,to say1 then1 
that rhythm is expectation based on the 
natural functioning of the attention    
period1 is simply to clothe our         

physiological explanation in terms of   
psychological description4  ,the usual  
motor theory is merely one which        
neglects the primary disposition to     
rhythm through attention variations1 in 
favor of the sensations of muscular     
tension 7kinaesthetic sensations7 which 
arise ,,in rhythm1 but do not cause it4 
,to say that the impression of rhythm   
arises only in kinaesthetic sensations  
begs the question in the way previously 
noted4  ,undoubtedly1 the period once   
established1 the rhythmic group is held 
together1 felt as a unit1 by means of   
the coordinated movement sensations2 but
 the main problem1 the possibility of   
this first establishment1 is not solved 
by such a motor theory4  ,in other      
words1 the attention theory is the real 
motor theory4  #a ,c4,m4 ,hitchcock1    
,the ,psychol4 ,of ,expectation1        
,psychol4 ,rev41 ,mon4 ,suppl41 ,no4    
#bj4  ,expectation is the set of the    
attention4  ,automatism is the set of   
the motor centres4  ,now as attention is

 parallel to the condition of the motor 
centres1 we are able to equate          
expectation and automatic movement4     
,rhythm is literally embodied           
expectation1 fulfilled4  ,it is         
therefore easily to be understood that  
whatever other emotions connect         
themselves with satisfied expectation   
are at their ideal poignance in the case
 of rhythm4  ,it is from this point of  
view that we must understand the        
helpfulness of rhythm in work4  ,that   
all definite stimulus1 and especially   
sound stimulus1 rhythmical or not1 sets 
up a diffusive wave of energy1          
increasing blood circulation1           
dynamogenic phenomena1 etc41 is another 
matter1 which has later to be discussed4
  ,but the essential is that this       
additional stimulus is rhythmical1 and  
therefore a reinforcement of the nervous
 activity1 and therefore a lightening   
and favorable condition of work itself4 
,so it is1 too1 that we can understand  
the tremendous influence of rhythm just 

among primitive peoples1 and those of a 
low degree of culture4  ,work is hard   
for savages1 not because bodily effort  
is hard1 but because the necessary      
concentration of attention is for them  
almost impossible2 and the more1 that in
 work they are unskilled1 and without   
good tools1 so that generally every     
movement has to be especially attended  
to4  ,now rhythm in work is especially  
directed to lighten that effort which   
they feel as hardest2 it rests1 renews1 
and frees the attention4 ,rhythm is     
helpful not primarily because it enables
 many to work together by making effort 
simultaneous1 but rhythm rests and      
encourages the individual1 and working  
together is most naturally carried out  
in rhythm4  ,to this explanation all the
 other facts of life-enhancement1 etc41 
can be attached4  ,rhythm is undoubtedly
 favorable stimulation4 ,can it be      
brought under the full aesthetic formula
 of favorable stimulation with repose8  
,a rhythm once established has both     

retrospective and prospective reference4
  ,it looks before and after1 it binds  
together the first and the last moments 
of activity1 and can therefore truly be 
said to return upon itself1 so as to    
give a sense of equilibrium and repose4 
,but when we turn from the fundamental  
facts of simple rhythm to the phenomena 
of art we find straightway many other   
problems4 ,it is safe to say that no    
single phrase of music or line of poetry
 is without variation2 more1 that a     
rhythm without variation would be highly
 disagreeable4  ,how must we understand 
these facts8  ,it is impossible within  
the natural limitations of this chapter 
to do more than glance at a few of them4
  ,first of all1 then1 the most striking
 thing about the rhythmical experience  
is that the period1 or group1 is felt as
 a unit4 ,of the number and relation of 
individual beats constituting a         
rhythmical sequence there is no         
awareness whatever on the part of the   
aesthetic subject4444,even the quality  

of the organic units may lapse from     
distinct consciousness1 and only a      
feeling of the form of the whole        
sequence remains4#a  ,yet the slightest 
deviation from its form is remarked4    
,secondly1 every variation creates not  
only a change in its own unit1 but a    
wave of disturbance all along the line4 
,also1 every variation from the type    
indicates a point of accentual stress2  
the syncopated measure1 for instance1 is
 always strongly accented4  ,all these  
facts would seem to be connected with   
the view of the importance of movement  
sensations in building up the group     
feeling4  ,the end of each rhythm period
 gives the cue for the beginning of the 
next1 and the muscle tensions are       
coordinated within each group2 so that  
each group is really continuous1 and    
would naturally be felt as one1--but    
being automatic1 would not be perceived 
in its separate elements4  ,on the other
 hand1 it is just automatic reaction1 a 
deviation from which is felt most       

strongly4  ,the syncopated measure has  
to maintain itself against pressure1 as 
it were1 and thus by making its presence
 in consciousness felt more strongly1 it
 emphasizes the fundamental rhythm form4
  #a ,r4 ,mac,dougall1 ,the ,structure  
of ,simple ,rhythm ,forms1 ,harv4       
,psychol4 ,studies1 vol4 i1 p4 #ccb4    
,this is well shown in the following    
passage from a technical treatise on    
expression in the playing of music4     
,the efforts which feeling makes to hold
 to444the shape of the first rhythm1 the
 force which it is necessary to use to  
make it lose its desires and its habits1
 and to impose others on it1 are        
naturally expressed by an agitation1    
that is1 by a crescendo or greater      
intensity of sound1 by an acceleration  
in movement4#a ,if a purely technical   
expression may be pardoned here1 it     
could be said that the motor image1#b   
that is1 the coordinated muscular       
tensions which make the group feeling of
 the fundamental rhythm1 is always      

latent1 and becomes conscious whenever  
anything conflicts with it4  ,thus it is
 that we can understand the tremendous  
rhythmical consciousness in that music  
which seems most to contradict the      
fundamental rhythm1 as in negro         
melodies1 and rag-time generally2 and in
 general1 the livening effect of        
variation4  ,the motor tension1 the set 
becomes felt the moment there is        
objective interference--just as we feel 
the rhythm of our going downstairs only 
when we fail to get the sensation we    
expect4  #a ,m4 ,lussy1 ,traite de      
l',expression ,musicale1 ,paris1 #ahgd1 
p4 #g4 #b ,gestaltsqualitat1 literally  
form-quality4  ,this principle of the   
motor image is of tremendous            
significance1 as we shall see1 for the  
whole theory of music4  ,let it be      
sufficient to note here that expression1
 in the form of ,gestaltsqualitat1 or   
motor image1 is1 as a principle1        
sufficient for the explanation of the   
most important factors in the experience

 of rhythm4   ,,iii  ,but we have dwelt 
too long on the general characteristics4
 ,although our examples have been drawn 
mostly from the field of music1 the     
preceding principles apply to all kinds 
of rhythm1 tactual and visual as well as
 auditory4  ,it is time to show why the 
rhythm out of all comparison the        
strongest1 most compelling1 most full of
 emotional quality1 is the rhythm of    
music4  ,it has long been known that    
there is especially close connection    
between sounds and motor innervations4  
,all sorts of sensorial stimuli produce 
reflex contractions1 but the auditory1  
apparently1 to a much higher degree4    
,animals are excited to all sorts of    
outbreaks by noise2 children are less   
alarmed by visual than by auditory      
impressions4  ,the fact that we dance to
 sound rather than to the waving of a   
baton1 or rhythmical flashes of light   
for instance--the fact that this second 
proposition is felt at once to be       
absurd1 shows how intimately the two are

 bound together4  ,the irresistible     
effects of dance1 martial music1 etc41  
are trite commonplaces2 and ,i shall    
therefore not heap up instances which   
can be supplied by every reader from his
 own experience4  ,now all this is not  
hard to understand1 biologically4  ,the 
eye mediated the information of what was
 far enough away to be fled from1 or    
prepared for2 the ear what was likely to
 be nearer1 unseen1 and so more ominous4
  ,as more ominous1 it would have to be 
responded to in action more quickly4    
,so that if any sense was to be in      
especially close connection with the    
motor centres1 it would naturally be    
hearing4  ,the development of the       
auditory functions points to the same   
close connection of sound and movement4 
,sounds affect us as tone1 and as       
impulse4  ,the primitive sensation was  
one of impulse alone1 mediated by the   
shake-organs4  ,these shake- organs at  
first only gave information about the   
attitude and movements of the body1 and 

were connected with motor centres so as 
to be able to reestablish equilibrium by
 means of reflexes4  ,the original      
shake-organ developed into the organs of
 hearing and of equilibrium 7that is1   
the cochlea and the semicircular canals 
respectively71 but these were still side
 by side in the inner ear1 and the close
 connection with the motor centres was  
not lost4  ,anatomically1 the auditory  
nerve not only goes to those parts of   
the brain whence the motor innervation  
emanates1 and to the reflex centres in  
the cerebellum1 but passes close by the 
vagus or pneumogastric nerve1 which     
rules the heart and the vasomotor       
functions4  ,we have then multiplied    
reasons for the singular effect of sound
 on motor reactions1 and on the other   
organic functions which have so much to 
do with feeling and emotion4  ,every    
sound-stimulus is then much more than   
sound-sensation4 ,it causes reflex      
contractions in the whole muscular      
system2 it sets up some sort of cardiac 

and vascular excitation4 ,this reaction 
is in general in the direction of       
increased amplitude of respiration1 but 
diminution of the pulse1 depending on a 
peripheral vaso-constriction4           
,moreover1 this vasomotor reaction is   
given in a melody or piece of music1 not
 by its continuity1 but for every one of
 the variations of rhythm1 key1 or      
intensity1--which is of interest in the 
light of what has been said of the      
latent motor image4  ,the obstacle in   
syncopated rhythm is physiologically    
translated as vaso-constriction4  ,in   
general1 music induces cardiac          
acceleration4  ,all this is of value in 
showing how completely the attention-   
motor theory of rhythm applies to the   
rhythm of sounds4  ,since sound is much 
more than sound1 but sound-sensation1   
movement1 and visceral change together1 
we can see that the rhythmical          
experience of music is1 even more       
literally and completely than at first  
appeared1 an ,,embodied expectation4    

,no sensorial rhythm could be so        
completely induced in the psychological 
organism as the sound-rhythm4  ,in      
listening to music1 we see how it is    
that we ourselves1 body and soul1 seem  
to be ,,in the rhythm4  ,we make it1 and
 we wait to make it4  ,the satisfaction 
of our expectation is like the          
satisfaction of a bodily desire or need2
 no1 not like it1 it ,,is that4  ,the   
conditions and causes of rhythm and our 
pleasure in it are more deeply seated   
than language1 custom1 even instinct2   
they are in the most fundamental        
functions of life4  ,this element of    
music1 at least1 seems not to have      
arisen as a natural language4   ,,iv    
,the facts of the relations of tones1   
the elements1 that is1 of melody and    
harmony1 are as follows4  ,we cannot    
avoid the observation that certain tones
 go together1 as the phrase is1 while   
others do not4  ,this peculiar          
impression of belonging together is     
known as consonance1 or harmony4  ,the  

intervals of the octave1 the fifth1 the 
third1 for instance1 that is1 ,c-,c'1   
,c-,g1 ,c-,e1 in the diatonic scale1 are
 harmonious2 while the interval of the  
second1 ,c-,d1 is said to be dissonant4 
,consonance1 however1 is not identical  
with pleasingness1 for different        
combinations are sometimes pleasing1    
sometimes displeasing4  ,in the history 
of music we know that the octave was to 
the ,greeks the most pleasing           
combination1 to medieval musicians the  
fifth1 while to us1 the third1 which was
 once a forbidden chord1 is perhaps most
 delightful4  ,yet we should never doubt
 that the octave is the most consonant1 
the fifth and the third the lesser      
consonant of combinations4  ,we see1    
thus1 that consonance1 whatever its     
nature1 is independent of history2 and  
we must seek for its explanation in the 
nature of the auditory process4         
,various theories have been proposed4   
,that of ,helmholtz has held the field  
so long that1 although weighty          

objections have been raised to it1 it   
must still be treated with respect4  ,in
 introducing it a short review of the   
familiar facts of the physics and       
physiology of hearing may not be out of 
place4  ,the vibration rates per second 
of the vibrating bodies1 strings1 steel 
rods1 etc41 which produce those musical 
tones which are consonant1 are in       
definite and small mathematical ratios  
to each other4  ,thus the rates of      
,c-,c' are as #a3b2 of ,c-,g1 ,c-,e1 as 
#b3c1 #d3e4  ,in general1 the simpler   
the fraction1 the greater the           
consonance4  ,but no sonorous body      
vibrates in one single rate2 a taut     
string vibrates as a whole1 which gives 
its fundamental tone1 but also in       
halves1 in fourths1 etc41 each giving   
out a weaker partial tone1 in harmony   
with the fundamental4  ,and according to
 the different ways in which a sonorous 
body divides1 that is1 according to the 
different combination of partial tones  
peculiar to it1 is its especial quality 

of tone1 or timbre4  ,the whole complex 
of fundamental and partial tones is what
 we popularly speak of as a tone1--more 
technically a clang4  ,these physical   
agitations or vibrations are transmitted
 to the air4  ,omitting the account of  
the anatomical path by which they reach 
the inner ear1 we find them at last     
setting up vibrations in a many-fibred  
membrane1 the basilar membrane1 which is
 in direct connection with the ends of  
the auditory nerve4  ,it is supposed    
that to every possible rate of          
vibration1 that is1 every possible tone1
 or partial tone1 there corresponds a   
fibre of the basilar membrane fitted by 
its length to vibrate synchronously with
 the original wave-elements4 ,the       
complex wave is thus analyzed into its  
constituents4  ,now when two tones1     
which we will for clearness suppose to  
be simple1 unaccompanied by partial     
tones1 sounding together1 have vibration
 rates in simple ratios to each other1  
the air- waves set in motion do not     

interfere with each other1 but combine  
into a complex but homogeneous wave4    
,if they have to each other a           
complicated ratio1 such as #ejj3ejd1 the
 air- waves will not only not coalesce1 
but four times in the second the through
 of one wave will meet the crest of the 
other1 thus making the algebraic sum    
zero1 and producing the sensation of a  
momentary stoppage of the sound4  ,when 
these stoppages1 or beats1 as they are  
called1 are too numerous to be heard    
separately1 as in the interval1 say1    
#ejj3edg1 the effect is of a            
disagreeable roughness of tone1 and this
 we call discord4 ,in other words1 any  
tones which do not produce beats are    
harmonious1 or harmony is the absence of
 discord4  ,in the words of             
,helmholtz1#a consonance is a           
continuous1 dissonance an intermittent1 
tone-sensation4  #a ,lehre v4d4         
,tonempfindungen1 p4 #cgj1 in #dth      
edition4  ,aside from the fact that     
consonance1 as a psychological fact1    

seems positive1 while this determination
 is negative1 two very important facts  
can be set up in opposition4  ,as a     
result of experimental investigation1 we
 know that the impression of consonance 
can accompany the intermittent or rough 
sound- sensations we know as beating    
tones2 and1 conversely1 tones can be    
dissonant when the possibility of beats 
is removed4 ,briefly1 it is possible to 
make beats without dissonance1 and      
dissonance without beats4  ,the other   
explanation makes consonance due to the 
identity of partial tones4  ,when two   
tones have one or more partial tones in 
common they are said to be related2 the 
amount of identity gives the degree of  
relationship4  ,physiologically1 one or 
more basilar membrane fibres are excited
 by both1 and this fact gives the       
positive feeling of relationship or     
consonance4  ,of course the obvious     
objection to this view is that the two  
tones should be felt as differently     
consonant when struck on instruments    

which give different partial tones1 such
 as organ and piano1 while in fact they 
are not so felt4  ,but it is not after  
all essential to the aesthetics of music
 that the physiological basis of harmony
 should be fully understood4  ,the point
 is that certain tones do indeed seem to
 be preordained to congruity1           
preordained either in their physical    
constitution or their physiological     
relations1 and not to have achieved     
congruity by use or custom4  ,consonance
 is an immediate and fundamental        
impression1--psychologically an ultimate
 fact4  ,that it is ultimate is         
emphasized by ,stumpf#a in his theory of
 ,fusion4  ,consonance is fusion1 that  
is1 unitary impression4  ,fusion is not 
identical with inability to distinguish 
two tones from each other in a chord1   
although this may be used as a measure  
of fusion4  ,consonance is the feeling  
of unity1 and fusion is the mutual      
relation of tones which gives that      
feeling4  #a ,beitrage zur ,akustik u4  

,musikwissenschaft1 ,heft ,i1 ,konsonanz
 u4 ,dissonanz1 #ahih4  ,the striking   
fact of modern music is the principle of
 tonality4 ,tonality is said to be      
present in a piece of music when every  
element in it is referred to1 gets its  
significance from its relation to1 a    
fundamental tone1 the tonic4  ,the tonic
 is the beginning and lowest note in the
 scale in question1 and all notes and   
chords are understood according to their
 place in that scale4  ,but the         
conception of the scale of course does  
not cover the ground1 it merely         
furnishes the point of departure1-- the 
essential is in the reference of every  
element to the fundamental tone4  ,the  
tonic is the centre of gravity of a     
melody4  ,the feeling of tonality grew  
up as follows4  ,every one was referred 
to a fundamental1 whether or not it made
 with it an harmonious interval4  ,the  
fundamental was imaged ,,together ,,with
 every other note1 and when a group of  
such references often appeared together1

 the feelings bound up with the single  
reference 7interval-feelings7 fused into
 a single feeling1-- the                
tonality-feeling4  ,when this point is  
once reached1 it is clear that every    
tone is heard not as itself alone1 but  
in its relations2 it is not that we     
judge of tonality1 it is a direct       
impression1 based on a psychological    
principle that we have already touched  
on in the theory of rhythm4  ,the       
tonality- feeling is a feeling of form1 
or motor image1 just as the shape of    
objects is a motor image4  ,we do not   
now need to go through all possible     
experiences in relation to these        
objects1 we ,,possess their form in a   
system of motor images1 which are       
themselves only motor cues for          
coordinated movements4  ,so every tone  
is felt as something at a certain       
distance from1 with a certain relation  
to1 another tone which is dimly         
imagined4  ,in following a melody1 the  
notes are able to belong together for us

 by virtue of the background of the tone
 to which they are related1 and in terms
 of which they are heard4 ,the tonality 
is indeed literally a funded            
content1--that is1 a funded capital of  
relation4  ,these are the general facts 
of tonality4  ,but what is its meaning  
for the nature of music8  ,why should   
all notes be referred to one8  ,is this1
 too1 an ultimate psychological fact8   
,in answer there may be pointed out the 
original basic quality of certain tones1
 and the desire we have to return to    
them4 ,of two successive tones1 it is   
always the one which is1 in the ratio of
 their vibration rates1 a power of two1 
with which we wish to end4#a  ,when     
neither of two successive tones contains
 a power of two1 we have no preference  
as to the ending4  ,thus denoting any   
tone by #a1 it is always to #a or #b1 or
 #bn that we wish to return1 from any   
other possible tone2 while #c and #e1 #e
 and #g1 leave us indifferent as to     
their succession4  ,in general1 when two

 tones are related1 as #bn3#c1 #e1 #g1  
#i1 #ae--;in which #bn denotes every    
power of two1 including #bo#a1 with the 
progression from the first to the       
second1 there is bound up a tendency to 
return to the first4  ,thus the         
fundamental fact of melodic sequence may
 be said to be the primacy of #b in     
vibration rates4 ,but #bn1 in a scale   
containing #c1 #e1 etc41 is always what 
we know as the tonic4  ,the tonic1 then1
 gives a sense of equilibrium1 of rest1 
of finality1 while to end on another    
tone gives a feeling of restlessness or 
striving4  ,now tone-relationship alone1
 it is clear1 would not of itself       
involve this immediate impulse to end a 
sequence of notes on one rather than on 
another4  ,nor is tonality1 in the all- 
pervasive sense in which we understand  
it1 a characteristic of ancient1 or of  
mediaeval music1 while the tendency to  
end on a certain tone1 which we should  
to-day call the tonic1 was always felt4 
,thus1 since complete tonality was      

developed late in the history of music1 
while the closing on the tonic was      
certainly prior to it1 the finality of  
the tonic would seem to be the primary  
fact1 out of which the other has been   
developed4  ,we speak to-day1 for       
instance1 of dissonant chords1 which    
call for a resolution--and are inclined 
to interpret them as dissonant just     
because they do so call4  ,but the      
desire for resolution is historically   
much later than the distinction between 
consonance and dissonance4444  ,what we 
call resolution is not change from      
dissonant to consonant ,,in ,,general1  
but the transition of definite tones of 
a dissonant interval into ,,definite    
,,tones of a consonant4#a  ,the         
dissonance comes from the device of     
getting variety1 in polyphonic music1 by
 letting some parts lag behind1 and the 
discords which arose while they were    
catching up were resolved in the final  
coming together2 but the ,,steps were   
all ,,predetermined4#b  ,resolution was 

inevitably implied by the very principle
 on which the device is founded4  ,that 
is1 the understanding of a chord as     
something ,,to ,,be ,,resolved1 is      
indeed part of the feeling of tonality2 
but the ending on the tonic was that out
 of which this resolution- feeling grew4
  #a ,stumpf1 op4 ,cit41 p4 #cc4 #b     
,grove1 ,dict4 ,of ,music and           
,musicians4  ,art4 ,resolution4  ,must  
we1 then1 say that the finality  of the 
tonic is a unique1 inexplicable         
phenomenon8  giving up the nature of    
melody as a problem if not insoluble1 at
 least unsolved8  ,the feeling of       
finality in the return to #bn is        
explained by ,lipps and his followers1  
from the fact that the two-division is  
most natural1 and so tones of #bn       
vibrations would have the character of  
rest and equilibrium4  ,this explanation
 might hold if we were ever conscious of
 the two-division as such1 in tones     
--which we are not2 so that it would    
seem to depend on the restful character 

of a perception which by hypothesis is  
never present to the mind at all4  ,the 
experience is1 on the contrary1         
immediate1--an impression1 not a        
perception2 and this immediacy points to
 the one ultimate fact in musical       
feeling we have so far discovered4  ,the
 whole development of the scale1 and the
 complex feeling of tonality1 is an     
expression of the desire for consonance4
  ,every change and correction in the   
scale has gone to make every note more  
consonant with its neighbors4  ,and     
naturally the tonic is the tone with    
which all other tones have the most     
unity4  ,now this return phenomenon is a
 simpler case of the desire for the     
feeling of unity4  ,the tonic is the    
epitome of all the most perfect feelings
 of consonance or unity which are       
possible in any particular sequence of  
tones1 and is therefore the goal or     
resting-place after an excursion4  ,the 
undoubted feeling of equilibrium or     
repose which we have in ending on the   

tonic is thus explained4  ,not that     
consonance itself1 the feeling of unity1
 is explained4  ,but at any rate        
consonance is the root of the return1   
and of its development into complete    
tonality4  ,the history of music is then
 the explicit development of acoustic   
laws implicit in every stage of musical 
feeling4  ,that feeling covers an ever  
wider field4  ,when ,mr4 ,hadow says    
that the terms concord and discord are  
wholly relative to the ear of the       
listener1#a and that the distinction    
between them is not to be explained on  
any mathematical basis1 or by any a     
priori law of acoustics1--that it is not
 because a minor second is ugly that we 
dislike it1 for it will be a concord    
some day1--he is only partly right4     
,the minor second may be a concord1 that
 is1 we may like it1 some day2 but that 
will be because w have extended our     
feeling of tonality to include the minor
 second4  ,when that day comes the minor
 second will be so closely linked with  

other fully consonant combinations that 
we shall hear it in terms of them1 just 
as to-day we hear the chord of the      
dominant seventh in terms of its        
resolution4  ,but the basis will not be 
convention or custom1 except in so far  
as custom is the unfolding of natural   
law4 ,the course of music1 like that of 
every other art1 is away from           
arbitrary--though simple--convention1 to
 a complexity which satisfies the       
natural demands of the organism4  ,the  
natural persuasion of the ear is        
omnipotent4  #a ,w4,h4 ,hadow1 ,studies 
in ,modern ,music1 #ahic4   ,v  ,it has 
been said that the feeling of tonality  
is a motor image or form-quality and    
that the image of the tonic persists    
throughout every sequence of tones in a 
melody4  ,now these are not only felt as
 having a certain relation to the tonic2
 that relation is an active one4  ,it   
was said that we had a positive desire  
to end on a certain tone1 and that a    
tendency to pass to that tone was bound 

up with the hearing of another tone4    
,the degree of this tendency is         
determined by their relation4 ,the key1 
the tonality1 is determined by the      
consensus of intervals which have been  
felt as more or less consonant4 ,then   
steps in this scale which come near to  
the great salient points--that is1 the  
points of greatest consonance1 which is 
unity1 which is rest--are felt as       
suggesting them4  ,this is the reason   
why a semitone progression is felt as so
 compelling4 ,in taking the scale       
upward1 ,c to ,c'1 that element in the  
tone- ,space already clearly            
foreshadowed by the previous tones is   
,c'2 ,b is so near that it is almost    
,c'--it seems to cry aloud to be        
completed by ,c'4  ,then the tendency to
 move from ,b to ,c' is especially      
strong4  ,in the same way a chromatic   
note suggests most strongly the salient 
point in the scheme to which it is      
nearest--and tends to it as to a point  
of comparative rest4 ,the difference    

between the major and minor scales may  
be found in the lesser definiteness#a   
with which the tendency to progression1 
in the latter1 is felt--a condition of  
hovering1 a kind of ambiguity1 of doubt1
 to which side the movement shall       
proceed4  ,we may then understand a     
melody as ever tending with various     
degrees of urgency1 of strain1 to its   
centre of gravity1 the tonic4  #a ,f4   
,weinmann1 ,zeitschr4 f4 ,psychol41 ,bd4
 #ce1 p4 #cfj4  ,it is from this point  
of view that we can see the cogency of  
,gurney's remark1 that when music seems 
to be yearning for unutterable things1  
it is really yearning only for the next 
note4  ,in this step from the state of  
rest into movement and return1 the      
coming again to rest2 on what circuitous
 ways1 with what reluctances and        
hesitations2 whether quick and          
decisively or gradually and             
unnoticed--therein consists the nature  
of melody4#a  #a ,weinmann1 op4 cit4    
,or in ,gurney's more eloquent          

description1 ,the melody may begin by   
pressing its way through a sweetly      
yielding resistance to a gradually      
foreseen climax2 whence again fresh     
expectation is bred1 perhaps for another
 excursion1 as it were1 round the same  
centre but with a bolder and freer      
sweep1444to a point where again the     
motive is suspended on another temporary
 goal2 till after a certain number of   
such involutions and evolutions1 and of 
delicately poised leanings and          
reluctances and yieldings1 the forces so
 accurately measured just suffice to    
bring it home1 and the sense of         
potential and coming integration which  
has underlain all our provisional       
adjustments of expectation is           
triumphantly justified4#a  #a ,op4 cit41
 p4 #afe4  ,this should not be taken as 
a more or less poetical account under   
the metaphor of motion4  ,these leanings
 are literal in the sense that one note 
does imply another as its natural       
complement and satisfaction and we seek 

to reach or make it4 ,the striving is an
 intrinsic element1 not a by-product for
 our understanding4  ,there is another  
point to note4  ,the sense of potential 
and coming integration is a strong      
factor of melody4  ,if it cannot be said
 that the first note implies the last1  
it is at least true that from point to  
point the next step is dimly foreseen1  
and this effect is cumulative4  ,if     
melody is an ever-hindered striving for 
the goal1 at least the hindrances       
themselves are stations on the way1 each
 one as overcome adding to the final    
momentum with which the goal is reached4
  ,it is like an accumulation of        
evidence1 a constellation of            
associations4  ,,ab foretells ,c2 but   
,,abcdef rushes yet more strongly upon  
,g4  ,so it is that the                 
irresistibleness1 the unalterable       
rightness of a piece of music increases 
from beginning to end4  ,the            
significance of this essential internal 
necessity of progression cannot be      

overestimated4  ,the unalterable        
rightness of music is founded on natural
 acoustic laws1 and this rightness is   
fundamental4  ,a melody is not right    
because it is beautiful1 it is beautiful
 because it is right4  ,the natural     
tendencies point out different paths to 
the goal2 and thus different ways of    
being beautiful2 but the nature of the  
relation between point and point1 the   
nature of the progression1 that is1 the 
nature of melody1 is the same4  ,up to  
this point we have consistently         
abstracted from the element of rhythm in
 melody4  ,strictly speaking1 however1  
it is impossible to do so4  ,the        
individuality of a melody is absolutely 
dependent on its rhythm1 that is1 on the
 relative time-value of its tones4      
,gurney has devoted some amusing pages  
to showing the trivial1 dragging1       
lustreless tunes that result from ever  
so slight a change in the rhythm of     
noble themes1 or even in the            
distribution of rhythmical elements     

within the bar4 ,the reason for this is 
evident4  ,the nature of melody in the  
sense of sequence consists in the varied
 answers to the demands of the ear as   
felt at each successive point4  ,now it 
is clear that such answer can be        
emphasized1 given indifferently1 held in
 suspense1 in short1 subjected to all   
kinds of variation as well by the       
rhythmical form into which it is cast1  
as by the different choice of           
possibilities for the tone itself4  ,the
 rhythm helps out the melody not only by
 adding to it an independently pleasing 
element1 but1 and this is indeed the    
essential1 by reinforcing the intrinsic 
relations of the notes themselves4      
,thus it is in the highest degree true  
that in melody and rhythm we do not have
 content and form1 but that1 strictly   
speaking1 the melody is tone-sequence in
 rhythm4  ,the intimate bondage of      
tone-sequence and rhythm is grounded in 
the identity of their inner nature2 both
 are varieties of the objective         

conditions of embodied expectation4  ,it
 is not of the essence of music to      
satisfy explicit and conscious          
expectation--to satisfy the             
understanding4  ,it meets on the        
contrary a subconscious1 automatic need 
which becomes conscious only in the     
moment of its contenting4  ,every moment
 of progress in a beautiful melody is   
hailed like an instinctive action       
performed for the first time4  ,rhythm  
is the ideal satisfaction of attention  
in general with all its bodily          
concomitants and expressions4           
,tone-sequence is the satisfaction of   
attention directed to auditory demands4 
,but the form-quality of rhythm1 the    
form-quality of tonality1 is an all but 
subconscious possession4  ,together1    
reinforcing each other in melody1 they  
furnish the ideal arrangement of the    
most poignant of sense- stimulations4   
,,vi  ,it is strange that those who     
would accept the general facts of       
musical logic as outlined above do not  

perceive that they have thereby cut away
 the ground from under the feet of the  
natural language argument4  ,if the     
principle of choice in the progress of a
 melody is tone-relationship1 the       
principle of choice cannot also be the  
cadences of the speaking voice4  ,that  
musical intervals often ,,recall the    
speaking voice is another matter1 as we 
have said1 and to this it may be added  
that they much more often do not4  ,the 
question here is only of the primacy of 
the principle4  ,thus it would seem that
 the facts of musical structure         
constitute in themselves a refutation of
 the view we have disputed4 ,to say that
 music arose in heightened speech is    
irrelevant2 for the occasion of an      
aesthetic phenomenon is never its cause4
  ,it might as well be said that music  
arose in economic conditions1-- as      
indeed ,grosse1 in his ,anfange der     
,kunst1 conclusively shows1 without     
attempting to make this social occasion 
intrude into the nature of the          

phenomenon4  ,primitive decorative art  
arose in the imitation of the totemic or
 clan symbols1 mostly animal forms2 but 
we have seen that the aesthetic quality 
of the decoration is due to the demands 
of the eye1 and appears fully only in   
the comparative degradation of the      
representative form4  ,in exactly the   
same way might we consider the          
degradation of speech cadences into real
 music1--supposing this were really the 
origin of music4  ,as a matter of fact1 
however1 the best authorities seem to be
 agreed that the primitive dance-song   
was rather a monotonous1 meaningless    
chant1 and that the original pitch-     
elements were mechanically supplied by  
the first musical instruments2 these    
being at first merely for noise1 and    
becoming truly vibrating1 sonorous      
bodies because they were more easily    
struck if they were hard or taut4  ,the 
musical tones which these hard vibrating
 bodies gave out were the first         
determinations of pitch1 and of the     

elements of the scale1 which correspond 
to the natural partial vibrations of    
such bodies4  ,the human voice1         
,wallaschek#a tells us1 equally admits  
of any pentatonic or heptatonic         
intervals1 and very likely we should    
never have got regular scales if we had 
depended upon the ear and voice only4   
,the first unique cause to settle the   
type of a regular scale is the          
instrument4  ,to this material we have  
to apply only that natural persuasion of
 the ear which we have already          
explained1 to account for the full      
development of music4  #a ,primitive    
,music1 #ahic1 p4 #aef4  ,the beauty of 
music1 in so far as beauty is identical 
with pleasantness1 consists in its      
satisfaction of the demands of the ear1 
and of the whole psychophysical organism
 as connected with the ear4  ,it is now 
time to return to a thread dropped at   
the beginning4 ,it was said that a      
common way of settling the musical      
experience was to make musical beauty   

the object of perception1 and musical   
expression the object1 or source1 of    
emotion4  ,this view seems to attach    
itself to all shades of theory4         
,hanslick always contrasts intellectual 
activity as attaching to the form1 and  
emotion as attaching to the sensuous    
material 7that is1 the physical effects 
of motion1 loud or soft sound1 tempo1   
etc474  ,he speaks of the aesthetic     
criterion of ,,intelligent              
gratification4  ,the truly musical      
listener has his attention absorbed by  
the particular form and character of the
 composition1 the unique position which 
the ,,intellectual ,,element in music   
occupies in relation to ,,forms and     
,,substance 7subject74  ,m4 ,dauriac in 
the same way separates the emotion of   
music#a as a product of nervous         
excitations1 from the appreciation of it
 as beautiful4  ,it is probably that the
 pleasure caused by rhythm and color    
prevails with a pretty large number1    
with the greatest number1 over the      

pleasure in the musical form1 pleasure  
too exclusively ,,psychological for one 
to be content with it alone4444,the     
musical sense implies the               
intelligence4444,the theory444applies to
 a great number of sonorous sensations1 
and not at all to any musical           
perceptions4 ,mr4 ,w4,h4 ,hadow#b tells 
us that it is the duty of the musician  
not to flatter the sense with an empty  
compliment of sound1 but to reach       
through sensation to the mental         
faculties within4 ,and again we read the
 art of the composer is in a sense the  
discovery and exposition of the         
,,intelligible relations in the         
multifarious material at his command4#c 
#a ,le ,plaisir et l',emotion ,musicale1
 ,rev4 ,philos41 ,tome #db1 ,no4 #g4 #b 
,op4 cit41 p4 #dg4 #c ,grove's ,dict4   
,art4 ,relationship4  ,now it is not    
hard to see how this antithesis has come
 about4 ,but that the work of a master  
is always capable of logical analysis   
does not prove that our apprehension of 

it is a logical act4  ,and the preceding
 discussion has wholly failed to make   
its point1 if it is not now clear that  
the musical experience is an impression 
and not a judgment2 that the feeling of 
tonality is not a judgment of tonality1 
and that though the aesthetic enjoyment 
of music extends only to those limits   
within which the feeling of tonality is 
active1 that feeling is more likely than
 not to be quite unintelligible to the  
listener4 ,indeed1 if it were not so1 we
 should have to restrict1 by hypothesis1
 the enjoyment of music to those able to
 give a technical report of what they   
hear1--which is notoriously at odds with
 the facts4  ,that psychologist is quite
 right who holds#a that psychology1 in  
laying down a principle explaining the  
actual effect of a musical piece1 is not
 justified in confining itself to       
skilled musicians and taking no notice  
of more than nine tenths of those who   
listen to the piece4  ,but on the       
understanding that the tonality-feeling 

acts subconsciously1 that our           
satisfaction with the progression of    
notes is unexplained by the laws of     
acoustics and association1 we are       
enabled to bring within the circle of   
those who have the musical experience   
even those nine tenths whose intellects 
are not actively participant4  #a       
,lazarus1 ,das ,leben der ,seele1 ii1 p4
 #cbc4  ,the fact is that musical form1 
in the sense of structure1 balance1     
symmetry1 and proportion in the         
arrangement of phrases1 and in the      
contrasting of harmonies and keys1 is   
different from the musical form which is
 felt intimately1 intrinsically1 as the 
desired1 the demanded progress from one 
note to another4  ,structure is indeed  
perceived1 understood1 enjoyed as an    
orderly unified arrangement4  ,form is  
felt as an immediate joy4  ,structure it
 is which many critics have in mind when
 they speak of form1 and it is the      
confusion between the two which makes   
such an antithesis of musical beauty and

 sensuous material possible4 ,the real  
musical beauty1 it is clear1 is in the  
melodic idea2 in the sequence of tones  
which are indissolubly one1 which are   
felt together1 one of which cannot exist
 without the other4  ,musical beauty is 
in the intrinsic musical form4  ,and yet
 here1 too1 we must admit1 that1 in the 
last analysis1 structure and form need  
not be different4  ,the perfect         
structure will be such a unity that it1 
too1 will be ,,felt as one--not only the
 orderly distribution of harmonies and  
keys in such a manner that the mind can 
realize the concatenation as a complete 
and distinct work of art4  ,the ideal   
musical consciousness would have an     
ideally great range2 it would not only  
realize the concatenation1 but it would 
take it in as one takes in a single     
phrase1 a simple tune1 retaining it from
 first not to last4  ,the ordinary      
musical consciousness has merely a much 
shorter breath4  ,it can feel an air1 a 
movement2 it cannot feel a symphony1 it 

can only perceive the relation of keys  
and harmonies therein4  ,with repeated  
hearing1 study1 experience1 this span of
 beauty may be indefinitely extended--in
 the individual1 as in the race4  ,but  
no one will deny that the direct        
experience of beauty1 the single        
aesthetic thrill1 is measured exactly by
 the length of this span4  ,it is only  
genius--hearer or composer--who can     
operate a longue haleine4  ,so it is    
that we must understand the development 
in musical form from the cut and dried  
sonata form to the wayward yet          
infinitely greater beauty of ,beethoven2
 and thence to the free forms of modern 
music4  ,infinite melody is a           
contradiction in terms1 because when the
 first term cannot be present in        
consciousness with the last there is    
nothing to control and direct the       
progression2 and our musical memory is  
limited4  ,yet we can conceive1         
theoretically1 the possibility of an    
indefinite widening of the memory4  ,it 

was on some such grounds as these that  
,poe laid down his famous ,poetic       
,principle1--that a long poem does not  
exist2 that a long poem is simply a flat
 contradiction in terms4 ,he says1      
indeed1 that because elevating          
excitement1 the end of a poem1 is       
through a psychical necessity transient1
 therefore no poem should be longer than
 the natural term of such excitement4   
,it is clearly possible to substitute   
for elevating excitement1 immediate     
musical feeling of the individual4      
,what is the meaning of feeling1        
impression1 here8  ,it is the power of  
entering into a ,gestaltsqualitat-- a   
motor group1 a scheme in which every    
element is the mechanical cue to the    
following4  ,beauty ceases for the      
hearer where this carrying power1 the   
funded capital of tone- linkings ceases4
  ,in just the same way1 if rhythm were 
a perception rather than an impression1 
we ought to be able to apprehend a      
rhythm of which the unit periods were   

hours4  ,yet we may so bridge over the  
moments of beauty in experience that we 
are enabled1 without stretching to a    
breaking-point1 to speak of a symphony  
or an opera as a single beautiful work  
of art4   ,,vii  ,but what of the       
difficulties which such a theory must   
meet8 ,the most obvious one is the short
 life of musical works4  ,if musical    
beauty is founded in natural laws1 why  
does music so quickly grow old8  ,the   
answer is that music is a phenomenon of 
expectation as founded on these natural 
laws4  ,it is the tendency of one note  
to progress to another which is the     
basis of the vividness of our           
experience4  ,we expect1 indeed1 what   
belongs objectively to the development  
of a melody1 but only that particular   
variety of progression to which we have 
become accustomed4  ,so it is that music
 which presents only the old1 simple    
progressions gives the greatest sense of
 ease1 but the least sense of           
effort--the ideal motion not being      

hindered on its way4  ,intensity1       
vividness1 would be felt where the      
progression is less obvious1 but felt as
 fitting in when it is once made2 and   
where it is not obvious at all--where   
the link is not felt1 a sense of        
dissatisfaction and restlessness arises4
  ,so it is with music which we know by 
heart4  ,it is not that we know each    
note1 and so expect it1 but that it is  
felt as necessarily issuing out of the  
preceding4  ,a piece of poor music1     
really heterogeneous and unconnected1   
might be thoroughly familiar1 and yet   
never1 in this sense1 felt as           
,,satisfying expectation4  ,in the same 
way1 music in which the progressions    
were germane to the existing            
tonality-feeling1 while still not       
absolutely obvious1 would not be less   
quickening to the musical sense1 even if
 learned by heart4  ,it is clear that   
there is an external and an internal    
expectation--one1 imposed by memory1 for
 the particular piece2 the other        

constituted partly by intrinsic internal
 relations1 partly by the degree to     
which these internal relations have been
 exploited4  ,that is1 the possibility  
of musical expectation1 and pleasure in 
its satisfaction1 is conditioned by the 
possession of a tonality- feeling which 
covers the constituents of the piece of 
music1 but which has not become         
absolutely mechanical in its action4    
,just as rhythm needs an obstacle to    
make the structure felt1 so melody needs
 some variation from the obvious set of 
relations already won and possessed4    
,if that possession is too complete1 the
 melody becomes as stale and            
uninteresting as would a #c-d rhythm    
without a change or a break4  ,the test 
of genius in music1 of the width and    
depth of mastery1 is to be able to      
become familiar without ceasing to be   
strange4 ,on the other hand1 if in music
 to be great is always to be            
misunderstood1 it is no less true1 here 
as elsewhere1 that to be misunderstood  

is not always to be great4  ,and music  
may be merely strange1 and pass into    
oblivion1 without ever having passed    
that stage of surprised and delighted   
acceptance which is the test of its     
truth to fundamental laws4  ,but how    
shall music advance8  ,how shall it set 
out to win new relations8  ,it is at    
least conceivable that it takes the     
method of another art which we have just
 studied4  ,to get new beauties1 it does
 not say1--,go to1 ,i will add to the   
beauties ,i already have6  ,it makes new
 occasions1 and by way of these finds   
the impulse it seeks4  ,renoir paints   
the baigneuse of ,montmartre1 and finds 
the odd1 beautiful huddle of lines in so
 doing2 ,rodin portrays ever new        
subtleties of situation and mood1 and by
 way of these comes most naturally to   
the unedited poses4 ,so a musician1 we  
may imagine1 comes to new and strange   
utterances by way of a new and strange  
motion or cry that he imitates4  ,out of
 the various bents and impulses that    

these give him he chooses the ones that 
chance to be beautiful4  ,and in time   
these new beauties have become worn away
 like the trite metaphors that are now  
no longer metaphors1 but part of the    
funded capital4  ,that was a ridiculous 
device of ,schumann's1 who found a motif
 for one of his loveliest things by     
using the letters of his temporary fair 
one's name--,a ,b ,e ,g ,g2 but it may  
not be so utterly unlike the procedure  
by which music grows4   ,,viii  ,but    
what provision must be made for the     
emotions of music8  ,it cannot be that  
the majority of musicians1 who are      
strangely enough the very ones to insist
 that music is merely the language of   
emotion1 are utterly and essentially    
wrong4  ,nor has it been attempted to   
prove them so4  ,the beauty of music1 we
 have sought to show1 grows and flowers 
out of tone-relations alone1 consists in
 tone-sequences alone4  ,but it has not 
been said that music did not arouse     
emotion1 nor that it might not on       

occasion even express it4  ,it is in    
fact now rather a commonplace in musical
 theory1 to show the emotional means    
which music has at its command2 and ,i  
shall therefore be very brief in my     
reference to them4  ,they may be shortly
 classed as expressive by association   
and by direct induction4  ,expressive by
 association are passages of direct     
imitation3 the tolling of bells1 the    
clash of arms1 the roar of wind1 the hum
 of spinning wheels1 even to the        
bleating of sheep and the whirr of      
windmills2 the cadence of the voice in  
pleading1 laughter1 love2 from such     
imitations we are ,,reminded of a fact  
or an emotion4  ,more intimate is the   
expression by induction2 emotion is     
aroused by activities which themselves  
form part of the emotions in question4  
,thus the differences in tempo1         
reproduced in nervous response1 call up 
the gayety1 sadness1 hesitation1        
firmness1 haste1 growing excitement1    
etc41 of which whole experiences these  

movement types form a part4  ,these     
emotions1 as has often been shown1 are  
absolutely general and indefinite in    
their character1 and are1 on the whole1 
even in their intensity1 no measure of  
the beauty of the music which arouses   
them4  ,indeed1 we can get intense      
emotion from sound which is entirely    
unmusical4  ,so1 too1 loudness1         
softness1 crescendo1 diminuendo1 volume1
 piercingness1 have their emotional     
accompaniments4  ,it is to ,hanslick    
that we owe the general summing up of   
these possibilities of expression as the
 dynamic figures of occurrences4  ,how  
this dynamic skeleton is filled out     
through association1 or that special    
form of association which we know as    
direct induction1 is not hard to        
understand on psychological grounds4 ,it
 is not necessary to repeat here the    
reasons for the literally moving appeal 
of sound-stimulations1 which have been  
already detailed under the subject of   
rhythm4  ,yet there still remains a     

residue of emotion not entirely         
accounted for4  ,it has been said that  
these1 the emotions expressed1 or       
aroused1 are more or less independent of
 the intrinsic musical beauty4  ,but it 
cannot be denied that there is an       
intense emotion which grows with the    
measure of the beauty of a piece of     
music1 and which music lovers are yet   
loth to identify with the so-called     
general aesthetic emotion1 or with the  
satisfaction of expectation1 different  
varieties of which1 in fusion1 we have  
tried to show as the basis of the       
musical experience4  ,the aesthetic     
emotion from a picture is not like this1
 they say1 and a mere satisfaction of   
expectation is unutterably tame4  ,this 
is unique1 aesthetic1 individual6  ,i   
believe that the clue to this objection 
in the natural impulse of mankind to    
confuse the intensity of an experience  
with a difference in kind4  ,but first  
of all1 there must be added to our list 
of definite emotions from music1 those  

which attach themselves to the internal 
relations of the notes4  ,gurney has    
said that when we feel ourselves        
yearning for the next unutterable1 we   
are really yearning for the next note4  
,that is the secret6  ,each one of those
 tendencies1 demands1 leanings1         
strivings1 returns1 as between tone and 
tone in a melody1 is necessarily        
accompanied by the feeling-tone which   
belongs to such an attitude4  ,and it is
 to be noted that all the more poignant 
emotions we get from music are always   
stated in terms of urgency1 of strain1  
of effort4  ,that is because these      
emotions1 and these alone1 are          
inescapable in music since they are     
founded on the intrinsic relations of   
the notes themselves4 ,it is just for   
this reason1 too1 that music1 just in   
proportion to its beauty1 is felt1 as   
some one says1 like vinegar on a wound1 
by those in grief or anxiety4     ,i    
shall loathe sweet tunes1 where a note  
grown strong     ,relents and recoils1  

and climbs and closes4  ,it is the      
yearning that is felt most strongly1 the
 more vividly are the real musical      
relations of the notes brought out4     
,music expresses and causes tension1    
strain1 yearning1 through its inner1 its
 absolute nature4  ,but it does more2 it
 satisfies these yearnings4  ,it not    
only creates an expectation to satisfy  
it1 but the expectation itself is of a  
poignant1 emotional1 personal character4
  ,what is the emotion that is aroused  
by such a satisfaction8  ,the answer to 
this question takes us back again to    
that old picturesque theory of          
,schopenhauer--that music is the        
objectification of the will4            
,schopenhauer meant this in a           
metaphysical1 and to us an inadmissible 
sense2 but ,i believe that the          
psychological analysis of the musical   
experience which we have just completed 
shows that there is another sense in    
which it is absolutely true4  ,the best 
psychological theory of the experience  

of volition makes it the imaging of a   
movement or action1 followed by feelings
 of strain1 and then of the movement    
carried out4 ,the anticipation is the   
essential4  ,without anticipation1 as in
 the reflex1 winking1 the action appears
 involuntary4 ,without the feeling of   
effort or strain1 as in simply raising  
the empty hand1 the self-feeling is     
weaker4  ,when all these three elements1
 ,,image1 ,,effort1 ,,success1 are      
present most vividly1 the feeling is of 
triumphant volition4  ,now my thesis    
is--the thesis toward which every though
 of the preceding has pointed--that the 
fundamental facts of the musical        
experience are supremely fitted to bring
 about the illusion and the exaltation  
of the triumphant will4  ,the image1    
dimly foreshadowed1 is given in the     
half-consciousness of each note as it   
appears1 and in that sense of coming    
integration already recognized4  ,the   
proof is the shock and disappointment   
when the wrong note is sounded2 if we   

had not some anticipation of the right1 
the wrong one would not shock4 ,the     
strain we have in the effort of the     
organism to reach the note1 the tendency
 to which is implicit in the preceding4 
,the success is given in the coming of  
the note itself4  ,all this is no less  
true of rhythm--but there the           
expectation is more mechanical1 less    
conscious1 as has been fully shown4 ,the
 more beautiful1 that is1 the more      
inevitably1 irresistibly right the      
music1 the more powerful the influence  
to this illusion of the triumphant will4
  ,the exaltation of musical emotion is 
thus the direct measure of the          
perfection of the relations--the beauty 
of the music4  ,this1 then1 is the only 
intimate1 immediate1 intrinsic emotion  
of music--the illusion of the triumphant
 will6  ,one word more on the           
interpretation of music in general      
aesthetic terms4  ,all that has been    
said goes to show that music possesses  
to the very highest degree the power of 

stimulation4  ,can we attribute to it   
repose in any other sense than that of  
satisfying a desire that it arouses8    
,we can do so in pointing out that music
 ever returns upon itself--that its     
motion is cyclic4  ,music is the art of 
auditory implications2 but more than    
this1 its last note returns to its      
first4  ,it is as truly a unity as if it
 were static4  ,we may say that the     
beauty of a picture is only entered into
 when the eye has roved over the whole  
canvas1 and holds all the elements      
indirectly while it is fixated upon one 
point4  ,in exactly the same way music  
is not beauty unless it is ,,all there2 
at every point a fusion of the heard    
tone with the once heard tones in the   
order of their hearing4  ,the melody1 as
 a set of implications1 is as           
,,essentially timeless as the picture4  
,by melody too1 then1 is given the      
perfect moment1 the moment of unity and 
completeness1 of stimulation and repose4
  ,the aesthetic emotion for music is   

then the favorable stimulation of the   
sense of hearing and those other senses 
that are bound up with it1 together with
 the repose of perfect unity4  ,it has a
 richer color1 a more intense exaltation
 in the illusion of the triumphant will1
 which is indeed the peculiar moment for
 the self in action4    ,,vi ,,the      
,,beauty ,,of ,,literature  ,,vi ,,the  
,,beauty ,,of ,,literature  ,i  ,,that  
in the practice and pleasure of art for 
art's sake there lurks an unworthy      
element1 is a superstition that recurs  
in every generation of critics4  ,a most
 accomplished and modern disciple of the
 gay science but yesterday made it a    
reproach to the greatest living ,english
 novelist1 that he1 too1 was all for    
beauty1 all for art1 and had no great   
informing purpose4  ,art for art's sake 
is clearly1 to this critic's mind1      
compatible with the lack of something   
all desirable for novels4  ,yet if there
 is indeed a characteristic excellence  
of the novel1 if there is something the 

lack of which in a novel is rightly     
deplored1 then the real art for art's   
sake is bound to include this           
characteristic excellence4  ,if an      
informing purpose is needed1 no true    
artist can dispense with it4  ,otherwise
 art for art's sake is a contradiction  
in terms4  ,the critic ,i have quoted   
merely voices the lingering ,puritan    
distrust of beauty as an end in itself1 
and so repudiates the conception of     
beauty as containing all the excellences
 of a work of art4  ,he thinks of beauty
 as cut up into small snips and shreds  
of momentary sensations2 as the sweet   
sound of melodious words and cadences2  
or as something abstract1 pattern-like1 
imposed from without1--a ,procrustes-bed
 of symmetry and proportion2 or as a    
view of life ,circe-like1 insidious1 a  
golden languor1 made of the selfish     
serenities of wild-wood and             
dream-palace4  ,all these1 apart or     
together1 are thought of as the beauty1 
at which the artist for art's sake aims1

 and to that is opposed the nobler      
informing purpose4  ,but the truer view 
of beauty makes it simply the epitome of
 all which a work of art ought to be1   
and thus the only end and aim of every  
work of art4 ,the beauty of literature  
receives into itself all the precepts of
 literature3  there is no ought beyond  
it4 ,and art for art's sake is but art  
conscious of its aim1 the production of 
that all-embracing beauty4  ,what1 then1
 is the beauty of literature8  ,how may 
we know its characteristic excellences8 
,it is strange how1 in all serious      
discussion1 to the confounding of some  
current ideas of criticism1 we are      
thrown back1 inevitably1 on this concept
 of excellence6  ,the most ardent of    
impressionists wakes up sooner or later 
to the idea that he has been talking    
values all his life4  ,the excellences  
of literature6  ,they must lie within   
the general formula for beauty1 yet they
 must be conditioned by the             
possibilities of the special medium of  

literature4  ,the general formula1      
abstract and metaphysical as it must be1
 may not be applied directly2 for       
abstract thought will fit only that art 
which can convey it2 hence the struggle 
of theorists with painting1 music1 and  
architecture1 and the failure of ,hegel1
 for instance1 to show how beauty as the
 expression of the ,idea resides in     
these arts4  ,but if the general formula
 is always translated relatively to the 
sense-medium through which beauty must  
reach the human being1 it may be        
preserved1 while yet affirming all the  
special demands of the particular art4  
,beauty is a constant function of the   
varying medium4  ,the end of ,beauty is 
always the same1 the perfect moment of  
unity and self-completeness1 of repose  
in excitement4  ,but this end is        
attained by different means furnished by
 different media3  through vision and   
its accompanying activities2 through    
hearing and its accompanying activities2
 and for literature1 through hearing in 

the special sense of communication by   
word4  ,it is the nature of this medium 
that we must further discover4   ,,ii   
,now the word is nothing in itself2 it  
is not sound primarily1 but thought4    
,the word is but a sign1 a negligible   
quantity in human intercourse--a counter
 in which the coins are ideas and       
emotions--merely legal tender1 of no    
value save in exchange4  ,what we really
 experience in the sound of a sentence1 
in the sight of a printed page1 is a    
complex sequence of visual and other    
images1 ideas1 emotions1 feelings1      
logical relations1 swept along in the   
stream of consciousness1 --differing1   
indeed1 in certain ways from daily      
experience1 but yet primarily of the web
 of life itself4  ,the words in their   
nuances1 march1 tempo1 melody add       
certain elements to this flood--hasten1 
retard1 undulate1 or calm it2 but it is 
the ,,thought1 the understood           
experience1 that is the stuff of        
literature4  ,words are first of all    

meanings1 and meanings are to be        
understood and lived through4  ,we can  
hardly even speak of the meaning of a   
word1 but rather of what it is1         
directly1 in the mental state that is   
called up by it4  ,every definition of a
 word is but a feeble and distant       
approximation of the unique flash of    
experience belonging to that word4  ,it 
is not the sound sensation nor the      
visual image evoked by the word which   
counts1 but the whole of the mental     
experience1 to which the word is but an 
occasion and a cue4  ,therefore1 since  
literature is the art of words1 it is   
the stream of thought itself that we    
must consider as the material of        
literature4 ,in short1 literature is the
 dialect of life--as ,stevenson said2 it
 is by literature that the business of  
life is carried on4  ,some one1 however1
 may here demur3  visual signs1 too1 are
 the dialect of life4  ,we understand by
 what we see1 and we live by what we    
understand4  ,the curve of a line1 the  

crescendo of a note1 serve also for     
wordless messages4  ,why are not1 then1 
painting and music the vehicles of      
experience1 and to be judged first as   
evocation of life1 and only afterward as
 sight and hearing8  ,this conceded1 we 
are thrown back on that view of art as  
the fixed quantity of imaginative       
thought supplemented by certain         
technical qualities1--of color in       
painting1 of sound in music1 of         
rhythmical words in poetry1 from which  
is has been the one aim of the preceding
 arguments of this book to free us4     
,the holders of this view1 however1     
ignore the history and significance of  
language4  ,our sight and hearing are   
given to us prior to our understanding  
or use of them4  ,in a way1 we submit to
 them--they are always with us4  ,we    
dwell in them through passive states1   
through seasons of indifference2        
moreover when we see to understand1 we  
do not ,,see1 and when we hear to       
understand we do not hear4  ,only shreds

 of sensation1 caught up in our flight  
from one action to another1 serve as    
signals for the meanings which concern  
us4  ,in proportion as action is prompt 
and effective1 does the cue as such tend
 to disappear1 until1 in all matters of 
skill1 piano-playing1 fencing1          
billiard-playing1 the sight or sound    
which serves as cue drops almost        
together out of consciousness4 ,so far  
as it is vehicle of information1 it is  
no longer sight or sound as             
such--interest has devoured it4  ,but   
language came into being to supplement  
the lacks of sight and sound4 ,it was   
created by ourselves1 to embody all     
active outreaching mental experience1   
and it comes into particular existence  
to meet an insistent emergency--a       
literally crying need4  ,in short1 it is
 ,,constituted by meanings--its essence 
is communication4  ,sight and sound have
 a relatively independent existence1 and
 may hence claim a realm of art that is 
largely independent of meanings4  ,not  

so the art of words1 which can be but   
the art of meanings1 of human experience
 alone4  ,and yet again1 were the       
evocation of life the means and material
 of all art1 that art in which the level
 of imaginative thought was low1 the    
range of human experience narrow1 would 
take a low place in the scale4  ,what1  
then1 of music and architecture8        
,inferior arts1 they could not challenge
 comparison with the poignant1 profound1
 all-embracing art of literature4  ,but 
this is patently not the fact4  ,there  
is no hierarchy of the arts4  ,we may   
not rank ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral below  
,paradise ,lost4  ,yet is the material  
of all experience is the material of all
 art1 they must not only be compared1   
but ,paradise ,lost must be admitted    
incomparably the greater4  ,no--we may  
not admit that all the arts alike deal  
with the material of expression4  ,the  
excellence of music and architecture1   
whatever it may be1 cannot depend on    
this material4  ,yet by hypothesis it   

must be through the use of its material 
that the end of beauty is reached by    
every art4 ,a picture has lines and     
masses and colors1 wherewith to play    
with the faculty of vision1 to weave a  
spell for the whole man4 ,beauty is the 
power to enchant him through the eye and
 all that waits upon it1 into a moment  
of perfection4  ,literature has all     
thoughts1 all passions1 all             
delights--the treasury of life--to play 
with1 to weave a spell for the whole    
man4 ,beauty in literature is the power 
to enchant him1 through the mind and    
heart1 across the dialect of life1 into 
a moment of perfection4   ,,iii  ,the   
art of letters1 then1 is the art whose  
material is life itself4  ,such1 indeed1
 is the implication of the approval     
theories of style4  ,words1 phrases1    
sentences1 chapters1 are excellent in so
 far as they are identical with thought 
in all its shades of feeling4  ,economy 
of attention1 ,spencer's familiar phrase
 for the philosophy of style1 his       

explanation of even the most ornate and 
extravagant forms1 is but another name  
for this desired lucidity of the medium4
  ,pater1 himself1 an artist in the     
overlaying of phrases1 has the same     
teaching4 ,all the laws of good writing 
aim at a similar unity or identity of   
the mind in all the processes by which  
the word is associated to its import4   
,the term is right1 and has its         
essential beauty1 when it becomes1 in a 
manner1 what it signifies1 as with the  
names of simple sensations4#a  ,he      
quotes therewith ,de ,maupassant on     
,flaubert3  ,among all the expressions  
in the world1 all forms and turns of    
expression1 there is but ,,one--one     
form1 one mode--to express what ,i want 
to say4  ,and adds1 ,the one word for   
the one thing1 the one thought1 amid the
 multitude of words1 terms1 that might  
just do3 the problem of style was       
there6--the unique word1 phrase1        
sentence1 paragraph1 essay1 or song1    
absolutely proper to the single mental  

presentation or vision within4444  #a   
,appreciations3  ,an ,essay on ,style4  
,thought in words is the matter of      
literature2 and words exist but for     
thought1 and get their excellence as    
thought2 yet1 as ,flaubert says1 the    
idea only exists by virtue of the form4 
,the form1 or the word1 ,,is the idea2  
that is1 it carries along with it the   
fringe of suggestion which crystallizes 
the floating possibility in the stream  
of thought4  ,a glance at the history of
 language shows how this must have been 
so4  ,words in their first formation    
were doubtless constituted by their     
imitative power4  ,as ,taine has said1#a
 at the first they arose in contact with
 the objects2 they imitated them by the 
grimaces of mouth and nose which        
accompanied their sound1 by the         
roughness1 smoothness1 length1 or       
shortness of this sound1 by the rattle  
or whistle of the throat1 by the        
inflation or contraction of the chest4  
#a ,h4 ,taine1 ,la ,fontaine et ses     

,fables1 p4 #bhh4  ,this primitive      
imitative power of the word survives in 
the so-called onomatapoetic words1 which
 aim simply at reproducing the sounds of
 nature4  ,a second order of imitation  
arises through the associations of      
sensations4  ,the different sensations1 
auditory1 visual1 olfactory1 tactile1   
motor1 and organic have common          
qualities1 which they share with other  
more complex experiences2 of form1 as   
force or feebleness2 of feeling1 as     
harshness1 sweetness1 and so on4  ,it   
is1 indeed1 another case of the         
form-qualities to which we recurred so  
often in the chapter on music4  ,clear  
and smooth vowels will give the         
impression of volatility and delicacy2  
open1 broad ones of elevation or        
extension 7airy1 flee2 large1 far74     
,the consonants which are hard to       
pronounce will give the impression of   
effort1 of shock1 of violence1 of       
difficulty1 of heaviness1--the round    
squat turret1 black as the fool's heart2

 those which are easy of pronunciation  
express ease1 smoothness1 fluidity1     
calm1 lightness1 7facile1 suave1        
roulade72--lucent syrops1 tinct with    
cinnamon1 a line like honey on the      
tongue1 of which physical organ1 indeed1
 one becomes1 with the word tinct1      
definitely conscious4  ,in fact1 the    
main point to notice in the enumeration 
of the expressive qualities of sounds1  
is that it is the movement in utterance 
which characterizes them4  ,that        
movement tends to reproduce itself in   
the hearer1 and carries with it its     
feeling- tone of ease or difficulty1    
explosiveness or sweetness long drawn   
out4  ,it is thus by a kind of          
sympathetic induction rather than by    
external imitation that these words of  
the second type become expressive4      
,finally1 the two moments may be        
combined1 as in such a word as roaring1 
which is directly imitative of a sound1 
and by the muscular activity it calls   
into play suggests the extended energy  

of the action itself4  ,the stage in    
which the word becomes a mere colorless1
 algebraic sign of object or process    
never occurs1 practically1 for in any   
case it has accumulated in its history  
and vicissitudes a fringe of            
suggestiveness1 as a ship accumulates   
barnacles4  ,words carry with them all  
the meanings they have worn1 says       
,walter ,raleigh in his ,essay on       
,style4  ,a slight technical            
implication1 a faint tinge of archaism  
in the common turn of speech that you   
employ1 and in a moment you have shaken 
off the mob that scours the rutted      
highway1 and are addressing a select    
audience of ticket-holders with closed  
doors4  ,manifold may be the            
implications and suggestions of even a  
single letter4  ,thus a charming        
anonymous essay on the word ,grey4      
,gray is a quiet color for daylight     
things1 but there is a touch of         
difference1 of romance1 even1 about     
things that are grey4  ,gray is a color 

for fur1 and ,quaker gowns1 and breasts 
of doves1 and a gray day1 and a         
gentlewoman's hair2 and horses must be  
gray4444,now grey is for eyes1 the eyes 
of a witch1 with green lights in them   
and much wickedness4  ,gray eyes would  
be as tender and yielding and true as   
blue ones2 a coquette must have eyes of 
grey4  ,words do not have meanings1 they
 ,,are meanings through their power of  
direct suggestion and induction4  ,they 
may become what they signify4  ,nor is  
this power confined to words alone2 on  
its possession by the phrase1 sentence1 
or verse rests the whole theory of      
style4  ,the short1 sharp staccato1 the 
bellowing turbulent1 the swimming       
melodious circling sentence ,,are truly 
what they mean1 in their form as in the 
objective sense of their words4  ,the   
sound-values of rhythm and pace have    
been in other chapters fully dwelt upon2
 the expressive power of breaks and     
variations is worth noting also4  ,of   
the irresistible significance of rhythm1

 even against content1 we have an       
example amusingly commented on by ,mr4  
,g4,k4 ,chesterton in his ,twelve       
,types4  ,he 7,byron7 may arraign       
existence on the most deadly charges1 he
 may condemn it with the most desolating
 verdict1 but he cannot alter the fact  
that on some walk in a spring morning   
when all the limbs are swinging and all 
the blood alive in the body1 the lips   
may be caught repeating3  ',oh1 there's 
not a joy the world can give like that  
it takes   away1 ,when the glow of early
 youth declines in beauty's dull        
decay4'  ,that automatic recitation is  
the answer to the whole pessimism of    
,byron4   ,,iv  ,such1 then1 are some of
 the means by which language becomes    
identical with thought1 and most truly  
the dialect of life4 ,the genius will   
have ways1 to which these briefly       
outlined ones will seem crude and       
obvious1 but they will be none the less 
of the same nature4  ,shall we then     
conclude that the beauty of literature  

is here8 that1 in the words of ,pater1  
from the essay ,i have quoted1 ,in that 
perfect justice 7of the unique          
word7444omnipresent in good work1 in    
function at every point1 from single    
epithets to the rhythm of a whole book1 
lay the specific1 indispensable1 very   
intellectual beauty of literature1 the  
possibility of which constitutes it a   
fine art4  ,in its last analysis1 such a
 conception of literature amounts to the
 unimpeded intercourse of mind with     
mind4  ,literature would be a language  
which dispenses with gesture1 facial    
expression1 tone of voice2 which is1 in 
its halts1 accelerations and            
retardations1 emphases and concessions1 
the apotheosis of conversation4  ,but   
this clearness1--in the sublime sense1  
including the ornate and the            
subtle1--this luminous lucidity1-- is it
 not quite indeterminate8  ,clearness is
 said of a medium4 ,,what is it that    
shines through8  ,were this clearness   
the beauty we are seeking1 whatever in  

the world that wanted to get itself     
said1 would1 if it were perfectly said1 
become a final achievement of           
literature4  ,all that the plain man    
looks for1 we must think rightly1 in    
poetry and prose1 might be absent1 and  
yet we should have to acknowledge its   
excellence4  ,let us then consider this 
quality by which the words become what  
they signify as the specific beauty     
rather of style than of literature2 the 
mere refining of the gold from which the
 work of art has yet to be made4        
,language is the dialect of life2 and   
the most perfect language can be no more
 than the most perfect truth of         
intercourse4  ,it must then be through  
the treatment of life1 or the sense of  
life itself1 that we are somehow to     
attain the perfect moment of beauty4    
,the sense of life6  ,in what meaning   
are these words to be taken8  ,not the  
completest sense of all1 because the    
essence of life is in personal          
responsibility to a situation1 and this 

is exactly what in our experience of    
literature disappears4 ,first of all1   
then1 before asking how the moment of   
beauty is to be attained1 we must see   
how it is psychologically possible to   
have a sense of life that is yet purged 
of the will to live4  ,all experience of
 life is a complication of ideas1       
emotions1 and attitudes or impulses to  
action in varying proportions4 ,the     
sentiment of reality is constituted by  
our tendency to interfere1 to take a    
hand4  ,sometimes the stage of our      
consciousness is so fully occupied by   
the images of others that our own       
reaction is less vivid4  ,finally1 all  
conditions and possibilities of reaction
 may be so minimized that the only      
attitude possible is our acceptance or  
rejection of a world in which such      
things can be4  ,what does it matter to 
me whether or not the old1 unhappy1     
far-off things really happened8  ,the   
worlds of the ,borgias1 of ,don ,juan1  
and of the ,russian war stand on the    

same level of reality4  ,aucassin and   
,nicolette are as near to me as ,abelard
 and ,heloise4  ,for in relation to     
these persons my impulse is ,,nil4  ,i  
submit to them1 ,i cannot change or help
 them2 and because ,i have no impulse to
 interfere1 they are not vividly real to
 me4  ,and1 in general1 in so far as ,i 
am led to contemplate or to dwell on    
anything in idea1 in so far does my     
personal attitude tend to parallel this 
impersonal one toward real persons      
temporally or geographically out of     
reach4  ,now in literature all          
conditions tend to the enormous         
preponderance of the ideal element in   
experience4  ,my mind in reading is     
completely filled with ideas of the     
appearance1 ways1 manners1 and situation
 of the people concerned4  ,i leave them
 a clear field4  ,my emotions are       
enlisted only as the inevitable fringe  
of association belonging to vivid       
ideas-- the ideas of their emotions4    
,so far as all the possibilities of     

understanding are fulfilled for me1 so  
far as ,i am in possession of all the   
conditions1 so far do ,i realize the    
characters1 but realize them as ideas   
tinged with feeling4  ,here there will  
be asseverations to the contrary4       
,what6 feel no real emotion over ,little
 ,nell1 or ,colonel ,newcome8 no emotion
 in that great scene of passion and     
despair1 the parting of ,richard        
,feverel and ,lucy1--a scene which none 
can read save with tight throat and     
burning eyes6  ,even so4  ,it is not    
real emotion4  ,you have the vivid      
ideas1 so vivid that a fringe of        
emotional association accompanies them1 
as you might shudder remembering a bad  
dream4  ,but the real emotion arises    
only from the real impulse1 the real    
responsibility4  ,the sense of life that
 literature gives might be described as 
life in its aspect as idea4  ,that this 
fact is the cause of the peace and      
painlessness of literature--since it is 
by his actions1 as ,aristotle says1 that

 man is happy or the reverse-- need not 
concern us here4  ,for the beauty of    
literature1 and our joy in it1 lie not  
primarily in its lack of power to hurt  
us4  ,the point is that literature gives
 none the less truly a sense of life    
because it happens to be one extreme    
aspect of life4  ,the literary way is   
only one of the ways in which life can  
be met4  ,to give the sense of life     
perfectly--to create the illusion of    
life--is this1 then1 the beauty of      
literature8  ,but we are seeking for the
 perfect moment of stimulation and      
repose4  ,why should the perfect        
illusion of life give this1 any more    
than life itself does8  ,so the vision  
of a picture might be intensely clear1  
and yet the picture itself unbeautiful4 
,such a complete sense of life1 such    
clear vision1 would show the artist's   
mastery of technique1 but not his power 
to create beauty4  ,in the art of       
literature1 as in the art of painting1  
the normal function is but the first    

condition1 the state of perfection is   
the end at which to aim4  ,it is just   
this distinction that we can properly   
make between the characteristic or      
typical in the sense of differentiated1 
and the great or excellent in           
literature4  ,in the theory of some     
writers1 perfect fidelity to the type is
 the only originality4  ,to paint the   
,russian peasant or the ,french         
bourgeois as he is1 to catch the exact  
shade of exquisite soullessness in      
,oriental loves1 to reproduce the       
,berserker rage or the dull horror of   
battle1 is indeed to give the perfect   
sense of life4  ,but the perfect1 or the
 complete1 sense of life is not the     
moment of perfect life4  ,yet to this   
assertion two answers might be made4    
,the authors of ,bel-,ami1 or ,madame   
,chrysantheme1 or ,the ,triumph of      
,death1 might claim to be saved by their
 form4  ,the march of events1 the       
rounding climax1 the crystal-clear unity
 of the finished work1 they might say1  

gives the indispensable union1 for the  
perfect moment of stimulation and       
repose4  ,no syllable in the slow       
unfolding of exquisite cadences but is  
supremely placed from the first page to 
the last4  ,as note calls to note1 so   
thought calls to thought1 and feeling to
 feeling1 and the last word is an answer
 to the first of the inevitable         
procession4  ,a writer's donnee1 they   
would say1 is his own4 ,the reader may  
only bed--,make me something fine after 
your own fashion6  ,and they would have 
to be acknowledged partly in the right4 
,in that inevitable unity of form there 
is indeed a necessary element of the    
perfect moment2 but it is not a perfect 
unity4 ,for the matter of their art     
should be1 in the last analysis1 life   
itself2 and the unity of life itself1   
the one basic unity of all1 they have   
missed4  ,it is a hollow sphere they    
present1 and nothing solid4  ,henry     
,james has spent the whole of a         
remarkable essay on ,d',annunzio's      

creations in determining the meaning of 
the fact that their total beauty somehow
 extraordinarily fails to march with    
their beauty of parts1 and that         
something is all the while at work      
undermining that bulwark against        
ugliness which it is their obvious      
theory of their own office to throw up4 
,the secret is1 he avers1 that the      
themes1 the anecdotes1 could find their 
extension and consummation only in the  
rest of life4  ,shut out1 as they are1  
from the rest of life1 shut out from all
 fruition and assimilation1 and so from 
all hope of dignity1 they lose          
absolutely their power to sway us4  ,it 
might be simpler to say that these works
 lack the first beauty which literature 
as the dialect of life can have--they   
lack the repose of centrality2 they have
 no identity with the meaning of life as
 a whole4  ,it could not be said of     
them1 as ,bagehot said of ,shakespeare3 
,he puts things together1 he refers     
things to a principle2 rather1 they     

group themselves in his intelligence    
insensibly around a principle2444a cool 
oneness1 a poised personality1 pervades 
him4  ,but in these men there is no cool
 oneness1 no reasonable soul1 and so    
they miss the central unity of life1    
which can give unity to literature4     
,even the apparent structural unity     
fails when looked at closely2 the       
actions of the characters are seen to be
 mechanical--their meaning is not       
inevitable4  ,the second answer to our  
assertion that the sense of life is not 
the beauty of literature might call     
attention to the fact that ,,sense of   
life may be taken as understanding of   
life4  ,a complete sense of life must   
include the conditions of life1 and the 
conditions of life involve this very    
energetic identity on which we have     
insisted4  ,and this contention we must 
admit4 ,so long as the sense of life is 
taken as the illusion of life1 our words
 hold good4  ,but if to that is added   
understanding of life1 the door is open 

to the profoundest excellences of       
literature4  ,henry ,james has glimpsed 
this truth in saying that no good novel 
will ever proceed from a superficial    
mind4 ,stevenson has gone further4  ,but
 the truth is when books are conceived  
under a great stress1 with a soul of    
ninefold power1 nine time heated and    
electrified by effort1 the conditions of
 our being seized with such an ample    
grasp1 that even should the main design 
be trivial or base1 some truth and      
beauty cannot fail to be expressed4   ,v
  ,the conditions of our being6  ,if we 
accept1 affirm1 profoundly rest in what 
is presented to us1 we have the first   
condition of that repose which is the   
essence of the aesthetic experience4    
,and from this highest demand can be    
viewed the hierarchy of the lesser      
perfections which go to make up the     
perfect moment of literature4  ,instead 
of reaching this point by successive    
eliminations1 we might indeed have      
reached it in one stride4 ,the perfect  

moment across the dialect of life1 the  
moment of perfect life1 must be in truth
 that in which we touch the confines of 
our being1 look upon our world1 all in  
all1 as revealed in some great moment1  
and see that it is good--that we grasp  
it1 possess it1 that it is akin to us1  
that it is identical with our deepest   
wills4  ,the work that grasps the       
conditions of our being gives ourselves 
back to us completed4  ,in the          
conditions of our being in a less       
profound sense may be found the further 
means to the perfect moment4  ,thus the 
progress of events1 the development of  
feelings1 must be in harmony with our   
natural processes4  ,the development1   
the rise1 complication1 expectation1    
gratification1 the suspense1 climax1 and
 drop of the great novel1 correspond to 
the natural functioning of our mental   
processes4  ,it is an experience that we
 seek1 multiplied1 perfected1           
expanded--the life moment of a man      
greater than we4  ,this1 too1 is the    

ultimate meaning of the demands of      
style4  ,lucidity1 indeed1 there must   
be1-- identity with the thought2 but    
besides the value of the thought in its 
approximation to the conditions of our  
being1 we seek the vividness of that    
thought1--the perfect moment of         
apprehension1 as well as of experience4 
,it is the beauty of style to be lucid2 
but the beauty of lucidity is to        
reinforce the springs of thought4  ,even
 to the minor elements of style1 the    
tone-coloring1 the rhythm1 the          
melody1--the essence of beauty1 that is1
 of the perfect moment1 is given by the 
perfecting of the experience4 ,the      
beauty of liquids is their ease and     
happiness of utterance4 ,the beauty of  
rhythm is its aiding and compelling     
power1 on utterance and thought4  ,there
 is a sensuous pleasure in a great      
style2 we love to mouth it1 for it is   
made to mouth4 ,as ,flaubert says       
somewhat brutally1 ,je ne said qu'une   
phrase est bonne qu'apres l'avoir fait  

passer par mon gueuloir4  ,in the end it
 might be said that literature gives us 
the moment of perfection1 and is thus   
possessed of beauty1 when it reveals    
ourselves to ourselves in a better world
 of experience2 in the conditions of our
 moral being1 in the conditions of our  
utterance and our breathing2--all these1
 concentric circles1 in which the centre
 of repose is given by the underlying   
identity of ourselves with this world4  
,because it goes to the roots of        
experience1 and seeks to give the       
conditions of our being as they really  
are1 literature may be truly called a   
criticism of life4  ,yet the end of     
literature is not the criticism of life2
 rather the appreciation of life--the   
full savour of life in its entirety4    
,the final definition of literature is  
the art of experience4   ,,vi  ,but then
 literature would give only the perfect 
moments of existence1 would ignore the  
tragedies1 ironies1 pettiness of life6  
,such an interpretation is a quite      

mistaken one4  ,as the great painting   
uses the vivid reproduction of an ugly  
face1 a squalid hovel1 to create a      
beautiful picture1 beautiful because all
 the conditions of seeing are made to   
contribute to our being made whole in   
seeing2 so great literature can attain  
through any given set of facts to the   
deeper harmony of life1 can touch the   
one poised1 unconquerable soul1 and can 
reinforce the moment of                 
self-completeness by every parallel     
device of stimulation and concentration4
  ,and because it is most often in the  
tragedies that the conditions of our    
being are laid bare1 and the strings    
which reverberate to the emotions most  
easily played upon1 it is likely that   
the greatest books of all will be the   
tragedies themselves4  ,the art of      
experience needs contrasts no less than 
does the visual or auditory art4  ,this 
beauty of literature1 because it is a   
hierarchy of beauties more and less     
essential1 exists in all varieties and  

in all shades4  ,if the old comparison  
and contrast of idealism and realism is 
referred to here1 it is because that    
ancient controversy seems not even yet  
entirely outworn4  ,if realism means    
close observation of facts and neglect  
of ideas1 and idealism1 neglect of      
prosaic facts and devotion to ideas1    
then we must admit that realism and     
idealism are the names of two defective 
types4  ,strictly speaking1 whatever    
goes deep enough to the truth of things1
 gets nearer reality1 is realism2 yet to
 get nearer reality is to attain true   
ideas1 and that is idealism too4  ,the  
great work of literature is realistic   
because it does not lose sight of the   
ideal4  ,our popular use of idealistic  
refers1 indeed1 to the world seen       
through rose- colored glasses2 but for  
that possible variety of literary effort
 it is better to use the word ,romance4 
,romance is the world of our youthful   
dreams of things1 not as they do happen1
 but as1 without any special deeper     

meaning1 we should wish them to happen4 
,that is the world of the gold-haired   
maiden1 the lover with the red-roan     
steed of steeds1 the purse of           
,fortunatus1 the treasure-trove1 the    
villain confronted with his guilt4      
,never the time and the place and the   
loved one all together6  ,but in        
,romance they come together4  ,the total
 depravity of inanimate things has      
become the stars in their courses       
fighting for us4  ,stevenson calls it   
the poetry of circumstance--for the     
dreams of youth are properly healthy and
 material4  ,the salvage from the wreck 
in ,robinson ,crusoe1 he tells us1      
satisfies the mind like things to eat4  
,romance gives us the perfect moment of 
the material and human--with the divine 
left out4  ,it has sometimes been made a
 reproach to critics--more often1 ,i    
fear1 by those who hold1 like myself1   
that beauty and excellence in art are   
identical--that they discourse too      
little of form in literature1 and too   

much of content4  ,but all our taking   
thought will have been vain1 if it is   
not now patent that the first beauty of 
literature is1 and must be1 its identity
 with the central flame of life1--the   
primal conditions of our being4  ,thus  
it is that the critic is justified in   
asking first of all1 ,how does this man 
look on life8  ,has he revealed a       
new--or better--the eternal old meaning8
  ,the ,weltanschauung is the critic's  
first consideration1 and after that he  
may properly take up that secondary     
grasp of the conditions of our being in 
mental processes1 revealed in the       
structure1 march of incidents1 suspense1
 and climaxes1 and the beauty or        
idiosyncracy of style4  ,it is then     
literally false that it does not matter 
what a man says1 but only how he says   
it4  ,what he says is all that matters1 
for it will not be great thought without
 some greatness in the saying4  ,art for
 art's sake in literature is then art   
for life's sake1 and the informing      

purpose1 in so far as that means the    
vision of our deepest selves1 is its    
first condition4  ,and because the      
,beauty of ,literature is constituted by
 its quality as life itself1 we may     
defer detailed consideration of the     
species and varieties of literature4    
,prose and poetry1 drama and novel1 have
 each their own special excellences     
springing from the respective situations
 they had1 and have1 to meet4  ,yet     
these but add elements to the one great 
power they all must have as             
literature1--the power to give the      
perfect experience of life in its       
fullness and vividness1 and in its      
identity with the central meanings of   
existence1--unity and self-completeness 
together1--in a form which offers to our
 mental functions the perfect moment of 
stimulation and repose4    ,,vii  ,,the 
,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,emotions ,,of     
,,the ,,drama   ,,vii  ,,the ,,nature   
,,of ,,the ,,emotions ,,of ,,the ,,drama
  ,i  ,,that psychologist who1 writing  

on the problems of dramatic art1 called 
his brochure ,the ,dispute over         
,tragedy1 gave the right name to a      
singular situation4  ,of all the riddles
 of aesthetic experi#h;ence1 none has   
been so early propounded1 so            
indefatigably attempted1 so variously   
and unsatisfactorily solved1 as this4   
,what is dramatic8  ,what constitutes a 
tragedy8  ,how can we take pleasure in  
painful experiences8 ,these questions   
are like ,banquo's ghost1 and will not  
down4  ,the ingenious ,bernays has said 
that it was all the fault of ,aristotle4
  ,the last phrase of the famous        
definition in the ,poetics1 which should
 relate the nature1 end1 and aim of     
tragedy1 is left1 in his works as we    
have them1 probably through the         
suppression or loss of context1 without 
elucidating commentary4  ,and the       
writers on tragedy have ever since so   
striven to guess his meaning1 and to    
make their answers square with          
contemporary drama1 that they have given

 comparatively slight attention to the  
immediate1 unbiased investigation of the
 phenomenon itself4  ,aristotle's       
definition is as follows3#a ,tragedy1   
then1 is an imitation of an action that 
is serious1 complete1 and of a certain  
magnitude2 in language embellished with 
each kind of artistic ornament1 the     
several kinds being found in separate   
parts of the play3  in the form of      
action1 not of narrative2 through pity  
and fear effecting the proper purgation 
of these emotions4  ,in what follows1 he
 takes up and explains this definition1 
phrase by phrase1 until the very last4  
,what is meant by the ,purgation        
7,katharsis7 through pity and fear8  ,it
 is at least what tragedy effects1 and  
is thus evidently the function of       
tragedy4  ,but a thing is determined1   
constructed1 judged1 according to its   
function2 the function is1 so to speak1 
its genetic formula4  ,with a clear view
 of that1 the rest of the definition    
could conceivably have been constructed 

without further explanation2 without it1
 the key to the whole fails4  ,purgation
 of these emotions2 did it mean         
purification of the emotions1 or        
purgation of the soul ,,from the        
emotions8  ,and what emotions8  ,pity   
and fear1 or these and suchlike1 thus   
including all emotions that tragedy     
could bring to expression8  #a ,s4,h4   
,butcher1 ,aristotle's ,theory of       
,poetry and ,fine ,art1 #ahie4  ,our    
knowledge of the severely moral bent of 
the explicit art criticism of the       
,greeks has inclined many to accept the 
first interpretation2 and modern        
interests impel in the same direction4  
,it is natural to think of the generally
 elevating and softening effects of     
great art as a kind of moral clarifying1
 and the question how this should be    
effected just by pity and fear was not  
pressed4  ,so ,lessing in the           
,hamburgische ,dramaturgie takes        
,katharsis as the conversion of the     
emotions in general into virtuous       

dispositions4  ,before we ask ourselves 
seriously how far this represents our   
experience of the drama1 we must        
question its fidelity to the thought of 
,aristotle2 and that question seems to  
have received a final answer in the     
exhaustive discussion of ,bernays4#a    
,without going into his arguments1      
suffice it to say that ,aristotle1      
scientist and physician's son as he was1
 had in mind in using this striking     
metaphor of the ,katharsis of the       
emotions1 a perfectly definite          
procedure1 familiar in the treatment1 by
 exciting music1 of persons overcome by 
the ecstasy or enthusiasm characteristic
 of certain religious rites4 ,bernays   
quotes ,milton's preface to ,samson     
,agonistes3  ,tragedy is said by        
,aristotle to be of power1 by raising   
pity and fear1 or terror1 to purge the  
mind of those and such like passions2   
that is1 to temper and reduce them to   
just measure with a kind of delight1    
stirred by reading or seeing those      

passions well imitated4  ,nor is ,nature
 wanting in her own effects to make good
 his assertion2 for so in physic1 things
 of melancholic hue and quality are used
 against melancholy1 sour against sour1 
salt to remove salt humours1 adding the 
homoeopathic comparison shows how near  
he was to the correct notion4 ,bernays  
concludes that by ,katharsis is denoted 
the alleviating discharge of the        
emotions themselves4  ,in other words1  
pity and fear are bad1 and it is a good 
thing to get rid of them in a harmless  
way1 as it is better to be vaccinated   
than to have small pox4  #a ,zwei       
adhandlungen uber d4 ,aristotelische    
,theories d4 ,drama1 #ahhj4  ,now this  
alleviating discharge is pleasurable    
7meth hedones71 and the pleasure seems1 
from allied passages1 to arise not in   
the accomplished relief from oppression1
 but in the process itself4  ,this      
becomes intelligible from the point of  
view of ,aristotle's definition of      
pleasure as an ecstatic condition of the

 soul4  ,for every emotion contains1    
according to ,aristotle1 be it ever so  
painful1 an ecstatic degree would       
effect1 at the same time with an        
alleviating discharge1 a pleasure also4 
,pity and fear are aroused to be        
allayed1 and to give pleasure in the    
arousing and the relief4  ,such1        
approximately1 is ,aristotle's view of  
the ,tragic ,emotion1 or ,katharsis4    
,is it also our own8  ,to clear the     
field for this inquiry1 it will be well 
first of all to insist on a distinction 
which is mostly discounted in           
significance because taken for granted4 
,we speak o ,aristotle's ,katharsis as  
the ,tragic ,emotion1 forgetting that   
to-day ,tragedy and the ,tragic are no  
longer identical4  ,aristotle conceives 
himself to be dealing with the peculiar 
emotion aroused by a certain dramatic   
form1 the name of which ha nothing to do
 with its content4  ,for ,tragedy is    
literally goat-song1 perhaps from the   
goat-skins worn by the first performers 

of tragedy disguised as satyrs4  ,since 
then we have borrowed the name of that  
dramatic form to apply to events which  
have the same type or issue as in that  
form4  ,in popular speech to-day the    
word tragic attaches itself rather to   
the catastrophe than to the struggle1   
and therefore1 ,i cannot but think1     
modern discussion of the tragic is wrong
 in attempting to combine the           
,aristotelian and the modern shades of  
meaning1 and to embody them both in a   
single definition4 ,aristotle is dealing
 with the whole effect of the dramatic  
representation of what we should call a 
tragic occurrence4  ,it is really the   
theory of the dramatic experience and   
not of the tragic1 in our sense1 which  
occupies him4  ,therefore1 as ,i say1 we
 must not assume1 with many modern      
critics1 than an analysis of the tragic 
in experience will solve the problem of 
the ,katharsis4  ,our tragic event1 it  
is true1 is of the kind which           
dramatically treated helped to bring    

about this peculiar effect4  ,but the   
question of ,aristotle and our problem  
of ,katharsis is the problem of the     
emotion aroused by the ,tragic ,drama4  
,what1 then1 is the nature of dramatic  
emotion8   ,,ii  ,the analogy of        
,aristotle's conception of the emotion  
of tragedy with certain modern views is 
evident4  ,to feel pain is to live      
intensely1 it is said2 to be absorbed in
 great1 even though overwhelming1 events
 is to make us realize our own pulsing  
life4  ,the criticism to be made on this
 theory is1 however1 no less simple3  it
 consists merely in denying the fact4   
,it does not give us pleasure to have   
painful emotions or to see other        
people's sorrows1 in spite of the       
remains of the gorille feroce in us1 to 
which ,taine and ,m4 ,faguet attribute  
this imputed pleasure4  ,and if we feel 
pleasure1 excitement1 elevation in the  
representation of the tragic1 it must be
 due to some other element in the       
experience than the mere                

self-realization involved in suffering4 
,it is indeed our first impulse to say  
that the painful quality vanishes when  
the exciting events are known to be     
unreal2 pity and fear are painful       
because too intense1 and in the drama   
are just sufficiently moderated4  ,the  
rejoinder is easy1 that pity and fear   
are never anything1 but painful down to 
the vanishing point4  ,the slight pity  
for a child's bruised finger is not more
 pleasurable because less keen2 while   
our feeling1 whatever it is1 for        
,ophelia or ,gretchen1 becomes more     
pleasurable in proportion to its        
intensity4  ,it is clear that the matter
 is not so simple as ,aristotle's       
psychology would make it4  ,pity and    
fear do not in themselves produce       
pleasure1 relief1 and repose4  ,these   
emotions as aroused by tragedy are      
either not what we know as pity and fear
 in real life1 or the manner of their   
undergoing brings in an entirely new    
element1 on which ,aristotle has not    

touched4  ,in some way or other the pity
 and fear of tragedy are not like the   
pity and fear of real life1 and in this 
distinction lies the whole mystery of   
the dramatic ,katharsis4  ,but there is 
an extension of ,aristotle's theory1    
lineally descended from that of         
,lessing1 which professes to elucidate  
this difference and must be taken       
account of1 inasmuch as it represents   
the modern popular view4  ,professor    
,butcher1 in his edition of the         
,poetics1 concludes1 on the basis of a  
reference in the ,politics implying that
 the ,katharsis of enthusiasm is not    
identical with the ,katharsis of pity   
and fear1 that the word is to be taken  
less literally1 as an expulsion of the  
morbid elements in the emotions1--and   
these he takes to be the selfish        
elements which cling to them in real    
life4  ,thus the spectator1 who is      
brought face to face with grander       
sufferings than his own1 experiences a  
sympathetic ecstasy1 a listing out of   

himself4  ,it is precisely in this      
transport of feeling1 which carries a   
man outside his individual self1 that   
the distinctive tragic pleasure resides4
  ,pity and fear are purged of the      
impure element which clings to them in  
life4  ,in the glow of tragic excitement
 these feelings are so transformed that 
the net result is a noble emotional     
satisfaction4  ,in spite of our feeling 
that the literal and naive reading of   
the analogy was probably after all      
nearer ,aristotle's meaning1 we may     
accept the words of ,professor ,butcher 
as its modern formulation4  ,they sound1
 indeed1 all but a truism3 yet they are 
seen on examination to glide lightly    
over some psychological difficulties4   
,firstly1 the step is a long one from   
the pity and fear felt by the ,greek    
toward or about the actors1 to a sharing
 of their emotion4  ,the one is a       
definite external relation1 limited to  
two emotions2 the other1 the sympathetic
 ecstasy1 opens the door to all         

conceivable emotions1 and needs at least
 to be justified4 ,but1 secondly1 even  
suppose the step taken2 suppose the     
sympathetic imitation conceded as a     
fact3  the objections to ,aristotle's   
interpretation are equally applicable to
 this4  ,why should this transport of   
sympathetic feeling not take the form of
 a transport of pain8  ,why should the  
net result be a noble emotional         
satisfaction8  ,if pity and fear remain 
pity and fear1 whether selfish or       
unselfish1 it doth not yet appear why   
they are emotionally satisfactory4 ,the 
so transformed of the passage quoted    
assumes the point at issue and begs the 
question4  ,that is1 if this            
transformation of feeling does indeed   
take place1 there is at least nothing in
 the nature of the situation1 as yet    
explained1 to account for it4  ,but     
explanation there must be4  ,to this1   
the lost passage on the ,katharsis must 
have been devoted2 this1 every          
thorough-going study of the theory of   

the drama must make an indispensable    
preliminary4  ,what there is in the     
nature of tragic art capable of         
transforming painful to pleasurable     
emotion must be made clear4  ,before we 
can accept ,professor ,butcher's view of
 the function of ,tragedy1 its          
possibility as a psychological          
experience must be demonstrated4  ,for  
the immediately pleasurable aesthetic   
effect of ,tragedy1 a certain kind of   
pity and fear1 operating in a special   
way1 are required4 ,it must be thus only
 in the peculiar character of the       
emotions aroused that the distinctive   
nature of the tragic experience         
consists4  ,what is this peculiar       
character8   ,,iii  ,a necessary step to
 the explanation of our pleasure in     
supposedly painful emotions is to make  
clear how we can feel any emotion at all
 in watching what we know to be unreal1 
and to show how this emotion is         
sympathetic1 that is1 imitative1 rather 
than of an objective reference4  ,in    

brief1 why do we feel ,,with1 rather    
than toward or about1 the actors8  ,the 
answer to this question requires a      
reference to the current theory of      
emotion4  ,according to modern          
psychologists1 emotion is constituted by
 the instinctive response to a          
situation2 it is the feeling            
accompanying very complicated physical  
reactions1 which have their roots in    
actions once useful in the history of   
mankind4  ,thus the familiar expression 
of anger1 the flushed face1 dilated     
nostril1 clenched fist1 are remains or  
marks of reactions serviceable in mortal
 combat4  ,but these1 the coarser bodily
 changes proper to anger1 are           
accompanied by numberless organic       
reactions1 the feel of all of which     
together is an indispensable element of 
the emotion of anger4 ,the point to be  
noted in all this is that these         
reactions are ,,actions1 called up by   
something with which we literally ,,have
 ,,to ,,do4  ,a person involved in real 

experience does not reproduce the       
emotions about him1 for in real life he 
must respond to the situation1 take an  
attitude of help1 consolation1 warning2 
and the character of these reactions    
determines for him an emotion of his    
own4  ,even though he really do nothing1
 the multitudinous minor impulses to    
action going to make up his attitude    
appreciably interfere with the          
reproduction of the reactions of the    
object of his interest4  ,in an exactly 
opposite way the artificial conditions  
of the spectator at a play1 which       
reinforce the vivid reproduction of     
ideas1 and check action1 stifle those   
emotions directed toward the players1   
the objective emotions of which we have 
spoken4  ,the spectator is completely   
cut off from all possibilities of       
influence on events4  ,between his world
 and that across the footlights an      
inexpressible gulf is fixed4  ,he cannot
 take an attitude1 he can have nothing  
to do in this galere4  ,since he may not

 act1 even those beginnings of action   
which make the basis of emotion are     
inhibited in him4  ,the spectator at a  
play experiences much more clearly and  
sharply than the sympathetic observer2  
only the proportions of his mental      
contents are different4 ,this1 ,i say1  
accounts for the absence of the real    
pity and fear1 which were supposed to be
 directed toward the persons in the     
play4  ,but so far as yet appears there 
is every reason to expect the           
sympathetic reproduction of the emotions
 of the persons themselves4  ,let us    
briefly recall the situation4  ,the     
house is darkened and quiet2 all lines  
converge to the stage1 which is brightly
 lighted1 and heightened in visual      
effect by every device known to art4    
,the onlooker's mind is emptied of its  
content2 all feeling of self is pushed  
down to its very lowest level4  ,he has 
before him a situation which he         
understands through sight and hearing1  
and in which he follows the action not  

only by comprehension1 but by           
instinctive imitation4  ,this is the    
great vehicle of suggestion4  ,we cannot
 see tears rise without moisture in our 
own eyes2 we reproduce a yawn even      
against our will2 the sudden or the     
regular movement of a companion we are  
forced to follow1 at least incipiently4 
,now the expression which we imitate    
brings up in us to a certain extent the 
whole complex of ideas and feeling-tones
 belonging to that expression4          
,moreover1 the more closely we attend to
 it1 the more explicitly do we imitate  
it1 by an evident psychological         
principle4  ,thus in the artificially   
contrived situation of the spectator at 
a play1 he is forced1 not only to       
understand intellectually1 but also to  
,,follow1 quite literally1 the emotional
 movements of the actors4  ,the process 
of understanding1 raised to the highest 
pitch1 involves by its very nature also 
reproduction of what is understood4     
,the complex of the ideas and           

associations of the persons of the play 
is ideally reproduced4  ,are not the    
organic reactions belonging to these set
 up too8--not directly1 in response to a
 situation in which the spectator may   
act1 but directly1 by reproduction of   
the mental contents of one who may act1 
the person of the drama4  ,the final    
answer to this question contains1 to my 
mind1 the whole kernel of the dramatic  
mystery1 and the starting-point for an  
aesthetic theory of tragedy4   ,,iv     
,every play contains at least two       
actors4  ,the suggestion of states of   
mind does not come from the hero alone1 
but is given by two persons1 or groups  
of persons1 at once4  ,these persons    
are1 normally1 in conflict4  ,othello   
menaces1 ,desdemona shrinks2 ,nora      
asserts her right1 ,hilmar his claim2   
,l',aiglon vaunts his inherited         
personality1 ,metternich--holds the     
candle to the mirror6  ,but what of the 
spectator8  ,he cannot at once shrink   
and menace1 assert and deny1 as the     

conditions of sympathetic reproduction  
would seem to demand4  ,real emotion    
implies a definite set of reactions of  
the nature of movements2 and two opposed
 movements cannot take place at the same
 time4  ,ideas1 however1 can dwell      
together in amity4  ,the spectator has a
 vivid picture of ,othello and          
,desdemona together2 but his reactions  
have neutralized each other1 and his    
emotions1 lacking their organic         
conditions1 are in abeyance4  ,this is  
the typical dramatic moment1 for it is  
the one which is alone characteristic of
 the drama4  ,only in the simultaneous  
realization of two opposing forces is   
the full mutual checking of emotional   
impulses possible1 and it is only in    
this simultaneous realization that the  
drama differs from all other forms of   
art4  ,when the two antagonistic        
purposes are actually presented to the  
onlooker in the same moment of time1    
then alone can be felt the vividness of 
realization1 the tension of conflict1   

the balance of emotion1 the alleviation 
of the true ,katharsis6  ,but what is   
this8  ,no emotion after all1 when the  
very traditional test of our enjoyment  
of a play is the amount of feeling it   
arouses6--when hearts beat1 hands       
clench1 tears flow6  ,emotion there is1 
it may not be denied2 but not the       
sympathetic emotions of the traditional 
theory4  ,what emotion8  ,the mutual    
checking of impulses in a balance1 a    
tension1 a conflict which is yet a bond2
 and this it is which is the clue to the
 excitement or exaltation which in the  
dramatic experience usurps the place of 
definite feeling4  ,we have met this    
phenomenon before4  ,aesthetic emotion  
in general1 we have heard1 consists just
 in the union of a kind of stimulation  
or enhanced life1 with repose2 a        
heightening of the vital energies       
unaccompanied by any tendency to        
movement1--in short1 that gathering of  
forces which we connect with action1 and
 which is felt the more because action  

is checked4  ,just such a repose through
 equilibrium of impulses is given by the
 dramatic conflict4 ,introspection makes
 assurance doubly sure4  ,the tense     
exaltation of the typical aesthetic     
experience1 undirected1 unlimited1 pure 
of personal or particular reference1 is 
reproduced in this nameless ecstasy of  
the tragic drama4  ,the mysterious      
,katharsis1 the emotion of tragedy1 is1 
then1 a special type of the unique      
aesthetic emotion4  ,and it is the      
singular peculiar characteristic of the 
drama-- the face to face confrontation  
of forces--which furnishes these        
conditions4  ,as we might have foreseen1
 the peculiar ,katharsis1 or pleasurable
 disappearance or alleviation of emotion
 in tragedy1 is based on just those     
elements in which the drama differs from
 other forms of art4  ,confrontation1   
and not action1 as the dramatic         
principle1 is the important deduction   
from our theory2--is1 indeed1 but the   
objective aspect of it4  ,the view of   

confrontation as the dramatic principle 
is confirmed by dramatic literature4    
,we emphasize in our study of ,greek    
plays their simplicity of plot1 their   
absence of intrigue1 their sculptural1  
bas-relief quality4  ,the ,greek drama  
makes of a poem a crisis1 says ,m4      
,faguet4  ,a tragedy is a well-composed 
group1 a fine contrast1 a beautiful     
effect of imposing symmetry--as in the  
,antigone1 on one side civil law in all 
its blind rigor1 on the other moral law 
in all its splendor4  ,the only element 
in common with the modern type is found 
in the conflict of wills4  ,could such a
 play as the ,suppliants of ,euripedes  
find any aesthetic justification1 save  
that it has the one dramatic            
essential--confrontation1 balance of    
emotions8  ,the very scenes of short    
speeches1 of objurgation or sententious 
repartee1 which cannot but have for us  
an element of the grotesque1 must have  
been as pleasing as they were to the    
,greek audience1 from the fact that they

 brought to sharpest vision the         
confrontation of the two antagonists4   
,the mediaeval drama1 which has become  
popularly known in ,everyman1 is nothing
 but a succession of duels1 material or 
spiritual4  ,it is indeed the two       
profiles confronting one another1 our   
sympathy balanced1 and suspended1 as it 
were1 between them1 which characterize  
our recollections of this whole great   
field4  ,the modern critics and         
comparers of ,english and ,french drama 
are fond of contrasting the full1 rich1 
even prodigal characterization1         
rhetorical and lyrical beauty of the    
,shakespearean drama with the cold1     
clear1 logical1 but resistless movement 
of the ,french4  ,yet the contrast is   
not quite that between characterization 
and form2 the essential form is common  
to both4  ,in the first place1          
,elizabethan drama was platform         
drama--that is1 by the testimony of     
contemporaries1 little concerned with   
anything but the succession of more or  

less unconnected scenes between two or  
three persons4  ,and we see clearly that
 the great dramatic power of ,hamlet1   
for instance1 must lie1 not in the      
movement of a wavering purpose1 but in  
the separate scenes of his struggle1    
each one wonderfully rich1 vivid1       
balanced1 but almost a unit in itself4  
,on the theory that the true dramatic   
form is logical progress1 dramatic--as  
contrasted with literary--power would   
have to be denied to ,hamlet4  ,the     
aesthetic meaning of ,lear is not in the
 terrible retribution of pride and      
self-will1 but in the cruel             
confrontation of father and daughters4  
,this is no less true of the first great
 ,french plays4  ,it is certainly not   
the resistless movement of the intrigue 
which makes the ,misanthrope1 ,tartufe1 
the ,precieuses ,ridicules1 masterpieces
 of comedy as well as of literature4    
,their dramatic value lies in their     
piquancy of confrontation4  ,the        
tug-of-war between ,alceste and         

,celimene1 between ,rodrigue and        
,chimene in ,le ,cid1 is what we think  
of as dramatic2 and it is this same     
element which is found as well in the   
complicated and overflowing ,english    
plays4  ,and in modern ,french drama1   
for all its logic1 the dominating factor
 is the scene a faire1--what ,i have    
called the scene of confrontation4  ,the
 notoriously successful scene in the    
,english drama of to-day1 the duel of   
,sophy and ,lord ,quex-- tolerably empty
 of real feeling or significance though 
it is-- becomes successful merely       
through the consummate handling of the  
face-to-face element4  ,only by         
admitting this aesthetic moment of      
arrest can we allow dramatic value to   
such a play as ,les ,affaires sont les  
,affaires--a truly static drama4  ,the  
hero of this is1 in the words of a      
reviewer1 essentially the same force in 
magnitude and direction from the rise to
 the fall of the curtain4  ,it does not 
move2 it is we who are taken around it  

so that we may see its various facets4  
,it is not moulded by the successive    
incidents of the play1 but only         
disclosed by them2 sibi constat4  ,yet  
we cannot deny to the play dramatic     
power2 and the reason for this is1 as ,i
 believe1 because it does1 after all1   
possess the dramatic essential--not     
action1 but tension4   ,v  ,it will be  
demanded1 however1 what place there is  
then for a temporal factor1 if the      
typical dramatic experience depends upon
 the great scene8  ,it cannot be denied 
that the drama is a work of art         
developed in time1 like music and       
poetry4  ,it comes to a climax and a    
resolution2 it evolves its harmonies    
like the symphony1 in irrevocable order4
  ,we cannot afford to neglect1 in such 
an aesthetic analysis1 what is an       
undoubted element in dramatic effect1   
the so-called inevitable march of       
events4  ,in answer to this objection we
 may hold that the temporal factor is a 
corollary of the primary demand for     

confrontation4  ,it is necessary that   
the confrontation or conflict should be 
vividly imagined1 with all possible     
associative reinforcements--that it     
should be brought up to the turn of the 
screw1 as it were4 ,for this1 then1     
motivation is absolutely necessary4  ,an
 attitude is only clearly realized when 
it is made to seem inevitable4 ,it takes
 complete possession of our minds only  
when it inhibits all other              
possibilities4  ,at any given scene1 the
 power of a part to reproduce itself in 
us is measured by the convincing quality
 given it by motivation1 and for this   
there must be a full body of            
associations to draw on1 to round out   
and complete understanding4  ,the       
villain of the play is1 for instance1   
less completely suggested to us1 because
 our associations are supposedly less   
rich for such characters2 as a beggar   
hypnotized and made to feel himself a   
king has meagre mental equipment for the
 part4  ,now1 this inner possession can 

come about only through the compelling  
force of a long course of preparation4  
,in providing such an accumulation of   
impulses1 none was greater than the     
younger ,dumas--and none had to be      
greater6  ,to make his audience         
accept--that is1 identify itself        
with--the action of the hero in ,denise1
 or the mother's decision in ,les ,idees
 de ,mms4 ,aubray1 so subversive of     
general social feeling1 and thereby to  
experience fully the great dramatic     
moment in each play1 there had to go the
 effect of innumerable small impulses4  
,and to realize some situations is even 
beyond the scope of a play's            
development4  ,it is an acute remark of 
,mr4 ,g4,k4 ,chesterton's1 that many    
plays nowadays turn on problems of      
marriage3  which subject is one for slow
 years of adjustment1 patience1         
adaptation1 endeavor2 while the drama   
requires quick decisions1               
bouleversements1 etc41 and would do     
wisely to confine itself to fields in   

which such bouleversements can be made  
credible4  ,at any rate1 motivation is  
desirable for the dramatic              
confrontation1 and time--the            
working-out--is an essential condition  
of motivation4  ,to make the dramatic   
conflict ever sharper and deeper1 until 
it either melts into harmony1 or ceases 
through the destruction of one element1 
is the whole duty of the development1   
and makes it necessary4 ,that           
development is temporal1 is1            
dramatically1 only a device for damming 
the flood that it may break at last with
 greater force4  ,this1 too1 is an      
answer to the objection that if         
confrontation is the dramatic essential1
 bare opposition1 because the clearest  
confrontation1 would be the greatest    
drama1 and the ,suppliants of ,euripedes
 be indeed an example of it4  ,bare     
opposition is never real confrontation  
in our sense1 for that must be an       
arrest1 a mutual antagonism of all      
impulses of soul and sense4 ,it must    

possess the whole man4  ,it needs to    
take in all thoughts1 all passions1 all 
delights1 to be complete1 and the       
measure of its completeness is the      
measure of its aesthetic value4  ,in the
 same way1 the demand for profound truth
 and significance in the drama is       
clearly to be reached from the purely   
dramatic need4  ,inner possession1 the  
condition for our dramatic tension1     
depends not alone on the cumulation of  
suggestions-- suggestion in its1 so to  
speak1 quantitative aspect4  ,the       
attitude of a character must be         
necessary in itself3  that is1 it must  
be true to the great and general laws of
 life4  ,if it is fundamentally false1  
even with the longest and completest    
preparation1 it rings hollow4  ,we      
cannot completely enter into it4  ,thus 
we see that the one central requirement1
 the dramatic germ1 leads to the most   
far-reaching demands for logic1 sanity1 
and morality in the ideas of a play4    
,this should not be interpreted as      

exhausting the aesthetic value of logic 
and morality in the drama4  ,the drama  
is a species of literature3  and these  
qualities1 apart from the fact that they
 are necessary to the full dramatic     
moment1 have also an aesthetic effect   
proper to themselves4  ,thus the        
development ha the beauty which lies in 
a necessary progress2 but this beauty is
 common to the epic1 the novel1 and the 
symphony1 while the unity given by the  
confrontation and tension of            
simultaneous forces belongs to the drama
 alone4 ,it is therefore development as 
serving the dramatic end that ,i have   
deduced4  ,yet we may well recall here  
the other aspect of the experience4     
,analogous to the pleasure in rhythm and
 in music1 in which the awaited beat or 
tone slips1 as it were1 into a place    
already prepared for it1 with the       
satisfaction of harmonious nervous      
adjustment1 is the pleasure in an       
inevitable and irrevocable progress4    
,for it is not felt as inevitable unless

 the whole crystallization of the       
situation makes such1 and only such1 an 
action or thought necessary at a certain
 point in the structure1 makes it to a  
certain extent anticipated1 and so      
recognized with acclaim on its          
appearance4  ,we will an event in       
anticipating and accepting it2 and we   
realize it as it comes4  ,nothing more  
is to be found in the psychological     
analysis of the will                    
itself--theoretically1 the two states   
are nearly identical4  ,thus this       
continual anticipation and coming true  
takes on the feeling-tone of all        
volition2 and so in music1 as ,i have   
shown at length1 and in drama1 and to a 
degree in all forms of literature1 we   
have the illusion of the triumphant     
will4  ,this is the secret of that      
creative joy felt by the spectator at a 
drama1 which has been so often noted4   
,it is this illusion of the triumphant  
will1 too1 which enters largely into our
 acceptance of the tragic end4  ,much   

has been said1 in the dispute over      
tragedy1 of the so-called ,resignation  
of the tragic hero1 and of the audience 
in relation to his fate4  ,but ,i       
believe that these writers are wrong in 
connecting this resignation primarily   
with a moral attitude4 ,what is foreseen
 as perfectly inevitable1 is            
sufficiently accepted in the            
psychological sense--that is1 vividly   
imagined and awaited1--to contribute to 
this illusion of volition4  ,hence      
arise1 for the catastrophe of drama1    
that exaltation and stern joy which are 
indissolubly connected with the         
experience of will in real life4   ,,vi 
,we have spoken of the dramatic1 and    
have desired to show that its peculiar  
aesthetic experience arises out of the  
tension or balance of emotion in the    
confrontation of opposing forces4  ,if  
this is a fruitful theory1 it should    
throw light on the distinction between  
the different forms of the drama1 and on
 the principal issues of that ,dispute  

over ,tragedy which is always with us4  
,the possible results of a meeting of   
two forces are these4 ,both forces1 or  
one force1 may be destroyed2 or1 short  
of destruction1 the two may melt into   
harmony1 or one may give way before the 
other4  ,i think it may be said that    
these alternatives represent the        
distinctions of ,tragedy and ,comedy4   
,when two aims are absolutely           
irreconcilable1 and when the forces     
tending to them are important1--that is1
 powerful1--there must be somewhere     
destruction1 and we have tragedy4  ,when
 they are reconcilable1 if they are     
important1 we have serious comedy2 when 
not important1 or not envisaged as      
important1 we have light comedy4  ,thus 
,tragedy and ,comedy are closely        
related1-- more closely than we are     
prone to think4  ,in the words of the   
late ,professor ,everett1 in ,poetry1   
,comedy1 and ,duty3 ,the tragic is1 like
 the comic1 simply the incongruous4     
,the great ,tragedy of ,nature1 which is

 called the ,struggle for ,existence1   
results simply from a greater or less   
incongruousness between any form of life
 and its surroundings4444,the comic is  
found in an incongruous relation        
considered merely as to its ,,form1     
while the tragic is found in an         
incongruous relation taken as to its    
reality4  ,for this word incongruity ,i 
would substitute collision or conflict4 
,when there is no way out1 we have      
,tragedy2 when there is a way out1 we   
have ,comedy4  ,and when things are     
taken superficially enough1 there always
 is a way out1 for we can at least      
always agree to disagree4 ,in any case1 
the end of the conflict is a period1    
repose1 unity4  ,this seems to be borne 
out by immediate introspection4  ,the   
feelings with which we come from a great
 tragedy or a great comedy are indeed   
almost identical4  ,the excitement1     
tension1 sunk into repose1 are common to
 both2 the satisfaction with a good     
ending is strangely paralleled by our   

resignation to a bad one1-- significant 
of our real indifference to the fact1 so
 long as the ,aesthetic ,unity is       
reached4  ,in ,george ,meredith's       
wonderful little essay on the ,comic    
,spirit1 this view is rather remarkably 
confirmed4  ,he has defined ,comedy as  
the contrast of the middle way1 the way 
of common sense1 with our human         
vagaries1 ,comme un point fixe fait     
remarquer l'emportement des autres4     
,comedy1 he says1 teaches the world to  
understand what ails it4444,comedy is   
the fountain of sound sense1 and again1 
the use of the true comedy is to awaken 
thoughtful laughter4  ,men's future upon
 earth does not attract it2 their       
honesty and shapeliness in the present  
does2 and whenever they wax out of      
proportion1 overblown1 affected1        
pretentious1 bombastical1 hypocritical1 
pedantic1 fantastically delicate2       
whenever it sees them self-deceived or  
hoodwinked1 given to run riot in        
idolatries1 drifting into vanities1     

congregating in absurdities1 planning   
shortsightedly1 plotting dementedly2    
whenever they are at variance with their
 professions1 and violate the unwritten 
but perceptible laws binding them in    
consideration one to another2 whenever  
they offend sound reason1 fair justice2 
are false in humility or moved with     
conceit1 individually or in the         
bulk--the ,spirit overhead will look    
humorously malign and cast an oblique   
light on them1 followed by volleys of   
silvery laughter4  ,that is the ,comic  
,spirit4  ,the ,comic ,spirit is the    
just common sense1 the subconscious     
wisdom of the ages4  ,there ,,is a      
golden mean1 the ,comic ,spirit shows it
 to us in the light of our flashing     
laughter at the deviation therefrom4    
,and because there is1 even the         
unreconciled--reconcilable--difference  
or conflict is not serious4  ,that is   
why true ,comedy seems to find its best 
field in a developed social life4  ,the 
incongruities of human nature hurt is   

they are pressed too deep1 because they 
are irreconcilable2 they too quickly    
edge the tragic gulf4 ,but the          
incongruities of the conventional life  
do not hurt when pressed4  ,to change   
our metaphor1 adjustment to the middle  
way is here so easily credible and      
possible1 that it is the very           
hunting-ground for the ,comic ,spirit4  
,the reputed masterpiece of ,moliere    
shows us ,alceste and ,celimene in the  
end still at odds4  ,but                
light-heartedness and sincerity are not 
to common sense incompatible1 and thus  
we are rightly led up to the impasse by 
paths of laughter4  ,wherever the middle
 way is divined1 there is the possible  
entrance of the ,spirit of ,comedy4  ,it
 is certainly a detriment to the purely 
,tragic effect of ,pinero's greatest    
play1 that the middle way1 the          
possibility of reconciliation1 is       
shadowed forth in the last word1--the   
cry of the stepdaughter of the ,second  
,mrs4 ,tanqueray1 ,if ,i had only been  

more merciful6  ,dumas fils would never 
have allowed that4  ,he would have      
written his play around that thought1   
and made it indeed a reconciling drama--
 or he would have suppressed the cry4   
,the end of ,romeo and ,juliet--date ,i 
confess it8--has always hovered for me  
close to that border which is not       
sublime4  ,for the hapless lovers missed
 all for want of a little common sense4 
,there was naught inevitable in their   
plight4  ,i see the ,comic ,spirit      
leaning across to stay the hand of the  
impetuous ,romeo4  ,why not take a      
moment's sober thought8 she murmurs4    
,tragedy ensues when there is no way    
out4  ,it is not that ruin or death for 
those in whom these forces are embodied 
is of the essence of the situation2 only
 that in the complete destruction of a  
force or purpose when it has been       
embodied in a strong desperate          
character1 the death of that character  
is usually involved4  ,there is no      
solution but to cut the knot4  ,the     

tragic has been defined as that quality 
of experience whereby1 in and through   
some serious collision1 followed by     
fatal catastrophe or inner ruin1        
something valuable in personality       
becomes manifest1 either as sublime or  
admirable in the hero1 or as triumph of 
an idea4  ,but ,lear1 ,macbeth1 ,hamlet1
 ,oedipus ,king1 ,othello1 exist to     
contravene this view4  ,no1 the tragic  
7in its first sense1 in the sense       
derived from the dramatic form from     
which it is named7 is in the collision  
itself2 it is the profound and1 to our  
vision1 the irreconcilable antagonism of
 different elements in life4  ,and in   
life we accept it because we must2 we   
transcend it because1 as moral beings1  
we may4  ,the sublime in actual tragic  
experience is the reaction of the       
unconquerable ,soul4  ,in tragic        
literature another appears4  ,we are    
helped in transcending the essential    
contradictions of life presented to us1 
because the conditions of literature in 

preparing an event create for us the    
illusion of volition1 the acceptance of 
fate4  ,and in the tragic drama1 to all 
these elements of the complex           
experience1 there is added the          
exaltation of the aesthetic arrest1 the 
tension of confrontations4  ,the        
question of the highest or most tragic  
form of tragedy seems to have been      
settled by general agreement4  ,it has  
been held that the tragic of the        
justified opposing force is the more    
full of meaning and importance1 for the 
reason that more interesting and complex
 feelings are called into play on each  
side than in the case of the unjustified
 opposing force4  ,but the definition of
 the tragic drama we have won seems     
further to illuminate our undoubted     
preference for this type4  ,we demand   
aesthetically all that will make the    
confrontation1 the dramatic tension1    
more clearly felt2 and we cannot realize
 fully a side which should be           
unjustified4  ,in such a play as        

,maeterlinck's ,aglavaine and ,selysette
 there is no movement1 and even the     
conflict is subterranean2 yet1 as all   
the characters are in their way noble1  
and in their way justified1 we find it  
among the most poignant of his plays4   
,nay1 more1 in any situation the more   
nearly the conflict is shown to be      
absolutely inevitable1 arising out of   
the very nature of life as we know      
it1--completely justified1 or at least  
,,felt as inevitable on both sides1--the
 more are we shaken by the distinctive  
tragic emotion4  ,the conflict of duties
 to one's self and to the world is the  
sharpest of tragedies4  ,luther1 as     
,freytag well shows1 is a really tragic 
figure from the moment when we conceive 
of the inner connection of his          
intolerance with all that is good and   
great in his nature4 ,as the expression 
of such a conflict of impulses good in  
themselves1 ,magda is a great tragedy   
than the ,joy of ,living2 ,ghosts than  
,hedda ,gabler2 the story of ,francesca 

,da ,rimini 7,i do not mean             
,d',annunzio's play7 than ,la ,citta    
,morta4  ,what1 then1 shall be said of  
the so-called tragic ,guilt1 in which   
the hero rushes on impiously to his     
doom8  ,it is clear that this question  
is closely related to the much-debated  
,greatness of the tragic hero4  ,if     
there is guilt1 there must be also      
greatness1 to impress that side of the  
canvas on our vision4  ,it is1 indeed1  
almost a quantitative problem4          
,strength1 energy1 depth of passion1    
breadth of vision1 power and place1     
ravish our attention and our unconscious
 imitation4 ,what is lacking in         
extensity of associative reproduction   
must be added in intensity4  ,and1 in   
fact1 we find that it is the giants who 
bear the tragic ,schuld4  ,hamlet is not
 guilty2 rather one like ourselves1 in  
,aristotle's phrase1 and therefore he   
need not be great4  ,i agree with       
,volkelt's view that even the           
traditional tremendous will of the      

tragic hero may be dispensed with4  ,no 
doubt it is most often strength of will 
which brings out the original conflict4 
,but that conflict once given1 as it is 
given1 for example1 in ,hamlet1 the main
 point is to increase the weight of each
 side1 which can indeed be done by other
 elements of greatness4  ,on the other  
hand1 ,i disagree with ,volkelt's reason
 for thus exempting will1 which is1 that
 the contrast feeling of how great a    
fall was there may be given by other    
qualities in the hero than that of will4
  ,as ,i have urged1 it is not the      
catastrophe which is of the tragic      
essence1 and therefore not for the sake 
of the catastrophe that we should       
marshal our elements4  ,the climax of   
tragedy and of our feeling is in the    
deadlock of forces1 and whatever is not 
absolutely essential thereto may be done
 without4   ,,vii  ,the phenomenon of   
our aesthetic reaction on the so-called 
painful experiences of the drama has    
then been discussed at length and       

accounted for4  ,there is an undoubted  
emotional experience of great intensity2
 and yet that emotion turns out to be   
not the emotion ,,in the drama1 but     
rather the emotion ,,from the drama1--a 
unique independent emotion of tension1  
otherwise a form of the characteristic  
aesthetic emotion with which we have    
been before engaged4  ,the playwright   
who scornfully rejects the spectator    
supposed to be aesthetic1 ideally       
contemplative and emotionally           
indifferent1 is vindicated4  ,there must
 be a vivid emotional effect1 but it is 
the spectator's very own1 and not a copy
 of the hero's emotion1 because it is   
the product of the essential form of the
 drama itself1 the confrontation of     
forces4  ,secondly1 that confrontation  
of forces has revealed itself as indeed 
essential4  ,this is not the            
time-honored view of tragedy as         
collision1 which has been arrived at    
simply by observing that great tragic   
dramas are mostly collisions1 making the

 drama a picture thereof1 but not       
explaining why it must be such4  ,i have
 tried1 on the contrary1 to show that   
confrontation is a necessary product of 
the bare form of dramatic               
representation1--two people face to     
face4  ,but if this bare form or scheme 
of confrontation is understood and      
interpreted as profoundly as possible1  
then all the other characteristics of   
the tragic drama are seen to flow from  
it2 and thus for the first time to be   
really explained by being accounted for4
  ,the tragic drama not only is1 but    
must be1 collision1 because             
confrontation1 understood as richly as  
possible1 must be collision4  ,it must  
be inevitable1 and it must have         
movement1 because only so is the        
confrontation reinforced4  ,in brief1   
others have said that the drama1 or     
tragedy1 is conflict1 the perfect       
opposition of two forces4  ,we should   
rather say that the drama is first of   
all picture1 living representation of   

colloquy2 as such1 it is balance1       
confrontation2 and confrontation to its 
ideal degree of intensity is conflict4  
,no drama can dispense with picture2 and
 so no drama is free from the obligation
 to add unto itself these other         
qualities also4  ,the acting play is the
 play of confrontations4    ,,viii ,,the
 ,,beauty ,,of ,,ideas  ,,viii ,,the    
,,beauty ,,of ,,ideas  ,i  ,,the ,idea  
of ,beauty has been greatly widened     
since the age of ,plato4  ,then1 it was 
only in order1 proportion1 unity in     
variety1 that beauty was admitted to    
consist2 to-day we hold that the moderns
 have caught a profounder beauty1 the   
beauty of meanings1 and we make it      
matter for rejoicing that nothing is too
 small1 too strange1 or too ugly to     
enter1 through its power of suggestion1 
the realm of the aesthetically valuable2
 and that the definition of beauty      
should have been extended to include1   
under the name of ,romantic1 ,symbolic1 
,expressive1 or ,ideal ,beauty1 all of  

the elements of aesthetic experience1   
all that emotionally stirs us in        
representation4  ,but while this view is
 a natural development1 it is not of    
necessity unassailable2 and it is open  
to question whether the addition of an  
independent element of expression to the
 older definition of beauty can be      
justified by its consequences for art4  
,such an inquiry1 however1 cannot stop  
with the relation of the deeper meanings
 of modern art to the conception of     
beauty4  ,it must go further and find   
out what elements1 the sensuous form or 
the ideas that are bound up with it1 in 
a work of art1 of the classical as well 
as of the idealistic type1 really       
constitute its aesthetic value4  ,what  
is it that makes the beauty of the      
,venus of ,milo8  ,is it the pose and   
the modeling1 or the idea of the eternal
 feminine that it expresses to us8 ,what
 is it that makes the beauty of ,st4    
,mark's or of ,giotto's tower8 the      
relation of the lines and masses or the 

sacred significance of the edifices they
 go to form8  ,what is it that makes the
 beauty of the ,ninth ,symphony8 the    
perfection of the melodic sequence1 or  
the ,hymn of ,joy1 the message from the 
,infinite which they are meant to utter8
  ,the antithesis between these two     
points of view is1 of course1 not the   
same as that other antithesis between   
art for art's sake and art in the light 
of its moral meanings and effects4 ,what
 we now call romantic or expressive art 
can certainly be made the more fruitful 
in moral suggestions2 but this fact     
bears not at all on the question of what
 belongs fundamentally to the nature of 
beauty4  ,we know1 moreover1 that on    
this matter the camps of the formalists 
and the romanticists are divided4  ,the 
,greeks1 the lovers of formal beauty1   
were so alive to the moral effects of   
art that their theories were in danger  
of being quite overwhelmed by this view4
  ,on the other hand1 the lovers of     
ideas in art1 the natural enemies1 as   

one would have thought1 of art for art's
 sake1 have been most often impatient of
 any consideration of its moral elements
 or effects4 ,this second question1     
then1 of art as pleasure or as moral    
influence can be once for all excluded  
from the discussion4  ,so far as yet    
appears1 the issue is between form and  
expression4  ,there is1 perhaps1 some   
point of common agreement from which to 
survey and distinguish more exactly     
these two diverging tendencies4  ,such a
 coign of vantage is offered by the     
nature of the aesthetic attitude1--for  
since ,kant there has been among        
aestheticians no essential difference of
 opinion on this point4 ,the aesthetic  
attitude1 all agree1 is disinterested4  
,we care for the image or appearance of 
the object1 for the way its form affects
 us1 and not for the actual existence of
 the object itself4  ,if ,i delight     
aesthetically in a cluster of grapes1 ,i
 do not want to eat them1 but only to   
enjoy their image1 and my feeling of    

pleasure1 as aesthetic1 would not be    
changed if before me were only a mirage1
 an hallucination1 or a picture4 ,it is 
just the pleasure in perception that    
appeals to me1-- therein both schools   
agree1--and the only matter at issue is 
the question of what this disinterested 
pleasure of perception includes4  ,is   
that pleasure bound up with the         
mechanisms of perception itself1 or does
 it come from the end of the process and
 the ease with which it is              
reached1--from the ,,idea1 in the       
contemplation of which we delight8  ,one
 school asserts that the real pleasure  
in perception comes only from form4     
,the given object is beautiful1 through 
its original qualities of line1 color1  
or sound1 which strike the special      
senses in a way that is pleasing to     
them2 and through its combinations of   
these qualities1 which affect the whole 
human organism in a directly pleasurable
 way4  ,what is outside of the given    
object of art--is meant1 suggested1 or  

recalled by it--belongs1 it is said1 to 
absolutely unaesthetic processes1 as is 
shown by the fact that many things1     
which we are the first to acknowledge as
 ugly1 are the exciting cause of great  
thoughts and delightful associations4   
,the opposed school maintains that the  
meanings of a work of art are all that  
it exists for4  ,the presentation of an 
idea1 by whatever sensuous means1 so    
only that they be transparent1 and the  
joy of the soul in contemplating this   
idea1 must be the object and the end of 
art4  ,the later idealists admit value  
to the form only in so far a it may     
express1 convey1 symbolize1 or suggest  
the content1 whether as pure idea1 or as
 a shadowing forth of the ,divine       
,world-,meaning4  ,these theories are   
certainly intelligible2 but the results 
of applying them with logical           
consistency are rather terrifying4      
,andrew ,lang says somewhere that the   
logical consequence of the formal theory
 of art in all its nakedness would make 

,tennyson the youth1 ,swinburne1 and    
,edgar ,poe the greatest poets of the   
world1 and those delicious effusions of 
,edward ,lear1 ,the ,jumblies and ,on   
the ,coast of ,coromandel1 masterpieces4
  ,yet if we allow the idealists to pass
 sentence1 what shall become of our     
treasures in ,kubla ,khan1 or ,ueber    
allen ,gipfeln1 or ,la ,nuit de         
,decembre8  ,the results of such a      
judgment day would be even more         
appalling to the true lover of poetry4  
,moreover1 if the idea1 the end of art1 
need not reside in the object itself1   
but may arise therefrom by subtle       
suggestion1 the complications of poetry 
or painting are unnecessary4  ,a        
geometric figure may remind us of the   
constitution of the world of space1 a   
sundial1 of the transitoriness of human 
existence1 and with a chorus-ending from
 ,euripedes1 the whole sweep of the     
cosmic meanings is upon us4  ,in the    
words of ,fra ,lippo ,lippi3--          
,why1 for this1      ,what need of art  

at all8  ,a skull and bones1      ,two  
bits of stick nailed crosswise1 or      
what's best1      ,a bell to chime the  
hours with1 does as well4   ,,ii  ,in   
spite of this1 however1 a place for     
ideas must clearly be found in our      
definition of beauty2 and yet it must be
 so limited and bound to the beautiful  
form that corollaries such as we have   
just drawn will be impossible4  ,an     
interesting attempt to reconcile these  
two points of view--to establish an     
organic relation between form and       
idea--is found in ,the ,sense of ,beauty
 by ,professor ,george ,santayana4  ,the
 central point of this writer's theory  
is his definition of beauty as the      
objectification of pleasure4  ,aesthetic
 experience1 he says1 is based partly on
 form1 partly on expression1 but the    
pleasure felt is always projected into  
the object1 and is felt as a quality of 
it4  ,all kinds of external associations
 may connect themselves with the work of
 art1 but so long as they remain        

external1 and keep1 so to speak1 their  
values for themselves1 they cannot be   
said to add beauty to the object4  ,but 
when they are present only in their     
effect1-- a diffused feeling of         
pleasure1--that diffused feeling is     
attributed directly to the object1 is   
felt as if it inheres therein1 and so   
the object becomes more beautiful1 for  
beauty is objectified pleasure4         
,professor ,santayana designates form as
 beauty in the first term1 and          
expression as beauty in the second term4
  ,beauty in the first term can exist   
alone1--not so beauty in the second     
term4  ,it must have a little beauty of 
the first term to graft itself upon4  ,a
 map1 for instance1 is not usually      
thought of as an aesthetic object1 and  
yet1 let the tints of it be a little    
subtle1 let the lines be a little       
delicate1 and the masses of land and sea
 somewhat balanced1 and we really have a
 beautiful thing1 the charm of which    
consists almost entirely in its meaning4

  ,now here1 it seems to me1 is a weak  
point in ,professor ,santanaya's armor4 
,if such wonderful elements of beauty   
can be projected into a fairly colorless
 object by virtue of its fringe of      
suggestiveness1 why should not beauty of
 the second term be felt in objects     
without that little bit of intrinsic    
worth of form8  ,is not such indeed the 
fact8  ,what else is the meaning of the 
story of ,beauty and the ,beast8  ,the  
squat and hideous ,indian idol1 the     
scarabaeus1 the bit of ,aztec pottery1  
become attractive and desired for       
themselves by virtue of their halo of   
pleasure from dim associations4  ,and   
all these values are felt as completely 
,,objectified1 and so fulfill the       
requirements for beauty in the second   
term4  ,that small amount of intrinsic  
beauty on which to graft the beauty of  
the second term is1 therefore1 not a    
necessary condition1 so that we are     
left1 on ,professor ,santayana's theory1
 with the strange paradox of so-called  

beautiful objects which are1            
nevertheless1 confessedly ugly4  ,what1 
then1 is the flaw in this definition8   
,while we concede the objectification of
 pleasure in all these cases1 we cannot1
 it would seem1 admit a corresponding   
change from non-aesthetic to aesthetic  
feelings4  ,the personal attitude       
towards an object1 based on sentiments  
objectified in it1 and the aesthetic    
attitude are two different things4  ,the
 truth is1 that all this objectified    
tone-feeling is directly dependent on   
the original real existence of the      
object that calls it up1 and on our     
practical personal relation to it1 and  
is thus1 by universal agreement1        
definitely non-aesthetic4  ,i enjoy the 
cast of the great ,venus very nearly as 
much as the original1--but who cares for
 casts of the ,aztec gods1 or of the    
prehistoric carvings of the reindeer    
period8  ,who wants an imitation        
scarabaeus8  ,to have the real thing1 to
 see it1 to touch it1 to know that it   

has had real experiences that would fill
 me with wonder and with awe1 to love it
 for the danger it has passed1--to feel 
that ,i myself am through it actually   
linked with its mysterious              
history1--that is the value it has for  
me2 not a pleasure of perception at all1
 but a very definite1 practical interest
 in my own personality4  ,if the        
pleasure lay only in disinterested      
perception1 any representation of the   
object ought to have the same value4    
,what1 then1 the author of ,the ,sense  
of ,beauty calls the beauty of the      
second term1--the power to suggest      
feeling through the medium of associated
 ideas1--we may deny to impart any      
aesthetic character whatever4           
,professor ,santayana has1 indeed1      
mediated between the formalists and the 
idealists2 but his theory would lead us 
to attributions of beauty from which    
common sense revolts2 and we have seen  
the secret of its deficiency to lie in  
the confusion of the personal with the  

aesthetic attitude4  ,if now we amend   
his definition1 ,beauty is objectified  
pleasure1 to ,beauty is objectified     
aesthetic pleasure1 we are advanced no  
further4   ,,iii  ,the problem stands1  
then3  how to provide for the presence  
of ideas in the work of art1 and the    
definite emotions aroused by it1 either 
by bringing them somehow into the       
definition of beauty in itself1 or by   
showing how their presence is related to
 the full aesthetic experience4  ,but1  
first of all1 we have to ask how the    
aesthetic pleasure even in formal beauty
 is constituted1 and to what extent     
expression belongs to the beauty of pure
 form4  ,form is impressive1 or directly
 beautiful1 through its harmony with the
 conditions offered by our senses1      
primarily of sight and hearing1 and     
through the harmony of its combinations 
of suggestions and impulses with the    
entire organism4  ,i enjoy a            
well-composed picture like ,titian's    
,sacred and ,profane ,love1 because the 

good composition means such a balanced  
relation of impulses of attention1 of   
incipient movements1 as harmonizes with 
such an organism as mine1 tending to    
move toward both sides1 and yet unified 
and stable2 and because the combination 
of colors is at once stimulating and    
soothing to my eyes4  ,so much for      
,,impression1 beauty of the first term4 
,but it is not only that harmonious     
state of my visual and motor functions  
that ,i get out of the form of a        
picture4  ,no1 ,i have1 besides all this
 pleasure1 a real exhilaration or       
emotion1 a definite mood of repose or   
gayety or triumph1 without any fringe of
 association1 which yet certainly       
contributes to my feeling of the beauty 
of the experience1 and so of the work of
 art4  ,how did it come out of the form8
  ,well1 this very harmonious excitation
 of the organism has brought with it    
just such an organic reverberation as1  
the current theory of emotion asserts1  
must be at the bottom of all our        

emotional states4  ,a certain sequence  
of nervous shocks and of vasomotor      
changes1 certain stimulations and       
relations and contractions of the       
internal organs have been set up as the 
diffusive wave from the                 
sense-stimulations1 and a particular    
emotional tinge is the result4  ,that is
 a direct impression1 but an expression 
too4  ,take the same case on a much     
lower level4  ,a glass of wine makes me 
cheerful1 not because it arouses        
cheerful ideas directly1 but because the
 organic changes it sets up are such as 
belong to the ,,motivated expression of 
joy1 and have the same effect4  ,a deep1
 slow movement played by an orchestra   
can affect me in two ways4  ,it may be  
that ,i have usually connected that sort
 of music with religious experiences1   
and all the profound and inspiring      
feelings belonging thereto2 and so ,i   
transfer those feelings to the music and
 give it those adjectives4  ,or the     
slowness of the rhythmic pulse that is  

set up in me1 the largeness1 the volume1
 the depth of sound1 all bring about in 
me the kind of nervous state that       
belongs to a reposeful and yet deeply   
moved feeling4  ,the second experience  
is expression through impression1       
through the inward changes that the form
 itself sets up4  ,the first is         
expression through the medium of        
something external1--an idea which      
brings with it a feeling1--something    
that does not belong to the music       
itself1 but to my own individual        
experiences4  ,this distinction between 
internal and external expressiveness is 
perfectly clear for music1 and also for 
architecture4  ,in painting1 too1 it can
 easily be traced4  ,we know the effect 
that is produced by broken lines1 by    
upward moving ones1--like the always    
aspiring of the ,gothic cathedral4  ,the
 low-lying1 wide expanses of some of the
 old ,dutch landscapists give us repose1
 not because they remind us of the      
peaceful happiness of the land1 but     

because we cannot melt ourselves into   
all those horizontal lines without that 
restful feeling which accompanies such  
relaxation2 and our emotion is read into
 the picture as ,,aesthetic pleasure1   
because it came out of the abstract     
forms1--the ,,painting in the picture4  
,the beauty of form is thus seen to be  
inseparably allied with a certain degree
 of emotional expressiveness in a way   
that does not distract1 like the        
association of ideas1 from the pure     
aesthetic experience4  ,this quality of 
expressiveness should not1 however1     
become a part of the definition of      
beauty1 so that it should be said that  
the greater the emotional               
expressiveness1 the more beautiful the  
object4  ,for if that were true1 such   
music1 for instance1 as all acknowledge 
quite mediocre1 would be felt as most   
beautiful by those who find in it a     
strong and definite emotion2 and a      
,strauss waltz1 which makes us more     
merry than one by ,mendelssohn1 should  

be in so far more beautiful4  ,this1 of 
course1 we are not ready to concede2 and
 it seems1 therefore1 most logical to   
regard the special emotional effects of 
formal beauty rather as a corollary to1 
than as a part of1 the essential        
aesthetic mood4  ,but if we give the    
name emotion to that perfectly vague but
 unmistakable excitement with which we  
respond to purely formal beauty1--that  
indescribable exaltation with which we  
listen to absolute music1--then we must 
say that that emotion is but another    
name for aesthetic pleasure4            
,objectively1 we have formal beauty2    
subjectively1 on the physiological side1
 a harmonious action of the organism1   
and on the mental side the undefined    
exaltation which is known as aesthetic  
pleasure4   ,,iv  ,up to this point1    
however1 we have considered only the    
relation between purely formal beauty   
and the various shades of emotional     
response to it2 now we may turn to the  
original question which we set          

ourselves1 how to provide1 in our       
definition of beauty1 for the presence  
of ideas in the work of art4  ,no one   
will deny that the full aesthetic       
experience cannot be dismissed with the 
treatment of formal beauty2 and1        
although ,professor ,santayana's beauty 
in the second term may be rejected as a 
pure individual1 arbitrary1 interested1 
and hence unaesthetic element1 the      
explicit content of a work of art cannot
 be ignored4  ,the suggested ideas      
aroused by an old rose garden may be no 
addition to its beauty1 but the same    
cannot be said of the great ideas       
contained directly in ,shakespeare's    
poetry4  ,yet great ideas alone do not  
make great art1 else we must count      
,aristotle and ,spinoza and ,kant great 
poets too4  ,must we then be satisfied  
to rest in the dualism of those who     
maintain that great creations of art are
 the expression of great truths under   
the laws of poetic form8  ,is the       
aesthetic expression indeed the         

recognition of truth plus the feeling of
 beauty of form1 or is it a fusion of   
these into a third undivided pulse of   
aesthetic emotion8  ,is there no way of 
overcoming1 for those arts which do     
express ideas1 this dualism of form and 
content in our theory of the beautiful8 
,let us analyze a little more closely   
this notion of the content4 ,music and  
architecture cannot properly be said to 
have any content1 although they have a  
meaning according to their uses1 like a 
funeral dirge and a hymn of joy1 a      
prison and a temple4 ,but this meaning  
is extraneous4  ,it is given by the work
 itself only in so far as the form      
induces the emotion which belongs to the
 idea1--as the dirge1 sadness2 the      
temple1 awe4  ,the idea of burial or of 
worship is nowhere to be found in the   
work of art4 ,in the hierarchy of arts1 
paining and sculpture show the first    
trace of a content4  ,this content1     
however1 is at once seen to be          
susceptible of farther analysis4  ,the  

,sistine ,madonna pictures a mother and 
child worshiped1 which may be called the
 subject1--but this does not exhaust the
 content4  ,the real meaning of the     
picture1 to which may be given the name 
of ,,theme1 is the divine element in    
maternal love4  ,the subjects of        
,donatello's ,john the ,baptist and     
,saint ,george1 of ,michael ,angelo's   
,david and ,moses1 can be described only
 as men of ,different types in different
 attitudes2 their themes1 however1 are  
moral ideas1 expressing the moral       
significance of each personality4  ,the 
subject of ,the ,angelus is given in its
 name2 its theme is humble piety4  ,from
 the infinite number of possible        
examples one more will suffice1--the    
well-known ,war by ,franz ,stuck1 in the
 ,neue ,pinacothek1--the subject a      
youth1 under a lurid sky1 trampling     
under his horse's feet the bodies of the
 slain4  ,the theme is again a moral    
idea1--the horrors of war4  ,if we now  
ask whether we can attribute beauty to  

the ideas of painting and sculpture1 a  
negative answer is at once suggested4   
,it is manifestly impossible to         
establish an order of aesthetic         
excellence between these subjects4  ,the
 idea of peasants telling their beads is
 more beautiful than the idea of a      
ruthless destroyer only in so far as it 
is morally higher2 and this distinction1
 therefore1 has reference to the theme  
and not to the subject4  ,how far1      
however1 moral and aesthetic excellence 
are coincident is a question for which  
we are not yet ready4 ,at this point we 
care only to point out that the mere    
idea of a picture is neither aesthetic  
nor the reverse4  ,but1 it may be       
objected1 is not our first thought in   
stopping before a picture like the ,war1
 ,what a wonderful idea8  ,it is the    
idea and not the form which strikes us1 
it may be said1 even though we may be   
quite unimpressed by the value of its   
moral significance4  ,nevertheless1 this
 view of our own mental processes may be

 held to the illusory4  ,what really    
strikes us is the ,,unity of the        
conception4  ,the lurid sky1 the dark1  
livid faces of the dead--the whole color
 scheme1 in short1 is so contrived as to
 impress directly1 as previously        
explained1 without the medium of an     
idea1 with that particular tinge of     
emotional tone which ought to be also   
the accompaniment of the idea of the    
horrors of war4  ,the emotion is thus   
the enveloping unity which binds the    
subject and theme and the pictorial form
 together4  ,in this sense1 when we say1
 ,what a wonderful idea6 we really mean1
 what a wonderful fitness of form to    
idea1-- which is the same as saying1    
what a wonderful form1 or more          
technically1 what a wonderful unity4    
,that part of the effect of beauty in a 
picture which is due to the idea is thus
 the fundamental but merely abstract    
element of unity1 contributing to the   
complex aesthetic state only the        
simplest condition4  ,the case of       

literature presents an entirely new     
problem1 for the material of literature 
is itself1 first of all1 idea4          
,literature deals with words1 and words 
exist only by virtue of their meanings4 
,even the sound of words is of          
importance primarily for the additional 
meanings which it suggests1 as the word 
liquid first means a fluid substance1   
and then by its sound suggests ease and 
smoothness1 and only last of all is     
noted as melodious4  ,thus since        
meanings1 ideas1 are the material of    
literature1 we can speak of the beauty  
of ideas in literature only by an       
artificial sundering of elements that   
are properly in fusion4  ,yet as we may 
speak of a motive or musical idea and   
its working out1 although strictly the  
idea involves its own working out1 so we
 may conceive of the central thought of 
a literary work1 and of its development4
  ,but the relation here is not of      
content and form1 like the content and  
form of a picture2 rather that of       

concentrated and diluted form4  ,so1    
too1 as in music1 we may distinguish    
form and structure4  ,structure is      
offered to the intellect--it clears and 
vivifies understanding2 it is not felt1 
it is perceived4 ,anything which is made
 up of parts--beginning1 middle1 and    
end1 climax and resolution--possesses   
structure4  ,but form in the intimate   
sense is the intrinsic1 inevitable      
relation of cause and effect2 in this   
sense1 it is seen to be truly content   
also4 ,in literature1 as to structure1  
it is the relation of parts3 as to form1
 it is the succession of events1 the    
movement1 combination and resolution of 
separate ideas and emotions1 which give 
us aesthetic pleasure or the reverse4   
,as action must follow excitement1 or   
despair satiety1 so the relation of     
parts1 the order of presentation1 must  
be adapted to mutual reinforcement4     
,thus the porter's scene in ,macbeth is 
related to the neighboring scenes1 as   
,de ,quincey has shown in his famous    

essay4  ,and just as in music the       
feeling of rightness ensues when the    
awaited note slips into place1 so the   
feeling of rightness comes when the     
inevitable consequences follow the      
premise of a plot4  ,the particular     
separate ideas of such a development    
partake of beauty1 then1 in so far as   
they minister to the movement of the    
whole1 just as the separate lines in a  
swaying1 swirling robe of one of        
,botticelli's women minister to the     
whole conception4 ,the catastrophe1 in  
other words1 must be as inevitably      
related to the sequence of ideas as the 
final chords of a symphony to the       
sequence of notes4  ,the attitude of    
mind with which we welcome it is the    
same1 whether on the plane of the       
responses of the psychological organism 
or of the ideal understanding4   ,v     
,but before finally relegating the idea 
to its place in the aesthetic scheme1 we
 must ask whether the specific emotional
 content can claim independent aesthetic

 value2 for we can scarcely ignore the  
fact that almost all naive response to  
literature1 and indeed to all forms of  
art1 is1 or is believed to be1          
specifically emotional4  ,maupassant1 in
 his introduction to ,pierre et ,jean1  
distinguishes thus between the demand of
 the critic--,make me something fine    
according to your temperament1 --and the
 cry of the public--,move me1 terrify   
me1 make we weep6 ,and yet to the       
assertion of common sense that the      
desire of the naive enjoyer of art is   
definite emotional excitement1 we may   
venture to oppose a negative4  ,the     
average person who weeps at the theatre1
 or over a novel1 would no doubt        
repudiate the suggestion that it is not 
primarily the emotion of terror1 or     
pity1 that he feels4  ,but a closer     
interpretation shows that it is almost  
impossible to disengage1 in such an     
experience1 the particular emotions4    
,what is felt is rather pleasurable     
excitement1 pleasure raised to the pitch

 of exaltation1 with a fringe of        
emotional association4  ,the notion of  
specific emotions is illusory in the    
same sense that our notion of pleasure  
from specific emotions in listening to  
music is illusory4  ,the ordinary       
descriptions of music are all couched in
 emotional or even ideational           
terms1--from the musical adventures of  
,charles ,auchester down1--and yet we   
know1 as ,gurney says1 that when1 in    
listening to music1 we think we are     
yearning after the unutterable1 we are  
really yearning after the next note2 and
 when we think it is the yearning that  
gives us pleasure1 it is really the     
triumphant acceptance of the melodic    
rightness of that next note4  ,so the   
much-discussed ,katharsis1 or emotion of
 ,tragedy1 is not the experience of     
emotions and pleasure in that           
experience1 but rather pleasure in the  
experience of ideas1 tinged with        
emotion1 which belong to each other with
 precisely that musical rightness4      

,katharsis is indeed not the mark of    
,tragedy alone1 although in ,tragedy it 
has a very great relative intensity2 it 
is ultimately only a designation for the
 specific aesthetic pleasure1 to which  
,i can give no better name than the     
oft-repeated one of triumphant          
acquiescence in the rightness of        
relations4  ,we think we feel a         
situation directly1 but what we really  
feel is pleasure in the rightness of the
 manner of the event1 and in the moment 
of perfect experience it gives us4      
,such specific emotion as may be        
detected in any aesthetic experience is1
 then1 covered by the definition of     
beauty only in so far as it has become  
form rather than content1 --is valuable 
only in its relations rather than in    
itself4  ,the experience of pity or     
fear1 even though generalized1          
unselfish1 etc41--after the various     
formulas of the expounders of dramatic  
emotion1--does not impart aesthetic     
character of itself2 it becomes         

aesthetic only if it appears at such a  
point in the tragedy1 linked in such a  
way to the developing plot1 that it     
belongs to the unified and reciprocally 
harmonious circle of experiences4   ,,vi
  ,but we have up to this time          
consistently neglected the central idea 
of the work of art1 and its claim to be 
included in the aesthetic formula4  ,we 
have defined beauty as that which brings
 about a state of harmonious            
completeness1 of repose in activity1 in 
the psychophysical and psychological    
realms4  ,this harmonious repose can    
exist only with a disinterested attitude
 toward the objects which have brought  
this state about4  ,whether the ,melian 
,venus or ,hamlet or ,lohengrin live1 we
 care not2 only that if they live1 it   
shall be ,,so4  ,in this sense1 our     
attitude is interested1 our will is     
active1 but only toward the existence of
 the form4  ,but with the introduction  
of the central theme1 we cease to be    
disinterested1--our hypothetical is     

changed to an affirmative4  ,the moral  
idea we must accept or reject1 for it   
bears a direct relation to our          
personality4  ,we will1 or do not will1 
that1 in the real world in which we     
ourselves have to live and struggle1    
certain forces shall be operative1--that
 there shall be the beauty of health1 as
 in the ,discobolus2 material love which
 is divine1 as in the ,sistine ,madonna2
 that war shall be horrible2 that sloth 
unstriven against shall triumph over    
love1 as in ,the ,statue and the ,bust2 
that defiance of the social organism    
shall involve self-destruction1 as in   
,anna ,karenina4  ,the person or the    
combination of events expressing this   
idea we do not seek in our personal     
experience1 but we do demand for our own
 a world in which this idea rules4      
,thus it must be admitted that there is1
 strictly speaking1 at the core of every
 aesthetic response to a work of art    
containing an idea1 a non-aesthetic     
element1 an element of personal and     

interested judgment4  ,on the other     
hand1 this affirmation or acceptance of 
a moral idea implies the quietude of the
 will2 just that state of harmony1 of   
repose1 which we have found to be the   
mark of the aesthetic on the lower      
planes of being4  ,in so far1 then1 as  
we accept the moral idea which a work of
 art presents1 in so far that idea has  
the power of bringing us to the state of
 harmony1 and in so far it is beautiful4
  ,and vice versa1 works of art which   
leave us in a state of moral rebellion  
are unbeautiful1 not because they are   
immoral1 but because they are disturbing
 to the moral sense4 ,literature which  
ignores the fundamental moral principle 
of the freedom of the will1 like the    
works of ,flaubert1 ,maupassant1 much of
 ,zola1 ,loti1 and ,thomas ,hardy1 fails
 of beauty1 inasmuch as it fails of the 
perfect reposeful harmony of human      
nature in its entirety4  ,thus a        
thoroughgoing analysis of the nature of 
the aesthetic experience in its simplest

 and most sensuous form has given us a  
principle1--the principle of unity in   
harmonious functioning1-- which has     
enabled us to follow the track of beauty
 into the more complex realms of ideas  
and of moral attitudes1 and to discover 
that there also the law of internal     
relation and of fitness for imitative   
response holds for all embodiments of   
beauty4  ,that harmonious1 imitative    
response1 the psychophysical state known
 on its feeling side as aesthetic       
pleasure1 we have seen to be1 first1 a  
kind of physiological equilibrium1 a    
coexistence of opposing impulses which  
heightens the sense of being while it   
prevents action1 like the impulses to   
movement corresponding to geometrical   
symmetry2 secondly1 a psychological     
equilibrium1 in which the flow of ideas 
and impulses is a circle rounding upon  
itself1 all associations1 emotions1     
expectations indissolubly linked with   
the central thought and leading back    
only to it1 and proceeding in an        

irrevocable order1 which it yet adapted 
to the possibilities of human           
experience2 and thirdly1 a quietude of  
the will1 in the acceptance of the given
 moral attitude for the whole scheme of 
life4  ,thus is given1 in the fusion of 
these three orders of mental life1 the  
perfect moment of unity and             
self-completeness4