by ,case ,western ,reserve ,university ,preservation ,department ,digital ,library7 ,,relations ,,of ,,science ,,and ,,religion4 ,uniform with this ,volume4 ,i4 ,,nature ,,and ,,the ,,bible4 ,a ,course of ,lectures on the ,morse ,foundation of the ,union ,theological ,seminary1 by ,j4 ,w4 ,,dawson1 ,,ll4,d4 #abmo4 #a4ge4 ,professor ,dawson discusses his topic from the various standpoints of a student of nature1 not from the single standpoint which has mostly been occupied by theologians ,the book is not a partisan publication4 ,it will be found by those opposed to be perfectly candid and fair1 admitting difficulties in their full force1 and not seeking to evade1 misinterpret1 or exaggerate any fact or argument--,interior4 ,,ii4 ,,christianity ,,and ,,positivism4 ,a ,series of ,lectures to the ,times on ,natural ,theology and ,apologetics4 ,by ,,james ,,mccosh1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,president of ,princeton ,college4 #abmo4 #a4ge4 ,this book grapples directly with the vital questions4 ,every reader must admire its fairness ,it is all the better adapted to popular reading from having been written to be delivered to an audience4 ,indeed1 the thinking is generally so clear1 and the style so animated and luminous1 that any person of average intelligence and culture may understand and enjoy the discussion and no such person who has begun to read the work will be likely to rest satisfied till he has finished it4 ,it is in some parts eloquent and beautiful1 and is throughout forcible and effective for its end4 ,would that thousands of the young people of our country1 and of all classes whose faith may be in peril1 might read it with the attention it deserves ,independent4 ,,iii4 ,,christianity ,,and ,,science4 ,a ,series of ,lectures4 ,by ,rev4 ,a4 ,p4 ,,peabody1 ,d4,d41 of ,harvard ,college4 #a4ge4 ,one of the best books we have read in a long time1--a manly1 candid1 noble1 reasonable defence of the ,christian faith4 ,we do not see how any thoughtful person can read it in vain4 ,dr ,peabody plants himself fairly on the very postulates of scientific men1 and proceeds to show how all that they claim for true science is fulfilled in the religion of ,jesus--,illustrated ,christian ,weekly4 ,,robert ,,carter ,,and ,,brothers4 ,illustration3 ,,nerve ,,cells #a ,,multipolar #b ,,bipolar #c ,,unipolar #d ,,cell ,,with ,,ramification4 ,,nucleus ,,or ,,life ,,centre ,,is ,,marked ,,in ,,each ,illustration3 ,,nerve ,,fibres #a ,,section1 ,,showing ,,nerve ,,sheath ,,cut ,,and ,,nerve ,,line ,,projecting #b ,,bundle ,,of ,,nerves ,,split ,,up ,,into ,,filaments #c ,,combination ,,of ,,nerves #d ,,nerve ,,loops #e ,,sensory ,,corpuscles ,,on ,,the ,,nerve ,,fibres ,,the ,,relations ,,of ,,science ,,and ,,religion4 ,the ,morse ,lecture1 #ahhj1 ,,connected ,,with ,,the ,,union ,,theological ,,seminary1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,by ,,henry ,,calderwood1 ,,ll4,d41 ,,professor ,,of ,,moral ,,philosophy1 ,,university ,,of ,,edinburgh1 ,,author ,,of ,,relations ,,of ,,mind ,,and ,,brain1 ,,etc4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,robert ,,carter ,,brothers1 #ecj ,,broadway4 #ahha4 ,copyright1 #ahha1 ,,by ,,robert ,,carter ,,brothers4 ,,cambridge3 ,,press ,,of ,,john ,,wilson ,,and ,,son4 ,,st4 ,,johnland ,,stereotype ,,foundry ,,suffolk ,,co41 ,n4 ,y4 ,,extract ,,from ,,the ,,deed ,,of ,,trust1 ,,establishing ,,the ,,morse ,,lectureship4 ,the general subject of the ,lectures1 ,i desire to be3 ,the relation of the ,bible to any of the ,sciences1 as ,geography1 ,geology1 ,history1 and ,ethnology1 the vindication of the inspiration and authenticity of the ,bible1 against attacks made on scientific grounds1 and the relation of the facts and truths contained in the ,word of ,god1 to the principles1 methods and aims of any of the ,sciences4 ,upon one or more of these topics a course of ten public ,lectures shall be given at least once in two or three years1 by a ,lecturer1 ordinarily to be chosen two years in advance of the time for delivering of the ,lectures4 ,the appointment of the ,lecturer shall be by the concurrent action of the ,founder of the ,lectureship1 during his life1 the ,board of ,directors1 and the faculty of said ,seminary4 ,the funds shall be securely invested1 and the interest of the same shall be devoted to the payment of the ,lecturer1 and to the publication of the ,lectures within a year after the delivery of the same4 ,the copyright of the ,lectures shall be vested in the ,seminary4 7,signed7 ,,samuel ,f4 ,b4 ,,morse4 ,,preface4 ,the aim of the present volume is to indicate the measure of harmony traceable between recent advances in science1 and the fundamental characteristics of religious thought1 and the extent to which harmony is possible4 ,this attempt has been made in the hope of contributing towards a better understanding of the relative positions of scientists and theologians1 thereby aiding the formation of public opinion on questions appearing to involve serious antagonism4 ,the plan followed is to bring under review the great fields of scientific inquiry1 advancing from unorganized existence to ,man2 to present the most recent results of research in these separate fields1 without extending to minute details2 as far as possible1 to allow scientific observers to state results in their own words2 and then to examine carefully the reasonings deduced from ascertained facts1 and the bearing of facts and inferences on religious thought4 ,the general result is that marked modifications of thought concerning the structure and order of the universe have arisen on account of scientific discoveries1 to be accepted by theologians1 as by all thinkers2 that the bearing of these modifications on religious conceptions has been greatly mistaken by many scientific observers2 and that it must be held clear by scientists and theologians alike1 that while scientific methods are reliable within their own spheres1 science can bear no testimony1 and can offer no criticism1 as to the supernatural1 inasmuch as science is only an explanation of ascertained facts by recognition of natural law4 ,in accordance with this last statement1 it is maintained1 that science does not reach1 far less deal with1 the problem concerning the origin of ,nature1 the solution of which can be found only by transcending ,nature1 that is1 by recognizing the supernatural4 ,in the course followed ,i believe the purpose of the eminent ,physicist who founded the lecture1 has been rigidly kept in view4 ,i desire here to express to the ,president and ,professors of ,union ,theological ,seminary1 my sense of their great kindness while ,i delivered the course of lectures in ,new ,york1 and specially for so arranging as to allow of including the full course within eight lectures1--a form which has been retained in publication4 ,i have also to express my thanks for the kind manner in which these lectures were received in ,edinburgh1 where1 with the exception of the two first1 the course was1 by request1 redelivered4 ,h4 ,c4 ,,university ,,of ,,edinburgh1 ,january #cast1 #ahha ,,contents4 ,,lecture ,i4 ,,conditions ,,of ,,the ,,inquiry4 ,advantages resulting from recent advances in physical science -- ,advance does not unsettle the whole mass of conviction -- ,religion and science agree in seeking a rational basis1 and both present a body of harmonized conceptions -- ,diversity of view is to be expected in both spheres -- ,needless anxiety as to alleged conflict between science and religion -- ,the first requisite is to trace the boundaries of the two departments of thought -- ,description of religion1 natural and revealed -- ,description of science1 its method and sphere -- ,common starting ground for both -- ,each supplies inducement for seeking a harmony #i ,,lecture ,,ii4 ,,experience ,,gathered ,,from ,,past ,,conflicts4 ,value of the lessons from past failures -- ,discussions as to spontaneous generation -- ,range of experiments and mode of conducting them -- ,difficulties in excluding germinal forms1 and in determining the temperature at which their destruction was ensured -- ,hopefulness awakened by earlier investigations -- ,acknowledged failure as the result of more rigid tests -- ,conclusions of ,pasteur1 ,roberts1 ,tyndall -- ,close of the discussion as maintained by ,bastian -- ,dr4 ,draper's ,history of the ,conflict between ,religion and ,science -- ,objections to the plan of the book -- ,misleading representations of conflict -- ,alleged scriptural view of the nature of the world1 incapable of vindication -- ,the ,bible not a book of science1 but a revelation of the way of deliverance for sinful man #dc ,,lecture ,,iii4 ,,inorganic ,,elements ,,in ,,the ,,universe4 ,two forms of existence to be recognized -- ,matter and ,energy -- ,distinction of the two -- ,tait on energy -- ,,matter -- ,its indestructibility and uncreatability by any process at the command of man -- ,the atomic theory as related to the divisibility and compressibility of matter -- ,scientific belief1 as analogous to theologic -- ,,energy -- ,perpetual change in form and distribution of materials -- ,position1 motion1 and force -- ,transmutation or conversion of energy -- ,conservation of ,energy -- ,deterioration and dissipation of energy -- ,heat as a form of motion -- ,results of scientific research are such as to support religious thought concerning the origin of the world -- ,the changeable can not be the eternal -- ,science here reaches its ultimatum as to the structure of the world1 and gives all the support possible to the reality of the supernatural #hb ,,lecture ,,iv4 ,,organized ,,existence4 ,,life ,,and ,,its ,,development4 ,the new problem -- ,origin of life1 relation of the organized to the unorganized -- ,origin of species -- ,darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection -- ,characteristics of life -- ,the prominent features of ,mr4 ,darwin's theory -- ,power of adaptability to environment inherent in organism -- ,history of the steps by which the author was led to the adoption of his theory -- ,wallace's ,contributions -- ,darwin's acknowledgment that science does not favor the belief that living creatures are produced from inorganic matter -- ,admission of creation of life -- ,favorable impression made by the theory -- ,common ancestry of allied species -- ,rejection of fixedness of species -- ,difficulties which beset the theory -- ,all change does not indicate progress -- ,difficulty connected with the early stages of evolution -- ,persistence of species #aai ,,lecture ,v4 ,,relations ,,of ,,lower ,,and ,,higher ,,organisms4 ,fertilization of flowering plants -- ,relation of pollen to the seed vessels -- ,need for transference of pollen -- ,means to prevent self-fertilization -- ,relation between animal life and vegetable -- ,search for honey by bees and other insects -- ,bearing the pollen to distant flowers -- ,distribution of work among insects and birds -- ,evidence of adaptation -- ,interdependence of lower and higher organisms -- ,,ants -- ,their exclusion from certain flowers -- ,their work1 perseverance1 intelligence1 slave-holding1 extracting honey from other insects1 constructing bridges #afb ,,lecture ,,vi4 ,,higher ,,organisms2 -- ,,resemblances ,,and ,,contrasts4 ,sensibility and motor activity characteristic of animal life -- ,both uniformly provided for by identical arrangements of nerve system -- ,two distinct lines of nerve fibre combined in a nerve centre -- ,structure of nerve fibre -- ,isolation -- ,combination -- ,brain structure -- ,white matter1 and grey -- ,subdivisions of the organ -- ,complexity of brain structure according to complexity of organism -- ,brain in insects1 fishes1 reptiles1 smaller quadrupeds1 larger quadrupeds1 monkeys1 apes1 man -- ,close resemblance of the brain of the ape to the human brain -- ,researches as to brain function by means of electric excitation of the organ -- ,fritsch and ,hitzig -- ,ferrier -- ,identification of sensory and of motor centres -- ,silence of front and back regions -- ,confirmatory evidence from brain diseases #bjd ,,lecture ,,vii4 ,,man',s ,,place ,,in ,,the ,,world4 ,human organism modelled on the same plan as lower organisms -- ,prevailing opinion opposes an attempt to refer all human activity to organism -- ,religious thought not directly involved -- ,science must include the study of human life -- ,science by discovery of the structure and functions of the nerve system has explained many phases of action formerly regarded as voluntary -- ,the contrast remains between muscular action and human conduct -- ,acquired aptitudes -- ,intellectual superiority -- ,hckel's suggestion of mind cells -- ,adverse evidence -- ,nerve cells1 varied sizes1 the largest found in the spinal canal1 as well as in the brain -- ,government of human conduct -- ,man's application of a higher law -- ,benevolence1 as an illustration -- ,contrast with struggle for existence -- ,man's ideal law1 constituting the ought in human conduct #bci ,,lecture ,,viii4 ,,divine ,,interposition ,,for ,,moral ,,government4 ,summary of recent scientific conclusions with which religious thought is to be harmonized -- ,religious conceptions as to divine interposition1 in their relation to fixed law -- ,,miracle -- ,its place as evidence for the ,messiahship of ,jesus ,christ -- ,credibility of miracles -- ,our ,saviour's miracles -- ,their benevolent purpose as bearing on their evidential value -- ,how related to the laws of nature -- ,incapable of explanation by these laws -- ,they do not conflict with these laws in any intelligible sense -- ,meaning of the old formula1 a violation of the laws of nature -- ,importance of the scientific position that violation of natural law is inconsistent with our knowledge of the government of the world -- ,method and result in miracle-working1 as related to natural law -- ,explanation of the antagonism of scientific thought to the conception of miracle -- ,,prayer -- ,how its answer stands related to natural law -- ,the cruder thoughts concerning the province of prayer -- ,all law1 fixed law1 whether physical1 intellectual1 or moral -- ,these laws a harmony -- ,it is in recognition of this1 with subordination of physical to moral1 that the spirit of prayer lives -- ,fixed law is concerned with varying conditions1 and with varying results -- ,interpretation of fixed law -- ,dependence of physical results on moral action -- ,that there are two spheres is no help out of difficulty -- ,nothing in scientific teaching to warrant denial of the doctrine that ,god interposes for moral ends -- ,warrant for prayer rests on a divine promise1 involving moral conditions -- ,to ask evidence of its answer1 irrespective of these conditions1 is to seek evidence in neglect of that which is essential for the result -- ,the answer of prayer must be in all cases more an evidence of divine righteousness than it is of divine power #bge ,,appendix4 ,i4 ,relations of ,science and ,religion #cac ,,ii4 ,spontaneous ,generation #cac ,,iii4 ,energy and ,force #cad ,,iv4 ,all ,organized ,existence is ,constructed on a ,common ,plan #cad ,v4 ,embryology #caf ,,vi4 ,non-advancement of ,lower ,orders #cai ,,vii4 ,protoplasm #cai ,,viii4 ,number of ,species of ,insects #cbj ,,ix4 ,fertilization of ,flowers by ,insects #cbj ,x4 ,ants #cbj ,,xi4 ,likeness of the ,ape's ,brain to the ,human ,brain #cba ,,xii4 ,the ,large ,sized or ,multipolar ,cells #cbb ,,xiii4 ,the ,conception of ,duty #cbc ,,relations ,,of ,,science ,,and ,,religion4 ,,lecture ,i4 ,,conditions ,,of ,,the ,,inquiry4 ,among the many advantages enjoyed by the present generation1 one of the most conspicuous is that arising from the large advance made in physical science4 ,the high value of this is apparent from whatever standpoint it is regarded4 ,the vastly wider range of knowledge1 the increase of appliances for inquiry1 the greater facilities for work of all kinds1 the freer intercommunion of all the divisions of our race1 and the greater altitude from which the whole realm of existence can be contemplated2 all these involve an immense gain for the present century4 ,with these advantages1 however1 there comes the difficulty of using them aright1 a difficulty which we may expect to be greater when we are dealing with wider and more general aspects of existence1 than when we are concerned with more restricted ranges of knowledge4 ,it may be a much easier thing to state precisely how recent advances have affected a particular branch of science1 such as astronomy or geology1 than to say how they bear upon the general conception of the universe4 ,yet1 while the latter is the more difficult question1 it is that with which men generally must be more concerned4 ,only a very limited number of men can belong to the ranks of specialists devoted to a single branch of science4 ,all men1 specialists as well as others1 are concerned with the wider question as to the true conception of the universe1 and the bearing it has on human life and destiny4 ,it is impossible to imagine that marked advance can be made in any of the sciences1 without its having some bearing on the more general problem in which all men are practically interested4 ,each specialist perceives this more or less clearly as he is working out the result of complicated observations or calculations4 ,the public mind may be said rather to feel that some modification of common belief is taking place1 while there is great uncertainty as to the actual change4 ,what gives a sense of security to the general conviction of educated men is that all increase of knowledge is clear gain1 and that all advance is secured on familiar and well-tried lines4 ,progress is transition1 and in a sense unsettling2 but it is also accumulation1 and thus in a more enduring sense1 consolidating4 ,fresh observation in some one department of research does not overthrow all that was credited previously4 ,it extends the area of knowledge1 or carries us into a more minute acquaintance with particulars1 and only in a restricted way modifies accepted positions1 by introducing relations formerly unrecognized4 ,thus1 progress in a particular science does not unsettle scientific belief4 ,in a manner exactly analogous1 because resting on the same intellectual conditions1 the combined advance of the whole order of sciences does not unsettle the mass of conviction belonging to instructed and ordinarily reflective men4 ,it must1 indeed1 modify the form of general conviction1 as it quickens intellectual interest1 for the public mind receives1 not reluctantly but gladly1 additional results gathered under carefully tested scientific methods4 ,this is nothing more than saying1 that love of truth1 and submission to the laws of evidence1 are characteristic of all disciplined intelligence4 ,scientific inquirers are the trained instructors of the race1 and others receive what they communicate1 with true sense of its abiding worth4 ,at the same time1 such inquirers work from an intellectual basis which is common to all1 finding application in all fields of activity4 ,upon that basis all men lean as they shape and regulate their life1 finding themselves involved in disaster1 or confirmed in a wise course1 according as they are partial or thorough in their adherence to the conditions of rational life4 ,as the mass of human interests can not be isolated from the results discovered in the path of advancing science2 so neither can any form of inquiry be separated from the conditions which are common to all intellectual life1 including even the least cultivated4 ,so it happens that the race as a whole has a clear share in all the products of science1 such as it has not in the products of industry4 ,rational conditions provide for a community of interest in intellectual work and results1 greater than can be approached by all the value of material production4 ,these few general and very obvious considerations bring us into direct line with the relations of religion and science4 ,religion has a rational basis1 as the condition of its practical worth4 ,it takes its start from that common intellectual basis1 which affords to science its essential conditions4 ,religion and science are exactly alike in these respects1 that both present a body of harmonized conceptions1 a clearly defined circle of intelligible statements1 and both have a definite bearing on human action4 ,their practical value depends upon conformity with the common requirements of intelligence1 and harmony with recognized fact4 ,i place this declaration in the foreground of the present discussion1 not only as a clear avowal of the footing on which religion presents its claims to acceptance1 but more especially as a distinct and broad acknowledgment that the whole range of tests afforded by the entire circle of the sciences is legitimately applied to religion1 and is to be deliberately met4 ,the object of the present course of lectures is to consider the relations of science to the ,christian religion1 as authoritatively revealed in the ,bible1 and as understood and accepted by those who profess themselves ,christians1 in grateful acknowledgment of what the ,scriptures declare4 ,the relations now to be dealt with are those subsisting between religion as presented in the ,bible1 7which is in the hands of all1 to be examined and dealt with by scientific inquirers71 and science as presented to us in the present day1 for the acceptance of all4 ,the claim to universal acceptance found here on both sides1 is that which gives special interest and true logical importance to the problem4 ,christianity professes to discover a religion to be accepted of all men1 and a practice to be observed by all3 science professes to give an account of the state of things around us in the world1 to be accepted by all1 and acknowledged in practice if men would adapt themselves to the natural conditions of their life4 ,this claim to universal acceptance is not affected on either side by the fact that diversities of interpretation and application emerge among the upholders of ,christianity1 and the expounders of science4 ,such diversities are well known to exist in both spheres of thought4 ,it needs to be recognized at all times1 and prominently stated in such a discussion as the present1 that under the conditions determining the attainment of knowledge1 there must be diversity of opinion4 ,indeed1 the wider the area of acquired truth1 the more extensive becomes the field of possible differences1 both in respect of what is involved under conclusions already reached1 and of what may transcend the boundaries of present knowledge4 ,it is1 therefore1 no marvel that there is large diversity of opinion among scientific men1 on many problems arising out of universally accepted positions4 ,it is only by the same necessity that there is diversity of opinion on matters of religion4 ,the materials of study are set before us in the mass1 and our knowledge is to be obtained by the slow processes of intellectual procedure1 in accordance with which some things become clear1 while many more remain obscure4 ,whether we are dealing with book knowledge1 or with knowledge obtained by direct observation of existing things1 does not affect this matter4 ,the intellectual conditions are the same in both cases1 and it is from exactly the same intellectual source that inevitable conflict of opinion arises4 ,the simple and obvious truth is that there can be no field of human inquiry in which diversity of opinion can be avoided1 for two reasons1 that all knowledge possessed by us is incomplete1 and active intelligence can not rest in the incomplete4 ,neither science nor theology can afford to dispense with hypothesis1 that is conjecture1 and where conjecture is1 there is a wide region for devious wandering4 ,conjecture means inquiry into the unknown1 and this is essential to intellectual life1 equally necessary for science and religion1 and accordingly diversity of opinion is inevitable in the history of both1 as in the history of all forms of human activity4 ,in every region of human knowledge there is a realm of the certain1 and another of the uncertain1 and accordingly there is diversity of opinion and conviction4 ,occasionally1 in controversial writing1 it is suggested that there is greater diversity of view in matters religious1 than in matters scientific2 and it is implied that such diversity is a reasonable ground of reproach4 ,both allegations are at fault1 and the error arises from want of observation1 involving imperfect acquaintance with the facts4 ,religion as it is concerned with the life of man himself1 and is the subject of interest to all1 has not only its common positions generally recognized1 but also many of its phases of conflicting thought4 ,science1 as it is beyond the range of the great majority as a subject of personal research1 and within reach of only a limited number as a subject even of book knowledge1 has its questions of conflict concealed to some extent from the public view4 ,but1 even moderate acquaintance with science makes us aware of the fact that there is conflict of opinion in every region of inquiry4 ,indeed it should be alien to the reflective observer1 to marvel at the discovery of diversity of thought in any region1 or to make its existence a ground for adverse criticism4 ,commonly accepted conclusions must afford the basis for competent criticism1 whatever be the field of inquiry brought under review2 diversity of opinion beyond and around these1 must be accepted as the uniform attendant of human knowledge1 indicating at once the provision for intellectual progress and the inducement to it4 ,thus1 on grounds indisputable from a scientific basis1 we escape the need for vindicating religion from the charge of having its claims to rational homage weakened1 by the diversity of opinion found within the boundaries of religious thought4 ,such diversity is in strict accordance with familiar facts connected with every branch of science4 ,whatever may be said of the strong and paradoxical1 because one-sided1 utterance of ,lessing1,a it must be manifest that in all directions we are of necessity searchers after truth1 and it is in such circumstances an intellectual weakness to object to the reliability of generally accepted conclusions1 because they become starting-points for many lines of conflicting speculation4 ,in religious thought1 as in scientific1 there are on all hands the marks of the unfinished2 and the varieties of opinion associated with generally accepted conviction only afford needful evidence of healthy intellectual activity4 ,as we daily hear much of the conflict between science and religion1 and as it is one part of the purpose of the present course to deal with what is loudly proclaimed to be a serious feature in modern thought1 it becomes needful to clear the ground considerably1 with the view of discovering where the alleged conflict is1 and what form it assumes4 ,in this1 as in many conflicts1 there is much more din and tumult1 than damage4 ,we shall by and by hear much less of conflict than we are hearing at present4 ,meanwhile1 however1 the work is considerable which needs to be done in clearing the field1 tracing boundaries1 and disclosing the exact position of parties4 ,in the ruder warfare of nations1 this clearing work is undertaken by the combatants themselves1 and if not accomplished by preliminary measures1 it is at length achieved by the actual events of the struggle4 ,but in this case1 it may be done quietly enough by non-combatants1 while it may contribute largely to the restricting of the conflict1 and the establishment of peace4 ,this ,i desire to attempt1 in the hope that some service may be rendered both to the scientific1 and non-scientific1 by contributing towards a general understanding of the actual position of affairs4 ,a quiet survey of events occurring during the last twenty-five years or so1 which have influenced the relations of science and religion1 may suffice to convince us that there has been on both sides needless planting of batteries1 and pouring forth of shot4 ,in many cases1 the shot has only sunk into sand banks with no other result than heavy expenditure2 in other cases1 it has only shattered timber defences which were going at any rate1 and soon to be abandoned4 ,the worst result has been that the whole district around has been thrown into trouble under fear of disastrous results4 ,this description must be held to apply to outbreaks of theological fury1 as well as of scientific4 ,i apprehend that there are few friends of religion conversant with the higher phases of intellectual life during the period to which reference is here made1 who will not grant that scientific theories have been assailed with undue severity1 and quite needless apprehension1 under the influence of religious zeal4 ,on the other hand1 it is equally beyond dispute that there has been in some scientific quarters an eagerness to interpret scientific theories in a manner adverse to theological belief1 and often with undisguised pleasure in the task1 as if some real gain to thought and practical interests were to be secured by injury to religion4 ,the best work on both sides has been done quite apart from these outbreaks of antagonism4 ,but it would be unwise to omit reference to them here1 or to overlook the lesson they convey1 all the more that both sides admit reasonable ground for regret4 ,there has been1 on the one hand1 too great readiness in charging an atheistic conclusion as the logical result of scientific theory2 and1 on the other1 too hasty an assumption that newly recognized facts must prove damaging to ,christian faith4 ,detailed illustration would be in every sense undesirable here1 but outstanding examples will readily occur4 ,take the theory of the ,development of ,species by ,natural ,selection1 to which detailed reference will be made hereafter1 which has a great multitude of facts to favor it1 and at the same time a mass of facts presenting most serious logical difficulties2 it is obvious that even if this theory were accepted in the form in which it is at present propounded1 not only would the rational basis for belief in the ,divine existence and government not be affected by it1 but the demand on a ,sovereign ,intelligence would be intensified4 ,the contrast in the form of the general question may be represented thus3 in the one case1 to account for the origin of varied forms of life entirely distinct and independent2 in the other1 to account for an origin in the simplest germinal form1 or in a few primordial forms1 which shall nevertheless provide for the appearance of all the varieties of species of animal life now known to us4 ,in presenting the latter hypothesis1 science presses into notice a much greater perplexity affecting the origin of the universe1 originating a difficulty towards the solution of which it is altogether unable to offer the slightest contribution4 ,in this single illustration1 there is much to convince theologians and scientific men that each division of thinkers will best fulfil its own part1 and most honor religion and science1 by working unreservedly on data within its own reach1 without apprehension as to ultimate conflict4 ,from the other side1 it is not difficult to find evidence that continued inquiry and reflection have led to the abatement1 if not the actual withdrawal1 of scientific hypotheses which seemed at variance with common belief1 and which might be taken as adverse to religious thought4 ,for example1 as a branch of the inquiry connected with the theory of development of species1 and coming directly upon the position of man in the scale of being1 we had for a time a wonderful amount of observation1 description1 and discussion concerning monkeys and apes4 ,laborious inquiries became provocative of grotesque fancy4 ,in the train of science came the workers who minister to the popular imagination1 and there appeared a whole series of comic pictures1 amusing narratives1 and even musical compositions1 representing monkeys and apes as taking part in human occupations4 ,these have left their testimony to the power of scientific hypothesis in determining the thought and interest of the time during which they find favor4 ,it was demonstrated incontestably that the anatomical structure of the ape was much more like to that of man than the structure of the dog1 or the horse2 and that the brain of the ape was so like in form and arrangement to the human brain1 that it might be represented as a smaller and undeveloped example of the human brain4 ,but when the work of observation and description had been well nigh completed2 when the work of deliberate thinking was commenced with the assurance that the facts were pretty fully and fairly before us1 there came a considerable abatement for the enthusiasm of scientific speculation in the new line of discovery4 ,next came the acknowledgment that even with all the analogies and homologies of structure1 seen and unseen1 there was a vast chasm between the ape and man4 ,forthwith1 the stimulus to comic talent began to die away2 and it must be confessed that the department of anthropology has not been greatly advanced from this new region of observation4 ,these examples may suffice to impress at once upon theologians and scientists1--and upon the public mind also1--the obvious1 but easily forgotten lesson1 that there is need for deliberation before we can clearly decide the exact significance of new scientific discoveries4 ,neither the spirit of religion1 nor the scientific spirit1 disposes inquirers to make haste4 ,there is a basis of certainty1 sufficiently broad and deep to deliver the mind from concern lest intellectual confusion should arise from continued observation and thought4 ,enthusiasm1 acuteness1 patience1 and also boldness of speculation1 are needed in order to widen the range of our knowledge of the mysteries of existence2 but caution is as certainly a necessary feature in the gathering of appliances which must lie at the command of theologians and also of scientific observers4 ,in fact1 there is at every fresh advance in science1 much thinking to be done1 after observation and exposition have accomplished their part1 and this thinking can not be quickly done4 ,towards a clear marking out of the boundaries of science and religion1 it is needful that some definition or description of both be attempted4 ,it is easy to be religious without sharply marking off for one's self the exact boundaries of religion2 and equally easy to be scientific1 without exactly laying down the limits of science4 ,but any intelligent view of the relations of the two is not to be had without carefully marking off the territory which they respectively occupy4 ,science at least should seek for itself a scientific boundary1 and though this is not always easily found1 it is essential for keeping up friendly relations with neighboring states4 ,in view1 therefore1 of the requirements of the present subject1 something must here be done in the way of definition1 or at least1 description1 delicate and difficult as is the task4 ,the object of these lectures is1 to vindicate the place of the ,christian religion within the region of human intelligence1 to show its rational harmony with science1 and to promote active co-operation between the two4 ,and this is to be done for the ,christian religion in view of all the advantages1 and of all the alleged disadvantages too1 of what has been reproachfully named a book religion1 which assuredly it is1 just as all science must become book science1 if it is to become a living and abiding intellectual power among men4 ,for all reliable knowledge must be formulated1 must take a definite orderly shape1 if it is to find a place and dominion4 ,in the history of intelligent being in this world1 religion first of all met this requirement1 and subjected itself to this test1 adapting itself also to successive ages1 and submitting itself to their criticism4 ,science owns a like intellectual necessity1 and has had to write and rewrite1 to correct and expand1 in order that the book-science might be the true science of the day4 ,whatever be the nature of the truth received by man1 its statement is greatly enhanced in value when it has been reduced to written form1 suitable not only for being passed from hand to hand1 but for being pondered with all deliberation4 ,while1 however1 it is a great advantage to ,christianity that it can be described as the religion of the ,bible1--and it is to ,christianity that reference is directly made here when religion is named1--there is in religion as in science that which comes before the written form4 ,observation and reflection are natural avenues to religion1 as well as to science4 ,the ,bible appeals to the intelligence of man for its acceptance1 subjecting to rational test not only its evidence but also its teaching4 ,its uniform demand is that men put its teaching to proof4 ,it thus presupposes a natural religion as the prerequisite for special revelation of the supernatural4 ,the full breadth of the argument in exposition and defence of ,christianity is seen only by starting from this position1 that all religion1 whatever its form1 rests on a rational basis4 ,and its correlative is this1 irreligion is the irrational4 ,the vindication of the ,christian religion thus implies at its basis the defence of religious thought and feeling in whatever associations they may be found4 ,for though it is true that the ,christian religion may be said to war against all religions besides1 seeking to supplant them1 in order to become the universal religion1 it does so only on the footing that religious thought and feeling wherever found have a genuine intellectual value1 which must work towards deliverance from what is immoral and what is inconsistent in tradition4 ,if it be here remarked that science also tends to the destruction of the traditional beliefs belonging to many of the religions of the world1 it may thereby appear that science becomes a fellow-worker with ,christianity in a process of demolition required in the interests equally of intelligence1 morality1 and religion4 ,but whatever may be said of this destructive process as one in which ,christianity performs a conspicuous part1 the religion of ,jesus recognizes a voice in the works of creation speaking to the hearts of men1 in all lands1 insomuch that there is no speech nor language where their voice is not heard4 ,religious belief is thus recognized as a natural possession1 and reverence for the ,most ,high as following by rational sequence4 ,when therefore we offer a defence of the ,christian faith and practice1 we necessarily undertake some defence of the varied manifestations of natural religion presenting themselves in the world's history4 ,we are not precluded from assigning value to the loftier and purer thought of ancient civilization testifying against the gods many and lords many of the popular religion2 nor do we refuse to make acknowledgment of those ruder and baser examples of religious observance appearing among tribes of uncivilized men in modern times4 ,in defending religion1 we are upholding the lofty conceptions of the ,greek philosopher1 who said that ,god is not the author of evil1 but of good only2 who declared that ,god is one and the same1 immutably fixed in his own proper nature1 and that ,god and his attributes are absolutely perfect4,b ,on the other hand1 we can not escape the serious entanglement found among heathen idolatries1 for even while such idolatries are utterly condemned1 we are ready to maintain that the most irrational idolatries have more of reason in them than the life which has been emptied of religious faith and exercise4 ,in view of the wide range of natural religion1 and the defence of it here implied1 we may define religion1 as the recognition of a ,sovereign ,intelligence originating and governing all dependent being1 with the homage due from intelligent beings to the ,sovereign ,intelligence4 ,this is the definition which will include all natural religion1 and present the ground of its defence in view of scientific suggestions and perplexities4 ,but taking the ,christian religion as the crown and centre of religious life in the world1 we have a more full and commanding testimony as to the glory of the divine nature1 and the genuine exercises of a religious life4 ,he is ,god creating and sustaining all1 ruling in righteousness1 revealing himself in ,jesus ,christ1 whose glory is the glory as of the only begotten of the ,father full of grace and truth4 ,he is a ,god seeking the reconciliation of the guilty with himself4 ,he is a ,god of mercy1 calling all intelligent creatures to fellowship with him1 and requiring them all to be holy even as he is holy4 ,such is a summary of the teaching of ,scripture as to the ,divine ,being1 and our relation to him4 ,thus are we guided in our utterance before him1 ,o ,lord of hosts1 ,god of ,israel1 that dwellest between the cherubim1 thou art the ,god1 even thou alone1 of all the kingdoms of the earth3 thou hast made heaven and earth 7,isa4 xxxvii4 #af74 ,i content myself with a mere summary2 for a full knowledge we must take the ,bible itself1 knowledge of which must be presumed as the condition of criticism1 though criticism has been abundant which has borne witness to ignorance of the revelation criticised1--ignorance so marked that had it applied to science it would have been held a proof of incompetence for criticism4 ,we are now to take the ,bible representation of ,god1 and of his relation to us2 and on the other hand of man's faith in him1 and spiritual devotion and service4 ,these are the materials to be harmonized with the teachings of science1 by demonstrating that the testimony of science points to a government of the universe harmonizing with the testimony of ,scripture4 ,and here it is needful that there be explicitness1 that our thesis may be placed beyond doubt4 ,the purpose is not merely to show that science lays no foundation for denial of a ,supreme ,intelligence1 or for an atheistic conception of the universe2 nor merely that it affords no place for belief in ,deity without knowledge of his nature1 for utterance of an empty name1 without intelligible content1 or an agnosticism1 which affects to celebrate the praises of ,ignorance1 in homage to the name of science2 nor merely an immanent or indwelling ,deity1 who is in all things1 and all things in him1 so that he is the unifying power1 the soul and life of all that is1 including those strange contrasts which we call good and evil2 but passing all these representations as strange and alien to the ,bible1 to show that religion and science find their harmony in recognition of a ,transcendent ,deity1 a personal ,deity1 distinct from the universe1--a personality ruling in righteousness1 and delighting to meet the desires of intelligent beings longing after the perfection of holiness4 ,i can imagine that some devoted students of science are prepared to object to having any share in a discussion which is to include as one of its terms such a purely spiritual conception as this1 involving a spiritual relation1--and having as its practical expression a spiritual life4 ,not a few scientific men may be prepared to say that all this is quite remote from the region with which they are familiar1--that science can hardly be said to come into contact with such a spiritual region of inquiry4 ,and ,i grant that there is reason for urging such a consideration4 ,science can not occupy the place of religion1 any more than religion can occupy the place of science4 ,but if there be any on that account feeling themselves precluded from entering on the discussion1 they do thereby proclaim themselves disqualified for making any affirmation as to conflict between the two courses of thought and interest4 ,the logical fairness of this argument admits of no challenge4 ,either scientists must refrain from assertions of conflict1--or they must take the declarations of the ,bible1 and prove their antagonism to the teachings of science1 recognized as belonging to a different sphere of inquiry4 ,as well propose to criticise the conclusions of astronomy in disregard of spectrum analysis1 as propose to criticise the intellectual worth of religion in neglect of its spiritual significance4 ,i next pass over to inquire what ,science is1 taking its own testimony concerning its province and purpose1 as ,i have taken the testimony of religion4 ,science has for its sphere or province the whole field of outward observation2 and has for its purpose the explanation of facts within this field1 either by means of direct observations as to the relations of things1 or by logical inference from such observations4 ,this field of study is full of interest1 and practically inexhaustible4 ,the trustworthiness of the method admits of no doubt1 whether we consider direct observation1 or guarded and careful inference from things observed4 ,to trust our powers of observation1 and to rely on our reasoning faculty1 are the fundamental conditions of all knowledge4 ,through these avenues religious knowledge must come1 as well as scientific4 ,the risk of conflict is thus excluded here4 ,nor will any one dispute the inherent value of scientific knowledge4,c ,least of all could such a challenge come from a religious basis1 for the book of nature is to the religious mind the revelation of ,god in its own place and form1 just as the ,bible is in a different and higher form4 ,the reverence belonging to religion will not derogate from the dignity of science4 ,the natural and genuine tendency of religious thought must be to exalt science1 in its proper sense1 as a verified explanation of the facts of existence4 ,a contrary tendency can arise only in one of two ways1 either when religion is driven back on the defensive on account of scientific theory assuming an attitude of antagonism2 or when religious thought has been contracted into narrow and hardened form1 such as to encourage isolation from regions of investigation personally disliked4 ,in the one case1 dishonor is reflected on scientific thinking1 in the other1 dishonor is cast on religious thought4 ,these considerations will indicate the true intellectual spirit in which we should face the question concerning the relations of religion and science4 ,to our rational nature1 every thing which is entitled to rank as genuine knowledge must be matter of interest2 and reliance on common means of acquiring knowledge1 must involve confidence in the unity of all truth1 and the possibility of demonstrating such unity1 if only it be possible for us to penetrate deep enough1 and extend our researches wide enough1--a confidence which will not be sacrificed even when the actual unity waits discovery4 ,as each one of the planets diffuses its own share of light1 and all combine to constitute the solar system1 so each science must be a centre of knowledge1 and all combined must constitute a system of truth4 ,this being granted on purely intellectual grounds1 our concluding point is connected with competency to enter upon critical inquiry as to the harmony of religion and science4 ,what has been said as to knowledge of the ,bible as a prerequisite for the discussion of our problem1 must equally hold as to science4 ,one thing1 however1 needs to be fairly stated and deliberately allowed2 the possibility of intelligent and adequate criticism does not imply full acquaintance with scientific methods1 and personal ability to test the results of their application4 ,most of us must be content to take our scientific knowledge on trust1 as ,chaucer did1 when he declined to enter upon the intricacies of astronomical study1 because he was too old for making satisfactory progress4,d ,to accept scientific conclusions without personal verification is simply inevitable4 ,when scientific men themselves have come to a general agreement1 and are not any longer in conflict on a particular conclusion1 this must be enough for the great majority of intelligent inquirers4 ,there is not1 in this1 absolute security for accuracy1 but neither is there such security in the circumstances for scientific men themselves1 and there can be no reasonable ground for hesitancy or complaint1 either on our part or on theirs1 if we are ready to accept general agreement as sufficient testimony for the time4 ,it would be utterly impracticable and unreasoning to insist that we can not intelligently accept the conclusions of astronomy unless we are able to go through the mathematical processes2 or the main facts of human physiology unless we have verified each position by personal investigation into the structure of the organs1 and the conditions of functional activity4 ,conjectures find from an intelligent public no higher acknowledgment than is due to conjecture1 simply because those who have devoted themselves to research in the department concerned are not agreed in attributing to them any higher significance4 ,on the other hand1 conclusions are accepted as true1 however much they may be at variance with previously existing conviction1 when the great majority of scientific inquirers have admitted the observations to be undoubted or the reasonings conclusive4 ,this is the only conceivable test4 ,it is that which scientific thinkers must themselves recognize as the rule of credence in all departments of investigation lying beyond their own familiar field of study2 and it is that which is naturally accepted by the whole body of non-scientific readers and thinkers interested in the advance of knowledge4 ,all practiced theologians1 and all upholders of religion on the ground of intelligent warrant for belief and practice1 only take the ground of common intelligence when they accept implicitly the conclusions reached by scientific procedure4 ,whatever then may be the evidence of conflict between science and religion1 and whatever the difficulties lying in the way of working out reconciliation1 there is clear warrant for claiming common ground from which to start1 and that so ample and secure that it is provided by scientific inquiry itself1 and generally accepted by educated men of all classes4 ,there can be no patchwork contrivance1 made up of what may be taken to be final statements of theological and scientific positions4 ,we do not aim at some agglomeration of materials gathered from opposite quarters and brought together with the design of constructing a compact and durable unity4 ,neither from the side of religion1 nor from that of science1 could such a proposal find countenance4 ,each must work from its own basis1 the one from ,revelation1 the other from ,nature4 ,each must go on its own course of development and active service1 unaided and undeterred by the other4 ,and from age to age in the world's progress it must continue part of the task connected with intelligent existence1 to go from one to the other1 in search of the lines of harmony4 ,from both sides must come an impulse to this search for agreement4 ,from the scientific side1 by an intellectual necessity1 for all intelligent research presses on towards unity in a complete conquest of the region of investigation1 pushing out in distinct lines with full conviction of the harmony of being1 and of conclusions expressing so much of this harmony as has been definitely ascertained4 ,and what is no less certain1 though not so freely admitted1 all investigation as to the laws of existence1 even that which proclaims confidence only in observation1 with inference from what it discloses1 is urging the human mind onward to a higher range of questions as to existence beyond observation1 and the causes of things visible4 ,impotent in the extreme has been the voice of a positive philosophy1 denouncing the search for causes1 sounding its trumpet call to rally all divisions of scientific workers to search exclusively for facts1 as if such workers were but a band of quarrymen1 boring1 blasting1 and gathering up shattered fragments of rock4 ,for facts must science ever search2 with nothing short of ascertained facts can it be satisfied2 but1 having found them1 it must classify and harmonize1 seeking for the laws which regulate their occurrence1 and for the causes by which they may be rationally explained4 ,on the other hand1 from the sphere of religion must ever arise a powerful impulse to seek harmony of conviction with the verified results of scientific research4 ,this may be expected to prove a more urgent and practical necessity than that which operates from within the region of science4 ,the belief in a personal ,deity1 as the source of all dependent existence1 and the controller of all1 leads by a necessity both intellectual and spiritual to a search for order in all things1 and a harmony of the universe4 ,viewed only as an intellectual discipline1--and this is an important though partial view of it1--religion develops what may be described as the intellectual instinct1 craving for knowledge1 with expectation of order and harmony everywhere1 and with prospect of ample reward for patient research4 ,religion1 beginning with the conception of a transcendent ,being1--seeing in finite existence a creation and a cosmos1--gives more powerful stimulus to search for harmony of truth1 than can be said to spring from science4 ,the latter by the necessity of its procedure begins by contracting thought in order to concentrate1 and is apt to encourage its most devoted servants to work on isolated divisions of existence1 relegating to a distant future the greater and more puzzling task of contemplating the harmony of all sciences4 ,it is1 then1 by pressing into view an urgent practical and personal need1 that religion may be said in the history of individual life to contribute the strongest motive power towards such intellectual effort as is concerned with the harmonizing of all truth4 ,this will appear in personal experience according to the intellectual activity of the individual1 under the requirements of his religious life1 and in study of all that belongs to the system of the universe4 ,this being recognized and avowed1 as following from the very nature of religion1 it devolves on the ,church in all its divisions1--the brotherhood of believers1--to manifest a genuine and profound interest in the progress of science1 making felt in the world the full influence of the spirit1 at once scientific and religious1 which seeks to discover and demonstrate the harmony of created existence4 ,,footnotes3 ,a ,if ,god had held all truth in his right hand1 and in his left the ever-living desire for truth1 although with the condition that ,i should remain in error for ever1 and if he should say to me 'choose1' ,i should humbly incline towards his left1 and say1 ',father1 give3 pure truth is for thee alone8'--,wolferbuttel ,fragments4 ,see ,zimmern's ,life of ,lessing1 p4 #cfa4 ,b ,plato's ,republic ,,ii4 #chj1 #cha4 ,c ,see ,appendix ,i4 ,d ',wilt thou learne of sterres ought8' ',nay1 certainly1' quod ,i1 'right naught4' ',and why8' quod he4 ',for ,i am old4' ,,house ,,of ,,fame1 ,b4 ,,ii1 #dhg4 ,,lecture ,,ii4 ,,experience ,,gathered ,,from ,,past ,,conflicts4 ,there have been within quite recent times conflicts as to the relations of science and religion1 which have now lost their living interest4 ,all classes greatly affected by current literature1 and scientific discussion1 whether ranking themselves on the side of religion1 or otherwise1 were deeply moved by them4 ,it appeared at the time1 as if some new position were to be marked off1 destined to affect our whole conception of the government of the universe4 ,the expectation was not verified2 public interest died away2 and preparations for conflict were abandoned1 on account of the unexpected discovery that there was nothing to fight about4 ,it is a wise rule affecting our busy life1 crowded with present-day duties1 that we allow subjects quietly to drop out of view which have lost living interest4 ,but this wise rule is turned to unwise ends1 if it make us forgetful of the lessons of the past4 ,scientific progress consists in the abandonment of untenable positions1 for occupancy of others proved to be more reliable4 ,accordingly the conflict which seems to threaten the interests of religion wears now one aspect and now another1 as determined by the stage of scientific progress which has been reached4 ,but all intellectual progress is an evolution1 bearing at every moment some trace of what has been left behind1 as well as evidence of accretion4 ,a large amount of the experience connected with intellectual life is gathered from events connected with abandoning positions of past interest1 as well as from those associated with what is new4 ,i propose1 therefore1 though within comparatively narrow limits1 to refer to past conflicts1 quite recent1 but practically at an end4 ,the ebb and flow of intellectual interests follow in such rapid succession1 and each is so absorbing during its continuance1 that we readily forget the tangled waste buried from sight under the spring-tide of rising expectation4 ,we easily lose sight of the past1 even though it lie close at hand1 and as we feel the pulse of life beat high in proportion to the vividness and apparent value of our prospects1 we are ever liable to overestimate the importance of the present position1 thus severing ourselves too readily from all that lies behind4 ,there may be reason for cutting down bridges in the rear1 if there be apprehension of cowardice in the ranks2 but where the calmness and courage of resolute progress are found1 there is no need for a yawning chasm behind4 ,it is true1 indeed1 that just beyond some bridges recently crossed1 there lie a good many traces of humiliation4 ,and it is according to the tendency of human nature1 whether religious or anti-religious1 to turn away from that which occasions uneasiness4 ,but there is a moral1 as well as an intellectual demand1 for thoroughness in recognizing the continuity of events4 ,the scientific spirit can not excuse a covering up of past failures1 as the formulating of verified results must imply testimony concerning them4 ,it is of the very nature of religious conviction that we should learn from the failures of the past1 and should advance out of them with higher wisdom4 ,by common consent1 therefore1 we can have no accurate survey of the present situation1 without making account of what has been recently passed1 as well as what may be regarded as pressing upon our notice in these days4 ,we do not need to travel a long way to the rear in order to discover how far astray we may be1 both in expectations and in apprehensions2 how readily we may get into confusion as to the interests involved in exciting controversies2 and how much we need caution1 making allowance for our partial survey of facts1 and our uncertainty as to what may open up4 ,by way of illustration1 ,i shall refer to the history of discussions concerning so-called spontaneous generation1 mixed up with ascertained facts as to protoplasm1 bathybius1 or living slime1 as it has been called1 and bacterium4 ,the question eagerly discussed was whether there might be origin of life1 without development from germ1 seed1 or ovum4 ,the problem was one of those suggestions apt to arise under pressure of new conjectures and theories4 ,while the scientific world was astir on the question of development1 attention was turned for a time towards the possibility of a fresh beginning of organic forms1 life which should be no development1 but should rather seem as an uncaused existence1--spontaneous generation4 ,it might have been urged that the suggestion was contrary to reason2 that inexorable logic1 of which we often hear from scientific observers1 forbade the supposition2 that all the conditions of scientific thought were against it2 that the very conception of spontaneous generation was a logical inconsistency1 alien to the requirements of scientific thought1 as implying uncaused existence2 but we were reminded that we are prohibited from supposing any thing is impossible in the pathway of science1 that observation must be first1 and reason only second1 and accordingly the needful experiments went on under all due precautions4 ,the brief chapter in the history of science which records expectations and results connected with these experiments1 well deserves to be remembered4 ,it is here selected for illustration1 both on account of its inherent importance1 and its relation to the theory of development1 which must afterwards have special attention4 ,some descent is required from ordinary scientific observation to the level where this question is discussed4 ,from the germ-cell1 we pass down to an albuminous substance spread over the ocean-bed1 said to have life1 or we descend to microscopic organisms1 such as bacteria2 and a step lower down still1 we are introduced to the question whether in water passed through the boiling process so as to guard against the presence of germinal forms1 we may not witness the origin of life4 ,the question so raised had additional interest because of the bearing it might have on the first appearance of life in the history of this world4 ,this interest was shared on both sides1 by those who held that creation is a conception not only alien to scientific thought 7which it may well be,e71 but inconsistent with it2 and by those who regarded creation as the only conception adequate to meet rational requirements4 ,the question had at the same time a direct practical interest connected with public health1 on account of its bearing upon the diffusion and vital tenacity of spores or germinal forms capable of spreading contagious disease4,f ,the controversy on this subject was at its height in the years #ahgf1 and #ahgg1 having a large amount of most careful and difficult experiment devoted to it4 ,the result has been a valuable addition to scientific knowledge as to the vitality of germinal forms1 and a quietus to theories as to spontaneous generation4 ,the direct object placed before the scientific mind when the discussion arose was this1--to ascertain whether an origin of vital activity could be observed in the midst of materials from which all germinal forms of life were certainly excluded4 ,the selection of materials to experiment upon was for a time according to the fancy of the experimenter4 ,it was not proposed that a vacuum should be made by withdrawal of all air from a glass vessel1 thereafter watching for the appearance of some organic form4 ,nor was it suggested that pure water might be taken from a spring1 and boiled1 and left standing under daily observation4 ,a great variety of materials was selected to provide an infusion which might afford the conditions for application of scientific tests4 ,in this way the following materials were used and tested1 infusion of turnip1 of pounded cheese1 hay1 meat1 fish1 besides egg-albumen1 blood1 and urine4 ,vegetable productions1 animal tissue1 and secretions of the human body closely connected with vital processes1 were thus subjected to test4 ,in the history of investigation1 attention ultimately concentrated on the infusion of hay and on urine4 ,observations were conducted in ,paris and ,london2 results were published from time to time2 singular divergence became apparent in these recorded results2 this led to controversy1 which became so keen1 that the ,academy of ,sciences in ,paris appointed a commission of three to adjudicate upon a challenge given by ,m4 ,pasteur of ,paris to ,dr4 ,bastian of ,london2 which ,commission met in ,paris on #aeth ,july1 #ahgg1 but never adjudicated in the matter4,g ,the perplexities encountered in conducting observations arose chiefly from two causes3 the difficulty of ascertaining the temperature at which living organisms were certainly destroyed1 and the materials sterilized2 and that of guarding against interference with this state when established1 by contact with the atmosphere4 ,the latter perplexity1 involving much care1 skilful manipulation1 and mechanical contrivance1 was at last overcome by the construction of glass tubes1 separating for a time the distinct materials1 with facility for their mixture at the proper moment without contact with the air4 ,the true scientific difficulty1 however1 was determination of a reliable test for destruction of germinal forms1 either adhering to the materials1 embedded in them1 or floating in the atmosphere4 ,the history of observations bearing on this question is deeply interesting4 ,in the earlier tentative experiments1 the material placed under observation was boiled2 it was concluded that no vital organism could endure this process2 and the material was kept for a time in a temperature of from seventy to eighty degrees ,fahr41 which was regarded as favorable to the development of life4 ,in process of time1 a deposit appeared in the tube1 and this when examined under the microscope was found to contain bacteria1,h living1 moving germinal forms so minute as to require high magnifying power for their discovery4 ,here then was spontaneous generation4 ,who could be so credulous as to believe that minute organic forms could live through the boiling process8 ,if this appeared too absurd to fancy1 then spontaneous generation1 or actual origin of life out of non-organized matter1 must be held to be established4 ,it was only the audacity of prejudice1 and hopeless alienation from the advanced thought of the time1 which could induce any one to doubt1 in face of these experiments1 carefully recorded and published4,i ,scientific observers of great experience and reputation felt it needful to express themselves with caution1 leaving results to be tested4 ,a considerable number of investigators began to turn their attention to the subject1 and a period of seven years was occupied before the results became so certain as to be practically final4 ,pasteur1 ,pouchet1 and ,joubert were at work in ,france1 ,crookes1 ,child1 ,beale1 ,roberts1 ,bastian1 ,tyndall and others in ,england4 ,all experiments concentrated upon certainty in sterilizing the substance operated upon4 ,pasteur pointed out that the chemical properties of the infusion affected the vitality of the microscopic germs inclosed in it2 and ,roberts at a later stage confirmed this by independent investigation1 proving that slightly alkaline liquids are more difficult to sterilize by heat than slightly acid liquids4,j ,in this way1 it was shown that distinct records of temperature were needful1 greater intensity of heat being required in some cases than in others1 in order to secure destruction of germs4 ,the facts were illustrated by hay infusion1 the acid infusion invariably remaining barren after a few minutes' boiling1 and the neutralized infusion invariably becoming fertile after a similar boiling4,k ,the neutralizing element was liquor potass1 and the next question started was this1 ,did the liquor potass enable the germs to live longer under the boiling process1 or did its infusion operate so as to originate life where germs no longer had any existence8 ,a contrivance was adopted by which the boiling could be applied to the hay infusion1 while the liquor potass was kept enclosed in another part of the tube1 ready to be added without exposure to the air1 after the boiling process was over4 ,when added in this way1 the liquor potass had not any power to excite germination3 the expectation that a certain mixture of acid and alkali would originate life was disappointed2 all the earlier experiments were discredited4 ,still1 some clung to their expressed belief1 for there is a prejudice of advanced thought1 as there is a prejudice of old beliefs4 ,tenacity of avowed opinion1 with strong love of research1 prolonged the inquiry1 and led to more decided evidence4 ,the controversy was conducted by ,dr4 ,roberts against ,dr4 ,bastian1 while all the experiments of ,professor ,tyndall were converging upon the same conclusions as those reached by ,roberts4,l ,that ,bastian had obtained bacteria after boiling1 admitted of no doubt1 and he naturally clung to this fact as encouraging2 others regarded it as only misleading4 ,bastian maintained that the alkali had a positive power of originating life1 and stated one hundred and twenty-two degrees ,fahr4 as favorable to the appearance of life4 ,roberts took ten examples of sterilized urine1 and twenty-nine examples of fermentible liquids which had remained over from the earlier experiments of #ahgc-gd1 and these thirty-nine examples were subjected to careful experiment and observation4 ,in the first ten cases1 the tube was heated in oil for fifteen minutes up to two hundred and eighty degrees ,fahr42 the ten tubes were then set in a warm place 7from seventy degrees to eighty degrees ,fahr47 for a fortnight2 the contents were transparent2 the alkali was then allowed to mingle with it1 and the tubes were placed in an incubator kept at a temperature of one hundred and fifteen degrees ,fahr42 at the end of two days there was a sediment1 and the liquor was clear2 the tubes were replaced in the incubator1 the temperature being raised to one hundred and twenty-two degrees ,fahr4 as recommended by ,dr4 ,bastian2 there they continued for three days2 they were then withdrawn and placed under the microscope1 but no trace of living organism was found either in the fluid or in the deposit under it4 ,the twenty-nine cases1 including a variety of vegetable and animal preparations were next treated in like manner1 and with like results4 ,tyndall's experiments were reported to the ,royal ,society of ,london at the same time1 with exactly the same result4 ,m4 ,pasteur had previously reported to the ,academy of ,sciences in ,paris to the same effect4 ,it was thus proved by a mass of evidence that if proper precautions were taken to destroy germinal forms1 no mixture of alkali with acid1 whatever the variety of materials selected1 was adequate to produce life4 ,a few months later than the communications of ,roberts and ,tyndall1 that is1 ,may1 #ahgg1 the results of ten years' experiment1 first by ,mr4 ,dallinger himself1 and thereafter by ,mr4 ,dallinger and ,mr4 ,drysdale conjointly1 were communicated to the ,royal ,institution1 ,london1 on the origin and development of minute and lowly life forms4,a ,the purpose of these experiments was to watch the growth of the minutest germs1 capable of being seen only under a powerful microscope1 putting to actual test their tenacity of life4 ,the largest objects were one-thousandth of an inch1 the smallest1 the four-thousandth of an inch4 ,six distinct forms were selected for observation1 and their history was made out4 ,a magnifying power of five thousand degrees was used4 ,in the glairy fluid a monad larger than usual seized on a smaller2 they became fused after swimming about together2 the single object then appeared a motionless spec2 this proved to be a sac1 from which at the close of a period varying from ten to thirty-six hours1 it burst1 and young spores became visible in the fluid1 which were kept under observation till they reached maturity4 ,special interest was connected with these observations not only as illustrating the growth of spores1 or germs2 but as allowing application of the test of heat at different stages of growth4 ,when this test was applied1 it was found that one hundred and forty degrees ,fahr4 was sufficient to cause the death of adults1 whereas the young spores were able to live notwithstanding the application of three hundred degrees ,fahr4 for ten minutes4 ,in this direction fresh discovery was to be made4 ,in ,june #ahgg1--;a month later1--,professor ,tyndall gave the record of further researches4,m ,these presented additional results as to degrees of temperature requisite for destroying microscopic organisms4 ,it had been already shown that alkaline liquids are more difficult to sterilize1 than acid liquids2 it was further shown that the death point was higher in air1 than in water2 for ,professor ,tyndall extended his researches to air1 as well as liquid4 ,first dealing with the fluid form1 he found germs possessed of vitality so singular that five or six hours of boiling did not destroy them1 and in one case eight hours was insufficient for the purpose4 ,in this connection1 he came to the conclusion that some germinal orders were more easily destroyed than others4 ,when dealing with bacteria1 he found that they differed from other forms in this1 that they rose to the air as if it were a requisite1 whereas other germs1 such as those belonging to the process of fermentation1 could exist without oxygen4 ,this led to an additional form of experiment1 with the view of deciding whether bacteria could be destroyed by withdrawal of air2 and if so1 whether the bacteria would reappear after the existing microscopic life had been stifled4 ,tyndall began by applying the air-pump4 ,under this process the bacteria were enfeebled greatly1 but not destroyed4 ,thereafter ,sprengel pumps were used1 by means of which the air dissolved in the infusions was withdrawn1 as well as that diffused in the spaces above4 ,in numerous cases there was success in destroying the germs by removal of the air in this way without any boiling process4 ,in these cases1 the air was carefully restored1 precautions being adopted to guard against admission of germinal forms1 and in no case did life reappear in the infusions4 ,as in the more common style of experiment1 the warmth suitable could not charm the life back again2 so in this1 the restoration of oxygen1 could not secure restoration of life4 ,thus evidence from all sides directed surely to the conclusion that the alleged discovery of spontaneous generation was a delusion1 the result of hasty and insufficient experiment4 ,dr4 ,bastian1 nevertheless1 stuck heroically to his original position1 and came into conflict with ,m4 ,pasteur of ,paris1 by means of a communication which the ,english ,professor had sent to the ,academy of ,sciences in ,july of the previous year1 #ahgf4 ,in the beginning of #ahgg1 ,m4 ,pasteur threw down an explicit challenge to ,professor ,bastian1 which resulted in the appointment of a commission to observe the experiments and adjudicate4 ,with this terminates the history of nearly ten years of curious and singular investigation1 and ,dr4 ,bastian himself has supplied the history of the closing scene1 laying open the whole correspondence to public investigation1 as if he were unconscious of the complete demolition of his favorite theory of spontaneous generation4 ,the #aeth of ,july1 #ahgg1 witnessed the close of a battle he had been fighting against steadily increasing odds1 and which he had begun in ,june1 #ahgj4 ,dr4 ,bastian's position was that a solution of boiled potash caused bacteria to appear in sterile urine at fifty degrees ,cent41 added in a quantity sufficient to neutralize the latter4 ,these he regarded as the physico-chemical conditions for spontaneous generation of bacteria4 ,the challenge from ,m4 ,pasteur was in these terms2--,i defy ,dr4 ,bastian to obtain1 in the presence of competent judges1 the result to which ,i have referred with sterile urine1 on the sole condition that the solution of potash which he employs be pure1 i4 e41 made with pure water and pure potash1 both free from organic matter4 ,if ,dr4 ,bastian wishes to use a solution of impure potash1 ,i freely authorize him to take any in the ,english or any other ,pharmacopoeia1 being diluted or concentrated1 on the sole condition that that solution shall be raised beforehand to one hundred and ten degrees for twenty minutes1 or to one hundred and thirty degrees for five minutes4 ,a ,commission was appointed by the ,academy1 and ,dr4 ,bastian agreed to appear before it1 but only on conditions he laid down greatly restricting the range of inquiry4 ,he ignored the first and most searching form of ,m4 ,pasteur's challenge2 claimed that the adjudication of the ,commission should be only on the second2 and further stated that if the ,commission were to express an opinion upon the interpretation of the fact attested1 and upon its bearings on 'the germ theory of fermentation1' or 'spontaneous generation1' he would respectfully decline to take part in this wider inquiry4 ,the ,commission refused to be restricted to the worst form of the experiment1 and to be bound to withhold an opinion as to its bearing on the question of spontaneous generation4 ,dr4 ,bastian went to ,paris1 but the members of the ,commission declined to deal with less than the challenge given1 and the meeting was never properly constituted4 ,thus ended1 as ,dr4 ,bastian has said1 the proceedings of this remarkable ,commission of the ,french ,academy4 ,the proceedings ended before they had begun4 ,dr4 ,bastian by his restrictions1 surrendered the real question at issue1 and practically acknowledged that he would not submit it to the judgment of the ,commission4 ,he sought only testimony as to his own form of experiment1 which there was then good reason to know was accurate1 because ,m4 ,pasteur had stated a temperature too low1 and a time too short1 but which was at the same time an experiment of no scientific value for establishing spontaneous generation4 ,thus ended a battle which had been protracted long after it was to all observers manifestly lost4 ,the discussion thus narrated may be easily overestimated1 but there seems even more risk that the manifest failure should lead to an oversight of the value of the protracted investigations4 ,these convey lessons of special value to scientific inquirers on the one hand1 and to theologians on the other4 ,they are of great value for illustrative purposes in such a course of lectures as the present1 and that because they provide needful training for intelligent observation of the advance of science4 ,the promulgation of the development theory of species has given a conception of the unity of organic life in the world1 which even in its most modified form has an imposing grandeur4 ,influenced by this1 scientific men are naturally concerned to make out1 if possible1 some connection between inorganic and organic being4 ,to work at this1 is part of the inevitable task of science1 even though the result should be only to establish the helplessness of science in dealing with it4 ,we have chemical and dynamical theories of life which stimulate repetition of experiments1 in the hope that some grand discovery may be made4 ,those just described present a curious illustration4 ,in the circumstances1 we can well understand the persistence with which ,dr4 ,bastian clung to his supposed discovery of the physico-chemical conditions for production of living organism4 ,science finds in these experiments a fresh lesson of the need for caution1 guarding against the hampering influence of popular notions1 as in reference to the probable effects of the boiling process4 ,for if the experiments have proved a failure so far as support to a theory of spontaneous generation is concerned1 they have revealed a tenacity of life belonging to the lowest microscopic organisms1 far beyond higher organic forms1 and the consequent weakness of ordinary human devices in struggling against the development of such germs4 ,these experiments also emphasize the need for attention to the laws of rational procedure1 as well as to skill in experimental observation1 if science is to be exempted from needless toils4 ,theology has here also a lesson of patience1 for it may well leave science to do its own work1 undisturbed by apprehensions as to possible consequences to morality and religion4 ,all that the telescope can reveal1 and the microscope can make known1 through years of experimenting1 we wish to have discovered1 for only thus shall we come to understand the world's lessons of wisdom and power lying far beyond the range of our unaided vision4 ,all the churches of ,christ have reason to hail the extension of scientific knowledge4 ,those who set high account on patient interpretation of the written ,revelation1 have reason to value this laborious reading out of the lessons written in the book of ,nature4 ,a wider and more general result may be expected than that which bears directly on the relations of science and religion4 ,all intelligent readers of scientific discussions will find discipline from pondering these experiments4 ,they illustrate the toil connected with scientific research1 the risks which beset such inquiry1 and the limits of scientific investigations4 ,there lies in these experiments a warning of the constant need for falling back not only on the laws of evidence1 but also on the laws of reason4 ,the mere conception of spontaneous generation1 rigidly interpreted1 were a curiosity1 coming wonderfully near a contradiction of scientific thought itself1 which seeks for causes1 and repudiates uncaused occurrences4 ,there may naturally enough be a discovery of the chemical elements belonging to definite types of organism1 or of the form and measure of energy operating in life4 ,even when surmising that possibly we may by the help of physical principles1 especially that of the dissipation of energy1 sometime attain to a notion of what constitutes life1 mere vitality1 nothing higher1 ,professor ,tait has thought it needful to add1 but let no one imagine that1 should we ever penetrate this mystery1 we shall thereby be enabled to produce1 except from life1 even the lowest form of life4,n ,if it were suggested that physico-chemical elements could originate life1 chemistry would easily supply the ingredients4 ,if it were hinted that reliance might be placed exclusively on the action of air or of heat for producing living organism from inorganic matter1 this were to fall back on the old elemental philosophy of ancient ,greece1 which the thought of ,greece easily repudiated without the aid of experimental science4 ,attention is1 however1 here concentrated on the failure of these experiments meant to establish spontaneous generation1 and in this failure we find illustration of the fact that supposed conflicts between science and religion are often misunderstandings and nothing more1 based on unreliable experiments or unwarranted expectations4 ,one other fact deserves to be recorded and placed in companionship with that just stated1 that some of the alleged conflicts between science and religion are delusively so described1 on account of misunderstanding or misrepresentation of religion4 ,they are fictitious articles1 requiring to be properly branded1 and quietly laid aside4 ,a single illustration may suffice1 taken from ,dr4 ,draper's ,history of the ,conflict between ,religion and ,science1 which is easily accessible1 and reasonably claims some attention in connection with the present subject4 ,the criticism here offered is not meant to carry a general condemnation of the book4 ,this work includes a vast deal more than it's title suggests2 in the midst of much that is extraneous1 there is not a little of valuable historical matter written in a clear and attractive style4 ,the book is1 however1 in many parts misleading1 often by its style suggesting that the author has allowed himself to be carried away in his eagerness to make out serious conflict4 ,the plan of the book is hardly compatible with fairness4 ,this may be illustrated by reference to the grounds for selecting illustrations of ,christianity4 ,our author says1 ,in speaking of ,christianity reference is generally made to the ,roman ,church1 partly because its adherents compose the majority of ,christendom1 partly because its demands are the most pretentious1 and partly because it has commonly sought to enforce those demands by the civil power4,o ,in view of these explanations1 it may be in a sense satisfactory1 as suggesting more harmony between science and religion than the general tenor of the book conveys1 that ,professor ,draper has had little to say respecting the ,protestant and ,greek ,churches4 ,but the reasons for making the ,roman division of the ,church representative of the whole are far from satisfactory4 ,it is as if one were bent on fighting1 but determined always to select the weakest antagonist to be found4 ,nor is the case improved by the defence offered4 ,dr4 ,draper says1 ,in thus treating the subject1 it has not been necessary to pay much regard to more moderate or intermediate opinions1 for1 though they may be intrinsically of great value1 in conflicts of this kind it is not with the moderates1 but with the extremists1 that the impartial reader is mainly concerned4 ,their movements determine the issue4,p ,this is1 ,i think1 an unwise conclusion4 ,extremists may determine the erratic deflections of a movement2 they do not decide its issues4 ,they discover the heat1 rather than the thought1 involved in intellectual conflict4 ,they contribute to vortex movement1 rather than onward4 ,in consequence of his plan of procedure1 ,dr4 ,draper gives often a misleading view of the relative positions of religion and science4 ,a reference to ,chapter ,,vi4 will afford illustration4 ,the subject is1 ,conflict ,respecting the ,nature of the ,world4 ,the two prominent contrasts placed at the head of this chapter are these3--,scriptural view of the world2 the earth a flat surface3 scientific view2 the earth a globe4 ,these are1 indeed1 complete contrasts2 but the question is1 ,are they accurately stated8 ,is there any warrant for saying that ,scripture teaches that the earth is a flat surface8 ,most ,bible readers of the present day will take this as quite a discovery4 ,that there was long and earnest discussion of the question whether the earth was flat or a globe1 is certain4 ,but it is erroneous to refer to ,scripture as the source of the former position4 ,the opening of the chapter sufficiently disposes of the suggestion4 ,dr4 ,draper says1--,an uncritical observation of the aspect of nature persuades us that the earth is an extended level surface which sustains the dome of the sky1 a firmament dividing the waters above from the waters beneath2 that the heavenly bodies--the sun1 the moon1 the stars--pursue their way moving from east to west1 their insignificant size1 and motion round the motionless earth1 proclaiming their inferiority4 ,of the various organic forms surrounding man none rival him in dignity1 and hence he seems justified in concluding that every thing has been created for his use--the sun for the purpose of giving him light by day1 the moon and stars by night4 ,comparative theology shows that this is the conception of nature universally adopted in the early phase of intellectual life4 ,it is the belief of all nations in all parts of the world in the beginning of their civilization4,q ,in determining the relations of religion and science it is impossible to accept a passage so general1 and full of mixed references as this4 ,there is1 indeed1 no reason to complain of statements as to the general impressions resulting from an uncritical observation of nature1 and of the testimony which may be drawn from comparative theology4 ,such references are to be valued1 as belonging to an important branch of inquiry2 but they are not to be mixed up with statements concerning ,scripture teaching4 ,such commingling leads to confusion1 and deprives a discussion of historical accuracy and scientific precision4 ,in view of the immense practical1 as well as scientific interests involved1 it is needful to guard against loose statements encouraging a belief in conflict between religion and science1 where no such conflict exists4 ,the passage here selected is taken as an example1 and its criticism will indicate what claims religion has a right to make upon scientific men in their management of such discussions4 ,it may be that with equal reason a similar claim can be turned upon defenders of religion in view of their criticisms of scientific discussions4 ,but the real value of such investigations1 from whatever side they come1 depends upon accurate and guarded statement4 ,it is to be feared1 however1 that ,dr4 ,draper's theory that extremists determine the issue1 may tempt him to favor a different rule4 ,to state that the scriptural view of the world is1 that the earth is a flat surface1 is misrepresentation4 ,and the variety of form into which this statement is thrown throughout the chapter makes it greatly worse4 ,thus our author speaks of the flat figure of the earth1 as revealed in the ,scriptures1,r as if this quasi-scientific statement were part of ,bible revelation4 ,again he speaks of the theological doctrine of the flatness of the earth being irretrievably overthrown4,s ,once more1 where speaking of the ,copernican system of astronomy1 he speaks of ,copernicus not only as influenced by his exposure to punishment from the ,roman ,church1 but as being aware that his doctrines were totally opposed to revealed truth4,t ,these successive statements involve additional exaggeration4 ,our author gives no references which the reader may examine for himself4 ,there can be little doubt that he points to the exceedingly grand and impressive passage at the opening of the book of ,genesis4 ,but in that passage there is nothing to support the statement that the flat figure of the earth is part of ,bible revelation4 ,that the earth has been supposed flat1 and that this is really taught in ,scripture1 are two very different things4 ,the ,bible which says1 that the earth was without form and void1 and darkness was upon the face of the deep1 and records the will of the ,supreme ,ruler at a later stage in these words1 ,and ,god said let the waters under the heaven be gathered together into one place1 and let the dry land appear1,u does something quite the opposite of teaching that the earth is a flat surface4 ,nor do the ,scriptures teach that the earth sustains the dome of the sky4 ,in remote times such an opinion as to the resting-place for the great dome had its supporters4 ,but there is no pretext for attributing the teaching of this to the ,bible4 ,the scriptural statement is ,god made the firmament1 and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament2 and it was so4 ,and ,god called the firmament ,heaven4 ,there is no reader of these words1 even if he have only an uncritical observation of the aspect of nature1 who can suppose that the firmament here means the dome of the sky4 ,this statement places certain waters above the firmament1 and there is no one who is at once a reader of the ,bible1 and an observer of nature1 who thinks of the clouds as above the sky2 but every one knows that there is an expanse which bears these water treasures far up from the earth's surface4 ,the word rendered firmament1,v from the ,vulgate firmamentum1 really means expanse1 and most naturally and obviously refers to the atmosphere surrounding the earth1 upon which the clouds are borne aloft1 and carried to and fro4 ,taking into account the want of scientific knowledge of the structure of the earth in far past ages1 and the representations inconsistent with facts which found currency1 the true marvel is that the statements of ,scripture so simply and naturally harmonize with discoveries not made till the sixteenth century of the ,christian era4 ,this is a marvel which will more deeply impress us the longer it is pondered4 ,if we extend our consideration to the cruder notions which found acceptance in the dark ages1 such as that to which ,bruno referred1 that the earth is a flat surface1 supported on pillars1 the scriptural evidence pled in its favor appears grotesquely inadequate4 ,the passages are these4 ,first stands ,hannah's outburst of devotional feeling on the occasion of presenting her son ,samuel before the ,lord4 ,in magnifying the greatness of ,god1 she says1 the pillars of the earth are the ,lord's1 and he hath set the world upon them4,w ,next come the utterances of ,job1 when enlarging on the power of the ,almighty4 ,in one of his replies to his irritating counsellors1 when speaking of the works of ,jehovah1 he says1 which shaketh the earth out of her place1 and the pillars thereof tremble4,x ,in another passage of similar construction1 he says of ,god1 ,he hath compassed the waters with bounds1 until the day and night come to an end4 ,the pillars of heaven tremble1 and are astonished at his reproof4,y ,there is no ,bible reader who can readily fall into such an obvious mistake as to treat these highly figurative utterances1 as if they were formal revelations concerning the structure of the universe4 ,as well might we1 in reading the words of ,paul concerning the position and influence of prominent disciples in the early church1 in which he says that ,james1 ,cephas1 and ,john seemed to be pillars1 proceed to deduce from this statement the revelation that the spiritual kingdom is a flat surface on which are based the pillars upholding the heavenly kingdom into which the ,saviour has entered4 ,this short reference to the structure and relative position of the earth1 will suffice to illustrate the fact that in dealing with the alleged conflicts between religion and science1 it is needful to cast aside a number of manufactured difficulties1 which do not arise from legitimate interpretation of ,scripture4 ,the particular criticism here introduced is adopted for a general purpose1--to lessen complications1 and secure a proper understanding of the actual relation of the ,bible to scientific research4 ,from a very early period in the history of scientific inquiry1 it has been more or less clearly recognized that the ,bible is not a science-revelation1 but a revelation of religious truth and duty1 discovering the true ideal and destiny of man in fellowship with ,god4 ,let us have it kept clear on both sides1 that there is no divine revelation of scientific truth4 ,nature is its own revelation1 and the only revelation1 whose secrets must be laboriously sought out by successive generations of investigators1 from all of whom is required patient1 persevering research1 with undeviating and single love of truth4 ,those early inquirers who found themselves in painful contact with the persecuting power of the ,roman ,church1 such as ,galileo1 and ,bruno1 recognized to some extent that conflict with the ,church and conflict with the ,bible were not exactly identical4 ,and those of us who are clearly and resolutely on the side of religious faith and religious life1 have need to ponder this lesson of history1 that those defending the ,bible have not always been guided by its teaching in their defence1 and have not always fully apprehended the ,bible teaching on the subject with which their efforts were concerned4 ,but what we most need in these days to keep conspicuous is the true view of the ,bible as a professed revelation from ,god4 ,it does not profess to be a revelation of facts such as scientific appliances are adequate to ascertain1 while it does profess to discover facts both as to the universe and as to man1 which science can not approach4 ,it is not a history of the earth1 but it includes within it1 historical records of events closely connected with man's moral and spiritual well-being4 ,it does not train man to regard himself as the principal object of the care of ,nature2,z it does not even suggest thought in this direction1 but it teaches that ,god cares for righteousness more than he cares for material things2 that man as a being of flesh and blood is unspeakably insignificant1 his life being even a vapor that appeareth for a little time1 and then vanisheth away2,,aa that his spiritual life1 in the love of ,god and in fellowship with him1 is immeasurably great1 the purpose of the ,bible concerning man1 as revealed by ,jesus ,christ1 ,god's ,son1 being this1 that man shall be like to ,god in moral purity4 ,from these few statements it may readily appear what is the attitude of the ,bible towards science4 ,it leaves man to his own research for the structure of science in all its divisions2 it proffers no help in such work2 but has a range of application quite beyond the area traversed by science4 ,in this way we find the natural interpretation of inevitable conflicts in the past1 which have been roughly and often inaccurately described as conflicts between religion and science4 ,these conflicts were in the strictest sense inevitable1 simply because thought and discovery have been progressive2 and it is impossible for those not personally engaged in research to accept without reluctance new representations of familiar facts4 ,if men long continued unwilling to admit that the earth moves round the sun1 and that the rising and setting of the luminary are delusions1 while the succession of light and darkness is real1 we can not wonder at this slowness of assent1 or charge it to the power of religious thought4 ,the conflict was not between religion and science1 but between popular notions and scientific observations4 ,often in the earlier periods of awakened thought1 following the slumber of the middle ages1 the contest accidentally wore a religious aspect1 but it was so only because the higher intelligence and the general work of instruction belonged to the religious orders4 ,if1 however1 we give due weight to historical facts1 it will appear that the rectification of common thought as to the form of the earth1 and its place in relation to the heavenly bodies1 was achieved through the conflict of a later science with an earlier4 ,science has first taught one thing1 and then abandoned its old positions to teach something different1 and if religious thought was at times found in the ranks of the antagonists of change1 it was only as the popular thought was opposed1 and as all had been placed in opposition by the earlier forms of scientific teaching4 ,we rightly interpret the facts1 only in representing that science both makes its own difficulties and clears them2 first presents the imperfect or erroneous views which are to be swept away1 and afterwards trains men to more careful sifting of evidence and exercise of thought1 thereby clearing and widening its own path4 ,thus are we enabled to trace the boundaries of two distinct regions of thought1 closely related1 yet clearly separated4 ,science can not do the work of religion1 nor can religion do the work of science4 ,each must fulfil its own part1 and abide its proper tests4 ,science has its own place and its own task4 ,religion will simply wait upon science1 leaving it to make its own discoveries1 gladly accepting each one of them as it is established4 ,the most reverend students of the ,bible do not regard it as a revelation presenting a key to scientific research2 though they do not hesitate to express their conviction that neither in express statement1 nor in the spirit inculcated1 does it place itself in antagonism to the search for truth1 or the claims of any conclusions which can be legitimately described as philosophical or scientific4 ,but its upholders press this consideration specially on scientific men1 that the ,bible has this title to be regarded as a book for all nations and for all ages1 that it has proved itself intelligible to men in ages the least enlightened1 and has also maintained a commanding influence in ages specially distinguished and favored by the advance of science and the widening power of literature4 ,,footnotes3 ,e ,science can not reach the beginning of things4 ,f ,see ,disease ,germs1 their ,nature and ,origin1 by ,beale4 ,london1 ,churchill2 ,philadelphia1 ,lindsay and ,blaikiston4 ,g ,nature vol4 xvi4 p4 #bgf4 ,h ,examples of the bacteria magnified #a1hjj1 #c1jjj1 and #e1jjj times are given in ,plate ,i4 p4 #af1 of ,beale's ,disease ,germs4 ,i ,for ,dr4 ,bastian's experiments see ,times1 ,april #ac1 #ahgj2 and ,nature1 ,june and ,july1 #ahgj4 ,j ,contribution to ,royal ,society of ,london4 ,nature xv4 p4 #cjb1 ,feb4 ,i1 #ahgg4 ,k ,ib4 ,l ,nature vol4 xv4 p4 #cjb1 and ,appendix ,,ii4 ,m ,nature vol4 xvi4 p4 #abg4 ,n ,recent ,advances in ,physical ,science1 p4 #bd4 ,o ,preface x4 ,p ,preface x4 ,q ,history of the ,conflict between ,religion and ,science1 by ,j4 ,w4 ,draper1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor in the ,university of ,new ,york1 #ab ed41 p4 #aeb4 ,r ,history of the ,conflict between ,religion and ,science1 p4 #afc4 ,s ,ib4 p4 #afe4 ,t ,ib4 p4 #afg4 ,u ,genesis i4 #b1 #i4 ,v ,hebrew3 rakiya1 ,raqia1 from ,hebrew3 raka1 to spread out4 ,w ,i ,samuel ii4 #h4 ,x ,job xi4 #f4 ,y ,job xxvi4 #aj1 #aa4 ,z ,conflict between ,religion and ,science1 p4 #agb4 ,,aa ,james iv4 #ad4 ,,lecture ,,iii4 ,,inorganic ,,elements ,,in ,,the ,,universe4 ,in view of the wide range of materials at command1 and the limits of the present inquiry1 there is need for some definite method of selection1 which may secure a careful1 though necessarily very general survey of the whole ground4 ,that which seems to give most promise of meeting these requirements is the contemplation in order of the great leading conceptions which have received prominence within recent years in consequence of continued research under strictly scientific methods4 ,these may be said to constitute the scientific revolution of the nineteenth century1 giving occasion for reconstructing the popular conceptions of the universe4 ,they claim to mark the truly scientific period1 inaugurated by command of instruments never before within reach1 allowing an immense advance in the modes of research1 and placing the secrets of nature within compass of human observation as they had never been before4 ,the intellectual conditions for observation and inference no doubt remain simply what they have been2 the laws of intelligent inquiry are the same1 determining sufficiency of evidence1 and trustworthiness in reasoning2 but the range of observation has been indefinitely multiplied1 and things transcending previous conjecture have become matters of certain observation4 ,the telescope and the microscope provided for this revolution4 ,they brought the universe within range as it had never previously been1 and thus making an enormous addition to the sum of human knowledge1 suggested new modes of contemplating and explaining the facts which had been familiar through all the ages4 ,there can be no reversal of all this--no return on the old methods4 ,nor can there be reversal in the sense of overturning presently recognized conclusions4 ,there are indeed hosts of theories of which it may be safely predicted that they will be overturned and forgotten2 but a veritable knowledge has been acquired1 which will certainly be preserved among the treasures of the race4 ,we now know the constituent elements of many forms of existence1 and the laws which determine change and continuance1 as these were never previously known2 and thus there has been vastly extended for us the range of recognized facts4 ,to this advance1 the whole human race has to adapt itself4 ,it is not merely one class of men1 but all2 not merely one department of thought1 but all departments which must adjust themselves to this new order of things4 ,religious thought is not thrown into any singular position2 it merely shares in the common experience1 that is1 the common advantage4 ,and we may say religious thought is most prepared for the mighty revolution4 ,this startling success in unlocking the mysteries of nature2 this sudden accession to the wealth of our ideas1 apt to have an intoxicating effect upon those who value science and nothing higher1 awakens reverence and gratitude in the religious thinker4 ,the greater the application of human intelligence to the study of nature1 and the greater the discoveries which reward such labor1 so much greater becomes the demand upon intelligence in accounting for the origin and continuance of the universe1 involving innumerable phases of activity never to be witnessed by ordinary observers who are absorbed in their daily avocations4 ,the supernatural is not more remote from us by such discoveries as science can boast1 but is in reality brought nearer4 ,the fancy that enlarged knowledge of the natural1 is steadily driving before it all recognition of the supernatural1 is one of which thinking men will by and by be ashamed4 ,that men should consider the discovery of the component parts of certain forms of existence1 or of the laws of well known movements1 as a final disposal of the demands of intelligence1 only shows how little the intellect of inquirers has been prepared for appreciation of the full demands of reason4 ,in this connection1 it should be remembered that the most profoundly scientific1 have been the most cautious1 least inclined to boast of discovery1 or to anticipate the overthrow of the deeper convictions of the moral and spiritual life1 which1 as the necessaries of life in all ages1 are least liable to be touched by any thing belonging to the region of science4 ,even after every allowance has been made for sanguine and passionate temperament1 and for reaction against untenable forms of religious belief among opponents of religion1,,ab the award can not be otherwise than suggested4 ,the facts are already on record bearing on the most testing period1--the transition from an old and restricted knowledge1 to a new and greatly enlarged knowledge of the universe1--and the roll of names standing high in the annals of science1 while devoted to religious faith and practice1 may be accepted as a reasonable forecast of coming results4,,ac ,that greater knowledge of nature by discovery of the natural causes in operation1 intensifies the rational demand for recognition of ,supernatural ,intelligence1 is the position to be maintained throughout this argument4 ,the most rigid test of this position is to be found in the outstanding scientific conceptions concerning inorganic and organic nature1 and the contrasts recognized between lower and higher organisms4 ,the order most suitable for application of this test is progress upwards from the most subordinate forms of existence to the most complex organism4 ,a beginning will1 therefore1 be male with the inorganic world1 after which lower organisms may be considered1 after that the relative place of higher organisms1 and finally the whole class of questions concerning the powers and requirements of mind4 ,in each of these relations1 ,i desire to inquire into the reasonableness of our acknowledgment of the supernatural4 ,as the world presents a vast range of inorganic existence1 we have to consider the most prominent scientific conceptions concerning inorganic elements1 as these afford a general view of the material structure of the earth4 ,concentrating on this region of observation1 and taking no account1 meanwhile1 of the manifold phases of life1 there are two forms of existence to be recognized1 ,matter and ,energy4 ,matter is solid1 visible1 tangible2 ,energy is invisible and intangible1 but measurable by the work it is capable of doing4 ,the one may be represented as the solid inert mass1 the other as the moving power whose action is the source of continual change4 ,this duality we must regard as essential to the structure of the universe1 for it is impossible to identify the two1 so as to regard the world as merely a mass of matter4 ,this duality is now commonly admitted as the result of recent scientific investigations4 ,to quote the words of ,professor ,tait1--,it is only within comparatively recent years that it has been generally recognized that there is something else in the physical universe which possesses to the full as high a claim to objective reality as matter possesses1 though it is by no means so tangible1 and therefore the conception of it was much longer in forcing itself upon the human mind4,,ad ,this is ,energy4 ,just as gold1 lead1 oxygen1 etc41 are different kinds of matter1 so sound1 light1 heat1 etc41 are now ranked as different forms of energy4,,ae ,here1 then1 is one of the conspicuous results of recent scientific research to which all our thoughts and theories need to adapt themselves4 ,and it must be obvious without argumentation1 that theological thought will not experience any serious shock1 or even jolt1 in passing over to this new line of rails prepared for it4 ,taking these two1 ,matter and ,energy1 as distinct1 let us concentrate for a little upon each of them separately4 ,let us first turn attention upon ,,matter4 ,this form of existence is most easily contemplated1 as most directly presenting itself to observation4 ,a piece of metal may best serve for illustration1 such as the iron out of which we form so many of our industrial implements4 ,this metal may be mingled through earth or rock2 it may be held in solution in water1 or made to flow out in liquid form from the furnace2 it may be hardened either in the more brittle form of cast iron1 or in the more rigid form known as malleable2 but through all these changes the material is the same4 ,further1 suppose we were to receive a quantity of ore1 and for the sake of experiment were to have part presented in each one of these forms1 the quantity would continue exactly the same as was originally received4 ,to quote again from the same author3--,the grand test of the reality of what we call ,matter1 the proof that it has an objective existence1 is its indestructibility and uncreatability--if the term may be used--by any process at the command of man4 ,the value of this test to modern chemistry can scarcely be estimated4 ,in fact we can barely believe that there could have existed an exact science of chemistry had it not been for the early recognition of this property of matter2 nor in fact would there be the possibility of a chemical analysis1 supposing that we had not the assurance by enormously extended series of previous experiments1 that no portion of matter1 however small1 goes out of existence1 or comes into existence in any operation whatever4 ,if the chemist were not certain that at the end of his operations1 provided he has taken care to admit nothing and to let nothing escape1 the contents of his vessels must be precisely the same in quantity as at the beginning of the experiment1 there could be no such thing as chemical analysis4,,af ,if now we press our inquiry further1 seeking some explanation of the ultimate nature or structure of matter1 that is1 the common physical characteristics of matter in all its forms1 whether air1 water1 or solid mass1 science has no certain answer to give4 ,there is no theory of the ultimate structure of matter which has secured general acceptance4 ,on the contrary1 there is the acknowledgment that the complexity of the problem is so great as completely to baffle the present resources of science4 ,there have been discussions1 and careful investigations as to the divisibility of matter1 and it has been generally admitted on rational grounds1 that there must be in all matter particles or atoms so minute as to be quite beyond the range of the microscope4 ,this has led to the acceptance of an atomic theory as in one form or another applicable to the structure of matter1 belief in such particles or molecules being a natural result of scientific procedure4 ,i say belief1 for the existence of such ultimate atoms is not established on experimental evidence1 and yet is generally acknowledged2 for it is clearly enough recognized that there is a region of faith for science1 as for theology1 just as there must be for all ordinary exercise of human intelligence4 ,besides the actual divisibility of matter1 we have in the same connection to consider its compressibility1 for the recognized facts as to compression of iron1 for example1 or of any metal1 seem to imply that there are certain particles related to each other1 which can be pressed in upon each other1 or brought into nearer proximity4 ,there is1 however1 a clear limit to compressibility1 as there is to divisibility of matter4 ,even if this be granted1 however1 we are still without a scientific account of the ultimate structure of matter4 ,this is still a perplexity to be handed on to future workers4 ,there may1 indeed1 seem to be promise of aid in the analysis of different forms of matter1 as in the reduction of water to its constituent gases by the action of a galvanic battery2 but such processes1 however rich in suggestiveness1 are insufficient to advance the main inquiry4 ,it is oftentimes in this very class of experiments1 that science at once manifests its power1 and discovers the limits which encircle and restrain its efforts4 ,it can decompose1 what it can not recompose1 thus leaving difficulties as perplexing as before4 ,and besides1 even when by analysis the ultimate parts or chemical constituents1 of compound substances have been discovered1 science is unable to demonstrate that the constituent elements are ultimately composed of distinct atoms1 as for example that oxygen and hydrogen are so constituted4 ,we are thus without a science of the ultimate nature of matter4 ,there is1 indeed1 the suggestion of ,sir ,william ,thomson that matter of all kinds may be regarded as of a common nature1 only variously compounded1 filling space in a fluid state1 and that its compressibility can be accounted for on the supposition that its ultimate forms are vortex rings capable of compression and expansion like an india-rubber ball2 but this can not be regarded otherwise than as a bold conjecture1 beset with a host of difficulties both physical and mathematical which neither ,thomson nor any of his fellow-workers in physical science1 professes to have yet grappled with4 ,there are thus before us the chief results of physical science1 as to the nature of ,,matter1 when we specify that it is indestructible1 that it consists of ultimate molecules or atoms1 and that its compressibility is to be explained by pressure upon such atoms1 or cohesion1 or comparative closeness of relation between them1 this being greater in solids1 less in liquids1 and least in gases4 ,from the structure of matter1 we are led by science to the consideration of ,,energy1 as distinct from matter4 ,these two stand in some respect in contrast with each other4 ,in taking a survey of the physical aspects of the world1 we can not limit attention to the mere mass1 or to questions bearing on its structure4 ,observation must now be turned on the perpetual change going on in form1 arrangement1 and distribution of materials4 ,there is need for a science of all this1 in accordance with which the perpetual round of change may be reduced to order by reference to causality and the laws of its operation4 ,thus we are introduced to our ordinary conceptions concerning position1 that is1 the situation or place of objects1 or of masses of material1 or even of worlds1 to each other2 motion1 or change of position1 modifying or altering the relations of objects2 and force1 that is the relative amount or proportion of energy at work for the accomplishment of such changes as those already mentioned4 ,in these connections we are introduced to recently formulated doctrines of energy1 reached in searching for the cause which alters or tends to alter a body's natural state of rest1 as this problem was indicated in ,newton's first law of motion4 ,in the earlier stages of inquiry1 attention was directed mainly on the active forces of nature1 as these are recognized in operation1 admitting of calculation as to rate of movement on the one hand1 and relative amount of force on the other4 ,computations of this kind were necessarily involved in research connected with the movements of the heavenly bodies4 ,when astronomical theory had been matured and a truly scientific understanding of the solar system had been reached1 physical science had next to deal with the more general problem raised by the contemplated forces of nature1 having a reference at once wider and more minute4 ,it is not possible here to do more than give a very summary view of the doctrine of energy1 its mutations1 dissipation1 and conservation1 as developed through study of the laws of gravitation1 electricity1 light1 heat1 etc41 and now generally accepted4 ,an outline will1 however1 suffice for an understanding of the general conclusions4 ,energy is the term now employed to designate every form of power belonging to the physical world capable of doing work1 and of being estimated according to the comparative amount of work it can perform4 ,the whole phenomena of motion thus belong to this department of inquiry4 ,the first distinction here has been described as the difference between energy of position and energy of motion4,,ag ,both of these must be taken into account in order to have a full view of the facts4 ,,energy ,,of ,,position1 is illustrated by a water-head1 or reservoir1 where an accumulation of water is laid up in store1 ready to be drawn upon for motive power when machinery set up in a position somewhat lower is to be brought into action and made to do the work for which it has been constructed4 ,,energy ,,of ,,motion is seen when the storehouse of water is opened and the rush of the current sweeps along the prepared channel descending upon the great wheel1 which sets in motion the whole machinery4 ,in such a case as this1 the amount of work done by the revolutions of the great wheel is an exact measure of the amount of water which has passed to a lower level4 ,or let us suppose there is only a limited supply in the water-head1 and that there are no feeders1 but that the streamlets and springs from which it is supplied1 have ceased to flow1 and let us suppose that the mill comes to a stand because of failure of motive power1 the amount of work done up to that moment is the measure of the energy stored in the water-head before the sluice was opened4 ,this illustration indicates the mode of calculation to be applied to energy in all its forms1 including the great forces of nature1 before which human power is as nothing4 ,taking thus the correlatives position and motion1 we may regard the former as preparation for the latter1 for1 as ,professor ,balfour ,stewart has said1 ,it is the fate of all kinds of energy of position to be ultimately converted into energy of motion4,,ah ,on this account1 energy of motion most naturally exemplifies what we understand by energy2 but on the other hand what has been called the energy of position must be regarded as a power distinctly calculable4 ,if a stone be thrown into the air1 the energy expended in propelling it to a certain height1 is the exact measure of the energy expended in its descent4 ,there is no need for entering here upon the calculations of the relation between energy and velocity1 showing the exact proportion of the one to the other1 or the ratio of increase according to velocity1 which is expressed in the formula that the energy varies as the square of the velocity1 giving us an exact measure of force4 ,aided by the conceptions of position and motion1 we take the next step when we advance to transmutation or conversion of energy4 ,what is made visible to us by motion is the transference of energy from one object or portion of matter to another4 ,and this is the sole explanation of what occurs4 ,there is no such thing known to physical science as the origin or creation of energy2 all that is recognized is the disappearance of energy from one position and its appearance in another4 ,if work has been done1 energy was somewhere stored capable of doing it2 a transmutation has taken place2 and the work accomplished is the record of the process4 ,in recognition of this1 every machine is merely a more or less skilful contrivance for transmuting energy into a form more convenient or suitable for human purposes4 ,the intelligence of man simply recognizes the law of transmutation1 and deals with the problems which arise connected with the mechanical arrangements facilitating the process4 ,we next advance a further step1 only to embrace another phase of the same truth1--the complement of what has been already stated1--that is1 the conservation of energy4 ,as we have seen1 all that appears in motion1 is transmutation or conversion of energy2 accordingly it follows1 that there is change of position1 but no destruction of energy1 or absolute disappearance of it from existence4 ,this generalization is illustrated by a most attractive series of observations1 introducing to a fuller knowledge of the laws of heat4 ,the natural tendency of ordinary observation is to favor the opinion that when work has been done1 energy is spent or lost4 ,and this popular notion1 which has a kind of accuracy1 in so far as it is needful to make fresh draughts upon available resources1 is favored by reference to the economy of our bodily existence constantly renewing its demand for fresh food supply4 ,but this popular tendency is easily explained by the circumstance that ordinary observation makes much more account of the phenomena of motion1 than of the development of heat as a direct consequence4 ,the machinist can not1 indeed1 afford to make little of the consequences of friction2 but the ordinary observer makes much more of mass1 and complication of mechanical contrivance1 and velocity of movement4 ,from this he passes easily to the fabric1 or other production1 sent forth2 and then he may occupy himself with calculations bearing on the expenditure for coals and labor1 along with tear and wear of machinery4 ,but scientific observation has concentrated much more on the evolution of heat1 and out of this has come the completed theory of the laws of energy4 ,in this way1 it became matter of distinct calculation that friction and percussion convert energy into heat4 ,along with these observations we have to remark upon an attendant conclusion1 which has an important bearing on all speculation concerning the destiny of the universe4 ,i refer to the fact that transmutation of energy involves a deterioration and dissipation of energy4 ,as in the history of energy1 improved position adds to the advantage for the doing of work1 so transmutation tends to diminish the advantage or utility of the energy for human purposes4 ,thus the energy expended in working a machine gives return in a product of recognized value1 but the energy spent in contending with friction generates heat which is of no practical value in respect of accomplished work4 ,or as the latter fact has been stated by ,professor ,balfour ,stewart1 friction proves itself to be1 not the destroyer of energy1 but merely the converter of it into some less apparent1 and perhaps less useful form4,,ai ,in this connection1 scientific observation was directed upon the appearance of heat simultaneously with the disappearance of visible energy4 ,gradually the conception dawned upon scientific observers that heat is a form of motion1 and this has found general acceptance1 although it is impossible to give direct proof of the doctrine4 ,the conclusion has been supported by all the experiments of ,davis1 ,rumford1 ,joule1 ,colding1 and ,helmholtz4 ,this conception having been launched as to the probable explanation of heat1 it immediately found1 in accordance with the analogies of scientific thought1 a greatly extended circle of application4 ,light and sound came to be classified with heat1 as only different forms of motion4 ,it would involve too extended a range to include here a detailed account of these experiments1 or to consider what is involved in dissipation of energy1 as bearing upon a still wider aspect of the order of things in the universe4 ,i must1 therefore1 be content with the reference just given to the conception of heat as a form of molecular motion2 and in doing so may revert to the consideration already adduced1 that this is another doctrine of scientific belief1 of which there is a constant tendency to increase the number1 as science widens the range of its inquiries and speculations4 ,the outstanding general results of science as to the nature of energy are now before us4 ,all observations concerning motion only present to view transmutations of energy1 all of them imply that there is no such thing as the origin of energy1 and no such thing as its extinction4 ,there is indeed a constant tendency towards the degradation of energy1 and a constant equalizing process which may bring to an end the present order of things in the universe4 ,but the leading scientific conception with which we have specially to deal is that expressed in the phrase1 ,conservation of energy1 which must be regarded as completing our view of inorganic existence along with the other doctrine of the indestructibility of matter4 ,as ,professor ,tait has expressed it1--,the grand principle of conservation of energy1 which asserts that no portion of energy can be put out of existence1 and no amount of energy can be brought into existence by any process at our command1 is simply a statement of the invariability of the quantity of energy in the universe1--a companion statement to that of the invariability of the quantity of matter4,,aj ,the position is now reached at which it becomes possible to combine the results of scientific research as to matter and energy into a harmonious unity1 with which to test the view of the world recognized by religious thought4 ,religion as an intelligent and devotional acknowledgment of a ,supreme ,being1 involves a very clear and definite conception concerning the origin of the universe and its continuance4 ,what is thus implied will be best indicated by negative as well as positive statements1 in some such form as the following4 ,first1 negatively1 the world we inhabit does not carry within it any explanation of the origin of its own existence2 that is to say1 neither the materials existing1 nor the forces operating1 are sufficient to account for its origin2 neither can it have had existence without beginning4 ,in positive form1 the universe can be accounted for only by that which transcends itself2 the supernatural is the key to the natural2 ,nature is a creation to be attributed to an ,intelligent ,first ,cause4 ,are science and religion here in harmony in the form and measure compatible in the circumstances8 ,this qualified and guarded form of the question is obviously required1 for religious thought does not profess to be scientific1 or in any sense authoritative as to the phenomena of nature1 that is1 as to the facts which observation alone can ascertain1 or as to the immediate causes by which these facts are to be explained4 ,on the other hand1 science is exclusively a knowledge of nature1 consisting of methodized observations concerning distinct orders of facts1 and rational inferences founded upon these4 ,it can not in true sense be concerned with the supernatural1 but can only present conclusions as to the order and processes of nature1 which by subsequent and independent exercise of our intelligence may be contemplated in their relation to the conception of the supernatural1 as ,intelligent ,first ,cause4 ,this subsequent exercise of thought1 whether critical or constructive1 is more properly the task of philosophy1 in prosecution of those reflective and speculative exercises1 which1 proceeding from scientific conclusions as accepted data1 consider their intellectual value as contributing towards a theory of the universe4 ,scientific men will1 of course1 more or less readily pass over to take some share in such philosophic speculation2 just as religious men1 purely under the impulse of religious interests1 will be more or less disposed to do1 in proportion to the range of their intellectual life4 ,what is here said is not intended as an argument for any restriction upon such speculation on the part either of scientific or of religious men1 for such questions are common property1 and the arguments bearing upon them are to be tested by all4 ,but it is of some consequence1 specially in the present unsettled and sensitive state of the public mind1 that it be clearly recognized that science is not itself responsible for the thoughts of scientific men on these questions2 and that religion is not responsible for the thoughts of religious men upon them4 ,science can not determine any thing as to a philosophy of the supernatural1 any more than religion can determine any thing as to a science of nature4 ,whether we take the violent and even passionate antipathy to any acknowledgment of the supernatural which is found in the ,essays of ,clifford1 or the profoundly reverential acknowledgment of the ,deity in the writings and life of ,faraday1 science is to be credited with neither4 ,and so in like manner1 when we have violent denunciations of science professedly in the name of religion1 or intelligent appreciation of its high value from accredited upholders of religious truth1 religion itself is to be credited with neither the one nor the other4 ,this is a matter which comes within the range of ordinary intelligence4 ,it may indeed belong to philosophy to formulate and develop the arguments in strict harmony with the recognized laws of mind2 but it belongs equally to all men to estimate the general sweep and range of acquired knowledge as to the structure and order of the universe1 as bearing upon the more general conceptions to be rationally entertained regarding its government4 ,with this branch of the subject1 ordinary thought may readily deal without entanglement in technicalities4 ,there is as we have seen a duality of existence in the inorganic structure of the world1 and a continual succession of changes1 on account of the interaction of these two4 ,different forms of matter stand in different relations2 and these relations are being constantly interchanged by the transmutation of energy4 ,thus taking the world as presented to us1 it has a constitution which requires for its explanation that we go beyond every thing to be found within itself4 ,the matter in the universe can not account for the energy2 nor can the energy account for the matter2 and the relations between the two must find explanation in something higher than both4 ,what their source may be1 science is incapable of telling2 it can not contribute towards satisfying the requirements of the law of causality in view of the mutual relations of matter and energy which it has itself revealed4 ,but equally by what it has revealed1 and by acknowledgment of its inability to transcend the limits of its own discoveries1 does it present harmony with religious thought in the form and measure in which it is possible that such harmony could be manifested4 ,discovering the objective existence of matter and energy1 and the laws in accordance with which the latter acts upon the former1 it presents an unsolved problem affording the most direct and positive testimony possible to science in support of the existence of a ,first ,cause1 transcending the universe itself4 ,how matter and energy came into being1 it can not tell2 but it most explicitly declares that by no power existing and operating within range of observation is it possible either to add to the sum of existence1 or in the least degree to diminish it4 ,religious thought could expect nothing more direct and explicit in the form of scientific testimony as confirmation of its fundamental position4 ,scientific thought while dealing with inorganic existence could not1 even by a single line of approach1 be brought nearer to the actual support of religious belief4 ,here the question may be raised1--,may not the world have existed from eternity8 ,in the answer to this question there are several considerations requiring to be distinguished4 ,first1 science has no testimony to offer1 inasmuch as it does not get beyond the area of laws now operating4 ,second1 the testimony of science concerning the world as now existing is inconsistent with the supposition of its eternal existence4 ,the matter which is constantly operated upon by energy distinct from itself1 does not possess the property of self-subsistence2 neither does the energy which is constantly undergoing change4 ,continual transition or change from one phase of existence1 or set of relations1 to another1 is a mark of the not-abiding1 an evidence of subjection to1 and dependence on1 what is beyond and above itself4 ,the non-enduring1 or ever-changing1 is constantly pointing to the ever-enduring4 ,full understanding of the situation of things as discovered by science will produce a much deeper impression on the public mind than has yet been effected4 ,the reasonableness of this expectation will readily appear1 if only some few of the positions be placed conspicuously in view4 ,it is of special consequence to note that science has in this direction finished its work1 and reached its ultimatum1 in demonstrating the physical impossibility of either increasing or diminishing the existing sum total of matter1 or of energy4 ,the conclusions are not such as can be regarded as provisional1 liable to be overreached1 modified1 or enlarged1 by what may afterwards be discovered4 ,we are so much influenced at present1--and scientific men share in the experience1 as well as others1--by the general and well-grounded expectation of the unceasing advance of science1 that it is peculiarly easy in sight of a great general problem such as the origin and government of the world1 to overlook the significance of ultimate conclusions in given directions4 ,in this way1 we too readily fall into the delusive tendency of regarding accredited conclusions as still hanging in a measure of uncertainty1 or at least as having a dubious future before them1 because they border upon the region of the unknown so far as science is concerned1 or upon a realm of mystery1 which science regards either with aversion1 or with cherished determination of attack4 ,in the present singularly favorable position of science1 it is impossible for the public mind to escape this tendency2 but it becomes only the more imperative to distinguish as occasion offers1 those conclusions which are to be taken as final4 ,this is of immense consequence as bearing upon general conceptions concerning the universe4 ,that matter can not be originated1 and can not by even a single atom be destroyed1 is one of those ultimate statements1 upon which physical science itself relies as on a foundation4 ,this is a universally accredited truth1 that no portion of matter1 however small1 goes out of existence or comes into existence in any operation whatever4,,ak ,the wonderful chemical laboratory of living organism may change many forms of matter into living tissue1 but all returns again to its place in the inorganic mass4 ,material may pass from one phase into another1 but there is nothing more than change4 ,the sum total of material existence is unaltered4 ,to suggest the contrary1--and specially to do so in the name of science1--were to bring science face to face with the conceptions rejected as alien to its very nature2 for to say that matter may be originated1 is to affirm creation2 to say that it may be destroyed1 is to affirm the possibility of annihilation2 and these two are beyond the range of science1 and if once admitted within its boundaries1 they would destroy science itself4 ,so it is when we pass over to the doctrine of energy4 ,the same clear and ultimate conclusion is proclaimed4 ,the doctrine of the conservation of energy is the ultimatum on which physical science finds sure and firm foothold4 ,in those two ultimate positions of scientific research concerning inorganic existence1 religion finds support1 and that of a kind so powerful1 that science itself depends upon its immovability4 ,there is1 however1 a further point connected with the doctrine of energy1 which deserves consideration as bearing on the tendency to anticipate an indefinite line of progression in the history of this world1 that is1 deterioration or degradation in the form of energy1 while it continues of equal amount4 ,the efficient value of energy is according to the possibilities of transformation or transmutation4 ,but its use implies limitation of the available forms1 or steady deterioration of value4 ,thus the energy of the universe is1 on the whole1 constantly passing from higher to lower forms1 and therefore the possibility of transformation is becoming smaller and smaller1 so that after the lapse of sufficient time all higher forms of energy must have passed from the physical universe1 and we can imagine nothing as remaining1 except those lower forms which are incapable1 so far as we yet know1 of any further transformation4,,al ,such a statement of the position1 though it can not be regarded as an ultimate one in scientific research1 is so obviously a deduction from present knowledge that it must to some extent modify prevailing conceptions4 ,it may1 indeed be suggested that some catastrophe may terminate the present order of things1 and that some action of the law of gravitation may combine the fragments of worlds1 and give a fresh start with new combinations of energy2 but the bare suggestion of this implies a much wider range for scientific research than any thing yet known to us1 and at the same time a larger demand upon intelligence in the control and regulation of what must nevertheless seem to us violent catastrophes4 ,such speculation1 if it may warrantably find encouragement under purely scientific conditions1 religious thought will neither gainsay nor resist2 but will find itself in no perplexity to accept4 ,waiving1 however1 all speculation as to the possible future of the physical universe1 we here concentrate attention on the past2 we take the most recent scientific testimony as to the structure of the physical universe1 as it bears on the problem concerning the origin of our world4 ,here the testimony of science is clearly and unmistakably in favor of the creation or absolute origin of matter and energy1 in the only form in which science can bear any testimony on the subject4 ,it is1 of course1 impossible that science should present direct testimony to the fact of creation1 as it is impossible that history should2 for such a fact as creation must be entirely beyond the range of science4 ,but in testifying to the indestructibility and uncreatability of matter under the conditions capable of being investigated by observational science2 and in bearing the same testimony as to the energy in the world1 it offers all the support it is capable of offering to the reality of the supernatural1--testifying to the dependence of nature on some power altogether transcending itself4 ,but here ,i prefer rather to use the words of a purely scientific observer4 ,when dealing with the doctrine of energy1 and specially with the consequences of dissipation of energy1 ,professor ,tait uses these words1--,as it alone is able to lead us1 by sure steps of deductive reasoning1 to the necessary future of the universe--necessary1 that is1 if physical laws remain forever unchanged--so it enables us distinctly to say that the present order of things has not been evolved through infinite past time by the agency of laws now at work2 but must have had a distinctive beginning1 a state beyond which we are totally unable to penetrate2 a state1 in fact1 which must have been produced by other than the now visibly acting causes4,,am ,this is the utmost that science can say1 bearing on the great problem of the origin of the universe2 and nothing more powerful could be said in direct testimony to the reality of the supernatural1 and the reasonableness of ,christian faith1 thus shown to be in complete harmony with science4 ,it is not here suggested that all scientific men would employ such language as that now quoted1 or even readily acquiesce in its use4 ,i have been careful to indicate1 that a passionately excited antagonism to any recognition of the supernatural is avowed by some scientific men4 ,accordingly1 it must be granted that the conclusion here stated is not so manifest a deduction as to preclude denial4 ,the testimony of the senses commonly terminates dispute1 but such testimony is not available as to the reality of the supernatural4 ,the only testimony that can be given here must be of a different kind2 and if there be some who refuse to credit anything save what comes within range of the senses1 or is deducible directly and simply from what the senses make known1 there is no help for them4 ,neither science1 nor philosophy1 nor religion can deliver them from the narrow round of materialism4 ,but neither science1 nor philosophy1 nor religion1 can restrict itself to the testimony of the senses4 ,a deeper1 and wider range of inquiry is demanded of the man who would walk at large in the vast field spread out in nature4 ,all human life is subjected to the test of accepting evidence other than that the senses supply4 ,if some refuse to submit to this deeper and wider test1 narrowing their convictions accordingly1 others are not to be restricted in this way1 nor are they to be influenced by such determination even on the part of highly distinguished scientific men4 ,for1 it can not be overlooked that this is not a question of science1 nor does it imply any thing but an ordinary exercise of intelligence4 ,the one test for the public mind is this1--,is it or is it not true that not an atom of matter can be originated or destroyed8 ,is the doctrine of the conservation of energy to be taken as scientifically demonstrated8 ,these things science must decide1 and beyond these1 all is clear for ordinary intelligence4 ,of the testimony of science on these two questions there is no doubt whatever4 ,religion1 therefore1 has no conflict with science here2 it simply accepts the teaching of science1 finding in it ample support for its fundamental position4 ,what creation really means1 or how we can fittingly represent it to our minds1 does not in the least affect the question here under discussion1 for these are not points on which science can offer any testimony4 ,nor have the defenders of religion any complaint to urge against the claims which science makes to explain all that belongs to nature4 ,but when those who make the largest claims for science1 acknowledge that science is baffled here1 their testimony gains in value by reason of the strength of their antipathy to the acknowledgment of the miraculous4 ,when from an accredited scientific witness we have these words3--,the investigation of nature does not shrink from enrolling life and the processes of life in the world of the comprehensible1 followed up by this explicit statement1 ,we are foiled only at the conception of matter and force2,,an the claims of science are raised to the highest pitch2 and yet its insuperable limits are clearly defined4 ,the defender of the harmony of scientific with religious thought has nothing more to desire4 ,the very place where science comes to a halt1 acknowledging that its utmost boundary has been reached1 is the place where it is demonstrated that scientific thought and religious are not involved in real conflict4 ,,footnotes3 ,,ab ,these allowances may well be made for ,professor ,clifford1 one of the most extravagant assailants of religious faith4 ,,ac ,professor ,tait in answer to ,mr4 ,froude has advanced the evidence4 ,international ,review1 ,nov4 #ahgh1 vol4 v4 ,no4 #f4 ,the collected papers have been republished1 ,atlas ,series1 ,no4 #aa4 ,,ad ,recent ,advances in ,physical ,science1 by ,p4 ,g4 ,tait1 ,professor of ,natural ,philosophy1 ,university of ,edinburgh1 p4 #ag4 ,,ae ,ib4 p4 #b4 ,,af ,recent ,advances in ,physical ,science1 p4 #ad4 ,,ag ,see ,appendix ,,iii4 ,,ah ,the ,conservation of ,energy1 by ,balfour ,stewart1 p4 #bf4 ,,ai ,the ,conservation of ,energy1 p4 #cf4 ,,aj ,recent ,advances of ,physical ,science1 p4 #ag4 ,,ak ,tait's ,recent ,advances1 p4 #ae4 ,,al ,recent ,advances1 p4 #bj4 ,,am ,recent ,advances1 p4 #bb4 ,,an ,the ,doctrine of ,descent1 by ,oscar ,schmidt1 p4 #bj4 ,,lecture ,,iv4 ,,organized ,,existence3 ,,life ,,and ,,its ,,development4--7,,darwin',s ,,theory ,,of ,,evolution47 ,in prosecuting our inquiry as to the most recent advances in science1 we pass now from inorganic to organic existence2 from the testimony of physicists1 to that of zologists4 ,this transition in itself starts a scientific problem1 beyond which we are carried onward to a distinct and very complicated area of existence1 higher in order1 and pressing upon attention an incalculable variety of details1 exceedingly difficult to harmonize4 ,in the earlier stage of physical research1 all observation and experiment lead forward to general results1 which gain ready acceptance because they may be said to be involved in scientific procedure itself4 ,in this more advanced stage it is otherwise4 ,in the former1 unorganized matter is the same everywhere2 and the laws of energy can be studied with equal facility in ,europe or in ,america1 in northern latitudes or in southern4 ,but when we begin to direct attention upon life in its manifold forms1 as these are scattered all over the world1 multitudes of distinct observations have to be prosecuted1 and their results slowly accumulated1 before even the most competent workers can occupy a position from which it is possible to make a beginning with our forecast of general conclusions4 ,even in the most favorable circumstances1 a great deal must be left to problematic inference1 and even to imagination4 ,gatherings of facts may be recorded in a manner which places them beyond reach of doubt1 while theories founded upon them hang long in suspense1 waiting confirmation on condition of being able to endure protracted criticism1 and manifold applications4 ,this accounts for the difficulty experienced in finding ready to hand general conclusions which have secured universal acceptance1 when we begin to move somewhat freely over the wide regions presenting the manifold problems of organized existence4 ,and as it is solely with general conclusions1 that religious thought is concerned1 some share of perplexity must attach to the attempt to discuss the question of harmony4 ,we must here therefore be considerably involved in questions affecting theories which have gained wide favor in scientific circles1 as well as with clearly recorded and certain results4 ,some general questions1 such as that affecting the classification of animals1 must be regarded as peculiarly scientific4 ,whether the classification of ,linnus1 or of ,cuvier1 or some other more recently suggested1 is to be preferred1 is a matter which does not here concern us4 ,but a theory of the origin of species must be considered1 because it is not purely scientific1 but brings science into direct relation with common thought as to the order of the universe1 and may therefore stand related to religious thought4 ,immediately on directing attention to organized existence1--to ,,life in any form1--we encounter a new problem1 namely the relation of the organized to the unorganized4 ,how is the appearance of this higher order of existence to be accounted for8 ,can we find in the nature of matter1 and in the mechanical and chemical laws influencing its position and combination1 any explanation of the appearance of life in the world8 ,or must we regard life as a new and higher fact1 unexplained by reference to the lower form of existence1 and incapable of explanation in this way8 ,whether there is a clear line of demarcation between vegetable and animal life is a comparatively subordinate question4 ,it is the wider and more perplexing question which most fundamentally affects our general conceptions as to the history and government of the world8 ,and when this question is pressed singly1--how can we account for the appearance of life in the world8--science has no answer to present4 ,life still remains a mystery in scientific times1 as it had been in past ages4 ,much has been written as to the origin of species2 nothing to any purpose has yet been said as to the origin of life itself4 ,the secrets of the universe in this respect have eluded discovery1 and a constrained silence is the consequence4 ,but if science itself has nothing to say as to this fundamental problem1 scientific men have much to say as to the probability of a true solution of the mystery being forthcoming4 ,there is in many quarters an expectation that we may yet understand the physical principles1 that is1 the mechanical and chemical combinations1 which go to explain life as a working organism4,,ao ,the suggestions of ,rumford and ,joule may yet bear results in this direction1 for it is matter of general agreement that living organism may be regarded as an engine doing a given amount of work1 on condition of being supplied with a given amount of fuel in the form of nourishment4 ,when therefore ,rumford suggests that the animal is a more economical engine than any of the mechanical contrivances which man constructs1 and when ,joule advances considerably beyond this to suggest that the animal more resembles an electro-magnetic engine1 than a heat engine1 it seems quite within the range of possibility that in some such direction discovery may yet be made of the physical principles involved in life4 ,this1 however1 leaves untouched the deeper question as to the origin of life4 ,we are entirely ignorant of any beginning of life which is not traced directly to a preceding living organism4 ,either1 as in the case of plants1 there is increase of life by fission1 or separation from an earlier growth1 or by means of seed grown upon the parent plant2 or1 as in the case of animals1 by germ or ovum4 ,but the question of the origin of life is remote from us historically1 and perplexing to us experimentally4 ,if we seek guidance historically1 we turn to geology1 and learn that the structure of the earth has involved successive formations4 ,the materials of the earth's crust are not thrown together confusedly1 but exhibit a certain order of arrangement2,,ap the mineral masses are partly aqueous1 partly igneous1 in formation2 according as they are one or other1 they contain organic remains1 or are marked by their absence4 ,all that can be inferred from the data thus afforded is that at a certain period in the world's history1 when temperature and other conditions affecting the possibility of organic existence were favorable1 life appeared4 ,as to the cause of its appearance1 geology can give no testimony4 ,if next1 we refer to palontology1 we learn of the existence of colossal animals which have long since become extinct2 but such researches only widen our acquaintance with different orders of animals1 contributing nothing towards the solution of the problem concerning the origin of life4 ,the experimental science of the present day1 with all the advantages arising from microscopical observation1 is altogether unable to offer any explanation4 ,experiments for the purpose of testing the probability of spontaneous generation have been already described1 and their failure leaves experimental science without any direct testimony2 while their history yields powerful indirect evidence in support of the position that origin of life apart from germ is unknown4 ,it is1 however1 desirable here1 in order to give completeness to our view of the present situation1 to remark that among scientific men there are some who have no expectation of a scientific explanation of the origin of life2 while others are exceedingly hopeful that such explanation may be reached1 in the latter class appearing naturally all those who openly proclaim against what they name an incomprehensible act of creation1 and voluntarily place themselves in antagonism to religious thought4 ,it is1 therefore1 of some consequence to indicate the grounds on which such opposite views rest4 ,on the one side1 ,professor ,tait1 while suggesting the possibility of yet discovering the physical principles which determine life1 nevertheless adds1 ,let no one imagine that1 should we ever penetrate this mystery1 we shall thereby be enabled to produce1 except from life1 even the lowest form of life4,,aq ,on the other hand ,professor ,schmidt of ,strasburg maintains the opposite view1 affirming that the investigation of nature does not shrink from enrolling life1 and the processes of life in the world of the comprehensible4,,ar ,this latter assertion is not to be accounted for on the ground that ,schmidt is the ardent admirer and defender of the theory of origin of species by natural selection1 for it is clear1 as he maintains in replying to ,max ,mller1 that the origin of life has in fact nothing to do with actual ,darwinism1 or natural selection1 unless the principle of selection be extended to the inorganic world of matter4,,as ,mr4 ,darwin himself does not suggest any such extension1 and his theory of species is not chargeable with it4 ,it should1 indeed1 be clearly recognized on all hands that the naturalist confines himself to a narrower range of inquiry1 taking existing phases of life as the subject of his study4 ,accordingly1 whoever claims that the origin of life comes within the compass of science1 does so on the ground that there is no demarcation between the organic and the inorganic1--that the former may arise directly from the latter1--and so he commits himself to a doctrine of descent world-wide in its application1 involving development in the world of all its varied phases of existence from a mass of unorganized matter4 ,this explains the difference of opinion among scientific men as to the possibility of accounting for the origin of life4 ,a certain number deny the possibility1 as they do the possibility of explaining scientifically the origin of matter on the explicit ground indicated by ,laplace1--,present events are connected with the events of the past by a link resting on the obvious principle1 that a thing can not begin to exist without a cause which produces it4,,at ,they do not find in inorganic matter sufficient cause to account for life1 and their expectations are restricted accordingly4 ,those who cherish a contrary expectation1 do not vindicate it by contradiction of the obvious principle enunciated by ,laplace1 or even by maintaining that inorganic matter is adequate to produce living organism4 ,they cling to the more general and doubtful position that no limits are to be assigned to science1 or as it is often stated1 all nature belongs to the comprehensible4 ,the failure of past experiments is no proof that inevitable failure awaits other experiments which may yet be made4 ,to abandon expectation seems to them to be unfaithful to science4 ,in this fashion1 ,professor ,schmidt declares that to any one who holds open the possibility that1 even now1 animate may be evolved from inanimate1 without the mediation of progenitors1 the first origin of life in this natural method is at once self-evident4,,au ,to this view the other side may legitimately reply1 that if the origin of life be as easily accounted for1 as provision is here made for the self-evident1 science will soon be at a discount4 ,to those regarding the matter from without1 and waiting for testimony as to what is scientifically established1 it is clear that there is no explanation of the origin of life2 and ,i think it will be most commonly held that the weight of reason as to expectations for the future lies with those who abandon the anticipation of any scientific explanation4 ,there is1 however1 in actual conclusions on scientific evidence nothing involving conflict with religious conviction2 and allowance will be made for continued and extended experiments1 provided only that the holding open the possibility1 does not make the probability self-evident4 ,passing thus from the unsolved problem of the origin of life1--with the attendant acknowledgment that there is no scientific theory of the world's descent from primordial atoms1 we advance to the testimony of science concerning different orders of life1 and their relations to each other4 ,here there is no restriction as to the use of scientific methods2 there is wide range for free action by the hosts of observers required for the work4 ,a sense of the relief which this implies1 in contrast with the hampering restraints surrounding the earlier question1 imparts to the words of ,schmidt a more jubilant tone1 as he says1 ,between beginning and end1 we naturalists may do as we please4,,av ,in this region it will be universally admitted that the development of species by selection is the conception which has gained greatest hold upon the scientific mind within recent times4 ,accordingly it seems better to begin with an outline of this theory1 and of its history as developed by ,mr4 ,darwin1 keeping1 however1 steadily in view the range of problem with which the theory has to deal4 ,as already remarked the origin of life is a problem quite distinct1 and the theory of selection does not entangle itself by maintaining origin of life by development from unorganized matter4 ,mr4 ,darwin clearly guarded himself against responsibility for such a conception of its origin4,,aw ,restricting thus far1 we have to keep in view the vast range of the problem demanding scientific explanation4 ,animal life manifests itself by spontaneous movement1--movement from within the living organism1 in contrast with movement caused by energy applied from without4 ,this holds true of every living germ1 from which a mature animal form may be developed4 ,this is the test of the presence of life under the microscope in minute germinal structures otherwise incapable of observation4 ,in its lowest known form life appears in a minute vessel containing so much nourishment1 which is within a nucleus or vital centre from which movement originates4,,ax ,this depends for its development on external conditions such as heat and moisture4,,ay ,advance in the scale is connected with greater complexity in the organism4 ,as we ascend1 separate organs appear1 fulfilling distinct functions1 and controlled by means of a nerve system whose ramifications are according to the intricacy of the organism4 ,the appearance of such a nerve system implies sensibility and motor activity1 provision for an experience more or less varied1 and movement in some measure according with it1 or adapted to it4 ,from a nerve system consisting of a centre and a few fibres1 we gradually ascend1 until in the higher vertebrate orders1 we find a vast system of nerves harmonized and governed from a grand centre or terminus constituting the brain4,,az ,with the steadily advancing complexity of nerve system1 there is great diversity in the orders of animals1 in the variety of actions of which they are capable1 in adaptation to different conditions of life1 and in the modes in which they obtain subsistence4 ,the scientific problem is--,how far can we account for all this complex system of things by the action of natural causes8 ,as we are here specially concerned with ruling conceptions1 and only indirectly with details1 the relations of the animal and vegetable kingdoms may be passed1 with the acknowledgment that the two are obviously distinct1 and yet that the vegetable very nearly merges into the animal at certain points1 as illustrated by sensibility1 if not by locomotion4 ,so may we waive discussion of the classification of animals1 which involves important points closely connected with the main question4 ,allowing that the wonderful diversity in animal organization1 may admit of different modes of classification2 and yet granting that the structure of the animal economy in all its forms proceeds on common principles1 which must lead to practical agreement as to modes of classification2 we deal with the single question as to the natural causes serving to explain different orders4 ,mr4 ,darwin's suggestion1 largely supported by evidence from many quarters1 and now commanding a very general support is1 that all this diversity may be regarded as the product of a long process of development4 ,this theory takes the whole orders of existence into one sweep4 ,the lowest type of animal life presents to view the beginning of a protracted history2 the highest order of animate existence indicates the stage of advance at which we observe things at the present period4 ,for such a theory the history of individual development belonging to whatever order1 and the history of distinct orders as indicating improvement and deviation of whatever aspect1 present evidence of special value4 ,the most important causes relied upon as contributing to the formation of a scientific theory may be presented under these four heads--7#a7 ,the action of external causes as provided for by environment2 7#b7 power of adaptability within each organism1 providing for changes according to requirement from without1 which may be described as adaptive changes of structure2 7#c7 the struggle for existence1 in accordance with which the strongest gain the mastery and consequent advantage in obtaining the means of subsistence2 and 7#d7 natural selection among the sexes1 giving to the offspring all advantages according to the laws of hereditary descent4 ,the essential feature in this theory is the power of adaptability inherent in the organism4 ,this is postulated as characteristic of all organized existence2 and it is implied1 that this power of adaptability multiplies in a degree approximating to the measure of complexity belonging to the organism4 ,the inherent capacity for deviation is thus much less in the mollusk than in the bird2 and in the bird much less than in the quadruped4 ,thus the development process which must1 according to this view1 have been exceedingly slow in the earlier stages1 must have been greatly accelerated when more complex organisms had come into existence1 and all the advantages accrued from greater diversity of materials4 ,such is a brief outline of the theory2 and looked at simply as a theory1 there is a manifest attraction in the boldness of the conception1 and the wide sweep of the generalization which it includes4 ,taken merely as an intellectual representation setting forth a conceivable order of things in the universe1 it has a great deal to command attention and awaken interest4 ,it is1 indeed1 a novelty in the history of scientific thought1 and as such at variance with previous conceptions1 both scientific and non-scientific4 ,but it is no more at variance with religious thought1 than with ordinary notions of preceding times2 while to the author whose name is now associated with it all over the scientific world1 it is a more striking testimony of the marvels of creative power1,,ba than notions previously current1 which regarded it as historically true that every existing variety of animal was launched into being by a distinct creative act4 ,whatever may be the ultimate view of the history of life on the earth1 based on purely scientific data1--and we are still a far way removed from what may be regarded as scientific evidence for such a view1--the fewer the primordial forms to which the multiplicity of existing species can be traced1 the greater is the marvel which science presents1 and the more convincing becomes the intellectual necessity by which we travel back to a ,supernatural ,intelligence as the source of all4 ,on the other hand1 the slow process by which scientific research tends to make out the natural history of living organisms far removed from each other in the scale of being1 tracing many groups to a common parentage1 and assigning their appearance in the world to distinct periods in its history1 will be seen to be so far anticipated and favored by the graphic description of the introduction of animal life given in the opening page of revelation1 where different orders are assigned to successive epochs4 ,while1 however1 these things are said at the outset1 as affording commencement for the study of an evolution theory1 and delivering us from the supposition that there is an inevitable antagonism between science and recognition of the supernatural1 we revert to the ruling principle for this whole inquiry1 that science must prosecute its own researches1 unfettered by forecast of consequences2 and that the ,bible is not to be handled as if it were a book of science1 for it neither lays restraints upon human inquiry1 nor delivers us from the need for it4 ,the best method for entering upon a study of the theory of evolution by natural selection is to take ,mr4 ,darwin's own account of the manner in which it began to take shape before his mind4 ,in his historical sketch of the recent progress of opinion on the origin of species1,,bb he traces to ,lamark the first suggestions on the subject1 directing public attention to the question in #ahja2 thereafter a succession of naturalists including ,st4 ,hilaire1 ,wells1 and ,patrick ,matthew1 from separate and incidental observations1 dwelt upon the difficulty of distinguishing species1 and on the evidence of an archetypal idea1 or common plan of structure1 being applicable in the history of whole orders4 ,mr4 ,darwin then gives the following biographical references at the outset1--,when on board ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ',beagle1' as naturalist1 ,i was much struck with certain facts in the distribution of the organic beings inhabiting ,south ,america1 and in the geological relations of the present to the past inhabitants of that continent4 ,these facts seemed to throw some light on the origin of species--that mystery of mysteries1 as it has been called by one of our greatest philosophers4 ,on my return home1 it occurred to me in #ahcg1 that something might perhaps be made out on this question by patiently accumulating and reflecting on all sorts of facts which could possibly have any bearing on it4 ,after five years' work ,i allowed myself to speculate on the subject1 and drew up some short notes2 these ,i enlarged in #ahdd into a sketch of the conclusions which then seemed to me probable3 from that period to the present day ,i have steadily pursued the same object4,,bc ,such is ,mr4 ,darwin's opening paragraph in the now celebrated ,origin of ,species4 ,no one interested in such investigations will hesitate to approve and trust the patiently accumulating and reflecting on all sorts of facts2 nor can there be any hesitation in granting the warrantableness of his beginning to speculate as to the probable results4 ,on the other hand1 even the most ardent admirers of the evolution theory can not refuse to allow that only its principles are certain1 while its ultimate form is still matter of conjecture and speculation4 ,quite divergent lines of speculation have found a start within the compass of the phenomena brought under review1 and it is already apparent that opposite tendencies of thought have effected a lodgment under the common name of evolution4 ,in these circumstances there is no direct call1 as there are no proper materials1 for attempting a reconciliation between the principles of religion1 and definite scientific conclusions as to the origin of species4 ,we are still occupying that position which makes historical treatment of the subject the most appropriate1 leaving to speculation the probable lines of adjustment which may render possible a wider induction bearing on a general theory of the universe4 ,the observations of ,alfred ,russell ,wallace in the ,malay ,archipelago led towards the same conclusions as those indicated by ,darwin1 to whom ,mr4 ,wallace dedicated his book1,,bd giving the results of research extending from #ahed to #ahfb1 and in confirmation of ,darwin's theory1 though differing on important points1 ,wallace published in #ahgj his ,contribution to the ,theory of ,natural ,selection4 ,mr4 ,darwin's views when first promulgated received decided though somewhat guarded support from ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 whose geological studies marked him out as a highly qualified witness on the subject1 and were strongly favored by ,dr4 ,hooker1 author of ,introduction to the ,australian ,flora1 while they encountered not a little criticism1 and were met with announcements of formal reservations1 on the part of distinguished naturalists4 ,a fuller statement as to the history of his own thought was given by ,mr4 ,darwin in the fifth edition of his work1 and also in a letter to ,hckel1 author of the bolder venture as to the ,history of the ,creation1 and the ,evolution of ,man4 ,this letter to ,hckel may be given here as having considerable value in its bearing on the formation of the theory of evolution4 ,after referring to his early researches as to lower forms of life1 ,mr4 ,darwin proceeds thus--,having reflected much on the foregoing facts1 it seemed to me probable that allied species were descended from a common ancestor4 ,but during several years ,i could not conceive how each form could have been modified so as to become admirably adapted to its place in nature4 ,i began therefore to study domesticated animals and cultivated plants1 and after a time perceived that man's power of selecting and breeding from certain individuals was the most powerful of all means in the production of new races4 ,having attended to the habits of animals and their relations to the surrounding conditions1 ,i was able to realize the severe struggle for existence to which all organisms are subjected2 and my geological observations had allowed me to appreciate to a certain extent the duration of past geological periods4 ,with my mind thus prepared1 ,i fortunately happened to read ,malthus's ,essay on ,population2 and the idea of natural selection through the struggle for existence at once occurred to me4 ,of all the subordinate points in the theory1 the last which ,i understood was the cause of the tendency in the descendants from a common progenitor to diverge in character4,,be ,this short passage in personal history may considerably aid others in their study of the theory4 ,this letter may with advantage be supplemented by one or two brief extracts from ,the ,origin of ,species4 ,in one of his most recent editions1 our author says1--,it may be metaphorically said1 that natural selection is daily2 and hourly scrutinizing throughout the world the slightest variations1 rejecting those that are bad1 preserving and adding up all that are good2 silently and insensibly working1 whenever and wherever opportunity offers1 at the improvement of each organic being in relation to its organic and inorganic conditions of life4 ,such a metaphorical representation attributing to nature different processes1 such as scrutinizing1 rejecting1 preserving1 and working1 considerably aids us by pointing to the intellectual conditions involved in the acceptance of the theory of evolution4 ,to this it may suffice if there be added the closing passage in our author's work on species1 indicating his view of the relation of all to the supernatural4 ,it is in these words--,thus1 from the war of nature1 from famine and death1 the most exalted object which we are capable of conceiving1,,bf namely1 the production of the higher animals1 directly follows4 ,there is grandeur in this view of life1 with its several powers1 having been originally breathed by the ,creator into a few forms or into one2 and that whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity1 from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been1 and are being evolved4,,bg ,on this passage1 ,schmidt has remarked--,in this concession1 ,darwin has certainly been untrue to himself2 and it satisfies neither those who believe in the continuous work of creation by a personal ,god1 nor the partisans of natural evolution4 ,in this criticism we have a good example of the manner in which an impression of conflict is fostered4 ,the rejoinder to ,schmidt is obvious4 ,those who value religion seek no concessions1 but desire to banish from scientific and philosophic writing all thought tending in this direction4 ,if1 however1 needless complications are to be avoided1 we must have exact statements of the relative positions4 ,the sentence just quoted involves a misrepresentation equally of religion and science4 ,belief in the supernatural does not imply belief in a continuous work of creation1 and therefore does not carry any thing inherently antagonistic to the conception of evolution under natural law4 ,on the other hand1 belief in evolution of species under the action of natural law does not decide the question1 concerning the origin of life1 just as a science of nature can decide nothing concerning the supernatural4 ,professor ,schmidt is1 however1 so far from clearly and consistently recognizing the exact limit of the theory1 that within the compass of a single page he first affirms the limitation1 and then denies it4 ,first vindicating ,darwin from the attack of ,max ,mller as to beginning and end of living organism1 he says1 ,the origin of life has in fact nothing to do with actual ,darwinism1 or natural selection1 unless the principle of selection be extended to the inorganic world of matter1,,bh an entanglement which ,schmidt is willing to avoid1 and which ,darwin carefully shuns1 distinctly stating that ,science in her present state does not countenance the belief that living creatures are now ever produced from inorganic matter4,,bi ,but ,schmidt has no sooner placed himself behind this line of defence1 than he attacks ,darwin for acknowledging origin of life by creation1 maintaining that it is directly incompatible with the doctrine of descent4,,bj ,the theorist must take either one side or the other4 ,either he must maintain that the theory of descent has nothing to do with the origin of life1 and in that case there is no conflict with religious thought2 or that the theory of descent is incompatible with creation1 and in that case there is conflict with religious thought1 and at the same time inconsistency with science1 in respect of its own definition as an explanation of nature1 and in respect of its own results which do not involve spontaneous generation1 but do include the position that not a single particle of matter can be originated or destroyed by any power recognized in operation4 ,no one will dispute the claims of the investigation of nature to its logical inferences1 but where the material substratum is deficient1 most reasonable men will demand that distinct acknowledgment be made of the fact1 and that the boundaries of science be defined accordingly4 ,if1 however1 any one be inclined to maintain that where the material substratum is deficient1 all inquiry must terminate1 and human thought must refuse to go further1 or to attempt to rise higher1 this certainly is not science1 but an illogical attempt to make the science of nature commensurate with the boundaries of thought1--an arbitrary declaration that the causal series within the material universe is the sum total of causality4 ,such an affirmation can not warrantably attach itself to a theory of descent1 as it can not be tested by observational methods1 but altogether by reference to the laws of thought determining the value of rationalizing processes4 ,the theory of natural evolution1 implies evolution from something2 it postulates a beginning from which it takes procedure1 and it exhausts itself in observations concerning such deviations as occur in the annals of natural history4 ,if1 therefore1 any of the partisans of natural evolution1 take up a position involving denial of a rational acknowledgment of the supernatural1 they isolate themselves in so doing1 leaving the theory free from responsibility as to their attitude1 and taking upon themselves the logical necessity for vindicating their position on grounds with which the theory of evolution itself has no concern4 ,having thus vindicated the theory of natural evolution from all share in the denial of creation1 and having entered a protest upon purely scientific grounds against the attempt to translate a scientific theory concerning a limited order of facts within the universe into a metaphysical theory concerning the origin of the universe1 we are in a position to concentrate upon the theory itself as an attempt to provide a scientific explanation of the history of living organism4 ,and this is here done with the view of ascertaining1 in a general and necessarily restricted manner1 the value of the evidence presented for its acceptance1 thereby ascertaining its relations to the essential characteristics of religious thought4 ,the first and simplest part of the task is to indicate the favorable impression it has made on the minds of men1--the conquest it has already won for itself1--as a theory carrying within it a large amount of truth1 whatever may be its final form1 after the very intricate and difficult questions involved have been carefully examined4 ,the theory has carried general approval for the position that allied species are descended from a common ancestor1 or1 stating the same view in the manner suggested by experiment1 that it is possible to obtain in the history of a single race of animals1 considerable deviations in structure1 and to give these deviations fixedness or permanence by continuance of selected features along the line of hereditary descent4 ,this has been amply illustrated by the examples of the various orders of pigeons1 and of dogs2 both classes of animals having been largely experimented upon1 and the distinct varieties being easily recognized and popularly known4 ,comparatively little hesitation exists as to acknowledging that the different orders of pigeons have had a common ancestry2 and that the same may be said of the different races of dogs4 ,these examples afford the governing conception of the evolution theory1 presenting the type of evidence which has led on to the wider generalization4 ,under the discussions which the theory has originated facts previously familiar have been contemplated in a different light1 as bearing upon a general plan or order of procedure apparent in the history of organized existence4 ,the consequent gain for the theory is altogether favorable to the restricted doctrine that allied species have had a common descent1 or that a single type of organism may under the law of evolution lead to the appearance of different orders or races of animals4 ,the clear advance thus made in our conceptions of the history of the universe will appear by simple statement of negative results following from the admission of the modified form of doctrine just given4 ,these involve the rejection of views previously held1 not by religious men in religious interests1 but by men generally1 as the natural consequence of the want of scientific investigations fitted to guide the public mind4 ,so far as a general conclusion has gained assent1 men show no reluctance to accept the clear logical inferences following from the investigation of nature4 ,among these results is rejection of fixedness of species as implying impossibility of deviation from a single normal type of structure4 ,the possibility of adaptive changes being granted1 the absolute fixedness of species in the rigid sense formerly acknowledged is abandoned4 ,how great the modification of view must be1 is much more difficult to decide1 and hardly admits of exact statement4 ,there is certainly no denial of distinction of species1 nor can such denial ever find acceptance1 whatever be the advance of theory1 for the distinctions are so broad as to render this impossible4 ,but the whole work of classification of the different orders of animal life1 exceedingly difficult in any case1 has been rendered much more perplexing in consequence of the accumulation of evidence favoring the doctrine of evolution4 ,what can properly be regarded as the origin of a new species1 and what as a mere modification or advance in a species already recognized1 are questions for which it is difficult to find an exact answer4 ,the theory of the origin of species by natural selection seems placed in an awkward perplexity as to what constitutes origin of a new order of life4 ,and this difficulty must be regarded as a constant attendant on the scheme of thought1 since adaptive changes must be of slow progress1 and historically obscure1 inasmuch as a succession of very slight differences must contribute to a general result4 ,in this way it may even become matter of keen discussion what actually constitutes organic advance4 ,mr4 ,darwin admits serious difficulty at this point4 ,he says1 ,here we enter on a very intricate subject1 for naturalists have not defined to each other's satisfaction what is meant by an advance in organization4,,bk ,thus there is dispute among competent authorities as to which may properly be considered the highest order of plants1 and which the highest order of fishes4 ,on the other hand1 it is comparatively easy to decide among the more highly organized animals1 when an advance is made1 by reference to increased complexity in structure1 or provision of separate organs for accomplishment of distinct functions4 ,these considerations1 however1 suffice to indicate how many and complicated are the subjects requiring to be examined on evidence1 and adjusted in their relations to each other1 before it can be possible to get beyond surmise1 in order to formulate a complete scientific theory4 ,that adaptive changes by natural law of evolution are not only possible1 but that they frequently occur under observation1 admits of no question2 but whether this includes changes of structure such as imply origin of species may still be subject of grave doubt4 ,the alterations made by ,mr4 ,darwin in successive editions of his book1 from the first edition in #ahei1 to the sixth edition in #ahgb1;,,bl introduced1 as he explains1 according as the evidence has become somewhat stronger or weaker1 are sufficient to suggest that a vast amount of work remains to be done before a well-defined theory can be formulated4 ,while there is universal agreement as to the possibility of adaptive changes to which ,mr4 ,darwin provisionally restricted his theory on account of the investigations of ,nageli as to plants1 and those of ,broca as to animals1 there is much diversity of opinion concerning the wider application of the theory of evolution4 ,this diversity arises in part from the varying estimate of the value of evidence as now accumulated1 and in part from the varying conception of the completeness of our records of the ancient history of organism as presented by geology4 ,there is as yet no general consensus of opinion1 nor is there likely to be for a long time to come4 ,mr4 ,darwin himself is sufficiently cautious and faithful to observational methods1 to admit that there are serious difficulties1 of some of which he ventures only to say that they are greatly diminished1 while some have disappeared4 ,other writers1 such as ,hckel1 with greatly less caution1 and with much greater alacrity in leaping over chasms1 are prepared to go much further and faster than ,darwin4 ,many more are exceedingly doubtful as to the scientific value of the evidence at command1 being1 as ,mr4 ,darwin has said1 much shaken in their former belief4,,bm ,and of many it must be said that they are convinced that the evidence is far from warranting the conclusion that all organized existence can be traced to only a few forms1 or to one1 according to the alternatives suggested by ,darwin in the closing sentence of his book4 ,waiving1 then1 meanwhile1 as the state of scientific evidence warrants us to do1 the question of the probable number of primordial forms in which organized existence appeared1 there is at least another definite result to be recorded as following from even a modified recognition of a theory of development1 that is the rejection of belief in the simultaneous origin of all species or orders of animal life existing now in the world4 ,the scientific conception of the history of animal life is1 that there has been a historical progression in the appearance of animals1 in so far as lower orders took precedence of higher1 while the higher have shown large power of adaptation to the circumstances in which they have been placed4 ,in accordance with the whole principles regulating the relations of religion and science1 religious men1 scientific and non-scientific1 will readily acquiesce in this modification of general belief1 as largely favored by evidence which geology supplies1 and supported by testimony drawn from the actually existing order of things2 and they will do so with clear recognition that this view involves no conflict with scriptural statement1 and is so far from containing in it any thing antagonistic to the fundamental conception of the supernatural origin of existence1 that it harmonizes with it1 even intensifying the demand upon a transcendent cause for the rational explanation of the admitted order of things4 ,having thus indicated in definite form the favorable impression made on the public mind by the theory of evolution under a law of natural selection1 it will suffice to indicate very briefly the more prominent difficulties with which the theory has grappled1 but from which it has not escaped4 ,in doing so1 it should be said that the careful and deliberate manner in which ,mr4 ,darwin has faced the host of difficulties which have gathered around is deserving of highest praise1 as in harmony with the scientific spirit1 and in marked contrast with the light-and-go-easy style in which others1 such as ,hckel1 and even ,schmidt1 pass over the ground1 announcing things as undoubted facts1 and even self-evident truths1 of which no man can speak with any degree of certainty4 ,on the other hand1 it seems a reasonable ground of complaint against many opponents of the theory1 which ,mr4 ,darwin urges specially against ,mr4 ,st4 ,george ,mivart1 that it is no part of their plan to give the various facts and considerations opposed to their own conclusions1 while marshalling the difficulties against an evolution theory4 ,and yet it should be remembered that a great service is done to science in a period of transition1 when difficulties are powerfully urged against a popular hypothesis1 as an injury is done to science by precipitate and ill-considered arguments in support of such a hypothesis4 ,of the most serious difficulties in the way of a theory of descent by evolution1 the first concerns the nature of the evidence1 inasmuch as all change coming under observation does not indicate progression or improvement in the organism4 ,the importance of this may be best indicated by quoting ,mr4 ,darwin's explanatory words as to alterations in the fifth edition of his book on species4 ,he says1 ,in the earlier editions of my ,origin of ,species1 ,i probably attributed too much to the action of natural selection or survival of the fittest4 ,i have altered the fifth edition of the ,origin so as to confine my remarks to adaptive changes of structure4 ,i had not formerly sufficiently considered the existence of many structures1 which appear to be1 as far as we can judge1 neither beneficial nor injurious1 and this ,i believe to be one of the greatest oversights as yet detected in my work4 ,when it is certain that deviation from the normal structure may take place which is a disadvantage to the individual1 and that this may descend to offspring2 when it is also shown that deviation may occur which appears to serve no end1 that is1 contributes to no phase of functional activity2 when besides advantages gained are lost1 and the race returns to its original type of structure2 and when farther there are examples of degeneration1 as in parasitic races1--such facts interpose special difficulties in the way of an all-embracing theory of progress by natural selection4 ,besides1 as deviations occur of an unfavorable kind among domesticated animals under the care of man1 it becomes obvious that progress may be readily lost even in most favorable circumstances4 ,the next outstanding difficulty is that of meeting the requirements of logical inference4 ,this has been specially urged by ,mr4 ,mivart as bearing upon the incipient stages of advance1 and the difficulty certainly presses heavily at that point4 ,natural selection may account for much in the history of higher organisms where powers of sensibility and locomotion are great1 but how can we find in natural selection an adequate explanation of progress in organisms within which these powers are at the lowest4 ,the difficulty is to get a cause sufficient to account for the start of a movement so vast as that which is to culminate in man4 ,mr4 ,darwin feels the force of this difficulty1 and replies thus1 as we have no facts to guide us1 speculation on the subject is almost useless4,,bn ,but this perplexity which is most glaring at the beginning of the upward course1 clings to the theory at every stage in the combination of struggle and improvement1--descent involving a real ascent4 ,whether the organism be more or less complex1 it depends upon external causes for its improvement1 and the dependence continues at every stage4 ,granting that there is everywhere struggle for existence and survival of the fittest1 are these sufficient to account for results so great as are involved in unceasing advance of organism8 ,if it be argued that they are sufficient1 a serious perplexity comes from the opposite quarter1--,how does it happen that all organic existence does not advance together to a common elevation8 ,if the theory accounts for advance1 how shall we account for the want of it8 ,the difficulties are as great for the theory in view of the large body of facts it does not attempt to include1 as in the facts it strives to embrace4 ,agassiz put this difficulty with much force in #aheg1 and it has not received any satisfactory answer4 ,he said1 ,it is a fact which seems to be entirely overlooked by those who assume an extensive influence of physical causes upon the very existence of organized beings1 that the most diversified types of animals and plants are everywhere found under identical circumstances4,,bo ,if1 as ,mr4 ,darwin says1 looking to the first dawn of life1 we may believe that all organic beings presented the simplest structure2 if the struggle for existence is uniformly encountered and leads to survival of the fittest1 how is it that within the same area1 organism has not advanced to similar complexity8 ,if under constraint of the evidence for the theory1 we surrender the doctrine of inevitable fixedness of species1 how shall we nevertheless account for the permanence of species8 ,it is not suggested that there is at successive stages new and simple forms continually being produced by spontaneous generation4 ,this hypothesis of ,lamark is rejected by ,mr4 ,darwin1,,bp as it is by almost all scientific observers8 ,how1 then1 can we explain the facts8 ,we are told that certain orders have fallen out in the march of progress2 but we need a scientific account of this which shall harmonize with a theory of action of environment1 and such an account is not forthcoming4 ,it may be said that the very success of the theory by accumulation of most striking and important evidence1 is bringing it into difficulty1 and suggesting its insufficiency4 ,the more powerful and imposing the action of the law of natural selection1 the more pressing becomes the need for a scientific explanation1 at once distinct and harmonious1 which will account for the persistence of species1 when struggle for existence goes on under similar or even analogous action of environment4 ,the presence everywhere of these lower forms alongside of the higher1 adds greatly to the attractiveness of nature1 and not even the grandeur of a universal advance towards the higher levels of organization would make up for the disappearance of the marvels of lower orders of animals4 ,a monotony of grandeur may compare unfavorably with the wealth of variety and adversity2 and so a law of continuity or persistence may be found adding to the greatness of a universe in which a law of progress or evolution also finds uniform application4 ,upon this contrast between persistence and progress1 general attention will henceforth be concentrated in judging of the place and value of a theory of descent4 ,there is no need for hurry or impatience in this matter4 ,the words of ,mr4 ,darwin will find ready assent as he says1 ,no one ought to feel surprise at much yet remaining unexplained on the origin of species1 if we make due allowance for our profound ignorance on the mutual relations of the inhabitants of the world at the present time1 and still more during past ages4,,bq ,in accordance with this acknowledgment1 a wide range of scientific research still remains to be undertaken1 and religious thought can have nothing but friendly interest in the work1 as it may well be assured of drawing thence fresh contributions of great value for higher speculation concerning the government of the universe4 ,,footnotes3 ,,ao ,tait's ,recent ,advances1 p4 #bc4 ,,ap ,lyell's ,elements of ,geology1 p4 #b4 ,,aq ,recent ,advances1 p4 #bd4 ,,ar ,doctrine of ,descent1 p4 #bj4 ,,as ,ib4 p4 #afa4 ,,at ,introduction to the ,theory of ,science4 ,,au ,doctrine of ,descent1 p4 #afc4 ,,av ,doctrine of ,descent1 p4 #afb4 ,,aw ,origin of ,species1 p4 #egg4 ,,ax ,see ,appendix ,,vii4 ,,ay ,see ,appendix ,v4 ,,az ,see ,appendix ,,iv4 ,,ba ,origin of ,species1 p4 #egg4 ,,bb ,the ,origin of ,species1 xiii4 #dth ed4 ,,bc ,the ,origin of ,species1 p4 #a4 ,,bd ,malay ,archipelago1 #ahfi4 ,,be ,the passage is quoted as given by ,schmidt in his ,doctrine of ,descent1 p4 #acb4 ,italics are inserted to guide the eye of the reader to the successive stages4 ,,bf ,referring to organized being4 ,,bg ,origin of ,species1 p4 #egg4 ,,bh ,doct4 of ,descent1 p4 #afa-b4 ,,bi ,origin of ,species1 #dth ed4 p4 #adc4 ,,bj ,doct4 of ,descent1 #afb4 ,,bk ,origin of ,species1 #dth ed4 p4 #ada4 ,,bl ,it may be well to mention here that the third ,american edition is from the fifth ,english edition4 ,,bm ,origin of ,species1 #fth ed41 p4 #bhi4 ,,bn ,origin of ,species1 #fth4 ed4 chap4 iv4 p4 #ajj4 ,,bo ,contributions to the ,natural ,history of the ,united ,states1 ,introduction1 ,boston1 #aheg2 and ,essay on ,classification1 p4 #ae1 published separately2 ,london1 #ahei4 ,see ,appendix ,,vi4 ,,bp ,origin1 #dth ed4 p4 #adc4 ,,bq ,origin of ,species1 #fth4 ed4 chap4 iv4 p4 #ajj4 ,,lecture ,v4 ,,relations ,,of ,,lower ,,and ,,higher ,,organisms4 ,from the general aspects of the theory of species1 we pass to the consideration of distinct groups of organism1 with the view of ascertaining their relations to each other4 ,in doing so1 it is better to begin at the lower end of the scale1 leaving for a more advanced stage of inquiry the higher types of organism4 ,in this department of the subject1 special obligations are due to the wide range of investigations either occasioned or stimulated by the theory of evolution4 ,for1 whatever may be the ultimate award passed on this theory1 there will be a unanimous recognition of the great value to science attending on the varied forms of inquiry stimulated by the writings of ,mr4 ,charles ,darwin4 ,and one obvious and strong reason for such acknowledgment is that so many of the results of these researches have an inherent value quite distinct from their testimony in favor of the theory that the struggle for existence is the principal factor in the origin of new species4 ,one of the most interesting fields of observation thus opened1 is that concerned with the fertilization of plants by the intervention of insects and birds4 ,a beginning in this department was made by the ,german naturalist1 ,christian ,konrad ,sprengel1 who published in #agic the report of his observations4 ,in this he has been followed by ,darwin1 in #ahfb2 by ,dr4 ,hooker1 ,professor ,asa ,gray whose contributions appeared in the ,american ,journal of ,science and ,art in #ahfb1 and #ahfc1 ,moggridge1 ,fritz ,mller1 and ,sir ,john ,lubbock4 ,the facts now accumulated1 rank as an important contribution to botany and zology1 and naturally fall within the circle of recent advances to which it is desirable that attention be turned4 ,the general result is one of great interest1 as illustrating a striking degree of interdependence between lower and higher organisms1--the vegetable and animal kingdom contributing to each other's subsistence and propagation4 ,flowers present special attractions to insects flying around1 alluring them by varied colors1 and providing for them by secreting stores of honey2 on the other hand1 these insects 7flies1 bees1 wasps1 etc471 seeking the honey which satisfies their wants1 at the same time carry the pollen from one flower to another1 thus providing for the fertilizing of the plants4 ,in some cases1 fertilization is secured by a natural process within the organism itself2 in other cases1 the pollen is scattered over a region by the wind2 but the most wonderful1 and at the same time efficient mode of providing for the growth of vigorous plants1 is fertilization by the agency of insect life4 ,a brief outline of the ordinary structure of the flower will introduce to a ready appreciation of the scientific interest attaching to this last mode of fertilization1 both as concerning the functions of different portions of the flowers1 and the relation of dependence established between higher and lower forms of organism1 so that each is dependent on the other4 ,every flower as it unfolds from the bud1 consists of a series of whorls1 or layers of substance twined or twirled round in such a manner as to unfold or coil back1 as the flower opens4 ,the outermost of these whorls 7calyx7 is a mere covering or sheath1 usually of a green color1 which protects the bud during the more tender period1 curling up and withering as the flower opens1 spreading forth its beauty4 ,the second whorl 7corolla7 is what we more commonly regard as the flower proper1 the colored leaves1 or cup1 or bell1 according to the specific shape distinguishing the plant4 ,the third whorl consists of a series of stalks or filaments 7stamens7 which as the flower matures or ripens stand up distinct from each other1 each one having at its summit a little tuft or cushion 7anther7 covered with a fine dust or powder 7pollen74 ,the fourth or inner-most whorl1 the centre piece of the flower 7pistil7 is that in which the seed is generated and brought to maturity4 ,we may thus say of the flower1 that its outermost whorl is a temporary covering which withers and shrinks out of view1 when the beauty of the inner structure is laid open2 that the second is that which attracts the eye by the loveliness of its hues2 while the two which belong to the internal structure of the flower are concerned with the reproduction or propagation of the plant1 providing for the healthy germ from which a fresh plant of the same order may spring up4 ,the relation of the fine yellow powder produced at the tips of the third whorl1 to the seeds which are gathered together within the fourth whorl1 is the matter to which special attention has been directed by the recent discoveries which have rewarded patient research4 ,the fine powder or pollen needs to be carried to the seed1 so that its properties may operate upon that seed1 if it is to be fertilized1 or so matured1 as to fulfil its function in generating a new plant when it is committed to the soil4 ,in many cases it is enough that the fine powder should fall down from its elevation on the seeds below4 ,this is self-fertilization1 and is easily provided for by the mere bending of the head of the flower as it approaches maturity1 or by the swaying of it in the breeze4 ,but a more difficult1 and as we might be inclined to add1 more precarious1 because less certain1 method for fertilization is required in many cases4 ,the experiments carried on by all our gardeners1 and in a still more extended scale in all our centres of botanic research1 have established the fact that in many cases1 the yellow powder of one plant must be in some manner carried over to the seed produced within another flower1 if that seed is to yield a satisfactory result to the horticulturist4 ,we have thus two prominent facts here4 ,the one is the essential importance of the pollen for fertilization2 and the other1 the need for the transference of the pollen from one plant to another in order to secure reproduction of vigorous growth by the sowing of the seed4 ,as to the first1 the pollen1 which appears a fine powder or flour contains fluid protoplasm1 that which ,professor ,huxley has described as the single physical basis of life under all the diversities of vital existence4,,br ,these pollen grains falling on the seed discharge their protoplasmic fluid upon it1 and by this means contribute to fertilization4 ,this original or primordial form of vitalising agency is carried from one part of the flower to another1 and this transference is the law regulating the propagation of flowering plants4 ,but1 just at this point1 we come upon the most striking results of recent research4 ,though all pollen is of this primary nature1 named protoplasm1 it is not found to hold true that pollen is of the same value for fertilization from whatever quarter it comes4 ,on the contrary1 most important differences result according to the source of the pollen4 ,there is first the process of self-fertilization4 ,but in many cases1--,mr4 ,darwin has shown that this holds of the majority of the orchids1--transference of the pollen from one plant to another proves to be a great advantage1 if not an actual necessity for propagation of the plant4 ,this process1 known as cross-fertilization1 gives a healthy and vigorous growth2 want of it1 will lead to degeneration1 and ultimate extinction4 ,this discovery has introduced a whole series of the most striking observations1 throwing a flood of light on the distribution and interdependence of distinct forms of organism4 ,the necessary relation between the pollen and the seed having been acknowledged1 and next the value of transference of pollen from one plant to another1 the first step in the line of discovery was made by the observation of a natural provision to prevent self-fertilization by rendering it impossible that the pollen of a plant should fall on the seed of that plant4 ,this entrance on the line of discovery was made by ,sprengel so far back as #agij1 by whom it was observed that in many plants the pollen and the seed did not come to ripeness at the same time4,,bs ,in some cases1 the pollen is ripened before the seeds are ready2 in other cases1 the order of events is reversed4 ,this observation naturally suggested transference of pollen from one plant to another2 and this1 connected with the continual coming and going of flies1 bees1 and butterflies1 led to the further discovery1 that insects unwittingly perform a large part of the work needful in order to provide for fertilization4 ,mr4 ,darwin has pointed out that from the paper of ,robert ,brown in the ,linnean ,transactions1 in #ahcc2 and from that of ,dr4 ,hooker in the ,philosophic ,transactions for #ahed1 the peculiar phenomena had begun to awaken scientific interest4 ,it was1 however1 when the researches as to origin of species had given fresh motive to observation concerning the relations of different types of organism1 that the whole facts were brought to view1 separately recorded1 and at length systematized so as to lead to their full interpretation4 ,mr4 ,darwin himself concentrated on the orchids as peculiarly interesting and suggestive1 while a host of workers all over the world were turning their energies into this new field of observation which promised ample return for patient research4 ,as a reward of these investigations important facts have been established on ample evidence4 ,first1 it has been confirmed by varying lines of evidence that transference of pollen1 or cross-fertilization1 is of special value in the development of plant life4 ,investigation has strengthened the evidence of disadvantage arising from fertilization by exclusive dependence on self-produced pollen4 ,fritz ,mller has recorded a variety of observations that the pollen of some flowers has so little influence on the seed produced on the same stem that when it falls upon the seeds no effect is produced2 the pollen lies there as if possessed of no more vitalizing power than grains of dust4 ,and1 what is even more surprising1 ,mller has found examples in which the pollen does act upon the seeds of its own flower1 but acts injuriously1 insomuch that the flower1 the pollen1 and the seed-producing portion of the plant begin to decay4,,bt ,so deep has been the impression made on ,mr4 ,darwin's mind by the evidence of provision for transference of pollen1 that he closes his valuable and interesting book on the ,fertilization of ,orchids with the following statements4 ,having remarked that self-fertilization would have been an incomparably safer and easier process than the transportal of pollen from flower to flower1 he adds these words1--,it is hardly an exaggeration to say that ,nature tells us1 in the most emphatic manner1 that she abhors perpetual self-fertilization4,,bu ,the next result secured presents an important relation between animal life and vegetable4 ,these flowers do not depend for their fertilization upon the action of the wind1 which in scattering profusely in all directions must occasion large waste of pollen4 ,there is found to be distinct provision for carrying the pollen from one flower to another by insects1 such as the bees1 whose industry in gathering honey has been celebrated from ancient times1 specially because of our interest in the storehouse1 but with little suspicion of the double work being done by the bees1 who add to their other industry that of horticulturists4 ,these bees are the pollen-bearers1--the recognized local carriers1 regularly on the road1--doing the work which the flowers1 in lack of locomotive power1 could not do for each other4 ,or1 looking at the relation of things from another point of view1 the bees are at the same time gathering the honey1 and sowing the seed for a future harvest4 ,this reference to the honey1 however1 introduces to notice a companion series of facts1 showing the provision in completed form for an interchange of services4 ,the plants supply an attraction to the animals1 while the animals render a service to the plants4 ,this phase of interdependence is made more conspicuous by the contrast apparent in the structure and functions of plants fertilized by the wind1 such as the larger shrubs and trees1 which as they present a greater surface to the breeze1 do not call for the same detailed provision for carrying the pollen4 ,in contrast with these more bulky representatives of the vegetable kingdom1 the more lowly and insignificant in size1 as well as more short-lived1 present many attractions in color1 scent1 and secretion of honey1 all adapted to the nature of insects1 suited for the work of pollen carrying4 ,the attractions of form1 color1 and scent in the flowers are well known to us2 but they are also appreciated by the insects1--a fact which may possibly suggest that a high degree of intellectual power is not required for appreciation of these qualities1 as no one professes that bees rank high intellectually4 ,at the same time1 if comparisons are to be made at this point1 the farther suggestion may also be introduced1 that there is little testimony to intelligence where search for food is concerned1 and while the human race do not feed on flowers1 insects are constantly feeding from them4 ,the attractions in the two cases therefore vary considerably in their significance4 ,restricting attention1 however1 to the special field of observation now before us1 with the view simply of ascertaining the relations of plants and insects1 color and honey present the two most prominent attractions accounting for the perpetual hum of life heard amongst the flowering plants4 ,different parts of the flower provide for variegated coloring1 and stores of honey2 these present attractions to the insects2 and the structure of the flowers as they provide for the landing of the insects1 and require that they penetrate to their centre for the secreted honey1 secures that the work needful for fertilization be effectually done4 ,this last feature of adaptation is that on which attention may be specially concentrated here4 ,mr4 ,darwin in treating of orchids has described this part of their structure in these words2--,in almost all the species1 one of the petals 7or leaves of the flower7 which is properly the upper one1 is larger than the others and stands on the lower side of the flower1 where it offers a landing-place for insects4,,bv ,towards the inner or root end of this leaf 7labellum7 is the gland1 in some flowers appearing only as a slit1 in others forming like a tube1 7nectary7 which secrets the honey4 ,just over the entrance to the part where the honey is to be found stands that which secrets the pollen prepared for fertilizing some other flower4 ,so soon as the bee or other insect presses its head well into the centre of the flower1 some of the pollen adheres to it2 when the head is withdrawn1 this pollen is borne off to the flower which the bee next visits2 and as the head is pressed into the core of this flower the pollen is deposited1 and provision for fertilization is complete4 ,special features appearing in certain classes of the orchids illustrate how it is possible for the bee so laden to visit many flowers without depositing the pollen1 yet a little later accomplish the object quite simply4 ,the following illustration from ,mr4 ,darwin's account of the first orchid selected1 will suffice4 ,just above the entrance to the honey store1 lies a pouch connected with the pollen store4 ,as the head of the bee is pressed down towards the honey1 this pouch is burst open1 and from it issues a little sticky gland or disc1 or it may be two of these discs4 ,these adhere at once to the head of the bee1 and being connected by a slight band with packets of pollen grains so soon as the animal retires the pollen is drawn with it1 standing out like a seed vessel on the head4 ,the strangest part of the contrivance appears in what thereafter follows4 ,the viscid matter has the peculiar chemical quality1 of setting like cement1 hard and dry in a few minutes4 ,suppose both the little viscid balls have been withdrawn1 the bands bearing the pollen will appear projecting up like horns4 ,how then can the flower be fertilized8 ,this is effected by a beautiful contrivance2 though the viscid surface remains immovably affixed1 the apparently insignificant and minute disc of membrane to which the caudicle adheres is endowed with a remarkable power of contraction1 which causes the pollinium to sweep through an angle of about ninety degrees1 always in one direction towards the apex of the proboscis1 in the course of thirty seconds on an average4,,bw ,that is1 the two erections bearing packets of pollen which formerly stood up almost perpendicular1 like horns1 begin to lower until they reach the horizontal2 in this way when the bee enters a flower the packets of pollen inevitably touch the seed stores1 communicating what is required for their fertilization4 ,nor have we even yet the whole of the contrivances adapted for this end4 ,here comes into play another pretty adaptation4 ,the seed vessel to be fertilized is very sticky1 but not so viscid as when touched by a pollinium to pull the whole off an insect's head4 ,but it is sufficiently adhesive to break the elastic threads by which the packets of pollen grains are tied together4 ,in this way1 it tears off so much from the store adhering to the head of the bee1 and still leaves there what may supply the requirements of many flowers besides4 ,the description thus given will suffice to indicate how close is the relation of the lower orders of animal life with vegetable life1 and will illustrate how the lower organism may be dependent for existence on the higher1 an illustration in some respect the converse of the facts illustrating origin of species by development4 ,there remains in this department of inquiry only one additional set of facts1 to which reference may be made1 as illustrating distribution of work among insects and birds1 assigning them to different orders of plants4 ,this will illustrate contrivance on a still wider scale1 discovering distinct sets of affinity1 which imply common localization for given plants and animals4 ,in this it appears that flies1 humble bees1 and birds with long slender bills1 such as the humming birds1 all have a share in the work required for fertilizing plants4 ,there is one example1 epipactis latifolia1 with a cup-shaped labellum1 in which honey is secreted1 and which bees are never seen to frequent4 ,what1 however1 the bees pass1 the wasps suck eagerly1 and by them it is fertilized4 ,of this flower1 ,mr4 ,darwin says1--,it is very remarkable that the sweet nectar of this epipactis should not be attractive to any kind of bee4 ,if wasps were to become extinct in any district1 so probably would the ,epipactis ,latifolia4,,bx ,another example there is of an orchid 7,spiranthes ,autumnalis71 commonly known as ,ladies' ,tresses1 having a series of spikes1 of which the lowest flowers are first matured1 the others following in order as they rise towards the summit4 ,this plant is frequented by bees1 whose practice it is to begin with the lowest flowers and ascend gradually to the top4 ,this order in seeking to extract the honey1 proves to be the proper one for fertilizing of the plant1 because the pollen which the bee brings will be received by the riper flower on which it lands1 and when that has been deposited1 fresh pollen will adhere to the bee as it rises to the less matured flowers1 and thus it departs laden with pollen destined for the lowest flowers of the next plant it visits4,,by ,illustration3 #a ,,section ,,of ,,orchid ,,flower ,,showing ,,pollen ,,vessel1 ,,seed ,,store ,,and ,,honey ,,store #b ,,bee ,,entering #c ,,pollen ,,vessel #d ,,bee ,,retreating #e ,,bee ,,prepared ,,for ,,entering ,,another ,,flower ,these examples introduce us to a general plan for fertilization of plants by the intervention of insects1 so complete in the order of distribution that we may classify the plants according to the insect by which they are fertilized1 making it natural to speak of fly orchids1 spider orchids1 wasp orchids1 and bee orchids4 ,in all cases the search for honey determines the visits made1 leaving still unexplained1 however1 the fact that the nectar of some plants is shunned by certain insects1 and eagerly absorbed by others4 ,with the general source of attraction in the flowering plants1 there are diversities of arrangement among the insects1 according to the comparative size of the flower1 and strength required in order to penetrate to the inner chamber where the honey is stored4 ,because of the minuteness of the aperture1 there are flowers from which the bee can not draw supplies2 on the other hand1 because of the size and strength of the flower1 there are cases in which the ordinary bee is incapable of reaching the store1 and the stronger humble bee alone succeeds in effecting an entrance4 ,there is thus presented in mere outline a general view of the interdependence of lower and higher orders of organism4 ,while each flower develops pollen and seed1 there are arrangements connected with the ripening of these two1 which restrain or even prevent self-fertilization4 ,along with this there are distinct lines of evidence to establish the rule that cross-fertilization1 or transference of pollen from one flower to the seed of another1 secures the growth of a much healthier and more vigorous order4 ,where such transference is provided for otherwise than by the wind1 the attractiveness of the flowers brings to them at the proper season1 the insects which carry the pollen1 and to each class of insect is distributed a distinct share in the work4 ,in these facts we have a natural law for preservation of species1 discovering in a very striking manner the dependence of lower organism on higher4 ,as ,mr4 ,darwin has said1-- ,the meaning of these facts is clear4 ,referring to the examples in which the insects have to bore holes in order to reach the honey1 where there is need for time to allow for the hardening of the viscid matter1 he has used the following words which are most fitly applied1--,if this double relation is accidental1 it is a fortunate accident for the plants2 but ,i can not believe it to be so1 and it appears to me one of the most wonderful cases of adaptation which has ever been recorded4,,bz ,it is most obviously true1 as ,sir ,john ,lubbock has said1 that neither plants nor insects would be what they are1 but for the influence which each has exercised on the other4,,ca ,in view of the facts here very briefly described it will generally be allowed that ,mr4 ,darwin's expectation from the study of orchids will be verified1--,an examination of their many beautiful contrivances will exalt the whole vegetable kingdom in most persons' estimation4,,cb ,we have enough before us to enable us to appreciate our author's feeling when he says1 ,hardly any fact has struck me so much as the endless diversities of structure1--the prodigality of resources for gaining the very same end4,,cc ,again when giving us his prevailing impression he says1--,the more ,i study nature1 the more ,i become impressed with ever-increasing force1 that the contrivances and beautiful adaptations1 slowly acquired through each part occasionally varying in a slight degree1 but in many ways1 with the preservation of those variations which were beneficial to the organism under complex and ever varying conditions of life1 transcend in an incomparable manner the contrivances and adaptations which the most fertile imagination of man could invent4,,cd ,in preparing the present summary of recent advances in this department of natural history1 ,i have resorted freely to quotation1 because of the obvious rule1 that it is better for scientific interest1 for proper understanding1 and for regulation of all subsequent reasoning on the facts1 that we have the observations presented as nearly as possible by those who made them1 and that we have more general inferences in the very words of those whose minds have been filled and swayed by impressions made in the field of observation itself4 ,in now proceeding to consider the bearing of these advances on religious thought1 ,i shall keep as far as possible by the same rule1 desiring that science may interpret itself1 and translate its own special conclusions into their fit place within a scheme of the universe4 ,and whatever there may be here of material for detailed inference1 it will be taken by religious men as abundantly clear1 that science in slowly unfolding to general view these secrets of nature1 renders a lasting and most valuable service to religion4 ,our religious convictions and emotions rest on a wider intellectual basis according to the fulness with which we understand the marvels of adaptation and contrivance which lie covered from ordinary observation under the attractive surface of nature4 ,altogether beyond such a general admission as this1 however1 it must be obvious that in the mass of deeply interesting material now before us1 there lies a considerable number of truths needing to be gathered into generalized form1 bearing upon the laws of nature applying to living organism4 ,as records of details are extended before us1 the marvels of structure are obvious4 ,the multifarious contrivances become quite startling1 until we are ready to lose our reckoning in the very multiplicity of facts narrated4 ,in order to make sure of general result1 we need to draw off somewhat from details1--to be content even to lose sight of many of them1--in order to gain a position1 sufficiently removed for a sight of general relations4 ,in attempting this it is clear that there are certain truths bearing on the preservation and development of species in the vegetable kingdom1 and an analogous set of truths as to the animal kingdom1 and above these1 possibly still more important for general appreciation of the universe as a whole1 a body of truth as to the relations of plants and animals4 ,as to the first of these1 it seems obvious that within the single field of observation presented by orchids1--comparatively narrow1 in view of the wide domain of the vegetable kingdom1 and yet astonishingly extensive1 on account of the richness of detail1--there is a large body of evidence to support the theory of origin of species by selection and adaptation4 ,whether all the orchide now found in existence have sprung from one order of plant1 or from several1 the testimony appears ample to support at least the following conclusion as presented in the words of ,mr4 ,darwin1 that the now wonderfully changed structure of the flower is due to a long course of slow modification1--each modification having been preserved which was useful to the plant1 during the incessant changes to which the organic and inorganic world has been exposed4,,ce ,by a line of inference exactly similar1 a like conclusion1 must be reached as to insect life4 ,for1 important as the observations are1 bearing on the transference of pollen from the place where it is generated to the place where it is wanted1 we must notice that the whole work is done in consequence of search for honey by flies1 moths1 ants1 wasps1 and bees4 ,it naturally follows that all these insects have been going through some measure of adaptation1 as well as the plants4 ,the same law must have been operating in their history while prosecuting the unceasing search for food4 ,it may be exceedingly difficult to fill up the line of progress1 or trace the causes in operation1 which could favor the conclusion that all the insects named have sprung from a common stock4 ,still more perplexing might it be to maintain the argument that these very insects have sprung according to a sure law of descent1 from vegetable life itself4 ,but there is ample evidence to warrant the inference that in length of proboscis1 formation of limbs1 and other features in their structure1 modifications have resulted from the struggle needful to reach the nectar secreted in the flowers4 ,but it is clearly impossible to stop here in our inferences4 ,there is interdependence of lower and higher organisms1 to which a distinct place needs to be assigned in our theory of the universe4 ,even if it be granted1 as it readily will be by those who have studied the results of recent research1 that there is a vast body of evidence to prove that there is development of species by adaptation and selection1 it is equally evident that this is not the only law affecting the existence of different orders of organized beings4 ,just as clear as it is that pollen and seed are both required to provide for the continuance of plant life1 so clear is it that plants are needed to support insects1 and insects to propagate plants4 ,proceeding on the same lines of reasoning as have been already employed1 we must inquire how this interdependence is to be accounted for under natural law8 ,the struggle for existence is clearly performing an important part in the development of plants1 and also of animals2 and so long as we regard these two orders singly1 it seems obvious how changes in structure may be accounted for2 but observations have become so interlaced1 that a new problem has been raised in connection with facts manifestly abating the struggle for existence4 ,in view of this problem ,dr4 ,hooker has said1--,the adjustment of the parts of the flower to the form and habits of the insect or bird1 and of these to the flower1 is so accurate1 that it is in vain to speculate whether the plant was adapted to feed the animal1 or the animal adapted to fertilize the plant4,,cf ,this suggestion of the needlessness of speculation is natural from a scientific point of view1 and we may do well to remember the warnings against risks attending the search for final causes1 which have been sounded from the days of ,spinoza to the present time2 but there is a problem here which science can not leave in abeyance4 ,the facts are undoubted1 and the natural causes must be sought4 ,the parts of the flowers are adapted to the forms and habits of the insects2 the insects are adapted to the work of fertilizing the plants2 the question is1 ,how are these two things secured8 ,the inquiry which has awakened general interest as to the development of species in the history of distinct orders such as orchids1 insects1 pigeons1 and dogs1 must strive to complete its work1 by pressing on to this more complicated question concerning the adaptation of distinct organisms to influence and aid each other in the work of development4 ,in what way science may deal with this question1 and how far it may be able to advance in the search for an answer1 it may be difficult to decide4 ,for it is much easier to indicate the logical necessity for an advance1 than to say in what manner the advance is to be accomplished4 ,the one is a simple question of logical requirement2 the other must be a matter of continued observation1 and scientific inference4 ,whether science may yet discover an answer2 or whether it may prove true at this point1 as at other points already mentioned1 that science has here reached clear marks of its own limits1 must be left to the future1 to be determined by those devoted to scientific research4 ,as long1 however1 as this question of interdependence remains without a scientific explanation1 it must be obvious that there are important facts which seem to imply some modification of the theory of descent1 or evolution of species by means of selection1 under the severe struggle for existence4 ,or1 to put it from another point of view1 nature has marvellously provided for mitigation of the struggle for existence1 by contrivances providing both for vegetable and animal life2 therefore the theory of the origin and development of life which depends chiefly on the struggle for existence must be adjusted to allow for a theory of the effects arising from the natural provision for obviating the struggle1 and providing for a large increase of life4 ,quite beyond this1 as a matter entirely distinct1 is the question as to the primordial forms of existence in the history of plants and insects4 ,as to this1 science may be able to give very little testimony1 as it is a question of the remote past1 on which present facts may afford little evidence4 ,still1 beyond these primordial forms1 in a region which science can not enter1 there lies the question of origin1 of actual beginning1 creation of life1 as to the reality of which science can speak only indirectly by discovery of its own limits1 in the terms of its ultimatum1 nature has provided that such and such things shall be4 ,before leaving the department of insect life1 there is a collateral and complementary series of observations1 bearing upon the nature and activity of ,,ants1 which deserves attention4 ,the ants are a race of insects as diligently industrious as the bees1 like them also fond of honey and of all sweet substances2 but unlike them ready to devour other insects4 ,along with the industry of the bee1 they have predatory tendencies1 leading them into conflict with other races1 or even involving different orders of their own race in warfare4 ,it is a curious fact1 in this connection1 that many of the flowering plants have contrivances which guard them from the approach of ants4 ,creeping insects find the way barred against them while the flying insect at once and easily reaches the stores of honey1 not knowing any thing of the difficulties in the path of the less favored rival4 ,spikes grow with their points in a downward direction1 against which no creeping insect can make way2 waxy or glutinous matter is spread over the leaves1 which insects shun as a trap2 and there are velvety flexible leaves from the edge of which the insect easily slips off4 ,special attention has been turned to this field of research by ,kerner1,a an interesting outline of the results of his observations being given by ,sir ,john ,lubbock4,,cg ,the conclusion reached as to the utility of these contrivances for exclusion of creeping insects1 is that they perform an auxiliary part in the general plan for fertilization which has been described4 ,to allow the store of honey to go to the ants would be merely to feed them without any equivalent advantage to the flowers4 ,to diminish the supply in this way1 might cause the bees to abandon many flowers1 and so greatly diminish fertilization4 ,this would ultimately lead to short supplies1 and probable extinction of several orders of plants and animals1 and accordingly these contrivances to hinder the access of ants1 must be added to those for facilitating the approach of bees1 and other flying insects1 affording further evidence of the adjustment of rival interests involved in the relations of the vegetable and animal kingdoms4 ,the serried spikes are a phalanx of bayonets planted for resistance of an advancing foe4 ,contemplating now the ants as in some respects an excluded race1 which with a large share of pugnacity can not find a basis of operations for contending against the bees1 we have to turn attention briefly on their modes of life4 ,the industry of the ant is proverbial1 and can not fail to arrest the attention of any one who spends a few minutes before an ant-hill4 ,but carefully recorded observations prove it to be much greater than could have been imagined4 ,sir ,john ,lubbock has rendered special service here by carefully noting the time occupied1 as well as the amount of work done1 thus preserving a series of observations exceedingly suggestive in many ways1 and having an important bearing on a considerable number of difficult questions connected with the relative powers of lower and higher orders of life4 ,a similar service has been rendered in ,america in the work of the ,rev4 ,h4 ,c4 ,mc,cook of ,philadelphia1 on ,the ,natural ,history of the ,agricultural ,ant of ,texas1--a book recording careful and most important observations1 adding much to the stores of knowledge concerning ants4,,ch ,the work of the ants is directed mainly to the two great objects of animal life1 procuring food1 and caring for the young1 to which falls to be added1 the repelling of attacks upon their nests1 or removal of any thing obnoxious4 ,they destroy great numbers of smaller insects1 bearing them to their nests for consumption1 besides going off in search of honey which may be within reach1 and not guarded with spikes4 ,this mode of providing implies a very busy life1 and they do not as a rule grudge work4 ,besides procuring supplies1 however1 there is a large amount of labor in the care bestowed upon their young4 ,without attempting to distinguish various orders1 of which more than seven hundred kinds are known1,,ci a general description of their young will suffice4 ,in the earliest stage of their existence1 the larv are small conical shaped grubs1 without power of movement4 ,in this state they are fed1 carried about from place to place as if their seniors were seeking change of air and temperature for them2 and in process of these removals and arrangements1 they are often grouped together in separate companies1 and in exact order according to their size4 ,in their next stage1 they become pup1 sometimes quite exposed1 in other cases covered with a thin silken covering4 ,from this1 they pass into the mature state as perfect insects1 and in process of this transition older ants render assistance by way of aiding the transition1 carefully unfolding their legs and smoothing out their wings4 ,in the ant nest there is a singular distinction of orders which prevents us speaking of the parent ants as doing all this work for the young4 ,the great majority in every nest are neuters1 not producing young2 these are the workers1 and they are destitute of wings4 ,the smaller numbers only are the males and females producing the young4 ,the workers1 shorn of wings1 and entrusted with all that is required in household and out-door duties1 labor assiduously4 ,these neuter ants have occasioned special perplexity to ,mr4 ,darwin as bearing on the theory of evolution1 a difficulty which is seriously increased by the fact that in some cases they differ from each other1 sometimes to an almost incredible degree1 and are thus divided into two or even three castes1 and these do not commonly graduate into each other1 but are as distinct from each other as any two species4,,cj ,without following ,mr4 ,darwin through his reasoning as to the adaptation of neuters for their task in life1 it may be well to quote his words towards its close1 where he says1 ,i must confess1 that1 with all my faith in natural selection1 ,i should never have anticipated that this principle could have been efficient in so high a degree1 had not the case of these neuter insects led me to this conclusion4,,ck ,besides the fact that these neuters are the workers1 there is an additional circumstance1 established by ,mr4 ,frederick ,smith by observations in ,england1 confirmed by the observations of ,pierre ,huber in ,switzerland1 and afterwards verified in the clearest way by ,mr4 ,darwin1 that there is a species of ant 7formica sanguinea7 which captures slaves of a weaker order1 making war against the weaker race1 carrying off their young1 rearing them within their own nests1 and training them to serve4 ,mr4 ,darwin was himself sceptical of such a statement1 but gives an interesting narrative of distinct observations by which it was confirmed4 ,the amount of labor undertaken by the workers from an ants' nest1 may be judged by one or two extracts from the records of ,sir ,john ,lubbock4 ,he says1 ,i once watched an ant from six in the morning1 and she worked without intermission till a quarter to ten at night1 and in that time she had carried one hundred and eighty-seven larv into the nest4,,cl ,there is evidence not only of coperation1 but of division of labor among the workers4 ,the observations of ,mr4 ,forel lead to the conclusion that very young ants devote themselves at first to the care of the larv and pup1 and that they do not take share in the defence of the nest or other out-of-door work1 until they are some days old4,,cm ,by a distinct set of observations1 watching all ants that came and went from the nest1 and laying up in captivity some of the number1 ,mr4 ,lubbock came to the conclusion that certain ants are told off as foragers4,,cn ,and in the winter season1 when in the case of some orders little food is required1 a few only of the inhabitants of the nest come and go1 for the purpose of carrying in supplies4 ,this makes observation much more easy at that season1 rendering it possible to number and identify individual workers4 ,the results as applicable to one of the nests are given in the following sentences4 ,from the #ast of ,november to the #eth of ,january1 with two or three casual exceptions1 the whole of the supplies were carried in by three ants1 one of whom1 however1 did comparatively little4 ,the other two were imprisoned1 and then1 but not till then1 a fresh ant appeared on the scene4 ,she carried in the food for a week1 and then she being imprisoned1 two others undertook the task4,,co ,one consideration more bearing upon obtaining supplies deserves to be recorded as altogether singular4 ,some species of ants watch over a distinct order of insects1 the aphides1 which exude a sweet fluid1 using them exactly as we do cows for obtaining supplies of milk4 ,the ant comes up to the aphis1 gently strokes it with her feelers1 forthwith the aphis gives forth its supply of honey1 which the ant drinks up and departs4 ,the facts were observed by ,pierre ,huber1 and verified by ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,this verification was so interesting1 that ,i give the narrative in a slightly condensed form4 ,mr4 ,darwin says1--,i removed all the ants from a group of about a dozen aphides on a dock-plant1 and prevented their attendance during several hours4 ,mr4 ,darwin tried in vain by stroking the aphides with a hair1 in imitation of the play of the feelers of the ants1 to induce them to give up the honey4 ,afterwards1 he says1 ,i allowed an ant to visit them1 and it immediately seemed1 by its eager way of running about1 to be well aware what a rich flock it had discovered2 it then began to play with its antenn on the abdomen first of one aphis and then of another2 and each1 as soon as it felt the antenn1 immediately lifted up its abdomen and excreted a limpid drop of sweet juice1 which was eagerly devoured by the ant4,,cp ,so the ants have their cows and milk them4 ,to attempt any account of the ants of tropical countries1 where ants are most numerous1 swarming in the regions they inhabit1 and marching in hosts1 would occupy too much space4 ,i give1 therefore1 only a single reference extracted from the testimony of ,mr4 ,savage concerning the driver ant of ,western ,africa 7,anomma ,arcens71 so called because of the success with which it drives every thing before it4 ,mr4 ,savage annoyed by the proximity of a large settlement1 discovered its quarters in some decaying granite4 ,kindling a fire around it1 he believed he had succeeded in disposing of that settlement4 ,two days after1 he went back to the spot1 and instead of desolation and death1 he found a tree at a short distance1 about eighteen inches in diameter1 to the height of four feet from the ground1 with the adjacent plants and earth perfectly black with them4 ,the most striking thing1 however1 was that the ants had made festoons from the lower branches to the ground1 formed in the following manner1 as witnessed by ,mr4 ,savage3 ant after ant coming down from above1 extending their long limbs1 and opening wide their jaws1 gradually lengthening out the living chain until first it was swaying to and fro1 and ultimately fastened to the ground1 when others were ascending and descending upon them1 thus holding free and ready communication with the lower and upper portions of this dense mass4 ,in this same manner these ants provide for the crossing of water when on the march4 ,they make a line or chain of one another1 gradually extending themselves by numbers across till the opposite side is reached4,,cq ,this is exactly similar to the manner in which some monkeys are known to construct a natural bridge1 only that the monkeys have the advantage of greater size and muscular strength1 as well as prehensile power by the use of their tails4 ,with such characteristics as have been briefly described1 there is little wonder that a high place in the scale of intelligence has been claimed for these small insects4 ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 who has so patiently conducted his observations as to their modes of life1 has stated this in the following manner1--,the anthropoid apes no doubt approach more to man in bodily structure than do any other animals2 but when we consider the habits of ants1 their social organization1 their large communities1 elaborate habitations1 their roadways1 their possession of domestic animals1 and even in some cases of slaves1 it must be admitted that they have a fair claim to rank next to man in the scale of intelligence4,,cr ,whether1 even with all this evidence1 we may be able to rank the ants quite as high as ,lubbock here suggests1 may be open to question4 ,there may1 for example1 be reasonable debate whether the dog does not present still higher signs of intelligence1 but it says a great deal for the ants that debate in the case should be possible4 ,a question of very great scientific importance is here raised1 affecting the whole scheme of interpretation applicable to animal life1 as connected with development of brain4 ,without attempting to enter upon the argument yet to be conducted through the wider relations concerned1 it must be obvious that the facts bearing on insect life must erelong have a larger share than they have yet had in influencing our generalizations4 ,by reference to these1 it becomes apparent1 that anatomical structure is not in itself an adequate guide in determining comparative importance on the scale of organic existence2 and1 what is still more startling1 that even comparative brain structure can not be taken as the sole test of the measure of intelligence belonging to animals4 ,the whole orders of ants1 taken collectively1 must be regarded as presenting quite exceptional difficulties1 not only for a theory of evolution regarded as an all-embracing science of life2 but also for that theory of intelligence which seeks to account for diversities of power by the comparative complexity of brain structure4 ,passing from more detailed discussion1 it is needful to observe how wide and valuable are the results of these researches concerning the relation of the vegetable kingdom with lower orders of animals4 ,facts now recorded in multitudes of scientific journals1 and more elaborate treatises1 illustrate wonderful minuteness of contrivance and completeness of adaptation in the works of nature1 giving to the range of knowledge possessed only a century ago an aspect of insignificance4 ,what the microscope has done by enlarging the range of human vision1 subdivision of labor among scientific inquirers1 and proportionate concentration1 have done1 in the way of embracing the vast and complicated field1 of observation lying open to all eyes4 ,the results exalt to a greatly higher place in our appreciation the evidence of design in the world4 ,the consequence is that while the line of thought followed by ,paley1 in what he designated ,natural ,theology1 has become a thousand-fold more interesting1 the familiar and now almost antiquated illustration of the watch1 taken as a model of human design1 by the comparative simplicity of its adjustments1 seems strangely inadequate to represent even in the most temporary form1 a minuteness of design quite overwhelming to the human mind in its attempts to bring it within a uniform scheme4 ,whether all this was provided for by manifold creative acts1 or by development from a few primordial forms1 does not affect the argument2 the latter suggestion only greatly increases its force4 ,to those who are swayed only by an intellectual interest1 the facts of vegetable and insect life must be full of significance1 suggestive of far-reaching reflection4 ,but to no body of men can these results of scientific research be so attractive as to those who require for all nature a supernatural explanation4 ,,footnotes3 ,,br ,lay ,sermons1 chap1 vii41 p4 #acd4 ,,bs ,darwin's ,fertilization of ,orchids1 p4 #b2 ,lubbock's ,scientific ,lectures1 p4 #h4 ,,bt ,sir ,john ,lubbock's ,scientific ,lectures1 p4 #c4 ,mr4 ,darwin refers to ,fritz ,mller's papers as reported in ,botanische ,zeitung1 #ahfi-gj4 ,appendix ,,ix4 ,,bu ,the ,various ,contrivances by which ,orchids are fertilized by ,insects1 #b;d ed4 p4 #bic4 ,,bv ,fertilization1 p4 #e4 ,,bw ,fertilization1 p4 #ab4 ,,bx ,fertilization1 p4 #ajb4 ,,by ,ib4 p4 #aac4 ,,bz ,fertilization1 p4 #dd4 ,,ca ,scientific ,lectures1 p4 #ca4 ,,cb ,fertilization1 p4 #b4 ,,cc ,ib4 p4 #bhd4 ,,cd ,fertilization1 p4 #bhe4 ,,ce ,fertilization1 p4 #bdf4 ,,cf ,botany1 7,science ,primers7 by ,dr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,hooker1 ,c4,b41 ,p4,r4,s41 p4 #gi4 ,,cg ,scientific ,lectures1 p4 #cf4 ,,ch ,see ,appendix ,x4 ,,ci ,see ,appendix ,,viii4 ,,cj ,origin of ,species1 #fth ed4 p4 #bcj4 ,,ck ,origin of ,species1 #fth ed4 p4 #bcc4 ,,cl ,scient4 ,lects4 p4 #gc4 ,,cm ,ib4 p4 #gh4 ,,cn ,ib4 p4 #ace4 ,,co ,scientific ,lectures1 p4 #ace4 ,,cp ,origin of ,species #fth ed4 p4 #bjg4 ,,cq ,museum of ,natural ,history edited by ,richardson1 ,dallas1 ,cobbold1 ,baird1 and ,white1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ahd4 ,,cr ,scient4 ,lects4 p4 #fh4 ,,lecture ,,vi4 ,,higher ,,organisms4--,,resemblances ,,and ,,contrasts4--,,brain ,,structure4 ,the stage of investigation now reached requires us to consider recent advances in our knowledge of more complicated organisms4 ,this leads into the line of observation disclosing steadily advancing complexity of structure1 and brings us into contact with the claim that man be included within the area of scientific inquiry1 and regarded as a more fully organized life to which lower orders are not only pointing1 but actually tending4 ,as to this last claim1 about which more must be said as we approach the close of these investigations1 it may be remarked by way of preliminary1 that as man belongs to nature1 all the characteristics of his life must come within the area of scientific inquiry1 and indeed the test of any theory of existence which may be offered1 will be found in the measure of success with which it explains our own nature4 ,that man stands highest in the scale of organism belonging to this world admits of no doubt1 therefore the explanation of human nature may be regarded as the supreme effort of science4 ,around this subject1 however1 serious differences have arisen among scientific men1 but these differences do not concern the very simple question whether all that belongs to nature comes within the range of the science of nature4 ,this is granted by all1 whether there be a preference for including all such inquiry under the single name of science1 or for distinguishing between physical science and mental philosophy4 ,this is simply a matter of defining terms1 and tracing the boundaries of recognized departments of inquiry4 ,but whether a continued study of organism will conduct us to an adequate understanding of human nature1 must be a matter of observation and inference4 ,if it do1 science has completed its work4 ,if it do not1 there remains a still higher question1 how shall we account for features of life for which organism affords no scientific explanation8 ,the whole field is certainly free to science1 and the whole task which this immense field of research imposes must be undertaken1 and persistently prosecuted to a rational issue4 ,entering now1 therefore1 on the contemplation of animal life1 regarded as a higher order1 distinguishable from vegetable life1 we have the outstanding characteristics of sensibility and locomotion4 ,whether there is a distinct line of demarcation between vegetable and animal does not require special attention1 for no matter of controversy on this point can delay procedure4 ,there is1 as already remarked1 in the vegetable kingdom a singular approximation towards animal life1 in so far as we have evidence of sensibility to touch among the plants1 to a degree which appears wonderful chiefly by contrast with the common characteristics of the vegetable kingdom4 ,on the other hand1 sensibility to influences operating from without is a common feature of animal life4 ,even the very lowest orders of animals are sensitive to touch1 and as this form of experience is closely connected with power of locomotion1 all animals have the conditions of their life largely affected by interference with their own movements1 or resistance offered1 whether by objects lying in their way1 or by some force restraining their progress1 or causing movement in an opposite direction4 ,now these two characteristics--sensibility to impression from without1 and movement caused by an exercise of energy from within the organism itself--are both provided for by means of the nerve system belonging to the animal4 ,this nerve system varies in the number and complexity of its arrangements1 according to the complexity of the organism with which it is associated4 ,as1 therefore1 we rise in the scale1 passing from the soft pulpy form of the lowest orders1 to those formed in segments or rings1 next to those with distinct portions of organism fulfilling separate functions1 as in insect life1 with head1 body1 and legs2 and next pass up to the vertebrates1 with back-bone and skeleton1 on which is built up a more or less complicated muscular system1 we find a nerve system1 growing in complexity along with the appearance of different organs of the body4 ,and in all cases1 this system fulfils these two functions--sensibility to touch1 and movement of the body4 ,these two are provided for by distinct lines or nerve fibres2 and in all cases1 these two sets are combined in a centre1 thereby securing that the two sets be coperative1 unitedly contributing to the management of the living organism4 ,this appears even if we take for illustration an organism so low as the ascidian mollusk1 which floats in the water as if it were a sack drawn together towards the top1 bulging out below2 and which is nourished simply by the passing of a current of water in at the mouth1 and out at a vent towards the lower end of the sac4 ,a series of nerve lines comes from the mouth2 a distinct ramification spreads over the lower portion of the sac2 and these two are united in a single knot or ganglion1 a little above the vent4 ,by these contrivances1 this little body1 though for the most part stationary1 is sensitive to the approach of any thing injurious1 and by contraction of its mass expels the water with considerable force1 driving the injurious matter to a distance4 ,this combination of the two sets of nerves appears more strikingly in such an animal as the centipede1 along whose body are successive groups of nerves1 combined in regular order in a series of knots1 and united longitudinally by connecting threads1 attaching the successive knots4 ,the same plan is carried up into a more articulated form in the case of the winged insect1 with head1 antenn or feelers projecting from the head1 wings1 and legs1 leading to a more marked appearance of separate combinations1 giving greater prominence to the head4 ,when from this we rise to the fish1 thence to the bird1 thence to the quadruped1 we find the head made conspicuously the central organ of the entire nerve system of the animal1 while it occupies the front position in the body4 ,it is no longer one of a set or series of knots2 nor even the largest or more conspicuous in a graduated order of centres2 but in the head of the animal is found that which is the true nerve centre for the whole nerve system1 designated the brain4 ,in the case of the vertebrates1 not only does the skeleton afford the solid frame-work on which the muscular system is built1 but the back-bone contains within it the main column of nerve fibres1 which are given out at the several joints according to the requirements of the body4 ,if meanwhile we concentrate attention on our own bodies1 we may by the aid of personal experience find easy illustration of the prominent features of the nerve system4 ,we shall take first the two distinct lines of nerves already mentioned1 the one set concerned with sensibility1 the other with movement of the muscles4 ,from the tips of the fingers there run lines of nerve fibre1 which are brought into combination at the wrist1 and are carried up the arm1 and onward by the shoulder and upper portion of the back-bone to the head4 ,these are the nerves of sensibility1 by means of which1 as by telegraph wires1 the slightest impression made on the tips of the fingers is instantly conveyed to the great nerve centre in the brain4 ,distinct from these is another set of nerves issuing from the brain1 and descending the arm1 giving off its fibres as it passes to the several muscles above the elbow1 next to those above the wrist1 and next to the muscles of the hand and fingers4 ,these are the nerves of movement1 by means of which the whole arm may be brought into action at pleasure1 or the hand may be set to work1 while the arm is at rest4 ,these two sets of nerves--the sensory and motor--are exactly similar in structure1 consisting of an outer covering1 within which floating in a white fluid is a thread which constitutes the nerve proper4 ,the outer covering provides for isolation of the fibre1 from other fibres laid alongside of it1 just as copper wire is isolated by a gutta-percha covering when the two connecting lines from an electric battery are laid down in close proximity as in the arrangement for electric bells4 ,by this provision the nerve fibres are completely isolated making it possible to distinguish sensory impressions so as to tell which finger has been touched4 ,the similarity of structure in the two lines of nerves is a striking fact in view of the completely distinct functions fulfilled4 ,this leads to a special explanation of the provision for different modes of action4 ,this is secured by diversity in the terminal arrangements for the two classes of nerves4 ,the nerves of sensibility have a peculiarly sensitive arrangement spread under the skin1 constituting an end-bulb or touch organ4 ,in certain parts of the body more sensitive than others1 such as the tips of the fingers1 there are additional minute corpuscles1 grouped alongside of the nerve1 liable to contract under the slightest pressure1 and which add greatly to the sensitiveness of the particular parts about which they cluster4 ,the terminal arrangements of the motor nerves are quite different4 ,the nerve fibres pass into the substance of the muscle to be moved by them1 and the nerve fibre is subdivided and distributed1 so as to bring the several parts of the muscle under control4 ,these fibres are so laid and connected1 that a whole set of muscles can be moved simultaneously1 being made to work in perfect harmony4 ,the vital activity of this whole arrangement of nerve fibres1 including sensory and motor in one system1 depends upon living connection of all with the great nerve centre in the brain1 where the nerve energy is provided which keeps all in functional activity4 ,only1 there is this striking difference with the two sets of fibres1 that in the case of the sensory nerve the pulsation of energy is upwards to the brain1 in the case of the motor nerve it is downwards towards the muscle4 ,there is no scientific explanation yet reached of this contrast of molecular action4 ,but by means of it the one order of nerves plays the part of a vehicle of impression providing for knowledge of what is without1 the other order fulfils the part of an instrument for moving the muscular system which is part of the organism itself4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,of ,,cerebro-,,spinal ,,nerve ,,centres4 ,,dark ,,representing ,,sensory2 ,,the ,,light1 ,,motor ,,centres4 ,,the ,,arrows ,,indicate ,,the ,,direction ,,of ,,the ,,current ,,of ,,influence4 ,illustration3 ,,nerve ,,system ,,of ,,the ,,insect1 ,,showing ,,distinct ,,centres4 ,these two orders are not1 however1 to be regarded as separate systems quite apart from each other1 but as two sides of one system1 which are essentially and closely related to each other4 ,there is a provision for combined action of the two sets1 so that an impulse communicated along a sensory nerve or set of nerves1 may pass over to the motor system and terminate in muscular activity4 ,this is most simply illustrated by the circumstance that the nerves of sensibility become instruments of pain1 when a severe shock or blow is given1 or some injury is inflicted4 ,suffering becomes a signal of risk and instantly the injured part shrinks or starts away from the source of suffering4 ,this is a phase of sensori-motor activity illustrating a law which has a wide range of application in animal life4 ,this sketch of the arrangements and functions of the two sides of the nerve system though traced in view of its application to human nature1 will suffice to indicate the general plan in accordance with which sensibility and muscular activity are provided for in the animal kingdom generally4 ,the ramification of the nerve lines will in each case be according to the simplicity or complexity of structure belonging to the animal2 but the provisions for sensitiveness to touch1 and power of movement are in all cases the same4 ,fish1 bird1 and quadruped are alike sensitive to touch1 and they are alike capable of movement1 though the mechanical contrivances by which locomotion is secured vary greatly2 but a double distribution of nerve fibres in all cases provides for these two characteristics of animal life4 ,from this1 we advance to the nerve centre1--the brain1--to which the nerves of sensibility run up1 and from which the nerves of motion come forth4 ,here also there is identity in the nature of the organ1 while there is variety in its size1 with more or less complicated plans of arrangement1 according to the extent of the nerve system of which it is the central organ4 ,still keeping to the human body for illustration1 we may find in the most complex organism known to us illustration of what holds good in the main so far as essential structure is concerned4 ,the brain is made up of two entirely distinct substances4 ,in the interior of the organ1 and altogether concealed from view when a drawing of it is made1 or the organ itself is exposed to observation1 is a white mass consisting of a multitude of fibres4 ,these are simply crowds of nerve lines gathered together1 led up from the extremities and trunk1 or provided for intercommunication with the several parts of this central organ4 ,gathered all round about this1 and constituting the external mass1 on the summit1 sides1 and base of the brain1 is a completely distinct substance known as the grey matter1 folded up in wavings1 twistings1 or convolutions1 enclosing myriads of cells from which nerve energy is discharged4 ,these cells differ considerably in form and size1 suggesting the possibility of distinct functions being assigned to cells of different structure1 some being smaller and less intimately connected with those around1 others so much larger and more important as to have suggested the name of pyramidal cells1 and also having lines of connection between themselves and other parts much more numerous than in the case of the smaller cells4 ,every cell has a nucleus or central point1 which is the centre of vitality1 while the fibres which they send out1 varying in number from one to four or five1 establish connection between cells1 or pass into the nerves proper4 ,these cells are packed together in a soft glutinous substance1 in the outer layer of which they are fewer in number2 approaching the interior1 they become more numerous2 and they are both more abundant1 larger in size1 and more distinguished by the number of their protoplasmic,,cs fibres as they lie nearer to the mass of nerve fibres4 ,in this crowd of nerve cells are the stores of nerve energy supplied to the nerve system1 with every exercise of which molecular changes in the brain are believed to take place4 ,on this account there must be regular and ample supply of nourishment for the brain1 for which such provision has been made that1 according to ,haller's computation1 one fifth part of the whole blood supply goes to the brain4 ,illustration3 ,,human ,,brain1 ,,with ,,centres ,,of ,,electric ,,excitation4 ,regarded as the great central organ1 the brain is divided into two halves or hemispheres1 from each one of which goes forth supply of nerve fibres and nerve energy for the opposite side of the body4 ,its greatest depth is in the central part1 the front and back being rounded down1 the frontal region being1 however1 considerably more massive than the rear4 ,besides this great central body1 there are several dependent subordinate bodies1 placed underneath1 and directly above the upper part of the spine4 ,most important of these is the cerebellum1 or little brain1 whose functions are now generally believed to be closely connected with the equilibrium of the body when moving4 ,somewhat nearer the centre1 and quite under the brain proper is the pons or bridge1 providing for the interlacing of the fibres on their way out from the the central organ1 and just below that are certain elongated bodies 7medulla oblongata71 consisting of masses of fibre just above the spinal cord4 ,before closing this very brief and hasty description of the nerve system1 there is one peculiarly striking arrangement to which special reference may be made4 ,the mass of nerve fibre which passes down within the back-bone constituting the spinal column1 which is formed in two divisions equivalent to the hemispheres of the brain1 gives out at each of the vertebr or spinal joints a supply of nerve for the portion of the body contiguous4 ,this supply is sent out from each side of the column1 and issues in two roots1 a posterior and anterior2 the posterior root being a body of sensory nerves1 the anterior root of motor nerves4 ,shortly after passing out1 these two form into one1 uniting to constitute a nerve trunk4 ,just after they have thus united1 the trunk again opens up into two1 and in each one of these two a share of the sensory and motor roots finds a place1 and thus preparation is made for sending out towards both the front and back of the body suitable proportion of both sets of nerves4 ,the two roots drawn together as if to bind them into one1 are by some inexplicable process subdivided1 and the two bands issuing from the united band are found to have each a share of the contents of each root4 ,of all the singular occurrences coming under scientific observation there is nothing more surprising4 ,the fact is certain1 but there is no scientific explanation of the contrivance by which such a singular result is secured4 ,illustration3 ,,brain ,,of ,,the ,,crab4 ,illustration3 ,,brain ,,of ,,the ,,cod1 ,,the ,,two ,,larger ,,lobes ,,being ,,those ,,of ,,vision1 ,,the ,,brain ,,being ,,in ,,front ,,of ,,these4 ,having now before us in outline a representation of the nervous system of man1 and having in this a guide to the understanding of the prominent features involved in the distribution of two orders of nerves over the body1 and their concentration in a central organ1 we are prepared for considering the comparative brain development presented to view as we ascend the scale of animal life4 ,the main features of gradation may be shortly stated4 ,in all cases1 the brain is a soft pulpy body1 composed as described1 the exterior portion being cellular tissue1 the interior fibrous1 from the gathering of nerve lines4 ,in the lowest orders of animals1 the brain is of very small size4 ,in the insects1 such as the ant1 bee1 and wasp1 it is only a slight band stretching from eye to eye4 ,in the whole order of fishes an advance in organization appears1 though the brain is small relatively to the size of the body1 a fact which seems readily explained by the fact that there is little articulation in the structure of the fish1 the whole body moving in one mass1 by simple management of the fins and tail4 ,the brain as a rule is simply two small round lobes of smooth surface laid together2 and what is most to be remarked is that the brain proper is quite inferior in size to lobes of vision4,,ct ,in front of the brain are slight strands connected with the organ of smell2 and behind it are the two large lobes known as optic lobes1 before which the brain appears comparatively insignificant4 ,this is the ordinary arrangement1 but in the case of the shark the brain extends to much larger proportions1 greatly surpassing the optic lobes1 and having in front of it unusually ample provision for the organ of smell4,,cu ,when we reach the reptiles the normal order appears which continues thereafter up the whole range of animal life4 ,the brain takes precedence of the lobes of special sense1 and is the most important organ4 ,this appears quite decisively in the brain of the frog4 ,on account of the possession of four limbs1 and its power of locomotion by forward leaps1 provided for by the superior size and strength of the hind legs1 there is much greater need for distribution of nerve lines1 to place distinct muscles under control1 and as a consequence the brain or central organ assumes a position of greater importance4 ,illustration3 ,,brain ,,of ,,the ,,bird4 ,illustration3 ,,brain ,,of ,,the ,,cat1 ,,with ,,bulb ,,of ,,smell ,,in ,,front1 ,,and ,,little ,,brain ,,behind4 ,passing next to birds1 we find a marked advance in the structure of the brain4 ,the two hemispheres are considerably extended towards the rear1 and the two optic lobes underneath the back part of the brain are separated from each other1 being placed somewhat to the side4 ,the cerebellum1 or little brain1 regulating equilibrium becomes more important in size and form1 being laid up in transverse furrows4 ,these important advances indicate a life of much more varied activity than in the lower orders4 ,this animal walks1 hops1 perches on branches by the clutching of its claws1 and flies from place to place4 ,to provide for these varied forms of activity1 there must be a more detailed arrangement of nerve system1 which is clearly indicated in the complexity of the central organ4 ,the next advance introduces to notice the smaller quadrupeds1 known as the rodents1 of which the rat1 rabbit1 and hare may be taken as the most familiar examples4 ,here we still have the smooth surface of the brain1 without any subdivision and twining into folds such as afterwards appears1 but it is somewhat elongated in shape4 ,an additional element here comes into view1 that is1 extra provision for acuteness of smell1 in accordance with the well-known characteristics of the class of animals4 ,set out in front of the brain are two distinct lobes1 which are the olfactory lobes4 ,wherever these are so placed in front of the brain1 it is a clear proof that the life of the animal is largely directed by smell1 that is1 in a relatively greater degree than by sight1 though constantly using the organs of vision with rapidity and acuteness4 ,the cerebellum is in all cases prominent to the rear1 presenting the laminated appearance always distinctive of the organ4 ,we now make a very marked transition in the development of brain1 introducing to view the doubled or convoluted form occasioned by the folding of the material in a series of windings1--a form which is in complete contrast from the smooth surface characteristic of the brain in all lower orders4 ,this series of windings or convolutions appears quite decidedly in the brain of the cat1 in a manner very similar in the brain of the dog1 and with still greater beauty and amplitude of fold in the brain of the horse4 ,this folding process which is resorted to in the case of all the higher quadrupeds1 seems a contrivance by which it is possible to pack a greater amount of material in such a way as to expose a greater degree of surface1 within the narrow space at command inside the cranium4 ,in all the three examples named1 great prominence is given to the bulbs of smell1 which are spread out quite conspicuously in front of the brain1--implying1 as in lower examples1 a life largely governed by sense of smell4 ,illustration3 ,,brain ,,of ,,horse1 ,,with ,,bulb ,,of ,,smell ,,in ,,front1 ,,little ,,brain ,,in ,,rear4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,of ,,sensory ,,and ,,motor ,,apparatus4 ,,the ,,upper ,,is ,,the ,,sensory1 ,,with ,,bulb1 ,,nerve ,,line1 ,,and ,,nerve ,,cell4 ,,the ,,under ,,is ,,the ,,motor1 ,,with ,,muscle1 ,,nerve ,,line1 ,,and ,,nerve ,,cell4 ,omitting special reference to animals of great bulk1 and possessing enormous muscular power1 such as the elephant and the whale1 both of which have singularly complicated and beautiful brains1 ,i pass to the races of monkeys and apes1 which are nearest in structure to man4 ,in these animals the configuration of body is certainly the nearest approach to the human figure which is to be found anywhere in the animal kingdom4 ,they can not1 indeed1 assume the perfectly erect posture of man1 but they come very near to it2 and though they move on all four limbs1 feeling themselves more secure in that mode of advance1 they have a formation of hand analogous to that of man1 with a distinctly formed thumb1 enabling them to grasp an object in a manner closely resembling the human grasp4 ,the apes have even an advantage over the human race1 for they have a thumb on the foot1 as well as on the hand2 which may also have its own disadvantages1 for it might prove no convenience to us if we were so endowed4 ,but the presence of the thumb on the lower extremities suggests the use which it serves in the animal's ordinary life1 in grasping the branches along which it moves4 ,if from the similarity of outward configuration1 we pass to contemplate the brain1 we find here also great similarity of structure4 ,and indeed if the relations of muscle1 nerve1 and brain be as already indicated1 it follows from the resemblances of outward form that there must be a greater resemblance between the brain of man and the brain of the monkey and of the ape1 than between the human brain and that of any other animal known to us4 ,and so it proves to be4 ,the brain of the monkey has its subdivisions and convolutions very similar to those of the human brain1 only the convolutions are simpler in arrangement4 ,in outline it is deficient only in the diminished bulk of the front part1 and also the back part of the organ2 but in its expansion it resembles the human brain in this1 that to the rear it spreads back over the cerebellum1 so as to cover it4 ,the brain of the ape1 including under this designation the orang1 gorilla1 and chimpanzee1 is in still closer resemblance to the human1 being still1 however1 somewhat simpler in the arrangement of its convolutions1 but so closely approximating that the exact state of the case is as nearly as possible described1 if we say that the brain of the ape1 while it is decidedly smaller1 appears like a miniature of the human brain in a slightly undeveloped state4,,cv ,illustration3 ,,human ,,brain ,illustration3 ,,brain ,,of ,,monkey1 ,,with ,,cerebellum ,,beneath ,the human brain is an elaborate organ1 exceedingly complicated in its convolutions4 ,we can not1 indeed1 describe it as the most convoluted1 for the brain of the elephant is at least as distinguished for the beauty and complication of its folding1 and the brain of the whale is far more minute and detailed1 presenting quite a multitude of minute convolutions4 ,for descriptive purposes1 the human brain is divided into four superficial areas1 known as lobes1 and pretty clearly defined by certain natural boundaries4 ,from the lower part of the organ1 entering at a point scarcely half way back is a fissure or cutting running up into the mass in a direction uniformly inclining towards the rear1 known as the ,sylvian fissure2 while coming over the summit1 at a point near the middle1 and inclining down towards that just described1 is another fissure1 known as the fissure of ,rolando4 ,by these two deeply cut hollows1 the brain is marked off into four separate areas superficially1 a front and a rear lobe2 and two central lobes1 the one upper and the other under4 ,besides this there is a concealed and isolated lobe1 described on account of its situation as an island1 which is covered from view by the overlapping of the two sides of the ,sylvian fissure4 ,such is a description in outline of the configuration of the human brain1 to which must be added the statement that each lobe is filled in with its own special arrangement of convolutions1 each one having at least three well defined lines of convolution4 ,each of the hemispheres is similarly arranged1 though not by any means quite identical in disposal of convolutions1 yet the general description now given is strictly applicable to both4 ,the two hemispheres1 connected mainly with the ramification of nerve fibre running to the opposite sides of the body1 are united together a considerable way down by a transverse band of nerve fibres1 which at once unite the two into one organ1 and make the union so effected a living efficient union by carrying a multitude of lines of communication from the one side to the other4 ,just below this1 in the interior of the organ are two great central bodies1 known as the basal ganglia1 and consisting of nerve fibres massed together with grey matter around them1 that in front being chiefly motor nerves brought to a junction1 the latter sensory nerves combined in like manner4 ,the same arrangement holds in both hemispheres1 thereby providing that the respective masses of motor1 and of sensory nerves lie exactly opposite each other4 ,behind these in the centre1 lying in a position under both hemispheres are four small bulbs connected with the nerves of vision1 and also with the cerebellum2 and behind them1 covered by the posterior lobe of the brain is the cerebellum itself1 or little brain1 largely concerned with cordination of movements1 or equilibrium of the two sides of the system4 ,just below these arrangements the two great cords of nerve fibre descend towards the body1 which are covered by a transverse mass1 known as the bridge1 appearing complete as a crossing1 and containing transverse fibres from the cerebellum1 as well as a series of longitudinal fibres4 ,immediately underneath the bridge are pillars or masses of nerve1 constituting the crowning portion of the spinal system1 and formed in eight distinct bodies1 the two in front and the two in rear being elongated and known as pyramids1 those in the centre being rounded in figure4 ,from the elongated bodies1 the nerve fibres pass across to the opposite sides of the body4 ,this gathering is known as the medulla oblongata4 ,just beneath comes the spinal canal1 from which at the different joints of the spine are given out a suitable supply of sensory and motor nerves as previously described4 ,having thus given a general account of the central arrangements of the nerve system of the human body1 it is important to state that an order of things closely analogous obtains in other and lower orders of organism1 in respect of interior plan1 so that if the interior of the brain of the dog were laid open to view it would present a plan of distribution very similar to that now described4 ,to complete the view of the functions of the brain as indicated by recent research1 ,i have next to give a brief account of an extended course of experiments of great delicacy designed to ascertain whether it may be possible to localize certain functions within a definite area of the brain4 ,all are familiar with the fanciful subdivisions of the outer surface of the human skull1 under the name of phrenology1 represented on moulds of the head1 all marked with dividing lines and figures4 ,this pretentious and unscientific assumption of knowledge which no one possessed1 has had its time of popularity1 aided by a general recognition of comparative superiority in head formation in persons of known ability4 ,any thing equivalent to an exact partition of the bony covering protecting the brain1 has not been favored by scientific observations2 but these fanciful maps of the head1 which have been sold cheap1 and fully certified1 may serve as a guide to a general notion of what has been attempted on the surface of the brain itself1 after removal of the skull4 ,the illustrative aid1 however1 consists in nothing more than the suggestion of distinct areas1 for there is no analogy between what has been discovered by the observations now to be described1 and the bumps alleged to be found on the cranium4 ,the conjecture which may be said to have originated experiments as to localization was that there was a close resemblance between the action of nerve energy1 and an electric current4 ,the attempt made was to similate the action of the nerve cells1 by discharging a current of electricity upon the grey matter of the brain1 and recording the results which came under observation4 ,experiments were begun in #ahgj in ,germany by ,fritsch and ,hitzig1 the dog being the animal experimented upon4 ,the investigation was undertaken also by ,dr4 ,ferrier of ,king's ,college ,london1 and much more extended and varied results were published by him in #ahgc4 ,confirmatory work1 executed with many precautions1 was undertaken on the subject in #ahgd by a committee of the ,new ,york ,society of ,neurology and ,electrology1--a committee which included ,drs4 ,dalton1 ,arnold1 ,beard1 ,flint1 and ,masson1--testing results by frequent renewal of the experiments2 and at the same time1 a similar course of inquiry was being conducted in ,paris by ,carville and ,duret4,,cw ,by these investigations1 the possibility of electric stimulation of the cortical or grey matter of the brain1 and consequent activity of the nerve system has been fully established2 and though there is still considerable diversity of opinion concerning the interpretation of the facts1 it can not be disputed that by directing the electrode on certain well defined areas of the surface of the brain1 it is possible to bring into natural activity certain portions of the muscular system1 as controlled by the motor nerves4 ,the plan adopted is1 after putting the animal into an insensible state by use of chloroform1 and removing the cranium so as to expose the brain1 to apply the electrode connected with an electric battery to a given point on the surface1 record the result1 and gradually shift the needle round the original spot until a new result is obtained1 in which the spot previously tested becomes an index for the boundary of one circle1 and this marks the fact that a new circle has been entered4 ,by this process of investigation a series of centres for active stimulation have been discovered4 ,these number1 in the brain of the rat1 six2 in the brain of the rabbit1 seven2 of the cat1 eleven2 of the dog1 thirteen2 and of the monkey1 at least1 seventeen4 ,a curious limitation to the area of experiment has been encountered here1 for all the centres identified are found to cluster over the central region of the brain1 and both the front and rear parts of the organ are silent1 offering no response however greatly stimulated4 ,the explanation of this silence remains a matter of doubt4 ,it may be that these portions of the brain are concerned with movements which do not come under the observation of the operator1 or that they are centres of sensibility from which no movement can naturally follow1 or that they fulfil functions which can not be recognized by this mode of experiment4 ,uncertainty hangs over this department in the investigation4 ,the actual results may be indicated by a few examples4 ,at a point well forward in the brain of the dog1 marked number one by ,ferrier1 is a centre which when stimulated leads to movement of the hind leg on the opposite side2 and by exciting another portion of the brain quite contiguous1 marked number four1 movement of the opposite fore leg is produced4 ,by exciting a point situated over these two and on a distinct convolution1 wagging of the tail is induced4 ,by transferring the needle to a point much lower down1 towards the base of the brain1 but still well forward1 marked by ,ferrier nine1 the mouth is opened and the tongue moved1 while in many cases a decided bark is emitted4 ,these examples may suffice to indicate the class of results obtained2 and similar results have been seen in all animals subjected to this test1 with such variations as may be considered inevitable in view of the configuration of the animal4 ,while distinct areas or circles of the brain have thus been marked1 warranting localizing of certain functions1 the facts connected with these experiments do not favor the view that each area is to be taken as so rigidly distinct that it may be supposed to operate separately in a quite isolated manner4 ,on the contrary1 a conjoint action of several centres seems more commonly implied when the natural activity of the brain is contemplated in line of these results4 ,additional weight must be given to this consideration1 when it is noticed that the centres are nominally motor centres1--movement and not sensibility being the result most patent to the observer1--nevertheless on closer scrutiny it proves true1 that many of the movements occasioned by electric stimulation are those induced naturally as the result of sensation4 ,such for example are the movements of the eyelids consequent upon a dazzling of the eyes1 or movement of the ears because of a startling sound4 ,in this way it becomes clear that within a given area a centre of sensibility is in communication with a motor centre close by1 or it may be even at some little distance4 ,thus this most delicate and difficult course of investigation supports the view that much of the activity of the animal organism is provided for by an established connection between nerve cells respectively presenting the terminus in the brain for a sensory nerve1 and the starting point for a motor nerve1 or point of communication with such a nerve4 ,from this conclusion1 it follows that a very large amount of the activity which we witness in the case of animals1 often attributed to instinct1 or even to voluntary determination1 is to be described as sensori-motor activity4 ,that is to say1 the action is brought about by a contrivance which may be described as partly mechanical1 partly chemical4 ,its history may be sketched in this way3 an impression is made on one of the nerves of sensibility1 or on one of the organs of special sense1 such as the eye or ear2 a wave of impulse passes along the incarrying nerve fibre1 leading to molecular change in the nerve cell1 and to sensibility in some way unknown2 the excitation occasioned there is extended along a connecting fibre to a second nerve cell1 which is the starting point for a motor nerve2 along that line the impulse is instantly and inevitably continued2 and as an almost instantaneous result1 without any form of sensibility to indicate what is taking place1 the muscular energy is liberated1 and action is the direct consequence4 ,the problem which immediately arises is this1--,how far may the activity of all living organism be accounted for in this way1 including even the activity of man8 ,this is a problem which will present an interesting subject for discussion in the next stage of this inquiry1 the import of which must now be made apparent by the sketch of the structure of the nerve system1 and the results of the experiments as to localization4 ,nothing more is now required to complete this narrative leading up to this problem1 and discovering its proportions1 than a brief account of correlative inquiry which has afforded strong confirmatory evidence as to the truth of the conclusions favoring localization1 and cordinate action of different portions of the brain as the central organ governing the whole nerve system4 ,the corroborative evidence at once supporting the conclusions as to localization and favoring their extension to human nature is obtained by reference to the results of injury to the nerve system at various parts of the body1 and injury to the brain as ascertained after death4 ,continuing experiments on the animals1 it has been shown that even if a portion of the brain be cut away1 it is still possible to operate on the nerve lines in the usual manner by means of electricity4 ,pushing experiment in this direction still further it has been found that more serious injury permanently destroys the centre1 and entails paralysis of the muscles controlled by it when in a healthy state4 ,in like manner it has been proved that if the nerve itself be cut1 the communication is at an end1 and movement by stimulation has become impossible4 ,by perpetually occurring cases of paralysis in human experience1 and careful examination after death of the exact situation and extent of disease in the brain1 it has been shown by accumulation of evidence1 that the laws which provide for sensibility and for muscular activity in the history of the lower animals1 do also hold in the case of man4 ,while the brain continues in full vigor1 all the usual forms of sensibility1 and modes of action are simple2 where these have become disturbed1 restricted or impossible1 some injury has been accidentally inflicted on the brain of the sufferer1 or disease has begun in the organ1 and has gained a hold exactly proportionate to the forms of restraint and disturbance which have become outwardly manifest4 ,these are results which show how much is due by way of sympathy1 and patience1 and encouragement to those who suffer under any degree of brain injury or disease1 due from all around them whose conduct may have any part in determining their experience4 ,these results testify how closely the human organism stands allied to lower orders of organism around2 how many homologies of structure there are1 and how many analogies in experience4 ,these things declare that science has a clear and unchallengeable field of inquiry in seeking an explanation of human nature on the same lines of procedure as those which have been followed in ascending the scale of living organism4 ,the nature and extent of materials at its disposal as the result of the most recent investigations have now been indicated4 ,the problem is1 ,how far can the anatomy and physiology of the human frame account for the facts of human life8 ,the strength and practical power of religious thought in the world will depend upon the answer1 for science must here carry some test of religion4 ,on the other hand1 the problem which human life presents is by far the most severe test which science has to encounter4 ,in facing the facts1 science is engaged with the settlement of its own boundaries1--the demonstration of its own limits4 ,in facing this highest problem which human observation encounters1--man's explanation of himself1--let us cease from comparisons between scientific claims and religious1 and let us face with patience and resolution the question--,what is the exact place1 and what the destiny of man1 who has piled up the sciences1 and midst the turmoil and conflict of life1 has found his most elevating exercise1 and most profound calm1 in worship of the ,king eternal1 immortal1 invisible1 the only wise ,god8 ,,footnotes3 ,,cs ,protoplasm1 see ,appendix ,,vii4 ,,ct ,unless references are otherwise given1 illustration of the structure of brain here referred to1 will be found in my work1 ,the ,relations of ,mind and ,brain1 from p4 #abe1 onwards4 ,,cu ,the ,brain as the ,organ of ,mind1 by ,dr4 ,bastian1 p4 #aae4 ,,cv ,see ,appendix ,,xi4 ,,cw ,for detailed narrative1 see my work on ,the ,relations of ,mind and ,brain1 chap4 iv4 p4 #gi4 ,,lecture ,,vii4 ,,man',s ,,place ,,in ,,the ,,world4 ,the accumulated interest gathered around the direct and collateral investigations bearing on the development of species1 has naturally turned greatly increased attention on man's position in the universe4 ,as has been shown by study of the nervous system belonging to animal life1 all organism has been constructed on a uniform plan1 advancing in complication as the organism becomes more intricate in structure1 having separate parts assigned to distinct functions4 ,this uniform plan is seen to culminate in man4 ,thus it follows1 that man appears to the scientific observer1 as the last or most advanced figure in a gradually ascending scale4 ,that this is man's place in the field of organized existence no one will doubt4 ,the prevailing view of our nature1 however1 recognizes more in it than bone1 muscle1 nerve1 and cellular tissue1 while observational science is capable of recognizing no more than these1 so that1 if there be any thing more1 it is quite beyond the range of physical science1 and within the territory of mental philosophy4 ,here then1 is preparation for conflict1 which may be accepted as inevitable1 because of the advance of science4 ,the occasion for this expectation should1 however1 be fully understood4 ,its certainty may be maintained on two obvious grounds4 ,the first is concerned with the history of scientific progress4 ,science is pushing its way up the extended scale of existence with no exact knowledge of its own limits2 knowing what its achievements have been1 animated to a high degree by the vastness of the problems still before it1 but knowing nothing quite definite as to its own boundaries4 ,the aggressive force of science at such a stage must be great4 ,on the other hand1 there is a large body of settled conviction1 which has swayed men and moulded society in all ages1 which is an opposing force operating on that very line along which science is advancing1 and which must be encountered whenever man's place in the universe becomes the subject of inquiry4 ,this opposing conviction is not necessarily religious in type1 though it is supported by the whole range of thought concerned with the supernatural4 ,the conviction here referred to1 as lying more obviously across the path on which science is travelling1 is that concerned with the personality of man1 with the rights and responsibilities of individuals1 implying accepted conclusions on which the government1 and police1 and administration of affairs in every nation are based4 ,it must1 then1 be clearly recognized that the conflict anticipated as inevitable is the conflict of knowledge of one order1 with knowledge of a different order4 ,it is conflict of knowledge obtained by the slow and difficult processes available to science1 with knowledge possessed by all1 applied in the regulation of individual and social life1 and systematized in the annals of mental philosophy2 or1 we may more nearly describe the condition of matters by saying that the occasion of conflict is the determination of science to include all within its own area1 rather than the possession of actual knowledge as to the highest order of life1 for science is only seeking1 and can not profess to have found1 an explanation of the functions of human life1 as it can profess to have done in the case of lower orders4 ,there could1 therefore1 be no more mistaken representation of the pending conflict than the allegation that it is a conflict of knowledge with ignorance4 ,to put it in the best light for science1 it is the conflict of one kind of knowledge with another2 but there is a nearer approach to accuracy if we say that the conflict is occasioned by the want of verified conclusions within the boundaries of science itself1 in contrast with very definite conclusions belonging to men generally1 and verified by practical tests which scientific men can not refuse4 ,it is not essential to the point1 but may be of consequence in view of the range of application belonging to this inquiry1 to remark that religious thought is not itself directly involved here2 nevertheless1 religious thought is deeply concerned in the issue of the conflict4 ,having thus briefly indicated the occasion of the conflict1 and the contending forces1 it is desirable to find the standpoint of science4 ,the nature and origin of life having been passed as problems for which no solution has yet been found1 science has concentrated on the functions of the various portions of each organism1 and on the contrivances for its protection and continuance in the world2 and still more in advance1 on the laws favoring the development of species4 ,from outward form it has passed to inward structure1 and pressing still more closely towards the secrets of life has endeavored to ascertain by microscopic investigation what provision has been made for maintaining the vital processes involved in the action of organism4 ,travelling up the advancing orders of animate existence1 science has discovered a uniform plan adapted to varying complexity of structure4 ,thus entered and far advanced on the course of investigation1 science sees no limit to its field of inquiry save the limits of organism itself4 ,what has already been achieved1 gives full warrant for the claim of inclusion1 in which all scientific men naturally concur1 and with which men generally will readily agree4 ,this agreement1 however1 lies on the very boundary line of disagreement and dissension4 ,immediately when an attempt is made to set forth what is implied1 it becomes clear that some scientific men include very large expectations as to what science is yet to accomplish1 while others1 showing more of the caution of the scientific spirit1 decline to commit themselves to dogmatic assertions4 ,up to the line of agreement indicated we are dealing with science2 beyond that line1 where we come upon disagreements1 we are not dealing with science1 but with the comparative sanguineness or caution of scientific men4 ,what we have before us as clearly admitted on all sides is that human life presents the common characteristics of organic life1 and is subjected to the ordinary laws of organism4 ,the problem with which we have now to deal in view of this admission is this1--,how far do the functions of organism account for the universally recognized characteristics of human life8 ,in facing this problem there are not a few scientific inquirers who look upon the mere raising of it as a claim to include all that belongs to human nature within the realm of physical science4 ,they have allowed themselves to regard the two things as interchangeable1 and all their researches are in their view so involved in this identification1 that they resent the challenging of it1 as if it implied antagonism to science4 ,but the scientific inconsistency of this is easily shown4 ,that science must extend its investigations to human organism1 admits of no doubt2 that by means of this investigation all the phenomena of human life will be traced to organism1 is the very thing to be proved1 and until established on clear and full evidence is not to be regarded otherwise than problematic4 ,if we are in this matter to be influenced by regard to the slow and difficult procedure in cases of much greater simplicity1 we shall be guarded in the utterance of expectations2 if we make account of the enormous difficulties to be encountered in arranging the facts to be explained1 we shall be still more guarded2 and if we remember that the practical demands of life must all be met day by day without waiting for science as an aid1 it will not appear strange that the non-scientific thinker regards the whole scientific investigation as wide of the sphere in which questions of self-government are settled1 even though this view seems to affirm1 without knowledge of both sides1 that there is a sphere belonging to human life into which science can not enter4 ,still1 it must be allowed that in the pathway of science nothing is to be foreclosed1 and no area1 whether large or small1 is to be shut off on which the appliances of science can be brought to bear4 ,science can not exclude man from the range of investigation2 can not on any warrant supplied by the conditions of its own procedure1 draw a line within the circumference of nature1 even though it may be constrained to allow that there are many things within nature of which it can offer no explanation4 ,that science has by recent research done much to explain phases of human activity previously unexplained1 may be clearly shown4 ,the modification of previously received opinion may be indicated thus1--that many forms formerly regarded as in the true sense voluntary1 and so described in the life not only of man1 but also of the higher animals1 can be explained by the action of brain and nerve4 ,this involves a considerable extension of the area of the mechanical in human action1 and a considerable restriction of the area of the voluntary4 ,in seeking to indicate roughly the form of this restriction1 we may find enough for our purpose in the distinction between what we may describe as muscular action1 and what we would more naturally denominate personal conduct4 ,this contrast will serve throughout1 as we proceed to estimate the explanations which science has reached in dealing with the characteristics of human life4 ,the proved superiority of brain and nerve in man affords an adequate explanation of his generally recognized superiority in the variety of the forms of his muscular activity4 ,in mere muscular power man can not compete with the more powerful animals4 ,his practical superiority is seen in manipulation and the vastly greater variety of occupations to which he can turn2 and in the greater wisdom he has for self-government4 ,leaving meanwhile out of account comparative intelligence1 we have only to consider the superior use man has of the general sensibilities of the body1 and of the special senses of touch and sight2 the greater variety of the joints and muscles in his body2 the more complicated arrangements of his nerve system2 and the relation of all these in a single economy1 in order to perceive a distinct phase of the superiority of man1 sufficiently accounted for by clearly recognized facts1 anatomical and physiological4 ,in a multitude of well-known forms of action1 of which the mechanical arts afford illustration1 man can do what can not be attempted by lower forms of organism4 ,another step higher is taken by the advance of physiological science1 involving an explanation of acquired aptitudes4 ,the interaction of sensibility and motor activity has been shown to be great4 ,a message conveyed along a sensory line is readily transferred to a motor line2 the sense of touch becomes a natural guide to familiar forms of action2 a form of sensibility may thus be connected with a given range of motor apparatus1 just as the history of the blind illustrates how much more can be accomplished by aid of touch without sight1 than is ordinarily achieved4 ,by these means1 what at first requires consideration and care 7neither of which is accounted for by physiological explanations71 comes at last to be done without deliberation1 and with so much facility1 that it does not seem to engage much attention4 ,physiological science thus accounts for a considerable amount of superior activity characteristic of man in his daily engagements4 ,it must1 however1 be noticed that the explanation is not a complete one1 inasmuch as the action of the sensory and motor apparatus referred to1 presupposes consideration and care1 that is intellectual and voluntary guidance commensurate with the initial difficulties of attainment1 in order that the nerve system may be brought to accomplish what becomes possible afterwards by mere mechanical and chemical contrivance within the living organism4 ,having thus briefly indicated the advances in knowledge of the working of our own organism gained by recent research1 and the explanation thus afforded of much of the superiority manifest in human life1 we come upon the grand difficulty of science1--,how to account for intellectual superiority4 ,it is obvious that animals give proofs of intelligence as well as men2 and that the human brain has a marked superiority in the frontal region1 to which intelligence is commonly referred1 as it certainly is superior also in the back part of the organ1 to which intelligence is not so commonly referred4 ,but the pressing difficulty is this1 to show how nerve cells1 confessedly concerned with the development of nerve energy1 and the production of sensory and motor activity1 can be further considered capable of performing the function of thought1 covering the whole variety of mental occupations4 ,attention has been directed to the recognized diversities of nerve cells1 which are unipolar1 bipolar1 and multipolar1 on the hypothesis that these diversities may point to differences of function so great as to provide what is required4 ,but there is a total failure of evidence to substantiate this hypothesis4 ,the differences among the nerve cells of the brain are differences in size1 and in the number of the lines of communication taking rise from them4 ,in accordance with the plan of arrangement everywhere recognized1 the number of protoplasmic lines originating from a cell gives an index to the points of contact it has in the surrounding tissue1 and thus to the part it may perform in the work of cordination or interaction4 ,a small cell with only a single line or fibre proceeding from it1 must be regarded as a cell conveying nerve stimulus in only a single direction1 and to only a single destination4 ,a bipolar cell in accordance with the same rule of interpretation1 is a cell having communication in two opposite directions1 and thus may be capable of transmitting stimulus by the one channel or by the other1 besides which it is possible1 so far as structure is concerned1 that such a cell may receive stimulus from one direction and send it forth in an opposite1 thus proving a centre of intercommunication4 ,on the same plan1 a multipolar cell1 being of greater size1 and having from five to ten fibres proceeding from it1 holds a more important place in the manifold ramifications of cellular tissue1 sending out stimulus in an increased variety of courses according to the number of the lines pertaining to it1 and proving thus an intermediate station in communication with a variety of distinct centres4 ,no observation yet directed upon the nerve cells has proved sufficient to establish all this1 but the supposition is in strict harmony with what has been ascertained as to the laws governing the action of the nerve system4 ,when1 however1 an attempt is made to proceed farther1 selecting the largest cells as mind cells1,,cx or cells generating thought and volition1 there is a complete break away from evidence1 and from the clear lines of interpretation already established4 ,we are dealing with conjecture1 not with science4 ,there is no reason in the interests of truth to object to hypothesis in this region1 any more than in another1 for conjecture has often proved the handmaid of discovery1 and it is likely to be so in a still larger degree4 ,but an essential condition of this acknowledgment is1 that conjecture do not claim any respect beyond what its nature warrants1 and specially do not take to itself the name of science1--knowledge1 or certainty4 ,beyond this1 it must be recognized in every intelligent circle1 that conjectures1 like men of different character1 are entitled to different degrees of respect1 some to only a moderate and guarded measure1 others to a very high degree1 and some to very little indeed4 ,in a case like the present1 we can have no sure test for a provisional judgment entitled to regulate provisional procedure1 other than the harmony of the conjecture with scientific knowledge already acquired as to the same region of existence4 ,judged by this test1 the conjecture that the intellectual life of man is to be accounted for by the presence in the brain of myriads of thought cells1 volitional cells1 memory cells1 imagination cells1 and emotional cells1 has little on which to claim a high degree of consideration4 ,its most obvious scientific difficulties are these two1 that it implies a departure from the scheme of brain action scientifically established1 and that it passes away from the scientific appliances employed to obtain knowledge of brain action4 ,the real discoveries which have been made are the existence of sensory and motor apparatus1 and the interaction of these two branches or divisions of the system4 ,beyond this1 science has made no advance4 ,the scientific appliances by which these discoveries have been reached are those available in post-mortem dissection1 and in experiment under such exposure of the brain tissue as has been found compatible with functional activity of the organ4 ,this conjecture of mind-cells does not either experimentally or logically connect itself with the recent advances in knowledge of the brain4 ,the system of sensory and motor apparatus spread over the body for which the brain is the great central and governing organ does not under the scientific explanation of it already obtained1 lead on by natural sequence to the conjecture of additional and greatly higher functions being assigned to the brain4 ,besides1 the suggestion that place should be found in the brain for something more and higher than sensori-motor activity1 does not come from any necessity which has arisen in the course of scientific observation4 ,it is only because we know1 in a manner quite different from that in which scientific knowledge of nerve and brain has been acquired1 that man does observe1 and reason1 construct hypotheses and cherish expectations1 contemplate rules of conduct and regulate his actions in accordance with them1 that scientific inquirers1 attempting to include the whole range of human powers1 have felt themselves urged forward to seek an explanation of the characteristics of mental life which are the familiar facts of man's experience4 ,the course of experiment has not brought them up to these facts2 common acquaintance with them has pressed on scientific inquirers the need for dealing with them in order to make good the claim that science contains the explanation of all existence1 man included4 ,the dilemma for this conjecture that the brain thinks and wills is serious4 ,if the brain is capable of what is commonly named mental activity1 all that science has demonstrated is susceptibility and motor activity1 that is nerve impulse involving molecular and muscular action1 and this carries no explanation of mental action4 ,in this1 as in previous cases1 it is better to take purely scientific statements concerning the structure and functions of the nerve cells1 without regard to theoretical result4 ,the following quotations will show what account has been given of the variety of appearance and position of the nerve cells4 ,professor ,turner says1 nerve cells are the characteristic structures in the nerve centres1 are susceptible to impressions or nervous impulses1 and are the texture in which the molecular changes occur that produce or disengage the special form of energy named nerve energy1 the evolution of which is the distinctive mark of a nerve centre4,,cy ,the central extremities of the nerve fibres lie in relation to1 and are often directly connected with the nerve cells4 ,from opposite points of the surface of the bipolar cell a strong process is given off1 which is directly continued into a nerve fibre4,,cz ,when we pass next to multipolar cells1 we have the following explanations4 ,in many localities they present characteristic forms4 ,in the gray matter of the spinal cord1 more especially in its anterior horn1,,da they give rise to numerous processes1 and have a stellate or radiate form4 ,in the gray matter on the surface of the convolutions of the cerebrum they are pyramidal in shape2 the apex is directed to the surface of the convolution1 the base towards the white matter2 the processes arise from the base1 apex1 and sides of the pyramid4,,db ,the processes which arise from a multipolar nerve cell as a rule divide and subdivide as they pass away from the body of the cell1 until at last they give rise to branches of extreme tenuity4 ,these branching processes apparently consist exclusively of cell protoplasm1 and have been called protoplasm processes4 ,gerlach has described the protoplasm processes of the multipolar nerve cells of the brain and spinal cord as forming an excessively minute net-work1 from which minute medullated nerve fibres arise4,,dc ,from the observations of ,lockhart ,clark1 ,arndt1 ,cleland and ,meynert1 there can be no doubt that the pyramidal nerve cells vary in relative size and in numbers in the different layers of the gray cortex1 and that the largest sized pyramidal cells lie in the third and fourth layers4,,dd ,large pyramidal cells are found in the frontal lobe in considerable numbers1 but it is added1 there is no difficulty in recognizing in the occipital lobe 7the back region of the brain7 a small proportion of cells quite equal in magnitude to the largest cells of the frontal lobe4,,de ,from these statements1 it is easy to judge what value can be attached to the conjecture that multipolar or pyramidal cells are to be regarded as mind-cells4 ,the result may be summarized thus2 7#a7 ,the larger cells are invariably distinguished by the number of fibres given off1 or the lines of communication they have with other parts of the tissue2 7#b7 ,as to distribution of these cell-fibres appearing in the brain1 it is found that as the cells themselves are in the lower strata of the gray matter1 the majority of their fibres stretch downwards1 the mass of the nerve fibres thus communicating with the organism2 7#c7 ,these pyramidal cells are not peculiar to any part of the brain1 and they do not belong to the brain alone1 but are found in the gray matter of the spinal cord1 and also of the sympathetic system1 which provides for the action of the heart1 lungs1 and other vital organs4 ,all these characteristics are adverse to the conjecture that for the larger sized cells a claim can be made assigning to them distinctively intellectual or mental functions4 ,in contrast with this view1 ,i shall here introduce an extract from ,hckel's ,evolution of ,man1 as he may be accounted the most advanced advocate of the theory of mind-cells4 ,he says1--,the nerve cell of the brain is an extremely one-sided formation4 ,it can not1 like the egg-cell1 develop from itself numerous generations of cells1 of which some transform themselves into skin-cells1 some into flesh-cells1 and others into bone-cells1 etc4 ,but instead1 the nerve-cell1 which is formed for the highest activities of life1 possesses the capacity to feel1 to will1 to think4 ,it is a true mind-cell1 an elementary organ of mental activity4 ,correspondingly1 it has an extremely complex minute structure4 ,innumerable filaments of exceeding fineness1 which may be compared to the numerous electric wires of a great central telegraph station1 traverse 7crossing each other again and again71 the finely granulated protoplasm of the nerve-cell1 and pass into branched processes1 which proceed from this mind-cell1 and connect with other nerve-cells and nerve-fibres4 ,it is scarcely possible to trace1 even approximately1 the tangled paths of these filaments in the fine substance of the protoplasmic body4 ,we thus1 have before us a highly complex apparatus1 the more minute structure of which we have hardly begun to know1 even with the help of our strongest microscope1 and the significance of which we rather guess than know4 ,its complex mechanism is capable of the most intricate physical functions4 ,but even this elementary organ of mental activity1 of which there are thousands in our brain1 is only a single cell4 ,our whole intellectual life is but the sum of the results of all such nerve-cells1 or mind-cells4,,df ,from this passage it will be seen that ascertained facts are given in harmony with previous descriptions2 but that while naming some as sensory1 others as motor1 there is no distinct evidence for classifying certain cells as mind-cells4 ,along with the admission of our comparative ignorance of the minute structure of the cell1 is the assertion that this cell possesses the capacity to feel1 to will1 to think4 ,this latter statement is advanced without any trace of scientific evidence1 and has no better substratum on which to rest than the admission that man not only feels1 but also thinks and wills4 ,further1 when we recall the singular variety of situation in which these cells are found1 as they lie within the spinal canal1 subordinate centres1 and the brain1 the insufficiency of the whole theory of mind-cells is apparent4 ,still more conspicuous does this become when we turn to ,hckel's illustrative diagram1 and read underneath it this description1--,a large branched nerve-cell1 or 'mind-cell' from the brain of an electric fish4 ,the investigator who makes in the directest manner statements as to thinking and willing1 which he has not verified and can not verify2 and who with undisturbed composure of mind proceeds to illustrate and support his position by giving a drawing of the mind-cell of an electric fish1 does almost every thing that can be done to discredit his testimony on scientific subjects4 ,having now set forth the grounds on which ,i think it clearly shown that physiological science has done no more than identify sensory and motor cells2 and that the search for the true mind-cell has proved a failure2 ,i pass from this division of the subject with the acknowledgment that the front and back portions of the brain still present area for fresh research1 and to this must be added the striking fact that in all the brains subjected to electric excitation these two portions have uniformly remained silent4 ,these considerations may possibly hereafter afford valuable suggestions towards guidance of the work yet to be done in the investigation of brain structure and functions4 ,in view of the limits of the present discussion1 ,i shall at this point pass over at once and directly to the region concerned with the government of human conduct1 with the view of illustrating in what respects human life differs from merely animal life4 ,on this single test1 ,i must here be content to rest an argument for the insufficiency of physiology1 and the necessity for observation of our own experience1 if we are to have an intelligible account of the most familiar characteristics of human life4 ,by way of securing a sharp contrast serviceable for illustrative and argumentative purposes1 ,i take an extract from ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,his statement is this1--,there is no evidence that any animal performs an action for the exclusive good of another4,,dg ,alongside of this statement1 for the purpose of comparison and contrast1 let me place this4 ,it is an essential law of human life1 having daily application1 that man shall so act as to make the good of his fellowman the express end of his action4 ,this is a law of moral life which we do not dream of applying to any lower order of beings1 but which we do regard as binding on all men equally4 ,explicit testimony to this law of human life may be drawn from the philosophy of ,greece and of ,china in times so remote as to precede the ,christian era1 or from the teaching of our ,saviour1 or from the daily life of men in any land in this nineteenth century4 ,the contrast is thus sharp enough1 and it presents the most perplexing difficulty for physiologists of the school of ,hckel2 while it affords the strongest line of evidence for that philosophy which accounts for the higher characteristics of human life by reference to mind as distinct from brain1 and immeasurably higher in function4 ,whether ,mr4 ,darwin's account of animal conduct will be uniformly accepted by naturalists1 need not concern us1 as the possibility of dissension would not seriously affect the argument1 the main stress of which must fall on these two points1 that the law of pure benevolence is a law of human life1 and that the mere recognition of this law 7,i do not say obedience to it1 which is a stage further in advance71 can not be included within the functions of brain4,,dh ,from what has been written by some naturalists as to the benevolence of animals1 it is probable that some may be prepared to take exception to the statement of ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,there is no need for here entering upon discussion which might thus be raised1 and which would entail the task of criticising multitudes of statements made in a singularly loose and unscientific manner4 ,there is not any more careful observer than ,mr4 ,darwin1 the whole record of whose observations gives confidence in his testimony1 and his patient reflection on the real significance of what he has seen4 ,we may1 however1 leave this matter to naturalists1 that they may decide whether this conclusion as to animals requires some modification4 ,the purpose of the present argument is to show that an authoritative law of benevolence does apply to human life1 in direct contrast with the ordinary law of animal life1 giving special force to the struggle for existence as witnessed in the history of the lower orders of beings4 ,one possible entanglement for the present argument must1 however1 be carefully shunned4 ,in the comparison between man and animal1 we are apt to diverge into a discussion of what men and animals severally do4 ,this is a question considerably different from that now under discussion1 and yet it lies in such close proximity as to afford the greatest facilities for confusion of thought4 ,we are not here comparing what animals do1 with what men do2 we are comparing the actions of animals with what we know men ought to do4 ,it is this question of ought which appears as the outstanding and distinguishing feature in human life1 on which we are now seeking to direct attention with all the concentration which physiologists secure when the microscope is directed on brain tissue4 ,the true feature here is elevation and complexity of intellectual action1 and the possibility of assigning this to brain action4 ,the question is no doubt concerned with conduct both in the animal1 and in man1--but what we wish to ascertain is1 how far action or conduct in the two cases throws light on the exercise of intelligence possible to man and to animal4 ,it is admitted that to act on a law of benevolence requires a higher exercise of intelligence1 than to act under a law of desire or sensitive impulse2 and we wish to reach definite conclusions on two points2 first1 and subordinately1 whether animals ever act on the higher law2 second1 and chiefly1 whether such action does not involve as its condition an intellectual exercise of a higher order than can be assigned to brain4 ,the former of these questions1 subordinate to the present inquiry1 may be left to naturalists4 ,the second concerns us directly here1 in the more important discussion as to man4 ,with the view of completing the defence against disturbing entanglement1 it may be well further to insert here the explicit statement that men do very commonly act in neglect of the law of benevolence1 and even in violation of it4 ,the fact is too well known in society to be overlooked4 ,it may be enough1 however1 in the present connection1 to admit that men do often act like the animals2 or1 to state the fact more precisely in form1 the animal nature is often found governing men1 so as to make their action resemble that of the lower animals in the struggle for existence4 ,these lines of severance will now make clear what is our main question1--,is man capable of recognizing a higher law of life8 ,does a law of benevolence apply to him as a rational creature1 as it can not apply in the history of the animals around us8 ,and if this question be answered in the affirmative1 does such answer imply the exercise of a higher power than can be scientifically assigned to brain cells8 ,that man recognizes a law of benevolence as determining personal conduct will not be formally disputed by any one4 ,yet so very much bearing on the present argument is involved in the interpretation to be assigned to this admission1 that it is desirable to present at least in outline1 the evidence on which the statement rests4 ,if we look at the facts in view of the ordinary actions of the lower animals1 a series of contrasts is presented4 ,the animals are seen to compete with each other for what is a common object of desire1 such as a favorite article of food2 and to fight with each other for possession2 the consequence is that the strongest and most daring get what they seek1 while the weaker and more timid must be content with what is of less value for gratification of their desire4 ,these facts are so conspicuous and so constant in their influence on the whole race of animals that the theory of the origin of species by descent founds upon them4 ,a complete contrast appears in what man recognizes as the rule of his conduct1 when he admits the obligation to benevolence4 ,there is a reflective exercise concerned with the right and wrong in human conduct which regards it as a wrong thing for a man to snatch from another the enjoyment within his reach1 or subvert his opportunity for happiness in order to increase his own pleasure4 ,on the other hand1 there is an exercise of thought which contemplates effort for the good of others as right1 even extending the application of this law of moral life so far as to require self-denial1 and1 in circumstances of special importance1 self-sacrifice1 for the good of others4 ,these are facts so elementary1 that the statement of them would be felt to be uncalled for1 were we not seeking to distinguish the elements of our ordinary experience4 ,in accordance with what has been said1 we are agreed in regarding it as a wrong done to another if we deprive him of enjoyment simply for the sake of our own satisfaction4 ,such conduct is what we condemn as selfishness in the agent1 and a wrong to the sufferer4 ,when on the contrary we subordinate personal pleasure in order to secure the happiness of another1 we commend the benevolent disposition in which the act originates1 and we honor attention shown to the rights of a fellowman4 ,as the contrary lines of conduct are so often followed1 and even vindicated as permissible in the competitions of life1 we need to show with some care that the law of benevolence is uniformly regarded as a law of human conduct even when its requirements are unfulfilled4 ,this becomes obvious if we look along another line of observation4 ,if we pass from what a man does to his fellowmen to what he is seen to expect of them1 we at once perceive that the authoritative feature alleged to belong to the principle of benevolence is admitted by him4 ,he resents the selfishness from which he has suffered1 complains of the unmanly act which found its pleasure in his injury1 and an appeal to public opinion1 on any occasion sufficiently important to involve a question of the interests of society1 at once calls forth general condemnation of the selfish act as a real injustice4 ,that such a form and direction of thought belongs naturally to man has been further shown by the ready assent of the young to the law of benevolence1 and their unhesitating test of their seniors by reference to it4 ,if their irritability and resentment have been stirred1 it may be difficult to gain their assent to the special application of the law of benevolence in the circumstances4 ,this1 however1 is only an example in early life1 of what we find in more advanced years1 that it is hard to do the right1 and easy to excuse the wrong we do1 while resenting the wrong done to us4 ,but1 apart from exciting causes1 and simply in the exercise of a quiet reflection1 the child recognizes the duty of benevolence2 and1 notwithstanding the disadvantages of weakness and inexperience1 proceeds to test others by this standard1 and is felt by others to be powerful by reason of the force belonging to the law1 however superior in years1 and in authority may be the persons of whom the child expects that he be kindly treated4 ,these are in very condensed form the facts of human life1 which are as outstanding as the contrary facts insisted upon as characteristic of animal life4 ,we need an explanation which shall put the nature of man as truly in contrast with the nature of the animal1 while it is at the same time allowed that man has an animal nature which may operate to the influence of his conduct1 in neglect of this higher law of intelligence4 ,now the most advanced results of physiological science carry no explanation of this simple1 ordinary fact1 man's recognition of a law of benevolence as authoritative4 ,after we have assigned full value to the sensibilities of a physical nature overspread with a sensitive nerve-system2 after we have made account of the motor activity possible to an animal possessed of a complicated muscular system controlled by motor nerves1 we have not come near a region in which the reflective process takes place which applies the law of benevolence for the regulation of conduct4 ,we discover within the range of physiological possibility1 sensitiveness to impression from without1 and to the influence of the cravings and appetites of a nature requiring support and satisfaction1 and impelling power which urges to action for the sake of present satisfaction4 ,all these things we find easily explained under the teaching of physiology2 but we have no explanation of the act of intelligence in perceiving a law of benevolence and owning submission to it4 ,we do not even find a scientific account of the subordinate intellectual exercises involved in the application of the law of benevolence when recognized4 ,there is a form of discrimination here1 including the distinction of men as persons1 the claims involved in personal rights1 and the phase of individual duty ascertained while contemplating the circumstances in the midst of which it is needful to act4 ,all this is outside the range of the formulated results of physiological research4 ,there can be no hesitation in accepting all that has been established as to nerve-sensibility1--the subjection of human life to the interaction of external influences1--and the inevitable forms of experience which result in individual history4 ,but we see in these1 only conditions in the midst of which man by exercise of his intelligence is to undertake the management of life on a higher level than that of animal life4 ,we clearly recognize the laws of motor activity1 including the full bearing of outward influences1 and inward tendencies upon human action4 ,but with these things we see what is meant when it is recognized that intellect must govern passion3 while we see physiological science laying open to us only the laws of passion1 and not the law for its government4 ,we admit the convincing nature of the evidence by which it is shown that our nature with all the special phases of individuality1 often involving strange perils and perplexities1 has been inherited by us1 gathering within the boundaries of our life a task which we would willingly have shunned4 ,we perceive in this a science of the specialities of individual nature1 standing alongside the science explaining the common characteristics of man which come within the range of physiological research4 ,but it is beyond this1 that the problem arises concerning the moral government of life1 so that equally what is common1 and what is peculiar to man shall be regulated according to rational law4 ,for this all see to be true1 excepting always cases of manifest infirmity and disorder1 that equally the common and the special powers of the individual are to be regulated by the law of benevolence4 ,there are no exemptions for special temperament1 whatever diversities there may be in the task which application of the law may involve for some4 ,the ought has ascendency over human life2,,di the bare perception of this grand reality1 taken with all the distinctions involved in its application to personal conduct1 and all the forms of personal control exercised for its fulfilment1 lies apart from the discoveries of physiology4 ,in these things we see most clearly what mind is1 and what mind does in the management of human life4 ,we discover clearly thus what it is which makes human life superior to the life of the animals around us2 what it is which makes the best in human life stand essentially connected with the subordination of the animal nature to a higher nature within2 and in what respect it stands true that physiology is a science of only a part of our nature1 and that the lower1 because the subject part4 ,in this man knows1 apart from all science1 and quite independently of philosophy too1 that he has a higher life1 working1 rejoicing1 and advancing to nobler excellence1 just as he governs his body1 keeping it in subjection1 while revering an ideal of moral and spiritual excellence towards the attainment of which it is the duty and honor of humanity to strive4 ,,footnotes3 ,,cx ,hckel's ,evolution of ,man1 vol4 i4 p4 #abi4 ,,cy ,human ,anatomy1 i4 p4 #aih4 ,,cz ,human ,anatomy1 i4 p4 #aii4 ,,da ,from which motor nerves emerge4 ,,db ,human ,anat41 i4 p4 #bjj4 ,,dc ,human ,anat41 i4 p4 #bja4 ,,dd ,ib4 p4 #bhb4 ,,de ,see ,appendix ,,xii4 ,,df ,evolution of ,man1 i4 p4 #abi4 ,,dg ,origin of ,species1 #fth ed4 p4 #bjh4 ,,dh ,whether some of the animals may possess an inferior order of mind1 is a question which need not be here discussed4 ,,di ,see ,appendix ,,xiii4 ,,lecture ,,viii4 ,,relation ,,of ,,science ,,to ,,our ,,conceptions ,,of ,,divine ,,interposition ,,for ,,moral ,,government ,,in ,,the ,,world4 ,the view given in previous lectures of the most prominent features of the recent advances in scientific knowledge most intimately concerning our religious conceptions of the origin and government of the world1 may afford some aid towards forming a judgment of the points of contact and apparent conflict4 ,a brief summary will afford the best introduction to the lines of inquiry with which the present discussion may be brought to a close4 ,first1 as to the inorganic in the universe1 recent investigations favor the conclusion that neither the matter in the world1 nor the energy1 can be increased or diminished by operation of any laws known to apply to such existence4 ,the laws under which these two forms of being hold their place in the world involve only change of distribution and relation4 ,both matter and energy are1 however1 perpetually undergoing change or transformation1 and whether the change be for the better or for the worse in the history of the universe as a whole1 the fact of unceasing change in subordination to fixed law1 is clear evidence that matter and energy are not eternal or self-subsisting1 but are dependent on some transcendent existence imposing the laws determining their relations4 ,second1 as to organized existence1 recent researches go to prove that there is in all animals a measure of adaptability to surrounding conditions of life1 providing for adaptive changes in the organism1 which become fixed1 and are transmitted to succeeding generations of the same order under the law of heredity4 ,on warrant of the evidence for this1 it is to be taken as certain that the various orders of animals now familiar to us did not at first come into being with all the characteristics now pertaining to them4 ,the law of their life has provided for a progression in development1 in accordance with which we have distinct orders of the pigeon1 the dog1 and the horse1 with variations in animals of every class4 ,this law of development1 applicable to all animal life1 admits of greater or less diversity of result in the history of distinct races1 according to the complexity of the organism4 ,third1 as to the relations of different orders in the scale of animal life1 it is proved that all vital organism has been modelled on a common plan as appears in the arrangement and functions of the nerve system1 providing for sensibility and motor activity4 ,in accordance with this1 we find in different orders of animal life not merely analogies or resemblances in structure1 but homologies or examples of complete identity of structure and function4 ,thus the brain1 and the two sets of nerve lines1 namely sensory and motor1 are the same in nature and functions in all animals1 from the frog to man inclusive1 and they differ only in complexity of arrangement within the central organ1 and extent of ramification of the nerve lines4 ,diversity of nature thus far appears in the relative complexity of organism4 ,this is a conclusion which assigns to man his place in the scale of animal life2 that is1 in so far as we regard man exclusively by reference to his animal nature1 he stands highest in the scale of organism1--first in rank1 judged simply by complexity of brain structure1 and minuteness of nerve system4 ,fourth1 in respect of moral life1 that is1 ability to contemplate a law of life absolutely authoritative as well as universally applicable amongst intelligent beings1--such for example as the law of benevolence2 ability to control the whole animal nature so as to subject it to this higher law of benevolence2 ability to strive after the harmonizing of all dispositions and actions in accordance with the law of benevolence1--man occupies a distinct place in the order of beings existing in the world1 no other living being standing associated with him4 ,there are innumerable forms of organized being in the world2 but only a single representative of moral life in it4 ,no being save man contemplates a general law of life1 making its fulfilment a deliberate end of action2 no being save man possesses a conception of duty or oughtness1 which1 if it be regarded simply as an intellectual exercise1 can be apprehended only under application of a law of conduct such as benevolence4 ,that man stands entirely alone in these respects1 and is1 therefore1 to be ranked as a distinct order of being1 appears from the following definite lines of evidence3 no animal contemplates a general law of conduct1 or intelligible rule of life applicable for the government of the order to which it belongs2 no animal subordinates physical impulse at the bidding of such a law2 no animal aims at the perfecting of its nature under a general conception of the excellence of its own nature1 as dog1 horse1 or ape4 ,therefore we conclude that man alone of all living beings known to us in this world is a moral being4 ,taking now these four aspects of existence as known to us in this world1--without advancing to deal directly with the phases and conditions of religious life1--the whole four can be freely accepted by religious men in strict harmony with all the requirements of religious thought4 ,the three first named are distinct advances in the history of physical science1 and will be generally admitted to include the most important accessions to our knowledge of the physical universe having any bearing on the conceptions lying at the basis of religious thought4 ,the fourth is the product of philosophical inquiry1 proceeding in accordance with direct observation of personal experience1 and by means of simple analysis of our intelligent activity as that is concerned with the government of personal life1 especially in view of the relations subsisting in society4 ,this last as a philosophic conclusion1 not attained by physiological research1 not properly any part of physical science1 but reached only by distinguishing properly certain contents of our every-day thought1 may be liable to rejection from those who rely only on the methods peculiar to physical science4 ,but such treatment of the propositions has no bearing on their truth2 as denial of them will not deliver any man from the obligations of benevolence1 or exempt him from the demands of his fellowmen1 requiring that in seeking his own satisfaction he shall not be selfish1 and certainly not harsh1 as if the strongest might have all they desire1 and the weakest must be content to wait on their pleasure4 ,denial of the recognition of a law of benevolence will not exempt him from the experience consequent on the expectations of his fellowmen as they seek help for the suffering1 or sympathy for the sorrowful1 or rescue for the perishing4 ,though what has been said as to the law of benevolence implies that it is universally authoritative1 there is no express philosophic theory here introduced as to the mode by which this knowledge is attained1 or the grounds on which its universality is asserted4 ,the bare fact that each man expects his fellowman to be benevolent is enough for the present purpose4 ,the simple declaration that the man who seeks only his own gratification1 setting at defiance all the rights of his fellowmen1 is unworthy the name of man and acts a brute's part1 is all that any one needs who would make good the argument that human nature is distinct from that of the brutes4 ,no man can escape the obligation to benevolent disposition2 no man except the man of gross character attempts to live as if he regarded the violation of it as capable of vindication4 ,these two things being so1 the testimony is as strong as that establishing the elementary truths of science1 which demonstrates that man owns a universal moral law1 and so distinguishes himself from the animals4 ,the conditions of human life are too clearly recognized1 and too constantly insisted upon in ordinary society1 to allow cover for ambiguities1 and denials which would favor the position of those who accept only what is ascertained by the methods of physiological investigation4 ,hence it happens that popular favor runs deeply and strongly for the kind and good2 and science itself must yield when the testimony of the race is uniform4 ,before closing this inquiry1 it is desirable to pass over from the outstanding conceptions of science and philosophy1 to distinctive and prominent conceptions belonging to religious thought1 with the view of considering whether these can be held in harmony with the teaching of science4 ,of these1 reference may be made specially to two which encounter opposition on professedly scientific grounds3--,miracle as an evidence of the ,messiahship of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ2 and the efficacy of ,prayer in the economy of spiritual life4 ,these two conceptions have encountered strong opposition on the allegation of inconsistency with the unchangeableness of the laws of nature4 ,it becomes1 therefore1 an important part of the present investigation1 to ascertain how far these two articles of ,christian faith1 miraculous testimony to the divinity of our ,saviour1 and habitual answer to the prayer offered to ,god by those who approach ,him in the merit of the ,redeemer1 are consistent with the teaching of science4 ,these two conceptions are naturally included in the one question as to the compatibility with the laws of nature of the interposition of supernatural agency for attainment of moral and spiritual ends in the history of the world4 ,first in order stands the question of ,,miracle as involved in the evidence of divine power and authority given by our ,lord1 during ,his sojourn in this world to accomplish the great work of redemption4,,dj ,the testimony of miracle as presented in the historical narrative of ,christ's life is frequent and abundant in variety2 and its connection with ,his work for the redemption of sinful men is everywhere proclaimed4 ,it is impossible to contemplate the scriptural testimony to the glory of ,christ's nature without including miracle as a conspicuous part of it2 and it is equally impossible to detach this testimony from relation to the mediatorial work of the ,redeemer as concerned with the pardon of sin1 and restoration of man to holiness of character4 ,it thus becomes an essential test of the validity of ,christian evidence to settle the compatibility of miracle with the knowledge now possessed of the laws of nature4 ,it is not necessary here to discuss the credibility of miracles1 as affected by the question whether there can be sufficiency of testimony to support the occurrence of a miracle1--a question which has engaged an amount of attention disproportionate to its intellectual worth4 ,the suggestion of the question was nothing better than an example of misleading ingenuity1 allowed to stand on the page on which it was indited in manifest violation of the laws of evidence and the essential conditions of human knowledge4 ,the value of testimony does not depend on the nature of the thing to which it applies1 but on the character of the witness1 and the opportunity for observing and testing the facts described4 ,there are1 for example1 a series of surgical operations being performed in ,edinburgh for removal of tumors 7,ovariotomy71 and being repeated at intervals of two or three weeks1 which have hitherto been declared by the profession to be impossible without sacrifice of life2 and yet they are successfully accomplished1 leaving only an exceedingly small percentage of death4 ,the whole combined testimony of preceding ages has been against the possibility of such operations2 but this is a consideration of no value whatever in view of the testimony of the surgeons who take part in the hazardous and responsible1 but most beneficent work1 and of those professional men who have come from ,france1 and ,russia1 and other lands1 to witness the operation1 and of citizens well acquainted with patients who have been delivered from a burdened life1 overshadowed with prospect of early death4 ,the laws of evidence are too well understood to call for abstract reasoning as to the credibility of the witnesses who are at present giving their testimony to the scientific world1 of the successful repetition of an operation hitherto believed to be impossible4 ,the bearing of such an illustration on the discussions raised concerning the credibility of the evidence of our ,lord's disciples to the miracles ,he performed is obvious4 ,nor is there need for occupying time in trampling out the beaten straw by lingering over the argument that no evidence can be sufficient to establish a miracle1 because a miracle is contrary to common experience2 for1 it is obvious that a miracle must be contrary to common experience1 since that which is matter of common experience can not be a miracle1 but must be an event determined by some law of nature4 ,the uniformity of the laws of nature is even a necessary condition for the evidential value of miracles4 ,we pass to the real merits of the question in discussing the possibility of the miracles of ,christ without violation of any of the laws of nature as ascertained by the most recent advances of science4 ,the miracles of ,jesus ,christ profess to be supernatural interpositions for accomplishment of an immediate benevolent purpose1 while in combination they afford a body of evidence testifying to the power and benevolent mission of a divine ,saviour of the sinful4 ,their directly benevolent aim is conspicuous throughout4 ,jesus never performs any wonderful work for display of power2 when a desire is indicated for signs in the heavens1 these are refused2 when ,his own wants are concerned1 there is no exercise of power to deliver ,himself from suffering2 but when a poor sufferer appeals for deliverance1 ,he is ready to act2 or when the feeble1 oppressed condition of one who has been a long time in this case comes under ,his eye1 ,he is moved to compassion and gives unexpected deliverance even without intervention of a request4 ,all this is done1 not as if it were any part of the divine purpose to keep men exempt from suffering1 nor as if it were inconsistent with the divine benevolence to allow its return and continuance1 for ,he is at pains to warn that even a worse thing may come2 but as if deliverance from suffering were in harmony with ,his mission1 and peculiarly appropriate as illustrative of a ,saviour's design as well as of ,his divine power4 ,by way of sign ,he would rescue from disease1 in order thereby to point to a grander deliverance1 even from sin which causes all the world's sorrow4 ,the question here calling for attention is1 ,how do these miracles stand related to the laws of nature which we now recognize as fixed and unchangeable8 ,the first portion of the answer must be that they are incapable of explanation under these laws4 ,they are veritable examples1--referring for the present exclusively to their nature1 not to the evidence on which we acknowledge that they occurred1--they are veritable examples of results incapable of being attained under the operation of natural law4 ,the effects secured were indeed only such as would have been attained had medical science been able to accomplish the result1 for the great majority of them belong to the region in which the grand healing art works out its beneficent contribution to human well being4 ,but in respect of the mode of their execution they were in no sense analogous to what is achieved by unexpected advance in scientific knowledge and skill4 ,there was nothing in the whole course of our ,lord's life1 bearing resemblance to the work of him who laboriously ponders the varied aspects of some selected form of disease1 and ultimately attains to skill in a new mode of treatment1 or a dangerous and difficult form of operation4 ,the word spoken to the leper or the paralytic2 the anointing of the eyes with clay and sending the blind man with his clay-covered eyelids to wash in a pool2 the command to ,jairus's daughter1 ,maid1 arise2 and the call to the man of ,bethany1 ,lazarus1 come forth1--present no likeness to the conduct of one merely exercising a deeper knowledge of the remedial measures which are constantly being employed in some mode or other for relief of suffering4 ,what we witness in the varied forms of ,his works is supernatural intervention1 exercise of divine authority and power4 ,there is no competent vindication of the sacred narrative by reduction of our ,lord's works to the level of those forms of knowledge and skill which are within the reach of human discovery4 ,the sacred writings offer no suggestion pointing in this direction2 ,christian faith1 in the defence it offers for its recognition of the miraculous in ,christ's life1 does not shelter itself behind such a poor breastwork1 as that which is gained by eliminating the supernatural1--seeking to defend itself by surrendering all that is distinctive of the ,god-man1 who not only spake as man never spake1 but who with profuse liberality performed works of healing which made the ears of the nation to tingle1 compelling reluctant witnesses to testify1 that it was never so seen in ,israel4 ,the supernatural works of ,jesus belong to the same place in history1 as that which records the supernatural attributes belonging to ,his personality4 ,to the question1 ,how do the works of ,jesus stand related to the laws of nature8 the next portion of the answer is that they do not conflict with these laws in any intelligible sense4 ,the believer in ,christ's miracles1 as he meets the manifest requirements of science1 may fairly ask of scientific critics that they state any law of nature which was violated in any example of the ,saviour's benevolent doings1 in a sense of the word violation which conflicts with the indubitable teaching of science concerning the unchangeableness of the laws of nature4 ,it might well suffice for exposition of ,christian thought at an earlier period of ,bible interpretation when the sole object was to set forth the transcendent grandeur of ,christ's works1 to represent a miracle as a violation of the laws of nature1 meaning thereby to concentrate on the fact that equally by its character1 and by profession of the agent1 it was a work which ordinary power was insufficient to explain4 ,by parity of reasoning1 it may equally be allowed that a legitimate course is followed1 and an important service is rendered to the advance of ,christian evidence1 if it be urged by scientific men that a violation of the laws of nature is inconsistent with what is now ascertained as to the government of the physical world4 ,this collision between old forms of statement and new forms of test is a gain to all interests concerned4 ,it must press into notice the inquiry as to the sense in which the old terminology was employed1 and also the sense in which this new test is presented4 ,if this comparison be prosecuted to its final result1 no ,christian believer will find himself disturbed by apprehension of a possible call to conflict with science1 and no scientific men will feel themselves drawn into antagonism with the accredited forms of ,christian belief as to the miraculous4 ,a few carefully stated propositions should help towards making this clear1 if only these can be so drawn as to meet the demands of science1 and also accurately represent ,christ's life4 ,the testimony of science dealing with the evidence open to observation is that the laws of nature1 such as the laws of gravitation1 transmutation of energy1 and the development and support of living organism1 are fixed and unchangeable1 so that persistent antagonism to them is only conflict of a weaker force with a stronger which must end in disaster or destruction to the weaker4 ,over against this we do not find it possible to place any statement1 either in the form of direct affirmation1 or of inference deducible from the implications of ,christ's actions or words1 which can be regarded as directly contradictory4 ,on the contrary the deeds and sayings of ,christ carry a multitude of suggestions in strict harmony with this general teaching of science4 ,when ,he would indicate to ,his hearers how they are guided in their judgment by the uniformity of natural law1 ,he points to the signs which they interpret in the aspect of the atmosphere morning and evening4 ,when the suggestion is placed before ,him that ,he should cast ,himself from an eminence in token of ,his superiority to ordinary risks1 ,he does not hint at a suspension of the law of gravitation1 but teaches that man should not transgress the divine will by rashly exposing himself to danger4 ,when ,he would teach men to combine labor and trust1 ,he points them to the uniform provision for the clothing and adorning of the vegetable world which can not in any measure care for itself4 ,and so we might proceed1 were there any need for multiplying evidence as to a feature of ,christ's teaching manifest to every ,bible reader4 ,the record of ,scripture presenting the narratives of ,christ's miracles does not at any time represent our ,saviour as interposing to stay for a brief period the action of fixed law1 or to prevent the application of such law in the history of a particular individual4 ,in all these wonders of healing nothing more happens as to actual result1 having a general bearing on procedure in the physical world1 than does happen when a cure of a critical phase of disease is accomplished by some newly discovered appliance at command of medical art4 ,these two cases are essentially different as to mode of action1 but they are strictly identical as to result1 and this identity amounts to a demonstration of harmony with scientific requirements1 as these actually guide men to the discovery of new methods4 ,that there is identity of result only in some cases does not affect the argument1 but arises from the essential features of the comparison1 as a product of supernatural intervention must transcend what is ultimately attained by laborious processes of human research4 ,but that there is in any case an identity of result under the very different conditions1 is an indication that supernatural intervention is not an interference with the laws of nature such as would be involved in their suspension or subversion4 ,there is a great difference between recovery from suspended animation and resurrection from the dead as in the case of ,lazarus1 but the fixed order of the universe is no more disturbed in the latter case than in the former4 ,a further consideration bearing on the miracles of ,christ needs to be stated1 though it comes more directly into relation with philosophy than with science properly so called4 ,every one of these miracles was performed avowedly for moral ends1 and under application of moral conditions1 while for immediate physical effects4 ,there is moral law as well as physical law1 and our ,saviour subordinates the latter to the former in determining the use ,he makes of supernatural agency4 ,the evidence of this is interwoven through the very texture of the narrative1 so that an attempt to sever ,his miracles from their moral purpose can result only in tearing the narrative into fragments1--mutilating the record which must be studied and interpreted as it has been put into our hands4 ,moral law is as unchangeable as physical law1 though the character and form of its sway differ from those of physical law1 and it is easier for man wilfully to violate the higher law of life than to violate the lower4 ,yet so closely are the higher and lower connected in human history1 that the easy violation of moral law is followed by painful consequences under the reign of physical law4 ,it lay within the purpose of ,jesus to deliver from both1 and it is only in recognition of this combined or complex purpose that we discover the rational basis on which supernatural deliverance from disease becomes a natural vehicle for presenting to rational beings requisite evidence of divine intervention on their behalf as they are entangled in the disastrous consequences of violating unchangeable moral law4 ,if on other grounds it be apparent that supernatural interference for restoration of health or life does not involve interference with physical law by which the government of the universe could be in any degree affected2 on the grounds now contemplated we come to recognize a harmony of higher and lower orders of fixed law bearing on the history of the human race1 and for this harmony of law our ,saviour manifested a supreme concern4 ,with these brief statements before us1 we are now prepared for turning in a different direction to ascertain what is the special view of miracle which has found currency within some scientific circles1 carrying the explanation of intense antipathy to its acknowledgment1 and unhesitating declaration that the whole body of scientific teaching1 and even the characteristics of scientific method1 are adverse to the very conception of miracle4 ,for the purpose now in view it may be well to present in close connection the successive utterances of a single author1 who may be taken as representative of a class4 ,the work of ,professor ,schmidt on ,the ,doctrine of ,descent and ,darwinism will supply illustrations of the kind to which reference has been made1 as this author states at the outset that the doctrine of descent finds its antagonists among those who perceive1 more or less distinctly1 the danger with which the new doctrine threatens their standpoint of miracle4,,dk ,from this allusion it appears that he regards a doctrine of descent as opposed to what he describes as an incomprehensible act of creation4,,dl ,accordingly he celebrates the praises of this theory in these terms1--it interprets by a single principle those great phenomena which without its aid remain a mass of unintelligible miracles4,,dm ,in harmony with these utterances he speaks of gradual evolution of the organs of special sense1 such as the organs of hearing and smell1 as giving a negative to the sudden and incomprehensible origination of these organs in an immediate state of completion4,,dn ,these few extracts may suffice to indicate the mental attitude of those who show aversion to the acknowledgment of miracle4 ,with ,schmidt the miraculous is another name for the incomprehensible2 to him the suggestion of miracle is disagreeable as implying the impossibility of scientific explanation4 ,if these things be kept in mind1 it will be clear how widely apart this notion is from the ,christian conception of miracle4 ,the one view is that observational science can make no account of miracle3 the other is that thought concerning a supernatural ,being really involved the conception of miracle4 ,science can assign no place to the incomprehensible1 can make no account of it4 ,religion finds a higher sphere of comprehensibility in the action of supernatural power4 ,the two positions are radically distinct1 and do not come into actual conflict4 ,hence religion has no opposition to the view of miracle just stated1 which amounts to little more than a negative definition of science4 ,to say that science can take no account of the miraculous1 is only in other words to say that science is explanation of natural phenomena by recognition of the action of natural causes1 consequently the miraculous does not come within the boundaries of science4 ,this is self-evident1 and on this footing theology has no account to make of what is only a semblance of opposition1 involving no real conflict4 ,creation1 for example1 can not come within the compass of observational science2 but creation may nevertheless be a rational conception in dealing with a purely rational problem1 which does not at all belong to physical science4 ,in the same manner it appears that the whole series of our ,lord's miracles are outside the area of science1 which1 as it has nothing of authority to advance against them1 has not even a basis on which to offer any testimony concerning their possibility4 ,one topic more requires to be briefly considered as constituting an essential of religious thought1 namely the acknowledgment of divine interposition for the answer of ,,prayer4 ,our question is1 ,how this conception of divine answer to prayer stands related to scientific thought concerning the government of the world by fixed law8 ,if the laws of nature are fixed1 how can the government of the world allow for fulfilment of human desire as expressed in supplication8 ,the question to be discussed has two sides1 the one concerned with the conditions on which an answer to prayer is expected2 the other with the exact significance of the scientific conception of the government of the world by fixed law4 ,if there be a rational basis for prayer as encouraged by the teaching of ,scripture1 there can be no such dilemma as would be implied in supposing that law is fixed yet not fixed1 or that law is unchangeable in all cases save in the history of the man of prayer1 in whose behalf the laws of nature are liable to be held in check4 ,there may be among ,christian men considerable diversity in the clearness of apprehension with which they grasp the meaning of the divine promise to answer prayer2 but there is no one taught by the ,scriptures as to the privilege of prayer1 who thinks of it as implying that the laws of the universe are liable to be held in suspension because the desires of his heart are rising to ,god in humble1 earnest supplication4 ,the man trained to recognize this truth affecting ,god's government that ,he maketh ,his sun to rise on the evil and on the good2 and sendeth rain on the just1 and on the unjust1 does not readily fall into the mistake of supposing that all the laws of the universe are at ,his bidding1 because of the divine encouragement to prayer4 ,the ,christian prays only under divine warrant1 and this does not convey any such suggestion4 ,first1 then1 we can clear away at once the cruder thoughts of the unintelligent believer in the power of prayer2 and those of the scientific objector to prayer1 who is not instructed in scriptural doctrine4 ,prayer does not imply a probable reversal of the laws of nature2 but it does imply a moral government in the midst of the physical world1 and the subordination of the physical to the moral under regulation of an all-wise and almighty ,ruler4 ,the question before us concerns this subordination1 and the possibilities which it implies4 ,towards the attainment of exact conceptions here the first requisite is a clear understanding of the scientific doctrine of the government of the world by fixed law4 ,in whatever sense we take the word law as applicable to ,god's government of the universe1 there is no law which is fluctuating1 or liable to have one signification at one time1 and a quite different signification at another time2 a narrower range of application at one period1 and a wider range at a later4 ,such fluctuation would imply a suspension of a law of nature1 and the conception of such a thing is inconsistent with absolute rational government1 alien equally to the principles of science and of religion4 ,laws physical1 moral1 and spiritual are equally fixed laws4 ,but the laws of the universe are a harmony1 and in the midst of the interdependence of laws distinct in character1 the harmony of the whole is secured by the subordination of physical law to moral and spiritual4 ,it is in the midst of this harmonized relationship of the diverse laws of the divine government that the spirit of prayer lives1 and makes good its rational consistency4 ,and it is only on condition of acknowledgment of diverse laws1 including moral with physical1 that the scientific man can interpose any criticism as to the efficacy of prayer4 ,any denial of a moral government in the midst of the physical universe1 under sway of a ,god of righteousness1 places an objector entirely out of the sphere in which criticism can proceed4 ,physical law determining conditions of bodily life is fixed law2 moral law deciding the conditions of right conduct in intelligent life is fixed law2 spiritual law deciding the conditions of fellowship with the ,father of our spirits is fixed law4 ,the believer in the ,bible has no hesitancy in acknowledgment of all this2 he is a believer in fixed law in a higher and grander sense than scientific teaching indicates1 and he believes in the harmony of all existence under an unchangeable government1 notwithstanding all the wrong doing in the world1 and the dreadful misery resulting from it4 ,his belief in the harmony of the universe rests on his belief in the fixedness of law physical as well as moral1 and moral as well as physical4 ,but the fixedness belonging to various orders of law1 subsisting in a state of interdependence1 and involving subordination of lower to higher1 needs some more exact interpretation4 ,the fixedness of law1 physical1 intellectual1 moral1 and spiritual1 in no case involves fixedness of result1 but varying results according to diversity of conditions4 ,there is fixedness of physical law1 but withal there is diversity of weather1 and seasons1 and harvests1 and that because a variety of conditions are harmonized under fixed law4 ,there is fixedness of intellectual law in accordance with which accuracy of thought is determined1 but diversity of result according to the materials with which we deal4 ,and so it is with moral and spiritual law1 providing for the regulation of our higher life4 ,what then needs to be pondered by way of reaching an ampler interpretation of the formula of fixed law is that it does not in any case imply an iron rigidity of result1 an undeviating uniformity of occurrence4 ,there is no region in which perpetual change can be more accurately postulated than in the physical world4 ,but there is order and system in these changes1 admirably illustrated in the weather forecasts of the present advanced stage of physical science1 which are attainable only by continual watching of shifting conditions with application of fixed law to the appearance of wind and cloud and rain4 ,but there are no forecasts without these two things1 fixed laws and varying conditions for their application4 ,with the wider generalization which admits of recognition of fixed law1 there is always the narrower1 concerned with variable conditions to which the wider is to be applied4 ,so it is under moral law1 and so under spiritual4 ,so also does it hold when our observation is directed on interdependence of two orders of law1 such as the moral and physical4 ,this combination we have in human life1 as it is subjected to both4 ,physical law reigns in human history as illustrated by the laws of health1 which are fixed irrespective of moral law1 so that sewerage gas will be prejudicial to health1 apart from the moral character of a man4 ,moral law reigns in human life1 and truthfulness in utterance1 or justice in action1 will maintain a harmony of the inner life1 whether outwardly there be poverty or wealth4 ,these two orders of law are independent1 yet interwoven in their application to the complex life of man4 ,immorality will find its accompaniment in physical disorder2 the repentance which has healing power within the mind will not heal the body1 yet may there be advance in moral life by reason of the weakness and suffering which repentance can not remove4 ,such is at once the independence and the interdependence of physical and moral law1 in accordance with the fixedness of law in each case1 and the harmony of both under one government1 by means of subordination of the physical to the moral4 ,there are thus two spheres1 physical and moral1 but one life1 brought to harmony under the laws of both spheres4 ,what then is the bearing of this distinction of spheres on the problem of the efficacy of prayer1 viewing the question only in the light of science and philosophy8 ,an obvious bearing1 in so1 far as the conditions of physical and moral life are set forth and distinguished2 but no determining value for interpretation of the possible influence of prayer as concerning a life subject at once to physical and moral conditions4 ,prayer can be exercised in accordance with scientific teaching1 only by intelligent recognition of the physical conditions of life2 in accordance with philosophy1 only by intelligent acknowledgment of the subordination of physical life to moral4 ,if then1 we turn to the teaching of science1 making account of all that it includes as to fixed laws applicable to ever-varying conditions1 there is nothing in it to warrant the conclusion that there can be no interposition from a higher sphere in order to secure application of physical law for attainment of moral ends4 ,the whole product of scientific investigation leaves clear the possibility of the administration of a moral government in accordance with subordination of physical law to the attainment of its higher ends4 ,it does not help the understanding of the government of the world1 but rather hampers our reflection1 if it be suggested that there are two spheres1 physical and moral1 and that the application of prayer is restricted to one of these spheres4 ,human life can not be so severed into parts2 it is a unity self-regulated by harmony of submission to moral and physical law1 and it must be governed by the ,supreme ,ruler in the harmonious application of these laws4 ,there is no sphere of life into which the moral does not enter1 and accordingly no sphere within which prayer1 which necessarily rests on moral conditions1 may not apply4 ,if next we pass to ,scripture teaching concerning prayer1 where alone we find full instruction on the subject1 in precept1 example1 and a variety of encouragements1 it will appear that the warrant for prayer is found exclusively in the divine promise1 and that the application of that promise is to every phase of life1 subject to moral conditions which are explicitly revealed4 ,prayer is a privilege divinely bestowed through the ,saviour1 in accordance with which fellowship with ,god is granted on the merits of the ,redeemer4 ,its nature reveals the true harmony between ,god and the moral creature1 as a reality transcending all physical existence and all knowledge coming from study of physical law4 ,the accepting of this privilege1 and the continuance of its exercise are the tokens of returning harmony of sinful man with the holy ,god4 ,elevation in the exercise by steadily extending inclusion of a wider circle of personal desire and activity within the area of conscious fellowship with ,god1 is the advance of the moral nature into fuller harmony with ,god1 and with the whole government of the universe4 ,the teaching of ,scripture which assures of all this1 and guides man towards realization of it1 clearly distinguishes between material and moral good1 yet does not exclude the one any more than the other1 but subordinates the physical to the moral1 harmonizing the two in recognition of the supreme importance of all that is moral4 ,it does not exclude desire of temporal good1 but restricts its illustration to desire of daily bread1--assures us that our ,father knoweth we have need of such good1 and will supply it1--and promises that having given most freely what is best1 he will assuredly give that which is least4 ,if then it be said that the answer to prayer is a miracle of divine interposition in human history1 of which science finds no trace1 we do not marvel1 for science does not extend its observations to the inclusion of what pertains to the higher life of man4 ,if any man asks for evidence in an exclusively physical sphere that ,god answers prayer1 he asks that evidence should be discovered apart from the conditions involved4 ,a more unscientific demand there could not be4 ,when he refuses to admit that there can be any trustworthy evidence of the answer of prayer apart from the test he proposes1 he either misunderstands the ,christian doctrine of prayer1 or he is criticising a conception of prayer other than the ,christian one4 ,if we turn to the philosophy of human life as subjected to moral law1 and called to its perfect fulfilment1 we do not find any thing but harmonious truth in the suggestion that ,god cares more for the moral life of man than for the physical universe4 ,if we turn to ,scripture1 receiving its teaching as to prayer1 we find that the promised interposition in man's behalf is even less an illustration of divine power than of ,divine righteousness2 an evidence that the ,divine ,ruler seeks righteousness above all things1 for the entire significance of the exercise is this1 trust in the holy ,one1 and fellowship with ,him through life4 ,on this ground alone does ,he promise an answer to prayer1 in this promise making moral conditions the essential test for use of the privilege1 requiring the suppliant to subordinate to these all desire of material good4 ,it is towards success in attaining true fellowship with ,himself that ,god is ever giving promise of blessing4 ,it is in full view of the transcendent value of a life of holiness1 that the ,supreme ,ruler is daily condescending to stoop towards ,his children1 that they may be helped in all that pertains to holiness of character and life4 ,the ,bible makes it essential to the government of the world1 in harmony with fixed law1 that ,god should be the hearer and answerer of the prayer of ,his intelligent creatures1 always pointing to reliance on the ,saviour's work as the test of the reality of the exercise1 in the case of all who possess the written revelation of ,his will1 in the glorious ,gospel of ,jesus ,christ4 ,,footnotes3 ,,dj ,the limits of the present discussion make it impossible to include a wider range2 but this really embraces the whole question of the miracles of ,scripture4 ,,dk p4 #f4 ,,dl p4 #aa4 ,,dm p4 #ab ,,dn p4 #aea4 ,,appendix4 ,,appendix4 ,i4 ,,relations ,,of ,,science ,,and ,,religion4 ,page #cd4 ,he who contemplates the universe from the religious point of view1 must learn to see that this which we call science1 is one constituent of the great whole2 and as such ought to be regarded with a sentiment like that which the remainder excites4 ,while he who contemplates the universe from the scientific point of view1 must learn to see that this which we call ,religion is similarly a constituent of the great whole2 and being such1 must be treated as a subject of science with no more prejudice than any other reality4 ,it behooves each party to strive to understand the other1 with the conviction that the other has something worthy to be understood2 and with the conviction that when mutually recognized this something will be the basis of a complete reconciliation4--,,herbert ,,spencer1 ,first ,principles1 p4 #ba4 ,,ii4 ,,spontaneous ,,generation4 ,page #ed4 ,professor ,tyndall1 describing his own experiments1 says1 ,the experiments have already extended to #aje instances1 not one of which shows the least countenance to the doctrine of spontaneous generation4 ,communicated to ,royal ,society of ,london1 ,december #ba1 #ahgf4--,nature1 vol4 xv4 p4 #cjc4 ,,iii4 ,,energy ,,and ,,force4 ,page #if4 ,the term ,force is by many authors used as equivalent to ,energy1 rather than as a distinct term for the amount of ,energy4 ,force is thus used by ,sir ,w4 ,r4 ,groves4 ,the term ,force1 although used in very different senses by different authors1 in its limited sense may be defined as that which produces or resists motion4 444 ,i use the term ,force 444 as meaning that active principle inseparable from matter which is supposed to induce its various changes4 444 ,all we know or see is the effect2 we do not see ,force--we see motion or moving matter4--,the ,correlation of ,physical ,forces1 sixth edition1 by the ,hon4 ,sir ,w4 ,r4 ,grove1 pp4 #aj1 #aa4 ,,iv4 ,,all ,,organized ,,existence ,,is ,,constructed ,,on ,a ,,common ,,plan4 ,page #aca4 ,biologists turn to the physical organization of man4 ,they examine his whole structure1 his bony frame1 and all that clothes it4 ,they resolve him into the finest particles into which the microscope will enable them to break him up4 ,they consider the performance of his various functions and activities1 and they look at the manner in which he occurs on the surface of the world4 ,then they turn to other animals1 and taking the first handy domestic animal--say a dog1--they profess to be able to demonstrate that the analysis of the dog leads them1 in gross1 to precisely the same results as the analysis of the man2 that they find almost identically the same bones1 having the same relations2 that they can name the muscles of the dog by the names of the muscles of the man1 and the nerves of the dog by those of the nerves of the man1 and that such structures and organs of sense as we find in the man1 such also we find in the dog2 they analyze the brain and spinal cord1 and they find that the nomenclature which fits the one answers for the other4 ,moreover1 they trace back the dog's and the man's development1 and they find that at a certain stage of their existence1 the two creatures are not distinguishable the one from the other2 they find that the dog and his kind have a certain distribution over the surface of the world comparable in its way to the distribution of the human species4444 ,thus biologists have arrived at the conclusion that a fundamental uniformity of structure pervades the animal and vegetable worlds1 and that plants and animals differ from one another simply as modifications of the same great plan4 ,again they tell us the same story in regard to the study of function4 ,they admit the large and important interval which1 at the present time1 separates the manifestations of the mental faculties observable in the higher forms of mankind1 and even in the lowest forms1 such as we know them1 mentally from those exhibited by other animals2 but1 at the same time1 they tell us that the foundations or rudiments of almost all the faculties of man are to be met with in the lower animals2 that there is a unity of mental faculty1 as well as of bodily structure1 and that here also1 the difference is a difference of degree and not of kind4--,lecture on ,the ,study of ,biology1 by ,professor ,huxley1 ,nature1 vol4 xv4 p4 #bai4 ,delivered at ,south ,kensington ,museum1 ,london1 ,december #af1 #ahgf4 ,on the grounds here admirably summarized1 it is clear that the whole organism of our world has been constructed on a common plan4 ,this being true1 similarities will appear in process of development1 and in the structure and functions of different orders4 ,this similarity1 however1 does not help us to explain the large and important interval which appears when mental characteristics are considered4 ,it makes the diversity of mental power more difficult to explain by reference to organism1 in fact contributing to the strength of evidence for mind as a form of existence distinct from organism4 ,v4 ,,embryology4 ,page #aca4 ,i have not felt warranted to include in the text any summary of results secured by the important1 but very difficult1 investigations concerning the growth of animal life in the womb4 ,this whole department of inquiry is in such an unfinished and uncertain state1 that there is not warrant to found upon the evidence already obtained any general argument as to its bearing on a theory of evolution4 ,the most competent observers admit that they are perplexed by facts ascertained1 and confess that they can not as yet offer an explanation4 ,to others all is as plain as possible2 embryology supplies a convincing proof of the accuracy of an evolution theory2 but these are scientific theorists who see by imagination1 and are impatient of uncertainty4 ,there are certain general considerations which must interpose difficulties in the way of constructing an argument from ,embryology to evolution of species4 7#a7 ,the action of environment before birth is altogether different from the action of environment after birth4 7#b7 ,the theory of the evolution of species emphasizes this difference by insisting on the struggle for existence4 7#c7 ,this difference being admitted1 an argument from the one to the other can not hold4 ,in the line of discovery the point of chief interest has been the fact that in some cases embryonic life shows a transition through lower forms analogous to lower orders of animal existence prior to reaching the mature stage when birth occurs4 ,but in connection with the facts ascertained1 two things are to be remarked4 7#a7 ,evidence of transition is most striking in the history of animal life developed external to the parental life1 as in the transition from larv to pup among insects1 and in the changes in the life of the tadpole4 7#b7 ,if it be admitted that there is a common plan of structure for all organism1 it is implied that there must be similarities in process of development4 ,the question requiring answer1 therefore1 is whether in the gradual development from the germ1 any further resemblance to lower orders appears than is to be anticipated on the admission of a common plan for organic structure4 ,there are singular examples of transition4 ,but there are no illustrations of uniform progress in the case of the higher orders such as would warrant the supposition that a history of evolution of the species can be read in the development of the foetus4 ,the supposition has1 however1 found currency in not a little of our scientific teaching4 ,the incompleteness of this evidence may appear from examples4 ,take the tadpole4 ,huxley states the facts thus1--,the tadpole is first a fish1 then a tailed amphibian1 provided with gills and lungs1 before it became a frog4 ,this is development outside parental life1 and does not belong to evidence in ,embryology4 ,confining attention to embryonic life1 let us take ,huxley's statement1 biologists trace back the dog's and the man's development1 and they find that at a certain stage of their existence1 the two creatures are not distinguishable the one from the other4 ,what is the inference to be drawn8 ,if the two are not distinguishable1 our powers of distinguishing are insufficient1 for no biologist suggests that the two are alike4 ,the difficulty of distinguishing two germs1 or two examples of foetus1 is analogous to the difficulty which ,darwin has pointed out of distinguishing the orders of dogs when they are six-days-old puppies1 or the breed of three-days-old colt1 or of nestling pigeons4 ,at these stages1 the animals may be so similar1 that it is hardly possible to distinguish them1 and yet in the full grown state they are quite different 7,darwin's ,origin of ,species1 sixth edition1 p4 #cia74 ,mr4 ,darwin has presented the outstanding facts thus2--,the very general1 though not universal1 difference in structure between the embryo and the adult2--the various parts in the same individual embryo1 which ultimately become very unlike and serve for diverse purposes1 being at an early period of growth alike2--the common1 but not invariable resemblance between the embryos or larv of the most distinct species in the same class2--the embryo often retaining whilst within the egg or womb1 structures which are of no service to it1 either at that or at a later period of life4 ,,vi4 ,,non-,,advancement ,,of ,,lower ,,orders4 ,page #aeh4 ,mr4 ,darwin's answer to the difficulty put by ,agassiz is this2--,on our theory the continued existence of lowly organisms offers no difficulty2 for natural selection1 or the survival of the fittest1 does not necessarily include progressive development1--it only takes advantage of such variations as arise and are beneficial to each creature under its complex relations of life4--,origin of ,species1 sixth edition1 p4 #ih4 ,this wears the aspect of a limitation of the theory1 and to that extent an acknowledgment of the force of the reasoning of ,agassiz4 ,,vii4 ,,protoplasm4 ,page #aca4 ,protoplasm1 simple or nucleated1 is the formal basis of all life2 thus all living forms are fundamentally of one character4 ,all the forms of ,protoplasm which have yet been examined contain the four elements1 carbon1 hydrogen1 oxygen1 and nitrogen1 in very complex union4 ,thus there is a general uniformity in the character of the ,protoplasm1 or physical basis of life1 in whatever group of living beings it may be studied4--,,huxley',s ,lay ,sermons1 p4 #adb4 ,,viii4 ,,number ,,of ,,species ,,of ,,insects4 ,page #aic4 ,professor ,huxley mentions that ,gerstscker in the new edition of ,broun's ',thier-,reich' gives #bjj1jjj as the total number of species of ,arthropoda4 ,in this connection ,mr4 ,mc,lauchlan1 when claiming that there are #bjj1jjj species of ,insects1 adds1 ,in one order alone 7,coleoptera7 it is estimated that #hj1jjj species have been described4--,nature1 xv4 p4 #bge4 ,,ix4 ,,fertilization ,,of ,,flowers ,,by ,,insects4 ,page #agj4 ,dr4 ,hermann ,mller's ,observations are described in ,nature1 vol4 xiv4 p4 #age2 vol4 xv4 pp4 #cag1 #dgc2 vol4 xvi4 pp4 #bfe1 #ejg4 ,x4 ,,ants4 ,page #aib4 ,mr4 ,mc,cook's ,observations are summarized in ,nature1 vol4 xvii4 p4 #dcc4 ,,xi4 ,,likeness ,,of ,,the ,,ape',s ,,brain ,,to ,,the ,,human ,,brain4 ,page #bbe4 ,the close resemblance of the brain of the ape to that of man1 has been held to prove that the ape comes next to man in intelligence4 ,but the facts bearing on this suggestion are fitted to occasion serious perplexity to its upholders4 ,first stands the resemblance of bodily structure as largely explaining similarity of brain4 ,the results of electric stimulation of the monkey's brain lend additional force to this consideration4 ,again1 facts are wanting to support the claim for superior intelligence in behalf of the monkey and ape4 ,the habits of the ape in its natural state afford little evidence of an encouraging kind4 ,the ape gathers together a few sticks for a nest1 in comparison with which the work of very small birds presents marvels of architecture4 ,and nest-building seems the highest evidence gathered from the natural habits of the animal1 when we compare it with leaning the back against a tree for rest1 or staunching the blood of a wound4 ,in the captive state the ape gives no such evidence of superior intelligence as the similarity of its brain to the human1 would lead us to expect1 if brain structure afford the test of intellectual power4 ,even after allowance has been made for sudden transition from the wild state to the captive1 the evidence of capability does not appear which the theory requires4 ,the highest results reached by training monkeys1 do not support a claim for intellectual superiority4 ,these are mainly forms of mimicry1 generally inferior to the efforts of some other animals4 ,add to these considerations the evidence as to the singular intelligence shown by ants1 and the theory which measures intellect by brain structure is placed at a great disadvantage4 ,whether science may not ere long point to some theory of mind connected with animal existence must be matter of uncertainty4 ,if1 however1 the easy and familiar operations of our own intelligence are analyzed and classified2 and if a statement of the ascertained functions of the brain is laid alongside1 it will appear that nothing known to us in the action of brain1 can supply a science of the operations of the human mind4 ,,xii4 ,,the ,,large ,,sized ,,or ,,multipolar ,,cells4 ,page #beg4 ,on the functions of the large sized cells1 it seems desirable to add a few words as to the direction in which evidence as to their functions actually points4 ,for this purpose1 a further quotation is desirable1 referring to the number of fibres or processes passing off from these large cells1 distinguishing those which branch out into a fine net-work1 and those which pass directly to a nerve fibre4 ,one at least of the processes of a multipolar nerve cell does not branch1 but becomes directly continuous with a nerve fibre1 and has been named the axial-cylinder process4--,professor ,turner's ,human ,anatomy1 i4 #bja4 ,this taken with the facts given in ,lecture ,,vii1 seems to favor the conclusions1 7#a7 that the large cell spreads nerve energy through the tissue of the brain1 while each has at least one direct line of communication with the system of nerve fibres2 7#b7 that the large cell has intimate and extended relations with the motor system4 ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,conception ,,of ,,duty4 ,page #bgc4 ,duty6 ,thou great1 thou exalted name6 ,wondrous thought that workest neither by fond insinuation1 flattery1 nor by any threat1 but by merely holding up thy naked law in the soul1 and so extorting for thyself always reverence1 if not always obedience1--before whom all appetites are dumb1 however secretly they rebel1--whence thy original8--,,kant',s ,critique of ,practical ,reason4 #ecj ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york1 ,,october1 #ahhj4 ,,new ,,books ,,and ,,new ,,editions ,,of ,,important ,,books1 ,,published ,,by ,,robert ,,carter ,,brothers4 999999 ,any ,book in this ,catalogue1 not too large to go by mail1 will be sent postage prepaid1 on receipt of the price4 ,the ,end of a ,coil4 ,a ,story4 ,by the author of the ,wide ,wide ,world4 #gag pp4 #a4ge4 ,my ,desire4 ,a ,tale4 ,by the author of the ,wide ,wide ,world4 #a4ge4 ,christie's ,old ,organ1 ,saved at ,sea1 and ,little ,faith4 ,in one volume4 #a4jj4 ,christ and ,his ,religion4 ,by ,rev4 ,john ,reid1 author of ,voices of the ,soul1 c4 #a4ej4 ,the ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,stars4 ,by ,agnes ,gilberne4 ,illustrated4 #abmo4 #a4ej4 ,the ,gentle ,heart4 ,by ,rev4 ,alex4 ,macleod1 ,d4,d41 author of ,wonderful ,lamp1 c4 #a4be4 ,the ,cup of ,consolation2 or1 ,bright ,messages for the ,sick-,bed4 #a4be4 ,in ,christo4 ,by ,j4 ,r4 ,macduff1 ,d4,d4 ,family ,prayers4 ,by ,j4 ,oswald ,dykes1 ,d4,d4 ,voices of ,hope and ,gladness4 ,by ,ray ,palmer1 ,d4,d4 #a4ej4 ,modern ,scottish ,pulpit4 ,sermons by ,scottish ,ministers4 #hvo4 #a4ej4 99 ,murdock's ,mosheim's ,ecclesiastical ,history4 ,a cheap edition4 ,three volumes in one4 #a1dfa pp4 #c4jj4 ,nora ,crena4 ,by ,l4 ,t4 ,meade4 #a4be4 ,andrew ,harvey's ,wife4 ,by ,l4 ,t4 ,meade4 #a4be4 99 ,pool's ,annotations4 #c vols4 ,royal #hvo4 #c1jgg pages4 ,in cloth4 ,price1 #g4ej4 7,half the former price47 ,pool's ,annotations are sound1 clear1 and sensible2 and1 taking for all in all1 ,i place him at the head of ,english commentators on the whole ,bible4--,rev4 ,j4 ,c4 ,ryle4 99 ,matthew ,henry's ,commentary on the ,bible4 #e vols41 quarto4 7,sheep1 #bj4jj47 ,cloth1 #ae4jj4 ,another edition in #i vols41 octavo4 ,cloth1 #bj4jj4 ,rev4 ,c4 ,h4 ,spurgeon says3 ,first among the mighty for general usefulness we are bound to mention the man whose name is a household word1--,matthew ,henry4 ,he is most pious and pithy1 sound and sensible1 suggestive and sober1 terse and trustworthy4444 ,i venture to say that no better investment can be made by a minister than that peerless exposition4 99 ,dr4 ,mc,cosh's ,works4 ,new and neat edition 7reduced from #ae4jj74 #e vols41 #hvo41 uniform1 #aj4jj4 ,comprising3-- #a4 ,,divine ,,government4 #b4 ,,typical ,,forms4 #c4 ,,the ,,intuitions ,,of ,,the ,,mind4 #d4 ,,defence ,,of ,,fundamentalism #e4 ,,the ,,scottish ,,philosophy4 ,any volume sold separately at #b4jj4 ,thousands of earnest1 thoughtful men have found treasures of argument1 illustration1 and learning in these pages1 with which their minds and hearts have been enriched and fortified for better work and wider influences4--,n4 ,y4 ,observer4 ,,dr4 ,,mccosh',s ,,logic4 #abmo #a4ej ,,christianity ,,and ,,positivism4 #abmo #a4ge 99 ,dr4 ,merle ,d',aubigne's ,history4 #ac vols41 uniform1 #ab4ej1 viz43-- 99 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,reformation ,,in ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century4 #e vols4 ,brown cloth4 ,in a box4 #d4ej4 99 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,reformation ,,in ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,calvin4 ,brown cloth4 ,in a box4 ,reduced from #af4jj to #h4jj4 ,the work is now complete2 and these later volumes1 together with the original five1 form a library relating to the ,reformation of incalculable value and of intense interest4 ,the pen of this master of history gave a charm to every thing that he touched4--,n4 ,y4 ,observer4 ,guide to ,family ,devotion4 ,by the ,rev4 ,alexander ,fletcher1 ,d4,d4 ,royal quarto1 with #aj steel plates 7half morocco1 #g4ej2 ,turkey morocco1 #ab4jj71 cloth1 gilt1 and gilt edges1 #e4jj4 ,the more we look over the volume the more we admire it1 and the more heartily feel to commend it to families and devout ,christians4 ,it is emphatically a book of devotion1 from the standpoint of an intelligent1 broad-minded ,christian minister1 who has here expressed many of the deepest emotions and wants of the soul4 ,the selections of ,scripture and the hymns are all admirably adapted to increase devotion2 and the prayers are such as can but aid the suppliant1 even when not uttered from his precise standpoint1 and are especially valuable to many heads of families who find it difficult to frame words for themselves in conducting family worship4--,journal and ,messenger4 ,the ,a4 ,l4 ,o4 ,e4 ,library4 ,in #ee vols41 #ahmo1 in a neat wooden case1 #dj4jj4 ,all these stories have the charm and pure ,christian character which have made the name of ,a4 ,l4 ,o4 ,e4 dear to thousands of homes4--,lutheran4 ,the writings of this author have become a standard1 and the mystic imprint1 ,a4 ,l4 ,o4 ,e41 is ample assurance that the truth of the ,gospel is beneath4--,episcopalian4 ,bickersteth 7,rev4 ,e4 ,h474 ,yesterday1 ,to-day1 and ,forever4 ,a ,poem4 ,pocket edition1 4#ej2 #afmo1 #a4jj2 #abmo1 #a4ej4 ,if any poem is destined to endure in the companionship of ,milton's hitherto matchless epic1 we believe it will be ',yesterday1 ,to-day1 and ,forever4'--,london ,globe4 ,butler 7,rev4 ,william ,archer74 ,sermons4 #b vols41 #b4ej4 ,lectures on ,ancient ,philosophy4 #b vols41 #b4ej4 ,a few weeks ago we spoke of the reprinting1 by ,carter ,brothers1 of the ,sermons of ,archer ,butler1 a body of preaching so strong and massive as to be really wonderful4 ,the ',lectures on ,ancient ,philosophy' that are now added1 were delivered at the ,university of ,dublin1 about the year #ahdj1 when the author was scarcely thirty years old4--,watchman4 ,the ,book and ,its ,story4 #abmo4 #a4ej4 ,fresh ,leaves from the ,book and ,its ,story4 #abmo4 #a4ej4 ,let any one who is inclined to think the bare ,scriptures 'dry' reading1 peruse them in connection with a volume like this1 and they will be clothed to him with a new life4 ,he will learn how the separate books of the ,bible were1 as it were1 built into one another1 and made to form a glorious whole3 he will read intelligently and with deep interest4--,keystone4 ,bonar 7,horatius1 ,d4,d474 ,hymns of ,faith and ,hope4 #c vols41 #ahmo4 #b4be4 ,bible ,thoughts and ,themes4 #f vols4 #abmo1 viz43-- ,,genesis #b4jj ,,old ,,testament #b4jj ,,gospels #b4jj ,,acts1 ,c4 #b4jj ,,lesser ,,epistles #b4jj ,,revelation #b4jj ,with no attempt at exposition1 except what is found in comparing ,scripture with ,scripture1 and drawing illustrations and means of impressing rich gospel truth from almost every source1 the author proceeds with theme upon theme1 giving floods of edifying and comforting light from beginning to end4 ,it is a good book for the private ,christian to have on his table for frequent use1 and ministers will often find in it that which will be suggestive and useful4--,christian ,instructor4 ,,way ,,of ,,peace #j4ej ,,way ,,of ,,holiness 4#fj ,,night ,,of ,,weeping 4#ej ,,morning ,,of ,,joy 4#fj ,,follow ,,the ,,lamb 4#dj ,,the ,,rent ,,veil #a4be ,,my ,,old ,,letters #b4jj ,,hymns ,,of ,,the ,,nativity1 gilt1 #a4jj ,,the ,,christ ,,of ,,god #a4be ,,truth ,,and ,,error 4#fj ,,the ,,everlasting ,,righteousness 4#fj ,chalmers 7,thomas1 ,d4,d474 ,sermons4 #b vols4 in one #c4jj4 ,cowper 7,wm474 ,the ,task4 ,illustrated by ,birket ,foster #c4ej4 ,cuyler 7,rev4 ,t4 ,l474 ,,pointed ,,papers #a4ej ,,thought ,,hives #a4ej ,,empty ,,crib #a4jj ,dr4 ,cuyler holds steadily the position which he reached years ago1 as the best writer of pointed1 racy1 religious articles in our country4--,presbyterian4 ,dick 7,john1 ,d4,d474 ,lectures on ,theology4 #hvo4 #c4jj4 ,it is1 as a whole1 superior to any other system of theology in our language4--,christian ,journal4 ,dickson 7,rev4 ,alexander1 ,d4,d474 ,,all ,,about ,,jesus #b4jj ,,beauty ,,for ,,ashes #b4jj ,his book is a 'bundle of myrrh1' and will be specially enjoyed by those who are in trouble4--,rev4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,m4 ,taylor4 ,luscious as a honeycomb with sweetness drawn from ,god's word--,rev4 ,dr4 ,cuyler4 ,dykes 7,oswald1 ,d4,d471 on the ,sermon on the ,mount4 #c vols41 #c4jj4 ,,abraham1 ,,the ,,friend ,,of ,,god #a4ej ,we are ever and anon surprised by some new view or fresh thought that never had occurred to us in this connection4 ,the book 7,abraham7 is a thoughtful1 scholarly production1 in vigorous ,english4--,n4 ,christian ,advocate4 99 ,edwards 7,jonathan74 ,works4 ,in #d vols41 octavo4 #f4jj4 ,i consider ,jonathan ,edwards the greatest of the sons of men4--,robert ,hall4 ,fraser 7,rev4 ,donald74 ,synoptical ,lectures on the ,books of the ,bible4 #c vols41 #f4jj4 ,dr4 ,fraser has observed1 like many others of us1 the mischief which results from cutting the ,bible into fragments1 and using it piecemeal4 ,in these volumes he discourses of the ,bible at large1 indicates the scope of each book1 and furnishes a brief digest of its contents4 ,the design was in itself most laudable1 and it has been well carried out4--,spurgeon4 ,green 7,prof4 ,win4 ,henry1 ,d4,d474 ,the ,argument of the ,book of ,job ,unfolded4 #abmo4 #a4ge4 ,that ancient composition so marvellous in beauty1 and so rich in philosophy1 is here treated in a thoroughly analytical manner1 and new depths and grander proportions of the divine original portrayed4 ,it is a book to stimulate research--,methodist ,recorder4 ,guthrie 7,thomas1 ,d4,d474 ,life and ,works4 #aa vols4 #ae4jj4 ,his pages glow with the deep piety1 the ,scriptural beauty1 the rich imagery1 and the tender pathos which breathed from his lips4--,n4 ,y4 ,observer4 ,hamilton 7,james1 ,d4,d474 ,select ,works4 #d vols4 #e4jj4 ,containing ,the ,royal ,preacher2 ,mount of ,olives2 ,pearl of ,parables2 ,lamp and ,lantern2 ,great ,biography2 ,harp on the ,willows2 ,lake of ,galilee2 ,emblems from ,eden2 ,life in ,earnest4 ,those familiar with the works of ,dr ,hamilton will perceive that this set of volumes contains the choice gold from the author's mine4 ,they are put up in a neat box1 and sold at the low price of #e for the set4--,interior4 ,hamlin 7,cyrus74 ,among the ,turks4 #abmo4 #a4ej4 ,hanna 7,rev4 ,william1 ,d4,d474 ,life of ,christ4 #c vols4 #abmo4 #d4ej4 ,we can heartily commend the ',life of our ,lord1' by ,dr4 ,hanna4--,congregational ,quarterly4 ,besides the beauty of the style and the careful scholarship which mark these volumes1 we cannot too warmly commend them for their deep piety and hearty enforcement of the doctrines of ,christianity4--,n4 ,y4 ,observer4 ,hill 7,george74 ,lectures on ,divinity4 #hvo4 #b4ej4 ,the candor and fairness of this author are remarkable1 an unfailing indication of real greatness4--,christian ,mirror4 ,hodge 7,charles1 ,d4,d474 ,commentaries4 ,,on ,,romans4 #abmo #a4ge ,,on ,,ephesians4 #abmo #a4ge ,,on ,,corinthians4 #b vols4 #abmo #c4ej ,rev4 ,c4 ,h4 ,spurgeon says3 ,most valuable4 ,with no writer do we more fully agree4 ,the more we use ,hodge1 the more we value him4 ,this applies to all his ,commentaries4 ,hodge 7,rev4 ,a4 ,a41 ,d4,d474 ,outlines of ,theology4 ,revised and ,enlarged ,edition4 #hvo4 #c4jj4 ,at its first publication in #ahfj1 this work attracted much attention1 and ever since it has had a large sale1 and been carefully studied both in this country and in ,great ,britain4 ,it has been translated into ,welsh and modern ,greek1 and has been used as a text-book in several theological schools4 ,prepared originally in good part from notes taken by the author from his distinguished father's lectures1 with the assistance of standard theological writers1 after fourteen years of service as a theological instructor1 he has1 with increased knowledge and experience as a teacher1 embodied in this new and enlarged edition not only the treasures of the volume as it first appeared1 but the rich results of his additional studies and investigations4 ,this new edition contains fifty per cent more of matter than the former one4 ,two chapters have been dropped1 and five new ones have been added4--,presbyterian ,banner4 ,holt 7,emily ,sarah74 ,historical ,tales4 ,,isoult ,,barry4 #abmo #a4ej ,,robin ,,tremayne4 #abmo #a4ej ,,the ,,well ,,in ,,the ,,desert4 #afmo #a4be ,,ashcliffe ,,hall4 #afmo #a4be ,,verena2 ,a ,,tale4 #abmo #a4ej ,,the ,,white ,,rose ,,of ,,langley4 #abmo #a4ej ,,imogen4 #abmo #a4ej ,,clare ,,avery4 #abmo #a4ej ,,lettice ,,eden4 #abmo #a4ej ,,for ,,the ,,master',s ,,sake4 #afmo #a4jj ,,margery',s ,,son4 #abmo #a4ej ,,lady ,,sybil',s ,,choice4 #abmo #a4ej ,,the ,,maiden',s ,,lodge4 #abmo #a4be ,whether it is regarded in its historical or its religious aspect1 ',isoult ,barry of ,wynscote' is the finest contribution to ,english literature1 of its peculiar class1 which has been made in the present century4--,american ,baptist4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,italics are noted by underscores surrounding the word_/words4 ,bold words are surrounded by equal signs4 ,footnote ,v ,v ,hebrew3 rakiya1 ,raqia1 from ,hebrew3 raka1 to spread out4 ,page #ade 7an arbitrary declaration7 ,changed 7arbitary7 to 7arbitrary74 ,page #bab ,illustration 7direction of the current of influence47 ,changed 7currnt7 to 7current74 ,page #bce 7whole nerve system4 ,the corroborative7 ,changed 7corroberative7 to 7corroborative74 ,page #bcg 7has a clear and unchallengeable field of7 ,changed 7unchallangeable7 to 7unchallengeable74