,,the ,,student',s ,,mythology ,a ,compendium of ,greek1 ,roman1 ,egyptian1 ,assyrian1 ,persian1 ,hindoo1 ,chinese1 ,thibetian1 ,scandinavian1 ,celtic1 ,aztec1 and ,peruvian ,mythologies1 ,in ,accordance with ,standard ,authorities4 ,arranged for the ,use of ,schools and ,academies4 by ,c4 ,a4 ,,white4 ,new ,edition1 ,revised and ,corrected4 ,new ,york4 ,a4 ,c4 ,armstrong ,son1 #gad ,broadway4 #ahhi4 ,entered ,according to ,act of ,congress in the year #ahgj1 by ,w4 ,j4 ,widdleton1 ,in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,united ,states for the ,southern ,district of ,new ,york4 ,copyright1 #ahhb1 by ,w4 ,c4 ,bush4 ,,prefatory ,,note4 ,the ,student's ,mythology has been in use in manuscript for nearly three years in one of our largest academies1 where it has been received with much favor by both teachers and pupils4 ,even in that form1 which subjected them to the inconvenience of long dictations1 it was preferred to any of the ordinary text-books on the subject4 ,copies were sought for the use of other institutions1 and the principals of the academy referred to1 consented that the work should be prepared for the press4 ,in carrying out the plan1 the subject matter was carefully classified1 and such additions made as were deemed necessary for completeness4 ,as a farther precaution1 the whole was submitted to the revision of an eminent classical scholar4 ,mythology is a subject which needs to be treated with peculiar care2 and text-books are often objected to by parents and teachers as still retaining the taint of pagan corruption1 and presenting dangerous images to the youthful mind4 ,it was this difficulty which first led to the preparation of the present work4 ,the ,student's ,mythology lays no claim to any superiority in point of erudition2 the text-books already before the public leave nothing to be desired in this particular4 ,it is a practical work1 prepared by an experienced teacher1 and already submitted to the decisive test of the schoolroom4 ,it is not designed for young persons who are already advanced in classical studies1 but rather for pupils who have not yet entered1 or who1 like the greater number of those attending our female academies1 are not likely ever to enter upon any regular classical course4 ,for the former1 it may prove a useful introduction to these studies1 while the latter will find in the work the most important and pleasing features of mythology4 ,with such views1 it has been considered most judicious to present the classic fables in their simplest1 which is also their most poetic form1 giving the allegorical meaning attached to the ancient myths1 only where their application is clear and simple4 ,for the same reason the writer has avoided questions of comparative mythology1 except in cases where the analogies are too obvious to be passed unnoticed4 ,the work has been compiled with care from reliable sources1 and will1 perhaps1 be found to contain much that is new and interesting2 many articles1 such as those on the public games1 the theatrical entertainments of the ,greeks1 the ,assyrian1 ,chinese and ,american mythologies1 will be found a pleasing addition1 as these subjects have not been treated in the ordinary text-books4 ,the chapter on the ,poets of ,classic ,fable1 and the ,supplement containing a notice of the ancient writers whose names occur in the body of the work1 will1 it is hoped1 be found generally useful4 ,among the modern authors to whom the writer has been particularly indebted1 we may mention ,calmet1 ,anthon1 ,tooke1 ,bulfinch1 ,huc and ,schlegel4 ,in preparing the article on ,druidism1 ,martin's ,histoire de ,france1 and the ,monuments ,celtiques of ,reynaud1 have been consulted1 together with the ,irish ,chroniclers and other standard authorities4 ,the matter of the ,mexican and ,peruvian mythologies1 has been chiefly taken from ,clavigero and ,prescott4 ,reference has been made throughout to the ,new ,american ,cyclopdia4 ,the work now completed is offered to the public in the hope that it may render the subject of mythology more generally popular in our schools1 and obviate the dangers attending this otherwise attractive study4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,origin of ,mythology--,divinities called ,celestial #ae ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,greek and ,roman ,divinities--,jupiter--,juno--,how represented-- ,parentage and ,actions--,probable ,origin of these ,fables-- ,adventures of ,jupiter--,story of ,europa--,search of ,cadmus-- ,punishment of ,lycaon #bc ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,apollo--,his ,parentage and ,exploits--,how represented--,story of sculapius--,banishment of ,apollo from ,heaven--,transformation of ,hyacinthus and ,cyparissus--,story of ,admetus and ,alcestis-- ,attributes of ,apollo--,punishment inflicted on ,marsyas and on ,king ,midas--,story of ,midas--,death of ,phton--,transformation of ,daphne--,things ,sacred to ,apollo #bi ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,mars 7,ares7--,his ,parentage--,how represented--,animals ,sacred to ,mars--,names given to ,mars--,his ,temple--,priests called ,salii #cd ,,chapter ,v4 ,mercury 7,hermes7--,his ,parentage--,how represented--,offices of ,mercury--,benefits conferred by ,mercury on ,man--,why considered the ,patron of ,thieves--,story of ,io and ,argus #cf ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,bacchus 7,dionysus7--,parentage of the ,god--,how represented--,story of ,semele--,infancy of ,bacchus--,transformation of ,nymphs into ,stars--,silenus--,how represented--,exploits of ,bacchus--,how worshipped--,plants ,sacred to the ,god--,bacchanalia or ,orgia-- ,story of ,pentheus--,punishment inflicted on ,alcithoe and her ,sisters--,transformation of ,mariners into ,dolphins #ci ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,celestial ,goddesses--,juno--,hera--,parentage of ,juno--,how represented--,iris1 ,messenger of ,juno--,children of ,juno-- ,jealousy of the ,goddess--,transformation of ,callista and ,arcas into ,bears--,sacrifices offered to the ,goddess--,plants held ,sacred to her #dc ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,minerva--,pallas ,athena--,how represented--,origin of the ,olive-- ,the ,palladium--,minerva1 as the ,patroness of ,female ,industry-- ,story of ,arachne--,the ,bird of ,minerva--,story of ,medusa's ,head #de ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,venus--,aphrodite--,birth and ,education of ,venus--,marriage with ,vulcan--,how represented--,temples of ,venus--,the ,graces--,cupid --,festivals of the ,goddess--,birds and ,plants ,sacred to her-- ,sacrifices--,temple of ,venus ,calva--,the ,apple of ,discord-- ,decision of ,paris--,story of ,hippomenes and ,atalanta--,death of ,adonis--,origin of the ,red ,rose--,names of the ,graces #di ,,chapter ,x4 ,latona--,leto--,her ,parentage--,persecution of ,juno--,birth of ,apollo and ,diana--,transformation of ,lycian ,peasants into ,frogs--,punishment of ,tityus--,latona a ,personification of ,night--,how represented by ,painters and ,sculptors #ed ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,aurora--,eos--,attributes of the ,goddess--,how represented--,story of ,cephalus and ,procris--,marriage of ,aurora with ,tithonus-- ,transformation of ,tithonus--,memnon--,his ,death and ,obsequies-- ,vocal ,statue #ef ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,terrestrial ,gods--,saturn--,his ,parentage--,how represented--,his ,history--,the ,golden ,age--,sacrifices offered to ,saturn--,the ,saturnalia--,modern ,carnival--,janus--,contradictory ,accounts of his ,origin--,temple of ,janus--,quirinus at ,rome #fa ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,vulcan--,hephstus--,parentage of this ,god--,why banished from ,heaven--,occupation of ,vulcan--,his ,most ,celebrated ,works-- ,marriage with ,venus--,the ,cyclops--,vulcania--,temple on ,mount ,etna--,cacus--,cculus--,other ,works of ,vulcan #fd ,,chapter ,,xiv4 olus--,supposed origin of the ,fable--,momus--,his ,parentage-- ,criticisms passed on other ,divinities--,his ,banishment from ,olympus #fg ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,terrestrial ,goddesses--,vesta--,hestia--,her ,parentage and ,attributes--,how represented--,worship of ,vesta at ,rome-- ,vestal ,virgins--,their ,obligations and ,privileges--,anecdote #fi ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,cybele--,how called by the ,greeks--,parentage and ,attributes--,how represented--,temple of ,cybele on ,mount ,dindymus--,sacred ,image --,festival of ,megalesia--,galle and ,corybantes--,bona ,dea-- ,story of the ,vestal ,claudia #gb ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,ceres--,demeter--,parentage and ,attributes--,how represented-- ,story of ,proserpine--,eleusinian ,mysteries--,rites practiced --,story of ,triptolemus--,sacrifices offered to ,ceres--,feasts called ,ambarvalia--,described by ,virgil #ge ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,themis--,origin and ,attributes--,astra changed into the ,constellation ,virgo--,erigone--,nemesis--,her ,office--,temple of ,nemesis at ,rhamnus #hj ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,the ,muses--,their ,number1 ,names and ,attributes--,why there are ,nine ,muses--,punishment or the ,daughters of ,pierus #hb ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,gods of the ,woods1 and ,rural ,deities--,pan--,names given to this ,deity--,his ,origin--,how represented--,famous ,action related of ,pan--,origin of ,pan's ,reeds--,satyrs and ,fauns--,terminus-- ,vertumnus--,pales #hd ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,goddesses of the ,woods--,diana--,parentage and ,attributes of this ,goddess--,how represented--,habits of ,diana--,her ,attendants-- ,punishment of ,chione--,story of ,niobe--,temple of ,diana at ,ephesus--,burned by ,erostratus--,despoiled by ,nero--,plundered by the ,goths--,nymphs--,naiades--,oreades--,oc eanides--,dryades and ,hamadryades--,arethusa--,story of ,echo--,transformation of ,narcissus #hg ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,gods of the ,sea--,neptune--,poseidon--,parentage of the ,god--,how represented--,offices of ,neptune--,feasts held at ,rome in his ,honor--,children of ,neptune--,triton--,phorcus or ,proteus-- ,sirens--,ulysses--,orpheus--,scylla and ,charybdis--,melicertes-- ,thetis--,glaucus #ic ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,infernal ,deities--,pluto--,hades--,parentage of the ,god--,his ,kingdom--,representations and ,emblems--,dis--,plutus--,hell-- ,cerberus--,fates--,furies--,judges of the ,dead--,punishment inflicted on the ,condemned--,giants--,ixion--,sisyphus-- ,tantalus--,the ,belides--,salmoneus--,elysium #ii ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,fabulous ,monsters--,centaurs--,geryon--,harpies- -,briareus--,the ,chimra--,explanation of this ,fable--,the ,sphinx--,fabulous ,history--,statue of the ,sphinx in ,egypt #aje ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,household ,divinities--,penates--,offices and ,attributes--,lares-- ,their ,offices--,sacrifices offered to the ,goddess ,mania-- ,honors paid to the ,lares--,virtues worshipped as ,divinities #ajh ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,demigods and ,heroes--,their ,origin--,hercules--,his ,parentage-- ,twelve ,labors of the ,hero--,field of ,narbonne--,death of ,hercules #aad ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,jason--,expedition in search of the ,golden ,fleece--,medea--,her ,revenge--,theseus--,tribute imposed on the ,athenians--,departure of ,theseus--,destruction of the ,minotaur--,ariadne--,death of geus #aai ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,castor ,and ,pollux--,their ,parentage--,death of ,castor-- ,constellation ,gemini--,prometheus--,his ,parentage--,his ,impiety--,pandora's ,box--,punishment of ,prometheus #abc ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,orpheus--,story of ,eurydice--,death of ,orpheus--,transformation of ,thracian ,women into ,trees--,arion--,amphion #abe ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,atlas--,his ,parentage--,transformed by ,perseus into a ,mountain-- ,explanation of the ,fable--,pleiades--,hyades--,hesperides- -,orion --,his ,parentage1 ,exploits and ,death--,transformation into a ,constellation--,perseus--,his ,parentage--,rescue of ,andromeda-- ,death of ,acrisius #abi ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,bellerophon--,victory over the ,chimra--,his ,presumption and its ,punishment--,deucalion--,legend of the re-peopling of the ,earth after the ,deluge--,probable ,explanation--,ddalus--,labyrinth-- ,death of ,icarus--,ceyx--,alcyone--,halcyon ,birds #acd ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,meleager--,the ,calydonian ,hunt--,erisichthon1 ,nisus and ,scylla #adj ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,poets of ,classic ,fable--,homer--,hesiod--,virgil--,ovid #ade ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,heroes ,celebrated by the ,poets--,agamemnon--,sacrifice of ,iphigenia--,quarrel with ,achilles--,murder of ,agamemnon by gisthus and ,clytemnestra--,achilles--,his ,parentage-- ,discovered by ,ulysses at the ,court of ,lycomedes--,his ,quarrel with ,agamemnon--,death of ,patroclus--,exploits during the ,siege--,death of ,achilles--,sacrifice of ,polyxena--,transformation of ,hecuba #aeb ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,ulysses--,his ,marriage with ,penelope--,feigned ,insanity--,exploits during the ,siege of ,troy--,lotus ,eaters--,slaying of the ,sacred ,cattle by the ,sailors--,their destruction--,ulysses in the ,island of ,calypso--,cast on the ,shores of ,phacia--,his ,arrival in ,ithaca--,suitors of ,penelope--,her ,deliverance by ,ulysses #aef ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,orestes--,education at the ,court of ,strophius--,pylades--,murder of ,clytemnestra--,orestes pursued by the ,furies--,discovery of ,iphigenia at ,tauris--,circumstances added by the ,tragic ,poets --,hector--,character and ,exploits of the ,hero2 his ,death--,fate of ,astyanax--,oedipus--,eteocles and ,polynices--,theban ,war-- ,heroism of ,antigone #afd ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 neas--,his ,parentage--,his ,flight from ,troy--,interview with ,andromache at ,epirus--,prophecy of ,helenus--neas driven by a ,storm on the ,coast of ,africa--,received by ,dido at ,carthage-- ,departure of neas--,death of ,dido--,funeral ,games--,descent into the ,infernal ,regions--,landing of neas in ,italy--,war-- ,death of ,turnus and ,marriage of neas with ,lavinia--,his ,death #aga ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,sibyls--,story of the ,cuman ,sibyl--,legend of the ,sibylline ,books--,their destruction--,opinions entertained regarding these ,verses--,divination by ,omens--,the ,augurs--,different ,classes of ,omens--,anecdote #agf ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,oracles--,oracle of ,jupiter at ,dodona--,manner of giving ,responses--,oracle of ,delphi--,account given by ,diodorus-- ,the ,pythia--,remarkable ,responses--,unsuccessful attempts made to plunder this ,temple--,despoiled by ,nero and others--,oracle of ,trophonius--,story of the ,hero and his ,brother--,agamedes-- ,discovery of the ,oracle--,peculiar ,rites observed by the ,votaries--,oracle of ,jupiter ,ammon--,its ,situation--,temple founded by ,bacchus--,expedition sent by ,cambyses--,ruins still existing--,fons ,solis--,account given by ,belzoni--,oracle of ,esculapius at ,epidaurus--,remarkable ,embassy sent to ,epidaurus by the ,roman ,senate--,treatment of ,votaries in the different ,oracles of ,esculapius--,oracle of the ,castalian ,fount--,anecdote of the ,emperor ,hadrian--,opinions entertained with regard to these ,oracles--,quotation from ,milton #ahj ,,chapter ,,xl4 ,classic ,games--,why connected with ,mythology--,olympic ,games--,by ,whom instituted--,time and ,manner of their celebration-- ,olympiads--,nature of the ,contests--,qualifications required of the ,competitors--,prize awarded to the ,victors--,honors bestowed --,horse and ,chariot ,races--,philip of ,macedon--,alcibiades-- ,cynisca--,intellectual ,contests--,herodotus--,dionysius--,pyth ian ,games--,by whom instituted--,time of their ,celebration--,prize-- ,nemean ,games--,crowns bestowed--,isthmian ,games--,why so called-- ,instituted in ,honor of ,melicertes--,garland bestowed on the ,victor #aia ,,chapter ,,xli4 ,the ,greek ,drama--,peculiarities of the ,greek ,theatre--,description of the ,theatre of ,bacchus at ,athens--,stage ,machinery--,dress of the ,actors--,masks--,the ,chorus--,measures of the ,choral ,dance-- ,chorus of the ,furies--,story of ,ibycus--,attempt made to revive the ,ancient ,chorus--,time occupied by ,theatrical ,entertainments --,their cost--,comparison with the ,roman ,amphitheatre #aig ,,chapter ,,xlii4 ,celebrated ,statues--,the ,olympian ,jupiter--,minerva of the ,parthenon--,subsequent ,fate of this ,temple--,apollo ,belvidere --,diana la ,biche #bjf ,,part ,,ii4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,egyptian ,divinities--,osiris--,apis and ,serapis--,parentage of ,osiris--,his ,death and ,sepulture--,isis--,attributes--,emblema tic representation--,rites of ,isis forbidden at ,rome--,condemned by ,juvenal--,apis--,manner of transmigration--,festivals in ,honor of ,apis--,discovery of a ,successor--,oracles obtained from this ,divinity--,germanicus--,harpocrates--,q uotation #bji ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,eastern ,mythology--,divinities of the ,assyrians--,baal or ,bel-- ,tower of ,babel--,proper ,names of the ,phoenicians and ,carthaginians--,worship of ,baal introduced among the ,israelites by ,achab--,reproaches of ,jeremias--,moloch--,nations devoted to his ,worship--,human ,sacrifices--,representation of this ,god--,his ,worship forbidden by ,moses--,valley of ,hinnom-- ,quotation from ,milton--,astaroth or ,astarte--,sacrifices in ,honor of this ,goddess--,abuses attending her ,festivals--,thammuz identical with ,adonis--,mourned by the ,assyrian ,women--,lines from ,milton--,vision of ,ezekiel--,oannes--,dagon #bac ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,persia--,the ,zend-avesta--,doctrines of ,zoroaster--,ormuzd or ,ormasdes--,ahriman--,worship of ,fire--,the ,guebers--,perpetual ,fires--,bakoo--,magic and ,astrology--,parsees of ,hindostan #bah ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,hindoo ,mythology--,brahma--,the ,vedas--,doctrine of the ,vedas-- ,brahma1 ,vishnu and ,siva--,offices of these ,deities--,avatars of ,vishnu--,krishna--,siva--,doctrines regarding the ,soul-- ,metempsychosis--,castes--,buddha--,his ,doctrines--,buddhism suppressed in ,india #bbb ,,chapter ,v4 ,china--,absence of any ,state ,religion in ,china--,doctrine of the ,lettered--,confucius--,his ,writings--,honors paid him in ,china-- ,difficulties occasioned among ,christian ,missionaries--,lao-tze1 founder of the ,religion of ,tao or ,reason--,his ,writings-- ,chinese ,buddhists--,temple of ,buddha at ,pou-tou--,general ,feeling of the ,chinese with regard to ,religion #bbi ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,thibet--,the ,grand ,lama--,prevailing ,religion of ,thibet and ,tartary--,lamaseries--,the ,grand ,lama1 a ,perpetual ,incarnation of ,buddha--,his transmigrations--,mode of discovering his ,successor #bcf ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,mythology of ,scandinavia--,compared with that of ,greece and ,rome--,the ,eddas--,account of the ,creation--,form of the ,earth --,asgard1 ,odin--,names of this ,deity--,valhalla--,thor--,recovery of ,thor's ,hammer--,frey and ,freya--,bragi--,heimdall--,vidar-- ,hodur--,the ,valkyrior--,loki and his ,progeny--,death of ,baldur-- ,his ,funeral--,loki's ,punishment--,the ,elves--,runic ,letters-- ,ragnarok1 the ,twilight of the ,gods #bch ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,celtic ,mythology--,druidism--,derivation of the ,word ,druid-- ,origin of ,druidical ,worship--,account given by ,csar-- ,characteristics--,divinities worshipped by the ,druids--,esus-- ,his ,attributes--,bel--,teutates--,camul--,t arann--,priests--,their ,duties--,bards--,their ,influences--,druids1 properly so called-- ,sacred ,plants--,mystic ,writing of the ,druids--,their ,political ,authority--,druidesses--,of the ,loire--,of the ,island of ,sena-- ,human ,sacrifices offered by ,druidesses--,virgins of ,tara-- ,sacrifices offered by the ,druids--,victims chosen--,belief of the ,druids in a ,future ,state--,festivals of the ,druids-- ,festival--,solstices--,beltane or ,beal-,tinne--,ceremonies observed in ,ireland--,st4 ,patrick at ,tara--,first of ,november-- ,breton ,legend--,superstitious ,practices belonging to the ,day-- ,suppression of ,druidism in ,gaul--,in ,england--,mona--,iona-- ,druidical ,monuments--,menhirs--,dolmens--,cromlec hs--,stonehenge --,carnac--,popular ,superstitions #beg ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,mexico--,mythology of the ,aztecs--,its ,peculiar ,characteristics-- ,belief of the ,aztecs with regard to the ,supreme ,being-- ,subordinate ,deities--,huitzilopotchli--,legend of ,quetzalcoatl-- ,household ,divinities--,belief of the ,aztecs with regard to a ,future ,state--,singular ,ceremony--,rites of ,burial--,aztec ,priests--,priestesses--,mexican ,temples--,pyramid of ,cholula-- ,sacrifices--,their ,number--,victims offered annually to ,tezcatlipoca--,cannibal ,repasts--,montezuma #bgd ,,chapter ,x4 ,mythology of the ,ancient ,peruvians--,belief in ,one ,god--,worship of the ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,stars--,legend of ,manco-,capac--,pretended ,origin of the ,inca ,race--,legend of the ,deluge--,tradition of ,white ,men from the ,east--,temple of the ,sun in the ,island of ,titicaca--,temple of ,cuzco--,peruvian ,priesthood--,sacrifices offered to the ,sun--,festivals of the ,sun--,feast of ,raymi-- ,resemblance of certain ,peruvian ,rites to those observed by the ,ancient ,romans--,virgins of the ,sun--,burial ,rites of the ,peruvians--,cupay #bhd ,,supplement4 ,notice of ,authors1 etc41 mentioned in this ,volume--schylus-- ,csar--,cicero--,demosthenes--,diodorus- -,euripides--,herodotus-- ,justin--,juvenal--,mcenas--,pelasgi--,p linius--,procopius-- ,simonides--,sophocles--,strabo--,titica ca--,varro #bib ,,mythology4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,ques4 ,what is ,mythology8 ,ans4 ,this word is derived from the ,greek1 ,mythos1 a myth or fable1 and logos1 a discourse4 ,a myth is1 properly speaking1 an allegory or fable invented to convey some important moral or religious truth1 or illustrate some operation of nature4 ,mythology includes also the historical myths1 or the narratives of gods1 demigods1 and heroes1 which were current among the heathen in ancient times4 ,ques4 ,why is it necessary to become acquainted with these fables8 ,ans4 ,because ancient literature and art cannot be fully understood or appreciated without some knowledge of ,mythology4 ,it was mingled with every theme of the classic poet1 and inspired the highest skill of the painter and sculptor4 ,these subjects keep their place to some extent in modern art1 and mythological allusions are so frequent in our literature that an acquaintance with classic fable is considered a necessary part of a liberal education4 ,ques4 ,did all the heathen nations worship the same deities8 ,ans4 ,the mythology of different nations varied as to the names and attributes of their divinities4 ,there are1 nevertheless1 so many points of resemblance1 that it is believed by many that the principal mythical systems had one common origin4 ,to trace these analogies1 and the developments which gave rise to so great a diversity1 is the province of comparative mythology4 ,ques4 ,in what important point do all these systems agree8 ,ans4 ,in the rite of sacrifice4 ,we meet everywhere the same offerings3 flowers1 first fruits1 libations of milk1 honey1 and wine2 also sacrifices of animals1 which were either partaken of by the votaries or consumed as holocausts upon the altar4 ,this mode of worship varied but little in ceremonial1 and the sacrifices of the different heathen nations resembled1 in their exterior form1 those offered to the true ,god by the ancient patriarchs4 ,the idea of propitiating the deity in such a manner seems to have been universal both in the old and the new world1 and we are forced to believe that it was drawn from a common fount of primeval tradition4 ,ques4 ,how did the belief in the heathen deities originate8 ,ans4 ,when the early traditions of the human race became corrupt1 the sublime idea of one ,god1 self-existent and eternal1 was lost or obscured4 ,we find it1 though vaguely perhaps1 in the character and attributes of certain divinities1 as the ,zeus 7,jupiter7 of the ,greek1 and the ,alfdur of ,scandinavian mythology4 ,there are passages in the early ,greek poets which show clearly a belief in the unity of ,god4 ,in the verses attributed to the mythic poet ,orpheus1 and generally known as ,orphic ,remains1 we find the following3 ,one self-existent lives2 created things ,arise from him2 and ,he is all in all4 ,no mortal sight may see ,him1 yet ,himself ,sees all that live2 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,for ,he alone ,all heavenly is1 and all terrestrial things ,are wrought by ,him4 ,first1 midst and last he holds ,with ,his omniscient grasp4 ,the same idea is expressed in the verses of the poet ,aratus1 quoted by ,st4 ,paul in his address to the ,athenians on the ,hill of ,mars4 ,instead of ministering spirits obeying the will of the ,supreme ,being1 and communicating that will to man1 there arose a number of inferior deities1 each exercising some peculiar and partial sovereignty4 ,the god whom the warrior invoked in battle was powerless to bless the field he cultivated in time of peace2 the power of ,jupiter was worshipped in the rolling thunder2 but when the earth trembled or fiery torrents burst from the mountain top1 the wrath of ,pluto must be appeased1 and sacrifices were offered to the infernal powers4 ,the strife and turbulence of nature were attributed to the gods1 who became in some manner identified with the elements they were supposed to govern4 ,the honors paid to the memory of departed heroes assumed1 in the course of time1 the character of religious worship4 ,hence arose a class of demigods1 whose real achievements1 transmitted by popular tradition and embellished by the poets1 became altogether legendary and mythical4 ,ques4 ,were the ,greek and ,roman mythologies the same8 ,ans4 ,they were1 to a great extent4 ,the ancient ,latins had1 undoubtedly1 their own gods and their peculiar superstitions1 but they do not appear to have had any regular mythology4 ,when the ,romans received the arts and sciences from the ,greeks1 they adopted1 also1 their divinities and their entire system of religion4 ,they shared a tradition1 which seems to have been universal1 of a time of primeval innocence1 when man dwelt in a peaceful world1 ignorant alike of sorrow and of sin4 ,this was the ,golden ,age4 ,avarice and discord were unknown2 men had not learned to slay animals for food1 nor had the earth been disturbed by the plough4 ,neither the labors of the husbandman1 nor the merchant's traffic disturbed the joyous leisure of that happy time2 no ships ploughed the seas1 and the glittering steel rested harmless in the mine4 ,ovid thus describes the days of innocence3 ,the ,golden ,age was first1 when man1 yet new1 ,no rule but uncorrupted reason knew1 ,and1 with a native bent did good pursue4 ,unforced by punishment1 unawed by fear1 ,his words were simple1 and his soul sincere2 ,needless was written law where none oppressed2 ,the law of man was written in his breast3 ,no suppliant crowds before the judge appeared1 ,no court erected yet1 nor cause was heard1 ,but all was safe2 for conscience was their guard4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,no walls were yet1 nor fence1 nor moat1 nor mound1 ,nor drum was heard1 nor trumpet's angry sound1 ,nor swords were forged2 but1 void of care and crime1 ,the soft creation slept away their time4 ,the ,silver ,age was far inferior to that of gold2 but virtue still dwelt on earth1 and the ,immortals had not altogether departed from the abodes of men4 ,jupiter then divided the year into seasons1 shortened the winter days1 and let loose the northern blasts1 so that men were obliged to build dwellings1 and cultivate the ungrateful soil4 ,their first habitations were caves and grottoes1 leafy coverts of the forest1 or huts rudely constructed of the trunks of trees and interwoven boughs4 ,the ,brazen ,age came next2 men grew fierce and warlike1 but were not as yet altogether impious4 ,the ,iron ,age gave birth to all the calamities that afflict mankind4 ,avarice and violence reigned supreme2 men were not satisfied to till the earth1 but dug into its hidden mines1 and drew thence gold and iron1 potent instruments of ill to man4 ,the same poet says3 ,then land-marks limited to each his right2 ,for all before was common as the light4 ,nor was the ground alone required to bear ,her annual income to the crooked share1 ,but greedy mortals1 rummaging her store1 ,digged from her entrails first the precious ore 7,which next to hell the prudent gods had laid17 ,and that alluring ill to sight displayed4 ,thus cursed steel1 and more accursed gold1 ,gave mischief birth1 and made that mischief bold3 ,and double death did wretched man invade1 ,by steel assaulted1 and by gold betrayed4 ,dryden's ,ovid4 ,,mount ,,olympus4 ,ques4 ,where were the gods supposed to dwell8 ,ans4 ,on the summit of ,mount ,olympus1 in ,thessaly4 ,this mountain hides its head1 covered with perpetual snows1 in a belt of clouds4 ,the ,greeks imagined above these1 a sublime abode reposing in eternal sunshine1 and free from the storms which vexed the lower world4 ,a gate of clouds1 guarded by the goddesses of the seasons1 opened to permit the passage of the ,celestials when they descended to earth4 ,each god had his own dwelling1 but all were obliged to repair1 when summoned1 to the palace of ,jupiter4 ,even those deities whose usual abode was on the earth1 in the waters1 or in the lower shades1 were compelled to assemble in ,olympus at his command4 ,here they feasted on ambrosia and nectar1 discoursed upon the affairs of heaven and earth1 and were delighted at intervals by the music of ,apollo's lyre1 and the songs of the ,muses4 ,vulcan was smith1 architect and chariot builder to the gods4 ,he built their dwellings on ,olympus1 and constructed the furniture in so wonderful a manner1 that the tripods and tables were endowed with motion1 and ranged themselves in order without the aid of hands4 ,the robes of the different divinities were wrought by ,minerva and the ,graces4 ,everything of a solid nature was constructed of metal4 ,,the ,,gods--,,different ,,classes ,,of ,,deities4 ,ques4 ,did the ,greeks believe that the gods resembled men8 ,ans4 ,yes2 in many particulars4 ,they supposed them to have the same passions1 both good and evil4 ,they were immortal1 yet could suffer pain and receive wounds4 ,instead of blood a fluid called ichor filled their veins4 ,the deities resembled men also in form1 but they were1 with some exceptions1 of majestic stature and shone with celestial beauty4 ,they could render themselves invisible at will1 and were otherwise endowed with supernatural powers4 ,there was this restraint upon their wonder-working gifts3 no divinity was permitted to reverse the act of another4 ,for example1 when an offended god subjected a mortal to some cruel transformation1 no other deity1 not even ,jupiter himself1 could undo the spell4 ,ques4 ,into what classes were the gods divided8 ,ans4 ,ancient writers differ in the classification of the ,greek and ,roman divinities4 ,according to one division1 which we will follow1 the ,celestial gods were3 ,jupiter1 ,apollo1 ,mars1 ,mercury and ,bacchus4 ,the goddesses were3 ,juno1 ,minerva or ,pallas1 ,venus1 ,aurora and ,latona4 ,to these higher divinities1 ,saturn1 ,janus1 ,vesta and others were sometimes added4 ,there were also ,terrestrial divinities1 ,gods of the ,sea1 ,infernal deities1 etc4 etc4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,divinities4 ,celestial ,gods4 ,,jupiter1 7,greek1 ,zeus47 ,ques4 ,who was ,jupiter8 ,ans4 ,he was the king and father of gods and men4 ,he is generally represented as a majestic man with a beard1 sitting on a throne of gold and ivory4 ,he brandishes the thunder in his right hand2 giants lie prostrate under his feet1 and an eagle stands at his side4 ,jupiter is sometimes called ,jove1 and as the eagle was sacred to him1 it is often called the bird of ,jove4 ,ques4 ,relate the story of ,dionysius and ,jupiter's cloak4 ,ans4 ,the statues of this god were sometimes decorated with much magnificence4 ,it is related that ,dionysius1 the tyrant of ,syracuse1 visited a temple in ,sicily1 where he saw a statue of ,jupiter arrayed in a mantle of wrought gold4 ,this he took possession of1 and ordered in its place a woolen cloak4 ,dionysius justified the act on the plea that the latter garment would be more comfortable for the god at all seasons1 as it was neither so heavy in summer1 nor so cold in winter4 ,ques4 ,of whom was ,jupiter the son8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,saturn and ,ops4 ,according to the fable1 ,saturn promised his brother ,titan1 that after his death1 the latter should succeed him in his kingdom4 ,to ensure this1 ,titan made ,saturn promise farther to destroy all his male children4 ,in fulfillment of this engagement1 ,saturn devoured them as soon as they were born4 ,ops1 or ,rhea1 his wife1 succeeded in concealing ,jupiter from him4 ,she sent him secretly to ,crete where he was educated on ,mount ,ida1 by the nymphs1 or1 according to some1 by the priestesses of ,cybele4 ,the goat which suckled him was placed afterwards amongst the constellations4 ,ops saved ,neptune and ,pluto in the same manner4 ,ques4 ,what were ,jupiter's first exploits8 ,ans4 ,titan was so much enraged against ,saturn for failing to destroy all his male children1 that he assembled the giants1 generally called ,titans1 to avenge the injury4 ,they overcame ,saturn1 and bound him with ,ops1 or ,rhea1 in hell4 ,jupiter conquered the ,titans1 and delivered his father and mother4 ,he afterwards took up arms against ,saturn himself1 whom he overcame and banished4 ,he then shared his power with his two brothers1 ,neptune and ,pluto2 to ,neptune he gave the command of the seas and rivers1 while ,pluto received for his portion the subterranean world1 or infernal regions4 ,ques4 ,what natural phenomena were attributed to ,jupiter8 ,ans4 ,thunder1 lightning1 rain1 clouds1 snow1 and rainbows4 ,these were sent by ,jupiter either as signs or warnings1 or else to punish the transgressions of men1 particularly the perversion of law and justice4 ,it seems certain that the ancients regarded ,jupiter as a righteous power1 the enemy of tyrants1 and the protector of the poor and innocent4 ,it is hard to reconcile this character with the fables which ascribe to this god actions in the last degree base and criminal4 ,ques4 ,how would you explain this seeming contradiction8 ,ans4 ,many of these stories were simply allegories1 illustrating the dominion of ,jupiter over the natural world4 ,others were invented at later times2 and all were embellished by the poets with but little regard for moral or religious sentiment4 ,whatever their origin1 there can be no doubt that they had an unfavorable influence on the pagan world1 and that they contributed to weaken whatever respect remained for public or private virtue4 ,ques4 ,relate some of these fables4 ,ans4 ,jupiter was married to ,juno1 to whom he first appeared in the form of a crow4 ,he constantly excited her jealousy by his admiration of mortal women1 and this gave rise to many adventures1 celebrated by the poets4 ,ques4 ,what was the story of ,europa8 ,ans4 ,jupiter was struck by the beauty of ,europa1 daughter of ,agenor1 king of ,phoenicia4 ,he took the form of a snow-white bull1 and mingled with the herd that grazed in the meadow where the young princess was gathering flowers4 ,europa1 attracted by the beauty and gentleness of the animal1 caressed him1 crowned him with flowers1 and at length fearlessly mounted on his back4 ,he immediately plunged into the sea1 and carried her to the unknown shores of ,europe1 which was named from her4 ,ques4 ,on what was the story of ,europa probably founded8 ,ans4 ,it is probable that some sea captain1 or pirate1 was attracted by the beauty of the young princess1 and carried her off4 ,when her father grieved at her loss1 the courtiers1 and perhaps the oracles1 pretended that it was a god who had taken her away4 ,as this report was flattering to his pride1 he would of course be pleased to hear it everywhere repeated4 ,this1 however1 did not prevent ,agenor from making every effort to recover his lost child4 ,ques4 ,relate the story of ,cadmus4 ,ans4 ,cadmus1 the son of ,agenor1 was ordered by his father to go in search of his sister ,europa1 with the further injunction1 that he should never return to his native land without her4 ,the search proved fruitless1 and ,cadmus1 not daring to appear before his father1 went to consult the oracle of ,apollo as to what he should do4 ,he was directed by the god to follow a young heifer1 which he would meet in the fields1 and to mark the place where she should lie down to rest4 ,he was to build a city on that spot1 and call the surrounding country ,boeotia4 ,cadmus obeyed these instructions2 while preparing to offer sacrifice to ,jupiter on the site of his intended town1 the solemnity was interrupted by a terrible event4 ,the attendants of ,cadmus1 in searching for water1 had entered a grove sacred to ,mars1 which was guarded by a mighty dragon4 ,on perceiving him1 they turned to fly1 but were either crushed in the serpent's folds1 or suffocated by blasts of the monster's fiery breath4 ,cadmus1 awaiting their return1 and becoming impatient at the delay1 proceeded to the spot1 and found his servants lifeless1 while the dragon was basking at his ease upon the grass4 ,the hero1 aroused to vengeance1 attacked the monster4 ,a terrible combat ensued1 in which ,cadmus1 through the assistance of ,minerva1 was victorious4 ,as he gazed upon his expiring foe1 he heard a frightful voice which threatened him with the vengeance of the god whose grove he had desecrated4 ,cadmus was at first dismayed1 but ,minerva told him to sow the dragon's teeth in the ground1 and await the result4 ,where the teeth were planted1 armed men immediately sprung up4 ,cadmus threw a stone among them1 upon which they turned their weapons against one another1 and continued to fight until all were killed except five4 ,these assisted the hero in building his city4 ,cadmus married ,hermione1 the daughter of ,venus2 they had four daughters1 all of whom suffered persecution1 either in their own persons1 or in those of their children4 ,cadmus and ,hermione were so much afflicted by the misfortunes of their descendants1 that they petitioned the gods to deprive them of life4 ,they were soon after changed into serpents4 ,ques4 ,relate the punishment of ,lycaon4 ,ans4 ,during the ,iron ,age the wickedness of men had grown to such a height that ,jupiter resolved to satisfy himself of the truth of the reports that reached him4 ,for this purpose he descended to earth1 and assuming the disguise of a poor traveller1 sought hospitality of ,lycaon1 king of ,arcadia4 ,the impious prince had just received an ambassador from the ,molossians4 ,he ordered him to be slain1 and his flesh to be served for the entertainment of his guest4 ,jupiter was seized with indignation2 he overturned the tables1 destroyed the palace with lightning1 and when the tyrant strove to fly1 he was transformed into a savage wolf4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,phoebus--,,apollo4 ,ques4 ,who was ,apollo8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,jupiter and ,latona4 ,this god was1 with his twin-sister ,diana1 born at ,delos1 an island in which ,latona had taken refuge from the anger of ,juno4 ,this goddess1 jealous of ,latona1 sent the serpent ,python to destroy her4 ,one of the first exploits of ,apollo was to kill the ,python with his arrows4 ,ques4 ,how is this god generally represented8 ,ans4 ,as a young man1 comely and graceful4 ,he wears a laurel crown over his flowing hair2 his garments are embroidered with gold2 in his right hand he carries his bow1 and bears on his shoulder a quiver filled with arrows4 ,apollo and his sister ,diana presided respectively over the sun and moon4 ,the sun is often called ,phoebus1 or ,apollo1 and in ancient pictures the head of the god is represented as darting rays4 ,apollo1 like other divinities1 had many names4 ,ques4 ,what was the cause of ,apollo's being driven from heaven8 ,ans4 ,he had a son named sculapius1 who was so skilled in medicine that he was even able to restore the dead to life4 ,hippolytus1 son of ,theseus1 king of ,athens1 was killed by sea-monsters4 sculapius1 by bringing him to life1 so offended ,jupiter that the latter killed him with a thunderbolt4 ,apollo was much grieved1 and1 as he could not take revenge on ,jupiter1 he killed the ,cyclops who forged the thunderbolts4 ,for this reason ,jupiter banished ,apollo from heaven4 ,ques4 ,how did he occupy himself in his banishment8 ,ans4 ,he guarded the flocks of ,admetus1 king of ,thessaly4 ,here he had the misfortune accidentally to kill ,hyacinthus1 a boy to whom he was much attached4 ,apollo mourned deeply for the youth1 and caused a flower to spring from his blood1 which is called the hyacinth4 ,cyparissus was also beloved by the god4 ,the boy grieved so deeply at having unintentionally killed a favorite deer1 that he begged ,apollo to make his mourning perpetual4 ,the god heard his prayer and changed him to a cypress1 the branches of which tree were always used at funerals4 ,after many adventures and wanderings1 ,apollo was restored to the favor of ,jupiter1 and to heaven4 ,ques4 ,what favor did ,apollo confer on ,king ,admetus8 ,ans4 ,he obtained from the ,fates1 that when ,admetus should be about to end his existence1 his life might be prolonged1 provided another died willingly in his stead4 ,when the fatal day came1 ,alcestis1 the wife of ,admetus1 devoted herself to death for her husband4 ,admetus grieved so deeply at her loss that ,proserpine actually relented1 but ,pluto remained inexorable4 ,hercules1 however1 descended to the shades1 and rescued ,alcestis1 who was restored to her husband4 ,euripides has founded one of his most beautiful tragedies upon this story4 ,ques4 ,over what sciences did ,apollo preside8 ,ans4 ,he presided over physic1 music1 poetry1 and rhetoric2 and the nine ,muses were subject to him4 ,he regulated the day by guiding the chariot of the sun4 ,ques4 ,what else is said of ,apollo8 ,ans4 ,many absurd and impossible adventures are told4 ,he seems to have been very vain of his musical skill1 as we see from the punishment he inflicted on ,marsyas1 and ,king ,midas for coming in conflict with him on that point4 ,ques4 ,relate these stories4 ,ans4 ,apollo was challenged by ,marsyas to a contest in music4 ,the god was not content with defeating the presumptuous musician1 but flayed him alive1 and afterwards changed him into a river1 which is still known by his name4 ,the punishment inflicted on ,king ,midas was not so cruel4 ,this prince had the bad taste to declare his preference for the vulgar music of ,pan1 in a contest which that god had with ,apollo4 ,the insulted deity caused his ears to grow in length and shape like those of an ass4 ,midas endeavored to cover the deformity by his hair1 and since it was impossible to conceal it from his barber1 he bound him to silence by great promises4 ,this man1 however1 found it so painful to keep the secret to himself1 that to obtain relief1 he dug a little hole in the ground1 and whispered it to the earth4 ,what was his dismay at hearing the hollow reeds which grew upon the spot1 whispering1 whenever the wind blew3 ,king ,midas has asses' ears6 ,ques4 ,is anything else related of ,king ,midas8 ,ans4 ,yes2 he had kindly and hospitably entertained ,silenus1 the preceptor of ,bacchus1 and in return1 the god bade him choose any recompense he pleased4 ,midas demanded that whatever he should touch might be turned into gold4 ,this prayer was granted1 and he was at first overjoyed to see plants1 stones and all around him transformed into glittering metal4 ,he soon perceived his folly1 however1 for when1 pressed by hunger1 he tried to partake of the food placed before him1 it was suddenly converted into gold1 and when he would have quenched his thirst1 the water was changed into a golden stream4 ,famished in the midst of plenty1 ,midas prayed the god to withdraw the fatal gift4 ,bacchus kindly consented1 and ordered him to bathe in the river ,pactolus4 ,midas obeyed1 but the virtue which left his body was communicated to the waters of the stream1 which was famous ever after for its golden sands4 ,ques4 ,who was ,phton8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,phoebus and ,clymene4 ,at the earnest solicitation of his mother1 he repaired to the palace of the ,sun for the purpose of having his parentage publicly acknowledged4 ,the youth was kindly received1 and ,apollo swore by the ,styx to grant him any favor he should ask4 ,phton immediately prayed that he might be allowed to drive1 for one day only1 the chariot of the ,sun4 ,apollo tried to dissuade him from his foolish wish1 but in vain4 ,the rash youth was not able to control the fiery horses of the ,sun2 they departed from their usual track1 and heaven and earth were threatened with one universal conflagration4 ,jupiter perceived the danger1 and struck ,phton with a thunderbolt4 ,his body was hurled into the river ,po1 where it was found and buried by the nymphs of the place4 ,as his sisters were weeping around his tomb1 they were changed by ,jupiter into poplars4 ,ques4 ,who was ,daphne8 ,ans4 ,a nymph beloved by ,apollo3 she was changed into a laurel while she was flying from the pursuit of the god4 ,ques4 ,what things were especially sacred to ,apollo8 ,ans4 ,among plants1 the laurel2 among animals1 the wolf2 and among birds1 the hawk1 the crow1 and the swan were sacred to this god4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,mars--,,ares4 ,ques4 ,who was ,mars8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,jupiter and ,juno1 and was worshipped as the god of war4 ,ques4 ,how was he represented8 ,ans4 ,as a warrior in splendid armor1 standing in a chariot driven by ,bellona1 a distracted woman1 who holds a torch in her hand4 ,mars is fierce in aspect and brandishes a spear4 ,sometimes ,discord is represented going before him in tattered garments1 while ,anger and ,clamor follow in his train4 ,fear and ,terror are the horses which draw the chariot4 ,ques4 ,what animals were sacred to ,mars8 ,ans4 ,the dog1 on account of its sagacity in the pursuit of prey2 the horse1 for its uses in war2 the wolf1 for its rapacity and cruelty2 the raven1 because it follows armies1 watching for the carcasses of the slain2 and the cock1 as an emblem of the vigilance which guards against surprise4 ,ques4 ,what other names had ,mars8 ,ans4 ,he was called ,quirinus when he was quiet1 ,gradivus when he was raging2 therefore the ,romans built him two temples1 one to ,mars ,quirinus within the walls1 that he might keep the city in peace2 and one without1 to ,mars ,gradivus1 that he might defend them against their enemies4 ,among the ,romans1 priests called ,salii attended to the sacrifices of ,mars1 and on festival days went about the city dancing with their shields4 ,their name comes from the ,latin word to dance1 and was considered appropriate1 because ,mars is inconstant in his temper1 and inclines now to this side1 now to that1 in time of war4 ,except the story of his attachment to ,venus1 the poets relate but little of ,mars4 ,bellona1 the goddess of war1 was1 according to some1 the sister of ,mars4 ,she is generally represented as above1 but some poets have described her as rushing through the ranks of war1 waving a flaming torch1 and exciting the combatants by her cries4 ,the temple of ,bellona at ,rome1 was without the city1 near the ,carmental gate4 ,here the ,senate gave audience to such ambassadors as they were not willing to admit within the walls4 ,a pillar stood before the temple1 over which the herald cast a spear when he proclaimed war4 ,the priests of ,bellona1 when officiating1 held naked swords1 with which they gashed their arms and shoulders1 making libations of their own blood1 to the terrible goddess4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,mercury--,,hermes4 ,ques4 ,who was ,mercury8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,jupiter and ,maia1 the daughter of ,atlas4 ,on his mother's account1 sacrifices were generally offered to him during the month of ,may4 ,ques4 ,how is ,mercury represented8 ,ans4 ,as a young man of cheerful countenance1 having wings fixed to his helmet and his sandals1 and carrying a rod in his hand1 which is also winged1 and entwined with serpents4 ,ques4 ,how are these different equipments named8 ,ans4 ,the rod was called ,caduceus1 and possessed a wonderful faculty for quieting all disputes4 ,his helmet was called ,petasus1 and his winged sandals ,talaria4 ,ques4 ,what were the offices of ,mercury8 ,ans4 ,they were various2 his most important function was to carry the commands of ,jupiter4 ,mercury is commonly called the messenger of the gods4 ,he also swept the room where the gods supped1 and made their beds4 ,ques4 ,what else is said of ,mercury8 ,ans4 ,he was the inventor of letters1 and excelled in eloquence4 ,the ,greeks worshipped him as the patron of orators1 under the name of ,hermes4 ,mercury was also the inventor of weights and measures1 and the patron of commerce4 ,ques4 ,were all his talents equally honorable8 ,ans4 ,no2 he was most skillful in the art of thieving4 ,on the very day of his birth1 he stole some cattle from ,king ,admetus1 although ,apollo was keeping them2 and while that god was bending his bow against him1 he contrived to steal his quiver4 ,while yet an infant1 he stole the tools of ,vulcan1 the girdle of ,venus1 and the sceptre of ,jupiter4 ,he intended also to steal ,jove's thunderbolts1 but was fearful they would burn him4 ,mercury was1 therefore1 the patron of thieves4 ,ques4 ,relate the history of ,io and ,argus4 ,ans4 ,io1 the daughter of ,inachus1 was beloved by ,jupiter4 ,he strove to hide her from the anger of ,juno by transforming her into a cow4 ,the goddess suspected the deceit1 and begged the beautiful heifer as a gift4 ,jupiter was afraid to refuse1 and ,juno consigned the unhappy ,io to the guardianship of ,argus4 ,escape seemed hopeless1 as ,argus had a hundred eyes1 of which he closed only two in sleep1 while the others watched4 ,jupiter commanded ,mercury to slay ,argus and deliver ,io4 ,to effect this1 it was necessary to set all his eyes to sleep4 ,mercury disguised himself as a shepherd1 entered into conversation with ,argus1 and at length played so sweetly on his pipe1 that1 one by one1 the keeper's hundred eyes were closed4 ,the god then drew his falchion1 and cut off the head of ,argus with a single blow4 ,juno was grieved for her servant1 and placed his eyes in her peacock's tail4 ,io1 still persecuted by ,juno1 wandered over the earth1 and at length arrived1 faint and weary1 on the banks of the ,nile4 ,there she prayed ,jupiter either to restore her to her original form1 or to terminate her misfortunes by death4 ,juno was touched with compassion1 and allowed ,jupiter to grant her request4 ,io was restored to human form1 and married to ,osiris1 king of ,egypt2 she was afterwards worshipped in that country under the name of ,isis4 ,the statues of ,mercury were simply wooden posts1 surmounted by a rude head with a pointed beard4 ,they were set up in the fields1 and at all cross roads4 ,the ,greeks had pillars of stone1 which they called ,herm1 but the head which surmounted them was not always that of ,mercury4 ,these pillars were sometimes placed1 by the ,athenians1 at the entrances of their houses as a protection against thieves4 ,on one occasion1 all the ,herm in ,athens were mutilated in the same night4 ,alcibiades was accused of this sacrilege1 and was obliged to take refuge in ,cergos from the indignation of the people4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,bacchus--,,dionysus4 ,ques4 ,who was ,bacchus8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,jupiter and ,semele and was worshipped as the god of wine4 ,ques4 ,how is he represented8 ,ans4 ,as a young man1 crowned with ivy and grape leaves2 he sits in a chariot1 drawn sometimes by panthers and lynxes1 and sometimes by tigers and lions4 ,he carries in his hand a thyrsus--that is1 a staff encircled by ivy and grape leaves2 a troop of demons and drunken satyrs follow him4 ,ques4 ,what was the story of ,semele8 ,ans4 ,she was destroyed by the jealousy of ,juno4 ,this goddess visited ,semele in the shape of an old woman1 and persuaded her to ask ,jupiter to visit her with all the glory which encompassed him in heaven4 ,all happened as ,juno desired1 and ,semele was consumed by the lightnings which surrounded ,jupiter4 ,bacchus did not share his mother's fate1 but was conveyed to ,naxos1 where he was educated by some nymphs4 ,ques4 ,how did ,bacchus reward their care8 ,ans4 ,he transformed them into the stars known as the ,hyades4 ,ques4 ,who aided the nymphs in their care of ,bacchus8 ,ans4 ,an old man named ,silenus4 ,he was considered a demi-god4 ,ques4 ,how is ,silenus represented8 ,ans4 ,he seems to be the personification of drunkenness2 he is sometimes represented as seated intoxicated on a cask of wine1 his head crowned with grape leaves1 and his face stained with the lees of wine2 sometimes as mounted on an ass1 and following the car of ,bacchus4 ,ques4 ,what were the first exploits of ,bacchus8 ,ans4 ,he distinguished himself in the combats between the gods and giants1 taking the form of a lion to strike terror into the latter4 ,ques4 ,what other actions are attributed to him8 ,ans4 ,he taught men how to plant the vine and till the ground4 ,he is said to have subdued ,india1 and many other countries of the ,east4 ,ques4 ,how was he worshipped8 ,ans4 ,the goat and the hog were offered to him in sacrifice2 and the ivy1 the fir1 the bindweed1 the fig and the vine were consecrated to him4 ,ques4 ,what feasts were held in his honor8 ,ans4 ,the feasts of ,bacchus were various4 ,the ,bacchanalia or ,orgia were the most celebrated4 ,they were at first participated in by women only but afterwards men were admitted to join in these rites4 ,the women were called ,bacchantes1 and ran about with their hair dishevelled1 shouting and singing in a distracted manner4 ,the ,roman ,senate at length abolished this festival4 ,ques4 ,relate the story of ,pentheus8 ,ans4 ,pentheus was king of ,thebes4 ,he not only refused to acknowledge the divinity of ,bacchus1 but endeavored to prevent the celebration of his orgies4 ,having presumed to intrude on the revels of the ,bacchantes1 they were seized by a sort of madness1 and rushing upon the unhappy man1 tore him to pieces4 ,the mother of ,pentheus1 and her sisters1 were the leaders in this act1 which was considered to have been performed under a divine impulse4 ,ques4 ,what was the punishment inflicted on ,alcithoe and her sisters8 ,ans4 ,these were ,theban maidens who ridiculed the orgies of ,bacchus4 ,during the celebration of these rites1 they remained at home1 plying the distaff and the spindle1 and singing over their tasks4 ,for this1 ,alcithoe and her sisters were transformed by the power of ,bacchus into bats2 and the spindle and yarn with which they worked were changed to ivy4 ,ques4 ,relate the transformation of mariners into dolphins8 ,ans4 ,a ship touched at ,chios for a supply of fresh water4 ,the sailors who went on shore1 found near the spring a boy of uncommon grace and beauty4 ,they bore him to the ship1 still heavy with sleep and wine1 and declared their intention of selling him at the next port4 ,acoetes1 their captain1 tried to dissuade them from the crime1 the more so1 as he perceived that there was something more than mortal about the captive youth4 ,in the meantime ,bacchus1 for it was he1 awaking from his slumber1 begged the sailors to land him at ,naxos4 ,this the captain promised1 but when they had set sail1 the mariners took possession of the ship1 and steered in another direction4 ,the god now revealed himself4 ,the sails and cordage suddenly appeared hung with grapes and ivy2 spotted panthers lay at his feet1 and when the terrified sailors tried to leap overboard1 they were suddenly changed into dolphins4 ,the captain was spared1 and landed with ,bacchus on the shores of ,chios4 ,ques4 ,what is the origin of the history of ,bacchus8 ,ans4 ,he was probably some prince who taught the people to till the ground1 and cultivate the vine4 ,they disgraced his memory in after times by the drunken revels they held in his honor4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,celestial ,goddesses4 ,,juno--,,hera4 ,ques4 ,who was ,juno8 ,ans4 ,she was the daughter of ,saturn and ,ops1 and was both sister and wife of ,jupiter4 ,ques4 ,how is she generally represented8 ,ans4 ,as seated in a golden chariot drawn by peacocks4 ,she holds a sceptre in her hand1 and is crowned with roses and lilies4 ,iris was the messenger of ,juno1 as ,mercury was of ,jupiter4 ,ques4 ,how is ,iris represented8 ,ans4 ,with wings1 because of her swiftness1 and sometimes also as riding on a rainbow4 ,ques4 ,how did ,iris differ from ,mercury8 ,ans4 ,mercury was often employed in messages of peace2 but ,iris was frequently sent to promote strife and dissension4 ,ques4 ,what children had ,juno8 ,ans4 ,vulcan1 ,mars and ,hebe4 ,hebe was called the goddess of youth1 on account of her extraordinary beauty1 and ,jupiter made her his cup-bearer4 ,she offended him by an unlucky fall1 and ,ganymede was appointed in her place4 ,ques4 ,what were ,juno's faults8 ,ans4 ,she was very jealous1 and took the most cruel revenge on the mortal woman whom ,jupiter loved4 ,she transformed ,callista and her son ,arcas into bears1 and was extremely displeased when ,jupiter placed them among the constellations4 ,the goddess carried her complaint to ,oceanus1 bidding him to observe1 when the shades of night should darken the world1 how her rival was exalted4 ,the god of ,ocean was moved1 and promised ,juno that he would never receive either ,callista or her offspring in his watery domain4 ,hence it is1 that the ,greater and the ,lesser ,bear continually circle around the pole1 and never sink1 like the other stars1 beneath the waves of ,ocean4 ,in the fables of ,bacchus and ,hercules1 ,juno displays the same character1 extending to these heroes the enmity she bore their mortal mothers4 ,juno was chiefly honored at ,argos1 ,samos and ,plata4 ,the victims offered to her were kine1 ewe lambs1 and sows4 ,the cow was consecrated to her1 and at ,argos the priestess of ,juno always rode in a chariot drawn by oxen4 ,the sacred plants of the goddess were1 the willow1 pomegranate1 the dittany and the lily4 ,the peacock was chosen as the bird of ,juno1 because it was supposed by its cry to indicate a change of weather4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,minerva--,,pallas ,,athena4 ,ques4 ,who was ,minerva8 ,ans4 ,she was the goddess of wisdom and of war4 ,she had no mother1 but sprang full armed from the head of ,jupiter4 ,ques4 ,how is ,minerva represented8 ,ans4 ,as clothed in complete armor4 ,she has a golden helmet on her head1 holds a lance in her right hand1 and her left rests upon a shield to which is affixed the head of ,medusa4 ,the cock and the owl are also represented on the shield4 ,ques4 ,why was ,minerva said to have sprung full armed from the head of ,jupiter8 ,ans4 ,the poets signify by this1 that wisdom comes direct from the deity4 ,ques4 ,why is ,minerva sometimes crowned with olive8 ,ans4 ,because the olive is the emblem of peace1 and war should only be made that a secure peace may follow2 also because she bestowed the olive on men4 ,ques4 ,on what occasion did ,minerva give the olive to men8 ,ans4 ,when ,cecrops built a new city1 ,neptune and ,minerva contended about its name2 and it was resolved that whichever of the two deities should confer the most useful gift on man1 might give a name to the city4 ,neptune struck the ground with his trident1 and a horse appeared2 but ,minerva caused an olive to spring out of the earth4 ,the latter was judged the more useful gift2 and ,minerva named the city1 calling it ,athena or ,athens1 after her own name in ,greek4 ,ques4 ,what was the ,palladium8 ,ans4 ,when the ,trojans were building the temple and castle of ,minerva in ,troy1 a statue of the goddess fell from heaven into the castle1 which was still unroofed4 ,the oracle of ,apollo declared that ,troy would be safe so long as this statue1 called ,palladium1 from ,pallas1 a name of ,minerva1 remained within the walls4 ,when the ,greeks besieged ,troy1 they found that all their efforts to take the city were of no avail2 they determined1 therefore1 to steal the ,palladium4 ,ulysses and ,diomedes crept into the city through the common sewers1 and brought away the image4 ,troy was soon afterwards taken and destroyed4 ,minerva was a virgin1 and was the patroness of modest and virtuous women4 ,ques4 ,did ,minerva excel only in the art of war8 ,ans4 ,no2 she invented the distaff and spindle1 and excelled in every branch of female industry4 ,the fate of ,arachne shows how much she prized her reputation for skill in embroidery4 ,ques4 ,who was ,arachne8 ,ans4 ,she was a maiden of ,lydia1 who had the presumption to challenge ,minerva to a trial of skill in weaving4 ,the goddess wrought into her work the most beautiful designs1 but it would seem that ,arachne's performance surpassed hers3 for ,minerva1 seeing it1 was fired with envy1 and struck the unhappy maiden on the face with her shuttle4 ,arachne could not endure this insult1 and hung herself from a beam4 ,minerva immediately changed her into a spider1 and permitted her to live only that she might weave unceasingly4 ,ques4 ,why was the owl chosen as the bird of ,minerva8 ,ans4 ,because this bird sees in the dark2 and wisdom distinguishes what is hidden from common eyes4 ,ques4 ,what is the story of ,medusa's head8 ,ans4 ,medusa was one of three sisters1 the daughters of ,phorcus4 ,these maidens were called ,gorgons1 and were all immortal1 except ,medusa4 ,the latter was at one period distinguished for her personal beauty1 and particularly for her flowing hair2 but having offended ,minerva1 that goddess changed her locks into serpents1 and rendered her appearance so frightful that all who beheld her were changed to stone4 ,the hero ,perseus undertook an expedition against the ,gorgons1 and as he saw the whole country around covered with figures of men and animals changed into stone by the sight of the monster1 he was obliged to use great precaution to avoid the same misfortune4 ,he looked1 therefore1 not at ,medusa1 but at her reflection in his polished shield1 and when he perceived that she was asleep1 ,minerva guiding his sword1 he struck off her head4 ,mercury had lent ,perseus his wings1 and as he flew over the ,lybian desert bearing ,medusa's head1 the blood fell upon the burning sands1 and produced the serpents which have ever since infested that region4 ,from the blood of ,medusa1 also1 when her head was cut off1 sprang the famous winged horse called ,pegasus4 ,this wonderful steed flew to ,mount ,helicon1 the residence of the ,muses1 where1 by striking the earth with his foot1 he produced the fountain ,hippocrene4 ,all who drank of its waters were inspired by the ,muses with a poetic spirit4 ,perseus went through many other adventures in which ,medusa's head did him good service1 by changing his enemies into stone4 ,he afterwards gave the head to ,minerva1 who fixed it on her shield4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,venus--,,aphrodite4 ,ques4 ,who was ,venus8 ,ans4 ,she was the goddess of love and beauty4 ,she sprang from the froth of the sea2 for this reason the ,greeks called her ,aphrodite1 from ,aphros1 meaning foam4 ,as soon as she was born1 she was placed like a pearl in a shell instead of a cradle1 and the god ,zephyrus 7the west wind7 wafted her to the shores of ,cyprus4 ,ques4 ,by whom was she educated8 ,ans4 ,she was educated and adorned by the ,hor or ,hours1 who carried her to heaven as soon she became of age4 ,all the gods were astonished at the beauty of ,venus1 and many demanded her in marriage2 but ,jupiter betrothed her to ,vulcan1 an ugly and deformed divinity4 ,ques4 ,how is ,venus represented8 ,ans4 ,sometimes as a young virgin rising from the sea1 or riding on the waves in a shell1 while ,cupids1 ,nereids and ,dolphins are sporting around her--again1 she is pictured as traversing the heavens in an ivory chariot drawn by doves4 ,she wears a wonderful girdle called the ,cestus1 her doves are harnessed with golden chains1 and ,cupids flutter around her on silken wings4 ,venus is always crowned with roses4 ,ques4 ,what was there remarkable in the ,cestus of ,venus8 ,ans4 ,it had the property of conferring grace1 beauty1 and irresistible attractions on the wearer4 ,ques4 ,where had ,venus temples8 ,ans4 ,in many places4 ,the most celebrated were at ,paphos1 ,cytherea1 ,idalia and ,cnidos4 ,ques4 ,who were the companions of ,venus8 ,ans4 ,the ,graces were her attendants1 and she was generally accompanied by her son ,cupid1 who was the god of love4 ,ques4 ,how is ,cupid represented8 ,ans4 ,as a beautiful boy with wings1 carrying a bow and arrows2 he has sometimes a band over his eyes to show that love is blind4 ,ques4 ,what do you say of the festivals of ,venus8 ,ans4 ,they were various1 and accompanied by much that was disgraceful and immoral4 ,the swan1 the dove1 and the sparrow were sacred to this goddess2 and among plants1 the rose1 the myrtle and the apple4 ,incense1 fruits and flowers were the ordinary sacrifices laid on her altars but birds were sometimes offered4 ,ques4 ,what remarkable temple was raised to ,venus in ,rome8 ,ans4 ,there was a temple dedicated to ,venus ,calva1 or the ,bald2 because when the ,gauls besieged ,rome1 the inhabitants made ropes for their military engines with the long hair of the ,roman women4 ,ques4 ,on what occasion was the prize of beauty adjudged to ,venus8 ,ans4 ,all the gods and goddesses had been invited to the marriage of ,peleus and ,thetis1 ,discordia1 or ,discord being the only one excluded4 ,this goddess was determined to revenge the slight2 she entered secretly1 when all were assembled1 and threw among them a golden apple on which was written3 ,for the fairest4 ,a violent quarrel immediately arose between the goddesses1 for each believed herself to be the most beautiful4 ,juno1 ,minerva1 and ,venus disputed so eagerly1 that ,jupiter himself was not able to bring them to an agreement4 ,he resolved1 therefore1 to refer the matter to the decision of ,paris1 who was then feeding his sheep on ,mount ,ida4 ,this prince was the son of ,priam1 king of ,troy4 ,an oracle had foretold before his birth that he was destined to cause the destruction of his native city4 ,he was1 therefore1 exposed on ,mount ,ida1 where he was found and cared for by some shepherds4 ,after he had grown up1 he acquired a great reputation for the prudence with which he settled the most difficult disputes2 hence the difference between the goddesses was referred to his decision4 ,when they appeared before him1 they began to court his favor with promises4 ,juno offered him great power2 ,minerva1 wisdom2 but ,venus promised to give him for a wife the most beautiful woman in the world4 ,paris then pronounced ,venus the fairest4 ,he was soon after acknowledged by his father1 ,king ,priam2 and ,venus fulfilled her engagement by aiding him to carry off ,helen1 the beautiful wife of ,menelaus1 king of ,sparta4 ,this gave rise to the total destruction of ,troy2 and the prediction of the oracle with regard to ,paris was accomplished4 ,ques4 ,what was the story of ,hippomenes and ,atalanta8 ,ans4 ,atalanta was the daughter of ,king ,coeneus1 and was equally renowned for her beauty and her swiftness in running4 ,as an oracle had declared that marriage would be fatal to her1 she freed herself from the importunity of her suitors by a singular expedient4 ,she caused it to be proclaimed that any one who sought her hand should contend with her in running1 with the understanding that she would marry him who should excel her in the race1 but that those who were beaten should suffer death4 ,hard as were these conditions1 many suitors presented themselves1 but they were all unsuccessful1 and were put to death without mercy4 ,hippomenes determined to undertake the race1 but first1 he had recourse to ,venus4 ,this goddess gave him three golden apples gathered in the garden of the ,hesperides1 and directed him as to their use4 ,when ,hippomenes saw that ,atalanta was going to outstrip him in the race1 he threw down a golden apple2 the princess paused to admire and take up the glittering fruit1 while ,hippomenes passed on4 ,a second and a third time did he try the same expedient1 and with such success that he reached the goal and won his bride4 ,hippomenes was ungrateful to ,venus1 who revenged herself by changing him into a lion1 and the beautiful ,atalanta into a lioness4 ,ques4 ,who was ,adonis8 ,ans4 ,he was a beautiful youth1 the son of ,cinyras1 king of ,cyprus1 and was beloved by ,venus4 ,he was killed by a wild boar1 while hunting with that goddess4 ,venus grieved much for her favorite4 ,to commemorate his cruel fate she caused the flower anemone to spring from his blood4 ,according to the poets1 the rose was formerly white4 ,when ,venus was hastening to the assistance of ,adonis1 her foot was wounded by a thorn1 and some drops of blood fell upon that flower1 which then assumed its present crimson hue4 ,ques4 ,who were the ,graces8 ,ans4 ,they were inferior goddesses1 who presided over the banquet1 the dance and all social enjoyments and elegant arts4 ,ques4 ,how many were there8 ,ans4 ,they were three in number4 ,their names were ,euphrosyne1 ,aglaia and ,thalia4 ,they are represented as beautiful young women1 standing in graceful attitudes with their hands joined4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,latona--,,leto4 ,ques4 ,who was ,latona8 ,ans4 ,she was the daughter of ,phoebe and ,coeus the ,titan4 ,when she was driven from heaven by the jealousy of ,juno1 she found an asylum in the island of ,delos1 where she gave birth to ,apollo and ,diana4 ,terra 7the earth7 had promised ,juno to give no shelter to her rival1 but the island of ,delos formerly floated in the sea1 and was at that time hidden under the waters4 ,neptune1 pitying the forlorn state of ,latona1 caused it to emerge from the sea1 when it became fixed and immovable for her use4 ,ques4 ,relate the transformation of ,lycian peasants into frogs4 ,ans4 ,latona1 while wandering with her babes in the country of ,lycia1 in ,asia1 arrived1 exhausted by heat and fatigue1 on the borders of a clear pool4 ,she was about to quench her thirst in the cool waters1 when some clowns rudely hindered her4 ,she begged them to have compassion1 and not deny her so small a refreshment2 but they mocked her prayers1 and when she tried to approach they waded into the pool1 and1 stirring up the mud1 defiled the waters so that it became unfit to drink4 ,the goddess was so much incensed1 that she changed the cruel rustics into frogs1 and condemned them to dwell forever in the muddy pool4 ,the punishment of ,niobe will be related in another place4 ,the sufferings of the giant ,tityus in hell1 were also the penalty of an insult offered to this goddess4 ,the ,greeks personified ,night1 under the name of ,latona2 hence she was said to have been the first wife of ,jupiter1 the mother of ,apollo and ,diana1 7the sun and moon7 and the nurse of the earth and stars4 ,the ,egyptians had the same allegory1 with a little variation1 as1 according to them1 she was grandmother and nurse of ,horus and ,bubastis1 their ,apollo and ,diana4 ,this goddess is generally represented on ancient monuments1 as a large and beautiful woman1 wearing a veil4 ,in paintings1 the veil is always black2 in cutting gems1 artists sometimes availed themselves of a dark colored vein in the stone1 to produce the same effect1 and represent the shades of night4 ,the veil is sometimes studded with stars4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,aurora--,,eos4 ,ques4 ,who was ,aurora8 ,ans4 ,she was the goddess of the morning and sister of the sun and moon4 ,she is represented as seated in a golden chariot drawn by milk-white horses2 her countenance is brilliant1 and her fingers are red like roses4 ,ques4 ,what did this represent8 ,ans4 ,the beauty of the morning heavens4 ,ques4 ,relate the story of ,cephalus and ,procris4 ,ans4 ,cephalus1 a beautiful youth1 was beloved by ,aurora1 who carried him with her to heaven2 but he regarded the goddess with indifference1 and insisted on returning to his young wife ,procris4 ,aurora allowed him to depart1 but prevailed on him to visit his house in disguise1 that he might judge of the constancy of his bride4 ,cephalus found his wife lamenting his absence and refusing all consolation1 but when she discovered her husband in the supposed stranger1 she was so indignant at his suspicion that she fled from him and joined the attendants of ,diana4 ,she was afterwards reconciled to ,cephalus1 and gave him two presents which she had received from ,diana4 ,these were1 a dog that was always sure of its prey1 and an arrow which never missed its aim1 and returned immediately to the hand of the owner4 ,cephalus was extremely fond of hunting1 and when fatigued1 he often rested in the shade and invited the presence of ,aura1 or the refreshing breeze4 ,this word was mistaken for the name of a nymph by some persons who carried the tale to ,procris4 ,being jealous in her turn1 she determined to watch1 and discover her rival4 ,when ,cephalus returned from hunting1 ,procris concealed herself in the grove2 she started upon hearing the name ,aura1 and caused a rustling among the leaves4 ,cephalus immediately threw his unerring dart1 which returned to his hand stained with the blood of his beloved wife4 ,he hastened to the spot1 but it was too late1 and ,procris expired in his arms1 acknowledging she had fallen a victim to her own groundless jealousy4 ,ques4 ,to whom was ,aurora married8 ,ans4 ,she chose for her husband ,tithonus1 the son of ,laomedon1 king of ,troy4 ,this prince was endowed with wonderful beauty2 but when ,aurora begged of ,jove that he might be exempted from death1 she forgot to ask at the same time for the bloom of immortal youth4 ,when ,tithonus became old and decrepit1 ,aurora still watched over him with the tenderest care1 giving him ambrosial food and fair garments4 ,when ,tithonus could no longer move his aged limbs1 and his feeble voice was scarcely heard1 the goddess was moved with compassion1 and changed him into a grasshopper4 ,ques4 ,who was ,memnon8 ,ans4 ,he was king of the ,ethiopians1 and son of ,tithonus and ,aurora4 ,when ,troy was besieged1 ,memnon came with an army to aid the kindred of his father4 ,in the first engagements he slew ,antilochus1 the son of ,nestor1 and threw the whole army of the ,greeks into disorder4 ,achilles1 however1 appeared on the field1 and changed the fortune of the day4 ,the ,trojans were routed in their turn1 and ,memnon fell by the hand of the ,grecian hero4 ,aurora watched the combat from the heavens1 and when she saw ,memnon fall she directed the winds to convey his body to the banks of the river sepus in ,paphlagonia4 ,here they raised his tomb in a sacred grove1 and his obsequies were celebrated with solemn pomp4 ,the sparks1 as they rose from the funeral pyre1 were changed into birds1 which divided into two flocks1 and fought together until they fell into the flames and were consumed4 ,according to the poets1 ,aurora was never consoled for the loss of her son2 she mourns unceasingly1 and the drops which sparkle in the morning on the grass and flowers are the tears which the goddess continues to shed during the long hours of night4 ,ancient history mentions many persons of the name of ,memnon1 particularly a general who distinguished himself in ,persia against ,alexander the ,great4 ,the ,memnon of fable was in all probability an ,egyptian1 and not an ,ethiopian king4 ,his statue is still an object of curiosity to travellers4 ,ques4 ,where is this statue1 and for what is it remarkable8 ,ans4 ,it is one of two colossal figures which are directly opposite the great temple of ,luxor4 ,they are called by the ,arabs1 ,shama and ,dama4 ,the statue of ,memnon is the more northerly of the two1 and was formerly celebrated for its vocal powers4 ,it is commonly asserted by ancient writers that when the first rays of the rising sun fell upon this statue1 it acknowledged the presence of ,aurora1 and uttered a sound like the sudden breaking of a harp-string4 ,by some1 it was compared to a blow struck on hollow brass4 ,ques4 ,was there any foundation for such a belief8 ,ans4 ,it appeared quite certain that the sounds of which we have spoken1 were really heard from this statue at sunrise2 the only question is as to the means by which they were produced4 ,the ,colossus1 although in a sitting posture1 measures fifty-two feet in height1 and the throne on which it rests is thirty feet long and eighteen broad4 ,these dimensions were sufficient to admit of any internal machinery that might be required to produce the mysterious sounds4 ,such was the supposition of the ,persian king ,cambyses1 who had the statue cleft asunder from the head to the middle of the body1 but without discovering anything4 ,humboldt conjectured that the sound might be attributed to the nature of the stone1 or to the action of the sun's rays upon the air confined in the cavities of the statue4 ,a much more reasonable solution of the mystery has been furnished by ,mr4 ,wilkinson1 an intelligent ,english traveller4 ,he discovered in the lap of the statue a stone1 which1 on being struck1 emits a metallic sound4 ,there is a hollow space hewn in the block behind this stone1 sufficiently large to admit of a person lying within it1 entirely concealed from observation4 ,mr4 ,wilkinson tried the experiment1 and was convinced that he had discovered the secret of this famous statue4 ,the face of the ,memnon1 like that of the ,sphinx1 has been mutilated by the ,arabs2 the positions of the figures which are yet uninjured show that the whole must have presented a beautiful and imposing appearance4 ,the base of the throne is covered with ancient inscriptions in ,greek and ,latin1 commemorating the visits of different illustrious persons1 and testifying that they had heard the mysterious voice of ,memnon4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,terrestrial ,gods4 ,,saturn4 ,ques4 ,who was ,saturn8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,coelum and ,terra4 ,he was married to ,ops1 or ,rhea1 and was the father of ,jupiter1 ,neptune and ,pluto4 ,as we have already learned1 ,saturn devoured the rest of his male children4 ,ques4 ,how is he represented8 ,ans4 ,saturn is represented as an old man armed with a scythe1 which signifies that time mows down everything in its course2 and he holds in his hands an infant which he is about to devour1 because time destroys all that it brings forth4 ,ques4 ,how did ,saturn lose his kingdom8 ,ans4 ,he was deposed by ,jupiter1 and was obliged to take refuge in ,italy1 where he taught the people the arts of civilized life4 ,janus1 king of ,italy1 made ,saturn partner of his kingdom1 and that part of the country was called ,latium1 from a ,latin word which meant to hide2 it was sometimes also called ,saturnia4 ,saturn's government was so wise and beneficial that his reign was called the ,golden ,age4 ,the poets tell us that all men then lived on a perfect equality1 property was held in common1 and the earth brought forth its fruits without labor4 ,ques4 ,what sacrifices were offered to ,saturn8 ,ans4 ,he was worshipped with human sacrifices1 which seems strange when we consider that he was so mild a king4 ,the planet ,saturn was supposed by the ancients to exercise a malignant influence4 ,ques4 ,what were the ,saturnalia8 ,ans4 ,they were solemnities instituted by ,tullus ,hostilius1 king of ,rome4 ,in early times the festival lasted one day1 but after ,julius ,csar1 it was prolonged to three1 four1 or five days4 ,ques4 ,how were these days observed8 ,ans4 ,they were a season of general rejoicing2 the ,senate did not sit1 schools gave holidays1 and friends sent presents to one another4 ,it was unlawful to proclaim war or execute criminals during this festival4 ,servants might1 at this time1 say what they pleased to their masters1 who could not take offence2 also1 in memory of the freedom and equality enjoyed in ,saturn's reign1 they sat at table while their masters served1 and reproved the latter freely if they were guilty of any awkwardness4 ,lastly1 servants and common people were allowed to wear purple cloaks1 a distinction reserved at other times to the patricians4 ,the ,saturnalia is probably represented in some degree by the modern ,carnival4 ,saturn is thought by some persons to have been the same as ,noah4 ,,janus4 ,ques4 ,who was ,janus8 ,ans4 ,he was an ancient ,italian deity1 of whose origin very contradictory accounts are given4 ,he was supposed to have reigned in ,italy in the time of ,saturn1 and to have associated that god with him in the kingdom4 ,he was generally represented with two faces1 and was called hence1 ,janus ,bifrons4 ,he had many temples in ,rome4 ,the gates of the chief temple1 that of ,janus ,quirinus1 were always open in time of war1 and closed when the ,romans were at peace4 ,it is a remarkable circumstance that the gates of ,janus were closed but three times in seven hundred years4 ,they were shut for the first time in the reign of ,numa2 again1 after the first ,punic war2 and ,augustus closed the temple the third time when he had given peace to the world4 ,this occurred just before the coming of our ,lord4 ,the first month of the year is named from ,janus4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,vulcan--,,haph,,stus4 ,ques4 ,who was ,vulcan8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,jupiter and ,juno1 but was cast down from heaven on account of his deformed appearance4 ,he landed in ,lemnos1 but broke his leg in the fall1 and remained lame ever afterwards4 ,ques4 ,how was ,vulcan represented8 ,ans4 ,as a smith standing by an anvil with tools in his hand4 ,ques4 ,what was his occupation8 ,ans4 ,he had a blacksmith shop in ,lemnos1 where he manufactured ,jupiter's thunderbolts1 and the arms of the other gods4 ,vulcan was the god of fire1 and the patron of blacksmiths and armorers4 ,ques4 ,what were the most celebrated works of ,vulcan8 ,ans4 ,the armor of ,achilles and of neas1 the beautiful necklace of ,hermione1 the crown of ,ariadne1 and the brazen palace of the sun4 ,the shield of ,achilles was enamelled with metals of various colors1 and embossed with beautiful historical designs4 ,ques4 ,to whom was ,vulcan married8 ,ans4 ,vulcan was married to ,venus1 but that goddess behaved treacherously towards him and attached herself to ,mars4 ,ques4 ,who were the servants of ,vulcan8 ,ans4 ,the attendants of ,vulcan were called ,cyclops1 because they had each one eye in the middle of the forehead2 they were the offspring of ,neptune and ,amphitrite4 ,ques4 ,how was ,vulcan worshipped8 ,ans4 ,the ,romans celebrated feasts in his honor called ,vulcania4 ,at these they sacrificed animals by throwing them into the fire to be burned to death4 ,the ,athenians also kept feasts of ,vulcan1 and there was in ,sicily1 upon ,mount ,etna1 a famous temple dedicated to him4 ,ques4 ,what was peculiar about this temple8 ,ans4 ,the approach to it was guarded by dogs1 whose scent was so keen that they could discover whether the persons coming to the temple were virtuous or wicked4 ,to the servants of ,vulcan might be added ,cacus1 who stole the oxen of ,hercules2 and the robber ,cculus1 from whom the noble ,roman family of the ,ccilii derived their name4 ,he was the founder of the city of ,prneste4 ,one fable is1 that certain shepherds found ,cculus1 when an infant1 lying unhurt in a glowing fire1 from which circumstance he was supposed to be the son of ,vulcan4 ,the shepherd1 ,polyphemus1 resembled the ,cyclops1 and was1 like them1 a son of ,neptune4 ,the monster devoured several of the companions of ,ulysses1 but the hero1 having made him drunk with wine1 put out his single eye with a firebrand and escaped4 ,he embarked in haste1 pursued by the monster2 his companions shouted defiance as they weighed anchor1 and the blind ,cyclops1 directed by the sound of their voices1 hurled a rock into the sea1 by which their vessel was almost swamped4 ,warned by this danger1 they rowed silently until they reached the open sea4 ,some writers have imagined that the ,cyclops were a race of miners1 who1 descending into the deep recesses of the earth1 and coming forth again1 had a lamp attached to their foreheads1 to give them light4 ,this1 at a distance1 would appear like a large1 flaming eye1 and might give rise to the fable of one-eyed monsters4 ,this explanation is1 however1 far fetched and improbable4 ,ques4 ,can you name any works of ,vulcan1 beside those already mentioned8 ,ans4 ,yes1 he made for ,alcinos1 king of the ,phacians1 gold and silver dogs which guarded his house4 ,to ,minos1 king of ,crete1 he gave the brazen man ,talus1 who passed around the island three times every day1 to guard it from invasion4 ,for himself1 ,vulcan formed golden handmaidens1 whom he endowed with reason and speech4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,olus4 ,ques4 ,who was olus8 ,ans4 ,he was the god of the winds2 he could imprison them in a dark cave1 or1 by setting them free1 create tempests4 ,ques4 ,what was the origin of this fable8 ,ans4 ,it is believed that olus was a skillful astronomer who dwelt in a volcanic island4 ,by noticing the clouds of smoke1 and how they rose1 he was enabled to foretell storms a long time before they happened2 hence the ignorant believed that he could bring high winds and tempests whenever he pleased4 ,,momus4 ,ques4 ,who was ,momus8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,night and ,sleep2 the name ,momus signifies a jester4 ,his occupation was to criticise the other gods1 and censure their actions4 ,ques4 ,give an example8 ,ans4 ,neptune1 ,vulcan1 and ,minerva contended for the prize of skill2 ,neptune made a bull1 ,minerva a house1 and ,vulcan a man4 ,momus was called upon to decide their merits1 but he blamed them all4 ,he said that ,neptune was imprudent in not placing the bull's horns in his forehead1 before his eyes1 that he might give a stronger and surer blow4 ,he found fault with ,minerva's house1 because it was immovable and could not be carried away if it were placed among bad neighbors4 ,he said that ,vulcan was the worst of all1 because he did not put a window in the man's breast so that his thoughts might be seen4 ,no god could escape the censure of ,momus4 ,when he could find nothing to criticise in the person of ,venus1 he complained of the noise made by her golden sandals4 ,momus was at length driven from ,olympus4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,terrestrial ,goddesses4 ,,vesta--,,hestia4 ,ques4 ,who was ,vesta8 ,ans4 ,she was the daughter of ,saturn and ,ops or ,rhea1 and was1 therefore1 the sister of ,jupiter4 ,she was considered the guardian of homes and firesides1 and was a household divinity4 ,statues of ,vesta were placed by the ,romans at the entrance of their houses2 hence the word vestibule1 which we still use4 ,ques4 ,how is ,vesta usually represented8 ,ans4 ,as seated on the ground1 and leaning upon a drum1 while various domestic animals are grouped about her4 ,ques4 ,what was the character of this goddess8 ,ans4 ,she was esteemed very holy1 and was the patroness of household virtues4 ,when ,jupiter asked her to choose whatever gift she would1 ,vesta desired that she might remain always a virgin1 and receive the first oblations in all sacrifices4 ,fire was the emblem of this goddess1 and in her temple1 at ,rome1 a sacred fire was suspended in the air1 and watched by the ,vestal ,virgins4 ,if this fire chanced to be extinguished1 all public and private business was suspended until the accident had been expiated4 ,ques4 ,what laws existed with regard to the ,vestal ,virgins8 ,ans4 ,the penalties for neglect of their duties were severe4 ,if the sacred fire was extinguished through their negligence1 they were sometimes cruelly punished1 and if any ,virgin infringed the rule which forbade her to marry1 she was buried alive2 being shut up in a vault underground1 with a lamp1 and a little bread1 wine1 water and oil4 ,the sacred fire of ,vesta was watched by these priestesses for nearly eleven centuries4 ,we are told that during this period1 twenty ,vestals were condemned to death4 ,of these1 seven were permitted to take their own lives1 thirteen suffered the terrible punishment we have described4 ,the last execution of this kind took place in the reign of the emperor ,domitian4 ,ques4 ,what were the privileges of the ,vestal ,virgins8 ,ans4 ,in recompense for these severe laws1 the ,vestals were treated with extraordinary respect4 ,they had the most honorable seats at games and festivals1 and even the consuls and magistrates gave them precedence2 their testimony was taken in trials without any form of oath1 and if they happened to meet a criminal going to execution1 he was immediately pardoned4 ,public documents of great importance were generally entrusted to their care4 ,a striking instance of the respect felt for these ,virgins1 is related by a ,roman historian4 ,appius ,claudius ,audax1 a consul who had rendered himself obnoxious to the people1 was attacked in the midst of a triumphal procession by the plebeian tribunes1 who endeavored to pull him from his chariot4 ,his daughter1 who was a ,vestal ,virgin1 ascended the triumphal car1 and took her place by her father's side4 ,the tumult immediately subsided1 and the procession proceeded quietly to the capital4 ,ques4 ,how many ,vestal ,virgins were there8 ,ans4 ,the number has been variously stated4 ,some authors mention six1 others seven1 as the number actually in office4 ,they were chosen between the ages of six and ten2 for ten years they were employed in learning their duty2 they remained in office for ten1 and ten other years were employed in instructing the novices4 ,if there were seven ,vestals always in office1 the entire number must have been twenty-one4 ,the thirty years being ended1 the ,vestals returned to their families4 ,the law then permitted them to marry1 but it was considered discreditable to do so4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,cybele4 ,ques4 ,who was ,cybele8 ,ans4 ,this goddess1 sometimes called by the ,greeks1 ,rhea1 and by the ,latins1 ,ops1 is considered to be a personification of the earth4 ,she is goddess1 not of cities only1 but of all things which the earth contains4 ,she was the daughter of ,coelum1 and the wife of ,saturn4 ,ques4 ,how was ,cybele represented8 ,ans4 ,generally as riding in a chariot1 drawn by lions4 ,she wears a turreted crown1 and is clothed in a many-colored mantle1 on which are represented the figures of various animals4 ,in her right hand she holds a sceptre1 and in her left1 a key4 ,this last emblem seems to signify that the earth locks up her treasures in the winter season4 ,cybele is always represented with the dignified and matronly air which distinguishes ,juno and ,ceres4 ,ques4 ,how was she worshipped8 ,ans4 ,sacrifices were first offered to this goddess in ,phrygia and ,lydia4 ,her temples were generally built on the summits of mountains2 that on ,mount ,dindymus near ,pessinus1 in ,galatia1 was particularly celebrated4 ,her statue in this temple was simply a large aerolite which had fallen in the vicinity1 and was regarded by the people as the heaven-sent image of their great goddess4 ,at the close of the second ,punic war1 the ,romans1 directed1 it is said1 by the ,sibylline books1 sent an embassy to ,attalus1 king of ,pergamus1 requesting that he would permit the so-called image to be removed to ,rome4 ,the monarch consented1 and the sacred stone was carried in triumph to the ,italian capital4 ,there it was placed in a stately temple built for the purpose1 and a solemn festival1 called ,megalesia1 was celebrated annually1 in honor of ,cybele4 ,during these solemnities1 priests called ,galli and ,corybantes ran about like madmen1 with cries and howlings1 making1 at the same time1 a terrific noise with the clashing of cymbals1 the sound of pipes and other instruments4 ,in their frenzy1 they cut their flesh with knives1 and performed many other extravagances1 but the people regarded them with reverence1 as they were believed1 while in this state1 to possess the gift of prophecy4 ,the divinity worshipped by the ,roman women under the name of ,bona ,dea1 or ,good ,goddess1 is believed to be the same as ,cybele4 ,ancient writers relate an extraordinary incident connected with the arrival of the image of ,cybele in ,rome4 ,the ship which bore the sacred stone was stranded on a shoal in the ,tiber4 ,claudia1 a ,vestal ,virgin who was suspected of having violated her vow1 attached her girdle to the prow1 and drew the ship safely into port4 ,her innocence was established by this prodigy4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,ceres--,,demeter4 ,ques4 ,who was ,ceres8 ,ans4 ,she was the daughter of ,saturn and ,ops1 and was worshipped as the goddess of fruits and corn4 ,it is supposed that she first invented and taught the art of tilling the earth1 and sowing wheat and other grains1 so that men ate wholesome bread1 where before they had lived on roots and acorns4 ,ques4 ,how is ,ceres represented8 ,ans4 ,as a beautiful and majestic woman1 with golden hair1 and crowned with ears of wheat2 in her right hand she holds poppies and ears of corn1 and in her left1 a flaming torch4 ,ques4 ,explain these emblems4 ,ans4 ,the hair of ,ceres is golden1 to represent the color of ripe corn2 she holds a lighted torch1 because when her daughter ,proserpine was stolen by ,pluto1 ,ceres kindled a torch from the flames of ,mount ,etna1 to light her on her search throughout the world4 ,she holds a poppy1 because when she was so grieved that she could neither rest nor sleep1 ,jupiter gave her a poppy to eat4 ,ques4 ,relate the story of ,proserpine 7,persephone74 ,ans4 ,none of the goddesses were willing to marry ,pluto1 or share his gloomy kingdom4 ,he determined1 nevertheless1 to obtain a wife1 even if he had to do so by violence4 ,proserpine1 the daughter of ,jupiter and ,ceres1 was gathering daffodils with her companions in the plains of ,enna1 when ,pluto suddenly appeared among them in a chariot drawn by black horses4 ,as the maidens fled in terror1 he seized ,proserpine1 and striking the waters of the fountain ,cyane with his trident1 he opened a passage1 through which he descended with his prize4 ,ceres1 ignorant of what had occurred1 wandered through the world in search of her daughter4 ,at length1 arriving at the fountain of ,cyane1 she perceived the girdle of ,proserpine still floating on its waters2 and the nymph ,arethusa informed her of what had taken place4 ,ceres repaired immediately to ,olympus1 where she made her complaint to ,jupiter1 and demanded that ,pluto should restore her daughter4 ,jupiter promised to grant her request1 in case ,proserpine should not have tasted food in the infernal regions4 ,ceres descended thither1 and ,proserpine prepared joyfully to accompany her mother1 when ,ascalaphus reported that he had seen her eat some seeds of pomegranate4 ,the hopes of ,ceres were thus destroyed1 but ,proserpine was so indignant at the treachery of ,ascalaphus1 that she changed him immediately into an owl4 ,jupiter endeavored to appease the resentment of ,ceres by permitting ,proserpine to divide the year1 spending six months with her mother on earth1 the other six with ,pluto in the infernal regions4 ,ques4 ,what were the most famous solemnities instituted in honor of ,ceres8 ,ans4 ,the ,eleusian or ,eleusinian ,mysteries4 ,they were named from ,eleusis1 a town in ,greece where they were celebrated4 ,ques4 ,what rites were practiced during these mysteries8 ,ans4 ,we cannot tell with any certainty4 ,the penalty of death was decreed against any one who should betray the secret1 or even witness the ceremonies without having been regularly initiated4 ,disclosures were made1 however1 which seem to prove that the person to be initiated was first introduced into a dark subterranean cave1 where he was terrified with the most fearful sights and sounds4 ,after this1 if his courage did not fail1 he was suddenly introduced into a lovely garden1 and the ceremonies concluded with feasting and dancing4 ,ques4 ,who were admitted to these rites8 ,ans4 ,athenians only2 but ,hercules1 to whom no one dared refuse anything1 was initiated1 and after him1 other distinguished foreigners were admitted to what were called the ,lesser ,mysteries4 ,the ,athenians were eager to be admitted to these rites1 because they believed that the souls of those who had not been initiated were left to wallow in mud and filth in the lower regions4 ,ques4 ,what do the early ,christian writers say of these mysteries8 ,ans4 ,they speak of them as being almost as immoral as the festivals held in honor of ,bacchus4 ,ques4 ,who is said to have instituted them8 ,ans4 ,triptolemus1 the foster-child of ,ceres4 ,ques4 ,relate the story of ,triptolemus4 ,ans4 ,when ,ceres was seeking ,proserpine by sea and land1 she was kindly entertained by ,celeus1 king of ,eleusis1 in ,attica4 ,she rewarded his hospitality by taking care of his young son1 whom she nourished during the day with celestial food2 but in the night1 she covered him with fire4 ,under this extraordinary treatment1 the infant1 in a few days1 became a beautiful young man4 ,his mother1 ,meganira1 wondered at this1 and resolved to discover the cause4 ,she watched ,ceres at night1 and when she saw her covering ,triptolemus with living coals1 she cried out in terror1 and rushed into the room to save him4 ,ceres punished her curiosity with death1 but she adopted ,triptolemus1 and sent him through the world to teach mankind the use of corn4 ,he executed the commands of ,ceres1 and wherever he went1 instructed men in sowing1 reaping1 and other arts of husbandry4 ,triptolemus is usually represented as a young man1 seated in a splendid chariot drawn by flying serpents4 ,ques4 ,what sacrifices were offered to ,ceres8 ,ans4 ,young heifers1 swine and ears of corn1 wine1 milk and honey were used in the libations4 ,ques4 ,what were the ,ambarvalia8 ,ans4 ,they were feasts kept in the beginning of harvest1 preparatory to reaping4 ,the animal to be offered in sacrifice1 was led around the fields1 the husbandmen and country rustics following with shouts and songs4 ,virgil says of these festivities3 ,let ev'ry swain adore her power divine1 ,and milk and honey mix with sparkling wine2 ,let all the choir of clowns attend this show1 ,in long procession1 shouting as they go2 ,invoking her to bless their yearly stores1 ,inviting plenty to their crowded floors4 ,thus in the spring1 and thus in summer's heat1 ,before the sickles touch the rip'ning wheat1 ,on ,ceres call2 and let the lab'ring hind ,with oaken wreaths his hollow temples bind2 ,on ,ceres let him call1 and ,ceres praise1 ,with uncouth dances1 and with country-lays4 ,,georg4 ,i4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,themis--,,astr,a--,,nemesis4 ,ques4 ,who was ,themis8 ,ans4 ,she instructed both gods and men1 and was generally considered the goddess of law and justice4 ,her origin is uncertain2 but she is said to have been a ,titaness4 ,ques4 ,who was ,astra8 ,ans4 ,she was also goddess of justice2 according to some1 she was the daughter of ,jupiter and ,themis4 ,when the ,titans took up arms against ,jupiter1 ,astra descended to earth1 and mingled with the human race4 ,this intercourse was uninterrupted during the ,golden ,age2 in the ,silver ,age1 ,astra dwelt in the mountains1 and descended only amid the shades of evening1 when she was unseen by men4 ,when the ,brazen ,age commenced1 she fled altogether from the human race1 being the last among the ,immortals to abandon the earth4 ,jupiter then changed her into the constellation ,virgo1 one of the signs of the zodiac4 ,this constellation is represented by the figure of a woman holding scales in one hand1 and a sword in the other4 ,the scales have been variously explained1 but they are generally supposed to be an emblem of justice4 ,according to some1 ,erigone1 a maiden who hung herself in despair1 at the death of her father1 was changed into the constellation ,virgo4 ,ques4 ,who was ,nemesis8 ,ans4 ,she was the daughter of ,night1 and the goddess of just vengeance4 ,it was her office to follow and punish guilty men4 ,she had wings1 but generally went on foot1 which signifies that the punishment of crime1 although sure1 is generally slow4 ,an ancient poet says3 ,vengeance divine to punish sin moves slow2 ,the slower is its pace1 the surer is its blow4 ,ques4 ,what do you say of the temple of ,nemesis at ,rhamnus8 ,ans4 ,this temple was but a short distance from the plain of ,marathon4 ,the ,persians had brought with them a great block of ,parian marble for the trophy which they intended to erect in honor of their expected victory4 ,this marble fell into the hands of the ,athenians1 and a sculptor1 said by some to have been ,phidias1 afterwards carved from it a beautiful statue of ,nemesis1 which was placed in the temple of ,rhamnus4 ,a fragment was found in the ruins of this edifice1 which is supposed to be the head of this statue2 and has been presented as such to the ,british ,museum4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,the ,,muses4 ,ques4 ,who were the ,muses8 ,ans4 ,they were the daughters of ,jupiter and ,mnemosyne1 and were supposed to preside over the liberal arts and sciences4 ,ques4 ,how many ,muses were there8 ,ans4 ,they were nine in number1 and each presided over some particular department of literature1 art or science4 ,their names were3 ,calliope1 who was the ,muse of epic poetry1 she holds in her hand a roll of parchment1 or a trumpet4 ,clio presided over history4 ,she holds a half opened scroll4 ,melpomene was the ,muse of tragedy4 ,she leans on a club1 and holds a tragic mask4 ,euterpe was the patroness of music4 ,she holds two flutes4 ,erato inspired those who wrote of love4 ,she plays on a nine-stringed lyre4 ,terpsichore presided over choral dance and song4 ,she appears dancing1 and holds a seven-stringed lyre4 ,urania1 the ,muse of astronomy1 holds a globe1 and traces mathematical figures with a wand4 ,thalia1 the ,muse of comedy1 holds in one hand a comic mask1 in the other a crooked staff4 ,polyhymnia presided over eloquence4 ,she holds her fore-finger to her lips1 or carries a scroll4 ,the ,muses are sometimes represented as crowned with palms1 and seated in the shade of an arbor1 playing upon different instruments2 or again1 as dancing in a circle with joined hands1 while ,apollo is seated in their midst4 ,ques4 ,how have some writers accounted for the number of ,muses8 ,ans4 ,they say that in ancient times there were but three ,muses4 ,the citizens of ,sicyon employed three sculptors to execute statues of these goddesses1 promising to choose from among the nine images1 those which they should consider the most beautiful4 ,when the statues were finished1 they were found to be so skillfully wrought1 that it was impossible to make a choice4 ,they were all placed in the temple1 and the poet ,hesiod afterwards assigned them names and attributes4 ,ques4 ,what punishment did the ,muses inflict on the nine daughters of ,pierus1 king of mathia8 ,ans4 ,these maidens challenged the ,muses to a contest in music2 they were defeated and transformed into magpies by the indignant goddesses4 ,thamyris1 a musician of ,thrace1 was struck blind for the same offence4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,gods of the ,woods1 and ,rural ,deities4 ,,pan4 ,ques4 ,who was ,pan8 ,ans4 ,he was a woodland deity1 and was honored by the ,romans as the god of shepherds and the patron of fishing and fowling4 ,the ,latins sometimes called him ,incubus or the ,nightmare1 and at ,rome he was worshipped as ,lupercus1 or ,lynceus4 ,his origin is uncertain1 but he is said by some authors to have been a son of ,mercury and a nymph of ,arcadia4 ,ques4 ,how is ,pan represented8 ,ans4 ,as half man1 and half goat1 having a human head ornamented with horns1 and a garland of pine3 he holds in one hand a crooked staff1 and in the other a pipe of uneven reeds4 ,the music which he made on this rude instrument was so sweet as to cheer the gods4 ,ques4 ,what famous action is related of ,pan8 ,ans4 ,when the ,gauls1 under their ,king ,brennus1 made an irruption into ,greece1 and were about to plunder the temple of ,apollo at ,delphi1 ,pan suddenly showed himself1 and so terrified them that they fled in disorder4 ,hence it comes that any sudden and unreasonable terror which spreads through an assemblage of persons1 particularly an army1 is called a panic4 ,ques4 ,what was the origin of ,pan's reeds8 ,ans4 ,a beautiful nymph1 named ,syrinx1 was so persecuted by this god1 that she prayed the water-nymphs to help her1 and change her into reeds1 which they did4 ,pan saw the transformation1 and was much grieved4 ,he took some of the reeds away for a remembrance4 ,on applying them to his lips1 he found they produced the most melodious sounds1 so that he formed them into a rustic pipe4 ,milk and honey were offered to ,pan4 ,,satyrs ,,and ,,fauns4 ,ques4 ,who were these8 ,ans4 ,they were hideous monsters who dwelt in forests1 and were1 like ,pan1 half man and half goat4 ,,terminus4 ,ques4 ,who was ,terminus8 ,ans4 ,he was the god of boundaries4 ,his statue was only a square stone1 or a painted log of wood4 ,it is probable that the ,romans did not suppose ,terminus to be a person1 but only used the name as another term for justice1 which forbids any one to trespass on another's boundaries4 ,landmarks and boundary stones were considered sacred by the ,romans2 they were crowned with garlands on festivals1 offerings were laid upon them1 and it was death for any one to remove one4 ,when ,constantine embraced ,christianity1 and placed the cross on his standard1 he replaced these ,terminal stones by the ,christian emblem1 and the custom of erecting wayside crosses1 which became afterwards almost universal1 is said to date from this epoch4 ,terminus had a temple on the ,tarpeian rock4 ,it is said that when ,tarquin the ,proud wished to build a temple to ,jupiter on the spot1 the god of boundaries refused to give way4 ,,vertumnus4 ,ques4 ,who was this deity8 ,ans4 ,he is generally reckoned as one of the rural divinities1 and was worshipped as such by the ancient ,sabines4 ,the name comes from the ,latin word verto1 7to turn or change17 and was bestowed upon him in allusion to his power of taking any form he pleased4 ,vertumnus presided over the seasons2 he was the husband of ,pomona4 ,statues of this god were erected in every town of ,italy4 ,his festival called ,vertumnalia1 was kept in ,october4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,goddesses of the ,woods4 ,,diana4 ,ques4 ,who was ,diana8 ,ans4 ,she was the daughter of ,jupiter and ,latona1 and the twin-sister of ,apollo4 ,this goddess had three names4 ,on earth she was called ,diana1 and was honored as the goddess of woods and hunting2 in heaven she was called ,luna1 and was identified with the moon1 as her brother ,apollo was with the sun4 ,in hell1 she was called ,hecate1 and as spirits were supposed to be subject to her1 she was invoked under the latter name in all magical incantations4 ,ques4 ,what were the habits of ,diana8 ,ans4 ,she shunned the society of men1 and frequented the woods1 attended by a train of virgins who had resolved1 like her1 never to marry4 ,ques4 ,who were the attendants of ,diana8 ,ans4 ,sometimes the ,oceanides or daughters of ,oceanus2 sometimes the woodland nymphs4 ,diana often led a chorus of the ,muses and ,graces1 and joined them in singing the praises of her mother ,latona4 ,ques4 ,how is ,diana represented8 ,ans4 ,as a very stately and beautiful woman1 dressed in the garb of a huntress2 she holds a bow in her hand1 and a quiver of arrows is hung across her shoulders4 ,her feet are covered with buskins1 and a bright silver crescent glitters on her forehead4 ,sometimes she is represented as seated in a silver chariot drawn by hounds4 ,ques4 ,who was ,chione8 ,ans4 ,she was a nymph beloved by ,apollo4 ,she spoke scornfully of the beauty of ,diana1 and the goddess1 in revenge1 pierced her tongue with an arrow4 ,ques4 ,relate the story of ,niobe4 ,ans4 ,she was the daughter of ,tantalus1 and the wife of ,amphion1 king of ,thebes4 ,she was enriched with all the gifts of nature and fortune1 and being made insolent by prosperity1 she insulted ,latona1 and refused to offer incense at her shrine4 ,niobe had seven beautiful sons1 and as many lovely daughters1 and had boasted of their number as rendering her superior to ,latona4 ,the indignant goddess called upon ,apollo and ,diana to revenge the insult offered to their mother1 and humble the haughty ,niobe4 ,this they effected by slaying1 in one day1 all the children of the unhappy queen4 ,her sons expired by the arrows of ,apollo1 and her daughters by those of ,diana4 ,amphion killed himself in despair1 and the wretched ,niobe1 widowed and childless1 wept without ceasing until the pitying gods changed her into stone4 ,this story has furnished the subject of a very beautiful group of statuary1 in which ,niobe is represented as vainly endeavoring to shelter1 beneath her mantle1 the youngest and last of her children4 ,ques4 ,where was the most celebrated temple of ,diana8 ,ans4 ,at ,ephesus in ,asia ,minor2 it was so beautiful that it was counted among the seven wonders of the world4 ,two hundred and twenty years were spent in the building1 although an incredible number of workmen were employed4 ,the entire length of the temple was #dbe feet1 and the breadth #bbj2 the whole was supported by #abg superb columns1 each the gift of a king4 ,the statue of the goddess was of ebony1 and the most skillful painters and sculptors were employed in the decorations of the edifice4 ,a man named ,erostratus1 who was anxious to make himself famous1 by whatever means1 set fire to this magnificent building4 ,this event took place on the very day on which ,alexander the ,great was born4 ,the temple was but partially destroyed1 and was soon afterwards restored to its former splendor4 ,the inhabitants of ,ephesus seem to have been particularly attached to the worship of ,diana4 ,we read in the ,acts of the ,apostles that when they began to make converts in that city1 the people were very indignant2 in their zeal for their goddess they ran about the streets for the space of about two hours1 crying1 ,great is ,diana of the ,ephesians6 ,this temple was despoiled by ,nero1 who removed many costly offerings and images1 together with a large quantity of silver and gold4 ,it was afterwards plundered by the ,goths in the reign of ,gallienus2 and the materials of the building have been since used in the construction of other edifices4 ,the great dome of ,santa ,sophia1 in ,constantinople1 rests upon pillars of green jasper which were removed from the temple of ,diana by order of ,justinian4 ,two pillars of the great church of ,pisa were also taken from this temple1 which has been so completely destroyed that the exact site is not known4 ,,nymphs4 ,ques4 ,who were the ,nymphs8 ,ans4 ,they were graceful young women who attended on ,diana and the greater goddesses4 ,some1 also1 had charge of certain fountains and rivers1 and were called ,naiades2 the nymphs of ,ocean were ,nereides and ,oceanides4 ,the ,oreades were mountain nymphs1 and others presided over groves and even single trees4 ,ques4 ,what were the woodland nymphs called8 ,ans4 ,those who watched over the forests1 and always lived among the trees1 were called ,dryades1 from a ,greek word which means an oak2 the ,hamadryades were so called because they were attached1 each to some particular oak4 ,the ,hamadryad was born with the tree1 flourished and died with it4 ,this belief lingered for a long time amid the ,german forests1 as also the superstition about water spirits4 ,ques4 ,what was the story of ,arethusa8 ,ans4 ,this nymph was the daughter of ,oceanus1 and an attendant of ,diana4 ,she was admired by the god of the river ,alpheus1 but refused to listen to his addresses4 ,as she fled from his presence1 he pursued4 ,the terrified nymph had sped through all ,arcadia2 the shades of evening were gathering1 and ,alpheus pressed close upon her fainting steps4 ,in this extremity1 ,arethusa prayed to ,diana for relief1 and was immediately dissolved into a fountain4 ,alpheus resumed his watery form1 and sought to mingle his current with hers1 but ,diana opened for her a passage under the sea1 and she rose in the island of ,ortygia1 in ,sicily1 still followed by the stream of the ,alpheus4 ,in proof of this fable1 and of the ,grecian origin of this famous fount1 it was asserted that a cup which fell into the river ,alpheus in ,greece1 rose in the fountain of ,arethusa1 and that its clear waters were reddened with the blood of the victims slain at the ,olympic games4 ,ques4 ,who was ,echo8 ,ans4 ,echo was a nymph1 the daughter of ,air and ,tellus2 she was one of ,juno's attendants1 but offended that goddess by her talkativeness4 ,she was so far deprived of speech1 that she could only repeat the last words of every sentence which she heard4 ,echo loved the youth ,narcissus1 and seeing that he despised her affection1 she pined away till nothing remained of her but her voice and bones4 ,the latter were changed into stones1 but the voice is still heard among rocks and in solitary places1 repeating always the last words that are spoken4 ,ques4 ,what was the fate of ,narcissus8 ,ans4 ,one legend is that he saw his image reflected in a fountain1 and1 not perceiving that it was but his own shadow1 gazed at it1 lost in admiration1 until he was changed into the flower that bears his name4 ,according to another version1 ,narcissus had a twin-sister who resembled him closely in form and feature1 and was his constant companion4 ,this sister died young1 and ,narcissus1 deeply lamenting her death1 used to go to a neighboring fountain1 and try to recall the image of his sister by gazing at his own reflection in the waters4 ,ques4 ,were there many rural divinities8 ,ans4 ,yes1 a great number2 but only a few were well known4 ,among those we may mention ,pomona1 the goddess of orchards1 and ,flora1 the goddess of flowers4 ,pales was the goddess of shepherds and pastures4 ,the ,romans celebrated feasts1 called ,pallia1 in her honor4 ,they offered milk1 and cakes of millet1 that she might drive away the wolves1 and prevent diseases among the cattle4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,gods of the ,sea4 ,,neptune--,,poseidon4 ,ques4 ,who was ,neptune8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,saturn and ,ops1 and was worshipped as the god of the sea1 and the father of rivers and fountains4 ,ques4 ,how is he represented8 ,ans4 ,as standing upright in a chariot made of a sea-shell2 for a sceptre1 he holds a trident1 that is1 a fork with three barbed tines2 he is arrayed in a blue mantle1 and is generally accompanied by his queen ,amphitrite4 ,neptune's chariot is drawn by sea-horses1 and his attendants1 who swim on either side1 are human only to the waist1 the body terminating like that of a fish4 ,whenever ,neptune's chariot moved upon the waters1 the sea grew calm1 and tempests were appeased4 ,ques4 ,what were the offices of ,neptune8 ,ans4 ,he conducted ships safely to port1 and presided over horse-races4 ,ques4 ,why was he supposed to preside over horses8 ,ans4 ,in memory of his contest with ,minerva1 when he produced a horse by striking on the ground with his trident4 ,neptune was obliged by ,jupiter to aid ,apollo in building the walls of ,troy4 ,ques4 ,how was ,neptune worshipped8 ,ans4 ,neptune had an altar in the ,circus at ,rome where sacrifices were offered1 and plays were acted1 representing the carrying off of the ,sabine women4 ,the solemn games in honor of this god were called ,consualia1 and were celebrated in the month of ,march4 ,while these lasted1 horses were released from work1 and mules were adorned with garlands4 ,ques4 ,who were the most remarkable of ,neptune's children8 ,ans4 ,triton1 and ,phorcus or ,proteus4 ,ques4 ,what is told of ,phorcus8 ,ans4 ,he was vanquished by ,atlas1 and drowned in the sea2 after which the people worshipped him as a god4 ,there was another ,phorcus who had three daughters1 concerning whom a remarkable circumstance is related4 ,the sisters had but one eye for their common use2 each one wore it in turn1 in the middle of her forehead4 ,they were the guardians of the ,gorgons1 of whom ,medusa was one4 ,the hero ,perseus1 when about to attack ,medusa1 visited them1 and1 watching his opportunity1 while one of the sisters was handing the eye to the other1 he snatched it from her1 and left all three in darkness4 ,ques4 ,for what was ,proteus remarkable8 ,ans4 ,for his power of transforming himself instantaneously into any shape he wished4 ,ques4 ,who was ,triton8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,neptune and ,amphitrite1 and was his father's companion and trumpeter4 ,the upper half of his body was like that of a man1 but below the waist he resembled a fish2 his tail was cleft and crooked1 and his hair resembled wild parsley4 ,ques4 ,what other sea-monsters were celebrated8 ,ans4 ,the ,sirens1 also ,scylla1 and ,charybdis4 ,ques4 ,who were the ,sirens8 ,ans4 ,they were monsters who had the faces of women1 but the bodies of flying-fish2 they dwelt near the promontory of ,peloris1 or in islands called ,sirenus1 south of ,italy4 ,by the magical sweetness of their singing1 they allured all who sailed by those coasts2 and after they had lulled them into a trance1 drowned them in the sea4 ,ques4 ,what was there remarkable in the songs of the ,sirens8 ,ans4 ,they blended the notes of different musical instruments with their voices1 and adapted the style and matter of their songs to the inclination of their hearers4 ,they had bold and stirring strains to entice the ambitious1 softer melodies for the lovers of pleasure1 and with still different notes1 they drew on the covetous to their destruction4 ,ques4 ,did any escape who passed those coasts8 ,ans4 ,history mentions only two2 ,ulysses and ,orpheus4 ,the first was warned against the danger by the enchantress ,circe2 he therefore stopped the ears of his companions with wax1 and had himself firmly bound to the mast of the ship1 by which means he passed the fatal coasts in safety4 ,orpheus overcame them in their own art2 for he sang the praises of the gods1 accompanying himself upon his lyre1 and made such divine melody that the music of the ,sirens attracted no attention4 ,the ,fates had decreed that the ,sirens should live until some one who passed by1 had listened to their songs unmoved4 ,when they saw themselves overcome by ,orpheus1 they knew that their hour had come1 and flung themselves headlong into the sea1 where they were transformed into rocks4 ,ques4 ,who was ,circe8 ,ans4 ,she was a skillful enchantress4 ,having poisoned her husband1 the king of the ,sarmatians1 she was obliged to fly into ,italy1 where she fixed her dwelling on the promontory ,circum4 ,she presented to all travellers an enchanted cup2 and after they had drunk1 transformed them into wolves1 swine or other animals4 ,ulysses escaped by throwing an herb into the cup1 which rendered it powerless2 he then rushed upon the sorceress with his sword1 and forced her to restore his companions whom she had transformed4 ,after this1 ,circe entertained ,ulysses in a friendly manner4 ,ques4 ,what did the poets endeavor to teach by the fables of the ,sirens' song1 and the cup of ,circe8 ,ans4 ,they wished to signify by the singing of the ,sirens1 the allurements of vice1 and the dangers of listening to its seductions2 by the story of ,circe1 they showed that when men drink of the cup of sensual pleasure1 they become soon degraded to the level of the beasts4 ,ques4 ,who was ,scylla8 ,ans4 ,the fable relates that she was the daughter of ,phorcus1 and that she was transformed by the jealousy of ,circe1 into a frightful monster4 ,scylla was so much grieved by this transformation1 that she cast herself into the sea1 where she was changed into a rock1 made famous by the many shipwrecks that occurred upon it4 ,over against this rock is the whirlpool of ,charybdis1 about which the poets relate a similar fable4 ,they say that ,charybdis was a very ravenous woman1 who stole ,hercules's oxen4 ,for this theft1 ,jupiter struck her dead with a thunderbolt1 and changed her into the whirlpool which bears her name4 ,the ancients placed ,scylla and ,charybdis in the straits of ,messina4 ,it was considered a great feat to steer successfully between them4 ,ques4 ,who was ,melicertes8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,athamas1 king of ,thebes1 and of ,ino1 the daughter of ,cadmus and ,hermione4 ,ino offended ,juno1 and the goddess1 in revenge1 deprived ,athamas of reason4 ,the king1 in his frenzy1 took the queen and her children for wild beasts1 and pursued them through the palace4 ,he killed his son ,learchus by dashing him against a wall1 but ,ino escaped1 and threw herself into the sea with ,melicertes in her arms4 ,at the intercession of ,venus1 ,neptune endowed them both with immortality4 ,ino became a sea-goddess under the name of ,leucothea1 while ,melicertes was worshipped as ,palmon4 ,he was supposed to have power in saving vessels from shipwreck1 and was1 therefore1 invoked by mariners4 ,the ,romans called him ,portunus1 and honored him as the god of shores and harbors4 ,ques4 ,who was ,thetis8 ,ans4 ,she was a sea-goddess1 the daughter of ,nereus and ,doris1 and sister of the ,nereides4 ,she was endowed with such beauty that ,jupiter himself sought her in marriage2 but ,prometheus1 the ,titan1 prophesied that ,thetis would give birth to a son who should be greater than his father4 ,jupiter thereupon desisted from his suit1 and ,thetis was betrothed to ,peleus1 king of ,thessaly4 ,their marriage was celebrated with much pomp1 all the deities of ,olympus honoring the nuptial rites with their presence4 ,achilles1 the son of ,thetis1 fulfilled the ,titan's prophecy by his heroic exploits4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,infernal ,deities4 ,,pluto--,,hades4 ,ques4 ,who was ,pluto8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,saturn and ,ops1 and the brother of ,jupiter and ,neptune4 ,in the division of his father's kingdom1 the infernal regions were allotted to him1 and he is therefore called the king of ,hell4 ,ques4 ,how is ,pluto represented8 ,ans4 ,he is seated on a throne in the midst of clouds and darkness2 he wears a crown of ebony1 and holds a key in his hand instead of a sceptre4 ,ques4 ,what does the key signify8 ,ans4 ,it seems to imply1 that when once the dead are received into ,pluto's kingdom1 the gates are locked upon them and there is no escape4 ,ques4 ,what does ,pluto's name signify8 ,ans4 ,the ,greek name ,pluto1 and the ,latin word ,dis1 signify wealth1 because this god is supposed to control the hidden treasures of the earth4 ,the thunder that happens in the night time is attributed to ,pluto1 and he is often styled the ,infernal ,jupiter4 ,ques4 ,was ,pluto the same as ,plutus8 ,ans4 ,no2 ,plutus was the god of riches1 and was supposed to be the son of ,jason and ,ceres4 ,he is described as being blind and lame1 injudicious1 and timorous4 ,ques4 ,what does this mean8 ,ans4 ,plutus is blind and injudicious1 because he passes over the virtuous to heap riches on the wicked2 he is lame because riches come slowly1 and timorous1 because the rich watch their treasures with great fear and anxiety4 ,ques4 ,to whom was ,pluto married8 ,ans4 ,as we have learned before1 ,pluto was married to ,proserpine1 daughter of ,ceres4 ,,hell4 ,ques4 ,how was ,hell described8 ,ans4 ,the entrance to the infernal regions was by a wide1 dark cave1 through which the departed souls were obliged to pass2 they next came to a gloomy grove1 and a black lake1 called ,avernus2 this was overhung with such poisonous vapors that no birds could fly over it4 ,the ferryman1 ,charon1 was always waiting on the shore to carry the dead to the other side of the lake4 ,the ghosts of those who had not been buried with funeral rites1 were obliged to wander for a hundred years by the gloomy waters of ,avernus1 before ,charon could carry them to the other side4 ,this superstition made the ancients very careful about burying their dead4 ,ques4 ,what do you say of the rivers of ,hell8 ,ans4 ,the ,styx was the most remarkable4 ,when any of the gods swore by the ,styx1 the oath was sacred2 if any deity was guilty of breaking such an oath1 he was deprived of nectar1 and excluded from the table of the gods for a year and nine days4 ,lethe was also a river of ,hell2 the name means oblivion2 it is so called1 because when the dead drank of its waters1 they forgot all that had passed upon this earth4 ,ques4 ,what monster kept the gate of ,pluto's palace8 ,ans4 ,cerberus2 a three-headed dog1 whose body was clothed with snakes instead of hair4 ,,fates--,,furies4 ,ques4 ,who were the ,fates8 ,ans4 ,they were three sisters1 the daughters of ,chaos1 who were appointed to watch over the thread of human life4 ,their names were1 ,clotho1 ,lachesis and ,atropos2 ,clotho drew the thread between her fingers2 ,lachesis turned the wheel1 and1 at the appointed moment1 ,atropos cut the thread with her scissors4 ,ques4 ,who were the ,furies8 ,ans4 ,they were three sisters1 ,alecto1 ,tisiphone1 and ,megra4 ,they are called by the poets the ,daughters of ,night2 their office was to torment the wicked during life and after death4 ,ques4 ,how were they represented8 ,ans4 ,as hideous women with terrible countenances2 they had twining serpents instead of hair1 and carried snaky whips and lighted torches in their hands4 ,they were often called by the ,greeks ,eumenides4 ,ques4 ,of what were the ,furies an emblem8 ,ans4 ,of the evil passions of men1 and the remorse which torments the wicked4 ,when the ancients said of a man1 that the ,furies had taken up their abode with him1 they meant that the remembrance of his crimes did not leave him any repose4 ,,judges ,,of ,,the ,,dead4 ,punishments inflicted on the ,condemned4 ,ques4 ,besides ,pluto1 who were appointed judges of the dead8 ,ans4 ,minos1 ,rhadamanthus and acus4 ,these were princes1 who governed so justly during life1 that the fate of the dead was entrusted to them4 ,ques4 ,what offices were assigned to each8 ,ans4 ,rhadamanthus judged the ,asiatics1 acus the ,europeans2 and when a very difficult case arose it was referred to ,minos4 ,ques4 ,who were the most famous among the condemned8 ,ans4 ,the giants whom ,jupiter conquered4 ,typhon was the most enormous2 when he was overthrown1 ,jupiter was obliged to lay the whole ,island of ,sicily upon him to keep him down4 ,briareus was another giant1 remarkable for having fifty heads and a hundred hands4 ,according to the ancient poets1 he is imprisoned under ,mount ,etna1 and whenever he tries to move he causes terrible eruptions of the volcano4 ,tityus was still more cruelly punished4 ,he was chained to the ground in the infernal regions1 and such was his stature1 that he covered nine acres4 ,a frightful vulture fed continually upon his liver1 which grew as fast as it was consumed1 that his punishment might be eternal4 ,ques4 ,who was ,ixion8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,phlegyas1 or1 according to some1 of ,mars4 ,he boasted falsely that he had gained the affections of ,juno4 ,for this insolence ,jupiter cast him down into hell1 where he was fastened to a wheel which revolved continually4 ,ques4 ,who was ,sisyphus8 ,ans4 ,he was a famous robber who was slain by ,theseus4 ,in hell1 he was obliged to roll a huge stone up a steep mountain4 ,when it touched the top it rolled down again1 so that he was tormented with unceasing toil4 ,ques4 ,who was ,tantalus8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,jupiter4 ,he invited the gods to a feast1 at which he served up the flesh of his son ,pelops to try their divinity4 ,in hell he is tormented by continual hunger and thirst4 ,he stands up to his lips in a cool fountain1 whose waters recede whenever he attempts to drink4 ,branches laden with tempting fruit hang over him1 but they are carried out of reach by a sudden gust of wind whenever he attempts to pluck them4 ,ques4 ,who were the ,belides8 ,ans4 ,they were fifty maidens1 daughters of ,danaus and grand-daughter of ,king ,belus1 from whom they are called4 ,they all murdered their husbands on the wedding night1 for which crime they are obliged to draw water from a deep well until they have filled an immense sieve4 ,their labor is therefore perpetual4 ,ques4 ,who was ,salmoneus8 ,ans4 ,salmoneus was king of ,elis1 and was cast into hell for imitating ,jupiter's thunder4 ,ques4 ,what became of the souls of good men8 ,ans4 ,after being purified from whatever slight offences they had committed in life1 they were conducted to a place abounding in delights1 called ,elysium4 ,when they had passed many ages in this blissful abode they returned to earth1 but before doing so1 they drank of the river ,lethe1 that they might forget the happiness they had enjoyed4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,fabulous ,,monsters4 ,ques4 ,were there any fabulous monsters besides those of ,hell8 ,ans4 ,yes1 many2 the ,centaurs1 who were half man and half horse2 also ,geryon1 who was king of the three ,balearic ,islands1 now known as ,ivica1 ,minorca and ,majorca4 ,for this reason1 he was said to have three heads and three bodies1 and passed into fable as a monster4 ,he was probably a wicked and cruel prince4 ,there were also the ,harpies1 which had the faces of women and the bodies of birds4 ,ques4 ,what was the ,chimra8 ,ans4 ,a fabulous monster1 which vomited fire4 ,it had the head and breast of a lion1 the body of a goat1 and the tail of a dragon4 ,ques4 ,what was intended by this fable8 ,ans4 ,poets thus described a volcano in ,lycia1 on the summit of which were lions2 in the middle was pasture-land frequented by goats2 and the lowest part was infested by serpents4 ,bellerophon made this mountain inhabitable1 and was therefore said to have killed the ,chimra4 ,at present anything which is quite imaginary is called a ,chimra4 ,ques4 ,what was the ,sphinx8 ,ans4 ,it was a monster with the head and shoulders of a woman1 the wings of a bird1 and the paws of a lion4 ,she infested the country about ,thebes1 so that the people1 in their distress1 went to consult the oracle of ,apollo4 ,an answer was given that no remedy could be found until some one should solve the riddle that the ,sphinx had proposed1 and which she had learned from the ,muses4 ,the question was this3 ,what animal is that which goes on four feet in the morning1 on two at noon1 and on three in the evening8 ,the ,thebans often met to try their skill1 and when they had failed1 the ,sphinx carried off and devoured one of their number4 ,at length ,hmon1 son of ,creon1 was destroyed by the monster1 and the king made a public proclamation1 that he would give the throne1 with the hand of his sister ,jocasta1 to that man who should solve the riddle4 ,oedipus1 who was then at ,thebes1 came forward and answered the ,sphinx1 that the animal was ,man1 because when an infant he creeps on all fours2 in manhood1 he walks on two feet1 and when old uses a staff as a third foot4 ,upon hearing this answer1 the ,sphinx dashed her head against a rock1 and expired4 ,ques4 ,why is the story of the ,sphinx interesting8 ,ans4 ,because there still remains in ,egypt an enormous statue of the monster1 carved in solid rock4 ,formerly1 little was visible save the head and neck1 but the sand which has been gathering around it for so many centuries1 is now cleared away4 ,the body is one hundred and twenty-five feet long2 and the fore-paws extend about fifty feet more4 ,the face has been much disfigured by the arrows and lances of the ,arabs1 who are taught by their religion to hold all images of men or animals in detestation4 ,ques4 ,what was the ,phoenix8 ,ans4 ,a fabulous bird of which there never existed more than one at the same time4 ,it excelled all other birds in beauty of plumage1 and fed only on frankincense and sweet gums4 ,when the ,phoenix had attained the age of five hundred years1 it built a funeral pile of odorous wood1 on which it was consumed4 ,a new ,phoenix also immediately arose from the flames4 ,the first care of the young bird was to collect the ashes of its parent1 which it carried1 enclosed in myrrh1 to the temple of the ,sun in ,egypt4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,household ,divinities4 ,,penates--,,lares4 ,ques4 ,what were the ,penates8 ,ans4 ,this name was given to a certain class of household deities1 which were worshipped by the ,romans in the penetralia1 or innermost part of their dwellings4 ,the greater ,penates governed kingdoms and provinces2 others presided over cities2 and the lesser ,penates watched over particular houses and families4 ,ques4 ,what were the ,lares8 ,ans4 ,they were1 according to some1 the children of ,mercury and the nymph ,lara2 they were domestic gods1 and presided over houses1 streets and roads4 ,they warded off danger from without1 while the ,penates watched over the interior of the dwelling4 ,the spirits of ancestors sometimes watched as ,lares1 over the fortunes of families4 ,this idea of the spirits of the deceased watching over their descendants1 made the ,romans wish to bury the dead within1 or very near their dwellings4 ,this custom was condemned by the laws of the ,twelve ,tables4 ,besides the spirit which watched over the family1 each individual was supposed to have his ,lar1 or familiar genius1 who watched over him from his birth4 ,in early times1 children were sacrificed to the goddess ,mania1 who was supposed by some to be the mother of the ,lares4 ,after the expulsion of the ,tarquins1 ,junius ,brutus abolished this barbarous rite1 and substituted little balls of wool1 and heads of garlic and poppy1 in place of the human heads which had been formerly offered4 ,the ordinary altar of the ,lares was the domestic hearth2 hogs1 sheep and steers were among the sacrifices offered to these divinities1 but the first fruits of the season were always laid upon the hearth4 ,no family repast was properly begun1 unless some portion of the viands had been first cast into the fire2 in the more solemn form of marriage1 the bride always threw a piece of money on the hearth1 to the ,lares of her family1 and another on the cross roads1 that they might grant her free passage to her husband's house4 ,the ,roman boy1 on attaining the age of fifteen1 put off his childish dress1 and consecrated the golden bulla1 which he had worn around his neck from infancy1 to the domestic ,lares4 ,the soldier whose term of service had expired dedicated his arms to these powerful genii2 while captives1 and slaves restored to freedom1 hung up their fetters1 in token of gratitude1 by the altar of the ,lares4 ,ques4 ,how were the ,lares represented8 ,ans4 ,variously2 sometimes as children1 sometimes as young warriors1 but always accompanied by a dog4 ,virtues ,worshipped by the ,ancients4 ,vices4 ,ques4 ,what ,virtues were particularly honored as divinities8 ,ans4 ,the ancients not only worshipped the different ,virtues1 but the abstract idea of virtue itself was personified as a goddess4 ,the ,romans dedicated two temples1 one to this divinity1 and another1 adjoining1 to ,honor4 ,as the temple of ,honor could only be reached by passing through that dedicated to ,virtue1 the votaries were reminded that it was by walking in her paths1 that true honor was to be attained4 ,ques4 ,what were the emblems of ,truth8 ,ans4 ,she was generally represented as a beautiful and modest virgin1 with garments as white as snow4 ,she was the daughter of ,time1 or ,saturn1 because ,time always brings truth to light4 ,fides1 or ,fidelity1 had a temple near the ,capitol1 which was said to have been founded by ,numa ,pompilius4 ,the symbols of this goddess were1 a white dog1 two hands joined1 or sometimes two maidens with joined hands4 ,ques4 ,what were the emblems of ,peace8 ,ans4 ,pax1 or ,peace1 was represented as a matron holding ears of corn1 and crowned with olives and laurel4 ,her particular symbol was a caduceus1 a white staff anciently borne by ambassadors when sent to treat of peace4 ,a magnificent temple was dedicated to this goddess in the ,roman ,forum4 ,justice was worshipped by the ,egyptians1 ,greeks and ,romans4 ,her emblems have been described in the article on the goddess ,astra4 ,hope had a temple at ,rome in the herb market4 ,it was destroyed by lightning4 ,misericordia1 or ,mercy1 had an altar at ,athens ,this was a public sanctuary for the unfortunate1 and it was unlawful to take any one from it by force4 ,this altar is said to have been erected by the kindred of ,hercules1 after the death of that hero4 ,pudicitia1 or ,modesty1 had two temples1 much frequented by the ,roman matrons4 ,the second of these was founded under peculiar circumstances4 ,virginia1 the daughter of ,aulus1 a patrician of high rank1 married into a plebeian family4 ,the noble ladies of ,rome were so indignant at this alliance1 that they would not permit her to enter the temple of ,pudicitia1 nor to offer sacrifice with them4 ,she desired to repair this public affront by some memorable action4 ,for this purpose1 she built1 in the ,via ,longa1 a temple similar to that from which she had been expelled1 and dedicated it likewise to ,pudicitia4 ,virginia then assembled the plebeian matrons1 and exhorted them to honor this ,virtue in such a manner1 that however the patrician ladies should surpass them in power or rank1 they might still excel in modest behavior and purity of life4 ,the two temples were from that time distinguished as ,pudicitia ,patricia1 and ,pudicitia ,plebeia4 ,ques4 ,was ,fortune honored as a goddess8 ,ans4 ,yes1 the ancients worshipped under this name1 a certain unseen power which was supposed to exercise a supreme dominion over human affairs4 ,fortune had many splendid temples in ,italy4 ,servius ,tullius dedicated two at ,rome2 one to ,bona ,fortuna1 the other to ,fors ,fortuna4 ,this capricious goddess was sometimes represented with her eyes bandaged1 her feet winged1 and her right hand resting on a wheel4 ,in the temple of ,fortune at ,thebes1 the goddess held ,wealth1 represented as an infant1 in her arms4 ,the goddess ,salus1 or ,health1 was much honored by the ,romans4 ,in ancient times1 certain days in the year were set apart for her worship4 ,her emblems were a bowl and a serpent4 ,liberty was honored as a divinity4 ,her emblem was the peculiar cap with which we are familiar from the representations on our own coins4 ,ques4 ,were not the ,vices also honored by the ancients8 ,ans4 ,it is certain that both the ,greeks and ,romans erected temples and altars to certain vices1 but it does not appear that their intention was to do them honor4 ,in some instances1 they strove to propitiate the powers of evil1 that they might abstain from doing them harm4 ,when they built a temple at ,rome to ,febris1 or ,fever1 they undoubtedly wished to appease the demon or malignant deity who was supposed to send this calamity4 ,the same superstition has been remarked among the modern ,hindoos1 who are said to have dedicated temples to thunder and lightning1 earthquake1 pestilence1 etc4 ,the ,vices were always represented in such a manner as to excite abhorrence4 ,we have an instance of this in the altar erected to ,calumny at ,athens4 ,apelles drew an allegorical picture1 in which the odious features of this ,vice were strikingly portrayed4 ,a man sits in a listening attitude1 beckoning ,calumny to approach4 ,two counsellors1 ,ignorance and ,suspicion1 stand near him4 ,calumny is beautiful in form and feature1 but has a malignant countenance1 and flashing eyes4 ,envy goes before1 while ,fraud and ,conspiracy accompany her on either side4 ,repentance follows with woful mien and torn garments4 ,she looks behind her1 as if calling upon ,truth1 who is seen advancing slowly in the distance4 ,discord1 ,fraud1 etc41 were represented with appropriate symbols4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,demigods and ,heroes4 ,ques4 ,who were the ,demigods8 ,ans4 ,they were brave men1 who had rendered themselves famous in life by illustrious actions4 ,after their death1 their countrymen believed that they were admitted among the gods1 and gave them divine honors4 ,the circumstance of a mortal taking his place among the gods1 was called an ,apotheosis4 ,ques4 ,who was the most famous of the ,demigods8 ,ans4 ,hercules1 the son of ,jupiter and ,alcmena4 ,juno hated him on his mother's account1 and resolved upon his destruction4 ,for this purpose she sent two monstrous serpents to kill him as he was sleeping in his cradle4 ,the infant hero awoke1 and seizing the serpents in his hands1 strangled them both4 ,juno was not discouraged1 and when ,hercules was grown up1 devised new means to destroy him4 ,she persuaded ,jupiter to put ,hercules under the authority of ,eurystheus1 king of ,mycen1 who imposed upon the hero twelve ,labors1 or tasks1 of great danger and difficulty4 ,hercules was in doubt as to whether he should submit to this injustice1 and consulted the oracle of ,apollo at ,delphi4 ,the oracle told him that he must obey ,eurystheus1 which he accordingly did4 ,hercules had been carefully instructed by the ,centaur ,chiron1 and he was now equipped for his labors by the liberality of the gods4 ,he received a sword from ,mercury1 a bow from ,apollo1 a golden breastplate from ,vulcan1 horses from ,neptune1 and a robe from ,minerva4 ,ques4 ,relate the ,twelve ,labors of ,hercules4 ,ans4 ,they are briefly as follows3 ,first4 ,he killed a terrible lion which raged in the ,nemean forest4 ,hercules is usually represented as clothed in the skin of this animal1 and leaning on the club which was his ordinary weapon4 ,second4 ,he destroyed the ,hydra1 a serpent with fifty heads1 which lived in the marshes of ,lerna1 and ravaged the surrounding country4 ,hercules noticed that where he cut off one of the heads of this serpent1 two immediately sprang up4 ,he commanded an attendant to burn the wound with a firebrand1 and by this means he at length cut off the last head4 ,third4 ,he captured the savage wild boar of ,mount ,erymanthus1 in ,arcadia1 and brought it bound to ,eurystheus4 ,the tyrant was so frightened at the sight of the animal1 that he shut himself up in a brazen apartment of his palace4 ,fourth4 ,he caught1 after a chase which lasted an entire year1 a famous stag which was sacred to ,diana4 ,it had golden horns and brazen feet4 ,fifth4 ,he killed1 or drove away from ,lake ,stymphalus1 certain voracious birds which fed on human flesh4 ,sixth4 ,he defeated the ,amazons1 and obtained as a spoil1 the girdle of their queen1 ,hippolyte4 ,seventh4 ,three thousand oxen had been kept thirty years in the stables of ,augeas1 which had never been cleaned during the entire period4 ,hercules was required to perform this task1 which he effected by turning the course of a river through the stables4 ,eighth4 ,he tamed the wild bull of ,crete1 and brought him bound to ,eurystheus4 ,ninth4 ,he overcame ,diomedes1 tyrant of ,thrace1 who fed his horses with the flesh of his guests4 ,hercules caused him1 in turn1 to serve as food to these same horses4 ,tenth4 ,he overcame ,geryon1 who had three heads and three bodies4 ,hercules brought into ,italy the oxen of this monster1 which were accustomed to feed on human flesh4 ,eleventh4 ,he killed the dragon that watched the golden apple in the garden of the ,hesperides1 and bore away the precious fruit4 ,twelfth4 ,hercules descended alive into the infernal regions1 and brought from thence the three-headed dog1 ,cerberus4 ,ques4 ,did ,hercules perform any other great actions8 ,ans4 ,a vast number of exploits are attributed to him4 ,there is a plain near ,narbonne1 in ,france1 covered with stones4 ,the ancients said that ,hercules was contending on this spot with two giants1 when1 his arrows becoming exhausted1 he prayed to ,jupiter for aid4 ,the god sent down a shower of great stones1 with which ,hercules put the giants to flight4 ,ques4 ,relate the death of ,hercules8 ,ans4 ,this hero had slain the ,centaur ,nessus to revenge an insult offered to his wife1 ,deianira4 ,when the monster was dying1 he gave ,deianira a charmed philter1 telling her that if ,hercules ever gave her cause to doubt his affection1 she could secure his constancy by making him wear a garment which had been sprinkled with this potion4 ,the credulous ,deianira accepted the philter1 which was nothing else but the venom of the hydra which had been infused into the ,centaur's blood2 and it was not long before her jealousy led her to use it as she had been directed4 ,hercules had plundered ,oechalia1 and carried off1 among other captives1 the beautiful ,iole1 daughter of the king of that city4 ,the hero1 who wished to keep a festival1 and to offer sacrifice in honor of his victory1 sent for a splendid robe befitting the occasion4 ,deianira's jealousy was excited against ,iole by the reports of the messenger1 and she sent her husband a tunic impregnated with the venom of the hydra4 ,the poison soon began to work1 and ,hercules endeavored in vain to tear off the tunic1 which clung to his flesh and consumed even the marrow of his bones4 ,in his fury he caught the youth who had brought him the garment1 by the foot1 and hurled him into the sea4 ,he then fled in his agony to the summit of ,mount ,oeta1 where he erected a funeral pyre with forest trees which he tore up by the roots4 ,on this he laid the skin of the ,nemean lion and his famous club1 after which he ascended the pile and directed his followers to set it on fire4 ,all refused except ,philoctetes1 who pitied the sufferings of the dying hero1 and obeyed his command4 ,he received the bow and arrows of ,hercules as a reward for this service4 ,while the pyre was blazing1 ,jupiter sent a thunder-cloud1 in which ,hercules was conveyed to ,olympus4 ,here he was endowed with immortality1 and1 according to some accounts1 was reconciled with ,juno1 who gave him her daughter ,hebe in marriage4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,jason4 ,ques4 ,who was ,jason8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of son1 king of ,thessaly1 and was celebrated on account of his expedition in search of the ,golden ,fleece4 ,he is also known as the husband of the famous sorceress ,medea4 ,ques4 ,what was the ,golden ,fleece8 ,ans4 ,phryxus1 son of ,athamas1 king of ,thebes1 received from his mother a ram of a golden color1 or1 according to fable1 with a fleece of pure gold4 ,some time after1 ,phryxus and his sister ,helle1 to escape from their step-mother ,ino1 attempted to cross the sea on this ram4 ,helle became terrified1 and was drowned in the straits which are called from her1 ,hellespont4 ,phryxus arrived in safety at ,colchis1 where he sacrificed the ram to ,jupiter1 who placed it among the signs of the ,zodiac4 ,the fleece was hung in a grove sacred to ,mars1 where it was guarded by bulls who breathed flame from their nostrils1 and also by a sleepless dragon4 ,when ,jason demanded his father's throne1 his uncle1 who wished to continue in the government1 persuaded him to undertake an expedition for the recovery of the ,golden ,fleece4 ,jason1 with some brave companions1 among whom were ,hercules1 ,orpheus1 ,castor and ,pollux1 went on board a ship called the ,argo1 from which circumstance they were called ,argonauts4 ,on arriving at ,colchis1 they demanded the fleece1 which the king1 etes1 promised to ,jason on condition that he would tame the wild bulls that guarded it1 kill the dragon1 sow his teeth in the ground1 and afterwards destroy the soldiers who should spring from them4 ,jason accepted the conditions1 but would inevitably have perished1 had not ,medea1 the king's daughter1 saved him by her magical arts4 ,jason obtained the fleece1 and fled by night from ,colchis1 carrying with him ,medea1 whom he married1 in fulfilment of the engagement which he had made4 ,ques4 ,what else is related of ,medea8 ,ans4 ,she lived for some time happily with ,jason1 upon whom she conferred an additional favor by restoring his aged and decrepit father to the vigor and beauty of youth4 ,jason was ungrateful for these benefits1 and divorced ,medea in order that he might marry ,creusa1 the daughter of the king of ,corinth4 ,ques4 ,what was ,medea's revenge8 ,ans4 ,she murdered1 in the sight of their father1 the two children whom she had borne to ,jason1 and consumed his palace and bride in a conflagration raised by her art4 ,as ,jason was about to rush upon the sorceress1 she rose in the air in a flying chariot1 and escaped to ,athens4 ,,theseus4 ,ques4 ,who was ,theseus8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of geus1 king of ,athens4 ,the ,athenians were obliged to send every year1 as tribute to ,crete1 seven of the noblest of their young men1 and as many maidens4 ,these were usually devoured by a horrible monster called ,minotaur1 whom ,minos1 the king of ,crete1 kept in the ,labyrinth4 ,ques4 ,what was the ,labyrinth8 ,ans4 ,it was a building with fifteen hundred rooms above ground1 and as many underneath4 ,these apartments had so many doors1 and were connected by such intricate windings1 that no one who was conducted a certain distance into the edifice1 could find the entrance again4 ,theseus resolved to deliver the ,athenians from this dreadful tribute1 and when the lots were about being cast for the fourth time1 he offered himself as one of the victims4 geus strove to dissuade the young hero1 but in vain2 and the tribute ship departed as usual under black sails1 which ,theseus promised his father to change for white1 in case of his returning victorious4 ,when they arrived in ,crete1 the youths and maidens were exhibited before ,king ,minos2 and ,ariadne1 the daughter of the king1 was so much struck by the courage and generosity of ,theseus that she resolved to save his life4 ,for this purpose she gave him a ball of thread which she directed him to attach to the entrance of the ,labyrinth1 and to unwind as he proceeded4 ,theseus followed her instructions1 and when he came to where the ,minotaur lay1 he slew him1 and found his way out by the thread4 ,the whole band then embarked for ,athens4 ,ques4 ,what became of ,ariadne8 ,ans4 ,she accompanied ,theseus on his flight1 but he was so ungrateful as to abandon her on the island of ,naxos1 where she had fallen asleep on the shore4 ,ariadne was afterwards married to ,bacchus1 who gave her a crown composed of seven stars1 the same which we admire in the heavens as the ,corona ,borealis1 or ,northern ,crown4 ,ques4 ,of what negligence was ,theseus guilty on his return to ,athens8 ,ans4 ,he forgot his promise to his father with regard to the color of his sails1 and geus1 who watched every day for his son's return1 saw the black sails in the distance4 ,he believed from this that his son was dead4 ,in his despair he cast himself into the sea1 which was called gean from his name4 ,theseus1 after performing many other wonderful actions1 was banished from his country1 and died in obscurity4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,castor ,,and ,,pollux4 ,ques4 ,who were ,castor and ,pollux8 ,ans4 ,they were twin brothers1 the sons of ,jupiter and ,leda4 ,castor was mortal like his mother1 and when he died1 ,pollux grieved so much that ,jupiter permitted him to share his immortality with his brother4 ,it was arranged1 therefore1 that they should live every alternate day4 ,ques4 ,what ,constellation is named from these brothers8 ,ans4 ,gemini1 or the ,twins1 the third sign of the ,zodiac4 ,,prometheus4 ,ques4 ,who was ,prometheus8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,iapetus and ,clymene1 one of the ,oceanides4 ,he formed a man out of clay1 and gave it life by means of fire which he stole from heaven4 ,ques4 ,what pretty fable is connected with this8 ,ans4 ,the poets tell us that ,jupiter was so much displeased at the theft1 that he sent ,pandora to ,prometheus with a mysterious box1 in which were imprisoned all the evils which have since afflicted the human race4 ,prometheus1 suspecting something wrong1 refused to touch the box1 upon which ,pandora carried it to his brother ,epimetheus4 ,he was less cautious1 and opening the casket1 set free the evils and miseries which flew abroad through the world4 ,when he saw what he had done1 he shut the box quickly1 and prevented ,hope1 which was lying at the bottom1 from escaping also4 ,this signifies that in the midst of all human miseries1 hope yet remains4 ,the fable may have been derived from some ancient tradition of ,eve's curiosity1 the fall of man1 and the hope left him amid so many misfortunes4 ,ques4 ,how was ,prometheus punished8 ,ans4 ,jupiter commanded ,mercury to chain him to a rock on ,mount ,caucasus2 there an eagle fed on his liver1 which was continually renewed4 ,prometheus had1 at one time1 rendered ,jupiter a service4 ,the king of the gods remembered this1 and permitted that after a certain time1 ,hercules should kill the eagle and set him free4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,orpheus4 ,ques4 ,who was ,orpheus8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,apollo and the ,muse ,calliope4 ,he played so sweetly on the lyre accompanying the music with his voice1 that he tamed wild beasts1 stayed the course of rivers1 and drew the very trees to gather around him as he sung4 ,orpheus married the beautiful nymph ,eurydice2 but on the very day of their nuptials she was stung in the foot by a venomous serpent1 and died1 leaving ,orpheus overwhelmed with grief4 ,trusting to the magic of his lyre1 he repaired to the infernal regions4 ,here1 at the music of his golden shell1 the wheel of ,ixion stopped2 ,tantalus forgot his thirst2 the vulture ceased to prey on the vitals of ,tityus2 ,cerberus fawned at the musician's feet1 ,proserpine was melted to tears1 and the stern king of ,hell was moved to pity4 ,eurydice was permitted to return to the upper world1 but only on condition that ,orpheus did not look upon her before they passed the confines of ,pluto's kingdom4 ,orpheus forgot this in his eagerness1 and ,eurydice vanished from his sight4 ,in his despair1 he now shunned all intercourse with mankind1 and retired to woods and solitary grottoes1 endeavoring to forget his misfortune in the charms of music4 ,orpheus was murdered during the orgies of ,bacchus1 by the ,thracian women1 who were incensed at the coldness with which he had treated them4 ,after tearing him to pieces1 they threw his head into the river ,hebrus1 and were surprised to hear its murmur1 ,eurydice1 ,eurydice6 as it was carried down the stream to the gean ,sea4 ,bacchus was indignant at the cruelty of the ,thracian women1 and changed them into trees4 ,,arion4 ,ques4 ,who was ,arion8 ,ans4 ,he was a famous musician who resided at the court of ,periander1 king of ,corinth4 ,impelled by a minstrel's love of wandering1 he felt desirous of visiting foreign countries1 and departed from ,corinth1 notwithstanding the earnest solicitations of ,periander1 who warned him in vain of the danger to which he might be exposed4 ,after some time spent in ,italy and ,sicily1 ,arion desired to return to ,corinth1 and embarked for this purpose at ,sarentum1 taking with him the riches that he had amassed4 ,during the voyage the mariners agreed among themselves that they would murder ,arion1 and seize his treasures4 ,the unhappy musician offered in vain to abandon everything to their cupidity1 if they would but spare his life4 ,the only favor he could obtain was the choice of a grave4 ,if he desired to be laid on shore under the green turf1 they would carry his lifeless body to land1 and give it sepulture4 ,if he cared not for this1 he must immediately cast himself into the sea4 ,arion chose the latter alternative1 but begged that he might die as became a bard1 after having played for the last time upon his lyre1 and sung his own death-song4 ,the mariners granted his request1 not from pity1 but they desired to hear so famous a minstrel2 music had charms even for their rude hearts4 ,arion attired himself in festal robes2 his mantle was of purple fringed with gold1 and his brow was adorned with a golden wreath4 ,he struck his lyre with the ivory wand1 and sung a sweet and mournful melody4 ,then1 commending himself to the friendly ,nereides1 he sprang into the sea4 ,the waves closed above him1 and the ship held on its way4 ,the inhabitants of the deep had gathered around as ,arion sung1 and now1 as he was struggling in the waves1 a dolphin took him on his back1 and carried him safe to shore4 ,periander received his friend with a cordial welcome1 and listened with wonder to the story of his escape4 ,when the ship arrived1 he ordered the mariners to be brought before him1 and inquired if they knew anything of ,arion4 ,they replied confidently that they had left him well and happy at ,sarentum4 ,upon this ,arion stepped forth1 clothed in gold and purple1 and holding his lyre as when he had cast himself into the sea4 ,overcome with terror1 the guilty men confessed their crime1 and suffered the punishment they had so well deserved4 ,this event was commemorated by a statue of brass which was consecrated at ,tnarus4 ,it represented a man mounted on a dolphin4 ,,amphion4 ,ques4 ,who was ,amphion8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,antiope and ,jupiter4 ,he obtained the kingdom of ,thebes1 which he governed conjointly with his twin-brother ,zethus4 ,amphion cultivated the art of music2 he was instructed by ,mercury1 who gave him a golden lyre with which he is said to have built the walls of ,thebes1 causing the stones to move and place themselves in order1 as he played4 ,amphion married ,niobe1 and became the father of seven sons and as many daughters1 who were all slain by ,apollo and ,diana4 ,he is said to have killed himself in despair4 ,the legend of the building of the walls of ,thebes1 is probably an allusion to the old ,dorian and olian custom of erecting the walls of cities with public solemnities1 and to the sound of musical instruments4 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,atlas4 ,ques4 ,who was ,atlas8 ,ans4 ,he was a king of ,mauritania1 the son of the ,titan ,japetus1 and the nymph ,clymene2 he was1 therefore1 brother of ,prometheus4 ,he is represented as sustaining the heavens on his shoulders4 ,atlas had been warned that he would suffer much from a son of ,jupiter4 ,when ,perseus was returning from the conquest of the ,gorgons1 he arrived in the dominions of ,atlas1 of whom he claimed the rites of hospitality1 declaring at the same time his divine parentage4 ,the king1 remembering the prophecy with regard to ,jupiter's offspring1 repulsed him harshly4 ,this conduct brought upon ,atlas the calamity which he feared2 for ,perseus1 indignant at so much inhumanity1 showed him the head of ,medusa1 and changed him into the mountain which bears his name4 ,the fable1 that ,atlas sustained the heavens on his shoulders1 has been explained by saying he was an astronomer1 who observed the motion of the heavenly bodies from the summit of a lofty mountain1 to which his name was afterwards given4 ,ques4 ,who were the children of ,atlas8 ,ans4 ,by his wife ,pelione1 he had seven daughters1 who were called ,pleiades2 they were changed into stars1 and form the beautiful group which we admire in the constellation ,taurus4 ,atlas had seven other daughters who underwent the same transformation2 they were placed in the head of ,taurus1 and were called by the ,greeks1 ,hyades1 from a word which signifies to rain4 ,the ,hesperides1 or ,western ,maidens1 were three celebrated nymphs1 concerning whose parentage ancient writers are not agreed4 ,hesiod speaks of them as the daughters of ,night1 but according to others1 they were the offspring of ,atlas and ,hesperis4 ,at the bridal of ,jupiter and ,juno1 the different deities brought nuptial presents2 among these1 ,juno most admired some branches loaded with golden apples1 which were offered by the goddess of the ,earth4 ,she begged the ,earth to plant them in her gardens1 which extended as far as ,mount ,atlas4 ,the ,hesperides were directed to watch these trees1 but they proved unfaithful1 and frequently plucked the apples for themselves4 ,juno sent1 therefore1 a terrible dragon to guard the precious fruit4 ,this monster was the offspring of ,typhon1 and had a hundred heads1 so that it never slept4 ,,orion4 ,ques4 ,who was ,orion8 ,ans4 ,his origin is doubtful2 according to some writers1 he was the son of ,neptune and ,euryale4 ,the accounts given of his exploits and of his death are many and contradictory4 ,according to one legend1 ,orion was a famous hunter2 having boasted that he could subdue the wildest and fiercest animals1 the earth was displeased at his presumption1 and sent a scorpion to sting him4 ,the hero was changed1 after death1 into a constellation which is known as the most resplendent group in the winter heavens4 ,,perseus4 ,ques4 ,who was ,perseus8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,jupiter1 and of ,dana1 the only daughter of ,acrisius1 king of ,argos4 ,this prince had been warned by an oracle that his daughter would have a son1 who was destined to deprive him of life4 ,acrisius resolved1 in consequence1 that ,dana should never marry4 ,to guard against the possibility of such an event1 he imprisoned her in a brazen apartment which he had diligently guarded4 ,jupiter had seen and admired the young princess1 and he now found means to visit her by transforming himself into a shower of gold1 which we may take for a poetical manner of saying that he bribed the guards4 ,when ,acrisius discovered that his precautions had been of no avail1 he enclosed ,dana and her infant son in a coffer1 which he cast into the sea4 ,the coffer was carried by the waves to the island of ,seriphus1 where a fisherman named ,dictys drew it ashore in his net4 ,he was much surprised at beholding ,dana and the infant ,perseus1 and brought them immediately to ,polydectes1 who reigned in that island4 ,polydectes received the strangers kindly1 but when ,perseus was grown1 he strove to effect his destruction by engaging him in an expedition against the ,gorgons4 ,this adventure has been already related1 in the article on ,minerva4 ,it was followed by the rescue of ,andromeda1 which is too remarkable to be omitted4 ,ques4 ,who was ,andromeda8 ,ans4 ,she was the daughter of ,cepheus1 king of ,ethiopia4 ,her mother1 ,cassiopeia1 had boasted that she was fairer than ,juno and the ,nereides4 ,the offended nymphs complained to ,neptune1 who sent a sea-monster to ravage the dominions of ,cepheus4 ,the people1 in their distress1 had recourse to the oracle of ,jupiter ,ammon1 but the god declared that the country could not be freed from this calamity1 unless ,andromeda were given up to be devoured by the monster4 ,cepheus consented to the sacrifice1 and his daughter was chained to a rock by the sea-shore1 where she was abandoned to her fate4 ,perseus1 returning through the air1 from his conquest of the ,gorgons1 saw the unhappy maiden and resolved to rescue her4 ,he asked her hand as his only reward1 which ,cepheus readily promised4 ,when the sea-monster appeared1 ,perseus showed him the head of ,medusa1 and changed him into a rock1 which was long famous upon that coast4 ,phineus1 who had been betrothed to ,andromeda1 opposed her marriage with ,perseus1 and changed the nuptial solemnities into a scene of discord and bloodshed4 ,the head of the ,gorgon again procured for ,perseus an easy victory4 ,he warned his friends to avert their eyes1 and displayed the frightful trophy1 upon which ,phineus and his followers were changed into stone1 in the very attitudes in which they fought4 ,polydectes1 who had persecuted ,dana in the absence of ,perseus1 was punished in the same manner4 ,the hero afterwards fulfilled the oracle by killing his grandfather1 whom he did not know1 by an accidental blow of a quoit4 ,perseus1 ,andromeda1 ,cepheus1 and ,cassiopeia were changed1 after death1 into the constellations which bear their names4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,bellerophon4 ,ques4 ,who was ,bellerophon8 ,ans4 ,this hero was the son of ,glaucus1 and grandson of ,sisyphus1 king of ,corinth4 ,having accidentally killed one of his relatives1 he fled1 as was usual in such circumstances1 and was received with much kindness by ,proetus1 king of ,argos4 ,bellerophon had not1 however1 been long at ,argos when the king was prejudiced by a calumnious report1 and became jealous of the young hero4 ,as he was ashamed to violate the rights of hospitality1 he despatched ,bellerophon to his father-in-law1 ,jobates1 king of the ,lycians1 with sealed letters in which he requested that prince to put the bearer to death4 ,jobates was also unwilling to imbrue his hands openly in the blood of a guest2 he resolved1 therefore1 to effect his purpose indirectly1 by engaging ,bellerophon in dangerous enterprises4 ,the first task imposed upon the hero1 was the slaying of the ,chimra1 a fabulous monster which we have already described1 and which was then spreading terror through the kingdom of ,lycia4 ,before proceeding to the combat1 ,bellerophon took counsel of the soothsayer1 ,polyidus1 who advised him to procure1 if possible1 the winged steed ,pegasus4 ,for this purpose1 he directed him to pass the night in the temple of ,minerva4 ,there the goddess visited him in a dream1 and gave him a golden bridle1 instructing him as to its use4 ,on awaking1 ,bellerophon found the bridle in his hand1 and repaired immediately to the spring at which ,pegasus was accustomed to drink4 ,the winged steed submitted to the golden bit1 ,bellerophon mounted him fearlessly1 and was borne through the air to his combat with the ,chimra4 ,when he returned to ,jobates with the spoils of the monster1 the king sent him to fight against certain people1 called ,solymi1 whom he had much difficulty in subduing4 ,he next defeated the ,amazons1 a nation of female warriors1 and destroyed a party of ,lycians1 who laid an ambush for him on his return4 ,jobates perceived from these exploits that his guest was indeed allied to the gods1 and abandoned all further designs against him4 ,he even gave him his daughter in marriage1 and declared him his successor in the kingdom4 ,bellerophon might have ended his days in happiness and prosperity1 had he not irritated the gods by his pride4 ,he conceived the project of mounting to heaven on his winged steed2 ,jupiter was indignant1 and sent a gad-fly which stung the horse1 and caused him to throw the presumptuous rider4 ,bellerophon1 lame and blind from his fall1 wandered in lonely places1 avoiding the haunts of men1 until death came to relieve his misery4 ,,deucalion4 ,ques4 ,who was ,deucalion8 ,ans4 ,he was king of ,thessaly1 and son of ,prometheus4 ,during his reign1 there occurred so great a flood that the whole earth was covered with the waters4 ,of the entire human race1 only ,deucalion and his wife1 ,pyrrha1 were saved4 ,when the waters abated1 the ship in which they were carried rested upon ,mount ,parnassus1 and they consulted the oracle of ,themis1 to know by what means the earth might again be peopled4 ,the oracle directed that they should cast behind them the bones of their ,great ,mother4 ,understanding by this expression the earth1 which is the common mother of all1 they gathered stones which they cast behind them1 as they had been commanded1 when a great prodigy ensued4 ,the stones thrown by ,deucalion assumed human form and became men1 and those thrown by ,pyrrha were changed into women4 ,ques4 ,how is this fable explained8 ,ans4 ,it is supposed that ,deucalion and ,pyrrha were remarkable for their piety and virtue2 and that by precept and example1 they subdued the ferocity of their subjects4 ,in this manner they softened those who before were hard like stones1 so that gentleness and humanity began to reign among them4 ,d,,dalus4 ,ques4 ,who was ,ddalus8 ,ans4 ,he is said to have been a native of ,athens1 eminent for his skill in architecture and statuary4 ,his nephew ,perdix wrought with him1 and showed much inventive genius4 ,having observed the teeth of a serpent1 or1 according to some1 the backbone of a fish1 ,perdix invented the carpenter's saw1 and applied it to the cutting of timber4 ,by this and other efforts of skill1 the young man excited the jealousy of ,ddalus1 who killed him by casting him down from the summit of the ,acropolis4 ,perdix was transformed into a partridge1 a timid bird which seems still mindful of its fall1 and keeps to low coverts1 avoiding high places and lofty flights4 ,for this murder1 ,ddalus was sentenced to banishment by the ,court of the ,areopagus4 ,he found an asylum with ,minos1 king of ,crete1 for whom he constructed the famous ,labyrinth4 ,having incurred the displeasure of ,minos1 ,ddalus was imprisoned in a lofty tower4 ,as there seemed no other means of escape1 he resolved on attempting a flight through the air4 ,for this purpose1 he made wings for himself and his son ,icarus1 which were so skilfully contrived1 that1 by their aid1 they mounted boldly in the air1 and directed their flight over the sea4 ,icarus disregarded his father's instructions1 and approached so near the sun that its heat melted the wax which united the feathers of his wings4 ,he could no longer sustain himself1 and was drowned in that sea which is called ,icarian1 from his name4 ,ddalus arrived in ,sicily1 where he was employed by ,cocalus1 king of that island1 in the erection of many splendid edifices4 ,various explanations have been given of the fable of ,ddalus4 ,the most probable opinion is that there really existed an architect of that name1 whose fame was such that all the improvements made in those early times in architecture and sculpture were attributed to him by popular tradition4 ,he introduced the use of masts and sails in ships1 and he is said to have been the first who represented statues in natural and lifelike attitudes1 and with open eyes4 ,ddalus is also mentioned as the inventor of the axe1 plumb-line and augur4 ,,ceyx--,,halcyone--,,the ,,halcyon ,,birds4 ,ques4 ,who was ,ceyx8 ,ans4 ,he was a king of ,trachinia1 who married ,halcyone1 a daughter of the god olus4 ,ceyx was drowned on his way to consult the oracle of ,claros4 ,halcyone was apprised of the sad event in a dream1 in which she saw her husband stand before her1 with pallid countenance and dripping garments4 ,she hastened to the strand at break of day1 and gazing over the waters1 beheld the body of ,ceyx borne towards her by the waves4 ,in her despair1 she cast herself into the sea1 but the gods took pity on the faithful pair1 and transformed them into halcyons4 ,according to the poets1 it was decreed that the sea should remain calm while these birds built their nests upon it4 ,notwithstanding the querulous1 lamenting note of the halcyon1 it was regarded by the ancients as a symbol of tranquillity1 and as it seemed to make its home upon the waters1 it was consecrated to ,thetis4 ,pliny tells us that these birds constructed their floating nests during the seven days immediately preceding the winter solstice1 and laid their eggs in the seven days succeeding4 ,these are the halcyon days of antiquity1 and this expression is still used to denote a period of bright and tranquil happiness4 ,the only bird of modern times which at all resembles the halcyon described by ,pliny and ,aristotle1 is the ,alcedo ,ispida1 a species of martin called by the ,french1 martin-pcheur4 ,this martin1 however1 makes its nest on shore1 lays its eggs in the spring1 and has no connection with calm weather4 ,the large sponge-like ball which was taken by the ancients for the floating nest of the halcyon1 was in reality a zophyte1 of the class named by ,linnus1 halcyonium4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,meleager--,,the ,,calydonian ,,hunt4 ,ques4 ,what was the story of this prince8 ,ans4 ,meleager was the son of ,oeneus and ,althea1 king and queen of ,calydon4 ,after his birth1 the ,fates entered the chamber of ,althea1 and foretold that the life of the child should expire with a billet of wood then burning on the hearth4 ,althea immediately seized and quenched the brand1 which she secured in an oaken chest4 ,meleager had already attained the years of manhood when he took part in the expedition generally known as the ,calydonian hunt4 ,oeneus had1 upon one occasion1 in offering sacrifice to the gods1 neglected the honors due to ,diana1 and the goddess1 in revenge1 sent a wild boar of enormous size to lay waste the fields of ,calydon4 ,the boldest hunters feared to attack the monster1 whose eyes shone with fire1 while its bristles stood erect like spears1 and its tusks resembled those of an ,indian elephant4 ,the cornfields and vineyards were trampled down in its path1 and the terrified husbandmen everywhere fled in dismay4 ,at length ,meleager called on the heroes of ,greece to join in a hunt and destroy the common foe4 ,there came on the appointed day1 ,castor and ,pollux1 ,theseus and his friend ,pirothous1 ,peleus1 afterwards father of ,achilles1 ,telamon1 father of ,ajax1 ,nestor1 then a youth1 and many others of heroic fame4 ,all eyes were1 however1 attracted by the fair huntress ,atalanta4 ,her girdle was of burnished gold1 an ivory quiver hung from her shoulder1 and she carried a bow in her left hand4 ,they soon reached the monster's lair4 ,roused by the baying hounds1 he rushed forth1 trampling down and slaying the nearest huntsmen4 ,in vain ,jason threw his spear1 praying that ,diana might guide his arm4 ,it glanced aside1 and the weapon of ,telamon proved equally harmless1 while ,nestor was obliged to seek safety in the branches of a tree4 ,the first wound was inflicted by an arrow from the bow of ,atalanta4 ,meleager1 following up this advantage1 despatched the monster with his spear4 ,the heroes crowded around to congratulate the victor1 who offered the head of the boar and the bristling hide to ,atalanta4 ,the huntress accepted the trophies1 but the uncles of ,meleager1 indignant that a woman should bear off the honors of the day1 snatched them rudely from her4 ,meleager forgot1 in his anger1 the ties of kindred1 and slew the offenders on the spot4 ,as ,althea was going to the temple to return thanks for her son's victory she beheld the bodies of her murdered brothers4 ,when she learned that they had fallen by the hand of ,meleager1 the ,furies took possession of her soul4 ,entering hastily into the palace1 she snatched the fatal brand1 so long preserved1 and cast it into the flames4 ,at the same moment ,meleager started with sudden pain1 his strength ebbed away1 and as the brand fell to ashes1 the soul of the hero was breathed forth on the light winds4 ,when the deed was accomplished ,althea killed herself in despair4 ,the sisters of ,meleager wept his loss1 until ,diana1 pitying their sorrow1 changed them into birds called ,meleagrides4 ,,nisus ,,and ,,scylla4 ,ques4 ,relate the story of their transformation8 ,ans4 ,nisus was king of ,megara2 this city was closely besieged by ,minos1 but all his efforts were vain1 as the ,fates had decreed that it should not be taken1 so long as a purple lock which grew on the head of ,nisus1 remained uncut4 ,scylla1 the daughter of this prince1 admired the majestic person of ,minos1 and the valor which he displayed4 ,believing that he would reward her treachery by making her his queen1 she cut the fatal lock while her father slept4 ,minos received the gift with horror1 and1 when the city was taken1 refused to permit ,scylla to accompany him to ,crete4 ,in despair1 she clung to the prow of his ship2 but ,nisus1 who had just been transformed into a hawk1 swooped down upon her from the sky4 ,scylla cast herself into the sea1 and was transformed at the same moment into a lark4 ,,erisichthon4 ,ques4 ,who was ,erisichthon8 ,ans4 ,he was a profane person and a despiser of the gods4 ,there stood in a grove sacred to ,ceres1 a stately oak which overtopped the trees around as they did the garden shrubs4 ,erisichthon commanded his attendants to fell the tree1 and when they hesitated1 he snatched an axe himself1 and struck the sacred wood4 ,blood flowed from the wounded trunk1 and a voice from the ,dryad dwelling in the oak1 warned him of the punishment which awaited his impiety4 ,erisichthon persisted in his crime1 and at length the tree1 severed by repeated blows1 and drawn with ropes1 sunk to the ground1 prostrating half the grove in its fall4 ,the indignant ,dryades went to ,ceres in mourning garb1 and invoked vengeance on the head of their impious foe4 ,the goddess was moved1 and delivered ,erisichthon into the power of ,famine4 ,as the ,fates had decreed that this goddess and ,ceres should never meet1 an ,oread was sent to the ice-clad plains of ,scythia1 where ,famine chiefly dwelt4 ,arriving at ,mount ,caucasus1 the nymph found her in a stony field1 tearing up with teeth and claws the scanty herbage4 ,the pale goddess obeyed the command of ,ceres1 and visiting the dwelling of ,erisichthon1 she breathed upon him as he slept4 ,awaking he craved food1 but the more he consumed1 the more his hunger raged4 ,in vain the unhappy man spent all his substance to obtain relief2 he was reduced to misery and famished as before4 ,he had one daughter called ,mestra1 an only child1 whom he sold to procure food4 ,the maiden scorned to be a slave1 and standing with her purchaser on the sea-shore1 she lifted her hands1 and invoked the aid of ,neptune4 ,the god immediately changed her form1 so that she appeared to be an aged fisherman mending nets4 ,the master1 strangely surprised at the sudden disappearance of his slave1 questioned the supposed fisherman4 ,mestra replied that she had seen no one1 and he proceeded to search for the fugitive elsewhere4 ,she then resumed her own form1 and returned to her father1 who was well pleased to find that he had still both his daughter and the money for which he had sold her4 ,he again resorted to this base expedient1 but as often as ,mestra was sold1 she was transformed1 by the favor of ,neptune1 now into a horse1 now an ox1 and now a stag2 and so escaped from her purchaser4 ,all means proved insufficient to supply the wants of the unhappy ,erisichthon1 who was compelled by hunger to devour his own flesh before death came to end his misery4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,poets of ,classic ,fable4 ,,homer--,,hesiod--,,virgil--,,ovid4 ,ques4 ,who was ,homer8 ,ans4 ,everything relating to this poet is involved in obscurity4 ,the two biographies of him which were formerly attributed to ,herodotus and ,plutarch1 are evidently fabulous2 their real authors are not known4 ,nothing is known certainly regarding ,homer's parentage1 his birth-place1 or even the exact era in which he lived4 ,seven cities contended for the honor of having given this great poet to the world2 these were ,smyrna1 ,chios1 ,colophon1 ,salamis1 ,rhodes1 ,argos and ,athens4 ,smyrna appears to have the best claim1 and it is considered certain that the poet was by birth an ,ionian2 the ,ionic is the dialect employed in his works1 with a slight mixture1 however1 of the olic1 and other forms4 ,with regard to the time in which ,homer lived1 there is much difference of opinion among the learned1 some placing him in the ninth1 others in the tenth century before our era4 ,the latter opinion is the more probable4 ,according to the account generally given1 ,homer was for many years a schoolmaster in ,smyrna4 ,he afterwards abandoned this occupation1 and spent some time in travelling4 ,he made several voyages in the company of a sea captain named ,mentes2 but at length his sight became so much affected that he was obliged to remain on shore at ,ithaca4 ,while in this island1 he was kindly entertained by a wealthy man named ,mentor1 who related to him the traditionary tales on which he afterwards founded the ,odyssey4 ,becoming totally blind1 ,homer returned to ,smyrna1 where he probably composed the greater part of his poems4 ,he afterwards led a wandering life1 gaining wealth and fame by the recitation of his verses4 ,he died at ,ios1 one of the ,cyclades1 where he was buried4 ,the fame of ,homer is founded on his two great poems1 the ,iliad and the ,odyssey4 ,the first of these has been always considered among the finest productions of human genius4 ,homer is distinguished not only for his sublimity1 but for the high moral tone which pervades his works4 ,ques4 ,who was ,hesiod8 ,ans4 ,this poet flourished about half a century later than ,homer4 ,he was a ,boeotian1 and in his youth tended sheep upon ,mount ,helicon4 ,he emigrated afterwards to ,orchomenos1 in western ,boeotia1 where he died4 ,the only complete works of ,hesiod now extant are the ,works and ,days1 and the ,theogony1 or ,birth of the ,gods4 ,the latter work consists of a long and rather tedious catalogue of the gods and goddesses2 it is valued as containing an accurate account of the ,grecian deities4 ,the description of the ,battle of the ,titans and the ,gods1 at the close of the work1 is considered one of the most sublime passages in classic poetry2 ,milton has borrowed from it in his ,battle of the ,angels4 ,ques4 ,when did ,virgil flourish8 ,ans4 ,publius ,virgilius ,maro was born near ,mantua in the year #gj1 ,b4 ,c4 ,he received a liberal education1 and inherited from his father a considerable estate4 ,of this he was deprived during the civil troubles which distracted ,italy1 but it was afterwards restored at the intercession of a powerful friend4 ,his gratitude towards this kind benefactor1 and the happiness felt by the poet in the peaceful possession of his patrimony1 form the subject of his first pastoral poem or ,eclogue4 ,virgil enjoyed the favor of ,augustus1 with the friendship of ,mcenas and other generous and powerful patrons2 his life was1 therefore1 spent in ease and prosperity4 ,he died at ,brundusium1 in the year #ai1 ,b4 ,c4 ,the ,eclogues1 sometimes called also ,bucolica or ,bucolics1 are ten short pastoral poems4 ,the fourth1 entitled ,pollio1 has given rise to much speculation on account of its striking coincidence with ,scripture4 ,many suppose that the poet was acquainted with the prophecies of ,isaiah4 ,the ,georgics treat of agriculture1 the care of cattle1 the raising of bees1 etc4 ,these peaceful arts had been much neglected in ,italy during the civil wars2 ,virgil hoped to revive the taste for rural pursuits1 by his beautiful descriptions of country life4 ,the neid1 the last and greatest of his works1 is an epic poem in twelve books4 ,it is a history of the wanderings of neas1 and the settlement of the ,trojans in ,italy4 ,virgil is considered inferior to ,homer in sublimity1 but he exceeds him in sweetness and in the beauty of his descriptions4 ,the moral1 and even to a certain extent the religious spirit which pervades his writings is beyond praise1 and places him almost alone among the poets of antiquity4 ,ques4 ,when did ,ovid write8 ,ans4 ,ovidius ,naso was born in the year #dc1 ,b4 ,c41 at ,sulmo 7now ,sulmona71 a town about ninety miles distant from ,rome4 ,the date of his birth is rendered memorable in history by the murder of the great ,cicero4 ,ovid belonged to an equestrian family2 he was educated at ,rome1 and enjoyed every advantage that splendid capital afforded4 ,he showed his taste for poetry at an early age1 but was dissuaded from cultivating this art by his father1 who wished him to apply exclusively to the study of eloquence4 ,ovid gained some distinction as an orator2 but when the death of his elder brother left him sole heir to an ample fortune1 his natural inclination prevailed1 and he gave himself up to literary pursuits4 ,a career of unexampled prosperity was now opened to the poet4 ,he enjoyed the favor of ,augustus1 and the friendship of the most distinguished men in ,rome2 his verses were universally admired1 they were sung in the streets and at entertainments1 or were recited in the theatre amid bursts of applause4 ,ovid was not content with the nobler pleasures of fame and friendship1 but plunged without restraint into all the vices and follies of which the ,roman capital was the centre4 ,this career of prosperity and pleasure was brought suddenly to a close4 ,ovid was banished by ,augustus to ,tomi1 7now ,temiswar7 on the shores of the ,euxine4 ,the decree was executed with the utmost severity4 ,but one wretched night was allowed to the poet to deplore his fate1 and take leave of his friends4 ,his wife begged in vain to be allowed to accompany her husband in his exile4 ,it is not known by what crime the unfortunate poet merited so severe a punishment4 ,the immoral tendency of some of his poems1 was the ostensible reason set forth by the emperor2 but these verses had been written many years before4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that he must have offended ,augustus in some manner which the latter did not choose to make public4 ,ovid wrote1 in his exile1 poems appropriately named ,tristia1 in which he bewails his hard fate1 and describes the scenes by which he was surrounded4 ,from the severity of the climate1 and the inroads of the barbarians1 the fields were without grain1 the hills without vines2 no stately oaks clothed the mountain-side1 no willows drooped along the banks2 a scanty growth of wormwood alone covered the desolate plains4 ,spring brought with it neither birds nor flowers4 ,in ,summer1 the sun was obscured by clouds2 the ,autumn shed no fruits1 but through every season of the year1 the wintry winds blew with prodigious violence1 and lashed the waves of the boisterous ,euxine on its desert shore4 ,the only animated object was the wild ,sarmatian driving his car1 yoked with oxen1 across the icy waste1 himself wrapped in furs1 his shaggy hair and beard sparkling with the hoar frost and flakes of snow4 ,such was the abode for which the poet was compelled to exchange the theatres1 the porticoes and gardens of ,rome1 the court of ,augustus1 and the sunny skies of ,italy4 ,he died in the ninth year of his exile1 and the sixty-first of his age4 ,the poems of ,ovid1 however beautiful otherwise1 are all more or less objectionable on account of their immoral tendency2 the corruption of the author's private character has left its impress on all his works4 ,the claim of ,ovid to be numbered among the poets of mythology1 rests chiefly on his ,metamorphoses4 ,this is a collection of legends of all the transformations said to have taken place in heathen mythology1 beginning with the earliest times1 and closing with the changing of ,julius ,csar into a star4 ,the stories are not themselves original2 they are principally ,greek and ,oriental fictions1 interspersed1 perhaps1 with a few ,latin or ,etruscan fables4 ,there are1 in all1 two hundred and fifty of these stories4 ,ovid was engaged in correcting this1 his greatest work1 when he was surprised by the sentence of banishment4 ,in a fit of impatience and despair1 he threw it into the flames4 ,some of his friends possessed copies1 and the poem was thus preserved4 ,if the ,metamorphoses had been destroyed by this rash act1 we would have lost many interesting fables which have been rendered immortal by the beauty of ,ovid's verse and his graceful fancy4 ,the ,tristia are not so generally admired4 ,they turn principally on the poet's personal misfortunes2 and this subject1 however absorbing to himself1 soon becomes wearisome to the reader4 ,ovid composed a poem in the harsh dialect spoken by the ,get who dwelt on the borders of the ,euxine ,sea4 ,the barbarians listened with delight to his recitations1 until their anger was excited by his constant complaints of their rude manners and inhospitable climate4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,heroes ,celebrated by the ,poets4 ,,agamemnon4 ,ques4 ,who was ,agamemnon8 ,ans4 ,he was king of ,mycen1 and commander-in-chief of the ,grecian forces during the siege of ,troy4 ,the combined fleet was detained for a long time at ,aulis1 owing to the wrath of ,diana1 whom ,agamemnon had offended by killing one of her favorite deer4 ,calchas1 the soothsayer1 was consulted2 he declared that the goddess could only be appeased by the sacrifice of ,iphigenia1 the oldest daughter of the monarch4 ,she was accordingly led to the altar1 but ,diana was moved with pity1 and carried the maiden with her to ,tauris1 leaving a hind in her place4 ,the quarrel of ,agamemnon with ,achilles1 and the troubles that resulted1 form the principal subject of ,homer's ,iliad4 ,in the division of captives1 after the taking of ,troy1 ,cassandra1 one of the daughters of ,priam1 fell to the lot of ,agamemnon4 ,this princess had been endowed by ,apollo with the gift of prophecy1 but as she refused afterwards to listen to the suit of that god1 he decreed that no one should attach any credit to her predictions4 ,it was so in the present instance4 ,clytemnestra1 the queen of ,agamemnon1 believing1 and perhaps hoping1 that her husband would not return1 had given a promise of marriage to gisthus1 who already considered himself king of ,mycen4 ,cassandra warned ,agamemnon against returning thither1 but her prediction was disregarded4 ,agamemnon was assassinated immediately on his arrival at ,mycen2 according to the tragic poets1 it was ,clytemnestra who dealt the fatal blow4 ,,achilles4 ,ques4 ,who was ,achilles8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,peleus1 king of ,phthiotis in ,thessaly2 his mother was ,thetis1 a sea-goddess4 ,many incredible stories are told concerning the manner in which the hero was nursed in his infancy4 ,according to one account1 his mother designed to make him immortal1 and for that purpose anointed him with ambrosia during the day1 and laid him in the fire at night4 ,the fears of ,peleus interrupted this strange treatment1 and ,achilles remained subject to death4 ,calchas had declared that ,troy could not be taken without his aid1 and ,thetis1 who was aware that her son was destined to perish if he joined the expedition1 disguised him in female attire1 and concealed him among the daughters of ,king ,lycomedes4 ,ulysses was sent to discover his retreat1 which he effected by the following stratagem4 ,attired as a travelling merchant1 he presented himself at court1 and displayed before the queen and her maidens1 various articles of female attire4 ,some pieces of armor were disposed among the merchandise2 by the order of ,ulysses1 a trumpet was suddenly blown1 when the disguised ,achilles betrayed himself by seizing the armor4 ,the young warrior was then obliged to join the expedition4 ,during the siege1 ,achilles had a dispute with ,agamemnon1 concerning some female captives2 considering himself wronged1 he withdrew from the contest1 and no entreaties could induce him to return to the field4 ,the death of his friend ,patroclus1 who fell by the hand of ,hector1 at length aroused him to action4 ,achilles' armor1 which he had lent to ,patroclus1 had become the spoil of ,hector1 and it was upon this occasion that ,vulcan fabricated for the hero1 the famous suit which is described in the ,iliad4 ,arrayed in this ,achilles performed prodigies of valor1 and at length killed ,hector1 after a desperate combat4 ,according to ,homer1 ,achilles took an ignoble revenge on the dead body of his foe1 which he dragged at his chariot-wheels1 three times around the tomb of ,patroclus4 ,the corpse of the ,trojan hero was yielded at last1 to the tears and supplications of ,priam1 and a truce was granted to the ,trojans1 for the performance of the funeral rites4 ,achilles was himself slain soon after2 his ashes were mingled in a golden urn with those of ,patroclus1 and a tomb was erected to both heroes1 on the promontory of ,sigoeum4 ,the vindictive spirit of ,achilles knew no repose1 even in death4 ,after the fall of ,troy1 his ghost appeared to the ,greeks1 and commanded them1 with fearful menaces in case of refusal1 to sacrifice on his tomb1 ,polyxena1 one of the daughters of ,priam4 ,the unhappy maiden was torn from her mother's arms1 and immolated by ,pyrrhus1 the son of ,achilles4 ,hecuba learned soon after the sad fate of her son ,polydorus4 ,this young prince1 who had been commended by ,priam to the care of ,polymnestor1 king of ,thrace1 was treacherously murdered by that monarch4 ,the bereaved mother planned a terrible revenge4 ,promising disclosures with regard to hidden treasures1 she induced ,polymnestor and his children to visit her in secret4 ,then1 aided by her fellow captives1 ,hecuba murdered the young princes and put out the father's eyes4 ,while endeavoring to escape from the vengeance of the ,thracians1 she was suddenly transformed into a dog4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,ulysses4 ,ques4 ,who was ,ulysses8 ,ans4 ,he was king of ,ithaca1 and had been1 like many other princes of ,greece1 a suitor of the beautiful ,helen4 ,believing that he had no hope for success among so many competitors1 ,ulysses asked the hand of ,penelope1 daughter of ,icarus4 ,his suit was granted2 but when he was about to depart with his bride1 ,icarus was so much grieved1 that he tried to persuade ,penelope to remain with him1 and not accompany her husband to ,ithaca4 ,ulysses bade her act according to her inclination1 saying that she was free to remain1 if such was her desire4 ,penelope made no reply1 but dropped her veil over her face4 ,icarus urged her no longer1 and when she was gone1 he erected a statue to ,modesty1 on the spot where they parted4 ,when the ,grecian princes were called upon to revenge the abduction of ,helen1 ,ulysses was unwilling to leave his peaceful kingdom1 and sacrifice the happiness he enjoyed in the company of ,penelope4 ,hearing that ,palamedes had come to summon him to the field1 he pretended to be insane4 ,he yoked a horse and a bull together1 and began ploughing the sands of the sea-shore1 sowing salt instead of grain4 ,palamedes caused ,telemachus1 the infant son of ,ulysses1 to be laid before the plough1 and the manner in which the father hastened to remove the child1 convinced every one that his insanity was feigned4 ,he was obliged1 therefore1 to join the expedition against ,troy1 but he never forgave ,palamedes for having exposed his stratagem4 ,the manner in which ,ulysses revenged himself is not calculated to give us a very high opinion of the hero4 ,during the siege1 he brought forward a false accusation against ,palamedes1 which he supported so well1 that the latter was condemned1 and put to death4 ,ulysses distinguished himself during the war1 by his wisdom and prudence in council1 and his courage on the field of battle4 ,we have already spoken of the part which he took in carrying off the ,palladium of ,troy4 ,as a reward for his services1 he received the armor of ,achilles1 which ,ajax had disputed with him4 ,after the fall of ,troy1 ,ulysses embarked with the intention of returning to ,greece1 but he met with so many extraordinary adventures1 that it was only after ten years of peril and hardships1 that he was permitted to land upon the shores of ,ithaca4 ,the ,odyssey1 the second of the two great poems attributed to ,homer1 is a history of the wanderings of ,ulysses4 ,after some adventures of minor importance1 the ships of the hero were overtaken by a storm which drove them southward for nine days1 and as many nights1 until they reached the country of the ,lotus-eaters4 ,when the tempest abated1 ,ulysses sent some of his companions on shore4 ,they were kindly entertained by the ,lotus-eaters1 who regaled them with their own favorite food1 the lotus plant4 ,this was of such a nature1 that all who partook of it forgot home and friends1 and were filled with a sort of indolent contentment1 so that they had no other desire than to remain always in that country4 ,ulysses was obliged to have these men dragged away by force1 and even then1 it was necessary to bind them with ropes to the benches of the ship4 ,the escape of ,ulysses from the cavern of the ,cyclops and from the enchantments of ,circe has been already related4 ,after passing safely between ,scylla and ,charybdis1 ,ulysses landed in the island of ,thrinakia1 where the cattle of ,hyperion 7the ,sun7 fed in verdant pastures4 ,circe had warned the voyagers that these flocks should be held inviolate1 however pressing their wants might be4 ,they were detained a long time at ,thrinakia by contrary winds2 and ,ulysses bound his companions by an oath that they would not touch the sacred herds4 ,they were1 however1 so pressed by famine that they ventured one day1 in the absence of ,ulysses1 to slay a number of the sacred cattle2 vainly endeavoring to propitiate the offended god1 by offering a portion in sacrifice4 ,ulysses returning to the shore1 was struck with horror at their temerity1 the more so on account of the fearful signs which followed4 ,the skins crept on the ground1 and the joints of meat lowed on the spits while roasting4 ,as the wind was now favorable1 ,ulysses hastened to fly from the fatal island4 ,the vengeance of the god pursued them on the sea1 and a terrible storm arose1 in which all perished1 except ,ulysses himself1 who was spared as having taken no part in the sacrilege4 ,he formed a raft from the fragments of his ship1 and was at length cast by the waves upon the island of the nymph ,calypso4 ,this goddess entertained ,ulysses with much kindness1 and even offered to share her immortality with the hero1 if he would consent to forget ,ithaca and dwell forever in her happy island4 ,jupiter1 however1 sent ,mercury to ,calypso1 with the command that she should dismiss ,ulysses1 and provide him with all that was necessary for his homeward voyage4 ,the goddess reluctantly obeyed2 a raft was constructed and furnished1 and ,ulysses departed from the island4 ,he sped prosperously for some days1 and was almost within sight of land1 when a violent storm arose1 in which he would have perished had he not been aided by a compassionate sea nymph2 ,minerva1 also1 smoothed the billows before him1 and he swam safely to land4 ,the ,phacians1 on whose shores he had been cast1 received him kindly1 and fitted out a ship in which he sailed for ,ithaca4 ,ulysses was asleep when the vessel touched the strand4 ,the ,phacians carried him on shore without awaking him1 and placed near him a chest filled with costly gifts1 after which they sailed away4 ,neptune was so much displeased with the ,phacians for aiding ,ulysses1 that1 as their vessel was returning to port1 he transformed it into a rock1 which continued ever after to obstruct the mouth of their harbor4 ,the arrival of the hero could not have occurred more opportunely for the deliverance of his wife1 the faithful ,penelope4 ,when a long time had elapsed after the fall of ,troy1 and no tidings were received of ,ulysses1 it was generally believed that he had perished4 ,more than a hundred nobles of ,ithaca and the surrounding islands1 became suitors for the hand of ,penelope2 she however still cherished the hope of her husband's return1 and refused to entertain any proposal of marriage4 ,the suitors nevertheless persisted2 they remained in the palace1 which they filled with riot and feasting1 and continually urged ,penelope to choose a husband from among their number4 ,she promised1 at length1 that she would do so when she had completed a certain web of embroidery on which she was engaged4 ,they agreed to wait1 and ,penelope deceived them for a long time1 plying her needle diligently during the day1 and undoing the greater part of her work at night4 ,this device succeeded for three years1 at the end of which time the suitors became so importunate that ,penelope could no longer resist4 ,she promised1 therefore1 that she would marry that man who should send an arrow from the bow of ,ulysses1 through twelve rings suspended in a line4 ,the conditions were accepted3 and it was on the very eve of the day appointed for the contest1 that ,ulysses landed in ,ithaca4 ,it was necessary to conceal his return2 for this purpose the hero disguised himself as a beggar1 and by the aid of ,minerva1 so changed his whole appearance that it was impossible for any one to recognize him4 ,in this character he was kindly received by ,eumus1 a swine-herd1 from whom he learned all that had transpired1 and the present distress of ,penelope4 ,telemachus1 the son of ,ulysses1 had been absent for a long time in search of his father4 ,he had visited the courts of the other kings who had taken part in the ,trojan war1 but without obtaining any certain tidings4 ,while still engaged in this quest1 ,minerva bade him return to ,ithaca2 he obeyed1 and the goddess contrived that he should arrive on the same day with his father1 and meet him in the hut of ,eumus4 ,after mutual explanations1 and affectionate greetings1 the two heroes consulted as to what measures they should take for the punishment of the suitors1 and the deliverance of ,penelope4 ,it was resolved that ,telemachus should proceed to the palace1 and mingle with the suitors1 as formerly2 that ,ulysses should also go1 but in the disguise of a beggar4 ,such persons were often admitted1 in ancient times1 to the halls of chieftains and princes1 where they entertained the guests with stories of their wanderings1 and were regaled with a portion of the viands4 ,on their arrival at the palace1 they found the usual scene of riot and festivity4 ,the suitors received ,telemachus with affected joy1 although secretly mortified at the failure of their plots against him4 ,as ,ulysses entered1 a dog which lay in the court1 half dead with age1 raised his head in sudden recognition1 fawned upon his old master1 and expired4 ,it was ,argus1 whom ,ulysses had often led to the chase4 ,the banquet proceeded1 but ,telemachus had much difficulty in dissembling his feelings when the suitors made his father a subject of mockery2 and one of them carried his insolence so far as to strike the disguised hero4 ,at length1 the time arrived for the contest of skill which was to decide the fate of ,penelope4 ,twelve rings were suspended at equal distances1 and ,telemachus brought from the armory the mighty bow of ,ulysses1 with its quiver of arrows2 taking care1 at the same time1 to remove all other weapons from the hall4 ,the first thing to be done1 was to bend the bow1 in order to attach the string4 ,this ,telemachus tried to do1 and was obliged to confess that his strength was unequal to the effort4 ,he passed the bow to one of the suitors1 who was compelled to yield it in turn1 amid the raillery of his companions4 ,when several had failed in the same manner1 ,ulysses begged that he might be allowed to try his skill4 ,the request was received with shouts of derision1 and some would have driven the insolent beggar from the hall4 ,telemachus interfered1 and remarking1 with affected indifference1 that they might as well gratify the old man1 bade him try4 ,ulysses took the bow1 and the suitors were amazed to see him handle the mighty weapon as if it had been a plaything4 ,their surprise was still greater1 when1 having adjusted the cord1 and chosen an arrow from the quiver1 he took such steady aim that the arrow sped unerringly through all the rings2 he then exclaimed1 ,now for another mark6 and aimed a second shaft at the most insolent of the suitors4 ,he fell dead1 and as the others rushed forward1 ,telemachus placed himself by his father's side1 with ,eumus and other armed retainers4 ,the suitors1 deprived of their weapons1 and terrified at the aspect of the injured prince1 whom they recognized too late1 turned to fly1 but ,eumus secured the doors4 ,a desperate struggle ensued1 in which all were slain1 and ,ulysses was left master of his palace and his kingdom4 ,the ,odyssey concludes with a description of the rejoicings which followed1 and the happiness enjoyed by ,ulysses and ,penelope after their long separation4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,,orestes4 ,ques4 ,who was ,orestes8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,agamemnon and ,clytemnestra4 ,at the time of his father's assassination1 ,orestes1 then a child1 was saved by his sister ,electra1 who sent him secretly to their uncle ,strophius1 king of ,phocis4 ,here he formed a friendship with ,pylades1 the son of that monarch1 which was so true and constant that it passed into a proverb4 ,orestes was urged by messages from his sister ,electra1 to avenge the murder of his father1 and her counsels were confirmed by the responses of the oracle of ,apollo at ,delphi4 ,orestes1 accompanied by his friend ,pylades1 repaired in disguise to ,mycen4 ,here he announced himself to ,clytemnestra as a messenger from ,strophius1 bringing news of the death of her son ,orestes4 ,the guilty queen feigned to grieve at these tidings1 but gisthus made no effort to conceal his satisfaction4 ,orestes was now seized with horror at the thought of the deed which he was about to commit1 but the reproaches of ,electra1 and the remembrance of his father's cruel fate1 banished every thought of pity1 and he slew ,clytemnestra and gisthus with his own hand4 ,this act1 however justified by the guilt of ,clytemnestra1 and the express command of the gods1 was abhorrent to nature1 and could not pass unavenged4 ,orestes was pursued by the ,furies1 and wandered frantic and despairing from land to land1 always accompanied by the faithful ,pylades4 ,the oracle of ,apollo was consulted1 and the ,pythia declared that ,orestes would not be delivered until he had visited the ,tauric ,chersonesus1 and brought from thence to ,argos1 a certain statue of ,diana1 from the temple of that goddess4 ,it was the custom at ,tauris1 to sacrifice all strangers at the altar of ,diana2 ,orestes and ,pylades were accordingly seized on their arrival1 and carried as victims to the temple4 ,the officiating priestess was no other than ,iphigenia1 the sister of ,orestes1 whom ,diana had saved when she was about to be immolated at ,aulis4 ,perceiving that the strangers were ,greeks1 she offered to spare the life of one1 on condition that he would be the bearer of a letter to ,greece4 ,this proposal gave rise to a memorable contest of friendship1 each desiring to sacrifice himself for the other4 ,pylades at length yielded to ,orestes1 and consented to take the letter4 ,his surprise was great on perceiving that it was addressed to ,orestes himself2 an explanation followed1 and ,iphigenia resolved to fly from ,tauris with her brother4 ,their plans were so well laid1 that they not only succeeded in escaping unobserved1 but were also enabled to carry off the statue of ,diana1 which they brought to ,argos4 ,orestes reigned many years in ,mycen1 and was married to his cousin ,hermione1 daughter of ,menelaus and ,helen4 ,pylades married ,electra1 the sister of his friend4 ,the tragic poets add many incidents to the story of ,orestes4 ,they say that when pursued by the ,furies1 he took refuge in the temple of ,apollo1 at ,delphi4 ,by the command of that god1 he repaired to ,athens1 where he was tried by the court of ,areopagus4 ,the judges were divided in their sentiments1 but ,minerva interfered in behalf of ,orestes1 and he was acquitted4 ,,hector4 ,ques4 ,who was ,hector8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,priam and ,hecuba1 and the most valiant of all the ,trojan chiefs who fought against the ,greeks4 ,the ,fates had decreed that ,troy should not be taken as long as ,hector lived4 ,the hero knew that he was destined to fall before the walls of his native city1 and that he could at best only postpone the ruin of his country for a little time4 ,not discouraged by this1 he performed prodigies of valor1 and slew1 with his own hand1 ,patroclus1 the friend of ,achilles4 ,he next went out to meet ,achilles himself1 notwithstanding the remonstrances of ,priam and ,hecuba1 and the tears of his wife ,andromache4 ,he fell as we have seen1 and this event was shortly followed by the overthrow of his father's kingdom4 ,hector was not only distinguished as a warrior and a patriot2 he was equally admirable as a son1 husband1 and father2 and his character is perhaps the noblest which has been described by any writer of antiquity4 ,when ,troy was taken1 ,calchas excited much uneasiness among the ,greeks1 by a prediction1 that if ,astyanax1 the son of ,hector1 were permitted to live1 he would one day avenge his father's death1 and raise ,troy from its ruins4 ,diligent search was therefore made for the child1 who had been concealed by his mother in the recesses of ,hector's tomb4 ,here he was discovered by ,ulysses4 ,disregarding the prayers of the unhappy ,andromache1 the ,grecian commanders precipitated the boy from the summit of a lofty tower4 ,,oedipus--,,eteocles ,,and ,,polynices4 ,ques4 ,what was the story of these princes8 ,ans4 ,oedipus was the son of ,laius1 king of ,thebes4 ,he was exposed by his father immediately on his birth1 to avoid the fulfillment of an oracle which declared that ,laius was destined to fall by the hand of one of his children4 ,oedipus was found by a herdsman1 who brought him to ,polybus1 king of ,corinth4 ,this monarch was childless1 and adopted the infant as his own4 ,when ,oedipus was grown to manhood1 he desired to learn something of his real parentage1 and went to consult the oracle of ,delphi4 ,the god warned him to shun his native country1 declaring that if he returned thither1 he would become the murderer of his father1 and be guilty of crimes which would draw upon him the vengeance of the gods4 ,oedipus understood this of ,corinth1 and instead of returning to that city1 proceeded to ,thebes4 ,here he slew his father ,laius in an accidental encounter1 and1 after his victory over the ,sphinx1 which we have already mentioned1 he fulfilled the other predictions of the oracle4 ,oedipus reigned many years in ,thebes before he discovered his parentage1 and the crimes which he had unknowingly committed4 ,in his despair1 he put out his eyes1 and went into exile1 leaving the throne to his sons ,eteocles and ,polynices4 ,it was agreed between the brothers that they should reign each a year alternately4 ,eteocles first ascended the throne2 but when the year had expired1 he refused to resign the crown4 ,polynices was indignant at this breach of faith1 and fled to ,argos1 where he married the daughter of ,king ,adrastus4 ,this monarch assembled a large army to enforce the claims of his son-in-law4 ,the command of the expedition was given to seven chieftains1 who were to attack each one of the seven gates of ,thebes4 ,after all the ,argive leaders1 except ,adrastus1 had perished before the walls1 it was proposed that ,eteocles and ,polynices should decide the war by single combat4 ,the brothers fought with such animosity that both fell1 mortally wounded4 ,the battle was then renewed1 and the ,argives were totally defeated4 ,creon1 the uncle of the fallen princes1 was now king of ,thebes2 he had the body of ,eteocles honorably buried1 but he left the remains of ,polynices exposed to the dogs and vultures1 and forbade1 under pain of death1 that any one should bestow on him the rites of sepulture4 ,he thus carried his vengeance beyond the grave1 as1 according to ,greek superstition1 the souls of the unburied were excluded for a hundred years from the ,elysian fields4 ,antigone1 the daughter of ,oedipus1 had1 meanwhile1 accompanied her father in his exile1 and watched over him with touching devotion until death released her from this filial duty4 ,she no sooner learned the cruel order of ,creon1 than she resolved1 at whatever hazard1 to perform the funeral rites for ,polynices4 ,she succeeded in approaching the corpse1 which she covered with earth1 making the usual libations4 ,while thus engaged1 ,antigone was seized and brought before ,creon4 ,she defended nobly the pious act which she had performed1 and was condemned by the tyrant to be entombed alive4 ,the misfortunes of ,oedipus and his children have been celebrated by three ,greek tragedians3 schylus1 ,sophocles and ,euripides4 ,in the tragedy of ,sophocles which bears her name1 the character of ,antigone is beautifully drawn4 ,we have the sternest heroism1 tempered always by the tenderness of filial piety and sisterly devotion4 ,the whole presents the finest ideal of womanly excellence which can be found in the writings of any ancient poet4 ,the following lines are taken from ,dale's translation of the ,antigone4 ,creon reproaches the heroine with having violated the laws2 she replies3 ,ne'er did eternal ,jove such laws ordain1 ,or ,justice1 throned amid th' infernal powers1 ,who on mankind these holier rites imposed-- ,nor can ,i deem thine edict armed with power ,to contravene the firm unwritten laws ,of the just gods1 thyself a weak frail mortal6 444 ,i knew before ,that ,i must die1 though thou had'st ne'er proclaimed it1 ,and if ,i perish ere th' allotted term1 ,i deem that death a blessing4 ,who that lives ,like me encompassed by unnumbered ills1 ,but would account it blessedness to die8 ,if then ,i meet the doom thy laws assign1 ,it nothing grieves me4 ,had ,i left my brother1 ,from my own mother sprung1 on the bare earth ,to lie unburied1 that1 indeed1 might grieve me2 ,but for this deed ,i mourn not4 444 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,,neas4 ,ques4 ,who was neas8 ,ans4 ,he was a ,trojan chief1 the son of ,venus and ,anchises4 ,he was born on ,mount ,ida1 where he was nurtured by the ,dryads until he had attained his fifth year1 when he was brought to his father4 ,anchises was not on friendly terms with the family of ,priam1 but this coldness did not prevent neas from exerting himself to the utmost in defence of his country4 ,excepting ,hector only1 there was no ,trojan who so distinguished himself by his valor4 ,when ,troy was taken1 neas made his escape from the burning city1 bearing on his shoulders the aged ,anchises1 and leading his little son ,ascanius by the hand4 ,his wife was separated from him in the confusion and darkness1 and perished by the sword of the enemy4 ,anchises bore with him the sacred ,penates of ,troy1 and his household gods4 neas was joined by the greater part of the ,trojans1 both men and women1 who had escaped from the horrors of that fatal night4 ,they concealed themselves in the neighboring mountains until the ,greeks had departed1 after which they constructed a fleet of twenty sail4 ,in the second year after the destruction of ,troy1 the remnant of the ,trojans embarked under the guidance of neas in search of new settlements4 ,after many wanderings and adventures1 they landed at ,epirus1 and were rejoiced to learn that ,helenus1 one of the sons of ,priam1 was reigning in that country4 ,he had married ,andromache1 and the meeting of neas with the widow of the great ,hector is the subject of a very beautiful passage in the neid4 ,the ,penates of ,troy had appeared at night to ,anchises1 and revealed to him that ,italy was the land allotted by the ,fates to the exiled ,trojans4 neas recalled a prediction of ,cassandra to the same effect2 and ,helenus1 who was endowed with the gift of prophecy1 now confirmed what had been already foretold4 ,he rendered his exiled countrymen all the assistance in his power1 and dismissed them at length1 loaded with costly gifts4 neas was destined to pass through many perils before landing on the shores of ,italy4 ,in the seventh year of their wanderings1 the ,trojans were driven by a storm on the coast of ,africa2 here they were kindly entertained by ,dido1 who was then engaged in the erection of her new city of ,carthage4 ,the queen admired the great qualities of the ,trojan chief1 and felt her heart moved with compassion at the sight of so much undeserved misfortune4 ,she resolved1 therefore1 to share her throne with the hero1 and to offer his followers a permanent settlement in the country4 ,this proposal seems not to have been displeasing either to neas or to the ,trojans4 ,forgetful of the decrees of fate1 they lingered many months in idle pleasure1 and neas was only roused to action by the direct intervention of the gods4 ,jupiter sent ,mercury to the hero1 commanding him to embark without delay1 and proceed to his destined settlement in ,italy4 neas obeyed1 and made the necessary preparations for departure1 disregarding the tears and reproaches of the queen4 ,when ,dido found that all was unavailing1 and that the ,trojans had already embarked1 she killed herself in despair4 neas spent some time in ,sicily1 where he celebrated funeral games in honor of his father1 who had died there the preceding year4 ,he left with ,acestes1 a ,trojan prince who governed a part of the island1 the women1 the aged men1 and all who were likely to be useless in the wars which awaited him4 neas next landed at ,cum1 in ,italy4 ,this was the abode of a famous ,sibyl1 of whom we will speak elsewhere4 ,she foretold to the hero much that was to happen during his settlement in ,italy2 but in order that he might be fully informed of the future destinies of his race1 she offered to conduct him to the world of shades4 neas having plucked1 in the sacred grove1 a golden bough as a gift to ,proserpine1 descended with the ,sibyl to the dreary realms of ,pluto4 ,after seeing much that was wonderful1 and passing through regions inhabited by different classes of departed souls1 they entered the happy plains of ,elysium4 ,this was the abode of the heroes and other favorites of the gods4 ,here1 in a fragrant meadow1 neas found the shade of ,anchises1 who showed him the souls which were destined to return to earth1 and become the future heroes of ,rome4 ,anchises also recounted to neas the glorious deeds which they were one day to perform4 ,in this passage1 ,virgil takes occasion to gratify the vanity of ,augustus and the great families of ,rome1 by introducing their names and actions in the prophetic discourse of ,anchises4 ,returning to upper air1 neas took leave of the sibyl1 and pursued his voyage along the ,italian coast1 anchoring at length in the mouth of the ,tiber4 ,the country around was governed by a prince named ,latinus1 the son of ,faunus and the nymph ,marica4 ,this prince had one child1 a daughter named ,lavinia4 ,her hand had been promised to ,turnus1 prince of the ,rutulians1 but ,latinus was warned by an oracle that his destined son-in-law was to come from afar1 and that ,lavinia was to wed a foreigner4 ,when neas sent an embassy to ,latinus1 requesting permission to settle in the country1 that prince believed that the ,trojan chief was the person pointed out by the oracle1 and invited him to his palace4 ,all now seemed to promise a peaceful settlement to the harassed ,trojans1 but the enmity of ,juno was not yet appeased4 ,she sent the ,fury ,alecto to the palace of ,turnus1 with orders to excite this prince against the stranger1 who was about to rob him of his promised bride4 ,a long war ensued1 which forms the subject of the concluding books of the neid4 ,at length ,turnus fell in a personal combat with neas4 ,the hand of ,lavinia was the price of victory1 and from the ,trojan hero were descended the founders of ,rome4 ,the neid concludes with the death of ,turnus1 but we have some further particulars handed down by tradition4 neas built a city1 called from his bride1 ,lavinium4 ,here he governed his ,trojan and ,italian subjects1 who became one people under the common name of ,latins4 ,the new kingdom was attacked by several of the neighboring princes1 led by ,mezentius1 king of ,etruria4 neas defeated the allies1 but was killed in the moment of victory4 ,the family of ,julii1 made illustrious by ,julius ,csar1 claimed descent from ,iulus1 grandson of neas4 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,,sibyls--,,augurs4 ,ques4 ,who were the ,sibyls8 ,ans4 ,the ,sibyll1 or ,sibyls1 were certain females1 supposed to be inspired by ,heaven1 who flourished at different times and in different parts of the world4 ,according to the historian ,varro1 they were ten in number4 ,the most celebrated was the ,cuman ,sibyl1 of whom the poets give the following account4 ,apollo sought the love of the young prophetess1 and promised to give her whatever she should demand4 ,the sibyl desired that she might live as many years as she had grains of sand in her hand2 but as she forgot to ask for health and youthful bloom1 this long life proved rather a burden than a benefit4 ,she had rejected the suit of ,apollo1 and the god refused1 therefore1 to withdraw his gift or mitigate the severity of her lot4 ,this sibyl had already lived seven hundred years when neas came to ,italy1 and six centuries still remained of the time granted by ,apollo4 ,she accompanied neas on his visit to the lower world4 ,according to a well-known ,roman legend1 one of the sibyls came to the palace of the second ,tarquin with nine volumes1 which she offered to sell at a very high price4 ,the king declined the offer2 the sibyl immediately disappeared and burned three of the volumes4 ,returning soon after1 she asked the same price for the remaining six books2 and when ,tarquin again refused to buy them1 she burned three more1 and still persisted in demanding the same sum of money for those that were left4 ,this extraordinary conduct astonished the monarch1 and with the advice of the ,augurs he bought the books1 upon which the sibyl disappeared and was never seen after4 ,these books were preserved with great care1 and were called the ,sibylline ,verses4 ,a college of priests was appointed to take charge of them1 and they were consulted with the greatest solemnity1 whenever the state seemed to be in danger4 ,when the ,capitol was burned in the troubles raised by ,sylla1 the ,sibylline ,verses are said by some to have perished in the conflagration4 ,it is believed1 however1 on good authority1 that they were in existence as late as the fourth century1 when they were destroyed by command of the ,emperor ,honorius4 ,various collections were afterwards made1 which are generally admitted to be forgeries4 ,different opinions have prevailed with regard to the prophecies of the sibyls1 some of which1 it is said1 pointed clearly to the advent of a ,redeemer1 the time of his coming1 and the submission of ,rome to the new dispensation4 ,it has been thought that these passages were invented by later ,christian writers1 but ,bishop ,horsley1 a learned ,english divine1 thinks it more reasonable to suppose that the sibylline books contained the records of prophecies which were granted in primitive times1 to nations outside of the patriarchal and ,jewish races4 ,he cites in favor of this opinion1 the fact that ,st4 ,justin1 in his apology addressed to the ,emperor ,marcus ,antoninus1 appeals confidently to the sibylline prophecies1 and at that time1 about the middle of the second century1 it was not possible that the ,christians should have added anything to them4 ,there are also passages in the fourth ,eclogue of ,virgil which prove that the expectation of a ,saviour1 and the belief that the time of his advent was approaching1 existed even among the pagans4 ,divination by ,omens--,the ,augurs4 ,ques4 ,who were the ,augurs8 ,ans4 ,they were priests whose office it was to observe and interpret omens4 ,this science was derived from the ancient ,etrurians4 ,there were five principal classes of omens from which the ,augurs were supposed to foretell future events1 the good or ill success of an undertaking1 etc4 ,the first were drawn from the phenomena of nature1 such as thunder1 lightning1 comets1 etc4 ,the second kind of omen was obtained by observing the cries and the flight of birds4 ,in the third class we may place the appetite of the sacred chickens2 when they did not eat1 the omen was so bad that it was considered unlucky to give battle1 or undertake anything of importance4 ,it happened once that a ,roman commander1 7,claudius ,pulcher17 when about to engage the fleet of the enemy1 was warned by the ,augurs that the sacred chickens would not eat4 ,he replied1 with very natural contempt1 that if they would not eat1 they might drink1 and had them thrown into the sea4 ,it is believed that the terrible defeat the ,romans suffered on that day was owing1 in great part1 to the discouragement of the sailors1 who supposed that their commander had forfeited the favor of the gods by this act of sacrilege4 ,omens were drawn from the appearance of the entrails of animals offered in sacrifice1 also from the meeting with quadrupeds in any unaccustomed place4 ,the fifth class of omens was taken from different casualties1 such as spilling salt1 stumbling on the threshold1 sneezing1 meeting a hare1 wolf1 fox1 etc4 ,some of these last superstitions prevail1 more or less1 to the present day4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,,oracles4 ,ques4 ,what do you understand by oracles8 ,ans4 ,the places where the heathen divinities were supposed to answer those who consulted them1 were called oracles4 ,this word was also applied to the responses given4 ,ques4 ,name some of the more famous oracles8 ,ans4 ,among the most celebrated were1 the oracles of ,jupiter at ,dodona2 of ,apollo1 at ,delphi2 of ,trophonius1 near ,lebedea in ,boeotia2 of ,jupiter ,ammon1 in the deserts of ,lybia2 of sculapius at ,epidaurus2 and the ,castalian ,fount4 ,ques4 ,describe the oracle of ,dodona4 ,ans4 ,dodona was a town of ,epirus1 probably situated in the valley now called ,joannina1 but the exact site has not been ascertained4 ,in the earlier times ,jupiter gave answers to his votaries by means of a so-called vocal oak or beach4 ,brazen instruments1 suspended from the higher branches1 clashed together when moved by the wind4 ,the priestesses who were appointed to explain the responses of the oracle could attach whatever meaning they pleased to these inarticulate sounds4 ,later1 the ,corcyrians presented to the temple a brazen caldron surmounted by a figure of the same metal2 the statue held in its hand a whip1 the lash of which consisted of three chains1 each having an astragalus 7a small bone7 at the end4 ,these1 when moved by the winds1 struck the caldron1 and produced so continuous a sound that four hundred vibrations were sometimes counted before it ceased4 ,demosthenes tells us that the responses delivered to the ,athenians at ,dodona were carefully preserved in the public archives2 their reverence for the oracle did not1 however1 prevent them from accusing the priestess of being influenced by bribes when they were dissatisfied with her answers4 ,the oracle of ,dodona was probably the most ancient in ,greece4 ,the temple was founded by the ,pelasgi long before the siege of ,troy2 it was partially destroyed by the tolians during the ,social ,war1 and it would seem that it never recovered from this disaster4 ,the town existed many centuries later2 and we read of a bishop of ,dodona who attended the council of ,ephesus4 ,ques4 ,what does ,diodorus tell us concerning the oracle at ,delphi8 ,ans4 ,this historian relates that a shepherd1 while feeding his flocks on the side of ,mount ,parnassus1 observed that his sheep and goats1 on approaching a certain cavity in the earth1 began to skip and dance about in an extraordinary manner4 ,as he drew near to examine the cause of this phenomenon1 the vapors1 exhaling from the earth1 affected him in the same way2 his body was convulsed1 and he spoke words which revealed futurity4 ,others experienced similar effects1 and the exhalation was supposed to have a certain divine property4 ,the cavity was approached with reverence2 a tripod was placed over it2 and a priestess or ,pythia was appointed to preside4 ,the words which she uttered when under the influence of the vapor were considered to be inspired by ,apollo2 crowds came to consult the oracle2 a temple was built1 and the city of ,delphi arose insensibly around the spot4 ,as the oracle grew in repute it became necessary to appoint a second and a third ,pythia to answer those who came to consult the god4 ,the ,pythia could not prophesy until she had become intoxicated by the vapor from the sanctuary4 ,this effect was not produced at all times1 and on some days it was not permitted to consult the oracle4 ,spring was considered the most propitious season4 ,when ,apollo was favorably disposed1 his approach was made known by the moving of a laurel that stood before the gate of the temple4 ,the sacred tree was then seen to tremble in every leaf4 ,the ,pythia was obliged to prepare by fasts1 sacrifices and purifications before she ascended the tripod4 ,when under the influence of the mysterious vapor1 her hair stood erect1 her eyes flashed1 she foamed at the mouth1 and a convulsive trembling seized her whole body4 ,she then spoke prophetic words1 which were carefully noted by the attendant priests4 ,the oracles were sometimes in verse1 but more commonly in prose2 in the latter case they were immediately versified by poets employed for that purpose4 ,many remarkable oracles are recorded by ,herodotus as having been delivered at ,delphi1 but as a general thing the answers were ambiguous1 and so cautiously worded as to seem true1 whatever might be the event4 ,such was the answer given to ,croesus1 king of ,lydia1 when he consulted the oracle concerning the result of his expedition against the ,medes4 ,the ,pythia told him that by crossing the river ,halys he would ruin a great empire1 but as she did not say what empire1 whether his own or that of his enemies1 the oracle could not fail of being fulfilled4 ,there is no doubt that the ,pythia was often influenced by persuasion or bribes1 and many illustrious persons were accused of having bought the oracles they desired4 ,the temple of ,apollo at ,delphi was enriched by the offerings of different princes1 and the surrounding nations vied with one another in the magnificence of their gifts4 ,the building was destroyed by fire in the year #edh ,b4 ,c41 but was soon rebuilt4 ,xerxes1 after having forced the pass of ,thermopyl1 sent a detachment of his army to plunder the treasures of ,delphi4 ,the expedition was unsuccessful1 owing1 as the ,delphians asserted1 to a manifest interposition of the deity4 ,afterwards1 ,philomelus1 a ,phocian general1 seized these treasures to pay his troops4 ,he is said to have carried off1 in gold and silver1 a sum equal to ten million dollars4 ,still later ,delphi was threatened by the ,gauls1 under their king ,brennus4 ,according to ,pausanias1 the city and temple were saved by ,pan1 as we have seen in the account given of that god2 but others declare that the invaders possessed themselves of great booty4 ,sylla also plundered ,delphi1 and ,nero took from it1 at one time1 no less than five hundred statues of bronze4 ,the temple was finally dismantled by ,constantine the ,great1 who adorned his ,hippodrome with the sacred tripods4 ,no traces are known to exist of the cavern whence issued the sacred vapor1 but some have thought it might be discovered by searching in the central part of the ruins of the ancient city4 ,ques4 ,who was ,trophonius1 and for what was his oracle remarkable8 ,ans4 ,trophonius1 and his brother ,agamedes were the architects of the temple of ,apollo at ,delphi4 ,according to one legend1 when the edifice was finished1 they asked the god to reward them for their labor4 ,apollo promised that he would recompense them on the seventh day1 and bade them live happily during the interval4 ,on the seventh night the brothers died in their sleep4 ,the oracle is said to have been discovered on the following occasion3 ,in a time of severe drought the ,boeotians consulted ,apollo at ,delphi1 and were directed to seek aid from ,trophonius in ,lebadea4 ,they proceeded thither1 and seeing a swarm of bees enter a chasm in the earth1 they followed and discovered a deep cavern4 ,here they found the oracle of ,trophonius1 and the aid they sought4 ,ques4 ,what ceremonies were observed in consulting this oracle8 ,ans4 ,the votary was first purified by solemn ablutions2 then1 after offering sacrifice1 and drinking of a water called ,lethe1 or oblivion1 he descended by means of ladders into the first1 or upper cavern4 ,the opening into the lower cave was extremely narrow1 and there was apparently nothing to aid the descent4 ,here1 those who were courageous enough to advance1 lay upon the ground with their feet within the entrance1 taking care to hold in each hand a certain composition of honey4 ,they were then carried downwards with great force1 as by the current of a rapid river4 ,in the mysterious depths of the lower cave1 the future was revealed1 but not to all in the same manner2 some saw1 others heard what they desired to know4 ,it has been frequently asserted that those who entered the cave of ,trophonius never smiled and we should judge1 from the accounts given by ancient writers1 that they were subjected to a treatment closely resembling what we now call animal magnetism1 or mesmerism4 ,ques4 ,where was the temple of ,jupiter ,ammon8 ,ans4 ,it was situated in an oasis of the ,libyan desert1 called by the ancients ,ammon1 and by the modern ,arabs1 ,siwah4 ,it is about five degrees west of ,cairo4 ,the temple is said to have been founded by ,bacchus under the following circumstances4 ,while marching through the ,libyan desert1 ,bacchus came to a barren waste of sand where his whole army was in danger of perishing for want of water4 ,he called on ,jupiter for aid1 and a ram suddenly appeared1 which guided them to a verdant oasis1 in the midst of which sparkled a clear fountain4 ,bacchus erected on the spot1 a temple which he dedicated to ,jupiter4 ,as the surrounding country was called ,hammodes from ,hammon or ,ammon1 sand1 the god was worshipped here under this title1 and was always represented as having the head and horns of a ram4 ,the temple soon became celebrated as an oracle1 and was enriched1 like that of ,delphi1 by splendid offerings4 ,when ,cambyses invaded ,egypt1 he sent a large body of troops across the desert to seize its treasures4 ,as nothing was ever heard of this expedition1 it seems probable that the ,persians were purposely misled by their ,egyptian guides1 and thus perished in the desert4 ,alexander the ,great visited the temple of ,jupiter ,ammon to question the oracle as to his parentage2 and the priests1 who were undoubtedly apprised of the object of his visit1 did not wait to be questioned1 but saluted the king as the son of ,jupiter4 ,the site of this temple was discovered in the last century by an ,english traveller1 but the latest and best account is given by ,belzoni1 who visited it in #ahaf4 ,the oasis is about six miles in length1 with an average breadth of four miles4 ,it is fertile and produces in abundance1 rice1 wheat and fruits4 ,the ruins of the temple are not extensive2 they are1 however1 interesting1 as many pieces of sculpture1 including figures of goats with rams' heads1 are found in a good state of preservation4 ,in a beautiful grove of palms1 towards the centre of the oasis1 is the famous ,fons ,solis1 or ,fountain of the ,sun1 which does not1 however1 correspond with the description given by ,herodotus4 ,according to that historian1 this fountain was always tepid at dawn1 icy cold at noon2 it grew warm again towards sunset1 and was boiling hot at midnight4 ,belzoni says that this account is quite exaggerated1 although the water of the fountain felt to him much warmer at midnight than at noon-day4 ,the truth seems to be that little or no change takes place in the fountain1 which is well shaded and very deep4 ,the great change which really takes place in the atmosphere is probably the cause of the apparent variation in the temperature of the fountain4 ,belzoni had no thermometer with him1 so that he was unable to test the truth of this supposition4 ,ques4 ,where was the oracle of sculapius8 ,ans4 ,this god was consulted by the sick in many places1 but his most celebrated oracle was in his native city of ,epidaurus in ,argolis4 ,this oracle was so famous that in the year #bic ,b4 ,c41 when a terrible pestilence was raging in ,rome1 the ,senate sent a solemn embassy to ,epidaurus to implore the aid of sculapius4 ,the god was propitious1 and accompanied the returning embassy in the form of a serpent4 ,according to another account1 the priests sent to ,rome a sacred serpent which they nourished in the temple4 ,ques4 ,what was particularly remarkable in the oracles of sculapius8 ,ans4 ,it would seem that the priests1 who had probably some skill in medicine1 made use of every means calculated to encourage the votaries1 and inspire them with a confident hope of recovery4 ,they were obliged to sleep in the temple1 and we should judge1 from the accounts given by ancient writers1 that they were subjected to a treatment closely resembling what we now call animal magnetism1 or mesmerism4 ,the temple of ,epidaurus was plundered by ,sylla to defray the expenses of the war against ,mithridates4 ,ques4 ,where was the ,castalian ,fount8 ,ans4 ,there were two celebrated springs of that name2 one on ,mount ,parnassus1 which was sacred to the ,muses1 and another near ,daphne1 in ,syria4 ,this last was believed to impart the knowledge of futurity to those who drank of its waters4 ,the oracle of this fountain promised the empire to ,hadrian1 while he was yet in a private station4 ,when he ascended the throne1 he had the fountain shut up with stones4 ,ques4 ,what opinions did the early ,christian writers hold with regard to the heathen oracles8 ,ans4 ,they believed that although the responses were to be attributed1 as a general thing1 to mere human jugglery and imposture1 there were occasions in which it was impossible to doubt the direct agency of evil spirits4 ,we read in ,scripture that ,satan spoke by the mouths of the possessed1 and none were more likely to fall under this demoniac influence than the priests and other ministrants in these shrines of imposture4 ,many instances are recorded where ,christians imposed silence on oracles by pronouncing the name of ,jesus ,christ1 or by the sign of the cross2 and sometimes the same effect was produced by their simple presence in the temple4 ,ques4 ,at what period did the oracles cease to give responses8 ,ans4 ,no exact date can be assigned2 as ,christianity spread1 these impostures fell gradually into disrepute1 and were at length entirely abandoned4 ,it has been asserted that the oracles became silent at the birth of ,christ1 but this is an error4 ,milton1 however adopts this idea in his beautiful ,hymn of the ,nativity3 ,the oracles are dumb2 ,no voice or hideous hum ,rings through the arched roof in words deceiving4 ,apollo from his shrine ,can no more divine1 ,with hollow shriek the steep of ,delphos leaving4 ,no nightly trance or breathed spell ,inspires the pale-eyed priest from the prophetic cell4 ,,chapter ,,xl4 ,,classic ,,games4 ,ques4 ,why is a notice of these games appropriate in this place8 ,ans4 ,because they were closely connected with the religious observances of the ,greeks4 ,they were begun and ended with solemn sacrifices1 and formed a part in the celebration of the principal festivals held in honor of the gods4 ,these remarks apply also to the ,greek drama4 ,ques4 ,what games were solemnized in ,greece8 ,ans4 ,they were of four kinds3 the ,olympic1 the ,pythian1 the ,nemean1 and the ,isthmian4 ,ques4 ,who instituted the ,olympic games8 ,ans4 ,they were very ancient2 their first institution was attributed by the ,greeks to ,hercules4 ,they were revived by ,iphitus1 king of ,elis1 who obtained for them the solemn sanction of the ,delphic oracle4 ,the ,olympian games were celebrated at intervals of forty-nine and fifty lunar months alternately1 so that they fell sometimes in the month ,apollonius1 7,july72 sometimes in the month ,parthenius1 7,august74 ,the time of their celebration was a period of sacred truce1 sufficiently prolonged to enable persons to attend the games from every part of ,greece1 and return to their homes in safety4 ,the interval between the celebrations was called an ,olympiad1 and the ,greeks usually counted time in this manner4 ,the ,olympiads were reckoned only from the year #ggf1 ,b4 ,c41 although the games had been revived by ,iphitus more than a century earlier4 ,the ,olympic festival lasted five days4 ,the games consisted of chariot1 horse and foot races2 leaping1 wrestling1 boxing1 throwing the discus or quoit1 etc4 ,all persons were admitted to contend in these games who could prove that they were free1 of pure ,hellenic blood1 and that their characters had never been stained by any base or immoral act4 ,so great was the importance attached to race1 that even the kings of ,macedon were obliged to prove their ,hellenic descent before they were allowed to enter as competitors4 ,it is almost impossible for us to realize the importance attached by the ,greeks to a victory gained in any of these exercises4 ,the prize itself was a crown of wild olive4 ,this was cut from a tree in the sacred grove of ,olympia1 which was said to have been brought by ,hercules from the land of the ,hyperboreans4 ,a palm branch was at the same time placed in the victor's hand1 and his name was proclaimed by the herald4 ,on his return home1 more distinguished honors awaited him4 ,he entered his native city1 not by the gate1 but through a breach made in the walls for his reception4 ,banquets were given to him by his friends1 at which odes were sung in honor of his victory4 ,the horse and chariot races held the highest rank1 and singularly enough1 the honor of the victory belonged to the owner of the horse or chariot1 although he himself should not have been present at the games4 ,the ,greek historians relate that three couriers were received by ,philip of ,macedon on the same day1 each being the bearer of joyful tidings4 ,the first announced that his general had gained a great victory2 the second1 that his horse had won the prize in the ,olympic games2 while the third brought news of the birth of his son1 afterwards ,alexander the ,great4 ,this passage is sufficient to show what importance was attached to such a victory1 when we see it thus classed as an event of equal importance with the success of an army1 and the birth of an heir to a great kingdom4 ,alcibiades on one occasion entered seven four-horse chariots in the ,olympic games1 and carried off the first1 second and third prizes4 ,the poet ,euripides celebrated this victory1 and ,alcibiades1 after offering solemn sacrifices to ,jupiter1 feasted the entire multitude assembled to witness the games4 ,ladies were admitted to dispute the prizes at ,olympia1 and many are mentioned as successful competitors4 ,cynisca1 the sister of ,agesilaus1 king of ,sparta1 first opened this path of glory to her sex1 and was proclaimed conqueror in the four-horse chariot race4 ,this victory1 till then unexampled1 was celebrated with all possible splendor4 ,a magnificent monument was erected in ,sparta in honor of ,cynisca1 and the ,lacedmonians1 who were generally indifferent to the charms of verse1 engaged a poet to transmit this new triumph to posterity4 ,the princess dedicated a brazen chariot in the temple of ,apollo at ,delphi2 in this votive offering1 the charioteer was also represented2 which proves that she had not driven the chariot herself at the games4 ,this is a feat which1 it is believed1 no woman ever attempted4 ,the portrait of ,cynisca1 drawn by the great ,apelles1 was afterwards placed in the same temple4 ,ques4 ,were any other exercises admitted at the ,olympic games8 ,ans4 ,yes2 there was also an intellectual competition1 which was perhaps more lively and ardent than any other1 as the victory in such a contest was more highly esteemed4 ,the best writers and poets of ,greece repaired to the ,olympic games1 believing that the approbation of so illustrious an assembly was the most certain means of establishing a great reputation in a little time4 ,it was thus that ,herodotus read his history to assembled ,greece4 ,it was received with enthusiastic applause1 and the names of the nine muses were immediately given to the nine books which compose the work4 ,dionysius was not so fortunate4 ,this prince believed himself the most excellent poet of the time1 and employed professional readers to recite some of his pieces at ,olympia4 ,when they began to read these verses their clear and harmonious voices pleased the ear1 and they were listened to at first with great attention1 which gradually decreased as they went on1 until the whole assembly burst forth into hooting and shouts of laughter1 so absurd did the pretensions of the royal poet appear4 ,what we have said of the ,olympic ,games1 may be applied with some little variation to those solemnized in other places4 ,ques4 ,by whom were the ,pythian ,games instituted8 ,ans4 ,according to ,greek fable1 by ,apollo himself1 in commemoration of his victory over the serpent ,python2 according to the more probable historic account1 they originated at the time when the ,delphic oracle had already gained some reputation4 ,the ,amphictyonic council was charged with the superintendence of the games1 which were celebrated at first every ninth1 and afterwards every fifth year4 ,the crown bestowed was of bay4 ,ques4 ,where were the ,nemean games celebrated8 ,ans4 ,at ,nemea1 a city of ,argolis1 celebrated as the haunt of the lion slain by ,hercules4 ,they were said to have been restored by that hero1 and were celebrated every third year4 ,the crowns bestowed on the victors were of parsley1 because these were originally funeral games1 and it was customary to lay chaplets of parsley on the tombs of the dead4 ,the ruins of ,nemea are to be seen near the modern village of ,kutchumadi4 ,ques4 ,why were the ,isthmian ,games so called8 ,ans4 ,they were named from the ,isthmus of ,corinth1 where they were celebrated4 ,they were instituted in honor of ,melicertes1 who was changed into a sea deity4 ,after falling into neglect1 these games were restored by ,theseus4 ,they were celebrated every five years1 and continued to be solemnized even after the destruction of ,corinth by the ,romans4 ,the victors were at first rewarded with garlands of pine leaves1 but this custom was changed1 and the pine was replaced by a crown of withered parsley4 ,,chapter ,,xli4 ,,theatres4 ,ques4 ,did the theatrical representations of the ,greeks resemble those of modern times8 ,ans4 ,they differed widely1 both in the arrangement of the drama1 and the mode of representation4 ,the greatest distinction lay1 perhaps1 in the structure of the theatre itself4 ,ques4 ,describe the general plan of a ,greek theatre8 ,ans4 ,it was quite open above1 and the dramas were always acted in the light of day1 beneath the bright canopy of a southern heaven4 ,the ,romans at a later period introduced awnings to screen the audience from the sun1 but the ,greeks would have regarded such a precaution as a mark of effeminacy2 and it must be admitted that their milder climate rendered it almost unnecessary4 ,if a storm or a shower came on1 the play was1 of course1 interrupted2 the gods and heroes disappeared1 and the audience sought shelter in the lofty colonnade which always ran behind their seats4 ,they chose to suffer these occasional inconveniences1 rather than shut themselves up in a close and crowded house1 and forfeit the sunny brightness of what was to them a national1 and even1 in some sort1 religious solemnity4 ,to have covered in the stage itself1 and imprisoned gods and heroes in a gloomy apartment artificially lighted1 would have appeared to the ancients in the highest degree absurd4 ,the great theatre of ,bacchus1 at ,athens1 is the only structure of the kind of which a complete description has reached us4 ,it may serve to give a general idea of these edifices4 ,this theatre stood on the southeastern side of the eminence which was crowned by the noble buildings of the ,acropolis4 ,from the level of the plain below1 a semicircular excavation ascended far up on the slope of the hill4 ,round the concavity1 seats for an audience of thirty thousand persons arose1 range above range2 higher still1 the whole was enclosed by a lofty portico adorned with statues and surmounted by a balustraded terrace4 ,for the convenience of entering and leaving1 the tiers of benches were divided at intervals1 by passages extending around the theatre1 and again transversely1 into wedge-like masses1 by flights of steps which radiated from the lowest tier to the portico above4 ,the lower seats1 being more conveniently placed for seeing and hearing1 were esteemed the most honorable1 and were reserved for the high magistrates1 the priests and the ,senate4 ,below1 was the semicircular orchestra1 or pit1 which was generally occupied by the chorus4 ,elevated above the orchestra1 and opposite the lower seats1 was the stage itself4 ,this had a very wide front and but little depth4 ,the actors usually spoke in the central part1 called logeum1 or pulpitum4 ,behind this1 the stage grew deeper1 and formed a quadrangle called the proscenium4 ,this was enclosed by lofty buildings of stone-work1 representing externally a palace-like mansion1 and containing within withdrawing rooms for the actors1 and receptacles for the stage machinery4 ,when the nature of the play rendered it necessary1 these buildings were concealed by painted scenes4 ,in the greater number of tragedies1 however1 the whole action might be carried on appropriately enough in the portico or court of a palace4 ,there were also contrivances by which a portion of the interior might be exposed to view4 ,the rank of the personages was generally indicated by the particular door at which they entered2 that in the centre of the proscenium being reserved for royalty4 ,wonderful effects were produced by the use of the machinery which was disposed behind the walls of the stage4 ,supported by ropes1 or iron cranes1 carefully concealed1 gods appeared in the air1 descended on the stage1 and performed their allotted part in the drama4 ,heroes also ascended to ,olympus1 and were hidden at length from view by scenic clouds4 ,in the ,prometheus of schylus1 ,oceanus passes through the air1 mounted on a griffin1 and a choir of fifteen ocean nymphs is introduced in a flying chariot4 ,in another piece1 ,aurora descends and carries off the dead body of ,memnon4 ,ghosts and infernal deities ascended from beneath the stage1 where there were appropriate contrivances for their introduction4 ,when it was necessary to conceal the stage1 the curtain was not dropped1 but drawn up from beneath the floor4 ,ques4 ,was there anything peculiar in the dress of the actors8 ,ans4 ,the costumes were splendid1 and carefully adapted to the rank and character of the personages represented4 ,the actors wore masks which covered the entire head4 ,when gods or heroic personages were represented1 the masks were larger than life1 and the disproportion of the size of the head with the rest of the body1 was obviated by two different contrivances4 ,the cothurnus1 or buskin1 was soled with several layers of cork1 which added at least three inches to the height of the actor1 and the dress was judiciously padded1 so as to give the whole figure the necessary heroic dimensions4 ,women were not admitted on the ,greek stage2 the female parts were always performed by men1 wearing appropriate wigs and masks4 ,it has been supposed that the use of masks must have embarrassed the actors1 and made them appear stiff and unnatural4 ,this may have been true to a certain extent1 but we must remember that1 at the distance at which the actors were placed from the greater part of their audience1 the changes of expression1 and the play of feature would have been quite lost1 while the large and finely colored masks may have had a very good effect4 ,nothing would have seemed more out of place to the ,greeks1 than to see the part of ,apollo or ,hercules performed by an actor with strongly marked or ordinary features4 ,the masks were lined with brass1 and so constructed that instead of muffling the voice1 they gave it depth and volume1 almost as a speaking trumpet would have done4 ,ques4 ,what was the ,chorus8 ,ans4 ,it was a choir of singers1 varying in number from fifteen to fifty4 ,in the intervals between the acts of the drama1 the chorus chanted verses corresponding to the action of the piece1 sometimes pouring forth hymns of thanksgiving or supplication to the gods2 sometimes chanting odes on the instability of human affairs as exemplified in the scenes which they had just witnessed4 ,at other times the chorus broke forth into lamentations over the untimely fate of some personage of the drama1 or denounced the anger of the gods on the head of a tyrant4 ,besides this more legitimate action of the chorus1 it was occasionally permitted to take part in the dialogue4 ,even in this case they always remained in the orchestra4 ,the singing was always accompanied by dances which varied according to the nature of the piece4 ,all the movements of a tragic chorus were slow and grave1 while in the lighter pieces1 the music and the measures of the dance were quick and lively4 ,the dress of the chorus varied in the same manner4 ,in certain tragedies1 these singers personated the ,eumenides or ,furies4 ,these were generally robed in black1 with purple girdles4 ,they brandished whips1 wreathed with serpents1 in their fleshless hands1 and their aspect was rendered still more terrible by the frightful masks which appeared beneath their snaky tresses4 ,we are told that when schylus introduced such a chorus in one of his tragedies1 the terror of the spectators was such that many fainted1 and several children died of fright4 ,in this connection we have an interesting story4 ,ibycus1 a lyric poet1 was on his way to the ,isthmian games1 when he was waylaid by two robbers4 ,the unhappy bard called in vain for aid2 no human help was near2 but his last1 despairing cry was echoed by the hoarse scream of a flock of cranes which was passing overhead4 ,the dying poet heard1 and looking upwards1 prayed the birds to discover and avenge the crime which they alone had seen4 ,the murderers heard this appeal1 to which1 however1 they paid no heed at the time4 ,the body of ,ibycus was found and recognized1 and the multitude assembled to witness the ,isthmian games were sorely disappointed and dismayed at the sad tidings of his death4 ,they crowded the tribunals and demanded vengeance on the murderers1 but no trace could be found which might lead to their discovery4 ,the festival proceeded1 the fate of ,ibycus being still on every tongue4 ,the assembled people were assisting at a dramatic representation1 when the dread chorus of the ,furies advanced with measured step1 and made the circuit of the ,theatre4 ,the sound of instruments was heard no more as their choral hymn swelled and rose1 thrilling the hearts of all who heard4 ,they sang of the happiness enjoyed by the pure of heart1 of the good man whose dwelling was never darkened by their shadow4 ,then the blood of the listeners grew cold with fear as they told of the vengeance which it was theirs to wreak on the secret murderer1 on him whose crime had been vainly hidden from mortal eye4 ,thus they sang in measured cadence1 and passed from view1 while a solemn stillness settled on the vast assembly4 ,at this moment a voice was heard from the upper benches1 exclaiming1 as if in sudden terror1 ,behold1 comrade6 yonder are the cranes of ,ibycus6 and a flight of cranes was seen passing directly over the ,theatre4 ,the name of the murdered poet caught the ears of the multitude4 ,each one asked what this exclamation might mean1 and what had the cranes to do with him4 ,a cry was raised to seize the man who had spoken1 and the one to whom his speech had been addressed4 ,the wretched murderers1 thus betrayed by their own guilty fears1 confessed the crime1 and suffered the punishment they had deserved4 ,attempts have been made by ,french and ,german tragedians1 to revive the ancient chorus1 but without success1 as it is entirely unsuited to the modern drama4 ,ques4 ,were dramatic entertainments as frequent in ancient times as in our own8 ,ans4 ,no2 but they took place several times in the year1 forming a necessary part in the celebration of the principal festivals4 ,the best actors were engaged long beforehand1 and were subject to heavy fines if they failed to appear on the appointed day4 ,when such an entertainment was about to take place1 the people hastened to the theatre at the dawn of day1 that they might secure good seats1 as the performance commenced at a very early hour4 ,there were three or four distinct representations during the day1 divided by short intervals of repose4 ,during these1 the audience walked in the neighboring groves1 amused themselves1 and partook of the refreshments which they brought with them4 ,when different dramatic poets contended for the prize of excellence1 they generally presented two or three pieces each1 so that twelve complete dramas were sometimes performed on the same day4 ,ques4 ,were these theatres free to all8 ,ans4 ,no2 each person was obliged to pay a small sum for admission4 ,when ,pericles wished to gain the favor of the ,athenians1 he reduced the entrance fee to two oboli1 and obtained a decree that even this trifling sum should be furnished by the magistrates to the poorer class of citizens4 ,the theatres themselves were erected1 and in a great measure maintained at the expense of the state4 ,the cost of the entertainments must have been heavy1 if we are to judge by the descriptions given of the scenic arrangements4 ,it is even said that when groves were required1 living trees from the forest were planted on the stage4 ,whatever may have been the faults of the ,greek drama1 there is no doubt that it was intended to inculcate principles of religion and morality4 ,the theatrical entertainments of the ,greeks1 and their public games1 form a striking contrast to the inhuman sports of the ,roman amphitheatre4 ,,chapter ,,xlii4 ,,celebrated ,,statues4 ,ques4 ,what are the most celebrated statues of the heathen divinities8 ,ans4 ,the ,olympian ,jupiter1 the ,apollo ,belvidere1 the ,diana la ,biche1 the ,minerva of the ,parthenon and the ,venus de ,medicis4 ,ques4 ,what was the ,olympian ,jupiter8 ,ans4 ,this statue1 now lost1 was forty feet in height1 on a pedestal of twelve feet4 ,it was considered the finest work of art of the great ,athenian sculptor1 ,phidias1 and there are still in existence busts taken from it1 which are remarkable for their calm majesty of expression4 ,the material was what the ,greeks called chryselephantine2 that is1 the flesh was composed of plates of ivory skillfully laid on2 but the drapery and ornaments were pure gold4 ,this circumstance is sufficient to account for the destruction of the statue4 ,it was executed for the temple of ,jupiter at ,olympia1 which was worthy of such an adornment1 being one of the most magnificent edifices in ,greece4 ,ques4 ,describe the ,minerva of the ,parthenon8 ,ans4 ,the statue was of the same dimensions and was composed of the same materials as the ,olympian ,jupiter2 it was also the work of ,phidias4 ,the ,parthenon was one of the most beautiful of the ,greek temples1 and was enriched by the hand of ,phidias with statues and other ornaments4 ,this magnificent temple would have been sufficient in itself to confer immortal glory on the administration of ,pericles4 ,it existed in its full beauty for more than a century after his death4 ,it was first despoiled by ,lachares1 who stripped the statue of ,minerva of its golden adornments4 ,it is said he obtained in this manner an amount of precious metal equal to nearly half a million of dollars4 ,the temple itself resisted the attacks of time2 it was used successively as a ,christian church and a ,turkish mosque1 and was still entire when the ,venetians besieged the citadel of ,athens in the year #afhg4 ,the ,turks converted the ,parthenon into a powder magazine2 it was unfortunately struck by a bomb1 and the entire edifice was reduced to its present ruinous condition4 ,some of the sculptures and bas-reliefs which once adorned this temple may now be seen in the ,british ,museum4 ,they are called ,elgin ,marbles1 because they were brought from ,greece by ,lord ,elgin4 ,ques4 ,describe the ,venus de ,medicis8 ,ans4 ,this statue1 still perfect1 is so called from having been in the possession of the ,medicis family4 ,an inscription on its base informs us that it was carved by ,cleomenes1 an ,athenian sculptor1 #bjj ,b4 ,c4 ,the artist has succeeded in producing a figure quite perfect in form2 but there is nothing spiritual about the ,venus1 which is1 therefore1 far inferior to the ,jupiter and ,minerva4 ,ques4 ,describe the ,apollo ,belvidere8 ,ans4 ,this statue is so called from the ,belvidere gallery of the ,pope's palace4 ,the artist is unknown1 but it is believed to be a ,roman work4 ,the god is represented as having just discharged an arrow from his bow against the monster ,python4 ,the form and attitude are perfect1 but the face is particularly admired for its expression of majesty and power4 ,ques4 ,describe the ,diana la ,biche8 ,ans4 ,this beautiful statue1 now at the ,louvre1 is considered the counterpart of the ,apollo4 ,the goddess is engaged in the chase1 and a hind is running by her side4 ,one hand is lifted to draw an arrow from the quiver4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,egyptian ,divinities4 ,,osiris--,,apis--,,serapis--,,isis--,,a nubis--,,harpocrates4 ,ques4 ,who was ,osiris8 ,ans4 ,osiris1 ,apis and ,serapis1 are three different names of one and the same god4 ,osiris was the son of ,jupiter and of ,niobe1 the daughter of ,phoroneus4 ,he conquered ,egypt1 which he governed so well and wisely as to receive divine honors from his subjects even during his life4 ,he married1 as we have already learned1 ,io1 the daughter of ,inachus1 who was more generally known to the ,egyptians by the name of ,isis4 ,osiris was cruelly murdered by his brother ,typhon4 ,isis1 after a long search1 found his body1 which she laid in a monument in an island near ,memphis4 ,osiris became from that time the tutelar deity of the ,egyptians4 ,he was regarded as identical with the sun1 while ,isis was supposed1 like ,cybele1 to personify the earth4 ,ques4 ,how was this goddess represented8 ,ans4 ,as a woman with the horns of a cow1 sometimes1 also1 as crowned with lotus4 ,heads of ,isis are common among the decorations of ,egyptian temples4 ,after the worship of this goddess was introduced into ,rome1 her image was adorned with different emblems4 ,the mysterious rites of ,isis became a cloak for much secret vice1 and were repeatedly forbidden at ,rome4 ,tiberius caused the images of the goddess to be thrown into the ,tiber2 her worship was1 however1 afterwards revived4 ,the abuses attending it are mentioned with indignation by the poet ,juvenal4 ,ques4 ,who was ,apis8 ,ans4 ,he was the sacred bull of ,memphis4 ,the ,egyptians maintained that the soul of ,osiris passed after death into the body of ,apis2 and that as often as the sacred animal died1 the soul passed into the body of its successor4 ,sacrifices were offered to this strange divinity2 his birth-day was celebrated with great magnificence1 and it was believed that during this festival the crocodiles forgot their usual ferocity1 and became harmless4 ,a temple1 two chapels1 and a court for exercise1 were assigned to this god1 whose food was always served in vessels of gold4 ,it may be doubted whether the poor animal was capable of appreciating these extraordinary honors2 he was not permitted1 however1 to enjoy them beyond a stated period4 ,if he attained the age of twenty-five years1 he was drowned by the attendant priests in the sacred cistern2 his body was then carefully embalmed1 and buried in the temple of ,serapis4 ,on the death of ,apis1 whether it occurred in the course of nature or by violence1 the whole country was plunged into mourning1 which lasted until his successor was found4 ,the animal into whom the divinity had passed1 was known by many extraordinary marks2 a square white spot on the forehead1 the figure of an eagle on the back1 a white crescent on the right side1 and the mark of a beetle under the tongue4 ,the priests always succeeded in finding an animal with these extraordinary marks1 and the happy event was immediately celebrated throughout ,egypt4 ,ques4 ,how did the people obtain replies from the oracle of ,apis8 ,ans4 ,by various signs3 the votary having proposed a question1 offered food to the sacred animal2 if he ate1 it was considered a favorable omen4 ,it was also a good augury if he entered1 of his own accord1 a particular stall4 ,when ,germanicus offered food to ,apis1 the animal refused to eat1 and this circumstance was afterwards considered as ominous of the early fate of the ,roman prince4 ,ques4 ,who was ,harpocrates8 ,ans4 ,horus or ,harpocrates was the son of ,osiris4 ,he was worshipped as the god of ,silence1 and is represented as a boy1 seated on a lotus-flower1 with his finger on his lips4 ,besides the gods we have mentioned1 the ,egyptians worshipped the dog1 the wolf1 the crocodile1 the ibis1 and many other animals4 ,they even attributed divinity to certain plants and roots4 ,juvenal1 in one of his ,satires1 thus ridicules their superstition3 ,who has not heard where ,egypt's realms are nam'd ,what monster gods her frantic sons have fram'd8 ,here ,ibis gorged with well-grown serpents1 there ,the ,crocodile commands religious fear3 ,where ,memnon's statue magic strains inspire ,with vocal sounds that emulate the lyre2 ,and ,thebes1 such1 ,fate1 are thy disastrous turns1 ,now prostrate o'er her pompous ruins mourns ,a monkey-god1 prodigious to be told6 ,strikes the beholder's eye with burnish'd gold3 ,to godship here blue ,triton's scaly herd1 ,the river progeny is there preferr'd3 ,through towns ,diana's power neglected lies1 ,where to her dogs aspiring temples rise6 ,and should you leeks or onions eat1 no time ,would expiate the sacrilegious crime4 ,religious nations sure1 and blest abodes1 ,where every orchard is o'er-run with gods4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,eastern ,,mythology4 ,deities of the ,assyrians4 ,,baal1 ,,or ,,bel--,,moloch4 ,ques4 ,who were these divinities8 ,ans4 ,the names ,baal and ,moloch seem to have been1 at first1 different appellations of the ,sun2 later they assumed another signification1 and were applied to distinct deities4 ,ques4 ,where was the ,sun worshipped under the name of ,baal or ,bel 7the ,lord78 ,ans4 ,in ,babylon4 ,the famous tower of ,babel or ,belus1 was there devoted to his worship1 although the highest apartment of the edifice served also as an observatory1 and was the repository of the most ancient astronomical observations4 ,some writers have imagined that the ,chaldeans and ,babylonians worshipped ,nimrod under the name of ,belus1 but it is generally believed that with these nations1 and the ancient ,canaanites1 this was one of the many appellations of the ,sun4 ,ques4 ,what proof have we of the popularity of this god among the ,phoenicians and ,carthaginians8 ,ans4 ,in their proper names2 as among the former1 ,ethbaal1 ,jerubbaal2 among the latter1 ,hannibal1 ,asdrubal4 ,ques4 ,by whom was the worship of ,baal introduced among the ,israelites8 ,ans4 ,by ,king ,achab or ,ahab4 ,they offered human sacrifices to ,baal in groves1 or high places1 and on the terraces of their houses4 ,jeremias reproaches the ,jews with building the high places of ,baalim1 to burn their children with fire for a holocaust to ,baalim4 ,this text shows the extent to which the apostate ,hebrews carried this abominable worship4 ,,moloch4 ,ques4 ,who was ,moloch8 ,ans4 ,he was a divinity of the ,ammonites4 ,the ,phoenicians were also particularly devoted to his worship4 ,young children and infants were offered as holocausts to this cruel god4 ,these horrid sacrifices were most frequent in ,carthage4 ,when the ,sicilian ,agathocles threatened that city1 we are told that five hundred infants1 many the first-born of noble parents1 were consumed in one day on the altar of ,moloch4 ,ques4 ,how was this god represented8 ,ans4 ,by a brazen image1 which was so contrived that when a child was laid upon its extended arms1 they were lowered1 and the little victim immediately fell into the fiery furnace placed at the foot of the idol4 ,ques4 ,was ,moloch worshipped by the ,jews8 ,ans4 ,yes2 it would seem that they were addicted to this idolatry before their departure from ,egypt1 since ,moses in many places forbids the ,israelites1 under pain of death1 to dedicate their children to ,moloch1 by passing them through fire4 ,solomon built a temple for his worship on the ,mount of ,olives4 ,later human sacrifices were offered to him in the valley of ,hinnom1 called also ,tophet1 which lay to the east of ,jerusalem4 ,ques4 ,where does ,milton refer to this god8 ,ans4 ,assuming that the demons or fallen angels received the worship of men1 under the names of different heathen divinities1 he thus describes ,moloch amid the host of ,satan3 ,first1 ,moloch1 horrid king1 besmear'd with blood ,of human sacrifice1 and parents' tears2 ,though1 for the noise of drums and timbrels loud1 ,their children's cries unheard1 that passed through fire1 ,to his grim idol4 ,him the ,ammonite ,worshipp'd in ,rabba and her watery plain1 ,in ,argob and in ,basan1 to the stream ,of utmost ,arnon2 nor content with such ,audacious neighborhood1 the wisest heart ,of ,solomon he led by fraud to build ,his temple right against the temple of ,god1 ,on that opprobrious hill3 and made his grove ,the pleasant valley of ,hinnom1 ,tophet thence ,and black ,gehenna call'd1 the type of ,hell4 ,ques4 ,who was ,astaroth8 ,ans4 ,this goddess1 called by the ,greeks ,astarte1 represented the moon1 in the same manner as ,baal was held to be identical with the sun4 ,the ,hebrews always connected the worship of these two divinities4 ,according to ,cicero1 ,astarte was the ,syrian ,venus1 and it is certain that in her worship1 and the festivals celebrated in her honor1 there is some foundation for this idea4 ,where human sacrifices were offered to ,baal1 wheaten cakes1 wine and perfumes were laid upon the altar of ,astaroth4 ,notwithstanding these more innocent offerings1 her worship was rendered infamous by the license which prevailed during these festivals1 and the open immorality practised by her votaries4 ,,thammuz4 ,ques4 ,who was ,thammuz8 ,ans4 ,this was another name for ,adonis1 whose story is of ,eastern origin4 ,his death1 which we have already referred to in connection with the goddess ,venus1 is said to have taken place in the mountains of ,libanus1 from which the river ,adonis flows to the sea4 ,the ,assyrian women mourned for him in the autumn-time4 ,it was believed that at this season the river changed its color1 and ran red1 as if tinged with blood4 ,to this ,milton alludes3 ,thammuz came next behind1 ,whose annual wound in ,lebanon allured ,the ,syrian damsels to lament his fate ,in amorous ditties all a summer's day2 ,while smooth ,adonis from his native rock ,ran purple to the sea1 supposed with blood ,of ,thammuz yearly wounded4 ,the prophet ,ezekiel1 in relating the iniquities committed in ,jerusalem1 says that he saw women sitting by the north gate of the temple1 who mourned for ,adonis4 7,in the ,hebrew1 ,thammuz47 ,,oannes4 ,ques4 ,who was ,oannes8 ,ans4 ,he was a god of the ,assyrians1 half man1 half fish1 who was said to dwell in the sea1 from which he came at stated times1 to instruct the ,babylonians in wisdom and science4 ,oannes is the ,dagon of the ,philistines4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,persia4 ,ques4 ,what was the religion of the ancient ,persians8 ,ans4 ,we derive our knowledge of their religion principally from their ,zend-avesta1 or ,sacred ,book4 ,ques4 ,what does the ,zend-avesta contain8 ,ans4 ,the doctrines of ,zoroaster1 an ,eastern sage1 who is thought to have lived in ,bactria about twelve hundred years before our era4 ,ques4 ,was the ,zend-avesta written by ,zoroaster8 ,ans4 ,but a small portion1 if any1 of the ,sacred ,books were written by him1 but the most ancient passages1 which are in verse1 were probably written soon after his time1 when the knowledge of his doctrines was still preserved4 ,the ,parsees1 or modern followers of ,zoroaster1 now scattered through ,india1 say that the ,zend-avesta formerly consisted of twenty-one books1 but that the greater part were lost in the troubled times that followed the conquest of ,persia by ,alexander the ,great4 ,ques4 ,what is the form of the ,zend-avesta8 ,ans4 ,it is in the form of a dialogue1 in which ,ormuzd1 the supreme deity1 replies to the inquiries of ,zoroaster1 and teaches him his will with regard to his creatures4 ,ques4 ,what were the doctrines of ,zoroaster8 ,ans4 ,this philosopher was more enlightened than his contemporaries1 and was probably acquainted with primitive tradition4 ,he taught the existence of one supreme ,being called the ,eternal1 who created two other mighty beings1 and imparted to them a portion of his own eternal divinity4 ,ques4 ,who were these deities8 ,ans4 ,ormuzd1 or ,oromasdes1 who remained faithful and pure1 governs the world with all the attributes which are given to the true ,god4 ,ahriman1 on the contrary1 uses all his energies for evil2 and is1 in all respects1 considered as a sort of independent demon1 endowed with infinite and untiring malice4 ,ques4 ,what part did each of these divinities take in the creation8 ,ans4 ,ormuzd created men and angels1 the sun1 moon and stars1 and everything which can contribute to the welfare or pleasure of his creatures4 ,ahriman created the wild beasts1 poisonous serpents1 etc41 and sent diseases1 earthquakes and storms4 ,the ,persians thus believed in two independent principles1 one of good1 and one of evil1 but they worshipped only the first4 ,ques4 ,did they not worship the sun8 ,ans4 ,they probably did in later times1 but the early followers of ,zoroaster reverenced the sun and fire as emblems of ,ormuzd4 ,perpetual fire was kept burning on their altars4 ,the ,parsees of ,hindostan say that they have sacred fire which has never been extinguished since the time of ,zoroaster4 ,all the sacred fires were originally lit from that which ,zoroaster brought from heaven4 ,the ,guebres1 as these people are sometimes called1 often built their temples over subterranean fires4 ,ques4 ,is there any such fire now reverenced by them8 ,ans4 ,yes1 near the town of ,bakoo in ,georgia1 on the ,caspian ,sea1 there is a perpetual flame issuing from a limestone rock4 ,it is watched by priests1 and is much venerated by the surrounding tribes4 ,pilgrimages are made to this sacred fire from all parts of ,asia4 ,ques4 ,what is the cause of this phenomenon8 ,ans4 ,bakoo and the surrounding country abound in naphtha and petroleum4 ,the sacred fire is simply a jet of inflammable gas escaping from the rocks1 which1 once lit1 burns perpetually1 as the supply is inexhaustible4 ,ques4 ,were the ,persians attached to magical arts8 ,ans4 ,yes1 their priests mingled the fables of astrology with their astronomical learning2 hence1 from the word magi1 is derived our word magician4 ,ques4 ,where did the ,persians offer their sacrifices8 ,ans4 ,generally on the tops of lofty mountains4 ,ques4 ,when was the religion of ,zoroaster suppressed in ,persia8 ,ans4 ,after the conquest of ,persia1 by the ,arabs1 which took place in the seventh century1 those who refused to embrace the ,koran fled to ,hindostan1 where they still exist under the name of ,parsees4 ,at ,bombay they are an active1 intelligent and wealthy class4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,hindoo ,mythology4 ,,brahma--,,the ,,vedas4 ,ques4 ,what are the ,vedas8 ,ans4 ,the ,vedas are the ,sacred ,books of the ,hindoos1 and are much reverenced by them4 ,they maintain that they were composed by ,brahma1 the ,supreme ,deity1 at the creation4 ,ques4 ,when do the ,hindoos think that the world was created8 ,ans4 ,at an incredibly remote period2 they say the present arrangement of the ,vedas was made by a sage named ,vyasa1 some five thousand years ago4 ,ques4 ,what is the more correct opinion8 ,ans4 ,that they were written in the second thousand years before our era1 a little later1 probably1 than the ,books of ,moses4 ,ques4 ,had the ,hindoos then conquered the country which now bears their name8 ,ans4 ,no2 they were only crossing the borders of ,india4 ,ques4 ,in what form are the ,vedas written8 ,ans4 ,in poetry4 ,the principal ,veda contains ten thousand double verses4 ,these works are heavy and uninteresting1 but very important to historians4 ,ques4 ,why so8 ,ans4 ,because they throw light on the early history of the ,indian and ,european races4 ,ques4 ,what do the ,vedas teach of ,god8 ,ans4 ,they teach one supreme deity1 called ,brahma1 and like the ,persians seem to have some idea of the ,trinity1 speaking of ,brahma1 ,vishnu1 and ,siva1 as one ,god4 ,the modern ,hindoos1 however1 worship them as distinct divinities4 ,ques4 ,what are the offices of these gods8 ,ans4 ,brahma created all things1 ,vishnu preserves them1 and when the end of the world is come1 which the ,vedas say will occur in about twelve million years1 ,siva will destroy them4 ,ques4 ,what is there peculiar in the history of ,vishnu8 ,ans4 ,his ,avatars1 or incarnations1 which are numerous1 but ten are more especially celebrated4 ,ques4 ,what was the first ,avatar8 ,ans4 ,the first ,avatar was when ,vishnu assumed the form of a fish1 and saved ,manu1 the father of the human race1 from a universal deluge4 ,ques4 ,what is the ninth ,avatar8 ,ans4 ,in the ninth ,avatar1 ,vishnu appeared in the form of ,krishna1 a sort of ,indian ,apollo2 the last of the ,sacred ,books is that which contains the life of ,krishna4 ,ques4 ,what is there remarkable about this life8 ,ans4 ,so many circumstances closely resemble corresponding events in the life of our ,saviour1 that it is impossible the coincidence should be accidental4 ,it is supposed this book was written after our era by some one who had heard imperfect accounts of the life of our ,lord4 ,ques4 ,what is to be the tenth ,avatar8 ,ans4 ,the tenth ,avatar is called ,kalki1 in which ,vishnu will come to judge the world1 destroying the wicked and rewarding the good4 ,ques4 ,what do you say of ,siva8 ,ans4 ,siva1 or ,mahadeva1 as he is more generally called1 has a vast number of followers4 ,his worshippers and those of ,vishnu form two distinct sects4 ,brahma1 having finished his work1 has but one temple in ,india4 ,it is doubtful whether the worshippers of ,juggernaut belong to the sect of ,vishnu1 or of ,siva4 ,ques4 ,what do the ,hindoos believe of the soul8 ,ans4 ,they think that every soul is a part of ,brahma1 as a spark is a part of the fire1 and that finally all souls will be absorbed into ,brahma1 as drops of water are lost in the ocean4 ,they also believe in metempsychosis4 ,ques4 ,what is metempsychosis8 ,ans4 ,the transmigration of souls4 ,the ,hindoos believe that if a man lead a pure life1 his soul will pass1 after death1 into another human body1 but that if he has been wicked1 it will enter into the body of some unclean animal4 ,they think the soul will transmigrate many times before being finally united to ,brahma4 ,this belief makes many of the ,hindoos afraid to kill animals for food1 lest they may possess human souls1 and be perhaps their own friends or relations4 ,ques4 ,what are ,castes8 ,ans4 ,they are different classes into which the ,hindoos have been divided from the earliest times4 ,ques4 ,how many castes are there8 ,ans4 ,four2 the ,brahmins or priests1 who sprung from the head of ,brahma2 the ,warrior caste1 which issued from his arms2 the ,agriculturists and ,traders1 who came from his thighs1 and lastly1 the ,sudras1 or laborers1 who sprung from his feet4 ,ques4 ,is there much distinction between the castes8 ,ans4 ,yes2 they cannot under any circumstances intermarry2 nor can a member of a lower caste ever pass to a higher4 ,only1 if he lead a good life1 he may console himself with the hope of being born in a higher caste the next time4 ,ques4 ,is there any caste lower than the ,sudras8 ,ans4 ,no regular caste1 but there exists a most unhappy race called ,pariahs1 who are treated with the utmost contempt1 and employed only in the vilest offices4 ,they cannot enter the house of any one belonging to a pure caste1 and they are not only unclean themselves1 but are supposed to contaminate everything they touch4 ,different accounts are given as to the origin of these ,pariahs4 ,ques4 ,are the ,hindoos allowed to eat flesh8 ,ans4 ,the three higher castes are forbidden it altogether4 ,the ,sudras may eat every kind but beef1 but the ,pariahs are under no restriction whatever4 ,the idea seems to be that they are so vile that no kind of food could pollute them4 ,ques4 ,are the castes ancient8 ,ans4 ,so much so1 that it is impossible to say when they were first established4 ,the ,pariahs are being gradually raised from their degradation by the efforts of ,christian missionaries4 ,,buddha4 ,ques4 ,who was ,buddha8 ,ans4 ,buddha is said by the ,vedas to have been a delusive incarnation of ,vishnu1 but his followers give a different account4 ,ques4 ,what do they say8 ,ans4 ,they say that he was a mortal sage1 called ,guatama1 and also ,buddha1 or the ,wise4 ,ques4 ,when did ,buddha live8 ,ans4 ,we cannot ascertain exactly1 but it is probable he was a contemporary of ,solomon--that is1 he lived about one thousand years before our era4 ,he was the son of a king1 and was distinguished by wisdom1 virtue and every personal gift4 ,he was so disgusted with the wickedness of men1 that he retired into a desert place1 where he spent six years in prayer and meditation4 ,at the end of this time1 he began his career as a religious teacher4 ,he preached first in ,benares1 but his doctrines were received with so much favor that he lived to see them spread over all ,india4 ,buddha died at the age of eighty4 ,ques4 ,was ,buddhism tolerated by the ,brahmins8 ,ans4 ,it appears that for several centuries it was1 and that it extended to ,ceylon1 and the ,eastern peninsula4 ,ques4 ,what are the doctrines of the ,buddhists8 ,ans4 ,they reject the ,vedas altogether1 and the religious observances prescribed in them4 ,they allow animal food1 and acknowledge no distinction of castes4 ,bloody sacrifices are prohibited4 ,one of the duties of a priest of ,buddha is to study the medicinal properties of plants in order to benefit his fellow men4 ,we may see1 therefore1 that ,buddha had more reasonable and humane ideas than those who composed the ,vedas1 and that he was probably a true sage among his people4 ,ques4 ,is ,buddhism common in ,india8 ,ans4 ,no2 after being tolerated for a long time1 a fierce and continued persecution was raised against it4 ,this had the effect of suppressing the sect almost entirely in ,india1 and of spreading it in the adjacent countries4 ,ques4 ,when was the worship of ,buddha first introduced into ,china8 ,ans4 ,about the year #fe of our era4 ,from ,china it spread to ,corea1 ,japan and ,java4 ,in ,japan1 ,buddhism has1 to a great extent1 supplanted the ,sinto religion1 the ancient faith of ,japan4 ,the word ,sinto signifies spirit worship2 the priests of this sect teach that the world is governed by an infinite number of spirits4 ,the chief of these animates the sun2 others rule the moon1 stars1 and different elements4 ,the worship of the sun is the most important exterior part of their religion1 and the ,japanese were so much attached to this form of idolatry1 that the ,buddhists have incorporated it with their own rites4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,china4 ,ques4 ,is ,buddhism universally followed in ,china8 ,ans4 ,there is1 strictly speaking1 no state or national religion in ,china1 but all forms of worship are tolerated1 unless they are considered politically dangerous4 ,among the pagan ,chinese three principal religions are admitted1 which are now considered equally good1 although there were formerly bitter wars between their followers4 ,ques4 ,what are these8 ,ans4 ,the first1 of which ,confucius is in some sort the founder1 is called the ,doctrine of the ,lettered2 the second is regarded by its professors as the primitive religion of the ancient inhabitants of ,china4 ,the priests are called ,tao-sse1 or ,doctors of ,reason1 from the principal doctrine of their great teacher1 ,lao-tze1 who considered primordial reason as the creator of all things4 ,the third religion is ,buddhism1 which1 as we have seen1 was introduced into ,china in the first century of our era4 ,ques4 ,who was ,confucius8 ,ans4 ,confucius is the ,latinized name of a philosopher whom the ,chinese call ,kung-fu-tse1 7,reverend ,master ,kung74 ,he was born in the year #eea ,b4 ,c41 and died in #dgi2 eleven years before ,socrates was born4 ,confucius was carefully educated in virtue and learning by his widowed mother4 ,at her death he retired1 according to ,chinese custom1 for the appointed three years of mourning4 ,during this time1 he devoted himself to the study of ancient writers1 and noticing how completely the morality of the old sages was forgotten in ,china1 he determined to restore their usages and doctrines4 ,after careful preparation1 he set himself up as a teacher1 and his disciples were soon numbered by tens of thousands4 ,confucius travelled through the neighboring countries1 preaching wherever he went2 he was at one time prime minister of the empire1 but his last years were spent in retirement with some chosen disciples4 ,we read that he paid a visit to ,lao-tze1 and was so confounded by the sublime wisdom of that philosopher1 that on his return home he remained three days buried in profound thought1 refusing to speak1 or answer any of the questions put to him by his disciples4 ,confucius enjoyed unbounded popularity during life1 but the honors paid to him after death1 have no parallel in history4 ,his tablet is in every school in ,china and both master and pupils are required to prostrate themselves before it at the beginning and end of each class4 ,every town has a temple erected in his honor1 and his statue is to be found in every literary institution4 ,confucius left one grandson1 ,tse-tse1 whose descendants constitute the only hereditary nobility in ,china4 ,in the seventeenth century1 they numbered eleven thousand males4 ,ques4 ,what were the doctrines of ,confucius8 ,ans4 ,this philosopher did not originate any religious creed3 he was simply a teacher of morality4 ,it is thought1 from many passages in his writings1 that he believed in one ,omnipotent ,god4 ,he does not1 however1 inculcate any such doctrine1 nor does he ever speak of any future reward as a motive for virtuous actions4 ,filial piety and other social and domestic virtues are strongly inculcated4 ,it would be well for the ,chinese of the present day1 if their conduct corresponded to the maxims of their great teacher1 whose morality1 though often defective1 contains much that is to be admired4 ,it is a proof1 if any were needed1 that human motives are too weak to have any lasting influence on the passions of men2 and the ,chinese1 particularly the followers of ,confucius1 seem to have lost even the last traces of natural religion4 ,ques4 ,why then do they persevere in his worship8 ,ans4 ,the honors paid to ,confucius1 as well as to the souls of their ancestors1 constitute an external religion for official persons and literary men4 ,there seems to be no sort of belief connected with these observances4 ,ques4 ,what difficulties did this cause among the ,christian missionaries8 ,ans4 ,some of these missionaries believed that the honors paid to ,confucius were purely civil observances2 and that the worship of the souls of deceased relations1 the oblations made at their tombs1 etc41 were simply national customs to which no superstitious idea was attached4 ,as they were assured of this by the most learned men of the ,empire1 they permitted the newly converted ,chinese to continue these observances4 ,others1 however1 considered that1 among the ignorant1 these rites always degenerated into superstition1 and often into idolatry4 ,the dispute was referred to ,rome1 and after a careful inquiry1 the latter opinion prevailed2 the rites in honor of ,confucius1 together with the worship of ancestors1 were forbidden to the ,chinese ,christians4 ,ques4 ,who was ,lao-tze8 ,ans4 ,he was a ,chinese philosopher1 contemporary with ,confucius4 ,with regard to his life and actions1 many absurd and impossible things are related4 ,his name1 ,lao-tze1 means ',old ,child2' and the ,chinese say this appellation was given him because he was born already old1 and with gray hair4 ,the followers of ,lao-tze believe in a spiritual world1 in spiritual manifestations1 and in the transmigration of souls4 ,this doctrine is called the religion of ,tao1 or ,reason4 ,the priests are now only cheats and jugglers1 living on the superstition of the people1 to whom they sell charms and spells4 ,notwithstanding the degraded character of his followers1 the writings of ,lao-tze prove that he was a true sage1 a man of noble and elevated ideas4 ,he has been compared favorably with ,plato1 and some have claimed that the ,chinese philosopher travelled as far west as ,athens4 ,be this as it may1 it is certain ,lao-tze spent some time in ,persia and ,syria4 ,the ,ten ,tribes had just been dispersed over ,asia by the conquests of ,salmanasar2 and it is not possible that a sage so eager in the pursuit of religious knowledge1 should have failed to learn something of the ancient prophecies and the ,mosaic law4 ,ques4 ,what did ,lao-tze teach with regard to ,god8 ,ans4 ,in his writings he declares plainly that the world was erected by a threefold divinity4 ,his followers1 however1 like the rest of the ,chinese1 have no definite idea of ,god4 ,ques4 ,what class of ,chinese follow the doctrines of ,buddha1 or ,fo8 ,ans4 ,at present the ,chinese ,buddhists belong principally to the lower classes4 ,formerly this religion was in higher repute1 but the magnificent temples of ,buddha are now going gradually to decay1 and there seems no prospect that any attempt will be made to restore them4 ,the ,bonzes1 or ,buddhist priests1 are ignorant and degraded1 and are allowed to live in the greatest poverty4 ,they are not permitted to marry2 to keep up their numbers they buy young children1 who may be had in ,china for a few sapecks1 and these are trained for the service of ,buddha4 ,these ,bonzes have sunk so low in public estimation1 that they are often hired to perform inferior parts on the stage4 ,ques4 ,where is the most celebrated temple of ,buddha8 ,ans4 ,in ,pou-tou1 an island in the ,archipelago of ,chusan4 ,this temple retains many traces of its former magnificence1 and is particularly remarkable for a triple statue of ,buddha4 ,there are three gigantic figures1 richly gilt1 which represent the divinity in the past1 the present and the future4 ,in this temple is a hall dedicated to the ,goddess of ,porcelain1 and every part of the edifice is crowded with hideous idols of the lesser divinities4 ,ques4 ,what is the general feeling of the ,chinese on religious subjects8 ,ans4 ,they are entirely indifferent1 and have but a vague idea of the existence of anything beyond the present life4 ,this indifference is the greatest obstacle with which the ,christian missionaries have to contend in ,china4 ,ques4 ,do the ,chinese ever argue among themselves on points of belief8 ,ans4 ,never4 ,when ,chinese1 who are strangers to each other1 meet1 a polite formula is to ask ,to what sublime religion do you belong8 ,then one will call himself a ,buddhist1 another a follower of ,confucius1 etc41 upon which politeness requires that each one should speak slightingly of his own religion1 and praise the sect to which he does not belong4 ,these compliments end by all repeating in chorus a proverbial phrase to the effect that all men are brothers1 and religions are of no consequence4 ,ques4 ,if such total indifference prevails in ,china1 on the subject of religion1 how does it happen that ,christianity should be so severely persecuted8 ,ans4 ,this arises partly from the political fears of the ,chinese government1 and its jealousy of strangers4 ,the missionaries are1 of course1 foreigners1 and it is natural that the emperors should imagine them to be working in the interest of the great western nations whose power they so much fear4 ,there are other reasons2 the purity of ,christian morals has been always a reproach to pagan society1 and the spirit of darkness never fails to rouse the prejudices and passions of men against the progress of the faith4 ,in ancient ,rome1 where the idols and superstitions of every conquered nation found a ready welcome1 ,christianity obtained a foothold only after three centuries of persecution4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,thibet4 ,,the ,,grand ,,lama4 ,ques4 ,what is the prevailing religion of ,thibet8 ,ans4 ,buddhism prevails in ,thibet and ,tartary4 ,the people of these countries are more thoughtful than the ,chinese1 and more earnest with regard to religious matters4 ,their priests1 called ,lamas1 live together in large communities4 ,they are given to study1 and their dwellings1 or ,lamaseries1 often contain large and valuable libraries4 ,many of the ,lamas are addicted to demon worship and sorcery1 but these are generally looked upon with aversion by the more virtuous among their brethren4 ,ques4 ,who is the ,grand ,lama8 ,ans4 ,he is a sort of ,high ,priest of ,buddhism residing in ,lassa1 the capital of ,thibet2 he is invested with an entirely supernatural character4 ,ques4 ,how is this8 ,ans4 ,the ,buddhists believe that the confinement of the soul in a human body is a state of misery1 and the punishment of sins committed in a former state of existence4 ,they maintain1 however1 that pure spirits1 from time to time1 assume our human nature voluntarily1 in order to promote the welfare of mankind4 ,such are the ,lamas1 and since the victories of ,genghis ,kan in the ,east1 the ,lama residing in ,thibet has been considered the ,chief ,pontiff of his sect1 and a perpetual incarnation of ,buddha4 ,he is also a temporal sovereign1 although he is controlled by the ,chinese government4 ,ques4 ,how is the line perpetuated8 ,ans4 ,when the ,lama dies1 his soul enters immediately into the body of some child1 so that he is simply said to transmigrate4 ,ques4 ,how is the child discovered8 ,ans4 ,this is an affair of some difficulty1 but the inferior ,lamas always succeed in finding the hidden divinity4 ,the child into whom they supposed the ,lama's soul has entered1 is required to remember the most private acts of the ,lama's life1 to recognize1 as familiar objects1 the articles which he was accustomed to use1 etc4 ,the children thus examined have sometimes answered in so extraordinary a manner that many have supposed ,satan was permitted to aid in the imposture4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,mythology ,,of ,,scandinavia4 ,ques4 ,what does this mythology include8 ,ans4 ,the ancient superstitions of that portion of ,northern ,europe now known as ,sweden1 ,norway1 ,denmark and ,iceland4 ,ques4 ,what is the general character of ,scandinavian mythology8 ,ans4 ,it has none of the grace and poetic beauty which characterize the fables of ,greece and ,rome2 and it differs equally from the more mystical superstitions of the ,persians and ,hindoos4 ,in warm and fertile regions1 the temper1 even of the barbarian1 is softened into harmony with the scenes around him1 and his superstitions1 though still sensual1 are more gentle and refined4 ,on the other hand1 the wild and rugged ,north made its own impress on the ,scandinavian tribes1 and their superstitions were gloomy and extravagant1 with sometimes an element of savage grandeur and sublimity4 ,ques4 ,was this mythology transmitted by oral tradition only8 ,ans4 ,this must have been the case for a long time2 as the oldest of the ,eddas was compiled only in the eleventh century1 and the stories which it contains of the ,northern gods and heroes1 had been long familiar to the people in the recitations of their bards4 ,the ,scandinavian ,skalds or bards were1 like the ,celtic1 historians as well as minstrels4 ,ques4 ,who composed the ,eddas8 ,ans4 ,it is impossible to say4 ,the oldest1 or poetic ,edda1 was compiled by ,smund ,sigfsson1 an ,icelandic priest1 about the middle of the eleventh century4 ,he was educated in ,france and ,germany1 and spent some time in ,rome before his return to ,iceland4 ,he was induced to compile the ,edda1 principally1 it would seem1 from a patriotic desire of preserving the ancient legends of his race4 ,the word ,edda means ancestress1 and it is so called because it is considered the mother of ,icelandic poetry4 ,the ,sagas were written in ,denmark and the ,scandinavian peninsula4 ,ques4 ,what account do the ,eddas give of the creation8 ,ans4 ,they say that in the beginning1 there was neither heaven nor earth1 but a world of mist1 in which flowed a mysterious fountain4 ,twelve rivers issued from this fountain1 and when they had flowed far from their source1 froze into ice1 which1 gradually accumulating1 the great deep was filled up4 ,southward from the world of mist1 was the world of light4 ,from this a warm wind flowed upon the ice1 and melted it4 ,the vapors rose in the air and formed clouds1 from which sprung the ,frost ,giant and his progeny2 also the cow ,audhumbla1 by whose milk the giant was nourished4 ,the ,frost ,giants were the enemies of gods and men4 ,from the ice of the lower deep a god arose1 who married a daughter of the giants1 and became the father of three sons1 ,odin1 ,vili and ,ve4 ,these slew the giant ,ymir1 and out of his body formed the earth on which we live4 ,his bones were changed into mountains1 his hair into trees2 of his skull they made the heavens1 and of his brain1 clouds charged with hail and snow4 ,odin next regulated the days and seasons by placing the sun and moon in the heavens1 and appointing them their respective courses4 ,as soon as the sun shed its rays upon the earth1 the plants and trees began to bud and sprout4 ,the three gods walked by the side of the sea1 admiring their new creation1 but seeing that it was uninhabited1 they resolved to create man4 ,aske and ,embla1 the first man and woman1 were therefore formed1 the man out of an ash1 and the woman out of an alder4 ,they were the parents of the whole human race4 ,ques4 ,what idea had the ancient ,scandinavians of the form of the earth8 ,ans4 ,their notions on the subject were childish in the extreme4 ,they thought that the ash tree ,ygdrasill1 supported the entire universe4 ,this tree had three roots1 one of which extended into ,asgard1 the dwelling-place of the gods2 another into ,jotunheim1 the abode of the giants2 and a third into ,niffleheim1 the region of darkness and cold4 ,under the tree lies ,ymir1 and his efforts to throw off the weight cause earthquakes4 ,the root that extends into ,asgard is carefully tended by three ,norns1 who correspond to the ,fates of ,greek mythology4 ,asgard could only be entered by crossing the bridge ,bifrost1 7the rainbow74 ,ques4 ,describe ,asgard4 ,ans4 ,it contained gold and silver palaces1 the dwellings of the gods1 but the most famous and beautiful of these was ,valhalla1 the residence of ,odin4 ,this god is represented as seated on a throne which overlooks all heaven and earth4 ,on his shoulders sit the ravens1 ,hugin and ,munin1 who fly every day over the whole world1 and on their return report to him all that they have seen4 ,at ,odin's feet lie two wolves1 to whom he gives all the meat that is set before him1 as he himself stands in no need of food4 ,mead is for him both food and drink4 ,ques4 ,how is ,odin's name sometimes written8 ,ans4 ,woden2 and from this comes the name of the fourth day of the week1 ,woden's day1 changed to ,wednesday4 ,ques4 ,has ,odin any other name8 ,ans4 ,he was sometimes called ,alfdur1 7,all father17 but this name is occasionally used in a way that seems to prove that the ,scandinavians had an idea of a divinity superior to ,odin1 ,uncreated and ,eternal4 ,ques4 ,what were the delights of ,valhalla1 and who were permitted to enjoy them8 ,ans4 ,none were admitted to ,valhalla but heroes who had fallen in battle4 ,women1 children1 and all who had died a peaceful death1 were excluded as unworthy4 ,the joys of ,valhalla consisted in eating1 drinking and fighting4 ,they feasted on the flesh of the boar ,schrimnir1 which was cooked every day1 and became whole again every night4 ,the goat ,heidrun supplied them with never-failing draughts of mead1 which they drank from the skulls of their slaughtered enemies4 ,for pastime1 they fought1 and cut one another to pieces4 ,when the hour of feasting came1 they recovered from their wounds1 and were whole as before4 ,,thor4 ,ques4 ,who was ,thor8 ,ans4 ,he was ,odin's eldest son1 and was god of thunder4 ,his mighty strength depended upon three things--his hammer1 his belt of strength1 and his iron gloves4 ,the giants at one time obtained his hammer1 and he was obliged to use a very singular stratagem to recover it4 ,ques4 ,what was this8 ,ans4 ,thor was most anxious to recover his hammer1 but the giant ,thrym had buried it eight fathoms deep under the rocks of ,jotunheim4 ,loki undertook to negotiate with ,thrym2 but the giant demanded the hand of the goddess ,freya1 and refused to restore the hammer on any other terms4 ,thor was much troubled1 as he knew how vain it was to expect that the bright goddess of love and song would consent to dwell in the dismal regions of ,jotunheim4 ,the artful ,loki proposed that ,thor should array himself in the garments of ,freya1 and accompany him to the abode of the ,frost ,giants4 ,thor consented1 and ,thrym welcomed his veiled bride with great joy1 attributing her silence to a modest reserve4 ,he was much surprised1 however1 to see her eat for supper eight salmons1 besides a full grown ox and other delicacies1 washing down the repast with proportionate draughts of mead4 ,loki bade him not to wonder at this1 as her thoughts had been so much occupied by her approaching nuptials that she had not eaten for many days4 ,when ,thrym was startled by the fiery eyes he saw gleaming from beneath the bridal veil1 ,loki again made an excuse which satisfied him1 so he brought the hammer1 and laid it on the lap of the supposed bride4 ,thor seized the weapon1 and finding his wonted strength restored1 he threw off his disguise1 and rushed upon ,thrym1 whom he slew with all his followers4 ,loki had served ,thor in this adventure2 on another occasion he incurred his wrath by an injury offered to ,sif or ,sifa1 his wife4 ,the hair of this goddess flowed around her in sunny waves that shone like gold4 ,she was proud of this adornment2 and ,loki1 willing to punish her vanity1 and always ready for mischief1 found means to cut off her hair while she slept4 ,the goddess was inconsolable1 and ,thor sought the insolent offender1 intending to crush him with his redoubtable hammer4 ,loki was terrified1 and sought the dwelling of the ,gnomes4 ,these skillful workmen gave him a head of hair which they had spun from the purest gold1 and which was so wonderfully wrought that it would attach itself to the head of the wearer1 and increase in length like ordinary hair4 ,sifa was enchanted with the golden locks1 and the cunning ,loki escaped the threatened punishment4 ,from ,thor's name is derived the word ,thursday4 ,,frey ,,and ,,freya4 ,ques4 ,who was ,frey8 ,ans4 ,he was one of the greatest of the gods4 ,he presided over rain1 sunshine1 and the fruits of the earth4 ,from his name comes our word ,friday4 ,ques4 ,who was ,freya8 ,ans4 ,she was the sister of ,frey or ,freyr4 ,she loved music1 ,spring and flowers1 and was a friend of the elves1 or good fairies4 ,freya was invoked by lovers1 and seems to have been a sort of ,scandinavian ,venus4 ,,bragi4 ,ques4 ,who was ,bragi8 ,ans4 ,he was god of poetry1 but he scorned all lighter strains1 and was the patron of those only who sung the praises of the gods and the deeds of warriors4 ,iduna1 his wife1 kept in a casket certain apples which the gods1 when they felt age approaching1 had only to taste to renew the vigor and bloom of youth4 ,on the approach of the ,great ,twilight1 and the end of time1 this fruit was to lose its magic power4 ,,heimdall4 ,ques4 ,who was ,heimdall8 ,ans4 ,he was the watchman of the gods1 and was stationed at the extreme verge of heaven to guard the bridge ,bifrost4 ,the gods continually feared that the giants might force their way over the shining arch1 and invade ,valhalla4 ,heimdall required less sleep than a bird1 and his sight was so keen that he could distinguish the smallest object1 for a thousand leagues around1 even in the darkest night4 ,his quickness of hearing was equally wonderful2 he could hear the wool growing on the sheep's backs1 and the grain sprouting in the fields4 ,he possessed a horn of such construction that when he blew upon it1 the sound spread in widening circles until it reached the uttermost confines of the world4 ,heimdall was not permitted to marry1 lest any care for wife or children might interrupt his unceasing watchfulness4 ,,vidar4 ,ques4 ,who was ,vidar8 ,ans4 ,he was the god of silence4 ,his strength was almost equal to that of ,thor2 he was often employed like ,mercury as messenger of the gods4 ,he had sandals which sustained him equally in the air1 and upon the water4 ,,hodur4 ,ques4 ,who was ,hodur8 ,ans4 ,he was a blind deity1 endowed with prodigious strength4 ,he was mild and benevolent1 but certain terrible predictions concerning him inspired such terror in ,asgard that it was not lawful for any god to pronounce his name4 ,hodur seems to have been a personification of night4 ,,the ,,valkyrior4 ,ques4 ,who are the ,valkyrior8 ,ans4 ,according to the ,scandinavian tradition1 they are warlike virgins1 the messengers of ,odin1 and their name signifies ,choosers of the slain4 ,odin is desirous of collecting a great many heroes in ,valhalla1 that he may be able to meet the giants in the final contest at the end of the world4 ,he sends the ,valkyrior1 therefore1 to every battle field to make choice of those who shall be slain4 ,when they ride forth on their errand1 mounted upon war steeds and in full armor1 their shields and helmets shed a strange flickering light1 which flashes up over the northern skies1 and is called by men1 ,aurora ,borealis1 or ,northern ,lights4 ,,loki ,,and ,,his ,,progeny4 ,ques4 ,who was ,loki8 ,ans4 ,loki was an evil deity1 the contriver of all fraud and mischief4 ,he was very handsome1 but of fickle and malicious temper4 ,loki had three children1 the wolf ,fenris1 the ,midgard serpent1 and ,hela1 or ,death4 ,the gods were not ignorant that these monsters were growing up1 and would one day bring much evil upon gods and men4 ,odin1 therefore1 sent a messenger to bring them to him4 ,when they came1 he threw the serpent into the deep ocean by which the earth is surrounded4 ,the monster soon grew to such an enormous size1 that1 holding his tail in his mouth1 he encircled the whole world4 ,hela was cast into ,niffleheim1 where she receives as her subjects all who die of sickness or old age4 ,the wolf ,fenris gave the gods much trouble before they succeeded in chaining him4 ,he broke the strongest fetters as if they were made of cobwebs4 ,finally1 the mountain spirits fashioned a chain which he could not break4 ,it was fabricated of the roots of stones1 the noise made by the footfall of a cat1 and other equally absurd and imaginary material4 ,,baldur ,,the ,,good4 ,ques4 ,who was ,baldur8 ,ans4 ,he was the son of ,odin1 good and exceedingly beautiful4 ,he was tormented by terrible dreams1 indicating that his life was in peril4 ,he told these things to the assembled gods1 who resolved to do all in their power to protect him4 ,frigga1 the wife of ,odin1 exacted an oath from the elements1 fire1 air1 water1 and from everything animate and inanimate upon the earth--stones1 plants1 rocks and animals--that they would do no harm to ,baldur4 ,the gods were so well satisfied with this1 that they amused themselves with throwing sticks1 stones and all manner of weapons at the hero1 who was not harmed by anything4 ,loki1 with his usual malice1 was determined on ,baldur's death1 but did not know exactly how to bring it about4 ,he assumed1 therefore1 the form of an old woman1 and went to see ,frigga4 ,the goddess asked him what the gods were doing at their meetings4 ,the disguised ,loki replied that they were throwing darts and stones at ,baldur1 without being able to hurt him4 ,he inquired of ,frigga1 in his turn1 if it were really true that she had exacted an oath of all created things1 to spare ,baldur4 ,aye1 said ,frigga2 all things have sworn1 save a mistletoe which was growing on a mountain side1 and which ,i thought too young and feeble to crave an oath from4 ,as soon as ,loki heard this1 he went away rejoicing4 ,having cut down the mistletoe1 he repaired to the place where the gods were assembled1 and put the bough among the sticks which they were casting in sport at ,baldur4 ,it was thrown with the rest1 and ,baldur fell to the ground pierced through and through4 ,the gods were overwhelmed with grief1 and broke forth in the wildest lamentations4 ,then ,frigga came1 and asked1 who among them would show his love for her1 and for ,baldur1 by procuring the deliverance of the hero4 ,not having fallen in battle1 ,baldur had passed into the power of ,hela1 who ruled over the gloomy regions of ,hell1 or ,niffleheim4 ,hermod1 the son of ,odin1 offered to repair thither1 and pay to ,hela a mighty ransom for the return of his brother ,baldur4 ,he set out1 therefore1 mounted on ,odin's horse ,sleipnir1 which had eight legs and could outstrip the wind4 ,for nine days1 and as many nights1 the hero rode through darksome glens where no object could be discerned in the gloom4 ,on the tenth1 he came to a dark river1 which was spanned by a bridge of gold2 this was the entrance into ,hell1 and ,hermod rode over it fearlessly1 although it shook and swayed under his living weight4 ,he passed the night in discourse with ,baldur1 and the next morning preferred his petition to ,hela4 ,he offered any ransom she might name for ,baldur's return1 assuring her that heaven and earth resounded with lamentations for the hero4 ,hela would take no ransom1 but wished to try if ,baldur were really so beloved4 ,if1 said she1 all things in the world1 both living and lifeless1 weep for him1 then shall he return2 but if any one thing refuse to weep for him1 then shall he be kept in ,hell4 ,on hearing the result of ,hermod's mission1 the gods made proclamation throughout the world1 beseeching all created things to weep for ,baldur's deliverance4 ,all complied with this request2 both men and animals1 all1 even to the savage beasts of the forest1 shed tears for the hero4 ,the trees and plants shed crystal drops like rain1 and even the rocks and stones were covered with a glittering dew4 ,one old hag only1 sat in a cavern1 and refused to weep1 saying1 ,thankt will wail ,with dry tears ,baldur's bale-fire4 ,let ,hela keep her own4 ,it was strongly suspected that this hag was no other than ,loki himself1 who never ceased to work evil among gods and men4 ,thus ,baldur was prevented from coming back to ,asgard4 ,funeral of ,baldur4 ,ques4 ,how was the hero buried8 ,ans4 ,baldur's body was borne to the sea-shore1 and placed upon a funeral pile which was built of his own ship1 the largest in the world4 ,all the gods were present1 and even the ,frost and ,mountain ,giants were touched with kindness and came to do him honor4 ,when the wife of ,baldur saw the funeral pile prepared1 she died of grief1 and her body was consumed with that of her husband4 ,loki's ,punishment4 ,ques4 ,how did the gods revenge the death of ,baldur8 ,ans4 ,they pursued ,loki1 who made use of his magical power to escape their wrath4 ,he changed himself at one time into a salmon1 and hid among the stones of a brook4 ,he was taken1 however1 by ,thor1 who caught him by the tail1 and compressed it so1 that all salmons ever since have had that part remarkably thin4 ,being restored to his natural form1 ,loki was bound with chains in a gloomy cavern4 ,a serpent was suspended over his head1 whose venom falls upon his face drop by drop4 ,one comfort is allowed him2 his wife ,siguna sits by his side1 and catches the drops as they fall1 in a cup2 but when she carries it away to empty it1 the venom falls upon ,loki1 which makes him howl with horror1 and twist his body so violently that the whole earth shakes4 ,the ,elves4 ,ques4 ,who were the ,elves8 ,ans4 ,they were beautiful spirits1 clothed in transparent and delicate garments4 ,they loved the light1 and were kindly disposed to mankind4 ,the country of the ,elves was called ,alfheim1 and was the domain of ,freyr1 the god of the sun1 in whose light they were always sporting4 ,ques4 ,were all the fairies equally beneficent8 ,ans4 ,no2 the ,night ,elves1 also called ,gnomes1 and sometimes ,brownies1 were at times exceedingly malicious4 ,they were ugly1 long-nosed dwarfs of a dark brown complexion1 and were never seen except at night1 because the sun's rays had the power of changing them into stones4 ,ques4 ,where did these dwell8 ,ans4 ,the ,gnomes dwelt in mountain caverns and the clefts of rocks4 ,they were particularly distinguished for their knowledge of the mysterious powers of nature4 ,they were also skillful workers in wood and metal1 and were acquainted with the secret stores of gold and silver which the gods had hidden in the earth4 ,many stories are related of their malicious pranks2 but they sometimes favored the poor and friendless in an unexpected manner4 ,the principal works of the ,gnomes were ,thor's hammer1 and the ship ,skidbladnir4 ,this vessel was so wonderfully wrought1 that while it was large enough to carry all the deities with their war and household implements1 it could be folded together so small as to be carried in the hand4 ,runic ,letters4 ,ques4 ,what are ,runic letters8 ,ans4 ,one may occasionally meet in ,norway1 ,denmark1 or ,sweden with great stones of different forms1 engraven with characters called ,runic1 which appear1 at first sight1 very different from any letters we know4 ,they consist almost invariably of straight lines in the shape of little sticks1 either single or in groups4 ,divination was anciently practiced among the northern nations by means of sticks of different lengths4 ,these were shaken up1 and from the chance figures they formed1 the priests predicted future events4 ,when alphabetic writing was introduced1 the letters naturally took the form of the ancient runes4 ,the magic verses were of various kinds4 ,the noxious1 or1 as they were called1 the bitter runes were recited to bring evils on their enemies2 the favorable averted misfortune2 some were medicinal1 others employed to win love1 etc4 ,in later times1 the runes were used for inscriptions1 of which more than a thousand have been found4 ,the language is a dialect of the ,gothic1 called ,norse1 still in use in ,iceland4 ,the inscriptions may1 therefore1 be read with certainty2 but they throw very little light on history1 being principally epitaphs on tombstones4 ,ragnarok1 the ,twilight of the ,gods4 ,it was a firm belief of the northern nations1 that a time would come when all the visible creation1 the gods of ,valhalla1 the inhabitants of earth1 men1 giants and elves1 would be destroyed1 together with their habitations4 ,this fearful day will not be without its forerunners4 ,first will come a triple winter1 during which clouds of snow1 driven by piercing winds from the four quarters of the heavens1 will fall unceasingly on the earth2 tempests will sweep the sea1 and the sun will impart neither heat nor gladness4 ,three such winters will pass away without being tempered by a single summer4 ,three other winters will then follow1 during which war and discord will convulse the universe4 ,the solid earth will tremble1 the sea will leave its bed1 and the heavens will be rent asunder4 ,during this convulsion of nature1 armies will meet in combat1 and so great shall be the slaughter1 that wolves and eagles will banquet upon the flesh of kings and heroes4 ,the wolf ,fenris will now break his bands2 the ,midgard serpent rise out of the sea1 and ,loki1 released from his chains1 will join the enemies of the gods4 ,the ,eddas give a wild description of the last great battlefield on which the powers of good and evil shall contend1 and on which all alike1 whether gods or demons1 are doomed to perish4 ,when all are slain1 the world will be wrapped in flames1 the sun will become dim1 the stars will fall from heaven1 and time shall be no more4 ,after this universal destruction1 ,alfdur 7,all-,father7 will cause a new heaven and a new earth to rise out of the abyss4 ,this new earth will produce its fruits without labor or care2 perpetual spring will reign1 and sin and misery will be unknown4 ,in this blissful abode1 gods and men are to dwell together in a peace which the powers of evil can never again disturb4 ,germany4 ,the ,mythology of the ,teutonic or ,germanic race is neither so picturesque nor so well defined as that of ,scandinavia4 ,odin and other ,scandinavian divinities were worshipped by the tribes who dwelt along the borders of the ,northern ,ocean2 in other parts of ,germany1 ,druidism prevailed4 ,the ,germans had1 however1 their own deities and their own superstitions4 ,tuisco 7sometimes written ,tuesco or ,tuisto7 was worshipped by the ,saxons as the god of war4 ,the third day of the week takes its name from this divinity4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,celtic ,,mythology4 ,,druidism4 ,ques4 ,from what is the term ,druid derived8 ,ans4 ,there exists much difference of opinion on this point4 ,the word has been variously deduced from the ,saxon1 dry1 a magician1 from the ,german1 druthin1 a master or lord1 from the ,celtic1 deru1 an oak1 etc4 ,the best informed writers now refer it to the compound ,celtic word derouyd1 from ,de1 ,god1 and rouyd1 speaking4 ,it would1 therefore1 seem to signify those who speak of or for ,god4 ,ques4 ,where did ,druidism prevail8 ,ans4 ,in some parts of ,germany1 in ,gaul1 and in ancient ,britain and ,ireland4 ,ques4 ,where did it originate8 ,ans4 ,various theories have been advanced on this subject4 ,some refer it to the ,siva-worshippers of ,hindostan1 others to the ,magi of ,persia2 but all agree as to its ,eastern origin4 ,ques4 ,who is the earliest writer on this subject8 ,ans4 ,julius ,csar4 ,his account is considered perfectly reliable1 although1 to render it more intelligible1 he gives to the ,celtic gods the names of the ,greek and ,roman divinities whom they resemble4 ,ques4 ,what were the principal characteristics of ,druidism8 ,ans4 ,the belief in one ,supreme ,being3 in the immortality of the soul1 and a future state of rewards and punishments4 ,this last doctrine takes with them1 as with the ,hindoos1 the form of metempsychosis4 ,the religion of the ,druids was farther characterized by the use of circular temples1 open at the top2 the worship of fire as the emblem of the sun1 and the celebration of the ancient ,tauric festival1 7held on the first of ,may1 when the sun enters ,taurus47 ,ques4 ,what name did the ,druids give to the ,supreme ,being8 ,ans4 ,esus1 or ,hesus2 although this is sometimes mentioned as the appellation of a subordinate divinity4 ,superior to the ,roman ,jupiter1 or the ,zeus of the ,greeks1 ,esus had no parentage2 was subject to no fate2 he was free and self-existent1 and the creation of the world was his own voluntary act4 ,the ,druids taught that excepting this ,supreme ,god1 all things had a beginning1 but that nothing created would ever have an end4 ,notwithstanding these enlightened ideas1 they reverenced many other divinities4 ,the ,assyrian ,baal was worshipped among the ,celts as ,bel or ,belen4 ,as he represented the sun1 the ,romans recognized in him their god ,apollo4 ,diodorus ,siculus1 a contemporary of ,csar1 makes the following statement on the authority of an ancient ,greek writer4 ,apollo1 he says1 is worshipped with solemn rites by the inhabitants of a large island1 which lies off the coast of ,gaul1 in the ,northern ,ocean4 ,this island is inhabited by the ,hyperboreans1 so named because they live beyond the region of the north wind4 ,the god has there a remarkable temple1 circular in form1 and a magnificent forest is consecrated to him4 ,it is generally supposed that the temple alluded to by ,diodorus1 was the ,druidical circle of ,stonehenge1 of which we shall speak later4 ,ques4 ,who was ,teutates8 ,ans4 ,this name is thought to be derived from ,tut-tat1 signifying parent of men4 ,this god was much honored by the ,gauls1 who attributed to him the invention of letters and poetry4 ,according to the ,triads1 7,druidical verses17 he wrote upon stone the arts and the sciences of the world4 ,in his more beneficent character1 the name ,gwyon was often given to this divinity4 ,he resembles1 both in name and attributes1 ,thoth1 the ,mercury of ,egypt and ,phoenicia4 ,the ancient ,gauls had no idols1 nor did they ever attempt any visible representation of their deities4 ,when the ,romans established their own worship in the country1 they endeavored1 according to their usual policy1 to conciliate the conquered tribes by adopting their gods1 and placing their images in the temples which they built4 ,we read that ,zenodorus1 a famous sculptor1 said by some to have been a native of ,gaul1 executed a statue of ,teutates which cost forty million sestertia4 ,he spent six years upon this great work4 ,camul1 the ,celtic ,mars1 ,tarann1 the god of thunder1 and many other divinities of inferior rank1 were worshipped in ,gaul and ,germany4 ,ques4 ,how was the ,druid priesthood divided8 ,ans4 ,into three orders2 the priests1 the bards1 and the ,druids1 properly so called4 ,ques4 ,what were the duties of the priests8 ,ans4 ,they studied the hidden laws of nature and the mysteries of earth and heaven4 ,they offered public and private sacrifices1 and obtained a knowledge of the future from the entrails and the blood of victims1 or from the flight of birds4 ,they also cured maladies with certain mysterious charms4 ,the bards held a still higher rank3 they preserved in their verses the mystic learning of the priests1 the traditions of their race1 and the great actions of their heroes4 ,no sacrifice was duly offered without their sacred chant2 they encouraged the warrior going to the field of combat1 and received him on his return with notes of triumph4 ,to live in heroic song was the aspiration of every ,celtic warrior1 and to the coward or traitor1 there was no penalty so terrible as the denunciation of the sacred bards4 ,music was the only gentle art known to the rude tribes of ,gaul and ,britain1 and they were1 perhaps for this reason1 the more susceptible to its influence4 ,the character of these minstrels was peculiarly sacred in their eyes1 on account of the gifts of prophecy and second sight which they were believed to possess in moments of inspiration4 ,the verses of the bards were never committed to writing1 and a long and painful course of oral instruction was necessary before a candidate could be admitted to take his place in this influential class4 ,according to ,csar1 twenty years was the ordinary novitiate required4 ,the bards of ,gaul seem to have passed away with the religious system to which they belonged2 but in the ,british islands1 they continued1 although divested of their sacred character1 to be a highly esteemed and privileged class4 ,we may judge of their influence in keeping alive the patriotic spirit of the people1 from the fact that ,edward ,i4 ordered their extermination as the surest means of extinguishing the feeling of nationality among the ,welsh tribes4 ,in ,ireland and ,scotland1 the bards gradually passed away with the decline of the feudal system1 and the power of the native princes and chieftains whose glory they sung4 ,ques4 ,who were the ,druids1 properly so called8 ,ans4 ,they were priests of the highest order1 who remained secluded in caves and grottoes1 or in the depths of oak forests1 where they were supposed to study the deeper mysteries of nature and religion1 and to consult more directly the secret will of the divinity4 ,they were also the teachers of youth4 ,the ,druids must have possessed some knowledge of the motions of the heavenly bodies1 since they counted the year by lunations2 astronomical instruments have also been found among the druidical remains in ,ireland1 which prove that they had made a certain progress in this science4 ,like the ,persians1 they mingled astrology and divination with their observations of the celestial bodies4 ,the healing art was also practised by the ,druids4 ,the effect of their remedies was not1 however1 attributed to any natural cause1 but rather to a mysterious virtue residing in certain plants1 and rendered efficacious by the magic rites with which they were gathered4 ,the mistletoe1 when found growing on the oak1 was esteemed particularly sacred2 it was an antidote against poison1 a remedy in all diseases1 and a preservative against the machinations of evil spirits4 ,to possess the proper efficacy1 it should be gathered in ,february or ,march1 on the sixth day of the moon4 ,as soon as the mistletoe was found growing on the no less sacred oak1 the ,druids assembled2 a banquet and a sacrifice were prepared1 after which a priest in white vestments cut the plant with a golden sickle while two others received it reverently into a white mantle spread beneath4 ,two milk-white heifers were instantly offered in sacrifice1 and the rest of the day was spent in rejoicing4 ,in like manner1 the samolus1 or marsh-wort1 possessed no virtue unless it were sought fasting1 and gathered with the left hand1 without looking at it4 ,they plucked the helago1 or hedge hyssop1 barefooted1 and without a knife1 after ablutions1 and offerings of bread and wine4 ,the vervain and other plants had also their distinct ceremonial4 ,amber was valued for certain mysterious properties2 it was manufactured into beads by the ,druids1 and these were given as charms to warriors going to battle2 such beads are sometimes found in their tombs4 ,ques4 ,were the ,druids acquainted with the art of writing8 ,ans4 ,they were1 at least in ,gaul and ,ireland4 ,their alphabet contained seventeen letters1 and resembled the characters used by the ancient ,pelasgi4 ,it is probable1 therefore1 that they received it from the early ,greek colonists4 ,writing was employed for ordinary affairs1 whether public or private1 but the mystic learning of the ,druids was handed down by oral tradition only4 ,the few inscriptions they have left are in symbolic writing1 which resembles the runes of ,scandinavia1 and originated in the same manner from the rods and branches of certain plants used in divination4 ,these inscriptions are called in ,ireland ogham2 they are principally straight lines1 grouped in different ways4 ,ques4 ,did the ,druids exercise any political authority8 ,ans4 ,yes2 they were the legislators of the people1 and had the right of deciding in all controversies4 ,there was no appeal from their sentence1 and those who ventured to resist were excommunicated and outlawed4 ,the college of ,druids was governed by a chief or ,arch-druid1 chosen by vote from among their number4 ,the elections were eagerly contested1 and were often attended with much bloodshed4 ,the ,arch-druid held his office for life4 ,ques4 ,who were the ,druidesses8 ,ans4 ,they were prophetesses or sorceresses1 most generally wives or daughters of the ,druids1 who exercised an unbounded influence over the people4 ,they were supposed to read the future1 to conjure tempests1 and appease them again at will4 ,the ,gallic mariner often went to consult them amid the reefs of the ,armorican coast1 and trembled with superstitious awe as he saw them gliding like phantoms among the misty crags1 waving flaming torches1 and mingling their wild chants with the voices of wind and sea4 ,some of these sorceresses were obliged to assist at nocturnal rites1 where1 with their bodies painted black1 and their hair dishevelled1 they joined in a frantic dance1 and abandoned themselves to the wildest transports of frenzy4 ,a peculiar rite was practised by the ,druidesses who resided in an island at the mouth of the ,loire4 ,they were obliged once every year1 between sunrise and sunset1 to demolish and rebuild the roof of their rustic temple4 ,if any of their number should let fall the least part of the sacred material1 her fate was sealed4 ,she was torn to pieces by her companions1 amid paroxysms of wild frenzy which recalled to the ,greeks the orgies of their own ,bacchantes4 ,it is said that no year passed without a victim4 ,the nine virgin priestesses who dwelt on the island of ,sena1 an almost inaccessible rock off the promontory of ,plogoff1 on the coast of ,brittany1 were regarded with particular veneration1 and constituted1 perhaps1 the highest religious authority among the ancient ,gauls4 ,there was a class of ,druidesses in ,gaul and ,germany1 who1 in addition to practices of sorcery and incantation1 presided at fearful rites4 ,strabo tells us that when the ,cimbri had taken prisoners of war1 they were offered in sacrifice by these terrible women4 ,the chief ,druidess1 standing by a rude stone altar1 received the victim dragged thither by her companions4 ,she plunged her knife into his heart1 and watched carefully to obtain an omen1 according as the blood should flow more or less rapidly4 ,this ceremony was repeated with other victims until the augury was deemed decisive4 ,the superstitions with regard to witches and their nocturnal revels1 which prevailed so long in ,europe1 originated1 no doubt1 from popular traditions concerning these sorceresses4 ,in ,ireland1 they do not appear to have played either so terrible or so important a part4 ,we only know that at ,tara1 certain virgins of royal blood were consecrated to ,baal and ,samhain1 7the moon17 and watched the perpetual fire which burned on their altars4 ,in one of the civil wars so common in the island1 a chief of ,leinster destroyed this sanctuary and massacred its inmates4 ,the entire country united to punish the perpetrators of this sacrilege2 they were put to death1 and a perpetual fine was imposed on the province of ,leinster4 ,ques4 ,what sacrifices were offered by the ,druids8 ,ans4 ,in time of peace1 fruits and cattle2 in war1 human sacrifices were preferred4 ,ques4 ,how were the victims chosen8 ,ans4 ,they were generally captives taken in war1 slaves or criminals4 ,in some cases1 warriors and others devoted themselves voluntarily to the altar1 either to propitiate the gods1 and obtain victory for their people1 or because they were weary of life1 and desired to hasten the moment of transmigration4 ,these acts of self-immolation were esteemed exceedingly meritorious4 ,csar supposes ,teutates to be the same with ,dis or ,pluto2 but in the mythology of the ,gauls1 there were no infernal regions1 and consequently1 there was no ,pluto4 ,the soul passed into another body1 and the transmigration was happy1 or the contrary1 as the actions performed during its last state of existence had been good or evil4 ,according to the ,druids1 death was but the central point of a long life4 ,ques4 ,what was the usual mode of sacrifice8 ,ans4 ,victims offered to ,baal were always burned4 ,on important occasions1 a great number were enclosed in a huge frame of wicker work in which they were consumed together4 ,in offerings to other gods1 different rites were observed4 ,these remarks apply chiefly to ,gaul1 ,germany and ,britain4 ,human sacrifices were rare in ,ireland4 ,ques4 ,what were the principal festivals of the ,druids8 ,ans4 ,the ,tauric festival1 which has been already mentioned1 was the most ancient1 dating from the time of the ,chaldees1 or ,babylonians4 ,in ,ireland and in the ,highlands of ,scotland1 the first of ,may takes its name from this solemnity1 being called in ,gaelic1 ,beltane2 and in ,irish1 ,beal-,tinne1 or the ,fire of ,baal4 ,the solstices were also celebrated as the chief points in the sun's annual course4 ,wherever ,druidism prevailed1 there was in the centre of each great district or canton1 a perpetual fire in honor of ,baal4 ,on the feast of the god1 this was extinguished1 and again lighted1 after which all the fires throughout the country were rekindled from this sacred source4 ,this rite was observed with particular solemnity in ,ireland4 ,there the ,druids assembled around the sacred or parent fire1 which the ,arch-druid extinguished4 ,at this signal every fire disappeared1 and1 in an incredibly short space of time1 darkness settled on the island4 ,the chiefs and princes1 together with the assembled people1 then assisted in silent awe1 while the ,druids performed their nocturnal rites4 ,at length the fire was rekindled2 torches lighted at the sacred flame were passed from hand to hand1 and the country was soon illuminated by the ,baal fires which blazed on every hill4 ,the chief scene of these solemnities was ,ouisneach1 in the centre of the island1 but the same rite was performed in many other places4 ,according to what seems an authentic tradition1 it was during such a ceremony that ,st4 ,patrick obtained the opportunity of holding a public disputation with the ,druids in the presence of the king and chieftains assembled at ,tara4 ,it was ,easter ,eve1 and the ,saint1 who must have been well aware of the penalty of death attached to such an act1 commanded his disciples to light the paschal fire at the moment when all around was plunged in darkness4 ,the flame was seen at ,tara1 and the ,druids called loudly for the punishment of the sacrilegious strangers4 ,they were seized and brought before the assembly1 but the result was favorable to the missionaries1 and from that day may be dated the rapid though peaceful decline of ,druidism in ,ireland4 ,the idolatrous rites peculiar to the season of the summer solstice have been long forgotten but the custom of lighting fires upon that day1 still prevails4 ,the bonfires of ,st4 ,john's ,eve 7,june #bast7 recall1 at least1 one feature of the ancient ,druid festival4 ,ques4 ,what rites were observed on the first day of ,november8 ,ans4 ,the day was consecrated to the ,moon1 7called in ,ireland ,samhain17 and was observed both in ,gaul and in the ,british islands4 ,it would seem that the spirits of the departed were also propitiated at this season1 and many curious traditions are connected with its observance4 ,before the invasion of ,csar1 ,britain was so little known to the ancient ,gauls1 as to be still a land of mystery4 ,they believed that on every feast of the moon1 the souls of those who had died during the year1 were obliged to repair thither for judgment4 ,connected with this1 ,procopius relates an ,armorican legend of which some traces may yet be found in ,brittany4 ,at the foot of the promontory of ,plogoff1 around the sacred isle of ,sena1 are scattered rocks on which the sea breaks with an unceasing moan4 ,thither assemble1 on the night of judgment1 the spirits of the dead4 ,faint wailings are heard1 and pale phantoms are seen gliding above the waves1 which they are not yet spiritual enough to cross without human succor4 ,at the hour of midnight the sailors and fisher men along the coast hear mysterious voices calling at their doors4 ,they rise and find strange barks waiting on the shore4 ,scarcely have they entered these1 when the light craft is weighed down by a ghostly band4 ,the terrified pilot has no need of helm or sail1 for the barks are borne westwardly with incredible velocity4 ,when they touch the misty shores of ,britain1 there is a hollow murmur--the boats ride lightly on the water--the souls are gone4 ,the superstitious observances which are still practised on ,november1 or ,all ,hallow ,eve1 in ,ireland1 ,scotland1 and some parts of ,england1 are of pagan origin1 and seem to be relics of this festival4 ,ques4 ,at what period may we fix the decline of ,druidism8 ,ans4 ,it was suppressed in ,gaul by the ,roman conquerors1 who built temples1 and introduced the worship of their own gods1 adopting also those of the conquered race4 ,druidism retired1 step by step1 before this more classic heathenism1 but found a temporary refuge in the ,german forests and in ,armorica4 ,it was suppressed in ,britain during the reign of ,nero4 ,the persecuted ,druids took refuge in the island of ,mona or ,anglesea1 whence they were driven by the ,roman troops with great slaughter4 ,they found a last asylum in the island of ,iona4 ,here they maintained a certain influence up to the latter part of the sixth century1 when the inhabitants of the island were converted by the preaching of ,st4 ,columba1 the ,apostle of the ,highlands4 ,this missionary was a native of ,ireland1 where ,christianity had been established for nearly a century4 ,ques4 ,what traces still remain of the ancient ,druidical worship8 ,ans4 ,certain monuments1 which are called1 according to their form1 menhirs1 dolmens or cromlechs4 ,ques4 ,what are the menhirs8 ,ans4 ,the word is derived from the old ,breton man1 stone2 and hir1 long4 ,they are upright blocks of stone1 often terminating in a point2 and are for the most part rough and unshapely2 the ordinary height is from seven to twelve feet2 but in some rare instances1 they exceed thirty feet in height4 ,the purpose of these menhirs is not well understood4 ,where they stand singly1 or in groups of two or three1 they probably mark a spot rendered memorable by some important event4 ,similar monuments were common in primitive times1 as we learn from ,scripture2 when the ,israelites had crossed the dry bed of the ,jordan1 ,joshua placed twelve stones on the bank1 as a remembrance of the miracle4 ,jacob marked in the same manner the spot on which he had been favored by a celestial vision4 ,in certain places on the ,scandinavian peninsula1 extensive groups of menhirs occur1 scattered irregularly over the plain2 these are supposed to mark ancient battle-fields4 ,where the stones are arranged in a cromlech or circular form1 there is generally a dolmen in the centre4 ,the dolmen is a large flat stone1 placed like a table1 upon two others which are set upright4 ,some of these were evidently altars1 as the flat stone on the top is furrowed and slightly inclined to facilitate as it were the flowing of blood4 ,dolmens are found also in straight lines1 forming a sort of covered gallery4 ,ques4 ,where are the most remarkable of these monuments8 ,ans4 ,on the continent of ,europe1 the most extensive series is that of ,carnac in ,brittany4 ,in the midst of a wide heath1 stand rude blocks of gray granite1 set on end2 they are angular1 and show no marks of polish4 ,these menhirs are arranged in eleven lines1 forming regular alleys4 ,the blocks numbered formerly about ten thousand2 but there are now many gaps in the stony lines1 as every house in the vicinity seems to have been built from this convenient quarry4 ,at ,stonehenge1 in ,england1 is a large cromlech arranged in two circles and two ovals4 ,there are in all about one hundred and forty stones1 of which the smallest are estimated to weigh ten or twelve1 and the largest seventy tons4 ,in the centre of the work is a massive slab of fine sandstone1 supposed to have been an altar4 ,this cromlech is surrounded by a trench and an earthen embankment4 ,numerous ancient barrows1 or burial mounds1 are found in the neighborhood4 ,in ,ireland1 monuments constructed of stone are sometimes found2 but circular earthworks are more common4 ,in this country1 as in ,brittany1 many popular superstitions still attach to these remains of ancient paganism4 ,almost within our own day1 many an ,irish peasant has made his scanty harvest still smaller1 rather than violate with the plough1 the grass-grown rath1 or ,druid circle4 ,death within the year is the supposed penalty of such an act4 ,in ,brittany1 malignant dwarfs and night-elves still haunt the deserted cromlech1 and have power at certain times1 to wreak their malice on the belated traveller4 ,some of these giant stones are themselves subject to mysterious laws4 ,once in a hundred years1 they are obliged1 at the hour of midnight1 to pass in weird procession to bathe in the waters of the ,northern ,ocean4 ,then for a few brief moments the stars look down on the riches buried in ancient times beneath the enchanted circle4 ,it is the treasure-seeker's golden opportunity1 but woe to the avaricious wretch who lingers over the spoil4 ,he is crushed by the swift returning stones1 and the morning sun finds the grim sentinels silent and motionless as before1 bearing no trace of their wild nocturnal march4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,mexico4 ,,mythology ,,of ,,the ,,aztecs4 ,ques4 ,what peculiarity has been remarked in the mythology of the ,aztecs or ancient ,mexicans8 ,ans4 ,its incongruity4 ,on the one hand we find their priests inculcating the most sublime truths of natural religion1 and the purest maxims of morality1 while on the other1 their sacrifices and public worship were marked by a spirit of unexampled ferocity4 ,ques4 ,how has this been explained8 ,ans4 ,it is supposed that the religion of the ,aztecs was derived from two distinct sources4 ,the ancient ,toltecs1 who preceded them in ,mexico1 were a comparatively humane and enlightened race2 they retained many of the highest principles of natural religion1 united1 probably1 with truths derived from primitive tradition4 ,the ,aztecs seem to have adopted the religion of their more civilized predecessors without abandoning their own dark and cruel superstitions4 ,hence the contradictions and inconsistencies of their mythology4 ,ques4 ,what did the ,aztecs believe of ,god8 ,ans4 ,they believed in one ,supreme ,lord and ,creator1 to whom they attributed all the divine perfections4 ,the prayers which they addressed to ,him recall1 in many instances1 the very phraseology of ,scripture4 ,ques4 ,did the ,aztecs worship any other deity8 ,ans4 ,yes1 they worshipped many subordinate divinities who were supposed to preside over the elements1 the changes of the seasons and the various occupations of men4 ,of these gods1 thirteen held the most exalted rank1 while the inferior class numbered over two hundred4 ,ques4 ,who may be considered the chief of these subordinate divinities8 ,ans4 ,huitzilopotchli1 a sort of ,mexican ,mars1 who was1 in fact1 the patron deity of the nation4 ,his temples were the most stately of all the public edifices1 and his altars in every part of the empire were continually reeking with the blood of human victims4 ,ques4 ,who was ,quetzalcoatl8 ,ans4 ,the ,aztecs1 like many nations of the old world1 had their ,golden ,age4 ,during this blissful period1 ,quetzalcoatl1 god of the air1 dwelt on earth1 and instructed men in the use of metals1 in agriculture and every useful art4 ,under his beneficent rule1 the earth brought forth its fruits without care or labor3 and such was the fertility of the soil that a single ear of corn was as much as a man could carry4 ,the dyer's art was not needed1 for the cotton took1 as it grew1 the richest and most varied hues4 ,the rarest flowers filled the air with perfume1 and the melody of birds was heard in every grove4 ,this happy state was not destined to last2 ,quetzalcoatl incurred the anger of one of the greater gods1 and was obliged to abandon the country4 ,he proceeded to the shores of the ,mexican gulf1 where he took leave of his followers1 promising that1 when many years had rolled away1 he would revisit their descendants4 ,he then embarked in a skiff made of serpent's skins1 and sailed eastward towards the fabled land of ,tlapallan4 ,quetzalcoatl was described by the ,mexicans as tall1 with a fair complexion1 long1 dark hair1 and a flowing beard4 ,they looked confidently for the return of the benevolent deity1 and this tradition had no small influence in preparing the way for the future success of the ,spaniards4 ,it is evident that ,quetzalcoatl was the name given by the ,mexicans to some beneficent ruler who instructed them in the arts of civilized life4 ,it is singular that he should have been described with every characteristic of the ,european race2 and some have conjectured that he was indeed a native of the ,eastern hemisphere1 cast by some strange accident among the simple natives of the ,new ,world4 ,ques4 ,did the ,aztecs worship any household divinities8 ,ans4 ,yes2 the images of their penates1 or household gods1 were to be found in every dwelling4 ,ques4 ,what did the ,aztecs believe with regard to a future life8 ,ans4 ,their priests taught that the wicked were sent after death to expiate their sins in a region of eternal darkness4 ,those who died of certain diseases were entitled1 after death1 to a state of indolent contentment2 but the ,aztec paradise1 like the ,elysium of the ,greeks and ,romans1 was reserved for their warriors and heroes4 ,in this class were included those who were offered in sacrifice4 ,these privileged souls passed at once into the presence of the ,sun1 whom they accompanied with songs and choral dances in his journey through the heavens4 ,after a certain period1 their spirits went to animate the golden clouds which floated over the gardens of paradise1 or1 assuming the form of singing birds1 revelled amid the blossoms and odors of its sacred groves4 ,ques4 ,what peculiar rite was practised by the ,aztecs in the naming of their children8 ,ans4 ,the lips and bosom of the infant were sprinkled with water4 ,during the ceremony they implored the ,lord1 that the holy drops might wash away the sin that was given to it before the foundation of the world1 so that the child might be born anew4 ,ques4 ,how did the ,aztecs bury their dead8 ,ans4 ,immediately after death1 the corpse was clothed in certain sacred habiliments1 and strewed with charms1 which were supposed to be necessary as a defence against the dangers of the unknown road which the spirit was about to travel4 ,the body was then burned1 and the ashes1 carefully collected in a funeral urn1 were placed in the house of the deceased4 ,in this mode of burial1 we may notice a certain resemblance to the funeral rites of the ancient ,greeks and ,romans4 ,there was1 however1 this distinction1 that although the latter occasionally sacrificed their captive enemies to the manes of a departed warrior1 this offering formed no necessary part of the burial rite2 on the other hand1 the obsequies of an ,aztec noble were always accompanied by the sacrifice of unoffending slaves1 the number of victims being proportioned to the rank of the deceased4 ,ques4 ,did the ,aztec priests form a distinct order8 ,ans4 ,they were altogether distinct from the people1 and formed a numerous and powerful hierarchy4 ,their different functions were exactly regulated2 those who were best skilled in music formed the choirs--,others arranged the festivals according to the calendar4 ,some were engaged in the education of youth1 and others had charge of the hieroglyphical paintings and oral traditions1 while the dreadful rites of sacrifice were reserved to the chief dignitaries of the order4 ,ques4 ,were women permitted to exercise any sacerdotal functions8 ,ans4 ,yes2 the ,aztec priestesses exercised every function except that of sacrifice4 ,they superintended the schools in which the daughters of the higher and middle classes received their education4 ,these schools1 as well as those for boys1 directed by the priests1 were under the strictest discipline4 ,ordinary faults were punished with extreme rigor2 graver offences1 with death4 ,ques4 ,how was this numerous priesthood maintained8 ,ans4 ,a certain quantity of land was annexed to each temple1 and the priests were further enriched by first fruits and other offerings4 ,this large provision became necessary from the fact that the ,aztec priests were allowed to marry4 ,the law prescribed that any surplus1 beyond what was actually required for their support1 should be distributed among the poor4 ,this1 and other benevolent provisions1 seem very inconsistent with the cruelties practised in their public worship4 ,ques4 ,what was the form of the ,mexican temples8 ,ans4 ,they were solid pyramids1 constructed of earth1 but completely cased in brick or stone4 ,they were disposed in three or four stories1 each smaller than that below4 ,at the top was a broad area1 in which stood one or more towers1 containing images of the presiding deities4 ,before these towers were generally placed1 besides the dreadful stone of sacrifice1 two lofty altars on which burned perpetual fires4 ,so numerous were these sacred fires in the city of ,mexico1 that the streets were brilliantly lighted even on the darkest night4 ,the ascent was made1 in some cases1 by a stairway which led directly up the centre of the western face of the pyramid4 ,more generally1 it was so arranged1 that the religious processions were obliged to pass two or three times around the pyramid before reaching the summit4 ,the ,mexicans called their temples ,teocallis1 or houses of ,god4 ,ques4 ,are any of these structures still in existence8 ,ans4 ,yes2 of those which yet remain1 the pyramid of ,cholula is the largest1 and perhaps the most perfect4 ,it measures #agf feet in perpendicular height1 and is #adbe feet square2 it covers #de acres4 ,it is very ancient1 having been built before the ,aztecs conquered ,anahuac1 as that part of ,mexico was formerly named4 ,ques4 ,what sacrifices were offered by the ,aztecs8 ,ans4 ,their sacrifices present the same striking contrasts which we find in everything connected with their religion4--,some festivals were of a light and joyous character1 being celebrated with choral songs and dances4 ,processions of votaries crowned with garlands1 bore offerings to the temple2 fruits1 ripe maize1 and the sweet incense of the copal and other odoriferous gums2 while the birds and domestic animals offered in sacrifice were consumed at the banquets with which the festival concluded4 ,these innocent rites were evidently of ,toltec origin2 the dreadful practice of human sacrifice was introduced by the ,aztec conquerors1 whose wars were often undertaken for no other purpose than to procure victims for their altars4 ,ques4 ,were these sacrifices numerous8 ,ans4 ,they were introduced only about two hundred years before the ,spanish ,conquest4 ,they were at first exceptional1 but became more frequent as the ,aztec empire extended1 until the number of those sacrificed annually throughout the empire is calculated at twenty thousand1 which is the lowest estimate given4 ,it was customary to preserve the skulls of the victims in buildings erected for the purpose4 ,one hundred and thirty-six thousand of these ghastly relics were counted in a single edifice4 ,women were occasionally offered in sacrifice1 but ,tlaloc1 the god of rain1 could only be propitiated by the blood of young children and infants4 ,in seasons of drought1 these innocent victims1 decked in the richest attire1 and crowned with flowers1 were borne to the temple in open litters1 their cries being drowned in the wild chanting of the priests4 ,the feast of ,tezcatlipoca1 one of the chief gods1 who was called the ,soul of the ,world1 was celebrated by the sacrifice of a single victim1 with regard to whom many peculiar ceremonies were observed4 ,a year before the sacrifice1 a young man1 distinguished for grace and beauty1 was chosen from among the captives4 ,he was splendidly attired1 surrounded by every luxury1 and was received everywhere with the homage due to the divinity whom he was supposed to represent4 ,when the fatal day arrived1 the victim1 who had been trained to perform his part with calmness and dignity1 was conducted to the temple4 ,as the melancholy procession wound up the sides of the pyramid1 he played upon a musical instrument2 at first1 joyous airs1 which grew graver and more mournful as the cortege advanced1 until at length he broke his lute1 and cast it aside4 ,he then threw from him1 one by one1 his chaplets of flowers1 and stood unadorned before the stone of sacrifice4 ,the bloody work was soon accomplished1 and the yet palpitating heart of the victim was thrown at the feet of the idol4 ,the career of this captive1 and his progress to the altar1 was intended as an allegorical representation of human life1 which1 joyous at first1 terminates in sorrow and in death4 ,in speaking of human sacrifices1 we have yet to mention the most revolting feature4 ,the ,mexicans1 both men and women1 feasted on the bodies of the victims2 and no ,aztec noble would venture to entertain his friends on a festival day without placing before them this loathsome food4 ,it is worthy of remark that ,montezuma surpassed all his predecessors in the pomp with which he celebrated the festivals of the ,aztec gods1 and the number of human victims which he offered on their altars4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,peru4 ,ques4 ,what deities were worshipped by the ancient ,peruvians8 ,ans4 ,like most of the races inhabiting the ,american continent1 the ,peruvians believed in one ,supreme ,god1 immaterial and infinite4 ,this sublime doctrine did not1 however1 lead to the practical results that might have been expected4 ,ques4 ,what name did the ,peruvians give to this ,supreme deity8 ,ans4 ,he was adored under the different names of ,pachacamac and ,viracocha4 ,they raised no temples in his honor2 that which stood near the present site of ,lima1 having been erected before the country came under the sway of the ,incas4 ,it seems probable1 therefore1 that the worship of this ,great ,spirit did not originate with the ,peruvians4 ,their entire system of religion was directed to the adoration of the heavenly bodies4 ,the ,sun was adored as the father of the world1 the source of light and life4 ,the ,moon was honored as his sister-wife1 and the ,stars were worshipped as her heavenly train4 ,the planet known to us as ,venus was an especial object of devotion4 ,the ,peruvians named it ,chasca1 or the ,youth with the long and curling locks2 they worshipped it as the page of the ,sun1 whom he attends in his rising and setting4 ,the ,sun was honored also as the father of the royal ,inca race2 and1 connected with this belief1 we have one of the few legends worthy of note in the barren mythology of the ,peruvians4 ,ques4 ,relate this legend4 ,ans4 ,according to tradition1 there was a time when the ancient races of the continent were plunged in the most complete barbarism3 the will of the strongest was the only law2 war was their pastime2 they worshipped the vilest objects in nature1 and feasted on the flesh of their slaughtered enemies4 ,the ,sun1 the great parent of mankind1 took compassion on their degraded state1 and sent two of his children1 ,manco-,capac1 and ,mama ,oello ,huaco1 to form men into regular communities1 and teach them the arts of civilized life4 ,the celestial pair advanced along the high plains in the neighborhood of ,lake ,titicaca1 as far as the sixteenth degree of south latitude4 ,they bore with them a golden wedge1 and were directed to take up their abode wherever the sacred emblem should sink into the earth of its own accord4 ,this prodigy took place in the valley of ,cuzco1 where the wedge sank into the ground1 and disappeared forever4 ,here the children of the ,sun entered upon their benevolent mission2 ,manco-,capac instructing the men in the arts of agriculture1 while ,mama ,oello initiated the women into the mysteries of weaving and spinning4 ,the rude1 but simple-hearted natives were not slow to appreciate the benefits conferred by the messengers of heaven3 a large community was gradually formed1 and the city of ,cuzco was founded in the valley4 ,the monarchy thus formed1 was governed by the ,incas1 who claimed descent from ,manco-,capac and ,mama ,oello1 and always styled themselves1 ,children of the ,sun4 ,ques4 ,what was the origin of this legend8 ,ans4 ,it was evidently a fiction1 invented at a later period to gratify the vanity of the ,incas1 by attributing to their race a celestial origin4 ,the extensive ruins on the shores of ,lake ,titicaca prove that this region was inhabited by a powerful1 and comparatively civilized people1 long before the foundation of the ,peruvian monarchy4 ,ques4 ,are there any other ,peruvian legends8 ,ans4 ,among the traditions of this race1 is one of the deluge1 which resembles in one or two curious particulars the ,mexican legend on the same subject4 ,according to both these traditions1 seven persons took refuge in caves1 in which they were preserved from the universal destruction2 and from these1 the earth was re-peopled4 ,the ,peruvians maintained that white and bearded men from the east had visited the country in ancient times1 and instructed the natives in the arts of civilized life4 ,this legend recalls the ,mexican story of ,quetzalcoatl1 and the coincidence is singular1 because no communication is believed to have existed between the two countries4 ,ques4 ,where were the most celebrated temples of the ,sun8 ,ans4 ,the most ancient of these edifices was in the island of ,titicaca1 whence the founders of the ,inca dynasty were said to have proceeded4 ,everything belonging to this sanctuary was held in particular veneration4 ,even the fields of maize which were attached to the temple were supposed to partake of its sanctity2 and the yearly produce was distributed in small quantities through all the public granaries1 to bring a blessing on the rest of the store4 ,a ,peruvian esteemed himself happy in securing even a single ear of the sacred grain4 ,ques4 ,describe the temple of ,cuzco4 ,ans4 ,this edifice was constructed of stone1 and covered a large extent of ground in the heart of the city4 ,the interior of the temple has been described1 by those who saw it in its glory1 as being literally a mine of precious metals4 ,it was called by the natives ,coricancha1 or ,place of ,gold4 ,on the western wall was the image of the ,sun2 this was a massive golden plate1 of enormous dimensions1 on which was emblazoned a human countenance darting forth rays on every side4 ,the image was richly ornamented with emeralds and precious stones4 ,it fronted the eastern portal of the temple in such a manner that the first rays of the morning ,sun fell directly on his golden image1 and were reflected from the rich ornaments with which the walls and ceiling were encrusted4 ,every part of the temple glowed with the precious metal1 and even the exterior was encompassed with a broad frieze of gold set in the solid stone-work of the edifice4 ,adjoining the principal structure was the temple of the ,moon4 ,her effigy was of silver1 but otherwise resembled that of the ,sun4 ,the same metal was used in all the decorations of the building1 as resembling in its pale lustre the milder radiance of the beautiful planet4 ,one chapel was dedicated to the stars1 another to thunder and lightning1 and a third to the rainbow4 ,this last was decorated with a many-colored arch of resplendent hues4 ,attached to the temple of ,cuzco were the celebrated gardens1 sparkling with flowers of gold and silver4 ,animals also were represented in precious ore1 and the classic fable of the golden fleece was realized in the llama of this fairy garden4 ,ques4 ,does anything now remain of this magnificent temple8 ,ans4 ,no2 its riches became the prey of the conquerors1 and the desecrated shrine offered an inexhaustible supply of material for the erection of other buildings4 ,fields of maize are now waving where the golden gardens once sparkled in the sun1 and the church of ,st4 ,dominic1 one of the most magnificent buildings of the ,new ,world1 occupies the site of the famous ,coricancha4 ,the temples of ,peru were many and magnificent2 but ,cuzco was to the ,inca noble what ,mecca is to the devout follower of ,mahomet1 and he would consider that he had neglected a sacred duty1 if he had not made at least one pilgrimage to the holy shrine4 ,ques4 ,from what class were the ,peruvian priests generally chosen8 ,ans4 ,they were all1 without exception1 ,inca nobles1 and therefore children of the ,sun4 ,the ,high ,priest1 called ,villac ,vmu1 was second only to the ,inca1 and was chosen from among his brothers or nearest kindred4 ,ques4 ,what sacrifices were offered to the ,sun8 ,ans4 ,animals1 ripe maize1 flowers and sweet-scented gums4 ,human sacrifices were rare1 and were only offered on great occasions1 such as a coronation1 a victory1 etc4 ,a child or a beautiful maiden was then selected as the victim2 but the cannibal repasts of the ,mexicans were unknown among the more refined ,peruvians4 ,ques4 ,what were the principal festivals of the ,sun8 ,ans4 ,the solstices and equinoxes were celebrated by four great festivals2 but the most solemn was the feast of ,raymi1 held at the period of their summer solstice4 ,this festival lasted many days4 ,the animals offered in sacrifice were served at the tables of the ,inca and of his nobles2 but of the flocks belonging to the temple1 a vast number were slaughtered and distributed among the people4 ,ques4 ,what points of resemblance have been noticed between the religious observances of the ,peruvians and those of the ancient ,romans8 ,ans4 ,in the mode of procuring the sacred fire1 the obtaining of omens from the animals offered in sacrifice1 and in some of the laws with regard to the ,virgins of the ,sun4 ,at the festival of ,raymi1 the sacred fire was obtained1 as under the reign of ,numa1 by means of a concave mirror of polished metal4 ,the sun's rays were in this manner collected in a focus of sufficient intensity to ignite dried cotton4 ,when the sky was overcast1 which was esteemed a very bad omen1 the fire was obtained by means of friction4 ,this fire was watched by the ,virgins of the ,sun4 ,ques4 ,who were these8 ,ans4 ,they were maidens of noble birth who were dedicated to the service of the ,sun4 ,they were taken from their families at an early age1 and placed under the care of elderly matrons1 who instructed them in their religious duties1 and in every branch of female industry4 ,they spun garments1 which they were taught to embroider with exquisite skill4 ,they also wove1 of the fine hair of the vicua1 the hangings of the temples and the garments worn by the ,inca and his household4 ,they were completely secluded1 even from their own nearest relatives4 ,the wives of the ,inca1 and they were numerous1 were chosen from among the ,virgins of the ,sun4 ,with this exception1 they were forbidden to marry4 ,the unhappy maiden who ventured to form in secret a less exalted alliance1 was condemned to the cruel punishment decreed in like circumstances against the ,roman ,vestal4 ,she was buried alive2 her accomplice was strangled1 and the village to which he belonged was razed to the ground and sowed with stones4 ,ques4 ,how did the ,peruvians bury their dead8 ,ans4 ,the body was embalmed1 not1 as in ,egypt1 with gums and spices1 but by simple exposure to the cold1 dry and rarefied atmosphere of the mountains4 ,the mummies are generally in a sitting posture4 ,as the ,peruvians imagined that the wants and occupations of men would be the same beyond the grave as in this life1 costly apparel1 arms1 utensils and sometimes treasures were placed in the tomb of a deceased noble4 ,that he might not lack attendance and society1 his favorite wives and domestics were sacrificed on his tomb4 ,the ,peruvians believed in an evil spirit whom they called ,cupay1 but they did not attempt to propitiate him by any form of worship4 ,cupay seems1 in fact1 to have been only a personification of sin4 ,,supplement4 ,a ,,brief ,,notice ,,of ,,authors1 ,,etc41 ,,mentioned ,,in ,,this ,,volume4 ,,schylus1 ,the earliest of the ,greek dramatists1 was born at ,eleusis in ,attica1 #ebe ,b4 ,c4 ,he distinguished himself in the battles of ,marathon1 ,salamis and ,plata4 schylus has been called the father of ,grecian tragedy1 as he was the first to give rules to the dialogue1 and define the duties of the chorus2 he also planned the dress of the actors1 the scenery and the whole mechanism of the stage4 schylus wrote sixty-six dramas1 in thirteen of which he obtained the victory over all his competitors4 ,he was at length defeated by a younger rival1 ,sophocles4 ,he retired the same year to the court of ,hiero1 king of ,syracuse1 and some writers attribute this step to the mortification felt by the poet on this occasion4 ,others say that he was accused as guilty of profanity in exhibiting on the stage certain things connected with the ,eleusinian mysteries4 ,the people were about to stone him1 when he was saved by the presence of mind of his brother ,aminias4 ,the latter had won much glory in the ,persian war1 and now1 while interceding for his brother he dexterously dropped his mantle so as to expose the stump of the arm he had lost at ,salamis4 ,the silent appeal was not without its effect on the impulsive ,athenians1 and schylus was pardoned4 ,he deemed it prudent1 however1 to retire to ,sicily1 where he was kindly entertained by ,hiero4 ,his death is said to have occurred in a very extraordinary manner4 ,as he slept in the fields1 an eagle which was flying over him with a tortoise in his claws1 mistook the bald head of the poet for a stone4 ,the bird dropped the tortoise for the purpose of breaking the shell1 and he was killed by the blow1 thus verifying a prophecy that his death would come from on high4 ,of the dramas written by schylus1 but seven remain4 ,of these1 the most admired is the ,prometheus ,chained4 ,the subject is the punishment of ,prometheus on ,mount ,caucasus2 the scenery is grand and terrific1 and all the persons of the drama are divinities4 ,c,,sar 7,caius ,julius71 ,the ,roman general and dictator1 holds a high rank among ,latin authors4 ,during the most active period of his life1 he found time to devote to literary pursuits4 ,of the works written by him on various subjects1 both in prose and verse1 we have only his ,commentaries1 in ten books4 ,seven of these treat of the ,gallic war1 the rest contain an account of the ,civil war4 ,the hurry of military expeditions did not prevent this extraordinary man from observing closely the manners and customs of the different nations with whom he contended4 ,we are indebted to the ,commentaries for almost all the accurate information we possess with regard to the inhabitants of ancient ,gaul4 ,csar was not surpassed1 even by the writers of the ,augustan age1 in clearness and beauty of style4 ,he exaggerates nothing1 and his most brilliant achievements are related with a certain modest simplicity which is one of the characteristics of true greatness4 ,,cicero4 ,a ,roman orator and statesman4 ,he filled the highest offices in the gift of his country1 and took so prominent a part in public affairs1 that an account of his life would be also a history of his times4 ,cicero wrote on the art of public speaking1 on philosophy and jurisprudence4 ,this great man1 who had saved ,rome from the plots of ,catiline1 and rendered many other signal services to his country1 was basely murdered by the order of the second ,triumvirate1 in the year #dc ,b4 ,c4 ,,demosthenes4 ,a famous ,athenian orator1 who defended the liberties of his country against the aggressions of ,philip of ,macedon4 ,,diodorus1 ,surnamed ,siculus1 from ,sicily1 his birth-place4 ,he was a celebrated historian1 contemporary with ,julius ,csar and ,augustus4 ,he wrote a ,general ,history in forty books1 of which we have now fifteen entire1 with scattered fragments of the others4 ,diodorus devoted thirty years to this great work4 ,,euripides1 ,a ,greek tragedian1 was born in #dhj ,b4 ,c41 on the day rendered famous by the victory of ,salamis4 ,after gaining a high reputation as a dramatist1 ,euripides retired to ,macedon1 to the court of ,king ,archelas4 ,on the death of the poet1 the ,athenians begged that his body might be sent to ,athens for interment4 ,this request ,archelas refused1 and ,euripides was buried with much pomp at ,pella1 in ,macedon4 ,this poet is inferior to schylus and ,sophocles1 not only in dignity of sentiment1 but in the moral tone of his dramas4 ,sophocles is said to have observed that while he represented men as they ought to be1 ,euripides described them as they were4 ,,herodotus1 ,who has been called the ,father of ,history1 was born at ,halicarnassus1 #dhd ,b4 ,c4 ,he spent many years travelling through ,europe1 ,asia and ,africa1 observing everywhere the manners and customs of the people1 and collecting materials for his great work4 ,his account of the ,persian war is full of interest1 and won for him great popularity among his countrymen4 ,herodotus relates many things which seem strange1 and even incredible2 but these are either traditions of remote times1 or accounts received from other travellers4 ,the general opinion is that where ,herodotus speaks from his own observation1 or relates events of which the memory was still recent1 he may be relied upon as an accurate and truthful historian4 ,,justin 7,saint74 ,a ,christian writer of the second century4 ,he is principally celebrated for his ,apology for the ,christians1 addressed to the ,emperor ,antoninus4 ,it is written in a style at once eloquent and persuasive1 and it is believed that it had the desired effect1 and was the immediate cause of the edict issued by ,antoninus in favor of the ,christians4 ,st4 ,justin addressed a second ,apology to ,marcus ,aurelius1 but with far different success4 ,this ,emperor was too much under the influence of the heathen philosophers whom he had assembled at his court1 to judge impartially in the matter4 ,one of these1 ,crescentius1 a bitter enemy of the ,christians1 procured the death of their intrepid defender4 ,the martyrdom of ,st4 ,justin took place at ,rome1 about the year #afa ,a4 ,d4 ,,juvenal4 ,a ,roman poet of the first century4 ,he was born in the reign of ,caligula1 but the exact date is not known4 ,juvenal is celebrated for his satires1 in which he attacked the vices and follies of his day1 not sparing the emperors themselves where their conduct was deserving of reproach4 ,hadrian believed that one of the satires of ,juvenal was directed against himself2 he had not the magnanimity to overlook the offence1 and ,juvenal was exiled to ,lybia1 where he died soon after4 ,m,,cenas4 ,minister and favorite of the ,emperor ,augustus4 ,he was distinguished for the wisdom of his counsels1 and his rare abilities as a statesman4 ,although himself an indifferent poet1 he was still a patron of literature and literary men2 ,virgil1 ,horace1 ,ovid and other celebrated writers of the ,augustan age1 were among his most intimate friends4 ,such was the care with which ,mcenas sought out and rewarded every species of merit1 that his name is proverbially used to denote a generous patron4 ,admirable in his public capacity1 he was in private life as indolent and luxurious as the most effeminate oriental4 ,his villas were laid out with unexampled magnificence1 and his banquets surpassed1 in taste and display1 those given by ,augustus himself4 ,the later years of ,mcenas offer a sad commentary on the value of human greatness4 ,his constitution1 which had never been strong1 was weakened by excess4 ,he was tormented by constant wakefulness1 and this great man1 with the resources of the world at his command1 would probably have sacrificed both wealth and power for the common boon of sleep enjoyed by the meanest of his slaves4 ,in vain the physicians exercised their skill2 narcotics1 monotonous sounds1 distant music1 all failed to produce the desired effect4 ,a stream was1 at length1 conducted through a garden adjoining the chamber where he lay1 and the soft murmur of the falling waters procured a temporary alleviation4 ,we are told1 however1 that for three years preceding his death1 ,mcenas never slept4 ,,pelasgi4 ,a name given to the most ancient inhabitants of ,greece4 ,they founded colonies in ,asia ,minor1 the islands of the gean ,sea1 and in ,italy4 ,the ,cyclopean remains in these countries are generally attributed to the ,pelasgi4 ,these structures are remarkable for the immense size of the stones of which they are built4 ,,plinius1 7,secundus ,c47 ,a ,roman writer1 generally known as ,pliny the ,elder2 is equally celebrated as a historian and a naturalist4 ,it is not easy to understand how one man could have followed so many different avocations1 filled high offices under different emperors1 and yet have found time for such a vast amount of composition4 ,while still quite young1 ,pliny served in ,germany1 where he commanded a troop of cavalry2 he afterwards practised as a pleader at the ,roman bar1 filled the office of procurator in ,spain1 and we find him1 at the time of his death1 in command of the fleet which guarded the coast of ,italy4 ,the application of ,pliny to literary pursuits was uninterrupted4 ,he rose to his studies at two in the morning1 and during the entire day1 whether in the bath1 at table1 or sitting in his garden1 he either listened to reading1 wrote1 or dictated4 ,even on his journeys and military expeditions1 a secretary always sat in his chariot4 ,we are told that in winter ,pliny was careful to provide him with a warm glove of peculiar make1 that his fingers might not be too much benumbed to hold the stylus4 ,we have but one complete work of this author1 his ,natural ,history1 in thirty-seven books4 ,it treats1 not only of natural history1 properly so called1 but also of astronomy1 biography1 history1 physiology1 medicine and the fine arts4 ,the portion which treats of animals possesses now but little interest4 ,in many instances1 the description is so vague as to leave us in doubt as to the particular animal he would designate4 ,he also mingles facts1 really observed1 with fables of winged horses1 monsters with human heads and the tails of scorpions1 etc4 ,the ten books on botany are open to the same objections4 ,he attributes to many plants properties altogether fabulous1 and his work1 although formerly much quoted on these points1 has rendered very little service to the art of medicine4 ,the case is different where he speaks of geography1 history and the fine arts4 ,on all these points1 he imparts much valuable information of which we would otherwise be deprived4 ,the ,natural ,history may be considered1 from its wide range of subjects1 a sort of ,cyclopdia1 and it is said that if the ,latin language were lost1 it might be restored from this work alone4 ,pliny perished in the great eruption of ,mount ,vesuvius which destroyed the towns of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii4 ,he observed the phenomena accompanying it from the deck of his ship4 ,wishing to take a nearer view1 and also to succor some of his friends whose villas lay near the scene of peril1 he steered across the bay1 and landed at the foot of the mountain4 ,the next morning1 while pursuing his investigations1 regardless of the remonstrances of his friends1 he was suffocated by the noxious vapors of the volcano4 ,his body was discovered three days later1 entirely uninjured1 and in an attitude of repose4 ,c4 ,plinius ,ccilius ,secundus1 nephew of the preceding1 is generally distinguished as ,pliny the ,younger4 ,under the care of his uncle he made such rapid progress in literature1 that he was generally accounted one of the most learned men of his age4 ,he began his career as an orator at the early age of nineteen4 ,after filling the high offices of qustor1 consul and augur1 ,pliny was appointed by ,trajan governor of ,bithynia4 ,it was from this country that he wrote his celebrated letter in favor of the ,christians4 ,it is interesting and important1 as showing the progress of ,christianity1 and bearing testimony to the purity of life which was the distinguishing mark of its professors4 ,pliny has left a collection of letters in ten books4 ,they are addressed to some of the most celebrated persons of the time1 and are valuable and interesting for the information they convey with regard to public events1 and the manners and habits of his contemporaries4 ,the style of these letters is studied1 and they have none of the ease and familiarity of friendly correspondence4 ,it seems probable that they were intended rather for posterity1 than for the persons to whom they were ostensibly addressed4 ,,procopius4 ,one of the most celebrated historians of the ,eastern ,empire4 ,he flourished during the reigns of ,justin the ,elder and ,justinian1 and accompanied ,belisarius as secretary on his military expeditions4 ,,simonides4 ,this poet excelled particularly in elegiac verse4 ,when the most distinguished poets of ,greece wrote verses in honor of those who fell at ,marathon1 the elegy of ,simonides took the prize1 although schylus was one of the competitors4 ,the compositions of the great tragedian were deficient in the tenderness and pathos for which ,simonides was particularly distinguished4 ,the lament of ,dana1 and a few scattered fragments1 are all that remain of his verses1 but these are sufficient to prove that his reputation in this respect was well deserved4 ,simonides brought the epigram to all the perfection of which it was capable4 ,the most celebrated of his epitaphs is the monumental inscription composed for the ,spartans who died at ,thermopyl3 ,stranger1 tell the ,lacedmonians that we lie here in obedience to their laws4 ,simonides was held in high esteem at the court of ,hiero1 king of ,syracuse4 ,this prince having inquired of him concerning the nature of ,god1 the poet requested a day to deliberate on the subject4 ,when ,hiero repeated his question on the morrow1 he asked for two days4 ,as he continued in this manner1 doubling the number of days1 the king required an explanation4 ,simonides replied that he postponed his answer1 because1 the longer he meditated on the subject1 the more obscure it became1 and the more he felt his inability to treat it in an adequate manner4 ,simonides was the master of ,pindar2 he lived to a very advanced age1 so that he became the contemporary of the ,pisistratid and of ,pausanias1 king of ,sparta4 ,this poet is accused of having become mercenary in his old age1 and ,greek writers speak of him as the first who wrote verses for money4 ,in this connection1 we have a story which would show that the poet was not believed to have forfeited the favor of the gods by his avarice4 ,while residing at the court of ,scopas1 king of ,thessaly1 he was engaged by that prince to compose a poem in his honor for an approaching banquet4 ,whether ,simonides found the exploits of ,scopas too barren a subject for his muse1 or that his piety led him to introduce higher themes1 we do not know2 but when the verses were recited before the assembled court1 the praises of ,castor and ,pollux were mingled largely with those of his royal patron4 ,a mortal might have been content to share his honors with the divine pair2 but ,scopas grudged every line which did not celebrate his own fame4 ,when ,simonides approached to receive his reward1 the king gave him half the appointed sum1 saying1 that was for his part2 for what related to ,castor and ,pollux1 they would no doubt bestow a generous recompense4 ,the disconcerted poet returned to his place amid the jeers and laughter of the guests4 ,in a little while1 a slave brought him word that two young men on horseback were at the gate1 and desired earnestly to speak with him4 ,simonides went out1 but found no one2 while he was looking to see which way the strangers had gone1 the roof of the palace fell with a terrible crash1 burying ,scopas and his guests beneath the ruins4 ,on being informed of the appearance of the young men who had sent for him--of their snow white steeds and shining armor1 he knew that it was indeed ,castor and ,pollux who had acknowledged1 in this manner1 the homage of his verse4 ,,sophocles4 ,was the second in order of time of the great tragic poets of ,greece4 ,in true dramatic excellence1 he is generally considered the first4 ,the poet was only sixteen when he was selected to lead the chorus of ,athenian youths who celebrated with lyre and song the erection of the trophy in honor of the victory at ,salamis4 ,in his twenty-fifth year1 he carried off the tragic prize from schylus4 ,he gained the same triumph over other competitors1 taking the first prize on twenty-four different occasions4 ,irreproachable in private life1 distinguished for his skill in every manly exercise1 and a rare excellence in the arts of poetry and music1 ,sophocles was considered by his admiring countrymen as an especial favorite of the gods4 ,the remark of the ancient sage that no man is to be accounted happy before he dies1 was verified in the case of this great poet4 ,if the morning of his life was bright in the lustre of national glory and personal renown1 the evening was clouded by the misfortunes of his country1 and domestic unhappiness4 ,sophocles served with courage1 but without gaining much distinction1 in the ,peloponnesian war1 and was a witness of the miseries which that fatal struggle brought upon ,greece4 ,he died in the year #dje1 ,b4 ,c41 a few months before the defeat of gos-potamos completed the misfortunes of ,athens4 ,he was deeply lamented by the ,athenians1 who seem to forget the calamities of the time in their grief at the loss of so illustrious a citizen4 ,sophocles wrote one hundred and thirty dramas1 of which seven remain4 ,of these1 the ,oedipus ,tyrannus and the ,antigone are the most admired4 ,,strabo4 ,a celebrated geographer1 born at ,amaseia1 in ,pontus1 about the year #bd1 ,b4 ,c4 ,he spent many years in travelling1 at first for his own gratification1 and in the pursuit of knowledge1 but afterwards by the order of ,augustus4 ,he was already advanced in life when he compiled his great work on geography4 ,it is divided into seventeen books1 and contains much valuable and interesting information with regard to the manners and customs of the nations he had visited4 ,little was known at that time of the extent and form of earth4 ,strabo imagined that the entire habitable portion was included between two meridians1 one of which passed through the island of ,ierne1 7,ireland17 and the other through ,ceylon4 ,,titicaca4 ,a lake in ,bolivia1 celebrated for the ruins of ,tiahuanico on its shores4 ,they stand on an eminence which1 from the water-marks surrounding it1 seems to have been formerly an island in the lake4 ,so great a change has taken place1 that the level of the lake is now #ace feet lower1 and its shores #ab miles distant4 ,these ruins are believed to be the most ancient on the ,american continent4 ,the ,peruvians knew nothing of their origin1 but had a vague tradition that they were built by giants in a single night4 ,they regarded them1 therefore1 with superstitious awe1 and connected them1 as we have seen1 with the fables of their mythology4 ,these ruins1 like some in the the ,old ,world1 are often called cyclopean1 on account of the size of the blocks of stone used in their construction4 ,there are still remaining1 monolithic pillars1 statues and doorways1 sculptured in a style entirely different from that observed on any other ,american monuments4 ,we may form some idea of the size of the blocks used1 from the measurement of one doorway1 which is #aj ft4 high1 and #ac ft4 broad1 with an opening1 #f ft4 #d inches1 by #c ft4 #b inches1 the whole being cut from a single stone4 ,some of the buildings appear to have been of pyramidal form1 and to have covered several acres4 ,of the people who executed such stupendous works1 we know absolutely nothing1 except that they preceded the ,peruvians1 and were farther advanced in the arts of civilized life than any nation existing on the continent at the time of its discovery4 ,,varro4 ,a ,latin writer1 celebrated for his extensive learning4 ,he is said to have composed five hundred volumes1 all of which are now lost1 with the exception of two treatises2 one on agriculture1 the other on the ,latin language4 ,the latter is dedicated to ,cicero1 an intimate friend of the author4 ,the life of ,varro was eventful3 he was favored by ,julius ,csar1 proscribed by ,antony1 and passed his later years in literary ease under the protection of ,augustus4 ,speaking of ,varro1 ,st4 ,augustine says1 that it is an equal subject of wonder1 how one who read such a number of books1 could find time to compose so many volumes2 and how he who composed so many volumes1 could have found leisure to peruse such a variety of books4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,acestes1 #agc4 ,achab1 #bad4 ,achilles1 #eh1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aff1 #ih4 ,acoetes1 #db4 ,acrisius1 #aca ,admetus1 #ca4 ,adonis1 #ec1 #baf4 ,adrastus1 #afh4 acus1 #ajb4 geus1 #aba1 #abb4 gisthus1 #aec1 #afd4 neas1 #aga4 neid1 #adh4 olus1 #fg4 schylus1 #agj1 #aii1 #bjb1 #bia4 sculapius1 #cj1 #ahh4 son1 #aai4 etes1 #abj4 ,agamedes1 #ahd4 ,agamemnon1 #aeb4 ,agathocles1 #bad4 ,ages of the ,world1 #ah4 ,agenor1 #bf4 ,aglaia1 #ec4 ,ajax1 #ada1 #aeg4 ,ahriman1 #bah4 ,alcestis1 #ca4 ,alcithoe1 #da4 ,alcibiades1 #ch1 #aic4 ,alcmena1 #aad4 ,alecto1 #aja4 ,alexander1 #ahg1 #aic4 ,alfheim1 #beb4 ,alpheus1 #ia4 ,althea1 #adj4 ,amazons1 #ace4 ,ambarvalia1 #gi4 ,amphion1 #hh1 #abh4 ,amphitrite1 #ic4 ,anchises1 #aga1 #agd4 ,andromache1 #afg1 #agb4 ,andromeda1 #acb4 ,antigone1 #afi4 ,antilochus1 #eh4 ,apelles1 #aac1 #aic4 ,apis1 ,serapis1 #bji1 #baj4 ,apollo1 ,phoebus1 #agf1 #bf1 #bi1 #cj1 #cc1 #bei1 #ahd1 #ahb1 #aeb4 ,arachne1 #dg4 ,arcas1 #dd4 ,arethusa1 #ia4 ,argonauts1 #abj4 ,argus1 #cg4 ,ariadne1 #abb4 ,arion1 #abf4 ,ascalaphus1 #gf4 ,ascanius1 #aga4 ,asgard1 #bda4 ,astaroth1 ,astarte1 #baf4 ,aske1 #bdj4 ,astra1 #hj4 ,astyanax1 #afg4 ,atalanta1 #eb1 #ada4 ,attalus1 #gc4 ,athamas1 #ig1 #aai4 ,atlas1 #cf1 #abi4 ,atropos1 #aja4 ,audax1 ,ap4 ,cl41 #ga4 ,augurs1 #agh4 ,aurora1 ,eos1 #ef4 ,avatars1 #bbb4 ,avernus1 #ajj4 ,aztecs1 #bgd4 ,b4 ,baal1 ,bel1 #bac1 #beh4 ,bacchanalia1 #dj4 ,bacchantes1 #da4 ,bacchus1 #cb1 #ci1 #abb1 #abf1 #ahf4 ,bakoo1 #bai4 ,baldur1 #bdh4 ,bards1 #bfj4 ,belides1 #ajd4 ,bellerophon1 #ajd1 #acg4 ,bellona1 #ce4 ,belus1 #bac4 ,belvidere1 ,apollo1 #bjh4 ,bifrost1 #bda4 ,bona ,dea1 #gc4 ,bonzes1 #bcb4 ,bragi1 #bde4 ,brahma1 #bba4 ,brennus1 #hd4 ,briareus1 #ajc4 ,buddha1 #bbf4 ,c4 ,cacus1 #fe4 ,cadmus1 #bf4 ,caduceus1 #cf4 ,cculus1 #fe4 ,csar1 ,augustus1 #fc1 #adg1 #adi4 ,csar1 ,julius1 #beh1 #bib4 ,calchas1 #aeb1 #aec1 #afg4 ,calliope1 #hb1 #abe4 ,callista1 #dd4 ,calypso1 #aei4 ,cambyses1 #ei1 #ahg4 ,camul1 #bfj4 ,carnac1 #bgb4 ,cassandra1 #aeb1 #agb4 ,cassiopeia1 #acb4 ,castalian fount1 #ahi4 ,castes1 #bbe4 ,cecrops1 #df4 ,castor1 #abc1 #ada4 ,celeus1 #gh4 ,centaurs1 #ajd4 ,cephalus1 #ef4 ,cepheus1 #acb4 ,cerberus1 #aja1 #aaf4 ,ceres1 ,demeter1 #ag1 #ge1 #gf1 #adc4 ,cestus1 #ej4 ,ceyx1 #ach4 ,charon1 #ajj4 ,charybdis1 #aeh4 ,chimra1 #ajd1 #acd4 ,chione1 #hh4 ,chiron1 #aad4 ,cholula1 #bhj4 ,cicero1 #adh1 #bic4 ,cinyras1 #ec4 ,circe1 #if4 ,claudia1 #gc4 ,cleomenes1 #bjh4 ,clio1 #hb4 ,clotho1 #aja4 ,clymene1 #cc1 #abc4 ,clytemnestra1 #aec1 #afd4 ,coeneus1 #eb4 ,confucius1 #bbh-i4 ,consualia1 #id4 ,constantine1 #ahd1 #hf4 ,corcyreans1 #aha4 ,coricancha1 #bhg4 ,corybantes1 ,galli1 #gc4 ,creon1 #afi4 ,creusa1 #abj4 ,croesus1 #ahc4 ,cromlechs1 #bga4 ,cupid1 #ej4 ,cuzco1 #bhg4 ,cyane1 #gf4 ,cybele1 #gb4 ,cyclops1 #cj1 #fe4 ,cynisca1 #aic4 ,cyparissus1 #cj4 ,d4 ,ddalus1 #acg4 ,dagon1 #bag4 ,dana1 #aca4 ,danaus1 #ajd4 ,daphne1 #cc4 ,deianira1 #aag4 ,delos1 #ed4 ,delphi1 #aha4 ,demosthenes1 #aha1 #bie4 ,deucalion1 #acf4 ,diana1 #bi1 #hg1 #ia1 #aeb4 ,dictys1 #acb4 ,dido1 #agb4 ,diodorus1 #aha1 #bei1 #bie4 ,diomedes1 #df1 #aaf4 ,dindymus1 ,mt41 #gb4 ,dionysius1 #bc1 #aid4 ,dodona1 #ahj4 ,dolmens1 #bgb4 ,domitian1 #gj4 ,druids1 #beh1 #bfa4 ,druidesses1 #bfd4 ,dryades1 #ij1 #adc4 ,e4 ,echo1 #ia4 ,eclogues1 #adg1 #agh4 ,eddas1 #bci4 ,electra1 #afd4 ,eleusinian ,mysteries1 #gg4 ,elves1 #bej1 #bea1 #beb4 ,elysium1 #agd1 #ajd4 ,embla1 #bda4 ,ephesus1 ,temple of1 #hi4 ,epidaurus1 #ahh4 ,epimetheus1 #abd4 ,erato1 #hb4 ,erigone1 #ha4 ,erisichthon1 #adc-d4 ,erostratus1 #hi4 ,esus1 #beh4 ,eteocles1 #afh4 ,eumenides1 #ajb4 ,euphrosyne1 #ec4 ,euripides1 #agj1 #aic1 #bie4 ,europa1 #bf4 ,euryale1 #aca4 ,eurydice1 #abe4 ,eurystheus1 #aad4 ,euterpe1 #hb4 ,f4 ,fates1 #aja1 #adj4 ,fauns1 #he4 ,fenris1 #bdg-h1 #bee4 ,flora1 #ib4 ,fo1 #bcc4 ,frey1 #bdd4 ,freya1 #bdd4 ,frigga1 #bdh1 #bdi4 ,frost ,giants1 #bdj1 #bdi4 ,furies1 #aja1 #bja4 ,g4 ,games1 ,classic1 #aia4 ,ganymede1 #dc4 ,georgics1 #adh4 ,genghis1 ,kan1 #bcg4 ,germanicus1 #baa4 ,geryon1 #ajd1 #aaf4 ,giants1 #bji4 ,gnomes1 #bdd1 #beb4 ,gorgons1 #dg1 #acb4 ,graces1 #ec4 ,gradivus1 ,mars1 #ce4 ,guatama1 #bbf4 ,guebers or ,guebres1 #bbj4 ,h4 ,hadrian1 #ahi4 ,hmon1 #ajf4 ,halcyone1 #ach4 ,halcyons1 #aci4 ,hamadryades1 #ij4 ,harpies1 #ajd4 ,harpocrates1 #bab4 ,hebe1 #aah4 ,hecate1 #hg4 ,hector1 #aed1 #aff4 ,hecuba1 #aee4 ,heimdall1 #bde4 ,hela1 #bde1 #bdh1 #bei4 ,helen1 #eb1 #aee4 ,helenus1 #agb4 ,helicon1 ,mt41 #dh1 #adf4 ,hell1 #ajj4 ,helle1 #aai4 ,hercules1 #ca1 #gg1 #aad1 #aia1 #aib1 #aie4 ,hermione1 #aff4 ,hermod1 #bdi4 ,herodotus1 #ahg1 #aid1 #bif4 ,hesiod1 #adf1 #hc4 ,hesperides1 #aaf1 #acj4 ,hinnom1 #bae4 ,hippocrene1 #dh4 ,hippolytus1 #cj4 ,hippomenes1 #eb4 ,hodur1 #bdf4 ,homer1 #ade4 ,huitzilopotchli1 #bge4 ,hyacinthus1 #cj4 ,hyades1 #dj1 #acj4 ,hyperboreans1 #ahb1 #bei4 ,hyperion1 #aeh4 ,i4 ,iapetus1 #abc4 ,ibycus1 #bjb4 ,icarus1 #acg1 #aef4 ,ida1 ,mt41 #ea1 #bd1 #aga4 ,iduna1 #bde4 ,iliad1 #adf4 ,inachus1 #ch4 ,incas1 #bhe4 ,ino1 #ig1 #aai4 ,io1 #ch1 #bji4 ,iole1 #aag4 ,iona1 #bgj4 ,iphigenia1 #eb1 #afe4 ,iphitus1 #aia1 #aib4 ,iris1 #dc4 ,isis1 #ch1 #baj4 ,isthmian ,games1 #aif4 ,ixion1 #ajc4 ,iulus1 #age4 ,j4 ,janus1 #ag1 #fa1 #fc4 ,jason1 #aai1 #ada4 ,jobates1 #acd4 ,jocasta1 #ajf4 ,jotunheim1 #bda1 #bdc4 ,juggernaut1 #bbd4 ,juno1 #be1 #ch1 #ci1 #dc1 #ea1 #aad1 #age4 ,jupiter1 #ag1 #ai1 #bc1 #aca1 #aei4 ,jupiter ,ammon1 #ahf4 ,justin1 7,saint17 #agh1 #bif4 ,juvenal1 #baj1 #bab1 #big4 ,k4 ,kalki1 #bbc4 ,krishna1 #bbc4 ,l4 ,labyrinth1 #aba1 #acg4 ,lachesis1 #aja4 ,laius1 #afg4 ,lama1 ,grand1 #bce-g4 ,laomedon1 #eg4 ,lao-tze1 #bbh-bca4 ,lara1 #ajh4 ,lares1 #ajh4 ,latinus1 #agd4 ,latona1 #bi1 #ed4 ,lavinia1 #agd4 ,leda1 #abc4 ,lemnos1 #fd4 ,lethe1 #aja1 #ajd4 ,leucothea1 #ih4 ,loki1 #bdg-bej1 #bdc1 #bea1 #bef4 ,lotus-eaters1 #aeh4 ,lupercus1 #hd4 ,luxor1 #ei4 ,lycaon1 #bh4 ,lycomedes1 #aec4 ,m4 ,mcenas1 #adg1 #big4 ,maia1 #cf4 ,mama ,oello ,huaco1 #bhe4 ,manco-,capac1 #bhe4 ,mania1 #ajh4 ,marathon1 #ha4 ,mars1 ,ares1 #cd4 ,marsyas1 #ca4 ,medea1 #aai4 ,medusa1 #dg1 #id4 ,megra1 #aja4 ,megalesia1 #gc4 ,meganira1 #gh4 ,meleager1 #adj4 ,melicertes1 #ig1 #aif4 ,melpomene1 #hb4 ,memnon1 #eh4 ,menelaus1 #eb4 ,menhirs1 #bga4 ,mentor1 #adf4 ,mercury1 ,hermes1 #cf1 #cg4 ,mestra1 #add4 ,metamorphoses1 #aej4 ,metempsychoses1 #bbc4 ,mezentius1 #age4 ,midas1 #ca4 ,midgard serpent1 #bdg4 ,minerva1 ,pallas ,athena1 #bg1 #de1 #ea1 #hh1 #aff4 ,minos1 #ajb1 #aba1 #adb1 #acg4 ,minotaur1 #aba4 ,mistletoe1 rite of the1 #bfb4 ,mnemosyne1 #hb4 ,moloch1 #bad4 ,momus1 #fg4 ,mona1 #bgj4 ,montezuma1 #bhc4 ,muses1 #dh1 #hb4 ,n4 ,naiades1 #ij4 ,narcissus1 #ib4 ,nemesis1 #ha4 ,neptune1 #ag1 #bd1 #ed1 #fh1 #ic1 #add4 ,nereides1 #ij4 ,nero1 #ahd-ij1 #abg4 ,nessus1 #aag4 ,nestor1 #ada4 ,niffleheim1 #bda1 #bdf4 ,niobe1 #hh1 #abh4 ,nisus1 #adb4 ,norns1 #bda4 ,numa1 #fc1 #aaj4 ,nymphs1 #ij4 ,o4 ,oannes1 #bag4 ,odin1 #bdj-b1 #bde-f4 ,odyssey1 #adf1 #aeg4 ,oceanus1 #hg4 ,oceanides1 #hg1 #ij4 ,oedipus1 #afg1 #ajf4 ,oeneus1 #adj4 ,olympiads1 #aib4 ,olympic ,games1 #aia4 ,olympus1 ,mt41 #ah4 ,ops1 ,rhea1 #bd4 ,oracles1 #ahj4 ,oreades1 #ij4 ,orestes1 #afd4 ,orion1 #aca4 ,ormuzd1 ,ormasdes1 #bai4 ,orpheus1 #if1 #abe4 ,osiris1 #ch1 #bji4 ,ouisneach1 #bfh4 ,ovid1 #adh4 ,p4 ,pachacamac1 #bhd4 ,palamedes1 #aeg4 ,pales1 #ib4 ,palmon1 #ih4 ,palladium1 #df1 #aeg4 ,pan1 #ca1 #hd1 #ahd4 ,pandora1 #abd4 ,pariahs1 #bbe4 ,paris1 #ea4 ,parnassus1 ,mt41 #aha1 #ahi1 #acf4 ,parthenon1 #bjg4 ,parsees1 #bbj4 ,patroclus1 #aed4 ,pausanias1 #ahd4 ,pegasus1 #dh1 #ace4 ,pelasgi1 #aha1 #bfc1 #bii4 ,peleus1 #ea1 #ih1 #ada1 #aec4 ,pelops1 #ajc4 ,penates1 #ajh1 #aga4 ,penelope1 #aef1 #afj4 ,pentheus1 #da4 ,perdix1 #acg4 ,periander1 #abf4 ,pericles1 #bjd4 ,perseus1 #dg1 #id1 #abi4 ,peru1 #bhd4 ,petasus1 #cf4 ,phton1 #cc4 ,phacia1 #afj4 ,phoenix1 #ajg4 ,phidias1 #ha1 #bjf4 ,philip1 #aic4 ,philoctetes1 #aah4 ,philomelus1 #ahd4 ,phineus1 #acc4 ,phorcus or ,proteus1 #id4 ,phryxus1 #aai4 ,pierides1 #hc4 ,pleiades1 #acj4 ,pliny1 #aci1 #bii4 ,pluto1 #bd1 #gf1 #ii4 ,plutus1 #ajj4 ,pollux1 #abc1 #ada4 ,polydectes1 #acb4 ,polybus1 #afh4 ,polydorus1 #aee4 ,polyhymnia1 #hc4 ,polyidus1 #ace4 ,polymnestor1 #aee4 ,polynices1 #afh4 ,polyphemus1 #fe4 ,polyxena1 #aee4 ,pomona1 #ib4 ,pou-tou1 #bcd4 ,priests1 ,aztec1 #bgh4 ,priestesses1 ,aztec1 #bgi4 ,priam1 #ea1 #aed4 ,procris1 #ef4 ,procopius1 #bfi1 #cjb4 ,proetus1 #acg4 ,prometheus1 #ih1 #abc4 ,proserpine1 ,persephone1 #ca1 #gf1 #ajj4 ,proteus1 #ie4 ,pulcher1 ,cl41 #agi4 ,pylades1 #afd4 ,pyrrha1 #acf4 ,pythia1 #afe1 #aha4 ,pythian ,games1 #aie4 ,python1 #bi1 #aie4 ,q4 ,quetzalcoatl1 #bge4 ,quirinus1 ,mars1 #cd4 ,r4 ,ragnarok1 #bed4 ,raymi1 #bhi4 ,rhadamanthus1 #ajb4 ,runic ,letters1 #beh1 #bfc4 ,s4 ,salii1 #ce4 ,salmoneus1 #ajd4 ,samhain1 #bff4 ,smund ,sigfsson1 #bci4 ,santa ,sophia1 #ij4 ,saturnalia1 #fb4 ,saturn1 #ag1 #bd1 #fa4 ,satyrs1 #he4 ,scylla1 #if1 #adb4 ,semele1 #ci4 ,sibyls1 #agf4 ,sibyl1 ,cuman1 #agc1 #agf4 ,sifa1 #bdc4 ,siguna1 #beb4 ,silenus1 #cb1 #dj4 ,sirens1 #ie4 ,sisyphus1 #ajc1 #acd4 ,siva1 #bbb4 ,skalds1 #bci4 ,solymi1 #ace4 ,sophocles1 #agj1 #cjd4 ,sphinx1 #aje4 ,statues1 #bjf4 ,stonehenge1 #bei1 #bgb4 ,strabo1 #cjf4 ,strophius1 #afd4 ,styx1 #cc1 #aja4 ,sudras1 #bbd4 ,sylla1 #aeh1 #ahd1 #ahi4 ,syrinx1 #he4 ,t4 ,tantalus1 #hh1 #ajc4 ,tao-sse1 #bbi4 ,tara1 #bfh4 ,tarann1 #bfj4 ,tarquin1 #hf1 #agg4 ,tauric festival1 #beh1 #bfg4 ,telamon1 #ada4 ,telemachus1 #aeg1 #afa4 ,terminus1 #he4 ,tezcatlipoca1 #bha4 ,terpsichore1 #hb4 ,teutates1 #bei1 #bff4 ,thalia1 #ec1 #hc4 ,thammuz1 #baf4 ,thamyris1 #hc4 ,theatres1 #aig4 ,themis1 #hj4 ,theseus1 #aba1 #ada4 ,thetis1 #ih1 #aec4 ,thor1 #bdb-d4 ,thoth1 #bei4 ,thrym1 #bdb-c4 ,tisiphone1 #aja4 ,titan1 #bd4 ,tithonus1 #eg4 ,titicaca1 #bhe1 #cjf4 ,tityus1 #ajc4 ,tlaloc1 #bha4 ,toltecs1 #bgd4 ,triads1 #bei4 ,triptolemus1 #gh4 ,tristia1 #adi4 ,triton1 #id4 ,trophonius1 #ahd4 ,tse-tse1 #bca4 ,tuisco1 #bef4 ,turnus1 #age4 ,typhon1 #ajb1 #bji4 ,u4 ,ulysses1 #df1 #aed1 #aef1 #if4 ,urania1 #hc4 ,v4 ,valhalla1 #bdb4 ,valkyrior1 #bdg4 ,varro1 #agf1 #cjg4 ,ve1 #bdj4 ,vedas1 #bba4 ,venus1 #di1 #ea1 #ec1 #fe1 #aga4 ,vertumnus1 #hf4 ,vesta1 #fi4 ,vestal ,virgins1 #gj4 ,vidar1 #bdf4 ,vili1 #bdj4 ,viracocha1 #bhd4 ,virgil1 #adg4 ,virgins of the ,sun1 #bij-a4 ,virginia1 #aaa4 ,virtues personified1 #aaj4 ,vishnu1 #bbb4 ,vulcan1 ,hephstus1 #ai1 #fd1 #fh1 #aed4 ,vulcania1 #fe4 ,vyasa1 #bba4 ,x4 ,xerxes1 #ahc4 ,y4 ,ymir1 #bdj4 ,z4 ,zend-avesta1 #bah4 ,zenodorus1 #bfj4 ,zoroaster1 #bah4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,a number of the page numbers in the index are incorrect1 generally only being out by a single page2 as such1 they have been preserved as printed4 ,archaic and variable spelling is preserved as printed4 ,some names include acute accents to indicate pronounciation4 ,the positioning of these accents has been made consistent where there was a variation in a few instances4 ,however1 other occurrences of the same name may not include the accent4 ,these have been preserved as printed4 ,minor punctuation errors1 e4g4 omitted periods1 have been corrected4 ,hyphenation and accent usage have been made consistent where there was a prevalence of one form over another4 ,page #bgj contains the following paragraph3 ,the superstitious observances which are still practised on ,november1 or ,all ,hallow ,eve1 in ,ireland1 ,scotland1 and some parts of ,england1 are of pagan origin1 and seem to be relics of this festival4 ,there seems to be a specific day missing from the reference to ,november1 presumably 'first1' although ,all ,hallow ,eve is generally regarded as being ,october #cast1 with ,november #ast being ,all ,hallow1 or ,all ,saints ,day4 ,as it is uncertain what precisely the author was referencing1 the text is preserved as printed4 ,the following amendments have been made to give consistency in the table of contents or index with the main text3 ,page #g--;,coeculus amended to ,cculus--444 ,cacus--,cculus 444 ,page #g--,megalecia amended to ,megalesia--444 ,festival of ,megalesia 444 ,page #aa--;,ashtaroth amended to ,astaroth--444 ,astaroth or ,astarte 444 ,page #ac--;,bealtime amended to ,beal-,tinne--444 ,beltane or ,beal-,tinne 444 ,page #ac--,tetzcatlipoca amended to ,tezcatlipoca--444 ,victims offered annually to ,tezcatlipoca 444 ,page #cji--;,ashtaroth amended to ,astaroth--,astaroth1 ,astarte1 #baf4 ,page #cji--;,athropos amended to ,atropos--,atropos1 #aja4 ,page #cac--,megalecia amended to ,megalesia--,megalesia1 #gc4 ,page #cac--;,athen amended to ,athena--,minerva1 ,pallas ,athena1 #bg1 444 ,page #cae--,vyassa amended to ,vyasa--,vyasa1 #bba4 ,the following typographic errors have been corrected3 ,page #ca--presumptious amended to presumptuous--,the god was not content with defeating the presumptuous musician1 444 ,page #dj--personfication amended to personification--,he seems to be the personification of drunkenness2 444 ,page #dj--where amended to were--,what feasts were held in his honor8 ,page #df--;determed amended to determined--444 they determined1 therefore1 to steal the ,palladium4 ,page #dg--;because amended to ,because--,ans4 ,because this bird sees in the dark2 444 ,page #fd--were amended to where--444 where he manufactured ,jupiter's thunderbolts1 444 ,page #fg--;be- amended to before--444 he was enabled to foretell storms a long time before they happened2 444 ,page #ia--refuse amended to refused--444 but refused to listen to his addresses4 ,page #ia--repeated 'a' deleted--444 and was immediately dissolved into a fountain4 ,page #ih--shipwreek amended to shipwreck--,he was supposed to have power in saving vessels from shipwreck1 444 ,page #ajf--;,hman amended to ,hmon--,at length ,hmon1 son of ,creon1 444 ,page #bjc--;,iybcus amended to ,ibycus--444 the fate of ,ibycus being still on every tongue4 ,page #bac--of amended to or--,where was the ,sun worshipped under the name of ,baal or ,bel 444 ,page #bfj--;excuted amended to executed--444 executed a statue of ,teutates 444 ,page #bga--;ef amended to of--444 extensive groups of menhirs occur1 444 ,page #bhj--mearsures amended to measures--,it measures #agf feet in perpendicular height1 444 ,page #cjb--repect amended to respect--444 to prove that his reputation in this respect was well deserved4 ,the following amendments were made to the index3 ,page #cab--there were two entries for ,iphitus 7one referencing p4 #aib and incorrectly located before the entry for ,ino74 ,the two have been merged into a single entry in the correct place4 ,page #cab--;,japetus amended to ,iapetus1 and entry moved to correct place in index--,iapetus1 #abc4 ,page #cab--,lucothea amended to ,leucothea--,leucothea1 #ih4 ,page #cae--page reference for ,virgins of the ,sun entry added--,virgins of the ,sun1 #bij-a4