,,sup]natural ,,religion3 ,,an ,,inquiry ,,into ,,! ,,reality ,,( ,,div9e ,,revelation4 ,,9 ,,?ree ,,volumes4 ,,vol4 ,,iii4 ,,complete ,,edition4 ,,c>efully ,,revis$4 ,,london3 ,,longmans1 ,,gre51 ,,& ,,co41 #ahgi4 ,! ,"r ( ,translation is ,res]v$4 ,cr$ulity is z real1 if n s great1 a s9 z unbelief4 ,ar*bi%op ,tr5*4 ,! abnegation ( reason is n ! evid5ce ( fai?1 b ! confession ( despair4 ,canon ,lightfoot4 ,,pg ,,editor',s ,,note3 ,?is file has be5 provid$ ) an image ( ! orig9al scan = ea* page :i* is l9k$ to ! page numb] 9 ! html file4 ,ne>ly e page 9 ! text has _m ,greek passages :i* h be5 indicat$ :]e !y occur by ------ z h _m complex tables2 ^! passages may be view$ 9 ! page images4 ,"s ( ! pages h only a few l9es ( text & !n ! re/ ( ! page is tak5 up ) complex footnotes 9 ,engli%1 ,greek & ,hebrew4 ,! read] may click on ! page numb]s 9 ! html file to see ! entire page ) ! footnotes4 --,,dw ,,sup]natural ,,religion3 ,,an ,,inquiry ,,into ,,! ,,reality ,,( ,,div9e ,,revelation ,,"p ,,iv4 ,,! ,,acts ,,( ,,! ,,apo/les ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,ext]nal ,,evid5ce ,be=e we proce$ to exam9e ! evid5ce = miracles & ! reality ( ,div9e ,revelation :i* is furni%$ by ! la/ hi/orical book ( ! ,new ,te/am5t1 entitl$ ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 x is well t we %\ld briefly recall to m9d "s *>act]i/ics ( ! docum5t1 :i* mo/ mat]ially affect ! value ( any te/imony emanat+ f x4 ,:il/ g5]ally ass]t+ ! resurrection ( ,jesus1 & 8 bodily asc5sion1 reg>d+ :i* inde$ x adds fre% details1 ?is "w pres5ts to u a new cycle ( miracles1 & s pr(usely introduces sup]natural ag5cy into ! hi/ory ( ! e>ly *ur* t1 9 comp>ison ) x1 ! ,gospels seem almo/ sob] n>ratives4 ,! ,apo/les are in/ruct$ & com=t$ by visions & revelations1 & !y1 & all :o believe1 are fill$ ) ! ,holy ,_s & speak ) o!r tongues4 ,! ,apo/les are deliv]$ f #b prison & f bonds by angels or by an e>?quake4 ,m5 fall dead or are smitt5 ) bl9dness at _! rebuke4 ,!y heal ! sick1 raise ! dead1 & h&k]*iefs br\ght f _! bodies cure diseases & expel evil spirits4 ,z a g5]al rule1 any docum5t s full ( miracul\s episodes & sup]natural occurr5ces w\ld1 )\t hesitation1 be *>act]iz$ z fabul\s & incr$ible1 & w\ld n1 by any sob]-m9d$ read]1 be = a mom5t accept$ z hi/orical4 ,!re is no o!r te/imony = ^! miracles4 ,let ! read] endeav\r to =m "s conception ( ! nature & am\nt ( evid5ce necess>y to e/abli% ! tru? ( /atem5ts antec$5tly s incr$ible1 & comp>e x ) ! te/imony ( ?is solit>y & anonym\s docum5t1 ! "* & value ( :i* we %all n[ proce$ m closely to exam9e4 ,x is g5]ally admitt$1 & inde$ x is und5iable1 t no di/9ct & unequivocal ref]5ce to ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 & to ,luke z _! au?or1 occurs 9 ! writ+s ( ,fa!rs be=e "o by ,ir5aeus7#a7 ab\t ! end ( ! second c5tury4 ,passages are1 h[ev]1 po9t$ out 9 e>li] writ+s z indicat+ ! use & consequ5t exi/5ce ( our docum5t1 all ( :i* we %all n[ exam9e4 #c ,sev]al ( ^! occur 9 ! ,epi/le to ! ,cor9?ian s1 ascrib$ to ,clem5t ( ,rome4 ,! fir/1 imm$iately comp>$ ) ! passage to :i* x is suppos$ to be a ref]5ce17#a7 is z foll[s3-- ------ ,! words ( ! ,epi/le are n a quotation1 b m]ely occur 9 ! c\rse ( an address4 ,!y d n take ! =m ( an axiom1 b are a comm5t on ! conduct ( ! ,cor9?ians1 :i* may h be5 sugge/$ ei!r by writt5 or oral tradition1 or by moral maxims long be=e curr5t 9 hea!n philosophy4#b ,x is unnecess>y to ent] m9utely into ?is1 h[ev]1 or to indicate ! l+ui/ic diff]5ces betwe5 ! two passages1 = "o po9t alone settles ! "q4 ,9 ! ,acts3 ! say+1 ,x is m bless$ to give ?an to receive1 is di/9ctly introduc$ z a quotation ( #d words ( ! ,"l ,jesus1 & ! exhortation to rememb] !m1 conveys ! inf]5ce t !y 7 well kn[n4 ,!y mu/ ei!r h =m$ "p ( ,gospels n[ no long] extant1 z !y are n f\nd 9 ours1 or h be5 famili> z ! unwritt5 tradition ( say+s ( ! ,ma/]4 ,9 ei!r case1 if ! passage 9 ! ,epi/le be a ref]5ce to ^! words at all1 x _c reasonably be ma9ta9$ t x mu/ necess>ily h be5 d]iv$ f a "w :i* itself di/9ctly quotes ! words f ano!r s\rce4 ,x w\ld be aga9/ e pr9ciple ( evid5ce1 "u su* circum/ances1 to affirm ! passage to be an allusion to ?is special "w1 ( ^: previ\s exi/5ce we h no indep5d5t evid5ce47#a7 ,! slight co9cid5ce 9 ! expression1 )\t indication t any p>ticul> passage is 9 ! m9d ( ! au?or1 & )\t any m5tion ( ! ,acts1 !re=e1 is no evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( t "w4 ,a few critics po9t to "s p>ts ( ! foll[+ passage z %[+ acqua9tance ) ,acts3--,?r\gh jeal\sy ,paul also po9t$ out ! way to ! prize ( pati5ce1 hav+ borne *a9s sev5 times1 hav+ be5 put to flight1 hav+ be5 /on$2 hav+ become a prea*] bo? 9 ! ,ea/ & 9 ! ,we/1 he ga9$ ! noble r5[n due to 8 fai?2 hav+ taught ! :ole _w righte\sness1 & come to ! extremity ( ! ,we/1 & hav+ suff]$ m>tyrdom by comm& ( ! rul]s1 he 0 ?us remov$ f ! _w & w5t to ! holy place1 hav+ become a mo/ em95t #e example ( pati5ce47#a7 ,! slighte/ imp>tial consid]ation1 h[ev]1 mu/ conv9ce any "o t ?is passage does n indicate ! use ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les4 ,! ,epi/le speaks ( sev5 imprisonm5ts1 ( "s ( :i* ! ,acts make no m5tion1 & ?is mu/1 !re=e1 h be5 d]iv$ f ano!r s\rce47#b7 ,! ref]5ce to 8 com+ to ! extremity ( ! ,we/ ------1 :atev] int]pretation be put ^u x1 & to 8 dea?1 obvi\sly c>ries ! hi/ory fur!r ?an ! ,acts1 & _c h be5 d]iv$ f t docum5t4 ,! la/ passage1 :i*1 x is affirm$17#c7 %[s acqua9tance ) ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les is ! foll[+3 ,b :at %all we say reg>d+ ,david :o ha? obta9$ a good report ------8 unto :om ------ ,god said3 ',i f\nd a man aft] m9e own he>t1 ,david1 ! son ( ,jesse3 9 ev]la/+ m]cy ,i ano9t$ him4'7#d7 ,?is is said to be d]iv$ f ,acts xiii4 #bb3 ,& :5 he remov$ him he rais$ up to !m ,david = k+2 to :om also he #f gave te/imony ------3 ,i f\nd ,david ! son ( ,jesse1 a man aft] m9e own he>t1 :o w d all my w47#a7 ,! passage1 h[ev]1 is comp\nd$ ( two quotations loosely made f ! ,septuag9t v]sion ( ! ,old ,te/am5t1 f :i* all ! quotations 9 ! ,epi/le are tak54 ,ps4 lxxxviii4 #bj3 ,i f\nd ,david my s]vant2 9 holy m]cy ,i ano9t$ him47#b7 ,& #a ,sam4 xiii4 #ad3 ,a man aft] 8 own he>t47#c7 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria quotes ?is passage f ! ,epi/le1 & = 9 ev]la/+ m]cy reads ) holy oil ------ z 9 ! ,psalm47#d7 ,al?\gh1 !re=e1 our ,alex&rian ,,ms4 ( ! ,epi/le has ! read+ :i* we h giv5 above1 ev5 if we suppose t ! ,alex&rian ,clem5t may h f\nd a m correct v]sion 9 8 ,,ms41 ! argum5t w\ld n be affect$4 ,! :ole simil>ity lies 9 ! ins]tion ( ! son ( ,jesse1 b ?is 0 a mo/ common addition to any m5tion ( ,david1 & by ! completion ( ! passage f ! ,psalm1 ! omission ( :o w d all my w1 ! peculi> phrase ( ! ,acts1 z well z ! diff]5ce ( introductory expressions1 any connection betwe5 ! two is sev]$1 & x is app>5t t ! quotation ( ! ,epi/le may legitimately be ref]r$ to ! ,septuag9t17#e7 ) :i* x agrees mu* m closely #g ?an ) ! ,acts4 ,9 no case c\ld su* slight co9cid5ces prove acqua9tance ) ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les47#a7 ,only "o passage ( ! ,epi/le ( ,b>nabas is ref]r$ to by any "o7#b7 z indicat+ acqua9tance ) ! ,acts4 ,x is z foll[s1 c4 #g3 ,if !re=e ! son ( ,god1 be+ ,"l1 & ab\t to judge quick & dead ------ suff]$1 c4 ,?is is comp>$ ) ,acts x4 #db444 & to te/ify t x is he :o has be5 appo9t$ by ,god judge ( quick & dead ------4 ,l>dn]1 :o comp>es ! expression ( ! ,epi/le ) ,acts1 equally comp>es x ) t 9 #b ,tim4 iv4 #a444 & ,*ri/ ,jesus :o is ab\t to judge ! quick & dead ------1 to :i* x is m commonly ref]r$17#c7 & #a ,pet4 iv4 #e444 to him :o is ready to judge quick & dead ------4 ,he adds1 h[ev]3 ,x is n possible to say1 :at text he ref]s to1 ?\gh t 9 ,timo?y has 7he same words4 ,b p]haps !re is no pro( t he ref]s to any4 ,?is 0 an article kn[n to e common ,*ri/ian2 :]eas ?is writ] 7:oev] he be7 0 able to tea* ! ,*ri/ian religion1 & t )\t respect to any writt5 gospels or epi/les47#d7 ,x is sc>cely #h necess>y to add any?+ to ?is4 ,!re is ( c\rse no trace ( ! use ( ,acts 9 ! ,epi/le47#a7 ,x is ass]t$ t !re is a cle> allusion7#b7 to ,acts 9 ! ,pa/or ( ,h]mas4 ,! passages may be comp>$ z foll[s3-- ------ ,! slighte/ comp>ison ( ^! passages suffices to %[ t ! "o is n dep5d5t on ! o!r4 ,! ,old ,te/am5t is full ( passages 9 :i* ! "n ( ! ,"l is magnifi$ z ! only s\rce ( safety & salvation4 ,9 ! ,paul9e ,epi/les likewise !re are num]\s passages ( a simil> t5\r4 ,= in/ance1 ! passage f ,joel ii4 #cb1 is quot$ ,rom4 x4 #ac3 ,= :osoev] %all call on ! "n ( ! ,"l %all be sav$ ------7#c7 ,!re 0 9 fact no =mula m curr5t ei!r among/ ! ,jews or 9 ! e>ly ,*ur*2 & !re is no legitimate gr\nd = trac+ su* an expression to ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les47#d7 #i ,! only o!r passage :i* is quot$7#a7 z indicat+ acqua9tance ) ,acts is ! foll[+1 :i* we at once contra/ ) ! suppos$ p>allel3-- ------ ,"h aga9 a =mula is employ$ :i* is common ?r\gh\t ! ,new ,te/am5t1 & :i*1 appli$ z x is "h to ^? :o 7 p]secut$1 we h reason to believe 0 9 g5]al use 9 ! e>ly ,*ur*4 ,x is almo/ unnecess>y to po9t out any examples4 ,ev]y:]e ! "n ( ,god or ( ,jesus is ! symbol us$ to repres5t ! concrete idea1 & 9 ! heav5ly ,j]usalem ( ! ,apocalypse ! s]vants ( ,god & ( ! ,lamb are to h 8 "n on _! =eheads4 ,! "o expression1 h[ev]1 :i* is peculi> 9 ! passage3 c\nt$ wor?y1--9 ! ,acts ------1 & 9 ! ,pa/or ------1--is a p]fectly natural & simple "o1 ! use ( :i* _c be exclusively conc$$ to ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les4 ,x is f\nd frequ5tly 9 ! ,paul9e ,epi/les1 z = in/ance 9 #b ,!s4 i4 #e1 :]e1 aft] say+ t !y give ?anks to ,god = !m & glory 9 ! *ur*es ( ,god = ! pati5ce & fai? ) :i* ! ,!ssalonians endure #aj p]secutions1 ! writ] cont9ues3 :i* is a tok5 ( ! righte\s judgm5t ( ,god1 t ye may he c\nt$ wor?y ------ ( ! k+dom ( ,god1 = :i* ye also suff] ------2 & aga91 9 ! same *apt]1 v4 #aa1 #ab1 ,:]e=e we also pray always = y t our ,god may c\nt y wor?y ------ ( ! call+1 & fulfil all good pleasure ( goodness & "w ( fai? ) p[]2 t ! "n ( our ,"l ,jesus may he glorifi$ 9 y ------ c4 ,! passage we are exam9+ _c be trac$ to ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les47#a7 ,x mu/ be obvi\s to all t ! ,pa/or ( ,h5nas does n pres5t any evid5ce ev5 ( ! exi/5ce ( ! ,acts at ! "t x 0 writt547#b7 ,only two passages 9 ! ,epi/les ( pseudo-,ignatius are po9t$ out z indicat+ acqua9tance ) ! ,acts1 & ev5 ^! are n advanc$ by _m critics4 ,we h already s fully discuss$ ^! ,epi/les t no m ne$ n[ be said4 ,we mu/ pron\nce !m spuri\s 9 all _! rec5sions & incapable ( af=d+ evid5ce ^u any po9t e>li] ?an t[>ds ! end ( ! second c5tury4 ,^?1 h[ev]1 :o w\ld /ill receive z g5u9e ! te/imony ( ! ?ree ,syriac ,epi/les mu/ decl>e t !y d n pres5t any trace ( ! exi/5ce ( ! ,acts1 inasmu* z ! two passages adduc$ to %[ ! use ( t "w d n occur 9 ^? lett]s4 ,!y are f\nd 9 ! %ort] rec5sion ( ! ,epi/les to ! ,smyrnaeans & ,philadelphians4 ,we might1 !re=e1 altoge!r refuse to exam9e ! #aa passages1 b 9 ord] to %[ ! exact nature ( ! case made out by apologi/s1 we %all briefly ref] to !m4 ,we at once comp>e ! fir/ ) its suppos$ p>allel47#a7 ------ ,!re is no?+ 9 ?is passage :i* be>s any peculi> analogy to ! ,acts1 = ! /atem5t is a simple ref]5ce to a tradition :i* is also embodi$ bo? 9 ! ?ird ,synoptic7#b7 & 9 ! f\r? ,gospel27#c7 & ! m]e use ( ! common words ------ & ------ c\ld n prove any?+4 ,! passage occurs 9 ! ,epi/le imm$iately aft] a quotation1 said by ,j]ome to be tak5 f ! ,gospel accord+ to ! ,hebrews1 relat+ an appe>ance ( ,jesus to ^? :o 7 ) ,pet]1 9 :i* ,jesus is repres5t$ z mak+ !m h&le him 9 ord] to conv9ce !m t he is n an incorporeal _s47#d7 ,! quotation be>s consid]able aff9ity to ! n>rative 9 ! ?ird ,synoptic 7xxiv4 #ci71 at ! close ( :i* ,jesus is repres5t$ z eat+ ) ! disciples4 ,x is highly probable t ! ,gospel f :i* ! writ] ( ! ,epi/le quot$ conta9$ ! same detail1 to :i* ?is w\ld naturally be a direct #ab descriptive ref]5ce4 ,9 any case x af=ds no evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les47#a7 ,! second passage1 :i* is /ill m r>ely advanc$17#b7 is z foll[s3-- ------ ,! only po9t ( co9cid5ce betwe5 ^! two passages is ! use ( ! ^w wolves4 ,9 ! ,epi/le ! expression is ------1 :il/ 9 ,acts x is ------4 ,n[ ! image is sub/antially f\nd 9 ! ,s]mon on ! ,m\nt1 "o =m ( :i* is giv5 9 ! fir/ ,synoptic1 vii4 #ae1af1 & :i* und5iably mu/ h =m$ "p ( _m ( ! ,gospels :i* are m5tion$ by ! writ] ( ! ?ird ,synoptic4 ,we f9d ,ju/9 ,m>tyr twice quot+ ano!r =m ( ! say+3 ,= _m ------ %all arrive 9 my "n1 outw>dly inde$ clo!d 9 %eep's sk9s1 b inw>dly be+ rav5+ wolves ------47#c7 ,! use ( ! t]m z appli$ to m5 0 c]ta9ly common 9 ! e>ly ,*ur*4 ,! idea express$ 9 ! ,epi/le is m closely f\nd 9 #b ,timo?y iii4 #a ff41 9 ! description ( ^? :o are to come 9 ! la/ days1 & :o w 7v4 #f7 creep into ! h\ses & make captive ------ silly wom5 lad5 ) s9s1 l$ away ) div]s lu/s4 #ac ,! passage _c be trac$ to ! ,acts17#a7 & ! ,ignatian ,epi/les1 spuri\s ?\gh !y be1 d n pres5t any evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( t "w47#b7 ,only two s5t5ces are po9t$ out 9 ! ,epi/le ( ,polyc>p z d5ot+ acqua9tance ) ! ,acts4 ,! fir/ & only "o ( ^! on :i* mu* /ress is laid is ! foll[+37#c7 ------ ,x w be obvi\s to all t1 along ) mu* simil>ity1 !re is likewise div]g5ce betwe5 ^! s5t5ces4 ,9 ! fir/ phrase ! use ( ------ 9 ! ,epi/le sep>ates x f ! suppos$ p>allel1 9 :i* ! ^w is ------4 ,! numb] ( passages 9 ! ,paul9e ,epi/les correspond+ ) x are legion 7e4g4 #b ,cor4 iv4 #ad1 ,ephes4 i4 #bj74 ,! second memb] ( ! s5t5ce1 :i* is ( c\rse ! m important1 is 9 reality1 we cont5d1 a ref]5ce to ! v ,psalm quot$ 9 ,acts imm$iately aft] ! v]se be=e u1 c\*$ 9 n unusual phraseology4 ,psalm xvi4 #aj 7,sept4 xv471 reads3 #ad ,= ?\ wilt n leave my s\l 9 hell ------47#a7 ,9 ,ps4 xviii4 #e 7,sept4 xvii4 #e7 we h1 ,! pa9s ( hell ------ compass$ me ab\t47#b7 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ------ ( ! ,epi/le & ! ------ ( ! ,acts is s di/9ct t1 f9d+ a clos] p>allel 9 ! ,psalms to :i* ref]5ce is obvi\sly made 9 bo? works1 x is q impossible to trace ! phrase necess>ily to ! ,acts4 ,su* a passage _c prove ! use ( t "w17#c7 b1 if x c\ld1 we might inquire :at evid5ce = ! au?or%ip & tru/wor?9ess ( ! ,acts c\ld be d$uc$ f ! circum/ance87#d7 ,! second passage1 ref]r$ to by a few writ]s17#e7 is z foll[s3-- ------ ,x is n necess>y to d m ?an contra/ ^! passages to %[ h[ little ! ,epi/le ( ,polyc>p c witness = ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les4 ,we h already exam9$ ano!r suppos$ ref]5ce to ?is v passage1 & ! expressions 9 ! ,epi/le1 :il/ sc>cely pres5t+ a s+le po9t ( l+ui/ic analogy to #ae ! s5t5ce 9 ! ,acts1 only t5d to %[ h[ common & natural su* language 0 9 ! e>ly ,*ur* 9 connection ) p]secution4 ,:il/ we con/antly meet ) ! ?\ght express$ by ! writ] ( ! ,epi/le ?r\gh\t ! writ+s ( ! ,new ,te/am5t1 we may m p>ticul>ly po9t to ! fir/ ,petr9e epi/le = fur!r in/ances ( ?is tone ( exhortation to ^? suff]+ p]secution = ! cause4 ,= in/ance1 #a ,pet4 ii4 #ai ff1 & aga9 iii4 #ad17a7 ,b if ye ev5 suff] ------ = righte\sness' sake1 bless$ are ye4 ,9 ! next *apt] ! tone is /ill m closely analog\s4 ,speak+ ( p]secutions1 ! writ] says1 iv4 #ac1 4444 b accord+ z ye are p>tak]s ( ,*ri/'s suff]+s rejoice1 c4 c4 #ad4 ,if ye are reproa*$ 9 ,*ri/'s "n ------ bless$ are ye1 = ! _s ( glory & ( ,god re/e? ^u y4 #ae4 ,= let none ( y suff] ------ z a murd]]1 c4 c4 #af4 ,b if z a ,*ri/ian1 let him n be a%am$1 b let him praise ,god 9 ?is "n ------ c4 c4 ,no?+ b evid5tial de/itution c\ld rely ^u ! expression 9 ! ,epi/le ( ,polyc>p to %[ acqua9tance ) ,acts4 ,few apologi/s po9t out ) confid5ce any passages f ! volum9\s writ+s ( ,ju/9 ,m>tyr1 z indicat+ ! use ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 quote su* expressions z ! m undaunt$ among/ !m v5ture to advance4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is ! foll[+37#b7 ,= ! ,jews hav+ ! prophecies & ev] expect+ ! ,*ri/ to come knew him n ------1 & n only s1 b !y also maltreat$ him4 ,b #af ! ,g5tiles1 :o _h nev] he>d any ?+ reg>d+ ! ,*ri/ until 8 ,apo/les1 hav+ gone =? f ,j]usalem1 decl>$ ! ?+s conc]n+ him1 & deliv]$ ! prophecies1 hav+ be5 fill$ ) joy & fai?1 r5\nc$ _! idols & d$icat$ !mselves to ! unbegott5 ,god ?r\gh ! ,*ri/7#a7 ,?is is comp>$ ) ,acts xiii4 #bg1 ,= !y t dwell at ,j]usalem & _! rul]s n kn[+ ?is 7man7 ------ nor yet ! voices ( ! prophets :i* are read e sabba? day1 fulfill$ !m by _! judgm5t ( him1 c4 #dh4 ,b ! ,g5tiles1 he>+1 rejoic$ & glorifi$ ! ^w ( ! ,"l1 c47#b7 ,we may at once proce$ to give ! next passage4 ,9 ! ,dialogue ) ,trypho1 ,ju/9 has by quotations f ! prophets endeav\r$ to %[ t ! suff]+s ( ,*ri/1 & also ! glory ( 8 second adv5t _h be5 =etold1 & ,trypho replies3 ,suppos+ ^! ?+s to be ev5 z ?\ saye/1 & t x 0 =etold t ,*ri/ 0 to suff] ------1 & has be5 call$ a ,/one1 & aft] 8 fir/ com+1 9 :i* x _h be5 ann\nc$ t he 0 to suff]1 %\ld come 9 glory1 & become judge ( all1 & et]nal k+ & prie/2 c417#c7 & 9 ano!r place1 ,= #ag if x _h be5 obscurely decl>$ by ! prophets t ! ,*ri/ %\ld suff] ------ & aft] ^! ?+s be "l ( all1 c47#a7 ,?is is comp>$ ) ,acts xxvi4 #bb1 4444 say+ no?+ except ^? ?+s :i* ! prophets & ,moses said 7 to come to pass1 7#bc7 :e!r ! ,*ri/ %\ld suff] ------1 :e!r1 ! fir/ out ( ! resurrection f ! dead1 he is ab\t to proclaim light unto ! p & to ! ,g5tiles47#b7 ,x is only necess>y to quote ^! passages to %[ h[ unreasonable x is to ma9ta9 t !y %[ ! use ( ! ,acts by ,ju/94 ,he simply sets =? f ! prophets1 direct1 ! doctr9es :i* =m$ ! great text ( ! e>ly ,*ur*4 ,"s ( ! w>me/ support]s ( ! canon admit ! unc]ta9ty ( su* co9cid5ces1 & d n ?9k x wor? :ile to advance !m4 ,!re are "o or two /ill m di/ant analogies sometimes po9t$ out :i* d n require m p>ticul> notice47#c7 ,!re is no evid5ce :atev] t ,ju/9 0 acqua9t$ ) ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les47#d7 #ah ,"s apologi/s7#a7 claim ,hegesippus z evid5ce = ! exi/5ce ( ! ,acts1 on ! /r5g? ( ! foll[+ passages 9 ! fragm5t ( 8 book pres]v$ by ,eusebius4 ,he puts into ! m\? ( ,james ! ,j1 :il/ be+ m>tyr$1 ! expression3 ,i besee* 7!e7 ,"l ,god1 ,fa!r1 =give !m1 = !y "k n :at !y d4 ,?is is comp>$ ) ! words said to h be5 utt]$ by ! m>tyr ,/eph51 ,acts vii4 #fj1 ,"l1 lay n ?is s9 to _! *>ge411 ,! passage is m commonly advanc$ z %[+ acqua9tance ) ,luke xxiii4 #cd1 & we h already discuss$ x47#b7 ,l>dn] app>5tly desires x to d d\ble duty1 b x is sc>cely wor? :ile s]i\sly to ref] to ! claim "h4 ,! passage m g5]ally reli$ ^u1 ?\gh t also is only advanc$ by a few17#c7 is ! foll[+1 ,?is man 0 a fai?ful witness bo? to ,jews & ,greeks t ,jesus is ! ,*ri/17#d7 ------4 ,?is is comp>$ ) ,acts xx4 #ba1 :]e ,paul is repres5t$ z say+ ( himself1 4444 te/ify+ fully bo? to ,jews & ,greeks rep5tance t[>d ,god1 & fai? t[>d our ,"l ,jesus ,*ri/ ------4 ,! two passages are totally diff]5t bo? 9 s5se & language1 & t ! use ( ,acts is d$uc$ f s di/ant an analogy only s]ves to %[ ! slightness ( ! evid5ce ) :i* apologi/s h to be cont5t4 #ai ,papias ne$ n long deta9 u1 = x is freely admitt$ by mo/ div9es t he does n af=d evid5ce ( any value t he 0 acqua9t$ ) ! ,acts4 ,= ! sake ( complet5ess we may h[ev] ref] to ! po9ts :i* are sometimes m5tion$4 ,a fragm5t ( ! "w ( ,papias is pres]v$ giv+ an acc\nt ( ! dea? ( ,judas1 :i* diff]s mat]ially bo? f ! acc\nt 9 ! fir/ ,synoptic & 9 ,acts i4 #ah f47#a7 ,judas is repres5t$ z hav+ gone ab\t ! _w a great example ( impiety1 = 8 body hav+ swoll5 s mu* t he c\ld n pass :]e a waggon easily pass$1 he 0 cru%$ by ! waggon s t 8 entrails empti$ out ------4 ,apoll9>is ( ,laodicaea quotes ?is passage to %[ t ,judas did n die :5 he hung himself1 b subsequ5tly met ) ano!r fate1 9 ?is way reconcil+ ! /atem5ts 9 ! ,gospel & ,acts47#b7 ,he does n say t ,papias us$ ! /ory = ?is purpose1 & x is fundam5tally contradictory to ! acc\nt 9 ,acts i4 #ah1 #ai4 ,n[ ?is man pur*as$ a field ) ! rew>d ( ! unrighte\sness1 & fall+ headlong bur/ asund] 9 ! mid/1 & all 8 b[els gu%$ out ------4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to argue t ! passage does n indicate any acqua9tance ) ,acts7#c7 z "s few critics are incl9$ to ass]t47#d7 ,! #bj next analogy po9t$ out is d]iv$ f ! /atem5t ( ,eusebius t ,papias m5tions a wond]ful /ory :i* he _h he>d f ! daught]s ( ,philip 7:om ,eusebius calls ! ,apo/le17 reg>d+ a dead man rais$ to life47#a7 ,9 ,acts xxi4 #h1 #i1 x is /at$ t ,philip ! evangeli/ _h f\r daught]s4 ,x is h>dly conceivable t ?is %\ld be advanc$ z an indication t ,papias knew ! ,acts4 ,! la/ po9t is t ,eusebius says3 ,& aga9 7he n>rates7 ano!r m>vel reg>d+ ,ju/us :o 0 surnam$ ,b>sabas2 h[ he drank a baneful poison & by ! grace ( ! ,"l su/a9$ no h>m4 ,b t ?is ,ju/us1 aft] ! ,asc5sion ( ! ,savi\r1 ! holy apo/les appo9t$ ) ,mat?ias1 & t !y pray$ 7on ! occasion7 ( ! fill+ up ( _! numb] by lot in/ead ( ! traitor ,judas1 ! scripture ( ! ,acts ?us relates3 ',& !y appo9t$ two1 ,joseph call$ ,b>sabas1 :o 0 surnam$ ,ju/us1 & ,mat?ias4 ,& !y pray$ & said1' c47#b7 ,:atev] argum5t c be d$uc$ f ?is1 obvi\sly re/s entirely ^u ! fact t ,papias is said to h ref]r$ to ,ju/us :o 0 nam$ ,b>sabas1 = ( c\rse ! la/ s5t5ce is add$ by ,eusebius himself1 & has no?+ to d ) ,papias4 ,?is is fairly admitt$ by ,l>dn] & o!rs4 ,l>dn] says3 ,papias does und\bt$ly give "s confirmation to ! hi/ory ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 9 :at he says ( ,philip2 & especially 9 :at he says ( ,ju/us1 call$ #ba ,b>sabas4 ,b ,i ?9k x _c be affirm$1 t he did p>ticul>ly m5tion1 or ref] to1 ! book ( ! ,acts4 ,= ,i reckon1 x is ,eusebius himself :o adds t quotation out ( ! ,acts1 ^u occasion ( :at ,papias _h writt5 ( ! be=e-m5tion$ ,b>sabas47#a7 ,!re is no evid5ce wor?y ( att5tion t ,papias 0 acqua9t$ ) ! ,acts47#c7 ,no "o s]i\sly pret5ds t ! ,clem5t9e ,homilies af=d any evid5ce ( ! use or exi/5ce ( ! ,acts2 & few1 if any1 claim ! ,epi/le to ,diognetus z te/imony = x47#c7 ,we may1 h[ev]1 quote ! only passage :i* is po9t$ out4 4444 ^! :o hold ! view t !y pres5t !m 7(f]+s7 to ,god z ne$+ !m might m rightly e/eem x fooli%ness & n wor%ip ( ,god4 ,= he :o made ! heav5 & ! e>?1 & all ?+s 9 !m1 & :o supplies to u all :atev] we ne$1 c himself be 9 ne$ ( none ( ^? ?+s :i* he himself pres5ts to ^? :o imag9e t !y give 7to him747#d7 ,?is is #bb comp>$ ) ,acts xvii4 #bd3 ,! ,god t made ! _w & all ?+s 9 x1 he be+ ,"l ( heav5 & e>?1 dwelle? n 9 temples made ) h&s2 7#be7 nei!r is s]v$ by m5's h& z ?\gh he ne$$ any?+1 see+ he himself give? to all life & brea? & all ?+s47#a7 ,!re is no?+ "h b a co9cid5ce ( s5se1 ?\gh ) mu* v>iation betwe5 ! two passages1 b ! ,epi/le argues f a diff]5t context1 & ?is illu/ration is obvi\s en\gh to be common to any morali/4 ,!re is n a s+le reason :i* po9ts to ! ,acts z ! s\rce ( ! writ]'s argum5t4 ,basilides & ,val5t9us are n claim$ at all by apologi/s z witnesses = ! exi/5ce ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 nor is ,m>cion1 ^: ,canon1 h[ev]1 ( :i* x =m$ no "p1 is r adv]se to ! "w ?an m]ely negative4 ,t]tullian taunts ,m>cion = receiv+ ,paul z an apo/le1 al?\gh 8 "n is n m5tion$ 9 ! ,gospel1 & yet n receiv+ ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les 9 :i* alone 8 hi/ory is n>rat$27#b7 b x does n 9 ! lea/ degree foll[ f ?is t ,m>cion knew ! "w & delib]ately reject$ x4 ,a passage ( ,tatian's oration to ! ,greeks is po9t$ out by "s7#c7 z %[+ 8 acqua9tance ) ! ,acts4 ,x is z foll[s3 ,i am n will+ to wor%ip ! creation #bc made by him = u4 ,sun & moon are made = u3 h[1 !re=e1 %all ,i wor%ip my own s]vants8 ,h[ c ,i decl>e /ocks & /ones to be gods8444 ,b nei!r %\ld ! unnameable ------ ,god be pres5t$ ) bribes2 = he :o is )\t ne$ ( any?+ ------ mu/ n be calumniat$ by u z ne$y ------47l7 ,?is is comp>$ ) ,acts xvii4 #bd1 #be1 quot$ above1 & x only s]ves to %[ h[ common su* language 04 ,l>dn] himself says ( ! passage3 ,?is is mu* ! same ?\ght1 & appli$ to ! same purpose1 ) ,paul's1 ,acts xvii4 #be1 z ?\gh he ne$e? any?+4 ,b x is a "* ( ! ,deity s obvi\s1 t ,i ?9k x _c det]m9e u to suppose he _h an eye to ^? words ( ! ,apo/le47#b7 ,! language1 inde$1 is q diff]5t & %[s no acqua9tance ) ! ,acts47#c7 ,eusebius /ates t ! ,sev]ians :o m fully e/abli%$ ,tatian's h]esy reject$ bo? ! ,epi/les ( ,paul & ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les47#d7 ,dionysius ( ,cor9? is r>ely adduc$ by any "o z te/imony = ! ,acts4 ,! only gr\nd ^u :i* he is at all ref]r$ to is a /atem5t ( ,eusebius 9 m5tion+ 8 ,epi/les4 ,speak+ ( 8 ,epi/le to ! ,a!nians1 ,eusebius says3 ,he relates1 moreov]1 t ,dionysius ! ,areopagite :o 0 conv]t$ to ! fai? by ,paul ! ,apo/le1 accord+ to ! acc\nt giv5 9 ! #bd ,acts1 0 appo9t$ ! fir/ bi%op ( ! *ur* ( ! ,a!nians47#a7 ,ev5 apologi/s admit t x is d\btful h[ f> ,dionysius ref]r$ to ! ,acts17#b7 ! m5tion ( ! book "h be+ mo/ obvi\sly made by ,eusebius himself4 ,melito ( ,s>dis is n appeal$ to by any writ] 9 connection ) our "w1 nor c ,claudius ,apoll9>is be press$ into ?is s]vice4 ,a!nagoras is suppos$ by "s to ref] to ! v same passage 9 ,acts xvii4 #bd1 #be1 :i* we h discuss$ :5 deal+ ) ! "w ( ,tatian4 ,a!nagoras says3 ,! ,creator & ,fa!r ( ! univ]se is n 9 ne$ ( blood1 nor ( ! /eam ( burnt sacrifices1 nor ( ! fragrance ( fl[]s & ( inc5se1 he himself be+ ! p]fect fragrance1 inw>dly & outw>dly )\t ne$47#c7 ,& fur!r on3 ,& y k+s inde$ build palaces = y\rselves2 b ! _w is n made z be+ ne$$ by ,god47#d7 ,^! passages occur 9 ! c\rse ( a def5ce ( ,*ri/ians = n (f]+ sacrifices1 & bo? 9 language & context !y are q indep5d5t ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les4 ,9 ! ,epi/le ( ! ,*ur*es ( ,vi5ne & ,lyons1 giv+ an acc\nt ( ! p]secution aga9/ !m1 x is said t ! victims 7 pray+ = ^? f :om !y suff]$ cruelties3 l ,/eph5 ! p]fect m>tyr3 #be ',"l1 lay n ?is s9 to _! *>ge4' ,b if he 0 supplicat+ = ^? :o /on$ him1 h[ mu* m = ! bre?r587l7 ,! pray] "h quot$ agrees ) t ascrib$ to ,/eph5 9 ,acts vii4 #fj4 ,!re is no m5tion ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les 9 ! ,epi/le1 & ! s\rce f :i* ! writ]s obta9$ _! in=mation ab\t ,/eph5 is ( c\rse n /at$4 ,if !re really 0 a m>tyr ( ! "n ( ,/eph51 & if ^! words 7 actually spok5 by him1 ! tradition ( ! fact1 & ! memory ( 8 noble say+1 may well h rema9$ 9 ! ,*ur*1 or h be5 record$ 9 writ+s !n curr5t1 f "o ( :i*1 inde$1 em95t critics conjecture t ! au?or ( ,acts d]iv$ 8 mat]ials1#b & 9 ?is case ! passage obvi\sly does n prove ! use ( ! ,acts4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 !re nev] 0 su* a m>tyr by :om ^! words 7 spok51 & ! :ole /ory mu/ be consid]$ an orig9al inv5tion by ! au?or ( ,acts1 !n1 9 t case1 & 9 t case only1 ! passage does %[ ! use ( ! ,acts47#c7 ,suppos+ t ! use ( ,acts be held to be ?us indicat$1 :at does ?is prove8 ,m]ely t ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les 7 9 exi/5ce 9 ! ye> #agg-agh1 :5 ! ,epi/le ( #bf ,vi5ne & ,lyons 0 writt54 ,no light :atev] w\ld ?us be ?r[n ^u ! "q ( its au?or%ip2 & nei!r its cr$ibility nor its suffici5cy to prove ! reality ( a cycle ( miracles w\ld be 9 ! slighte/ degree e/abli%$4 ,ptolemaeus & ,h]acleon ue$ n deta9 u1 z x is n alleg$ t !y %[ acqua9tance ) ! ,acts1 nor is ,celsus claim$ z te/imony = ! book4 ,! ,canon ( ,muratori conta9s a v corrupt p>agraph reg>d+ ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les4 ,we h already discuss$ ! date & "* ( ?is fragm5t17#a7 & ne$ n fur!r speak ( x "h4 ,! s5t5ce 9 :i* we are n[ int]e/$ reads 9 ! orig9al z foll[s3 ,acta autem omnium apo/olorum sub uno libro scribta sunt lucas obtime !(ile conpr9dit quia sub praes5tia eius s+ula g]ebantur sicute et semote pas-sionem petri euid5t] decl>at s$ et pr(ectionem pauli ab urbes ad spania pr(icesc5tis4 ,x is probable t 9 addition to its corruption "s words may h be5 lo/ f ! conclud+ phrase ( ?is passage1 b ! foll[+ may p]haps suffici5tly repres5t its g5]al s5se3 ,b ! ,acts ( all ! ,apo/les 7 writt5 9 "o book4 ,luke includ$ 79 8 "w7 to ! excell5t ,!ophilus only ! ?+s :i* occurr$ 9 8 own pres5ce1 z he evid5tly %[s by omitt+ ! m>tyrdom ( ,pet] & also ! sett+ =? ( ,paul f ! city to ,spa94 ,:il/ ?is passage may prove ! exi/5ce ( ! ,acts ab\t ! end ( ! second c5tury1 & t ! au?or%ip ( ! "w 0 ascrib$ to ,luke1 x has no fur!r value4 ,no weight c be atta*$ to ! /atem5t ( #bg ! unkn[n writ] beyond t ( m]ely te/ify+ to ! curr5cy ( su* a tradition1 & ev5 ! few words quot$ %[ h[ uncritical he 04 ,no?+ c\ld be less appropriate to ! "w be=e u ?an ! ass]tion t x conta9s ! ,acts ( all ! ,apo/les1 = x mu/ be app>5t to all1 & we %all h]eaft] h to ref] to ! po9t1 t x v s+ul>ly omits all record ( ! acts ( mo/ ( ! apo/les1 occupies itself *iefly ) ^? ( ,pet] & ,paul1 & devotes consid]able att5tion to ,/eph5 & to o!rs :o 7 n apo/les at all4 ,we %all fur!r h occasion to %[ t ! writ] does any?+ b conf9e himself to ! ev5ts ( :i* he 0 an eye-witness1 & we may m]ely rem>k1 9 pass+1 z a matt]4 :i* sc>cely conc]ns u "h1 t ! in/ances giv5 by ! unkn[n writ] ( ! fragm5t to support 8 ass]tion are n only irrelevant1 b s+ul>ly devoid !mselves ( hi/orical atte/ation4 ,ir5aeus7#a7 assigns ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les to ,luke1 z d ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria17#b7 ,t]tullian17#c7 & ,orig517#d7 al?\gh )\t any /atem5ts giv+ special weight to _! m5tion ( him z ! au?or 9 any way c\nt]balanc+ ! late date ( _! te/imony4 ,beyond %[+ t tradition1 at ! end ( ! second c5tury & beg9n+ ( ! ?ird1 associat$ ! "n ( ,luke ) ?is writ+ & ! ?ird ,gospel1 ! evid5ce ( ^! ,fa!rs is ( no value to u4 ,we h already incid5tally m5tion$ t "s h]etics ei!r ignor$ or reject$ ! book1 & to ! ,m>cionites & ,sev]ians #bh we may n[ add ! ,ebionites7#a7 & ,mani*aeans47#b7 ,*ryso/om compla9s t 9 8 day ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les 7 s neglect$ t _m 7 ignorant ( ! exi/5ce ( ! book & ( its au?ors47#c7 ,d\bts z to its au?or%ip 7 express$ 9 ! n9? c5tury1 = ,photius /ates t "s ascrib$ ! "w to ,clem5t ( ,rome1 o!rs to ,b>nabas1 & o!rs to ,luke ! evangeli/47#d7 ,if we turn to ! docum5t itself1 we f9d t x pr(esses to be ! second portion ( a "w writt5 = ! in=mation ( an unkn[n p]son nam$ ,!ophilus1 ! fir/ "p be+ ! ,gospel1 :i*1 9 our canonical ,new ,te/am5t1 be>s ! "n ( ,gospel accord+ to ,luke4 ,! n>rative is a cont9uation ( ! ?ird ,synoptic1 b ! actual title ( ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 or ,acts ( ,apo/les ------17#e7 atta*$ to ?is ------ is a lat] addition1 & =m$ no "p ( ! orig9al docum5t4 ,! au?or's "n is n giv5 9 any ( ! e>li] ,,mss41 & ! "w is entirely anonym\s4 ,t 9 ! prologue to ! ,acts ! writ] cle>ly assumes to be ! au?or ( ! ,gospel does n 9 any way id5tify him1 inasmu* z ! ?ird ,synoptic itself is equally anonym\s4 ,! tradition assign+ bo? works to ,luke ! foll[] ( ,paul1 z we h se51 is fir/ met ) #bi t[>ds ! end ( ! second c5tury1 & v little weight c be atta*$ to x4 ,!re are too _m in/ances ( e>ly writ+s1 sev]al ( :i* inde$ h secur$ a place 9 our canon1 to :i* di/+ui%$ names h be5 errone\sly ascrib$4 ,su* tradition is notori\sly liable to error4 ,we %all pres5tly return to ! "q ( ! au?or%ip ( ! ?ird ,synoptic & ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 b at pres5t we may s f> anticipate z to say t !re are good reasons = affirm+ t !y c\ld n h be5 writt5 by ,luke47#a7 ,conf9+ ourselves "h to ! actual evid5ce be=e u1 we arrive at a cle> & unavoidable conclusion reg>d+ ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les4 ,aft] exam9+ all ! e>ly ,*ri/ian lit]ature1 & tak+ e passage :i* is ref]r$ to z indicat+ ! use ( ! book1 we see t !re is no c]ta9 trace ev5 ( its exi/5ce till t[>ds ! end ( ! second c5tury2 &1 :il/ ! writ+ itself is anonym\s1 we f9d no au?ority b late tradition assign+ x to ,luke or to any o!r au?or4 ,we are absolutely )\t evid5ce ( any value z to its accuracy or tru/wor?9ess1 &1 z we %all pres5tly see1 ! epi/les ( ,paul1 s f> f accr$it+ x1 t5d to ca/ ! mo/ s]i\s d\bt ^u its :ole "*4 ,?is evid5ce we h yet to exam9e1 :5 consid]+ ! cont5ts ( ! ,acts1 & we base our pres5t rem>ks solely on ! ext]nal te/imony = ! date & au?or%ip ( ! book4 ,! position1 !re=e1 is simply ?is3 ,we are ask$ to believe 9 ! reality ( a great numb] ( miracul\s & sup]natural #a ,! read] is ref]r$ to an article by ! au?or 9 ! ,=tnightly ,rev41 #ahgg1 p4 #dif ff41 9 :i* "s indications ( date1 & p>ticul>ly ^? connect$ ) ! use ( writ+s ( ,josephus1 are discuss$4 #cj occurr5ces :i*1 obvi\sly1 are antec$5tly incr$ible1 ^u ! assurance ( an anonym\s "w ( ^: exi/5ce !re is no di/9ct evid5ce till m ?an a c5tury aft] ! ev5ts n>rat$1 & to :i* an au?or's "n--aga9/ :i* !re are /rong objections--is fir/ ascrib$ by tradition t[>ds ! end ( ! second c5tury4 ,( ! writ] to :om ! "w is ?us attribut$ we "k no?+ beyond ! casual m5tion ( 8 "n 9 "s ,paul9e ,epi/les4 ,if x 7 admitt$ t ?is ,luke did actually write ! book1 we %\ld n be ju/ifi$ 9 believ+ ! reality ( su* /up5d\s miracles ^u 8 b>e /atem5t ,z ! case /&s1 h[ev]1 ev5 tak+ x 9 its mo/ fav\rable aspect1 ! "q sc>cely dem&s s]i\s att5tion1 & our discussion might at once be end$ by ! unhesitat+ rejection ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les z suffici5t1 or ev5 plausible1 evid5ce = ! miracles :i* x n>rates4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,evid5ce ,,reg>d+ ,,! ,,au?or%ip ,if we proce$ fur!r to discuss ! docum5t be=e u1 x is f no d\bt z to ! c]ta9ty ( ! conclusion at :i* we h n[ arriv$1 b f ! belief t clos] exam9ation ( ! cont5ts ( ! ,acts may enable u to te/ ?is result1 & m fully to und]/& ! nature ( ! "w & ! "* ( its evid5ce4 ,n only w x be in/ructive to consid] a little closely ! cont5ts ( ! ,acts1 & to endeav\r f ! details ( ! n>rative itself to =m a judgm5t reg>d+ its hi/orical value1 b we h 9 addition ext]nal te/imony ( v mat]ial importance :i* we may br+ to be> ^u x4 ,we happily possess "s und\bt$ ,epi/les :i* af=d u no little in=mation conc]n+ ! hi/ory1 "*1 & tea*+ ( ! ,apo/le ,paul1 & we are ?us enabl$ to comp>e ! /atem5ts 9 ! "w be=e u ) contempor>y evid5ce ( great value4 ,x is unnecess>y to say t1 :]ev] ! /atem5ts ( ! unkn[n au?or ( ! ,acts are at v>iance ) ^! ,epi/les1 we mu/ pref] ! /atem5ts ( ! ,apo/le4 ,! importance to our inquiry ( su* fur!r exam9ation z we n[ propose to und]take consi/s *iefly 9 ! light :i* x may ?r[ on ! cr$ibility ( ! "w4 ,if x be f\nd t su* #cb portions z we are able to inve/igate are inaccurate & untru/wor?y1 x w become /ill m app>5t t ! evid5ce ( su* a docum5t = miracles1 :i* are antec$5tly incr$ible1 _c ev5 be ent]ta9$4 ,x may be well also to discuss m fully ! au?or%ip ( ! ,acts1 & to ?is we %all fir/ address ourselves4 ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 be borne 9 m9d t x is q =eign to our purpose to ent] into any exhau/ive discussion ( ! lit]>y problem pres5t$ by ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les4 ,we %all conf9e ourselves to su* po9ts z seem suffici5t or be/ fitt$ to te/ ! "* ( ! composition1 & we %all n hesitate to pass )\t att5tion que/ions ( m]e lit]>y int]e/1 & /rictly limit our exam9ation to su* prom95t features z pres5t !mselves = our purpose4 ,x is g5]ally admitt$1 al?\gh n altoge!r )\t exception17#a7 t ! au?or ( our ?ird synoptic ,gospel likewise compos$ ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les4 ,! l+ui/ic & o!r peculi>ities :i* di/+ui% ! ,gospel are equally prom95t 9 ! ,acts4 ,?is fact1 :il/ app>5tly (f]+ greatly increas$ facilities = id5tify+ ! au?or1 & actually af=d+ valuable mat]ial = e/imat+ 8 "w1 does n1 z we h already rem>k$1 really d mu* t[>ds solv+ ! problem ( ! au?or%ip1 inasmu* z ! ,gospel1 l its cont9uation1 is anonym\s1 & we possess no m precise or direct evid5ce 9 connection ) ! "o ?an 9 ! case ( ! o!r4 ,we h already s fully exam9$ ! te/imony = ! ?ird ,gospel t x is unnecess>y = u to recur to x4 ,f ab\t ! end ( ! second c5tury we f9d ! ,gospel & ,acts ( ! #cc ,apo/les ascrib$ by ecclesia/ical writ]s to ,luke1 ! companion ( ! ,apo/le ,paul4 ,! fallibility ( tradition1 & ! s+ul> phase ( lit]>y morality exhibit$ dur+ ! e>ly ages ( ,*ri/ianity1 r5d] su* te/imony ( little or no value1 & 9 ! almo/ total abs5ce ( ! critical faculty a rank crop ( pseudonymic writ+s sprang up & fl\ri%$ dur+ t p]iod47#a7 ,"s ( ! e>li] *apt]s ( ?is "w h giv5 abundant illu/rations ( ?is fact4 ,x is absolutely c]ta91 ) reg>d to ! works we are consid]+1 t ,ir5aeus is ! e>lie/ writ] kn[n :o ascribes !m to ,luke1 & t ev5 tradition1 !re=e1 _c be trac$ beyond ! la/ qu>t] ( ! second c5tury4 ,! "q is--does int]nal evid5ce confirm or contradict ?is tradition8 ,luke1 ! traditional au?or1 is n m5tion$ by "n 9 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les47#b7 ,9 ! ,epi/le to ,philemon 8 "n occurs1 ) ^? ( o!rs1 :o s5d greet+1 v]se #bc1 ,!re salute !e ,epaphras1 my fell[-prison] 9 ,*ri/ ,jesus2 #bd4 ,m>cus1 ,ari/>*us1 ,demas1 ,luke1 my fell[-lab\r]s4 ,9 ! ,epi/le to ! ,colossians1 iv4 #ad1 m5tion is also made ( him3--,luke1 ! belov$ physician17#c7 salutes y1 & ,demas4 ,& aga91 9 ! #b ,epi/le to ,timo?y1 iv4 #aj3--;,= #cd ,demas =sook me1 hav+ lov$ ?is pres5t _w1 & dep>t$ into ,!ssal\ica1 ,cresc5s to ,galatia1 ,titus unto ,dalmatia3 #aa4 ,only ,luke is ) me4 ,he is n m5tion$ else:]e 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t27#a7 & 8 "n is n aga9 met ) till ,ir5aeus ascribes to him ! au?or%ip ( ! ,gospel & ,acts4 ,!re is no?+ 9 ^! ,paul9e ,epi/les confirm+ ! /atem5t ( ! ,fa!rs1 b x is highly probable t ^! ref]5ces to him l>gely contribut$ to sugge/ 8 "n z ! au?or ( ! ,acts1 ! v omission ( 8 "n f ! "w itself protect+ him f objections connect$ ) ! passages 9 ! fir/ p]son to :i* o!r foll[]s ( ,paul 7 expos$1 ^u ! traditional view ( ! composition4 ,ir5aeus evid5tly knew no?+ ab\t him1 except :at he le>nt f ^! ,epi/les1 & d]ives f 8 !ory t ,luke wrote ! ,acts1 & speaks z an eye-witness 9 ! passages :]e ! fir/ p]son is us$4 ,f ^! he argues t ,luke 0 insep>able f ,paul1 & 0 8 fell[-work] 9 ! ,gospel1 & he ref]s1 9 pro( ( ?is1 to ,acts xvi4 #h ff417#b7 #ac ff41 xx4 #e ff41 & ! lat] *apt]s1 all ! details ( :i* he supposes ,luke to h c>efully writt5 d[n4 ,he !n cont9ues3 ,b t he 0 n only a foll[]1 b likewise a fell[-work] ( ! ,apo/les1 b p>ticul>ly ( ,paul1 ,paul himself has also cle>ly %[n 9 ! ,epi/les1 say+3444 & he quotes #b ,tim4 iv4 #aj1 #aa1 end+3 ,only ,luke is ) me1 & !n adds1 :5ce he %[s t he 0 #ce always ) him & insep>able f him1 c1 ,ac47#a7 ,! reason+ ( ! zeal\s ,fa!r d$uces a great deal f v little1 x w be obs]v$1 & 9 ?is ela/ic way tradition enl>g$ its bord]s & assum$ unsub/antial dim5sions4 ,lat] writ]s h no m intimate k ( ,luke1 al?\gh ,eusebius /ates t he 0 born at ,antio*17#b7 a tradition likewise reproduc$ by ,j]ome47#c7 ,j]ome fur!r id5tifies ,luke ) ! bro!r1 ^: praise 9 ! ,gospel is ?r\gh\t all ! *ur*es m5tion$ 9 #b ,cor4 viii4 #ah1 z accompany+ ,titus to ,cor9?47#d7 ,at a lat] p]iod1 :5 ! ,*ur* requir$ an e>ly arti/ = its s]vice1 ,luke ! physician 0 hon\r$ ) ! additional title ( pa9t]47#e7 ,epiphanius17#f7 foll[$ lat] by "s o!r #cf writ]s1 repres5t$ him to h be5 "o ( ! sev5ty-two disciples1 ^: mission he alone ( all ,new ,te/am5t writ]s m5tions4 ,! view ( ! ,fa!rs1 aris+ out ( ! application ( _! tradition to ! features pres5t$ by ! ,gospel & ,acts1 0 t ,luke compos$ 8 ,gospel1 ( ! ev5ts ( :i* he 0 n an eye-witness1 f in=mation d]iv$ f o!rs1 & 8 ,acts ( ! ,apo/les f :at he himself1 at lea/ 9 ! p>ts 9 :i* ! fir/ p]son is employ$1 _h witness$4#a ,x is g5]ally suppos$ t ,luke 0 n born a ,jew1 b 0 a ,g5tile ,*ri/ian4 ,"s writ]s endeav\r to f9d a confirmation ( ! tradition1 t ! ,gospel & ,acts 7 writt5 by ,luke ! belov$ physician1 by ! suppos$ use ( peculi>ly te*nical m$ical t]ms17#b7 b v little weight is atta*$ by any "o to ?is feeble evid5ce :i* is repudiat$ by mo/ s]i\s critics1 & x ne$ n deta9 u4 ,z !re is no indication1 ei!r 9 ! ,gospel or ! ,acts1 ( ! au?or's id5tity proce$+ f himself1 & tradition does n (f] any alt]native security1 :at te/imony c be produc$ 9 support ( ! ascription ( #cg ^! writ+s to ,luke8 ,to ?is "q ,ewald %all reply3 ,9 fact1 he says1 we possess only "o gr\nd = x1 b ?is is fully suffici5t4 ,x lies 9 ! designation ( ! ?ird ,gospel z t 'accord+ to ,luke' :i* is f\nd 9 all ,,mss4 ( ! f\r ,gospels4 ,= ! quotations ( ?is p>ticul> ,gospel "u ! di/9ct "n ( ,luke1 9 ! extant writ+s ( ! ,fa!rs1 beg9 s late t !y _c be comp>$ 9 antiquity ) t sup]scription2 & ^? kn[n to u may probably !mselves only g back to ?is sup]scription4 ,we ?us dep5d almo/ alone on ?is sup]scription47#a7 ,ewald g5]ally does consid] 8 own arbitr>y conjectures fully suffici5t1 b x is d\btful1 :e!r 9 ?is case1 any "o :o exam9es ?is evid5ce w agree ) him4 ,he himself goes on to admit1 ) all o!r critics1 t ! sup]scriptions to our ,gospels d n proce$ f ! au?ors !mselves1 b 7 add$ by ^? :o collect$ !m1 or by lat] read]s to di/+ui% !m47#b7 ,!re 0 no au?or's "n atta*$ to ,m>cion's ,gospel1 z we le>n f ,t]tullian47#c7 ,*ryso/om v di/9ctly ass]ts t ! ,evangeli/s did n inscribe _! names at ! head ( _! works17#d7 & he recognizes t1 b = ! au?ority ( ! primitive ,*ur* :i* add$ ^? names1 ! sup]scriptions c\ld n h prov$ ! au?or%ip ( ! ,gospels4 ,he conjectures t ! sole sup]scription :i* may #ch h be5 plac$ by ! au?or ( ! fir/ ,synoptic 0 simply ------47#a7 ,x might be argu$1 & inde$ has be51 t ! inscription ------1 accord+ to ,luke1 in/ead ( ------ ,gospel ( ,luke1 does n actually indicate t ,luke wrote ! "w any m ?an ! sup]scription to ! ,gospels accord+ to ! ,hebrews ------ accord+ to ! ,egyptians ------ has ref]5ce to au?or%ip4 ,! ,epi/les1 on ! contr>y1 are directly connect$ ) _! writ]s1 9 ! g5itive1 ------1 & s on4 ,?is po9t1 h[ev]1 we m]ely m5tion en passant4 ,by 8 own admission1 !re=e1 ! sup]scription is simply tradition 9 ano!r =m1 b in/ead ( c>ry+ u fur!r back1 ! sup]scription on ! mo/ anci5t extant ,,mss41 z = in/ance ! ,s9aitic & ,vatican ,codices ( ! ,gospels1 does n on ! mo/ sangu9e e/imate ( _! age1 date e>li] ?an ! f\r? c5tury47#b7 ,z = ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 ! book is n ascrib$ to ,luke 9 a s+le uncial ,,ms41 & x only beg9s to appe> 9 v>i\s =ms 9 lat] codices4 ,! v>iation 9 ! titles ( ! ,gospels & ,acts 9 diff]5t ,,mss4 alone %[s ! unc]ta9ty ( ! sup]scription4 ,x is cle> t ! "o gr\nd1 ^u :i* ,ewald admits t ! evid5ce = ,luke's au?or%ip is bas$1 is no?+ b s&1 & _c support 8 t[]4 ,he is on ! slighte/ consid]ation ?r[n back ^u ! quotations ( ! ,fa!rs1 :i* beg9 too late = ! #ci purpose1 & x mu/ be ackn[l$g$ t ! ascription ( ! ?ird ,gospel & ,acts to ,luke re/s solely ^u late & unsupport$ tradition4 ,let x be rememb]$ t1 ) ! exception ( ! ?ree passages 9 ! ,paul9e ,epi/les quot$ above1 we "k absolutely no?+ ab\t ,luke4 ,z we h m5tion$1 x has ev5 be5 d\bt$ :e!r ! designation ! belov$ physician 9 ! ,epi/le to ! ,colossians1 iv4 #ad1 does n di/+ui% a diff]5t ,luke f ! p]son ( t "n 9 ! ,epi/les to ,philemon & ,timo?y4 ,if ?is 7 ! case1 our in=mation w\ld be fur!r r$uc$2 b suppos+ t ! same ,luke is ref]r$ to1 :at does our in=mation am\nt to8 ,absolutely no?+ b ! fact t a p]son nam$ ,luke 0 repres5t$ by ! writ] ( ^! lett]s17#a7 :oev] he 01 to h be5 ) ,paul 9 ,rome1 & t he 0 kn[n to ! *ur* ( ,colossae4 ,!re is no evid5ce :atev] t ?is ,luke _h be5 a travell+ companion ( ,paul1 or t he ev] wrote a l9e conc]n+ him or _h compos$ a ,gospel4 ,he is n m5tion$ 9 ,epi/les writt5 dur+ ?is j\rney &1 inde$1 ! r>ity & meagr5ess ( ! ref]5ces to him w\ld mu* r indicate t he _h n tak5 any di/+ui%$ "p 9 ! proclamation ( ! ,gospel4 ,if ,luke be ------ & be numb]$ among/ ! ,apo/le's ------1 ,ty*icus is equally ! belov$ bro!r & fai?ful m9i/] & fell[-s]vant 9 ! ,"l47#b7 ,onesimus ! fai?ful & belov$ bro!r17#c7 #a ,we _c discuss ! au!nticity ( ^! ,epi/les 9 ?is place1 nor is x v important t we %\ld d s4 ,nor c we pause to consid] :e!r !y 7 writt5 9 ,rome1 z a majority ( critics ?9k1 or else:]e4 #dj & ,ari/>*us1 ,m>k ! c\s9 ( ,b>nabas1 ,ju/us & o!rs are likewise 8 ------47#a7 ,!re is no evid5ce1 9 fact1 t ,paul 0 acqua9t$ ) ,luke e>li] ?an dur+ 8 imprisonm5t 9 ,rome1 & he seems m>k$ly exclud$ f ! ,apo/le's "w & company by su* passages z #b ,cor4 i4 #ai47b7 ,! simple !ory t ,luke wrote ! ,acts supplies all ! re/ ( ! tradition ( ! ,fa!rs1 z we h se5 9 ! case ( ,ir5aeus1 & to ?is m]e tradition we are conf9$ 9 ! total abs5ce ( m anci5t te/imony4 ,! traditional view1 :i* long cont9u$ to prevail undi/urb$1 & has be5 widely held up to our own day17#c7 repres5ts ,luke z ! au?or ( ! ,acts1 &1 9 #da ! passages :]e ! fir/ p]son is employ$1 consid]s t he indicates himself z an actor & eye-witness4 ,^! passages1 :]e ------ is introduc$1 pres5t a curi\s problem :i* has l>gely occupi$ ! att5tion ( critics1 & x has be5 ! po9t mo/ firmly disput$ 9 ! long controv]sy reg>d+1 ! au?or%ip ( ! ,acts4 ,into ?is lit]>y labyr9? we mu/ n be tempt$ to ent] beyond a v %ort way2 =1 h[ev] int]e/+ ! "q may be 9 itself1 we are left s completely to conjecture t no result is possible :i* c mat]ially affect our inquiry1 & we %all only ref] to x suffici5tly to illu/rate ! unc]ta9ty :i* prevails reg>d+ ! au?or%ip4 ,we %all1 h[ev]1 supply abundant ref]5ces = ^? :o c>e m m9utely to pursue ! subject4 ,aft] ! n>rative ( ! ,acts has1 ?r\gh fifte5 *apt]s1 proce$$ un9t]rupt$ly 9 ! ?ird p]son1 an abrupt *ange to ! fir/ p]son plural occurs 9 ! sixte5? *apt]47#a7 ,paul1 & at lea/ ,timo?y1 are repres5t$ z go+ ?r\gh ,phrygia & ,galatia1 & at l5g? !y came d[n to ,troas1 :]e a vision appe>s to ,paul besee*+ him to come ov] into ,mac$onia4 ,!n1 xvi4 #aj1 proce$s3 ,& aft] he saw ! vision1 imm$iately we endeav\r$ ------ to g =? into ,mac$onia1 conclud+ t ,god _h call$ u ------ to prea* ! ,gospel unto !m4 ,aft] v]se #ag1 ! direct =m ( n>rative is z sudd5ly dropp$ z x 0 tak5 up1 & does n reappe> until xx4 #e1 :51 )\t explanation1 x is resum$ & cont9u$ = t5 v]ses4 ,x is !n aga9 ab&on$1 & recomm5c$ 9 xxi4 #a-ah1 & xxvii4 #a1 xxviii4 #af4 #a ,x is unnecess>y to discuss :e!r xiv4 #bb belongs to ! ------ sections or n4 #db ,x is argu$ by ^? :o adopt ! traditional view17#a7 t x w\ld be an in/ance ( unp>allel$ neglig5ce1 9 s c>eful a writ] z ! au?or ( ! ?ird ,synoptic & ,acts1 to h compos$ ^! sections f docum5ts ly+ be=e him1 writt5 by o!rs1 leav+ !m 9 ! =m ( a n>rative 9 ! fir/ p]son1 :il/ ! re/ ( 8 "w 0 writt5 9 ! ?ird1 & t1 )\t d\bt1 he w\ld h assimilat$ su* portions to ! =m ( ! re/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 t he himself makes di/9ct use ( ! fir/ p]son 9 ,luke i4 #a-c & ,acts i4 #a1 & consequ5tly prep>es ! read] to expect t1 :]e x is desirable1 he w resume ! direct mode ( communication2 & 9 support ( ?is supposition1 x is ass]t$ t ! v same peculi>ities ( /yle & language exi/ 9 ! ------ passages z 9 ! re/ ( ! "w4 ,! adoption ( ! direct =m ( n>rative 9 %ort m]ely indicates t ! au?or himself 0 pres5t & an eye-witness ( :at he relates17#c7 & t writ+ z he did = ! in=mation ( ,!ophilus1 :o 0 well aw>e ( 8 p]sonal p>ticipation 9 ! j\rneys he records1 x 0 n necess>y = him to give any explanation ( 8 occasional use ( ! fir/ p]son4 ,is ! abrupt & s+ul> introduction ( ! fir/ p]son 9 ^! p>ticul> sections ( 8 "w1 )\t a ^w ( explanation1 m intelligible & reasonable ^u ! traditional !ory ( _! be+ by ! au?or himself z an eye-witness8 ,on ! contr>y1 x is ma9ta9$1 ! ph5om5on on t hypo!sis becomes mu* m #b ,"s writ]s also consid] z "o ( ! reasons :y ,luke1 ! suppos$ au?or1 uses ! fir/ p]son1 t :]e he beg9s to d s he himself becomes associat$ ) ,paul 9 8 "w1 & fir/ beg9s to prea* ! ,gospel4 ,?i]s*1 ,die ,kir*e im ap4 ,zeit41 p4 #acg2 ,baumg>f51 ,die ,apo/elges*i*te1 i4 p4 #dif4 #dc inexplicable4 ,on exam9+ ! ------ sections x w be obs]v$ t !y consi/ almo/ entirely ( an it9]>y ( j\rneys1 & t :ile ! *ronology ( ! re/ ( ! ,acts is notably unc]ta9 & indef9ite1 ^! passages ent] into ! m9ute/ details ( daily movem5ts 7xvi4 #aa1 #ab2 xx4 #f1 #g1aa1ae2 xxi4 #a1 #d1 #e1 #g1 #h1 #aj1ah2 xxvii4 #b2 xxviii4 #g1 #ab1 #ad72 ( ! r\te pursu$1 & places ?r\gh :i* (t5 !y m]ely pass 7xvi4 #aa1ab2 xx4 #e1 #f1ac1ae2 xxi4 #a-c1 #g2 xxvii4 #b ff42 xxviii4 #aa-ae71 & record ! mo/ trifl+ circum/ances 7xvi4 #ab2 xx4 #ac2 xxi4 #b1 #c1 #ae2 xxviii4 #b1 #aa74 ,! di/+ui%+ feature ( ^! sections 9 fact is g5]ally ass]t$ to be ! /amp :i* !y be>1 above all o!r p>ts ( ! ,acts1 ( intimate p]sonal k ( ! circum/ances relat$4 ,is x n1 h[ev]1 exce$+ly rem>kable t ! au?or ( ! ,acts %\ld intrude 8 own p]sonality m]ely to record ^! m9ute details ( voyages & j\rneys8 ,t 8 appe>ance z an eye-witness %\ld be almo/ :olly limit$ to ! it9]>y ( ,paul's j\rneys & to portions ( 8 hi/ory :i* are ( v subord9ate int]e/8 ,! voyage & %ipwreck are ?us n>rat$ ) s+ul> m9ut5ess ( detail1 b if any "o :o reads x only consid] ! matt] = a mom5t1 x w become app>5t t ?is elaboration ( ! n>rative is altoge!r disproportionate to ! importance ( ! voyage 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>ly ,*ur*4 ,! traditional view inde$ is fatal to ! claims ( ! ,acts z te/imony = ! great mass ( miracles x conta9s1 = ! au?or is only an eye-witness ( :at is comp>atively unimportant & commonplace4 ,! writ]'s intimate acqua9tance ) ! hi/ory ( ,paul1 & 8 claim to p>ticipation 9 8 "w1 beg9 & end ) 8 actual #dd j\rneys4 ,) v few exceptions1 z soon z ! ,apo/le /ops any:]e1 he ceases to speak z an eyewitness & relapses into vagu5ess & ! ?ird p]son4 ,at ! v "t :5 m9ut5ess ( detail w\ld h be5 mo/ int]e/+1 he ceases to be m9ute4 ,a v long & important p]iod ( ,paul's life is cov]$ by ! n>rative betwe5 xvi4 #aj1 :]e !------ sections beg91 & xxviii4 #af1 :]e !y end2 b1 al?\gh ! au?or goes ) su* extraord9>y detail into ! j\rneys to :i* !y are conf9$1 h[ b>e & unsatisfactory is ! acc\nt ( ! re/ ( ,paul's c>e] dur+ t "t67l7 ,h[ ev5tful t c>e] mu/ h be5 we le>n f #b ,cor4 xi4 #bc-bf4 ,9 any case1 ! au?or :o c\ld be s m9ute 9 8 record ( an it9]>y1 app>5tly c\ld n1 or w\ld n1 be m9ute 9 8 acc\nt ( m important matt]s 9 8 hi/ory4 ,9 ! few v]ses1 ix4 #a-cj1 *iefly occupi$ by an acc\nt ( ,paul's conv]sion1 is compris$ all t ! au?or has to tell ( ?ree ye>s ( ! ,apo/le's life1 & into xi4 #ai--xiv4 are compress$ ! ev5ts ( f\rte5 ye>s ( 8 hi/ory 7cf4 ,gal4 ii4 l747#b7 ,if ! au?or ( ^? portions be ! same writ] :o is s m9ute 9 8 daily it9]>y 9 ! ------ sections1 8 s9s ( omission & commission are ( a v />tl+ "*4 ,to say no?+ m sev]e "h1 ^u ! traditional !ory he is an elaborate trifl]4 ,does ! use ( ! fir/ p]son 9 ,luke i4 #a-c & ,acts i4 #a 9 any way ju/ify or prep>e7#c7 ! way = ! #de sudd5 & unexpla9$ introduction ( ! fir/ p]son 9 ! sixte5? *apt]8 ,c]ta9ly n4 ,! ------ 9 ^! passages is us$ solely 9 ! p]sonal address to ,!ophilus1 is limit$ to ! brief explanation conta9$ 9 :at may be call$ ! d$ication or preface1 & is at once dropp$ :5 ! hi/ory beg9s4 ,if ! prologue ( ! ,gospel be appli$ to ! ,acts1 moreov]1 ! use ( e>li] docum5ts is at once impli$1 :i* w\ld r ju/ify ! supposition t ^! passages are "p ( "s di>y1 f :i* ! g5]al editor made extracts47#a7 ,besides1 !re is no explanation 9 ! ,acts :i* 9 ! slighte/ degree connects ! ------ ) ! ------47#b7 ,to argue t explanation 0 unnecess>y1 z ,!ophilus & e>ly read]s 7 well acqua9t$ ) ! fact t ! au?or 0 a fell[-travell] ) ! ,apo/le1 & !re=e at once und]/ood ! mean+ ( ,we17#c7 w\ld de/roy ! utility ( ! direct =m ( communication altoge!r2 = if ,!ophilus knew ?is1 !re 0 obvi\sly no ne$ to introduce ! fir/ p]son at all1 9 s abrupt & s+ul> a way1 m especially to *ronicle m9ute details ( j\rneys :i* possess comp>atively little int]e/4 ,moreov]1 writ+ = ,!ophilus1 we might reasonably expect t he %\ld h /at$ :]e & :5 he became associat$ ) ,paul1 & expla9$ ! reasons :y he aga9 left & rejo9$ him47#d7 ,ewald sugge/s t possibly ! au?or int5d$ to h indicat$ 8 "n m di/9ctly at ! end ( 8 "w27#e7 b ?is m]ely %[s t1 argue z he w1 #df he feels ! necessity = su* an explanation4 ,! conjecture is negativ$1 h[ev]1 by ! fact t no "n is subsequ5tly add$4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! f\r? ,gospel1 ( c\rse ! incomp>able mode/y !ory is sugge/$ z ! reason :y ! au?or does n m5tion 8 own "n1 & expla9 ! adoption ( ! fir/ p]son 9 ! ------ passages27#a7 b to base !ories su* z ?is ^u ! mode/y or elevat$ views ( a p]fectly unkn[n writ] is obvi\sly too arbitr>y a proce$+ to be p]missible47#b7 ,!re is1 besides1 exce$+ly little mode/y 9 a writ] =c+ himself s unnecess>ily into notice1 = he does n repres5t himself z tak+ any active "p 9 ! ev5ts n>rat$2 &1 z ! m]e *ronicl] ( days ( sail+ & arriv+1 he might well h rema9$ imp]sonal to ! end4 ,on ! o!r h&1 suppos+ ! g5]al editor ( ! ,acts to h made use ( writt5 s\rces ( in=mation1 & among/ o!rs ( ! di>y ( a companion ( ! ,apo/le ,paul1 x is n s /range t1 = "o reason or ano!r1 he %\ld h all[$ ! orig9al direct =m ( communication to /& :il/ incorporat+ p>ts ( x ) 8 "w4 ,in/ances h be5 po9t$ out 9 :i* a simil> ret5tion ( ! fir/ or ?ird p]son1 9 a n>rative g5]ally writt5 o!rwise1 is accept$ z ! indication ( a diff]5t writt5 s\rce1 z = in/ance 9 ,ezra vii4 #bg--;ix2 ,nehemiah viii4--x42 9 ! ,book ( ,tobit i4 #a-c1 iii4 #g ff41 & o!r places2s & ,s*wanbeck has #dg po9t$ out _m in/ances ( a simil> k9d among/ ! *ronicl]s ( ! middle ages47#a7 ,!re are v>i\s ways 9 :i* ! ret5tion ( ! fir/ p]son 9 ^! sections1 suppos+ !m to h be5 d]iv$ f "s o!r writt5 s\rce1 might be expla9$4 ,! simple supposition t ! au?or1 ei!r ?r\gh c>elessness or ov]sight1 all[$ ! ------ to /&7#b7 is n exclud$1 & inde$ "s critics1 al?\gh we ?9k )\t reason1 ma9ta9 bo? ! ?ird ,gospel & ! ,acts to be compos$ ( mat]ials d]iv$ f v>i\s s\rces & put toge!r ) little c>e or adju/m5t47#c7 ,! au?or might also h ins]t$ ^! fragm5ts ( ! di>y ( a fell[-travell] ( ,paul1 & reta9$ ! orig9al =m ( ! docum5t to /r5g!n ! app>5t cr$ibility ( 8 own n>rative2 or1 z _m critics believe1 he may h all[$ ! fir/ p]son ( ! orig9al docum5t to rema91 9 ord] himself to assume ! "* ( eyewitness1 & ( companion ( ! ,apo/le47#d7 ,z we %all see 9 ! c\rse ( our exam9ation ( ! ,acts1 ! g5]al proc$ure ( ! au?or is by no means ( a "* to discr$it su* an explanation4 ,we %all n ent] into any discussion ( ! s\rces f :i* critics ma9ta9 t ! au?or compil$ 8 #dh "w4 ,x is suffici5t to say t1 :il/ "s pr(ess to f9d def9ite traces ( _m docum5ts1 few if any writ]s d5y t ! writ] made m or less use ( e>li] mat]ials4 ,x is q true t ! *>act]i/ics ( ! g5]al au?or's /yle are f\nd ?r\gh\t ! :ole "w4#a ,! ,acts are no m]e aggregate ( scraps collect$ & rudely jo9$ toge!r1 b ! "w ( "o au?or 9 ! s5se t :atev] mat]ials he may h us$ = its composition 7 c>efully assimilat$1 & subject$ to ?or\gh & sy/ematic revision to adapt !m to 8 purpose47#b7 ,b h[ev] completely ?is process 0 c>ri$ out1 & 8 mat]ials int]p5etrat$ by 8 own peculi>ities ( /yle & language1 he did n succe$ 9 entirely oblit]at+ ! traces ( indep5d5t writt5 s\rces4 ,"s writ]s ma9ta9 t !re is a v app>5t diff]5ce betwe5 ! fir/ twelve #di *apt]s & ! rema9d] ( ! "w1 & pr(ess to detect a mu* m ,hebrai/ic "* 9 ! language ( ! e>li] portion17#a7 al?\gh ?is is n receiv$ )\t demur47#b7 ,z reg>ds ! ------ sections1 :il/ x is admitt$ t ^! fragm5ts h 9 any case be5 mu* manipulat$ by ! g5]al editor1 & l>gely conta9 8 g5]al *>act]i/ics ( language1 x is at ! same "t affirm$ t !y pres5t di/9ct =eign peculi>ities1 :i* betray a borr[$ docum5t47#c7 ,ev5 critics :o ma9ta9 ! ------ sections to be by ! same writ] :o compos$ ! re/ ( ! book po9t out ! peculi>ly natural "* & m9ute k display$ 9 ^! passages1 z di/+ui%+ !m f ! re/ ( ! ,acts47#d7 ,?is ( c\rse !y attribute to ! fact t ! au?or !re relates 8 p]sonal exp]i5ces2 b ev5 ) ?is explanation x is app>5t t all :o ma9ta9 ! traditional view d recognize peculi>ities 9 ^! sections1 by :i* !y ju/ify ! ascription ( !m to an eye-witness4 ,= ! reasons :i* h be5 v briefly indicat$1 !re=e1 & ^u o!r #ej /rong gr\nds1 "s ( :i* w be pres5tly /at$1 a v l>ge mass ( ! able/ critics h conclud$ t ! ------ sections 7 n compos$ by ! au?or ( ! re/ ( ! ,acts1 b t !y are "p ( ! di>y ( "s companion ( ! ,apo/le ,paul1 ( :i* ! ,au?or ( ,acts made use = 8 "w17#a7 & t ! g5]al writ] ( ! "w1 & consequ5tly ( ! ?ird ,synoptic1 0 n ,luke at all47#b7 #ea ,a c>eful /udy ( ! cont5ts ( ! ,acts _c1 we ?9k1 leave any d\bt t ! "w c\ld n h be5 writt5 by any companion or intimate fri5d ( ! ,apo/le ,paul47#a7 ,9 "h briefly indicat+ "s ( ! reasons = ?is /atem5t1 we %all be "u ! necessity ( anticipat+1 )\t mu* explanation or argum5t1 po9ts :i* w be m fully discuss$ f>!r on1 & :i* n[1 /at$ )\t prep>ation1 may n be suffici5tly cle> to "s read]s4 ,!y may h]eaft] seem m conclusive4 ,x is unreasonable to suppose t a fri5d or companion c\ld h writt5 s unhi/orical & defective a hi/ory ( ! ,apo/le's life & tea*+4 ,! ,paul9e ,epi/les are n[h]e directly ref]r$ to1 b :]e we c comp>e ! n>rative & repres5tations ( ,acts ) ! /atem5ts ( ! ,apo/le1 !y are /rik+ly contradictory47#b7 #eb ,8 tea*+ 9 ! "o sc>cely pres5ts a trace ( ! /rong & cle>ly def9$ doctr9es ( ! o!r1 & ! "* & conduct ( ! ,paul ( ,acts are altoge!r diff]5t f ^? ( ,paul ( ! ,epi/les4 ,accord+ to ,paul himself 7,gal4 i4 #af--ah71 aft] 8 conv]sion1 he communicat$ n ) fle% & blood1 nei!r w5t up to ,j]usalem to ^? :o 7 apo/les be=e him1 b imm$iately w5t away into ,arabia1 & return$ to ,damascus1 & only aft] ?ree ye>s he w5t up to ,j]usalem to visit ,kephas1 & abode ) him fifte5 days1 dur+ :i* visit none o!r ( ! ,apo/les did he see save ,james1 ! bro!r ( ! ,"l4 ,if assurance ( ! correctness ( ^! details 7 requir$1 ,paul gives x by add+ 7v4 #bj73 ,n[ ! ?+s :i* ,i am writ+ to y1 behold be=e ,god ,i lie n4 ,accord+ to ,acts 7ix4 #ai--cj71 h[ev]1 ! facts are q diff]5t4 ,paul imm$iately beg9s to prea* 9 ,damascus1 does n visit ,arabia at all1 b1 on ! contr>y1 goes to ,j]usalem1 :]e1 "u ! protection ( ,b>nabas 7v4 #bf1 #bg71 he is introduc$ to ! ,apo/les1 & 0 ) !m go+ 9 & out4 ,accord+ to ,paul 7,gal4 i4 #bb71 8 face 0 aft] t unkn[n unto ! *ur*es ( ,judaea1 :]eas1 accord+ to ,acts1 n only 0 he go+ 9 & out at ,j]usalem ) ! ,apo/les1 b 7ix4 #bi7 prea*$ boldly 9 ! "n ( ! ,"l1 & 7,acts xxvi4 #bj7 9 ,j]usalem & ?r\gh\t all ! region ( ,judaea1 he urg$ to rep5tance4 ,accord+ to ,paul 7,gal4 ii4 #a ff471 aft] f\rte5 ye>s he w5t up aga9 to ,j]usalem ) ,b>nabas & ,titus1 #ec accord+ to a revelation1 & privately communicat$ 8 ,gospel to ^? :o seem$ to be some?+1 z1 ) "s irony1 he calls ! ,apo/les4 ,9 words /ill brea?+ irritation & det]m9$ indep5d5ce1 ,paul relates to ! ,galatians ! p>ticul>s ( t visit--h[ great pressure _h be5 ex]t$ to compel ,titus1 ?\gh a ,greek1 to be circumcis$1 t !y might br+ u into bondage1 to :om1 n ev5 = an h\r did we yield ! requir$ subjection4 ,he prote/s1 ) pr\d indep5d5ce1 t ! ,gospel :i* he prea*es 0 n receiv$ f man 7,gal4 i4 #aa1 #ab71 b reveal$ to him by ,god 7v]ses #ae1 #af72 & dur+ ?is visit 7ii4 #f1 #g7 f ^? seem+ to be some?+ ------1 :atsoev] !y 7 x make? no matt] to me--,god accepte? n man's p]son--= to me ^? :o seem$ ------ communicat$ no?+ additional4 ,accord+ to ,acts1 aft] 8 conv]sion1 ,paul is taught by a man nam$ ,ananias :at he mu/ d 7ix4 #f1 xxii4 #aj72 he makes visits to ,j]usalem 7xi4 #cj1 xii4 #be1 c71 :i* are exclud$ by ,paul's own explicit /atem5ts2 & a widely diff]5t report is giv5 7xv4 #a ff47 ( ! second visit4 ,paul does n g1 accord+ to a revelation1 b is deput$ by ! ,*ur* ( ,antio*1 ) ,b>nabas1 9 consequ5ce ( disputes reg>d+ ! circumcision ( ,g5tiles1 to lay ! case be=e ! ,apo/les & eld]s at ,j]usalem4 ,x is almo/ impossible 9 ! acc\nt "h giv5 ( proce$+s *>act]is$ ?r\gh\t by p]fect h>mony1 =be>ance1 & unanimity ( views1 to recognize ! visit describ$ by ,paul4 ,in/ead ( be+ private1 ! sc5e is a g5]al c\ncil ( ! ,*ur*4 ,! fi]y indep5d5ce ( ,paul is trans=m$ into meekness & submission4 ,!re is n a ^w ( ! #ed endeav\r to compel him to h ,titus circumcis$--all is peace & undi/urb$ good-w4 ,pet] pleads ! cause ( ,paul1 & is m ,paul9e 9 8 s5tim5ts ?an ,paul himself1 &1 9 ! v pres5ce ( ,paul1 claims to h be5 select$ by ,god to be ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles 7xv4 #g--aa74 ,n a syllable is said ( ! sc5e at ,antio* %ortly aft] 7,gal4 ii4 #aa ff471 s s+ul>ly at v>iance ) ! proce$+s ( ! c\ncil1 :5 ,paul )/ood ,cephas to ! face4 ,!n1 :o w\ld recognize ! ,paul ( ! ,epi/les 9 ! ,paul ( ,acts1 :o makes su* repeat$ j\rneys to ,j]usalem to att5d ,jewi% fea/s 7xviii4 #ba1a xix4 #ba1 xx4 #af1 xxiv4 #aa1 #ag1 #ah72 :o1 9 8 j\rneys1 halts on ! days :5 a ,jew may n travel 7xx4 #e1 #f72 :o %aves 8 head at ,c5*rea because ( a v[ 7xviii4 #ah72 :o1 at ! recomm5dation ( ! ,apo/les1 p]=ms t a/oni%+ act ( ,naz>ite%ip 9 ! ,temple 7xxi4 #bc71 & aft]w>ds foll[s x up by a def5ce ( su* excell5t dissembl+ ------2 :o circumcises ,timo?y1 ! son ( a ,greek & ( a ,jewess1 ) 8 own h&s 7xvi4 #a--c1 cf4 ,gal4 v4 #b72 & :o is s little ! apo/le ( ! uncircumcision t he only t>dily goes to ! ,g5tiles :5 reject$ by ! ,jews 7cf4 xviii4 7,j74 ,paul is n only robb$ ( ! hon\r ( be+ ! fir/ ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles1 :i* is conf]r$ ^u ,pet]1 b ! writ] seems to avoid ev5 call+ him an apo/le at all17#b7 ! only occasions ^u :i* he does s be+ indirect 7xiv4 #d1 #ad72 & ! title equally appli$ to ,b>nabas1 ^: claim to x is m ?an d\bt$4 ,! #ee passages 9 :i* ?is occurs1 moreov]1 are n above suspicion1 ! ,apo/les be+ omitt$ 9 ,cod4 ,d4 7,bezae7 f xiv4 #ad4 ,! =m] v]se 9 t codex has important v>iations f o!r ,,mss4 ,if we _c believe t ! repres5tation actually giv5 ( ,paul 9 ! ,acts c\ld proce$ f a fri5d or companion ( ! ,apo/le1 x is equally impossible t su* a p]son c\ld h writt5 8 hi/ory ) s _m extraord9>y imp]fections & omissions4 ,we h already po9t$ out t betwe5 *s4 ix4--xiv4 are compress$ ! ev5ts ( sev5te5 ( ! mo/ active ye>s ( ! ,apo/le's life1 & also t a long p]iod is compris$ )9 ! ------ sections1 dur+ :i* su* m9ute details ( ! daily it9]>y are giv54 ,! incid5ts report$1 h[ev]1 are q disproportionate to ^? :i* are omitt$4 ,we h no record1 = in/ance1 ( 8 visit to ,arabia at s int]e/+ a portion ( 8 c>e] 7,gal4 i4 #ag71 al?\gh ! p>ticul>s ( 8 conv]sion are repeat$ ) s+ul> v>iations no less ?an ?ree times 7ix4 xxii4 xxvi472 nor ( 8 prea*+ 9 ,illyria 7,rom4 xv4 #ai72 nor ( ! incid5t ref]r$ to 9 ,rom4 xvi4 #c1 #d4 ,! mom5t\s adv5tures 9 ! cause ( ! ,gospel spok5 ( 9 #b ,cor4 xi4 #bc ff4 receive sc>cely any illu/ration 9 ,acts1 nor is any notice tak5 ( 8 fight+ ) wild bea/s at ,ephesus 7#a ,cor4 xv4 #cb71 :i* w\ld h =m$ an episode full ( s]i\s int]e/4 ,:at1 aga91 0 ! affliction :i* happ5$ 9 ,asia1 :i* s ov]burd5$ ev5 s en]getic a nature z t ( ! ,apo/le t he despair$ ev5 ( life8 7#b ,cor4 ii4 #h f47 ,"s light ^u ^! po9ts might reasonably h be5 expect$ f a companion ( ,paul4 ,!n1 xvii4 #ad--af1 xviii4 #e contradict #a ,!ss4 iii4 #a1 #b1 9 a way sc>cely possible 9 su* a #ef companion1 pres5t ) ! ,apo/le at ,a!ns2 & 9 l mann] ! repres5tation 9 xxviii4 #ag-bb is inconsi/5t ) su* a p]son1 ignor+ z x does ! fact t !re already 0 a ,*ri/ian ,*ur* 9 ,rome 7,ep4 to ,romans74 ,we d n ref] to ! miracul\s elem5ts s ?ickly spread ov] ! n>rative ( ! ,acts1 & especially 9 ! episode xvi4 #be ff41 :i* is ins]t$ 9 ! fir/ ------ section1 z irreconcilable ) ! "* ( an eye-witness1 because x is precisely ! miracul\s portion ( ! book :i* is on its trial2 b we may ask :e!r x w\ld h be5 possible = su* a fri5d1 acqua9t$ ) ! ,apo/le's repres5tations 9 #a ,cor4 xiv4 #b ff41 cf4 xii4--xiv41 & ! ph5om5a !re describ$1 to speak ( ! gift ( tongues at ,p5teco/ z ! p[] ( speak+ diff]5t languages 7ii4 #d--aa1 cf4 x4 #df1 xix4 #f7 ,x w readily be und]/ood t we h "h m]ely rapidly & by way ( illu/ration ref]r$ to a few ( ! po9ts :i* seem to preclude ! admission t ! g5]al au?or ( ! ,acts c\ld be an eyewitness17#a7 or companion ( ! ,apo/le ,paul1 & ?is w become m app>5t z we proce$1 & m closely exam9e ! cont5ts ( ! book4 ,:o t au?or 01 !re are n[ no means ( asc]ta9+4 ,! majority ( critics :o h mo/ pr(\ndly exam9$ ! problem pres5t$ by ! ,acts1 h[ev]1 & :o d n admit ,luke to be ! g5]al au?or1 are agre$ t ! au?or compil$ ! ------ sections f a di>y kept by "s companion ( ! ,apo/le ,paul dur+ ! j\rneys & voyages to :i* !y relate1 b op9ion is v divid$ z to ! p]son #eg to :om t di>y mu/ be ascrib$4 ,x is ( c\rse recogniz$ t ! v>i\s !ories reg>d+ 8 id5tity are m]ely bas$ ^u conjecture1 b !y h long sev]ely ex]cis$ critical +5uity4 ,a consid]able p>ty adopt ! conclusion t ! di>y 0 probably writt5 by ,luke47#a7 ,?is !ory has c]ta9ly ! advantage ( :atev] support may be d]iv$ f tradition2 & x has be5 conjectur$1 n )\t probability1 t ?is di>y1 be+ ei!r writt5 by1 or orig9ally attribut$ to1 ,luke1 may possibly h be5 ! s\rce f :i*1 9 c\rse ( "t1 ! :ole ( ! ,acts1 & consequ5tly ! ,gospel1 came to be ascrib$ to ,luke47#b7 ,! selection ( a comp>atively less kn[n "n ?an t ( ,timo?y1 ,titus or ,silas17#c7 = in/ance1 may ?us be expla9$2 b1 besides1 x has ! great advantage t1 ! "n ( ,luke nev] be+ m5tion$ 9 ! ,acts1 he is n expos$ to criticism1 :i* has f\nd s]i\s objections to ! claims ( o!r bett] kn[n foll[]s ( ,paul4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 _m critics :o f9d difficulties 9 ! way ( accept+ ,luke z ! au?or ( ! we sections1 & :o adopt ! !ory t !y 7 pro- #eh probably compos$ by ,timo?y47#a7 ,x is argu$ t1 if ,luke _h be5 ! writ] ( ?is di>y1 he mu/ h be5 9 v close relations to ,paul1 hav+ be5 8 companion dur+ ! ,apo/le's second mission j\rney1 z well z dur+ ! lat] ,european j\rney1 & f9ally dur+ ! ev5tful j\rney ( ,paul z a prison] f ,caes>ea to ,rome4 ,"u ^! circum/ances1 x is natural to expect t ,paul %\ld m5tion him 9 8 e>li] epi/les1 writt5 be=e ! ,roman imprisonm5t1 b ?is he n[h]e does4 ,= in/ance1 no m5tion :atev] is made ( ,luke 9 ei!r ( ! lett]s to ! ,cor9?ians nor 9 ^? to ! ,!ssalonians2 b on ! o!r h&1 ,timo?y's "n1 toge!r ) t ( ,silvanus 7or ,silas71 is jo9$ to ,paul's 9 ! two lett]s to ! ,!ssalonians1 besides be+ m5tion$ 9 ! body ( ! fir/ ,epi/le 7iii4 #b1 #f72 & he is repeat$ly & affectionately spok5 ( 9 ! e>li] lett] to ! ,cor9?ians 7#a ,cor4 iv4 #ag1 xvi4 #aj71 & 8 "n is likewise comb9$ ) ! ,apo/le's 9 ! second ,epi/le 7#b ,cor4 i4 #a71 z well z m5tion$ 9 ! body ( ! lett]1 along ) t ( ,silvanus1 z a fell[-prea*] ) ,paul4 ,9 ! ,epi/le to ! ,philippians1 lat]1 ! "n ( ,luke does n appe>1 al?\gh1 _h he be5 ! companion ( ! ,apo/le f ,troas1 he mu/ h be5 kn[n to ! ,philippians1 b on ! o!r h&1 ,timo?y is aga9 associat$ 9 ! op5+ greet+ ( t ,epi/le4 ,timo?y is kn[n to h #ei be5 a fell[-work] ) ! ,apo/le1 & to h accompani$ him 9 8 mission>y j\rneys1 & he is repeat$ly m5tion$ 9 ! ,acts z ! companion ( ,paul1 & ! fir/ occasion is precisely :]e ! ------ sections comm5ce47#a7 ,9 connection ) ,acts xv4 #dj1 xvi4 #c1aj1 x is consid]$ t ,luke is q exclud$ f ! possibility ( be+ ! companion :o wrote ! di>y we are discuss+1 by ! ,apo/le's own words 9 #b ,cor4 i4 #ai37b7 ,= ! ,son ( ,god1 ,*ri/ ,jesus1 :o 0 prea*$ among y by u1 by me & ,silvanus & ,timo?y1 c1 c4 ,! eye-witness :o wrote ! j\rnal f :i* ! ------ sections are tak5 mu/ h be5 ) ! ,apo/le 9 ,cor9?1 &1 x is ( c\rse always ass]t$1 mu/ h be5 "o ( 8 ------1 & prea*$ ! ,gospel47#c7 ,is x possible1 on ! supposition t ?is fell[-lab\r] 0 ,luke1 t ! ,apo/le c\ld 9 s m>k$ a mann] h exclud$ 8 "n by cle>ly def9+ t u only meant himself & ,silvanus & ,timo?y8 ,may]h(f7#d7 has gone ev5 fur!r ?an ! critics we h ref]r$ to1 & ma9ta9s ,timo?y to be ! au?or ( ! ?ird ,synoptic & ( ,acts4 ,we may briefly add t "s writ]s h conjectur$ ,silas to be ! au?or ( ! ------ sections17#e7 & o!rs #fj h ref]r$ !m to ,titus47#a7 ,x is evid5t t :e!r ! ------ sections be by ! unkn[n au?or ( ! re/ ( ! ,acts1 or be "p ( a di>y by "s unkn[n companion ( ,paul1 introduc$ into ! "w by ! g5]al editor1 !y d n solve ! problem z to ! id5tity ( ! au?or1 :o rema9s absolutely unkn[n4 ,we h said en\gh to enable ! read] to und]/& ! nature ( ! problem reg>d+ ! au?or ( ! ?ird ,synoptic & ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 & :il/ = our purpose mu* less w\ld h suffic$1 x is evid5t t ! mat]ials d n exi/ = id5tify+ him4 ,! /up5d\s miracles relat$ 9 ^! two works1 !re=e1 re/ ^u ! evid5ce ( an unkn[n writ]1 :o f int]nal evid5ce mu/ h compos$ !m v long aft] ! ev5ts record$4 ,ext]nally1 !re is no pro( ev5 ( ! exi/5ce ( ! ,acts until t[>ds ! end ( ! second c5tury1 :5 also = ! fir/ "t we he> ( a vague !ory z to ! "n & id5tity ( ! suppos$ au?or1 a !ory :i* decl>es ,luke n to h himself be5 an eye-witness ( ! occurr5ces relat$ 9 ! ,gospel1 & :i* r$uces 8 p>ticipation ev5 9 ! ev5ts n>rat$ 9 ! ,acts to a v small & mode/ compass1 leav+ ! great mass ( ! miracles describ$ 9 ! "w )\t ev5 8 p]sonal atte/ation4 ,! !ory1 h[ev]1 we h se5 to be n only unsupport$ by evid5ce1 b to be contradict$ by _m pot5t circum/ances4 ,we propose n[1 )\t exhau/ively exam9+ ! cont5ts ( ! ,acts1 :i* w\ld itself require a sep>ate treatise1 at lea/ to #fa consid] "s ( its ma9 po9ts suffici5tly to =m a fair judgm5t ( ! hi/orical value ( ! "w1 al?\gh ! facts :i* we h already asc]ta9$ are cle>ly fatal to ! docum5t z adequate te/imony = miracles1 & ! reality ( ,div9e ,revelation4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,design ,,& ,,composition ,! hi/orical value ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les has v long be5 ! subject ( vehem5t discussion1 & ! c\rse ( ! controv]sy has c]ta9ly n be5 fav\rable to ! position ( ! "w4 ,= a consid]able "t ! traditional view cont9u$ to prevail1 & little or no d\bt ( ! absolute cr$ibility ( ! n>rative 0 ev] express$4 ,:5 ! _s ( indep5d5t & enlight5$ criticism 0 f9ally ar\s$1 x _h to cont5d ) op9ions :i* habit _h r5d]$ /]eotype1 & prejudices :i* took ! =m ( h]$it>y belief4 ,a l>ge body ( em95t critics1 aft] an exhau/ive inve/igation ( ! ,acts1 h n[ decl>$ t ! "w is n hi/orically accurate1 & _c be accept$ z a true acc\nt ( ! ,acts & tea*+ ( ! ,apo/les47#a7 #fc ,! ,au?or ( ! ,acts has be5 *>g$ ) hav+ writt5 ! "w ) a di/9ct design to :i* he subord9at$ hi/orical tru?1 & 9 ?is view _m critics h jo9$1 :o ultimately d n accuse him absolutely ( falsify+ hi/ory1 b m]ely ( mak+ a delib]ate selection ( 8 mat]ials ) ! view ( plac+ ev5ts 9 ! light mo/ suitable = 8 purpose4 ,mo/ ( ^?1 h[ev]1 :o make ?is *>ge ma9ta9 t1 9 c>ry+ out ! orig9al purpose ( ! ,acts1 ! writ] s freely manipulat$ :atev] mat]ials he _h be=e him1 & s dealt ) facts :e!r by omission1 trans=mation or inv5tion1 t ! hi/orical value ( 8 n>rative has be5 de/roy$ or at lea/ s]i\sly affect$ by x4#a ,on ! o!r h&1 _m apologetic writ]s altoge!r d5y ! exi/5ce ( any design on ! "p ( ! #fd au?or su* z is "h indicat$1 :i* c\ld h l$ him to suppress or di/ort facts17#a7 & :il/ "s ( !m advance v v>i$ & fanciful !ories z to ! hi/orical plan ^u :i* ! writ] proce$s1 & 9 accordance ) :i* ! peculi>ities ( 8 n>rative are expla9$1 !y g5]ally accept ! "w z ! g5u9e hi/ory ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les s f> z ! au?or possess$ c]ta9 in=mation4 ,! design mo/ g5]ally ascrib$ to ! writ] ( ! ,acts may1 ) _m m9or v>iations1 be said to be apologetic & conciliatory3 an attempt to reconcile ! two p>ties 9 ! e>ly *ur* by repres5t+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! views ( ,pet] & ,paul z slight & unimportant1 ,paul9e s5tim5ts be+ freely plac$ 9 ! m\? ( ,pet]1 & ! ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles be+ repres5t$ z an or?odox adh]5t ( ! *ur* ( ,j]usalem1 ) sc>cely su* advanc$ views ( *ri/ian univ]sality z ,pet]2 or else1 an ef=t ( ,g5tile ,*ri/ianity to br+ itself into clos] union ) ! primitive *ur*1 surr5d]+1 9 s do+1 all its di/9ctive features & its ,paul9e orig91 & repres5t+ ! univ]salism by :i* x exi/s1 z a pr9ciple adopt$ & promulgat$ f ! v fir/ by ,pet] & ! ,twelve4 ,x is n necess>y1 h[ev]1 = u to ent] ^u any m9ute discussion ( ?is po9t1 nor is x requisite1 = ! purposes ( our inquiry1 to det]m9e :e!r ! peculi> "* #fe ( ! writ+ :i* we are exam9+ is ! result ( a p]fectly def9ite purpose controll+ ! :ole n>rative & modify+ e detail1 or naturally arises f ! fact t x is ! "w ( a pi\s memb] ( ! ,*ur* writ+ long aft] ! ev5ts relat$1 & imbu+ 8 mat]ials1 :e!r ( leg5d or ecclesia/ical tradition1 ) 8 own ?or\ghly or?odox views3 hi/ory freely compos$ = ,*ri/ian edification4 ,we %all n endeav\r to con/ruct any !ory to acc\nt = ! ph5om5a be=e u1 nor to discov] ! secret motives or int5tions ( ! writ]1 b tak+ !m z !y are1 we %all simply exam9e "s ( ! m important portions ( ! n>rative1 ) a view to det]m9e :e!r ! "w c 9 any s]i\s s5se be reg>d$ z cr$ible hi/ory4 ,no "o c exam9e ! cont5ts ( ! ,acts )\t p]ceiv+ t "s secret motive or influ5ce did c]ta9ly gov]n ! writ]'s m9d1 & guide him 9 ! selection ( topics1 & ?is is betray$ by _m peculi>ities 9 8 n>rative4 ,q ap>t f any attempt to discov] precisely :at t motive 01 x is desirable t we %\ld briefly po9t out "s ( ^! peculi>ities4 ,x is evid5t t e man :o writes a hi/ory mu/ comm5ce ) a di/9ct plan1 & t ! *oice ( subjects to be introduc$ or omitt$ mu/ proce$ ^u a c]ta9 pr9ciple4 ,?is is ( c\rse an inv>iable rule :]ev] !re is ord] & arrangem5t4 ,no "o has ev] que/ion$ t 9 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les bo? ord] & arrangem5t h be5 delib]ately adopt$ & ! "q naturally arises3 ,:at 0 ! plan ol ! ,au?or8 & ^u :at pr9ciple did he select1 f ! mass ( facts :i* might h be5 relat$ reg>d+ ! ,*ur* 9 ! ,apo/olic ages1 precisely ^? #ff :i* he has ins]t$1 to ! exclusion ( ! re/87#a7 ,:at title w adequately repres5t ! cont5ts ( ! book8 = x is admitt$ by almo/ all critics t ! actual "n :i* ! book be>s nei!r 0 giv5 to x by its au?or nor prop]ly describes its int5tion & subject47#b7 ,! extreme difficulty :i* has be5 felt 9 answ]+ ^! que/ions1 & 9 con/ruct+ any hypo!sis :i* may fairly correspond ) ! actual cont5ts ( ! ,acts1 con/itutes "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ comm5t>ies on ! "w1 & al?\gh we _c "h detail ! extremely v>i$ views ( critics ^u ! subject1 !y are well wor?y ( /udy47#c7 ,no "o n[ advances ! !ory :i* 0 anci5tly curr5t t ! ,au?or simply n>rat$ t ( :i* he 0 an eye-witness47#d7 ,its pres5t title ------ w\ld lead u to expect an acc\nt ( ! do+s ( ! ,apo/les 9 g5]al1 b we h no?+ l ?is 9 ! book4 ,pet] & ,paul occupy ! pr9cipal p>ts ( ! n>rative1 & ! o!r ,apo/les are sc>cely m5tion$4 #fg ,james is introduc$ z an actor 9 ! fam\s ,c\ncil1 & repres5t$ z head ( ! ,*ur* 9 ,j]usalem1 b x is mu* disput$ t he 0 ei!r an ,apo/le1 or "o ( ! ,twelve4 ,! dea? ( ,james ! bro!r ( ,john is j m5tion$4 ,john is repres5t$ on sev]al occasions dur+ ! e>li] "p ( ! n>rative z ! companion ( ,pet]1 )\t1 h[ev]1 be+ prom95tly br\ght =w>d2 & ! re/ ( ! ,twelve are left 9 complete obscurity4 ,x is n a hi/ory ( ! lab\rs ( ,pet] & ,paul1 = n only is consid]able importance giv5 to ! episodes ( ,/eph5 & ,philip ! ,evangeli/1 b ! acc\nt ( ! two great ,apo/les is s+ul>ly fragm5t>y4 ,aft] a brief *ronicle ( ! lab\rs ( ,pet]1 he sudd5ly disappe>s f ! sc5e1 & we he> ( him no m4 ,paul !n becomes ! prom95t figure 9 ! drama2 b we h already po9t$ out h[ defective is ! in=mation giv5 reg>d+ him1 & he is also ab&on$ z soon z he is br\ght to ,rome3 ( 8 subsequ5t c>e] & m>tyrdom1 no?+ :atev] is said4 ,! "w is n1 z ,lu!r sugge/$1 a gloss on ! ,epi/les ( ,paul & ! inculcation ( 8 doctr9e ( righte\sness ?r\gh fai?1 = ! n>rative ( ! ,acts1 s f> z we c comp>e x ) ! ,epi/les1 :i* are n[h]e nam$ 9 x1 is g5]ally 9 contradiction to !m1 & ! doctr9e ( ju/ification by fai? is conspicu\s by its abs5ce4 ,x is n a hi/ory ( ! fir/ ,*ri/ian missions1 = x ignores entirely ! lab\rs ( mo/ ( ! ,apo/les1 omits all m5tion ( "s ( ! mo/ int]e/+ mission>y j\rneys1 & does n ev5 give a report ( ! introduction ( ,*ri/ianity into ,rome4 ,x is n 9 any s5se a ,paul9ian hi/ory ( ! ,*ur*1 = if1 on ! "o side1 x describes ! ,apo/les ( ! ,circumcision z #fh promulgat+ ! univ]salism :i* ,paul prea*$1 x robs him ( 8 orig9ality1 dw>fs 8 influ5ce ^u ! developm5t ( ,*ri/ianity1 & is1 on ! o!r h&1 too defective to repres5t ,*ur* hi/ory1 :e!r f a ,paul9ian or any o!r /&po9t4 ,! fav\rite !ory3 t ! writ] design$ to relate ! /ory ( ! spread ( ,*ri/ianity f ,j]usalem to ,rome1 c sc>cely be ma9ta9$1 al?\gh x c]ta9ly has ! advantage ( a vagu5ess ( proportions equally suitable to ! l>ge/ & mo/ limit$ treatm5t ( hi/ory4 ,b1 9 su* a case1 we h a drama ) ! ma9 incid5t omitt$2 = ! introduction ( ! ,gospel into ,rome is n describ$ at all1 & :il/ ! au?or c\ld n consid] ! p]sonal arrival at ,rome ( ! ,apo/le ,paul ! climax ( 8 hi/ory1 he at once closes 8 acc\nt :]e ! f9al episode ought to h comm5c$4 ,f all po9ts ( view1 & ^u any hypo!sis1 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les is s obvi\sly incomplete z a hi/ory1 s fragm5t>y & defective z biography1 t critics h to ! pres5t day fail$ 9 fram+ any !ory :i* c\ld satisfactorily acc\nt = its anomalies1 & h almo/ be5 =c$ to expla9 !m by suppos+ a p>tial1 apologetic or conciliatory1 design1 :i* removes ! "w f ! region ( v]itable hi/ory4 ,! :ole int]e/ ( ! n>rative1 ( c\rse1 c5tres 9 ! two repres5tative ,apo/les1 ,pet] & ,paul1 :o alt]nately fill ! sc5e4 ,x is difficult to say1 h[ev]1 :e!r ! acc\nt ( ! ,apo/le ( ! ,circumcision or ( ,paul is ! m caprici\sly p>tial & incomplete4 ,aft] 8 miracul\s lib]ation f ! prison into :i* he _h be5 ca/ by ,h]od1 ! do+s ( ,pet] are left un*ronicl$1 & al?\gh he is re9troduc$ = a mom5t to plead ! cause ( ! #fi ,g5tiles at ! ,c\ncil 9 ,j]usalem1 he !n f9ally retires f ! sc5e1 to give place to ,paul4 ,! omissions f ! hi/ory ( ,paul are v rem>kable1 & all ! m s f ! extreme & unnecess>y detail ( ! it9]>y ( "s ( 8 j\rneys1 & nei!r ! blanks1 on ! "o h&1 nor ! excessive m9ut5ess1 on ! o!r1 are to be expla9$ by any !ory connect$ ) p]sonal k on ! "p ( ,!ophilus4 ,( ! g5]al hi/ory ( ! primitive ,*ur* & ! life & lab\rs ( ! ,twelve1 we are told little or no?+4 ,accord+ to ! ,au?or ! propagation ( ! ,gospel 0 c>ri$ on m by angelic ag5cy ?an apo/olic en?usiasm4 ,!re is a lib]al infusion ( miracul\s episodes 9 ! hi/ory1 b a surpris+ sc>city ( facts4 ,ev5 :]e ! ,au?or is be/ in=m$1 z 9 ! second "p ( ! ,acts1 ! n>rative ( ,paul's lab\rs & mission>y j\rneys1 :ile pres5t+ /rik+ omissions1 is really m9ute & detail$ only 9 reg>d to po9ts ( no practical int]e/1 leav+ bo? ! di/9ctive tea*+ ( ! ,apo/le1 & ! int]nal economy ( ! ,*ur* almo/ entirely unrepres5t$4 ,does ?is defective n>rative ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les proce$ f pov]ty ( in=mation1 or f ! arbitr>y selection ( mat]ials = a special purpose8 ,z we proce$1 x w become increas+ly evid5t t1 limit$ al?\gh ! writ]'s mat]ials are1 ! =m into :i* !y h be5 m\ld$ has und\bt$ly be5 det]m9$ ei!r by a dom9ant !ory1 or a delib]ate design1 nei!r ( :i* is consi/5t ) ! composition ( sob] hi/ory4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly app>5t 9 ! repres5tation :i* is giv5 ( ! two pr9cipal p]sonages ( ! n>rative4 ,critics h long cle>ly recognis$ t ! #gj ,au?or ( ! ,acts has c>efully arrang$ 8 mat]ials s z to pres5t z close a p>allelism z possible betwe5 ! ,apo/les ,pet] & ,paul47#a7 ,we %all pres5tly see h[ closely he assimilates _! tea*+1 ascrib+ ! views ( ,paul to ,pet]1 & putt+ ,petr9e s5tim5ts 9 ! m\? ( ,paul1 b "h we %all m]ely ref] to po9ts ( g5]al hi/ory4 ,if ,pet] has a c]ta9 pre-em95ce z a di/+ui%$ memb] ( ! orig9al ,apo/olic body1 ! equal claim ( ,paul to ! hon\rs ( ! ,apo/olate1 :il/ nev] directly advanc$1 is prom95tly sugge/$ by ! n>ration1 no less ?an ?ree times1 ( ! circum/ances ( 8 conv]sion & direct call to ! (fice by ! glorifi$ ,jesus4 ,! fir/ miracle ascrib$ to ,pet] is ! heal+ ( a c]ta9 man lame f 8 "m's womb ------ at ! beautiful gate ( ! ,temple17#b7 & ! fir/ wond] p]=m$ by ,paul is also ! heal+ ( a c]ta9 man lame f 8 "m's womb ------ at ,ly/ra27#c7 ,ananias & ,sapphira are puni%$ ?r\gh ! in/rum5tality ( ,pet]17#d7 & ,elymas is smitt5 ) bl9dness at ! ^w ( ,paul27#e7 ! sick are laid 9 ! /reets t ! %ad[ ( ,pet] may fall ^u !m1 & !y are heal$1 z are also ^? #ga vex$ ) unclean spirits27l7 h&k]*iefs or aprons are tak5 to ! sick f ! body ( ,paul1 & !y are heal$1 & ! evil spirits g out ( !m27#b7 ,pet] )/&s ,simon ! sorc]]17#c7 z ,paul does ! sorc]] ,elymas & ! exorci/s at ,ephesus27#d7 if ,pet] heals ! p>alytic ,a,eneas at ,lydda17#e7 ,paul re/ores to heal? ! fev]-/rick5 fa!r ( ,publius at ,melita27#f7 ,pet] raises f ! dead ,tabi?a1 a disciple at ,joppa17#g7 & ,paul re/ores to life ! disciple ,euty*us at ,troas27#h7 ,cornelius falls at ! feet ( ,pet]1 & wor%ips him1 ,pet] prev5t+ him1 & say+3 ,rise up6 ,i myself also am a man17#i7 & 9 l mann] ! p ( ,ly/ra w\ld h done sacrifice to ,paul1 & he prev5ts !m1 cry+ out3 ,we also are m5 ( l passions ) y27#aj7 ,pet] lays 8 h&s on ! p ( ,sam>ia1 & !y receive1 ! ,holy ,gho/ & ! gift ( tongues17#aa7 & ,paul does ! same = believ]s at ,ephesus27#ab7 ,pet] is br\ght be=e ! c\ncil17#ac7 & s is ,paul27#ad7 ! "o is imprison$ & twice releas$ by an angel17#ae7 & ! o!r is deliv]$ f 8 bonds by a great e>?quake27#af7 if ,pet] be sc\rg$ by ord] ( ! c\ncil17#ag7 ,paul is beat5 ) _m /ripes at ! comm& ( ! magi/rates ( ,philippi47#ah7 ,x is ma9ta9$ t ! desire to equalise ! suff]+s ( ! two ,apo/les 9 ! cause ( ! ,gospel1 z he has equalis$ _! miracul\s displays1 probably l$ ! ,au?or to omit all m5tion ( ^? #gb p]ils & p]secutions to :i* ! ,apo/le ,paul ref]s 9 support ( 8 prote/1 t he _h lab\r$ & suff]$ m ?an all ! re/47#a7 ,if ,paul 0 call$ by a vision to ! m9i/ry ( ! ,g5tiles17#b7 s ,pet] is repres5t$ z hav+ be5 equally direct$ by a vision to baptize ! ,g5tile ,cornelius27#c7 ! d\ble vision ( ,pet] & ,cornelius has its p>allel 9 ! d\ble vision ( ,paul & ,ananias4 ,x is impossible to d5y ! measur$ equality ?us pres]v$ betwe5 ! two ,apo/les1 or to ignore ! fact t p>allelism l ?is is ! result ( prem$itation1 & _c claim ! "* ( imp>tial hi/ory4 ,! spee*es =m an important elem5t 9 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 & we %all n[ briefly exam9e !m1 res]v+1 h[ev]1 = future consid]ation _! dogmatic aspect4 ,few1 if any writ]s1 h[ev] apologetic1 ma9ta9 t ^! disc\rses c possibly h be5 spok5 exactly z !y are record$ 9 ! ,acts4 ,! utmo/ t is ass]t$ is t !y are sub/antially hi/orical1 & fairly repres5t ! orig9al spee*es47#d7 ,!y 7 d]iv$1 x is alleg$1 ei!r f writt5 s\rces1 or oral #gc tradition1 & _m1 especially 9 ! second "p1 are suppos$ to h be5 deliv]$ 9 ! pres5ce ( ! ,au?or ( ! "w4 ,?is view is held1 ( c\rse1 ) a great] or less degree ( assurance z to ! clos5ess ( ! relation :i* our record be>s to ! orig9al addresses2 b1 )\t "h v closely scrut9iz+ hesitation or retic5ce1 our /atem5t fairly r5d]s ! apologetic position4 ,a l>ge body ( able critics1 h[ev]1 d5y ! hi/orical "* ( ^! spee*es17#a7 & consid] !m m]e free compositions by ! ,au?or ( ! ,acts1 at ! be/ be+ on a p> ) ! spee*es :i* _m anci5t writ]s place 9 ! m\?s ( _! hi/orical p]sonages1 & giv+ only :at ! writ] suppos$ t ! speak] w\ld say "u ! circum/ances4 ,t ! writ] may h made use ( su* mat]ials z 7 )9 8 rea*1 or endeav\r$ to embody ! ideas :i* tradition may broadly h pres]v$1 may possibly be admitt$1 b t ^! disc\rses c s]i\sly be accept$ z convey+ a correct report ( any?+ actually spok5 by ! p]sons 9 ^: m\?s !y are put is1 ( c\rse1 d5i$4 ,x is1 #gd obvi\sly1 extremely improbable t any ( ^! spee*es c\ld h be5 writt5 d[n at ! "t47#a7 ,tak+ ev5 ! suppos$ case t ! ,au?or ( ! ,acts 0 ,luke1 & 0 pres5t :5 "s ( ! spee*es ( ,paul 7 deliv]$1 x is difficult to imag9e t he imm$iately record$ 8 recollection ( !m1 & m ?an ?is he c\ld n h done4 ,he mu/ cont9ually h be5 9 ! habit ( he>+ ! prea*+ ( ,paul1 & !re=e c\ld n h _h ! inducem5t ( novelty to make him write d[n :at he he>d4 ,! idea ( record+ !m = po/]ity c\ld n h occurr$ to su* a p]son1 ) ! belief 9 ! approa*+ end ( all ?+s !n preval5t4 ,! ,au?or ( ! ,acts 0 n ! companion ( ,paul1 h[ev]1 & ! cont5ts ( ! spee*es1 z we %all pres5tly see1 are n ( a "* to make x 9 ! lea/ degree likely t !y c\ld h be5 writt5 d[n = sep>ate circulation4 ,_m ( ! spee*es 9 ! ,acts1 moreov]1 7 deliv]$ "u circum/ances :i* r5d] x specially unlikely t !y c\ld h #ge be5 report$ ) any accuracy4 ,at no "t an easy task correctly to record a disc\rse ( any l5g?1 x is d\bly difficult :5 ^? spee*es1 l _m 9 ,acts1 7 spok5 "u circum/ances ( great dang] or excitem5t4 ,! exp]i5ce ( mod]n times1 be=e ! application ( sy/ems ( %ort-h&1 may %[ h[ imp]fectly spee*es 7 tak5 d[n1 ev5 :]e !re 0 delib]ate prep>ation & set purpose to d s1 & if x be sugge/$ t "s celebrat$ orations ( ! la/ c5tury h s be5 pres]v$1 x is und5iable t :at has be5 h&$ d[n to u n only does n repres5t ! orig9al1 b is really almo/ a subsequ5t composition1 pres]v+ little m ?an "s fa9t e*oes ( ! true utt]ance4 ,! probability t a correct record ( spee*es made1 "u su* circum/ances1 9 ! middle ( ! fir/ c5tury c\ld h be5 kept1 seems exce$+ly small4 ,ev51 if x c\ld be %[n t ! ,au?or ( ! ,acts took ^! spee*es sub/antially f e>li] docum5ts1 x w\ld n mat]ially t5d to e/abli% _! au!nticity2 = ! "q w\ld /ill rema9 p]fectly op5 z to ! clos5ess ( ^? docum5ts to ! orig9al disc\rses2 b 9 ! abs5ce ( all evid5ce1 :e!r z to ! exi/5ce or orig9 ( any su* s\rces1 ! conjecture ( _! possible exi/5ce c h no weight4 ,we h no?+ b int]nal te/imony to exam9e1 & t1 we %all see1 is totally oppos$ to ! claim to hi/orical value made = ^? disc\rses4 ,apologi/s sc>cely ma9ta9 t we h 9 ! ,acts a record ( ! orig9al disc\rses 9 _! complet5ess1 b 9 claim+ sub/antial accuracy mo/ ( !m include ! supposition at lea/ ( cond5sation47#a7 ,! longe/ #gf disc\rse 9 ! ,acts w\ld n h tak5 m ?an six or sev5 m9utes to deliv]17#a7 & x is impossible to suppose t :at is !re giv5 c h be5 ! :ole spee* deliv]$ on _m ( ! occasions describ$4 ,= in/ance1 is x probable t ,k+ ,agrippa :o desires to he> ,paul1 & :o comes ) great pomp ) ,b]5ice to d s1 %\ld only h he>d a spee* la/+ "s five m9utes4 ,! ,au?or himself tells u t ,paul 0 n always s brief 9 8 addresses z any "o might suppose f ! specim5s "h pres5t$47#b7 ,x is rem>kable1 h[ev]1 t n ! slighte/ intimation is giv5 t ! spee*es are ei!r m]ely sub/antially report$ or are abridg$1 & _! =m & "* are evid5tly design$ to convey ! impression ( complete disc\rses4 ,if ! read] exam9e any ( ^! disc\rses1 x w be cle> t !y are concise compositions1 betray+ no m>ks ( abridgm5t1 & hav+ no fragm5t>y loos5ess1 b1 on ! contr>y1 t !y are highly artificial & f9i%$ productions1 ) a cont9u\s argum5t4 ,!y c]ta9ly are s+ul>ly inadequate1 _m ( !m1 to produce ! impressions describ$2 b at lea/ x is n possible to discov] t mat]ial omissions h be5 made1 or t _! p]iods 7 orig9ally exp&$ by l>ge1 or ev5 any1 amplification4 ,if ^! spee*es be reg>d$ z complete1 & ) little or no cond5sation1 ano!r /rong elem5t is add$ to ! suspicion z to _! au!nticity1 = su* extreme baldness & brevity 9 ! decl>ation ( a new religion1 #gg requir+ bo? explanation & argum5t1 _c be conceiv$1 & 9 ! case ( ,paul1 ) ^: sy/em ( tea*+ & doctr9e we are well acqua9t$ ?r\gh 8 ,epi/les1 x is impossible to accept su* meagre & onesid$ addresses1 z repres5tations ( 8 mann]4 ,! /atem5t t ! disc\rses are abridg$1 & a m]e resume ( ^? orig9ally deliv]$1 h[ev]1 re/s ^u no au?ority1 is a m]e conjecture to acc\nt = an exi/+ difficulty1 & is 9 contradiction to ! actual =m ( ! spee*es 9 ,acts4 ,reg>d$ z complete1 _! incongruity is int5sifi$1 b consid]$ z abridg$1 !y h lo/ 9 ! process all repres5tative "* & hi/orical fitness4 ,x has be5 argu$1 inde$1 t ! diff]5t spee*es be> evid5ce to _! g5u95ess f _! suitability to ! speak]s1 & to ! circum/ances "u :i* !y are said to h be5 spok52 b ! exi/5ce ( any?+ b ! mo/ sup]ficial semblance ( idiosyncratic "* mu/ be d5i$4 ,! simil>ity ( =m1 mann]1 & matt] 9 all ! spee*es is mo/ rem>kable1 z w pres5tly be made m app>5t1 & ! :ole ( ! doctr9e enunciat$ am\nts to little m ?an ! repetition1 9 slightly v>y+ words1 ( ! brief exhortation to rep5tance & belief 9 ,jesus1 ! ,*ri/4 t salvation may be obta9$17#a7 ) ref]5ces to ! anci5t hi/ory ( ! ,jews1 s+ul>ly alike 9 all disc\rses4 ,v little arti/ic skill is necess>y to secure a c]ta9 suitability ( ! ^w to ! action1 & ! action to ! ^w2 & c]ta9ly evid5ce is r$uc$ to a v l[ ebb :5 su* agreem5t z is pres5t$ 9 ! ,acts is made an argum5t = au!nticity4 ,n only is ! consi/5cy ( ! s5tim5ts utt]$ by #gh ! pr9cipal speak]s1 z comp>$ ) :at is kn[n ( _! op9ions & "*1 utt]ly disput$1 b x mu/ be evid5t t ! lit]>y skill ( ! ,au?or ( ! ,acts 0 q equal to s simple a task z pres]v+ at lea/ su* sup]ficial fitness z he displays1 & a v mu* great] am\nt ( v]isimilitude might h be5 atta9$1 z 9 _m works ( fiction1 )\t necess>ily involv+ ! inf]5ce ( g5u95ess4 ,x has be5 freely admitt$ by critics ( all s*ools t ! au?or's peculi>ities ( /yle & language are app>5t 9 all ! spee*es ( ! ,acts17#a7 & ?is has be5 s (t5 elaborately demon/rat$ t x is unnecess>y m9utely to ent] ^u x aga94 ,x may n be out ( place to quote a few l9es f ! "w ( "o ( ! able/ & mo/ em95t advocates ( ! g5]al au?ority ( ! ,acts4 ,speak+ ( ! spee*es ( ,paul1 ,lekebus* says3--,! spee*es ( our ,book1 9 fact1 are calculat$1 p]haps m ?an any?+1 to excite d\bt reg>d+ its purely hi/orical "*4 ,b "h ev]y?+ dep5ds ^u an unbiass$ judgm5t4 ,we are suffici5tly free f prejudice to make ! admission to rec5t criticism t ! spee*es are n v]bally giv5 z !y 7 orig9ally deliv]$1 b are compos$ by ! au?or ( ! ,acts ( ! #gi ,apo/les4 ,s*lei]ma*]1 c]ta9ly1 has confid5tly ass]t$ _! orig9ality4 ,he ?9ks3 ',if ! spee*es 7 sep>ately report$ !y c\ld n b appe> j z we f9d !m 9 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les4' ,b 8 rem>ks1 h[ev] +5i\s & acute !y may be1 d n /& ! te/ ( a ?or\gh exam9ation ( ! individual spee*es4 ,no "o :o imp>tially comp>es ^!1 "o ) ano!r1 & p>ticul>ly _! /yle ) ! mode ( expression ( ! ,au?or 9 ! o!r sections1 c help agree+ ) ,ei*horn1 :51 9 consonance ) 8 view reg>d+ ! uni=m "* ( ! ,acts1 on ! gr\nds quot$1 page #ad1 he ascribes ! composition ( ! spee*es to ! writ] f :om ! :ole book 9 all its p>ts proce$s47#a7 ,to ?is imp>tial expression ( op9ion1 ,lekebus* adds a note3--,9 say+ ?is1 x is naturally n sugge/$ t our au?or simply inv5t$ ! spee*es1 indep5d5tly1 )\t any hi/orical intimation :atev] z to ! sub/ance ( ! orig9al2 ! =m only1 :i* c]ta9ly is "h v closely connect$ ) ! sub/ance1 is h]eby ascrib$ to him47#b7 ,lekebus* !n m]ely goes on to discuss ! nature ( ! au?or's design 9 compos+ ^! spee*es4 ,! reasons giv5 by ,ei*horn1 :i* ,lekebus* quotes at page #ad1 ref]r$ to above1 _h bett] be add$ to complete ?is te/imony4 ,aft] ref]r+ to ! result ( ,ei*horn's v c>eful exam9ation ( ! int]nal "* ( ! ,acts1 ,lekebus* says3--,he f9ds1 h[ev]1 t1 '?r\gh\t ! :ole ,acts ( ! ,apo/les !re prevails ! same /yle1 ! same mann]1 ! same me?od & mode ( expression' 7ii4 #ce74 ,n #hj ev5 ! spee*es1 :i* "o at fir/ might take = ins]t$ docum5ts1 seem to him 'f a /range h&1 b elaborat$ by ! same f :i* ! :ole book1 ) its ?ree p>ts1 proce$s4' ',v>i\s peculi>ities exi/+ 9 ! spee*es' prove ?is to him1 indep5d5t ( ! simil>ity ( ! /yle1 & t1 'al?\gh !y are put into ! m\?s ( diff]5t p]sons1 !y nev]!less foll[ "o & ! same type1 make use ( "o & ! same mode ( argum5t1 & h s mu* t is common to !m t !y !reby prove !mselves to be spee*es ( "o & ! same writ]' 7ii4 #ch74 ,f ^! circum/ances1 !re=e1 x seems to ,ei*horn '9 ! highe/ degree probable1 t ,luke1 ?r\gh\t ! :ole ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 writes z an indep5d5t au?or1 & ap>t f all extrane\s works4' ,& 9 ?is view he is '/r5g!n$ by ! resemblance ( ! /yle :i* runs ?r\gh ! :ole ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 ?r\gh spee*es1 lett]s1 & hi/orical sections1' z well z by ! fact t1 '?r\gh ! :ole book1 9 ! quotations f ! ,old ,te/am5t1 a simil> relation prevails betwe5 ! ,greek text ( ! ,septuag9t & t ( ,luke' 7ii4 #dc747a7 ,we h ?\ght x well to quote ^! indep5d5t op9ions f writ]s :o range !mselves among/ ! def5d]s ( ! hi/orical "* ( ! ,acts1 r ?an to burd5 our pages ) a mass ( dry detail 9 pro( ( ! ass]tion t ! peculi>ities ( ! au?or p]vade all ! spee*es indiff]5tly1 to a degree :i* r5d]s x obvi\s t4 !y proce$ f 8 p54 ,)\t ent]+ into m]e l+ui/ic evid5ce ( ?is1 :i* w be f\nd 9 ! works to :i* we h #ha ref]r$17#a7 we may po9t out a few g5]al peculi>ities ( ?is nature :i* are wor?y ( att5tion4 ,! au?or introduces ! spee*es ( diff]5t p]sons ) ! same expression3--he op5$ 8 m\?1 or some?+ simil>4 ,philip op5$ 8 m\? ------7#a7 & address$ ! ,e?iopian 7viii4 #ce74 ,pet] op5$ 8 m\? 7&7 said ------1 :5 he deliv]$ 8 disc\rse be=e ! baptism ( ,cornelius 7x4 #cd74 ,aga91 he uses x ( ,paul3--,& :5 ,paul 0 ab\t to op5 8 m\? ------1 ,gallio said1 c4 7xviii4 #ad74 ,! words ) :i* ! spee* ( ,pet] at ,p5teco/ is introduc$ des]ve m att5tion3--,pet] lift$ up 8 voice & said unto !m ------ 7ii4 #ad74 ,! v]b ------ occurs aga9 7ii4 #d7 9 ! acc\nt ( ! desc5t ( ! ,holy ,_s & ! gift ( tongues1 & x is put into ! m\? ( ,paul 7xxvi4 #be7 9 8 reply to ,fe/us1 b x occurs n[h]e else 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t4 ,! fav\rite =mula7#c7 ) :i* all spee*es op5 is1 ,m5 7&7 ,bre?r5 ------1 or ------ c\pl$ ) "s o!r t]m1 z ,m5 7&7 ,israelites ------1 or simply------ )\t addition4 ------1 occurs no less ?an ?irte5 times4 ,x is us$ ?rice by ,pet]17#d7 six times by ,paul17#e7 z well z by #hb ,/eph517#a7 ,james17#b7 ! believ]s at ,p5teco/17#c7 & ! rul]s ( ! ,synagogue47#d7 ,! angels at ! ,asc5sion address ! disciples z ,m5 7&7 ,galileans ------47#e7 ,pet] makes use ( ------ twice17#f7 & x is likewise employ$ by ,paul17#g7 by ,gamaliel17#h7 & by ! ,jews ( ,asia47#i7 ,pet] addresses ^? assembl$ at ,p5teco/ z ------47#aj7 ,paul op5s 8 ,a!nian spee* ) ------17#aa7 & ! t[n-cl]k beg9s 8 %ort appeal to ! craftsm5 ( ,ephesus3 ------47#ab7 ,/eph5 beg9s 8 spee* to ! ,c\ncil ) ,m51 ,bre?r5 & ,fa!rs1 he> ------1 & ,paul uses ! v same words 9 address+ ! multitude f ! /airs ( ! ,temple47#ac7 ,9 ! spee* :i* ,pet] is repres5t$ z mak+ at ,p5teco/1 he employs 9 an altoge!r peculi> way 7ii4 #be--bg7 ,psalm xvi41 quot+ x 9 ord] to prove t ! ,resurrection ( ,jesus ! ,messiah 0 a necess>y occurr5ce1 :i* _h be5 =etold by ,david4 ,?is is pr9cipally bas$ ^u ! t5? v]se ( ! ,psalm3 ,because ?\ wilt n leave my s\l 9 ,hades1 nei!r wilt ?\ give ?y ,holy ,"o ------ to see corruption ------47#ad7 ,pet] argues t ,david bo? di$ & 0 buri$1 & t 8 sepul*re is ) !m to t day1 b t1 be+ a prophet1 he =esaw & spake "h ( ! ,resurrection ( ,*ri/1 t nei!r 0 he left 9 ,hades nor did 8 fle% see #hc corruption ------47#a7 ,is x n an extremely s+ul> circum/ance t ,pet]1 address+ an audi5ce ( ,jews 9 ,j]usalem1 :]e he might naturally be expect$ to make use ( ! v]nacul> language1 actually quotes ! ,sep-tuag9t v]sion ( ! ,old ,te/am5t1 & bases 8 argum5t ^u a mi/ranslation ( ! ,psalm1 :i*1 we may add1 0 9 all probability n compos$ by ,david at all87#b7 ,! ^w translat$ ,holy ,"o1 %\ld be 9 ! plural3 holy ones1#c t is to say3 ?y sa9ts1 & ! ^w r5d]$ ------corruption1 really signifies grave or pit4 #d ,! poet1 9 fact1 m]ely expresses 8 confid5ce t he w be pres]v$ alive4 ,! be/ critics recognize t ,ps4 xvi4 is n prop]ly a ,messianic ,psalm #hd at all17#a7 & _m ( ^? :o1 f ! use :i* is made ( x 9 ,acts1 are l$ to ass]t t x is s1 recognize 9 ! ma9 t x c only be appli$ to ! ,messiah indirectly1 by argu+ t ! prophecy 0 n fulfill$ 9 ! case ( ! poet :o speaks ( himself1 b 0 fulfill$ 9 ! ,resurrection ( ,jesus4 ,?is reason+1 h[ev]1 totally ignores ! s5se ( ! orig9al1 & is oppos$ to all legitimate hi/orical int]pretation ( ! ,psalm4 ,n dwell+ ^u ?is po9t at pres5t1 we mu/ g on to po9t out t1 a little fur!r on 7xiii4 #ce--cg71 ! ,apo/le ,paul is repres5t$ z mak+ use ( ! v same argum5t :i* ,pet] "h employs1 & quot+ ! same passage f ,ps4 xvi4 to support x ,?is repetition ( v peculi> reason+1 c\pl$ ) o!r simil>ities :i* we %all pres5tly po9t out1 leads to ! inf]5ce t x is m]ely ! au?or himself :o puts ?is argum5t into _! m\?s17#b7 & ?is conclusion is /r5g!n$ by ! circum/ance t1 ?r\gh\t bo? ,gospel & ,acts1 he always quotes f ! ,septuag9t17#c7 & ev5 :5 t v]sion dep>ts f #he ! s5se ( ! orig9al ,x may be well to give bo? passages 9 juxta-position1 9 ord] t ! clos5ess ( ! analogy may be m easily realiz$4 ,= ?is purpose we some:at alt] ! ord] ( ! v]ses3-- ------ ,n only is ?is argum5t ! same 9 bo? disc\rses1 b ! :ole ( ,paul's spee*1 xiii4 #af ff41 is a m]e reproduction ( ! two spee*es ( ,pet]1 ii4 #ad ff4 & iii4 #ab ff41 ) su* alt]ations z ! writ] c\ld introduce to v>y ! fundam5tal sam5ess ( ideas & expressions4 ,x is wor? :ile to %[ ?is 9 a simil> way3-- ------ #hf ------ #hg ------ #hh ,paul's address likewise he>s close analogy ) ! spee* ( ,/eph51 vii4 #b ff41 comm5c+ ) a hi/orical survey ( ! e>li] traditions ( ! p ( ,israel1 & lead+ up to ! same accusation t1 z _! fa!rs disreg>d$ ! prophets1 s !y _h p]secut$ & sla9 ! ,*ri/4 ,! :ole treatm5t ( ! subject betrays ! "w ( ! same m9d 9 bo? disc\rses4 ,bleek1 :o admits ! simil>ity betwe5 ^! & o!r spee*es 9 ,acts1 argues t3 x does n absolutely foll[ f ?is t ^! spee*es are compos$ by "o & ! same p]son1 & are altoge!r unhi/orical2 = x is natural1 he ?9ks1 t 9 ! apo/olical circle1 & 9 ! fir/ ,*ri/ian ,*ur*1 !re %\ld h exi/$ a c]ta9 uni=m type 9 ! application ( messianic passages ( ! ,old ,te/am5t1 & 9 quotations g5]ally1 to :i* diff]5t tea*]s might con=m )\t be+ dep5d5t on ea* o!r4#a ,he ?9ks also t1 along ) ! close analogy1 !re is also mu* :i* is *>act]i/ic 9 ! diff]5t spee*es4 ,n only is ?is typical sy/em ( quotation1 h[ev]1 a m]e conjecture to expla9 an actual difficulty1 b x is totally inadequate to acc\nt = ! ph5om5a4 ,if we suppose1 = in/ance1 t ,paul _h adopt$ ! totally unhi/orical application ( ! sixte5? ,psalm to ! ,messiah1 is x n a v extraord9>y ?+ t 9 all ! argum5ts 9 8 #hi ,epi/les1 he does n once ref] to x8 ,ev5 if ?is be waiv$1 & x be assum$ t he _h adopt$ ?is int]pretation ( ! ,psalm1 x w sc>cely be ass]t$ t ,paul1 ^: indep5d5ce & orig9ality ( m9d are s und5iable1 & ^: int]c\rse ) ! apo/olical circle at any "t1 & mo/ c]ta9ly up to ! p]iod :5 ?is spee* 0 deliv]$1 0 v limit$17#a7 c\ld s completely h caught ! /yle & copi$ ! mann] ( ,pet] t1 on an important occasion l ?is1 8 address %\ld be a m]e reproduction ( ,pet]'s two spee*es deliv]$ s long be=e1 & :5 ,paul c]ta9ly 0 n pres5t4 ,! simil>ity ( ^! disc\rses does n consi/ 9 ! m]e application ( ! same ,psalm1 b ! :ole argum5t1 on ea* occasion1 is repeat$ ) m]ely suffici5t transposition ( its v>i\s p>ts to give a sup]ficial appe>ance ( v>iety4 ,words & expressions1 r>e or unkn[n else:]e1 are f\nd 9 bo?1 & ! *>act]i/ic diff]5ces :i* ,bleek f9ds exi/ only 9 8 own apologetic imag9ation4 ,let x be rememb]$ t ! =m ( ! spee*es & ! language are g5]ally ascrib$ to ! ,au?or ( ! ,acts4 ,c any unprejudic$ critic d5y t ! ideas 9 ! spee*es we are consid]+ are also sub/antially ! same8 ,is !re any appreciable trace ( ! orig9ality ( ,paul 9 8 disc\rses8 ,!re is no gr\nd :atev]1 ap>t f ! antec$5t belief t ! v>i\s spee*es 7 actually deliv]$ by ! m5 to :om !y are ascrib$1 = ass]t+ t we h "h ! indep5d5t utt]ances ( ,pet] & ,paul4 ,x is int]nal evid5ce alone1 & no av[al on ! "p ( ! au?or1 :i* leads to ! conclusion t ! =m ( ! spee*es is ! au?or's1 & !re is no int]nal evid5ce #ij :i* requires u to /op at ! m]e =m1 & n equally ascribe ! sub/ance to ! same s\rce4 ,! spee*es 9 ! ,acts1 g5]ally1 h altoge!r ! "* ( be+ ! composition ( "o m9d endeav\r+ to imp>t v>iety ( ?\ght & expression to v>i\s speak]s1 b fail+ signally ei!r f pov]ty ( inv5tion or f ! purpose ( in/itut+ a close p>allel 9 views1 z well z actions1 betwe5 ! two repres5tative ,apo/les4 ,fur!r to illu/rate ?is1 let u take ano!r spee* ( ,pet] :i* he deliv]s on ! occasion ( ! conv]sion ( ,cornelius1 & x w be app>5t t x also conta9s all ! elem5ts1 s f> z x goes1 ( ,paul's disc\rse4 ------ #ia ------ ,aga91 to take an example f ano!r speak]1 we f9d ,james repres5t$ z us+ an expression :i* _h j be=e be5 put into ! m\? ( ,paul1 & x is n "o 9 ! lea/ degree likely to occur indep5d5tly to ea*4 ,! two passages are z foll[s3-- ------ ,! fundam5tal simil>ity betwe5 ^! diff]5t spee*es _c possibly be d5i$27#b7 & x _c be #ib reasonably expla9$ 9 any o!r way ?an by ! fact t !y 7 compos$ by ! au?or himself1 :o _h ! e>li] spee*es ascrib$ to ,pet] /ill 9 8 memory :5 he wrote ^? ( ,paul17#a7 & :o1 9 %ort1 _h n suffici5t dramatic p[] to create altoge!r di/9ct *>act]s1 b simply made 8 diff]5t p]sonages use 8 own vocabul>y to express 8 own some:at limit$ range ( ideas4 ,sett+ 8 special design aside1 8 inv5tive faculty only p]mitt$ him to repres5t ,pet] speak+ l ,paul1 & ,paul l ,pet]4 ,x is argu$ by "s1 h[ev]1 t 9 ! spee*es ( ,pet]1 = in/ance1 !re are peculi>ities ( language & expression :i* %[ analogy ) ! fir/ ,epi/le be>+ 8 "n 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t ,canon17#b7 &1 on ! o!r h&1 traces ( translation 9 "s ( !m :i* indicate t ^! spee*es 7 deliv]$ orig9ally 9 ,aramaic1 & t we h only a v]sion ( !m by ! ,au?or ( ! ,acts1 or by "s "o f :om he d]iv$ !m47#c7 ,z reg>ds ! fir/ ( ^! suppositions1 a few phrases only h be5 po9t$ out1 b !y are ( no =ce "u any circum/ances1 & ! :ole !ory is q gr\ndless47#d7 ,we d n con- #ic consid] x wor? :ile to ent] ^u ! discussion1 & ^? :o desire to d s are ref]r$ to ! works j indicat$4 ,!re are two pot5t reasons :i* r5d] su* an argum5t ( no =ce1 ev5 if ! suppos$ analogies 7 9 !mselves bo? num]\s & /rik+1 :i* actually !y are n ,! au!nticity ( ! ,epi/les be>+ ! "n ( ,pet] is n only n e/abli%$1 b is by v _m em95t critics absolutely d5i$2 & !re is no c]ta9ty :atev] t any ( ! spee*es ( ,pet] 7 deliv]$ 9 ,greek1 & ! probability is t mo/1 if n all1 ( t ,apo/le's g5u9e disc\rses mu/ h be5 spok5 9 ,aramaic4 ,x is 9 fact ass]t$ by apologi/s t "p or all ( ! spee*es ascrib$ to him 9 ! ,acts mu/ h be5 orig9ally ,aramaic1 al?\gh op9ion may diff] z to ! language 9 :i* "s ( !m 7 spok54 ,:e!r !y 7 deliv]$ 9 ,aramaic1 or :e!r !re be unc]ta9ty on ! po9t1 any conclusion f l+ui/ic analogies ) ! ,epi/les is obvi\sly exclud$4 ,"o ?+ is q und5iable3 ! suppos$ analogies are few1 & ! peculi>ities di/+ui%+ ! ,au?or ( ,acts 9 ^! spee*es are extremely num]\s & g5]al4 ,ev5 s ?or\gh an apologi/ z ,?oluck c&idly ackn[l$ges t ! attempt to prove ! au!nticity ( ! spee*es f l+ui/ic analogies is hopeless4 ,he says3 ,nev]!less1 a comp>ison ( ! language ( ! ,apo/les 9 _! ,epi/les & 9 ^! spee*es mu/ 9 _m respects be less admissible ?an t ( ! "* & hi/orical circum/ances1 = inde$ if ! language & _! peculi>ities be comp>$1 x mu/ fir/ be e/abli%$ t all ! report$ spee*es 7 deliv]$ 9 ! ,greek language1 :i* is improbable1 & ( "o ( :i* 7xxii4 #a1 #b7 ! contr>y is expressly #id /at$ will+ly admitt+ t ^u ?is po9t diff]5ce ( op9ion is all[able1 we express z ! view :i* we h hi!rto held t1 f *4 xx4 onw>ds1 ! spee*es deliv]$ by ,paul are report$ m 9 ! language ( ,luke ?an 9 t ( ,paul47#a7 ,?is applies ) d\ble =ce to ,pet]17#b7 ^: spee*es !re is /ill great] reason to believe 7 deliv]$ 9 ,aramaic1 & !re is diff]5ce ( op9ion among/ ! critics we h ref]r$ to ev5 z to :e!r ^! spee*es 7 translat$ by ! ,au?or ( ! ,acts1 or 7 already be=e him 9 a translat$ =m1 & 7 subsequ5tly re-edit$ by him4 ,we h already %[n cause = believ+ t ! :ole discussion is gr\ndless1 f ! fact t ! spee*es 9 ,acts 7 simply compos$ by ! au?or himself1 & are n 9 any s5se hi/orical1 & ?is we %all h]eaft] fur!r illu/rate4 ,x may be wor? :ile to consid] briefly ! argum5ts advanc$ = ! !ory t "s ( ! spee*es %[ m>ks ( translation4 ,x is ass]t$ t ! spee* ( ,pet] at ,p5teco/1 ii4 #ad ff41 0 deliv]$ 9 ,aramaic47#c7 ,( c\rse x w be und]/ood t we might #ie be q prep>$ to agree to ?is /atem5t z appli$ to a spee* actually deliv]$ by ,pet]2 b ! ass]tion1 s f> z ! spee*es 9 ,acts are conc]n$1 is bas$ ^u :at we believe to be ! errone\s supposition t !y are g5u9e reports ( disc\rses4 ,on ! contr>y1 we ma9ta9 t ^! spee*es are m]e compositions by ! au?or ( ! "w4 ,! cont5tion is1 h[ev]1 t ! spee* attribut$ to ,pet] is ! translation ( a spee* orig9ally deliv]$ 9 ,aramaic4 ,9 ii4 #bd1 ,pet] is repres5t$ z say+3 ,:om ,god rais$ up hav+ loos$ ! pa9s ( dea? ------1 because x is n possible t he %\ld be held ------ by x4 ,x is argu$ by ,bleek & o!rs7#a7 t1 z ! context proves1 ! image int5d$ "h 0 evid5tly ! sn>es or cords ( dea?1 a mean+ :i* is n r5d]$ by ! ,greek ^w ------4 ,! confusion is expla9$1 !y cont5d1 :5 x is suppos$ t1 9 8 ,aramaic spee*1 ,pet] made use ( a ,hebrew expression1 equally f\nd 9 ,aramaic1 :i* means z well sn>es or cords z pa9s ( dea?4 ,! ,greek translator1 probably misl$ by ! ,septuag9t17#b7 adopt$ ! latt] signification ( ! ,hebrew ^w 9 "q1 & r5d]$ x ------ pa9s1 :i* is absolutely inappropriate1 =1 !y argue1 x is v unnatural to say ( "o :o _h already suff]$ dea?1 l ,*ri/1 t he _h be5 held prison] by ! pa9s ( dea?1 & loos$ f !m by ! resurrection4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 v little unanimity #if among/ apologi/s ab\t ?is passage4 ,ebr>d7#a7 ass]ts t ------ pa9s is ! correct translation ( ! ,hebrew expression1 z 9 ,ps4 xviii4 #e1 & t ! ,hebrew ^w us$ always expresses pa9s ( bir?1 ! plural ( ! simil> ^w = cord or sn>e be+ diff]5t4 ,ebr>d1 !re=e1 cont5ds t ! ,psalm 7xviii4 #e7 does n mean bonds or sn>es ( dea? b lit]ally bir?-pa9s ( dea?1 by :i* ! s\l is fre$ f ! natural e>?ly exi/5ce z by a second bir? to a glorifi$ spiritual life4 ,we ne$ n ent] fur!r into ! discussion ( ! passage1 b x is obvi\s t x is m]e assumption to ass]t1 on ! "o h&1 t ,pet] made use ( any specific expression1 &1 on ! o!r1 t !re 0 any error ( translation on ! "p ( ! au?or ( ,acts4 ,b agree+ t ! ,hebrew is errone\sly r5d]$17#b7 ! only p]t95t "q is3 by :om 0 ! error 9 "q committ$8 & ! reply beyond any d\bt is3 by ! lxx4 :o translate ! ,hebrew expression 9 ?is v way4 ,x is !re=e inadmissible to ass]t f ?is phrase ! exi/5ce ( an ,aramaic orig9al ( ! spee*1 = ! phrase itself is no?+ b a quotation f ! ,sep-tuag9t47#c7 ,! expression ------ occurs no less ?an ?ree times 9 t v]sion3 ,ps4 xvii4 #e 7,a4 ,v4 xviii471 cxiv4 #c 7,a4 ,v4 cxvi47 & #b ,sam4 xxii4 #f2 & 9 ,job #ig xxxix4 #b1 we h ------4 ,:5 x is rememb]$ t ! au?or ( ,acts always quotes ! ,septuag9t v]sion1 ev5 :5 x dep>ts f ! s5se ( ! ,hebrew orig9al1 & 9 all probability 0 only acqua9t$ ) ! ,old ,te/am5t ?r\gh x1 no?+ is m natural ?an ! use ( ?is expression tak5 f t v]sion2 b ) ! error already exi/+ !re1 to ascribe x afre% & indep5d5tly to ! ,au?or ( ,acts1 ^u no o!r gr\nds ?an ! assumption t ,pet] may h spok5 9 ,aramaic1 & us$ an expression :i* ! au?or misund]/ood or wrongly r5d]$1 is n p]missible4 ,inde$1 we h already po9t$ out t1 9 ?is v spee*1 !re are quotations ( ! ,old ,te/am5t accord+ to ! lxx4 put into ! m\? ( ,pet]1 9 :i* t v]sion does n accurately r5d] ! orig9al47#a7 ,! next trace ( translation advanc$ by ,bleek7#b7 is f\nd 9 ii4 #cc17c7 :]e ,pet] speaks ( ,*ri/ z exalt$3 ------4 ,!re c be no d\bt1 ,bleek argues1 t !re is "h a ref]5ce to ,psalm ex4 #a1 & t ! apo/le int5ds to speak ( ,*ri/'s elevation to ! "r 7h&7 ( ,god2 :]eas ! ,greek expression r conveys ! int]pretation3 by ! "r 7h&7 ( ,god4 ,?is expression c]ta9ly comes1 he ass]ts1 f a n altoge!r suitable translation ( ! ,hebrew4 ,to ?is on ! o!r h&1 mu* may be object$4 ,w9]17#d7 foll[$ by o!rs1 def5ds ! con/ruction1 & affirms t ! passage may )\t #ih hesitation1 be translat$ to ! "r 7h&7 ( ,god47#a7 ,9 :i* case !re is no error at all1 & ! argum5t falls to ! gr\nd4 ,if x be tak51 h[ev]1 ei!r t ! r5d]+ %\ld be or 0 int5d$ to be by ! "r 7h&7 ( ,god7#b7 i4e41 by ! p[] ( ,god1 t w\ld n involve ! necessity ( admitt+ an ,aramaic orig9al17#c7 because !re is no error at all1 & ! argum5t simply is1 t be+ exalt$ by ! "r h& ( ,god1 ,jesus _h p\r$ =? ! ,holy ,_s2 & 9 ! next v]se ! passage 9 ,ps4 ex4 #a 7,sept4 cix47 is accurately quot$ f ! ,septuag9t v]sion3 ,sit ?\ on my "r 7h&7 ------4 ,9 fact1 aft] giv+ an acc\nt ( ! crucifixion1 dea?1 & resurrection ( ,jesus1 ! speak] ascribes 8 subsequ5t exaltation to ! p[] ( ,god47#d7 ,we h se5 t at lea/ ! =m ( ! spee*es 9 ,acts is und\bt$ly due to ! au?or ( ! book1 & t he has n be5 able to make ! spee*es ( ! diff]5t p]sonages 9 8 drama diff] mat]ially f ea* o!r4 ,we %all h]eaft] h occasion to exam9e fur!r ! cont5ts ( "s ( ^! spee*es1 & ! circum/ances "u :i* x is alleg$ t !y 7 spok51 & to inquire :e!r ^! d n confirm #ii ! conclusion hi!rto arriv$ at1 t !y are n hi/orical1 b m]ely ! free composition ( ! ,au?or ( ,acts1 & nev] deliv]$ at all4 ,be=e pass+ on1 h[ev]1 x may be well to glance = a mom5t at "o ( ^! spee*es1 to :i* we may n h ano!r opportunity ( ref]r+1 9 ord] t we may see :e!r x pres5ts any traces ( inau!nticity & ( m]ely ideal composition4 ,9 ! fir/ *apt] an acc\nt is giv5 ( a meet+ ( ! bre?r5 9 ord] to elect a successor to ! traitor ,judas4 ,pet] addresses ! assembly1 i4 #af if41 & x may be well to quote ! op5+ portion ( 8 spee*3 #af4 ,m5 7&7 bre?r51 ?is scripture mu/ ne$s h be5 fulfill$1 :i* ! ,holy ,_s by ! m\? ( ,david spake be=e conc]n+ ,judas1 :o became guide to !m t took ,jesus1 #ag4 because he 0 numb]$ ) u & obta9$ ! lot ( ?is m9i/ry4 #ah4 ,n[ ------ ?is man pur*as$ a field ) ! wages ( ! iniquity ------1 & fall+ headlong he bur/ asund] 9 ! mid/1 & all 8 b[els gu%$ out2 #ai4 & ------ x became kn[n7#a7 unto all ! dwell]s at ,j]usalem1 s t t field 0 call$ 9 _! own tongue ------ ,a*eldama*1 t is3 field ( blood4 #bj4 ,= ------ x is writt5 9 ! book ( ,psalms3 ',let 8 habitation be desolate1 & let no man dwell !re91' & '8 (fice let ano!r take1' c1 c4 ,n[ let x be rememb]$ t ,pet] is suppos$ to be address+ an audi5ce ( ,jews 9 ,j]usalem1 9 ! ,hebrew or ,aramaic language1 a few #ajj weeks aft] ! crucifixion4 ,is x possible1 !re=e1 t he %\ld give su* an acc\nt z t 9 vs4 #ah1 #ai1 ( ! end ( ,judas1 :i* he himself1 inde$1 says 0 kn[n to all ! dwell]s at ,j]usalem8 ,is x possible t1 speak+ 9 ,aramaic to ,jews1 probably 9 mo/ "p liv+ at & ne> ,j]usalem1 he c\ld h spok5 ( ! field be+ s call$ by ! p ( ,j]usalem 9 _! own tongue8 ,is x possible t he %\ld1 to su* an audi5ce1 h translat$ ! ^w ,a*eldama*8 ,! answ] ( mo/ unprejudic$ critics is t ,pet] c\ld n h done s47#a7 ,z de ,wette rem>ks3 ,9 ! composition ( ?is spee* ! au?or has n consid]$ hi/orical decorum47#b7 ,?is is felt by mo/ apologi/s1 & _m +5i\s !ories are advanc$ to expla9 away ! difficulty4 ,"s affirm t v]ses #ah & #ai are ins]t$ z a p>5!sis by ! ,au?or ( ! ,acts17#c7 :il/ a l>g] numb] cont5d t only v4 #ai is p>5!tic47#d7 ,a v cursory exam9ation ( ! passage1 h[ev]1 is suffici5t to %[ t ! v]ses _c be sep>at$4 ,v]se #ah is connect$ ) ! prec$+ by ! ------1 #ai ) #ah by ------1 & v]se #bj ref]s to #aj1 z inde$ x also does to #ag & #ah1 )\t :i* ! passage f ! ,psalm1 z appli$ to ,judas1 w\ld be un9telligible4 ,mo/ critics1 !re=e1 #aja are agre$ t none ( ! v]ses c be consid]$ p>5!tic47#a7 ,"s apologi/s1 h[ev]1 :o feel t nei!r ( ! obnoxi\s v]ses c be ?us expla9$1 endeav\r to ov]come ! difficulty by ass]t+ t ! words3 9 _! own tongue ------ &3 t is3 ! field ( blood ------ 9 v]se #ai1 are m]ely explanatory & ins]t$ by ! ,au?or ( ,acts47#b7 ,x is unnecess>y to say t ?is explanation is purely arbitr>y1 & t !re is no gr\nd1 except ! difficulty itself1 ^u :i* _! exclusion f ! spee* c be bas$4 ,9 ! cases to :i* we h hi!rto ref]r$1 ! impossibility ( suppos+ t ,pet] c\ld h spok5 9 ?is way has l$ writ]s to lay ! responsibility ( unackn[l$g$ int]polations 9 ! spee* ^u ! ,au?or ( ,acts1 ?us at once reliev+ ! ,apo/le4 ,!re are "s apologi/s1 h[ev]1 :o d n adopt ?is exp$i5t1 b attempt to meet ! difficulty 9 o!r ways1 :ile accept+ ! :ole z a spee* ( ,pet]4 ,accord+ to "o !ory1 ^? :o object t ,pet] c\ld n h ?us relat$ ! dea? ( ,judas to p :o mu/ already h be5 well acqua9t$ ) ! circum/ances h totally ov]look$ ! fact1 t a peculi> view ( :at has occurr$ is tak5 9 ! n>rative1 & t ?is peculi> view is ! pr9cipal po9t ( x ,accord+ to ! /atem5t made1 ,judas met 8 mis]able end 9 ! v field :i* he _h b\ght ) #ajb ! price ( blood4 ,x is ?is circum/ance1 x appe>s1 :i* ,pet] br+s prom95tly =w>d & repres5ts z a manife/ & tangible disp5sation ( ,div9e ju/ice47#a7 ,un=tunately1 h[ev]1 ?is is cle>ly an imag9>y moral atta*$ to ! n>rative by ! apologi/1 & is n ! object ( ! suppos$ speak]1 :o r desires to ju/ify ! =c$ application to ,judas ( ! quotations 9 v]se #bj1 :i* are directly connect$ ) ! prec$+ by ------4 ,moreov]1 no explanation is "h (f]$ ( ! extraord9>y expressions 9 v]se #ai address$ to citiz5s ( ,j]usalem by a ,jew 9 _! own tongue4 ,ano!r explanation1 :i* includes ^! po9ts1 is /ill m /rik+4 ,) reg>d to ! improbability ( ,pet]'s relat+1 9 su* a way1 ! dea? ( ,judas1 x is argu$ t1 accord+ to ! ,evangeli/s1 ! disciples w5t f ,j]usalem back to ,galilee "s eight days aft] ! resurrection1 & only return$1 e>li] ?an usual1 be=e ,p5teco/ to await ! fulfilm5t ( ! promise ( ,jesus4 ,pet] & 8 companions1 x is suppos$1 only aft] _! return became acqua9t$ ) ! fate ( ,judas1 :i* _h tak5 place dur+ _! abs5ce1 & ! matt] 01 !re=e1 q new to !m2 besides1 x is add$1 a speak] is (t5 oblig$ on acc\nt ( "s connection ) 8 subject to relate facts already kn[n47#b7 ,x is true t "s ( ! ,evangeli/s repres5t ?is return to ,galilee7#c7 z hav+ tak5 place1 b ! au?or ( ! ?ird ,gospel & ! ,acts n only #c ,mt4 xxviii4 #aj1 #aj2 ,mk4 xvi4 #g2 ,john xxi4 #a4 ,i7r4 ,f>r>1 some:at p]t95tly1 asks3 ,:y did !y 7! disciples7 n g to ,galilee imm$iately on receiv+ our ,"l's message8 ,! circum/ance is unexpla9$444 ,p]haps ! entire message ( ,jesus to !m is n record$2 p]haps !y await$ ! end ( ! fea/4 ,life ( ,*ri/1 ii4 p4 #dda1 note #a4 #ajc does n d s b excludes x47#a7 ,9 ! ?ird ,gospel 7xxiv4 #di71 ,jesus comm&s ! disciples to rema9 9 ,j]usalem until !y are endu$ ) p[] f on high1 & !n1 aft] bless+ !m1 he is p>t$ f !m1 & !y return f ,be?any to ,j]usalem47#b7 ,9 ,acts1 ! au?or aga9 takes up ! !me1 & :il/ evid5tly giv+ lat] traditions reg>d+ ! appe>ances aft] ! resurrection1 he adh]es to 8 v]sion ( ! /ory reg>d+ ! comm& to /ay 9 ,j]usalem4 ,9 i4 #d1 he says3 ,& be+ assembl$ toge!r ) !m he comm&$ !m n to dep>t f ,j]usalem1 b to wait = ! promise ( ! ,fa!r1 etc42 & "h aga91 v]se #ab1 ! disciples are repres5t$1 j be=e ,pet]'s spee* is suppos$ to h be5 deliv]$1 z return+ f ! ,m\nt ( ,olives to ,j]usalem4 ,! ,au?or ( ,acts & ( ! ?ird ,synoptic1 !re=e1 gives no c\nt5ance to ?is !ory4 ,besides1 sett+ all ?is aside1 ! apologetic hypo!sis we are discuss+ is q exclud$ ^u o!r gr\nds4 ,if we suppose t ! disciples did g into ,galilee = a "t1 we f9d !m aga9 9 ,j]usalem at ! election ( ! successor to ,judas1 & !re is no reason to believe t !y _h only j return$4 ,! ,acts n only all[ ( no int]val at all = ! j\rney to ,galilee betwe5 i4 #ab-ad & #ae ff41 b by ! simple /atem5t #b ,we %all h]eaft] h to g m fully into ?is1 & %all n discuss x "h4 ,! ?ird ,gospel really repres5ts ! ,asc5sion z tak+ place on ! day ( ! ,resurrection2 & ,acts1 :il/ giv+ lat] tradition1 & mak+ ! ,asc5sion occur =ty days aft]1 does n am5d1 b confirms ! previ\sly enunciat$ view t ! disciples _h be5 ord]$ to /ay 9 ,j]usalem4 #ajd ) :i* our episode comm5ces1 v4 #ae3 ,& 9 ^! days ------1 ,pet] conveys any?+ b ! impression ( any v rec5t return to ,j]usalem4 ,if ! ,apo/les _h be5 ev5 a few days !re1 ! incongruity ( ! spee* w\ld rema9 undim9i%$2 = ! #abj bre?r5 :o are said to h be5 pres5t mu/ *iefly h be5 resid5ts 9 ,j]usalem1 & _c be4 suppos$ also to h be5 abs5t1 &1 9 any case1 ev5ts :i* are repres5t$ z s well kn[n to all ! dwell]s 9 ,j]usalem1 mu/ c]ta9ly h be5 famili> to ! small ,*ri/ian community1 ^: int]e/ 9 ! matt] 0 s specially great4 ,moreov]1 accord+ to ! fir/ ,synoptic1 z soon z ,judas sees t ,jesus is condemn$1 he br+s ! money back to ! *ief prie/s1 ca/s x d[n & goes & hangs himself1 xxvii4 #c ff4 ,?is is relat$ ev5 be=e ! f9al condemnation ( ,jesus & be=e 8 crucifixion1 & ! read] is l$ to believe t ,judas at once put an end to himself1 s t ! disciples1 :o are repres5t$ z be+ /ill 9 ,j]usalem = at lea/ eight days aft] ! resurrection1 mu/ h be5 !re at ! "t4 ,) reg>d to ! s+ul> expressions 9 v]se #ai1 ?is !ory goes on to suppose t1 out ( consid]ation = ,greek fell[-believ]s1 ,pet] _h probably already begun to speak 9 ! ,greek tongue2 & :5 he designates ! language ( ! dwell]s 9 ,j]usalem z _! own dialect1 he does n !reby mean ,hebrew 9 itself1 b _! own expression1 ! peculi> confession ( ! opposite p>ty1 :i* admitt$ ! cruel trea*]y t[>ds ,jesus1 9 t !y nam$ ! piece ( gr\nd ,hakel ,damah47#a7 ,"h1 aga91 :at assumptions6 ,x is g5]ally recogniz$ t ,pet] mu/ h spok5 9 #aje ,aramaic1 & ev5 if he did n1 ------7#a7 _c mean any?+ b ! language ( all !-dwell]s at ,j]usalem4 ,9 a spee* deliv]$ at ,j]usalem1 9 any language1 to an audi5ce consi/+ at lea/ 9 consid]able "p ( inhabitants ( ! place1 & c]ta9ly almo/ entirely ( p]sons ^: native tongue 0 ,aramaic1 to tell !m t ! inhabitants call$ a c]ta9 field 9 _! own tongue ,a*eldama*1 giv+ !m at ! same "t a translation ( ! ^w1 is inconceivable to mo/ critics1 ev5 includ+ apologi/s4 ,!re is ano!r po9t :i* indicates n only t ?is !ory is inadequate to solve ! difficulty1 b t ! spee* c\ld n h be5 deliv]$ by ,pet] a few weeks aft] ! occurr5ces relat$4 ,x is /at$ t ! circum/ances n>rat$ 7 s well kn[n to ! inhabitants ( ,j]usalem1 t ! field 0 call$ 9 _! own tongue ,a*eldama*4 ,! orig9 ( ?is "n is n ascrib$ to ! prie/s or rul]s1 b to ! p1 & x is n to be suppos$ t a popul> "n c\ld h become atta*$ to ?is field1 & s g5]ally adopt$ z ! text repres5ts1 )9 ! v %ort "t :i* c\ld h elaps$ betwe5 ! dea? ( ,judas & ! deliv]y ( ?is spee*4 ,be x rememb]$ t f ! "t ( ! crucifixion to ,p5teco/ ! int]val 0 9 all only ab\t sev5 weeks1 & t ?is spee* 0 made "s "t be=e ,p5teco/1 h[ long we _c tell1 b 9 any case1 ! int]val 0 mu* too brief to p]mit ( ! popul> adoption ( ! "n47#b7 ,! :ole passage has mu* m ! "* ( a n>rative ( #ajf ev5ts :i* _h occurr$ at a "t long pa/1 ?an ( circum/ances :i* _h tak5 place a few days be=e4 ,! obvi\s conclusion is t ?is spee* 0 nev] spok5 by ,pet]1 b is a mu* lat] composition put into 8 m\?1#a & writt5 = ,greek read]s1 :o requir$ to be told ab\t ,judas1 & = ^: b5efit ! ,hebrew "n ( ! field1 ins]t$ = local col\r+1 _h to be translat$4 ,?is is confirm$ by sev]al circum/ances1 to :i* we may ref]4 ,we %all n dwell mu* ^u ! fact t ,pet] is repres5t$ z apply+ to ,judas two passages quot$ f ! ,septuag9t v]sion ( ,ps4 lxix4 #be 7,sept lxviii47 & ,ps4 cix4 7,sept cviii47 :i*1 hi/orically1 _c = a mom5t be su/a9$ z ref]r+ to him47#b7 ,! fir/ ( ^! ,psalms is quot$ freely1 & moreov] ! d5unciations 9 ! orig9al be+ aga9/ a plurality ( enemies1 x c only be made applicable to ,judas by alt]+ ! plural _! ------ to 8 habitation ------1 a consid]able lib]ty to take ) prophecy4 ,! ,holy ,_s is said to h #ajg spok5 ?is prophecy conc]n+ ,judas by ! m\? ( ,david1 b mod]n rese>* has l$ critics to hold x z mo/ probable t nei!r ,ps4 lxix47#a7 nor ,ps4 cix47#b7 0 compos$ by ,david at all4 ,z we "k no?+ ( ,pet]'s usual sy/em ( exegesis1 h[ev]1 v little weight z evid5ce c be atta*$ to ?is4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is cle> t a consid]able "t mu/ h elaps$ be=e ^! two passages f ! ,psalms c\ld h become appli$ to ! dea? ( ,judas47#c7 ,! acc\nt :i* is giv5 ( ! fate ( ,judas is contradictory to t giv5 9 ! fir/ ,synoptic & _c be reconcil$ ) x1 b foll[s a diff]5t tradition47#d7 ,accord+ to ! fir/ ,synoptic 7xxvii4 #c ff471 ,judas br+s back ! ?irty pieces ( silv]1 ca/s !m d[n 9 ! ,temple1 & !n goes & hangs himself4 ,! *ief prie/s take ! money & buy ) x ! ,pott]'s field1 :i* is n said to h _h any o!r connection ) ,judas1 z a place = ! burial ( /rang]s4 ,9 ! ,acts1 ,judas himself buys a field z a private possession1 & in/ead #ajh ( committ+ suicide by hang+1 he is repres5t$ z dy+ f a fall 9 ?is field1 :i* is evid5tly reg>d$ z a special judgm5t ^u him = 8 crime4 ,! apologetic attempts to reconcile ^! two n>ratives17#a7 are truly lam5table4 ,beyond call+ att5tion to ?is among/ o!r ph5om5a pres5t$ 9 ?is spee*1 h[ev]1 we h n fur!r to d ) ! po9t at pres5t ,we h already devot$ too mu* space to ,pet]'s fir/ address1 & we n[ pass on to m important topics4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,primitive ,,*ri/ianity4 ,we n[ ent] ^u a portion ( our exam9ation ( ! ,acts :i* is s full ( int]e/ 9 itself t peculi> c>e w be requisite to re/ra9 ourselves )9 necess>y limits4 ,hi!rto our att5tion has be5 ma9ly conf9$ to ! int]nal ph5om5a pres5t$ by ! docum5t be=e u1 ) comp>atively little aid f ext]nal te/imony1 & al?\gh ! results ( su* criticism h be5 ( no equivocal "*1 ! hi/orical v]acity ( ! ,acts has n yet be5 te/$ by direct comp>ison ) o!r s\rces ( in=mation4 ,we n[ propose to exam9e1 z briefly z may be1 "s ( ! hi/orical /atem5ts 9 !mselves1 & by ! light ( in=mation d]iv$ f contempor>y witnesses ( unimpea*able au?ority1 & to confront !m ) well-e/abli%$ facts 9 ! annals ( ! fir/ two c5turies4 ,?is leads u to ! bord]s n only ( "o ( ! greate/ controv]sies :i* has = half a c5tury occupi$ !ological criticism1 b also ( /ill m important que/ions reg>d+ ! orig9al "* & sy/ematic developm5t ( ,*ri/ianity itself4 ,! latt] we mu/ "h resolutely pass almo/ unnotic$1 & into ! =m] we %all only ent] s f> z is absolutely necess>y to ! special object ( our inquiry4 ,! docum5t be=e u pr(esses to give a n>rative ( ! progress ( ! #aaj primitive ,*ur* f its fir/ =mation 9 ! mid/ ( ,mosaism1 ) /rong ,judai/ic rules & prejudices1 up to t lib]al univ]salism :i* freely admitt$ ! *ri/ian ,g5tile1 ^u equal t]ms1 into communion ) ! *ri/ian ,jew4 ,! "q ) :i* we are conc]n$ is /rictly ?is3 ,is ! acc\nt 9 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les ( ! successive /eps by :i* ,*ri/ianity em]g$ f ,judaism1 &1 %ak+ (f ! re/rictions & obligations ( ! ,mosaic law1 admitt$ ! ,g5tiles to a full p>ticipation ( its privileges hi/orically true8 ,is ! repres5tation :i* is made ( ! conduct & tea*+ ( ! old] ,apo/les on ! "o h&1 & ( ,paul on ! o!r1 & ( _! mutual relations an accurate "o8 ,c ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 9 %ort1 be consid]$ a sob] & v]aci\s hi/ory ( s important & int]e/+ an epo* ( ! *ri/ian ,*ur*8 ,?is has be5 vehem5tly disput$ or d5i$1 & ! discussion1 ext5d+ on e side into important collat]al issues1 =ms 9 itself a lit]ature ( volum9\s ext5t & pr(\nd int]e/4 ,our pa? n[ lies ?r\gh ?is debatable l&2 b al?\gh ! controv]sy z to ! connection ( ,paul ) ! developm5t ( ,*ri/ianity & 8 relation to ! ,apo/les ( ! ,circumcision _c be altoge!r avoid$1 x only p>tially conc]ns u4 ,we are fre$ f ! necessity ( advanc+ any p>ticul> !ory1 & h "h no fur!r int]e/ 9 x ?an to inquire :e!r ! n>rative ( ! ,acts is hi/orical or n4 ,if1 !re=e1 avoid+ _m important b unnecess>y que/ions1 & re/rict+ ourselves to a /raight c\rse across ! great controv]sy1 we seem to deal insuffici5tly ) ! g5]al subject1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! argum5t is m]ely incid5tal to our inquiry1 & t we n only d n #aaa pret5d to exhau/ x1 b di/9ctly endeav\r to r$uce our %>e 9 x to ! smalle/ limits compatible ) our imm$iate object4 ,accord+ to ! n>rative ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 ! apo/olic age pres5ts a mo/ edify+ example ( concord & mod]ation4 ,! emancipation ( ! ,*ur* f ,mosaic re/rictions 0 effect$ )\t /rife or he>t-burn+1 & ! fre$om ( ! ,gospel1 if n atta9$ )\t hesitation1 0 f9ally proclaim$ ) s+ul> l>g5ess ( m9d & philosophic lib]ality4 ,! tea*+ ( ,paul diff]$ 9 no?+ f t ( ! eld] apo/les4 ,! *ri/ian univ]salism1 :i* s _m suppose to h specially *>act]iz$ ! great ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles1 0 n only %>$1 b ev5 anticipat$1 by ! eld] ,apo/les4 ,s f> f oppos+ ! free admission ( ! ,g5tiles to ! *ri/ian community1 ,pet] decl>es himself to h be5 *os5 ( ,god t by 8 voice !y %\ld he> ! gospel17#a7 proclaims t !re is no di/9ction betwe5 ,jew & ,g5tile17#b7 & advocates ! abrogation1 9 _! case at lea/1 ( ! ,mosaic law47#c7 ,james1 :atev] 8 private pr$ilections may be1 exhibits almo/ equal =be>ance & desire ( conciliation4 ,9 fact1 :atev] anomalies & contradictions may be discov]able1 ^u close exam9ation1 b5ea? ?is smoo? & brilliant surface1 ! picture sup]ficially pres5t$ is "o ( s+ul> h>mony & peace4 ,on ! o!r h&1 in/ead ( t s5sitive indep5d5ce & self-reliance ( "* :i* has be5 ascrib$ to ! ,apo/le ,paul1 we f9d him repres5t$ 9 ! ,acts z submissive to ! au?ority ( ! ,pill>s ( ! *ur*1 ready to con=m to _! #aab c\nsels & b[ to _! decrees1 & z seiz+ e opportunity ( visit+ ,j]usalem1 & com+ 9 contact ) t /ronghold ( ,judaism4 ,in/ead ( ! ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles1 prea*+ ! abrogation ( ! law1 & m ?an suspect$ ( lead+ ! ,jews to apo/atize f ,moses17#a7 we f9d a man ev5 scrupul\s 9 8 obs]vance ( ,mosaic cu/oms1 tak+ v[s ^u him1 circumcis+ ,timo?y ) 8 own h&1 & decl>+ at ! close ( 8 c>e]1 :5 a prison] at ,rome1 t he did no?+ aga9/ ! p or ! cu/oms ( ! fa!rs47#b7 ,!re is no trace ( angry controv]sy1 ( jeal\s susceptibility1 ( dogmatic diff]5ce 9 ! circle ( ! apo/les4 ,! int]c\rse ( ,paul ) ! lead]s ( ! ,judai/ic p>ty is ( ! mo/ unbrok5 pleasantness & amity4 ,( opposition to 8 m9i/ry1 or d\bt ( 8 apo/le%ip1 :e!r on ! "p ( ! ,?ree1 or ( ^? :o id5tifi$ !mselves ) _! tea*+1 we h no h9t4 ,we mu/ endeav\r to asc]ta9 :e!r ?is is a true repres5tation ( ! e>ly developm5t ( ! ,*ur*1 & ( ! mom5t\s hi/ory ( ! apo/olic age4 ,9 ! epi/les ( ,paul we h1 at lea/ to "s ext5t1 ! means ( te/+ ! accuracy ( ! /atem5ts ( ! ,acts ) reg>d to him & ! e>ly hi/ory ( ! ,*ur*4 ,! ,epi/les to ! ,galatians1 to ! ,cor9?ians 7#b71 & to ! ,romans are g5]ally admitt$ to be g5u9e17#c7 & c be freely us$ = ?is purpose4 ,to ^! we %all limit our att5tion1 exclud+ o!r epi/les1 ^: au!nticity is ei!r que/ion$ or d5i$1 b 9 do+ s no mat]ial capable ( really affect+ ! result is set aside4 ,= ! same reason1 we #aac mu/ reject any evid5ce to be d]iv$ f ! s-call$ ,epi/les ( ,pet] & ,james1 at lea/ s f> z !y are suppos$ to repres5t ! op9ions ( ,pet] & ,james1 b "h aga9 x w be f\nd t !y d n mat]ially affect ! po9ts imm$iately be=e u4 ,! v]acity ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les be+ ! v po9t :i* is 9 "q1 x is unnecess>y to say t we h to subject ! n>rative to exam9ation1 & by no means to assume ! correctness ( any /atem5ts we f9d 9 x4 ,at ! same "t x mu/ be our endeav\r to collect f ?is docum5t su* indications--& !y w frequ5tly be valuable--( ! true hi/ory ( ! occurr5ces relat$1 z may be pres5t$ betwe5 ! l9es ( ! text4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( full] in=mation1 x mu/ n be =gott5 t human nature 9 ! fir/ c5tury ( our era 0 v mu* :at x is 9 ! n9ete5?1 & c]ta9 facts be+ cle>ly e/abli%$1 x w n be difficult to inf] _m details :i* _c n[ be positively demon/rat$4 ,! ,epi/le to ! ,galatians1 h[ev]1 w be our mo/ invaluable guide4 ,deal+1 z x does1 ) "s ( ! pr9cipal episodes ( ! ,acts1 we are enabl$ by ! words ( ! apo/le ,paul himself1 :i* h all ! acc5t ( tru? & vehem5t e>ne/ness1 to control ! n>rative ( ! unkn[n writ] ( t "w4 ,& :]e ?is s\rce fails1 we h ! unsuspect$ te/imony ( 8 o!r epi/les1 & ( lat] ecclesia/ical hi/ory to assi/ our inquiry4 ,! problem !n :i* we h to consid] is ! mann] 9 :i* ! primitive ,*ur* em]g$ f its e>lie/ =m1 z a ,jewi% in/itution ) ,mosaic re/rictions & ,israeliti% exclusiv5ess1 & f9ally op5$ wide its doors to ! uncircumcis$ ,g5tile1 & assum$ #aad ! "* ( a univ]sal religion4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ! nature ( ! case1 & be able to e/imate aright ! solution :i* is pres5t$ by ! n>rative 9 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 x is necess>y t we %\ld obta9 a cle> view ( ! actual *>act]i/ics ( ,*ri/ianity at ! p]iod :5 t hi/ory beg9s4 ,we mu/ endeav\r to und]/& precisely :at view ! ,apo/les _h =m$ ( _! position 9 reg>d to ,judaism1 & ( ! duty :i* devolv$ ^u !m ( propagat+ ! ,gospel4 ,x is obvi\s t we _c rightly appreciate ! am\nt ( p]suasion requisite to trans=m ! primitive ,*ur* f ,jewi% exclusive-ness to ,*ri/ian univ]sality1 )\t asc]ta9+ ! probable am\nt ( long root$ conviction & religi\s prejudice or pr9ciple :i* _h to be ov]come be=e t great *ange c\ld be effect$4 ,we %all n "h ent] ^u any argum5t z to ! precise views :i* ! ,f\nd] ( ,*ri/ianity may h held z to 8 own p]son & "w1 nor %all we attempt to sift ! traditions ( 8 life & tea*+ :i* h be5 h&$ d[n to u1 & to sep>ate ! g5u9e spiritual nucleus f ! gross] matt] by :i* x has be5 envelop$ & obscur$4 ,we h mu* m to d ) ! view :i* o!rs took ( ! matt]1 &1 look+ at ! ,gospels z repres5tations ( t :i* 0 accept$ z ! or?odox view reg>d+ ! tea*+ ( ,jesus1 !y are almo/ z useful = our pres5t purpose z if !y _h be5 m spiritual & less popul> expositions ( 8 views4 ,:at ! ,ma/] 0 und]/ood to tea* is m important = ! hi/ory ( ! fir/ c5tury ?an :at he actually taught )\t be+ und]/ood4 ,no?+ is m c]ta9 ?an ! fact t ,*ri/ianity1 orig9ally1 0 #aae develop$ out ( ,judaism1 & t its adv5t 0 hi/orically prep>$ by ! c\rse ( ! ,mosaic sy/em1 to :i* x 0 s closely relat$47#a7 ,9 its fir/ /ages dur+ ! apo/olic age1 x _h no high] ambition ?an to be1 & to be consid]$1 ! cont9uation & ! fulfilm5t ( ,judaism1 its f9al & triumphant phase4 ,! sub/antial id5tity ( primitive ,*ri/ianity ) true ,judaism 0 at fir/ nev] call$ 9 "q2 x 0 consid]$ a m]e int]nal movem5t ( ,judaism1 its developm5t & completion1 b by no means its mutilation4 ,! idea ( ,*ri/ianity z a new religion nev] ent]$ ! m9ds ( ! ,twelve or ( ! fir/ believ]s1 nor1 z we %all pres5tly see1 0 x s reg>d$ by ! ,jews !mselves4 ,x 0 9 fact1 orig9ally1 no?+ m ?an a sect ( ,judaism1 hold+ a p>ticul> view ( "o po9t 9 ! cre$ &1 = a v long p]iod1 x 0 consid]$ s by o!rs1 & 0 9 no way di/+ui%$ f ! re/ ( ,mosaism47#b7 ,ev5 9 ! ,acts !re are traces ( ?is1 ,paul be+ call$ a r+lead] ( ! sect ------ ( ! ,naz>5es17#c7 & ! ,jews ( ,rome be+ repres5t$ z ref]r+ to ,*ri/ianity by ?is t]m47#d7 ,paul be=e ! ,c\ncil n #aaf only does n scruple to call himself a ,ph>isee1 ! son ( a ,ph>isee1 b ! ,ph>isees take "p ) him aga9/ ! m unor?odox & hat$ sect ( ! ,sadducees47#a7 ,= eighte5 c5turies disputes h fi]cely rag$ ov] ! cre$ ( ,*ri/5dom1 & ! +5uity ( c\ntless div9es has be5 exhau/$ 9 d$uc+ my/ic dogmas f ! primitive tea*+1 b if !re be "o ?+ m rem>kable ?an ano!r 9 t tea*+1 accord+ to ! ,synoptics1 x is its p]fect simplicity4 ,jesus did n appe> ) a ready-made !ology1 & impos$ no elaborate sy/em ( doctr9e ^u 8 disciples4 ,?r\gh\t ! prophetic p]iod ( ,mosaism1 "o hope _h su/a9$ ! p ( ,israel 9 all _! suff]+s & rev]ses3 t ! =tunes ( ! nation %\ld f9ally be retriev$ by a scion ( ! race ( ,david1 "u ^: rule x %\ld be re/or$ to a future ( unexampl$ spl5d\r & prosp]ity4 ,! expectation ( ! ,messiah1 "u frequ5tly modifi$ aspects1 _h =m$ a liv+ "p 9 ! national fai? ( ,israel4 ,primitive ,*ri/ianity1 %>+ b reca/+ ?is anci5t hope1 0 only di/+ui%$ f ,judaism1 ) ^: wor%ip x cont9u$ 9 all po9ts unit$1 by a s+le doctr9e1 :i* 0 9 itself m]ely a modification ( ! national idea3 ! belief t ,jesus ( ,naz>e? 0 actually ! ,*ri/1 ! promis$ ,messiah4 ,?is 0 sub/antially ! :ole ( its cre$47#b7 #aag ,! synoptic ,gospels1 & m especially ! fir/17#a7 are cle>ly a hi/ory ( ,jesus z ! ,messiah ( ! h\se ( ,david1 s long ann\nc$ & expect$1 & ^: life & ev5 8 dea? & resurrection are %[n to be ! fulfilm5t ( a s]ies ( ,old ,te/am5t prophecies47#b7 ,:5 8 bir? is ann\nc$ to ,m>y1 he is describ$ z ! great "o1 :o is to sit on ! ?rone ( ,david 8 fa!r1 & reign ov] ! h\se ( ,jacob = ev]17#c7 & ! good tid+s ( great joy to all ! p ------1 t ! ,messiah is born t day 9 ! city ( ,david1 are proclaim$ by ! angel to ! %eph]ds ( ! pla947#d7 ,synieon takes ! *ild 9 8 arms & blesses ,god t ! words ( ! ,holy ,_s are accompli%$1 t he %\ld n die be=e he _h se5 ! ,"l's ano9t$1 ! ,messiah1 ! consolation ( ,israel47#e7 ,! ,magi come to 8 cradle 9 ,be?lehem1 ! bir?place ( ! ,messiah indicat$ by ! prophet17#f7 to d homage to him :o is born ,k+ ( ! ,jews17#g7 & !re ,h]od seeks to de/roy him17#h7 fulfill+ ano!r #aah prophecy47#a7 ,8 flight into ,egypt & return to ,naz>e? are equally 9 fulfilm5t ( prophecies47#b7 ,john ! ,bapti/1 ^: own bir? z ! =]unn] ( ! ,messiah _h be5 =etold17#c7 goes be=e him prep>+ ! way ( ! ,"l1 & ann\nc+ t ! ,messianic k+dom is at h&4 ,accord+ to ! f\r? ,gospel1 "s ( ! twelve _h be5 disciples ( ! ,bapti/1 & foll[ ,jesus on _! ma/]'s assurance t he is ! ,messiah4 ,"o ( ^!1 ,&rew1 induces 8 bro!r ,simon ,pet] also to g aft] him by ! ann\ncem5t3--,we h f\nd ! ,messiah1 :i* is1 be+ int]pret$1 ! ,*ri/ 7i4 #ce;ff4 #da74 ,& ,philip tells ,na?aniel3--,we h f\nd him ( :om ,moses 9 ! ,law & ! ,prophets did write3 ,jesus1 ! son ( ,joseph1 :o is f ,naz>e? 7i4 #de74 ,:5 he has comm5c$ 8 own public m9i/ry1 ,jesus is repres5t$ z ask+ 8 disciples3--,:o d m5 say t ,i am8 & sett+ aside ! popul> conjectures t he is ,john ! ,bapti/1 ,elijah1 ,j]emiah1 or "o ( ! prophets1 by ! /ill m direct "q3--,& :om d ye say t ,i am8 ,simon ,pet] answ]$ & said3--,?\ art ! ,*ri/1 ! ,son ( ! liv+ ,god4 ,& 9 consequ5ce ( ?is recognition ( 8 ,messiah%ip1 ,jesus rejo9s3--,& ,i say unto !e t ?\ art ,pet]1 & ^u ?is rock ,i w build my ,*ur*47#d7 #aai ,x is q ap>t f our pres5t object to po9t out ! s+ul> feats ( exegesis & p]v]sions ( hi/orical ,s#cnse by :i* passages ( ! ,old ,te/am5t are =c$ to %[ t e ev5t 9 ! hi/ory1 & ev5 ! />tl+ novelty ( a suff]+ & crucifi$ ,messiah1 :i* to ,jews 0 a /umbl+-block & to ,g5tiles folly17#a7 _h be5 =etold by ! prophets4 ,f fir/ to la/ ! ,gospels /rive to prove t ,jesus 0 ! ,messiah1 & connect him indissolubly ) ! ,old ,te/am5t4 ,! ,messianic key-note1 :i* is /ruck at ! outset1 regulates ! /ra9 to ! close4 ,! disciples on ! way to ,emmaus1 appall$ by ! ignom9i\s dea? ( _! ,ma/]1 sadly confide to ! /rang] _! vani%$ hope t ,jesus ( ,naz>e?1 :om !y n[ m]ely call a prophet mighty 9 ^w & de$ be=e ,god & all ! p1 0 ! ,*ri/ :o 0 ab\t to r$eem ,israel1 & ,jesus himself replies3--,o fooli% & sl[ ( he>t to believe all t ! prophets spake6 ,0 x n ne$ful t ! ,*ri/ 7,messiah7 %\ld suff] ^! ?+s & ent] into 8 glory8 ,&1 beg9n+ at ,moses & all ! prophets1 he exp\nd$ unto !m 9 all ! ,scriptures ! ?+s conc]n+ himself47#b7 ,!n1 aga91 :5 he appe>s to ! elev51 imm$iately aft]1 at ,j]usalem1 he says3--',^! are ! words t ,i spake unto y :ile ,i 0 yet ) y1 t all ?+s mu/ be fulfill$ :i* are writt5 9 ! law ( ,moses & ! prophets & ! ,psalms conc]n+ me4' ,!n op5$ he _! und]/&+ t !y might und]/& ! ,scriptures1 & said unto !m3--',?us x is writt51 t ! ,*ri/ %\ld suff] & rise f ! dead ! ?ird day4'7#c7 #abj ,! crucifixion & dea? ( ,jesus introduc$ ! fir/ elem5ts ( rupture ) ,judaism1 to :i* !y =m$ ! great /umbl+-block47#a7 ,! conception ( a suff]+ & despis$ ,messiah c\ld naturally nev] h occurr$ to a ,jewi% m9d47#b7 ,! fir/ ef=t ( ,*ri/ianity1 !re=e1 0 to repair ! app>5t brea* by prov+ t ! suff]+ ,messiah _h actually be5 =etold by ! prophets2 & to re-e/abli% ! ,messianic "* ( ,jesus1 by ! evid5ce ( 8 resurrection47#c7 ,b1 above all1 ! mom5t>y deviation f or?odox ,jewi% ideas reg>d+ ! ,messiah 0 retrac$ by ! repres5tation ( a spe$y second adv5t1 9 glory1 ( ! once reject$ ,messiah to re/ore ! k+dom ( ,israel1 by :i* ! anci5t hopes ( ! p became reconcil$ ) ! new expectation ( ,*ri/ians4 ,ev5 be=e ! ,asc5sion1 ! disciples are repres5t$ 9 ! ,acts z ask+ ! ris5 ,jesus3--,"l1 do/ ?\ at ?is "t re/ore ! k+dom to ,israel87#d7 ,!re c be no d\bt ( ! reality & #aba univ]sality ( ! belief1 9 ! ,apo/olic ,*ur*1 9 ! imm$iate return ( ! glorifi$ ,messiah & spe$y end ( all ?+s47#a7 ,! sub/ance ( ! prea*+ ( ! ,apo/les 9 ,acts1 simply is t ,jesus is ! ,*ri/17#b7 ! expect$ ,messiah47#c7 ,_! *ief aim is to prove t 8 suff]+s & dea? _h be5 =etold by ! prophets17#d7 & t 8 resurrection e/abli%es 8 claim to ! title47#e7 ,! simplicity ( ! cre$ is illu/rat$ by ! rapidity ) :i* conv]ts are made4 ,aft] a few words1 on "o occasion1 ?ree ?\s&7#f7 &1 on ano!r1 five ?\s&7#g7 are at once conv]t$4 ,no l5g!n$ in/ruction or prep>ation 0 requisite = admission into ! ,*ur*47#h7 ,z soon z a ,jew ackn[l$g$ ,jesus to be ! ,messiah he !reby became a ,*ri/ian47#i7 ,z soon z ! #abb ?ree ?\s& conv]ts at ,p5teco/ made ?is confession ( fai? !y 7 baptiz$47#a7 ,! ,e?iopian is conv]t$ :il/ pass+ 9 8 *>iot1 & is imm$iately baptiz$17#b7 z are likewise ,cornelius & 8 h\sehold aft] a %ort address f ,pet]47#c7 ,! new fai? involv$ no ab&onm5t ( ! old4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! adv5t ( ! ,messiah 0 s ess5tial a "p ( ,judaic belief1 & ! ,messianic claim ( ,jesus 0 s completely bas$ by ! ,apo/les on ! fulfilm5t ( prophecy--%[+ by ! ,scriptures t ,jesus is ! ,*ri/1--t recognition ( ! fact r con/itut$ firm] adhesion to ,mosaism1 & deep] fai? 9 ! inviolable tru? ( ! ,cov5ant ) ,israel4 ,if !re _h be5 no ,mosaism1 s to say1 !re c\ld h be5 no ,messiah4 ,s f> f be+ oppos$ ei!r to ! =m or _s ( ! religion ( ,israel1 ! proclamation ( ! ,messiah 0 its necess>y complem5t1 & c\ld only be intelligible by confirmation ( its tru? & ma9t5ance ( its validity4 ,*ri/ianity--belief 9 ! ,messiah--9 its e>li] phases1 drew its :ole n\ri%m5t f roots t sank deeply into ,mosaism4 ,x 0 inde$ no?+ m ?an ,mosaism 9 a develop$ =m4 ,! only diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,jew & ! ,*ri/ian 0 t ! latt] believ$ ! ,messiah to h already appe>$ 9 ,jesus1 :il/ ! =m] /ill expect$ him 9 ! future27#d7 ?\gh ev5 ?is diff]5ce #abc 0 s+ul>ly dim9i%$1 9 appe>ance at lea/1 by ! ,*ri/ian expectation ( ! second adv5t4 ,x is exce$+ly important to asc]ta91 "u ^! circum/ances1 :at 0 ! impression ( ! ,apo/les z to ! relation ( believ]s to ,judaism & to ,mosaic obs]vances1 al?\gh x mu/ be cle> to any "o :o imp>tially consid]s ! orig9 & hi/orical antec$5ts ( ! ,*ri/ian fai?1 t v little d\bt c h exi/$ 9 _! m9ds on ! subject4 ,! tea*+ ( ,jesus1 z record$ 9 ! synoptic ,gospels1 is by no means ( a d\btful "*1 m especially :5 ! sanctity ( ! ,mosaic sy/em 9 ! eyes ( a ,jew is borne 9 m9d4 ,x mu/ be app>5t t1 9 ord] to remove ! obligation ( a ,law & =m ( wor%ip believ$ to h be51 9 ! mo/ direct s5se1 in/itut$ by ,god himself1 ! mo/ cle>1 /rong1 & reit]at$ ord] w\ld h be5 requisite4 ,no "o c reasonably ma9ta9 t a few spiritual expressions direct$ aga9/ ! b>e lett] & abuse ( ! law1 :i* 7 sc>cely und]/ood by ! he>]s1 c\ld h be5 int5d$ to aboli% a sy/em s firmly plant$1 or to ov]?r[ ,jewi% in/itutions ( su* antiquity & national importance1 mu* less t !y c\ld be tak5 9 ?is s5se by ! disciples4 ,a few passages 9 ! ,gospels1 !re=e1 :i* may be> ! int]pretation ( hav+ =ese5 ! ev5tual sup]session ( ,mosaism by 8 own m spiritual pr9ciples1 mu/ n be /ra9$ to support ! idea t ,jesus taught disreg>d ( ! ,law4 ,8 v di/9ct & positive lessons1 convey$ bo? by precept & practice1 %[1 on ! contr>y1 t n only he did n int5d to attack pure ,mosaism1 b t he 0 und]/ood bo? directly & by inf]5ce to recognise & confirm x4 ,9 ! ,s]mon on ! ,m\nt1 ,jesus #abd /ates to ! disciples 9 ! mo/ positive mann]3--,?9k n t ,i came to de/roy ! law or ! prophets2 ,i came n to de/roy b to fulfil4 ,= v]ily ,i say unto y1 till heav5 & e>? pass1 "o jot or "o tittle %all n pass f ! law1 till all be accompli%$47#a7 ,:e!r ! la/ phrase be int]pret$3 till all ! law be accompli%$1 or till all ?+s appo9t$ to occur be accompli%$1 ! effect is ! same4 ,"o cle> explicit decl>ation l ?is1 "u ! circum/ances1 w\ld outweigh a ho/ ( d\btful expressions4 ,n only does ,jesus 9 ?is passage directly repudiate any idea ( attack+ ! law & ! prophets1 b1 9 repres5t+ 8 mission z _! fulfilm5t1 he affirms !m1 & associates 8 own "w 9 ! close/ way ) !irs4 ,if !re 7 any unc]ta9ty1 h[ev]1 z to ! mean+ ( 8 words x w\ld be remov$ by ! cont9uation3--,:osoev]1 !re=e1 %all break "o ( ^! comm&m5ts1 ev5 ! lea/1 & %all tea* m5 s1 he %all be call$ lea/ 9 ! k+dom ( heav52 b :osoev] %all d & tea* !m1 he %all be call$ great 9 ! k+dom ( heav547#b7 ,x w\ld be difficult = tea*+ to be m decisive 9 fav\r ( ! ma9t5ance ( ! law1 & ?is in/ruction1 accord+ to ! fir/ ,synoptic1 0 specially direct$ to ! disciples47#c7 ,:5 ,jesus goes on to %[ t _! righte\sness mu/ exce$ t ( ! ,scribes & ,ph>isees1 & to add to ! lett] ( ! law1 z int]pret$ by ^? ( old1 8 own pr(\nd int]pretation ( its #abe _s1 he only int5sifies1 )\t limit+1 ! op]ation ( ! law2 he m]ely spiritualises x4 ,he does no m ?an ?is 9 8 lessons reg>d+ ! obs]vance ( ! ,sabba?4 ,he did n 9 po9t ( fact attack ! g5u9e ,mosaic in/itution ( ! day ( re/ at all1 b m]ely ! intol]able lit]alism by :i* its obs]vance _h be5 made a burd5 in/ead ( a delight4 ,he ju/ifi$ 8 v>iation f ! traditional tea*+ & practice ( 8 "t1 h[ev]1 by appeals to ,scriptural prec$5t47#a7 ,z a rec5t writ] has said3 4444! obs]vance ( ! ,sabba?1 :i* _h be5 int5d$ to secure = we>y m5 a re/ full ( love & peace & m]cy1 _h become a m]e national ,feti%--a b>r5 cu/om f5c$ 9 ) ! mo/ frivol\s & s5seless re/rictions47#b7 ,jesus re/or$ its orig9al significance4 ,9 re/rict+ "s ( ! p]missive clauses ( ! ,law1 on ! o!r h&1 he act$ precisely 9 ! same _s4 ,he dealt ) ! ,law n ) ! temp] ( a revolutioni/1 b ( a re=m]1 & 8 re=ms1 s f> f affect+ its p]man5ce1 are a virtual confirmation ( ! re/ ( ! code47#c7 ,rits*l1 ^: views on ?is po9t w h "s weight ) apologi/s1 combats ! idea t ,jesus m]ely confirm$ ! ,mosaic moral law1 & aboli%$ ! c]emonial law4 ,ref]r+ to "o p>ticul> po9t ( importance1 he says3--,he c]ta9ly conte/s ! duty ( ! ,sabba? re/1 ! value ( purifications & sacrifices1 & ! validity ( divorce2 on ! o!r h&1 he leaves unattack$ ! value ( circumcision1 ^: regulation is g5]ally reckon$ z "p ( ! #abf c]emonial law2 & no?+ ju/ifies ! conclusion t ,jesus e/imat$ x 9 ! same way z ,ju/9 ,m>tyr1 & ! o!r ,g5tile ,*ri/ian ,*ur* tea*]s1 :o place x on ! same l9e z ! c]emonies4 ,! only passage 9 :i* ,jesus t\*es ^u circumcision 7,john vii4 #bb7 r proves t1 z an in/itution ( ! patri>*s1 he attributes to x peculi> sanctity4 ,moreov]1 :5 ,jesus1 ) unmi/akable int5tion1 conf9es 8 own p]sonal m9i/ry to ! ,israeliti% p 7,mk4 vii4 #bg1 ,mt4 x4 #e1 #f71 he !reby recognises _! prior "r ( p>ticipation 9 ! ,k+dom ( ,god1 & also1 indirectly1 circumcision z ! sign ( ! pref]5ce ( ?is p4 ,! di/9ction ( circumcision f c]emonies1 besides1 is p]fectly intelligible f ! ,old ,te/am5t4 ,?r\gh circumcision1 to wit1 is ! ,israelite1 sprung f ! p ( ! ,cov5ant1 indicat$ z sanctifi$ by ,god2 ?r\gh purification1 sacrifice1 ,sabba?-re/ mu/ he cont9ually sanctify himself = ,god4 ,s long1 !re=e1 z ! conception ( ! p ( ! ,cov5ant is ma9ta9$1 circumcision _c be ab&on$1 :il/ ev5 ! prophets h po9t$ to ! m]ely relative importance ( ! ,mosaic wor%ip47#a7 ,jesus ev]y:]e 9 ! ,gospels recognises ! div9e orig9 ( ! law17#b7 & he quotes ! pr$ictions ( ! prophets z absolute evid5ce ( 8 own pret5sions4 ,to ^? :o ask him ! way to et]nal life he indicates its comm&m5ts17#c7 & he ev5 enjo9s ! obs]vance ( its c]emonial rites47#d7 ,jesus did n abrogate ! #abg ,mosaic law2 b1 on ! contr>y1 by 8 example z well z 8 precepts1 he practically confirm$ x47#a7 ,accord+ to ! /atem5ts ( ! ,gospels1 ,jesus himself obs]v$ ! prescriptions ( ! ,mosaic law47#b7 ,f 8 bir? he _h be5 br\ght up 9 its wor%ip47#c7 ,he 0 circumcis$ on ! eigh? day47#d7 ,& :5 ! days ( _! purification 7 accompli%$1 accord+ to ! law ( ,moses1 !y br\ght him up to ,j]usalem to pres5t him to ! ,"l1 ev5 z x is writt5 9 ! law ( ! ,"l3 ,e male1 c1 c1 & to give a sacrifice accord+ to t :i* is said 9 ! law ( ! ,"l1 c1 c47#e7 ,e ye> 8 p>5ts w5t to ,j]usalem at ! fea/ ( ! ,passov]17#f7 & ?is practice he cont9u$ till ! close ( 8 life4 ,z 8 cu/om 01 he w5t into ! ,synagogue 7at ,naz>e?7 & /ood up to read47#g7 ,accord+ to ! f\r? ,gospel1 ,jesus goes up to ,j]usalem = ! v>i\s fe/ivals ( ! ,jews17#h7 & ! fea/ ( ! ,passov]1 accord+ to ! ,synoptics1 0 ! la/ memorable supp] eat5 #abh ) 8 disciples17#a7 ! ?ird ,synoptic repres5t+ him z say+3 ,) desire ,i desir$ to eat ?is ,passov] ) y be=e ,i suff]2 = ,i say unto y t ,i %all n any m eat x until x be fulfill$ hi ! k+dom ( ,god47#b7 ,h[ev] exceptional ! "* ( ,jesus1 & h[ev] elevat$ 8 views1 x is und5iable t he liv$ & di$ a ,jew1 con=m+ to ! ord9ances ( ! ,mosaic law 9 all ess5tial po9ts1 & n hold+ himself alo( f ! wor%ip ( ! ,temple :i* he purifi$4 ,! influ5ce :i* 8 adh]5ce to ! =ms ( ,judaism mu/ h ex]t$ ov] 8 foll[]s7#c7 c sc>cely be exagg]at$1 & ! fact mu/ ev] be c>efully borne 9 m9d 9 e/imat+ ! conduct ( ! ,apo/les & ( ! primitive ,*ri/ian community aft] 8 dea?4 ,z befitt$ ! "* ( ! ,jewi% ,messiah1 ! sph]e ( ! m9i/ry ( ,jesus & ! arrangem5ts = ! proclamation ( ! ,gospel 7 /rictly & ev5 int5sely1 ,judaic4 ,jesus atta*$ to 8 p]son twelve disciples1 a numb] cle>ly typical ( ! twelve tribes ( ! p ( ,israel27#d7 & ?is ref]5ce is di/9ctly adopt$ :5 ,jesus is repres5t$1 9 ! ,synoptics1 z promis+ t1 9 ! ,messianic k+dom1 :5 ! ,son #abi ( ,man %all sit on ! ?rone ( 8 glory1 ! ,twelve also %all sit ^u twelve ?rones judg+ ! twelve tribes ( ,israel27#a7 a promise :i*1 accord+ to ! ?ird ,synopti/1 is actually made dur+ ! la/ supp]47#b7 ,9 ! ,apocalypse1 :i*1 ( all ! writ+s ( ! ,new ,te/am5t is mo/ ?or\ghly ,jewi% 9 its language & imag]y17#c7 ! names ( ! twelve ,apo/les ( ! ,lamb are writt5 ^u ! twelve f\ndations ( ! wall ( ! heav5ly ,j]usalem1 ^u ! twelve gates ( :i*1 ?r\gh :i* alone access to ! city c be obta9$1 are ! names ( ! twelve tribes ( ! *ildr5 ( ,israel47#d7 ,jesus himself limit$ 8 tea*+ to ! ,jews1 & 0 /rictly a m9i/] ( ! circumcision = ! tru? ( ,god1 to confirm ! promises made unto ! fa!rs47#e7 ,to ! pray] ( ! ,canaaniti% woman3 ,h m]cy on me1 ,o ,"l1 ,son ( ,david1 unlike 8 graci\s demean\r to h] ( ! bloody issue17#f7 ,jesus1 at fir/1 x is said1 answ]$ h] n a ^w2 & ev5 :5 bes\ght by ! disciples--n to heal h] daught]1 b--to s5d h] away1 he makes ! emphatic decl>ation3 ,i 0 n s5t b unto ! lo/ %eep ( ! h\se ( ,israel47#g7 ,to h] cont9u$ appeals he lays #acj d[n ! pr9ciple3 ,x is n lawful to take ! *ildr5's bread & ca/ x to ! dogs4 ,if aft] ^! exclusive s5t5ces ! boon is f9ally grant$1 x is z ( ! crumbs7#a7 :i* fall f ! ma/]'s table47#b7 ,! modifi$ expression7#c7 9 ! second ,gospel3 ,let ! *ildr5 fir/ be fill$3 = x is n meet to take ! *ildr5's bread & ca/ x to ! dogs2 does n affect ! case1 = x equally repres5ts exclusion f ! privileges ( ,israel1 & ! ,messianic idea fully contemplat$ a c]ta9 grace to ! hea!n :5 ! *ildr5 7 fill$4 ,! expression reg>d+ ca/+1 ! *ildr5's bread to ! dogs is cle>ly 9 ref]5ce to ! ,g5tiles1 :o 7 s call$ by ! ,jews47#d7 ,a simil>1 ?\gh /ill /rong] use ( su* expressions1 might be po9t$ out 9 ! ,s]mon on ! ,m\nt 9 ! fir/ #aca ,gospel 7vii4 #f73 ,give n t :i* is holy unto ! dogs1 nei!r ca/ y\r pe>ls be=e sw9e4 ,x is c]ta9 t ! ,jews 7 9 ! habit ( speak+ ( ! hea!n bo? z dogs & sw9e--unclean animals1--& ,hilg5feld17#a7 & "s o!r critics1 see 9 ?is v]se a ref]5ce to ! ,g5tiles4 ,we d n1 h[ev]1 press ?is application :i* is1 & may be1 disput$1 b m]ely m5tion x & pass on4 ,!re c be no d\bt1 h[ev]1 ( ! exclusive ref]5ces to ! ,g5tiles 9 ! same s]mon1 & o!r passages1 :]e ! disciples are enjo9$ to practise a high] righte\sness ?an ! ,g5tiles4 ,d n ev5 ! publicans444 d n ev5 ! ,g5tiles or s9n]s ! same ?+s47#b7 ,take no ?\ght1 c1 = aft] all ^! ?+s d ! ,g5tiles seek2 b seek ye1 c1 c47#c7 ,! contra/ is precisely t put ) "s irony by ,paul1 mak+ use ( ! common ,jewi% expression s9n] z almo/ equival5t = ,g5tile27#d7 ,9 ano!r place ! fir/ ,synoptic repres5ts ,jesus z tea*+ 8 disciples h[ to deal ) a bro!r :o s9s aga9/ !m1 & z ! f9al res\rce1 :5 e ef=t at reconciliation & ju/ice has fail$1 he says3 ,let him be unto !e z ! ,g5tile ------ & ! publican4 7,mt4 xviii4 #ag47 ,he c\ld n express 9 a /rong] way to a ,jewi% m9d ! idea ( social & religi\s excommunication4 ,! in/ructions :i* ,jesus gives 9 s5d+ out ! ,twelve1 h[ev]1 express ! exclusiv5ess ( ! #acb ,messianic mission1 9 ! fir/ in/ance at lea/1 to ! ,jews1 9 a v m>k$ mann]4 ,jesus comm&s 8 disciples3 ,g n into a way ( ! ,g5tiles ------ & into a city ( ! ,sam>itans ent] ye n2 b g r to ! lo/ %eep ( ! h\se ( ,israel4 ,& z ye g1 prea*1 say+3 ,! k+dom ( heav5 is at h&47#a7 ,z if m emphatically to m>k ! limitation ( ! mission1 ! assurance is s]i\sly add$3 ,= v]ily ,i say unto y1 ye %all n h gone ov] ! cities ( ,israel1 till ! ,son ( ,man come47#b7 ,x w be obs]v$ t ,jesus "h *>ges ! ,twelve to g r to ! lo/ %eep ( ! h\se ( ,israel 9 ! same words t he employs to ! ,canaaniti% woman to describe ! exclusive de/9ation ( 8 own m9i/ry47#c7 ,9 c\pl+ ! ,sam>itans ) ! ,g5tiles !re is m]ely an expression ( ! int5se antipa?y ( ! ,jews aga9/ !m1 z a mix$ &1 we may say1 r5egade race1 exclud$ f ! ,jewi% wor%ip al?\gh circumcis$1 int]c\rse ) :om is to ?is day almo/ reg>d$ z pollution47#d7 ,! ?ird ,gospel1 :i* omits ! re/rictive in/ructions ( ,jesus to ! ,twelve giv5 by ! fir/ ,synopti/1 introduces ano!r episode ( ! same description3 ! appo9tm5t & mission ( ,sev5ty disciples17#f7 to :i* we mu/ v briefly ref]4 ,no m5tion :atev] is made ( ?is incid5t 9 ! o!r ,gospels1 & ^! disciples are n ref]r$ to 9 any o!r "p ( ! ,new ,te/am5t47#f7 ,ev5 ,eusebius rem>ks t no #acc catalogue ( !m is any:]e giv517#a7 &1 aft] nam+ a few p]sons1 :o 7 said by tradition to h be5 ( _! numb]1 he po9ts out t m ?an sev5ty disciples appe>1 = in/ance1 accord+ to ! te/imony ( ,paul47#b7 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! in/ructions1 at lea/ 9 consid]able "p1 suppos$ to be giv5 to ! ,sev5ty 9 ! ?ird4 ,synoptic are1 9 ! fir/1 ! v in/ructions giv5 to ! ,twelve4 ,!re has be5 mu* discussion reg>d+ ! :ole episode1 :i* ne$ n "h be m9utely ref]r$ to4 ,= v>i\s reasons ! majority ( critics impugn its hi/orical "*47#c7 ,a l>ge numb] ( ^!1 z well z o!r writ]s1 consid] t ! n>rative ( ?is appo9tm5t ( sev5ty disciples1 ! numb] ( ! nations ( ! e>? accord+ to ,jewi% ideas1 0 introduc$ 9 ,paul9e univ]sali/ic int]e/17#d7 or1 at lea/1 t ! numb] is #acd typical ( ,g5tile conv]sion1 9 contra/ ) t ( ! ,twelve :o repres5t ! m /rictly ,judaic limitation ( ! ,messianic mission2 & !y seem to hold t ! prea*+ ( ! sev5ty is repres5t$ z n conf9$ to ,judaea1 b z ext5d+ to ,sam>ia1 & t x ?us d5ot$ ! de/9ation ( ! ,gospel also to ! ,g5tiles4 ,on ! o!r h&1 o!r critics1 _m1 ?\gh by no means all1 ( :om d n "q ! au!nticity ( ! passage1 are dispos$ to d5y ! ,paul9e t5d5cy1 & any special connection ) a mission to ! ,g5tiles1 & r to see 9 ! numb] sev5ty a ref]5ce to well-kn[n ,judai/ic in/itutions47#a7 ,x is true t ! numb] ( ! nations 0 set d[n at sev5ty by ,jewi% tradition17#b7 b1 on ! o!r h&1 x 0 ! numb] ( ! eld]s *os5 by ,moses f among/ ! *ildr5 ( ,israel by ,god's comm& to help him1 & to :om ,god gave ( 8 _s7#c7s & also ( ! national #ace ,sanh$r91 :i*1 accord+ to ! ,mis*na17#a7 /ill repres5t$ ! ,mosaic c\ncil4 ,?is view receives confirmation f ! ,clem5t9e ,recognitions 9 ! foll[+ passage3 ,he !re=e *ose u twelve :o fir/ believ$ 9 him1 :om he nam$ ,apo/les2 aft]w>ds sev5ty-two o!r disciples ( mo/ approv$ goodness1 t ev5 9 ?is way recognis+ ! similitude ( ,moses ! multitude might believe t ?is is ! prophet to come :om ,moses =etold47#b7 ,! passage "h ref]r$ to is twice quot$ 9 ! ,acts3 ,moses inde$ said3 ,a prophet w ! ,"l our ,god raise up unto y f among y\r bre?r51 l unto me1 c47#c7 ,on exam9ation1 we d n f9d t !re is any gr\nd = ! ass]tion t ! sev5ty disciples 7 s5t to ! ,sam>itans or ,g5tiles1 or 7 9 any way connect$ ) univ]sali/ic ideas4 ,jesus _h /$fa/ly set 8 face to g to ,j]usalem1 & s5t mess5g]s be=e him :o w5t & ent]$ into a village ( ! ,sam>itans to make ready = him1 b !y repuls$ him1 because 8 face 0 z ?\gh he w\ld g to ,j]usalem47#d7 ,!re is a decid$ break1 h[ev]1 be=e ! appo9tm5t ( ! sev5ty4 ,aft] ^! ?+s ------ ! ,"l appo9t$ sev5ty o!rs also1 & s5t !m two & two be=e 8 face into e city & place :i!r he himself 0 ab\t to come47#e7 ,!re is n a s+le ^w 9 ! in/ructions 7#acf giv5 to !m :i* ju/ifies ! conclusion t !y 7 s5t to ,sam>ia1 & only ! inf]5ce f ! numb] sev5ty1 tak5 z typical ( ! nations1 sugge/s x4 ,t inf]5ce is n suffici5tly atte/$1 & ! slightness ( ! use made ( ! sev5ty disciples 9 ! ?ird ,gospel--?is occasion be+ ! only "o on :i* !y are m5tion$1 & no specific intimation ( any mission to all p be+ "h giv5--does n fav\r ! !ory ( ,paul9e t5d5cy4 ,s f> z we are conc]n$1 h[ev]1 ! po9t is unimportant4 ,^? :o ass]t ! univ]sali/ic "* ( ! episode g5]ally d5y its au!nticity2 mo/ ( ^? :o accept x z hi/orical d5y its univ]salism4 ,! ord] to g & tea* all nations1 h[ev]1 by no means c>ries u beyond /rictly ,messianic limits4 ,:il/ ! ,jews expect$ ! ,messiah to re/ore ! p ( ,israel to _! own ,holy ,l& & cr[n !m ) unexampl$ prosp]ity & peace1 rev5g+ _! pa/ sorr[s ^u _! enemies1 & grant+ !m supremacy ov] all ! e>?1 !y likewise held t "o ( ! ,messianic glories 0 to be ! conv]sion ( ! ,g5tiles to ! wor%ip ( ,jahveh4 ,?is is ! burd5 ( ! prophets1 & x requires no pro(4 ,! ,jews1 z ! p ) :om ,god _h ent]$ into ,cov5ant1 7 fir/ to be receiv$ into ! k+dom4 ,let ! *ildr5 fir/ be fill$17#a7 & !n ! hea!n might p>take ( ! bread4 ,reg>d+ ! ultimate conv]sion ( ! ,g5tiles1 !re=e1 !re 0 no d\bt2 ! only que/ions 7 z to ! "t & ! conditions ( admission into ! national fell[%ip4 ,z to ! "t1 !re nev] _h be5 any expectation t ! hea!n c\ld be turn$ to ,jahveh 9 numb]s be=e ! appe>ance ( ! #acg ,messiah1 b conv]ts to ,judaism _h be5 made 9 all ages1 & aft] ! disp]sion1 especially1 ! influ5ce ( ! ,jews ^u ! pr(essors ( ! effete & expir+ religions ( ,rome1 ( ,greece1 & ( ,egypt 0 v great1 & num]\s proselytes adopt$ ! fai? ( ,israel17#a7 & 7 eag]ly s\ght =7#b7 9 spite ( ! abusive t]ms 9 :i* ! ,talmudi/s spoke ( !m47#c7 ,! conditions on ! o!r h& 7 p]fectly def9ite4 ,! case ( conv]ts _h be5 e>ly =ese5 & provid$ = 9 ! ,mosaic code4 ,)\t ref]r+ to m9or po9ts1 we may at once say t circumcision 0 indisp5sable to admission into ! numb] ( ! *ildr5 ( ,israel47#d7 ,p>ticipation 9 ! privileges ( ! ,cov5ant c\ld only be secur$ by accept+ ! m>k ( t ,cov5ant4 ,v _m1 h[ev]1 _h adopt$ ,judaism to a great ext5t1 :o 7 n will+ to und]go ! rite requisite to full admission into ! nation1 & a c]ta9 modification _h gradually be5 introduc$ by :i*1 )\t x1 /rang]s might be admitt$ into p>tial communion ) ,israel4 ,!re 71 !re=e1 two classes ( proselytes17#e7 ! fir/ call$ ,proselytes ( ! ,cov5ant or ( ,righte\sness1 :o 7 circumcis$1 obey$ ! :ole ,mosaic law1 & #ach 7 fully incorporat$ ) ,israel1 & ! o!r call$ ,proselytes ( ! ,gate17#a7 or wor%ipp]s ( ,jahveh1 :o 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t are commonly call$ ------4 ,^! _h n und]gone ! rite ( circumcision1 & !re=e 7 n p>ticipators 9 ! ,cov5ant1 b m]ely wor%ipp$ ! ,god ( ,israel17#d7 & 7 only compell$ to obs]ve ! sev5 ,noa*ian prescriptions4 ,^! ,proselytes ( ! ,gate1 h[ev]1 7 little m ?an on suff]ance4 ,!y 7 exclud$ f ! ,temple1 & ev5 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les repres5t x to be pollution = a ,jew to h int]c\rse ) !m3 x requires direct ,div9e int]v5tion to induce ,pet] to g to ,cornelius1 & to excuse 8 do+ s 9 ! eyes ( ! primitive ,*ur*47#c7 ,no?+ %ort ( circumcision & full obs]vance ( ! ,mosaic law c\ld secure ! privileges ( ! ,cov5ant ) ,israel to a /rang]1 & 9 illu/ration ( ?is we may aga9 po9t to ! ,acts1 :]e c]ta9 :o came f ,judaea1 memb]s ( ! primitive *ur*1 tea* ! ,*ri/ians ( ,antio*3 ,except ye h be5 circumcis$ aft] ! cu/om ( ,moses ye _c be sav$47#d7 #a ,we ne$ n discuss ! *ronology ( ?is class4 #b ,x is sc>cely necess>y to speak ( ! well-kn[n case ( ,lzates1 ,k+ ( ,adiab5e1 relat$ by ,josephus4 ,! ,jewi% m]*ant ,ananias1 :o tea*es him to wor%ip ,god accord+ to ! religion ( ! ,jews1 is will+1 evid5tly f ! special em]g5cy ( ! case & ! dang] ( =c+ ,izates fully to embrace ,judaism 9 ! face ( 8 p1 to let him rema9 a m]e ,jahveh wor%ipp]1 only p>tially con=m+ to ! ,law1 & rema9+ uncircumcis$'2 b ano!r ,jew f ,galilee1 ,eleaz]1 v]s$ 9 ,jewi% le>n+1 po9ts out to him t1 9 neglect+ circumcision1 he breaks ! pr9cipal po9t ( ! ,law4 ,izates !n has himself circumcis$4 ,josephus1 ,antiq4 xx4 #b1 ,sec4 #c f4 #c ,acts x4 #b ff1 xi4 #b ft4 ,dr4 ,lightfoot says3 ,! ,apo/les ( ! circumcision1 ev5 ,/4 ,pet] himself1 _h fail$ hi!rto to compreh5d ! wide purpose ( ,god4 ,) _! fell[-c\ntrym5 !y /ill held x unlawful = a ,jew to keep company ) an ali5' 7,acts x4 #bh74 ,galatians1 p4 #bij4 #aci ,?is w be m fully %[n z we proce$4 ,! conv]sion ( ! ,g5tiles 0 n1 !re=e1 9 ! lea/ degree an idea =eign to ,judaism1 b1 on ! contr>y1 =m$ an intimate "p ( ! ,messianic expectation ( ! lat] prophets4 ,! conditions ( admission to ! privileges & promises ( ! ,cov5ant1 h[ev]1 7 full acceptance ( ! ,mosaic law1 & submission to ! initiatory rite47#a7 ,t small & comp>atively insignificant p1 ) an arrogance t w\ld h be5 ridicul\s if1 9 ! influ5ce :i* !y h actually ex]t$ ov] ! _w1 x _h n be5 almo/ sublime1 n only suppos$ !mselves ! sole & privileg$ recipi5ts ( ! oracles ( ,god1 z 8 *os5 & peculi> p1 b !y contemplat$ no?+ %ort ( univ]sal submission to ! ,mosaic code1 & ! supremacy ( ,israel ov] all ! e>?4 ,we are n[ bett] able to e/imate ! position ( ! ,twelve :5 ! dea? ( _! ,ma/] ?rew !m on _! own res\rces1 & left !m to propagate 8 ,gospel z !y !mselves und]/ood x4 ,born a ,jew ( ! race ( ,david1 accept+ dur+ 8 life ! "* ( ! promis$ ,messiah1 & dy+ ) ! mock+ title ,k+ ( ! ,jews writt5 ^u 8 cross1 ,jesus _h left 8 disciples 9 close communion ) ! ,mosaism :i* he _h spiritualiz$ & ennobl$1 b _h n aboli%$4 ,he himself _h taught !m t x becomes u to fulfill all righte\sness1 &1 f 8 y\? upw>ds1 _h set !m ! example ( #adj enlight5$ obs]vance ( ! ,mosaic law4 ,8 precept _h n beli$ 8 example1 & :il/ 9 /rong t]ms we f9d him inculcat+ ! p]man5ce ( ! ,law1 x is c]ta9 t he left no ord] to disreg>d x4 ,he conf9$ 8 own prea*+ to ! ,jews2 ! fir/ m9i/]s ( ! ,messiah repres5t$ ! twelve tribes ( ! p ( ,israel24& ! fir/ ,*ri/ians 7 ( t nation1 ) no di/9ctive wor%ip1 b practis+ z be=e ! :ole ,mosaic ritual4 ,:at ,ne&] savs ( _m1 may1 we ?9k1 be ref]r$ to all3 ,t ,jesus fai?fully obs]v$ ! =m ( ! ,jewi% law s]v$ to !m z evid5ce t ?is =m %\ld ev] pres]ve its value47#a7 ,z a fact1 ! ,apo/les & ! e>ly ,*ri/ians cont9u$ z be=e assidu\sly to practise all ! obs]vances ( ! ,mosaic law1 to frequ5t ! ,temple7#b7 & adh]e to ! usual /rict =ms ( ,judaism47#c7 ,9 addition to ! influ5ce ( ! example ( ,jesus & ! p[]ful effect ( national habit1 !re 7 _m /rong reasons :i* obvi\sly mu/ to ,jews h r5d]$ ab&onm5t ( ! law z difficult z submission to its full requirem5ts mu/ h be5 to ,g5tiles4 ,hold+ z !y did ! ,div9e orig9 ( ! ,old ,te/am5t1 9 :i* ! obs]vance ( ! ,law 0 inculcat$ on almo/ e page1 #ada x w\ld h be5 impossible1 )\t c\nt]-tea*+ ( ! mo/ p]emptory & conv9c+ "*1 to h %ak5 its supremacy2 b beyond ?is1 9 t !ocratic community ,mosaism 0 n only ! condition ( ! ,cov5ant1 & ! key ( ! ,temple1 b x 0 also ! diploma ( citiz5%ip1 & ! bond ( social & political life4 ,to ab&on ! obs]vance ( ! ,law 0 n only to resign ! privilege & ! di/9ctive *>act]i/ic ( ,israel1 to rel9qui% ! fai? ( ! ,patri>*s :o 7 ! glory ( ! nation1 & to =sake a div9ely appo9t$ =m ( wor%ip1 )\t any recogniz$ or ev5 indicat$ sub/itute1 b x sev]$ ! only l9k betwe5 ! individual & ! p ( ,israel1 & left him 9 despis$ isolation1 an outca/ f ! community4 ,!y _h no idea1 h[ev]1 t any su* sacrifice 0 requir$ ( !m4 ,!y 7 simply ,jews believ+ 9 ! ,jewi% ,messiah1 & !y held t all ?+s else 7 to proce$ z be=e1 until ! glori\s second co9+ ( ! ,*ri/47#a7 ,! ,apo/les & primitive ,*ri/ians cont9u$ to hold ! national belief t ! way to ,*ri/ianity lay ?r\gh ,judaism1 & t ! obs]vance ( ! law 0 obligatory & circumcision necess>y to complete communion47#b7 ,paul describes ) unappeas$ #adb irritation ! ef=ts made by ! community ( ,j]usalem1 ^: pill>s 7 ,pet]1 ,james1 & ,john1 to =ce ,titus1 a ,g5tile ,*ri/ian1 to be circumcis$17#a7 & ev5 ! ,acts repres5t ,james & all ! eld]s ( ! ,*ur* ( ,j]usalem z reque/+ ,paul1 long aft]1 to take "p ) f\r ,jewi% ,*ri/ians1 :o _h a v[ & 7 ab\t to purify !mselves & %ave _! heads &1 aft] ! accompli%m5t ( ! days ( purification1 make ! usual (f]+ 9 ! ,temple1 9 ord] to conv9ce ! _m ?\s&s !re ( ^? :o h believ$ & are all zeal\s = ! law1 t x is untrue t he tea*es3 all ! ,jews :o are among ! ,g5tiles apo/acy ------ f ,moses1 say+ t !y ought n to circumcise _! *ildr51 nei!r to walk aft] ! cu/oms1 & to %[1 on ! contr>y1 t he himself walks ord]ly & keeps ! ,law47#b7 ,z true ,israelites1 ) op9ions fundam5tally un*ang$ by belief t ,jesus 0 ! ,messiah1 !y held t ! ,gospel 0 specially int5d$ = ! p ( ! ,cov5ant1 & !y conf9$ _! tea*+ to ! ,jews47#c7 ,a ,g5tile :il/ /ill uncircumcis$1 ev5 al?\gh conv]t$1 c\ld n1 !y ?\ght1 be receiv$ on an #a ,gal ii4 #c ff4 ,z we %all m fully discuss ?is episode h]eaft]1 x is n necess>y to d s "h4 #b ,acts xxi4 #ah--bf2 cf4 xv4 i4 ,paul is also repres5t$ z say+ to ! ,jews ( ,rome t he has done no?+ aga9/ ! cu/oms ( _! ,fa!rs4 #c ,dr4 ,lightfoot says3 ,mean:ile at ,j]usalem "s ye>s pa/ away be=e ! b>ri] ( ,judaism 0 assail$4 ,! ,apo/les /ill obs]v$ ! ,mosaic ritual2 !y /ill conf9$ _! prea*+ to ,jews by bir?1 or ,jews by adoption1 ! proselytes ( ! ,cov5ant1 c4 ,paul's ,ep4 to ,gal4 p4 #bhg4 ,paley says3 ,x 0 n yet kn[n to ! ,apo/les1 t !y 7 at lib]ty to propose ! religion to mank9d at l>ge4 ,t 'my/]y1' z ,/4 ,paul calls x 7,eph4 iii4 #c-f71 & z x !n 01 0 reveal$ to ,pet] by an especial miracle4 ,a view ( ! ,evid5ce1 c1 ed4 ,potts1 #ahej1 p4 #bbh4 #adc equality ) ! ,jew1 b defil$ him by contact47#a7 ,! attitude ( ! ,*ri/ian ,jew to ! m]ely ,*ri/ian ,g5tile1 :o _h n ent]$ ! community by ! portal ( ,judaism1 01 z be=e1 simply t ( ! ,jew to ! proselyte ( ! ,gate4 ,! ,apo/les c\ld n ^u any o!r t]ms h !n ev5 contemplat$ ! conv]sion ( ! ,g5tiles4 ,jesus _h limit$ 8 own tea*+ to ! ,jews1 &1 accord+ to ! fir/ ,gospel1 _h positively prohibit$1 at "o "t at lea/1 _! go+ to ! ,g5tiles1 or ev5 to ! ,sam>itans1 & if !re _h be5 an ord] giv5 to prea* to all nations x c]ta9ly 0 n accompani$ by any removal ( ! conditions specifi$ 9 ! ,law47#b7 ,x has be5 rem>k$ t nei!r p>ty1 9 ! great discussion 9 ! ,*ur* reg>d+ ! t]ms ^u :i* ,g5tiles might be admitt$ to ! privileges ( ,*ri/ianity1 ev] appeal$ 9 support ( _! views to specific in/ructions ( ,jesus on ! subject47#c7 ,! reason is intelligible en\gh4 ,! ,petr9e p>ty1 support$ z !y 7 by ! :ole weight ( ! ,law & ( ,holy ,scripture1 z well z by ! example & tacit approval ( ! ,ma/]1 c\ld n h felt ev5 t degree ( d\bt :i* prec$es an appeal to au?ority4 #b ,dr4 ,lightfoot says3 ,! ,ma/] himself _h left no express in/ructions4 ,he _h *>g$ !m1 x is true1 to prea* ! ,gospel to all nations1 b h[ ?is injunction 0 to be c>ri$ out1 by :at *anges a national ,*ur* mu/ exp& into an univ]sal ,*ur*1 !y _h n be5 told4 ,he _h inde$ ass]t$ ! sov]eignty ( ! _s ov] ! lett]2 he _h enunciat$ ! great pr9ciple--z wide 9 its application z ! law itself--t' man 0 n made = ! ,sabba?1 b ! ,sabba? = man4' ,he _h po9t$ to ! fulfilm5t ( ! law 9 ! ,gospel4 ,s f] he _h discr$it$ ! law1 b he _h n depos$ x or aboli%$ x4 ,x 0 left to ! ,apo/les !mselves "u ! guidance ( ! ,_s1 m\ld$ by circum/ances & m\ld+ !m 9 turn1 to "w out ! great *ange4 ,/4 ,paul's ,ep4 to ,gal4 #bhf4 #add ,! p>ty ( ,paul1 on ! o!r h&1 _h no?+ 9 _! fav\r to :i* a specific appeal c\ld h be5 made2 b 9 8 con/ant prote/ t he _h n receiv$ 8 doctr9e f man1 b _h be5 taught x by direct revelation1 ! ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles1 :o 0 ! fir/ to proclaim a sub/antial diff]5ce betwe5 ,*ri/ianity & ,judaism17#a7 9 reality endeav\r$ to set aside ! au?ority ( ! ,judai/ic p>ty by an appeal f ! e>?ly to ! spiritualiz$ ,messiah4 ,ev5 aft] ! visit ( ,paul to ,j]usalem ab\t ! ye> #ej1 ! eld] ,apo/les /ill reta9$ ! views :i* we h %[n to h be5 inevitable "u ! circum/ances1 &1 z we le>n f ,paul himself1 !y /ill cont9u$ m]e ,apo/les ( ! ,circumcision1 limit+ _! mission to ! ,jews47#b7 ,! ,apo/les & ! primitive ,*ri/ians1 !re=e1 aft] ! dea? ( _! ,ma/]1 :om !y believ$ to be ! ,messiah ( ! ,jews1 hav+ receiv$ 8 la/ in/ructions1 & =m$ _! f9al impressions ( 8 views1 rema9$ ,jews1 believ+ 9 ! cont9u$ obligation to obs]ve ! ,law &1 consequ5tly1 hold+ ! initiatory rite ess5tial to p>ticipation 9 ! privileges ( ! ,cov5ant4 ,!y held ?is n only z ,jews believ+ 9 ! ,div9e orig9 ( ! ,old ,te/am5t & ( ! ,law1 b z ,*ri/ians confirm$ by ! example & ! tea*+ ( _! ,*ri/1 ^: v com+ 0 a sub/antial ratification ( ! anci5t fai? ( ,israel4 ,9 ?is position !y /ood :5 ! #ade ,gospel1 )\t _! int]v5tion1 & ma9ly by ! ex]tions ( ! ,apo/le ,paul1 began to spread among/ ! ,g5tiles1 & ! t]ms ( _! admission came into "q4 ,x is impossible to d5y t ! total removal ( conditions1 advocat$ by ! ,apo/le ,paul ) all ! vehem5ce & w>m? ( 8 en]getic "*1 & involv+ no?+ %ort ( ! abrogation ( ! ,law & surr5d] ( all ! privileges ( ,israel1 mu/ h be5 %ock+ n only to ! prejudices b also to ! deepe/ religi\s convictions ( m5 :o1 al?\gh ,*ri/ians1 _h n ceas$ to be ,jews1 &1 unlike ! ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles1 _h be5 directly & daily 9 contact ) ,jesus1 )\t hav+ be5 taught su* revolution>y pr9ciples4 ,f ?is po9t we h to proce$ ) our exam9ation ( ! acc\nt 9 ! ,acts ( ! relation ( ! eld] ,apo/les to ,paul1 & ! solution ( ! difficult problem be=e !m4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,/eph5 ,,! ,,m>tyr ,be=e ! ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles himself comes on ! sc5e1 & is directly br\ght 9 contact ) ! ,twelve1 we h to /udy ! e>li] incid5ts n>rat$ 9 ! ,acts1 :]e91 x is said1 ! emancipation ( ! ,*ur* f ,jewi% exclusiv5ess _h already ei!r comm5c$ or be5 cle>ly anticipat$4 ,! fir/ ( ^! :i* dem&s our att5tion is ! n>rative ( ! m>tyrdom ( ,/eph54 ,?is episode1 al?\gh highly int]e/+ & important 9 itself1 might1 we consid]1 h be5 left unnotic$ 9 connection ) ! special po9t n[ engag+ our att5tion1 b su* significance has be5 imp>t$ to x by ! views :i* critics h discov]$ 9 ! spee* ( ,/eph51 t we _c pass x )\t att5tion4 ,if ?is det5tion be1 on ! "o h&1 to be regrett$1 x w on ! o!r be comp5sat$ by ! light :i* may be ?r[n on ! composition ( ! ,acts4 ,we read7l7 t 9 consequ5ce ( murmurs among/ ! ,hell5i/s aga9/ ! ,hebrews1 t _! wid[s 7 neglect$ 9 ! daily di/ribution ( alms1 sev5 deacons 7 appo9t$ specially to att5d to su* m9i/rations4 ,among/ ^!1 x is said1 0 ,/eph517#b7 #adg a man full ( fai? & ( ! ,holy ,_s4 ,/eph51 x appe>s1 by no means limit$ 8 att5tion to ! mat]ial int]e/s ( ! memb]s ( ! ,*ur*1 b be+ full ( grace & p[]1 did great wond]s & signs ------ among/ ! p4 ,b !re arose c]ta9 ( ^? ( ! synagogue :i* is call$ 7! synagogue7 ( ! ,lib]t9es7#a7 & ,cyr5ians & ,alex&rians & ( !m ( ,cilicia & ( ,asia1 disput+ ) ,/eph52 & !y 7 n able to resi/ ! wisdom & ! _s by :i* he spake4 ,!n !y suborn$ m5 :o said3 ,we h he>d him speak blasphem\s words aga9/ ,moses & ,god4 ,& !y /irr$ up ! p & ! eld]s & ! scribes1 & came ^u him1 & seiz$ him1 & br\ght him to ! ,c\ncil1 & set up false witnesses :o said3 ,?is man cease? n to speak words aga9/ ! holy place & ! law2 = we h he>d him say1 t ,jesus1 ?is ,naza-r5e1 %all de/roy ?is place1 & %all *ange ! cu/oms :i* ,moses deliv]$ to u4 ,! high-prie/ asks him3 ,are ^! ?+s s8 ,& ,/eph5 deliv]s an address1 :i* has s9ce be5 ! subject ( mu* discussion among/ critics & div9es4 ,! cont5ts ( ! spee* tak5 by !mselves d n pres5t any difficulty1 s f> z ! s5se is conc]n$1 b reg>d$ z a reply to ! accusations br\ght aga9/ him by ! false witnesses1 ! def5ce ( ,/eph5 has p]haps be5 int]pret$ 9 a great] v>iety ( ways ?an any o!r "p ( ! ,new ,te/am5t4 ,its %ad[y outl9es h be5 us$ z a sett+ = ! pi\s ?\ghts ( subsequ5t #adh g5]ations1 & e imag9able int5tion has be5 ascrib$ to ! proto-m>tyr1 e possible or impossible ref]5ce detect$ 9 ! phrases ( 8 oration4 ,?is has ma9ly aris5 f ! imp]fect nature ( ! acc\nt 9 ! ,acts1 & ! abs5ce ( _m important details :i* has left criticism to adopt t div9atoris*-comb9atoris*e proc$ure :i* is s apt to evolve any fav\rite !ory f ! inn] consci\sness4 ,! prevail+ view1 h[ev]1 among/ ! great majority ( critics ( all s*ools is1 t ,/eph5 is repres5t$ 9 ! ,acts z ! =]unn] ( ! ,apo/le ,paul1 anticipat+ 8 univ]sali/ic pr9ciples1 & proclaim+ ) m or less ( directness ! abrogation ( ,mosaic ord9ances & ! fre$om ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*47#a7 ,?is view 0 c]ta9ly advanc$ by ,augu/9e1 & lies at ! base ( 8 fam\s say+3 ,si sanctus ,/ephanus sic non oras-set1 ecclesia ,paulum non hab]et17#b7 b x 0 fir/ cle>ly enunciat$ by ,baur1 :o subject$ ! spee* ( ,/eph5 to detail$ analysis17#c7 & 8 int]pretation has to a l>ge ext5t be5 adopt$ ev5 by apologi/s4 ,x mu/ be cle>ly und]/ood t adh]5ce to ?is read+ ( ! aim & mean+ ( ! spee*1 z x is giv5 9 ! ,acts1 by no means involves an admission ( its au!nticity1 :i*1 on ! contr>y1 is impugn$ by ,baur himself1 & by a l>ge numb] ( indep5d5t critics4 ,we h ! mis=tune ( diff]+ mo/ mat]ially f ! preval5t view reg>d+ ! cont5ts ( ! spee*1 & we ma9ta9 t1 z x /&s 9 ! ,acts1 !re is n a #adi ^w 9 x :i* c be legitimately con/ru$ into an attack ^u ! ,mosaic law1 or :i* anticipates ! ,*ri/ian univ]salism ( ,paul4 ,space1 h[ev]1 =bids our ent]+ "h ^u a discussion ( ?is subject1 b ! c\rse :i* we mu/ adopt ) reg>d to x r5d]s x unnecess>y to deal ) ! int]pretation ( ! spee*4 ,we consid] t !re is no reason = believ+ t ! disc\rse put into ! m\? ( ,/eph5 0 ev] actually deliv]$1 b on ! contraiy t !re is e gr\nd = hold+ t x is no?+ m ?an a composition by ! ,au?or ( ! ,acts4 ,we %all endeav\r cle>ly to /ate ! reasons = ?is conclusion4 ,) ! exception ( ! n>rative 9 ! ,acts1 !re is no evid5ce :atev] t su* a p]son z ,/eph5 ev] exi/$4 ,! /atem5ts ( ! ,apo/le ,paul leave no d\bt t p]secution aga9/ ! ,*ri/ians ( ,j]usalem mu/ h brok5 out previ\s to 8 conv]sion1 b no details are giv51 & x c sc>cely be consid]$ o!rwise ?an extraord9>y1 t ,paul %\ld n 9 any ( 8 own writ+s h ref]r$ to ! proto-m>tyr ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*1 if ! acc\nt :i* is giv5 ( him be hi/orical4 ,x may be argu$ t 8 own %>e 9 ! m>tyrdom ( ,/eph5 made ! episode an unpleasant memory1 :i* ! ,apo/le w\ld n readily recall4 ,consid]+ ! g5]osity ( ,paul's "* on ! "o h&1 h[ev]1 & ! important position assign$ to ,/eph5 on ! o!r1 ?is _c be admitt$ z an explanation1 & x is p]fectly unacc\ntable t1 if ,/eph5 really be a hi/orical p]sonage1 no m5tion ( him occurs else:]e 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t4 ,moreov]1 if ,/eph5 01 z ass]t$1 ! direct =]unn] ( ,paul1 & 9 8 he>+ enunciat$ #aej s5tim5ts l ^? ascrib$ to him1 already express+ mu* m ?an ! g]m--inde$ ! full _s--( ,paul9e univ]sality1 x w\ld be pass+ /range t ,paul n only tacitly ignores all t he owes to ! proto-m>tyr1 b vehem5tly prote/s3 ,b ,i make kn[n unto y1 bre?r51 t ! ,gospel :i* 0 prea*$ by me is n aft] man4 ,= nei!r did ,i receive x f man1 nor 0 taught x1 b by revelation ( ,jesus ,*ri/47#a7 ,!re is no evid5ce :atev] t su* a p]son ex]cis$ any su* influ5ce on ,paul47#b7 ,"o ?+ only is c]ta91 t ! spee* & m>tyrdom ( ,/eph5 made s little impression on ,paul t1 accord+ to ,acts1 he cont9u$ a bitt] p]secutor ( ,*ri/ianity1 mak+ havoc ( ! ,*ur*4 ,! /atem5t1 vi4 #h1 t ,/eph51 full ( grace & p[]1 did great wond]s & signs among ! p is n calculat$ to increase confid5ce 9 ! n>rative z sob] hi/ory2 & z little is ! ass]tion1 vi4 #ae1 t all :o sat 9 ! ,c\ncil1 look+ /$fa/ly on him1 saw 8 face z x _h be5 ! face ( an angel4 ,?is1 we ?9k1 is evid5tly an in/ance ( ,*ri/ian subjective op9ion made objective47#c7 ,h[1 we might ask1 c\ld x be kn[n to ! writ] t all :o sat at ! ,c\ncil saw ?is8 ,ne&] replies t probably x is ! evid5ce ( memb]s ( ! ,sanh$r9 ( ! impression made on !m by ! aspect ( ,/eph547#d7 ,! int5tion ( ! writ]1 h[ev]1 obvi\sly is to describe a sup]natural #c ,x is fur!r v rem>kable1 if x be assum$ t ! vision1 ,acts vii4 #ee1 actually 0 se51 t1 9 giv+ a li/ ( ^? :o h se5 ! ris5 ,jesus 7#a ,cor4 xv4 #e-- #h71 :i* he evid5tly int5ds to be complete1 he does n include ,/eph54 #aea ph5om5on17#a7 & ?is is 9 8 usual mann] 9 ?is book1 :]e miracul\s ag5cy is m freely employ$ ?an 9 any o!r 9 ! ,canon4 ,! session ( ! ,c\ncil comm5ces 9 a regul> mann]17#b7 b ! previ\s arre/ ( ,/eph517#c7 & ! subsequ5t int]ruption ( 8 def5ce1 are describ$ z a tumultu\s proce$+1 8 dea? be+4 unsanction$ by any s5t5ce ( ! ,c\ncil47#d7 ,! ,sanh$-r91 inde$1 c\ld n execute any s5t5ce ( dea? )\t ! ratification ( ! ,roman au?orities17#e7 & no?+ is said 9 ! n>rative :i* implies t any regul> v]dict 0 pron\nc$2 b1 on ! contr>y1 ! tumult describ$ 9 v4 #eg f4 excludes su* a supposition4 ,ol%aus57#f7 consid]s t1 9 ord] to avoid any collision ) ! ,roman p[]1 ! ,sanh$r9 did n pron\nce any =mal judgm5t1 b conniv$ at ! execution :i* "s fanatics c>ri$ out4 ,?is explanation1 h[ev]1 is inadmissible1 because x is cle> t ! memb]s ( ! ,c\ncil !mselves1 if also ! audi5ce1 #aeb attack$ & /on$ ,/eph547#a7 ,! actual /on+7#b7 is c>ri$ out ) all reg>d to legal =ms27#c7 ! victim be+ tak5 out ( ! city17#d7 & ! witnesses ca/+ ! fir/ /one17#e7 & = ?is purpose tak+ (f _! out] g>m5ts4 ,! :ole acc\nt1 ) its s+ul> mixture ( utt] lawlessness & =mality1 is extremely improbable17#f7 & m especially :5 ! spee* itself is consid]$4 ,! proce$+s comm5ce 9 an ord]ly mann]1 & ! high prie/ calls ^u ,/eph5 = 8 def5ce4 ,! c\ncil & audi5ce li/5 pati5tly & quietly to 8 spee*1 & no int]ruption takes place until he has said all t he _h to sav1 = x mu/ be app>5t t :5 ! speak] ab&ons n>rative & argum5t & breaks into direct invective1 !re c\ld n h be5 any int5tion to prolong ! address1 z no expectation ( calm att5tion aft] su* d5unciations c\ld h be5 natural4 ,! tumult cuts %ort ! oration precisely :]e ! au?or _h exhau/$ 8 #afc subject1 & by tempor>y lawlessness ov]comes ! legal difficulty ( a s5t5ce :i* ! ,sanh$r91 )\t ! ratification ( ! ,roman au?ority1 c\ld n h c>ri$ out4 ,z soon z ! tumult has effect$ ^! objects1 all becomes ord]ly & legal aga92 &1 consequ5tly1 ! witnesses c lay _! g>m5ts at a "y man's feet ^: "n 0 ,saul4 ,! pr9cipal actor 9 ! "w is ?us dramatically introduc$4 ,z ! trial comm5ces ) a sup]natural illum9ation ( ! face ( ,/eph51 x ends ) a sup]natural vision1 9 :i* ,/eph5 sees heav5 op5$1 & ! ,son ( ,man /&+ at ! "r h& ( ,god4 ,su* a trial & su* an execution pres5t features :i* are und\bt$ly n hi/orical4 ,?is impression is c]ta9ly n less5$ :5 we f9d h[ _m details ( ! trial & dea? ( ,/eph5 are bas$ on ! acc\nts 9 ! ,gospels ( ! trial & dea? ( ,jesus47#a7 ,! irritat$ adv]s>ies ( ,/eph5 /ir up ! p & ! eld]s & scribes1 & come ^u him & lead him to ! ,c\ncil47#b7 ,!y seek false witness aga9/ him27#c7 & ^! false witnesses accuse him ( speak+ aga9/ ! temple & ! law47#d7 ,! false witnesses :o are set up aga9/ ,jesus ) simil> te/imony1 accord+ to ! fir/ two ,synoptics1 are /rangely omitt$ by ! ?ird4 ,! reproduction ( ?is trait "h has mu* t is sugge/ive4 ,! high prie/ asks3 ,are ^! ?+s s87#e7 ,/eph51 at #aed ! close ( 8 spee*1 exclaims3 ,i see ! heav5s op5$1 & ! ,son ( ,man /&+ on ! "r h& ( ,god4 ,jesus says3 ,h5ce=? %all ! ,son ( ,man be seat$ on ! "r h& ( ! p[] ( ,god47#a7 ,:il/ he is be+ /on$1 ,/eph5 prays1 say+3 ,"l ,jesus1 receive my ,_s2 &1 simil>ly1 ,jesus on ! cross cries1 ) a l\d voice3 ,fa!r1 into ?y h&s ,i comm5d my _s2 &1 hav+ said ?is1 he expir$47#b7 ,/eph51 z he is ab\t to die1 cries1 ) a l\d voice3 ,"l1 lay n ?is s9 to _! *>ge2 & :5 he said ?is he fell asleep2 & ,jesus says3 ,fa!r1 =give !m1 = !y "k n :at !y d47#c7 ,^! two say+s ( ,jesus are n giv5 any:]e b 9 ! ?ird ,synoptic17#d7 & _! imitation by ,/eph51 9 ano!r "w ( ! same ,evangeli/1 is a peculi>ity :i* des]ves att5tion4 ,x is argu$ by apologi/s7#e7 t no?+ is m natural ?an t ! fir/ m>tyrs %\ld h ! example ( ! suff]+ ,jesus 9 _! m9ds1 & die ) 8 expressions ( love & resignation on _! lips4 ,on ! o!r h&1 tak5 along ) o!r mo/ suspici\s circum/ances :i* we h already po9t$ out1 & ) ! fact1 :i* we %all pres5tly demon/rate1 t ! spee* ( ,/eph5 is no?+ m #aee ?an a composition by ! ,au?or ( ,acts1 ! s+ul> analogies pres5t$ by ?is n>rative ) ! trial & la/ words ( ,jesus 9 ! ,gospels seem to u an additional indication ( its inau!nticity4 ,z ,baur7#a7 & ,zell]7#b7 h well argu$1 ! use ( two expressions ( ,jesus only f\nd 9 ! ?ird ,synoptic is a ph5om5on :i* is mu* m naturally expla9$ by attribut+ !m to ! ,au?or1 :o ( c\rse knew t ,gospel well1 ?an to ,/eph5 :o did n "k x at all47#c7 ,! prom95ce :i* is giv5 to ?is episode ( ! fir/ ,*ri/ian m>tyrdom is intelligible 9 itself1 & x acquires fre% significance :5 x is consid]$ z ! introduction ( ! ,apo/le ,paul1 ^: p]fect sil5ce reg>d+ ! proto-m>tyr1 h[ev]1 confirms ! belief :i* we o!rwise acquire1 t ! :ole n>rative & spee*1 :atev] unkn[n tradition may h sugge/$ !m1 are1 z we h !m1 to be ascrib$ to ! ,au?or ( ! ,acts4 ,on clos] exam9ation1 "o ( ! fir/ que/ions :i* arises is3 h[ c\ld su* a spee* h be5 report$8 ,al?\gh ,ne&]7#d7 cont5ds t we are n ju/ifi$ 9 ass]t+ t all t is n>rat$ reg>d+ ,/eph5 9 ! ,acts occurr$ 9 a s+le day1 we ?9k x _c be d\bt$ t ! int5tion is to describe ! arre/1 trial1 & execution z rapidly foll[+ ea* o!r on ! same day4 ,!y came ^u him1 & seiz$ him1 & #aef br\ght him to ! ,c\ncil1 & set up false witnesses1 :o said1 c47#a7 ,!re is no gr\nd "h = int]polat+ any imprisonm5t1 & if n1 !n x foll[s cle>ly t ,/eph51 be+ imm$iately call$ ^u to answ] = himself1 is1 at ! end ( 8 disc\rse1 viol5tly c>ri$ away )\t ! city to be /on$4 ,no prep>ations c\ld h be5 made ev5 to take notes ( 8 spee*1 if ^u any gr\nd x 7 reasonable to assume ! possibility ( an int5tion to d s2 & inde$ x c\ld n1 "u ! circum/ances1 h be5 =ese5 t he %\ld ei!r h be5 plac$ 9 su* a position1 or h be5 able to make a spee* at all4 ,! rapid progress ( all ! ev5ts describ$1 & ! excitem5t consequ5t on su* tumultu\s proce$+s1 r5d] an ord9>y explanation ( ! mann] 9 :i* su* a spee* c\ld h be5 pres]v$ improbable1 & x is difficult to suppose t x c\ld h be5 accurately rememb]$1 ) all its curi\s details1 by "o :o 0 pres5t4 ,improbable z x is1 h[ev]1 ?is is ! only sugge/ion :i* c possibly be advanc$4 ,! majority ( apologi/s suppose t ! spee* 0 he>d & report$ by ! ,apo/le ,paul himself17#b7 or at lea/ t x 0 communicat$ or writt5 d[n ei!r by a memb] ( ! ,sanh$r91 or by "s "o :o 0 pres5t47#c7 ,z !re is no in=mation on ! po9t1 !re is ample scope = imag9ation1 b :5 we come to consid] its l+ui/ic & o!r peculi>ities1 x mu/ be borne 9 #aeg m9d t ! extreme difficulty ( expla9+ ! pres]vation ( su* a spee* mu/ be an elem5t 9 judg+ :e!r x is n r a composition by ! ,au?or ( ,acts4 ,! language 9 :i* x 0 deliv]$1 aga91 is ! subject ( mu* diff]5ce ( op9ion1 _m ma9ta9+ t x mu/ h orig9ally be5 spok5 9 ,aramaic17#a7 :il/ o!rs hold t x 0 deliv]$ 9 ,greek47#b7 ,/ill1 a l>ge numb] ( critics & div9es ( c\rse ass]t t ! spee* attribut$ to ,/eph5 is at lea/ sub/antially au!ntic4 ,z might naturally be expect$ 9 a case :]e negative criticism is array$ aga9/ a canonical "w upheld by ! "t-hon\r$ au?ority ( ! *ur*1 ^? :o dispute its au!nticity7#c7 are 9 ! m9ority4 ,x is ma9ta9$ by ! latt] t ! language is m or less t ( ! writ] ( ! re/ ( ! "w1 & t ! spee* 9 fact z x lies be=e u is a lat] composition by ! ,au?or ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les4 ,be=e exam9+ ! l+ui/ic peculi>ities ( ! spee*1 we may v briefly po9t out t1 9 ! c\rse ( ! hi/orical survey1 _m gl>+ contradictions ( ! /atem5ts ( ! ,old ,te/am5t occur47#d7 ,/eph5 says #aee 7vs4 #b1 #c7 t ! ord] to ,abraham to leave 8 c\ntry 0 giv5 to him 9 ,mesopotamia be=e he dwelt 9 ,h>an2 b1 accord+ to ,g5esis 7xii4 #a ff7 ! call is giv5 :il/ he 0 liv+ 9 ,h>an4 ,! spee* 7v4 #d7 repres5ts ,abraham leav+ ,h>an aft] ! dea? ( 8 fa!r1 b ?is is 9 contradiction to ,g5esis1 accord+ to :i*7#a7 ,abraham 0 #ge :5 he left ,h>an4 ,n[1 z he 0 born :5 8 fa!r ,t]ah 0 #gj17b7 & ,t]ah liv$ #bje ye>s17#c7 8 fa!r 0 only #ade at ! "t indicat$1 & aft]w>ds liv$ #fj ye>s4 ,9 v4 #e x is /at$ t ,abraham _h no possession 9 ! promis$ l&1 n ev5 s mu* z to set 8 foot on2 b1 accord+ to ,g5esis17#d7 he b\ght ! field ( ,ephron 9 ,ma*pelah4 ,x is said 7v4 #ad7 t ,jacob w5t d[n into ,egypt ) #ge s\ls1 :]eas1 9 ! ,old ,te/am5t1 x is repeat$ly said t ! numb] 0 #gj47e7 ,9 v4 #af1 x is /at$ t ,jacob 0 buri$ 9 ,s*e*em 9 a sepul*re b\ght by ,abraham ( ! sons ( ,emmor 9 ,s*e*em1 :]eas 9 ,g5esis7#f7 ,jacob is said to h be5 buri$ 9 ,ma*pelah2 ! sepul*re 9 ,s*e*em1 9 :i* #aei ! bones ( ,joseph 7 buri$1 0 n b\ght by ,abraham1 b by ,jacob47#a7 ,moses is describ$ 7v4 #bb7 z mighty 9 words1 b 9 ,exodus7#b7 he is said to be ! v rev]se1 & ,a>on 9 fact is s5t ) him to speak words = him4 ,^! are "s ( ! pr9cipal v>iations4 ,x us$ to be argu$ t su* mi/akes 7 m]e errors ( memory1 natural 9 a spee* deliv]$ "u su* circum/ances & )\t prep>ation17#c7 & t !y are additional evid5ce ( its au!nticity1 inasmu* z x is v improbable t a writ] delib]ately compos+ su* a spee* c\ld h committ$ !m4 ,x is v cle>1 h[ev]1 t ! majority ( ^! are n errors ( memory at all1 b ei!r ! exegesis prevail+ at ! "t among/ le>n$ ,jews1 or traditions delib]ately adopt$1 ( :i* _m traces are else:]e f\nd47#d7 ,! =m ( ! spee* is closely simil> to o!r spee*es f\nd 9 ! same "w4 ,we h already 9 pass+ po9t$ out ! analogy ( p>ts ( x to ! address ( ,pet] 9 ,solomon's por*1 b ! spee* ( ,paul at ,antio* be>s a /ill clos] resemblance to x1 & has be5 call$ a m]e e*o ( ! spee*es ( ,pet] & ,/eph547#e7 ,we mu/ ref] ! read] to our g5]al comp>ison ( ! two spee*es ( ,pet] & ,paul 9 "q17#f7 :i* suffici5tly %[$1 we ?9k1 #afj t !y 7 n deliv]$ by indep5d5t speak]s1 b on ! contr>y t !y are no?+ m ?an compositions by ! au?or ( ! ,acts4 ,^! addresses :i* are su* close copies ( ea* o!r1 are s m>k$ly ca/ 9 ! same m\ld z ! spee* ( ,/eph51 t !y n only confirm our conclusions z to _! own orig91 b int5sify suspicions ( its au!nticity4 ,x is impossible1 )\t ref]5ce to ! spee*es !mselves1 to %ew h[ closely t ( ,paul at ,antio* is trac$ on ! l9es ( ! spee* ( ,/eph51 & ?is resemblance is mu* great] ?an c be %[n by m]e l+ui/ic exam9ation4 ,! ?\ghts correspond :]e ! words diff]4 ,!re is a con/ant recurr5ce ( words1 h[ev]1 ev5 :]e ! s5se ( ! passages is n ! same1 & ! ideas 9 bo? be> ! /amp ( a s+le m9d4 ,we %all n attempt fully to contra/ ^! disc\rses "h1 = x w\ld occupy too mu* space1 & we !re=e cont5t ourselves ) giv+ a few illu/rations1 begg+ ! read] to exam9e ! spee*es !mselves4 ------ #afa ------ #afb ------ ,x is argu$ t ! spee* ( ,/eph5 be>s ^u x #afc ! /amp ( an address :i* 0 actually deliv]$47#a7 ,we are n able to discov] any special indication ( ?is4 ,su* an argum5t1 at ! be/1 is m]ely ! ass]tion ( p]sonal op9ion1 & _c h any weight4 ,x is q conceivable t an oration actually spok5 might lose its spontane\s "* 9 a report1 & on ! o!r h& t a writt5 composition might acquire oratorical reality f ! skill ( ! writ]4 ,x w\ld inde$ exhibit great want ( lit]>y ability if a writ]1 compos+ a spee* :i* he desires to repres5t z hav+ actually be5 spok51 altoge!r fail$ to convey "s impression ( ?is4 ,to h any application to ! pres5t case1 h[ev]1 x mu/ n only be affirm$ t ! spee* ( ,/eph5 has ! /amp ( an address really spok51 b t x has ! "* ( "o deliv]$ "u su* extraord9>y circum/ances1 )\t prem$itation & 9 ! mid/ ( tumultu\s proce$+s4 ,x _c1 we ?9k1 be reasonably ass]t$ t a spee* l ?is is peculi>ly *>act]i/ic ( a man sudd5ly arre/$ by angry & excit$ oppon5ts1 & hurri$ be=e a c\ncil :i*1 at its close1 ru%es ^u him & jo9s 9 /on+ him4 ,unless ! def5ce attribut$ to ,/eph5 be p>ticul>ly *>act]i/ic ( ?is1 ! argum5t 9 "q falls to ! gr\nd4 ,on ! contr>y1 if ! spee* has "o feature m /rongly m>k$ ?an ano!r1 x is ! delib]ate c>e ) :i* ! po9ts ref]r$ to 9 ! hi/orical survey are select$ & be> ^u ea* o!r1 & ! art ) :i* ! climax is atta9$4 ,9 %[+1 z we h already done1 t ! spee* betrays ! h&y "w ( ! ,au?or ( ! ,acts1 we h to a l>ge ext5t dispos$ ( any claim #afd to peculi> individuality 9 ! def5ce1 & ! l+ui/ic analysis :i* we %all n[ make w conclusively settle ! s\rce ( ! composition4 ,we mu/ po9t out "h 9 cont9uation t1 z 9 ! re/ ( ! "w1 all ! quotations 9 ! spee* are f ! ,septuag9t1 & t ! au?or foll[s t v]sion ev5 :5 x does n fairly repres5t ! orig9al47#a7 ,we may n[ proce$ to analyse ! language ( ! :ole episode f vi4 #i to ! end ( ! sev5? *apt]1 9 ord] to discov] :at l+ui/ic analogy x be>s to ! re/ ( ! ,acts & to ! ?ird ,synoptic1 :i* = ! sake ( brevity we %all simply designate ,luke4 ,) ! exception ( a v few words 9 g5]al use1 e ^w employ$ 9 ! section w be f\nd 9 ! foll[+ analysis1 bas$ ^u ,brud]'s ',concordance1'7#b7 & :i* is arrang$ 9 ! ord] ( ! v]ses1 al?\gh = great] cle>ness ! :ole is divid$ into categories4 ,we %all comm5ce ) a li/ ( ! words 9 ?is section :i* are n else:]e us$ 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t4 ,!y are z foll[s3--------1 vi4 #aa2 ------t vi4 #ab2 ------1 vii4 #af27c7 ------1 vii4 #ai1 b ------1 occurs sev]al times 9 ,acts1 see bel[1 vii4 #ba2 ------1 vii4 #bd2 ------1 vii4 #bf2 ------1 vii4 #de1 ?is ^w1 :i* is common among/ #afe ,greek writ]s17#a7 is us$ 9 lxx4 #b ,*ron4 xxxi4 #ab2 ------1 vii4 #eb4 ,^! n9e words are all t c /rictly be admitt$ z ------1 b !re are o!rs1 :i*1 al?\gh n f\nd 9 any o!r "p ( ! ,acts or ( ! ,gospel1 occur 9 o!r writ+s ( ! ,new ,te/am5t1 & :i* mu/ "h be not$4 ------1 vi4 #aa1 occurr+ #a ,tim4 i4 #ac1 #b ,tim4 iii4 #b1 #b ,pet4 i,l #aa1 ,rev4 xiii4 #e2 ------1 h[ev]1 is us$ f\r times 9 ,acts1 ?rice 9 ,luke1 & frequ5tly else:]e1 & ------ 9 ,luke v4 #ba4 ------ vi4 #ac1 us$ ,rev4 ii4 #b1 xxi4 #h2 ------1 vi4 #ad1 ,rom4 i4 #bc1 ' #a ,cor4 xv4 #ea1 #eb1 ,gal4 iv4 #bj1 ,heb4 i4 #ab1 almo/ purely a ,paul9e ^w2 ------1 vii4 #e1 else:]e f\rte5 times2 ------1 vii4 #af1 also ,gal4 i4 #f1 ,heb4 vii4 #ab1 xi4 #e twice 7lxx4 ,g54 v4 #bd71 ,jude #d2 ------1 vii4 #bd1 also #b ,pet4 ii4 #g2 ------1 vii4 #bf1 also ,john vi4 #eb1 #b ,tim4 ii4 #bd1 ,james iv4 #b2 ------1 vii4 #ch1 also ,rom4 iii4 #b1 ,heb4 v4 #ab1 #a ,pet4 iv4 #aa2 ------1 vii4 #ci1 also #b ,cor4 ii4 #i1 ,phil4 ii4 #h2 ------1 vii4 #ec1 also ,rom4 xiii4 #b1 cf4 ,gal4 iii4 #ai1 b ! writ] makes use ( ------1 see vii4 #dd1 bel[2 ------1 vii4 #eh1 also ,rom4 xiii4 #ab1 ,eph4 iv4 #bb1 #be1 ,col4 iii4 #h1 ,heb4 xii4 #a1 ,james i4 #ba1 #a ,pet1 ii4 #a4 ,if we add ^! t5 words to ! prec$+1 ! proportion ( ------ is by no means excessive = ! #fg v]ses1 especially :5 ! peculi>ity ( ! subject is consid]$1 & x is rememb]$ t ! numb] ( words employ$ 9 ! ?ird ,gospel1 = in/ance1 :i* are n else:]e f\nd1 greatly exce$s t ( ! o!r ,gospels1 & t ?is l+ui/ic ri*ness is *>act]i/ic ( ! au?or4 ,!re is ano!r class ( words :i* may n[ be #aff dealt )3 ^? :i*1 al?\gh n else:]e f\nd ei!r 9 ! ,acts or ,gospel1 are d]iv$ f ! ,sep-tuag9t v]sion ( ! ,old ,te/am5t4 ,! au?or makes exclusive use ( t v]sion1 & 9 ! hi/orical survey1 ( :i* s l>ge a portion ( ! spee* is compos$1 8 m9d v naturally recalls its expressions ev5 :]e he does n make direct quotations1 b m]ely gives a brief summ>y ( its n>ratives4 ,9 ! foll[+ li/ :]e words are n cle>ly tak5 f ! ,septuag9t v]sion7#a7 ( ! v>i\s episodes ref]r$ to1 ! reasons %all be /at$3-- #afg ,we %all n[1 by way ( dispos+ ( !m1 take ! words :i* require little special rem>k1 b are us$ z well 9 ! re/ ( ! ,acts & 9 ! ,gospel z 9 o!r writ+s ( ! ,new ,te/am5t3-- ------ #afh ------ #afi ------ ,we %all n[ give ! words :i* may ei!r be reg>d$ z *>act]i/ic ( ! au?or ( ! ,acts & ,gospel1 or ! use ( :i* is peculi> or limit$ to him3-- ------ #agj ------ #aga ------ #agb ------ ,to ?is v rem>kable li/ ( words we h /ill to add a numb] ( expressions :i* fur!r betray ! au?or ( ! ,acts & ,gospel3-- #agc ------ #agd ------ #age ------ ,x is impossible1 we ?9k1 to exam9e ?is analysis1 9 :i* we might fairly h includ$ o!r po9ts :i* we h pass$ ov]1 )\t feel+ ! c]ta9 conviction t ! spee* ( ,/eph5 0 compos$ by ! au?or ( ! re/ ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les4 ,x may n be out ( place to quote "s rem>ks ( ,lekebus* at ! close ( an exam9ation ( ! language ( ! ,acts 9 g5]al1 und]tak5 = ! purpose ( asc]ta9+ ! lit]>y *>act]i/ics ( ! book1 :i*1 al?\gh orig9ally hav+ no direct ref]5ce to ?is episode 9 p>ticul>1 may well s]ve to illu/rate our own results3--,an unprejudic$ critic mu/ h acquir$ ! conviction f ! =ego+ l+ui/ic exam9ation t1 ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 & p>tly also ! #agf ,gospel1 ! same /yle ( language & expression g5]ally prevails1 & !re=e t our book is an orig9al "w1 indep5d5t ( writt5 s\rces on ! :ole1 & proce$+ f a s+le p54 ,= :5 ! same expressions are ev]y:]e f\nd1 :5 a long r[ ( words :i* only recur 9 ! ,gospel & ,acts1 or comp>atively only v seldom 9 o!r works ( ! ,new ,te/am5t1 appe> equally 9 all p>ts1 :5 c]ta9 =me ( words1 peculi>ities ( ^w-ord]1 con/ruction & phraseology1 inde$ ev5 :ole s5t5ces1 recur 9 ! diff]5t sections1 a compilation out ( docum5ts by diff]5t e>li] writ]s c no long] be ?\ght (1 & x is 'beyond d\bt1 t we h to consid] our writ+ z ! "w ( a s+le au?or1 :o has impress$ ^u x ! /amp ( a di/9ct lit]>y /yle' 7,zell]1 ,!ol4 ,jahrb44#ahea1 p4 #ajg74 ,! use ( writt5 s\rces is c]ta9ly n directly exclud$ by ?is1 & probably ! l+ui/ic peculi>ities1 ( :i* "s ( c\rse exi/ 9 isolat$ sections ( our "w1 may be ref]r$ to ?is4 ,b z ^! peculi>ities consi/ *iefly ( ------1 :i* may r be ascrib$ to ! ri*ness ( ! au?or's vocabul>y ?an to 8 tal5t = compilation1 & 9 comp>ison ) ! great majority ( po9ts ( agreem5t almo/ disappe>1 we mu/ f ! fir/ be prepossess$ aga9/ ! !ory t our au?or made use ( writt5 s\rces1 & only all[ ourselves to be mov$ to su* a conclusion by fur!r di/9ct ph5om5a 9 ! v>i\s p>ts ( our book1 especially z ! prologue ( ! ,gospel1 s (t5 quot$ = ! purpose1 does n at all support x4 ,b 9 any case1 z has already be5 rem>k$1 ! op9ion t1 9 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 ! sev]al p>ts are /rung toge!r almo/ )\t #agg alt]ation1 is q irreconcilable ) ! result ( our l+ui/ic exam9ation4 ,zell] rightly says3--',7 ! au?or s dep5d5t a compil]1 ! traces ( su* a proce$+ mu/ necess>ily become app>5t 9 a ?or\gh dissimil>ity ( language & expression4 ,& ?is dissimil>ity w\ld be all ! great] if 8 s\rces1 z 9 t case we c\ld sc>cely help admitt+1 belong$ to widely sep>at$ sph]es z reg>ds language & mode ( ?\ght4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x w\ld be altoge!r inexplicable t1 9 all p>ts ( ! "w1 ! same fav\rite expressions1 ! same turns1 ! same peculi>ities ( vocabul>y & syntax %\ld meet u4 ,?is ph5om5on only becomes conceivable :5 we suppose t ! cont5ts ( our "w 7 br\ght into _! pres5t =m by "o & ! same p]son1 & t ! "w z x lies be=e u 0 n m]ely compil$ by "s "o1 b 0 also compos$ by him4'7#a7 ,%\ld an attempt be made to argue t1 ev5 if x be conc$$ t ! language is t ( ! ,au?or ( ,acts1 ! s5tim5ts may be ^? actually express$ by ,/eph51 x w\ld at once be obvi\s t su* an explanation is n only purely arbitr>y & incapable ( pro(1 b oppos$ to ! facts ( ! case4 ,x is n ! language only :i* c be trac$ to ! ,au?or ( ! re/ ( ! ,acts b1 z we h %[n1 ! :ole plan ( ! spee* is ! same z t ( o!rs 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! "w4 ,/eph5 speaks exactly z ,pet] does be=e him & ,paul at a lat] p]iod4 ,!re is j t am\nt ( v>iety :i* a writ] ( n unlimit$ res\rces c introduce to express ! views ( #agh diff]5t m5 "u diff]5t circum/ances1 b !re is s mu* :i* is nev]!less common to !m all1 t community ( au?or%ip _c be d5i$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! improbabilities ( ! n>rative1 ! s+ul> fact t ,/eph5 is n m5tion$ by ! ,apo/le ,paul1 & ! peculi>ities :i* may be detect$ 9 ! spee* itself receive _! v simple explanation :5 l+ui/ic analysis s cle>ly demon/rates t1 :atev] small nucleus ( fact may lie at ! basis ( ! episode1 ! spee* actually ascrib$ to ! m>tyr ,/eph5 is no?+ m ?an a lat] composition put into 8 m\? by ! ,au?or ( ! ,acts4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,philip ,,& ,,! ,,eunu*4 ,,pet] ,,& ,,cornelius4 ,we h be5 =c$ to ent] at su* l5g? into ! discussion ( ! spee* & m>tyrdom ( ,/eph51 t we _c af=d space to d m ?an m]ely glance at ! proce$+s ( 8 colleague ,philip1 z we pass on to m important po9ts 9 ! "w be=e u4 ,! au?or /ates t a great p]secution broke out at ! "t ( ,/eph5's dea?1 & t all ------ ! community ( ,j]usalem 7 scatt]$ abroad except ! ,apo/les ------4 ,t ! heads ( ! ,*ur*1 :o 7 well kn[n1 %\ld rema9 unmole/$ 9 ,j]usalem1 :il/ ! :ole ( ! less kn[n memb]s ( ! community 7 p]secut$ & driv5 to flight1 is c]ta9ly an extraord9>y & suspici\s /atem5t47#a7 ,ev5 apologi/s are oblig$ to admit t ! acc\nt ( ! disp]sion ( ! :ole ,*ur* is hyp]bolic27#b7 b exagg]ation & my? ent] s l>gely & p]si/5tly into ! composition ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 t x is difficult1 aft] any att5tive scrut9y1 s]i\sly to treat ! "w z 9 any /rict s5se hi/orical at all4 ,x has be5 #ahj conjectur$ by "s critics1 z well 9 explanation ( ?is /atem5t z 9 connection ) !ories reg>d+ ! views ( ,/eph51 t ! p]secution 9 "q 0 limit$ to ! ,hell5i/ic community to :i* ,/eph5 belong$1 :il/ ! ,apo/les & o!rs1 :o 7 kn[n z fai?ful obs]v]s ( ! law & ( ! temple wor%ip17#a7 7 n reg>d$ z h]etics by ! or?odox ,jews47#b7 ,! n>rative 9 ! ,acts does n seem to support ! view t ! p]secution 0 limit$ to ! ,hell5i/s27#c7 b beyond ! fact v\*$ = by ,paul t ab\t ?is "t !re 0 a p]secution1 we h no data :atev] reg>d+ t ev5t4 ,philip1 x is said1 w5t d[n to ! city ( ,sam>ia1 & 0 prea*+ ! ,*ri/7#d7 to !m4 ,z ! /atem5t t ! multitudes ) "o accord gave he$ to ! ?+s spok5 to !m by ,philip is ascrib$ to ! miracles :i* he p]=m$ !re1 we are unable to reg>d ! n>rative z hi/orical1 & /ill less s :5 we consid] ! sup]natural ag5cy by :i* 8 fur!r proce$+s are direct$ & aid$4 ,we ne$ only rem>k t ! ,sam>itans1 al?\gh only p>tly ( ,jewi% orig91 & reject+ ! ,jewi% ,scriptures ) ! exception ( ! ,p5tateu*1 wor%ipp$ ! same ,god z ! ,jews1 7 circumcis$1 & 7 equally prep>$ z a nation to accept ! ,messiah4 ,! /atem5t t ! ,apo/les ,pet] & ,john w5t to ,sam>ia1 9 ord]1 by ! imposition ( h&s1 to be/[ ! gift ( ! ,holy ,_s to ! #aha conv]ts baptiz$ by ,philip1 does n add to ! g5]al cr$ibility ( ! hi/ory47#a7 ,z ,bleek7#b7 has well rem>k$1 no?+ is kn[n or said z to :e!r ! conv]sion ( ! ,sam>itans effect$ any *ange 9 _! relations t[>ds ! ,jewi% p & ! temple 9 ,j]usalem2 & ! mission ( ,philip to ! ,sam>itans1 z relat$ 9 ! ,acts1 _c 9 any case be consid]$ z hav+ any important be>+ on ! "q be=e u4 ,we %all n discuss ! episode ( ,simon at all1 al?\gh1 9 ! op9ion ( em95t critics1 x conta9s mu* t is sugge/ive ( ! true "* ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les4 ,an ,angel ( ! ,"l ------ speaks to ,philip1 & desires him to g to ! des]t way f ,j]usalem to ,gaza17#c7 :]e ! ,_s tells him7#d7 to draw ne> & jo9 himself to ! *>iot ( a man ( ,e?iopia :o _h come to wor%ip at ,j]usalem1 & 0 !n return+ home4 ,philip runs ?i!r1 & he>+ him read ,isaiah1 exp\nds ! passage to him1 & at 8 own reque/ ! ,eunu* is at once baptiz$4 ,& :5 !y came up out ( ! wat]1 ! ,_s ( ! ,"l caught away ------ ,philip1 & ! eunu* saw him no m2 = he w5t on 8 way rejoic+2 b ,philip 0 f\nd at ,azotus47#e7 ,attempts h ( c\rse be5 made to expla9 naturally ! sup]natural features ( ?is n>rative47#f7 ,ewald1 :o is ma/] ( ! art ( rationali/ic explanation1 says1 ) reg>d to ! ord] giv5 by ! angel3 he felt impell$ z by ! p[] & ! cle> voice ( an angel to g 9 t #ahb direction2 & ! f9al miracle is dispos$ ( by a contra/ ( ! dis9t]e/$ness ( ,philip ) ! conduct ( ,gehazi1 ! s]vant ( ,eli%a3 x 0 ! desire to avoid rew>d1 :i* l$ him all ! m hurri$ly to leave 8 new conv]t2 & x 0 z ?\gh ! ,_s ( ! ,"l himself snat*$ him f him ano!r way1 c1 c4 ,f ,gaza ,philip repair$ rapidly nor?w>d to ,a%dod1 c47l7 ,! great mass ( critics reject su* evasions1 & recognise t ! ,au?or relates miracul\s occurr5ces4 ,! introduction ( sup]natural ag5cy 9 ?is way1 h[ev]1 removes ! /ory f ! region ( hi/ory4 ,su* /atem5ts are antec$5tly1 &1 inde$1 com+ f an unkn[n writ] & )\t corroboration1 are absolutely incr$ible1 & no means exi/ ( asc]ta9+ :at orig9al tradition may h assum$ ?is my?ical "*4 ,zell] supposes t only ! p]sonality & nationality ( ! ,eunu* are really hi/orical47#b7 ,all t ne$ "h be add$ is1 t ! great majority ( critics agree t ! ,e?iopian 0 probably at lea/ a ,proselyte ( ! ,gate17#c7 z 8 go+ to ,j]usalem to wor%ip seems cle>ly to indicate47#d7 ,9 any #ahc case1 ! my?ical elem5ts ( ?is /ory1 z well z ! insuffici5cy ( ! details1 deprive ! n>rative ( hi/orical value47#a7 ,! episodes ( ,/eph5's spee* & m>tyrdom & ! mission ( ,philip are1 9 "o respect especially1 unimportant = ! inquiry on :i* we are n[ m imm$iately engag$4 ,!y are almo/ completely isolat$ f ! re/ ( ! ,acts3 t is to say1 no ref]5ce :atev] is subsequ5tly made to !m z =m+ any prec$5t = ! guidance ( ! ,*ur* 9 ! burn+ "q :i* soon arose )9 x4 ,pet]1 z we %all see1 :5 call$ ^u to visit & baptize ,cornelius1 exhibits no recollection ( 8 own mission to ! ,sam>itans1 & no k ( ! conv]sion ( ! ,e?iopian4 ,moreov]1 z ,/eph5 plays s small a "p 9 ! hi/ory1 & ,philip does n reappe> ^u ! sc5e aft] ?is %ort episode1 no opportunity is af=d$ ( comp>+ "o "p ( _! hi/ory ) ! re/4 ,9 pass+ on to ! acc\nt ( ! baptism ( ,cornelius1 we h at lea/ ! advantage ( contra/+ ! action attribut$ to ,pet] ) 8 conduct on e>li] & lat] occasions1 & a te/ is ?us suppli$ :i* is ( no small value = asc]ta9+ ! tru? ( ! :ole repres5tation4 ,to ?is n>rative we mu/ n[ address ourselves4 ,z an introduction to ! important ev5ts at ,caes>ea1 ! ,au?or ( ! ,acts relates ! p>ticul>s ( a visit :i* ,pet] pays to ,lydda & ,joppa1 dur+ ! c\rse ( :i* he p]=ms two v rem>kable miracles4 ,at ! =m] t[n he f9ds a c]ta9 man nam$ ,a,eneas1 #ahd p>alys$1 :o _h la9 on a b$ = eight ye>s4 ,pet] said to him3 ,a,eneas1 ,jesus ! ,*ri/ heale? !e2 arise & make ?y b$4 ,& he arose imm$iately47#a7 ,z ! consequ5ce ( ?is miracle1 ! writ] /ates t3 ,all :o dwelt at ,lydda & ! ,%>on saw him1 :o turn$ to ! ,"l47#b7 ,! exagg]ation ( su* a /atem5t7#c7 is too palpable to require argum5t ,! effect produc$ by ! suppos$ miracle is almo/ z incr$ible z ! miracle itself1 & ! acc\nt altoge!r has little claim to ! "* ( sob] hi/ory4 ,?is mighty "w1 h[ev]1 is altoge!r eclips$ by a miracle :i* ,pet] p]=ms ab\t ! same "t at ,joppa4 ,a c]ta9 woman1 a disciple1 nam$ ,tabi?a1 :o 0 full ( good works1 fell sick 9 ^? days & di$1 & :5 !y wa%$ h]1 !y laid h] 9 an upp] *amb]1 & s5t to ,pet] at ,lydda1 besee*+ him to come to !m )\t delay4 ,:5 ,pet] arriv$ !y took him into ! upp] *amb]1 :]e all ! wid[s /ood weep+1 & %[$ coats & g>m5ts :i* ,dorcas us$ to make :ile %e 0 ) !m4 ,b ,pet] put !m all out1 & kneel$ d[n & pray$2 &1 turn+ to ! body1 said3 ,tabi?a1 arise4 ,& %e op5$ h] eyes1 & :5 %e saw ,pet] %e sat up4 ,& he gave h] 8 h&1 & rais$ h] up1 & :5 he call$ ! sa9ts & ! wid[s1 he pres5t$ h] alive4 ,app>5tly1 ! rais+ ( ! dead did n produce z mu* effect z ! cure ( ! p>alytic1 = ! writ] only adds "h3 ,& x 0 kn[n ?r\gh\t all ,joppa2 & _m believ$ 9 ! ,"l47#d7 ,we %all h]eaft] h to speak ( ! p]fect calmness & abs5ce ( surprise ) :i* ^! e>ly writ]s relate #ahe ! mo/ a/oni%+ miracles4 ,x is evid5t f ! mann] 9 :i* ?is /ory is n>rat$ t ! miracle 0 anticipat$47#a7 ,! ------ 9 :i* ! body is laid _c h be5 ! room g5]ally us$ = t purpose1 b is probably ! s+le upp] *amb] ( su* a h\se :i* ! au?or repres5ts z specially adopt$ 9 anticipation ( ,pet]'s arrival47#b7 ,! wid[s :o /& by weep+ & %[+ ! g>m5ts made by ! deceas$ complete ! prep>ation4 ,z ,pet] is s5t = aft] ,dorcas _h di$1 x w\ld seem z ?\gh ! writ] intimat$ t h] fri5ds expect$ him to raise h] f ! dead4 ,! explanation ( ?is s+ul> ph5om5on1 h[ev]1 becomes cle> :5 x is rem>k$ t ! acc\nt ( ?is great miracle is closely trac$ f t ( ! rais+ ( ,jairus' daught] 9 ! ,synoptics17#c7 & m especially 9 ! second ,gospel47#d7 ,9 t in/ance ,jesus is s5t =2 &1 on com+ to ! h\se1 he f9ds p weep+ & wail+ greatly4 ,he puts !m all =?1 l ,pet]2 &1 tak+ ! *ild by ! h&1 says to h]3 ',tali?a k\m1' :i* is be+ int]pret$3 ,maid51 ,i say unto !e1 arise4 ,& imm$iately ! maid5 arose & walk$47#e7 ,baur & o!rs7#f7 conjecture t ev5 ! "n ,tabi?a1 :i* by #ahf int]pretation is call$ ,dorcas1 0 sugge/$ by ! words ------1 above quot$4 ,! ,hebrew orig9al ( ------ signifies ,gazelle1 & !y cont5d t x 0 us$1 l ------1 9 ! s5se g5]ally (3 ,maid547l7 ,^! two a/oni%+ miracles1 report$ by an unkn[n writ]1 & )\t any corroboration1 are absolutely incr$ible1 & _c prepossess any reasonable m9d ) confid5ce 9 ! n>rative to :i* !y =m an introduction1 & ! natural di/ru/ :i* !y awak5 is folly confirm$ :5 we f9d sup]natural ag5cy employ$ at e /age ( ! foll[+ hi/ory4 ,we are told7#b7 t a c]ta9 dev\t c5turion1 nam$ ,cornelius1 saw 9 a vision pla9ly ------ an angel ( ,god1 :o said to him3 ,?y pray]s & ?9e alms are come up = a memorial be=e ,god4 ,& n[ s5d m5 to ,joppa1 & call = "o ,simon1 :o is surnam$ ,pet]1 ^: h\se is by ! sea side4 ,aft] giv+ ^! m9ute directions1 ! angel dep>t$1 ------ #ahg & ,cornelius s5t ?ree mess5g]s to ,joppa4 ,j z !y approa*$ ! end ( _! j\rney on ! morr[1 ,pet] w5t up to ! h\setop to pray ab\t ! six? h\r1 ! usual "t ( pray] among ! ,jews47#a7 ,he became v hungry1 & :ile 8 meal 0 be+ prep>$ he fell into a trance & saw heav5 op5$1 & a c]ta9 vessel desc5d+ z x _h be5 a great %eet let d[n by f\r corn]s1 9 :i* 7 all f\r-foot$ bea/s & creep+ ?+s ( ! e>? & birds ( ! air4 ,& !re came a voice to him3 ,rise1 ,pet]2 kill & eat4 ,b ,pet] said3 ,n s ,"l2 = ,i nev] ate any?+ common or unclean4 ,& ! voice came unto him aga9 a second "t3 ,:at ,god cleans$ call n ?\ common4 ,?is 0 done ?rice2 & /raightway ! vessel 0 tak5 up into heav54 ,:ile ,pet] 0 d\bt+ 9 himself :at ! vision :i* he _h se5 meant1 ! m5 s5t by ,cornelius arriv$1 & ! ,_s said unto him3 ,behold m5 are seek+ !e2 b arise & get !e d[n & g ) !m d\bt+ no?+1 = ,i h s5t !m4 ,pet] w5t ) !m on ! morr[1 accompani$ by "s ( ! bre?r51 & ,cornelius 0 wait+ = !m ) 8 k9sm5 & ne> fri5ds :om he _h call$ toge!r = ! purpose4 ,& z ,pet] 0 com+ 91 ,cornelius met him1 & fell at 8 feet & wor%ipp$4 ,b ,pet] took him up1 say+3 ,arise2 ,i myself also am a man47#b7 ,go+ 91 he f9ds _m p]sons assembl$1 to :om he said3 ,ye "k h[ x is an unlawful ?+ = a man t is a ,jew to keep company )1 or come unto "o ( ano!r nation2 & yet ,god %[$ me t ,i %\ld n call #ahh any man common or unclean4 ,!re=e also ,i came )\t ga9say+ :5 s5t =4 ,i ask1 !re=e1 = :at reason ye s5t = me8 ,cornelius n>rates ! p>ticul>s ( 8 vision & cont9ues3 ,n[1 !re=e1 we are all pres5t be=e ,god to he> all ! ?+s t h be5 comm&$ !e ( ! ,"l4 ,!n ,pet] op5$ 8 m\? & said3 ,( a tru? ,i p]ceive t ,god is no respect] ( p]sons1 b 9 e nation he t fe>e? him & worke? righte\sness is acceptable to him1 & soon4 ,:ile ,pet] is speak+1 ! ,holy ,_s fell on all ^? :o he>d ! ^w4 ,& !y ( ! circumcision :o believ$ 7 a/oni%$1 z _m z came ) ,pet]1 because t on ! ,g5tiles also has be5 p\r$ out ! gift ( ! ,holy ,_s2 = !y he>d !m speak ) tongues & magnify ,god4 ,!n answ]$ ,pet]3 ,c any "o =bid ! wat] t ^! %\ld n be baptiz$1 :i* h receiv$ ! ,holy ,_s z well z we8 ,& he comm&$ !m to be baptiz$ 9 ! "n ( ! ,"l4 ,we %all n wa/e "t discuss+ ! endeav\rs ( ,ku9oel1 ,ne&]1 ,lange1 ,ewald1 & o!rs1 to expla9 away z mu* z possible ! sup]natural elem5ts ( ?is n>rative1 = _! attempts are repudiat$ by mo/ apologi/s1 & ! miracul\s ph5om5a are too cle>ly describ$ & too closely connect$ ) ! c\rse ( ! /ory to be ei!r ignor$ or elim9at$4 ,c su* a n>rative1 h]ald$ by su* miracles z ! in/antane\s cure ( ! p>alytic ,a,eneas1 & ! rais+ f ! dead ( ! maid5 ,dorcas1 be reg>d$ z sob] hi/ory8 ,( c\rse _m ma9ta9 t x c1 & comp>atively few h decl>$ !mselves aga9/ ?is47#a7 ,we h1 h[ev]1 m]ely ! #ahi n>rative ( an unkn[n au?or to set aga9/ unv>y+ exp]i5ce1 & t _c mu* avail4 ,we mu/ n[ endeav\r to discov] h[ f> ?is episode is consi/5t ) ! re/ ( ! facts n>rat$ 9 ?is book itself1 & ) su* tru/wor?y evid5ce z we c else:]e br+ to be> ^u x4 ,we h already 9 an e>li] "p ( our inquiry po9t$ out t 9 ! process ( exhibit+ a g5]al p>allelism betwe5 ! ,apo/les ,pet] & ,paul1 a v close p5dant to ?is n>rative has be5 introduc$ by ! au?or into ! hi/ory ( ,paul4 ,9 ! /ory ( ! conv]sion ( ,paul1 ! ,apo/le has 8 vision on ! way to ,damascus17#a7 & ab\t ! same "t ! ,"l 9 a vision desires ,ananias 7a dev\t man1 accord+ to ! law1 hav+ a good report ( all ! ,jews t dwell 9 ,damascus717#b7 arise1 & g to ! /reet :i* is call$ ,/raight1 & inquire 9 ! h\se ( ,judas = "o nam$ ,saul ( ,t>sus2 = behold he praye?1 & saw 9 a vision a man nam$ ,ananias com+ 9 & putt+ 8 h& on him t he might receive sight4 ,on ?is occasion also ! gift ( ! ,holy ,_s is conf]r$ & ,saul is baptiz$47#c7 ,:il/ su* miracul\s ag5cy is s r>e else:]e1 x is s common 9 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les t ! employm5t ( visions & ( angels1 "u e circum/ance1 is "o ( ! *>act]i/ics ( ! au?or1 & may !re=e be set d[n to 8 own imag9ation4 ,no "o :o exam9es ?is episode att5tively1 we #aij ?9k1 c d\bt t ! n>rative be=e u is compos$ 9 apologetic int]e/17#a7 & is design$ to h a special be>+ ^u ! problem z to ! relation ( ! ,paul9e ,gospel to ! prea*+ ( ! ,twelve1 ,baur7#b7 has acutely po9t$ out ! significance ( ! v place assign$ to x 9 ! g5]al hi/ory1 & its ins]tion imm$iately aft] ! conv]sion ( ,paul1 & be=e ! comm5cem5t ( 8 m9i/ry1 z a legitimation ( 8 apo/le%ip ( ! ,g5tiles4 ,"o po9t /&s cle>ly out ( ! /range m$ley ( ,jewi% prejudice1 ,*ri/ian lib]alism1 & sup]natural int]f]5ce :i* con/itute ! elem5ts ( ! /ory3 ! actual conviction ( ,pet] reg>d+ ! relation ( ! ,jew to ! ,g5tile1 t ! ,gospel is address$ to ! =m] & t ! ,g5tile is exclud$17#c7 :i* has to be remov$ by a direct sup]natural revelation f heav54 ,! au?or recognises t ?is 0 ! g5]al view ( ! primitive *ur*1 & ?is is ! only p>ticul> 9 :i* we c p]ceive hi/orical tru? 9 ! n>rative4 ,! complicat$ ma*9]y ( visions & angelic mess5g]s is us$ to ju/ify ! ab&onm5t ( ,jewi% re/rictions1 :i* 0 prea*$ by ,paul amid/ s mu* virul5t opposition4 ,pet] anticipates & ju/ifies ,paul 9 8 m9i/ry ( ! uncircumcision1 & ! ov]?r[ ( ,mosaic b>ri]s has ! sanction & seal ( a div9e comm&4 ,we h to see :e!r ! hi/ory itself #aia does n betray its my?ical "*1 n only 9 its sup]natural elem5ts1 b 9 its inconsi/5cy ) o!r kn[n or n>rat$ incid5ts 9 ! apo/olical n>rative4 ,!re has be5 mu* diff]5ce ( op9ion z to :e!r ! c5turion ,cornelius _h jo9$ himself 9 any recognis$ degree to ! ,jewi% religion be=e ?is incid5t1 & a majority ( critics ma9ta9 t he is repres5t$ z a ,proselyte ( ! ,gate47#a7 ,! t]ms 9 :i* he is describ$1 ------1 c]ta9ly seem to indicate ?is1 & probably ! po9t w\ld n h be5 que/ion$ b = ! fact t ! writ] evid5tly int5ds to deal ) ! subject ( ,g5tile conv]sion1 ) :i* ! repres5tation t ,cornelius 0 already a proselyte w\ld some:at cla%47#b7 ,:e!r a proselyte or n1 ! ,roman c5turion is said to be dev\t & fe>+ ,god ) all 8 h\se1 giv+ mu* alms to ! p1 & pray+ to ,god always27#c7 & probably ! ambiguity z to :e!r he _h actually become affiliat$ 9 any way to ,mosaism is int5tional4 ,:5 ,pet]1 h[ev]1 ) 8 scruples remov$ by ! sup]natural communication ) :i* he _h j be5 fav\r$1 indicates _! previ\s /r5g? by ! /atem5t3 ,ye "k h[ x is an unlawful ?+ = a man t is a ,jew to keep company ) or come unto #aib "o ( ano!r nation17#a7 ! au?or evid5tly ov]/eps ! m>k1 & betrays ! unhi/orical nature ( ! n>rative2 = su* an affirmation n only c\ld n h be5 made by ,pet]1 b c\ld only h be5 advanc$ by a writ] :o 0 himself a ,g5tile1 & writ+ at a di/ance f ! ev5ts describ$4 ,!re is no injunction ( ! ,mosaic law decl>+ su* int]c\rse unlawful17#b7 nor inde$ is su* a rule else:]e he>d (1 & ev5 apologi/s :o ref] to ! po9t h no %[ ( au?ority by :i* to support su* a /atem5t7#c7 ,n only 0 !re no legal prohibition1 b x is impossible to conceive t !re 0 any su* exclusiv5ess practis$ by traditional injunction47#d7 ,z de ,wette appropriately rem>ks1 moreov]1 ev5 if su* a prohibition exi/$ z reg>ds idolat]s1 x w\ld /ill be inconceivable h[ x c\ld apply to ,cornelius3 a righte\s man & fe>+ ,god1 & ( good report among all ! nation ( ! ,jews47#e7 ,x is also inconsi/5t ) ! zeal = proselytism display$ by ! ,ph>isees17#f7 ! /ricte/ sect ( ! ,jews2 & ! acc\nt giv5 by ,josephus ( ! #aic conv]sion ( ,izates ( ,adiab5e is totally aga9/ x47#a7 ,!re is a slight trait :i*1 add$ to o!rs1 t5ds to complete ! demon/ration ( ! unhi/orical "* ( ?is repres5tation4 ,pet] is said to h liv$ _m days 9 ,joppa ) "o ,simon1 a tann]1 & x is 9 8 h\se t ! mess5g]s ( ,cornelius f9d him47#b7 ,n[ ! tann]'s trade 0 consid]$ impure among/ ! ,jews17#c7 & x 0 almo/ pollution to live 9 ,simon's h\se4 ,x is argu$ by "s comm5tators t ! fact t ,pet] lodg$ !re is m5tion$ to %[ t he _h already emancipat$ himself f ,jewi% prejudices47#d7 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 x is /rangely inconsi/5t t a ,jew :o has no objection to live ) a tann] %\ld1 at ! same "t1 consid] x unlawful to hold int]c\rse ( any k9d ) a pi\s ,g5tile1 :o1 if n actually a ,proselyte ( ! ,gate1 _h e qualification = becom+ "o4 ,?is indiff]5ce to ! unclean & pollut+ trade ( ! tann]1 moreov]1 is inconsi/5t ) ! reply :i* ,pet] gives to ! voice :i* bids him slay & eat3--,n s1 ,"l1 = ,i nev] ate any?+ common or unclean4 ,no d\bt ! int]c\rse to :i* ,pet] ref]s indicates1 or at lea/ includes1 eat+ & dr9k+ ) "o ( ano!r c\ntry1 & ?is alone c\ld pres5t any intelligible difficulty1 = ! m]e transaction ( bus9ess or conv]sation ) /rang]s mu/ h be5 daily necess>y to ! ,jews4 ,x mu/ be rem>k$1 h[ev]1 t1 :5 ,pet] makes ! /atem5t :i* we are discuss+1 no?+ :atev] is said ( eat+ ) ! ,c5turion or sitt+ ) him #aid at table4 ,?is leads to a /rik+ tra9 ( reflection ^u ! :ole episode4 ,x is a curi\s ?+ t ! sup]natural vision1 :i* is design$ to in=m ,pet] & ! ,apo/les t ! ,g5tiles might be receiv$ into ! ,*ur*1 %\ld take ! =m ( a m]e intimation t ! di/9ction ( clean & unclean animals 0 no long] b9d+1 & t he might indiff]5tly kill & eat ,"o might h ?\ght t1 on ! supposition t ,heav5 desir$ to give ,pet] & ! ,*ur* a comm& to admit ! ,g5tiles unconditionally to ! b5efits ( ! ,gospel1 ?is w\ld be simply & cle>ly /at$4 ,?is 0 n done at all1 & ! intimation by :i* ,pet] supposes himself ju/ifi$ 9 consid]+ x lawful to g to ,cornelius is1 9 ! fir/ place1 m]ely on ! subject ( animals def9$ z clean & unclean4 ,d\btless ! prohibition z to c]ta9 meats might t5d to cont9ue ! sep>ation betwe5 ,jew & ,g5tile1 & ! disreg>d ( su* di/9ctions ( c\rse promot$ g5]al int]c\rse ) /rang]s2 b ?is by no means expla9s :y ! abrogation ( ?is di/9ction is made ! intimation to receive ,g5tiles into ! ,*ur*4 ,:5 ,pet] returns to ,j]usalem we are told t !y ( ! circumcision--t is to say1 ! :ole ,*ur* !re1 s9ce at t p]iod all 7 ( ! circumcision1 & ?is phrase fur!r indicates t ! writ] has no hi/orical /&-po9t--cont5d$ ) him4 ,! subject ( ! cont5tion we might suppose 0 ! baptism ( ,g5tiles2 b n s3 ! *>ge br\ght aga9/ him 03--,?\ w5te/ 9 to m5 uncircumcis$1 & did/ eat ) !m47#a7 ,! subject ( ,paul's dispute ) ,pet] at ,antio* simply 0 t1 be=e t c]ta9 came f ,james1 he did eat ) #aie ! ,g5tiles2 b :5 !y came he )drew1 fe>+ !m ( ! circumcision47#a7 ,t ! :ole ( ^! passages %\ld turn m]ely on ! fact ( eat+ ) m5 :o 7 uncircumcis$1 is v sugge/ive1 & z ! ,*ur* at ,j]usalem make no allusion to ! baptism ( uncircumcis$ ,g5tiles1 x w\ld lead to ! inf]5ce t no?+ 0 kn[n ( su* an ev5t1 & t ! circum/ance 0 simply add$ to "s o!r n>rative2 & ?is is r5d]$ all ! m probable by ! fact t1 9 ! affair at ,antio* z well z ?r\gh\t ! ,epi/le to ! ,galatians1 ,pet] is v f> f act+ z "o :o _h be5 ! fir/ to receive uncircumcis$ ,g5tiles freely into ! ,*ur*4 ,x is usually ass]t$ t ! vision ( ,pet] abrogat$ ! di/9ction ( clean & unclean animals s long exi/+ 9 ! ,mosaic law17#b7 b !re is no evid5ce t any subsequ5t gradual ab&onm5t ( ! rule 0 ascrib$ to su* a comm&2 & x is rem>kable t ,pet] himself n only does n1 z we %all pres5tly see1 ref] to ?is vision z au?ority = disreg>d+ ! di/9ction ( clean & unclean meats1 & = o!rwise consid]+ no?+ common or unclean1 b acts z if su* a vision _h nev] tak5 place4 ,! fam\s decree ( ! ,c\ncil ( ,j]usalem1 moreov]1 makes no allusion to any modification ( ! ,mosaic law 9 ! case ( ,jewi% ,*ri/ians1 :atev] relaxation x may seem to grant to ,g5tile conv]ts1 & !re is no ext]nal evid5ce ( any k9d :atev] t s important an #aif abolition ( anci5t legal prescriptions 0 ?us introduc$ into ,*ri/5dom4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 =tunately "o te/ ( ! hi/orical value ( ?is :ole episode1 to :i* we h already briefly ref]r$1 b :i* we mu/ n[ m closely apply4 ,paul himself1 9 8 ,epi/le to ! ,galatians1 n>rates ! p>ticul>s ( a sc5e betwe5 himself & ,pet] at ,antio*1 ( :i* no m5tion is made 9 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 & we ?9k t no "o c fairly consid] t episode )\t be+ conv9c$ t x is utt]ly irreconcilable ) ! supposition t ! vision :i* we are n[ exam9+ c ev] h appe>$ to ,pet]1 or t he c h play$ ! "p attribut$ to him 9 ! conv]sion & baptism ( uncircumcis$ ,g5tiles4 ,paul writes3 ,b :5 ,cephas came to ,antio*1 ,i )/ood him to ! face1 because he 0 condemn$4 ,= be=e t c]ta9 came f ,james1 he did eat ) ! ,g5tiles1 b :5 !y came he )drew & sep>at$ himself1 fe>+ !m ( ! circumcision1 & ! o!r ,jews also jo9$ 9 8 hypocrisy47#a7 ,x w be rememb]$ t1 9 ! case ( ,cornelius1 !y ( ! circumcision 9 ,j]usalem1 at ! head ( :om 0 ,james1 f :om came ^? ( ! circumcision ( :om ,pet] 0 afraid at ,antio*1 cont5d$ ) ,pet] = go+ 9 to m5 uncircumcis$ & eat+ ) !m17#b7 ! v ?+ :i* 0 9 "q at ,antio*4 ,9 ! ,acts1 ,pet] is repres5t$ z def5d+ 8 conduct by relat+ ! div9e vision "u ! guidance ( :i* he act$1 & ! au?or /ates z ! result t1 ,:5 !y he>d ^! ?+s !y held _! peace & glorifi$ ,god1 say+3 ,!n to ! ,g5tiles also ,god gave rep5tance #aig unto life47#a7 ,?is is ! repres5tation ( ! au?or ( ! vision & ( ! conv]sion ( ,cornelius1 b v diff]5t is ,pet]'s conduct z describ$ by ! ,apo/le ,paul1 v dissimil> ! ph5om5a pres5t$ by a n>rative ^u :i* we c rely4 ,! c]ta9 :o came f ,james c nev] h he>d ( ! direct communication f ,heav5 :i* ju/ifi$ ,pet]'s conduct1 & c nev] h glorifi$ ,god 9 ! mann] describ$1 or ,pet] c\ld n h _h any reason to fe> !m2 = a m]e ref]5ce to 8 vision1 & to ! sanction ( ! ,*ur* ( ,j]usalem1 mu/ h be5 suffici5t to reconcile !m to 8 fre$om4 ,!n1 is x conceivable t aft] su* a vision1 & aft] be+ taught by ,god himself n to call any man or ?+ common or unclean1 ,pet] c\ld h act$ z he did = fe> ( !m ( ! circumcision8 ,8 conduct is conv9c+ evid5ce t he knew z little ( any su* vision z ^? :o came f ,james4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if we require fur!r pro( x is furni%$ by ! ,apo/le ,paul himself4 ,is x conceivable t1 if su* an episode _h ev] really occurr$1 ! ,apo/le ,paul w\ld n h ref]r$ to x ^u ?is occasion8 ,:at m appropriate argum5t c\ld he h us$1 :at m legitimate rebuke c\ld he h adm9i/]$1 ?an m]ely to h rem9d$ ,pet] ( 8 own vision8 ,he bo? rebukes him & argues1 b 8 rebuke & 8 argum5t h q a diff]5t complexion2 & we confid5tly affirm t no "o c read t portion ( ! ,epi/le to ! ,galatians )\t feel+ c]ta9 t1 _h ! writ] be5 aw>e ( su* a div9e communication--& we ?9k x mu/ be conc$$ )\t "q t1 if x _h tak5 place1 he #aih mu/ h be5 aw>e ( x7#a7--;he w\ld h ref]r$ to bo direct & important an au?ority4 ,nei!r "h nor 9 ! num]\s places :]e su* an argum5t w\ld h be5 s useful to ! ,apo/le does ,paul betray ! slighte/ k ( ! episode ( ,cornelius4 ,! hi/oric occurr5ce at ,antio*1 s completely ignor$ by ! au?or ( ! ,acts1 totally excludes ! my?ical /ory ( ,cornelius47#b7 ,!re are m]ely "o or two o!r po9ts 9 connection ) ! episode to :i* we mu/ call att5tion4 ,9 8 address to ,cornelius1 ,pet] says3 ,( a tru? ,i p]ceive t ,god is no respect] ( p]sons ------4 ,n[ ?is is n only a ?or\ghly ,paul9e s5tim5t1 b ,paul has m ?an once made use ( precisely ! same expression4 ,rom4 ii4 #aa4 ,= !re is no respect ( p]sons ) ,god ------1 &1 aga91 ,gal4 ii4 #f1 ,god respecte? no man's p]son1 ------47#c7 ,! au?or ( ! ,acts 0 c]ta9ly acqua9t$ ) ! epi/les ( ,paul1 & ! v mann] 9 :i* he repres5ts ,pet] z employ+ ?is expression betrays ! application ( a s5tim5t previ\sly 9 8 m9d1 ,( a tru? ,i p]ceive1 c4 ,! circum/ance confirms :at ,paul _h already said47#d7 ,!n1 9 ! def5ce ( 8 conduct at ,j]usalem1 ,pet] is repres5t$ z say+3 ,& ,i rememb]$ ! ^w ( ! ,"l1 #a ,inde$ ! ref]5ce to ?is case1 suppos$ to be made by ,pet] himself1 9 ,paul's pres5ce1 excludes ! idea ( ignorance1 if ! ,acts be treat$ z hi/orical4 #d ,comp>e fur!r x4 #ce ff4 ) ,rom4 ii4 iii41 o4 ,! s5tim5ts & ev5 ! words are ,paul9e4 #aii h[ he said1 ,john inde$ baptiz$ ) wat]2 b ye %all be baptiz$ ) ! ,holy ,_s47l7 ,n[ ^! words are by all ! ,gospels put into ! m\? ( ,john ! ,bapti/1 & n ( ,jesus17#b7 b ! au?or ( ! ,acts seems to put !m into ! m\? ( ,jesus at ! beg9n+ ( ! "w17#c7 & _! repetition "h is only an additional pro( ( ! fact t ! episode ( ,cornelius1 z x /&s be=e u1 is n hi/orical1 b is m]ely 8 own composition4 ,! :ole ( ?is n>rative1 ) its complicat$ s]ies ( miracles1 is evid5tly compos$ to legitimate ! free reception into ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* ( ,g5tile conv]ts &1 to emphasize ! importance ( ! div9e ratification ( _! admission1 ,pet] is made to repeat to ! ,*ur* ( ,j]usalem ! ma9 incid5ts :i* _h j be5 fully n>rat$4 ,on ! "o h&1 ! previ\s ,jewi% exclusiv5ess bo? ( ,pet] & ( ! ,*ur* is display$1 fir/1 9 ! resi/ance ( ! ,apo/le1 :i* c only be ov]come by ! vision & ! direct ord] ( ! ,holy ,_s1 & by ! manife/ outp\r+ ( ! ,_s ^u ! ,c5turion & 8 h\sehold2 & second1 9 ! cont5tion ( !m ( ! circumcision1 :i* is only ov]come by an acc\nt ( ! repeat$ signs ( div9e purpose & approval4 ,! univ]sality ( ! ,gospel c\ld n be m broadly proclaim$ ?an 9 ! address ( ,pet] to ,cornelius4 ,n ! ,jews alone1 b 9 e nation1 he t fe>e? him & worke? righte\sness is acceptable to him4 ,paul9e pr9ciples are ?us anticipat$ &1 z we h po9t$ out1 are express$ almo/ 9 ! words ( ! ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles47#d7 ,! ,jews :o g ) #bjj ,pet] 7 a/oni%$ because t on ! ,g5tiles also _h be5 p\r$ out ! gift ( ! ,holy ,_s17#a7 & ! ,*ur* ( ,j]usalem1 on he>+ ( ^! ?+s1 glorifi$ ,god t rep5tance unto life _h be5 giv5 to ! ,g5tiles4 ,x is impossible t ! admission ( ! ,g5tiles to ! privileges ( ! ,*ur* c\ld be m prom95tly signifi$ ?an by ?is episode1 introduc$ by prodigi\s miracles & effect$ by sup]natural ma*9]y4 ,:]e1 h[ev]1 are ! consequ5ces ( ?is m>vell\s recognition ( ! ,g5tiles8 ,x does n 9 ! slighte/ degree preclude ! necessity = ! ,c\ncil1 :i* we %all pres5tly consid]2 x does n app>5tly ex]cise any influ5ce on ,james & ! ,*ur* ( ,j]usalem2 ,pet]1 inde$1 ref]s vaguely to x1 b z a matt] out ( date & almo/ =gott52 ,paul1 9 all 8 disputes ) ! emiss>ies ( ! ,*ur* ( ,j]usalem1 9 all 8 pleas = ! fre$om ( 8 ,g5tile conv]ts1 nev] makes ! slighte/ allusion to x2 x rema9s else:]e unkn[n &1 s f> z any evid5ce goes1 utt]ly )\t influ5ce ^u ! primitive *ur*47#b7 ,?is w pres5tly become m app>5t2 b already x is cle> en\gh to ^? :o w ex]cise calm reason t x is impossible to consid] ?is n>rative ) its tissue ( fruitless miracles z a hi/orical acc\nt ( ! developm5t ( ! ,*ur*4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,paul ,,! ,,apo/le ,,( ,,! ,,g5tiles ,we h n[ arriv$ at ! po9t 9 our exam9ation ( ! ,acts 9 :i* we h ! ine/imable advantage ( be+ able to comp>e ! n>rative ( ! unkn[n au?or ) ! di/9ct /atem5ts ( ! ,apo/le ,paul4 ,9 do+ s1 we mu/ rememb] t ! au?or mu/ h be5 acqua9t$ ) ! ,epi/les :i* are n[ be=e u1 & suppos+ x to be 8 purpose to pres5t a c]ta9 view ( ! transactions 9 "q1 :e!r = apologetic or conciliatory reasons or = any o!r cause1 x is obvi\s t x w\ld n be reasonable to expect div]g5cies ( s palpable a nature t any read] ( ! lett]s mu/ at once too cle>ly p]ceive su* contradictions4 ,:5 ! ,acts 7 writt51 x is true1 ! au?or c\ld n h kn[n t ! ,epi/les ( ,paul 7 to atta9 ! high canonical position :i* !y n[ occupy1 & might1 !re=e1 use 8 mat]ials m freely2 /ill a c]ta9 sup]ficial consi/5cy x w\ld be natural to expect4 ,un=tunately1 our means ( te/+ ! /atem5ts ( ! au?or are n s m9ute z is desirable1 al?\gh !y are (t5 ( mu* value1 & see+ ! great facility ) :i*1 by app>5tly slight alt]ations & omissions1 a diff]5t complexion c be giv5 to circum/ances reg>d+ :i* no v #bjb full details exi/ else:]e1 we mu/ be prep>$ to seize e indication :i* may enable u to =m a j e/imate ( ! nature ( ! writ+ :i* we are exam9+4 ,9 ! fir/ two *apt]s ( 8 ,epi/le to ! ,galatians1 ! ,apo/le ,paul relates p>ticul>s reg>d+ "s important epo*s ( 8 life1 :i* likewise ent] into ! n>rative ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les4 ,! ,apo/le gives an acc\nt ( 8 own proce$+s imm$iately aft] 8 conv]sion1 & ( ! visit :i* ab\t t "t he paid to ,j]usalem2 &1 fur!r1 ( a second visit to ,j]usalem f\rte5 ye>s lat]1 & to ^! we mu/ n[ direct our att5tion4 ,we def] consid]ation ( ! n>rative ( ! actual conv]sion ( ,paul = ! pres5t1 & m]ely int5d "h to discuss ! movem5ts & conduct ( ! ,apo/le imm$iately subsequ5t to t ev5t4 ,! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les repres5t ,paul z mak+ five j\rneys to ,j]usalem subsequ5t to 8 jo9+ ! ,*ri/ian body4 ,! fir/1 ix4 #bf ff41 takes place imm$iately aft] 8 conv]sion2 ! second1 xi4 #cj1 xii4 #be1 is ^u an occasion :5 ! ,*ur* at ,antio* are repres5t$ z s5d+ relief to ! bre?r5 ( ,judaea by ! h&s ( ,b>nabas & ,saul1 dur+ a "t ( fam9e2 ! ?ird visit to ,j]usalem1 xv4 #a ff41 ,paul likewise pays 9 company ) ,b>nabas1 bo? be+ s5t by ! ,*ur* ( ,antio* to conf] ) ! ,apo/les & ,eld]s z to ! necessity ( circumcision1 & ! obligation to obs]ve ! ,mosaic law 9 ! case ( ,g5tile conv]ts2 ! f\r?1 xviii4 #ba ff1 :5 he goes to ,ephesus ) ,priscilla & ,aquila1 hav+ %av$ 8 head 9 ,c5*rea1 = he _h a v[2 & ! fif? & la/1 xxi4 #ae ff1 :5 ! di/urbance took place 9 ! temple :i* l$ to 8 arre/ & j\rney to ,rome4 #bjc ,! circum/ances & g5]al "* ( ^! visits to ,j]usalem1 & m especially ( t on :i* ! mom5t\s conf]5ce is describ$ z hav+ tak5 place1 are /at$ ) s mu* precision1 & !y pres5t features ( su* m>k$ diff]5ce1 t x might h be5 suppos$ !re c\ld n h be5 any difficulty 9 id5tify+1 ) c]ta9ty1 at lea/ ! visits to :i* ! ,apo/le ref]s 9 8 lett]1 m especially z ^u bo? occasions he m5tions important p>ticul>s :i* *>act]is$ ^? visits4 ,x is a rem>kable fact1 h[ev]1 t1 su* are ! div]g5ces betwe5 ! /atem5ts ( ! unkn[n au?or & ( ! ,apo/le1 ^u no po9t has !re be5 m discussion among/ critics & div9es f ! v e>lie/ times1 or m decid$ diff]5ce ( op9ion4 ,^u g5]al gr\nds1 we h already se51 !re has be5 good reason to d\bt ! hi/orical "* ( ! ,acts4 ,is x n a s+ul>ly sugge/ive circum/ance t1 :5 x is possible to comp>e ! au!ntic repres5tations ( ,paul ) ! n>rative ( ! ,acts1 ev5 apologi/s p]ceive s mu* op5+ = d\bt & controv]sy8 ,! visit describ$ 9 ! n9? *apt] ( ! ,acts is g5]ally7#a7 id5tifi$ ) t :i* is m5tion$ 9 ! fir/ *apt] ( ! ,epi/le4 ,?is unanimity1 h[ev]1 arises ma9ly f ! circum/ance t bo? writ]s cle>ly repres5t t visit z ! fir/ :i* ,paul paid to ,j]usalem aft] 8 conv]sion1 = ! details ( ! two n>ratives are any?+ b 9 agreem5t ) ea* o!r4 ,al?\gh1 !re=e1 critics are =c$ to agree z to ! b>e id5tity ( ! visit1 ?is h>mony is imm$iately di/urb$ on exam9+ ! two acc\nts1 & :il/ ! "o p>ty f9d ! /atem5ts 9 ! ,acts #a ,!re h1 h[ev]1 be5 diff]5ces ( op9ion also reg>d+ ?is4 #bjd reconcilable ) ^? ( ,paul1 a l>ge body m or less di/9ctly decl>e !m to be contradictory1 & unhi/orical47#a7 ,9 ord] t ! "q at issue may be fairly laid be=e ! read]1 we %all give ! two acc\nts 9 p>allel columns4 ------ #bje ------ ,n[1 x is obvi\s t ! repres5tation 9 ! ,acts ( :at ,paul did aft] 8 conv]sion diff]s v widely f ! acc\nt :i* ! ,apo/le himself gives ( ! matt]4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 n a ^w is said 9 ! =m] ( ! j\rney into ,arabia2 b1 on ! contr>y1 x is exclud$1 & ! /atem5t :i* replaces x directly contradicts t ( ,paul4 ,! ,apo/le says t aft] 8 conv]sion3 ,imm$iately7l7 ------ ,i conf]r$ n ) fle% & blood1 b w5t away into ,arabia1 ,! au?or ( ! ,acts says t he sp5t "s days ------ ) ! disciples 9 ,damascus1 & imm$iately ------ began to prea* 9 ! synagogues4 ,paul's feel+s are s completely misrepres5t$ t1 in/ead ( t desire = retirem5t & solitude :i* 8 #bjf words express17#a7 he is describ$ z /raightway plung+ into ! vortex ( public life 9 ,damascus4 ,! g5]al apologetic explanation is1 t ! au?or ( ! ,acts ei!r 0 n aw>e ( ! j\rney into ,arabia1 or t1 8 abs5ce !re hav+ be5 %ort1 he did n consid] x necess>y to m5tion x ,!re are no data = e/imat+ ! l5g? ( "t :i* ,paul sp5t 9 ,arabia1 b ! fact t ! ,apo/le m5tions x ) s mu* emphasis proves n only t he atta*$ consid]able weight to ! episode1 b t ! duration ( 8 visit c\ld n h be5 unimportant4 ,9 any case1 ! au?or ( ! ,acts1 :e!r ignorantly or n1 boldly describes ! ,apo/le z do+ precisely :at he did n4 ,to any ord9>y read]1 moreov]1 8 :ole acc\nt ( ,paul's prea*+ at ,damascus c]ta9ly excludes altoge!r ! idea ( su* a j\rney1 & ! argum5t t x c be4 ins]t$ any:]e is purely arbitr>y4 ,!re are _m !ories among/ apologi/s1 h[ev]1 z to ! "p ( ! n>rative 9 ,acts1 9 :i* ! ,arabian j\rney c be plac$4 ,by "s x is assign$ to a p]iod be=e he comm5c$ 8 active lab\rs1 & !re=e be=e ix4 #bj17b7 f :i* !4words ( ! au?or repulse x ) s+ul> cle>ness2 o!rs int]calate x ) ev5 less reason betwe5 ix4 #bj & #ba27c7 a few discov] "s indication ( x 9 ! ------ ( v]4 #bb17d7 an expression1 h[ev]1 :i* refuses to be =c$ into su* s]vice2 a great] numb] place x 9 !------ ( v]4 #bc17e7 mak+ t ela/ic phrase embrace ?is z well #bjg z o!r difficulties till x snaps "u ! /ra94 ,x seems evid5t to an unprejudic$ read] t ! ------ are repres5t$ z pass$ 9 ,damascus47#a7 ,&1 la/ly1 "s critics place x aft] ix4 #be1 reg>dless ( ,paul's /atem5t t f ,arabia he return$ aga9 to ,damascus1 :i*1 "u ! circum/ances m5tion$ 9 ,acts1 he 0 n likely to d1 & inde$ x is obvi\s t he is !re suppos$ to h at once gone f ,damascus to ,j]usalem4 ,^! attempts at reconciliation are useless4 ,x is ( no avail to f9d "t into :i* a j\rney to ,arabia & ! /ay !re might be =cibly ?ru/4 ,!re /ill rema9s ! fact t s f> f ! ,arabian visit be+ indicat$ 9 ! ,acts1 ! ------ ( ix4 #bj1 comp>$ ) ! ------ ( ,gal4 i4 #af1 positively excludes x1 & proves t ! n>rative ( ! =m] is n hi/orical47#b7 ,!re is ano!r po9t 9 ! acc\nt 9 ,acts :i* fur!r dem&s att5tion4 ,! impression convey$ by ! n>rative is t ,paul w5t up to ,j]usalem n v long aft] 8 conv]sion4 ,! omission ( ! visit to ,arabia %ort5s ! int]val be=e he did s1 by remov+ causes ( delay1 & :il/ no expressions are us$ :i* imply a protract$ /ay 9 ,damascus1 incid5ts are introduc$ :i* indicate t ! purpose ( ! writ] 0 to repres5t ! ,apo/le z los+ no "t aft] 8 conv]sion be=e associat+ himself ) ! eld] #c ,we %all n discuss ! indication giv5 9 #b ,cor4 xi4 #cb ( ! cause ( 8 leav+ ,damascus1 al?\gh sev]al contradictory /atem5ts seem to be made 9 x4 #bjh ,apo/les & obta9+ _! recognition ( 8 m9i/ry2 & ?is view1 we %all see1 is confirm$ by ! peculi> acc\nt :i* is giv5 ( :at took place at ,j]usalem4 ,! ,apo/le di/9ctly /ates1 i4 #ah1 t ?ree ye>s aft] 8 conv]sion he w5t up to visit ,pet]47#a7 ,9 ! ,acts he is repres5t$ z sp5d+ "s days ------ ) ! disciples1 & ! only o!r *ronological indication giv5 is t1 aft] _m days ------1 ! plot occurr$ :i* =c$ him to leave ,damascus4 ,x is argu$ t ------ is an indef9ite p]iod1 :i* may1 accord+ to ! usage ( ! au?or7#b7 indicate a consid]able space ( "t1 & c]ta9ly r express a long ?an a %ort p]iod47#c7 ,! fact is1 h[ev]1 t ! in/ances cit$ are evid5ce1 9 !mselves1 aga9/ ! supposition t ! au?or c h _h any int5tion ( express+ a p]iod ( ?ree ye>s by ! words ------4 ,we suppose t no "o has ev] sugge/$ t ,pet] /aid ?ree ye>s 9 ! h\se ( ,simon ! tann] at ,joppa 7ix4 #dc72 or1 t :5 x is said t ,paul rema9$ _m days at ,cor9? aft] ! insurrection ( ! ,jews1 ! au?or int5ds to speak ( "s ye>s1 :5 9 fact ! ------ contra/$ ) ! expression 7xviii4 #aa73 he cont9u$ !re a ye> & six mon?s1 us$ reg>d+ 8 /ay previ\s to t di/urbance1 evid5tly r$uces ! yet _m days subsequ5tly sp5t !re to a v small compass4 ,aga91 has any "o ev] sugge/$ t 9 ! #a ,! '/raightway' ( v]4 #af leads to ?is conclusion3 ',at fir/ ,i conf]r$ n ) fle% & blood1 x 0 only aft] ! lapse ( ?ree ye>s t ,i w5t to ,j]usalem4' ,lightfoot1 ,oalatians1 p4 #hc4 #c ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! vague '_m days' ( ! ,acts & ! def9ite '?ree ye>s' ( ! ,epi/le is su* z might be expect$ f ! circum/ances ( ! two writ]s4 ,lightfoot1 lb41 p4 #hi1 note #c4 #bji acc\nt ( ,paul's voyage to ,rome1 :]e x is said 7xxvii4 #g7 t1 aft] leav+ ,myrra & sail+ sl[ly _m days ------1 !y _h sc>cely got s f> z ,cnidus1 an int]val ( mon?s1 n to say ye>s1 is indicat$8 ,x is impossible to suppose t1 by su* an expression1 ! writ] int5d$ to indicate a p]iod ( ?ree ye>s47#a7 ,t ! n>rative ( ! ,acts actually repres5ts ,paul z go+ up to ,j]usalem soon aft] 8 conv]sion1 & c]ta9ly n m]ely at ! end ( ?ree ye>s1 is obvi\s f ! /atem5t 9 v]4 #bf1 t :5 ,paul arriv$ at ,j]usalem1 & 0 assay+ to jo9 himself to ! disciples1 all 7 afraid ( him1 & w\ld n believe 9 8 conv]sion4 ,! au?or c\ld c]ta9ly n h /at$ ?is1 if he _h desir$ to imply t ,paul _h already be5 a ,*ri/ian1 & publicly prea*$ ) s mu* success at ,damascus1 = ?ree ye>s47#c7 ,inde$1 ! /atem5ts 9 ix4 #bf are irreconcilable ) ! decl>ation ( ! ,apo/le1 :atev] view be tak5 ( ! previ\s n>rative ( ! ,acts4 ,if x be assum$ t ! au?or wi%es to describe ! visit to ,j]usalem z tak+ place ?ree ye>s aft] 8 conv]sion1 !n ! ignorance ( t ev5t among/ ! bre?r5 !re & _! di/ru/ ( ,paul are utt]ly inconsi/5t & incr$ible2 :il/ if1 on ! o!r h&1 he repres5ts ! ,apo/le z go+ to ,j]usalem ) b little delay 9 ,damascus1 z we cont5d he does1 !n !re is no escape f ! conclusion t ! ,acts1 :il/ ?us giv+ a n>rative consi/5t ) itself1 #baj di/9ctly contradicts ! delib]ate ass]tions ( ! ,apo/le4 ,x is absolutely incr$ible t ! conv]sion ( a well-kn[n p]secutor ( ! ,*ur* 7viii4 #c ff471 effect$ 9 a way :i* is repres5t$ z s sudd5 & sup]natural1 & accompani$ by a suppos$ vision ( ! ,"l1 c\ld = ?ree ye>s h rema9$ unkn[n to ! community ( ,j]usalem4 ,s /rik+ a triumph = ,*ri/ianity mu/ h be5 rapidly circulat$ ?r\gh\t ! ,*ur*1 & ! fact t he :o =m]ly p]secut$ 0 n[ zeal\sly prea*+ ! fai? :i* once he de/roy$ mu/ long h be5 g5]ally kn[n 9 ,j]usalem1 :i* 0 9 su* con/ant communication ) ,damascus4 ,! au?or ( ! ,acts cont9ues 9 ! same /ra91 /at+ t ,b>nabas1 "u ! circum/ances j describ$1 took ,paul & br\ght him to ! ,apo/les ------1 & decl>$ to !m ! p>ticul>s ( 8 vision & conv]sion1 & h[ he _h prea*$ boldly at ,damascus47#a7 ,no d\bt is left t ?is is ! fir/ intimation ! ,apo/les _h receiv$ ( su* extraord9>y ev5ts4 ,aft] ?is1 we are told t ,paul 0 ) !m com+ 9 & go+ out at ,j]usalem1 prea*+ boldly 9 ! "n ( ! ,"l4 ,"h aga9 ! decl>ation ( ,paul is explicit1 & di/9ctly contradicts ?is /ory bo? 9 ! lett] & ! _s4 ,he makes no m5tion ( ,b>nabas4 ,he /ates t he w5t to ,j]usalem specially ) ! view ( mak+ ! acqua9tance ( ,pet]1 ) :om he rema9$ fifte5 days2 b he emphatically says3--,b o!r ( ! ,apo/les saw ,i n1 save ------ ,james1 ! ,"l's bro!r2 & !n he adds ! solemn decl>ation #baa reg>d+ 8 acc\nt ( ?is visit3--,n[ ! ?+s :i* ,i write unto y1 behold1 be=e ,god1 ,i lie n4 ,an assev]ation made 9 ?is tone excludes ! supposition ( inaccuracy or c>eless vagu5ess1 & ! specific /atem5ts h all ! =ce ( sworn evid5ce4 ,in/ead ( be+ pres5t$ to ! ,apo/les1 !re=e1 & go+ 9 & out ) !m at ,j]usalem1 we h "h ! emphatic assurance t1 9 addition to ,pet]1 ,paul saw no "o except ,james1 ! ,"l's bro!r4 ,!re has be5 mu* discussion z to ! id5tity ( ?is ,james1 & :e!r he 0 an apo/le or n1 b into ?is x is unnecess>y = u to ent]4 ,mo/ writ]s agree at lea/ t he is ! same ,james1 ! head ( ! ,*ur* at ,j]usalem1 :om we aga9 frequ5tly meet ) 9 ! ,paul9e ,epi/les & 9 ! ,acts1 & notably 9 ! acc\nt ( ! ,apo/olic c\ncil4 ,! exact int]pretation to be put ^u ! expression ------ has also be5 ! subject ( great controv]sy1 ! "q be+ :e!r ,james is "h really call$ an apo/le or n2 :e!r ------ is to be und]/ood z apply+ solely to ! v]b1 9 :i* case ! /atem5t w\ld mean t he saw no o!r ( ! ,apo/les1 b only ,james27#a7 or to ! :ole phrase1 :i* w\ld express t he _h se5 no o!r ( ! ,apo/les save ,james47#b7 ,x is admitt$ by _m ( ^? :o ?9k t 9 ?is case ! latt] signification mu/ be adopt$ t grammatically ei!r int]pretation is p]missible4 ,ev5 suppos+ t #bab rightly or wrongly ,james is "h ref]r$ to z an ,apo/le1 ! /atem5t ( ! ,acts is1 9 _s1 q oppos$ to t ( ! ,epi/le2 = :5 we are told t ,paul is br\ght to ! ,apo/les ------1 ! l+ui/ic usage ( ! writ] implies t he means mu* m ?an m]ely ,pet] & ,james4 ,x seems impossible to reconcile ! /atem5t1 ix4 #bg1 ) ! solemn assurance ( ,paul17#a7 & if we accept :at ! ,apo/le says z tru?1 & we _c d\bt x1 x mu/ be admitt$ t ! acc\nt 9 ! ,acts is unhi/orical4 ,we arrive at ! v same conclusion on exam9+ ! re/ ( ! n>rative4 ,9 ! ,acts1 ,paul is repres5t$ z be+ ) ! ,apo/les go+ 9 & out1 prea*+ op5ly 9 ,j]usalem1 & disput+ ) ! ,grecian ,jews47#b7 ,no limit is "h put to 8 visit1 & x is difficult to conceive t :at is n>rat$ is int5d$ to describe a visit ( m]ely fifte5 days4 ,a subsequ5t /atem5t 9 ! ,acts1 h[ev]1 expla9s & settles ! po9t ,paul is repres5t$ z decl>+ to ,k+ ,agrippa1 xxvi4 #ai f43 ,:]e=e1 ,k+ ,agrippa1 ,i 0 n disob$i5t unto ! heav5ly vision1 b fir/ unto ^? 9 ,damascus1 & ?r\gh\t all ! region ( ,judaea1 & to ! ,g5tiles1 ,i 0 decl>+ t !y %\ld rep5t #bac & turn to ,god1 c4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 ! /atem5t ( ,paul does n admit ! int]pretation ( su* public m9i/ry4 ,8 express purpose 9 go+ to ,j]usalem 01 n to prea*1 b to make ! acqua9tance ( ,pet]2 & x 0 a m>k$ *>act]i/ic ( ,paul to avoid prea*+ 9 gr\nd already occupi$ by ! o!r ,apo/les be=e him47#a7 ,n only is ! acc\nt 9 ,acts app>5tly exclud$ by su* consid]ations & by ! g5]al t5or ( ! epi/le1 b x is equally s by ! direct words ( ! ,apo/le 7i4 #bb73--;,i 0 unkn[n by face unto ! *ur*es ( ,judaea4 ,x is argu$ t ! t]m3 *ur*es ( ,judaea excludes ,j]usalem47#b7 ,x might possibly be ass]t$ ) reason t su* an expression z ! *ur*es ( ,j]usalem might exclude ! *ur*es ( ,judaea1 b to say t ! ,apo/le1 writ+ else:]e to ! ,galatians ( a visit to ,j]usalem1 & ( 8 conduct at t "t1 int5ds1 :5 speak+ ( ! *ur*es ( ,judaea1 to exclude ! pr9cipal city1 seems to u arbitr>y & unw>rantable4 ,! :ole object ( ! ,apo/le is to %[ ! privacy ( 8 visit & 8 indep5d5ce ( ! eld] ,apo/les4 ,he does n use ! expression z a contra/ to ,j]usalem4 ,no?+ 9 8 acc\nt leads "o to ?9k ( any en]getic prea*+ dur+ ! visit1 & ! necessity ( f9d+ "s way ( exclud+ ,j]usalem f ! ,apo/le's expression is simply ?ru/ ^u apologi/s by ! acc\nt 9 ,acts4 ,two passages are ref]r$ to z support+ ! exclusion ( ,j]usalem f ! *ur*es ( ,judaea4 ,9 ,john iii4 #bb1 we read3 ,aft] #bad ^! ?+s came ,jesus & 8 disciples into ! l& ( ,judaea4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt] he is describ$ z be+ at ,j]usalem4 ,we h already said en\gh ab\t ! geographical notices ( ! au?or ( ! f\r? ,gospel47#a7 ,ev5 ^? :o d n admit t he 0 n a native ( ,pale/9e are agre$ t he wrote 9 ano!r c\ntry & = =eign]s4 ,! l& ( ,judaea1 0 !re=e a natural expression sup]s$+ ! necessity ( giv+ a m m9ute local indication :i* w\ld h be5 ( little use4 ,! second in/ance appeal$ to1 ?\gh m d\btfully17#b7 is ,heb4 xiii4 #bd3 ,!y f ,italy salute y4 ,we are at a loss to und]/& h[ ?is is suppos$ to support ! int]pretation adopt$4 ,x is impossible t if ,paul w5t 9 & out ) ! ,apo/les1 prea*$ boldly 9 ,j]usalem1 & disput$ ) ! ,hell5i/ic ,jews1 n to speak ( :at is add$1 ,acts xxvi4 #ai f41 he c\ld say t he 0 unkn[n by face to ! *ur*es ( ,judaea4 ,!re is no?+1 we may rem>k1 :i* limits 8 prea*+ to ! ,grecian ,jews4 ,:il/ apologi/s ma9ta9 t ! two acc\nts are reconcilable1 _m ( !m frankly admit t ! acc\nt 9 ,acts requires correction f t 9 ! ,epi/le27#c7 b1 on ! o!r h&1 a /ill great] numb] ( critics pr\\nce ! n>rative 9 ! ,acts contradictory to ! /atem5ts ( ,paul47#d7 #bae ,!re rema9s ano!r po9t ^u :i* a few rem>ks mu/ be made4 ,9 ,acts ix4 #bi f4 ! cause ( ,paul's hurri$ly leav+ ,j]usalem is a plot ( ! ,grecian ,jews to kill him4 ,paul does n 9 ! ,epi/le ref] to any su* matt]1 b1 9 ano!r "p ( ! ,acts1 ,paul is repres5t$ z relat+1 xxii4 #ag f43 ,& x came to pass1 t1 :5 ,i return$ to ,j]usalem & 0 pray+ 9 ! temple1 ,i 0 9 a trance & saw him say+ unto me3 ,make ha/e1 & get !e quickly out ( ,j]usalem1 = !y w n receive ?y witness conc]n+ me1 c1 c4 ,?is acc\nt diff]s1 !re=e1 ev5 f ! previ\s n>rative 9 ! same book1 yet critics are agre$ t ! visit dur+ :i* ! ,apo/le is said to h se5 ?is vision 0 t :i* we are discuss+47#a7 ,! writ] is s little a hi/orian work+ f sub/antial facts t he =gets ! details ( 8 own previ\s /atem5ts2 & 9 ! acc\nt ( ! conv]sion ( ,paul1 = in/ance1 he ?rice repeats ! /ory ) emphatic & irreconcilable contradictions4 ,we h already obs]v$ 8 p>tiality = visions1 & su* sup]natural ag5cy is s ord9>y a matt] ) him t1 9 ! fir/ acc\nt ( ?is visit1 he altoge!r omits ! vision1 al?\gh he mu/ h kn[n ( x !n q z mu* z on ! second occasion4 ,! ,apo/le1 9 8 au!ntic & solemn acc\nt ( ?is visit1 gives no h9t ( any vision1 & leaves no sugge/ion ev5 ( t public prea*+ :i* is describ$ 9 ! e>li]1 & ref]r$ to 9 ! lat]1 n>rative 9 ! ,acts47#b7 ,if we #baf _h no o!r gr\nds = reject+ ! acc\nt z unhi/orical ?is miracul\s vision1 add$ z an aft]-?\ght1 w\ld h w>rant$ our do+ s4 ,pass+ on n[ to ! second *apt] ( ! ,epi/le to ! ,galatians1 we f9d t ,paul writes3--,!n1 aft] f\rte5 ye>s1 aga9 ,i w5t up to ,j]usalem444 ------4 ,he /ates ! p>ticul>s ( :at took place ^u ! occasion ( ?is second visit ) a degree ( m9ut5ess :i* ought1 "o might h suppos$1 to h left no d\bt ( its id5tity1 :5 comp>$ ) ! same visit hi/orically describ$ else:]e2 b su* are ! discrepancies betwe5 ! two acc\nts t1 z we h already m5tion$1 ! controv]sy ^u ! po9t has be5 long & active47#a7 ,! ,acts1 x w be rememb]$1 relate a second visit ( ,paul to ,j]usalem1 aft] t :i* we h discuss$1 ^u :i* occasion x is /at$ 7xi4 #cj7 t he 0 s5t ) ,b>nabas to convey to ! community1 dur+ a "t ( fam9e1 ! contributions ( ! ,*ur* ( ,antio*4 ,! ?ird visit ( ! ,acts is t 7xv47 :5 ,paul & ,b>nabas are said to h be5 deput$ to conf] ) ! ,apo/les reg>d+ ! #bag conditions ^u :i* ,g5tile conv]ts %\ld be admitt$ into ! ,*ri/ian bro!rhood4 ,! circum/ances ( ?is visit1 m ne>ly ?an any o!r1 correspond ) ^? describ$ by ! ,apo/le himself 9 ! ,epi/le 7ii4 #a ff471 b !re are grave difficulties 9 ! way ( id5tify+ !m4 ,if ?is visit be id5tical ) t describ$ ,acts xv41 & if ,paul1 z he /ates1 paid no int]m$iate visit to ,j]usalem1 :at becomes ( ! visit int]polat$ 9 ,acts xi4 #cj8 ,! fir/ po9t :i* we mu/ endeav\r to asc]ta9 is exactly :at ! ,apo/le int5ds to say reg>d+ ! second visit :i* he m5tions4 ,! purpose ( ,paul is to decl>e 8 complete indep5d5ce f ^? :o 7 ,apo/les be=e him1 & to ma9ta9 t 8 ,gospel 0 n ( man1 b directly reveal$ to him by ,jesus ,*ri/4 ,9 ord] to prove 8 indep5d5ce1 !re=e1 he categorically /ates exactly :at _h be5 ! ext5t ( 8 int]c\rse ) ! eld] ,apo/les4 ,he prote/s t1 aft] 8 conv]sion1 he _h nei!r conf]r$ ) fle% & blood nor s\ght ^? :o _h be5 ,apo/les be=e him1 b1 on ! contr>y1 t he _h imm$iately gone away to ,arabia4 ,x 0 n until ?ree ye>s _h elaps$ t he _h gone up to ,j]usalem1 & !n only to make ! acqua9tance ( ,pet]1 ) :om he _h rema9$ only fifte5 days1 dur+ :i* he _h n se5 o!r ( ! ,apo/les save ,james1 ! ,"l's bro!r4 ,only aft] ! lapse ( f\rte5 ye>s did he aga9 g up to ,j]usalem4 ,x is argu$7#a7 t :5 ,paul says1 he w5t up aga91 ------1 ! ^w ------ has n ! =ce ( ------1 & t1 s f> f exclud+ any int]m$iate j\rney1 x m]ely signifies a #bah repetition ( :at _h be5 done be=e1 & might h be5 us$ ( any subsequ5t j\rney4 ,ev5 if ?is 7 s1 x is impossible to d5y t1 read ) its context1 ------ is us$ 9 imm$iate connection ) ! =m] visit :i* we h j discuss$4 ,! sequ5ce is di/9ctly m>k$ by ! ------ !n1 & ! adoption ( ! preposition --------:i* may prop]ly be read aft] ! lapse (17#a7--;in/ead ( ------1 seems cle>ly to indicate t no o!r j\rney to ,j]usalem _h be5 made 9 ! int]val4 ,?is c be ma9ta9$ l+ui/ically2 b ! po9t is /ill m decid$ly settl$ :5 ! ,apo/le's int5tion is consid]$4 ,x is obvi\s t 8 purpose w\ld h be5 totally defeat$ _h he pass$ ov] 9 sil5ce an int]m$iate visit4 ,ev5 if1 z is argu$1 !4 visit ref]r$ to 9 ,acts xi4 #cj _h be5 ( v brief duration1 or if he _h n ^u t occasion _h any int]c\rse ) ! ,apo/les1 x is impossible t he c\ld h ignor$ x "u ! circum/ances1 = by s do+ he w\ld h left ! retort 9 ! p[] ( 8 enemies t he _h1 on o!r occasions ?an ^? :i* he _h enum]at$1 be5 9 ,j]usalem & 9 contact ) ! ,apo/les4 ,! m]e fact t a visit _h be5 unm5tion$ w\ld h expos$ him to ! *>ge ( hav+ suppress$ x1 & suspicion is always ready to assign unwor?y motives4 ,if ,paul _h paid su* a ha/y visit z is sugge/$1 he w\ld naturally h m5tion$ ! fact & /at$ ! circum/ances1 :atev] !y 74 ,^! & o!r reasons conv9ce ! majority ( critics t ! ,apo/le "h enum]ates all ! visits :i* he _h paid to ,j]usalem s9ce 8 conv]sion47#b7 ,! visit ref]r$ to 9 ,gal4 ii4 #a ff4 #bai mu/ be consid]$ ! second occasion on :i* ! ,apo/le ,paul w5t to ,j]usalem4 ,?is be+ ! case1 c ! visit be id5tifi$ z ! second visit describ$ 9 ,acts xi4 #cj8 ,! object ( t j\rney to ,j]usalem1 x is expressly /at$1 0 to c>ry to ! bre?r5 9 ,j]usalem ! contributions ( ! ,*ur* ( ,antio* dur+ a "t ( fam9e2 :]eas ,paul explicitly says t he w5t up to ,j]usalem1 on ! occasion we are discuss+1 9 consequ5ce ( a revelation1 to communicate ! ,gospel :i* he 0 prea*+ among ! ,g5tiles4 ,!re is n a ^w ab\t contributions4 ,on ! o!r h&1 *ronologically x is impossible t ! second visit ( ! ,epi/le c be ! second ( ! ,acts4 ,!re is "s diff]5ce ( op9ion z to :e!r ! f\rte5 ye>s are to be calculat$ f ! date ( 8 conv]sion17#a7 or f ! previ\s j\rney47#b7 ,! latt] seems to be ! m reasonable supposition1 b 9 ei!r case x is obvi\s t ! id5tity is exclud$4 ,f v>i\s data1--! fam9e "u ,claudius1 & ! "t ( ,h]od ,agrippa's #bbj dea?1--! date ( ! j\rney ref]r$ to 9 ,acts xi4 #cj is assign$ to ab\t a4d4 #de4 ,if1 !re=e1 we c\nt back f\rte5 or sev5te5 ye>s1 we h z ! date ( ! conv]sion1 on ! fir/ hypo!sis1 a4d4 #ca1 & on ! second1 a4d4 #bh1 nei!r ( :i* ( c\rse is t5able4 ,9 ord] to ov]come ?is difficulty1 critics7#a7 at "o "t propos$1 aga9/ ! unanim\s evid5ce ( ,,mss41 to read in/ead ( ------ 9 ,gal4 ii4 #a1 ------ aft] f\r ye>s2 b ?is viol5t rem$y is n only g5]ally reject$1 b1 ev5 if admitt$ = ! sake ( argum5t1 x c\ld n e/abli% ! id5tity1 inasmu* z ! /atem5ts 9 ,gal4 ii4 #a ff4 imply a mu* long] p]iod ( mission>y activity among/ ! ,g5tiles ?an ,paul c\ld possibly h _h at t "t1 ab\t :i* epo*1 inde$1 ,b>nabas is said to h s\ght him 9 ,t>sus1 app>5tly = ! purpose ( fir/ comm5c+ su* a c>e]2a c]ta9ly ! acc\nt ( 8 active m9i/ry beg9s 9 ! ,acts only 9 ,*4 xiii4 ,!n1 x is n possible to suppose t1 if su* a dispute reg>d+ circumcision & ! ,gospel ( ! uncircumcision z is sket*$ 9 ,gal4 ii4 _h tak5 place on a previ\s occasion1 x c\ld s soon be repeat$1 ,acts xv41 & )\t any ref]5ce to ! =m] transaction4 ,comp>atively few critics1 !re=e1 h v5tur$ to ma9ta9 t ! second visit record$ 9 ! ,epi/le is ! same z ! second m5tion$ 9 ! ,acts 7xi4 #cj71 & 9 mod]n times ! !ory is almo/ entirely ab&on$4 ,if1 !re=e1 x be admitt$ t ,paul m5tions all ! j\rneys :i* he _h made to ,j]usalem up to ! "t at :i* he wrote1 & t 8 second visit 0 n ! second visit #bba ( ! ,acts1 b mu/ be plac$ lat]1 x foll[s cle>ly ^u ! ,apo/le's own assurance t ! visit m5tion$ 9 ,acts xi4 #cj1 xii4 #be1 _c h tak5 place & is unhi/orical1 & ?is is ! conclusion ( ! majority ( critics17#a7 includ+ _m apologi/s1 :o1 :il/ sugge/+ t1 = "s reason1 ,b>nabas may alone h gone to ,j]usalem )\t ,paul1 or o!rwise deprecat+ any imputation ( consci\s inaccuracy to ! au?or1 /ill sub/antially confirm ! result t ,paul did n on t occasion g to ,j]usalem1 & consequ5tly t ! /atem5t is n hi/orical4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is sugge/$ t ! additional visit to ,j]usalem is ins]t$ by ! au?or ) a view to conciliation1 by repres5t+ t ,paul 0 9 con/ant communication ) ! ,apo/les & community ( ,j]usalem1 & t he act$ ) _! approval & sympa?y4 ,x is sc>cely possible to obs]ve ! peculi> v>iations betwe5 ! n>ratives ( ! ,acts & ( ,paul )\t feel+ t ! au?or ( ! =m] delib]ately sacrifices ! indep5d5ce & individuality ( ! great ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles4 ,! great mass ( critics agree 9 decl>+ t ! #bbb second visit describ$ 9 ! ,epi/le is id5tical ) ! ?ird record$ 9 ! ,acts 7xv471 al?\gh a wide diff]5ce ( op9ion exi/s among/ !m z to ! hi/orical value ( ! acc\nt conta9$ 9 ! latt]4 ,?is g5]al agreem5t r5d]s x unnecess>y = u to ent] at any l5g? into ! argum5ts :i* e/abli% ! id5tity1 & we %all cont5t ourselves ) v concisely /at+ "s ( ! *ief reasons = ?is conclusion4 ,! date 9 bo? cases corresponds1 :il/ !re are insup]able *ronological objections to id5tify+ ! second j\rney ( ! ,epi/le ) any e>li] or lat] visit m5tion$ 9 ,acts4 ,we h ref]r$ to o!r reasons aga9/ its be+ plac$ e>li] ?an ! ?ird visit ( ,acts1 & !re are /ill /rong] objections to its be+ dat$ aft] ! ?ird4 ,x is impossible1 consid]+ ! object ( ! ,apo/le1 t he c\ld h pass$ ov] 9 sil5ce su* a visit z t describ$ ,acts xv41 & ! only alt]native w\ld be to date x lat] ?an ! composition ( ! ,epi/le1 to :i* ! n>rative ( ! ,acts z well z all o!r kn[n facts w\ld be irreconcilably oppos$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! date1 ! actors1 ! cause ( dispute1 & probably ! place 7,antio*7 9 :i* t dispute orig9at$1 s closely correspond1 t x is incr$ible t su* a co9cid5ce ( circum/ances %\ld aga9 h occurr$4 ,)\t anticipat+ our comp>ison ( ! two acc\nts ( ?is visit1 we mu/ "h at lea/ rem>k t ! discrepancies are s great t n only h apologetic critics1 z we h indicat$1 adopt$ ! !ory t ! second visit ( ! ,epi/le is n ! same z ! ?ird ( ! ,acts1 b is id5tical ) ! second 7xi4 #cj71 ( :i* s few p>ticul>s are giv51 b #bbc "s1 & notably ,wiesel]17#a7 h ma9ta9$ x to h be5 ! same z t describ$ 9 ,acts xviii4 #ba ff41 :il/ ,paley & o!rs7#b7 h be5 l$ to ! hypo!sis t ! visit 9 "q does n correspond ) any ( ! visits actually record$ 9 ! ,acts1 b is "o :i* is n ref]r$ to at all 9 t "w4 ,^! #bbd !ories h f\nd v little fav\r1 h[ev]1 & we m5tion !m solely to complete our /atem5t ( ! g5]al controv]sy4 ,consid]+ ! fulness ( ! report ( ! visit 9 ,acts xv4 & ! peculi> nature ( ! facts /at$ by ! ,apo/le himself 9 8 lett] to ! ,galatians1 ! difficulty ( id5tify+ ! p>ticul> visit ref]r$ to is a ph5om5on :i* _c be too mu* consid]$4 ,is x possible1 if ! n>rative 9 ! ,acts 7 really hi/orically accurate1 t any reasonable d\bt c\ld ev] h exi/$ z to its correspond5ce ) ! ,apo/le's /atem5ts8 ,we may "h at once say t1 al?\gh _m ( ! critics :o f9ally decide t ! visit describ$ 9 ,acts xv4 is ! same z t ref]r$ to 9 ! second *apt] ( ! ,epi/le argue t ! obvi\s discrepancies & contradictions betwe5 ! two acc\nts may be suffici5tly expla9$ & reconcil$1 ?is is = v /rong reasons disput$1#a & ! n>rative 9 ! ,acts1 :5 te/$ by ! au!ntic /atem5ts ( ! ,apo/le1 pron\nc$ inaccurate & unhi/orical4 ,x is only necess>y to read ! two acc\nts 9 ord] to und]/& ! gr\nds ^u :i* ev5 apologi/s l ,paley & ,wiesel] feel !mselves compell$ #bbe to suppose t ! ,apo/le is describ+ transactions :i* occurr$ dur+ "s visit ei!r unm5tion$ or n fully relat$ 9 ! ,acts1 r ?an id5tify x ) ! visit report$ 9 ! fifte5? *apt]1 f :i* x s ess5tially diff]s4 ,a mat]ial diff]5ce is n d5i$ by any "o1 & explanations ) a view to reconciliation h nev] be5 disp5s$ )4 ,?i]s*1 :o has no?+ bett] ?an ! usual apologetic explanations to (f]1 does n hesitate to av[ ! app>5t incongruities ( ! two n>ratives4 ,! j\rney1 he says1 is ! same1 b no human +5uity c make out t also ! conf]5ce & ! decree result+ f x are ! same47#a7 ,( c\rse he supposes t ! problem is to be solv$ by ass]t+ t ! ,apo/le speaks ( ! private1 ! hi/orian ( ! public1 circum/ances ( ! visit4 ,all :o ma9ta9 ! hi/orical "* ( ! ,acts mu/ ( c\rse m or less ?or\ghly adopt ?is argum5t1 b x is obvi\s t1 9 do+ s1 !y admit on ! "o h& ! g5]al discrepancy1 & on ! o!r1 if successful 9 e/abli%+ _! position1 !y c\ld d no m ?an %[ t ! ,epi/le does n absolutely exclude ! acc\nt 9 ! ,acts4 ,bo? writ]s pr(ess to describe ev5ts :i* occurr$ dur+ ! same visit2 bo? record matt]s ( ! highe/ int]e/ closely be>+ on ! same subject2 yet ! two acc\nts are s diff]5t f ea* o!r t !y c only be rescu$ f complete antagonism by complete sep>ation4 ,suppos+ ! au?or ( ! ,acts to be really acqua9t$ ) ! occurr5ces ( ?is visit1 & to h int5d$ to give a pla9 unv>ni%$ acc\nt ( !m1 ! unconsci\s +5uity ) :i* he has omitt$ ! important facts m5tion$ by ,paul & #bbf elim9at$ ! :ole ( ! ,apo/le's individuality w\ld inde$ be z rem>kable z x is un=tunate4 ,b suppos+ ! ,apo/le ,paul to h be5 aw>e ( ! =mal proce$+s n>rat$ 9 ! ,acts1 *>act]iz$ by su* unanimity & lib]al ,*ri/ian feel+1 x w\ld be /ill m a/oni%+ & un=tunate t he has n only sil5tly pass$ !m ov]1 b has convey$ s s+ul>ly diff]5t an impression ( 8 visit47#a7 ,z ! ,apo/le c]ta9ly c\ld n h be5 acqua9t$ ) ! ,acts1 8 sil5ce reg>d+ ! c\ncil & its mom5t\s decree1 z well z 8 ignorance ( ! unbrok5 h>mony :i* prevail$ are p]fectly intelligible4 ,he ( c\rse only knew & describ$ :at actually occurr$4 ,! au?or ( ! ,acts1 h[ev]1 might & mu/ h kn[n ! ,epi/le to ! ,galatians1 & ! +5uity ) :i* ! tone & details ( ! au!ntic report are avoid$ or transfigur$ _c be ascrib$ to m]e accid5t1 b mu/ l>gely be attribut$ to design1 al?\gh also p>tly1 x may be1 to ! ignorance & ! pi\s imag9ation ( a lat] age4 ,is x possible1 = in/ance1 t ! controv]sy reg>d+ ! circumcision ( ,titus1 & ! dispute ) ,pet] at ,antio*1 :i* are s prom95tly relat$ 9 ! ,epi/le1 b pres5t a view s diff]5t f ! n>rative ( ,acts1 c h be5 undesign$ly omitt$8 ,! viol5t apologetic reconciliation :i* is effect$ betwe5 ! two acc\nts is bas$ ^u ! =egone conclusion t ! au?or ( ! canonical ,acts1 h[ev] he may seem to deviate f ! ,apo/le1 _c possibly contradict him or be #a ,our difficulty 9 read+ ?is page ( hi/ory arises n s mu* f ! abs5ce ( light z f ! p]plexity ( cross lights4 ,! n>ratives ( ,/4 ,luke & ,/4 ,paul only !n cease to conflict1 :5 we take into acc\nt ! diff]5t positions ( ! writ]s & ! diff]5t objects !y _h 9 view4 ,lightfoot1 ,/ ,paul's ,ep4 to ! ,gal41 p4 #bid4 #bbg 9 error2 b ! prec$+ exam9ation has r5d]$ su* a position unt5able1 & "h we h n to d ) a canoniz$ ,/4 ,luke1 b ) an unkn[n writ] ^: "w mu/ be judg$ by ! ord9>y rules ( criticism4 ,accord+ to ! ,acts1 a mo/ s]i\s "q is rais$ at ,antio*4 ,c]ta9 m5 f ,judaea came ?i!r tea*+3 ,except ye h be5 circumcis$ aft] ! mann] ( ,moses ye _c be sav$4 ,aft] mu* diss5sion & disputation ! ,*ur* ( ,antio* appo9t t ,paul & ,b>nabas1 & c]ta9 o!rs ( !m %all g up to ,j]usalem unto ! ,apo/les & eld]s ab\t ?is "q4 ,! motive ( ! j\rney is "h mo/ di/9ctly & def9itely describ$4 ,paul is solemnly deput$ by ! *ur* to lay be=e ! "m ,*ur* ( ,j]usalem a difficult "q1 ^u ! answ] to :i* turns ! :ole future ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,paul's acc\nt1 h[ev]1 gives a v diff]5t complexion to ! visit3--,!n1 aft] f\rte5 ye>s1 ,i w5t up aga9 to ,j]usalem ) ,b>nabas1 tak+ ,titus also ) me4 ,b ,i w5t up accord+ to revelation ------ & communicat$ to !m ! ,gospel :i* ,i prea* among ! ,g5tiles1 c4 ,paley might well say3--,?is is n v reconcilable47#a7 ,x is argu$17#b7 t ! two #bbh /atem5ts may supplem5t ea* o!r2 t ! revelation may h be5 made to ! ,*ur* ( ,antio* & h l$ to ! mission2 or t1 be+ made to ,paul1 x may h decid$ him to und]take x4 ,if h[ev]1 we admit t ! ess5ce ( tru? consi/s n 9 ! m]e lett] b 9 ! _s ( :at is /at$1 x seems impossible to reconcile ^! acc\nts4 ,x might be grant$ t a hi/orian1 giv+ a report ( ev5ts :i* _h occurr$1 might omit "s secret motive actuat+ ! conduct ev5 ( "o ( ! pr9cipal p]sons ) :om he has to d2 b t ! ,apo/le1 "u ! actual circum/ances1 & :ile prote/+3 ,n[ ! ?+s :i* ,i am writ+ unto y1 behold1 be=e ,god1 ,i lie n6 %\ld altoge!r suppress ! important (ficial "* ( 8 j\rney to ,j]usalem1 & give x ! di/9ct col\r ( a visit volunt>ily & indep5d5tly made ------1 is inconceivable4 ,z we proce$1 x w become app>5t t ! div]g5ce betwe5 ! two acc\nts is sy/ematic & fundam5tal2 b we may "h s f> anticipate z to po9t out t ! ,apo/le explicitly excludes an (ficial visit n only by /at+ an inw>d motive1 & omitt+ all m5tion ( a public object1 b by ! expression3--& communicat$ to !m ! ,gospel :i* ,i prea* among ! ,g5tiles1 b privately to ^? :o1 c4 ,to quote ,paley's words3 ,if by 't ,gospel1' he meant ! immunity ( ! ,g5tile ,*ri/ians f ! ,jewi% law 7& ,i "k n :at else x c mean71 x is n easy to conceive h[ he %\ld communicate t privately1 :i* 0 ! subject ( 8 public message27#a7 & #bbi we may add1 h[ he %\ld s absolutely alt] ! :ole "* ( 8 visit4 ,9 ! ,acts1 he is an ambassador *>g$ ) a mo/ important mission2 9 ! ,epi/le1 he is ,paul ! ,apo/le1 mov$ solely by 8 own reasons aga9 to visit ,j]usalem4 ,! au?or ( ! ,acts1 h[ev]1 :o is suppos$ to record only ! ext]nal circum/ances1 :5 te/$ is f\nd to d s v imp]fectly1 = he omits all m5tion ( ,titus1 :o is conjectur$ to be tacitly includ$ 9 ! c]ta9 o!rs ( !m1 :o 7 appo9t$ by ! ,*ur* to accompany ,paul1 & he is altoge!r sil5t reg>d+ ! /r5u\s ef=t to en=ce ! rite ( circumcision 9 8 case1 ^u :i* ! ,apo/le lays s mu* /ress4 ,! ,apo/le1 :o ?r\gh\t ma9ta9s 8 simply indep5d5t attitude1 m5tions 8 tak+ ,titus ) him z a purely volunt>y act1 & c]ta9ly conveys no impression t he also 0 delegat$ by ! ,*ur*4 ,we %all pres5tly see h[ significant ! suppression ( ,titus is 9 connection ) ! au?or's trans=mation ( ! circum/ances ( ! visit4 ,9 affirm+ t he w5t up accord+ to revelation1 ,paul proce$s 9 ! v _s 9 :i* he began to write ?is epi/le4 ,he cont9ues simply to ass]t 8 indep5d5ce1 & equality ) ! eld] ,apo/les4 ,9 speak+ ( 8 fir/ j\rney he has ?is object 9 view1 & he /ates precisely ! duration ( 8 visit & :om he saw4 ,if he _h suppress$ ! (ficial "* ( ?is second visit & ! fact t he submitt$ = ! decision ( ! ,apo/les & eld]s ! "q ( ! immunity ( ! ,g5tile conv]ts f circumcision1 & ?us curtly ascrib$ 8 go+ to a revelation1 he w\ld h compromis$ himself 9 a v s]i\s mann]1 & expos$ himself to a *>ge ( dis+5u\sness ( :i* 8 enemies w\ld n h #bcj fail$ to take advantage4 ,b1 :e!r we consid] ! evid5ce ( ! ,apo/le himself 9 speak+ ( ?is visit1 ! abs5ce ( all ext]nal allusion to ! suppos$ proce$+s :5 ref]5ce to !m w\ld h be5 n only mo/ appropriate b 0 almo/ necess>y1 ! practical contradiction ( ! :ole n>rative impli$ 9 ! subsequ5t conduct ( ,pet] at ,antio*1 or ! inconsi/5cy ( ! conduct attribut$ 9 x to ,paul himself1 we are =c$ back to ! natural conclusion t ! ,apo/le does n suppress any?+1 & does n give s absurdly p>tial an acc\nt ( 8 visit z w\ld be ! case if ! n>rative 9 ! ,acts be hi/orical1 b t1 9 a few rapid p[]ful l9es1 he completes a sugge/ive sket* ( its *ief *>act]i/ics4 ,?is becomes m app>5t at e /ep we take 9 our comp>ison ( ! two n>ratives4 ,if we pass on to ! next /age ( ! proce$+s1 we f9d an equally /rik+ div]g5ce betwe5 ! two writ]s1 & x mu/ n escape att5tion t ! v>iations are n m]ely incid5tal b are ?or\gh & consecutive4 ,accord+ to ! ,acts1 !re 0 a solemn congress held 9 ,j]usalem1 on :i* occasion ! ,apo/les & eld]s & ! ,*ur* be+ assembl$1 ! "q :e!r x 0 necess>y t ! ,g5tiles %\ld be circumcis$ & b\nd to keep ! law ( ,moses 0 fully discuss$1 & a =mal resolution f9ally adopt$ by ! meet+4 ,! proce$+s 9 fact con/itute :at has always be5 reg>d$ z ! fir/ ,c\ncil ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*4 ,! acc\nt 9 ! ,epi/le does n seem to betray any k ( su* a congress47#a7 ,! ,apo/le himself says m]ely3--,b ,i #bca w5t accord+ to revelation & communicat$ to !m ------ ! ,gospel :i* ,i prea* among ! ,g5tiles1 b privately to !m :i* seem$ 7to be some?+7 ------47#a7 ,! usual apologetic explanation1 z we h already m5tion$1 is t :il/ m or less di/9ctly ! au?or ( ,acts indicates private conf]5ces1 & ,paul a public assembly1 ! =m] *iefly conf9es 8 att5tion to ! g5]al congress & ! latt] to ! m private incid5ts ( 8 visit47#b7 ,! op9ion t ! au?or ( ,acts alludes 9 a g5]al way to conf]5ces & discussions prec$+ ! congress17#c7 is bas$ ^u ! /atem5t xv4 #d1 #e3 ,& :5 !y came to ,j]usalem !y 7 receiv$ by ! ,*ur* & by ! ,apo/les & ! eld]s1 & decl>$ all t ,god did ) !m4 ,b !re rose up c]ta9 ( ! sect ( ! ,ph>isees1 :o believ$1 say+3 ,t x is necess>y to circumcise !m & to comm& !m to keep ! law ( ,moses4 ,& ! ,apo/les & ! eld]s came toge!r to see reg>d+ ?is matt]4 ,& :5 !re _h be5 mu* disputation1 ,pet] rose up & said1 c4 ,if x 7 admitt$ t m ?an "o meet+ is "h indicat$1 x is cle> t ! words _c be legitimately /ra9$ into a ref]5ce to m #bcb ?an two conf]5ces4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is a g5]al meet+ ( ! ,apo/les & eld]s & ( ! ,*ur* to receive ! delegates f ,antio*1 & ! second is an equally g5]al & public conf]5ce 7v]se #f73 n only are ! ,apo/les & eld]s pres5t b also ! g5]al body ( ,*ri/ians1 z cle>ly appe>s f ! /atem5t 7v]4 #ab7 t1 aft] ! spee* ( ,pet]1 all ! multitude ------ kept sil5ce47l7 ,! mu* disputation evid5tly takes place on ! occasion :5 ! ,apo/les & eld]s are ga!r$ toge!r to consid] ! matt]4 ,if1 !re=e1 two meet+s c be ma9ta9$ f ! n>rative 9 ,acts1 bo? are emphatically public & g5]al1 & nei!r1 !re=e1 ! private conf]5ce ( ! ,epi/le4 ,! ma9 fact t ! au?or ( ! ,acts describes a g5]al congress ( ! ,*ur* z tak+ place is nev] call$ 9 "q4 ,on ! o!r h&1 few :o appreciate ! nature ( ! discrepancy :i* we are discuss+ w feel t ! difficulty is solv$ by sugge/+ t !re is space = ! ins]tion ( o!r incid5ts 9 ! ,apo/le's n>rative4 ,x is r late n[ to int]polate a g5]al ,c\ncil ( ! ,*ur* into ! pauses ( ! ,galatian lett]4 ,to suppose t ! communications ( ,paul to ! ,pill> ,apo/les1 & ! di/ress+ debate reg>d+ ! circumcision ( ,titus1 may be inf]r$ betwe5 ! l9es ( ! acc\nt 9 ! ,acts1 is a bold ef=t ( imag9ation2 b x is f> f be+ z hopeless z an attempt to reconcile ! discrepancy by ?ru/+ ! important public congress into "s corn] ( ! #bcc ,apo/le's /atem5t4 ,9 s f> z any argum5t is advanc$ 9 support ( ! ass]tion t ,paul's expression implies some?+ m ?an ! private conf]5ce1 x is bas$ ^u ! ref]5ce int5d$ 9 ! words ------4 ,:5 ,paul says he w5t up to ,j]usalem & communicat$ to !m 8 ,gospel1 b privately ------1 :om does he mean to indicate by ! ------8 ,does he ref] to ! ,*ri/ian community ( ,j]usalem1 or to ! ,apo/les !mselves8 ,x is pretty g5]ally admitt$ t ei!r application is p]missible2 b :il/ a majority ( apologetic1 toge!r ) "s indep5d5t1 critics adopt ! =m]17#a7 n a few consid]1 z ,*ryso/om1 ,oecum5ius1 & ,calv9 did be=e !m1 t ,paul m probably ref]r$ to ! ,apo/les47#b7 ,9 fav\r ( ! =m] !re is ! fact1 x is argu$1 t ! ------ is us$ imm$iately aft] ! /atem5t t ! ,apo/le w5t up to ,j]usalem1 & t x may be m natural to conclude t he speaks ( ! ,*ri/ians !re1 m especially z he seems to di/+ui% betwe5 ! communication made ------ & ------27#c7 &1 9 support ( ?is1 !y #bcd 9 ,gal4 i4 #bc1 #bd1 is1 ?\gh we ?9k )\t propriety1 ref]r$ to4 ,x is1 on ! o!r h&1 urg$ t x is v unlikely t ! ,apo/le w\ld 9 su* a way communicate 8 ,gospel to ! :ole community1 & t 9 ! expressions us$ he indicates no special transaction1 b t ! ------ is m]ely an indef9ite /atem5t = :i* he imm$iately sub/itutes ! m precise ------7#a7 ,x is q c]ta9 t !re is no m5tion ( ! ,*ri/ian community ( ,j]usalem to :i* ! ------ c ) any real grammatical necessity be ref]r$2 b :5 ! :ole purport ( ! fir/ "p ( ! ,apo/le's lett] is consid]$ ! ref]5ce to ! ,apo/les 9 ! ------ becomes cle>]4 ,paul is prote/+ ! indep5d5ce ( 8 ,gospel1 & t he did n receive x f man b f ,jesus ,*ri/4 ,he wi%es to %[ t he 0 n taught by ! ,apo/les nor dep5d5t ^u !m4 ,he /ates t aft] 8 conv]sion he did n g to ^? :o 7 ,apo/les be=e him1 b1 on ! contr>y1 w5t away to ,arabia1 & only ?ree ye>s aft] he w5t up to ,j]usalem1 & !n only = ! purpose ( mak+ ! acqua9tance ( ,pet]1 & on t occasion o!r ( ! ,apo/les saw he none save ,james ! ,"l's bro!r4 ,aft] f\rte5 ye>s1 he cont9ues to rec\nt1 he aga9 w5t up to ,j]usalem1 b accord+ to revelation1 & communicat$ to !m1 i4e4 to ! ,apo/les1 ! ,gospel :i* he prea*$ among ! ,g5tiles4 ,! ,apo/les #bce h be5 9 ! writ]'s m9d ?r\gh\t1 b 9 ! impetu\s fl[ ( 8 ideas1 :i* 9 ! fir/ two *apt]s ( ?is epi/le outrun ! p51 ! s5t5ces become involv$4 ,x mu/ be admitt$1 f9ally1 t ! ref]5ce int5d$ is a matt] ( op9ion & _c be au?oritatively settl$4 ,if we suppose x to ref] to ! community ( ,j]usalem1 tak+ ?us ! m fav\rable con/ruction1 h[ w\ld ?is affect ! "q8 ,c x be ma9ta9$ t 9 ?is casual & indef9ite to !m we h any confirmation ( ! g5]al congress ( ! ,acts1 ) its debates1 its solemn settlem5t ( t mom5t\s proposition reg>d+ ! ,g5tile ,*ri/ians1 & its important decree8 ,x is impossible to cr$it t1 9 say+ t he communicat$ to !m ! ,gospel :i* he prea*$ among/ ! ,g5tiles1 ! ,apo/le ref]r$ to a ,c\ncil l t describ$ 9 ! ,acts1 to :i*1 z a delegate f ! ,*ur* ( ,antio*1 he submitt$ ! "q ( ! conditions ^u :i* ! ,g5tiles 7 to be admitt$ into ! ,*ur*1 & tacitly accept$ _! decision47#a7 ,ev5 if x be assum$ t ! ,apo/le makes ?is slight pass+ allusion to "s meet+ diff]5t f 8 conf]5ce ) ! pill> ,apo/les1 x c\ld n h be5 a g5]al congress assembl$ = ! purpose /at$ 9 ! ,acts & *>act]is$ by su* proce$+s4 ,! discrepancy betwe5 ! two n>ratives is n less5$ by any suppos$ indication ei!r 9 ! ,epi/le or 9 ! ,acts ( o!r incid5ts ?an ^? actually describ$4 ,! sugge/ion t ! dispute ab\t ,titus involv$ "s #bcf publicity does n avail1 = ! great] ! publicity & importance ( ! episode ! great] ! difficulty ( expla9+ ! total sil5ce reg>d+ x ( ! au?or ( ,acts4 ,! m closely ! two /atem5ts are comp>$ ! m app>5t does x become t ! au?or describes proce$+s :i* are totally diff]5t 9 g5]al "*1 9 details1 & 9 _s1 f ^? s vividly sket*$ by ! ,apo/le ,paul4 ,we %all h m to say pres5tly reg>d+ ! irreconcilable contradiction 9 _s betwe5 ! :ole acc\nt :i* is giv5 9 ! ,acts ( ?is ,c\ncil & ! writ+s ( ,paul2 b x may be m conv5i5t1 if less effective1 if we = ! pres5t take ! *ief po9ts 9 ! n>rative z !y arise & consid] h[ f> !y are support$ or discr$it$ by o!r data4 ,we %all ref] lat] to ! mann] 9 :i* ! "q :i* leads to ! ,c\ncil is repres5t$ z aris+ & at once proce$ to ! spee* ( ,pet]4 ,aft] !re _h be5 mu* disputation z to :e!r ! ,g5tile ,*ri/ians mu/ necess>ily be circumcis$ & requir$ to obs]ve ! ,mosaic law1 x is /at$ t ,pet] rose up & said3 xv4 #g4 ,m5 7&7 bre?r51 ye "k t a good :ile ago ,god made *oice among y t ! ,g5tiles by my m\? %\ld he> ! ^w ( ! ,gospel & believe4 #h4 ,& ,god :i* kn[e? ! he>ts b>e !m witness1 giv+ !m ! ,holy ,_s ev5 z unto u2 #i4 & put no di/9ction betwe5 u & !m1 hav+ purifi$ _! he>ts by ! fai?4 #aj4 ,n[1 !re=e1 :y tempt ye ,god1 to put a yoke ^u ! neck ( ! disciples :i* nei!r our fa!rs nor we 7 able to be>8 #aa4 ,b by ! grace ( our ,"l ,jesus we believe we are sav$ ev5 z also !y47#a7 #bcg ,! lib]ality ( ! s5tim5ts ?us put into ! m\? ( ,pet] requires no demon/ration1 & !re is "h an explicit expression ( convictions1 :i* we mu/1 f 8 own words1 consid] to be ! p]man5t & mature views ( ! ,apo/le1 dat+ z !y d f anci5t days ------ & orig9at+ 9 s /rik+ & sup]natural a mann]4 ,we may1 !re=e1 expect t :5ev] we meet ) an au!ntic record ( ,pet]'s op9ions & conduct else:]e1 !y %\ld exhibit ! impress ( su* advanc$ & div9ely imp>t$ views4 ,! /atem5t :i* ,pet] makes3 t ,god _h a good :ile be=e select$ him t ! ,g5tiles by 8 voice %\ld he> ! ,gospel1 is ( c\rse a ref]5ce to ! case ( ,cornelius1 & ?is unites ! =tunes ( ! spee* & proce$+s ( ! ,c\ncil ) t episode4 ,we h se5 h[ little gr\nd !re is = consid]+ t n>rative1 ) its elaborate tissue ( miracles1 hi/orical4 ,! spee* :i* adopts x is ?us discr$it$1 & all o!r circum/ances confirm ! conclusion t ! spee* is n au!ntic47#a7 ,if ! "n ( ,pet] 7 eras$ & t ( ,paul sub/itut$1 ! s5tim5ts express$ w\ld be s+ul>ly appropriate4 ,we %\ld h ! #bch div9ely appo9t$ ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles advocat+ complete immunity f ! ,mosaic law1 & enunciat+ ,paul9e pr9ciples 9 peculi>ly ,paul9e t]ms4 ,:5 ,pet] decl>es t ,god put no di/9ction betwe5 u 7,jews7 & !m 7,g5tiles71 purify+ _! he>ts by fai?17#a7 b by ! grace ------ ( our ,"l ,jesus ,*ri/ we believe we are sav$ ev5 z also !y1 d we n he> ,paul's s5tim5ts1 s elaborately express$ 9 ! ,epi/le to ! ,romans & else:]e8 ,= !re is no diff]5ce betwe5 ,jew & ,greek2 = ! same ,"l ( all is ri* unto all t call ^u him4 ,= :osoev] %all call ^u ! "n ( ! ,"l %all be sav$7#b74444 ju/ifi$ freely by 8 grace ------ ?r\gh ! r$emption t is 9 ,*ri/ ,jesus47#c7 ,& :5 ,pet] exclaims3 ,:y tempt ye ,god to put a yoke ------ ^u ! neck ( ! disciples :i* nei!r our fa!rs nor we 7 able to be>8 h we n r a p>aphrase ( ! words 9 ! ,epi/le to ! ,galatians8 ,) lib]ty ,*ri/ made u free2 /& fa/1 !re=e1 & be n entangl$ aga9 9 a yoke ------ ( bondage4 ,behold1 ,i ,paul say unto y t if ye be circumcis$ ,*ri/ w pr(it y no?+4 ,b ,i te/ify aga9 to e man :o is circumcis$ t he is a debtor to d ! :ole law47#d7444 ,= z _m z are ( works ( law are "u a curse1 c7#e7 ,^! are only a few s5t5ces ( :i* ! spee* 9 ,acts is an e*o1 b no att5tive read] c fail to p]ceive t x conta9s 9 g]m ! :ole ( ,paul9e univ]salism4 #bci ,f ! ,paul9e au?or ( ! ,acts ?is might fairly be expect$1 & if we l+ui/ically exam9e ! spee*1 we h additional evid5ce t x is simply1 l o!rs :i* we h consid]$1 a composition f 8 own p54 ,we %all1 z briefly z possible1 ref] to e ^w :i* is n ( too common occurr5ce to require notice1 & po9t out :]e !y are else:]e us$4 ,! op5+ ------ occurs else:]e 9 ! ,acts #ac times1 z we h already po9t$ out1 be+ ! fav\rite phrase plac$ 9 ! m\? ( all speak]s2 ------1 x4 #bh1 xviii4 #be1 xix4 #ae1 #be1 xx4 #ah1 xxii4 #ai1 xxiv4 #aj1 xxvi4 #c1 #bf1 & else:]e only #e times4 ,! phrase ------ at ! beg9n+ ( a s5t5ce has be5 po9t$ out1 9 connection ) a simil> way ( express+ ! p]sonal pron\n 9 x4 #bh1 ------1 & ------1 z consequ5tly *>act]i/ic ( ,pet]1 & consid]$ important z %[+ t ^! reports are n only accord+ to ! s5se ( :at 0 said1 b ! words spok51 v]batim47#a7 ,?is is to ov]look ! fact t ! v same words are put into ! m\? ( ,paul4 ,pet] comm5ces 8 spee*1 xv4 #g3 ------ ,paul beg9s 8 spee* at ,miletus1 xx4 #ah3 ------2 & at ,ephesus1 ,demetrius ! silv]smi? comm5ces 8 address1 xix4 #be3 ------ ,cf4 xxiii4 #ae4 ------1 xv4 #ba1 xxi4 #af2 ,luke ix4 #h1 #ai2 else:]e #f times2 ! expression ------ does n else:]e occur 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t1 b ------ is common 9 ! ,septuag9t4 ,cf4 ,ps4 xliii4 #a1 lxxvi4 #e1 cxlii4 #e1 ,isaiah xxxvii4 #bf1 ,lam5t1 i4 #g1 ii4 #ag1 c1 c4 ------1 i4 #b1 #bd1 vi4 #e1 xiii4 #ag1 xv4 #bb1 #be2 ,luke #bdj #d times1 else:]e #aa times1 & ( ^! ! foll[+ ) inf41 ,act99 i4 #bd f41 xv4 #bb1 #be1 ,ephes4 ,l #d4 ,) ! phrase ------7#a7 may be comp>$ t ( ,paul1 xiii4 #ag1------1 & #a ,cor4 i4 #bg1 9 :i* ------ occurs twice1 z well z aga9 9 ! next v]se1 #bh4 ------ i4 #af1 94 #ah1 #ba2 iv4 #be2 ,luke i4 #gj2 & ! :ole phrase ------1 may be comp>$ ) ! words put into ,paul's m\?1 xxii4 #ad3 ------ xx4 #bd1 9 ,paul's ,epi/les 7#d7 #cc times1 & else:]e #db times4 ,v]se #h4 ------ only occurs "h & 9 i4 #bd1 ------ :]e x =ms "p ( ! pray] at ! election ( ! successor to ,judas4 ,we h fully exam9$ ! spee* ( ,pet]1 i4 #af ffi1 & %[n its unhi/orical "*1 & t x is a free composition by ! au?or ( ! ,acts2 ! pray] ( ! assembly is n ascrib$ to ,pet] 9 ! "w itself1 ?\gh apologi/s1 grasp+ at ! ------1 ass]t t x mu/ h be5 deliv]$ by t ,apo/le2 b1 ) ! prec$+ spee*1 ! pray] also mu/ be attribut$ to ! p5 ( ! au?or2 & if x be ma9ta9$ t ,pet] spoke 9 ! ,aramaic tongue7#b7 x is useless to discuss ! ^w at all1 :i* ( c\rse 9 t case mu/ be all[$ to belong to ! au?or4 ------1 ,acts #ab- times1 ,luke #b1 re/ frequ5tly2 ) ! phrase ------ may be comp>$ ,paul's words 9 xiii4 #bb1 ------4 ,v]se #i1 ------1 x4 #bj1 xi4 #b1 #ab1 ,paul #g times1 c #bda ------1 xii4 #f1 xiii4 #db2 ,luke xi4 #ea1 xvi4 #bf2 re/ #d times4 ------1 ,acts #bg times1 ,luke #c1 ,paul #i1 re/ #ae times2 re444 ------,acts #cc times1 ,luke #e1 ,paul #d1 re/ #aj times-------- is cle>ly *>act]i/ic ( ! au?or1 ------1 ,acts #ae1 ,luke #aa times1 re/ v frequ5tly4 ------1 x4 #ae1 xi4 #i2 ,luke #g1 & else:]e #bj times1 ------1 x4 #cc1 xvi4 #cf1 xxiii4 #ae2 an expression n f\nd else:]e 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t1 & :i* is also indicative ( ! ,au?or's composition4 ,v]se #aj1 ------1 v4 #i1 xvi4 #g1 xxiv4 #f2 ,luke iv4 #b1 xi4 #af1 xx4 #bc1 re/ frequ5tly2 ! "q ( ,jesus 9 ,luke & ! p>allel passages1 ------2 w occur to e "o4 ------1 ,acts #ab1 ,luke #f times1 ! re/ frequ5tly4 ------ does n occur else:]e1 ei!r 9 ! ,acts or ?ird ,gospel1 b x is us$ precisely 9 ! same s5se by ,paul1 ,gal4 v4 #a1 9 a passage to :i* we h call$ att5tion a few pages back7#a7 9 connection ) ?is spee*4 ------1 xx4 #cg1 ,luke xv4 #bj1 xvii4 #b2 ,romans xvi4 #d1 ,mat?4 xviii4 #f1 ,m>k ix4 #db2 ------ occurs #d times1 ------1 vi4 #aj1 xix4 #af1 #bj1 xxv4 #g1 xxvii4 #af2 ,luke #h times & else:]e #ae times4 ------1 iii4 #b1 ix4 #ae1 xxi4 #ce2 ,luke #e1 ,paul #f1 re/ #ab times4 ,v]se #aa1 ------ ,acts #a8 times1 ,luke #h1 ,paul #fa times1 re/ frequ5tly4 ------1 ,acts #ch1 ,luke #i times1 re/ frequ5tly4 ------1 ,acts #ab1 ,luke #ah times1 re/ frequ5tly1 ------1 is also put into ! m\? ( ,paul1 xxvii4 #be1 & is n else:]e f\nd 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t2 ------1 i4 #aa1 vii4 #bh2 ,luke xiii4 #cd2 ,mat?4 xxiii4 #cg1 #b ,tim4 iii4 #h4 ------1 v4 #cg1 xviii4 #ai2 ,luke xi4 #g1 #b1 xx4 #aa1 xxii4 #ab & else:]e 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t #ag times4 ,x _c be d\bt$ t ! language ( ?is spee* is t ( ! au?or ( ! ,acts1 & no s]i\s attempt has ev] #bdb be5 made to %[ t x is ! language ( ,pet]4 ,if x be ass]t$ t1 9 ! =m be=e u1 x is a translation1 !re is n ! slighte/ evid5ce to support ! ass]tion2 & x has to cont5d ) ! un=tunate circum/ance t1 9 ! suppos$ process1 ! words ( ,pet] h n only become ! words ( ! au?or1 b 8 ?\ghts ! ?\ghts ( ,paul4 ,we may n[ inquire :e!r we f9d 9 au!ntic records ( ! ,apo/le ,pet]'s conduct & views any confirmation ( ! lib]ality :i* is attribut$ to him 9 ! ,acts4 ,he is "h repres5t$ z propos+ ! emancipation ( ,g5tile ,conv]ts f ! ,mosaic law3 does ?is accord ) ! /atem5ts ( ! ,apo/le ,paul & ) su* in=mation z we c else:]e ga!r reg>d+ ,pet]8 ,v mu* ! contr>y4 ,pet] 9 ?is spee* claims t1 long be=e1 ,god _h select$ him to make kn[n ! ,gospel to ! ,g5tiles1 b ,paul emphatically di/+ui%es him z ! ,apo/le ( ! ,circumcision2 & al?\gh1 accept+ facts :i* _h actually tak5 place & c\ld n be prev5t$1 ,pet] ) ,james & ,john gave ,paul "r h&s ( fell[%ip1 he rema9$1 z he _h be5 be=e1 ,apo/le ( ! ,circumcision7#a7 &1 z we %all see4 did n practise ! lib]ality :i* he is said to h prea*$4 ,v %ortly aft] ! ,c\ncil describ$ 9 ! ,acts1 !re occurr$ ! celebrat$ dispute betwe5 him & ,paul :i* ! latt] proce$s to describe imm$iately aft] ! visit to ,j]usalem3 ,b :5 ,cephas came to ,antio*1 he writes1 ,i )/ood him to ! face1 = he 0 condemn$4 ,= be=e c]ta9 came f ,james1 he did eat ) ! ,g5tiles2 b :5 !y came1 he )drew & sep>at$ himself1 #bdc fe>+ ^? ( ! ,circumcision4 ,& ! o!r ,jews also jo9$ 9 8 hypocrisy1 insomu* t ev5 ,b>nabas 0 c>ri$ away ) _! hypocrisy4 ,b :5 ,i saw t !y walk$ n uprightly accord+ to ! tru? ( ! ,gospel1 ,i said unto ,cephas be=e all3 ,if ?\ be+ a ,jew live/ ------ aft] ! mann] ( ,g5tiles & n aft] ! mann] ( ,jews1 h[ compelle/ ------ ?\ ! ,g5tiles to adopt ! cu/oms ( ! ,jews8 ------7#a7 ,x is necess>y to say a few words z to ! significance ( ,pet]'s conduct & ( ,paul's rebuke1 reg>d+ :i* !re is "s diff]5ce ( op9ion47#b7 ,are we to und]/& f ?is t ,pet]1 z a g5]al rule1 at ,antio* & else:]e1 ) enlight5$ emancipation f ,jewi% prejudices1 liv$ z a ,g5tile & 9 full communion ) ,g5tile ,*ri/ians87#c7 ,mey]7#d7 & o!rs argue t by ! use ( ! pres5t ------1 ! ,apo/le indicates a cont9u\s practice bas$ ^u pr9ciple1 & t ! ------ is n ! m]e moral life1 b includes ! ext]nal social obs]vances ( ,*ri/ian community3 ! object1 9 fact1 be+ to %[ t ^u pr9ciple ,pet] held ! advanc$ lib]al views ( ,paul1 & t ! fault :i* he committ$ 9 )draw+ f free int]c\rse ) ! ,g5tile ,*ri/ians 0 mom5t>y1 & m]ely ! result ( occasional timidity & weakness4 ,?is !ory _c be> ! te/ ( exam9ation4 ,! acc\nt ( ,paul is cle>ly ?is3 :5 ,cephas came to ,antio*1 ! #bdd /ronghold ( ,g5tile ,*ri/ianity1 be=e c]ta9 m5 came f ,james1 he ate ) ! ,g5tiles1 b z soon z ^! emiss>ies arriv$ he )drew1 fe>+ ^? ( ! circumcision4 ,_h 8 normal cu/om be5 to live l ! ,g5tiles1 h[ is x possible t he c\ld1 on ?is occasion only1 h fe>$ ^? ( ! circumcision8 ,8 practice mu/ h be5 notori\s2 & _h he1 moreov]1 actually express$ su* op9ions 9 ! congress ( ,j]usalem1 8 confession ( fai? hav+ be5 s publicly made1 & s unanim\sly approv$ by ! ,*ur*1 !re c\ld n h be5 any conceivable cause = su* timidity4 ,! fact evid5tly is1 on ! contr>y1 t ,pet]1 "u ! influ5ce ( ,paul1 0 induc$ = ! "t to hold free communion ) ! ,g5tile ,*ri/ians2 b z soon z ! emiss>ies ( ,james appe>$ on ! sc5e1 he became al>m$ at ?is dep>ture f 8 pr9ciples1 & fell back aga9 into 8 normal practice4 ,if ! pres5t ------ be tak5 to indicate cont9u\s habit ( life1 ! pres5t ------ v mu* m ?an neutralizes x4 ,paul ) 8 usual uncompromis+ frankness rebukes ! vacillation ( ,pet]3 by adopt+ ev5 = a "t fell[%ip ) ! ,g5tiles1 ,pet] has practically recognis$ its validity1 has be5 guilty ( hypocrisy 9 )draw+ f 8 concession on ! arrival ( ! foll[]s ( ,james1 & is condemn$2 b aft] su* a concession he _c legitimately dem& t ,g5tile ,conv]ts %\ld judaize4 ,x is obvi\s t :il/ ,pet] liv$ z a ,g5tile1 he c\ld n h be5 compell+ ! ,g5tiles to adopt ,judaism4 ,paul1 !re=e1 9 say+3 ,:y compelle/ ?\ ------ ! ,g5tiles to adopt ! cu/oms ( ! ,jews8 ------1 v di/9ctly intimates t ! normal practice ( ,pet] 0 to compel #bde ,g5tile ,*ri/ians to adopt ,judaism4 ,!re is no escap+ ?is conclusion =1 aft] all speci\s reason+ to ! contr>y is exhau/$1 !re rema9s ! simple fact t ,pet]1 :5 plac$ 9 a dilemma on ! arrival ( ! emiss>ies ( ,james1 & =c$ to decide :e!r he w cont9ue to live z a ,g5tile or z a ,jew1 adopts ! latt] alt]native1 & z ,paul tells u compels 79 ! pres5t7 ! ,g5tiles to judaize4 ,a /rong] indication ( 8 views c\ld sc>cely h be5 giv54 ,n a ^w is said :i* implies t ,pet] yield$ to ! vehem5t prote/s ( ,paul1 b on ! contr>y we mu/ und\bt$ly conclude t he did n2 = x is impossible to suppose t ,paul w\ld n h /at$ a fact s p]t95t to 8 argum5t1 _h ! eld] ,apo/le be5 induc$ by 8 remon/rance to walk uprightly accord+ to ! tru? ( ! ,gospel :i* ,paul prea*$1 & bo? to tea* & practice ,*ri/ian univ]salism4 ,we %all h abundant reason1 ap>t f ?is1 to conclude t ,pet] did n yield1 & x is no false indication ( ?is1 t1 a c5tury aft]1 we f9d ! ,clem5t9e ,homilies express+ ! bitt]ness ( ! ,petr9e p>ty aga9/ ! ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles = ?is v rebuke1 & repres5t+ ,pet] z foll[+ 8 c\rse f city to city = ! purpose ( refut+ ,paul's unor?odox tea*+4 ,x is cont5d$ t ,pet]'s conduct at ,antio* is 9 h>mony ) 8 d5ial ( 8 ma/] relat$ 9 ! ,gospels1 &1 !re=e1 t su* mom5t>y & *>act]i/ic weakness might well h be5 display$ ev5 aft] 8 adoption ( lib]al pr9ciples4 ,^? :o argue 9 ?is way1 h[ev]1 =get t ! d5ial ( ,jesus1 z describ$ 9 ! ,gospels1 proce$$ f ! fe> ( dea?1 & t su* a reply to a m]ely compromis+ "q #bdf :i* did n directly involve pr9ciples1 is a v diff]5t ?+ f conduct l t at ,antio* :]e1 "u "o influ5ce1 a l9e ( action 0 tempor>ily adopt$ :i* ratifi$ views ^u :i* ! op9ion ( ! ,*ur* 0 divid$1 & !n ab&on$ m]ely f fe> ( ! disapproval ( ^? ( ! ,circumcision4 ,! au?or ( ! ,acts passes ov] ?is alt]cation 9 complete sil5ce4 ,no "o has ev] call$ 9 "q ! au!nticity ( ! acc\nt :i* ,paul gives ( x4 ,if ,pet] _h ! c\rage to make su* a spee* at ! ,c\ncil 9 ! v capital ( ,judaic ,*ri/ianity1 & 9 ! pres5ce ( ,james & ! :ole ,*ur*1 h[ c\ld he possibly1 f fe> ( a few m5 f ,j]usalem1 h %[n su* pusillanimity 9 ,antio*1 :]e ,paul & ! mass ( ,*ri/ians support$ him8 ,if ! unanim\s decision ( ! ,c\ncil _h really be5 a fact1 h[ easily he might h sil5c$ any objections by an appeal to t :i* _h seem$ good to ! ,holy ,_s & to ! ,*ur*6 ,b !re is n ! slighte/ k ( ! ,c\ncil & its decree betray$ ei!r by ^? :o came f ,james1 or by ,pet]1 or ,paul4 ,! episode at ,antio* is inconsi/5t ) ! conduct & words ascrib$ to ,pet] 9 ! ,acts1 & contradicts ! n>rative 9 ! fifte5? *apt] :i* we are exam9+47#a7 ,! au?or ( ! ,acts /ates t aft] ,pet] _h spok51 all ! multitude kept sil5ce & 7 he>+ #bdg ,b>nabas & ,paul decl>+ :at signs & wond]s ,god _h wr\ght among ! ,g5tiles by !m47#a7 ,we %all n at pres5t pause to consid] ?is /atem5t1 nor ! role :i* ,paul is made to play 9 ! :ole transaction1 beyond po9t+ out t1 on an occasion :5 su* a subject z ! circumcision ( ! ,g5tiles & _! subjection to ! ,mosaic law 0 be+ discuss$1 no?+ c\ld be m oppos$ to nature ?an to suppose t a man l ! au?or ( ! ,epi/le to ! ,galatians c\ld h assum$ s passive1 & subord9ate an attitude47#b7 ,aft] ,b>nabas & ,paul _h spok51 ,james is repres5t$ z say+3 ,m5 7&7 bre?r51 he> me4 ,simeon decl>$ h[ ,god at fir/ did visit ! ,g5tiles1 to take out ( !m a p = 8 "n4 ,& ) ?is agree ! words ( ! prophets2 z x is writt53 ',aft] ?is ,i w return1 & w build aga9 ! tab]nacle ( ,david :i* has fall5 d[n2 & ,i w build aga9 ! ru9s !re(1 & w set x up3 t ! residue ( m5 may seek aft] ! ,"l1 & all ! ,g5tiles1 ^u :om my "n has be5 call$1 sai? ! ,"l :o doe? ^! ?+s1 kn[n f ! beg9n+4' ,:]e=e1 ,i judge t we tr\ble n ^? f among ! ,g5tiles :o are turn+ to ,god2 b t we write unto !m t !y ab/a9 f ! pollutions ( idols1 & f =nication1 & f ?+s /rangl$1 & f blood4 ,= ,moses f g5]ations ( old ha? 9 e city ^? :o prea* him1 be+ read 9 ! synagogues e ,sabba?47#c7 ,!re are _m reasons = :i* ?is #bdh spee* also mu/ be pron\nc$ inau!ntic47#a7 ,x may be obs]v$1 9 pass+1 t ,james completely disreg>ds ! /atem5t :i* ,b>nabas & ,paul are suppos$ to make z to :at ,god _h wr\ght by !m among ! ,g5tiles2 &1 ignor+ _! int]v5tion1 he directly ref]s to ! prec$+ spee* ( ,pet] claim+ to h fir/ be5 select$ to conv]t ! ,g5tiles4 ,we %all res]ve discussion ( ! conditions :i* ,james proposes to impose ^u ,g5tile ,*ri/ians till we come to ! apo/olic decree :i* embodies !m4 ,! precise signification ( ! s5t5ce ) :i* 7v]4 #ba7 he concludes has be5 mu* debat$1 b ne$ n deta9 u long4 ,:atev] may be said ( ! lib]al "p ( ! spee* x is obvi\s t ! au?or has be5 m true to ! _s ( ! "t 9 conceiv+ ?is & o!r portions ( x1 ?an 9 compos+ ! spee* ( ,pet]4 ,! cont9u$ obs]vance ( ! ,mosaic ritual1 & ! id5tity ( ! synagogue ) ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* are correctly indicat$2 & :5 ,james is aga9 repres5t$ 7xxi4 #bj ff47 z advis+ ,paul to jo9 ^? :o _h av[1 9 ord] to prove t he himself walk$ ord]ly & 0 an obs]v] ( ! law1 & did n tea* ! ,jews to apo/atize f ,moses & ab&on ! rite ( circumcision1 he is consi/5t 9 8 portrait ,x is nev]!less cle> t1 h[ev] we may read ! re/rictions :i* #bdi ,james proposes to impose ^u ,g5tile ,*ri/ians1 ! au?or ( ,acts int5ds !m to be consid]$ z a mo/ lib]al & almo/ complete concession ( immunity4 ,i judge1 he makes ,james say1 t we tr\ble n ^? f among ! ,g5tiles :o are turn+ to ,god2 & aga91 on ! second occasion ( :i* we h j be5 speak+1 9 ref]r+ to ! decree1 a contra/ is drawn betwe5 ! ,*ri/ian ,jews1 f :om obs]vance ( ! law is dem&$1 & ! ,g5tiles1 :o are only expect$ to foll[ ! prescriptions ( ! decree4 ,james is repres5t$ z support+ ! /atem5t ( ,pet] h[ ,god visit$ ! ,g5tiles by ! words ( ! ,prophets1 quot+ a passage f ,amos4 ix4 #aa1 #ab4 ,x is difficult to see h[ ! words1 ev5 z quot$1 apply to ! case at all1 b ?is is immat]ial4 ,loose reason+ c c]ta9ly n be tak5 z a m>k ( inau!nticity4 ,x is mu* m to ! po9t t ,james1 address+ an assembly ( ,apo/les & eld]s 9 ,j]usalem1 quotes ! prophet ,amos freely f ! ,septuag9t v]sion17#a7 :i* diff]s widely 9 ! latt] & m important "p f ! ,hebrew text47#c7 ,! passage 9 ! ,hebrew reads3 ix4 #aa4 ,9 t day w ,i raise up ! tab]nacle ( ,david t is fall51 & close up ! brea*es !re(2 & ,i w raise up 8 ru9s1 & ,i w build x z 9 ! days ( old1 #ab4 t !y may possess ! remnant ( #bej ,edom1 & ( all ! hea!n ^u :om my "n is call$1 sai? ! ,"l t doe? ?is4 ,! au?ors ( ! ,septuag9t v]sion alt]$ ! twelf? v]se into3 ,t ! residue ( m5 may seek aft] ! ,"l & all ! ,g5tiles ^u :om my "n is call$1 sai? ! ,"l :o doe? ^! ?+s47#a7 ,x is p]fectly cle> t ! prophet does n1 9 ! orig9al1 say :at ,james is "h repres5t$ z /at+1 & t 8 own words ref] to ! national triumph ( ,israel1 & n to ! conv]sion ( ! ,g5tiles4 ,amos 9 fact prophesies t ! ,"l w re/ore ! =m] p[] & glory ( ,israel1 & t ! remnant ( ,edom & ! o!r nations ( ! !ocracy %all be re-unit$1 z !y 7 "u ,david4 ,no "o que/ions ! fact t ! orig9al prophecy is alt]$1 & ^? :o desire to see ! s+ul> explanations ( apologi/s may ref] to "s ( ! works indicat$47#b7 ,! "q z to :e!r ,james or ! au?or ( ! ,acts is responsible = ! adoption ( ! ,septuag9t v]sion is felt to be a s]i\s problem4 ,"s critics affirm t 9 all probability ,james mu/ h spok5 9 ,aramaic27#c7 :il/ o!rs ma9ta9 t he deliv]$ ?is #bea address 9 ,greek47#a7 ,9 ! "o case1 x is suppos$ t he quot$ ! orig9al ,hebrew & t ! au?or ( ! ,acts or ! docum5t f :i* he d]iv$ 8 report may h us$ ! ,septuag9t2 & 9 ! o!r1 x is sugge/$ t ! lxx4 may h _h ano!r & m correct read+ be=e !m1 = x is suppos$ impossible t ,james himself c\ld h quot$ a v]sion :i* 0 actually diff]5t f ! orig9al ,hebrew4 ,^! & _m o!r simil> explanations1 into :i* we ne$ n g1 d little to remove ! difficulty pres5t$ by ! fact itself4 ,to suppose t our ,hebrew texts are errone\s 9 ord] to ju/ify ! spee* is a proce$+ :i* does n require rem>k4 ,x w be rememb]$ t1 9 ! ,acts1 ! ,septuag9t is always employ$ 9 quotations f ! ,old ,te/am5t1 & t ?is is by no means ! only place 9 :i* t v]sion is us$ :5 x dep>ts f ! orig9al4 ,x is difficult to conceive t any intellig5t ,jew c\ld h quot$ ! ,hebrew ( ?is passage to support a proposal to free ,g5tile ,*ri/ians f ! necessity ( circumcision & ! obs]vance ( ! ,mosaic ,law4 ,x is equally difficult to suppose t ,james1 a bigot$ lead] ( ! ,judai/ic p>ty & ! head ( ! ,*ur* ( ,j]usalem1 c\ld h quot$ ! ,septuag9t v]sion ( ! ,holy ,scriptures1 diff]+ f ! ,hebrew1 to su* an assembly4 ,x is useless to exam9e "h ! attempts to make ! passage quot$ a correct int]pretation ( ! prophet's mean+1 or s]i\sly to consid] ! proposition t ?is alt]ation ( a prophetic utt]ance is adopt$ z bett] #beb express+ ! m9d ( ! ,_s4 ,if ! orig9al prophecy did n express t m9d1 x is r late to am5d ! utt]ances ( ! prophets 9 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les4 ,we may n[ briefly exam9e ! spee* l+ui/ically4 ,v]se #ac3 ,! op5+ z usual is ------1 b ! :ole phrase ------ is put into ! m\? ( ,paul 9 xxii4 #a1 ------1 & ) b little v>iation aga9 9 xiii4 #af4 ,cf4 ii4 #bb4 ,! use ( ! ,hebrew =m ------ 9 speak+ ( ,pet]1 has be5 po9t$ out by ,bleek7#a7 & o!rs1 aft] ,lightfoot17#b7 z a *>act]i/ic peculi>ity %[+ ! au!nticity ( ! spee*4 ,! same =m occurs 9 #b ,pet4 i4 #a1 b its use 9 t spuri\s epi/le is sc>cely calculat$ to give weight to its use "h4 ,if x be *>act]i/ic ( anyone1 h[ev]1 its use is *>act]i/ic ( ! au?or ( ! ?ird ,gospel & ! ,acts1 & 9 no case is x peculi>ly associat$ ) ,james4 ,9 addition to ! in/ance ref]r$ to above1 & ,apoc4 vii4 #g1 :]e ! tribe ( ,simeon is ?us nam$1 ! ,jewi% =m ------ ( ! "n ,simon occurs f\r times only 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t1 & !y are confln$ to our au?or3 ,acts xiii4 #a2 ,luke ii4 #be1 #cd1 iii4 #cj4 ,be+ acqua9t$ ) ! ,jewi% =m ( ! "n1 he made use ( x 9 ?is spee* probably = ! effect ( local col\r+4 ------1 xv4 #ab1 xxi4 #ai2 ,luke xxiv4 #ce1 & n[h]e else except ,john i4 #ah--;x is peculi> to ! au?or1 ------1 ,acts #aa1 ,luke #af times1 & else:]e frequ5tly1 ------1 iii4 #bf1 vii4 #ab1 xi4 #bf1 xiii4 #df1 xxvi4 #bj2 ,luke #aj times2 ,jam4 iii4 #ag2 ,paul #aj times1 re/ frequ5tly4 ------1 vi4 #c1 vii4 #bc1 xv4 #cf2 ,luke i4 #fh1 #bec #gh1 vii4 #af2 ,mat?4 xxv4 #cf1 #dc1 ,hebr4 ii4 #f1 ,jam4 i4 #bg1 t is to say #g times us$ by ! au?or & only #d times 9 ! re/ ( ! ,new ,te/am5t2 comp>e especially ,luke i4 #fh1 & vii4 #af4 ------ oppos$ to ------1 xxvi4 #ag1 #bc4 ,! expression ------ occurs ii4 #ch1 iv4 #ag1 #ah1 v4 #bh1 #dj2 ,luke ix4 #dh1 #di1 xxi4 #h1 xxiv4 #dg1 & only #e times 9 ! re/ ( ! ,new ,te/am5t4 ,v]se #ae3 ------1 v4 #i2 ,luke v4 #cf1 & ,mat?4 xviii4 #ai1 xx4 #b1 #ac only4 ,v]se #af3 ,9 ?is quotation f ,amos1 = ! i------ ( ! ,septuag9t1 ! ,au?or sub/itutes ------1 :i* phrase occurs else:]e 9 ,acts vii4 #g1 xiii4 #bj1 xviii4 #a2 ,luke v4 #bg1 x4 #a1 xii4 #d1 xvii4 #h1 xviii4 #d4 ------1 v4 #bb & #i times else:]e4 ,v]se #ah3 ------1 i4 #ai1 ii4 #ad1 iv4 #aj1 #af1 ix4 #db1 xiii4 #ch1 xix4 #ag1 xxviii4 #bb1 #bh #aj times 9 ,acts2 ,luke i4 #dd1 xxiii4 #di2 else:]e only 9 ,rom4 i4 #ai1 ,john xviii4 #ae1 #af1--;a *>act]i/ic ^w4 ,s likewise is ! expression ------1 iii4 #ba1 ,luke i4 #gj2 ------ occurs 9 ,ephes4 iii4 #i1 ,col4 i4 #bf4 ,^! words are add$ to ! passage quot$ f ! ,septuag9t4 ,v]se #ai3 ------ is us$ #aa times 9 ,acts2 ,luke i4 #ce1 vii4 #g2 by ,paul #ah times1 ,ep4 ,jam4 twice1 & else:]e #be times4 ------1 #bb times 9 ,acts2 ,luke #f times1 ,paul #cg times1 ,ep4 ,jam4 #f1 & else:]e #dd times1 ------ is n f\nd else:]e 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t4 ------1 ,acts #aa1 ,luke #g1 ,jam4 v4 #ai1 #bj1 re/ #ai times2 ! phrase ------ is a fav\rite & *>act]i/ic expression ( ! ,au?or1 :o uses x ix4 #ce1 xi4 #ba1 xiv4 #ae1 xxvi4 #bj1 & ,luke i4 #af1 & x does n occur else:]e 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t except 9 #a ,pet4 ii4 #be4 ,v]se #bj3 ------1 xxi4 #be1 & ,hebr4 xiii4 #bb only4 ------ xv4 #bi1 ,luke vi4 #bd1 vii4 #f1 xv4 #bj1 xxiv4 #ac1 #a ,!ss4 iv4 #c1 v4 #bb1 #a ,tim4 iv4 #c1 #a ,pet4 ii4 #aa1 & #bed else:]e #g times2 9 bo? passages ( ! ,ep4 to ! ,!ss4 x is us$ ) ------ z "h4 ------ is n else:]e f\nd4 ------1 vii4 #da2 #f times by ,paul1 & else:]e #c3 x occurs v frequ5tly 9 ! ,septuag9t4 ------1 xv4 #bi1 xxi4 #be2 ,paul #h1 else:]e #ae times4 ------1 xv4 #bi1 xxi4 #be1 a te*nical ^w4 ------1 ,acts #ab1 ,luke #aa times1 re/ frequ5tly1 ------1 ii4 #dj1 viii4 #cc1 xiii4 #cf1 xiv4 #af2 ,luke #ac times1 ,mat?4 #ac1 ,mk4 #e1 re/ #e times4 ------1 xv4 #g1 xxi4 #af2 ,luke ix4 #h1 #ai1 else:]e #g times4 ------1 xv4 #cf1 xx4 #bc1 xxiv4 #ab2 ,luke viii4 #a1 #d1 xiii4 #bb1 & else:]e only 9 ,tit4 i4 #e4 ------1 viii4 #e1 ix4 #bj1 x4 #cg1 #db1 xix4 #ac1 xx4 #be1 xxviii4 #ca2 ,luke #i1 ,paul #ad1 else:]e #cj times4 ------1 ,acts #i1 ,luke #bj1 re/ #ce times1 ! :ole phrase ------ occurs aga9 9 ! ,acts1 be+ put into ! m\? ( ,paul xiii4 #bg1 & ------ be+ us$ by ! writ] 9 xviii4 #d4 ------1 ,acts #bj2 ,luke #ae1 re/ #bb times1 ------1 viii4 #bh1 #cj twice1 #cb1 xiii4 #bg1 xv4 #ca1 xxiii4 #cd2 ,luke #c1 & else:]e #bb times4 ,?is analysis confirms ! conclusion t ! spee* ( ,james at ! ,c\ncil proce$s likewise f ! p5 ( ! g5]al au?or1 & ! incompreh5sible lib]ality ( ! s5tim5ts express$1 z well z ! peculi>ity ( ! quotation f ,amos accord+ to ! ,septuag9t1 ?us receive at once _! simple explanation4 ,if we n[ comp>e ! acc\nt ( ,james's %>e 9 grant+ lib]al conditions to ,g5tile ,*ri/ians ) ! /atem5ts ( ,paul1 we arrive at ! same result4 ,x is 9 consequ5ce ( ! arrival ( c]ta9 m5 f ,james ------ t ,pet] ?r\gh fe> ( !m )drew f communion ) ! #bee ,g5tiles4 ,x w be rememb]$ t ! :ole discussion is said to h aris5 9 ,antio* orig9ally f ! judai/ic tea*+ ( c]ta9 m5 :o came f ,judaea1 :o are dis[n$ 9 ! apo/olic lett]47#a7 ,x is un=tunate1 h[ev]1 to say ! lea/ ( x1 t s _m ( ^? :o sy/ematically oppos$ ! "w ( ! ,apo/le ,paul claim$ to repres5t ! views ( ,james & ! "m ,*ur*47#b7 ,! contradiction ( ! au?or ( ! ,acts1 ) 8 object ( conciliation1 has b small weight be=e ! /atem5ts ( ,paul & ! :ole voice ( tradition4 ,at any rate1 almo/ imm$iately aft] ! s-call$ ,apo/olic ,c\ncil1 ) its decree adopt$ ma9ly at ! in/igation ( ,james1 8 emiss>ies caus$ ! defection ( ,pet] 9 ,antio* & ! rupture ) ,paul4 ,x is g5]ally admitt$1 9 ! face ( ! cle> affirmation ( ,paul1 t ! m5 9 "q mu/ 9 all probability h be5 actually s5t by ,james4#c ,x is obvi\s t1 to ju/ify ! fe> ( s lead+ an apo/le z ,pet]1 n only mu/ !y h be5 ?us deput$1 b mu/ h be5 influ5tial m51 #b ,( ! ,judaiz]s :o are d5\nc$ 9 ,/4 ,paul's ,epi/les ?is mu* is c]ta91 t !y exalt$ ! au?ority ( ! ,apo/les ( ! ,circumcision2 & t1 9 "s in/ances at lea/1 z memb]s ( ! "m ,*ur*1 !y _h direct relations ) ,james1 ! ,"l's bro!r4 ,b :5 we attempt to def9e ^? relations1 we are lo/ 9 a maze ( conjecture4 ,lightfoot1 ,ep4 to ! ,gal41 p4 #cec4 #bef repres5t+ au?oritative & preval5t judai/ic op9ions4 ,we %all n attempt to div9e ! object ( _! mission1 b we may say t x is impossible to sep>ate !m f ! judai/ic tea*]s :o urg$ circumcision ^u ! ,galatian ,*ri/ians & oppos$ ! au?ority ( ! ,apo/le ,paul4 ,n pursu+ ?is fur!r at pres5t1 h[ev]1 x is obvi\s t ! effect produc$ by ^! emiss>ies is q incompatible ) ! n>rative t1 s %ort a "t be=e1 ,james & ! ,*ur* ( ,j]usalem _h unanim\sly promulgat$ conditions1 "u :i* ! ,g5tile ,*ri/ians 7 freely admitt$ into communion1 & :i* fully ju/ifi$ ,pet] 9 eat+ ) !m4 ,! incid5t at ,antio*1 z connect$ ) ,james z well z ) ,pet]1 excludes ! supposition t ! acc\nt ( ! ,c\ncil conta9$ 9 ! ,acts c be consid]$ hi/orical4 ,! ,apo/olic lett] embody+ ! decree ( ! ,c\ncil n[ dem&s our att5tion4 ,x seem$ good to ! ,apo/les & ! eld]s ) ! :ole ,*ur* to *oose two lead+ m5 among ! bre?r51 & to s5d !m to ,antio* ) ,paul & ,b>nabas1 & !y wrote by !m 7xv4 #bc73--,! ,apo/les & bre?r5 :i* are eld]s unto ! bre?r5 :i* are ( ! ,g5tiles 9 ,antio* & ,syria & ,cilicia1 greet+4 #bd4 ,=asmu* z we he>d t c]ta9 :i* w5t out f u tr\bl$ y ) words1 subv]t+ y\r s\ls1 to :om we gave no comm&m5t1 #be4 x seem$ good unto u1 hav+ become ( "o m9d1 to *oose out & s5d m5 unto y ) our belov$ ,b>nabas & ,paul1 #bf4 m5 t h giv5 up _! lives = ! "n ( our ,"l ,jesus ,*ri/4 #bg4 ,we h1 !re=e1 s5t ,judas & ,silas1 :o %all also tell y ! same ?+s by ^w ( m\?4 #bh4 ,= x seem$ good to ! ,holy ,_s & to u to lay ^u y no great] burd5 ?an ^! necess>y #beg ?+s3 #bi4 t ye ab/a9 f meats (f]$ to idols & f blood1 & f ?+s /rangl$1 & f =nication3 f :i* if ye keep y\rselves ye %all d well4 ,f>e ye well4 l ,x is argu$ t ! simplicity ( ?is composition1 its brevity & ! abs5ce ( hi]>*ical t5d5cy1 prove ! au!nticity & orig9ality ( ! epi/le4 ,no?+1 h[ev]1 c\ld be m arbitr>y ?an to ass]t t ! au?or ( ! ,acts1 compos+ a lett] suppos$ to be writt5 "u ! circum/ances1 w\ld h writt5 "o diff]5t f ?is4 ,we %all1 on ! contr>y1 see good reason = affirm+ t he actually did compose x1 & t x be>s ! obvi\s impress ( 8 /yle4 ,besides1 ,zell]7#b7 has po9t$ out t1 9 a docum5t affirm$ to be s remov$ f all calculation or object1 v]se #bf c\ld h>dly h f\nd a place4 ,! ref]5ce to our belov$ ,b>nabas & ,paul1 z m5 t h giv5 up _! lives = ! "n ( our ,"l ,jesus ,*ri/1 is sc>cely consi/5t ) ! primitive brevity & simplicity :i* are made ! basis ( su* an argum5t4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( bett] evid5ce1 apologi/s grasp at extremely slight indications ( au!nticity1 & ( ?is nature seems to u ! m>k ( g5u95ess :i* ,bleek & o!rs7#c7 consid] t !y f9d 9 ! fact1 #beh t ! "n ( ,b>nabas is plac$ be=e t ( ,paul 9 ?is docum5t4 ,x is ma9ta9$ t1 f ! #ac? *apt]1 ! au?or comm5ces to give ! prec$5ce to ,paul1 b t1 9 rev]t+ to ! =m] ord]1 ! synodal lett] gives evid5ce bo? ( its antiquity & g5u95ess4 ,if any weight c\ld be atta*$ to su* an indication1 x is un=tunate = ?is argum5t t ! facts are n z /at$1 = ! ord] ,b>nabas & ,paul occurs at xiv4 #ab & #ad1 & ev5 9 ! v acc\nt ( ! ,c\ncil at xv4 #ab4 ,! two names are m5tion$ toge!r 9 ! ,acts sixte5 times1 ,b>nabas be+ nam$ fir/ eight times 7xi4 #cj1 xii4 #be1 xiii4 #a1 #b1 #g1 xiv4 #ab1 #ad1 xv4 #ab71 & ,paul z frequ5tly 7xiii4 #dc1 #df1 #ej1 xv4 #b twice1 #bb1 #be1 #ce74 ,apologi/s l ,lekebus*7#a7 & ,o]tel7#b7 reject ,bleek's argum5t4 ,! greet+ ------ ) :i* ! lett] op5s1 & :i*1 among/ ! ,epi/les ( ! ,new ,te/am5t1 is only f\nd 9 t be>+ ! "n ( ,james 7i4 #a71 is said to be an indication t ! lett] ( ! ,c\ncil 0 writt5 by ,james himself47#c7 ,be=e su* an argum5t c\ld avail1 x w\ld be necess>y1 ?\gh difficult1 to prove ! au!nticity ( ! ,epi/le ( ,james1 b we ne$ n ent] ^u su* a "q4 ------ is ! ord9>y ,greek =m ( greet+ 9 all epi/les17#d7 & ! au?or ( ,acts1 :o writes pur] ,greek ?an any #bei o!r writ] 9 our ,canon1 naturally adopts x4 ,n only does he d s "h1 h[ev]1 b he makes use ( ! same ------ 9 ! lett] ( ! *ief capta9 ,lysias 7xxiii4 #bf717a7 :i* also evid5tly proce$s f 8 h&4 ,moreov]1 ! ^w is us$ z a greet+ 9 ,luke i4 #bh1 & n unfrequ5tly else:]e 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t1 z ,mattli4 xxvi4 #di1 xxvii4 #bi1 xxviii4 #i1 ,m>k xv4 #ah1 ,john xix4 #c1b ,john #aj1 #aa4 ,lekebus*17#b7 ,mey]17#c7 & ,o]tel7#d7 reject ! argum5t1 & we may add t if ------ prove any?+1 x proves t ! au?or ( ,acts1 :o uses ! ^w 9 ! lett] ( ,lysias1 also wrote ! synodal lett]4 ,9 :at language mu/ we suppose t ! ,epi/le 0 orig9ally writt58 ,o]tel ma9ta9s an ,aramaic orig9al17#e7 b ! great] numb] ( writ]s consid] t ! orig9al language 0 ,greek47#f7 ,x _c be d5i$ t ! composition1 z x /&s1 conta9s _m ( ! peculi>ities ( /yle ( ! au?or ( ,acts27#g7 & ^! are1 inde$1 s m>k$ t ev5 apologi/s l ,lekebus* & ,o]tel1 :il/ ma9ta9+ ! sub/antial au!nticity ( ! ,epi/le1 admit t at lea/ its actual =m mu/ be ascrib$ to ! g5]al au?or4 ,! orig9ality ( ! =m be+ ab&on$1 x is difficult to p]ceive any gr\nd = ass]t+ ! orig9ality & g5u95ess ( #bfj ! sub/ance4 ,t ass]tion re/s solely ^u a vague traditional confid5ce 9 ! ,au?or ( ,acts1 :i* is %[n to be )\t any solid f\ndation4 ,! =m ( ?is ,epi/le cle>ly pr(esses to be z g5u9e z ! sub/ance1 & if ! orig9al language 0 ,greek1 !re is absolutely no reason :y ! orig9al lett] %\ld h be5 alt]$4 ,! simil>ity ( ! con/ruction to t ( ! prologue to ! ?ird ,gospel1 9 :i* ! p]sonal /yle ( ! writ] may be suppos$ to h beeu mo/ unres]v$ly %[n1 has long be5 admitt$3-- ------ ,a m detail$ l+ui/ic exam9ation ( ! ,epi/le1 h[ev]1 confirms ! conclusion already /at$4 ,v]se #bc3 ------1 ii4 #bc1 v4 #ab1 vii4 #be1 xi4 #cj1 xiv4 #c1 xix4 #aa1 #bf1 & else:]e ! expression is only met ) 9 ,m>k vi4 #b2 ! phrase ------ f9ds a p>allel 9 xi4 #cj1 ------1 k4 t4 ,x4 ,! *>act]i/ic expression ------1 is repeat$1 xi4 #a1 xvi4 #g1 xxvii4 #b1 #e1 #g4 ,v]se #bd3 ------1 xiii4 #df1 xiv4 #ab1 ,luke vii4 #a1 xi4 #f1 cf4 i4 #a2 ,paul #e1 re/ only #b times4 ------1 xvii4 #h1ac1 ,luke i4 #ab1 xxiv4 #ch1 else:]e ?irte5 times4 ------ is n f\nd else:]e1 b ! pref]5ce ( our writ] = comp\nds ( ------1 & ------ is m>k$1 & ( ^! consi/s a l>ge proportion ( 8 ------1 ,acts #ae1 ,luke #ad times1 & frequ5tly else:]e2 ! phrase ------1 may be comp>$ ) xiv4 #bb1 ------1 cf4 xiv4 #b4 ------ #bfa n else:]e f\nd 9 ,acts1 b x occurs ,mat?4 xvi4 #bj1 ,m>k v4 #dc1 vii4 #cf twice1 viii4 #ae1 ix4 #i1 & ,heb4 xii4 #bj4 ,v]se #be3 ------1 ,acts #h1 ,luke #aa1 ,paul #ag times1 else:]e frequ5tly4 ------1 i4 #ad1 ii4 #a1 #df1 iv4 #bd1 v4 #ab1 xii4 #eg1 viii4 #f1 xii4 #bj1 xviii4 #ab1 xix4 #bi2 s t ?is ^w1 n 9 v common use ev5 9 g5]al ,greek lit]ature1 occurs #aj times else:]e 9 ! ,acts1 b1 except 9 ,rom4 xv4 #f1 is n employ$ by any o!r ,new ,te/am5t writ]4 ------1 i4 #b1 #bd1 vi4 #e1 xiii4 #ag1 xv4 #g1 #bb1 ,luke vi4 #ac1 x4 #db1 xiv4 #g1 & else:]e #aa times1 ------1 ,acts #aa1 ,luke #aj times1 else:]e common1 ------ is n else:]e us$ 9 ,acts1 b is f\nd 9 ,luke iii4 #bb1 ix4 #ce1 xx4 #ac1 ,paul #ac times1 & is common else:]e4 ,v]se #bf3 ------1 ,acts #ac1 ,luke #ag times1 & common else:]e1 ------1 xxi4 #ac1 v4 #da1 ix4 #af1 ,rom4 i4 #e1 #c ,john #g4 ,v]se #bg3 ------1 ,acts #be1 ,luke #bf times1 else:]e v frequ5tly4 ------1 xv4 #cb4 ------1 ,acts #ad1 ,luke #aa1 re/ #ba times1 ------1 ,luke vi4 #bc1 #bf2 ------1 ,acts i4 #ae1 ii4 #a1 #dd1 iii4 #a1 iv4 #bf1 xiv4 #a2 ,luke vi4 #cc1 xvii4 #ce4 ,v]se #bh3 ------1 ,acts #ab1 ,luke #d1 ,paul #f1 else:]e #ac times2 ! same expression1 ------444 is also f\nd 9 ,luke iii4 #ac4 ------1 ,acts #ac1 ,luke #f1 else:]e #ba times4 ------ is n else:]e met ) 9 ,acts1 b occurs ,matt4 xx4 #ab1 #b ,cor4 iv4 #ag1 ,gal4 vi4 #b1 #a ,!s4 il #f1 ,apoc4 ii4 #bd4 ------1 viii4 #a1 xx4 #bc1 xxvii4 #bb1 ,luke #ae1 else:]e #ac times4 ------ is n else:]e f\nd 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t4 ,v]se #bi3 ------1 xv4 #bj1 ,luke vi4 #bd1 vii4 #f1 xv4 #bj1 xxiv4 #ac1 else:]e #ab times4 ------1 xxi4 #be1 #a ,cor4 viii4 #a1 #d1 #g1 #aj1 x4 #ai1 #bh1 ,apoc4 ii4 #ad1 #bj4 ------ occurs only 9 ,luke ii4 #ea4 ------1 ,acts #ab1 ,luke #f1 ,paul #ae1 else:]e #e times only1 ------1 ?is #bfb usual ,greek =mula = ! end+ ( a lett]1 ------1 is n[h]e else us$ 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t1 except at ! close ( ! lett] ( ,lysias1 xxiii4 #cj4 ,turn+ n[ f ! lett] to ! _s ( ?is decree1 we mu/ endeav\r to =m "s idea ( its purport & be>+4 ,! fir/ po9t :i* %\ld be made cle> is1 t ! "q rais$ be=e ! ,c\ncil solely affect$ ! ,g5tile conv]ts1 & t ! conditions conta9$ 9 ! decree 7 impos$ ^u t bran* ( ! ,*ur* alone4 ,no *ange :atev] 9 ! position ( ,jewi% ,*ri/ians 0 contemplat$2 !y 7 left z be=e1 subject to ! ,mosaic law47#a7 ,?is is v app>5t 9 ! ref]5ce :i* is made long aft] to ! decree1 ,*4 xxi4 #bj ff41 #be1 :5 ! desire is express$ to ,paul by ,james1 :o propos$ ! decree1 & ! eld]s ( ,j]usalem1 t he %\ld prove to ! _m ?\s&s ( believ+ ,jews all zeal\s ( ! law1 t he did n tea* ! ,jews :o 7 among ! ,g5tiles apo/asy f ,moses1 say+ t !y ought n to circumcise _! *ildr51 nei!r to walk aft] ! cu/oms4 ,paul1 :o is likewise repres5t$1 9 ! ,acts1 z circumcis+ ) 8 own h&1 aft] ! decision ( ! ,c\ncil _h be5 adopt$1 ,timo?y ! son ( a ,greek1 ^: "m 0 a ,jewess1 cons5ts to give ! ,jews ( ,j]usalem ! requir$ pro(4 ,we h already %[n at ! comm5cem5t ( ?is section1 t #bfc no?+ 0 fur!r f ! m9ds ( ! ,jewi% ,*ri/ians ?an ! supposition t ! obligation to obs]ve ! ,mosaic law 0 weak5$ by ! adoption ( ,*ri/ianity2 & ! repres5tation 9 ! ,acts is c]ta9ly s f> correct1 t x does n pret5d t ,jewi% ,*ri/ians ei!r desir$ or sanction$ any relaxation ( ,mosaic obs]vances on ! "p ( believ+ ,jews4 ,?is _c be too di/9ctly rememb]$ 9 consid]+ ! hi/ory ( primitive ,*ri/ianity4 ,! initiatory rite 0 ess5tial to full p>ticipation 9 ! ,cov5ant4 ,x 0 left = ,paul to prea* ! abrogation ( ! law & ! ab&onm5t ( circumcision4 ,if ! spee* ( ,pet] seems to sugge/ ! abrogation ( ! law ev5 = ,jews1 x is only 9 a way :i* %[s t ! au?or _h no cle> hi/orical fact to relate1 & m]ely desir$ to ascribe1 vaguely & indef9itely1 ,paul9e s5tim5ts to ! ,apo/le ( ! circumcision4 ,no rem>k :atev] is made ^u ^! /rangely lib]al expressions ( ,pet]1 & nei!r ! proposition ( ,james nor ! spee* 9 :i* he makes x takes ! slighte/ notice ( !m4 ,! conduct ( ,pet] at ,antio* & ! influ5ce ex]cis$ by ,james ?r\gh 8 emiss>ies re/ore u to hi/orical gr\nd4 ,:e!r ! au?or int5d$ to repres5t t ! object ( ! conditions ( ! decree 0 to admit ! ,g5tile ,*ri/ians to full communion ) ! ,jewi%1 or m]ely to ! subord9ate position ( ,proselytes ( ! ,gate1 is unc]ta91 b x is n necess>y to discuss ! po9t4 ,!re is n ! slighte/ ext]nal evid5ce t su* a decree ev] exi/$1 & ! m closely ! details are exam9$ ! m evid5t does x become t x has no hi/orical consi/5cy4 ,h[1 & ^u :at pr9ciple1 7 ^! s+ul> conditions select$8 ,_! het]og5e\s "* is at once app>5t1 b n s ! #bfd reason = a comb9ation :i* is nei!r limit$ to ,jewi% cu/oms nor suffici5tly repres5tative ( moral duties4 ,x has be5 argu$1 on ! "o h&1 t ! prohibitions ( ! apo/olic decree are simply ^?1 r$uc$ to a necess>y m9imum1 :i* 7 en=c$ 9 ! case ( hea!n conv]ts to ,judaism :o did n jo9 !mselves fully to ! p ( ! ,cov5ant by submitt+ to circumcision1 b 7 admitt$ to imp]fect communion z ,proselytes ( ! ,gate47#a7 ,! conditions nam$1 h[ev]1 d n fully repres5t ! rules fram$ = su* cases1 & _m critics consid] t ! conditions impos$1 al?\gh !y may h be5 influ5c$ by ! ,noa*iaii prescriptions1 7 r moral duties :i* x 01 f special circum/ances1 ?\ght exp$i5t to specify47#b7 ,we %all pres5tly ref] to "s ( ^! conditions1 b be>+ 9 m9d ! views :i* 7 dom9ant among/ primitive ,*ri/ians1 & m especially1 z is obvi\s1 among/ ! ,*ri/ians ( ,j]usalem :]e ?is decree is suppos$ to h be5 unanim\sly adopt$1 be>+ 9 m9d ! tea*+ :i* is said to h l$ to ! ,c\ncil1 ! episode at ,antio*1 & ! sy/ematic judai/ic opposition :i* ret>d$ ! "w ( ,paul & subsequ5tly affect$ 8 reputation1 x may be in/ructive #bfe to po9t out n only ! vagu5ess :i* exi/s z to ! position :i* x 0 int5d$ t ! ,g5tiles %\ld acquire1 z ! effect ( ?is decree1 b also its s+ul> & total ineffici5cy4 ,an apologetic writ]1 hav+ ( c\rse 9 8 m9d ! fact t !re is no trace ( ! op]ation ( ! decree1 speaks ( its conditions z foll[s3 ,! miscellane\s "* ( ^! prohibitions %[$ t1 tak5 z a :ole1 !y _h no b9d+ =ce indep5d5tly ( ! circum/ances :i* dictat$ !m4 ,!y 7 a tempor>y exp$i5t fram$ to meet a tempor>y em]g5cy4 ,_! object 0 ! avoidance ( (f5ce 9 mix$ communities ( ,jew & ,g5tile conv]ts4 ,beyond ?is recognis$ aim & g5]al und]/&+ impli$ !re91 ! limits ( _! application 7 n def9$4#a ,9 fact ! immunity grant$ to ! ,g5tiles 0 ?us practically almo/ unconditional4 ,x is obvi\s1 h[ev]1 t e consid]ation :i* repres5ts ! decree z m completely emancipat+ ,g5tile ,*ri/ians f ,mosaic obligations1 & admitt+ !m into free communion ) believ]s among/ ! ,jews1 places x 9 m emphatic contradiction to hi/orical facts & ! /atem5ts ( ! ,apo/le ,paul4 ,! unanim\s adoption ( su* a measure 9 ,j]usalem1 on ! "o h&1 &1 on ! o!r1 ! episode at ,antio*1 ! fe> ( ,pet]1 ! sil5ce ( ,paul1 & ! attitude ( ,james become p]fectly inconceivable4 ,if on ! contr>y ! conditions 7 s]i\sly impos$ & really meant any?+1 a numb] ( difficulties spr+ up ( :i* we %all pres5tly speak4 ,t ! prohibitions1 9 ! op9ion ( ! au?or ( ! ,acts1 con/itut$ a positive & b9d+ obligation c sc>cely be d\bt$ by anyone :o consid]s ! t]ms 9 :i* !y are laid d[n4 ,if #bff !y are repres5t$ z a concession !y are nev]!less recognis$ z a burd51 & !y are di/9ctly /at$ to be ! obligations :i* x seem$ good to ! ,holy ,_s z well z to ! ,c\ncil to impose4 ,! qualification1 t ! re/rictive clauses _h no b9d+ =ce indep5d5tly ( ! circum/ances :i* dictat$ !m1 9 s f> z x has any mean+ beyond ! unnecess>y decl>ation t ! decree 0 only applicable to ! class = :om x 0 fram$1 seems to be inadmissible4 ,! circum/ance :i* dictat$ ! decree 0 ! c\nt]-tea*+ ( ,jewi% ,*ri/ians1 t x 0 necess>y t ! ,g5tile conv]ts %\ld be circumcis$ & keep ! law ( ,moses4 ,! re/rictive clauses are simply repres5t$ z ^? :i* x 0 deem$ "r to impose2 &1 z !y are /at$ )\t qualification1 x is hold+ ! decision ( ! ,holy ,_s & ( ! ,*ur* some:at *eap to treat !m z m]e local & tempor>y exp$i5ts4 ,?is is evid5tly n ! view ( ! au?or ( ! ,acts4 ,w\ld x h be5 ! view ( anyone else if x 7 n t1 s f> z any ext]nal trace ( ! decree is conc]n$1 x is an absolute my?8 ,! preval5ce ( practices to :i* ! f\r prohibitions po9t is q suffici5tly atte/$ to %[ t1 little z !re is any gr\nd = consid]+ t su* a decree 0 fram$ 9 su* a mann]1 ! re/rictive clauses are put =? z necess>y & p]man5tly b9d+4 ,! v d\bt :i* exi/s z to :e!r ! prohibitions 7 n int5d$ to repres5t ! conditions impos$ on ,proselytes ( ! ,gate %[s _! close analogy to !m1 & x _c be reasonably ass]t$ t ! e>ly ,*ri/ians reg>d$ ^? conditions ei!r z obsolete or indiff]5t4 ,! decree is cle>ly int5d$ to set =? ! t]ms ^u :i* ,g5tile ,*ri/ians 7 #bfg to be admitt$ into communion1 & und\bt$ly is to be tak5 z applicable n m]ely to a few di/ricts1 b to ! ,g5tiles 9 g5]al4 ,! acc\nt :i* ,paul gives ( 8 visit n only ignores any su* decree1 b excludes x4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 tak+ into acc\nt ! ,apo/le's "* & ! _s ( 8 ,epi/le1 x is impossible to suppose t ,paul _h any int5tion ( submitt+1 z to high] au?ority1 ! ,gospel :i* he prea*$1 = ! judgm5t ( ! eld] ,apo/les & ( ! ,*ur* ( ,j]usalem47#a7 ,no?+ %ort ( ?is is involv$ 9 ! acc\nt 9 ! ,acts1 & 9 ! =m ( ! decree :i* promulgates1 9 an au?oritative mann]1 re/rictive clauses :i* seem$ good to ! ,holy ,_s & to ! ,c\ncil4 ,! temp] ( ! man is well %[n 9 ,paul's indignant lett] to ! ,galatians4 ,he receives 8 ,gospel1 n f m51 b by direct revelation f ,jesus ,*ri/ &1 s f> is he f submission ( ! k9d impli$1 t he says3 ,b ev5 ?\gh we1 or an angel f heav51 %\ld prea* unto y any ,gospel o!r ?an t :i* we prea*$ to y1 let him be accurs$4 ,z we h said be=e1 s say ,i n[ aga93 ,if any man prea* any ,gospel to y o!r ?an t ye receiv$1 let him be accurs$47#b7 ,t ! ,apo/le "h ref]s to 8 own peculi> tea*+1 & does s 9 contradi/9ction to ! ,gospel prea*$ by ! ,judaiz]s1 is evid5t f ! prec$+ words3 ,i m>vel t ye are s soon remov+ f him t call$ y 9 ! grace ( ,*ri/ unto a diff]5t ,gospel2 :i* is n ano!r1 only !re are #bfh "s t tr\ble y1 & desire to p]v]t ! ,gospel ( ,*ri/47#a7 ,pass+ f ?is1 h[ev]1 to ! re/rictive clauses 9 g5]al1 h[ is x possible t ,paul c\ld /ate1 z ! result ( 8 visit1 t ! pill> ,apo/les communicat$ no?+ aft] he>+ 8 ,gospel1 if ! f\r conditions ( ?is decree _h ?us be5 au?oritatively communicat$8 ,on ! contr>y1 ,paul di/9ctly adds t1 9 ackn[l$g+ 8 mission1 b "o condition _h be5 atta*$3 ,only t we %\ld rememb] ! poor2 :i* v ?+ ,i also 0 =w>d to d47#b7 ,z "o condition is "h m5tion$1 :y n ! o!rs1 _h any be5 actually impos$8 ,x is argu$ t ! remembrance ( ! poor ( ,j]usalem :i* is ?us inculcat$ 0 a recomm5dation p]sonally made to ,paul & ,b>nabas1 b x is cle> t ! ,apo/le's words ref] to ! result ( 8 communication ( 8 ,gospel1 & to ! und]/&+ "u :i* 8 mission to ! ,g5tiles 0 tol]at$4 ,we h already po9t$ out h[ extraord9>y x is t su* a decision ( ! ,c\ncil %\ld n h be5 ref]r$ to 9 describ+ 8 visit1 & ! m we g into details ! m /rik+ & inexplicable1 except 9 "o way1 is su* sil5ce4 ,9 relat+ ! /ruggle reg>d+ ! circumcision ( ,titus1 = in/ance1 & /at+ t he did n yield1 no1 n = an h\r1 to ! dem&s made on ! subject1 is x conceivable t1 if ! exemption ( all ,g5tile ,*ri/ians f ! initiatory rite _h #bfi be5 unanim\sly conc$$1 ,paul w\ld n h add$ to 8 /atem5t ab\t ,titus1 t n only he himself _h n be5 compell$ to give way 9 ?is in/ance1 b t 8 repres5tations _h ev5 conv9c$ ^? :o _h be5 ,apo/les be=e him1 & secur$ ! unanim\s adoption ( 8 own views on ! po9t8 ,! :ole ( ?is ,epi/le is a vehem5t & int5sely e>ne/ d5unciation ( ^? ,judaiz]s :o 7 press+ ! necessity ( ! initiatory rite ^u ! ,galatian conv]ts47#a7 ,is x possible t ! ,apo/le c\ld h left totally unm5tion$ ! fact t ! ,apo/les & ! v ,*ur* ( ,j]usalem _h actually decl>$ circumcision to be unnecess>y8 ,x w\ld n h accord$ ) ,paul's "*1 x is said1 to h appeal$ to ! au?ority ( ! eld] ,apo/les or ( ! ,*ur* 9 a matt] 9 :i* 8 own apo/olic au?ority & tea*+ 7 9 "q4 ,9 t case1 b[ c x be suppos$ t he ev] w5t at all up to ,j]usalem to ! ,apo/les & eld]s ab\t ?is "q8 ,if he 0 n too pr\d to lay aside 8 apo/olic dignity &1 repres5t+ ! ,*ri/ians ( ,antio*1 to submit ! case to ! ,c\ncil at ,j]usalem1 & subsequ5tly to deliv] its decree to v>i\s communities1 is x consi/5t ) reason or common s5se to ass]t t he 0 too pr\d to recall ! decision ( t ,c\ncil to ! ,*ri/ians ( ,galatia8 ,x mu/1 we ?9k1 be obvi\s t1 if su* an explanation ( ,paul's total sil5ce z to ! decree be at all valid1 x is absolutely fatal to ! acc\nt ( ,paul's visit 9 ! ,acts4 ,?is reason+ is n conf9$ to ! ,epi/le to ! ,galatians b1 z ,paley #a ,turn+ f ,antio* to ,galatia1 we meet ) ,judaic tea*]s :o urg$ circumcision on ! ,g5tile conv]ts1 &1 z ! be/ means ( weak5+ ! au?ority ( ,/4 ,paul1 ass]t$ = ! ,apo/les ( ! ,circumcision ! exclusive "r ( dictat+ to ! ,*ur*4 ,lightfoot1 ,ep4 to ! ,gal4 p4 #cec4 #bgj po9ts out1 applies to ! o!r ,epi/les ( ,paul1 9 all ( :i* ! same sil5ce is pres]v$4 ,moreov]1 ! apologetic explanation altoge!r fails ^u o!r gr\nds4 ,)\t appeal+ to ! decree z an au?ority1 we mu/ feel sure t ! ,apo/le w\ld at lea/ h made use ( x z a logical refutation ( 8 adv]s>ies4 ,! man :o did n hesitate to attack ,pet] op5ly = inconsi/5cy1 & *>ge him ) hypocrisy1 w\ld n h hesitat$ to cite ! decree z evid5ce1 & /ill less to fl+ x 9 ! faces ( ^? ,judaiz]s :o1 s %ort a "t aft] t decree is suppos$ to h be5 promulgat$1 prea*$ ! necessity ( circumcision & ,mosaic obs]vances 9 direct opposition to its t]ms1 :il/ claim+ to repres5t ! views ( ! v ,apo/les & ,*ur* :i* _h fram$ x4 ,paul1 :o nev] d5ies ! validity ( _! claim1 w\ld mo/ c]ta9ly h taunt$ !m ) gross inconsi/5cy & retort$ t ! ,*ur* ( ,j]usalem1 ! ,apo/les1 & ! ,judaiz]s :o n[ tr\bl$ him & prea*$ circumcision & ! ,mosaic law _h1 f\r or five ye>s previ\sly1 decl>$ z ! delib]ate decision ( ! ,holy ,_s & ! ,c\ncil1 t !y 7 no long] b9d+ on ! ,g5tile conv]ts4 ,by su* a ref]5ce ! discussion w\ld h be5 =eclos$4 ,none ( ! reasons :i* are sugge/$ to expla9 ! und5iable fact t !re is no m5tion ( ! decree c really be> exam9ation1 & t fact rema9s support$ by a great _m p[]ful consid]ations1 lead+ to ! v simple explanation :i* reconciles all difficulties1 t ! n>rative ( ! ,acts is n au!ntic4 ,we arrive at ! v same results :5 we exam9e ! ,apo/le's ref]5ces to ! practices :i* ! conditions ( ! decree 7 int5d$ to control4 ,in/ead ( recognis+ ! au?ority ( ! decree1 or en=c+ its #bga prescriptions1 he does n ev5 all[ u to inf] its exi/5ce1 & he tea*es disreg>d at lea/ ( "s ( its re/rictions4 ,! decree enjo9s ! ,g5tile ,*ri/ians to ab/a9 f meats (f]$ to idols4 ,paul tells ! ,cor9?ians to eat :atev] meat is sold 9 ! %ambles )\t ask+ que/ions = consci5ce sake1 = an idol is no?+ 9 ! _w1 nei!r if we eat are we ! bett]1 nor if we eat n are we ! worse47#a7 ,x is n conceivable t ! ,apo/le c\ld s completely h ignor$ ! prohibition ( ! decree if he _h actually submitt$ ! "q to ! ,apo/les1 & himself s di/9ctly acquiesc$ 9 _! decision z to di/ribute ! docum5t among/ ! v>i\s communities :om he subsequ5tly visit$4 ,to argue t ! decree 0 only int5d$ to h =ce 9 ,antio*1 & ,syria1 & ,cilicia1 to :i*1 z ! locality 9 :i* ! difficulty _h aris5 :i* _h orig9ally l$ to ! ,c\ncil1 ! decree 01 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 address$1 is highly arbitr>y2 b1 :5 proce$+ fur!r1 apologi/s7#b7 draw a di/9ction betwe5 ^? *ur*es :i* _h already be5 f\nd$1 & :i* _h felt ! pressure ( ,jewi% prejudice 7,acts xvi4 #d71 & bro!rhoods aft]w>ds =m$ & ly+ beyond ! rea* ( su* influ5ces1 z a reason :y no notice ( ! decree is tak5 9 ! case ( ! ,cor9?ians & ,romans1 ! special plead+ ignores v palpable facts4 ,jewi% prejudices are repres5t$ 9 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les !mselves z be+ m ?an usually /rong 9 ,cor9?4 ,!re 0 a ,jewi% synagogue !re1 augm5t$ probably by ! ,jews expell$ f ,rome "u ,claudius17#c7 & _! viol5ce aga9/ #bgb ,paul f9ally oblig$ him to leave ! place47#a7 ,liv+ 9 ! mid/ ( an idolatr\s city1 & mu* expos$ to ! temptations ( sacrificial fea/s1 we might naturally expect excessive rig\r aga9/ p>ticipation1 on ! "o h&1 & p]haps too great indiff]5ce1 on ! o!r2 & ?is we actually f9d to h be5 ! case4 ,x is 9 consequ5ce ( que/ions respect+ meats (f]$ to idols t ,paul writes to ! ,cor9?ians1 & :il/ treat+ ! matt] 9 itself z "o ( p]fect indiff]5ce1 m]ely inculcates consid]ation = weak consci5ces47#b7 ,x is cle> t !re 0 a decid$ feel+ aga9/ ! practice2 x is cle> t /rong ,jewi% prejudices exi/$ 9 ! ,jewi% colony at ,cor9?1 & :]ev] !re 7 ,jews ! eat+ ( meats (f]$ to idols 0 an abom9ation4 ,! s9 ( ,israel at ,baalpeor7#c7 liv$ 9 ! memory ( ! p1 & ab/95ce f su* pollution7#d7 0 consid]$ a duty4 ,if ! exi/5ce ( su* ,jewi% prejudices 0 a reason = publi%+ ! decree1 we h1 9 fact1 m def9ite evid5ce ( !m 9 ,cor9? ?an we h 9 ,antio*1 =1 ap>t f ?is specific m5tion ( ! subject ( eat+ sacrificial meats1 ! two apo/olic lett]s abundantly %[ ! exi/5ce & activity ( ,judai/ic p>ties !re1 :i* oppos$ ! "w ( ,paul1 & desir$ to =ce ,mosaic obs]vances ^u 8 conv]ts4 ,x is impossible to admit t1 suppos+ su* a decree to h be5 promulgat$ z ! m9d ( ! ,holy ,_s1 !re c\ld be any reason :y x %\ld h be5 unkn[n at ,cor9? s %ort a "t aft] x 0 adopt$4 ,:51 !re=e1 we f9d ! ,apo/le n only ignor+ x1 b actually decl>+ t to be a matt] ( indiff]5ce1 ab/95ce f :i* x _h j seem$ #bgc good to ! ,holy ,_s to enjo91 ! only reasonable conclusion is t ,paul himself 0 totally ignorant ( ! exi/5ce ( any decree conta9+ su* a prohibition4 ,!re is mu* diff]5ce ( op9ion z to ! nature ( ! ------ ref]r$ to 9 ! decree1 & we ne$ n discuss x2 b 9 all ! ,apo/le's homilies ^u ! subject !re is ! same total abs5ce ( all allusion to ! decision ( ! ,c\ncil4 ,n[h]e c any practical result f ! op]ation ( ! decree be po9t$ out1 nor any trace ev5 ( its exi/5ce4#a ,! ass]tions & conjectures1 by :i* ^? :o ma9ta9 ! au!nticity ( ! n>rative 9 ! ,acts seek to expla9 ! extraord9>y abs5ce ( all ext]nal evid5ce ( ! decree1 lab\r "u ! disadvantage ( all attempts to acc\nt = ! total failure ( effects f a suppos$ cause1 ! exi/5ce ( :i* is 9 reality only assum$4 ,x is cu/om>y to reply to ! objection t !re is no m5tion ( ! decree 9 ! ,epi/les ( ,paul or 9 any o!r contempor>y writ+1 t ?is is a m]e argum5t a sil5tio4 ,is x n1 h[ev]1 difficult to imag9e any o!r argum5t1 f contempor>y s\rces1 reg>d+ :at is affirm$ to h _h no exi/5ce1 ?an t f sil5ce #a ,d apologi/s absolutely dem& t1 ) prophetic anticipation ( future controv]sies1 ! ,apo/le ,paul %\ld oblig+ly h left on record t !re actually 0 no ,c\ncil su* z a writ] w\ld subsequ5tly describe1 & t ! decree :i* he #bgd w\ld put =w>d z ! result ( t ,c\ncil mu/ n he accept$ z g5u9e8 ,x is natural to expect t1 :5 writ+ ( ! v visit 9 "q1 & deal+ ) subjects & discussions 9 :i*1 :e!r 9 ! %ape ( hi/orical allusion1 appeal to au?ority1 taunt = inconsi/5cy1 or ass]tion ( 8 own influ5ce1 "s allusion to ! decree w\ld h be5 highly appropriate1 if n necess>y1 ! ,apo/le ,paul %\ld at lea/ h giv5 "s h9t ( its exi/5ce4 ,8 n do+ s con/itutes /rong presumptive evid5ce aga9/ ! au!nticity ( ! decree1 & all ! m s z no m positive evid5ce ?an sil5ce c\ld possibly be =?com+ ( ! non-exi/5ce ( t :i* nev] exi/$4 ,! suppos$ decree ( ! ,c\ncil ( ,j]usalem _c on any gr\nd be accept$ z a hi/orical fact47#a7 ,we may n[ return to su* fur!r consid]ation ( ! /atem5ts ( ! ,epi/le z may seem necess>y = ! object ( our inquiry4 ,no m5tion is made by ! ,apo/le ( any (ficial mission on ! subject ( circumcision1 & ! discussion ( t "q arises 9 a m]ely incid5tal mann] f ! pres5ce ( ,titus1 an uncircumcis$ ,g5tile ,*ri/ian4 ,!re has be5 mu* discussion z to :e!r ,titus actually 0 circumcis$ or n1 & !re #bge c be little d\bt t ! omission ( ! negative ------ f ,gal4 ii4 #e1 has be5 9 "s cases influ5c$ by ! desire to br+ ! ,apo/le's conduct ^u ?is occasion into h>mony ) ! acc\nt1 9 ,acts xvi4 #c1 ( 8 circumcis+ ,timo?y47#a7 ,we %all n require to ent] into any controv]sy on ! po9t1 = ! great majority ( critics are agre$ t ! ,apo/le int5d$ to say t ,titus 0 n circumcis$1 al?\gh ! contr>y is affirm$ by a few writ]s47#b7 ,x is obvi\s f ! :ole ( ! ,apo/le's n>rative t great pressure 0 ex]t$ to induce ,titus to submit1 & t ,paul1 if he did n yield ev5 = an h\r ! requir$ subjection1 _h a long & sev]e /ruggle to ma9ta9 8 position4 ,ev5 :5 relat+ ! circum/ances 9 8 lett] to ! ,galatians1 ! recollection ( 8 conte/ pr(\ndly /irs ! ,apo/le's indignation2 8 utt]ance becomes vehem5t1 b _c keep pace ) 8 impetu\s ?\ghts1 & ! result is a n>rative 9 brok5 & abrupt s5t5ces ^: v incomplet5ess is eloqu5t1 & betrays ! irritation :i* has n ev5 yet entirely subsid$4 ,h[ does ?is accord ) ! :ole tone ( ! acc\nt 9 ! ,acts8 ,x is cu/om>y ) apologi/s to ins]t s mu* betwe5 ! l9es ( t n>rative1 p>tly f imag9ation & p>tly f ! /atem5ts ( ! ,epi/le1 t !y almo/ conv9ce !mselves & o!rs t su* additions are actually sugge/$ by ! au?or ( ! ,acts himself4 ,if we take ! acc\nt ( ! ,acts1 h[ev]1 )\t su* transmutations1 x is c]ta9 t n only is !re n ! slighte/ indication ( any /ruggle reg>d+ ! #bgf circumcision ( ,titus1 9 :i* ,/4 ,paul ma9ta9$ at "o "t almo/ s+le-h&$ ! cause ( ,g5tile fre$om17#a7 b no sugge/ion t !re _h ev] be5 any hesitation on ! "p ( ! lead+ ,apo/les & ! mass ( ! ,*ur* reg>d+ ! po9t at issue4 ,! impression giv5 by ! au?or ( ! ,acts is und5iably "o ( unbrok5 & undi/urb$ h>mony3 ( a c\ncil 9 :i* ! eld] ,apo/les 7 ( "o m9d ) ,paul1 & w>mly agre$ ) him t ! ,g5tiles %\ld be deliv]$ f ! yoke ( ! ,mosaic law & f ! necessity ( und]go+ ! initiatory rite4 ,:at is !re 9 su* an acc\nt to ju/ify 9 any degree ! irritation display$ by ,paul at ! m]e recollection ( ?is visit1 or to m]it ! ironical t]ms ) :i* he speaks ( ! pill> ,apo/les8 ,we may1 h[ev]1 n[ consid] ! "p :i* ! ,apo/les mu/ h tak5 9 ! dispute reg>d+ ! circumcision ( ,titus4 ,is x possible to suppose t1 if ! circumcision ( ,paul's foll[] _h only be5 dem&$ by c]ta9 ( ! sect ( ! ,ph>isees :o believ$1 unsupport$ by ! re/1 !re c\ld ev] h be5 any consid]able /ruggle on ! po9t8 ,is x possible1 fur!r1 to suppose t1 if ,paul _h receiv$ ! cordial support ( ,james & ! lead+ ,apo/les 9 8 refusal to conc$e ! circumcision ( ,titus1 su* a conte/ c\ld h be5 m ?an mom5t>y & trifl+8 ,is x possible t ! ,apo/le ,paul c\ld h spok5 ( c]ta9 ( ! sect ( ! ,ph>isees :o believ$ 9 su* t]ms z3 to :om we yield$ by ! submission ------ no n = an h\r87#b7 or t he c\ld h us$ ?is expression if ^? :o press$ ! dem& ^u him _h n be5 9 a position #bgg ( au?ority1 :i* naturally sugge/$ a subjection :i* ,paul ^u ?is occasion p]si/5tly refus$8 ,x is n possible4 ,( c\rse _m writ]s :o seek to reconcile ! two n>ratives1 & "s ( :om sub/itute = ! pla9 /atem5ts ( ! ,acts & ( ! ,apo/le1 an acc\nt :i* is n consi/5t ) ei!r1 suppose t ! dem& = ! circumcision ( ,titus proce$$ solely f ! false bre?r517#a7 al?\gh "s ( !m suppose t at lea/ ^! false bre?r5 may h ?\ght !y _h reason to hope = ! support ( ! eld] ,apo/les47#b7 ,x is almo/ too cle> = dispute1 h[ev]1 t ! desire t ,titus %\ld be circumcis$ 0 %>$ or press$ by ! eld] ,apo/les47#c7 ,accord+ to ! %[+ ( ! ,acts1 no?+ c\ld be m natural ?an ! fact t ,james & ! eld]s ( ,j]usalem :o1 s long aft] 7xxi4 #bj if471 advis$ ,paul to prove 8 cont9u$ obs]vance ( ! law & t he did n tea* ! ,jews to ab&on circumcision1 %\ld on ?is occasion h press$ him to circumcise ,titus4 ,! conduct ( ,pet] at ,antio*1 & ! con/ant opposition :i* ,paul met ) f emiss>ies #bgh ( ,james & ( ! ,apo/les ( ! ,circumcision ^u ! v po9t ( ,g5tile circumcision1 all support ! inevitable conclusion1 t ! pressure ^u ,paul 9 ! matt] ( ,titus 0 n only n resi/$ by ! ,apo/les1 b proce$$ 9 no small degree f !m4 ,?is is fur!r %[n by ! rema9d] ( ,paul's acc\nt ( 8 visit & by ! tone ( 8 rem>ks reg>d+ ! pr9cipal ,apo/les1 z well z by ! hi/orical data :i* we possess ( 8 subsequ5t c>e]4 ,we ne$ n repeat t ! repres5tation 9 ! ,acts bo? ( ! ,c\ncil & ( ! :ole int]c\rse betwe5 ,paul & ! ,apo/les is "o ( unbrok5 unity47#a7 ,! /ruggle ab\t ,titus & ! qu>rel ) ,pet] at ,antio* are altoge!r omitt$1 & ! ,apo/olic lett] speaks m]ely ( our belov$ ,b>nabas & ,paul1 m5 t h giv5 up _! lives = ! "n ( our ,"l ,jesus ,*ri/7#b7 ,! language ( ,paul is n s pacific & complim5t>y4 ,imm$iately aft] 8 /atem5t t he _h yield$ by ! submission1 no1 n = an h\r1 ,paul cont9ues3 ,b f ^? :o seem to be some?+ --------:atsoev] !y 7 x make? no matt] to me3 ,god accepte? n man's p]son2--= to me ^? :o seem ------ 7to be some?+7 communicat$ no?+1 b1 on ! contr>y1 c4 c41 & :5 !y knew ! grace t 0 giv5 to me1 ,james & ,cephas & ,john1 :o seem to be pill>s ------1 gave to me & ,b>nabas "r h&s ( fell[%ip t we 7%\ld g7 unto ! ,g5tiles1 c4 c47#c7 ,! tone & language ( ?is passage are c]ta9ly #bgi depreciatory ( ! eld] ,apo/les17#a7 &1 inde$1 x is difficult to und]/& h[ any "o c\ld fail to p]ceive & admit ! fact4 ,x is argu$ by "s :o recognise ! irony ( ! t]m ------ appli$ to ! ,apo/les1 t ! disp>agem5t :i* is s transp>5t 9 ! =m ------1 ^? :o seem to be some?+1 is s(t5$ aga9 9 ! new turn :i* is giv5 to x 9 v]4 #i1 ------1 ^? :o seem to be pill>s1 9 :i*1 x is said1 ! ,apo/le expresses ! real greatness & high au?ority ( ! twelve 9 _! sep>ate field ( lab\r47#b7 ,x seems to u t ?is int]pretation _c be su/a9$4 ,paul is r++ ! *anges on ------1 & contra/+ ) ! position !y assum$ & ! e/imation 9 :i* !y 7 held1 8 own exp]i5ce ( !m1 & _! inability to add any?+ to him4 ,^? :o seem to be some?+1 he comm5ces1 b imm$iately int]rupts himself1 aft] hav+ ?us indicat$ ! p]sons :om he meant1 ) ! m direct prote/ ( irritat$ indep5d5ce3--:atsoev] !y 7 x make? no matt] to me3 ,god accepte? n man's p]son4 ,^! ------ communicat$ no?+ to him1 b1 on ! contr>y1 :5 !y knew ! grace giv5 to him1 ^? :o seem to be pill>s gave him h&s ( fell[%ip1 b no?+ m1 & !y w5t _! diff]5t ways1 he to ! ,g5tiles & !y to ! circumcision4 ,if ! #bhj expression3 ------ be true1 z well z ironically us$1 x _c be con/ru$ into a decl>ation ( respect1 b =ms "p ( a passage ^: tone ?r\gh\t is pr\dly depreciatory4 ,?is is foll[$ by su* words z hypocrisy ------ & condemn$ ------ appli$ to ! conduct ( ,pet] at ,antio*1 z well z ! m5tion ( ! emiss>ies ( ,james z ! cause ( t dispute1 :i* add mean+ to ! irony4 ,?is is n1 h[ev]1 ! only occasion on :i* ,paul betrays a c]ta9 bitt]ness aga9/ ! eld] ,apo/les4 ,9 8 second lett] to ! ,cor9?ians1 xi4 #e1 he says1 ,= ,i reckon t ,i am n a :it beh9d ! ov] mu* ,apo/les ------1 & aga91 xii4 #aa1 ,= 9 no?+ 0 ,i beh9d ! ov] mu* ,apo/les ------2 & ! :ole ( ! vehem5t passage 9 :i* ^! ref]5ces are set %[s ! int5sity ( ! feel+ :i* call$ !m =?4 ,to say t ! expressions 9 ! ,galatian ,epi/le & "h are depreciatory1 n inde$ ( ! twelve !mselves1 b ( ! extravagant & exclusive claims set up = !m by ! ,judaiz]s17#a7 is an extremely arbitr>y di/9ction4 ,!y are directly appli$ to ! ,apo/les1 & ------ _c be tak5 z irony aga9/ ^? :o ov]-e/imat$ !m1 b aga9/ ! ------ !mselves4 ,paul's bl[s g5]ally g /raight to _! m>k4 ,mey] argues t ! designation ( ! ,apo/les z ------ is purely hi/orical1 & _c be tak5 z ironical1 inasmu* z x w\ld be inconsi/5t to suppose t ,paul c\ld adopt a depreciatory tone :5 he is relat+ 8 recognition z a colleague by ! eld] ,apo/les27#b7 & o!rs consid] t #bha v]4 #h1 #i1 #aj conta9 evid5ce ( mutual respect & recognition betwe5 ,paul & ! twelve4 ,ev5 if ?is 7 s1 x c\ld n d away ) ! actual irony ( ! expressions2 b d ! facts support su* a /atem5t8 ,we h se5 t1 9 spite ( ! picture ( unbrok5 unity drawn by ! au?or ( ! ,acts1 & ! lib]al s5tim5ts reg>d+ ! ,g5tiles :i* he puts into ! m\? ( ,pet] & ( ,james1 ,paul _h a sev]e & protract$ /ruggle to und]go 9 ord] to avoid circumcis+ ,titus4 ,we h already /at$ ! gr\nds ^u :i* x seems c]ta9 t ! pressure ^u t occasion came z well f ! eld] ,apo/les z ! false bre?r51 & critics :o d n g s f> z to make ?is positive affirmation1 at lea/ recognise ! passive1 & !re=e to a l>ge ext5t compliant1 attitude :i* ! ,apo/les mu/ h held4 ,x is aft] n>rat+ "s ( ! p>ticul>s ( ?is /ruggle t ,paul uses ! t]ms ( depreciation :i* we h be5 discuss+2 & hav+ add$1 = to me ^? :o seem 7to be some?+7 communicat$ no?+1 he says1 b1 on ! contr>y1 :5 !y saw t ,i h be5 entru/$ ) ! ,gospel ( ! uncircumcision1 ev5 z ,pet] ) t ( ! circumcision 7= he t wr\ght = ,pet] unto ! ,apo/le%ip ( ! circumcision1 wr\ght also = me unto ! ,g5tiles72 & :5 !y knew ! grace t 0 giv5 unto me1 ,james & ,cephas & ,john1 :o seem to be pill>s1 gave to me & ,b>nabas "r h&s ( fell[%ip1 t we 7%\ld g7 unto ! ,g5tiles1 & !y unto ! circumcision3 only t we %\ld rememb] ! poor2 :i* v ?+ ,i also 0 =w>d to d4 ,x w be obs]v$ t1 aft] say+ !y communicat$ no?+ to him1 ! ,apo/le adds1 9 opposition1 b1 on ! #bhb contr>y ------4 ,9 :at does ?is opposition consi/8 ,app>5tly 9 ?is1 t1 in/ead ( /r5g!n+ ! h&s ( ,paul1 !y left him to lab\r alone4 ,!y said3 ,take y\r own c\rse2 prea* ! ,gospel ( ! uncircumcision to ,g5tiles1 & we w prea* ! ,gospel ( ! circumcision to ,jews47#a7 ,9 fact1 :5 ,paul return$ to ,j]usalem = ! second "t aft] f\rte5 ye>s1 he f\nd ! eld] ,apo/les n "o :it advanc$ t[>ds 8 own uni-v]salism2 !y reta9$ _! =m] ,jewi% prejudices1 & rema9$ z be=e ,apo/les ( ! circumcision47#b7 ,not)/&+ ! /rong ,paul9e s5tim5ts put into ,pet]'s m\? by ! au?or ( ! ,acts1 & 8 claim to h be5 s long be=e select$ by ,god t by 8 m\? ! ,g5tiles %\ld he> ! ^w ( ! ,gospel & believe1 ,paul s+les out ,pet] z specially entru/$ ) ! ,gospel ( ! circumcision2 &1 9 ! end1 aft] ,paul has ex]t$ all 8 influ5ce1 ,pet] & ! re/ rema9 unmov$1 & all[ ,paul to g to ! ,g5tiles1 :ile !y conf9e _! m9i/ry z be=e to ! ,jews4 ,! success ( ,paul's "w among/ ! hea!n 0 too palpable a fact to be ignor$1 b !re is no reason to believe t ! conv]sion ( ! ,g5tiles1 ^u 8 t]ms1 0 m ?an tol]at$ at t "t1 or ! ,g5tile ,*ri/ians admitt$ to m ?an su* imp]fect communion ) ! ,jewi% ,*ri/ians z t ( ,proselytes ( ! ,gate 9 relation to ,judaism4 ,?is is %[n by ! conduct ( ,pet] at ,antio* aft] ! suppos$ ,c\ncil1 & ( ! ,jews ) him1 & ev5 ( ,b>nabas1 #bhc ?r\gh fe> ( ! emiss>ies ( ,james1 ^: arrival c]ta9ly c\ld n h produc$ a sep>ation betwe5 ,jewi% & ,g5tile ,*ri/ians _h ! latt] be5 recognis$ z 9 full communion4 ,! h&s ( fell[%ip cle>ly 0 a m]e passive p]mission ( ,paul's mission to ! ,g5tiles1 b no positive & he>ty approval ( x te/ifi$ by active support47#a7 ,x mu/1 we ?9k1 be evid5t to any "o :o att5tively consid]s ! passage we are exam9+1 t !re is no "q :atev] 9 x ( a recognition ( ! ,apo/olate ( ,paul47#b7 ,! eld] ,apo/les cons5t to 8 mission to ! ,g5tiles1 :il/ !y !mselves g to ! circumcision2 b !re is n a syllable :i* indicates t ,paul's claim to ! title ( ,apo/le 0 ev] ei!r ackn[l$g$ or discuss$4 ,x is n probable t ,paul w\ld h submitt$ su* a po9t to _! consid]ation4 ,x is difficult to see h[ ! eld] ,apo/les c\ld well h done less ?an !y did1 & ! ext5t ( _! fell[%ip seems to h simply am\nt$ to tol]ation ( :at !y c\ld n prev5t4 ,! pressure = ! circumcision ( ! ,g5tile conv]ts 0 an attempt to co]ce1 & to suppress ! peculi> pr9ciple ( ! ,gospel ( uncircumcision2 & ?\gh t ef=t fail$ ?r\gh ! det]m9$ resi/ance ( ,paul1 #bhd x is cle>1 f ! f9al resolve to limit _! prea*+ to ! circumcision1 t ! eld] ,apo/les 9 no way ab&on$ _! view ( ! necessity ( ! initiatory rite4 ,! episode at ,antio* is a practical illu/ration ( ?is /atem5t4 ,hilg5feld ably rem>ks3--,:5 we consid] t ,pet] 0 afraid ( ! circumcis$ ,*ri/ians1 !re c be no d\bt t ,james1 at ! head ( ! primitive community1 made ! attempt to =ce hea!n ,*ri/ians to adopt ! sub/ance ( ,jewi% legitimacy1 by break+ (f ecclesia/ical community ) !m47#a7 ,! ,g5tile ,*ri/ians 7 virtually excommunicat$ on ! arrival ( ! emiss>ies ( ,james1 or at lea/ treat$ z m]e ,proselytes ( ! ,gate2 & ! pressure ^u ! ,galatian conv]ts ( ! necessity ( circumcision by simil> ,judaiz+ emiss>ies1 :i* call$ =? ! vehem5t & invaluable ,epi/le be=e u1 is q 9 accordance ) ! circum/ances ( ?is visit4 ,! sep>ation agre$ ^u betwe5 ,paul & ! eld] ,apo/les 0 n 9 any s5se geographical1 b purely e?nological47#b7 ,x 0 no m]e division ( lab\r17#c7 no suitable apportionm5t ( "w4 ,! eld] ,apo/les det]m9$1 l _! ,ma/] be=e !m1 to conf9e _! m9i/ry to ,jews1 :il/ ,paul1 if he pleas$1 might g to ! ,g5tiles2 & ! m]e fact t ,pet] subsequ5tly goes to ,antio*1 z well z _m o!r #bhe circum/ances1 %[s t no m]e sep>ation ( localities1 b a selection ( race 0 int5d$4 ,if !re _h n be5 ?is absolute diff]5ce ( purpose1 any sep>ation w\ld h be5 unnecess>y1 & all ! ,apo/les w\ld h prea*$ "o ,gospel indiff]5tly to all :o _h e>s to he> x2 su* /range inequality 9 ! p>tition ( ! "w c\ld nev] h exi/$3 t ,paul %\ld g unaid$ to ! gigantic task ( conv]t+ ! hea!n1 :ile ! ,twelve res]v$ !mselves = ! small b privileg$ p4 ,all t we h said at ! beg9n+ ( ?is section ( ! nature ( primitive ,*ri/ianity1 & ( ! views preval5t among/ ! disciples at ! dea? ( _! ,ma/]1 is v]ifi$ by ?is attitude ( ! ,?ree dur+ ! fam\s visit ( ! ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles to ,j]usalem1 & ,paul's acc\nt is precisely 9 accordance ) all t hi/orical probability & reason1 unw>p$ by ! ideal repres5tations ( ! ,acts1 prep>e u to expect4 ,! m deeply we g into ! /atem5ts ( ,paul ! m is ?is app>5t1 & ! m palpable does ! inau!nticity ( ! n>rative ( ! ,c\ncil appe>4 ,! words ( ,paul 9 describ+ ! f9al und]/&+ are v rem>kable & require fur!r consid]ation4 ,! decision t !y %\ld g to ! circumcision & ,paul to ! ,g5tiles is bas$ ^u ! recognition ( a diff]5t ,gospel entru/$ to him1 ! ,gospel ( ! uncircumcision1 z ! ,gospel ( ! circumcision is entru/$ to ,pet]4 ,x w be rememb]$ t ,paul /ates t1 on go+ up to ,j]usalem ^u ?is occasion1 he communicat$ to !m ! ,gospel :i* he prea*$ among ! ,g5tiles1 & x is probable t he made ! j\rney m especially = ?is purpose4 ,x appe>s f ! acc\nt t ?is ,gospel 0 n only new to !m1 b 0 #bhf di/9ctly diflf]5t f t ( ! eld] ,apo/les4 ,if ,paul prea*$ ! same ,gospel z ! re/1 :at necessity c\ld !re h be5 = communicat+ x at all8 ,:at d\bt t by any means he might be runn+1 or _h run1 9 va98 ,he knew p]fectly well t he prea*$ a diflf]5t ,gospel f ! ,apo/les ( ! circumcision1 & 8 anxiety probably 0 to secure an amicable recognition ( ! ,g5tile conv]ts :om he _h taught to consid] circumcision unnecess>y & ! obligation ( ! law remov$4 ,( c\rse !re 0 mu* t 0 fundam5tally ! same 9 ! two ,gospels1 />t+ z !y bo? did ) ! recognition ( ,jesus z ! ,messiah2 b _! po9ts ( div]g5ce 7 v m>k$ & /rik+1 & m especially 9 directions :]e ! prejudices ( ! ,apo/les ( ! circumcision 7 ! /ronge/ ,avoid+ all debatable gr\nd1 x is cle> t ! ,gospel ( ! uncircumcision1 :i* proclaim$ ! abrogation ( ! law & ! inutility ( ! initiatory rite1 mu/ h be5 pr(\ndly repugnant to ,jews1 :o /ill prea*$ ! obligation ( circumcision & ! obs]vance ( ! law4 ,*ri/ r$eem$ u f ! curse ( ! law7#a7 said ! ,gospel ( ! uncircumcision4 ,behold1 ,i1 ,paul1 say unto y1 t if ye be circumcis$1 ,*ri/ w pr(it y no?+4444 ,= 9 ,*ri/ ,jesus nei!r circumcision availe? any?+ nor uncircumcision1 b fai? work+ ?r\gh love47#b7 ,= nei!r circumcision is any?+1 nor uncircumcision1 b a new creature47#c7 ,! tea*+ :i* 0 specially designat$ ! ,gospel ( ! circumcision1 9 contradi/9ction to ?is ,gospel ( ! uncircumcision1 held v diflf]5t language4 ,!re is no ga9say+ ! #bhg ma9 fact--& t fact1 c]tifi$ by ,paul himself & sub/antiat$ by a ho/ ( collat]al circum/ances1 is m conclusive ?an all conciliatory apologetic reason+--t1 at ! date ( ?is visit to ,j]usalem 7c4 a4d4 #ej-eb71 ! ,?ree1 aft] he>+ all t ,paul _h to say1 all[$ him to g alone to ! ,g5tiles1 b !mselves w\ld h no "p 9 ! mission1 & turn$ z be=e to ! circumcision4 ,!re is ano!r po9t to :i* we mu/ v briefly ref]4 ,! /atem5ts ( ,paul %[ t1 antec$5t to ?is visit to ,j]usalem1 ,paul _h be5 ! active ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles1 prea*+ 8 ,gospel ( ! uncircumcision1 & t subsequ5tly he return$ to ! same field ( lab\r4 ,if we exam9e ! n>rative ( ! ,acts1 we d n f9d him repres5t$ 9 any special mann] z ! ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles1 b1 on ! contr>y1 :il/ ,pet] claims ! hon\r ( hav+ be5 select$ t by 8 voice ! ,g5tiles %\ld he> ! ^w ( ! ,gospel & believe1 ,paul is ev]y:]e describ$ z go+ to ! ,jews1 & only :5 8 tea*+ is reject$ by !m does he turn to ! ,g5tiles4 ,x is true t ,ananias is repres5t$ z be+ told by ! ,"l t ,paul is a *os5 vessel to be> my "n bo? be=e ,g5tiles & k+s1 & ! sons ( ,israel27#a7 & ,paul subsequ5tly rec\nts h[ ! ,"l _h said to himself1 ,g1 = ,i w s5d !e f> h5ce unto ,g5tiles47#b7 ,! au?or ( ! ,acts1 h[ev]1 ev]y:]e conveys ! impression t ,paul v reluctantly fulfils ?is mission1 & t if he _h b be5 successful among/ ! ,jews he nev] w\ld h gone to ! ,g5tiles at all4 ,imm$iately aft] 8 conv]sion1 he prea*es 9 ! synagogues at ,damascus & conf\nds ! ,jews17#c7 z he #bhh aga9 does dur+ 8 visit to ,j]usalem47#a7 ,:5 ! ,holy ,_s desires ! ,*ur* at ,antio* to sep>ate ,b>nabas & ,saul = ! "w :]eunto he has call$ !m1 !y cont9ue to ann\nce ! ^w ( ,god 9 ! synagogues ( ! ,jews17#b7 & 9 n>rat+ ! conv]sion ( ! ,roman proconsul at ,paphos1 x is said t x is ,s]gius ,paulus himself :o calls = ,b>nabas & ,saul1 & seeks to he> ! ^w ( ,god47#c7 ,:5 !y came to ,antio* 9 ,pisidia1 !y g into ! synagogue ( ! ,jews7#d7 z usual1 & x is only aft] ! ,jews reject !m t ,paul & ,b>nabas are describ$ z say+3--,x 0 necess>y t ! ^w ( ,god %\ld fir/ be spok5 to y3 see+ t ye ?ru/ x f y1 & judge y\rselves unwor?y ( ev]la/+ life1 lo1 we turn to ! ,g5tiles47#e7 ,9 ,iconium1 to :i* !y next proce$1 h[ev]1 !y g into ! synagogue ( ! ,jews17#f7 & lat]1 x is /at$ t ,paul1 on arriv+ at ,!ssalonica1 z 8 cu/om 01 w5t into ! synagogue ( ! ,jews1 & = ?ree ,sabba?s disc\rs$ to !m47#g7 ,at ,cor9?1 x 0 only :5 ! ,jews oppos$ him & blasphem$1 t ,paul is repres5t$ z say+3 ,y\r blood be ^u y\r own head2 ,i w h5ce=?1 ) a pure consci5ce1 g unto ! ,g5tiles4 ,x is impossible to di/+ui% f ?is n>rative any diff]5ce betwe5 ! m9i/ry ( ,paul & t ( ! o!r ,apo/les4 ,!y all address !mselves ma9ly & prim>ily to ! ,jews1 al?\gh if ,g5tiles desire to eat ( ! crumbs :i* fall f ! *ildr5's bread !y are n reject$4 ,ev5 ! ,ph>isees /irr$ heav5 & e>? to make proselytes4 ,9 no s5se c #bhi ! ,paul ( ! ,acts be consid]$ specially an ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles1 & ! /atem5t ( ! ,epi/le to ! ,galatians7#a7 has no significance1 if int]pret$ by ! hi/orical "w4 ,apologi/s usually reply to ?is objection1 t ! practice ( ,paul 9 ! ,acts is 9 accordance ) 8 own words 9 ! ,epi/le to ! ,romans1 i4 #af1 9 :i*1 x is ass]t$1 he recognizes ! "r ( ! ,jews to prec$5ce4 ,9 ! ,au?oris$ ,v]sion ?is passage is r5d]$ z foll[s3--,= ,i am n a%am$ ( ! ,gospel ( ,*ri/3 = x is ! p[] ( ,god unto salvation to e "o t believe?2 to ! ,jew fir/ & also to ! ,greek47#b7 ------ ,z a matt] ( fact we may "h at once /ate t ! ^w ------ fir/1 is n f\nd 9 ,codices ,b & ,g1 & t x is omitt$ f ! ,lat9 r5d]+ ( ! v]se quot$ by ,t]tullian47#c7 ,t ! ^w ^u :i* ! controv]sy turns %\ld n be f\nd 9 s important a ,,ms4 z ! ,vatican ,codex or 9 s anci5t a v]sion z ,t]tullian's is v significant1 b proce$+ at once to ! s5se ( ! s5t5ce1 we mu/ briefly /ate ! reasons :i* seem to u conclusively to %[ t ! usual read+ is errone\s4 ,! passage is an emphatic /atem5t ( ! pr9ciples ( ,paul4 ,he decl>es t he is n a%am$ ( ! ,gospel1 & he imm$iately /ates ! reason3 = x is a p[] ( ,god unto salvation to ev]yone t believe?47#d7 ,he is n a%am$ ( ! ,gospel because he recognizes its univ]sality2 =1 9 #bij opposition to ! exclusiv5ess ( ,judaism1 he ma9ta9s t all are sons ( ,god ?r\gh fai? 9 ,*ri/ ,jesus444 ,!re is nei!r ,jew nor ,greek444 = ye are all "o man 9 ,*ri/ ,jesus4 ,& if ye be ,*ri/'s !n are ye ,abraham's se$1 heirs accord+ to promise47#a7 ,= 9 ,*ri/ ,jesus nei!r circumcision availe? any?+ nor uncircumcision1 b fai? work+ ?r\gh love47#b7 ,! reason :i* he gives is t :i* lies at ! basis ( ! :ole ( 8 special tea*+2 b we are ask$ to believe t1 aft] s cle> & compreh5sive a decl>ation1 he at once adds ! extraord9>y qualification3 ------1 r5d]$ to ! ,jew fir/ & also to ! ,greek4 ,:at is ! mean+ ( su* a limitation8 ,if ! ,gospel be a p[] ( ,god unto salvation to e "o t believe? ------1 9 :at mann] c x possibly be s to ! ,jew fir/8 ,c x be ma9ta9$ t !re are comp>ative degrees 9 salvation8 ,salvation is obvi\sly an absolute t]m4 ,if sav$ at all1 ! ,jew _c be m sav$ ?an ! ,greek4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! expression be int]pret$ z an ass]tion t ! ,jew has a "r ( prec$5ce ei!r 9 ! (f] or ! atta9m5t ( salvation be=e ! ,greek1 ! mann] ( its realization is almo/ equally inconceivable1 & a ho/ ( difficulties1 especially 9 view ( ! specific ,paul9e tea*+1 imm$iately pres5t !mselves4 ,!re c be no d\bt t ! judai/ic view di/9ctly 0 t ,israel mu/ fir/ be sav$1 be=e ! hea!n c\ld obta9 any "p 9 ! ,messianic k+dom1 & we h %[n t ?is idea dom9at$ primitive ,*ri/ianity2 & insep>able f ?is 0 ! belief t ! only way to a p>ticipation 9 its b5efits lay ?r\gh ,judaism4 ,! #bia hea!n c\ld only obta9 admission into ! family ( ,israel1 & become p>tak]s 9 ! cov5ant1 by submitt+ to ! initiatory rite4 ,x 0 palpably "u ! influ5ce ( ?is view1 & ) a conviction t ! ,messianic k+dom 0 prim>ily de/9$ = ! *ildr5 ( ,israel1 t ! eld] ,apo/les1 ev5 aft] ! date ( ,paul's second visit to ,j]usalem1 cont9u$ to conf9e _! m9i/ry to ! circumcision4 ,paul's view 0 v diff]5t4 ,he recogniz$ & ma9ta9$ ! univ]sality ( ! ,gospel &1 9 resolv+ to g to ! hea!n1 he practically repudiat$ ! v !ory ( ,jewi% pref]5ce :i* he is "h suppos$ to advance4 ,if ! ,gospel1 in/ead ( be+ a p[] ( ,god to salvation to e man :o believ$1 0 = ! ,jew fir/1 ! ,apo/olate ( ! ,g5tiles 0 a m]e delusion & a sn>e4 ,:at c\ld be ! advantage ( s urg5tly (f]+ salvation to ! ,greek1 if ! gift1 in/ead ( be+ = e "o t believe?1 0 a m]e prospective b5efit1 inop]ative until ! ,jew _h fir/ be5 sav$8 ,salvation to ! ,jew fir/ & also to ! ,greek1 if x h any significance :atev] ( ! k9d argu$1--involv+ ei!r a prior claim to ! (f] ( salvation1 or prec$5ce 9 its di/ribution1--s completely de/roys all ! pres5t int]e/ 9 x ( ! ,g5tile1 t ! ,gospel mu/ to him h lo/ all p[]4 ,to suppose t su* an expression simply means1 t ! ,gospel mu/ fir/ be prea*$ to ! ,jews 9 any t[n to :i* ! ,apo/le might come be=e x c\ld legitimately be proclaim$ to ! ,g5tiles ( t t[n1 is *ildi%4 ,we h no reason to suppose t ,paul held ! deputy ,s]gius ,paulus1 :o desir$ to he> ! ^w ( ,god & believ$1 9 susp5se until ! ,jews ( ,paphos _h #bib reject$ x4 ,! cases ( ! ,e?iopian eunu* & ,cornelius ?r[ no light ^u any claim ( ! ,jew to priority 9 salvation4 ,inde$1 n to wa/e "t 9 %[+ ! utt] incongruity ( ! ord9>y int]pretation1 we v5ture to affirm t !re is n a s+le explanation1 :i* ma9ta9s a priority assign$ to ! ,jew 9 any way ju/ify+ ! ref]5ce to ?is text1 :i* is capable ( support+ ! slighte/ inve/igation4 ,if we l+ui/ically exam9e ! expression ------1 we arrive at ! same conclusion1 t ------ is an int]polation1 = we mu/ ma9ta9 t ------ ) ------ & ------ mu/ be appli$ equally bo? to ,jew & ,greek1 & _c rightly be appropriat$ to ! ,jew only1 z imply+ a pref]5ce ov] ! ,greek47#a7 ,! s5se1 !re=e1 c only be prop]ly & intelligibly giv5 by disreg>d+ ------ & simply translat+ ! words3 bo? to ,jew & ,greek47#b7 ,?is 0 ! r5d]+ ( ! anci5t ,lat9 v]sion quot$ by ,t]tullian 9 8 "w aga9/ ,m>cion3 ,itaque et hie1 cum dicit3 ,non enim me pudet evangelii1 virtus enim dei e/ 9 salutem omni cr$5ti1 ,judaeo et ,graeco1 quia ju/itia dei 9 eo revelatur ex fide 9 fidem4117#c7 ,we are n left )\t fur!r examples ( ! v same expression1 & an exam9ation ( ! context w amply demon/rate t ,paul us$ x 9 no o!r s5se4 ,9 ! #bic v next *apt] ! ,apo/le twice uses ! same words4 ,aft] condemn+ ! ha/y & unrighte\s judgm5t ( man1 he says3 ,= we "k t ! judgm5t ( ,god is accord+ to tru?4444 :o w r5d] to e "o accord+ to 8 works2 to !m :o by pati5ce 9 well-do+ seek = glory & hon\r & incorruption1 et]nal life3 b unto !m t act out ( facti\s _s & d n obey ! tru? b obey unrighte\sness1 ang]1 & wra?3 affliction & di/ress ^u e s\l ( man t worke? evil1 bo? ( ,jew & ( ,greek ------1 ,a4 ,v4 ( ! ,jew fir/1 & also ( ! ,g5tile2 b glory & hon\r & peace to e "o t worke? good1 bo? to ,jew & to ,greek ------1 ,a4 ,v4 to ! ,jew fir/1 & also to ! ,g5tile74 ,= !re is no respect ( p]sons ) ,god47#a7 ,h[ is x possible t1 if ! ,apo/le _h int5d$ to ass]t a priority ( any k9d accord$ to ! ,jew be=e ! ,g5tile1 he c\ld at ! same "t h add$3 ,= !re is no respect ( p]sons ) ,god 8 ,if salvation be to ! ,jew fir/1 !re is v di/9ctly respect ( p]sons ) ,god4 ,! v opposite1 h[ev]1 is repeat$ly & emphatically ass]t$ by ,paul 9 ?is v epi/le4 ,= !re is no diff]5ce betwe5 ,jew & ,greek ------1 he says1 = ! same ,"l ( all is ri* unto all !m t call ^u him4 ,= :osoev] %all call ^u ! "n ( ! ,"l %all be sav$47#b7 ,"h1 we h ! phrase )\t ------4 ,no?+ c\ld be m cle> & explicit4 ,! prec$5ce ( ! ,jew is directly exclud$4 ,at ! end ( ! second *apt]1 moreov]1 he expla9s 8 idea ( a ,jew3 #bid ,= he is n a ,jew :o is "o outw>dly2 nei!r is t circumcision :i* is outw>dly 9 fle%1 b he is a ,jew :o is "o inw>dly1 & circumcision is ( ! he>t1 9 _s n lett]47#a7 ,if any?+ fur!r 7 requir$ to prove t ! ,apo/le does n by ! expression3 ------1 int5d to indicate any priority accord$ to ! ,jew1 x is suppli$ by ! comm5cem5t ( ! ?ird *apt]4 ,:at !n is ! advantage ( ! ,jew8 or :at ! pr(it ( circumcision8 ,x is obvi\s t if ! ,apo/le _h j said t ! ,gospel 0 ! p[] ( ,god unto salvation1 to ,jew fir/ & also to ,greek1 he _h /at$ a v m>k$ advantage to ! ,jew1 & t su* an inquiry z ! above w\ld h be5 :olly unnecess>y4 ,! answ] :i* he gives to 8 own "q1 h[ev]1 completes our c]ta9ty4 ,mu* e way1 he replies2 b 9 expla9+ :at ! mu* advantage 01 we he> no m ( to ,jew fir/3 ,mu* e way3 = fir/ inde$ !y 7 entru/$ ) ! oracles ( ,god47#a7 ,&1 aft] a few words1 he proce$s3 ,:at !n8 are we bett]8 ,n at all2 = we be=e br\ght ! *>ge t bo? ,jews & ,greeks ------ are all "u s947#c7 ,"h1 aga91 !re is no ------4 ,!re c be no d\bt 9 ! m9d ( any "o :o und]/&s :at ,paul's tea*+ 01 & :at he means by claim+ ! special title ( ,apo/le to ! ,g5tiles1 t 9 go+ to ! ,hea!n aft] 8 visit to ,j]usalem1 z be=e x1 !re 0 no purpose 9 8 m9d to prea* to ! ,jews fir/ & only on be+ reject$ by !m to turn to ! ,g5tiles1 z ! ,acts w\ld h u suppose2 b t ! pr9ciple :i* regulat$ 8 proclamation ( ! ,gospel 0 t :i* we h #bie already quot$3 ,= !re is no diff]5ce betwe5 ,jew & ,greek2 = ! same ,"l ( all is ri* unto all !m t call ^u him4 ,= :osoev] %all call ^u ! "n ( ! ,"l %all be sav$47#a7 ,/ill m incongru\s is ! /atem5t ( ! ,acts t ,paul took ,timo?y & circumcis$ him because ( ! ,jews4 ,accord+ to ?is n>rative1 %ortly aft] ! suppos$ ,c\ncil ( ,j]usalem at :i* x 0 decid$ t circumcision ( ,g5tile ,conv]ts 0 unnecess>y2 imm$iately aft] ,paul _h 9 spite ( great pressure refus$ to all[ ,titus to be circumcis$2 & aft] x _h be5 agre$ betwe5 ! ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles & ,james & ,cephas & ,john t :ile !y %\ld g to ! circumcision1 he1 on ! contr>y1 %\ld g to ! hea!n1 ,paul actually took & circumcis$ ,timo?y4 ,apologi/s1 :il/ g5]ally admitt+ ! app>5t contradiction1 d n consid] t ?is act involves any real inconsi/5cy1 & f9d reasons :i*1 !y affirm1 suffici5tly ju/ify x4 ,"s ( ^! we %all pres5tly exam9e1 b we may at once say t no apologetic argum5ts seem to u capable ( resi/+ ! conclusion arriv$ at by _m indep5d5t critics1 t ! /atem5t ( ! ,acts ) reg>d to ,timo?y is oppos$ to all t we "k ( ,paul's views1 & t = unassailable reasons x mu/ be pron\nc$ unhi/orical47#b7 ,! au?or ( ! ,acts says3 ,& he 7,paul7 came to ,d]be & ,ly/ra4 ,& behold a c]ta9 disciple 0 !re1 nam$ ,timo?y1 son ( a #bif believ+ ,jewi% woman1 b ( a ,greek fa!r2 :o 0 well report$ ( by ! bre?r5 9 ,ly/ra & ,iconium4 ,him w\ld ,paul h to g =? ) him2 & took & circumcis$ him because ( ! ,jews :i* 7 9 ^? places ------2 = !y all knew t 8 fa!r 0 a ,greek ------47#a7 ,! pr9cipal argum5ts ( ^? :o ma9ta9 ! tru? & consi/5cy ( ?is n>rative briefly are3 ,paul resi/$ ! circumcision ( ,titus because he 0 a ,greek1 & because ! subject !n actually "u consid]ation 0 ! immunity f ! ,jewi% rite ( ,g5tile ,*ri/ians1 :i* w\ld h be5 prejudic$ _h he yield$ ! po9t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,timo?y 0 ! son ( a ,jewi% "m1 & :il/ !re 0 no pr9ciple "h 9 "q1 ,paul circumcis$ ! companion :om he _h *os5 to accompany him 9 8 mission>y j\rney1 bo? z a recognition ( 8 ,jewi% orig9 & to avoid (f5ce to ! ,jews :om !y %\ld enc\nt] 9 ! c\rse ( _! m9i/ry1 z well z to secure = him access to ! synagogues :i* !y mu/ visit3 ,paul 9 ?is in/ance1 accord+ to all apologi/s putt+ 9 practice 8 own decl>ation 7#a ,cor4 ix4 #ai-bj73 ,= be+ free f all m51 ,i made myself s]vant unto all t ,i might ga9 ! m2 & unto ! ,jews ,i became z a ,jew1 t ,i might ga9 ,jews4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ! au?or :o *ronicles ! suppos$ circumcision ( ,timo?y makes no allusion to ! refusal ( ,paul to p]mit ,titus to be circumcis$2 an omission :i* is n only s+ul> 9 itself1 b significant :5 we f9d him1 imm$iately aft]1 n>rat+ s s+ul> a concession ( :i* ! #big ,apo/le makes no m5tion4 ,( c\rse x is cle> t ,paul c\ld n h cons5t$ to ! circumcision ( ,titus1 & we h only to consid] 9 :at mann] ! case ( ,timo?y diff]$ s z to support ! views ( ^? :o hold t ,paul1 :o w\ld n yield to ! pressure br\ght to be> ^u him 9 ! case ( ,titus1 might1 q consi/5tly1 s %ort a "t aft]1 circumcise ,timo?y ) 8 own h&4 ,x is true t ! necessity ( circumcision = ,g5tile ,*ri/ians came prom95tly into "q1 dur+ ,paul's visit to ,j]usalem1 f ! pres5ce ( 8 uncircumcis$ foll[] ,titus1 & no d\bt ! abrogation ( ! rite mu/ h =m$ a /rik+ "p ( ! exposition ( 8 ,gospel1 :i* ,paul tells u he made ^u ?is occasion2 b x is equally c]ta9 t ! necessity ( circumcision long cont9u$ to be press$ by ! judai/ic p>ty 9 ! ,*ur*4 ,x _c fairly be argu$ t1 at any "t1 ,paul c\ld af=d to relax 8 det]m9$ & consi/5t attitude z ! advocate = ! univ]sality ( ,*ri/ianity & ! abrogation ( a rite1 insi/5ce ^u :i*1 he _h be5 ! fir/ to recognise1 w\ld h be5 fatal to ! spread ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,to ma9ta9 t he c\ld safely make su* a concession ( 8 pr9ciples & himself circumcise ,timo?y1 simply because at t precise mom5t !re 0 no active debate ^u ! po9t1 is inadmissible2 = 8 ,epi/les abundantly prove t ! topic1 if x ev] mom5t>ily subsid$ into /ubborn sil5ce1 0 cont9ually be+ reviv$ ) r5ew$ bitt]ness4 ,paul9e views c\ld nev] h prevail$ if he _h be5 will+ to sacrifice !m = ! sake ( conciliation1 :5ev] !y 7 n actively attack$4 ,! diff]5ce ( ! occasion _c be admitt$ #bih z a valid reason2 let u1 !re=e1 see :e!r any diff]5ce 9 ! p]sons & circum/ances removes ! contradiction4 ,x is argu$ t su* a diff]5ce exi/s 9 ! fact t1 :il/ ,titus 0 altoge!r a ,g5tile1 ,timo?y1 on ! side ( 8 "m at lea/1 0 a ,jew2 & ,?i]s*1 foll[+ a passage quot$ by ,wet/e91 /ates t1 accord+ to ,talmudic prescriptions1 ! validity ( mix$ m>riages betwe5 a ,jewess & a ,g5tile 0 only recogniz$ ^u ! condition t ! *ildr5 %\ld be br\ght up 9 ! religion ( ! "m4 ,9 ?is case1 he argues1 ,paul m]ely c>ri$ out ! requirem5t ( ! ,jewi% law by circumcis+ ,timo?y1 :i* o!rs _h omitt$ to d1 & ?us secur$ 8 admission to ! ,jewi% synagogues to :i* mu* ( 8 m9i/ry 0 direct$1 b f :i* he w\ld h be5 exclud$ _h ! rite n be5 p]=m$47#a7 ,ev5 ,mey]1 h[ev]1 9 ref]5ce to ?is po9t1 replies t ,paul c\ld sc>cely be influ5c$ by ! ,talmudic canon1 because ,timo?y 0 already a ,*ri/ian & beyond ,judaism47#b7 ,besides1 9 po9t ( fact1 by su* a m>riage ! ,jewess _h =feit$ ,jewi% privileges4 ,timo?y1 9 ! eyes ( ! ,mosaic law1 0 n a ,jew1 & held1 9 reality1 no bett] position ?an ! ,greek ,titus4 ,he _h evid5tly be5 br\ght up z a hea!n1 & ! only "q :i* c\ld arise 9 reg>d to him 0 :e!r he mu/ fir/ become a ,jew be=e he c\ld be fully recogniz$ z a ,*ri/ian4 ,! supposition t ! circumcision ( ,timo?y1 ! son ( a ,greek1 aft] he _h actually become a ,*ri/ian )\t hav+ pass$ ?r\gh ,judaism1 #bii c\ld secure = him free access to ! synagogues ( ! ,jews1 may %[ h[ exce$+ly slight at t "t 0 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,jew & ! ,*ri/ian1 b x also sugge/s ! s]i\s d\bt :e!r ! object ( ! concession1 9 ! m9d ( ! au?or ( ! ,acts1 0 n r to conciliate ! ,judaic ,*ri/ians1 ?an to repres5t ! act z "o ( policy t[>ds ! unbeliev+ ,jews4 ,! /atem5t ( ! ,acts is t ,paul circumcis$ ,timo?y because ( ! ,jews :i* 7 9 ^? places2 = !y knew all t 8 fa!r 0 a ,greek4 ,if ! reason :i* we are discuss+ 7 correct1 ! expression w\ld m probably h be53 = !y knew t 8 "m 0 a ,jewess4 ,! ,greek fa!r might1 & probably did1 object to ! circumcision ( 8 son1 b t 0 no special reason :y ,paul %\ld circumcise him4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! fact t ! ,jews knew t 8 fa!r 0 a ,greek made ! action attribut$ to ,paul a concession :i* ! au?or ( ! ,acts ?us repres5t$ 9 its mo/ conciliatory light4 ,! circumcision ( ,timo?y 0 cle>ly decl>$ unnecess>y by ! apo/olic decree1 = ! attempt to %[ t he 0 legitimately reg>d$ z a ,jew utt]ly fails4 ,x is obvi\s t1 accord+ to ,paul9e doctr9e1 !re c\ld be no obligation = anyone :o adopt$ ,*ri/ianity to und]go ?is initiatory rite4 ,x is impossible reasonably to ma9ta9 t any case has be5 made out to expla9 :y ,timo?y1 :o _h gr[n into manhood )\t be+ circumcis$1 & _h become a ,*ri/ian :il/ uncircumcis$1 %\ld at t late p]iod be circumcis$4 ,beyond ! ref]5ce to a ,talmudic prescription1 9 fact1 ) :i* !re is n ! slighte/ evid5ce t ,paul 0 acqua9t$1 & :i*1 ev5 if he did "k ( x1 c\ld n possibly h be5 recognis$ by him z #cjj au?oritative1 !re has n be5 a s]i\s attempt made to %[ t ! case ( ,timo?y pres5ts exceptional features :i* reconcile ! contradiction o!rwise admitt$ z app>5t4 ,! :ole apologetic argum5t 9 fact s9ks into "o ( m]e exp$i5cy3 ,timo?y1 ! son ( a ,jewess & ( a ,greek1 & ?us hav+ a c]ta9 aff9ity bo? to ,jews & ,g5tiles1 w\ld become a mu* m effici5t assi/ant to ,paul if he 7 circumcis$ & ?us _h access to ! ,jewi% synagogues2 !re=e ,paul1 :o himself became z a ,jew t he might w9 ! ,jews1 dem&$ ! same sacrifice f 8 foll[]4 ,b c ?is argum5t be> any scrut9y by ! light ( ,paul's own writ+s8 ,x _c4 ,paul op5ly claims to be ! ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles1 & j be=e ! p]iod at :i* he is suppos$ to circumcise ,timo?y1 he p>ts f ! eld] ,apo/les ) ! und]/&+ t he is to g to ! ,g5tiles :o are fre$ f circumcision4 ,x is a s+ul> comm5cem5t ( 8 mission1 to circumcise ! son ( a ,greek fa!r aft] he _h become a ,*ri/ian4 ,su* suppos$ consid]ations ab\t access to synagogues & conciliation ( ! ,jews w\ld seem m suitable to a mission>y to ! circumcision1 ?an to ! ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles4 ,x mu/ be app>5t to all t 9 go+ m specially to ! ,g5tiles1 z he av[$ly 01 ! alleg$ exp$i5cy ( circumcis+ ,timo?y falls to ! gr\nd1 & on ! contr>y t su* an act w\ld h compromis$ 8 :ole ,gospel4 ,paul's *>act]i/ic tea*+ 0 ! inutility ( circumcision1 & ^u ?is po9t he su/a9$ ! incessant attacks ( ! emiss>ies ( ,james & ! ,judai/ic p>ty )\t yield+ or compromise4 ,:at c\ld h be5 m ill-advis$ "u #cja su* circum/ances ?an ! circumcision ) 8 own h&s ( a conv]t :o1 if ! son ( a ,jewess1 0 likewise ! son ( a ,greek1 & _h rema9$ uncircumcis$ until he _h actually embrac$ t fai? :i*1 ,paul taught1 sup]s$$ circumcision8 ,! ,apo/le :o decl>$3 ,behold1 ,i ,paul say unto y1 t if ye be circumcis$1 ,*ri/ w pr(it y no?+17#a7 c\ld n h circumcis$ ! ,*ri/ian ,timo?y2 & if any utt]ance ( ,paul m di/9ctly & explicitly applicable to ! pres5t case be requir$1 x is aptly suppli$ by ! foll[+3 ,0 any man call$ be+ circumcis$8 let him n become uncircumcis$4 ,ha? any man be5 call$ 9 uncircumcision8 let him n be circumcis$4444 ,let ea* abide 9 ! same call+ :]e9 he 0 call$47#b7 ,apologi/s quote v glibly ! say+ ( ,paul3 ,unto ! ,jews ,i became z a ,jew1 t ,i might ga9 ,jews1 z suffici5tly ju/ify+ ! act :i* we are consid]+2 b x is nei!r applicable to ! case1 nor is ! passage susceptible ( su* int]pretation4 ,! special object ( ,paul at t "t1 accord+ to 8 own %[+17#c7 0 n to ga9 ,jews b to ga9 ,g5tiles2 & ! circumcision ( ,timo?y w\ld c]ta9ly n h t5d$ to ga9 ,g5tiles4 ,if we quote ! :ole passage f :i* ! above is extract$1 ! s5se at once becomes cle> & diff]5t f t assign$ to x3 ,= be+ free f all m51 ,i made myself s]vant unto all1 t ,i might ga9 ! m2 & unto ! ,jews ,i became z a ,jew t ,i might ga9 ,jews2 to !m "u law1 z "u law1 n be+ myself "u law1 t ,i might ga9 !m "u law2 to !m )\t law1 z )\t law1--n be+ )\t law to ,god1 b "u law to ,*ri/1-- #cjb t ,i might ga9 !m )\t law2 to ! weak ,i became weak t ,i might ga9 ! weak3 ,i am become all ?+s to all m51 t ,i may by all means save "s4 ,& all ?+s ,i d = ! ,gospel's sake1 t ,i may become a p>tak] !re( ) !m47l7 ,x is cle> t a man :o c\ld become all ?+s to all m51 9 ! s5se ( yield+ any po9t ( pr9ciple1 mu/ be consid]$ )\t pr9ciple at all1 & no "o c\ld ma9ta9 t ,paul 0 apt to conc$e pr9ciples4 ,judg$ by 8 own /atem5ts1 inde$1 8 "* 0 ! v rev]se ( ?is4 ,!re is no %ade ( conciliation :5 he decl>es3 ,b ?\gh we1 or an angel f heav51 %\ld prea* any ,gospel unto y o!r ?an t we prea*$ unto y1 let him be accurs$4444 ,= am ,i n[ mak+ m5 my fri5ds1 or ,god8 or am ,i seek+ to please m58 if ,i 7 /ill pleas+ m51 ,i %\ld n be a s]vant ( ,*ri/47#b7 ,! ,gospel ( :i* he speaks1 & :i* he prote/s is n aft] m51 b receiv$ ?r\gh a revelation ( ,jesus ,*ri/17#c7 is t ,gospel :i* ,paul prea*$ among ! ,g5tiles1 & :i* proclaim$ ! abrogation ( ! law & ( circumcision4 ,paul might 9 "o s5se say t circumcision is no?+ & uncircumcision is no?+1 b keep+ ! comm&m5ts ( ,god27#d7 b su* a /atem5t1 simply int5d$ to express t !re 0 nei!r m]it 9 ! "o nor 9 ! o!r1 cle>ly does n apply to ! case be=e u1 & no way less5s ! =ce ( ! words we h quot$ above3 ,if ye be circumcis$1 ,*ri/ w pr(it y no?+4 ,9 ,paul su* a concession w\ld h be5 9 ! highe/ degree a sacrifice ( pr9ciple1 & "o :i* he n only refus$ to make 9 ! case ( ,titus1 t ! tru? ( ! #cjc ,gospel might abide1 b equally ma9ta9$ 9 ! face ( ! pill> ,apo/les1 :5 he left !m & return$ to ! ,g5tiles :il/ !y w5t back to ! circumcision4 ,paul's idea ( be+ all ?+s to all m5 is illu/rat$ by 8 rebuke to ,pet]1--once m to ref] to ! sc5e at ,antio*4 ,pet] app>5tly practis$ a little ( t conciliation1 :i* apologi/s1 def5d+ ! unkn[n au?or ( ! ,acts at ! exp5se ( ,paul1 consid] to be ! s5se ( ! ,apo/le's words4 ,paul repudiat$ su* an inf]5ce1 by )/&+ ,pet] to ! face z condemn$1 & guilty ( hypocrisy4 ,paul became all ?+s to all m5 by consid]+ _! feel+s1 & exhibit+ *>ity & =be>ance1 9 matt]s indiff]5t ,he 0 c>eful n to make 8 lib]ty a /umbl+ block to ! weak4 ,if food make? my bro!r to (f5d1 ,i w eat no fle% = ev] le/ ,i make my bro!r to (f5d47#a7 ,self-abnegation 9 ! use ( enlight5$ lib]ty1 h[ev]1 is a v diff]5t ?+ f ! concession ( a rite1 :i* x 0 ! purpose ( 8 :ole ,gospel to discr$it1 & ! lab\r ( 8 life to resi/4 ,once m we repeat t ! n>rative ( ! ,acts reg>d+ ! circumcision ( ,timo?y is contradictory to ! "* & tea*+ ( ,paul z asc]ta9$ f 8 ,epi/les1 & l s _m o!r portions ( t "w :i* we h already exam9$ mu/1 z x /&s1 be reject$ z unhi/orical4 ,we h already te/$ ! n>rative ( ! au?or ( ! ,acts by ! /atem5ts ( ,paul 9 ! fir/ two *apt]s ( ! ,galatians at su* l5g? t1 al?\gh ! subject is f> f exhau/$1 we mu/ n proce$ fur!r4 ,we ?9k t !re c be no d\bt t ! role assign$ to ! ,apo/le ,paul 9 ,acts xv4 is unhi/orical17#b7 #cjd & x is unnecess>y = u to po9t out ! reasons :i* l$ ! writ] to pres5t him 9 su* subdu$ col\rs4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 be=e f9ally leav+ ! subject1 v briefly po9t out a few circum/ances :i* ?r[ a s+ul> light ^u ! relations :i* actually exi/$ betwe5 ,paul & ! eld] ,apo/les1 & t5d to %[ _! real1 if cov]t1 antagonism to ! ,gospel ( ! uncircumcision4 ,we may at ! outset rem>k1 9 ref]5ce to an objection frequ5tly made t ,paul does n di/9ctly ref] to ! ,apo/les z oppos+ 8 tea*+ & does n p]sonally attack !m1 t su* a c\rse w\ld h be5 suicidal 9 ! ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles1 :il/ on ! o!r h& x c\ld n b h h9d]$ ! acceptance ( 8 ,gospel1 = :i* he 0 ev] ready to endure s mu*4 ,! man :o wrote3 ,if x be possible1 z mu* z dep5de? on y1 be at peace ) all m517#a7 c\ld well be sil5t 9 su* a cause4 ,paul1 9 v5tur+ to prea* ! ,gospel ( ! uncircumcision1 lab\r$ "u ! s+ul> disadvantage ( n hav+1 l ! ,twelve1 be5 an imm$iate disciple ( ! ,ma/]4 ,he _h be5 z ! "o born out ( due "t17#b7 & al?\gh he claim$ t 8 ,gospel _h n be5 taught to him by man b _h be5 receiv$ by direct revelation f ,jesus1 !re c be no d\bt t 8 apo/olic position 0 con/antly assail$4 ,! c\nt5ance ( ! eld] ,apo/les1 ev5 if m]ely tacit1 0 ( great #cje importance to ! success ( 8 "w2 & he felt ?is s mu* t1 z he himself /ates1 he w5t up to ,j]usalem to communicate to !m ! ,gospel :i* he prea*$ among ! ,g5tiles3 le/ by any means ,i might be runn+ or did run 9 va947#a7 ,any op5 brea* betwe5 !m w\ld h fru/rat$ 8 lab\rs4 ,_h ,paul be5 9 recogniz$ enmity ) ! ,twelve :o _h be5 select$ z 8 special disciples by ! ,ma/]1 & be5 repudiat$ & d5\nc$ by !m1 x is obvi\s t 8 position w\ld h be5 a prec>i\s "o4 ,he _h no desire = s*ism4 ,8 ,gospel1 besides1 0 m]ely a developm5t ( t ( ! eld] ,apo/les2 &1 h[ev] mu* !y might res5t 8 doctr9e ( ! abrogation ( ! law & ( ! inutility ( circumcision1 !y c\ld /ill reg>d 8 ,g5tile conv]ts z at lea/ 9 "s sort ,proselytes ( ! ,gate4 ,) e inducem5t to pres]ve peace if by any means possible1 & to suppress e expression ( disagreem5t ) ! ,twelve1 x is n surpris+ t we f9d s little direct ref]5ce to ! eld] ,apo/les 9 8 epi/les4 ,dur+ 8 visit to ,j]usalem he did n succe$ 9 conv]t+ !m to 8 views4 ,!y /ill limit$ _! m9i/ry to ! circumcision1 & he _h to be cont5t ) a tacit cons5t to 8 "w among/ ! hea!n4 ,b al?\gh we h no op5 utt]ance ( 8 irritation1 ! suppress$ impati5ce ( 8 _s1 ev5 at ! recollection ( ! incid5ts ( 8 visit1 betrays itself 9 abrupt s5t5ces1 unf9i%$ expressions1 & gramm> :i* breaks d[n 9 ! /ruggle ( repress$ emotion4 ,we h already said en\gh reg>d+ 8 ironical ref]5ces to ^? :o seem to be some?+1 to ! ov]mu* ,apo/les1 & we ne$ n aga9 po9t #cjf to ! alt]cation betwe5 ,paul & ,cephas at ,antio*1 & ! /rong language us$ by ! =m]4 ,no?+ is m c]ta9 ?an ! fact t1 dur+ 8 :ole c>e]1 ! ,apo/le ,paul _h to cont5d ) sy/ematic opposition f ! ,judaic ,*ri/ian p>ty27#a7 & ! only po9t reg>d+ :i* !re is any diff]5ce ( op9ion is ! %>e 9 ?is tak5 by ! ,twelve4 ,z we _c reasonably expect to f9d any pla9 /atem5t ( ?is 9 ! writ+s ( ! ,apo/le1 we are =c$ to take advantage ( su* indications z c be discov]$4 ,^u "o po9t we are n left 9 d\bt4 ,! )drawal ( ,pet] & ! o!rs at ,antio* f communion ) ! ,g5tile ,*ri/ians1 & consequ5tly f ! side ( ,paul1 0 ow+ to ! arrival ( c]ta9 m5 f ,james1 = ! ,apo/le expressly /ates s4 ,no surprise is express$1 h[ev]1 at ! effect produc$ by ^! ------1 & ! cle> inf]5ce is t !y repres5t$ ! views ( a naturally antagoni/ic p>ty1 an inf]5ce :i* is 9 accordance ) all t we else:]e read ( ,james4 ,x is difficult to sep>ate ! ------ f ! ------ ( ! prec$+ *apt] 7i4#g7 :o tr\ble ! ,galatians1 & desire to p]v]t ! ,gospel ( ,*ri/1 ass]t+ ! necessity ( circumcision1 aga9/ :om ! epi/le is direct$4 ,aga9 we meet ) ! same vague & cauti\s designation ( judai/ic oppon5ts 9 8 second ,epi/le to ! ,cor9?ians 7iii4 #a71 :]e #cjg "s ------ be>]s ( lett]s ( comm5dation ------ f p]sons unnam$1 7 attack+ ! ,apo/le & endeav\r+ to discr$it 8 tea*+4 ,by :om 7 ^! lett]s writt58 ,we _c ( c\rse give an au?oritative reply1 b we may ask3 by :om c\ld lett]s ( comm5dation possess+ an au?ority :i* c\ld h weight aga9/ t ( ,paul be writt51 except by ! eld] ,apo/les8' ,we h c]ta9 evid5ce 9 ! fir/ ,epi/le to ! ,cor9?ians t p>ties _h aris5 9 ! ,*ur* ( ,cor9? 9 opposition to ,paul4 ,^! p>ties 7 di/+ui%$1 z ! ,apo/le himself /ates1 by ! cries3 ,i am ( ,paul1 & ,i ( ,apollos1 & ,i ( ,cephas1 & ,i ( ,*ri/47#b7 ------4 ,:atev] diff]5ces ( op9ion !re may be z to ! precise nature ( ^! p>ties1 !re c be no d\bt t bo? ! p>ty ( ,cephas & ! p>ty ( ,*ri/ held /rong ,judai/ic views & assail$ ! tea*+ ( ,paul1 & 8 apo/olic au?ority4 ,x is v evid5t t ! p]sons to :om ! ,apo/le ref]s 9 connection ) lett]s ( comm5dation 7 ( ^! p>ties4 ,apologi/s argue t3 9 claim+ ,cephas z ! head ( _! p>ty !y _h probably nei!r m nor #cjh less gr\nd ?an _! rivals :o %elt]$ !mselves "u ! names ( ,apollos & ( ,paul47#a7 ,x is obvi\s1 h[ev]1 t1 9 a ,*ur* f\nd$ by ,paul1 !re c\ld h be5 no p>ty creat$ ) ! necessity to take 8 "n z _! wat*word1 except z a reply to ano!r p>ty :i*1 hav+ intrud$ itself1 attack$ him1 & =c$ ^? :o ma9ta9$ ! views ( _! own ,apo/le to raise su* a c\nt]-cry4 ,! p>ties ( ,cephas & ( ,*ri/ 7 manife/ly aggressive1 intrud+ !mselves1 z ! ,apo/le compla9s1 into o!r m5's lab\rs17#b7 & ?is 9 "s mann] seems to po9t to t conv5tion betwe5 ! ,apo/le & ! ,?ree1 t he %\ld g to ! ,g5tiles & !y to ! circumcision :i*1 b>ely m ?an passive neutrality at ! beg9n+1 soon became cov]tly antagoni/ic4 ,! fact t ! p>ty ( ,paul 0 n an organiz$ body1 s to say1 direct$ by ! ,apo/le z a p>ty lead]1 9 no way r5d]s x probable t ! p>ty ( ,cephas1 :i* c>ri$ on active & (f5sive measures1 _h n mu* m gr\nd 9 claim+ ,cephas z _! head4 ,"o po9t is indisputable1 t no p>ty ev] claims any man z its lead] :o is n cle>ly associat$ ) ! views x ma9ta9s4 ,! p>ty ( ,cephas1 repres5t+ judai/ic views1 oppos+ ! tea*+ ( ,paul1 & jo9+ 9 d5y+ 8 apo/olic claims1 c]ta9ly w\ld n h tak5 ,pet]'s "n z _! wat*-cry if he _h be5 kn[n to hold & express su* ,paul9e s5tim5ts z are put into 8 m\? 9 ! ,acts1 or _h n1 on ! contr>y1 be5 intimately id5tifi$ ) judai/ic pr9ciples4 ,to illu/rate ! case by a mod]n in/ance3 ,is x possible to suppose t1 9 any consid]able city 9 ?is c\ntry1 #cji a p>ty hold+ rituali/ic op9ions c\ld possibly claim ! pres5t ,ar*bi%op ( ,cant]bury z its lead]1 or "o pr(ess+ broad-*ur* views c\ld ?9k ( %elt]+ itself "u ! "n ( ! ,ar*bi%op ( ,york8 ,religi\s p>ties may v probably mi/ake ! delicate details ( a lead]'s tea*+1 b !y c sc>cely be wrong 9 reg>d to 8 g5]al pr9ciples4 ,if ,pet] _h be5 s un=tunate z to be flagrantly misund]/ood by 8 foll[]s &1 :il/ ?is p>ty prea*$ 9 8 "n judai/ic doctr9es & anti-,paul9e op9ions1 ! ,apo/le himself advocat$ ! abrogation ( ! law1 z a burd5 :i* ! ,jews !mselves 7 n able to be>1 & actively %>$ ,paul9e convictions1 is x possible to suppose t ,paul w\ld n h po9t$ out ! absurdity ( su* a p>ty claim+ su* a lead]8 ,! fact is1 h[ev]1 t ,paul nev] d5ies ! claim ( ^? :o %elt] !mselves "u ! names ( ,pet] & ,james1 nev] que/ions _! v]acity1 & nev] adopts ! simple & natural c\rse ( /at+ t1 9 advanc+ ^! names1 !y are impo/]s or mi/ak54 ,on ! contr>y1 ^u all occasions he evid5tly admits1 by 8 sil5ce1 ! validity ( ! claim47#a7 ,we are n left to m]e inf]5ce t ! adopt$ head ( ! p>ty actually %>$ ! views ( ! p>ty4 ,paul himself di/+ui%es ,pet] z ! head ( ! p>ty ( ! circumcision 9 a passage 9 8 lett] to ! ,galatians already frequ5tly ref]r$ to17#b7 & ! episode at ,antio* confirms ! description1 & leaves no d\bt t ,pet]'s p]man5t practice 0 to =ce ! ,g5tiles to judaize4 ,= reasons :i* we h already /at$1 ,paul c\ld n b h desir$ to pres]ve peace1 or ev5 ! #caj semblance ( x1 ) ! eld] ,apo/les1 = ! ,gospel's sake2 & he1 !re=e1 wisely leaves !m z mu* z possible out ( ! "q & deals ) _! disciples4 ,x is obvi\s t policy mu/ h dictat$ su* a c\rse4 ,by ignor+ ! lead]s & attack+ _! foll[]s1 he suppress$ ! *ief /r5g? ( 8 oppon5ts & kept out ( sight ! mo/ =midable argum5t aga9/ himself3 ! concurr5ce ) !m ( ! eld] ,apo/les4 ,on ! "o h&1 ! epi/les ( ,paul be> no evid5ce to any active sympa?y & co-op]ation ) 8 views & "w on ! "p ( ! eld] ,apo/les4 ,on ! o!r1 ,paul is ev]y:]e assail$ by judai/ic adv]s>ies :o oppose 8 ,gospel & d5y 8 apo/le-%ip1 & :o claim z _! lead]s ! eld] ,apo/les4 ,if1 ev5 )\t press+ expressions to _! extreme & probable po9t1 we take ! contra/ drawn betwe5 8 own ,gospel & t ( ! circumcision1 ! reality ( ! antagonism mu/ be app>5t4 ,= we are n z ! _m ------7#a7 :i* adult]ate ! ^w ( ,god2 b z ( s9c]ity1 b z ( ,god1 be=e ,god1 speak we 9 ,*ri/47#b7 ,lat] on 9 ! lett]1 aft] ref]r+ to ! intrusion ( ! opposite p>ty into ! circle ( 8 lab\rs1 ,paul decl>es t 8 impati5ce & anxiety proce$ f godly jeal\sy at ! possible effect ( ! judai/ic intrud]s ^u ! ,cor9?ians4 ,b ,i fe>1 le/ by any means1 z ! s]p5t beguil$ ,eve ?r\gh 8 subtlety1 y\r ?\ghts %\ld #caa be corrupt$ f ! simplicity & ! purity t is 9 ,*ri/4 ,= if he t come? prea*e? ano!r ,jesus :om we did n prea*1 or if ye receive ano!r _s :i* ye receiv$ n1 or ano!r ,gospel :i* ye did n accept1 ye be> well ) him4 ,= ,i ?9k ,i am n a :it beh9d ! ov]mu* ,apo/les ------47#a7 ,?is ref]5ce to ! eld] ,apo/les gives po9t to mu* ( ! epi/le :i* is ambigu\s1 & m especially :5 ! judai/ic nature ( ! opposition is s cle>ly indicat$ a few v]ses fur!r on3 ,are !y ,hebrews8 s am ,i4 ,are !y ,israelites8 s am ,i4 ,are !y ,abraham's se$8 s am ,i4 ,are !y m9i/]s ( ,*ri/8 7,i speak z a fool71 ,i am m2 9 lab\rs m abundantly1 9 prisons exce$+ly1 9 dea?s (t51 c1 c47#b7 ,x is argu$ t ! ,twelve _h n suffici5t au?ority ov] _! foll[]s to prev5t su* int]f]5ce ) ,paul1 & t ! relation ( ! ,apo/le to ! ,twelve 03 sep>ation1 n opposition1 antagonism ( ! foll[]s r ?an ( ! lead]s1 p]sonal antipa?y ( ! ,judaiz]s to ,/4 ,paul1 r ?an ( ,/4 ,paul to ! ,twelve47#c7 ,x is n difficult to believe t ! antipa?y ( ,paul to ! ,judaiz]s 0 less ?an t felt by !m t[>ds him4 ,! sup]iority ( ! man mu/ h r5d]$ him some:at call\s to su* dislike47#d7 ,b ! mitigat$ =m ( diff]5ce betwe5 ,paul & ! ,twelve "h assum$1 al?\gh /ill v diff]5t f ! repres5tations ( ! ,acts1 #cab _c be e/abli%$1 b on ! contr>y mu/ be mu* wid5$ be=e x c ju/ly be tak5 z t exi/+ betwe5 ,paul & ! eld] ,apo/les4 ,we d n g s f> z to say t !re 0 op5 enmity betwe5 !m1 or active antagonism ( any di/9ct "* on ! "p ( ! ,twelve to ! ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles1 b !re is e reason to believe t !y n only dislik$ 8 tea*+1 b endeav\r$ to c\nt]act x by _! own m9i/ry ( ! circumcision4 ,!y n only did n re/ra9 ! opposition ( _! foll[]s1 b !y abett$ !m 9 _! c\nt]-ass]tion ( judai/ic views4 ,_h ! ,twelve felt any cordial fri5d%ip = ,paul1 & exhibit$ any active desire = ! success ( 8 m9i/ry ( ! uncircumcision1 x is q impossible t 8 "w c\ld h be5 s cont9u\sly & vexati\sly imp$$ by ! p]secution ( ! ,jewi% ,*ri/ian p>ty4 ,! ,apo/les may n h possess$ suffici5t influ5ce or au?ority entirely to control ! action ( adh]5ts1 b x w\ld be folly to suppose t1 if unanimity ( views _h prevail$ betwe5 !m & ,paul1 & a firm & consi/5t support _h be5 ext5d$ to him1 su* sy/ematic resi/ance z he ev]y:]e enc\nt]$ f ! p>ty pr(ess+ to be l$ by ! pill> ,apo/les c\ld h be5 s]i\sly ma9ta9$1 or t he c\ld h be5 left alone & unaid$ to /ruggle aga9/ x4 ,if ! relations betwe5 ,paul & ! ,twelve _h be5 su* z are intimat$ 9 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 8 epi/les mu/ h pres5t$ und\bt$ evid5ce ( ! fact ,bo? negatively & positively !y te/ify ! abs5ce ( all support1 & ! exi/5ce ( antagoni/ic influ5ce on ! "p ( ! eld] ,apo/les1 & ext]nal evid5ce fully confirms ! impression :i* ! epi/les produce47#a7 #cac ,f any po9t ( view :i* may be tak51 ! ,apocalypse is an important docum5t 9 connection ) ?is po9t4 ,if x be accept$ z a "w ( ! ,apo/le ,john--! prepond]ance ( evid5ce & critical op9ion assigns x to him--?is book1 ( c\rse1 possesses ! greate/ value z an indication ( 8 views4 ,if x be m]ely reg>d$ z a contempor>y writ+1 x /ill is mo/ int]e/+ z an illu/ration ( ! religi\s feel+ ( ! p]iod4 ,! "q is3 ,does ! ,apocalypse conta9 any ref]5ce to ! ,apo/le ,paul1 or ?r[ light ^u ! relations betwe5 him & ! eld] ,apo/les8 ,if x does s1 & be ! "w ( "o ( ! ------1 no?+ obvi\sly c\ld be m #cad in/ructive4 ,9 ! messages to ! sev5 *ur*es1 !re are ref]5ces & d5unciations :i*1 9 ! op9ion ( _m able critics1 are direct$ aga9/ ! ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles & 8 *>act]i/ic tea*+47#a7 ,:o b ,paul & 8 foll[]s c be ref]r$ to 9 ! ,epi/le to ! ,*ur* ( ,ephesus3 ,i "k ?y works1 & ?y lab\r1 & ?y pati5ce1 & t ?\ can/ n be> wick$ p]sons3 & did/ try !m :i* say !y are ,apo/les & are n1 & did/ f9d !m li>s87#b7 ,paul himself in=ms u n only ( 8 soj\rn 9 ,ephesus1 :]e he believ$ t a great & effectual door 0 op5$ to him1 b adds1 !re are _m adv]s>ies ------47#c7 ,! =emo/ *>ge br\ght aga9/ ! *ur*es is t !y h ^? t hold ! tea*+ ( ,balaam1 :o taught ,balak to ca/ a /umbl+-block be=e ! sons ( ,israel1 to eat ?+s (f]$ unto idols47#d7 ,! tea*+ ( ,paul ^u ?is po9t is #cae well kn[n1 #a ,cor4 viii4 #a ff41 x4 #be ff41 ,rom4 xiv4 #b ff41 & ! ref]5ce "h _c be mi/ak52 & :5 9 ! ,epi/le to ! *ur* ( ,?yatira1 aft] d5\nc+ ! tea*+ to eat ?+s (f]$ unto idols1 ! ,apocalypti/ goes on to enc\rage ^? :o h n ?is tea*+1 :o knew n ! dep?s ( ,satan1 ------17#a7 z !y say ! expression ( ,paul himself is tak5 to d5\nce 8 doctr9e2 = ! ,apo/le1 def5d+ himself aga9/ ! attacks ( ^? p>ties ( ,cephas & ( ,*ri/ 9 ,cor9?1 writes3 ,b ,god reveal$ 7!m7 to u ?r\gh 8 ,_s2 = ! ,_s se>*e? all ?+s1 ev5 ! dep?s ( ,god --------! dep?s ( ,satan r1 retorts ! judai/ic au?or ( ! ,apocalypse4 ------ does n occur else:]e 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t ,aga91 9 ! address to ! *ur*es ( ,smyrna & ,philadelphia1 :5 ! writ] d5\nces ^? :o say t !y are ,jews1 & are n1 b a synagogue ( ,satan17#b7 :om has he 9 view b ^? ,*ri/ians :om ,paul _h taught to consid] circumcision unnecess>y & ! law abrogat$8 ,we f9d ,paul 9 ! ,epi/le to ! ,cor9?ians1 s (t5 quot$1 oblig$ to def5d himself aga9/ ^! judais+ p>ties ^u ?is v po9t3 ,are !y ,hebrews8 s am ,i4 ,are !y ,israelites8 s am ,i4 ,are !y ,abraham's se$8 s am ,i47#c7 ,x is manife/ t 8 adv]s>ies _h vaunt$ _! own ,jewi% orig9 z a title ( sup]iority ov] ! ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles4 ,we #caf h1 h[ev]1 fur!r evid5ce ( ! same attack ^u ,paul reg>d+ ?is po9t4 ,epiphanius po9ts out t ! ,ebionites d5i$ t ,paul 0 a ,jew1 & ass]t$ t he 0 born ( a ,g5tile fa!r & "m1 b t1 hav+ gone up to ,j]usalem1 he became a proselyte & submitt$ to circumcision 9 ! hope ( m>ry+ a daught] ( ! high prie/4 ,b aft]w>ds1 accord+ to !m1 enrag$ at n secur+ ! maid5 = 8 wife1 ,paul wrote aga9/ circumcision & ! ,sabba? & ! law47#a7 ,! ,apo/le ,paul1 ^: con/ant lab\r x 0 to de/roy ! p>ticul>ism ( ! ,jew1 & raise ! ,g5tile to full1 free1 & equal p>ticipation ) him 9 ! b5efits ( ! ,new ,cov5ant1 c\ld n b incur ! bitt] displeasure ( ! ,apocalypti/1 = :om ! ,g5tiles 71 z su*1 ! type ( all t 0 common & unclean4 ,9 ! utt]ances ( ! se] ( ,patmos we seem to he> ! expression ( all t judai/ic hatr$ & opposition :i* pursu$ ! ,apo/le :o laid ! axe to ! root ( ,mosaism &1 9 8 ef=ts to free ,*ri/ianity f trammels :i*1 m ?an any o!r1 ret>d$ its triumphant developm5t1 ar\s$ aga9/ himself all ! virul5ce ( ,jewi% illib]ality & prejudice4 ,! results at :i* we h arriv$ might be s+ul>ly confirm$ by an exam9ation ( ! writ+s ( ! fir/ two c5turies1 & by obs]v+ ! attitude #cag assum$ t[>ds ! ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles by su* m5 z ,ju/9 ,m>tyr1 ,papias1 ,hegesippus1 & ! au?or ( ! ,clem5t9es2 b we h already devot$ too mu* space to ?is subject1 & "h we mu/ reluctantly leave x4 ,! /eps by :i* ,*ri/ianity 0 gradually fre$ f ! trammels ( ,judaism & became a religion ( unlimit$ range & univ]sal fitness 7 cle>ly n ^? /at$ 9 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les4 ,its emancipation f ,mosaism 0 n effect$ by any lib]al action or enlight5$ guidance on ! "p ( ! eld] ,apo/les4 ,at ! dea? ( _! ,ma/]1 ! ,twelve rema9$ closely unit$ to ,judaism1 & evid5tly 7 left )\t any und]/&+ t ,*ri/ianity 0 a new religion :i* mu/ displace ,mosaic in/itutions1 & replace ! unbe>able yoke ( ! law by ! div9e lib]ty ( ! ,gospel4 ,to ! la/ mom5t reg>d+ :i* we h any tru/wor?y in=mation1 ! ,twelve1 z might h be5 expect$1 reta9$ all _! e>ly religi\s cu/oms & all _! ,jewi% prejudices4 ,!y 7 simply ,jews believ+ t ,jesus 0 ! ,messiah2 & if ! influ5ce ( ,paul enl>g$ _! views ^u "s m9or po9ts1 we h no reason to believe t !y ev] ab&on$ _! belief 9 ! cont9u$ obligation ( ! law1 & ! necessity ( circumcision = full p>ticipation 9 ! b5efits ( ! ,cov5ant4 ,! au?or ( ! ,acts w\ld h u believe t !y requir$ no p]suasion1 b anticipat$ ,paul 9 ! ,gospel ( uncircumcision4 ,x is n )9 ! scope ( ?is "w to inquire h[ ,paul orig9ally =m$ 8 views ( ,*ri/ian univ]salism4 ,once =m$1 x is easy to und]/& h[ rapidly !y mu/ h be5 develop$ & confirm$ by exp]i5ce among/ #cah ! ,g5tiles4 ,:il/ ! ,twelve /ill rema9$ 9 ! n>r[ circle ( ,judaism & c\ld n be mov$ beyond ! m9i/ry ( ! circumcision1 ,paul1 9 ! l>g] & fre] field ( ! _w1 mu/ daily h felt m conv9c$ t ! abrogation ( ! ,law & ! ab&onm5t ( circumcision 7 ess5tial to ! ext5sion ( ,*ri/ianity among/ ! ,g5tiles4 ,he _h no easy task1 h[ev]1 to conv9ce o!rs ( ?is1 & he nev] succe$$ 9 br++ 8 eld] colleagues ov] to 8 views4 ,to ! end ( 8 life1 ,paul _h to cont5d ) bigot$ & n>r[-m9d$ opposition )9 ! ,*ri/ian body1 & if 8 views ultimately triumph$1 & ! se$ :i* he s[$ ev5tually yield$ a ri* h>ve/1 he himself did n live to see ! day1 & ! end 0 atta9$ only by sl[ & natural *anges4 ,! new religion gradually ext5d$ beyond ! limits ( ,judaism4 ,g5tile ,*ri/ians soon outnumb]$ ,jewi% believ]s4 ,! ,twelve ^: names 7 ! /r5g? ( ! judai/ic opposition "o by "o pass$ away2 b1 above all1 ! fall ( ,j]usalem & ! disp]sion ( ! ,*ri/ian community secur$ ! success ( ,paul9e pr9ciples & ! univ]salism ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,! ,*ur* ( ,j]usalem c\ld n be> transplant+4 ,9 ! uncong5ial soil ( ,pella x gradually dw9dl$ away1 los+ fir/ its influ5ce & soon aft] its nationality4 ,! divid$ memb]s ( ! ,jewi% p>ty1 scatt]$ among/ ! ,g5tiles1 & depriv$ ( _! influ5tial lead]s1 c\ld n long ret>d ! progress ( ! lib]alism :i* !y /ill cont9u$ to oppose & to misrepres5t4 ,9 a ^w1 ! emancipation ( ,*ri/ianity 0 n effect$ by ! ,twelve1 0 no "w ( c\ncils1 & no result ( dreams2 b1 receiv+ its fir/ great impulse f ! g5ius & ! en]gy ( ,paul1 its ultimate #cai a*ievem5t 0 ! result ( "t & natural developm5t4 ,we h n[ pati5tly consid]$ ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 & al?\gh x has 9 no way be5 our design exhau/ively to exam9e its cont5ts1 we h m ?an suffici5tly done s to enable ! read] to und]/& ! true "* ( ! docum5t4 ,! au?or is unkn[n1 & x is no long] possible to id5tify him4 ,if he 7 actually ! ,luke :om ! ,*ur* indicates1 our results w\ld n be mat]ially affect$2 b ! m]e fact t ! writ] is unkn[n is obvi\sly fatal to ! ,acts z a gu>antee ( miracles4 ,a cycle ( sup]natural occurr5ces c\ld sc>cely1 9 ! e/imation ( any rational m9d1 be e/abli%$ by ! /atem5t ( an anonym\s au?or1 & m especially "o :o n only does n pret5d to h be5 an eye-witness ( mo/ ( ! miracles1 b ^: n>rative is ei!r uncorroborat$ by o!r te/imony or inconsi/5t ) itself1 & contradict$ on _m po9ts by contempor>y docum5ts4 ,! ph5om5a pres5t$ by ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les become p]fectly intelligible :5 we recognize t x is ! "w ( a writ] liv+ long aft] ! occurr5ces relat$1 ^: pi\s imag9ation furni%$ ! apo/olic age ) an elaborate sy/em ( sup]natural ag5cy1 f> beyond ! conception ( any o!r ,new ,te/am5t writ]1 by :i*1 accord+ to 8 view1 ! proce$+s ( ! ,apo/les 7 fur!r$ & direct$1 & ! infant ,*ur* miracul\sly fo/]$4 ,on exam9+ o!r portions ( 8 n>rative1 we f9d t !y pres5t ! features :i* ! miracul\s elem5ts r5d]$ antec$5tly probable4 ,! spee*es attribut$ to #cbj diff]5t speak]s are all ca/ 9 ! same m\ld1 & betray ! composition ( "o & ! same writ]4 ,! s5tim5ts express$ are inconsi/5t ) :at we "k ( ! v>i\s speak]s4 ,& :5 we te/ ! circum/ances relat$ by previ\s or subsequ5t incid5ts & by tru/wor?y docum5ts1 x becomes app>5t t ! n>rative is n an imp>tial /atem5t ( facts1 b a reproduction ( leg5ds or a developm5t ( tradition1 %ap$ & col\r$ accord+ to ! purpose or ! pi\s views ( ! writ]4 ,! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 !re=e1 is n only an anonym\s "w1 b ^u due exam9ation its claims to be consid]$ sob] & v]aci\s hi/ory mu/ be emphatically reject$4 ,x _c /r5g!n ! f\ndations ( sup]natural ,religion1 b1 on ! contr>y1 by its pr(use & indiscrim9ate use ( ! miracul\s x discr$its miracles1 & af=ds a cle>] insight into _! orig9 & fictiti\s "*4 ,,"p ,v4 ,,! ,,direct ,,evid5ce ,,= ,,miracles ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,epi/les ,,& ,,! ,,apocalypse ,turn+ f ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les to ! o!r works ( ! ,new ,te/am5t1 we %all be able v briefly to dispose ( ! ,ca?olic ,epi/les1 ! ,epi/le to ! ,hebrews & ! ,apocalypse4 ,! s-call$ ,epi/les ( ,james1 ,jude1 & ,john1 d n conta9 any evid5ce :i*1 ev5 suppos+ !m to be au!ntic1 really be>s ^u our inquiry into ! reality ( ,miracles & ,div9e ,revelation2 & ! te/imony ( ! ,apocalypse affects x q z little4 ,we h already1 9 exam9+ ! f\r? ,gospel1 _h occasion to say a good deal reg>d+ bo? ! s-call$ ,epi/les ( ,john & ! ,apocalypse4 ,x is unnecess>y to ent] ^u a m m9ute discussion ( !m "h4 ,sev5 books ( ! ,new ,te/am5t1 writes ,dr4 ,we/cott1 z is well kn[n1 h be5 receiv$ into ! ,canon on evid5ce less complete ?an t by :i* ! o!rs are support$47#a7 ,^! are ! ,epi/les ( ,james1 ,jude1 #b ,pet]1 #b & #c ,john1 to ! ,hebrews1 & ! ,apocalypse4 ,we h already furni%$ ! means ( judg+ ( ! nature ( ! #cbb evid5ce ^u :i* "s ( ! o!r books h be5 receiv$ into ! ,canon1 & ! evid5ce = mo/ ( ^! be+ av[$ly less complete1 its nature may be conceiv$4 ,works :i* = a long p]iod 7 class$ among/ ! ,antilegom5a1 or disput$ books1 & :i* only sl[ly acquir$ au?ority z1 9 ! lapse ( "t1 x became m difficult to exam9e _! claims1 c\ld n d mu* to e/abli% ! reality ( miracles4 ,) reg>d to ! ,epi/le to ! ,hebrews1 we may rem>k t we are fre$ f any ne$ to deal at l5g? ) x1 n only by ! abs5ce ( any specific evid5ce 9 its cont5ts1 b by ! foll[+ consid]ation4 ,if ! ,epi/le be n by ,paul1--& x n only is n 81 b does n ev5 pret5d to be s1--! au?or is unkn[n1 & !re=e ! docum5t has no weight z te/imony4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if assign$ to ,paul1 we %all h suffici5t gr\nd 9 8 g5u9e epi/les = consid]+ ! evid5ce ( ! ,apo/le1 & x c\ld n add any?+ ev5 if ! ,epi/le to ! ,hebrews 7 includ$ 9 ! numb]4 ,! fir/ ,epi/le ( ,pet] might h requir$ m detail$ treatm5t1 b we ?9k t little c\ld be ga9$ by demon/rat+ t ! docum5t is n au!ntic1 or %[+ t1 9 any case1 ! evid5ce :i* x c\ld furni% is n ( any value4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we are av]se to protract ! argum5t by any elaboration ( m]e details :i* c be avoid$4 ,if x c\ld be absolutely prov$ t ! ,apo/le ,pet] wrote ! epi/le circulat+ "u 8 "n1 ! evid5ce = miracles w\ld only be /r5g!n$ by ! fact t1 incid5tally1 ! doctr9e ( ! ,resurrection ( ,jesus is ma9ta9$4 ,no hi/orical details are giv51 & no explanation ( ! reasons = :i* ! writ] believ$ 9 x4 #cbc ,no?+ m w\ld be prov$ ?an ! po9t t ,pet] himself believ$ 9 ! ,resurrection4 ,x w\ld c]ta9ly be a matt] ( v deep int]e/ if we possess$ a n>rative writt5 by ! apo/le himself1 giv+ m9ute & accurate details ( ! ph5om5a 9 consequ5ce ( :i* he believ$ 9 s miracul\s an ev5t2 b s9ce ?is epi/le does no?+ m ?an all[ u to inf] ! p]sonal belief ( ! writ]1 unaccompani$ by corroborative evid5ce1 we %\ld n ga9 any?+ by accept+ x z g5u9e4 ,we are q will+ to assume1 )\t fur!r exam9ation1 t ! ,apo/le ,pet] 9 "s way believ$ 9 ! ,resurrection ( 8 ,ma/]4 ,= ! argum5t reg>d+ ! reality ( t /up5d\s miracle1 ^u :i* we are ab\t to ent]1 ?is is tantam\nt to assum+ ! au!nticity ( ! epi/le4 ,com+ to ! ,epi/les ( ,paul1 x w n be necess>y to g into ! evid5ce = ! v>i\s lett]s 9 our ,new ,te/am5t :i* are ascrib$ to him1 nor %all we require to /ate ! gr\nds ^u :i* ! au!nticity ( _m ( !m is d5i$4 ,accept+ ! ,epi/les to ! ,galatians1 ,cor9?ians & ,romans 9 ! ma9 z g5u9e compositions ( ! ,apo/le1 ! "q z to ! orig9 ( ! re/1 s f> z our inquiry is conc]n$1 has little or no int]e/4 ,f ^! f\r lett]s we obta9 ! :ole evid5ce ( ,paul reg>d+ miracles1 & ?is we n[ propose c>efully to exam9e4 ,"o po9t 9 p>ticul> dem&s our fulle/ att5tion4 ,x is und5iable t ,paul prea*$ ! doctr9e ( ! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion ( ,jesus1 & believ$ 9 ^? ev5ts4 ,:il/1 !re=e1 we %all n pass ov] 8 suppos$ te/imony = ! possession ( miracul\s p[]s1 we %all *iefly devote our att5tion to 8 evid5ce = ! c5tral dogmas ( ,sup]natural ,religion1 ! ,resurection & ,asc5sion ( #cbd ,jesus4 ,we %all n1 h[ev]1 limit our exam9ation to ! te/imony ( ,paul1 b1 z ! climax ( ! hi/orical argum5t = miracles1 endeav\r to asc]ta9 ! exact nature ( ! evid5ce ^u :i* belief is claim$ = ! actual occurr5ce ( ^? /up5d\s ev5ts4 ,= ?is1 our inquiry into ! au?or%ip & cr$ibility ( ! hi/orical books ( ! ,new ,te/am5t has at l5g? prep>$ u1 & x w be admitt$ t1 9 subject+ ^! ass]t$ miracles to calm & fe>less scrut9y--unt+$ by irrev]5ce or disrespect1 if p]sonal e>ne/ness & s9c]e sympa?y ) ^? :o believe are any safegu>ds1--! :ole !ory ( ,*ri/ian miracles w be put to its f9al te/4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,evid5ce ,,( ,,paul ,x is bett]1 be=e proce$+ to exam9e ! te/imony ( ,paul = ! ,resurrection1 to cle> ! way by consid]+ 8 evid5ce = miracles 9 g5]al1 ap>t f t specific in/ance4 ,9 an e>li] portion ( ?is "w7#a7 ! foll[+ rem>k 0 made3 ,?r\gh\t ! ,new ,te/am5t1 patri/ic lit]ature1 & ! records ( ecclesia/ical miracles1 al?\gh we h n>ratives ( c\ntless wond]ful works p]=m$ by o!rs ?an ! writ]1 & abundant ass]tion ( ! possession ( miracul\s p[] by ! ,*ur*1 !re is no in/ance :atev]1 t we c rememb]1 9 :i* a writ] claims to h himself p]=m$ a miracle47#b7 ,x is ass]t$ t ?is /atem5t is errone\s1 & t ,paul does advance ?is claim47#c7 ,x may be well to quote ! mod]ate #cbf words 9 :i* a rec5t able writ] /ates ! case1 al?\gh n ) imm$iate ref]5ce to ! p>ticul> passage :i* we h quot$4 444 ,9 ^! und\bt$ writ+s ,/4 ,paul c]ta9ly %[s by incid5tal allusions1 ! good fai? ( :i* _c be que/ion$1 t he believ$ himself to be end[$ ) ! p[] ( work+ miracles1 & t miracles1 or :at 7 ?\ght to be su*1 7 actually wr\ght bo? by him & by 8 contempor>ies4 ,he rem9ds ! ,cor9?ians t '! signs ( an ,apo/le 7 wr\ght among !m444 9 signs1 & wond]s1 & mighty de$s' --------! usual words = ! high] =ms ( miracle--#b ,cor4 xii4 #ab74 ,he tells ! ,romans t 'he w n d>e to speak ( any ( ^? ?+s :i* ,*ri/ ha? n wr\ght by7#a7 him to make ! ,g5tiles ob$i5t1 by ^w & de$1 ?r\gh mighty signs & wond]s1 by ! p[] ( ! ,_s ( ,god' ------4 ,he asks ! #cbg ,galatians :e!r 'he t m9i/]e? to !m ! ,_s1 & worke? miracles ------ among !m1 doe? x by ! works ( ! law1 or by ! he>+ ( fai?8' 7,gal4 iii4 #e47 ,9 ! fir/ ,epi/le to ! ,cor9?ians1 he goes some:at elaborately into ! exact place 9 ! ,*ri/ian economy t is to be assign$ to ! work+ ( miracles & gifts ( heal+ 7#a ,cor4 xii4 #aj1 #bh1 #bi747a7 ,we %all pres5tly exam9e ^! passages1 b we mu/ fir/ briefly deal ) ! "q :e!r1 tak5 9 any s5se1 !y furni% an in/ance 9 :i* a writ] claims to h himself p]=m$ a miracle4 ,x mu/ be obvi\s to any imp>tial read]1 t ! rem>k made 9 ! c\rse ( our e>li] argum5t precisely di/+ui%$ ! g5]al ass]tion ( ! possession ( miracul\s p[] by ! ,*ur*1 f ! explicit claim to h p]sonally p]=m$ a miracle 9 ! s+ul>4 ,if1 !re=e1 x 7 ev5 admitt$ t ,/4 ,paul treats ! fact ( 8 work+ miracles z a matt] ( c\rse1 to :i* a pass+ ref]5ce is suffici5t1 su* incid5tal allusions w\ld n 9 ! lea/ degree contradict ! /atem5t made1 b1 be+ ! only in/ances producible1 w\ld 9 fact completely ju/ify x4 ,g5]al & vague ref]5ces ( ?is k9d h by no means ! =ce ( a def9ite claim to h p]=m$ "s p>ticul> miracle4 ,!y p>take too mu* ( t indiscrim9ate impression ( ! possession & common ex]cise ( miracul\s p[]s :i* *>act]iz$ ! age ( miracles to h any =ce4 ,! desir$ in/ance1 :i* is n =?com+1 & to :i* alone ref]5ce 0 made1 0 a case 9 :i*1 in/ead ( vague expressions1 a writ]1 /at+ ) precision ! p>ticul>s1 relat$ t he himself _h1 #cbh = in/ance1 actually rais$ "s p]son f ! dead4 ,z we !n add$1 ev5 if ,apo/les _h *ronicl$ _! miracles1 ! argum5t = _! reality w\ld n h be5 mu* advanc$2 b x is a curi\s ph5om5on n undes]v+ ( a mom5t's att5tion t apologi/s c only ref] to su* g5]al passages1 & _c quote an in/ance 9 :i* a specific miracle is relat$ 9 detail by ! p]son :o is suppos$ to h p]=m$ x4 ,pass+ ref]5ces on a l>ge scale to ! ex]cise ( miracul\s p[]1 :il/ betray+ a suspici\s famili>ity ) ph5om5a ( an exceptional nature1 (f] too mu* latitude = inaccuracy & imag9ation to h ! weight ( an affirmation 9 :i* ! m9d has be5 sob]$ by conc5tration to details4 ,signs & wond]s1 indef9itely allud$ to1 may seem mu* m impos+ & a/oni%+ ?an !y really are1 & x may probably be admitt$ by ev]yone t1 if we knew ! p>ticul>s ( ! occurr5ces :i* are ?us vaguely indicat$ & :i* may h be5 consid]$ miracul\s 9 a sup]/iti\s age1 !y might to u possibly appe> no miracles at all4 ,g5]al expressions are liable to an exagg]ation f :i* specific allegations arc m frequ5tly free4 ,if x be conc$$ t ! ,apo/le ,paul fully believ$ 9 ! possession by himself & ! ,*ur* ( div9e ,*>ismata1 ! indef9ite expression ( t belief1 9 any =m1 mu/ n be made equival5t to an explicit claim to h p]=m$ a c]ta9 miracle1 ! p>ticul>s ( :i* are categorically /at$4 ,pass+ f ?is1 h[ev]1 to ! m g5]al "q1 ! =ce ( "s ( ^! objections w be bett] und]/ood :5 we consid] ! passages 9 ! ,epi/les :i* are quot$ z express+ ,paul's belief 9 miracles1 & endeav\r to asc]ta9 8 real views3 :at x is he #cbi actually says reg>d+ miracles2 & :at are ! ph5om5a :i* are by him consid]$ to be miracul\s4 ,we %all n wa/e "t 9 consid]+ h[1 p>tly ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ! ,septuag9t1 ! words ------1 & ------ came to be us$ 9 a peculi> mann] by ,new ,te/am5t writ]s to indicate miracles4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be wor? :ile to pause = a mom5t to asc]ta9 ! s5se 9 :i* ,paul1 :o wrote be=e !re 0 a ,new ,te/am5t at all1 usually employ$ ^! words4 ,9 ! f\r ,epi/les ( ,paul ! ^w ------ occurs six times4 ,9 ,rom4 iv4 #aa ,abraham is said to h receiv$ ! sign ------ ( circumcision1 9 :i* !re is no?+ miracul\s4 ,9 #a ,cor4 i4 #bb x is said3 ,s9ce bo? ,jews require signs ------7#a7 & ,greeks seek aft] wisdom2 & aga91 #a ,cor4 xiv4 #bb3 ,:]e=e ! tongues are = a sign ------ n to ! believ+ b to ! unbeliev+1 c4 ,we %all h m to say reg>d+ ^! passages pres5tly1 b j n[ we m]ely quote !m to %[ ! use ( ! ^w4 ,! only o!r places 9 :i* x occurs7#b7 are ^? po9t$ out1 & :i* are ! subject ( our discussion4 ,9 ,rom4 xv4 #ai ! ^w is us$ 9 ! plural & comb9$ ) ------3 9 ! p[] ( signs & wond]s ------2 & 9 ! second passage1 #b ,cor4 xii4 #ab1 x is employ$ twice1 ! signs ------ ( ! apo/le & ! second "t aga9 9 comb9ation ) ------ & ------1 bo? 9 signs ------1 c4 ,! ^w ------ is only twice met ) 9 ,paul's writ+s2 t is to say1 9 ,rom4 xv4 #ai & #b ,cor4 xii4 #ab2 & on bo? occasions1 z we #ccj h j m5tion$1 x is comb9$ ) ------47#a7 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,paul uses ------ no less ?an #cd times7#b7 &1 leav+ = ! pres5t out ( ! "q ! passages cit$1 ^u e occasion1 except "o1 p]haps1 ! ^w has ! simple signification ( p[]4 ,! "o exception is ,rom4 viii4 #ch1 :]e x occurs 9 ! plural3 ------ p[]s1 ! ,apo/le express+ 8 p]suasion t no?+ w be able to sep>ate u f ! love ( ,god1 nor life1 nor angels1 nor pr9cipalities1 nor ?+s pres5t1 nor ?+s to come1 nor p[]s ------1 nor height1 nor dep?1 c41 c4 ,9 #a ,cor4 xiv4 #aa1 :]e ! au?oriz$ v]sion r5d]s ! orig9al3 ,!re=e1 if ,i "k n ! mean+ ------ ( ! voice1 x has /ill ! same s5se4 ,be=e discuss+ ! passages be=e u we mu/ po9t out t !re is s mu* d\bt1 at lea/1 reg>d+ ! au!nticity ( ! la/ two *apt]s ( ! ,epi/le to ! ,romans t ! passage1 ,rom4 xv4 #ah1 #ai1 c sc>cely be pres5t$ z evid5ce on su* a po9t z ! reality ( miracles4 ,we d n int5d to debate ! matt] closely1 b %all m]ely /ate a few ( ! facts ( ! case & pass on1 = x w\ld n mat]ially affect our argum5t if ! passage 7 altoge!r beyond suspicion4 ,! ,epi/le1 9 our au?oriz$ text1 ends ) a long & some:at involv$ doxology1 xvi4 #be-bg2 & we may po9t out "h t x _h already seem$ to be br\ght to a close n only at ! end ( *apt] xv4 7#cc7 b also at xvi4 #bj4 ,! doxology1 xvi4 #be-bg1 :i* #cca m p>ticul>ly dem&s our att5tion1 is /at$ by ,orig57#a7 to be plac$ 9 "s ,,mss at ! end ( *4 xiv42 & a simil> /atem5t is made by ,cyril1 ,*ryso/om1 ,!odoret1 ,!ophylact & o!rs4 ,we f9d ^! v]ses actually s plac$ 9 ,l1 & 9 upw>ds ( #bbj out ( #bej cursive ,,mss4 ( ,byzant9e orig91 9 an acc\nt ( anci5t ,,mss4 9 ,cod4 #ff1 9 mo/ ( ! ,greek ,lection-aries1 9 ! ,slavonic & lat] ,syriac v]sions z also 9 ! ,go?ic1 ,arabic1 79 ! polyglot & triglot text7 & "s ,,mss4 ( ! ,arm5ian4 ,!y are ins]t$ bo? at ! end ( xiv4 & at ! end ( ! ,epi/le by ! ,alex&rian ,codex17#b7 "o ( ! mo/ anci5t manuscripts extant1 & by "s o!r ,,mss47#c7 ,n[1 h[ came ?is doxology to be plac$ at all at ! end ( *apt] xiv48 ,! natural inf]5ce is t x 0 s plac$ because t 0 ! end ( ! ,epi/le4 ,subsequ5tly1 *apt]s xv4 & xvi4 be+ add$1 x is suppos$ t ! clos+ doxology 0 remov$ f ! =m] position & plac$ at ! end ( ! app5d$ matt]4 ,?is inf]5ce is support$ by ! important fact t1 z we le>n f ,orig517#d7 ! la/ two #ccb *apt]s ( ! ,epi/le to ! ,romans1 includ+ ! doxology 7xvi4 #be-bg7 did n exi/ 9 ,m>cion's text1 ! mo/ anci5t =m ( x ( :i* we h any k4 ,t]tullian1 :o makes no ref]5ce to ^! two *apt]s1 speaks ( ! passage1 ,rom4 xiv4 #aj1 z at ! close 79 clausula7 ( ! epi/le17#a7 & he does n call any att5tion to _! abs5ce f ,m>cion's ,epi/le4 ,is x n reasonable to suppose t !y did n =m "p ( 8 copy8 ,9 l mann] ,ir5aeus1 :o v frequ5tly quotes f ! re/ ( ! ,epi/le1 n[h]e %[s acqua9tance ) ^! *apt]s4 ,! fir/ writ] :o di/9ctly makes use ( any "p ( !m is ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria4 ,x has be5 argu$ bo? t ,m>cion omitt$ ! two *apt]s because !y conta9 :at 0 oppos$ to 8 views1 & because !y _h no dogmatic matt] to induce him to reta9 !m2 b1 :il/ ! two explanations de/roy ea* o!r1 nei!r ( !m is m ?an a supposition to acc\nt = ! abs5ce ( :at1 x may ) equal propriety be conjectur$1 nev] =m$ "p ( 8 text4 ,! ext]nal te/imony1 h[ev]1 does n /& alone1 b is support$ by v /rong int]nal evid5ce4 ,we %all only indicate "o or two po9ts1 leav+ ^? :o desire to g m deeply into ! discussion to ref] to works m p>ticul>ly conc]n$ ) x1 :i* we %all suffici5tly indicate4 ,x is a v s+ul> ?+ t all1 :o1 :5 he wrote ?is epi/le _h nev] be5 9 ,rome1 %\ld be intimately acqua9t$ ) s _m p]sons !re4 ,! fact t !re 0 mu* int]c\rse #ccc betwe5 ,rome & o!r c\ntries by no means acc\nts = ! simultane\s pres5ce !re ( s _m ( ! ,apo/le's p]sonal fri5ds4 ,aquila & ,priscilla1 :o are salut$ 7xvi4 #c71 7 a %ort "t be=e 7#a ,cor4 xvi4 #ai7 9 ,ephesus47#a7 ,x may1 moreov]1 be rem>k$ z a sugge/ive fact t :51 accord+ to ! ,acts 7xxviii4 #ad ff471 ,paul v soon aft]w>ds arriv$ 9 ,rome1 mo/ ( ^! fri5ds seem to h disappe>$17#b7 & ! *ief m5 ( ! ,jews call$ toge!r by ,paul d n seem to be aw>e ( ! exi/5ce ( a *ri/ian body at ,rome47#c7 ,ano!r po9t is connect$ ) ! v passage :i* has l$ to ?is discussion1 xv4 #ah1 #ai read3 #ah4 ,= ,i w n d>e to speak ( any ( ^? ?+s :i* ,*ri/ ha? n wr\ght by me1 9 ord] to ------ ! ob$i5ce ( ! ,g5tiles1 by ^w & de$1 #ai4 9 ! p[] ( signs & wond]s ------ 9 ! p[] ( ! ,_s ------2 s t f ,j]usalem & r\nd ab\t unto ,illyricum1 ,i h fully prea*$ ! ,gospel ( ,*ri/2 c4 ,! /atem5t t f ,j]usalem he _h fully prea*$ ! ,gospel is sc>cely 9 agreem5t ) ! /atem5t 9 ! ,epi/le to ! ,galatians i4 #ag-bc1 ii4 #a ff ,moreov]1 !re is no confirmation any:]e ( ! ,apo/le's hav+ prea*$ z f> z ,illyricum1 :i* 0 !n almo/ beyond ! limits ( civilization4 ,baur sugge/s t 9 mak+ 8 m9i/ry comm5ce at ,j]usalem1 !re is too evid5t a concession made to ! ,jewi% ,*ri/ians1 accord+ to :om e prea*] ( ! ,gospel mu/ naturally comm5ce 8 c>e] at ! holy city4 ,x w\ld deta9 u mu* too long to ent] ^u an analysis ( ^! two #cca *apt]s1 & to %[ ! repetition 9 !m ( :at has already be5 said 9 ! e>li] "p ( ! ,epi/le2 ! s+ul> analogies pres5t$ ) ! ,epi/les to ! ,cor9?ians1 n ( ! nature ( uni=mity ( /yle1 b ( imitation2 ! peculi>ity ( ! m5tion ( a j\rney to ,spa9 z ! ju/ification ( a pass+ visit to ,rome1 & p]haps a fur!r apology = ev5 writ+ a lett] to ! ,*ur* !re :i* ano!r _h f\nd$2 ! suspici\s "* ( ! names :i* are m5tion$ 9 ! v>i\s clauses ( salutation2 & to /ate _m o!r /ill m important objections :i* v>i\s critics h advanc$1 b :i* w\ld require m elaborate explanation ?an c possibly be giv5 "h4 ,x w suffice = u to m5tion t ! ph5om5a pres5t$ by ! two *apt]s are s m>k$ & curi\s t = a c5tury !y h l>gely occupi$ ! att5tion ( writ]s ( all %ades ( op9ion1 & call$ =? v elaborate !ories to acc\nt = !m2 ! app>5t necessity = :i* 9 itself %[s ! insecure position ( ! passage4 ,seml]17#a7 )\t d5y+ ! ,paul9e au?or%ip ( ! two *apt]s1 consid]$ !y did n prop]ly belong to ! ,epi/le to ! ,romans4 ,he suppos$ xvi4 #c-af to h be5 m]ely = ! mess5g] :o c>ri$ ! ,epi/le1 z a li/ ( ! p]sons to :om salutations 7 to be giv51 & to ^!1 *4 xv4 0 to be specially deliv]$ & consid]$ *4 xv4 to be a sep>ate lett]1 address$ to ! lead]s ( ! ,roman ,*ur*1 z an ,epi/le to ! community 9 g5]al1 be+ seal$ up & ready = any opportunity ( transmission1 b none pres5t+ itself be=e #cce 8 arrival 9 ,cor9?1 ! apo/le !re1 ^u an additional %eet1 wrote xvi4 & entru/$ x ) ! lett] to ,phoebe4 ,ei*horn7#a7 suppos$ t ! p>*m5t ^u :i* ! ,epi/le 0 writt5 0 f9i%$ at xiv4 #bc2 &1 z ,paul & 8 scribe _h only a small %eet at h&1 ! doxology only1 xvi4 #be-bg1 0 writt5 ^u ! "o side ( x1 & on ! o!r ! greet+s & ! apo/olic b5$iction1 xvi4 #ba-bd1 & ?us ! lett] 0 complet$2 b1 z x c\ld n imm$iately be =w>d$1 ! apo/le add$ a fly-leaf ) *4 xv4 ,b]?oldt7#b7 ,gu]icke7#c7 & o!rs adopt$ simil> views m or less modifi$1 repres5t+ ! close ( ! ,epi/le to h be5 =m$ by successive po/scripts4 ,m rec5tly1 ,r5an7#d7 has affirm$ ! epi/le to be a circul> lett] address$ to *ur*es 9 ,rome1 ,ephesus1 & o!r places1 to ea* ( :i* only c]ta9 portions 7 transmitt$ ) appropriate salutations & end+s1 :i* h all be5 collect$ into ! "o ,epi/le 9 ! =m 9 :i* we h x4 ,david ,s*ulz conjectur$ t xvi4 #a-bj 0 an epi/le writt5 f ,rome to ! *ur* at ,ephesus2 & ?is !ory 0 sub/antially adopt$ by ,ewald1--:o held t xvi4 #c-bj 0 "p ( a lo/ epi/le to ,ephesus1--& by _m o!r critics47#e7 ,( c\rse ! virtual au!nticity ( ! xv4-xvi4 *apt]s1 ne>ly or exactly z !y are1 is affirm$ by _m writ]s4 ,baur1 h[ev]1 aft] c>eful inve/igation1 pron\nc$ ! two *apt]s inau!ntic1 & 9 ?is he is foll[$ by able critics47#f7 ,"u all ^! circum/ances x is obvi\s #ccf t we ne$ n occupy ourselves mu* ) ! passage 9 ,rom4 xv4 #ah1 #ai1 b our argum5t w equally apply to x4 ,9 ord] to complete ?is view ( ! mat]ials we may simply m5tion1 z we pass on1 t ! au!nticity ( #b ,cor4 xii4 #ab has likewise be5 impugn$ by a few critics1 & ! v]se1 or at lea/ ! words ------1 z well z ,rom4 xv4 #ai1 decl>$ an int]polation47#a7 ,?is _c1 h[ev]1 s f> z exi/+ evid5ce goes1 be demon/rat$2 &1 beyond ! m]e record ( ! fact1 ?is conjecture does n "h require fur!r notice4 ,x may be well1 be=e proce$+ to ! ,epi/les to ! ,cor9?ians1 :i* furni% ! real matt] = discussion1 fir/ to deal ) ! passage cit$ f ,gal iii4 #e1 :i* is z foll[s3--,he !n t supplie? to y ! ,_s & worke? p[]s ------ )9 y ------1 7doe? he x7 f works ( law or f he>+ ( fai?87#b7 ,! au?oris$ v]sion reads3 & worke? miracles among y2 b ?is _c be ma9ta9$1 & ------ mu/ be r5d]$ )9 y1 ! ------ c]ta9ly reta9+ its natural signification :5 us$ ) ------1 ! prim>y mean+ ( :i* is itself to 9-"w4 ,! va/ majority ( critics ( all s*ools agree 9 ?is view47#c7 ,!re is an evid5t ref]5ce to iii #b1 #ccg & to ! reception ( ! ,_s1 "h fur!r *>act]is$ z produc+ su* effects )9 ! m9ds ( ^? :o receive x17#a7 ! work] :o gives ! ,_s be+ ,god4 ,! op9ion mo/ commonly held is t ref]5ce is "h made to ! gifts ------1 reg>d+ :i* ! ,apo/le else:]e speaks17#b7 & :i* we %all pres5tly discuss1 b ?is is by no means c]ta9 & _c be det]m9$4 ,x is equally probable t he may ref] to ! spiritual effect produc$ ^u ! s\ls ( ! ,galatians by ! ,gospel :i* he s frequ5tly repres5ts z a p[] ( ,god4 ,9 any case1 x is cle> t !re is no ext]nal miracle ref]r$ to "h1 & ev5 if allusion to ,*>ismata be und]/ood we h yet to asc]ta9 precisely :at ^! 74 ,we %all endeav\r to discov] :e!r !re 0 any?+ 9 ! lea/ degree miracul\s 9 ^! gifts1 b !re is no affirmation 9 ?is passage :i* dem&s special att5tion1 & :atev] g5]al significance x #cch may h w be met :5 consid]+ ! o!rs :i* are indicat$4 ! fir/ passage 9 ! ,epi/les to ! ,cor9?ians1 :i* is po9t$ out z conta9+ ! te/imony ( ,paul bo? to ! reality ( miracles 9 g5]al & to ! fact t he himself p]=m$ !m1 is ! foll[+1 #b ,cor4 xii4 #ab3 ,truly ! signs ------ ( ! ,apo/le 7 wr\ght 9 y ------ 9 all pati5ce1 bo? 9 signs & wond]s & p[]s ------7#a7 ,we h to ju/ify two dep>tures 9 ?is r5d]+ f t g5]ally receiv$4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is ! adoption ( wr\ght 9 y1 in/ead ( wr\ght among y & ! second ! simple use ( p[]s = ------1 in/ead ( mighty works4 ,we %all take ! second fir/ ,we h ref]r$ to e passage except #a ,cor4 xii4 #aj1 #bh1 #bi1 9 :i* ,paul makes use ( ! ^w ------1 & =tunately !y are suffici5tly num]\s to af=d u a good insight into 8 practice4 ,x ne$ n be said t ! natural s5se ( ------ is 9 no case mighty works or miracles1 & t su* an application ( ! ,greek ^w is peculi> to ! ,new ,te/am5t &1 subsequ5tly1 to ,patri/ic lit]ature4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no gr\nd = attribut+ ?is use ( ! ^w to ,paul4 ,x is n s us$ 9 ! ,septuag9t1 & x is q evid5t t ! ,apo/le does n employ x to express ext]nal effects or works1 b spiritual ph5om5a or pot5tiality4 ,9 ! passage1 ,gal4 iii4 #e1 :i* we h j discuss$1 :]e ! ^w occurs 9 ! plural1 z "h1 x is und]/ood to express p[]s4 ,we may quote ! r5d]+ ( t passage by ! ,bi%op ( ,gl\ce/]3 #cci ,he !n1 ,i say1 t m9i/]e? to y ! ,_s & worke? mighty p[]s )9 y1 doe? he x by ! works ( ! law or by ! report ( fai?87#a7 ,:y mighty %\ld be ins]t$ x is difficult to und]/&1 b ! ^w is rightly pr9t$ 9 italics to %[ t x is n actually express$ 9 ! ,greek4 ,:at 0 ! exact nature ( ^! 'p[]s'444 x is impossible to det]m9e1 obs]ves ano!r s*ol> quot$ above17#b7 on ! same passage4#c ,9 #a ,cor4 xii4 #aj1 #bh1 #bi1 :]e ! plural ------ aga9 occurs1 ! int5tion to express p[]s7#d7 & n ext]nal results--miracles--is p]fectly cle>1 ! ^w be+ 9 ! la/ two v]ses us$ alone to repres5t ! gifts4 ,9 all ( ^! passages ! ^w is ! repres5tative ( ! p[]s & n ( ! effects47#e7 ,?is int]pretation is r5d]$ m cle> by1 & at ! same "t confirms1 ! prec$+ phrase1 7 wr\ght 9 y ------4 ',p[]s' ------1 z 9 ,gal4 iii4 #e1 are work$ )9 y1 & ! r5d]+ ( t passage be+ s settl$1 x becomes au?oritative = ?is4 ,if1 h[ev]1 direct confirmation ( ,paul's mean+ be requir$ we h x 9 ,rom4 vii4 #h1 :]e we f9d ! same v]b us$ ) ------ 9 ?is s5se3 ,b s94444 wr\ght 9 me ------ all mann] ( covet+1 c42 & ) ?is may also be comp>$ #b ,cor4 vii4 #aa4444 :at e>ne/ness x wr\ght 9 y ------7#f7 #cdj ------4 ,x 0 ?us ,paul's habit to speak ( spiritual effects wr\ght )91 & z he ref]r$ to ! p[]s ------ work$ )9 ! s\ls ( ! ,galatians1 s he speaks ( !m "h z wr\ght 9 ! ,cor9?ians4 ,x w become cle> z we proce$ t ! addition to ------ ( signs & wond]s does n 9 ! lea/ affect ?is int]pretation4 ,9 #a ,cor4 xiv4 #bb1 ! ,apo/le speaks ( ! gift ( tongues z a sign ------4 ,^u ! supposition t ,paul 0 affirm+ ! actual p]=mance ( miracles by himself1 h[ extraord9>y becomes ! /atem5t t !y 7 wr\ght 9 all pati5ce1 = x is manife/ t 9 all pati5ce ------ does n =m "p ( ! signs1 z "s h argu$1 b mu/ be jo9$ to ! v]b ------47#a7 ,x may be in/ructive to quote a few words ( ,ol%aus5 ^u ! po9t3--,! ------ is n altoge!r easy4 ,x c]ta9ly _c be d\btful t x is to be jo9$ to ------ & n to :at foll[s2 b = :at reason does ,paul "h make x directly prom95t t he wr\ght 8 signs 9 all pati5ce8 ,x seems to me probable t 9 ?is !re may be a repro( to ! ,cor9?ians1 :o1 9 spite ( su* signs1 /ill %[$ !mselves wav]+ reg>d+ ! au?ority ( ! ,apo/le4 ,9 su* a position1 ,paul w\ld say1 he _h1 pati5tly wait+1 all[$ 8 light to %9e among/ !m1 c]ta9 ( ultimate triumph47#c7 ,?is w h>dly be accept$ by any "o z a satisfactory solution ( ! difficulty1 :i* is a real "o if x be assum$ t ,paul1 claim+ to h p]=m$ #cda miracles1 wr\ght !m 9 all pati5ce4 ,besides ! matt] is complicat$1 & ! claim to h himself p]=m$ a miracle /ill m completely vani%es1 :5 we consid] ! fact t ! passive con/ruction ( ! s5t5ce does n actually repres5t ,paul z ! active ag5t by :om ! signs 7 wr\ght4 ,truly ! signs ( ! apo/le 7 wr\ght1 b h[ wr\ght8 ,cle>ly he means by ! ,_s1 z he di/9ctly /ates to ! ,gala- tians4 ,to !m ,jesus ,*ri/ 7! ,messiah7 0 fully set =? crucifi$1 & he asks !m3 ,0 x f works ( ! ,law or f he>+ 9 fai? ! ,gospel ?us prea*$ to !m t !y receiv$ ! ,_s8 & t he :o supplies ! ,_s & worke? p[]s 9 !m does s8 ,f fai?1 ( c\rse47#a7 ,! mean+ ( ,paul1 !re=e1 0 ?is3 ,8 ,gospel 0 prea*$ among !m 9 all pati5ce1 :i* be+ receiv$ by ! he>+ ( fai?1 ! ,_s 0 giv5 to !m1 & ! signs ( ! apo/le 7 ?us wr\ght among !m4 ,! repres5tation is made ?r\gh\t ! ,acts t ! apo/les lay _! h&s on ^? :o believe1 & !y receive ! ,holy ,_s & speak ) tongues4 ,if any special sign ( ! apo/le c be indicat$ at all1 x is ?is2 & 9 illu/ration we may po9t to "o /atem5t made 9 ! ,acts4 ,philip1 ! evangeli/1 :o 0 n an apo/le1 is repres5t$ z go+ into ,sam>ia & prea*+ ! ,messiah to ! ,sam>itans1 :o give he$ to ! ?+s spok5 by him1 & multitudes are baptiz$ 7viii4 #e1 #f1 #ab71 b !re 0 n ! outp\r+ ( ! ,holy ,_s :i* usually accompani$ ! apo/olic baptism4 ,& ! ,apo/les 9 ,j]usalem1 hav+ he>d t ,sam>ia _h receiv$ ! ^w ( ,god1 s5t unto !m ,pet] & ,john2 :o #cdb :5 !y came d[n pray$ = !m t !y might receive ! ,holy ,_s--= z yet he _h fall5 ^u none ( !m1 b !y _h only be5 baptiz$ into ! "n ( ! ,"l ,jesus4 ,!n laid !y 7! ,apo/les7 _! h&s on !m & !y receiv$ ! ,holy ,_s47#a7 ,we may fur!r ref] to ! episode at ,ephesus 7,acts xix4 ,iff47 :]e ,paul f9ds c]ta9 disciples :o1 hav+ only be5 baptiz$ into ,john's baptism1 _h n receiv$ ! ,holy ,_s1 nor ev5 he>d :e!r !re 0 a ,holy ,_s1 7xix4 #f47 ,& ,paul hav+ laid 8 h&s ^u !m1 ! ,holy ,_s came on !m1 & !y 7 speak+ ) tongues & prophesy+4 ,:5 we exam9e ,paul's ,epi/les to ! ,cor9?ians we f9d ample assurance t ! int]pretation "h giv5 ( ?is passage is correct1 & t he does n ref]1 z apologi/s h ma9ta9$1 to miracles wr\ght by himself1 b to ! ,*>ismata1 :i* 7 suppos$ to h be5 be/[$ ^u ! ,cor9?ians :o believ$1 & :i* ?us 7 ! signs ( 8 apo/le%ip4 ,! v next v]se to t :i* is be=e u %[s ?is3 ,truly ! signs ( ! ,apo/le 7 wr\ght 9 y 9 all pati5ce4444 #ac4 ,= ------ :at is !re :]e9 ye 7 inf]ior to ! o!r ,*ur*es1 except x be t ,i myself 0 n burd5some to y8 ,! m]e p]=mance ( signs & wond]s did n con/itute _! equality2 b 9 ! possession ( ! ,*>ismata1--reg>d+ :i* s mu* is said 9 ! fir/ epi/le1 & :i* 7 ! result ( 8 prea*+1--!y 7 n inf]ior to ! o!r ,*ur*es1 & only inf]ior1 ,paul says ) 8 f9e irony1 9 n hav+1 l ! o!r ,*ur*es ) _! apo/les1 be5 call$ ^u to acquire ! m]it ( #cdc be>+ 8 *>ges4 ,:at c\ld be m di/9ct ?an ! ,apo/le's op5+ address 9 ! fir/ ,epi/le3 ,i ?ank my ,god always1 on y\r behalf1 = ! grace ( ,god :i* 0 giv5 y 9 ,*ri/ ,jesus2 t 9 ev]y?+ ye 7 enri*$ by him 7at ! "t ( _! conv]sion7#a71 9 all utt]ance & 9 all k3 ev5 z ! te/imony ( ,*ri/ 0 confirm$ 9 y3 s t ye come beh9d 9 no gift ------1 c4 ,= ?is reason !y 7 n inf]ior to ! o!r ,*ur*es1 & ^? 7 ! signs ( ! ,apo/le :i* 7 wr\ght 9 !m4 ,paul v di/9ctly decl>es ! nature ( 8 m9i/ry among/ ! ,cor9?ians & ! abs5ce ( o!r signs3 #a ,cor4 i4 #bb f4 ,s9ce bo? ,jews dem& signs ------ & ,greeks seek aft] wisdom1 b we ------ prea* ,*ri/ crucifi$1 unto ,jews a /umbl+-block & unto ,g5tiles fooli%ness1 b unto ^? :o are call$1 bo? ,jews & ,greeks1 ,*ri/ ! p[] ------ ( ,god & ! wisdom ( ,god4 ,! contra/ is "h cle>ly drawn betwe5 ! requirem5t ( ,jews 7signs7 & ( ,greeks 7wisdom7 & ,paul's actual m9i/ry3 no signs1 b a sc&al ------ to ! ,jew1 & no wisdom1 b fooli%ness to ! ,greek1 b ?is ^w ( ! cross ------ to u :o are be+ sav$ is ! p[] ------ ( ,god 7i4 #ah747b7 ,! ,apo/le tells u :at he consid]s ! sign ( ! ,apo/le1 :51 m directly def5d+ himself aga9/ ! oppon5ts :o evid5tly d5i$ 8 apo/olic claims1 he says vehem5tly3 #a ,cor4 ix4 #a flf4 ,am ,i n free8 ,am ,i n an ,apo/le8 h ,i n se5 ,jesus our ,"l8 are n ye my "w 9 ! ,"l8 ,if ,i be n an ,apo/le unto o!rs1 yet d\btless ,i am to y3 = ! seal #cdd ------ ( my ,apo/le%ip are ye 9 ! ,"l47#a7 ,x _c1 we ?9k1 be d\bt$1 :5 ! passage #b ,cor4 xii4 #ab is att5tively consid]$1 t ,paul does n ref] to ext]nal miracles p]=m$ by him1 b to ! ,*>ismata :i* he suppos$ to be conf]r$ ^u ! ,cor9?ian ,*ri/ians on _! acceptance ( ! ,gospel :i* ! ,apo/le prea*$4 ,^! ,*>ismata1 h[ev]1 are advanc$ z miracul\s1 & ! passages #a ,cor4 xii4 #aj1 #bh1 #bi are quot$ 9 support ( ! /atem5t we are discuss+1 & ^! n[ dem& our att5tion4 ,x may be well at once to give ! v]ses :i* are ref]r$ to1 & 9 :i* x is said t ,paul goes some:at elaborately into ! exact place 9 ! ,*ri/ian economy t is to be assign$ to ! work+ ( miracles & gifts ( heal+ 7#a ,cor4 xii4 #aj1 #bh1 #bi74 ,x is necess>y = ! full compreh5sion ( ! case t we %\ld quote ! context3 xii4 #d4 ,n[ !re are div]sities ( gifts ------1 b ! same ,_s2 #e4 & !re are div]sities ( m9i/ries ------1 & ! same ,"l2 #f4 & !re are div]sities ( work+s ------1 b x is ! same ,god :o worke? ! all 9 all ------3 #g4 ,b to ea* is giv5 ! manife/ation ( ! ,_s ------ = pr(it2 #h4 ,= to "o is giv5 by ! ,_s a ^w ( wisdom ------2 to ano!r a ^w ( k ------ accord+ to ! same ,_s2 #i4 to ano!r fai? ------ 9 ! same ,_s1 to ano!r gifts ( heal+s ------ 9 ! "o ,_s2 #aj4 to ano!r 7inw>d7 work+s ( p[]s ------ #cde ------2 to ano!r prophecy ------2 to ano!r disc]n+ ( spirits ------2 to ano!r k9ds ( tongues ------2 to ano!r int]pretation ( tongues ------2 #aa4 b all ^! worke? ------ ! "o & ! same ,_s1 divid+ to ea* sev]ally z he wills4 ,aft] illu/rat+ ?is by %[+ ! mutual dep5d5ce ( ! diff]5t memb]s & s5ses ( ! body1 ! ,apo/le proce$s3 v4 #bh4 ,& ,god set "s 9 ! ,*ur*1 fir/ apo/les1 secondly prophets1 ?irdly tea*]s1 aft] t p[]s ------1 aft] t gifts ( heal+s ------1 help+s ------1 gov]n+s ------1 k9ds ( tongues ------4 #bi4 ,are all apo/les8 are all prophets8 are all tea*]s8 are all p[]s ------8 #cj4 h all gifts ( heal+s ------8 d all speak ) tongues ------8 d all int]pret ------8 ,be=e we comm5ce an exam9ation ( ?is int]e/+ & important passage1 x is ess5tial t we %\ld endeav\r to disabuse our m9ds ( preconceiv$ ideas4 ,comm5tators are too prone to apply to ! ,apo/le's rem>ks a sy/em ( int]pretation bas$ ^u /atem5ts made by lat] & less in=m$ writ]s1 & w>p$ by belief 9 ! reality ( a miracul\s elem5t p]vad+ all apo/olic times1 :i* h be5 d]iv$ ma9ly f po/-apo/olic n>ratives4 ,:at d we really "k ( ! ph5om5a suppos$ to h *>act]iz$ ! ,apo/olic age1 & :i* 7 lat]1 & are n[1 describ$ z miracul\s8 ,) ! exception ( :at we glean f ! writ+s ( ,paul1 we "k absolutely no?+ f any contempor>y writ] & eye-witness4 ,9 ! ,gospels & 9 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 we h detail$ acc\nts ( _m miracles said #cdf to h be5 p]=m$ by ! ,apo/les & o!rs2 b ^! n>ratives 7 all writt5 at a mu* lat] p]iod1 & by p]sons :o are unkn[n1 & mo/ ( :om are n ev5 affirm$ to h be5 eye-witnesses47#a7 ,9 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 we h an acc\nt ( "s ( ! v ,*>ismata ref]r$ to by ,paul 9 ! passage above quot$1 & we %all ?us h ! advantage ( pres5tly comp>+ ! two acc\nts4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 altoge!r resi/ any attempt to ins]t betwe5 ! l9es ( ! apo/le's writ+ ideas & explanations d]iv$ f ! ,au?or ( ! ,acts & f patri/ic lit]ature1 & endeav\r to und]/& :at x is he himself says & int5ds to say4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$ t we 9 ! slighte/ degree "q ! fact t ! ,apo/le ,paul believ$ 9 ! reality ( sup]natural int]v5tion 9 mundane affairs1 or t he ass]t$ ! actual occurr5ce ( c]ta9 miracles4 ,our desire is z f> z possible to asc]ta9 :at ,paul himself has to say ^u specific ph5om5a1 n[ g5]ally expla9$ z miracul\s1 & ?us1 desc5d+ f vague g5]alities to m di/9ct /atem5ts1 to asc]ta9 ! value ( 8 op9ion reg>d+ ! "* ( su* ph5om5a4 ,x _c fail to be in/ructive to det]m9e some?+ ( ! nature ( ,*>ismata f an eye-witness :o believ$ !m to h be5 sup]natural4 ,8 acc\nt1 z we h se51 is ! mo/ preci\s evid5ce ( ! ,*ur* to ! reality ( ! miracul\s4 ,! fir/ po9t :i* mu/ be obs]v$ 9 connection ) ! ,*>ismata ref]r$ to by ,paul 9 ! passage be=e u is t1 :il/ !re are div]sities among/ !m1 all ! ph5om5a describ$ are ascrib$ to #a ,x is sugge/ive t ! curi\s passage ,mk4 xvi4 #ag--ah is n ev5 by ! au?or ( ! second ,gospel1 b a lat] addition4 #cdg "o & ! same ,_s divid+ to ea* sev]ally z he wills2 &1 consequ5tly1 t1 al?\gh !re may be diff]5ces 9 _! =m & value1 a sup]natural orig9 is equally assign$ to all ! gifts enum]at$4 ,:at !n are ^! ,*>ismata8 ,a ^w ( wisdom1 a ^w ( k1 & fai? are ! fir/ ?ree m5tion$4 ,:at ! precise diff]5ce 01 9 ,paul's mean+1 betwe5 ! utt]ance ( wisdom ------ & ( k ------ x is impossible n[ ) c]ta9ty to say1 nor is x v ess5tial = u to inquire4 ,! two words are comb9$ 9 ,rom4 xi4 #cc3 ,o ! dep?s ( ! ri*es & wisdom ------ & k ------ ( ,god6 & 9 ?is v epi/le "s v>y+ use is made ( bo? words4 ,paul tells ! ,cor9?ians 7#a1 i4 #ag7 t ,*ri/ did n s5d him 9 wisdom ( ^w ------ or utt]ance3 & 7ii4 #a7 n ) excell5cy ( ^w or wisdom ------1 cf4 ii4 #d72 & fur!r on he says 7i4 #cj7 t ,*ri/ ,jesus 0 made unto u wisdom ------ f ,god4 ,! mo/ sugge/ive expressions17#a7 h[ev]1 are ! foll[+1 we ?9k3 #a ,cor4 ii4 #f4 ,b we speak wisdom ------ among ! p]fect1 yet n ! wisdom ------ ( ?is age1 nor ( ! rul]s ( ?is age1 t come to n\ght1 #g4 b we speak ,god's wisdom ------ 9 my/]y1 ! hidd5 wisdom1 :i* ,god orda9$ be=e ! ages unto our glory1 #h4 :i* none ( ! rul]s ( ?is age has kn[n1 = _h !y kn[n x1 !y w\ld n h crucifi$ ! ,"l ( ,glory4 #i4 ,b z x is writt51 ',:at eye saw n_/ c4 c4 #aj4 ,b unto u ,god reveal$ !m ?r\gh ! ,_s4444444 #aa4444 #cdh ev5 s also ! ?+s ( ,god kn[e? no "o b ! ,_s ( ,god4 #ab4 ,b we receiv$1 n ! _s ( ! _w1 b ! ,_s :i* is f ,god1 t we might "k ! ?+s t are freely giv5 u by ,god2 #ac4 :i* ?+s also we speak1 n 9 words taught by human wisdom1 b 9 words taught by ! ,_s1 int]pret+ spiritual ?+s to ! spiritual7#a7 ------4 ,x is q cle> f all ! antec$5t context t ,paul's prea*+ 0 specially ! ,messiah crucifi$1 ,*ri/ ! p[] ( ,god & ! wisdom ------ ( ,god1 & we may conclude reasonably t ! ------ ( our passage 0 simply ! eloqu5t utt]ance ( ?is doctr9e4 ,9 l mann]1 we may get "s insight into ! mean+ :i* ,paul atta*$ to ! ^w k ------4 ,x w be rememb]$ t at ! v op5+ ( ! fir/ ,epi/le to ! ,cor9?ians ,paul expresses 8 ?ankfulness t 9 ev]y?+ !y 7 enri*$ 9 ,*ri/ ,jesus3 i4 #e4 9 all utt]ance ------ & 9 all k ------1 #f4 ev5 z ! te/imony ( ! ,*ri/ 0 confirm$ 9 y2 t is to say1 accord+ to comm5tators1 by ^! v ,*>ismata4 ,lat]1 speak+ ( tongues1 he says 7#a ,cor4 xiv4 #f73 444 ,:at %all ,i pr(it y1 except ,i %all speak to y ei!r 9 revelation or 9 k ------1 or 9 prophecy1 or 9 tea*+8 ,we obta9 a cle>] insight into 8 mean+ 9 ! second ,epi/le1 9 ! passage #b ,cor4 ii4 #ad-af1 & /ill m 9 iv4 #c-f & x4 #e1 :]e he describes metaphorically 8 weapons z n c>nal1 b /rong ?r\gh ,god1 ca/+ d[n reason+s & e high ?+ t exalte? itself aga9/ ! k ( ,god1 & br++ into #cdi captivity e ?\ght to ! ob$i5ce ( ! ,*ri/2 & if we v5tur$ to (f] an op9ion1 x w\ld be t ,paul means by ------ simply ,*ri/ian !ology4 ,we m]ely (f] ?is z a pass+ sugge/ion4 ,little ne$ be said ) reg>d to ! gift ( fai? 7m>ts71 :i* is p]fectly intelligible4 ,apologi/s argue t by ^! ?ree gifts "s sup]natural =m ( wisdom1 k1 & fai? is express$1 & we %all h some?+ m to say on ! po9t pres5tly2 b "h we m]ely po9t out t !re is no gr\nd :atev] = su* an ass]tion except ! fact t ! ,apo/le ascribes to !m a sup]natural orig91 or1 9 fact1 believes 9 ! inspiration ( su* qualities4 ,all t c be ma9ta9$ is t ,paul acc\nts = ! possession ( *>act]i/ics :i* we n[ "k to be natural1 by ass]t+ t !y are ! direct gift ( ! ,holy ,_s4 ,!re is n ! fa9te/ evid5ce to %[ t ^! natural capabilities did n antec$5tly exi/ 9 ! ,cor9?ians1 & 7 n m]ely /imulat$ into action 9 ,*ri/ian *annels by ! religi\s en?usiasm & zeal accompany+ _! conv]sion2 b1 on ! contr>y1 e reason to believe ?is to be ! case1 z we %all fur!r see47#a7 ,9 fact1 accord+ to ! ,apo/olic ,*ur*1 e quality 0 a sup]natural gift1 & all ability or excell5ce 9 practical life directly emanat$ f ! action ( ! ,holy ,_s4 ,we may n[ proce$ to gifts ( heal+s ------7#b7 :i* x w be not$ are d\bly 9 ! plural1 #cej indicat+1 z is suppos$1 a v>iety ( special gifts1 ea* hav+ ref]5ce probably to special diseases4 ,:at is !re to %[ t !re 0 any?+ m miracul\s 9 gifts ( heal+s ?an 9 ! possession ( an utt]ance ( wisdom1 an utt]ance ( k1 or fai?8 ,no?+ :atev]4 ,on ! contr>y1 ev]y?+1 f ! unv>y+ exp]i5ce ( ! _w1 to ! inf]5ces :i* we %all be able to draw f ! :ole ( ?is in=mation reg>d+ ! ,*>ismata1 %[s t !re 0 no miracul\s p[] ( heal+ ei!r possess$ or ex]cis$4 ,ref]5ce is frequ5tly made to ! passage 9 ! s-call$ ,epi/le ( ,james z an illu/ration ( ?is1 v4 #ad3 ,is any sick among y8 let him call = ! eld]s ( ! *ur*1 & let !m pray ov] him1 hav+ ano9t$ him ) oil 9 ! "n ( ! ,"l3 #ae4 ,& ! pray] ( fai? %all save ! afflict$1 & ! ,"l %all raise him up2 & if he h committ$ s9s1 x %all be =giv5 him4 ,! context1 h[ev]1 n only %[s t 9 ?is !re is no allusion to any gift ( heal+ or miracul\s p[]1 b seems to ignore ! exi/5ce ( any su* gift4 ,! epi/le cont9ues3 v4 #af4 ,confess !re=e y\r s9s "o to ano!r1 & pray = "o ano!r t ye may be heal$4 ,! supplication ( a righte\s man availe? mu* :5 x is work+4 ,& !n ! successful in/ance ( ! pray] ( ,elijah t x might n ra9 & aga9 t x might ra9 is giv54 ,! passage is m]ely an ass]tion ( ! efficacy ( pray]1 & if1 z is n unfrequ5tly done1 x be argu$ t ! gifts ( heal+s 7 probably appli$ by means ( e>ne/ pray] = ! sick1 x may be said t ?is is ! only gift :i* is suppos$ to h desc5d$ to our times4 ,x does n require mu* argum5t1 h[ev]1 to %[ t ! reality ( a miracul\s gift _c be demon/rat$ #cea by appeal+ to ! objective efficacy ( pray]4 ,we may1 9 pass+1 ref] apologi/s :o hold ! au!nticity ( ! ,epi/les to ! ,philippians & to ,timo?y to indications :i* d n q confirm ! supposition t a p[] ( miracul\s heal+ actually exi/$ 9 ! apo/olic ,*ur*4 ,9 ! ,epi/le to ! ,philippians1 ii4 #be ff41 ,paul is repres5t$ z s5d+ ,epaphroditus to !m 7v4 #bf7 ,s9ce he 0 long+ aft] y all & 0 di/ress$ because ye he>d t he 0 sick4 #bg4 ,=1 inde$1 he 0 sick nigh unto dea?2 b ,god _h m]cy on him2 & n on him only1 b on me also1 t ,i might n h sorr[ ^u sorr[4 ,i s5t him1 !re=e1 ! m anxi\sly1 t1 :5 ye see him1 ye may rejoice aga91 & t ,i may be ! less sorr[ful4 ,! anxiety felt by ! ,philippians1 & ! :ole language ( ! writ]1 9 ?is passage1 are r inconsi/5t ) ! k t miracul\s p[] ( heal+ 0 possess$ by ! ,*ur*1 & ( c\rse by ,paul1 :i* w\ld naturally h be5 ex]t$ = "o 9 :om s _m 7 ke5ly int]e/$4 ,!n1 9 #b ,tim4 iv4 #bj1 ! writ] says3 ,trophimus ,i left at ,miletus sick4 ,if miracul\s p[]s ( heal+ exi/$1 :y 7 !y n ex]t$ 9 ?is case8 ,if !y 7 ex]t$ & fail$ = special reasons1 :y are ^! n m5tion$8 ,x is un=tunate t !re is s little evid5ce ( ! application ( ^! gifts4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we may sugge/ t m$ical art sc>cely exi/$ at t p]iod 9 su* communities1 & t ! rem$ies practis$ admirably l5t !mselves to ! !ory ( gifts ( heal+s1 r ?an to any recognition ( ! fact t ! accurate diagnosis ( disease & successful treatm5t ( x c only be ! result ( special /udy & exp]i5ce4 ,! next gift m5tion$ is 7v4 #aj7 work+s ( p[]s #ceb ------ v unw>rantably r5d]$ 9 our au?oriz$ v]sion ! work+ ( miracles4 ,we h already said en\gh reg>d+ ,paul's use ( ------4 ,! phrase be=e u w\ld be ev5 bett] r5d]$ 9-or inw>d-work+s ( p[]s7#a7 & ! use made ( ------ by ,paul ?r\gh\t 8 epi/les w\ld confirm ?is4 ,x may be po9t$ out t z ! gifts j ref]r$ to are = heal+s x is difficult to imag9e any class ( miracles :i* c\ld well be class$ "u a sep>ate head z ! special work+ ( miracles contemplat$ by apologi/s4 ,inf9itely ! great] numb] ( miracles relat$ 9 ! ,gospels & ,acts are heal+s ( disease4 ,is x possible to suppose t ,paul really indicat$ by ?is expression a di/9ct ord] ( miracles prop]ly s call$8 ,c]ta9ly n ,nei!r ! words !mselves us$ by ,paul1 prop]ly und]/ood1 nor ! context p]mit u to suppose t he ref]r$ to ! work+ ( miracles at all4 ,we h no int5tion ( conjectur+ :at ^! p[]s 7 suppos$ to be2 x is suffici5t t we %[ !y _c rightly be exagg]at$ into an ass]tion ( ! p[] ( work+ miracles4 ,x is mu* m probable t1 9 ! expression1 no ext]nal work+ by ! gift$ p]son is impli$ at all1 & t ! gift ref]r$ to 9-work+s ( p[]s )9 8 own m9d1 produc+ ! ec/atic /ate1 ) its usual manife/ations1 or ^? visions & suppos$ revelations to :i* ,paul himself 0 subject4 ,demonaics1 or p]sons suppos$ to be possess$ ( evil spirits1 7 call$ ------ & x is easy to conceive h[ anyone "u /rong religi\s #cec impressions1 at t epo* ( mo/ int5se religi\s emotion1 might1 :5 convuls$ by n]v\s or m5tal excitem5t1 be suppos$ ! subject ( inw>d work+s ( p[]s sup]naturally imp>t$4 ,e p]iod ( religi\s zeal has be5 m>k$ by su* ph5om5a47#a7 ,^! conclusions are fur!r corroborat$ by ! next gifts enum]at$4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is prophecy ------1 by :i* is n int5d$ ! m]e =etell+ ( ev5ts1 b speak+ unto m5 edification & exhortation & com=t1 z ! ,apo/le himself says 7xiv4 #c72 & an illu/ration ( ?is may be po9t$ out 9 ,acts iv4 #cf :]e ! "n ,b>nabas ,son ( prophecy1 be+ int]pret$ is said to be ,son ( ,exhortation ------4 ,to ?is foll[s ! disc]n+ 7or judg+7 ( spirits ------1 a gift :i*1 if we are to judge by ,paul's expressions else:]e1 0 simply ! ex]cise ( natural intellig5ce & disc]nm5t4 ,9 an e>li] "p ( ! fir/ ,epi/le1 rebuk+ ! ,cor9?ians = c>ry+ _! disputes be=e legal tribunals1 he says1 vi4 #e3 ,is x s t !re is n ev5 "o wise man among y :o %all be able to disc]n ------ betwe5 8 bre?r58 ,aga91 9 xi4 #ca1 ,b if we disc]n$ ------ we %\ld n be judg$ ------ 7cf vv4 #bh1 #bi71 & 9 xiv4 #bi1 ,let ,prophets speak two or ?ree1 & let ! o!rs disc]n ------4 ,we res]ve ! k9ds ( tongues & int]pretation ( tongues = sep>ate treatm5t1 & proce$ to vv4 #bh;ff4 9 :i*1 aft] illu/rat+ 8 mean+ by ! analogy ( ! body1 ! ,apo/le resumes 8 #ced obs]vations ^u ! ,*>ismata1 & x is in/ructive to consid] ! rank he ascribes to ! v>i\s gifts4 ,he classes !m3 ,fir/1 apo/les1 secondly prophets1 ?irdly tea*]s1 aft] t p[]s1 aft] t gifts ( heal+s1 help+s1 gov]n+s1 k9ds ( tongues4 ,^! s-call$ miracul\s gifts are "h plac$ 9 a l[] class ?an ^? ( exhortation & tea*+1 :i* is sugge/ive2 = x is difficult to suppose t ev5 a man l ,paul c\ld h reg>d$ ! possession ( su* palpable & /up5d\s p[] z ! in/antane\s & miracul\s heal+ ( disease1 or ! p]=mance ( o!r miracles1 bel[ ! gift ( tea*+ or exhortation4 ,x is p]fectly intelligible t ! practice ( m$ic9e z x 0 !n und]/ood1 & ! skill :i* might h be5 atta9$ 9 p>ticul> bran*es ( disease by individuals1 n to speak ( ^? :o may h be5 suppos$ to be p]=m+ miracles :5 !y dealt ) cases ( hy/]ia or m5tal excitem5t1 might appe> to ! apo/le mu* inf]ior to a gift = imp>t+ spiritual in/ruction & admonition2 b ! actual possession ( sup]natural p[]1 ! actual ex]cise ( :at 0 believ$ to be ! p]sonal attribute ( ,god1 mu/ h be5 consid]$ a di/9ction m awful & elevat$ ?an any gift ( tea*+4 ,x w be notic$ also t o!r ,*>ismata are "h introduc$1 :il/ disc]n+ ( spirits is omitt$4 ,! new gifts1 help+s & gov]n+s1 h z little a miracul\s "* ab\t !m z any t h prec$$ !m4 ,is x n obvi\s t all special ability1 all (ficial capacity1 is simply repres5t$ z a div9e gift1 & reg>d$ z a manife/ation ( ! ,_s8 ,x is important 9 ! highe/ degree to rememb] t ! suppos$ miracul\s ,*>ismata are n m]ely conf]r$ ^u a few p]sons1 b are be/[$ ^u all #cee ! memb]s ( ! ,apo/olic ,*ur*47#a7 ,! extraord9>y ,*>ismata :i* ! ,apo/les conf]r$ ?r\gh _! imposition ( h&s1 writes ,dr4 von ,doll+]1 7 s diffus$ & di/ribut$1 t ne>ly e "o1 or at any rate _m1 tempor>ily at lea/1 _h a %>e 9 "o gift or ano!r4 ,?is 0 a solit>y case 9 hi/ory1 :i* has nev] s9ce repeat$ itself1 & :i*1 9 default ( exp]i5ce1 we c only approximately picture to ourselves4 ,"o might say3 ! metal ( ! ,*ur* 0 /ill gl[+1 molt51 =mless1 & pres5t$ altoge!r ano!r aspect ?an1 s9ce !n1 9 ! condition ( ! cold & h>d5$ ca/+47#b7 ,! apologetic repres5tation ( ! case is c]ta9ly unique 9 hi/ory &1 !re=e1 9 its dep>ture f all exp]i5ce might1 "o might h ?\ght1 h excit$ suspicion4 ,difficult z x is to picture su* a /ate1 x is wor? :ile to endeav\r to d s to a small ext5t4 ,let u imag9e communities ( ,*ri/ians1 (t5 ( consid]able importance1 9 all ! l>g] cities z well z 9 small] t[ns1 all or mo/ ( ! memb]s ( :i* 7 end[$ ) sup]natural #cef gifts1 &1 among/ o!rs1 ) p[] to heal diseases & to p]=m miracles2 all ! intellectual & religi\s qualities requisite = ! guidance1 edification1 & gov]nm5t ( ! communities suppli$ abundantly & specially by ! ,holy ,_s2 ! ord9>y dep5d5ce ( society on ! natural capacity & p[] ( its lead]s disp5s$ )1 & e possible bran* ( moral culture & physical com=t provid$ ) inspir$ & miracul\sly-gift$ m9i/ries2 ! utt]ance ( wisdom & k1 exhortation & tea*+1 work+s ( heal+s1 disc]nm5t ( spirits1 help+s1 gov]n+s1 k9ds ( tongues sup]naturally diffus$ ?r\gh\t ! community by ,god himself4 ,z a g5]al rule1 communities h to d z well z !y c )\t su* help1 & eloqu5t in/ructors & able adm9i/rators d n g5]ally fail !m4 ,! "q1 !re=e1 intrudes itself3 ,:y 7 ord9>y & natural means s completely set aside1 & ! qualifications :i* are g5]ally f\nd adequate = ! conduct & regulation ( life supplant$ by div9e ,*>ismata8 ,at lea/1 we may suppose t communities end[$ ) su* sup]natural advantages1 & guid$ by ! direct inspiration ( ! ,holy ,_s1 mu/ h be5 di/+ui%$ 9 e way f ! re/ ( humanity1 & mu/ h pres5t$ a spectacle ( ! noble/ life1 free f ! weakness & inconsi/5cy ( ! _w1 & betray+ none ( ! moral & intellectual frailties ( ord9>y society4 ,at ! v lea/1 & )\t exagg]ation1 communities 9 e memb] ( :i* !re exi/$ "s sup]natural manife/ation ( ! ,holy ,_s might be expect$ to %[ v m>k$ sup]iority & nobility ( "*4 ,:5 we exam9e ! ,epi/les ( ,paul & o!r anci5t docum5ts1 we f9d any?+ b sup]natural #ceg qualities 9 ! ,*ur*es suppos$ to be end[$ ) su* miracul\s gifts4 ,on ! contr>y1 x is sc>cely possible to exagg]ate ! int5sely human "* ( ! conduct ( su* communities1 _! fickl5ess1 ! weakness ( _! fidelity to ! ,gospel ( ,paul1 _! wav]+ fai?1 & ! ease & rapidity ) :i* !y are l$ a/ray1 _! petty /rifes & discords2 _! p>ty _s1 _! almo/ indec5t abuse ( "s ( _! suppos$ gifts1 su* z tongues1 = :i* ,paul rebukes !m s sev]ely4 ,! v ,epi/les1 9 fact1 9 :i* we read ( ! sup]natural end[m5ts & organization ( ! ,*ur* are full ( evid5ce t !re 0 no?+ sup]natural 9 !m4 ,! prim>y cause1 app>5tly1 = :i* ! fir/ lett] 0 writt5 to ! ,cor9?ians 0 ! occurr5ce ( divisions & cont5tions among/ !m 7i4 #aj ff471 p>ties ( ,paul1 ( ,apollos1 ( ,cephas1 ( ,*ri/1 :i* make ! ,apo/le give ?anks 7i4 #ad7 t he _h baptiz$ b few ( !m1 t no "o might say t !y 7 baptiz$ into 8 "n4 ,paul _h n be5 able to speak to !m z spiritual b z c>nal1 m]e babes 9 ,*ri/ 7iii4 #a f472 he f$ !m ) milk1 n meat1 = !y 7 n yet able1 nor ev5 n[ are ye able1 he says1 = ye are yet c>nal4 ,= :]eas !re is among y envy+ & /rife2 are ye n c>nal8 ,he cont9ues 9 ! same /ra9 ?r\gh\t ! lett]1 admoni%+ !m 9 no flatt]+ t]ms4 ,speak+ ( 8 s5d+ ,timo?y to !m1 he says 7iv4 #ah f473 ,b "s ( y 7 puff$ up1 z ?\gh ,i 7 n com+ to y2 b ,i w come to y %ortly1 if x be ! ,"l's w1 & w "k1 n ! spee* ( !m :o are puff$ up1 b ! p[]4 ,!re is s]i\s s9 among/ !m1 :i* !y %[ no read9ess to purge #cfh away4 ,moreov] ^! ,cor9?ians h lawsuits ) ea* o!r 7vi4 #a ff471 &1 in/ead ( tak+ advantage ( ^? sup]natural ,*>ismata1 !y actually take _! causes = decision be=e ! un9spir$ tribunals ( ! hea!n r ?an submit !m to ! judgm5t ( ! sa9ts4 ,_! own memb]s1 :o h gifts ( wisdom & ( k1 disc]n+ ( spirits & gov]n+s1 h app>5tly s little light to ?r[ ^u ! regulation ( social life1 t ! ,apo/le has to ent] into m9ute details = _! admonition & guidance4 ,he has ev5 to lay d[n rules reg>d+ ! head-dresses ( wom5 9 ! ,*ur*es 7xi4 #c ff474 ,ev5 9 _! v ,*ur* assemblies !re are divisions ( a s]i\s "* among/ !m 7xi4 #ah ff474 ,!y misconduct !mselves 9 ! celebration ( ! ,"l's supp]1 = !y make x1 z x 71 _! own supp]1 & "o is hungry & ano!r is drunk54 ,:at6 he indignantly exclaims1 h ye n h\ses to eat & to dr9k 98 or despise ye ! ,*ur* ( ,god8 ,to ! ,galatians ,paul writes1 m>vell+ t !y are s soon remov+ f him t call$ !m 9 ! grace ( ,*ri/ unto a diff]5t ,gospel 7i4 #f74 ,o fooli% ,galatians1 he says 7iii4 #a71 :o bewit*$ y8 ,9 t community also1 opposition to ,paul & d5ial ( 8 au?ority _h become p[]ful4 ,if we turn to o!r anci5t docum5ts1 ! ,epi/les to ! sev5 ,*ur*es d n pres5t u ) a picture ( sup]natural p]fection 9 ^? communities1 ?\gh d\btless1 l ! re/1 !y _h receiv$ ^! gifts4 ,! o!r ,epi/les ( ! ,new ,te/am5t depict a /ate ( ?+s :i* by no means d5otes any extraord9>y or abnormal condition ( ! memb]s4 ,we may quote a %ort passage to %[ t we d n /ra9 #cei ?is repres5tation unduly4 ,b c]ta9ly1 says ,dr4 von ,doll+]1 9 spite ( a ri* outp\r+ ( spiritual gifts v\*saf$ to x1 a community c\ld fall into wanton error4 ,paul _h 9 ,cor9?1 contemporane\sly ) 8 description ( ! *>ismatic /ate ( ! *ur* !re1 to d5\nce sad abuses4 ,9 ! ,galatian community1 ,judai/ic s$uction1 & ! d>k5+ ( ,*ri/ian doctr9e ?r\gh ! delusion z to ! necessity ( ! obs]vance ( ! law1 _h s mu* increas$ t ! ,apo/le call$ !m fools & s5seless1 b at ! same "t he appeal$ to ! pro( :i* 0 pres5t$ by ! spiritual gifts & miracul\s p[]s1 9 :i* !y _h p>ticipat$ n ?r\gh ! obs]vance ( ! law1 b ?r\gh fai? 9 ,*ri/ 7,gal4 iii4 #b1 #e74 ,n[ at t "t ! ,*>ismata ( tea*+ & k mu/ already h be5 weak5$ or ext+ui%$ 9 ^! communities1 o!rwise s /rong an ab]ration w\ld n be explicable4 ,n[h]e1 h[ev]1 9 ?is ,epi/le is !re any trace ( an e/abli%$ m9i/ry2 on ! contr>y1 at ! close1 ! 'spiritual' among !m are in/ruct$ to adm9i/] ! (fice ( comm9ation4 ,b1 g5]ally1 f t "t =w>d1 ! *>ismatic /ate 9 ! ,*ur* m & m disappe>$1 ?\gh s+le ,*>ismata1 & individuals end[$ ) ! same1 rema9$4 ,9 ! fir/ ,epi/le to ! believ]s 9 ,!ssalonica1 ,paul _h made x specially prom95t t 8 ,gospel _h work$ !re1 n z m]e ^w1 b ) demon/ration ( ! p[] ( ! ,holy ,_s 7i4 #e74 ,9 ! ,epi/les to ! ,philippians & ,colossians1 !re is no long] ! slighte/ intimation (1 or ref]5ce to1 ! ,*>ismata1 al?\gh 9 bo? communities ! occasion = su* an allusion 0 v appropriate--9 ,philippi ?r\gh ! ,jewi% oppon5ts1 #cfj & 9 ,colossae on acc\nt ( ! h]etical dang]s & ! ?reat5+ ,gno/ic asceticism4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ! ,epi/le to ! ,philippians1 bi%ops & deacons are already m5tion$ z m9i/]s ( ! community4 ,!n1 9 ! ,pa/oral ,epi/les1 n only is !re no m5tion ( ! ,*>ismata1 b a /ate ( ! community is set =? :i* is :olly diff]5t f ! *>ismatic4 ,! communities 9 ,asia ,m9or1 ! ,ephesian fir/ ( all1 are p>tly ?reat5$1 p>tly unsettl$ by ,gno/ic h]esies1 /rifes ( words1 fooli% controv]sies1 empty babbl+ ab\t matt]s ( fai?1 ( doctr9es ( demons1 ( an advanc+ godlessness corrod+ l a gangr5e 7#a ,tim4 iv4 #a-c1 vi4 #c ff4 #bj1 #b ,tim4 ii4 #ad ff474 ,all ! c\nsels :i* are "h giv5 to ,timo?y1 ! conduct 9 reg>d to ^! evils :i* is recomm5d$ to him1 all is ( a nature z ?\gh ,*>ismata no long] exi/$ to any ext5t1 z ?\gh1 9 lieu ( ! fir/ spiritual so>+ & ( ! fulness ( extraord9>y p[]s manife/+ itself 9 ! community1 ! b>e prose ( ! life ( ! ,*ur* _h already set 947#a7 ,reg>d+ ?is x is n necess>y = u to say m ?an t ! repres5tation :i* is ev]y:]e made1 9 ! ,acts & else:]e1 & :i* seems to be confirm$ by ,paul1 is t all ! memb]s ( ^! ,*ri/ian communities receiv$ ! ,holy ,_s1 & ! div9e ,*>ismata1 b t n[h]e h we evid5ce ( any sup]natural results produc$ by !m4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! view above express$ be accept$1 ! difficulty is increas$2 =1 except 9 ! allusions ( ! ,apo/le to ,*>ismata1 x is impossible to discov] any diff]5ce betwe5 communities :i* _h receiv$ miracul\s spiritual gifts & ^? :i* _h n done s4 ,on ! contr>y1 x #cfa might possibly be %[n t a *ur* :i* _h n be5 s end[$1 p]haps on ! :ole exhibit$ high] spiritual qualities ?an ano!r :i* 0 suppos$ to possess ! ,*>ismata4 ,9 none are we able to p]ceive any sup]natural *>act]i/ics1 or m ?an ! v ord9>y m>ks ( a new religi\s life4 ,x seems sc>cely necess>y to dep>t f ! natural ord] ( nature1 & introduce ! sup]natural work+ ( a ,holy ,_s to produce su* common-place results4 ,we v5ture to say t !re is no?+ :atev] to ju/ify ! ass]tion ( sup]natural ag5cy "h1 & t ! special div9e ,*>ismata exi/$ only 9 ! pi\s imag9ation ( ! ,apo/le1 :o ref]r$ e good quality 9 man to div9e grace4 ,we h res]v$ ! gift ( ,tongues = special discussion1 because ,paul ent]s into x ) a fulness ) :i* he does n treat any ( ! o!r ,*>ismata1 & a valuable opportunity is ?us af=d$ u ( asc]ta9+ some?+ def9ite ) reg>d to ! nature ( ! gift2 & also because we h a n>rative 9 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les ( ! fir/ desc5t ( ! ,holy ,_s1 manife/+ itself 9 ,tongues1 ) :i* x may be in/ructive to comp>e ! ,apo/le's rem>ks4 ,we may m5tion t1 9 ! op9ion ( _m1 ! cause :i* induc$ ! ,apo/le to say s mu* reg>d+ ,*>ismata 9 8 fir/ lett] to ! ,cor9?ians 0 ! circum/ance1 t _m ma9ta9$ ! gift ( tongues to be ! only =m ( ! manife/ation ( ! ,_s4 ,?is view is c]ta9ly fav\r$ by ! n>rative 9 ! ,acts1 9 :i* n only at ! fir/ fam\s day ( ,p5teco/1 b on almo/ e occasion ( ! imposition ( ! ,apo/le's h&s1 ?is is ! only gift m5tion$ z accompany+ ! reception ( ! ,holy #cfb ,_s4 ,9 any case1 x is app>5t f ! :ole ( ! ,apo/le's homily on ! subject1 t ! gift ( tongues 0 especially valu$ 9 ! ,*ur* ( ,cor9?47#a7 ,x is difficult to conceive1 on ! supposition t among/ ! ,*>ismata !re 7 compris$ miracul\s gifts ( heal+s1 & fur!r p[] ( work+ miracles1 t ^! c\ld h be5 held s *eap 9 comp>ison ) ! gift ( ,tongues2 b 9 any case1 a bett] compreh5sion ( :at ?is gift really 0 _c fail to assi/ u 9 und]/&+ ! true nature ( ! :ole ( ! ,*>ismata4 ,x is evid5t t ! ,apo/le ,paul himself does n rank ! gift ( tongues v highly1 & inde$1 t he seems to value prophecy m ?an all ! o!r ,*>ismata 7xiv4 #a ff472 b ! simple yet truly noble eloqu5ce ) :i* 7xiii4 #a ff47 he elevates above all ^! gifts ! possession ( spiritual love is a subtle indication ( _! real "*4 ,probably ,paul w\ld h t]m$ *ri/ian ,*>ity a gift ( ! ,_s z mu* z #cfc he does gifts ( heal+s or work+s ( p[]s2 b1 h[ev] r>e may be ! virtue1 x is n n[ recogniz$ z miracul\s1 al?\gh x is "h %[n to be m desirable & preci\s ?an all ! miracul\s gifts4 ,ev5 ,apo/olic conceptions ( ! ,sup]natural _c so> above ! range ( natural morality4 ,! real nature ( ! gift ( ,tongues has giv5 rise to an almo/ int]m9able controv]sy1 & innum]able treatises h be5 writt5 ^u ! subject4 ,x w\ld h be5 impossible = u to h exhau/ively ent]$ ^u su* a discussion 9 ?is "w1 = :i* x only possesses an incid5tal & pass+ int]e/2 b =tunately su* a c\rse is r5d]$ unnecess>y by ! fact t1 s f> z we are conc]n$1 ! miracul\s nature ( ! gift alone comes into "q1 & may be dispos$ ( )\t any elaborate analysis ( pa/ controv]sy or m9ute ref]5ce to disput$ po9ts4 ,^? :o desire to foll[ ! c\rse ( ! volum9\s discussion w f9d ample mat]ials 9 ! treatises :i* we %all at lea/ indicate 9 ! c\rse ( our rem>ks1 & we %all adh]e z closely z possible to our own po9t ( view4 ,9 #a ,cor4 xii4 #aj1 ! ,apo/le m5tions1 among/ ! o!r ,*>ismata1 k9ds ( tongues ------ & int]pretation ( tongues ------1 z two di/9ct gifts4 ,9 v4 #bh he aga9 uses ! expression ------1 & 9 a foll[+ v]se he inquires3 d all speak ) tongues ------7#a7 d all int]pret ------8 ,he says %ortly aft]1 xiii4 #a3 ,if ,i speak ) ! tongues ( m5 & ( angels ------ & h n love1 c4 ,9 ! foll[+ *apt] ! expressions us$ 9 discuss+ ! gift v>y4 #cfd ,9 xiv4 #b he says3 he t speake? ) a tongue7#a7 ------7#b7 us+ ! s+ul>2 & aga9 7v4 #bb71 ( ! tongues ------1 be+ a sign2 & 9 v4 #bf1 ea* ha? a tongue ------4 ,! ^w ------ or ------ has sev]al significations 9 ,greek4 ,! fir/ & prim>y mean+ ! tongue3 z a m]e memb] ( ! body1 ! organ ( spee*2 next1 a tongue1 or language2 & fur!r1 an obsolete or =eign ^w n 9 ord9>y use4 ,if we inquire into ! use ( ------ 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t1 we f9d t1 sett+ aside ! passages 9 ,acts1 ,m>k1 & #a ,cor4 xii4-xiv41 9 :i* ! ph5om5on we are discuss+ is ref]r$ to1 ! ^w is inv>iably us$ 9 ! fir/ s5se1 ! tongue17#c7 except 9 ! ,apocalypse1 :]e ! ^w z language typifies diff]5t nations47#d7 ,any "o :o att5tively consid]s all ! passages 9 :i* ! ,*>isma is discuss$ w obs]ve t no uni=m application ( any "o signification ?r\gh\t is possible4 ,we may briefly say t all ! attempts :i* h be5 made philologically to det]m9e ! true nature ( ! ph5om5on :i* ! ,apo/le discusses h fail$ to produce any really satisfactory result1 or to secure ! g5]al adhesion ( critics4 ,x is we ?9k obvi\s t ,paul does n apply ! ^w1 ei!r 9 ! plural or 9 ! s+ul>1 9 its ord9>y s5ses1 b makes use ( ------ to describe ph5om5a connect$ ) spee*1 )\t int5d+ /rictly to apply x ei!r to ! tongue or to a def9ite language4 ,we #cfe m]ely ref] to ?is 9 pass+1 = x is c]ta9 t no philological discussion ( ! ^w c mat]ially affect ! case2 & ! argum5t is ( no int]e/ = our inquiry4 ,ea* mean+ has be5 adopt$ by critics & be5 made ! basis = a diff]5t explanation ( ! ph5om5on4 ,philology is incapable ( f9ally solv+ su* a problem4 ,f ! "t ( ,ir5aeus17#a7 or at lea/ ( ,orig51 ! fav\rite !ory ( ! ,fa!rs1 bas$ *iefly ^u ! n>rative 9 ,acts ( ! desc5t ( ! ,holy ,_s on ! day ( ,p5teco/1 0 t ! disciples sudd5ly became sup]-naturally end[$ ) p[] to speak o!r languages :i* !y _h n previ\sly le>n$1 & t ?is gift 0 m especially conf]r$ to facilitate ! promulgation ( ! ,gospel ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,augu/9e w5t s f> z to believe t ea* ( ! ,apo/les 0 ?us enabl$ to speak all languages47#b7 ,! op9ion t ! gift ( tongues consi/$ ( ! p[]1 miracul\sly conf]r$ by ! ,holy ,gho/1 to speak 9 a language or languages previ\sly unkn[n to ! speak] long cont9u$ to prevail1 & x is /ill ! popul>1 z well z ! or?odox1 view ( ! subject47#c7 ,z soon z #cff ! att5tion ( critics 0 s]i\sly direct$ to ! "q1 h[ev]1 ?is int]pretation became rapidly modifi$1 or 0 altoge!r ab&on$4 ,x is unnecess>y = u to ref] 9 detail to ! num]\s explanations :i* h be5 giv5 ( ! ph5om5on1 or to enum]ate ! extraord9>y views :i* h be5 express$ reg>d+ x2 x w be suffici5t if1 )\t ref]5ce to m9or diff]5ces ( op9ion respect+ ! exact =m 9 :i* x exhibit$ itself1 we broadly /ate t a great majority ( critics1 reject+ ! !ory t ------ means to speak languages previ\sly unkn[n to ! speak]s1 pron\nce x to be ! spee* ( p]sons 9 a /ate ( ec/atic excitem5t1 *iefly ( ! nature ( pray] or praise1 & un9telligible to ord9>y he>]s47#a7 ,:e!r #cfg ?is spee* consi/$ ( m]e in>ticulate tones1 ( excit$ ejaculations1 ( obsolete or uncommon expressions & prov9cialisms1 ( highly poetical rhapsodies1 ( pray] 9 sl[ sc>cely audible acc5ts1 or ( *aunt$ my/]i\s phrases1 fragm5t>y & full ( raptur\s int5sity1 z ^! critics v>i\sly suppose1 we %all n pause to inquire4 ,x is cle> t1 :atev] may h be5 ! =m ( ! spee*1 if in/ead ( be+ spee* 9 unle>nt languages sup]naturally communicat$1 ------ 0 only ! expression ( religi\s excitem5t1 h[ev] t may be suppos$ to h orig9at$1 ! pret5tions ( ! gift to a miracul\s "* %r9k at once into exce$+ly small proportions4 ,e unprejudic$ m9d mu/ admit t ! repres5tation t ! gift ( tongues1 ( :i* ! ,apo/le speaks 9 8 ,epi/le to ! ,cor9?ians1 conf]r$ ^u ! recipi5t ! p[] to speak =eign languages be=e unkn[n to him1 may 9 great "p be trac$ to ! n>rative 9 ,acts ( ! desc5t ( ! ,holy ,_s on ! day ( ,p5teco/4 ,al?\gh a few apologi/s advance ! plea t !re may h be5 diff]5ces 9 ! manife/ation1 x is g5]ally recogniz$ on bo? sides t1 h[ev] diff]5tly describ$ by ! two writ]s1 ! ------ ( ,paul & ( ! ,acts is1 9 reality1 "o & ! same ph5om5on4 ,! impression convey$ by ! n>rative has be5 appli$ to ! didactic rem>ks ( ,paul1 & a mean+ =c$ ^u !m :i* !y _c possibly be>4 ,x is n too mu* to say t1 b = ! my?ical acc\nt 9 ! ,acts1 no "o w\ld ev] h suppos$ t ! ------ ( ,paul 0 ! gift ( speak+ =eign languages )\t previ\s /udy or practice4 ,9 ! int]m9able controv]sy reg>d+ ! ph5om5on1 moreov]1 x seems to u to h be5 a #cfh fundam5tal error1 on bo? sides too (t51 to h consid]$ x necess>y to ! acceptance ( any explanation t x %\ld equally suit bo? ! rem>ks ( ,paul & ! acc\nt 9 ,acts47#a7 ,! only "r c\rse is to te/ ! n>rative by ! di/9ct & au?oritative /atem5ts ( ! ,apo/le2 b to adopt ! contr>y c\rse is mu* ! same proc$ure z alt]+ ! natural int]pretation ( an orig9al hi/orical docum5t 9 ord] to make x agree ) ! romance ( "s unkn[n writ] ( a lat] day4 ,! ,apo/le ,paul writes z a contempor>y & eye-witness ( ph5om5a :i* affect$ himself1 & reg>d+ :i* he gives ! mo/ valuable direct & indirect in=mation4 ,! unkn[n au?or ( ! ,acts 0 n an eye-witness ( ! sc5e :i* he describes1 & 8 n>rative be>s ^u its v surface ! cle>e/ m>ks ( traditional & leg5d>y treatm5t4 ,! able/ apologi/s freely decl>e t ! evid5ce ( ,paul is ( inf9itely great] value ?an t ( ! unkn[n & lat] writ]1 & mu/ be pref]r$ be=e x4 ,! majority ( ^? :o pr(ess to reg>d ! n>rative z hi/orical expla9 away its cle>e/ /atem5ts ) />tl+ +5uity1 or conceal !m b5ea? a cl\d ( words4 ,! ref]5ces to ! ph5om5on 9 lat] portions ( ! ,acts are 9 !mselves q inconsi/5t ) ! e>li] n>rative 9 *4 ii4 ,! detail$ criticism ( ,paul is ! only contempor>y1 & x is c]ta9ly ! only tru/wor?y1 acc\nt we possess reg>d+ ! gift ( tongues47#b7 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 dismiss f our m9ds1 if possible1 ! bias :i* ! n>rative 9 ! ,acts has un=tunately #cfi creat$1 & att5d solely to ! words ( ! ,apo/le4 ,if 8 report ( ! ph5om5on discr$it t ( ! unkn[n & lat] writ]1 s mu* ! worse = ! latt]4 ,9 any case x is ! te/imony ( ,paul :i* is ref]r$ to & :i* we are call$ ^u to consid]1 & lat] writ]s mu/ n be all[$ to inve/ x ) impossible mean+s4 ,ev5 if we _h n su* und5iable reasons = pref]r+ ! /atem5ts ( ,paul to ! lat] & untru/wor?y n>rative ( an unkn[n writ]1 ! v cont5ts ( ! latt]1 contra/$ ) ! m sob] rem>ks ( ! ,apo/le1 w\ld consign x to a v subord9ate place4 ,discuss+ ! miracle ( ,p5teco/ 9 ,acts1 :i* he1 ( c\rse1 reg>ds z ! in/antane\s communication ( ability to speak 9 =eign languages1 ,zell] makes ! foll[+ rem>ks3 ,! supposition ( su* a miracle is oppos$ to a "r view ( div9e ag5cy1 & ( ! relation ( ,god to ! _w1 &1 9 ?is case 9 p>ticul>1 to a "r view ( ! con/itution ( ! human m9d4 ,! composition & ! prop]ties ( a body may be alt]$ ?r\gh ext]nal influ5ce1 b m5tal acquirem5ts are atta9$ only ?r\gh p]sonal activity1 ?r\gh practice2 & x is j 9 ?is t _s di/+ui%es itself f matt]3 t x is free1 t !re is no?+ 9 x :i* x has n itself spontane\sly introduc$4 ,! ext]nal & in/antane\s 9-p\r+ ( a m5tal acquirem5t is a repres5tation :i* refutes itself4 ,9 reply to ^? :o object to ?is reason+ he retorts3 ,! ass]tion t su* a miracle actually occurr$ contradicts ! analogy ( all atte/$ exp]i5ce1 t x is inv5t$ by an individual or by tradition corresponds ) x2 :51 !re=e1 ! hi/orical writ] has only ! *oice betwe5 ^! two #cgj alt]natives1 he mu/ accord+ to ! laws ( hi/orical probability1 "u all ! circum/ances1 unconditionally decide = ! second4 ,he mu/ d ?is ev5 if an eyewitness ( ! pret5d$ miracle /ood be=e him2 he mu/ all ! m d s if he has to d ) a /atem5t :i*1 beyond d\bt n proce$+ f an eye-witness1 is m possibly sep>at$ by "s g5]ations f ! ev5t 9 "q47#a7 ,^! objections are n conf9$ to rationali/ic critics & d n m]ely repres5t ! argum5ts ( scepticism4 ,ne&] expresses simil> s5tim5ts17#b7 & aft] c>eful exam9ation pron\nces ! n>rative 9 ,acts untru/wor?y1 &1 adh]+ to ! repres5tations ( ,paul1 rejects ! !ory t ------ 0 spee* 9 =eign languages sup]naturally imp>t$4 ,mey]1 :o arrives at mu* ! same result z ,ne&]1 speaks /ill m emphatically4 ,he says3 ,?is suppos$ gift ( tongues 7all languages71 h[ev]1 0 9 ! apo/olic age1 p>tly unnecess>y = ! prea*+ ( ! ,gospel1 z ! prea*]s !re( only requir$ to be able to speak ,hebrew & ,greek2 p>tly too g5]al1 z among/ ! assembly !re 7 c]ta9ly _m :o 7 n call$ to be tea*]s4 ,&1 on ! o!r h&1 aga91 x w\ld also h be5 premature1 z1 be=e all1 ,paul ! apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles w\ld h requir$ x1 9 :om nev]!less !re is z little trace ( any subsequ5t reception ( x z t he prea*$ o!rwise ?an 9 ,hebrew & ,greek4 ,b n[1 h[ is ! ev5t to be hi/orically judg$8 ,reg>d+ ?is ! foll[+ is to be obs]v$3 ,z ! in/antane\s be/[al ( facility 9 a =eign language is nei!r logically possible nor psy*ologically #cga & morally conceivable1 & z n ! slighte/ intimation ( su* a ?+ 9 ! ,apo/les is p]ceptible 9 _! ,epi/les & else:]e 7on ! contr>y1 comp4 xiv4 #aa72 z1 fur!r1 if x 0 only mom5t>y1 ! impossibility increases1 & z ,pet] himself 9 8 spee* does n once make ! slighte/ ref]5ce to ! =eign languages3 !re=e1--:e!r1 )\t any intimation 9 ! text1 "o consid] t ,p5teco/ assembly z a repres5tation ( all future ,*ri/ianity1 or n--! occurr5ce1 z ,luke relates x1 _c be transmitt$ 9 its actual hi/orical circum/ance47#a7 ,let u a little exam9e ! p>ticul>s ( ! n>rative 9 ,acts ii4 ,all ! bre?r5 7 assembl$ 9 "o place1 a h\se ------1 on ! morn+ ( ! day ( ,p5teco/4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt] 7i4 #ae7 we le>n t ! numb] ( disciples 0 !n ab\t #abj1 & ! cr[d :i* came toge!r :5 ! miracul\s occurr5ce took place mu/ h be5 great1 see+ t x is /at$ t #c1jjj s\ls 7 baptiz$ & add$ to ! ,*ur* ^u ! occasion 7ii4 #da74 ,pass+ ov] ! /atem5t z to ! numb]s ( ! disciples1 :i* might well surprise u aft] ! in=mation giv5 by ! ,gospels1#b we may ask 9 :at h\se 9 ,j]usalem c\ld su* a multitude h assembl$8 ,apologi/s h exhau/$ _! +5uity 9 reply+ to ! "q1 b :e!r plac+ ! sc5e 9 "o ( ! halls or c\rts ( ! ,temple1 or 9 an imag9>y h\se 9 "o ( ! /reets lead+ to ! ,temple1 ! explanation is equally vague & unsatisfactory4 ,h[ did ! multitude s rapidly "k ( :at 0 pass+ 9 a private h\se8 ,we %all say no?+ at pres5t ( ! s\nd ( ! #cgb ru%+ mighty w9d :i* fill$ all ! h\se1 nor ( ! desc5t ( ! tongues z ( fire1 nor ( ! v>i\s int]pretations ( ^! ph5om5a by apologetic writ]s4 ,^! incid5ts d n add to ! hi/orical "* ( ! n>rative1 nor c x be pron\nc$ ei!r cle> or consi/5t4 ,! bre?r5 assembl$ 7 all fill$ ) ! ,holy ,_s & began to speak ) o!r tongues ------1 z ! ,_s gave !m utt]ance47#a7 ,apologi/s1 9 ord] some:at to save ! hi/orical cr$it ( ! acc\nt & reconcile x ) ! /atem5ts ( ,paul1 h v>i\sly argu$ t !re is no affirmation made 9 ! n>rative t spee* 9 =eign languages previ\sly unkn[n 0 imp>t$4 ,! memb]s ( ! fifte5 nations :o he> ! ,galilaeans speak+ 9 our own language :]e9 we 7 born ------ are dispos$ ( ) pa9ful +5uity2 b1 pass+ ov] all ?is1 x is recogniz$ by unprejudic$ critics on bo? sides t at lea/ ! au?or ( ,acts1 9 writ+ ?is acc\nt1 int5d$ to repres5t ! bre?r5 z in/antane\sly speak+ ^? previ\sly unkn[n =eign languages4 ,a few writ]s repres5t ! miracle to h be5 "o ( he>+ r ?an ( speak+1 ! bre?r5 m]ely prais+ ,god 9 _! own tongue1 ! ,aramaic1 b ! spectators und]/&+ 9 _! v>i\s languages47#b7 ,?is only %ifts ! difficulty f ! speak]s to ! he>]s1 & ! explanation is g5]ally repudiat$4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 freely grant$ by all t hi/ory does n exhibit a s+le in/ance ( su* a gift ( tongues hav+ ev] be5 made useful = ! purpose ( #cgc prea*+ ! gospel47#a7 ,paul1 :o claim$ ! possession ( ! gift ( tongues 9 a sup]lative degree 7#a ,cor4 xiv4 #ah71 does n appe> to h spok5 m languages ?an ,aramaic & ,greek4 ,he writes to ! ,romans 9 ! latt] tongue & n 9 ,lat91 & to ! ,galatians 9 ! same language in/ead ( _! own4 ,pet]1 :o appe>s to h address$ ! assembl$ nations 9 ,greek on ?is v occasion1 does n 9 8 spee* ei!r ref] to =eign languages or claim ! gift himself1 = 9 v4 #ae he speaks only ( o!rs3 ,= ^! ------ are n drunk54 ,e "o rememb]s ! anci5t tradition record$ by ,papias1 & g5]ally believ$ by ! ,fa!rs1 t ,m>k accompani$ ,pet] z 8 int]pret] ------47#b7 ,! fir/ ,epi/le be>+ ! "n ( ,pet]1 & address$ to "s ( ! v nations m5tion$ 9 ,acts1 to soj\rn]s 9 ,pontus1 ,galatia1 ,cappadocia1 ,asia1 & ,bi?ynia1 is writt5 9 ,greek2 & s is ! ,epi/le to ! ,hebrews & ! o!r works ( ! ,new ,te/am5t4 ,few w be incl9$ to d5y t1 to take only "o language = in/ance1 ! ,greek ( ! writ+s ( ! ,new ,te/am5t leaves some?+ to be desir$1 & t1 if ! writ]s possess$ su* a sup]natural gift1 !y evid5tly did n speak ev5 s important & curr5t a language ) absolute purity4 ,le /yle des ecriva9s sacr$1 writes a mod]n #cgd apologi/1 montre clairem5t qu'ils ont appris la langue grecque et qu'ils ne la poss$5t pas de droit div9 et p> inspiration1 c> ils l'ecriv5t sans correction1 en la sur*>geant de locutions hebraiques47#a7 ,9 fact1 z mo/ critics po9t out1 !re nev] 0 a p]iod at :i* a gift ( =eign tongues 0 less necess>y = int]c\rse ) ! civiliz$ _w1 ,greek be+ almo/ ev]y:]e curr5t4 ,z reg>ds ! fifte5 nations :o are suppos$ to h be5 repres5t$ on ?is great occasion1 ,ne&] says3 ,x is c]ta9 t among/ ! inhabitants ( t[ns 9 ,cappadocia1 9 ,pontus1 9 ,asia ,m9or1 ,phrygia1 ,pamphylia1 ,cyr5e1 & 9 ! p>ts ( ,libya & ,egypt peopl$ by ,greek & ,jewi% colonies1 ! ,greek language 0 9 great "p m curr5t ?an ! old national tongue4 ,!re rema91 out ( ! :ole catalogue ( languages1 at mo/ ! ,p]sian1 ,syriac1 ,arabic1 ,greek1 & ,lat94 ,! m rhetorical ?an hi/orical /amp ( ! n>rative is evid5t47#b7 ,?is rhetorical "*1 z contradi/+ui%$ f sob] hi/ory1 is inde$ pa9fully app>5t ?r\gh\t4 ,! pres5ce 9 ,j]usalem ( ,jews1 dev\t m5 f e nation "u heav5 is dramatically opportune1 & ?us repres5tatives ( ! fifte5 nations are prep>$ to appe> 9 ! h\se & he> _! own languages 9 :i* !y 7 born spok5 9 s sup]natural1 ?\gh useless1 a mann] by ! bre?r54 ,!y are all said to h be5 conf\nd$ at ! ph5om5on1 & ! writ] adds1 ii4 #g;f3 ,& !y 7 all amaz$ & m>vell$1 say+1 ,behold1 are n all ^! :i* speak ,galilaeans8 ,& h[ he> we e man 9 our own #cge language :]e9 we 7 born8 c4 ,did all ! multitude say ?is8 ,or is n ?is ! writ] ascrib+1 accord+ to 8 view1 probable s5tim5ts to !m8 ,h[ aga9 did !y "k t ! hundr$ & tw5ty or m bre?r5 7 ,galilaean8 ,fur!r on1 ! writ] adds m ( ! same k9d1 v4 #ab1 #ac3 ,& !y 7 all amaz$ & 7 9 d\bt1 say+ "o to ano!r3 ,:at may ?is mean8 ,b o!rs mock+ said1 ,!y are full ( sweet w9e4 ,is x n a /range mann] ( acc\nt+ = su* a ph5om5on z 7v4 #aa7 he>+ p speak+ 9 _! own tongues ! great works ( ,god to suppose t !y are drunk58 ,p speak+ ) tongues1 9 ,paul's s5se 7#a ,cor4 xiv4 #bc1 #bd1 #cc71 & creat+ an un9telligible tumult1 might well lead /rang]s to say t !y 7 ei!r mad or drunk51 b ! praise ( ,god 9 =eign language1 und]/ood by s _m1 c\ld n convey su* an impression4 ,pet] does n1 9 explanation1 simply /ate t !y are speak+ =eign languages :i* h j be5 sup]naturally imp>t$ to !m1 b argues 7v4 #ae7 t ^! are n drunk51 z ye suppose1 = x is ! ?ird h\r ( ! day1--too e>ly to be full ( sweet w9e1 & proce$s to ass]t t ! ph5om5on is1 on ! contr>y1 a fulfilm5t ( a prophecy ( ,joel 9 :i*1 al?\gh ! p\r+ out ( ,god's ,_s ^u all fle% is promis$ 9 ! la/ days1 & z a result t3 y\r sons & y\r daught]s %all prophesy & y\r "y m5 %all see visions & y\r old m5 %all dream dreams1 n a s+le ^w is said ( any gift ( tongues1 =eign or o!rwise4 ,! miracul\s ph5om5on 9 "q is n m5tion$ 9 ! prophecy ( :i* x is suppos$ to be ! accompli%m5t4 ,x does n mu* help matt]s to argue t ! miracle1 al?\gh n = future use1 0 int5d$ z a #cgf sign4 ,we %all see :at ,paul says reg>d+ ------ z a sign1 b we may "h m]ely po9t out t ! effect produc$ 9 ! ,cor9?ian ,*ur* is r an impression ( madness1 :il/ "h x leads to a mock+ accusation ( drunk5ness4 ,! conv]sion ( ! #c1jjj is by no means ref]r$ to ! speak+ ) tongues1 b simply to ! spee* ( ,pet] 7ii4 #cg,l #da74 ,f e po9t ( view1 !re is no cohesion betwe5 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! n>rative2 x is devoid ( v]isimilitude4 ,x is n surpris+ t s _m critics ( all %ades ( op9ion recognize unhi/orical elem5ts 9 ! n>rative 9 ,acts17#a7 n to use a /rong] t]m4 ,to all[ su* an acc\nt to influ5ce our int]pretation ( ,paul's /atem5ts reg>d+ ! gift ( tongues is q out ( ! "q2 & no "o :o appreciates ! nature ( ! case & :o c>efully exam9es ! n>rative ( ! unkn[n writ] c1 we ?9k1 hesitate to reject 8 !ory ( a sup]natural be/[al ( p[] to speak =eign languages1 be=e unkn[n4 ,x is n difficult to trace ! orig9 ( ! acc\nt 9 ,acts &1 al?\gh we _c "h pause to d s ) any m9ut5ess1 we may at lea/ indicate ! l9es ^u :i* ! n>rative is bas$4 ,!re is no d\bt t !n1 z n[1 ! ,jews commemorat$ at ! fea/ ( ,p5teco/ ! giv+ ( ! law on ,s9ai47#b7 ,x seem$ #cgg good to ! au?or ( ,acts t ! prophet l unto ,moses17#a7 :o 0 to abrogate t law & replace x by a disp5sation ( grace1 %\ld inaugurate ! new law ( love & lib]ty7#b7 ) signs equally significant & miracul\s4 ,x is relat$ 9 ,exodus xix4 #ah t ! ,"l desc5d$ ^u ,s9ai 9 fire1 & t ! :ole m\nt quak$ greatly4 ,! voice ( ,god pron\nc$ ! decalogue &1 z ! ,septuag9t v]sion r5d]s our ,ex4 xx4 #ah3 ,all ! p saw ! voice1 & ! lightn+s & ! voice ( ! trumpet & ! m\nta9 smok+47#c7 ,accord+ to ,rabb9ical tradition1 h[ev]1 :5 ,god came d[n to give ! law to ! ,israelites1 he appe>$ n to ,israel alone1 b to all ! o!r nations1 & ! voice 9 :i* ! law 0 giv5 w5t to ! ends ( ! e>? & 0 he>d ( ail peoples47#d7 ,x w be rememb]$ t ! numb] ( ! nations 0 suppos$ to be sev5ty1 ea* speak+ a diff]5t language1 & ! law 0 giv5 9 ! "o sacr$ ,hebrew tongue4 ,! ,rabb9s expla9$1 h[ev]3 ,! voice f ,s9ai 0 divid$ into #gj voices & #gj languages1 s t all nations ( ! e>? he>d 7! law71 & ea* he>d x actually 9 its own language47#e7 ,& aga93 ,al?\gh ! t5 comm&m5ts 7 promulgat$ ) "o s+le tone1 yet x is said 7,exod4 xx4 #ae71 ',all p he>d ! voices' 79 ! plural & n ! voice 9 ! s+ul>72 ! reason is3 ,z ! voice w5t =? x 0 divid$ into sev5 voices1 #cgh & !n into sev5ty tongues1 & e p he>d ! ,law 9 its own "m-tongue47#a7 ,! same explanation is giv5 ( ,ps4 lxviii4 #aa1 & ! sep>ation ( ! voice into sev5 voices & sev5ty tongues is lik5$ to ! sp>ks beat5 by a hamm] f molt5 metal on ! anvil47#b7 ,philo expresses ! same ideas 9 sev]al places4 ,we c only extract "o passage 9 :i*1 speak+ ( ! giv+ ( ! law on ,s9ai1 & discuss+ ! mann] 9 :i* ,god proclaim$ ! decalogue1 he says3 ,= ,god is n l a man 9 ne$ ( a voice & ( a tongue444 b x seems to me t at t "t he p]=m$ a mo/ holy & beseem+ wond]1 comm&+ an invisible voice to be creat$ 9 air1 m wond]ful ?an all in/rum5ts14444 n lifeless1 b nei!r a =m ( liv+ creature compos$ ( body & s\l1 b a reasonable s\l full ( cle>ness & di/9ctness1 :i* =m$ & excit$ ! air & trans=m$ x into flam+ fire1 & s\nd$ =? su* an articulat$ voice1 l brea? ?r\gh a trumpet1 t x seem$ to be equally he>d by ^? :o 7 ne> & ^? fur!/ (f47#c7 ,a little fur!r on he says3 ,b f ! mid/ ( ! fire /ream+ f heav51 a mo/ awful voice s\nd$ =?1 ! flame be+ articulat$ to language famili> to ! he>]s1 :i* made t :i* 0 said s vividly cle>1 z to seem r see+ ?an #cgi he>+ x47#a7 ,x requires no elaborate explanation to %[ h[ ?is grew into ! miracle at ,p5teco/ at ! inauguration ( ! ,*ri/ian disp5sation1 :5 sudd5ly !re came a s\nd f heav5 z ( a ru%+ mighty w9d :i* fill$ all ! h\se :]e ! disciples 71 & !re appe>$ to !m tongues z ( fire p>t+ asund] :i* sat ^u ea* ( !m1 & !y 7 all fill$ ) ! ,holy ,_s & began to speak ) o!r tongues1 ev5 z ! ,_s gave !m utt]ance1 s t dev\t m5 f e nation "u heav5 he>d !m speak+1 ev]yone 9 8 own language :]e9 he 0 born1 ! great works ( ,god47#b7 ,:5 we turn to ! o!r passages 9 ! ,acts :]e ! gift ( tongues is m5tion$1 we f9d t ! int]pretation ( =eign languages sup]naturally imp>t$ is q out ( place4 ,:5 ,pet] is s5t to ,cornelius1 z he is address+ ! c5turion & 8 h\sehold1 & ev5 be=e !y are baptiz$ 7x4 #dd71 ! ,holy ,_s fell on all !m :o he> ! ^w2 & ! sign ( x is 7v4 #df7 t !y are he>d speak+ ) tongues & magnify+ ,god ------1 precisely l ! disciples at ,p5teco/ 7cf ii4 #aa1 xi4 #ae;f474 ,n[ z ?is gift fell on all :o he>d ! ^w 7x4 #dd71 x c\ld n be a sign to unbeliev]s2 & ! idea t ,cornelius & 8 h\se imm$iately began to speak 9 =eign languages1 :i*1 z 9 ! case #chj ( ! ,cor9?ians1 probably no "o und]/ood1 in/ead ( simply magnify+ ,god 9 _! own tongue1 :i* ev]yone und]/ood1 is almo/ ludicr\s1 if )\t (f5ce we may v5ture to say s4 ,! same rem>ks apply to xix4 #f4 ,we mu/ aga9 all[ an em95t apologi/1 :o w n be accus$ ( irrev]5ce1 to *>act]ise su* a repres5tation4 ,n[ 9 su* positions & su* company1 spee* 9 =eign tongues w\ld be some?+ altoge!r )\t object & )\t mean+4 ,:]e ! consci\sness ( ! grace ( salvation1 & ( a heav5ly life spr++ f x1 is fir/ ar\s$ 9 man1 8 own "m tongue v]ily1 n a =eign language1 w be ! natural expression ( 8 feel+s4 ,or we mu/ imag9e a magical p[] :i*1 tak+ possession ( m51 l in/rum5ts )\t volition1 =ces !m to utt] /range tones--a ?+ contradict+ all analogy 9 ! op]ations ( ,*ri/ianity47#a7 ,! good s5se ( ! critic revolts aga9/ ! natural submission ( ! apologi/4 ,we h div]g$ s f> 9 ord] prom95tly to br+ be=e ! read] ! nature & s\rce ( ! hypo!sis t ! gift ( tongues signifies in/antane\s p[] to speak unle>nt =eign languages4 ,su* an int]pretation is d]iv$ almo/ entirely f ! my?ical n>rative 9 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les4 ,we %all n[ proce$ to consid] ! /atem5ts ( ! ,apo/le ,paul1 & endeav\r to asc]ta9 :at ! suppos$ miracul\s ,*>isma really is4 ,t x is some?+ v diff]5t f :at ! unkn[n writ] repres5ts x 9 ! episode ( ,p5teco/ _c be d\bt$4 ,:oev] has1 ev5 once1 read ) att5tion :at ,paul writes ( ! speak+ ) tongues 9 ! ,cor9?ian community1 writes ,?i]s*1 kn[s t ! diff]5ce betwe5 t gift ( tongues #cha & ?is 7( ,acts ii47 c\ld sc>cely be great]4 ,!re1 a spee* :i* no mortal c und]/& )\t int]pretation1 & also no philologi/1 b ! ,holy ,_s alone c int]pret2 "h1 a spee* :i* requires no int]pretation4 ,t gift s]ves only = ! edification ( ! speak]1 ?is cle>ly also = t ( ! he>]4 ,! "o is ( no avail = ! in/ruction ( ! ignorant2 ! o!r1 cle>ly1 is imp>t$ :olly = t purpose47#a7 ,x may be well t we %\ld /ate a few reasons :i* %[ t ,paul1 9 8 fir/ lett] to ! ,cor9?ians1 does n int5d1 9 speak+ ( ------1 to repres5t spee* 9 =eign languages4 ,9 ! v outset ( 8 diss]tation on ! subject 7xiv4 #b71 ,paul v di/9ctly decl>es z ! pr9cipal reason = pref]r+ prophecy to ! gift ( tongues3 ,= he t speake? ) a tongue ------ speake? n unto m5 b unto ,god3 = no "o und]/&e?7#b7 ------4 ,h[ c\ld ?is be said if ------ meant m]ely speak+ a =eign language8 ,! pres5ce ( a s+le p]son v]s$ 9 ! language spok5 w\ld 9 su* a case vitiate ! :ole ( ,paul's argum5t4 ,! /atem5t made is g5]al1 x w be obs]v$1 & n limit$1 to "o community1 b appli$ to a place l ,cor9?1 "o ( ! greate/ comm]cial cities1 9 :i* m]*ants1 seam51 & visitors ( all c\ntries 7 to be f\nd1 x w\ld h be5 unreasonable to h *>act]iz$ a =eign tongue z absolutely un9telligible4 ,9 xiv4 #i1 ,paul says3 ,s likewise ye1 unless ye utt] by ! tongue ------ words #chb easy to be und]/ood1 h[ %all x be kn[n :at is spok58 = ye w be speak+ into air4 ,h[ c\ld ,paul use ! expression by ! tongue if he meant a =eign language 9 v4 #b & else:]e8 ,he is comp>+ ------ 9 ! prec$+ v]ses ) ! s\nds ( musical in/rum5ts1 & ! po9t rea*$ 9 v4 #i cle>ly br+s home ! application ( 8 argum5t3 ! ------ is un9telligible1 l ! pipe or h>p1 & unless ! tongue utt] words :i* h an und]/ood mean+1 x is m]e speak+ into air4 ,is x possible t ,paul w\ld call spee* 9 a language1 =eign to him1 p]haps1 b :i* nev]!less 0 ! "m tongue ( "s nation1 speak+ into air8 ,9 su* a case1 he mu/ h qualifi$ 8 /atem5t by obvi\s explanations1 ( :i* n a ^w appe>s ?r\gh\t 8 rem>ks4 ,t he does n speak ( =eign languages is made /ill m cle> by ! next two v]ses1 v4 #aj3 9 :i*1 cont9u+ 8 argum5t f analogy1 he actually comp>es ------ ) spee* 9 =eign languages1 & ends1 v4 #aa3 ,if1 !re=e1 ,i "k n ! mean+ ( ! voice1 ,i %all be unto him t speake? a b>b>ian 7=eign]7 & he t speake? a b>b>ian 7=eign]7 9 my judgm5t4' ,paul's logic is c]ta9ly n always beyond reproa*1 b he _c be accus$ ( p]petrat+ su* an anti!sis z contra/+ a ?+ ) itself4 ,he1 !re=e1 explicitly di/+ui%es 7v4 #aj7 ------ k9ds ( languages7#b7 f 7xii4 #aj1 #bh1 c47 ------ k9ds ( tongues4 ,9 xiv4 #f1 ,paul says3 ,if ,i come unto y speak+ ) tongues ------ :at %all ,i pr(it y1 unless ,i %all #chc speak to y ei!r 9 revelation1 or 9 k1 or 9 prophecy1 or 9 tea*+8 ------2 & !n he goes on to comp>e su* un9telligible spee* ) musical in/rum5ts4 ,n[ x is obvi\s t revelation1 k1 prophecy & tea*+ might equally be express$ 9 =eign languages1 &1 !re=e1 9 speak+ ) tongues x is no m]e difficulty ( expression :i* makes x unpr(itable1 b t g5]al un9telligibility :i* is ! gr\nd ( ! :ole ( ,paul's objections4 ,paul exclaims 7v4 #ah73 ,i ?ank ,god ,i speak ) a tongue ------7#a7 m ?an ye all1 7#ai7 b 9 a *ur* ,i w\ld r speak five words ) my und]/&+1 t ,i may tea* o!rs also1 ?an t5 ?\s& words 9 a tongue ------47#b7 ,we h already po9t$ out t !re is no evid5ce :atev] t ,paul c\ld speak _m languages4 ,s f> z we h any in=mation1 he only made use ( ,greek & ,aramaic1 & nev] ev5 prea*$ :]e ^? languages 7 n curr5t4 ,he always employ$ ! =m] 9 8 ,epi/les1 :e!r address$ to ,cor9?1 ,galatia1 or ,rome1 & 8 k ev5 ( t language 0 c]ta9ly n p]fect4 ,speak+ ) a tongue _c1 = reasons previ\sly giv51 mean a =eign language2 & ?is is /ill m obvi\s f :at he says 9 v4 #ai1 j quot$1 9 :i* he di/+ui%es speak+ ) a tongue f speak+ ) 8 und]/&+4 ,five words s spok5 are bett] ?an t5 ?\s& 9 a tongue1 because he speaks #chd ) ! und]/&+ 9 ! "o case & )\t x 9 ! second4 ,x is cle> t a man speaks ) 8 und]/&+ z mu* 9 "o language z ano!r1 b x is ! ma9 *>act]i/ic ( ! spee* we are discuss+ t x is ?r\gh\t oppos$ to und]/&+3 cf4 vv4 #ad1 #ae4 ,x w\ld be inconceivable t1 if ?is gift really signifi$ p[] to speak =eign languages1 ,paul c\ld on ! "o h& use ! expressions 9 ?is lett] ) reg>d to x1 & on ! o!r t he c\ld h fail$ to add rem>ks consi/5t ) su* an int]pretation4 ,= in/ance is x possible t ! ,apo/le 9 repress+ ! ex]cise ( ! ,*>isma1 z he does1 c\ld h neglect$ to po9t out "s o!r use = x ?an m]e p]sonal edification8 ,c\ld he h omitt$ to tell "s ( ^! speak]s ) tongues t1 in/ead ( wa/+ _! languages 9 a *ur* :]e no "o und]/ood !m1 x w\ld be well = !m to employ !m 9 ! in/ruction ( ! nations ^: tongues _h be5 sup]naturally imp>t$ to !m8 ,z x is1 ,paul *ecks ! use ( a gift be/[$ by ! ,holy ,_s1 & r$uces its op]ation to ! smalle/ limits1 )\t once indicat+ s obvi\s a sph]e ( usefulness = ! miracul\s p[]4 ,we ne$ n1 h[ev]1 proce$ to fur!r argum5ts ^u ?is bran* ( ! subject2 al?\gh1 9 treat+ o!r po9ts1 additional evid5ce w con/antly pres5t itself4 ,= ! reasons we h /at$1 & _m o!rs1 ! great majority ( critics are agre$ t ! gift ( tongues1 accord+ to ,paul1 0 n ! p[] ( speak+ =eign languages previ\sly unkn[n47#a7 ,b = ! n>rative 9 ,acts ii4 no "o w\ld ev] h ?\ght ( su* an int]pretation4 #che ,com+ n[ to consid] ! two ,*>ismata1 k9ds ( tongues & ! int]pretation ( tongues1 m imm$iately 9 connection ) our inquiry1 z s-call$ miracul\s gifts ( ! ,holy ,_s1 we %all fir/ endeav\r to asc]ta9 "s ( _! pr9cipal *>act]i/ics4 ,! !ory ( =eign languages sup]naturally imp>t$ )\t previ\s /udy may be def9itively laid aside4 ,! int]pretation ( tongues may g ) x1 b requires a few obs]vations4 ,x is cle> f ,paul's words ?r\gh\t ?is diss]tation t ! int]pretation ( tongues n only 0 n inv>iably atta*$ to ! gift ( tongues7#a7 7#a ,cor4 xiv4 #ac1 #bg1 #bh71 b 0 at lea/ (t5 a sep>ate gift possess$ )\t ! k9ds ( tongues 7cf4 xii4 #aj1 #bh1 xiv4 #bf1 #bh74 ,no?+ c be m specific ?an xii4 #aj444 to ano!r k9ds ( tongues2 & to ano!r int]pretation ( tongues2 & aga91 v4 #cj3 d all speak ) tongues8 d all int]pret8 ,?is is inde$ presag$ by ! div]sities ( gifts1 c1 ( xii4 #d ff4 ,^u ! hypo!sis ( =eign languages1 ?is w\ld presuppose t "s spoke languages :i* !y c\ld n int]pret1 & consequ5tly c\ld n und]/&1 & t o!rs und]/ood languages :i* !y c\ld n speak4 ,! latt] po9t is common en\gh 9 ord9>y life2 b1 9 ?is in/ance1 ! miracle ( sup]naturally receiv+ a p]fect k ( #chf languages1 in/antane\sly & )\t previ\s /udy1 is z great z to receive ! p[] to speak !m4 ,! anomaly 9 ! miracle1 m]ely to po9t out a sugge/ive discrepancy :]e all is anomal\s1 is t ! gift ( tongues %\ld ev] h be5 sep>at$ f ! gift ( int]pretation4 ,if a man und]/& ! =eign language he speaks he c int]pret x2 if he _c int]pret x1 he _c und]/& x2 & if he _c und]/& x1 c he possibly speak x8 ,c]ta9ly n1 )\t 8 hav+ be5 made a p]fectly me*anical in/rum5t ?r\gh :i*1 ap>t f ! und]/&+ & ! w1 s\nds are involunt>ily produc$1 :i* is n to be ent]ta9$4 ,/ill pursu+ ! same hypo!sis1--! "o gift is to speak languages :i* no "o und]/&s1 ! o!r to und]/& languages :i* no "o speaks4 ,paul nev] ev5 assumes ! probability t ! tongue spok5 is und]/ood by any "o except ! int]pret]4 ,! int]pretation ( su* obscure tongues mu/ h be5 a gift v little us$1--nev]1 inde$1 except z ! complem5t to ! gift ( tongues4 ,! natural & useful facility 9 languages is app>5tly divid$ into two sup]natural & useless halves4 ,! idea is irresi/ibly sugge/$1 z app>5tly x 0 to ! ,apo/le himself1 :e!r x w\ld n h be5 m = ! good ( mank9d & = ! hon\r ( ,*ri/ianity1 if1 in/ead ( ^! two miracul\sly incomplete gifts1 a little natural good s5se1 five words ev51 to be spok5 9 ! v]nacul> tongue & requir+ no int]pretation _h be5 imp>t$4 ,if1 in/ead ( =eign languages1 we sub/itute ! utt]ance ( ec/atic religi\s excitem5t1 ! anomaly ( speak+ a language )\t und]/&+ x or be+ und]/ood becomes intelligible2 & equally s ! int]pretation1 #chg unaccompani$ by ! p[] ( speak+4 ,x is obvi\s 9 bo? cases t1 z no "o und]/&s ! tongue1 no "o c det]m9e :e!r ! int]pretation ( x be accurate or n4 ,b x is easily conceivable t a sympa!tic n]v\s li/5] might suppose t he und]/ood ! brok5 & incoh]5t spee* ( ec/asy & might int]pret x accord+ to 8 own /imulat$ imag9ation4 ,! my/]i\s & unkn[n are sugge/ive texts1 & !re is no?+ m infecti\s ?an religi\s excitem5t4 ,9 all ?is1 h[ev]1 is !re any?+ miracul\s8 ,we ne$ n fur!r demon/rate t ! *ief & g5]al *>act]i/ic ( k9ds ( tongues 0 t !y 7 un9telligible 7cf4 #a ,cor4 xiv4 #b1 #f-aa1 #ac-ai74 ,speak+ ) ! _s ------ is oppos$ to speak+ ) ! und]/&+ ------ 7cf4 vv4 #ad-af1 c74 ,!y 7 n only un9telligible to o!rs1 b ! speak] himself did n und]/& :at he utt]$3 v4 #ad4 ,= if ,i pray ) a tongue ------ my _s ------ praye?1 b my und]/&+ ------ is unfruitful 7cf4 #ae f4 #ai74 ,we h already po9t$ out t ,paul speaks ( ^! ,*>ismata 9 g5]al1 & n z affect+ ! ,cor9?ians only2 & we mu/ n[ add t he obvi\sly does n ev5 ins9uate t ! k9ds ( tongues possess$ by t community 0 a spuri\s ,*>isma1 or t any attempt _h be5 made to simulate ! gift2 = no?+ c\ld h be5 m simple ?an = ! ,apo/le to d5\nce su* ph5om5a z false1 & to di/+ui% ! g5u9e f ! imitat$ spee* ) tongues4 ,! mo/ conv9c+ pro( t 8 rem>ks ref] to ! g5u9e ,*>isma is t ! ,apo/le applies to himself ! v same re/rictions 9 ! use ( tongues z he en=ces ^u ! ,cor9?ians #chh 7vv4 #ah-ai1 #f1 c71 & *>act]ises 8 own gift precisely z he does !irs 7vv4 #f1 #aa1 #ad1 #ae1 #ai74 ,n[ :at 0 ! actual op]ation ( ?is s+ul> miracul\s gift1 & its utility :e!r z reg>ds ! community or ! gift$ individual8 ,paul re/ricts ! speak+ ( tongues 9 *ur* because1 be+ un9telligible1 x is n = edification 7xiv4 #b ff4 #ah f4 #bc1 #bg1 #bh74 ,he himself does n make use ( 8 gift = ! assemblies ( believ]s 7vv4 #f1 #ah74 ,ano!r gr\nd ^u :i* he objects to ! use ( k9ds ( tongues 9 public is t all ! gift$ app>5tly speak at once 7vv4 #bc1 #bg f4 #cc74 ,x w be rememb]$ t all ! ,*>ismata & _! op]ations are describ$ z due to ! direct ag5cy ( ! ,holy ,_s 7xii4 #d ff472 & imm$iately foll[+ _! enum]ation1 end+ ) k9ds ( tongues & int]pretation ( tongues1 ! ,apo/le resumes3 v4 #aa4 b all ^! worke? ! "o & ! same ,_s1 divid+ to ea* sev]ally z he wills2 & 9 ,acts ii4 #d ! bre?r5 are repres5t$ z speak+ ) tongues z ! ,_s gave !m utt]ance4 ,n[ ! fir/ ?\ght :i* pres5ts itself is3 ,h[ c a gift :i* is due to ! direct work+ ( ! ,holy ,_s possibly be abus$8 ,we mu/ rememb] cle>ly t ! spee* is n expressive ( ! und]/&+ ( ! speak]4 ,! ------ spoke "u ! inspiration ( ! sup]natural ,ag5t1 :at nei!r !y nor o!rs und]/ood4 ,is x p]missible to suppose t ! ,holy ,_s c\ld inspire spee* ) tongues at an unfitt+ "t8 ,c we imag9e t ?is ,_s c actually h prompt$ _m p to speak at "o & ! same "t to ! utt] di/urbance ( ord]8 ,is n su* a gift ( tongues m l ! confusion ( tongues 9 ,babel7#a7 #chi ?an a *ri/ian ,*>isma8 ,& ! ,"l said3444,g to1 let u g d[n & !re conf\nd _! language1 t !y may n und]/& "o ano!r's spee*47#a7 ,9 spite ( 8 ab/ract belief 9 ! div9e orig9 ( ! ,*>isma1 ,paul's language unconsci\sly betrays practical d\bt z to its "*4 ,does n su* s>casm z ! foll[+ seem extremely indecor\s :5 criticis+ a result produc$ directly by ! ,holy ,_s8 7xiv4 #bc7 ,if1 !re=e1 ! :ole *ur* be come into "o place & all speak ) tongues1 & !re come 9 unle>n$ & unbeliev+ p]sons w !y n say t ye are mad8 ,at ,p5teco/ su* an assembly 0 suppos$ to be drunk547#b7 ,! :ole ( ! c\nsel ( ! ,apo/le ^u ?is occasion really am\nts to an injunction to qu5* ! ,_s4 ,x is q :at might be expect$ 9 ! case ( ! excitem5t ( ec/atic religion1 t ! /rong emotion %\ld pr9cipally f9d v5t 9 ! =m ( pray] & praise 7vv4 #ae ff471 equally s t x %\ld be un9telligible & t no "o %\ld "k :5 to say ,am5 7v4 #af71 & t all %\ld speak at once1 & /ill m s t ! practical result %\ld be tumult 7vv4 #bc1 #cc74 ,all ?is1 x might appe>1 c\ld be produc$ )\t ! int]v5tion ( ! ,holy ,_s4 ,s f>1 is !re & utility 9 ! miracle8 ,b we are told t x is = a sign4 ,paul argues ^u ?is po9t 9 a highly ecc5tric mann]4 ,he quotes 7v4 #ba7 ,isaiah xxviii4 #aa1 #ab1 9 a =m nei!r agree+ ) ! ,septuag9t nor ) ! ,hebrew1 a passage :i* has m]ely a sup]ficial & v]bal analogy ) ! gift ( tongues1 b ^: real #cij hi/orical mean+ has no ref]5ce to x :atev]3 ,9 ! ,law x is writt51 t ) m5 ( o!r tongues & ) ! lips ( o!rs w ,i speak unto ?is p2 & yet = all t !y w n he> me1 sai? ! ,"l4 ,! ,apo/le cont9ues ) s+ul> logic3 ,s t ------ ! tongues are = a sign ------ n to ^? :o believe b to ! unbeliev+2 b prophecy is n = ! unbeliev+ b = ^? :o believe4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! :ole *ur* be come into "o place1 & all speak ) tongues1 & !re come 9 unle>n$ or unbeliev+ p]sons1 w !y n say t ye are mad8 ,b if all prophesy & !re come 9 an unbeliev]444 he is convict$ by all444 & s fall+ on 8 face he w wor%ip ,god1 report+ t ,god is inde$ 9 y4 ,! ,apo/le himself %[s t ! tongues _c be consid]$ a sign by unbeliev]s1 ^u :om1 app>5tly1 !y produce no o!r impression ?an t ! speak]s are mad or drunk54 ,"u any circum/ances1 ! k9ds ( tongues describ$ by ! ,apo/le are a v sorry specim5 ( ! signs & wond]s & p[]s ( :i* we h he>d s mu*4 ,x is n surpris+ t ! ,apo/le pref]s exhortation 9 a famili> tongue4 ,9 an ec/atic /ate1 m5 are incapable ( edify+ o!rs3 we %all pres5tly see h[ f> !y c edify !mselves4 ,paul utt]s ! pi? ( ! :ole matt] at ! v outset ( 8 homily1 :5 he pref]s exhortation to k9ds ( tongues3 v4 #b4 ,= he t speake? ) a tongue speake? n unto m5 b unto ,god3 = no "o "u-/&e?1 b 9 ,_s he speake? my/]ies ------4 ,x is n possible to read 8 words )\t ! impression t ! ,apo/le treats ! :ole subject ) suppress$ impati5ce4 ,8 m9d 0 too prone to believe 9 spiritual my/]ies1 & 8 n]v\s #cia nature too susceptible to religi\s emotion & en?usiasm to p]mit him cle>ly to recognize ! true "* ( ! gift ( tongues2 b 8 good s5se ass]t$ itself &1 aft] prote/+ t he w\ld r speak five words ) 8 und]/&+ ?an t5 ?\s& words 9 a tongue1 he breaks (f ) ! *>act]i/ic exclamation 7v4 #bj73 ,bre?r51 become n *ildr5 9 y\r m9ds ------4 ,! advice is n yet out ( place4 ,:at 0 ! private utility or advantage ( ! sup]natural gift8 ,h[ did he :o spoke ) a tongue edify himself8 7v4 #d47 ,paul cle>ly /ates t he does n edify ! *ur* 7vv4 #b ff474 ,9 ! passage j quot$ ! ,apo/le1 h[ev]1 says t ! speak] ) a tongue speake? to ,god2 & fur!r on 7vv4 #ah1 #ai7 he implies t1 al?\gh he himself does n use ! gift 9 public1 he does s 9 private4 ,he admoni%es 7v4 #bh7 any "o gift$ ) tongues1 if !re be no int]pret] pres5t1 to keep sil5ce 9 a *ur*1 b let him speak to himself & to ,god4 ,b 9 :at does ! p]sonal edification ( ! individual consi/8 ,9 employ+ language1 :i* he does n compreh5d1 9 private pray] & praise8 ,9 address+ ,god 9 "s un9telligible j>gon1 9 ! utt]ance ( :i* 8 und]/&+ has no "p8 ,_m /range purposes & proce$+s h be5 attribut$ to ! ,supreme ,be+1 b probably none has be5 imag9$ m incongru\s ?an a gift ( tongues unsuitable = ! edification ( o!rs1 & n intelligible to ! recipi5t1 b consid]$ an edify+ sub/itute 9 private devotion = 8 own language4 ,?is 0 c]ta9ly n ! =m ( pray] :i* ,jesus taught 8 disciples47#a7 ,& ?is gift 0 valu$ #cib m highly 9 ! ,cor9?ian ,*ur* ?an all ! re/6 ,d we n get an in/ructive insight into ! nature ( ! o!r ,*>ismata f ?is sugge/ive fact8 ,! reality ( miracles does n seem to be demon/rat$ by ^! *apt]s47#a7 ,we h already /at$ t ! va/ majority ( critics expla9 ------ z spee* 9 an ec/atic condition27#b7 & all ! ph5om5a describ$ by ,paul closely correspond ) ! utt]ance ( p]sons 9 a /ate ( extreme religi\s en?usiasm1 & excitem5t1 ( :i* _m illu/rations might be giv5 f o!r religions be=e & s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( our era1 z well z 9 ! hi/ory ( ,*ri/ianity 9 e>ly & rec5t times4 ,e "o kn[s ( ! proce$+s ( ! hea!n oracles1 ! wild wri?+s & cries ( ! ,py?oness & ! my/ic utt]ances ( ! ,sibyl4 ,9 ! ,old ,te/am5t !re is allusion to ! ec/atic emotion ( ! prophets 9 ! acc\nt ( ,saul1 #a ,s>a4 xix4 #bd2 cf4 ,isaiah viii4 #ai1 xxix4 #d4 ,! ,montani/s exhibit$ simil> ph5om5a1 & ,t]tullian has record$ sev]al in/ances ( su* religi\s excitem5t1 to :i* we h else:]e ref]r$4 ,*ryso/ora _h to repress p>oxysms ( pi\s excitem5t closely resembl+ ^! 9 ! f\r? c5tury27#c7 & ev5 d[n to our own times in/ances h nev] be5 want+ ( ?is =m ( hy/]ical religion4 ,into none ( ?is c we ent] "h4 ,en\gh1 we tru/1 has be5 said to %[ ! true "* ( ! suppos$ sup]natural ,*>ismata ( ,paul f 8 own acc\nt ( !m1 & ! in=mation conta9$ 9 8 epi/les4 #cic ,al?\gh we h be5 =c$ to exam9e 9 consid]able detail ! passages 9 ! writ+s ( ,paul cit$ by apologi/s 9 support ( miracles1 ! /udy is "o ( great value to our inquiry4 ,^! are ! only passages :i* we possess 9 :i* a contempor>y & eye-witness describes :at he consid]s sup]natural ph5om5a1 & conveys to u 8 impression ( miracul\s ag5cy4 ,in/ead ( traditional reports ( miracles n>rat$ by writ]s :o are unkn[n1 & :o did n witness ! occurr5ces 9 "q1 we h "h a tru/wor?y witness deal+ ) matt]s 9 :i* he 0 p]sonally int]e/$1 & writ+ a didactic homily ^u ! nature & op]ation ( ,*>ismata1 :i* he believ$ to be miracul\s & conf]r$ ^u ! ,*ur* by ! imm$iate ag5cy ( ! ,holy ,_s4 ,! n9ete5? c5tury "h comes into direct contact ) ! age ( miracles1 b at ! t\* ! miracles vani%1 & t :i*1 se5 ?r\gh ! gold5 mi/ ( pi\s tradition1 seems to possess une>?ly p[] & beauty1 on clos] exam9ation dw9dles into ! prose ( e day life4 ,! m m9utely report$ miracles are scann$1 ! m unreal !y are recogniz$ to be4 ,! po9t to :i* we n[ desire to call att5tion1 h[ev]1 is ! belief & ! m5tal con/itution ( ,paul4 ,we h se5 some?+ ( ! nature & op]ation ( ! gift ( tongues4 ,t ! ph5om5a describ$ proce$$ f an ec/atic /ate1 into :i* p]sons ( highly excitable n]v\s organization are v liable to fall "u ! op]ation ( /rong religi\s impressions1 c sc>cely be d\bt$4 ,em95t apologi/s7#a7 h gravely illu/rat$ ! ph5om5a by ! analogy ( mesm]ism1 #cid somnambulism & ! effects ( magnetism4 ,paul ass]ts t he 0 subject to ! influ5ce1 :atev] x 01 m ?an anyone1 & !re is no?+ :i* is m cr$ible ?an ! /atem5t1 or m *>act]i/ic ( ! ,apo/le4 ,we desire to speak ( him ) ! pr(\nde/ respect & admiration4 ,we "k m1 f 8 epi/les1 ( ! intimate life & feel+s ( ! great ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles ?an ( any o!r man ( ! apo/olic age1 & x is impossible n to feel w>m sympa?y ) 8 noble & g5]\s "*4 ,! hi/ory ( ,*ri/ianity1 aft] ! dea? ( its ,f\nd]1 w\ld s9k almo/ into common-place if ! gr& figure ( ,paul 7 blott$ f its pages4 ,b x is no detraction to recognize t 8 n]v\s temp]am5t r5d]$ him peculi>ly susceptible ( ^? religi\s impressions :i* result 9 conditions ( ec/atic trance1 to :i*1 z we actually le>n f himself1 he 0 exceptionally subject4 ,! effects ( ?is temp]am5t probably fir/ made him a ,*ri/ian2 & to 8 en?usia/ic imag9ation we owe mo/ ( ! sup]natural dogmas ( ! religion :i* he adopt$ & trans=m$4 ,"o ( ^! trances ! ,apo/le himself rec\nts17#a7 always ) ! cauti\s res]ve3 :e!r 9 ! body or out ( ! body ,i "k n1 ,god kn[e?1 h[ he 0 caught up to ! ?ird heav51 & 9 ,p>adise he>d unutt]able words :i* x is n lawful = a man to speak2 9 imm$iate connection ) :i* he cont9ues3 ,& le/ ,i %\ld be exalt$ above measure by ! excess ( ! revelations1 !re 0 giv5 to me a /ake ------ 9 ! fle%1 an angel ( ,satan to buffet me7#b7 ,?is 0 "o ( #cje ! visions ------ & revelations ------ ( ! ,"l ( :i* he speaks1 & ( :i* he _h su* an excess to boa/4 ,c any "o d\bt t ?is 0 ne>ly ak9 to ! /ate ( ec/atic trance 9 :i* he spoke ) tongues m ?an all ! ,cor9?ians8 ,does any "o suppose t ,paul1 :e!r 9 ! body or out ( ! body1 0 ev] actually caught up into ! ?ird heav51 :]ev] t may be8 or d\bt t ?is 0 simply "o ( ! pi\s halluc9ations :i* visit ^? :o are 9 su* a /ate8 ,if we are s]i\sly to discuss ! po9t1--x is cle> t evid5ce ( su* a ?+ is out ( ! "q2 t ,paul himself admits t he _c def9itely describe :at happ5$2 t we h no o!r gr\nd = consid]+ ! matt] ?an ! ,apo/le's own my/]i\s utt]ance2 t x is impossible = a p]son subject to su* visions & halluc9ations to di/+ui% betwe5 reality & seem+2 t ?is n>rative has n only all ! "* ( halluc9ation1 b no feature ( sob] fact2 & f9ally t1 :il/ x accords ) all exp]i5ces ( vision>y halluc9ation1 x contradicts all exp]i5ce ( practical life4 ,we h se5 t ,paul believes 9 ! g5u95ess & sup]natural orig9 ( ! div9e ,*>ismata1 & he 9 l mann] believes 9 ! reality ( 8 visions & revelations4 ,he has equal reason1 or want ( reason1 9 bo? cases4 ,:at1 h[ev]1 0 ! nature ( ! /ake 9 ! fle% :i*1 ^u ! !ory ( ! diabolical orig9 ( disease1 he calls an angel ( ,satan to buffet me8 ,!re h be5 _m conjectures (f]$1 b "o explanation :i* has be5 advanc$ by able critics has special =ce & probability4 ,x is sugge/$ t ?is /ake 9 ! fle%1 :i* almo/ all n[ at #cif lea/ recognise to h be5 "s physical malady1 & v _m suppose to h be5 heada*e or "s o!r simil> p]iodical & pa9ful affection1 0 9 reality a =m ( epilepsy47#a7 ,x has be5 ably argu$ t ! repres5tation ( ! malady z an angel ( ,satan to buffet him1 directly connects x ) n]v\s disord]s l epilepsy1 :i* ! ,jews especially ascrib$ to diabolical influ5ce2 & ! m5tion ( ?is ------ 9 imm$iate cont9uation ( 8 rem>ks on visions & revelations1 :i* a t5d5cy to ?is v malady w\ld s mat]ially assi/ 9 produc+1 fur!r confirms ! conjecture47#b7 ,no "o c d5y1 & m$ical & psy*ological annals prove1 t _m m5 h be5 subject to visions & halluc9ations :i* h nev] be5 s]i\sly attribut$ to sup]natural causes4 ,!re is n "o s+le valid reason remov+ ! ec/atic visions & trances ( ! ,apo/le ,paul f ?is class4 ,we d n yet discuss ! suppos$ vision 9 :i* he saw ! ris5 ,jesus1 ?\gh x is no exception to ! re/1 b res]ve x = ! next *apt]4 ,at pres5t1 x suffices t we po9t out ! be>+ ( our exam9ation ( ,paul's g5]al te/imony to miracles ^u our future consid]ation ( 8 evid5ce = ! ,resurrection4 ,if x be admitt$ t 8 judgm5t z to ! miracul\s "* ( ! ,*>ismata is fallaci\s1 & t :at he consid]$ miracul\s 7 simply natural ph5om5a1 ! !ory ( ! reality ( miracles #cig becomes less t5able ?an ev]4 ,& if1 fur!r1 x be recogniz$1 z we ?9k x necess>ily mu/ be1 t ,paul 0 subject to natural ec/atic trances1 ) all _! accompany+ =ms ( n]v\s excitem5t3 k9ds ( tongues1 visions1 & religi\s halluc9ations1 a /rong & cle> light w fall ^u 8 fur!r te/imony = miracul\s occurr5ces :i* we %all %ortly h be=e u4 ,,"p ,,vi4 ,,! ,,resurrection ,,& ,,asc5sion ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,evid5ce ,,to ,,subject ,:5 ! evid5ce ( ! ,gospels reg>d+ ! great c5tral dogmas ( ecclesia/ical ,*ri/ianity is %[n to be untru/wor?y & insuffici5t1 apologi/s appeal ) confid5ce to ! te/imony ( ! ,apo/le ,paul4 ,we presume t x is n necess>y to %[ t1 9 fact1 ! ma9 weight ( ! case re/s ^u 8 epi/les1 z und\bt$ docum5ts ( ! apo/olic age1 writt5 "s ?irty or =ty ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ! ,ma/]4 ,! retort has frequ5tly be5 made to ! e>li] portion ( ?is "w t1 s long z ! evid5ce ( ,paul rema9s un%ak51 ! apologetic position is secure4 ,we may quote a few l9es f an able "w1 "p ( a passage discuss$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 z a /atem5t ( ! case3 ,9 ! fir/ place1 m]ely z a matt] ( hi/orical atte/ation1 ! ,gospels are n ! /ronge/ evid5ce = ! ,*ri/ian miracles4 ,only "o ( ! f\r1 9 its pres5t %ape1 is claim$ z ! "w ( an ,apo/le1 & ( t ! g5u95ess is disput$4 ,! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les /& ^u v mu* ! #cii same foot+ ) ! ,synoptic ,gospels1 & ( ?is book1 we are promis$ a fur!r exam9ation4 ,b we possess at lea/ "s und\bt$ writ+s ( "o :o 0 himself a *ief actor 9 ! ev5ts :i* foll[$ imm$iately ^u ^? record$ 9 ! ,gospels2 & 9 ^! und\bt$ writ+s ,/4 ,paul c]ta9ly %[s by incid5tal allusions1 ! good fai? ( :i* _c be que/ion$1 t he believ$ himself to be end[$ ) ! p[] ( work+ miracles1 & t miracles1 or :at 7 ?\ght to be su*1 7 actually wr\ght by him & by 8 contempor>ies44444 ,besides ^! allusions1 ,/4 ,paul repeat$ly ref]s to ! c>d9al miracles ( ! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion2 he ref]s to !m z notori\s & unque/ionable facts at a "t :5 su* an ass]tion might h be5 easily refut$4 ,on "o occasion he gives a v circum/antial acc\nt ( ! te/imony on :i* ! belief 9 ! ,resurrection re/$ 7#a ,cor4 xv4 #d-h74 ,& n only does he ass]t ! ,resurrection z a fact1 b he builds ^u x a :ole s*eme ( doctr9e3 ',if ,*ri/ be n ris51' he says1 '!n is our prea*+ va91 & y\r fai? is also va94' ,we d n /ay n[ to consid] ! exact philosophical weight ( ?is evid5ce4 ,x w be "t en\gh to d ?is :5 x has receiv$ ! critical discussion t may be presum$ to be 9 /ore = x ,b z ext]nal evid5ce1 9 ! legal s5se1 x is probably ! be/ t c be produc$1 & x has be5 entirely unt\*$ s f>47#a7 ,we h already dispos$ ( ! allusions above ref]r$ to4 ,we %all 9 due "t deal ) ! re/ ( ! /atem5ts 9 ?is passage1 b at pres5t x is suffici5t to agree at #djj lea/ ) ! rem>k t1 z ext]nal evid5ce1 ! te/imony ( ,paul is probably ! be/ t c be produc$4 ,we "k at lea/ :o ! witness really is1 :i* is an advantage d5i$ u 9 ! case ( ! ,gospels4 ,x w\ld be premature to express surprise1 h[ev]1 t we f9d ! case ( miracles1 & m especially ( su* /up5d\s miracles z ! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion1 practically re/+ ^u ! te/imony ( a s+le witness4 ,?is ?\ght w intrude itself1 b _c at pres5t be pursu$4 ,! allegation :i* we h to exam9e is t ! ,f\nd] ( ,*ri/ianity1 aft] be+ dead & buri$1 rose f ! dead & did n aga9 die1 b aft] rema9+ sometime ) 8 disciples asc5d$ ) 8 body into heav547#a7 ,x is unnecess>y to complicate ! "q by add+ ! o!r doctr9es reg>d+ ! miracul\s bir? & div9e orig9 & p]sonality ( ,jesus4 ,9 ! problem be=e u1 c]ta9 objective facts are ass]t$ :i* admit ( be+ judicially te/$4 ,we h no?+ to d "h ) ! vague mod]n repres5tation ( ^! ev5ts1 by means ( :i* ! objective facts vani%1 & are replac$ by subjective impressions & tricks ( consci\sness or symbols ( spiritual life4 ,^? :o adopt su* views h1 ( c\rse1 ab&on$ all t is real & sup]natural 9 ! suppos$ ev5ts4 ,! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion :i* we h to deal ) are ev5ts precisely z objective & real z ! #a ,9 ! ,articles ( ! ,*ur* ( ,engl& ?is is express$ z foll[s3 ,art4 ii4 44444:o truly suff]$1 0 crucifi$1 dead1 & buri$1 c41 c4 ,art4 iii4 ,z ,*ri/ di$ = u1 & 0 buri$2 s also x is to be believ$ t ,he w5t d[n into ,hell4 ,art iv4 ,*ri/ did truly rise aga9 f dea?1 & took aga9 ,hie ,body1 ) fle%1 bones1 & all ?+s app]ta9+ to ! p]fection ( man's nature1 :]e) ,he asc5d$ into ,heav51 & !re sitte?1 until ,he return to judge all m5 at ! la/ day4 #dja dea? & burial1--no ideal process figur$ by ! imag9ation or embodim5ts ( *ri/ian hope1 b tangible realities1 hi/orical occurr5ces 9 ! s5se ( ord9>y life4 ,if ,jesus1 aft] be+ crucifi$1 dead & buri$1 did n physically rise aga9 f ! dead1 & 9 ! fle%17#a7 )\t aga9 dy+1 asc5d into ,heav51 ! :ole case falls to ! gr\nd4 ,^! incid5ts1 al?\gh /up5d\s miracles1 mu/ h be5 actual occurr5ces4 ,if !y did n really take place1 our task is at an end4 ,if x be ass]t$ t !y really did take place _! occurr5ce mu/ be atte/$ by adequate evid5ce4 ,apologi/s1 :il/ prote/+ t ! occurr5ces 9 "q are believ$ ^u ord9>y hi/orical evid5ce1 & t ,*ri/ianity requires no indulg5ce1 b submits itself to ! same te/s z any o!r affirmation1 d n practically act ^u ?is pr9ciple2 b1 z soon z x is enunciat$1 introduce a v>iety ( special pleas :i* remove ! case f ! doma9 ( hi/ory into t ( !ology1 & proce$ ^u "o assumption aft] ano!r until ! fundam5tal facts become envelop$ &1 s to say1 protect$ f judicial criticism by a cl\d ( religi\s dogmas & hypo!ses47#b7 ,by conf9+ our att5tion to ! simple facts :i* =m ! basis ( ! :ole sup]/ructure ( ecclesia/ical ,*ri/ianity1 we may avoid mu* confusion ( ideas1 & #a ,! disappe>ance ( ! body f ! sepul*re1 a po9t mu* insi/$ ^u1 c\ld h _h no significance or reality if ! body did n rise & aft]w>ds asc5d4 #b ,a "w ( ?is k9d may be m5tion$ 9 illu/ration3 ,dr4 ,we/-cott's ,gospel ( ! ,resurrection4 ,! argum5t ( ?is "w is ( unque/ionable ability1 b x is *iefly rem>kable1 we ?9k1 = ! mann] 9 :i* ! direct evid5ce is hurri$ ov]1 & a mass ( ass]tions & assumptions1 ! great] "p ( :i* is utt]ly unt5able & inadmissible1 is wov5 into speci\s & eloqu5t plead+1 & does duty = sub/antial te/imony4 #djb re/rict ! field ( inquiry to reasonable limits4 ,we propose1 !re=e1 to limit our inve/igation to ! evid5ce = ! reality ( ! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion4 ,:at evid5ce c\ld be reg>d$ z suffici5t to e/abli% ! reality ( su* suppos$ occurr5ces8 ,! "q is "o :i* dem&s ! s]i\s att5tion & consid]ation ( e ?\ghtful man4 ,x is obvi\s t ! am\nt ( evid5ce requisite to satisfy our m9ds z to ! tru? ( any /atem5t %\ld be measur$ by ! nature ( ! /atem5t made &1 we may z well add1 by its practical importance to ourselves4 ,! news t a man 0 m>ri$ or a *ild born la/ week is receiv$ )\t d\bt1 because m5 are m>ri$ & *ildr5 are born e day2 & al?\gh su* pieces ( gossip are frequ5tly untrue1 no?+ appe>s m natural or 9 accordance ) our exp]i5ce4 ,if we take m di/ant & less famili> ev5ts we h no d\bt t a c]ta9 mon>* 0 cr[n$1 & t he subsequ5tly di$ "s c5turies ago4 ,if we ask = ! evid5ce = ! /atem5t1 no?+ may be =?com+ ( a v m9ute or indubitable nature4 ,no absolute eye-witness ( ! coronation may h left a cle> & detail$ n>rative ( ! c]emony2 & possibly !re may no long] be extant a suffici5tly atte/$ docum5t prov+ ) c]ta9ty ! dea? ( ! mon>*4 ,!re are sev]al consid]ations1 h[ev]1 :i* make u p]fectly satisfi$ ) ! evid5ce1 incomplete z x may be4 ,mon>*s are g5]ally cr[n$ & inv>iably die2 & ! /atem5t t any "o p>ticul> mon>* 0 cr[n$ & di$ is s completely 9 con=mity ) exp]i5ce1 t we h no hesitation 9 believ+ x 9 ! specific case4 ,we are satisfi$ to believe su* #djc ord9>y /atem5ts ^u v slight evid5ce1 bo? because our exp]i5ce prep>es u to believe t !y are true1 & because we d n mu* c>e :e!r !y are true or n4 ,if life1 or ev5 succession to an e/ate1 dep5d$ ^u ei!r ev5t1 ! dem& = evid5ce1 ev5 9 su* simple matt]s1 w\ld be imm5sely int5sifi$4 ,! conv]se ( ! /atem5t1 h[ev]1 w\ld n meet ) ! same reception4 ,w\ld anyone believe ! affirmation t ,alfr$ ! ,great1 = in/ance1 did n die at all8 ,:at am\nt ( evid5ce w\ld be requir$ be=e su* a /atem5t c\ld be pron\nc$ suffici5tly atte/$8 ,univ]sal exp]i5ce w\ld be s uni=mly oppos$ to ! ass]tion t su* a ph5om5on _h tak5 place1 t probably no evid5ce :i* c\ld readily be conceiv$ c\ld ensure ! belief ( m ?an a cr$ul\s few4 ,! ass]tion t a man actually di$ & 0 buri$1 & yet aft]w>ds rose f ! dead1 is /ill m at v>iance ) human exp]i5ce4 ,! prolongation ( life to long p]iods is comp>atively consi/5t ) exp]i5ce2 & if a life ext5d+ to sev]al c5turies be incr$ible x is only s 9 degree1 & is n absolutely contr>y to ! ord] ( nature1 :i* c]ta9ly "u pres5t conditions does n fav\r ! supposition ( su* l5g!n$ exi/5ce1 b /ill does n fix h>d & fa/ limits to ! life ( man4 ,! resurrection ( a man :o has once be5 absolutely dead1 h[ev]1 is contr>y to all human exp]i5ce1 & to all t we "k ( ! ord] ( nature4 ,if to ?is we add ! ass]tion t ! p]son s rais$ f ! dead nev] aga9 di$1 b aft] cont9u+ "s "t long] on e>?1 asc5d$ bodily to "s invisible & inconceivable place call$ ,heav51 !re to sit at ! "r h& ( ,god1 ! %ock to reason & common #djd s5se becomes s extreme1 t x is difficult ev5 to realize ! nature ( ! affirmation4 ,x w\ld be hopeless to endeav\r to def9e ! evid5ce :i* c\ld e/abli% ! reality ( ! alleg$ occurr5ces4 ,z ! c5tral doctr9es ( a religion ^u :i* ! salvation ( ! human race is said to dep5d1 we are too deeply int]e/$ to be satisfi$ ) slight evid5ce or no evid5ce at all4 ,x has n unfrequ5tly be5 made a reproa* t =5sic evid5ce is requir$ ( ! reality ( ,div9e ,revelation4 ,su* a c\rse is reg>d$ z p]fectly prepo/]\s1 :e!r ! te/ be appli$ to ! prim>y ass]tion t a revelation has be5 made at all1 or to its cont5ts4 ,:at k9d ( evid5ce !n are we p]mitt$ decor\sly to require ^u s mom5t\s a subject8 ,app>5tly1 j s mu* z apologi/s c conv5i5tly set be=e u1 & no m4 ,! evid5ce deem$ necess>y = ! settlem5t ( a ,scot* ,pe]age case1 or a disput$ w1 is1 we d n hesitate to say1 inf9itely m complete ?an t :i* x is ?\ght ei!r pi\s or "r to expect 9 ! case ( ,religion4 ,! actual occurr5ce ( ! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion1 h[ev]1 is c]ta9ly a matt] ( evid5ce &1 to retort1 x is sc>cely dec5t t any man %\ld be requir$ to believe :at is s oppos$ to human exp]i5ce1 ^u m imp]fect evid5ce ?an is requir$ = ! transf] ( l& or ! "r to a title1 simply because ecclesia/ical dogmas are f\nd$ ^u !m1 & x is repres5t$ t unless !y be true our hope is va94 ,! te/imony requisite to e/abli% ! reality ( su* /up5d\s miracles c sc>cely be realiz$4 ,proportionately1 x %\ld be z unp>allel$ 9 its =ce z ^? ev5ts are 9 fact4 ,"o po9t1 moreov]1 mu/ nev] be =gott54 ,human te/imony is exce$+ly fallible at its #dje be/ ,x is liable to error f innum]able causes1 & mo/ ( all1 probably1 :5 religi\s excitem5t is pres5t1 & di/urb+ elem5ts ( sorr[1 fe>1 d\bt1 or en?usiasm int]f]e ) ! calmness ( judgm5t4 ,:5 any ass]tion is made :i* contradicts unv>y+ exp]i5ce1 ^u evid5ce :i* exp]i5ce kn[s to be univ]sally liable to error1 !re _c be mu* hesitation 9 disbeliev+ ! ass]tion & pref]r+ belief 9 ! ord] ( nature4 ,& :5 evid5ce proce$s f an age n only highly expos$ to error1 f ignorance ( natural laws1 sup]/ition1 & religi\s excitem5t1 b prolific 9 fabul\s reports & unt5able !ories1 x _c be receiv$ )\t ! grave/ suspicion4 ,we make ^! brief rem>ks1 9 anticipation1 z no?+ is m ess5tial 9 ! discussion ^u :i* we are ab\t to ent] ?an a prop] appreciation ( ! allegations :i* are to be te/$1 & ( ! nature ( ! te/imony requir$ = _! belief4 ,we %all n limit our inquiry to ! te/imony ( ,paul1 b %all review ! :ole ( ! evid5ce adduc$ = ! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion4 ,hi!rto1 our exam9ation ( ! hi/orical books ( ! ,new ,te/am5t has be5 ma9ly = ! purpose ( asc]ta9+ _! "*1 & ! value ( _! evid5ce = miracles & ! reality ( ,div9e ,revelation4 ,x is unnecess>y = u "h m9utely to recapitulate ! results4 ,! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 we h %[n1 _c be receiv$ z te/imony ( ! slighte/ weight ^u any ( ! po9ts be=e u4 ,writt5 by an unkn[n au?or1 :o 0 n an eye-witness ( ! miracles relat$2 :o describes ev5ts n z !y occurr$1 b z 8 pi\s imag9ation suppos$ !y ought to h occurr$2 :o seldom t\*es hi/ory )\t trans=m+ x by leg5d until ! #djf orig9al elem5ts c sc>cely be di/+ui%$2 :o puts 8 own words & s5tim5ts into ! m\?s ( ! ,apo/les & o!r p]sons ( 8 n>rative2 & :o repres5ts almo/ e phase ( ! ,*ur* 9 ! ,apo/olic age z influ5c$1 or directly produc$1 by means ( sup]natural ag5cy2 su* a "w is ( no value z evid5ce = occurr5ces :i* are 9 contradiction to all human exp]i5ce4 ,briefly to /ate ! case ( ! ,gospels 9 o!r words ?an our own1 we repeat ! hone/ /atem5t ( ! able writ] quot$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is *apt]3 ,9 ! fir/ place1 m]ely z a matt] ( hi/orical atte/ation1 ! ,gospels are n ! /ronge/ evid5ce = ! ,*ri/ian miracles4 ,only "o ( ! f\r1 9 its pres5t %ape1 is claim$ z ! "w ( an ,apo/le1 & ( t ! g5u95ess is disput$47l7 ,we may add t ! ?ird ,synoptic does n1 9 ! e/imation ( any "o :o has exam9$ ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 ga9 additional cr$ibility by be+ compos$ by ! same au?or z ! latt] "w4 ,! writ]s ( ! f\r ,gospels are absolutely unkn[n to u1 & 9 ! case ( ?ree ( !m1 x is n ev5 affirm$ t !y 7 eyewitnesses ( ! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion & o!r miracles n>rat$4 ,! und5iably d\btful au?or%ip ( ! f\r? ,gospel1 n to make a m positive /atem5t "h1 r5d]s ?is "w1 :i* 0 n writt5 until upw>ds ( half a c5tury1 at ! v lea/1 aft] ! dea? ( ,jesus1 incapable ( prov+ any?+ 9 reg>d to ! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion4 ,a mu* /rong] /atem5t might be made1 b we ref] read]s to our =m] volumes1 & we %all le>n some?+ m ( ! "* ( ! ,gospel n>ratives z we proce$4 ,al?\gh we _c atta* any value to ! ,gospels #djg z evid5ce1 we propose1 be=e tak+ ! te/imony ( ,paul1 to survey ! v>i\s /atem5ts made by !m reg>d+ ! a/\nd+ miracles we are discuss+4 ,en\gh has be5 said to %[ t we _c accept any /atem5t z true simply because x is made by a ,gospel or ,gospels4 ,:5 x is relat$ 9 ! fir/ ,synoptic1 = in/ance1 t ,pilate took wat] & wa%$ 8 h&s be=e ! multitude1 say+1 ,i am innoc5t ( ?is man's blood3 see ye to x17#a7--;an incid5t to :i* no ref]5ce1 be x said 9 pass+1 is made by ! o!r evangeli/s1 al?\gh x is suffici5tly rem>kable to h des]v$ notice1--we _c ( c\rse assume t ,pilate actually said or did any?+ ( ! k9d4 ,a comp>ison ( ! v>i\s acc\nts ( ! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion1 h[ev]1 & c>eful exam9ation ( _! details1 w be ( v great use1 by enabl+ u to appreciate ! position ( ! case ap>t f ! evid5ce ( ,paul4 ,! indef9ite impression fo/]$ by apologi/s1 t ! evid5ce ( ! ,gospels supplem5ts & completes ! evid5ce ( ! ,apo/le1 & =ms an aggregate body ( te/imony ( rem>kable =ce & volume1 mu/ be exam9$1 & a cle> conception =m$ ( ! :ole case4 ,"o po9t may at once be m5tion$ be=e we ent] ^u our exam9ation ( ! ,gospels4 ,! ,evangeli/s n>rate su* a/oni%+ occurr5ces z ! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion ) p]fect composure & abs5ce ( surprise4 ,?is *>act]i/ic is ev5 made an argum5t = ! tru? ( _! n>rative4 ,! impression made ^u our m9ds1 h[ev]1 is ! v rev]se ( t :i* apologi/s desire u to receive4 ,! writ]s d n 9 ! lea/ degree seem to h realis$ ! #djh exceptional "* ( ! occurr5ces !y relate1 & betray ! assurance ( p]sons writ+ 9 an ignorant & sup]/iti\s age1 ^: m9ds h become too famili> ) ! sup]natural to be at all surpris$ ei!r by a resurrection f ! dead or a bodily asc5sion4 ,miracles 9 _! eyes h lo/ _! /rang5ess & seem q common-place4 ,x w be se5 z we exam9e ! n>ratives t a /up5d\s miracle1 or a convulsion ( nature1 is ?r[n 9 by "o or omitt$ by ano!r z a m]e matt] ( detail4 ,an e>?quake & ! resurrection ( _m bodies ( sa9ts are m]e trifles :i* c be ins]t$ )\t wond] or omitt$ )\t regret ,! casual & mom5t>y expression ( hesitation to believe1 :i* is introduc$1 is evid5tly no?+ m ?an a rhetorical device to height5 ! reality ( ! sc5e4 ,x w\ld h be5 inf9itely m satisfactory _h we be5 able to p]ceive t ^! witnesses1 in/ead ( be+ g5u9e d5iz5s ( ! age ( miracles1 _h really und]/ood ! a/\nd+ nature ( ! occurr5ces !y report1 & did n consid] a miracle ! mo/ natural ?+ 9 ! _w4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,evid5ce ,,( ,,! ,,gospels ,9 ord] m fully to appreciate ! nature ( ! n>ratives :i* ! f\r evangeli/s give ( ! la/ h\rs ( ! life ( ,jesus1 we may take !m up at ! po9t :]e1 mock$ & buffet$ by ! ,roman soldi]s1 he is f9ally l$ away to be crucifi$4 ,let no "o suppose t1 9 freely criticis+ ! ,gospels1 we reg>d )\t emotion ! actual incid5ts :i* lie at ! bottom ( ^! n>ratives4 ,no "o c =m to himself any adequate conception ( ! t]rible suff]+s ( ! ,ma/]1 maltreat$ & insult$ by a base & brutal multitude1 too degrad$ to und]/& 8 noble "*1 & too ignorant to appreciate 8 elevat$ tea*+1 )\t pa92 & to foll[ 8 c\rse f ! tribunal :i* sacrific$ him to ,jewi% popul> clam\r to ! spot :]e he end$ a brief b self-sacrific+ life by ! %ameful dea? ( a slave may well make sympa?y take ! place ( criticism4 ,pr(\nd v5]ation = ! great ,tea*]1 h[ev]1 & e>ne/ int]e/ 9 all t conc]ns 8 hi/ory r comm& s]i\s & unhesitat+ exam9ation ( ! /atem5ts made ) reg>d to him1 ?an disc\rage an attempt to asc]ta9 ! tru?2 & x w\ld be any?+ b respect = 8 memory to accept )\t "q ! ,gospel acc\nts ( 8 life #daj simply because !y 7 compos$ ) ! desire to glorify him4 ,accord+ to ! ,synoptics1 :5 ,jesus is l$ away to be crucifi$1 ! ,roman gu>d entru/$ ) ! duty ( execut+ ! cruel s5t5ce f9d a man ( ,cyr5e1 ,simon by "n1 & compel him to c>ry ! cross47#a7 ,x 0 cu/om>y = ^? condemn$ to crucifixion to c>ry ! cross1 or at lea/ ! ma9 portion ( x1 !mselves to ! place ( execution1 & no explanation is giv5 by ! ,synopti/s = ! deviation f ?is practice :i* !y relate4 ,! f\r? ,gospel1 h[ev]1 does n appe> to "k any?+ ( ?is incid5t or ( ,simon ( ,cyr5e1 b di/9ctly /ates t ,jesus bore 8 own cross47#b7 ,on ! way to ,golgo?a1 accord+ to ! ?ird ,gospel1 ,jesus is foll[$ by a great multitude ( ! p1 & ( wom5 :o 7 bewail+ & lam5t+ him1 & he addresses to !m a few prophetic s5t5ces47#c7 ,we might be surpris$ at ! s+ul> fact t !re is no ref]5ce to ?is incid5t 9 any o!r ,gospel1 & t words ( ,jesus1 s weighty 9 !mselves & spok5 at s supreme a mom5t1 %\ld n else:]e h be5 record$1 b = ! fact t1 f int]nal evid5ce1 ! address mu/ be assign$ to a p]iod subsequ5t to ! de/ruction ( ,j]usalem4 ,! o!r evangeli/s may1 !re=e1 well ignore x4 #daa ,x 0 ! cu/om to give ^? ab\t to be crucifi$ a draught ( w9e conta9+ "s /rong opiate1 :i* 9 "s degree alleviat$ ! int5se suff]+ ( t mode ( dea?4 ,m>k7#a7 probably ref]s to ?is 7xv4 #bc7 :5 he /ates t1 on rea*+ ! place ( execution1 !y gave him w9e ------ m+l$ ) myrrh4 ,! f\r? ,gospel has no?+ ( ?is4 ,mat!w says 7xxvii4 #cd73 ,!y gave him v9eg> ------ to dr9k m+l$ ) gall7#b7 ------4 ,ev5 if1 in/ead ( ------ ) ! ,alex&rian & a majority ( ,,mss41 we read ------1 w9e1 ) ! ,s9aitic1 ,vatican1 & "s o!r anci5t codices1 ?is is a curi\s /atem5t1 & is well wor?y ( a mom5t's notice z sugge/ive ( ! way 9 :i* ^! n>ratives 7 writt54 ,! conception ( a suff]+ ,messiah1 x is well kn[n1 0 m p>ticul>ly support$1 by ,new ,te/am5t writ]s1 by attribut+ a ,messianic "* to ,ps4 xxii41 lxix41 & ,isaiah liii41 & ?r\gh\t ! n>rative ( ! ,passion we are p]petually ref]r$ to ^! & o!r ,scriptures z f9d+ _! fulfilm5t 9 ! suff]+s ( ,jesus4 ,! fir/ ,synopti/ f\nd 9 ,ps4 lxix4 #ba 7,sept4 lxviii4 #ba73 ,!y gave me also gall ------ = my food1 & 9 my ?ir/ !y gave me v9eg> ------ to dr9k2 & app>5tly 9 ord] to make ! suppos$ fulfilm5t correspond z closely z possible1 he comb9$ ! gall ( ! food ) ! v9eg> or w9e 9 /rangely lit]al fa%ion17#c7 v *>act]i/ic1 h[ev]1 ( #a ,we %all1 = ! sake ( brevity1 call ! ,gospels by ! names assign$ to !m 9 ! ,canon4 #b ,!re h be5 _m attempts to expla9 away ------1 & to make x mean ei!r a species ( ,v]mu? or any bitt] sub/ance 7,olahaus51 ,leid5sgee*41 #afh72 b ! great mass ( critics rightly reta9 its mean+1 ,gall4 ,s ,ewald1 ,mey]1 ,bleek1 ,/rauss1 ,weisse1 ,s*5kel1 ,yolk-m>1 ,al=d1 ,wordswor?1 c1 c4 #dab ! :ole ( ! evangeli/s4 ,luke1 :o seems n to h und]/ood ! cu/om kn[n p]haps to ,m>k1 repres5ts 7xxiii4 #cf7 ! soldi]s z mock+ ,jesus by (f]+ him v9eg> 7l7 ------2 he omits ! gall1 b probably ref]s to ! same ,psalm )\t be+ s falsely lit]al z ,mat!w4 ,we ne$ n ent] into ! discussion z to ! *ronology ( ! ,passion week1 reg>d+ :i* !re is s mu* discrepancy 9 ! acc\nts ( ! f\r? ,gospel & ( ! ,synoptics1 nor %all we pause m9utely to deal ) ! irreconcilable diff]5ce :i*1 x is admitt$17#b7 exi/s 9 _! /atem5t ( ! h\rs at :i* ! ev5ts ( ! la/ fatal day occurr$4 ,! f\r? ,gospel 7xix4 #d7 repres5ts ,pilate z br++ ,jesus =? to ! ,jews ab\t ! six? h\r 7noon74 ,m>k 7xv4 #be71 9 obvi\s agreem5t ) ! o!r ,synoptics z fur!r /atem5ts prove1 di/9ctly says3 ,& x 0 ! ?ird h\r 7#i o'clock a4m471 & !y crucifi$ him4 ,at ! six? h\r 7noon71 accord+ to ! ?ree ,synopti/s1 !re 0 d>kness ov] ! e>? till ab\t ! n9? h\r 7#c o'clock p4m471 %ortly aft] :i* "t #a ,luke omits ! subsequ5t (f] ( v9eg> 7probably ! ,pasco ( ! ,roman soldi]s7 m5tion$ by ! o!r ,evangeli/s4 ,we presume ! ref]5ce 9 xxiii4 #cf to be ! same z ! act describ$ 9 ,mt xxvii4 #cd & ,mk4 xv4 #bc4 #dac ,jesus expir$47#a7 ,z1 accord+ to ! f\r? ,gospel1 ! s5t5ce 0 n ev5 pass$ be=e midday1 & "s "t mu/ be all[$ = prep>ation & go+ to ! place ( execution1 x is cle> t !re is a v wide discrepancy betwe5 ! h\rs at :i* ,jesus 0 crucifi$ & di$1 unless1 z reg>ds ! latt] po9t1 we take agreem5t 9 all z to ! h\r ( dea?4 ,9 ?is case1 comm5c+ at ! h\r ( ! f\r? ,gospel & end+ ) t ( ! ,synoptics1 ,jesus mu/ h expir$ aft] be+ less ?an ?ree h\rs on ! cross4 ,accord+ to ! ,synoptics1 & also1 if we assign a lat] h\r = ! dea?1 accord+ to ! f\r? ,gospel1 he _c h be5 m ?an six h\rs on ! cross4 ,we %all pres5tly see t ?is rem>kably rapid dea? has an important be>+ ^u ! hi/ory & ! views =m$ reg>d+ x4 ,x is kn[n t crucifixion1 besides be+ ! mo/ %ameful mode ( dea?1 & inde$ *iefly res]v$ = slaves & ! l[e/ crim9als1 0 "o ( ! mo/ l+]+ & atroci\sly cruel puni%m5ts ev] inv5t$ by ! malignity ( man4 ,p]sons crucifi$1 x is /at$ & admitt$17#b7 g5]ally liv$ = at lea/ twelve h\rs1 & sometimes ev5 surviv$ ! excruciat+ tortures ( ! cross = ?ree days4 ,we %all n fur!r anticipate rem>ks :i* mu/ h]eaft] be made reg>d+ ?is4 ,we ne$ n d m ?an aga9 po9t out t no two ( ! ,gospels agree ^u s simple1 yet important1 a po9t z ! inscription on ! cross47#c7 ,x is argu$ t a close #dad exam9ation ( ! n>ratives furni%es no suffici5t reason = suppos+ t all propos$ to give ! same or ! entire inscription1 &1 aft] "s curi\s reason+1 x is conclud$ t !re is at lea/ no possibility ( %[+ any inconsi/5cy on ! /rictly lit]al int]pretation ( ! words ( ! evangeli/47#a7 ,on ! contr>y1 we _h v5tur$ to suppose t1 9 giv+ a =m ( words said to h be5 affix$ to ! cross1 ! evangeli/s int5d$ to give ! =m actually us$1 & consequ5tly ! same & entire inscription1 :i* mu/ h be5 %ort2 & we consid] x q inconceivable t su* 0 n _! delib]ate int5tion1 h[ev] imp]fectly fulfill$4 ,we pass on m]ely to notice a curi\s po9t 9 connection ) an incid5t relat$ by all ! ,gospels4 ,x is /at$ t ! ,roman soldi]s :o crucifi$ ,jesus divid$ 8 g>m5ts among/ !m1 ca/+ lots to det]m9e :at "p ea* %\ld take4 ,! clo?+ ( crim9als execut$ 0 ! p]quisite ( ! soldi]s :o p]=m$ ! duty1 & !re is no?+ improbable 9 ! /ory t ! f\r soldi]s decid$ by lot ! p>tition ( ! g>m5ts--inde$ !re is e reason to suppose t su* 0 ! practice4 ,! incid5t is m5tion$ z ! direct fulfilm5t ( !4 ,ps4 xxii4 #ah1 :i* is quot$ lit]ally f ! ,septuag9t v]sion 7xxi4 #ah7 by ! au?or ( ! f\r? ,gospel4 ,he did n1 h[ev]1 und]/& ! passage1 or disreg>d$ its true mean+17#b7 & 9 ord] to make ! incid5t accord #dae bett]1 z he suppos$1 ) ! prophetic ,psalm1 he repres5ts t ! soldi]s amicably p>t$ ! re/ ( 8 g>m5ts among/ !m )\t lot1 b ca/ lots = ! coat1 :i* 0 )\t seam3 xix4 #bd4 ,!y said1 !re=e1 among !mselves3 ,let u n r5d x1 b ca/ lots = x1 ^: x %all be2 t ! ,scripture might be fulfill$3 ,!y p>t$ my g>m5ts among !m1 & = my ve/ure !y ca/ lots4 ,^! ?+s1 !re=e1 ! soldi]s did4 ,! evangeli/ does n p]ceive t ! two p>ts ( ! s5t5ce 9 ! ,psalm really ref] to ! same action1 b exhibits ! p>tition ( ! g>m5ts & ! lots = ! ve/ure z sep>ately fulfill$4 ,! ,synopti/s app>5tly divide ! :ole by lot47#a7 ,!y d n expressly ref] to ! ,psalm1 h[ev]1 except 9 ! receiv$ text ( ,mat?4 xxvii4 #ce1 into :i* & "s o!r ,,mss4 ! quotation has be5 int]polat$47#b7 ,t ! n>rative ( ! ,gospels1 in/ead ( be+ indep5d5t & g5u9e hi/ory1 is con/ruct$ ^u ! l9es ( suppos$ ,messianic ,psalms & passages ( ! ,old ,te/am5t w become increas+ly evid5t z we proce$4 ,x is /at$ by all ! ,gospels t two malefactors--! fir/ & second call+ !m robb]s--7 crucifi$ ) ,jesus1 ! "o on ! "r h& & ! o!r on ! left4 ,! /atem5t 9 ,m>k xv4 #bh1 t ?is fulfill$ ,isaiah liii4 #ab1 :i* is f\nd 9 our receiv$ text1 is omitt$ by all ! olde/ codices1 & is an int]polation17#b7 b we %all h]eaft] h to speak ( ?is po9t 9 connection ) ano!r matt]1 & we n[ #b ,c]ta9ly an int]polation4 ,wettcott1 ,int4 to ,/udy ( ,gospels1 p4 #cbe1 n4 #b4 #c ,c]ta9ly an int]polation4 ,we/cott1 lb4 p4 #cbf1 n4 #e4 #daj m]ely po9t out t1 ?\gh ! v]se 0 ?us ins]t$ "h1 x is plac$ 9 ! m\? ( ,jesus himself by ! ?ird ,synopti/ 7xxii4 #cg71 & ! :ole passage f :i* x 0 tak5 has evid5tly l>gely influ5c$ ! composition ( ! n>rative be=e u4 ,accord+ to ! fir/ & second ,gospels17#a7 ! robb]s jo9$ ) ! *ief prie/s & ! scribes & eld]s & ^? :o pass$ by 9 mock+ & revil+ ,jesus4 ,?is is directly contradict$ by ! ?ird ,synopti/1 :o /ates t only "o ( ! malefactors did s 7xxiii4 #ci flf473 ,b ! o!r answ]+ rebuk$ him & said3 ,do/ ?\ n ev5 fe> ,god see+ ?\ art 9 ! same condemnation8 ,& we inde$ ju/ly2 = we are receiv+ ! due rew>d ( our de$s2 b ?is man did no?+ amiss4 ,& he said3 ,jesus1 rememb] me :5 ?\ come/ 9 ?y k+dom4 ,& he said unto him3 ,v]ily1 ,i say unto !e1 to-day %alt ?\ be ) me 9 p>adise4 ,x requires v little exam9ation to detect t ?is /ory is leg5d>y17#b7 & _c be ma9ta9$ z hi/orical4 ,^? :o dwell ^u its symbolical "*7#c7 d no?+ to e/abli% its v]acity4 ,?is exempl>y robb] speaks l an ,apo/le1 & 9 pray+ ,jesus z ! ,messiah to rememb] him :5 he came into 8 k+dom1 he %[s mu* m ?an apo/olic appreciation ( ! claims & "* ( ,jesus4 ,! #dag reply ( ,jesus1 moreov]1 conta9s a /atem5t n only :olly contradictory ( ,jewi% belief z to ! place ( dep>t$ spirits1 b ( all ,*ri/ian doctr9e at ! "t z to ! desc5t ( ,jesus into ,hades4 ,into ?is1 h[ev]1 x is ne$less = u to g47#a7 ,n only d ! o!r ,gospels %[ no k ( s int]e/+ an episode1 b1 z we h po9t$ out1 ! fir/ & second ,synoptics positively exclude x4 ,we %all see1 moreov]1 t !re is a s]i\s difficulty 9 und]/&+ h[ ?is conv]sation on ! cross1 :i* is s exclusively ! prop]ty ( ! ?ird ,synopti/1 c\ld h be5 report$ to him4 ,! ,synoptics repres5t ! pass]s by & ! *ief prie/s1 scribes1 & eld]s1 z mock+ ,jesus z he hung on ! cross4 ,! f\r? ,gospel pres]ves total sil5ce z to all ?is4 ,x is curi\s1 also1 t ! mock+ is bas$ ^u t describ$ 9 ! ,psalm xxii41 to :i* we h already sev]al times _h to ref]4 ,9 v4 #g f4 we h3 ,all !y t see me laugh$ me to scorn3 !y %ot out ! lip2 !y %ook ! head 7say+71 #h4 ,he tru/$ on ! ,"l1 let him deliv] him1 let him save him 7see+7 t he delighte? 9 him47#b7 ,comp>e ) ?is ,mt4 xxvii4 #ci ff41 ,mk4 xv4 #bi ff41 ,luke xxiii #ce4 ,is x possible to suppose t ! *ief prie/s & eld]s & scribes c\ld actually h quot$ ! words ( ?is ,psalm1 !re put into ! m\? ( ! ,psalmi/'s enemies1 z ! fir/ ,synopti/ repres5ts 7xxvii #dc787c7 ,x is obvi\s t ! spee*es ascrib$ #dah to ! *ief prie/s & eld]s c be no?+ m ?an ! expressions :i* ! writ]s consid]$ suitable to !m1 & ! fact t !y seek _! inspiration 9 a ,psalm :i* !y suppose to be ,messianic is sugge/ive4 ,we h already m5tion$ t ! f\r? ,gospel says no?+ ( any mock+ spee*es4 ,! au?or1 h[ev]1 n>rates an episode 7xix4 #be-bg7 9 :i* ! dy+ ,jesus is repres5t$ z confid+ 8 "m to ! c>e ( ! disciple :om he lov$1 ( :i* 9 _! turn ! ,synopti/s seem to be p]fectly ignorant4 ,we h already else:]e rem>k$ t !re is no evid5ce :atev] t !re 0 any disciple :om ,jesus specially lov$1 except ! repeat$ /atem5t 9 ?is ,gospel4 ,no o!r "w ( ! ,new ,te/am5t conta9s a h9t ( su* an individual1 & mu* less t he 0 ! ,apo/le ,john4 ,nor is !re any evid5ce t any "o ( ! disciples took ! "m ( ,jesus to 8 own home4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 no ext]nal confirmation ( ?is episode2 b !re is1 on ! contr>y1 mu* :i* leads to ! conclusion t x is n hi/orical47#a7 ,!re has be5 mu* discussion z to :e!r f\r wom5 are m5tion$ 7xix4 #be71 or :e!r 8 "m's si/] is repres5t$ z ,m>y1 ! wife ( ,clopas1 or 0 a diff]5t p]son4 ,!re are1 we ?9k1 reasons = conclud+ t !re 7 f\r1 b 9 ! d\bt we %all n base any argum5t on ! po9t4 ,! ,synoptics7#b7 di/9ctly /ate t ! wom5 t foll[$ him f ,galilee1 among :i* 7 ,m>y ,magdal5e & ,m>y #dai ! "m ( ,james & ,joseph & ! "m ( ,zeb$ee's sons17l7 &1 z ! ?ird ,synoptic says1 all 8 acqua9tance7#b7 7 /&+ af> (f ------4 ,!y are unanim\s 9 say+ ?is1 & !re is e reason = suppos+ t !y are correct47#c7 ,?is is consequ5tly a contradiction ( ! acc\nt 9 ! f\r? ,gospel t ,john & ! wom5 7 /&+ by ! cross ( ,jesus4 ,ol%aus51 ,lucke & o!rs sugge/ t !y subsequ5tly came f a di/ance up to ! cross1 b ! /atem5t ( ! ,synopti/s is made at ! close1 & aft] ?is sc5e is suppos$ to h tak5 place4 ,! opposite conjecture1 t f /&+ close to ! cross !y remov$ to a di/ance has little to recomm5d x4 ,bo? explanations are equally arbitr>y & unsupport$ by evid5ce4 ,x may be well1 9 connection ) ?is1 to ref] to ! v>i\s say+s & cries ascrib$ by ! diff]5t evangeli/s to ,jesus on ! cross4 ,we h already m5tion$ ! conv]sation ) ! p5it5t ?ief1 :i* is peculi> to ! ?ird ,gospel1 & n[ t ) ! belov$ disciple1 :i* is only 9 ! f\r?4 ,! ?ird ,synoptic7#d7 /ates t1 on be+ crucifi$1 ,jesus said1 ,fa!r1 =give !m1 = !y "k n :at !y d1 a say+ :i* is 9 ! _s ( ,jesus & wor?y ( him1 b ( :i* ! o!r ,gospels d n take any notice47#e7 ,! f\r? ,gospel aga9 has a cry 7xix4 #bh73 ,aft] ?is1 ,jesus kn[+ t all ?+s are n[ fulfill$1 t ! ,scripture might be accompli%$1 sai?3 #dbj ,i ?ir/47#a7 ,! majority ( critics7#b7 und]/& by ?is t ,i ?ir/ is said 9 ord] t ! ,scripture might be fulfill$ by ! (f] ( ! v9eg>1 relat$ 9 ! foll[+ v]se4 ,! ,scripture ref]r$ to is ( c\rse ,ps4 lxix4 #ba3 ,!y gave me also gall = my food1 & 9 my ?ir/ !y gave me v9eg> ------ to dr9k2 :i* we h already quot$ 9 connection ) ,mat?4 xxvii4 #cd4 ,! ?ird ,synoptic 7xxiii4 #cf7 repres5ts ! v9eg> z be+ (f]$ 9 mock]y at a mu* e>li] p]iod1 & ,mat!w & ,m>k7#c7 connect ! (f] ( ! v9eg> ) q a diff]5t cry f t 9 ! f\r? ,gospel4 ,no?+ c\ld be m natural ?an t1 aft] protract$ agony1 ! pati5t suff]] %\ld cry3 ,i ?ir/1 b ! dogmatic purpose1 :i* dictates ! :ole n>rative 9 ! f\r? ,gospel1 is r5d]$ obvi\s by ! ref]5ce ( su* a cry to a suppos$ ,messianic prophecy4 ,?is is fur!r display$ by ! /atem5t 7v4 #bi7 t ! sponge ) v9eg> 0 put ^u hyssop ------1--! two ,synoptics h on a re$ ------1--:i* ! ,au?or probably uses 9 association ) ! pas*al lamb17#d7 an idea pres5t to 8 m9d ?r\gh\t ! #dba passion4 ,! fir/ & second ,synoptics7#a7 repres5t ! la/ cry ( ,jesus to h be5 a quotation f ,ps4 xxii4 #a3 ,eli 7or ,mk41 ,eloi71 ,eli1 lema sabac?ani8 t is to say3 ,my ,god1 my ,god1 :y did/ ?\ =sake me8 ,?is1 accord+ to !m1 evid5tly1 0 ! la/ articulate utt]ance ( ! expir+ ,ma/]1 = !y m]ely add t :5 he cri$ aga9 ) a l\d voice1 ,jesus yield$ up 8 _s47#b7 ,nei!r ( ! o!r ,gospels has any m5tion ( ?is cry4 ,! ?ird ,gospel sub/itutes3 ,& :5 ,jesus cri$ ) a l\d voice1 he said3 ,fa!r1 into ?y h&s ,i comm5d my _s1 & hav+ said ?is he expir$47#c7 ,?is is an almo/ lit]al quotation f ! ,septuag9t v]sion ( ,ps4 xxxi4 #e4 ,! f\r? ,gospel has a totally diff]5t cry 7xix4 #cj71 =1 on receiv+ ! v9eg>1 :i* accompli%$ ! ,scripture1 he repres5ts ,jesus z say+3 ,x is f9i%$ ------1 & imm$iately expir+4 ,x w be obs]v$ t sev5 say+s are attribut$ to ,jesus on ! cross1 ( :i* ! fir/ two ,gospels h only "o1 ! ?ird ,synoptic ?ree1 & ! f\r? ,gospel ?ree4 ,we d n int5d to express any op9ion "h 9 fav\r ( any ( ^!1 b we m]ely po9t out ! rem>kable fact t1 ) ! exception ( ! "o cry 9 ! fir/ two ,synoptics1 ea* ,gospel has ascrib$ diff]5t say+s to ! dy+ ,ma/]1 & n only no two ( !m agree1 b 9 "s important in/ances ! /atem5t ( ! "o evangeli/ seems absolutely to exclude ! acc\nts ( ! o!rs4 ,e "o kn[s ! hackney$ explanation ( apologi/s1 b 9 works :i* repeat ea* o!r s mu* else:]e1 x c]ta9ly is a curi\s ph5om5on t !re is s little #dbb agreem5t "h4 ,if all ! ,ma/]'s disciples =sook him & fl$17#a7 & 8 few fri5ds & acqua9tances /ood af> (f reg>d+ 8 suff]+s1 x is readily conceivable t pi\s tradition _h unlimit$ play4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 return to ! cry record$ 9 ,mat!w & ,m>k17#b7 ! only "o ab\t :i* two witnesses agree4 ,bo? ( !m give ?is quotation f ,ps4 xxii4 #a 9 ,aramaic3 ,eli 7,m>k3 ,eloi71 ,eli17#c7 lema sabac?ani4 ,! purpose is cle>ly to enable ! read] to und]/& :at foll[s1 :i* we quote f ! fir/ ,gospel3 ,& "s ( !m t /ood !re1 :5 !y he>d x said3 ,?is man calle? = ,elijah4444 ,! re/ said1 ,let be1 let u see :e!r ,elijah come? to save him47#d7 ,x is impossible to confuse ,eli or ,eloi ) ,elijahu7#e7 & ! explanations sugge/$ by apologi/s are n suffici5t to remove a difficulty :i* seems to betray ! leg5d>y "* ( ! /atem5t4 ,! mi/ake ( suppos+ t ,jesus call$ = ,elijah c\ld n possibly h be5 made by ^? :o spoke ,aramaic2 t /rang]s n p]fectly und]/&+ ,aramaic %\ld be "h int5d$ _c be ma9ta9$1 = ! sugge/ion is repres5t$ z adopt$ by ! re/4 ,! ,roman soldi]s _h probably nev] he>d ( ,elijah2 & !re is no?+ :atev] to support ! allegation ( mock]y7#f7 z acc\nt+ = ! s+ul> #dbc episode4 ,! v]se ( ! ,psalm 0 too well kn[n to ! ,jews to admit ( any sugge/$ play ^u words4 ,! ?ree ,synoptics /ate t1 f ! six? h\r 7mid-day7 to ! n9? 7#c o'clock71 !re 0 d>kness ov] all ! e>? ------47#a7 ,! ?ird ,gospel adds3 ! sun hav+ fail$ ------7#b7 ,by ! t]m all ! e>? "s critics7#c7 ma9ta9 t ! evangeli/ m]ely meant ! ,holy ,l&17#d7 :il/ o!rs hold t he uses ! expression 9 its lit]al s5se47#e7 ,! f\r? ,gospel takes no notice ( ?is d>kness4 ,su* a ph5om5on is n a trifle to be ignor$ 9 any acc\nt ( ! crucifixion1 if x actually occurr$4 ,! omission ( all m5tion ( x ei!r am\nts to a d5ial ( its occurr5ce or betrays mo/ suspici\s famili>ity ) sup]natural int]f]5ce4 ,!re h be5 _m ef=ts made to expla9 ?is d>kness naturally1 or at lea/ to f9d "s allusion to x 9 contempor>y hi/ory1 all ( :i* h signally fail$4 ,z ! moon 0 at ! full1 x is admitt$ t ! d>kness c\ld n h be5 an eclipse47#f7 ,! ,fa!rs #dbd appeal$ to ,phlegon ! ,*ronicl]1 :o m5tions7#a7 an eclipse ( ! sun ab\t ?is p]iod accompani$ by an e>?quake1 & also to a simil> occurr5ce ref]r$ to by ,eusebius17#b7 probably quot$ f ! hi/orian ,?allus1 b1 ( c\rse1 mod]n k has dispell$ ! illusion t ^! ph5om5a h any connection ) ! d>kness we are discuss+1 & ! !ory t ! evangeli/s are confirm$ 9 _! acc\nt by ?is evid5ce is n[ g5]ally ab&on$47#c7 ,x is ap>t f our object to %[ h[ common x 0 among/ classical & o!r writ]s to repres5t nature z sympa?is+ ) national or social disa/]s27#d7 & z a poetical t\* ?is rem>kable d>kness ( ! ,synopti/s1 ( :i* no "o else kn[s any?+1 is q intelligible4 ,! /atem5t1 h[ev]1 is z s]i\sly & delib]ately made z any o!r 9 _! n>rative1 & does n add to its cr$ibility4 ,x is palpable t ! acc\nt is my?ical17#e7 & x be>s a /range lik5ess to passages 9 ! ,old ,te/am5t1 f ! imag]y ( :i* ! repres5tation 9 all probability 0 d]iv$47#f7 ,! fir/ & second ,gospels /ate t :5 ,jesus #dbe cri$ ) a l\d voice & yield$ up 8 _s1 ! veil ( ! temple 0 r5t 9 twa9 f ! top to ! bottom47#a7 ,! ?ird ,synoptic associates ?is occurr5ce ) ! eclipse ( ! sun1 & n>rates x be=e ! f9al cry & dea? ( ! ,ma/]47#b7 ,! f\r? ,gospel takes no notice ( s extraord9>y a ph5om5on4 ,! "q might be ask$3 ,h[ c\ld ! *ief prie/s1 :o d n appe> to h be5 at all conv9c$ by su* a miracle1 b /ill cont9u$ _! inv9cible animosity aga9/ ! ,*ri/ian sect1 reveal ! occurr5ce ( su* a wond]1 ( :i* !re is no m5tion else:]e8 ,"h aga9 ! acc\nt is leg5d>y & symbolical17#c7 & 9 ! _s ( ! age ( miracles47#d7 ,! fir/ ,synopti/1 h[ev]1 has fur!r m>vels to relate4 ,he /ates 9 cont9uation ( ! passage quot$ above3 & ! e>? 0 %ak5 ------ & ! rocks 7 r5t & ! sepul*res 7 op5$1 & _m bodies ( ! sa9ts :o slept 7 rais$2 & !y came out ( ! sepul*res aft] 8 resurrection1 & ent]$ into ! holy city & appe>$ unto _m47#e7 ,h[ great mu/ be ! amazem5t ( anyone :o may h be5 incl9$ to suppose ! ,gospels sob]ly hi/orical works1 on f9d+ t ! o!r ?ree evangeli/s d n ev5 m5tion ^! #dbf a/\nd+ occurr5ces relat$ by ! fir/ ,synopti/6 ,an e>?quake ------7#a7 & ! /ill m a/\nd+ resurrection ( _m sa9ts :o appe>$ unto _m1 &1 !re=e1 an ev5t by no means secret & unkn[n to all b ! writ]1 & yet ?ree o!r writ]s1 :o give acc\nts ( ! crucifixion & dea? ( ,jesus1 & :o ent] ?r\gh\t into v m9ute details1 d n ev5 condesc5d to m5tion !m6 ,nor does any o!r ,new ,te/am5t writ] *ronicle !m4 ,x is unnecess>y to say t ! passage has be5 a v s]i\s difficulty = apologi/s2 & "o ( ! late/ writ]s ( ?is s*ool1 reproduc+ ! !ories ( e>li] critics1 deals ) x 9 a ,life ( ,*ri/1 :i* is av[$ly & unconditionally ! "w ( a believ]17#b7 z foll[s3 ,an e>?quake %ook ! e>? & split ! rocks1 & z x roll$ away f _! places ! great /ones :i* clos$ & cov]$ ! cav]n sepul*res ( ! ,jews1 s x seem$ to ! imag9ations ( _m to h disimprison$ ! spirits ( ! dead1 & to h fill$ ! air ) gho/ly visitants1 :o aft] ,*ri/ _h ris5 appe>$ to l+] 9 ! ,holy ,city4 ,9 a note he adds ,only 9 "s su* way z ?is c ,i acc\nt = ! s+ul> & :olly isolat$ allusion ( ,matt4 xxvii4 #eb1 #ec47c7 ,x is wor?y ( note1 & we may h]eaft] #dbg ref] to ! po9t1 t le>n$ div9es ?us d n scruple to adopt ! vision hypo!sis ( ! resurrection4 ,ev5 if ! resurrection ( ! sa9ts s s]i\sly relat$ by ! evangeli/ be ?us dispos$ (1 & x be assum$ t ! o!r ,gospels1 likewise adopt+ ! vision explanation1 consequ5tly decl9$ to give an objective place 9 _! n>rative to :at !y believ$ to be a purely subjective & unreal ph5om5on1 !re /ill rema9s ! e>?quake1 to :i* sup]natural incid5t ( ! crucifixion none ( ! o!r evangeli/s ?9k x wor? :ile to ref]4 ,ne$ we argue t ! e>?quake7#a7 is z my?ical z ! resurrection ( ! sa9ts87#b7 ,9 "s apocryphal writ+s ev5 ! names ( "s ( ^! ris5 sa9ts are giv547#c7 ,z ! case actually /&s1 ) ^! m>vell\s incid5ts relat$ solely by ! fir/ ,synopti/ & ignor$ by ! o!r evangeli/s1 x w\ld seem sup]flu\s to ent] ^u m detail$ criticism ( ! passage1 & to po9t out ! incongruity ( ! #dbh fact t ^! sa9ts are said to be rais$ f ! dead j z ! ,messiah expires1 or ! /range circum/ance t1 al?\gh ! sepul*res are said to h be5 op5$ at t mom5t & ! resurrection to h !n tak5 place1 x is /at$ t !y only came out ( _! graves aft] ! resurrection ( ,jesus4 ,! allegation1 moreov]1 t !y 7 rais$ f ! dead at t "t1 & be=e ! resurrection ( ,jesus1 virtually contradicts ! say+ ( ! ,apocalypse 7i4 #e7 t ,jesus 0 ! fir/ begott5 ( ! dead1 & ( ,paul 7#a ,cor4 xv4 #bj7 t he 0 ! fir/ fruits ( !m :o h fall5 asleep47#a7 ,paul's :ole argum5t is oppos$ to su* a /ory2 = he does n base ! resurrection ( ! dead ^u ! dea? ( ,jesus1 b1 9 contradi/9ction1 ^u 8 resurrection only4 ,! ,synopti/ evid5tly desires to associate ! resurrection ( ! sa9ts ) ! dea? ( ,jesus to r5d] t ev5t m impressive1 b delays ! completion ( x 9 ord] to give a k9d ( prec$5ce to ! resurrection ( ! ,ma/]4 ,! attempt leads to no?+ b confusion4 ,:at c\ld be ! object ( su* a resurrection8 ,x c\ld n be repres5t$ z any effect produc$ by ! dea? ( ,jesus1 nor ev5 by 8 alleg$ resurrection1 = :at dogmatic connection c\ld !re be betwe5 t ev5t & ! fact t a few sa9ts only 7 rais$ f _! graves1 :il/ x 0 n pret5d$ t ! dead sa9ts g5]ally p>ticipat$ 9 ?is resurrection8 ,no intimation is giv5 t _! appe>ance to _m 0 = any special purpose1 & c]ta9ly no practical result has ev] be5 trac$ to x4 ,f9ally we might ask3 ,:at became ( ^! sa9ts rais$ f ! dead8 ,did !y die aga98 ,or did !y also asc5d into ,heav587#b7 #a ,c ! au?or ( ! ,apocalypse1 or ,paul1 ev] h he>d ( ! rais+ ( ,laz>us8 #dbi ,a little reflection w %[ t ^! que/ions are p]t95t4 ,x is almo/ inconceivable t any s]i\s m9d c\ld ma9ta9 ! actual tru? ( su* a /ory1 ^u su* evid5ce4 ,its objective tru? n be+ ma9ta9able1 h[ev]1 ! "* ( ! "w :i* advances su* an unhesitat+ /atem5t is det]m9$1 & at lea/ ! value ( its te/imony c )\t difficulty be settl$4 ,! cont9uation ( ?is episode 9 ! fir/ ,synoptic is q 9 keep+ ) its comm5cem5t4 ,x is /at$3 ,b :5 ! c5turion & !y t 7 ) him wat*+ ,jesus saw ! e>?quake ------ & ! ?+s t 7 done ------ !y fe>$ greatly1 say+1 ,truly ?is 0 a son ( ,god ------47#a7 ,9 ,m>k ! /atem5t is v curi\sly v>i$3 ,& :5 ! c5turion :o /ood ov] aga9/ him saw t he s expir$1 he said3 ,truly ?is man 0 a son ( ,god47#b7 ,x is argu$ on ! "o h& t ! c5turion's wond] "h 0 caus$ by ,jesus dy+ ) s l\d a cry1 & ! read+ ( _m ,,mss4 w\ld cle>ly support ?is27#c7 & on ! o!r t ! cause ( 8 exclamation 0 ! unexpect$ly rapid dea? ( ,jesus4 ,:i*ev] view be tak51 ! c5turion's d$uction1 x mu/ be admitt$1 re/s ^u #dcj s+ul>ly inconclusive reason+4 ,we v5ture to ?9k t x is impossible t a ,roman soldi] c\ld ei!r h be5 l$ to =m su* an op9ion ^u su* gr\nds1 or to express x 9 su* t]ms4 ,9 ,luke1 we h a ?ird read+3 ,b :5 ! c5turion saw :at 0 done1 he glorifi$ ,god1 say+3 ,c]ta9ly ?is man 0 righte\s7#a7 ------4 ,!re is no?+ "h ab\t ! ,son ( ,god2 b :5 ! writ] repres5ts ! ,roman soldi] z glorify+ ,god1 ! n>rative does n seem mu* m probable ?an t ( ! o!r ,synopti/s4 ,! f\r? ,evangeli/ ( c\rse does n ref] to any su* episode1 b1 z usual1 he introduces a v rem>kable incid5t ( 8 own1 ( :i* ! ,synopti/s1 :o record su* peculi> details ( :at pass$1 seem v /rangely to "k no?+4 ,! f\r? evangeli/ /ates3 ,! ,jews1 !re=e1 because x 0 ! prep>ation1 t ! bodies might n rema9 ^u ! cross on ! sabba?1 7= t sabba?-day 0 a high day71 bes\ght ,pilate t _! legs might be brok5 & !y might be tak5 away4 ,s ! soldi]s came & brake ! legs ( ! fir/1 & ( ! o!r :o 0 crucifi$ ) him1 b :5 !y came to ,jesus1 z !y saw t he 0 dead already1 !y brake n 8 legs2 b "o ( ! soldi]s ) a spe> pi]c$ 8 side1 & =?) !re came out blood & wat]4 ,& he t ha? se5 ha? borne witness1 & 8 witness is true3 & t man kn[e? t he sai? :at is true1 t ye also may believe4 ,= ^! ?+s came to pass t ! ,scripture might be fulfill$3 ,a bone ( him %all n be brok54 ,& aga9 ano!r ,scripture sai?3 ,!y %all look on him :om !y pi]c$47#b7 ,x is inconceivable t1 if ?is #dca actually occurr$1 & occurr$ m especially t ! ,scripture might be fulfill$1 ! o!r ?ree ,evangeli/s c\ld ?us totally ignore x all47#a7 ,! second ,synopti/ does m3 he n only ignores b excludes x1 = 7xv4 #dc f47 he repres5ts ,joseph z begg+ ! body ( ,jesus f ,pilate :5 ev5+ 0 n[ come4 ,& ,pilate m>vell$ if he 7 already dead2 & call+ unto him ! c5turion1 he ask$ him :e!r he _h be5 long dead4 ,& :5 he knew x ( ! c5turion he gave ! corpse to ,joseph47#b7 ,n[1 al?\gh !re c\ld be no d\bt on ! po9t1 ! f\r? ,gospel cle>ly /ates 7xix4 #ch1 ------ t ,joseph made 8 reque/ = ! body aft] ! ord] _h be5 giv5 by ,pilate to break ! legs ( ! crucifi$1 & aft] x _h be5 execut$ z above describ$4 ,if ,pilate _h already giv5 ! ord] to break ! legs1 h[ is x possible he c\ld h m>vell$1 or act$ z he is describ$ 9 ,m>k to h done8 ,x is well kn[n t ! ,crurifragium1 :i* is "h appli$1 0 n usually an accompanim5t ( crucifixion1 ?\gh x may h be5 sometimes employ$ along ) x17#c7 b t x 0 a di/9ct puni%m5t4 ,x consi/$ 9 break+1 ) hamm]s or clubs1 ! bones ( ! condemn$ f ! hips to ! feet4 ,we %all n discuss :e!r 9 ! pres5t case ?is measure really 0 adopt$ or n4 ,! repres5tation is t ! ,jews reque/$ ,pilate to break ! legs ( ! crucifi$ t ! bodies might be remov$ be=e ! ,sabba?1 & #dcb t ! ord] 0 giv5 & execut$4 ,! fir/ po9t to be not$ is ! v s+ul> mann] 9 :i* ! leg-break+ 0 p]=m$4 ,! soldi]s are said to h brok5 ! legs ( ! fir/ & !n ( ! o!r :o 0 crucifi$ ) ,jesus1 ?us pass+ ov] ,jesus 9 ! fir/ in/ance2 & !n ! ,evangeli/ says3 b :5 !y came to ,jesus1 z !y saw t he 0 dead already1 !y brake n 8 legs1 b "o ( ! soldi]s ) a spe> pi]c$ 8 side4 ,?is ord] ( proc$ure is s+ul>2 b ! :ole conduct ( ! gu>d is s extraord9>y t su* details become comp>atively insignificant4 ,an ord] hav+ be5 giv5 to ! ,roman soldi]s1 9 accordance ) ! reque/ ( ! ,jews1 to break ! legs ( ! crucifi$1 we are ask$ to believe t !y did n execute x 9 ! case ( ,jesus6 ,x is n reasonable to suppose1 h[ev]1 t ,roman soldi]s ei!r 7 9 ! habit ( disreg>d+ _! ord]s1 or c\ld h any motive = do+ s 9 ?is case1 & subject+ !mselves to ! sev]e puni%m5t = disob$i5ce inflict$ by ,roman milit>y law4 ,x is argu$ t !y saw t ,jesus 0 already dead1 & !re=e t x 0 n necess>y to break 8 legs2 b soldi]s are n 9 ! habit ( ?9k+ 9 ?is way3 !y are discipl9$ to obey4 ,! fact is1 h[ev]1 t ! c]ta9ty t ,jesus 0 dead already did n actually exi/ 9 _! m9ds1 & c\ld sc>cely h exi/$ see+ t ! dea? 0 s s+ul>ly rapid1 = 9 t case :y %\ld ! soldi] h pi]c$ 8 side ) a spe>8 ,! only conceivable motive = do+ s 0 to make sure t ,jesus really 0 dead27#a7 b is x possible to suppose t a ,roman soldi]1 be+ 9 ! slighte/ d\bt1 actually *ose to assure himself 9 #dcc ?is way :5 he might /ill m effectually h done s by simply obey+ ! ord] ( 8 sup]ior & break+ ! legs8 ,! :ole episode is manife/ly un-hi/orical47#a7 ,x is cle> t to fulfil 9 a m>k$ way ! prophecies :i* ! writ] _h 9 8 m9d1 & wi%$ specially to apply to ,jesus1 x 0 necess>y t1 9 ! fir/ place1 !re %\ld h be5 a di/9ct dang] ( ! bones be+ brok51 & at ! same "t ( ! side n be+ pi]c$4 ,! ord] to break ! legs ( ! crucifi$ is !re=e giv51 b an extraord9>y exception is made 9 fav\r ( ,jesus1 & a ?ru/ ) ! lance sub/itut$1 s t bo? passages ( ! ,scripture are suppos$ to be fulfill$47#c7 ,:at ,scriptures1 h[ev]1 are fulfill$8 ,! fir/3 ,a bone ( him %all n be brok51 is m]ely ! prescription ) reg>d to ! ,pas*al lamb1 ,ex4 xii4 #df17c7 & ! dogmatic view ( ! f\r? ,evangeli/ leads him ?r\gh\t to repres5t ,jesus z ! true ,pas*al lamb4 ,! second is ,ze*4 xii4 #aj17d7 & any "o :o reads ! passage1 ev5 )\t ! assi/ance ( le>n$ exegesis1 may p]ceive t x has no su* application z our ,evangeli/ gives x4 ,we %all pass ov]1 z n absolutely necess>y = our imm$iate purpose1 v _m important details ( ! episode2 b reg>d+ ?is "p ( ! subject we may say t we consid] x evid5t t1 if an ord] 0 giv5 to break ! legs ( ! crucifi$ ^u ?is occasion1 t #dcd ord] mu/ h be5 execut$ ^u ,jesus equally ) any o!rs :o may h be5 crucifi$ ) him4 ,!re has be5 mu* discussion z to ! int5tion ( ! au?or 9 /at+ t1 f ! w\nd made by ! lance1 !re =?) came out blood & wat] ------2 & likewise z to :e!r ! special te/imony "h ref]r$ to 9 ! ?ird p]son is to atte/ m imm$iately ! fl[ ( blood & wat]1 or ! :ole episode47#a7 ,9 reg>d to ! latt] po9t1 we ne$ n pause to discuss ! "q47#b7 ,z to ! blood & wat]1 "s see 9 ! /atem5t made an int5tion to %[ ! reality ( ! dea? ( ,jesus17#c7 :il/ o!rs m rightly reg>d ! ph5om5on describ$ z a repres5tation ( a sup]natural & symbolical incid5t17#d7 closely connect$ ) ! :ole dogmatic view ( ! ,gospel4 ,x is impossible n to see 9 ?is ! same idea z t express$ 9 #a ,john v4 #f3 ,?is is he t came by wat] & blood1 ,jesus ,*ri/2 n 9 ! wat] only1 b 9 ! wat] & ! blood47#e7 ,z a natural incid5t x _c be ent]ta9$1 = 9 no s5se b m]e quibbl+ c\ld x be said t blood & wat] c\ld fl[ f su* a w\nd1 & z a sup]natural #dce ph5om5on x mu/ be reject$4 ,z a pro( ( ! reality ( ! dea? ( ,jesus1 x c\ld only h be5 ?\ght ( at a "t :5 gross ignorance prevail$ ^u all m$ical subjects4 ,we %all n "h discuss ! reality ( ! dea? ( ,jesus1 b we may m]ely po9t out t ! almo/ unprec$5t$ly rapid decease ( ,jesus 0 expla9$ by ,orig57#a7 & "s ( ! ,fa!rs z miracul\s4 ,x has be5 argu$ t ! ?ru/ ( ! lance may h be5 int5d$ to sil5ce ^? objectors :o might h d5i$ ! actual dea? on ! gr\nd t ! legs ( ,jesus 7 n brok5 l ^? ( ! two malefactors17#b7 & x c]ta9ly is g5]ally quot$ z hav+ assur$ ! fact ( dea?4 ,! /atem5t t blood fl[$ f ! w\nd1 h[ev]1 by no means supports ! allegation &1 al?\gh we may make little use ( ! argum5t1 x is "r to say t !re is no evid5ce ( any s]i\s k9d advanc$ ( ! reality ( ! dea? ( ,jesus1 "h or 9 ! o!r ,gospels47#c7 ,! au?or ( ! f\r? ,gospel himself seems to betray t ?is episode is a m]e int]polation ( 8 own into a n>rative to :i* x does n prop]ly belong47#d7 ,accord+ to 8 own acc\nt 7xix4 #ca71 ! ,jews bes\ght ,pilate t ! legs might be brok5 & t ! bodies might be tak5 away ------1 ,! ord] to d ?is 0 obvi\sly giv51 #c ,x has likewise be5 ?\ght t ! repres5tation 9 ,m>k xv4 #dd1 t ,pilate m>vell$ at ! rapid dea? ( ,jesus1 & s5t = ! c5turion to asc]ta9 ! fact1 0 made to meet simil> d\bts1 or at lea/ to give assurance ( ! reality ( ! dea?4 #dcf = ! legs are =?) brok5 & ( co>se1 imm$iately aft]1 ! bodies 9 pursuance ( ! same ord] w\ld h be5 tak5 away4 ,z soon z ! ,evangeli/ has secur$ 8 purpose ( %[+ h[ ! ,scriptures 7 fulfill$ by means ( ?is episode1 he takes up ! /ory z ?\gh x _h n be5 int]rupt$1 & proce$s v4 #ch3 ,aft] ^! ?+s ------1 t is to say aft] ! legs ( ! malefactors _h be5 brok5 & ! side ( ,jesus pi]c$1 ,joseph bes\ght ,pilate t he might take away ! body ( ,jesus1 & ,pilate gave leave4 ,b1 if v4 #ca;f4 be hi/orical1 ! body mu/ already h be5 tak5 away4 ,all ! ,synoptics agree ) ! f\r? ,gospel 9 /at+ t ,joseph ( ,arima?aea begg$ = & obta9$ ! body ( ,jesus f ,pilate47#a7 ,! second & ?ird ,synoptics describe him z belong+ to ! ,c\ncil1 b ! fir/ ,gospel m]ely calls him a ri* man1 :il/ ! f\r? omits bo? ( ^! descriptions4 ,!y all call him a disciple ( ,jesus--secretly = fe> ( ! ,jews1 ! f\r? ,gospel *>act]i/ically adds--al?\gh ! t]m t he 0 wait+ = ! ,k+dom ( ,god1 us$ by ! second & ?ird ,gospels1 is some:at vague4 ,! f\r? ,gospel1 h[ev]1 introduces a second p]sonage 9 ! %ape ( ,nicodemus1 :o at ! fir/ came to him by night17#b7 & :o1 x w be rememb]$1 _h previ\sly be5 describ$ z a rul] ( ! ,jews47#c7 ,! ,synoptics d n once m5tion su* a p]son1 ei!r 9 ! n>rative ( ! ,passion or 9 ! e>li] *apt]s1 & !re are m ?an d\bts z to 8 hi/orical "*47#d7 ,! acc\nts ( ! ,entombm5t giv5 by ! ?ree #a ,accord+ to ,luke xxiii4 #ec1 ,joseph actually took d[n ! body4 #dcg ,synopti/s1 or at lea/ by ! second & ?ird1 di/9ctly exclude ! n>rative ( ! f\r? ,gospel1 bo? z reg>ds ,nicodemus & ! "p he is repres5t$ z tak+4 ,! contradictions :i* comm5ce "h betwe5 ! acc\nt ( ! f\r? ,gospel & ! ,synoptics1 9 fact1 are ( ! mo/ gl>+ & important nature1 & dem& m>k$ att5tion4 ,! f\r? ,gospel /ates t1 hav+ obta9$ p]mission f ,pilate1 ,joseph came & took ! body ( ,jesus away4 ,& !re came also ,nicodemus1444 br++ a mixture ( myrrh & aloes1 ab\t a hundr$ p\nd weight4 ,!y took1 !re=e1 ! body ( ,jesus1 & w\nd x 9 l95 clo?s ) ! spices1 z ! mann] ( ! ,jews is to bury4 ,n[ 9 ! place :]e he 0 crucifi$ !re 0 a g>d51 & 9 ! g>d5 a new sepul*re :]e9 0 nev] man yet laid4 ,!re1 !re=e1 on acc\nt ( ! prep>ation ( ! ,jews ------1 !y laid ,jesus1 = ! sepul*re 0 at h& ------47#a7 ,accord+ to ! fir/ ,synoptic1 :5 ,joseph took ! body1 he simply wrapp$ x 9 clean l95 ------ & laid x 9 8 own new sepul*re1 :i* he hew$ 9 ! rock3 & he roll$ a great /one to ! door ( ! sepul*re1 & dep>t$47#b7 ,!re is no m5tion ( spices or any ano9t+ ( ! body17#c7 & ! /atem5t t ! wom5 provide = ?is is n made 9 ?is ,gospel4 ,accord+ to ! writ]1 ! burial is complete1 & ! sepul*re f9ally clos$4 ,m>y ,magdal5e & ! o!r ,m>y come m]ely to behold ! sepul*re at ! end ( ! #dch ,sabba?47#a7 ,! f\r? ,evangeli/ app>5tly does n "k any?+ ( ! sepul*re be+ ,joseph's own tomb1 & ! body is1 accord+ to him1 al?\gh folly embalm$1 only laid 9 ! sepul*re 9 ! g>d5 on acc\nt ( ! ,sabba? & because x 0 at h&4 ,we %all ref] to ?is po9t1 :i* mu/ be not$1 fur!r on4 ,!re are v /rik+ diff]5ces betwe5 ^! two acc\nts1 b ! n>ratives ( ! second & ?ird ,synopti/s are /ill m emphatically contradictory ( bo?4 ,9 ,m>k17#b7 we are told t ,joseph b\ght l951 & took him d[n & wrapp$ him 9 ! l951 & laid him 9 a sepul*re :i* _h be5 hewn out ( a rock1 & roll$ a /one aga9/ ! door ( ! sepul*re4 ,!re is no m5tion "h ( any embalm+ p]=m$ by ,joseph or ,nicodemus1 nor are any p>ticul>s giv5 z to ! own]%ip ( ! sepul*re1 or ! reasons = its selection4 ,we are1 h[ev]1 told37#c7 ,& :5 ! ,sabba? 0 pa/1 ,m>y ,magdal5e & ,m>y ! "m ( ,james1 & ,salome1 b\ght spices t !y might come & ano9t him4 ,x is di/9ctly /at$ 9 connection ) ! entombm5t1 moreov]1 9 agreem5t ) ! fir/ ,synoptic37#d7 ,& ,m>y ,magdal5e & ,m>y ! "m ( ,joses beheld :]e he 0 laid47#e7 ,accord+ to ?is acc\nt & t ( ! fir/ ,gospel1 ! wom51 hav+ rema9$ to ! la/ & se5 ! body deposit$ 9 ! sepul*re1 knew s little ( its hav+ be5 embalm$ by ,joseph & ,nicodemus1 t !y actually pur*ase ! spices & come to p]=m t (fice !mselves4 ,9 ,luke1 ! /atem5t is /ill m specific1 9 #dci agreem5t ) ,m>k1 & 9 contradiction to ! f\r? ,gospel4 ,joseph took d[n ! body & wrapp$ x 9 l951 & laid x 9 a sepul*re t 0 hewn 9 /one1 :]e9 nev] man be=e 0 laid4444 ,& wom5 :o _h come ) him out ( ,galilee foll[$ aft]1 & beheld ! sepul*re & h[ 8 body 0 laid4 ,& !y return$ & prep>$ spices & o9tm5ts4 ,^u ! fir/ day ( ! week1 ! au?or adds3 !y came unto ! sepul*re br++ ! spices :i* !y _h prep>$47#a7 ,:i* ( ^! acc\nts are we to believe8 ,accord+ to ! fir/ ,gospel1 !re is no embalmm5t at all2 accord+ to ! second & ?ird ,gospels1 ! embalmm5t is und]tak5 by ! wom51 & n by ,joseph & ,nicodemus1 b is nev] c>ri$ out2 accord+ to ! f\r? ,gospel1 ! embalmm5t is complet$ on ,friday ev5+ by ,joseph & ,nicodemus1 & n by ! wom54 ,accord+ to ! fir/ ,gospel1 ! burial is complet$ on ,friday ev5+2 accord+ to ! second & ?ird1 x is only provisional2 & accord+ to ! f\r?1 ! embalmm5t is f9al1 b x is d\btful :e!r ! entombm5t is f9al or tempor>y2 sev]al critics consid] x to h be5 only provisional47#b7 ,9 ,m>k1 ! wom5 buy ! spices :5 ! ,sabba? 0 pa/ ------27#c7 9 ,luke be=e x has begun27#d7 & 9 ,mat!w & ,john !y d n buy !m at all4 ,9 ! fir/ & f\r? ,gospels1 ! wom5 come aft] ! ,sabba? m]ely to behold ! sepul*re17#e7 & 9 ! second & ?ird1 !y br+ ! spices to complete ! burial4 #ddj ,amid ^! conflict+ /atem5ts we may sugge/ "o consid]ation4 ,x is n probable1 9 a hot climate1 t a w\nd$ body1 ha/ily laid 9 a sepul*re on ,friday ev5+ be=e six o'clock1 w\ld be di/urb$ aga9 on ,sunday morn+ = ! purpose ( be+ ano9t$ & embalm$4 ,corruption w\ld1 "u ! circum/ances1 already h comm5c$4 ,besides1 z ,keim7l7 has po9t$ out1 ! la/ duties to ! dead 7 n =bidd5 among/ ! ,jews on ! ,sabba?1 & !re is really no reason :y any c>e = ! body ( ! ,ma/] :i* rev]5ce or affection might h dictat$ %\ld n at once h be5 be/[$4 ,! enorm\s am\nt ( myrrh & aloes--ab\t a hundr$ p\nd weight --------br\ght by ,nicodemus has excit$ mu* discussion1 & adds to ! extreme improbability ( ! /ory relat$ by ! f\r? ,evangeli/47#c7 ,to :atev] weight ! ------ may be r$uc$1 ! quantity specifi$ is v great2 & x is a "q :e!r ! body ?us envelop$ z ! mann] ( ! ,jews is to bury c\ld h ent]$ ! sepul*re4 ,! practice ( embalm+ ! dead1 al?\gh well kn[n among/ ! ,jews1 & inv>iable 9 ! case ( ,k+s & noble or v weal?y p]sons1 0 by no means g5]ally preval5t ,9 ! burial ( ,gamaliel ! eld]1 *ief ( ! p>ty ( ! ,ph>isees1 x is /at$ t ov] #hj p\nds ( balsam 7 burnt 9 8 hon\r by ! proselyte ,onkelos27#c7 b ?is quantity1 :i* 0 consid]$ v #dda rem>kable1 is totally eclips$ by ! provision ( ,nicodemus4 ,! key to ! :ole ( ?is hi/ory ( ! burial ( ,jesus1 h[ev]1 is to be f\nd 9 ! celebrat$ *apt4 liii4 ( ,isaiah4 ,we h already1 9 pass+1 po9t$ out t1 9 ! ?ird ,gospel 7xxii4 #cg71 ,jesus is repres5t$ z say+3 ,= ,i say unto y1 t ?is :i* is writt5 mu/ be accompli%$ 9 me3 ,& he 0 reckon$ among transgressors4 ,! same quotation f ,is4 liii4 #ab is likewise int]polat$ 9 ,mk4 xv4 #bh4 ,n[ ! :ole repres5tation ( ! burial & embalmm5t ( ,jesus is evid5tly bas$ ^u ! same *apt]1 & m especially ^u v4 #i1 :i* is wrongly r5d]$ bo? 9 ! ,au?oriz$ ,v]sion & 9 ! ,septuag9t1 9 ! latt] ( :i* ! passage reads3 ,i w give ! wick$ = 8 grave & ! ri* = 8 dea?47#a7 ,! ,evangeli/s tak+ ?is to be ! s5se ( ! passage1 :i* !y suppose to be a ,messianic prophecy1 h repres5t$ ! dea? ( ,jesus z be+ ) ! wick$1 crucifi$ z he is betwe5 two robb]s2 & ?r\gh ,joseph ( ,arima?aea1 significantly call$ a ri* man ------ by ! fir/ ,synopti/1 especially accord+ to ! f\r? ,evangeli/ by 8 addition ( ! c\nsellor ,nicodemus & 8 hundr$ p\nds weight ( m+l$ myrrh & aloes1 z be+ ) ! ri* 9 8 dea?4 ,un=tunately1 ! passage 9 ! prophecy does n mean :at ! ,evangeli/s h be5 l$ to und]/&1 & ! able/ ,hebrew s*ol>s & critics are n[ agre$ t bo? phrases quot$ ref]1 9 true ,hebrew mann]1 to "o repres5tation1 & t ! ^w above #ddb translat$ ri* is n us$ 9 a fav\rable s5se1 b t ! passage mu/ be r5d]$3 ,& !y made 8 grave ) ! wick$ & 8 sepul*re ) ! evil-do]s1 or words to t effect47#a7 ,)\t go+ m9utely into ! details ( op9ion on ! subject ( ! s]vant ( ,jehovah 9 ?is writ+ ( ! ,old ,te/am5t1 we may add t ^u "o po9t at lea/ ! great majority ( critics are ( "o accord3 t ,is4 liii4 & o!r passages ( ,isaiah describ+ ! suff]+s ( ! ,s]vant ( ,jehovah h no ref]5ce to ! ,messiah47#c7 ,z we h #ddc t\*$ ^u ?is subject x may n be out ( place to add t ,psalms xxii47#a7 & lxix417#b7 :i* are s frequ5tly quot$ 9 connection ) ! passion1 & repres5t$ by ,new ,te/am5t & o!r e>ly writ]s z ,messianic1 are det]m9$ by s\nd] pr9ciples ( criticism appli$ to !m 9 mod]n times n to ref] to ! ,messiah at all4 ,we h else:]e spok5 ( o!r suppos$ ,messianic ,psalms quot$ 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t47#c7 ,we n[ come to a rem>kable episode :i* is peculi> to ! fir/ ,synoptic & /rangely ignor$ by all ! o!r ,gospels4 ,x is /at$ t ! next day--t is to say1 on ! ,sabba?--! *ief prie/s & ! ,ph>isees came toge!r to ,pilate1 say+3 ,sir1 we rememb] t t deceiv] said :ile he 0 yet alive3 ,aft] ?ree #ddd days ,i am rais$ ------4 ,comm&1 !re=e1 t ! sepul*re be made sure until ! ?ird day1 le/ 8 disciples come & /eal him away & say unto ! p3 ,he is ris5 f ! dead3 s ! la/ error %all be worse ?an ! fir/4 ,pilate said unto !m3 ,ye h a gu>d ------3 g1 make x z sure z ye c4 ,s !y w5t & made ! sepul*re sure1 seal+ ! /one1 ) ! gu>d47l7 ,n only d ! o!r ,evangeli/s pass ov] ?is /range proce$+ 9 total sil5ce1 b _! n>ratives exclude x1 at lea/ ^? ( ! second & ?ird ,synopti/s d s4 ,! wom5 came ) _! spices to embalm ! body1 9 total ignorance ( !re be+ any gu>d to int]f]e ) _! p]=mance ( t la/ sad (fice = ! ,ma/]4 ,we are ask$ to believe t ! *ief prie/s & ! ,ph>isees actually desecrat$ ! ,sabba? by seal+ ! /one1 & visit$ ! h\se ( ! hea!n ,pilate on s holy a day1 = ! purpose ( ask+ = ! gu>d47#b7 ,^! prie/s are said to h rememb]$ & und]/ood a prophecy ( ,jesus reg>d+ 8 resurrection1 ( :i* 8 disciples are repres5t$ to be 9 ignorance47#c7 ,! rem>k ab\t ! la/ error1 moreov]1 is v suspici\s4 ,! ready acquiesc5ce ( ,pilate is q incr$ible47#d7 ,t he %\ld employ ,roman soldi]s to wat* ! sepul*re ( a man :o _h be5 crucifi$ _c be ent]ta9$2 & 8 fri5dly3 ,g1 make x z sure z ye #dde c1 is n 9 ! _s ( ,pilate4 ,x is conceivable t to satisfy _! clam\r he may1 )\t mu* difficulty1 h cons5t$ to crucify a ,jew1 m especially z 8 crime 0 ( a political "* repres5t$ z 9 "s degree affect+ ! ,roman p[]2 b1 once crucifi$1 x is n 9 ! slighte/ degree likely t ,pilate w\ld c>e :at became ( 8 body1 & /ill less t he w\ld employ ,roman soldi]s to m\nt gu>d ov] x4 ,x may be z well to dispose f9ally ( ?is episode1 s we at once proce$ to its conclusion4 ,:5 ! resurrection takes place1 x is /at$ t "s ( ! gu>d w5t into ! city1 &1 in/ead ( mak+ _! report to ,pilate1 z might h be5 expect$1 told ! *ief prie/s all t _h occurr$4 ,a c\ncil is held1 & ! soldi]s are l>gely brib$1 & in/ruct$3 ,say t 8 disciples came by night & /ole him :ile we slept4 ,& if ?is come to ! gov]nor's e>s we w p]suade him & make y free f c>e4 ,s !y took ! money & did z !y 7 taught47#a7 ,no?+ c\ld be m simple ?an ! con/ruction ( ! /ory1 :i* foll[s ! usual broad l9es ( leg5d4 ,! idea ( ,roman soldi]s confess+ t !y slept :il/ on wat*1 & all[$ t to occur :i* !y 7 !re to prev5t6 & ?is to oblige ! *ief prie/s & eld]s1 at ! risk ( _! lives6 ,!n are we to suppose t ! *ief prie/s & c\ncil believ$ ?is /ory ( ! e>?quake & angel1 & yet act$ 9 ?is way8 & if !y did n believe x1 w\ld n ! v /ory itself h l$ to ! puni%m5t ( ! m51 & to ! confirmation ( ! report !y desir$ to spread1 t ! disciples _h /ol5 ! body8 ,! l>ge bribe seems to h be5 v ineffectual1 h[ev]1 s9ce ! ,*ri/ian hi/orian is able to report precisely :at ! #ddf *ief prie/s & eld]s in/ruct !m to say47#a7 ,is x n palpable t ! :ole /ory is leg5d>y87#b7 ,if x be s1 & we ?9k x _c be d\bt$1 a conclusion :i* ! total sil5ce ( ! o!r ,gospels seems to confirm1 v sugge/ive consequ5ces may be d$uc$ f x4 ,! fir/ ,synopti/1 ref]r+ to ! false report :i* ! ,sanh$r9 in/ruct ! soldi]s to make1 says3 ,& ?is say+ 0 spread among ! ,jews unto ?is day47#c7 ,! probable orig9 ( ! leg5d1 !re=e1 may h be5 an objection to ! ,*ri/ian affirmation ( ! resurrection to ! above effect2 b x is in/ructive to f9d t ,*ri/ian tradition 0 equal to ! occasion1 & inv5t$ a /ory to refute x4 ,x is ! t5d5cy to ?is v sy/em ( def5ce & confirmation1 ev]y:]e app>5t1 :i* r5d]s e>ly ,*ri/ian tradition s my?ical & untru/wor?y4 ,we n[ ent] ^u ! n>rative ( ! ,resurrection itself4 ,! fir/ ,synopti/ relates t ,m>y ,magdal5e & ! o!r ,m>y came to behold ! sepul*re at ! close ( ! ,sabba?1 z x began to dawn into ! fir/ day ( ! week ------17#d7 t is to say1 %ortly aft] six o'clock on ! ev5+ ( ,saturday1 ! end ( ! ,sabba?1 ! dawn ( ! next day be+ m>k$ by ! #ddg glimm] ( m ?an "o /> 9 ! heav5s47#a7 ,! second ,synoptic repres5ts t1 :5 ! ,sabba? 0 pa/1 ,m>y ,magdal5e1 & ,m>y ! "m ( ,james1 & ,salome b\ght spices1 & t !y came to ! sepul*re v e>ly on ! fir/ day ( ! week aft] ! ris+ ( ! sun ------47#b7 ,! ?ird ,synopti/ /ates t ! wom5 :o came ) ,jesus f ,galilee came to ! sepul*re1 b he subsequ5tly m def9itely names !m3 ,m>y ,magdal5e1 & ,joanna1 & ,m>y ! "m ( ,james1 & ! o!r wom5 ) !m17#c7--;a l>g] numb] ( wom51--& !y came ^u ! fir/ day ( ! week at e>ly dawn ------4 ,! f\r? ,evangeli/ repres5ts t ,m>y ,magdal5e only7#d7 came to ! sepul*re1 on ! fir/ day ( ! week1 e>ly1 :ile x 0 yet d>k ------47#e7 ,! fir/ ,evangeli/ indubitably makes ! h\r at :i* ! wom5 come to ! sepul*re diff]5t & mu* e>li] ?an ! o!rs1 & at ! same "t he repres5ts !m z witness+ ! actual removal ( ! /one1 :i*1 9 ! o!r ?ree ,gospels1 ! wom5 already f9d roll$ away f ! m\? ( ! sepul*re47#f7 ,x w1 !re=e1 be int]e/+ to foll[ ! fir/ ,synoptic4 ,x is "h /at$3 #b4 ,& behold !re 0 a great e>?quake ------3 = an angel ( ! ,"l desc5d$ f heav5 & came & roll$ away ! /one & sat ^u x4 #c4 ,8 appe>ance 0 l lightn+1 & 8 raim5t :ite z #ddh sn[4 #d4 ,& = fe> ( him ! keep]s did %ake & became z dead m54 #e4 ,& ! angel answ]$ & said unto ! wom53 ,fe> ye n1 = ,i "k t ye seek ,jesus1 :o ha? be5 crucifi$4 #f4 ,he is n "h3 = he 0 rais$ ------ z he said3 ,come1 see ! place :]e he lay4 #g4 ,& g quickly1 & tell 8 disciples t he 0 rais$ ------ f ! dead1 & behold he goe? be=e y into ,galilee3 !re %all ye see him3 behold1 ,i h told y4 #h4 ,& !y dep>t$ quickly f ! sepul*re ) fe> & great joy2 & ran to tell 8 disciples47#a7 ,we h "h 9 ! fir/ place ano!r e>?quake & app>5tly1 on ! !ory ( ! c\rse ( cosmical ph5om5a held dur+ ! ,age ( ,miracles1 produc$ by ! angel :o desc5d$ to roll away ! /one f ! sepul*re4 ,?is e>?quake1 l ! o!rs record$ 9 ! fir/ ,synoptic1 appe>s to be q unkn[n to ! o!r ,evangeli/s1 & no trace ( x has be5 po9t$ out 9 o!r writ+s4 ,) ! appe>ance ( ! angel we obvi\sly arrive ^u ?or\ghly unhi/orical gr\nd4 ,c we believe1 because ?is unkn[n writ] tells u s1 t an angel17#b7 caus+ an e>?quake1 actually desc5d$ & took su* a "p 9 ?is transaction8 ,^u ! v commone/ #b ,comp>e 8 description ) ,dan4 x4 #f4 ,x is wor?y ( consid]ation also t :5 ,daniel is ca/ into ! d5 ( lions a /one is roll$ ^u ! m\? ( ! d51 & seal$ ) ! signet ( ! k+ & 8 lords1 vi4 #ag4 #ddi pr9ciples ( evid5ce1 ! reply mu/ be an emphatic negative4 ,e fact ( sci5ce1 e lesson ( exp]i5ce excludes su* an assumption1 & we may add t ! "* ( ! au?or1 ) :i* we are n[ bett] acqua9t$1 z well z ! c\rse ( ! n>rative itself1 confirms ! ju/ice ( su* a conclusion47#a7 ,if ! introduction ( ! angel be leg5d>y1 mu/ n also 8 words be s8 ,proce$+1 h[ev]1 to exam9e ! n>rative z x /&s1 we mu/ po9t out a circum/ance :i* may appropriately be m5tion$ "h1 & :i* is well wor?y ( att5tion4 ,! wom5 & ! gu>d are pres5t :5 ! /one is roll$ away f ! sepul*re1 b !y d n witness ! actual ,resurrection4 ,x is natural to suppose t1 :5 ! /one 0 remov$1 ,jesus1 :o1 x is ass]t$1 rises ) 8 body f ! dead1 w\ld h come =? f ! sepul*re3 b n s2 ! angel only says1 v4 #f3 ,he is n "h3 = he 0 rais$ ------2 & he m]ely invites ! wom5 to see ! place :]e he lay4 ,! actual resurrection is spok5 ( z a ?+ :i* _h tak5 place be=e1 & 9 any case x 0 n witness$ by any "o4 ,9 ! o!r ,gospels1 ! resurrection has already occurr$ be=e any "o arrives at ! sepul*re2 & ! rem>kable fact is1 !re=e1 absolutely und5iable1 t !re 0 n1 & t x is n ev5 pret5d$ t !re 01 a s+le eye-witness ( ! actual ,resurrection4 ,! empty grave1 c\pl$ ) ! suppos$ subsequ5t appe>ances ( ,jesus1 is ! only evid5ce ( ! ,resurrection4 ,we %all n1 h[ev]1 pursue ?is fur!r at pres5t4 ,! removal ( ! /one is n foll[$ by any visible result4 ,! inmate ( ! sepul*re is n #dej obs]v$ to issue f x1 & yet he is n !re4 ,may we n ask :at 0 ! use1 9 ?is n>rative1 ( ! removal ( ! /one at all8 ,z no "o app>5tly came =?1 ! only purpose seems to h be5 to p]mit ^? f )\t to ent] & see t ! sepul*re 0 empty4 ,ano!r rem>kable po9t is t ! angel desires ! wom5 to g quickly & in=m ! disciples3 he goe? be=e y into ,galilee3 !re %all ye see him4 ,"o is tempt$ to inquire :y1 z he rose f ! dead 9 ,j]usalem &1 9 spite ( previ\s /atem5ts1 ! disciples are repres5t$ z be+ !re also17#a7 ,jesus did n appe> to !m 9 ! ,holy ,city1 in/ead ( s5d+ !m "s ?ree days' j\rney (f to ,galilee4 ,at ! same "t1 ,jesus is repres5t$ by ! fir/ two ,synoptics z say+ at ! la/ ,supp]1 :5 w>n+ ! disciples t !y w all be (f5d$ at him t night & be scatt]$3 ,b aft] ,i %all h be5 rais$1 ,i w g be=e y into ,galilee47#b7 ,at pres5t we h only to call att5tion to ! fact t ! angel gives ! ord]4 ,) h[ mu* surprise1 !re=e1 d we n imm$iately aft] read t1 z ! wom5 dep>t$ quickly to tell ! disciples 9 ob$i5ce to ! angel's message1 v4 #i3 ,behold ,jesus met !m1 say+1 ,hail4 ,& !y came up to him & laid hold ( 8 feet1 & wor%ipp$ him4 #aj4 ,!n sai? ,jesus unto !m3 ,be n afraid3 g1 tell my bre?r5 t !y dep>t into ,galilee1 & !re !y %all see me47#c7 ,:at 0 ! use ( ! angel's message s9ce ,jesus himself imm$iately aft] appe>s & deliv]s ! v same in/ructions 9 p]son8 ,?is sudd5 & app>5tly unnecess>y appe>ance has all ! "* ( an aft]?\ght4 ,"o po9t1 #dea h[ev]1 is v cle>3 t ! ord] to g into ,galilee & ! /atem5t t !re fir/ ,jesus is to appe> to ! disciples are unmi/akable1 repeat$ & p]emptory4 ,we mu/ n[ turn to ! second ,gospel4 ,! wom5 go+ to ! sepul*re ) spices t !y might ano9t ! body ( ,jesus--:i*1 accord+ to ! f\r? ,gospel1 _h already be5 fully embalm$ &1 9 any case1 _h la9 9 ! sepul*re s9ce ! ,friday ev5+--are repres5t$ z say+ among/ !mselves3 ,:o w roll u away ! /one f ! door ( ! sepul*re87#a7 ,?is is a curi\s dramatic speculation1 b v suspici\s4 ,^! wom5 are app>5tly n suffici5tly acqua9t$ ) ,joseph ( ,arima?aea to be aw>e t1 z ! f\r? ,gospel ass]ts1 ! body _h already be5 embalm$1 & yet !y actually contemplate roll+ ! /one away f ! m\? ( a sepul*re :i* 0 8 prop]ty47#b7 ,keim has po9t$ out t x 0 a g5]al rule7#c7 t1 aft] a sepul*re _h be5 clos$ 9 ! way describ$1 x %\ld n aga9 be op5$4 ,g5]ally1 ! /one 0 n plac$ aga9/ ! op5+ ( ! sepul*re till ! ?ird day1 :5 corruption _h already comm5c$2 b "h ! sepul*re is /at$ by all ! ,gospels to h be5 clos$ on ! fir/ day1 & ! unhesitat+ int5tion ( ! wom5 to remove ! /one is n a happy t\* on ! "p ( ! second ,synopti/4 ,!y f9d ! /one already roll$ away47#d7 ,v]4 #e3 ,& ent]+ into ! sepul*re1 !y saw a "y man sitt+ on ! "r side1 clo!d 9 a long :ite g>m5t2 & !y 7 #d ,mk4 xvi4 #d4 ,! cont9uation3 = x 0 v great -- ----1 is peculi>1 b ( c\rse int5d$ to repres5t ! difficulty ( its removal4 #deb affright$4 #f4 ,& he sai? unto !m3 ,be n affright$3 ,ye seek ,jesus ( ,naz>e?1 ! crucifi$3 he 0 rais$ ------2 he is n "h2 behold ! place :]e !y laid him4 #g4 ,b g1 tell 8 disciples & ,pet] t he goe? be=e y into ,galilee2 !re %all ye see him1 z he said unto y4 #h4 ,& !y w5t out & fl$ f ! sepul*re3 = trembl+ & a/oni%m5t seiz$ !m1 & !y said no?+ to any "o2 = !y 7 afraid47#a7 ,9 ,mat!w1 ! angel rolls away ! /one f ! sepul*re & sits ^u x1 & ! wom5 only ent] to see :]e ,jesus lay1 ^u 8 invitation4 ,"h1 !y g 9 at once1 & see ! angel 7a "y man7 sitt+ at ! "r side1 & are affright$4 ,he re assures !m &1 z 9 ! o!r n>rative1 says3 he 0 rais$4 ,he gives !m ! same message to 8 disciples & to ,pet]1 :o is specially nam$1 & ! second ,synoptic ?us fully confirms ! fir/ 9 repres5t+ ,galilee z ! place :]e ,jesus is to be se5 by !m4 ,x is curi\s t ! wom5 %\ld say no?+ to anyone ab\t ?is wond]ful ev5t1 & 9 ?is ! /atem5ts ( ! o!r ,gospels are c]ta9ly n borne out4 ,!re is "o rem>kable po9t to be notic$1 h[ev]1 t1 accord+ to ! second ,synopti/ also1 n only is !re no eye-witness ( ! ,resurrection1 b ! only evid5ce ( t m>vell\s occurr5ce :i* x conta9s is ! in=mation ( ! "y man1 :i* is cle>ly no evid5ce at all4 ,!re is no appe>ance ( ,jesus to any "o n>rat$1 & x w\ld seem z ?\gh ! appe>ance describ$ 9 #dec ,matt1 xxviii4 #i f4 is exclud$4 ,x is well kn[n t ,m>k xvi4 #i-bj did n =m "p ( ! orig9al ,gospel & is inau!ntic4 ,x is unnecess>y to argue a po9t s g5]ally admitt$4 ,! v]ses n[ app5d$ to ! ,gospel are by a diff]5t au?or & are ( no value z evid5ce4 ,we1 !re=e1 exclude !m f consid]ation4 ,9 ,luke1 z 9 ! second ,synoptic1 ! wom5 f9d ! /one remov$1 & "h x is di/9ctly /at$ t on ent]+ 9 !y f\nd n ! body ( ! ,"l ,jesus4 #d4 ,& x came to pass z !y 7 p]plex$ !reab\t1 behold two m5 /ood by !m 9 %9+ g>m5ts2 #e4 ,& z !y 7 afraid1 & b[$ _! faces to ! e>?1 !y said unto !m3 ,:y seek ye ! liv+ among ! dead8 #f4 ,he is n "h1 b 0 rais$ ------2 rememb] h[ he spake unto y :5 he 0 yet 9 ,galilee1 #g4 say+1 t ! ,son ( ,man mu/ be deliv]$ up into ! h&s ( s9ful m51 & be crucifi$ & ! ?ird day rise aga94 #h4 ,& !y rememb]$ 8 words1 #i4 & return$ f ! sepul*re1 & told all ^! ?+s unto ! elev5 & to all ! re/4444 #aa4 ,& ^! words appe>$ to !m z an idle tale1 & !y believ$ !m n47#a7 ,! au?or ( ! ?ird ,gospel is n cont5t ) "o angel1 l ! fir/ two ,synopti/s1 b introduces two m5 9 %9+ g>m5ts1 :o seem sudd5ly to /& beside ! wom51 & in/ead ( re-assur+ !m1 z 9 ! =m] n>ratives1 r adopt a tone ( repro( 7v4 #e74 ,!y in=m ! wom5 t ,jesus 0 rais$2 & "h aga9 n only has no "o be5 an eye-witness ( ! resurrection1 b ! wom5 only he> ( x f ! angels4 ,!re is "o /rik+ peculi>ity 9 ! above #ded acc\nt4 ,!re is no m5tion :atev] ( ,jesus go+ be=e 8 disciples into ,galilee to be se5 ( !m1 nor inde$ ( 8 be+ se5 at all2 b ,galilee is introduc$ by way ( a rem9isc5ce4 ,in/ead ( ! future1 ! ?ird ,synopti/ sub/itutes ! pa/ &1 z might be expect$1 he gives no h9t ( any appe>ances ( ,jesus to ! disciples beyond ! neighb\rhood ( ,j]usalem4 ,:5 ! wom5 tell ! disciples :at !y h se5 & he>d1 !y d n believe !m4 ,! ?ief on ! cross1 accord+ to ! writ]1 0 m advanc$ 9 8 fai? & k ?an ! ,apo/les4 ,sett+ aside ,mat4 xxviii4 #i1aj1 we h hi!rto no o!r affirmation ( ! ,resurrection ?an ! /atem5t t ! sepul*re 0 f\nd empty1 & ! angels ann\nc$ t ,jesus 0 rais$ f ! dead4 ,! acc\nt ( ! f\r? ,evangeli/1 h[ev]1 diff]s completely f ! n>ratives ( all ! ,synopti/s4 ,accord+ to him1 ,m>y ,magdal5e alone comes to ! sepul*re & sees ! /one tak5 away4 ,%e !re=e runs & comes to ,simon ,pet] & to ! o!r disciple :om ,jesus lov$1 say+3 ,!y took ------ ! ,"l out ( ! sepul*re & we "k n ------7#a7 :]e !y laid ------ him4 #c4 ,pet]1 !re=e1 w5t =? & ! o!r disciple1 & came to ! sepul*re4 #d4 ,& ! two ran toge!r2 & ! o!r disciple outran ,pet] & came fir/ to ! sepul*re2 #e4 & /oop+ d[n1 look+ 91 he see? ! l95 clo!s ly+2 yet w5t he n 94 ,c4 ,!n come? ,simon ,pet] foll[+ him & w5t into ! #a ,f ! use ( ?is plural1 z we h already po9t$ out1 x is argu$ t !re 7 o!rs ) ,m>y :o are n nam$4 ,?is by no means foll[s1 b if x 7 ! case ! peculi>ity ( ! n>rative becomes all ! m app>5t4 #dee sepul*re & beholde? ! l95 clo!s ly+1 #g4 & ! napk9 t 0 on 8 head1 n ly+ ) ! l95 clo!s1 b wrapp$ 9 "o place by itself4 #h4 ,!n w5t 91 !re=e1 ! o!r disciple also1 :o came fir/ to ! sepul*re1 & he saw & believ$4 #i4 ,= z yet !y knew n ! scriptures1 t he mu/ rise aga9 f ! dead4 #aj4 ,s ! disciples w5t away to _! own homes47#a7 ,critics h long ago po9t$ out ! c>eful way 9 :i* ! actions ( ! belov$ disciple & ,pet] are balanc$ 9 ?is n>rative4 ,if ! o!r disciple out/rips ,pet]1 & fir/ looks into ! sepul*re1 ,pet] fir/ actually ent]s2 & if ,pet] fir/ sees ! c>eful arrangem5t ( ! l95 clo!s1 ! o!r sees & believes4 ,! evid5t c>e ) :i* ! writ] metes out a %>e to ea* disciple 9 ?is visit to ! sepul*re1 ( :i* ! ,synoptics seem totally ignorant1 is v sugge/ive ( arti/ic arrangem5t1 & ! c>eful details reg>d+ ! fold+ & position ( ! l95 clo!s1 :i* has furni%$ s mu* matt] = apologetic reason+1 seems to u to sav\r m ( /udi$ composition ?an natural obs]vation4 ,s v mu* is pass$ ov] 9 complete sil5ce :i* is ( ! v highe/ importance1 t m9ute details l ^!1 :i* might well be compos$ 9 ! /udy1 d n produce s mu* effect z "s critics ?9k !y %\ld d4 ,!re is "s ambiguity z to :at ! disciple believ$1 accord+ to v4 #h1 :5 he w5t into ! sepul*re2 & "s und]/& t he simply believ$ :at ,m>y ,magdal5e _h told !m 7v4 #b71 :il/ o!rs hold t he believ$ 9 ! resurrection1 :i*1 tak5 9 connection ) ! foll[+ v]se1 seems und\bt$ly to be ! au?or's mean+4 ,if ! =m] 7 ! read+ x w\ld be too trifl+ a po9t to be s #def prom95tly m5tion$1 & x w\ld n accord ) ! cont5t$ return home ( ! disciples4 ,accept+ ! latt] s5se1 x is in/ructive to obs]ve ! v small am\nt ( evid5ce ) :i* ! belov$ disciple is cont5t4 ,he simply f9ds ! sepul*re empty & ! l95 clo!s ly+1 & al?\gh no "o ev5 speaks ( ! resurrection1 no "o pr(esses to h be5 an eye-witness ( x1 & z yet !y "k n ! scriptures1 t he mu/ rise aga9 f ! dead1 he is nev]!less said to see & believe4 ,x w h be5 obs]v$ t z yet1 al?\gh ! two disciples h bo? ent]$ ! sepul*re1 !re has be5 no m5tion :atev] ( angels3 !y c]ta9ly did n see any4 ,9 imm$iate cont9uation ( ! n>rative1 h[ev]1 we le>n t :5 !y h gone home1 ,m>y ,magdal5e1 :o 0 /&+ )\t at ! tomb weep+1 /oop$ d[n &1 look+ into ! sepul*re1--:]e j be=e ! disciples _h se5 no "o1--%e beheld two angels 9 :ite sitt+1 "o at ! head & "o at ! feet1 :]e ! body ( ,jesus lay4 #ac4 ,!y say unto h]3 ,woman1 :y weepe/ ?\8 ,%e sai? unto !m3 ,because !y took away ------ my ,"l1 & ,i "k n :]e !y laid him47#a7 ,?is aga9 is a v diff]5t repres5tation & conv]sation f t report$ 9 ! o!r ,gospels4 ,d we acquire any additional assurance z to ! reality ( ! angels & ! hi/orical tru? ( _! int]v5tion f ?is n>rative8 ,we ?9k n4 ,m>y ,magdal5e repeats to ! angels almo/ ! v words %e _h said to ! disciples1 v4 #b4 ,are we to suppose t ! belov$ disciple1 :o saw & believ$1 did n communicate 8 conviction to ! o!rs1 & t ,m>y 0 left #deg precisely 9 ! same d\bt & p]plexity z be=e1 )\t an idea t any?+ _h happ5$ except t ! body _h be5 tak5 away & %e knew n :]e x _h be5 laid8 ,%e appe>s to h se5 & spok5 to ! angels ) s+ul> composure4 ,_! sudd5 appe>ance does n ev5 seem to h surpris$ h]4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 cont9ue ! n>rative1 & x is well to rem>k ! ma9t5ance1 at fir/1 ( ! tone ( affect$ ignorance1 z well z ! dramatic con/ruction ( ! :ole sc5e3 v4 #ad4 ,hav+ said ?is1 %e turn$ h]self back & beholde? ,jesus /&+1 & knew n t x 0 ,jesus4 #ae4 ,jesus sai? unto h]3 ,woman1 :y weepe/ ?\8 :om seeke/ ?\8 ,%e1 suppos+ t x 0 ! g>d5]1 sai? unto him3 ,sir1 if ?\ did/ be> him h5ce1 tell me :]e ?\ did/ lay him1 & ,i w take him away4 #af4 ,jesus sai? unto h]3 ,m>y4 ,%e turn$ h]self1 & sai? unto him 9 ,hebrew37#a7 ,rabboni1 :i* is to say1 ,ma/]4 #ag4 ,jesus sai? unto h]3 ,t\* me n ------2 = ,i h n yet asc5d$ to ! ,fa!r3 b g to my bre?r51 & say unto !m3 ,i asc5d unto my ,fa!r & y\r ,fa!r1 & my ,god & y\r ,god4 #ah4 ,m>y ,magdal5e come? ann\nc+ to ! disciples t %e has se5 ! ,"l1 & he spake ^! ?+s unto h]47#b7 ,to ^? :o atta* weight to ^! n>ratives & consid] !m hi/orical1 x mu/ appe> a/oni%+ t ,m>y1 :o up to ! v la/ _h be5 closely associat$ ) ,jesus1 does n recognise him :5 he ?us appe>s to h]1 b supposes him at fir/ to be ! g>d5]4 ,z "p ( ! evid5ce ( ! ,gospel1 h[ev]1 #a ,?is is ! read+ ( ! ,vatican & ,s9aitic codices1 besides ,d & _m o!r important ,,mss4 #deh su* a trait is ( mu* importance1 & mu/ h]eaft] be allud$ to4 ,aft] a c\ple ( days n "k ,jesus :om %e _h daily se5 = s long6 ,! int]pretation ( ! reply ( ,jesus1 v4 #ag3 ,t\* me n1 c1 has long be5 a bone ( cont5tion among critics1 b x does n suffici5tly affect ! inquiry ^u :i* we are engag$ to require discussion "h47#a7 ,only "o po9t may be m5tion$ 9 pass+1 t if1 z has be5 suppos$ 9 connection ) ,mt4 xxviii4 #i1 ,jesus be und]/ood to repel1 z premature1 ! wor%ip ( ,m>y1 t v passage ( ! fir/ ,gospel1 9 :i* !re is c]ta9ly no disc\ragem5t ( wor%ip1 refutes ! !ory4 ,we %all n say m ab\t ! con/ruction ( ?is dialogue1 b we may po9t out t1 z s _m unimportant details are giv5 ?r\gh\t ! n>rative1 x is some:at rem>kable t ! sc5e t]m9ates s abruptly1 & leaves s mu* untold t x w\ld h be5 ( ! utmo/ consequ5ce = u to "k4 ,:at became ( ,jesus1 = in/ance8 ,did he vani% sudd5ly8 or did he bid ,m>y f>ewell1 & leave h] l "o 9 ! fle%8 ,did %e n inquire :y he did n jo9 ! bre?r58 :i!r he 0 go+8 ,x is sc>cely possible to tell u less ?an ! writ] has done2 & z x _c be d5i$ t su* m9or po9ts z :]e ! l95 clo!s #dei lay1 or :e!r ,m>y turn$ h]self back 7v4 #ad7 or turn$ h]self 7v4 #af7 m]ely1 _c be comp>$ 9 int]e/ & importance to ! suppos$ movem5ts & conduct ( ,jesus "u su* circum/ances1 ! omission to relate ! end ( ! int]view1 or m p>ticul> details ( x1 :il/ ^? graphic t\*es are ins]t$1 is s+ul>ly in/ructive4 ,x is mu* m important to notice t "h aga9 !re is no m5tion ( ,galilee1 nor1 inde$1 ( any int5tion to %[ himself to ! disciples any:]e1 b simply ! intimation s5t to !m3 ,i asc5d unto my ,fa!r & y\r ,fa!r1 c1 a decl>ation :i* seems emphatically to exclude fur!r appe>ances1 & to limit ! vision ( ! ris5 ,jesus to ,m>y ,magdal5e4 ,c]ta9ly ?is message implies 9 ! cle>e/ way t ! ,asc5sion 0 !n to take place1 & ! only explanation ( ! abrupt t]m9ation ( ! sc5e imm$iately aft] ?is is said is1 t1 z he spoke1 ,jesus !n asc5d$4 ,! subsequ5t appe>ances relat$ 9 ?is ,gospel mu/1 consequ5tly1 ei!r be reg>d$ z an aft]-?\ght1 or z visions ( ,jesus aft] he _h asc5d$4 ,?is dem&s s]i\s att5tion4 ,we %all see t aft] s5d+ ?is message to 8 disciples he is repres5t$ z appe>+ to !m on ! ev5+ ( ! v same day4 ,accord+ to ! ?ird ,synoptic1 ! fir/ appe>ance ( ,jesus to any "o aft] ! ,resurrection 0 n to ! wom51 & n to ,m>y ,magdal5e1 b to two bre?r517#a7 :o 7 n apo/les at all1 ! "n ( "o ( :om1 we are told1 0 ,cleopas47#b7 ,! /ory ( ! walk to ,emmaus is v dramatic & int]e/+1 b x is cle>ly leg5d>y47#c7 ,none ( ! o!r ,evangeli/s #dfj seem to "k any?+ ( x4 ,x is difficult to suppose t ,jesus %\ld aft] 8 resurrection appe> fir/ ( all to two unkn[n ,*ri/ians 9 su* a mann]1 & accompany !m 9 su* a j\rney4 ,! p>ticul>s ( ! /ory are to ! la/ degree improbable1 & 9 its ma9 features incr$ible1 & x is inde$ impossible to consid] !m c>efully )\t p]ceiv+ ! transp>5t inau!nticity ( ! n>rative4 ,! two disciples 7 go+ to a village call$ ,emmaus ?reescore furlongs di/ant f ,j]usalem1 & :ile !y are conv]s+ ,jesus jo9s !m1 b _! eyes 7 hold5 t !y %\ld n "k him4 ,he asks ! subject ( _! disc\rse1 & pret5ds ignorance1 :i* surprises !m4 ,he>+ ! expression ( _! p]plexity & depression1 he says to !m3 #be4 ,o fooli% & sl[ ( he>t to believe all t ! prophets spake4 #bf4 ,0 x n necess>y t ! ,*ri/ %\ld suff] ^! ?+s1 & ent] into 8 glory8 #bg4 ,& beg9n+ at ,moses & at all ! prophets1 he exp\nd$ unto !m 9 all ! ,scriptures ! ?+s conc]n+ himself4 ,:5 !y rea* ! village1 he pret5ds to be go+ fur!r 7v4 #bh71 b !y con/ra9 him to /ay4 #cj4 ,& x came to pass1 z he sat at meat ) !m he took ! bread & bless$ & brake1 & gave to !m2 #ca4 & _! eyes 7 op5$1 & !y knew him1 & he vani%$ out ( _! sight4 ,n[ :y all ?is my/]y8 :y 7 _! eyes hold5 t !y %\ld n "k him8 :y pret5d ignorance8 :y make z ?\gh he w\ld g fur!r8 ,consid]+ ! nature & numb] ( ! alleg$ appe>ances ( ,jesus1 ?is episode seems mo/ disproportionate & #dfa inexplicable4 ,! f9al incid5t completes our conviction ( ! unreality ( ! :ole episode3 aft] ! sacram5tal bless+ & break+ ( bread1 ,jesus vani%es 9 a mann] :i* removes ! /ory f ! doma9 ( hi/ory4 ,on _! return to ,j]usalem1 ! ,synopti/ adds t !y f9d ! ,elev51 & are in=m$ t ! ,"l 0 rais$ & 0 se5 by ,simon4 ,( ?is appe>ance we are n told any?+ m4 ,:il/ ! two disciples f ,emmaus 7 relat+ ^! ?+s to ! elev51 ! ?ird ,synopti/ /ates t ,jesus himself /ood 9 ! mid/ ( !m3 v4 #cg4 ,b !y 7 t]rifi$ & affright$1 & suppos$ t !y saw a _s4 ,! app>5t int5tion is to repres5t a miracul\s sudd5 entry ( ,jesus into ! mid/ ( !m1 j z he _h vani%$ at ,emmaus2 b1 9 ord] to re-assure !m1 ,jesus is repres5t$ z say+3 v4 #ci4 ,behold my h&s & my feet1 t x is ,i myself2 h&le me & behold1 = a _s ha? n fle% & bones z ye see me hav+4 #da4 ,& :ile !y yet believ$ n = joy1 & wond]$1 he said unto !m3 ,h ye "h any food8 #db4 ,& !y gave him a piece ( a broil$ fi%47#a7 #dc4 ,& he took x & did eat be=e !m1 ,! c>e ) :i* ! writ] demon/rates t ,jesus rose aga9 ) 8 own body is rem>kable1 = n only does he %[ 8 h&s & feet1 we may suppose = ! purpose ( exhibit+ ! w\nds made by ! nails by :i* he 0 affix$ to ! cross1 b he eats1 & !reby proves himself to be /ill possess$ ( 8 human organism4 ,x is app>5t1 h[ev]1 t !re is direct contradiction betwe5 ?is & ! repres5tation ( 8 vani%+ at ,emmaus1 #dfb & /&+ 9 ! mid/ ( !m n[4 ,! ,synopti/ :o is s lavi% 9 8 use ( miracul\s ag5cy naturally sees no incongruity "h4 ,"o or o!r alt]native mu/ be adopt$3--,if ,jesus possess$ 8 own body aft] 8 resurrection & c\ld eat & be h&l$1 he c\ld n vani%2 if he vani%$1 he c\ld n h be5 ?us corporeal4 ,! aid ( a miracle has to be invok$ 9 ord] to reconcile ! repres5tations4 ,we ne$ n "h criticise ! address :i* he is suppos$ to make to ! disciples17#a7 b we mu/ call att5tion to ! "o po9t t ,jesus 7v4 #di7 comm&s ! disciples to t>ry 9 ,j]usalem until !y be clo!d ) p[] f on high4 ,?is completes ! exclusion ( all appe>ances 9 ,galilee1 = ! n>rative proce$s to say1 t ,jesus l$ !m out t[>ds ,be?any & lift$ up 8 h&s & bless$ !m3 v4 #ea4 ,& x came to pass1 :ile bless+ !m1 he p>t$ f !m1 & 0 c>ri$ up into heav52 :il/ !y return$ to ,j]usalem1 :]e !y 7 cont9ually 9 ! temple prais+ ,god4 ,we %all return to ! ,asc5sion pres5tly1 b1 9 ! meantime1 x is well t we %\ld ref] to ! acc\nts ( ! o!r two ,gospels4 ,accord+ to ! f\r? ,gospel1 on ! fir/ day ( ! week1 aft] s5d+ to 8 disciples ! message reg>d+ 8 ,asc5sion1 :i* we h discuss$1 :5 x 0 ev5+3 xx4 #ai4 ,& ! doors hav+ be5 %ut :]e ! disciples 71 = fe> ( ! ,jews1 ,jesus came & /ood 9 ! mid/1 & sai? unto !m3 ,peace be unto y4 #bj4 ,& hav+ said ?is1 he #a ,! /atem5t 9 xxiv4 #dd1 h[ev]1 is sugge/ive z %[+ h[ ! fulfilm5t ( ! ,prophets & ,psalms is 9 ! m9d ( ! writ]4 ,we h se5 h[ mu* ?is idea influ5c$ ! acc\nt ( ! ,passion 9 ! ,gospels4 #dfc %[$ unto !m bo? 8 h&s & 8 side4 ,! disciples1 !re=e1 rejoic$ :5 !y saw ! ,"l4 #ba4 ,s !n he said to !m aga93 ,peace be unto y3 z ! ,fa!r ha? s5t me1 ,i also s5d y4 #bb4 ,& :5 he said ?is1 he brea!d on !m1 & sai? unto !m1 ,receive ye ! ,holy ,_s3 #bc4 ,:osesoev] s9s ye =give !y are =giv5 unto !m2 :osesoev] ye reta9 !y are reta9$4 ,?is appe>ance ( ,jesus to ! elev5 be>s s f> analogy to t 9 ! ?ird ,gospel1 :i* we h j exam9$1 t x occurs ^u ! same day & to ! same p]sons4 ,is x probable t ,jesus appe>$ twice ^u ! same ev5+ to ! elev5 disciples8 ,! acc\nt 9 ! f\r? ,gospel itself confirms ! only reasonable reply3 t he did n d s2 b ! n>rative 9 ! ?ird ,synoptic r5d]s ! matt] c]ta94 ,t appe>ance 0 ! fir/ to ! elev5 7xxiv4 #cf f471 & he !n conduct$ !m t[>ds ,be?any1 & asc5d$ into heav5 7v4 #ej f474 ,h[ !n1 we may inquire1 c\ld two acc\nts ( ! same ev5t diff] s fundam5tally8 ,x is absolutely c]ta9 t bo? _c be true4 ,is x possible to suppose t ! ?ird ,synopti/ c\ld =get to record ! extraord9>y p[]s suppos$ to h be5 on ?is occasion be/[$ ^u ! t5 ,apo/les to =give s9s & to reta9 !m8 ,is x conceivable t he w\ld n relate ! circum/ance t ,jesus brea!d ^u !m1 & end[$ !m ) ! ,holy ,gho/8 ,inde$1 z reg>ds ! latt] po9t1 he seems to exclude x1 v4 #di1 & 9 ! ,acts 7ii47 c]ta9ly repres5ts ! desc5t ( ! ,holy ,_s z tak+ place at ,p5teco/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 c we suppose t ! f\r? ,evangeli/ w\ld h ignor$ ! walk to ,be?any & ! solemn p>t+ !re8 or ! injunction to rema9 9 ,j]usalem8 #dfd n to m5tion o!r topics4 ,! two episodes _c be reconcil$4 ,9 ! f\r? ,gospel1 in/ead ( %[+ 8 h&s & feet1 ,jesus is repres5t$ z exhibit+ 8 h&s & 8 side1 & t ?is is n accid5tal is mo/ cle>ly demon/rat$ by ! fact t ,?omas1 :o is n pres5t1 refuses to believe 7v4 #be7 unless he see & put 8 f+] into ! pr9t ( ! nails 9 8 h&s & put 8 h& into 8 side2 & ,jesus1 :5 he appe>s aga91 all[s him 7v4 #bg7 to put 8 f+] into 8 h&s & 8 h& into 8 side4 ,9 ! ,synoptic1 ! w\nd made by t my?ical lance is ignor$ &1 9 ! f\r? ,gospel1 ! w\nds 9 ! feet4 ,! omission ( ! :ole episode ( ! leg-break+ & lance-?ru/ by ! ?ree ,synoptics ?us ga9s fre% significance4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x may be a "q :e!r1 9 ! op9ion ( ! f\r? ,evangeli/1 ! feet ( ,jesus 7 nail$ to ! cross at all1 or :e!r1 inde$1 !y 7 s 9 fact4 ,x 0 at lea/ z common1 n to say m1 t ! h&s alone ( ^? :o 7 crucifi$ 7 nail$ to ! cross1 ! legs be+ simply b\nd to x by cords4 ,op9ion is divid$ z to :e!r ,jesus 0 s b\nd or :e!r ! feet 7 likewise nail$1 b ! po9t is n important to our exam9ation & ne$ n be discuss$1 al?\gh x has consid]able int]e/ 9 connection ) ! !ory t dea? did n actually ensue on ! cross1 b t1 hav+ fa9t$ ?r\gh weakness1 ,jesus1 be+ tak5 d[n aft] s unusually %ort a "t on ! cross1 subsequ5tly recov]$4 ,!re is no f9al evid5ce ^u ! po9t4 ,none ( ! explanations (f]$ by apologi/s remove ! contradiction betwe5 ! /atem5t t ,jesus be/[$ ! ,holy ,_s ^u ?is occasion & t ( ! #dfe ?ird ,synoptic & ,acts4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a curi\s po9t to notice 9 connection ) ?is3 ,?omas is said to h be5 abs5t ^u ?is occasion1 & ! repres5tation1 !re=e1 is t ! ,holy ,_s 0 only be/[$ ^u t5 ( ! ,apo/les4 ,0 ,?omas exclud$8 ,0 he ?us puni%$ = 8 unbelief8 ,are we to suppose t an opportunity to be/[ ! ,holy ,_s 0 select$ :5 "o ( ! ,apo/les 0 n pres5t87l7 ,we h1 h[ev]1 some:at anticipat$ ! n>rative 7xx4 #bd if471 :i* relates t ^u ! occasion above discuss$ ,?omas1 "o ( ! ,twelve1 0 n pres5t1 & he>+ f ! re/ t !y h se5 ! ,"l1 he decl>es t he w n believe )\t palpable pro( by t\*+ 8 w\nds4 ,! ,evangeli/ cont9ues3 v4 #bf4 ,& aft] eight days aga9 8 disciples 7 )91 & ,?omas 0 ) !m4 ,jesus come?1 ! doors hav+ be5 %ut ------1 & /ood 9 ! mid/ & said3 ,peace be unto y4 #bg4 ,!n sai? he to ,?omas3 ,rea* hi!r ?y f+] & behold my h&s2 & rea* hi!r ?y h& & put x into my side1 & be n unbeliev+ b believ+4 #bh4 ,?omas answ]$ & said unto him3 ,my ,"l & my ,god4 #bi4 ,jesus sai? unto him3 ,because ?\ ha/ se5 me1 ?\ ha/ believ$3 bless$ are !y :o h n se51 & yet h believ$4 ,! ?ird ,synoptic gives evid5ce t ! ris5 ,jesus is n incorporeal by /at+ t he n only p]mitt$ himself to be h&l$1 b actually ate food 9 _! pres5ce4 ,! f\r? ,evangeli/ atta9s ! same result 9 a m arti/ic mann] ?r\gh ! d\bts ( ,?omas1 b 9 all[+ him actually to put 8 f+] into ! pr9ts ( ! nails 9 8 h&s1 & 8 h& into ! #dff w\nd 9 8 side1 he ass]ts t ,jesus rose ) ! same body z t :i* _h hung on ! cross4 ,he1 too1 h[ev]1 :il/ do+ ?is1 actually end[s him ) ! attribute ( incorporeality2 =1 ^u bo? ( ! occasions :i* we are discuss+1 ! /atem5t is m>k$ly made t1 :5 ,jesus came & /ood 9 ! mid/1 ! doors 7 %ut :]e ! disciples 74 ,x c sc>cely be d\bt$ t ! int5tion ( ! writ] is to repres5t a miracul\s entry47#a7 ,we are ask$1 h[ev]1 to believe t :5 ,?omas _h conv9c$ himself t x 0 inde$ ,jesus 9 ! fle% :o /ood be=e him1 he w5t to ! opposite extreme ( belief & said to ,jesus3 ------ ,my ,"l & my ,god6 ,9 repres5t+ t ,jesus1 ev5 be=e ! ,asc5sion1 0 address$ z ,god by "o ( ! ,twelve1 ! ,evangeli/ commits "o ( ^? ana*ronisms ) :i* we are famili>1 9 ano!r %ape1 9 ! works ( great pa9t]s1 :o depict pi\s bi%ops ( _! own "t z actors 9 ! sc5es ( ! ,passion4 ,^! t\*es1 h[ev]1 betray ! h& ( ! arti/1 & remove ! acc\nt f ! doma9 ( sob] hi/ory4 ,9 ! message s5t by ,jesus to 8 disciples he spoke ( asc5d+ to y\r ,god & my ,god1 b ! ,evangeli/ at ! close ( 8 ,gospel /rikes ! same note z t ^u :i* he comm5c$ 8 philosophical prelude4 ,we %all only add "o fur!r rem>k reg>d+ ?is episode1 & x is ! repetition ( "o already made4 ,x is mu* to be regrett$ t ! writ] does n in=m u h[ ^! int]views ( ,jesus ) 8 disciples t]m9at$4 ,we are told ( 8 entry1 b n #dfg ( 8 mode ( dep>ture4 ,did he vani% sudd5ly8 ,did he dep>t l o!r m58 ,!n1 x w\ld be important to "k :]e ,jesus abode dur+ ! int]val ( eight days4 ,did he asc5d to heav5 aft] ea* appe>ance8 or did he rema9 on e>?8 ,:y did he n consort z be=e ) 8 disciples8 ,^! are n je]+ que/ions1 b s]i\s indications ( ! scant9ess ( ! in=mation giv5 by ! ,evangeli/s1 :i* is n comp5sat$ by "s trifl+ detail ( no value occasionally ins]t$ to height5 ! reality ( a n>rative4 ,?is is ! la/ appe>ance ( ,jesus relat$ 9 ! f\r? ,gospel2 = ! "* ( ,*4 xxi4 is too d\btful to p]mit x to rank ) ! ,gospel4 ,! appe>ance ( ,jesus !re9 relat$ is 9 fact m palpably leg5d>y ?an ! o!rs4 ,x w be obs]v$ t 9 ?is ,gospel1 z 9 ! ?ird ,synoptic1 ! appe>ances ( ,jesus are conf9$ to ,j]usalem & exclude ,galilee4 ,^! two ,gospels are1 !re=e1 cle>ly 9 contradiction ) ! /atem5t ( ! fir/ two ,synoptics47#b7 ,x only rema9s = u to ref] to "o m appe>ance ( ,jesus3 t relat$ 9 ! fir/ ,synoptic1 xxviii4 #af ff4 ,9 ob$i5ce to ! comm& ( ,jesus1 ! disciples are repres5t$ z hav+ gone away into ,galilee1 unto ! m\nta9 :]e ,jesus _h appo9t$ !m4 ,we h n previ\sly he>d any?+ ( ?is specific appo9tm5t4 ,! ,synopti/ cont9ues3 v4 #ag4 ,& :5 !y saw him !y wor%ipp$ him1 b "s d\bt$4 #ah4 ,& ,jesus came & spake unto !m1 say+3 ,all au?ority 0 giv5 to me ------ 9 heav5 & on e>?4 #ai4 ,g ye & make disciples ( all ! nations1 baptiz+ !m into ! "n ( ! ,fa!r1 & ( ! ,son1 & ( ! ,holy ,_s2 #bj4 tea*+ !m to obs]ve all ?+s :atsoev] ,i comm&$ y2 & lo1 ,i am ) #dfh y all ! days1 unto ! end ( ! _w4 ,?is appe>ance n only is n m5tion$ 9 ! o!r ,gospels1 b x excludes ! appe>ances 9 ,judaea1 ( :i* ! writ] seems to be altoge!r ignorant4 ,if he knew ( !m1 he practically d5ies !m4 ,!re has be5 "s discussion z to :at ! d\bt m5tion$ 9 v4 #ag ref]s1 "s critics ma9ta9+ t "s d\bt$ z to ! propriety ( wor%ipp+ ,jesus1 :il/ o!rs m correctly consid] t !y d\bt$ z to 8 id5tity17#a7 b we ne$ n m5tion ! curi\s apologetic explanations (f]$47#b7 ,are we to reg>d ! m5tion ( ^! d\bts z an ine/imable pro( ( ! c&\r ( ! ,evangeli/s8 ,if s1 !n we may f9d fault ) ! omission to tell u :e!r1 & h[1 ^? d\bts 7 set at re/4 ,z ! n>rative /&s1 ! d\bts 7 n resolv$4 ,0 x possible to d\bt )\t good reason ( ! id5tity ( "o ) :om1 until a few days previ\sly1 ! disciples _h be5 9 daily & h\rly contact at lea/ = a ye>1 if n long]8 ,d\bt 9 su* a case is inf9itely m decisive ?an belief4 ,we c reg>d ! expression1 h[ev]1 9 no o!r light ?an z a m]e rhetorical device 9 a leg5d>y n>rative4 ,! re/ ( ! acc\nt ue$ h little fur!r discussion "h4 ,! extraord9>y /atem5t 9 v4 #ah7c7 seems z cle>ly ! expression ( lat] !ology z ! baptismal =mula #dfi 9 v4 #ai1 :]e ! doctr9e ( ! ,tr9ity is s def9itely express$4 ,"s critics suppose t ! ,elev5 7 n alone ^u ?is occasion1 b t ei!r all ! disciples ( ,jesus 7 pres5t1 or at lea/ ! #ejj bre?r5 l to :om ,paul ref]s1 #a ,cor4 xv4 ,g4 ,?is ma9ly re/s on ! /atem5t t "s d\bt$1 = x is argu$ t1 aft] ! two previ\s appe>ances to ! disciples 9 ,j]usalem m5tion$ by ! o!r ,evangeli/s1 x is impossible t ! ,elev5 c\ld h felt d\bt1 & consequ5tly t o!rs mu/ h be5 pres5t :o _h n previ\sly be5 conv9c$4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to po9t out ! utt] weakness ( su* an argum5t4 ,x is n p]missible1 h[ev]1 to pat* on to ?is ,gospel scraps cut out ( ! o!rs4 ,x mu/ be cle> to e unprejudic$ /ud5t t ! appe>ances ( ,jesus n>rat$ by ! f\r ,gospels 9 ,galilee & ,judaea _c be h>monis$17#b7 & we h %[n t !y actually exclude ea* o!r47#c7 ,! fir/ ,synopti/ records 7v4 #aj7 ! ord] = ! disciples to g into ,galilee1 & ) no fur!r int]ruption ?an ! #dgj m5tion ( ! return ( ! discomfit$ gu>d f ! sepul*re to ! *ief prie/1 he 7v4 #af7 /ates t !y w5t into ,galilee1 :]e !y saw ,jesus 9 ! mann] j describ$4 ,no am\nt ( +5uity c ins]t ! appe>ances 9 ,j]usalem "h )\t ! grosse/ violation ( all common s5se4 ,?is is ! only appe>ance to ! ,elev5 record$ 9 ,mat!w4 ,we mu/ "h aga9 po9t out ! s+ul> omission to relate ! mann] 9 :i* ?is int]view 0 end$4 ,! episode & ! ,gospel1 inde$1 are br\ght to a v arti/ic close by ! expression1 lo1 ,i am ) y all ! days unto ! end ( ! _w1 b we mu/ insi/ t x is a v sugge/ive fact t x does n occur to ^! writ]s to /ate :at became ( ,jesus4 ,no po9t c\ld h be5 m full ( int]e/ ?an ! mann] 9 :i* ,jesus "h f9ally leaves ! disciples1 & is dismiss$ f ! hi/ory4 ,t su* an important "p ( ! n>rative is omitt$ is 9 ! highe/ degree rem>kable & significant4 ,_h a =mal t]m9ation to ! int]view be5 rec\nt$1 x w\ld h be5 subject to criticism1 & by no means necess>ily evid5ce ( tru?2 b x seems to u t ! circum/ance t x nev] occurr$ to ^! writ]s to relate ! dep>ture ( ,jesus is a v /rong indication ( ! unreality & %ad[y nature ( ! :ole tradition4 ,we are ?us br\ght to consid] ! acc\nt ( ! ,asc5sion1 :i* is at lea/ giv5 by "o ,evangeli/4 ,9 ! app5dix to ! second ,gospel1 z if ! lat] writ] felt ! omission & desir$ to complete ! n>rative1 x is vaguely /at$3 xvi4 #ai4 ,s !n aft] ! ,"l spake unto !m he 0 tak5 up into heav5 & sat on ! "r h& ( ,god47#a7 ,! #dga writ]1 h[ev]1 omits to /ate h[ he 0 tak5 up into heav52 & sitt+ at ! "r h& ( ,god is an act & position :i* ^? :o ass]t ! ,p]sonality ( ,god may possibly und]/&1 b :i* we v5ture to ?9k betrays t ! acc\nt is a m]e !ological figm5t4 ,! ?ird ,synopti/1 h[ev]1 z we h incid5tally %[n1 gives an acc\nt ( ! ,asc5sion4 ,jesus hav+1 accord+ to ! n>rative 9 xxiv4 #ej ff41 l$ ! disciples out to ,be?any1 lift$ up 8 h&s & bless$ !m3 v4 #ea4 ,& x came to pass :ile bless+ !m he p>t$ f !m1 & 0 c>ri$ up into heav547#a7 ,! :ole ( ! appe>ances n>rat$ 9 ! ?ird ,synoptic1 !re=e1 & ! ,asc5sion are ?us said to occur on ! same day z ! ,resurrection47#b7 ,9 ,mat!w1 !re is a diff]5t repres5tation made1 = ! "t consum$ 9 ! j\rney ( ! disciples to ,galilee obvi\sly ?r[s back ! ,asc5sion to a lat] date4 ,9 ,m>k1 !re is no appe>ance at all record$1 b ! comm& to ! disciples to g into ,galilee confirms ! fir/ ,synoptic4 ,9 ! f\r? ,gospel1 ,jesus revisits ! elev5 a second "t aft] eight days2 &1 !re=e1 ! ,asc5sion is "h #dgb necess>ily lat] /ill4 ,9 nei!r ( ^! ,gospels1 h[ev]1 is !re any acc\nt ( an asc5sion at all4 ,we may "h po9t out t !re is no m5tion ( ! ,asc5sion 9 any ( ! g5u9e writ+s ( ,paul1 & x w\ld appe> t ! !ory ( a bodily asc5sion1 9 any %ape1 did n =m "p ( ! olde/ ,*ri/ian tradition47#a7 ,! gr[? ( ! leg5d ( ! ,asc5sion is app>5t 9 ! circum/ance t ! au?or ( ! ?ird ,gospel foll[s a second tradition reg>d+ t ev5t1 :5 compos+ ,acts47#b7 ,:e!r he ?\ght a full] & m detail$ acc\nt desirable1 or x seem$ necess>y to prolong ! p]iod dur+ :i* ,jesus rema9$ on e>? aft] 8 ,resurrection & to multiply 8 appe>ances1 x is impossible to say1 b ! fact is t he does s4 ,he /ates 9 8 second "w3 t to ! ,apo/les ,jesus pres5t$ himself alive aft] he suff]$ by _m pro(s1 be+ se5 ------ by !m dur+ =ty days1 & speak+ ( ! ?+s conc]n+ ! ,k+dom ( ,god4 ,x is sc>cely possible to d\bt t ! p]iod ( =ty days is sugge/$ by ! ,old ,te/am5t7#c7 & ! ,hebrew use ( t numb]1 ( :i* inde$ we already f9d examples 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t 9 ! =ty days temptation ( ,jesus 9 ! wild]ness17#d7 & 8 fa/+ =ty days & =ty nights47#e7 ,:y #dgc ,jesus rema9$ on e>? ?is typical p]iod we are n told17#a7 b ! repres5tation evid5tly is ( mu* m prolong$ & cont9u\s int]c\rse ) 8 disciples ?an any /atem5ts 9 ! ,gospels h l$ u to suppose1 or ?an ! decl>ation ( ,paul r5d]s 9 ! lea/ degree probable4 ,if inde$ ! acc\nt 9 ,acts 7 true1 ! numb]$ appe>ances recit$ by ,paul %[ s+ul> ignorance ( ! ph5om5a ( ! ,resurrection4 ,we ne$ n discuss ! p>ticul>s ( ! la/ int]view ) ! ,apo/les1 7i4 #d if47 al?\gh !y are s+ul> en\gh1 & are inde$ else:]e ref]r$ to1 b at once proce$ to ! f9al occurr5ces3 v4 #i4 ,& :5 he _h spok5 ^! ?+s1 :ile !y are look+ he 0 lift$ up2 & a cl\d receiv$ him out ( _! sight4 #aj4 ,& z !y 7 gaz+ /$fa/ly into ! heav5 z he w5t1 behold1 two m5 /ood by !m 9 :ite app>el2 #aa4 :i* also said3 ,m5 ( ,galilee ------1 :y /& ye look+ into ! heav58 ,?is ,jesus1 :o 0 tak5 up f y into ! heav51 %all come 9 l mann] z ye saw him go+ into ! heav54 #ab4 ,!n return$ !y into ,j]usalem1 c4 ,a def9ite /atem5t is "h made ( ! mode 9 :i* ,jesus f9ally asc5d$ into heav51 & x pres5ts "s ( ! incongruities :i* might h beeu expect$4 ,! bodily ,asc5sion up ! sky 9 a cl\d1 ap>t f ! miracul\s nature ( su* an occurr5ce1 seems s+ul>ly to localise ,heav51 & to pres5t views ( cosmical & cele/ial ph5om5a suitable c]ta9ly to ! age ( ! writ]1 b :i* are n endors$ by mod]n sci5ce4 #a ,! te/imony ( ! ,epi/le ( ,b>nabas 7c4 xv47 does n agree ) ?is4 #dgd ,! sudd5 appe>ance ( ! two m5 9 :ite app>el1 ! usual description ( angels1 is altoge!r 9 ! /yle ( ! au?or ( ,acts1 b does x increase ! cr$ibility ( ! /ory8 ,x is curi\s t ! angels op5 _! address to ! ,apo/les 9 ! same =m z almo/ e o!r speak] 9 ?is book4 ,"o might ask1 inde$1 :y su* an angelic int]position %\ld h tak5 place8 = its utility is n app>5t1 & 9 ! %ort s5t5ce record$ no?+ :i* is new is embodi$4 ,no surprise is express$ at ! appe>ance ( ! angels1 & no?+ is said ( _! disappe>ance4 ,!y are introduc$1 l ! *orus ( a ,greek play1 & are left unc]emoni\sly1 ) an indiff]5ce :i* betrays complete famili>ity ) sup]natural ag5cy4 ,c !re be any d\bt t ! :ole episode is leg5d>y87#a7 ,x may n seem inappropriate to m5tion "h t ! idea ( a bodily ,asc5sion does n orig9ate ) ! au?or ( ! ?ird ,synoptic & ,acts1 nor is x peculi> to ,*ri/ianity4 ,! translation ( ,eno*7#b7 _h long be5 *ronicl$ 9 ! sacr$ books2 & ! asc5t ( ,elijah7#c7 9 8 :irlw9d & *>iot ( fire be=e ! eyes ( ,eli%a 0 ano!r well-kn[n in/ance4 ,! vision ( ,daniel 7vii4 #ac71 ( "o l ! ,son ( man com+ ) ! cl\ds ( heav51 might well h sugge/$ ! mann] ( 8 dep>ture1 b ano!r mode has be5 sugge/$47#d7 ,! au?or ( ,acts 01 we ma9ta91 well acqua9t$ ) ! works ( ,josephus47#e7 #dge ,we "k t ! prophet l unto ,moses 0 a fav\rite repres5tation 9 ,acts ( ! ,*ri/4 ,n[1 9 ! acc\nt :i* ,josephus gives ( ! end ( ,moses1 he /ates t1 al?\gh he wrote 9 ! holy books t he di$ le/ !y %\ld say t he w5t to ,god1 ?is 0 n really 8 end4 ,aft] rea*+ ! m\nta9 ,ab>im he dismiss$ ! s5ate2 & z he 0 ab\t to embrace ,eleaz>1 ! high prie/1 & ,jo%ua1 a cl\d sudd5ly hav+ /ood ov] him he disappe>$ 9 a c]ta9 valley47#a7 ,?is1 h[ev]1 we m]ely m5tion 9 pass+4 ,our e>li] exam9ation ( ! evid5ce = ! orig9 & au?or%ip ( ! hi/orical books ( ! ,new ,te/am5t v cle>ly demon/rat$ t ! te/imony ( ^! works = miracles & ! reality ( ,div9e ,revelation1 :atev] t te/imony might seem to be1 c\ld n be consid]$ ( any real value4 ,we h n[ exam9$ ! acc\nts :i* ! f\r ,evangeli/s actually give ( ! ,passion1 ,resurrection1 & ,asc5sion1 & !re c be no hesitation 9 /at+ z ! result t1 z might h be5 expect$ f works ( su* unc]ta9 "*1 ^! n>ratives mu/ be pron\nc$ m]e leg5ds1 embody+ vague & :olly unatte/$ tradition4 ,z #dgf evid5ce = su* /up5d\s miracles1 !y are absolutely ( no value4 ,no reliance c be plac$ on a s+le detail ( _! /ory4 ,! aim ( ! writ]s has obvi\sly be5 to make _! n>rative ( ! v>i\s appe>ances ( ,jesus z conv9c+ z possible17#a7 & !y h freely ins]t$ any details :i* seem$ to !m calculat$ to give !m impressiv5ess1 =ce1 & v]isimilitude4 ,a rec5t apologetic writ] has said3 ,any "o :o w att5tively read side by side ! n>ratives ( ^! appe>ances on ! fir/ day ( ! resurrection1 w see t !y h only be5 pres]v$ = u 9 g5]al1 int]bl5d$ & scatt]$ notices 7see ,matt1 xxviii4 #af2 ,luke xxiv4 #cd2 ,acts i4 #c71 :i*1 9 /rict exactness1 r5d] x impossible1 )\t _m arbitr>y suppositions1 to produce f !m a c]ta9 n>rative ( ! ord] ( ev5ts4 ,! lacuna1 ! compressions1 ! v>iations1 ! actual diff]5ces1 ! subjectivity ( ! n>rators z affect$ by spiritual revelations1 r5d] all h>monies at ! be/ unc]ta947#b7 ,pass+ ov] )\t comm5t1 ! /range phrase 9 ?is passage :i* we h italicis$1 & :i* seems to claim div9e inspiration = ! writ]s1 x mu/ be obvi\s to any "o :o has c>efully read ! prec$+ pages t ?is is an exce$+ly mod]ate description ( ! wild /atem5ts & irreconcilable contradictions ( ! diff]5t n>ratives we h exam9$4 ,b su* z x is1 ) all ! gl>+ inconsi/5cies & impossibilities ( ! acc\nts ev5 ?us subdu$1 is x possible = any "o :o has =m$ ev5 a fa9t idea ( ! extraord9>y nature ( ! allegations :i* h to be atte/$1 to #dgg consid] su* docum5ts really evid5ce = ! ,resurrection & bodily ,asc5sion8 ,! usual pleas :i* are advanc$ 9 mitigation ( judgm5t aga9/ ! ,gospels = ^! *>act]i/ics are ( no avail4 ,x may be easy to excuse ! writ]s = _! mutual contradictions1 b ! pleas !mselves are an admission ( ! %ortcom+s :i* r5d] _! evid5ce valueless4 ,! diff]5ces ( purpose 9 ! n>rative ( ! f\r ,evangeli/s17#a7 may be fancifully set =?1 or +5i\sly imag9$1 b no purpose c trans=m discordant & untru/wor?y n>ratives into evid5ce = miracles4 ,unless ! prologue to ! ?ird ,gospel be consid]$ a condemnation ( any ( ! o!r ,synoptics :i* may h exi/$ be=e x1 none ( ! ,evangeli/s makes ! smalle/ ref]5ce to any ( 8 bre?r5 or _! works4 ,ea* ,gospel tacitly pr(esses to be a p]fectly indep5d5t "w1 giv+ ! hi/ory ( ,jesus1 or at #dgh lea/ ( ! active "p ( 8 life1 & ( 8 dea? & ,resurrection4 ,! apologetic !ory1 d]iv$ f ! ,fa!rs1 t ! ,evangeli/s design$ to complete & supplem5t ea* o!r1 is totally unt5able4 ,ea* "w 0 evid5tly int5d$ to be complete 9 itself2 b :5 we consid] t mu* ! great] "p ( ! cont5ts ( ea* ( ! ,synoptics is common to ! ?ree1 frequ5tly ) almo/ lit]al agreem5t1 & g5]ally )\t suffici5t alt]ation to conceal community ( s\rce or use ( ea* o!r1 ! pov]ty ( ,*ri/ian tradition becomes pa9fully evid5t4 ,we h already po9t$ out ! fundam5tal diff]5ce betwe5 ! f\r? ,gospel & ! ,synoptics4 ,9 no "p ( ! hi/ory does great] contradiction & disagreem5t betwe5 ! ?ree ,synoptics !mselves & likewise betwe5 !m & ! f\r? ,gospel exi/1 ?an 9 ! acc\nt ( ! ,passion1 ,resurrection & ,asc5sion4 ,x is impossible to exam9e ! f\r n>ratives c>efully )\t feel+ t "h tradition1 = natural reasons1 has be5 m ?an usually wav]+ & insecure4 ,ea* writ] diff]s ess5tially f ! re/1 & ! v>i\s n>ratives n only disagree b exclude ea* o!r4 ,! ?ird ,synopti/1 9 ! c\rse ( "s ye>s1 ev5 contradicts himself4 ,! ph5om5a :i* are relat$1 9 fact1 7 too subjective & unsub/antial = sob] & consi/5t n>rative1 & free play 0 all[$ = pi\s imag9ation to frame details by ! aid ( suppos$ ,messianic utt]ances ( ! ,prophets & ,psalmi/s ( ,israel4 ,su* a miracle z ! ,resurrection1 />tl+ z x is 9 our e/imation1 0 common-place en\gh 9 ! view ( ^! writ]s4 ,we ne$ n g hack to discuss ! /ory ( ! wid['s son re/or$ to #dgi life by ,elijah17#a7 nor t ( ! dead man :o reviv$ on t\*+ ! bones ( ,eli%a47#b7 ,! rais+ f ! dead ( ! son ( ! wid[ ( ,na97#c7 did n app>5tly produce mu* effect at ! "t1 & only "o ( ! ,evangeli/s seems to h ?\ght x wor? :ile to pres]ve ! n>rative4 ,! case ( ,jairus' daught]17#d7 :atev] x 01 is reg>d$ z a resurrection ( ! dead & is relat$ by two ( ! ,synopti/s2 b ! rais+ ( ,laz>us is only record$ by ! f\r? ,evangeli/4 ,! famili>ity ( ! age ) ! idea ( ! resurrection ( ! dead1 h[ev]1 accord+ to ! ,synopti/s1 is illu/rat$ by ! repres5tation :i* !y give ( ! effect produc$ by ! fame ( ,jesus ^u ,h]od & o!rs4 ,we are told by ! fir/ ,synopti/ t ,h]od said unto 8 s]vants3 ,?is is ,john ! ,bapti/2 he 0 rais$ f ! dead2 & !re=e ! p[]s "w 9 him47#e7 ,! second ,synopti/ repeats ! same /atem5t1 b adds3 ,b o!rs said t x is ,elijah2 & o!rs said t x is a prophet l "o ( ! prophets47#f7 ,! /atem5t ( ! ?ird ,synopti/ is some:at diff]5t4 ,he says3 ,n[ ,h]od ! tetr>* he>d all t 0 occurr+3 & he 0 p]plex$ because x 0 said by "s t ,john 0 rais$ f ! dead1 & by "s t ,elijah appe>$1 & by o!rs t "o ( ! old prophets rose up4 ,& ,h]od #dhj said3 ,john ,i behead$1 b :o is ?is ( :om ,i he> su* ?+s1 & he s\ght to see him477#a ,! ?ree ,synopti/s sub/antially report ! same ?+2 ! close v]bal agreem5t ( ! fir/ two be+ an example ( ! community ( matt] ( :i* we h j spok54 ,! v>iations are in/ructive z %[+ ! process by :i* ea* writ] made ! orig9al =m 8 own4 ,are we to assume t ^! ?+s 7 really said8 ,or mu/ we conclude t ! say+s are simply ! creation ( lat] tradition8 ,9 ! latt] case1 we see h[ unreal & leg5d>y are ! ,gospels4 ,9 ! =m] case1 we le>n h[ common 0 ! belief 9 a bodily resurrection4 ,h[ c\ld x seem s /range to ! ,apo/les t ,jesus %\ld rise aga91 :5 ! idea t ,john ! ,bapti/ or "o ( ! old prophets _h ris5 f ! dead 0 s readily accept$ by ,h]od & o!rs8 ,h[ c\ld !y s totally misund]/& all t ! *ief prie/s1 accord+ to ! fir/ ,synoptic1 s well und]/ood ( ! tea*+ ( ,jesus on ! subject ( 8 ,resurrection1 s9ce ! _w _h already become s famili> ) ! idea & ! fact8 ,!n1 ! episode ( ! ,transfiguration mu/ h occurr$ to e "o1 :5 ,jesus took ) him ,pet] & ,james & ,john into a high m\nta9 ap>t1 & he 0 transfigur$ be=e !m2 & 8 face did %9e z ! sun1 & 8 raim5t became :ite z ! light4 ,& behold1 !re 0 se5 ------ by !m ,moses & ,elijah #dha talk+ ) him2 & !n a bright cl\d ov]%ad[$ !m & a voice came out ( ! cl\d3 ,?is is my belov$ son1 c4 ,& :5 ! disciples he>d !y fell on _! face & 7 sore afraid47#a7 ,! ?ird ,synopti/ ev5 kn[s ! subject ( _! conv]sation3 ,!y 7 speak+ ( 8 decease :i* he 0 ab\t to fulfil 9 ,j]usalem47#b7 ,?is is relat$ by all z an objective occurr5ce47#c7 ,are we to accept x z su*8 ,!n h[ is x possible t ! disciples c\ld be s obtuse & incr$ul\s z !y subsequ5tly %[$ !mselves to be reg>d+ ! p]son ( ,jesus1 & 8 resurrection8 ,h[ c\ld ! ann\ncem5t ( t ev5t by ! angels to ! wom5 seem to !m z an idle tale1 :i* !y did n believe87#d7 ,"h 7 ,moses & ,elijah be=e !m1 & 9 ,jesus1 we are told1 !y recogniz$ "o great] ?an ,moses & ,elijah4 ,! miracle ( ! ,resurrection 0 "h aga9 anticipat$ & made palpable to !m4 ,are we to reg>d ! ,transfiguration z a subjective vision8 ,!n :y n equally s ! appe>ances ( ,jesus aft] 8 passion8 ,we c reg>d ! ,transfiguration1 h[ev]1 z no?+ m ?an an allegory )\t ei!r objective or subjective reality4 ,into ?is at pres5t we _c fur!r g4 ,x is suffici5t to repeat t our exam9ation has %[n ! ,gospels to possess no value z evid5ce = ! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,evid5ce ,,( ,,paul ,we may n[ proce$ to exam9e ! evid5ce ( ,paul4 ,on "o occasion1 x is affirm$ 9 a passage already quot$1 he gives a v circum/antial acc\nt ( ! te/imony ^u :i* ! belief 9 ! ,resurrection re/$ 7#a ,cor4 xv4 #d--h747a7 ,?is acc\nt is z foll[s3 #a ,cor4 xv4 #c4 ,= ,i deliv]$ unto y fir/ ( all t :i* ,i also receiv$1 t ,*ri/ di$ = our s9s accord+ to ! ,scriptures1 #d4 & t he 0 buri$1 & t he has be5 rais$ ------ ! ?ird day accord+ to ! ,scriptures1 #e4 & t he 0 se5 by ,cephas1 !n by ! ,twelve4 #f4 ,aft] t1 he 0 se5 by above five hundr$ bre?r5 at once ------1 ( :om ! great] "p rema9 unto ?is pres5t1 b "s are fall5 asleep4 #g4 ,aft] t1 he 0 se5 by ,james2 !n by all ! ,apo/les4 #h4 ,& la/ ( all he 0 se5 by me also z ! "o born out ( due "t47#b7 ,c ?is be consid]$ a v circum/antial acc\nt8 ,x may be exce$+ly unreasonable1 b we mu/ at once ackn[l$ge t we are n satisfi$4 ,! te/imony #dhc ^u :i* ! belief 9 ! ,resurrection re/s compris$ 9 a doz5 l9es6 = we may s f> anticipate z to say t ?is c sc>cely be reg>d$ z a resume ( evid5ce :i* we c f9d else:]e4 ,we %all pres5tly po9t out a few circum/ances :i* x might be useful to "k4 ,! ,apo/le /ates1 9 ?is passage1 t ! doctr9es :i* he _h deliv]$ to ! ,cor9?ians he _h himself receiv$4 ,he does n pret5d to tea* !m f 8 own k1 & ! "q naturally arises3 ,f :om did he receive !m8 ,=m]ly1 div9es g5]ally taught t ,paul receiv$ ^! doctr9es by revelation1 & up to rec5t times apologi/s h cont9u$ to hold ?is view1 ev5 :5 admitt+ ! subsidi>y use ( tradition47#a7 ,if ?is claim 7 s]i\sly made1 ! /atem5ts ( ! ,apo/le1 s f> z our inquiry is conc]n$1 w\ld c]ta9ly n ga9 9 value1 = x is obvi\s t ,revelation c\ld n be admitt$ to prove ,revelation4 ,x is q true t ,paul himself pr(ess$ to h receiv$ 8 ,gospel n f m51 b f ,god by direct revelation1 & we %all h]eaft] h to consid] ?is po9t & ! inf]5ces to be drawn f su* pret5sions4 ,at pres5t1 ! argum5t ne$ n be complicat$ by any su* supposition1 = c]ta9ly ,paul does n "h advance any su* claim himself1 & apologetic & o!r critics agree 9 decl>+ ! s\rce ( 8 /atem5ts to be natural hi/orical tradition47#b7 ,! po9ts :i* he #dhd deliv]$ & :i* he _h also receiv$ are ?ree 9 numb]3 7#a7 t ,*ri/ di$ = our s9s2 7#b7 t he 0 buri$2 & 7#c7 t he has be5 rais$ ! ?ird day4 ,9 /rictness ! ------ might oblige u to include1 & t he appe>$ to ,cephas1 !n to ! ,twelve1 aft] :i* ! con/ruction ( ! s5t5ce is *ang$4 ,x is n necess>y to press ?is1 h[ev]1 & x is bett] = ! pres5t to sep>ate ! dogmatic /atem5ts f ^? :i* are m prop]ly evid5tial4 ,x w be obs]v$ t1 al?\gh ! dea?1 burial1 & resurrection are "h taught z receiv$1 evid5ce only ( "o po9t is (f]$3 t ,jesus 0 se5 by c]ta9 p]sons4 ,we h already po9t$ out t ! ,gospels d n pret5d t any "o 0 an eye-witness ( ! ,resurrection itself1 & x is important to notice t ,paul1 ! e>lie/ & mo/ tru/wor?y witness produc$1 entirely passes ov] ! ev5t itself1 & relies solely on ! fact t ,jesus 0 suppos$ to h be5 se5 by c]ta9 p]sons to prove t he di$1 0 buri$1 & _h actually ris5 ! ?ird day4 ,! only inf]5ce :i* we "h wi% to draw f ?is is1 t ! alleg$ appe>ances are ?us obvi\sly sep>at$ f ! dea? & burial by a di/9ct gulf4 ,a dead body1 x is /at$1 or "o believ$ to be dead1 is laid 9 a sepul*re3 aft] a c]ta9 "t1 x is alleg$ t ! dead p]son has be5 se5 alive4 ,suppos+ ! fir/ /atem5t to be correct1 ! second1 be+ 9 itself1 accord+ to all our exp]i5ce1 utt]ly incr$ible1 leaves fur!r a s]i\s gap 9 ! cont9uity ( evid5ce4 ,:at occurr$ 9 ! int]val betwe5 ! burial & ! suppos$ app>ition8 ,if x be ass]t$--z 9 ! ,gospels x is--t1 be=e ! #dhe app>ition1 ! sepul*re 0 f\nd empty & ! body gone1 n only may x be repli$ t ?is v circum/ance may h assi/$ 9 produc+ a subjective vision1 b t1 9 s f> z ! disappe>ance ( ! body is connect$ ) ! appe>ance ( ! p]son app>5tly alive1 ! fact has no evid5tial value4 ,! p]son suppos$ to be dead1 = in/ance1 may actually n h be5 s1 b h reviv$2 =1 al?\gh we h no int5tion ourselves ( adopt+ ?is explanation ( ! ,resurrection1 x is1 z an alt]native1 c]ta9ly pref]able to belief 9 ! miracle4 ,or1 9 ! int]val1 ! body may h be5 remov$ f a tempor>y to a p]man5t re/+ place unkn[n to ^? :o are surpris$ to f9d ! body gone2--& 9 ! ,gospels ! conflict+ acc\nts ( ! embalm+ & ha/y burial1 z we h se51 w\ld fully p]mit ( su* an argum5t if we reli$ at all on ^? n>ratives4 ,_m o!r means ( acc\nt+ = ! abs5ce ( ! body might be advanc$1 any "o ( :i*1 9 ! actual default ( te/imony to ! contr>y1 w\ld be irrefutable4 ,! m]e surprise ( f9d+ a grave empty :i* 0 suppos$ to conta9 a body betrays a blank 9 ! k ( ! p]sons1 :i* c only be naturally fill$ up4 ,?is gap1 at lea/1 w\ld n h exi/$ _h ! suppos$ resurrection occurr$ 9 ! pres5ce ( ^? by :om x is ass]t$ ,jesus 0 se54 ,z x is1 no evid5ce :atev] is (f]$ t ,jesus really di$2 no evid5ce t ! sepul*re 0 ev5 f\nd empty2 no evid5ce t ! dead body actually arose & became alive aga92 b skipp+ ov] ! int]m$iate /eps1 ! only evid5ce produc$ is ! /atem5t t1 be+ suppos$ to be dead1 he is said to h be5 se5 by c]ta9 p]sons47#a7 #dhf ,!re is a peculi>ity 9 ! /atem5t to :i* we mu/ n[ ref]4 ,! words1 accord+ to ! ,scriptures ------ are twice introduc$ into ! brief recapitulation ( ! tea*+ :i* ,paul _h receiv$ & deliv]$3 7#a7 ,t ,*ri/ di$ = our s9s accord+ to ! ,scriptures1 & 7#c7 t he has be5 rais$ ! ?ird day accord+ to ! ,scriptures4 ,x is evid5t t m]e hi/orical tradition has only to d ) ! fact t ,*ri/ di$1 & t ! object3 = our s9s1 is a dogmatic addition4 ,! ,scriptures supply ! dogma4 ,9 ! second po9t1 ! appeal to ,scripture is curi\s1 & s f> important z indicat+ t ! resurrection on ! ?ird day 0 suppos$ to be a fulfilm5t ( prophecy2 & we h ?us an indication1 reg>d+ :i* we mu/ h]eaft] speak1 ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! belief probably orig9at$4 ,! d\ble ref]5ce to ! ,scriptures is peculi>ly m>k$1 & we h already m ?an once _h occasion to po9t out t ! n>ratives ( ! ,gospels betray ! v /rong & con/ant influ5ce ( p>ts ( ! ,old ,te/am5t suppos$ to relate to ! ,messiah4 ,x _c1 we ?9k1 be d\bt$ by any indep5d5t critic1 t ! details ( ^! n>ratives 7 to a l>ge ext5t trac$ f ^? prophecies4 ,x is 9 ! highe/ degree natural to suppose t ! e>ly ,*ri/ians1 once accept+ ! idea ( a suff]+ ,messiah1 %\ld1 9 ! abs5ce ( positive or m9ute k1 assume t prophecies :i* !y believ$ to h ref]5ce to him %\ld actually h be5 fulfill$1 & t 9 fact ! occurr5ces correspond$ m9utely ) ! prophecies4 ,too little is kn[n ( :at really took place1 & x is #dhg probable t ,*ri/ian tradition g5]ally 0 m\ld$ f =egone conclusions4 ,:at 7 ! ,scriptures1 accord+ to :i* ,*ri/ di$ = our s9s1 & has be5 rais$ ! ?ird day8 ,! passages :i* are g5]ally ref]r$ to1 & :i* ,paul mo/ probably _h 9 view1 are well kn[n3 z reg>ds ! dea? = our s9s1--,isaiah liii41 ,ps4 xxii4 & lxix12 & = ! resurrection1--,ps4 xvi4 #aj1 & ,hosea vi4 #b4 ,we h already po9t$ out t hi/orical criticism has %[n t ! fir/ f\r passages j indicat$ are n ,messianic prophecies at all17#a7 & we may repeat t ! idea ( a suff]+ ,messiah 0 :olly =eign to ! ,jewi% prophets & p4 ,! ,messiah crucifi$1 z ,paul himself be>s witness1 0 to ,jews a /umbl+ block17#b7 & mod]n criticism has cle>ly e/abli%$ t ! p>ts ( ,scripture by :i* ! e>ly ,*ri/ians endeav\r$ to %[ t su* a ,messiah _h be5 =etold c only be appli$ by a p]v]sion ( ! orig9al signification4 ,9 ! case ( ! passages suppos$ to =etell ! ,resurrection1 ! misapplication is p>ticul>ly flagrant4 ,we h already discuss$ ! use ( ,ps4 xvi4 #aj1 :i* 9 ,acts7#c7 is put into ! m\? ( ! ,apo/les ,pet] & ,paul1 & %[n t ! pro( passage re/s ^u a mi/ranslation ( ! orig9al 9 ! ,septuag9t47#d7 ,any read] :o w ref] to ,hosea vi4 #b w see t ! passage 9 no way applies to ! ,messiah17#e7 al?\gh und\bt$ly x has influ5c$ ! =mation ( ! doctr9e #dhh ( ! ,resurrection4 ,! sign ( ! prophet ,jonah1 :i* 9 ,mt4 xii4 #dj is put into ! m\? ( ,jesus is ano!r passage us$ ) equal incorrectness1 & a glimpse ( ! mann] 9 :i* ,*ri/ian tradition took %ape1 & ! ,gospels 7 compos$1 may be obta9$ by comp>+ ) ! passage 9 ! fir/ ,synoptic ! p>allel 9 ! ?ird 7xi4 #bi--ca747a7 ,we %all h m to say pres5tly reg>d+ ! resurrection on ! ?ird day4 ,we may n[ proce$ to exam9e ! s-call$ v circum/antial acc\nt ( ! te/imony on :i* ! belief 9 ! ,resurrection re/$4 ,& t he 0 se5 by ,cephas1 !n by ! ,twelve4 ,aft] t he 0 se5 by above five hundr$ bre?r5 at once1 ( :om ! great] "p rema9 unto ?is pres5t1 b "s are fall5 asleep4 ,aft] t he 0 se5 by ,james1 !n by all ! ,apo/les1 & la/ ( all he 0 se5 by me also47#b7 ,!re c be no d\bt1 we ?9k1 f ! t]ms 9 :i* ?is /atem5t is made1 t ,paul int5d$ to give ! appe>ances 9 *ronological ord]47#c7 ,x w\ld likewise be a fair inf]5ce t he int5d$ to m5tion all ! appe>ances ( :i* he 0 aw>e4 ,s f>1 ! acc\nt may possibly m]it ! epi!t circum/antial1 b 9 all o!r respects x is sc>cely possible to conceive any /atem5t less circum/antial4 ,z to :]e ! ris5 ,jesus 0 se5 by ^! p]sons1 9 :at mann]1 & "u :at circum/ances1 & at :at "t1 we are n v\*saf$ a s+le p>ticul>4 ,moreov]1 ! ,apo/le 0 n #dhi pres5t on any ( ^! occasions1 except+ ( c\rse 8 own vision1 & consequ5tly m]ely reports appe>ances ( :i* he has be5 in=m$ by o!rs1 b he omits to m5tion ! au?ority ^u :i* he makes ^! /atem5ts1 or :at /eps he took to asc]ta9 _! accuracy & reality4 ,= in/ance1 :5 ,jesus is said to h be5 se5 by five hundr$ bre?r5 at once1 x w\ld h be5 ( ! highe/ importance = u to "k ! exact details ( ! sc5e1 ! proportion ( inf]5ce to fact1 ! "* ( ! ,apo/le's in=mant1 ! ext5t ( ! inve/igation into ! v>i\s impressions made ^u ! individuals compos+ ! five hundr$1 z oppos$ to ! collective affirmation4 ,we confess t we d n atta* mu* value to su* appeals to ! exp]i5ce ( #ejj p]sons at once4 ,x is difficult to f9d out :at ! actual exp]i5ce ( ! individuals 01 & ea* individual is s apt to cat* ! infection ( 8 neighb\r1 & jo9 9 excitem5t1 believ+ t1 ?\gh he does n himself see or feel any?+1 8 neighb\r does1 t probably1 :5 inquiry is press$ home1 ! aggregate affirmation ( a l>ge numb] may resolve itself into ! actual exp]i5ce ( v few4 ,! fact is1 h[ev]1 t 9 ?is v circum/antial acc\nt we h no?+ :atev] except a m]e catalogue by ,paul ( c]ta9 appe>ances :i* he did n himself see--always except+ 8 own vision1 :i* we res]ve--b m]ely _h receiv$ f o!rs1 )\t a detail or in=mation ( any k9d4 ,if we comp>e ^! appe>ances ) ! in/ances record$ 9 ! ,gospels1 ! result is by no means satisfactory4 ,! fir/ appe>ance is said to be to ,cephas4 ,x is argu$ t ,paul passes 9 sil5ce ov] ! appe>ances to wom51 bo? because ! te/imony ( wom5 0 #dij n receiv$ 9 ,jewi% c\rts1 & because 8 own op9ions reg>d+ ! active p>ticipation ( wom5 9 matt]s connect$ ) ! ,*ur* 7 ( a some:at exclusive "*47#a7 ,! appe>ance to ,cephas is g5]ally id5tifi$ ) t m5tion$1 ,luke xxiv4 #cd47b7 ,no?+ c\ld be m cursory ?an ! mann] 9 :i* ?is appe>ance is relat$ 9 ! ,synoptic4 ,! disciples f ,emmaus1 return+ at once to ,j]usalem1 f\nd ! ,elev5 & ^? :o 7 ) !m say+3 ,! ,"l 0 rais$ inde$1 & 0 se5 by ,simon4 ,n ano!r syllable is said reg>d+ an appe>ance :i*1 accord+ to ,paul1 0 ! fir/ :i* _h occurr$4 ,! o!r ,gospels say /ill less1 = !y ignore ! incid5t altoge!r4 ,x is difficult to f9d room = su* an appe>ance 9 ! ,gospel n>ratives4 ,if we take ! report ( ,paul to be true1 t ,jesus 0 fir/ se5 by ,cephas1 ! sil5ce ( ?ree ,evangeli/s & _! contradictory repres5tations1 on ! "o h&1 & ! rem>kable way 9 :i* ! ?ird ,gospel avoids all b ! m]e indirect ref]5ce to ! occurr5ce1 on ! o!r1 are ph5om5a :i* we leave apologi/s to expla947#c7 ,he is next se5 by ! ,twelve4 ,?is vision is id5tifi$ ) t n>rat$ 9 ,john xx4 #ai flf4 & ,luke xxiv4 #cf ff117#d7 to :i*1 z ,?omas 0 abs5t on ! fir/ occasion1 "s critics und]/& ! episode 9 ,john xx4 #b;,c if4 to be add$4 ,on ref]5ce to our discussion ( #dia ^! acc\nts1 x w be se5 t !y h few or no elem5ts ( cr$ibility4 ,if ! appe>ance to ! ,twelve m5tion$ by ,paul be id5tifi$ ) ^! episodes1 & _! details be decl>$ au!ntic1 ! second item 9 ,paul's li/ becomes discr$it$4 ,! appe>ance to #ejj bre?r5 at once is n m5tion$ 9 any ( ! ,gospels1 b critics1 & especially apologetic critics1 ass]t ) m or less ( c]ta9ty ! id5tity ( ! occasion ) ! sc5e describ$ 9 ,mat?4 xxviii4 #af ff47#a7 ,we rem>k$ :il/ discuss+ ! passage t ?is is bas$ *iefly on ! /atem5t t "s d\bt$1 :i* w\ld h be5 inconsi/5t1 x is ?\ght1 _h ,jesus already appe>$ to ! ,elev547#b7 ,! id5tity is1 h[ev]1 d5i$ by o!rs4#c ,! n>rative 9 ! fir/ ,synoptic w\ld sc>cely add =ce to ! report 9 ! ,epi/le4 ,is x possible to suppose1 h[ev]1 t1 _h !re be5 s l>ge a numb] ( p]sons collect$ ^u t occasion1 ! ,evangeli/ w\ld n h m5tion$ ! fact8 ,on ! o!r h&1 does x n some:at discr$it ! /atem5t t ,jesus 0 se5 by s l>ge a numb] at once1 t no record ( su* a rem>kable occurr5ce exi/s else:]e87#d7 ,h[ c\ld ! tradition ( su* an ev5t1 witness$ by s _m1 h s completely p]i%$ t nei!r 9 ! ,gospels nor ,acts1 #dib nor 9 any o!r writ+1 is !re any ref]5ce to x1 & our only k ( x is ?is b>e /atem5t1 )\t a s+le detail8 ,!re is only "o explanation3 t ! assembly c\ld n h recogniz$ 9 ! ph5om5on1 :atev] x 01 ! ris5 ,jesus17#a7 or t subsequ5tly an explanation 0 giv5 :i* dispell$ "s tempor>y illusion4 ,9 any case1 we mu/ insi/ t ! total abs5ce ( all confirmation ( an appe>ance to #ejj p]sons at once alone r5d]s su* an occurr5ce m ?an suspici\s4 ,! /atem5t t ! great] numb] 7 /ill liv+ :5 ,paul wrote does n mat]ially affect ! "q4 ,paul d\btless believ$ ! report t su* an appe>ance _h tak5 place1 & t ! majority ( witnesses /ill surviv$1 b does x necess>ily foll[ t ! report 0 true8 ,! survivors 7 c]ta9ly n )9 rea* ( ! ,cor9?ians1 & c\ld n easily be que/ion$4 ,! :ole ( ! argum5t ( ,paul :i* we are consid]+1 z well z t :i* foll[s1 0 drawn f him by ! fact t1 9 ,cor9?1 ,*ri/ians actually d5i$ a resurrection1 & x is f> f cle> t ?is d5ial did n ext5d to d5y+ ! ,resurection ( ,jesus himself47#b7 ,t !y did d5y ?is we ?9k c]ta91 f ! c>e ) :i* ,paul gives :at he consid]s evid5ce = ! fact4 ,ano!r po9t may be m5tion$4 ,:]e c\ld s _m z #ejj disciples h be5 collect$ at "o "t8 ,! au?or ( ,acts /ates 7i4 #ae7 ! numb] ( ! ,*ri/ian community ga!r$ toge!r to elect a successor to ,judas z ab\t #abj4 ,apologi/s1 !re=e1 ei!r suppose ! appe>ance to #ejj to h tak5 place 9 ,j]usalem1 :5 numb]s ( pilgrims #dic f ,galilee & o!r p>ts 7 9 ! ,holy ,city1 or t x occurr$ 9 ,galilee itself1 :]e !y suppose believ]s to h be5 m num]\s47#a7 ,?is is ! m]e/ conjecture2 & !re is n ev5 gr\nd = ass]t+ t !re 7 s _m z #ejj bre?r5 9 any "o place1 by :om ,jesus c\ld h be5 se54 ,! appe>ance to ,james is n m5tion$ 9 any ( our ,gospels4 ,j]ome pres]ves a leg5d f ! ,gospel ( ! ,hebrews1 :i* /ates t ,james1 aft] hav+ drunk ! cup ( ! ,"l1 swore t he w\ld n eat bread until he %\ld see him ris5 f ! dead4 ,:5 ,jesus rose1 !re=e1 he appe>$ to ,james2 &1 ord]+ a table & bread to be br\ght1 bless$ & broke ! bread1 & gave x to ,james47#b7 ,beyond ?is leg5d>y /ory !re is no o!r record ( ! report giv5 by ,paul4 ,! occasion on :i* he 0 se5 by all ! ,apo/les is indef9ite1 & _c be id5tifi$ ) any acc\nt 9 ! ,gospels4 ,x is ass]t$1 h[ev]1 t1 al?\gh ,paul does n /ate f :om he receiv$ ! report ( ^! appe>ances ( ! ris5 ,jesus1 he mu/ h he>d !m f ! ,apo/les !mselves4 ,at any rate1 x is add$1 ,paul pr(esses t 8 prea*+ on ! dea?1 burial1 & ,resurrection is ! same z t ( ! o!r ,apo/les47#c7 ,t ! o!r ,apo/les prea*$ ! resurrection ( ,jesus may be a fact1 b we h no in=mation z to ! precise /atem5ts !y made4 ,we %all pres5tly discuss ! doctr9e f ?is po9t ( view1 b "h we mu/ conf9e ourselves to ,paul4 ,x is und5iable t ,paul #did nei!r ent]s into details nor cites au?ority = ! p>ticul> appe>ances :i* he m5tions4 ,z = ! inf]5ce t1 associat+ ) ! ,apo/les1 he mu/ h be5 in=m$ by !m ( ! appe>ances ( ,jesus1 we may say t ?is by no means foll[s s cle>ly z is suppos$4 ,paul 0 s+ul>ly indep5d5t1 & 9 8 writ+s he directly disclaims all indebt$ness to ! eld] ,apo/les4 ,he claims t 8 ,gospel is n aft] man1 nor 0 x taught to him by man1 b ?r\gh revelation ( ,jesus ,*ri/7#a7 ,n[ ,paul himself in=ms u ( 8 action aft] x pleas$ ,god to reveal 8 ,son 9 him t he might prea* him among ! ,g5tiles4 ,x might1 inde$1 h be5 reasonably expect$ t ,paul %\ld !n h s\ght out ^? :o c\ld h in=m$ him ( all ! extraord9>y occurr5ces suppos$ to h tak5 place aft] ! dea? ( ,jesus4 ,paul does no?+ ( ! k9d4 ,he is app>5tly q satisfi$ ) 8 own convictions4 ,imm$iately1 he says1 9 8 wondr\sly human & *>act]i/ic lett] to ! ,galatians1 ,i communicat$ n ) fle% & blood2 nei!r w5t ,i away to ,j]usalem to !m :o 7 ,apo/les be=e me1 b ,i w5t away to ,arabia1 & return$ aga9 unto ,damascus4 ,!n aft] ?ree ye>s ,i w5t up to ,j]usalem to visit ,cephas1 & abode ) him fifte5 days2 b o!r ( ! ,apo/les saw ,i none1 save ,james ! bro!r ( ! ,"l4 ,n[ ! ?+s :i* ,i write1 behold be=e ,god ,i lie n4444 ,!n aft] f\rte5 ye>s ,i w5t up aga9 to ,j]usalem17#b7--^u :i* occasion1 we "k1 8 bus9ess 0 n ( a nature to all[ u to suppose he obta9$ mu* in=mation reg>d+ ! ,resurrection4 ,we may ask3 ,is !re t ?ir/ = in=mation #die reg>d+ ! facts & doctr9es ( ,*ri/ianity display$ "h1 :i* entitles u to suppose t ,paul eag]ly & m9utely inve/igat$ ! evid5ce = !m8 ,we ?9k n4 ,paul made up 8 own m9d 9 8 own way &1 hav+ wait$ ?ree ye>s )\t ask+ a "q1 x is n probable t ! que/ions :i* he !n ask$ 7 ( any se>*+ nature4 ,! prote/ t he saw none ( ! o!r ,apo/les may prove 8 indep5d5ce1 b x c]ta9ly does n prove 8 anxiety = in=mation4 ,:5 ,paul w5t up to make ! acqua9tance ( ,cephas 8 object cle>ly 0 n to be taught by him1 b to place himself 9 communication ) ! man :om he believ$ to be ! *ief ( ! ,apo/les &1 we may assume1 l>gely ) a view to e/abli% a fri5dly feel+1 & secure 8 recognition ( 8 future m9i/ry4 ,we %\ld n1 ( c\rse1 be ju/ifi$ 9 affirm+ t ! conv]sation betwe5 ! two great ,apo/les nev] turn$ ^u ! subject ( ! ,resurrection1 b we ?9k t x is obvi\s t ,paul's visit 0 n 9 ! lea/ "o ( inve/igation4 ,he believ$2 he believ$ t c]ta9 ev5ts _h occurr$ accord+ to ! ,scriptures2 & ! legitimate inf]5ce f ,paul's own /atem5ts mu/ be t1 9 ?is visit aft] ?ree ye>s1 8 purpose 0 9 no way connect$ ) a se>* = evid5tial in=mation4 ,! au?or ( ,acts1 x w be rememb]$1 repres5ts him z1 be=e any visit to ,j]usalem1 publicly & boldly prea*+ 9 ,damascus t ,jesus is ! ,son ( ,god1 & conf\nd+ ! ,jews4444 prov+ t ?is is ! ,*ri/47#a7 ,?is repres5tation1 x w be admitt$1 %[s an advanc$ condition ( belief little support+ ! idea ( subsequ5t inve/igation4 ,:5 all conjectures are exhau/$1 h[ev]1 we h ! "o di/9ct fact #dif rema9+1 t ,paul gives no au?ority = 8 report t ,jesus 0 se5 by ! v>i\s p]sons m5tion$1 nor does he furni% any means by :i* we c judge ( ! nature & reality ( ! alleg$ ph5om5a4 ,we cont9ue "h to speak ( ! appe>ances to o!rs1 res]v+ ! appe>ance to himself1 z /&+ ^u a diff]5t basis1 = sep>ate exam9ation4 ,:at is ! value ( ?is evid5ce8 ,! fact to be prov$ is t1 aft] a man _h be5 crucifi$1 dead1 & buri$1 he actually rose f ! dead1 & appe>$ alive to _m p]sons4 ,! evid5ce is t ,paul1 writ+ "s tw5ty ye>s aft] ! suppos$ miracul\s occurr5ces1 /ates1 )\t detail$ in=mation ( any k9d1 & )\t pret5d+ to h himself be5 an eyewitness ( ! ph5om5a1 t he has be5 told t ,jesus 01 aft] 8 dea? & burial1 se5 alive on ! occasions m5tion$6 ,z to ! ,apo/le ,paul himself1 let x be said 9 ! /ronge/ & mo/ emphatic mann] possible t we d n sugge/ ! mo/ di/ant suspicion ( ! s9c]ity ( any hi/orical /atem5t he makes4 ,we implicitly accept ! hi/orical /atem5ts1 z di/+ui%$ f inf]5ces1 :i* proce$ f 8 p54 ,x _c be d\bt$ t ,paul 0 told t su* appe>ances _h tak5 place4 ,we d n "q ! fact t he believ$ !m to h tak5 place2 & we %all h]eaft] discuss ! weight to be atta*$ to ?is circum/ance4 ,does ?is1 h[ev]1 gu>antee ! tru? ( ! reports or inf]5ces ( ^? :o in=m$ ! ,apo/le8 ,does ! m]e passage ( any /ory or tradition ?r\gh ,paul necess>ily transmute error into tru?--self-deception or halluc9ation into objective fact8 ,are we--)\t any in=mation z to :at 0 really /at$ to ,paul1 z to ! p]sonality & "* ( 8 #dig in=mants1 z to ! details ( :at 0 believ$1 to h occurr$1 z to ! means tak5 or :i* x might h be5 possible to take to te/ ! reality ( ! alleg$ ph5om5a1 )\t an opportunity ( judg+ = ourselves on a s+le po9t--to believe 9 ! reality ( ^! appe>ances simply because ,paul /ates t he has be5 in=m$ t !y occurr$1 & himself believes ! report8 ,s f> z ! belief ( ,paul is conc]n$1 we may "h rem>k t 8 views z to ! miracul\s ,*>ismata 9 ! ,*ur* d n prep>e u to feel any confid5ce 9 ! sobriety ( 8 judgm5t 9 connection ) alleg$ sup]natural occurr5ces4 ,we h no reliance ^u 8 in/9ctive mi/ru/ ( su* /atem5ts1 or 8 imp]ative requirem5t ( evid5ce1 b e reason to d\bt !m4 ,on ! o!r h&1 )\t 9 any way imput+ wilful incorrectness or untru? to ! report]s ( su* ph5om5a1 let x be rememb]$ h[ important a "p inf]5ce has to play 9 ! n>rative ( e incid5t1 & h[ easy x is to draw errone\s inf]5ces f b>e facts47#a7 ,9 proportion z p]sons are ignorant1 on ! "o h&1 & h _! m9ds di/urb$1 on ! o!r1 by religi\s depression or excitem5t1 hope1 fe>1 or any o!r p[]ful emotion1 !y are liable to conf\nd facts & inf]5ces1 & bo? to see & analyse wrongly4 ,9 ! case ( a suppos$ appe>ance #a ,we may m]ely 9 pass+ ref] to ! case ( ,m>y ,magdal5e 9 ! f\r? ,gospel4 ,%e sees a figure /&+ beside h]1 & inf]s t x is ! g>d5]3--pres5tly some?+ else occurs :i* leads h] to inf] t %e 0 mi/ak5 9 h] fir/ inf]5ce1 & to inf] next1 t x is ,jesus4 ,x is a n>rative ^u :i* no s]i\s argum5t c be bas$1 b _h %e at fir/ turn$ away1 h] fir/ inf]5ce w\ld h rema9$1 &1 accord+ to ! n>rative1 h be5 errone\s4 ,we might also argue t1 if fur!r exam9ation _h tak5 place1 h] second inf]5ce might h prov$ z errone\s z ! fir/ is decl>$ to h be54 #dih alive ( a p]son believ$ to be dead1 x w sc>cely be disput$1 !re are _m di/urb+ elem5ts1 especially :5 t p]son has j di$ by a cruel & %ameful dea?1 & is believ$ to be ! ,messiah4 ,! occurr5ce :i* we at any "t see is1 /rictly speak+1 m]ely a s]ies ( appe>ances1 & ! actual nature ( ! ?+ se5 is det]m9$ 9 our m9ds by inf]5ces4 ,h[ (t5 are ^! inf]5ces correct8 ,we v5ture to say t ! great] "p ( ! prov]bial incorrectness & inaccuracy :i* prevails arises f ! circum/ance t inf]5ces are n di/+ui%$ f facts1 & are con/antly errone\s4 ,n[ 9 t age1 "u su* circum/ances1 & ) ,ori5tal temp]am5ts1 x is absolutely c]ta9 t !re 0 exceptional liability to error2 & ! fact t ,paul repeats ! /atem5ts ( unkn[n p]sons1 dep5d5t s mat]ially ^u inf]5ce1 _c possibly w>rant u 9 believ+ !m :5 !y contradict kn[n laws :i* express ! results ( univ]sal exp]i5ce4 ,x is inf9itely m probable t ^! p]sons 7 mi/ak51 ?an t a dead man return$ to life aga91 & appe>$ to !m4 ,we %all pres5tly consid] h[ mu* importance is to be atta*$ to ! m]e belief 9 ! occurr5ce ( su* ph5om5a1 b ) reg>d to ! appe>ances ref]r$ to by ,paul1 except 9 s f> z !y atte/ ! fact t c]ta9 p]sons may h believ$ t ,jesus appe>$ to !m1 su* evid5ce has n ! slighte/ value1 & is inde$ almo/ ludicr\sly insuffici5t to e/abli% ! reality ( s /up5d\s a miracle z ! ,resurrection4 ,x w h be5 obs]v$ t ( ! ,asc5sion !re is n a ^w--obvi\sly1 = ,paul ! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion 7 "o act4 ,hav+ s f> discuss$ ,paul's report t ,jesus rose #dii f ! dead & 0 se5 by o!rs1 we turn to 8 /atem5t t1 la/ ( all1 he 0 se5 also by himself4 ,9 ! =m] cases1 we h _h to compla9 ( ! total abs5ce ( detail$ in=mation z to ! circum/ances "u :i* he 0 suppos$ to h be5 se52 b x may be expect$ t1 at lea/ 9 8 own case1 we %all h full & m9ute p>ticul>s ( s int]e/+ & extraord9>y a ph5om5on4 ,"h aga9 we are disappo9t$4 ,paul does n give u a s+le detail4 ,he nei!r tells u :51 :]e1 nor h[ he saw ,jesus4 ,x 0 all ! m important t he %\ld h ent]$ into ! p>ticul>s ( ?is app>ition1 because !re is "o peculi>ity 9 8 case :i* requires notice4 ,:]eas x may be suppos$ t 9 ! o!r in/ances ,jesus is repres5t$ z be+ se5 imm$iately aft] ! ,resurrection & be=e 8 ,asc5sion1 ! appe>ance to ,paul mu/ be plac$ ye>s aft] t occurr5ce is alleg$ to h tak5 place4 ,! "q1 !re=e1 arises3 ,0 ! appe>ance to ,paul ( ! same "* z ! =m]8 ,paul evid5tly consid]s t x 04 ,he uses ! v same ^w :5 he says he 0 se5 ------ by me1 t he employs 9 /at+ t he 0 se5 ------ by ,cephas & ! re/1 & he classes all ! appe>ances toge!r 9 precisely ! same way4 ,if1 !re=e1 ,paul knew any?+ ( ! nature ( ! appe>ances to ! o!rs1 & yet consid]s !m to h be5 ( ! same nature z 8 own1 an accurate acc\nt ( 8 own vision might h enabl$ u 9 "s degree to e/imate t ( ! o!rs4 ,ev5 )\t ?is acc\nt1 x is some?+ to "k t ,paul believ$ t !re 0 no diff]5ce betwe5 ! e>li] & lat] appe>ances4 ,& yet1 if we reflect t 9 ! appe>ances imm$iately aft] ! ,resurrection ! repres5tation is t ,jesus possess$ ! v same body t _h #ejj hung on ! cross & be5 laid 9 ! sepul*re1 & t1 accord+ to ! ,gospels1 he exhibit$ 8 w\nds1 all[$ !m to be t\*$1 assur$ ! disciples ( 8 corporeality by p]mitt+ himself to be h&l$1 & ev5 by eat+ food 9 _! pres5ce1 & t 9 ! case ( ,paul ! appe>ance took place ye>s aft] ,jesus is said to h asc5d$ into heav5 & sat d[n at ! "r h& ( ,god1 ! id5tity ( ! app>itions becomes a sugge/ive feature4 ,! te/imony ( ,paul mu/ at lea/ ov]ride t ( ! ,gospels1 & :atev] may h be5 ! vision ( ,paul1 we may fairly assume t ! vision ( ,pet] & ! re/ 0 l x4 ,beyond ?is inf]5ce1 h[ev]1 ,paul gives u no light ) reg>d to ! appe>ance ( ,jesus to himself4 ,he m]ely affirms t ,jesus did appe> to him4 ,h ,i n se5 ,jesus our ,"l8 he says 9 "o place47#a7 ,else:]e he relates3 ,b :5 he 0 pleas$1 :o set me ap>t f my "m's womb1 & call$ me ?r\gh 8 grace1 to reveal 8 ,son 9 me1 t ,i might prea* him among ! ,g5tiles2 imm$iately1 ,i communicat$ n ) fle% & blood4444 b ,i w5t away into ,arabia & return$ aga9 unto ,damascus47#b7 ,v>i\s op9ions h be5 express$ reg>d+ ! r5d]+ ( ------4 ,! great majority ( critics agree t ! direct & natural s5se mu/ be adopt$3 to reveal 8 son 9 me1 t is to say1 )9 me1 9 my _s47#c7 ,o!rs ma9ta9 t ------ mu/ be #eja r5d]$ ?r\gh me17#a7 giv+ ------ ! s5se ( ------2 b 9 t case ! foll[+ context w\ld be q unnecess>y4 ,hilg5feld7#b7 ?9ks t ! mean+ is 9 8 p]son2 & ,ruck]t7#c7 & a few o!rs read to me4 ,! lib]ties tak5 by int]pret]s ( ! ,new ,te/am5t ) ! preposition ------1 too frequ5tly f preconceiv$ dogmatic reasons1 are rem>kable4 ,! importance ( ?is passage *iefly lies 9 ! "q :e!r ! revelation "h ref]r$ to is ! same z ! appe>ance to him ( ,jesus ( ! ,cor9?ian lett]4 ,"s critics incl9e to ! view t x is s17#d7 :il/ o!rs consid] t ,paul does n ?us speak ( 8 vision1 b r ( ! doctr9e conc]n+ ,jesus :i* =m$ 8 ,gospel1 & :i* ,paul claim$ to h receiv$1 n f man1 b by revelation f ,god47#e7 ,^u ?is po9t we h only a few rem>ks to make4 ,if x be und]/ood t ,paul ref]s to ! appe>ance to him ( ,jesus1 x is cle> t he repres5ts x 9 ^! words z a subjective vision1 )9 8 own consci\sness4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 he d n ref] to ! appe>ance1 !n ! passage loses all di/9ct ref]5ce to t occurr5ce4 ,we d n int5d to lay any fur!r /ress ^u ! expression ?an ?is1 & x is fair to add t we d n ?9k !re is any special ref]5ce to ! app>ition ( ,jesus 9 ! #ejb passage1 b simply an allusion to 8 conv]sion to ,*ri/ianity1 :i* ! ,apo/le consid]$ a revelation 9 8 m9d ( ! true "* & "w ( ! ,*ri/ :i* _h previ\sly be5 s completely misund]/ood by him4 ,we may z well say at once t we desire to take ! argum5t 9 its broade/ =m1 )\t wa/+ "t by %[+ t ,paul himself uses language :i* seems to indicate t he recognis$ ! appe>ance ( ,jesus to h be5 m]ely subjective4 ,! only o!r passage :i* we ne$ n[ m5tion is ! acc\nt :i* ,paul gives1 #b ,cor4 xii4 #b ff1 ( 8 be+ caught up to ! ?ird heav54 ,a few critics consid] t ?is may be ! occasion on :i* ,jesus appe>$ to him1 to :i* he ref]s 9 ! passage ( ! =m] lett] :i* we are consid]+17#a7 b ! great majority are oppos$ to ! supposition4 ,9 any case !re is no evid5ce t ! occasions are id5tical1 & we !re=e are n entitl$ to assume t !y are s4 ,x w h be5 obs]v$ t we h hi!rto conf9$ our att5tion :olly to ! und\bt$ writ+s ( ,paul4 ,7 !re no o!r reason ?an ! simple fact t we are exam9+ ! evid5ce ( ,paul himself1 & h1 !re=e1 to d ) t evid5ce alone1 we %\ld be ?or\ghly ju/ifi$ 9 ?is c\rse4 ,x is difficult to cle> ! m9d ( /atem5ts reg>d+ ,paul & 8 conv]sion :i* are made 9 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 b x is absolutely ess5tial t we %\ld und]/& cle>ly :at ,paul himself tells u & :at he does n1 = ! pres5t totally exclud+ ,acts4 ,:at !n does ,paul himself tell u ( ! circum/ances "u :i* he saw ,jesus8 #ejc ,absolutely no?+4 ,! :ole ( 8 evid5ce = ! ,resurrection consi/s 9 ! b>e /atem5t t he did see ,jesus4 ,n[ c ! fact t any man m]ely affirms1 )\t ev5 /at+ ! circum/ances1 t a p]son once dead & buri$ has ris5 f ! dead & be5 se5 by him1 be s]i\sly consid]$ satisfactory evid5ce = s a/\nd+ a miracle8 ,is x possible = any "o ( sob] m9d1 acqua9t$ ) ! nature ( ! proposition1 on ! "o h&1 & ) ! innum]able possibilities ( error1 on ! o!r1 to reg>d su* an affirmation ev5 z evid5ce ( mu* importance 9 su* a matt]8 ,we v5ture to say t1 9 su* a case1 an affirmation ( ?is nature1 ev5 made by a man ( high "* & ability1 w\ld possess little weight4 ,if ! p]son mak+ x1 al?\gh ( ! highe/ hon\r1 7 kn[n to suppose himself ! subject ( con/ant revelations & visions1 & if1 p]haps1 he _h a con/itutional t5d5cy to n]v\s excitem5t & ec/atic trance1 8 evid5ce w\ld h no weight at all4 ,we %all pres5tly h to speak ( ?is m 9 detail 9 connection ) ,paul4 ,su* an allegation ev5 support$ by ! fulle/ in=mation & mo/ circum/antial /atem5t c\ld n e/abli% ! reality ( ! miracle2 )\t !m1 x has no claim to belief4 ,:at is ! value ( a p]son's te/imony :o simply makes an affirmation ( "s important matt]1 unaccompani$ by p>ticul>s1 & ! tru? ( :i* _c be subject$ to ! te/ ( ev5 ! slighte/ cross-exam9ation8 ,x is wor? no?+4 ,x w\ld n be receiv$ at all 9 a ,c\rt ( ,ju/ice4 ,if we knew ! :ole ( ! circum/ances ( ! app>ition to ,paul1 f :i* he inf]r$ t he _h se5 ! ris5 ,jesus1 ! natural explanation ( ! suppos$ miracle might be #ejd easy4 ,!re 7 no o!r witnesses ( x4 ,?is is cle>2 =1 _h !re be51 ,paul mu/ h m5tion$ !m z he m5tion$ ! five hundr$4 ,we h only ! report ( a man :o /ates t he _h se54,jesus1 unconfirm$ by any witnesses4 ,"u no circum/ances c\ld isolat$ evid5ce l ?is be ol mu* value4 ,facts & inf]5ces are alike uncorroborat$1 b on ! o!r h& are contradict$ by univ]sal exp]i5ce4 ,:5 we analyse ! evid5ce1 x is r$uc$ to ?is3 ,paul believ$ t he _h se5 ,jesus4 ,?is belief con/itutes ! :ole evid5ce ( ,paul himself = ! ,resurrection4 ,x is usual to argue t ! p[]ful effect :i* ?is belief produc$ ^u ,paul's life & tea*+ r5d]s ?is belief ( extraord9>y =ce z evid5ce4 ,?is we are n prep>$ to admit4 ,if ! ass]tion t ,jesus appe>$ to him _h n be5 believ$ by ,paul1 x w\ld n h secur$ a mom5t's att5tion4 ,t ?is belief affect$ 8 life 0 ! inevitable consequ5ce ( su* belief4 ,paul em95tly comb9$ works ) fai? 9 8 own life4 ,:5 he believ$ ,jesus to be an impo/or1 he did n cont5t himself ) sne]+ at human cr$ulity1 b vigor\sly p]secut$ 8 foll[]s4 ,:5 he came to believe ,jesus to be ! ,messiah1 he 0 n m inactive1 b became ! irrepressible ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles4 ,he act$ ^u 8 convictions 9 bo? cases2 b 8 m]e p]secution ( ,*ri/ianity no m prov$ ,jesus to be an impo/or ?an 8 m]e prea*+ ( ,*ri/ianity prov$ ,jesus to be ! ,messiah4 ,x only prov$ t he believ$ s4 ,he 0 z e>ne/ 9 ! "o case z 9 ! o!r4 ,we repeat1 !re=e1 t ! evid5ce ( ,paul = ! ,resurrection am\nts to #eje no?+ m ?an ! unfeign$ belief t ,jesus _h be5 se5 by him4 ,we %all pres5tly fur!r exam9e ! value ( ?is belief z evid5ce = s a/\nd+ a miracle4 ,we mu/ n =m exagg]at$ conceptions ( ! effect ^u ,paul ( ! appe>ance to him ( ,jesus4 ,t 8 convictions & views ( ,*ri/ianity 7 bas$ ^u ! reality ( ! ,resurrection is und5iable1 & t !y receiv$ p[]ful confirmation & impulse ?r\gh 8 vision ( ,jesus is also n to be d\bt$1 b let u cle> our m9ds ( repres5tations d]iv$ f o!r s\rces & cle>ly und]/& :at ,paul himself does & does n say ( ?is vision1 & = ?is purpose we mu/ conf9e ourselves to ! und\bt$ writ+s ( ! ,apo/le4 ,does ,paul himself ascribe 8 conv]sion to ,*ri/ianity to ! fact ( 8 hav+ se5 ,jesus8 ,mo/ c]ta9ly n4 ,t is a notion d]iv$ solely f ! /atem5ts 9 ,acts4 ,! sudd5 & miracul\s conv]sion ( ,paul is a product ( ! same p5 :i* produc$ ! /ory ( ! sudd5 conv]sion ( ! ?ief on ! cross1 an episode equally unkn[n to o!r writ]s4 ,paul nei!r savs :5 nor :]e he saw ,jesus4 ,! revelation ( ,god's ,son 9 him n be+ an allusion to ?is vision ( ,jesus1 b m]ely a ref]5ce to ! light :i* dawn$ ^u ,paul's m9d z to ! "* & mission ( ,jesus1 !re is no gr\nd :atev]1 f ! writ+s ( ! ,apo/le himself1 to connect ! appe>ance ( ,jesus ) ! conv]sion ( ,paul4 ,! /atem5t 9 ! ,epi/le to ! ,galatians simply am\nts to ?is3 ,:5 x pleas$ him :o elect$ him f 8 "m's womb1 & call$ him by 8 grace1 to reveal to 8 m9d ! tru? conc]n+ 8 ,son1 t he might prea* #ejf him among ! ,g5tiles1 he communicat$ n ) fle% & blood1 nei!r did he g up to ,j]usalem to ^? :o 7 ,apo/les be=e him1 b imm$iately w5t away to ,arabia1 & aft] t return$ aga9 to ,damascus4 ,x c sc>cely be d\bt$ t ,paul "h ref]s to 8 *ange ( views--to 8 conv]sion--b z little c x be d\bt$ t he does n ascribe t conv]sion to ! appe>ance to him ( ,jesus spok5 ( 9 ! ,cor9?ian lett]4 ,let any read] :o hone/ly desires to asc]ta9 ! exact position ( ! case ask himself ! simple "q :e!r1 suppos+ ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les nev] to h exi/$1 x is possible to d$uce f ?is1 or any o!r /atem5t ( ,paul1 t he actually ascribes 8 conv]sion to ! fact t ,jesus appe>$ to him 9 a sup]natural mann]4 ,he may possibly 9 "s degree base 8 apo/olic claims ^u t appe>ance1 al?\gh x may be d\bt$ h[ f> he does ev5 ?is2 if he did s1 x w\ld only prove ! reality ( 8 belief1 b n ! reality ( ! vision2 b !re is no evid5ce :atev] 9 ! writ+s ( ,paul t he connect$ 8 conv]sion ) ! appe>ance ( ,jesus4 ,all t we c legitimately inf] seems to be t1 be=e 8 adoption ( ,*ri/ianity1 he _h p]secut$ ! ,*ur*27#a7 & fur!r x may be ga!r$ f ! passage 9 ! ,galatian lett]1 t at ! "t :5 ?is *ange occurr$ he4 0 at ,damascus4 ,at lea/ he says t f ,arabia he return$ aga9 to ,damascus1 :i* seems to imply t he fir/ w5t f t city to ,arabia4 ,:5 we consid] ! expressions 9 ! two lett]s1 x becomes app>5t t ,paul does n set =? any in/antane\s conv]sion ( ! #ejg "* relat$ else:]e4 ,to ! ,galatians he describes 8 election f 8 "m's womb & call by ! grace ( ,god z antec$5t to ! revelation ( 8 ,son 9 him3 ,:5 he :o sep>at$ me f my "m's womb & call$ me by 8 grace 0 pleas$ to reveal 8 ,son 9 me1 t ,i might prea* him among ! ,g5tiles1 c4 ,& if ! read+ ?r\gh me be adopt$1 ! s5se we are po9t+ out becomes /ill m app>5t4 ,9 ! ,cor9?ian lett] aga91 ! expressions %\ld be rem>k$3 v4 #h4 ,& la/ ( all he 0 se5 by me also1 z ! "o born out ( due "t4 #i4 ,= ,i am ! lea/ ( ! apo/les1 t am n fit to be call$ an apo/le1 because ,i p]secut$ ! ,*ur* ( ,god3 #aj4 b by ! grace ( ,god ,i am :at ,i am3 & 8 grace :i* 0 7be/[$7 ^u me 0 n 9 va91 b ,i lab\r$ m abundantly ?an !y all1 yet n ,i1 b ! grace ( ,god ) me4 #aa4 ,:e!r1 !re=e1 x 7 ,i or !y1 s we prea*1 & s ye believ$47#a7 ,pet] sees ,jesus fir/1 ,paul sees him la/2 & z ! ?\ght upp]mo/ 9 8 m9d 9 writ+ ?is epi/le 0 ! p>ties 9 ! ,cor9?ian ,*ur*1 & ! opposition to himself & d5ial ev5 ( 8 apo/le%ip1 ! m5tion ( 8 hav+ se5 ,jesus imm$iately leads him to speak ( 8 apo/olic claims4 ,am ,i n an ,apo/le8 h ,i n se5 ,jesus our ,"l8 he _h j be=e exclaim$1 & proce$$ to def5d himself aga9/ 8 oppon5ts3 "h aga9 he rev]ts to ! same #ejh subject1 ) pr\d humility call+ himself1 on ! "o h&1 ! lea/ ( ! ,apo/les1 b1 on ! o!r1 ass]t+ t he _h lab\r$ m ?an !y all4 ,he is l$ to contra/ 8 pa/ life ) 8 pres5t2 ! "t :5 he p]secut$ ! ,*ur* ) t 9 :i* he built x up4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no allusion to any miracul\s conv]sion :5 he says3 by ! grace ( ,god ,i am :at ,i am4 ,he may consid] 8 hav+ se5 ! ,"l & become a witness ( 8 resurrection "o "p ( 8 qualification = ! ,apo/olate1 b assur$ly he does n repres5t ?is z ! means ( 8 conv]sion4 ,we %all n pause to discuss at l5g? h[ f> be+ a witness = ! resurrection really 0 made a necess>y qualification = ! apo/olic (fice4 ,! passages1 ,luke xxiv4 #dh1 ,acts i4 #bb1 ii4 #cb1 ^u :i* ! !ory ma9ly re/s1 are n evid5ce ( ! fact :i* c = a mom5t be accept$4 ,x is obvi\s t ! ,twelve 7 apo/les f hav+ be5 *os5 disciples ( ! ,ma/] f ! comm5cem5t ( 8 active c>e]1 & n f any =tuit\s circum/ance at its close4 ,if ,paul says3 ,am ,i n an apo/le8 ,h ,i n se5 ,jesus our ,"l8 he cont9ues3 ,are ye n my "w 9 ! ,"l8 ,if ,i am n an apo/le unto o!rs1 yet ,i am at lea/ to y3 = ! seal ( m9e apo/le%ip are ye 9 ! ,"l4 ,my def5ce to !m t exam9e me is ?is47#a7 ,!re c be no d\bt t ! claims ( ,paul to ! ,apo/olate 71 dur+ 8 life1 con/antly d5i$1 & 8 au?ority reject$4 ,z we h else:]e po9t$ out1 !re is no evid5ce t 8 apo/le%ip 0 ev] recognis$ by ! eld] ,apo/les1 nor t 8 claim 0 ev] submitt$ to !m4 ,ev5 9 ! #eji second c5tury1 ! ,clem5t9e ,homilies d5y him ! hon\r1 & make light ( 8 visions & revelations4 ,all ! evid5ce we possess %[s t ,paul's vision ( ,jesus did n secure = him mu* consid]ation 9 8 own "t1 a circum/ance :i* c]ta9ly does n t5d to e/abli% its reality4 ,:at weight c we1 !n1 atta* to ! repres5tation 9 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les ( ! conv]sion ( ,paul8 ,our exam9ation ( t "w has suffici5tly %[n t none ( its /atem5ts c be receiv$ z hi/orical4 ,:]e we h be5 able to comp>e !m ) ! epi/les ( ,paul1 !y h n be5 9 agreem5t4 ,no?+ c\ld be m obvi\s ?an ! contradiction betwe5 ! n>rative ( ,paul's conduct aft] 8 conv]sion1 accord+ to ,acts1 & ! acc\nt :i* ,paul gives 9 ! ,galatian lett]4 ,we ne$ n repeat ! demon/ration "h4 ,:]e we possess ! means ( comp>ison1 we discov] ! inaccuracy ( ,acts4 ,:y %\ld we suppose t :i* we _c comp>e m accurate8 ,s f> z our argum5t is conc]n$1 x matt]s v little :e!r we exclude ! n>rative ( ! conv]sion ( ,acts or n4 ,we po9t out1 h[ev]1 t !re is no confirmation :atev] 9 ! writ+s ( ,paul ( ! repres5tation ( 8 conv]sion by means ( a vision ( ,jesus1 :i*1 ^u all consid]ations1 may mu* m reasonably be assign$ to a some:at lat] p]iod4 ,if we v5tur$ to conjecture1 we %\ld say t ! au?or ( ,acts has exp&$ ! scatt]$ say+s ( ,paul into ?is n>rative1 mak+ ! miracul\s conv]sion by a p]sonal int]position ( ,jesus1 :i* he !re=e relates no less ?an ?ree times1 c\nt]balance ! disadvantage ( 8 n hav+ foll[$ ,jesus 9 ! #eaj fle%47#a7 ,x is curi\s t he has introduc$ ! b>e /atem5t into ! ?ird ,synoptic1 t ,jesus 0 se5 by ,simon ------17#b7 :i* none ( ! o!r evangeli/s m5tions1 b :i* he may h f\nd1 )\t f>!r p>ticul>s1 ------1 9 ! ,epi/le :5ce he d]iv$1 p]haps1 mat]ials = ! o!r /ory4 ,9 no case c ! n>rative 9 ,acts be receiv$ z evid5ce ( ! slighte/ value2 b 9 ord] n to pass ov] ev5 su* /atem5ts 9 sil5ce1 we %all v briefly exam9e x4 ,! n>rative is repeat$ ?rice3 9 ! fir/ in/ance 7ix4 #a ff47 z a hi/orical acc\nt ( ! transaction2 next 7xxii4 #d if47 introduc$ into a spee* suppos$ to be deliv]$ by ,paul to ! ,jews :5 tak5 prison] 9 consequ5ce ( _! upro> on f9d+ him 9 ! ,temple purify+ himself ) ! f\r m5 :o _h a v[1--a position :i* _c hi/orically be reconcil$ ) ! "* & views ( ,paul2 &1 ?irdly1 aga9 put into ! m\? ( ! ,apo/le 7xxvi4 #i ff47 :5 he pleads 8 cause be=e ,k+ ,agrippa4 ,paul is repres5t$ 9 ! headlong c>e] ( p]secut+ ! ,*ur*1 & go+ ) lett]s f ! high prie/ emp[]+ him to br+ ,*ri/ian m5 & wom5 b\nd unto ,j]usalem4 ,& z he j\rney$1 x came to pass t he drew nigh to ,damascus1 & sudd5ly !re %one r\nd ab\t him a light out ( ! heav51 & he fell ^u ! e>? & he>d a voice say+ unto him3 ,saul1 ,saul1 :y p]secute/ ?\ me8 ,& he said1 ,:o art ?\1 ,"l8 ,& he said1 ,i am ,jesus :om ?\ p]secute/4 ,b rise & g into ! city1 & x %all be told !e :at ?\ mu/ d47#c7 ,9 ! second acc\nt1 !re is s f> #eaa no v wide discrepancy1 b !re1 z 9 ! ?ird1 ! "t is said to be ab\t noon4 ,!re is a v consid]able diff]5ce 9 ! ?ird acc\nt1 h[ev]1 m especially 9 ! report ( :at is said by ! voice3 xxvi4 #ac4 ,at midday1 ,o ,k+1 ,i saw 9 ! way a light f heav51 above ! brightness ( ! sun1 %9+ r\nd ab\t me & ^? j\rney+ ) me2 #ad4 ,& :5 we all fell to ! e>?1 ,i he>d a voice say+ unto me 9 ! ,hebrew tongue3 ,saul1 ,saul1 :y p]secute/ ?\ me8 x is h>d = !e to kick aga9/ pricks4 #ae4 ,& ,i said3 ,:o art ?\1 ,"l8 ,& ! ,"l said3 ,i am ,jesus :om ?\ p]secute/4 #af4 ,b rise & /& ^u ?y feet2 = ,i 0 se5 by !e = ?is purpose1 to *oose !e a m9i/] & a witness bo? ( ^! ?+s :i* ?\ sawe/1 & ( ! ?+s 9 :i* ,i w appe> unto !e2 #ag4 deliv]+ !e f ! p & f ! ,g5tiles1 unto :om ,i s5d !e2 #ah4 to op5 _! eyes1 t !y may turn !m f d>kness to light1 & f ! p[] ( ,satan unto ,god1 t !y may receive =giv5ess ( s9s1 & a lot among !m :i* are sanctifi$ by fai? t is 9 me47#a7 #eab ,x w be admitt$ t ?is address is widely diff]5t f t report$ 9 ! two e>li] acc\nts4 ,apologi/s argue t1 9 ?is ?ird n>rative1 ,paul has simply transf]r$ f ,ananias to ,jesus ! message deliv]$ to him by ! =m]1 accord+ to ! second acc\nt4 ,let u fir/ see :at ,ananias is !re repres5t$ z say+4 ,acts xxii4 #ad3 ,& he said3 ,! ,god ( our fa!rs *ose !e1 to "k 8 w & to see ! ,righte\s ,"o'7#a7 #ae4 = ?\ %alt be a witness to him unto all m5 ( :at ?\ ha/ se5 & he>d4 7#b7 ,n[ ,paul cle>ly pr(esses 9 ! spee* :i* he is repres5t$ z deliv]+ be=e ,agrippa to /ate :at ! voice said to him3 ,& he said1 & ,i said1 & he said1 di/9ctly convey ! mean+ t ! report is to be :at actually 0 said4 ,if ! s5se ( :at ,ananias said to him is embodi$ 9 "p ( ! address ascrib$ to ! voice1 x is /rangely alt]$ & put into ! fir/ p]son2 b1 beyond ?is1 !re is mu* add$ :i* nei!r appe>s 9 ! spee* ( ,ananias nor any:]e else 9 any ( ! n>ratives4 ,if we fur!r comp>e ! in/ructions giv5 to ,ananias 9 ! vision ( ! fir/ n>rative ) 8 words 9 ! second & ^? ascrib$ to ! voice 9 ! ?ird1 we %all see t ^! aga9 diff] v mat]ially4 ,acts ix4 #ae4 ,b ! ,"l said unto him3 ,g2 = ?is man is a *os5 vessel unto me1 to be> my "n be=e ,g5tiles & k+s1 & ! sons ( ,israel3 #af4 ,= ,i w %[ him h[ great ?+s he mu/ suff] = my "n's sake47#c7 #a ,x w be rememb]$ t ?is epi!t occurs 9 ,acts iii4 #ad1 vii4 #eb1 & n[h]e else 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t4 #eac ,:at mu/ we ?9k ( a writ] :o deals s freely ) 8 mat]ials1 & takes su* lib]ties ev5 ) s s]i\s a matt] z ?is heav5ly vision & ! words ( ! glorifi$ ,jesus8 ,9 ! ?ird acc\nt1 ,jesus is repres5t$ z say+3 ,x is h>d = !e to kick aga9/ pricks47#a7 ,?is is a well-kn[n prov]bial say+1 frequ5tly us$ by classical ,greek & ,lat9 au?ors17#b7 & n altoge!r /range to ,hebrew4 ,x is a s+ul>ly an?ropomorphic repres5tation to put su* a say+ into ! m\? ( ! div9e app>ition1 & x assi/s 9 betray+ ! mundane orig9 ( ! :ole sc5e4 ,ano!r po9t des]v+ consid]ation is1 t ,paul is n told :at he is to d by ! voice ( ,jesus1 b is desir$ to g into ! city to be !re in/ruct$ by ,ananias4 ,?is is cle>ly oppos$ to ,paul's own repeat$ assev]ations4 ,= nei!r did ,i receive x f man nor 0 taught x1 b ?r\gh a revelation ( ,jesus ,*ri/17#c7 is 8 /atem5t4 ,! details ( ! incid5t itself1 moreov]1 are diff]5tly /at$ 9 ! v>i\s acc\nts & _c be reconcil$4 ,accord+ to ! fir/ acc\nt1 ! companions ( ,paul /ood spee*less 7ix4 #g72 9 ! ?ird1 !y all fell to ! e>? 7xxvi4 #ad74 ,! explanation1 t !y fir/ fell to ! gr\nd & !n rose up1 fails #ead satisfactorily to h>monise ! two /atem5ts2 z does likewise ! sugge/ion t ! fir/ expression is simply an idiomatic mole ( say+ t !y 7 spee*less1 indep5d5t ( position4 ,!n aga91 9 ! fir/ acc\nt1 x is said t ! m5 /ood spee*less1 he>+ ! voice ------ b see+ no "o4' ,9 ! second we are told3 ,& !y t 7 ) me saw inde$ ! light2 b !y he>d n ! voice ------ ( him speak+ to me47#b7 ,no two /atem5ts c\ld be m contradictory4 ,! attempt to reconcile !m by expla9+ ! v]b ------ 9 ! "o place to he> & 9 ! o!r to und]/& is inadmissible1 because :olly arbitr>y4 ,x is q obvi\s t ! ^w is us$ 9 ! same s5se 9 bo? passages1 ! diff]5ce be+ m]ely ! negative4 ,9 ! ?ird acc\nt1 ! voice is describ$ z speak+ 9 ! ,hebrew tongue17#c7 :i* 0 probably ! native tongue ( ! companions ( ,paul f ,j]usalem4 ,if !y he>d ! voice speak+ ,hebrew1 !y mu/ h und]/ood x ,! ef=t to make ! vision cle>ly objective1 &1 at ! same "t1 to conf9e x to ,paul1 leads to ^! complications4 ,! voice is he>d1 ?\gh ! speak] is n se51 by ! m51 9 ! "o /ory1 :il/ ! light is se51 & ! voice n he>d1 9 ! o!r1 & yet x speaks 9 ,hebrew accord+ to ! ?ird1 & ev5 makes use ( classical prov]bs1 & uses language wondr\sly simil> to t ( ! au?or ( ,acts4 ,we may rem>k "h t ,paul's ,gospel 0 c]ta9ly n reveal$ to him ^u ?is occasion2 &1 !re=e1 ! expressions 9 8 epi/les ^u ?is subject mu/ be ref]r$ to o!r revelations4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 #eae ano!r curi\s po9t to be obs]v$4 ,paul is n describ$ z hav+ actually se5 ,jesus 9 ! vision4 ,accord+ to ! fir/ two acc\nts1 a light %9es r\nd ab\t him & he falls to ! gr\nd & he>s a voice2 :5 he rises he is bl9d47#a7 ,if 9 ! ?ird acc\nt1 he sees ! light f heav5 above ! brightness ( ! sun %9+ r\nd ab\t him & 8 companions17#b7 !y equally see x1 accord+ to ! second acc\nt47#c7 ,! bl9dness1 !re=e1 is miracul\s & symbolic1 = ! m5 are n bl9d$ by ! light47#d7 ,x is s+ul> t ,paul n[h]e ref]s to ?is bl9dness 9 8 lett]s4 ,x _c be d\bt$ t ! writ]'s purpose is to symbolise ! v *ange f d>kness to light1 9 ! case ( ,paul1 :i*1 aft] ,old ,te/am5t prophecies1 is ref]r$ to 9 ! words ascrib$1 9 ! ?ird acc\nt17#e7 to ! voice4 ,paul1 ?us1 only sees ! light :i* surr\nds ! glorifi$ ,jesus1 b n 8 own p]son1 & ! id5tification proce$s only f ! /atem5t3 ,i am ,jesus :om ?\ p]secute/4 ,x is true t ! expression is /rangely put into ! m\? ( ,jesus1 9 ! ?ird acc\nt3 = ,i 0 se5 by !e ------ = ?is purpose1 c17#f7 b ! n>rative excludes ! actual sight ( ! speak]1 & x is sc>cely possible to read ! words j quot$1 & _! context1 )\t be+ /ruck by _! incongruity4 ,we ne$ n indicate ! s\rces ( ?is repres5tation ( light %r\d+ ! heav5ly vision1 s common 9 ! ,old ,te/am5t4 ,be=e proce$+ to ! re/ ( ! acc\nt1 we may po9t out 9 pass+ ! simil>ity ( ! details ( ?is sc5e to ! vision ( ,daniel x4 #g-i4 #eaf ,return+1 h[ev]1 to ! fir/ n>rative1 we are told t1 ab\t ! same "t z ?is miracle 0 occurr+ to ,paul1 a sup]natural communication 0 be+ made to ,ananias 9 ,damascus3 ix4 #aj4 ,& to him said ! ,"l 9 a vision3 ,ananias4 ,& he said1 ,behold ,i am "h1 ,"l4 #aa4 ,& ! ,"l said unto him3 ,rise & g to ! /reet :i* is call$ ,/raight1 & inquire 9 ! h\se ( ,judas = "o call$ ,saul1 ( ,t>sus2 =1 behold he praye?2 #ab4 & he saw a man nam$ ,ananias :o came 9 & put 8 h& on him t he might receive sight4 #ac4 ,b ,ananias answ]$1 ,"l1 ,i he>d f _m conc]n+ ?is man1 h[ mu* evil he did to ?y sa9ts 9 ,j]usalem3 #ad4 ,& "h he ha? au?ority f ! *ief prie/s to b9d all t call on ?y "n4 #ae4 ,b ! ,"l said1 ,g1 c4 7quot$ above74 #ag4 ,& ,ananias w5t away1 & ent]$ into ! h\se2 & hav+ put 8 h&s on him said3 ,bro!r ,saul1 ! ,"l ha? s5t me1 ev5 ,jesus t appe>$ unto !e 9 ! way by :i* ?\ e>ne/1 t ?\ mighte/ receive sight & be fill$ ) ! ,holy ,_s4 #ah4 ,& imm$iately !re fell f 8 eyes z x 7 scales2 & he receiv$ sight1 rose up1 & 0 baptiz$1 & hav+ tak5 food 0 /r5g!n$4 ,we h already _h occasion to po9t out1 9 connection ) ! p>allelism kept up 9 ,acts betwe5 ! ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles & ! ,apo/le ( ! ,circumcision1 t a simil> d\ble vision is n>rat$ by ! au?or z occurr+ to ,pet] & ,cornelius4 ,"s fur!r vision is ref]r$ to 9 v4 #ab2 = 9 no =m ( ! n>rative ( ,paul's vision on ! way to ,damascus is he repres5t$ z see+ a man nam$ ,ananias com+ to him = ! purpose describ$4 ,_m que/ions are #eag sugge/$ by ! /ory j quot$4 ,h[ did ,ananias "k t ,paul _h au?ority f ! *ief prie/s to arre/ any "o8 ,h[ c\ld he argue 9 su* a way ) ! ,"l8 ,did he n !n "k t ,jesus _h appe>$ to ,paul on ! way8 ,h[ did he get t in=mation8 ,is x n an extraord9>y ?+ t ,paul nev] m5tions ,ananias 9 any ( 8 lett]s1 nor 9 any way ref]s to ^! miracles8 ,we h already ref]r$ to ! symbolic nature ( ! bl9dness1 & recov]y ( sight on receiv+ ! ,holy ,_s & be+ baptiz$1 & ?is is r5d]$ /ill m app>5t by ! /atem5t3 v4 #i4 ,& he 0 ?ree days )\t sight1 & nei!r did eat nor dr9k4 ,we may fur!r po9t out t 9 imm$iate connection ) ?is episode ,paul is repres5t$1 9 ! second acc\nt1 z /at+ t1 on go+ to ,j]usalem1 he has ano!r vision ( ,jesus3xxii4 #ag4 ,& x came to pass t1 :5 ,i return$ to ,j]usalem & 0 pray+ 9 ! ,temple1 ,i 0 9 a trance1 #ah4 & saw him say+ unto me3 ,make ha/e1 & get !e quickly out ( ,j]usalem2 = !y w n receive ?y witness conc]n+ me4 #ai4 ,& ,i said3 ,"l1 !y !mselves "k t ,i 0 wont to imprison & beat 9 e synagogue !m t believe on !e4 #bj4 ,& :5 ! blood ( ,/eph51 ?y witness1 0 %$1 ,i also 0 /&+ by & cons5t+1 & keep+ ! g>m5ts ( !m t slew him4 #ba4 ,& he said unto me3 ,g1 = ,i w s5d !e f> h5ce unto ! ,g5tiles4 ,x seems impossible1 consid]+ ! utt] sil5ce ( ,paul1 t ! app>ition to :i* he ref]s c h spok5 to him at l5g? z describ$ ^u ^! occasions47#a7 ,we h else:]e rem>k$ #eah t !re is n ! slighte/ evid5ce 9 8 own or o!r writ+s connect+ ,/eph5 ) ,paul1 & x may be appropriate to add "h t1 suppos+ him to h be5 pres5t :5 ! m>tyr exclaim$3 ,lo1 ,i behold ! heav5s op5$1 & ! ,son ( ,man /&+ on ! "r h& ( ,god17#a7 x is s+ul> t he does n "n him z "o ( ^? by :om ,jesus 0 se54 ,to resume ?is discussion1 h[ev]3 we h already %[n t ! /atem5ts ( ! ,acts reg>d+ ,paul's conduct aft] ?is alleg$ vision are di/9ctly 9 contradiction ) ! /atem5ts ( ,paul4 ,! explanation "h giv5 ( ! cause ( ,paul's leav+ ,j]usalem1 moreov]1 is n 9 agreem5t ) ,acts ix4 #bi f41 & mu* less ) ,gal4 i4 #bj ff4 ,! ?ree n>ratives !mselves are full ( irreconcilable diff]5ces & incongruities1 :i* de/roy all reasonable confid5ce 9 any sub/antial basis = ! /ory4 ,x is evid5t t ! ?ree n>ratives are f ! same p51 & betray ! composition ( ! au?or ( ,acts47#b7 ,!y _c be reg>d$ z true hi/ory47#c7 ,! h& ( ! compos] is v app>5t 9 ! lavi% use ( ! miracul\s1 s *>act]i/ic ( ! :ole "w4 #eai ,x is wor? :ile to catalogue ! sup]natural incid5ts ( ?is episode4 #a ,! vision2 #b ,companions he>+ ! voice b see+ no man1 or n he>+ ! voice b see+ ! light2 #c ,paul's bl9dness2 #d ,vision ( ,ananias2 #e ,re/oration ( sight to ,paul2 #f ,trance ( ,paul 9 ,j]usalem4 ,su* a n>rative _c be receiv$ 9 evid5ce4 ,! :ole ( ! te/imony be=e u1 !n1 simply am\nts to ?is3 ,paul believ$ t he _h se5 ,jesus "s ye>s aft] 8 dea?3 !re is no evid5ce t he ev] saw him dur+ 8 life47#a7 ,he /ates t he _h receiv$ t he 0 se5 by v>i\s o!r p]sons1 b he does n give ! slighte/ in=mation z to :o told him1 or :at reasons he _h = believ+ ! /atem5ts to be correct4 ,& /ill less does he n>rate ! p>ticul>s ( ! alleg$ appe>ances or ev5 ( 8 own vision4 ,al?\gh we h no detail$ /atem5ts ( ^! extraord9>y ph5om5a1 we may assume t1 z ,paul himself believ$ t he _h se5 ,jesus1 c]ta9 o!r p ( ! circle ( 8 disciples likewise believ$ t !y _h se5 ! ris5 ,ma/]4 ,! :ole ( ! evid5ce = ! ,resurrection r$uces itself to an undef9$ belief on ! "p ( a few p]sons1 9 a notori\sly sup]/iti\s age1 t aft] ,jesus _h di$ & be5 buri$ !y _h se5 him alive4 ,^! visions1 x is admitt$1 occurr$ at a "t ( ! mo/ int5se religi\s excitem5t1 & "u circum/ances ( :olly exceptional m5tal agitation & di/ress4 ,! wilde/ alt]nations ( fe>1 d\bt1 hope & #ebj indef9ite expectation add$ _! effects to ori5tal imag9ations already excit$ by indignation at ! fate ( _! ,ma/]1 & sorr[ or despair at su* a dissipation ( _! ,messianic dreams4 ,!re 0 pres5t e elem5t ( intellectual & moral di/urbance4 ,n[ mu/ we s]i\sly ask aga9 :e!r ?is b>e & :olly unju/ifi$ belief c be accept$ z satisfactory evid5ce = s a/\nd+ a miracle z ! ,resurrection8 ,c ! belief ( su* m51 9 su* an age1 e/abli% ! reality ( a ph5om5on :i* contradicts univ]sal exp]i5ce8 ,x comes to u 9 ! =m ( b>e belief f ! ,age ( ,miracles1 unsupport$ by facts1 uncorroborat$ by evid5ce1 unaccompani$ by pro( ( inve/igation1 & unprovid$ ) mat]ial = exam9ation4 ,:at is su* belief wor?8 ,we h no4hesitation 9 say+ t x is absolutely wor? no?+4 ,we might "h well br+ our inquiry to a close1 = we h no fur!r evid5ce to deal )4 ,! problem1 h[ev]1 is s full ( int]e/ t we _c yet lay x d[n1 & al?\gh we mu/ re/ra9 our argum5t )9 c]ta9 rigid limits1 & :olly refra9 f ent]+ into regions ( m]e speculation1 we may fur!r discuss ! orig9 & nature ( ! belief 9 ! ,resurrection4 ,recogniz+ ! fact t1 al?\gh its nature & ext5t are v indef9ite1 !re exi/$ an und\bt$ belief t1 aft] 8 dea?1 ,jesus 0 se5 alive2 ! argum5t is advanc$ t !re mu/ h be5 a real basis = ?is belief4 #eba ,! exi/5ce ( a ,*ri/ian society1 says an apologetic writ]1 is ! fir/ & 7if rightly view$7 ! f9al pro( ( ! hi/oric tru? ( ! miracle on :i* x 0 f\nd$4 ,x may inde$ be said t ! ,*ur* 0 f\nd$ ^u ! belief 9 ! ,resurrection1 & n ^u ! ,resurrection itself3 & t ! te/imony mu/ !re=e be limit$ to ! atte/ation ( ! belief1 & _c rea* to ! atte/ation ( ! fact4 ,b belief express$ 9 action is = ! mo/ "p ! /ronge/ evid5ce :i* we c h ( any hi/oric ev5t4 ,unless1 !re=e1 x c be %[n t ! orig9 ( ! apo/olic belief 9 ! ,resurrection1 ) due reg>d to ! fulness ( its *>act]i/ic =m1 & ! bread? & rapidity ( its propagation c be satisfactorily expla9$ on o!r gr\nds1 ! belief itself is a suffici5t pro( ( ! fact47#a7 ,?is is obvi\sly ,paley's argum5t ( ! ,twelve m57#b7 9 a cond5s$ =m4 ,belief 9 action may be ! /ronge/ evid5ce :i* we c h ( any hi/oric ev5t2 b :5 ! hi/oric ev5t happ5s to be an ev5t 9 religi\s hi/ory1 & an a/\nd+ miracle l ! ,resurrection1 su* b>e evid5ce1 emanat+ f su* an age1 is n v /rong evid5ce1 aft] all4 ,! bread? & rapidity ( its propagation absolutely prove no?+ b belief 9 ! report ( ^? :o believ$2 al?\gh x is v f> f evid5t t p embrac$ ,*ri/ianity f a rational belief 9 ! ,resurrection4 ,no "o pret5ds t ! ,g5tiles :o believ$ made a prelim9>y exam9ation ( ! tru? ( ! ,resurrection4 ,if bread? #ebb & rapidity ( propagation be tak5 z suffici5t pro( ( ! tru? ( facts1 we might consid] ,buddhism & ,mahom$anism z satisfactorily atte/$ cre$s4 ,!re c\ld n be a great] fallacy ?an ! supposition t ! orig9 ( a belief mu/ be expla9$ ^u o!r gr\nds1 or t belief itself accept$ z a suffici5t pro( ( ! fact ass]t$4 ,! tru? or falsehood ( any allegation is det]m9$ by a balance ( evid5ce1 & ! critic is no m b\nd to acc\nt = ! =mation ( errone\s belief ?an he is b\nd to believe because he may n1 aft] a great lapse ( "t1 be able s cle>ly to demon/rate ! p>ticul> mann] 9 :i* t errone\s belief orig9at$1 t any o!r mode is def9itely exclud$4 ,! belief t a dead man rose f ! dead & appe>$ to sev]al p]sons alive is at once dispos$ ( ^u ab/ract gr\nds4 ,! alleg$ occurr5ce is contr>y to univ]sal exp]i5ce2 b on ! o!r h& ! preval5ce ( defective obs]vation1 mi/ak5 inf]5ce1 self-deception & cr$ulity1 any ( :i* might lead to su* belief1 are only too well kn[n to x4 ,is x necess>y to def9e :i* peculi> =m ( error is pres5t 9 e false belief1 be=e1 ) ?is imm5se prepond]ance ( evid5ce aga9/ x1 we f9ally reject x8 ,we ?9k n4 ,any explanation consi/5t ) univ]sal exp]i5ce mu/ be adopt$1 r ?an a belief :i* is contradictory to x4 ,!re are two !ories :i* h be5 advanc$ to expla9 ! orig9 ( ! apo/olic belief 9 ! ,resurrection1 to :i* we may n[ briefly ref]2 b x mu/ be cle>ly und]/ood t ! sugge/ion ( an explanation is q ap>t f our exam9ation ( ! actual evid5ce = ! ,resurrection4 ,fifty #ebc explanations might be (f]$ & be consid]$ unsatisfactory )\t 9 ! lea/ degree alt]+ ! fact1 t ! te/imony = ! f9al miracle ( ,*ri/ianity is totally insuffici5t1 & t ! allegation t x actually occurr$ _c be ma9ta9$4 ,! fir/ explanation1 adopt$ by "s able critics1 is t ,jesus did n really die on ! cross1 b be+ tak5 d[n alive1 & 8 body be+ deliv]$ to fri5ds1 he subsequ5tly reviv$4 ,9 support ( ?is !ory1 x is argu$ t ,jesus is repres5t$ by ! ,gospels z expir+ aft] hav+ be5 b ?ree to six h\rs ^u ! cross1 :i* w\ld h be5 an un-prec$5t$ly rapid dea?4 ,x is affirm$ t only ! h&s & n ! feet 7 nail$ to ! cross4 ,! crurifragium1 n usually accompany+ crucifixion1 is dismiss$ z unkn[n to ! ?ree ,synopti/s1 & only ins]t$ by ! f\r? ,evangeli/ = dogmatic reasons1 & ( c\rse ! lance-?ru/ disappe>s ) ! leg-break+4 ,?us ! app>5t dea? 0 t pr(\nd fa9tness :i* might well fall ^u su* an organization aft] "s h\rs ( physical & m5tal agony on ! cross1 foll[+ ! cont9u$ /ra9 & fatigue ( ! previ\s night4 ,z soon z he _h suffici5tly recov]$1 x is suppos$ t ,jesus visit$ 8 disciples a few times to re-assure !m1 b ) precaution on acc\nt ( ! ,jews1 & 0 by !m believ$ to h ris5 f ! dead1 z inde$ he himself may likewise h suppos$1 reviv+ z he _h done f ! fa9tness ( dea?47#a7 #ebd ,see+1 h[ev]1 t 8 dea? _h set ! cr[n ^u 8 "w1 ! ,ma/] )drew into imp5etrable obscurity & 0 he>d ( no m4 ,we h giv5 b ! balde/ outl9e ( ?is !ory2 = x w\ld occupy too mu* space to repres5t x adequately & %[ ! +5uity ) :i* x is work$ out1 & ! v consid]able support :i* x receives f /atem5ts 9 ! ,gospels1 & f inf]5ces d$ucible f !m4 ,we d n ourselves adopt ?is explanation1 al?\gh x mu/ be cle>ly repeat$ t1 7 ! only alt]native to d s1 or to fall back ^u ! hypo!sis ( a miracle1 we %\ld consid] x pref]able4 ,a s]i\s objection br\ght aga9/ ! !ory seems to be1 t x is n natural to suppose t1 aft] su* int5se & protract$ fatigue & anxiety foll[$ by ! mo/ cruel agony on ! cross1 agony bo? ( s\l & body17#a7 end+ 9 unconsci\sness only %ort ( dea?1 ,jesus c\ld )9 a %ort p]iod h pres5t$ himself to 8 disciples ) su* an aspect z c\ld h convey$ to !m ! impression ( #ebe victory ov] dea? by ! ,pr9ce ( ,life4 ,he mu/ /ill1 x is urg$1 h pres5t$ ! fre% traces ( suff]+ & weakness little calculat$ to inspire !m ) ! idea ( div9e p[] & glory4 ,?is is p>tly1 b n altoge!r1 true4 ,!re is no evid5ce1 z we %all pres5tly %[1 t ! appe>ances ( ,jesus occurr$ s soon z is g5]ally repres5t$2 &1 9 _! a/oni%m5t at aga9 see+ ! ,ma/] :om !y suppos$ to be dead1 ! disciples c\ld n h be5 9 a /ate m9utely to rem>k ! signs ( suff]+17#a7 !n probably1 ) ! p[] ( a m9d l t ( ,jesus ov] physical weakness1 little app>5t4 ,"t & imag9ation w\ld d\btless soon h effac$ f _! m9ds any su* impressions1 & left only ! belief t he _h ris5 f ! dead to develop & =m ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e4 ,a m p[]ful objection seems to u ! disappe>ance ( ,jesus4 ,we _c easily p]suade ourselves t su* a tea*] c\ld h r5\nc$ 8 "w & left no subsequ5t trace ( 8 exi/5ce4 ,/ill1 x mu/ be admitt$ t _m explanations might be (f]$ on ?is head1 ! mo/ obvi\s be+ t dea?1 :e!r z ! result ( ! t]rible crisis ?r\gh :i* he _h pass$1 or f "s o!r cause1 may soon aft] h ensu$4 ,we repeat1 h[ev]1 t we nei!r advance ?is explanation nor ?9k x wor? :ile to discuss x s]i\sly1 n because we ?9k x unt5able1 al?\gh we d n adopt x1 b because we consid] t !re is ano!r explanation ( ! orig9 ( belief 9 ! ,resurrection :i* #a ,! repeat$ /atem5t 9 ! ,gospels t ! wom5 & 8 disciples did n at fir/ recognize ! ris5 ,jesus1 are quot$ 9 connection ) ?is po9t4 #ebh is bett]1 & :i* is 9 our op9ion ! true "o4 ,we mean t :i* is usually call$ ! vision-hypo!sis4 ,! ph5om5on :i* has to be acc\nt$ = is ! apo/olic belief t1 aft] he _h be5 dead & buri$1 ,jesus 0 se5 ------ by c]ta9 p]sons4 ,! explanation :i* we (f]1 & :i* has long be5 adopt$ 9 v>i\s =ms by able critics1#a is1 t d\btless ,jesus 0 se51 b ! vision 0 n real & objective1 b illusory & subjective2 t is to say3 ,jesus 0 n himself se51 b only a repres5tation ( ,jesus )9 ! m9ds ( ! behold]s4 ,?is explanation n only does n impea* ! v]acity ( ^? :o affirm$ t !y _h se5 ,jesus1 b1 accept+ to a c]ta9 ext5t a subjective tru? z ! basis ( ! belief1 expla9s ^u well-kn[n & natural pr9ciples ! errone\s inf]5ce d$uc$ f ! subjective vision4 ,x seems to u t ! po9ts to be det]m9$ are simple & obvi\s3 ,is x possible = a man to mi/ake subjective impressions = objective occurr5ces8 ,is x possible t any consid]able numb] ( p]sons c at ! same "t receive simil> subjective impressions & mi/ake !m = objective facts8 ,if ^! que/ions c be answ]$ affirmatively1 #ebg & x c be %[n t ! circum/ances1 ! *>act]s1 ! con/itution ( ^? :o believ$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 fav\r$ ! reception ( su* subjective impressions1 & ! d$uction ( errone\s inf]5ces1 x mu/ be admitt$ t a satisfactory explanation c ?us be giv5 ( ! apo/olic belief1 on o!r gr\nds ?an ! reality ( a miracle oppos$ to univ]sal exp]i5ce4 ,no soon] is ! fir/ "q =mulat$ ?an x becomes obvi\s to e "o :o is acqua9t$ ) psy*ological & physiological rese>*es1 or :o has ev5 ! mo/ elem5t>y k ( ! influ5ce ( ! m9d ^u ! body1 t x mu/ at once be answ]$ 9 ! affirmative4 ,inde$ ! affirmation t subjective impressions1 9 connection ) e s5se1 c be mi/ak5 =1 & believ$ to be1 actual objective effects1 is s trite t x seems almo/ sup]flu\s to make x4 ,e read] mu/ be well acqua9t$ ) illu/rations ( ! fact4 ,! only difficulty is to deal au?oritatively ) su* a po9t )9 mod]ate compass4 ,we mu/ limit ourselves to ! s5se ( sight ,!re are abundant pro(s1 says ,sir ,b5jam9 ,brodie1 t impressions may be made 9 ! bra9 by o!r causes simulat+ ^? :i* are made on x by ext]nal objects ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! organs ( s5se1 ?us produc+ false p]ceptions1 :i* may1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 & be=e we h _h "t to reflect on ! subject1 be mi/ak5 = realities47#a7 ,! limitation "h introduc$3 be=e we h _h "t to reflect on ! subject1 is ( c\rse valid 9 ! case ( ^? ^: reason is capable ( reject+ ! false p]ceptions1 :e!r on ! gr\nd ( natural #ebh law or ( probability2 b1 9 anyone ignorant ( natural law1 famili> ) ! idea ( sup]natural ag5cy & ! occurr5ce ( miracul\s ev5ts1 x is obvi\s1 reflection1 if reflection ( a sceptical k9d c ev5 be assum$1 w\ld h little *ance ( arriv+ at any true discrim9ation ( ph5om5a4 ,speak+ ( ! n]v\s sy/em & its functions1 & m imm$iately ( ! relation ( ! ,c]ebrum to ! ,s5sorium & ! production ( spectral illusions1 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] says1 9 8 "w on ! ,pr9ciples ( ,m5tal ,physiology1 :i* is well wor? ! /udy ( ^? int]e/$ 9 ! "q we are discuss+3 ,/ill /rong] evid5ce ( ! same associat$ action ( ! ,c]ebrum & ,s5sorium1 is furni%$ by ! /udy ( ! ph5om5a designat$ z ,spectral ,illusions4 ,^! are cle>ly s5sorial /ates n excit$ by ext]nal objects2 & x is also cle> t !y frequ5tly orig9ate 9 c]ebral *anges1 s9ce !y repres5t creations ( ! m9d1 & are n m]e reproductions ( pa/ s5sations4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] ref]s 9 illu/ration to a curi\s illusion to :i* ,sir ,john ,h]s*el 0 subject1 9 ! %ape ( ! involunt>y occurr5ce ( ,visual impressions1 into :i* ,geometrical regul>ity ( =m ent]s z ! lead+ "*4 ,^! 7 n ( ! nature ( ^? ocul> ,spectra :i* may be attribut$ ) probability to ret9al *anges47#a7 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] !n cont9ues3 ,we h "h n a reproduction ( s5sorial impressions =m]ly receiv$2 b a con/ruction ( new =ms1 by a process :i*1 if x _h be5 c>ri$ on consci\sly1 we %\ld h call$ imag9ation4 ,& x is difficult to see #ebi h[ x is to be acc\nt$ = 9 any o!r way1 ?an by an unconsci\s action ( ! c]ebrum2 ! products ( :i* impress !mselves on ! s5sorial consci\sness1 j z1 9 o!r cases1 !y express !mselves ?r\gh ! motor app>atus47#a7 ,! illusions describ$ by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el :o1 z he himself says1 0 z little vision>y z mo/ p %\ld be ref]r$ to4 ,( ! production ( s5sations by ideas !re c be no possible d\bt7#b7 &1 consequ5tly1 z little ( ! realisation by ! p]son 9 :om !y are produc$ ( subjective impressions exactly z ?\gh !y 7 objective4 ,) reg>d to false p]ceptions1 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] says3 ,x has be5 %[n t ! action ( ideational /ates ^u ! ,s5sorium c modify or ev5 produce s5sations4 ,b ! action ( pre-exi/+ /ates ( ,m9d is /ill m frequ5tly %[n 9 modify+ ! int]pretation :i* we put ^u our s5se-impressions4 ,= s9ce almo/ e su* int]pretation is an act ( judgm5t bas$ ^u exp]i5ce1 t judgm5t w v>y accord+ to our m5tal condition at ! "t x is deliv]$2 & w be greatly affect$ by any dom9ant idea or feel+1 s z ev5 to occasion a complete mis-int]pretation ( ! objective s\rce ( ! s5se-impression1 z (t5 occurs 9 :at is t]m$ 'abs5ce ( m9d4' ,! foll[+ case1 m5tion$ by ,dr4 ,tuke7#c7 z occurr+ )9 8 own k1 af=ds a good example ( ?is fallacy3--',a lady 0 walk+ "o day f ,p5ryn to ,falm\?1 & h] m9d be+ at t "t1 or rec5tly1 occupi$ by ! subject ( dr9k+-f\nta9s1 ?\ght %e saw #ecj 9 ! road a newly-erect$ f\nta91 & ev5 di/+ui%$ an inscription ^u x1 namely--,if any man ?ir/ let him come unto me & dr9k4 ,"s "t aft]w>ds1 %e m5tion$ ! fact ) pleasure to ! daught]s ( a g5tleman :o 0 suppos$ to h erect$ x4 ,!y express$ _! surprise at h] /atem5t1 & assur$ h] t %e mu/ be q mi/ak54 ,p]plex$ ) ! contradiction betwe5 ! te/imony ( h] s5ses & ( ^? :o w\ld h be5 aw>e ( ! fact _h x be5 true1 & feel+ t %e c\ld n h be5 deceiv$ 7 = see+ is believ+ 71 %e repair$ to ! spot1 & f\nd to h] a/oni%m5t t no dr9k+-f\nta9 0 9 exi/5ce--only a few scatt]$ /ones1 :i* _h =m$ ! f\ndation ^u :i* ! sugge/ion ( an expectant imag9ation _h built ! sup]/ructure4 ,! subject hav+ previ\sly occupi$ h] att5tion1 ^! suffic$ to =m1 n only a def9ite erection1 b "o inscrib$ by an appropriate motto correspond+ to ! lead+ idea4'7#a7 ,we may give z ano!r illu/ration an illusion :i* pres5t$ itself to ,sir ,walt] ,scott7#b7 ,he _h be5 read+1 %ortly aft] ! dea? ( ,"l ,byron1 an acc\nt 9 a publication pr(ess+ to detail ! habits & op9ions ( ! poet4 ,z ,scott _h be5 intimate ) ,"l ,byron he 0 deeply int]e/$ 9 ! publication1 :i* conta9$ "s p>ticul>s relative to himself & o!r fri5ds4 ,_! sitt+-room op5$ into an entrance hall1 r fanta/ically fitt$ up ) articles ( arm\r1 sk9s ( wild animals1 & ! l4 ,x 0 :5 lay+ d[n 8 book1 #eca & pass+ into ?is hall1 ?r\gh :i* ! moon 0 beg9n+ to %9e1 t ! individual ( :om ,i speak saw1 "r be=e him1 & 9 a /&+ po/ure1 ! exact repres5tation ( 8 dep>t$ fri5d ^: recollection _h be5 s /rongly br\ght to 8 imag9ation4 ,he /opp$ = a s+le mom5t1 s z to notice ! wond]ful accuracy ) :i* fancy _h impress$ ^u ! bodily eye ! peculi>ities ( dress & po/ure ( ! illu/ri\s poet4 ,s5sible1 h[ev]1 ( ! delusion1 he felt no s5tim5t save t ( wond] at ! extraord9>y accuracy ( ! resemblance1 & /epp$ onw>d t[>ds ! figure1 :i* resolv$ itself1 z he approa*$1 into ! v>i\s mat]ials ( :i* x 0 compos$4 ,^! 7 m]ely a scre51 occupi$ by great-coats1 %awls1 plaids & su* o!r articles z usually are f\nd 9 a c\ntry entrance-hall4 ,! spectator return$ to ! spot f :i* he _h se5 ! illusion1 & endeav\r$1 ) all 8 p[]1 to recall ! image :i* _h be5 s s+ul>ly vivid4 ,b ?is 0 beyond 8 capacity1 ,c4#a ,al?\gh ,sir ,walt] ,scott might be s5sible ( ! delusion1 x may be m ?an d\bt$ :e!r1 9 ! fir/ c5tury ( our era1 su* an app>ition proce$+ f or connect$ ) religi\s agitation ( m9d w\ld h be5 consid]$ s4 ,dr4 ,ab]crombie7#b7 m5tions _m in/ances ( spectral illusions1 "s ( ! mo/ au!ntic facts relat+ to :i* he classes "u ! head ( int5se m5tal conceptions s /rongly impress$ ^u ! m9d z1 = ! mom5t1 to be believ$ to h a real exi/5ce4 #ecb ,we _c1 h[ev]1 v5ture to quote illu/rations47#a7 ,dr4 ,hibb]t1 9 ^: "w on ,app>itions _m int]e/+ in/ances are to be f\nd1 ?us concludes 8 consid]ation ( ! conditions :i* lead to su* illusions3 ,i h at l5g? conclud$ my obs]vations on :at may be consid]$ z ! lead+ m5tal laws :i* are connect$ ) ! orig9 ( spectral impressions4 ,! g5]al inf]5ce to be drawn f !m is1--t ,app>itions are no?+ m ?an morbid symptoms1 :i* are indicative ( an int5se excitem5t ( ! r5ovat$ feel+s ( ! m9d47#b7 ,subjective visions1 believ$ to h _h objective reality1 ab\nd 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w4 ,!y are famili> to all :o h read ! lives ( ! ,sa9ts1 & !y h accompani$ ! progress ( ,*ri/ianity 9 v>i\s =ms f ! trances ( ,montanism to ! vision ( ! ,immaculate ,conception 9 ! ,grotto ( ,l\rdes4 ,if we turn to ! inquiry :e!r a simil> subjective impression c be receiv$ by _m p]sons at "o "t & be mi/ak5 by !m = an objective reality1 an equally c]ta9 reply 9 ! affirmative mu/ unhesitat+ly be giv54 ,! contagi\sness ( emotion is well kn[n17#c7 & ! rapidity ) :i* panic1 = in/ance1 spreads f a s+le individual to ! mass is rem>k$ e day4 ,! mo/ trifl+ incid5t1 unse5 by m ?an a few &1 !re=e1 m pliant 9 ! imag9ation #a ,e "o rememb]s ! case ( ,lu!r & 8 visions ( ! ,devil4 #ecc ( ! _m1 has in/antane\sly conv9c$ multitudes ( ! mo/ errone\s inf]5ces4 ,we ne$ n ref]1 moreov]1 to ! num]\s religi\s & o!r m5tal epidemics :i* h swept ov] ! face ( ! _w1 infect+ society ) ! wilde/ delusions4 ,f ,montanism to camp meet+s & revivals 9 our own day1 x has be5 demon/rat$ t religi\s excitem5t & dom9ant ideas h spread ) a/oni%+ rapidity & p[] among/ ! circles 9 :i* !y h aris54 ,9 c]ta9 /ates ( n]v\s expectation1 false impressions are in/antane\sly transmitt$ f "o to ano!r 9 a religi\s assembly4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] says3 ,moreov]1 if n only a s+le individual1 b sev]al p]sons %\ld be 'possess$' by "o & ! same idea or feel+1 ! same mis9t]pretation may be made by all ( !m2 & 9 su* a case ! concurr5ce ( _! te/imony does n add ! lea/ /r5g? to x4--,( ?is we h a good example 9 ! foll[+ occurr5ce cit$ by ,dr4 ,tuke1 z %[+ ! influ5ce ( a 'dom9ant idea' 9 falsify+ ! p]ceptions ( a numb] ( p]sons at once3--',dur+ ! conflagration at ! ,cry/al ,palace 9 ! w9t] ( #ahff-fg1 :5 ! animals 7 de/roy$ by ! fire1 x 0 suppos$ t ! ,*impanzee _h succe$$ 9 escap+ f 8 cage4 ,attract$ to ! ro(1 ) ?is expectation 9 full =ce1 m5 saw ! unhappy animal hold+ on to x1 & wri?+ 9 agony to get a/ride "o ( ! iron ribs4 ,x ne$ n be said t its /ruggles 7 wat*$ by ^? bel[ ) brea?less susp5se1 & z ! newspap]s in=m$ u ') sick5+ dread4' ,b !re 0 no animal :atev] !re2 & all ?is feel+ 0 ?r[n away ^u a tatt]$ piece ( bl9d1 s torn z to resemble to ! eye ( fancy1 ! body1 arms1 & legs ( an ape6' 7,op4 cit41 p4 #dd47 ,ano!r #ecd example ( a l influ5ce affect+ sev]al individuals simultane\sly 9 a simil> mann] is m5tion$ by ,dr4 ,hibb]t 9 8 well-kn[n ,treatise on ,app>itions3--',a :ole %ip's company 0 ?r[n into ! utmo/ con/]nation by ! app>ition ( a cook :o _h di$ a few days be=e4 ,he 0 di/9ctly se5 walk+ a-head ( ! %ip1 ) a peculi> gait by :i* he 0 di/+ui%$ :5 alive1 ?r\gh hav+ "o ( 8 legs %ort] ?an ! o!r4 ,on /e]+ ! %ip t[>ds ! object1 x 0 f\nd to be a piece ( float+ wreck4' ,_m simil> cases might be ref]r$ to1 9 :i* ! imag9ation has work$ up into 'app>itions' "s common-place objects1 :i* x has inve/$ ) attributes d]iv$ f ! previ\s ,m5tal /ate ( ! obs]v]2 & ! belief 9 su* an app>ition z a reality1 :i* usually exi/s 9 su* cases1 unless antagoniz$ by an ef=t ( ! reason1 con/itutes a delusion47#a7 ,we mu/ ma9ta9 inde$ t a numb] ( p]sons assembl$ "u ! influ5ce ( /rong simil> ideas1 & excit$ by ! same active religi\s emotion are m likely to be affect$ by simil> subjective impressions to ! ext5t ( believ+ !m to be objective ?an "o or two w\ld be4 ,! excitem5t ( ea* acts ^u ! :ole body1 & is itself increas$ by reaction f ! aggregate emotion4 ,ea* receives impressions f ! o!r1 :i* are vividly felt ev5 )\t be+ v]ifi$ by p]sonal exp]i5ce4 ,! mo/ n]v\s temp]am5t 9 ! assembly gives ! f9al impetus to ! excit$ imag9ation ( ! re/4 ,9 mom5ts ( supreme expectation & d\bt1 en?usiasm ov]comes reason4 ,if "o man see1 if "o man he>1 ! m5tal impression is cr$it$ ) an objective cause1 ev5 :5 unfelt by o!rs1 & !n a #ece simil> impression is soon c>ri$ f ! bra9 to ! s5sorium ( all4 ,?is does n involve ! supposition ( a diseas$ m9d 9 ord9>y cases1 & 9 ! in/ances :i* we h 9 view ! false p]ceptions 71 obvi\sly1 det]m9$ & enc\rag$ by =egone conclusions ( a nature r>ely possible &1 :5 exi/+1 r>ely resi/$4 ,!re are _m p]sons1 adds ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 q sane ^u ord9>y matt]s1 & ev5 7x may be7 di/+ui%$ by "s special =m ( ability1 :o are yet affect$ ) :at ! writ] once he>d ,mr4 ,c>lyle t]m a 'dilut$ insanity2' all[+ _! m9ds to become s completely 'possess$' by 'dom9ant ideas1' t _! te/imony z to :at !y decl>e !mselves to h witness$--ev5 :5 sev]al individuals concur 9 giv+ exactly ! same acc\nt ( x--mu/ be reg>d$ z utt]ly untru/wor?y47#a7 ,t subjective impressions c1 9 ! op9ion ( em95t apologi/s1 be record$ by an ,evangeli/ z objective reality1 we h already po9t$ out 9 connection ) ! /atem5t ( ! fir/ ,synopti/1 t ,_m bodies ( ! sa9ts 7 rais$2 & !y came out ( ! sepul*res aft] 8 resurrection & appe>$ unto _m4 7xxvii4 #eb f47 ,dean ,milman & ,canon ,f>r> expla9 ?is by ! supposition t ! e>?quake seem$ to h fill$ ! air ) gho/ly visitants1 :o aft] ,*ri/ _h ris5 appe>$ to l+] 9 ! ,holy ,city47#b7 ,x foll[s z a logical consequ5ce t1 z ?is subjective impression felt by _m at once is describ$ 9 ! ,gospel z objective1 ^! writ]s n only admit ! possibility ( su* a mi/ake on ! "p #ecf ( ! obs]v]s1 b t ! ,gospel1 9 adopt+ t mi/ake1 may be suspect$ ( a simil> c\rse 9 record+ ! appe>ances ( ,jesus4 ,we h ?us repli$ to ! "q :e!r ! vision hypo!sis c\ld expla9 ! belief ( five hundr$1 or ev5 ( elev5 p]sons :o suppos$ !y _h se5 ,jesus at once1 & we d n ?9k t any "o :o s]i\sly consid]s ! ,age1 & ! circum/ances "u :i* ! ph5om5on is alleg$ to h occurr$1 c d\bt t su* belief c\ld v easily h result$ f m]ely subjective impressions4 ,be=e go+ fur!r into ! discussion ( ! matt]1 h[ev]1 we mu/ aga91 ) a little m m9ut5ess1 call att5tion to ! date ( ! actual /atem5ts ^u :i* ! :ole argum5t turns4 ,! ,apo/le ,paul writes ab\t a qu>t] ( a c5tury aft] ! "t :5 x is said t ,jesus 0 se5 by ^? :om he names4 ,:atev] op9ion may be =m$ z to ! am\nt ( in=mation obta9$ by ,paul dur+ ! visit he paid to ,j]usalem = ! purpose ( mak+ ! acqua9tance ( ,pet]1 x is und5iable t "s ye>s _h elaps$ betwe5 ! "t :5 ,jesus is suppos$ to h be5 se5 & ! "t :5 ,paul c\ld h receiv$ in=mation reg>d+ ^! appe>ances f any ( ! ,apo/les4 ,if we date ! dea? ( ,jesus 9 ! ye> #cc1 almo/ ! late/ date assign$ to x by any em95t critic1 & ! conv]sion ( ,paul ab\t a4d4 #ch-dj17a7 x w be rememb]$ t ! #ecg ,apo/le himself /ates t he did n g to ,j]usalem till ?ree ye>s aft]1 :i* br+s u to a4d4 #da-dc z ! e>lie/ "t :5 ,paul fir/ came 9 p]sonal contact ) ,pet] & ,james4 ,he did n g up to ,j]usalem aga9 = f\rte5 ye>s aft] t1 & we h no reason = believ+ t he met any ( ! ,apo/les 9 ! int]val1 b ! contr>y1 f 8 own acc\nt ( t second visit1 ,gal4 ii4 #b4 ,he c\ld n1 !re=e1 h he>d any?+ ( ! appe>ances ( ,jesus ev5 f ,pet] & ,james till "s eight to t5 ye>s aft] !y _h tak5 place4 ,f ! o!r ,apo/les1 9 all probability1 he _c h he>d any?+ till ne>ly tw5ty ye>s _h elaps$ s9ce !y suppos$ !y1 _h se5 ,jesus4 ,:]e did he get 8 in=mation reg>d+ ! #ejj bre?r5 at once8 ,f :om did he get x8 ,if ! suppos$ appe>ance took place1 z s _m suppose1 9 ,galilee1 ! date ( 8 in=mation is /ill m unc]ta94 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 x occurr$ 9 ,j]usalem1 :il/ s _m ( ! numb]s 7 visitors only1 x is obvi\s t ! great] "p mu/ subsequ5tly h left ! ,holy ,city & become scatt]$ to _! respective homes4 ,! difficulty ( obta9+ in=mation f m ?an a few ( ! #ejj becomes obvi\s4 ,9 any case1 f no au?ority :i* we are entitl$ to assume c\ld ,paul h be5 m9utely in=m$ ( ^! appe>ances less ?an eight to t5 ye>s aft] !y occurr$1 & !n ( ! vision ( ! ,elev51 only f "o ( ! numb] to :om ! fir/ vision occurr$4 ,n[1 no "o :o consid]s ! op]ation ( memory1 ev5 9 p]sons ( m ?an usual sobriety ( imag9ation1 deal+ ) circum/ances n likely to be exagg]at$ or di/ort$ by feel+ 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 c d\bt t1 9 t5 ye>s1 #ech all ! circum/ances ( su* occasions1 amid/ :i* mu* excitem5t c]ta9ly prevail$1 mu/ h assum$ a v diff]5t aspect f :at !y orig9ally bore4 ,we may be p]mitt$ to quote a few words on ?is subject3 ,?\gh we are accu/om$ to speak ( memory z if x consi/$ 9 an exact reproduction ( pa/ /ates ( ,consci\sness1 yet exp]i5ce is cont9ually %[+ u t ?is reproduction is v (t5 inexact1 ?r\gh ! modification :i* ! 'trace' has und]gone 9 ! int]val4 ,sometimes ! trace has be5 p>tially oblit]at$2 & :at rema9s may s]ve to give a v errone\s 7because imp]fect7 view ( ! occurr5ce44444 ,& :]e x is "o 9 :i* our own ,feel+s are int]e/$1 we are extremely apt to lose sight ( :at goes aga9/ !m1 s t ! repres5tation giv5 by ,memory is altoge!r "o-sid$4 ,?is is cont9ually demon/rat$ by ! entire dissimil>ity ( ! acc\nts ( ! same occurr5ce or conv]sation1 :i* %all be giv5 by two or m p>ties conc]n$ 9 x1 ev5 :5 ! matt] is fre% 9 _! m9ds1 & !y are hone/ly desir\s ( tell+ ! tru?4 ,& ?is div]sity w usually become /ill m pron\nc$ ) ! lapse ( "t3 ! trace becom+ gradually b unconsci\sly modifi$ by ! habitual c\rse ( ?\ght & feel+2 s t :5 x is s act$ on aft] a l5g!n$ int]val z to br+ up a rem9isc5ce ( ! orig9al occurr5ce1 t rem9isc5ce really repres5ts1 n ! actual occurr5ce1 b ! modifi$ trace ( x47#a7 ,?is is specially likely to occur :]e1 z 9 our case1 !re 7 ,old ,te/am5t prophecies suppos$ to describe m9utely ! suff]+s1 dea?1 & resurrection ( ! ,messiah1 to furni% l9es :i* ! trans=mation ( memory mu/ #eci ins5sibly foll[4 ,unconsci\sly1 we may be c]ta91 ! mi/y outl9es ( ! orig9al transaction w\ld acquire consi/5cy & take =m accord+ to ! t5or ( s infallible an index4 ,x w\ld require a memory ( iron & ( m ?an /ubborn dogg$ness to resi/ ! unobtrusive influ5ce ( suppos$ prophecies4 ,be x cle>ly und]/ood t we speak ( an unconsci\s process1 :i* is p]fectly consi/5t ) complete belief t ! trans=m$ trace exactly repres5ts :at orig9ally took place4 ,b adh]+ m closely to ! po9t be=e u1 c we suppose t ! acc\nt :i* ,paul receiv$ ( ^! appe>ances1 aft] t lapse ( "t1 0 a p]fectly sob] & unw>p$ description ( :at actually took place8 ,we ?9k n4 ,is x possible t ! vision ( ! #ejj1 = in/ance1 _h escap$ ! matur+ influ5ce ( "t8 or t ( ! ,elev58 ,we believe t x is n possible4 ,h[ev]1 ,paul does n give a s+le detail1 & consequ5tly ?is argum5t ma9ly affects ! ab/ract value ( all su* evid5ce :e!r at fir/ or second h&1 b x likewise makes m vague ! orig9al transaction1 s indef9itely sket*$ = u1 :i* we h to expla94 ,:at 0 x ! #ejj really saw8 ,jesus1 says ! report matur$ by "t2 & mod]n div9es tak+ ! /atem5t 9 its mo/ objective s5se1 dem& an explanation ( ! unkn[n ph5om5on :i* l$ #ejj to believe t !y actually saw ! ris54 ,ma/]4 ,did ! #ejj orig9ally ?9k any?+ ( ! k9d8 ,:at impression did ! individuals receive8 ,did any two receive precisely ! same impressions8 ,!re is n ! slighte/ evid5ce t !y did4 ,al?\gh ,paul gives ! mo/ meagre report ( ^! appe>ances t c\ld well be conceiv$1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! #edj impression made ^u 8 own m9d 0 n by ! ev5ts !mselves1 b by ! n>rative ( ! ev5ts rec\nt$ at lea/ eight or t5 ye>s aft]w>ds4 ,!re c be po d\bt t1 e>li]1 ,paul ! p]secutor mu/ also frequ5tly h he>d ( ! ,resurrection1 & ( alleg$ occasions :5 ,jesus _h be5 se5 aft] 8 dea? & burial1 f p]secut$ memb]s ( ! ,*ri/ian community1 b beyond ! undef9$ c]ta9ty ( ?is we are n entitl$ to g4 ,t :at he he>d mu/ h receiv$ w>m? ( col\r+ f ! fire ( p]secution is mo/ probable4 ,( ?is1 h[ev]1 we %all speak pres5tly4 ,x is n necess>y fur!r to enl>ge ^u ! sup]/ition ( ! age ( :i* we write4 ,we h else:]e quot$ ! op9ion ( an or?odox div9e & ,hebrew s*ol> on ! "* ( ! ,jewi% p ab\t t p]iod4 ,n to be m t$i\s1 !re=e1 9 ?is matt]1 he says1 let two ?+s only be obs]v$3 i4 ,t ! nation "u ! second ,temple1 0 giv5 to magical arts beyond measure2 & ii4 ,t x 0 giv5 to an eas9ess ( believ+ all mann] ( delusions beyond measure47#a7 ,& aga93 ,x is a disputable case :e!r ! ,jewi% nation 7 m mad ) sup]/ition 9 matt]s ( religion1 or ) sup]/ition 9 curi\s arts47#b7 ,ev5 suppos+ ! ,twelve to h be5 m5 ( sup]ior intellig5ce to mo/ ( _! fell[ c\ntrym5 ( ! p]iod1 x _c reasonably be que/ion$ t !y 7 m5 ( l passions & fail+s ) ! re/1 & t1 z 7 ! mo/ em95t m5 ( all c\ntries = c5turies aft]1 !y 7 ignorant ( ! true ord] ( nature1 full ( sup]/iti\s ideas reg>d+ cosmical ph5om5a1 & ready at all times to #eda believe 9 miracles & sup]natural int]f]5ce ) ! affairs ( life4 ,z ,jews1 moreov]1 !y _h inh]it$ belief 9 angelic ag5cy1 & div9e app>itions4 ,! ,old ,te/am5t is full ( n>ratives 9 :i* ,jehovah appe>s to ! ,patri>*s & ,lawgiv]s ( ,israel4 ,cele/ial visions _h be5 famili> to e ,jew f 8 infancy1 & ! con/ant p]sonal communications ( ! ,almighty ) 8 peculi> p 7 /ill ! mo/ sacr$ traditions ( ! nation4 ,nurs$ 9 ! preval5t sup]/ition ( ! "t1 educat$ by ! ,law & ! ,prophets to famili>ity ) ! sup]natural1 & prep>$ by ! f]vid imag9ation ( _! race to recognize wond]s 9 heav5 & e>?17#a7 ! disciples 7 naturally prep>$ = ! great ,*ri/ian ,miracle4 ,! special circum/ances 9 :i* !y 7 plac$ at ! dea? ( ,jesus conduc$ 9 ! highe/ degree to excite t expectant att5tion :i*1 9 _! /ate ( pr(\nd agitation1 r5d]$ !m readily susceptible ( extraord9>y impressions4 ,! disciples _h = a long p]iod foll[$ ,jesus & felt ! influ5ce ( 8 elevat$ "*4 ,x may be d\bt$ h[ f> !y _h ent]$ into ! _s ( 8 sublime tea*+1 or und]/ood ! spiritual wisdom :i* lay b5ea? ! noble simplicity ( 8 language1 b x _c be d\bt$ t 8 p]sonal greatness mu/ h produc$ a pr(\nd effect ^u _! m9ds4 ,:5 !y came at la/ to und]/&1 if 9 a mat]ial & imp]fect way1 8 views z to 8 ,messianic "*1 !y c h _h little difficulty 9 believ+1 9 spite ( ! my/]i\s l[l9ess & humility ( 8 aspect1 al?\gh probably 9 a s5se widely diff]5t f 8 own1 t #edb ! hope ( ,israel _h at la/ come1 & t ! h\r ( h] r$emption 0 at h&4 ,x is probable t1 z ! enmity ( ! prie/s & rul]s increas$1 & ! dang] ( 8 position became m app>5t1 :il/ he disda9$ unwor?ily to %r9k f 8 public "w1 he mu/ h felt all ! p]il be=e him1 & obs]v$ ! anxiety ( 8 foll[]s4 ,x may be conceiv$ t1 "u su* circum/ances1 8 tea*+s may h assum$ ev5 a high] spirituality ?an be=e &1 ris+ above ! cl\ds ( ! pres5t1 so>$ out into t calm] future :5 ! religion he f\nd$ w\ld be accept$ by m51 & become a light to ! ,g5tiles & ! glory ( 8 p ,israel4 ,x is probable t he may h spok5 ( 8 dea? 9 spiritual t]ms z a sacrifice = !m & = ! _w1 :i* w\ld secure ! triumph ( 8 "w & reg5]ate mank9d4 ,com=t+ ^? :o _h left all & foll[$ him1 b f :om he might s soon be p>t$1 & kn[+ _! d\bts & fe>s1 he mu/ h re-assur$ _! m9ds by inspirit+ views ( ! insep>able nature ( 8 union ) ^? :o lov$ him & did 8 comm&m5ts2 8 _s dwell+ )9 !m & lead+ !m safely ?r\gh ! _w1 9 ! peace & security ( s\ls rais$ by ! tru? beyond ! rea* ( its corruption & its wrong4 ,t !y mu/ h felt ! /ronge/ conviction ( 8 ,messianic "*1 we ?9k _c be d\bt$1 h[ev] confus$ may h be5 _! ideas ( ! exact nature ( 8 (fice & ( ! mann] 9 :i* 8 com+ 0 to secure ! triumph ( ,israel ,! %ock to _! expectations & ! utt] dissipation ( _! hopes :i* mu/ h be5 felt 9 ! fir/ mom5t ( 8 arre/1 hurri$ trial1 & cruel #edc condemnation c well be imag9$4 ,x is probable t 9 t fir/ mom5t ( t]ror & bewild]m5t ! disciples inde$ all =sook him & fl$4 ,no "o :o _h consort$ ) ! ,great ,tea*]1 h[ev]1 & felt ! influ5ce ( 8 m9d1 c\ld long h resi/$ ! reaction to nobl] ?\ghts ( him4 ,9 all ! bitt]ness ( sorr[ = ! loss ( _! ma/] & fri5d1 9 horror at 8 agoniz+ & %ameful dea?1 & 9 d\bt1 con/]nation1 & almo/ despair1 !y mu/ h ga!r$ toge!r aga9 & spok5 ( ^! /range ev5ts4 ,believ+ ,jesus to h be5 ! ,messiah1 h[ c\ld !y int]pret 8 dea? on ! cross8 ,if he 0 ! ,messiah c\ld he ?us die87#a7 ,if ,eno* & ,elijah1 if ,moses1 precursors ( ! ,messiah1 _h n se5 dea?1 h[ c\ld t prophet l unto ,moses :om ,jehovah _h rais$ up end 8 c>e] by a %ameful dea? on ! cross8 ,?r\gh\t t "t ( fi]y trial & supreme m5tal agitation1 !y mu/ h p]petually s\ght 9 _! own m9ds "s explanation ( ! t]rible ev5ts !n occurr+ & seem+ to bla/ all _! hopes1 & d\btless my/ic utt]ances ( ,jesus mu/ h assum$ new mean+s1 mean+s probably diff]5t f 8 own4 ,9 ! acc\nts ( ! com+ ,messiah 9 ! prophets1 !y mu/ h se>*$ = "s light by :i* to solve ! inexplicable problem4 ,is x n conceivable t1 9 t la/ "t ( dang] & d>kness1 :5 he saw ! p]secution aga9/ him become m vehem5t1 & felt t ! pa? :i* he _h *os5 l$ him ?r\gh dang] & di/ress p]haps to dea?1 ,jesus may1 9 ! bitt] contemplation ( t fanatical opposition ( bigotry & #edd sup]/ition h appli$ to himself ! description ( ! suff]+ s]vant ( ,jehovah1 suff]+--z all noble s\ls h done :o are 9 advance ( _! age1 & prea* great tru?s :i* condemn ei!r directly or by implication ! vices & follies ( _! "t1--! oppressor's wrong1 ! pr\d man's contumely1 &1 worse /ill1 ! ignoble insults ( popul> ignorance & fickl5ess8 ,"h might seem to !m ! solution ( ! enigma2 & return+ f t fir/ flight ( t]ror & bewild]m5t1 feel+ all ! int5se reaction ( affection & grief & fai? 9 ! ,ma/] quick5$ by %ame at _! ab&onm5t ( him 9 8 mom5t ( supreme dang] & affliction1 /ill believ+ t he mu/ be ! ,messiah1 & 9 mute long+ & expectation ( ! next ev5ts :i* 7 to confirm or conf\nd _! hopes1 ! disciples mu/ h be5 9 ! climax ( n]v\s agitation & excitem5t1 & ready to receive any impression :i* might be sugge/$ 9 _! emb>rassm5t47#a7 ,accord+ to ,paul x 0 ,pet] :o fir/ saw ! ris5 ,jesus4 ,accord+ to ! fir/ & f\r? ,gospels1 ! fir/ appe>ance 0 to ! wom51 & notably1 9 ! latt]1 to ,m>y ,magdal5e out ( :om _h be5 ca/ sev5 devils1 & ^: temp]am5t probably r5d]$ h] unusually susceptible ( all su* impressions4 ,did ,paul int5tionally omit all m5tion ( ! appe>ances to ! wom51 or did he n "k ( !m8 ,9 ! latt] case1 we h an in/ructive light ?r[n on ! ,gospel tradition2 9 ! =m]1 ! fir/ sugge/ion #a ,ewald po9ts out t1 accord+ to ! belief ( ! p]iod1 ! s\ls ( ! dead hov]$ = a "t betwe5 heav5 & e>?1 & he consid]s t ! belief und5iably play$ an important "p 9 ?is sph]e ( visions ( ! ,*ri/ ,ges*4 d4 ,v4 ,isr41 vi4 p4 #gb a4 #ede ( ! ,resurrection becomes ev5 m cle>ly intelligible4 ,x w be obs]v$ t 9 all ?is explanation we are left *iefly to conjecture1 = ! /atem5ts 9 ! ,gospels _c1 ^u any po9t1 be us$ ) ! slighte/ confid5ce4 ,on ! o!r h&1 all t is dem&$ is t a probable or possible explanation ( ! orig9 ( ! belief 9 ! ,resurrection %\ld be giv52 & 9 ! total abs5ce ( hi/orical data we are entitl$ to draw inf]5ces z to ! c\rse ( ev5ts at ! "t4 ,x may well be t a mi/ake z to ! sepul*re1 r5d]$ n improbable if any h9t ( ! tru? be convey$ 9 ! conflict+ traditions ( ! ,gospel1 or "o ( _m o!r sugge/ions :i* might be advanc$1 might lead ! wom5 or ,pet] to believe t ! sepul*re 0 empty4 ,or "s o!r ev5 trifl+ circum/ance1 :i* we no long] c indicate ) precision1 might convey to ! wom5 or to ,pet]1 9 _! /ate ( n]v\s excitem5t1 ! la/ impulse want+ to cause t rapid revulsion f extreme depression1 :i* is s suitable to ! /ate :i* we may p]haps be all[$ to call creative subjectivity4 ,if we are to accept ! indications scatt]$ ab\t ! ,new ,te/am5t1 ! impetu\s ard5t temp]am5t ( ,pet] 0 em95tly "o to b\nd into sudd5 ec/atic en?usiasm1 & 9 all probability "s commonplace or trifl+ incid5t may h be5 ! sp>k :i* k9dl$ into flame ! mat]ials already at gl[+ heat4 ,! /rong subjective impression t ,jesus _h ris5 w\ld create a vision ( him :i*1 at once confirm+ previ\s conclusions1 resolv+ p]plex+ d\bts & satisfy+ fev]i% expectations1 w\ld be accept$ by ea* m9d ) little or no "q z an objective reality4 ,if ,pet]1 or ev5 ! #edf wom51 br\ght to ! disciples ! assurance t !y _h se5 ! ,"l1 we _c d\bt t1 9 ! unp>allel$ position 9 :i* !y 7 !n plac$1 "u all ! circum/ances ( int5se feel+ & religi\s excitem5t at ! mom5t1 su* emotions w\ld be sudd5ly call$ into action z w\ld give to ^! m5 ! impression t !y _h se5 ! ,ma/] :om !y _h lo/4 ,^! subjective impressions w\ld be /r5g!n$ daily & unconsci\sly into ev] m objective consi/5cy1 & be+ confirm$ by suppos$ prophecy w\ld be affirm$ ) a confid5ce ins5sibly inspir$ by dogmatic consid]ations4#a ,t ! news w\ld fly f believ] to believ]1 meet+ ev]y:]e excit$ att5tion & satisfy+ eag] expectancy1 is c]ta92 & t ^! dev\t s\ls1 sway$ by e emotion ( glad & exultant en?usiasm1 w\ld con/antly mi/ake ! sugge/ions ( _! own ?\ghts = objective realities is probable4 ,jesus di$1 0 buri$1 & rose aga9 accord+ to ! ,scriptures4 ,?is w\ld h>d5 e timid supposition into assurance2 & z "t w5t on1 :at 0 d\btful w\ld become c]ta91 :at 0 my/]i\s1 cle>2 & ^? :o _h se5 no?+ w\ld take up & /r5g!n ! tradition ( ^? :o _h se5 ! ,"l4 ,x is argu$ t !re 0 n "t = ! prep>ation ( ! disciples to believe 9 ! ,resurrection ( ,jesus betwe5 8 crucifixion & ! ?ird day1 :5 t ev5t is alleg$ to h occurr$1 &1 consequ5tly1 no probability ( subjective impressions ( s unexpect$ a nature be+ receiv$4 ,to ^? #edg apologi/s :o adopt ?is argum5t we might po9t to _m passages 9 ! ,gospels1 :i* affirm t ! resurrection on ! ?ird day 0 pr$ict$4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 we assign ( c\rse to a lat] date4 ,! argum5t assumes t !re 0 no prep>ation 9 ! tea*+ ( ,jesus1 :i*1 z we h endeav\r$ to sugge/1 is n ! case4 ,if !re _h be5 no o!r1 ! m]e assurance t he 0 ! ,messiah mu/ h l$ to reflections1 :i* dem&$ "s o!r sequel to 8 c>e] ?an ! dea? ( a slave4 ,! m]e sugge/ion ( su* a problem z mu/ h propos$ itself to ! m9ds ( ! disciples3 ,if all is to end "h1 ,jesus 0 n ! ,messiah3 if he 0 ! ,messiah1 :at w n[ happ58--mu/ h l$ to expectant att5tion4 ,b !re 0 mu* m ?an ?is4 ,9 su* mom5ts z ^? ( ! ,passion1 ?\ght works fev]i%ly & fa/4 ,x is n to be suppos$ t ,pet] & ! re/ did n =esee ! end1 :5 ,jesus 0 l$ away prison] 9 ! h&s ( 8 enemies4 ,x is /ill less to be imag9$ t _! m9ds 7 n ceaselessly revolv+ t problem1 on ! solution ( :i* dep5d$ _! fonde/ hopes & highe/ aspirations4#a ,x is mo/ probable1 inde$1 t no "t c\ld h f\nd ! disciples 9 a /ate s ripe = /rong impressions z t imm$iately succe$+ ! dea? ( _! ,ma/]4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 o!r aspects 9 :i* ?is po9t may be plac$4 ,:at evid5ce is !re t ,jesus 0 se51 or suppos$ to h be5 se51 on ! ?ird day8 ,absolutely none wor?y ( ! "n4 ,paul does n say t he 01 & z = ! ,gospels _! #edh /atem5t is ( no value1 & ! tradition :i* !y record may be set d[n z a =egone dogmatic con-elusion4 ,paul v di/9ctly %[s ?is4 ,he says3 ,= ,i deliv]$ unto y fir/ ( all t :i* ,i also receiv$1 t ,*ri/ di$ = our s9s accord+ to ! ,scriptures1 & t he 0 buri$1 & t he has be5 rais$ ! ?ird day1 accord+ to ! ,scriptures47#a7 ,! repetition ( ! phrase accord+ to ! ,scriptures is v m>k$1 & po9ts to ! fact t ! purpose = :i* ,jesus di$--= our s9s--& ! date ( 8 resurrection--! ?ird day--are /atem5ts directly bas$ ^u ,scripture4 ,we h m5tion$ t ! ,scriptures suppos$ to indicate ! ?ird day1 d n really apply to ! ,messiah at all1 b ?is does n affect ! "q be=e u4 ,n[ believ+ ?is epo* to be def9$ 9 prophecy1 ?is is precisely "o ( ^? po9ts ^u :i* memory w\ld1 9 ! lapse ( "t1 be mo/ likely to adju/ itself to ! prophecy4 ,we w assume t ,jesus 0 n se5 be=e ! ?ird day4 ,x is obvi\s t if he 0 se5 =ty days aft]1 x might be affirm$ t he _h be5 actually rais$ long be=e1 on ! ?ird day4 ,! vision occurr+ on ! ?ird day itself1 ev51 c\ld n prove t he _h n ris5 be=e4 ,!re is1 9 fact1 no way t we c see ( fix+ ! ?ird day except ! /atem5t ol ,scripture1 &1 ! mom5t we accept t1 we mu/ recognize ! =ce ( dogmatic influ5ce47#b7 ,! fact t ! ?ird day has f e>ly #b ,we d n g into any argum5t bas$ on ! ord] giv5 9 ! fir/ two ,synoptics to g into ,galilee--a ?ree days' j\rney at lea/--:]e ! disciples 7 to see ,jesus4 ,nor ne$ we t\* ^u o!r simil> po9ts :i* arise out ( ! n>ratives ( ! ,gospels4 #edi times be5 set ap>t z ! ,*ri/ian ,sabba?1 does n prove any?+4 ,if ! ?ird day 0 believ$ to be ! day indicat$ by ,scripture = ! ,resurrection1 ( c\rse t day w\ld be select$ z ! "t at :i* x mu/ h occurr$1 & on :i* x %\ld be commemorat$4 ,s f> z ! vision hypo!sis is conc]n$1 ! day is ( no consequ5ce :atev]1 & ! objection ^u ?is po9t has no =ce4 ,!re is ano!r consid]ation :i* we mu/ m5tion1 :i* is n only important 9 connection ) an e/imate ( ! evid5ce = ! ,resurrection1 b ! inf]5ces f :i* cle>ly support ! explanation we are propos+4 ,be=e /at+ x we may1 9 pass+1 aga9 ref] to ! fact t x is n[h]e affirm$ t anyone 0 an eye-witness ( ! actual ,resurrection4 ,x is suppos$ to be prov$ by ! circum/ance t ,jesus 0 subsequ5tly se54 ,obs]ve1 h[ev]1 t ! "p ( ?is miracle :i* c\ld n well h be5 ascrib$ to subjective impressions--! actual resurrection--is1 naturally en\gh1 n se5 by anyone1 b t :i* comes precisely )9 ! scope ( su* subjective action is said to h be5 se5 by _m4 ,to come at once to our po9t1 h[ev]1 nei!r ,paul1 nor ! ,gospels1 nor ,*ri/ian tradition 9 any =m1 pret5ds t ,jesus 0 se5 by any "o b 8 disciples & ^? :o believ$ 9 him4 ,9 fact1 ,jesus only appe>$ to ^? :o 7 prep>$ by fai? & expectant att5tion to see him 9 ! mann] we ass]t4 ,we are at pres5t m]ely speak+ ( ! e>li] appe>ances1 & res]v+ ,paul = sep>ate discussion4 ,:y1 we may inquire1 did ,jesus n appe> to 8 #eej enemies z well z to 8 fri5ds87#a7 ,no?+ ( c\rse c\ld h be5 m intelligible ?an 8 desire to com=t & reassure ^? :o believ$ 9 & m\rn$ = him1 b to d ?is by no means exclud$ a wid] manife/ation ( himself1 suppos+ him to h actually ris5 f ! dead4 ,on ! hypo!sis t he only rose aga9 & 0 se5 ?r\gh ! ye>n+ & en?usia/ic fai? ( 8 foll[]s1 ! reason :y he 0 n se5 by o!rs is n h>d to f9d4 ,yet x might be ?\ght t ! object ( at once e/abli%+ beyond d\bt 8 sup]natural mission1 & conv9c+ 8 enemies ( _! crime1 & ! ,jews ( _! bl9dness & folly1 0 important en\gh4 ,_h he %[n himself to ! ,*ief ,prie/s & eld]s1 & conf\nd$ ! ,ph>isees ) ! vision ( him :om !y _h s cruelly nail$ to ! accurs$ tree1 h[ might n ! future ( 8 foll[]s h be5 smoo!d1 & ! fai? ( _m made /rong6 ,or if he _h /ood aga9 9 ! ,c\rts ( ! ,roman ,procurator1 no long] a prison] buffet$ & spat ^u1 b ! glori\s ,messiah1 beyond ! rea* ( ,jewi% malignity or ,roman inju/ice4 ,b no1 he 0 se5 by none b ^? devot$ to him4 ,we %all ( c\rse be told by apologi/s t ?is also 0 = ! trial ( our fai?2 ?\gh to anyone :o e>ne/ly reflects1 x mu/ seem *ildi% to ask m5 to believe :at is beyond _! reason1 yet conceal ! evid5ce by :i* reason is suppos$ to be guid$4 ,! reply1 h[ev]1 is cle>3 = ! trial ( our fai? or = any o!r reason1 x is nev]!less c]ta9 t ?is evid5ce does n exi/4 #eea ,:5 ! argum5t :i* we are n[ discuss+ 0 fir/ advanc$ long ago by ,celsus1 ,orig5 _h no bett] refutation ?an1 aft] admitt+ ! fact t ,jesus 0 n aft] 8 resurrection se5 z be=e publicly & by all m51 to take refuge 9 ! belief t ! passage ( ,paul reg>d+ 8 appe>ances conta9s wond]ful my/]ies :i*1 if und]/ood1 w\ld expla9 :y ,jesus did n %[ himself aft] t ev5t z he _h done be=e x47#a7 ,we mu/ n[ proce$ to %[ t ! vision ( ,paul is satisfactorily expla9$ by ! same hypo!sis47#b7 ,we h already prov$ t !re is no evid5ce ( any value t ,paul's conv]sion 0 due to 8 hav+ se5 ,jesus 9 a mann] :i* he believ$ to be objective & sup]natural4 ,to repres5t ! ar* p]secutor ,paul trans=m$ 9 a mom5t1 by a miracul\s vision ( ,jesus1 into ! ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles 0 highly *>act]i/ic ( ! au?or ( #a ,contra ,cels41 ii4 #fc4 ,x is curi\s t1 9 an e>li] *apt]1 ,orig51 discuss+ ! "q ( ,celsus1--:e!r any "o :o _h be5 actually dead _h ev] ris5 ) a real body1 says t if ,celsus _h be5 a ,jew :o believ$ t ,elijah & ,eli%a _h rais$ little *ildr5 he c\ld n h advanc$ ?is objection4 ,orig5 adds t he ?9ks ! reason :y ,jesus appe>$ to no o!r nation b ! ,jews 01 t !y _h become accu/om$ to miracles1 & c\ld1 by comp>+ ! works ( ,jesus & :at 0 told ( him ) :at _h be5 done be=e1 recognize t he 0 great] ?an all :o _h prec$$ him4 ii4 #eg4 #eeb ,acts1 :o fur!r repres5ts ,paul z imm$iately prea*+ publicly 9 ,damascus & conf\nd+ ! ,jews4 ,widely diff]5t is ! /atem5t ( ,paul4 ,he di/9ctly affirms t he did n communicate ) fle% & blood1 nor w5t he up to ,j]usalem to !m :i* 7 ,apo/les be=e him1 b t he imm$iately w5t away into ,arabia4 ,! ,fa!rs delight$ 9 repres5t+ ?is j\rney to ,arabia z an in/ance ( ,paul's f]v\r & eag]ness to prea* ! ,gospel 9 l&s ov] :i* its s\nd _h n yet gone =?4 ,!re c be no d\bt1 h[ev]1 we ?9k1 t ,paul's j\rney to ,arabia & 8 soj\rn !re 7 = ! purpose ( reflection47#a7 ,x is only 9 leg5ds t in/antane\s spiritual revolutions take place4 ,9 sob] hi/ory ! process is m sl[ & progressive4 ,we repeat t !re is no evid5ce :i* c at all be accept$ t ,paul's conv]sion 0 effect$ by a vision1 & t x is inf9itely m probable t x 01 s to say1 m]ely complet$ & cr[n$ by see+ ,jesus2 b1 at ! same "t1 ev5 if ! view be held t ?is vision 0 ! decisive circum/ance :i* induc$ ,paul at once to resign 8 c\rse ( p]secution & embrace ,*ri/ianity1 our argum5t is n mat]ially affect$4 ,9 any case1 mu* sil5t1 deep1 & almo/ unconsci\s prep>ation = ! *ange mu/ long be=e h proce$$ 9 ! m9d ( ,paul1 :i* 0 f9ally matur$ 9 ! ,arabian wa/e4 ,^u no view t is tak5 c ?is be exclud$2 ^u e gr\nd ( common s5se1 exp]i5ce1 & necess>y inf]5ce1 x mu/ be admitt$4 #eec ,indiff]5ce is ! only great gulf :i* sep>ates op9ions4 ,!re 0 no /olid b>ri] ( apa?y betwe5 ,saul ( ,t>sus & belief 9 ! ,messiah-%ip ( ,jesus4 ,9 p]secut+ ,*ri/ianity1 ,paul prov$ two ?+s3 ! e>ne/ness & en]gy ( 8 convictions1 & ! fact t 8 att5tion 0 ke5ly direct$ to ! new sect4 ,bo? po9ts contribut$ to ! result we are discuss+4 ,paul's ,judaism 0 no m]e =malism4 ,x 0 ! adoption1 he>t & s\l1 ( ! religion ( 8 p2 :i* 0 to him no dead pr9ciple1 b a liv+ fai? /imulat+ t eag] impetu\s "* to def5d its integrity ) fire & sword4 ,he did n1 l s _m ( 8 c\ntrym51 turn away ) scorn f ! foll[]s ( ! despis$ ,naz>5e & leave !m to _! delusion2 b turn$ to !m1 on ! contr>y1 ) ! fi]ce attraction ( ! zealot ^: own belief is outrag$ by ! misbelief ( o!rs4 ,! e>ne/ ,jew came into %>p collision ) ! e>ne/ ,*ri/ian4 ,! e>ne/ness ( ea* 0 an elem5t ( mutual respect4 ,! endurance & firmness ( ! "o might n melt ! bigot$ resolution ( ! o!r1 b x arre/$ 8 att5tion & comm&$ 8 unconsci\s sympa?y4 ,j s w\ld ! p]secutor h endur$ & resi/$ p]secution2 s1 subsequ5tly1 he actually did meet x4 ,& :at 0 ! ma9 diff]5ce betwe5 ! p]secutor & ! p]secut$8 ,x consi/$ 9 t :i* con/itut$ ! burd5 ( ! apo/olic prea*+3 ! belief t ?is 0 ! ,*ri/4 ,! cre$ ( ! new sect at lea/ 0 n complicat$4 ,x 0 little m at t "t ?an a "q ( id5tity1 until ,paul himself develop$ x into an elaborate sy/em ( !ology4 #eed ,9 ?is "q ( id5tity1 h[ev]1 !re 0 compris$ a va/ *ange ( national ideas4 ,to ! dev\t ,jew1--look+ = ! hope ( ,israel1 ye>n+ & pray+ = ! adv5t ( t ,son ( ,david :o 0 to sit ^u ! ?rone ( 8 fa!rs1 re/ore ! =tunes ( ! p1 drive out ! hea!n & subdue ! nations aga9 to ! yoke ( ,israel1 e/abli%+ ! wor%ip ( ,jehovah 9 its purity & turn+ ! ,g5tiles to ! s]vice ( ! ,god ( ,gods1--x 0 an abhorr5t ?\ght t ! l[ly peasant :o _h di$ a %ameful dea? on ,golgo?a %\ld be repres5t$ z ! ,messiah1 ! promis$ ,k+ ( ! ,jews4 ,/ill !re 0 some?+ suffici5tly />tl+ 9 ! idea to excite reflection4 ,a political aspirant1 :o pret5d$ to play ! "p1 & aft] "s feeble attempt at arm$ insurrection _h be5 cru%$ by ! heel ( ! ,roman1 c\ld n h attract$ att5tion4 ,9 t1 !re w\ld h be5 no orig9ality to a/oni%1 & no s+ul>ity to require explanation4 ,?is man1 on ! contr>y1 :o 0 said to be ! ,messiah1 assum$ no e>?ly dignity2 claim$ no k+dom 9 ?is _w2 _h n ev5 a place to lay 8 head2 b end$ a %ort & unambiti\s c>e] z ! tea*] ( a simple b pr(\nd sy/em ( morality by dea? on a cross4 ,!re 0 no vulg> imitation "h4 ,?is 0 ! rev]se ( ! ,messiah ( ! ,jews4 ,9 spite ( s mu* dissimil>ity1 h[ev]1 !re 0 9 ! two p>ties a fundam5tal agreem5t ( belief4 ,! ,jew expect$ ! ,messiah2 ! ,*ri/ian believ$ he _h n[ come4 ,! ,messiah expect$ by ! ,jew 0 c]ta9ly a v diff]5t ,savi\r f ! despis$ & reject$ ,jesus ( ,naz>e?1 b at ! root ( ! #eee ,*ri/ian fai? lay belief 9 a ,messiah4 ,x 0 a ?or\ghly ,jewi% belief1 spr++ out ( ! cov5ant ) ! fa!rs1 & bas$ ^u ! ,law & ! ,prophets4 ,! diff]5ce 0 n "o ( pr9ciple b "o ( details4 ,_! int]pretation ( ! promises 0 /rangely dissimil>1 b ! tru/ ( bo? 0 9 ! ,god ( ,israel4 ,to pass f "o to ! o!r did n involve ! adoption ( a new religion1 b m]ely a modification ( ! views ( ! old4 ,once conv9c$ t ! ,messiah 0 n a political rul] b a spiritual guide1 n a victori\s lead]1 b a suff]+ s]vant ( ,jehovah1 ! transition f judaic hopes to recognition ( ,jesus 0 almo/ accompli%$4 ,x is cle> t ,paul 9 8 capacity ( ,p]secutor mu/ h become well acqua9t$ ) ! views ( ! ,*ri/ians1 & probably mu/ h he>d !m repeat$ly exp\nd$ by 8 captives be=e ! ,jewi% ,sanh$r94#a ,he mu/ h he>d ! victims ( 8 bl9d religi\s zeal affirm+ _! fai? ) all t ec/atic assurance :i* spr+s out ( p]secution4 ,! vision ( ,pet] contribut$ to ! vision ( ,paul4 ,!re c be no d\bt t ,paul mu/ h become aw>e ( ! application to ,jesus ( ,old ,te/am5t prophecies1 & ( ! new conception !nce d]iv$ ( a suff]+ ,messiah4 ,! political horizon 0 c]ta9ly n sugge/ive ( ! com+ ( ! ,"l's ,ano9t$4 ,nev] _h ! =tunes ( ,israel be5 at a l[] ebb4 ,! hope ( a ,pr9ce ( ! h\se ( ,david to re/ore dom9ion to ! fall5 race 0 h>d to ent]ta94 ,! sugge/ion ( an alt]native !ory bas$ ^u a new int]pretation ( ! prophets1 if />tl+1 0 n untimely1 :5 ! old confid5ce #eef 0 becom+ fa9t 9 _m m9ds1 & ! hope ( 8 com+ seem$ s di/ant & unsure4 ,if we d n misjudge ! "* ( ,paul1 h[ev] %ock$ he may h be5 at fir/ by ! sub/itution ( a crucifi$ ,naz>5e = ! triumphant ,messiah ( 8 e>li] visions1 !re mu/ h be5 some?+ pr(\ndly pleas+ to 8 m9d 9 ! conception ( a spiritual ,messiah4 ,z he became famili> ) ! idea1 x is probable t fla%es ( d\bt mu/ h cross$ 8 m9d z to ! correctness ( 8 m mat]ial views4 ,if ! belief 7 true1 :i* ,*ri/ians pr(ess$1 t ?is ,jesus1 despis$ & reject$ ( m51 0 actually ! suff]+ s]vant ( ,jehovah1 & ?is s]vant ( ,jehovah ! ,messiah6 ,if ! claim ( ?is ,jesus :o _h be5 e/eem$ smitt5 ( ,god & afflict$1 _h be5 v]ifi$ by 8 ris+ aga9 f ! dead & asc5d+ to ! "r h& ( ,god6 ,?is aspect ( ! ,messianic idea _h a my/]y & significance cong5ial to ! s\l ( ,paul4 ,! sup]natural elem5ts c\ld h pres5t$ no difficulties to him4 ,belief 9 ! ,resurrection 0 "p ( 8 cre$ z a ,ph>isee4 ,t ! ris5 ,messiah %\ld h be5 se5 by _m1 ! fundam5tal idea once admitt$1 c\ld n surprise ! vision>y ,jew4 ,we c well imag9e ! conflict :i* w5t on 9 ! ard5t m9d ( ,paul :5 d\bts fir/ ent]$ x2 8 resi/ance & /ruggle = ! fai? ( 8 y\?2 ! pursuance z duty ( ! c\rse he _h begun1 :il/ ! =m] conviction no long] /r5g!n$ ! fev]i% en]gy2 ! excitem5t ( religi\s zeal 9 ! mad c\rse ( p]secution1 n to be arre/$ 9 a mom5t1 b become1 by gr[+ d\bt1 bitt]ness & pa9 to him2 ! suff]+ #eeg inflict$ s5d+ its pang into 8 own fle%4 ,!re 0 ample prep>ation 9 su* a situation = ! vision ( ,paul4 ,! con/itution & temp]am5t ( ! ,apo/le 7 em95tly calculat$ to receive impressions ( ! /ronge/ description47#a7 ,we h m5tion$ ! conjecture ( _m able m5 t 8 /ake 9 ! fle% 0 a =m ( epilepsy4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 b a conjecture1 ?\gh "o :i* has great probability17#b7 & we mu/ n treat x o!rwise2 b1 if x c\ld be prov$ correct1 mu* light w\ld be ?r[n ^u ,paul's visions4 ,we h discuss$ ! ,apo/le's /atem5ts reg>d+ ! sup]natural ,*>ismata 9 ! ,*ur*1 & h se5 8 extreme read9ess to believe 9 ! lavi% be/[al ( miracul\s gifts :]e o!rs c\ld recognise b ord9>y qualities4 ,t ,paul %\ld be able to claim ! p[] ( speak+ ) tongues m ?an all ! ,cor9?ians1 ^: ex]cise ( t spiritual gift he s unc]emoni\sly re/ra9s1 is 9 p]fect keep+ ) all t we else:]e le>n ab\t him4 ,ev]y:]e we f9d ! ke5ly impressionable nature s apt to fall into ! ec/atic /ate :5 br\ght "u ! influ5ce ( active religi\s emotion4 ,i mu/ glory1 he exclaims ) irresi/ible impulse on com+ to a !me s cong5ial to him1 ,i mu/ glory2 x is n inde$ exp$i5t1 b ,i w come to visions & revelations ( ! ,"l47#c7 ,ev5 :5 he speaks ( ! /ake 9 8 fle%1 :i* he does 9 su* sugge/ive connection ) 8 visions1 he describes x z s5t le/ he %\ld be exalt$ above measure by ! #eeh excess ( ! revelations47#a7 ,we h s repeat$ly _h to ref] to ,paul's claim to h receiv$ 8 ,gospel by special revelation t we ne$ n aga9 speak ( x "h4 ,if we c\ld quote ,acts z a g5u9e repres5tation ( ,*ri/ian tradition reg>d+ ,paul1 we might po9t out ! visions & revelations !re9 s freely ascrib$ to him1 b 8 own writ+s are amply suffici5t = our purpose4 ,ev5 8 second j\rney to ,j]usalem is attribut$ to ! direction ( revelation47#b7 ,! only vision reg>d+ :i* ! ,apo/le gives any p>ticul>s is t ref]r$ to1 #b ,cor4 xii4 #b3 ,i "k a man 9 ,*ri/ above f\rte5 ye>s ago 7:e!r 9 ! body ,i "k n1 :e!r out ( ! body ,i "k n1 ,god kn[e?71 su* an "o caught up ev5 unto ! ?ird heav54 #c4 ,& ,i "k su* a man 7:e!r 9 ! body or out ( ! body ,i "k n1 ,god kn[e?71 #d4 t he 0 caught up into p>adise & he>d unspeakable words :i* x is n lawful = a man to utt]4 #e4 ,= su* an "o w ,i boa/1 etc47#c7 ,x has be5 argu$ f ?is passage & ! repetition ( ! expression :e!r 9 ! body or out ( ! body ,i "k n1 t ,paul himself c\ld cle>ly di/+ui% objective facts f subjective impressions47#d7 ,no int]pretation c\ld well be m errone\s4 ,x is evid5t t ,paul has no d\bt :atev] ( 8 hav+ be5 9 ! ?ird heav5 & 9 ,p>adise1 & z little ( #eei 8 hav+ he>d ! unspeakable words4 ,t is q objectively real to him4 ,8 only d\bt is :e!r ! body 0 caught up ) 8 s\l ^u ?is occasion47#a7 ,no "o :o has c>efully consid]$ su* ph5om5a & exam9$ ! /atem5ts "h made c h any d\bt z to ! nature ( ?is vision4 ,! conception ( be+ caught up into ! ?ird heav51 into ,p>adise1 & !re he>+ ^! unspeakable words :i* x is n lawful = a man to utt]1 betrays 9 no d\btful mann] ! s\rce ( ! subjective impressions4 ,( c\rse1 div9es :o are prep>$ to see 9 ?is passage ! acc\nt ( an actual objective ev5t w n consid] x evid5ce t ,paul _h subjective visions :i* he believ$ to h be5 objective facts2 b to ^? :o1 m rightly & reasonably1 we ?9k1 recognize ! subjective "* ( ! vision1 x mu/ at once def9itely settle ! po9t t ,paul c\ld mi/ake subjective impressions = objective realities1 & consequ5tly ! argum5t = ! simil> subjectivity ( ! vision ( ,jesus becomes complete4 ,! possibility ( su* a mi/ake is precisely :at apologi/s "q4 ,"h is an in/ance 9 :i* ! mi/ake has cle>ly be5 made by ,paul4 ,! ,apo/le's own /atem5ts %[ him to h be5 sup]latively vision>y & impressionable1 ) re/less n]v\s en]gy x is true1 b1 at ! same "t1 ) ke5 physical & m5tal susceptibility4 ,liable to be uplift$ by ! excess ( revelations1 glory+ 9 visions & revelations ( ! ,"l1 possess+ ec/atic #efj p[]s m ?an all o!rs1 subject+ 8 v movem5ts1 8 visits to ,j]usalem1 to ! direction ( impulses :i* he suppos$ to be revelations3 !re has nev] be5 a case 9 :i* bo? temp]am5t & religi\s belief m ?or\ghly comb9$ to ascribe1 ) p]fect conviction1 objective reality to subjective impressions connect$ ) div9e ?+s !n occupy+ 8 m9d4 ,paul moreov] liv$ 9 a "t :5 ! ,messianic long+ ( ! ,jews l$ !m to be pr(\ndly int]e/$ /ud5ts ( ! lat] apocalyptic writ+s1 :i* c]ta9ly made a deep impression ^u ! ,apo/le1 & 9 :i* he mu/ h be5 /ruck by ! image ( ! promis$ ,messiah1 l ! ,son ( ,man1 com+ on ! cl\ds ( heav5 7,dan4 vii4 #ac1 cf4 #a ,cor4 xv4 #dg747a7 ,at no "t 0 su* a vision m likely to pres5t itself to him1 ?an :5 8 m9d 0 fix$ ^u ! ,messianic idea ) all ! int5sity ( "o :o _h be5 p]secut+ ^? :o ass]t$ t ! ,messiah _h already come4 ,"h 0 reason = all t conc5tration ( ?\ght ^u ! subject :i* produces su* visions3 & :5 d\bt & hesitation ent]$ into t eag] int5se _s1 ! conflict mu/ h be5 %>p & ! n]ves highly /rung4 ,! ,jesus :om he saw ) 8 m9d's eye 0 ! climax ( conviction 9 su* a nature2 & ! vision vividly br\ght to him 8 own self-reproa*ful ?\ghts = cruelly mi/ak5 zeal1 & ! remorse ( noble s\ls :i* b\nds to rep>ation4 ,he devot$ himself z eag]ly to ,*ri/ianity1 z he _h previ\sly done to ,judaism4 ,he *ang$ ! cont5ts b n ! =m ( 8 m9d47#b7 ,paul ! #efa ,*ri/ian 0 ! same man z ,paul ! ,jew2 & 9 ab&on+ ! conception ( a ,messiah accord+ to ! fle%1 & plac+ 8 :ole fai? 9 "o accord+ to ! _s1 he display$ ! same *>act]i/ics z be=e4 ,! revolution 9 8 m9d1 ( :i* s mu* is said1 0 m]ely "o affect+ ! ,messianic idea4 ,he did n at a b\nd become ! complete ,apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles1 b accept+ at fir/ no?+ m ?an belief 9 a ,messiah accord+ to ! _s1 8 compreh5sive & peculi> sy/em ( !ology 01 ( c\rse1 only ! result ( subsequ5t reflection4 ,t 8 conviction %\ld h be5 complet$ by a subjective vision is no m /range ?an t he %\ld believe 9 sup]natural ,*>ismata1 miracul\s speak+ ) tongues1 & be+ actually caught up into ! ?ird heav51 into ,p>adise1 & he>+ !re unutt]able words :i* x is n lawful = a man to utt]4 ,paul evid5tly nev] que/ion$ ! s\rce ( 8 visions4 ,!y 7 simply accept$ z div9e revelations1 & !y excit$ all ! less ( misgiv+ 9 8 s\l f ! fact t1 )\t d\bt1 !y express$ ! expect$ solution ( problems :i* int5sely occupi$ 8 m9d1 & reflect$ conclusions already practically =m$ by 8 own ?\ghts47#a7 ,!re rema9 two po9ts to be briefly consid]$4 #efb ,! fir/ ( ^! is ! ass]tion1 con/antly made 9 v>i\s %apes1 t ! c>d9al miracles ( ! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion 7 proclaim$ z unque/ionable facts1 )\t contradiction1 at a "t :5 su* an ass]tion might h be5 easily refut$4 ,! production ( ! body1 ! /ill occupi$ sepul*re1 x is said1 w\ld h set su* pret5sions at re/ ,x is unnecess>y to say t ! proclamation ( ! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion z facts prov$ no?+ beyond ! belief1 p]haps1 ( ^? :o ass]t$ !m4 ,s f> z ,paul is conc]n$1 we may seek 9 va9 = any ass]tion ( a bodily ,asc5sion4 ,b !re is n ! slighte/ evid5ce to %[ :5 ! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion 7 fir/ publicly proclaim$ z unque/ionable facts4 ,ev5 ! ,gospels d n /ate t !y 7 m5tion$ beyond ! circle ( disciples4 ,! second ,synopti/1 :o does n /ate t ,jesus himself 0 se5 by any "o1 makes ! curi\s affirmation at ! close ( 8 ,gospel z we h x1 t ! wom51 on receiv+ ! ann\ncem5t ( ! ,resurrection f ! angels1 & ! comm& = ! disciples & ,pet] to g into ,galilee1 w5t out & fl$ f ! sepul*re2 = trembl+ & a/oni%m5t seiz$ !m1 & !y said no?+ to any "o2 = !y 7 afraid47#a7 ,9 ! f\r? ,gospel1 al?\gh ! belov$ disciple w5t into ! sepul*re1 & he saw & believ$1 x is relat$ ( him & ,pet]3 ,s ! disciples w5t away aga9 unto _! own home47#b7 ,! ,elev51 9 fact1 :o all =sook _! ,ma/] & fl$--:o are repres5t$ z meet+ ) clos$ doors = fe> ( ! ,jews--) clos$ doors aft] eight days1 x is aga9 said1 al?\gh1 a week be=e1 t5 ( !m are said to h se5 ,jesus--7 n likely to expose #efc !mselves to ! fate ( ,jesus by ru%+ into ! highways & ass]t+ ! ,resurrection4 ,beyond ! /atem5t ( ! ,gospels1 ! value ( :i* we h se51 & a /atem5t accompani$ by s _m confus$ circum/ances1 !re is no evid5ce :atev] t ! sepul*re 0 f\nd empty4 ,!re is no evid5ce t ! sepul*re 0 really kn[n to ! disciples1 none ( :om1 probably1 0 pres5t at ! crucifixion2 & x might well be inf]r$ t ! wom51 :o are repres5t$ z ignorant t ! body _h already be5 embalm$1 yet :o are ! *ief suppos$ witnesses = ! empty sepul*re & ! in=mants ( ! disciples1 7 equally ignorant ( ! sepul*re 9 :i* ! body 0 laid4 ,we might ask :e!r ! #ejj bre?r5 :o are said to h se5 ,jesus at ! same "t came f ,galilee1 or :]ev] !y 71 & exam9$ ! /ate ( ! sepul*re8 ,we h already said1 h[ev]1 t if ! sepul*re _h be5 %[n to be empty1 ! v la/ ?+ :i* c\ld be prov$ by t circum/ance w\ld be ! correctness ( ! ass]tion t x _h become s 9 consequ5ce ( a /up5d\s miracle4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if x _h be5 %[n t x 0 occupi$ by a body1 x is exce$+ly d\btful :e!r ! fact w\ld h conv9c$ any "o n previ\sly sure t ,jesus c\ld n h ris5 f ! dead1 & he w\ld n h requir$ su* evid5ce4 ,:5 ! ,resurrection 0 publicly proclaim$ z a fact1 ! body c\ld no long] h be5 recognizable1 & ! idea t any ( ^? 9 au?ority c\ld h ?\ght su* demon/ration necess>y to refute a /ory :isp]$ ab\t among/ an obscure sect 9 ,j]usalem1 or ev5 m c\rage\sly ass]t$1 is a product ( lat] times4 ,:5 ,jesus ( ,naz>e?1 ! head ( ! nasc5t sect1 0 suppress$ #efd by a %ameful dea?1 8 humble & timid foll[]s 7 obvi\sly = a "t despis$2 & !re is little reason to suppose t ! *ief prie/s & rul]s ( ! ,jews w\ld h condesc5d$ to any public contradiction ( _! affirmations1 if !y _h ev5 felt indiff]5ce to ! defilem5t ( expos+ = su* a purpose a decay+ body to ! gaze ( ,j]usalem4 ,?is k9d ( refutation is possible only 9 ! imag9ation ( div9es4 ,besides1 :at evid5ce is !re t ev5 a s+le indiff]5t p]son f\nd ! sepul*re empty8 ,!re is n an iota ( pro(4 ,on ! contr>y1 !re is ! v /ronge/ evid5ce t :5 ! ass]tion ( ! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion z unque/ionable facts 0 made1 x 0 contradict$ 9 ! only practical & practicable way conceivable3 7#a47 by all b univ]sal disbelief 9 ,j]usalem2 7#b47 by actual p]secution ( ^? :o ass]t$ x4 ,x is a p]fectly und5iable fact t ! great mass ( ! ,jews totally d5i$ ! tru? ( ! /atem5t by disbeliev+ x1 & t ! conv]ts to ,*ri/ianity :o soon swell$ ! numb]s ( ! ,*ur* & spread its influ5ce among/ ! nations 7 n ! citiz5s ( ,j]usalem1 :o 7 capable ( refut+ su* ass]tions1 b /rang]s & ,g5tiles4 ,! numb] ( ! community ( ,j]usalem aft] ! =ty days seems to be /at$ by ! au?or ( ,acts z ab\t #abj1 & al?\gh ! numb]s add$ to ! ,*ur*1 accord+ to ?is docum5t1 are evid5tly fabul\s1 ! conv]ts at ,p5teco/ are app>5tly *iefly f among/ ! dev\t m5 ( e nation ^u e>? congregat$ at ,j]usalem4 ,to ?is h\r ! ,jews h reta9$ z _! inh]itance ! d5ial by _! =efa!rs ( ! ass]t$ facts4 ,! ass]tion1 secondly1 0 emphatically d5i$ by ! p]secution1 z soon z x #efe became wor? any "o's :ile to p]secute1 ( ^? :o made x4 ,x 0 9 ?is way d5i$ by ,paul himself1 at a "t :5 v]ification 0 inf9itely m possible ?an :5 he came to jo9 9 ! ass]tion4 ,are we to suppose t ! ,apo/le took no tr\ble to conv9ce himself ( ! facts be=e he began to p]secute8 ,he 0 9 ! confid5ce ( ! high prie/s x seems1 c he ev] h he>d ! slighte/ d\bt f !m on ! subject8 ,is x n palpable t ,paul & 8 p>ty1 by _! v pursuit ( ^? :o ma9ta9$ su* allegations1 /igmatiz$ !m z falsehoods1 & p]haps z impo/ure8 ,if x be said t ,paul became conv9c$ ( 8 mi/ake1 x is p]fectly obvi\s t 8 conv]sion 0 n due to local & circum/antial evid5ce1 b to dogmatic consid]ations & 8 suppos$ vision ( ,jesus4 ,he disbeliev$ :5 ! alleg$ occurr5ces 7 rec5t &1 z x is said1 capable ( refutation2 he believ$ :5 ! "t = su* refutation _h pass$4 ,! second po9t to :i* we h ref]r$ is ! vague & f9al objection ( apologi/s t1 if ! vision ( ,jesus 0 m]ely subjective1 ! fabric ( ! ,*ur* & ev5 ( ,*ri/ianity is bas$ ^u unreality & self-deception4 ,is ?is possible8 !y ask4 ,is x possible t = eighte5 c5turies ! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion h be5 proclaim$ & believ$ by millions1 ) no o!r orig9al f\ndation ?an self-delusion8 ,! vagu5ess & app>5t va/ness ( ?is objection1 p]haps1 make x a =midable argum5tum ad hom9em1 b x vani%es into v small proportions z we approa* x4 ,mu/ we !n und]/& t ! dogmas ( all religions :i* h be5 e/abli%$ mu/ h be5 objective tru?s8 & t ?is is a necess>y inf]5ce f _! wide adoption8 ,if s1 !n all #eff hi/orical religions be=e ,*ri/ianity1 & aft] x1 mu/ take rank z sub/antially true4 ,9 t case ! religion ( ! ,v$a1 ( ,buddha1 ( ,zoroa/]1 ( ,mahomet1 = in/ance1 c z little be bas$ on unreality & self-deception z ,*ri/ianity4 ,!y h secur$ wide acceptance f mank9d4 ,millions h = c5turies dev\tly held _! t5ets1 & to ?is day ! foll[]s ( ,sakya ,muni are z num]\s z ! believ]s 9 ! religion ( ,paul4 ,if n1 ! objection at once falls to ! gr\nd z an argum5t1 & ! problem becomes a simple matt] ( evid5ce1 :i* has be5 fully discuss$ & dispos$ (4 ,:5 we analyse ! fact1 x becomes app>5t t1 ultimately1 belief 9 ! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion resolves itself into ! belief ( a few or ( "o4 ,x requires v little reflection to p]ceive t ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* is f\nd$ mu* m ^u belief 9 ! ,resurrection ?an on ! fact itself47#a7 ,no?+ is m und5iable ?an ! circum/ance t n m ?an a v small numb] ( m5 are ev5 alleg$ to h se5 ! ris5 ,jesus4 ,! mass ( ^? :o h believ$ 9 ! ,resurrection h done s because ( ! assurance ( ^! few m51 & p]haps because !y may h be5 l$ to ?9k t ! ev5t 0 pr$ict$ 9 ,scripture4 ,up to ?is day1 conv]ts to ! dogma are made1 if made at all1 ^u ! assurance ( ,paul & ! ,gospels4 ,! va/ "q at la/ dw9dles d[n to ! inquiry3 ,c a few m51 c "o man1 draw errone\s inf]5ces & be hone/ly deceiv$ by some?+ suppos$ to h be5 se58 ,we presume t !re c be no hesitation 9 giv+ an affirmative reply4 ,! re/ foll[s z a matt] ( #efg c\rse4 ,o!rs simply believe ! report ( ^? :o h believ$ be=e !m4 ,9 c\rse ( "t1 s _m believe t x is consid]$ almo/ outrage\s to disbelieve or dem& evid5ce4 ,! numb] ( ^? :o h believ$ is view$ at la/ z an ov]:elm+ pro( ( ! tru? ( ! cre$4 ,x is a mo/ /rik+ & extraord9>y fact t ! life & tea*+ ( ,jesus h sc>cely a place 9 ! sy/em ( ,paul4 ,_h we be5 dep5d5t ^u him we %\ld h _h no idea ( ! ,great ,ma/] :o prea*$ ! ,s]mon on ! ,m\nt1 & embodi$ pure tru?s 9 p>ables ( su* lum9\s simplicity4 ,8 noble morality w\ld h rema9$ unkn[n1 & 8 lessons ( r>e spiritual excell5ce h be5 lo/ to ! _w4 ,paul sees no significance 9 t life1 b conc5trates all int]e/ 9 ! dea? & resurrection ( 8 ,messiah4 ,9 ! sepul*re hewn out ( ! rock are deposit$ ! tea*+ & example ( ,jesus1 & f x !re rises a my/ic ,*ri/ lo/ 9 a halo ( !ology4 ,! ecclesia/ical ,*ri/ianity :i* 0 ma9ly ,paul's "w has almo/ effac$ ! true "w ( ,jesus4 ,too little c n[ be trac$ ( t tea*+1 & few are ! g5u9e records ( 8 "w :i* h surviv$ ! pi\s en?usiasm evok$ by 8 "*4 ,!ology has done its wor/ ) ! life2 & t dea?1 :i* w ev] be ! d>ke/ blot ^u hi/ory1 has be5 repres5t$ z ! climax ( div9e b5efic5ce4 ,! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion h deifi$ ,jesus ( ,naz>e?2 b !y h done s at ! exp5se ( all t 0 mo/ truly sublime 9 8 "w4 #efh ,! _w w ga9 :5 x recognises ! real "* & s\rce ( su* dogmas1 & resigns ?is inh]itance f ! ,age ( ,miracles4 ,=1 al?\gh we lose a fai? :i* has long be5 our guide 9 ! pa/1 we ne$ n n[ fe> to walk boldly ) ,tru? 9 ! future1 & turn+ away f fanci$ b5efits to be d]iv$ f ! virtue ( 8 dea?1 we may f9d real help & guidance f m e>ne/ contemplation ( ! life & tea*+ ( ,jesus4 #efi ,,conclusions4 ,we h se5 t ,div9e ,revelation c\ld only be necess>y or conceivable = ! purpose ( communicat+ to u some?+ :i* we c\ld n o!rwise discov]1 & t ! tru? ( communications :i* are ess5tially beyond & undiscov]able by reason _c be atte/$ 9 any o!r way ?an by miracul\s signs di/+ui%+ !m z div9e4 ,x is admitt$ t no o!r te/imony c\ld ju/ify our believ+ ! specific ,revelation :i* we are consid]+1 ! v sub/ance ( :i* is sup]natural & beyond ! criticism ( reason1 & t its doctr9es1 if n prov$ to be miracul\s tru?s1 mu/ inevitably be pron\nc$ ! wilde/ delusions4 ,by no rational be+ c\ld a j & b5evol5t life be accept$ z pro( ( su* a/oni%+ ann\ncem5ts4 ,on exam9+ ! alleg$ miracul\s evid5ce = ,*ri/ianity z ,div9e ,revelation1 h[ev]1 we f9d t ev5 if ! actual occurr5ce ( ! suppos$ miracles c\ld be sub/antiat$1 _! value z evid5ce w\ld be de/roy$ by ! necess>y admission t miracles are n limit$ to "o s\rce & are n exclusively associat$ ) tru?1 b are p]=m$ by v>i\s spiritual ,be+s1 ,satanic z well z ,div9e1 & are n always evid5tial1 b are sometimes to be reg>d$ z delusive & = ! trial ( fai?4 ,z ! doctr9es suppos$ to be reveal$ #egj are beyond ,reason1 & _c 9 any s5se be intellig5tly approv$ by ! human intellect1 no evid5ce :i* is ( s d\btful & inconclusive a nature c\ld suffici5tly atte/ !m4 ,?is alone w\ld disqualify ! ,*ri/ian miracles = ! duty :i* miracles alone are capable ( p]=m+4 ,! suppos$ miracul\s evid5ce = ! ,div9e ,revelation1 moreov]1 is n only )\t any special div9e "*1 be+ av[$ly common also to ,satanic ag5cy1 b x is n orig9al ei!r 9 conception or details4 ,simil> miracles are report$ long antec$5tly to ! fir/ promulgation ( ,*ri/ianity1 & cont9u$ to be p]=m$ = c5turies aft] x4 ,a /ream ( miracul\s pret5sion1 9 fact1 has fl[$ ?r\gh all human hi/ory1 deep & broad z x has pass$ ?r\gh ! d>k] ages1 b dw9dl+ d[n to a ?read z x has ent]$ days ( enlight5m5t4 ,! evid5ce 0 too hackney$ & commonplace to make any impression ^u ^? be=e :om ! ,*ri/ian miracles are said to h be5 p]=m$1 & x altoge!r fail$ to conv9ce ! p to :om ! ,revelation 0 prim>ily address$4 ,! selection ( su* evid5ce = su* a purpose is mu* m *>act]i/ic ( human weakness ?an ( div9e p[]4 ,! true "* ( miracles is at once betray$ by ! fact t _! suppos$ occurr5ce has ?us be5 conf9$ to ages ( ignorance & sup]/ition1 & t !y are absolutely unkn[n 9 any "t or place :]e sci5ce has provid$ witnesses fitt$ to appreciate & asc]ta9 ! nature ( su* exhibitions ( sup]natural p[]4 ,!re is n ! slighte/ evid5ce t any attempt 0 made to inve/igate ! suppos$ miracul\s occurr5ces1 or to ju/ify ! inf]5ces s freely drawn f !m1 nor is !re any reason to #ega believe t ! witnesses possess$1 9 any consid]able degree1 ! fulness ( k & sobriety ( judgm5t requisite = ! purpose4 ,no miracle has yet e/abli%$ its claim to ! rank ev5 ( app>5t reality1 & all su* ph5om5a mu/ rema9 9 ! dim region ( imag9ation4 ,! te/ appli$ to ! l>ge/ class ( miracles1 connect$ ) demoniacal possession1 discloses ! falsity ( all miracul\s pret5sion4 ,!re is no unc]ta9ty z to ! orig9 ( belief 9 sup]natural int]f]5ce ) nature4 ,! ass]tion t spuri\s miracles h sprung up r\nd a few in/ances ( g5u9e miracul\s p[] has n a s+le valid argum5t to support x4 ,hi/ory cle>ly demon/rates t1 :]ev] ignorance & sup]/ition h prevail$1 e obscure occurr5ce has be5 attribut$ to sup]natural ag5cy1 & x is freely ackn[l$g$ t1 "u _! influ5ce1 inexplicable & miracul\s are conv]tible t]ms4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 proportion z k ( natural laws has increas$1 ! !ory ( sup]natural int]f]5ce ) ! ord] ( nature has be5 dispell$1 & miracles h ceas$4 ,! effect ( sci5ce1 h[ev]1 is n limit$ to ! pres5t & future1 b its action is equally retrospective1 & ph5om5a :i* 7 once ignorantly isolat$ f ! sequ5ce ( natural cause & effect1 are n[ re/or$ to _! place 9 ! unbrok5 ord]4 ,ignorance & sup]/ition creat$ miracles2 k has = ev] annihilat$ !m4 ,to ju/ify miracles1 two assumptions are made3 fir/1 an ,inf9ite ,p]sonal ,god2 & second1 a ,div9e design ( ,revelation1 ! execution ( :i* necess>ily involves sup]natural action4 ,miracles1 x is argu$1 are n contr>y to nature1 or effects produc$ )\t adequate #egb causes1 b on ! contr>y are caus$ by ! int]v5tion ( ?is ,inf9ite ,p]sonal ,god = ! purpose ( atte/+ & c>ry+ out ! ,div9e design4 ,nei!r ( ! assumptions1 h[ev]1 c be reasonably ma9ta9$4 ,! assumption ( an ,inf9ite ,p]sonal ,god3 a ,be+ at once limit$ & unlimit$1 is a use ( language to :i* no mode ( human ?\ght c possibly atta* itself4 ,moreov]1 ! assumption ( a ,god work+ miracles is emphatically exclud$ by univ]sal exp]i5ce ( ! ord] ( nature4 ,! allegation ( a specific ,div9e cause ( miracles is fur!r inadequate f ! fact t ! p[] ( work+ miracles is av[$ly n limit$ to a ,p]sonal ,god1 b is also ascrib$ to o!r spiritual ,be+s1 & x mu/1 consequ5tly1 always be impossible to prove t ! suppos$ miracul\s ph5om5a orig9ate ) "o & n ) ano!r4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! assumption ( a ,div9e design ( ,revelation is n sugge/$ by antec$5t probability1 b is d]iv$ f ! v ,revelation :i* x is int5d$ to ju/ify1 z is likewise ! assumption ( a ,p]sonal ,god1 & bo? are equally vici\s z argum5ts4 ,! circum/ances :i* are suppos$ to require ?is ,div9e design1 & ! details ( ! s*eme1 are absolutely incr$ible1 & oppos$ to all ! results ( sci5ce4 ,nature does n c\nt5ance any !ory ( ! orig9al p]fection & subsequ5t degradation ( ! human race1 & ! supposition ( a fru/rat$ orig9al plan ( creation1 & ( lat] impot5t endeav\rs to correct x1 is z inconsi/5t ) ,div9e omnipot5ce & wisdom z ! propos$ puni%m5t ( ! human race & ! mode devis$ to save "s ( !m are oppos$ to ju/ice & morality4 ,su* assumptions are ess5tially inadmissible1 & totally fail to expla9 & ju/ify miracles4 #egc ,:atev] def9ition be giv5 ( miracles1 su* exceptional ph5om5a mu/ at lea/ be antec$5tly incr$ible4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( absolute k1 human belief mu/ be guid$ by ! balance ( evid5ce1 & x is obvi\s t ! evid5ce = ! uni=mity ( ! ord] ( nature1 :i* is d]iv$ f univ]sal exp]i5ce1 mu/ be enorm\sly great] ?an c be ! te/imony = my alleg$ exception to x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 univ]sal exp]i5ce prep>es u to consid] mi/akes ( ! s5ses1 imp]fect obs]vation & errone\s inf]5ce z n only possible1 b em95tly probable on ! "p ( ! witnesses ( ph5om5a1 ev5 :5 !y are p]fectly hone/ & tru?ful1 & m especially s :5 su* di/urb+ causes z religi\s excitem5t & sup]/ition are pres5t4 ,:5 ! report ( ! orig9al witnesses only rea*es u indirectly & ?r\gh ! m$ium ( tradition1 ! probability ( error is fur!r increas$4 ,?us ! allegation ( miracles is discr$it$1 bo? positively by ! inv>iability ( ! ord] ( nature1 & negatively by ! fallibility ( human obs]vation & te/imony4 ,! hi/ory ( miracul\s pret5sion 9 ! _w1 & ! circum/ances att5d+ ! special exhibition ( x :i* we are exam9+1 sugge/ natural explanations ( ! report$ facts :i* :olly remove !m f ! region ( ! sup]natural4 ,:5 we proce$ to exam9e ! direct witnesses = ! ,*ri/ian miracles1 we d n discov] any exceptional circum/ances neutraliz+ ! prec$+ consid]ations4 ,on ! contr>y1 we f9d t ! case turns n ^u miracles sub/antially be=e u1 b ^u ! m]e n>ratives ( miracles said to h occurr$ ov] eighte5 hundr$ ye>s ago4 ,x is obvi\s t1 = su* n>ratives to possess any real =ce & validity1 x is ess5tial t #egd _! "* & au?or%ip %\ld be plac$ beyond all d\bt4 ,!y mu/ proce$ f eye-witnesses capable ( e/imat+ aright ! nature ( ! ph5om5a4 ,our f\r ,gospels1 h[ev]1 are /rictly anonym\s works4 ,! sup]scriptions :i* n[ di/+ui% !m are und5iably ( lat] orig9 ?an ! works !mselves1 & d n proce$ f ! compos]s ( ! ,gospels4 ,( ! writ]s to :om ^! n>ratives are traditionally ascrib$ only two are ev5 said to h be5 apo/les1 ! alleg$ au?ors ( ! second & ?ird ,synoptics nei!r hav+ be5 p]sonal foll[]s ( ,jesus1 nor eyewitnesses ( ! ev5ts !y describe4 ,"u ^! circum/ances1 we are :olly dep5d5t ^u ext]nal evid5ce = in=mation reg>d+ ! au?or%ip & tru/wor?9ess ( ! f\r canonical ,gospels4 ,9 exam9+ ?is evid5ce1 we proce$$ ^u cle> & def9ite pr9ciples4 ,)\t =m+ or adopt+ any !ory :atev] z to ! date or orig9 ( our ,gospels1 we simply se>*$ ! writ+s ( ! ,fa!rs1 dur+ a c5tury & a half aft] ! ev5ts 9 "q1 = in=mation reg>d+ ! composition & "* ( ^! works1 & ev5 = any c]ta9 traces ( _! use1 al?\gh1 if discov]$1 ^! c\ld prove little beyond ! m]e exi/5ce ( ! ,gospels us$ at ! date ( ! writ]4 ,9 ! latt] & m9or inve/igation1 we 7 guid$ by canons ( criticism previ\sly laid d[n1 & :i* are bas$ ^u ! simple/ laws ( evid5ce4 ,we f\nd t ! writ+s ( ! ,fa!rs1 dur+ a c5tury & a half aft] ! dea? ( ,jesus1 are a complete blank s f> z any evid5ce reg>d+ ! composition & "* ( our ,gospels is conc]n$1 unless we except ! tradition pres]v$ by ,papias1 aft] ! middle ( ! second c5tury1 ! details ( :i* fully ju/ify #ege ! conclusion t our fir/ & second ,synoptics1 9 _! pres5t =m1 _c be ! works said to h be5 compos$ by ,mat!w & ,m>k4 ,!re is ?us no evid5ce :atev] directly connect+ any ( ! canonical ,gospels ) ! writ]s to :om !y are popul>ly attribut$1 & lat] tradition1 ( little or no value 9 itself1 is sep>at$ by a long int]val ( pr(\nd sil5ce f ! epo* at :i* !y are suppos$ to h be5 compos$4 ,) "o exception1 moreov]1 we f\nd t1 dur+ ! same c5tury & a half1 !re is no c]ta9 & unmi/akable trace ev5 ( ! anonym\s use ( any ( our ,gospels 9 ! e>ly ,*ur*4 ,?is fact1 ( c\rse1 does n ju/ify ! conclusion t none ( ^! ,gospels 0 actually 9 exi/5ce dur+ any "p ( t "t1 nor h we any:]e sugge/$ su* an inf]5ce1 b /rict exam9ation ( ! evid5ce %[s t !re is no positive pro( t !y 74 ,! exception to :i* we ref] is ,m>cion's ,gospel1 :i* 01 we ?9k1 bas$ ^u our ?ird ,synoptic1 & consequ5tly mu/ be accept$ z evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( t "w4 ,m>cion1 h[ev]1 does n give ! slighte/ in=mation z to ! au?or%ip ( ! ,gospel1 & 8 *>ges aga9/ x ( adult]ation _c be consid]$ v fav\rable te/imony z to its infallible "*4 ,! canonical ,gospels cont9ue to ! end anonym\s docum5ts ( no evid5tial value = miracles4 ,!y d n !mselves pret5d to be inspir$ hi/ories1 & !y _c escape f ! ord9>y rules ( criticism4 ,int]nal evid5ce does n modify ! inf]5ces f ext]nal te/imony4 ,ap>t f cont9ual m9or contradictions ?r\gh\t ! fir/ ?ree ,gospels1 x is impossible to reconcile ! repres5tations ( ! ,synoptics ) ^? ( ! f\r? ,gospel4 ,!y mutually de/roy ea* o!r z evid5ce4 ,!y mu/ #egf be pron\nc$ m]e n>ratives compil$ long aft] ! ev5ts record$1 by unkn[n p]sons :o 7 nei!r eye-witnesses ( ! alleg$ miracul\s occurr5ces1 nor he>]s ( ! /atem5ts !y pr(ess to report4 ,!y _c be accept$ z adequate te/imony = miracles & ! reality ( ,div9e ,revelation4 ,apply+ simil> te/s to ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 we arriv$ at simil> results4 ,ackn[l$g$ to be compos$ by ! same au?or :o produc$ ! ?ird ,synoptic1 t au?or's id5tity is n !reby made m cle>4 ,!re is no evid5ce ( ! slighte/ value reg>d+ its "*1 b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! "w itself teems to su* an ext5t ) miracul\s incid5ts & sup]natural ag5cy1 t ! cr$ibility ( ! n>rative requires an extraord9>y am\nt ( atte/ation to secure = x any s]i\s consid]ation4 ,:5 ! /atem5ts ( ! au?or are comp>$ ) ! emphatic decl>ations ( ! ,apo/le ,paul1 & ) au!ntic acc\nts ( ! developm5t ( ! e>ly ,*ri/ian ,*ur*1 x becomes evid5t t ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 z might h be5 suppos$1 is a leg5d>y composition ( a lat] day1 :i* _c be reg>d$ z sob] & cr$ible hi/ory1 & r discr$its ?an t5ds to e/abli% ! reality ( ! miracles ) :i* its pages s suspici\sly ab\nd4 ,! rema9+ books ( ! ,new ,te/am5t ,canon requir$ no sep>ate exam9ation1 because1 ev5 if g5u9e1 !y conta9 no additional te/imony to ! reality ( ,div9e ,revelation1 beyond ! impli$ belief 9 su* doctr9es z ! ,inc>nation & ,resurrection4 ,x is unque/ionable1 we suppose1 t 9 "s =m or o!r ! ,apo/les believ$ 9 ^! miracles1 & ! assumption t !y did s1 sup]s$es ! necessity = #egg exam9+ ! au!nticity ( ! ,ca?olic ,epi/les & ,apocalypse4 ,9 l mann]1 ! recognition z g5u9e ( f\r ,epi/les ( ,paul1 :i* conta9 8 te/imony to miracles1 r5d]s x sup]flu\s to discuss ! au!nticity ( ! o!r lett]s attribut$ to him4 ,! g5]al belief 9 miracul\s p[] & its possession by ! ,*ur* is br\ght to a practical te/ 9 ! case ( ! ,apo/le ,paul4 ,aft] elaborate consid]ation ( 8 lett]s1 we came to ! unhesitat+ conclusion t1 in/ead ( e/abli%+ ! reality ( miracles1 ! unconsci\s te/imony ( ,paul cle>ly demon/rates ! facility ) :i* errone\s inf]5ces conv]t ! mo/ natural ph5om5a into sup]natural occurr5ces4 ,z a f9al te/1 we c>efully exam9$ ! :ole ( ! evid5ce = ! c>d9al dogmas ( ,*ri/ianity1 ! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion ( ,jesus4 ,fir/ tak+ ! f\r ,gospels1 we f\nd t _! acc\nts ( ^! ev5ts are n only full ( leg5d>y matt]1 b t !y ev5 contradict & exclude ea* o!r1 & s f> f e/abli%+ ! reality ( su* /up5d\s miracles1 !y %[ t no reliance is to be plac$ on ! /atem5ts ( ! unkn[n au?ors4 ,tak+ next ! te/imony ( ,paul1 :i* is m important z at lea/ au!ntic & proce$+ f an ,apo/le ( :om we "k m ?an ( any o!r ( ! e>ly mission>ies ( ,*ri/ianity1 we saw t x 0 indef9ite & utt]ly insuffici5t4 ,8 s-call$ circum/antial acc\nt ( ! te/imony ^u :i* ! belief 9 ! ,resurrection re/$ consi/s m]ely ( vague & undetail$ he>say1 diff]+1 s f> z x c be comp>$1 f ! /atem5ts 9 ! ,gospels1 & )\t o!r atte/ation ?an ! b>e fact t x is repeat$ by ,paul1 :o d\btless believ$ x1 al?\gh he _h n himself be5 a witness #egh ( any ( ! suppos$ appe>ances ( ! ris5 ,jesus :i* he s briefly catalogues4 ,paul's own p]sonal te/imony to ! ,resurrection is limit$ to a vision ( ,jesus1 ( :i* we h no au!ntic details1 se5 _m ye>s aft] ! alleg$ miracle4 ,consid]+ ! peculi> & highly n]v\s temp]am5t ( ,paul1 ( :i* he himself supplies abundant evid5ce1 !re c be no hesitation 9 decid+ t ?is vision 0 purely subjective1 z 7 likewise1 9 all probability1 ! appe>ances to ! excit$ disciples ( ,jesus4 ,! te/imony ( ,paul himself1 be=e 8 imag9ation 0 /imulat$ to ec/atic f]v\r by ! beauty ( a spiritualiz$ religion1 0 an e>ne/ d5ial ( ! great ,*ri/ian dogma emphasiz$ by ! active p]secution ( ^? :o affirm$ x1 & a vision1 especially 9 ! case ( "o s con/itut$1 suppos$ to be se5 _m ye>s aft] ! fact ( ! ,resurrection _h ceas$ to be capable ( v]ification1 is n an argum5t ( conv9c+ =ce4 ,we 7 compell$ to pron\nce ! evid5ce = ! ,resurrection & ,asc5sion absolutely & hopelessly inadequate to prove ! reality ( su* /up5d\s miracles1 :i* mu/ consequ5tly be unhesitat+ly reject$4 ,!re is no reason giv51 or ev5 conceivable1 :y allegations su* z ^!1 & dogmas affect+ ! religion & ev5 ! salvation ( ! human race1 %\ld be accept$ ^u evid5ce :i* w\ld be decl>$ totally insuffici5t 9 ! case ( any common "q ( prop]ty or title be=e a legal tribunal ,on ! contr>y1 ! m mom5t\s ! po9t to be e/abli%$1 ! m complete mu/ be ! pro( requir$4 ,if we te/ ! results at :i* we h arriv$ by g5]al consid]ations1 we f9d !m ev]y:]e confirm$ & e/abli%$4 ,!re is no?+ orig9al 9 ! #egi claim ( ,*ri/ianity to be reg>d$ z ,div9e ,revelation1 & no?+ new ei!r 9 ! doctr9es said to h be5 reveal$1 or 9 ! miracles by :i* x is alleg$ to h be5 di/+ui%$4 ,!re has n be5 a s+le hi/orical religion l>gely held among/ m5 :i* has n pret5d$ to be div9ely reveal$1 & ! writt5 books ( :i* h n be5 repres5t$ z directly inspir$4 ,!re is n a doctr9e1 sacram5t or rite ( ,*ri/ianity :i* has n sub/antially =m$ "p ( e>li] religions2 & n a s+le phase ( ! sup]natural hi/ory ( ! ,*ri/1 f 8 miracul\s conception1 bir? & inc>nation to 8 dea?1 resurrection & asc5sion1 :i* has n _h its c\nt]p>t 9 e>li] my?ologies4 ,heav5 & hell1 ) *>act]i/ic v>iation ( details1 h held an important place 9 ! es*atology ( _m cre$s & races4 ,! same may be said ev5 ( ! moral tea*+ ( ,*ri/ianity1 ! elevat$ precepts ( :i*1 al?\gh 9 a less p]fect & connect$ =m1 _h already sugge/$ !mselves to _m noble m9ds & be5 promulgat$ by anci5t sages & philosoph]s4 ,t ?is ,inquiry into ! reality ( ,div9e ,revelation has be5 limit$ to ! claim ( ,*ri/ianity has aris5 solely f a desire to cond5se x )9 reasonable b\nds1 & conf9e x to ! only ,religion 9 connection ) :i* x c\ld practically int]e/ u n[4 ,!re is no?+ 9 ! hi/ory & a*ievem5ts ( ,*ri/ianity :i* c be consid]$ *>act]i/ic ( a ,religion div9ely reveal$ = ! salvation ( mank9d4 ,orig9ally said to h be5 communicat$ to a s+le nation1 specially select$ z ! peculi> p ( ,god1 & = :om di/+ui%$ privileges 7 said to be res]v$1 x 0 almo/ unanim\sly reject$ by t #ehj nation at ! "t1 & x has cont9u$ to be repudiat$ by its desc5dants ) s+ul> unanimity to ! pres5t day4 ,aft] m ?an eighte5 c5turies1 ?is ,div9e s*eme ( salvation has n obta9$ ev5 ! nom9al adhesion ( m ?an a ?ird ( ! human race17#a7 & if1 9 a c5sus ( ,*ri/5dom1 di/9ction c\ld n[ be made ( ^? :o no long] s]i\sly believe 9 x z ,sup]natural ,religion1 ,*ri/ianity w\ld take a mu* l[] num]ical position4 ,sakya ,muni1 a tea*] only second 9 nobility ( "* to ,jesus1 & :o1 l him1 proclaim$ a sy/em ( elevat$ morality1 has ev5 n[ almo/ twice ! numb] ( foll[]s1 al?\gh 8 mission>ies nev] s\ght conv]ts 9 ! ,we/4 ,consid]$ z a s*eme ,div9ely devis$ z ! be/1 if n only1 mode ( r$eem+ ! human race1 & sav+ !m f et]nal damnation1 promulgat$ by ,god himself inc>nate 9 human =m1 & complet$ by 8 own actual dea? ^u ! cross = ! s9s ( ! _w1 su* results z ^! c only be reg>d$ z practical #eha failure1 al?\gh !y may n be disproportionate = a sy/em ( elevat$ morality4 ,we %all probably nev] be able to det]m9e h[ f> ! great ,tea*] may ?r\gh 8 own speculations or misund]/ood spiritual utt]ances h sugge/$ ! sup]natural doctr9es subsequ5tly attribut$ to him1 & by :i* 8 :ole hi/ory & sy/em soon became trans=m$2 b no "o :o att5tively /udies ! subject c fail to be /ruck by ! abs5ce ( su* dogmas f ! e>li] records ( 8 tea*+4 ,x is to ! excit$ v5]ation ( ! foll[]s ( ,jesus1 h[ev]1 t we owe mo/ ( ! sup]natural elem5ts s *>act]i/ic ( ! age & p4 ,we may look 9 va9 ev5 9 ! synoptic ,gospels = ! doctr9es elaborat$ 9 ! ,paul9e ,epi/les & ! ,gospel ( ,ephesus4 ,! great trans=mation ( ,*ri/ianity 0 effect$ by m5 :o _h nev] se5 ,jesus1 & :o 7 only acqua9t$ ) 8 tea*+ aft] x _h become transmut$ by tradition4 ,! f]vid imag9ation ( ! ,ea/ con/ruct$ ,*ri/ian !ology4 ,x is n difficult to foll[ ! developm5t ( ! cre$s ( ! ,*ur*1 & x is c]ta9ly mo/ in/ructive to obs]ve ! progressive boldness ) :i* its dogmas 7 exp&$ by pi\s en?usiasm4 ,! ,new ,te/am5t alone repres5ts sev]al /ages ( dogmatic evolution4 ,be=e 8 fir/ foll[]s _h pass$ away ! process ( trans=mation _h comm5c$4 ,! disciples1 :o _h s (t5 misund]/ood ! tea*+ ( ,jesus dur+ 8 life1 pi\sly di/ort$ x aft] 8 dea?4 ,8 simple lessons ( meekness & humility 7 soon =gott54 ,) lam5table rapidity1 ! elaborate /ructure ( ecclesia/ical ,*ri/ianity1 foll[+ /]eotyp$ l9es ( human sup]/ition1 & deeply col\r$ by ,alex&rian #ehb philosophy1 displac$ ! sublime morality ( ,jesus4 ,doctr9al controv]sy1 :i* comm5c$ among/ ! v ,apo/les1 has ev] s9ce divid$ ! unity ( ! ,*ri/ian body4 ,! p]v]t$ +5uity ( successive g5]ations ( *ur*m5 has fill$ ! _w ) !ological quibbles1 :i* h naturally en\gh culm9at$ ( late 9 doctr9es ( ,immaculate ,conception1 & ,papal ,infallibility4 ,x is sometimes affirm$1 h[ev]1 t ^? :o proclaim su* conclusions n only wantonly de/roy ! de>e/ hopes ( humanity1 b remove ! only solid basis ( morality2 & x is alleg$ t1 be=e exi/+ belief is di/urb$1 ! iconocla/ is b\nd to provide a sub/itute = ! %att]$ idol4 ,to ?is we may reply t spee* or sil5ce does n alt] ! reality ( ?+s4 ,! recognition ( ,tru? _c be made dep5d5t on consequ5ces1 or be trammell$ by consid]ations ( spuri\s exp$i5cy4 ,its decl>ation 9 a s]i\s & suitable mann] to ^? :o are capable ( judg+ c nev] be premature4 ,its suppression _c be effectual1 & is only a humiliat+ compromise ) consci\s impo/ure4 ,9 s f> z morality is conc]n$1 belief 9 a sy/em ( future rew>ds & puni%m5ts1 al?\gh ( an int5sely degrad$ "*1 may1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 h promot$ obs]vance ( ! lett] ( ! law 9 d>k] ages & ev5 9 our own1 b x may1 we ?9k1 be %[n t education & civilization h done inf9itely m to en=ce its _s4 ,h[ f> ,*ri/ianity has promot$ education & civilization1 we %all n "h v5ture adequately to discuss4 ,we may emphatically ass]t1 h[ev]1 t :atev] b5eficial effect ,*ri/ianity has produc$ has be5 due1 n to its sup]natural dogmas1 b to its simple morality4 ,dogmatic ,!ology1 #ehc on ! contr>y1 has ret>d$ education & imp$$ sci5ce4 ,:]ev] x has be5 dom9ant civilization has /ood /ill4 ,sci5ce has be5 judg$ & suppress$ by ! light ( a text or a *apt] ( ,g5esis4 ,almo/ e great advance :i* has be5 made t[>ds enlight5m5t has be5 a*iev$ 9 spite ( ! prote/ or ! ana!ma ( ! ,*ur*4 ,submissive ignorance1 absolute or comp>ative1 has be5 tacitly fo/]$ z ! mo/ desirable condition ( ! popul> m9d4 ,except ye be conv]t$1 & become z little *ildr51 ye %all n ent] into ! k+dom ( heav51 has be5 ! fav\rite text ( ,doctors ( ,div9ity ) a /ock ( incr$ible dogmas difficult ( assimilation by ! virile m9d4 ,ev5 n[1 ! fiction ( !ological resi/ance is a con/ant wa/e ( intellectual p[]4 ,! e>ly enunciation ( s pure a sy/em ( morality1 & "o s intelligible to ! simple z well z pr(\nd to ! wise1 0 ( great value to ! _w1 b exp]i5ce be+ once sy/ematiz$ & codifi$1 if high] pr9ciples d n con/ra9 u1 society may safely be left to see morals suffici5tly obs]v$4 ,x is true t1 not)/&+ its fluctuat+ rules1 morality has hi!rto assum$ ! "* ( a ,div9e in/itution1 b its sway has n1 9 consequ5ce1 be5 m real ?an x mu/ be z ! simple result ( human wisdom1 & ! outcome ( social exp]i5ce4 ,! *oice ( a noble life is no long] a !ological "q1 & ecclesia/ical pat5ts ( tru? & uprightness h f9ally expir$4 ,morality1 :i* has ev] *ang$ its complexion & modifi$ its injunctions accord+ to social requirem5ts1 w necess>ily be en=c$ z "p ( human evolution1 & is n dep5d5t on religi\s t]rorism or sup]/iti\s p]suasion4 ,if we are dispos$ to say3 #ehd ,cui bono8 & only practise morality1 or be rul$ by "r pr9ciples1 to ga9 a heav5 or escape a hell1 !re is no?+ lo/1 = su* grudg+ & calculat$ morality is m]ely a spuri\s imitation :i* c z well be produc$ by social compulsion4 ,b if we h ev] be5 really p5etrat$ by ! pure _s ( morality1 if we h 9 any degree atta9$ t elevation ( m9d :i* in/9ctively turns to ! true & noble & %r9ks f ! bas] level ( ?\ght & action1 we %all feel no ne$ ( ! /imulus ( a sy/em ( rew>ds & puni%m5ts 9 a future /ate :i* has = s long be5 repres5t$ z ess5tial to ,*ri/ianity4 ,z to ! o!r reproa*1 let u ask :at has actually be5 de/roy$ by su* an inquiry press$ to its logical conclusion4 ,c ,tru? by any means be made less true8 ,c reality be melt$ into ?9 air8 ,! ,revelation n be+ a reality1 t :i* has be5 de/roy$ is only an illusion1 & t :i* is left is ! ,tru?4 ,los+ belief 9 x & its cont5ts1 we h lo/ absolutely no?+ b t :i* ! travell] loses :5 ! mirage1 :i* has display$ cool wat]s & gre5 %ades be=e him1 melts swiftly away4 ,!re 7 no cool f\nta9s really !re to allay 8 ?ir/1 no fl[]y mead[s = 8 we>i$ limbs2 8 pleasure 0 delusion1 & ! wild]ness is blank4 ,r ! mirage ) its pleasant illusion1 is ! human cry1 ?an ! des]t ) its b>r5ness4 ,n s1 is ! fri5dly w>n+2 seek n va9ly 9 ! des]t t :i* is n !re1 b turn r to o!r horizons1 & to sur] hopes4 ,d n wa/e life cl++ to ecclesia/ical dogmas :i* repres5t no et]nal v]ities1 b se>* else:]e = tru? :i* may haply be f\nd4 ,:at %\ld we ?9k ( ! man :o p]si/5tly repuls$ #ehe ! p]suasion t two & two make f\r f ! ard5t desire to believe t two & two make five8 ,^: fault is x t two & two d make f\r & n five8 ,^: folly is x t x %\ld be m agreeable to ?9k t two & two make five ?an to "k t !y only make f\r8 ,?is folly is !irs :o repres5t ! value ( life z dep5d5t on ! reality ( special illusions1 :i* !y h religi\sly adopt$4 ,to discov] t a =m] belief is unf\nd$ is to *ange no?+ ( ! realities ( exi/5ce4 ,! sun w desc5d z x passes ! m]idian :e!r we believe x to be noon or n4 ,x is idle & fooli%1 if human1 to rep9e because ! tru? is n precisely :at we ?\ght x1 & at lea/ we %all n *ange reality by *ildi%ly cl++ to a dream4 ,! argum5t s (t5 employ$ by !ologians t ,div9e ,revelation is necess>y = man1 & t c]ta9 views conta9$ 9 t ,revelation are requir$ by our moral consci\sness1 is purely imag9>y & d]iv$ f ! ,revelation :i* x seeks to ma9ta94 ,! only ?+ absolutely necess>y = man is ,tru?2 & to t1 & t alone1 mu/ our moral consci\sness adapt itself4 ,reason & exp]i5ce =bid ! expectation t we c acquire any k o!rwise ?an ?r\gh natural *annels4 ,we might z well expect to be sup]naturally n\ri%$ z sup]naturally in=m$4 ,to compla9 t we d n "k all t we desire to "k is fooli% & unreasonable4 ,x is tantam\nt to compla9+ t ! m9d ( man is n diff]5tly con/itut$4 ,to atta9 ! full altitude ( ! ,kn[able1 :atev] t may be1 %\ld be our e>ne/ aim1 & m ?an ?is is n = humanity4 ,we may be c]ta9 t in=mation :i* is beyond ! ultimate #ehf rea* ( ,reason is z unnecess>y z x is inaccessible4 ,man may "k all t man requires to "k4 ,we ga9 m ?an we lose by awak+ to f9d t our ,!ology is human inv5tion & our es*atology an unheal?y dream4 ,we are fre$ f ! incubus ( base ,hebrew my?ology1 & f doctr9es ( ,div9e gov]nm5t :i* outrage morality & set cruelty & inju/ice 9 ! place ( hol9ess4 ,if we h to ab&on *]i%$ an?ropomorphic visions ( future ,bless$ness1 ! details ( :i* are ei!r ( unseizable dimness or ( que/ionable joy1 we are at lea/ deliv]$ f quibbl+ discussions ( ! mean+ ( ------1 & our et]nal hope is uncl\d$ by ! d\bt :e!r mank9d is to be tortur$ 9 hell = ev] & a day1 or = a day )\t ! ev]4 ,at ! end ( life !re may be no def9ite vi/a ( a ,heav5 gl[+ ) ! light ( apocalyptic imag9ation1 b nei!r w !re be ! unutt]able horror ( a ,purgatory or a ,hell lurid ) flames = ! helpless victims ( an unju/ b omnipot5t ,creator4 ,to ent]ta9 su* libell\s repres5tations at all z "p ( ! cont5ts ( ,div9e ,revelation1 x 0 necess>y to ass]t t man 0 incompet5t to judge ( ! ways ( ! ,god ( ,revelation1 & mu/ n suppose him end[$ ) ! p]fection ( human conceptions ( ju/ice & m]cy1 b submit to call wrong "r & "r wrong at ! foot ( an almighty ,despot4 ,b n[ ! reproa* ( su* reason+ is %ak5 f our %\ld]s1 & returns to ! ,jewi% sup]/ition f :i* x sprang4 ,z my?s lose _! might & _! influ5ce :5 discov]$ to be baseless1 ! p[] ( sup]natural ,*ri/ianity w d\btless pass away1 b ! effect ( ! revolution mu/ n be exagg]at$1 al?\gh x #ehg _c "h be fully discuss$4 ,if ! pictures :i* h fill$ = s long ! horizon ( ! ,future mu/ vani%1 no hide\s blank c rightly be ma9ta9$ 9 _! place4 ,we %\ld cle>ly di/+ui% betwe5 :at we "k & "k n1 b z c>efully ab/a9 f *>act]is+ t :i* we "k n z if x 7 really kn[n to u4 ,t my/]i\s ,unkn[n or ,unkn[able is no cruel d>kness1 b simply an imp5etrable di/ance into :i* we are impot5t to glance1 b :i* excludes no legitimate speculation & =bids no reasonable hope4